Skip to main content

Full text of "The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

See other formats 


-     ' 


i 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH     EDITION 


FIRST  edition,  published  in  three                 volumes,  1768—1771. 

SECOND  ten  1777—1784. 

THIRD  eighteen  1788—1797. 

FOURTH  twenty  1801  —  1810. 

FIFTH  twenty  1815—1817. 

SIXTH  twenty  1823—1824. 

SEVENTH  twenty-one  1830—1842. 

EIGHTH  twenty-two  1853—1860. 

NINTH  twenty-five  1875—1889. 

TENTH  ninth  edition  and  eleven 

supplementary  volumes,  1902 — 1903. 

ELEVENTH  ,,         published  in  twenty-nine  volumes,  1910 — 1911. 


COPYRIGHT 

in  all  countries  subscribing  to  the 
Bern  Convention 

by 
THE  CHANCELLOR,  MASTERS  AND  SCHOLARS 

of  the 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE 


All  rights  reserved 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

f 

OF 

ARTS,    SCIENCES,    LITERATURE    AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  VII 

CONSTANTINE  PAVLOVICH   to   DEMIDOV 


Cambridge,  England: 

at  the  University  Press 

New  York,   35  West  32nd  Street 
1910 


N/R 


Copyright,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  1910, 

by 
The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  Company, 


INITIALS  USED   IN  VOLUME  VII.  TO   IDENTIFY  INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS,1    WITH  THE  HEADINGS  OF  THE 

ARTICLES  IN  THIS  VOLUME  SO  SIGNED. 

A.  B.  F.  Y.         ALEXANDER  BELL  FILSON  YOUNG.  f 

Formerly  Editor  of  the  Outlook.    Author  of  Christopher  Columbus;  Master-singers;-]  Dance  (in  part). 
The  Complete  Motorist;  Wagner  Stories;  &c. 

A.  Bo.*  AUGUSTE  BOUDINHON,  D.D.,  D.C.L.  Cmi-ia  n«n 

Professor  of  Canon  Law  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Paris.    Honorary  Canon  of  4  ™T  Inana' 

Paris.    Editor  of  the  Canoniste  contemporain.  I  Decretals. 

A.  Ca.  ARTHUR  CAYLEY,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  f  r,,_  ,0  ,. 

See  the  biographical  article :  CAYLEY,  ARTHUR.  \  uur 

A.  E.  B.  REV.  ANDREW  EWBANK  BURN,  M.A.,  D.D.  f" 

Vicar  of  Halifax  and  Prebendary  of  Lichfield.     Author  of  An  Introduction  to  the  -I  Creeds. 
Creeds  and  the  Te  Deum ;  Niceta  of  Remesiana ;  &c. 

A.  E.  J.  ARTHUR  ERNEST  JOLLIFFE,  M.A.  f 

Fellow  of,  and  Tutor  and  Mathematical  Lecturer  at,  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Oxford.  -!  Continued  Fractions. 
Senior  Mathematical  Scholar,  1892. 

A.  F.  P.  ALBERT  FREDERICK  POLLARD,  M.A.,  F.R.HiST.Soc.  fCoverdale-  Cox    Richard- 

Fellow  of  All  Souls' College,  Oxford.    Professor  of  English  History  in  the  University  I  r_,_j_    T_U_.  rUnm 
of  London.     Assistant  Editor  of  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  1893-1901.1  oralg>  J01 
Author  of  England  under  the  Protector  Somerset;  Life  of  Thomas  Cranmer;  &c.    '        I  Cromwell,  Thomas;  Crowley. 

A.  G.  MAJOR  ARTHUR  GEORGE  FREDERICK  GRIFFITHS  (d.  1908).  f  Crime1 

H.M.   Inspector  of  Prisons,    1878-1896.     Author  of   The  Chronicles  of  Newgale; -{  ,,_.    .'  , 
Secrets  of  the  Prison  House ;  &c.  \  Criminology. 

A.  Go.*  REV.  ALEXANDER  GORDON,  M.A.  f  Coornhert. 

Lecturer  on  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  \ 

A.  H.  J.  G.         ABEL  HENDY  JONES  GREENIDGE,  M.A.,  D.Lirr.  (Oxon.)  (d.  1905). 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Hertford  College,  Oxford,  and  of  St  John's  College, 

Oxford.     Author  of  Infamia  in  Roman  Law;   Handbook  of  Greek   Constitutional  •<  Consul:   Roman. 

History;  Roman  Public  Life;  History  of  Rome.    Joint-author  of  Sources  of  Roman 

History,  133-70  B.C. 

A.  H.  P.  REV.  ARNOLD  HILL  PAYNE,  M.A. 

Chaplain,  Oxford  Diocesan  Mission  to  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.    Late  Normal  Fellow, 

National  Deaf  Mute  College,  Washington,  U.S.A.     Author  of  The  Mental  Develop-  4  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

went  of  the  Orally  and  Manually  taught  Deaf;  The  Pure  Oral  Method  of  necessity  a 

Comparative  Failure;  &c. 

A.  J.  B.  ALFRED  JOSHUA  BUTLER,  M.A.,  D.LITT.  f 

Fellow  and  Bursar  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  Eton  College.    Author  •<  Copts:    The  Coptic  Church. 
of  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt;  The  Arab  Conquest  of  Egypt;  &c. 

A.  J.  B.*  ARTHUR  JOHN  BUTLER,  M.A.  (1844-1910). 

Formerly  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  Professor  of  Italian  Language  J  rjante 
and  Literature,   University  College,   London.     Author  of  a  prose  translation  of  | 
Dante's  Divine  Comedy;  Dante  and  his  Times;  &c.  I 

A.  J.  E.  ARTHUR  JOHN  EVANS,  M.A.,  D.LITT.,  LL.D..  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.  f 

Fellow  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.    Keeper  of  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford,  1884-  I  Crete:   Archaeology  and 
1908.     Hon.  Keeper  since  1908.     Made  archaeological  discoveries  in  Crete,  1893  ;^        Anrimt  TJi^tnrv 
excavated   the   Palace  of  Knpssos.     Author  of   Through  Bosnia  on   Foot;   Cretan 
Pictographs  and  Prae- Phoenician  Script ;  and  other  works  on  archaeology. 

A.  L.  ANDREW  LANG.  f  crvstal-Gazine 

See  the  biographical  article :  LANG,  ANDREW.  \  CrySI 

A.  Mw.  ALLEN  MAWER,  M.A.  (" 

Professor  of  English  Language  and  Literature,  Armstrong  College,  Newcastle-on-  J  Tjanelazh 
Tyne.  Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.     Formerly  Lecturer  in  1 
English  at  the  University  of  Sheffield.  L 

1  A  complete  list,  showing  all  individual  contributors,  with  the  articles  so  signed,  appears  in  the  final  volume. 

V 

1976 


vi  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

A.  M.  C.  AGNES  MARY  CLERKE.  /Copernicus;  Delambre; 

See_the  biographical  article:  CLERKE,  A.  M.  I  Delisle,  J.  N. 

A.  M.  Cl.  AGNES  MURIEL  CLAY  (MRS  WILDE).  f  Curia-  Decemviri- 

Formerly  Resident  Tutor  of  Lady  Margaret  Hall,  Oxford.    Joint-author  of  Sources  4  ^""°>.  " 
of  Roman  History,  133-70  B.C.  I  "eeuno. 

f  Coot;  Cormorant; 

A.  N.  ALFRED  NEWTON,  F.R.S.  Crane;  Crossbill; 

See  the  biographical  article:  NEWTON,  ALFRED.  [  Crow;  Cuck()o; 


A.  N.  M. 


A.  N.*  REV.  ALEXANDER  NAIBNE,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Hebrew  and  Old  Testament   Exegesis  in   King's   College,   London. 

Examining  Chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  St  Albans.    Fellow  of  King's  College,  London,  -j  Creatianism  and  Traducianism. 

Formerly  Fellow  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.     Crosse  Scholar,  1886.     Author  of 

The  Bible  Doctrine  of  Atonement;  &c. 


A.  N.  MONKHOUSE.  f  rnttnrt  /  •    ...,,,-, 

Member  of  Editorial  Staff  of  Manchester  Guardian.  \  w 

A.  van  M.          ALEXANDER  VAN  MILLINGEN,  M.A.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  History,  Robert  College,  Constantinople.    Author  of  Byzantine  Con-  -s  Constantinople. 

stantinople;  Constantinople;  &c. 

A.  W.  H.*          ARTHUR  WILLIAM  HOLLAND.  f  rilpia  p.,,:,. 

Formerly  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford.    Bacon  Scholar  of  Gray's  Inn,  1900.  \  w 

A.  Wi.  ANEURIN  WILLIAMS,  M.A.,  M.P. 

Barrister-at-Law  of  the  Inner  Temple.    Chairman  of  Executive,  International  Co-  J  Co-operation. 
operative  Alliance.     M.P.   for  Plymouth,    1910.     Author  of   Twenty-eight   Years  1 
of  Co-partnership  at  Guise;  &c. 

A.  W.  R.  ALEXANDER  WOOD  RENTON,  M.A.,  L.L.B.  J  Corporal  Punishment; 

Puisne  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ceylon.    Editor  of  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Laws  l  Covenant 
of  England. 

A.  W.  W.          ADOLPHUS  WILLIAM  WARD,  LITT.D.,  LL.D.  J  Cumberland,  Richard: 

See  the  biographical  article:  WARD,  A.  W.  I      Dramatist. 

C.  E.*  CHARLES  EVERITT,  M.A.,  F.C.S.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.A.S.  I"  constellation, 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  \ 

C.  E.  N.  CHARLES  ELIOT  NORTON,  LL.D.  /  rnrti«    r.pnr<rA  William 

See  the  biographical  article:  NORTON,  CHARLES  E.  \  CUItlS'  G60rge 

C.  F.  A.  CHARLES  FRANCIS  ATKINSON.  j"  Crimean  War; 

Formerly  ' 

Fusiliers). 

C.  F.  B.  CHARLES  FRANCIS  BASTABLE,  M.A.,  LL.D.  ( 

Regius  Professor  of  Law  and  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University  of  J  Decimal  Coinage. 
Dublin.    Author  of  Public  Finance;  Commerce  of  Nations;  Theory  of  International  1 
Trade;  &c.  I 

C.  K.  WILLIAM  CHARLES  MARK  KENT.  (" 

Barrister-at-Law,  Middle  Temple.     Edited  the  London  Sun  for  twenty-five  years;  I  Dalling    Lord. 
the  Weekly  Register,  1874-1881.     Author  of  The  Humour  and  Pathos  of  Charles  | 
Dickens;  &c.  I 

C.  K.  S.  CLEMENT  KING  SHORTER.  I"  Cowper,  William; 

Editor  of  the  Sphere.     Author  of  Sixty  Years  of  Victorian  Literature;  Immortal  H  Crabbe,  George. 
Memories  ;  The  Brontes:  Life  and  Letters  ;  &c.  I 

C.  L.  H.  CALDWELL  LIPSETT.  f 

Formerly  Editor  of  the  Civil  and  Military  Gazette,  Lahore,  India.    Author  of  Lord  < 
Curzon  in  India.  L 

C.  Pf.  CHRISTIAN  PFISTER,  D.  ES  L.  _  I" 


RLES  FRANCIS  ATKINSON.  j"  Crimean  War; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Captain,  1st  City  of  London  (Royal  -s  Cromwell    Oliver  (in  part) 

Fusiliers).    Author  of  The  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbour.  I 


Professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.    Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  J  Dagobert. 

y^.J  ,  \  1         rt     t  .1          rt  •  r  l-»  It  •  •  Jt^l »FIJJ"^ 

Elude  sur  le  r 
Sainte-Odile. 


Etude  sur  le  regne  de  Robert  le  Pieux;  Le  Duche  merovingien  d' Alsace  et  la legende de  1 


C.  R.  B.  CHARLES  RAYMOND  BEAZLEY,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.HiST.S.  rConti,  Nicolo  de'; 

Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.    Formerly  Fellow     Cook,  Captain;  Dampier; 
of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  University  Lecturer  in  the  History  of  Geography.  J  r»aniel  nf  Ki«v 
Lothian   Prizeman,  Oxford,    1889.     Lowell   Lecturer,   Boston,    1908.     Author  of     "al 
Henry  the  Navigator;  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography;  &c.  L  Davitt,  Jonn. 

D.  C.  T.  DAVID  CROAL  THOMSON.  fcorot- 

Formerly  Editor  of  the  Art  Journal.    Author  of  The  Brothers  Maris;  The  Barbizon  •{  _.        ' 
School  of  Painters;  Life  of  "  Phiz  ";  Life  of  Bewick;  &c.  [  UauDlgny. 

D.  F.  T.  DONALD  FRANCIS  TOVEY.  C 

Balliol  College,  Oxford.     Author  of  Essays  in  Musical  Analysis,  comprising  The]  Contrapuntal  Forms; 
Classical  Concerto,  The  Goldberg  Variations;  and  analyses  of  many  other  classical  j  Counterpoint. 
works.  I 

D.  G.  H.  DAVID  GEORGE  HOGARTH,  M.A.  c 

Keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.     Cyrenaica; 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Excavated  at  Paphos,   1888;  Naukratis,   1899  J  „      n 
and  1903;  Ephesus,   1904-1905;    Assiut,  igofr-igo;.     Director,  British  School  at     v'*It 
Athens,  1897-1900;  Director,  Cretan  Exploration  Fund,  1899.  L 


INITIALS  AND   HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  vii 

f  Convoy  (in  part); 

D.  H.  DAVID   HANNAY.  fJonfinha^nn     Raff  In  of- 

Formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Barcelona.    Author  of  Short  History  of  Royal  Navy,  \  „* 

1217-1688;  Life  of  Emilia  Castelar;  &c.  1  Cordoba,  Gonzalo  Fernandez  do; 

I  Dahlgren,  John  Adolf. 

D.  Mn.  REV.  DUGALD  MACFADYEN,  M.A. 

Minister  of  South  Grove  Congregational  Church,  Highgate.    Director  of  the  London  1  Cruden,  Alexander. 
Missionary  Society. 

E.  Br.  ERNEST  BARKER,  M.A.  [ 

Fellow  of,  and  Lecturer  in  Modern  History  at,  St  John's  College,  Oxford.    Formerly  1  Crusades. 
Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Merton  College.    Craven  Scholar,  1895.  I 

E.  B.  EL  EDWIN  BAILEY  ELLIOTT,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S. 

Waynflete  Professor  of.  Pure  Mathematics  and  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  J  Curve  (in  part) 
Formerly  Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.     President  of  London  Mathematical 
Society,  1896-1898.    Author  of  Algebra  of  Quantics;  &c. 

E.  B.  P.  EDWARD  BAGNALL  POULTON,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  LL.D.  [ 

Hope  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Oxford.     Fellow  of  Jesus  College,  J  Darwin. 
Oxford.    Author  of  The  Colours  of  Animals;  Essays  on  Evolution;  Darwin  and  the  1 
Original  Species;  &c. 

E.  C.  Q.  EDMUND  CROSBY  QUIGGIN,  M.A. 

Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge;  Lecturer  in  Modern  Languages,  *(  Cuchulinn. 
and  Monro  Lecturer  in  Celtic. 

E.  F.  S.  EDWARD  FAIRBROTHER  STRANGE. 

Assistant  Keeper,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South  Kensington.  Member  of  I  Dejja  Quercia 

Council,  Japan  Society.     Author  of  numerous  works  on  art  subjects.  Joint-editor  | 
of  Bell's  "  Cathedral  "  Series.  I 

r  Conte;  Couplet;  Cowley; 

Crashaw;  Criticism; 

E.  G.  EDMUND  GOSSE,  LL.D.  J 

See  the  biographical  artic.e:  GOSSE,  EDMUND. 


1  Dekker,  Edward  Douwes. 

("  Corfu  (in  part)  ; 
E.  On.  ERNEST  ARTHUR  GARDNER,  M.A.  J  Corinth:  Isthmus  of; 

See  the  biographical  article:  GARDNER,  PERCY.  1  Cos(  in  part);  Crisa  ;  Daphne; 

I  Delos;  Delphi. 
E.  Ma.  EDWARD  MANSON.  \  Debpnturps      and      Dphnntura 

_  .  .  T     .  ..  f      -r  /.£/"•*  tj*T*T.i*  AI  r    >     J-'CUCIII  U..  CO  CfciiU  UCUCllliLUO 

Barnster-at-Law,     Joint-editor  of  Journal  of  Comparative  Legislation.    Author  of  -f       c*     v 
Debentures  and  Debenture  Stock;  &c.  I  ICK> 

Ed.  M.  EDUARD  MEYER,  D.LITT.  (Oxon.),  LL.D.,  PH.D.  fctesiphon-  Cvaxares- 

Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Berlin.    Author  of  Geschichte  des  J  r    '     .  _.  '  .  J 
Alterthums;   Forschungen  zur  alien  Geschichte;  Geschichte  des  alien  Agyptens;  Die]  uyru   '   uarius.   "^ 
Israeliten  und  ihreNachbarstamme;  &c.  [Demetrius  of  Bactria. 

E.  M.  W.  REV.  EDWARD  MEWBURN  WALKER,  M.A.  f  rnnstitutinn  nf  Athpns 

T-I    ii  r^       •        <-r<  i   T  *i  •  f  r\  '      /"""ii  f\    f       j  i    VU113HH1UUU    Ul    rrlllcllD. 

Fellow,  Senior  Tutor  and  Librarian  of  Queen  s  College,  Oxford.  ^ 

E.  Pr.  EDGAR  PRESTAGE.  f 

Special  Lecturer  in  Portuguese  Literature  in  the  University  of  Manchester.    Com-  J  Corte-Real,  Jeronymo; 
mendador,  Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.    Corresponding  Member  of  Lisbon  Royal  1  CtUZ  0  Silva. 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  Lisbon  Geographical  Society,  &c.  L 

E.  R.  B.  EDWYN  ROBERT  BEVAN,  M.A.  (" 

Formerly  Scholar  of  New  College,  Oxford.    Author  of  House  of  Seleucus  ;  Jerusalem  •(  Demetrius  of  Macedonia. 
under  the  High  Priests.  I 

E.  Tn.       REV.  ETHELRED  LEONARD  TAUNTON  (d.ioo;).  f 

Author  of  The  English  Black  Monks  of  St  Benedict;  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  England.  \  t'uuen»  **U1;  OUTC1. 

E.  V.  REV.  EDMUND  VENABLES,  M.A.,  D.D.  (1819-1895).  f 

Canon  and  Precentor  of  Lincoln.    Author  of  Episcopal  Palaces  of  England.  \ 

F.  E.  W.  REV.  FREDERICK  EDWARD  WARREN,  M.A.,  B.D.,  F.S.A.  f 

Rector  of  Bardwell,  Bury  St  Edmunds.    Fellow  of  St  John's,  College,  Oxford,  1865- 

1882.     Author  of  The  Old  Catholic  Ritual  done  into  English  and  compared  with  thei  Dedication. 

Corresponding  Offices  in  the  Roman  and  Old  German  Manuals;  The  Liturgy  and  Ritual 

of  the  Celtic  Church;  &c. 

F.  G.  M.  B.        FREDERICK  GEORGE  MEESON  BECK,  M.A.  / 

Fellow  and  Lecturer  in  Classics,  Clare  College,  Cambridge.  "\ 

F,  Lu.  FRIEDRICH  LUCKWALDT,  PH.D.  I" 

Professor  of  History  at  the  Royal  Technical  High  School,  Danzig.     Author  of  •<  Dahlmann. 
Osterreich  und  die  Anfdnge  des  Befreiungskriege  von  1813;  &c. 

F.  LI.  G.  FRANCIS  LLEWELLYN  GRIFFITH,  M.A.,  PH.D.,  F.S.A. 

Reader  in  Egyptology,  Oxford  University.  Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  J  p--*-  (•  +  t\ 
Oxford.  Editor  of  the  Archaeological  Survey  and  Archaeological  Reports  of  the]  ^°P»  V*«  par/,). 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund.  Fellow  of  Imperial  German  Archaeological  Institute.  L 

F.  Po.  SIR  FREDERICK  POLLOCK,  BART.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 

See  the  biographical  article:  POLLOCK:  Family. 

F.  S.  P.  FRANCIS  SAMUEL  PHILBRICK,  A.M.,  B.Sc.  (" 

Formerly  Scholar  and  Resident  Fellow  of  Harvard  University.    Member  of  American  \  Cuba. 
Historical  Association. 


viii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

F.  T.  M.  SIR  FRANK  THOMAS  MARZIALS,  K.C.B.  /Daudet 

Formerly  Accountant-General  of  the  Army.    Editor  of  "  Great  Writers  "  Series.      \ 

F.  W.  Ha.  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  HASLUCK,  M.A.  J       . 

Assistant   Director,    British   School   of   Archaeology,   Athens.      Fellow  of   King's  |  CyziCUS. 
College,  Cambridge.     Browne's  Medallist,  1901. 

F.  W.  R.*  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  RUDLER,  I.S.O.,  F.G.S.  /Corundum;  Cryolite; 

Curator  and  Librarian  at  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London,  1879-1902.1  noirmntniH* 
President  of  the  Geologists'  Association,  1887-1889. 

G.  A.  B.  GEORGE  A.  BOULENGER,  F.R.S.  (~ 

In  charge  of  the  Collections  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes,  Department  of  Zoology,  British  J  Cyprinodonts. 
Museum.    Vice-President  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  (. 

G.  C.  B.  GILBERT  CHARLES  BOURNE,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  r 

Linacre  Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  Oxford.     Fellow  of  Merton  College,  I  pnrai  r.pf- 
Oxford.    Author   of   An   Introduction   to   the   Study   of   Comparative   Anatomy   of\ 
Animals;  &c. 


G.  C.  C.  G.  C.  CHUBB. 


|  Cytology. 


G.  C.  W.  GEORGE  CHARLES  WILLIAMSON,  Lirr.D.  r  cooper    Alexander- 

Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Portrait  Miniatures;  Life  of  Richard  I  _ 
Cosway,  R.A.;  George  Engleheart;  Portrait  Drawings;  &c.     Editor  of  new  edition]  Cooper,  bamuel; 
of  Bryan's  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers.  [  Cosway,  Richard. 

G.  F.  Z.  G.  F.  ZIMMER,  A.M.lNST.C.E.,  F.Z.S.  /_ 

Author  of  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material.  \  Conveyors. 

G.  H.  Fo.  GEORGE  HERBERT  FOWLER,  F.Z.S.,  F.L.S.,  PH.D.  [ 

Formerly  Berkeley  Fellow  of  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  Assistant  Professor  <  Ctenophora. 
of  Zoology  at  University  College,  London. 

G.  J.  T.  GEORGE  JAMES  TURNER.  f 

Barrister-at-Law,  Lincoln's  Inn.    Editor  of  Select  Pleas  of  the  Forest  for  the  Selden  1  County. 
Society.  I 

G.  P.  R.  GERALD  PHILIP  ROBINSON.  J 

President  of  the  Society  of  Mezzotint  Engravers.     Mezzotint  Engraver  to  Queen  ~1  Cousins,  Samuel. 
Victoria  and  to  King  Edward  VII.  I 

G.  Sa.  GEORGE  SAINTSBURY,  L.L.D.,  LiTT.D.  /  Corneille,  Pierre; 

See  the  biographical  article:  SAINTSBURY,  G.  E.  B.  LCorneille,  Thomas. 

G.  Sn.  GRANT  SHOWERMAN,  A.M.,  PH.D.  f  Corybantes; 

Professor  of  Latin  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin.     Member  of  the  Archaeological  J  Crioboliuin' 
Institute  of  America.     Member  of  American  Philological  Association.     Author  of  1  r.,_        .   r,',i,,,i, 
With  the  Professor;  The  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods;  &c.  I  Lure  'es'  LyDele- 

G.  W.  T.  REV.  GRIFFITHES  WHEELER  THATCHER,  M.A.,  B.D.  f 

Warden  of  Camden  College,  Sydney,  N.S.W.     Formerly  Tutor  in  Hebrew  and  Old  1  Damiri. 
Testament  History  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford.  I 

H.  Br.  HENRY  BRADLEY,  M.A.,  PH.D.  f 

Joint-editor  of  the  New  English  Dictionary  (Oxford).    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy,  -j  Cynewulf. 
Author  of  The  Story  of  the  Goths;  The  Making  of  English;  &c. 

H.  B.  W.  HORACE  BOLINGBROKE  WOODWARD,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  f 

Late  Assistant   Director,  Geological  Survey  of  England  and  Wales.     Wollaston  J  TJeehen 
Medallist,  Geological  Society.     Author  of  The  History  of  the  Geological  Society  of\ 
London;  &c.  I 

H.  F.  G.  HANS  FRIEDRICH  GADOW,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  PH.D.  f 

Strickland   Curator  and   Lecturer  on   Zoology   in  the   University  of  Cambridge.  4  Crocodile. 
Author  of  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (Cambridge  Natural  History).  I 

H.  Fr.  HENRI  FRANTZ.  f  rnl,rhpt 

Art  Critic,  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris.  \  LOU 

H.  M.  W.  H.  MARSHALL  WARD,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  D.Sc.  (d.  igos).  f 

Formerly  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  President  of  the  J  jj  oarv 
British  Mycological  Society.  Author  of  Timber  and  some  of  its  Diseases;  The  Oak;  1  Bary. 
Disease  in  Plants;  &c.  I 

H.  St.  HENRY  STURT,  M.A.  f  Crusius; 

Author  of  Idola  Theatri ;  The  Idea  of  a  Free  Church ;  and  Personal  Idealism.  \  C ucl wort h,  R. 

H.  S.  J.  HENRY  STUART  JONES,  M.A.  r 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  Director  of  the  British  J  Costume:   Aegean,  Greek, 
School   at   Rome.     Member  of  the   German    Imperial   Archaeological    Institute.  1       Etruscan  and  Roman. 
Author  of  The  Roman  Empire;  &c.  I 

H.  Th.  SIR  HENRY  THOMPSON,  BART.  f  Cremation 

See  the  biographical  article:  THOMPSON,  SIR  HENRY.  \ 

H.  Tr.  SIR  HENRY  TROTTER,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.  r 

Lieutenant-Colonel,   Royal   Engineers.     H.B.M.     Consul-General   for    RoumaniavJ  _        . 
1894-1906,  and   British  Delegate  on  the  European  Commission  of  the  Danube.  1  uanuDe' 
Victoria  Medallist,  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1878. 

H.  W.  C.  D.       HENRY  WILLIAM  CARLESS  DAVIS,  M.A.  f 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.     Fellow  of  All  Souls'  College,  1895--^  Coutances,  Walter  Of. 
1902.    Author  of  England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevins;  Charlemagne. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  ix 

I.  A.  ISRAEL  ABRAHAMS,  M.A. 

Reader  in  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  Literature,  University  of  Cambridge.    President,  J  Crescas; 
Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England.    Author  of  A  Short  History  of  Jewish  Litera-  j  DelmedigO. 
lure',  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

3.  An.  JOSEPH  ANDERSON,  LL.D.  f 

Keeper  of  the  National  Museum  of  Antiquities,  Edinburgh.     Assistant  Secretary  J  rranno~ 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  and  Rhind  Lecturer,  1879-1882  and  1892.  ] 
Editor  of  Drummond's  Ancient  Scottish  Weapons;  &c. 

J.  A.  C.  SIR  JOSEPH  ARCHER  CROWE,  K.C.M.G.  f  Cranach; 

See  the  biographical  article:  CROWE,  SIR  J.  A.  \  Cuyp. 

J.  A.  H.  JOHN  ALLEN  HOWE,  B.Sc.  f  Corallian; 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London.  \  Corabrash'  Culm. 

J.  C.  S.-H.          JOHN  CASTLEMAN  SWINBURNE-KANHAM,  J.P.  f  _  .   ~,  .•  .• 

Barrister-at-Law,  Middle  Temple.    Hon.  Secretary  of  Cremation  Society  of  England.  \  we 

J.  D.  B.  JAMES  DAVID  BOURCHIER,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.  ( 

King's  College,  Cambridge.  Correspondent  of  The  Times  in  South-Eastern  Europe.  J  Crete:  Geography  and  Stalis- 
Commander  of  the  Orders  of  Prince  Danilo  of  Montenegro  and  of  the  Saviour  of  1  tics;  and  Modern  History. 
Greece,  and  Officer  of  the  Order  of  St  Alexander  of  Bulgaria.  t 

J.  D.  Pr.  JOHN  DYNELEY  PRINCE,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  at  Columbia  University,  New  York. 

J.  E.  B.  JOHN  EGLINTON  BAILEY. 

Author  of  John  Dee  and  the  Steganographia  of  Trithemius;  Life  of  Thomas  Fuller. 

J.  Go.*  JOSEPH  GREGO.  (" 

Art  Critic.    Author  of  A  History  of  Parliamentary  Elections;  A  History  of  Dancing;  J.  Cruikshank. 
Thomas  Rowlandson;  James  Gillray;  &c. 

J.  G.  K.  JOHN  GRAHAM  KERR,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  f 

Regius  Professor  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.    Formerly  Demonstrator 
in  Animal  Morphology  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    Fellow  of  Christ's  College,  -I  Cyclostomata. 
Cambridge,    1898-1904.      Walsingham   Medallist,    1898.      Neill   Prizeman,    Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  1904. 

J.  H.  F.  JOHN  HENRY  FREESE,  M.A.  f  n.m(ltpr 

Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  \  uel 

J.  H.  M.  JOHN  HENRY  MIDDLETON,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  LITT.D.,  D.C.L.  (1846-1896).  f 

Formerly  Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Art  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  Art  J  n<.ilo  Dnhhio  l  •  ^\ 
Director  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Author  of  The  Engraved  Gems  of]  "ella  KODD1*  \in  fan). 
Classical  Times ;  Illuminated  Manuscripts  in  Classical  and  Medieval  Times.  [_ 

3.  H.  R.  JOHN  HORACE  ROUND,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (Edin.).  f 

Author  of  Feudal  England;  Studies  in  Peerage  and  Family  History;  Peerage  ana\  Court  Baron. 
Pedigree;  &c. 

3.  HI.  R.  JOHN  HOLLAND  ROSE,  M.A.,  Lirr.D.  f 

Lecturer  on  Modern  History  to  the  Cambridge  University  Local  Lectures  Syndicate.  J  Dam,   Count; 
Author  of  Life  of  Napoleon  I. ;  Napoleonic  Studies;  The  Development  of  the  European  1  Decaen. 
Nations;  The  Life  of  Pitt;  &c.  (_ 

3.  H.  Rs.  REV.  JAMES  HARDY  ROPES,  D.D.  r 

Bussey  Professor  of   New   Testament  Criticism  and    Interpretation,  and    Dexter     rnrinthianc-    J?j,,V/7^<-  /„ 
Lecturer  on  Bible  Literature,  Harvard  University.     Author  of  The  Apostolic  Age]  t/0"1          nS'   ****"  * 

in  the  Light  of  Modern  Criticism ;  &c. 

J.  L.  M.  JOHN  LINTON  MYRES,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  r 

Wykeham  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  Formerly  r,._  le  /•  .,  ,\ 
Gladstone  Professor  of  Greek,  and  Lecturer  in  Ancient  Geography,  University  of  1  ^P™15  Un  fan>- 
Liverpool ;  and  Lecturer  on  Classical  Archaeology  in  University  of  Oxford. 

J.  Mo.  VISCOUNT  MORLEY  OF  BLACKBURN.  J  r»an«on 

See  the  biographical  article:  MORLEY,  VISCOUNT. 
J.  McF.  JOHN  MACFARLANE.  r 

Formerly  Librarian  of  the  Imperial  Library,  Calcutta.     Author  of  Library  Ad-  J.  Damien,  Father. 

ministration;  &c. 

J.  M.  M.  JOHN  MALCOLM  MITCHELL.  f 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.     Lecturer  in  Classics,  East  London  •<  Delian  League. 
College  (University  of  London).    Joint-editor  of  Grote's  History  of  Greece. 

J.  P.  Pe.  REV.  JOHN  PUNNETT  PETERS,  PH.D.,  D.D.  f 

Canon  Residentiary,  Cathedral  of  New  York.    Formerly  Professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  J  rjeir 
University  of  Pennsylvania.     Director  of  the  University  Expedition  to  Babylonia,  1 
1888-1895.    Author  of  Nippur,  or  Explorations  and  Adventures  on  the  Euphrates.       I 

J.  S.  F.  JOHN  SMITH  FLETT,  D.Sc.,  F.G.S.  f 

Petrographer   to   the   Geological    Survey.      Formerly    Lecturer   on    Petrology  in  J  Crystallite; 
Edinburgh  University.    Neill  Medallist  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.    Bigsby  1  Dacite. 
Medallist  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London. 

J.  T.  Be.  JOHN  T.  BEALBY.  frrim«aC    */t  rt- 

Joint-author  of  Stanford's  Europe.     Formerly  Editor  of  the  Scottish  Geographical  \  „  f.     ''    . 

Magazine.    Translator  of  Sven  Hedin's  Through  Asia,  Central  Asia  and  Tibet;  &c.  [  Daghestan  Un  part). 

J.  T  C.  JOSEPH  THOMAS  CUNNINGHAM,  M.A.,  F.Z.S.  r 

Lecturer  on  Zoology  at  the  South-Western  Polytechnic,  London.    Formerly  Fellow  J  Cuttle-fish 
of  University  College,  Oxford.     Assistant   Professor  of  Natural   History    in   the  1 
University  of  Edinburgh.    Naturalist  to  the  Marine  Biological  Association. 


X 

J.  V. 
K.  G.  J. 

K.S. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


JOHN  VEITCH,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  VEITCH,  JOHN. 


Cousin,  V.  (in  part). 


KINGSLEY  GARLAND  JAYNE.  r__ 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford.    Matthew  Arnold  Prizeman,  1903.  J  Croatia-Slavoma; 
Author  of  Vasco  da  Gama  and  his  Successors.  Dalmatia. 


KATHLEEN  SCHLESINGER. 

Author  of  The  Instruments  of  the  Orchestra;  &c. 


C  Contrafagotto;  Cor  Anglais; 
J  Cornet  (in  part); 
1  Cromorne  (in  part); 
[Crowd;  Cymbals. 


COUNT  LUTZOW,  Lrrr.D.  (Oxon.),  D.Pn.  (Prague),  F.R.G.S. 

Chamberlain  of  H.M.  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  King  of  Bohemia.     Hon.  Memoer 
of  the   Royal   Society  of  Literature.     Member  of  the  Bohemian  Academy,  &c.  •( 
Author  of  Bohemia,  a  Historical  Sketch;  The  Historians  of  Bohemia  (llchester  Lecture, 
Oxford,  1904);  The  Life  and  Times  of  John  Hus;  &c. 


L.D.* 
L.  J.  S. 

L.V.* 

M.  A.  C. 

M.  Ha. 
M.  N.  T. 
M.  0.  B.  C. 

N.  D.  M. 
N.  W.  T. 

0.  Ba. 
0.  J.  R.  H. 

P.  A.  K. 

P.  C.  Y. 

P.G. 
P.  GL 

P.  G.  K. 
R.  A.* 


Louis  DUCHESNE. 

See  the  biographical  article:  DUCHESNE,  L.M.O. 


Damasus. 
Copper-glance; 


LEONARD  JAMES  SPENCER,  M.A. 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Mineralogy,  British  Museum. 

Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  and  Harkness  Scholar.     Editor  of  the  Minera- 

logical  Magazine. 


r 

Copper  Pyrites; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  J  Covellite;   Crocoite; 
1  Crystallography 
I  Cuprite.  Cyanite; 
1  Datolite. 

LUIGI   VlLLARI. 

Italian  Foreign  Office   (Emigration  Department).     Formerly  Newspaper   Corre-     Contarini;   Cornaro; 
spondent  in  East  of  Europe.    Italian  Vice-Consul  in   New  Orleans,   1906;    Phil-  -^  Correnti;   Corsini; 
adelphia,  1907;  and  Boston,  U.S.A.,  1907-1910.     Author  of  Italian  Life  in  Town      rjanrinln-   Delia 
and  Country;  Fire  and  Sword  in  the  Caucasus;  &c.  [  uanaolo>  uella 

MAURICE  A.  CANNEY,  M.A.  r 

Assistant  Lecturer  in  Semitic  Languages  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  Formerly  -..-,., 
Exhibitioner  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford.  Pusey  and  Ellertpn  Hebrew  Scholar,  1  Daub,  Karl. 
Oxford,  1892;  Kennicott  Hebrew  Scholar,  1895;  Houghton  Syriac  Prize,  1896. 


MARCUS  HARTOG,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.L.S. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  University  College,  Cork.     Author  of  "  Protozoa  "  in  Cam- 
bridge Natural  History,  and  papers  for  various  scientific  journals. 


Cystoflagellata. 


j  Davis,  Jefferson  (in  part). 


MARCUS  NIEBUHR  TOD,  M.A. 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford.     University  Lecturer  in  Epigraphy.  -{  Demaratus. 
Joint-author  of  Catalogue  of  the  Sparta  Museum. 

MAXIMILIAN  OTTO  BISMARCK  CASPARI,  M.A.  f  Corfu  (in  part); 

Reader  in  Ancient  History  at  London  University.    Lecturer  in  Greek  at  Birmingham  -<  Corinth  (in  part); 
University,  1905-1908.    '  L  Cos  (;„  part) 

NEWTON  DENNISON  MERENESS,  A.M.,  PH.D. 
Author  of  Maryland  as  a  Proprietary  Province. 

NORTHCOTE  WHITBRIDGE  THOMAS,  M.A.  r 

Government  Anthropologist  to  Southern  Nigeria.     Corresponding  Member  of  the  J  Death-warning. 
Societe  d'Anthropologie  de  Paris.     Author  of  Thought  Transference;  Kinship  and\ 
Marriage  in  A  ustralia  ;  &c.  L 

OSWALD  BARRON,  F.S.A.  C  Costume:  Medieval  and 

Editor  of  the  Ancestor,  1902-1905.     Hon.  Genealogist  to  Standing  Council  of  the  J       Modern  European; 
Honourable  Society  of  the  Baronetage.  [  Conrtenay:  Family. 

OSBERT  JOHN  RADCLIFFE  HOWARTH,  M.A.  f 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.     Geographical  Scholar,  1901.     Assistant  Secretary  of  the  J  Copenhagen. 
British  Association. 


i  Cossacks; 
J  Crimea  (in  part); 
LDaghestan  (in  part). 

f  Cottington,  F.  C..  Baron; 

Coventry,  Sir  William; 
-I  Craven,  Earl  of; 

Cromwell,  Oliver  (in  part); 
[  Cromwell,  Richard. 

f  Daedalus; 

I  Demetrius  (Sculptor). 

PETER  GILES,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Lnr.D.  ( 

Fellow  and  Classical  Lecturer  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  University!  p. 

Reader  in  Comparative  Philology.     Late  Secretary  of  the  Cambridge  Philological  1 

Society.    Author  of  Manual  of  Comparative  Philology ;  &c. 
PAUL  G.  KONODY.  f 

Art  Critic  of  the  Observer  and  the  Daily  Mail.     Formerly  Editor  of  The  Artist.  4  David,  Gerard. 

Author  of  The  Art  of  Walter  Crane;  Velasquez,  Life  and  Work;  &c.  L 

ROBERT  ANCHEL.  ("Convention,  The  National; 

Archivist  to  the  Departement  de  1'Eure.  \  Cordeliers,  Club  Of  the. 


PRINCE  PETER  ALEXEIVITCH  KROPOTKIN. 

See  the  biographical  article:  KROPOTKIN,  P.  A. 


PHILIP  CHESNEY  YORKE,  M.A. 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 


PERCY  GARDNER,  Lrrr.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.S.A. 

See  the  biographical  article:  GARDNER,  PERCY. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


XI 


R.  A.  S.  M. 

R.  B.  McK. 
R.  B.  R. 

R.  H.  C. 

R.  H.  L. 
R.  J.  M. 
R.  L.* 

R.  N.  B. 
R.  P.  S. 

R.  So. 
R.  S.  C. 
R.  W.  R. 

S.  A.  C. 

S.  E.  B. 

S.  J.  C. 

S.  Wa. 
T.  As. 

T.  A.  I. 
T.  A.  J. 
T.Ba. 


(  Damascus; 

j  Dead  Sea; 

Decapolis. 


{  Dekker,  Thomas  (in  part). 


ROBERT  ALEXANDER  STEWART  MACALISTER,  M.A.,  F.S.A. 

St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Director  of  Excavations  for  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund. 

RONALD  BRUNLEES  MCKERROW. 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

RUFUS  BYAM  RICHARDSON,  PH.D.,  B.D. 

Formerly  Director  of  American  School  of  Classical  Studies,  Athens.     Member  of 

American  Geological  Society,   British  Society  of  Promotion  of  Hellenic  Studies,  •>  Corinth  (in  part). 

Greek  Archaeological  Society,  &c.    Author  of  History  of  Greek  Sculpture;  Vacation 

Days  in  Greece;  Greece  through  the  Stereoscope;  &c. 

REV.  ROBERT  HENRY  CHARLES,  M.A.,  D.D.,  D.Lirr. 

Grinfield  Lecturer  and  Lecturer  in  Biblical  Studies,  Oxford.  Fellow  of  the  British 
Academy.  Formerly  Professor  of  Biblical  Greek,  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Author 
of  Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life ;  Book  of  Jubilees ;  &c. 

ROBIN  HUMPHREY  LEGGE. 

Principal  Musical  Critic  for  Daily  Telegraph.  Author  of  Annals  of  the  Norwich 
Festivals;  &c. 


•J  Daniel  (in  part). 


j  Debussy. 

("Conway,  Henry  Seymour; 
i  Cowper,  William  C.,  1st  Earl; 
«•  Cromwell,  Oliver  (in  part). 

J  Coyote;  Creodonta; 
[  Deer. 

Corvinus;  Czartoryski; 
Damjanieh;  Deak; 
De  Geer;  De  la  Gardie; 
Demetrius  Donskoi; 
Demetrius,  Pseudo. 


RONALD  JOHN  McNsiLL,  M.A. 

Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Barrister-at-Law.  Formerly  Editor  of  the  St  James's 
Gazette,  London. 

RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S. 

Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  1874-1882.  Author  of 
Catalogues  of  Fossil  Mammals,  Reptiles  and  Birds  in  British  Museum;  The  Deer  of 
all  Lands,  &c. 

ROBERT  NISBET  BAIN  (d.  1909). 

Formerly    Assistant    Librarian,    British    Museum.      Author  of   Scandinavia:   the 
Political  History  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  1513-1900;  The  First  Romanovs, 
1613  to  1725 ;  Slavonic  Europe:  the  Political  History  of  Poland  and  Russia  from  1460 
•to  1796;  &c. 

R.  PHENE  SPIERS,  F.S.A.,  F.R.I.B.A. 

Formerly   Master  of  the  Architectural  School,   Royal  Academy,   London.     Past 
President  of  Architectural  Association.     Associate  and  Fellow  of  King's  College, . 
London.    Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.    Editor  of  Fergusson's 
History  of  Architecture.    Author  of  Architecture:  East  and  West;  &c. 

ROBERT  SOMERS  (1822-1891). 

Editor  of  North  British  Daily  Mail,  1849-1859. 
lands ;  The  Southern  States  since  the  War. 

ROBERT  SEYMOUR  CONWAY,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.  (Cantab.). 

Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Manchester.     Formerly  Professor  of  Latin  - 
of  University  College,  Cardiff,  and  Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge. 

ROBERT  WILLIAM  ROGERS,  D.D.,  LITT.D.,  LL.D.,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Hebrew  and  Old  Testament  Exegesis,   Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
Madison,  New  Jersey.     Author  of  Inscriptions  of  Sennacherib;  History  of  Babylonia  ' 
and  Assyria;  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria;  &c. 

STANLEY  ARTHUR  COOK,  M.A. 

Editor  for  Palestine  Exploration   Fund.     Lecturer  in   Hebrew  and   Syriac,   and 
formerly  Fellow  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.    Examiner  in  Hebrew  and 
Aramaic,  London  University,  1904-1908.     Author  of  Glossary  of  Aramaic  Inscrip-' 
lions ;  The  Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi ;  Critical  Notes  on  Old  Testament 
History;  Religion  of  Ancient  Palestine;  &c. 

HON.  SIMEON  EBEN  BALDWIN,  M.A.,  LL.D.  f 

Professor  of  Constitutional  and  Private  International   Law  in  Yale   University. 

Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Comparative  Law  of '  the  American  Bar  Association.-^  Conveyancing  (United  States). 
Formerly  Chief  Justice  of  Connecticut.     Author  of  Modern  Political  Institutions; 
American  Railroad  Law;  &c. 


Decorated  Period. 


Author  of  Letters  from  the  High-  \  Corn  Laws  (in  part). 


Cumae  (in  part). 


Cuneiform. 


Costume:  Ancient,  Oriental; 
Cush;  Dan;  David  (in  part); 
Deborah; 
Decalogue  (in  part). 


SYDNEY  JOHN  CHAPMAN,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Commerce  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Manchester.  Author  of  The  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry;  The  Cotton 
Industry  and  Trade;  &c. 

SAMUEL  WADSWORTH,  M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law  of  the  Inner  Temple  and  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  Joint-editor  of  the  I7th 
edition  of  Davidson's  Concise  Precedents  in  Conveyancing. 


Cotton:  Marketing  and  Supp'y. 
}  Cotton  Manufacture. 


j  Conveyancing  (in  part). 


THOMAS  ASHBY,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.  (Oxon.).  fCorflnium;  Cori;  Cortona; 

Director  of  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome.     Formerly  Scholar  of  Christ  J  Cosa;  Coseuza;    Cremona; 
Church,  Oxford.    Craven  Fellow,  1 897.    Conington  Prizeman,  1906.    Member  of  the  1  Crotona;  Cumae  (in  part); 

Cures. 


Imperial  German  Archaeological  Institute. 


THOMAS  ALLAN  INGRAM,  M.A.,  LL.D. 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

THOMAS  ATHOL  JOYCE,  M.A. 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Ethnography,   British  Museum. 
Anthropological  Institute. 

SIR  THOMAS  BARCLAY,  M.P.  e  contraband- 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law.     Member  of  the  Supreme  Council     pnn      „  /  •   '  ,,„  ,\ 
of  the  Congo  Free  State.    Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Problems  of} 
International  Practice  and  Diplomacy;  &c.    M.P.  for  Blackburn,  1910.  [  Declaration  Of  Paris. 


f  Convocation  (in  part) ; 
-   Corn  Laws  (in  part) ; 
[Coroner;  Cruelty;  Day. 

Hon.  Sec.,  Royal  I  Costume  (in  part). 


xii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

T.  F.  C.  THEODORE  FREYLINGHUYSEN  COLLIER,  PH.D.  f  ConstantinoDle    Councils  of 

Assistant  Professor  of  History,  Williams  College,  Williamstown,  Mass.,  U.S.A.         \  W 

T.  K.  C.  THOMAS  KELLY  CHEYNE,  D.D.  f  Cosmogony; 

See  the  biographical  article :  CHEYNE,  T.  K.  \  Deluge,  The. 

T.  M.  F.  THOMAS  MACALL  FALLOW,  M. A.,  F.S.A.  r  Coronation; 

Editor  of  the  Antiquary,  1895-1899.  Author  of  Memorials  of  Old  Yorkshire;  The\  Cross  and  Crucifixion; 
Cathedral  Churches  of  Ireland.  {_  Crown  and  Coronet. 

T.  Se.  THOMAS  SECCOMBE.  f" 

Lecturer  in  History,  East  London  and  Birkbeck  Colleges,  University  of  London.  I  rnnstantino 
Stanhope   Prizeman,   Oxford,    1887.     Assistant   Editor  of  Dictionary  of  National] 
Biography,  1891-1901.    Author  of  The  Age  of  Johnson:  &c  I 

T.  T.  SIR  TRAVERS  Twiss,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  /Consulate  of  the  Sea; 

See  the  biographical  article:   Twiss,  SIR  TRAVERS.  \ Convocation  (in  part). 

1  Profemr  of  Textiles,  Manchester  University.   Author  01  Mechanism  of  Weaving.    \  Cotton-spinning  Machinery. 

V.  M.  VICTOR  CHARLES  MAHILLON.  [  cornet  (in  part)  • 

Principal  of  the  Conservatoire  Royal  de  Musique  at  Brussels.     Chevalier  of  the -i  «_„,         '    /  • 
Legion  of  Honour.  [  Crom°rne  l*« 

W.  A.  B.  C.        REV.  WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS  BREVOORT  COOLIDGE,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  PH.D.  (Bern.),  r 

Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.     Professor  of  English  History,  St  David's      Crousaz,  Jean  Pierre  de; 
College,  Lampeter,  1880-1881.    Author  of  Guide  du  Haul  Dauphint;  The  Range  of  1  Dauphine; 
the  Tiidi;  Guide  to  Grindelwald;  Guide  to  Switzerland;  The  Alps  in  Nature  and  in     DavOS. 
History;  &c.    Editor  of  the  Alpine  Journal,  1880-1889;  &C.  I 

f  Cope;  Crete  (in  part}; 

W.  A.  P.  WALTER  ALISON  PHILLIPS,  M.A.  Tostump-  Nniinvnl  C 

Formerly  Exhibitioner  of  Merton  College  and  Senior  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  4  12  .,  t*atlonM>  L 
Oxford.  Author  of  Modern  Europe;  &c.  Official; 

I  Dalmatic. 

W.  B.*  WILLIAM  BURTON,  M.A.,  F.C.S.  f 

Chairman,  Joint  Committee  of  Pottery  Manufacturers  of  Great  Britain.  Author  of  •{  Delia  Robbia  (in  part). 
English  Stoneware  and  Earthenware;  &c. 

W.  B.  Sc.  WILLIAM  BELL  SCOTT.  f  Cox,  David; 

See  the  biographical  article :   SCOTT,  WILLIAM  BELL.  Delaroche. 

W.  C.  S.  WILLIAM  CHARLES  SMITH,  K.C.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (Edin.).  f 

Formerly  Sheriff  of  Ross,  Cromarty  and  Sutherland.     Editor  of  Judicial  Review, -   Dance  (in  part). 
1889-1900. 

W.  C.  T.  W.  CAVE  THOMAS.  f 

Author  of  Symmetrical  Education;  Mural  or  Monumental  Decoration;  Revised  Theory  \  Cornelius,  Peter  von. 
of  Light.  [ 

W.  E.  Co.  RT.  REV.  WILLIAM  EDWARD  COLLINS,  D.D.  r 

Bishop  of  Gibraltar.  Formerly  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  King's  College,  J  -,_  .-,,  ,  , 
London.  Lecturer  at  Selwyn  and  St  John's  Colleges,  Cambridge.  Author  of  The  1  ^yPrus-  ^nurctt  oj. 
Study  of  Ecclesiastical  History;  Beginnings  of  English  Christianity;  &c.  I 

W.  E.  H.  WILLIAM  ERNEST  HENLEY.  fr™     .    T«,V   *  rv.,:™ 

See  the  biographical  article:   HENLEY,  W.  E.  {  C°0per>  JameS  Fenimore- 

W.  Fr.  WILLIAM  FREAM,  LL.D.  (d.  1907).  I" 

Formerly  Lecturer  on  Agricultural   Entomology,   University  of  Edinburgh,  and  ~\  Dairy  and  Dairy-fanning. 
Agricultural  Correspondent  of  The  Times.  I 

r  Contempt  of  Court; 
W.  F.  C.  WILLIAM  FEILDEN  CRAIES,  M.A.  Conversion: 

Barrister-at-Law,  Inner  Temple.  Lecturer  on  Criminal  Law,  King's  College,  London.  •{  rout*-  rriniinnl  Taw 
Editor  of  Archbo\d's  Criminal  Pleading  (22rd  edition).  r°SlS>  tnmmal  »**• 

[  Damages. 

W.  G.  F.  WILLIAM  GEORGE  FREEMAN,  B.Sc.  (London),  A.R.C.S.  [ 

Joint-author  of  Nature  Teaching;  The  World's  Commercial  Products.    Joint-editors  Cotton  (in  part). 
of  Science  Progress  in  the  Twentieth  Century. 

W.  L.  H.  D.       WYNFRID  LAWRENCE  HENRY  DUCKWORTH,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.Sc.  f 

Lecturer  in  Physical  Anthropology,  and  Senior  Demonstrator  of  Human  Anatomy  I  Craniometry 
in  the  University  of  Cambridge.     Fellow  of  Jesus  College.     Author  of  Morphology] 
and  Anthropology;  &c.  I 

W.  L.-W.  SIR  WILLIAM  LEE-WARNER,  M.A.,  K.C.S.I.  f 

Member  of  Council  of   India.     Formerly  Secretary  in  the   Political  and  Secret  J  Dalhousie    1st  Marquis. 
Department  of  the    India   Office.    Author  of   Life  of  the   Marquis  of  Dalhousie;  \ 
Memoirs  of  Field-Marshal  Sir  Henry  Wylie  Norman;  &c.  I 

W.  M.  WILLIAM  MINTO,  M.A  f  Dekk      ^          ( •„ 

See  the  biographical  article:   MINTO,  WILLIAM.  I. 

W.  M.  R.  WILLIAM  MICHAEL  ROSSETTI.  f  Correggjo; 

See  the  biographical  article:  ROSSETTI,  DANTE  G.  \  Crivelli,  Carlo. 

W.  P.*  WALTER  PITT,  M.lNST.C.E.,  M.I.M.E.  J"r 

Member  of  the  Committee  of  International  Maritime  Conference,  London,  &c.         \  l/ranes> 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


xin 


W.  R.  E.  H. 

W.  R.  S. 
W.  T.  Ca. 

W.  Wr. 
W.  W.  H.* 

W.  W.  R.* 


WILLIAM  RICHARD  EATON  HODGKINSON,  PH.D.,  F.R.S. 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Ordnance  College,  Woolwich.  Formerly  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  R.M.A.,  Woolwich.  Part-author  of  Valentin- 
Hodgkinson's  Practical  Chemistry;  &c. 

WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article:  SMITH,  W.  R. 

WILLIAM  THOMAS  CALMAN,  D.Sc.,  F.Z.S. 


Cordite. 

J  David  (in  part) ; 
\  Decalogue  (in  part). 


Assistant  in  charge  of  ( Crustacea,  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington,  -j  Crayfish; 


Author  of  "  Crustacea 


r  Crab ; 
'1 


Crustacea. 


1  in  A  Treatise  on  Zoology,  edited  by  Sir  E.  Ray  Lankester. 

WILLISTON  WALKER,  PH.D.,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Yale  University.     Author  of  History  of  the  Congre-  ^  Cotton    John. 
gational  Churches  in  the  United  States;  The  Reformation;  John  Calvin;  &c. 

HON.  WILLIAM  WIRT  HENRY,  M.A.  (d.  1900).  r 

Formerly  President  of  the  American  Historical  Association  and  of  the  Virginia  His-  I  «„.,!,,     !„«„,,    - 
torical  Society.     Author  and  Editor  of  the  Life,  Correspondence  and  Speeches  of]  UaV1S>  Jet  erson 

Patrick  Henry.  [ 


Parl>- 


WILLIAM  WALKER  ROCKWELL,  PH.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 


Council. 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES 


Constitution  and  Con- 
stitutional Law. 
Consul. 
Cookery. 
Coorg. 
Copper. 
Coprolites. 
Copyhold. 
Copyright. 
Coral. 
Cork. 

Cornell  University. 
Cornwall. 


Corporation. 

Corrupt  Practices. 

Corsica. 

Corvee. 

Costa  Rica. 

Count. 

Court. 

Couvade. 

Covenanters. 

Crawford,  Earls  of. 

Crecy. 

Cretaceous  System. 

Cribbage. 


Cricket. 

Crocus. 

Croquet. 

Cruciferae. 

Culdees. 

Cumberland. 

Curling. 

Currant. 

Cursor  Mundi. 

Cutlery. 

Cycling. 

Cycloid. 

Cynics. 


Cyrenaics. 

Dacia. 

Dahomey. 

Damask. 

Darfur. 

Deacon. 

Dean. 

Death. 

Debt. 

Deccan. 

Deism. 

Delaware. 

Delirium. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  VII 


CONSTANTINE  PAVLOVICH  (1779-1831),  grand-duke  and 
cesarevich  of  Russia,  was  born  at  Tsarskoye  Selo  on  the  27th 
of  April  1779.  Of  the  sons  born  to  the  unfortunate  tsar  Paul 
Petrovich  and  his  wife  Maria  Feodorovna,  nee  princess  of  Wurt- 
temberg,  none  more  closely  resembled  his  father  in  bodily 
and  mental  characteristics  than  did  the  second,  Constantine 
Pavlovich.  The  direction  of  the  boy's  upbringing  was  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  his  grandmother,  the  empress  Catherine  II.  As 
in  the  case  of  her  eldest  grandson  (afterwards  the  emperor 
Alexander  I.),  she  regulated  every  detail  of  his  physical  and 
mental  education;  but  in  accordance  with  her  usual  custom 
she  left  the  carrying  out  of  her  views  to  the  men  who  were  in 
her  confidence.  Count  Nicolai  Ivanovich  Soltikov  was  supposed 
to  be  the  actual  tutor,  but  he  too  in  his  turn  transferred  the 
burden  to  another,  only  interfering  personally  on  quite  excep- 
tional occasions,  and  exercised  neither  a  positive  nor  a  negative 
influence  upon  the  character  of  the  exceedingly  passionate, 
restless  and  headstrong  boy.  The  only  person  who  really  took 
him  in  hand  was  Cesar  La  Harpe,  who  was  tutor-in-chief  from 
1783  to  May  1795  and  educated  both  the  empress's  grandsons. 

Like  Alexander,  Constantine  was  married  by  Catherine  when 
not  yet  seventeen  years  of  age,  a  raw  and  immature  boy,  and 
he  made  his  wife,  Juliana  of  Coburg,  intensely  miserable.  After 
a  first  separation  in  the  year  1799,  she  went  back  permanently 
to  her  German  home  in  1801,  the  victim  of  a  frivolous  intrigue, 
in  the  guilt  of  which  she  was  herself  involved.  An  attempt  made 
by  Constantine  in  1814  to  win  her  back  to  his  hearth  and  home 
broke  down  on  her  firm  opposition.  During  the  time  of  this 
tragic  marriage  Constantine's  first  campaign  took  place  under 
the  leadership  of  the  great  Suvorov.  The  battle  of  Bassignano 
was  lost  by  Constantine's  fault,  but  at  Novi  he  distinguished 
himself  by  such  personal  bravery  that  the  emperor  Paul  be- 
stowed on  him  the  title  of  cesarevich,  which  according  to  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  constitution  belonged  only  to  the  heir 
to  'the  throne.  Though  it  cannot  be  proved  that  this  action  of 
the  tsar  denoted  any  far-reaching  plan,  it  yet  shows  that  Paul 
already  distrusted  the  grand-duke  Alexander.  However  that 
may  be,  it  is  certain  that  Constantine  never  tried  to  secure  the 
throne.  After  his  father's  death  he  led  a  wild  and  disorderly 
bachelor  life.  He  abstained  from  politics,  but  remained  faithful 
to  his  military  inclinations,  though,  indeed,  without  manifesting 
anything  more  than  a  preference  for  the  externalities  of  the 
service. 

In  command  of  the  Guards  during  the  campaign  of  1805 

VII.   I 


Constantine  had  a  share  of  the  responsibility  for  the  unfortunate 
turn  which  events  took  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz;  while  in 
1807  neither  his  skill  nor  his  fortune  in  war  showed  any  improve- 
ment. However,  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit  he  became  an  ardent 
admirer  of  the  great  Corsican  and  an  upholder  of  the  Russo- 
French  alliance.  It  was  on  this  account  that  in  political  questions 
he  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  his  imperial  brother.  To  the 
latter  the  French  alliance  had  always  been  merely  a  means  to 
an  end,  and  after  he  had  satisfied  himself  at  Erfurt,  and  later 
during  the  Franco-Austrian  War  of  1809,  that  Napoleon  like- 
wise regarded  his  relation  to  Russia  only  from  the  point  of  view 
of  political  advantage,  he  became  convinced  that  the  alliance 
must  transform  itself  into  a  battle  of  life  and  death.  Such 
insight  was  never  attained  by  Constantine;  even  in  1812,  after 
the  fall  of  Moscow,  he  pressed  for  a  speedy  conclusion  of  peace 
with  Napoleon,  and,  like  field-marshal  Kutusov,  he  too  opposed 
the  policy  which  carried  the  war  across  the  Russian  frontier  to 
a  victorious  conclusion  upon  French  soil.  During  the  campaign 
he  was  a  boon  companion  of  every  commanding-officer.  Barclay 
de  Tolly  was  twice  obliged  to  send  him  away  from  the  army. 
His  share  in  the  battles  in  Germany  and  France  was  insignificant. 
At  Dresden,  on  the  26th  of  August,  his  military  knowledge 
failed  him  at  the  decisive  moment,  but  at  La  Fere-Champenoise 
he  distinguished  himself  by  personal  bravery.  On  the  whole  he 
cut  no  great  figure.  In  Paris  the  grand-duke  excited  public 
ridicule  by  the  manifestation  of  his  petty  military  fads.  His 
first  visit  was  to  the  stables,  and  it  was  said  that  he  had  marching 
and  drilling  even  in  his  private  rooms. 

In  the  great  political  decisions  of  those  days  Constantine  took 
not  the  smallest  part.  His  importance  in  political  history  dates 
only  from  the  moment  when  the  emperor  Alexander  entrusted 
him  in  Poland  with  a  task  which  enabled  him  to  concentrate  all 
the  one-sidedness  of  his  talents  and  all  the  doggedness  of  his 
nature  on  a  definite  object:  that  of  the  militarization  and 
outward  discipline  of  Poland.  With  this  begins  the  part  played 
by  the  grand-duke  in  history.  In  the  Congress-Poland  created 
by  Alexander  he  received  the  post  of  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  of  the  kingdom;  to  which  was  added  later  (1819)  the 
command  of  the  Lithuanian  troops  and  of  those  of  the  Russian 
provinces  that  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 
In  effect  he  was  the  actual  ruler  of  the  country,  and  soon  became 
the  most  zealous  advocate  of  the  separate  position'  of  Poland 
created  by  the  constitution  granted  by  Alexander.  He  organized 
their  army  for  the  Poles,  and  felt  himself  more  a  Pole  than  a 


CONSTANTINE 


Russian,  especially  after  his  marriage,  on  the  27th  of  May  1820, 
with  a  Polish  lady,  Johanna  Grudzinska.  Connected  with  this 
was  his  renunciation  of  any  claim  to  the  Russian  succession, 
which  was  formally  completed  in  1822.  It  is  well  known  how, 
in  spite  of  this,  when  Alexander  I.  died  on  the  ist  of  December 
1825  the  grand-duke  Nicholas  had  him  proclaimed  emperor 
in  St  Petersburg,  in  connexion  with  which  occurred  the  famous 
revolt  of  the  Russian  Liberals,  known  as  the  rising  of  the 
Dekabrists.  In  this  crisis  Constantine's  attitude  had  been 
very  correct,  far  more  so  than  that  of  his  brother,  which  was 
vacillating  and  uncertain.  Under  the  emperor  Nicholas  also 
Constantine  maintained  his  position  in  Poland.  But  differences 
soon  arose  between  him  and  his  brother  in  consequence  of  the 
share  taken  by  the  Poles  in  the  Dekabrist  conspiracy.  Con- 
stantine hindered  the  unveiling  of  the  organized  plotting  for 
independence  which  had  been  going  on  in  Poland  for  many 
years,  and  held  obstinately  to  the  belief  that  the  army  and  the 
bureaucracy  were  loyally  devoted  to  the  Russian  empire.  The 
eastern  policy  of  the  tsar  and  the  Turkish  War  of  1828  and  1829 
caused  a  fresh  breach  between  them.  It  was  owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion of  Constantine  that  the  Polish  army  took  no  part  in  this 
war,  so  that  there  was  in  consequence  no  Russo-Polish  comrade- 
ship in  arms,  such  as  might  perhaps  have  led  to  a  reconciliation 
between  the  two  nations. 

The  insurrection  at  Warsaw  in  November  1830  took  Con- 
stantine completely  by  surprise.  It  was  owing  to  his  utter  failure 
to  grasp  the  situation  that  the  Polish  regiments  passed  over  to 
the  revolutionaries;  and  during  the  continuance  of  the  revolution 
he  showed  himself  as  incompetent  as  he  was  lacking  in  judgment. 
Every  defeat  of  the  Russians  appeared  to  him  almost  in  the 
light  of  a  personal  gratification:  his  soldiers  were  victorious. 
The  suppression  of  the  revolution  he  did  not  live  to  see.  He 
died  of  cholera  at  Vitebsk  on  the  2  7th  of  June  1831.  He  was 
an  impossible  man  in  an  impossible  situation.  On  the  Russian 
imperial  throne  he  would  in  all  probability  have  been  a  tyrant 
like  his  father. 

See  also  Karrnovich's  The  Cesarevich  Constantine  Pavlovich  (2  vols., 
St  Petersburg,  1899),  (Russian);  T.  Schiemann's  Geschichte  Russ- 
lands  unter  Kaiser  Nicolaus  I.  vol.  i.  (Berlin,  1904);  Pusyrevski's 
The  Russo-Polish  War  of  1831  (2nd  ed.,  St  Petersburg,  1890) 
(Russian).  (T.  SE.) 

CONSTANTINE,  a  city  of  Algeria,  capital  of  the  department 
of  the  same  name,  54  m.  by  railway  S.  by  W.  of  the  port  of 
Philippeville,  in  36°22'  N.,  5°  36'  E.  Constantine  is  the  residence 
of  a  general  commanding  a  division,  of  a  prefect  and  other  high 
officials,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  had  a  population  in  1906 
of  46,806,  of  whom  25,312  were  Europeans.  The  population  of 
the  commune,  which  includes  the  suburbs  of  Constantine,  was 
58,435.  The  city  occupies  a  romantic  position  on  a  rocky 
plateau,  cut  off  on  all  sides  save  the  west  from  the  surrounding 
country  by  a  beautiful  ravine,  through  which  the  river  Rummel 
flows.  The  plateau  is  2130  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  from  500  to 
nearly  1000  ft.  above  the  river  bed.  The  ravine,  formed  by 
the  Rummel,  through  erosion  of  the  limestone,  varies  greatly  in 
width — at  its  narrowest  part  the  cliffs  are  only  15  ft.  apart,  at 
its  broadest  the  valley  is  400  yds.  wide.  At  the  N.E.  angle  of  the 
city  the  gorge  is  spanned  by  an  iron  bridge  (El-Kantara)  built 
in  1863,  giving  access  to  the  railway  station,  situated  on  Mansura 
hill.  A  stone  bridge  built  by  the  Romans,  and  restored  at 
various  times,  suddenly  gave  way  in  1857  and  is  now  in  ruins; 
it  was  built  on  a  natural  arch,  which,  184  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  river,  spans  the  valley.  Along  the  north-eastern  side  of 
the  city  the  Rummel  is  spanned  in  all  four  times  by  these  natural 
stone  arches  or  tunnels.  To  the  north  the  city  is  commanded 
by  the  Jebel  Mecid,  a  hill  which  the  French  (following  the  example 
of  the  Romans)  have  fortified. 

Constantine  is  walled,  the  extant  medieval  wall  having  been 
largely  constructed  out  of  Roman  material.  Through  the  centre 
from  north  to  south  runs  a  street  (the  rue  de  France)  roughly 
dividing  Constantine  into  two  parts.  The  place  du  Palais,  in 
which  are  the  palace  of  the  governor  and  the  cathedral,  and  the 
kasbah  (citadel)  are  west  of  the  rue  de  France,  as  is  likewise 


the  place  Negrier,  containing  the  law  courts.  The  native  town 
lies  chiefly  in  the  south-east  part  of  the  city.  A  striking  contrast 
exists  between  the  Moorish  quarter,  with  its  tortuous  lanes 
and  Oriental  architecture,  and  the  modern  quarter,  with  its 
rectangular  streets  and  wide  open  squares,  frequently  bordered 
with  trees  and  adorned  with  fountains.  Of  the  squares  the 
place  de  Nemours  is  the  centre  of  the  commercial  and  social  life 
of  the  city.  Of  the  public  buildings  those  dating  from  before  the 
French  occupation  possess  chief  interest.  The  palace,  built 
by  Ahmed  Pasha,  the  last  bey  of  Constantine,  between  1830 
and  1836,  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Moorish  architecture 
of  the  igth  century.  The  kasbah,  which  occupies  the  northern 
corner  of  the  city,  dates  from  Roman  times,  and  preserves  in 
its  more  modern  portions  numerous  remains  of  other  Roman 
edifices.  It  is  now  turned  into  barracks  and  a  hospital.  The  fine 
mosque  of  Sidi-el-Kattani  (or  Salah  Bey)  dates  from  the  close  of 
the  1 8th  century;  that  of  Suk-er-Rezel,  now  transformed  into  a 
cathedral,  and  called  Nolre-Dame  des  Sept  Douleurs,  was  built 
about  a  century  earlier.  The  Great  Mosque,  or  Jamaa-el-Kebir, . 
occupies  the  site  of  what  was  probably  an  ancient  pantheon. 
The  mosque  Sidi-el-Akhdar  has  a  beautiful  minaret  nearly 
Soft.  high.  The  museum,  housed  in  the  hotel  deville,  contains  a 
fine  collection  of  antiquities,  including  a  famous  bronze  statuette 
of  the  winged  figure  of  Victory,  23  in.  high,  discovered  in  the 
kasbah  in  1858. 

A  religious  seminary,  or  medressa,  is  maintained  in  connexion 
with  the  Sidi-el-Kattani;  and  the  French  support  a  college  and 
various  minor  educational  establishments  for  both  Arabic  and 
European  culture.  The  native  industry  of  Constantine  is  chiefly 
confined  to  leather  goods  and  woollen  fabrics.  Some  100,000 
burnouses  are  made  annually,  the  finest  partly  of  wool  and 
partly  of  silk.  There  is  also  an  active  trade  in  embossing  or 
engraving  copper  and  brass  utensils.  A  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  over  a  large  area  by  means  of  railway  connexion  with 
Algiers,  Bona,  Tunis  and  Biskra,  as  well  as  with  Philippeville. 
The  railways,  however,  have  taken  away  from  the  city  its 
monopoly  of  the  traffic  in  wheat,  though  its  share  in  that  trade 
still  amounts  to  from  £400,000  to  £480,000  a  year. 

Constantine,  or,  as  it  was  orginally  called,  Cirta  or  Kirtha, 
from  the  Phoenician  word  for  a  city,  was  in  ancient  times  one 
of  the  most  important  towns  of  Numidia,  and  the  residence  of 
the  kings  of  the  Massyli.  Under  Micipsa  (2nd  century  B.C.) 
it  reached  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  and  was  able  to  furnish 
an  army  of  10,000  cavalry  and  20,000  infantry.  Though  it 
afterwards  declined,  it  still  continued  an  important  military 
post,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  during  successive  wars. 
Caesar  having  bestowed  a  part  of  its  territory  on  his  supporter 
Sittius,  the  latter  introduced  a  Roman  settlement,  and  the  town 
for  a  time  was  known  as  Colonia  Sittianorum.  In  the  war  of 
Maxentius  against  Alexander,  the  Numidian  usurper,  it  was  laid 
in  ruins;  and  on  its  restoration  in  A.D.  313  by  Constantine  it 
received  the  name  which  it  still  retains.  It  was  not  captured 
during  the  Vandal  invasion  of  Africa,  but  on  the  conquest  by 
the  Arabians  (7th  century)  it  shared  the  same  fate  as  the 
surrounding  country.  Successive  Arab  dynasties  looted  it, 
and  many  monuments  of  antiquity  suffered  (to  be  finally  swept 
away  by  "  municipal  improvements  "  under  the  French  regime). 
During  the  i2th  century  it  was  still  a  place  of  considerable 
prosperity;  and  its  commerce  was  extensive  enough  to  attract 
the  merchants  of  Pisa,  Genoa  and  Venice.  Frequently  taken 
and  retaken  by  the  Turks,  Constantine  finally  became  under 
their  dominion  the  seat  of  a  bey,  subordinate  to  the  dey  of 
Algiers.  To  Salah  Bey,  who  ruled  from  1770  to  1792,  we  owe 
most  of  the  existing  Moslem  buildings.  In  1826  Constantine 
asserted  its  independence  of  the  dey  of  Algiers,  and  was  governed 
by  Haji  Ahmed,  the  choice  of  the  Kabyles.  In  1836  the  French 
under  Marshal  Clausel  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  storm 
the  city,  which  they  attacked  by  night  by  way  of  El-Kantara. 
The  French  suffered  heavy  loss.  In  .1837  Marshal  Valee 
approached  the  town  by  the  connecting  western  isthmus, 
and  succeeded  in  taking  it  by  assault,  though  again  the  French 
lost  heavily.  Ahmed,  however,  escaped  and  maintained  his 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


independence  in  the  Aures  mountains.  He  submitted  to  the 
French  in  1848  and  died  in  1850. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  empire, 
situated  in  41°  o'  16"  N.  and  28°  58'  14'  E.  The  city  stands  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Bosporus,  upon  a  hilly  promontory 
that  runs  out  from  the  European  or  western  side  of  the  straits 
towards  the  opposite  Asiatic  bank,  as  though  to  stem  the  rush 
of  waters  from  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  Thus 
the  promontory  has  the  latter  sea  on  the  south,  and  the  bay  of 
the  Bosporus,  forming  the  magnificent  harbour  known  as  the 
Golden  Horn,  some  4  m.  long,  on  the  north.  Two  streams,  the 
Cydaris  and  Barbysus  of  ancient  days,  the  Ali-Bey-Su  and 
Kiahat-Hane-Su  of  modern  times,  enter  the  bay  at  its  north- 
western end.  A  small  winter  stream,  named  the  Lycus,  that 
flows  through  the  promontory  from  west  to  south-east  into  the 
Sea  of  Marmora,  breaks  the  hilly  ground  into  two  great  masses, — 
a  long  ridge,  divided  by  cross-valleys  into  six  eminences,  over- 
hanging the  Golden  Horn,  and  a  large  isolated  hill  constituting 
the  south-western  portion  of  the  territory.  Hence  the  claim  of 
Constantinople  to  be  enthroned,  like  Rome,  upon  seven  hills. 
The  ist  hill  is  distinguished  by  the  Seraglio,  St  Sophia  and  the 
Hippodrome;  the  2nd  by  the  column  of  Constantine  and 
the  mosque  Nuri-Osmanieh;  the  3rd  by  the  war  office,  the 
Seraskereate  Tower  and  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Suleiman;  the 
4th  by  the  mosque  of-  Sultan  Mahommed  II.,  the  Conqueror; 
the  5th  by  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Selim;  the  6th  by  Tekfour 
Serai  and  the  quarter  of  Egri  Kapu;  the  7th  by  Avret  Tash 
and  the  quarter  of  Psamatia.  In  Byzantine  times  the  two  last 
hills  were  named  respectively  the  hill  of  Blachernae  and  the 
Xerolophos  or  dry  hill. 

History,  Architecture  and  Antiquities. — Constantinople  is 
famous  in  history,  first  as  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
the  East  for  more  than  eleven  centuries  (330-1453),  and  secondly 
as  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire  since  1453.  In  respect 
of  influence  over  the  course  of  human  affairs,  its  only  rivals  are 
Athens,  Rome  and  Jerusalem.  Yet  even  the  gifts  of  these 
rivals  to  the  cause  of  civilization  often  bear  the  image  and 
superscription  of  Constantinople  upon  them.  Roman  law, 
Greek  literature,  the  theology  of  the  Christian  church,  for 
example,  are  intimately  associated  with  the  history  of  the  city 
beside  the  Bosporus. 

The  city  was  founded  by  Constantine  the  Great,  through  the 
enlargement  of  the  old  town  of  Byzantium,  in  A.D.  328,  and  was 
inaugurated  as  a  new  seat  of  government  on  the  nth  of  May, 
A.D.  330.  To  indicate  its  political  dignity,  it  was  named  New 
Rome,  while  to  perpetuate  the  fame  -of  its  founder  it  was  styled 
Constantinople.  The  chief  patriarch  of  the  Greek  church  still 
signs  himself  "  archbishop  of  Constantinople,  New  Rome." 
The  old  name  of  the  place,  Byzantium,  however,  continued 
in  use. 

The  creation  of  a  new  capital  by  Constantine  was  not  an  act 
of  personal  caprice  or  individual  judgment.  It  was  the  result 
of  causes  long  in  operation,  and  had  been  foreshadowed,  forty 
years  before,  in  the  policy  of  Diocletian.  After  the  senate  and 
people  of  Rome  had  ceased  to  be  the  sovereigns  of  the  Roman 
world,  and  their  authority  had  been  vested  in  the  sole  person 
of  the  emperor,  the  eternal  city  could  no  longer  claim  to  be  the 
rightful  throne  of  the  state.  That  honour  could  henceforth  be 
conferred  upon  any  place  in  the  Roman  world  which  might  suit 
the  convenience  of  the  emperor,  or  serve  more  efficiently  the 
interests  he  had  to  guard.  Furthermore,  the  empire  was  now 
upon  its  defence.  Dreams  of  conquests  and  extension  had  long 
been  abandoned,  and  the  pressing  question  of  the  time  was  how 
to  repel  the  persistent  assaults  of  Persia  and  the  barbarians  upon 
the  frontiers  of  the  realm,  and  so  retain  the  dominion  inherited 
from  the  valour  of  the  past.  The  size  of  the  empire  made  it 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  attend  to  these  assaults,  or  to  control 
the  ambition  of  successful  generals,  from  one  centre.  Then  the 
East  had  grown  in  political  importance,  both  as  the  scene  of  the 
most  active  life  in  the  state  and  as  the  portion  of  the  empire 
most  exposed  to  attack.  Hence  the  famous  scheme  of  Diocletian 
to  divide  the  burden  of  government  between  four  colleagues,  in 


order  to  secure  a  better  administration  of  civil  and  of  military 
affairs.  It  was  a  scheme,  however,  that  lowered  the  prestige 
of  Rome,  for  it  involved  four  distinct  seats  of  government,  among 
which,  as  the  event  proved,  no  place  was  found  for  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Roman  world.  It  also  declared  the  high  position 
of  the  East,  by  the  selection  of  Nicomedia  in  Asia  Minor  as  the 
residence  of  Diocletian  himself.  When  Constantine,  therefore, 
established  a  new  seat  of  government  at  Byzantium,  he  adopted 
a  policy  inaugurated  before  his  day  as  essential  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Roman  dominion.  He  can  claim  originality  only  in 
his  choice  of  the  particular  point  at  which  that  seat  was  placed, 
and  in  his  recognition  of  the  fact  that  his  alliance  with  the 
Christian  church  could  be  best  maintained  in  a  new  atmosphere. 

But  whatever  view  may  be  taken  of  the  policy  which  divided 
the  government  of  the  empire,  there  can  be  no  dispute  as  to  the 
widsom  displayed  in  the  selection  of  the  site  for  a  new  imperial 
throne.  "  Of  all  the  events  of  Constantine's  life,"  says  Dean 
Stanley,  "  this  choice  is  the  most  convincing  and  enduring  proof 
of  his  real  genius."  Situated  where  Europe  and  Asia  are  parted 
by  a  channel  never  more  than  5  m.  across,  and  sometimes 
less  than  half  a  mile  wide,  placed  at  a  point  commanding  the 
great  waterway  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black 
Sea,  the  position  affords  immense  scope  for  commercial  enterprise 
and  political  action  in  rich  and  varied  regions  of  the  world.  The 
least  a  city  in  that  situation  can  claim  as  its  appropriate  sphere 
of  influence  is  the  vast  domain  extending  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  from  the  Danube  to  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean. Moreover,  the  site  constituted  a  natural  citadel, 
difficult  to  approach  or  to  invest,  and  an  almost  impregnable 
refuge  in  the  hour  of  defeat,  within  which  broken  forces  might 
rally  to  retrieve  disaster.  To  surround  it,  an  enemy  required 
to  be  strong  upon  both  land  and  sea.  Foes  advancing  through 
Asia  Minor  would  have  their  march  arrested,  and  their  blows 
kept  beyond  striking  distance,  by  the  moat  which  the  waters 
of  the  Bosporus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Dardanelles 
combine  to  form.  The  narrow  straits  in  which  the  waterway 
connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Black  Sea  contracts, 
both  to  the  north  and  to  the  south  of  the  city,  could  be  rendered 
impassable  to  hostile  fleets  approaching  from  either  direction, 
while  on  the  landward  side  the  line  of  defence  was  so  short  that 
it  could  be  strongly  fortified,  and  held  against  large  numbers 
by  a  comparatively  small  force.  Nature,  indeed,  cannot  relieve 
men  of  their  duty  to  be  wise  and  brave,  but,  in  the  marvellous 
configuration  of  land  and  sea  about  Constantinople,  nature  has 
done  her  utmost  to  enable  human  skill  and  courage  to  establish 
there  the  splendid  and  stable  throne  of  a  great  empire. 

Byzantium,  out  of  which  Constantinople  sprang,  was  a  small, 
well-fortified  town,  occupying  most  of  the  territory  comprised 
in  the  two  hills  nearest  the  head  of  the  promontory,  and  in  the 
level  ground  at  their  base.  The  landward  wall  started  from  a 
point  near  the  present  Stamboul  custom-house,  and  reached  the 
ridge  of  the  2nd  hill,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  point  marked  by 
Chemberli  Tash  (the  column  of  Constantine) .  There  the  principal 
gate  of  the  town  opened  upon  the  Egnatian  road.  From  that 
gate  the  wall  descended  towards  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  touching 
the  water  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Seraglio  lighthouse.  The 
Acropolis,  enclosing  venerated  temples,  crowned  the  summit  of 
the  first  hill,  where  the  Seraglio  stands.  Immediately  to  the 
south  of  the  fortress  was  the  principal  market-place  of  the  town , 
surrounded  by  porticoes  on  its  four  sides,  and  hence  named  the 
Tetrastoon.  On  the  southern  side  of  the  square  stood  the  baths 
of  Zeuxippus,  and  beyond  them,  still  farther  south,  lay  the 
Hippodrome,  which  Septimius  Severus  had  undertaken  to  build 
but  failed  to  complete.  Two  theatres,  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Acropolis,  faced  the  bright  waters  of  the  Marmora,  and  a 
stadium  was  found  on  the  level  tract  on  the  other  side  of  the  hill, 
close  to  the  Golden  Horn.  The  Strategion,  devoted  to  the 
military  exercises  of  the  brave  little  town,  stood  close  to  Sirkedji 
Iskelessi,  and  two  artificial  harbours,  the  Portus  Prosforianus 
and  the  Neorion,  indented  the  shore  of  the  Golden  Horn,  re- 
spectively in  front  of  the  ground  now  occupied  by  the  station  of 
the  Chemins  de  Fer  Orientaux  and  the  Stamboul  custom-house. 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


CONSTANTINOPLE 

Scale,  1:46,000 
One  Statute  Mile 


Ancient  sites  are  shown  by  thick  lines 
and  lettered  thus:-  ........  Hippodrome 


Wall  of  Byzantium..,  _____  _--.-., 

of  Constantine  ......  _*.»«** 

Byzantine  Walls  ...........  ,. 


M    0     R    A 


A  graceful  granite  column,  still  erect  on  the  slope  above  the  head 
of  the  promontory,  commemorated  the  victory  of  Claudius 
Gothicus  over  the  Goths  at  Nissa,  A.D.  269.  All  this  furniture 
of  Byzantium  was  appropriated  for  the  use  of  the  new  capital. 

According  to  Zosimus,  the  line  of  the  landward  walls  erected 
by  Constantine  to  defend  New  Rome  was  drawn  at  a  distance  of 
nearly  am.  (15  stadia)  to  the  west  of  the  limits  of  the  old  town. 
It  therefore  ran  across  the  promontory  from  the  vicinity  of  Un 
Kapan  Kapusi  (Porta  Platea),  at  the  Stamboul  head  of  the 
Inner  Bridge,  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Baud  Pasha  Kapusi 
(Porta  S.  Aemiliani),  on  the  Marmora,  and  thus  added  the  3rd 
and  4th  hills  and  portions  of  the  5th  and  7th  hills  to  the  territory 
of  Byzantium.  We  have  two  indications  of  the  course  of  these 
walls  on  the  yth  hill.  One  is  found  in  the  name  Isa  Kapusi  (the 
Gate  of  Jesus)  attached  to  a  mosque,  formerly  a  Christian  church, 
situated  above  the  quarter  of  Psamatia.  It  perpetuates  the 
memory  of  the  beautiful  gateway  which  formed  the  triumphal 
entrance  into  the  city  of  Constantine,  and  which  survived  the 
original  bounds  of  the  new  capital  as  late  as  1508,  when  it  was 
overthrown  by  an  earthquake.  The  other  indication  is  the  name 
Alti  Mermer  (the  six  columns)  given  to  a  quarter  in  the  same 
neighbourhood.  The  name  is  an  ignorant  translation  of  Exa- 
kionion,  the  corrupt  form  of  the  designation  Exokionion,  which 
belonged  in  Byzantine  days  to  that  quarter  because  marked  by 
a  column  outside  the  city  limits.  Hence  the  Arians,  upon  their 
expulsion  from  the  city  by  Theodosius  I.,  were  allowed  to  hold 


their  religious  services  in  the  Exokionion,  seeing  that  it  was  an 
extra-mural  district.  This  explains  the  fact  that  Arians  are 
sometimes  styled  Exokionitae  by  ecclesiastical  historians. 
The  Constantinian  line  of  fortifications,  therefore,  ran  a  little 
to  the  east  of  the  quarter  of  Alti  Mermer.  In  addition  to  the 
territory  enclosed  within  the  limits  just  described,  the  suburb 
of  Sycae  or  Galata,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Golden  Horn, 
and  the  suburb  of  Blachernae,  on  the  6th  hill,  were  regarded 
as  parts  of  the  city,  but  stood  within  their  own  fortifications. 
It  was  to  the  ramparts  of  Constantine  that  the  city  owed  its 
deliverance  when  attacked  by  the  Goths,  after  the  terrible 
defeat  of  Valens  at  Adrianople,  A.D.  378. 

In  the  opinion  of  his  courtiers,  the  bounds  assigned  to  New 
Rome  by  Constantine  seemed,  it  is  said,  too  wide,  but  after 
some  eighty  years  they  proved  too  narrow  for  the  population 
that  had  gathered  within  the  city.  The  barbarians  had  meantime 
also  grown  more  formidable,  and  this  made  it  necessary  to  have 
stronger  fortifications  for  the  capital.  Accordingly,  in  413,  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.,  Anthemius,  then  praetorian  prefect 
of  the  East  and  regent,  enlarged  and  refortified  the  cit>  by  the 
erection  of  the  wall  which  forms  the  innermost  line  of  defence  in 
the  bulwarks  whose  picturesque  ruins  now  stretch  from  the  Sea 
of  Marmora,  on  the  south  of  Yedi  Kuleh  (the  seven  towers), 
northwards  to  the  old  Byzantine  palace  of  the  Porphyrogenitus 
(Tekfour  Serai),  above  the  quarter  of  Egri  Kapu.  There  the  new 
works  joined  the  walls  of  the  suburb  of  Blachernae,  and  thus 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


protected  the  city  on  the  west  down  to  the  Golden  Horn.  Some- 
what later,  in  439,  the  walls  along  the  Marmora  and  the  Golden 
Horn  were  brought,  by  the  prefect  Cyrus,  up  to  the  extremities 
of  the  new  landward  walls,  and  thus  invested  the  capital  in 
complete  armour.  Then  also  Constantinople  attained  its  final 
size.  For  any  subsequent  extension  of  the  city  limits  was 
insignificant,  and  was  due  to  strategic  considerations.  In  447 
the  wall  of  Anthemius  was  seriously  injured  by  one  of  those 
earthquakes  to  which  the  city  is  liable.  The  disaster  was  all 
the  more  grave,  as  the  Huns  under  Attila  were  carrying  every- 
thing before  them  in  the  Balkan  lands.  The  dcsperateness  of 
the  situation,  however,  roused  the  government  of  Theodosius  II., 
who  was  still  upon  the  throne,  to  put  forth  the  most  energetic 
efforts  to  meet  the  emergency.  If  we  may  trust  two  contem- 
porary inscriptions,  one  Latin,  the  other  Greek,  still  found  on 
the  gate  Yeni  Mevlevi  Khaneh  Kapusi  (Porta  Rhegium),  the 
capital  was  again  fully  armed,  and  rendered  more  secure  than 
ever,  by  the  prefect  Constantine,  in  less  than  two  months.  Not 
only  was  the  wall  of  Anthemius  restored,  but,  at  the  distance 
of  20  yds.,  another  wall  was  built  in  front  of  it,  and  at  the 
same  distance  from  this  second  wall  a  broad  moat  was  con- 
structed with  a  breastwork  along  its  inner  edge.  Each  wall 
was  flanked  by  ninety-six  towers.  According  to  some  authorities, 
the  moat  was  flooded  during  a  siege  by  opening  the  aqueducts, 
which  crossed  the  moat  at  intervals  and  conveyed  water  into 
the  city  in  time  of  peace.  This  opinion  is  extremely  doubtful. 
But  in  any  case,  here  was  a  barricade  190-207  ft.  thick,  and 
loo  ft.  high,  with  its  several  parts  rising  tier  above  tier  to  permit 
concerted  action,  and  alive  with  large  bodies  of  troops  ready  to 
pour,  from  every  coign  of  vantage,  missiles  of  death — arrows, 
stones,  Greek  fire — upon  a  foe.  It  is  not  strange  that  these 
fortifications  defied  the  assaults  of  barbarism  upon  the  civilized 
life  of  the  world  for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  As  might  be 
expected,  the  walls  demanded  frequent  restoration  from  time 
to  time  in  the  course  of  their  long  history.  Inscriptions  upon 
them  record  repairs,  for  example,  under  Justin  II.,  Leo  the 
Isaurian,  Basil  II.,  John  Palaeologus,  and  others.  Still,  the 
ramparts  extending  now  from  the  Marmora  to  Tekfour  Serai 
are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  ruins  of  the  Theodosian  walls 
of  the  sth  century. 

This  is  not  the  case  in  regard  to  the  other  parts  of  the  fortifica- 
tions of  the  city.  The  walls  along  the  Marmora  and  the  Golden 
Horn  represent  the  great  restoration  of  the  seaward  defences 
of  the  capital  carried  out  by  the  emperor  Theophilus  in  the  gth 
century;  while  the  walls  between  Tekfour  Serai  and  the  Golden 
Horn  were  built  long  after  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.,  super- 
seding the  defences  of  that  quarter  of  the  city  in  his  day,  and 
relegating  them,  as  traces  of  their  course  to  the  rear  of  the  later 
works  indicate,  to  the  secondary  office  of  protecting  the  palace 
of  Blachernae.  In  627  Heraclius  built  the  wall  along  the  west 
of  the  quarter  of  Aivan  Serai,  in  order  to  bring  the  level  tract  at 
the  foot  of  the  6th  hill  within  the  city  bounds,  and  shield  the 
church  of  Blachernae,  which  had  been  exposed  to  great  danger 
during  the  siege  of  the  city  by  the  Avars  in  that  year.  In  813 
Leo  V.  the  Armenian  built  the  wall  which  stands  in  front  of  the 
wall  of  Heraclius  to  strengthen  that  point  in  view  of  an  expected 
attack  by  the  Bulgarians. 

The  splendid  wall,  flanked  by  nine  towers,  that  descends  from 
the  court  of  Tekfour  Serai  to  the  level  tract  below  Egri  Kapu, 
was  built  by  Manuel  Comnenus  (1143-1180)  for  the  greater 
security  of  the  part  of  the  city  in  which  stood  the  palace  of 
Blachernae,  then  the  favourite  imperial  residence.  Lastly, 
the  portion  of  the  fortifications  between  the  wall  of  Manuel 
and  the  wall  of  Heraclius  presents  too  many  problems  to  be 
discussed  here.  Enough  to  say,  that  in  it  we  find  work  belonging 
to  the  times  of  the  Comneni,  Isaac  Angelus  and  the  Palaeologi. 

If  we  leave  out  of  account  the  attacks  upon  the  city  in  the 
course  of  the  civil  wars  between  rival  parties  in  the  empire,  the 
fortifications  of  Constantinople  were  assailed  by  the  Avars  in 
627;  by  the  Saracens  in  673-677,  and  again  in  718;  by  the 
Bulgarians  in  813  and  913;  by  the  forces  of  the  Fourth  Crusade 
in  1203-1204;  by  the  Turks  in  1422  and  1453.  The  city  was 


taken  in  1204,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  Latin  empire  until  1261, 
when  it  was  recovered  by  the  Greeks.  On  the  zpth  of  May  1453 
Constantinople  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire 
in  the  East,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  dominion. 

The  most  noteworthy  points  in  the  circuit  of  the  walls  of  the 
city  are  the  following,  (i)  The  Golden  gate,  now  included  in 
the  Turkish  fortress  of  Yedi  Kuleh.  It  is  a  triumphal  archway, 
consisting  of  three  arches,  erected  in  honour  of  the  victory  of 
Theodosius  I.  over  Maximus  in  388,  and  subsequently  incorpor- 
ated in  the  walls  of  Theodosius  II.,  as  the  state  entrance  of  the 
capital.  (2)  The  gate  of  Selivria,  or  of  the  Pege,  through  which 
Alexius  Strategopoulos  made  his  way  into  the  city  in  1261,  and 
brought  the  Latin  empire  of  Constantinople  to  an  end.  (3)  The 
gate  of  St  Romanus  (Top  Kapusi),  by  which,  in  1453,  Sultan 
Mahommed  entered  Constantinople  after  the  fall  of  the  city 
into  Turkish  hands.  (4)  The  great  breach  made  in  the  ramparts 
crossing  the  valley  of  the  Lycus,  the  scene  of  the  severest 
fighting  in  the  siege  of  1453,  where  the  Turks  stormed  the  city, 
and  the  last  Byzantine  emperor  met  his  heroic  death.  (5)  The 
palace  of  the  Porphyrogenitus,long  erroneously  identified  with  the 
palace  of  the  Hebdomon,  which  really  stood  at  Makrikeui.  It  is 
the'finest  specimen  of  Byzantine  civil  architecture  left  in  the  city. 
(6)  The  tower  of  Isaac  Angelus  and  the  tower  of  Anemas,  with 
the  chambers  in  the  body  of  the  wall  to  the  north  of  them.  (7) 
The  wall  of  Leo,  against  which  the  troops  of  the  Fourth  Crusade 
came,  in  1203,  from  their  camp  on  the  hill  opposite  the  wall,  and 
delivered  their  chief  attack.  (8)  The  walls  protecting  the  quarter 
of  Phanar,  which  the  army  and  fleet  of  the  Fourth  Crusade  under 
the  Venetian  doge  Henrico  Dandolo  carried  in  1204.  (9)  Yali 
Kiosk  Kapusi,  beside  which  the  southern  end  of  the  chain  drawn 
across  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  during  a  siege  was  attached. 
(10)  The  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Hormisdas,  near  Chatladi  Kapu, 
once  the  residence  of  Justinian  the  Great  and  Theodora.  It 
was  known  in  later  times  as  the  palace  of  the  Bucoleon,  and  was 
the  scene  of  the  assassination  of  Nicephorus  Phocas.  (n)  The 
sites  of  the  old  harbours  between  Chatladi  Kapu  and  Baud 
Pasha  Kapusi.  (12)  The  fine  marble  tower  near  the  junction 
of  the  walls  along  the  Marmora  with  the  landward  walls. 

The  interior  arrangements  of  the  city  were  largely  determined 
by  the  configuration  of  its  site,  which  falls  into  three  great  divi- 
sions,— the  level  ground  and  slopes  looking  towards  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  the  range  of  hills  forming  the  midland  portion  of  the 
promontory,  and  the  slopes  and  level  ground  facing  the  Golden 
Horn.  In  each  division  a  great  street  ran  through  the  city  from 
east  to  west,  generally  lined  with  arcades  on  one  side,  but  with 
arcades  on  both  sides  when  traversing  the  finer  and  busier 
quarters.  The  street  along  the  ridge  formed  the  principal 
thoroughfare,  and  was  named  the  Mese  (Mem;),  because  it  ran 
through  the  middle  of  the  city.  On  reaching  the  west  of  the 
3rd  hill,  it  divided  into  two  branches,  one  leading  across  the  7th 
hill  to  the  Golden  gate,  the  other  conducting  to  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Apostles,  and  the  gate  of  Charisius  (Edirneh  Kapusi). 
The  Mese  linked  together  the  great  fora  of  the  city, — the  Augus- 
taion  on  the  south  of  St  Sophia,  the  forum  of  Constantine  on  the 
summit  of  the  2nd  hill,  the  forum  of  Theodosius  I.  or  of  Taurus 
on  the  summit  of  the  3rd  hill,  the  forum  of  Amastrianon  where  the 
mosque  of  Shah  Zad6h  is  situated,  the  forum  of  the  Bous  at  Ak 
Serai,  and  the  forum  of  Arcadius  or  Theodosius  II.  on  the  summit 
of  the  7th  hill.  This  was  the  route  followed  on  the  occasion  of 
triumphal  processions. 

Of  the  edifices  and  monuments  which  adorned  the  fora,  only  a 
slight  sketch  can  be  given  here.  On  the  north  side  of  the 
Augustaion  rose  the  church  of  St  Sophia,  the  most  glorious 
cathedral  of  Eastern  Christendom;  opposite,  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  square,  was  the  Chalc6,  the  great  gate  of  the  imperial 
palace;  on  the  east  was  the  senate  house,  with  a  porch  of  six 
noble  columns;  to  the  west,  across  the  Mese,  were  the  law 
courts.  In  the  area  of  the  square  stood  the  Milion,  whence  dis- 
tances from  Constantinople  were  measured,  and  a  lofty  column 
which  bore  the  equestrian  statue  of  Justinian  the  Great.  There 
also  was  the  statue  of  the  empress  Eudoxia,  famous  in  the  history 
of  Chrysostom,  the  pedestal  of  which  is  preserved  near  the  church 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


of  St  Irene.  The  Augustaion  was  the  heart  of  the  city's  ecclesi- 
astical and  political  life.  The  forum  of  Constantine  was  a  great 
business  centre.  Its  most  remarkable  monument  was  the  column 
of  Constantine,  built  of  twelve  drums  of  porphyry  and  bearing 
aloft  his  statue.  Shorn  of  much  of  its  beauty,  the  column  still 
stands  to  proclaim  the  enduring  influence  of  the  foundation  of 
the  city. 

In  the  forum  of  Theodosius  I.  rose  a  column  in  his  honour, 
constructed  on  the  model  of  the  hollow  columns  of  Trajan  and 
Marcus  Aurelius  at  Rome.  There  also  was  the  Anemodoulion, 
a  beautiful  pyramidal  structure,  surmounted  by  a  vane  to  indicate 
the  direction  of  the  wind.  Close  to  the  forum,  if  not  in  it,  was  the 
capitol,  in  which  the  university  of  Constantinople  was  estab- 
lished. The  most  conspicuous  object  in  the  forum  of  the  Bous 
was  the  figure  of  an  ox,  in  bronze,  beside  which  the  bodies  of 
criminals  were  sometimes  burnt.  Another  hollow  column,  the 
pedestal  of  which  is  now  known  as  Avret  Tash,  adorned  the 
forum  of  Arcadius.  A  column  in  honour  of  the  emperor  Marcian 
still  stands  in  the  valley  of  the  Lycus,  below  the  mosque  of 
Sultan  Mahommed  the  Conqueror.  Many  beautiful  statues, 
belonging  to  good  periods  of  Greek  and  Roman  art,  decorated 
the  fora,  streets  and  public  buildings  of  the  city,  but  conflagra- 
tions and  the  vandalism  of  the  Latin  and  Ottoman  conquerors 
of  Constantinople  have  robbed  the  world  of  those  treasures. 

The  imperial  palace,  founded  by  Constantine  and  extended 
by  his  successors,  occupied  the  territory  which  lies  to  the  east 
of  St  Sophia  and  the  Hippodrome  down  to  the  water's  edge. 
It  consisted  of  a  large  number  of  detached  buildings,  in  grounds 
made  beautiful  with  gardens  and  trees,  and  commanding  magnifi- 
cent views  over  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  across  to  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains of  the  Asiatic  coast.  The  buildings  were  mainly  grouped 
in  three  divisions — the  Chalce,  the  Daphne  and  the  "  sacred 
palace."  Labarte  and  Paspates  have  attempted  to  reconstruct 
the  palace,  taking  as  their  guide  the  descriptions  given  of  it  by 
Byzantine  writers.  The  work  of  Labarte  is  specially  valuable, 
but  without  proper  excavations  of  the  site  all  attempts  to 
restore  the  plan  of  the  palace  with  much  accuracy  lack  a  solid 
foundation.  With  the  accession  of  Alexius  Comnenus,  the  palace 
of  Blachernae,  at  the  north-western  corner  of  the  city,  became 
the  principal  residence  of  the  Byzantine  court,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence extended  and  embellished.  It  stood  in  a  more  retired 
position,  and  was  conveniently  situated  for  excursions  into 
the  country  and  hunting  expeditions.  Of  the  palaces  outside  the 
walls,  the  most  frequented  were  the  palace  at  the  Hebdomon, 
now  Makrikeui,  in  the  early  days  of  the  Empire,  and  the  palace 
of  the  Pege,  now  Balukli,  a  short  distance  beyond  the  gate  of 
Selivria,  in  later  times.  For  municipal  purposes,  the  city  was 
divided,  like  Rome,  into  fourteen  Regions. 

As  the  seat  of  the  chief  prelate  of  Eastern  Christendom, 
Constantinople  was  characterized  by  a  strong  theological  and 
ecclesiastical  temperament.  It  was  full  of  churches  and  mona- 
steries, enriched  with  the  reputed  relics  of  saints,  prophets  and 
martyrs,  which  consecrated  it  a  holy  city  and  attracted  pilgrims 
from  every  quarter  to  its  shrines.  It  was  the  meeting-place  of 
numerous  ecclesiastical  councils,  some  of  them  ecumenical  (see 
below,  CONSTANTINOPLE,  COUNCILS  or).  It  was  likewise  dis- 
tinguished for  its  numerous  charitable  institutions.  Only  some 
twenty  of  the  old  churches  of  the  city  are  left.  Most  of  them  have 
been  converted  into  mosques,  but  they  are  valuable  monuments 
of  the  art  which  flourished  in  New  Rome.  Among  the  most 
interesting  are  the  following.  St  John  of  the  Studium  (Emir- 
Achor  Jamissi)  is  a  basilica  of  the  middle  of  the  sth  century, 
and  the  oldest  ecclesiastical  fabric  in  the  city;  it  is  now,  un- 
fortunately, almost  a  complete  ruin.  SS.  Sergius  and  Bacchus 
(Kutchuk  Aya  Sofia)  and  St  Sophia  are  erections  of  Justinian 
the  Great.  The  former  is  an  example  of  a  dome  placed  on  an 
octagonal  structure,  and  in  its  general  plan  is  similar  to  the  con- 
temporary church  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna.  St  Sophia  (i.e. 
'A.yia.2o<t>ia,  Holy  Wisdom)  is  the  glory  of  Byzantine  art,  and 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  in  the  world.  St  Mary 
Diaconissa  (Kalender  Jamissi)  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  work 
of  the  closing  years  of  the  6th  century.  St  Irene,  founded  by 


Constantine,  and  repaired  by  Justinian,  is  in  its  present  form 
mainly  a  restoration  by  Leo  the  Isaurian,  in  the  middle  of  the  Sth 
century.  St  Mary  Panachrantos  (Fenari  Isa  Mesjidi)  belongs 
to  the  reign  of  Leo  the  Wise  (886-91 2) .  The  Myrelaion  (Bodrum 
Jami)  dates  from  the  loth  century.  The  Pantepoptes  (Eski 
Imaret  Jamissi),  the  Pantocrator  (Zeirek  Kilisse  Jamissi),  and 
the  body  of  the  church  of  the  Chora  (Kahriyeh  Jamissi)  represent 
the  age  of  the  Comneni.  The  Pammacaristos  (Fetiyeh  Jamissi), 
St  Andrew  in  Krisei  (Khoja  Mustapha  Jamissi) ,  the  narthexes  and 
side  chapel  of  the  Chora  were,  at  least  in  their  present  form, 
erected  in  the  times  of  the  Palaeologi.  It  is  difficult  to  assign 
precise  dates  to  SS.  Peter  and  Mark  (Khoda  Mustapha  Jamissi 
at  Aivan  Serai),  St  Theodosia  (Gul  Jamissi),  St  Theodore  Tyrone 
(Kilisse  Jamissi).  The  beautiful  facade  of  the  last  is  later  than 
the  other  portions  of  the  church,  which  have  been  assigned 
to  the  9th  or  loth  century. 

For  the  thorough  study  of  the  church  of  St  Sophia,  the  reader 
must  consult  the  works  of  Fossati,  Salzenburg,  Lethaby  and 
Swainson,  and  Antoniadi.  The  present  edifice  was  built  by 
Justinian  the  Great,  under  the  direction  of  Anthemius  of  Tralles 
and  his  nephew  Isidorus  of  Miletus.  It  was  founded  in  532 
and  dedicated  on  Christmas  Day  538.  It  replaced  two  earlier 
churches  of  that  name,  the  first  of  which  was  built  by  Constantius 
and  burnt  down  in  404,  on  the  occasion  of  the  exile  of  Chrysostom, 
while  the  second  was  erected  by  Theodosius  II.  in  415,  and 
destroyed  by  fire  in  the  Nika  riot  of  532.  Naturally  the  church 
has  undergone  repair  from  time  to  time.  The  original  dome 
fell  in  558,  as  the  result  of  an  earthquake,  and  among  the  im- 
provements introduced  in  the  course  of  restoration,  the  dome 
was  raised  25  ft.  higher  than  before.  Repairs  are  recorded  under 
Basil  I.,  Basil  II.,  Andronicus  III.  and  Cantacuzene.  Since  the 
Turkish  conquest  a  minaret  has  been  erected  at  each  of  the 
four  exterior  angles  of  the  building,  and  the  interior  has  been 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  Moslem  worship,  mainly  by  the 
destruction  or  concealment  of  most  of  the  mosaics  which  adorned 
the  walls.  In  1847-1848,  during  the  reign  of  Abd-ul-Mejid, 
the  building  was  put  into  a  state  of  thorough  repair  by  the  Italian 
architect  Fossati.  Happily  the  sultan  allowed  the  mosaic  figures, 
then  exposed  to  view,  to  be  covered  with  matting  before  being 
plastered  over.  They  may  reappear  in  the  changes  which  the 
future  will  bring. 

The  exterior  appearance  of  the  church  is  certainly  disappoint- 
ing, but  within  it  is,  beyond  all  question,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
creations  of  human  art.  On  a  large  scale,  arid  in  magnificent 
style,  it  combines  the  attractive  features  of  a  basilica,  with  all  the 
glory  of  an  edifice  crowned  by  a  dome.  We  have  here  a  stately 
hall,  235  ft.  N.  and  S.,  by  250  ft.  E.  and  W.,  divided  by  two 
piers  and  eight  columns  on  either  hand  into  nave  and  aisles, 
with  an  apse  at  the  eastern  end  and  galleries  on  the  three  other 
sides.  Over  the  central  portion  of  the  nave,  a  square  area  at 
the  angles  of  which  stand  the  four  piers,  and  at  a  height  of  1 79  ft. 
above  the  floor,  spreads  a  dome,  107  ft.  in  diameter,  and  46 
ft.  deep,  its  base  pierced  by  forty  arched  windows.  From  the 
cornice  of  the  dome  stretches  eastwards  and  westwards  a  semi- 
dome,  which  in  its  turn  rests  upon  three  small  semi-domes. 
The  nave  is  thus  covered  completely  by  a  domical  canopy, 
which,  in  its  ascent,  swells  larger  and  larger,  mounts  higher  and 
higher,  as  though  a  miniature  heaven  rose  overhead.  For  light- 
ness, for  grace,  for  proportion,  the  effect  is  unrivalled.  The  walls 
of  the  building  are  reveted  with  marbles  of  various  hues  and 
patterns,  arranged  to  form  beautiful  designs,  and  traces  of  the 
mosaics  which  joined  the  marbles  in  the  rich  and  soft  coloration 
of  the  whole  interior  surface  of  the  building  appear  at  many 
points.  There  are  forty  columns  on  the  ground  floor  and  sixty 
in  the  galleries,  often  crowned  with  beautiful  capitals,  in  which 
the  monograms  of  the  emperor  Justinian  and  the  empress  Theo- 
dora are  inscribed.  The  eight  porphyry  columns,  placed  in  pairs 
in  the  four  bays  at  the  corners  of  the  nave,  belonged  originally 
to  the  temple  of  the  sun  at  Baalbek.  They  were  subsequently 
carried  to  Rome  by  Aurelian,  and  at  length  presented  to  Justinian 
by  a  lady  named  Marcia,  to  be  erected  in  this  church  "  for  the 
salvation  of  her  soul."  The  columns  of  verde  antique  on  either 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


side  of  the  nave  are  commonly  said  to  have  come  from  the  temple 
of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  but  recent  authorities  regard  them  as 
specially  cut  for  use  in  the  church.  The  inner  narthex  of  the 
church  formed  a  magnificent  vestibule  205  ft.  long  by  26  ft. 
wide,  reveted  with  marble  slabs  and  glowing  with  mosaics. 

The  citizens  of  Constantinople  found  their  principal  recreation 
in  the  chariot-races  held  in  the  Hippodrome,  now  the  At  Meidan, 
to  the  west  of  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Ahmed.  So  much  did  the 
race-course  (begun  by  Severus  but  completed  by  Constantine) 
enter  into  the  life  of  the  people  that  it  has  been  styled  "  the  axis 
of  the  Byzantine  world."  It  was  not  only  the  scene  of  amuse- 
ment, but  on  account  of  its  ample  accommodation  it  was  also 
the  arena  of  much  of  the  political  life  of  the  city.  The  factions, 
which  usually  contended  there  in  sport,  often  gathered  there 
in  party  strife.  There  emperors  were  acclaimed  or  insulted; 
there  military  triumphs  were  celebrated;  there  criminals  were 
executed,  and  there  martyrs  were  burned  at  the  stake.  Three 
monuments  remain  to  mark  the  line  of  the  Spina,  around  which 
the  chariots  whirled;  an  Egyptian  obelisk  of  Thothmes  III., 
on  a  pedestal  covered  with  bas-reliefs  representing  Theodosius  I., 
the  empress  Galla,  and  his  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  pre- 
siding at  scenes  in  the  Hippodrome;  the  triple  serpent  column, 
which  stood  originally  at  Delphi,  to  commemorate  the  victory  of 
Plataea  479  B.C.;  a  lofty  pile  of  masonry,  built  in  the  form  of 
an  obelisk,  and  once  covered  with  plates  of  gilded  bronze.  Under 
the  Turkish  buildings  along  the  western  side  of  the  arena,  some 
arches  against  which  seats  for  the  spectators  were  built  are  still 
visible. 

The  city  was  supplied  with  water  mainly  from  two  sources; 
from  the  streams  immediately  to  the  west,  and  from  the  springs 
and  rain  impounded  in  reservoirs  in  the  forest  of  Belgrade,  to 
the  north-west,  very  much  on  the  system  followed  by  the  Turks. 
The  water  was  conveyed  by  aqueducts,  concealed  below  the 
surface,  except  when  crossing  a  valley.  Within  the  city  the  water 
was  stored  in  covered  cisterns,  or  in  large  open  reservoirs.  The 
aqueduct  of  Justinian,  the  Crooked  aqueduct,  in  the  open  country, 
and  the  aqueduct  of  Valens  that  spans  the  valley  between  the 
4th  and  3rd  hills  of  the  city,  still  carry  on  their  beneficent  work, 
and  afford  evidence  of  the  attention  given  to  the  water-supply 
of  the  capital  during  the  Byzantine  period.  The  cistern  of 
Arcadius,  to  the  rear  of  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Selim  (having, 
ithasbeen  estimated,  a  capacity  of  6,571,720  cubic  ft.  of  water), 
the  cistern  of  Aspar,  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  the  gate  of 
Adrianople,  and  the  cistern  of  Mokius,  on  the  7th  hill,  are  speci- 
mens of  the  open  reservoirs  within  the  city  walls.  The  cistern 
of  Bin  Bir  Derek  (cistern  of  Illus)  with  its  224  columns,  each 
built  up  with  three  shafts,  and  the  cistern  Yeri  Batan  Serai 
(Cisterna  Basilica)  with  its  420  columns  show  what  covered 
cisterns  were,  on  a  grand  scale.  The  latter  is  still  in  use.1 

Byzantine  Constantinople  was  a  great  commercial  centre. 
To  equip  it  more  fully  for  that  purpose,  several  artificial  harbours 
were  constructed  along  the  southern  shore  of  the  city,  where 
no  natural  haven  existed  to  accommodate  ships  coming  up  the 
Sea  of  Marmora.  For  the  convenience  of  the  imperial  court, 
there  was  a  small  harbour  in  the  bend  of  the  shore  to  the  east 
of  Chatladi  Kapu,  known  as  the  harbour  of  the  Bucoleon.  To 
the  west  of  that  gate,  on  the  site  of  Kadriga  Limani  (the  Port 
of  the  Galley),  was  the  harbour  of  Julian,  or,  as  it  was  named 
later,  the  harbour  of  Sophia  (the  empress  of  Justin  II.).  Traces 
of  the  harbour  styled  the  Kontoscalion  are  found  at  Kum  Kapu. 
To  the  east  of  Yeni  Kapu  stood  the  harbour  of  Kaisarius  or  the 
Heptascalon,  while  to  the  west  of  that  gate  was  the  harbour 
which  bore  the  names  of  Eleutherius  and  of  Theodosiur  I.  A 
harbour  named  after  the  Golden  gate  stood  on  the  shore  to  the 
south-west  of  the  triumphal  gate  of  the  city. 

The  Modern  City. — As  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
the  aspect  of  the  city  changed  in  many  ways.  The  works  of 

'  For  full  information  on  the  subject  of  the  ancient  water-supply 
see  Count  A.  F.  Andreossy,  Constantinople  et  le  Bosphore ;  Tchikat- 
chev,  Le  Bosphore  et  Constantinople  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1865) ;  Forch- 
hcimer  and  Strzygowski,  Die  byzantinischen  Wasserbehdlter;  also 
article  AQUEDUCT. 


art  which  adorned  New  Rome  gradually  disappeared.  The 
streets,  never  very  wide,  became  narrower,  and  the  porticoes 
along  their  sides  were  almost  everywhere  removed.  A  multitude 
of  churches  were  destroyed,  and  most  of  those  which  survived 
were  converted  into  mosques.  In  race  and  garb  and  speech 
the  population  grew  largely  oriental.  One  striking  alteration 
in  the  appearance  of  the  city  was  the  conversion  of  the  territory 
extending  from  the  head  of  the  promontory  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  St  Sophia  into  a  great  park,  within  which  the  buildings 
constituting  the  seraglio  of  the  sultans,  like  those  forming  the 
palace  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  were  ranged  around  three 
courts,  distinguished  by  their  respective  gates — Bab-i-Humayum, 
leading  into  the  court  of  the  Janissaries;  Orta  Kapu,  the  middle 
gate,  giving  access  to  the  court  in  which  the  sultan  held  state 
receptions;  and  Bah-i-Saadet,  the  gate  of  Felicity,  leading  to 
the  more  private  apartments  of  the  palace.  From  the  reign  of 
Abd-ul-Mejid,  the  seraglio  has  been  practically  abandoned,  first 
for  the  palace  of  Dolmabagch6  on  the  shore  near  Beshiktash, 
and  now  for  Yildiz  Kiosk,  on  the  heights  above  that  suburb.  It 
is,  however,  visited  annually  by  the  sultan,  to  do  homage  to  the 
relics  of  the  prophet  which  are  kept  there.  The  older  apartments 
of  the  palace,  such  as  the  throne-room,  the  Bagdad  Kiosk,  and 
many  of  the  objects  in  the  imperial  treasury  are  of  extreme 
interest  to  all  lovers  of  oriental  art.  To  visit  the  seraglio,  an 
imperial  irade  is  necessary.  Another  great  change  in  the  general 
aspect  of  the  city  has  been  produced  by  the  erection  of  stately 
mosques  in  the  most  commanding  situations,  where  dome  and 
minarets  and  huge  rectangular  buildings  present  a  combination 
of  mass  and  slenderness,  of  rounded  lines  and  soaring  pinnacles, 
which  gives  to  Constantinople  an  air  of  unique  dignity  and  grace, 
and  at  the  same  time  invests  it  with  the  glamour  of  the  oriental 
world.  The  most  remarkable  mosques  are  the  following: — The 
mosque  of  Sultan  Mahommed  the  Conqueror,  built  on  the  site 
of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  in  1459,  but  rebuilt  in  1768 
owing  to  injuries  due  to  an  earthquake;  the  mosques  of  Sultan 
Selim,  of  the  Shah  Zadeh,  of  Sultan  Suleiman  and  of  Rustem 
Pasha — all  works  of  the  i6th  century,  the  best  period  of  Turkish 
architecture;  the  mosque  of  Sultan  Bayezid  II.  (1497-1505); 
the  mosque  of  Sultan  Ahmed  I.  (1610);  Yeni-Valide-Jamissi 
(1615-1665);  Nuri-Osmanieh  (1748-1755);  Laleli-Jamissi 
(1765).  The  Turbehs  containing  the  tombs  of  the  sultans  and 
members  of  their  families  are  often  beautiful  specimens  of 
Turkish  art. 

In  their  architecture,  the  mosques  present  a  striking  instance 
of  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  style,  especially  as  it  appears 
in  St  Sophia.  The  architects  of  the  mosques  have  made  a 
skilful  use  of  the  semi-dome  in  the  support  of  the  main  dome 
of  the  building,  and  in  the  consequent  extension  of  the  arched 
canopy  that  spreads  over  the  worshipper.  In  some  cases  the 
main  dome  rests  upon  four  semi-domes.  At  the  same  time, 
when  viewed  from  the  exterior,  the  main  dome  rises  large,  bold 
and  commanding,  with  nothing  of  the  squat  appearance  that 
mars  the  dome  of  St  Sophia,  with  nothing  of  the  petty  prettiness 
of  the  little  domes  perched  on  the  drums  of  the  later  Byzantine 
churches.  The  great  mosques  express  the  spirit  of  the  days 
when  the  Ottoman  empire  was  still  mighty  and  ambitious. 
Occasionally,  as  in  the  case  of  Lalelijamissi,  where  the  dome  rests 
upon  an  octagon  inscribed  in  a  square,  the  influence  of  SS. 
Sergius  and  Bacchus  is  perceptible. 

For  all  intents  and  purposes,  Constantinople  is  now  the 
collection  of  towns  and  villages  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Golden  Horn  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Bosporus,  including 
Scutari  and  Kadikeui.  But  the  principal  parts  of  this  great 
agglomeration  are  Stamboul  (from  Gr.  tk  rf>v  ic6\tv,  "  into 
the  city  "),  the  name  specially  applied  to  the  portion  of  the  city 
upon  the  promontory,  Galata  and  Pera.  Galata  has  a  long 
history,  which  becomes  of  general  interest  after  1265,  when  it 
was  assigned  to  the  Genoese  merchants  in  the  city  by  Michael 
Palaeologus,  in  return  for  the  friendly  services  of  Genoa  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  Latin  empire  of  Constantinople.  In  the  course 
of  time,  notwithstanding  stipulations  to  the  contrary,  the  town 
was  strongly  fortified  and  proved  a  troublesome  neighbour 


8 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


During  the  siege  of  1453  the  inhabitants  maintained  on  the  whole 
a  neutral  attitude,  but  on  the  fall  of  the  capital  they  surrendered 
to  the  Turkish  conqueror,  who  granted  them  liberal  terms.  The 
walls  have  for  the  most  part  been  removed.  The  noble  tower, 
however,  which  formed  the  citadel  of  the  colony,  still  remains, 
and  is  a  striking  feature  in  the  scenery  of  Constantinople.  There 
are  also  churches  and  houses  dating  from  Genoese  days.  Galata 
is  the  chief  business  centre  of  the  city,  the  seat  of  banks,  post- 
offices,  steamship  offices,  &c.  Pera  is  the  principal  residential 
quarter  of  the  European  communities  settled  in  Constantinople, 
where  the  foreign  embassies  congregate,  and  the  fashionable 
shops  and  hotels  are  found. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  ipth  century  the  city  has  yielded  more 
and  more  to  western  influences,  and  is  fast  losing  its  oriental 
character.  The  sultan's  palaces,  and  the  residences  of  all  classes 
of  the  community,  adopt  with  more  or  less  success  a  European 
style  of  building.  The  streets  have  been  widened  and.  named. 
They  are  in  many  instances  better  paved,  and  are  lighted  at 
night.  The  houses  are  numbered.  Cabs  and  tramways  have 
been  introduced.  Public  gardens  have  been  opened.  For  some 
distance  outside  the  Galata  bridge,  both  shores  of  the  Golden 
Horn  have  been  provided  with  a  quay  at  which  large  steamers 
can  moor  to  discharge  or  embark  their  passengers  and  cargo. 
The  Galata  quay,  completed  in  1889,  is  756  metres  long  and  20 
metres  wide;  the  Stamboul  quay,  completed  in  1900,  is  378 
metres  in  length.  The  harbour,  quays  and  facilities  for  handling 
merchandise,  which  have  been  established  at  the  head  of  the 
Anatolian  railway,  at  Haidar  Pasha,  under  German  auspices, 
would  be  a  credit  to  any  city.  Jt  is  true  that  most  of  these 
improvements  are  due  to  foreign  enterprise  and  serve  largely 
foreign  interests;  still  they  have  also  benefited  the  city,  and 
added  much  to  the  convenience  and  comfort  of  local  life.  There 
has  been  likewise  progress  in  other  than  material  respects. 
The  growth  of  the  imperial  museum  of  antiquities,  under  the 
direction  of  Hamdy  Bey,  within  the  grounds  of  the  Seraglio, 
has  been  remarkable;  and  while  the  collection  of  the  sarcophagi 
discovered  at  Sidon  constitutes  the  chief  treasure  of  the  museum, 
the  institution  has  become  a  rich  storehouse  of  many  other 
valuable  relics  of  the  past.  The  existence  of  a  school  of  art, 
where  painting  and  architecture  are  taught,  is  also  a  sign  of  new 
times.  A  school  of  handicrafts  flourishes  on  the  Sphendone 
of  the  Hippodrome.  The  fine  medical  school  between  Scutari 
and  Haidar  Pasha,  the  Hamidieh  hospital  for  children,  and  the 
asylum  for  the  poor,  tell  of  the  advance  of  science  and  humanity 
in  the  place. 

Considerable  attention  is  now  given  to  the  subject  of  education 
throughout  the  empire,  a  result  due  in  great  measure  to  the 
influence  of  the  American  and  French  schools  and  colleges 
established  in  the  provinces  and  at  the  capital.  More  than 
thirty  foreign  educational  institutions  flourish  in  Constantinople 
itself,  and  they  are  largely  attended  by  the  youth  belonging  to 
the  native  communities  of  the  country.  The  Greek  population 
is  provided  with  excellent  schools  and  gymnasia,  and  the 
Armenians  also  maintain  schools  of  a  high  grade.  The  Turkish 
government  itself  became,  moreover,  impressed  with  the  import- 
ance of  education,  and  as  a  consequence  the  whole  system  of 
public  instruction  for  the  Moslem  portion  of  the  population  was, 
during  the  reign  of  Sultan  Abd-ul-Hamid  II.,  more  widely 
extended  and  improved.  Beside  the  schools  of  the  old  type 
attached  to  the  mosques,  schools  of  a  better  class  were  estab- 
lished under  the  direct  control  of  the  minister  of  education, 
which,  although  open  to  improvement,  certainly  aimed  at  a 
higher  standard  than  that  reached  in  former  days.  The  progress 
of  education  became  noticeable  even  among  Moslem  girls.  The 
social  and  political  influence  of  this  intellectual  improvement 
among  the  various  communities  of  the  empire  soon  made  itself 
felt,  and  had  much  to  do  with  the  startling  success  of  the  con- 
stitutional revolution  carried  out,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Committee  of  Union  and  Progress,  in  the  autumn  of  1908. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  city  is  healthy,  but  relaxing. 
It  is  damp  and  liable  to  sudden  and  great  changes  of  temperature. 
The  winds  from  the  north  and  those  from  the  south  are  at 


constant  feud,  and  blow  cold  or  hot  in  the  most  capricious 
manner,  often  in  the  course  of  the  same  day.  "  There  are  two 
climates  at  Constantinople,  that  of  the  north  and  that  of  the 
south  wind."  The  winters  may  be  severe,  but  when  mild  they 
are  wet  and  not  invigorating.  In  summer  the  heat  is  tempered 
by  the  prevalence  of  a  north-east  wind  that  blows  down  the 
channel  of  the  Bosporus.  Observations  at  Constantinople  and 
at  Scutari  give  the  following  results,  for  a  period  of  twenty  years. 


Constantinople. 

Scutari. 

Mean  temperature     . 
Maximum        .... 
Minimum  
Rain      
Number  of  rainy  days     . 

57o7; 

99°  i' 

17°  2' 

28-3  in. 

112 

58°  i' 
103°  6' 
13*0' 
29-29  in. 
128-6 

The  sanitation  of  the  city  has  been  improved,  although  much 
remains  to  be  done  in  that  respect.  No  great  epidemic  has  visited 
the  city  since  the  outbreak  of  cholera  in  1866.  Typhoid  and 
pulmonary  diseases  are  common. 

Population. — The  number  of  the  population  of  the  city  is  an 
uncertain  figure,  as  no  accurate  statistics  can  be  obtained.  It 
is  generally  estimated  between  800,000  and  1,000,000.  The 
inhabitants  present  a  remarkable  conglomeration  of  different 
races,  various  nationalities,  divers  languages,  distinctive 
costumes  and  conflicting  faiths,  giving,  it  is  true,  a  singular 
interest  to  what  may  be  termed  the  human  scenery  of  the  city, 
but  rendering  impossible  any  close  social  cohesion,  or  the  de- 
velopment of  a  common  civic  life.  Constantinople  has  well  been 
described  as  "  a  city  not  of  one  nation  but  of  many,  and  hardly 
more  of  one  than  of  another."  The  following  figures  are  given 
as  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  size  of  the  communities 
which  compose  the  population. 

Moslems 
Greeks 


Greek  Latins 

Armenians  . 

Roman  Catholics  (native] 

Protestants  (native) 

Bulgarians  . 

Jews 

Foreigners   . 


384,910 

152,741 
1,082 

149,590 

6,442 

819 

4-377 

44,361 

129,243 

873,565 


Water-Supply. — Under  the  rule  of  the  sultans,  the  water- 
supply  of  the  city  has  been  greatly  extended.  The  reservoirs 
in  the  forest  of  Belgrade  have  been  enlarged  and  increased  in 
number,  and  new  aqueducts  have  been  added  to  those  erected 
by  the  Byzantine  emperors.  The  use  of  the  old  cisterns  within 
the  walls  has  been  almost  entirely  abandoned,  and  the  water  is 
led  to  basins  in  vaulted  chambers  (Taxim),  from  which  it  is 
distributed  by  underground  conduits  to  the  fountains  situated 
in  the  different  quarters  of  the  city.  From  these  fountains  the 
water  is  taken  to  a  house  by  water-carriers,  or,  in  the  case  of  the 
humbler  classes,  by  members  of  the  household  itself. 

For  the  supply  of  Pera,  Galata  and  Beshiktash,  Sultan 
Mahmud  I.  constructed,  in  1732,  four  bends  in  the  forest  of 
Belgrade,  N.N.W.  and  N.E.  of  the  village  of  Bagchekeui,  and 
the  fine  aqueduct  which  spans  the  head  of  the  valley  of  Buyuk- 
dere.  Since  1885,  a  French  company,  La  Compagnie  des  Eaux, 
has  rendered  a  great  service  by  bringing  water  to  Stamboul, 
Pera,  and  the  villages  on  the  European  side  of  the  Bosporus, 
from  Lake  Dercos,  which  lies  close  to  the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea 
some  29  m.  distant  from  the  city.  The  Dercos  water  is  laid 
on  in  many  houses.  Since  1893  a  German  company  has  supplied 
Scutari  and  Kadikeui  with  water  from  the  valley  of  the  Sweet 
Waters  of  Asia. 

Trade. — The  trade  of  the  city  has  been  unfavourably  affected 
by  the  political  events  which  have  converted  former  provinces 
of  the  Turkish  empire  into  autonomous  states,  by  the  develop- 
ment of  business  at  other  ports  of  the  empire,  owing  to  the 
opening  up  of  the  interior  country  through  the  construction  of 
railroads,  and  by  the  difficulties  which  the  government,  with 
the  view  of  preventing  political  agitation,  has  put  in  the  way  of 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  COUNCILS  OF 


easy  intercourse  by  natives  between  the  capital  and  the  provinces. 
Most  of  the  commerce  of  the  city  is  in  hands  of  foreigners  and  of 
Armenian  and  Greek  merchants.  Turks  have  little  if  anything 
to  do  with  trade  on  a  large  scale.  "  The  capital,  "  says  a  writer 
in  the  Konstanlinopler  Handelsblalt  of  November  1904,  "  pro- 
duces very  little  for  export,  and  its  hinterland  is  small,  extending 
on  the  European  side  only  a  few  kilometres — the  outlet  for  the 
fertile  Eastern  Rumelia  is  Dedeagach — and  on  the  Asiatic  side 
embracing  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Anatolian  railway 
district.  Even  part  of  this  will  be  lost  to  Constantinople  when 
the  Anatolian  railway  is  connected  with  the  port  of  Mersina 
and  with  the  Kassaba-Smyrna  railway.  Some  750  tons  of  the 
sweetmeat  known  as  '  Turkish  delight '  are  annually  exported 
to  the  United  Kingdom,  America  and  Rumelia;  embroideries, 
&c.,  are  sold  in  fair  quantities  to  tourists.  Otherwise  the  chief 
articles  of  Constantinople's  export  trade  consist  of  refuse  and 
waste  materials,  sheep's  wool  (called  Kassab  bashi)  and  skins 
from  the  slaughter-houses  (in  1903  about  3,000,000  skins  were 
exported,  mostly  to  America),  horns,  hoofs,  goat  and  horse  hair, 
guts,  bones,  rags,  bran,  old  iron,  &c.,  and  finally  dogs'  excre- 
ments, called  in  trade  '  pure,'  a  Constantinople  speciality,  which 
is  used  in  preparing  leather  for  ladies'  gloves.  From  the  hinter- 
land comes  mostly  raw  produce  such  as  grain,  drugs,  wool,  silk, 
ores  and  also  carpets.  The  chief  article  is  grain." 

The  average  value  of  the  goods  passing  through  the  port  of 
Constantinople  at  the  opening  of  the  2bth  century  was  estimated 
at  about  £  T  1 1 ,000,000.  From  the  imperfect  statistics  available, 
the  following  tables  of  the  class  of  goods  imported  and  exported, 
and  their  respective  values,  were  drawn  up  in  1901  by  the  late 
Mr  Whittaker,  The  Times  correspondent/ 


Imports. 
Manufactured  goods  (cotton,  woollen 

silk,  &c.) 

Haberdashery  ironmongery 
Sugar 
Petroleum 
Flour 
Coffee 
Rice 
Cattle 
Various 


£T»  3,500,000 
90,000 
500,000 
400,000 
400,000 
300,000 
250,000 
100,000 
850,000 


Total    .     £T  7,000,000 


Cereals     . 
Mohair     . 
Carpets    . 
Silk  and  cocoons     . 
Opium 
Gum  tragacanth     . 
Wool 

Hides 
Various     . 

Exports. 

£T  i, 000,000 
800,000 
700,000 
500,000 
400,000 
150,000 
100,000 
100,000 
250,000 

Total    .     £T  4,100,000 

About  40%  of  the  import  trade  of  Constantinople  is  British. 
According  to  the  trade  report  of  the  British  consulate,  the  share 
of  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  value  of  £7,142,000  on  the  total 
imports  to  Constantinople  during  the  year  1900-1901  was 
£1,811,000;  while  the  share  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  the 
value  of  £2,669,000  on  the  total  exports  during  the  same  year 
was  ^£998,000.  But  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  while  British 
commerce  still  led  the  way  in  Turkey,  the  trade  of  some  other 
countries  with  Turkey,  especially  that  of  Germany,  was  increas- 
ing more  rapidly.  Comparing  the  average  of  the  period  1896- 
1900  with  the  total  for  1904,  British  trade  showed  an  increase 
°f  33%,  Austro- Hungarian  of  nearly  60%,  Germany  of  130%, 
Italian  of  98%,  French  of  8%,  and  Belgian  of  nearly  33%. 
The  shipping  visiting  the  port  of  Constantinople  during  the  year 
1903,  excluding  sailing  and  small  coasting  vessels,  was  9796, 
representing  a  total  of  14,785,080  tons.  The  percentage  of 
steamers  under  the  British  flag  was  37-1;  of  tonnage,  45-9. 

Administration. — For  the  preservation  of  order  and  security, 
the  city  is  divided  into  four  divisions  (Belad-i-Sclassi),  viz. 
1  A  Turkish  lira  =  18  shillings  (English). 


Stamboul,  Pera-Galata,  Beshiktash  and  Scutari.  The  minister 
of  police  is  at  the  head  of  the  administration  of  the  affairs  of 
these  divisions,  and  is  ex-officio  governor  of  Stamboul.  The 
governors  of  the  other  divisions  are  subordinate  to  him,  but  are 
appointed  by  the  sultan.  Each  governor  has  a  special  staff  of 
police  and  gendarmery  and  his  own  police-court.  In  each  division 
is  a  military  commander,  having  a  part  of  the  garrison  of  the 
city  under  his  orders,  but  subordinate  to  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  troops  guarding  the  capital. 

The  municipal  government  of  the  four  divisions  of  the  city 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  prefect,  appointed  by  the  sultan,  and  sub- 
ordinate to  the  minister  of  the  interior.  He  is  officially  styled 
the  prefect  of  Stamboul,  and  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  twenty-four 
members,  appointed  by  the  sultan  or  the  minister  of  the  interior. 
All  matters  concerning  the  streets,  the  markets,  the  bazaars, 
the  street-porters  (hamals),  public  weighers,  baths  and  hospitals 
come  under  his  jurisdiction.  He  is  charged  also  with  the  collec- 
tion of  the  city  dues,  and  the  taxes  on  property.  The  city  is 
furthermore  divided  into  ten  municipal  circles  as  follows.  In 
Stamboul:  (i)  Sultan  Bayezid,  (2)  Sultan  Mehemet,  (3)  Djerah 
Pasha  (Psamatia);  on  the  European  side  of  the  Bosporus  and 
the  northern  side  of  the  Golden  Horn:  (4)  Beshiktash,  (5) 
Yenikeui,  (6)  Pera,  (7)  Buyukdere;  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bos- 
porus: (8)  Anadol  Hissar,  (9)  Scutari,  (10)  Kadikeui.  Each 
circle  is  subdivided  into  several  wards  (mahalleh).  "  The  out- 
lying parts  of  the  city  are  divided  into  six  districts  (Cazas), 
namely,  Princes'  Islands,  Guebzeh,  Beicos,  Kartal,  Kuchuk- 
Chekmedje'  and  Shil6,  each  having  its  governor  (kaimakani), 
who  is  usually  chosen  by  the  palace.  These  districts  are  depend- 
encies of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  and  their  municipal  affairs 
are  directed  by  agents  of  the  prefecture." 

In  virtue  of  old  treaties,  known  as  the  Capitulations  (q.v.), 
foreigners  enjoy  to  a  large  extent  the  rights  of  exterritoriality. 
In  disputes  with  one  another,  they  are  judged  before  their  own 
courts  of  justice.  In  litigation  between  a  foreigner  and  a  native, 
the  case  is  taken  to  a  native  court,  but  a  representative  of  the 
foreigner's  consulate  attends  the  proceedings.  Foreigners  have 
a  right  to  establish  their  own  schools  and  hospitals,  to  hold  their 
special  religious  services,  and  even  to  maintain  their  respective 
national  post-offices.  No  Turkish  policeman  may  enter  the 
premises  of  a  foreigner  without  the  sanction  of  the  consular 
authorities  to  whose  jurisdiction  the  latter  belongs.  A  certain 
measure  of  self-government  is  likewise  granted  to  the  native 
Christian  communities  under  their  ecclesiastical  chiefs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — On  Constantinople  generally,  besides  the  regular 
guide-books  and  works  already  mentioned,  see  P.  Gyllius,  De  topo- 
graphia  Constantinopoleos,  De  Bosporo  Thracio  (1632) ;  Du  Cange, 
Constatttinopolis  Christiana  (1680);  T.  von  Hammer,  Constan- 
linopolis  und  der  Bosporos  (1822);  Mordtmann,  Esquisse  topo- 
graphique  de  Constantinople  (1892);  E.  A.  Grosvenor,  Constantinople 
(1895);  van  Millingcn,  Byzantine  Constantinople  (1899);  Paspates, 
Bvfai>Ti?aI  MeXeTat  (1877)  ;  Scarlatos  Byzantios,  'H  KuvtrravTlvov  irAAis 
(1851) ;  E.  Pears,  Fall  of  Constantinople  (1885),  The  Destruction  of  the 
Greek  Empire  (1903);  Gibbon,  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire;  Salzenberg,  Altchristliche  Baudenkmale  von  Konslantinopel; 
Letnaby  and  Swainson,  The  Church  of  Sancta  Sophia;  Pulgher, 
Les  Anciennes  Eglises  byzantines  de  Constantinople;  Labarte,  Le 
Palais  imperial  de  Constantinople  el  ses  abords.  (A.  van  M.) 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  COUNCILS  OF.  Of  the  numerous  eccle- 
siastical councils  held  at  Constantinople  the  most  important  are 
the  following: 

i.  The  second  ecumenical  council,  381,  which  was  in  reality 
only  a  synod  of  bishops  from  Thrace,  Asia  and  Syria,  convened 
by  Theodosius  with  a  view  to  uniting  the  church  upon  the  basis 
of  the  Orthodox  faith.  No  Western  bishop  was  present,  nor  any 
Roman  legate;  from  Egypt  came  only  a  few  bishops,  and  these 
tardily.  The  first  president  was  Meletius  of  Antioch,  whom 
Rome  regarded  as  schismatic.  Yet,  despite  its  sectional  char- 
acter, the  council  came  in  time  to  be  regarded  as  ecumenical 
alike  in  the  West  and  in  the  East. 

The  council  reaffirmed  the  Nicene  faith  and  denounced  all 
opposing  doctrines.  The  so-called  "  Niceno-Constantinopolitan 
Creed,"  which  has  almost  universally  been  ascribed  to  this 
council,  is  certainly  not  the  Nicene  creed  nor  even  a  recension 


IO 


CONSTANTINOPLE,  COUNCILS  OF 


of  it,  but  most  likely  a  Jerusalem  baptismal  formula  revised  by 
the  interpolation  of  a  few  Nicene  test-words.  More  recently 
its  claim  to  be  called  "  Constantinopolitan  "  has  been  challenged. 
It  is  not  found  in  the  earliest  records  of  the  acts  of  the  council, 
nor  was  it  referred  to  by  the  council  of  Ephesus  (431),  nor  by 
the  "Robber  Synod"  (449),  although  these  both  confirmed 
the  Nicene  faith.  It  also  lacks  the  definiteness  one  would  expect 
in  a  creed  composed  by  an  anti-Arian,  anti-Pneumatomachian 
council.  Harnack  (Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie,  3rd  ed., 
s.v.  "  Konstantinopolit.  Symbol.")  conjectures  that  it  was 
ascribed  to  the  council  of  Constantinople  just  before  the  council 
of  Chalcedon  in  order  to  prove  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  second  ecumenical  council.  At  all  events,  it  became  the 
creed  of  the  universal  church,  and  has  been  retained  without 
change,  save  for  the  addition  oifilioque. 

Of  the  seven  reputed  canons  of  the  council  only  the  first  four 
are  unquestionably  genuine.  The  fifth  and  the  sixth  probably 
belong  to  a  synod  of  382,  and  the  seventh  is  properly  not  a  canon. 
The  most  important  enactments  of  the  council  were  the  granting 
of  metropolitan  rights  to  the  bishops  of  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
Thrace,  Pontus  and  Ephesus;  and  according  to  Constantinople 
the  place  of  honour  after  Rome,  against  which  Rome  protested. 
Not  until  150  years  later,  and  then  only  under  compulsion  of  the 
emperor  Justinian,  did  Rome  acknowledge  the  ecumenicity  of 
the  council,  and  that  merely  as  regarded  its  doctrinal  decrees. 

See  Mansi  iii.  pp.  521-599;  Hardouin  i.  pp.  807-826;  Hefele, 
2nd  ed.,  ii.  pp.  I  sqq.  (English  translation,  ii.  pp.  340  sqq.);  Hort, 
Two  Dissertations  (Cambridge,  1876);  and  the  article  CREEDS. 

2.  The  council  of  553,  the  fifth  ecumenical,  grew  out  of  the 
controversy  of  the  "  Three  Chapters,"  an  adequate  account  of 
which,  up  to  the  time  of  the  council,  may  be  found  in  the  articles 
JUSTINIAN  and  VIGILIUS.     The  council  convened,  in  response 
to  the  imperial  summons,  on  the  4th  of  May  553.    Of  the  165 
bishops  who  subscribed  the  acts  all  but  the  five  or  six  from 
Egypt  were  Oriental;  the  pope,   Vigilius,   refused  to  attend 
(he  had  made  his  escape  from  Constantinople,  and  from  his 
retreat  in  Chalcedon  sent  forth  a  vain  protest  against  the  council). 
The  synod  was  utterly  subservient  to  the  emperor.    The  "  Three 
Chapters "  were  condemned,   and  their  authors,   long  dead, 
anathematized,  without,  however,  derogating  from  the  authority 
of  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  which  had  given  them  a  clean  bill 
of  orthodoxy.     Vigilius  was  excommunicated,  and  his  name 
erased  from  the  diptychs.    The  Orthodox  faith  was  set  forth  in 
fourteen  anathemas.    Opinion  is  divided  as  to  whether  Origen 
was  condemned.    His  name  occurs  in  the  eleventh  anathema, 
but   some   consider  it   an   interpolation;   Hefele   defends   the 
genuineness  of  the  text,  but  finds  no  evidence  for  a  special 
session  against  Origen,  as  some  have  conjectured. 

The  council  was  confirmed  by  the  emperor,  and  was  generally 
received  in  the  East.  Vigilius  was  soon  coerced  into  submission, 
but  the  West  repudiated  his  pusillanimous  surrender,  and  rejected 
the  council.  A  schism  ensued  which  lasted  half  a  century  and 
was  not  fully  healed  until  the  synod  of  Aquileia,  about  700. 
But  the  ecumenicity  of  the  council  was  generally  acknowledged 

by  680. 

See  Mansi  ix.  pp.  24-106,  149-658,  712-730;  Hardouin  iii.  pp.  1-328, 
331,  414,  524;  Hefele,  2nd  ed.,  ii.  pp.  798-924  (English  translation, 
iv.  pp.  229-365). 

3.  The  sixth  ecumenical  council,  680-681,  which  was  convened 
by  the  emperor  Constantine  Pogonatus  to  terminate  the  Mono- 
thelitic  controversy  (see  MONOTHELITES).    All  the  patriarchates 
were  represented,  Constantinople  and  Antioch  by  their  bishops  in 
person,  the  others  by  legates.    The  number  of  bishops  present 
varied  from  150  to  300.     The  council  approved  the  first  five 
ecumenical  councils  and  reaffirmed  the  Nicene  and  "  Niceno- 
Constantinopolitan  "  creeds.    Monothelitism  was  unequivocally 
condemned;  Christ  was  declared  to  have  had  "  two  natural 
wills  and  two  natural  operations,  without  division,  conversion, 
separation  or  confusion."     Prominent  Monothelites,  living  or 
dead,  were  anathematized,  in  particular  Sergius  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  the  see  of  Constantinople,  the  former  pope,  Honorius, 
and  Macarius,  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.     An  imperial  decree 
confirmed  the  council,  and  commanded  the  acceptance  of  its 


doctrines  under  pain  of  'severe  punishment.  The  Monothelites 
took  fright  and  fled  to  Syria,  where  they  gradually  formed  the 
sect  of  the  Maronites  (q.v.). 

The  anathematizing  of  Honorius  as  heterodox  has  occasioned 
no  slight  embarrassment  to  the  supporters  of  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility.  It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to 
pass  judgment  upon  the  various  proposed  solutions  of  the 
difficulty,  e.g.  that  Honorius  was  not  really  a  Monothelite; 
that  in  acknowledging  one  will  he  was  not  speaking  ex  cathedra', 
that,  at  the  time  of  condemning  him,  the  council  was  no  longer 
ecumenical;  &c.  One  thing  is  certain,  however,  he  was  anathe- 
matized; and  the  notion  of  interpolation  in  the  acts  of  the  council 
(Baronius)  may  be  dismissed  as  groundless. 

See  Mansi  xi.  pp.  190-922;  Hardouin  iii.  pp.  1043-1644;  Hefele, 
2nd  ed.  iii.  pp.  121-313. 

4.  The  "  Quinisext  Synod  "  (692),  so-called  because  it  was 
regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  supplementing  the  fifth  and  sixth 
ecumenical  councils,  was  held  in  the  dome  of  the  Imperial 
Palace  ("  In  Trullo,"  whence  the  synod  is  called  also  "  Trullan  "). 
Its  work  was  purely  legislative  and  its  decisions  were  set  forth 
in  102  canons.  The  sole  authoritative  standards  of  discipline 
were  declared  to  be  the  "  eighty-five  apostolic  canons,"  the 
canons  of  the  first  four  ecumenical  councils  and  of  the  synods 
of  Ancyra,  Neo-Caesarea,  Antioch,  Changra,  Laodicea,  Sardica 
and  Carthage,  and  the  canonical  writings  of  some  twelve  Fathers, 
— all  canons,  synods  and  Fathers,  Eastern  with  one  exception, 
viz.  Cyprian  and  the  synod  of  Carthage;  the  bishops  of  Rome 
and  the  occidental  synods  were  utterly  ignored. 

The  canons  of  the  second  and  fourth  ecumenical  councils 
respecting  the  rank  of  Constantinople  were  confirmed;  the  rank 
of  a  see  was  declared  to  follow  the  civil  rank  of  its  city;  un- 
enthroned  bishops  were  guaranteed  against  diminution  of  their 
rights;  metropolitans  were  forbidden  to  alienate  the  property 
of  vacant  suffragan  sees. 

The  provisions  respecting  clerical  marriage  were  avowedly 
more  lenient  than  the  Roman  practice.  Ordination  was  denied 
to  any  one  who  after  baptism  had  contracted  a  second  marriage, 
kept  a  concubine,  or  married  a  widow  or  a  woman  of  ill-repute. 
Lectors  and  cantors  might  marry  after  ordination;  presbyters, 
deacons  and  sub-deacons,  if  already  married,  should  retain  their 
wives;  a  bishop,  however,  while  not  dissolving  his  marriage, 
should  keep  his  wife  at  a  distance,  making  suitable  provision  for 
her.  An  illegally  married  cleric  could  not  perform  sacerdotal 
functions.  Monks  and  nuns  were  to  be  carefully  separated,  and 
were  not  to  leave  their  houses  without  permission. 

It  was  forbidden  to  celebrate  baptism  or  the  eucharist  in 
private  oratories;  neither  might  laymen  give  the  elements  to 
themselves,  nor  approach  the  altar,  nor  teach.  Offerings  for  the 
dead  were  authorized,  and  the  mixed  chalice  made  obligatory. 
Contrary  to  the  occidental  custom,  fasting  on  Saturday  was 
forbidden.  The  mutilation  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  desecration 
of  sacred  places  were  severely  condemned;  likewise  the  use  of 
the  lamb  as  the  symbol  for  Christ  (a  favourite  symbol  in  the 
West). 

The  synod  legislated  also  concerning  marriage,  bigamy, 
adultery,  rape,  abortion,  seductive  arts  and  obscenity.  The 
theatre,  the  circus  and  gambling  were  unsparingly  denounced, 
and  soothsayers  and  jugglers,  pagan  festivals  and  customs,  and 
pagan  oaths  were  placed  under  the  ban. 

The  council  was  confirmed  by  the  emperor  and  accepted  in 
the  East;  but  the  pope  protested  against  various  canons, 
chiefly  those  respecting  the  rank  of  Constantinople,  clerical 
marriage,  the  Saturday  fast,  and  the  use  of  the  symbol  of  lamb; 
and  refused,  despite  express  imperial  command  and  threat,  to 
accept  the  "  Pseudo-Sexta."  So  that  while  the  synod  adopted 
a  body  of  legislation  that  has  continued  to  be  authoritative 
for  the  Eastern  Church,  it  did  so  at  the  cost  of  aggravating  the 
irritation  of  the  West,  and  by  so  much  hastening  the  inevitable 
rupture  of  the  church. 

See  Mansi  xi.  pp.  921-1024;  Hardouin  iii.  pp.  1645-1716;  Hefele, 
2nd  ed.,  iii.  pp.  328-348. 

5.  The  iconoclastic  synods  of  754  and  815,  both  of  which 


CONSTANTINUS— CONSTELLATION 


ii 


promulgated  harsh  decrees  against  images  and  neither  of  which 
is  recognized  by  the  Latin  Church,  and  the  synod  of  842,  which 
repudiated  the  synod  of  815,  approved  the  second  council  of 
Nicaea,  and  restored  the  images,  are  all  adequately  treated  in 
the  article  ICONOCLASTS. 

See  Mansi  xii.  pp.  575  sqq.,  xiii.  pp.  210  sqq.,  xiv.  pp.  Ill  sqq., 
787  sqq.;  Hardouin  iv.  pp.  330  sqq.,  1045  sqq.,  1457  sqq.;  Hefele, 
and  ed.  iv.  pp.  I  sqq.,  104  sqq. 

6.  The  synods  of  869  and  879,  of  which  the  former,  regarded 
by  the  Latin  Church  as  the  eighth  ecumenical  council,  condemned 
Photius  as  an  usurper  and  restored  Ignatius  to  the  see  of  Constanti- 
nople; the  latter,  which  the  Greeks  consider  to  have  been  the 
true  eighth  ecumenical  council,  held  after  the  death  of  Ignatius 
and  the  reconciliation  of  Photius  with  the  emperor,  repudiated 
the  synod  of  869,  restored  Photius,  and  condemned  all  who  would 
not  recognize  him.  (For  further  details  of  these  two  synods  see 
PHOTIUS.) 

See  Mansi  xv.  pp.  143-476  et  passim,  xvi.  pp.  1-550,  xvii.  pp.  66- 
186,  365-530;  Hardouin  v.  pp.  119-390,  749-1210,  et  passim,  vi. 
pp.  19-87, 209-334 ;  Hefele,  2nd  ed.,  iv.  pp.  228  sqq.,  333  sqq.,  435  sqq. ; 
Hergenrother,  Photius  (Regensburg,  1867-1869).  (T.  F.  C.) 

CONSTANTINUS,  pope  from  708  to  715,  was  a  Syrian  by  birth 
and  was  consecrated  pope  in  March  708.  He  was  eager  to  assert 
the  supremacy  of  the  papal  see ;  at  the  command  of  the  emperor 
Justinian  II.  he  visited  Constantinople;  and  he  died  on  the  9th 
of  April  715. 

CONSTANTIUS,  FLAVIUS  VALERIUS,  commonly  called 
CHLORUS  (the  Pale),  an  epithet  due  to  the  Byzantine  historians, 
Roman  emperor  and  father  of  Constantine  the  Great,  was  born 
about  A.D.  250.  He  was  of  Illyrian  origin;  a  fictitious  connexion 
with  the  family  of  Claudius  Gothicus  was  attributed  to  him 
by  Constantine.  Having  distinguished  himself  by  his  military 
ability  and  his  able  and  gentle  rule  of  Dalmatia,  he  was,  on  the 
ist  of  March  293,  adopted  and  appointed  Caesar  by  Maximian, 
whose  step-daughter,  Flavia  Maximiana  Theodora,  he  had 
married  in  289  after  renouncing  his  wife  Helena  (the  mother  of 
Constantine).  In  the  distribution  of  the  provinces  Gaul  and 
Britain  were  allotted  to  Constantius.  In  Britain  Carausius  and 
subsequently  Allectus  had  declared  themselves  independent, 
and  it  was  not  till  296  that,  by  the  defeat  of  Allectus,  it  was 
re-united  with  the  empire.  In  298  Constantius  overthrew  the 
Alamanni  in  the  territory  of  the  Lingones  (Langres)  and 
strengthened  the  Rhine  frontier.  During  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  in  303  he  behaved  with  great  humanity.  He  ob- 
tained the  title  of  Augustus  on  the  ist  of  May  305,  and  died 
the  following  year  shortly  before  the  2$th  of  July  at  Eboracum 
(York)  during  an  expedition  against  the  Picts  and  Scots. 

See  Aurelius  Victor,  De  Caesaribus,  39;  Eutropius  ix.  14-23; 
Zosimus  ii.  7. 

CONST ANTZA  (Constanta),  formerly  known  as  Kustendji  or 
Kustendje,  a  seaport  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  capital  of  the 
department  of  Constantza,  Rumania;  140  m.  E.  by  ,S.  from 
Bucharest  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  12,725.  When  the  Dobrudja  was 
ceded  to  Rumania  in  1878,  Constantza  was  partly  rebuilt.  In  its 
clean  and  broad  streets  there  are  many  synagogues,  mosques  and 
churches,  for  half  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics,  Moslems, 
Armenians  or  Jews;  the  remainder  being  Orthodox  Rumans 
and  Greeks.  In  the  vicinity  there  are  mineral  springs,  and  the 
sea-bathing  also  attracts  many  visitors  in  summer.  The  chief 
local  industries  are  tanning  and  the  manufacture  of  petroleum 
drums.  The  opening,  in  1895,  of  the  railway  to  Bucharest, 
which  crosses  the  Danube  by  a  bridge  at  Cerna  Voda,  brought 
Constantza  a  considerable  transit  trade  in  grain  and  petroleum, 
which  are  largely  exported ;  coal  and  coke  head  the  list  of  imports, 
followed  by  machinery,  iron  goods,  and  cotton  and  woollen 
fabrics.  The  harbour,  protected  by  breakwaters,  with  a  light- 
house at  the  entrance,  is  well  defended  from  the  north  winds, 
but  those  from  the  south,  south-east,  and  south-west  prove 
sometimes  highly  dangerous.  In  1902  it  afforded  10  alongside 
berths  for  shipping.  It  had  a  depth  of  22  ft.  in  the  old  or  inner 
basin,  and  of  26  ft.  in  the  new  or  outer  basin,  beside  the  quays. 
The  railway  runs  along  the  quays.  A  weekly  service  between 
Constantza  and  Constantinople  is  conducted  by  state-owned 


steamers,  including  the  fast  mail  and  passenger  boats  in  connexion 
with  the  Ostend  and  Orient  expresses.  In  1902,  576  vessels 
entered  at  Constantza,  with  a  net  registered  tonnage  of  641,737. 
The  Black  Sea  squadron  of  the  Rumanian  fleet  is  stationed  here. 
Constantza  is  the  Constantiana  which  was  founded  in  honour 
of  Constantia,  sister  of  Constantine  the  Great  (A.D.  274-337). 
It  lies  at  the  seaward  end  of  the  Great  Wall  of  Trajan,  and 
has  evidently  been  surrounded  by  fortifications  of  its  own.  In 
spite  of  damage  done  by  railway  contractors  (see  Henry  C. 
Barkley,  Between  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea,  1876)  there  are 
considerable  remains  of  ancient  masonry — walls,  pillars,  &c. 
A  number  of  inscriptions  found  in  the  town  and  its  vicinity 
show  that  close  by  was  Tomi,  where  the  Roman  poet  Ovid 
(43  B.C.-A.D.  17)  spent  his  last  eight  years  in  exile.  A  statue 
of  Ovid  stands  in  the  main  square  of  Constantza. 

In  regard  to  the  Constantza  inscriptions  in  general,  see  Allard, 
La  Bulgarie  orientate  (Paris,  1866);  Desjardins  in  Ann.  dell'  istit. 
di  corr.  arch.  (1868);  and  a  paper  on  Weickum's  collection  in 
Silzungsbericht  of  the  Munich  Academy  (1875). 

CONSTELLATION  (from  the  Lat.  conslellalus,  studded  with 
stars;  con,  with,  and  Stella,  a  star),  in  astronomy,  the  name  given 
to  certain  groupings  of  stars.  The  partition  of  the  stellar  expanse 
into  areas  characterized  by  specified  stars  can  be  traced  back 
to  a  very  remote  antiquity.  It  is  believed  that  the  ultimate 
origin  of  the  constellation  figures  and  names  is  to  be  found  in 
the  corresponding  systems  in  vogue  among  the  primitive  civiliza- 
tions of  the  Euphrates  valley — the  Sumerians,  Accadians  and 
Babylonians;  that  these  were  carried  westward  into  ancient 
Greece  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  to  the  lands  of  Asia  Minor  by 
the  Hittites,  and  that  Hellenic  culture  in  its  turn  introduced 
them  into  Arabia,  Persia  and  India.  From  the  earliest  times 
the  star-groups  known  as  constellations,  the  smaller  groups 
(parts  of  constellations)  known  as  asterisms,  and  alsc  individual 
stars,  have  received  names  connoting  some  meteorological 
phenomena,  or  symbolizing  religious  or  mythological  beliefs. 
At  one  time  it  was  held  that  the  constellation  names  and  myths 
were  of  Greek  origin;  this  view  has  now  been  disproved,  and 
an  examination  of  the  Hellenic  myths  associated  with  the  stars 
and  star-groups  in  the  light  of  the  records  revealed  by  the 
decipherment  of  Euphratean  cuneiforms  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  in  many,  if  not  all,  cases  the  Greek  myth  has  a  Euphratean 
parallel,  and  so  renders  it  probable  that  the  Greek  constellation 
system  and  the  cognate  legends  are  primarily  of  Semitic  or 
even  pre-Semitic  origin. 

The  origin  and  development  of  the  grouping  of  the  stars  into 
constellations  is  more  a  matter  of  archaeological  than  of  astro- 
nomical interest.  It  demands  a  careful  study  of  the  myths  and 
religious  thought  of  primitive  peoples;  and  the  tracing  of  the 
names  from  one  language  to  another  belongs  to  comparative 
philology. 

The  Sumerians  and  Accadians,  the  non-Semitic  inhabitants 
of  the  Euphrates  valley  prior  to  the  Babylonians,  described 
the  stars  collectively  as  a  "  heavenly  flock  ";  the  sun  was  the 
"old  sheep";  the  seven  planets  were  the  "old-sheep  stars"; 
the  whole  of  the  stars  had  certain  "  shepherds,  "  and  Sibzianna 
(which,  according  to  Sayce  and  Bosanquet,  is  the  modern 
Arcturus,  the  brightest  star  in  the  northern  sky)  was  the  "  star 
of  the  shepherds  of  the  heavenly  herds.".'! The  Accadians 
bequeathed  their  system  to  the  Babylonians,  and  cuneiform 
tablets  and  cylinders,  boundary  stones,  and  Euphratean  art 
generally,  point  to  the  existence  of  a  well-defined  system  of 
star  names  in  their  early  history.  From  a  detailed  study  of  such 
records,  in  their  nature  of  rather  speculative  value,  R.  Brown, 
junr.  (Primitive  Constellations,  1899)  has  compiled  a  Euphratean 
planisphere,  which  he  regards  as  the  mother  of  all  others.  The 
tablets  examined  range  in  date  from  3000-500  B.C.,  and  hence 
the  system  must  be  anterior  to  the  earlier  date.  Of  great  im- 
portance is  the  Creation  Legend,  a  cuneiform  compiled  from 
older  records  during  the  reign  of  Assur-bani-pal,  c.  650  B.C., 
in  which  there  occurs  a  passage  interpretable  as  pointing  to 
the  acceptance  of  36  constellations:  12  northern,  12  zodiacal 
and  12  southern.  These  constellations  were  arranged  in  three 


12 


CONSTELLATION 


concentric  annuli,  the  northern  ones  in  an  inner  annulus  sub- 
divided into  60  degrees,  the  zodiacal  ones  into  a  medial  annulus  of 
1 20  degrees,  and  the  southern  ones  into  an  outer  annulus  of  240 
degrees.  Brown  has  suggested  a  correlation  of  the  Euphratean 
names  with  those  of  the  Greeks  and  moderns.  His  results  may 
be  exhibited  in  the  following  form: — the  central  line  gives  the 
modern  equivalents  of  the  names  in  the  Euphratean  zodiac;  the 
upper  line  the  modern  equivalents  of  the  northern  paranatellons ; 
and  the  lower  line  those  of  the  southern  paranatellons.  The 
zodiacal  constellations  have  an  interest  peculiarly  their  own; 
placed  in  or  about  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  their  rising  and 
setting  with  the  sun  was  observed  with  relation  to  weather 
changes  and  the  more  general  subject  of  chronology,  the  twelve 
subdivisions  of  the  year  being  correlated  with  the  twelve  divisions 
of  the  ecliptic  (see  ZODIAC). 


lation  to  weather  changes.  The  earliest  Greek  work  which 
purported  to  treat  the  constellations  qua  constellations,  of  which 
we  have  certain  knowledge,  is  the  Qcuvontva.  of  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus 
(c.  403-350  B.C.).  The  original  is  lost,  but  a  versification  by 
Aratus  (c.  270  B.C.),  a  poet  at  the  court  of  Antigonus  Gonatas, 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  an  '££1777)0-15  or  commentary  by  Hippar- 
chus,  are  extant.  In  the  Qaivofitva  of  Aratus  44  constellations 
are  enumerated,  viz.  19  northern: — Ursa  major,  Ursa  minor, 
Bootes,  Draco,  Cepheus,  Cassiopeia,  Andromeda,  Perseus, 
Triangulum,  Pegasus,  Delphinus,  Auriga,  Hercules,  Lyra, 
Cygnus,  Aquila,  Sagitta,  Corona  and  Serpentarius;  13  central 
or  zodiacal: — Aries,  Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo,  Libra, 
Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricornus,  Aquarius,  Pisces  and  the 
Pleiades;  and  12  southern: — Orion,  Canis,  Lepus,  Argo,  Cetus, 
Eridanus,  Piscis  australis,  Ara,  Centaurus,  Hydra,  Crater  and 


Northern  .    . 

Cassiopeia 

Auriga 

Cepheus 

Ursa  minor 

Ursa  major 

Bootes 

Serpentarius 

Hercules 

Lyra 

Aquila 

Pegasus 

Andromeda 

Zodiacal    .    . 

Aries 

Taurus 

Gemini 

Cancer 

Leo 

Virgo 

Libra 

Scorpio 

Sagittarius 

Capricornus 

Aquarius 

Pisces 

Southern 

Eridanus 

Orion 

Canis  major 

Argo 

Hydra 
Crater 

Corvus 

Centaurus 

Lupus 

Ara 

? 

Piscis 

australis 

Cetus 

The  Phoenicians — a  race  dominated  by  the  spirit  of  com- 
mercial enterprise — appear  to  have  studied  the  stars  more 
especially  with  respect  to  their  service  to  navigators;  according 
to  Homer  "  the  stars  were  sent  by  Zeus  as  portents  for  mariners." 
But  all  their  truly  astronomical  writings  are  lost,  and  only  by  a 
somewhat  speculative  piecing  together  of  scattered  evidences  can 
an  estimate  of  their  knowledge  be  formed.  The  inter-relations 
of  the  Phoenicians  with  the  early  Hellenes  were  frequent  and  far- 
reaching,  and  in  the  Greek  presentation  of  the  legends  concerning 
constellations  a  distinct  Phoenician,  and  in  turn  Euphratean, 
element  appears.  One  of  the  earliest  examples  of  Greek  literature 
extant,  the  Theogonia  of  Hesiod  (c.  800  B.C.),  appears  to  be  a 
curious  blending  of  Hellenic  and  Phoenician  thought.  Although 
not  an  astronomical  work,  several  constellation  subjects  are 
introduced.  In  the  same  author's  Works  and  'Days,  a  treatise 
which  is  a  sort  of  shepherd's  calendar,  there  are  distinct  references 
to  the  Pleiades,  Hyades,  Orion,  Sirius  and  Arcturus.  It  cannot 
be  argued,  however,  that  these  were  the  only  stars  and  con- 
stellations named  in  his  time;  the  omission  proves  nothing.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  Homeric  epics  wherein  the  Pleiades,  Hyades, 
Ursa  major,  Orion  and  Bootes  are  mentioned,  and  also  of  the 
stars  and  constellations  mentioned  in  Job.  Further  support  is 
given  to  the  view  that,  in  the  main,  the  constellations  were  trans- 
mitted to  the  Greeks  by  the  Phoenicians  from  Euphratean 
sources  in  the  fact  that  Thales,  the  earliest  Greek  astronomer 
of  any  note,  was  of  Phoenician  descent.  According  to  Calli- 
machus  he  taught  the  Greeks  to  steer  by  Ursa  minor  instead  of 
Ursa  major;  and  other  astronomical  observations  are  assigned 
to  him.  But  his  writings  are  lost,  as  is  also  the  case  with  those  of 
Phocus  the  Samian,  and  the  history  of  astronomy  by  Eudemus, 
the  pupil  of  Aristotle;  hence  the  paucity  of  our  knowledge  of 
Thales' s  astronomical  learning. 

From  the  6th  century  B.C.  onwards,  legends  concerning  the 
constellation  subjects  were  frequently  treated  by  the  historians 
and  poets.  Aglaosthenes  or  Agaosthenes,  an  early  writer,  knew 
Ursa  minor  as  Kworoupa,  Cynosura,  and  recorded  the  transla- 
tion of  Aquila;  Epimenides  the  Cretan  (c.  600  B.C.)  recorded  the 
translation  of  Capricornus  and  the  star  Capella;  Pherecydes 
of  Athens  (c.  500-450  B.C.)  recorded  the  legend  of  Orion,  and 
stated  the  astronomical  fact  that  when  Orion  sets  Scorpio  rises; 
Aeschylus  (525-456  B.C.)  and  Hellanicus  of  Mytilene  (c.  496-411 
B.C.)  narrate  the  legend  of  the  seven  Pleiades — the  daughters  of 
Atlas;  and  the  latter  states  that  the  Hyades  are  named  either 
from  their  orientation,  which  resembles  u  (upsilon),  "  or  because 
at  their  rising  or  setting  Zeus  rains  ";  and  Hecataeus  of  Miletus 
(c.  470  B.C.)  treated  the  legend  of  the  Hydra. 

In  the  sth  century  B.C.  the  Athenian  astronomer  Euctemon, 
according  to  Geminus  of  Rhodes,  compiled  a  weather  calendar 
in  which  Aquarius,  Aquila,  Canis  major,  Corona,  Cygnus, 
Delphinus,  Lyra,  Orion,  Pegasus,  Sagitta  and  the  asterisms 
Hyades  and  Pleiades  are  mentioned,  always,  however,  in  re- 


Corvus.  In  this  enumeration  Serpens  is  included  in  Serpentarius 
and  Lupus  in  Centaurus;  these  two  constellations  were  separated 
by  Hipparchus  and,  later,  by  Ptolemy.  On  the  other  hand, 
Aratus  kept  the  Pleiades  distinct  from  Taurus,  but  Hipparchus 
reduced  these  stars  to  an  asterism.  Aratus  was  no  astronomer, 
while  Hipparchus  was;  and  from  the  fact  that  the  latter  adopted, 
with  but  trifling  exceptions,  the  constellation  system  portrayed 
by  Aratus,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  system  was  already 
familiar  in  Greek  thought.  And  three  hundred  years  after 
Hipparchus,  the  Alexandrian  astronomer  Ptolemy  adopted  a 
very  similar  scheme  in  his  uranometria,  which  appears  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  books  of  his  Almagest,  the  catalogue  being 
styled  the  "E/c0e<ris  Kavovixij  or  "  accepted  version." 

The  Almagest  has  a  dual  interest:  first,  being  the  work  of  one 
primarily  a  commentator,  it  presents  a  crystallized  epitome  of 
all  earlier  knowledge;  and  secondly,  it  has  served  as  a  basis  of 
subsequent  star-catalogues.1  The  Ptolemaic  catalogue  em- 
braces only  those  stars  which  were  visible  at  Rhodes  in  the  time 
of  Hipparchus  (c.  150  B.C.),  the  results  being  corrected  for 
precession  "  by  increasing  the  longitudes  by  2°  40',  and  leaving 
the  latitudes  undisturbed  "  (Francis  Baily,  Mem.  R.A.S.,  1843). 
The  names  and  orientation  of  the  constellations  therein  adopted 
are,  with  but  few  exceptions,  identical  with  those  used  at  the 
present  day;  and  as  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  Ptolemy  made 
only  very  few  modifications  in  the  system  of  Hipparchus,  the 
names  were  adopted  at  least  three  centuries  before  the  Almagest 
was  compiled.  The  names  in  which  Ptolemy  differs  from 
modern  usage  are: — Hercules  (iv  yovaaiv) ,  Cygnus  ("Opw), 
Eridanus  (IIoTCijuos),  Lupus  (Qypiov),  Pegasus  ("ITTTTOS),  Equuleus 
("Iinrou  irporofir]  ),  Canis  minor-  (HpoKvuv),  and  Libra  (Xi/Xol, 
although  fvyos  is  used  for  the  same  constellation  in  other  parts 
of  the  Almagest).  The  following  table  gives  the  names  of  the 
constellations  as  they  occur  in  (i)  modern  catalogues;  (2) 
Ptolemy  (A.D.  150);  (3)  Ulugh  Beg  (143?);  (4)  Tycho  Brahe 
(1628);  the  last  column  gives  the  English  equivalent  01  the 
modern  name. 

The  reverence  and  authority  which  was  accorded  the  famous 
compilation  of  the  Alexandrian  astronomer  is  well  evidenced  by 
the  catalogue  of  the  Tatar  Ulugh  Beg,  the  Arabian  names  there 
adopted  being  equivalent  to  the  Ptolemaic  names  in  nearly 
every  case;  this  is  also  shown  in  the  Latin  translations  given 
below.  Tycho  Brahe,  when  compiling  his  catalogue  of  stars, 
was  unable  to  observe  Lupus,  Ara,  Corona  australis  and  Piscis 
australis,  on  account  of  the  latitude  of  Uranienburg;  and  hence 
these  constellations  are  omitted  from  his  catalogue.  He  diverged 
from  Ptolemy  when  he  placed  the  asterisms  Coma  Berenices  and 
Antinous  upon  the  level  of  formal  constellations,  Ptolemy  having 

1  The  historical  development  of  star-catalogues  in  general,  re- 
garded as  statistics  of  the  co-ordinates,  &c.,  6f  stars,  is  given  in  the 
historical  section  of  the  article  'ASTRONOMY.  See  also  E.  B.  Knobel, 
"  Chronology  of  Star  Catalogues."  Mem.  R.A.S.(i&77). 


CONSTELLATION 


PLATE  I. 


CONSTELLATIONS   OF   THE   NORTHERN   HEMISPHERE. 


va.it. 


PLATE  JL 


CONSTELLATION 


V: 


CONSTELLATIONS  OF   THE   SOUTHERN    HEMISPHERE. 


CONSTELLATION 


Modern. 

Ptolemy. 

Ulugh  Beg. 

Tycho  Brahe. 

Meaning. 

Ursa  minor 

"\PKTOV  >UKpS.S   AaTepHTHOS 

Stellae  Ursi  minoris 

Ursa  minor,  Cynosura 

Little  Bear 

Ursa  major 

"\PKTOV  jue-ya\7)s       ,, 

Ursi  majoris 

Ursa  major,  Helice 

Great  Bear 

Draco 

Apd/coiTos                   ,, 

Draconis 

Draco 

Dragon 

Cepheus 

Krifcus                        „ 

Cephei 

Cepheus 

Cepheus 

•£J> 

Bootes 

BOUTOV                         , 

Vociferatoris 

Bootes,  Arctophylax 

Ploughman 

Q 

Corona  borealis 

STtdxXfOU  popCtOU          , 

Coronae  or  Phecca 

Corona  borea 

Northern  Crown 

• 

Hercules 

ToO  &v  "ybvQ.ffLV           , 

Incumbentis  genubus 

Engonasi,  Hercules 

Man  kneeling 

c 

^0 

Lyra 

Aupas                            , 

ToDShelyak  or  Testudo 

Lyra,  Vultur  cadens 

Lyre 

•M 

Cygnus 

"OpwSos                        , 

Gallinae 

Olor,  Cygnus 

Bird,  Swan 

rt 

Cassiopeia 

KaacrttTretas                 , 

Inthronatae 

Cassiopeia 

Cassiopeia 

1- 

Perseus 

IlcpO^aJS                               ,t 

Bershaush  or  Portans 

Perseus 

Perseus 

c 

Caput  Larvae 

o 
o 

Auriga 

'Hd6xOV                                 ,, 

Tenentis  habenas 

Auriga,  Heniochus,  Erichthonius 

Charioteer 

c 

Serpentarius 

'Q&LOVTtOV                           ,, 

Serpentarii 

Ophiuchus,  Serpentarius 

Serpent-holder 

0) 
J3 

Serpens 
Sagitta 

"Opew7  6<£io&xou        n 

'OlfFTOV                                 ,r 

Serpentis 
Sagittae 

Serpens  ophiuchi 
Sagitta  or  Telum 

Serpent 
Arrow 

s 

Aquila 

'A.CTOV                                     , 

Aquilae 

Aquila  or  Vultur  volans 

Eagle 

Z 

Delphinus 

Ae\0i«)s                       , 

Delphini 

Delphinus 

Dolphin 

Equuelus 

"Iirirou  xporo/i^s         , 

Sectionis  equi 

Equuleus,  Equi  sectio 

Colt 

Pegasus 

"ITTTTOU                             , 

Equi  majoris 

Pegasus,  Equus  alatus 

Pegasus,  Horse 

Andromeda 

'Avdpo/jitSas                 , 

Mulieris  catenatae 

Andromeda 

Andromeda 

Triangulum 

Tpiyuvov                     , 

Trianguli 

Triangulus,  Deltoton 

Triangle 

rT 

Aries 

KptoD                           ,, 

Arietis 

Aries 

Ram 

Taurus 

Taupou                         ,, 

Tauri 

Taurus 

Bull 

to 

C 

Gemini 

AiSiV^f 

Gemellorum 

Gemini 

Twins 

_O 

Cancer 

KapKi«)u                     ,, 

Cancri 

Cancer 

Crab 

5 

Leo 

Atovros                        ,, 

Leonis 

Leo 

Lion 

"o 

Virgo 

Virginis,  Sumbela 

Virgo 

Virgin 

S  " 

Libra 

XijXuv 

Librae 

Libra 

Balance 

0 

Scorpio 

2i£opir£ou                     ,  , 

Scorpionis 

Scorpius 

Scorpion 

o 

Sagittarius 

To|6rou                       ,, 

Sagittarii,  Arcum 

Sagittarius 

Archer 

u 

Capricornus 

Ai76(cepwTos               ,, 

Capricorn! 

Capricornus 

Goat 

Aquarius 

'TSpoxoou                    ,, 

Effusoris  aquae,  Situla 

Aquarius 

Water-pourer 

c5 

Pisces 

'ix«*>» 

Piscis 

Pisces 

Fishes 

Cetus 

K^TOUS                                  ,, 

Ceti 

Cete 

Sea-monster, 

^ 

Whale 

!? 

Orion 

'12ptO^O7                                 ,, 

Gigantis 

Orion 

Orion 

Eridanus 

UorajuoD                      ,, 

Fluminis 

Eridanus  fluvius 

River 

Q 

Lepus 

Aa7<j)oD                        ,, 

Leporis 

Lepus 

Hare 

Canis  major 

Kvvdt                           ,, 

Canis  majoris 

Canis  major 

Great  Dog 

JS 

Canis  minor 

UpoKvvk                     ,, 

Canis  minoris 

Canis  minor,  Procyon 

Little  Dog 

"a3 

Argo 

'Ap7oOs                        ,, 

Navis 

Argo  navis 

Ship 

c 

Hydra 

•TSpov 

Hydri 

Hydra 

Sea-serpent 

o 

Crater 

Kpar^po?                    ,, 

Craterae 

Crater 

Bowl 

c 

Corvus 

KopaKos                       ,, 

Corvi 

Corvus 

Crow 

u 
V 

Centaurus 

Ktvrabpov                    , 

Centauri 

Centaurus,  Chiron 

Centaur 

Lupus 

Qtjpiov                          , 

Ferae 

Wild  beast 

3 
o 

Ara 

Qvfuariiplov                 , 

Thuribuli 

Censer,  Altar 

& 

Corona  australis 

^TetffOLVOV  VOTIOV             , 

Coronae  australis 

Southern  Crown 

Piscis  australis 

'Ix^os  vorLov              , 

Piscis  australis 

„       Fish 

regarded  these  asterisms  as  unformed  stars  (d^6p<#>coroi).  The 
next  innovator  of  moment  was  Johann  Bayer,  a  German  astro- 
nomer, who  published  a  Uranometria  in  1603,  in  which  twelve 
constellations,  all  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  were  added  to 
Ptolemy's  forty-eight,  viz.  Apis  (or  Musca)  (Bee),  Avis  Indica 
(Bird  of  Paradise),  Chameleon,  Dorado  (Sword-fish),  Grus 
(Crane),  Hydrus  (Water-snake),  Indus  (Indian),  Pavo  (Peacock), 
Phoenix,  Piscis  volans  (Flying  fish),  Toucan,  Triangulum 
australe.  According  to  W.  Lynn  (Observatory,  1886,  p.  255), 
Bayer  adapted  this  part  of  his  catalogue  from  the  observations 
of  the  Dutch  navigator  Petrus  Theodori  (or  Pieter  Dirchsz 
Keyser),  who  died,  in  1596  off  Java.  The  Coelum  stellatum 
Christianum  of  Julius  Schiller  (1627)  is  noteworthy  for  the 
attempt  made  to  replace  the  names  connoting  mythological  and 
pagan  ideas  by  the  names  of  apostles,  saints,  popes,  bishops,  and 
other  dignitaries  of  the  church,  &c.  Aries  became  St  Peter; 
Taurus,  St  Andrew;  Andromeda,  the  Holy  Sepulchre;  Lyra, 
the  Manger;  Canis  major,  David;  and  so  on.  This  innovation 
(with  which  the  introduction  of  the  twelve  apostles  into  the  solar 
zodiac  by  the  Venerable  Bede  may  be  compared)  was  short- 
lived. According  to  Charles  Hutton  [Math.  Diet.  i.  328(1795)] 
the  editions  published  in  1654  and  1661  had  reverted  to  the 
Greek  names;  on  the  other  hand,  Camille  Flammarion  (Popular 
Astronomy,  p.  375)  quotes  an  illuminated  folio  of  1661,  which 
represents  "  the  sky  delivered  from  pagans  and  peopled  with 
Christians."  A  similar  confusion  was  attempted  by  E.  Weigelius, 
who  sought  to  introduce  a  Coelum  heraldicum,  in  which  the 


constellations  were  figured  as  the  arms  or  insignia  of  European 
dynasties,  and  by  symbols  of  commerce. 

In  Edmund  Halley's  southern  catalogue  (Catalogus  stellarum 
australium),  published  in  1679  and  incorporated  in  Flamsteed's 
Hisloria  coeleslis  (1725),  the  following  constellations  are 
named: — Piscis  australis,  Columba  Noachi,  Argo  navis,  Robur 
Caroli,  Ara,  Corona  australis,  Grus,  Phoenix,  Pavo,  Apus  or  Avis 
Indica,  Musca  apis,  Chameleon,  Triangulum  australe,  Piscis 
volans,  Dorado  or  Xiphias,  Toucan  or  Anser  Americanus,  and 
Hydrus.  Flamsteed's  maps  also  contained  Mons  Menelai. 
This  list  contains  nothing  new  except  Robur  Caroli,  since 
Columba  Noachi  (Noah's  dove)  had  been  raised  to  the  skies  by 
Bartschius  in  1624.  The  constellation  Robur  Caroli  and  also 
the  star  Cor  Caroli  (a  Canum  Venaticorum)  were  named  by 
Halley  in  honour  of  Charles  II.  of  England. 

In  1690  two  posthumous  works  of  Johann  Hevelius  (1611- 
1687),  the  Firmamentum  sobiescianum  and  Prodromus  astrono- 
miae,  added  several  new  constellations  to  the  list,  viz.  Canes 
venatici  (the  Greyhounds),  Lacerta  (the  Lizard),  Leo  minor 
(Little  Lion),  Lynx,  Sextans  Uraniae,  Scutum  or  Clypeus 
Sobieskii  (the  shield  of  Sobieski),  Vulpecula  et  Anser  (Fox  and 
Goose),  Cerberus,  Camelopardus  (Giraffe),  and  Monoceros 
(Unicorn);  the  last  two  were  originally  due  to  Jacobus  Bart- 
schius. In  1679  Augustine  Royer  introduced  the  most  interesting 
of  the  constellations  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  Crux 
australis  or  Southern  Cross.  He  also  suggested  Nubes  major, 
Nubes  minor,  and  Lilium,  and  re-named  Canes  venatici  the  river 


CONSTIPATION— CONSTITUTION 


Jordan,  and  Vulpecula  et  Anser  the  river  Tigris,  but  these 
innovations  met  with  no  approval.  The  Magellanic  clouds,  a 
collection  of  nebulae,  stars  and  star-clusters  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  south  pole,  were  so  named  by  Hevelius  in  honour  of  the 
navigator  Ferdinand  Magellan. 

Many  other  star-groupings  have  been  proposed  from  time  to 
time;  in  some  cases  a  separate  name  has  been  given  to  a  part 
of  an  authoritatively  accepted  constellation,  e.g.  Ensis  Orionis, 
the  sword  of  Orion,  or  an  ancient  constellation  may  be  subdivided, 
e.g.  Argo  (ship)  into  Argo,  Malus  (mast),  Vela  (sails),  Puppis 
(stern),  Carina  (keel);  and  whereas  some  of  the  rearrangements, 
which  have  been  mostly  confined  to  the  southern  hemisphere, 
have  been  accepted,  many,  reflecting  nothing  but  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  proposers,  have  deservedly  dropped  into  oblivion.  Nicolas 
Louis  de  Lacaille,  who  made  extended  observations  of  the 
southern  stars  in  1751  and  in  the  following  years,  and  whose 
results  were  embodied  in  his  posthumous  Coelum  australe 
slelliferum  (1763),  introduced  the  following  new  constellations: — 
Apparatus  sculp toris  (Sculptor's  workshop),  Fomax  chemica 
(Chemical  furnace),  Horologium  (Clock),  Reticulus  rhomboidalis 
(Rhomboidal  net),  Caela  sculptoris  (Sculptor's  chisels),  Equuleus 
pictoris  (Painter's  easel),  Pyxis  nautica  (Mariner's  compass), 
Antlia  pneumatica  (Air  pump),  Octans  (Octant),  Circinus  (Com- 
passes), Norma  alias  Quadra  Euclidis  (Square),  Telescopium 
(Telescope),  Microscopium  (Microscope)  and  Mons  Mensae 
(Table  Mountain).  Pierre  Charles  Lemonnier  in  1776  intro- 
duced Tarandus  (Reindeer),  and  Solitarius;  J.  J.  L.  de  Lalande 
introduced  Le  Messier  (after  the  astronomer  Charles  Messier) 
(1776),  Quadrans  muralis  (Mural  quadrant)  (1795),  Globus 
aerostaticus  (Air  balloon)  (1798),  and  Felis  (the  Cat)  (1799). 
Martin  Poczobut  introduced  in  1777  Taurus  Poniatovskii; 
Bode  introduced  the  Honores  Frederici  (Honours  of  Frederick) 
(1786),  Telescopium  Herschelii  (Telescope  of  Herschel)  (1787), 
Machina  electrica  (Electrical  machine)  (1790),  Officina  typo- 
graphica  (Printing  press)  (1799),  and  Lochium  funis  (Log  line); 
and  M.  Hell  formed  the  Psalterium  Georgianum  (George's  lute). 

The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  the  constellations  now 
usually  employed:  they  are  divided  into  three  groups: — north 
of  the  zodiac,  in  the  zodiac,  south  of  the  zodiac.  Those  marked 
with  an  asterisk  have  separate  articles. 

Northern  (28). 


"Andromeda 
*Aquila 
*  Auriga 
*Bootes 
Camelopardus 
"Canes  venatici 
*Cassiopeia 


*Aquarius 

"Aries 

"Cancer 


Antlia  (pneumatica) 

Apus 
*Ara 

Argo 

Caela  sculptoris 

(Caelum) 
*Canis  major 

Canis  minor 

Carina 
*Centaurus 
*Cetus 

Chameleon 

Circinus 

Columba  Noachi 


"Cepheus 
*Coma  Berenices 
"Corona  borealis 
"Cygnus 
"Delphinus 

Draco 

Equuleus 


"Capricprnus 

"Gemini 

"Leo 


Corona  australis 

Corvus 

Crater 

Crux 


"Hercules 
Lacerta 
"Leo  minor 
Lynx 
"Lyra 

(    Ophiuchus 
?  "Serpentarius 

Zodiacal  (12). 
"Libra 
"Pisces 
"Sagittarius 

Southern  (49). 

Lepus 
Lupus 
Malus 
Mons  Mensae 


varies  with  individual  cases,  according  to  the  cause  at  work, 
laxatives,  dieting,  massage,  &c.,  being  prescribed. 

CONSTITUENCY  (from  "  constituent,"  that  which  forms  a 
necessary  part  of  a  thing;  Lat.  constituere,  to  create),  a  political 
term  for  the  body  of  electors  who  choose  a  representative  for 
parliament  or  for  any  other  public  assembly,  for  the  place  or 
district  possessing  the  right  to  elect  a  representative,  and  for 
the  residents  generally,  apart  from  their  voting  powers,  in  such 
a  locality.  The  term  is  also  applied,  in  a  transferred  sense,  to 
the  readers  of  a  particular  newspaper,  the  customers  of  a  business 
and  the  like. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW.  The  word 
constitution  (conslilulio)  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire 
signified  a  collection  of  laws  or  ordinances  made  by  the  emperor. 
We  find  the  word  used  in  the  same  sense  in  the  early  history  of 
English  law,  e.g.  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  In  its  modern 
use  constitution  has  been  restricted  to  those  rules  which  concern 
the  political  structure  of  society.  If  we  take  the  accepted 
definition  of  a  law  as  a  command  imposed  by  a  sovereign  on  the 
subject,  the  constitution  would  consist  of  the  rules  which  point 
out  where  the  sovereign  is  to  be  found,  the  form  in  which  his 
powers  are  exercised,  and  the  relations  of  the  different  members 
of  the  sovereign  body  to  each  other  where  it  consists  of  more 
persons  than  one.  In  every  independent  political  society,  it 
is  assumed  by  these  definitions,  there  will  be  found  somewhere 
or  other  a  sovereign,  whether  that  sovereign  be  a  single  person, 
or  a  body  of  persons,  or  several  bodies  of  persons.  The  com- 
mands imposed  by  the  sovereign  person  or  body  on  the  rest  of 
the  society  are  positive  laws,  properly  so  called.  The  sovereign 
body  not  only  makes  laws,  but  has  two  other  leading  functions, 
viz.  those  of  judicature  and  administration.  Legislation  is 
for  the  most  part  performed  directly  by  the  sovereign  body 
itself;  judicature  and  administration,  for  the  most  part,  by 
delegates.  The  constitution  of  a  society,  accordingly,  would 
show  how  the  sovereign  body  is  composed,  and  what  are  the 
relations  of  its  members  inter  se,  and  how  the  sovereign  functions 
of  legislation,  judicature  and  administration  are  exercised. 
Constitutional  law  consists  of  the  rules  relating  to  these  subjects, 
and  these  rules  may  either  be  laws  properly  so  called,  or  they 
may  not — i.e.  they  may  or  may  not  be  commands  imposed  by 

the  sovereign  body  itself.  The 


Pegasus 
"Perseus 
"Sagitta 

Serpens 

Triangulum 
"Ursa  major 
"Ursa  minor 
"Vulpecula  et  Anser 


Dorado 

"Eridanus 

Fornax  chemica 

Grus 

Horologium 
"Hydra 

Hydrus 

Indus 


Microscopium 

Monoceros 
Musca  australis 
Norma 
Octans 
"Orion 
Pavo 
Phoenix 


CONSTIPATION  (from  Lat.  constipare,  to  press  closely  to- 
gether, whence  also  the  adjective  "  costive  "),  the  condition  of 
body  when  the  faeces  are  unduly  retained,  or  there  is  difficulty  in 
evacuation,  tightness  of  the  bowels  (see  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS;  and 
THERAPEUTICS).  It  may  be  due  to  constitutional  peculiarities, 
sedentary  or  irregular  habits,  improper  diet,  &c.  The  treatment 


English  constitutional  rule,  for 
example,  that  the  king  and 
parliament  are  the  sovereign, 
cannot  be  called  a  law;  for  a 
lawpresupposesthe  fact  which  it 
asserts.  And  other  rules,  which 
are  constantly  observed  in  prac- 
tice, but  have  never  beenenacted 
by  the  sovereign  power,  are  in 
the  same  way  constitutional  laws 
which  are  not  laws.  It  is  an 
undoubted  rule  of  the  English 
constitution  that  the  king  shall 
not  refuse  his  assent  to  a  bill 
which  has  passed  both  Houses 
of  Parliament.but  it  is  certainly 
not  a  law.  Should  the  king  veto 
such  a  bill  his  action  would  be 
unconstitutional,but  not  illegal. 
On  the  other  hand  the  rules  re- 
lating to  the  election  of  members 
to  the  House  of  Commons  are 
nearly  all  positive  laws  strictly 
so  called.  Constitutional  law, 
as  the  phrase  is  commonly  used, 

would  include  all  the  laws  dealing  with  the  sovereign  body  in  the 
exercise  of  its  various  functions,  and  all  the  rules,  not  being 
laws  properly  so  called,  relating  to  the  same  subject. 

The  above  is  an  attempt  to  indicate  trie  meaning  of  the 
phrases  in  their  stricter  or  more  technical  uses.  Some  wider 
meanings  may  be  noticed.  In  the  phrase  constitutional 


"Scorpio 
"Taurus 
"Virgo. 


Pictpr  (Equuleus  pictoris) 

Piscis  australis 

Puppis 

Recticulum 


Sculptor  (Apparatus  sculptoris) 

Scutum  Sobieskii 

Sextans 

Telescopium 

Toucan 

Triangulum  australe 

Vela 

Volans  (Piscis  volans) 

(C.  E.*) 


CONSTITUTION 


government,  a  form  of  government  based  on  certain  principles 
which  may  roughly  be  called  popular  is  the  leading  idea.  Great 
Britain,  Switzerland,  the  United  States,  are  all  constitutional 
governments  in  this  sense  of  the  word.  A  country  where  a  large 
portion  of  the  people  has  some  considerable  share  in  the  supreme 
power  would  be  a  constitutional  country.  On  the  other  hand, 
constitutional,  as  applied  to  governments,  may  mean  stable  as 
opposed  to  unstable  and  anarchic  societies.  Again,  as  a  term 
of  party  politics,  constitutional  has  come  to  mean,  in  England, 
not  obedience  to  constitutional  rules  as  above  described,  but 
adherence  to  the  existing  type  of  the  constitution  or  to  some 
conspicuous  portions  thereof, — in  other  words,  conservative. 

The  ideas  associated  with  constitution  and  constitutionalism 
are  thus,  it  will  be  seen,  mainly  of  modern  and  European  origin. 
They  are  wholly  inapplicable  to  the  primitive  and  simple  societies 
of  the  present  or  of  the  former  times.  The  discussion  of  forms 
of  government  occupies  a  large  space  in  the  writings  of  the  Greek 
philosophers, — a  fact  which  is  to  be  explained  by  the  existence 
among  the  Greeks  of  many  independent  political  communities, 
variously  organized,  and  more  or  less  democratic  in  character. 
Between  the  political  problems  of  the  smaller  societies  and  those 
of  the  great  European  nations  there  is  no  useful  parallel  to  be 
drawn,  although  the  predominance  of  classical  learning  made 
it  the  fashion  for  a  long  time  to  apply  Greek  speculations  on  the 
nature  of  monarchy,  aristocracy,  and  democracy  to  public 
questions  in  modern  Europe.  Representation  (q.v.),  the  char- 
acteristic principle  of  European  constitutions,  has,  of  course, 
no  place  in  societies  which  were  not  too  large  to  admit  of  every 
free  citizen  participating  personally  in  the  business  of  govern- 
ment. Nor  is  there  much  in  the  politics  or  the  political  literature 
of  the  Romans  to  compare  with  the  constitutions  of  modern 
states.  Their  political  system,  almost  from  the  beginning  of 
empire,  was  ruled  absolutely  by  a  small  assembly  or  by  one  man. 

The  impetus  to  constitutional  government  in  modern  times 
has  to  a  large  extent  come  from  England,  and  it  is  from  English 
politics  that  the  phrase  and  its  associations  have  been  borrowed. 
England  has  offered  to  the  world  the  one  conspicuous  example 
of  a  long,  continuous,  and  orderly  development  of  political 
institutions.  The  early  date  at  which  the  principle  of  self- 
government  was  established  in  England,  the  steady  growth  of 
the  principle,  the  absence  of  civil  dissension,  and  the  preservation 
in  the  midst  of  change  of  so  much  of  the  old  organization,  have 
given  its  constitution  a  great  influence  over  the  ideas  of  politicians 
in  other  countries.  This  fact  is  expressed  in  the  proverbial 
phrase — "  England  is  the  mother  of  parliaments."  It  would 
not  be  difficult  to  show  that  the  leading  features  of  the  constitu- 
tions now  established  in  other  nations  have  been  based  on, 
or  defended  by,  considerations  arising  from  the  political  history 
of  England. 

In  one  important  respect  England  differs  conspicuously 
from  most  other  countries.  Her  constitution  is  to  a  large  extent 
unwritten,  using  the  word  in  much  the  same  sense  as  when  we 
speak  of  unwritten  law.  Its  rules  can  be  found  in  no  written 
document,  but  depend,  as  so  much  of  English  law  does,  on 
precedent  modified  by  a  constant  process  of  interpretation. 
Many  rules  of  the  constitution  have  in  fact  a  purely  legal  history, 
that  is  to  say,  they  have  been  developed  by  the  law  courts, 
as  part  of  the  general  body  of  the  common  law.  Others  have  in  a 
similar  way  been  developed  by  the  practice  of  parliament.  Both 
Houses,  in  fact,  have  exhibited  the  same  spirit  of  adherence  to 
precedent,  coupled  with  a  power  of  modifying  precedent  to 
suit  circumstances,  which  distinguishes  the  judicial  tribunals. 
In  a  constitutional  crisis  the  House  of  Commons  appoints  a 
committee  to  "  search  its  journals  for  precedents,"  just  as  the 
court  of  king's  bench  would  examine  the  records  of  its  own 
decisions.  And  just  as  the  law,  while  professing  to  remain  the 
same,  is  in  process  of  constant  change,  so,  too,  the  unwritten 
constitution  is,  without  any  acknowledgment  of  the  fact,  con- 
stantly taking  up  new  ground. 

In  contrast  with  the  mobility  of  an  unwritten  constitution 
is  the  fixity  of  a  constitution  written  out,  like  that  of  the  United 
States  or  Switzerland,  in  one  authoritative  code.  The  constitu- 


tion of  the  United  States,  drawn  up  at  Philadelphia  in  1787, 
is  contained  in  a  code  of  articles.  It  was  ratified  separately 
by  each  state,  and  thenceforward  became  the  positive  and 
exclusive  statement  of  the  constitution.  The  legislative  powers 
of  the  legislature  are  not  to  extend  to  certain  kinds  of  bills,  e.g. 
ex  post  facto  bills;  the  president  has  a  veto  which  can  only  be 
overcome  by  a  majority  of  two-thirds  in  both  Houses;  the  con- 
stitution itself  can  only  be  changed  in  any  particular  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  legislatures  or  conventions  of  three-fourths  of  the 
several  states;  and  finally  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  are 
to  decide  in  all  disputed  cases  whether  an  act  of  the  legislature 
is  permitted  by  the  constitution  or  not. 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  is  the  supreme  law  of 
the  land  as  to  the  matters  which  it  embraces.  The  constitution 
of  each  state  is  the  supreme  law  of  the  state,  except  so  far  as  it 
may  be  controlled  by  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
Every  statute  in  conflict  with  the  constitution  to  which  it  is 
subordinate  is  void  so  far  as  this  conflict  extends.  If  it  concerns 
only  a  distinct  and  separable  part  of  the  statute,  that  part  only 
is  void.  Every  court  before  which  a  statutory  right  or  defence 
is  asserted  has  the  power  to  inquire  whether  the  statute  in 
question  is  or  is  not  in  conflict  with  the  paramount  constitution. 
This  power  belongs  even  to  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  trying  a 
cause.  He  sits  to  administer  the  law,  and  it  is  for  him  to  deter- 
mine what  is  the  law.  Inferior  courts  commonly  decline  to  hold 
a  statute  unconstitutional,  even  if  there  may  appear  to  be 
substantial  grounds  for  such  a  decision.  The  presumption  is 
always  in  favour  of  the  validity  of  the  law,  and  they  generally 
prefer  to  leave  the  responsibility  of  declaring  it  void  to  the  higher 
courts. 

The  judges  of  the  state  courts  are  bound  by  their  oath  of  office 
to  support  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  They  have  an 
equal  right  with  those  of  the  United  States  to  determine  whether 
or  how  far  it  affects  any  matter  brought  in  question  in  any 
action.  So,  vice  versa,  the  judges  of  the  United  States  courts, 
if  the  point  comes  up  on  a  trial  before  them,  have  the  right  to 
determine  whether  or  how  far  the  constitution  of  a  state  in- 
validates a  statute  of  the  state.  They,  however,  are  ordinarily 
bound  to  follow  the  views  of  the  state  courts  on  such  a  question. 
They  are  not  bound  by  any  decision  of  a  state  court  as  to  the 
effect  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  on  a  state  statute 
or  any  other  matter.  This  judicial  power  of  declaring  a  statute 
void  because  unconstitutional  has  been  not  infrequently  exercised, 
from  the  time  when  the  first  state  constitutions  were  adopted. 

Juries  in  criminal  causes  are  sometimes  made  by  American 
statutes  or  recognized  by  American  practice  as  judges  of  the  law 
as  well  as  the  fact.  The  better  opinion  is  that  this  does  not 
make  them  judges  of  whether  a  law  on  which  the  prosecution 
rests  violates  the  paramount  constitution  and  is  therefore  void 
(United States  v.  Callender,  Wharton's  State  Trials,  688;  State  v. 
Main,  69  Connecticut  Reports,  123,  128). 

If  a  state  court  decides  a  point  of  constitutional  law,  set  up 
under  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  against  the  party 
relying  upon  it,  and  this  decision  is  affirmed  by  the  state  court 
of  last  resort,  he  may  sue  out  a  writ  of  error,  and  so  bring  his 
case  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  If  the 
state  decision  be  in  his  favour,  the  other  side  cannot  resort  to 
like  proceedings. 

A  decree  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  on  a  point 
of  construction  arising  under  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States  settles  it  for  all  courts,  state  and  national. 

The  salient  characteristic  of  the  United  States  constitution  is, 
perhaps,  its  formidable  apparatus  of  provisions  against  change; 
and,  in  fact,  only  1 5  constitutional  amendments  had  been  adopted 
from  1789  up  to  1909,  the  last  being  in  1870.  In  the  same  period 
the  unwritten  constitution  of  England  has  made  a  most  marked 
advance,  chiefly  in  the  direction  of  democratizing  the  monarchy, 
and  diminishing  the  powers  of  the  House  of  Lords.  The  House 
of  Commons  has  continuously  asserted  its  legislative  predomin- 
ance, and  has  reduced  the  other  House  to  the  position  of  a 
revising  chamber,  which  in  the  last  resort,  however,  can  produce 
a  legislative  deadlock,  subject  to  the  results  of  a  new  general 


i6 


"CONSTITUTION  OF  ATHENS' 


election  (see  PARLIAMENT).  And  the  cabinet,  which  depends  on 
the  support  of  the  House  of  Commons,  has  become  more  and 
more  the  executive  council  of  the  realm.  One  conspicuous 
feature  of  the  English  constitution,  by  which  it  is  broadly  dis- 
tinguished from  written  or  artificial  constitutions,  is  the  presence 
throughout  its  entire  extent  of  legal  fictions.  The  influence  of 
the  lawyers  on  the  progress  of  the  constitution  has  already  been 
noticed,  and  is  nowhere  more  clearly  shown  than  in  this  peculiarity 
of  its  structure.  As  in  the  common  law,  so  in  the  constitution, 
change  has  been  effected  in  substance  without  any  corresponding 
change  in  terminology.  There  is  hardly  one  of  the  phrases  used  to 
describe  the  position  of  the  crown  which  can  be  understood  in  its 
literal  sense,  and  many  of  them  are  currently  accepted  in  more 
senses  than  one.  The  American  constitution  of  1 789  reproduced, 
however,  in  essentials,  and  with  necessary  modifications,  the 
contemporary  British  model,  and,  where  it  did  so,  has  preserved 
the  old  conception  of  what  was  then  the  British  system  of 
government.  The  position  and  powers  of  the  president  were 
a  fair  counterpart  of  the  royal  prerogative  of  that  day;  the 
two  houses  of  Congress  corresponded  sufficiently  well  to  the 
House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons,  allowing  for  the 
absence  of  the  elements  of  hereditary  rank  and  territorial  in- 
fluence. While  the  English  constitution  has  changed  much,  the 
American  constitution  has  changed  very  little  in  these  respects. 
Allowing  for  the  more  democratic  character  of  the  constituencies, 
the  organization  of  the  supreme  power  in  the  United  States  is 
nearer  the  English  type  of  the  i8th  century — is,  in  fact,  less 
elastic  than  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  misinterpret  the 
rigidity  of  the  United  States  constitution,  from  a  regard  rather 
to  the  theory  which  its  text  suggests  than  to  the  practical 
working  of  the  machine.  For  the  letter  of  the  constitution  has 
to  some  extent  been  modified,  if  not  technically  amended,  in 
various  respects  by  judicial  interpretation,  and  by  use  and  wont 
(e.g.  as  regards  the  election  of  the  president).  This  side  of  the 
matter  may  be  studied  in  C.  G.  Tiedeman's  work  cited  below. 
Moreover,  even  in  respect  of  the  18th-century  British  character 
attaching  to  the  constitution,  as  drawn  up  in  1787,  it  has  to  be 
remembered  that  this  was  not  taken  direct  from  England.  As 
several  American  constitutional  historians  have  elaborately 
shown  (e.g.  A.  C.  McLaughlin,  in  The  Confederation  and  the 
Constitution,  1905),  the  English  idea  had  already  been  developed 
in  various  directions  during  the  preceding  colonial  period,  and 
the  constitution  really  represented  the  English  constitutional 
usage  as  known  in  America,  into  which  the  Philadelphia  con- 
vention introduced  new  features  corresponding  to  the  prevailing 
civil  conditions  or  suggested  by  English  analogy.  It  is  important 
to  emphasize  this  point,  since  the  resemblance  of  the  American 
constitution  of  1789  to  the  contemporary  English  constitution 
has  sometimes  been  exaggerated;  but  the  fact  remains  that  the 
written  constitution  has  been  less  susceptible  of  development 
than  the  unwritten. 

Between  England  and  some  other  constitutional  countries  a 
difference  of  much  constitutional  importance  is  to  be  found  in 
the  terms  on  which  the  component  parts  of  the  country  were 
brought  together.  All  great  societies  have  been  produced  by 
the  aggregation  of  small  societies'  into  larger  and  larger  groups. 
In  England  the  process  of  consolidation  was  completed  before 
the  constitution  settled  down  into  its  present  form.  In  the 
United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Germany 
the  constitution  is  in  form  an  alliance  among  a  number  of 
separate  states,  each  of  which  may  have  a  constitution  and 
laws  of  its  own  for  local  purposes.  In  federal  governments  it 
remains  a  question  how  far  the  independence  of  individual 
states  has  been  sacrificed  by  submission  to  a  constitution.  In 
the  United  States  constitutional  progress  is  hampered  by  the 
necessity  thus  created  of  having  every  amendment  ratified  by 
the  separate  vote  of  three-fourths  of  the  states. 

See  also  GOVERNMENT;  SOVEREIGNTY;  CABINET;  PREROGATIVE, 
&c.,  and  the  section  on  Government  or  Constitution  in  the  articles 
on  the  various  countries.  The  standard  work  on  the  English  con- 
stitution is  Sir  William  Anson's  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Constitution 
(ist  ed.  1886?  3rd  ed.  1909);  see  also  A.  L.  Lowell,  The  Government 


of  England  (1908);  W.  Bagehot,  The  English  Constitution;  S.  Low, 
The  Governance  of  England  (1904);  A.  V.  Dicey,  The  Law  of  the 
Constitution  (7th  ed.  1909) ;  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of 
England  (1878);  R.  Gneist,  History  of  the  English  Constitution 
(Engl.  trans.  1886);  J.  Macy,  The  English  Constitution  (New  York, 
1897);  E.  W.  Ridges,  Constitutional  Law  of  England  (1905);  F.  W. 
Maitland,  Constitutional  History  of  England  (1908);  G.  B.  Adams 
and  H.  M.  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutional 
History  (New  York,  1901).  For  America,  see  C.  E.  Stevens,  Sources 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  (London  and  New  York,  1894) ; 
G.  T.  Curtis,  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1 889-1 896) ;  T.  Mel .  Cooley ,  General  Principles  of  Constitutional 
Law  in  the  United  States  (Boston,  1880;  3rd  ed.  1898);  S.  G. 
Fisher,  Evolution  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  (Philadelphia, 
1897);  J.  I.  C.  Hare,  American  Constitutional  Law  (2  vols.,  Boston, 
1889) ;  J.  F.  Jameson  (ed.),  Essays  on  the  Constitutional  History  of  the 
United  States  in  the  Formative  Period,  1775-1789  (Boston,  1889); 
W.  M.  Meigs,  Growth  of  the  Constitution  in  the  Federal  Convention 
of  1787  (Philadelphia,  1900);  and  C.  G.  Tiedeman,  Unwritten  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  Slates  (New  York,  1890).  Also  A.  L.  Lowell, 
Government  and  Parties  in  Continental  Europe  (2  vols.,  1896);  W.  F. 
Dodd,  Modern  Constitutions  (2  vols.,  Chicago,  1909),  a  collec- 
tion of  the  fundamental  laws  of  twenty-two  of  the  most  important 
countries. 

"  CONSTITUTION  OF  ATHENS  "  ('Aftjwtwv  TroXtreia),  a  work 
attributed  to  the  philosopher  Aristotle  (384-322  B.C.),  forming 
one  of  a  series  of  Constitutions  (TroXi-racu),  158  in  number,  which 
treated  of  the  institutions  of  the  various  states  in  the  Greek 
world.  It  was  extant  until  the  7th  century  of  our  era,  or  to  an 
even  later  date,  but  was  subsequently  lost.  A  copy  of  this 
treatise,  written  in  four  different  hands  upon  four  rolls  of  papyrus, 
and  dating  from  the  end  of  the  ist  century  A.D.,  was  discovered 
in  Egypt,  and  acquired  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum, 
for  whom  it  was  edited  by  F.  G.  Kenyon,  assistant  in  the  manu- 
script department,  and  published  in  January  1891.  Some  very 
imperfect  fragments  of  another  copy  'had  been  acquired  by  the 
Egyptian  Museum  at  Berlin,  and  were  published  in  1880. 

Authorship. — It  may  be  regarded  as  now  established  that  the 
treatise  discovered  in  Egypt  is  identical  with  the  work  upon  the 
constitution  of  Athens  that  passed  in  antiquity  under  the  name  of 
Aristotle.  The  evidence  derived  from  a  comparison  of  the 
British  Museum  papyrus  with  the  quotations  from  the  lost  work 
of  Aristotle's  which  are  found  in  scholiasts  and  grammarians  is 
conclusive.  Of  fifty-eight  quotations  from  Aristotle's  work,  fifty- 
five  occur  in  the  papyrus.  Of  thirty-three  quotations  from 
Aristotle,  which  relate  to  matters  connected  with  the  con- 
stitution, or  the  constitutional  history  of  Athens,  although 
they  are  not  expressly  referred  to  the  '\Oijvaio3V  iro\iTtia, 
twenty-three  are  found  in  the  papyrus.  Of  those  not  found 
in  the  papyrus,  the  majority  appear  to  have  come  either 
from  the  beginning  of  the  treatise,  which  is  wanting  in  the 
papyrus,  or  from  the  latter  portion  of  it,  which  is  mutilated. 
The  coincidence,  therefore,  is  as  nearly  as  possible  complete. 
It  may  also  be  regarded  as  established  by  internal  evidence  that 
the  treatise  was  composed  during  the  interval  between  Aristotle's 
return  to  Athens'in  335  B.C.  and  his  death  in  322.  There  are  two 
passages  which  give  us  the  latter  year  as  the  terminus  ad  quern, 
viz.  c.  42.  i  and  c.  62.  2.  In  the  former  passage  the  democracy 
which  is  about  to  be  described  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  present 
constitution  "  (17  vvv  Karatrraai's  TTJS  iroXireias).  The  democratic 
constitution  was  abolished,  and  a  timocracy  established,  on  the 
surrender  of  Athens  to  Antipater,  at  the  end  of  the  Lamian  War, 
in  the  autumn  of  322.  At  the  same  time  Samos  was  lost;  it  is 
still  reckoned,  however,  among  the  Athenian  possessions  in  the 
latter  passage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  foreign  possessions 
of  Athens  are  limited  to  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Scyros,  Delos  and 
Samos.  This  could  only  apply  to  the  period  after  Chaeronea 
(338  B.C.).  In  c.  61.  i,  again,  mention  is  made  of  a  special 
Strategus  eirt  ras  o-vnnopias;  but  it  can  be  proved  from  inscrip- 
tions that  down  to  the  year  334  the  generals  were  collectively  con- 
cerned with  the  symmories.  Finally,  in  c.  54.  7  an  event  is  dated 
by  the  archonship  of  Cephisophon  (329).  We  thus  get  the 
years  329  and  322  as  fixing  the  limits  of  the  period  to  which  the 
composition  of  the  work  must  be  assigned.  It  follows  that, 
whether  it  is  by  Aristotle  or  not,  its  date  is  later  than  that  of  the 
Politics,  in  which  there  is  no  reference  to  any  event  subsequent 
to  the  death  of  Philip  in  336. 


"CONSTITUTION  OF  ATHENS' 


The  only  question  as  to  authorship  that  can  fairly  be  raised 
is  the  question  whether  it  is  by  Aristotle  or  by  a  pupil;  i.e.  as  to 
the  sense  in  which  it  is  "  Aristotelian."  The  argument  on  the 
two  sides  may  be  summarized  as  follows: — 

Against. — (i.)  The  occurrence  of  non-Aristotelian  words  and 
phrases  and  the  absence  of  turns  of  expression  characteristic  of 
the  undisputed  writings  of  Aristotle,  (ii.)  The  occurrence  of 
statements  contradictory  of  views  found  in  the  Polities',  e.g. 
c.  4  (Constitution  of  Draco)  compared  with  Pol.  1274  b  15 
i'Tos  v6pm  \ikv  dai,  TroXireip  5'  VTrapxovo-y  TOUS 
WT\MV);  c.  8.  i  (the  archons  appointed  by  lot  out  of 
selected  candidates)  compared  with  Pol.  1274  a  17,  and  1281 
b3i  (the  archons  elected  by  the  demos);  c.  17.  i  (total  length  of 
Peisistratus'  reign,  19  years)  compared  with  Pol.  1315  b  32 
(total  length,  17  years);  c.  21.  6  (Cleisthenes  left  the  clan  and 
phratries  unaltered)  compared  with  Pol.  1319  b  20  (Cleisthenes 
increased  the  number  of  the  phratries);  c.  21.  2  and  4  compared 
with  Pol.  1275  b  37  (different  views  as  to  the  class  admitted 
to  citizenship  by  Cleisthenes).  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
instances  quoted  relate  to  the  most  famous  names  in  the  early 
history  of  Athens,  viz.  Draco,  Solon,  Peisistratus  and  Cleisthenes. 
(iii.)  Arguments  drawn  from  the  style,  composition  and  general 
character  of  the  work,  which  are  alleged  to  be  unworthy  of  the 
author  of  the  undoubtedly  genuine  writings.  There  is  no  sense 
of  proportion  (contrast  the  space  devoted  to  Peisistratus  and  his 
sons,  or  to  the  Four  Hundred  and  the  Thirty,  with  the  inadequate 
treatment  of  the  period  between  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian 
Wars);  there  is  a  lack  of  historical  insight  and  an  uncritical 
acceptance  of  erroneous  views;  and  the  anecdotic  element  is 
unduly  prominent.  These  considerations  led  several  of  the  earlier 
critics  to  deny  the  Aristotelian  authorship,  e.g.  the  editors  of  the 
Dutch  edition  of  the  text,  van  Herwerden  and  van  Leeuwen; 
Riihl,  Cauer  and  Schvarcz  in  Germany;  H.  Richards  and  others 
in  England. 

For. — (i.)  The  consensus  of  antiquity.  Every  ancient  writer 
who  mentions  the  Constitution  attributes  it  to  Aristotle,  while  no 
writer  is  known  to  have  questioned  its  genuineness,  (ii.)  The 
coincidence  of  the  date  assigned  to  its  composition  on  internal 
grounds  with  the  date  of  Aristotle's  second  residence  in  Athens, 
(iii.)  Parallelisms  of  thought  or  expression  with  passages  in  the 
Politics;  e.g.  c.  16.  2  and  3  compared  with  Pol.  1318  b  14  and 
1319  a  30;  the  general  view  of  Solon's  legislation  compared  with 
Pol.  1296  b  i;  c.  27.  3  compared  with  Pol.  1274  a  9.  To 
argument  (i.)  against  the  authorship,  it  is  replied  that  the 
Constitution  is  an  historical  work,  intended  for  popular  use; 
differences  in  style  and  terminology  from  those  of  a  philosophical 
treatise,  such  as  the  Politics,  are  to  be  expected.  To  argument 
(ii.)  it  is  replied  that,  as  the  Constitution  is  a  later  work  than  the 
Politics,  a  change  of  view  upon  particular  points  is  not  surprising. 
These  considerations  have  led  the  great  majority  of  writers  upon 
the  subject  to  attribute  the  work  to  Aristotle  himself.  On  this 
side  are  found  Kenyon  and  Sandys  among  English  scholars,  and 
in  Germany,  Wilamowitz,  Blass,  Gilbert,  Bauer,  Bruno  Keil, 
Busolt,  E.  Meyer,  and  many  others.  On  the  whole,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  the  view  which  is  supported  by  so  great  a  weight 
of  authority  is  the  correct  one.  The  arguments  advanced  on  the 
other  side  are  not  to  be  lightly  set  aside,  but  they  can  scarcely 
outweigh  the  combination  of  external  and  internal  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  attribution  to  Aristotle.  An  attentive  study  of  the 
parallel  passages  in  the  Politics  will  go  a  long  way  towards 
carrying  conviction.  It  is  true  that  a  series  such  as  the  Constitu- 
tions might  well  be  entrusted  to  pupils  working  under  the  direc- 
tion of  their  master.  It  is  also  true,  however,  that  the 
Constitution  of  Athens  must  have  been  incomparably  the  most 
important  of  the  series  and  the  one  that  would  be  most  naturally 
reserved  for  the  master's  hand.  There  are  no  traces  in  the 
treatise  either  of  variety  of  authorship  or  of  incompleteness, 
though  there  are  evidences  of  interpolation. 

Contents. — The  treatise  consists  of  two  parts,  one  historical, 
and  the  other  descriptive.  The  first  forty -one  chapters  compose 
the  former  part,  the  remainder  of  the  work  the  latter.  The  first 
part  comprised  an  account  of  the  original  constitution  of  Athens, 


and  of  the  eleven  changes  through  which  it  successively  passed 
(see  c.  41).  The  papyrus,  however,  is  imperfect  at  the  beginning 
(the  manuscript  from  which  it  was  copied  appears  to  have  been 
similarly  defective),  the  text  commencing  in  the  middle  of  a 
sentence  which  relates  to  the  trial  and  banishment  of  the 
Alcmeonidae  for  their  part  in  the  affair  of  Cylon.  The  missing 
chapters  must  have  contained  a  sketch  of  the  original  constitu- 
tion, and  of  the  changes  introduced  in  the  time  of  Ion  and 
Theseus. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  Part  I.  in  its  present  form. 
Chapters  2, 3,  description  of  the  constitution  before  the  time  of  Draco. 
4,  Draco's  constitution.  5-12,  reforms  of  Solon.  13,  party  feuds 
after  the  legislation  of  Solon.  14-19,  the  rule  of  Peisistratus  and  his 
sons.  20,  21,  the  reforms  of  Cleisthenes.  22,  changes  introduced 
between  Cleisthenes  and  the  invasion  of  Xerxes.  23,  24,  the  supre- 
macy of  the  Areopagus,  479^-461  B.C.  25,  its  overthrow  by  Ephialtes. 
26,  27,  changes  introduced  in  the  time  of  Pericles.  28,  the  rise  of  the 
demagogues.  29-33,  the  revolution  of  the  Four  Hundred.  34-40, 
the  government  of  the  Thirty.  41,  list  of  the  successive  changes  in 
the  constitution.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  reforms  of  Solon,  the 
tyranny  of  Peisistratus  and  his  sons,  and  the  revolutions  of  the  Four 
Hundred  and  the  Thirty,  together  occupy  considerably  more  than 
two-thirds  of  Part  I. 

Part  II.  describes  the  constitution  as  it  existed  at  the  period  of 
the  composition  of  the  treatise  (329-322  B.C.).  It  begins  with  an 
account  of  the  conditions  of  citizenship  and  of  the  training  of  the 
ephebi  (citizens  between  the  ages  of  18  and  20).  In  chapters  43-^9 
the  functions  of  the  Council  (fiovMi)  and  of  the  officials  who  act  in 
concert  with  it  are  described.  5°"6°  deal  with  the  officials  who  are 
appointed  by  lot,  of  whom  the  most  important  are  the  nine  Archons, 
to  whose  functions  five  chapters  (55-59)  are  devoted.  The  military 
officers,  who  come  under  the  head  of  elective  officials,  form  the 
subject  of  c.  61.  With  c.  63  begins  the  section  on  the  Law-courts, 
which  occupied  the  remainder  of  the  Constitution.  This  portion, 
with  the  exception  of  c.  63,  is  fragmentary  in  character,  owing  to  the 
mutilated  condition  of  the  fourth  roll  of  the  papyrus  on  which  it  was 
written.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  subjects  which  receive  fullest 
treatment  in  Part  II.  are  the  Council,  the  Archons  and  the  Law- 
courts.  The  Ecclesia,  on  the  other  hand,  is  dealt  with  very  briefly, 
in  connexion  with  the  prytaneis  and  proedri  (cc.  43,  44). 

Sources. — The  labours  of  several  workers  in  this  field,  notably 
Bruno  Keil  and  Wilamowitz,  have  rendered  it  comparatively 
easy  to  form  a  general  estimate  of  Aristotle's  indebtedness  to 
previous  writers,  although  problems  of  great  difficulty  are 
encountered  as  soon  as  it  is  attempted  to  determine  the  precise 
sources  from  which  the  historical  part  of  the  work  is  derived. 
Among  these  sources  are  unquestionably  Herodotus  (for  the 
tyranny  of  Peisistratus,  and  for  the  struggle  between  Cleisthenes 
and  Isagoras),  Thucydides  (for  the  episode  of  Harmodius  and 
Aristogeiton,  and  for  the  Four  Hundred),  Xenophon  (for  the 
Thirty),  and  the  poems  of  Solon.  There  is  now  among  critics 
a  general  consensus  hi  favour  of  the  view  that  the  most  important 
of  his  sources  was  the  Atthis  of  Androtion,  a  work  published 
in  all  probability  only  a  few  years  earlier  than  the  Constitution; 
in  any  case,  after  the  year  346.  Frorii  it  are  derived  not  only 
the  passages  which  are  annalistic  hi  character  and  read  like 
excerpts  from  a  chronicle  (e.g.  c.  13.  i,  2;  c.  22;  c.  26.  2,  3), 
but  also  most  of  the  matter  common  to  the  Constitution  and  to 
Plutarch's  Solon.  The  coincidences  with  Plutarch,  which  are 
often  verbal,  and  extend  to  about  50  lines  out  of  170  in  cc.  5-11 
of  the  Constitution,  can  best  be  explained  on  the  hypothesis 
that  Hermippus,  the  writer  followed  by  Plutarch,  used  the 
same  source  as  Aristotle,  viz.  the  Atthis  of  Androtion.  Androtion 
is  probably  closely  followed  in  the  account  of  the  pre-Draconian 
constitution,  and  to  him  appear  to  be  due  the  explanation  of 
local  names  (e.g.  -^wpiov  dreXes),  or  proverbial  expressions  (e.g. 
ri>  ij.fi  <f>v\oKpt.vtiv) ,  as  well  as  the  account  of  "Strategems" 
such  as  that  of  Themistocles  against  the  Areopagus  (c.  25)  or 
that  employed  by  Peisistratus  in  order  to  disarm  the  people 
(c.  15.  4).  Whether  the  anecdotes,  which  are  a  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  Constitution,  should  be  referred  to  the  same  source 
is  more  open  to  doubt.  It  is  also  generally  agreed  that  among 
the  sources  was  a  work,  written  towards  the  end  of  the  sth 
century  B.C.,  by  an  author  of  oligarchical  sympathies,  with  the 
object  of  defaming  the  character  and  policy  of  the  heroes  of  the 
democracy.  This  source  cap  be  traced  in  passages  such  as 
c.  6.  2  (Solon  turning  the  Seisachtheia  to  the  profit  of  himself  and 
his  friends),  9.  2  (obscurity  of  Solon's  laws  intentional,  cf.  c.  35.  2), 


i8 


CONSUETUDINARY— CONSUL 


27.  4  (Pericles'  motive  for  the  introduction  of  the  dicasts'  pay). 
But  while  the  object  (01  £Sov\onti>oi  /3Xao-</tf)jueii>,  c.  6)  and  the 
date  of  this  oligarchical  pamphlet  (for  the  date  cf.  Plutarch's 
Solon,  c.  15  ol  irtpl  Koviava  KO!  K.\fiviaar  KO.L  'Iirirovucov,  which 
points  to  a  time  when  Conon,  Alcibiades  and  Callias  were  pro- 
minent in  public  life)  are  fairly  certain,  the  authorship  is  quite 
uncertain,  as  is  also  its  relationship  to  another  source  of  import- 
ance, viz.  that  from  which  are  derived  the  accounts  of  the 
Four  Hundred  and  the  Thirty.  The  view  taken  of  the  character 
and  course  of  these  revolutions  betrays  a  strong  bias  in  favour 
of  Theramenes,  whose  ideal  is  alleged  to  have  been  the  irarpias 
iroXiTtia.  It  has  been  maintained,  on  the  one  hand,  that  this 
last  source  (the  authority  followed  in  the  accounts  of  the  Four 
Hundred  and  the  Thirty)  is  identical  with  the  oligarchical 
pamphlet,  and,  on  the  other,  that  it  is  none  other  than  the  Atthis 
of  Androtion.  The  former  hypothesis  is  improbable.  In  favour 
of  the  latter  two  arguments  may  be  adduced.  In  the  first  place, 
Androtion's  father,  Andron,  was  one  of  the  Four  Hundred,  and 
took  Theramenes'  side.  Secondly,  the  precise  marks  of  time, 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  Atlhis,  are  conspicuous  in  these 
chapters.  In  view,  however,  of  the  fact  that  Androtion  in  his 
political  career  showed  himself  not  only  a  democrat,  but  a 
democrat  of  the  extreme  school,  the  hypothesis  must  be 
pronounced  untenable. 

Value. — It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  convey  a  just  impression  of 
the  value  of  Aristotle's  work  as  an  authority  for  the  constitu- 
tional history  of  Athens.  In  all  that  relates  to  the  practice  of 
his  own  day  Aristotle's  authority  is  final.  There  can  be  no 
question,  therefore,  as  to  the  importance,  or  the  trustworthy 
character,  of  the  Second  Part.  But  even  here  a  caution  is 
necessary.  It  must  be  remembered  that  its  authority  is  final 
for  the  4th  century  only,  and  that  we  are  not  justified  in  arguing 
from  the  practice  of  the  4th  century  to  that  of  the  5th,  unless 
corroborative  evidence  is  available.  In  the  First  Part,  however, 
where  he  is  treating  of  the  institutions  and  practice  of  a  past 
age,  Aristotle's  authority  is  very  far  from  being  final.  An 
analysis  of  this  part  of  the  work  discloses  his  dependence,  in  a 
remarkable  degree,  upon  his  sources.  Occasionally  he  compares, 
criticizes  or  combines;  as  a  rule  he  adheres  closely  to  the 
writer  whom  he  is  using.  There  is  no  evidence,  either  of  inde- 
pendent inquiry,  or  of  the  utilization  of  other  sources  than 
literary  ones.  Where  "original  documents"  are  quoted,  or 
referred  to,  as  e.g.  in  the  history  of  the  Four  Hundred,  or  of  the 
Thirty,  it  is  probable  that  he  derived  them  from  a  previous 
writer.  For  the  authority  of  Aristotle  we  must  substitute, 
therefore,  the  authority  of  his  sources;  i.e.  the  value  of  any 
particular  statement  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  source 
from  which  it  comes.  For  the  history  of  the  sth  century  the 
passages  which  come  from  Androtion's  Atthis  carry  with  them 
a  high  degree  of  authority.  It  by  no  means  follows,  however, 
that  a  statement  relating  to  earlier  times  is  to  be  accepted 
simply  because  it  is  derived  from  the  same  source.  And  in 
passages  which  are  derived  from  other  sources  than  the  Atthis 
a  much  lower  degree  of  authority  can  be  claimed,  even  for  state- 
ments relating  to  the  5th  century.  The  supremacy  of  the 
Areopagus  after  the  Persian  Wars,  the  policy  attributed  to 
Aristides  (c.  24),  and  the  association  of  Themistocles  with 
Ephialtes,  are  cases  in  point.  Nor  must  the  reader  expect  to 
find  in  the  Constitution  a  great  work,  in  any  sense  of  the  term. 
The  style,  it  is  true,  is  simple  and  clear,  and  the  writer's  criticisms 
are  sensible.  But  the  reader  will  look  in  vain  for  evidence  of 
the  philosophic  insight  which  makes  the  Politics,  even  at  the 
present  day,  the  best  text-book  of  political  philosophy.  It  is 
perhaps  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  there  is  not  a  single  great 
idea  in  the  whole  work.  He  will  look  in  vain,  too,  for  any 
consistent  view  of  the  history  of  the  constitution  as  a  whole, 
or  for  any  adequate  account  of  its  development.  He  will  find 
occasional  misunderstandings  of  measures,  and  confusions  of 
thought.  There  are  appreciations  which  it  is  difficult  to  accept, 
and  inaccuracies  which  it  is  difficult  to  pardon.  There  are 
contradictions  which  the  author  has  overlooked,  and  there  are 
omissions  which  are  unaccountable.  Yet,  in  spite  of  such  defects, 


the  importance  of  the  Constitution  can  hardly  be  exaggerated. 
Its  recovery  has  rendered  obsolete  any  history  of  the  Athenian 
constitution  that  was  written  before  the  year  1891.  Before 
this  date  our  knowledge  was  largely  derived  from  the  statements 
of  scholiasts  and  lexicographers  which  had  not  seldom  been 
misunderstood.  The  recovery  of  the  Constitution  puts  us  for 
the  first  time  in  possession  of  the  evidence.  To  appreciate  the 
difference  that  has  been  made  by  its  recovery,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  compare  what  we  now  know  of  the  reforms  of  Cleisthenes 
with  what  we  formerly  knew.  It  is  much  of  it  evidence  that 
needs  a  careful  process  of  weighing  and  sifting  before  it  can  be 
safely  used;  but  it  is,  as  a  rule,  the  best,  or  the  only  evidence. 
The  First  Part  may  be  less  trustworthy  than  the  Second;  it  is 
not  less  indispensable  to  the  student  of  constitutional  history. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A  conspectus  of  the  literature  of  the  Constitution 
complete  down  to  the  end  of  1892  is  given  in  Sandys  p.  Ixvii.,  and, 
though  less  complete,  down  to  the  beginning  of  1895  in  Busolt, 
Griechische  Geschichte,  2nd  ed.  vol.  ii.  p.  15.  In  the  present  article 
only  the  most  important  editions,  works  or  articles  are  mentioned. 

Editions  of  the  text:  Editio  princeps,  ed.  by  F.  G.  Kenyon,  3Oth 
January  1891,  with  commentary.  Autotype  facsimile  of  the 
papyrus  (1891).  Aristotelis  voXirda  'Aff^vaUov,  ed.  G.  Kaibel  etU.  von 
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff  (Berlin,  Weidmann,  1891).  Aristotelis  qui 
fertur  'A0i)va.iwv  TroXirda  recensuerunt  H.  van  Herwerden  et  J.  van 
Leeuwen  (Leiden,  1891).  Teubner  text,  ed.  by  F.  Blass  (Leipzig/ 
1892).  Edition  of  the  text  without  commentary  by  Kenyon. 

Most  of  these  have  passed  through  several  editions.  The  fullest 
commentary  is  that  contained  in  the  edition  of  the  text  by  J.  E. 
Sandys  (London,  1893).  The  best  translations  are  those  of  Kenyon, 
in  English,  and  of  Kaibel  and  Kiessling,  in  German. 

Works  dealing  with  the  subject:  Bruno  Keil,  Die  Solonische 
Verfassung  nach  Aristoteles  (Berlin,  1892);  G.  Gilbert,  Constitutional 
Antiquities  of  Sparta  and  Athens  (Eng.  trans.,  1895);  U.  von  Wila- 
mowitz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles  und  Athen  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1893), 
a  work  of  great  importance,  in  spite  of  many  unsound  conclusions; 
E.  Meyer,  Forschungen,  vol.  ii.  pp.  406  ff.  (the  section  dealing  with  the 
Four  Hundred  is  especially  valuable).  Articles:  R.  \V.  Macan, 
Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  (April  1891);  R.  Nissen,  Rheinisches 
Museum  (1892),  p.  161 ;  G.  Busolt,  Hermes  (1898),  pp.  71  ff. ;  O. 
Seeck,  "  Quellenstudien  zu  des  Aristoteles'  Verfassungsgeschichte 
Athens,"  in  Lehmann's  Beitrage  zur  alien  Geschichte,  vol.  iv.  pp.  164 
and  270.  (E.  M.  W.) 

CONSUETUDINARY  (Med.  Lat.  consuetudinarius,  from  con- 
sueludo,  custom),  customary,  a  term  used  especially  of  law 
based  on  custom  as  opposed  to  statutory  or  written  law.  As  a 
noun  "  consuetudinary  "  (Lat.  consuetudinarius,  sc.  liber)  is  the 
name  given  to  a  ritual  book  containing  the  forms  and  ceremonies 
used  in  the  services  of  a  particular  monastery,  cathedral  or 
religious  order. 

CONSUL  (in  Gr.  generally  wraros,  a  shortened  form  of  ffrptmjyo^ 
inraTos,  i.e.  praetor  maximus),  the  title  borne  by  the  two  highest 
of  the  ordinary  magistrates  of  the  whole  Roman  community 
during  the  republic.  In  the  imperial  period  these  magistrates 
had  ceased  practically  to  be  the  heads  of  the  state,  but  their 
technical  position  remained  unaltered.  (For  the  modem 
commercial  office  of  consul  see  the  separate  article  below.) 

The  consulship  arose  with  the  fall  of  the  ancient  monarchy 
(see  further  ROME:  History,  II.  "  The  Republic  ").  The  Roman 
reverence  for  the  abstract  conception  of  the  magistracy,  as 
expressed  in  the  imperium  and  the  auspicia,  led  to  the  pre- 
servation of  the  regal  power  weakened  only  by  external 
limitations.  The  two  new  officials  who  replaced  the  king  bore 
the  titles  of  leaders  (praetores)  and  of  judges  (judices;  cf.  Cicero, 
De  legibus,  iii.  3.  8,  "  regie  imperio  duo  sunto  iique  a  praeeundo 
judicando  .  .  .  praetores  judices  .  .  .  appellamino").  But  the 
new  fact  of  colleagueship  caused  a  third  title  to  prevail,  that 
of  consules  or  "  partners,"  a  word  probably  derived  from  con- 
salio  on  the  analogy  of  praesul  and  exul  (Mommsen,  Staatsrecht, 
ii.  p.  77,  n.  3).  This  first  example  of  the  collegiate  principle 
assumed  the  form  that  soon  became  familiar  in  the  Roman 
commonwealth.  Each  of  the  pair  of  magistrates  could  act  up  to 
the  full  powers  of  the  imperium;  but  the  dissent  of  his  colleague 
rendered  his  decision  or  his  action  null  and  void.  At  the  same 
time  the  principle  of  a  merely  annual  tenure  of  office  was  insisted 
on.  The  two  magistrates  at  the  close  of  their  year  of  office  were 
bound  to  transmit  their  power  to  successors;  and  these  successors 
whom  they  nominated  were  obliged  to  seek  the  suffrages  of  the 


CONSUL 


people.  The  only  body  known  to  us  as  electing  the  consuls 
during  the  republican  period  was  the  comitia  cenluriata  (see 
COMITIA).  The  consulate  was  originally  confined  to  patricians. 
During  the  struggle  for  higher  office  that  was  waged  between 
the  orders  the  office  was  suspended  on  fifty-one  occasions 
between  the  years  444  and  367  B.C.  and  replaced  by  the  military 
tribunate  with  consular  power,  to  which  plebeians  were  eligible. 
The  struggle  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Licinio  -Sextian  laws 
of  367  B.C.,  which  enacted  that  one  consul  must  be  a  plebeian 
(see  PATRICIANS). 

Most  of  the  internal  history  of  Rome  down  to  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century  B.C.  consists  in  a  series  of  attacks,  whether 
intentional  or  accidental,  on  the  power  of  the  executive.  As 
the  consuls  are  the  sole  representatives  of  higher  executive 
authority  in  early  times,  this  history  is  one  of  a  progressive 
decline  in  the  originally  wide  and  arbitrary  powers  of  the  office. 
Their  right  of  summary  criminal  jurisdiction  was  weakened  by 
the  successive  laws  of  appeal  (provocatio) ;  their  capacity  for 
interpreting  the  civil  law  at  their  pleasure  by  the  publication 
of  the  Twelve  Tables  and  the  Forms  of  Action.  The  growth 
of  the  tribunate  of  the  plebs  hampered  their  activity  both  as 
legislators  and  as  judges.  They  surrendered  the  duties  of 
registration  to  the  censors  in  443  B.C.,  and  the  rights  of  civil 
jurisdiction  and  control  over  the  market  and  police  to  the 
praetor  and  the  curule  aediles  in  367  B.C. 

The  result  of  these  limitations  and  of  this  specialization  of 
functions  in  the  community  was  to  leave  the  consuls  with  less 
specific  duties  at  home  than  any  magistrates  in  the  state.  But 
the  absence  of  specific  functions  may  be  of  itself  a  sign  of  a  general 
duty  of  supervision.  The  consuls  were  in  a  very  real  sense  the 
heads  of  the  state.  Polybius  describes  them  as  controlling  the 
whole  administration  (Polyb.  vi.  12  waffuv  flat  Kvpun  TUV  617^0- 
aiuv  irpa^eiav).  This  control  they  exercised  in  concert  with  the 
senate,  whose  chief  servants  they  were.  It  was  they  who  were 
the  most  regular  consultants  of  this  council,  who  formulated 
its  decrees  as  edicts,  and  who  brought  before  the  people  legislative 
measures  which  the  senate  had  approved.  It  was  they  also  who 
represented  the  state  to  the  outer  world  and  introduced  foreign 
envoys  to  the  senate.  The  symbols  of  their  presidency  were 
manifold.  It  was  marked  by  the  twelve  lictors  (<?.».),  a  number 
permitted  to  no  other  ordinary  magistrate,  by  the  fact  that  the 
first  act  of  newly-admitted  consuls  was  to  take  the  auspices, 
their  second  to  summon  the  senate,  and  by  the  use  of  their  names 
for  dating  the  year.  The  consulate  was,  indeed,  as  Cicero  expresses 
it,  the  culminating  point  in  an  official  career  ("  Honorum  populi 
finis  est  consulatus,"  Cic.  Pro  Planco,  25.  60). 

In  the  domestic  sphere  the  consuls  retained  certain  powers 
of  jurisdiction.  This  jurisdiction  was  either  (i.)  administrative 
or  (ii.)  criminal,  (i.)  Their  administrative  jurisdiction  was  some- 
times concerned  with  financial  matters  such  as  pecuniary  claims 
made  by  the  state  and  individuals  against  one  another.  They 
acted  in  these  matters  in  the  periods  during  which  the  censors 
were  not  in  office.  We  also  find  them  adjudicating  in  disputes 
about  property  between  the  cities  of  Italy,  (ii.)  Their  criminal 
jurisdiction  was  of  three  kinds.  In  the  first  place  it  was  their 
duty,  before  the  development  of  the  standing  commissions 
which  originated  in  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  to  set  in 
motion  the  criminal  law  against  offenders  for  the  cognizance  of 
ordinary,  as  opposed  to  political,  crimes.  The  reference  of  such 
cases  to  the  assembly  of  the  people  was  effected  through  their 
quaestors  (see  QUAESTOR).  Secondly,  when  the  people  and 
senate,  or  the  senate  alone,  appointed  a  special  commission 
(see  SENATE),  the  commissioner  named  was  often  a  consul. 
Thirdly,  we  find  the  consul  conducting  a  crirriinal  inquiry  raised 
by  a  point  of  international  law.  It  is  possible  that  in  this  case 
his  advising  body  (consilium)  was  composed  of  the  fetiales  (see 
HERALD,  ad  fin.).  (Cicero,  De  republica,  iii.  18.  28;  Mommsen, 
Staatsrecht,  ii.  p.  112,  n.  3). 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  republic  the  consuls  were 
recognized  as  the  heads  of  the  administration  abroad  as  well  as 
at  home.  It  thus  became  necessary  that  departments  of  adminis- 
tration (provinciae)  should  be  determined  and  assigned.  The 


method  of  assignment  varied.  The  least  usual  device  was  for 
one  consul  to  take  the  field  at  the  head  of  an  army,  while  the 
other  remained  at  home  to  transact  the  civil  business  of  state. 
More  often  foreign  wars  demanded  the  attention  of  both  consuls. 
In  this  case  the  regular  army  of  four  legions  was  usually  divided 
between  them.  When  it  was  necessary  that  both  armies  should 
co-operate,  the  principle  of  rotation  was  adopted,  each  consul 
having  the  command  for  a  single  day — a  practice  which  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  events  preceding  the  battle  of  Cannae  (Polybius 
iii.  no;  Livy  xxii.  41).  During  the  great  period  of  conquest 
from  264  to  146  B.C.  Italy  was  generally  one  of  the  consular 
"  provinces,"  some  foreign  country  the  other;  and  when  at  the 
close  of  this  period  Italy  was  at  peace,  this  distinction  approxi- 
mated to  one  between  civil  and  military  command.  The  consuls 
settled  their  departments  amongst  themselves  by  agreement 
or  by  lot  (comparalio,  sortitio),  the  power  of  declaring  what 
should  be  the  consular  provinciae  was  usurped  by  the  senate 
(see  SENATE),  and  a  lex  Sempronia  passed  by  C.  Gracchus, 
probably  in  122  B.C.,  ordained  that  the  two  consular  provinces 
should  be  declared  before  the  election  of  the  consuls.  At  this 
time  the  consuls  entered  office  on  the  ist  of  January  (a  practice 
which  commenced  in  1 53  B.  c.) ,  and  their  military  command  began 
on  the  ist  of  March.  They  could  hold  this  military  command 
until  they  were  superseded  in  the  following  March,  and  thus  their 
tenure  of  power  was  practically  raised  to  fourteen  months.  But 
meanwhile  the  home  officials  invested  with  the  imperium  had 
proved  insufficient  for  the  military  needs  of  the  empire,  and  the 
system  of  prolonging  the  command  (prorogatio  imperil)  had  been 
growing  up  (see  PROVINCE).  The  consul  whose  command  had 
been  prolonged  now  served  abroad  as  proconsul.  It  is  probable 
that  Sulla  in  his  legislation  of  81  B.C.  did  something  to  stereotype 
this  system.  Certainly  the  government  by  pro-magistrates  be- 
comes the  rule  after  this  period  (cf.  Cicero,  De  natura  deorum, 
ii.  3.  9;  De  divinalione,  ii.  36.  76,  77),  although  there  are  several 
instances  of  consuls  assuming  the  active  command  of  provinces 
between  the  years  74  and  55  B.C.  (Mommsen,  Rechtsfrage,  p.  30), 
and  Cicero  declares  that  the  consul  has  a  right  to  approach 
every  province  ("  consules,  quibus  more  ma  jorum  concessum 
est  vel  omnes  adire  provincias,"  Cicero,  Ad  Atticum,  viii.  15.  3). 
Certainly  in  theory  the  provinces  were  still  regarded  as  "  con- 
sular," not  "  proconsular,"  and  were  technically,  although  not 
practically,  held  from  the  ist  of  March  of  the  consul's  tenure 
of  office  at  Rome  (cf.  Cicero,  De  provinciis  consularibus,  15.  37; 
Mommsen,  Rechtsfrage,  passim).  It  was  not  until  the  lex 
Pompeia  of  52  B.C.  (Dio  Cassius  xl.  56)  had  established  a  five 
years'  interval  between  home  and  foreign  command  that  the 
theory  of  the  prorogatio  imperil  vanished  and  the  proconsulate 
became  a  separate  office. 

Since  the  theory  of  the  persistence  of  the  republican  constitu- 
tion was  of  the  essence  of  the  Principate,  the  consuls  necessarily 
lost  little  of  their  outward  position  and  dignity  under  the  rule  of 
the  Caesars.  The  consulship  was  the  only  office  in  which  a  citizen, 
other  than  a  member  of  the  imperial  house,  might  have  the 
princeps  as  a  colleague,  and  in  the  interval  between  the  death  or 
deposition  of  one  princeps  and  the  appointment  of  another  the 
consuls  resumed  their  normal  position  as  the  heads  of  the  state 
(cf.  Herodian  ii.  12).  As  the  presidents  of  the  senate,  who  after 
A.D.  14  elected  them  to  their  office,  they  were  the  chief  personal 
representatives  of  those  elements  of  sovereignty  that  were 
supposed  to  attach  to  that  body,  and  they  directed  that  high 
criminal  jurisdiction  which  the  senate  of  this  period  assumed 
(see  SENATE).  A  restored  power  of  jurisdiction  is  indeed  one  of 
the  features  of  their  position  during  this  time,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  civil  appeals  which  came  to  the  senate  were  delegated 
to  the  consuls.  They  also  acted  for  a  time  as  delegates  to  the 
princeps  in  matters  of  Chancery  jurisdiction  such  as  trusts  and 
guardianship  (Mommsen,  Staatsrecht,  ii.  p.  103).  The  consulship 
was  also  a  preparation  for  certain  high  commands,  such  as  the 
government  of  certain  public  and  imperial  provinces  (see  PRO- 
VINCE) and  the  praefecture  of  the  city.  It  was  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  consulship  was  such  a  prize,  and  perhaps  also 
to  the  expense  imposed  on  the  office  by  its  association  with  the 


20 


CONSUL 


celebration  of  games  (Dio  Cassius  Ivi.  46,  lix.  20)  that  the  tenure 
was  progressively  shortened.  In  the  early  principate  the  consuls 
hold  office  for  six  months,  later  for  four  to  two  months  (Mommsen, 
Staatsrecht,  ii.  pp.  84-87).  The  consuls  appointed  for  the  ist  of 
January  were  called  ordinarii,  the  others  suffecti;  and  the  whole 
year  was  dated  by  the  names  of  the  former. 

This  distinction  continued  in  the  Empire  that  was  founded 
by  Diocletian  and  Constantine.  The  ordinarii  were  nominated 
by  the  emperor,  the  suffecti  were  nominated  by  the  senate,  and 
their  appointment  was  ratified  by  the  emperor.  The  consulship 
was  still  the  greatest  dignity  which  the  Empire  had  to  bestow; 
and  the  pomp  and  ceremony  of  the  office  increased  in  proportion 
to  the  decline  in  its  actual  power.  The  entry  of  the  consuls  on 
office  was  celebrated  by  a  great  procession,  by  games  given  to 
the  people,  by  a  distribution  of  gifts,  such  as  the  ivory  diptychs, 
a  long  series  of  which  has  been  preserved.  But  the  senate,  over 
which  they  presided  until  the  time  of  Justinian,  was  little  more 
than  the  municipal  council  of  the  city  of  Rome;  and  the  justice 
which  they  meted  out  had  dwindled  down  to  the  formal  and 
uncon tested  acts  of  manumission  and  the  granting  of  guardians. 
Sometimes  there  was  a  consul  of  the  West  at  Rome  and  a  consul 
of  the  East  at  Constantinople;  at  other  times  both  consuls 
might  be  found  in  either  capital.  The  last  consul  born  in  a  private 
station  was  Basilius  in  the  East  in  A.D.  541.  But  the  emperors 
continued  to  bear  the  title  for  some  time  longer. 

AUTHORITIES. — Mommsen,  Romisches  Staatsrecht,  ii.  pp.  74-140 
(3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1887) ;  Herzog,  Geschichte  und  System  der  romischen 
Staatsverfassung,  i.  p.  688  foil.,  827  foil.  (Leipzig,  1884,  &c.) ;  Lange, 
Romische  -Alterthumer,  i.  p.  524  foil.  (Berlin,  1856,  &c.);  Schiller, 
Stoats-  und  Rechtsaltertiimer,  p.  53  foil.  (Munich,  1893,  Handbuch 
der  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschaft,  von  Dr  Iwan  von  Miiller); 
Daremberg-Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  grecques  et  romaines,  i. 
1455  foil.  (1875,  &c.) ;  De  Ruggiero,  Dizionario  epigrafico  di  antichita 
Romane,  ii.  679  foil.,  868  foil  (Rome,  1886,  &c.);  Pauly-Wissowa, 
Realencydopadie,  iv.  1112  foil,  (new  edition,  Stuttgart,  1893,  &c.). 

For  the  consular  diptychs,  cf.  besides  Daremberg-Saglio,  I.e., 
Gori,  Thesaurus  veterum  diptychorum  (Florence,  1759),  and  Labarte, 
Histoire  des  arts  industries  au  moyen  age,  i.  p.  10  foil.,  190  foil,  (ist 
ed.,  Paris,  1864).  (A.  H.  J.  G.) 

CONSUL,  a  public  officer  authorized  by  the  state  whose  com- 
mission he  bears  to  manage  the  commercial  affairs  of  its  subjects 
in  a  foreign  country,  and  formally  permitted  by  the  government 
of  the  country  wherein  he  resides  to  perform  the  duties  which 
are  specified  in  his  commission,  or  lettre  de  provision.  (For  the 
ancient  magisterial  office  of  consul  see  separate  article  above.) 

A  consul,  as  such,  is  not  invested  with  any  diplomatic  character, 
and  he  cannot  enter  on  his  official  duties  until  a  rescript,  termed 
an  exequatur  (sometimes  a  mere  countersign  endorsed  on  the 
commission),  has  been  delivered  to  him  by  the  authorities  of  the 
state  to  which  his  nomination  has  been  communicated  by  his 
own  government.  This  exequatur,  called  in  Turkey  a  barat, 
may  be  revoked  at  any  time  at  the  discretion  of  the  government 
where  he  resides.  The  status  of  consuls  commissioned  by  the 
Christian  powers  to  reside  in  Mahommedan  countries,  China, 
Korea,  Siam,  and,  until  1899,  in  Japan,  and  to  exercise  judicial 
functions  in  civil  and  criminal  matters  between  their  own 
countrymen  and  strangers,  is  exceptional  to  the  common  law, 
and  is  founded  on  special  conventions  or  capitulations  (?.».). 

The  title  of  consul,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  used  in  inter- 
national law,  is  derived  from  that  of  certain  magistrates,  in  the 
cities  of  medieval  Italy,  Provence  and  Languedoc,  charged  with 
the  settlement  of  trade  disputes  whether  by  sea  or  land  (consules 
mercatorum,  consules  artis  maris,  &c.)  -1  With  the  growth  of  trade 
it  early  became  convenient  to  appoint  agents  with  similar 
powers  in  foreign  parts,  and  these  often,  though  not  invariably, 
were  styled  consuls  (consules  in  partibus  ultramarinis).*  The 

1  The  title  of  consul  was  borne  by  the  chief  municipal  officers  of 
several  cities  of  the  south  of  France  during  the  middle  ages  and  up 
to  the  Revolution.  The  name  was  not  due  to  their  being  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  chiefs  of  the  Roman  municipia.  They  were  members 
of  the  governing  body  known  as  the  consulat,  and  in  Latin  documents 
are  sometimes  styled  consiliarii,  i.e.  councillors.  The  consulat  itself 
is  not  traceable  beyond  the  I2th  century. 

*  Particular  quarters  of  mercantile  cities  were  assigned  to  foreign 
traders  and_  were  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  own  magis- 
trates, variously  styled  syndics,  provosts  (praepositi),  6chevins 


earliest  foreign  consuls  were  those  established  by  Genoa,  Pisa, 
Venice  and  Florence,  between  1098  and  1196,  in  the  Levant,  at 
Constantinople,  in  Palestine,  Syria  and  Egypt.  Of  these  the 
Pisan  agent  at  Constantinople  bore  the  title  of  consul,  the 
Venetian  that  of  baylo  (q.v.).  In  1251  Louis  IX.  of  France 
arranged  a  treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Egypt  under  which  French 
consuls  were  established  at  Tripoli  and  Alexandria,  and  Du 
Cange  cites  a  charter  of  James  of  Aragon,  dated  1268,  granting 
to  the  city  of  Barcelona  the  right  to  elect  consuls  in  partibus 
ultramarinis,  &c.  The  free  growth  of  the  system  was,  however, 
hampered  by  commercial  and  dynastic  rivalries.  The  system 
of  French  foreign  consulships,  for  instance,  all  but  died  out  after 
the  crushing  of  the  independent  life  of  the  south  and  the  incor- 
poration of  Provence  and  Languedoc  under  the  French  crown; 
while,  with  the  establishment  of  Venetian  supremacy  in  the 
Levant,  the  baylo  developed  into  a  diplomatic  agent  of  the  first 
class  at  the  expense  of  the  consuls  of  rival  states.  The  modern 
system  of  consulships  actually  dates  only  from  the  i6th  century. 
Early  in  this  century  both  England  and  Scotland  had  their 
"  conservators "  with  "  jurisdiction  to  do  justice  between 
merchant  and  merchant  beyond  the  seas  ";  but  France  led  the 
way.  The  alliance  between  Francis  I.  and  Suleiman  the  Magnifi- 
cent gave  her  special  advantages  in  the  Levant,  of  which  she 
was  not  slow  to  take  advantage.  Her  success  culminated  in  the 
capitulations  signed  in  1604,  under  the  terms  of  which  her 
consuls  were  given  precedence  over  all  others  and  were  endowed 
with  diplomatic  immunities  (e.g.  freedom  from  arrest  and  from 
domiciliary  visits),  while  the  traders  of  all  other  nations  were  put 
under  the  protection  of  the  French  flag.  It  was  not  till  1675 
that,  under  the  first  capitulations  signed  with  Turkey,  English 
consuls  were  established  in  the  Ottoman  empire.  Ten  years 
earlier,  under  the  commercial  treaty  between.  England  and 
Spain,  they  had  been  established  in  Spain. 

The  frequent  wars  of  the  succeeding  century  hindered  the 
development  of  the  consular  system.  Thus,  though  the  system 
of  consuls  was  regularly  established  in  France  by  the  ordinance 
of  1 66 1,  in  1760  France  had  consuls  only  in  the  Levant,  Barbary, 
Italy,  Spain  and  Portugal,  while  she  discouraged  the  establish- 
ment of  foreign  consuls  in  her  own  ports  as  tending  to  infringe 
her  own  jurisdiction.  It  was  not  till  the  igth  century  that  the 
system  developed  universally.  Hitherto  consuls  had,  for  the 
most  part,  been  business  men  with  no  special  qualification  as 
regards  training;  but  the  French  system,  under  which  the 
consular  service  had  been  long  established  as  part  of  the  general 
civil  service  of  the  country,  a  system  that  had  survived  the 
Revolution  unchanged,  was  gradually  adopted  by  other  nations; 
though,  as  in  France,  consuls  not  belonging  to  the  regular 
service,  and  having  an  inferior  status,  continued  to  be  appointed. 
In  Great  Britain  the  consular  service  was  organized  in  1825 
(see  below) ;  in  France  the  series  of  ordinances  and  laws  by  which 
its  modern  constitution  was  fixed  began  in  1833.  In  Germany 
progress  was  hindered  by  the  political  conditions  of  the  country 
under  the  old  Confederation;  for  the  Hanse  cities,  which  practi- 
cally monopolized  the  oversea  trade,  lacked  the  means  to  estab- 
lish a  consular  system  on  the  French  model.  The  present 
magnificently  organized  consular  system  of  Germany  is,  then, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  outcomes  of  the  establishment  of  the 
united  empire.  It  was  initiated  by  an  act  of  the  parliament 
of  the  North  German  Confederation  (Nov.  8, 1867),  subsequently 
incorporated  in  the  statutes  of  the  Empire,  which  laid  down 
the  principle  that  the  German  consulates  were  to  be  under 
the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  president  of  the  Confederation 
(later  the  emperor).  The  functions,  duties  and  privileges  of 
French  and  German  consuls  do  not  differ  materially  from  those 
of  British  consuls;  but  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  organiza- 
tion and  personnel  of  the  consular  service.  In  France,  apart 
from  the  consuls  elus  or  consuls  marchands,  who  are  mere  consular 
agents,  selected  by  the  government  from  among  the  traders  of  a 

(scabinf),  &c.,  who  had  power  to  fine  or  to  expel  from  the  quarter. 
The  Hanseatic  League  (q.v.~),  particularly,  had  numerous  settlements 
of  this  kind,  the  earliest  being  the  Steelyard  at  London,  established 
in  the  I 3th  century. 


CONSUL 


21 


town  where  it  desires  to  be  represented,  and  unsalaried,  the 
consular  body  proper  was,  by  the  decrees  of  July  10,  1880,  and 
April  27,  1883,  practically  constituted  a  branch  of  the  diplomatic 
service.  It  is  recruited  from  the  same  sources,  and  its  members 
are  free  to  exchange  into  the  corps  diplomatique,  or  vice  versa. 
Candidates  for  the  diplomatic  and  consular  services  have  to 
undergo  the  same  training  and  pass  the  same  examinations, 
i.e.  in  the  constitutional,  administrative  and  judicial  organiza- 
tion of  the  various  powers,  in  international  law,  commercial 
law  and  maritime  law,  in  the  history  of  treaties  and  in  com- 
mercial and  political  geography,  in  political  economy,  and  in 
the  German  and  English  languages.  They  have  to  serve  three 
years  abroad  or  attached  to  some  ministerial  department  before 
they  can  enter  for  the  examination  which  entitles  them  to  an 
appointment  as  attache  or  as  consul  suppliant.  This  assimilation 
of  the  consular  to  the  diplomatic  service  remains  peculiar  to 
France.1 

In  Germany  it  was  enacted  by  the  law  of  February  28,  1873, 
that  German  consuls  must  be  either  trained  jurists,  or  must 
have  passed  special  examinations.  The  result  of  this  system 
has  been  the  establishment  throughout  the  world  of  an  elaborate 
network  of  trained  commercial  experts,  directly  responsible  to 
the  central  government,  and  charged  as  one  of  their  principal 
duties  with  the  task  of  keeping  the  government  informed  of  all 
that  may  be  of  interest  to  German  traders.  These  annual 
consular  reports  were  from  the  first  regularly  and  promptly 
'published  in  the  Deutsche  Handelsarchiv,  and  have  contributed 
much  to  the  wonderful  expansion  of  German  trade.  The  right 
to  establish  consuls  is  now  universally  recognized  by  Christian 
civilized  states.  Jurists  at  one  time  contended  that  according 
to  international  law  a  right  of  "  ex-territoriality  "  attached  to 
consuls,  their  persons  and  dwellings  being  sacred,  and  themselves 
amenable  to  local  authority  only  in  cases  of  strong  suspicion  on 
political  grounds.  It  is  now  admitted  that,  apart  from  treaty, 
custom  has  established  very  few  consular  privileges;  that 
perhaps  consuls  may  be  arrested  and  incarcerated,  not  merely 
on  criminal  charges,  but  for  civil  debt;  and  that,  if  they  engage 
in  trade  or  become  the  owners  of  immovable  property,  their 
persons  certainly  lose  protection.  This  question  of  arrest  has 
been  frequently  raised  in  Europe: — in  the  case  of  Barbuit,  a 
tallow-chandler,  who  from  1717  to  1735  acted  as  Prussian 
consul  in  London,  and  to  whom  the  exemption  conferred  by 
statute  on  ambassadors  was  held  not  to  apply;  in  the  case  of 
Cretico,  the  Turkish  consul  in  London  in  1808;  in  the  case  of 
Begley,  the  United  States  consul  at  Genoa,  arrested  in  Paris 
in  1840;  and  in  the  case  of  De  la  Fuente  Hermosa,  Uruguayan 
consul,  whom  the  Cour  Royale  of  Paris  in  1842  held  liable  to 
arrest  for  debt.  In  the  same  way  consuls  are  often  exempt 
from  all  kinds  of  rates  and  taxes,  and  always  from  personal 
taxes.  They  are  exempt  from  billeting  and  military  service,  but 
are  not  entitled  (except  in  the  Levant,  where  also  freedom 
from  arrest  and  trial  is  the  rule)  to  have  private  chapels  in  their 
houses.  The  right  of  consuls  to  exhibit  their  national  arms  and 
flag  over  the  door  of  the  bureau  is  not  disputed. 

Until  the  year  1825  British  consuls  were  usually  merchants 
engaged  in  trade  in  the  foreign  countries  in  which  they  acted 
as  consuls,  and  their  remuneration  consisted  entirely  of  fees. 
An  act  of  that  year,  however,  organized  the  consular  service 
as  a  branch  of  the  civil  service,  with  payment  by  a  fixed  salary 
instead  of  by  fees;  consuls  were  forbidden  also  to  engage  in 
trade,  and  the  management  of  the  service  was  put  under  the 
control  of  a  separate  department  of  the  foreign  office,  created 
for  the  purpose.  In  1832  the  restriction  as  to  engaging  in  trade 
was  withdrawn,  except  as  regards  salaried  members  of  the  British 
consular  service. 

1  i.e.  as  regards  the  organization  of  the  system.  Consuls,  or 
consuls-general,  of  other  countries  have  sometimes  a  diplomatic  or 
quasi-diplomatic  status.  Consuls-general  charge's  d'affaires,  e.g., 
rank  as  diplomatic  agents.  Of  these  the  most  notable  is  the  British 
agent  and  consul-general  in  Egypt,  whose  position  is  unique.  The 
diplomatic  agent  of  Belgium  at  Buenos  Aires,  e.g.,  is  minister-resident 
and  consul-general,  and  the  minister  of  Ecuador  in  London  is  consul- 
general  charg6  d'affaires. 


The  duty  of  consuls,  under  the  "  General  Instructions  to 
British  Consuls,"  is  to  advise  His  Majesty's  trading  subjects, 
to  quiet  their  differences,  and  to  conciliate  as  much  as  possible 
the  subjects  of  the  two  countries.  Treaty  rights  he  is  to  support 
in  a  mild  and  moderate  spirit;  and  he  is  to  check  as  far  as 
possible  evasions  by  British  traders  of  the  local  revenue  laws. 
Besides  assisting  British  subjects  who  are  tried  for  offences  in 
the  local  courts,  and  ascertaining  the  humanity  of  their  treat- 
ment after  sentence,  he  has  to  consider  whether  home  or  foreign 
law  is  more  appropriate  to  the  case,  having  regard  to  the  con- 
venience of  witnesses  and  the  time  required  for  decision;  and, 
where  local  courts  have  wrongfully  interfered,  he  puts  the 
home  government  in  motion  through  the  consul-general  or 
ambassador.  He  sends  in  reports  on  the  labour,  manufacture, 
trade,  commercial  legislation  and  finance,  technical  education, 
exhibitions  and  conferences  of  the  country  or  district  in  which 
he  resides,  and,  generally,  furnishes  information  on  any  subject 
which  may  be  desired  of  him.  He  acts  as  a  notary  public;  he 
draws  up  marine  and  commercial  protests,  attests  documents 
brought  to  him,  and,  if  necessary,  draws  up  wills,  powers  of 
attorney,  or  conveyances.  He  celebrates  marriages  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  Foreign  Marriage  Act  1892,  and, 
where  the  ministrations  of  a  clergyman  cannot  be  obtained, 
reads  the  burial  service.  At  a  seaport  he  has  certain  duties 
to  perform  in  connexion  with  the  navy.  In  the  absence  of  any 
of  His  Majesty's  ships  he  is  senior  naval  officer;  he  looks  after 
men  left  behind  as  stragglers,  or  in  hospital  or  prison,  and  sends 
them  on  in  due  course  to  the  nearest  ship.  He  is  also  em- 
powered by  statute  to  advance  for  the  erection  or  maintenance 
of  Anglican  churches,  hospitals,  and  places  of  interment  sums 
equal  to  the  amount  subscribed  for  the  purpose  by  the  resident 
British  subjects. 

As  the  powers  and  duties  of  consuls  vary  with  the  particular 
commercial  interests  they  have  to  protect,  and  the  civilization 
of  the  state  in  whose  territory  they  reside,  instead  of  abstract 
definition,  we  summarize  the  provisions  on  this  subject  of  the 
British  Merchant  Shipping  Acts.2  Consuls  are  bound  to  send 
to  the  Board  of  Trade  such  reports  or  returns  on  any  matter 
relating  to  British  merchant  shipping  or  seamen  as  they  may 
think  necessary.  Where  a  consul  suspects  that  the  shipping  or 
navigation  laws  are  being  evaded,  he  may  require  the  owner  or 
master  to  produce  the  log-book  or  other  ship  documents  (such 
as  the  agreement  with  the  seamen,  the  account  of  the  crew,  the 
certificate  of  registration);  he  may  muster  the  crew,  and  order 
explanations  with  regard  to  the  documents.  Where  an  offence 
has  been  committed  on  the  high  seas,  or  aboard  ashore,  by 
British  seamen  or  apprentices,  the  consul  makes  inquiry  on  oath, 
and  may  send  home  the  offender  and  witnesses  by  a  British  ship, 
particulars  for  the  Board  of  Trade  being  endorsed  on  the  agree- 
ment for  conveyance.  He  is  also  empowered  to  detain  a  foreign 
ship  the  master  or  seamen  of  which  appear  to  him  through  their 
misconduct  or  want  of  skill  to  have  caused  injury  to  a  British 
vessel,  until  the  necessary  application  for  satisfaction  or  security 
be  made  to  the  local  authorities.  Every  British  mercantile 
ship,  not  carrying  passengers,  on  entering  a  port  gives  into  the 
custody  of  the  consul  to  be  endorsed  by  him  the  seamen's  agree- 
ment, the  certificate  of  registry,  and  the  official  log-book;  a 
failure  to  do  this  is  reported  to  the  registrar-general  of  seamen. 
The  following  five  provisions  are  also  made  for  the  protection  of 
seamen.  If  a  British  master  engage  seamen  at  a  foreign  port, 
the  engagement  is  sanctioned  by  the  consul,  acting  as  a  super- 
intendent of  Mercantile  Marine  Offices.  The  consul  collects  the 
property  (including  arrears  of  wages)  of  British  seamen  or 
apprentices  dying  abroad,  and  remits  to  H.M.  paymaster-general. 
He  also  provides  for  the  subsistence  of  seamen  who  are  ship- 
wrecked, discharged,  or  left  behind,  even  if  their  service  was  with 
foreign  merchants;  they  are  generally  sent  home  in  the  first 
British  ship  that  happens  to  be  in  want  of  a  complement,  and 
the  expenses  thus  incurred  form  a  charge  on  the  parliamentary 
fund  for  the  relief  of  distressed  seamen,  the  consul  receiving  a 

*  Sec  also  instructions  to  consuls  prepared  by  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  approved  by  the  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs. 


22 


CONSUL 


commission  of  25  %  on  the  amount  disbursed.  Complaints  by 
crews  as  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  provisions  on  board 
are  investigated  by  the  consul,  who  enters  a  statement  in  the 
log-book  and  reports  to  the  Board  of  Trade.  Money  disbursed 
by  consuls  on  account  of  the  illness  or  injury  of  seamen  is  generally 
recoverable  from  the  owner.  With  regard  to  passenger  vessels, 
the  master  is  bound  to  give  the  consul  facilities  for  inspection 
and  for  communication  with  passengers,  and  to  exhibit  his 
"  master's  list,"  or  list  of  passengers,  so  that  the  consul  may 
transmit  to  the  registrar-general,  for  insertion  in  the  Marine 
Register  Book,  a  report  of  the  passengers  dying  and  children 
born  during  the  voyage.  The  consul  may  even  defray  the 
expenses  of  maintaining,  and  forwarding  to  their  destination, 
passengers  taken  off  or  picked  up  from  wrecked  or  injured 
vessels,  if  the  master  does  not  undertake  to  proceed  in  six  weeks; 
these  expenses  becoming,  in  terms  of  the  Passenger  Acts  1855 
and  1863,  a  debt  due  to  His  Majesty  from  the  owner  or  charterer, 
where  a  salvor  is  justified  in  detaining  a  British  vessel,  the 
master  may  obtain  leave  to  depart  by  going  with  the  salvor 
before  the  consul,  who,  after  hearing  evidence  as  to  the  service 
rendered  and  the  proportion  of  ship's  value  and  freight 
claimed,  fixes  the  amount  for  which  the  master  is  to  give 
bond  and  security.  In  the  case  of  a  foreign  wreck  the  consul 
is  held  to  be  the  agent  of  the  foreign  owner.  Much  of  the 
notarial  business  which  is  imposed  on  consuls,  partly  by 
statute  and  partly  by  the  request  of  private  parties,  consists 
in  taking  the  declarations  as  to  registry,  transfers,  &c.,  under 
the  Mercantile  Shipping  Acts.  Consuls  in  the  Ottoman  empire, 
China,  Siam  and  Korea  have  extensive  judicial  and  executive 
powers. 

Since  the  incorporation  of  the  British  consular  service  in  the 
civil  service  there  have  been  several  proposals  to  "  reform  "  the 
system  with  the  view  of  increasing  its  usefulness,  more  particularly 
from  the  point  of  view  of  providing  assistance  to  British  trade 
abroad  (see  Reports  of  Special  Committees  of  the  House  of 
Commons  on  the  Consular  Service,  1858, 1872, 1903).  It  has  been 
frequently  urged  that  British  consuls  in  their  commercial  know- 
ledge and  intercourse  with  foreign  merchants  compare  unfavour- 
ably, for  example,  with  the  consuls  of  the  United  States.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  there  are  points  of  striking 
dissimilarity  between  the  duties  of  the  consuls  of  these  two 
countries.  The  American  consul  is  necessarily  brought  much 
into  touch  with  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  country  to  which 
he  is  assigned  through  the  system  of  consular  invoices  (see 
AD  VALOREM)  ;  in  his  ordinary  reports  he  is  not  confined  to  one 
stereotyped  form,  and  when  preparing  special  reports  (a  valuable 
feature  of  the  United  States  consular  service)  he  is  liberally 
treated  as  regards  any  expense  to  which  he  has  been  put 
in  obtaining  information.  He  is  practically  free  from  the 
multifarious  duties  which  the  English  consul  has  to  discharge  in 
connexion  with  the  mercantile  marine,  nor  has  he  to  perform 
marriage  ceremonies;  and  financially  he  is  much  better  off, 
being  allowed  to  retain  as  personal  all  fees  obtained  from  his 
notarial  duties.  The  Committee  of  1903  was  appointed  to  in- 
quire, inter  alia,  whether  the  limits  of  age — 25  to  50 — for  candi- 
dates should  be  altered,  and  whether  service  as  a  vice-consul 
for  a  certain  period  should  be  required  to  qualify  for  promotion 
to  the  rank  of  consul;  whether  means  could  not  be  adopted  to 
give  consular  officers  opportunities  of  increasing  their  practical 
knowledge  of  commercial  matters  and  to  bring  them  more  into 
personal  contact  with  the  commercial  community.  The  sugges- 
tions of  the  committee  as  the  result  of  its  inquiries  were  adopted 
in  principle  by  the  Foreign  Office.  The  consular  service  is  now 
grouped  into  three  main  divisions:  (i)  the  general  service;  (2) 
Levant  and  Persia;  and  (3)  China,  Japan,  Korea  and  Siam. 
The  general  consular  service  is  graded  into  three  divisions: 
first  grade,  consuls-general,  salary  £1000  with  local  allowances; 
second  grade,  consuls-general  and  consuls,  salary  £800  and  local 
allowances;  third  grade,  consuls,  salary  £600,  with  local 
allowances.  Vice-consuls  have  an  annual  salary  of  £350,  rising 
by  annual  increments  of  £15  to  £450.  In  the  general  consular 
service  appointments  are  sometimes  made  to  the  higher  offices 


from  the  ranks,  but  more  usually  from  a  select  list  of  nominees, 
who  must  pass  a  qualifying  examination.  A  proportion  of  the 
vacancies  are  reserved  for  competition  amongst  candidates  who 
have  had  actual  commercial  experience.  Divisions  2  and  3  are 
recruited  by  open  competition.  There  were  at  one  time  a  small 
number  of  commercial  agents  whose  business  consisted  in  watch- 
ing and  reporting  on  the  commerce,  industries  and  products  of 
special  districts,  and  in  answering  inquiries  on  commercial  sub- 
jects. Their  duties  were  subsequently  transferred  to  the  consular 
staff,  and  a  new  class  of  officers,  consular  attaches,  created. 
The  consular  attaches  divide  their  time  between  special  in- 
vestigations abroad,  and  visits  to  manufacturing  districts  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  headquarters  of  the  commercial 
attaches  in  Europe,  except  those  at  Paris  and  Constantinople, 
were  transferred  to  London,  without  defined  districts,  in  1907 
(see  Report  on  the  System  of  British  Commercial  Attaches  and 
Agents,  1908,  Cd.  3610).  "  Pro-consuls  "  are  frequently  appointed 
for  the  purpose  of  administering  oaths,  taking  affidavits  or 
affirmations,  and  performing  notarial  acts  under  the  Com- 
missioners for  Oaths  Acts  1889. 

The  position  of  the  United  States  consuls  is  minutely  described 
in  the  Regulations,  Washington,  1896.  Under  various  treaties 
and  conventions  they  enjoy  large  privileges  and  jurisdiction. 
By  the  treaty  of  1816  with  Sweden  the  United  States  government 
agreed  that  the  consuls  of  the  two  states  respectively  should  be 
sole  judges  in  disputes  between  captains  and  crews  of  vessels. 
(Up  to  1906  there  were  eighteen  treaties  containing  this  clause.) 
By  convention  with  France  in  1853  they  likewise  agreed  that  the 
consuls  of  both  countries  should  be  permitted  to  hold  real  estate, 
and  to  have  the  "  police  interne  des  navires  a  commerce."  In 
Borneo,China,  Korea,  Morocco,  Persia,  Siam,  Tripoli  and  Turkey 
an  extensive  jurisdiction,  civil  and  criminal,  is  exercised  by 
treaty  stipulation  in  cases  where  United  States  subjects  are 
interested.  Exemption  from  liability  to  appear  as  a  witness  is 
often  stipulated.  The  question  was  raised  in  France  in  1843  by 
the  case  of  the  Spanish  consul  Seller  at  Aix,  and  in  America  in 
1854  by  the  case  of  Dillon,  the  French  consul  at  San  Francisco, 
who,  on  being  arrested  by  Judge  Hoffmann  for  declining  to  give 
evidence  in  a  criminal  suit,  pulled  down  his  consular  flag.  So, 
also,  inviolability  of  national  archives  is  often  stipulated.  To 
the  consuls  of  other  nations  the  United  States  government  have 
always  accorded  the  privileges  of  arresting  deserters,  and  of  being 
themselves  amenable  only  to  the  Federal  and  not  to  the  States 
courts.  They  also  recognize  foreign  consuls  as  representative 
suitors  for  absent  foreigners. 

The  United  States  commercial  agents  are  appointed  by  the 
president,  and  usually  receive  an  exequatur.  They  form  a  class 
by  themselves,  and  are  distinct  from  the  consular  agents,  who 
are  simply  deputy  consuls  in  districts  where  there  is  no  principal 
consul. 

By  a  law  of  April  1906  the  U.S.  consular  service  was  re- 
organized and  graded,  the  office  of  consul-general  being  divided 
into  seven  classes,  and  that  of  consul  into  nine  classes;  and  on 
June  27  an  executive  order  was  issued  by  President  Roosevelt 
governing  appointments  and  promotions. 

See  A.  de  Miltitz,  Manuel  des  consuls  (London  and  Berlin,  1837- 
1843);  Baron  Ferdinand  de  Cussy,  Dictionnaire  du  diplomate  et  du 
consul  (Leipzig,  1846),  and  Reglements  consulaires  des  principaux 
etats  maritimes  de  I'Europe  et  de  I  Amerique  (ib.,  1851) ;  Tuson,  British 
Consul's  Manual  (London,  1856);  De  Clercq,  Guide  pratique  des 
consulats  (ist  ed.,  1858,  gth  ed.  by  de  Vallat,  Paris,  1898);  C.  I. 
Tarring,  British  Consular  Jurisdiction  in  the  East  (London,  1887); 
Lippmann,  Die  Konsularjurisdiktion  im  Orient  (Berlin,  1898) ;  Zorn, 
Die  Konsulargesetzgebung  des  deutschen  Reichs  (2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1901) ; 
v.  Konig,  Handbuch  des  deutschen  Konsularwesens  (6th  ed.,  Berlin, 
1902) ;  Martens,  Das  deutsche  Konsular-  und  Kolonialrecht  (Leipzig, 
1904) ;  Malfatti  di  Monte  Tretto,  Handbuch  des  osterreichisch- 
ungarischen  Konsularwesens  (2  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  Vienna,  1904).  See 
also  the  Parliamentary  Reports  referred  to  in  the  text.  For  British 
consuls  much  detailed  information,  including,  e.g.,  minute  directions 
for  the  uniforms  of  the  various  grades,  will  be  found  in  the  official 
Foreign  Office  List  published  annually.  As  regards  American  consuls, 
see  C.  L.  Jones,  The  Consular  Service  of  the  U.  S.  A.  (Philadelphia, 
1906) ;  Publications  of  Univ.  of  Pennsylvania,  "  Series  in  Pol.  Econ. 
and  Public  Law,"  No.  18;  and  Fred.  Van  Dyne,  Our  Foreign  Service 
(Rochester,  N.Y.,  1909). 


"CONSULATE  OF  THE  SEA"— CONTANGO 


"CONSULATE  OF  THE  SEA,"  a  celebrated  collection  of 
maritime  customs  and  ordinances  (see  also  SEA  LAWS)  in  the 
Catalan  language,  published  at  Barcelona  in  the  latter  part  oi 
the  isth  century.  Its  proper  title  is  The  Book  of  the  Consulate, 
or  in  Catalan,  Lo  Libre  de  Consolat,  the  name  being  derived  from 
the  fact  that  it  embodied  the  rules  of  law  followed  in  the  mari- 
time cities  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  by  the  commercial  judges 
known  generally  as  consuls  (q.v.).  The  earliest  extant  edition 
of  the  work,  which  was  printed  at  Barcelona  in  1494,  is  without 
a  title-page  or  frontispiece,  but  it  is  described  by  the  above- 
mentioned  title  in  the  epistle  dedicatory  prefixed  to  the  table 
of  contents.  The  only  known  copy  of  this  edition  is  preserved  in 
the  National  Library  in  Paris.  The  epistle  dedicatory  states 
that  the  work  is  an  amended  version  of  the  Book  of  the  Consulate, 
compiled  by  Francis  Celelles  with  the  assistance  of  numerous 
shipmasters  and  merchants  well  versed  in  maritime  affairs. 
According  to  a  statement  made  by  Capmany  in  his  Codigo  de  los 
costumbras  maritimas  de  Barcelona,  published  at  Madrid  in  1791, 
there  was  extant  to  his  knowledge  in  the  last  century  a  more 
ancient  edition  of  the  Book  of  the  Consulate,  printed  in  semi- 
Gothic  characters,  which  he  believed  to  be  of  a  date  prior  to  1484. 
This  is  the  earliest  period  to  which  any  historical  record  of  the 
Book  of  the  Consulate  being  in  print  can  be  traced  back.  There 
are,  however,  two  Catalan  MSS.  preserved  in  the  National  Library 
in  Paris,  the  earliest  of  which,  being  MS.  Espagnol  124,  contains 
the  two  first  treatises  which  are  printed  in  the  Book  of  the  Con- 
sulate of  1494,  and  which  are  the  most  ancient  portion  of  its 
contents,  written  in  a  hand  of  the  i4th  century,  on  paper  of  that 
century.  The  subsequent  parts  of  this  MS.  are  on  paper  of  the 
15th  century,  but  there  is  no  document  of  a  date  more  recent 
than  1436.  The  later  of  the  two  MSS.,  being  MS.  Espagnol  56, 
is  written  throughout  on  paper  of  the  isth  century,  and  in  a  hand 
of  that  century,  and  it  purports,  from  a  certificate  on  the  face  of 
the  last  leaf,  to  have  been  executed  under  the  superintendence 
of  Peter  Thomas,  a  notary  public,  and  the  scribe  of  the  Consulate 
of  the  Sea  at  Barcelona. 

The  edition  of  1494,  which  is  justly  regarded  as  the  editio 
princeps  of  the  Book  of  the  Consulate,  contains,  in  the  first  place, 
a  code  of  procedure  issued  by  the  kings  of  Aragon  for  the  guidance 
of  the  courts  of  the  consuls  of  the  sea,  in  the  second  place,  a 
collection  of  ancient  customs  of  the  sea,  and  thirdly,  a  body  of 
ordinances  for  the  government  of  cruisers  of  war.  A  colophon 
at  the  end  of  these  ordinances  informs  the  readers  that  "  the  book 
commonly  called  the  Book  of  the  Consulate  ends  here";  after 
which  there  follows  a  document  known  by  the  title  of  The 
Acceptations,  which  purports  to  record  that  the  previous  chapters 
and  ordinances  had  been  approved  by  the  Roman  people  in  the 
nth  century,  and  by  various  princes  and  peoples  in  the  i2th  and 
i3th  centuries.  Capmany  was  the  first  person  to  question  the 
authenticity  of  this  document  in  his  Memorias  historicas  sobre 
la  marina,  &*c.,  de  Barcelona,  published  at  Madrid  in  1779-1792. 
Pardessus  and  other  writers  on  maritime  law  followed  up  the 
inquiry  in  the  igth  century,  and  have  conclusively  shown  that 
the  document,  whatever  may  have  been  its  origin,  has  no  proper 
reference  to  the  Book  of  the  Consulate,  and  is,  in  fact,  of  no  histori- 
cal value  whatsoever.  The  paging  of  the  edition  of  1494  ceases 
with  this  document,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  printer's  colophon, 
reciting  that  "  the  work  was  completed  on  the  i4th  of  July  1494, 
at  Barcelona,  by  Pere  Posa,  priest  and  printer."  The  remainder 
of  the  volume  consists  of  what  may  be  regarded  as  an  appendix 
to  the  original  Book  of  the  Consulate.  This  appendix  contains 
various  maritime  ordinances  of  the  kings  of  Aragon  and  of  the 
councillors  of  the  city  of  Barcelona,  ranging  over  a  period  from 
1340  to  1484.  It  is  printed  apparently  in  the  same  type  with  the 
preceding  part  of  the  volume.  The  original  Book  of  the  Consulate, 
coupled  with  this  appendix,  constitutes  the  work  which  has 
obtained  general  circulation  in  Europe  under  the  title  of  The  Con- 
sulate of  the  Sea,  and  which  in  the  course  of  the  i6th  century  was 
translated  into  the  Castilian,  the  Italian,  and  the  French 
languages.  The  Italian  translation,  printed  at  Venice  in  1 549 
by  Jean  Baptista  Pedrezano,  was  the  version  which  obtained 
the  largest  circulation  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  led  many 


jurists  to  suppose  the  work  to  have  been  of  Italian  origin.  In 
the  next  following  century  the  work  was  translated  into  Dutch 
by  Westerven,  and  into  German  by  Engelbrecht,  and  it  is  also 
said  to  have  been  translated  into  Latin. 

An  excellent  translation  into  French  of  "  The  Customs  of  the  Sea," 
which  are  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  Book  of  the  Consulate,  was 
published  by  Pardessus  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Collection  des 
his  maritimes  (Paris,  1834),  under  the  title  of  "  La  Compilation 
connue  sous  le  nom  de  consulat  de  la  mer."  See  introduction,  by  Sir 
T  ravers  Twiss,  to  the  Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty  (London,  1874), 
which  in  the  appendix  to  vol.  iii.  contains  his  translation  of  "  The 
Customs  of  the  Sea,"  with  the  Catalan  text.  (T.  T.) 

CONSUMPTION  (Lat.  consumere),  literally,  the  act  of  consum- 
ing or  destroying.  Thus  the  word  is  popularly  applied  to 
phthisis,  a  "  wasting  away  "  of  the  lungs  due  to  tuberculosis 
(q.v.).  In  economics  the  word  has  a  special  significance  as  a 
technical  term.  It  has  been  defined  as  the  destruction  of  utilities, 
and  thus  opposed  to  "  production,"  which  is  the  creation  of 
utilities,  a  utility  in  this  connexion  being  anything  which  satisfies 
a  desire  or  serves  a  purpose.  Consumption  may  be  either  pro- 
ductive or  unproductive;  productive  where  it  is  a  means  directly 
or  indirectly  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  economic  want,  unpro- 
ductive when  it  is  devoted  to  pleasures  or  luxuries.  Its  place  in 
the  science  of  economics,  and  its  close  relation  with  production, 
are  treated  of  in  every  text-book,  but  special  reference  may  be 
made  to  W.  Roscher,  Nationalokonomie,  1883,  and  G.  Schonberg, 
Handbuch  d.  polit.  Okonomie,  1890-1891. 

CONSUS,  an  ancient  Italian  deity,  originally  a  god  of  agricul- 
ture. The  time  at  which  his  festival  was  held  (after  harvest 
and  seed-sowing),  the  nature  of  its  ceremonies  and  amusements, 
his  altar  at  the  end  of  the  Circus  Maximus  always  covered  with 
earth  except  on  such  occasions,  all  point  to  his  connexion  with 
the  earth.  In  accordance  with  this,  the  name  has  been  derived 
from  condere  ( =  Condius,  as  the  "  keeper  "  of  grain  or  the 
"  hidden  "  god,  whose  life-producing  influence  works  in  the 
depths  of  the  earth).  Another  etymology  is  from  conserere 
("  sow,"  cf.  Ops  ConsivaandherfestivalOpiconsivia).  Amongst 
the  ancients  (Livy  i.  9;  Dion.  Halic.  ii.  31)  Census  was  most 
commonly  identified  with  HoveiSuv  "Lnrtos  (Neptunus  Equester), 
and  in  later  Latin  poets  Census  is  used  for  Neptunus,  but  this 
idea  was  due  to  the  horse  and  chariot  races  which  took  place  at 
his  festival;  otherwise,  the  two  deities  have  nothing  in  common. 
According  to  another  view,  he  was  the  god  of  good  counsel, 
who  was  said -to  have  "advised"  Romulus  to  carry  off  the 
Sabine  women  (Ovid,  Fasti,  iii.  199)  when  they  visited  Rome 
for  the  first  celebration  of  his  festival  (Consualia).  In  later 
times,  with  the  introduction  of  Greek  gods  into  the  Roman 
theological  system,  Consus,  who  had  never  been  the  object  of 
special  reverence,  sank  to  the  level  of  a  secondary  deity,  whose 
character  was  rather  abstract  and  intellectual. 

His  festival  was  celebrated  on  the  2ist  of  August  and  the 
1 5th  of  December.  On  the  former  date,  the  flamen  Quirinalis, 
assisted  by  the  vestals,  offered  sacrifice,  and  the  pontifices 
presided  at  horse  and  chariot  races  in  the  circus.  It  was  a  day 
of  public  rejoicing;  all  kinds  of  rustic  amusements  took  place, 
amongst  them  running  on  ox-hides  rubbed  with  oil  (like  the 
Gr.  AffKoXuxcrjuos) .  Horses  and  mules,  crowned  with  garlands, 
were  given  rest  from  work.  A  special  feature  of  the  games  in 
the  circus  was  chariot  racing,  in  which  mules,  as  the  oldest 
draught  beasts,  took  the  place  of  horses.  The  origin  of  these 
games  was  generally  attributed  to  Romulus;  but  by  some 
they  were  considered  an  imitation  of  the  Arcadian  Mnrwcpdreio 
introduced  by  Evander.  There  was  a  sanctuary  of  Consus  on 
the  Aventine,  dedicated  by  L.  Papirius  Cursor  in  272,  in  early 
times  wrongly  identified  with  the  altar  in  the  circus. 

See  W.  W.  Fowler,  The  Roman  Festivals  (1899);  G.  Wissowa, 
Religion  und  Kultus  der  Romer  (1902);  Preller- Jordan,  Romischc 
Mythologie  (1881). 

CONTANGO,  a  Stock  Exchange  term  for  the  rate  of  interest 
Daid  by  a  "  bull  "  who  has  bought  stock  for  the  rise  and  does 
not  intend  to  pay  for  it  when  the  Settlement  arrives.  He 
arranges  to  carry  over  or  continue  his  bargain,  and  does  so  by 
entering  into  a  fresh  bargain  with  his  seller,  or  some  other  party, 


CONTARINI— CONTE 


by  which  he  sells  the  stock  for  the  Settlement  and  buys  it  again 
for  the  next,  the  price  at  which  the  bargain  is  entered  being 
called  the  making-up  price.  The  rate  that  he  pays  for  this 
accommodation,  which  amounts  to  borrowing  the  money 
involved  until  the  next  Settlement,  is  called  the  contango. 

CONTARINI,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  Venetian  family, 
who  gave  to  the  republic  eight  doges  and  many  other  eminent 
citizens.  The  story  of  their  descent  from  the  Roman  family 
of  Cotta,  appointed  prefects  of  the  Reno  valley  (whence  Cotta 
Reni  or  Conti  del  Reno),  is  probably  a  legend.  One  Mario  Con- 
tarini  was  among  the  twelve  electors  of  the  doge  Paulo  Lucio 
Anafesto  in  697.  Domenico  Contarini,  elected  doge  in  1043, 
subjugated  rebellious  Dalmatia  and  recaptured  Grado  from  the 
patriarch  of  Aquileia.  He  died  in  1070.  Jacopo  was  doge 
from  1275  to  1280.  Andrea  was  elected  doge  in  1367,  and  during 
his  reign  the  war  of  Chioggia  took  place  (1380);  he  was  the 
first  to  melt  down  his  plate  and  mortgage  his  property  for  the 
benefit  of  the  state.  Other  Contarini  doges  were:  Francesco 
(1623-1624),  Niccolo  (1630-1631),  who  built  the  church  of  the 
Salute,  Carlo  (1655-1656),  during  whose  reign  the  Venetians 
gained  the  naval  victory  of  the  Dardanelles,  Domenico  (1659- 
1675)  and  Alvise  (1676-1684).  There  were  at  one  time  no  less 
than  eighteen  branches  of  the  family;  one  of  the  most  important 
was  that  of  Contarini  dallo  Zaffo  or  di  Giaffa,  who  had  been 
invested  with  the  countship  of  Jaffa  in  Syria  for  their  services  to 
Caterina  Cornaro,  queen  of  Cyprus;  another  was  that  of  Con- 
tarini degli  Scrigni  (of  the  coffers)1,  so  called  on  account  of  their 
great  wealth.  Many  members  of  the  family  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  service  of  the  republic,  in  the  wars  against  the 
Turks,  and  no  less  than  seven  Contarini  fought  at  Lepanto. 
One  Andrea  Contarini  was  beheaded  in  1430  for  having  wounded 
the  doge  Francesco  Foscari  (q.v.)  on  the  nose.  Other  members 
of  the  house  were  famous  as  merchants,  prelates  and  men  of 
letters;  among  these  we  may  mention  Cardinal  Gasparo  Con- 
tarini (1483-1542),  and  Marco  Contarini  (1631-1689),  who  was 
celebrated  as  a  patron  of  music  and  collected  at  his  -villa  of 
Piazzola  a  large  number  of  valuable  musical  MSS.,  now  in  the 
Marciana  library  at  Venice.  The  family  owned  many  palaces  in 
various  parts  of  Venice,  and  several  streets  still  bear  its  name. 

See  J.  Fontana,  "Sulla  patrizia  famiglia  Contarini,"  in  II 
Gondotiere  (1843).  (L.  V.*) 

CONTAT,  LOUISE  FRANCHISE  (1760-1813),  French  actress, 
made  her  dSbut  at  the  Comedie  Francaise  in  1766  as  Atalide  in 
Bajazet.  It  was  in  comedy,  however,  that  she  made  her  first 
success,  as  Suzanne  in  Beaumarchais's  Mariage  de  Figaro;  and 
in  several  minor  character  parts,  which  she  raised  to  the  first 
importance,  and  as  the  soubrette  in  the  plays  of  Moliere  and 
•Marivaux,  she  found  opportunities  exactly  fitted  to  her  talents. 
She  retired  in  1809  and  married  de  Parny,  nephew  of  the  poet. 
Her  sister  Marie  Emilie  Contat  (1769-1846),  an  admirable 
soubrette,  especially  as  the  pert  servant  drawn  by  Moliere  and 
de  Regnard,  made  her  d6but  in  1784,  and  retired  in  1815. 

CONTE,  literally  a  "  story,"  derived  from  the  Fr.  confer,  to 
narrate,  through  low  Lat.  and  Provencal  forms  contare  and 
comtar.  This  word,  although  not  recognized  by  the  New  English 
Dictionary  as  an  English  term,  is  yet  so  frequently  used  in 
English  literary  criticisms  that  some  definition  of  it  seems  to  be 
demanded.  A  conle,  in  French,  differs  from  a  r&cit  or  a  rapport 
in  the  element  of  style;  it  may  be  described  as  an  anecdote  told 
with  deliberate  art,  and  in  this  introduction  of  art  lies  its  peculiar 
literary  value.  According  to  Littre,  there  is  no  fundamental 
difference  between  a  conle  and  a  roman,  and  all  that  can  be  said 
is  that  the  conle  is  the  generic  term,  covering  long  stories  and 
short  alike,  whereas  the  roman  (or  novel)  must  extend  to  a 
certain  length.  But  if  this  is  the  primitive  and  correct  significa- 
tion of  the  word,  it  is  certain  that  modern  criticism  thinks  of  a 
conle  essentially  as  a  short  story,  and  as  a  short  story  exclusively 
occupied  in  illustrating  one  set  of  ideas  or  one  disposition  of 
character.  As  early  as  the  i3th  century,  the  word  is  used  in 
French  literature  to  describe  an  anecdote  thus  briefly  and 
artistically  told,  in  prose  or  verse.  The  fairy-tales  of  Perrault 
and  the  apologues  of  La  Fontaine  were  alike  spoken  of  as  conies, 


and  stories  of  peculiar  extravagance  were  known  as  conies  bleus, 
because  they  were  issued  to  the  common  public  in  coarse  blue 
paper  covers.  The  most  famous  conies  in  the  i8th  century  were 
those  of  Voltaire,  who  has  been  described  as  having  invented 
the  conle  philosophique.  But  those  brilliant  stories,  Candide, 
Zadig,  L'Ingenu,  La  Princesse  de  Babylone  and  Le  Taureau  blanc, 
are  not,  in  the  modern  sense,  conies  at  all.  The  longer  of  these 
are  romans,  the  shorter  nouiielles;  not  one  has  the  anecdotical 
unity  required  by  a  conle.  The  same  may  be  said  of  those  of 
Marmontel,  and  of  the  insipid  imitations  of  Oriental  fancy  which 
were  so  popular  at  the  close  of  the  i8th  century.  The  most  per- 
fect recent  writer  of  conies  is  certainly  Guy  de  Maupassant,  and 
his  celebrated  anecdote  called  "  Boule  de  suif  "  may  be  taken 
as  an  absolutely  perfect  example  of  this  class  of  literature,  the 
precise  limitations  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  define.  (E.  G.) 

CONTE,  NICOLAS  JACQUES  (1755-1805),  French  mechanical 
genius,  chemist  and  painter,  was  born  at  Aunou-sur-Orne,  near 
Sees,  on  the  4th  of  August  1755,  of  a  family  of  poor  farm  labourers. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  displayed  precocious  artistic  talent 
in  a  series  of  religious  panels,  remarkably  fine  in  colour  and 
composition,  for  the  principal  hospital  of  Sees,  where  he  was 
employed  to  help  the  gardener.  With  the  advice  of  Greuze  he 
took  up  portrait  painting,  quickly  became  the  fashion,  and  laid 
by  in  a  few  years  a  fair  competency.  From  that  time  he  gave  free 
rein  to  his  passion  for  the  mechanical  arts  and  scientific  studies. 
He  attended  the  lectures  of  J.  A.  C.  Charles,  L.  N.  Vaquelin  and 
J.  B.  Leroy,  and  exhibited  before  the  Academy  of  Science  an 
hydraulic  machine  of  his  own  invention  of  which  the  model  was 
the  subject  of  a  flattering  report,  and  was  placed  in  Charles's 
collection.  The  events  of  the  Revolution  soon  gave  him  an 
opportunity  for  a  further  display  of  his  inventive  faculty.  The 
war  with  England  deprived  France  of  plumbago;  he  substituted 
for  it  an  artificial  substance  obtained  from  a  mixture  of  graphite 
and  clay,  and  took  out  a  patent  in  1795  for  the  form  of  pencil 
which  still  bears  his  name.  At  this  time  he  was  associated  with 
Monge  and  Berthollet  in  experiments  in  connexion  with  the 
inflation  of  military  balloons,  was  conducting  the  school  for  that 
department  of  the  engineer  corps  at  Meudon,  was  perfecting  the 
methods  of  producing  hydrogen  in  quantity,  and  was  appointed 
(1796)  by  the  Directory  to  the  command  of  all  the  aerostatic 
establishments.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  newly  created 
Conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers,  and  occupied  himself  with 
experiments  in  new  compositions  of  permanent  colours,  and  in 
1798  constructed  a  metal-covered  barometer  for  measuring 
comparative  heights,  by  observing  the  weight  of  mercury 
issuing  from  the  tube.  Summoned  by  Bonaparte  to  take  part 
as  chief  of  the  aerostatic  corps  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  he 
considerably  extended  his  field  of  activity,  and  for  three  years 
and  a  half  was,  to  quote  Berthollet,  "  the  soul  of  the  colony." 
The  disaster  of  Aboukir  and  the  revolt  of  Cairo  had  caused  the 
loss  of  the  greater  part  of  the  instruments  and  munitions  taken 
out  by  the  French.  Conte,  who,  as  Monge  says,  "  had  every 
science  in  his  head  and  every  art  in  his  hands,"  and  whom  the 
First  Consul  described  as  "  good  at  everything,"  seemed  to  be 
everywhere  at  once  and  triumphed  over  apparently  insur- 
mountable difficulties.  He  made,  in  an  almost  uncivilized 
country,  utensils,  tools  and  machinery  of  every  sort  from  simple 
windmills  to  stamps  for  minting  coin.  Thanks  to  his  activity 
and  genius,  the  expedition  was  provided  with  bread,  cloth,  arms 
and  munitions  of  war;  the  engineers  with  the  exact  tools  of 
their  trade;  the  surgeons  with  operating  instruments.  He 
made  the  designs,  built  the  models,  organized  and  supervised 
the  manufacture,  and  seemed  to  be  able  to  invent  immediately 
anything  required.  On  his  return  to  France  in  1802  he  was 
commissioned  by  the  minister  of  the  interior,  Chaptal,  to  super- 
intend the  publication  of  the  great  work  of  the  commission  on 
Egypt,  and  an  engraving  machine  of  his  construction  materially 
shortened  this  task,  which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  see 
finished.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  6th  of  December  1805. 
Napoleon  had  included  him  in  his  first  promotions  to  the  Legion 
of  Honour.  A  bronze  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  1852 
at  Sees,  by  public  subscription. 


CONTEMPT  OF  COURT 


CONTEMPT  OF  COURT,  in  English  law,  any  disobedience 
or  disrespect  to  the  authority  or  privileges  of  a  legislative  body, 
or  interference  with  the  administration  of  a  court  of  justice. 

1.  The  High  Court  of  Parliament.  Each  of  the  two  houses 
of  Parliament  has  by  the  law  and  custom  of  parliament  power 
to  protect  its  freedom,  dignity  and  authority  against  insult, 
•disregard  or  violence  by  resort  to  its  own  process  and  not  to 
ordinary  courts  of  law  and  without  having  its  process  interfered 
with  by  those  courts.    The  nature  and  limits  of  this  authority 
to  punish  for  contempt  have  been  the  subject  of  not  infrequent 
conflict  with  the  courts  of  law,  from  the  time  when  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Holt  threatened  to  commit  the  speaker  for  attempting 
to  stop  the  trial  of  Ashby  v.  White  (1701),  as  a  breach  of  privilege, 
to  the  cases  of  Burdetl  v.  Abbott  (1810),  Stockdale  v.  Hansard 
and  Howard  v.  Cosset  (1842,  1843),  and  Bradlaugh  v.  Cosset 
(1884).    It  is  now  the  accepted  view  that  the  power  of  either 
House  to  punish  contempt  is  exceptional  and  derived  from 
ancient  usage,  and  does  not  flow  from  their  being  courts  of 
record.     Orders  for  committal  by  the  Commons  are  effectual 
only  while  the  House  sits;  orders  by  the  Lords  may  be  for  a 
time  specified,  in  which  event  prorogation  does  not  operate  as 
a  discharge  of  the  offender.     It  was  at  one  time  considered  that 
the  privilege  of  committing  for  contempt  was  inherent  in  every 
deliberative  body  invested  with  authority  by  the  constitution, 
and  consequently  that  colonial  legislative  bodies  had  by  the 
nature  of  their  functions  the  power  to  commit  for  contempt. 
But  in  Kielley  v.  Carson  (1843;  4  Moore,  P.C.  63)  it  was  held 
that  the  power  belonged  to  parliament  by  ancient  usage  only 
and  not  on  the  theory  ab»ve  stated,  and  in  each  colony  it  is 
necessary  to  inquire  how  far  the  colonial  legislature  has  acquired, 
by  order  in  council  or  charter  or  from  the  imperial  legislature, 
power  to  punish  breach  of  privilege  by  imprisonment  or  com- 
mittal for  contempt.     This  power  has  in  some  cases  been_given 
directly,  in  others  by  authority  to  make  laws  and  regulations 
under  sanctions  like  those  enforced  by  the  Houses  of  the  imperial 
parliament.     In  the  case  of  Nova  Scotia  the  provincial  assem- 
bly has  power  to  give  itself  by  statute  authority  to  commit 
for  contempt  (Fielding  v.   Thomas,  1896;  L.R.A.C.  600).     In 
Barton  v.  Taylor  (1886;  n  A.C.  197)  the  competence  of  the 
legislative  assembly  of  New  South  Wales  to  make  standing 
orders  punishing  contempt  was  recognized  to  exist    under  the 
colonial  constitution,  but  the  particular  standing  orders  under 
consideration  are  held  not  to  cover  the  acts  which  had  been 
punished.     (See  May,  Parl.  Pr.,  loth  ed.,  1896;  Anson,  Law 
and  Custom  of  the  Constitution,  3rd  ed.,  1897.) 

2.  Courts  of  Justice.     The  term  contempt  of  court,  when  used 
with  reference  to  the  courts  or  persons  to  whom  the  exercise 
of  the  judicial  functions  of  the  crown  has  been  delegated,  means 
insult  offered  to  such  court  or  person  by  deliberate  defiance  of 
its  authority,  disobedience  to  its  orders,  interruption  of  its 
proceedings  or  interference  with  the  due  course  of  justice,  or 
any  conduct  calculated  or  tending  to  bring  the  authority  or 
administration  of  the  law  into  disrespect  or  disregard,  or  to 
interfere   with   or   prejudice   parties  or  witnesses   during   the 
litigation.     The  ingenuity  of  the  judges  and  of  those  who  are 
concerned  to  defeat  or  defy  justice  have  rendered  contempt 
almost  Protean  in  its  character.     But  for  practical  purposes 
most,  if  not  all,  contempts  fall  within  the  classification  which 
follows: — 

(a)  Disobedience  to  the  judgment  or  order  of  a  court  com- 
manding the  doing  or  abstaining  from  a  particular  act,  e.g.  an 
order  to  execute  a  conveyance  of  property  or  an  order  on  a 
person  in  a  fiduciary  capacity  to  pay  into  court  trust  moneys 
as  to  which  he  is  an  accounting  party.  This  includes  disobedience 
by  the  members  of  a  local  authority  to  a  mandamus  to  do  some 
act  which  they  are  by  law  bound  to  do;  and  proceedings  for 
contempt  have  been  taken  in  the  case  of  guardians  of  the  poor 
who  have  refused  to  enforce  the  Vaccination  Acts,  e.g.  at 
Keighley  and  Leicester,  and  of  town  councillors  who  have 
refused  to  comply  with  an  order  to  take  specified  measures  to 
drain  their  borough  (e.g.  Worcester) .  This  process  for  compelling 
obedience  is  in  substance  a  process  of  civil  execution  for  the 


benefit  of  the  injured  party  rather  than  a  criminal  process  for 
punishing  the  disobedience;  and  for  purposes  of  appeal  orders 
dealing  with  these  forms  of  contempt  have  hitherto  been  treated 
as  civil  proceedings. 

(b)  Disobedience  by  inferior   judges  or  magistrates  to  the 
lawful  order  of  a  superior  court.     Such  disobedience,  if  amounting 
to  wilful  misconduct,  would  usually  give  ground  for  amotion 
or  removal  from  office,  or  for  prosecution  or  indictment  or 
information  for  misconduct  (Archbold,  Criminal  Pleading,  147, 
23rd  ed.). 

(c)  Disobedience  or  misconduct  by  executive  officers  of  the 
law,  e.g.  sheriffs  and  their  bailiffs  or  gaolers.     The  contempt 
consists  in  not  complying  with  the  terms  of  writs  or  warrants 
sent  for  execution.     For  instance,   a  judge  of  assize  having 
ordered  the  court  to  be  cleared  on  account  of  some  disturbance, 
the  high  sheriff  issued  a  placard  protesting  against  "  this  un- 
lawful proceeding,"  and  "  prohibiting  his  officer  from  aiding 
and  abetting  any  attempt  to  bar  out  the  public  from  free  access 
to  the  court."     The  lord  chief  justice  of  England,  sitting  in  the 
other  court,  summoned  the  sheriff  before  him  and  fined  him 
£500  for  the  contempt,  and  £500  more  for  persisting  in  addressing 
the  grand  jury  in  court,  after  he  had  been  ordered  to  desist. 
A  sheriff  who  fails  to  attend  the  assizes  is  liable  to  severe  fine 
as  being  in    contempt  (Oswald,  51).     And  in  Harvey's  case 
(1884,  26  Ch.  D.  644)  steps  were  taken  to  attach  a  sheriff  who 
had  failed  to  execute  a  writ  of  attachment  for  contempt  of  court 
in  the  mistaken  belief  that  he  was  not  entitled  to  break  open 
doors  to  take  the  person  in  contempt.     The  Sheriffs  Act  1887 
enumerates  many  instances  in  which  misconduct  is  punishable 
under  that  act,  but  reserves  to  superior  courts  of  record  power 
to  deal  with  such  misconduct  as  a  contempt  (s.  29). 

(d)  Misconduct  or  neglect  of  duty  by  subordinate  officials 
of  courts  of  justice,  including  solicitors.     In  these  cases  it  is 
more  usual  for  the  superior  authorities  to  remove  the  offender 
from  office,  or  for  disciplinary  proceedings  to  be  instituted  by 
the  Law  Society.     But  in  the  case  of  an  unqualified  person 
assuming  to  act  as  a  solicitor  or  in  the  case  of  breach  of  an 
undertaking  given  by  a  solicitor  to  the  court,  proceedings  for 
contempt  are  still  taken. 

(e)  Misconduct  by  parties,  jurors  or  witnesses.    Jurors  who 
fail  to  attend  in  obedience  to  a  jury  summons  and  witnesses 
who  fail  to  attend  on  subpoena  are  liable  to  punishment  for 
contempt,   and  parties,   counsel  or  solicitors  who  practise  a 
fraud  on  the  court  are  similarly  liable. 

(/)  Contempt  in  facie  curiae.  "  Some  contempts."  says 
Blackstone,  "  may  arise  in  the  face  of  the  court,  as  by  rude 
and  contumelious  behaviour,  by  obstinacy,  perverseness  or 
prevarication,  by  breach  of  the  peace,  or  any  wilful  disturbance 
whatever  ";  in  other  words,  direct  insult  to  or  interference 
with  a  sitting  court  is  treated  as  contempt  of  the  court.  It  is 
immaterial  whether  the  offender  is  juror,  party,  witness,  counsel, 
solicitor  or  a  stranger  to  the  case  at  hearing,  and  occasionally 
it  is  found  necessary  to  punish  for  contempt  persons  under 
trial  for  felony  or  misdemeanour  if  by  violent  language  or  conduct 
they  interrupt  the  proceedings  at  their  trial.  Judges  have  even 
treated  as  contempt  the  continuance  outside  the  court-house 
after  warning  of  a  noise  sufficient  to  disturb  the  proceedings 
of  the  court;  and  in  Victoria  Chief  Justice  Higginbotham 
committed  for  contempt  a  builder  who  persisted  after  warning 
in  building  operations  close  to  the  central  criminal  court  in 
Melbourne,  which  interfered  with  the  due  conduct  of  the  business 
of  the  sittings. 

(g)  Attempts  to  prevent  or  interfere  with  the  due  course 
of  justice,  whether  made  by  a  person  interested  in  a  particular 
case  or  by  an  outsider.  This  branch  of  contempt  takes  many 
forms,  such  as  frauds  on  the  court  by  justices,  solicitors cr  counsel 
(e.g.  by  fraudulently  circularizing  shareholders  of  a  company 
against  which  a  winding-up  petition  had  been  filed),  tampering 
with  witnesses  by  inducing  them  through  threats  or  persuasion 
not  to  attend  or  to  withhold  evidence  or  to  commit  perjury, 
threatening  judge  or  jury  or  attempting  to  bribe  them  and  the 
like;  and  also  by  "scandalizing  the  court  itself"  by  abusing 


CONTEMPT  OF  COURT 


the  parties  concerned  in  a  pending  case,  or  by  creating  prejudice 
against  such  persons  before  their  cause  is  heard. 

The  locus  classicus  on  the  subject  of  contempt  by  attacks 
on  judges  is  a  judgment  prepared  by  Sir  Eardley-Wilmot  in  the 
case  of  an  application  for  an  attachment  against 
invectives  j  Almon  in  1765,  for  publishing  a  pamphlet  libelling 
fcfdVes  the  court  of  king's  bench.  The  judgment  was  not 
actually  delivered  as  the  case  was  settled,  but  has  long 
been  accepted  as  correctly  stating  the  law.  Sir  Eardley-Wilmot 
said  that  the  offence  of  libelling  judges  in  their  judicial  capacity 
is  the  most  proper  case  for  an  attachment,  for  the  "  arraignment 
of  the  justice  of  the  judges  is  arraigning  the  king's  justice;  it 
is  an  impeachment  of  his  wisdom  and  goodness  in  the  choice  of 
his  judges;  and  excites  in  the  minds  of  the  people  a  general 
dissatisfaction  with  all  judicial  determinations,  and  indisposes 
their  minds  to  obey  them.  To  be  impartial,  and  to  be  universally 
thought 'so,  are  both  absolutely  necessary  for  the  giving  justice 
that  free,  open  and  uninterrupted  current  which  it  has  for  many 
ages  found  all  over  this  kingdom,  and  which  so  eminently 
distinguishes  and  exalts  it  above  all  nations  upon  the  earth." 
Again,  "  the  constitution  has  provided  very  apt  and  proper 
remedies  for  correcting  and  rectifying  the  involuntary  mistakes 
of  judges,  and  for  punishing  and  removing  them  for  any  perver- 
sion of  justice.  But  if  their  authority  is  to  be  trampled  on  by 
pamphleteers  and  news-writers,  and  the  people  are  to  be  told 
that  the  power  given  to  the  judges  for  their  protection  is  prosti- 
tuted to  their  destruction,  the  court  may  retain  its  power  some 
little  time,  but  I  am  sure  it  will  eventually  lose  all  its  authority." 

The  object  of  the  discipline  enforced  by  the  court  by  proceed- 
ings for  contempt  of  court  is  not  now,  if  it  ever  was,  to  vindicate 
the  personal  dignity  of  the  judges  or  to  protect  them  from 
insult  as  individuals,  but  to  vindicate  the  dignity  and  authority 
of  the  court  itself  and  to  prevent  acts  tending  to  obstruct  the 
due  course  of  justice.  The  question  whether  a  personal  invective 
against  judges  should  be  dealt  with  brevi  manu  by  the  court 
attacked,  or  by  proceedings  at  the  instance  of  the  attorney- 
general  by  information  or  indictment  for  a  libel  on  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  or  on  the  judge  attacked,  or  should  be  dealt 
with  by  a  civil  action  for  damages,  depends  on  the  nature  and 
occasion  of  the  attack  on  the  judge. 

There  has  at  times  been  a  disposition  by  judges  in  colonial 
courts  to  use  the  process  of  the  court  to  punish  criticisms  on 
their  acts  by  counsel  or  parties  or  even  outsiders,  which  the 
privy  council  has  been  prone  to  discourage.  For  instance  in  a 
Nova  Scotia  case  a  barrister  was  suspended  from  practice  for 
writing  to  the  chief  justice  of  the  province  a  letter  relating  to 
a  case  in  which  the  barrister  was  suitor.  The  privy  council 
while  considering  the  letter  technically  a  contempt,  held  the 
punishment  inappropriate.  In  Maclcod  v.  St  Aubyn  (1899, 
A.C.  549)  it  was  said  that  proceedings  for  scandalizing  the 
court  itself  were  obsolete  in  England.  But  in  1900  the  king's 
bench  division,  following  the  Almon  case,  summarily  punished 
a  scurrilous  personal  attack  on  a  judge  of  assize  with  reference 
to  his  remarks  in  a  concluded  case,  published  immediately  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  case  (R.  v.  Gray,  1900,  2  Q.B.  36).  The 
same  measure  may  be  meted  out  to  those  who  publish  invectives 
against  judges  or  juries  with  the  object  of  creating  suspicion 
or  contempt  as  to  the  administration  of  justice.  But  the  exist- 
ence of  this  power  does  not  militate  against  the  right  of  the  press 
to  publish  full  reports  of  trials  and  judgments  or  to  make  with 
fairness,  good  faith,  candour  and  decency,  comments  and 
criticisms  on  what  passed  at  the  trial  and  on  the  correctness  of 
the  verdict  or  the  judgment.  To  impute  corruption  is  said  to  go 
beyond  the  limits  of  fair  criticism.  Shortt  (Law  relating  to 
Works  of  Literature)  states  the  law  to  be  that  the  temperate  and 
respectful  discussion  of  judicial  determination  is  not  prohibited, 
but  mere  invective  and  abuse,  and  still  more  the  imputation  of 
false,  corrupt  and  dishonest  motives  is  punishable.  In  an 
information  granted  in  1788  against  the  corporation  of  Yarmouth 
for  having  entered  upon  their  books  an  order  "  stating  that  the 
assembly  were  sensible  that  Mr  W.  (against  whom  an  action  had 
been  brought  for  malicious  prosecution,  and  a  verdict  for  £3000 


returned,  which  the  court  refused  to  disturb)  was  actuated  by 
motives  of  public  justice,  of  preserving  the  rights  of  the  corpora- 
tion to  their  admiralty  jurisdiction,  and  of  supporting  the  honour 
and  credit  of  the  chief  magistrate,  "  Mr  Justice  Buller  said,  "  The 
judge  and  jury  who  tried  the  case,  confirmed  by  the  court  of 
common  pleas,  have  said  that  instead  of  his  having  been  actuated 
by  motives  of  public  justice,  or  by  any  motives  which  should 
influence  the  actions  of  an  honest  man,  he  had  been  actuated 
by  malice.  These  opinions  are  not  reconcilable;  if  the  one  be 
right  the  other  must  be  wrong.  It  is  therefore  a  direct  insinua- 
tion that  the  court  had  judged  wrong  in  all  they  have  done  in 
this  case,  and  is  therefore  clearly  a  libel  on  the  administration  of 
justice." 

The  exact  limits  of  the  power  to  punish  for  contempt  of  court 
in  respect  of  statements  or  comments  on  the  action  of  judges  and 
juries,  or  with  reference  to  pending  proceedings,  have  been  the 
subject  of  some  controversy,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  reconciling 
the  claims  of  the  press  to  liberty  and  of  the  public  to  free  dis- 
cussion of  the  proceedings  of  courts  of  justice  with  the  claims  of 
the  judges  to  due  respect  and  of  the  parties  to  litigation  that 
their  causes  should  not  be  prejudiced  before  trial  by  outside  inter- 
ference. As  the  law  now  stands  it  is  permissible  to  publish  con- 
temporaneous reports  of  the  proceedings  in  cases  pending  in  any 
court  (Law  of  Libel  Amendment  Act  1888,  s.  3),  unless  the 
proceedings  have  taken  place  in  private  (in  camera),  or  the  court 
has  in  the  interests  of  justice  prohibited  any  report  until  the  case 
is  concluded,  a  course  now  rarely,  if  ever,  adopted.  But  it  is  not 
permissible  to  make  any  comments  on  a  pending  case  calculated 
to  interfere  with  the  due  course  of  justice  in  the  case,  nor  to 
publish  statements  about  the  cause  or  the  parties  calculated 
to  have  that  effect.  This  rule  applies  even  when  the  case  has 
been  tried  and  the  jury  has  disagreed  if  a  second  trial  is  in 
prospect.  Applications  are  frequently  made  to  commit  pro- 
prietors and  editors  who  comment  too  freely  or  who  undertake 
the  task  of  trying  in  their  newspapers  a  pending  case.  The  courts 
are  now  slow  to  move  unless  satisfied  that  the  statements  or 
comments  may  seriously  affect  the  course  of  justice,  e.g.  by 
reaching  the  jurors  who  have  to  try  the  case. 

The  difference  between  pending  and  decided  cases  has  been 
frequently  recognized  by  the  courts.  What  would  be  a  fair 
comment  in  a  decided  case  may  tend  to  influence  the  mind 
of  the  judge  or  the  jury  in  a  case  waiting  to  be  heard,  and  will 
accordingly  be  punished  as  a  contempt.  In  Tichborne  v.  Mostyn 
the  publisher  of  a  newspaper  was  held  to  have  committed  a 
contempt  by  printing  in  his  paper  extracts  from  affidavits  in  a 
pending  suit,  with  comments  upon  them.  In  the  case  of  R.  v. 
Castro  it  was  held  that  after  a  true  bill  has  been  found,  and  the 
indictment  removed  into  the  court  of  queen's  bench,  and  a  day 
fixed  for  trial,  the  case  was  pending;  and  it  was  a  contempt 
of  court  to  address  public  meetings,  alleging  that  the  defendant 
was  not  guilty,  that  there  was  a  conspiracy  against  the  defendant, 
and  that  he  could  not  have  a  fair  trial;  and  the  court  ordered 
the  parties  to  answer  for  their  contempt.  In  the  case  of  the  Moat 
Farm  murder  (1903)  the  high  court  punished  as  contempt  a 
series  of  articles  published  in  a  newspaper  while  the  preliminary 
inquiry  was  proceeding  and  before  the  case  went  to  a  jury 
(R.  v.  Parker,  1903,  2  K.B.  432).  The  like  course  was  followed 
in  1905  in  the  case  of  statements  made  in  a  Welsh  newspaper 
about  a  woman  awaiting  trial  for  attempted  murder  (R.  v. 
Dames,  1906,  i  K.B.  32);  and  in  the  case  of  the  Weekly  Dis- 
patch in  1902  (R.  v.  Tibbits  and  Windust,  i  K.B.  77),  two  journal- 
ists were  tried  on  indictment,  and  held  to  have  been  rightly 
convicted,  for  conspiring  to  prevent  the  course  of  justice  by 
publishing  matter  calculated  to  interfere  with  the  fair  trial  of 
persons  who  were  under  accusation. 

"  In  the  superior  courts  the  power  of  committing  for  con- 
tempt is  inherent  in  their  constitution,  has  been  coeval  with  their 
original  institution  and  has  been  always  exercised  "       courts 
(Oswald,  On  Contempt,  3).     The  high  court  in  which      having 
these  courts  are  merged  is  the  only  court  which  has 
a  general  jurisdiction  to  deal  summarily  with  all  forms 
of     contempt.     Each     division     of     that     court    deals    with 


ilon' 


CONTI,  PRINCES  OF 


27 


Punish- 
ment. 


the  particular  contempts  arising  with  reference  to  proceedings 
before  the  division;  but  the  king's  bench  division,  in  the  exercise 
of  the  supervisory  authority  inherited  from  the  old  court  of  king's 
bench  as  custos  morum,  also  from  time  to  time  deals  with  acts 
constituting  interference  with  justice  in  other  inferior  courts 
whether  of  record  or  not.  The  nature  and  limits  of  this  jurisdic- 
tion after  much  discussion  have  been  defined  by  decisions  in  1903 
and  1905  in  attempts  to  try  by  newspapers  cases  under  inquiry 
by  justices  or  awaiting  trial  at  assizes  or  quarter  sessions.  The 
exercise  of  this  authority  in  the  king's  bench  division,  being  in 
a  criminal  cause  or  matter,  is  not  the  subject  of  appeal  to  any 
higher  court. 

Inferior  courts  of  record  have,  as  a  general  rule,  power  to 
punish  only  those  contempts  which  are  committed  in  facie  curiae 
or  consist  in  disobedience  to  the  lawful  orders  or  judgments  of 
the  court.  For  instance,  a  county  court  may  summarily  punish 
persons  who  insult  the  judge  or  any  officer  of  the  court  or  any 
juror  or  witness,  or  wilfully  interrupt  the  proceedings,  or  mis- 
behave in  the  court-house  (County  Court  Act  i888,'s.  162),  and 
may  also  attack  persons  who  having  means  refuse  to  comply 
with  an  order  to  pay  money,  or  refuse  to  comply  with  an  order 
to  deliver  up  a  specific  chattel  or  disobey  an  injunction.  A  court 
of  quarter  sessions  has  at  common  law  a  like  power  as  to  con- 
tempts in  facie  curiae  and  is  said  to  have  power  to  punish  its 
officials  for  contempt  in  non-attendance  or  neglect  of  duty. 

Contempt  of  court  is  a  misdemeanour  and  is  punishable  by 
fine  and  imprisonment  or  either  at  discretion.  The  offence  may 
be  tried  summarily,  or  may  be  prosecuted  on  informa- 
tion or  on  indictment  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  the 
Weekly  Dispatch  already  mentioned.  The  prerogative 
of  pardon  extends  to  all  contempts  of  court  which  are  dealt  with 
by  a  sentence  of  clearly  punitive  character;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  extends  to  committals  for  disobedience  to  orders 
made  in  aid  of  the  execution  of  a  civil  judgment. 

Contempt  is  usually  dealt  with  summarily  by  the  court  con- 
temned in  the  case  of  contempt  in  facie  curiae.  The  offender 
may  be  instantly  apprehended  and  without  further  proof  or 
examination  fined  or  sent  to  prison.  In  the  case  of  other  con- 
tempts the  High  Court  not  only  can  deal  with  contempts  affecting 
itself,  but  can  also  intervene  summarily  to  protect  inferior  courts 
from  contempts.  This  jurisdiction  was  asserted  and  exercised 
in  the  Moat  Farm  case  (1903)  and  the  South  Wales  Post  case 
(1905)  already  mentioned. 

Except  in  cases  of  contempt  in  facie  curiae  evidence  on  oath 
as  to  the  alleged  contempt  must  be  laid  before  the  court,  and 
application  made  for  the  "  committal  "  or  "  attachment  "  of 
the  offender.  The  differences  between  the  two  modes  are 
technical  rather  than  substantial. 

The  procedure  for  dealing  with  contempt  of  court  varies 
somewhat  according  as  the  contempt  consists  in  disobeying 
an  order  of  the  High  Court  made  in  a  civil  cause,  or  consists  in 
interference  with  the  course  of  justice  by  persons  not  present  in 
court  nor  parties  to  the  cause.  In  the  first  class  of  cases  the  court 
proceeds  by  order  of  committal  or  giving  leave  to  issue  writ  of 
attachment.  In  either  case  the  person  said  to  be  in  contempt 
must  have  full  notice  of  the  proposed  motion  and  of  the  grounds 
on  which  he  is  said  to  be  in  contempt;  and  the  rules  regulating 
such  proceedings  must  be  strictly  complied  with  (R.  v.  Tuck, 
1906,  2  Ch.  692).  In  proceedings  on  the  crown  side  of  the  king's 
bench  division  it  is  still  usual  to  apply  in  the  first  place  for  a  rule 
nisi  for  leave  to  attach  the  alleged  offender  who  is  given  an 
opportunity  of  explaining,  excusing  or  justifying  the  incriminated 
acts.  It  is  essential  that  before  punishment  the  alleged  offender 
should  have  had  full  notice  as  to  the  specific  offence  charged 
and  opportunity  of  answering  to  it.  The  king's  bench  procedure 
is  that  generally  used  for  interference  with  the  due  course  of 
criminal  justice  or  disobedience  to  prerogative  writs  such  as 
mandamus, 

An  order  of  committal  is  an  order  in  execution  specifying  the 
nature  of  the  detention  to  be  suffered,  or  the  penalty  to  be  paid. 
The  process  of  attachment  merely  brings  the  accused  into  court ; 
he  is  then  required  to  answer  on  oath  interrogatories  administered 


to  him,  so  that  the  court  may  be  better  informed  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  contempt.  If  he  can  clear  himself  on  oath  he  is 
discharged;  if  he  confesses  the  court  will  punish  him  by  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  both,  at  its  discretion.  But  in  very  many  cases 
on  proper  apology  and  submission,  and  undertaking  not  to  repeat 
the  contempt,  and  payment  of  costs,  the  court  allows  the 
proceedings  to  drop  without  proceeding  to  fine  or  imprison. 

From  time  to  time  proposals  have  been  made  to  deprive  the 
superior  courts  of  the  power  to  deal  summarily  with  contempts 
not  committed  in  facie  curiae,  and  to  require  proceedings  on 
other  charges  for  contempt  to  go  before  a  jury.  This  distinction 
has  already  been  made  hi  some  British  colonies,  e.g.  British 
Guiana,  by  an  ordinance  of  1900  (No.  31).  Recent  decisions 
in  England  have  so  fully  defined  the  limits  of  the  offence  and 
declared  the  practice  of  the  courts  that  it  would  probably  only 
result  in  undue  licence  of  the  press  if  the  power  now  carefully 
and  judicially  exercised  of  dealing  summarily  with  journalistic 
interference  with  the  ordinary  course  of  justice  were  taken  away 
and  the  delay  involved  in  submitting  the  case  to  a  jury  were  made 
inevitable.  The  courts  now  only  act  in  clear  cases,  and  in  cases 
of  doubt  can  always  send  the  question  to  a  jury.  The  experience 
of  other  countries  makes  it  undesirable  to  part  with  the  summary 
remedy  so  long  as  it  is  in  the  hands  of  a  trusted  judicature. 

Scotland. — In  Scotland  the  courts  of  session  and  justiciary  have, 
at  common  law,  and  exercise  the  power  of  punishing  contempt 
committed  during  a  judicial  proceeding  by  censure,  fine  or  imprison- 
ment proprio  motu  without  formal  proceedings  or  a  summary  com- 
plaint. The  nature  of  the  offence  is  there  in  substance  the  same  as 
in  England  (see  Petrie,  1889:  7  Rettie  Justiciary  3;  Smith,  1892: 
20  Rettie  Justiciary  52). 

Ireland. — In  Ireland  the  law  of  contempt  is  on  the  same  lines  as  in 
England,  but  conflicts  have  arisen  between  the  bench  and  popular 
opinion,  due  to  political  and  religious  differences,  which  have  led 
to  proposals  for  making  juries  and  not  judges  arbiters  in  cases  of 
contempt. 

British  Dominions  beyond  Seas. — The  courts  of  most  British 
possessions  have  acquired  and  freely  exercise  the  power  of  the  court 
of  king's  bench  to  deal  summarily  with  contempt  of  court;  and, 
as  already  stated,  it  is  not  infrequently  the  duty  of  the  privy  council 
to  restrain  too  exuberant  a  vindication  of  the  offended  dignity  of  a 
colonial  court.  (W.  F.  C.) 

CONTI,  PRINCES  OF.  The  title  of  prince  of  Conti,  assumed 
by  a  younger  branch  of  the  house  of  Conde,  was  taken  from 
Conti-sur-Selles,  a  small  town  about  20  m.  S.W.  of  Amiens, 
which  came  into  the  Conde  family  by  the  marriage  of  Louis  of 
Bourbon,  first  prince  of  Conde,  with  Eleanor  de  Roye  in  1551. 

FRANCOIS  (1558-1614),  the  third  son  of  this  marriage,  was 
given  the  title  of  marquis  de  Conti,  and  between  1581  and  1597 
was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  prince.  Conti,  who  belonged  to 
the  older  faith,  appears  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  wars  of 
religion  until  1587,  when  his  distrust  of  Henry,  third  duke  of 
Guise,  caused  him  to  declare  against  the  League,  and  to  support 
Henry  of  Navarre,  afterwards  King  Henry  IV.  of  France.  In 
1589  after  the  murder  of  Henry  III.,  king  of  France,  he  was  one 
of  the  two  princes  of  the  blood  who  signed  the  declaration 
recognizing  Henry  IV.  as  king,  and  he  continued  to  support 
Henry,  although  on  the  death  of  Charles  cardinal  de  Bourbon 
in  1590  he  himself  was  mentioned  as  a  candidate  for  the  throne. 
In  1605  Conti,  whose  first  wife  Jeanne  de  Coeme,  heiress  of 
Bonnetable,  had  died  in  1601,  married  the  beautiful  and  witty 
Louise  Marguerite  (1574-1631),  daughter  of  Henry  duke  of 
Guise  and  Catherine  of  Cleves,  whom,  but  for  the  influence  of 
his  mistress  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  Henry  IV.  would  have  made 
his  queen.  Conti  died  in  1614.  His  only  child  Marie  having 
predeceased  him  in  1610,  the  title  lapsed.  His  widow  followed 
the  fortunes  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  from  whom  she  received  many 
marks  of  favour,  and  was  secretly  married  to  Francois  de 
Bassompierre  (<?.».),  who  joined  her  in  conspiring  against  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  Upon  the  exposure  of  the  plot  the  cardinal  exiled 
her  to  her  estate  at  Eu,  near  Amiens,  where  she  died.  The 
princess  wrote  Aventures  de  la  cour  de  Perse,  in  which,  under  the 
veil  of  fictitious  scenes  and  names,  she  tells  the  history  of  her 
own  time. 

In  1629  the  title  of  prince  de  Conti  was  revived  in  favour  of 
ARMAND  DE  BOURBON  (1629-1666),  second  son  of  Henry  II.  of 


CONTI,  N.  DE' 


Bourbon,  prince  of  Conde,  and  brother  of  Louis,  the  great 
Conde.  He  was  destined  for  the  church  and  studied  theology 
at  the  university  of  Bourges,  but  although  he  received  several 
benefices  he  did  not  take  orders.  He  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  intrigues  and  fighting  of  the  Fronde,  became  in  1648 
commander-in-chief  of  the  rebel  army,  and  in  1650  was  with 
his  brother  Conde  imprisoned  at  Vincennes.  Released  when 
Mazarin  went  into  exile,  he  wished  to  marry  Mademoiselle  de 
Chevreuse  (1627-1652),  daughter  of  the  famous  confidante  of 
Anne  of  Austria,  but  was  prevented  by  his  brother,  who  was  now 
supreme  in  the  state.  He  was  concerned  in  the  Fronde  of  1651, 
but  soon  afterwards  became  reconciled  with  Mazarin,  and  in 
1654  married  the  cardinal's  niece,  Anne  Marie  Martinozzi 
(1630-1672),  and  secured  the  government  of  Guienne.  He  took 
command  of  the  army  which  in  1654  invaded  Catalonia,  where 
he  captured  three  towns  from  the  Spaniards.  He  afterwards 
led  the  French  forces  in  Italy,  but  after  his  defeat  before  Ales- 
sandria in  1657  retired  to  Languedoc,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  study  and  mysticism  until  his  death.  At  Clermont  Conti  had 
been  a  fellow  student  of  Moliere's  for  whom  he  secured  an 
introduction  to  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  afterwards,  when 
writing  a  treatise  against  the  stage  entitled  Traile  de  la  comedie 
et  des  spectacles  selon  les  traditions  de  l'£glise  (Paris,  1667),  he 
charged  the  dramatist  with  keeping  a  school  of  atheism.  Conti 
also  wrote  Leltres  sur  la  grace,  and  Du  devoir  des  grands  et  des 
devoirs  des  gouverneurs  de  province. 

Louis  ARMAND  DE  BOURBON,  prince  de  Conti  (1661-1685), 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his  father  in  1666,  and  in 
1680  married  Marie  Anne,  a  daughter  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Louise 
de  la  Valliere.  He  served  with  distinction  in  Flanders  in  1683, 
and  against  the  wish  of  the  king  went  to  Hungary,  where  he 
assisted  the  Imperialists  to  defeat  the  Turks  at  Gran  in  1683. 
After  a  dissolute  life  he  died  at  Fontainebleau  from  smallpox. 

FRANCOIS  Louis  DE  BOURBON,  prince  de  Conti  (1664-1709), 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  known  until  1685  as  prince 
de  la  Roche-sur-Yon.  Naturally  of  great  ability,  he  received 
an  excellent  education  and  was  distinguished  both  for  the 
independence  of  his  mind  and  the  popularity  of  his  manners. 
On  this  account  he  was  not  received  with  favour  by  Louis  XIV.; 
so  in  1683  he  assisted  the  Imperialists  in  Hungary,  and  while 
there  he  wrote  some  letters  in  which  he  referred  to  Louis  as  le 
roi  du  th&dtre,  for  which  on  his  return  to  France  he  was  temporarily 
banished  to  Chantilly.  Conti  was  a  favourite  of  his  uncle  the 
great  Conde,  whose  grand-daughter  Marie  Therese  de  Bourbon 
(1666-1732)  he  married  in  1688.  In  1689  he  accompanied  his 
intimate  friend  Marshal  Luxembourg  to  the  Netherlands,  and 
shared  in  the  French  victories  at  Fleurus,  Steinkirk  and  Neer- 
winden.  On  the  death  of  his  cousin,  Jean  Louis  Charles,  due 
de  Longueville  (1646-1694),  Conti  in  accordance  with  his 
cousin's  will,  claimed  the  principality  of  Neuchatel  against 
Marie,  duchesse  de  Nemours  (1625-1707),  a  sister  of  the  duke. 
He  failed  to  obtain  military  assistance  from  the  Swiss,  and  by 
the  king's  command  yielded  the  disputed  territory  to  Marie, 
although  the  courts  of  law  had  decided  in  his  favour.  In  1697 
Louis  XIV.  offered  him  the  Polish  crown,  and  by  means  of 
bribes  the  abbe  de  Polignac  secured  his  election.  Conti  started 
rather  unwillingly  for  his  new  kingdom,  probably,  as  St  Simon 
remarks,  owing  to  his  affection  for  Francoise,  wife  of  Philip  II., 
duke  of  Orleans,  and  daughter  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Madame  de 
Montespan.  When  he  reached  Danzig  and  found  his  rival 
Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Saxony,  already  in  possession  of  the 
Polish  crown,  he  returned  to  France,  where  he  was  graciously 
received  by  Louis,  although  St  Simon  says  the  king  was  vexed 
to  see  him  again.  But  the  misfortunes  of  the  French  armies 
during  the  earlier  years  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
compelled  Louis  to  appoint  Conti,  whose  military  renown  stood 
very  high,  to  command  the  troops  in  Italy.  He  fell  ill  before 
he  could  take  the  field,  and  died  on  the  9th  of  February  1709, 
his  death  calling  forth  exceptional  signs  of  mourning  from  all 
classes. 

Louis  ARMAND  DE  BOURBON,  prince  de  Conti  (1696-1727), 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  treated  with  great  liberality 


by  Louis  XIV.,  and  also  by  the  regent,  Philip  duke  of  Orleans. 
He  served  under  Marshal  Villars  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  but  he  lacked  the  soldierly  qualities  of  his  father. 
In  1713  he  married  Louise  Elisabeth  (1693-1775),  daughter  of 
Louis  Henri  de  Bourbon,  prince  de  Conde,  and  grand-daughter 
of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  a  prominent  supporter  of  the  financial 
schemes  of  John  Law,  by  which  he  made  large  sums  of  money. 

Louis  FRANCOIS  DE  BOURBON,  prince  de  Conti  (1717-1776), 
only  son  of  the  preceding,  adopted  a  military  career,  and  when 
the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  broke  out  in  1741  accompanied 
Charles  Louis,  due  de  Belle-Isle,  to  Bohemia.  His  services 
there  led  to  his  appointment  to  command  the  army  in  Italy, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  forcing  the  pass  of  Villafranca 
and  winning  the  battle  of  Coni  in  1744.  In  1745  he  was  sent  to 
check  the  Imperialists  in  Germany,  and  in  1746  was  transferred 
to  the  Netherlands,  where  some  jealousy  between  Marshal  Saxe 
and  himself  led  to  his  retirement  in  1747.  In  this  year  a  faction 
among  the  Polish  nobles  offered  Conti  the  crown  of  that  country, 
where  owing  to  the  feeble  health  of  King  Augustus  III.  a  vacancy 
was  expected.  He  won  the  personal  support  of  Louis  XV.  for 
his  candidature,  although  the  policy  of  the  French  ministers 
was  to  establish  the  house  of  Saxony  in  Poland,  as  the  dauphiness 
was  a  daughter  of  Augustus.  Louis  therefore  began  secret 
personal  relations  with  his  ambassadors  in  eastern  Europe,  who 
were  thus  receiving  contradictory  instructions;  a  policy  known 
later  as  the  secret  du  roi.  Although  Conti  did  not  secure  the  Polish 
throne  he  remained  in  the  confidence  of  Louis  until  1755,  when 
his  influence  was  destroyed  by  the  intrigues  of  Madame  de 
Pompadour;  so  that  when  the  Seven  Years'  War  broke  out  in 
1756  he  was  refused  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
and  began  the  opposition  to  the  administration  which  caused 
Louis  to  refer  to  him  as  "  my  cousin  the  advocate."  In  1771 
he  was  prominent  in  opposition  to  the  chancellor  Maupeou. 
He  supported  the  parlements  against  the  ministry,  was  especially 
active  in  his  hostility  to  Turgot,  and  was  suspected  of  aiding  a 
rising  which  took  place  at  Dijon  in  1775.  Conti,  who  died  on 
the  2nd  of  August  1776,  inherited  literary  tastes  from  his  father, 
was  a  brave  and  skilful  general,  and  a  diligent  student  of  military 
history.  His  house,  over  which  the  comtesse  de  Boufflers 
presided,  was  the  resort  of  many  men  of  letters,  and  he  was  a 
patron  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau. 

Louis  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH,  prince  de  Conti  (1734-1814),  son 
of  the  preceding,  possessed  considerable  talent  as  a  soldier,  and 
distinguished  himself  during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  He  took 
the  side  of  Maupeou  in  the  struggle  between  the  chancellor  and 
the  parlements,  and  in  1788  declared  that  the  integrity  of  the 
constitution  must  be  maintained.  He  emigrated  owing  to  the 
weakness  of  Louis  XVI.,  but  refused  to  share  in  the  plans  for 
the  invasion  of  France,  and  returned  to  his  native  country  in 
1790.  Arrested  by  order  of  the  National  Convention  in  1793, 
he  was  acquitted,  but  was  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  confiscation 
of  his  possessions.  He  afterwards  received  a  pension,  but  the 
Directory  banished  him  from  France,  and  as  he  refused  to  share 
in  the  plots  of  the  royalists  he  lived  at  Barcelona  till  his  death 
in  1814,  when  the  house  of  Conti  became  extinct. 

See  F.  de  Bassompierre,  Memoires  (Paris,  1877);  G.  Tallemant 
des  Reaux,  Historiettes  (Paris,  1854-1860);  L.  de  R.  due  de  Saint 
Simon,  Memoires  (Paris,  1873);  C.  E.  duchesse  d'Orleans,  Memoires 
(Paris,  1880);  R.  L.  Marquis  d'Areenson,  Journal  et  memoires 
(Paris,  1859-1865);  F.  J.  de  P.  cardinal  de  Bernis,  Memoires  et 
lettres  (Paris,  1878) ;  J.  V.  A.  due  de  Broglie,  Le  Secret  du  roi  (Paris, 
1878);  P.  A.  Cheruel,  Histoire  de  la  minorite  de  Louis  XIV  et  du 
ministere  de  Mazarin  (Paris,  1879);  E.  Boutaric,  Correspondance 
secrete  de  Louis  XV  sur  la  politique  etrangere  (Paris,  1866);  P. 
Foncin,  Essai  sur  le  ministere  de  Turgot  (Paris,  1877) ;  E.  Bourgeois 
Neuchatel  et  la  politique  prussienne  en  Franche-Comte  (Paris,  1877). 

CONTI,  NICOLO  DE'  (fl.  1410-1444),  Venetian  explorer  and 
writer,  was  a  merchant  of  noble  family,  who  left  Venice  about 
1419,  on  what  proved  an  absence  of  25  years.  We  next  find 
him  in  Damascus,  whence  he  made  his  way  over  the  north 
Arabian  desert,  the  Euphrates,  and  southern  Mesopotamia, 
to  Bagdad.  Here  he  took  ship  and  sailed  down  the  Tigris  to 
Basra  and  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf;  he  next  descended 
the  gulf  to  Ormuz,  coasted  along  the  Indian  Ocean  shore  of 


CONTINENT 


29 


Persia  (at  one  port  of  which  he  remained  some  time,  and  entered 
into  a  business  partnership  with  some  Persian  merchants),  and 
so  reached  the  gulf  and  city  of  Cambay,  where  he  began  his 
Indian  life  and  observations.  He  next  dropped  down  the  west 
coast  of  India  to  Ely,  and  struck  inland  to  Vijayanagar,  the 
capital  of  the  principal  Hindu  state  of  the  Deccan,  destroyed 
in  IS55-  Of  this  city  Conti  gives  an  elaborate  description,  one 
of  the  most  interesting  portions  of  his  narrative.  From  Vijay- 
anagar and  the  Tungabudhra  he  travelled  to  Maliapur  near 
Madras,  the  traditional  resting-place  of  the  body  of  St  Thomas, 
and  the  holiest  shrine  of  the  native  Nestorian  Christians,  then 
"  scattered  over  all  India,"  the  Venetian  declares,  "  as  the  Jews 
are  among  us."  The  narrative  next  refers  to  Ceylon,  and  gives 
a  very  accurate  account  of  the  Cingalese  cinnamon  tree;  but, 
if  Conti  visited  the  island  at  all,  it  was  probably  on  the  return 
journey.  His  outward  route  now  took  him  to  Sumatra,  where 
he  stayed  a  year,  and  of  whose  cruel,  brutal,  cannibal  natives 
he  gained  a  pretty  full  knowledge,  as  of  the  camphor,  pepper 
and  gold  of  this  "  Taprobana."  From  Sumatra  a  stormy 
voyage  of  sixteen  days  brought  him  to  Tenasserim,  near  the 
head  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  We  then  find  him  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ganges,  and  trace  him  ascending  and  descending  that 
river  (a  journey  of  several  months),  visiting  Burdwan  and 
Aracan,  penetrating  into  Burma,  and  navigating  the  Irawadi  to 
Ava.  He  appears  to  have  spent  some  time  in  Pegu,  from  which 
he  again  plunged  into  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  visited  Java, 
his  farthest  point.  Here  he  remained  nine  months,  and  then 
began  his  return  by  way  of  Ciampa  (usually  Cochin-China  in 
later  medieval  European  literature,  but  here  perhaps  some  more 
westerly  portion  of  Indo- China);  a  month's  voyage  from 
Ciampa  brought  him  to  Coloen,  doubtless  Kulam  or  Quilon,  in 
the  extreme  south-west  of  India.  Thence  he  continued  his 
homeward  route,  touching  at  Cochin,  Calicut  and  Cambay,  to 
Sokotra,  which  he  describes  as  still  mainly  inhabited  by  Nestorian 
Christians;  to  the  "  rich  city  "  of  Aden,  "  remarkable  for  its 
buildings  ";  to  Gidda  or  Jidda,  the  port  of  Mecca;  over  the 
desert  to  Carras  or  Cairo;  and  so  to  Venice,  where  he  arrived 
in  1444. 

As  a  penance  for  his  (compulsory)  renunciation  of  the  Christian 
faith  during  his  wanderings,  Eugenius  IV.  ordered  him  to  relate 
his  history  to  Poggio  Bracciolini,  the  papal  secretary.  The 
narrative  closes  with  Conti's  elaborate  replies  to  Poggio's  question 
on  Indian  life,  social  classes,  religion,  fashions,  manners,  customs 
and  peculiarities  of  various  kinds.  Following  a  prevalent 
fashion,  the  Venetian  divides  his  Indies  into  three  parts,  the  first 
extending  from  Persia  to  the  Indus;  the  second  from  the  Indus 
to  the  Ganges;  the  third  including  all  beyond  the  Ganges; 
this  last  he  considered  to  excel  the  others  in  wealth,  culture 
and  magnificence,  and  to  be  abreast  of  Italy  in  civilization. 
We  may  note,  moreover,  Conti's  account  of  the  bamboo  in  the 
Ganges  valley;  of  the  catching,  taming  and  rearing  of  elephants 
in  Burma  and  other  regions;  of  Indian  tattooing  and  the  use 
of  leaves  for  writing;  of  various  Indian  fruits,  especially  the 
jack  and  mango;  of  the  polyandry  of  Malabar;  of  the  cock- 
fighting  of  Java;  of  what  is  apparently  the  bird  of  Paradise; 
of  Indian  funeral  ceremonies,  and  especially  suttee;  of  the  self- 
mutilation  and  immolation  of  Indian  fanatics;  and  of  Indian 
magic,  navigation  ("  they  are  not  acquainted  with  the  compass  "), 
justice,  &c.  Several  venerable  legends  are  reproduced;  and 
Conti's  name-forms,  partly  through  Poggio's  vicious  classicism, 
are  often  absolutely  unrecognizable;  but  on  the  whole  this  is 
the  best  account  of  southern  Asia  by  any  European  of  the 
i$th  century;  while  the  traveller's  visit  to  Sokotra  is  an  almost 
though  not  quite  unique  performance  for  a  Latin  Christian  of 
the  middle  ages. 

The  original  Latin  is  in  Poggio's  De  varielate  Fortunae,  book  iv. ; 
see  the  edition  of  the  Abbe  Oliva  (Paris,  1723).  The  Italian  version, 
printed  in  Ramusio's  Navigationi  et  viaggi,  vol.  i.,  is  only  from 
a  Portuguese  translation  made  in  Lisbon.  An  English  translation 
with  short  notes  was  made  by  J.  Winter  Jones  for  the  Hakluyt 
Society  in  the  vol.  entitled  India  in  the  Fifteenth  Century  (London, 
'857);  an  introductory  account  of  the  traveller  and  his  work  by 
R.  H.  Major  precedes.  (C.  R.  B.) 


CONTINENT  (from  Lat.  continere,  "to  hold  together"; 
hence  "  connected,"  "  continuous  "),  a  word  used  in  physical 
geography  of  the  larger  continuous  masses  of  land  in  contrast  to 
the  great  oceans,  and  as  distinct  from  the  submerged  tracts 
where  only  the  higher  parts  appear  above  the  sea,  and  from 
islands  generally. 

On  looking  at  a  map  of  the  world,  continents  appear  generally 
as  wedge-shaped  tracts  pointing  southward,  while  the  oceans 
have  a  polygonal  shape.  Eurasia  is  in  some  sense  an  exception, 
but  all  the  southern  terminations  of  the  continents  advance 
into  the  sea  in  the  form  of  a  wedge — South  America,  South 
Africa,  Arabia,  India,  Malaysia  and  Australia  connected  by  a 
submarine  platform  with  Tasmania.  It  is  difficult  not  to 
believe  that  these  remarkable  characters  have  some  relation 
to  the  structure  of  the  great  globe-mass,  and  according  to  T.  C. 
Chamberlin  and  R.  D.  Salisbury,  in  their  Geology  (1906),  "  the 
true  conception  is  perhaps  that  the  ocean  basins  and  continental 
platforms  are  but  the  surface  forms  of  great  segments  of  the 
lithosphere,  all  of  which  crowd  towards  the  centre,  the  stronger 
and  heavier — the  ocean  basins — taking  precedence  and  squeezing 
the  weaker  and  lighter  ones — the  continents — between  them." 
"  The  area  of  the  most  depressed,  or  master  segments,  is  almost 
exactly  twice  that  of  the  protruding  or  squeezed  ones.  This 
estimate  includes  in  the  latter  about  10,000,000  sq.  m.  now 
covered  with  shallow  water.  The  volume  of  the  hydrosphere 
is  a  little  too  great  for  the  true  basins,  and  it  runs  over,  covering 
the  borders  of  the  continents  "  (see  CONTINENTAL  SHELF)  .  Several 
theories  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  the  roughly  triangular 
shape  of  the  continents,  but  that  presenting  the  least  difficulty 
is  the  one  expressed  above,  "since  in  a  spherical  surface  divided 
into  larger  and  smaller  segments  the  major  part  should  be 
polygonal,while  the  minor  residual  segments  are  more  likely 
to  be  triangular." 

As  bearing  on  this  geological  idea,  it  is  interesting  to  notice 
in  this  connexion  that  the  areas  of  volcanic  activity  are  mostly 
where  continent  and  ocean  meet;  and  that  around  the  continents 
there  is  an  almost  continuous  "  deep"  from  100  to  300  m. 
broad,  of  which  the  Challenger  Deep  (11,400  ft.)  and  the  great 
Tuscarora  Deep  are  fragments.  If  on  a  map  of  the  world  a 
broad  inked  brush  be  swept  seawards  round  Africa,  passing 
into  the  Mediterranean,  round  North  and  South  America, 
round  India,  then  continuously  south  of  Java  and  round  Australia 
south  of  Tasmania  and  northward  to  the  tropic,  this  broad  band 
will  represent  the  encircling  ribbon-like  "  deep,"  which  gives 
strength  to  the  suggestion  that  the  continents  in  their  main 
features  are  permanent  forms  and  that  their  structural  connexion 
with  the  oceans  is  not  temporary  and  accidental.  The  great 
protruding  or  "  squeezed  "  segments  are  the  Eurasian  (with 
an  area  roughly  of  twenty-four,  reckoning  in  millions  of  square 
miles),  strongly  ridged  on  the  south  and  east,  and  relatively 
flat  on  the  north-west;  the  African  (twelve),  rather  strongly 
ridged  on  the  east,  less  abruptly  on  the  west  and  north;  the 
North  American  (ten),  strongly  ridged  on  the  west,  more  gently 
on  the  east,  and  relatively  flat  on  the  north  and  in  the  interior ;  the 
South  American  (nine),  strongly  ridged  on  the  west  and  somewhat 
on  the  north-east  and  south-east,  leaving  ten  for  the  smaller 
blocks.  The  sum  of  these  will  represent  one-third  of  the  earth's 
surface,  while  the  remaining  two-thirds  is  covered  by  the  ocean. 

The  foundation  structure  of  the  continents  is  everywhere 
similar.  Their  resulting  rocks  and  soils  are  due  to  differential 
minor  movements  in  the  past,  by  which  deposits  of  varying 
character  were  produced.  These  movements,  taking  place 
periodically  and  followed  by  long  periods  of  rest,  produce 
continued  stability  for  the  development  and  migration  of  forms 
of  life,  the -grading  of  rivers,  the  development  of  varied  char- 
acteristic land  forms,  the  migration  and  settlement  of  human 
beings,  the  facility  or  difficulty  of  intelligent  intercourse  between 
races  and  communities,  with  finally  the  commercial  interchange 
of  those  commodities  produced  by  varying  climatic  conditions 
upon  different  parts  of  the  continental  surface;  in  short,  for 
those  geographical  factors  which  form  the  chief  product  of  past 
and  present  human  history.  (See  GEOGRAPHY.) 


CONTINENTAL  SHELF— CONTINUED  FRACTIONS 


CONTINENTAL  SHELF,  the  term  in  physical  geography  for 
the  submerged  platform  upon  which  a  continent  or  island  stands 
in  relief.  If  a  coin  or  medal  be  partly  sunk  under  water  the 
image  and  superscription  will  stand  above  water  and  represent 
a  continent  with  adjacent  islands;  the  sunken  part  just  sub- 
merged will  represent  the  continental  shelf  and  the  edge  of  the 
coin  the  boundary  between  it  and  the  surrounding  deep,  called 
by  Professor  H.  .K.  H.  Wagner  the  continental  slope.  If  the 
lithosphere  surface  be  divided  into  three  parts,  namely,  the 
continent  heights,  the  ocean  depths,  and  the  transitional  area 
separating  them,  it  will  be  found  that  this  transitional  area  is 
almost  bisected  by  the  coast-line,  that  nearly  one-half  of  it 
(.10,000,000  sq.  m.)  lies  under  water  less  than  100  fathoms  deep, 
and  the  remainder  12,000,000  sq.  m.  is  under  600  ft.  in  elevation. 
There  are  thus  two  continuous  plain  systems,  one  above  water  and 
one  under  water,  and  the  second  of  these  is  called  the  continental 
shelf.  It  represents  the  area  which  would  be  added  to  the  land 
surface  if  the  sea  fell  600  ft.  This  shelf  varies  in  width.  Round 
Africa  —  except  to  the  south  —  and  off  the  western  coasts  of 
America  it  scarcely  exists.  .  It  is  wide  under  the  British  Islands 
and  extends  as  a  continuous  platform  under  the  North  Sea, 
down  the  English  Channel  to  the  south  of  France;  it  unites 
Australia  to  New  Guinea  on  the  north  and  to  Tasmania  on  the 
south,  connects  the  Malay  Archipelago  along  the  broad  shelf  east 
of  China  with  Japan,  unites  north-western  America  with  Asia, 
sweeps  in  a  symmetrical  curve  outwards  from  north-eastern 
America  towards  Greenland,  curving  downwards  outside  New- 
foundland and  holding  Hudson  Bay  in  the  centre  of  a  shallow 
dish.  In  many  places  it  represents  the  land  planed  down  by 
wave  action  to  a  plain  of  marine  denudation,  where  the  waves 
have  battered  down  the  cliffs  and  dragged  the  material  under 
water.  If  there  were  no  compensating  action  in  the  differential 
movement  of  land  and  sea  in  the  transitional  area,  the  whole 
of  the  land  would  be  gradually  planed  down  to  a  submarine 
platform,  and  all  the  globe  would  be  covered  with  water.  There 
are,  however,  periodical  warpings  of  this  transitional  area  by 
which  fresh  areas  of  land  are  raised  above  sea-level,  and  fresh 
continental  coast-lines  produced,  while  the  sea  tends  to  sink 
more  deeply  into  the  great  ocean  basins,  so  that  the  continents 
slowly  increase  in  size.  "  In  many  cases  it  is  possible  that  the 
continental  shelf  is  the  end  of  a  low  plain  submerged  by 
subsidence;  in  others  a  low  plain  may  be  an  upheaved  con- 
tinental shelf,  and  probably  wave  action  is  only  one  of  the  factors 
at  work  "  (H.  R.  Mill,  Realm  of  Nature,  1897). 

CONTINUED   FRACTIONS.     In  mathematics,   an  expression 

of  the  form 


where  01,02,03,  .  .  .  and  62,63,64,  .  •  •  are  any  quantities  whatever, 
positive  or  negative,  is  called  a  "  continued  fraction."  The 
quantities  a\  .  .  .  ,62  .  .  .  may  follow  any  law  whatsoever.  If  the 
continued  fraction  terminates,  it  is  said  to  be  a  terminating 
continued  fraction;  if  the  number  of  the  quantities  a\  .  .  .,  62  •  •  • 
is  infinite  it  is  said  to  be  a  non-terminating  or  infinite  continued 
fraction.  If  62/02,  63/o3...,  the  component  fractions,  as  they 
are  called,  recur,  either  from  the  commencement  or  from  some 
fixed  term,  the  continued  fraction  is  said  to  be  recurring  or 
periodic.  It  is  obvious  that  every  terminating  continued  fraction 
reduces  to  a  commensurable  number. 

The  notation  employed  by  English  writers  for  the  general  con- 
tinued fraction  is 

±&2     b_£     b± 

'       0..-±03=t04±  '  ' 

Continental  writers  frequently  use  the  notation 


QZ     Q&     flU  ja-2 

The  terminating  continued  fractions 

bz  f>2     bt  .  I 


64 


reduced  to  the  forms 
£i      0102+63 
i 


0203+63 

01020304  +620  304+630184  +6481 


03 


020304+0463+3264  '  '  ' 

are  called  the  successive  convergent!  to  the  general  continued  fraction. 

Their  numerators  are  denoted  by  pi,  fa,  p,,  pt...\  their  de- 
nominators by  q\,  52,  ?s,  54.  .. 

We  have  the  relations 


In  the  case  of  the  fraction  01  —  -    _J    _  *     ...,  we  have  the 

02—03—04  — 

relations         />„  =  a»pn-i  —  bnp»-i,     qn  =  o«On-i  —  6»g»-s- 

Taking  the  quantities  at.  ..,&».'..  to  be  all  positive,  a  continued 
fraction  of  the  form  01+^  ,  ~  ,  •  •  .is  called  a  continued  fraction  of 

the  first  class  •  a  continued  fraction  of  the  form  —     —    —         .is 

at—  o»—  af  — 

called  a  continued  fraction  of  the  second  flass. 

A  continued   fraction   of   the   form   aH  —  .  —  ,  —  ,       ..  where 

02+OJ  +  O4  + 

ai,  02,  Oj,  04.  ..  are  all  positive  integers,  is  called  a  simple  continued 
fraction.  In  the  case  of  this  fraction  Oi,  O2,  o3,  at.  .  .  are  called  the 
successive  partial  quotients.  It  is  evident  that,  in  this  case, 

Pi,  P-i,  Pt-  •  •,     2i>  22,  qs-  •  •, 

are  two  series  of  positive  integers  increasing  without  limit  if  the 
fraction  does  not  terminate. 

The  general  continued  fraction  QI-|  —  -  ,  —  ,  —  ..    .is  evidently 

02+03+04  + 

equal,  convergent  by  convergent,  to  the  continued  fraction 

X2X363     X3X.|64 
+  X3a,  +  \4fl4  +'••  ' 


" 


where  X2>  X3,  \t,  .  .  .  are  any  quantities  whatever,  so  that  by  choos- 
ing X262  =  i,  X2X363  =  i,  &c.,  it  can  be  reduced  to  any  equivalent  con- 

tinued fraction  of  the  form  ai+-j-  .  -j-  ,  -r  .... 

02+03+04  + 

Simple  Continued  Fractions. 

I.  The  simple  continued  fraction  is  both  the  most  interesting 
and  important  kind  of  continued  fraction. 

Any  quantity,  commensurable  or  incommensurable,  can  be 
expressed  uniquely  as  a  simple  continued  fraction,  terminating  in 
the  case  of  a  commensurable  quantity,  non-terminating  in  the  case 
of  an  incommensurable  quantity.  A  non-terminating  simple  con- 
tinued fraction  must  be  incommensurable. 

In  the  case  of  a  terminating  simple  continued  fraction  the  number 
of  partial  quotients  may  be  odd  or  even  as  we  please  by  writing  the 

last  partial  quotient,  a,  as  an  —  I+T- 

The  numerators  and  denominators  of  the  successive  convergents 
obey  the  law  pnq^.i—  pn_iO»  =  (  —  l)n,  from  which  it  follows  at  once 
that  every  convergent  is  in  its  lowest  terms.  The  other  principal 
properties  of  the  convergents  are  :  — 

The  odd  convergents  form  an  increasing  series  of  rational  fractions 
continually  approaching  to  the  value  of  the  whole  continued  frac- 
tion ;  the  even  convergents  form  a  decreasing  series  having  the  same 
property. 

Every  even  convergent  is  greater  than  every  odd  convergent; 
every  odd  convergent  is  less  than,  and  every  even  convergent 
greater  than,  any  following  convergent. 

Every  convergent  is  nearer  to  the  value  of  the  whole  fraction 
than  any  preceding  convergent. 

Every  convergent  is  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  value  of  the 
whole  fraction  than  any  fraction  whose  denominator  is  less  than 
that  of  the  convergent. 

The  difference  between  the  continued  fraction  and  the  n'*  con- 

vergent is  less  than  -  ,  and  greater  than    °"+*  .     These  limits 

OnSn+l  </..<?n,j 

may  be  replaced  by  the  following,  which,  though  not  so  close,  are 
simpler,  viz.  £  and  q^+qn+l)- 

Every  simple  continued  fraction  must  converge  to  a  definite  limit; 
for  its  value  lies  between  that  of  the  first  and  second  convergents 
and,  since 


so  that  its  value  cannot  oscillate. 

The  chief  practical  use  of  the  simple  continued  fraction  is  tha_t 
by  means  of  it  we  can  obtain  rational  fractions  which  approxi- 
mate to  any  quantity,  and  we  can  also  estimate  the  error  of  our 


CONTINUED  FRACTIONS 


approximation.     Thus  a  continued  fraction  equivalent  to  •*   (the 
ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter  of  a  circle)  is 

4.'     _L    I     _L     I    i 
3+7  +  15  +  1+292  +  1  +  1  +  ... 

of  which  the  successive  convergents  are 

2      22      333      355      IQ3993  g.c 
i'      7'     106'     113'     33102  '"c" 

the  fourth  of  which  is  accurate  to  the  sixth  decimal  place,  since  the 
error  lies  between  l/g«?s  or  -0000002673  and  ae/q,q,  or  -0000002665. 
Similarly  the  continued  fraction  given  by  Euler  as  equivalent  to 
J(«  —  l)  (e  being  the  base  of  Napierian  logarithms),  viz. 

i     i      i      _i       I 

1+6+70+14+18  +  -.-, 

may  be  used  to  approximate  very  rapidly  to  the  value  of  e. 

For  the  application  of  continued  fractions  to  the  problem  "  To 
find  the  fraction,  whose  denominator  does  not  exceed  a  given  integer 
D,  which  shall  most  closely  approximate  (by  excess  or  defect,  as 
may  be  assigned)  to  a  given  number  commensurable  or  incommen- 
surable," the  reader  is  referred  to  G.  Chrystal's  Algebra,  where  also 
may  be  found  details  of  the  application  of  continued  fractions  to 
such  interesting  and  important  problems  as  the  recurrence  of  eclipses 
and  the  rectification  of  the  calendar  (}.».). 

Lagrange  used  simple  continued  fractions  to  approximate  to  the 
solutions  of  numerical  equations;  thus,  if  an  equation  has  a  root 
between  two  integers  a  and  o+l,  put  x  =  a  +  l/y  and  form  the 
equation  in  y\  if  the  equation  in  y  has  a  root  between  b  and  6+1, 
put  y  =  b  +  i/z,  and  so  on.  Such  a  method  is,  however,  too  tedious, 
compared  with  such  a  method  as  Horner's,  to  be  of  any  practical 
value. 

The  solution  in  integers  of  the  indeterminate  equation  ax+by=c 
may  be  effected  by  means  of  continued  fractions.  If  we  suppose  a/6 
to  be  converted  into  a  continued  fraction  and  p/q  to  be  the  pen- 
ultimate convergent,  we  have  aq—  bp  =  +l  or  —I,  according  as 
the  number  of  convergents  is  even  or  odd,  which  we  can  take  them 
to  be  as  we  please.  If  we  take  aq—  bp  =  +  i  we  have  a  general 
solution  in  integers  of  ax+by  =  c,  viz.  x  =  cq  —  bt,  y=at—cp;  if  we 
take  aq—  bp  =  —  I,  we  have  x  =  bt—  cq,  y  =  cp—at. 

An  interesting  application  of  continued  fractions  to  establish  a 
unique  correspondence  between  the  elements  of  an  aggregate  of  m 
dimensions  and  an  aggregate  of  n  dimensions  is  given  by  G.  Cantor 
in  vol.  2  of  the  Acta  Mathematical. 

Applications  of  simple  continued  fractions  to  the  theory  of 
numbers,  as,  for  example,  to  prove  the  theorem  that  a  divisor  of  the 
sum  of  two  squares  is  itself  the  sum  of  two  squares,  may  be  found 
in  J.  A.  Serret's  Cours  d'Algebre  Superieure. 

2.  Recurring  Simple  Continued  Fractions.  —  The  infinite  continued 
fraction 


where,  after  the  nth  partial  quotient,  the  cycle  of  partial  quotients 
61,  61,  .  .  .,  6,  recur  in  the  same  order,  is  the  type  of  a  recurring 
simple  continued  fraction. 

The  value  of  such  a  fraction  is  the  positive  root  of  a  quadratic 
equation  whose  coefficients  are  real  and  of  which  one  root  is  negative. 
Since  the  fraction  is  infinite  it  cannot  be  commensurable  and  there- 
fore its  value  is  a  quadratic  surd  number.  Conversely  every  positive 
quadratic  surd  number,  when  expressed  as  a  simple  continued 
fraction,  will  give  rise  to  a  recurring  fraction.  Thus 

_!    1    1    1    J 
V3~3+i+2+i+2+  --., 


The  second  case  illustrates  a  feature  of  the  recurring  continued 
fraction  which  represents  a  complete  quadratic  surd.  There  is  only 
one  non-recurring  partial  quotient  Hi.  If  61,  6j,  .  .  .,  6.  is  the  cycle 
of  recurring  quotients,  then  b,  =  2ai,  6i  =  6»_i,  6i  =  6»_s,  63  =  6»_j,  &c. 

In  the  case  of  a  recurring  continued  fraction  which  represents 
V  N,  where  N  is  an  integer,  if  n  is  the  number  of  partial  quotients  in 
the  recurring  cycle,  and  pnr/q*  the  nr**1  convergent,  then  p*M  —  Ng1., 
=  (  —  i  )",  whence,  if  n  is  odd,  integral  solutions  of  the  indeterminate 
equation  x*  —  Ny*  =  =*=  i  (the  so-called  Pellian  equation)  can  be  found. 
If  n  is  even,  solutions  of  the  equation  **  —  Ny*  =  +  i  can  be  found. 

The  theory  and  development  of  the  simple  recurring  continued 
fraction  is  due  to  Lagrange.  For  proofs  of  the  theorems  here  stated 
and  for  applications  to  the  more  general  indeterminate  equation 
i1  —  Ny*  =  H  the  reader  may  consult  Chrystal's  Algebra  or  Serret's 
Cours  d'Algebre  Superieure;  he  may  also  profitably  consult  a  tract 
by  T.  Muir,  The  Expression  of  a  Quadratic  Surd  as  a  Continued 
Fraction  (Glasgow,  1874). 

The  General  Continued  Fraction. 

I.  The  Evaluation  of  Continued  Fractions.  —  The  numerators  and 
denominators  of  the  convergents  to  the  general  continued  fraction 
both  satisfy  the  difference  equation  K.  =  u»M«.i+6lla._2.  When  we 


can  solve  this  equation  we  have  an  expression  for  the  n"1  convergent 
to  the  fraction,  generally  in  the  form  of  the  quotient  of  two  series, 
each  of  n  terms.  As  an  example,  take  the  fraction  (known  as 
Brouncker's  fraction,  after  Lord  Brouncker) 

i     !_'    3?    5'    71 

1+2+2+2+2+ ... 


Here  we  have 

whence 

«H+i 

and  we  readily  find  that 


2n  —  I )'»_, , 


=__  __ 

9»          35     7  2n+i' 

whence  the  value  of  the  fraction  taken  to  infinity  is  Jr. 

It  is  always  possible  to  find  the  value  of  the  n1*1  convergent  to  a 
recurring  continued  fraction.  If  r  be  the  number  of  quotients  in 
the  recurring  cycle,  we  can  by  writing  down  the  relations  connecting 
the  successive  p's  and  q's  obtain  a  linear  relation  connecting 

P*r+m,         p(n-l)r+m,         P^n-l1r+m, 

in  which  the  coefficients  are  all  constants.  Or  we  may  proceed  as 
follows.  (We  need  not  consider  a  fraction  with  a  non-recurring  part  )  . 
Let  the  fraction  be 


Let 


«»=; 


6,+6,+  ...     +b,+Fl  +   .-. 

then    u.=-r 


leading  to  an 
,  where  A.B.C.D 


equation  of  the  form 

are  independent  of  n,  which  is  readily  solved. 

2.  The  Convergence  of  Infinite  Continued  Fractions. — We  have  seen 
that  the  simple  infinite  continued  fraction  converges.     The  infinite 
general  continued  fraction  of  the  first  class  cannot  diverge  for  its 
value  lies  between  that  of  its  first  two  convergents.     It  may,  how- 
ever, oscillate.  We  have  the  relation  £.g»_i— p»_ig.  =  (  — i)"6j&i. .  .b,, 

from  which  —  —  £s=i.=  (—  i)"  *'"  ".  and  the  limit  of  the  right- 
hand  side  is  not  necessarily  zero. 

The  tests  for  convergency  are  as  follows : 

Let  the  continued  fraction  of  the  first  class  be  reduced  to  the  form 

<fi  +  T  i  J"  i  T  j.          then  it  is  convergent  if  at  least  one  of  the  series 

di+dt  +dj+  .  .  .,  dt+dt+dt  +  .  .  .  diverges,  and  oscillates  if  both 
these  series  converge. 

For  the  convergence  of  the  continued  fraction  of  the  second  class 
there  is  no  complete  criterion.  The  following  theorem  covers  a  large 
number  of  important  cases. 

"  If  in  the  infinite  continued  fraction  of  the  second  classa»s6«+l 
for  all  values  of  n,  it  converges  to  a  finite  limit  not  greater  than 
unity." 

3.  The   Incommensurability   of  Infinite    Continued    Fractions. — 
There  is  no  general  test  for  the  incommensurability  of  the  general 
infinite  continued  fraction. 

Two  cases  have  been  given  by  Legendre  as  follows : — 
If  at,  QI,  .  .  .,  a.,  6j,  63 6.  are  all  positive  integers,  then 


I.  The  infinite  continued  fraction   — 


— 


—  .       .  .  —  ,  con- 

verges to  an  incommensurable  limit  if  after  some  finite  value  of  n 
the  condition  a.<f6.  is  always  satisfied. 

II.  The  infinite  continued  fraction  —  con- 

<Jj—  a»—  .  .  .  —  a,—  .  .  . 

verges  to  an  incommensurable  limit  if  after  some  finite  value  of  n 
the  condition  o»&6«  +  i  is  always  satisfied,  where  the  sign  >  need 
not  always  occur  but  must  occur  infinitely  often. 

Continuants. 

The  functions  p*  and  ?»,  regarded  as  functions  of  <ii,  .  .  .,  a,, 
6-,  .  .  .,  6.  determined  by  the  relations 


with  the  conditions  p\—a\,  po  =  t;  qt  =  at,  q\  =  l,  ?o=o,  have  been 
studied  under  the  name  of  continuants.     The  notation  adopted  is 


and  it  is  evident  that  we  have 


The  theory  of  continuants  is  due  in  the  first  place  to  Euler.  The 
reader  will  find  the  theory  completely  treated  in  Chrystal's  Algebra, 
where  will  be  found  the  exhibition  of  a  prime  number  of  the  form 
4p  +  i  as  the  actual  sum  of  two  squares  by  means  of  continuants, 
a  result  given  by  H.  J.  S.  Smith. 


CONTINUED  FRACTIONS 


The    continuant    K  (^  £,  &»..  .  .,  &»\    is    also    equal     to     the 
determinant 


a, 
—  I 
o 


Oj 


o 

63 

0.1 


o 
o 

64 

at 


u  —I  an-i  6 
o  o  —  i  o 
from  which  point  of  view  continuants  have  been  treated  by  W. 
Spottiswoode,  J.  J.  Sylvester  and  T.  Muir.  Most  of  the  theorems 
concerning  continued  fractions  can  be  thus  proved  simply  from  the 
properties  of  determinants  (see  T.  Muir's  Theory  of  Determinants, 
chap.  iii.). 

Perhaps  the  earliest  appearance  in  analysis  of  a  continuant  in  its 
determinant  form  occurs  in  Lagrange's  investigation  of  the  vibra- 
tions of  a  stretched  string  (see  Lord  Rayleigh,  Theory  of  Sound, 
vol.  i.  chap.  iv.). 

The  Conversion  of  Series  and  Products  into  Continued  Fractions. 

I  .  A  continued  fraction  may  always  be  found  whose  nth  convergent 
shall  be  equal  to  the  sum  to  n  terms  of  a  given  series  or  the  product 
to  n  factors  of  a  given  continued  product.  In  fact,  a  continued 

can  ^  constructed  having  for  the 


fraction  —  .  —  ,         +4. 


numerators  of  its  successive  convergents'  any  assigned  quantities 
pi,    pi,    p  ......  pn,    and    for    their    denominators    any   assigned 

quantities  q\,  qt,  qs  .....  ?„.  .  . 

The  partial  fraction  6n/on  corresponding  to  the  nth  convergent 
can  be  found  from  the  relations 

p»  =  a»/>n-i+&nAi-2,    qn=°anqa-i  +bnq,-i  ; 
and  the  first  two  partial  quotients  are  given  by 

bi  =  pi,     ai=qt,     biOv  =  p2,     0102+62  =  32- 

If  we  form  then  the  continued  fraction  inwJiich  pi,  pi,  ps,  .  .  .,  pn 
are  «i,  Ui+ui,  Ui+Ui+us,  .  .  .,  «i+«2+  •  .  .  un,  and  q,,  32,  Cs,  .  .  .,  qn 
are  all  unity,  we  find  the  series  «i+«2+  .  .  .  +«„  equivalent  to  the 
continued  fraction 


Hi 


11:: 
H-j 


Un_ 


which  we  can  transform  into 

ttl  ttj  Witts 


Ui 


a  result  given  by  Euler. 

2.  In  this  case  the  sum  to  n  terms  of  the  series  is  equal  to  the  nth 
convergent  of  the  fraction.     There  is,  however,  a  different  way  in 
which  a  series  may  be  represented  by  a  continued  fraction.     We  may 
require  to  represent  the  infinite  convergent  power  series  ao+OiX+ 
02^+  ...  by  an  infinite  continued  fraction  of  the  form 
ft     ftjc     fox    fax 
I  —  I   —  I   —  I  — ... 

Here  the  fraction  converges  to  the  sum  to  infinity  of  the  series.  Its 
nth  convergent  is  not  equal  to  the  sum  to  n  terms  of  the  series. 
Expressions  for  ft,  ft,  ft,  ...  by  means  of  determinants  have  been 
given  by  T.  Muir  (Edinburgh  Transactions,  vol.  xxvii.). 

A  method  was  given  by  I.  H.  Lambert  for  expressing  as  a  con- 
tinued fraction  of  the  preceding  type  the  quotient  of  two  convergent 
power  series.  It  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  finding  the 
greatest  common  measure  of  two  polynomials.  As  an  instance 
leading  to  results  of  some  importance  consider  the  series 


We  have 

F(»+i,*)-F(n,*)  =  - 
whence  we  obtain 


i         +  i  +  .  .  ., 

which  may  also  be  written 

7       x          x 
7+7  +  I+7  +  2+.  .. 

By  putting  ±*!/4  for  x  in  F(o,x)  and  F(i,x),  and  putting  at  the  same 
time  7  =  1/2,  we  obtain 

x    x*    x*    x1 


These  results  were  given  by  Lambert,  and  used  by  him  to  (prove 
that  T  and  ir2  are  incommensurable,  and  also  any  commensurable 
power  of  e. 

Gauss  in  his  famous  memoir  on  the  hypergeometric  series 


gave  the  expression  for  F(a,  /3+i,  7+1,  x)-^F(a,  ft,  y,  x)  as  a  con- 
tinued fraction,  from  which  if  we  put  /3  =  o  and  write  7  —  1  for  7, 
we  get  the  transformation 


& 

! 


2(7+1  -a) 

(7+2X7+3)" 


n-l-a) 


(y+2n-2)(y+2n-iy 

From  this  we  may  express  several  of  the  elementary  series  as 
continued  fractions;  thus  taking  0=1,  7  =  2,  and  putting  *  for  —  x, 


.  . 
Taking  7=1,  writing  x/a  for  x  and  increasing  o  indefinitely,  we 

I     x     x     x    x     x 
haVCe  -1-1  +2-3+2-5  +  ... 

For  some  recent  developments  in  this  direction  the  reader  may 
consult  a  paper  by  L.  J.  Rogers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  London 
Mathematical  Society  (series  2,  vol.  4). 

Ascending  Continued  Fractions. 

There  is  another  type  of  continued  fraction  called  the  ascending 
continued  fraction,  the  type  so  far  discussed  being  called  the  descend- 
ing continued  fraction.  It  is  of  no  interest  or  importance,  though 
both  Lambert  and  Lagrange  devoted  some  attention  to  it.  The 
notation  for  this  type  of  fraction  is 


,    , 

04  H 


62+ 


03 

~ 


It  is  obviously  equal  to  the  series 

1  ^'.i.  bs    ,      b, 


+  ... 


02     OoOs  '  020304     0203040* 
Historical  Note. 

The  invention  of  continued  fractions  is  ascribed  generally  to 
Pietro  Antonia  Cataldi,  an  Italian  mathematician  who  died  in 
1626.  He  used  them  to  represent  square  roots,  but  only  for 
particular  numerical  examples,  and  appears  to  have  had  no 
theory  on  the  subject.  A  previous  writer,  Rafaello  Bombelli, 
had  used  them  in  his  treatise  on  Algebra  (about  1579),  and  it  is 
quite  possible  that  Cataldi  may  have  got  his  ideas  from  him. 
His  chief  advance  on  Bombelli  was  in  his  notation.  They  next 
appear  to  have  been  used  by  Daniel  Schwenter  (1585-1636) 
in  a  Geometrica  Practica  published  in  1618.  He  uses  them  for 
approximations.  The  theory,  however,  starts  with  the  publica- 
tion in  1655  by  Lord  Brouncker  of  the  continued  fraction 

i     i2     '"     ^2 

fj.-j-l-2  +  2+        as  an  equivalent  of  7T/4.     This  he  is  supposed 

to  have  deduced,  no  one  knows  how,  from  Wallis'  formula  for 


4/7r,viz. 


3.3.5-5.7.7... 


2.4.4.6.6.8. . . 

John  Wallis,  discussing  this  fraction  in  his  Arithmetica  In- 
finitorum  (1656),  gives  many  of  the  elementary  properties  of  the 
convergents  to  the  general  continued  fraction,  including  the  rule 
for  their  formation.  Huygens  (Descriptio  automati  planetarii, 
1703)  uses  the  simple  continued  fraction  for  the  purpose  of 
approximation  when  designing  the  toothed  wheels  of  his  Planet- 
arium. Nicol  Saunderson  (1682-1739),  Euler  and  Lambert 
helped  in  developing  the  theory,  and  much  was  done  by  Lagrange 
in  his  additions  to  the  French  edition  of  Euler's  Algebra  (1795). 
Moritz  A.  Stern  wrote  at  length  on  the  subject  in  Crelle's  Journal 
(x.,  1833;  xi.,  1834;  xviii.,  1838).  The  theory  of  the  con- 
vergence of  continued  fractions  is  due  to  Oscar  Schlomilch, 
P.  F.  Arndt,  P.  L.  Seidel  and  Stern.  O.  Stolz,  A.  Pringsheim 
and  E.  B.  van  Vleck  have  written  on  the  convergence  of  infinite 
continued  fractions  with  complex  elements. 

REFERENCES. — For  the  further  history  of  continued  fractions  we 
may  refer  the  reader  to  two  papers  by  Gunther  and  A.  N.  Favaro, 
Bulletins  di  bibliographia  e  di  storia  delle  scienze  mathematische  e 
fisiche,  t.  vii.,  and  to  M.  Cantor,  Geschichte  der  Mathematik,  2nd  Bd. 
For  text-books  treating  the  subject  in  great  detail  there  are  those 
of  G.  Chrystal  in  English;  Serret's  Cours  d'algebre  superieure  in 
French ;  and  in  German  those  of  Stern,  Schlomilch,  Hatterdorff  and 
Stolz.  For  the  application  of  continued  fractions  to  the  theory  of 


CONTOUR— CONTRABAND 


33 


irrational  numbers  there  is  P.  Bachmann's  Vorlesungen  uber  die 
Natur  der  Irralionalzahnen  (1892).  For  the  application  of  continued 
fractions  to  the  theory  of  lenses,  see  R.  S.  Heath's  Geometrical  Optics, 
chaps,  iv.  and  v.  For  an  exhaustive  summary  of  all  that  has  been 
written  on  the  subject  the  reader  may  consult  Bd.  i  of  the  Ency- 
klopddie  der  mathematischen  Wissenschaften  (Leipzig).  (A.  E.  J.) 

CONTOUR,  CONTOUR-LINE  (a  French  word  meaning  generally 
"  outline,"  from  the  Med.  Lat.  contornare,  to  round  off) ,  in  physical 
geography  a  line  drawn  upon  a  map  through  all  the  points  upon 
the  surface  represented  that  are  of  equal  height  above  sea-level. 
These  points  lie,  therefore,  upon  a  horizontal  plane  at  a  given 
elevation  passing  through  the  land  shown  on  the  map,  and  the 
contour-line  is  the  intersection  of  that  horizontal  plane  with 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  contour-line  of  o,  or  datum  level, 
is  the  coastal  boundary  of  any  land  form.  If  the  sea  be  imagined 
as  rising  too  ft.,  a  new  coast-line,  with  bays  and  estuaries  indented 
in  the  valleys,  would  appear  at  the  new  sea-level.  If  the  sea 
sank  once  more  to  its  former  level,  the  loo-ft.  contour-line  with 
all  its  irregularities  would  be  represented  by  the  beach  mark 
made  by  the  sea  when  100  ft.  higher.  If  instead  of  receding  the 
sea  rose  continuously  at  the  rate  of  100  ft.  per  day,  a  series  of 
levels  100  ft.  above  one  another  would  be  marked  daily  upon  the 
land  until  at  last  the  highest  mountain  peaks  appeared  as  islands 
less  than  100  ft.  high.  A  record  of  this  series  of  advances 
marked  upon  a  flat  map  of  the  original  country  would  give  a 
series  of  concentric  contour-lines  narrowing  towards  the  mountain- 
tops,  which  they  would  at  last  completely  surround.  Contour- 
lines  of  this  character  are  marked  upon  most  modern  maps 
of  small  areas  and  upon  all  government  survey  and  military  maps 
at  varying  intervals  according  to  the  scale  of  the  map. 

CONTRABAND  (Fr.  contrebande,  from  contra,  against,  and 
bannum,  Low  Lat.  for  "  proclamation  "),  a  term  given  generally 
to  illegal  traffic;  and  particularly,  as  "  contraband  of  war," 
to  goods,  &c.,  which  subjects  of  neutral  states  are  forbidden  by 
international  law  to  supply  to  a  belligerent. 

According  to  current  practice  contraband  of  war  is  of  two 
kinds:  (i)  absolute  or  unconditional  contraband,  i.e.  materials 
of  direct  application  in  naval  or  military  armaments;  and 
(2)  conditional  contraband,  consisting  of  articles  which  are  fit  for, 
but  not  necessarily  of  direct  application  to,  hostile  uses.  There  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  among  international  jurists  and  states, 
however,  as  to  the  specific  materials  and  articles  which  may 
rightfully  be  declared  by  belligerents  to  belong  to  either  class. 
There  is  also  disagreement  as  to  the  belligerent  right  where 
the  immediate  destination  is  a  neutral  but  the  ultimate  an  enemy 
port. 

An  attempt  was  made  at  the  Second  Hague  Conference  to 
come  to  an  agreement  on  the  chief  points  of  difference.  The 
British  delegates  were  instructed  even  to  abandon  the  principle 
of  contraband  of  war  altogether,  subject  only  to  the  exclusion 
by  blockade  of  neutral  trade  from  enemy  ports.  In  the  alterna- 
tive they  were  to  do  their  utmost  to  restrict  the  definition  of 
contraband  within  the  narrowest  possible  limits,  and  to  obtain 
exemption  of  food-stuffs  destined  for  places  other  than  be- 
leaguered fortresses  and  of  raw  materials  required  for  peaceful 
industry.  Though  the  discussions  at  the  conference  did  not 
result  in  any  convention,  except  on  the  subject  of  mails,  it  was 
agreed  among  the  leading  maritime  states  that  an  early  attempt 
should  be  made  to  codify  the  law  of  naval  war  generally,  in 
connexion  with  the  establishment  of  an  international  prize 
court  (see  PRIZE). 

Meanwhile,  on  the  subject  of  mails,  important  articles  were 
adopted  which  figure  in  the  "  Convention  on  restric- 
tions in  the  right  of  capture  "  (No.  1 1  of  the  series 
as  set  out  in  the  General  Act,  see  PEACE  CONFERENCE).  They 
are  as  follows: — 

ART.  i. — The  postal  correspondence  of  neutrals  or  belligerents, 
•hatever  its  official  or  private  character  may  be,  found  on  the  high 
seas  on  board  a  neutral  or  enemy  ship  is  inviolable.  If  the  ship  is 
detained,  the  correspondence  is  forwarded  by  the  captor  with  the 
least  possible  delay. 

The  provisions  of  the  preceding  paragraph  do  not  apply,  in  case 
of  violation  of  blockade,  to  correspondence  destined  for,  or  proceeding 
from,  a  blockaded  port. 

VII.  2 


"* 


, 


ART.  II. — Theinviolability  of  postal  correspondence  does  not  exempt 
a  neutral  mail  ship  from  the  laws  and  customs  of  maritime  war  as 
to  neutral  merchant  ships  in  general.  The  ship,  however,  may 
not  be  searched  except  when  absolutely  necessary,  and  then  only 
with  as  much  consideration  and  expedition  as  possible. 

As  regards  food-stuffs  Great  Britain  has  long  and  consistently 
held  that  provisions  and  liquors  fit  for  the  consumption  of  the 
enemy's   naval   or  military   forces   are   contraband.  p0oa- 
Her  Prize  Act,  however,  provides  a  palliative,  in  the  stalls  and 
case  of  "  naval  or  victualling  stores,"  for  the  penalty  *"*' 
attaching  to  absolute  contraband,  the  lords  of  the  emptioa- 
admiralty  being  entitled  to  exercise  a  right  of  pre-emption  over 
such  stores,  i:e.  to  purchase  them  without  condemnation  in  a 
prize  court.     In  practice,  purchases  are  made  at  the  market 
value  of  the  goods,  with  an  additional  10%  for  loss  of  profit. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  no  such .  palliative  has  yet  been 
adopted;  but  moved  by  the  same  desire  to  distinguish  unmistak- 
able from,  so  to  speak,  constructive  contraband,  and  to  protect 
trade  against  the  vexation  of  uncertainty,  many  continental 
jurists  have  come  to  argue  conditional  contraband  away  al- 
together. This  change  of  opinion  has  especially  manifested 
itself  in  the  discussions  on  the  subject  in  the  Institute  of  Inter- 
national Law,  a  body  composed  exclusively  of  recognized 
international  jurists.  The  rules  this  body  adopted  in  1896, 
though  they  do  not  represent  the  unanimous  feeling  of  its 
members,  may  be  taken  as  the  view  of  a  large  proportion  of 
them.  The  majority  comprised  German,  Danish,  Italian, 
Dutch  and  French  specialists.  The  rules  adopted  contain  a 
clause,  which,  after  declaring  conditional  contraband  abolished, 
states  that:  "  Nevertheless  the  belligerent  has,  at  his  option 
and  on  condition  of  paying  an  equitable  indemnity,  a  right  of 
sequestration  or  pre-emption  as  to  articles  (objets)  which,  on 
their  way  to  a  port  of  the  enemy,  may  serve  equally  in  war  or 
in  peace."  This  rule,  it  is  seen,  is  of  wider  application  than  the 
above-mentioned  provision  of  the  British  Prize  Act.  To  become 
binding  in  its  existing  form,  either  an  alteration  of  the  text  of 
the  Declaration  of  Paris  or  a  modification  in  the  wording  of 
the  clause  would  be  necessary,  seeing  that  under  the  Declaration 
of  Paris  "  the  neutral  flag  covers  enemy  goods,  except  contra- 
band of  war."  It  may  be  said  that,  in  so  far  as  the  continent  is 
concerned,  expert  opinion  is,  on  the  whole,  favourable  to  the 
recognition  of  conditional  contraband  in  the  form  of  a  right  of 
sequestration  or  pre-emption  and  within  the  limits  Great  Britain 
has  shown  a  disposition  to  set  to  it  as  against  herself. 

As  regards  coal  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  the 
position  of  coal  to  feed  ships  and  that  of  provisions  to  feed  men. 
Neither  is  per  se  contraband.  At  the  West  African  .  ComL 
Conference  in  1884  the  Russian  representative  pro- 
tested against  its  inclusion  among  contraband  articles,  but  the 
Russian  government  included  it  in  their  declaration  as  to  contra- 
band on  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  In  1898 
the  British  foreign  office  replied  to  an  inquiry  of  the  Newport 
Chamber  of  Commerce  on  the  position  of  coal  that:  "  Whether 
in  any  particular  case  coal  is  or  is  not  contraband  of  war,  is  a 
matter  prima  facie  for  the  determination  of  the  Prize  Court 
of  the  captor's  nationality,  and  so  long  as  such  decision,  when 
given,  does  not  conflict  with  well-established  principles  of  inter- 
national law,  H.M.'s  government  will  not  be  prepared  to  take 
exception  thereto."  The  practical  applications  of  the  law  and 
usage  of  contraband  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War  of  1904-5, 
however,  brought  out  vividly  the  need  of  reform  in  these  "  well- 
established  principles." 

The  Japanese  regulations  gave  rise  to  no  serious  difficulties. 
Those  issued  by  Russia,  on  the  other  hand,  led  to  Coatro. 
much  controversy  between  the  British  government  vcrsv  wm, 
and  that  of  Russia,  in  connexion  with  the  latter's  Russia  la 
pretension  to  class  coal,  rice,  provisions,  forage,  horses  *"* 
and  cotton  with  arms,  ammunition,  explosives,  &c.,  as  War. 
absolute  contraband.  On  June  i ,  i9O4,Lord  Lansdowne 
expressed  the  surprise  with  which  the  British  government  learnt 
that  rice  and  provisions  were  to  be  treated  as  unconditionally 
contraband — "  a  step  which  they  regarded  as  inconsistent  with 


34 


CONTRABAND 


the  law  and  practice  of  nations."  They  furthermore  "  felt 
themselves  bound  to  reserve  their  rights  by  also  protesting 
against  the  doctrine  that  it  is  for  the  belligerent  to  decide  what 
articles  are  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  without  reference  to  other 
considerations,  to  be  dealt  with  as  contraband  of  war,  regard- 
less of  the  well-established  rights  of  neutrals";  nor  would  the 
British  government  consider  itself  bound  to  recognize  as  valid 
the  decision  of  any  prize  court  which  violated  those  rights. 
It  did  not  dispute  the  right  of  a  belligerent  to  take  adequate 
precautions  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  contraband  of  war, 
in  the  hitherto  accepted  sense  of  the  words,  from  reaching  the 
enemy;  but  it  objected  to  the  introduction  of  a  new  doctrine 
underwhich  "  the  well-understood  distinction  between  conditional 
and  unconditional  contraband  was  altogether  ignored,  and  under 
which,  moreover,  on  the  discovery  of  articles  alleged  to  be 
contraband,  the  ship  carrying  them  was,  without  trial  and  in 
spite  of  her  neutrality,  subjected  to  penalties  which  are  reluct- 
antly enforced  even  against  an  enemy's  ship;"  (See  section 
40  of  Russian  Instructions  on  Procedure  in  Stopping,  Examining 
and  Seizing  Merchant  Vessels,  published  in  London  Gazette  of 
March  18,  1904.)  In  particular  circumstances  provisions  might 
acquire  a  contraband  character,  as,  for  instance,  if  they  should 
be  consigned  direct  to  the  army  or  fleet  of  a  belligerent,  or  to  a 
port  where  such  fleet  might  be  lying,  and  if  facts  should  exist 
raising  the  presumption  that  they  were  about  to  be  employed 
in  victualling  the  fleet  of  the  enemy.  In  such  cases  it  was  not 
denied  that  the  other  belligerent  would  be  entitled  to  seize  the 
provisions  as  contraband  of  war,  on  the  ground  that  they  would 
afford  material  assistance  towards  the  carrying  on  of  warlike 
operations.  But  it  could  not  be  admitted  that  if  such 
provisions  were  consigned  to  the  port  of  a  belligerent  (even 
though  it  should  be  a  port  of  naval  equipment)  they  should 
therefore  be  necessarily  regarded  as  contraband  of  war.  The 
test  was  whether  there  were  circumstances  relating  to  any 
particular  cargo  to  show  that  it  was  destined  for  military  or 
naval  use. 

'  The  Russian  government  replied  that  they  could  not  admit 
that  articles  of  dual  use  when  addressed  to  private  individuals 
in  the  enemy's  country  should  be  necessarily  free  from  seizure 
and  condemnation,  since  provisions  and  such  articles  of  dual 
use,  though  intended  for  the  military  or  naval  forces  of  the 
enemy,  would  obviously,  under  such  circumstances,  be  addressed 
to  private  individuals,  possibly  agents  or  contractors  for  the 
naval  or  military  authorities. 

Lord  Lansdowne  in  answer  stated  that  while  H.M.  government 
did  not  contend  that  the  mere  fact  that  the  consignee  was  a 
private  person  should  necessarily  give  immunity  from  capture, 
they  held  that  to  take  vessels  for  adjudication  merely  because 
their  destination  was  the  enemy's  country  would  be  vexatious, 
and  constitute  an  unwarrantable  interference  with  neutral 
commerce.  To  render  a  vessel  liable  to  such  treatment  there 
should  be  circumstances  giving  rise  to  a  reasonable  suspicion 
that  the  provisions  were  destined  for  the  enemy's  forces,  and 
it  was  in  such  a  case  for  the  captor  "  to  establish  the  fact  of 
destination  for  the  enemy's  forces  before  attempting  to  procure 
their  condemnation  "  (September  30,  1904). 

The  protests  of  Great  Britain  led  to  the  reference  of  the  subject 
by  the  Russian  government  to  a  departmental  committee,  with 
the  result  that  on  October  22, 1904,  a  rectifying  notice  was  issued 
declaring  that  articles  capable  of  serving  for  a  warlike  object,  in- 
cluding rice  and  food-stuffs,  should  be  considered  as  contraband 
of  war,  if  they  are  destined  for  the  government  of  the  belligerent 
power  or  its  administration  or  its  army  or  its  navy  or  its  fortresses 
or  its  naval  ports;  or  for  the  purveyors  thereof;  and  that  in 
cases  where  they  were  addressed  to  private  individuals  these 
articles  should  not  be  considered  as  contraband  of  war;  but  that 
in  all  cases  horses  and  beasts  of  burden  were  to  be  considered 
as  contraband.  As  regards  cotton,  explanations  were  given  by 
the  Russian  government  (May  u,  1904)  that  the  prohibition 
of  cotton  applied  only  to  raw  cotton  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  explosives,  and  not  to  yarn  or  tissues. 

The  carriage  of  belligerent  despatches  connected  with  the  con- 


duct of  a  war  or  of  persons  in  the  service  of  a  belligerent  state 

falls  within   the   prohibition   of  contraband   traffic, 

but  to  distinguish  such  traffic  from  that  of  contraband,  Analogues 

properly  so  called, the  term  applied  to  it  in  international 

law   is   "  analogues   of   contraband."     The   penalty 

attaching  to  such  carriage  necessarily  varies  according  to  the 

degree  of  the  analogy. 

Trade  between  neutrals  has  a  prima  facie  right  to  go  on,  in 
spite  of  war,  without  molestation.  But  if  the  ultimate  destina- 
tion of  goods,  though  shipped  first  to  a  neutral  port, 

,.  .       Continuous 

is  enemy  s  territory,  then,  according  to  the  doctrine  voyages, 
of  "  continuous  voyages,"  the  goods  may  be  treated 
as  if  they  had  been  shipped  to  the  enemy's  territory  direct. 
The  doctrine  is  entirely  Anglo-Saxon  in  its  origin1  and  develop- 
ment. Only  in  one  case  does  it  seem  ever  to  have  been  actually 
put  in  force  by  a  foreign  prize  court,  namely,  in  the  case  of  the 
"  Doelwijk,"  a  Dutch  vessel  which  was  adjudged  good  prize 
by  an  Italian  court  on  the  ground  that,  although  bound  for 
Djibouti,  a  French  port,  it  was  laden  with  a  provision  of  arms 
of  a  model  which  had  gone  out  of  use  in  Europe,  and  could  only  be 
destined  for  the  Abyssinians,  with  whom  Italy  was  at  war. 

The  Institute  of  International  Law  in  1896  adopted  the 
following  rule  on  the  subject: — 

"  Destination  to  the  enemy  is  presumed,  where  the  shipment 
is  to  one  of  the  enemy  ports,  or  to  a  neutral  port,  if  it  is  unquestion- 
ably proved  by  the  facts  that  the  neutral  port  was  only  a  state 
(etape)  towards  the  enemy  as  the  final  destination  of  a  single  com- 
mercial operation." 

During  the  South  African  War  (1890-1902)  Great  Britain  was 
involved  in  controversy  with  Germany,  who  at  first  declined 
to  recognize  the  existence  of  any  rule  which  could  interfere 
with  trade  between  neutrals,  the  German  vessels  in  question 
having  been  stopped  on  their  way  to  a  neutral  port. 

As  stated  above,  the  Second  Hague  Conference  failed  to  come 
to  any  understanding  on  contraband,  but  the  subject  was  exhaust- 
ively dealt  with  by  the  Conference  of  London  (1908-1909)  on 
the  laws  and  customs  of  naval  war,  in  the  following  articles : — 

ART.  22. — The  following  articles  may,  without  notice,  be  treated 
as  contraband  of  war,  under  the  name  of  absolute  contraband:  (l) 
Arms  of  all  kinds,  including  arms  for  sporting  purposes,  and  their 
distinctive  component  parts;  (2)  projectiles,  charges  and  cartridges 
of  all  kinds,  and  their  distinctive  component  parts;  (3)  powder  and 
explosives  specially  prepared  for  use  in  war;  (4)  gun-mountings, 
limber  boxes,  limbers,  military  wagons,  field  forges  and  their  dis- 
tinctive component  parts;  (5)  clothing  and  equipment  of  a  distinct- 
ively military  character;  (6)  all  kinds  of  harness  of  a  distinctively 
military  character;  (7)  saddle,  draught  and  pack  animals  suitable 
for  use  in  war;  (8)  articles  of  camp  equipment  and  their  distinctive 
component  parts;  (9)  armour  plates;  (10)  warships,  including  boats, 
and  their  distinctive  component  parts  of  such  a  nature  that  they 
can  only  be  used  on  a  vessel  of  war;  (l  l)  implements  and  apparatus 
designed  exclusively  for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  of  war,  for  the 
manufacture  or  repair  of  arms,  or  war  material  for  use  on  land  or  sea. 

ART.  23. —  Articles  exclusively  used  for  war  may  be  added  to  the 
list  of  absolute  contraband  by  a  declaration,  which  must  be  notified. 
Such  notification  must  be  addressed  to  the  governments  of  other 
powers,  or  to  their  representatives  accredited  to  the  power  making 
the  declaration.  A  notification  made  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
is  addressed  only  to  neutral  powers. 

ART.  24. — The  following  articles,  susceptible  of  use  in  war  as  well 
as  for  purposes  of  peace,  may,  without  notice,  be  treated  as  contra- 
band of  war,  under  the  name  of  conditional  contraband:  (i)  Food- 
stuffs; (2)  forage  and  grain,  suitable  for  feeding  animals;  (3) 
clothing,  fabrics  for  clothing,  and  boots  and  shoes,  suitable  for  use 
in  war;  (4)  gold  and  silver  in  coin  or  bullion;  paper  money;  (5) 
vehicles  of  all  kinds  available  for  use  in  war,  and  their  component 
parts;  (6)  vessels,  craft  and  boats  of  all  kinds;  floating  docks,  parts 
of  docks  and  their  component  parts;  (7)  railway  material,  both  fixed 
and  rolling-stock,  and  material  for  telegraphs,  wireless  telegraphs 
and  telephones;  (8)  balloons  and  flying  machines  and  their  dis- 
tinctive component  parts,  together  with  accessories  and  articles 
recognizable  as  intended  for  use  in  connexion  with  balloons  and 
flying  machines;  (9)  fuel;  lubricants;  (10)  powder  and  explosives 
not  specially  prepared  for  use  in  war;  (u)  barbed  wire  and  imple- 
ments for  fixing  and  cutting  the  same;  (12)  horseshoes  and  shoeing 
materials;  (13)  harness  and  saddlery;  (14)  field  glasses,  telescopes, 
chronometers  and  all  kinds  of  nautical  instruments. 

1  See  Springbok  case,  1866,  5  Wallace  I.;  on  Doelwijk  case  see 
Brusa,  Rev.  gen.  de  droit  international  public  (1897);  Fauchille  td. 
(1897),  p.  291,  also  The  Times,  April  15,  May  25,  June  I,  1897. 


CONTRACT 


35 


ART.  25. — Articles  susceptible  of  use  in  war  as  well  as  for  purposes 
of  peace,  other  than  those  enumerated  in  Articles  22  and  24,  may  be 
added  to  the  list  of  conditional  contraband  by  a  declaration,  which 
must  be  notified  in  the  manner  provided  for  in  the  second  paragraph 
of  Article  23. 

ART.  26. — If  a  power  waives,  so  far  as  it  is  concerned,  the  right  to 
treat  as  contraband  of  war  an  article  comprised  in  any  of  the  classes 
enumerated  in  Articles  22  and  24,  such  intention  shall  be  announced 
by  a  declaration,  which  must  be  notified  in  the  manner  provided  for 
in  the  second  paragraph  of  Article  23. 

ART.  27. — Articles  which  are  not  susceptible  of  use  in  war  may  not 
be  declared  contraband  of  war. 

ART.  28. — The  following  may  not  be  declared  contraband  of  war: 
(l)  Raw  cotton,  wool,  silk,  jute,  flax,  hemp  and  other  raw  materials  of 
the  textile  industries,  and  yarns  of  the  same;  (2)  oil  seeds  and  nuts; 
copra;  (3)  rubber,  resins,  gums  and  lacs;  hops;  (4)  raw  hides 
and  horns,  bones  and  ivory;  (5)  natural  and  artificial  manures, 
including  nitrates  and  phosphates  for  agricultural  purposes;  (6) 
metallic  ores;  (7)  earths,  clays,  lime,  chalk,  stone,  including  marble, 
bricks,  slates  and  tiles;  (8)  Chinaware  and  glass;  (9)  paper  and 
paper-making  materials;  (10)  soap,  paint  and  colours,  including 
articles  exclusively  used  in  their  manufacture,  and  varnish;  (n) 
bleaching  powder,  soda  ash,  caustic  soda,  salt  cake,  ammonia, 
sulphate  of  ammonia  and  sulphate  of  copper;  (12)  agricultural, 
mining,  textile  and  printing  machinery;  (13)  precious  and  semi- 
precious stones,  pearls,  mother-of-pearl  and  coral;  (14)  clocks  and 
watches,  other  than  chronometers;  (15)  fashion  and  fancy  goods; 
(16)  feathers  of  all  kinds,  hairs  and  bristles;  (17)  articles  of  house- 
hold furniture  and  decoration;  office  furniture  and  requisites. 

ART.  29. — Likewise  the  following  may  not  be  treated  as  contraband 
of  war:  (l)  Articles  serving  exclusively  to  aid  the  sick  and  wounded. 
They  can,  however,  in  case  of  urgent  military  necessity  and  subject 
to  the  payment  of  compensation,  be  requisitioned,  if  their  destination 
is  that  specified  in  Article  30;  (2)  articles  intended  for  the  use  of  the 
vessel  in  which  they  are  found,  as  well  as  those  intended  for  the  use 
of  her  crew  and  passengers  during  the  voyage. 

ART.  30. — Absolute  contraband  is  liable  to  capture  if  it  is  shown 
to  be  destined  to  territory  belonging  to  or  occupied  by  the  enemy, 
or  to  the  armed  forces  of  the  enemy.  It  is  immaterial  whether  the 
carriage  of  the  goods  is  direct  or  entails  transhipment  or  a  subsequent 
transport  by  land. 

ART.  31. — Proof  of  the  destination  specified  in  Article  30  is  com- 
plete in  the  following  cases:  (i)  When  the  goods  are  documented 
for  discharge  in  an  enemy  port,  or  for  delivery  to  the  armed  forces 
of  the  enemy;  (2)  when  the  vessel  is  to  call  at  enemy  ports  only,  or 
when  she  is  to  touch  at  an  enemy  port  or  meet  the  armed  forces  of 
the  enemy  before  reaching  the  neutral  port  for  which  the  goods  in 
question  are  documented. 

ART.  32. — Where  a  vessel  is  carrying  absolute  contraband,  her 
papers  are  conclusive  proof  as  to  the  voyage  on  which  she  is  engaged, 
unless  she  is  found  clearly  out  of  the  course  indicated  by  her  papers 
and  unable  to  give  adequate  reasons  to  justify  such  deviation. 

ART.  33. — Conditional  contraband  is  liable  to  capture  if  it  is  shown 
to  be  destined  for  the  use  of  the  armed  forces  or  of  a  government 
department  of  the  enemy  state,  unless  in  this  latter  case  the  circum- 
stances show  that  the  goods  cannot  in  fact  be  used  for  the  purposes 
of  the  war  in  progress.  This  latter  exception  does  not  apply  to  a 
consignment  coming  under  Article  24  (4). 

ART.  34. — The  destination  referred  to  in  Article  33  is  presumed  to 
exist  if  the  goods  are  consigned  to  enemy  authorities,  or  to  a  con- 
tractor established  in  the  enemy  country  who,  as  a  matter  of  common 
knowledge,  supplies  articles  of  this  kind  to  the  enemy.  A  similar 
presumption  arises  if  the  goods  are  consigned  to  a  fortified  place 
belonging  to  the  enemy,  or  other  place  serving  as  a  base  for  the  armed 
forces  of  the  enemy.  No  such  presumption,  however,  arises  in  the 
case  of  a  merchant  vessel  bound  for  one  of  these  places  if  it  is  sought 
to  prove  that  she  herself  is  contraband.  In  cases  where  the  above 
presumptions  do  notarise,  the  destination  is  presumed  to  be  innocent. 
The  presumptions  set  up  by  this  article  may  be  rebutted. 

ART.  35. — Conditional  contraband  is  not  liable  to  capture,  except 
when  found  on  board  a  vessel  bound  for  territory  belonging  to  or 
occupied  by  the  enemy,  or  for  the  armed  forces  of  the  enemy,  and 
when  it  is  not  to  be  discharged  in  an  intervening  neutral  port.  The 
ship's  papers  are  conclusive  proof  both  as  to  the  voyage  on  which 
the  vessel  is  engaged  and  as  to  the  port  of  discharge  of  the  goods, 
unless  she  is  found  clearly  out  of  the  course  indicated  by  her  papers, 
and  unable  to  give  adequate  reasons  to  justify  such  deviation. 

ART.  36. — Notwithstanding  the  provisions  of  Article  35,  con- 
ditional contraband,  if  shown  to  have  the  destination  referred  to  in 
Article  33,  is  liable  to  capture  in  cases  where  the  enemy  country  has 
no  seaboard. 

ART.  37. — A  vessel  carrying  goods  liable  to  capture  as  absolute  or 
conditional  contraband  may  be  captured  on  the  high  seas  or  in  the 
territorial  waters  of  the  belligerents  throughout  the  whole  of  her 
voyage,  even  if  she  is  to  touch  at  a  port  of  call  before  reaching  the 
hostile  destination. 

ART.  38. — A  vessel  may  not  be  captured  on  the  ground  that  she 
has  carried  contraband  on  a  previous  occasion  if  such  carriage  is  in 
point  of  fact  at  an  end. 

ART.  39. — Contraband  goods  are  liable  to  condemnation. 


ART.  40. — A  vessel  carrying  contraband  may  be  condemned  if  the 
contraband,  reckoned  either  by  value,  weight,  volume  or  freight, 
forms  more  than  half  the  cargo. 

ART.  41. — If  a  vessel  carrying  contraband  is  released,  she  may  be 
condemned  to  pay  the  costs  and  expenses  incurred  by  the  captor 
in  respect  of  the  proceedings  in  the  national  prize  court  and  the 
custody  of  the  ship  and  cargo  during  the  proceedings. 

ART.  42. — Goods  which  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  contraband 
and  are  on  board  the  same  vessel  are  liable  to  condemnation. 

ART.  43. — If  a  vessel  is  encountered  at  sea  while  unaware  of  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities  or  of  the  declaration  of  contraband  which 
applies  to  her  cargo,  the  contraband  cannot  be  condemned  except 
on  payment  of  compensation;  the  vessel  herself  and  the  remainder 
of  the  cargo  are  not  liable  to  condemnation  or  to  the  costs  and 
expenses  referred  to  in  Article  41.  The  same  rule  applies  if  the 
master,  after  becoming  aware  of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  or  of  the 
declaration  of  contraband,  has  had  no  opportunity  of  discharging 
the  contraband.  A  vessel  is  deemed  to  be  aware  of  the  existence  of  a 
state  of  war,  or  of  a  declaration  of  contraband,  if  she  left  a  neutral 
port  subsequently  to  the  notification  to  the  power  to  which  such  port 
belongs  of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  or  of  the  declaration  of  contra- 
band respectively,  provided  that  such  notification  was  made  in 
sufficient  time.  A  vessel  is  also  deemed  to  be  aware  of  the  existence 
of  a  state  of  war  if  she  left  an  enemy  port  after  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities. 

ART.  44. — A  vessel  which  has  been  stopped  on  the  ground  that  she 
is  carrying  contraband,  and  which  is  not  liable  to  condemnation  on 
account  of  the  proportion  of  contraband  on  board,  may,  when  the 
circumstances  permit,  be  allowed  to  continue  her  voyage  if  the 
master  is  willing  to  hand  over  the  contraband  to  the  belligerent 
warship.  The  delivery  of  the  contraband  must  be  entered  by  the 
captor  on  the  logbook  of  the  vessel  stopped,  and  the  master  must 
give  the  captor  duly  certified  copies  of  all  relevant  papers.  The 
captor  is  at  liberty  to  destroy  the  contraband  that  has  been  handed 
over  to  him  under  these  conditions. 

See  Hautefeuille,  Des  droits  el  devoirs  des  nations  neutres  (2nd  ed., 
1858);  Perels,  Droit  maritime  international,  traduit  par  Arendt 
(Paris,  1884) ;  Moore,  Digest  of  International  Law  (1906) ;  L.  Oppen- 
heim,  International  Law  (1907);  Barclay,  Problems  of  International 
Practice  and  Diplomacy  (1907).  See  also  Hall,  International  Law  on 
Analogues  of  Contraband',  Smith  and  Sibley,  International  Law  as 
interpreted  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  1905,  on  "  Malacca  " 
and  "  Prinz  Heinrich  "  cases  (mails).  (T.  BA.) 

CONTRACT  (Lat.  contractus,  from  contrahere,  to  draw  together, 
to  bind),  the  legal  term  for  a  bargain  or  agreement;  some  writers, 
following  the  Indian  Contract  Act,  confine  the  term  to  agree- 
ments enforceable  by  law:  this,  though  not  yet  universally 
adopted,  seems  an  improvement.  Enforcement  of  good  faith 
in  matters  of  bargain  and  promise  is  among  the  most  important 
functions  of  legal  justice.  It  might  not  be  too  much  to  say 
that,  next  after  keeping  the  peace  and  securing  property  against 
violence  and  fraud  so  that  business  may  be  possible,  it  is  the  most 
important.  Yet  we  shall  find  that  the  importance  of  contract  is 
developed  comparatively  late  in  the  history  of  law.  The  common- 
wealth needs  elaborate  rules  about  contracts  only  when  it  is 
advanced  enough  in  civilization  and  trade  to  have  an  elaborate 
system  of  credit.  The  Roman  law  of  the  empire  dealt  with 
contract,  indeed,  in  a  fairly  adequate  manner,  though  it  never 
had  a  complete  or  uniform  theory;  and  the  Roman  law,  as  settled 
by  Justinian,  appears  to  have  satisfied  the  Eastern  empire  long 
after  the  Western  nations  had  begun  to  recast  their  institutions, 
and  the  traders  of  the  Mediterranean  had  struck  out  a  cosmo- 
politan body  of  rules  and  custom  known  as  the  Law  Merchant, 
which  claimed  acceptance  in  the  name  neither  of  Justinian  nor 
of  the  Church,  but  of  universal  reason.  It  was  amply  proved 
afterwards  that  the  foundations  of  the  Roman  system  were  strong 
enough  to  carry  the  fabric  of  modern  legislation.  But  the 
collapse  of  the  Roman  power  in  western  Christendom  threw 
society  back  into  chaos,  and  reduced  men's  ideas  of  ordered 
justice  and  law  to  a  condition  compared  with  which  the  earliest 
Roman  law  known  to  us  is  modern. 

In  this  condition  of  legal  ideas,  which  it  would  be  absurd  to 
call  jurisprudence,  the  general  duty  of  keeping  faith  is  not 
recognized  except  as  a  matter  of  religious  or  social  observance. 
Those  who  desire  to  be  assured  of  anything  that  lies  in  promise 
must  exact  an  oath,  or  a  pledge,  or  personal  sureties;  and  even 
then  the  court  of  their  people — in  England  the  Hundred  Court  in 
the  first  instance — will  do  nothing  for  them  in  the  first  case, 
and  not  much  in  the  two  latter.  Probably  the  settlement 
of  a  blood-feud,  with  provisions  for  the  payment  of  the  fine 


CONTRACT 


by  instalments,  was  the  nearest  approach  to  a  continuing  con- 
tract, as  we  now  understand  the  term,  which  the  experience  of 
Germanic  antiquity  could  furnish.  Jt  is  also  probable  that  the 
performance  of  such  undertakings,  as  it  concerned  the  general 
peace,  was  at  an  early  time  regarded  as  material  to  the  common- 
weal; and  that  these  covenants  of  peace,  rather  than  the 
rudimentary  selling  and  bartering  of  their  day,  first  caused  our 
Germanic  ancestors  to  realize  the  importance  of  putting  some 
promises  at  any  rate  under  public  sanction.  We  have  not  now 
to  attempt  any  reconstruction  of  archaic  judgment  and  justice, 
or  the  lack  of  either,  at  any  period  of  the  darkness  and  twilight 
which  precede  the  history  of  the  middle  ages.  But  the  history 
of  the  law,  and  even  the  present  form  of  much  law  still  common 
to  almost  all  the  English-speaking  world,  can  be  understood 
only  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  our  forefathers  did  not  start 
from  any  general  conception  of  the  state's  duty  to  enforce 
private  agreements,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  state's  powers  and 
functions  in  this  regard  were  extended  gradually,  unsystematic- 
ally,  and  by  shifts  and  devices  of  ingenious  suitors  and  counsel, 
aided  by  judges,  rather  than  by  any  direct  provisions  of  princes 
and  rulers.  Money  debts,  it  is  true,  were  recoverable  from  an 
early  time.  But  this  was  not  because  the  debtor  had  promised 
to  repay  the  loan;  it  was  because  the  money  was  deemed  still  to 
belong  to  the  creditor,  as  if  the  identical  coins  were  merely  in 
the  debtor's  custody.  The  creditor  sued  to  recover  money,  for 
centuries  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  in  exactly  the  same  form 
which  he  would  have  used  to  demand  possession  of  land;  the 
action  of  debt  closely  resembled  the  "  real  actions,"  and,  like 
them,  might  be  finally  determined  by  a  judicial  combat;  and 
down  to  Blackstone's  time  the  creditor  was  said  to  have  a 
property  in  the  debt — property  which  the  debtor  had  "  granted  " 
him.  Giving  credit,  in  this  way  of  thinking,  is  not  reliance  on 
the  right  to  call  hereafter  for  an  act,  the  payment  of  so  much 
current  money  or  its  equivalent,  to  be  performed  by  the  debtor, 
but  merely  suspension  of  the  immediate  right  to  possess  one's 
own  particular  money,  as  the  owner  of  a  house  let  for  a  term 
suspends  his  right  to  occupy  it.  This  was  no  road  to  the  modern 
doctrine  of  contract,  and  the  passage  had  to  be  made  another  way. 
In  fact  the  old  action  of  debt  covered  part  of  the  ground  of 
contract  only  by  accident.  It  was  really  an  action  to  recover 
any  property  that  was  not  land;  for  the  remedy  of 
a  dispossessed  owner  of  chattels,  afterwards  known 
as  detinue,  was  only  a  slightly  varying  form  of  it. 
If  the  property  claimed  was  a  certain  sum  of  money,  it  might 
be  due  because  the  defendant  had  received  money  on  loan,  or 
because  he  had  received  goods  of  which  the  agreed  price  remained 
unpaid;  or,  in  later  times  at  any  rate,  because  he  had  become 
liable  in  some  way  by  judgment,  statute  or  other  authority  of 
law,  to  pay  a  fine  or  fixed  penalty  to  the  plaintiff.  Here  the 
person  recovering  might  be  as  considerable  as  the  lord  of  a  manor, 
or  as  mean  as  a  "  common  informer  ";  the  principle  was  the 
same.  In  every  case  outside  this  last  class,  that  is  to  say,  when- 
ever there  was  a  debt  in  the  popular  sense  of  the  word,  it  had  to 
be  shown  that  the  defendant  had  actually  received  the  money 
or  goods;  this  value  received  came  to  be  called  quid  pro  quo — 
a  term  unknown,  to  all  appearance,  out  of  England.  Neverthe- 
less the  foundation  of  the  plaintiff's  right  was  not  bargain  or 
promise,  but  the  unjust  detention  by  the  defendant  of  the 
plaintiff's  money  or  goods. 

We  are  not  concerned  here  to  trace  the  change  from  the 
ancient  method  of  proof — oath  backed  by  "  good  suit,"  i.e. 
the  oaths  of  an  adequate  number  of  friends  and 
proof.  °  neighbours — through  the  earlier  form  of  jury  trial,  in 
which  the  jury  were  supposed  to  know  the  truth  of 
their  own  knowledge,  to  the  modern  establishment  of  facts  by 
testimony  brought  before  a  jury  who  are  bound  to  give  their 
verdict  according  to  the  evidence.  But  there  was  one  mode  of 
proof  which,  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  made  a  material 
addition  to  the  substantive  law.  This  was  the  proof  by  writing, 
which  means  writing  authenticated  by  seal.  Proof  by  writing 
was  admitted  under  Roman  influence,  but,  once  admitted,  it 
acquired  the  character  of  being  conclusive  which  belonged  to  all 


proof  in  early  Germanic  procedure.  Oath,  ordeal  and  battle 
were  all  final  in  their  results.  When  the  process  was  started 
there  was  no  room  for  discussion.  So  the  sealed  writing  was 
final  too,  and  a  man  could  not  deny  his  own  deed.  We  still  say 
that  he  cannot,  but  with  modern  refinements.  Thus  the  deed, 
being  allowed  as  a  solemn  and  probative  document^  furnished 
a  means  by  which  a  man  could  bind  himself,  or  rather  effectually 
declare  himself  bound,  to  anything  not  positively  forbidden  by 
law.  Whoever  could  afford  parchment  and  the  services  of  a 
clerk  might  have  the  benefit  of  a  "  formal  contract  "  in  the 
Roman  sense  of  the  term.  At  this  day  the  form  of  deed  called 
a  bond  or  "  obligation  "  is,  as  it  stands  settled  after  various 
experiments,  extremely  artificial;  but  it  is  essentially  a  solemn 
admission  of  liability,  though  its  conclusive  stringency  has  been 
relaxed  by  modern  legislation  and  practice  in  the  interest  of  sub- 
stantial justice.  By  this  means  the  performance  of  all  sorts  of 
undertakings,  pecuniary  and  otherwise,  could  be  and  was  legally 
secured.  Bonds  were  well  known  in  the  I3th  century,  and  from 
the  1 4th  century  onwards  were  freely  used  for  commercial 
and  other  purposes;  as  for  certain  limited  purposes  they  still 
are.  The  "  covenant  "  of  modern  draftsmen  is  a  direct  promise 
made  by  deed;  it  occurs  mainly  as  incident  to  conveyances  of 
land.  The  medieval  "  covenant,"  conventio,  was,  when  we  first 
hear  of  it,  practically  equivalent  to  a  lease,  and  never  became 
a  common  instrument  of  miscellaneous  contracting,  though  the 
old  books  recognize  the  possibility  of  turning  it  to  various  uses 
of  which  there  are  examples;  nor  had  it  any  sensible  influence 
on  the  later  development  of  the  law.  On  the  whole,  in  the  old 
common  law  one  could  do  a  great  deal  by  deed,  but  very  little 
without  deed.  The  minor  bargains  of  daily  life,  so  far  as  they 
involved  mutual  credit,  were  left  to  the  jurisdiction  of  inferior 
courts,  of  the  Law  Merchant,  and — last,  not  least— of  the  Church. 

Popular  custom,  in  all  European  countries,  recognized  simpler 
ways  of  pledging  faith  than  parchment  and  seal.  A  handshake 
was  enough  to  bind  a  bargain.  Whatever  secular  law 
might  say,  the  Church  said  it  was  an  open  sin  to  break  iaelio. 
plighted  faith;  a  matter,  therefore,  for  spiritual 
correction,  in  other  words,  for  compulsion  exercised  on  the 
defaulter  by  the  bishop's  or  the  archdeacon's  court,  armed 
with  the  power  of  excommunication.  In  this  way  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal courts  acquired  much  business  which  was,  in  fact,  as  secular 
as  that  of  a  modern  county  court,  with  the  incident  profits. 
Medieval  courts  lived  by  the  suitors'  fees.  What  were  the  king's 
judges  to  do?  However  high  they  put  their  claims  in  the 
course  of  the  rivalry  between  Church  and  Crown,  they  could  not 
effectually  prohibit  the  bishop  or  his  official  from  dealing  with 
matters  for  which  the  king's  court  provided  no  remedy.  Con- 
tinental jurists  had  seen  their  way,  starting  from  the  Roman 
system  as  it  was  left  by  Justinian,  to  reduce  its  formalities 
to  a  vanishing  quantity,  and  expand  their  jurisdiction  to  the 
full  breadth  of  current  usage.  English  judges  could  not  do  this 
in  the  isth  century,  if  they  could  ever  have  done  so.  Nor  would 
simplification  of  the  requisites  of  a  deed,  such  as  has  now  been 
introduced  in  many  jurisdictions,  have  been  of  much  use  at  a 
time  when  only  a  minority  even  of  well-to-do  laymen  could 
write  with  any  facility. 

There  was  no  principle  and  no  form  of  action  in  English  law 
which  recognized  any  general  duty  of  keeping  promises.  But 
could  not  breach  of  faith  by  which  a  party  had  suffered  be 
treated  as  some  kind  of  legal  wrong  ?  There  was  a  known  action 
of  trespass  and  a  known  action  of  deceit,  this  last  of  a  special 
kind,  mostly  for  what  would  now  be  called  abuse  of  the  process 
of  the  court ;  but  in  the  later  middle  ages  it  was  an  admitted 
remedy  for  giving  a  false  warranty  on  a  sale  of  goods.  Also 
there  was  room  for  actions  "  on  the  case,"  on  facts  analogous 
to  those  covered  by  the  old  writs,  though  not  precisely  within 
their  terms.  If  the  king's  judges  were  to  capture  this  important 
branch  of  business  from  the  clerical  hands  which  threatened  to 
engross  it,  the  only  way  was  to  devise  sorne  new  form  of  action 
on  the  case.  There  were  signs,  moreover,  that  the  court  of 
chancery  would  not  neglect  so  promising  a  field  if  the  common 
law  judges  left  it  open. 


CONTRACT 


37 


The  mere  fact  of  unfulfilled  promise  was  not  enough,  in  the 
eyes  of  medieval  English  lawyers,  to  give  a  handle  to  the  law. 
Attamaslt.  But  inJurv  caused  by  reliance  on  another  man's  under- 
taking was  different.  The  special  undertaking  or 
"  assumption  "  creates  a  duty  which  is  broken  by  fraudulent 
or  incompetent  miscarriage  in  the  performance.  I  profess  to  be 
a  skilled  farrier,  and  lame  your  horse.  It  is  no  trespass,  because 
you  trusted  the  horse  to  me;  but  it  is  something  like  a  trespass, 
and  very  like  a  deceit.  I  profess  to  be  a  competent  builder;  you 
employ  me  to  build  a  house,  and  I  scamp  the  work  so  that  the 
house  is  not  fit  to  live  in.  An  action  on  the  case  was  allowed 
without  much  difficulty  for  such  defaults.  The  next  step,  and 
a  long  one,  was  to  provide  for  total  failure  to  perform.  The 
builder,  instead  of  doing  bad  work,  does  nothing  at  all  within 
the  time  agreed  upon  for  completing  the  house.  Can  it  be  said 
that  he  has  done  a  wrong?  At  first  the  judges  felt  bound  to 
hold  that  this  was  going  too  far;  but  suitors  anxious  to  have 
the  benefit  of  the  king's  justice  persevered,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  isth  century  the  new  form  of  action,  called  assumpsit  from 
the  statement  of  the  defendant's  undertaking  on  which  it  was 
founded,  was  allowed  as  a  remedy  for  non-performance  as  well 
as  for  faulty  performance.  Being  an  action  for  damages,  and 
not  for  a  certain  amount,  it  escaped  the  strict  rules  of  proof 
which  applied  to  the  old  action  of  debt;  being  in  form  for  a  kind 
of  trespass,  and  thus  a  privileged  appeal  to  the  king  to  do  right 
for  a  breach  of  his  peace,  it  escaped  likewise  the  risk  of  the 
defendant  clearing  himself  by  oath  according  to  the  ancient 
popular  procedure.  Hence,  as  time  went  on,  suitors  were  em- 
boldened to  use  "  assumpsit  "  as  an  alternative  for  debt,  though 
it  had  been  introduced  only  for  cases  where  there  was  no  other 
remedy.  By  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  they  got  their  way ; 
and  it  became  a  settled  doctrine  that  the  existence  of  a  debt 
was  enough  for  the  court  to  presume  an  undertaking  to  pay  it. 
The  new  form  of  action  was  made  to  cover  the  whole  ground 
of  informal  contracts,  and,  by  extremely  ingenious  devices  of 
pleading,  developed  from  the  presumption  or  fiction  that  a  man 
had  promised  to  pay  what  he  ought,  it  was  extended  in  time 
to  a  great  variety  of  cases  where  there  was  in  fact  no  contract 
at  all. 

The  new  system  gave  no  new  force  to  gratuitous  promises. 
For  it  was  assumed,  as  the  foundation  of  the  jurisdiction,  that 
the  plaintiff  had  been  induced  by  the  defendant's 
undertaking,  and  with  the  defendant's  consent,  to 
alter  his  position  for  the  worse  in  some  way.  He  had 
paid  or  bound  himself  to  pay  money,  he  had  parted  with  goods, 
he  had  spent  time  in  labour,  or  he  had  foregone  some  profit  or 
legal  right.  If  he  had  not  committed  himself  to  anything  on  the 
strength  of  the  defendant's  promise,  he  had  suffered  no  damage 
and  had  no  cause  of  action.  Disappointment  of  expectations 
is  unpleasant,  but  it  is  not  of  itself  damnum  in  a  legal  sense.  To 
sum  up  the  effect  of  this  in  modern  language,  the  plaintiff  must 
have  given  value  of  some  kind,  more  or  less,  for  the  defendant's 
undertaking.  This  something  given  by  the  promisee  and  accepted 
by  the  promisor  in  return  for  his  undertaking  is  what  we  now 
call  the  consideration  for  the  promise.  In  cases  where  debt 
would  also  lie,  it  coincides  with  the  old  requirement  of  value 
received  (quid  pro  quo)  as  a  condition  of  the  action  of  debt  being 
available.  But  the  conception  is  far  wider,  for  the  consideration 
for  a  promise  need  not  be  anything  capable  of  delivery  or 
possession.  It  may  be  money  or  goods;  but  it  may  also  be  an 
act  or  series  of  acts  ;  further  (and  this  is  of  the  first  importance 
for  our  modern  law),  it  may  itself  be  a  promise  to  pay  money  or 
deliver  goods,  or  to  do  work,  or  otherwise  to  act  or  not  to  act  in 
some  specified  way.  Again,  it  need  not  be  anything  which  is 
obviously  for  the  promisor's  benefit.  His  acceptance  shows 
that  he  set  some  value  on  it;  but  in  truth  the  promisee's  burden, 
and  not  the  promisor's  benefit,  is  material.  The  last  refinement 
of  holding  that,  when  mutual  promises  are  exchanged  between 
parties,  each  promise  is  a  consideration  for  the  other  and  makes 
it  binding,  was  conclusively  accepted  only  in  the  lyth  century. 
The  result  was  that  promises  of  mere  bounty  could  no  more  be 
enforced  than  before,  but  any  kind  of  lawful  bargain  could; 


and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  was  in  substance  what 
most  men  wanted.  Ancient  popular  usage  and  feeling  show 
little  more  encouragement  than  ancient  law  itself  to  merely 
gratuitous  alienation  or  obligations.  Also  (subject,  till  quite 
modern  times,  to  the  general  rule  of  common-law  procedure 
that  parties  could  not  be  their  own  witnesses,  and  subject  to 
various  modern  statutory  requirements  in  various  classes  of 
cases)  no  particular  kind  of  proof  was  necessary.  The  necessity 
of  consideration  for  the  validity  of  simple  contracts  was  un- 
fortunately confused  by  commentators,  almost  from  the  beginning 
of  its  history,  with  the  perfectly  different  rules  of  the  Roman 
law  about  nudum  paclum,  which  very  few  English  lawyers  took 
the  pains  to  understand.  Hasty  comparison  of  misunderstood 
Roman  law,  sometimes  in  its  civil  and  sometimes  in  its  ecclesi- 
astical form,  is  answerable  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  worst 
faults  in  old-fashioned  text-books.  Doubtless  many  canonists, 
probably  some  common  lawyers,  and  possibly  some  of  the  judges 
of  the  Renaissance  time,  supposed  that  ex  nudo  pacio  non  oritur 
actio  was  in  some  way  a  proposition  of  universal  reason;  but  it 
is  a  long  way  from  this  to  concluding  that  the  Roman  law  had 
any  substantial  influence  on  the  English. 

The  doctrine  of  consideration  is  in  fact  peculiar  to  those 
jurisdictions  where  the  common  law  of  England  is  in  force,  or 
is  the  foundation  of  the  received  law,  or,  as  in  South  Africa,  has 
made  large  encroachments  upon  it  in  practice.  Substantially 
similar  results  are  obtained  in  other  modern  systems  by  professing 
to  enforce  all  deliberate  promises,  but  imposing  stricter  conditions 
of  proof  where  the  promise  is  gratuitous. 

As  obligations  embodied  in  the  solemn  form  of  a  deed  were 
thereby  made  enforceable  before  the  doctrine  of  consideration 
was  known,  so  they  still  remain.  When  a  man  has  Deeds 
by  deed  declared  himself  bound,  there  is  no  need  to 
look  for  any  bargain,  or  even  to  ask  whether  the  other  party 
has  assented.  This  rugged  fragment  of  ancient  law  remains 
embedded  in  our  elaborate  modern  structure.  Nevertheless 
gratuitous  promises,  even  by  deed,  get  only  their  strict  and  bare 
rights.  There  may  be  an  action  upon  them,  but  the  powerful 
remedy  of  specific  performance — often  the  only  one  worth 
having — is  defied  them.  For  this  is  derived  from  the  extra- 
ordinary jurisdiction  of  the  chancellor,  and  the  equity  ad- 
ministered by  the  chancellor  was  not  for  plaintiffs  who  could 
not  show  substantial  merit  as  well  as  legal  claims.  The  singular 
position  of  promises  made  by  deed  is  best  left  out  of  account 
in  considering  the  general  doctrine  of  the  formation  of  contracts; 
and  as  to  interpretation  there  is  no  difference.  In  what  follows, 
therefore,  it  will  be  needless,  as  a  rule,  to  distinguish  between 
"  parol  "  or  "  simple  "  contracts,  that  is,  contracts  not  made  by 
deed,  and  obligations  undertaken  by  deed. 

From  the  conception  of  a  promise  being  valid  only  when 
given  in  return  for  something  accepted  in  consideration  of 
the  promise,  it  follows  that  the  giving  of  the  promise 
and  of  the  consideration  must  be  simultaneous.  Words  aad  otfer 
of  promise  uttered  before  there  is  a  consideration  for 
them  can  be  no  more  than  an  offer;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
obligation  declared  in  words,  or  inferred  from  acts  and  conduct,  on 
the  acceptance  of  a  consideration,  is  fixed  at  that  time,  and  cannot 
be  varied  by  subsequent  declaration,  though  such  declarations 
may  be  material  as  admissions.  It  was  a  long  while,  however, 
before  this  consequence  was  clearly  perceived.  In  the  i8th 
century  it  was  attempted,  and  for  a  time  with  considerable 
success,  to  extend  the  range  of  enforceable  promises  without 
regard  to  what  the  principles  of  the  law  would  bear,  in  order 
to  satisfy  a  sense  of  natural  justice.  This  movement  was  checked 
only  within  living  memory,  and  traces  of  it  remain  in  certain 
apparently  anomalous  rules  which  are  indeed  of  little  practical 
importance,  but  which  private  writers,  at  any  rate,  cannot 
safely  treat  as  obsolete.  However,  the  question  of  "  past 
consideration  "  is  too  minute  and  technical  to  be  pursued  here. 
The  general  result  is  that  a  binding  contract  is  regularly  consti- 
tuted by  the  acceptance  of  an  offer,  and  at  the  moment  when  it 
is  accepted;  and,  however  complicated  the  transaction  may  be, 
there  must  always,  in  the  theory  of  English  law,  be  such  a 


CONTRACT 


moment  in  every  case  where  a  contract  is  formed.  It  also 
follows  that  an  offer  before  acceptance  creates  no  duty  of  any 
kind  ("  A  revocable  promise  is  unknown  to  our  law  " — Anson) ; 
which  is  by  no  means  necessarily  the  case  in  systems  where 
the  English  rule  of  consideration  is  unknown.  The  question 
what  amounts  to  final  acceptance  of  an  offer  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  question  ultimately  depending  on  common  sense,  and 
must  be  treated  on  similar  lines  in  all  civilized  countries  where 
the  business  of  life  is  carried  on  in  a  generally  similar  way.  The 
rules  that  an  offer  is  understood  to  be  made  only  for  a  reasonable 
time,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case,  and  lapses  if  not 
accepted  in  due  time;  that  an  expressed  revocation  of  an  offer 
can  take  effect  only  if  communicated  to  the  other  party  before 
he  has  accepted;  that  acceptance  of  an  offer  must  be  according 
to  its  terms,  and  a  conditional  or  qualified  acceptance  is  only 
a  new  proposal,  and  the  like,  may  be  regarded  as  standing  on 
general  convenience  as  much  as  on  any  technical  ground. 

Great  difficulties  have  arisen,  and  in  other  systems  as  well 

as  in  the  English,  as  to  the  completion  of  contracts  between 

persons  at  a  distance.     There  must  be  some  rule,  and 

spondeace.  yet  anv  ru^e  ^at  can  ^e  ffamed  must  seem  arbitrary 

in  some  cases.     On  the  whole  the  modern  doctrine 

is  to  some  such  effect  as  the  following: — 

The  proposer  of  a  contract  can  prescribe  or  authorize  any 
mode,  or  at  least  any  reasonable  mode,  of  acceptance,  and  if  he 
specifies  none  he  is  deemed  to  authorize  the  use  of  any  reasonable 
mode  in  common  use,  and  especially  the  post.  Acceptance  in 
words  is  not  always  required;  an  offer  may  be  well  accepted 
by  an  act  clearly  referable  to  the  proposed  agreement,  and 
constituting  the  whole  or  part  of  the  performance  asked  for — 
say  the  despatch  of  goods  in  answer  to  an  order  by  post,  or  the 
doing  of  work  bespoken;  and  it  seems  that  in  such  cases  further 
communication — unless  expressly  requested — is  not  necessary 
as  matter  of  law,  however  prudent  and  desirable  it  may  be. 
Where  a  promise  and  not  an  act  is  sought  (as  where  a  tradesman 
writes  a  letter  offering  goods  for  sale  on  credit),  it  must  be 
communicated;  in  the  absence  of  special  direction  letter  post 
or  telegraph  may  be  used;  and,  further,  the  acceptor  having 
done  his  part  when  his  answer  is  committed  to  the  post,  English 
courts  now  hold  (after  much  discussion  and  doubt)  that  any 
delay  or.  miscarriage  in  course  of  post  is  at  the  proposer's  risk, 
so  that  a  man  may  be  bound  by  an  acceptance  he  never  received. 
It  is  generally  thought — though  there  is  no  English  decision — 
that,  in  conformity  with  this  last  rule,  a  revocation  by  telegraph 
of  an  acceptance  already  posted  would  be  inoperative.  Much 
more  elaborate  rules  are  laid  down  in  some  continental  codes. 
It  seems  doubtful  whether  their  complication  achieves  any  gain 
of  substantial  justice  worth  the  price.  At  first  sight  it  looks 
easy  to  solve  some  of  the  difficulties  by  admitting  an  interval 
during  which  one  party  is  bound  and  the  other  not.  But,  apart 
from  the  risk  of  starting  fresh  problems  as  hard  as  the  old  ones, 
English  principles,  as  above  said,  require  a  contract  to  be  con- 
cluded between  the  parties  at  one  point  of  time,  and  any  excep- 
tion to  this  would  have  to  be  justified  by  very  strong  grounds  of 
expediency.  We  have  already  assumed,  but  it  should  be  specific- 
ally stated,  that  neither  offers  nor  acceptances  are  confined  to 
communications  made  in  spoken  or  written  words.  Acts  or 
signs  may  and  constantly  do  signify  proposal  and  assent.  One 
does  not  in  terms  request  a  ferryman  to  put  one  across  the  river. 
Stepping  into  the  boat  is  an  offer  to  pay  the  usual  fare  for  being 
ferried  over,  and  the  ferryman  accepts  it  by  putting  off.  This  is 
a  very  simple  case,  but  the  principle  is  the  same  in  all  cases. 
Acts  fitted  to  convey  to  a  reasonable  man  the  proposal  of  an 
agreement,  or  the  acceptance  of  a  proposal  he  has  made,  are  as 
good  in  law  as  equivalent  express  words.  The  term  "  implied 
contract  "  is  current  in  this  connexion,  but  it  is  unfortunately 
ambiguous.  It  sometimes  means  a  contract  concluded  by  acts, 
not  words,  of  one  or  both  parties,  but  still  a  real  agreement; 
sometimes  an  obligation  imposed  by  law  where  there  is  not  any 
agreement  in  fact,  for  which  the  name  "  quasi-contract  "  is 
more  appropriate  and  now  usual. 

The  obligation  of  contract  is  an  obligation  created  and  deter- 


mined by  the  will  of  the  parties.  Herein  is  the  characteristic 
difference  of  contract  from  all  other  branches  of  law. 
The  business  of  the  law,  therefore,  is  to  give  effect  so 
far  as  possible  to  the  intention  of  the  parties,  and  all 
the  rules  for  interpreting  contracts  go  back  to  this  fundamental 
principle  and  are  controlled  by  it.  Every  one  knows  that  its 
application  is  not  always  obvious.  Parties  often  express  them- 
selves obscurely;  still  oftener  they  leave  large  parts  of  their 
intention  unexpressed,  or  (which  for  the  law  is  the  same  thing) 
have  not  formed  any  intention  at  all  as  to  what  is  to  be  done 
in  certain  events.  But  even  where  the  law  has  to  fill  up  gaps  by 
judicial  conjecture,  the  guiding  principle  still  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
the  consideration  of  what  either  party  has  given  the  other 
reasonable  cause  to  expect  of  him.  The  court  aims  not  at 
imposing  terms  on  the  parties,  but  at  fixing  the  terms  left  blank 
as  the  parties  would  or  reasonably  might  have  fixed  them  if  all 
the  possibilities  had  been  clearly  before  their  minds.  For  this 
purpose  resort  must  be  had  to  various  tests:  the  court  may 
look  to  the  analogy  of  what  the  parties  have  expressly  provided 
in  case  of  other  specified  events,  to  the  constant  or  general 
usage  of  persons  engaged  in  like  business,  and,  at  need,  ultimately 
to  the  court's  own  sense  of  what  is  just  and  expedient.  All 
auxiliary  rules  of  this  kind  are  subject  to  the  actual  will  of  the 
parties,  and  are  applied  only  for  want  of  sufficient  declaration 
of  it  by  the  parties  themselves.  A  rule  which  can  take  effect 
against  the  judicially  known  will  of  the  parties  is  not  a  rule  of 
construction  or  interpretation,  but  a  positive  rule  of  law.  How- 
ever artificial  some  rules  of  construction  may  seem,  this  test 
will  always  hold.  In  modern  times  the  courts  have  avoided 
laying  down  new  rules  of  construction,  preferring  to  keep  a  free 
hand  and  deal  with  each  case  on  its  merits  as  a  whole.  It  should 
be  observed  that  the  fulfilment  of  a  contract  may  create  a 
relation  between  the  parties  which,  once  established,  is  governed 
by  fixed  rules  of  law  not  variable  by  the  preceding  agreement. 
Marriage  is  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  this,  and  perhaps 
the  only  complete  one  in  our  modern  law. 

There  are  certain  rules  of  evidence  which  to  some  extent 
guide  or  restrain  interpretation.  In  particular,  oral  testimony 
is  not  allowed  to  vary  the  terms  of  an  agreement  BvU  a 
reduced  to  writing.  This  is  really  in  aid  of  the  parties' 
deliberate  intention,  for  the  object  of  reducing  terms  to  writing 
is  to  make  them  certain.  There  are  apparent  exceptions  to  the 
rule,  of  which  the  most  conspicuous  is  the  admission  of  evidence 
to  show  that  words  were  used  in  a  special  meaning  current  in 
the  place  or  trade  in  question.  But  they  are  reducible,  it  will  be 
found,  to  applications  (perhaps  over-subtle  in  some  cases)  of 
the  still  more  general  principles  that,  before  giving  legal  force 
to  a  document,  we  must  know  that  it  is  really  what  it  purports 
to  be,  and  that  when  we  do  give  effect  to  it  according  to  its 
terms  we  must  be  sure  of  what  its  terms  really  say.  The  rules 
of  evidence  here  spoken  of  are  modern,  and  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  archaic  rule  already  mentioned  as  to  the  effect  of  adeed. 

Every  contracting  party  is  bound  to  perform  his  promise 
according  to  its  terms,  and  in  case  of  any  doubt  in  the  sense 
in  which  the  other  party  would  reasonably  understand 
the  promise.  Where  the  performance  on  one  or  both  formance. 
sides  extends  over  an  appreciable  time,  continuously 
or  by  instalments,  questions  may  arise  as  to  the  right  of  either 
party  to  refuse  or  suspend  further  performance  on  the  ground 
of  some  default  on  the  other  side.  Attempts  to  lay  down  hard 
and  fast  rules  on  such  questions  are  now  discouraged,  the  aim 
of  the  courts  being  to  give  effect  to  the  true  substance  and  intent 
of  the  contract  in  every  case.  Nor  will  the  court  hold  one  part 
of  the  terms  deliberately  agreed  to  more  or  less  material  than 
another  in  modern  business  dealings.  "  In  the  contracts  of 
merchants  time  is  of  the  essence,"  as  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  has  said  in  our  own  day.  Certain  ancient  rules 
restraining  the  apparent  literal  effect  of  common  provisions 
in  mortgages  and  other  instruments  were  in  truth  controlling 
rules  of  policy.  New  rules  of  this  kind  can  be  made  only  by 
legislation.  Whether  the  parties  did  or  did  not  in  fact  intend 
the  obligation  of  a  contract  to  be  subject  to  unexpressed 


CONTRACT 


39 


Illegality. 


conditions  is,  however,  a  possible  and  not  uncommon  question  of 
interpretation.  One  class  of  cases  giving  rise  to  such  questions 
is  that  in  which  performance  becomes  impossible  by  some 
external  cause  not  due  to  the  promisor's  own  fault;  a  similar 
but  not  identical  one  is  that  in  which  the  agreement  could  be 
literally  performed,  and  yet  the  performance  would  not  give 
the  promisor  the  substance  of  what  he  bargained  for;  as 
happened  in  the  "  coronation  .cases  "  arising  out  of  the  post- 
ponement of  the  king's  coronation  in  1902.  As  to  promises 
•obviously  absurd  or  impossible  from  the  first,  they  are  un- 
enforceable only  on  the  ground  that  the  parties  cannot  have 
seriously  meant  to  create  a  liability.  For  precisely  the  same 
reason,  supported  by  the  general  usage  and  understanding  of 
mankind,  common  social  engagements,  though  they  often  fulfil 
all  other  requisites  of  a  contract,  have  never  been  treated  as 
binding  in  law. 

In  all  matters  of  contract,  as  we  have  said,  the  ascertained 
will  of  the  parties  prevails.  But  this  means  a  will  both  lawful 
and  free.  Hence  there  are  limits  to  the  force  of  the 
general  rule,  fixed  partly  by  the  law  of  the  land,  which 
is  above  individual  will  and  interests,  partly  by  the  need  of 
securing  good  faith  and  justice  between  the  parties  themselves 
against  fraud  or  misadventure.  Agreements  cannot  be  enforced 
when  their  performance  would  involve  an  offence  against  the 
law.  There  may  be  legal  offence,  it  must  be  remembered,  not 
only  in  acts  commonly  recognized  as  criminal,  disloyal  or 
immoral,  but  in  the  breach  or  non-observance  of  positive  regula- 
tions made  by  the  legislature,  or  persons  having  statutory 
authority,  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  It  would  be  useless 
to  give  details  on  the  subject  here.  Again,  there  are  cases  where 
an  agreement  may  be  made  and  performed  without  offending 
the  law,  but  on  grounds  of  "  public  policy  "  it  is  not  thought 
right  that  the  performance  should  be  a  matter  of  legal  obligation, 
even  if  the  ordinary  conditions  of  an  enforceable  contract  are 
satisfied.  A  man  may  bet,  in  private  at  any  rate,  if  he  likes, 
and  pay  or  receive  as  the  event  may  be;  but  for  many  years 
the  winner  has  had  no  right  of  action  against  the  loser.  Un- 
fortunate timidity  on  the  part  of  the  judges,  who  attempted 
to  draw  distinctions  instead  of  saying  boldly  that  they  would 
not  entertain  actions  on  wagers  of  any.  kind,  threw  this  topic 
into  the  domain  of  legislation;  and  the  laudable  desire  of 
parliament  to  discourage  gambling,  so  far  as  might  be,  without 
attempting  impossible  prohibitions,  has  brought  the  law  to  a 
state  of  ludicrous  complexity  in  both  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion. But  what  is  really  important  under  this  doctrine  of  public 
policy  is  the  confinement  of  "  contracts  in  restraint  of  trade  " 
within  special  limits.  In  the  middle  ages  and  down  to  modern 
times  there  was  a  strong  feeling — not  merely  an  artificial  legal 
doctrine — against  monopolies  and  everything  tending  to  mono- 
poly. Agreements  to  keep  up  prices  or  not  to  compete  were 
regarded  as  criminal.  Gradually  it  was  found  that  some  kind  of 
limited  security  against  competition  must  be  allowed  if  such 
transactions  as  the  sale  of  a  going  concern  with  its  goodwill, 
or  the  retirement  of  partners  from  a  continuing  firm,  or  the 
employment  of  confidential  servants  in  matters  involving  trade 
secrets,  were  to  be  carried  on  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  parties. 
Attempts  to  lay  down  fixed  rules  in  these  matters  were  made 
from  time  to  time,  but  they  were  finally  discredited  by  the 
decision  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  Maxim-Nordenfelt  Com- 
pany's case  in  1894.  Contracts  "  in  restraint  of  trade  "  will  now 
be  held  valid,  provided  that  they  are  made  for  valuable  considera- 
tion (this  even  if  they  are  made  by  deed),  and  do  not  go  beyond 
what  can  be  thought  reasonable  for  the  protection  of  the  interests 
concerned,  and  are  not  injurious  to  the  public.  (The  Indian 
Contract  Act,  passed  in  1872,  has  unfortunately  embodied 
views  now  obsolete,  and  remains  unamended.)  All  that  remains 
of  the  old  rules  in  England  is  the  necessity  of  valuable  considera- 
tion, whatever  be  the  form  of  the  contract,  and  a  strong  pre- 
sumption— but  not  an  absolute  rule  of  law — that  an  unqualified 
agreement  not  to  carry  on  a  particular  business  is  not 
reasonable. 

Where  there  is  no  reason  in  the  nature  of  the  contract  for  not 


Fraud. 


enforcing  it,  the  consent  of  a  contracting  party  may  still  not  be 
binding  on  him  because  not  given  with  due  knowledge,  or,  if  he 
is  in  a  relation  of  dependence  to  the  other  party,  with  inde- 
pendent judgment.  Inducing  a  man  by  deceit  to  enter  into  a 
contract  may  always  be  treated  by  the  deceived  party 
as  a  ground  for  avoiding  his  obligation,  if  he  does  so 
within  a  reasonable  time  after  discovering  the  truth,  and,  in 
particular,  before  any  innocent  third  person  has  acquired  rights 
for  value  on  the  faith  of  the  contract  (see  FRAUD).  Coercion 
would  be  treated  on  principle  in  the  same  way  as  fraud,  but 
such  cases  hardly  occur  in  modern  times.  There  is  a  kind  of 
moral  domination,  however,  which  our  courts  watch  with  the 
utmost  jealousy,  and  repress  under  the  name  of  "undue  influence" 
when  it  is  used  to  obtain  pecuniary  advantage.  Persons  in  a 
position  of  legal  or  practical  authority — guardians,  confidential 
advisers,  spiritual  directors,  and  the  like — must  not  abuse  their 
authority  for  selfish  ends.  They  are  not  forbidden  to  take 
benefits  from  those  who  depend  on  them  or  put  their  trust  in 
them;  but  if  they  do,  and  the  givers  repent  of  their  bounty, 
the  whole  burden  of  proof  is  on  the  takers  to  show  that  the  gift 
was  in  the  first  instance  made  freely  and  with  understanding. 
Large  voluntary  gifts  or  beneficial  contracts,  outside  the  limits 
within  which  natural  affection  and  common  practice  justify 
them,  are  indeed  not  encouraged  in  any  system  of  civilized 
law.  Professional  money-lenders  were  formerly  checked  by 
the  usury  law:  since  those  laws  were  repealed  in  1854,  courts 
and  juries  have  shown  a  certain  astuteness  in  applying  the 
rules  of  law  as  to  fraud  and  undue  influence — the  latter  with 
certain  special  features — to  transactions  with  needy  "  expectant 
heirs  "  and  other  improvident  persons  which  seem  on  the  whole 
unconscionable.  The  Money  Lenders  Act  of  1900  has  fixed 
and  (as  finally  interpreted  by  the  House  of  Lords)  also  sharpened 
these  developments.  In  the  case  of  both  fraud  and  undue 
influence,  the  person  entitled  to  avoid  a  contract  may,  if  so 
advised,  ratify  it  afterwards;  and  ratification,  if  made  with 
full  knowledge  and  free  judgment,  is  irrevocable.  A  contract 
made  with  a  person  deprived  by  unsound  mind  or  intoxication 
of  the  capacity  to  form  a  rational  judgment  is  on  the  same 
footing  as  a  contract  obtained  by  fraud,  if  the  want  of  capacity 
is  apparent  to  the  other  party. 

There  are  many  cases  in  which  a  statement  made  by  one  party  to 
the  other  about  a  material  fact  will  enable  the  other  to  avoid  the 
contract  if  he  has  relied  on  it,  and  it  was  in  fact  untrue, 
though  it  may  have  been  made  at  the  time  with  honest 
belief  in  its  truth.  This  is  so  wherever,  according  to  the 
common  course  of  business,  it  is  one  party's  business  to  know 
the  facts,  and  the  other  practically  must,  or  reasonably  may, 
take  the  facts  from  him.  In  some  classes  of  cases  even  inadver- 
tent omission  to  disclose  any  material  fact  is  treated  as  a  mis- 
representation. Contracts  of  insurance  are  the  most  important; 
here  the  insurer  very  seldom  has  the  means  of  making  any 
effective  inquiry  of  his  own.  Misdescription  of  real  property 
on  a  sale,  without  fraud,  may  according  to  its  importance  be 
a  matter  for  compensation  or  for  setting  aside  the  contract. 
Promoters  of  companies  are  under  special  duties  as  to  good  faith 
and  disclosure  which  have  been  worked  out  at  great  length  in 
the  modern  decisions.  But  company  law  has  become  so  complex 
within  the  present  generation  that,  so  far  from  throwing  much 
light  on  larger  principles,  it  is  hardly  intelligible  without  some 
previous  grasp  of  them.  Sometimes  it  is  said  that  misrepre- 
sentation (apart  from  fraud)  of  any  material  fact  will  serve  to 
avoid  any  and  every  kind  of  contract.  It  is  submitted  that  this 
is  certainly  not  the  law  as  to  the  sale  of  goods  or  as  to  the  contract 
to  marry,  and  therefore  the  alleged  rule  cannot  be  laid  down 
as  universal.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  parties  can,  if 
they  please,  and  not  necessarily  by  the  express  terms  of  the 
contract  itself,  make  the  validity  of  their  contract  conditional 
on  the  existence  of  any  matter  of  fact  whatever,  including  the 
correctness  of  any  particular  statement.  If  they  have  done  this, 
and  the  fact  is  not  so,  the  contract  has  no  force;  not  because 
there  has  been  a  misrepresentation,  but  because  the  parties 
agreed  to  be  bound  if  the  fact  was  so  and  not  otherwise.  It  is 


CONTRACTILE  VACUOLE— CONTRAFAGOTTO 


a  question  of  interpretation  whether  in  a  given  case  there  was 
any  such  condition. 

Mistake  is  said  to  be  a  ground  for  avoiding  contracts,  and  there 
are  cases  which  it  is  practically  convenient  to  group  under  this 
Mistake,  head.  On  principle  they  seem  to  be  mostly  reducible  to 
failure  of  the  acceptance  to  correspond  with  the  offer,  or 
absence  of  any  real  consideration  for  the  promise.  In  such  cases, 
whether  there  be  fraud  or  not,  no  contract  is  ever  formed,  and 
therefore  there  is  nothing  which  can  be  ratified — a  distinction 
which  may  have  important  effects.  Relief  against  mistake  is 
given  where  parties  who  have  really  agreed,  or  rather  their 
advisers,  fail  to  express  their  intention  correctly.  Here,  if  the 
original  true  intention  is  fully  proved — as  to  which  the  court 
is  rightly  cautious — the  faulty  document  can  be  judicially 
rectified. 

By  the  common  law  an  infant  (i.e.  a  person  less  than  twenty-one 
years  old)  was  bound  by  contracts  made  for  "  necessaries,"  i.e. 
Disability.  sucn  commodities  as  a  jury  holds,  and  the  court  thinks 

they  may  reasonably  hold,  suitable  and  required  for 
the  person's  condition;  also  by  contracts  otherwise  clearly  for 
his  benefit;  all  other  contracts  he  might  confirm  or  avoid  after 
coming  of  age.  An  extremely  ill-drawn  act  of  1874  absolutely 
deprived  infants  of  the  power  of  contracting  loans,  contracting 
for  the  supply  of  goods  other  than  necessaries,  and  stating  an 
account  so  as  to  bind  themselves;  it  also  disabled  them  from 
binding  themselves  by  ratification.  The  liability  for  necessaries 
is  now  declared  by  legislative  authority  in  the  Sale  of  Goods  Act 
1893;  the  modern  doctrine  is  that  it  is  in  no  case  a  true  liability 
on  contract.  There  is  an  obligation  imposed  by  law  to  pay,  not 
the  agreed  price,  but  a  reasonable  price.  Practically,  people 
who  give  credit  to  an  infant  do  so  at  their  peril,  except  in  cases 
of  obvious  urgency. 

Married  women  were  incapable  by  the  common  law  of  con- 
tracting in  their  own  names.  At  this  day  they  can  hold  separate 
property  and  bind  themselves  to  the  extent  of  that  property — 
not  personally — by  contract.  The  law  before  the  Married 
Women's  Property  Acts  (1882  and  1893,  and  earlier  acts  now 
superseded  and  repealed)  was  a  very  peculiar  creature  of  the 
court  of  chancery;  the  number  of  cases  in  which  it  is  necessary 
to  go  back  to  it  is  of  course  decreasing  year  by  year.  But  a 
married  woman  can  still  be  restrained  from  anticipating  the 
income  of  her  separate  property,  and  the  restriction  is  still 
commonly  inserted  in  marriage  settlements. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  philosophical  interest  about  the  nature 
and  capacities  of  corporations,  but  for  modern  practical  purposes 
it  may  be  said  that  the  legal  powers  of  British  corporations  are 
directly  or  indirectly  determined  by  acts  of  parliament.  For 
companies  under  the  Companies  Acts  the  controlling  instrument 
or  written  constitution  is  the  memorandum  of  association. 
Company  draftsmen,  taught  by  experience,  nowadays  frame 
this  in  the  most  comprehensive  terms.  Questions  of  either 
personal  or  corporate  disability  are  less  frequent  than  they 
were.  In  any  case  they  stand  apart  from  the  general  principles 
which  characterize  our  law  of  contract. 

The  rights  created  by  contract  are  personal  rights  against  the 
promisors  and  their  legal  representatives,  and  therefore  different 

in  kind  from  the  rights  of  ownership  and   the   like 

which  are  available  against  all  the  world.  Nevertheless 
property,  they  may  be  and  very  commonly  are  capable  of 

pecuniary  estimation  and  estimated  as  part  of  a  man's 
assets.  Book  debts  are  the  most  obvious  example.  Such  rights 
are  property  in  the  larger  sense:  they  are  in  modern  law  trans- 
missible and  alienable,  unless  the  contract  is  of  a  kind  implying 
personal  confidence,  or  a  contrary  intention  is  otherwise  shown. 
The  rights  created  by  negotiable  instruments  are  an  important 
and  unique  species  of  property,  being  not  only  exchangeable 
but  the  very  staple  of  commercial  currency.  Contract  and 
conveyance,  again,  are  distinct  in  their  nature,  and  sharply 
distinguished  in  the  classical  Roman  law.  But  in  the  common 
law  property  in  goods  is  transferred  by  a  complete  contract  of 
sale  without  any  further  act,  and  under  the  French  civil  code 
and  systems  which  have  followed  it  a  like  rule  applies  not  only 


to  movables  but  to  immovables.  In  English  law  procuring  a 
man  to  break  his  contract  is  a  civil  wrong  against  the  other 
contracting  party,  subject  to  exceptions  which  are  still  not 
clearly  defined. 

AUTHORITIES.— History:  Ames,  "The  History  of  Assumpsit," 
Harvard  Law  Rev.  ii.  I,  53  (Cambridge,  Mass.  1889);  Pollock  and 
Maitland,  History  of  English  Law,  2nd  ed.,  ii.  184-239  (Cambridge, 
1898).  Modern:  Pollock,  article  "  Contract  "  in  Encyclopaedia  of 
the  Laws  of  England  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1907),  a  technical  summary 
of  the  modern  law ;  the  same  writer's  edition  of  the  Indian  Contract 
Act  (assisted  by  D.  F.  Mulla,  London  and  Bombay,  1905)  restates 
and  discusses  the  principles  of  the  common  law  besides  commenting 
on  the  provisions  of  the  Act  in  detail.  Of  the  text-books,  Anson, 
English  Law  of  Contract,  reached  an  eleventh  edition  in  1906; 
Harriman,  Law  of  Contracts  (second  edition,  1901) ;  Leake,  Principles 
of  the  Law  of  Contract  (fifth  edition  by  Randall,  1906);  Pollock, 
Principles  of  Contract  (eighth  edition,  1910,  third  American  edition, 
Wald's  completed  by  Williston,  New  York,  1906).  O.  W.  Holmes's 
(justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States)  The  Common  Law 
(Boston,  Mass.  1881)  is  illuminating  on  contract  as  on  other  legal 
topics,  though  the  percent  writer  cannot  accept  all  the  learned 
judge's  historical  conjectures.  (F.  Po.) 

CONTRACTILE  VACUOLE,  in  biology,  a  spherical  space  rilled 
with  liquid,  which  at  intervals  discharges  into  the  medium;  it 
is  found  in  all  fresh- water  groups  of  Protozoa,  and  some  marine 
forms,  also  in  the  naked  aquatic  reproductive  cells  of  Algae  and 
Fungi.  It  is  absent  in  states  with  a  distinct  cell-wall  to  resist 
excessive  turgescence,  such  as  would  lead  to  the  rupture  of  a 
naked  cell,  and  we  conclude  that  its  chief  function  is  to  prevent 
such  turgescence  in  unprotected  naked  cells.  It  fulfils  also 
respiratory  and  renal  functions,  and  is  comparable,  physiologi- 
cally, to  the  contractile  vesicle  or  bladder  of  Rotifers  and 
Turbellarians.  In  many  species  it  is  part  of  a  complex  of  canals 
or  spaces  in  the  protoplasm. 

See  M.  Hartog,  British  Association  Reports,  and  Degen,  Botanische 
Zeitung,  vol.  Ixiii.  Abt.  I  (1905)  (see  also  PROTOZOA;  PROTOPLASM). 

CONTRADICTION,  PRINCIPLE  OF  (principium  contradic- 
tionis),  in  logic,  the  term  applied  to  the  second  of  the  three 
primary  "  laws  of  thought."  The  oldest  statement  of  the  law 
is  that  contradictory  statements  cannot  both  at  the  same  time 
be  true,  e.g.  the  two  propositions  "  A  is  B  "  and  "  A  is  not  B" 
are  mutually  exclusive.  A  may  be  B  at  one  time,  and  not  at 
another;  A  may  be  partly  B  and  partly  not  B  at  the  same  time; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  predicate  of  the  same  thing,  at  the  same 
time,  and  in  the  same  sense,  the  absence  and  the  presence  of  the 
same  quality.  This  is  the  statement  of  the  law  given  by  Aristotle 
(ri>  yap  aM  md.p-x.tiv  re  /cat  ^17  inrapxtiv  adwarov  rtf  aiir<f 
KO.L  Kara  TO  avro,  Metaph.  F  3,  1005  b  19).  It  takes  no 
account  of  the  truth  of  either  proposition;  if  one  is  true,  the 
other  is  not;  one  of  the  two  must  be  true. 

Modern  logicians,  following  Leibnitz  and  Kant,  have  generally 
adopted  a  different  statement,  by  which  the  law  assumes  an 
essentially  different  meaning.  Their  formula  is  "A  is  not 
not-A  ";  in  other  words  it  is  impossible  to  predicate  of  a  thing 
a  quality  which  is  its  contradictory.  Unh'ke  Aristotle's  law 
this  law  deals  with  the  necessary  relation  between  subject  and 
predicate  in  a  single  judgment.  Whereas  Aristotle  states  that 
one  or  other  of  two  contradictory  propositions  must  be  false, 
the  Kantian  law  states  that  a  particular  kind  of  proposition  is 
in  itself  necessarily  false.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  a  real 
connexion  between  the  two  laws.  The  denial  of  the  statement 
"  A  is  not-A  "  presupposes  some  knowledge  of  what  A  is,  i.e. 
the  statement  A  is  A.  In  other  words  a  judgment  about  A  is 
implied.  Kant's  analytical  propositions  depend  on  presupposed 
concepts  which  are  the  same  for  all  people.  His  statement, 
regarded  as  a  logical  principle  purely  and  apart  from  material 
facts,  does  not  therefore  amount  to  more  than  that  of  Aristotle, 
which  deals  simply  with  the  significance  of  negation. 

See  text-books  of  Logic,  e.g.  C.  Sigwart's  Logic  (trans.  Helen 
Dendy,  London,  1895),  vol.  i.  pp.  142  foil. ;  for  the  various  expressions 
of  the  law  see  Ueberweg's  Logik,  §  77;  also  J.  S.  Mill,  Examination 
of  Hamilton,  471 ;  Venn,  Empirical  Logic. 

CONTRAFAGOTTO,  DOUBLE  .BASSOON  or  CONTRABASSOON 
(Fr.  contrebasson;  Ger.  Kontrafagott),  a  wood-wind  instrument 
of  the  double  reed  family,  which  it  completes  as  grand  bass, 
the  other  members  being  the  oboe,  cor  anglais,  and  bassoon. 


CONTRALTO— CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS 


The  contrafagotto  corresponds  to  the  double  bass  in  strings, 
to  the  contrabass  tuba  in  the  brass  wind,  and  to  the  pedal 
clarinet  in  the  single  reed  wood  wind. 

There  are  at  the  present  day  three  distinct  makes  of  contra- 
fagotto.    (i)  The  modern  German  (fig.  i)  is  founded  on  the 

older  models,  resembling 
the  bassoon,  the  best- 
known  being  Heckel's  of 
Biebrich-am-Rhein,  used 
at  Bayreuth  and  in  many 
German  orchestras.  In 
this  model  the  character- 
istics of  the  bassoon  are 
preserved,  and  the  tone 
is  of  true  fagotto  quality 
extended  in  its  lower 
register.  The  Heckel  con- 
trafagotto consists  of  a 
wooden  tube  16  ft.  4  in. 
long  with  a  conical  bore, 
and  doubled  back  four 
times  upon  itself  to  make 
it  less  unwieldy.  It  is 
thus  about  the  same 
length  as  the  bassoon  and 
terminates  in  a  bell  4  in. 
in  diameter  pointing 
downwards.  The  crook 
consists  of  a  small  brass 
tube  about  2  ft.  long, 
having  avery  narrow  bore , 
to  which  is  bound  the 
double-reed  mouthpiece. 
(2)  The  modern  English 
double  bassoon  is  one 
designed  by  Dr  W.  H. 
Stone,  and  made  under 
his  superintendence  by 
Haseneier  of  Coblenz.  It 

From  Capt.  C.  R.  Day's  ls  stated  that  instruments 
Cat.  of   MUS,   inst.  by  of  this  pattern  are  less 

permission      of     Fyre    &  f   ..      •          .     •  11  ., 

Spottiswoode.  fatiguing   to   blow   than 


FIG.  I. — Contra- 
fagotto, German 
model  (Wilhelm 
Heckel). 


FIG.    2. — Contra-  those  resembling  the  bas- 
fagotto,    Haseneier-  soon.     The  bore  is  truly 
conical,  starting  with  a 

diameter  of  J  in.  at  the  reed  and  ending  in  a  diameter  of 
4  in.  at  the  open  end  of  the  tube  which  points  upwards  and  has 
no  defined  bell,  being  merely  finished  with  a  rim.  Alfred  Morton, 
in  England,  has  constructed  double  bassoons  on  Dr  Stone's 
design  (fig.  2).  (3)  The  third  model  is  of  brass  and  consists  of 
a  conical  tube  of  wide  calibre  some  15  or  16  ft.  long,  curved 
round  four  times  upon  itself  and  having  a  brass  tuba  or  euphonium 
bell  which  points  upwards.  This  brass  model,  usually  known 
as  the  Belgian  or  French  (fig.  3),  was  really  of  Austrian  origin, 
having  been  first  introduced  by  Schollnast  of  Presburg  about 
1839.  B.  F.  Czerveny  of  Koniggratz  and  Victor  Mahillon  of 
Brussels  both  appear  to  have  followed  up  this  idea  independently; 
the  former  producing  a  metal  contrafagotto  in  Eb  in  1856  and  one 
in  E\>  which  he  called  sub-contrafagotto  in  1867,  while  Mahillon's 
was  ready  in  1868.  In  the  brass  contrafagotto  the  lateral  holes 
are  pierced  at  theoretically  correct  intervals  along  the  bore,  and 
have  a  diameter  almost  equal  to  the  section  of  the  bore  at  the 
point  where  the  hole  is  pierced.  The  octave  harmonic  only  is 
obtainable  on  this  instrument  owing  to  the  great  length  of  the 
bore  and  its  large  calibre.  There  are  therefore  two  octave  keys 


which  give  a  chromatic  compass 


-*    8va.  ba«a. 

The  modern  wooden  contrafagotto  has  a  pitch  one  octave 
below  that  of  the  bassoon  and  three  below  that  of  the  oboe;  its 
compass  extending  from  16  ft.  C.  to  middle  C.  The  harmonics 
of  the  octave  in  the  middle  register  and  of  the  1 2th  in  the  upper 


register  are  obtained  by  skilful  manipulation  of  the  reed  with 
the  lips  and  increased  pressure  of  the  breath.  The  notes  of  both 
extremes  are  difficult  to  produce. 

Although  the  double  bassoon  is  not  a  transposing  instrument 
the  music  for  it  is  written  an  octave  higher  than  the  real  sounds 


Back.  Front. 

FIG.  3. — The  French  or  Belgian  Contrafagotto. 

in  order  to  avoid  the  ledger  lines.  The  quality  of  tone  is  some- 
what rough  and  rattling  in  the  lowest  register,  the  volume  of 
sound  not  being  quite  adequate  considering  the  depth  of  the  pitch. 
In  the  middle  and  upper  registers  the  tone  of  the  wooden  contra- 
fagotto possesses  all  the  characteristics  of  the  bassoon.  The 
contrafagotto  has  a  complete  chromatic  compass,  and  it  may 
therefore  be  played  in  any  key.  Quick  passages  are  avoided 
since  they  would  be  neither  easy  nor  effective,  the  instrument 
being  essentially  a  slow-speaking  one.  The  lowest  notes  are  only 
possible  to  a  good  player,  and  cannot  be  obtained  piano;  never- 
theless, the  instrument  forms  a  fine  bass  to  the  reed  family,  and 
supplies  in  the  orchestra  the  notes  missing  in  the  double  bass 
in  order  to  reach  16  ft.  C. 

The  origin  of  the  contrafagotto,  like  that  of  the  oboe  (?.».)  must  be 
sought  in  the  highest  antiquity  (seeAuLOs).  Its  immediate  forerunner 
was  the  double  bombard  or  bombardino  or  the  great  double  quint- 

<§= 
pommer  whose  compass  extended  downwards  to  E 

It  is  not  known  precisely  when  the  change  took  place,  though  it  was 
probably  soon  after  the  transformation  of  the  bassoon,  but  Handel 
scored  for  the  instrument  and  it  was  used  in  military  bands  before 
being  adopted  in  the  orchestra.  The  original  instrument  made  for 
Handel  by  T.  Stanesby,  junior,  and  played  by  J.  F.  Lampc  at  the 
Marylebone  Gardens',in  1739,  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Military 
Exhibition,  London,  in  1890.  Owing  to  its  faulty  construction  and 
weak  rattling  tone  the  double  bassoon  fell  into  disuse,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  great  composers  Haydn,  Mozart  and  Beethoven  scored 
for  it  abundantly;  the  last  used  it  in  the  C  minor  and  choral  sym- 
phonies and  wrote  an  obblieato  for  it  in  Fidelia.  It  was  restored  to 
favour  in  England  by  Dr  W.  H.  Stone.  (K.  S.) 

CONTRALTO  (from  Ital.  contra-alto,  i.e.  next  above  the  alto), 
the  term  for  the  lowest  variety  of  the  female  voice,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  soprano  and  mezzo-soprano.  Originally 
it  signified,  in  choral  music,  the  part  next  higher  than  the  alto, 
given  to  the  falsetto  counter-tenor. 

CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS,  in  Music.  The  forms  of  music 
may  be  considered  in  two  aspects,  the  texture  of  the  music  from 
moment  to  moment,  and  the  shape  of  the  musical  design  as  a 
whole.  Historically  the  texture  of  music  became  definitely 


CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS 


organized  long  before  the  shape  could  be  determined  by  any 
but  external  or  mechanical  conceptions.  The  laws  of  musical 
texture  were  known  as  the  laws  of "  counterpoint  "  (see  COUNTER- 
POINT and  HARMONY).  The  "  contrapuntal "  forms,  then, 
are  historically  the  earliest  and  aesthetically  the  simplest  in 
music;  the  simplest,  that  is  to  say,  in  principle,  but  not  neces- 
sarily the  easiest  to  appreciate  or  to  execute.  Their  simplicity 
is  like  that  of  mathematics,  the  simplicity  of  the  elements 
involved;  but  the  intricacy  of  their  details  and  the  subtlety 
of  their  expression  may  easily  pass  the  limits  of  popularity, 
while  art  of  a  much  more  complex  nature  may  masquerade  in 
popular  guise;  just  as  mathematical  science  is  seldom  popular- 
ized, while  biology  masquerades  in  infant  schools  as  "  natural 
history."  Fere,  however,  the  resemblance  between  counterpoint 
and  mathematics  ends,  for  the  simplicity  of  genuine  contrapuntal 
style  is  a  simplicity  of  emotion  as  well  as  of  principle;  and  if 
the  style  has  a  popular  reputation  of  being  severe  and  abstruse, 
this  is  largely  because  the  popular  conception  of  emotion  is 
conventional  and  dependent  upon  an  excessive  amount  of 
external  nervous  stimulus. 

i.  Canonic  Forms  and  Devices. 

In  the  canonic  forms,  the  earliest  known  in  music  as  an  inde- 
pendent art,  the  laws  of  texture  also  determine  the  shape  of  the 
whole,  so  that  it  is  impossible,  except  in  the  light  of  historical 
knowledge,  to  say  which  is  prior  to  the  other.  The  principle 
of  canon  being  that  one  voice  shall  reproduce  the  material  of 
another  note  for  note,  it  follows  that  in  a  composition  where 
all  parts  are  canonic  and  where  the  material  of  the  leading  part 
consists  of  a  pre-determined  melody,  such  as  a  Gregorian  chant 
or  a  popular  song,  there  remains  no  room  for  further  considera- 
tion of  the  shape  of  the  work.  Hence,  quite  apart  from  their 
expressive  power  and  their  value  in  teaching  composers  to  attain 
harmonic  fluency  under  difficulties,  the  canonic  forms  played 
the  leading  part  in  the  music  of  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries; 
nor  indeed  have  they  since  fallen  into  neglect  without  grave 
injury  to  the  art.  But  strict  canon  soon  proved  inadequate, 
and  even  dangerous,  as  the  sole  regulating  principle  in  music; 
and  its  rival  and  cognate  principle,  the  basing  of  polyphonic 
designs  upon  a  given  melody  to  which  one  part  (generally  the 
tenor)  was  confined,  proved  scarcely  less  so.  Nor  were  these 
two  principles,  the  canon  and  the  canto  fermo,  likely,  by  com- 
bination in  their  strictest  forms,  to  produce  better  artistic 
results  than  separately.  Both  were  rigid  and  mechanical 
principles;  and  their  development  into  real  artistic  devices 
was  due,  not  to  a  mere  increase  in  the  facility  of  their  use,  but 
to  the  fact  that,  just  as  the  researches  of  alchemists  led  to  the 
foundations  of  chemistry,  so  did  the  early  musical  puzzles  lead 
to  the  discovery  of  innumerable  harmonic  and  melodic  resources 
which  have  that  variety  and  freedom  of  interaction  which  can 
be  organized  into  true  works  of  art  and  can  give  the  ancient 
mechanical  devices  themselves  a  genuine  artistic  character 
attainable  by  no  other  means. 

The  earliest  canonic  form  is  the  rondel  or  rota  as  practised 
in  the  izth  century.  It  is,  however,  canonic  by  accident  rather 
than  in  its  original  intention.  It  consists  of  a  combination  of 
short  melodies  in  several  voices,  each  melody  being  sung  by 
each  voice  in  turn.  Now  it  is  obvious  that  if  one  voice  began 
alone,  instead  of  all  together,  and  if  when  it  went  on  to  the 
second  melody  the  second  voice  entered  with  the  first,  and  so  on, 
the  result  would  be  a  canon  in  the  unison.  Thus  the  difference 
between  the  crude  counterpoint  of  the  rondel  and  a  strict  canon 
in  the  unison  is  a  mere  question  of  the  point  at  which  the  com- 
position begins,  and  a  i2th  century  rondel  is  simply  a  canon  at 
the  unison  begun  at  the  point  where  all  the  voices  have  already 
entered.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  one  kind  of  rondeau 
practised  by  Adam  de  la  Hale  was  intended  to  be  sung  in  the 
true  canonic  manner  of  the  modern  round;  and  the  wonderful 
English  rota,  "  Sumer  is  icumen  in,"  shows  in  the  upper  four 
parts  the  true  canonic  method,  and  in  its  two-part  pes  the 
method  in  which  the  parts  began  together.  In  these  archaic 
works  the  canonic  form  gives  the  whole  a  consistency  and  stability 


contrasting  oddly  with  the  dismal  warfare  between  nascent 
harmonic  principles  and  ancient  anti-harmonic  criteria  which 
hopelessly  wrecks  them  as  regards  euphony.  As  soon  as  harmony 
became  established  on  a  true  artistic  basis,  the  unaccompanied 
round  took  the  position  of  a  trivial  but  refined  art-form,  with 
hardly  more  expressive  possibilities  than  the  triolet  in  poetry,  a 
form  to  which  its  brevity  and  lightness  renders  it  fairly  compar- 
able. Orlando  di  Lasso's  Celebrons  sans  cesse  is  a  beautiful 
example  of  the  i6th  century  round,  which  was  at  that  time 
little  cultivated  by  serious  musicians.  In  more  modern  times 
the  possibilities  of  the  round  in  its  purest  form  have  enormously 
increased;  and  with  the  aid  of  elaborate  instrumental  accom- 
paniments it  plays  an  important  feature  in  such  portions  of 
classical  operatic  ensemble  as  can  with  dramatic  propriety  be 
devoted  to  expressions  of  feeling  uninterrupted  by  dramatic 
action.  In  the  modern  round  the  first  voice  can  execute  a  long 
and  complete  melody  before  the  second  voice  joins  in.  Even  if 
this  melody  be  not  instrumentally  accompanied,  it  will  imply 
a  certain  harmony,  or  at  all  events  arouse  curiosity  as  to  what 
the  harmony  is  to  be.  And  the  sequel  may  shed  a  new  light 
upon  the  harmony,  and  thus  by  degrees  the  whole  character 
of  the  melody  may  be  transformed.  The  power  of  the  modern 
round  for  humorous  and  subtle,  or  even  profound,  expression 
was  first  fully  revealed  by  Mozart,  whose  astounding  unaccom- 
panied canons  would  be  better  known  if  he  had  not  unfortunately 
set  many  of  them  to  extemporized  texts  unfit  for  publication. 
The  round  or  the  catch  (which  is  simply  a  specially  jocose  round) 
is  a  favourite  English  art-form,  and  the  English  specimens  of 
it  are  probably  more  numerous  and  uniformly  successful  than 
those  of  any  other  nation.  Still  they  cannot  honestly  be  said 
to  realize  the  full  possibilities  of  the  form.  It  is  so  easy  to  write 
a  good  piece  of  free  and  fairly  contrapuntal  harmony  in  three  or 
more  parts,  and  so  arrange  it  that  it  remains  correct  when  the 
parts  are  brought  in  one  by  one,  that  very  few  composers  seem 
to  have  realized  that  any  further  artistic  device  was  possible 
within  such  limits.  Even  Cherubini  gives  hardly  more  than  a 
valuable  hint  that  the  round  may  be  more  than  a  jeu  d' esprit; 
and,  unless  he  be  an  adequate  exception,  the  unaccompanied 
rounds  of  Mozart  and  Brahms  stand  alone  as  works  that  raise 
the  round  to  the  dignity  of  a  serious  art-form.  With  the  addition 
of  an  orchestral  accompaniment  the  round  obviously  becomes 
a  larger  thing;  and  when  we  consider  such  specimens  as  that 
in  the  finale  of  Mozart's  Cosi  fan  tutte,  the  quartet  in  the  last 
act  of  Cherubini's  Faniska,  the  wonderfully  subtle  quartet 
"  Mir  ist  so  wunderbar  "  in  Beethoven's  Fidelia,  and  the  very 
beautiful  numbers  in  Schubert's  masses  where  Schubert  finds 
expression  for  his  genuine  contrapuntal  feeling  without  incurring 
the  risks  resulting  from  his  lack  of  training  in  fugue-form,  we 
find  that  the  length  of  the  initial  melody,  the  growing  variety 
of  the  orchestral  accompaniment  and  the  finality  and  climax 
of  the  free  coda,  combine  to  give  the  whole  a  character  closely 
analogous  to  that  of  a  set  of  contrapuntal  variations,  such  as 
the  slow  movement  of  Haydn's  "  Emperor  "  string  quartet,  or 
the  opening  of  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  pth  Symphony.  Berlioz 
is  fond  of  beginning  his  largest  movements  like  a  kind  of  round; 
e.g.  his  Dies  Irae,  and  Scene  aux  Champs. 

A  moment's  reflection  will  show  that  three  conditions  are 
necessary  to  make  a  canon  into  a  round.  First,  the  voices 
must  imitate  each  other  in  the  unison;  secondly,  they  must 
enter  at  equal  intervals  of  time;  and  thirdly,  the  whole  melodic 
material  must  be  as  many  times  longer  than  the  interval  of  time 
as  the  number  of  voices;  otherwise,  when  the  last  voice  has 
finished  the  first  phrase,  the  first  voice  will  not  be  ready  to  return 
to  the  beginning.  Strict  canon  is,  however,  possible  under 
innumerable  other  conditions,  and  even  a  round  is  possible  with 
some  of  the  voices  at  the  interval  of  an  octave,  as  is  of  course 
inevitable  in  writing  for  unequal  voices.  And  in  a  round  for 
unequal  voices  there  is  obviously  a  new  means  of  effect  in  the 
fact  that,  as  the  melody  rotates,  its- different  parts  change 
their  pitch  in  relation  to  each  other.  The  art  by  which  this  is 
possible  without  incorrectness  is  that  of  double,  triple  and 
multiple  counterpoint  (see  COUNTERPOINT).  Its  difficulty  is 


CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS 


43 


variable,  and  with  an  instrumental  accompaniment  there  is 
none.  In  fugues,  multiple  counterpoint  is  one  of  the  normal 
resources  of  music;  and  few  devices  are  more  self-explanatory 
to  the  ear  than  the  process  by  which  the  subject  and  counter- 
subjects  of  a  fugue  change  their  positions,  revealing  fresh  melodic 
and  acoustic  aspects  of  identical  harmonic  structure  at  every 
turn.  This,  however,  is  rendered  possible  and  interesting  by 
the  fact  that  the  passages  in  such  counterpoint  are  separated 
by  episodes  and  are  free  to  appear  in  different  keys.  Many 
fugues  of  Bach  are  written  throughout  in  multiple  counterpoint; 
but  the  possibility  of  this,  even  to  composers  such  as  Bach  and 
Mozart,  to  whom  difficulties  seem  unknown,  depends  upon  the 
freedom  of  the  musical  design  which  allows  the  composer  to 
select  the  most  effective  permutations  and  combinations  of  his 
counterpoint,  and  also  to  put  them  into  whatever  key  he  chooses. 
An  unaccompanied  round  for  unequal  voices  would  bring  about 
the  permutations  and  combinations  in  a  mechanical  order; 
and  unless  the  melody  were  restricted  to  a  compass  common  to 
soprano  and  alto  each  alternate  revolution  would  carry  it  beyond 
the  bounds  of  one  or  the  other  group  of  voices.  The  technical 
difficulties  of  such  a  problem  are  destructive  to  artistic  invention. 
But  they  do  not  appear  in  the  above-mentioned  operatic  rounds, 
though  these  are  for  unequal  voices,  because  here  the  length  of 
the  initial  melody  is  so  great  that  the  composition  is  quite  long 
enough  before  the  last  voice  has  got  farther  than  the  first  or 
second  phrase,  and,  moreover,  the  free  instrumental  accompani- 
ment is  capable  of  furnishing  a  bass  to  a  mass  of  harmony 
otherwise  incomplete. 

The  resources  of  canon,  when  emancipated  from  the  principles 
of  the  round,  are  considerable  when  the  canonic  form  is  strictly 
maintained,  and  are  inexhaustible  when  it  is  treated  freely.  A 
canon  need  not  be  in  the  unison;  and  when  it  is  in  some  other 
interval  the  imitating  voice  alters  the  expression  of  the  melody 
by  transferring  it  to  another  part  of  the  scale.  Again,  the 
imitating  voice  may  follow  the  leader  at  any  distance  of  time; 
and  thus  we  have  obviously  a  definite  means  of  expression  in 
the  difference  of  closeness  with  which  various  canonic  parts  may 
enter,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  stretto  of  a  fugue.  Again,  if  the 
answering  part  enters  on  an  unaccented  beat  where  the  leader 
began  on  the  accent,  there  will  be  artistic  value  in  the  resulting 
difference  of  rhythmic  expression.  This  is  the  device  known 
as  per  arsin  et  thesin.  All  these  devices  are,  in  skilful  hands, 
quite  definite  in  their  effect  upon  the  ear,  and  their  expressive 
power  is  undoubtedly  due  to  their  special  canonic  nature.  The 
beauty  of  the  pleading,  rising  sequences  in  crossing  parts  that 
we  find  in  the  canon  in  the  2nd  at  the  opening  of  the  Recordare 
in  Mozart's  Requiem  is  attainable  by  no  other  technical  means. 
The  close  canon  in  the  6th  at  the  distance  of  one  minim  in  re- 
versed accent  in  Bach's  eighteenth  Goldberg  variation  owes  all 
its  smooth  harmonic  expression  to  the  fact  that  the  two  canonic 
parts  move  in  sixths  which  would  be  simultaneous  but  for  the 
pause  of  the  minim  which  reverses  the  accents  of  the  upper 
part  while  it  creates  that  chain  of  suspended  discords  which 
give  harmonic  variety  to  the  whole. 

Two  other  canonic  devices  have  important  artistic  value, 
namely,  augmentation  and  diminution  (two  different  aspects  of 
the  same  thing)  and  inversion.  In  augmentation  the  imitating 
part  sings  twice  as  slow  as  the  leader,  or  sometimes  still  slower. 
This  obviously  should  impart  a  new  dignity  to  the  melody,  and 
in  diminution  the  expression  is  generally  that  of  an  accession 
of  liveliness.1  Neither  of  these  devices,  however,  continues  to 
appeal  to  the  ear  if  carried  on  for  long.  In  augmentation  the 
answering  part  lags  so  far  behind  the  leader  that  the  ear  cannot 
long  follow  the  connexion,  while  a  diminished  answer  will 
obviously  soon  overtake  the  leader,  and  can  proceed  on  the 
same  plan  only  by  itself  becoming  the  leader  of  a  canon  in 
augmentation.  Beethoven,  in  the  fugues  in  his  sonatas  op.  106 
and  no,  adapted  augmentation  and  diminution  to  modern 
varieties  of  thematic  expression,  by  employing  them  in  triple 

1  But  see  the  E.  major  fugue  in  the  second  book  of  the  WoM- 
temperirtes  Klavier,  where  the  entry  of  the  diminished  subject  (in 
a  new  position  of  the  scale)  is  very  tender  and  solemn. 


time,  so  that,  by  doubling  the  length  of  the  original  notes  across 
this  triple  rhythm,  they  produce  an  entirely  new  rhythmic 
expression.  This  does  not  seem  to  have  been  applied  by  any 
earlier  composer  with  the  same  consistency  or  intention. 

The  device  of  inversion  consists  in  the  imitating  part  reversing 
every  interval  of  the  leader,  ascending  where  the  leader  descends 
and  vice  versa.  Its  expressive  power  depends  upon  such  subtle 
matters  of  the  harmonic  expression  of  melody  that  its  artistic 
use  is  one  of  the  surest  signs  of  the  difference  between  classical 
and  merely  academic  music.  There  are  many  melodies  of  which 
the  inversion  is  as  natural  as  the  original  form,  and  does  not 
strikingly  alter  its  character.  Such  are,  for  instance,  the  theme 
of  Bach's  Kunst  der  Fuge,  most  of  Purcell's  contrapuntal  themes, 
the  theme  in  the  fugue  of  Beethoven's  sonata,  op.  no,  and  the 
eighth  of  Brahms's  variations  on  a  theme  by  Haydn.  In  such 
cases  inversion  sometimes  produces  harmonic  variety  as  well 
as  a  sense  of  melodic  identity  in  difference.  But  where  a  melody 
has  marked  features  of  rise  and  fall,  such  as  long  scale  passages 
or  bold  skips,  the  inversion,  if  productive  of  good  harmonic 
structure  and  expression,  may  be  a  powerful  method  of  trans- 
formation. This  is  admirably  shown  in  the  twelfth  of  Bach's 
Goldberg  Variations,  in  the  fifteenth  fugue  of  the  first  book  of 
his  Forty-eight  Preludes  and  Fugues,  in  the  finale  of  Beethoven's 
sonata,  op.  106,  and  in  the  second  subjects  of  the  first  and  last 
movements  of  Brahms's  clarinet  trio. 

The  only  remaining  canonic  device  which  figures  in  classical 
music  is  that  known  as  cancrizans,  in  which  the  imitating  part 
reproduces  the  leader  backwards.  It  is  of  extreme  rarity  in 
serious  music;  and,  though  it  sometimes  happens  by  accident 
that  a  melody  or  figure  of  uniform  rhythm  will  produce  something 
equally  natural  when  read  backwards,  there  is  only  one  example 
of  its  use  that  appeals  to  the  ear  as  well  as  the  eye.  This  is  to 
be  found  in  the  finale  of  Beethoven's  sonata,  op.  106,  where  it  is 
applied  to  a  theme  with  such  sharply  contrasted  rhythmic  and 
melodic  features  that  with  long  familiarity  a  listener  would 
probably  feel  not  only  the  wayward  humour  of  the  passage  in 
itself,  but  also  its  connexion  with  the  main  theme.  Nevertheless, 
the  prominence  given  to  the  device  in  technical  treatises,  and  the 
fact  that  this  is  the  one  illustration  which  hardly  any  of  them 
cite,  show  too  clearly  the  way  in  which  music  is  treated  not  only 
as  a  dead  language  but  as  if  it  had  never  been  alive. 

All  these  devices  are  also  independent  of  the  canonic  idea, 
since  they  are  so  many  methods  of  transforming  themes 
in  themselves  and  need  not  always  be  used  in  contrapuntal 
combination. 

2.    Fugue. 

As  the  composers  of  the  i6th  century  made  progress  in  har- 
monic and  contrapuntal  expression  through  the  discipline  of 
strict  canonic  forms,  it  became  increasingly  evident  that  there 
was  no  necessity  for  the  maintenance  of  strict  canon  throughout 
a  composition.  On  the  contrary,  the  very  variety  of  canonic 
possibilities,  apart  from  the  artistic  necessity  of  breaking  up  the 
uniform  fulness  of  harmony,  suggested  the  desirability  of  changing 
one  kind  of  canon  for  another,  and  even  of  contrasting  canonic 
texture  with  that  of  plain  masses  of  non-polyphonic  harmony. 
The  result  is  best  known  in  the  polyphonic  16th-century  motets. 
In  these  the  essentials  of  canonic  effect  are  embodied  in  the  entry 
of  one  voice  after  another  with  a  definite  theme  stated  by  each 
voice  in  that  part  of  the  scale  which  best  suits  its  compass,  thus 
producing  a  free  canon  for  as  many  parts  as  there  are  voices, 
in  alternate  intervals  of  the  4th,  5th  and  octave,  and  at  such 
distances  of  time  as  are  conducive  to  clearness  and  variety  of 
proportion.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  later  voices  to  imitate 
more  than  the  opening  phrase  of  the  earlier,  or,  if  they  do 
imitate  its  continuation,  to  keep  to  the  same  interval. 

Such  a  texture  differs  in  no  way  from  that  of  the  fugue  of  more 
modern  times.  But  the  form  is  not  what  is  now  understood  as 
fugue,  inasmuch  as  16th-century  composers  did  not  normally 
think  of  writing  long  movements  on  one  theme  or  of  making  a 
point  of  the  return  of  a  theme  after  episodes.  With  the  appear- 
ance of  new  words  in  the  text,  the  16th-century  composer 


44 


CONTRAPUNTAL  FORMS 


naturally  took  up  a  new  theme  without  troubling  to  design  it  for 
contrapuntal  combination  with  the  opening;  and  the  form 
resulting  from  this  treatment  of  words  was  faithfully  reproduced 
in  the  instrumental  ricercari  of  the  time.  Occasionally,  however, 
breadth  of  treatment  and  terseness  of  design  combined  to  produce 
a  short  movement  on  one  idea  indistinguishable  in  form  from  a 
fughetta  of  Bach;  as  in  the  Kyrie  of  Palestrina's  Mass,  Salve 
Regina. 

But  in  Bach's  art  the  preservation  of  a  main  theme  is  more 
necessary  the  longer  the  composition;  and  Bach  has  an  incalcul- 
able number  of  methods  of  giving  his  fugues  a  symmetry  of  form 
and  balance  of  climax  so  subtle  and  perfect  that  we  are  apt  to 
forget  that  the  only  technical  rules  of  a  fugue  are  those  which 
refer  to  its  texture.  In  the  Kunst  der  Fuge  Bach  has  shown  with 
the  utmost  clearness  how  hi  his  opinion  the  various  types  of 
fugue  may  be  classified.  That  extraordinary  work  is  a  series  of 
fugues,  all  on  the  same  subject.  The  earlier  fugues  show  how 
an  artistic  design  may  be  made  by  simply  passing  the  subject 
from  one  voice  to  another  in  orderly  succession  (in  the  first  ex- 
ample without  any  change  of  key  except  from  tonic  to  dominant). 
The  next  stage  of  organization  is  that  in  which  the  subject  is 
combined  with  inversions,  augmentations  and  diminutions  of 
itself.  Fugues  of  this  kind  can  be  conveniently  called  stretto- 
fugues.1  The  third  and  highest  stage  is  that  in  which  the  fugue 
combines  its  subject  with  contrasted  counter-subjects,  and  thus 
depends  upon  the  resources  of  double,  triple  and  quadruple 
counterpoint.  But  of  the  art  by  which  the  episodes  are  con- 
trasted, connected  climaxes  attained,  and  keys  and  subtle 
rhythmic  proportions  so  balanced  as  to  give  the  true  fugue- 
forms  a  beauty  and  stability  second  only  to  those  of  the  true 
sonata  forms,  Bach's  classification  gives  us  no  direct  hint.  A 
comparison  of  the  fugues  in  the  Kunst  der  Fuge  with  those  else- 
where in  his  works  reveals  a  necessary  relation  between  the  nature 
of  the  fugue-subject  and  the  type  of  fugue.  In  the  Kunst  der  Fuge 
Bach  has  obvious  didactic  reasons  for  taking  the  same  subject 
throughout;  and,  as  he  wishes  to  show  the  extremes  of  technical 
possibility,  that  subject  must  necessarily  be  plastic  rather  than 
characteristic.  Elsewhere  Bach  prefers  very  lively  or  highly 
characteristic  themes  as  subjects  for  the  simplest  kind  of  instru- 
mental fugue.  On  the  other  hand,  there  comes  a  point  when  the 
mechanical  strictness  of  treatment  crowds  out  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  musical  ideas;  and  the  7th  fugue  (which  is  one  solid  mass 
of  stretto  in  augmentation,  diminution  and  inversion)  and  the 
1 2th  and  i3th  (which  are  invertible  bodily)  are  academic  exercises 
outside  the  range  of  free  artistic  work.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  less  complicated  stretto-fugues  and  the  fugues  in  double 
and  triple  counterpoint  are  perfect  works  of  art  and  as  beautiful  as 
any  that  Bach  wrote  without  didactic  purpose. 

Fugue  is  still,  as  in  the  i6th  century,  a  texture  rather 
than  a  form;  and  the  rules  given  in  most  technical  treatises 
for  its  general  shape  are  based,  not  on  the  practice  of  the 
great  composers,  but  on  the  necessities  of  beginners,  whom 
it  would  be  as  absurd  to  ask  to  write  a  fugue  without  giving 
them  a  form  as  to  ask  a  schoolboy  to  write  so  many  pages  of 
Latin  verses  without  a  subject.  But  this  standard  form,  what- 
ever its  merits  may  be  in  combining  progressive  technique  with 
musical  sense,  has  no  connexion  with  the  true  classical  types  of 
fugue,  though  it  played  an  interesting  part  in  the  renaissance 
of  polyphony  during  the  growth  of  the  sonata  style,  and  even  gave 
rise  to  valuable  works  of  art  (e.g.  the  fugues  in  Haydn's  quartets, 
op.  20).  One  of  its  rules  was  that  every  fugue  should  have  a 
stretto.  This  rule,  like  most  of  the  others,  is  absolutely  without 
classical  warrant;  for  in  Bach  the  ideas  of  stretto  and  of  counter- 
subject  almost  exclude  one  another  except  in  the  very  largest 
fugues,  such  as  the  22nd  hi  the  second  book  of  the  Forty-eight; 
while  Handel's  fugue- writing  is  a  masterly  method,  adopted 
as  occasion  requires,  and  with  a  lordly  disdain  for  recognized 
devices.  But  the  pedagogic  rule  proved  to  be  not  without 
artistic  point  in  more  modern  music;  for  fugue  became,  since  the 
rise  of  the  sonata-form,  for  some  generations  a  contrast  with 
the  normal  means  of  expression  instead  of  being  itself  normal. 

1  For  technical  terms  see  articles  COUNTERPOINT  and  FUGUE. 


And  while  this  was  so,  there  was  considerable  point  in  using 
every  possible  means  to  enhance  the  rhetorical  force  of  its 
peculiar  devices,  as  is  shown  by  the  astonishing  modern  fugues 
in  Beethoven's  last  works.  Nowadays,  however,  polyphony  is 
universally  recognized  as  a  permanent  type  of  musical  texture, 
and  there  is  no  longer  any  reason  why  if  it  crystallizes  into  the 
fugue-form  at  all  it  should  not  adopt  the  classical  rather  than 
the  pedagogic  type. 

It  is  still  an  unsatisfied  wish  of  accurate  musicians  that  the  term 
fugue  should  be  used  to  imply  rather  a  certain  type  of  polyphonic 
texture  than  the  whole  form  of  a  composition.  At  present  one 
runs  the  risk  of  grotesque  misconceptions  when  one  quite  rightly 
describes  as  "  written  in  fugue  "  such  passages  as  the  first  subjects 
in  Mozart's  Zauberflote  overture,  the  andantes  of  Beethoven's 
first  symphony  and  C  minor  quartet,  or  the  first  and  second 
subjects  of  the  finale  of  Mozart's  G  major  quartet,  the  second 
subject  of  the  finale  of  his  D  major  quintet,  and  the  exposition 
of  quintuple  counterpoint  in  the  coda  of  the  finale  of  the  Jupiter 
Symphony,  and  countless  other  passages  in  the  developments  and 
main  subjects  of  classical  and  modern  works  in  sonata  form.  The 
ordinary  use  of  the  term  implies  an  adherence  to  a  definite  set 
of  rules  quite  incompatible  with  the  sonata  style,  and  therefore 
inapplicable  to  these  passages,  and  at  the  same  time  equally 
devoid  of  real  connexion  with  the  idea  of  fugue  as  understood 
by  the  great  masters  of  the  i6th  century  who  matured  it.  In. 
the  musical  articles  in  this  Encyclopaedia  we  shall  therefore 
speak  of  writing  "in  fugue"  as  we  would  speak  of  a  poet  writing 
in  verse,  rather  than  weaken  our  descriptions  by  the  orthodox 
epithet  of  "  loose  fugato." 

3.  Counterpoint  on  a  Canto  Fermo. 

The  early  practice  of  building  polyphonic  designs  on  a  voice- 
part  confined  to  a  given  plain-song  or  popular  melody  furnishes 
the  origin  for  every  contrapuntal  principle  that  is  not  canonic, 
and  soon  develops  into  a  canonic  principle  in  itself.  When  the 
canto  fermo  is  in  notes  of  equal  length  and  is  sung  without  inter- 
mission, it  is  of  course  as  rigid  a  mechanical  device  as  an  acrostic. 
Yet  it  may  have  artistic  value  in  furnishing  a  steady  rhythm 
in  contrast  to  suitable  free  motion  in  the  other  parts.  When  it 
is  in  the  bass,  as  in  Orlando  di  Lasso's  six-part  Regina  Coeli, 
it  is  apt  to  cramp  the  harmony;  but  when  it  is  in  the  tenor 
(its  normal  place  in  16th-century  music),  or  any  other  part,  it 
determines  little  but  the  length  of  the  composition.  It  may  or 
may  not  appeal  to  the  ear;  if  not,  it  at  least  does  no  harm,  for 
its  restricting  influence  on  the  harmony  is  small  if  its  pace  is 
slower  than  that  of  its  surroundings.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  its 
melody  is  characteristic,  or  can  be  enforced  by  repetition,  it 
may  become  a  powerful  means  of  effect,  as  in  the  splendid  close 
of  Fayrfax's  Mass  Albanus  quoted  by  Professor  Wooldridge 
on  page  320  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Oxford  History  of  Music. 
Here  the  tenor  part  ought  to  be  sung  by  a  body  of  voices  that 
can  be  distinctly  heard  through  the  glowing  superincumbent 
harmony;  and  then  the  effect  of  its  five  steps  of  sequence  in 
a  melodious  figure  of  nine  semibreves  will  reveal  itself  as  the 
principle  which  gives  the  passage  consistency  of  drift  and  finality 
of  climax. 

When  the  rhythm  of  the  canto  fermo  is  not  uniform,  or  when 
pauses  intervene  between  its  phrases,  whether  these  are  different 
figures  or  repetitions  of  one  figure  in  different  parts  of  the  scale, 
the  device  passes  into  the  region  of  free  art,  and  an  early  example 
of  its  simplest  use  is  described  in  the  article  Music  as  it  appears 
in  Josquin's  wonderful  Miserere.  Orlando  di  Lasso's  work  is 
full  of  instances  of  it,  one  of  the  most  dramatic  of  which  is  the 
motet  Fremuit  spiritu  Jesus  (Magnum  Opus  No.  553  [378]), 
in  which,  while  the  other  voices  sing  the  scripture  narrative 
of  the  death  and  raising  of  Lazarus,  the  tenor  is  heard  singing 
to  an  admirably  appropriate  theme  the  words,  Lazare,  veni 
foras.  When  the  end  of  the  narrative  is  reached,  these  words  fall 
into  their  place  and  are  of  course  taken  up  in  a  magnificent 
climax  by  the  whole  chorus. 

The  free  use  of  phrases  of  canto  fermo  in  contrapuntal  texture, 
whether  confined  to  one  part  or  taken  up  in  fugue  by  all, 


CONTREXEVILLE— CONVENTION 


45 


constitutes  the  whole  fabric  of  16th-century  music;  except  where 
polyphonic  device  is  dispensed  with  altogether,  as  in  Palestrina's 
two  settings  of  the  Slabat  Mater,  his  Litanies,  and  all  of  his  later 
Lamentations  except  the  initials.  A  16th-century  mass,  when 
it  is  not  derived  in  this  way  from  those  secular  melodies  to  which 
the  council  of  Trent  objected,  is  so  closely  connected  with 
Gregorian  tones,  or  at  least  with  the  themes  of  some  motet 
appropriate  to  the  holy  day  for  which  it  was  written,  that  in  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  service  the  polyphonic  music  of  the 
best  period  co-operates  with  the  Gregorian  intonations  to  produce 
a  consistent  musical  whole  with  a  thematic  coherence  almost 
suggestive  of  Wagnerian  Leitmotif.  In  later  times  the  Protestant 
music  of  Germany  attained  a  similar  consistency,  under  more 
complicated  musical  conditions,  by  the  use  of  chorale-tunes;  and 
in  Bach's  hands  the  fugal  and  other  treatment  of  chorale-melody 
is  one  of  the  most  varied  and  expressive  of  artistic  resources. 
It  seems  to  be  less  generally  known  that  the  chorale  plays  a 
considerable  though  not  systematic  part  in  Handel's  English 
works.  The  passage  "  the  kingdoms  of  the  world "  in  the 
"Hallelujah  Chorus"  (down  to  "and  He  shall  live  for  ever 
and  ever")  is  a  magnificent  development  of  the  second  part  of 
the  chorale  Wachet  auf  ("  Christians  wake,  a  voice  is  calling  "); 
and  it  would  be  easy  to  trace  a  German  or  Roman  origin  for  many 
of  the  solemn  phrases  in  long  notes  which  in  Handel's  choruses 
so  often  accompany  quicker  themes. 

From  the  use  of  an  old  canto  fermo  to  the  invention  of  an  original 
one  is  obviously  a  small  step;  and  as  there  is  no  limit  to  the 
possibilities  of  varying  the  canto  fermo,  both  in  the  part  which 
most  emphatically  propounds  it  and  in  the  imitating  or  contrasted 
parts,  so  there  is  no  line  of  demarcation  between  the  free  develop- 
ment of  counterpoint  on  a  canto  fermo  and  the  general  art  of 
combining  melodies  which  gives  harmony  its  deepest  expression 
and  musical  texture  its  liveliest  action.  Nor  is  there  any  such 
line  to  separate  polyphonic  from  non-polyphonic  methods  of 
accompanying  melody;  and  Bach's  Orgelbilchlein  and  Brahms's 
posthumous  organ-chorales  show  every  conceivable  gradation 
between  plain  harmony  or  arpeggio  and  the  most  complex  canon. 
In  Wagnerian  polyphony  canonic  devices  are  rare  except  in 
such  simple  moments  of  anticipation  or  of  communion  with 
nature  as  we  have  before  the  rise  of  the  curtain  in  the  Rheingold 
and  at  the  daybreak  in  the  second  act  of  the  Gotterdammerung. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  art  of  combining  contrasted  themes 
crowds  almost  every  other  kind  of  musical  texture  (except 
tremolos  and  similar  simple  means  of  emotional  expression) 
into  the  background,  and  is  itself  so  transformed  by  new  harmonic 
resources,  many  of  which  are  Wagner's  own  discovery,  that  it 
may  almost  be  said  to  constitute  a  new  form  of  art .  The  influence 
of  this  upon  instrumental  music  is  as  yet  helpful  only  in  those 
new  forms  which  are  breaking  away  from  the  limits  of  the  sonata 
style;  and  it  is  impossible  at  present  to  sift  the  essential  from 
the  unessential  in  that  marvellous  compound  of  canonic  device, 
Wagnerian  harmony,  original  technique  and  total  disregard  of 
every  known  principle  of  musical  grammar,  which  renders  the 
work  of  Richard  Strauss  the  most  remarkable  musical  pheno- 
menon of  recent  years.  All  that  is  certain  is  that  the  two 
elements  in  which  the  music  of  the  future  will  finally  place  its 
main  organizing  principles  are  not  those  of  instrumentation  and 
external  expression,  on  which  popular  interest  and  controversy 
are  at  present  centred, but  rhythmic  flow  and  counterpoint.  These 
have  always  been  the  elements  which  suffered  from  neglect  or 
anarchy  in  earlier  transition-periods,  and  they  have  always  been 
the  elements  that  gave  rationality  to  the  new  art  to  which  the 
transitions  led.  (D.  F.  T.) 

CONTREXEVILLE,  a  watering-place  of  north-eastern  France, 
in  the  department  of  Vosges,  on  the  Vair,  39  m.  W.  of  Epinal  by 
rail.  Pop.  (1006)  940.  The  mineral  springs  of  Contrexeville 
have  been  in  local  repute  since  a  remote  period,  but  became 
generally  known  only  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century;  and 
the  modern  reputation  of  the  place  p.s  a  health  resort  dates  from 
1864,  when  it  began  to  be  developed  by  a  company,  the  Societ6 
des  Eaux  de  Contrex6ville,  and  more  particularly  from  about 
1895.  In  the  ten  years  after  this  latter  date  many  improvements 


were  made  for  the  accommodation  of  visitors,  for  whom  the  season 
is  from  May  to  September.  The  waters  of  the  Source  Pavilion, 
which  are  used  chiefly  for  drinking,  have  a  temperature  of  53°  F. 
and  are  characterized  chiefly  by  the  presence  of  calcium  sulphate. 
They  are  particularly  efficacious  in  the  treatment  of  gravel  and 
kindred  disorders,  by  the  elimination  of  uric  acid. 

See  Thirty-five  years  at  Contrexeville  (1903),  by  Dr  Debout 
d'Estrees. 

CONTROL  (Fr.  conlrdle,  older  form  centre  rolle,  from  Med.  Lat. 
contra-rotulus,  a  counter  roll  or  copy  of  a  document  used  to  check 
the  original;  there  is  no  instance  in  English  of  the  use  of  "con- 
trol "  in  this,  its  literal,  meaning) ,  a  substantive  (whence  the  verb) 
for  that  which  checks  or  regulates  anything,  and  so  especially 
command  of  body  or  mind  by  the  will,  and  generally  the  power 
of  regulation.  In  England  the  "  Board  of  Control,"  abolished 
in  1858,  was  the  body  which  supervised  the  East  India  Company 
in  the  administration  of  India.  In  the  case  of  "  controller," 
a  general  term  for  a  public  official  who  checks  expenditure,  the 
more  usual  form  "  comptroller "  is  a  wrong  spelling  due  to  a 
false  connexion  with  " accompt "  or  " account."  A  "control" 
or  "  control-experiment,"  in  science,  is  an  experiment  used,  by 
an  application  of  the  method  of  difference,  to  check  the  inferences 
drawn  from  another  experiment. 

CONTUMACY  (Lat.  contumacia,  obstinacy;  derived  from  the 
root  tern-,  as  in  temnere,  to  despise,  or  possibly  from  the  root 
turn-,  as  in  tumere,  to  swell,  with  anger,  &c.),  a  stubborn  refusal 
to  obey  authority,  obstinate  resistance;  particularly,  in  law, 
the  wilful  contempt  of  the  order  or  summons  of  a  court  (see 
CONTEMPT  or  COURT).  In  ecclesiastical  law,  the  contempt  of 
the  authority  of  an  ecclesiastical  court  is  dealt  with  by  the 
issue  of  a  writ  de  contumace  capiendo  from  the  court  of  chancery 
at  the  instance  of  the  judge  of  the  ecclesiastical  court;  this  writ 
took  the  place  of  that  de  excommunicate  capiendo  in  1813,  by  an 
act  of  George  III.  c.  127  (see  EXCOMMUNICATION). 

CONUNDRUM  (a  word  of  unknown  origin,  probably  coined 
in  burlesque  imitation  of  scholastic  Latin,  as  "  hocus-pocus  " 
or  "panjandrum"),  originally  a  term  meaning  whim,  fancy  or 
ridiculous  idea;  later  applied  to  a  pun  or  play  upon  words,  and 
thus,  in  its  usual  sense,  to  a  particular  form  of  riddle  in  which 
the  answer  depends  on  a  pun.  In  a  transferred  sense  the  word 
is  also  used  of  any  puzzling  question  or  difficulty. 

CONVENT  (Lat.  comientus,  from  convenire,  to  come  together), 
a  term  applied  to  an  association  of  persons  secluded  from  the 
world  and  devoted  to  a  religious  life,  and  hence  to  the  building 
in  which  they  live,  a  monastery  or  (more  particularly)  nunnery. 
The  diminution  "conventicle"  (comienliculum) ,  generally  used 
in  a  contemptuous  sense  as  implying  sectarianism,  secrecy  or 
illegality,  is  applied  to  the  meetings  or  meeting-places  of  religious 
or  other  dissenting  bodies. 

CONVENTION  (Lat.  conventio,  an  assembly  or  agreement, 
from  convenire,  to  come  together),  a  meeting  or  assembly;  an 
agreement  between  parties;  a  general  agreement  on  which  is 
based  some  custom,  institution,  rule  of  behaviour  or  taste,  or 
canon  of  art;  hence  extended  to  the  abuse  of  such  an  agreement, 
whereby  the  rules  based  upon  it  become  lifeless  and  artificial. 
The  word  is  of  some  interest  historically  and  politically.  It  is 
used  of  an  assembly  of  the  representatives  of  a.  nation,  state  or 
party,  and  is  particularly  contrasted  with  the  formal  meetings 
of  a  legislature.  It  is  thus  applied  to  those  parliaments  in  English 
history  which,  owing  to  the  abeyance  of  the  crown,  have  as- 
sembled without  the  formal  summons  of  the  sovereign;  in  1660 
a  convention  parliament  restored  Charles  II.  to  the  throne, 
and  in  1689  the  Houses  of  Commons  and  Lords  were  summoned 
informally  to  a  convention  by  William,  prince  of  Orange,  as 
were  the  Estates  of  Scotland,  and  declared  the  throne  abdicated 
by  James  II.  and  settled  the  disposition  of  the  realm.  Similarly, 
the  assembly  which  ruled  France  from  September  1792  to 
October  1795  was  known  as  the  National  Convention  (see  below) ; 
the  statutory  assembly  of  delegates  which  framed  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  1787  was  called  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention;  and  the  various  American  state  constitutions 
have  been  drafted  and  sometimes  revised  by  constitutional 


46 


CONVENTION,  THE— CONVERSION 


conventions.  In  the  party  system  of  the  United  States  the 
nomination  of  party  candidates  for  office  or  election  is  in  the 
hands  of  delegates,  chosen  by  the  primaries,  meeting  in  the 
convention  of  the  party;  the  convention  system  is  universal, 
from  the  national  conventions  of  the  Republican  and  Democratic 
parties,  which  nominate  the  candidates  for  the  presidency 
and  vice-presidency,  down  to  a  ward  convention,  which  nomi- 
nates the  candidate  for  a  town-councillorship.  In  diplomacy, 
"convention"  is  a  general  name  given  to  international  agree- 
ments other  than  treaties,  but  not  necessarily  differing  either 
in  form  or  subject-matter  from  a  treaty,  and  sometimes  used 
quite  widely  of  all  forms  of  such  agreements.  Many  con- 
ventions have  been  made  for  the  formation  of  international 
"unions"  to  regulate  and  protect  various  economic,  industrial 
and  other  non-political  interests,  such  as  postal  and  telegraphic 
services,  trade-marks,  patents,  copyright,  quarantine,  &c. 
Thus  the  Latin  Monetary  Union  was  created  in  1865  by  the 
Convention  of  Paris,  and  the  abolition  of  bounties  on  the  pro- 
duction and  exportation  of  sugar  by  the  Convention  of  Brussels 
in  1902  (see  TREATIES). 

CONVENTION,  THE  NATIONAL,  in  France,  the  constitutional 
and  legislative  assembly  which  sat  from  the  2oth  of  September 
1792  to  the  26th  of  October  1795  (the  4th  of  Brumaire  of  the 
year  IV.).  On  the  loth  of  August  1792,  when  the  populace 
of  Paris  stormed  the  Tuileries  and  demanded  the  abolition  of 
the  monarchy,  the  Legislative  Assembly  decreed  the  provisional 
suspension  of  the  king  and  the  convocation  of  a  national  conven- 
tion which  should  draw  up  a  constitution.  At  the  same  time 
it  was  decided  that  the  deputies  to  that  convention  should  be 
elected  by  all  Frenchmen  25  years  old,  domiciled  for  a  year  and 
living  by  the  product  of  their  labour.  The  National  Convention 
was  therefore  the  first  French  assembly  elected  by  universal 
suffrage,  without  distinctions  of  class.  The  age  limit  of  the 
electors  was  further  lowered  to  21,  and  that  of  eligibility  was 
fixed  at  25  years. 

The  first  session  was  held  on  the  2oth  of  September  1792. 
The  next  day  royalty  was  abolished,  and  on  the  22nd  it  was 
decided  that  all  documents  should  be  henceforth  dated  from  the 
year  I.  of  the  French  Republic.  The  Convention  was  destined 
to  last  for  three  years.  The  country  was  at  war,  and  it  seemed 
best  to  postpone  the  new  constitution  until  peace  should  be 
concluded.  At  the  same  time  as  the  Convention  prolonged  its 
powers  it  extended  them  considerably  in  order  to  meet  the 
pressing  dangers  which  menaced  the  Republic.  Though  a 
legislative  assembly,  it  took  over  the  executive  power,  entrusting 
it  to  its  own  members.  This  "confusion  of  powers,"  which  was 
contrary  to  the  philosophical  theories — those  of  Montesquieu 
especially — which  had  inspired  the  Revolution  at  first,  was 
one  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  Convention.  The 
series  of  exceptional  measures  by  which  that  confusion  of 
powers  was  created  constitutes  the  "Revolutionary  government" 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  a  government  which  was  princi- 
pally in  vigour  during  the  period  called  "the  Terror."  It  is 
thus  necessary  to  distinguish,  in  the  work  of  the  Convention,  the 
temporary  expedients  from  measures  intended  to  be  permanent. 

The  Convention  held  its  first  session  in  a  hall  of  the  Tuileries, 
then  it  sat  in  the  hall  of  Manege,  and  finally  from  the  zoth  of 
May  1793  in  that  of  the  Spectacles  (or  Machines),  an  immense 
hall  in  which  the  deputies  were  but  loosely  scattered.  This 
last  hall  had  tribunes  for  the  public,  which  often  influenced  the 
debate  by  interruptions  or  applause.  The  full  number  of  deputies 
was  749,  not  counting  33  from  the  colonies,  of  whom  only  a 
section  arrived  in  Paris.  Besides  these,  however,  the  depart- 
ments annexed  from  1792  to  1793  were  allowed  to  send  deputa- 
tions. Many  of  the  original  deputies  died  or  were  exiled  during 
the  Convention,  but  not  all  their  places  were  filled  by  suppliants. 
Some  of  those  proscribed  during  the  Terror  returned  after  the 
9th  of  Thermidor.  Finally,  many  members  were  sent  away 
either  to  the  departments  or  to  the  armies,  on  missions  which 
lasted  sometimes  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  For  all 
these  reasons  it  is  difficult  to  find  out  the  number  of  deputies 
present  at  any  given  date,  for  votes  by  roll-call  were  rare.  In 


the  Terror  the  number  of  those  voting  averaged  only  250.  The 
members  of  the  Convention  were  drawn  from  all  classes  of 
society,  but  the  most  numerous  were  lawyers.  Seventy-five 
members  had  sat  in  the  Constituent  Assembly,  183  in  the 
Legislative. 

According  to  its  own  ruling,  the  Convention  elected  its  presi- 
dent every  fortnight.  He  was  eligible  for  re-election  after  the 
lapse  of  a  fortnight.  Ordinarily  the  sessions  were  held  in  the 
morning,  but  evening  sessions  were  also  frequent,  often  extending 
late  into  the  night.  Sometimes  in  exceptional  circumstances 
the  Convention  declared  itself  in  permanent  session  and  sat 
for  several  days  without  interruption.  For  both  legislative  and 
administrative  purposes  the  Convention  used  committees,  with 
powers  more  or  less  widely  extended  and  regulated  by  successive 
laws.  The  most  famous  of  these  committees  are  those  of  Public 
Safety,  of  General  Security,  of  Education  (Comilt  de  salut  public, 
Comit6  de  sureti  generate,  Comite  de  I' instruction). 

The  work  of  the  Convention  was  immense  in  all  branches  of 
public  affairs.  To  appreciate  it  without  prejudice ,  one  should 
recall  that  this  assembly  saved  France  from  a  civil  war  and 
invasion,  that  it  founded  the  system  of  public  education  (Mustum, 
Ecole  Poly  technique,  Ecole  Normale  Superieure,  Ecole  des  Langues 
orientales,  Conservatoire),  created  institutions  of  capital  im- 
portance, like  that  of  the  Grand  Lime  de  la  Dette  publique, 
and  definitely  established  the  social  and  political  gains  of  the 
Revolution. 

See  FRENCH  REVOLUTION;  GIRONDISTS;  MOUNTAIN; 
D ANTON;  ROBESPIERRE;  MARAT,  &c. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  Convention  published  a  Prods-verbal  of  its 
sessions,  which,  although  lacking  the  value  of  those  published  by 
assemblies  to-day,  is  an  official  document  of  capital  importance. 
Copies  of  it  are  rare,  however,  and  it  has  been  too  much  neglected 
by  historians.  See  F.  A.  Aulard,  Recueil  des  actes  du  comite  de  Salut 
Public  avec  la  correspondance  officielle  des  representants  en  mission, 
et  le  registre  du  conseil  executif  provisoire  (Paris,  1889  et  set].); 
M.  J.  Guillaume,  Prods-verbaux  du  comite  d' Instruction  Publique 
de  la  Convention  Nationale  (Paris,  1891—1904,  5  vols.  4to);  F.  A. 
Aulard,  Histoire  politique  de  la  Revolution  franfaise  (Paris,  1903); 
Mortimer-Ternaux,  Histoire  de  la  Terreur  (1862-1881),  a  work 
based  on  and  comprising  documents,  but  written  with  strong 
royalist  bias;  Eugene  Despois,  Le  Vandalisms  revolulionnaire  (1868), 
for  the  scientific  work  of  the  Convention.  A  detailed  bibliography 
of  the  documents  relating  to  the  Convention  is  given  in  the  Repertoire 
general  des  sources  manuscrites  de  I'histoire  de  Paris  pendant  la 
Revolution  francaise,  vol.  yiii.  &c.  (1908),  edited  by  A.  Tueley  under 
the  auspices  of  the  municipality  of  Paris.  For  a  more  summary 
bibliography  see  M.  Tourneux,  Bibliog.  de  I'histoire  de  Paris  pendant 
la  Revolution  francaise,  i.  89-95  (Paris,  1890).  (R.  A.*) 

CONVERSANO,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Apulia,  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Bari,  17  m.  S.E.  by  rail  from  the  town  of  Bari. 
Pop.  (1901)13,685.  It  has  a  fine  southern  Romanesque  cathedral 
of  the  end  of  the  nth  century,  with  a  modernized  interior,  and 
a  castle  which  from  1456  belonged  to  the  Acquaviva  family, 
dukes  of  Atri  and  counts  of  Conversano.  The  convent  of 
S.  Benedetto  is  one  of  the  earliest  offshoots  of  Montecassino. 
(See  S.  Simone,  II  Duomo  di  Conversano,  Trani,  1896).  Here, 
or  in  the  vicinity,  is  the  site  of  the  unimportant  ancient  town 
of  Norba. 

CONVERSION  (Lat.  conversio,  from  convertere,  to  turn  or 
change), ageneral  term  for  the  operation  of  converting,  changing, 
or  transposing;  used  technically  in  special  senses  in  logic, 
theology  and  law. 

i.  In  logic,  conversion  is  one  of  three  chief  methods  of  im- 
mediate inference  by  which  a  conclusion  is  obtained  directly 
from  a  single  premise  without  the  intervention  of  another 
premise  or  middle  term.  A  proposition  is  said  to  be  "converted" 
when  the  subject  and  the  predicate  change  places;  the  original 
proposition  is  the  "convertend,"  the  new  one  the  "converse." 
The  chief  rule  governing  conversion  is  that  no  term  which  was  not 
distributed1  in  the  convertend  may  be  distributed  in  the  con- 
verse; nor  may  the  quality  of  the  proposition  (affirmative  or 
negative)  be  changed.  It  follows  that  of  the  four  possible  forms 

1  A  term  is  said  to  be  "  distributed  "  when  It  is  taken  universally: 
in  the  proposition  "  men  are  mortal  "  (meaning  "  all  men  ")  the 
term  "  men  "  is  "  distributed  "  while  "  mortal  "  is  undistributed, 
because  there  are  mortal  beings  which  are  not  men. 


CONVERSION 


47 


of  propositions  A,  E,  I  and  O  (see  article  A),  E  and  I  can  be 
converted  simply.  If  no  A  is  B  (E),  it  follows  that  no  B  is  A; 
if  some  A  is  B,  it  follows  that  some  B  is  A.  This  form  of  con- 
version is  called  Simple  Conversion;  E  propositions  convert  into 
E,  and  I  into  I.  On  the  other  hand,  A  cannot  be  converted 
simply.  If  all  men  are  mortal,  the  most  that  can  follow  by 
conversion  is  that  some  mortals  are  men.  This  is  called  Con- 
version by  Limitation  or  Per  Accidens.  Only  if  it  be  known 
from  external  or  non-logical  sources  that  the  predicate  also  is 
distributed  can  there  be  simple  conversion  of  a  universal  affirma- 
tive. Neither  of  these  forms  of  conversion  can  be  applied  to 
the  particular  negative  proposition  O,  which  has  to  be  dealt 
with  under  a  secondary  system  of  conversion,  as  follows.  The 
terminology  by  which  these  secondary  processes  are  described 
is  not  altogether  satisfactory,  and  logicians  are  not  agreed  as  to 
the  application  of  the  terms.  The  following  system  is  perhaps  the 
most  commonly  used.  We  have  seen  that  the  converse  of  "all 
A  is  B"  is  "some  B  is  A";  we  can,  in  addition,  derive  from  it 
another,  though  purely  formal,  proposition  "no  A  is  not-B"; 
i.e.  an  E  proposition.  This  process  is  called  Obversion,  Permuta- 
tion or  Immediate  Inference  by  Privative  Conception;  it  is 
applicable  to  every  proposition  including  O..  A  further  process, 
known  as  Contraposition  or  Conversion  by  Negation,  consists 
of  conversion  following  on  obversion.  Thus  from  "all  A  is  B," 
we  get  "  no  not-B  is  A."  In  the  case  of  the  O  proposition  we 
get  (by  obversion)  "  some  A  is  not-B  "  and  then  (by  conversion) 
"some  not-B  is  A"  (i.e.  an  I  proposition).  In  the  case  of  the 
I  proposition  the  contrapositive  is  impossible,  as  infringing  the 
main  rule  of  conversion.  Another  term,  Inversion,  has  been 
used  by  some  logicians  for  a  still  more  complicated  process  by 
the  alternative  use  of  conversion  and  obversion,  which  is  applic- 
able to  A  and  E,  and  results  in  obtaining  a  proposition  concerning 
the  contradictory  of  the  original  subject;  thus  "all  A  is  B" 
becomes  "some  not-A  is  not  B." 

Considerable  discussion  has  centred  on  the  problem  as  to 
whether  the  process  of  conversion  can  properly  be  regarded  as 
inference.  The  essence  of  inference  is  that  the  conclusion  should 
embody  knowledge  which  is  not  in  the  premise  or  premises,  and 
many  logicians  have  contended  that  no  fact  is  stated  in  the 
converse  which  was  not  in  the  convertend,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  conversion  is  merely  a  transformation  or  verbal  change 
of  the  same  statement.  Hence  the  term  Eductions  and  Equiva- 
lent Prepositional  Forms  have  been  given  to  converse  proposi- 
tions. It  is  clear,  for  instance,  that  if  the  universal  affirmative 
is  taken  connotatively  as  a  scientific  law,  and  not  historically, 
no  real  inference  is  achieved  by  stating  as  another  scientific  fact 
its  converse,  the  particular  affirmative.  Moreover,  even  if  the 
convertend  is  stated  as  an  historic  fact,  though  there  is  acquired 
a  certain  new  significance,  it  may  well  be  argued  that  the 
inference  is  not  immediate  but  syllogistic. 

For  this  controversy  see  J.  S.  Mill,  Logic,  II.  i.  2;  Bradley,  Logic, 
III.  pt.  i.  chap.  ii.  30-37;  H.  W.  B.  Joseph,  Introduction  to  Logic 
(1906),  pp.  209  foil.;  J.  N.  Keynes,  Formal  Logic  (3rd  ed.,  1894). 

2.  In  theology,  conversion  (the  equivalent  of  the  Gr.  arpt^av, 
eirio-Tfx<t>uv}  is  originally  the  acceptation  of  Christianity  by 
heathens.  It  is  also  used  generally  for  a  change  from  one  re- 
ligion to  another,  or  in  a  narrower  sense  for  a  complete  change 
of  attitude  towards  God,  involving  a  deeper  conviction  of  the 
ultimate  religious  and  moral  truths.  Considerable  difference  of 
opinion  has  always  existed,  and  still  exists,  within  the  Christian 
Church  as  to  the  true  nature  and  the  causes  of  conversion, 
especially  in  the  sense  last  described.  Some  have  held  that  man 
is  merely  the  passive  recipient  of  the  Divine  Grace,  a  view  based 
largely  on  the  rendering  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  Isaiah 
vi.  10  as  quoted  in  Matt.  xiii.  15,  Mark  iv.  12,  and  John  xii.  40. 
Others  again  hold  that  baptism,  as  involving  a  second  birth  of 
the  baptized  person,  makes  subsequent  conversion  unnecessary 
or  even  meaningless,  or  conversely  that  conversion  is  this  very 
second  birth  and  renders  baptism  unnecessary.  The  reply 
generally  made  to  such  arguments  is  that  baptism  implies 
regeneration  only,  which  is  a  change  wrought  from  the  outside 
by  the  Divine  Spirit  in  general  disposition  or  spiritual  status, 


while  conversion  is  a  positive  or  concrete  demonstration  of  that 
change,  not  merely  the  negative  beginning  of  a  new  life  but  the 
positive  "returning"  to  God  in  faith  and  repentance.  The 
precise  connexion  between  conversion  and  repentance  is  again 
a  vexed  question.  How  far  and  in  what  sense  does  man  take  an 
active  part  in  his  own  conversion?  To  this  it  is  frequently 
answered  that  while  the  initial  stage  of  conversion  is  and  can  be 
the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  alone,  it  lies  with  man  to  make  it 
complete  by  accepting  the  proffered  grace  in  repentance  and  faith 
(cf.  Acts  vii.  51, "  Ye  stiffnecked  and  uncircumcised  in  heart  and 
ears,  ye  do  always  resist  the  Holy  Ghost").  A  man  may  of  his 
own  free  will  avoid  those  surroundings  which  predispose  him  to 
such  "resistance."  The  view  that  man  cannot  convert  himself 
is  clearly  stated  in  Article  X.  by  the  Church  of  England.  "  The 
condition  of  man  after  the  fall  of  Adam  is  such  that  he  cannot 
turn  (sese  comierlere)  and  prepare  himself  by  his  own  natural 
strength  and  good  works,  to  faith,  and  calling  upon  God:  where- 
fore we  have  no  power  to  do  good  works  pleasant  and  acceptable 
to  God,  without  the  grace  of  God  by  Christ  preventing  us  that 
we  may  have  a  good  will,  and  working  with  us,  when  we  have 
that  good  will."  Further  problems  are  connected  with  the 
possibility  of  repeated  conversions  of  the  same  man,  the  necessity 
of  a  single  strongly  marked  conversion  completed  in  a  single 
process,  the  significance  of  sudden  conversion  of  persons  in  a 
highly  emotional  state,  such  as  has  been  common  in  revivalist 
meetings,  especially  in  Wales  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
Conversions  of  the  last  kind  have  followed  frequently  on  striking 
physical  phenomena,  perceived  in  many  cases  only  by  the  con- 
vert himself,  such  as  a  sudden  bright  light  or  a  noise  like  a  clap  of 
thunder.1  In  all  cases  of  conversion,  however,  the  criterion  of  its 
validity  is  generally  taken  to  be  the  resultant  change  of  a  man's 
character  as  manifested  in  his  mode  of  life  and  thought,  in  the 
abstention  from  sin,  and  in  devotion  to  good  works.  (X.) 

3.  In  English  law,  conversion  is  the  unauthorized  exercise 
of  dominion  by  one  person  over  the  property  (other  than  money 
or  chattels  real)  of  another,  in  a  manner  inconsistent  with  his 
rights  of  possession,  or  the  unauthorized  assumption  by  another 
of  the  powers  of  the  true  owner  of  goods.  The  history  and 
exact  definition  of  this  form  of  actionable  wrong  have  occupied 
the  attention  of  many  learned  writers,  and  the  incidents  of 
actions  to  assert  the  rights  of  the  true  owner  form  a  considerable 
part  of  treatises  on  the  rules  and  forms  of  civil  pleading.  There 
are  many  ways  in  which  the  wrong  may  be  committed.  In 
some  cases  the  exercise  of  the  dominion  may  amount  to  an  act 
of  trespass  or  to  a  crime,  e.g.  where  the  taking  amounts  to 
larceny,  or  fraudulent  appropriation  by  a  bailee  or  agent  en- 
trusted with  the  property  of  another  (Larceny  Acts  of  1861  and 
1901).  But  in  such  cases,  except  where  money  is  taken,  the 
civil  remedy  of  the  owner  is  by  action  for  conversion  or  detention 
of  the  property,  subject  in  the  case  of  larceny  to  the  rule  that 
criminal  prosecution  should  precede  restitution  by  the  taker. 
The  remedy  in  use  in  these  cases  used  to  be  by  what  was  called 
an  action  on  the  case  for  trover  and  conversion,  the  plaintiff 
putting  aside  all  suggestions  of  trespass  and  of  crime,  and  resting 
his  case  on  the  fiction  that  the  defendant  had  found  and  used 
goods  not  his  own.  The  fictitious  averment  of  loss  was  abolished 
in  1852,  and  under  the  present  procedure,  in  which  the  old  forms 
of  action  are  not  in  use,  the  remedy  is  by  a  claim  (still  usually 
called  conversion)  for  wrongfully  depriving  the  true  owner  of 
personal  property  of  its  use  by  some  specified  act  inconsistent 
with  his  dominion  over  it,  usually  by  dealing  with  the  property 
in  a  manner  inconsistent  with  the  owner's  rights.  Originally, 
the  action  of  trover  and  conversion  was  limited  to  goods  and 
chattels,  but  it  is  now  accepted  as  applying  to  valuable  securities, 
such  as  cheques  and  bills  of  exchange. 

The  gist  of  the  action  is  in  the  unauthorized  dealing,  for 
however  short  a  time  and  for  however  limited  a  purpose,  with 
the  personal  property  of  another.  Even  refusal  to  deliver  up 
to  the  owner  is  sufficient  to  prove  conversion,  though  it  is  often 

1  Numerous  instances,  drawn  from  other  religions  besides  Chris- 
tianity, are  given  in  Professor  William  James's  The  Varieties  of 
Religious  Experience  (1902). 


CONVEX— CONVEYANCING 


made  the  ground  of  an  action  for  detinue,  if  the  plaintiff  desires 
to  have  the  property  returned  in  specie.  The  knowledge,  motive 
or  good  faith  of  the  person  wrongfully  dealing  with  the  property 
of  another  is  for  civil  purposes  immaterial,  and  the  action  is 
often  brought  to  try  the  title  of  two  claimants  to  the  same  goods ; 
e.g.  where  a  person  who  has  innocently  bought  or  taken  in  pledge 
goods  stolen  or  illegally  procured  resists  the  claim  of  the  original 
owner  for  the  return  of  the  goods.  A  warehouseman  may 
render  himself  liable  to  the  owner  of  goods  deposited  with  him, 
through  delivering  the  goods  to  a  third  person  on  a  forged 
authority  or  without  authority,  or  by  issuing  a  warehouse 
receipt  representing  the  goods  to  be  in  his  possession  or  control 
when  they  have  ceased  to  be  so. 

The  exact  measure  of  compensation  due  to  a  plaintiff  whose 
goods  have  been  wrongfully  converted  may  be  merely  nominal 
if  the  wrong  is  technical  and  the  defendant  can  return  the  goods; 
it  may  be  limited  to  the  actual  damage  where  the  goods  can  be 
returned,  but  the  wrong  is  substantial;  but  in  ordinary  cases 
it  is  the  full  value  to  the  owner  of  the  goods  of  which  he  has 
been  deprived. 

Fraudulent  conversion  by  any  person  to  his  own  use  (or  that 
of  persons  other  than  the  owner)  of  property  entrusted  to  him 
is  a  crime  in  the  case  of  custodians  of  property,  factors,  trustees 
under  express  trusts  in  writing  (Larceny  Act,  1861,  ss.  77-85; 
Larceny  Act,  1901). 

The  law  of  Ireland,  of  most  British  possessions,  and  of  the 
United  States,  follows  that  of  England  as  to  the  civil  or  criminal 
remedies  for  conversion. 

The  term  "  conversion  "  is  also  used  in  English  law  with  reference 
to  the  rule  of  courts  of  equity  which,  in  certain  cases  (following 
the  maxim  of  treating  as  done  what  ought  to  have  been  done), 
treats  as  converted  into  personalty  land  which  has  been  directed 
so  to  be  converted  by  a  will,  contract  or  settlement,  or  as 
converted  into  land  personalty  which  has  been  by  such  instru- 
ment directed  to  be  applied  for  purchase  of  realty.  The  rule 
is  also  applied  where  a  vendor  of  land  dies  between  the  making 
of  the  contract  of  sale  and  its  completion  by  conveyance  of  the 
land.  The  importance  of  the  rule  lies  in  the  different  destination 
of  realty  and  personalty  under  the  laws  relating  to  inheritance 
and  succession. 

See  Bullen  and  Leake,  Precedents  of  Pleading  (3rd  ed.,  1868, 
6th  ed.  by  Dodd  and  Chitty,  1905) ;  F.  Pollock,  on  Torts  (7th  ed., 
1904) ;  Clerk  and  Lindsell,  on  Torts  (3rd  ed.,  1904) ;  Lewin,  on 
Trusts  (nth  ed.,  1904);  Jarman,  on  Wills  (5th  ed.,  1893);  Dart, 
Vendors  and  Purchasers  (nth  ed.,  p.  301).  (W.  F.  C.) 

CONVEX  (Lat.  convexus,  carried  round,  rounded,  from  con-, 
with,  and  vehere,  to  carry),  a  term  for  the  exterior  side  of  a 
curved  or  rounded  surface,  as  opposed  to  "  concave  "  (Lat.  con-, 
and  cavus,  hollow),  the  inner  surface. 

CONVEYANCE,  primarily  the  act  or  process  of  conveying 
anything.  The  verb  "  to  convey,"  now  used  in  the  senses  of 
carrying,  transporting,  transmitting,  communicating  or  handing 
over,  originally  had  the  same  meaning  as  "convoy"  (q.v.), 
i.e.  to  accompany,  a  meaning  which  still  survived  in  the  i8th 
century.  Like  "  convoy  "  it  is  ultimately  derived  from  the  Late 
Lat.  conviare  (not  from  convehere),  but  through  the  old  Norman 
French  form  conveier,  which  in  central  France  passed  into  the 
form  convoier,  mod.  Fr.  conveyer,  whence  "  convoy."  Apart 
from  the  general  sense  given  above  the  word  conveyance  is  now 
used  in  three  special  senses:  (i)  a  carriage  or  other  means  of 
transport,  (2)  in  law,  the  transference  of  property  by  deed  or 
writing  between  living  persons,  and  (3)  the  written  instrument 
by  which  such  transference  is  effected.  (See  CONVEYANCING.) 

CONVEYANCING,  in  English  law,  the  art  or  science  of  convey- 
ing or  effecting  the  transfer  of  property,  or  modifying  interests 
in  relation  to  property,  by  means  of  written  documents. 

In  early  legal  systems  the  main  element  in  the  transfer  of 
property  was  the  change,  generally  accompanied  by  some  public 
Histo  ceremony,  in  the  actual  physical  possession:  the 
function  of  documents,  where  used,  being  merely  the 
preservation  of  evidence.  Thus,  in  Great  Britain  in  the  feudal 
period,  the  common  mode  of  conveying  an  immediate  freehold 
was  by  feo/ment  with  livery  of  seisin — a  proceeding  in  which  the 


transferee  was  publicly  invested  with  the  feudal  possession  or 
seisin,  usually  through  the  medium  of  some  symbolic  act  per- 
formed in  the  presence  of  witnesses  upon  the  land  itself.  A  deed 
or  charter  of  feoffment  was  commonly  executed  at  the  same 
time  by  way  of  record,  but  formed  no  essential  part  of  the 
conveyance.  In  the  language  of  the  old  rule  of  the  common  law, 
the  immediate  freehold  in  corporeal  hereditaments  lay  in  livery, 
whereas  reversions  and  remainders  and  all  incorporeal  heredita- 
ments lay  in  grant,  i.e.  passed  by  the  delivery  of  the  deed  of 
conveyance  or  grant  without  any  furthe'r  ceremony.  The 
process  by  which  this  distinction  was  broken  down -and  the 
present  uniform  system  of  private  conveyancing  by  simple  deed 
was  established,  constitutes  a  long  chapter  in  English  legal 
history. 

The  land  of  a  feudal  owner  was  subject  to  the  risk  of  forfeiture 
for  treason,  and  to  military  and  other  burdens.  The  common  law 
did  not  allow  him  to  dispose  of  it  by  will.  By  the  law  of  mort- 
main religious  houses  were  prohibited  from  acquiring  it.  The 
desire  to  escape  from  these  burdens  and  limitations  gave  rise  to  the 
practice  of  making  feoffments  to  the  use  of,  or  upon  trust  for, 
persons  other  than  those  to  whom  the  seisin  or  legal  possession 
was  delivered.  The  common  law  recognized  only  the  legal  tenant ; 
but  the  cestui  que  use  or  beneficial  owner  gradually  secured  for  his 
wishes  and  directions  concerning  the  profits  of  the  land  the  strong 
protection  of  the  chancellors  as  exercising  the  equitable  jurisdiction 
of  the  king.  The  resulting  loss  to  the  crown  and  the  great  lords  of 
the  feudal  dues  and  privileges,  coupled  with  the  public  disadvantages 
arising  from  ownership  of  land  which,  in  an  increasing  degree,  was 
merely  nominal,  brought  about  the  passing  in  the  year  1535  of  the 
famous  Statute  of  Uses,  the  object  of  which  was  to  destroy  alto- 
gether the  system  of  uses  and  equitable  estates.  It  enacted,  in 
substance,  that  whoever  should  have  a  use  or  trust  in  any  heredita- 
ments should  be  deemed  to  have  the  legal  seisin,  estate  and  possession 
for  the  same  interest  that  he  had  in  the  use;  in  other  words,  that 
he  should  become  in  effect  the  feudal  tenant  without  actual  delivery 
of  possession  to  him  by  the  actual  feoffee  to  uses  or  trustee.  In  its 
result  the  statute  was  a  fiasco.  It  was  solemnly  decided  that  the  act 
transferred  the  legal  possession  to  the  use  once  only,  and  that  in  the 
case  of  a  conveyance  to  A  to  the  use  of  B  to  the  use  of  or  upon  trust 
for  C,  it  gave  the  legal  estate  to  B,  and  left  C  with  an  interest  in  the 
position  of  the  use  before  the  statute.  Thus  was  completed  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  system  of  trusts  fastened  upon  legal 
estates  and  protected  by  the  equitable  doctrines  and  practice  of  the 
judicature. 

But  the  statute  not  only  failed  to  abolish  uses:  it  also  opened 
the  way  to  the  evasion  of  the  public  ceremony  of  livery  of  seisin,  and 
the  avoidance  of  all  notoriety  in  conveyances.  Other  ways,  besides 
an  actual  feoffment  to  uses,  of  creating  a  use  had  been  in  vogue  before 
the  statute.  If  A  bargained  with  B,  in  writing  or  not,  for  the  sale 
of  land,  and  B  paid -the  price,  but  A  remained  in  legal  possession, 
the  court  of  chancery  enforced  the  use  or  equitable  interest  in  favour 
of  B.  The  effect  of  a  bargain-  and  sale  (as  such  a  transaction  was 
called)  after  the  statute  was  to  give  B  the  legal  interest  without  any 
livery  of  seisin.  This  fresh  danger  was  met  in  the  very  year  of  the 
statute  itself  by  an  enactment  that  a  bargain  and  sale  of  an  estate  of 
inheritance  or  freehold  should  be  made  by  deed  publicly  enrolled. 
But  the  Statute  of  Enrolments  was  in  terms  limited  to  estates  of 
freehold.  It  was  allowed  that  a  bargain  and  sale  for  a  term,  say,  of 
one  year,  must  transfer  the  seisin  to  the  bargainee  without  enrol- 
ment. And  since  what  remained  in  the  bargainer  was  merely  a 
reversion  which  "  lay  in  grant,"  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  release  this 
by  deed  the  day  after.  By  this  ingenious  device  was  the  publicity 
of  feoffment  or  enrolment  avoided,  and  the  lease  and  release,  as  the 
process  was  called,  remained  the  usual  mode  of  conveying  a  freehold 
in  posession  down  to  the  igth  century. 

It  was  not  until  1845  that  the  modern  system  of  transfer  by 
a  single  deed  was  finally  established.  By  the  Real  Property 
Act  of  that  year  it  was  enacted  that  all  corporeal  hereditaments 
should,  as  regards  the  immediate  freehold,  be  deemed  to  lie  in 
grant  as  well  as  in  livery.  Since  this  act  the  ancient  modes  of 
conveyance,  though  not  abolished  by  it,  have  in  practice  become 
obsolete.  Traces  of  the  old  learning  connected  with  them 
remain,  however,  embedded  in  the  modern  conveyance.  Many 
a  purchase-deed  recites  that  the  vendor  is  seised  in  fee-simple 
of  the  property.  It  is  the  practice,  moreover,  to  convey  not  only 
"  to  "  but  also  "  to  the  use  of  "  a  purchaser.  For  before  the 
Statute  of  Uses,  a  conveyance  made  without  any  consideration 
or  declaration  of  uses  was  deemed  to  be  made  to  the  use  of  the 
party  conveying.  In  view  of  the  operation  of  the  statute  upon 
the  legal  estate  in  such  circumstances,  it  is'  usual  in  all  convey- 
ances, whether  for  value  or  not,  to  declare  a  use  in  favour  of  the 
party  to  whom  the  grant  is  made. 


CONVEYANCING 


49 


In  its  popular  usage  the  word  "  conveyance  "  signifies  the 
document  employed  to  carry  out  a  purchase  of  land.  But  the 
term  "  conveyancing  "  is  of  much  wider  import,  and  comprises 
the  preparation  and  completion  of  all  kinds  of  legal  instruments. 
A  well-known  branch  of  the  conveyancer's  business  is  the  investi- 
gation of  title — an  important  function  in  the  case  of  purchases 
or  mortgages  of  real  estate.  With  personal  estate  (other  than 
leasehold)  he  has  perhaps  not  so  much  concern.  Chattels  are 
usually  transferred  by  delivery,  and  stocks  or  shares  by  means 
of  printed  instruments  which  can  be  bought  at  a  law-stationer's. 
The  common  settlements  and  wills,  however,  deal  wholly  or 
mainly  with  personal  property;  and  an  interest  in  settled 
personalty  is  frequently  the  subject  of  a  mortgage.  Of  late 
years,  also,  there  has  been  an  enormous  increase  in  the  volume 
of  conveyancing  business  in  connexion  with  limited  joint-stock 
companies. 

In  the  preparation  of  legal  documents  the  practitioner  is 
much  assisted  by  the  use  of  precedents.  These  are  outlines  or 
models  of  instruments  of  all  kinds,  exhibiting  in  accepted  legal 
phraseology  their  usual  form  and  contents  with  additions  and 
variations  adapted  to  particular  circumstances.  Collections  of 
them  have  been  in  use  from  early  times,  certainly  since  printing 
became  common.  The  modern  precedent  is,  upon  the  whole, 
concise  and  businesslike.  The  prolixity  which  formerly  character- 
ized most  legal  documents  has  largely  disappeared,  mainly 
through  the  operation  of  statutes  which  enable  many  clauses 
previously  inserted  at  great  length  to  be,  in  some  cases,  e.g. 
covenants  for  title,  incorporated  by  the  use  of  a  few  prescribed 
words,  and  in  others  safely  omitted  altogether.  The  Solicitors' 
Remuneration  Act  1881,  has  also  assisted  the  process  of  curtail- 
ment, for  there  is  now  little  or  no  connexion  between  the  length 
of  a  deed  and  the  cost  of  its  preparation.  So  long  as  the  drafts- 
man adheres  to  recognized  legal  phraseology  and  to  the  well- 
settled  methods  of  carrying  out  legal  operations,  there  is  no  reason 
why  modern  instruments  should  not  be  made  as  terse  and 
businesslike  as  possible. 

It  is  not  usual  for  land  to  be  sold  without  a  formal  agreement 
in  writing  being  entered  into.  This  precaution  is  due,  partly 

to  the  Statute  of  Frauds  (§  4),  which  renders  a  contract 
tor  sale.  *  ^or  ^  sa^e  o*  ^anc^  unenforceable  by  action  "  unless 

the  agreement  upon  which  such  action  shall  be  brought, 
or  some  memorandum  or  note  thereof,  shall  be  in  writing  and 
signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith  or  some  other 
person  thereunto  by  him  lawfully  authorized,"  and  partly  to  the 
fact  that  there  are  few  titles  which  can  with  prudence  be  exposed 
to  all  the  requisitions  that  a  purchaser  under  an  "  open  contract  " 
is  entitled  by  law  to  make.  Such  a  purchaser  may,  for  example, 
require  a  forty  years'  title  (Vendor  and  Purchaser  Act  1874). 
Under  an  open  contract  a  vendor  is  presumed  to  be  selling  the 
fee-simple  in  possession,  free  from  any  incumbrance,  or  liability, 
or  restriction  as  to  user  or  otherwise;  and  if  he  cannot  deduce  a 
title  of  the  statutory  length,  or  procure  an  incumbrance  or 
restriction  to  be  removed,  the  purchaser  may  repudiate  the 
contract.  The  preparation  of  an  agreement  for  sale  involves 
accordingly  an  examination  of  the  vendor's  title,  and  the  exercise 
of  skill  and  judgment  in  deciding  how  the  vendor  may  be  pro- 
tected against  trouble  and  expense  without  prejudice  to  the 
sale.  Upon  a  sale  by  auction  the  agreement  is  made  up  of  (i) 
the  particulars,  which  describe  the  property;  (2)  the  conditions 
of  sale,  which  state  the  terms  upon  which  it  is  offered;  and 
(3)  the  memorandum  or  formal  contract  at  the  foot  of  the  condi- 
tions, which  incorporates  by  reference  the  particulars  and 
conditions,  names  or  sufficiently  refers  to  the  vendor,  and  is 
signed  by  the  purchaser  after  the  sale.  The  object  of  the  agree- 
ment, whether  the  sale  is  by  private  contract  or  by  auction,  is 
to  define  accurately  what  is  sold,  to  provide  for  the  length  of 
title  and  the  evidence  in  support  of  or  in  connexion  with  the 
title  which  is  to  be  required  except  so  far  as  it  is  intended  that 
the  general  law  shall  regulate  the  rights  of  the  parties,  and  to 
fix  the  times  at  which  the  principal  steps  in  the  transaction  are 
to  be  taken.  It  is  also  usual  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  interest 
at  a  prescribed  rate  upon  the  purchase  money  if  the  completion 


shall  be  delayed  beyond  the  day  fixed  for  any  cause  other  than 
the  vendor's  wilful  default,  and  also  that  the  vendor  shall  be  at 
liberty  to  rescind  the  contract  without  paying  costs  or  compensa- 
tion if  the  purchaser  insists  upon  any  requisition  or  objection 
which  the  vendor  is  unable  or,  upon  the  ground  of  expense  or 
other  reasonable  ground,  is  unwilling  to  comply  with  or  remove. 
Upon  a  sale  by  auction  it  is  the  rule  to  require  a  deposit  to  be 
paid  by  way  of  security  to  the  vendor  against  default  on  the 
part  of  the  purchaser. 

The  signature  of  the  agreement  is  followed  by  the  delivery 
to  the  purchaser  or  his  solicitor  of  the  abstract  of  title,  which 
is  an  epitome  of  the  various  instruments  and  events 
under  and  in  consequence  of  which  the  vendor  derives  Of  title* 
his  title.  A  purchaser  is  entitled  to  an  abstract  at 
the  vendor's  expense  unless  otherwise  stipulated.  It  begins 
with  the  instrument  fixed  by  the  contract  for  the  commencement 
of  the  title,  or,  if  there  has  been  no  agreement  upon  the  subject, 
with  an  instrument  of  such  character  and  date  as  is  prescribed 
by  the  law  in  the  absence  of  stipulation  between  the  parties. 
From  its  commencement  as  so  determined  the  abstract,  if  properly 
prepared,  shows  the  history  of  the  title  down  to  the  sale;  every 
instrument,  marriage,  birth,  death,  or  other  fact  or  event  con- 
stituting a  link  in  the  chain  of  title,  being  sufficiently  set  forth 
in  its  proper  order.  The  next  step  is  the  verification  of  the 
abstract  on  the  purchaser's  behalf  by  a  comparison  of  it  with 
the  originals  of  the  deeds,  the  probates  of  the  wills,  and  office 
copies  of  the  instruments  of  record  through  which  the  title  is 
traced.  The  vendor  is  bound  to  produce  the  original  documents, 
except  such  as  are  of  record  or  have  been  lost  or  destroyed,  but, 
unless  otherwise  stipulated,  the  expense  of  producing  those 
which  are  not  in  his  possession  falls  upon  the  purchaser  (Con- 
veyancing Act  1881).  After  being  thus  verified,  the  abstract 
is  perused  by  the  purchaser's  advisers  with  the  object  of  seeing 
whether  a  title  to  the  property  sold  is  deduced  according  to  the 
contract,  and  what  evidence,  information  or  objection,  in  respect 
of  matters  appearing  or  arising  upon  the  abstract,  ought  to  be 
called  for  or  taken.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
the  legal  effect  of  the  abstracted  instruments,  whether  they 
have  been  properly  completed,  whether  incumbrances,  adverse 
interests,  defects,  liabilities  in  respect  of  duties,  or  any  other 
burdens  or  restrictions  disclosed  by  the  abstract,  have  been 
already  got  rid  of  or  satisfied,  or  remain  to  be  dealt  with  before 
the  completion  of  the  sale .  The  result  of  the  consideration  of  these . 
matters  is  embodied  in  "requisitions  upon  title, "which 
are  delivered  to  the  vendor's  solicitors  within  a  time  . 

usuallyfixed  for  the  purpose  by  the  contract.  In  making 
or  insisting  upon  requisitions  regard  is  had,  among  other  things, 
to  any  special  conditions  in  the  contract  dealing  with  points  as  to 
which  evidence  or  objection  might  otherwise  have  been  required 
or  taken,  and  to  a  variety  of  provisions  contained  in  the  Vendor 
and  Purchaser  Act  1874,  and  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881,  which 
apply,  except  so  far  as  otherwise  agreed,  and  of  which  the  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important:  (i)  Recitals,  statements  and 
descriptions  of  facts,  matters  and  parties  contained  in  instruments 
twenty  years  old  at  the  date  of  the  contract  are,  unless  proved 
inaccurate,  to  be  taken  as  sufficient  evidence  of  the  truth  of  such 
facts,  matters  and  descriptions;  (2)  a  purchaser  cannot  require 
the  production  of,  or  make  any  requisition  or  objection  in  respect 
of,  any  document  dated  before  the  commencement  of  the  title; 
(3)  the  cost  of  obtaining  evidence  and  information  not  in  the 
vendor's  possession  must  be  borne  by  the  purchaser.  The 
possibility  of  the  rescission  clause  now  commonly  found  in  con- 
tracts for  the  sale  of  real  estate  being  exercised  in  order  to  avoid 
compliance  with  an  onerous  requisition,  is  also  an  important 
factor  in  the  situation.  The  requisitions  are  in  due  course 
replied  to,  and  further  requisitions  may  arise  out  of  the  answers. 
A  summary  method  of  obtaining  a  judicial  determination  of 
questions  connected  with  the  contract,  but  not  affecting  its 
validity,  is  provided  by  the  Vendor  and  Purchaser  Act  1874. 
Before  completion  it  is  usual  for  the  purchaser  to  cause  searches 
to  be  made  in  various  official  registers  for  matters  required  to 
be  entered  therein,  such  as  judgments,  land  charges,  and  pending 


CONVEYANCING 


Convey- 
ances. 


actions,  which  may  affect  the  vendor's  title  to  sell,  or  amount 
to  an  incumbrance  upon  the  property. 

When  the  title  has  been  approved,  or  so  soon  as  it  appears 
reasonably  certain  that  it  will  be  accepted,  the  draft  conveyance 
is  prepared  and  submitted  to  the  vendor.  This  is 
commonly  done  by  and  at  the  expense  of  the  purchaser, 
who  is  entitled  to  determine  the  form  of  the  con- 
veyance, provided  thai  the  vendor  is  not  thereby  prejudiced, 
or  put  to  additional  expense.  The  common  mode  of  conveying 
a  freehold  is  now,  as  already  mentioned,  by  ordinary  deed, 
called  in  this  case  an  indenture,  from  the  old  practice,  where  a 
deed  was  made  between  two  or  more  parties,  of  writing  copies 
upon  the  same  parchment  and  then  dividing  it  by  an  indented 
or  toothed  line.  Indenting  is,  however,  not  necessary,  and  in 
modern  practice  is  disused.  A  deed  derives  its  efficacy  from 
its  being  sealed  and  delivered.  It  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt 
whether  signing  is  essential.  It  is  not  necessary  that  its  execu- 
tion should  be  attested  except  in  special  circumstances,  as,  e.g. 
where  made  under  a  power  requiring  the  instrument  exercising 
it  to  be  attested.  But  in  practice  conveyances  are  not  only 
sealed,  but  also  signed,  and  attested  by  one  or  two  witnesses. 
The  details  of  a  conveyance  in  any  particular  case  depend  upon 
the  subject-matter  and  terms  of  the  sale,  and  the  state  of  the 
title  as  appearing  by  the  abstract.  The  framework,  however, 
of  an  ordinary  purchase-deed  consists  of  (i)  the  date  and  parties, 
(2)  the  recitals,  (3)  the  testatum  or  witnessing-part,  containing 
the  statement  of  the  consideration  for  the  sale,  the  words 
incorporating  covenants  for  title  and  the  operative  words,  (4) 
the  parcels  or  description  of  the  property,  (5)  the  habendum, 
showing  the  estate  or  interest  to  be  taken  by  the  purchaser,  and 
(6)  any  provisos  or  covenants  that  may  be  required.  A  few 
words  will  illustrate  the  object  and  effect  of  these  component 
parts. 

(i)  The  parties  are  the  persons  from  whom  the  property,  or 
some  estate  or  interest  in  or  in  relation  to  it,  is  to  pass  to  the 
purchaser,  or  whose  concurrence  is  rendered  necessary  by  the 
state  of  the  title  in  order  to  give  the  purchaser  the  full  benefit 
of  bis  contract  and  to  complete  it  according  to  law.  It  is  often 
necessary  that  other  persons  besides  the  actual  vendor  should 
join  in  the  conveyance,  e.g.  a  mortgagee  who  is  to  be  paid  off 
and  convey  his  estate,  a  trustee  of  an  outstanding  legal  estate, 
a  person  entitled  to  some  charge  or  restriction  who  is  to  release 
it,  or  trustees  who  are  to  receive  the  purchase-money  where  a 
limited  owner  is  selling  under  a  power  (e.g.  a  tenant  for  life 
under  the  power  given  by  the  Settled  Land  Act  1882).  Parties 
are  described  by  their  names,  addresses  and  occupations  or 
titles,  each  person  with  a  separate  interest,  or  filling  a  distinct 
character,  being  of  a  separate  part.  (2)  The  recitals  explain 
the  circumstances  of  the  title,  the  interests  of  the  parties  in 
relation  to  the  property,  and  the  agreement  or  object  intended 
to  be  carried  into  effect  by  the  conveyance.  Where  the  sale  is 
by  an  absolute  owner  there  is  no  need  for  recitals,  and  they  are 
frequently  dispensed  with;  but  where  there  are  several  parties 
occupying  different  positions,  recitals  in  chronological  order  of 
the  instruments  and  facts  giving  rise  to  their  connexion  with 
the  property  are  generally  necessary  in  order  to  make  the  deed 
intelligible.  (3)  It  is  usual  to  mention  the  consideration.  Where 
it  consists  of  money  the  statement  of  its  payment  is  followed 
by  an  acknowledgment,  in  a  parenthesis,  of  its  receipt,  which, 
in  deeds  executed  since  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881,  dispenses 
with  any  endorsed  or  further  receipt.  A  vendor,  who  is  the 
absolute  beneficial  owner,  now  conveys  expressly  "  as  beneficial 
owner,"  which  words,  by  virtue  of  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881, 
imply  covenants  by  him  with  the  purchaser  that  he  has  a  right 
to  convey,  for  quiet  enjoyment,  freedom  from  incumbrances, 
and  for  further  assurance — limited,  however,  to  the  acts  and 
defaults  of  the  covenantor  and  those  through  whom  he  derives 
his  title  otherwise  than  by  purchase  for  value.  A  trustee  or  an 
incumbrancer  joining  in  the  deed  conveys  "  as  trustee  "  or  "  as 
mortgagee,"  by  which  words  covenants  are  implied  that  the 
covenantor  individually  has  not  done  or  suffered  anything  to 
incumber  the  property,  or  prevent  him  from  conveying  as 


expressed.  As  to  the  operative  words,  any  expression  showing 
an  intention  to  pass  the  estate  is  effectual.  Since  the  Conveyan- 
cing Act  1881,  "convey"  has  become  as  common  as  "grant," 
which  was  formerly  used.  (4)  The  property  may  be  described 
either  in  the  body  of  the  deed  or  in  a  schedule,  or  compendiously 
in  the  one  and  in  detail  hi  the  other.  In  any  case  it  is  usual  to 
annex  a  plan.  Different  kinds  of  property  have  their  appro- 
priate technical  words  of  description.  Hereditaments  is  the  most 
comprehensive  term,  and  is  generally  used  either  alone  or  in 
conjunction  with  other  words  more  specifically  descriptive  of 
the  property  conveyed.  (5)  The  habendum  begins  with  the 
words  "  to  hold,"  and  the  estate,  on  a  sale  in  fee-simple,  is 
limited,  as  already  mentioned,  not  only  to,  but  also  to  the  use  of, 
the  purchaser.  Before  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881,  it  was 
necessary  to  add,  after  the  name  of  the  purchaser,  the  words 
"  and  his  heirs,"  or  "  his  heir  and  assigns,"  though  the  word 
"  assigns  "  never  had  any  conveyancing  force.  But  since  that 
Act  it  is  sufficient  to  add  "  in  fee-simple  "  without  using  the 
word  "  heirs."  Unless,  however,  one  or  other  of  these  additions 
is  made,  the  purchaser  will  even  now  get  only  an  estate  for  his 
life.  If  the  property  is  to  be  held  subject  to  a  lease  or  incum- 
brance, or  is  released  by  the  deed  from  an  incumbrance  previously 
existing,  this  is  expressed  after  the  words  of  limitation.  (6) 
Where  any  special  covenants  or  provisions  have  been  stipulated 
for,  or  are  required  hi  the  circumstances  of  the  title,  they  are, 
as  a  rule,  inserted  at  the  end  of  the  conveyance.  In  simple 
cases  none  are  needed.  Where,  however,  a  vendor  retains 
documents  of  title,  which  he  is  entitled  to  do  where  he  sells  a 
part  only  of  the  estate  to  which  they  relate,  it  is  the  practice 
for  him  by  the  conveyance  to  acknowledge  the  right  of  the 
purchaser  to  production  and  delivery  of  copies  of  such  of  them 
as  are  not  instruments  of  record  like  wills  or  orders  of  court,  and 
to  undertake  for  their  safe  custody.  This  acknowledgment  and 
undertaking  supply  the  place  of  the  lengthy  covenants  to  the 
like  effect  which  were  usual  before  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881. 
A  trustee  or  mortgagee  joining  gives  an  acknowledgment  as  to 
documents  retained  by  him,  but  not  an  undertaking.  The  fore- 
going outline  of  a  conveyance  will  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
specimen  of  a  simple  purchase-deed  of  part  of  an  estate  belonging 
to  an  absolute  owner  in  fee: — 

THIS  INDENTURE  made  the  day  of 

between  A.  B.  of,  &c.,  of  the  one  part  and  C.  D.  of,  &c.,  of  the  other 
part  WHEREAS  the  said  A.  B.  is  seised  (among  other  hereditaments) 
of  the  messuage  hereinafter  described  and  hereby  conveyed  for  an 
estate  in  fee  simple  in  possession  free  from  incumbrances  and  has 
agreed  to  sell  the  same  to  the  said  C.  D.  for  £100  Now  THIS  IN- 
DENTURE WITNESSETH  that  in  pursuance  of  the  said  agreement 
and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  £100  paid  to  the  said  A.  B.  by 
the  said  C.  D.(the  receipt  whereof  the  said  A.  B.  doth  hereby  acknow- 
ledge) the  said  A.  B.  as  beneficial  owner  doth  hereby  convey  unto 
the  said  C.  D.  ALL  THAT  messuage  or  tenement  situate  &c.,  and 
known  as,  &c.  To  HOLD  the  premises  unto  and  to  the  use  of  the  said 
C.  D.  his  heirs  and  assigns  [or  in  fee  simple]  And  the  said  A.  B. 
doth  hereby  acknowledge  the  right  of  the  said  C.  D.  to  production 
and  delivery  of  copies  of  the  following  documents  of  title  [mentioning 
them]  and  doth  undertake  for  the  safe  custody  thereof  IN 

WITNESS,  &C. 

It  will  be  observed  that  throughout  the  deed  there  are  no  stops, 
the  commencement  of  the  several  parts  being  indicated  by  capital 
letters.  The  draft  conveyance  having  been  approved  on  behalf  of 
the  vendor,  it  is  engrossed  upon  stout  paper  or  parchment,  and 
there  remains  only  the  completion  of  the  sale,  which  usually 
takes  place  at  the  office  of  the  vendor's  solicitor.  A  purchaser  is 
not  entitled  to  require  the  vendor  to  attend  personally  and 
execute  the  conveyance  in  his  presence  or  that  of  his  solicitor. 
The  practice  is  for  the  deed  to  be  previously  executed  by  the 
vendor  and  delivered  to  his  solicitor,  and  for  the  solicitor  to 
receive  the  purchase-money  on  his  client's  behalf,  since  a 
purchaser  is,  under  the  Conveyancing  Act  1 88 1 ,  safe  in  paying  the 
purchase-money  to  a  solicitor  producing  a  deed  so  executed,  when 
it  contains  the  usual  acknowledgment  by  the  vendor  of  the 
receipt  of  the  money.  Upon  the  completion,  the  documents  of 
title  are  handed  over  except  in  the  case  above  referred  to,  and  any 
claims  between  the  parties  in  respect  of  interest  upon  the 
purchase-money,  apportioned  outgoings,  or  otherwise,  are 


CONVEYANCING 


settled.  The  conveyance  is,  of  course,  delivered  to  the  purchaser, 
upon  whom  rests  the  obligation  of  affixing  the  proper  stamp — 
which  he  may  do  without  penalty  within  thirty  days  after 
execution  (Stamp  Act  1891).  It  may  be  added  that,  subject  to 
any  special  bargain,  which  is  rarely  made,  the  costs  of  the 
execution  by  the  vendor  and  other  parties  whose  concurrence  is 
necessary,  and  of  any  act  required  to  be  done  by  the  vendor  to 
carry  out  his  contract,  are  borne  by  the  vendor. 

Ordinary  leases  at  rack-rents  are  not  generally  preceded  by  a 
formal  agreement,  such  as  is  common  on  a  sale  of  land,  or  by  an 
Leases  investigation  into  the  lessor's  title.  As  a  rule,  the 

principal  terms  are  arranged  between  the  parties,  and 
embodied  with  various  ancillary  provisions  in  a  draft  lease, 
which  is  prepared  by  the  lessor's  advisers  and  submitted  to  the 
lessee,  the  ultimate  form  and  contents  of  the  instrument  being 
adjusted  by  negotiation.  If  an  intending  lessee  desires  to 
examine  the  title  he  must  make  an  express  bargain  to  that  effect, 
for  under  a  contract  to  grant  a  lease  the  intended  lessee  is  not 
entitled,  in  the  absence  of  such  express  stipulation,  to  call  for  the 
title  to  the  freehold  (Vendor  and  Purchaser  Act  1874).  By  the 
Statute  of  Frauds  all  leases,  except  leases  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
three  years,  and  at  not  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  rack-rent,  were 
required  to  be  in  writing.  And  now  by  the  Real  Property  Act 
1845,  leases  required  by  law  to  be  in  writing  are  void  at  law  unless 
made  by  deed.  An  instrument,  void  as  a  lease  under  the  act, 
may,  however,  be  valid  as  an  agreement  to  take  a  lease;  and 
since  the  Judicature  Act  1873,  under  which  equitable  doctrines 
prevail  in  the  High  Court,  a  person  holding  under  an  agreement 
for  a  lease,  of  which  specific  performance  would  be  granted,  is 
treated  in  all  branches  of  that  court  as  if  such  a  lease  were 
already  executed.  Unless  otherwise  agreed,  a  lease  is  always 
prepared  by  a  lessor's  solicitor  at  the  expense  of  the  lessee;  but 
the  cost  of  the  counterpart  (i.e.  the  duplicate  executed  by  the 
lessee)  is  usually  borne  by  the  lessor. 

Upon  the  sale  and  conveyance  of  a  leasehold  property  sub- 
stantially the  same  procedure  is  observed  as  above  indicated  in 

the  case  of  a  freehold.  A  few  additional  points, 
meat"of  however,  may  be  specially  mentioned.  Under  an  open 
leaseholds,  contract  the  vendor  cannot  be  called  upon  to  show  the 

title  to  the  freehold  reversion  (Vendor  and  Purchaser 
Act  1874;  Conveyancing  Act  1881).  Accordingly,  the  abstract 
of  title  begins  with  the  lease,  however  old;  but  the  subsequent 
title  need  not  be  carried  back  for  more  than  forty  years  before  the 
sale.  The  purchaser,  apart  from  stipulation,  must  assume, 
unless  the  contrary  appears,  that  the  lease  was  duly  granted,  and 
upon  production  of  the  receipt  for  the  last  payment  due  for  rent 
before  completion,  that  all  the  covenants  and  provisions  of  the 
lease  have  been  duly  performed  and  observed  up  to  the  date  of 
actual  completion.  The  appropriate  word  of  conveyance  is 
"  assign,"  and  a  conveyance  of  leaseholds  is  generally  called  an 
assignment.  The  vendor's  covenants  for  title  implied  by  his 
assigning  "  as  beneficial  owner  "  include,  in  addition  to  the 
covenants  implied  by  those  words  in  a  conveyance  of  freehold,  a 
covenant  limited  in  manner  above  mentioned,  that  the  lease  is 
valid,  and  that  the  rent  and  the  provisions  of  the  lease  have  been 
paid  and  observed  up  to  the  time  of  conveyance  (Conveyancing 
Act  1881).  Where  the  vendor,  as  is  the  common  case,  remains 
liable  after  the  assignment  for  the  rent  and  the  performance  of 
the  covenants,  the  purchaser  must  covenant  to  pay  the  rent,  and 
perform  and  observe  the  covenants  and  provisions  of  the  lease, 
and  keep  the  vendor  indemnified  in  those  respects. 

A  mortgage  is  prepared  by  the  solicitor  of  the  mortgagee,  and 
the  mortgagor  bears  the  whole  expenses  of  the  transaction.  It  is 
Mortgages.  se'dom  that  there  is  any  preliminary  agreement, 

because  (i)  a  contract  to  lend  money  is  not  specifically 
enforceable;  and  (2)  inasmuch  as  the  primary  object  of  a 
mortgagee  is  to  have  his  money  well  secured,  he  is  not,  generally, 
willing  to  submit  to  restrictions  as  to  title  or  evidence  of  title 
which  might  give  rise  to  difficulty  or  expense  in  the  event  of  a 
sale  of  the  mortgaged  property.  An  intending  mortgagor  is 
accordingly  required  to  show  a  title  easily  marketable,  and  to 
verify  it  at  his  own  cost.  A  mortgage  follows  the  same  general 


form  as  a  conveyance  on  sale,  the  principal  points  of  difference 
being  that  the  conveyance  of  the  property  is  preceded  by  a 
covenant  for  the  payment  of  the  mortgage  money  and  interest, 
and  followed  by  a  proviso  for  reconveyance  upon  such  payment, 
and  by  any  special  provisions  necessary  or  proper  in  the  circum- 
stances, such  as  a  covenant  for  insurance  and  repairs  where  the 
security  comprises  buildings.  The  covenants  for  title  implied  by 
a  mortgagor  conveying  "  as  beneficial  owner  "  are  the  same  as  in 
the  case  of  a  vendor,  but  they  are  absolute  and  not  qualified  in 
the  manner  above  pointed  out. 

The  beneficial  operation  of  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881  in  shorten- 
ing conveyances  is  well  illustrated  by  a  modern  mortgage.  For,  by 
virtue  of  the  act,  a  mortgagee  by  deed  executed  after  its  commence- 
ment has,  subject  to  any  contrary  provisions  contained  in  the  deed, 
the  following  powers  to  the  like  extent  as  if  they  had  been  conferred 
in  terms:  (i)  a  power  of  sale  exercisable  after  the  mortgage  money 
has  become  due  (a)  if  notice  requiring  payment  has  been  served 
and  not  complied  with  for  three  months,  (6)  if  any  interest  is  in 
arrear  for  two  months,  or  (c)  there  has  been  a  breach  of  some 
obligation  under  the  deed  or  the  act  other  than  the  covenant  for 
payment  of  the  mortgage  money  or  interest;  (2)  a  power  to  insure 
subject  to  certain  restrictions;  (3)  a  power,  when  entitled  to  sell, 
to  appoint  a  receiver;  and  (4)  a  power  while  in  possession  to  cut 
and  sell  timber.  The  act  contains  ancillary  provisions  enabling 
a  mortgagee  upon  a  sale  to  convey  the  property  for  such  estate  or 
interest  as  is  the  subject  of  the  mortgage,  and  to  give  a  valid  receipt 
for  the  purchase-money,  and  the  purchaser  is  amply  protected 
against  any  irregularities  of  which  he  had  no  notice.  There  are  also 
large  powers  of  leasing  conferred  by  the  act  upon  mortgagor  and 
mortgagee  while  respectively  in  possession,  and  a  power  for  the 
mortgagor,  whilst  entitled  to  redeem,  to  inspect  and  take  copies  of 
title-deeds  in  the  mortgagee's  possession.  The  elaborate  provisions 
for  all  these  purposes  which  were  formerly  inserted  in  mortgage 
deeds  are  now  omitted;  but  sometimes  the  operation  of  the  act  is 
modified  in  certain  respects.  The  procedure  upon  a  sale  by  a  mort- 
gagee is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  vendor.  He  conveys, 
however,  "  as  mortgagee,"  these  words  implying  only  a  covenant 
by  him  against  incumbrances  arising  from  his  own  acts. 

The  frame  of  a  strict  settlement  of  real  estate,  which  is  usually 
made  either  on  marriage  or  by  way  of  resettlement  on  a  tenant  in 
tail  under  an  existing  settlement  attaining  twenty-one, 
has  been  much  simplified;  but  such  settlements  still 
remain  the  most  technical  and  most  complicated  of 
legal  instruments.  By  virtue  of  the  Settled  Land  Acts  1882  to 
1890,  tenants  for  life  and  many  other  limited  owners  have 
extensive  powers  of  sale,  of  leasing,  and  of  doing  numerous  other 
acts  required  in  a  due  course  of  management.  These  powers 
cannot  be  excluded  or  fettered  by  settlors.  They  are,  as  a  rule, 
considered  in  practice  to  be  sufficient,  and  the  corresponding 
elaborate  provisions  formerly  inserted  in  settlements  are  now 
omitted,  the  operation  of  the  acts  being  merely  supplemented, 
where  desirable,  by  some  extension  of  the  statutory  powers,  in 
relation,  e.g.,  to  the  investment  and  application  of  capital  money. 
To  complete  the  statutory  machinery  it  is  desirable  that  persons 
should  be  nominated  by  the  settlement  trustees  for  the  purposes 
of  the  acts.  Since  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881,  provisions  for  the 
protection  of  jointresses  or  persons  entitled  under  settlements  to 
rent  charges  or  annual  sums  issuing  out  of  the  land  are  no  longer 
required,  as  all  such  persons  have  now  powers  of  distress  and 
entry,  and  of  limiting  terms  to  secure  their  respective  interests. 
Terms  for  raising  portions  must  still,  however,  be  expressly 
created.  The  Conveyancing  Act  1881  also  confers  large  powers 
of  management  during  the  minorities  of, infants  beneficially 
entitled  upon  persons  either  appointed  for  the  purpose  by  the 
instrument  or  being  such  trustees  such  as  are  mentioned  in  §  42. 
An  estate  in  tail  may  now  be  limited  by  the  use  of  the  words  "  in 
tail "  without  the  words  "  heirs  of  the  body  "  formerly  necessary. 
And  a  settlor  generally  conveys  "  as  settlor,"  by  which  only  a 
covenant  for  further  assurance  is  implied  under  the  Conveyancing 
Act  1 88 1.  Personal  settlements  are  most  often  made  upon 
marriage.  The  settled  property  is  vested  in  trustees,  eithe»  by 
the  settlement  itself,  or  in  the  case  of  cash,  mortgage  debts,  stocks 
or  shares,  by  previous  delivery  or  transfer,  upon  trusts  declared 
by  the  instrument. 

The  normal  trusts  after  the  marriage  are  (i)  for  investment; 
(2)  for  payment  of  the  income  of  the  husband's  property  to  him 
for  life,  and  of  the  wife's  property  to  her  for  life  for  her  separate 
use  without  power  of  anticipation  whilst  under  coverture;  (3)  for 


CONVEYORS 


payment  to  the  survivor  for  his  or  her  life  of  the  income  of  both 
properties;  (4)  after  the  death  of  the  survivor,  both  as  to  capital 
and  income,  for  the  issue  of  the  marriage  as  the  husband  and  wife 
shall  jointly  by  deed  appoint,  and  in  default  of  joint  appointment 
as  the  survivor  shall  by  deed  or  will  appoint,  and  in  default  of  such 
appointment  for  the  children  of  the  marriage  who  attain  twenty- 
one,  or  being  daughters  marry,  in  equal  shares,  with  the  addition 
of  a  clause  (called  the  hotchpot  clause)  precluding  a  child  who 
or  whose  issue  takes  a  part  of  the  fund  by  appointment  from  sharing 
in  the  unappointed  part  without  bringing  the  appointed  share  into 
account.  Then  follows  a  power  for  the  trustees  with  the  consent 
of  the  parents  whilst  respectively  living  to  raise  a  part  (usually  a 
half)  of  the  share  of  a  child  and  apply  it  for  his  or  her  advancement 
or  benefit.  Power  to  apply  income,  after  the  death  of  the  life  tenants, 
for  the  maintenance  and  education  of  infants  entitled  in  expectancy, 
is  conferred  upon  trustees  by  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881.  The 
ultimate  trusts  in  the  event  of  there  being  no  children  who  attain 
vested  interests  are  (i)  of  the  husband's  property  for  him  absolutely ; 
and  (2)  of  the  wife's  property  for  such  persons  as  she  shall  when 
discovert  by  deed,  or  whether  covert  or  discovert  by  will,  appoint, 
and  in  default  of  appointment,  for  her  absolutely  if  she  survive  the 
husband,  but  if  not,  then  for  her  next  of  kin  under  the  Statute  of 
Distributions,  excluding  the  husband.  For  all  ordinary  purposes 
the  trustees  have  now  under  various  statutes  sufficient  powers  and 
indemnities.  They  may,  however,  in  some  cases  need  special  pro- 
tection against  liability.  A  power  of  appointing  new  trustees  is 
supplied  by  the  Trustee  Act  1893.  It  is  usually  made  exercisable 
by  the  husband  and  wife  during  their  joint  lives,  and  by  the  survivor 
during  his  or  her  life. 

The  form  and  contents  of  wills  are  extremely  diverse.  A  will 
of,  perhaps,  the  commonest  type  (a)  appoints  executors  and 
_,  trustees;  (b)  makes  a  specific  disposition  of  a  freehold 

or  leasehold  residence;  (c)  gives  a  few  legacies  or 
annuities;  and  (d)  devises  and  bequeaths  to  the  executors  and 
trustees  the  residue  of  the  real  and  personal  estate  upon  trust 
to  sell  and  convert,  to  invest  the  proceeds  (after  payment  of 
debts  and  funeral  and  testamentary  expenses)  in  a  specified 
manner,  to  pay  the  income  of  the  investments  to  the  testator's 
widow  for  life  or  until  another  marriage,  and  subject  to  her 
interest,  to  hold  the  capital  and  income  in  trust  for  his  children 
who  attain  twenty-one,  or  being  daughters  marry,  in  equal 
shares,  with  a  power  of  advancement.  Daughters'  shares  are 
frequently  settled  by  testators  upon  them  and  their  issue  on 
the  same  lines  and  with  the  same  statutory  incidents  as  above 
mentioned  in  the  observations  upon  settlements;  and  some- 
times a  will  contains  in  like  manner  a  strict  settlement  of  real 
estate.  It  is  a  point  often  overlooked  by  testators  desirous  of 
benefiting  remote  descendants  that  future  interests  in  property 
must,  under  what  is  known  as  the  rule  against  perpetuities,  be 
restricted  within  a  life  or  lives  in  being  and  twenty-one  years 
afterwards.  In  disposing  of  real  estate  "  devise  "  is  the  ap- 
propriate word  of  conveyance,  and  of  personal  estate  "bequeath." 
But  neither  word  is  at  all  necessary.  "  I  leave  all  I  have  to 
A.  B.  and  appoint  him  my  executor  "  would  make  an  effectual  will 
for  a  testator  who  wished  to  give  all  his  property,  whether  real 
or  personal,  after  payment  of  his  debts,  to  a  single  person. 
By  virtue  of  the  Land  Transfer  Act  1897,  Part  I.,  real  estate  of 
an  owner  dying  after  1897  now  vests  for  administrative  purposes 
in  his  executors  or  administrators,  notwithstanding  any  testa- 
mentary disposition. 

It  remains  to  mention  that  by  the  Land  Transfer  Act  1897  a 
system  of  compulsory  registration  of  title,  limited  to  the  county 
of  London,  was  established.  (See  LAND  REGISTRATION.) 

Conveyancing  counsel  to  the  court  (i.e.  to  the  chancery  division 
of  the  High  Court)  are  certain  counsel,  in  actual  practice  as  con- 
veyancers, of  not  less  than  ten  years'  standing,  who  are  appointed 
•  by  the  lord  chancellor,  to  the  number  of  six,  under  s.  40  of  the 
Master  in  Chancery  Abolition  Act  1852.  They_  are  appointed  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  the  court  in  the  investigation  of  the  title  to  any 
estate,  and  upon  their  opinion  the  court  or  any  judge  thereof  may 
act.  Any  party  who  objects  to  the  opinion  given  by  any  con- 
veyancing counsel  may  have  the  point  in  dispute  disposed  of  by 
the  judge  at  chambers  or  in  court.  Business  to  be  referred  to 
conveyancing  counsel  is  distributed  among  them  in  rotation,  and 
their  fees  are  regulated  by  the  taxing  officers. 

United  Stales. — American  legislation  favours  the  general 
policy  of  registering  all  documents  in  the  contents  of  which  the 
public  have  an  interest,  and  its  tendency  has  been  steadily 
towards  more  and  more  full  registration  both  of  documents  and 
statistics.  From  the  early  days  of  the  colonial  era  it  has  been 


customary  to  record  wills  and  conveyances  of  real  estate  in  full 
in  public  books,  suitably  indexed,  to  which  free  access  was  given. 
During  the  last  decade  of  the  igth  century,  three  states — 
Illinois,  Massachusetts,  and  Ohio — adopted  the  main  features 
of  the  Torrens  or  Prussian  system  for  registering  title  to  land 
rather  than  conveyances  under  which  title  may  be  claimed. 
These  are  the  ascertainment  by  public  officers  of  the  state  of  the 
title  to  some  or  all  of  the  parcels  of  real  estate  which  are  the 
subject  of  individual  property  within  the  state;  the  description 
of  each  parcel  (giving  its  proper  boundaries  and  characteristics) 
on  a  separate  page  of  a  public  register,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  title  is  vested;  the  issue  of  a  certificate  to  the  owner 
that  he  is  the  owner;  the  official  notation  on  this  register  of 
each  change  of  title  thereafter;  and  a  warranty  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  title  to  which  it  may  have  certified.  To  make  the 
system  complete  it  is  further  requisite  that  every  landowner 
should  be  compelled  to  make  use  of  it,  and  that  it  should  be 
impossible  to  transfer  a  title  effectually  without  the  issue  of 
such  a  government  certificate  in  favour  of  the  purchaser. 

Constitutional  provisions  have  been  found  to  prevent  or 
embarrass  legislation  hi  these  directions  in  some  of  the  states, 
but  it  is  believed  that  they  are  nowhere  such  as  cannot  be  obeyed 
without  any  serious  encroachment  on  the  principles  of  the  new 
system  (People  v.  Chase,  165  Illinois  Reports,  527;  State  v. 
Guilbert,  56  Ohio  State  Reports,  575;  People  v.  Simon,  176 
Illinois  Reports,  165;  Tyler  v.  J udges,  173  Massachusetts 
Reports;  55  North-Eastern  Reporter,  812;  Hamilton  v.  Brown, 
161  United  States  Reports,  256). 

Conveyances  which  have  been  duly  recorded  become  of  com- 
paratively little  importance  in  the  United  States.  The  party 
claiming  immediately  under  them,  if  forced  to  sue  to  vindicate 
his  title,  must  produce  them  or  account  for  their  loss;  but  any 
one  deriving  title  from  him  can  procure  a  certified  copy  of  the 
original  conveyance  from  the  recording  officer  and  rely  on  that. 
Equitable  mortgages  by  a  deposit  of  title-deeds  are  unknown. 

The  general  prevalence  of  public  registry  systems  has  had  an 
influence  in  the  development  of  American  jurisprudence  in  the 
direction  of  supporting  provisions  in  wills  and  conveyances,  which, 
unless  generally  known,  might  tend  to  mislead  and  deceive,  such  as 
spendthrift  trusts  (Nichols  v.  Eaton,  9 1  United  States  Reports,  716). 

Conveyances  of  real  estate  are  simple  in  form,  and  are 
often  prepared  by  those  who  have  had  no  professional  training 
for  the  purpose.  Printed  blanks,  sold  at  the  law-stationers, 
are  commonly  employed.  The  lawyers  in  each  state  have 
devised  forms  for  such  blanks,  sometimes  peculiar  in  some 
points  to  the  particular  state,  and  sometimes  copied  verbatim 
from  those  in  use  elsewhere.  Deeds  intended  to  convey  an 
absolute  estate  are  generally  either  of  the  form  known  as 
warranty  deed  or  of  that  known  as  release  deed.  The  release  deed 
is  often  used  as  a  primary  conveyance  without  warranty  to  one 
who  has  no  prior  interest  in  the  land.  Uniformity  hi  deeds  is 
rendered  particularly  desirable  from  the  general  prevalence  of 
the  system  of  recording  all  conveyances  at  length  in  a  public 
office.  Record  books  are  printed  for  this  purpose,  containing 
printed  pages  corresponding  to  the  printed  blanks  in  use  in  the 
particular  state,  and  the  recording  officer  simply  has  to  fill  up 
each  page  as  the  deed  of  similar  form  was  filled  up.  One  set  of 
books  may  thus  be  kept  for  recording  warranty  deeds,  another 
for  recording  release  deeds,  another  for  recording  mortgage 
deeds,  another  for  leases,  &c. 

AUTHORITIES. — Davidson,  Precedents  and  Forms  in  Conveyancing 
(London,  1877  and  1885) ;  Key  and  Elphinstone,  Compendium  of 
Precedents  in  Conveyancing  (London,  1904) ;  Elphinstone,  Intro- 
duction to  Conveyancing  (London,  1900) ;  Prideaux,  Precedents  in 
Conveyancing  (1904);  Pollock,  The  Land  Laws  (London,  1896). 

(S.  WA.  ;  S.  E.  B.) 

CONVEYORS.  "  Conveyor  "  (for  derivation  see  CONVEYANCE) 
is  a  term  generally  applied  to  mechanical  devices  designed  for 
the  purpose  of  moving  material  in  a  horizontal  or  slightly  in. 
clined  direction;  in  this  article,  however,  are  included  a  variety 
of  appliances  for  moving  materials  in  horizontal,  vertical  and 
combined  horizontal  and  vertical  directions.  The  material  so 
handled  may  be  conveyed  in  a  practically  uninterrupted  stream, 


CONVEYORS 


53 


as  in  the  case  of  worms,  bands  and  pushplate  conveyors,  or 
elevators  carrying  grain  or  coal,  &c.;  or  it  may  be  conveyed 
from  one  point  to  another,  intermittently,  that  is  to  say  in  a 
succession  of  separate  loads,  as  happens  with  single  bucket 
elevators,  furnace  hoists,  rope  and  chain  haulage,  and  also  in 
the  case  of  ropeways  and  aerial  cableways.  Some  of  these 
devices  are  of  great  antiquity,  others  are  of  quite  modern  origin. 
The  principles  of  their  construction  are  simple  and  easy  of 
understanding,  but  by  variations  in  the  details  of  their  construc- 
tion the  engineer  has  adapted  these  few  appliances  to  the  most 
varied  work.  At  one  end  of  the  scale  they  may  be  used  for 
such  light  duties  as  conveying  the  goods  purchased  by  a  customer 
to  the  packers  and  bringing  them  back  made  up  into  a  parcel 
or  for  taking  his  money  to  the  cashier  and  returning  the  change. 
At  the  other  they  are  adopted  for  handling  large  quantities  of 
heavy  material  at  a  minimum  expenditure  of  human  labour. 
Coal,  for  instance,  a  more  or  less  friable  substance,  the  value  of 
which  is  seriously  diminished  by  fracture,  may  be  mechanically 
handled  with  a  minimum  risk  of  breakage.  The  difficult  problem 
of  handling  the  contents  of  gas  retorts  and  coke  ovens,  and  of 
simultaneously  quenching  and  conveying  the  glowing  material, 
has  been  solved.  Perhaps  an  even  more  astonishing  piece  of 
work  is  the  manipulation  of  the  iron  from  the  blast  furnace; 
for  instance,  liquid  metal  is  drawn  from  a  furnace  into  pouring 
pots  which  in  their  turn  discharge  it  to  and  distribute  it  over  a 
pig-iron  casting  machine,  which  is  practically  a  conveyor  for 
liquid  metal,  consisting  of  a  strand  of  moving  moulds  from  which 
the  solidified  pigs,  after  cooling  in  water,  are  automatically 
removed  after  reaching  the  loading  terminal  over  the  railway 
trucks.  Certain  types  of  conveyors  may  be  made  to  combine 
efficiently,  with  their  primary  work  of  transport,  complex 
sorting,  sifting,  drying  and  weighing  operations. 

Worm  Conveyors. — The  worm  conveyor,  also  known  as  the 
Archimedean  screw,  is  doubtless  the  most  ancient  form  of 
conveyor.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  or  broken  blade  screw 
set  on  a  spindle.  This  spindle  is  made  to  revolve  in  a  suitable 
trough,  and  as  it  revolves  any  material  put  in  is  propelled  by  the 
screw  from  one  end  of  the  trough  to  the  other.  Such  conveyors 
have  been  used  in  flour-mills  for  centuries.  The  writer  has  seen 
in  an  East  Anglian  mill  which  was  over  250  years  old  disused 
screw  conveyors,  probably  as  old  as  the  mill,  consisting  of 
spindles  of  octagonal  shape,  made  of  not  too  hard  wood,  around 
which  a  broken  blade  screw  was  formed  by  the  insertion  at 
regular  intervals  of  small  blades  of  hard  wood  (fig.  i).  Modern 
worm  conveyors  usually  consist  of  a  spindle  formed  of  a  length  of 


FIG.  I. — Early  Flour  Mill  Conveyor.1 

wrought  iron  piping,  to  which  is  fitted  either  a  broken  or  con- 
tinuous worm.  In  the  former  case  (fig.  2)  the  worm  is  composed 
of  a  series  of  blades  or  paddles  arranged  like  a  spiral  round  the 


FIG.  2. — Paddle  Worm  Conveyor. 

spindle;  each  blade  is  fixed,  by  means  of  its  shank,  in  a  transverse 
hole  in  the  spindle,  and  the  shank  is  held  in  position  by  being 
tapped  and  fitted  with  a  nut.  In  this  way  is  formed,  out  of 
separate  blades,  a  practically  complete  screw,  technically  known 

1  The  illustrations  in  this  article  are  taken,  by  kind  permission, 
from  the  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 


as  a  "  paddle  worm."  The  lengths  or  sections  of  the  worm 
run  to  about  8  ft.,  the  various  lengths  being  coupled  by  turned 
gudgeons,  which  also  serve  as  journals  for  the  bearings.  In  the 
so-called  continuous  worm  conveyors  the  screw  is  formed  of  a 
continuous  sheet-iron  spiral  (fig.  3) .  Sometimes  a  narrow  groove 


FIG.  3. — Continuous  Worm  Conveyor. 

is  cut  in  spiral  form  on  the  spindle,  and  in  this  groove  the  sheet- 
iron  spiral  is  secured. 

The  spiral  or  anti-friction  conveyor  (fig.  4)  was  introduced 
about  1887.  In  this  case  a  narrow  spiral,  which  passes  con- 
centrically round  the  spindle,  with  a  space  between  both,  is  fixed 
to  it  at  set  intervals  by  small  blades,  each  of  which  is  itself  fixed 
by  its  shank  and  a  nut  to  the  spindle.  The  spiral  may  be  made  of 


FIG.  4. — Spiral  or  Anti-Friction  Conveyor. 

almost  any  section,  from  a  round  bar  about  £  in.  in  diameter  to 
L  or  T  section,  but  is  preferably  a  flat  bar.  Worms  are  fitted  into 
wooden  or  iron  troughs  leaving  a  clearance  of  5  to  j  in.  The 
spindle  must  be  supported  at  suitable  intervals  by  bearings, 
preferably  of  the  bush  type.  A  continuous  worm,  being  more 
rigid  than  a  paddle  worm,  needs  fewer  supports.  The  lid  of  the 
worm  trough  should  be  loose,  not  screwed  on,  because  in  case  of 
an  accumulation  of  feed  through  a  choke  in  a  delivery  spout  the 
paddles  of  a  paddle  worm  would  be  broken,  or  a  continuous  worm 
stripped,  unless  the  material  could  throw  off  the  lid  and  relieve 
the  worm.  The  ratios  of  the  pitch  of  the  worm  to  the  diameter 
must  be  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  material  to  be  conveyed, 
and  will  vary  from  one-third  to  a  pitch  equal  to,  or  even  exceeding, 
the  diameter.  The  greater  the  pitch  the  larger  the  capacity,  but 
also  the  greater  the  driving  power  required,  at  the  same  speed. 
For  handling  materials  of  greater  specific  gravity,  such  as 
cement,  &c.,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  smaller  pitch  than  for 
substances  of  lower  specific  gravity,  such  as  grain.  The  capacity 
of  a  continuous  worm  exceeds  that  of  either  a  paddle  or  spiral 
conveyor  of  the  same  diameter,  pitch  and  speed.  As  regards  the 
relative  efficiency  of  paddle  and  spiral  conveyors  a  series  of 
careful  tests  made  by  the  writer  indicated  that,  run  at  a  slow 
speed  the  paddle  worm,  but  at  a  high  speed  the  spiral  worm,  has 
the  greater  efficiency.  There  is  of  course  a  speed  at  which  the 
efficiency  of  both  types  is  about  equal,  and  that  is  at  150  revolu- 
tions per  minute  for  conveyors  4  to  6  in.  in  diameter. 

The  power  necessary  to  drive  worm  conveyors  under  normal 
conditions  is  very  considerable;  a  continuous  worm  of  18  to  20  in. 
diameter  running  at  60  revolutions  per  minute  will  convey  50 
tons  of  grain  per  hour  over  a  distance  of  a  hundred  feet  at  an 
expenditure  of  18^  to  19  H.P.  A  material  like  cement  would 
require  rather  more  power  because  of  the  greater  friction  of  the 
cement  against  the  blades  and  the  trough.  Delivery  from  a 
worm  conveyor  can  be  effected  at  any  desired  point,  all  that  is 
necessary  being  to  cut  an  outlet,  which  should  preferably  be  as 
wide  as  the  diameter  of  the  worm,  because  the  worm  delivers  only 
on  its  leading  side,  and  is  practically  empty  on  the  other  side, 
so  that  a  smaller  outlet  might  only  give  exit  to  a  portion  of  the 
feed,  unless  it  was  on  the  leading  side. 

A  special  form  of  worm  conveyor  is  the  tubular  (fig.  5),  which 
consists  of  an  iron  tube  with  a  continuous  spiral  fitted  to  its  inner 


54 


CONVEYORS 


periphery,  or  of  iron  or  wooden  tubes  of  square  sections  fitted 
with  fixed  baffle  plates  inside.  In  working  it  revolves  bodily  on 
suitable  rollers.  This  type  is  more  costly  than  the  ordinary 
worm  conveyors,  and  also  requires  more  power.  Its  efficiency  is, 


FIG.  5. — Tubular  Worm  Conveyor. 

moreover,  easily  impaired  if  run  at  too  high  a  speed,  because 
the  centrifugal  force  asserts  itself  and  counteracts  the  propulsion, 
which  in  this  case  is  effected  by  gravity.  Some  experiments 
made  in  1868  by  George  Fosbery  Lyster,  engineer  of  the  Liverpool 
docks,  gave  convincing  results  (see  Proc.  Inst.  Mech.  Eng., 
August  1869).  The  tubular  worm  conveyor  is  suitable  where  a 
granular  material  has  to  be  moved  over  a  comparatively  short 
distance,  say  from  one  building  to  another  on  the  same  level,  and 
where  no  bridge  is  available  for  the  installation  of  any  other  kind 
of  conveyor.  Conveyors  of  this  type  have,  however,  come  into 
use  for  conveying  hard  and  cutting  substances  over  consider- 
able lengths.  Ordinary  worm  conveyors  are  practically  debarred 
from  use  for  such  substances  on  account  of  the  short  b'fe  of  the 
intermediate  bearings,  which  are  not  necessary  with  externally 
supported  tubular  worms. 

To  sum  up,  worm  conveyors  are  of  the  simplest  construction 
and  of  small  prime  cost.  The  terminals  again  are  much  less 
expensive  than  those  of  most  other  kinds  of  conveyors.  When  the 
distance  to  be  traversed  by  the  material  is  short,  the  worm 
conveyor  has  this  advantage,  that  it  is  cheaper  than  other  kinds 
of  conveyors.  If  it  be 
desired  not  only  to  con- 
vey but  also  to  mix  two 
or  more  materials,  such 
as  cement  and  sand  in  a 
dry  state,  or  poultry 
food,  this  appliance  is 
thoroughly  well  adapted 
for  the  work.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a 
grinding  action  exer- 
cised on  any  material 
conveyed,  and  when 
hard  or  cutting  sub- 
stances are  handled  the 
wear  and  tear  on  the 
conveyor  blades,  trough 
and  bearings  is  very 
great,  and  the  power  absorbed  by  a 
sensible  item. 

Band  Conveyors. — The  inventor  of  band  conveyors  for  the 
handling  of  grain  and  minerals  was  G.  F.  Lyster,  who,  as  already 
mentioned,  in  1868  carried  out  exhaustive  experiments  at  the 
Liverpool  docks,  where  he  established  the  band  conveyor  as  a 
grain-handler.  For  granaries  the  band  conveyor  is  an  ideal 
appliance.  Its  capacity  is  great,  and  it  can  be  run  at  relatively 
high  speeds  with  a  moderate  expenditure  of  power.  The  band 
conveyor  of  to-day  is  an  endless  belt  of  canvas  or  more  often 
india-rubber  with  insertion,  and  when  fitted  with  the  usual 
receiving  and  delivery  appliances  can  be  used  to  handle  grain 
from  or  into  granaries  and  also  to  feed  bins  or  sections  of  a  ware- 
house. The  endless  bands  run  over  terminal  pulleys,  and  are 
also  supported  on  their  way  by  a  series  of  guide  rollers,  which 
are  in  greater  number  on  the  loaded  than  on  the  empty  strand. 
The  band  is  usually  run  quite  flat,  except  that  at  the  point  or 
points  where  the  grain  is  fed  on  it  is  slightly  hollowed  for  a  few 
feet,  by  means  of  two  curving  rolls  which  are  set  obliquely  so  as 


to  make  it  trough-shaped.  The  supporting  or  guide  rollers  are 
4  in.  to  6  in.  in  diameter,  and  are  sometimes  made  of  wood,  but 
more  often  consist  of  steel  tubes  to  which  spindles  with  conical 
end  gudgeons  are  secured.  The  gudgeons  generally  run  in 
suitable  bush-bearings,  which  should  be  well  lubricated.  Band 
conveyors  should  be  driven  on  the  delivery  and  not  the  receiving 
terminal,  as  the  tight  side  of  the  band  is  the  flattest.  The  guide 
rollers,  for  ordinary  grain  conveyors,  are  fitted  to  the  upper  or 
working  side  of  the  band  at  intervals  of  about  6  ft.,  and  at 
distances  of  1 2  ft.  on  the  lower  or  return  strand.  In  cases  where 
both  strands  of  the  band  are  used  for  carrying  grain,  the  lower 
strand  must  be  supported  by  as  many  rollers  as  the  upper. 
Under  such  conditions,  terminal  pulleys  must  be  of  larger 
diameter  than  usual,  the  object  being  to  throw  the  two  strands 
farther  apart,  so  as  to  give  sufficient  space  between  the  two 
strands  to  spout  the  feed  in  and  out  again  at  the  other  end. 
The  two  strands  can  be  run  any  distance  apart  by  the  use  of 
two  additional  pulleys  for  the  terminals.  This  arrangement 
would  be  in  place  where  it  was  desired,  as  it  might  be,  to  run 
one  strand  of  the  band  along  the  top  floor  of  the  granary  to 
distribute,  while  the  other  strand  travelled  along  the  ground- 
floor  or  basement  to  withdraw,  the  grain. 

Band  conveyors  are  kept  tight,  when  the  band  is  not  very  long, 
by  a  tightening  gear,  similar  to  that  used  on  elevators,  and  consisting 
of  two  screws  which  push  or  better  pull  the  two  pedestals  of  one 
terminal  pulley  farther  away  from  the  other  terminal.  If  the  band 
is  of  such  length  that  an  adjustment  of  4  to  5  ft.  on  the  tightening 
gear  is  not  sufficient,  it  is  advisable  to  use  in  place  of  screws  a  tighten- 
ing pulley,  over  which  the  belt  passes,  but  which  is  itself  held  in 
tension  by  weights.  The  choice  of  the  exact  tightening  gear  will 
depend  on  various  considerations,  the  length  of  the  belt,  the  type 
of  throw-off  carriage  used,  and  the  quality  of  the  belt  all  being 
factors  to  be  considered.  The  throw-off  carriage  (fig.  6),  which 
serves  to  withdraw  material  from  the  band  at  any  desired  point, 
is  a  simple  but  ingenious  appliance  consisting  essentially  of  guide 
pulleys  which  by  raising  one  part  of  the  band  and  lowering  the  other 
have  the  effect  of  causing  the  grain  to  quit  the  surface  of  the  band 
at  the  point  where  it  is  deflected  upwards.  The  grain  is  thus  cast 


ELEVATION 

FIG.  6. — Throw-off  Carriage  for  Band  Conveyor. 


CROSS    SECTION 


worm   conveyor  is  a 


clear  of  the  band,  and  into  the  air,  being  caught  as  it  falls  in  a  hopper 
and  spouted  in  any  desired  direction.  Throw-off  carriages  differ  in 
certain  details,  but  the  principle  is  the  same.  For  feeding  a  band 
conveyor  it  is  important  to  give  the  material  a  horizontal  velocity, 
approaching  that  of  the  band.  The  grain  should  therefore  be  fed 
through  a  spout  rather  less  in  breadth  than  half  of  the  width  of  the 
band,  and  set  at  an  incline  of  42j°  to  the  horizontal.  Band  con- 
veyors run  at  a  speed  of  400  to  600  ft.  per  minute,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  material;  oats,  for  instance,  would  be  liable  to  be 
blown  off  the  band  at  a  speed  in  excess  of  500,  which  would  be 
suitable  for  wheat.  Nuts,  maize  and  the  heavier  seeds  could  be 
carried  at  600.  The  power  consumption  by  a  grain-laden  band 
compares  favourably  with  any  other  form  of  conveyor.  An  i8-in. 
band  100  ft.  in  length  running  500  ft.  per  minute  would  carry  50  tons 
per  hour  at  an  expenditure  of  only  4-5  H.P. 

While  the  band  conveyor  is  an  ideal  conveyor  in  warehouses 
and  mills,  it  is  also  capable  of  rendering  good  service  in  handling 
such  heavy  materials  as  coal  and  minerals.  Of  course  for  such 
purposes  the  band  and  its  fittings  must  be  of  much  more  sub- 
stantial construction.  The  central  portions  of  the  band  carrying 
the  load,  being  subjected  to  great  wear  and  tear,  are  often  made 


CONVEYORS 


55 


of  solid  india-rubber  extending  to  nearly  half  the  thickness  of 
the  band  in  the  middle,  and  tapering  off  towards  the  edges,  while 
the  surface  facing  the  guide  rollers  is  of  insertion  coated  with 
india-rubber.  Bands  properly  prepared  and  stretched  will  bear 
a  strain  of  3  tons  to  the  square  inch.  Balata  bands  may  be 
used  in  place  of  india-rubber,  but  though  less  expensive  are  not 
so  lasting.  Bands  that  have  to  carry  coal  or  minerals  are  usually 

curved  along  the  entire 
length  of  the  upper  or 
loaded  strand  into  a  trough 
shape  by  guide  rollers  (fig. 
7).  Bands  of  woven  wire 
are  sometimes  used  with 
coal -washing  plants,  but 
have  the  disadvantage  of 
lack  of  durability.  They 
are  more  liable  to  stretch 
and  are  high  in  price.  They 


FIG.  7. 


may  be  run  as  high  as  about  600  ft.  pej  minute,  but  to  ensure 
proper  grip-driving  terminals  must  either  be  faced  with  leather 
or  made  of  wood. 

The  speed  of  band  conveyors  loaded  with  coal  or  minerals 
greatly  depends  on  the  size  of  the  fragments;  the  proper  speed 
for  large  pieces  would  be  150-200  ft.  per  minute,  while  smaller 
material  could  be  carried  at  a  maximum  velocity  of  700-750  ft. 
Band  conveyors  will  carry  in  an  upward  direction,  up  to  24 
degrees,  without  any  loss  of  capacity.  They  can  be  used  not 
only  to  carry  light  and  heavy  bodies,  such  as  grain  and  coal, 
in  a  continuous  stream,  but  also  to  convey  relatively  large 
bodies  such  as  sacks  of  flour,  or  cement,  &c.,  intermittently. 
Thus  a  band  26  in.  wide  and  350  ft.  long  is  used  at  a  flour-mill 
in  York  to  load  sacks  of  flour  into  railway  trucks;  by  this 
means  12  wagons  can  be  loaded  by  two  men  in  i  hour.  Band 
conveyors  are  not  necessarily  fixed  in  one  place.  A  portable 
model  has  rendered  good  service  in  tunnel-cutting,  mining  and 
quarrying.  This  band  is  mounted  in  a  light  steel  frame,  itself 
fitted  with  smaU  wheels,  so  as  to  be  readily  put  in  any  required 
position,  and  is  entirely  self-contained,  being  provided  with 
tightening  gear,  a  small  motor,  &c.  If  required,  several  lengths 
can  be  joined  together,  or  one  band  can  deliver  upon  another 
at  a  lower  level.  The  same  advantages  that  attend  the  use  of 
the  band-conveyor  for  handling  grain  may  be  claimed  for  this 
appliance  when  carrying  coal  and  heavy  bodies,  namely  the 
demand  for  relatively  small  power,  smooth  and  noiseless  work, 
and  gentle  handling  of  material.  On  the  other  hand  the  feed 
cannot  be  withdrawn  at  intermediate  points  except  by  means 
of  a  throw-off  carriage.  The  numerous  bearings  of  the  guide 
rollers  require  careful  lubrication,  and  the  rubber  bands  should 
be  protected  as  much  as  possible  from  changes  of  temperature. 

The  metal  band  or  belt  conveyor,  a  modification  of  the  rubber 
or  canvas  band  conveyors,  is  an  endless  belt  composed  of  iron 
plates  connected  to  endless  chains,  usually  of  malleable  cast  iron, 
running  under  the  plates.  Such  appliances,  being  obviously 
more  cumbrous  than  band  conveyors,  are  only  used  in  handling 
material  of  a  hard  and  cutting  nature.  They  usually  deliver  only 
at  the  end,  but  if  intermediate  delivery  be  desired  a  scraper  may 
be  so  fixed  across  the  band  at  a  given  point,  at  an  angle  of  45°,  as 
to  scrape  the  whole  or  part  of  the  feed  into  a  shoot,  or  a  scraper 
may  be  mounted  obliquely  on  a  suitable  carriage  which  can  be 
moved  to  any  points  at  which  delivery  may  be  required.  In 
some  bands  of  this  type  supporting  rollers  are  attached  to  the 
links  and  travel  with  them,  or  are  fixed  to  the  framing  so  that 
the  band  runs  over  them,  an  arrangement  which  has  the  advan- 
tage of  economizing  driving  power  and  of  promoting  smooth 
running.  Metal  band  conveyors  are  tightened  in  the  same  way 
as  textile  or  rubber  bands,  and  may  run  at  a  speed  of  60  to  1 20 
ft.  per  minute.  The  driving  gear  must  always  be  placed  at  the 
delivery  terminal,  so  that  the  loaded  strand  is  in  tension.  Such 
appliances  are  often  used  as  sorting  tables  or  picking  bands,  for 
instance,  for  coal,  cement,  minerals,  &c. 

In  another  modification  of  the  metal  band  conveyor,  the 
travelling  trough  conveyor,  the  sides  of  each  plate  are  turned  up 


so  as  to  form  the  conveying  surface  of  the  band  into  a  continuous 
trough.  With  this  arrangement  intermediate  delivery  is  im- 
possible, as  the  sides  of  the  trough  will  not  allow  the  use  of  a 
scraper.  As  compared  with  push-plate  conveyors  (which  consist 
of  s.crapers  mounted  on  endless  travelling  chains  that  run  usually 
in  troughs),  travelling  trough  conveyors  are  gentle  handlers  of 
material. 

A  conveyor  which  is  capable  of  dealing  with  many  different 
kinds  of  material  is  known  as  the  vibrating  trough  conveyor. 
It  is  so  far  like  the  band  and  travelling  trough  conveyor  that 
the  material  it  conveys  from  one  point  to  another  is  conveyed 
without  the  use  of  any  stirring  or  pushing  agent,  such  as  belong 
to  worm,  push-plate  and  cable  trough  conveyors.  For  materials 
requiring  gentle  treatment,  this  type  of  conveyor  is  eminently 
suitable.  There  are  different  kinds  of  vibrating  trough  conveyors. 
In  one  type  the  trough  is  caused  to  make  a  reciprocating  motion 
by  means  of  a  crank  and  connecting  rod,  the  trough  itself  being 
supported  on  rollers.  In  another  type  the  trough  is  actuated 
by  a  cam,  or  by  cranks  with  some  kind  of  quick  return  motion. 
In  the  appliance  known  as  the  Zimmer  or  swinging  conveyor 
the  trough  is  supported  in  its  reciprocating  motion  by  means 
of  laminated  spring  legs  set  obliquely  to  the  trough.  These 
legs  are  securely  bolted  at  one  end  to  the  floor  or  any  other 
solid  support,  and  at  the  other  end  to  the  trough  itself;  hence 
no  lubrication  is  required,  as  would  be  the  case  with  supporting 
rollers.  Moreover  the  combined  action  of  the  reciprocating 
motion  of  the  crank  and  the  rocking  of  the  spring  legs  has  the 
effect  of  causing  the  material  to  travel  faster  in  the  trough  with 
a  given  stroke  of  the  crank  than  would  be  the  case  with  any 
other  support.  The  material  to  be  conveyed  is  not  carried 
along  with  its  support  as  in  the  case  of  a  band  or  travelling 
trough  conveyor,  but  is  caused  to  move  in  a  series  of  hops,  to 
use  popular  language. 

The  action  will  be  sufficiently  explained  by  the  appended  diagram 
(fig.  8),  which,  however,  is  exaggerated  to  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the 
actual  movements,  which  are  on  quite  a  small  scale.  The  line  AB 
represents  the  bottom  of  the  trough,  while  C  C  are  two  of  the  spring 
legs;  the  full  lines  indicate  the  spring  legs  at  the  extreme  backward 
position  of  the  crank,  while  the  dotted  lines  show  the  spring  legs 
E  E,  E,  E, 


-'B 


FlG.  8. — Swinging  or  Zimmer  Conveyor. 


and  bottom  of  the  trough  at  the  extreme  forward  position  of  the 
crank  D.  The  material  to  be  conveyed,  represented  by  E,  is  thrown 
forward  by  the  forward  movement  of  the  crank,  and  describes  a  short 
parabolic  curve;  it  is  thrown  at  about  a  right  angle  to  the  inclined 
legs  C  C,  but  before  it  has  time  to  complete  its  parabolic  course,  the 
trough  has  been  moved  by  the  crank  into  its  original  position.  As 
soon  as  the  material  has  dropped  down,  the  trough  makes  another 
forward  movement,  whereupon  the  material  is  thrown  forward 
another  stage,  and  this  process,  which  is  continually  repeated,  as 
indicated  by  the  letters  Ei,  Ej,  Ej,  has  the  effect  of  carrying  or 
conveying  the  material  in  the  direction  desired.  It  is  important  to 
note  that  the  actual  movement  both  of  trough  and  material  is  within 
narrow  bounds;  the  horizontal  movement  of  the  trough  is  only 
about  i  in.,  while  the  vertical  or  upward  movement  is  about  |  in. 
The  material  is  conveyed  by  this  vibrating  trough  with  a  minimum 
of  friction,  as  it  is  evident  that  the  material  is  carried  forward  without 
any  contact  with  the  trough,  while  the  very  nature  of  the  motion 
precludes  injurious  frictionbetween  the  particles  themselves.  When 
the  trough  is  full  the  material  will  move  as  it  were  in  a  solid  mass. 
An  important  improvement  in  this  type  of  vibrating  trough 
conveyor  is  the  balanced  conveyor,  in  which  the  trough  is  made 
in  two  sections,  one  being  placed  at  a  slightly  lower  level  than  the 
other,  so  that  one-half  may  deliver  into  the  other  half.  The  two 
sections  are  driven  by  triple  or  quadruple  cranks  set  at  an  angle 
of  about  180°  to  one  another.  In  this  case  one-half  of  the  conveyor 
will  move  forward  while  the  other  moves  backward,  thus  balancing 
each  other  (fig.  9)._  At  the  same  time  the  material  keeps  moving 
in  the  same  direction  because  all  the  spring  legs  are  of  the  same 
inclination.  It  is  usual  to  drive  balanced  conveyors  at  or  near  the 
centre  of  their  length,  but  they  may  also  be  driven  from  one  end, 


CONVEYORS 


in  which  case  the  balancing  of  the  conveyor  would  be  effected  by 
a  powerful  volute  spring  which  is  compressed  and  released  by  a  crank 
and  connecting  rod,  in  place  of  being  connected  to  one-half  of  the 
conveyor.  Two  sections  of  a  Zimmer  conveyor  can  be  made  to  run 
in  opposite  directions  by  merely  reversing  the  inclination  of  the 
spring  legs;  in  such  a  case  the  sections  of  a  trough  would  be  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  coupling.  Conveyors  of  this  type  have  been 
used  in  lengths  up  to  500  ft.,  and  in  widths  of  over  6  ft.  The  feed 
can  be  received  or  discharged  at  any  desired  point  in  the  length; 
for  drawing  off  material  at  intermediate  points  it  is  only  necessary 
to  open  a  slide  in  the  bottom  of  the  trough.  If  a  great  increase  be 
desired  in  the  capacity  of  this  conveyor  the  connecting  rod  may  be 
attached,  not  to  the  trough  at  all,  but  to  the  spring  legs  at  a  point 
of  about  a  third  or  half-way  from  the  base,  so  that  the  free  ends  of 
the  legs  can  swing  the  trough  backward  and  forward ;  by  this  means 
the  stroke  is  amplified  and  consequently  the  capacity  is  increased, 
while  the  driving  power  required  is  practically  the  same. 

The  power  absorbed  by  the  Zimmer  conveyor  is  comparatively 
small;  a  length  of  100  ft.  conveying  a  load  of  50  tons  per  hour  takes 
8-75  h.p.  With  a  speed  of  300-370  revolutions  per  minute  of  the 


chain  of  buckets.  But  these  buckets,  unlike  elevator  buckets, 
which  are  bolted  on  to  a  band  or  chain,  are  free  to  move  on  the 
axis  on  which  they  are  suspended  above  their  centre  of  gravity. 
When  the  conveyor  is  at  work  the  buckets  will  always  be  in  an 
upright  position,  whether  the  motion  be  vertical  or  horizontal. 
Each  bucket  carries  its  load  to  the  point  at  which  delivery  is 
required,  where  an  adjustable  tippling  device  is  ready  to  catch 
and  tilt  the  bucket,  thus  emptying  it.  This  type  of  conveyor  is 
chiefly  used  in  connexion  with  coal  stores  and  boiler  houses, 
where  it  has  undeniable  advantages.  For  instance,  in  feeding 
overhead  bunkers  a  well-designed  gravity  bucket  conveyor  may 
do  the  work  of  (i)  a  horizontal  conveyor  in  bringing  coal  from  the 
railway  siding,  (2)  a  vertical  elevator  in  raising  it  to  the  bunkers, 
and  (3)  a  horizontal  conveyor  in  distributing  it  to  the  respective 
bunkers.  In  some  cases  the  returning  empty  strand  of  buckets  is 
used  to  clear  the  ashes  from  under  the  boilers. 


conveyor,  the  material  will  traverse  40-70  ft.  per  minute.  The  gentle 
action  of  this  appliance  has  caused  it  to  be  largely  used  in  dealing 
with  friable  materials,  such  as  coal.  The  simplicity  of  the  mechan- 
ism leaves  little  to  get  out  of  order,  and  the  entire  absence  of  travel- 
ling gear,  such  as  supporting  rollers,  is  a  valuable  feature.  The 
capacity  of  the  conveyor  may  be  sensibly  increased  by  running  it  on 
a  downward  gradient,  while  the  capacity  will  be  correspondingly 
diminished  by  working  in  an  upward  direction.  Among  many 
purposes  for  which  this  type  of  conveyor  has  been  found  suitable 
is  that  of  a  drainer  in  connexion  with  coal-washing  plants.  A  per- 
forated plate  at  the  head  will  allow  the  water  to  escape,  while  the 
coal  is  carried  to  the  other  end.  A  slight  upward  slant  permits  the 
water  left  with  the  coal  to  run  back  and  escape.  In  colliery  work 
this  conveyor  makes  a  suitable  picking  table.  The  motion  of  the 
trough,  while  not  so  fast  as  to  baffle  the  pickers,  has  the  advantage 
of  uniformly  spreading  the  lumps  of  coal.  This  apparatus  also  lends 
itself  to  the  grading  ofcoal.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  fit  the  trough 
with  a  sieve  which  divides  it  into  an  upper  and  lower  deck.  The 
coarser  material  passes  along  the  top  of  the  sieve,  while  the  finer 
coal,  sifted  out  by  the  perforations,  travels  along  the  bottom  of  the 
trough  till  discharged.  In  spite. of  the  gentle  propelling  action  of 
thisconveyor.it  has  a  thorough  sifting  action;  a  perforated  plate 
from  10  to  12  ft.  long  is  usually  sufficient  to  separate  any  desired 
grade,  and  at  a  certain  Belgian  colliery  a  conveyor  of  this  type  fitted 
with  grading  sieves  feeds  seven  trucks  standing  in  a  row,  but  each 
on  a  different  siding,  and  each  taking  coal  of  a  different  size.  This 
conveyor  has  been  found  useful  both  as  a  drying  and  cooling  appli- 
ance. Several  substances  of  a  sticky  nature,  such  as  moist  sugar, 
L  ji  ?r?  difficu't  to  deal  with  mechanically,  can  be  efficiently 
handled  by  the  swinging  conveyor. 

The  gravity  or  tilling  bucket  conveyor  can  be  used  as  a  combined 
elevator  and  conveyor.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  endless 
chains  or  ropes  held  at  fixed  distances  apart  by  suitable  bars 
which  are  fitted  with  small  rollers  at  each  end.  Every  link,  or 
second  link,  carries  a  bucket,  and  the  whole  forms  an  endless 


Conveyors  of  this  type  run  at  a  mean  rate  of  40  ft.  per  minute, 
and  if  it  be  desired  to  attain  a  given  capacity  the  size  of  the 
buckets  must  be  adapted  to  the  increased  load  as  an  increase  of 
speed  for  a  higher  capacity  is  impracticable.  The  power  absorbed 
is  not  great,  the  heaviest  demand  on  the  motive  force  being 
made  by  the  elevating  operation.  Such  conveyors  have  the  merit 
of  handling  the  material  gently,  while  feeding  and  discharging  can 
take  place  at  any  point.  There  are  many  journals  to  be  looked 
after,  but  in  the  most  approved  systems  their  lubrication  is 
effected  automatically.  Whilst  such  a  plant  has  the  advantage 
of  requiring  only  one  driving  gear,  a  breakdown  at  one  point  of 
the  installation  means  the  stoppage  of  the  whole. 

Among  typical  conveyors  on  this  system  is  the  Hunt  conveyor 
(fig.  10),  which  consists  of  a  double  link  carrying  a  series  of  pivoted 
buckets  which  are  free  to  revolve  on  their  axes  at  all  points,  except 
at  that  point  at  which  they  discharge.  This  operation  is  effected 
by  a  cam  action,  the  buckets  on  their  release  righting  themselves 
and  becoming  ready  for  refilling.  The  driving  gear  propels  the 
chain  by  means  of  pawls  which  engage  with  the  cross  studs  of  the 
chain  and  have  a  central  thrusting  action.  Another  well-known 
appliance  of  this  type  is  the  pan  bucket  conveyor.  This  consists 
of  a  continuous  trough  built  in  sections  and  supported  on  axles  and 
guide  wheels  running  on  suitable  rails.  There  is  one  axle  to  each 
section,  and  in  each  section  of  the  trough  a  bucket  is  pivoted  to  the 
sides.  There  are  several  other  conveyors  of  this  type,  amongst 
which  the  "  Tipit  "  should  be  mentioned.  For  the  Bousse  gravity 
conveyor  it  is  claimed  that  it  will  go  round  any  curve  backwards  or 
forwards  in  both  planes,  and  is  therefore  adaptable  for  installations 
when  the  typical  gravity  bucket  would  be  useless.  '  The  buckets_  of 
this  conveyor  are  coupled  together  by  axlink  in  the  middle,  which 
obviously  allows  more  latitude  in  negotiating  curves  than  the  double 
chain  of  most  of  the  other  types. 


CONVEYORS 


57 


Pneumatic  Grain  Elevators  have  been  employed  with  good 
effect  in  loading  and  unloading  grain  from  ships.  This  method  of 
conveying  grain  falls  under  three  systems:  (i)  the  blast  system; 
(2)  the  suction  system;  and  (3)  the  combined  blast  and  suction 
system. 

In  the  first  system  a  barge,  known  as  a  machinery  barge,  is 
fitted  with  a  steam  boiler,  a  set  of  air  compressing  engines,  and  a 
length  of  flexible  piping  long  enough  to  reach  from  any  part  of 
the  barge  to  the  farthest  corner  of  the  ship  to  be  loaded.  A 
small  pipe,  known  as  the  nozzle,  is  inserted  at  the  inlet  end  of  the 
piping,  where  the  grain  is  taken  in,  and  communicates  with  the 
air  compressor  at  the  other  end.  Compressed  air  can  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  nozzle  or  shut  off  by  a  valve.  The  inlet  end  of  the 
flexible  pipe  is  pushed  into  the  grain  in  the  barge,  while  the  other 
end  is  led  over  the  hatches  of  the  vessel  to  be  loaded.  As  the 
compressor  is  set  to  work  and  the  valve  of  the  compressed  air 
supply  pipe  opened,  the  air  naturally  rushes  up  the  pipe  and 


this  through  valves  into  a  second  receptacle,  whence  it  is  con- 
veyed to  any  desired  point  by  flexible  pipes.  This  second  tank 
is  divided  into  two  sections  and  provided  with  valves  so  that  the 
two  sections  will  alternately  be  under  the  influence  of  blast  or 
suction.  Alternatively  the  grain  is  discharged  by  an  automatic 
valve  from  the  vacuum  tank  into  the  second  air-tight  chamber 
which  communicates  with  the  compressed  air  chamber.  From 
this  section  the  grain  is  discharged  by  an  outlet  pipe  by  the 
agency  of  compressed  air.  A  similar  system  was  introduced  by 
Messrs  Haviland  &  Farmer,  who  have,  however,  since  abandoned 
it  on  account  of  difficulties  connected  with  the  application  of  the 
blast,  which  was  found  to  abrade  the  grain  rather  severely, 
especially  at  the  bends  in  the  pipes.  An  even  greater  objection 
was  the  delivery  of  dust  with  the  grain,  which  made  it  impossible 
for  trimmers  to  remain  in  the  hold  while  the  elevator  was  at 
work.  Messrs  Haviland  and  Farmer  now  work  on  the  suction 
system,  in  which  they  claim  to  have  introduced  several  improve- 


FIG.  10. — Travelling  Bucket  Elevator. 


escapes  at  the  other  end  which  is  lying  over  the  ship's  hatchway. 
If  the  inlet  nozzle  be  immersed  in  the  grain  to  the  depth  of  12  to 
1 8  in.  the  induced  atmospheric  air  will  follow  the  lead  of  the 
compressed  air,  and  drawing  the  grain  around  into  the  inlet 
nozzle  will  carry  it  up  the  pipe  and  deliver  it  into  the  hold  of  the 
vessel  loading. 

In  the  suction  system,  which  is  identified  with  the  name  of 
F.  E.  Duckham,  the  process  is  somewhat  different.  An  air-tight 
tank  or  receiver,  8  to  10  ft.  in  diameter  and  10  to  20  ft.  high,  is 
fitted  with  a  hopper  bottom,  and  is  erected,  if  floating,  on  a  barge, 
at  a  sufficient  height  to  allow  grain  falling  from  the  hopper 
bottom,  and  passing  through  an  air  lock,  to  be  delivered  by 
gravity  through  a  shoot  into  the  vessel  being  loaded.  A  pipe 
connects  the  vacuum  tank  with  the  exhaust  pumps.  Several 
flexible  pipes  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  any  corner  of  the  ship  to 
be  unloaded,  may  be  connected  with  the  vacuum  tank.  As  the 
air  pumps  are  set  working  a  partial  vacuum  is  formed  within  the 
tank,  and  as  the  nozzle  end  of  the  pipe  is  immersed  into  the  grain 
to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches,  the  air  and  grain  are  drawn  in  at  the 
mouth  of  the  nozzle  and  carried  along  the  pipe  to  the  vacuum 
tank.  The  natural  expansion  of  the  air  then  lets  the  grain  drop  to 
the  hopper  bottom,  whence  it  issues  from  an  air-lock  valve, 
while  the  air  is  drawn  away  by  a  pipe  communicating  with  the 
pumps  and  is  thence  discharged  into  the  open. 

In  the  third  system,  or  blast  and  suction  combined,  the  grain 
is  sucked  into  a  vacuum  tank,  as  just  described,  and  drops  from 


ments,  notably  in  regard  to  the  purification  of  the  air  between  the 
vacuum  chamber  and  the  exhausters,  and  in  devising  a  new 
automatic  air  trap. 

The  first  pneumatic  suction  elevator  in  Great  Britain  was 
erected  at  the  Millwall  docks  (London)  under  the  Duckham 
patents.  At  Sulina,  on  the  Lower  Danube,  a  pneumatic  elevator 
erected  on  the  Haviland-Farmer  system,  which  has  undergone 
one  or  two  reconstructions,  has  been  proved  capable  of  elevating 
160  tons  of  grain  per  hour  with  375  i.h.p. 

The  only  objection  to  pneumatic  elevators  appears  to  be  that  of 
expense.  The  cost  of  installation  is  relatively  heavy,  and  the 
power  required  for  working  is  large.  But  in  dealing  witfi  vessels 
carrying  heavy  cargoes  of  grain  the  saving  of  labour  and  demur- 
rage is  sufficient  to  justify  the  large  outlay  of  capital  required  in 
ports  where  there  is  sufficient  grain  traffic. 

Hot  Coke  Conveyors. — Hot  coke  is  admittedly  one  of  the  most 
difficult  materials  to  handle  by  mechanical  means,  and  though  it 
might  be  too  much  to  say  that  all  difficulties  have  been  sur- 
mounted by  the  engineer,  it  has,  since  the  end  of  the  igth  century, 
been  more  or  less  satisfactorily  handled  by  machinery.  Even  in  a 
dry  state  coke  is  a  troublesome  material  to  handle  by  machinery. 
It  is  of  a  gritty  and  rasping  nature,  and  is  at  the  same  time  very 
friable.  Unless  it  is  gently  handled,  breakage  is  bound  to  occur 
and  to  result  in  the  making  of  a  certain  proportion  of  fine  dust 
known  as  "  breeze."  Apart  from  the  depreciation  in  the  value  of 
the  coke,  this  breeze  is  a  sharp,  cutting  material,  calculated  to  do 


CONVEYORS 


considerable  injury  to  the  working  parts  of  the  conveyor,  such  as 
chains,  and  to  the  bearings,  if  it  can  get  inside.  Of  course  the 
conveying  of  the  coke  in  an  incandescent  condition  is  another 
serious  difficulty,  as  this  glowing  material  must  be  quenched  by 
water,  a  sufficiently  delicate  operation  in  itself.  The  chief  use  for 
hot  coke  conveyors  has  been  found  in  connexion  with  gas  works, 
but  attempts  have  also  been  made  to  provide  efficient  machinery 
for  the  service  of  coke  ovens  of  great  capacity. 

The  justification  of  any  kind  of  machinery  must  rest  on  its 
relative  efficiency  and  economy.  As  compared  with  some  other 
materials  the  mechanical  handling  of  hot  coke  does  not  realize 
such  a  striking  economy;  a  hot  coke  conveyor  is  expensive  to 
build — on  account  of  the  great  wear  and  tear  it  must  be  very 
solidly  constructed — and  it  is  costly  in  upkeep.  Still  in  large  gas 
works  the  use  of  machinery  for  treating  glowing  coke  is  economic- 


uptake  to  carry  away  the  fumes  and  vapours.  These  trucks 
have  been  hauled,  in  lieu  of  human  arms,  by  endless  ropes  or  even 
small  locomotives. 

The  earlier  hot  coke  conveyors  were  of  the  pushplate  type.  The 
trough,  some  27  in.  wide,  consisted  of  cast  iron  sections,  while  the 
pushplates,  formed  of  malleable  castings,  were  attached  at  a  pitch 
of  24  in.  to  a  central  chain  and  were  pulled  along  on  a  wrought  iron 
bar,  which  could  be  renewed  when  necessary.  These  conveyors  with 
a  speed  of  48  ft.  per  minute,  had  a  capacity  of  some  20  tons  per  hour. 
A  conveyor  constructed  on  these  lines  was  installed  at  the  Gathorn 
works  in  1903.  The  wear  and  tear  was  very  great;  moreover  the 
chain,  being  central,  suffered  severely  from  the  hot  coke,  to  the 
action  of  which  it  was  directly  exposed. 

The  New  Conveyor  Company's  conveyor  consists  of  a  water-tight 
trough  through  which  pass  closely-fitting  tray  plates,  attached  to  a 
single  chain.  These  plates  are  joggled  down  at  one  end  to  receive 
the  flat  front  part  of  the  succeeding  plate,  with  the  aim  of  excluding 


_ 

Cross  Section 


Longitudinal   Section 


Return 
Bucket 


t 

; 

L 

; 

t 

i 

i 

t 

BucHet\ 

i 

h 

;  Bucket 

• 

Bucket 

i 

Bucket; 

i 

Plan 

FIG.  ii. — Bronder  Hot  Coke  Conveyor. 


ally  advisable.  Exact  calculations  are  not  very  easy  to  make, 
because  while  the  cost  of  hand  labour  in  this  department  of  a  gas 
works  is  accurately  known,  the  efficiency  of  different  hot  coke 
conveyors  varies.  G.  E.  Stephenson,  of  the  Gathorn  gas  works, 
estimated  that  a  saving  of  4|d.  per  ton  had  been  realized  on  each 
ton  of  coke  conveyed  to  the  yard  from  the  retort  house,  as 
against  the  same  material  wheeled  in  barrows.  This  saving 
represented  the  difference  between  the  cost  of  twelve  men,  who 
formerly  handled  the  hot  coke  with  shovels  and  barrows,  and  the 
cost  of  one  conveyor  with  the  wages  of  one  man  to  look  after  it. 
In  an  ordinary  way  one  man  would  rake  qjit  the  coke  from  the 
retort  mouthpiece  into  a  barrow  placed  underneath,  while  a 
second  man  quenched  the  glowing  coke  with  buckets  of  water,  or 
better  still  with  a  hose.  Then  the  barrow  would  be  wheeled  out 
into  the  yard.  Obviously  this  is  a  slow  and  relatively  expensive 
method,  apart  from  the  deleterious  fumes  arising  from  the 
quenching  of  the  coke.  Some  improvement  was  effected  by  the 
substitution  for  the  old  hand-barrows  of  cage-like  tipping  trucks; 
these  are  run  on  narrow  gauge  rails  out  of  the  retort  house  and 
the  red-hot  coke  they  contain  is  quenched  by  a  copious  spray, 
the  truck  being  placed  the  while  over  a  grating  through  which  the 
surplus  water  is  drained  away,  under  an  inverted  funnel  with  an 


the  breeze  from  the  under  part  of  the  carrying  plate.  The  chain  is 
made  entirely  of  steel  with  side  rollers  attached  to  every  third  plate, 
the  plates,  }  in.  thick,  are  dished  in  the  shape  of  a  tray,  which  is  less 
liable  to  distortion  (from  heat)  than  a  flat  plate.  The  speed  of  travel 
is  about  45  ft.  per  minute,  while  the  capacity  when  handling  coke 
from  20  ft.  retorts  is  some  30  tons  per  hour. 

A  conveyor  made  by  Messrs  Graham,  Morton  &  Co.,  consists  of 
a  travelling  tray,  the  sections  of  which  are  joined  together  by  steel 
spindles  provided  with  a  roller  at  each  end,  the  latter  running  on 
suitable  rails.  These  sections  consist  of  steel  castings  with  a  number 
of  lateral  slots;  thus  the  tray  has  the  appearance  of  a  travelling 
grating.  To  receive  the  quenching  water  that  escapes  through  the 
grating  a  trough  is  placed  beneath,  and  a  scraper  is  used  to  free  the 
trough  of  the  dust  escaping  through  the  grating. 

An  interesting  conveyor  is  that  of  G.  A.  Bronder,  of  New  York 
(fig.  li),  which  has  some  affinity  with  the  gravity  bucket  conveyor. 
It  runs  in  a  water-tight  trough  which  is  filled  up  to  a  certain  height, 
the  water  being  slowly  circulated  by  mechanism  which  resembles 
a  water  wheel.  The  chain  of  buckets  runs  in  the  trough,  the  sides 
forming  the  rails  for  the  supporting  rollers.  The  conveyor  is  covered 
in  along  its  whole  length,  and  forms  a  sort  of  flue  which  is  connected 
at  each  bench  with  a  number  of  shoots  through  which  the  coke 
drops  into  the  conveyor  buckets.  A  pipe  of  large  diameter  is  con- 
nected with  an  exhaust  fan,  which  draws  away  .the  fumes  created 
by  the  quenching  process,  and  sends  them  into  a  chimney  discharg- 
ing into  the  open.  The  chain  and  buckets,  being  carried  on  rollers 
which  run  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  trough,  cannot  come  in  contact 


CONVEYORS 


59 


either  with  the  hot  coke  or  with  gritty  particles.  The  chain  of 
buckets  is  connected  by  horseshoe-shaped  brackets  extending 
upwards  beyond  the  sides  of  the  buckets  and  connected  with  the 
links  of  the  driving  chains.  When  the  conveyor  is  at  work  the  covers 
of  the  mouth-pieces  are  opened  and  the  coke  is  fed  into  the  buckets; 
simultaneously  the  water  valves  are  opened  and  the  glowing  coke  is 
quenched.  Any  breeze  which  may  have  fallen  between  the  buckets 
is  collected  by  a  scraper  and  delivered  into  a  tank  at  one  end,  while 
the  propeller  wheel  draws  the  water  from  this  tank  and  drives  it 
back  to  the  other  end  of  the  trough.  The  top  strand  is  the  working 
strand  and  delivers  its  load  at  the  terminal.  One  important  differ- 


FIG.  12. — Wild  Coke  Conveyor. 

ence  between  an  ordinary  gravity  bucket  conveyorand  this  apparatus 
is  that  the  buckets  are  here  rigidly  connected  to  the  supporting 
wheels. 

The  West  hot  coke  conveyor  consists  of  a  strongly-built  trough 
in  which  a  single  wide  chain  partly  carries  and  partly  drags  the  coke. 
In  the  trough  is  a  false  bottom,  the  plates  of  which  are  loosely  fixed 
and  kept  in  position  by  angle  irons  on  which  the  chain  drags.  By 
two  arm-like  extensions  the  links  of  the  chain  are  widened  right 
across  the  trough.  The  pitch  of  the  chain  is  12  in.,  so  that  all  the 
large  pieces  of  coke  are  more  carried  than  dragged.  The  speed  of 
travel  is  about  40  ft.  per  minute. 

The  Wild  conveyor  (fig.  12)  consists  of  a  cast  iron  or  steel  trough 
24  to  30  in.  wide  by  9  in.  deep,  supported  by  cast  iron  brackets  to 
which  the  rails  that  support  the  strands  of  the  chain  are  secured. 
Both  chains  run  outside  the  trough,  and  are  secured  on  either  side 
to  the  pushplates,  so  that  only  the  scraper  comes  in  contact  with 
the  hot  coke.  Every  second  link  of  the  12  in.  pitch  chain  carries 
a  push  or  scraper-plate,  as  shown  in  illustration. 


The  De  Brouwer  hot  coke  conveyor,  which  is  much  used  in  gas 
works  both  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  was 
invented  by  a  Belgian  engineer.  Its  construction  has  undergone 
many  modifications  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  desirable. 
It  consists  of  a  trough  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  or  mild  steel,  20  to 
36  in.  wide  and  3  to  6  in.  deep.  Double  endless  chains  run  in  the 
corners  of  the  trough,  the  two  chains  being  connected  together  by 
round  cross  bars  set  30  in.  apart,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  ladder.  The 
hot  coke  is  carried  or  dragged  along  by  these  bars.  One  end  of 
the  trough  is  closed  and  the  other  is  bent  upwards  with  a  view  to 
retaining  the  quenching  water.  As  the  hot  coke  is  dragged  along 
it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  jets  of  water.  The  conveyor  bars, 
which  act  as  scrapers,  sweep  the  water  and  the  coke  along  the 
trough  till  the  point  is  reached  where  the  latter  curves  upwards. 
Then  the  water  flows  back  like  a  small  cascade  on  the  half-quenched 
coke,  which  is  thus  thoroughly  extinguished.  Considerable  inclines 
can  be  negotiated  with  this  conveyor;  in  some  installations  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  angles  of  30°  to  the  horizontal  have  been 
surmounted.  In  a  modification  of  the  De  Brouwer  conveyor,  in- 
stalled at  the  Cassel  gas  works,  the  bars  which  form  the  rungs  of 
the  conveyor  were  replaced  by  cast  iron  rakes.  In  another  modified 
form,  the  work  of  F.  A.  Marshall,  to  be  found  in  the  Copenhagen 
gas  works,  sluices  are  provided  for  withdrawing  an  excess  of  water 
at  any  point  in  the  trough. 

In  Great  Britain  a  hot  coke  conveyor  has  been  designed  on 
similar  lines  by  Messrs  R.  Dempster  &  Sons,  Ltd.  (fig.  13).  The 
chains  are  parallel  from  end  to  end,  and  are  composed  of  identical 
and  interchangeable  malleable  cast  links.  Instead  of  the  chains 
carrying  the  rollers,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  chains  are  themselves 
carried  and  guided  by  flanged  rollers  supported  from  the  framework. 
This  arrangement  has  the  advantage  of  decreasing  the  weight  of  the 
chain,  as  neither  the  rollers  nor  the  lubricators  have  to  be  conveyed, 
being  stationary.  The  scrapers  are  of  cast  steel  and  have  a  rake-like 
shape  with  a  view  to  minimize  the  breakage  of  coke. 

The  essential  features  in  a  hot  coke  conveyor  are  strength  and 
simplicity,  a  minimum  of  wearing  parts,  interchangeability  of 
wearing  surfaces  and  of  worn  and  broken  parts,  protection  of 
wearing  and  working  parts  from  contact  with  the  hot  coke,  and 
facilities  for  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  conveyor  as  even 
as  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  distortion  of  parts  through  sudden 
changes.  To  attain  these  latter  conditions,  it  appears  essential 
to  construct  conveyors  of  the  pushplate  type.  In  these  the  hot 
coke  is  kept  continually  moving,  and  thus  the  good  effect  is 
secured  of  heating  the  conveyor  from  end  to  end  uniformly  and 
gradually.  This  applies  particularly  to  gas  works  conveyors. 


tV^^ 

-vt*^«.v-_*.^vv*  '--*'•  w»'---*-^«  * -x*?f«o»'.*. .A  J-.  «•.•!>,., 


Cross  Section, 
with  Water  Jacket. 


FIG.  13. — Dempster  Coke  Conveyor. 


6o 


CONVEYORS 


For  the  service  of  coke  ovens  the  plate  or  tray  conveyor  might 
be  suitable  because  more  gentle.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
coke  oven  conveyors  must  be  of  large  capacity,  and  moreover 
in  this  case  there  is  more  scope  for  cooling  the  coke  in  front  of 
the  oven  before  it  is  removed  to  the  conveyor,  the  work  being 
all  effected  in  the  open. 

Elevators. — This  term  is  here  confined  to  its  proper  meaning 
(in  English  engineering  treatises)  of  a  device  for  raising  material 
in  a  vertical  or  slanting  direction  by  means  of  buckets  attached 
to  endless  belts  or  chains.  Lifts  for  passengers  are  also  some- 
times termed  elevators  (q.v.),  and  in  America  the  term  is 
also  currently  applied  to  the  granary  or  warehouse  in  which 
grain  is  stored  (see  GRANARIES). 

In  the  bucket  elevator,  an  endless  belt  or  chain  runs 
over  terminal  pulleys  which  are  fixed  at  different  levels,  the 
distance  from  centre  to  centre  of  these  pulleys  beings  known 
as  the  length  of  the  elevator.  The  design  and  construction 
of  the  elevator  will  be  varied  to  suit  its  purpose.  Grain 
elevators  are  invariably  cased  in  wooden  or  iron  trunks,  and 
the  head  and  foot  are  also  of  wood  or  iron,  iron  trunks 
being  particularly  used  in  so-called  fire-proof  buildings. 
The  trunk  of  the  grain  elevator  (fig.  14)  is  almost  always 
vertical  whilst  the  band  to  which  the  buckets  are  attached 
may  consist  of  leather,  cotton,  hemp,  webbing  or  other  suit- 
able substances.  When  an  elevator  is  intended  for  lifting 
heavy  materials,  such  as  coal,  coke  or  cement,  it  is  usually 
set  at  a  slant  (figs.  15  and  16),  and  the  endless  belt  is 
replaced  by  one  or  two  strands  of  endless  chain  which 
support  the  buckets  and  run  over  the  terminal  sprocket 
wheels.  The  buckets  are  attached  to  the  links  of  the 
chains,  and  to  prevent  these  heavy  buckets  and  chains 
from  sagging  in  their  inclined  position,  rollers  or  more 
often  short  skidder  bars  are  fixed  to  each  bucket,  sliding 
on  well-oiled  angle  bars  on  each  side  of  the  elevator  frame. 

Both  grain  and  mineral  elevators  are  usually  fitted  with 
tightening  gears  to  keep  the  belt  or  chain  taut;  these  are 
generally  placed  at  the  lower  or  well  end  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  position  of  the  upper  terminal,  which  is 
almost  invariably  the  driven  one.  The  tightening  of  the 
band  at  the  bottom  terminal  in  the  elevator  well  necessarily 
alters  the  space  between  the  terminal  pulley  and  the  bottom 
of  the  well.  This  is  of  little  consequence  in  grain  elevators, 
but  for  elevators  intended  to  handle  coal  or  any  material 
of  varying  size  the  ordinary  tightening  gear  is  unsuitable.  In 
such  a  case  the  best  plan  is  to  attach  the  elevator-well  to 
the  terminal  in  such  a  way  as  to  go  up  or  down  with  the 
sprocket  wheel  when  the  chain  is  loosened  or  tightened, 
while  the  foot  bracket  which  supports  the  well  and  terminal 
spindle  remains  a  fixture.  In  order  to  tighten  elevator 
chains  without  interfering  with  either  of  the  terminals, 
adjustable  jockey  pulleys  at  some  suitable  point  may  be 
used,  and  the  desired  effect  can  thus  be  attained  by  pressing 
against  the  chains  and  thereby  taking  up  the  slack  without 
any  interference  with  either  the  feed  or  delivery  end. 

Elevator  buckets  must  be  proportioned  to  the  size  and  nature  of 
the  material  they  are  intended  to  carry,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 
maintain  a  uniform  feed.  This  may  readily  be  effected  by  adjustable 
outlets  and  spouts  for  grain  and  the  like,  and  by  certain  feeding 
devices  for  handling  minerals  of  uneven  size.  For  instance,  an  oscil- 
lating feed  shoot  making  from  30  to  60  oscillations  per  minute  can  be 
installed  in  such  a  case,  and  adjusted  to  deposit  at  each  backward 
and  forward  stroke  the  exact  amount  of  material  adapted  to  the 
capacity  of  the  elevator.  The  speed  of  the  shoot  will  naturally  vary 
with  the  size  of  material  to  be  fed.  For  small  coal  60  oscillations 
would  be  about  the  correct  speed;  for  large  coal  the  speed  might 
be  reduced  to  30  or  less.  Speaking  generally,  care  should  always  be 
taken  to  prevent  an  undue  rush  of  feed,  that  is,  more  than  the 
elevator  can  take  up,  and  if  tenacious  materials  are  handled,  feeding 
devices  should  be  employed  provided  with  stirrers  or  agitators  that 
will  effectually  keep  the  material  moving  and  prevent  any  larger 
lumps  from  arching  over  the  feed  spout,  and  thus  producing  chokes. 
Elevators  should  always  be  fed  from  that  side  on  which  the  buckets 
ascend,  that  the  stream  of  material  may  meet  the  elevator  buckets 
on_  their  upward  journey.  This  will  prevent  the  material  from 
filling  up  the  elevator  well  and  spare  the  buckets  from  dredging 
through  an  accumulation  of  feed.  Elevators  erected  at  an  incline 


are  best  fed  at  a  point  several  feet  above  the  well  into  the  chain  of 
ascending  buckets,  as  under  such  conditions  little  will  miss  the 
buckets  and  drop  into  the  well. 

The  reason  why  grain  elevators  are  set  vertically,  whereas  ele- 
vators intended  to  carry  heavy  bodies  such  as  coal  and  ore  are 
generally  inclined  at  an  angle,  is  that  the  former  can  be  run  at  a 
much  greater  velocity  than  the  latter.  Grain,  for  instance,  would  be 
uninjured  by  a  velocity  at  the  delivery  end  which  would  fracture 
coal  and  seriously  reduce  its  value,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dust  pro- 
duction and  the  damage  which  would  be  done  to  the  receiving 
spouts  and  shoots.  Elevators  carrying  a  light  material  can  be  run 
at  a  circumferential  velocity  of  250  to  350  ft.  per  minute,  and  if 


SIDE    ELEVATION  END   ELEVATION 

FIG.  14. — Grain  Elevator. 

vertically  set,  will  throw  the  grain,  &c.,  clear  of  the  elevator  into 
the  shoot  for  its  reception.  On  the  other  hand,  elevators  handling 
heavy  material  must  be  set  at  an  angle  in  order  to  give  a  clear  de- 
livery at  a  much  lower  speed  of  50  to  60  ft.  per  minute;  in  other 
words,  the  elevator  is  so  inclined  that  the  shoot  for  the  reception 
of  the  material  can  be  put  underneath  the  delivering  buckets  which 
slowly  disgorge  their  load.  To  obtain  good  results,  without  taking 
up  too  much  space,  an  elevator  carrying  heavy  material  should  be 
set  at  40°  to  60  to  the  horizontal.  The  same  results  can  be  obtained 
if  the  main  portion  of  the  elevator  is  vertical  and  only  the  upper 
portion  inclined,  or  so  curved  as  to  bring  the  delivery  over  the  shoot. 
The  speed  at  which  vertical  elevators  should  be  run  will  depend 
on  the  diameter  of  the  terminal  pulley,  that  is,  the  pulley  over  which 
the  buckets  and  bands  pass.  The  centrifugal  force  of  pulleys  revolv- 
ing at  the  same  speed  is  in  direct  proportion  to  their  diameters,  and 
this  is  twice  as  much  in  a  2  ft.  as  in  a  I  ft.  pulley.  It  may  be  taken 
that  the  centrifugal  force  of  a  pulley  will  increase  in  proportion  to 
the  square  of  its  velocity;  hence  the  centrifugal  force  of  a  pulley 
2  ft.  in  diameter  running  at  50  revolutions  per  minute  will  be  four 
times  the  centrifugal  force  of  a  pulley  of  the  same  diameter  making 
only  25  revolutions  per  minute.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  to 
effect  a  clean  discharge  of  the  buckets  of  a  vertical  elevator,  the 


CONVEYORS 


61 


centrifugal  force  must  be  sufficient  to  overcome  the  gravity  of  the 
material,  because  the  material  thrown  off  the  delivery  pulley  in  a 
horizontal  direction  will  be  more  rapidly  deflected  into  a  parabolic 
curve  the  higher  its  specific  gravity.  It  follows  that  for  a  specifically 
heavy  material  a  greater  centrifugal  force  will  be  required;  that 
is  to  say,  the  elevator  will 
have  to  be  higher  speeded 
than  in  dealing  with  a  lighter 
material. 

Elevator  buckets  must  be 
varied  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  material;  for  instance, 
shallow  buckets  will  be  found 
best  for  a  soft  and  clinging 
material  such  as  flour,  moist 
sugar,  sand,  small  coal,  &c., 
while  for  a  hard  or  semi-hard 
body  such  as  wheat,  coal, 


FIG.   15. — Mineral    Elevator, 
upper  terminal. 


deeper  buckets  are  prefer- 
able. On  account  of  their  lower 
speed,  elevators  for  specifically 
heavy  material  require  much 
larger  buckets  and  chains  than 
grain  elevators  of  the  same  bulk 
capacity.  The  most  economical 
form  of  elevator  is  fitted  with  a 
continuous  chain  of  buckets. 
Such  elevators  may  be  con- 
structed to  carry  either  grain  or 
minerals.  The  advantages  are 
greatercapacity  than  an  ordinary 
elevator  of  the  same  dimensions 
and  a  more  uniform  delivery; 
moreover,  smoother  running  is 
secured,  since  the  buckets  being 
close  together  need  not  plunge 
intermittently  through  the  con- 
tents of  the  elevator-well. 

Intermittent  Conveyors. — The 

elevators  we  have  been  considering,  whether  used  for  carrying 
and  distributing  coal  or  grain,  have  this  in  common,  that 
they  raise  material  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level,  so  to  speak, 
in  a  continuous  stream,  the  continuity  being  broken  only 
by  the  short  spaces  between  the  buckets.  In  the  continuous 
bucket  type  indeed  the  stream  of  material  is  practically,  if 
not  absolutely,  continuous.  In  all  these  cases  the  elevator 
is  fed  with  the  material  in  a  continuous  stream,  and  by 
some  mechanical  means;  whether  by  band,  worm  or  shoot, 
is  immaterial.  Elevators  of  a  somewhat  different  and  more 
substantial  construction  may  be  and  are  often  used  for  handling 
filled  sacks,  barrels,  carcases  of  animals  and  other  bulky  objects, 
which  cannot  be  delivered  in  a  uniform  stream,  but  may  have 
to  be  conveyed  by  the  elevator  intermittently.  The  ordinary 
buckets  used  for  grain  or  coal  are  replaced  by  other  appliances 
for  gripping  and  holding  the  object  to  be  raised  from  a  lower  to 
a  higher  level,  but  in  principle  these  appliances  are  essentially 
elevators. 

Another  kind  of  elevator,  known  as  a  lift  or  hoist,  is  used  in 
mines  and  quarries  and  in  serving  blast  furnaces.  This  is  an 
elevator  with  one  or  two  buckets.  Essentially  a  heavy  load 
lifter,  it  is  intended  for  material  of  too  large  a  bulk  to  be  handled 
economically  by  ordinary  elevators,  and  is  employed  for  lifting 
in  either  a  vertical  or,  more  often,  an  inclined  direction. 

For  elevating  materials,  such  as  large  coal,  iron  ore,  limestone, 
&c.,  which  are  too  large  to  be  fed  into  ordinary  elevators,  and 


must  therefore  be  handled  intermittently,  the  single  bucket 
elevator  or  hoist  may  be  used  with  advantage.  But  as  the 
essential  use  of  mechanical  appliances  for  handling  material  is 
to  save  human  labour  as  far  as  possible,  that  hoist  will  prove 
the  most  economical  the  operation  of  which  is  as  automatic  as 
possible.  The  Americans  seem,  to  have  been  pioneers  in  the 
construction  of  furnace  hoists,  which  form  the  principal  elevators 
of  this  class,  but  some  excellent  examples  of  the  modern  furnace 
hoist  are  now  to  be  found  in  Great  Britain  and  elsewhere  in 
Europe.  Generally  speaking,  a  furnace  hoist  consists  of  an 
inclined  iron  bridge  girder  set  at  an  angle  to  the  upright  shaft 
of  the  furnace.  On  this  incline  are  laid  rails  for  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  bucket,  which  in  this  case  is  known  as  a  skip  and 
is  provided  with  suitable  wheels,  while  the  hoisting  gear  manipu- 
lating the  skips  by  a  steel  rope  is  erected  on  or  near  the  ground 
level.  The  rails  when  they  approach  the  upper  terminus  are 
usually  bent  in  a  more  or  less  horizontal  position  so  as  auto- 
matically to  tilt  and  thereby  unload  the  skip.  To  attain  the 
same  end,  the  rails  supporting  the  back  wheels  of  the  skips  may 
be  bent  at  the  terminus,  or  the  back  wheels  may  have  additional 
wheels  of  a  larger  diameter  on  the  other  side  of  their  flanges,  so 
that  during  the  ascent  and  descent  the  skip  runs  on  its  four 
normal  wheels,  while  at  the  upper  terminus  the  outer  and  larger 
back  wheels  engage  with  short  lengths  of  extra  rails  and  thus 
tilt  and  effect  the  automatic  clearance  of  the  skip.  The  dead 
weight  of  the  skip  may  be  balanced  by  a  counter  weight,  or 
double  tracks  may  be  laid,  so  that  the  empty  skip  descends  on 
one  track  whilst  the  loaded  skip  is  being  raised  on  the  other. 
In  this  case  the  distributing  hopper  at  the  top  of  the  furnace  has 
an  elongated  shape  so  as  to  take  the  charges 
alternately  from  buckets  on  either  track. 
Again,  the  two  tracks  may  be  laid  one  above 
the  other,  so  that  one  skip  runs  on  the  upper 


rails  and  the  other  on 
the  lower.  The  two 
buckets  will  pass  each 
other  at  about  the 
centre  of  the  framing, 
where  there  will  be 
plenty  of  room  for 
clearance. 

The  capacity  of  the 
skip  will  of  course  de- 
pend to  some  extent  on  the  capacity  of  the  furnace,  but  an 
average  charge  may  be  put  down  at  2  tons  of  ore  and  lime,  or 
i  ton  of  coke.  To  raise  such  a  charge  to  a  furnace  80  ft.  high 
would  require,  assuming  no  counter  weight  were  used,  a  motor 
of  about  ico  h.p.  On  account  of  the  great  speed  at  which 


FIG.  16. — Mineral  Elevator, 
lower  terminal. 


62 


CONVEYORS 


the  hoist  works,  the  time  taken  in  raising  the  charged  skip, 
discharging  it,  and  returning  it  empty  would  be  only  30  to 
40  seconds.  The  hoist  cable  runs  over  guide  pulleys  placed 
at  the  top  of  the  furnace,  and  the  cable  is  often  manipulated 
by  an  electrically  driven  winch  in  a  cabin  below.  The 
descent  of  the  empty  skip  in  more  modern  installations 
is  utilized  to  effect  an  even  distribution  of  the  feed  from 
the  hopper  to  the  furnace  by  causing  the  hopper  to  revolve. 
To  this  end  the  latter  is  provided  with  an  ingenious  mechanism 
which  only  comes  into  operation  as  the  car  descends.  After 
every  charge  shot  into  the  hopper  the  latter  is  revolved  a  few 
degrees,  and  this  has  the  effect  of  giving  the  delivery  of  the  next 
load  in  another  direction,  so  that  the  charges  of  the  skip  are  in 
turn  distributed  over  the  whole  area  of  the  surface.  This  is 
deemed  a  most  essential  point  in  furnace-charging,  and  it  is 
not  one  of  the  least  recommendations  of  this  mechanical  system 
of  furnace-charging  that  it  can  give  an  even  feed  without  any 
hand  labour  whatever.  A  double  hoist  has  been  designed  which 
has  the  advantage  that  if  one  elevator  breaks  down  the  work 
of  the  furnace  is  not  interrupted.  In  this  system  two  furnaces 
are  connected  at  the  top  by  a  gantry  or  bridge,  against  which, 
between  the  furnaces,  two  inclined  elevators  are  set,  so  that 
each  can  serve  either  furnace.  The  skips  are  on  wheels  and 
detachable  from  the  elevator,  and  are  loaded  from  the  ore 
pockets  at  the  lower  terminal  and  drawn  up  on  a  cradle;  as  this 
reaches  the  top  where  the  rails  on  the  gantry  correspond  with 
the  gauge  of  the  skip  or  car,  the  latter  is  carried  by  its  own 
weight  down  a  slight  incline  to  either  furnace,  discharging  its 
contents  as  it  passes  over  the  conical  mouth.  Another  advantage 
claimed  for  this  system  is  that  the  rails  of  the  cradle,  when  in 
its  lowest  position,  correspond  with  the  rails  which  lie  parallel 
to  the  furnaces  and  run  right  under  the  store  bins  from  which 
the  skip  is  loaded.  The  economy  to  be  realized  from  a  furnace 
hoist  will  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  use  made  of  mechanical 
means  of  feed  conveyance.  For  instance,  the  store  bins  in 
connexion  with  such  elevators  might  be  economically  fed  by 
suitable  conveyors,  or  the  material  might  be  brought  in  self- 
unloading  hoppered  trucks  into  conveniently  placed  bins,  ready 
to  be  drawn  into  the  skips. 

Ropeways. — A  ropeway  has  been  denned  as  that  method  of 
handling  material  which  consists  of  drawing  buckets  on  ropes, 
and  by  means  of  ropes,  such  buckets  being  filled  with  the  material 
to  be  handled  and  being  automatically  or  otherwise  discharged. 
At  what  period  of  history  ropeways  were  first  used  it  is  impossible 
to  say,  but  the  fact  that  pulley  blocks,  and  even  wire  ropes,  were 
known  to  the  ancients,  renders  a  pedigree  of  2000  years  at  least 
possible.  In  more  modern  days,  an  old  engraving  shows  a  single 
ropeway  in  working  order  in  1 644  in  the  city  of  Danzig.  This,  the 
work  of  Adam  Wybe,  a  Dutch  engineer,  was  a  single  ropeway  in 
its  simplest  form,  consisting  of  an  endless  rope  passing  over 
pulleys  suspended  on  posts;  to  the  rope  were  attached  a  number 
of  small  buckets,  which  evidently  carried  earth  from  a  hill  out- 
side the  city  to  the  rampart  inside  the  moat.  The  rope  was 
probably  of  hemp.  Modern  ropeways  worked  with  wire  ropes 
date  from  about  1860,  when  a  ropeway  was  erected  in  the  Harz 
Mountains.  Since  then  several  systems  have  been  evolved,  but 
in  the  main  ropeways  may  be  divided  into  the  single  and  double 
rope  class. 

The  ropeway  is  essentially  an  intermittent  conveyor,  the 
material  being  carried  in  buckets  or  skips,  and  practice  has  proved 
it  an  economical  means  of  handling  heavy  material.  The  prime 
cost  of  a  ropeway  is  usually  moderate,  though  of  course  it  varies 
with  the  ground  and  other  local  conditions.  Working  expenses 
should  be  low,  because  under  the  supervision  of  one  competent 
engineer  unskilled  labour  is  quite  sufficient.  A  ropeway  may 
be  carried  over  ground  over  which  rails  could  only  be  laid  at 
enormous  cost.  To  a  certain  extent  ropeways  are  independent  of 
weather  conditions,  because  their  working  need  not  be  interrupted 
even  by  heavy  snowfalls.  Their  construction  is  very  simple,  and 
there  is  little  gear  to  get  out  of  order.  Sound  workmanship  and 
good  material  will  ensure  a  relatively  long  life.  As  an  instance, 
a  certain  rope  in  a  Spanish  ropeway  tested  new  to  a  breaking 


strain  of  29!  tons  was  shown  after  carrying  160,000  tons  (in  two 
years'  incessant  work)  still  to  possess  a  breaking  strain  of  27  J  tons. 
The  power  absorbed  by  a  ropeway  is  relatively  moderate,  and 
under  special  conditions  may  be  nil.  The  only  demand  it  makes 
on  the  superficial  area  of  the  ground  traversed  is  the  small 
emplacements  of  the  standards,  which  in  modern  ropeways  are 
few  and  far  between.  Wayleaves,  or  the  permission  to  erect 
standards  and  run  the  line  over  private  land,  may  of  course 
mean  an  item  in  the  capital  outlay.  This  circumstance  may 
have  checked  ropeway  construction  in  Great  Britain,  but  it  must 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  large  portion  of  that  country  is 
comparatively  level  and  well  provided  with  railways.  In 
building  a  ropeway  it  is  essential  to  take  as  straight  a  line  as 
possible,  because  curves  generally  necessitate  angle  stations, 
which  mean  extra  capital  and  working  cost.  On  the  other  hand, 
ground  that  would  be  difficult  for  the  railway  engineer,  such  as 
steep  hills,  deep  valleys  and  turbulent  streams,  has  no  terror  for 
the  ropeway  erector.  There  is  a  case  of  a  ropeway  of  a  total 
length  of  5400  ft.  with  a  total  difference  in  altitude  of  2000  ft.;  it 
is  claimed  this  ground  could  not  be  covered  by  a  railway  with  less 
than  15  m.  of  line  graded  at  i  in  40. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  type  of  a  single  rope  system  is  an  endless 
running  rope  from  which  the  carriers  are  suspended,  and  with 
which  they  move  by  frictional  contact.  Or  the  carriers  may  be 
fixed  to  this  rope  and  move  with  it.  The  ropeway  itself  would 
consist  of  an  endless  rope  running  between  two  drums,  one,  known 
as  the  driving  drum,  being  provided  with  power  receiving  and 
transmitting  gear,  while  the  drum  at  the  opposite  terminal  would 
be  fitted  with  tightening  gear.  The  endless  rope  is  carried  on  suitable 
pulleys  which  .themselves  are  supported  on  standards  or  trestles 
spaced  at  intervals  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  ground.  The 
rope  runs  at  an  average  speed  of  4  m.  per  hour,  a  speed  at  which 
the  bucket  or  skip  can  automatically  unload  itself.  In  the  double 
ropeway  the  carrier  runs  on  a  fixed  rope,  which  takes  the  place  of 
the  rails  of  a  railway.  The  carrier  is  fitted  with  running  heads  fur- 
nished with  grooved  steel  wheels.  The  load  is  borne  by  a  hanger 
pivoted  from  the  carrier,  and  is  conveyed  along  the  rail  rope  by  an 
endless  hauling  rope  at  an  average  speed  of  4  to  6  m.  per  hour. 
The  hauling  is  operated  by  driving  gear  at  one  end,  and  controlled 
hy  tightening  gear  at  the  other  end  just  as  in  the  single  rope  system. 
Double  ropeways  have  been  carried  in  one  section  over  18  to  20  m., 
and  will  transport  single  loads  of  6  cwt.  to  a  ton  or  more. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  single  ropeway  is  not  so  suitable  for  heavy- 
loads  and  long  distances  as  the  double,  but  in  this  connexion  the 
work  of  Ropeways  Limited  should  be  noted,  which  favours  a  single 
rope  system.  Their  engineer,  J.  Pearce  Roe,  introduced  multiple 
sheaves  for  supporting  the  rope  at  each  standard.  Thus  the  rope 
may  pass  over  one,  two  or  four  sheaves,  which  are  provided  with 
balance  beams  that  have  the  advantage  of  adjusting  themselves 
to  the  angle  caused  by  the  rope  passing  over  the  sheaves,  thus 
equalizing  the  pressure  over  a  number  of  sheaves.  A  ropeway 
erected  on  this  system  in  Japan  spans  4000  yds.  of  very  broken 
ground;  yet  only  17  trestles  are  used,  and  as  each  support  is  placed 
as  high  as  possible,  no  one  is  of  great  height.  An  altitude  of  1 130  ft. 
is  reached  in  a  distance  of  1200  yds.  The  ropeway  has  a  daily 
carrying  capacity  of  60  tons  in  one  direction  and  of  30  tons  in  the 
other.  Another  installation  on  this  system,  which  serves  an  iron 
mine  in  Spain,  spans  6500  yds.  of  very  rough  country,  so  steep  that 
in  many  places  the  sure-footed  mule  cannot  keep  on  the  track. 
This  ropeway  can  deal  with  85  tons  per  hour.  The  greatest  distance 
covered  by  this  system,  on  one  section,  is  7100  yds.,  or  about  4  m., 
and  the  carrying  capacity  is  45  tons  per  hour. 

The  motive  power  required  for  a  ropeway  will  vary  with  the 
conditions.  In  cases  of  descending  loads  the  power  generated  is 
sometimes  so  considerable  as  to  render  it  available  for  driving  other 
machinery,  or  it  may  have  to  be  absorbed  by  some  special  brake 
device.  In  a  ropeway  in  Japan  of  1800  yds.,  which  runs  mostly  at 
an  incline  of  I  in  I  J,  the  force  generated  is  absorbed  by  a  hydraulic 
brake  the  revolving  fan  of  which  drives  the  water  against  fixed 
vanes  which  repel  and  heat  it.  In  this  way,  50  h.p.  is  absorbed 
and  the  speed  brought  under  the  control  of  a  hand  brake. 

Aerial  Cableways. — The  aerial  cableway  is  a  development  of 
the  ropeway,  and  is  a  conveyor  capable  of  hoisting  and  dumping 
at  any  desired  point.  The  load  is  carried  along  a  trackway 
consisting  of  a  single  span  of  suspended  cable,  which  covers  a 
comparatively  short  distance.  The  trackway  may  either  run  in  a 
more  or  less  horizontal  direction,  i.e.  the  terminals  may  be  on  the 
same  level,  or  it  may  be  irfclined  at  such  an  angle  that  the  load 
will  descend  by  gravity.  The  trackway  or  rail  rope  rests  upon 
saddles  of  iron  or  hard  wood  on  the  tops  of  terminal  supports, 
usually  known  as  towers.  These  towers  may  be  constructed 


CONVEYORS 


either  of  wood  or  iron,  and  if  the  exigencies  of  the  work  render  it 
desirable,  they  may  be  mounted  on  trolleys  and  rails,  in  which 
case  the  cableway  is  rendered  portable,  and  can  be  moved  about, 
sometimes  a  great  advantage  in  excavating  work.  The  motive 
power  may  be  either  steam,  gas,  or  electricity.  The  motor  is 
situated  in  what  is  termed  the  head  tower,  which  is  sometimes  a 
little  higher  than  the  other  or  tail  tower.  Sometimes,  but  not 
frequently,  the  latter  is  also  fitted  with  a  motor.  The  span 
between  the  two  towers  sometimes  extends  to  2000  ft.,  but  this 
is  exceptional.  Very  heavy  loads  are  dealt  with,  sometimes  as 
much  as  8  tons  in  a  single  load.  The  load,  which  may  be  carried 
in  a  skip  or  a  tray,  is  borne  by  an  apparatus  called  the  carrier, 
which  is  a  modification  of  a  running  head,  consisting  of  pulleys 
and  blocks  and  running  along  the  main  cable  or  trackway.  The 
carrier  is  also  fitted  with  pulleys  or  guides  for  the  dump  line. 
The  carrier  is  drawn  along  the  main  cable  by  an  endless  or 
hauling  rope  which  passes  from  the  carrier  over  the  head  tower 
and  is  wound  several  times  round  the  drum  of  the  winding  engine 
to  secure  frictional  hold,  then  back  over  the  head  tower,  to  the 
tail  tower,  returning  to  the  rear  end  of  the  carrier.  The  hoisting 
rope  passes  from  the  engine  to  the  fall  block  for  raising  the  load. 
The  dump  line  comes  from  the  other  side  of  the  winding  engine 
drum  and  passes  to  a  smaller  block  attached  to  the  rear  end  of  the 
skip  or  tray.  The  whole  weight  of  the  skip  is  borne  by  the 
hoisting  rope,  while  the  dump  line  comes  in  slack,  but  at  .the 
same  rate  of  speed.  Whenever  it  is  desired  to  dump  the  load, 
the  dump  line  is  shifted  to  a  section  of  the  drum  having  a 
slightly  larger  diameter,  and  being  thus  drawn  in  at  a  higher  rate 
of  speed  the  load  is  discharged.  The  engine  is  then  reversed,  and 
the  carriage  brought  back  for  the  next  load. 

This  is  in  outline  the  mode  of  operating  all  cableways.  This 
appliance  has  rendered  great  service  as  a  labour  saver  in  navvy- 
ing,  quarrying  and  mining  work;  in  placer-mining,  for  instance, 
cableways  have  been  found  very  useful  when  fitted  with  a  self- 
filling  drag  bucket,  which  will  take  the  place  of  a  great  number  of 
hands.  Cableways  can  be  worked  at  a  great  speed,  but  a  good 
mean  speed  would  be  500  to  750  ft.  for  conveying  and  200  to  300 
ft.  for  hoisting.  A  cableway  used  in  excavating  work  in  Chicago 
was  credited  with  a  capacity  of  400  to  600  cub.  yds.  per  day  at  a 
total  cost  of  2d.  per  yard,  including  labour,  coal,  oil,  waste,  &c. 

Coaling  Ships  at  Sea. — In  the  coaling  of  ships  at  sea  the  cable- 
way  has  rendered  great  service.  The  conditions  under  which 
this  operation  has  to  be  carried  out  present  many  difficulties, 
especially  in  rough  water.  One  of  the  chief  obstacles  is  the 
maintenance  of  the  necessary  tension,  on  the  cable  used  in 
conveying  the  coal  from  the  collier  to  the  ship.  The  first  test  in 
coaling  ships  at  sea,  made  by  the  British  admiralty,  took  place  in 
1890  in  the  Atlantic  at  a  point  500  m.  south  of  the  Azores  in 
water  2000  fathoms  deep.  Ten  ships  of  war  were  coaled,  each 
vessel  taking  enough  coal  to  enable  it  to  steam  back  to  Torbay, 
1800  m.  away.  In  this  case  the  collier  was  lashed  alongside  the 
battleship  it  was  feeding,  thick  fenders  being  interposed  to 
prevent  damage,  but  nevertheless  as  the  colliers  got  light  they 
pitched  considerably,  and  one  or  two  sustained  dents  in  their 
sides.  The  ships  did  not  roll,  being  kept  bows-on  to  the  swell, 
which  became  heavy  before  the  coaling  was  completed.  The 
coal  was  taken  in  by  derricks  at  the  main  deck  ports.  It  is 
clear  that  had  the  sea  been  really  rough  coaling  in  this  fashion 
would  have  been  impossible. 

The  most  practicable  method  of  coaling  at  sea  yet  devised 
is  the  marine  cableway  of  Spencer  Miller,  which  has  been  tried 
with  some  success  in  the  American  navy.  It  is  intended  for  use 
between  vessels  350  to  500  ft.  apart.  The  ship  being  coaled 
takes  the  collier  in  tow,  steaming  at  the  rate  of  4  to  8  knots; 
it  has  been  found  that  a  speed  of  five  knots  in  moderately  rough 
water  will  keep  the  cableway  taut  and  maintain  a  sufficient 
distance  between  the  crafts.  The  collier  is  fitted  with  an  engine 
having  double  cylinders  and  double  friction  drums,  which  is 
placed  just  abaft  the  foremast.  A  steel  rope  f  in.  in  diameter 
is  led  from  one  drum  over  a  pulley  at  the  mast  head  and  thence 
to  a  pulley  at  the  head  of  shear-poles  on  the  vessel  being  coaled, 
and  brought  back  to  the  other  drum.  The  engine  moves  in  the 


same  direction  all  the  time  and  keeps  on  winding  in  both  the 
strands  of  the  conveying  rope.  Should  the  two  vessels  increase 
the  distance  between  them  during  the  operation  of  conveying 
the  coal  bags,  of  which  two,  weighing  420  Ib  each,  may  be 
fastened  to  the  carrier,  the  extra  rope  called  for  is  obtained  by 
slipping  the  upper  strand  from  the  drum;  this  increases  the 
speed  of  the  upper  cable.  On  the  other  hand  should  the  distance 
between  the  vessels  be  reduced,  this  operation  is  reversed,  the 
speed  of  the  upper  strand  being  reduced.  To  keep  the  carriage 
steady  on  its  return  empty,  a  rope,  known  as  the  sea-anchor 
line,  is  stretched  above  the  two  strands  of  the  conveyor  line, 
and  under  a  pulley  on  the  carriage.  This  cable  is  attached  to 
the  vessel,  resting  on  a  saddle  on  the  shear  head,  whence  it  leads 
through  the  carriage  over  pulleys  at  the  head  of  the  foremast 
and  mainmast  of  the  collier,  running  on  astern  several  hundred 
feet  into  the  sea.  A  drag  or  sea-anchor,  usually  made  of  canvas 
and  cone-shaped,  is  attached  to  the  end  of  this  rope.  This 
anchor  is  used  to  support  the  empty  carriage  on  its  return  to 
the  collier.  The  diameter  of  the  cone's  base  is  graduated  to  the 
speed  of  the  vessels.  Thus  in  a  smooth-water  test,  with  a  ship 
steaming  at  6  knots,  one  7  ft.  in  diameter  was  used,  while  the 
same  anchor  answered  its  purpose  very  well  with  a  ship  doing 
5  knots  in  rough  water.  • 

The  results  given  by  this  system  of  coaling  at  sea  are  relatively 
satisfactory.  Tests  made  in  the  United  States  navy  showed 
that  20  to  25  tons  of  coal  per  hour  could  be  delivered  by  a  collier 
to  a  war-vessel  during  a  moderate  gale.  As  the  ship  was  under 
steam  all  the  time  and  consumed  3  to  4  tons  of  coal  per  hour, 
the  balance  of  the  coal  bunkered  amounted  to  between  16  and 
20  tons  per  hour,  or  say  384  tons  in  24  hours.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  under  service  conditions  the  speed  of  the  towing 
vessel  might  be  increased  to  8  or  10  knots  an  hour;  this  would 
of  course  increase  the  coal  consumption  unless  the  collier  pro- 
ceeded under  her  own  steam.  But  in  such  a  case  the  space 
between  the  two  crafts  might  be  diminished,  which  would  have 
the  effect  of  causing  the  cable  to  sag  and  of  stopping  the  work, 
since  the  conveyor  cable  to  act  properly  must  be  kept  taut. 
In  Great  Britain  the  Temperley  Transporter  Company  have 
taken  up  this  method  of  coaling  at  sea,  working  in  collaboration 
with  Spencer  Miller,  and  have  introduced  several  improvements 
in  detail.  Their  system  has  been  tried  by  the  British  admiralty. 

The  coaling  of  a  large  vessel  by  this  appliance  has  the  advantage 
of  economizing  hand  labour.  One  man  is  required  to  work  the 
hoist  on  the  collier,  while  20  men  will  be  in  the  hold  filling  the 
bags  and  delivering  them  to  the  deck,  where  1 5  or  so  will  transfer 
the  bags  to  the  lift.  One  or  two  men  suffice  for  the  overhead 
work;  their  station  is  in  the  trestle  trees.  On  board  the  receiving 
ship  a  few  men  will  be  stationed  at  the  shear  head  to  empty  the 
bags  into  a  canvas  shoot,  and  then  return  them,  while  there  will 
be  the  usual  force  of  bunker  trimmers.  A  ton  of  coal  per  minute 
has  been  transferred  from  the  collier  to  the  vessel,  but  for  this 
capacity  the  ships  must  not  be  too  far  apart,  else  the  rope  would 
not  remain  taut  under  such  loads.  During  the  Russo-Japanese 
War.  many  of  the  Russian  battleships  were  coaled  by  means 
of  aerial  cableways.  The  coaling  of  vessels  in  this  manner  seems 
a  success,  but  it  would  be  desirable  to  increase  the  carrying 
capacity  of  the  cableway  or  to  duplicate  the  installations. 

Telpherage. — A  telpher  ropeway  or  cableway  may  be  defined 
as  a  ropeway  or  cableway  worked  and  controlled  electrically, 
only  a  rail  rope  being  required  besides  the  live  rail  or  wire  from 
which  the  electric  current  is  taken.  Telpherage  was  devised 
by  Professor  Fleeming  Jenkin  in  1881,  and  developed  by  him 
in  conjunction  with  Professors  W.  E.  Ayrton  and  J.  Perry. 
The  telpher  itself  consists  of  a  light  two-wheeled  truck,  carrying 
the  driving  motors,  which,  to  avoid  gearing  or  other  complicated 
mechanism,  are  usually  coupled  directly  to  the  axles  of  the 
telpher.  Thus  the  telpher  is  a  self-propelled  electric  carrier 
running  on  a  mono-rail,  which,  according  to  the  conditions,  may 
be  a  steel  rail  or  a  steel  cable.  From  the  telpher  are  suspended 
carriers  which  can  be  adapted  to  any  kind  of  material.  In  many 
cases  the  whole  load  may  be  suspended  from  the  telpher,  or  the 
load,  especially  if  of  some  length,  may  be  supported  at  one  end 


64 


CONVOCATION 


by  a  telpher,  and  at  the  other  end  by  what  is  known  as  a  trailer, 
or  again,  two  telphers  may  be  installed,  one  at  each  end  of  the 
load.  The  telpher  carries  a  small  trolley  sheave  or  bow  which 
serves  to  collect  the  current  from  a  trolley  wire  stretched  a  little 
above  the  rail.  Frequently  the  telpher  is  accompanied  by  an 
attendant  who  manipulates  it,  but  by  dividing  the  trolley  wire 
into  sections  any  system  of  telpherage  may  be  constructed  to 
work  automatically,  and  by  switching  off  the  current  from  the 
section  in  which  the  telpher  is  required  to  stop  it  can  be  brought 
to  a  standstill  at  any  required  point.  The  speed  of  the  telpher 
may  be  readily  regulated  by  the  introduction  of  a  resistance 
between  any  section  of  the  line  and  the  supply  of  electricity. 
The  speed  may  be  high,  as  much  as  1500  ft.  per  minute  over  the 
straight  portions  of  the  line,  but  slackened  at  curves  and  loading 
stations,  or  when  approaching  a  terminus.  The  required  power 
may  be  obtained  from  the  mains  of  an  ordinary  electric  supply 
with  either  direct  or  alternating  current,  but  the  former  is 
preferable.  The  mean  expenditure  of  power  in  a  working  day 
is  said  to  average  (including  electrical  hoisting)  i  H.P.  'per  ton 
of  average  load. 

The  uses  of  telpherage  are  many  and  various.  In  factories 
and  warehouses,  where  the  buildings  are  scattered,  it  has  been 
installed  with  excellent  results.  Being  essentially  an  overhead 
system,  there  is  a  saving  of  floor  space,  the  ground  not  being 
obstructed  by  trucks  or  trolleys.  The  same  reasons  which 
render  ropeways  an  economical  means  of  handling  such  material 
as  coal,  ore,  stone,  slate,  &c.,  between  the  mine  or  quarry  and 
the  rail  or  barge,  may  be  adduced  in  favour  of  telpherage.  For 
the  unloading  of  railway  trucks  in  a  crowded  goods-yard  it 
is  undoubtedly  applicable.  Any  kind  of  tipping  or  hoisting 
operations  can  be  automatically  effected  by  its  aid,  and  any 
sort  of  grab  may  be  used  in  dealing  with  such  materials  as  sand, 
clay  or  gravel.  Telpherage  is  clearly  a  labour-saving  method 
of  handling  materials,  but  of  course  the  exact  conditions  under 
which  any  system  is  to  be  used  need  careful  study,  while  the 
economy  to  be  effected  by  the  installation  of  a  telpher  line  must 
to  a  great  extent  depend  upon  the  available  supply  of  electrical 
energy.  (G.  F.  Z.) 

CONVOCATION  (Lat.  convocalio,  a  calling  together),  an 
assembly  of  persons  met  together  in  answer  to  a  summons.  The 
term  is  more  usually  applied  in  a  restricted  sense  to  assemblies 
of  the  clergy  or  of  the  graduates  of  certain  universities. 

In  the  American  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  a  convocation 
is  a  voluntary  deliberative  conference  of  the  clergy;  it  has  no 
legislative  function,  and  like  the  convocation  of  a  university, 
assembles  primarily  to  discuss  matters  of  common  interest. 

In  England  the  name  "  convocation  "  is  specifically  given  to 
an  assembly  of  the  spirituality  of  the  realm  of  England,  which  is 
summoned  by  the  metropolitan  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  of 
York  respectively,  within  their  ecclesiastical  provinces,  pursu- 
ant to  a  royal  writ,  whenever  the  parliament  of  the  realm  is 
summoned,  and  which  is  also  continued  or  discharged,  as  the 
case  may  be,  whenever  the  parliament  is  prorogued  or  dissolved. 
These  assemblies  consist  of  two  Houses,  an  upper  and  lower. 
In  the  upper  house  sit  the  archbishops  and  bishops,  and  in  the 
lower  the  deans  and  archdeacons  of  every  cathedral,  the  provost 
of  Eton  College,  with  one  proctor  elected  by  each  cathedral 
chapter  and  two  by  the  beneficed  clergy  in  each  diocese  in  the 
province  of  Canterbury  (in  the  province  of  York  two  proctors  are 
elected  by  each  archdeacon),  with  a  prolocutor  at  their  head. 
When  and  how  this  convocation  originated  is  not  historically 
clear.  This  much  is  known  from  authentic  records,  that  the 
present  constitution  of  the  convocation  of  the  prelates  and  clergy 
of  the  province  of  Canterbury  was  recognized  as  early  as  in  the 
eleventh  year  of  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (1283)  as  its  normal 
constitution;  and  that  in  extorting  that  recognition  from  the 
crown,  which  the  clergy  accomplished  'by  refusing  to  attend 
unless  summoned  in  lawful  manner  (debito  modo)  through  their 
metropolitan,  the  clergy  of  the  province  of  Canterbury  taught  the 
laity  the  possibility  of  maintaining  the  freedom  of  the  nation 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  royal  power.  It  had  been  a 
provision  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  the  origin  of  which  is 


generally  referred  to  the  council  of  Clovesho  (747),  that  the 
possessions  of  the  church  should  be  exempt  from  taxation  by  the 
secular  power,  and  that  it  should  be  left  to  the  benevolence  of  the 
clergy  to  grant  such  subsidies  to  the  crown  from  the  endowments 
of  their  churches  as  they  should  agree  to  in  their  own  assemblies. 
It  may  be  inferred,  however,  from  the  language  of  the  various 
writs  issued  by  the  crown  for  the  collection  of  the  "  aids  "  voted 
by  the  Commune  Concilium  of  the  realm  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
that  the  clergy  were  unable  to  maintain  the  exemption  of  church 
property  from  being  taxed  to  those  "  aids  "  during  that  king's 
reign;  and  it  was  not  until  some  years  had  elapsed  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  that  the  spirituality  succeeded  in  vindicating  their 
constitutional  privilege  of  voting  in  their  own  assemblies  their 
free  gifts  or  "  benevolences,"  and  in  insisting  on  the  crown 
observing  the  lawful  form  of  convoking  those  assemblies  through 
the  metropolitan  of  each  province. 

The  form  of  the  royal  writ,  which  it  is  customary  to  issue  in  the 
present  day  to  the  metropolitan  of  each  province,  is  identical  in 
its  purport  with  the  writ  issued  by  the  crown  in  1283  to  the 
metropolitan  of  the  province  of  Canterbury,  after  the  clergy 
of  that  province  had  refused  to  meet  at  Northampton  in  the 
previous  year,  because  they  had  not  been  summoned  in  lawful 
manner;  whilst  the  mandates  issued  by  the  metropolitans  in 
pursuance  of  the  royal  writs,  and  the  citations  issued  by  the 
bishops  in  pursuance  of  the  mandates  of  their  respective  metro- 
politans, are  identical  in  their  purport  and  form  with  those  used  in 
summoning  the  convocation  of  1283,  which  met  at  the  New 
Temple  in  the  city  of  London,  and  voted  a  "  benevolence  "  to 
the  crown,  as  having  been  convoked  in  lawful  manner.  The 
existing  constitution  of  the  convocation  of  the  province  of 
Canterbury — and  the  same  observation  will  apply  to  that  of  the 
province  of  York — in  respect  of  its  comprising  representatives  of 
the  chapters  and 'of  the  beneficed  clergy,  in  addition  to  the 
bishops  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  church,  would  thus  appear 
to  be  of  even  more  ancient  date  than  the  existing  constitution  of 
the  parliament  of  the  realm. 

From  this  period  down  to  the  eleventh  year  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  there  were  continual  contests  between  the  spiritu- 
ality of  the  realm  and  the  crown, — the  spirituality  contest 
contending  for  their  constitutional  right  to  vote  their  between 
subsidies  in  their  provincial  convocations;  the  crown,  spMtu- 
on  the  other  hand,  insisting  on  the  immediate  attend- 
ance of  the  clergy  in  parliament.  The  resistance  of  the 
clergy  to  the  innovation  of  the  "  praemunientes  "  clause  had  so 
far  prevailed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  that  the  crown  consented 
to  summon  the  clergy  to  parliament  through  their  metropolitans, 
and  a  special  form  of  provincial  writ  was  for  that  purpose  framed ; 
but  the  clergy  protested  against  this  writ,  and  the  struggle  was 
maintained  between  the  spirituality  and  the  crown  until  1337 
(u  Edward  III.),  when  the  crown  reverted  to  the  ancient 
practice  of  commanding  the  metropolitans  to  call  together  their 
clergy  in  their  provincial  assemblies,  where  their  subsidies  were 
voted  in  the  manner  as  accustomed  before  the  "  praemunientes  " 
clause  was  introduced.  The  "  praemunientes  "  clause,  however, 
was  continued  in  the  parliamentary  writs  issued  to  the  several 
bishops  of  both  provinces,  whilst  the  bishops  were  permitted  to 
n'eglect  at  their  pleasure  the  execution  of  the  writs. 

The  history  of  the  convocation  of  the  province  of  Canterbury, 
as  at  present  constituted,  is  full  of  stirring  incidents,  and  it 
resolves  itself  readily  into   five  periods.     The  first 
period,  by  which  is  meant  the  first  period  which  dates  aderfs^T 
from  an  epoch  of  authentic  history,  is  the  period  of  its  period*. 
greatest  freedom,  but  not  of  its  greatest  activity.    It 
extends  from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  ( 1 283)  to  that  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  second  period  is  the  period  of  its  greatest  activity  and  of  its 
greatest  usefulness,  and  it  extends  from  the  twenty-fifth  year  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II.     The  third 
period  extends  from  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
(1664)  to  the  reign  of  George  I.     This  was  a  period  of  turbulent 
activity  and  little  usefulness,  and  the  anarchy  of  the  lower  house 
of  convocation  during  this  period  created  a  strong  prejudice 
against  the  revival  of  convocation  in  the  mind  of  the  laity.     The 


allty  and 
crown. 


CONVOCATION 


First 
period. 


fourth  period  extends  from  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  George 
I.  (1716)  to  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria. 
This  was  a  period  of  torpid  inactivity,  during  which  it  was 
customary  for  convocation  to  be  summoned  and  to  meet  pro 
forma,  and  to  be  continued  and  prorogued  indefinitely.  The 
fifth  period  may  be  considered  to  have  commenced  in  the  fifteenth 
year  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  (1852). 

During  the  first  of  the  five  periods  above  mentioned,  it  would 
appear  from  the  records  preserved  at  Lambeth  and  at  York  that 
the  metropolitans  frequently  convened  congregations 
(so  called)  of  their  clergy  without  the  authority  of  a 
royal  writ,  which  were  constituted  precisely  as  the 
convocations  were  constituted,  when  the  metropolitans  were 
commanded  to  call  their  clergy  together  pursuant  to  a  writ  from 
the  crown.  As  soon,  however,  as  King  Henry  VIII.  had  obtained 
from  the  clergy  their  acknowledgment  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
crown  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes,  he  constrained  the  spirituality 
to  declare,  by  what  has  been  termed  the  Act  of  Submission  on 
behalf  of  the  clergy,  that  the  convocation  "  is,  always  has  been, 
and  ought  to  be  summoned  by  authority  of  a  royal  writ  ";  and 
this  declaration  was  embodied  in  a  statute  of  the  realm  (25  Henry 
VIII.  c.  19),  which  further  enacted  that  the  convocation  "  should 
thenceforth  make  no  provincial  canons,  constitutions  or  ordin- 
ances without  the  royal  assent  and  licence."  The  spirituality  was 
thus  more  closely  incorporated  than  heretofore  in  the  body 
politic  of  the  realm,  seeing  that  no  deliberations  on  its  part  can 
take  place  unless  the  crown  has  previously  granted  its  licence  for 
such  deliberations.  It  had  been  already  provided  during  this 
period  by  8  Henry  VI.  c.  i,  that  the  prelates  and  other  clergy, 
with  their  servants  and  attendants,  when  called  to  the  convoca- 
tion pursuant  to  the  king's  writ,  should  enjoy  the  same  liberty 
and  defence  in  coming,  tarrying  and  returning  as  the  magnates 
and  the  commons  of  the  realm  enjoy  when  summoned  to  the 
king's  parliament. 

The  second  period,  which  dates  from  1533  to  1664,  has  been 
distinguished  by  four  important  assemblies  of  the  spirituality 
of  the  realm  in  pursuance  of  a  royal  writ — the  two 
first  of  which  occurred  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
the  third  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  the 
fourth  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  two  earliest  of  these 
convocations  were  summoned  to  complete  the  work  of  the 
reformation  of  the  Church  of  England,  which  had  been  begun 
by  Henry  VIII.;  the  third  was  called  together  to  reconstruct 
that  work,  which  had  been  marred  on  the  accession  of  Mary  (the 
consort  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain),  whilst  the  fourth  was  summoned 
to  re-establish  the  Church  of  England,  the  framework  of  which 
had  been  demolished  during  the  great  rebellion.  On  all  of  these 
occasions  the  convocations  worked  hand  in  hand  with  the 
parliament  of  the  realm  under  a  licence  and  with  the  assent 
of  the  crown.  Meanwhile  the  convocation  of  1603  had  framed 
a  body  of  canons  for  the  governance  of  the  clergy.  Another 
convocation  requires  a  passing  notice,  in  which  certain  canons 
were  drawn  up  in  1640,  but  by  reason  of  an  irregularity  in  the 
proceedings  of  this  convocation  (chiefly,  on  the  ground  that 
its  sessions  were  continued  for  some  time  after  the  parliament 
of  the  realm  had  been  dissolved),  its  canons  are  not  held  to  have 
any  binding  obligation  on  the  clergy.  The  convocations  had 
up  to  this  time  maintained  their  liberty  of  voting  the  subsidies 
of  the  clergy  in  the  form  of  "  benevolences  "  separate  and  apart 
from  the  "  aids  "  granted  by  the  laity  in  parliament,  and  one 
of  the  objections  taken  to  the  proceedings  of  the  convocation 
of  1640  was  that  it  had  continued  to  sit  and  to  vote  its  subsidies 
to  the  .crown  after  the  parliament  itself  had  been  dissolved. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  on  the  restoraUon  of  the  monarchy 
in  1 66 1  that  the  spirituality  was  not  anxious  to  retain  the  liberty 
of  taxing  itself  apart  from  the  laity,  seeing  that  its  ancient  liberty 
was  likely  to  prove  of  questionable  advantage  to  it.  It  voted, 
however,  a  benevolence  to  the  crown  on  the  occasion  of  its  first 
assembling  in  1661  after  the  restoration  of  King  Charles  II., 
and  it  continued  so  to  do  until  1664,  when  an  arrangement  was 
made  between  Archbishop  Sheldon  and  Lord  Chancellor  Hyde, 
under  which  the  spirituality  silently  waived  its  long-asserted 
vii.  3 


Second 
period. 


right  of  voting  its  own  subsidies  to  the  crown,  and  submitted  itself 
thenceforth  to  be  assessed  to  the  "  aids  "  directly  granted  to  the 
crown  by  parliament.  An  act  was  accordingly  passed 
by  the  parliament  in  the  following  year  1665,  entitled 
An  act  to  grant  a  Royal  Aid  unto  the  King's  Majesty,  compact 
to  which  aid  the  clergy  were  assessed  by  the  com- 
missioners named  in  the  statute  without  any  objection  being 
raised  on  their  part  or  behalf,1  there  being  a  proviso  that  in  so 
contributing  the  clergy  should  be  relieved  of  the  liability  to  pay 
two  subsidies  out  of  four,  which  had  been  voted  by  them  in  the 
convocation  of  a  previous  year.  In  consequence  of  this  practical 
renunciation  of  their  separate  status,  as  regards  their  liability 
to  taxation,  the  clergy  have  assumed  and  enjoyed  in  common 
with  the  laity  the  right  of  voting  at  the  election  of  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  virtue  of  their  ecclesiastical  freeholds. 

The  most  important  and  the  last  work  of  the  convocation 
during  this  second  period  of  its  activity  was  the  revision  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  which  was  completed  in  the  latter 
part  of  1661. 

The  Revolution  in  1688  is  the  most  important  epoch  in  the 
third  period  of  the  history  of  the  synodical  proceedings  of  the 
spirituality,  when  the  convocation  of  Canterbury, 
having  met  in  1689  in  pursuance  of  a  royal  writ,  period 
obtained  a  licence  under  the  great  seal,  to  prepare 
certain  alterations  in  the  liturgy  and  in  the  canons,  and  to 
deliberate  on  the  reformation  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  A 
feeling,  however,  of  panic  seems  to  have  come  over  the  Lower 
House,  which  took  up  a  position  of  violent  antagonism  to  the 
Upper  House.  This  circumstance  led  to  the  prorogation  of 
the  convocation  and  to  its  subsequent  discharge  without  any 
practical  fruit  resulting  from  the  king's  licence.  Ten  years 
elapsed  during  which  the  convocation  was  prorogued  from  time 
to  time  without  any  meeting  of  its  members  for  business  being 
allowed.  The  next  convocation  which  was  permitted  to  meet 
for  business,  in  1700,  was  marked  by  great  turbulence  and  in- 
subordination on  the  part  of  the  members  of  the  Lower  House, 
who  refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  archbishop  to 
prorogue  their  sessions.  This  controversy  was  kept  up  until 
the  discharge  of  the  convocation  took  place  concurrently  with 
the  dissolution  of  the  parliament  in  the  autumn  of  that  year. 
The  proceedings  of  the  Lower  House  in  this  convocation  were 
disfigured  by  excesses  which  were  clearly  violations  of  the 
constitutional  order  of  the  convocation.  The  Lower  House 
refused  to  take  notice  of  the  archbishop's  schedule  of  prorogation, 
and  adjourned  itself  by  its  own  authority,  and  upon  the  demise 
of  the  crown  it  disputed  the  fact  of  its  sessions  having  expired, 
and  as  parliament  was  to  continue  for  a  short  time,  prayed 
that  its  sessions  might  be  continued  as  a  part  of  the  parliament 
under  the  "  praemunientes  "  clause.  The  next  convocation  was 
summoned  in  the  first  year  of  Queen  Anne,  when  the  Lower 
House,  under  the  leadership  of  Dean  Aldrich,  its  prolocutor, 
challenged  the  right  of  the  archbishop  to  prorogue  it,  claim  of 
and  presented  a  petition  to  the  queen,  praying  her  Lover 
majesty  to  call  the  question  into  her  own  presence.  House  to 
The  question  was  thereupon  examined  by  the  queen's  *"'f</<y 
council,  when  the  right  of  the  president  to  prorogue 
both  houses  of  convocation  by  a  schedule  of  prorogation  was  held 
to  be  proved,  and  further,  that  it  could  not  be  altered  except 
by  an  act  of  parliament.  During  the  remaining  years  of  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  the  two  Houses  of  convocation  were  engaged 
either  in  internecine  strife,  or  in  censuring  sermons  or  books,  as 
teaching  latitudinarian  or  heretical  doctrines;  and,  when  it  had 
been  assembled  concurrently  with  parliament  on  the  accession 
of  King  George  I.,  a  great  breach  was  before  long  created  between 
the  two  houses  by  the  Bangorian  controversy.  Dr  Hoadly, 
bishop  of  Bangor,  having  preached  a  sermon  before  the  king, 
in  the  Royal  Chapel  at  St  James's  Palace  in  1717,  against  the 
principles  and  practice  of  the  nonjurors,  which  had  been  printed 

1  It  had  always  been  the  practice,  when  the  clergy  voted  their  sub- 
sidies in  their  convocation,  for  parliament  to  authorize  the  collection 
of  each  subsidy  by  the  same  commissioners  who  collected  the 
parliamentary  aid. 


66 


CONVOCATION 


by  the  king's  command,  the  Lower  House,  which  was  offended 
by  the  sermon  and  had  also  been  offended  by  a  treatise  on  the 
same  subject  published  by  Dr  Hoadly  in  the  previous 
tangorian  year^  jost  no  tjme  jn  representing  the  sermon  to  the 
troversy.  Upper  House,  and  in  calling  for  its  condemnation.  A 
controversy  thereupon  arose  between  the  two  houses 
which  was  kept  up  with  untiring  energy  by  the  Lower  House, 
until  the  convocation  was  prorogued  in  1717  in  pursuance  of  a 
royal  writ;  from  which  time  until  1861  no  licence  from  the  crown 
was  granted  to  convocation  to  proceed  to  business.  During 
this  period,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  fourth  distinguishing 
period  in  the  history  of  the  convocations  of  the  Church  of  England, 
arth  it  was  usual  for  a  few  members  of  the  convocation  to 
period.  meet  when  first  summoned  with  every  new  parliament, 
in  pursuance  of  the  royal  writ,  for  the  Lower  House 
to  elect  a  prolocutor,  and  for  both  houses  to  vote  an  address 
to  the  crown,  after  which  the  convocation  was  prorogued  from 
time  to  time,  pursuant  to  royal  writs,  and  ultimately  discharged 
when  the  parliament  was  dissolved.  There  were,  however, 
several  occasions  between  1717  and  1741  when  the  convocation 
of  the  province  of  Canterbury  transacted  certain  matters,  by 
way  of  consultation,  which  did  not  require  any  licence  from  the 
crown,  and  there  was  a  short  period  in  its  session  of  1741  when 
there  was  a  probability  of  its  being  allowed  to  resume  its  de- 
liberative functions,  as  the  Lower  House  had  consented  to  obey 
the  president's  schedule  of  prorogation;  but  the  Lower  House 
having  declined  to  receive  a  communication  from  the  Upper 
House,  the  convocation  was  forthwith  prorogued,  from  which 
time  until  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  the  convocation  was 
not  permitted  by  the  crown  to  enjoy  any  opportunity  even  for 
consultation.  The  spirituality  at  last  aroused  itself  from  its 
long  repose  in  1852,  and  on  this  occasion  the  Upper  House  took 
the  lead.  The  active  spirit  of  the  movement  was  Samuel  Wilber- 
force,  bishop  of  Oxford,  but  the  master  mind  was 
period.  Henry  Phillpotts,  bishop  of  Exeter.  On  the  convoca- 
tion assembling  several  petitions  were  presented  to 
both  houses,  praying  them  to  take 'steps  to  procure  from  the 
crown  the  necessary  licence  for  their  meeting  for  the  despatch 
of  business,  and  an  address  to  the  Upper  House  was  brought 
up  from  the  Lower  House,  calling  the  attention  of  the  Upper 
House  to  the  reasonableness  of  the  prayer  of  the  various  petitions. 
After  some  discussion  the  Upper  House,  influenced  mainly  by 
the  argument  of  Henry,  bishop  of  Exeter,  consented  to  receive 
the  address  of  the  Lower  House,  and  the  convocation  was  there- 
upon prorogued,  shortly  after  which  it  was  discharged  concur- 
rently with  the  dissolution  of  parliament.  On  the  assembling 
of  the  next  convocation  of  the  province  of  Canterbury,  no  royal 
writ  of  exoneration  having  been  sent  by  the  crown  to  the  metro- 
politan, the  sessions  of  the  convocation  were  continued  for 
several  days;  and  from  this  time  forth  convocation  may  be 
considered  to  have  resumed  its  action  as  a  consultative  body, 
whilst  it  has  also  been  permitted  on  more  than  one  occasion 
to  exercise  its  functions  as  a  deliberative  body.  In  1865,  under 
licence  from  the  crown,  the  Convocations  of  Canterbury  and 
York  framed  new  canons  in  place  of  the  36th,  37th,  38th  and 
4oth  canons  of  1603,  and  amended  the  62nd  and  iO2nd  canons 
in  1888.  In  1872  convocation  was  empowered  by  letters  of 
business  from  the  crown  to  frame  resolutions  on  the  subject  of 
public  worship,  which  resolutions  were  afterwards  incorporated 
in  the  Act  of  Uniformity  Amendment  Act  1872. 

As  a  deliberative  body,  convocation  has  done  much  useful 
work,  but  it  suffers  considerably  from  its  unrepresentative 
nature.  The  non-beneficed  clergy  still  remain  without  the 
franchise,  but  the  establishment  of  Houses  of  Laymen  (see 
LAYMEN,  HOUSES  OF)  for  both  provinces  has,  to  a  certain  extent, 
secured  the  co-operation  of  the  lay  element.  Several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  promote  legislation  to  enable  the  convocations 
to  reform  their  constitutions  and  to  enable  them  to  unite  for 
special  purposes;  in  1905  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Lords.  It  did  not,  however,  get  beyond  a  first  reading.  In  1896 
a  departure  was  made  in  holding  joint  sessions  of  both  convoca- 
tions, in  conjunction  with  the  two  Houses  of  Laymen,  for  con- 


sultative purposes.  This  body  is  now  termed  the  Representative 
Church  Council,  and  it  adopted  a  Constitution  in  November  1905. 
All  formal  business  is  transacted  in  the  separate  convocations. 
It  is  usual  for  convocation  to  meet  three  times  a  year. 

The  order  of  convening  the  convocation  of  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury is  as  follows.  A  writ  issues  from  the  crown,  addressed  to  the 
metropolitan  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  commanding  him  "  by 
reason  of  certain  difficult  and  urgent  affairs  concerning  us,  the 
security  and  defence  of  our  Church  of  England,  and  the  peace  and 
tranquillity,  public  good  and  defence  of  our  kingdom,  and  our 
subjects  of  the  same,  to  call  together  with  all  convenient  speed,  and 
in  lawful  manner,  the  several  bishops  of  the  province  of  Canterbury, 
and  deans  of  the  cathedral  churches,  and  also  the  archdeacons, 
chapters  and  colleges,  and  the  whole  clergy  of  every  diocese  of  the 
said  province,  to  appear  before  the  said  metropolitan  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  St  Paul,  London,  on  a  certain  day,  or  elsewhere,  as  shall 
seem  most  expedient,  to  treat  of,  agree  to  and  conclude  upon  the 
premises  and  other  things,  which  to  them  shall  then  at  the  same  place 
be  more  clearly  explained  on  our  behalf."  In  case  the  metropolitical 
see  of  Canterbury  should  be  vacant,  the  writ  of  the  crown  is  ad- 
dressed to  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  metropolitical  church  of 
Canterbury  in  similar  terms,  as  being  the  guardians  of  the  spiritu- 
alities of  the  see  during  a  vacancy.  Thereupon  the  metropolitan, 
or,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  metropolitical 
church,  issue  a  mandate  to  the  bishop  of  London,  as  dean  of  the 
province,  and  if  the  bishopric  of  London  should  be  vacant,  then  to 
the  bishop  of  Winchester  as  subdean,  which  embodies  the  royal  writ, 
and  directs  the  bishop  to  cause  all  the  bishops  of  the  province  to  be 
cited,  and  through  them  the  deans  of  the  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  and  the  archdeacons  and  other  dignitaries  of  churches,  and 
each  chapter  by  one,  and  the  clergy  of  each  diocese  by  two  sufficient 
proctors,  to  appear  before  the  metropolitan  or  his  commissary,  or, 
as  the  case  may  be,  before  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  metropolitical 
church  or  their  commissary,  in  the  chapter-house  of  the  cathedral 
church  of  St  Paul,  London,  if  that  place  be  named  in  the  mandate, 
or  elsewhere,  with  continuation  and  prorogation  of  days  next 
following,  if  that  should  be  necessary,  to  treat  upon  arduous  and 
weighty  affairs,  which  shall  concern  the  state  and  welfare,  public 
good  and  defence  of  this  kingdom  and  the  subjects  thereof,  to  be 
then  and  there  seriously  laid  before  them,  and  to  give  their  good 
counsel  and  assistance  on  the  said  affairs,  and  to  consent  to  such 
things  as  shall  happen  to  be  wholesomely  ordered  and  appointed 
by  their  common  advisement,  for  the  honour  of  God  and  the  good 
of  the  church. 

The_  provincial  dean,  or  the  subdean,  as  the  case  may  be,  there- 
upon issues  a  citation  to  the  several  bishops  of  the  province,  which 
embodies  the  mandate  of  the  metropolitan  or  of  the  dean  and  chapter 
of  the  metropolitical  church,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  admonishes 
them  to  appear,  and  to  cite  and  admonish  their  clergy,  as  specified 
in  the  metropolitical  mandate,  to  appear  at  the  time  and  place 
mentioned  in  the  mandate.  The  bishops  thereupon  either  summon 
directly  the  clergy  of  their  respective  dioceses  to  appear  before  them 
or  their  commissaries  to  elect  two  proctors,  or  they  send  a  citation 
to  their  archdeacons,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  diocese,  direct- 
ing them  to  summon  the  clergy  of  their  respective  archdeaconries 
to  elect  a  proctor.  The  practice  of  each  diocese  in  this  matter  is 
the  law  of  the  convocation,  and  the  practice  varies  indefinitely  as 
regards  the  election  of  proctors  to  represent  the  beneficed  clergy. 
As  regards  the  deans,  the  bishops  send  special  writs  to  them  to 
appear  in  person,  and  to  cause  their  chapters  to  appear  severally  by 
one  proctor.  Writs  also  go  to  every  archdeacon,  and  on  the  day 
named  in  the  royal  writ,  which  is  always  the  day  next  following 
that  named  in  the  writ  to  summon  the  parliament,  the  convocation 
assembles  in  the  place  named  in  the  archbishop's  mandate.  There- 
upon, after  the  Litany  has  been  sung  or  said,  and  a  Latin  sermon 
preached  by  a  preacher  appointed  by  the  metropolitan,  the  clergy 
are  praeconized  or  summoned  by  name  to  appear  before  the  metro- 
politan or  his  commissary;  after  which  the  clergy  of  the  Lower 
House  are  directed  to  withdraw  and  elect  a  prolocutor  to  be  presented 
to  the  metropolitan  for  his  approbation.  The  convocation  thus 
constituted  resolves  itself  at  its  next  meeting  into  two  houses,  and 
it  is  in  a  fit  state  to  proceed  to  business. 

The  constitution  of  the  convocation  of  the  province  of  York  differs 
slightly  from  that  of  the  convocation  of  the  province  of  Canterbury, 
as  each  archdeaconry  is  represented  by  two  proctors,  precisely  as 
in  parliament  formerly  under  the  Praemunientes  clause. 

There  are  some  anomalies  in  the  diocesan  returns  of  the  two 
convocations,  but  in  all  such  matters  the  consuetude  of  the  diocese 
is  the  governing  rule. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Wilkins,  Concilia  Magnae  Britannia  el  Hiberniat 
(4  vols.  folio,  1737);  Gibson,  Codex  Juris  Ecclesiastici  Anglicani 
(2  vols.  folio,  1713);  Johnson,  A  Collection  of  all  the  Ecclesiastical 
Laws,  Canons  and  Constitutions  of  the  English  Church  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1720);  Gibson,  Synodus  Anelicana  (8vo,  1702,  re-edited  by  Dr 
Edward  Cardwell,  8vp,  1854);  Shower,  A  ^Letter  to  a  Convocation 
Man  concerning  the  Rights,  Powers  and  Privileges  of  that  Body  (410, 
1697);  Wake,  The  Authority  of  Christian  Princes  over  their  Ecclesi- 
astical Synods  asserted,  occasioned  by  a  late  Pamphlet  intituled  A  Letter 


CONVOLVULACEAE— CONVOY 


67 


to  a  Convocation  Man  (8vo,  1697) ;  Atterbury,  The  Rights,  Powers 
and  Privileges  of  an  English  Convocation  stated  and  vindicated  in 
answer  to  a  late  book  of  Dr  Wake's  (8vo,  1700);  Burnet,  Reflections 
on  a  Book  intituled  The  Rights,  Powers  and  Privileges  of  an  English 
Convocation  stated  and  vindicated  (410,  1700);  Kennet,  Ecclesiastical 
Synods  and  Parliamentary  Convocations  of  the  Church  of  England 
historically  stated  and  justly  vindicated  from  the  Misrepresentation 
of  Mr  Atterbury  (8vo,  1701);  Atterbury,  The  Power  of  the  Lower 
House  of  Convocation  to  adjourn  itself  (4X0,  1701) ;  Gibson,  The  Right 
of  the  Archbishop  to  continue  or  prorogue  the  whole  Convocation  (410, 
1701);  Kennet,  The  Case  of  the  Praemunientes  (410,  1701);  Hooper, 
The  Narrative  of  the  Lower  House  vindicated  from  the  Exceptions  of  a 
Letter,  intituled  The  Right  of  the  Archbishop  to  continue  or  prorogue 
the  Convocation  (410,  1702);  Atterbury,  The  Case  of  the  Schedule 
stated  (410,  1702);  Gibson,  The  Schedule  Reviewed,  or  the  Right  of 
the  Archbishop  to  continue  or  prorogue  the  whole  Convocation,  cleared 
from  the  Exception  of  a  late  Vindication  of  the  Narrative  of  the  Lower 
House,  and  of  a  Book  intituled  The  Case  of  the  Schedule  stated  (410, 
1702);  Hody,  A  History  of  the  English  Councils  and  Convocation, 
and  of  the  Clergy's  sitting  in  Parliament  (8vo,  1702);  Wake,  The 
State  of  the  Church  and  Clergy  of  England  in  their  Councils,  Synods, 
Convocations,  Conventions,  and  other  Public  Assemblies,  occasioned 
by  a  book  intituled  The  Rights,  Powers  and  Privileges  of  an  English 
Convocation  (fol.,  1703);  Burnet,  History  of  His  Own  Time  (2  vols. 
folio,  1734),  re-edited  by  Dr  Martin  J.  Routh  (6  vols.  8vo,  1833); 
Hallam,  Constitutional  History  of  England  (3  vols.  8vo,  1832) ;  Card- 
well,  Documentary  Annals  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  England  (2  vols., 
1839);  Cardwell,  A  History  of  Conferences  and  other  Proceedings 
connected  with  the  revision  of  the  Common  Prayer  (8vo,  1841) ;  Card- 
well,  Synodalia,  a  Collection  of  Articles  of  Religion,  Canon  and  Pro- 
ceedings of  Convocation  in  the  Province  of  Canterbury  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1842);  Lathbury,  A  History  of  the  Convocation  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land (2nd  ed.,  8vo,  1853) ;  Trevor,  The  Convocation  of  the  two  Pro- 
vinces (8vo,  1852);  Pearce,  The  Law  relating  to  Convocations  of  the 
Clergy  (8vo,  1848) ;  Synodalia,  a  Journal  of  Convocation,  commenced 
in  1852  (8vo);  The  Chronicle  of  Convocation,  being  a  record  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury,  commenced  in  1863 
(8vo).  (T.  T.;  T.  A.  I.) 

CONVOLVDLACEAE,  a  botanical  natural  order  belonging  to 
the  series  Tubiflorae  of  the  sympetalous  group  of  Dicotyledons. 
It  contains  about  40  genera  with  more  than  1000  species,  and  is 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  except  the  coldest,  but  is  especially 
well  developed  in  tropical  Asia  and  tropical  America.  The  most 
characteristic  members  of  the  order  are  twining  plants  with 
generally  smooth  heart-shaped  leaves  and  large  showy  white  or 
purple  flowers,  as,  for  instance,  the  greater  bindweed  of  English 
hedges,  Calystegia  sepium,  and  many  species  of  the  genus  Ipomaea, 
the  largest  of  the  order,  including  the  "  convolvulus  major  "  of 
gardens,  and  morning  glory.  The  creeping  or  trailing  type  is  a 
common  one,  as  in  the  English  bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis), 
which  has  also  a  tendency  to  climb,  and  Calystegia  Soldanella, 
the  sea-bindweed,  the  long  creeping  stem  of  which  forms  a  sand- 
binder  on  English  seashores;  a  widespread  and  efficient  tropical 
sand-binder  is  Ipomaea  Pes-Caprae.  One  of  the  commonest 
tropical  weeds,  Evohulus  alsinoides,  has  slender,  long-trailing 
stems  with  small  leaves  and  flowers.  In  hot  dry  districts  such 
as  Arabia  and  north-east  tropical  Africa,  genera  have  been 
developed  with  a  low,  much-branched,  dense,  shrubby  habit, 
with  small  hairy  leaves  and  very  small  flowers.  An  exceptional 
type  in  the  order  is  represented  by  Humbertia,  a  native  of 
Madagascar,  which  forms  a  large  tree.  The  dodder  (q.v.)  is  a 
genus  (Cuscuta)  of  leafless  parasites  with  slender  thread-like 
twining  stems.  The  flowers  stand  singly  in  the  leaf-axils  or  form 
few  or  many  flowered  cymose  inflorescences;  the  flowers  are 
sometimes  crowded  into  small  heads.  The  bracts  are  usually 
scale-like,  but  sometimes  foliaceous,  as  for  instance  in  Calystegia, 
where  they  are  large  and  envelop  the  calyx. 

The  parts  of  the  flower  are  in  fives  in  calyx,  corolla  and  stamens, 
followed  by  two  carpels  which  unite  to  form  a  superior  ovary. 
The  sepals,  which  are  generally  free,  show  much  variation  in  size, 
shape  and  covering,  and  afford  valuable  characters  for  the  distinc- 
tion of  genera  or  sub-genera.  The  corolla  is  generally  funnel- 
shaped,  more  rarely  bell-shaped  or  tubular;  the  outer  face  is 
often  marked  out  in  longitudinal  areas,  five  well-defined  areas 
tapering  from  base  to  apex,  and  marked  with  longitudinal  striae 
corresponding  to  the  middle  of  the  petals,  and  alternating  with 
five  non-striated  weaker  triangular  areas;  in  the  bud  the  latter 
are  folded  inwards,  the  stronger  areas  being  exposed  and  showing 
a  twist  to  the  right.  The  slender  filaments  of  the  stamens  vary 


widely,  often  in  the  same  flower;  the  anthers  are  linear  to 
ovate  in  shape,  attached  at  the  back  to  the  filament,  and  open 
lengthwise.  Some  importance  attaches  to  the  form  of  the 
pollen  grains;  the  two  principal  forms  are  ellipsoidal  with 
longitudinal  bands  forming  the  Convolvulus-type,  and  a  spherical 
form  with  a  spiny  surface  known  as  the  Ipomaea-type.  The 
ovary  is  generally  two-chambered,  with  two  inverted  ovules 
standing  side  by  side  at  the  inner  angle  of  each  chamber.  The 
style  is  simple  or  branched,  and  the  stigma  is  linear,  capitate  or 
globose  in  form;  these  variations  afford  means  for  distinguishing 
the  different  genera.  The  fruit  is  usually  a  capsule  opening  by 
valves;  the  seeds,  where  four  are  developed,  are  each  shaped  like 
the  quadrant  of  a  sphere;  the  seed-coat  is  smooth,  or  sometimes 
warty  or  hairy;  the  embryo  is  large  with  generally  broad,  folded, 
notched  or  bilobed  cotyledons  surrounded  by  a  horny  endosperm. 
Cuscuta  has  a  thread-like,  spirally  twisted  embryo  with  no  trace 
of  cotyledons. 

The  large  showy  flowers  are  visited  by  insects  for  the  honey 
which  is  secreted  by  a  ring-like  disk  below  the  ovary;  large- 


Convolvulus  sepium,  slightly  reduced. 

1.  Flower  cut  vertically.  4.  Embryo  taken  out  of  seed. 

2.  Fruit,  slightly  reduced.  5.  Horizontal  plan    of   arrange- 

3.  Seed  cut  lengthwise  showing  ment  of  flower. 

embryo. 

flowered  species  of  Ipomaea  with  narrow  tubes  are  adapted  for  the 
visits  of  honey-seeking  birds. 

The  largest  genus,  Ipomaea,  has  about  400  species  distributed 
throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth.  Convolvulus  has 
about  150  to  200  species,  mainly  in  temperate  climates;  the 
genus  is  principally  developed  in  the  Mediterranean  area  and 
western  Asia.  Cuscuta  contains  nearly  100  species  in  the  warmer 
and  temperate  regions;  two  are  native  in  Britain. 

The  tubers  of  Ipomaea  Batatas  are  rich  in  starch  and  sugar,  and, 
as  the  "  sweet  potato,"  form  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed 
foods  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth.  Several  members  of  the 
order  are  used  medicinally  for  the  strong  purging  properties  of  the 
milky  juice  (latex)  which  they  contain;  scammony  is  the  dried 
latex  from  the  underground  stem  of  Convolvulus  Scammonia,  a 
native  of  the  Levant,  while  jalap  is  the  product  of  the  tubercles 
of  Exogonium  Purga,  a  native  of  Mexico.  Species  of  Ipomaea 
(morning  glory),  Convolvulus  and  Calystegia  are  cultivated  as 
ornamental  plants.  Convolvulus  arvensis  (bindweed)  is  a  pest  in 
fields  and  gardens  on  account  of  its  wide-spreading  underground 
stem,  and  many  of  the  dodders  (Cuscuta)  cause  damage  to  crops. 

CONVOY  (through  the  Fr.  from  late  Lat.  conviare,  to  go  along 
with,  from  Lat.  cum,  with,  and  via,  way;  "  convey  "  has  the 
same  ultimate  origin  [see  CONVEYANCE],  neither  word  being 


68 


CONVULSIONS— CONWAY,  H.  S. 


connected,  as  has  sometimes  been  supposed,  with  Lat.  con- 
vehere,  to  carry  together) ,  a  verb  and  noun  now  almost  exclusively 
used  in  military  and  naval  parlance.  As  a  verb  it  signifies  in  the 
first  instance  to  accompany  or  to  escort;  and  in  the  i;th  century 
we  even  hear  of  cavalry  "  convoying  "  infantry,  but  its  meaning 
was  soon  complicated  by  the  growing  use  of  the  word  "  convey  " 
in  the  sense  of  "  to  carry,"  and  as  the  usual  task  of  an  escort  was 
that  of  accompanying  and  protecting  vehicles  containing  supplies, 
the  noun  "  convoy  "  (Fr.  conitoi)  was  introduced  and  has  thence- 
forward in  land  warfare  meant  a  train  of  vehicles  containing 
stores  for  the  use  of  troops  and  its  guard  or  escort.  Sometimes 
even  the  word  is  found  in  the  meaning  of  the  train  of  vehicles 
without  implying  that  there  is  an  escort,  so  far  has  the  original 
meaning  become  obscured;  but  the  idea  of  military  protection  is 
always  present,  whether  this  protection  is  given  by  a  separate 
escort  or  provided  by  the  weapons  of  the  drivers  themselves. 

In  naval  warfare  the  term  is  used  to  describe  a  method 
adopted  for  defending  merchant  ships  against  capture.  It  was 
usually  applied  to  the  vessels  to  be  protected — as  for  example 
"  the  Baltic  convoy,"  or  "  Captain  Montray's  convoy."  Until 
the  1 7th  century  the  English  term  was  "  to  waft  "  and  the 
warship  employed  to  guard  the  traders  on  their  way  was  called 
"  a  wafter."  The  practice  of  sailing  in  convoy  for  mutual 
protection  was  common  in  the  middle  ages,  when  all  ships  were 
more  or  less  armed  and  the  war  vessel  was  not  entirely  differ- 
entiated from  the  trader.  Thus  the  ships  of  the  great  German 
confederation  of  cities  known  as  the  Hanseatic  League  were 
required  to  sail  in  convoy.  So  were  the  six  trading  squadrons 
which  sailed  yearly  from  Venice.  The  masters  of  all  the  vessels 
were  required  to  obey  the  authority  of  an  officer  who  had  the 
general  command.  In  the  i6th  century  the  Spanish  trade  with 
America  was  compelled  by  law  to  sail  in  convoys  (flotas) ,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  danger  of  capture  by  pirates  to  which  single  ships 
were  exposed.  In  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries  the  use  of  convoy 
was  universal.  Dutch,  French  or  British  ships  were  collected  at 
a  rendezvous,  and  were  accompanied  by  warships  till  they  reached 
the  point  at  which  they  were  compelled  to  separate  in  order  to 
go  to  their  various  destinations.  The  main  danger  was  near  the 
enemy's  ports.  An  example  of  the  way  the  duty  was  discharged 
may  be  found  in  the  Newfoundland  convoy.  They  sailed  from 
England  under  the  direction  of  a  naval  officer  and  the  protection 
of  his  ships,  commonly  a  forty-  or  fifty-gun  ship  with  a  smaller 
vessel  in  attendance.  The  convoy  sailed  to  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland.  When  they  had  filled  up  with  stock  fish,  they 
were  escorted  across  the  Atlantic  by  the  same  officer.  He 
accompanied  those  of  them  bound  to  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
port  of  Leghorn,  and,  when  they  had  unloaded  and  reloaded,  saw 
them  home.  All  cases  were  not  so  simple.  The  ships  engaged  in 
the  East  and  West  India  trade,  for  instance,  sailed  together.  In 
the  Channel  they  were  protected  by  the  main  strength  of  the 
fleet.  When  beyond  the  Scilly  Islands  they  were  left  to  the  care 
of  a  smaller  force,  and  continued  together  till  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Madeira,  when  they  separated.  Convoys  were  subject  to 
attack  in  two  forms,  by  strong  squadrons  which  overpowered  the 
guard,  and  by  privateers,  corsairs  and  isolated  cruisers.  Thb 
latter  peril  was  much  increased  in  the  case  of  British  commerce  by 
the  reluctance  of  the  merchant  captains  to  obey  the  naval  officers. 
They  were  very  much  inclined  to  separate  from  the  convoy  as 
they  approached  their  destination  in  the  hope  of  forestalling 
rivals.  As  a  natural  consequence  they  were  frequently  captured 
by  hostile  privateers.  French  naval  officers  had  authority  and 
large  powers  of  punishment  over  merchant  skippers.  The  British 
naval  officers  had  not.  In  1803-34,  on  the  renewal  of  the  war  with 
France,  the  British  government  saw  the  necessity  for  regulating 
convoy  more  strictly  than  had  hitherto  been  the  case.  It 
therefore  passed  "  an  act  for  the  better  protection  of  the  trade  of 
the  United  Kingdom  during  the  present  hostilities  with  France." 
By  this  act  (the  43rd  Geo.  III.  Cap.  57)  all  vessels  not  exempted 
by  special  licence  were  required  to  sail  in  convoy  and  to  conform 
to  strict  regulations,  under  penalties  of  £1000  (or,  when  the  goods 
included  government  stores,  of  £1500)  and  the  loss  of  all  claim  to 
insurance  in  case  of  capture.  (D.  H.) 


The  object  of  convoying  is  to  attach  an  official  public  character 
to  the  convoyed  ships,  i.e.  a  sort  of  assimilation  of  them  to 
the  escorting  ship  or  ships  of  war.  Thus  European  states  and 
jurists  hold  that  the  declaration  of  the  commander  of  the  convoy, 
that  there  is  no  contraband  of  war  on  board  the  convoyed  ships, 
pledges  the  national  good  faith,  and  must  be  assumed  to  be 
correct  in  the  same  way  as  it  is  assumed  that  the  convoy  itself  is 
carrying  no  contraband  of  war.  Great  Britain  has  never  taken 
this  view.  Down  to  1907  she  had  maintained  that  it  is  materially 
impossible  for  any  neutral  state  to  exercise  the  necessary  super- 
vision to  secure  absolute  accuracy  of  the  ship's  papers.  Number 
29,  however,  of  the  instructions  given  by  the  government  to 
the  British  plenipotentiaries  at  the  Hague  Conference  of  1907 
stated  that  "  H.M.  government  would  ...  be  glad  to  see  the 
right  of  search  limited  in  every  practicable  way,  e.g.  by  the  adop- 
tion of  a  system  of  consular  certificates  declaring  the  absence  of 
contraband  from  the  cargo.  .  .  ."  As  the  greater  includes  the 
smaller,  we  may  assume  that,  if  a  consular  certificate  might 
suffice  to  exempt  from  the  exercise  of  search,  the  state  guarantee 
of  a  convoy  would  certainly  suffice.  The  London  Convention 
on  the  Laws  and  Customs  of  Naval  War  has  laid  down  the  rules 
as  to  convoys  in  the  following  terms: 

Neutral  vessels  under  national  convoy  are  exempt  from  search. 
The  commander  of  a  convoy  gives,  in  writing,  at  the  request  of  the 
commander  of  a  belligerent  warship,  all  information  as  to  the 
character  of  the  vessels  and  their  cargoes,  which  could  be  obtained 
by  search. — Art.  61. 

If  the  commander  of  the  belligerent  warship  has  reason  to  suspect 
that  the  confidence  of  the  commander  of  the  convoy  has  been  abused, 
he  communicates  his  suspicions  to  him.  In  such  a  case  it  is  for  the 
commander  of  the  convoy  alone  to  investigate  the  matter.  He  must 
record  the  result  of  such  investigation  in  a  report,  of  which  a  copy  is 
handed  to  the  officer  of  the  warship.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  convoy,  the  facts  shown  in  the  report  justify  the  cap- 
ture of  one  or  more  vessels,  the  protection  of  the  convoy  must  be 
withdrawn  from  such  vessels. — Art.  62.  (T.  BA.) 

CONVULSIONS,  the  pathological  condition  of  body  associated 
with  abnormal,  violent  and  spasmodic  contractions  and  relaxa- 
tions of  the  muscles,  taking  the  form  of  a  fit.  Convulsions  may  be 
a  symptom  resulting  from  various  diseases,  but  the  term  is 
commonly  restricted  to  the  infantile  variety,  occurring  in 
association  with  teething,  or  other  causes  which  upset  the  child's 
nervous  system.  The  treatment  (plunging  into  a  hot  bath,  or 
administration  of  chloroform)  must  be  prompt,  as  convulsions  are 
responsible  for  a  large  part  of  infant  mortality. 

The  name  "  Convulsionaries "  (Fr.  Conindsionnaires)  was 
given  to  certain  Jansenist  fanatics  in  France  in  the  i8th  century, 
owing  to  the  convulsions,  regarded  by  them  as  proofs  of  divine 
inspiration,  which  were  the  result  of  their  religious  ecstasies  (see 
JANSENISM).  The  term  "  Convulsionists  "  is  sometimes  applied 
to  them,  as  also,  more  loosely,  to  other  religious  enthusiasts  who 
exhibit  the  same  symptoms. 

CONWAY,  HENRY  SEYMOUR  (1721-1795),  English  field 
marshal  and  statesman,  was  the  second  son  of  Francis  Seymour, 
of  Ragley,  Warwickshire,  who  took  the  name  of  Conway  on 
succeeding  to  the  estates  of  the  earl  of  Conway  in  1699  and  was 
created  Baron  Conway  in  1703  (see  SEYMOUR  or  ST  MAUR). 
Henry  Seymour  Conway's  elder  brother,  Francis,  2nd  Baron 
Conway,  was  created  marquess  of  Hertford  in  1793;  his  mother 
was  a  sister  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole's  wife,  and  he  was  therefore 
first  cousin  to  Horace  Walpole,  with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of  in- 
timate friendship  throughout  his  life.  Having  entered  the  army 
at  an  early  age,  Conway  was  elected  to  the  Irish  parliament  in 
1741  as  member  for  Antrim,  which  he  continued  to  represent 
for  twenty  years;  in  the  same  year  he  became  a  member  of  the 
English  House  of  Commons,  sitting  for  Higham  Ferrers  in 
Northamptonshire,  and  he  remained  in  parliament,  representing 
successively  a  number  of  different  constituencies,  almost  without 
interruption  for  more  than  forty  years.  Meantime  he  saw  much 
service  in  the  army  abroad,  where  he  served  with  conspicuous 
bravery  and  not  without  distinction.  In  1745  he  became 
aide-de-camp  to  the  duke  of  Cumberland 'in  Germany,  and  was 
present  at  Fontenoy;  in  the  following  year  he  had  command 
of  a  regiment  at  Culloden.  In  1755  he  went  to  Ireland  as  secretary 


CONWAY,  HUGH — CONWAY,  SIR  W.  M. 


69 


to  the  lord-lieutenant,  a  position  which  he  held  for  one  year  only; 
and  on  his  return  to  England  he  received  a  court  appointment, 
having  already  been  promoted  major-general.  In  1757  he  was 
associated  with  Sir  John  Mordaunt  in  command  of  an  abortive 
expedition  against  Rochfort,  the  complete  failure  of  which 
brought  Conway  into  discredit  and  involved  him  in  a  pamphlet 
controversy.  In  1759  he  became  lieutenant-general,  and  served 
under  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  in  the  campaigns  of  1761- 
1763.  Returning  to  England  he  took  part  in  the  debates  in 
parliament  on  the  Wilkes  case,  in  which  he  opposed  the  views 
of  the  court,  speaking  strongly  against  the  legality  of  general 
warrants.  His  conduct  in  this  matter  highly  incensed  the  king, 
who  insisted  on  Conway  being  deprived  of  his  military  command 
as  well  as  of  his  appointment  in  the  royal  household.  His 
dismissal  along  with  other  officers  was  the  occasion  of  another 
paper  controversy  in  which  Conway  was  defended  by  Horace 
Walpole,  and  gave  rise  to  much  constitutional  dispute  as  to 
the  right  of  the  king  to  remove  military  officers  for  their  conduct 
in  parliament — a  right  that  was  tacitly  abandoned  by  the  Crown 
when  the  Rockingham  ministry  of  1765  reinstated  the  officers 
who  had  been  removed. 

In  this  ministry  Conway  took  office  as  secretary  of  state,  with 
the  leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  the  dispute  with 
the  American  colonies  his  sympathies  were  with  the  latter,  and 
in  1766  he  carried  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  When  in  July 
of  that  ypar  Rockingham  gave  place  to  Chatham,  Conway 
retained  his  office;  and  when  Chatham  became  incapacitated  by 
illness  he  tamely  acquiesced  in  Townshend's  reversal  of  the 
American  policy  which  he  himself  had  so  actively  furthered  in 
the  previous  administration.  In  January  1768,  offended  by  the 
growing  influence  of  the  Bedford  faction  which  joined  the  govern- 
ment, Conway  resigned  the  seals  of  office,  though  he  was  per- 
suaded by  the  king  to  remain  a  member  of  the  cabinet  and 
"  Minister  of  the  House  of  Commons."  When,  however,  Lord 
North  became  premier  in  1770,  Conway  resigned  from  the 
cabinet  and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  royal  regiment 
of  horse  guards;  and  in  1772  he  became  governor  of  Jersey, 
the  island  being  twice  invaded  by  the  French  during  his  tenure 
of  command.  In  1780  and  1781  he  took  an  active  part  in  opposi- 
tion to  Lord  North's  American  policy,  and  it  was  largely  as  the 
result  of  his  motion  on  the  2  2nd  of  February  in  the  latter  year, 
demanding  the  cessation  of  the  war  against  the  colonies,  when 
the  ministerial  majority  was  reduced  to  one,  that  Lord  North 
resigned  office.  In  the  Rockingham  government  that  followed 
General  Conway  became  commander-in-chief  with  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet;  and  he  retained  office  under  Shelburne  when  Rocking- 
ham died  a  few  months  later.  On  Pitt's  elevation  to  the  premier- 
ship, Conway  supported  Fox  in  opposition;  but  after  the 
dissolution  of  parliament  in  1784  he  retired  from  political  life. 
He  was  made  field  marshal  in  1 793  ,and  died  at  Henley-on-Thames 
on  the  9th  of  July  1795.  Conway  married  in  1747  Caroline, 
daughter  of  General  Campbell  (afterwards  duke  of  Argyll),  and 
widow  of  the  earl  of  Aylesbury.  He  had  one  daughter,  Anne, 
who  married  John  Darner,  son  of  Lord  Milton,  and  who  inherited 
a  life  interest  in  Strawberry  Hill  under  the  will  of  Horace  Walpole. 

Conway  was  personally  one  of  the  most  popular  men  of  his 
day.  He  was  handsome,  conciliatory  and  agreeable,  and  a 
man  of  refined  taste  and  untarnished  honour.  As  a  soldier  he 
was  a  dashing  officer,  but  a  poor  general.  He  was  weak,  vacillat- 
ing and  ineffective  as  a  politician,  lacking  in  judgment  and 
decision,  and  without  any  great  parliamentary  talent.  In  his 
later  years  he  dabbled  in  literature  and  the  drama,  and  interested 
himself  in  arboriculture  in  his  retirement  at  Henley-on-Thames. 

See  Horace  Walpole,  Letters,  edited  by  P.  Cunningham  (9  vols., 
London,  1857),  many  of  the  letters  being  addressed  to  Conway; 
Memoirs  of  the  Last  Ten  Years  of  the  Reign  of  George  II.  (2  vols., 
London,  1822);  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.,  edited  by  Sir 
D.  le  Marchant  (4  vols.,  London,  1845);  Journal  of  the  Reign  of 
George  III.,  1771-1783  (2  vols.,  London,  1859).  See  also  the  duke 
of  Buckingham  and  Chandos,  Memoirs  of  the  Court  and  Cabinets 
of  George  III.  (4  vols.,  London,  1853).  Much  information  about 
Conway  will  also  be  found  in  the  biographies  of  his  leading  con- 
temporaries, Rockingham,  Shelburne,  Chatham,  Pitt  and  Fox. 

(R.J.M.) 


CONWAY,  HUGH,  the  nom-de-plume  of  FREDERICK  JOHN 
FARGUS  (1847-1885),  English  novelist,  who  was  born  at 
Bristol  on  the  26th  of  December  1847,  the  son  of  an  auctioneer. 
He»  was  intended  for  his  father's  business,  but  at  the  age  of 
thirteen  joined  the  training-ship  "Conway"  in  the  Mersey. 
In  deference  to  his  father's  wishes,  however,  he  gave  up  the  idea 
of  becoming  a  sailor,  and  returned  to  Bristol,  where  he  was 
articled  to  a  firm  of  accountants  till  on  his  father's  death  in 
1868  he  took  over  the  family  business.  While  a  clerk  he  had 
written  the  words  for  various  songs,  adopting  the  nom-de-plume 
Hugh  Conway  in  memory  of  his  days  on  the  training-ship.  Mr 
Arrowsmith,  the  Bristol  printer  and  publisher,  took  an  interest 
in  his  work,  and  Fargus's  first  short  story  appeared  in  Arrow- 
smith's  Miscellany.  In  1883  Fargus  published  through  Arrow- 
smith  his  first  long  story,  Called  Back,  of  which  over  350,000 
copies  were  sold  within  four  years.  A  dramatic  version  of  this 
book  was  produced  in  London  in  1884,  and  in  this  year  Fargus 
published  another  story,  Dark  Days.  Ordered  to  the  Riviera 
for  his  health,  he  caught  typhoid  fever,  and  died  at  Monte  Carlo 
on  the  1 5th  of  May  1885.  Several  other  books  from  his  pen 
appeared  posthumously,  notably  A  Family  Affair. 

CONWAY,  MONCURE  DANIEL  (1832-1907),  American 
clergyman  and  author,  was  born  of  an  old  Virginia  family  in 
Stafford  county,  Virginia,  on  the  I7th  of  March  1832.  He 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1849,  studied  law  for  a  year, 
and  then  became  a  Methodist  minister  in  his  native  state.  In 
1852,  owing  largely  to  the  influence  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson, 
his  religious  and  political  views  underwent  a  radical  change,  and 
he  entered  the  Harvard  Divinity  School,  where  he  graduated 
in  1854.  Here  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  "transcendentalism," 
and  became  an  outspoken  abolitionist.  On  his  return  to 
Virginia  this  fact  and  his  rumoured  connexion  with  the  attempt 
to  rescue  the  fugitive  slave,  Anthony  Burns,  in  Boston  aroused 
the  bitter  hostility  of  his  old  neighbours  and  friends,  and  in 
consequence  he  left  the  state.  In  1854-1856  he  was  pastor  of 
a  Unitarian  church  at  Washington,  D.C.,  but  his  anti-slavery 
views  brought  about  his  dismissal.  From  1856  to  1861  he  was  a 
Unitarian  minister  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where,  also,  he  edited 
a  short-lived  liberal  periodical  called  The  Dial.  Subsequently 
he  was  an  editor  of  the  Commonwealth  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
wrote  The  Rejected  Stone  (1861)  and  The  Golden  Hour  (1862), 
both  powerful  pleas  for  emancipation.  In  1862-1863,  during 
the  Civil  War,  he  lectured  in  England  in  behalf  of  the  North. 
From  1863  to  1884  he  was  the  minister  of  the  South  Place  chapel, 
Finsbury,  London;  and  during  this  time  wrote  frequently  for 
the  London  press.  In  1884  he  returned  to  the  United  States 
to  devote  himself  to  literary  work.  In  addition  to  those  above 
mentioned,  his  publications  include  Tracts  for  To-day  (1858), 
The  Natural  History  of  the  Devil  (1859),  Testimonies  Concerning 
Slavery  (1864),  The  Earthward  Pilgrimage  (1870),  Republican 
Superstitions  (1872),  Idols  and  Ideals  (1871),  Demonology  and 
Devil  Lore  (2  vols.,  1878),  A  Necklace  of  Stories  (1879),  Thomas 
Carlyle  (1881),  The  Wandering  Jew  (1881),  Emerson  at  Home  and 
Abroad  (1882),  Pine  and  Palm  (2  vols.,  1887),  Life  and  Papers  of 
Edmund  Randolph  (1888),  The  Life  of  Thomas  Paine  with  an 
unpublished  sketch  of  Paine  by  William  Cobbett  (2  vols.,  1892), 
Solomon  and  Solomonic  Literature  (1899),  his  Autobiography 
(2  vols.,  1900),  and  My  Pilgrimage  to  the  Wise  Men  of  the  East 
(1906).  Conway  died  on  the  isth  of  November  1907. 

CONWAY,  SIR  WILLIAM  MARTIN  (1856-  ),  English  art 
critic  and  mountaineer,  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Conway,  after- 
wards canon  of  Westminster,  was  born  at  Rochester,  and  was 
educated  at  Repton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
became  interested  in  early  printing  and  engraving,  and  in  1880 
made  a  tour  of  the  principal  libraries  of  Europe  in  pursuit  of  his 
studies,  the  result  appearing  in  1884  as  a  History  of  the  Wood- 
cutters of  the  Netherlands  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  His  later  works 
on  art  included  Early  Flemish  Artists  (1887);  The  Literary 
Remains  of  Albrecht  Diirer  (1889);  The  Dawn  of  Art  in  the 
Ancient  World  (1891),  dealing  with  Chaldaean,  Assyrian  and 
Egyptian  art;  Early  Tuscan  Artists  (1902).  From  1884  to  1887 
he  was  professor  of  art  at  University  College,  Liverpool;  and  in 


CONWAY— COODE 


1901-1904  he  was  Slade  professor  of  the  fine  arts  at  Cambridge. 
He  was  knighted  in  1895.  Sir  Martin  Conway  early  became  a 
member  of  the  Alpine  Club,  of  which  he  was  president  from  1902 
to  1904.  In  1892  he  beat  the  climbing  record  by  ascending  to  a 
height  of  23,000  ft.  in  the  Himalayas  in  the  course  of  an  exploring 
and  mountaineering  expedition  undertaken  .under  the  auspices 
of  the  Royal  Society,  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and  the 
British  Association.  In  1896-1897  he  explored  the  interior  of 
Spitsbergen,  and  in  the  next  year  he  explored  and  surveyed  the 
Bolivian  Andes,  climbing  Sorata  (21,500  ft.)  and  Illimani 
(21,200  ft.).  He  also  ascended  Aconcagua  (23,080  ft.)  and 
explored  Tierra  del  Fuego.  At  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1900  he 
received  the  gold  medal  for  mountain  surveys,  and  the  founder's 
medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1905.  His  expedi- 
tions are  described  in  his  Climbing  and  Exploration  in  the  Kara- 
Koram  Himalayas  (1894),  The  Alps  from  End  to  End  (1895),  The 
First  Crossing  of  Spitsbergen  (1897),  The  Bolivian  Andes  (1901), 
&c.;  No  Man's  Land,  a  History  of Spitsbergen  from  .  .  .  1596  .  .  . 
was  published  in  1906. 

CONWAY  {Convoy,  or  Abercomvy),  a  municipal  borough  in  the 
Arfon  parliamentary  division  of  Carnarvonshire,  N.  Wales,  14  m. 
by  the  London  &  North-Western  railway  from  Bangor,  and  225 
m.N.W.  from  London.  Pop.  (1901)  4681.  The  town  isenclosed 
by  a  high  wall,  roughly  triangular,  about  i  m.  round,  with 
twenty-one  dilapidated  round  towers,  pierced  by  three  principal 
gateways  with  two  strong  towers.  The  castle  in  the  south-east 
angle,  built  in  1284  by  Edward  I.,  was  inhabited,  in  1389,  by 
Richard  II.,  who  here  agreed  to  abdicate.  Held  for  Charles  I.  by 
Archbishop  Williams,  it  was  taken  by  General  Mytton  in  1646. 
Dismantled  by  the  new  proprietor,  Earl  Conway,  it  remains  a 
ruin.  It  is  oblong,  with  eight  massive  towers,  and  has,  within,  a 
hall  130  ft.  in  length,  known  as  Llewelyn's.  The  parliamentary 
borough  of  Conway  .returning,  with  five  other  towns,one  member, 
extends  over  to  the  right  bank  of  the  stream  Conwy  (Conway). 
In  1885  the  mayor  of  Conway  was  made  a  constable.  Llandudno 
with  Great  and  Little  Orme's  Heads  are  at  some  4  m.  distance. 
Two  bridges,  a  tubular  for  the  railway  (40  ft.  shorter  than  that  of 
the  Menai)  and  a  suspension,  designed  by  Stephenson  (1846- 
1848)  and  Telford  (1822-1826)  respectively,  cross  the  stream. 
St  Mary's  church  is  Gothic;  the  Elizabethan  Plas  Mawr  is  the 
locale  of  the  Royal  Cambrian  Academy  of  Art.  There  are  still 
some  fragments  of  the  1185  Cistercian  Abbey.  There  are  golf 
links  here  and  at  Llandudno.  The  Conwy  stream,  on  which  a 
steamboat  runs  from  Deganwy  (2m.  below  Conway  town)  to 
Trefriw,  opposite  Llanrwst,  in  summer,  has  some  coasting  trade 
in  sulphur  and  slates.  It  is  about  30  m.  long,  its  valley  (a 
haunt  of  artists)  containing  the  towns  last  mentioned  and 
Bettws  y  coed.  Its  pearls  are  mentioned  in  Drayton's  Polyolbion 
and  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene.  Pearl  fisheries  existed  at  Conway 
for  many  centuries,  dating  back  to  the  Roman  occupation. 
Tacitus,  Agricola,  12,  says  of  Britain  "  gignit  et  Oceanus 
margarita,  sed  subfusca  ac  liventia,"  as  are  those  found  to-day. 
Diganhwy  (Dyganwy,  Deganwy)  is  mentioned  in  the  Mabinogion 
(Geraint  and  Enid),  if  the  reading  is  sound;  it  is  certainly 
mentioned  in  the  Annales  Cambriae  (years  812-822)  and  in  the 
Black  Book  of  Caerfyrddin  (Carmarthen),  xxiii.  i.  Caer-hyn,  4^ 
m.  from  Conway,  is  on  the  highroad  from  London  to  Holyhead, 
and  is  the  Conovium  of  the  Romans.  The  site  of  the  camp  can 
still  be  traced,  consisting  of  a  square,  strengthened  by  four 
parallel  walls,  extending  to  a  distance  from  the  main  work. 
The  camp  is  on  a  height,  with  the  Conwy  in  front  and  a  wood  on 
each  flank.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill,  near  the  stream,  was  a  Roman 
bath,  with  walls,  pavement  and  pillars.  Camden's  Britannia 
mentions  tiles,  with  marks  of  the  loth  or  Antoninus's  legion, 
as  being  found  here,  perhaps  mistakenly.  Gleini  nadroedd 
(possibly  amulets)  and  vitrum  have  been  found  here.  In  Bwlch  y 
ddwy  faen  ("  two  rock  ravine  "),  on  the  way  to  Aber,  are  the 
remains  of  a  Roman  road  and  antiquities. 

CONYBEARE,  WILLIAM  DANIEL  (1787-1857),  dean  of 
Llandaff,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  English  geologists,  who 
was  born  in  London  on  the  7th  of  June  1787,  was  a  grandson  of 
John  Conybeare,  bishopof  Bristol  (1692-1755)^  notable  preacher 


and  divine,  and  son  of  Dr  William  Conybeare,  rector  of  Bishops- 
gate.  Educated  first  at  Westminster  school,  he  went  in  1805  to 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  in  1808  he  took  his  degree  of  B.A., 
with  a  first  in  classics  and  second  in  mathematics,  and  proceeded 
to  M.A.  three  years  later.  Having  entered  holy  orders  he 
became  in  1814  curate  of  Wardington,  near  Banbury,  and  he 
accepted  also  a  lectureship  at  Brislington  near  Bristol.  During 
this  period  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Bristol  Philosophi- 
cal Institution  (1822).  He  was  rector  of  Sully  in  Glamorganshire 
from  1823. to  1836,  and  vicar  of  Axminster  from  1836  to  1844. 
He  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  in  1839,  and  was  instituted 
to  the  deanery  of  Llandaff  in  1845.  Attracted  to  the  study  of 
geology  by  the  lectures  of  Dr  John  Kidd  (q.v.)  he  pursued  the 
subject  with  ardour.  As  soon  as  he  had  left  college  he  made 
extended  journeys  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent,  and  he 
became  one  of  the  early  members  of  the  Geological  Society. 
Both  Buckland  and  Sedgwick  acknowledged  their  indebtedness 
to  him  for  instruction  received  when  they  first  began  to  devote 
attention  to  geology.  To  the  Transactions  of  the  Geological 
Society  as  well  as  to  the  Annals  of  Philosophy  and  Philosophical 
Magazine  he  contributed  many  geological  memoirs.  In  1821  he 
distinguished  himself  by  the  description  of  a  skeleton  of  the 
Plesiosaurus,  discovered  by  Mary  Anning,  and  his  account  has 
been  confirmed  in  all  main  points  by  subsequent  researches. 
Among  his  most  important  memoirs  is  that  on  the  south-western 
coal  district  of  England,written  in  conjunction  with  Dr  Buckland, 
and  published  in  1824.  He  wrote  also  on  the  valley  of  the  Thames, 
on  Elie  de  Beaumont's  theory  of  mountain-chains,  and  on  the 
great  landslip  which  occurred  near  Lyme  Regis  in  1839  when 
he  was  vicar  of  Axminster.  His  principal  work,  however,  is  the 
Outlines  of  the  Geology  of  England  and  Wales  (182  2), being  a  second 
edition  of  the  small  work  issued  by  William  Phillips  (q.v.)  and 
written  in  co-operation  with  that  author.  The  original  contribu- 
tions of  Conybeare  formed  the  principal  portion  of  this  edition, 
of  which  only  Part  I.,  dealing  with  the  Carboniferous  and  newer 
strata,  was  published.  It  affords  evidence  throughout  of  the 
extensive  and  accurate  knowledge  possessed  by  Conybeare; 
and  it  exercised  a  marked  influence  on  the  progress  of  geology 
in  this  country.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  In  1844  he 
was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal  by  the  Geological  Society  of 
London.  The  loss  of  his  eldest  son,  W.  J.  Conybeare,  preyed  on 
his  mind  and  hastened  his  end.  He  died  at  Itchenstoke,  near 
Portsmouth,  a  few  months  after  his  son,  on  the  I2th  of  August 
1857.  (Obituary  in  Gent.  Mag.  Sept.  1857,  p.  335.) 

His  elder  brother  JOHN  JOSIAS  CONYBEARE  (1779-1824),  also 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  an  accomplished  scholar, 
became  vicar  of  Batheaston,  and  was  professor  of  Anglo-Saxon 
and  afterwards  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  He  likewise  was  an  ardent 
student  of  geology  and  communicated  several  important  papers 
to  the  Annals  of  Philosophy  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  London.  (Obituary  in  Ann.  Phil.  vol.  viii.,  Sept. 
1824,  p.  162.) 

CONYBEARE,  WILLIAM  JOHN  (1815-1857),  English  divine, 
son  of  Dean  W.  D.  Conybeare,  was  born  on  the  ist  of  August 
1815,  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1837.  From  1842 
to  1848  he  was  principal  of  the  Liverpool  Collegiate  Institution, 
which  he  left  for  the  vicarage  of  Axminster.  He  published 
Essays,  Ecclesiastical  and  Social,  in  1856,  and  a  novel,  Perversion, 
or  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  Infidelity,  but  is  best  known  as 
the  joint  author  (with  J.  S.  Howson)  of  The  Life  and  Epistles 
of  St  Paul  (1851).  He  died  at  Weybridge  in  1857. 

COODE,  SIR  JOHN  (1816-1892),  English  engineer,  was  born 
at  Bodmin,  Cornwall,  on  the  nth  of  November  1816,  the  son 
of  a  solicitor.  After  considerable  experience  as  an  engineer  in 
the  west  of  England  he  came  to  London,  and  from  1844-1847 
had  a  consulting  practice  in  Westminster.  In  the  latter  yedr 
he  was  appointed  resident  engineer  in  charge  of  the  extensive 
national  harbour  works  at  Portland  then  in  progress.  In  1856 
he  was  appointed  engineer-in-chief  of  this  undertaking,  and  this 
post  he  retained  till  the  completion  of  the  works  in  1872.  His 


COOK,  A.  S.— COOK,  CAPTAIN 


services  at  Portland  were  rewarded  with  a  knighthood.  He  was 
now  recognized  as  the  leading  authority  on  harbour  construction, 
and  his  advice  was  sought  by  many  of  the  colonial  governments, 
especially  by  those  of  South  Africa  and  Australia,  and  by  the 
Indian  government.  After  the  Portland  harbour  his  best-known 
work  is  the  harbour  of  Colombo,  Ceylon.  He  was  made  a 
K.C.M.G.  in  1886.  From  1884  till  his  death  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Suez  Canal  Commission,  and  from  1889-1891  president 
of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  He  died  at  Brighton  on 
the  2nd  of  March  1892. 

COOK,  ALBERT  STANBURROUGH  (1853-  ),  American 
scholar,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  March  1853  in  Montville,  Morris 
county,  New  Jersey.  He  graduated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1872, 
and  also  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Leipzig  (1877-1878),  and, 
after  spending  the  years  1879-1881  as  associate  in  English 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  in  London,  and  under  Sievers 
at  Jena,  he  became  in  1882  professor  of  English  in  the  University 
of  California,  and  in  1889  professor  of  English  language  and 
literature  in  Yale  University.  He  re-organized  the  teaching 
of  English  in  the  state  of  California,  and  edited  many  texts  for 
reading  in  secondary  schools;  but  he  is  best  known  for  his  work 
in  Old  English  and  in  poetics.  He  translated,  edited,  and 
revised  Sievers'  Old  English  Grammar  (1885),  edited  Judith 
(1888),  The  Christ  of  Cynewulf  (1900),  Asser's  Life  of  King  Alfred 
(1905),  and  The  Dream  of  the  Rood  (1905),  and  prepared  A  First 
Book  in  Old  English  Grammar  (1894).  He  also  edited,  with 
annotations,  Sidney's  Defense  of  Poesie  (1890);  Shelley's  Defense 
of  Poetry  (1891);  Newman's  Poetry  (1891);  Addison's  Criticisms 
on  Paradise  Lost  (1892);  The  Art  of  Poetry  (1892),  being  the 
essays  of  Horace,  Vida  and  Boilcau;  and  Leigh  Hunt's  What  is 
Poetry  (1893);  and  published  Higher  Study  of  English  (1906). 

COOK,  EDWARD  DUTTON  (1829-1883),  English  dramatic 
critic  and  author,  was  born  in  London  on  the  3oth  of  January 
1829,  the  son  of  a  solicitor.  He  was  educated  at  King's  College 
school,  London,  and,  after  four  years  in  his  father's  office,  obtained 
a  situation  in  the  London  office  of  a  railway  company,  at  first 
utilizing  only  his  spare  time  in  literary  work,  but  eventually 
devoting  himself  entirely  to  literature.  He  was  dramatic  critic 
of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  from  1867  to  1875,  and  of  the  World 
from  1875  till  his  death.  He  also  wrote  freely  on  art  topics, 
and  was  the  author  of  several  novels.  He  died  in  London  on 
the  nth  of  September  1883. 

COOK,  ELIZA  (1818-1889),  English  author,  was  born  on  the 
24th  of  December  1818,  in  Southwark,  being  the  daughter  of  a 
local  tradesman.  She  was  self-taught,  and  began  when  a  girl 
to  write  poetry  for  the  Weekly  Dispatch  and  New  Monthly.  In 
1838  she  published  Melaia  and  other  Poems,  and  from  1849  to 
1854  conducted  a  paper  for  family  reading  called  Eliza  Cook's 
Journal.  She  also  published  Jottings  from  my  Journal  (1860), 
and  New  Echoes  (1864);  and  in  1863  she  was  given  a  civil  list 
pension  of  £100  a  year.  As  the  author  of  a  single  poem,  "  The 
Old  Armchair,"  Eliza  Cook's  name  was  for  a  generation  after 
1838  a  household  word  both  in  England  and  in  America,  her 
kindly  domestic  sentiment  making  her  a  great  favourite  with  the 
working-class  and  middle-class  public.  She  died  at  Wimbledon 
on  the  23rd  of  September  1889. 

COOK,  JAMES  (1728-1779),  English  naval  captain  and 
explorer,  was  born  on  the  28th  of  October  1728,  at  Marton 
village,  Cleveland,  Yorkshire,  where  his  father  was  first  an 
agricultural  labourer  and  then  a  farm  bailiff.  At  twelve  years 
of  age  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  haberdasher  at  Staithes,  near 
Whitby,  and  afterwards  to  Messrs  Walker,  shipowners,  of 
Whitby,  whom  he  served  for  years  in  the  Norway,  Baltic  and 
Newcastle  trades. 

In  1755,  having  risen  to  be  a  mate,  Cook  joined  the  royal 
navy,  and  after  four  years'  service  was,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,  his  commander,  appointed  master  suc- 
cessively of  the  sloop  "  Grampus,"  of  the  "  Garland  "  and  of  the 
"  Solebay,"  in  the  last  of  which  he  served  in  the  St  Lawrence. 
He  was  employed  also  in  sounding  and  surveying  the  river,  and 
he  published  a  chart  of  the  channel  from  Quebec  to  the  sea.  In 
1762  he  was  present  at  the  recapture  of  Newfoundland,  and  was 


employed  in  surveying  portions  of  this  coast  (especially  Placentia 
Harbour);  in  1763,  on  Palliser  becoming  governor  of  Newfound- 
land, Cook  was  appointed  "  marine  surveyor  of  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland  and  Labrador";  this  office  he  held  till  1767; 
and  the  volumes  of  sailing  directions  he  now  brought  out  (1766- 
1 768)  showed  remarkable  abilities.  At  the  same  time  he  began 
to  make  his  reputation  as  a  mathematician  and  astronomer  by 
his  observation  of  the  solar  eclipse  of  the  sth  of  August  1766, 
at  one  of  the  Burgeo  Islands,  near  Cape  Ray,  and  by  his  account 
of  the  same  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  (vol.  Ivii.  pp. 
215-216). 

In  1768  Cook  was  appointed  to  conduct  an  expedition, 
suggested  by  the  revival  of  geographical  interest  now  noticeable, 
and  resolved  on  by  the  English  admiralty  at  the  instance  of  the 
Royal  Society,  for  observing  the  impending  transit  of  Venus,  and 
prosecuting  geographical  researches  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean. 
For  these  purposes  he  received  a  commission  as  lieutenant  (May 
25th),  and  set  sail  in  the  "  Endeavour,"  of  370  tons,  accompanied 
by  several  men  of  science,  including  Sir  Joseph  Banks  (August 
25th).  On  the  I3th  of  April  1769,  he  reached  Tahiti,  where  he 
observed  the  transit  on  the  3rd  of  June.  From  Tahiti  he  sailed  in 
quest  of  the  great  continent  then  supposed  to  exist  in  the  South 
Pacific,  explored  the  Society  Islands,  and  thence  struck  to  New 
Zealand,  whose  coasts  he  circumnavigated  and  examined  with 
great  care  for  six  months,  charting  them  for  the  first  time  with 
fair  accuracy,  and  especially  observing  the  channel  ("  Cook 
Strait  ")  which  divided  the  North  and  South  Islands.  His 
attempts  to  penetrate  to  the  interior,  however,  were  thwarted  by 
native  hostility.  From  New  Zealand  he  proceeded  to  "  New 
Holland  "  or  Australia,  and  surveyed  with  the  same  minuteness 
and  accuracy  the  whole  east  coast.  New  South  Wales  he  named 
after  a  supposed  resemblance  to  Glamorganshire;  Botany  Bay, 
sighted  on  the  28th  of  April  1770,  was  so  called  by  the 
naturalists  of  the  expedition.  On  account  of  the  hostility  of  the 
natives  his  discoveries  here  also  were  confined  to  the  coast,  of 
which  he  took  possession  for  Great  Britain.  From  Australia 
Cook  sailed  to  Batavia,  satisfying  himself  upon  the  way  that  (as 
Torres  had  first  shown  in  1607)  New  Guinea  was  in  no  way  an 
outlying  part  of  the  greater  land  mass  to  the  south. 

Arriving  in  England,  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  on  the 
1 2th  of  June,  Cook  was  made  a  commander,  and  soon  after  was 
appointed  to  command  another  expedition  for  examining  and 
determining  once  for  all  the  question  of  the  supposed  great 
southern  continent.  With  the  "  Resolution  "  of  462  tons,  the 
"  Adventure  "  (Captain  Furneaux)  of  330  tons,  and  193  men, 
he  sailed  from  Plymouth  on  the  i3th  of  July  1772;  he  touched  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  striking  thence  south-east  (November 
22nd)  passed  the  Antarctic  Circle  (January  i6th,  1773),  repassed  ' 
the  same,  and  made  his  way  to  New  Zealand  (March  26th) 
without  discovering  land.  From  New  Zealand  he  resumed  his 
"  search  for  a  continent,".working  up  and  down  across  the  South 
Pacific,  and  penetrating  to  67°  31'  and  again  to  71°  10'  S.,  with 
imminent  risk  of  destruction  from  floating  ice,  but  with  the 
satisfaction  of  disproving  the  possibility  of  the  disputed  con- 
tinent in  the  seas  south-eastward  of  New  Zealand.  He  then 
made  for  Easter  Island,  whose  exact  position  he  determined,  for 
the  first  time,  with  accuracy;  noticing  and  describing  the  gigantic 
statues  which  Roggewein,  the  first  discoverer  of  the  island,  had 
made  known.  In  the  same  manner  he  accomplished  a  better 
determination  and  examination  of  the  Marquesas,  as  well  as  of 
the  Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands,  than  had  yet  been  made;  and 
after  a  stay  at  Tahiti  to  rest  and  refit,  crossed  the  central  Pacific 
to  the  "  New  Hebrides,"  as  he  renamed  Quiros's  "  Southern 
Land  of  the  Holy  Spirit "  (a  name  preserved  in  the  modern 
island  of  Espiritu  Santo),  called  by  Bougainville  the  "  Great 
Cyclades  "  (Grandes  Cyclades),  whose  position,  extent,  divisions 
and  character  were  now  verified  as  never  before.  Next  followed 
the  wholly  new  discoveries  of  New  Caledonia,  Norfolk  Island, 
and  the  Isle  of  Pines.  Another  visit  to  New  Zealand,  and  yet 
another  examination  of  the  far  southern  Pacific,  which  was 
crossed  from  west  to  east  through  the  whole  of  its  extent,  from 
south  Australia  to  Tierra  del  Fuego.  were  now  undertaken  by 


COOK,  THOMAS 


Cook  before  he  finally  closed  his  work  in  refutation  of  the  Ant- 
arctic continent,  as  previously  understood,  on  this  side  of  the 
world.  The  voyage  closed  with  a  rapid  survey  of  the  "  Land  of 
Fire,"  the  rounding  of  Cape  Horn,  the  rediscovery  of  the  island 
now  named  Southern  Georgia,  the  discovery  of  Sandwich  Land, 
the  crossing  of  the  South  Atlantic  (here  also  exploding  the  great 
Terra  Australis  delusion),  and  visits  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
St  Helena,  Ascension,  Fernando  Noronha  and  the  Azores. 
The  voyage  (reckoning  only  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
back  to  the  same)  had  covered  considerably  more  than  20,000 
leagues,  nearly  three  times  the  equatorial  circumference  of  the 
earth;  it  left  the  main  outlines  of  the  southern  portions  of  the 
globe  substantially  as  they  are  known  to-day;  and  it  showed  a 
possibility  of  keeping  a  number  of  men  for  years  at  sea  without  a 
heavy  toll  of  lives.  Cook  only  lost  one  man  out  of  118  in  more 
than  1000  days;  he  had  conquered  scurvy. 

The  discoverer  reached  Plymouth  on  the  25th  of  July  1775, 
and  his  achievements  were  promptly,  if  meanly,  rewarded.  He 
was  immediately  raised  to  the  rank  of  post-captain,  appointed  a 
captain  in  Greenwich  hospital,  and  soon  afterwards  unanimously 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  from  which  he  received 
the  Copley  gold  medal  for  the  best  experimental  paper  which  had 
appeared  during  the  year. 

Cook's  third  and  last  voyage  was  primarily  to  settle  the 
question  ofcthe  north-west  passage,  practically  abandoned  since 
before  the  middle  of  the  i7th  century,  but  now  taken  up  again,  as 
a  matter  of  scientific  interest,  by  the  British  government.  The 
explorer,  who  had  volunteered  for  this  service,  was  instructed  to 
sail  first  into  the  Pacific  through  the  chain  of  the  newly  dis- 
covered islands  which  he  had  recently  visited,  and  on  reaching 
New  Albion  to  proceed  northward  as  far  as  latitude  65°  and 
endeavour  to  find  a  passage  to  the  Atlantic.  Several  ships  were 
at  the  same  time  fitted  out  to  attempt  a  passage  on  the  other  side 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Sailing  from  the  Nore  on  the 
25th  of  June  1776  (Plymouth,  July  12),  with  the  "  Resolution  " 
and  "  Discovery,"  and  touching  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
which  he  left  on  the  3oth  of  November,  Cook  next  made  Tasmania 
and  thence  passed  on  to  New  Zealand  and  the  Tonga  and  Society 
Islands,  discovering  on  his  way  several  of  the  larger  members  of 
the  Hervey  or  Cook  Archipelago,  especially  Mangaia  and  Aitutaki 
(March  3oth- April  4th,  1777) ;  some  smaller  isles  of  this  group  he 
had  already  sighted  on  his  second  voyage,  September  23rd, 
1773.  From  Tahiti,  as  he  moved  north  towards  the  main  object 
of  his  expedition,  he  made  a  far  more  important  discovery,  or 
rather  rediscovery,  that  of  the  Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  Islands, 
the  greatest  and  most  remarkable  of  the  Polynesian  archipelagos 
(early  February  1778).  These  had  perhaps  first  been  seen  by  the 
Spanish  navigator  Gaetano  in  1555;  but  their  existence  had  been 
kept  a  close  secret  by  Spain  at  the  time,  and  had  long  been 
forgotten.  Striking  the  west  American  coast  in  44°  55'  N.  on  the 
7th  of  March  following,  he  made  an  almost  continuous  survey  of 
the  same  up  to  Bering  Straits  and  beyond,  as  far  as  70°  41', 
where  he  found  the  passage  barred  by  a  wall,  or  rather  continent, 
of  ice,  rising  12  ft.  above  water,  and  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach.  The  farthest  point  visible  on  the  American  shore 
(in  the  extreme  north-west  of  Alaska)  he  called  Icy  Cape.  On 
his  way  towards  Bering  Straits  he  discovered  and  named  King 
George's  ("  Nootka  ")  and  Prince  William's  Sound,  as  well  as 
Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  the  westernmost  extremity  of  North 
America,  never  yet  seen  by  English  navigators,  but  well  known 
to  Russian  explorers,  who  probably  first  sighted  it  in  1648;  he 
also  penetrated  into  the  bay  afterwards  known  as  Cook's  Inlet 
or  River,  which  at  first  seemed  to  promise  a  passage  to  the 
Arctic  Seas,  to  the  south-east  of  the  Alaska  peninsula.  Cook 
next  visited  the  Asiatic  shores  of  Bering  Straits  (the  extreme 
north-east  of  Siberia);  returning  to  America,  he  explored 
Norton  Sound,  north  of  the  Yukon;  touched  at  (Aleutian) 
Unalaska,  where  he  met  with  some  Russian-American  settlers; 
and  thence  made  his  way  back  to  the  Hawaiian  group,  which  he 
had  christened  after  his  friend  and  patron  Lord  Sandwich,  then 
head  of  the  British  admiralty  (January  i7th,  1779).  Here  he 
visited  Maui  and  Hawaii  itself,  whose  size  and  importance  he  now 


first  realized,  and  in  one  of  whose  bays  (Kealakekua)  he  met  his 
death  early  in  the  morning  of  the  1 4th  of  February  1779.  During 
the  night  of  the  i3th,  one  of  the  "  Discovery's  "  boats  was  stolen 
by  the  natives;  and  Cook,  in  order  to  recover  it,  made  trial  of 
his  favourite  expedient  of  seizing  the  king's  person  until  repara- 
tion should  be  made.  Having  landed  on  the  following  day  with 
some  marines,  a  scuffle  ensued  which  compelled  the  party  to 
retreat  to  their  boats.  Cook  was  the  last  to  retire;  and  as  he  was 
nearing  the  shore  he  received  a  blow  from  behind  which  felled  him 
to  the  ground.  He  rose  immediately,  and  vigorously  resisted  the 
crowds  that  pressed  upon  him,  but  was  soon  overpowered. 

Had  Cook  returned  from  his  third  voyage,  there  is  ground  for 
believing  King  George  would  have  made  him  a  baronet.  Dis- 
tinguished honours  were  paid  to  his  memory,  both  at  home  and 
by  foreign  courts,  and  a  pension  was  settled  upon  his  widow. 
But  in  his  life  a  very  inadequate  share  of  official  reward  was 
dealt  out  to  the  man  who  not  only  may  be  placed  first  among 
British  maritime  discoverers,  but  also  gave  his  country  her  title, 
and  so  her  colonies,  in  Australasia.  As  a  commander,  an  observer 
and  a  practical  physician,  his  merits  were  equally  great.  Re- 
ference has  been  made  to  his  survey  work  and  to  his  victory  over 
scurvy;  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  along  with  a  commanding 
personal  presence,  and  with  sagacity,  decision  and  perseverance 
quite  extraordinary,  went  other  qualities  not  less  useful  to  his 
work.  He  won  the  affection  of  those  who  served  under  him  by 
sympathy,  kindness  and  unselfish  care  of  others  as  noteworthy 
as  his  gifts  of  intellect. 

See  the  Account  of  a  Voyage  round  the  World  in  1769-1771,  by  Lieut. . 
James  Cook,  in  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  of  Hawkesworth's  Voyages  (1773); 
the  Voyage  towards  the  South  Pole  and  round  the  World  ...  tn  ... 
1772-1775,  written  by  James  Cook  .  .  .  (1777);  a  Voyage  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  .  .  .  in  1776—1780,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  written  by  Cook 
(1784);  also  the  Narrative  of  the  Voyages  round  the  World  performed 
by  Captain  James  Cook,  by  A.  Kippis,  D.D.,  F.R.S.  (1788),  long  the 
standard  life  of  the  navigator,  but  now  superseded  by  Arthur 
Kitson's  Captain  James  Cook,  the  Circumnavigator  (1907).  (C.  R.  B.) 

COOK,  THOMAS  (1808-1892),  English  travelling  agent,  was 
born  at  Melbourne  in  Derbyshire  on  the  22nd  of  November  1808. 
Beginning  work  at  the  age  of  ten,  he  was  successively  a  gardener's 
help  and  a  wood-turner  at  Melbourne,  and  a  printer  at  Lough- 
borough.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  became  a  Bible-reader  and 
village  missionary  for  the  county  of  Rutland;  but  in  1832,  on 
his  marriage,  combined  his  wood-turning  business  with  that 
occupation.  In  1836  he  became  a  total  abstainer,  and  sub- 
sequently became  actively  associated  with  the  temperance 
movement,  and  printed  at  his  own  expense  various  publications 
in  its  interest,  notably  the  Children's  Temperance  Magazine 
(1840),  the  first  of  its  kind  to  appear  in  England.  In  June  1841 
a  large  meeting  was  to  be  held  at  Loughborough  in  connexion 
with  this  movement,  and  Cook  was  struck  with  the  idea  of  getting 
the  Midland CountiesRailwayCompany  to  run  a  special  train  from 
Leicester  to  the  meeting.  The  company  consented,  and  on  the  5th 
of  July  there  were  carried  570  passengers  from  Leicester  to  Lough- 
borough  and  back  at  a  shilling  a  head.  This  is  believed  to  be  the 
first  publicly-advertised  excursion  train  ever  run  in  England — 
private  "  specials,"  reserved  for  members  of  institutes  and  similar 
bodies,  were  already  in  use.  The  event  caused  great  excitement, 
and  Cook  received  so  many  applications  to  organize  similar 
parties  that  he  henceforward  deserted  wood-turning,  while 
continuing  his  printing  and  publishing.  The  summers  of  the 
next  three  years  were  occupied  with  excursions  like  the  first; 
but  in  1845  Cook  advertised  a  pleasure-trip  on  a  more  extensive 
scale,  from  Leicester  to  Liverpool  and  back,  with  opportunities 
for  visiting  the  Isle  of  Man,  Dublin  and  Welsh  coast.  A  Hand- 
book of  the  Trip  to  Liverpool  was  supplied  for  the  use  of  travellers. 
In  the  previous  year  Cook  had  entered  into  a  permanent  arrange- 
ment with  the  Midland  Railway  Company  to  place  trains  at 
his  disposal,  for  which  he  should  provide  the  passengers.  A 
trip  to  Scotland  followed,  and  the  excursionists  were  received 
in  Glasgow  with  music  and  salute  of  guns. 

The  next  great  impetus  to  popular  travel  was  given  by  the 
Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  which  Cook  helped  165,000  visitors 
to  attend.  On  the  occasion  of  the  Paris  exhibition  of  1855  there 


COOK  ISLANDS— COOKE,  JAY 


73 


was  a  Cook's  excursion  from  Leicester  to  Calais  and  back  for 
£i:ios.  The  following  year  saw  the  first  grand  circular  tour 
in  Europe.  This  part  of  Cook's  activity  largely  increased  after 

1863,  when   the   Scottish   railway   managers   broke    off    their 
engagements  with  him,  and  left  him  free  for  more  distant 
enterprise.     Switzerland  was  opened  up  in  1863,  and  Italy  in 

1864.  Up  to  this  time  "  Cook's  tourists  "  had  been  personally 
conducted,  but  now  he  began  to  be  an  agent  for  the  sale  of 
English  and  foreign  tickets,  the  holders  of  which  travelled  in- 
dependently.   Switzerland  was  the  first  foreign  country  accessible 
under  these  conditions,  and  in  1865  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe 
was  included  in  the  scheme.     Its  extension  to  the  United  States 
followed  in  1866.     For  the  benefit  of  visitors  to  the  Paris  ex- 
hibition, Cook  made  a  fresh  departure  and  leased  a  hotel  there. 
In  the  same  year  began  his  system  of  "  hotel-coupons,"  providing 
accommodation  at  a  fixed  charge.     The  year  1869  was  marked 
by  an  extension  of  Cook's  tours  to  Palestine,  followed  by  further 
developments  of  travel  in  the  East,  his  son,  John  Mason  Cook, 
(1834-1899),  being  appointed  in  1870  agent  of  the  khedivial 
government  for  passenger  traffic  on  the  Nile.     The  Franco- 
German  War  of  1870-1871  was  expected  to  damage  the  tourist 
system,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  encouraged  it,  through  the  de- 
mand for  combination,  international  tickets  enabling  travellers 
to  reach  the  south  of  Europe  without  crossing  the  belligerent 
countries.     At  the  termination  of  the  war  a  party  of  American 
freemasons  visited  Paris  under  J.  M.  Cook's  guidance,  and  became 
the  precursors  of  the  present  vast  American  tourist  traffic.     At 
the  beginning  of  1872  J.  M.  Cook  entered  into  formal  partnership 
with  his  father,  and  the  firm  first  took  the  name  of  Thomas 
Cook&Son.     In  i882,ontheoutbreakof  Arabi  Pasha's  rebellion, 
Thomas  Cook  &  Son  were  commissioned  to  convey  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley  and  his  suite  to  Egypt,  and  to  transport  the  wounded 
and  sick  up  the  Nile  by  water,  for  which  they  received  the  thanks 
of  the  war  office.     The  firm  was  again  employed  in  1 884  to  convey 
General  Gordon  to  the  Sudan,  and  the  whole  of  the  men  (18,000) 
and  stores  necessary  for  the  expedition  afterwards  sent  to  relieve 
him.     In  1889  Thomas  Cook  &  Son  acquired  the  exclusive  right 
of  carrying  the  mails,  specie,  soldiers  and  officials  of  the  Egyptian 
government  along  the  Nile.     In  1891  the  firm  celebrated  its 
jubilee,  and  on  the  igth  of  July  of  the  following  year  Thomas 
Cook  died.     He  had  been  afflicted  with  blindness  in  his  declining 
years.     His  son,  J.  M.  Cook,  died  in  1899,  leaving  three  sons,  all 
actively  engaged  in  the  business. 

COOK  or  HERVEY  ISLANDS,  an  archipelago  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  lying  mainly  between  155°  and  160°  E.,  and  about  20°  S.; 
a  dependency  of  the  British  colony  of  New  Zealand.  It  com- 
prises nine  partly  volcanic,  partly  coralline,  islands,  the  more 
important  of  which  are  Rarotonga,  hilly,  fertile  and  well  watered, 
with  several  cones  300  to  400  ft.  high,  above  which  towers  the 
majestic  Rarotonga  volcano  (2920  ft.),  the  culminating  point 
of  the  archipelago;  Mangaia  (Mangia);  Aitutaki,  with  luxuriant 
cocoa-nut  palm  groves;  Atui  (Vatui);  Mitiero;  Mauki; 
Fenuaiti;  and  the  two  Hervey  Islets,  which  give  an  alternative 
name  to  the  group.  The  total  land  area  is  in  sq.  m.  Owing 
to  its  healthy,  equable  climate,  the  archipelago  is  well  suited 
for  European  settlement;  but  the  dangerous  fringing  coral 
reefs  render  it  difficult  of  access,  and  it  suffers  also  from  the 
absence  of  good  harbours.  The  natives,  who  are  of  Polynesian 
stock  and  speech,  have  legends  of  their  emigration  from  Samoa. 
They  say  their  ancestors  found  black  people  on  the  islands,  and 
the  strongly  Melanesian  type  which  is  found,  especially  on 
Mangaia,  supports  the  statement.  The  Cook  Islanders  were 
formerly  man-hunters  and  cannibals,  but  they  now  are  nearly 
all  Protestants,  wear  European  dress  and  live  in  stone  houses. 
The  total  population  is  about  6200.  Since  1890  the  islands  have 
enjoyed  a  general  legislature  and  an  executive  council  of  which 
the  Arikis  ("  kings  "  and  "  queens  ")  are  members.  But  all 
enactments  are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  British  resident 
at  Rarotonga,  and  a  British  protectorate,  proclaimed  in  1888, 
was  followed  by  the  annexation  of  the  whole  archipelago  by  the 
governor  of  New  Zealand,  by  proclamation  of  June  loth,  1901. 
The  archipelago  was  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  in  1777,  and 


in  1823  became  the  scene  of  the  remarkable  missionary  labours 
of  John  Williams,  of  the  London  Missionary  Society.  The 
chief  products  of  the  group  are  cocoanuts,  fruits,  coffee  and 
copra.  Lime-juice  and  hats  are  made. 

COOKE,  GEORGE  FREDERICK  (1756-1811),  English  actor, 
was- born  in  London,  and  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage 
in  Brentford  at  the  age  of  twenty  as  Dumont  in  Jane  Shore. 
His  first  London  appearance  was  at  the  Haymarket  in  1778,  but 
it  was  not  until  1794  in  Dublin,  as  Othello,  that  he  attained 
high  rank  in  his  profession.  In  1801  he  appeared  in  London  as 
Richard  III.,  lago,  Shylock  and  Sir  Giles  Overreach;  and  became 
the  rival  of  Kemble,  with  whom,  however,  and  with  Mrs  Siddons, 
he  acted  from  1803.  His  intemperate  habits  unfortunately  grew 
more  and  more  notorious,  and  on  at  least  one  occasion  the  curtain 
had  to  be  rung  down  owing  to  the  audience  hissing  his  drunken 
condition.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1810,  and  died  in 
New  York  on  the  26th  of  September  1811.  A  monument  to  his 
memory  was  erected  in  St  Paul's  churchyard  there  by  Edmund 
Kean. 

COOKE,  JAY  (1821-1905),  American  financier,  was  born  at 
Sandusky,  Ohio,  on  the  loth  of  August  1821,  the  son  of  Eleu- 
theros  Cooke  (1787-1864),  a  pioneer  Ohio  lawyer,  and  Whig 
member  of  Congress  from  that  state  in  1831-1*33.  Being 
destined  for  a  commercial  career,  Jay  Cooke  received  a  pre- 
liminary training  in  a  trading  house  in  St  Louis,  and  in  the 
booking  office  of  a  transportation  company  in  Philadelphia,  and 
at  the  age  of  eighteen  entered  the  Philadelphia  house  of  E.W. 
Clark  &  Company,  one  of  the  largest  private  banking  firms  in 
the  country.  He  showed  such  aptitude  for  business  that  three 
years  later  he  was  admitted  to  membership  in  the  firm,  and 
before  he  was  thirty  he  was  also  a  partner  in  the  New  York  and 
St  Louis  branches  of  the  Clarks.  In  1858  he  retired  from  the 
firm,  and  for  the  next  three  years  he  devoted  himself  to  reorganiz- 
ing some  of  the  abandoned  Pennsylvania  railways  and  canals  and 
placing  them  again  in  operation.  On  the  ist  of  January  1861  he 
opened  in  Philadelphia  the  private  banking  house  of  Jay  Cooke 
&  Company,  and  soon  achieved  signal  success  in  floating  at  par 
a  war  loan  of  $3,000,000  for  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  whose 
credit  had  become  notoriously  bad.  In  the  early  months  of  the 
Civil  War  Cooke  co-operated  with  the  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  in  securing  loans  from  the  leading  bankers  in 
the  Northern  cities,  and  his  own  firm  was  so  successful  in  dis- 
tributing treasury  notes  that  Chase  engaged  him  as  special  agent 
for  the  sale  of  the  $500,000,000  of  So-called  "  five-twenty  " 
bonds  authorized  by  the  act  of  the  25th  of  February  1862.  To 
dispose  of  these  bonds  the  treasury  department  had  already  tried 
every  regular  means  at  its  command  and  had  failed.  Cooke 
secured  the  influence  of  the  American  press,  appointed  2500 
sub-agents,  and  before  the  machinery  he  set  in  motion  could  be 
stopped  he  had  sold  $11,000,000  more  of  bonds  than  had  been 
authorized,  an  excess  which  Congress  immediately  sanctioned. 
At  the  same  time  he  used  all  his  influence  in  favour  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  national  banks,  and  organized  a  national  bank  at 
Washington  and  another  at  Philadelphia  almost  as  soon  as  such 
institutions  were  authorized  by  Congress.  In  the  early  months  of 
1865,  when  the  needs  of  the  government  were  pressing,  and  the 
sale  of  the  new  "  seven-thirty  "  notes  by  the  national  banks  had 
been  very  disappointing,  Cooke's  services  were  again  secured. 
He  sent  agents  into  the  remotest  villages  and  hamlets,  and  even 
into  the  isolated  mining  camps  of  the  West,  and  caused  the  rural 
newspapers  to  praise  the  loan.  As  a  result,  between  February  and 
July  1865  he  had  disposed  of  three  series  of  the  notes,  reaching  a 
total  of  $830,000,000.  Through  these  efforts  the  Union  soldiers 
were  well  supplied  and  well  paid  while  dealing  the  final  blows  of 
the  war;  and,  later,  with  money  in  their  pockets,  they  were 
disbanded  without  difficulty. 

After  the  war  Cooke  became  interested  in  the  development  of 
the  North-west,  and  in  1870  his  firm  undertook  to  finance  the 
construction  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railway.  In  advancing  the 
money  for  the  work,  the  firm  over-estimated  the  possibilities  of 
its  capital,  and  at  the  approach  of  the  financial  crisis  of  1873  it 
was  forced  to  suspend.  By  1880  Cooke  had  discharged  all  his 


74 


COOKE,  ROSE  TERRY— COOKERY 


obligations,  and  through  an  investment  in  a  silver  mine  in  Utah 
had  again  become  wealthy.  He  died  at  Ogontz,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  i8th  of  February  1905.  Cooke  was  noted  for  his  piety, 
and  gave  regularly  a  tenth  of  his  income  for  religious  and  charit- 
able purposes.  His  handsome  estate  at  Ogontz,  which  he  had 
been  compelled  to  give  up  during  his  bankruptcy,  he  later 
repurchased  and  converted  into  a  school  for  girls. 

See  E.  P.  Oberholtzer,  Jay  Cooke,  Financier  of  the  Civil  War 
(Phikdelphia,  1907). 

COOKE,  ROSE  TERRY  (1827-1892),  American  writer,  nee 
Terry,  was  born  at  West  Hartford,  Connecticut,  on  the  i7th  of 
February  1827.  She  published  in  1860  a  volume  of  Poems,  but 
after  her  marriage  in  1873  to  Rollin  H.  Cooke  she  was  best  known 
for  her  fresh  and  humorous  stories,  though  in  1888  she  published 
more  verse  in  her  Complete  Poems.  The  chief  volumes  of  fiction 
dealing  mainly  with  New  England  country  life,  produced  by 
Rose  Terry  Cooke,  were  Happy  Dodd  (1878),  Somebody's 
Neighbors  (1881),  Root-bound  (1885),  The  Sphinx's  Children 
(1886),  Steadfast  (1889)  and  Huckleberries  (1891).  She  died  at 
Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i8th  of  July  1892. 

COOKERY  (Lat.  coquus,  a  cook),  the  art  of  preparing  and 
dressing  food  of  all  sorts  for  human  consumption,  of  converting 
the  raw  materials,  by  the  application  of  heat  or  otherwise,  into 
a  digestible  and  pleasing  condition,  and  generally  ministering  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  appetite  and  the  delight  of  the  palate. 
We  may  take  it  that  some  form  of  cookery  has  existed  from  the 
earliest  times,  and  its  progress  has  been  from  the  simple  to  the 
elaborate,  dominated  partly  by  the  foods  accessible  to  man,  partly 
by  the  stage  of  civilization  he  has  attained,  and  partly  by  the 
appliances  at  his  command  for  the  purpose  either  of  treating  the 
food,  or  of  consuming  it  when  served. 

The  developed  art  of  cookery  is  necessarily  a  late  addition — if 
it  may  be  considered  to  be  included  at  all — to  the  list  of  "  fine 
arts."  Originally  it  is  a  purely  industrial  and  useful  art.  Man, 
says  a  French  writer,  was  born  a  roaster,  and  "  pour  tire  cuisinier, 
il  a  besoin  de  le  devenir."  The  ancients  were  great  eaters,  but 
strangers  to  the  subtler  refinements  of  the  palate.  The  gods 
were  supposed  to  love  the  smell  of  fried  meat,  while  their  nectar 
and  ambrosia  represented  an  ideal,  which,  though  preserved  as  a 
phrase,  would  hardly  satisfy  a  modern  epicure.  The  ancients 
were  poorly  provided  with  pots  and  pans,  except  of  a  simple 
order,  or  with  the  appurtenances  of  a  kitchen,  and  they  were 
sadly  to  seek  hi  the  requisitesvof  a  modern  table.  So  long  as 
men  ate  with  their  hands  no  dainty  confection  was  suitable;  the 
viands  were  set  forth  in  a  straightforward  style  fit  for  their 
requirements.  "  Plain  cooking,"  which,  after  all,  can  never 
become  obsolete,  was  the  only  sort.  Oddities,  no  doubt,  were 
the  luxuries;  and  we  can  see  to-day  in  the  ethnological  accounts 
of  contemporary  savages  and  backward  civilizations,  a  fair 
representation  of  the  cookeries  of  the  ancients.  The  luxuries 
of  the  Chinese  are,  in  their  way,  a  survival  of  long  ages  of  a 
cookery  which  to  western  civilization  is  grotesque.  Even  if  it  is 
an  historic  impertinence,  it  is  impossible  for  the  countries  of 
western  civilization  to  regard  the  fine  flower  of  their  own  evolu- 
tion as  other  than  the  highest  pitch  of  progress.  Autres  temps, 
aulres  masurs.  To  the  Chinaman  French  cooking  may  possibly 
be  as  grotesque  as  to  an  Englishman  the  Chinaman's  hundred- 
year-old  buried  egg,  black  and  tasteless.  The  history  of  com- 
parative cookery  is  bound  up  with  the  physical  possibilities  of 
each  country  and  its  products;  and  if  we  attempt  to  mark  out 
stages  in  the  evolution  of  cookery  as  a  fine  art,  it  is  necessarily  as 
understood  by  the  so-called  civilized  peoples  of  the  West  in  their 
culmination  at  the  present  day. 

It  is  obvious  that  opportunity  has  dominated  its  history,  for 
the  art  of  cookery  is  to  some  extent  the  product  of  an  increased 
refinement  of  taste,  consequent  on  culture  and  increase  of  wealth. 
To  this  extent  it  is  a  decadent  art,  ministering  to  the  luxury 
of  man,  and  to  his  progressive  inclination  to  be  pampered  and 
have  his  appetite  tickled.  It  is  thus  only  remotely  connected 
with  the  mere  necessities  of  nutrition  (?.».),  or  the  science  of 
dietetics  (<?.».).  Mere  hunger,  though  the  best  sauce,  will  not 
produce  cookery,  which  is  the  art  of  sauces.  For  centuries  its 


elaboration  consisted  mainly  of  a  progressive  variety  of  foods, 
the  richest  and  rarest  being  sought  out;  and  their  nature 
depended  on  what  was  most  difficult  to  obtain.  The  Greeks 
learnt  by  contact  with  Asia  to  increase  the  sumptuous  character 
of  their  banquets,  but  we  know  little  enough  of  their  ideas  of 
gastronomy.  Athens  was  the  centre  of  luxury.  According  to 
our  chief  authority  Athenaeus,  Archestratus  of  Gela,  the  friend 
of  the  son  of  Pericles,  the  guide  of  Epicurus,  and  author  of  the 
Heduphagetica,  was  a  great  traveller,  and  took  pains  to  get 
information  as  to  how  the  delicacies  of  the  table  were  prepared 
in  different  parts.  His  lost  work  was  versified  by  Ennius.  Other 
connoisseurs  seem  to  have  been  Numenius  of  Heraclea,  Hegemon 
of  Thasos,  Philogenes  of  Leucas,  Simonaclides  of  Chios,  and 
Tyndarides  of  Sicyon.  The  Romans,  emerging  from  their 
pristine  simplicity,  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  their  achievements 
in'gastronomic  pleasure.  We  read  of  this  or  that  Roman  gourmet, 
such  as  Lucullus,  his  extravagances  and  his  luxury.  The  name 
of  the  connoisseur  Apicius,  after  whom  a  work  of  the  time  of 
Heliogabalus  is  called,  comes  down  to  us  in  association  with  a 
manual  of  cookery.  And  from  Macrobius  and  Petronius  we  can 
gather  very  interesting  glimpses  of  the  Roman  idea  of  a  menu. 
In  the  later  empire,  tradition  still  centred  round  the  Roman 
cookery  favoured  by  the  geographical  position  of  Italy;  while 
the  customs  and  natural  products  of  the  remoter  parts  of  Europe 
gradually  begin  to  assert  themselves  as  the  middle  ages  progress. 

It  is,  however,  not  till  the  Renaissance,  and  then  too  with 
Italy  as  the  starting-point,  that  the  history  of  modern  cookery 
really  begins.  Meanwhile  cookery  may  be  studied  rather  in 
the  architecture  of  kitchens,  and  the  development  of  their 
appurtenances  and  personnel,  than  in  any  increase  in  the 
subtleties  of  the  art;  the  ideal  was  inevitably  gross;  the  end 
was  feeding — inextricably  associated  in  all  ages  with  cooking, 
but  as  distinct  from  its  fine  fleur  as  gluttony  from  gastronomy. 

Montaigne's  references  to  the  revival  of  cookery  hi  France 
by  Catherine  de'  Medici  indicate  that  the  new  attention  paid 
to  the  art  was  really  novel.  She  brought  Italian  cooks  to  Paris 
and  introduced  there  a  cultured  simplicity  which  was  unknown 
in  France  before.  It  is  to  the  Italians  apparently  that  later 
developments  are  originally  due.  It  is  clearly  established,  for 
instance  (says  Abraham  Hay  ward  in  his  Art  of  Dining),  that  the 
Italians  introduced  ices  into  France.  Fricandeaus  were  invented 
by  the  chef  of  Leo  X.  And  Coryate  in  his  Crudities,  writing  in 
the  time  of  James  I.,  says  that  he  was  called  "  furcifer  "  (evidently 
in  contemptuous  jest)  by  his  friends,  from  his  using  those 
"  Italian  neatnesses  called  forks."  The  use  of  the  fork  and 
spoon  marked  an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  dining,  and  con- 
sequently of  cookery. 

Under  Louis  XIV.  further  advances  were  made.  His  mailre 
d' hotel,  Bechamel,  is  famous  for  his  sauce;  and  Vatel,  the  great 
Conde's  cook,  was  a  celebrated  artist,  of  whose  suicide  in  despair 
at  the  tardy  arrival  of  the  fish  which  he  had  ordered,  Madame 
de  Sevigne  relates  a  moving  story.  The  prince  de  Soubise, 
immortalized  by  his  onion  sauce,  also  had  a  famous  chef. 

In  England  the  names  of  certain  cookery-books  may  be  noted, 
such  as  Sir  J.  Elliott's  (1539),  Abraham  Veale's  (1575),  and  the 
Widdowe's  Treasure  (1625).  The  Accomplisht  Cook,  by  Robert 
May,  appeared  in  1665,  and  from  its  preface  we  learn  that  the 
author  (who  speaks  disparagingly  of  French  cookery,  but  more 
gratefully  of  Italian  and  Spanish)  was  the  son  of  a  cook,  and  had 
studied  abroad  and  under  his  father  (c.  1610)  at  Lady  Dormer's, 
and  he  speaks  of  that  time  as  "  the  days  wherein  were  produced 
the  triumphs  and  trophies  of  cookery."  From  his  description 
they  consisted  of  most  fantastic  and  elaborately  built  up  dishes, 
intended  to  amuse  and  startle,  no  less  than  to  satisfy  the  appetite 
and  palate. 

Louis  XV.  was  a  great  gourmet;  and  his  reign  saw  many 
developments  in  the  culinary  art.  The  mayonnaise  (originally 
mahonnaise)  is  ascribed  to  the  due  de  Richelieu.  Such  dishes 
as  "  potage  A  la  Xavier,"  "  cailles  A  la  Mirepoix"  "  chartreuses 
A  la  Mauconseil,"  "  poulels  A  la  Villeroy,"  "  potage  A  la  Condi," 
"  gigot  a  la  Afailly,"  owe  their  titles  to  celebrities  of  the  day, 
and  the  Pompadour  gave  her  name  to  various  others.  The 


COOKERY 


75 


Jesuits  Brunoy  and  Bougeant,  who  wrote  a  preface  to  a  con- 
temporary treatise  on  cookery  (1739),  described  the  modern 
art  as  "  more  simple,  more  appropriate,  and  more  cunning, 
than  that  of  old  days,"  giving  the  ingredients  the  same  union 
as  painters  give  to  colours,  and  harmonizing  all  the  tastes. 
The  very  phrase  "  cordon  bleu  "  (strictly  applied  only  to  a  woman 
cook)  arose  from  an  enthusiastic  recognition  of  female  merit 
by  the  king  himself.  Madame  du  Barry,  piqued  at  his  opinion 
that  only  a  man  could  cook  to  perfection,  had  a  dinner  prepared 
for  him  by  a  cuisiniere  with  such  success  that  the  delighted 
monarch  demanded  that  the  artist  should  be  named,  in  order 
that  so  precious  a  cuisinier  might  be  engaged  for  the  royal 
household.  "Allans  done,  la  France!  "  retorted  the  ex-grisette, 
"  have  I  caught  you  at  last  ?  It  is  no  cuisinier  at  all,  but  a 
cuisiniere,  and  I  demand  a  recompense  for  her  worthy  both  of 
her  and  of  your  majesty.  Your  royal  bounty  has  made  my 
negro,  Zamore,  governor  of  Luciennes,  and  I  cannot  accept 
less  than  a  cordon  bleu  "  (the  Royal  Order  of  the  Saint  Esprit) 
"  for  my  cuisiniere." 

The  French  Revolution  was  temporarily  a  blow  to  Parisian 
cookery,  as  to  everything  else  of  the  ancien  regime.  "  Not  a 
single  turbot  in  the  market,"  was  the  lament  of  Grimod  de  la 
Reyniere,  the  great  gourmet,  and  author  of  the  Manuel  des 
amphitryons  (1808).  But  while  it  fell  heavily  on  the  class  of 
noble  amphitryons  it  had  one  remarkable  effect  pn  the  art 
which  was  epoch-making.  It  is  from  that  time  that  we  notice 
the  rise  of  the  Parisian  restaurants.  To  1770  is  ascribed  the  first 
of  these,  the  Champ  d'oiseau  in  the  rue  des  Poulies.  In  1789 
there  were  a  hundred.  In  1804  (when  the  Almanack  des  gour- 
mands, the  first  sustained  effort  at  investing  gastronomy  with 
the  dignity  of  an  art,  was  started)  there  were  between  500 
and  600.  And  in  1814,  to  such  an  extent  had  the  restaurants 
attracted  the  culinary  talent  of  Paris,  that  the  allied  monarchs, 
on  arriving  there,  had  to  contract  with  the  two  brothers  Very 
for  the  supply  of  their  table.  Among  the  great  gastronomic 
names  of  Napoleon's  day  was  that  of  his  chancellor  Cambaceres, 
of  whose  dinners  many  stories  are  told.  Robert  (the  eponym 
of  the  sauce  Robert),  Rechaud  and  Merillion  were  at  this  period 
esteemed  the  Raphael,  Michelangelo  and  Rubens  of  cookery; 
while  A.  Beauvilliers  (author  of  Art  des  cuisines)  and  Careme 
(author  of  the  Mattre  d'hdtel  franfais,  and  chef  at  different 
times  to  the  Tsar  Alexander  I.,  Talleyrand,  George  IV.  and 
Baron  Rothschild)  were  no  less  celebrated.1  Perhaps  the  greatest 
name  of  all  in  the  history  of  the  literature  of  cookery  is  that  of 
Anthelme  Brillat-Savarin  (1755-1826),  the  French  judge  and 
author  of  the  Physiologic  du  gout  (1825),  the  classic  of  gastronomy. 

In  England  Louis  Eustache  Ude,  Charles  Elme  Francatelli, 
and  Alexis  Soyer  carried  on  the  tradition,  all  being  not  only  cooks 
but  authors  of  treatises  on  the  art.  The  Original  (1835)  of 
Thomas  Walker,  the  Lambeth  police  magistrate,  is  another  work 
which  has  inspired  later  pens.  Like  the  Physiologie  du  gout,  it  is 
no  mere  cookery-book,  but  a  compound  of  observation  and 
philosophy.  Among  simple  hand-books,  Mrs  Glasse's,  Dr 
Kitchener's  and  Mrs  Rundell's  were  standard  English  works  in 
the  1 8th  and  early  igth  centuries;  and  in  France  the  Cuisiniere 
de  la  campagne  (1818)  went  through  edition  after  edition.  An 
interesting  old  English  work  is  Dr  Pegge's  Forme  ofCury  (1780), 
which  includes  some  historical  reflections  on  the  subject.  "  We 
have  some  good  families  in  England,"  he  says,  "  of  the  name  of 
Cook  or  Coke.  .  .  .  Depend  upon  it,  they  all  originally  sprang 
from  real  professional  cooks,  and  they  need  not  be  ashamed  of 
their  extraction  any  more  than  Porters,  Butlers,  &c."  He  points 
out  that  cooks  in  early  days  were  of  some  importance;  William 
the  Conqueror  bestowed  land  on  his  coquorum  praepositus  and 
coquus  regius;  and  Domesday  Book  records  the  bestowal  of  a 
manor  on  Robert  Argyllon,  by  the  service  of  a  dish  called  "  de 
la  Groute  "  on  the  king's  coronation  day. 

At  the  present  time,  whatever  the  local  varieties  of  cooking, 
and  the  difference  of  national  custom,  French  cooking  is  ad- 
mittedly the  ideal  of  the  culinary  art,  directly  we  leave  the  plain 

1  See  Lady  S.  O.  Morgan's  France,  1829-1830,  ii.  414,  for  an 
account  of  a  dinner  by  Careme. 


roast  and  boiled.  And  the  spread  of  cosmopolitan  hotels  and 
restaurants  over  England,  America  and  the  European  continent, 
has  largely  accustomed  the  whole  civilized  world  to  the  Parisian 
type.  The  improvements  in  the  appliances  and  appurtenances  of 
the  kitchen  have  made  the  whole  world  kin  in  the  arts  of  dining, 
but  the  French  chef  remains  the  typical  master  of  his  craft. 
Schools  of  cookery  have  been  added  to  the  educational  machine. 
The  literature  of  the  subject  has  passed  beyond  enumeration. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  pursue  so  vast  a  practical  subject  into 
detail;  but  the  following  notes  on  broiling,  roasting,  baking, 
boiling,  stewing  and  frying  may  be  useful. 

Broiling. — The  earliest  method  of  cooking  was  probably  burying 
seeds  and  flesh  in  hot  ashes,  a  kind  of  broiling  on  all  the  surfaces  at 
the  same  time,  which  when  properly  done  is  the  most  delicate  kind 
of  cooking.  Broiling  is  now  done  over  a  clear  fire  extending  at  least 
2  in.  beyond  the  edges  of  the  gridiron,  which  should  slightly  incline 
towards  the  cook.  It  is  usual  to  rub  the  bars  with  a  piece  of  suet 
for  meat,  and  chalk  for  fish,  to  prevent  the  thing  broiled  from  being 
marked  with  the  bars  of  the  gridiron.  In  this  kind  of  cookery  the 
object  is  to  coagulate  as  quickly  as  possible  all  the  albumen  on  the 
surface,  and  seal  up  the  pores  of  the  meat  so  as  to  keep  in  all  the 
juices  and  flavour.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  thoroughly  to  warm 
the  gridiron  beiore  putting  on  the  meat,  or  the  heat  of  the  fire  is 
conducted  away  while  the  juices  and  flavour  of  the  meat  run  into 
the  fire.  Broiling  is  a  simple  kind  of  cookery,  and  one  well  suited 
to  invalids  and  persons  of  delicate  appetites.  There  is  no  other  way 
in  which  small  quantities  of  meat  can  be  so  well  and  so  quickly 
cooked.  Broiling  cannot  be  well  done  in  front  of  an  open  fire,  because 
one  side  of  the  meat  is  exposed  to  a  current  of  cold  air.  A  pair  of 
tongs  should  be  used  instead  of  a  fork  for  turning  all  broiled  meat 
and  fish. 

Roasting. — Two  conditions  are  necessary  for  good  roasting — a 
clear  bright  fire  and  frequent  basting.  Next  to  boiling  or  stewing 
it  is  the  most  economical  method  of  cooking.  The  meat  at  first 
should  be  placed  close  to  a  brisk  fire  for  five  minutes  to  coagulate 
the  albumen.  It  should  then  be  drawn  back  a  short  distance  and 
roasted  slowly.  If  a  meat  screen  be  used,  it  should  be  placed  before 
the  fire  to  be  moderately  heated  before  the  meat  is  put  to  roast. 
The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  fire  should  be  a  little  above  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  joint.  No  kitchen  can  be  complete  without  an 
open  range,  for  it  is  almost  impossible  to  have  a  properly  roasted 
joint  in  closed  kitcheners.  The  heat  radiated  from  a  good  open  fire 
quickly  coagulates  the  albumen  on  the  surface,  and  thus  to  a  large 
extent  prevents  that  which  is  fluid  in  the  interior  from  solidifying. 
The  connective  tissue  which  unites  the  fibres  is  gradually  converted 
into  gelatin,  and  rendered  easily  soluble.  The  fibrin  and  albumen 
appear  to  undergo  a  higher  oxidation  and  are  more  readily  dissolved. 
The  fat  cells  are  gradually  broken,  and  the  liquid  fat  unites  to  a  small 
extent  with  the  chloride  of  sodium  and  the  tribasic  phosphate  of 
sodium  contained  in  the  serum  of  the  blood.  It  is  easily  seen  that 
roasting  by  coagulating  the  external  albumen  keeps  together  the 
most  valuable  parts  of  the  meat,  till  they  have  gradually  and  slowly 
undergone  the  desired  change.  This  surface  coagulation  is  not 
sufficient  to  prevent  the  free  access  of  the  oxygen  of  the  surrounding 
air.  The  empyreumatic  oils  generated  on  the  surface  are  neither 
wholesome  nor  agreeable,  and  these  are  perhaps  better  removed  by- 
roasting  than  any  other  method  except  broiling.  The  chief  object 
is  to  retain  as  much  as  possible  all  the  sapid  juicy  properties  of  the 
meat,  so  that  at  the  first  cut  the  gravy  flows  out  of  a  rich  reddish 
colour,  and  this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  a  quick  coagulation 
of  the  surface  albumen.  The  time  for  roasting  varies  slightly  with 
the  kind  of  meat  and  the  size  of  the  joint.  As  a  rule  beef  and  mutton 
require  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  the  pound;  veal  and  pork  about 
17  minutes  to  the  pound.  To  tell  whether  the  joint  is  done,  press 
the  fleshy  part  with  a  spoon ;  if  the  meat  yield  easily  it  is  done. 

Baking  meat  is  in  many  respects  objectionable,  and  should  never 
be  done  if  any  other  method  is  available.  The  gradual  disuse  of 
open  grates  for  roasting  has  led  to  a  practice  of  first  baking  and  then 
browning  before  the  fire.  This  method  completely  reverses  the  true 
order  of  cooking  by  beginning  with  the  lowest  temperature  and 
finishing  with  the  highest.  Baked  meat  has  never  the  delicate 
flavour  of  roast  meat,  nor  is  it  so  digestible.  The  vapours  given  off 
by  the  charring  of  the  surface  cannot  freely  escape,  and  the  meat 
is  cooked  in  an  atmosphere  charged  with  empyreumatic  oil.  A 
brick  or  earthenware  oven  is  preferable  to  iron,  because  the  porous 
nature  of  the  bricks  absorbs  a  good  deal  of  the  vapour.  When 
potatoes  are  baked  with  meat,  they  should  always  be  first  parboiled, 
because  they  take  a  longer  time  to  bake,  and  the  moisture  nsing  from 
the  potatoes  retards  the_  process  of  baking,  and  makes  the  meat 
sodden.  A  baked  meat  pie,  though  not  always  very  digestible,  is  far 
less  objectionable  than  plain  baked  meat.  In  the  case  of  a  meat  pie 
the  surfaces  of  the  meat  are  protected  by  a  bad  conductor  of  heat 
from  that  charring  of  the  surface  which  generates  empyreumatic 
vapours,  and  the  fat  and  gravy,  gradually  rising  in  temperature, 
assist  the  cooking,  and  such  cooking  more  nearly  resembles  stewing 
than  baking.  The  process  may  go  on  for  a  long  time  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  meat  from  the  oven,  if  surrounded  with  flannel,  or  some 


76 


COOKSTOWN— COOLGARDIE 


bad  conductor  of  heat.  The  Cornish  pasty  is  the  best  example  of  this 
kind  of  cooking.  Meat,  fish,  game,  parboiled  vegetables,  apples  or 
anything  thai  fancy  suggests,  are  surrounded  with  a  thick  flour  and 
water  crust  and  slowly  baked.  When  removed  from  the  oven,  and 
packed  in  layers  of  flannel,  the  pasty  will  keep  hot  for  hours.  When 
baked  dishes  contain  eggs,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  albumen 
becomes  harder  and  more  insoluble,  according  to  the  time  occupied 
in  cooking.  About  the  same  time  is  required  for  baking  as  roasting. 

Boiling  is  one  of  the  easiest  methods  of  cooking,  but  a  suc- 
cessful result  depends  on  a  number  of  conditions  which,  though 
they  appear  trifling,  are  nevertheless  necessary.  The  fire  must  be 
watched  so  as  properly  to  regulate  the  heat.  The  saucepan  should 
be  scrupulously  clean  and  have  a  closely-fitting  lid,  and  be  large 
enough  to  hold  sufficient  water  to  well  cover  and  surround  the  meat, 
and  all  scum  should  be  removed  as  it  comes  to  the  surface;  the 
addition  of  small  quantities  of  cold  water  will  assist  the  rising  of  the 
scum.  For  all  cooking  purposes  clean  rain  water  is  to  be  preferred. 
Among  cooks  a  great  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  whether  meat 
should  be  put  into  cold  water  and  gradually  brought  to  the  boiling 
point,  or  should  be  put  into  boiling  water.  This,  like  many  other 
unsettled  questions  in  cookery,  is  best  decided  by  careful  scientific 
experiment  and  observation.  If  a  piece  of  meat  be  put  into  water 
at  a  temperature  of  60°,  and  gradually  raised  to  212°,  the  meat  is 
undergoing  a  gradual  loss  of  its  soluble  and  nutritious  properties, 
which  are  dissolved  in  the  water.  From  the  surface  to  the  interior 
the  albumen  is  partially  dissolved  out  of  the  meat,  the  fibres  become 
hard  and  stringy,  and  the  thinner  the  piece  of  meat  the  greater  the 
loss  of  all  those  sapid  constituents  which  make  boiled  meat  savoury, 
juicy  and  palatable.  To  put  meat  into  cold  water  is  clearly  the  best 
method  for  making  soups  and  broth;  it  is  the  French  method  of 
preparing  the  pot  au  feu;  but  the  meat  at  the  end  of  the  operation 
has  lost  much  of  that  juicy  sapid  property  which  makes  boiled  meat 
so  acceptable.  The  practice  of  soaking  fresh  meat  in  cold  water 
before  cooking  is  for  the  same  reasons  highly  objectionable;  if 
necessary,  wipe  it  with  a  clean  cloth.  But  in  the  case  of  salted, 
smoked  and  dried  meats  soaking  for  several  hours  is  indispensable, 
and  the  water  should  be  occasionally  changed.  The  other  method 
of  boiling  meat  has  the  authority  of  Baron  Liebig,  who  recommends 
putting  the  meat  into  water  when  in  a  state  of  ebullition,  and  after 
five  minutes  the  saucepan  is  to  be  drawn  aside,  and  the  contents 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  162"  (50°  below  boiling).  The  effect  of 
boiling  water  is  to  coagulate  the  albumen  on  the  surface  of  the  meat, 
which  prevents.but  not  entirely, the  juices  from  passingintothe  water, 
and  meat  thus  boiled  has  more  flavour  and  has  lost  much  less  in 
weight.  To  obtain  well-flavoured  boiled  meat  the  idea  of  soups  or 
broth  must  be  a  secondary  consideration.  It  is,  however,  impossible 
to  cook  a  piece  of  meat  in  water  without  extracting  some  of  its  juices 
and  nutriment,  and  the  liquor  should  in  both  cases  be  made  into  a 
soup. 

Stewing. — When  meat  is  slowly  cooked  in  a  close  vessel  it  is  said 
to  be  stewed;  this  method  is  generally  adopted  in  the  preparation 
of  made  dishes.  Different  kinds  of  meat  may  be  used,  or  only  one 
kind  according  to  taste.  The  better  the  meat  the  better  the  stew; 
but  by  carefully  stewing  the  coarsest  and  roughest  parts  will  become 
soft,  tender  and  digestible,  which  would  not  be  possible  by  any  other 
kind  of  cooking.  Odd  pieces  of  meat  and  trimmings  and  bones  can 
often  be  purchased  cheaply,  and  may  be  turned  into  good  food  by 
stewing.  Bones,  although  containing  little  meat,  contain  from 
39  to  49  %  of  gelatin.  Tne  large  bones  should  be  broken  into  small 
pieces,  and  allowed  to  simmer  till  every  piece  is  white  and  dry. 
Gelatin  is  largely  used  both  in  the  form  of  jellies  and  soups.  Lean 
meat,  free  from  blood,  is  best  for  stewing,  and,  when  cut  into  con- 
venient pieces,  it  should  be  slightly  browned  in  a  little  butter  or 
dripping.  Constant  attention  is  necessary  during  this  process,  to 
prevent  burning.  The  meat  should  be  covered  with  soft  water  or, 
better,  a  little  stock,  and  set  aside  to  simmer  for  four  or  five  hours, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  material.  When  vegetables  are  used, 
these  should  also  be  slightly  browned  and  added  at  intervals,  so  as 
not  materially  to  lower  the  temperature.  Stews  may  be  thickened 
by  the  addition  of  pearl  barley,  sago,  rice,  pota.toes,  oatmeal,  flour, 
&c.,  and  flavoured  with  herbs  and  condiments  according  to  taste. 
Although  stewing  is  usually  done  in  a  stewpan  or  saucepan  with  a 
close-fitting  cover,  a  good  stone  jar,  with  a  well-fitting  lid,  is  prefer- 
able in  the  homes  of  working  people.  This  is  better  than  a  metal 
saucepan,  and  can  be  more  easily  kept  clean;  it  retains  the  heat 
longer,  and  can  be  placed  in  the  oven  or  covered  with  hot  ashes. 
The  common  red  jar  is  not  suitable;  it  does  not  stand  the  heat  so 
well  as  a  grey  jar;  and  the  red  glaze  inside  often  gives  way  in  the 
presence  of  salt.  The  lid  of  a  vessel  used  for  stewing  should  be  re- 
moved as  little  as  possible.  An  occasional  shake  will  prevent  the 
meat  from  sticking.  At  the  end  of  the  operation  all  the  fat  should  be 
carefully  removed. 

Frying. — Lard,  oil,  butter,  or  dripping  may  be  used  for  frying. 
There  are  two  methods  of  frying — the  dry  method,  as  in  frying  a 
pancake,  and  the  wet  method,  as  when  the  thing  fried  is  immersed 
in  a  bath  of  hot  fat.  In  the  former  case  a  frying  pan  is  used,  in  the 
other  a  frying  kettle  or  stewpan.  It  is  usual  for  most  things  to  have 
a  wire  frying  basket ;  the  things  to  be  fried  are  placed  in  the  basket 
and  immersed  at  the  proper  temperature  in  the  hot  fat.  The  fat 
should  gradually  rise  in  temperature  over  a  slow  fire  till  it  attains 


nearly  400°  Fahr.  Great  care  is  required  to  fry  properly.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  too  low  the  things  immersed  in  the  fat  are  not  fried, 
but  soddened;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  temperature  is  too  high, 
they  are  charred.  The  temperature  of  the  fat  varies  slightly  with 
the  nature  of  things  to  be  fried.  Fish,  cutlets,  croquets,  rissoles  and 
fritters  are  well  fried  at  a  temperature  of  380°  Fahr.  Potatoes,  chops 
and  white  bait  are  better  fried  at  a  temperature  of  400°  Fahr.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  lower  the  temperature  too  much  by  introducing 
too  many  things.  The  most  successful  frying  is  when  the  fat  rises 
two  or  three  degrees  during  the  frying.  Fried  things  should  be  of  a 
golden  brown  colour,  crisp  and  free  from  fat.  When  fat  or  oil  has 
been  used  for  fish  it  must  be  kept  for  fish.  It  is  customary  first  to 
use  fat  for  croquets,  rissoles,  fritters  and  other  delicate  things,  and 
then  to  take  it  for  fish.  Everything  fried  in  fat  should  be  placed 
on  bibulous  paper  to  absorb  any  fat  on  the  surfaces. 

COOKSTOWN,  a  market  town  of  Co.  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  the 
east  parliamentary  division,  54  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Belfast,  on 
branches  of  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Northern  Counties 
(Midland)  railways.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901)  3531.  It 
consists  principally  of  a  single  street  of  great  length,  and  lies  in 
a  pleasant,  well-wooded  district,  near  the  Ballinderry  river. 
It  has  important  manufactures  of  linen,  and  some  agricultural 
trade.  It  was  founded  in  1609,  the  landlord,  Allan  Cook,  giving 
name  to  it.  The  mansion  of  Killymoon  Castle,  in  the  vicinity, 
is  a  notable  example  of  the  work  of  a  celebrated  architect,  John 
Nash  (c.  1800). 

COOKTOWN,  a  seaport  of  Banks  county,  Queensland, 
Australia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Endeavour  river,  about  1050  m. 
direct  N.N.W.  of  Brisbane.  It  is  visited  by  the  ocean  steamers 
of  several  lines,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  very  extensive  bSche-de-mer 
and  pearl  fishery.  Tin  and  gold  are  worked  in  the  district,  in 
which  also  good  coffee  and  rice  are  grown.  Cooktown  is  the  port 
of  the  Palmer  gold-fields,  and  a  railway  runs  to  Laura  on  the 
gold-fields,  67  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Cooktown.  It  is  the  chief 
port  of  Queensland  for  the  New  Guinea  trade;  and  is  also 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  vicariate  apostolic  whose  bishop 
has  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of  Queensland  north  of  lat. 
1 8°  50'.  In  1770  Captain  Cook  here  beached  his  ship  the 
"  Endeavour,"  to  repair  the  damage  caused  by  her  striking  a 
reef  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  estuary,  which  he  could  only 
clear  by  throwing  his  guns  overboard.  Cooktown  became  a 
municipality  in  1876.  The  population  of  the  town  and  district 
in  1901  was  1936. 

COOKWORTHY,  WILLIAM  (1705-1780),  English  potter, 
famous  for  his  discovery  of  the  existence  of  china-clay  and  china- 
stone  in  Cornwall,  and  as  the  first  manufacturer  of  a  porcelain 
similar  in  nature  to  the  Chinese,  from  English  materials,  was 
born  at  Kingsbridge,  Devon,  of  Quaker  parents  who  were  in 
humble  circumstances.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  London  apothecary  named  Bevans,  and  he  afterwards 
returned  to  the  neighbourhood  of  his  birthplace,  and  carried 
on  business  at  Plymouth  with  the  co-operation  of  his  master, 
under  the  title  of  Bevans  &  Cookworthy.  The  manufacture  of 
porcelain  was  at  the  time  attracting  great  attention  in  England, 
and  while  the  factories  at  Bow,  Chelsea,  Worcester  and  Derby 
were  introducing  the  artificial  glassy  porcelain,  Cookworthy, 
following  the  accounts  of  Pere  d'Entrecolles,  spent  many  years 
in  searching  for  English  materials  similar  to  those  used  by  the 
Chinese.  From  1745  onwards  he  seems  to  have  travelled  over 
the  greater  portion  of  Cornwall  and  Devon  in  search  of  these 
minerals,  and  he  finally  located  them  in  the  parish  of  St  Stephen's 
near  to  St  Austell.  With  a  certain  amount  of  financial  assistance 
from  Mr  Thomas  Pitt  of  Boconnoc  (afterwards  Lord  Camelford) 
he  established  the  Plymouth  China  Factory  at  least  as  early  as 
1768.  The  factory  was  removed  to  Bristol  about  1770,  and  the 
business  was  afterwards  sold  to  Richard  Champion  and  others 
and  became  the  well-known  Bristol  Porcelain  Manufactory. 
Apart  from  its  historic  interest  there  is  little  to  be  said  for  the 
Plymouth  porcelain.  Technically  it  was  often  imperfect,  and 
its  artistic  treatment  was  never  of  a  high  order.  But  Cookworthy 
deserves  to  be  remembered  for  his  discovery  of  those  abundant 
supplies  of  English  clay  and  rocks  which  form  the  foundation 
of  English  porcelain  and  fine  earthenware  (see  CERAMICS). 

COOLGARDIE,  a  municipal  town  in  Western  Australia, 
310  m.  by  rail  E.  by  N.  of  Perth,  and  528  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of 


COOLIE 


77 


Albany.  Pop.  (1901)  4249.  Its  gold-fields  were  discovered  in 
1891  and  are  among  the  richest  in  the  colony.  Lignite,  copper, 
graphite  and  silver  are  also  found.  Toorak  and  Montana  are 
small  residential  suburbs.  A  remarkable  engineering  work  by 
which  a  full  supply  of  water  was  brought  to  the  town  from 
Fremantle  (a  distance  exceeding  330  m.  direct)  was  completed 
in  1903. 

COOLIE,  or  COOLY  (from  Koli  or  Kuli,  an  aboriginal  race  of 
western  India;  or  perhaps  from  Tamil  kiili,  hire,  i.e.  one  hired), 
a  term  generally  applied  to  Asiatic  labourers  belonging  to 
the  unskilled  class  as  opposed  to  the  artisan,  and  employed  in  a 
special  sense  to  designate  those  natives  of  India  and  China  who 
leave  their  country  under  contracts  of  service  to  work  as  labourers 
abroad.  After  the  abolition  of  slavery  much  difficulty  was 
found  in  obtaining  cheap  labour  for  tropical  plantations.  The 
emancipated  black  was  unwilling  to  engage  in  field  labour, 
while  the  white  man  was  physically  incapable  of  so  doing. 
Recourse  was  had  to  the  overpeopled  empires  of  China  and 
India,  as  the  most  likely  sources  from  which  to  obtain  that 
supply  of  workers  upon  which  the  very  existence  of  some  colonies, 
notably  in  the  West  Indies,  depended. 

The  first  public  recognition  of  the  coolie  traffic  was  in  1844, 
when  the  British  colony  of  Guiana  made  provision  for  the 
encouragement  of  Chinese  immigration.  About  the 
same  time  both  Peru  and  Cuba  began  to  look  to  China 
as  likely  to  furnish  an  efficient  substitute  for  the 
negro  bondsman.  Agents  armed  with  consular  commissions 
from  Peru  appeared  in  Chinese  ports,  where  they  collected  and 
sent  away  shiploads  of  coolies.  Each  one  was  bound  to  serve 
the  Peruvian  planter  to  whom  he  might  be  assigned  for  seven 
or  eight  years,  at  fixed  wages,  generally  about  173.  a  month, 
food,  clothes  and  lodging  being  provided.  From  1847  to  1854 
coolie  emigration  went  on  briskly  without  attracting  much 
notice,  but  it  gradually  came  to  light  that  circumstances  of  great 
cruelty  attended  the  trade.  The  transport  ships  were  badly 
equipped  and  overcrowded,  and  many  coolies  died  before  the 
end  of  the  voyage.  On  arrival  in  Cuba  or  Peru  the  survivors  were 
sold  by  auction  in  the  open  market  to  the  highest  bidders,  who 
held  them  virtually  as  slaves  for  seven  years  instead  of  for  life. 
Particularly  terrible  was  the  lot  of  those  who,  contrary  to  their 
agreements,  had  been  sent  to  labour  in  the  foul  guano  pits  of 
the  Chincha  islands,  where  they  were  forced  to  toil  in  gangs, 
each  under  the  charge  of  an  overseer  armed  with  a  cowhide  lash. 
In  1860  it  was  calculated  that  of  the  four  thousand  coolies  who 
had  been  fraudulently  consigned  to  the  guano  pits  of  Peru  not 
one  had  survived.  The  greater  number  of  them  had  committed 
suicide.  In  1854  the  British  governor  of  Hong-Kong  issued  a 
proclamation  forbidding  British  subjects  or  vessels  to  engage 
in  the  transport  of  coolies  to  the  Chinchas.  Technically  this  was 
ultra  vires  on  his  part,  but  his  policy  was  confirmed  by  the  Chinese 
Passengers'  Act  1855,  which  put  an  end  to  the  more  abominable 
phase  of  the  traffic.  After  that  no  British  ship  was  allowed  to 
sail  on  more  than  a  week's  voyage  with  more  than  twenty  coolies 
on  board,  unless  her  master  had  complied  with  certain  very 
stringent  regulations. 

The  consequence  of  this  was  that  the  business  of  shipping 
coolies  for  Peru  was  transferred  to  the  Portuguese  settlement 
of  Macao.  There  the  Peruvian  and  Cuban  "  labour-agents  " 
established  dep6ts,  which  they  unblushingly  called  "barracoons," 
the  very  term  used  in  the  West  African  slave  trade.  In  these 
places  coolies  were  "  received,"  or  in  plain  words,  imprisoned 
and  kept  under  close  guard  until  a  sufficient  number  were 
collected  for  export.  Some  of  these  were  decoyed  by  fraudulent 
promises  of  profitable  employment.  Others  were  kidnapped 
by  piratical  junks  hired  to  scour  the  neighbouring  coasts.  Many 
were  bought  from  leaders  of  turbulent  native  factions,  only  too 
glad  to  sell  the  prisoners  they  captured  whilst  waging  their 
internecine  wars.  The  procurador  or  registrar-general  of  Macao 
went  through  the  form  of  certifying  the  contracts;  but  his 
inspection  was  practically  useless.  After  the  war  of  1856-1857 
this  masked  slave  trade  pushed  its  agencies  into  Whampoa 
and  Canton.  In  April  1859,  however,  the  whole  mercantile 


community  of  the  latter  port  rose  up  in  indignation  against  it, 
and  transmitted  such  strong  representations  to  the  British 
embassy  in  China,  that  steps  were  taken  to  mitigate  the  evil. 
New  regulations  were  from  time  to  time  passed  by  the  Portuguese 
authorities  for  the  purpose  of  minimizing  the  horrors  of  the 
Macao  trade.  They  seem,  however,  to  have  been  systematically 
evaded,  and  to  have  been  practically  inoperative.  At  Canton  and 
Hong- Kong  the  coolie  trade  was  put  under  various  regulations, 
which  in  the  latter  port  worked  well  only  when  the  profits  of 
"  head-money  "  were  ruined.  In  March  1866  the  representatives 
of  the  governments  of  France,  England  and  China  drew  up  a 
convention  for  the  regulation  of  the  Canton  trade,  which  had 
an  unfortunate  effect.  It  left  head-money,  the  source  of  most 
of  the  abuses,  comparatively  untouched.  It  enacted  that 
every  coolie  must  at  the  end  of  a  five  years'  engagement  have 
his  return  passage-money  paid  to  him.  The  West  Indian  colonies 
at  once  objected  to  this.  They  wanted  permanent  not  temporary 
settlers.  They  could  not  afford  to  burden  the  coolie's  expensive 
contract  with  return  passage-money,  so  they  declined  to  accept 
emigrants  on  these  terms.  Thus  a  legalized  coolie  trade  between 
the  West  Indies  and  China  was  extinguished.  Thereafter  the 
coolie  supply  for  British  colonies  was  drawn  exclusively  from 
India,  until  1904,  when  an  exception  was  made  in  the  case  of 
the  Transvaal.  Under  a  convention  drawn  up  in  that  year 
between  the  United  Kingdom  and  China  over  fifty  thousand 
indentured  Chinese  labourers  were  engaged  on  three  years' 
contracts  to  work  in  the  Witwatersrand  gold  mines  (see 
TRANSVAAL).  To  the  Malay  states  and  other  parts  of  eastern 
Asia  there  is  an  extensive  yearly  migration  of  Chinese  coolies. 
This  migration,  however,  is  not  under  contract.  From  Amoy 
alone  some  seventy-five  thousand  coolies  yearly  migrate  to 
Singapore  and  the  Straits  Settlements,  whence  they  are  drafted 
for  labour  purposes  in  every  direction. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  say  when  the  Indian  coolie  trade  began. 
Before  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  Tamil  labourers  from  southern 
India  were  wont  to  emigrate  to  the  Straits  Settlements, 
and  they  also  flocked  to  Tenasserim  from  the  other 
side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  after  the  conquest  had 
produced  a  demand  for  labour.  The  first  regularly  recorded 
attempt  at  organizing  coolie  emigration  from  India  took  place 
in  1834,  when  forty  coolies  were  exported  to  Mauritius;  but  it 
was  not  until  1836  that  the  Indian  government  decided  to  put 
the  trade  under  official  regulations.  In  1837  an  emigration  law 
was  passed  for  all  the  territories  of  the  East  India  Company, 
providing  that  a  permit  must  be  obtained  from  government 
for  every  shipment  of  coolies,  that  all  contracts  should  terminate 
in  five  years,  that  a  return  passage  should  be  guaranteed,  that 
the  terms  of  his  contract  should  be  carefully  explained  to  each 
coolie,  and  that  the  emigrant  ship  should  only  carry  one  coolie 
for  every  ton  and  a  half  of  burden.  Then  as  now  the  Indian 
government  watched  the  deportation  of  labour  from  their 
dominions  with  jealous  and  anxious  care,  and  when  in  1838  it 
was  found  that  upwards  of  twenty-five  thousand  natives  had, 
up  to  that  year,  gone  from  all  parts  of  India  to  Mauritius,  the 
government  became  somewhat  alarmed  at  the  dimensions 
which  the  traffic  was  assuming.  Brougham  and  the  anti-slavery 
party  denounced  the  trade  as  a  revival  of  slavery,  and  the 
Bengal  government  suspended  it  in  order  to  investigate  its 
alleged  abuses.  The  nature  of  these  may  be  guessed  when  it  is 
said  that  the  inquiry  condemned  the  fraudulent  methods  of 
recruiting  then  in  vogue,  and  the  brutal  treatment  which  coolies 
often  received  from  ship  captains  and  masters.  In  1842  steps 
were  taken  formally  to  reopen  the  coolie  trade  with  Mauritius, 
and  in  1844  emigration  to  the  West  Indies  was  sanctioned  by 
the  Indian  government.  In  1847  Ceylon  was  separated  from 
India,  and  her  labour  supply  was  cut  off;  but  this  accident  was 
soon  remedied,  the  Ceylon  government  adopting  protective 
regulations  for  the  coolies. 

Emigration  of  coolies  under  contract  to  labour  outside  India 
is  now  regulated  by  the  Emigration  Act  of  1883  and  the  rules 
issued  under  its  provisions,  the  only  exceptions  being  in  re- 
spect of  emigrants  to  Ceylon  and  the  Straits  Settlements  and 


COOMA— COOPER,  A. 


adjoining  states,  or  those  engaged  by  the  British  government 
for  employment  in  east  and  central  Africa.  By  section  8  of  this 
act  natives  of  India  are  permitted  to  emigrate  under 
odera  labour  contracts  only  to  such  countries  as  have 
|)jf^gf"  satisfied  the  government  of  India  that  sufficient  pro- 
vision is  made  for  the  protection  of  the  emigrants.  A 
country  which  is  duly  empowered  under  the  act  to  receive 
emigrants  may  appoint  an  agent,  residing  in  India,  who  is 
responsible  for  the  due  observance  of  the  provisions  of  the  law. 
These  agents  are  under  the  general  supervision  of  the  protector 
of  emigrants.  As  emigrants  have  to  be  recruited  at  great 
distances  from  the  port  of  embarkation,  recruiters  are  appointed 
by  the  agents  and  licensed  by  the  protector.  The  conduct  of 
these  subordinates  is  minutely  regulated.  Every  precaution 
is  taken  to  let  the  emigrant  know  the  exact  terms  on  which 
he  is  hired,  and  to  ensure  good  treatment  in  the  interval  between 
registration  and  embarkation.  Coolies  are  shipped  for  the 
most  part  from  Calcutta  and  Madras,  but  of  recent  years  large 
numbers  bound  for  Mombasa  and  the  Seychelles  left  from 
Bombay  and  Karachi.  Both  the  coolies  themselves  and  the 
dep&t  are  medically  inspected.  Only  those  physically  fit  are 
allowed  to  embark.  The  vessels  for  their  conveyance  are 
licensed  and  inspected  by  the  local  government.  The  terms 
on  which  emigrants  are  recruited  are  settled  beforehand  by 
convention  with  the  colonies  concerned,  and  are  embodied  in 
ordinances  passed  by  the  local  legislatures.  They  vary  in  detail, 
but  their  main  provisions  relate  to  the  rights  and  obligations 
of  the  emigrants,  including  the  grant  of  a  return  passage  on  the 
expiry  of  a  specified  period,  usually  ten  years.  The  British 
colonies  to  which  coolies  were  exported  in  the  decade  1891-1901 
were  British  Guiana,  Trinidad,  St  Lucia,  Jamaica,  Mauritius, 
the  Seychelles  Islands,  Fiji,  East  Africa  and  Natal;  the  only 
non-British  country  was  Dutch  Guiana.  Emigration  to  the 
French  colonies,  including  Reunion  has  been  forbidden  by  the 
government  of  India  since  1886,  but  there  still  remain  in  those 
colonies  some  of  the  former  emigrants,  and  the  questions  of  their 
treatment  and  repatriation  have  frequently  formed  the  subject 
of  representations  to  the  French  authorities. 

The  number  of  Indian  coolies  resident  in  the  various  British 
colonies  in  1900  was  625,000,  of  which  the  largest  numbers  were 
265,000  in  Mauritius  and  125,000  in  British  Guiana. 
British  There  were  still  13,800  in  Reunion.  The  regulations 
colonies,  governing  coolie  labour  in  British  Guiana  may  be  taken 
as  typical  for  the  British  colonies  generally.  They  are 
contained  in  the  Labour  Ordinance  of  1873,  which  was  amended 
by  the  ordinances  of  1875,  1876,  1886  and  1887.  Under  these 
ordinances  an  immigration  agent-general  is  appointed,  to  whom 
medical  officers  and  recruiting  agents  are  responsible,  and  the 
emigrants  are  allotted  by  him  to  the  separate  estates.  They 
regulate  the  hours  of  work,  the  rate  of  wages,  and  the  general 
treatment  of  the  coolies,  the  nature  of  house  and  hospital 
accommodation,  the  terms  of  re-enlistment  and  the  conditions  of 
marriage  amongst  the  coolies  themselves.  The  coolies  returning 
from  the  British  colonies  to  India  in  1901  possessed  average 
savings  of  £19. 

During  the  construction  of  the  Uganda  railway  large  numbers 
of  coolies  were  recruited  in  the  Punjab  and  exported  from 
British  Karachi  to  Mombasa.  During  the  decade  1891-1901 
Bast  and  the  number  of  these  emigrants  was  33,000;  but  on  the 
South  completion  of  the  line  the  emigration  practically 
Africa.  stopped,  while  in  1901-1902  there  were  over  6000 
emigrants  who  returned  to  India.  Some,  however,  settled 
in  East  Africa.  Coolies  are  also  exported  for  government  em- 
ployment in  Nyasaland.  In  Natal  the  Indian  population  had 
by  1904  reached  over  100,000.  and  slightly  outnumbered  the 
whites.  Many  of  the  coolies  had  become  permanent  residents  in 
the  colony  (see  NATAL). 

According  to  the  census  of  1901  there  were  775,844  foreigners 
in  Assam,  of  whom  no  fewer  than  645,000  or  83  %  were  brought 
into  'the  province  as  garden  coolies.  The  recruiting  of  these 
coolies  is  regulated  by  Act  VI.  of  1901,  which  provides  that  a 
labour  agreement  may  be  entered  into  for  four  years,  and  includes 


a  penal  clause,  under  which  a  coolie  deserting  or  refusing  to  work 
may  be  punished  with  imprisonment.  The  coolies  can  also  give 
an  agreement  under  Act  XIII.  of  1859,  by  which  they  A**am, 
are  only  liable  to  civil  action  for  breach  of  contract.  Ceylon 
The  latter  are  called  non-act  coolies.  This  system  of 
immigration  has  made  tea-planting  the  most  important 
industry  in  Assam,  and  has  greatly  increased  the  prosperity  of 
the  province.  Migration  to  Ceylon  and  Burma  takes  place 
chiefly  from  the  Madras  ports,  and  is  of  a  seasonal  and  temporary 
character.  The  tea  estates  and  pearl  fisheries  of  Ceylon,  and  the 
town  work  and  harvesting  in  Burma  attract  large  numbers  of 
Tamil  labourers.  The  respective  numbers  embarking  in  1901 
were  117,000  for  Ceylon,  84,000  for  Burma  and  27,000  for  the 
Straits  Settlements.  In  Ceylon  there  is  no  system  of  recruitment 
like  that  for  the  Assam  tea-gardens.  The  coolies  come  in  gangs. 
each  under  its  own  headman,  with  whom  the  planter  deals 
exclusively,  leaving  him  to  make  his  own  arrangements  with  the 
individual  coolies.  The  coolies  are  mostly  carried  in  small 
sailing  vessels  from  the  ports  of  Madura  and  Tanjore,  and  the 
number  who  permanently  settle  in  Ceylon  is  not  very  great. 

See  E.  Jenkins,  The  Coolie;  his  Rights  and  Wrongs  (1871); 
J.  L.  A.  Hope,  In  Quest  of  Coolies  (1872);  and  C.  B.  Grose,  The 
Labour  Ordinances  (Georgetown,  1890).  (C.  L.) 

COOMA,  a  town  of  Beresford  county,  New  South  Wales, 
Australia,  264  m.  by  rail  S.S.W.  of  Sydney.  Pop.  (1901)  1938. 
The  town  is  the  centre  of  a  pastoral  district  and  has  a  large  trade 
in  furs,  while  at  Bushy  Hill,  a  mile  from  the  town,  is  a  small 
gold-field.  Cooma,  which  is  pleasantly  situated  at  an  elevation 
of  2657  ft.,  is  the  tourist  centre  for  visitors  to  the  Yarrangobilly 
Caves  and  Mount  Kosciusko  and  its  observatory.  The  caves  are 
distant  65  m.  from  the  town,  situated  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  over- 
looking the  Yarrangobilly  river;  they  are  seven  in  number  and  of 
remarkable  beauty  and  extent. 

COOPER,  ABRAHAM  (1787-1868),  English  animal  and  battle 
painter,  the  son  of  a  tobacconist,  was  born  in  London.  At  the 
age  of  thirteen  he  became  an  employd  at  Astley's  amphitheatre, 
and  was  afterwards  groom  in  the  service  of  Sir  Henry  Meux. 
When  he  was  twenty-two,  wishing  to  possess  a  portrait  of  a 
favourite  horse  under  his  care,  he  bought  a  manual  of  painting, 
learned  something  of  the  use  of  oil-colours,  and  painted  the 
picture  on  a  canvas  hung  against  the  stable  wall.  His  master 
bought  it  and  encouraged  him  to  continue  in  his  efforts.  He 
accordingly  began  to  copy  prints  of  horses,  and  was  introduced 
to  Benjamin  Marshall,  the  animal  painter,  who  took  him 
into  his  studio,  and  seems  to  have  introduced  him  to  the 
Sporting  Magazine,  an  illustrated  periodical  to  which  he  was  him- 
self a  contributor.  In  1814  he  exhibited  his  "  Tarn  O'Shanter," 
and  in  1816  he  won  a  prize  of  £100  for  his  "  Battle  of  Ligny." 
In  1817  he  exhibited  his  "  Battle  of  Marston  Moor  "  and  was 
made  associate  of  the  Academy,  and  in  1820  he  was  elected 
Academician.  Cooper,  although  ill  educated,  was  a  clever  and 
conscientious  artist;  his  colouring  was  somewhat  flat  and  dead, 
but  he  was  a  master  of  equine  portraiture  and  anatomy,  and  had 
some  antiquarian  knowledge.  He  had  a  special  fondness  for 
Cavalier  and  Roundhead  pictures. 

COOPER,  ALEXANDER  (d.  1660),  English  miniature  painter. 
His  works  are  of  great  rarity,  and  the  chief  are  a  series  represent- 
ing the  king  and  queen  of  Bohemia  and  their  children,  in  the 
possession  of  the  German  emperor;  some  very  remarkable 
portraits  belonging  to  the  queen  of  Holland,  and  others  in  the 
possession  of  the  king  of  Sweden  and  in  various  Swedish  galleries. 
He  was  the  brother  of  Samuel  Cooper,  but  whether  senior  or 
junior  to  him  is  not  known,  although,  according  to  certain 
Swedish  authorities,  he  is  stated,  upon  very  slight  evidence,  to 
have  been  bom  in  1605,  four  years  before  his  more  famous 
brother.  He  came  to  Sweden  in  1646,  and  the  Swedish  docu- 
ments declare  that  he  was  a  Jew,  and  that  his  full  name  was 
Abraham  Alexander  Cooper.  He  had  previously  been  residing  in 
Holland,  but  on  reaching  Sweden  entered  the  service  of  Queen 
Christina,  and  continued  to  be  her  miniature  painter  until  1654, 
when  she  resigned  the  crown.  Two  years  later,  Cooper  was  in 
Denmark,  carrying  out  some  commissions  for  Christian  IV.,  but 


COOPER,  SIR  ASTLEY— COOPER,  J.  FENIMORE 


79 


in  1657  was  back  again  in  Stockholm,  where  he  died  in  the  early 
part  of  1660.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  but  he  is 
believed  to  have  been  born  in  London. 

For  full  information  regarding  his  career,  and  for  various  docu- 
ments bearing  his  signature,  see  The  History  of  Portrait  Miniatures, 
by  G.  C.  Williamson,  chap.  vi.  page  78,  and  an  article  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  for  October  1905.  (G.  C.  W.) 

COOPER,  SIR  AST1EY  PASTON  (1768-1841),  English  surgeon, 
was  born  at  the  village  of  Brooke  in  Norfolk  on  the  23rd  of 
August  1 768.  His  father,  Dr  Samuel  Cooper,  was  a  clergyman  of 
the  Church  of  England;  his  mother  was  the  author  of  several 
novels.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  London  and  placed 
under  Henry  Cline  (i  750-1827),  surgeon  to  St  Thomas's  hospital. 
From  the  first  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  anatomy,  and 
had  the  privilege  of  attending  the  lectures  of  John  Hunter.  In 
1789  he  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  anatomy  at  St  Thomas's 
hospital,  where  in  1791  he  became  joint  lecturer  with  Cline  in 
andtomy  and  surgery,  and  in  1800  he  was  appointed  surgeon  to 
Guy's  hospital,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  William  Cooper.  In 
1802  he  received  the  Copley  medal  for  two  papers  read  before  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  on  the  destruction  of  the  membrana 
tympani;  and  in  1805  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  that  society. 
In  the  same  year  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Medico-Chirurgical  Society,  and  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
its  Transactions  an  account  of  an  attempt  to  tie  the  common 
carotid  artery  for  aneurism.  In  1804  he  brought  out  the  first, 
and  in  1807  the  second,  part  of  his  great  work  on  hernia,  which 
added  so  largely  to  his  reputation  that  in  1813  his  annual  pro- 
fessional income  rose  to  £21,000  sterling.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  comparative  anatomy  to  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  and  was  very  popular  as  a  lecturer.  In  181 7 
he  performed  his  famous  operation  of  tying  the  abdominal  aorta 
for  aneurism;  and  in  1820  he  removed  a  wen  from  the  head  of 
George  IV.,  and  about  six  months  afterwards  received  a 
baronetcy,  which,  as  he  had  no  son,  was  to  descend  to  his 
nephew  and  adopted  son,  Astley  Cooper.  He  served  as  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1827  and  again  in  1836,  and 
he  was  elected  a  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1830.  He 
died  on  the  I2th  of  February  1841  in  London,  and  was  interred, 
by  his  own  desire,  beneath  the  chapel  of  Guy's  hospital.  A 
statue  by  E.  H.  Baily  was  erected  in  St  Paul's. 

His  chief  works  are  Anatomy  and  Surgical  Treatment  of  Hernia 
(1804-1807);  Dislocations  and  Fractures  (1822);  Lectures  on  Surgery 
(1824-1827);  Illustrations  of  Diseases  of  the  Breast  (1829);  Anatomy 
of  the  Thymus  Gland  (1832);  Anatomy  of  the  Breast  (1840). 

See  Life  of  Sir  A.  Cooper,  by  B.  B.  Cooper  (1843). 

COOPER,  CHARLES  HENRY  (1808-1866),  English  antiquary, 
was  born  at  Great  Marlow,  on  the  2oth  of  March  1808,  being 
descended  from  a  family  formerly  settled  at  Bray,  Berkshire. 
He  received  his  education  at  a  private  school  in  Reading.  In 
1826  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1836  was  elected 
coroner  of  the  borough.  Four  years  later  he  was  admitted  a 
solicitor,  and  in  course  of  time  he  acquired  an  extensive  practice, 
but  his  taste  and  inclination  ultimately  led  him  to  devote  almost 
the  whole  of  his  time  to  literary  research,  and  especially  the 
elucidation  of  the  history  of  the  university  of  Cambridge.  In 
1849  he  resigned  the  office  of  borough  coroner  on  being  elected 
to  the  town-clerkship,  which  he  retained  till  his  death  on  the 
2ist  of  March  1866.  His  earliest  production,  A  New  Guide  to 
the  University  and  Town  of  Cambridge,  was  published  anonymously 
in  1831.  The  Annals  of  Cambridge  followed  (1842-1853)  con- 
taining a  chronological  history  of  the  university  and  town  from 
the  earliest  period  to  1853.  His  most  important  work,  the 
Athenae  Cantabrigienses  (1858,  1861),  a  companion  work  to  the 
famous  Athenae  Oxonienses  of  Anthony  a  Wood,  contains 
biographical  memoirs  of  the  authors  and  other  men  of  eminence 
who  were  educated  at  the  university  of  Cambridge  from  1500 
to  1609.  Cooper's  other  works  are  The  Memorials  of  Cambridge, 
(1858-1866)  and  a  Memoir  of  Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond 
and  Derby  (1874).  He  was  a  constant  contributor  to  Notes  and 
Queries,  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  and  other  antiquarian  publica- 
tions, and  left  an  immense  collection  of  MS.  materials  for  a 
biographical  history  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


COOPER,  JAMES  FENIMORE  (1789-1851),  American  novelist, 
was  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  on  the  isth  of  September 
1789.  Reared  in  the  wild  country  round  Otsego  Lake,  N.Y.,  on 
the  yet  unsettled  estates  of  his  father,  a  judge  and  member  of 
Congress,  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Albany  and  at  New  Haven, 
and  entered  Yale  College  in  his  fourteenth  year,  remaining  for 
some  time  the  youngest  student  on  the  rolls.  Three  years  after- 
wards he  joined  the  United  States  navy;  but  after  making  a 
voyage  or  two  in  a  merchant  vessel,  to  perfect  himself  in  seaman- 
ship, and  obtaining  his  lieutenancy,  he  married  and  resigned 
his  commission  (181 1).  He  settled  in  Westchester  county,  N.Y., 
the  "Neutral  Ground"  of  his  earliest  American  romance,  and 
produced  anonymously  (1820)  his  first  book,  Precaution,  a  novel 
of  the  fashionable  school.  This  was  followed  (1821)  by  The  Spy, 
which  was  very  successful  at  the  date  of  issue;  The  Pioneers 
(1823),  the  first  of  the  "  Leatherstocking "  series;  and  The 
Pilot  (1824),  a  bold  and  dashing  sea-story.  The  next  was  Lionel 
Lincoln  (1825),  a  feeble  and  unattractive  work;  and  this  was 
succeeded  in  1826  by  the  famous  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  a  book 
that  is  often  quoted  as  its  author's  masterpiece.  Quitting 
America  for  Europe  he  published  at  Paris  The  Prairie  (1826), 
the  best  of  his  books  in  nearly  all  respects,  and  The  Red  Rover, 
(1828),  by  no  means  his  worst. 

At  this  period  the  unequal  and  uncertain  talent  of  Cooper 
would  seem  to  have  been  at  its  best.  These  excellent  novels 
were,  however,  succeeded  by  one  very  inferior,  The  Wept  of 
Wish-ton-Wish  (1829);  by  The  Notions  of  a  Travelling  Bachelor 
(1828),  an  uninteresting  book;  and  by  The  Waterwitch  (1830), 
one  of  the  poorest  of  his  many  sea-stories.  In  1830  he  entered 
the  lists  as  a  party  writer,  defending  in  a  series  of  letters  to  the 
National,  a  Parisian  journal,  the  United  States  against  a  string 
of  charges  brought  against  them  by  the  Revue  Britannique; 
and  for  the  rest  of  his  life  he  continued  skirmishing  in 
print,  sometimes  for  the  national  interest,  sometimes  for  that 
of  the  individual,  and  not  infrequently  for  both  at  once.  This 
opportunity  of  making  a  political  confession  of  faith  appears 
not  only  to  have  fortified  him  in  his  own  convictions,  but  to  have 
inspired  him  with  the  idea  of  imposing  them  on  the  public 
through  the  medium  of  his  art.  His  next  three  novels,  The 
Bravo  (1831),  The  Heidenmauer  (1832)  and  The  Headsman:  or 
the  Abbaye  of  Vigneron  (1833),  were  designed  to  exalt  the  people 
at  the  expense  of  the  aristocracy.  Of  these  the  first  is  by  no 
means  a  bad  story,  but  the  others  are  among  the  dullest  ever 
written;  all  were  widely  read  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

In  1833  Cooper  returned  to  America,  and  immediately  pub- 
lished A  Letter  to  my  Countrymen,  in  which  he  gave  his  own 
version  of  the  controversy  he  had  been  engaged  in,  and  passed 
some  sharp  censure  on  his  compatriots  for  their  share  in  it. 
This  attack  he  followed  up  with  The  Manikins  (1835)  and  The 
American  Democrat  (1835);  with  several  sets  of  notes  on  his 
travels  and  experiences  in  Europe,  among  which  may  be  remarked 
his  England  (1837),  in  three  volumes,  a  burst  of  vanity  and  ill- 
temper;  and  with  Homeward  Bound,  and  Home  as  Found  (1838), 
noticeable  as  containing  a  highly  idealized  portrait  of  himself. 
All  these  books  tended  to  increase  the  ill-feeling  between  author 
and  public;  the  Whig  press  was  virulent  and  scandalous  in  its 
comments,  and  Cooper  plunged  into  a  series  of  actions  for  libel. 
Victorious  in  all  of  them,  he  returned  to  his  old  occupation 
with  something  of  his  old  vigour  and  success.  A  History  of  the 
Navy  of  the  United  States  (1839),  supplemented  (1846)  by  a  set  of 
Lives  of  Distinguished  American  Naval  Officers,  was  succeeded 
by  The  Pathfinder  (1840),  a  good  "Leatherstocking"  novel; 
by  Mercedes  of  Castile  (1840);  The  Deerslayer  (1841);  by  The 
Two  Admirals  and  by  Wing  and  Wing  (1842);  by  Wyandolle, 
The  History  of  a  Pocket  Handkerchief,  and  Ned  Myers  (1843); 
and  by  Afloat  and  Ashore,  or  the  Adventures  of  Miles  Wallingford 
(1844).  From  pure  fiction,  however,  he  turned  again  to  the 
combination  of  art  and  controversy  in  which  he  had  achieved 
distinction,  and  in  the  two  Littlepage  Manuscripts  (1845-1846) 
he  fought  with  a  great  deal  of  vigour.  His  next  novel  was  The 
Crater,  or  Vulcan's  Peak  (1847),  in  which  he  attempted  to  intro- 
duce supernatural  machinery  with  indifferent  success;  and  this 


8o 


COOPER,  PETER— COOPER,  SAMUEL 


was  succeeded  by  Oak  Openings  and  Jack  Tier  (1848),  the  latter 
a  curious  rifacimento  of  The  Red  Rover;  by  The  Sea  Lions  (1849); 
and  finally  by  The  Ways  of  the  Hour  (1850),  another  novel  with 
a  purpose,  and  his  last  book.  He  died  of  dropsy  on  the  I4th  of 
September  1851  at  Cooperstown,  New  York.  His  daughter, 
Susan  Fenimore  Cooper  (1813-1894),  was  known  as  an  author 
and  philanthropist. 

Cooper  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  popular  authors  that 
have  ever  written.  His  stories  have  been  translated  into  nearly 
all  the  languages  of  Europe  and  into  some  of  those  of  Asia. 
Balzac  admired  him  greatly,  but  with  discrimination;  Victor 
Hugo  pronounced  him  greater  than  the  great  master  of  modern 
romance,  and  this  verdict  was  echoed  by  a  multitude  of  inferior 
readers,  who  were  satisfied  with  no  title  for  their  favourite  less 
than  that  of  "the  American  Scott."  As  a  satirist  and  observer 
he  is  simply  the  "Cooper  who  's  written  six  volumes  to  prove 
he's  as  good  as  a  Lord"  of  Lowell's  clever  portrait;  his  enormous 
vanity  and  his  irritability  find  vent  in  a  sort  of  dull  violence, 
which  is  exceedingly  tiresome.  It  is  only  as  a  novelist  that  he 
deserves  consideration.  His  qualities  are  not  those  of  the  great 
masters  of  fiction;  but  he  had  an  inexhaustible  imagination, 
some  faculty  for  simple  combination  of  incident,  a  homely  tragic 
force  which  is  very  genuine  and  effective,  and  up  to  a  certain 
point  a  fine  narrative  power.  His  literary  training  was  in- 
adequate; his  vocabulary  is  limited  and  his  style  awkward 
and  pretentious;  and  he  had  a  fondness  for  moralizing  tritely 
and  obviously,  which  mars  his  best  passages.  In  point  of  con- 
ception, each  of  his  three-and- thirty  novels  is  either  absolutely 
good  or  is  possessed  of  a  certain  amount  of  merit;  but  hitches 
occur  in  all,  so  that  every  one  of  them  is  remarkable  rather  in  its 
episodes  than  as  a  whole.  Nothing  can  be  more  vividly  told  than 
the  escape  of  the  Yankee  man-of-war  through  the  shoals  and 
from  the  English  cruisers  in  The  Pilot,  but  there  are  few  things 
flatter  in  the  range  of  fiction  than  the  other  incidents  of  the  novel. 
It  is  therefore  with  some  show  of  reason  that  The  Last  of  the 
Mohicans,  which  as  a  chain  of  brilliantly  narrated  episodes  is 
certainly  the  least  faulty  in  this  matter  of  sustained  excellence 
of  execution,  should  be  held  to  be  the  best  of  his  works. 

The  personages  of  his  drama  are  rather  to  be  accounted  as 
so  much  painted  cloth  and  cardboard,  than  as  anything  approach- 
ing the  nature  of  men  and  women.  As  a  creator  of  aught  but 
romantic  incident,  indeed,  Cooper's  claims  to  renown  must  rest 
on  the  fine  figure  of  the  Leatherstocking,  and,  in  a  less  degree, 
on  that  of  his  friend  and  companion,  the  Big  Serpent.  The 
latter  has  many  and  obvious  merits,  not  the  least  of  which  is 
the  pathos  shed  about  him  in  his  last  incarnation  as  the  Indian 
John  of  The  Pioneers.  Natty  Bumpo,  however,  is  a  creation 
of  no  common  unity  and  consistency.  There  are  lapses  and 
flaws,  and  Natty  is  made  to  say  things  which  only  Cooper,  in 
his  most  verbosely  didactic  vein,  could  have  uttered.  But  on 
the  whole  the  impression  left  is  good  and  true.  In  the  dignity 
and  simplicity  of  the  old  backwoodsman  there  is  something 
almost  Hebraic.  With  his  na'ive  vanity  and  strong  reverent 
piety,  his  valiant  wariness,  his  discriminating  cruelty,  his  fine 
natural  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  his  rough  limpid  honesty,  his 
kindly  humour,  his  picturesque  dialect,  and  his  rare  skill  in 
woodcraft,  he  has  all  the  breadth  and  roundness  of  a  type  and 
all  the  eccentricities  and  peculiarities  of  a  portrait. 

See  James  Fenimore  Cooper  (Boston,  1883),  by  Thomas  R.  Louns- 
bury  in  the  "  American  Men  of  Letters  "  series;  Griswold,  Prose 
Writers  of  America  (Philadelphia,  1847);  J.  R.  Lowell,  Fable  for 
Critics;  M.  A.  de  Wolfe  Howe,  American  Bookmen  (New  York, 
1898);  and  the  introduction  by  Mowbray  Morris  to  Macmillan's 
uniform  edition  of  Cooper's  novels  (London,  1900).  (W.  E.  H.) 

COOPER,  PETER  (1791-1883),  American  manufacturer, 
inventor  and  philanthropist,  was  born  in  New  York  city  on  the 
I2th  of  February  1791.  His  grandfathers  and  his  father  served 
in  the  War  of  American  Independence.  He  received  practically 
no  schooling,  but  worked  with  his  father  at  hat-making  in  New 
York  city,  at  brewing  in  Peekskill,  at  brick-making  in  Catskill, 
and  again  at  brewing  in  Newburgh.  At  seventeen  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  coach-builder  in  New  York  city.  On  coming  of 
age  he  got  employment  at  Hempstead,  Long  Island,  making 


machines  for  shearing  cloth;  three  years  afterwards  he  set  up 
in  this  business  for  himself,  having  bought  the  sole  right  to 
manufacture  such  machinery  in  the  state  of  New  York.  Business 
prospered  during  the  War  of  1812,  but  fell  off  after  the  peace. 
He  turned  his  shop  into  a  furniture  factory;  soon  sold  this  and 
for  a  short  time  was  engaged  in  the  grocery  business  on  the  site 
of  the  present  Bible  House,  opposite  Cooper  Union;  and  then 
invested  in  a  glue  and  isinglass  factory,  situated  for  twenty-one 
years  in  Manhattan  (where  the  Park  Avenue  Hotel  was  built 
later)  and  then  in  Brooklyn.  About  1828  he  built  the  Canton  Iron 
Works  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  the  foundation  of  his  great 
fortune.  The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway  was  to  cross  his  property, 
and,  after  various  inventions  aiming  to  do  away  with  the  loco- 
motive crank  and  thus  save  two-fifths  of  the  steam,  in  1830  he 
designed  and  constructed  (largely  after  plans  made  two  years 
before)  the  first  steam  locomotive  built  in  America;  though 
only  a  small  model  it  proved  the  practicability  of  using  steam 
power  for  working  that  line.  The  "Tom  Thumb,"  as  Cooper 
called  the  locomotive,  was  about  the  size  of  a  modern  hand-car; 
as  the  natural  draft  was  far  from  sufficient,  Cooper  devised  a 
blowing  apparatus.  Selling  his  Baltimore  works,  he  built,  in 
1836,  in  partnership  with  his  brother  Thomas,  a  rolling  mill  in 
New  York;  in  1845  he  removed  it  to  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  where 
iron  structural  beams  were  first  made  in  1854  and  the  Bessemer 
process  first  tried  in  America  in  1856;  and  at  Philippsburg, 
New  Jersey,  he  built  the  largest  blast  furnace  in  the  country  at 
.that  time.  He  built  other  foundries  at  Ringwood,  New  Jersey, 
and  at  Durham,  Pennsylvania;  bought  iron  mines  in  northern 
New  Jersey,  and  carried  the  ore  thence  by  railways  to  his  mills. 
Actively  interested  with  Cyrus  Field  in  the  laying  of  the  first 
Atlantic  cable,  he  was  president  of  the  New  York,  Newfound- 
land &  London  Telegraph  Company,  and  his  frequent  cash 
advances  made  the  success  of  the  company  possible;  he  was 
president  of  the  North  American  Telegraph  Company  also, 
which  controlled  more  than  one-half  of  the  telegraph  lines  of  the 
United  States.  For  his  work  in  advancing  the  iron  trade  he 
received  the  Bessemer  gold  medal  from  the  Iron  and  Steel 
Institute  of  Great  Britain  in  1879.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
educational  affairs,  strongly  opposed  the  Roman  Catholic  claims 
for  public  funds  for  parochial  schools,  and  conducted  the 
campaign  of  the  Free  School  Society  to  its  successful  issue  in 
1842,  when  a  state  law  was  passed  forbidding  the  support  from 
public  funds  of  any  "religious  sectarian  doctrine."  He  is 
probably  best  known,  however,  as  the  founder  of  the  Cooper 
Union  (q.v.).  Cooper  was  an  early  advocate  of  the  emancipation 
and  the  enlistment  in  the  Union  army  of  Southern  negroes,  and 
he  upheld  the  administration  of  Lincoln.  Though  he  had  been  a 
hard-money  Democrat,  he  joined  the  Greenback  party  after  the 
Civil  War,  and  in  1876  was  its  candidate  for  the  presidency,  but 
received  only  81,740  out  of  the  8,412,833  votes  cast.  He  died  in 
New  York  city  on  the  4th  of  April  1883.  He  published  The 
Political  and  Financial  Opinions  of  Peter  Cooper,  with  an  Auto- 
biography of  his  Early  Life  (1877),  and  Ideas  for  a  Science  of 
Good  Government,  in  Addresses,  Letters  and  Articles  on  a  Strictly 
National  Currency,  Tariff  and  Civil  Service  (1883). 

There  is  a  brief  biography  by  R.  W.  Raymond,  Peter  Cooper 
(Boston,  1900). 

COOPER,  SAMUEL  (1609-1672),  English  miniature  painter. 
This  artist  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  painter  of  miniatures 
who  ever  lived.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  London, 
and  was  a  nephew  of  John  Hoskins,  the  miniature  painter,  by 
whom  he  was  educated.  He  lived  in  Henrietta  St.,  Covent  Garden, 
and  frequented  the  Covent  Garden  Coffee-House.  Pepys,  who 
makes  many  references  to  him,  tells  us  he  was  an  excellent 
musician,  playing  well  upon  the  lute,  and  also  a  good  linguist, 
speaking  French  with  ease.  According  to  other  contemporary 
writers,  he  was  a  short,  stout  man,  of  a  ruddy  countenance.  He 
married  one  Christiana,  whose  portrait  is  at  Welbeck  Abbey,  and 
he  had  one  daughter.  In  1668  he  was  instructed  by  Pepys  to 
paint  a  portrait  of  Mrs  Pepys,  for  which  he  charged  £30.  He  is 
known  to  have  painted  also  the  portrait  of  John  Aubrey, 
which  was  presented  in  1601  to  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  as  we 


COOPER,  THOMAS— COOPER,  T.  SIDNEY 


81 


learn  from  his  correspondence  with  John  Ray,  the  naturalist. 
Evelyn  refers  to  him  in  1662,  when,  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit 
that  the  diarist  paid  to  the  king,  Cooper  was  drawing  the  royal 
face  and  head  for  the  new  coinage. 

Magnificent  examples  of  his  work  are  to  be  found  at  Windsor 
Castle,  Belvoir  Castle,  Montague  House,  Welbeck  Abbey,  Ham 
House,  the  Rijks  Museum  at  Amsterdam  and  in  the  collection  of 
Mr  J.  Pierpont  Morgan.  His  largest  miniature  is  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  duke  of  Richmond  and  Gordon  at  Goodwood.  A  piece 
of  the  artist's  handwriting  is  to  be  seen  at  the  back  of  one  of 
his  miniatures  in  the  Welbeck  Abbey  collection,  and  one  of  his 
drawings  in  black  chalk  is  in  the  University  Gallery  at  Oxford. 
His  own  portrait  of  himself  is  in  the  collection  of  Mr  J.  Pierpont 
Morgan. 

The  date  of  his  death  has  been  handed  down  by  a  record  in  the 
diary  of  Mary  Beale,  the  miniature  painter;  and  in  some  letters 
from  Mr  Charles  Manners,  addressed  to  Lord  Roos,  dated  1672, 
now  amongst  the  duke  of  Rutland's  papers  at  Belvoir,  the  writer 
refers  to  Cooper's  serious  illness  on  the  4th  of  May,  and  to  his 
doubt  as  to  whether  the  artist  would  ever  recover.  Mary  Scale's 
reference  to  his  decease  is  in  the  following  words:  "  Sunday, 
May  5,  1672 — Mr  Samuel  Cooper,  the  most  famous  limner 
of  the  world  for  a  face,  dyed." 

For  a  fuller  account  see  the  History  of  Portrait  Miniatures,  by 
G.  C.  Williamson,  vol.  i.  p.  64.  (G.  C.  W.) 

COOPER  (or  COUPER),  THOMAS  (c.  1517-1594),  English  bishop 
and  writer,  was  born  in  Oxford,  where  he  was  educated  at 
Magdalen  College.  He  became  master  of  Magdalen  College 
school,  and  afterwards  practised  as  a  physician  in  Oxford. 
His  literary  career  began  in  1548,  when  he  compiled,  or  rather 
edited,  a  Latin  dictionary  Bibliotheca  Eliotae,  and  in  1549  he 
published  a  continuation  of  Thomas  Lanquet's  Chronicle  of  the 
World.  This  work,  known  as  Cooper's  Chronicle,  covers  the 
period  from  A.D.  17  to  the  time  of  writing,  and  was  reprinted  in 
1 560  and  1 565.  In  1 565  appeared  the  first  edition  of  his  greatest 
work,  Thesaurus  Linguae  Romanae  et  Brilannicae,  and  this  was 
followed  by  three  other  editions.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  greatly 
pleased  with  the  Thesaurus,  generally  known  as  Cooper's  Dictionary ; 
and  its  author,  who  had  been  ordained  about  1559,  was  made 
dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1567.  Two  years  later  he 
became  dean  of  Gloucester,  in  1571  bishop  of  Lincoln  and  in  1584 
bishop  of  Winchester.  Cooper  was  a  stout  controversialist;  he 
defended  the  practice  and  precept  of  the  Church  of  England 
against  the  Roman  Catholics  on  the  one  hand  and  against  the 
Martin  Marprelate  writings  and  the  Puritans  on  the  other.  He 
took  some  part,  the  exact  extent  of  which  is  disputed,  in  the 
persecution  of  religious  recusants  in  his  diocese,  and  died  at 
Winchester  on  the  29th  of  April  1594. 

Cooper's  Admonition  against  Martin  Marprelate  was  reprinted  in 
1847,  and  his  Answer  in  Defence  of  the  Truth  against  the  Apology  of 
Private  Mass  in  1850. 

COOPER,  THOMAS  (1759-1840),  American  educationalist 
and  political  philosopher,  was  born  in  London,  England,  on  the 
22nd  of  October  1759,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  Threatened 
with  prosecution  at  home  because  of  his  active  sympathy  with 
the  French  Revolution,  he  emigrated  to  America  about  1793, 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Northumberland  county, 
Pennsylvania.  He  was  president-judge  of  the  Fourth  District 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1806-1811.  Like  his  friend  Joseph  Priestley, 
who  was  then  living  in  Northumberland,  he  sympathized  with 
the  Anti-Federalists,  and  took  part  in  the  agitation  against  the 
Sedition  Act,  and  for  a  newspaper  attack  in  1799  on  President 
John  Adams,  Cooper  was  convicted,  fined  and  imprisoned  for 
libel.  Like  Priestley,  Cooper  was  very  highly  esteemed  by 
Thomas  Jefferson,  who  secured  for  him  the  appointment  as 
first  professor  of  natural  science  and  law  in  the  University  of 
Virginia — a  position  which  Cooper  was  forced  to  resign  under 
the  fierce  attack  made  on  him  by  the  Virginia  clergy.  After 
filling  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa. 
(1811-1814),  and  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (1818-1819), 
he  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  South  Carolina  College,  at 
Columbia,  in  1819,  and  afterwards  gave  instruction  in  political 


economy  also.  In  i82ohebecameactingpresident  of  this  institution, 
and  was  president  from  1821  until  1833,  when  he  resigned  owing 
to  the  opposition  within  the  state  to  his  liberal  religious  views. 
In  December  1834,  owing  to  continued  opposition,  he  resigned 
his  professorship.  He  had  been  formally  tried  for  infidelity  in 
1832.  He  was  a  born  agitator:  John  Adams  described  him  as 
"  a  learned,  ingenious,  scientific  and  talented  madcap."  Before 
his  college  classes,  in  public  lectures,  and  in  numerous  pamphlets, 
he  constantly  preached  the  doctrine  of  free  trade,  and  tried  to 
show  that  the  protective  system  was  especially  burdensome  to 
the  South.  His  remedy  was  state  action.  Each  state,  he  con- 
tended, was  a  sovereign  power  and  was  in  duty  bound  to  protest 
against  the  tyrannical  acts  of  the  Federal  government.  He 
exercised  considerable  influence  in  preparing  the  people  of 
South  Carolina  for  nullification  and  secession;  in  fact  he  pre- 
ceded Calhoun  in  advocating  a  practical  application  of  the  state 
sovereignty  principle.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
preparing  an  edition  of  the  Statutes  at  Large  of  the  state,  which 
was  completed  by  David  James  McCord  (1797-1855)  and  pub- 
lished in  ten  volumes  (1836-1841).  Dr  Cooper  died  in  Columbia 
on  the  nth  of  May  1840.  As  a  philosopher  he  was  a  follower  of 
Hartley,  Erasmus  Darwin,  Priestley  and  Broussais;  he  was  a 
physiological  materialist,  and  a  severe  critic  of  Scotch  meta- 
physics. Among  his  publications  are  Political  Essays  (1800); 
An  English  Version  of  the  Institutes  of  Justinian  (1812);  Lectures 
on  the  Elements  of  Political  Economy  (1826);  A  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Libel  and  the  Liberty  of  the  Press  (1830);  and  a  translation 
of  Broussais'  On  Irritation  and  Insanity  (1831),  with  which 
were  printed  his  own  essays,  "The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Material- 
ism," "  View  of  the  Metaphysical  and  Physiological  Arguments 
in  favour  of  Materialism,"  and  "  Outline  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Association  of  Ideas." 

See  I.  Woodbridge  Riley,  American  Philosophy:  the  Early  Schools 
(New  York,  1907). 

COOPER,  THOMAS  (1805-1892),  English  Chartist  and  writer, 
the  son  of  a  working  dyer,  was  born  at  Leicester  on  the  2oth  of 
March  1805.  After  his  father's  death  his  mother  began  business 
as  a  dyer  and  fancy  box-maker  at  Gainsborough.  Young 
Cooper  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker.  He  had  a  passion  for 
knowledge;  studied  Greek,  Latin  and  Hebrew  in  his  spare  time; 
and  in  1827  gave  up  cobbling  to  become  a  schoolmaster,  and, 
later,  a  Methodist  preacher.  His  affairs  did  not  prosper,  and 
after  going  to  Lincoln,  where  he  obtained  work  on  a  local  news- 
paper, he  came  to  London  in  1839.  Here  he  became  assistant 
to  a  second-hand  bookseller,  but  in  1840  he  joined  the  staff  of 
the  Leicestershire  Mercury.  His  support  of  the  Chartist  move- 
ment obliged  him  to  resign  his  position,  but  he  undertook  to 
edit  The  Midland  Counties  Illuminator,  a  Chartist  journal,  in 
1841.  He  became  a  leader  of  the  extreme  Chartist  party,  and 
for  his  action  in  urging  on  the  strike  of  1842  he  was  imprisoned 
in  Stafford  gaol  for  two  years.  Here  he  produced  The  Purgatory 
of  Suicides,  a  political  epic  in  ten  books,  embodying  the  radical 
ideas  of  the  time.  In  his  efforts  to  publish  this  work  after  his 
liberation  he  came  under  the  notice  of  Benjamin  Disraeli  and 
Douglas  Jerrold.  Through  Jerrold's  help  it  appeared  in  1845, 
and  Cooper  then  turned  his  attention  to  lecturing  upon  historical 
and  educational  subjects.  In  1856  he  suddenly  renounced  the 
free-thinking  doctrines  which  he  had  held  for  many  years,  and 
became  a  lecturer  on  Christian  evidences.  He  died  at  Lincoln 
on  the  1 5th  of  July  1892.  Among  his  other  works  may  be 
mentioned  the  Bridge  of  History  over  the  Gulf  of  Time  (1871) 
and  the  Life  of  Thomas  Cooper,  written  by  Himself  (1872). 

COOPER,  THOMAS  SIDNEY  (1803-1902),  English  painter, 
was  born  at  Canterbury  on  the  26th  of  September  1803.  In 
very  early  childhood  he  showed  in  many  ways  the  strength  of  his 
artistic  inclinations,  but  as  the  circumstances  of  his  family  did 
not  admit  of  his  receiving  any  systematic  training,  he  began  be- 
fore he  was  twelve  years  old  to  work  in  the  shop  of  a  coach  painter. 
A  little  later  he  obtained  employment  as  a  scene  painter;  and 
he  alternated  between  these  two  occupations  for  about  eight 
years.  But  the  desire  to  become  an  artist  continued  to  influence 
him,  and  all  his  spare  moments  were  given  up  to  drawing  and 


COOPERAGE— CO-OPE  RATION 


painting  from  nature.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  went  to  London, 
drew  for  a  while  in  the  British  Museum,  and  was  admitted  as  a 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  then  returned  to  Canterbury, 
where  he  was  able  to  earn  a  living  as  a  drawing-master  and  by 
the  sale  of  sketches  and  drawings.  In  1 8  2  7  he  settled  in  Brussels ; 
but  four  years  later  he  returned  to  London  to  live,  and  by 
showing  his  first  picture  at  the  Royal  Academy  (183.3)  began  an 
unprecedentedly  prolonged  career  as  an  exhibitor.  Cooper's 
name  is  mainly  associated  with  pictures  of  cattle  or  sheep,  and 
the  most  notable  of  the  many  hundred  he  produced  are:  "  A 
Summer's  Noon"  (1836),  "A  Drover's  Halt  on  the  Fells" 
(1838),  "  A  Group  in  the  Meadows  "  (1845),  "  The  Half-past 
One  o'Clock  Charge  at  Waterloo  "  (1847),  "  The  Shepherd's 
Sabbath  "  (1866),  "  The  Monarch  of  the  Meadows  "  (1873), 
"  Separated  but  not  Divorced  "  (1874),  "  Isaac's  Substitute  " 
(1880),  "  Pushing  off  for  Tilbury  Fort  "  (1884),  "  On  a  Farm 
in  East  Kent  "  (1889),  "  Return  to  the  Farm,  Milking  Time  " 
(1897).  He  was  elected  A.R.A.  in  1845  and  R.A.  in  1867.  He 
presented  to  his  native  place,  in  1882,  the  Sidney  Cooper  Art 
Gallery,  built  on  the  site  of  the  house  in  which  he  was  born. 
He  wrote  his  reminiscences,  under  the  title  of  My  Life,  in  1890; 
and  died  on  the  7th  of  February  1902. 

COOPERAGE,  or  COPERAGE  (Flemish  and  Dutch  kooper,  a 
trader,  dealer),  a  system  of  traffic  in  spirituous  liquors,  tobacco 
and  other  articles  amongst  the  fishermen  in  the  North  Sea.  The 
practice  began  in  the  middle  of  the  igth  century,  when  Flemish 
and  Dutch  hoopers  frequented  the  fishing  fleets  for  the  purpose  of 
barter.  Trading  first  in  tobacco,  they  extended  their  operations, 
and  soon  became  practically  floating  grog-shops. 

The  demoralizing  nature  of  the  traffic  was  brought  to  the 
public  notice  in  1881,  and  a  convention  was  held  at  the  Hague  in 
1882  to  consider  means  of  remedying  the  abuses.  In  1887  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  Belgium,  Denmark,  France  and  the  Nether- 
lands signed  an  agreement  to  prevent  the  sale  or  purchase  of 
spirituous  liquors  among  fishermen  at  sea.  In  Great  Britain  an 
act  (the  North  Sea  Fisheries  Act  1888)  was  passed  to  carry  into 
effect  the  terms  of  the  convention.  The  act  (now  repealed  and 
replaced  by  the  North  Sea  Fisheries  Act  1893,  with  which  it  is 
identical  but  for  some  slight  verbal  modifications)  imposes  a  fine 
not  exceeding  £50  or  a  term  of  imprisonment  not  exceeding  three 
months  for  supplying,  exchanging  or  otherwise  selling  spirits. 
It  imposes  a  like  penalty  for  purchasing  spirits  by  exchange  or 
otherwise,  and  requires  every  British  vessel  dealing  in  provisions 
or  other  articles  to  have  a  licence  and  to  carry  a  special  mark. 
In  1882  Mr  E.  J.  Mather  started  a  mission  to  deep  sea  fishermen, 
which  sends  out  mission  ships  and  supplies  the  fishermen  with 
good  clothing,  literature,  tobacco,  &c.,  at  a  fair  price.  This 
mission,  now  the  Royal  National  Mission  to  Deep  Sea  Fishermen, 
is  registered  by  the  Board  of  Trade. 

See  E.  J.  Mather,  Nor'ard  of  the  Dogger  (1888),  and  publications 
of  the  Mission  to  Deep  Sea  Fishermen. 

COOPERAGE  (from  "  cooper,"  a  maker  of  casks,  derived  from 
such  forms  as  Mid.  Dutch  cuper,  Ger.  Kiifer,  Lat.  cuparius;  the 
same  root  is  seen  in  various  Teut.  words  for  a  basket,  such  as 
Dutch  kuip  and  Eng.  "  kipe  "  and  "  coop,  "  but  cooper  is  appar- 
ently not  formed  directly  from  "  coop,"  which  never  means  a 
"  cask  "  but  always  a  basket-cage  for  poultry,  &c.),  the  art  of 
making  casks,  barrels  and  other  rounded  vessels,  the  sides  of 
which  are  composed  of  separate  staves,  held  together  by  hoops 
surrounding  them.  The  art  is  one  of  great  antiquity;  Pliny  ascribes 
its  invention  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alpine  valleys.  The  trade 
is  one  in  which  there  are  numerous  subdivisions,  the  chief  of 
which  are  tight  or  wet  and  dry  or  slack  cask  manufacture. 
To  these  may  be  added  white  cooperage,  a  department  which 
embraces  the  construction  of  wooden  tubs,  pails,  churns  and  other 
even-staved  vessels.  Of  all  departments,  the  manufacture  of 
tight  casks  or  barrels  for  holding  liquids  is  that  which  demands 
the  greatest  care  and  skill,  since,  hi  addition  to  being  perfectly 
tight  when  filled  with  liquid,  the  vessels  must  bear  the  strain  of 
transportation  to  great  distances,  and  in  many  cases  have  to 
resist  considerable  internal  pressure  when  they  contain  ferment- 
ing liquors.  The  staves  are  best  made  of  well-seasoned  oak. 


Since  a  cask  is  a  double  conoid,  usually  having  its  greatest 
diameter  (technically  the  bulge  or  belly)  at  the  centre,  each 
stave  must  be  properly  curved  to  form  a  segment  of  the  whole, 
and  must  be  so  cut  as  to  have  a  suitable  bilge  or  increase  of 
width  from  the  ends  to  the  middle;  it  must  also  have  its  edges 
bevelled  to  such  an  angle  that  it  will  form  tight  joints  with  its 
neighbours.  The  staves  being  prepared,  the  next  operation  is  to 
set  up  or  raise  the  barrel.  For  this  purpose  as  many  staves  as  are 
necessary  are  arranged  upright  in  a  circular  frame,  and  round 
their  lower  halves  are  fitted  truss  hoops  which  serve  to  keep 
them  together  for  the  permanent  hooping.  The  upper  ends  are 
then  drawn  together  by  means  of  a  rope  which  is  passed  round 
them  and  tightened  by  a  windlass,  and  other  truss  hoops  are 
dropped  over  them,  the  wood  being  steamed  or  heated  to  enable 
it  to  bend  freely  to  shape.  The  two  ends  of  the  cask  are  next 
finished  to  receive  the  heads  by  forming  the  chime,  or  bevel  on 
the  extremity  of  the  staves,  and  the  croze  or  groove  into  which 
the  heads  fit.  Finally  the  heads  and  permanent  hoops  are  put  in 
place.  The  heads,  when  made  of  two  or  more  pieces,  are  jointed 
by  wooden  dowel  pins,  and  after  being  cut  to  size  are  chamfered 
or  bevelled  round  the  edge  to  fit  into  the  croze  grooves.  The 
hoops  are  generally  of  iron.  The  manufacture  of  slack  casks 
proceeds  on  the  same  general  lines,  but  is  simpler  in  various 
respects,  both  because  less  accurate  workmanship  is  required,  and 
because  softer  woods,  largely  fir,  may  be  employed.  Machinery  of 
the  most  elaborate  and  specialized  character  has  been  devised  to 
perform  most  of  the  operations  in  making  both  slack  and  tight 
casks,  and  though  it  involves  considerable  capital  outlay  it 
effects  so  great  an  economy  of  time  that  it  has  largely  superseded 
hand  labour.  (For  an  account  of  such  machinery  see  L.  H.  Ran- 
some,  "  Cask-making  Machinery,"  Proc.  Inst.  Civ.  Eng.  vol.  115; 
also  an  article  in  Engineering,  1908,  85,  p.  845.)  Barrels  without 
separate  staves  are  made  by  bending  a  sheet  of  wood,  sawn  from 
a  log  in  a  continuous  strip,  into  the  required  circular  shape,  the 
bulge  at  the  centre  being  obtained  by  cutting  out  V  gores  from 
the  ends.  Barrels  are  also  sometimes  made  of  steel,  either  of  the 
ordinary  bulging  form  or  consisting  of  straight-sided  drums 
provided  near  the  middle  with  rings  on  which  they  may  be  rolled. 
Immense  numbers  of  casks  of  different  shapes  and  sizes  are 
employed  in  various  industries.  Tight  barrels  are  a  necessity  to 
the  wine  and  cider  maker,  brewer  and  distiller,  and  are  largely 
used  for  the  transport  of  oils  and  liquid  chemicals,  while  slack 
barrels  are  utilized  by  the  million  for  packing  cement,  alkali, 
china,  fruit,  fish  and  numerous  other  products. 

CO-OPERATION,  a  term  used  particularly  both  for  a  theory 
of  life,  and  for  a  system  of  business,  with  the  general  sense 
of  "  working  together  "  (con,  with,  and  opus,  work).  In  its 
narrowest  usage  it  means  a  combination  of  individuals  to  econo- 
mize by  buying  in  common,  or  increase  their  profits  by  selling  in 
common.  In  its  widest  usage  it  means  the  creed  that  life  may 
best  be  ordered  not  by  the  competition  of  individuals,  where  each 
seeks  the  interest  of  himself  and  his  family,  but  by  mutual  help; 
by  each  individual  consciously  striving  for  the  good  of  the  social 
body  of  which  he  forms  part,  and  the  social  body  in  return 
caring  for  each  individual:  "  each  for  all,  and  all  for  each  "  is  its 
accepted  motto.  Thus  it  proposes  to  replace  among  rational  and 
moral  beings  the  struggle  for  existence  by  voluntary  combination 
for  life.  More  or  less  imperfectly  embodying  this  theory,  we  have 
co-operation  in  the  concrete,  or  "  the  co-operative  movement," 
meaning  those  forms  of  voluntary  association  where  individuals 
unite  for  mutual  aid  in  the  production  of  wealth,  which  they  will 
devote  to  common  purposes,  or  share  among  them  upon  principles 
of  equity,  reason  and  the  common  good,  agreed  upon  beforehand. 
Not  that  a  co-operative  society  can  begin  by  saying  absolutely 
what  those  principles  in  their  purity  would  dictate.  It  begins 
with  current  prices,  current  rates  of  wages  and  interest,  current 
hours  of  labour,  and  modifies  them  as  soon  as  it  can  wherever 
they  seem  least  conformable  to  equity,  reason  and  the  common 
good. 

In  the  industrial  world  there  is  everywhere  much  working 
together  for  the  production  of  wealth,  but  this  is  not  included  in 
co-operation  if  the  shares  of  those  concerned  are  determined  by 


CO-OPERATION 


competition,  i.e.  by  a  struggle  and  the  relative  ability  of  each  to 
secure  a  large  share.  Nor  do  co-operators  regard  the  association 
as  truly  voluntary,  though  it  may  depend  on  contract,  if  that 
contract  be  one  of  service  only,  without  an  opportunity  for  all 
concerned  to  share  in  the  ultimate  control.  Co-operation  in 
fact  is  essentially  a  democratic  association.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  some  working  together  for  the  production  of  wealth 
which  without  being  competitive,  or  based  on  service,  is  not 
strictly  voluntary:  thus  in  primitive  societies  there  is  much 
customary  help,  combined  with  customary  division  of  the  produce ; 
and  in  advanced  societies  we  have  state  and  municipal  socialism. 
These  are  indeed  sometimes  included  in  co-operation,  but  at 
least  they  are  not  voluntary  co-operation,  since  the  individual 
has  no  choice  but  to  take  part  in  them;  they  depend  on  the 
power  of  the  ruler  to  coerce  the  ruled,  or  of  the  majority  to 
coerce  the  minority.  In  co-operation,  meaning  voluntary  co- 
operation, there  may  also,  it  is  true,  be  frequent  overruling  of 
the  minority  by  the  majority,  but  only  so  far  as  the  minority 
have;  when  joining  the  association,  voluntarily  agreed  to  permit, 
and  subject  always  to  an  effective  ultimate  right  of  secession. 

Thus  co-operation  occupies  the  middle  ground  between 
competition  and  state  or  municipal  socialism.  In  its  technical 
sense,  however,  it  does  not  cover  the  whole  of  this  ground:  it 
does  not  cover  associations  which  are  primarily  for  social, 
provident,  or  religious  purposes,  but  only  those  closely  connected 
with  the  production  of  wealth.  We  speak  of  co-operative 
societies  for  agriculture,  for  manufacturing,  for  retail,  or  whole- 
sale distribution,  for  building  or  house-owning,  for  raising  capital 
and  so  forth;  while  the  great  Friendly  Societies  (q.v.),  though  a 
part  of  co-operation  as  a  theory  of  life,  are  not  part  of  the  co- 
operative movement.  The  line  is  somewhat  hard  to  draw,  and 
consequently  is  drawn  somewhat  arbitrarily.  Thus  while  a 
society  for  building,  or  for  the  collective  ownership  of  houses,  is 
counted  a  co-operative  society,  a  Building  Society  (as  we 
ordinarily  understand  the  term),  though  it  be  purely  mutual  in 
its  basis,  is  not  so  counted  in  Great  Britain,  but  is  in  the  United 
States  (see  BUILDING  SOCIETIES). 

For  the  early  history  of  the  co-operative  movement  we  have  to 
look  chiefly  to  Great  Britain,  and  British  co-operation  acknow- 
ledges as  its  founder  Robert  Owen  (q.v.).  In  every  age 
and  every  country  the  origins  of  co-operation  may  no 
doubt  be  traced,  where  men  have  helped  one  another  in 
the  creation  of  wealth  and  agreed  as  brothers  as  to  its  division. 
In  England  long  before  the  days  of  Owen  there  was  much  co- 
operation of  miners  and  fishermen  which,  though  scarcely 
obligatory  on  the  individuals  taking  part  in  it,  was  largely 
regulated  by  custom.  Coming  to  more  purely  voluntary  associa- 
tions, co-operative  workshops  are  recorded,  retail  co-operation  was 
practised  in  Scotland  from  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century,  while 
in  England  shops  not  unlike  co-operative  stores,  but  without  the 
democratic  element,  were  in  one  or  two  instances  set  up  by 
benevolent  individuals.  It  does  not  seem,  however,  that  there 
was  any  theory  of  co-operation  until  Owen  in  England,  and 
almost  simultaneously  Fourier  (q.v.)  in  France,  formulated  their 
gospels,  not  identical,  yet  having  much  in  common.  Of  these 
two  Owen  and  his  teaching  are  by  far  the  more  important. 

The  end  of  the  i8th  and  the  beginning  of  the  igth  centuries 
were  the  culminating  days  of  the  industrial  revolution,  when  the 
old  organization  of  domestic  industry  had  given  way  before  the 
factory  system,  and  the  population  of  the  factory  districts  was 
suffering  a  martyrdom,  with  ruin  of  body  and  degradation  of 
character,  from  unbridled  competition,  long  hours,  women's 
and  children's  labour,  pauper  apprenticeship,  great  fluctuations 
of  trade  and  employment,  dearness  and  adulteration  of  pro- 
visions, the  truck  system  and  insanitary  homes.  Owen,  having 
himself  become  a  great  employer  of  labour,  after  starting  as  a 
draper's  assistant,  saw  that  this  was  in  every  sense  waste,  and 
that  as  it  paid  the  manufacturer  to  have  the  best  machinery  and 
not  to  overdrive  it,  but  to  tend  it  well  and  keep  it  in  the  best 
repair,  so  it  would  pay  him,  and  abundantly  pay  the  nation, 
to  have  the  human  machines  well  cared  for,  not  overworked, 
and  kept  in  the  best  condition.  The  popular  individualistic 


philosophy  of  that  day  taught  that  the  good  of  society  would  be 
achieved  by  each  individual  seeking  in  his  business  relations 
the  interest  of  himself  and  his  family;  but  Owen  maintained 
that  the  well-being  of  the  social  body  could  only  be  served  if 
each  individual  made  that  his  conscious  aim.  For  this  reason  he 
and  his  disciples  were  called  Socialists.  He  taught  further  that  a 
man's  character  depended  mainly  upon  the  circumstances  which 
influenced  his  life;  he  emphasized  environment,  and  all  but 
denied  heredity.  At  New  Lanark,  from  1799,  he  carried  out 
these  ideas  among  the  workers  in  the  cotton  mills  of  which  he 
was  managing  partner.1  "  For  twenty-nine  years,"  he  wrote. 
"  we  did  without  the  necessity  for  magistrates  or  lawyers; 
without  a  single  legal  punishment;  without  any  known  poors' 
rate;  without  intemperance  or  religious  animosities.  We  re- 
duced the  hours  of  labour,  well  educated  all  the  children  from 
infancy,  greatly  improved  the  condition  of  the  adults,  diminished 
their  daily  labour,  paid  interest  on  capital,  and  cleared  upwards 
of  £300,000  of  profit."  So  wonderful  were  the  results  upon  the 
population,  that  New  Lanark  became  a  show-place  of  world-widt 
renown,  and  was  visited  by  many  of  the'  greatest  and  most 
exalted  people  of  the  period. 

While  thus  using  his  own  power  Owen  not  only  advocated 
legislation  to  limit  the  hours  of  factory  labour,  but  appealed  to 
the  public  authorities  to  establish  industrial  communities,  where 
the  poor  might  be  set  to  work,  and  be  managed  paternally  on 
the  principles  of  New  Lanark.  So  great  was  his  repute,  and  so 
influential  the  royal  and  other  personages  who  gave  him  their 
support,  that  this  appeal  might  probably  have  been  successful 
had  not  Owen,  in  reply  to  complaints  as  to  his  religious  views — 
which  were  deistic — and  that  his  system  was  not  founded  on 
religion,  made  a  public  attack  upon  all  accepted  religions. 

Failing  to  get  the  required  support  from  the  Government  and 
magistrates,  he  still  sought  it  from  wealthy  believers  in  his 
teaching,  and  a  number  of  "communities"  (see  COMMUNISM) 
were  founded  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  in  the  United  States. 
These  were  intended  to  be  self-supporting,  the  land  and  other 
means  of  producing  wealth  being  owned  in  common,  and  work 
and  education  being  regulated  on  Owen's  principles.  Owen  well 
knew  that  most  of  them  lacked  the  large  amount  of  capital 
necessary,  but  his  hand  was  forced  by  enthusiastic  followers,  and 
even  the  most  hopeful  of  the  experiments,  that  of  Queenwood  in 
Hampshire  (1839-1844),  was  made  prematurely  and  failed. 

His  connexion  with  New  Lanark  also  came  to  an  end,  not  from 
any  want  of  success,  but  through  differences  with  some  of  his 
partners  who  objected  to  such  matters  as  dancing,  military  drill 
for  the  children,  and  the  wearing  of  kilts,  but  above  all  feared  lest 
Owen's  "  infidelity  "  should  undermine  the  people's  faith. 

Thus  it  might  have  seemed  that  Owen's  life  and  fortune  had 
been  spent  in  vain,  and  resulted  only  in  unsuccessful  experiments; 
but  this  was  far  from  being  so.  His  teaching,  and  in  particular 
his  doctrines  of  circumstance,  and  of  the  conscious  seeking  after 
the  social  good,  his  belief  in  self-supporting  communities,  and  his 
vision  of  a  new  moral  and  industrial  world,  had  powerfully 
affected  the  working  classes,  indeed,  all  classes.  Workmen  in 
many  parts  of  the  country  had  formed  groups  with  the  ultimate 
object  of  founding  self-supporting  communities.  If  the  govern- 
ment and  the  rich  would  not  provide  capital  enough  to  start 
communities,  the  workers  would  start  them  themselves.  Thus 
was  the  democratic  basis  given  to  co-operation.  As  a  means  they 
had  been  founding  co-operative  societies,  which  are  sometimes 
called  "  union  shops  "  to  distinguish  them  from  the  later  growth 
of  societies  of  the  Rochdale  type.  The  members  began  by 
buying  provisions  wholesale  and  retailing  them  to  themselves  at 
current  prices;  the  difference  became  capital,  and  as  soon  as 
possible  one  member  was  set  to  work  to  make  boots  and  another 
clothes,  and  so  forth,  until  ultimately  the  society  should  have 
capital  enough  to  take  land  and  form  a  community.  Education 
also  was  prominent  among  their  objects.  These  co-operative 
societies  reached  some  400  or  500  between  1828  and  1834,  but  the 
movement  then  collapsed.  As  the  original  enthusiasm  died  out, 
or  members  left  the  neighbourhood,  or  capital  accumulated  in 
1  Holyoake,  History  of  Co-operation  (1906  edition),  i.  34. 


84 


CO-OPERATION 


the  hands  of  the  original  shareholders,  they  almost  all  either  failed 
or  became  private  property.  In  those  early  days,  moreover,  the 
law  gave  no  protection  to  the  property  of  co-operative  societies. 
This  remained  so  until  1852,  when  the  Christian  Socialists  (see 
SOCIALISM)  among  their  many  great  services  to  the  working 
classes  secured  such  protection.  In  1862  they  secured  also  limited 
liability  for  the  members. 

Before  1844  a  co-operative  society  had  already  been  formed  and 
failed  at  Rochdale  in  Lancashire,  yet  some  ardent  spirits  planned 
Rochdale  to  ^orm  anot;'ler-  Twenty-eight  poor  men,  flannel 
pioneers,  weavers  and  such  like,  got  together  a  capital  of  £28 
by  twopenny  and  threepenny  subscriptions,  and  in 
December  1844  opened  in  Toad  Lane,  Rochdale,  a  little  shop  from 
which,  speaking  broadly,  the  whole  of  British  co-operation,  and 
very  much  of  that  of  other  lands,  has  grown.  Their  objects  were 
those  of  other  co-operative  societies  of  the  time,  including  the 
ultimate  aim  of  a  self-supporting  community.  In  this  last  they 
never  succeeded,  nor  indeed  did  they  attempt  it;  but  they  did 
succeed  in  vastly  improving  the  position  of  millions  of  the  working 
classes  by  enabling  them  to  obtain  their  provisions  cheap  and 
pure,  to  avoid  the  millstone  of  debt,  to  save  money,  to  pass  from 
retail  to  wholesale  trade,  and  from  distribution  to  manufacturing, 
building  and  house-owning,  ship-owning  and  banking;  above 
all  to  educate  themselves,  and  to  live  with  an  ideal. 

The  Rochdale  Equitable  Pioneers  began  their  trading  in  the 
smallest  way,  the  members  taking  turns  to  serve  in  the  shop; 
yet  where  so  many  other  Union  shops  had  failed  Rochdale 
succeeded,  and  it  has  steadily  grown  to  an  institution  with  some 
14,000  members,  doing  a  trade  of  £300,000,  owning  shops  and 
workshops,  a  library  and  reading-rooms,  making  large  profits,  and 
devoting  a  substantial  part  of  them  to  education  and  to  charitable 
purposes.  What  was  the  reason  of  this  difference?  Chiefly  it 
would  seem  a  different  method  of  dealing  with  the  profits. 
Earlier  "  Stores  "  had  divided  these  according  to  the  capital 
contributed  by  each  member,  or  else  equally  among  the  members: 
the  Rochdale  Pioneers  determined  that,  after  paying  5  %  interest 
on  the  share  capital,  all  profit  should  be  allotted  to  the  purchasing 
members  in  proportion  to  their  purchases,  and  be  capitalized  in 
the  name  of  the  member  entitled,  until  his  shares  amounted  to 
£5.  Thus  each  member  found  it  his  interest  to  purchase  at  the 
store  and  to  introduce  new  purchasers.  The  ownership  of  the 
store  remained  always  with  the  purchasers,  and  each  came  under 
the  magic  influence  of  a  little  capital  saved. 

Not  only  did  Rochdale  store  grow  amazingly,  but  its  example 
spread  far  and  near.  New  stores  were  founded  on  the  "  Rochdale 
Growth  plan  "  and  old  stores  adopted  it;  soon  they  were 
of  co-  numbered  by  hundreds.  In  spite  of  many  failures 
operative  there  were  in  1906  more  than  fourteen  hundred  such 

""*'  stores  in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  nearly  two  and  a 
quarter  million  members,  over  £33,000,000  capital,  and  sales 
exceeding  £63,000,000  in  the  year.  The  number  of  societies  does 
not  increase  of  late  years,  the  tendency  being  rather  for  estab- 
lished societies  to  open  branches,  but  all  the  other  figures  increase 
rapidly  from  year  to  year. 

These  workmen's  Co-operative  Stores,or  Distributive  Societies, 
flourish  chiefly  in  the  north  and  midlands  of  England  and  in 
Scotland,  but  are  found  more  or  less  all  over  the  country. 
They,  and  practically  all  other  British  co-operative  societies, 
are  registered  under  the  Industrial  and  Provident  Societies  Act, 
which  constitutes  them  corporate  bodies,  with  limited  liability, 
and  fixes  £200  as  the  maximum  that  any  member  may  hold  in  the 
share  capital.  Their  government  is  democratic,  based  on  one 
vote  each,  for  man  or  woman;  and  their  members  or  share- 
holders, and  their  committee-men  or  directors,  are  almost 
exclusively  the  more  provident  of  the  working  classes,  or  belong 
to  the  class  just  above.  Store  societies  are  of  various  sizes,  from 
the  small  village  shop  to  the  greatest  of  them  all,  the  Leeds 
Society,  with  nearly  50,000  members,  sales  exceeding  a  million 
and  a  half  sterling,  and  an  elaborate  organization  of  branches 
and  manufacturing  departments.  Their  method,  the  "  Rochdale 
system,"  is  as  follows,  subject  to  occasional  variations.  Member- 
ship is  open  to  all  who  pay  a  shilling  entrance  fee  and  sign  for  a 


£i  share,  which  can  be  paid  up  out  of  profit.  For  the  most  part 
members  may  at  any  time  withdraw  their  shares  in  cash  at  par. 
A  record  of  each  member's  purchases  is  kept  by  means  of  metal 
tokens  or  otherwise,  and  at  the  end  of  each  quarter,  after  paying  a 
limited  interest  (never  more  than  5  %,  and  in  very  many  societies 
less)  on  shares,  and,  in  some  societies,  paying  a  proportion  of 
profit  to  the  employees,  the  surplus  is  divided  to  the  members  in 
proportion  to  their  purchases :  non-members  also  usually  receiving 
half  dividends  on  theirs.  Thus  the  members  in  effect  obtain  their 
necessaries  at  cost  price.  The  dividend  on  members'  purchases 
averages  about  23.  6d.  in  the  £.  In  many  successful  societies  even 
more  is  paid,  but  the  average  is  falling.  Where  dividend  is  high, 
prices  are  often  fixed  above  those  current  in  the  neighbourhood, 
so  that  the  members,  in  addition  to  saving  the  retailer's  profit, 
use  their  Society  as  a  sort  of  savings  bank,  where  they  put  away 
a  halfpenny  or  so  for  every  shilling  they  spend.  In  addition  to 
retailing,  a  store  often  manufactures  bread,  clothes,  boots  and 
millinery,  sometimes  farms  land,  or  grinds  corn;  usually  for  its 
own  members  only,  but  occasionally  for  sale  to  other  societies 
also.  Their  productions  in  this  way  exceed  £5,000,000  a  year. 
They  also  invest  large  and  increasing  sums  in  building  cottages,  to 
let  or  sell  to  their  members;  and  they  lend  still  more  largely  to 
their  members,  to  enable  them  to  buy  cottages. 

Outwardly  these  stores  may  look  like  mere  shops,  but  they  are 
really  much  more.  First,  they  are  managed  with  a  view  not  to  a 
proprietor's  profit,  but  to  cheap  and  good  commodities.  Secondly 
they  have  done  an  immense  work  for  thrift  and  the  material 
prosperity  of  the  working  classes,  and  as  teachers  of  business 
and  self-government.  But  further,  they  have  a  distinct  social 
and  economic  aim,  namely,  to  correct  the  present  inequalities  of 
wealth,  and  substitute  for  the  competitive  system  an  industry 
controlled  by  all  in  the  common  interest,  and  distributing  on 
principles  of  equity  and  reason,  mutually  agreed  on,  the  wealth 
produced.  With  this  view  they  acknowledge  the  duties  of  fair 
pay  and  good  conditions  for  their  own  employees,  and  of  not 
buying  goods  made  under  bad  conditions.  The  best  societies 
further  set  aside  a  small  proportion  of  their  profits  for  educational 
purposes,  including  concerts,  social  gatherings,  classes,  lectures, 
reading-rooms  and  libraries,  and  often  make  grants  to  causes  with 
which  they  sympathize.  Their  members  are  prominent  in  local 
government  affairs;  co-operative  candidates  are  occasionally  run 
for  town  councils,  and  often  talked  of  for  parliament.  Though 
the  societies  are  non-political,  and  have  refused  to  join  the  labour 
representation  movement,  they  are  usually  centres  of  "  pro- 
gressive "  ideas.  There  are  of  course  many  defects,  and  of  their 
two  million  members  a  large,  and  many  fear  an  increasing, 
proportion,  attracted  by  the  prosperity  of  the  societies,  think 
chiefly  of  what  they  themselves  gain;  but  the  government  of  the 
movement  has,  hitherto  at  least,  been  largely  in  the  hands  of  men 
of  ideas,  who  believe  that  stores  are  but  a  step  to  co-operative 
production,  and  on  to  the  "  co-operative  commonwealth." 

It  is  indeed  only  when  we  come  to  federations  of  co-operative 
societies,  and  above  all  to  production,  with  its  large  number  of 
employees,  that  the  educational  side  of  the  movement  and  its 
power  to  promote  industrial  reform  are  most  seen.  The  Co- 
operative Union,  Limited,  for  instance,  is  a  propagandist 
federation  of  all  the  chief  co-operative  societies  in  Great  Britain, 
and  some  in  Ireland.  Its  income  of  £10,000  a  year  is  contributed 
by  the  Co-operative  Societies.  It  looks  after  their  legal  and 
parliamentary  interests,  carries  on  much  educational  work  by 
means  of  literature,  lectures,  classes,  scholarships,  summer 
meetings  at  the  universities,  and  so  on;  organizes  numerous 
local  conferences  for  discussion,  and  once  a  year  a  great  national 
co-operative  congress,  and  exhibition  of  productions,  in  some 
chief  centre  of  population.  The  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society, 
Limited,  is  a  trading  federation  of  the  great  majority  of  the 
English  stores.  Founded  in  1863  on  a  small  scale,  it  now  counts 
its  employees  by  thousands,  its  capital  by  millions,  and  its  yearly 
sales  by  tens  of  millions.  Besides  its  merchant  trade,  it  manu- 
factures to  the  value  of  £4,500,000,  owning  factories,  warehouses 
and  land  in  many  districts.  It  imports  largely,  and  runs  its  own 
steamships.  It  is  also  the  bank  of  the  co-operative  societies, 


CO-OPERATION 


and  the  chief  outlet  for  the  always  redundant  capital  of  the  well- 
established  stores.  The  Scottish  stores  also  have  their  Wholesale 
Society,  not  less  important  relatively.  For  many  purposes  these 
two  are  in  partnership.  In  each  of  them  the  net  profits  are 
returned  to  the  stores  as  a  dividend  on  purchases,  and  thence  to 
the  whole  body  of  members;  but  in  the  Scottish  Wholesale  a  part 
is  also  paid  to  its  employees  as  a  dividend  upon  their  wages. 
There  are  also  a  few  local  federations  of  stores,  mostly  for  corn- 
milling  and  baking. 

Strongly  contrasting  with  this  production  by  associations  of 
consumers,  or  "  consumers'  production,"  is  the  co-partnership,  or 
labour  co-partnership,  branch  of  co-operation.  Its 
simplest  form  is  an  association  of  producers  formed  to 
carry  on  their  own  industry.  Originally  such  societies 
were  intended  to  consist  solely  of  the  workers  employed;  the 
ideal  was  the  "  self-governing  workshop,"  introduced  from  France 
by  the  Christian  Socialists  of  1850;  but  membership  is  now  open 
to  the  distributive  societies,  which  are  the  chief  customers,  and 
usually,  to  all  sympathizers.  Shares  are  transferable,  not 
withdrawable.  Profits  first  pay  the  agreed  "  wages  of  capital," 
usually  5%,  and  of  what  remains  the  main  part  goes  to  the 
employees  as  a  dividend  on  their  wages,  and  to  the  customers  as  a 
dividend  on  their  purchases.  In  well-established  societies  the 
dividend  on  wages  averages  about  is.  on  the  £.  This  is  not 
usually  paid  in  cash,  but  credited  to  the  employees  as  share 
capital,  whereby  all  may  become  members.  Besides  other 
producers'  associations,  more  or  less  co-operative,  there  are  over 
a  hundred  co-partnership  societies  at  work  in  England,  against  a 
dozen  or  fifteen  in  1883.  They  are  engaged  in  boot-making, 
printing,  building,  weaving,  clothing,  wood-working,  metal- 
working,  and  so  on.  Some  of  them  are  very  small,  while  others 
have  businesses  of  £50,000  a  year  or  more,  the  average  being 
about  £10,000.  The  majority  show  fair,  sometimes  large 
profits.  Each  is  governed  by  a  committee,  which  is  elected  by 
the  members  and  appoints  the  manager.  A  minority  of  them 
sell  in  the  open,  i.e.  the  non-co-operative,  market,  and  a  few  sell 
largely  for  export. 

We  constantly  hear  that  co-operative  production  is  a  failure. 
There  have  no  doubt  been  failures,  especially  of  big  experiments 
attempted  among  men  totally  unprepared.  But  many 
of  the  failures  counted  were  not  truly  co-operative. 
At  the  present  day  consumers'  production  is  successful 
beyond  all  question,  while  the  net  growth  of  producers'  associa- 
tions in  the  last  twenty  years  has  been  marked  both  in  number 
and  importance.  These  two  forms  of  production  best  illustrate 
the  two  rival  theories  which  divide  British  co-operation,  and 
between  whose  partisans  the  conflict  has  at  times  been  sharp. 
The  consumers'  theory  maintains  that  all  profit  on  price  is 
abstracted  from  the  consumer,  and  must  be  returned  to  him; 
while  to  him  should  also  belong  all  capital  and  control,  subject  to 
such  regulations  as  the  state  and  the  trade  unions  enforce. 
This  theory  is  fully  exemplified  in  the  English  Wholesale  Society, 
and  ii»  some  of  the  smaller  federations  for  production,  which 
employ  workmen,  whether  co-operators  or  not,  for  wages  only, 
and  admit  no  individual,  but  only  co-operative  societies,  to 
membership.  It  is  also  exemplified  by  the  great  majority  of  the 
stores,  though  in  their  case  the  employee  may  become  a  member 
in  his  capacity  as  a  consumer.  The  co-partnership  theory,  on 
the  other  hand,  maintains  that  the  workers  actually  employed  in 
any  industry,  whether  distributive  or  productive,  should  be 
partners  with  those  who  find  the  capital,  and  those  who  buy  the 
produce,  and  should  share  with  them  the  profit,  responsibilities 
and  control.  The  consumers'  party  contend  that  societies  of 
producers  make  a  profit  out  of  the  consumers,  and  thus  are  never 
truly  co-operative,  while  as  they  multiply  they  must  compete 
against  each  other.  The  co-partnership  party  answer  that  labour 
at  least  helps  to  make  the  profit,  and  that  competition,  as  yet 
almost  insignificant  between  their  societies,  can  be  avoided  by 
federating  them  (a  process  long  ago  begun)  for  buying  and  selling 
in  common,  and  for  other  common  purposes,  while  leaving  each 
the  control  and  responsibility  of  its  own  internal  affairs.  They 
further  advocate  the  eventual  federation  of  the  productive  wing 


Rival 

theories. 


of  co-operation  with  the  distributive,  for  settling  prices  and  all 
matters  in  which  their  interests  might  conflict.  In  this  way  they 
say  the  co-operative  system  may  extend  indefinitely  without 
sacrificing  either  individual  responsibility  and  freedom,  or  a 
general  unity  and  control,  so  far  as  these  are  necessary  to  secure 
the  common  interest.  On  the  other  hand  they  hold  that  the 
opposing  system  tends  more  and  more  to  centralization  and 
bureaucracy,  and  divorces  the  individual  workman  from  all 
personal  interest  in  his  work,  and  from  any  control  over  its 
conditions.  They  contend,  moreover,  and  it  is  indeed  admitted 
that,  in  spite  of  the  great  advantages  which  consumers'  produc- 
tion has  in  its  command  of  a  market  and  of  abundant  capital, 
only  a  small  part  of  industry  can  ever  be  carried  on  by  associa- 
tions of  the  persons  who  actually  consume  the  produce.  Outside 
this  small  part,  therefore,  voluntary  co-operation  is  impossible 
except  as  some  form  of  co-partnership. 

On  the  working-out  of  these  two  principles  depends  the  future 
of  co-operation.  The  example  of  Scotland  probably  throws 
light  on  the  problem.  There  co-operative  production,  amounting 
to  some  millions  sterling,  is  nearly  all  carried  on  by  federations  of 
consumers'  societies,  including  the  Scottish  Wholesale,  which 
apply  more  or  less  successfully  the  co-partnership  principle — i.e. 
their  employees  are  admitted  to  share  in  profits,  and  may 
become  members,  whereby  they  are  further  admitted  to  share  in 
capital  and  control.  The  type  of  organization  hence  resulting  is 
very  much  the  same  as  where  a  society  of  producers  admits 
consumers'  societies  to  membership,  and  sets  aside  a  proportion  of 
the  profits  to  be  returned  to  them  as  dividend  upon  their 
purchases.  To  this  combined  type,  we  have  seen,  English 
productive  societies,  started  by  producers,  have  come;  and  it 
would  appear  that  those  started  by  consumers  must  ultimately 
tend  to  it.  However,  in  spite  of  honoured  leaders  of  the  early 
days,  the  consumers'  party  is  at  present  greatly  in  the  ascendant 
in  English  co-operation,  and  even  in  the  Scottish  federations  it  is 
almost  strong  enough  to  abolish  co-partnership,  and  allow  no  one 
to  share  in  capital,  profit  or  control  except  in  his  capacity  as  a 
consumer. 

An  association  of  co-operative  societies  and  individuals,  called 
the  Labour  Co-partnership  Association,  exists  to  maintain  the 
principle  of  co-partnership  in  co-operation,  and  also  to  promote 
its  gradual  adoption  in  ordinary  businesses.  Some  progress  in 
this  latter  direction  is  being  made,  there  being  a  tendency  to 
improve  upon  simple  profit-sharing  by  capitalizing  the  workman's 
"  bonus,"  whereby  he  becomes  a  shareholder,  and  the  business 
is  gradually  modified  in  a  co-operative  direction.  There  are 
remarkable  instances  of  such  modification  abroad,  notably  that 
of  the  great  iron  foundry  and  Familistere  at  Guise  in  France. 
The  most  noteworthy,  among  several,  in  England  is  that  of  the 
South  Metropolitan  Gas  Company,  where  after  eighteen  years  of 
the  system  5000  odd  employees  had  in  1907  more  than  £320,000 
invested  in  the  company;  they  also  elect  three  of  themselves 
directors  of  the  company,  this  being  one-third  of  the  board. 
Unfortunately  this  example  is,  or  at  least  was,  marred  by  a  feud 
with  the  trade  unions,  whereas  there  is  friendship  between  trade 
unionism  and  co-partnership,  as  indeed  between  trade  unionism 
and  co-operation  generally. 

One  of  the  most  recent  and  promising  developments  of  English 
co-operation  is  the  tenants'  co-partnership  movement  for  the 
common  ownership  of  groups  of  houses,    which    the     Tenants' 
society  owning  them  lets  out  to  its  members.      These     co-pmrt- 
societies  are  but  few  as  yet,  but  they  have  sprung  up     "er*hlP 
rapidly  and  promise  great  usefulness  and  extension. 
Somewhat  similar  societies  have  long  been  a  recognized  branch  of 
co-operation  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Such,  then,  are  the  history  and  present  extent  of  co-operation 
in  Great  Britain.   Turning  abroad  we  find  in  almost  all  civilized 
countries,  besides  other  forms  of  co-operation,  im-  The  move- 
portant  and  growing  movements  roughly  similar  to  meat 
those  above  described,  but  on  the  whole  less  identified  °£££fa 
with  the  working  classes  and  less  coloured  by  their 
social  and  economic  ideals.     In  France,  Germany,  Switzerland, 
Italy  and   elsewhere,   there  are  very  important   co-operative 


86 


CO-OPERATION 


distributive  movements  looking  to  Rochdale  as  their  prototype; 
and  in  the  United  States  of  America  there  are  at  least  continual 
attempts  to  spread  Rochdale  co-operation.  Of  these  foreign 
stores,  however,  many  exhibit  important  modifications,  such  as 
unlimited  liability,  and  selling  at  cost  price,  or  between  that  and 
market  prices.  On  the  whole  we  may  say  that  Rochdale  Co- 
operation is  the  most  extended  and  the  most  typical.  It,  and  the 
workshop  movement  springing  from  Fourier,  and  the  socialist  co- 
operation of  Belgium  and  elsewhere,  are  certainly  the  forms  which 
have  most  of  the  ideal  of  democratic  equality  and  social  recon- 
struction. Other  forms  look  more  to  the  money  benefits  accruing 
to  the  members,  seeking  to  supplement  the  present  order  of 
society,  rather  than  to  bring  in  a  new  order.  Among  these  other 
forms — separate  in  origin,  in  methods,  and  largely  in  spirit — the 
most  important  are  credit  co-operation,  or  people's  banking,  and 
agricultural  co-operation,  two  forms  until  recently  unknown  in 
the  British  Islands. 

Confusion  has  sometimes  arisen  from  the  fact  that  while 
Rochdale  Co-operation  sets  itself  against  "  credit,"  continental 
Germany  co-operation  js  more  concerned  with  obtaining  credit 
mad  credit  for  its  members  than  with  anything  else.  But  credit  is 
co-opera-  used  in  two  senses.  The  English  workman  employed 
ao"'  for  wages  is  against  the  credit  which  means  spending 

them  before  they  are  earned:  continental  co-operation  seeks  by 
collective  credit  to  put  into  the  hands  of  working  peasants, 
craftsmen  and  traders,  the  stock  and  the  tools  without  which 
their  labour  is  vain.  Credit  for  consumption  is  the  road  to 
poverty;  credit  for  production  the  road  to  well-being. 

Just  as  with  co-operation  in  labour  and  in  purchase,  so  mutual 
help  in  obtaining  credit  may  doubtless  be  traced  in  primitive 
forms  far  back  into  history.  It  was  certainly  more  or  less  "  in 
the  air  "  in  Germany  and  France  about  1848  and  even  earlier; 
but  the  beginning  of  systematic  organized  credit  co-operation 
may  be  definitely  fixed  in  the  year  1849,  when  Raiffeisen  began 
his  Darlehnscasse,  or  loan  bank,  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  Curiously 
enough  it  had  also  a  second  and  entirely  independent  origin.  For 
in  the  following  year  Schulze-Delitzsch,  in  a  distant  part  of  the 
same  kingdom,  established  his  Credit  Society  based  on  an 
entirely  different  system.  As  this  second  system  spread  much 
more  rapidly  than  the  other  and  attained,  as  indeed  it  retains, 
much  greater  commercial  magnitude,  it  came  to  be  regarded  as 
the  beginning  of  credit  co-operation,  of  which  for  a  long  time  it 
was  the  only  important  form.  These  two  remain  the  two  distinct 
types  in  every  land.  Thus  Germany,  which  has  innumerable 
co-operative  societies  of  every  form  and  of  great  importance,  is 
in  particular  the  mother  of  credit  co-operation. 

In  the  famine  years  of  1846  and  1847  and  for  some  years  after, 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  Raiffeisen  was  a  burgomaster  in  the  barren 
Westerwald.  The  people  were  hopelessly  ground  down 
ky  deDt  to  money-lenders  for  small  doles  of  capital, 
banks.  advanced  to  purchase  stock,  or  meet  times  of  special 
difficulty.  It  occurred  to  Raiffeisen  that  by  combining 
to  borrow  a  moderate  sum  of  money  on  their  joint  responsibility, 
and  afterwards  to  lend  it  out  among  themselves  in  small  sums  at  a 
slightly  greater  rate  of  interest,  the  peasants  might  obtain  relief 
from  their  burden  of  usury,  and  at  the  same  time  get  the  capital 
necessary  to  make  their  labour  productive.  Accordingly  in  1849 
at  the  little  town  of  Flammersfeld,  he  set  up  a  "  Loan  Bank." 
Despite  its  success,  it  remained  the  only  one  of  its  kind  for  five 
years,  when  Raiffeisen  founded  a  second.  There  was  no  third 
for  eight  years  more:  it  was  only  in  1880  that  they  began  really 
to  spread,  but  now  they  are  found  in  many  lands  and  are  counted 
by  thousands. 

Such  a  bank  is  essentially  an  association  of  neighbours. 
Besides  borrowing,  it  also  receives  savings  deposits,  which  often 
produce  a  large  part  of,  or  even  all,  the  capital  it  needs.  Usually 
a  few  of  the  members  are  comparatively  well  to  do  people,  who 
join  to  help  their  neighbours  by  increasing  the  society's  credit. 
This  Raiffeisen  considered  essential.  They  have  no  actual  privi- 
lege, but  by  common  consent  they  take  a  leading  part.  In  the 
true  Raiffeisen  bank  the  liability  of  each  member  is  unlimited, 
but  limited  liability  has  been  introduced  in  some  of  its  modifica- 


tions. The  Society  confines  its  operations  strictly  to  a  small  area , 
say  a  parish,  where  everyone  knows  everyone.  Each  borrower 
must  specify  the  purpose  for  which  he  wants  a  loan,  say  to  buy  a 
cow  or  drain  a  field,  or  pay  off  a  money-lender,  and  this  is 
rigorously  inquired  into.  Only  members  can  borrow.  Any 
member,  however  poor,  can  borrow  for  a  profitable  approved 
purpose,  and  no  one,  however  rich,  for  any  other.  Practically 
all  the  members  see  that  the  money  is  applied  as  agreed;  and, 
while  the  loan  is  often  made  for  a  long  period,  a  year  or  two 
— even  for  ten  or  more — so  as  to  repay  itself  out  of  the 
profit,  power  is  reserved  to  call  it  in  at  short  notice  if  misapplied. 
Loans  are  repayable  by  periodical  instalments,  but  repayments 
must  be  made  with  absolute  punctuality.  No  bills,  mortgages  or 
other  securities  are  taken,  except  a  note  of  hand  either  alone  or 
with  one  or  two  sureties.  There  are  two  committees,  one  to  lend 
and  do  the  work  of  the  society,  and  the  other  to  supervise  the 
first;  and  on  both  of  these  it  is  understood  that  the  richer 
members  are  to  be  in  a  majority.  No  committeeman  or  officer 
receives  any  -  remuneration  for  his  services,  except  that  the 
accountant  gets  a  small  salary.  Originally  there  were  no  shares, 
and  when  in  1889  the  legislature  ordained  that  there  must  be 
shares,  the  Raiffeisen  banks  made  theirs  as  small  as  possible, 
generally  ten  or  twelve  shillings.  Nothing  is  paid  on  the  shares  as 
interest  or  dividend,  all  profit  being  voted  once  for  all  to  the 
ordinary  reserve  and  the  indivisible  reserve,  the  latter  the 
backbone  of  the  system.  In  every  large  district  the  Raiffeisen 
banks  are  federated  in  a  Union,  and  these  Unions  culminate  in  a 
General  Agency.  As  an  intermediary  among  themselves,  and 
between  them  and  the  money  market,  the  banks  have  also  a 
central  bank  with  a  capital  of  £500,000,  and  with  ten  provincial 
branches.  A  great  deal  of  agricultural  co-operation  has  arisen 
from  these  banks  as  centres,  and  with  the  money  they  have 
supplied. 

Raiffeisen  banks  boast  that  neither  member  nor  creditor  has 
ever  lost  a  penny  by  them,  and  while  this  is  denied  it  seems  at 
least  near  the  truth.  Their  credit  is  so  good  that  they  can  obtain 
money  at  very  low  rates,  and  as  their  expenses  are  trifling  they 
can  re-lend  to  their  members  at  rates  but  little  higher.  Tn 
Germany  they  usually  lend  at  about  5%.  Only  men  of  good 
character  can  obtain  membership:  thus,  besides  spreading 
prosperity,  they  have  everywhere  been  great  promoters  of 
sobriety  and  good  conduct.  They  were  only  intended  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  peasants,  especially  of  the  very  poorest,  and  for 
this  purpose  they  have  proved  admirably  suited. 

Very  different  were  the  people  among  whom  Schulze-Delitzsch 
established  his  form  of  co-operative  credit;    and  very  different 
the  organization  he  adopted  and  the  results  which  have 
flowed  from  it.  In  1850  Franz  Hermann  Schulze  was  a     ^Jj^^ 
judge  in  his  native  town  of  Delitzsch,  almost  at  the     banks. 
middle  point  of  the  southern  edge  of  Prussia,  and 
established  there  his  first   Vorschussverein,  or  Advance-Union. 
He  had  been  in  England  and  knew  something  of  our  co-operative 
movement,  but  he  scarcely  seems  to  have  derived  any  part  of  his 
inspiration  from  it.     The  people  he  desired  to  help  were  towns- 
men ,  especially  the  small  craftsmen  working  on  their  own  account . 
the  joiners,  shoemakers  and  so  forth;  and  his  ideal  was  to  do  this 
merely  by  stimulating  their  thrift. 

In  a  Schulze-Delitzsch  bank,  a  number  of  such  men  combine 
together  to  raise  a  capital  of  guarantee:  to  do  this  every  member 
takes  up  one  share  and  one  only,  which  is  of  large  value,  say 
£30  or  £50  or  even  much  more,  but  can  be  paid  up  by  small 
instalments.  Thus  every  member  is  committed  to  a  long  course 
of  saving.  On  the  strength  of  this  capital  in  course  of  formation, 
and  the  unlimited  liability  of  the  members,  the  bank  is  able  to 
borrow,  or  to  receive  as  savings  and  deposits  from  members  and 
others,  a  much  larger  capital.  The  funds  so  constituted  it  lends 
out  at  the  highest  rates  it  can  command,  originally  12%  or  14%, 
but  now  very  much  less,  and  varying,  of  course,  with  the  market. 
It  lends  to  members  only,  but  to  any  amount,  for  any  purpose  and 
on  any  good  and  sufficient  security,  whether  acceptance,  pro- 
missory note,  overdraft,  discount,  mortgage,  pledge,  surety  or 
what  not.  The  loans,  however,  are  always  for  a  short  period.. 


CO-OPERATION 


usually  three  months,  renewable  for  another  three  months,  and 
sometimes  further  than  that.  The  committee  of  management  are 
elected  by  the  general  meetings;  they  decide  on  all  loans,  and 
receive  a  salary,  plus  a  commission  on  the  business  done.  The 
council  of  supervision  are  also  paid,  or  at  least  entitled  to  pay. 
The  great  objects  which  a  bank  keeps  in  view  are  security  and  a 
good  return  on  capital.  It  is  not  confined  to  a  small  area,  but 
works  for  as  large  and  as  varied  a  constituency  as  possible.  With 
such  a  constitution  the  Schulze-Delitzsch  banks  grow  big  and 
accumulate  a  large  capital  of  their  own.  On  an  average  each 
bank  has  nearly  600  members,  and  lends  about  £150,000  per 
annum,  including  loans  renewed.  Losses  are  sometimes  made, 
but  they  are  not  heavy  on  the  whole.  All  the  profits  are  divided 
upon  capital,  or  put  to  reserve,  except  some,  usually  small, 
sums  given  to  charitable  or  educational  purposes.  Dividends 
average  about  5%,  but  have  been  known  to  reach  and  even 
exceed  30%. 

It  may  therefore  justly  be  said  that  for  co-operative  institu- 
tions these  banks  smack  too  much  of  joint-stockism:  they  are  in 
fact  co-operative  not  much  more  than  in  the  same  sense  that  the 
Oldham  cotton  mills,  and  other  "  working-class  limiteds,"  have 
sometimes  been  loosely  called  co-operative.  They  seem  consti- 
tuted to  make  the  lender's  interest  supreme,  but  they  have, 
nevertheless,  conferred  enormous  benefits  on  the  handicraftsmen, 
small  traders,  small  cultivators  and  others  who  borrow  from 
them.  They  have  put  capital  within  their  reach  at  reasonable 
rates. 

These  banks  also  have  their  central  point.  In  1 864  the  German 
Co-operative  Societies'  Bank  was  founded  to  centralize  the  work 
of  the  local  Schulze-Delitzsch  banks  and  to  bring  the  money 
market  within  their  reach.  It  was  not  itself  co-operative,  and 
never  confined  its  business  to  the  co-operative  banks.  B  eginning 
in  a  very  small  way,  by  1903  it  had  attained  a  capital  of  a  million 
and  a  half  sterling  and  a  yearly  business  of  £154,000,000,  of 
which  £28,000,000  was  specifically  with  co-operative  credit 
societies.  It  was  then  amalgamated  with  another  banking 
business,  the  Dresdner  Bank,  esteemed  one  of  the  most  important 
and  successful  in  Germany. 

Thus  these  two  types  of  credit  co-operation  agree  in  being 
founded  on  unlimited  liability,  but  speaking  broadly  they  are 
contrasted  in  that  the  Schulze-Delitzsch  banks  work  primarily, 
though  by  no  means  solely,  among  townsmen,  are  based  on  share 
capital,  work  for  profit,  which  they  divide  on  shares,  are  con- 
ducted by  paid  directors,  and  confer  their  benefits  not  on  the 
very  poorest  but  rather,  as  their  own  friends  say,  on  the  middle 
classes:  the  Raiffeisen  banks  are  designed  for  the  peasantry,  are 
not  based  upon  share  capital,  neither  divide,  nor  work  for, 
profit,  are  conducted  by  unpaid  directors,  and  confer  their 
benefits  especially  on  the  very  poor.  The  Schulze-Delitzsch  type 
is  strong  in  self-help,  but  tends  to  commercialism  as  it  grows; 
the  other  needs  the  help  of  the  well-to-do  to  back  up  the  self- 
help  of  the  poor,  but  it  tends  to  altruism  and  the  union  of 
classes. 

The  world  has  30,000  co-operative  credit  societies,  not  counting 
building  societies;  and  though  they  are  organized  in  many 
groups,  especially  in  their  native  Germany,  for  local  reasons,  or 
because  of  some  modification,  or  some  compromise  between  the 
two  systems,  the  two  types  really  include  them  all.  There  is, 
however,  a  strong  tendency  to  introduce  limited  liability  into 
various  offshoots  of  the  one  type  and  the  other;  even  into  the 
orthodox  Schulze-Delitzsch  banks  themselves,  when  they  grow 
big.  From  Germany  co-operative  banks  have  spread  into  almost 
all  European  countries — even  at  last  to  Ireland  and  England — 
and  to  America  and  Asia.  In  Germany  there  are  some  fifteen 
thousand  local,  and  no  less  than  sixty  central,  co-operative 
credit  associations,  which  lend  out  £180,000,000  a  year  including 
renewals.  In  Italy,  Austria  and  Hungary  they  are  also  strong. 
£n  1896  it  was  estimated  that  £150,000,000  a  year  must  be  very 
well  within  the  total  amount  lent  by  money  co-operation  on  the 
continent  of  Europe;  eight  years  later  it  could  not  well  fall  short 
of  £250,000,000,  and  the  amount  keeps  constantly  increasing. 
Of  this  total  only  a  small  percentage  represents  loans  by  banks  of 


the  Raiffeisen  type,  which,  though  very  numerous,  often  lend 
only  a  few  hundred  pounds  each  in  the  year. 

Great  controversy  has  prevailed  as  to  the  state  subsidies  given 
to  co-operative  credit.  While  governments  are  sometimes  rather 
inclined  to  hinder  co-operative  distribution,  they  have  shown 
a  marked  tendency  to  foster,  whether  for  political  or  economic 
reasons,  co-operative  credit.  The  Prussian  government  in 
response  to  popular  demand,  vigorously  supported  by  the 
agricultural  interest,  has  founded  and  endowed  with  £2,500,000 
of  public  money,  the  Central  Co-operative  Bank,  whose  object 
is  to  bring  capital  within  the  reach  of  the  various  groups  of  co- 
operative banks.  The  Schulze-Delitzsch  Union  was  the  only 
one  to  dispute  the  need  of  this,  and  though  the  bank  has  given 
a  stimulus  to  the  formation  of  co-operative  societies,  it  still 
denies  that  this  is  a  healthy  propagation.  Nevertheless,  some 
even  of  the  Schulze-Delitzsch  societies  resort  to  this  state  bank 
for  money,  it  is  under  government  administration  and  lends 
immense  sums  each  year.  In  France  the  Bank  of  France  has 
been  compelled  to  lend  £1,600,000  free  of  interest,  and  to  give 
about  £120,000  per  annum  out  of  its  profits  to  assist  agriculture; 
this  money  is  being  lent  free  to  "  regional  "  banks,  and  by  them 
at  about  3%  to  local  societies.  State  help  has  also  been  given 
to  the  co-operative  bank  of  the  French  workmen's  productive 
societies.  In  Austria  and  in  many  other  countries  a  great  deal 
of  similar  help  has  been  given. 

Closely  connected  with  certain  developments  of  credit,  and 
deserving  to  rank  as  the  third,  if  not  the  second,  great  sub- 
division of  co-operation,  is  agricultural  co-operation,  Denmark 
a  movement  in  the  main  of  the  last  twenty  years,  but  and  agri- 
amounting  now  to  a  great  force,  almost  everywhere  cultural 
except  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  some  countries  almost  co-operu- 
to  a  revolution.  It  is  important  to  say  agricultural  a°"' 
co-operation  and  not  co-operative  agriculture,  for  in  spite  of 
some  customary  mutual  help  in  farm  work,  in  spite  of  several 
attempts,  and  some  small  successes,  in  co-operative  farming, 
the  actual  cultivation  is  almost  everywhere  individualistic. 
The  farmer  or  peasant  cultivates  alone,  or  with  his  family,  or 
servants;  when  he  co-operates  with  his  fellows,  it  is  to  manu- 
facture, or  to  market,  the  products  of  his  farm,  or  more  often 
to  obtain  the  things  he  needs  for  his  farming,  to  raise  stock,  to 
own  expensive  machinery  in  common,  or  insure  against  risks. 
By  these  means  the  small  farmer,  without  sacrificing  his  own 
peculiar  advantages,  obtains  most  of  the  advantages  of  the  big 
farmer,  to  the  immense  improvement  of  his  position. 

At  almost  every  point  agricultural  and  credit  co-operation 
touch;  yet  the  most  perfect  example  of  agricultural  co-operation 
is  not  concerned  with  credit  co-operation  in  any  form.  The 
farmers  of  Denmark  practise  co-operation  in  almost  every 
variety,  except  for  raising  capital.  The  commercial  banks  have 
provided  money  to  start  dairies  and  other  co-operative  societies; 
so  that,  it  would  appear,  the  need  of  credit  co-operation  has  not 
been  felt. 

The  Danish  farmer  is  almost  always  a  freeholder:  it  is  little 
more  than  a  century  since  his  ancestors  were  serfs.  It  is  little 
more  than  a  generation  since  a  few  men,  turning  to  account  the 
strong  national  feeling  aroused  by  the  defeat  of  1864,  started  a 
great  educational  movement  which  has  left  its  mark  on  all  strata 
of  Danish  society.  After  the  People's  High  School,  technical 
schools  arose  in  various  places;  and  to  these,  and  to  the  excellent 
continuation  schools  in  the  country  districts,  the  Danes  are 
beholden  for  the  regeneration  of  their  agriculture.  From  1867 
co-operative  distributive  societies  on  the  Rochdale  plan  had  been 
spreading  in  Denmark;  but  it  was  not  till  1882  that  co-operation 
in  agriculture  began,  and  the  first  co-operative  dairy  was  formed; 
ten  years  later  there  were  about  a  thousand  such,  a  number 
which  has  slightly  increased  since.  These  dairies  are  productive 
societies  in  which  the  cow-owners  are  the  shareholders,  and  all 
shareholders  have  equal  rights  and  equal  voting  power,  whether 
they  own  one  cow  or  one  hundred.  Almost  every  village  has 
its  co-operative  dairy,  fitted  to  deal  with  the  milk  of  from  400 
to  1400,  or  even  2000  cows.  They  far  exceed  all  the  other  dairies 
of  Denmark.  More  than  four-fifths  of  all  the  milk  of  Denmark 


88 


CO-OPERATION 


is  used  in  them,  and  they  produce  butter  worth  more  than  nine 
millions  sterling.  The  profits  are  divided  among  those  who  supply 
the  cream,  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  their  supplies — a  method 
of  dividing  profits  characteristic  of  agricultural  co-operation. 
The  village  dairies  are  united  in  federations  to  export  their 
produce. 

Side  by  side  with  the  dairies  are  other  co-operative  societies, 
quite  independent  but  largely  composed  of  the  same  members, 
for  buying  collectively  fodder,  manures  and  other  agricultural 
or  household  requisites,  for  collecting  and  exporting  eggs, 
slaughtering  hogs  and  curing  bacon,  improving  the  breed  of 
stock,  for  bee-keeping,  fruit-growing  and  so  forth.  By  means 
of  these  societies  the  country  has  been  greatly  enriched.  The 
farmer  not  uncommonly  belongs  to  ten  co-operative  societies, 
besides  probably  a  farmers'  club.  The  work  of  starting  and 
administrating  the  societies  is  seldom  paid,  and  many  farmers 
give  much  time  to  it  gratuitously.  They  are  in  the  main 
organized  on  the  same  principles  as  the  dairies,  but  with  varia- 
tions; the  largest  egg  export  society,  for  instance,  has  over 
30,000  members.  It  is  not  a  federation  of  village  societies,  but 
a  centralized  body  with  many  branches. 

The  growth  of  the  bacon-curing  societies  has  been  remarkable. 
The  first  of  them  was  not  founded  until  1887,  but  they  spread 
rapidly,  and  in  seven  years  there  were  twenty,  killing  more  than 
half  the  country's  then  produce  of  hogs.  The  movement  has 
greatly  increased  since  then,  and  multiplied  its  output  about 
fourfold.  Co-operation  in  collecting,  grading  and  exporting 
eggs  only  began  in  1895,  and  in  eight  years  65,000  members 
had  joined  the  various  egg  societies,  and  the  value  of  eggs 
exported  had  reached  £436,000.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  effect  of 
agricultural  co-operation  in  Denmark  has  amounted  to  little  less 
than  a  revolution.  It  has  brought  the  results  of  science  within  the 
peasant's  reach,  and  he  has  been  quick  to  avail  himself  of  them: 
it  has  transformed  a  great  part  of  farm  work  into  a  factory 
industry,  increased  the  yield  of  the  soil,  improved  the  material 
position  of  the  peasants,  and  drawn  rich  and  poor  together. 
Denmark,  once  so  poor,  is  now,  except  England,  probably  the 
richest  country  in  Europe  in  proportion  to  its  population. 
Besides  Denmark,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Finland,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  United  States,  Canada, 
Ireland  and  many  other  countries  have  important  developments 
of  agricultural  co-operation.  In  Germany,  where  it  is  closely 
connected  with  credit  co-operation,  it  seems  to  date  from  1866 
only,  yet  in  forty  years  agricultural  co-operative  societies  have 
come  to  number  six  thousand,  without  counting  the  agricultural 
banks,  which  exceed  twice  that  number.  There  are  dairies, 
societies  to  purchase  farm  requisites,  societies  of  grape-growers, 
hop-growers  and  beetroot-growers,  distilleries,  labour  societies, 
insurance  societies,  societies  to  own  warehouses  and  granaries 
and  to  sell  produce,  to  purchase  land  and  resell  it  in  small 
holdings,  and  even  several  societies  which  purchase  land  to 
cultivate  it  in  common.  The  close  connexion  between  credit- 
societies  and  other  agricultural  co-operation  is  exemplified  in 
the  Central  Union  of  orthodox  Raiffeisen  credit  societies  at 
Neuwied.  Through  a  central  bank  and  a  trading  department 
allied  to  it,  it  has  negotiated  the  joint  purchase  of  coal,  feeding- 
stuffs,  manures,  machinery  and  so  forth  to  large  amounts,  as  well 
as  the  difficult  business  of  the  combined  sale  of  agricultural 
produce.  Moreover,  several  local  centres  connected  with  this 
union  have  granaries  and  warehouses  for  the  storage  of  agri- 
cultural produce,  and  negotiate  joint  sales,  while  within  the  union 
facilities  have  been  found  for  selling  the  products  of  one  district 
to  members  in  another. 

In  Ireland  stores  have  not  hitherto  flourished,  though  a  few 

exist.     Irish  co-operation  is  agricultural,  and  dates  from  the 

foundation  of  one  co-operative  dairy  in  1889.  Thence 

has  grown  a  movement  already  of  great  importance, 

culture.        st'"  advancing  and  comprising  from  eighty  to  ninety 

thousand  members,  belonging  to  some   hundreds  of 

societies — dairies,  agricultural  supply  societies,  banks  and  so 

forth,  formed  on  the  Danish  model.   To  form  a  dairy  the  small 

working  farmers  of  a  district  register  a  society  and  take  up 


shares  of  £i  each,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their  cows. 
Each  brings  his  milk  to  be  separated,  is  paid  for  the  butter- 
making  material  it  contains,  and  receives  back  skim  milk.  If 
any  profit  is  divided,  it  belongs  nine-tenths  to  the  suppliers  of 
milk  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  their  supplies,  and  one-tenth 
to  the  dairy  employees  as  dividend  on  wages  in  pursuance  of 
the  co-partnership  principle.  These  dairies  produce  butter 
worth  more  than  £1,000,000.  Their  rapid  spread  is  due  to  their 
great  influence  in  improving  the  quality  of  butter,  and  hence 
increasing  the  farmer's  gains.  The  co-operative  banks  are  of 
the  Raiffeisen  type,  though  a  few  have  limited  liability.  They 
aim  at  providing  the  peasants  with  necessary  capital  ("  the 
lucky  money  "  they  have  christened  it)  and  expelling  the  usurer. 
They  are  increasing  rapidly.  Among  other  objects  of  Irish 
co-operation  are  selling  eggs,  poultry,  barley  and  pigs,  joint- 
grazing,  potato-spraying,  scutching  flax,  bacon  curing,  home 
industries,  and  of  course  supplying  farm  requisites.  The  move- 
ment promises  much  further  growth  in  magnitude  and  variety. 
The  dairy  societies  have  federated  into  an  agency  for  reaching 
the  English  market,  and  the  supply  societies  into  an  Irish 
Wholesale  for  purchasing  to  the  best  advantage.  Besides  the 
direct  profits  and  economies  of  these  societies,  they  have  greatly 
benefited  Ireland  by  teaching  men  of  all  classes,  parties  and 
religions  to  act  together  for  peaceful  progress;  they  have  led 
to  a  wide  diffusion  of  better  agricultural  knowledge,  and  to  the 
establishment  by  government  of  the  Agricultural  Department. 
(See  IRELAND.) 

In  France,  which  Englishmen  are  apt  to  speak  of  as  pre- 
eminently the  country  of  co-operative  production,  the  agri- 
cultural is  the  most  important  branch  of  co-operation; 
and  the  source  and  mainstay  of  agricultural  co-opera- 
tion  are  the  Syndicats  Agricoles.  These  are  not  culture 
technically  co-operative  societies;  they  are  rather  '"  France 
trade  unions,  not  indeed  of  wage-earners  only,  or  and  otl?er 
mainly,  but  of  cultivators.  They  cannot  legally  trade, 
being  constituted  for  the  study  and  protection  of  the  general 
interests  of  the  members,  the  spread  of  information,  and  so 
forth.  Their  principal  object  however,  seems  in  many  cases 
to  be  to  combine  their  members  for  the  purchase  of  all  farm 
requisites  and  especially  of  chemical  manures.  This  they  do 
by  collecting,  sorting  and  passing  on  orders.  They  cannot 
usually  manage  selling  in  common  without  the  intervention  of 
a  society  specially  registered  for  that  object.  Beginning  only 
in  1893,  their  number  long  ago  ran  into  thousands  and  their 
membership  into  hundreds  of  thousands,  drawn  from  all  classes 
of  cultivators  and  landowners,  great  and  little.  Among  much 
other  good  work  they  have  led  to  the  formation  of  a  large 
number  of  strictly  co-operative  societies  for  all  the  purposes 
of  agriculture,  except  cultivation  in  common.  Thus  there  are 
two  thousand  agricultural  banks,  besides  butter  factories, 
distilleries,  associations  for  threshing,  for  sale  of  fruit  and 
vegetables,  for  wine-making,  oil-pressing,  and  so  on,  amounting 
altogether  to  some  hundreds.  There  are  also  societies,  mostly 
of  ancient  date,  engaged  in  making  Gruyere  cheese:  a  few  years 
ago  these  numbered  2000,  but  they  are  dwindling.  Lastly,  there 
are  some  eight  thousand  mutual  insurance  societies  organized 
as  agricultural  syndicates. 

Everywhere  the  main  features  of  this  agricultural  movement 
are  similar  to  those  we  have  seen  in  Denmark  and  Ireland;  it 
is  supplementary  to  individual  cultivation;  hardly  ever  does 
it  appear  as  associations  for  cultivating  in  common,  and,  speaking 
with  certain  important  exceptions,  it  has  no  very  ideal  aims, 
but  seeks  chiefly  to  give  the  farmer  a  better  profit.  In  England 
there  are  a  number  of  farms  worked  by  stores,  and  several 
large  associations  for  the  supply  of  farm  requisites;  but  the 
typical  agricultural  co-operation,  based  on  small  village  societies 
and  federations  of  such  societies,  has  only  recently  been  made 
known  and  begun  to  take  root. 

It  is  notable  that  while  the  Syndicats  agricoles  are  almost 
exactly  what  Fourier,  the  Robert  Owen  of  France,  foresaw  as  the 
next  stage  of  social  development,  the  other  great  branch  of 
French  co-operation,  the  workshop  movement  of  the  A ssoc rations 


CO-OPERATION 


89 


produc- 
tion. 


ouvrieres  de  production,  is  directly  due  to  his  teaching,  which 
led  in  1848  to  the  starting  of  a  large  number  of  co-operative 
France  workshops.  The  suppression  of  association  after  the 
and co-  advent  of  Napoleon  III.  killed  most  of  them,  but 
operative  with  the  return  of  liberty  they  revived  and  they  have 
steadily  increased  ever  since.  They  vary  somewhat 
among  themselves,  but  are  in  the  main  combinations  of 
workmen  to  carry  on  their  industries  with  their  own  capital  or 
that  of  their  trade  unions.  Their  chief  difference  from  English 
co-partnership  societies  is  that  they  very  rarely  admit  to  member- 
ship any  persons  not  belonging  to  the  trade.  They  are  engaged 
in  a  great  variety  of  industries,  selling  comparatively  little  to 
co-operative  distributive  societies,  as  English  co-partnership 
societies  do,  but  taking  contracts  from  government  depart- 
ments and  the  municipalities,  and  supplying  the  general  public. 
Complete  statistics  of  their  total  trade  are  not  available,  but 
it  exceeds  £2,000,000,  and  the  separate  societies  seem  to  vary, 
like  the  majority  of  English  co-partnership  societies,  from  about 
£40,000  a  year  downwards,  a  few  being  larger  but  the  great 
majority  small.  From  about  140  societies  in  1896  they  have 
grown  to  between  two  and  three  times  that  number,  and  the 
increase  continues  with  rapidity.  More  than  two  hundred  of 
them  are  federated  in  the  Chambre  consultative  des  associations 
ouvrieres  de  production,  which  looks  after  certain  business  in- 
terests of  the  societies,  and  also  assists  the  formation  of  new 
ones  by  propaganda  and  advice.  In  Paris  alone  about  a  third  of 
these  societies  are  found. 

It  has  been  objected  that  their  growth  is  artificial  inasmuch  as 
the  government  gives  them  certain  advantages,  such  as  pre- 
ference over  the  private  contractor  at  an  equal  price,  exemption 
from  the  deposit  of  security,  and  special  concessions  as  to 
payments  on  account.  It  also  grants  a  subvention  (recently 
about  £7000  per  annum),  which  was  formerly  all  given  to  the 
societies  in  grants,  but  is  now  largely  lent  to  them  at  not  more 
than  2%  interest  through  their  own  special  bank.  This  bank 
was  founded  in  1893  to  help  the  societies  with  loans  and  discounts, 
and  was  soon  after  endowed  by  a  disciple  of  Fourier  with  £20,000. 
The  societies  have  also  benefited  by  other  private  beneficence 
and  public  help.  As  to  the  Government  aid,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  France  the  state  helps  all  forms  of  industry 
in  ways  unknown  to  us,  and  the  French  co-operative  producers 
always  declare  that  what  is  done  for  them  is  a  trifle  compared 
to  what  is  done  for  other  manufacturers.  Moreover,  they  get 
many  large  contracts  in  open  and  unaided  competition.  In 
these  societies  the  auxiliaires,  or  workers  who  are  not  members, 
are  often  numerous;  but  no  society  is  now  admitted  to  their 
federation  which  does  not  share  profits  with  the  auxiliaires  and 
facilitate  their  admission  to  membership. 

Consumers'  co-operation,  credit  co-operation,  agricultural 
co-operation,  and  workshop  co-operation,  as  exemplified  in 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  Denmark  and  France,  are  found  in 
most  advanced  countries,  some  in  one  and  some  in  another, 
in  forms  roughly  similar  to  those  above  described.  Of  co- 
operation for  production  it  might  have  been  said,  a  few  years  ago, 
that  outside  Great  Britain  it  everywhere  meant  associations  of 
producers.  Except  bakeries,  there  was  but  little  consumers' 
production;  that,  however,  seems  now  to  be  spreading  in  foreign 
countries  also.  The  most  important  developments  of  co-opera- 
tion not  yet  described  are  the  socialist  co-operation  of  Belgium, 
the  co-operative  building  societies  of  the  United  States,  the 
labour  societies  of  Italy  and  Russia,  the  co-operation  of  German 
craftsmen  to  provide  themselves  with  raw  material,  and  the 
letting  out  of  railway  construction  to  temporary  co-operative 
groups  of  workmen  by  the  New  Zealand  and  Victorian 
governments. 

In  Belgium  co-operation  is  mostly  socialist  in  the  towns  and 
Catholic  in  the  country.  In  all  the  principal  industrial  centres 
are  very  important  co-operative  bakeries  and  distributive 
societies,  owned  by  co-operative  groups,  numbering  thousands 
of  workmen  of  every  calling.  These  Maisons  du  peuple  are 
admitted  to  be  well  managed,  even  by  those  who  dislike  their 
politics.  The  socialist  party  look  upon  them  chiefly  as  a  means 


of  organizing  and  educating  the  working  classes  for  political 
and  economic  emancipation,  and  of  providing  funds  for  political 
warfare.  Like  the  English  stores,  and  allied  societies,  they  are 
based  on  the  consumer,  but  unlike  them  they  pay  no  interest  on 
share  capital,  though  they  do  on  deposits.  A  much  larger  part 
of  the  profit  than  in  England  is  devoted  to  propaganda  and 
common  purposes,  though  a  part  is  also  paid  to  the  consumers 
individually  in  the  form  of  checks  exchangeable  for  bread  or 
other  goods.  The  workers  employed  also  receive  a  share  of 
profit  as  a  dividend  on  their  wages,  and  elect  their  repre- 
sentatives on  the  committee  of  management.  By  means  of 
these  societies  the  party  has  a  press,  buildings,  and  the  funds  to 
fight  elections  and  support  members  in  parliament.  In  France, 
where  the  store  movement  has  been  of  an  individualistic,  and 
often  middle  class,  tendency,  the  socialists  have  lately  imitated 
the  example  of  Belgium,  and  seem  to  be  winning  more  success 
than  the  older  French  stores. 

In  the  United  States  there  has  long  been  much  important 
agricultural  co-operation,  and  there  have  been  many  much-ad- 
vertised attempts  to  establish  Rochdale  co-operation,  but  there 
have  so  often  been  failures  and  even  dishonesties  that  co-opera- 
tion has  had  a  bad  odour  in  the  country,  and  the  developments 
come  and  go  with  such  rapidity  that  it  is  difficult  to  speak  with 
confidence  of  its  stability.  The  branch  of  co-operation  which 
has  been  a  great  success  in  the  United  States  consists  of  the  great 
co-operative  building  societies,  but  building  societies  are  not 
considered  part  of  the  co-operative  movement  in  Great  Britain. 

Co-operation  of  all  kinds  is  greatly  developed  in  Italy,  but 
one  form  is  specially  notable.  The  Sociela  di  lavoro  are  co- 
operative labour  gangs  of  great  importance.  They  are  counted 
by  hundreds,  and  are  found  among  navvies,  builders,  masons, 
carriers,  stevedores,  agricultural  labourers  and  other  workmen, 
and  have  carried  out  very  great  works  in  Italy  and  in  foreign 
countries.  They  have,  for  instance,  drained  lands  in  the  Cam- 
pagna  and  made  a  railway  in  Greece.  They  differ  from  pro- 
ductive societies  markedly  in  that  they  have  comparatively  little 
to  do  with  capital  or  material,  but  contract  mainly  for  labour. 

The  Slavonic  races  seem  to  have  a  special  aptitude  for  grouping 
together  co-operatively:  it  is  said  that  men  meeting  casually 
on  a  journey  will  do  so  for  the  brief  time  they  are  together.  In 
countries  like  Servia  we  see  this  ancient,  and  more  or  less  cus- 
tomary, loose  and  unstable  co-operation  meeting  the  modern 
contractual,  permanent  co-operation  of  banks  and  other 
registered  societies.  So  in  Russia,  where  so  large  a  part  in  the 
national  organization  is  played  by  the  Artel  (see  RUSSIA),  which 
may  be  a  transitory  co-operative  group  of  workmen  undertaking 
a  particular  piece  of  work,  e.g.  to  build  a  house,  or  a  permanent 
association  like  that  of  the  bank  porters  combined  together  to 
guarantee  one  another's  honesty. 

While  English  and  some  other  forms  of  co-operation  have 
always  repudiated  state  help,  and  probably  rightly,  so  far  as 
their  own  work  is  concerned,  the  state  in  almost  all  state  help. 
countries,  and  conspicuously  in  England,  has  in  fact 
helped  to  the  extent  of  providing  special  legislation,  and  waiving 
fees,  so  as  to  encourage  the  formation  of  co-operative  societies. 
A  second  form  of  state  help  is  very  noticeable  in  the  modern 
development  of  agriculture,  as  in  Denmark, Canada,  New  Zealand, 
Ireland  and  very  many  countries,  where  the  state  has  played  a 
great  part  in  performing  or  assisting  functions  which  neither 
voluntary  association  nor  individual  enterprise  could  well 
perform  alone;  in  providing  technical  education,  expert  advisers, 
exhibitions  and  prizes;  in  distributing  information  in  all  forms; 
in  finding  out  markets,  controlling  railway  rates,  subsidizing 
steamboats,  and  even  grading,  branding,  warehousing  and 
freezing  produce,  and  maintaining  trade  agents  abroad.  These 
things  have  not  been  done  for  co-operative  societies  alone,  but 
for  agriculture  in  general;  but  co-operation  has  chiefly  benefited, 
and  much  has  been  done  expressly  to  encourage  the  formation 
of  associations  of  cultivators,  and  provincial  and  national 
federations  of  such  associations;  and  government  departments 
of  agriculture  are  found  acting  through  such  bodies,  and  with 
their  advice  and  assistance.  The  third  and  most  questionable 


9o 


COOPERSTOWN— COOPER    UNION 


Con- 
clusion. 


form  of  state  help  is  by  direct  subventions,  and  we  have  seen 
how  much  has  been  done  in  this  way  for  credit  co-operation  and 
particularly  agricultural  credit.  Harm  has  undoubtedly  been 
done  in  certain  cases  by  forcing  co-operative  societies,  whether 
from  political  motives  or  merely  mistaken  policy.  Yet  even 
as  to  money  subventions,  good  authorities,  while  admitting  the 
great  dangers,  remain  convinced  that  the  advantages  overbalance 
them,  self-help  being  evoked,  and  helped  over  initial  difficulties 
which  would  otherwise  be  insuperable.  Experience  in  fact 
shows  that  governments  can  do  a  very  great  deal,  at  least  for 
agricultural  co-operation,  but  only  on  condition  that  they 
encourage,  and  do  not  undermine,  self-help  and  private  initiative. 
Thus  while  voluntary  association  is  sometimes  advocated  as  a 
step  towards,  and  sometimes  on  the  other  hand  as  a  substitute  for, 
and  bulwark  against,  state  socialism,  we  find  in  practice  these 
two  forces  working  each  in  its  own  sphere,  and  in  ways  com- 
plementary one  to  the  other,  while  underlying  and  essential  to 
both  is  the  force  of  individual  action  and  self-help. 

We  have  now  surveyed  co-operation  in  its  chief  forms  and  in 
some  of  the  countries  where  it  is  chiefly  found.  Some  years  ago 
it  was  roughly  estimated  that  the  members  of  one  or 
other  of  its  branches  numbered  six  millions,  represent- 
ing with  their  families  a  population  of  25,000,000 
people.  This  must  be  much  within  the  truth  to-day.  In  no 
other  country  so  much  as  in  Great  Britain  do  we  find  the  tendency 
for  all  branches  of  co-operation  to  federate  in  one  union  and  to 
help  one  another  by  mutual  trade.  Yet  everywhere  the  instinct 
of  co-operative  societies  is  to  federate  with  others — at  least  with 
others  of  their  own  particular  shade;  so  that  Wholesales  and 
other  federations  are  found  more  and  more  in  many  countries. 
Since  1895  the  co-operators  and  co-operative  societies  of  many 
far-distant  lands — almost  of  the  whole  world — have  been  drawn 
together  by  the  International  Co-operative  Alliance,  a  body 
which,  without  attempting  to  interfere  in  their  differences, 
collects  information  from  all,  and  distributes  it  to  all,  keeps 
them  all  in  touch,  and  every  few  years  calls  their  delegates  to- 
gether in  congress,  to  discuss  their  problems,  and  to  remember 
their  common  ideals. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — International  Co-operative  Alliance,  Interna- 
tional Co-operative  Bibliography  (London,  1906);  G.  J.  Holyoake, 
History  of  Co-operation  (London,  1875-1879,  new  ed.,  1906),  History 
of  the  Rochdale  Pioneers  (London,  1893,  new  ed.,  1900),  Self-Help  a 
Hundred  Years  Ago  (London,  3rd  ed.,  1891),  Co-operative  Movement 
of  To-day  (London,  1891,  new  ed.,  1896);  Lloyd  Jones,  Life  and 
Times  and  Labours  of  Robert  Owen  (London,  1890,  new  ed.,  1895); 
F.  Podmore,  Robert  Owen  (London,  1906) ;  E.  T.  Craig,  History  of 
Ralahine  (London,  1882,  new  ed.,  1893);  Thomas  Hughes  and 
E.  V.  Neale,  A  Manual  for  Co-operators  (Manchester,  1881,  1888); 
Catherine  Webb  (editor),  Industrial  Co-operation  (Manchester,  1904) ; 
Beatrice  Potter  (Mrs  Sidney  Webb),  Co-operative  Movement  in  Great 
Britain  (London,  1891,  1893,  1904);  A.  H.  D.  Acland  and  B.  Jones, 
Working  Men  Co-operators  (1898);  Benjamin  Jones,  Co-operative 
Production  (London,  1894) ;  C.  R.  Fay,  Co-operation  at  Home  and 
Abroad  (London,  1908);  H.  D.  Lloyd,  Labour  Co-partnership 
(London  and  New  York,  1898) ;  D.  F.  Schloss,  Methods  of  Industrial 
Remuneration  (London,  2nd  ed.,  1894)  I  N.  P.  Gilman,  Profit  Sharing 
(London,  1892) ;  C.  Robert,  Guide  pratique  de  la  participation  (Paris, 
1892);  Aneurin  Williams,  Twenty-eight  Years  of  Co-partnership 
at  Guise  (Letchworth,  1908),  Relations  of  Co-operative  Movement  to 
National  and  International  Commerce  (Manchester,  1896);  Dallet- 
Fabre-Prudhommeaux,  Le  Familistere  illustre  (Paris,  1901); 
Bernadot,  Le  Familistere  de  Guise  (Guise,  1892);  E.  O.  Greening, 
The  Co-operative  Traveller  Abroad  (London,  1888);  H.  W.  Wolff, 
People's  Banks  (London,  1893,  1896),  Co-operative  Banking,  its 
Principles  and  Practice,  with  a  chapter  on  Co-operative  Mortgage 
Credit  (London,  1907) ;  de  Rocquigny,  La  Co-operation  de  pro- 
duction dans  I 'agriculture  (Paris,  1896);  Merlin,  Les  Associations 
ouvrieres  et  patronales,  &c.  (Paris,  1900);  Mabilleau  and  others, 
La  Prevoyance  sociale  en  Italic  (Paris,  1898);  Fr.  MuIIer,  Wesen, 
Grundsdtze  und  Nutzen  der  Consumvereine  (Basel,  1900).  See  also 
the  annual  Reports  of  the  Government  Labour  Departments,  and  the 
Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  Internat.  Co-op.  Alliance.  (A.  Wl.*) 

COOPERSTOWN,  a  village  and  the  county-seat  of  Otsego 
county,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  where  the  Susquehanna  river  emerges 
from  Otsego  Lake;  about  92  m.  (by  rail)  W.  of  Albany.  Pop. 
(1890)  2657;  (1000)  2368;  (1905)  2446;  (1910)  2484.  It  is 
served  by  the  Cooperstown  &  Charlotte  Valley  railway  (owned 
and  controlled  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson),  and  is  on  the  line  of 


the  Oneonta  &  Mohawk  Valley  electric  railway.  The  village 
lies  in  the  midst  of  a  hop-growing  and  dairying  region,  and  has 
cheese  factories  and  creameries.  It  has  a  public  library,  Thanks- 
giving hospital,  a  Y.M.C.A.  hall,  and  the  Diocesan  orphanage 
(Protestant  Episcopal).  Cooperstown  is  a  summer  resort, 
Otsego  Lake  (9  m.  long  and  with  an  average  width  of  about  i  m.). 
the  "  Glimmerglass  "  of  Cooper's  novels,  being  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  of  the  New  York  lakes.  Cooperstown  occupies  the 
site  of  an  old  Indian  town.  In  1 785  the  site  became  the  property 
of  Judge  William  Cooper,  who  in  the  following  year  founded  there 
a  village  which  took  his  name  and  was  incorporated  in  1807. 
Judge  Cooper  himself  settled  here  with  his  family  in  1790.  His 
son,  James  Fenimore  Cooper,  who  lived  here  for  many  years 
and  is  buried  in  the  Episcopal  cemetery  here,  made  the  region 
famous  in  his  novels. 

See  J.  Fenimore  Cooper,  The  Chronicles  of  Cooperstown  (Coopers- 
town,  1838). 

COOPER  UNION,  a  unique  educational  and  charitable  institu- 
tion "  for  the  advancement  of  science  and  art  "  in  New  York 
city.  It  is  housed  in  a  brownstone  building  in  Astor  Place, 
between  3rd  and  4th  Avenues  immediately  N.  of  the  Bowery, 
and  was  founded  in  1857-1859  by  Peter  Cooper,  and  chartered 
in  1859.  In  a  letter  to  the  trustees  accompanying  the  trust-deed 
to  the  property,  Cooper  said  that  he  wished  the  endowment  to 
be  "  for  ever  devoted  to  the  advancement  of  science  and  art,  in 
their  application  to  the  varied  and  useful  purposes  of  life  "; 
provided  for  a  reading-room,  a  school  of  art  for  women,  and  an 
office  in  the  Union,  "  where  persons  may  apply  ...  for  the 
services  of  young  men  and  women  of  known  character  and 
qualifications  to  fill  the  various  situations  ";  expressed  the 
desire  that  students  have  monthly  meetings  held  in  due  form. 
"  as  I  believe  it  to  be  a  very  important  part  of  the  education 
of  an  American  citizen  to  know  how  to  preside  with  propriety 
over  a  deliberative  assembly";  urged  lectures  and  debates 
exclusive  of  theological  and  party  questions;  and  required  that 
no  religious  test  should  ever  be  made  for  admission  to  the  Union. 
Cooper's  most  efficient  assistant  in  the  Union  was  Abram  S. 
Hewitt.  In  1900  Andrew  Carnegie  put  the  finances  of  the  Union 
on  a  sure  footing  by  gifts  aggregating  $600,000.  For  the  year 
1907  its  revenue  was  $161,228  (including  extraordinary  receipts 
of  $25,565,  from  bequests,  &c.),  its  expenditures  $161,390;  at 
the  same  time  its  assets  were  $3,870,520,  of  which  $1,070,877 
was  general  endowment,  building  and  equipment,  and  $2,797,728 
was  special  endowments  ($205,000  being  various  endowments 
by  Peter  Cooper;  $340,000,  the  William  Cooper  Foundation: 
$600,000,  the  Cooper-Hewitt  Foundation;  $391,656,  the  John 
Halstead  Bequest;  $217,820,  the  Hewitt  Memorial  Endowment). 
The  work  has  been  very  successful,  the  instruction  is  excellent, 
and  the  interest  of  the  pupils  is  eager.  All  courses  are  free. 
The  reading-room  and  library  contain  full  files  of  current  journals 
and  magazines;  the  library  has  the  rare  complete  old  and  new 
series  of  patent  office  reports,  and  in  1907  had  45,760  volumes: 
in  the  same  year  there  were  578,582  readers.  There  is  an 
excellent  museum  for  the  arts  of  decoration.  Apart  from 
valuable  lecture  courses,  the  principal  departments  of  the  Union, 
with  their  attendance  in  1907,  were:  a  night  school  of  science — 
a  five-year  course  in  general  science  (667)  and  in  chemistry  (154). 
a  three-year  course  in  electricity  (114),  and  a  night  school  of  art 
(X333)i  a  day  school  of  technical  science — four  years  in  civil, 
mechanical  or  electrical  engineering — (237);  a  woman's  art 
school  (282);  a  school  of  stenography  and  typewriting  for 
women  (55);  a  school  of  telegraphy  for  women  (31);  a  class  in 
elocution  (96);  and  classes  in  oratory  and  debate  (146).  During 
the  year  2505  was  the  highest  number  in  attendance  at  anytime, 
and  then  3000  were  on  the  waiting  list. 

In  the  great  hall  of  the  Union  free  lectures  for  the  people  are 
given  throughout  the  winter;  one  course,  the  Hewitt  lectures, 
in  co-operation  with  Columbia  University,  "  of  a  very  high 
grade,  corresponding  more  nearly  to  those  given  by  the  Lowell 
Institute  in  Boston  ";  six  (in  1907)  courses  in  co-operation  with 
the  Board  of  Education  of  New  York  city,  which,  upon  Mayor 
Hewitt's  suggestion,  made  an  appropriation  for  this  work  in 


CO-OPTATION— COORG 


91 


1887-1888,  and  extended  such  lecture  courses  to  different  parts 
of  the  city,  all  under  the  direction  (after  1890)  of  Henry  M. 
Leipziger  (b.  1854),  and  several  courses  dealing  especially  with 
social  and  political  subjects,  and  including,  besides  lectures  and 
recitals,  public  meetings  for  the  discussion  of  current  problems. 

CO-OPTATION  (from  Lat.  co-optare;  less  correctly  "  co- 
option  "),  the  election  to  vacancies  on  a  legislative,  administrative 
or  other  body  by  the  votes  of  the  existing  members  of  the  body, 
instead  of  by  an  outside  constituency.  Such  bodies  may  be 
purely  co-optative,  as  the  Royal  Academy,  or  may  be  elective 
with  power  to  add  to  the  numbers  by  co-optation,  as  municipal 
corporations  in  England. 

COORG  (an  anglicized  corruption  of  Kodagu,  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  Kanarese  Kudu,  "  steep,"  "  hilly  "),  a  province  of  India, 
administered  by  a  commissioner,  subordinate  to  the  <governor- 
general  through  the  resident  of  Mysore,  who  is  officially  also 
chief  commissioner  of  Coorg.  It  lies  in  the  south  of  the  peninsula, 
on  the  plateau  of  the  Western  Ghats,  sloping  inland  towards 
Mysore.  It  is  an  attractive  field  of  coffee  cultivation,  though 
the  greater  part  is  still  under  forest,  but  the  prosperity  of  the 
industry  has  declined  since  1891.  The  administrative  head- 
quarters are  at  Mercara  (pop.  6732).  Coorg  is  the  smallest 
province  in  India,  its  area  being  only  1582  sq.  m.  Of  this 
amount  about  1000  sq.  m.  consist  of  ghat,  reserved  and  other 
forests.  Coorg  was  constituted  a  province  not  on  account  of 
its  size,  but  on  account  of  its  isolation.  It  lies  at  the  top  of  the 
Western  Ghats,  and  is  cut  off  by  them  from  easy  communication 
with  the  British  districts  of  South  Kanara  and  Malabar,  which 
form  its  western  and  southern  boundaries,  while  on  its  other 
sides  it  is  surrounded  by  the  native  state  of  Mysore.  It  is  a 
mountainous  district,  presenting  throughout  a  series  of  wooded 
hills  and  deep  valleys;  the  lowest  elevations  are  3000  ft.  above 
sea-level.  The  loftiest  peak,  Tadiandamol,  has  an  altitude  of 
5729ft.;  Pushpagiri,  another  peak,  is  5626  ft.  high.  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Cauvery,  which  rises  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Western  Ghats,  and  with  its  tributaries  drains  the  greater 
part  of  Coorg.  Besides  these  there  are  several  large  streams 
that  take  their  rise  in  Coorg.  In  the  rainy  season,  which  lasts 
during  the  continuance  of  the  southwest  monsoon,  or  from  June 
to  the  end  of  September,  the  rivers  flow  with  violence  and  great 
rapidity.  In  July  and  August  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  and  the 
month  of  November  is  often  showery.  The  yearly  rainfall  may 
exceed  160  in.;  in  the  dense  jungle  tract  it  reaches  from  120  to 
150;  in  the  bamboo  district  in  the  west  from  60  to  100  in.  The 
climate,  though  humid,  is  on  the  whole  healthy;  it  is  believed 
to  have  been  rendered  hotter  and  drier  by  the  clearing  of  forest 
land.  Coorg  has  an  average  temperature  of  about  60°  F.,  the 
extremes  being  52°  and  82°.  The  hottest  season  is  in  April  and 
May.  In  the  direction  of  Mysore  the  whole  country  is  thickly 
wooded;  but  to  the  westward  the  forests  are  more  open.  The 
flora  of  the  jungle  includes  Michelia  (Chumpak),  Mesua  (Iron- 
wood),  Diospyros  (Ebony  and  other  species),  Cedrela  toona 
(White  cedar),  Chickrassia  lubularis  (Red  cedar),  Calophyllum 
anguslifolium  (Poon  spar),  Canarium  strictum  (Black  Dammar 
tree),  Artocarpus,  Dipterocarpus,  Garcinia,  Euonymus,  Cinna- 
momum  iners,  Myristica,  Vaccinium,  Myrtaceae,  Melastomaceae, 
Rubus  (three  species),  and  a  rose.  In  the  undergrowth  are  found 
cardamom,  areca,  plantain,  canes,  wild  pepper,  tree  and  other 
ferns,  and  arums.  In  the  forest  of  the  less  thickly-wooded 
bamboo  country  in  the  west  of  Coorg  the  trees  most  common 
are  the  Dalbergia  latifolia  (Black  wood),  Pterocarpus  marsupium 
(Kino  tree),  Terminalia  coriacea  (Mutti),  Lagerstromia  paniflora 
(Ben teak),  Conocarpus  latifolius  (Dindul),  Bassia  latifolia,  Bulea 
frondosa,  Nauclea  paniflora,  and  several  acacias,  with  which,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  district,  teak  and  sandalwood  occur. 
Among  the  fauna  may  be  mentioned  the  elephant,  tiger,  tiger- 
cat,  cheetah  or  hunting  leopard,  wild  dog,  elk,  bison,  wild  boar, 
several  species  of  deer,  hares,  monkeys,  the  buceros  and  various 
other  birds,  the  cobra  di  capello,  and  a  few  alligators.  The  most 
interesting  antiquities  of  Coorg  are  the  earth  redoubts  or  war- 
trenches  (kadangas), which  are  from  15  to  25  ft.  high,  and  provided 
with  a  ditch  10  ft.  deep  by  8  or  10  ft.  wide.  Their  linear  extent  is 


reckoned  at  between  500  and  600  m.  They  are  mentioned  in 
inscriptions  of  the  9th  and  loth  centuries.  The  exports  of 
Coorg  are  mainly  rice,  coffee  and  cardamoms;  and  the  only 
important  manufacture  is  a  kind  of  coarse  blanket.  Fruits  of 
many  descriptions,  especially  oranges,  are  produced  in  abund- 
ance, and  are  of  excellent  quality. 

In  1901  the  population  was  180,607,  showing  an  increase  of 
4-4  %  in  the  decade.  Of  the  various  tribes  inhabiting  Coorg. 
the  Coorgs  proper,  or  Kodagas,  and  the  Yeravas,  or  Eravas,  both 
special  to  the  country,  are  the  most  numerous.  The  Kodagas 
(36,091)  are  a  light-coloured  race  of  unknown  origin.  They 
constitute  a  highland  clan,  free  from  the  trammels  of  caste,  and 
they  have  the  manly  bearing  and  independent  spirit  natural  in 
men  who  have  been  from  time  immemorial  the  lords  of  the  soil. 
Their  religion  consists  of  ancestor-  and  demon-worship,  with  a 
certain  admixture  of  Brahman  cults.  The  men  are  by  tradition 
warriors  and  hunters,  and  while  they  will  plough  the  fields  and 
reap  the  rice.they  leave  all  menial  work  to  the  women  and  servants. 
They  speak  Kodagu,  a  dialect  of  Hala  Kannada  or  old  Kanarese, 
midway  between  that  and  Malayalam.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  the  institution  of  polyandry  was  prevalent  among  them, 
according  to  which  the  brothers  of  a  family  had  their  wives  in 
common.  But  if  this  institution  ever  existed  it  no  longer  does 
so.  The  Yeravas  (14,586)  are  a  race  of  an  altogether  inferior 
type,  dark-skinned  and  thick-lipped,  resembling  the  Australian 
aborigines  who  possibly,  according  to  one  theory,  may  have 
sprung  from  the  same  Dravidian  stock  (see  AUSTRALIA:  Abor- 
igines). Though  now  nominally  free,  they  were,  before  the 
establishment  of  British  rule,  the  hereditary  praedial  slaves  of 
the  Kodagas.  Some  of  them  live  a  primitive  life  in  the  jungle, 
but  the  majority  earn  a  livelihood  as  coolies.  They  are  demon- 
worshippers,  their  favourite  deity  being  Karingali  (black  Kali). 
Their  language,  a  dialect  of  Malayalam,  is  peculiar  to  them. 
Among  the  other  tribes  or  castes  special  to  Coorg  are  the  Heggades 
(1503  in  1901),  cultivators  from  Malabar;  the  Ayiri  (898),  who 
constitute  the  artisan  caste;  the  Medas  (584),  who  are  basket- 
and  mat-makers,  and  act  as  drummers  at  feasts;  the  Binepatta 
(98),  originally  wandering  musicians  from  Malabar,  now  agri- 
culturists; the  Kavadi  (49),  cultivators  from  Yedenalknad; 
all  these  speak  the  Coorg  language,  wear  the  Coorg  dress,  and 
conform,  more  or  less,  to  Coorg  customs.  Other  tribes  are  not 
special  to  Coorg.  Of  these  the  Holeyas  (27,000)  are  the  most 
numerous.  They  are  divided  into  four  sections:  Badagas  from 
Mysore,  Kembattis  and  Maringis  from  Malabar,  Kukkas  from 
S.  Kanara.  They  were  formerly  the  slaves  of  the  Kodagas  and 
now  act  as  their  menials.  The  Lingayats  (8700)  are  rather  a 
religious  sect  than  a  tribe.  Of  the  Tulu  (farmer)  class  the 
Gaudas  ( 1 1 ,900) ,  who  live  principally  along  the  western  boundary, 
are  the  most  important;  they  speak  Tulu  and  wear  the  Coorg 
dress.  Other  castes  and  tribes  are  the  Tiyas  (1500)  and  Nayars 
(1400),  immigrants  from  Malayalam;  the  Vellala  (1300),  who 
are  Tamils;  the  Mahrattas  (2400)  and  Brahma ns  (noo).  Of 
the  Mussulmans  the  most  numerous  are  the  Moplahs  (6700)  and 
the  Shaikhs  (4400),  both  chiefly  traders.  Of  native  Christians 
there  are  upwards  of  3000.  The  official  language  of  Coorg, 
which  is  that  spoken  by  45  %  of  the  population,  is  Kanarese 
(Kannada),  the  Coorg  language  (Kodagu)  coming  next.  The 
Coorg  dress  is  very  picturesque,  its  characteristics  being  a  long 
coat  (Kupasa),  of  dark-coloured  cloth,  reaching  below  the  knees, 
folded  across  and  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  red  or  blue  girdle. 
The  sleeves  are  cut  off  below  the  elbow,  showing  the  arms  of  a 
white  shirt.  The  head-dress  is  a  red  kerchief,  or  a  peculiar 
large,  flat  turban,  covering  the  back  of  the  neck.  The  Coorg 
also  carries  a  short  knife,  with  an  ivory  or  silver  hilt,  fastened 
with  silver  chains  and  stuck  into  the  girdle.  A  large,  broad- 
bladed  waist  knife,  akin  to  the  kukri  of  the  Gurkhas,  worn  at 
the  back,  point  upwards,  was  formerly  a  formidable  weapon 
in  hand-to-hand  fighting,  but  is  now  used  only  for  exhibitions 
of  strength  and  skill  on  festive  occasions. 

The  chief  crops  are  rice  and  coffee.  Some  abandoned  coffee 
land  has  been  planted  with  tea  as  an  experiment.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  cinchona  has  proved  unprofitable.  There  is  no  railway. 


COORNHERT— COOT 


There  are  no  colleges,  but  twenty-four  scholarships  are  given 
to  maintain  Coorg  students  at  colleges  in  Madras  and  Mysore. 
There  are  secondary  schools  at  Mercara  and  Virarajendrapet. 

The  early  accounts  of  Coorg  are  purely  legendary,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  gth  and  loth  centuries  that  its  history  became  the 
subject  of  authentic  record.  At  this  period,  according  to  in- 
scriptions, the  country  was  ruled  by  the  Gangas  of  Talakad, 
under  whom  the  Changalvas,  kings  of  Changa-nad,  styled  later 
kings  of  Nanjarayapatna  or  Nanjarajapatna,  held  the  east  and 
part  of  the  north  of  Coorg,  together  with  the  Hunsur  taluk  in 
Mysore.  After  the  overthrow,  in  the  nth  century,  of  the  Ganga 
power  by  the  Cholas,  the  Changalvas  became  tributary  to  the 
latter.  When  the  Cholas  in  their  turn  were  driven  from  the 
Mysore  country  by  the  Hoysalas,  in  the  i2th  century,  the 
Changalvas  held  out  for  independence;  but  after  a  severe 
struggle  they  were  subdued  and  became  vassals  of  the  Hoysala 
kings.  In  the  i4th  century,  after  the  fall  of  the  Hoysala  rule, 
they  passed  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Vijayanagar  empire. 
During  this  period,  at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century,  Nanja 
Raja  founded  the  new  Changalva  capital  Nanjarajapatna.  In 
1 589  Piriya  Raja  or  Rudragana  rebuilt  Singapatna  and  renamed 
it  Piriyapatna  (Periapatam).  The  power  of  the  Vijayanagar 
empire  had,  however,  been  broken  in  1565  by  the  Mahommedans; 
in  1610  the  Vijayanagar  viceroy  of  Seringapatam  was  ousted 
by  the  raja  of  Mysore,  who  in  1644  captured  Piriyapatna.  Vira 
Raja,  the  last  of  the  Changalva  kings,  fell  in  the  defence  of  his 
capital,  after  putting  to  death  his  wives  and  children. 

Coorg,  however,  was  not  absorbed  in  Mysore,  which  was  hard 
pressed  by  other  enemies,  and  a  prince  of  the  Ikkeri  or  Bednur 
family  {perhaps  related  to  the  Changalvas)  succeeded  in  bringing 
the  whole  country  under  his  sway,  his  descendants  continuing 
to  be  rajas  of  Coorg  till  1834.  The  capital  was  removed  in  1681 
by  Muddu  Raja  to  Madikeri  or  Mercara.  In  1770  a  disputed 
succession  led  to  the  intervention  of  Hyder  Ali  of  Mysore  in 
favour  of  Linga  Raja,  who  had  fled  to  him  for  help,  and  whom 
he  placed  on  the  throne  on  his  consenting  to  cede  certain  terri- 
tories and  to  pay  tribute.  On  Linga  Raja's  death  in  1 780  Hyder 
Ali  interned  his  sons,  who  were  minors,  in  a  fort  in  Mysore,  and, 
under  pretence  of  acting  as  their  guardian,  installed  a  Brahman 
governor  at  Mercara  with  a  Mussulman  garrison.  In  1782, 
however,  the  Coorgs  rose  in  rebellion  and  drove  out  the  Mahom- 
medans. Two  years  later  Tippoo  Sultan  reduced  the  country; 
but  the  Coorgs  having  again  rebelled  in  1785  he  vowed  their 
destruction.  Having  secured  some  70,000  of  them  by  treachery, 
he  drove  them  to  Seringapatam,  where  he  had  them  circum- 
cised by  force.  Coorg  was  partitioned  among  Mussulman 
proprietors,  and  held  down  by  garrisons  in  four  forts.  In  1788, 
however,  Vira  Raja  (or  Vira  Rajendra  Wodeyar),  with  his  wife 
and  his  brothers  Linga  Raja  and  Appaji,  succeeded  in  escaping 
from  his  captivity,  at  Periapatam  and,  placing  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  Coorg  rebellion,  succeeded  in  driving  the  forces  of 
Tippoo  out  of  the  country.  The  British,  who  were  about  to 
enter  on  the  struggle  with  Tippoo,  now  made  a  treaty  with  Vira 
Raja;  and  during  the  war  that  followed  the  Coorgs  proved 
invaluable  allies.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  Coorg,  though  not 
adjacent  to  the  East  India  Company's  territories,  was  included 
in  the  cessions  forced  upon  Tippoo.  On  the  spot  where  he  had 
first  met  the  British  commander,  General  Abercromby,  the 
raja  founded  the  city  of  Virarajendrapet. 

Vira  Raja,  who,  in  consequence  of  his  mind  becoming  unhinged , 
was  guilty  towards  the  end  of  his  reign  of  hideous  atrocities, 
died  in  1809  without  male  heirs,  leaving  his  favourite  daughter 
Devammaji  as  rani.  His  brother  Linga  Raja,  however,  after 
acting  as  regent  for  his  niece,  announced  in  181 1  his  own  assump- 
tion of  the  government.  He  died  in  1820,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Vira  Raja,  a  youth  of  twenty,  and  a  monster  of  sensuality 
and  cruelty.  Among  his  victims  were  all  the  members  of  the 
families  of  his  predecessors,  including  Devammaji.  At  last,  in 
1832,  evidence  of  treasonable  designs  on  the  raja's  part  led  to 
inquiries  on  the  spot  by  the  British  resident  at  Mysore,  as  the 
result  of  which,  and  of  the  raja's  refusal  to  amend  his  ways,  a 
British  force  marched  into  Coorg  in  1834.  On  the  nth  of  April 


the  raja  was  deposed  by  Colonel  Fraser,  the  political  agent  with 
the  force,  and  on  the  7th  of  May  the  state  was  formally  annexed 
to  the  East  India  Company's  territory.  In  1852  the  raja,  who 
had  been  deported  to  Vellore,  obtained  leave  to  visit  England 
with  his  favourite  daughter  Gauramma,  to  whom  he  wished  to 
give  a  European  education.  On  the  3Oth  of  June  she  was 
baptized,  Queen  Victoria  being  one  of  her  sponsors;  she  after- 
wards married  a  British  officer  who,  after  her  death  in  1864, 
mysteriously  disappeared  together  with  their  child.  Vira  Raja 
himself  died  in  1863,  and  was  buried  in  Kensal  Green  cemetery. 

The  so-called  Coorg  rebellion  of  1837  was  really  a  rising  of  the 
Gaudas,  due  to  the  grievance  felt  in  having  to  pay  taxes  in 
money  instead  of  in  kind.  A  man  named  Virappa,  who  pre- 
tended to  have  escaped  from  the  massacre  of  1820,  tried  to  take 
advantage  of  this  to  assert  his  claim  to  be  raja,  but  the  Coorgs 
remained  loyal  to  the  British  and  the  attempt  failed.  In  1861, 
after  the  Mutiny,  the  loyalty  of  the  Coorgs  was  rewarded  by  their 
being  exempted  from  the  Disarmament  Act. 

See  "  The  Coorgs  and  Yeravas,"  by  T.  H.  Holland  in  the  Journal 
of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  Ixx.  part  iii.  No.  2  (1901); 
Rev.  G.  Richter,  Castes  and  Tribes  found  in  the  Province  of  Coorg 
(Bangalore,  1887);  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India  (Oxford,  1908), 
vol.  xi.  s.v.,  where,  besides  an  admirable  account  of  the  country 
and  its  inhabitants,  the  history  of  Coorg  is  dealt  with  in  some  detail. 

COORNHERT,  DIRCK  VOLCKERTSZOON  (1522-1590),  Dutch 
politician  and  theologian,  youngest  son  of  Volckert  Coornhert, 
cloth  merchant,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1522.  As  a  child  he 
spent  some  years  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  Returning  home,  he 
was  disinherited  by  his  father's  will,  for  his  marriage  with  Cornelia 
(Neeltje)  Simons,  a  portionless  gentlewoman.  He  took  for  a 
time  the  post  of  major-domo  to  Reginald  (Reinoud),  count  of 
Brederode.  Soon  he  settled  in  Haarlem,  as  engraver  on  copper, 
and  produced  works  which  retain  high  values.  Learning  Latin, 
he  published  Dutch  translations  from  Cicero,  Seneca  and  Boetius. 
He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  city  (1562)  and  secretary  to 
the  burgomasters  (1564).  Throwing  himself  into  the  struggle 
with  Spanish  rule,  he  drew  up  the  manifesto  of  William  of 
Orange  (1566).  Imprisoned  at  the  Hague  (1568),  he  escaped 
to  Cleves,  where  he  maintained  himself  by  his  art.  Recalled 
in  1572,  he  was  secretary  of  state  for  a  short  time;  his  aversion 
to  military  violence  led  him  to  return  to  Cleves,  where  William 
continued  to  employ  his  services  and  his  pen.  As  a  religious 
man,  he  wrote  and  strove  in  favour  of  tolerance,  being  decidedly 
against  capital  punishment  for  heretics.  He  had  no  party  views; 
the  Heidelberg  catechism,  authoritative  in  Holland,  he  criticized. 
The  great  Arminius,  employed  to  refute  him,  was  won  over  by 
his  arguments.  He  died  at  Gouda  on  the  2pth  of  October  1590. 
His  Dutch  version  of  the  New  Testament,  following  the  Latin  of 
Erasmus,  was  never  completed.  His  works,  in  prose  and  verse, 
were  published  in  1630,  3  vols. 

See  F.  D.  J.  Moorrees,  Dirck  Volckertszoon  Coornhert  (1887);  N. 
Delvenne,  Biog.  des  Pays-Bas  (1829);  A.  J.  van  der  Aa,  Biog. 
Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden  (1855).  (A.  Go.*) 

COOT,  a  well-known  water-fowl,  the  Fulica  atra  of  Linnaeus, 
belonging  to  the  family  Rallidae  or  rails.  The  word  coot,  in 
some  parts  of  England  pronounced  cute,  or  scute,  is  of  uncertain 
origin,  but  perhaps  cognate  with  scout  and  scoter — both  names 
of  aquatic  birds — a1  possibility  which  seems  to  be  more  likely 
since  the  name  "  macreuse,"  by  which  the  coot  is  known  in  the 
south  of  France,  being  in  the  north  of  that  country  applied  to 
the  scoter  (Oedemia  nigra)  shows  that,  though  belonging  to  very 
different  families,  there  is  in  popular  estimation  some  connexion 
between  the  two  birds.'  The  Latin  Fulica  (in  polite  French, 
Foulque)  is  probably  allied  to  fuligo,  and  has  reference  to  the 
bird's  dark  colour.2  The  coot  breeds  abundantly  in  many  of 
the  larger  inland  waters  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  Old  World, 
in  winter  commonly  resorting,  and  often  in  great  numbers,  to 
the  mouth  of  rivers  or  shallow  bays  of  the  sea,  where  it  becomes 
a  general  object  of  pursuit  by  gunners  whether  for  sport  or  gain. 

1  It  is  owing  to  this  interchange  of  their  names  that  Yarrell  in  his 
British  Birds  refers  Victor  Hugo's  description  bf  the  "  chasse  aux 
macreuses  "  to  the  scoter  instead  of  the  coot. 

1  Hence  also  we  have  Fulix  or  Fuligula  applied  to  a  duck  of  dingy 
appearance,  and  thus  forming  another  parallel  case. 


COOTE— COPAIBA 


93 


At  other  times  of  the  year  it  is  comparatively  unmolested,  and 
being  very  prolific  its  abundance  is  easily  understood.  The  nest 
is  a  large  mass  of  flags,  reeds  or  sedge,  piled  together  among 
rushes  in  the  water  or  on  the  margin,  and  not  unfrequently 
contains  as  many  as  ten  eggs.  The  young,  when  first  hatched, 
are  beautiful  little  creatures,  clothed  in  jet-black  down,  with 
their  heads  of  a  bright  orange-scarlet,  varied  with  purplish-blue. 
This  brilliant  colouring<s  soon  lost,  and  they  begin  to  assume  the 
almost  uniform  sooty-black  plumage  which  is  worn  for  the  rest  of 
their  life;  but  a  characteristic  of  the  adult  is  a  bare  patch  or 
callosity  on  the  forehead,  which  being  nearly  white  gives  rise 
to  the  epithet  "  bald  "  often  prefixed  to  the  bird's  name.  The 
coot  is  about  18  in.  in  length,  and  will  sometimes  weigh  over  2  Ib. 
Though  its  wings  appear  to  be  short  in  proportion  to  its  size, 
and  it  seems  to  rise  with  difficulty  from  the  water,  it  is  capable 
of  long-sustained  and  rather  rapid  flight,  which  is  performed 
with  the  legs  stretched  out  behind  the  stumpy  tail.  It  swims 
buoyantly,  and  looks  a  much  larger  bird  in  the  water  than  it 
really  is.  It  dives  with  ease,  and  when  wounded  is  said  frequently 
to  clutch  the  weeds  at  the  bottom  with  a  grasp  so  firm  as  not 
even  to  be  loosened  by  death.  It  does  not  often  come  on  dry 
land,  but  when  there,  marches  leisurely  and  not  without  a  certain 
degree  of  grace.  The  feet  of  the  coot  are  very  remarkable,  the 
toes  being  fringed  by  a  lobed  membrane,  which  must  be  of 
considerable  assistance  in  swimming  as  well  as  in  walking  over 
the  ooze — acting  as  they  do  like  mud-boards. 

In  England  the  sport  of  coot-shooting  is  pursued  to  some 
extent  on  the  broads  and  back-waters  of  the  eastern  counties 
— in  Southampton  Water  and  Christchurch  Bay — and  is  often 
conducted  battue-fashion  by  a  number  of  guns.  But  even  in 
these  cases  the  numbers  killed  in  a  day  seldom  reach  more  than 
a  few  hundreds,  and  come  very  short  of  those  that  fall  in  the 
officially-organized  chasses  of  the  lakes  near  the  coast  of  Langue- 
doc  and  Provence,  of  which  an  excellent  description  is  given  by 
the  Vicomte  Louis  de  Dax  (Nouveaux  Souvenirs  de  chasse,  &c.,, 
pp.  53-65;  Paris,  1860).  The  flesh  of  the  coot  is  very  variously 
regarded  as  food.  To  prepare  the  bird  for  the  table,  the  feathers 
should  be  stripped,  and  the  down,  which  is  very  close,  thick  and 
hard  to  pluck,  be  rubbed  with  powdered  resin;  the  body  is  then 
to  be  dipped  in  boiling  water,  which  dissolving  the  resin  causes 
it  to  mix  with  the  down,  and  then  both  can  be  removed  together 
with  tolerable  ease.  After  this  the  bird  should  be  left  to  soak 
for  the  night  in  cold  spring-water,  which  will  make  it  look  as 
white  and  delicate  as  a  chicken.  Without  this  process  the  skin 
after  roasting  is  found  to  be  very  oily,  with  a  fishy  flavour,  and 
if  the  skin  be  taken  off  the  flesh  becomes  dry  and  good  for  nothing 
(Hawker's  Instructions  to  Young  Sportsmen;  Hele's  Notes  about 
Aldeburgh). 

The  coot  is  found  throughout  the  Palaearctic  region  from 
Iceland  to  Japan,  and  in  most  other  parts  of  the  world  is  repre- 
sented by  nearly  allied  species,  having  almost  the  same  habits. 
An  African  species  (F.  cristata),  easily  distinguished  by  two 
red  knobs  on  its  forehead,  is  of  rare  appearance  in  the  south 
of  Europe.  The  Australian  and  North  American  species  (F. 
auslralis  and  F.  americana)  have  very  great  resemblance  to  the 
English  bird;  but  in  South  America  half-a-dozen  or  more 
additional  species  are  found  which  range  to  Patagonia,  and  vary 
much  in  size,  one  (F.  gigantea}  being  of  considerable  magni- 
tude. The  remains  of  a  very  large  species  (F.  neivtoni)  were  dis- 
covered in  Mauritius,  where  it  must  have  been  a  contemporary 
of  the  dodo,  but  like  that  bird  is  now  extinct.  (A.  N.) 

COOTE,  SIR  EYRE  (1726-1783),  British  soldier,  the  son  of 
a  clergyman,  was  born  near  Limerick,  and  entered  the  27th 
regiment.  He  saw  active  service  in  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1745, 
and  some  years  later  obtained  a  captaincy  in  the  39th  regiment, 
which  was  the  first  British  regiment  sent  to  India.  In  1756  a 
part  of  the  regiment,  then  quartered  at  Madras,  was  sent  forward 
to  join  Clive  in  his  operations  against  Calcutta,  which  was  re- 
occupied  without  difficulty,  and  Coote  was  soon  given  the  local 
rank  of  major  for  his  good  conduct  in  the  surprise  of  the  Nawab's 
camp.  Soon  afterwards  came  the  battle  of  Plassey,  which  would 
in  all  probability  not  have  taken  place  but  for  Coote's  soldierly 


advice  at  the  council  of  war;  and  after  the  defeat  of  the  Nawab 
he  led  a  detachment  in  pursuit  of  the  French  for  400  m.  under 
extraordinary  difficulties.  His  conduct  won  him  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel  and  the  command  of  the  84th  regiment, 
newly-raised  for  Indian  service,  but  his  exertions  seriously 
injured  his  health.  In  October  1759  Coote's  regiment  arrived 
to  take  part  in  the  decisive  struggle  between  French  and  English 
in  the  Carnatic.  He  took  command  of  the  forces  at  Madras, 
and  in  1760  led  them  in  the  decisive  victory  of  Wandiwash 
(January  22).  After  a  time  the  remnants  of  Lally's  forces 
were  shut  up  in  Pondicherry.  For  some  reason  Coote  was  not 
entrusted  with  the  siege  operations,  but  he  cheerfully  and  loyally 
supported  Monson,  who  brought  the  siege  to  a  successful  end 
on  the  isth  of  January  1761.  Soon  afterwards  Coote  was  given 
the  command  of  the  East  India  Company's  forces  in  Bengal, 
and  conducted  the  settlement  of  a  serious  dispute  between  the 
Nawab  Mir  Cassim  and  a  powerful  subordinate,  and  in  1762  he 
returned  to  England,  receiving  a  jewelled  sword  of  honour  from 
the  Company  and  other  rewards  for  his  great  services.  In  1771 
he  was  made  a  K.B.  In  1779  he  returned  to  India  as  lieutenant- 
general  commanding  in  chief.  Following  generally  the  policy 
of  Warren  Hastings,  he  nevertheless  refused  to  take  sides  in  the 
quarrels  of  the  council,  and  made  a  firm  stand  in  all  matters 
affecting  the  forces.  Hyder  Ali's  progress  in  southern  India 
called  him  again  into  the  field,  but  his  difficulties  were  very 
great  and  it  was  not  until  the  ist  of  June  1781  that  the  crushing 
and  decisive  defeat  of  Porto  Novo  struck  the  first  heavy  blow 
at  Hyder's  schemes.  The  battle  was  won  by  Coote  under  most 
unfavourable  conditions  against  odds  of  five  to  one,  and  is 
justly  ranked  as  one  of  the  greatest  feats  of  the  British  in  India. 
It  was  followed  up  by  another  hard-fought  battle  at  Pollilur 
(the  scene  of  an  earlier  triumph  of  Hyder  over  a  British  force) 
on  the  27th  of  August,  in  which  the  British  won  another  success, 
and  by  the  rout  of  the  Mysore  troops  at  Sholingarh  a  month 
later.  His  last  service  was  the  arduous  campaign  of  1782, 
which  finally  shattered  a  constitution  already  gravely  impaired 
by  hardship  and  exertions.  Sir  Eyre  Coote  died  at  Madras  on 
the  28th  of  April  1783.  A  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

For  a  short  biography  of  Coote  see  Twelve  British  Soldiers  (ed. 
Wilkinson,  London,  1899),  and  for  the  battles  of  Wandewash  and 
Porto  Novo,  consult  Malleson,  Decisive  Battles  of  India  (London, 
1883).  An  account  of  Coote  may  be  found  in  Wilk's  Historical 
Sketches  of  Mysore  (1810). 

COPAIBA,  or  COPAIVA  (from  Brazilian  cupauba),  an  oleo-resin 
— sometimes  termed  a  balsam — obtained  from  the  trunk  of  the 
Copaifera  Lansdorfii  (natural  order  Leguminosae)  and  from 
other  species  of  Copaifera  found  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Amazon.  It  is  a  somewhat  viscous  transparent 
liquid,  occasionally  fluorescent  and  of  a  light  yellow  to  pale 
golden  colour.  The  odour  is  aromatic  and  very  characteristic, 
the  taste  acrid  and  bitter.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  absolute  alcohol,  ether  and  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils.  Its 
approximate  composition  is  more  than  50%  of  a  volatile  oil 
and  less  than  50%  of  a  resin.  The  pharmacopoeias  contain 
the  oleo-resin  itself,  which  is  given  in  doses  of  from  a  half  to  one 
drachm,  and  the  oleum  copaibae,  which  is  given  in  doses  of  from 
five  to  twenty  minims,  but  which  is  inferior,  as  a  medicinal  agent, 
to  the  oleo-resin.  Copaiba  shares  the  pharmacological  characters 
of  volatile  oils  generally.  Its  distinctive  features  are  its  disagree- 
able taste  and  the  unpleasant  eructations  to  which  it  may  give 
rise,  its  irritant  action  on  the  intestine  in  any  but  small  doses, 
its  irritant  action  on  the  skin,  often  giving  rise  to  an  erythematous 
eruption  which  may  be  mistaken  for  that  of  scarlet  fever,  and 
its  exceptionally  marked  stimulant  action  on  the  kidneys.  In 
large  doses  this  last  action  may  lead  to  renal  inflammation.  The 
resin  is  excreted  in  the  urine  and  is  continually  mistaken  for 
albumin  since  it  is  precipitated  by  nitric  acid,  but  the  precipitate 
is  re-dissolved,  unlike  albumin,  on  heating.  Its  nasty  taste,  its 
irritant  action  on  the  bowel,  and  its  characteristic  odour  in  the 
breath,  prohibit  its  use — despite  its  other  advantages — in  all 
diseases  but  gonorrhoea.  For  this  disease  it  is  a  valuable 


94 


COPAL— COPE,  E.  M. 


remedy,  but  it  must  not  be  administered  until  the  acute  symptoms 
have  subsided,  else  it  will  often  increase  them.  It  is  best  given 
in  cachets  or  in  three  times  its  own  bulk  of  mucilage  of  acacia. 
Various  devices  are  adopted  to  disguise  its  odour  in  the  breath. 
The  clinical  evidence  clearly  shows  that  none  of  the  numerous 
vegetable  rivals  to  copaiba  is  equal  to  it  in  therapeutic  value. 

COPAL  (Mexican  copalli,  incense),  a  hard  lustrous  resin, 
varying  in  hue  from  an  almost  colourless  transparent  mass  to  a 
bright  yellowish-brown,  having  a  conchoidal  fracture,  and,  when 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  spirit  of  turpentine,  or  any  other  suitable 
menstruum,  forming  one  of  the  most  valuable  varnishes.  Copal 
is  obtained  from  a  variety  of  sources;  the  term  is  not  uniformly 
applied  or  restricted  to  the  products  of  any  particular  region  or 
series  of  plants,  but  is  vaguely  used  for  resins  which,  though 
very  similar  in  their  physical  properties,  differ  somewhat  in 
their  constitution,  and  are  altogether  distinct  as  to 'their  source. 
Thus  the  resin  obtained  from  Trachylobium  Hornemannianum  is 
known  in  commerce  as  Zanzibar  copal,  or  gum  anime.  Mada- 
gascar copal  is  the  produce  of  T.  verrucosum.  From  Guibourtia 
copallifera  is  obtained  Sierra  Leone  copal,  and  another  variety 
of  the  same  resin  is  found  in  a  fossil  state  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  probably  the  produce  of  a  tree  now  extinct.  From 
Brazil  and  other  South  American  countries,  again,  copal  is 
obtained  which  is  yielded  by  Trachylobium Marlianum,  Hymenaea 
Courbaril,  and  various  other  species,  while  the  dammar  resins 
and  the  piney  varnish  of  India  are  occasionally  classed  and 
spoken  of  as  copal.  Of  the  varieties  above  enumerated  by  far 
the  most  important  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  is  the 
Zanzibar  or  East  African  copal,  yielded  by  Trachylobium  Horne- 
mannianum. The  resin  is  found  in  two  distinct  conditions: 
(i)  raw  or  recent,  called  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  sanda- 
rusiza  mid  or  chakazi,  the  latter  name  being  corrupted  by 
Zanzibar  traders  into  "jackass"  copal;  and  (2)  ripe  or  true 
Copal,  the  sandarusi  inti  of  the  natives.  The  raw  copal,  which 
is  obtained  direct  from  the  trees,  or  found  at  their  roots  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  not  regarded  by  the  natives  as  of 
much  value,  and  does  not  enter  into  European  commerce.  It 
is  sent  to  India  and  China,  where  it  is  manufactured  into  a 
coarse  kind  of  varnish.  The  true  or  fossil  copal  is  found  embedded 
in  the  earth  over  a  wide  belt  of  the  mainland  coast  of  Zanzibar, 
on  tracts  where  not  a  single  tree  is  now  visible.  The  copal  is  not 
found  at  a  greater  depth  in  the  ground  than  4  ft.,  and  it  is 
seldom  the  diggers  go  deeper  than  about  3  ft.  It  occurs  in 
pieces  varying  from  the  size  of  small  pebbles  up  to  masses  of 
several  ounces  in  weight,  and  occasionally  lumps  weighing  4 
or  5  Ib  have  been  obtained.  After  being  freed  from  foreign 
matter,  the  resin  is  submitted  to  various  chemical  operations 
for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  "  goose-skin,"  the  name  given 
to  the  peculiar  pitted-like  surface  possessed  by  fossil  copal. 
The  goose-skin  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the 
impression  of  the  small  stones  and  sand  of  the  soil  into  which 
the  soft  resin  fell  in  its  raw  condition;  but  it  appears  that  the 
copal  when  first  dug  up  presents  no  trace  of  the  goose-skin,  the 
subsequent  appearance  of  which  is  due  to  oxidation  or  inter- 
molecular  change. 

COPALITE,  or  COPALINE,  also  termed  "  fossil  resin  "  and 
"  Highgate  resin,"  a  naturally  occurring  organic  substance 
found  as  irregular  pieces  of  pale-yellow  colour  in  the  London 
clay  at  Highgate  Hill.  It  has  a  resinous  aromatic  odour  when 
freshly  broken,  volatilizes  at  a  moderate  temperature,  and  burns 
readily  with  a  yellow,  smoky  flame,  leaving  scarcely  any  ash. 

COP  AN,  an  ancient  ruined  city  of  western  Honduras,  near  the 
Guatemalan  frontier,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Copan,  a 
tributary  of  the  Motagua.  For  an  account  of  its  elaborately 
sculptured  stone  buildings,  which  rank  among  the  most  cele- 
brated monuments  of  Mayan  civilization,  see  CENTRAL  AMERICA: 
Archaeology.  The  city  is  sometimes  regarded  as  identical  with 
the  Indian  stronghold  which,  after  a  heroic  resistance,  was 
stormed  by  the  Spaniards,  under  Hernando  de  Chaves,  in  1530. 
It  has  given  its  name  to  the  department  in  which  it  is  situated. 

COPARCENARY  (co-,  with,  and  parcener,  i.e.  sharer;  from 
O.  Fr.  parfonier,  Lat.  partitio,  division),  in  law,  the  descent  of 


lands  of  inheritance  from  an  ancestor  to  two  or  more  persons 
possessing  an  equal  title  to  them.  It  arises  either  by  common 
law,  as  where  an  ancestor  dies  intestate,  leaving  two  or  more 
females  as  his  co-heiresses,  who  then  take  as  coparceners  or 
parceners;  or,  by  particular  custom,  as  in  the  case  of  gavelkind 
lands,  which  descend  to  all  males  in  equal  degrees,  or  in  de- 
fault of  males,  to  all  the  daughters  equally.  These  co-heirs,  or 
parceners,  have  been  so  called,  says  Littleton  (§  241),  "because 
by  writ  the  law  will  constrain  them,  that  partition  shall  be  made 
among  them."  Coparcenary  so  far  resembles  joint  tenancy  in 
that  there  is  unity  of  title,  interest  and  possession,  but  whereas 
joint  tenants  always  claim  by  purchase,  parceners  claim  by 
descent,  and  although  there  is  unity  of  interest  there  is  no 
entirety,  for  there  is  no  jus  accrescendi  or  survivorship.  Co- 
parcenary may  be  dissolved  (a)  by  partition;  (b)  by  alienation 
by  one  coparcener;  (c)  by  all  the  estate  at  last  descending  to  one 
coparcener,  who  thenceforth  holds  in  severally;  (d)  by  a  com- 
pulsory partition  or  sale  under  the  Partition  Acts. 

The  term  "  coparcenary  "  is  not  in  use  in  the  United  States, 
joint  heirship  being  considered  as  tenancy  in  common. 

COPE,  EDWARD  DRINKER  (1840-1897),  American  palaeon- 
tologist, descended  from  a  Wiltshire  family  who  emigrated  about 
1687,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  on  the  28th  of  July  1840.  At 
an  early  age  he  became  interested  in  natural  history,  and  in  1859 
communicated  a  paper  on  the  Salamandridae  to  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  at  Philadelphia.  He  was  educated  partly 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  after  further  study  and 
travel  in  Europe  was  in  1865  appointed  curator  to  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  a  post  which  he  held  till  1873.  In  1864-67 
he  was  professor  of  natural  science  in  Haverford  College,  and 
in  1889  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  and  palaeon- 
tology in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  To  the  study  of  the 
American  fossil  vertebrata  he  gave  his  special  attention.  From 
1871  to  1877  he  carried  on  explorations  in  the  Cretaceous  strata 
of  Kansas,  the  Tertiary  of  Wyoming  and  Colorado;  and  in 
course  of  time  he  made  known  at  least  600  species  and  many 
genera  of  extinct  vertebrata  new  to  science.  Among  these  were 
some  of  the  oldest  known  mammalia,  obtained  in  New  Mexico. 
He  served  on  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey  in  1874  in  New  Mexico, 
in  1875  in  Montana,  and  in  1877  in  Oregon  and  Texas.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  editors  of  the  American  Naturalist.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia  on  the  I2th  of  April  1897. 

PUBLICATIONS. — Reports  for  U.S.  Geological  Survey  on  Eocene 
Vertebrata  of  Wyoming  (1872) ;  on  Vertebrata  of  Cretaceous  Forma- 
tions of  the  West  (1875);  Vertebrata  of  the  Tertiary  Formations  of 
the  West  (1884);  The  Origin  of  the  Fittest:  Essays  on  Evolution  (New 
York,  1887);  The  Primary  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution  (Chicago, 
1896).  Memoir  by  Miss  Helen  D.  King,  American  Geologist,  Jan. 
1899  (with  portrait  and  bibliography);  also  memoir  by  P.  Frazer, 
American  Geologist,  Aug.  1900  (with  portrait). 

COPE,  EDWARD  MEREDITH  (1818-1873),  English  classical 
scholar,  was  born  in  Birmingham  on  the  28th  of  July  1818.  He 
was  educated  at  Ludlow  and  Shrewsbury  schools  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  society  he  was  elected  fellow  in 
1842,  having  taken  his  degree  in  1841  as  senior  classic.  He  was 
for  many  years  lecturer  at  Trinity,  his  favourite  subjects  being 
the  Greek  tragedians,  Plato  and  Aristotle.  When  the  professor- 
ship of  Greek  became  vacant,  the  votes  were  equally  divided 
between  Cope  and  B.  H.  Kennedy,  and  the  latter  was  appointed 
by  the  chancellor.  It  is  said  that  the  keenness  of  Cope's  dis- 
appointment was  partly  responsible  for  the  mental  affliction 
by  which  he  was  attacked  in  1869,  and  from  which  he  never 
recovered.  He  died  on  the  5th  of  August  1873.  As  his  published 
works  show,  Cope  was  a  thoroughly  sound  scholar,  with  perhaps 
a  tendency  to  over-minuteness.  He  was  the  author  of  An 
Introduction  to  Aristotle's  Rhetoric  (1867),  a  standard  work;  The 
Rhetoric  of  Aristotle,  with  a  commentary,  revised  and  edited  by 
J.  E.  Sandys  (1877);  translations  of  Plato's  Gorgias  (2nd  ed., 
1884)  and  Phaedo  (revised  by  H.  Jackson,  1875).  Mention 
may  also  be  made  of  his  criticism  of  Crete's  account  of  the 
Sophists,  in  the  Cambridge  Journal  of  Classical- Philology,  vols.  i., 
ii.,  iii.  (1854-1857). 

The  chief  authority  for  the  facts  of  Cope's  life  is  the  memoir  pre- 
fixed to  vol.  i.  of  his  edition  of  The  Rhetoric  of  Aristotle. 


COPE 


95 


COPE  (M.E.  cape,  cope,  from  Med.  Lat.  capa,  cappa),  a 
liturgical  vestment  of  the  Western  Church.  The  word  "  cope," 
now  confined  to  this  sense,  was  in  its  origin  identical  with  "  cape  " 
and  "  cap,"  and  was  used  until  comparatively  modern  times  also 
for  an  out-door  cloak,  whether  worn  by  clergy  or  laity.  This, 
indeed,  was  its  original  meaning,  the  cappa  having  been  an  outer 
garment  common  to  men  and  women  whether  clerical  or  lay  (see 
Du  Cange,  Glossarium,  s.v.).  The  word  pluviale  (rain-cloak), 
which  the  cope  bears  in  the  Roman  Church,  is  exactly  parallel 
so  far  as  change  of  meaning  is  concerned.  In  both  words  the 
etymology  reveals  the  origin  of  the  vestment,  which  is  no  more 
than  a  glorified  survival  of  an  article  of  clothing  worn  by  all  and 
sundry  in  ordinary  life,  the  type  of  which  survives,  e.g.  in  the 
ample  hooded  cloak  of  Italian  military  officers.  This  origin  is 
clearly  traceable  in  the  shape  and  details  of  the  cope.  When 
spread  out  this  forms  an  almost  complete  semicircle.  Along  the 
straight  edge  there  is  usually  a  broad  band,  and  at  the  neck  is 
attached  the  "  hood  "  (in  Latin,  the  clypeus  or  shield),  i.e.  a 
shield-shaped  piece  of  stuff  which  hangs  down  over  the  back. 
The  vestment  is  secured  in  front  by  a  broad  tab  sewn  on  to  one 
side  and  fastening  to  the  other  with  hooks,  sometimes  also  by  a 
brooch  (called  the  morse,  Lat.  morsus).  Sometimes  the  morse 
is  attached  as  a  mere  ornament  to  the  cross-piece.  The  cope 
thus  preserves  the  essential  shape  of  its  secular  original,  and 
even  the  hood,  though  now  a  mere  ornamental  appendage,  is  a 
survival  of  an  actual  hood.  The  evolution  of  this  latter  into  its 
present  form  was  gradual;  first  the  hood  became  too  small  for 
use,  then  it  was  transformed  into  a  small  triangular  piece  of  stuff 
(i3th  century),  which  in  its  turn  grew  (i4th  and  isth  centuries) 
into  the  shape  of  a  shield  (see  Plate  II.,  fig.  4),  and  this  again, 
losing  its  pointed  tip  in  the  tyth  century,  expanded  in  the  i8th 
into  a  flap  which  was  sometimes  enlarged  so  as  to  cover  the 
whole  back  down  to  the  waist.  In  its  general  effect,  however, 
a  cope  now  no  longer  suggests  a  "  waterproof."  It  is  sometimes 
elaborately  embroidered  all  over;  more  usually  it  is  of  some  rich 
material,  with  the  borders  in  front  and  the  hood  embroidered, 
while  the  morse  has  given  occasion  for  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
examples  of  the  goldsmith's  and  jeweller's  craft  (see  Plate  II., 
figs.  5,  6). 

The  use  of  the  cope  as  a  liturgical  vestment  can  be  traced  to 
the  end  of  the  8th  century:  a  pluviale  is  mentioned  in  the 
foundation  charter  of  the  monastery  of  Obona  in  Spain.  Before 
this  the  so-called  cappa  choralis,  a  black,  bell-shaped,  hooded 
vestment  with  no  liturgical  significance,  had  been  worn  by  the 
secular  and  regular  clergy  at  choir  services,  processions,  &c. 
This  was  in  its  origin  identical  with  the  chasuble  (q.v.),  and  if, 
as  Father  Braun  seems  to  prove,  the  cope  developed  out  of  this, 
cope  and  chasuble  have  a  common  source.1  Father  Braun  cites 
numerous  inventories  and  the  like  to  show  that  the  cope  (pluviale) 
was  originally  no  more  than  a  more  elaborate  cappa  worn  on 
high  festivals  or  other  ceremonial  occasions,  sometimes  by  the 
whole  religious  community,  sometimes — if  the  stock  were 
limited — by  those,  e.g.  the  cantors,  &c.,  who  were  most  con- 
spicuous in  the  ceremony.  In  the  loth  century,  partly  under 
the  influence  of  the  wealthy  and  splendour-loving  community 
of  Cluny,  the  use  of  the  cope  became  very  widespread;  in  the 
nth  century  it  was  universally  worn,  though  the  rules  for  its 
ritual  use  had  not  yet  been  fixed.  It  was  at  this  time,  however, 
par  excellence  the  vestment  proper  to  the  cantors,  choirmaster 
and  singers,  whose  duty  it  was  to  sing  the  invitatorium,  responses, 
&c.,  at  office,  and  the  inlroitus,  graduate,  &c.,  at  Mass.  This  use 
survived  in  the  ritual  of  the  pre-Reformation  Church  in  England, 
and  has  been  introduced  in  certain  Anglican  churches,  e.g. 
St  Mary  Magdalen's,  Munster  Square,  in  London. 

'This  derivation,  suggested  also  by  Dr  Legg  (Archaepl.  Journal, 
51.  P-  39..  1894),  is  rejected  by  the  five  bishops  in  their  report  to 
Convocation  (1908).  Their  statement,  however,  that  it  is  "  pretty 
clear  "  that  the  cope  is  derived  from  the  Roman  lacerna  or  birrus  is 
very  much  open  to  criticism.  We  do  not  even  know  what  the 
appearance  and  form  of  the  birrus  were;  and  the  question  of  the 
origin  of  the  cope  is  not  whether  it  was  derived  from  any  garment 
of  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  if  so  from  which,  but  what 
garment  in  use  in  the  8th  and  gth  centuries  it  represents. 


By  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  century  the  liturgical  use  of  the 
cope  had  become  finally  fixed,  and  the  rules  for  this  use  included 
by  Pope  Pius  V.  in  the  Roman  Missal  and  by  Clement  VIII. 
in  the  Pontificale  and  Caeremoniale  were  consequently  not  new, 
but  in  accordance  with  ancient  and  universal  custom.  The 
substitution  of  the  cope  for  the  chasuble  in  many  of  the  functions 
for  which  the  latter  had  been  formerly  used  was  primarily  due  to 
the  comparative  convenience  of  a  vestment  opened  at  the  front, 
and  so  leaving  the  arms  free.  A  natural  conservatism  preserved 
the  chasuble,  which  by  the  gth  century  had  acquired  a  symbolical 
significance,  as  the  vestment  proper  to  the  celebration  of  Mass; 
but  the  cope  took  its  place  in  lesser  functions,  i.e.  the  censing  of 
the  altar  during  the  Magnificat  and  at  Mattins  (whence  the 
German  name  Rauchmantel,  smoke-mantel),  processions,  solemn 
consecrations,  and  as  the  dress  of  bishops  attending  synods. 

It  is  clear  from  this  that  the  cope,  though  a  liturgical,  was  never 
a  sacerdotal  vestment.  If  it  was  worn  by  priests,  it  could  also 
be  worn  by  laymen,  and  it  was 
never  worn  by  priests  in  their 
sacerdotal,  i.e.  their  sacrificial, 
capacity.  For  this  reason  it  was 
not  rejected  with  the  "Mass 
vestments  "  by  the  English 
Church  at  the  Reformation,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  it  was  in 
no  ecclesiastical  sense  "  primi- 
tive." By  the  First  Prayer-book 
of  Edward  VI.,  which  repre- 
sented a  compromise,  it  was 
directed  to  be  worn  as  an  alter- 
native to  the  "  vestment  "  (i.e. 
chasuble)  at  the  celebration  of 
the  Communion;  this  at  least 
seems  the  plain  meaning  of 
the  words  "  vestment  or 
cope,"  though  they  have  been 
otherwise  interpreted.  In  the 
Second  Prayer  -book  vestment 
and  cope  alike  disappear;  but 
a  cope  was  worn  by  the  prelate 
who  consecrated  Archbishop 
Parker,  and  by  the  "  gentlemen  "  as  well  as  the  priests  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  chapel;  and,  finally,  by  the  24th  canon  (of  1603)  a 
"  decent  cope  "  was  prescribed  for  the  "  principal  minister  "  at  the 
celebration  of  Holy  Communion  in  cathedral  churches  as  well  as 
for  the  "gospeller  and  epistler."  Except  at  royal  coronations, 
however,  the  use  of  the  cope,  even  in  cathedrals,  had  practically 
ceased  in  England  before  the  ritual  revival  of  the  igth  century 
restored  its  popularity.  The  disuse  implied  no  doctrinal  change; 
the  main  motive  was  that  the  stiff  vestment,  high  in  the  neck, 
was  incompatible  with  a  full-bottomed  wig.  Scarlet  copes  with 
white  fur  hoods  have  been  in  continuous  use  on  ceremonial 
occasions  in  the  universities,  and  are  worn  by  bishops  at  the 
opening  of  parliament. 

With  the  liturgical  cope  may  be  classed  the  red  mantle  (man- 
turn),  which  from  the  nth  century  to  the  close  of  the  middle  ages 
formed,  with  the  tiara,  the  special  symbol  of  the  papal 
dignity.  The  immanlatio  was  the  solemn  investiture  The 
of  the  new  pope  immediately  after  his  election,  by  aaatam. 
means  of  the  cappa  rubea,  with  the  papal  powers. 
This  ceremony  was  of  great  importance.  In  the  contested 
election  of  1  1  59,  for  instance,  though  a  majority  of  the  cardinals 
had  elected  Cardinal  Roland  (Alexander  III.),  the  defeated 
candidate  Cardinal  Octavian  (Victor  IV.),  while  his  rival  was 
modestly  hesitating  to  accept  the  honour,  seized  the  pluviale 
and  put  it  on  his  own  shoulders  hastily,  upside  down;  and  it 
was  on  this  ground  that  the  council  of  Pavia  in  1160  based  their 
declaration  in  favour  of  Victor,  and  anathematized  Alexander. 
The  immantatio  fell  out  of  use  during  the  papal  exile  at  Avignon 
and  was  never  restored. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  to  note  other  vestments  that  have 
developed  out  of  the  cappa.  The  cappa  choralis  has  already 


FlG-  i- 


Seventeenth  Century 
Westminster 


96 


COPELAND— COPENHAGEN 


*g  e 


been  mentioned;  it  survived  as  a  choir  vestment  that  in  winter 
took  the  place  of  the  surplice,  rochet  or  almuce.  In  the  i2th 
century  it  was  provided  with  arms  (cappa  manicata), 
but  the  use  of  this  form  was  forbidden  at  choir  services 
and  other  liturgical  functions.  From  the  hood  of  the 
cappa  was  developed  the  almuce  (q.v.).  At  what 
date  the  cappa  choralis  developed  into  the  cappa  magna,  a 
non-liturgical  vestment  peculiar  to  the  pope,  cardinals,  bishops 
and  certain  privileged  prelates,  is  not  known;  but  mention  of  it 
is  found  as  early  as  the  isth  century.  This  vestment  is  a  loose 
robe,  with  a  large  hood  (lined  with  fur  in  winter  and  red  silk  in 
summer)  and  a  long  train,  which  is  carried  by  a  cleric  called  the 
candatarius.  Its  colour  varies  with  the  hierarchical  rank  of  the 
wearer:  —  red  for  cardinals,  purple  for  bishops,  &c.;  or,  if  the 
dignitary  belong  to  a  religious  order,  it  follows  the  colour  of  the 
habit  of  the  order.  The  right  to  wear  a  violet  cappa  magna  is 
conceded  by  the  popes  to  the  chapters  of  certain  important 
cathedrals,  but  the  train  in  this  case  is  worn  folded  over  the 
left  arm  or  tied  under  it.  It  may  only  be  worn  by  them,  more- 
over, in  their  own  church,  or  when  the  chapter  appears  elsewhere 
in  its  corporate  capacity. 

Lastly,  from  the  cappa  is  probably  derived  the  mozzelta,  a  short 

cape  with  a  miniature  hood,  fastened  down  the  front  with 

buttons.     The    name   is    derived    from    the    Italian 

mozzetta    mozzarc,  t°  cut  off,  and  points  to  its  being  an  abbrevi- 

ated cappa,  as  the  episcopal  "  apron  "  is  a  shortened 

cassock.     It  is  worn  over  the  rochet  by  the  pope,  cardinals, 

bishops  and  prelates,  the  colours  varying  as  in  the  case  of  the 

cappa  magna.     Its  use  as  confined  to  bishops  can  be  traced  to 

the  i6th  century. 

See  Joseph  Braun,  S.  J.,  Die  liturgische  Gewandung  (Freiburg  im 
Breisgau,  1907)  ;  also  the  bibliography  to  the  article  VESTMENTS. 

(W.  A.  P.) 

COPELAND,  HENRY,  an  i8th  century  English  cabinet-maker 
and  furniture  designer.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
manufacturing  cabinet-maker  who  published  designs  for  furni- 
ture. A  New  Book  of  Ornaments  appeared  in  1746,  but  it  is  not 
clear  whether  the  engravings  with  this  title  formed  part  of  a 
book,  or  were  issued  only  in  separate  plates;  a  few  of  the 
latter  are  all  that  are  known  to  exist.  Between  1752  and  1769 
several  collections  of  designs  were  produced  by  Copeland  in 
conjunction  with  Matthias  Lock;  in  one  of  them  Copeland  is 
described  as  of  Cheapside.  Some  of  the  original  drawings  are  in 
the  National  Art  library  at  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 
Copeland  was  probably  the  originator  of  a  peculiar  type  of  chair- 
back,  popular  for  a  few  years  in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century, 
consisting  of  a  series  of  interlaced  circles.  Much  of  his  work  has 
been  attributed  to  Thomas  Chippendale,  and  it  is  certain  that 
one  derived'  many  ideas  from  the  other,  but  which  was  the 
originator  and  which  the  copyist  is  by  no  means  clear.  The 
dates  of  Copeland's  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  he  was 
still  living  in  1768. 

COPENHAGEN  (Danish  Kjobenham),  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  Zealand 
(Sjaelland)  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Sound.  Pop.  (1901) 
400,575.  The  latitude  is  approximately  that  of  Moscow,  Berwick- 
on-Tweed  and  Hopedale  in  Labrador.  The  nucleus  of  the  city 
is  built  on  low-lying  ground  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of 
Zealand,  between  the  sea  and  a  series  of  small  freshwater  lakes, 
known  respectively  as  St  Jorgens  So,  Peblings  So  and  Sortedams 
So,  a  southern  portion  occupying  the  northern  part  of  the  island 
of  Amager.  An  excellent  harbour  is  furnished  by  the  natural 
channel  between  the  two  islands;  and  communication  from  one 
division  to  the  other  is  afforded  by  two  bridges  —  the  Langebro 
and  the  Knippelsbro,  which  replaced  the  wooden  drawbridge 
built  by  Christian  IV.  in  1620.  The  older  city,  including  both 
the  Zealand  and  Amager  portions,  was  formerly  surrounded 
by  a  complete  line  of  ramparts  and  moats;  but  pleasant  boule- 
vards and  gardens  now  occupy  the  westward  or  landward  site 
of  fortifications.  Outside  the  lines  of  the  original  city  (about 
5  m.  in  circuit),  there  are  extensive  suburbs,  especially  on  the 
Zealand  side  (Osterbro,  Norrebro  and  Vesterbro  or  Osterf  oiled, 


&c.,  and  Frederiksberg),  and  Amagerbro  to  the  south  of 
Christianshavn. 

The  area  occupied  by  the  inner  city  is  known  as  Gammelsholm 
(old  island).  The  main  artery  is  the  Gothersgade,  running  from 
Kongens  Nytorv  to  the  western  boulevards,  and  separating  a 
district  of  regular  thoroughfares  and  rectangular  blocks  to  the 
north  from  one  of  irregular,  narrow  and  picturesque  streets  to 
the  south.  The  Kongens  Nytorv,  the  focus  of  the  life  of  the  city 
and  the  centre  of  road  communications,  is  an  irregular  open 
space  at  the  head  of  a  narrow  arm  of  the  harbour  (Nyhavn) 
inland  from  the  steamer  quays,  with  an  equestrian  statue  of 
Christian  V.  (d.  1699)  in  the  centre.  The  statue  is  familiarly 
known  as  Hesten  (the  horse)  and  is  surrounded  by  noteworthy 
buildings.  The  Palace  of  Charlottenborg,  on  the  east  side, 
which  takes  its  name  from  Charlotte,  the  wife  of  Christian  V., 
is  a  huge  sombre  building,  built  in  1672.  Frederick  V.  made  a 
grant  of  it  to  the  Academy  of  Arts,  which  holds  its  annual 
exhibition  of  paintings  and  sculpture  in  April  and  May,  in  the 
adjacent  Kunstudslilling  (1883).  On  the  south  is  the  principal 
theatre,  the  Royal,  a  beautiful  modern  Renaissance  building 
(1874),  on  the  site  of  a  former  theatre  of  the  same  name,  which 
dated  from  1748.  Statues  of  the  poets  Ludvig  Holberg  (d.  1754), 
and  Adam  Ohlenschlager  (d.  1850),  the  former  by  Stein  and  the 
latter  by  H.  V.  Bissen,  stand  on  either  side  of  the  entrance,  and 
the  front  is  crowned  by  a  group  by  King,  representing  Apollo 
and  Pegasus,  and  the  Fountain  of  Hippocrene.  Within,  among 
other  sculptures,  is  a  relief  figure  of  Ophelia,  executed  by  Sarah 
Bernhardt.  Other  buildings  in  Kongens  Nytorv  are  the  foreign 
office,  several  great  commercial  houses,  the  commercial  bank, 
and  the  Thotts  Palais  of  c.  1685.  The  quays  of  the  Nyhavn  are 
lined  with  old  gabled  houses. 

From  the  south  end  of  Kongens  Nytorv,  a  street  called 
Holmens  Kanal  winds  past  the  National  Bank  to  the  Holmens 
Kirke,  or  church  for  the  royal  navy,  originally  erected  as  an 
anchor-smithy  by  Frederick  II.,  but  consecrated  by  Christian 
IV.,  with  a  chapel  containing  the  tombs  of  the  great  admirals 
Niels  Juel  and  Peder  Tordenskjb'ld,  and  wood-carving  of  the 
1 7th  century.  The  street  then  crosses  a  bridge  on  to  the 
Slottsholm,  an  island  divided  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  harbour,  occupied  mainly  by  the  Christiansborg 
and  adjacent  buildings.  The  royal  palace  of  Christiansborg, 
originally  built  (1731-1745)  by  Christian  VI.,  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1 794,  and  rebuilt,  again  fell  in  flames  in  1884.  Fortunately 
most  of  the  art  treasures  which  the  palace  contained  were  saved. 
A  decision  was  arrived  at  in  1903,  in  commemoration  of  the 
jubilee  of  the  reign  of  Christian  IX.,  to  rebuild  the  palace  for 
use  on  occasions  of  state,  and  to  house  the  parliament.  On  the 
Slottsplads  (Palace  Square)  which  faces  east,  is  an  equestrian 
statue  of  Frederick  VII.  There  are  also  preserved  the  bronze 
statues  which  stood  over  the  portal  of  the  palace  before  the  fire — 
figures  of  Strength,  Wisdom,  Health  and  Justice,  designed  by 
Thorvaldsen.  The  palace  chapel,  adorned  with  works  by 
Thorvaldsen  and  Bissen,  was  preserved  from  the  fire,  as  was 
the  royal  library  of  about  540,000  volumes  and  20,000  manu- 
scripts, for  which  a  new  building  in  Christiansgade  was  designed 
about  1900. 

The  exchange  (Borsen),  on  the  quay  to  the  east,  is  an  ornate 
gabled  building  erected  in  1610-1640,  surmounted  by  a  remark- 
able spire,  formed  of  four  dragons,  with  their  heads  directed  to 
the  four  points  of  the  compass,  and  their  bodies  entwining  each 
other  till  their  tails  come  to  a  point  at  the  top.  To  the  south 
is  the  arsenal  ( Tojhus)  with  a  collection  of  ancient  armour. 

The  Thorvaldsen  museum  (1830-1848),  a  sombre  building 
in  a  combination  of  the  Egyptian  and  Etruscan  styles,  consists 
of  two  storeys.  In  the  centre  is  an  open  court,  containing  the 
artist's  tomb.  The  exterior  walls  are  decorated  with  groups 
of  figures  of  coloured  stucco,  illustrative  of  events  connected 
with  Thorvaldsen's  life.  Over  the  principal  entrance  is  the 
chariot  of  Victory  drawn  by  four  horses,  executed  in  bronze 
from  a  model  by  Bissen.  The  front  hall,  corridors  and  apart- 
ments are  painted  in  the  Pompeian  style,  with  brilliant  colours 
and  with  great  artistic  skill.  The  museum  contains  about  300 


COPE 


PLATE  I. 


FIG.  2.— THE  SYON  COPE.     (ENGLISH,  ISTH  CENTURY.) 

The  medallions  with  which  it  is  embroidered  contain  representations  of  Christ  on  the  Cross,  Christ  and  St  Mary  Magdalene,  Christ 
and  Thomas,  the  death  of  the  Virgin,  the  burial  and  coronation  of  the  Virgin,  St  Michael  and  the  twelve  Apostles.  Of  the  latter,  four 
survive  only  in  tiny  fragments.  The  spaces  between  the  four  rows  of  medallions  are  filled  with  six-winged  cherubim.  The  ground-work 
of  the  vestment  is  green  silk  embroidery,  that  of  the  medallions  red.  The  figures  are  worked  in  silver  and  gold  thread  and  coloured  silks. 
The  lower  border  and  the  orphrey  with  coats  of  arms  do  not  belong  to  the  original  cope  and  are  of  somewhat  later  date.  The  cope  belonged 
to  the  convent  of  Syon  near  Isleworth,  was  taken  to  Portugal  at  the  Reformation,  brought  back  early  in  the  igth  century  to  England  by 
exiled  nuns  and  given  by  them  to  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury.  In  1864  it  was  bought  by  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


FIG.  3.— COPE  OF  BLUE  SILK  VELVET,  WITH  APPLIQUE  WORK  AND  EMBROIDERY. 

In  the  middle  of  the  orphrey  is  a  figure  of  Our  Lord  holding  the  orb  in  His  left  hand  and  with  His  right  hand  raised  in  benediction. 
To  the  right  are  figures  of  St  Peter,  St  Bartholomew  and  St  Ursula;  and  to  the  left,  St  Paul,  St  John  the  Evangelist  and  St  Andrew. 
On  the  hood  is  a  seated  figure  of  the  Virgin  Mary  holding  the  Infant  Saviour.  GERMAN:  early  i6th  century.  (In  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum,  No.  91.  1904.) 


VII.  96 


PLATE  II. 


COPE 


FIG.  4.— COPE   OF   EMBROIDERED    PURPLE   SILK  VELVET. 

In  the  middle  is  represented  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin;   on  the  hood  is  a  seated  figure  of  the  Almighty  bearing 
three  souls  in  a  napkin.     ENGLISH,  about  1500.     (In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


FIG.  5.— COPE   MORSE  (GERMAN,  HTH   CENTURY)  IN  THE 
CATHEDRAL  AT  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 

(From  a  photograph  by  Father  Joseph  Braun,  S.  J.) 


FIG.  6. — COPE  MORSE   (GERMAN,  EARLY  ^TH  CENTURY), 
IN   THE   PARISH   CHURCH   AT   ELTEN. 

(From  a  photograph  by  Father  Joseph  Braun,  S.  J.) 


COPENHAGEN 


97 


of  Thorvaldsen's  works;  and  in  one  apartment  is  his  sitting-room 
furniture  arranged  as  it  was  found  at  the  time  of  his  death  in 
1844. 

On  the  mainland,  immediately  west  of  the  Slottsholm,  is  the 
Prinsens  Palais,  once  the  residence  of  Christian  V.  and  Frederick 
VI.  when  crown  princes,  containing  the  national  museum.  This 
consists  of  four  sections,  the  Danish,  ethnographical,  antique 
and  numismatic.  It  was  founded  in  1807  by  Professor  Nyerup, 
and  extended  between  1815  and  1885  by  C.  J.  Thomsen  and 
J.  J.  A.  Worsaae,  and  the  ethnographical  collection  is  among 
the  finest  in  the  world.  From  this  point  the  Raadhusgade  leads 
north-west  to  the  combined  Nytorv-og-Gammeltorv,  where  is 
the  old  townhall  (Raadhus,  1815),  and  continues  as  the  Norregade 
to  the  Vor  Frue  Kirke  (Church  of  our  Lady),  the  cathedral 
church  of  Copenhagen.  This  church,  the  site  of  which  has  been 
similarly  occupied  since  the  i2th  century,  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  in  the  bombardment  of  1807,  but  was  completely 
restored  in  1811-1829.  The  works  of  Thorvaldsen  which  it 
contains  constitute  its  chief  attraction.  In  the  pediment  is  a 
group  of  sixteen  figures  by  Thorvaldsen,  representing  John  the 
Baptist  preaching  in  the  wilderness;  over  the  entrance  within 
the  portico  is  a  bas-relief  of  Christ's  entry  into  Jerusalem;  on 
one  side  of  the  entrance  is  a  statue  of  Moses  by  Bissen,  and  on 
the  other  a  statue  of  David  by  Jerichau.  In  a  niche  behind 
the  altar  stands  a  colossal  marble  statue  of  Christ,  and 
marble  statues  of  the  twelve  apostles  adorn  both  sides  of  the 
church. 

Immediately  north  of  Vor  Frue  Kirke  is  the  university, 
founded  by  Christian  I.  in  1479;  though  its  existing  constitution 
dates  from  1788.  The  building  dates  from  1836.  There  are  five 
faculties  —  theological,  juridical,  medical,  philosophical  and 
mathematical.  In  1851  an  English  and  in  1852  an  Anglo-Saxon 
lectureship  were  established.  All  the  professors  are  bound  to  give 
a  series  of  lectures  open  to  the  public  free  of  charge.  The 
university  possesses  considerable  endowments  and  has  several 
foundations  for  the  assistance  of  poor  students;  the  "  regent's 
charity,"  for  instance,  founded  by  Christian,  affords  free  residence 
and  a  small  allowance  to  one  hundred  bursars.  There  are  about 
2000  students.  In  connexion  with  the  university  are  the  obser- 
vatory, the  chemical  laboratory  in  Ny  Vester  Gade,  the  surgical 
academy  in  Bredgade,  founded  in  1786,  and  the  botanic  garden. 
The  university  library,  incorporated  with  the  former  Classen 
library,  collected  by  the  famous  merchants  of  that  name,  contains 
about  200,000  volumes,  besides  about  4000  manuscripts,  which 
include  Rask's  valuable  Oriental  collection  and  the  Arne-Magnean 
series  of  Scandinavian  documents.  It  shares  with  the  royal 
library  the  right  of  receiving  a  copy  of  every  book  published  in 
Denmark.  There  is  also  a  zoological  museum.  Adjacent  is 
St  Peter's  church,  built  in  a  quasi-Gothic  style,  with  a  spire 
256  ft.  high,  and  appropriated  since  1585  as  a  parish  church  for 
the  German  residents  in  Copenhagen.  A  short  distance  along 
the  Krystalgade  is  Trinity  church.  Its  round  tower  is  in  ft. 
high,  and  is  considered  to  be  unique  in  Europe.  It  was  con- 
structed from  a  plan  of  Tycho  Brahe's  favourite  disciple  Longo- 
montanus,  and  was  formerly  used  as  an  observatory.  It  is 
ascended  by  a  broad  inclined  spiral  way,  up  which  Peter  the 
Great  is  said  to  have  driven  in  a  carriage  and  four.  From  this 
church  the  Kjobermayergade  runs  south,  a  populous  street  of 
shops,  giving  upon  the  Hoibro-plads,  with  its  fine  equestrian 
statue  of  Bishop  Absalon,  the  city's  founder.  This  square  is 
connected  by  a  bridge  with  the  Slottsholm. 

The  quarter  north-east  of  Kongens  Nytorv  and  Gothersgaden 
is  the  richest  in  the  city,  including  the  palaces  of  Amalienborg, 
the  castle  and  gardens  of  Rosenberg  and  several  mansions  of  the 
nobility.  The  quarter  extends  to  the  strong  moated  citadel, 
which  guards  the  harbour  on  the  north-east.  It  is  a  regular 
polygon  with  five  bastions,  founded  by  Frederick  III.  about 
1662-1663.  One  of  the  mansions,  the  Moltkes  Palais,  has  a 
collection  of  Dutch  paintings  formed  in  the  i8th  century.  This 
is  in  the  principal  thoroughfare  of  the  quarter,  Bredgaden,  and 
close  at  hand  the  palace  of  King  George  of  Greece  faces  the 
Frederikskirke  or  Marble  church.  This  church,  intended  to  have 


been  an  edifice  of  great  extent  and  magnificence,  was  begun  in 
the  reign  of  Frederick  V.  (1749),  but  after  twenty  years  was  left 
unfinished.  It  remained  a  ruin  until  1874,  when  it  was  purchased 
by  a  wealthy  banker,  M.  Tietgen,  at  whose  expense  the  work 
was  resumed.  The  edifice  was  not  carried  up  to  the  height 
originally  intended,  but  the  magnificent  dome,  which  recalls  the 
finest  examples  in  Italy,  is  conspicuous  far  and  wide.  The 
diameter  is  only  a  few  feet  less  than  that  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome. 
As  the  church  stands  it  is  one  of  the  principal  works  of  the 
architect,  F.  Meldahl.  Behind  King  George's  palace  from  the 
Bredgade  lies  the  Amalienborg-plads,  having  in  the  centre  an 
equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  V.,  erected  in  1768  at  the  cost  of 
the  former  Asiatic  Company.  The  four  palaces,  of  uniform 
design,  encircling  this  plads,  were  built  for  the  residence 
of  four  noble  families;  but  on  the  destruction  of  Christians- 
borg  in  1794  they  became  the  residence  of  the  king  and 
court,  and  so  continued  till  the  death  of  Christian  VIII.  in 
1848.  One  of  the  four  is  inhabited  by  the  king,  the  second  and 
third  by  the  crown  prince  and  other  members  of  the  royal  family, 
while  the  fourth  is  occupied  by  the  coronation  and  state  rooms. 
The  Ameliegade  crosses  the  plads  and,  with  the  Bredgade, 
terminates  at  the  esplanade  outside  the  citadel,  prolonged  in  the 
pleasant  promenade  of  Lange  Linie  skirting  the  Sound. 

To  the  west  of  the  citadel  is  the  Ostbanegaard,  or  eastern  rail- 
way station,  from  which  start  the  local  trains  on  the  coast  line 
to  Klampenborg  and  Helsingor.  South-west  from  this  point 
extends  the  line  of  gardens  which  occupy  the  site  of  former  land- 
ward fortifications,  pleasantly  diversified  by  water  and  planta- 
tions, skirted  on  the  inner  side  by  three  wide  boulevards, 
Ostervold,  Norrevold  and  Vestervold  Gade,  and  containing 
noteworthy  public  buildings,  mostly  modern.  In  the  Ostre 
Anlaeg  is  the  art  museum  (1895)  containing  pictures,  sculptures 
and  engravings.  Infrontof  it  is  the  Denmark  monument  (1896), 
commemorating  the  golden  wedding  (1892)  of  Christian  IX. 
and  Queen  Louisa.  Among  various  scenes  in  relief,  the  marriage 
of  King  Edward  VII.  of  England  and  Queen  Alexandra  is 
depicted.  The  botanical  garden  (1874)  contains  an  observatory 
with  a  statue  of  Tycho  Brahe,  and  the  chemical  laboratory, 
mineralogical  museum,  polytechnic  academy  (1829)  and  com- 
munal hospital  adjoin  it.  On  the  inner  side  of  Ostevold  Gade 
is  Rosenberg  Park,  with  the  palace  of  Rosenberg  erected  in 
1610-1617.  It  is  an  irregular  building  in  Gothic  style,  with  a 
high  pointed  roof,  and  flanked  by  four  towers  of  unequal  dimen- 
sions. It  contains  the  chronological  collection  of  Danish 
monarchs,  including  a  coin  and  medal  cabinet,  a  fine  collection 
of  Venetian  glass,  the  famous  silver  drinking-horn  of  Oldenburg 
(1474),  the  regalia  and  other  objects  of  interest  as  illustrating 
the  history  of  Denmark.  The  Riddersal,  a  spacious  room,  is 
covered  with  tapestry  representing  the  various  battles  of 
Christian  V.,  and  has  at  one  end  a  massive  silver  throne.  The 
Norrevold  Gade  leads  through  the  Norretorv  past  the  Folke- 
teatre  and  the  technical  school  to  the  Orsteds  park,  and  from 
its  southern  end  the  Vestervold  Gade  continues  through  the 
Raadhus  Plads,  a  centre  of  tramways,  flanked  by  the  modern 
Renaissance  town  hall  (1901),  ornamented  with  bronze  figures, 
with  a  tower  at  the  eastern  angle.  Here  is  also  the  museum 
of  industrial  art,  and  the  Ny-Carlsberg  Glyptotek,  with  its 
collection  of  sculpture,  is  on  this  boulevard,  which  skirts  the 
pleasure  garden  called  Tivoli.  From  the  Raadhus-plads  the 
Vesterbro  Gade  runs  towards  the  western  quarter  of  the  city, 
skirting  the  Tivoli.  Here  is  the  Dansk  Folke  museum,  a  collec- 
tion illustrating  the  domestic  life  of  the  nation,  particularly  that 
of  the  peasantry  since  1600.  A  column  of  Liberty  (Friheds- 
Stotte)  rises  in  an  open  space,  erected  in  1798  to  commemorate 
the  abolition  of  serfdom.  Immediately  north  is  the  main 
railway  station  (Banegaard),  and  the  North  and  Klampenborg 
stations  near  at  hand.  The  western  (residential)  quarter  contains 
jthe  park  of  Frederiksberg,  with  its  palace  erected  under  Frederick 
IV.  (d.  1730),  used  as  a  military  school.  The  park  contains  a 
zoological  garden,  and  is  continued  south  in  the  pleasant  Sonder- 
marken,  near  which  lies  the  old  Glyptotek,  which  contained  the 
splendid  collection  of  sculptures,  &c.,  made  by  H.  C.  Jacobsen 


98 


COPENHAGEN 


since  1887,  until  their  removal  to  the  new  Glyptotek  founded 
by  him  in  the  Vestre  Boulevard. 

The  quarter  of  Christianshavn  is  that  portion  of  the  city  which 
skirts  the  harbour  to  the  south,  and  lies  within  the  fortifications. 
It  contains  the  Vor  Frelsers  Kirke  (Church  of  Our  Saviour), 
dedicated  in  1696,  with  a  curious  steeple  282  ft.  high,  ascended 
by  an  external  spiral  staircase.  The  lower  part  of  the  altar  is 
composed  of  Italian  marble,  with  a  representation  of  Christ's 
sufferings  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane;  and  the  organ  is  con- 
sidered the  finest  in  Copenhagen.  The  city  does  not  extend 
much  farther  south,  though  the  Amagerbro  quarter  lies  without 
the  walls.  The  island  of  Amager  is  fertile,  producing  vegetables 
for  the  markets  of  the  capital.  It  was  peopled  by  a  Dutch  colony 
planted  by  Christian  II.  in  1516,  and  many  old  peculiarities  of 
dress,  manners  and  languages  are  retained. 

The  environs  of  Copenhagen  to  the  north  and  west  are  interest- 
ing, and  the  country,  both  along  the  coast  northward  and  inland 
westward  is  pleasant,  though  in  no  way  remarkable.  The  rail- 
way along  the  coast  northward  passes  the  seaside  resorts  of 
Klampenborg  (6 m.)  and  Skodsborg  (iom.).  Near  Klampenborg 
is  the  Dyrehave  (Deer  park)  or  Skoven  (the  forest),  a  beautiful 
forest  of  beeches.  The  Zealand  Northern  railway  passes  Lyngby, 
on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  a  favourite  summer  residence,  and 
Hillerod  (21  m.),  a  considerable  town,  capital  of  the  amt  (county) 
of  Frederiksberg,  and  close  to  the  palace  of  Frederiksberg. 
This  was  erected  in  1602-1620  by  Christian  IV.,  embodying  two 
towers  of  an  earlier  building,  and  partly  occupying  islands  in  a 
small  lake.  It  suffered  seriously  from  fire  in  1859,  but  was  care- 
fully restored  under  the  direction  of  F.  Meldahl.  It  contains  a 
national  historical  museum,  including  furniture  and  pictures. 
The  palace  church  is  an  interesting  medley  of  Gothic  and  Re- 
naissance detail.  The  villa  of  Hvidore  was  acquired  by  Queen 
Alexandra  in  1907. 

Among  the  literary  and  scientific  associations  of  Copenhagen 
may  be  mentioned  the  Danish  Royal  Society,  founded  in  1742, 
for  the  advancement  of  the  sciences  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  &c.,  by  the  publication  of  papers  and  essays; 
the  Royal  Antiquarian  Society,  founded  in  1825,  for  diffusing 
a  knowledge  of  Northern  and  Icelandic  archaeology;  the  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Danish  Literature,  for  the  publication  of 
works  chiefly  connected  with  the  history  of  Danish  literature; 
the  Natural  Philosophy  Society;  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society; 
the  Danish  Church  History  Society;  the  Industrial  Association, 
founded  in  1838;  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  established 
in  1876;  and  several  musical  and  other  societies.  The  Academy 
of  Arts  was  founded  by  Frederick  V.  in  1754  for  the  instruction 
of  artists,  and  for  disseminating  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts  among 
manufacturers  and  operatives.  Attached  to  it  are  schools  for 
the  study  of  architecture,  ornamental  drawing  and  modelling. 
An  Art  Union  was  founded  in  1826,  and  a  musical  conservatorium 
in  1870  under  the  direction  of  the  composers  N.  W.  Gade  and 
J.  P.  E.  Hartmann. 

Among  educational  institutions,  other  than  the  university, 
may  be  mentioned  the  veterinary  and  agricultural  college, 
established  in  1773  and  adopted  by  the  state  in  1776,  the 
military  academy  and  the  school  of  navigation.  Technical 
instruction  is  provided  by  the  polytechnic  school  (1829),  which 
is  a  state  institution,  and  the  school  of  the  Technical  Society, 
which,  though  a  private  foundation,  enjoys  public  subvention. 
The  schools  which  prepare  for  the  university,  &c.,  are  nearly  all 
private,  but  are  all  under  the  control  of  the  state.  Elementary 
instruction  is  mostly  provided  by  the  communal  schools. 

The  churches  already  mentioned  belong  to  the  national 
Lutheran  Church;  the  most  important  of  those  belonging  to 
other  denominations  are  the  Reformed  church,  founded  in  1688, 
and  rebuilt  in  1731,  the  Catholic  church  of  St  Ansgarius,  con- 
secrated in  1842,  and  the  Jewish  synagogue  in  Krystalgade, 
which  dates  from  1853.  Of  the  monastic  buildings  of  medieval 
Copenhagen  various  traces  are  preserved  in  the  present  nomen- 
clature of  the  streets.  The  Franciscan  establishment  gives  its 
name  to  the  Graabrodretorv  or  Grey  Friars'  market;  and 
St  Clara's  Monastery,  the  largest  of  all,  which  was  founded  by 


Queen  Christina,  is  still  commemorated  by  the  Klareboder  or 
Clara  buildings,  near  the  present  post-office.  The  Duebrodre 
Kloster  occupied  the  site  of  the  hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Among  the  hospitals  of  Copenhagen,  besides  many  modern 
institutions,  there  may  be  mentioned  Frederick's  hospital, 
erected  in  1752-1757  by  Frederick  V.,  the  Communal  Hospital, 
erected  in  1850-1863,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Sortedamsso, 
the  general  hospital  in  Ameliegade,  founded  in  1769,  and  the 
garrison  hospital,  in  Rigensgade,  established  in  1816  by  Frederick 
VI.  After  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1853,  which  carried  off  more 
than  4000  of  the  inhabitants,  the  medical  association  built 
several  ranges  of  workmen's  houses,  and  their  example  was 
followed  by  various  private  capitalists,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  the  Classen  trustees,  whose  buildings  occupy  an  open 
site  on  the  western  outskirts  of  the  city. 

Copenhagen  is  by  far  the  most  important  commercial  town 
in  Denmark,  and  exemplifies  the  steady  increase  in  the  trade 
of  the  country.  The  harbour  is  mainly  comprised  in  the  narrow 
strait  between  the  outer  Sound  and  its  inlet  the  Kalvebod  or 
Kallebo  Strand.  The  trading  capabilities  were  aided  by  the 
construction  in  1894  of  the  Frihavn  (free  port)  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  town,  well  supplied  with  warehouses  and  other 
conveniences.  It  is  connected  with  the  main  railway  station  by 
means  of  a  circular  railway,  while  a  short  branch  connects  it 
with  the  ordinary  custom-house  quay.  The  commercial  harbour 
is  separated  from  the  harbour  for  warships  (Orlogshavn)  by  a 
barrier.  The  sea  approaches  are  guarded  by  ten  coast  batteries 
besides  the  old  citadel.  The  Middelgrund  is  a  powerful  defensive 
work  completed  in  1806  and  most  of  the  rest  are  modern.  The 
landward  defences  of  Copenhagen,  it  may  be  added,  were  left 
unprovided  for  after  the  Napoleonic  wars  until  the  patriotism  of 
Danish  women,  who  subscribed  sufficient  funds  for  the  first  fort, 
shamed  parliament  into  granting  the  necessary  money  for  others 
(1886-1895).  Copenhagen  is  not  an  industrial  town.  The 
manufactures  carried  on  are  mostly  only  such  as  exist  in  every 
large  town,  and  the  export  of  manufactured  goods  is  inconsider- 
able. The  royal  china  factory  is  celebrated  for  models  of 
Thorvaldsen's  works  in  biscuit  china.  The  only  very  large 
establishment  is  one  for  the  construction  of  iron  steamers, 
engines,  &c.,  but  some  factories  have  been  erected  within  the  area 
of  the  free  port  for  the  purpose  of  working  up  imported  raw 
materials  duty  free. 

History. — Copenhagen  (i.e.  Merchant's  Harbour,  originally 
simply  Havn,  latinized  as  Hafnia)  is  first  mentioned  in  history 
in  1043.  It  was  then  only  a  fishing  village,  and  remained  so 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  I2th  century,  when  Valdemar  I. 
presented  that  part  of  the  island  to  Axel  Hvide,  renowned  in 
Danish  history  as  Absalon  (<?.».),  bishop  of  Roskilde,  and  after- 
wards archbishop  of  Lund.  In  1167  this  prelate  erected  a  castle 
on  the  spot  where  the  Christiansborg  palace  now  stands,  and 
the  building  was  called  after  him  Axel-huus.  The  settlement 
gradually  became  a  great  resort  for  merchants,  and  thus  acquired 
the  name  which,  in  a  corrupted  form,  it  still  bears,  of  Kaup- 
mannahofn,  Kjobmannshavn,  or  Portus  Mercatorum  as  it  is 
translated  by  Saxo  Grammaticus.  In  1186,  Bishop  Absalon 
bestowed  the  castle  and  village,  with  the  lands  of  Amager,  on 
the  see  of  Roskilde;  but,  as  the  place  grew  in  importance,  the 
Danish  kings  became  anxious  to  regain  it,  and  in  1245  King 
Eric  IV.  drove  out  Bishop  Niels  Stigson.  On  the  king's  death 
(1250),  however,  Bishop  Jacob  Erlandsen  obtained  the  town, 
and,  in  1254,  gave  to  the  burghers  their  first  municipal  privileges, 
which  were  confirmed  by  Pope  Urban  III.  in  1286.  In  the 
charter  of  1254,  while  there  is  mention  of  a  communitas  capable 
of  making  a  compact  with  the  bishop,  there  is  nothing  said  of 
any  trade  or  craft  gilds.  These  are,  indeed,  expressly  pro- 
hibited in  the  later  charter  of  Bishop  Johann  Kvag  (1294); 
and  the  distinctive  character  of  the  constitution  of  Copenhagen 
during  the  middle  ages  consisted  in  the  absence  of  the  free  gild 
system,  and  the  right  of  any  burgher  to  pursue  a  craft  under 
license  from  the  Vogt  (advocatus)  of  the  overlord  and  the  city 
authorities.  Later  on,  gilds  were  established,  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  old  charters;  but  they  were  strictly  subordinate 


COPENHAGEN 


99 


to  the  town  authorities,  who  appointed  their  aldermen  and  sup- 
pressed them  when  they  considered  them  useless  or  dangerous. 
The  prosperity  of  Copenhagen  was  checked  by  an  attack  by  the 
people  of  Liibeck  in  1 248,  and  by  another  on  the  part  of  Prince 
Jaromir  of  Rtigen  in  1259.  In  1306  it  managed  to  repel  the 
Norwegians,  but  in  1362,  and  again  in  1368,  it  was  captured 
by  the  opponents  of  Valdemar  Atterdag.  In  the  following 
century  a  new  enemy  appeared  in  the  Hanseatic  league,  which 
was  jealous  of  its  rivalry,  but  their  invasion  was  frustrated  by 
Queen  Philippa.  Various  attempts  were  made  by  successive 
kings  to  obtain  the  town  from  the  see  of  Roskilde,  as  the  most 
suitable  for  the  royal  residence;  but  it  was  not  till  1443  that  the 
transference  was  finally  effected  and  Copenhagen  became  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom.  From  1523  to  1524  it  held  out  for 
Christian  II.  against  Frederick  I.,  who  captured  it  at  length  and 
strengthened  its  defensive  works;  and  it  was  only  after  a  year's 
siege  that  it  yielded  in  1536  to  Christian  III.  From  1658  to  1660 
it  was  unsuccessfully  beleaguered  by  Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden ; 
and  in  the  following  year  it  was  rewarded  by  various  privileges 
for  its  gallant  defence.  In  1660  it  gave  its  name  to  the  treaty 
which  concluded  the  Swedish  war  of  Frederick  III.  In  1700  it 
was  bombarded  by  the  united  fleets  of  England,  Holland  and 
Sweden;  in  1728  a  conflagration  destroyed  1640  houses  and 
five  churches;  another  in  1795  laid  waste  943  houses,  the  church 
of  St  Nicolas,  and  the  Raadhus.  In  1801  the  Danish  fleet  was 
destroyed  in  the  roadstead  by  the  English  (see  below,  §  Battle 
of  Copenhagen);  and  in  1807  the  city  was  bombarded  by  the 
British  under  Lord  Cathcart,  and  saw  the  destruction  of  the 
university  buildings,  its  principal  church  and  numerous  other 
edifices. 

See  O.  Nielsen,  Kobenhavns  Historic  oz  Beskrivelse  (Copenhagen, 
1877-1892);  C.  Bruun  and  P.  Munch,  Kobenhavn,  Skrilding  a} 
dels  Historic,  &c.  (ibid.  1887-1901);  Bering-Liisberg,  Kobenhavn 
i  gamle  Dage  (ibid.  1898  et  seq.).  (0.  J.  R.  H.) 

BATTLE  OF  COPENHAGEN 

The  formation  of  a  league  between  the  northern  powers, 
Russia,  Prussia,  Denmark  and  Sweden,  on  the  i6th  of  December 

1800,  nominally  to  protect  neutral  trade  at  sea  from  the  enforce- 
ment by  Great  Britain  of  her  belligerent  claims,  led  to  the 
despatch  of  a  British  fleet  to  the  Baltic  on  the  i2th  of  March 

1801.  It  consisted  of  fifty-three  sail  in  all,  of  which  eighteen 
were  of  the  line.     Prussia  possessed  no  fleet.     The  nominal 
strength  of  the  Russian  fleet  was  eighty-three  sail  of  the  line, 
of  the  Danish  twenty-three,  and  of  the  Swedish  eighteen.     But 
this  force  was  for  the  most  part  only  on  paper.     Some  of  the 
Russian  ships  were  at  Archangel,  others  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Of  those  actually  in  the  Baltic  and  fit  to  go  to  sea,  twelve  were 
at  Reval  shut  in  by  the  ice,  and  the  others  were  at  Kronstadt. 
The  Swedes  could  equip  only  eleven  of  the  line  for  sea,  and 

Denmark  only  seven  or  eight.  It  is  highly  doubtful  whether 
the  three  powers  could  have  collected  more  than  forty  ships  of 

he  line — and  they  would  have  been  hastily  manned,  destitute 
experience,  and  without  confidence.     A  rapid  British  attack 
vould  in  any  case  forestall  the  concentration  of  these  hetero- 

eneous  squadrons.     The  superior  quality  of  the  veteran  British 

rews  was  more  than  enough  to  counterbalance  a  mere  superiority 
in  numbers.  The  command  of  the  British  fleet  was  given  to 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  an  amiable  man  of  no  energy  and  little  ability. 
He  had  Nelson  with  him  as  second  in  command — then  a  junior 
admiral  but  without  rival  in  capacity  and  in  his  hold  on  the 

onfidence  of  the  fleet.  Parker's  orders  were  to  give  Denmark 
twenty-four  hours  in  which  to  withdraw  from  the  coalition,  and 
an  her  refusal  to  destroy  or  neutralize  her  strength  and  then 
proceed  against  the  Russians  before  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice 
allowed  the  ships  at  Reval  to  join  the  squadron  at  Kronstadt. 

On  the  aist  of  March  the  British  fleet,  after  a  somewhat 
stormy  passage,  was  at  the  entrance  to  the  Sound.  Nicholas 
Vansittart,  afterwards  Lord  Bexley,  the  British  diplomatic 
agent  entrusted  with  the  message  to  the  Danish  government, 
was  landed,  and  left  for  Copenhagen.  On  the  23rd  he  returned 
with  the  refusal  of  the  Danes.  The  British  fleet  then  passed 


the  Danish  fort  at  Cronenburg,  unhurt  by  its  distant  fire,  and 
without  being  molested  by  the  forts  on  the  Swedish  shore. 
Nelson  urged  immediate  attack,  and  recommended,  as  an 
alternative,  that  part  of  the  British  fleet  should  watch  the  Danes 
while  the  remainder  advanced  up  the  Baltic  to  prevent  the 
junction  of  the  Russian  Reval  squadron  with  the  ships  in 
Kronstadt.  Sir  Hyde  Parker  was,  however,  unwilling  to  go  up  the 
Baltic  with  the  Danes  unsubdued  behind  him,  or  to  divide  his 
force.  It  was  therefore  resolved  that  an  attack  should  be  made 
on  the  Danish  capital  with  the  whole  fleet  in  two  divisions. 
Copenhagen  lies  on  the  east  side  of  the  island  of  Zealand;  opposite 
it  is  the  shoal  known  as  the  Middle  Ground.  To  the  east  of  the 
Middle  Ground  is  another  shoal  known  as  Saltholm  Flat,  and 
there  is  a  passage  available  for  large  ships  between  them.  The 
main  fortification  of  Copenhagen  was  the  powerful  Trekroner 
(Three  Crown)  battery  at  the  northern  end  of  the  sea-front. 
Here  the  Danes  had  placed  their  strongest  ships.  The  southern 
part  of  the  city  front  was  covered  by  hulks  and  gun-vessels  or 
bomb-vessels.  There  were  in  all  eighteen  hulks  or  ships  of  the 
line  in  the  Danish  defence.  To  have  made  the  attack  from  the 
northern  end  would  in  Nelson's  words  have  been  "  to  take  the 
bull  by  the  horns."  He  therefore  proposed  that  he  should  be 
detached  with  ten  sail  of  the  line,  and  the  frigates  and  small 
craft,  to  pass  between  the  Middle  Ground  and  Saltholm  Flat, 
and  assail  the  Danish  line  at  the  southern  end  while  the  remainder 
of  the  fleet  engaged  the  Trekroner  battery  from  the  north.  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  accepted  his  offer,  and  added  two  ships  of  the  line 
to  the  ten  asked  for  by  Nelson. 

During  the  nights  of  the  3oth  and  3ist  of  March  the  channel 
between  the  Middle  Ground  and  Saltholm  Flat  was  sounded 
by  the  boats  of  the  British  fleet,  the  Danes  making  no  attempt 
to  interfere  with  them.  On  the  ist  of  April  Nelson  brought  his 
ships  through.  He  had  transferred  his  flag  from  his  own  ship 
the  "  St  George  "  (98)  to  the  "  Elephant  "  (74),  commanded  by 
Captain  Foley,  because  the  water  was  too  shallow  for  a  three- 
decker.  On  the  morning  of  the  2nd  of  April  the  wind  was  fair 
from  the  south-east,  and  at  9.30  A.M.  the  British  squadron  weighed 
anchor,  led  by  the  "  Amazon  "  frigate,  commanded  by  Captain 
Riou,  and  began  to  pass  along  the  front  of  the  Danish  line.  The 
Danes  could  bring  into  action  375  guns  in  all.  Their  hulks  and 
bomb-vessels  were  supported  by  batteries  on  Zealand;  but,  as 
the  water  is  shallow  for  a  long  distance  from  the  shore,  these 
defences  were  too  far  off  to  render  them  effectual  aid  on  the 
south  end  of  their  line.  Nelson  disposed  of  a  greater  number 
of  guns,  1058  in  all,  but  some  did  not  come  into  action.  The 
"  Agamemnon  "  (64),  commanded  by  Captain  Fancourt,  was 
unable  to  round  the  south  point  of  the  Middle  Ground.  The 
"  Bellona  "  (74),  commanded  by  Captain  Thompson,  and  the 
"  Russel  "  (74),  commanded  by  Captain  Cuming,  ran  ashore 
on  the  Middle  Ground,  but  within  range  though  at  too  great  a 
distance  for  fully  effective  fire.  Captain  Thompson  lost  his  leg 
in  the  battle.  The  other  ships  passed  between  the  "  Bellona  " 
and  "  Russel  "  and  the  Danes.  The  leading  British  ship,  the 
"Defiance"  (74),  carrying  the  flag  of  Rear-Adn- iral  Graves, 
anchored  just  south  of  the  Trekroner.  As  the  wind  was  from 
the  south-east  Sir  Hyde  Parker  was  unable  to  make  the  proposed 
attack  from  the  north.  The  place  opposite  the  Danish  fort 
which  was  to  have  been  taken  by  him  was  occupied  by  Captain 
Riou  and  the  frigates.  The  "  Elephant  "  anchored  almost  in 
the  middle  of  the  line.  Fire  was  opened  about  10  A.M.,  and  at 
11.30  the  action  was  at  its  height. 

Until  i  o'clock  there  was  no  diminution  of  the  Danish  fire. 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  who  saw  the  danger  of  Nelson's  position, 
became  anxious,  and  sent  his  second,  Captain  Robert  Waller 
Ottway,  to  him  with  a  message  authorizing  him  to  retire  if  he 
thought  fit.  Before  Ottway,  who  had  to  go  in  a  row-boat,  reached 
the  "  Elephant,"  Sir  Hyde  Parker  had  reflected  that  it  would  be 
more  magnanimous  in  him  to  take  the  responsibility  of  ordering 
the  retreat.  He  therefore  hoisted  the  signal  of  recall.  It  was 
a  well-meant  but  ill-judged  order.  Nelson  could  only  have 
retreated  before  the  south-easterly  wind  by  going  past  the 
Trekroner  fort,  where  the  passage  is  narrow,  and  the  navigation 


100 


COPERNICUS 


difficult.  He  therefore  disregarded  the  signal,  and  amused 
himself  and  the  few  officers  about  him  by  putting  his  glass  to 
his  blind  eye  and  saying  that  he  could  not  see  it.  The  frigates 
opposite  the  Trekroner  did  retreat,  Captain  Riou  being  slain 
as  they  drew  off. 

At  about  2.30  the  fire  from  the  Danish  hulks  had  been  much 
beaten  down,  but  as  their  crews  fell,  fresh  men  were  sent  from 
the  shore  and  the  fire  was  resumed.  Nelson  astutely  and 
legitimately  seized  the  opportunity  to  open  negotiations  with  the 
Danes.  He  sent  a  flag  of  truce  carried  by  Sir  F.  Thesiger  ashore 
to  the  crown  prince  of  Denmark  (then  regent  of  the  kingdom), 
to  say  that  unless  he  was  allowed  to  take  possession  of  the  hulks 
which  had  surrendered  he  would  be  compelled  to  burn  them,  a 
course  which  he  deprecated  on  the  ground  of  humanity  and  his 
tenderness  of  "  the  brothers  of  the  English  the  Danes."  The 
crown  prince,  who  was  shaken  by  the  spectacle  of  the  battle, 
allowed  himself  to  be  drawn  into  a  reply,  and  to  be  referred  to 
Sir  Hyde  Parker.  Fire  was  suspended  by  the  Danes  to  allow 
of  time  to  receive  Sir  Hyde  Parker's  answer.  Nelson  with 
intelligent  promptitude  availed  himself  of  the  interval  to  with- 
draw his  squadron  past  the  Trekroner.  The  difficulty  found  in 
getting  the  ships  out — one  of  them  grounded — showed  how 
disastrous  an  attempt  to  draw  off  under  fire  of  the  forts  must 
have  been. 

The  Danish  government,  which  had  entered  the  coalition 
largely  from  fear  of  Russia,  was  not  prepared  to  make  very  great 
sacrifices,  and  now  entered  into  negotiations  for  an  armistice. 
It  was  the  more  ready  to  do  so  because  it  received  news  of  the 
assassination  of  the  tsar  Paul,  which  had  happened  on  the  24th 
of  March.  An  armistice  was  made  for  fourteen  weeks,  which 
left  the  British  fleet  free  to  proceed  up  the  Baltic.  On  the  1 2th 
of  April,  after  lightening  the  three-deckers  of  their  guns,  the 
fleet  passed  over  the  shallows.  But  its  presence  had  now  lost 
all  military  significance.  Sir  Hyde  Parker  was  assured  by  the 
Russian  minister  at  Copenhagen  that  the  new  tsar  Alexander  I. 
would  not  continue  the  policy  of  hostility  with  England  and 
alliance  with  France  which  had  proved  fatal  to  his  father.  The 
Swedes,  who  like  the  Danes  had  entered  the  coalition  under 
pressure  from  Russia,  did  not  send  their  ships  to  sea.  The 
government  of  the  new  tsar  was  prepared  for  an  arrangement 
with  England.  The  date  of  the  final  settlement  was  in  all 
probability  delayed  by  the  activity  of  Nelson,  and  his  belief  that 
a  British  fleet  was  the  best  negotiator  in  Europe.  The  British 
government  learnt  of  the  tsar's  death  on  the  I5th  of  April.  On 
the  i  yth  it  instructed  Sir  Hyde  Parker  to  agree  to  a  suspension  of 
hostilities,  and  not  to  take  active  measures  against  Russia  so  long 
as  the  Reval  squadron  did  not  put  to  sea.  On  the  2ist  of  April, 
having  now  received  a  full  account  of  the  battle  at  Copenhagen, 
it  recalled  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  whose  vacillating  conduct  and 
want  of  enterprise  had  become  manifest.  He  received  the  news 
of  his  recall  on  the  sth  of  May.  Nelson,  to  whom  the  command 
passed,  at  once  put  to  sea,  and  hastened  with  a  part  of  his  fleet 
to  Reval,  which  he  reached  on  the  1 2th  of  May.  The  Russian 
squadron  had,  however,  cut  a  passage  through  the  ice  in  the 
harbour  on  the  3rd,  and  had  sailed  for  Kronstadt.  Nelson  was 
received  with  formal  civility  by  the  Russian  officers,  with  whom 
he  exchanged  visits.  He  wrote  a  letter  to  Mr  Garlike,  secretary 
of  the  British  embassy  at  St  Petersburg,  saying  that  he  had  come 
with  a  small  squadron  as  the  best  way  of  paying  "  the  very 
highest  compliment  "  to  the  tsar. 

The  Russian  government,  which  not  unnaturally  wished  to 
avoid  any  appearance  of  acting  under  dictation,  and  was  now 
in  no  anxiety  for  the  Reval  squadron,  treated  his  presence  as  a 
menace.  On  the  i^th  of  May  Count  Pahlen  answered  in  a  most 
peremptory  letter  informing  Nelson  that  negotiations  would 
be  suspended  while  he  remained  at  Reval.  This  retort  caused 
Nelson  annoyance  which  he  did  not  attempt  to  conceal,  but  he 
justly  concluded  that  he  had  nothing  further  to  do  at  Reval, 
and  therefore  returned  down  the  Baltic.  Nelson  remained  with 
the  fleet  till  he  was  relieved  at  his  own  request,  and  was  able  to 
sail  for  England  on  the  i8th  of  June.  He  gave  a  proof  of  his 
regard  for  the  service  of  the  country  by  taking  his  passage  home 


in  a  small  brig  rather  than  withdraw  a  line  of  battle  ship  from  the 
squadron,  which  his  rank  entitled  him  to  do,  and  as  other 
admirals  of  the  time  generally  did.  The  British  sailors  and  ships 
embargoed  in  Russia  were  released  on  the  lyth  of  May.  Great 
Britain  released  her  prisoners  on  the  4th  of  June,  and  on  the 
1 7th  of  June  was  signed  the  convention  which  terminated  the 
Baltic  campaign. 

See  Dispatches  and  Letters  of  Vice- Admiral  Nelson,  by  Sir  N.  Harris 
Nicolas  (1845);  Life  of  Nelson,  by  Capt.  A.  T.  Mahan  (London, 
1899).  (D.  H.) 

COPERNICUS  (or KoppERNiGK),NICOLAUS (1473-1543),  Polish 
astronomer,  was  born  on  the  igth  of  February  1473,  at  Thorn 
in  Prussian  Poland,  where  his  father,  a  native  of  Cracow,  had 
settled  as  a  wholesale  trader.  His  mother,  Barbara  Watzelrode, 
belonged  to  a  family  of  high  mercantile  and  civic  standing. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  in  1483,  Nicolaus  was  virtually 
adopted  by  his  uncle  Lucas  Watzelrode,  later  (in  1489)  bishop 
of  Ermeland.  Placed  at  the  university  of  Cracow  in  1491,  he 
devoted  himself,  during  three  years,  to  mathematical  science 
under  Albert  Brudzewski  (1445-1497),  and  incidentally  acquired 
some  skill  in  painting.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  repaired 
to  Bologna,  and  there  varied  his  studies  of  canon  law  by  attending 
the  astronomical  lectures  of  Domenico  Maria  Novara  (1454- 
1504).  At  Rome,  in  the  Jubilee  year  1500,  he  himself  lectured 
with  applause;  but  having  been  nominated  in  1497  canon  of 
the  cathedral  of  Frauenburg,  he  recrossed  the  Alps  in  1501  with 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  further  leave  of  absence  for  the  com- 
pletion of  his  academic  career.  Late  in  the  same  year,  accord- 
ingly, he  entered  the  medical  school  of  Padua,  where  he  remained 
until  1505,  having  taken  meanwhile  a  doctor's  degree  in  canon 
law  at  Ferrara  on  the  3ist  of  May  1503.  After  his  return  to 
his  native  country  he  resided  at  the  episcopal  palace  of  Heilsberg 
as  his  uncle's  physician  until  the  latter's  death  on  the  29th  of 
March  1512.  He  then  retired  to  Frauenburg,  and  vigorously 
attended  to  his  capitular  duties.  He  never  took  orders,  but 
acted  continually  as  the  representative  of  the  chapter  under 
harassing  conditions,  administrative  and  political;  he  was 
besides  commissary  of  the  diocese  of  Ermeland;  his  medical 
skill,  always  at  the  service  of  the  poor,  was  frequently  in  demand 
by  the  rich;  and  he  laid  a  scheme  for  the  reform  of  the  currency 
before  the  Diet  of  Graudenz  in  1522.  Yet  he  found  time,  amid 
these  multifarious  occupations,  to  elaborate  an  entirely  new 
system  of  astronomy,  by  the  adoption  of  which  man's  outlook 
on  the  universe  was  fundamentally  changed. 

The  main  lines  of  his  great  work  were  laid  down  at  Heilsberg; 
at  Frauenburg,  from  1513,  he  sought,  with  scanty  instrumental 
means,  to  test  by  observation  the  truth  of  the  views  it  embodied 
(see  ASTRONOMY:  History).  His  dissatisfaction  with  Ptolemaic 
doctrines  was  of  early  date;  and  he  returned  from  Italy,  where 
so-called  Pythagorean  opinions  were  then  freely  discussed,  in 
strong  and  irrevocable  possession  of  the  heliocentric  theory. 
The  epoch-making  treatise  in  which  it  was  set  forth,  virtually 
finished  in  1530,  began  to  be  known  through  the  circulation  in 
manuscript  of  a  Commenlariolus,  or  brief  popular  account  of  its 
purport  written  by  Copernicus  in  that  year.  Johann  Albrecht 
Widmanstadt  lectured  upon  it  in  Rome;  Clement  VII.  approved, 
and  Cardinal  Schonberg  transmitted  to  the  author  a  formal 
demand  for  full  publication.  But  his  assent  to  this  was  only 
extracted  from  him  in  1540  by  the  importunities  of  his  friends, 
especially  of  his  enthusiastic  disciple  George  Joachim  Rheticus 
(1514-1576),  who  printed,  in  the  Narratio  prima  (Danzig,  1540), 
a  preliminary  account  of  the  Copernican  theory,  and  simul- 
taneously sent  to  the  press  at  Nuremberg  his  master's  complete 
exposition  of  it  in  the  treatise  entitled  De  revolutionibus  orbium 
coelestium  (1543).  But  the  first  printed  copy  reached  Frauen- 
burg barely  in  time  to  be  laid  on  the  writer's  death-bed.  Coper- 
nicus was  seized  with  apoplexy  and  paralysis  towards  the  close 
of  1542,  and  died  on  the  24th  of  May  1543,  happily  unconscious 
that  the  fine  Epistle,  in  which  he  had  dedicated  his  life's  work 
to  Paul  III.,  was  marred  of  its  effect  by  an  anonymous  preface, 
slipt  in  by  Andreas  Osiander  (1498-1552),  with  a  view  to  dis- 
arming prejudice  by  insisting  upon  the  purely  hypothetical 


COPIAPO— COPPEE,  FRANgOIS 


101 


character  of  the  reasonings  it  introduced.  The  trigonometrical 
section  of  the  book  had  been  issued  as  a  separate  treatise  (Witten- 
berg, 1542)  under  the  care  of  Rheticus.  The  only  work  published 
by  Copernicus  on  his  own  initiative  was  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Greek  Epistles  of  Theophylact  (Cracow,  1509).  His  treatise 
De  monelae  cudendae  ratione,  1526  (first  printed  in  1816),  written 
by  order  of  King  Sigismund  I.,  is  an  exposition  of  the  principles 
on  which  it  was  proposed  to  reform  the  currency  of  the  Prussian 
provinces  of  Poland.  It  advocates  unity  of  the  monetary  system 
throughout  the  entire  state,  with  strict  integrity  in  the  quality 
of  the  coin,  and  the  charge  of  a  seigniorage  sufficient  to  cover 
the  expenses  of  mintage. 

AUTHORITIES. — Rheticus  was  the  only  contemporary  biographer 
of  Copernicus,  and  his  narrative  perished  irretrievably.  Gassendi's 
jejune  Life  (Paris,  1654)  is  thus  the  earliest  extant  of  any  note. 
It  was  supplemented,  during  the  igth  century,  by  the  various 
publications  of  J.  Sniadecki  (Warsaw,  1803-1818);  of  J.  H.  W. 
Westphal,  J.  Czynski,  M.  Curtze,  H.  A.  Wolynski,  F.  Hipler,  and 
others,  but  their  efforts  were  overshadowed  by  Dr  Leopold  Prowe's 
exhaustive  Nicolaus  Coppernicus  (Berlin,  1883-1884),  embodying 
the  outcome  of  researches  indefatigably  prosecuted  for  over  thirty 
years.  The  first  volume  (in  two  parts)  is  a  detailed  biography  of  the 
great  astronomer;  the  second  includes  some  of  his  minor  writings 
and  correspondence,  family  records,  and  historical  documents  of 
local  interest.  The  effects  of  his  Italian  sojourn  upon  the  nascent 
ideas  of  Copernicus  may  be  profitably  studied  in  Domenico  Berti's 
Copernico  e  le  vicende  del  sistema  Copernicano  in  Italia  (Roma,  1876), 
and  in  G.  V.  Schiaparelli's  /  Precursori  del  Copernico  nell'  antichita 
(Milano,  1873).  A  centenary  edition  of  De  revolutionibus  erbium 
coelestium  was  issued  at  Thorn  in  1873,  and  a  German  translation 
by  C.  L.  Menzzer  in  1879.  (A.  M.  C.) 

COPIAP6,  a  city  of  northern  Chile,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Atacama,  about  35  m.  from  the  coast  on  the  Copiapo  river,  in 
lat.  27°  36'  S.,  long.  70°  23'  W.  Pop.  (1895)  93°i-  The  Caldera 
&  Copiapo  railway  (built  1848-1851  and  one  of  the  first  in  South 
America)  extends  beyond  Copiapo  to  the  Chanarcillo  mines 
(50  m.)  and  other  mining  districts.  Copiapo  stands  1300  ft. 
above  sea-level  and  has  a  mean  temperature  of  about  67°  in 
summer  and  51°  in  winter.  Its  port,  Caldera,  50  m.  distant  by 
rail,  is  situated  on  a  well-sheltered  bay  with  good  shipping 
facilities  about  6  m.  N.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Copiapo  river. 
Copiap6  is  perhaps  the  best  built  and  most  attractive  of  the 
desert  region  cities.  The  river  brings  down  from  the  mountains 
enough  water  to  supply  the  town  and  irrigate  a  considerable 
area  in  its  vicinity.  Beyond  the  small  fertile  valley  in  which 
it  stands  is  the  barren  desert,  on  which  rain  rarely  falls  and 
which  has  no  economic  value  apart  from  its  minerals  (especially 
saline  compounds).  Copiapo  was  founded  in  1742  by  Jose  de 
Manso  (afterwards  Conde  de  Superunda,  viceroy  of  Peru)  and 
took  its  name  from  the  Copayapu  Indians  who  occupied  that 
region.  It  was  primarily  a  military  station  and  transport  post 
on  the  road  to  Peru,  but  after  the  discovery  of  the  rich  silver 
deposits  near  Chanarcillo  by  Juan  Godoy  in  1832  it  became  an 
important  mining  centre.  It  has  a  good  mining  school  and 
reduction  works,  and  is  the  supply  station  for  an  extensive 
mining  district.  For  many  years  the  Famatina  mines  of 
Argentina  received  supplies  from  this  point  by  way  of  the  Come- 
Caballo  pass. 

COPING  (from  "  cope,"  Lat.  capo),  in  architecture,  the  capping 
or  covering  of  a  wall.  This  may  be  made  of  stone,  brick,  tile, 
slate,  metal,  wood  or  thatch.  In  all  cases  it  should  be  weathered 
to  throw  off  the  wet.  In  Romanesque  work  it  was  plain  and 
flat,  and  projected  over  the  wall  with  a  throating  to  form  a  drip. 
In  later  work  a  steep  slope  was  given  to  the  weathering  (mainly 
on  the  outer  side),  and  began  at  the  top  with  an  astragal;  in 
the  Decorated  style  there  were  two  or  three  sets  off;  and  in  the 
later  Perpendicular  period  these  assumed  a  wavy  section,  and 
the  coping  mouldings  were  continued  round  the  sides,  as  well 
as  at  top  and  bottom,  mitreing  at  the  angles,  as  in  many  of  the 
colleges  at  Oxford.  The  cheapest  type  of  coping  is  that  which 
caps  the  ordinary  9  in.  brick  wall,  and  consists  of  brick  on  edge 
above  a  double  tile  creasing,  all  in  cement;  the  creasing  con- 
sisting of  one  or  two  rows  of  tiles  laid  horizontally  on  the  wall 
and  projecting  on  each  side  about  2  in.  to  throw  off  the  water 
(see  also  MASONRY). 


COPLAND,  ROBERT  (fl.  1515),  English  printer  and  author, 
is  said  to  have  been  a  servant  of  William  Caxton,  and  certainly 
worked  for  Wynkyn  de  Worde.  The  first  book  to  which  his 
name  is  affixed  as  a  printer  is  The  Boke  of  Justices  of  Peace  (1515), 
at  the  sign  of  the  Rose  Garland,  in  Fleet  Street,  London.  Anthony 
a,  Wood  supposed,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  more  educated 
than  was  usual  in  his  trade,  that  he  had  been  a  poor  scholar  of 
Oxford.  His  best  known  works  are  The  hye  way  to  the  Spyttell 
hous,  a  dialogue  in  verse  between  Copland  ard  the  porter  of 
St  Bartholomew's  hospital,  containing  much  information  about 
the  vagabonds  who  found  their  way  there;  and  Jyl  of  Breynt- 
fords  Testament,  dismissed  in  Athenae  Oxonienses  (ed.  Bliss)  as 
"  a  poem  devoid  of  wit  or  decency,  and  totally  unworthy  of 
further  notice."  He  translated  from  the  French  the  romances 
of  Kynge  Appolyne  of  Thyre  (W.  de  Worde,  1510),  The  History 
of  Helyas  Knyght  of  the  Swanne  (W.  de  Worde,  1513),  and  The 
Life  of  Ipomydon  (Hue  of  Rolelande),  not  dated.  Among  his 
other  works  is  The  Complaynle  of  them  that  ben  too  late  marycd, 
an  undated  tract  printed  by  W.  de  Worde. 

William  Copland,  the  printer,  supposed  to  have  been  his 
brother,  published  three  editions  of  Howleglas,  perhaps  by 
Robert,  which  in  any  case  represent  the  earliest  English  version 
of  Till  Eulenspiegel. 

The  Knyght  of  the  Swanne  was  reprinted  in  Thorn's  Early  Prose- 
Romances,  vol.  lii.,  and  by  the  Grolier  Club  (1901);  the  Hye  Way 
in  W.  C.  Hazlitt's  Remains  of  the  Early  Popular  Poetry  of  England, 
vol.  iv.  (1866).  See  further  the  "  Forewords  "  to  Dr  F.  J.  Furmvall's 
reprint  of  Jyl  of  Breyntford  (for  private  circulation,  1871)  and  J.  P. 
Collier,  Bibliographical  and  Critical  Account  of  the  Rarest  Books  in  the 
English  Language,  vol.  i.  p.  153  (1865).  For  the  books  issued  from 
his  press  see  Hand-Lists  of  English  Printers  (1501-1556),  printed 
for  the  Bibliographical  Society  in  1896. 

COPLESTON,  EDWARD  (1776-1849),  English  bishop,  was 
born  at  Offwell  in  Devonshire,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was 
elected  to  a  tutorship  at  Oriel  College  in  1797,  and  in  1800  was 
appointed  vicar  of  St  Mary's,  Oxford.  As  university  professor 
of  poetry  (1802-1812)  he  gained  a  considerable  reputation  by 
his  clever  literary  criticism  and  sound  latinity.  After  holding 
the  office  of  dean  at  Oriel  for  some  years,  he  succeeded  to  the 
provostship  in  1814,  and  owing  largely  to  his  influence  the 
college  reached  a  remarkable  degree  of  prosperity  during  the 
first  quarter  of  the  igth  century.  In  1826  he  was  appointed 
dean  of  Chester,  and  in  the  next  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Llandaff.  Here  he  gave  his  support  to  the  new  movement 
for  church  restoration  in  Wales,  and  during  his  occupation  of 
the  see  more  than  twenty  new  churches  were  built  in  the  diocese. 
The  political  problems  of  the  time  interested  him  greatly,  and 
his  writings  include  two  able  letters  to  Sir  Robert  Peel,  one 
dealing  with  the  Variable  Standard  of  Value,  the  other  with  the 
Increase  of  Pauperism  (Oxford,  1819). 

COPLEY,  JOHN  SINGLETON  (1737-1815),  English  historical 
painter,  was  born  of  Irish  parents  at  Boston,  Massachusetts. 
He  was  self-educated,  and  commenced  his  career  as  a  portrait- 
painter  in  his  native  city.  The  germ  of  his  reputation  in  England 
was  a  little  picture  of  a  boy  and  squirrel,  exhibited  at  the  Society 
of  Arts  in  1760.  In  1774  he  went  to  Rome,  and  thence  in  1775 
came  to  England.  In  1777  he  was  admitted  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy;  in  1783  he  was  made  Academician  on  the 
exhibition  of  his  most  famous  picture,  the  "  Death  of  Chatham," 
popularized  immediately  by  Bartolozzi's  elaborate  engraving; 
and  in  1790  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  a  portrait  picture  of 
the  defence  of  Gibraltar.  The  "  Death  of  Major  Pierson,"  in 
the  National  Gallery,  also  deserves  mention.  Copley's  powers 
appear  to  greatest  advantage  in  his  portraits.  He  was  the 
father  of  Lord  Chancellor  Lyndhurst. 

COPPfiE,  FRANCOIS  6DOUARD  JOACHIM  (1842-1908), 
French  poet  and  novelist,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  izth  of 
January  1842.  His  father  held  a  small  post  in  the  civil  service, 
and  he  owed  much  to  the  care  of  an  admirable  mother.  After 
passing  through  the  Lyc6e  Saint-Louis  he  became  a  clerk  in 
the  ministry  of  war,  and  soon  sprang  into  public  favour  as  a 
poet  of  the  young  "  Parnassian  "  school.  His  first  printed  verses 
date  from  1864.  They  were  republished  with  others  in  1866  in 


102 


COPPEE,  HENRY— COPPER 


a  collected  form  (Le  Reliquaire),  followed  (1867)  by  Les  Intimites 
and  Poemes  modernes  (1867-1869).  In  1869  his  first  play,  Le 
Passant,  was  received  with  marked  approval  at  the  Odeon 
theatre,  and  later  Fais  ce  que  dois  (1871)  and  Les  Bijoux  de  la 
delivrance  (1872),  short  metrical  dramas  inspired  by  the  war, 
were  warmly  applauded. 

After  filling  a  post  in  the  library  of  the  senate,  Coppee  was 
chosen  in  1878  as  archivist  of  the  Comedie-Francaise,  an  office 
which  he  held  till  1884.  In  that  year  his  election  to  the  Academy 
caused  him  to  retire  altogether  from  his  public  appointments. 
He  continued  to  publish  volumes  of  poetry  at  frequent  intervals, 
including  Les  Humbles  (1872),  Le  Cahier  rouge  (1874),  Olivier 
(1875),  L'Exilte  (1876),  Contes  en  vers,  &c.  (1881),  Poemes  et 
recils  (1886),  Arriere-saison  (1887),  Paroles  sincere!  (1890).  In 
his  later  years  his  output  of  verse  declined,  but  he  published  two 
more  volumes,  Dans  la  priere  et  la  lutte  and  Vers  franc,ais.  He 
had  established  his  fame  as  "  le  poete  des  humbles."  Besides 
the  plays  mentioned  above,  two  others  written  in  collaboration 
with  Armand  d'Artois,  and  some  light  pieces  of  little  importance, 
Coppee  produced  Madame  de  Maintenon  (1881),  Sever o  Torelli 
(1883),  Les  Jacobites  (1885),  and  other  serious  dramas  in  verse, 
including  Pour  la  couronne  (1895),  which  was  translated  into 
English  (For  the  Crown)  by  John  Davidson,  and  produced  at  the 
Lyceum  Theatre  in  1896.  The  performance  of  a  short  episode 
of  the  Commune,  Le  Pater,  was  prohibited  by  the  government 
(1889).  Coppee's  first  story  in  prose,  Une  Idylle  pendant  le  siege, 
appeared  in  1875.  It  was  followed  by  various  volumes  of  short 
tales,  by  Toute  unejeunesse  (1890) — an  attempt  to  reproduce  the 
feelings,  if  not  the  actual  wants,  of  the  writer's  youth, — Les  Vrais 
Riches  (1892),  LcCoupable  (1896),  &c.  He  was  made  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1888.  A  series  of  reprinted  short 
articles  on  miscellaneous  subjects,  styled  Man  Franc  Parler, 
appeared  from  1893  to  1896;  and  in  1898  was  published  La 
Bonne  Sou/ranee,  the  outcome  of  Coppee's  reconversion  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  gained  very  wide  popularity. 
The  immediate  cause  of  his  return  to  the  faith  was  a  severe  illness 
which  twice  brought  him  to  the  verge  .of  the  grave.  Hitherto 
he  had  taken  little  open  interest  in  public  affairs,  but  he  now 
joined  the  most  violent  section  of  Nationalist  politicians,  while 
retaining  contempt  for  the  whole  apparatus  of  democracy.  He 
took  a  leading  part  against  the  prisoner  in  the  Dreyfus  case, 
and  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  notorious  Ligue  de  la  Patrie 
Francaise.  He  died  on  the  23rd  of  May  1908. 

Alike  in  verse  and  prose  Coppee  concerned  himself  with  the 
plainest  expressions  of  human  emotion,  with  elemental  patriot- 
ism, and  the  joy  of  young  love,  and  the  pitifulness  of  the  poor, 
bringing  to  bear  on  each  a  singular  gift  of  sympathy  and  insight. 
The  lyric  and  idyllic  poetry,  by  which  he  will  chiefly  be  re- 
membered, is  animated  by  musical  charm,  and  in  some  instances, 
such  as  La  Benediction  and  La  Greve  des  forgerons,  displays  a 
vivid,  though  not  a  sustained,  power  of  expression.  There  is 
force,  too,  in  the  gloomy  tale,  Le  Coupable.  But  he  exhibits  all 
the  defects  of  his  qualities.  In  prose  especially,  his  sentiment 
often  degenerates  into  sentimentality,  and  he  continually 
approaches,  and  sometimes  oversteps,  the  verge  of  the  trivial. 
Nevertheless,  by  neglecting  that  canon  of  contemporary  art 
which  would  reduce  the  deepest  tragedies  of  life  to  mere  subjects 
for  dissection,  he  won  those  common  suffrages  which  are  the  prize 
of  exquisite  literature. 

See  M.  de  Lescure's  Francois  Coppee,  I'homme,  la  vie,  I'asuvre 
(1889),  and  G.  Druilhet,  Un  Poete  franc.ais  (1902). 

COPP6E,  HENRY  (1821-1895),  American  educationalist 
and  author,  was  born  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  on  the  i3th  of 
October  1821,  of  a  French  family  formerly  settled  in  Haiti. 
He  studied  at  Yale  for  two  years,  worked  as  a  civil  engineer, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  served  in  the  Mexican  War  as 
a  lieutenant  and  was  breveted  captain  for  gallantry  at  Contreras 
and  Churubusco,  was  professor  of  English  at  West  Point  from 
1850  to  1855  (when  he  resigned  from  the  army),  was  professor 
of  English  literature  and  history  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania 1855-1866,  and  on  the  ist  of  April  1866  was  chosen  first 
president  of  Lehigh  University.  In  1875  ne  was  succeeded  by 


John  McD.  Leavitt  and  became  professor  of  history  and  English 
literature,  but  was  president  pro  tern,  from  the  death  of  Robert 
A.  Lamberton  (b.  1824)  in  September  1893  to  his  own  death 
in  Bethlehem  on  the  22nd  of  March  1895.  He  published  ele- 
mentary text-books  of  logic  (1857),  of  rhetoric  (1859),  and  of 
English  literature  (1872);  various  manuals  of  drill;  Grant,  a 
Military  Biography  (1866);  General  Thomas  (1893),  in  the 
"  Great  Commanders  "  Series;  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain 
by  the  Arab-Moors  (1881) ;  and  in  1862  a  translation  of  Marmont's 
Esprit  des  institutions  militaires,  besides  editing  the  Comte  de 
Paris's  Civil  War  in  America. 

COPPER  (symbol  Cu,  atomic  weight  63-1,  H=i,  or  63-6, 
O  =  16),  a  metal  which  has  been  known  to  and  used  by  the  human 
race  from  the  most  remote  periods.  Its  alloy  with  tin  (bronze) 
was  the  first  metallic  compound  in  common  use  by  mankind, 
and  so  extensive  and  characteristic  was  its  employment  in  pre- 
historic times  that  the  epoch  is  known  as  the  Bronze  Age.  By 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  both  the  metal  and  its  alloys  were 
indifferently  known  as  xiXxos  and  aes.  As,  according  to  Pliny, 
the  Roman  supply  was  chiefly  drawn  from  Cyprus,  it  came  to  be 
termed  aes  cyprium,  which  was  gradually  shortened  to  cyprium, 
and  corrupted  into  cuprum,  whence  comes  the  English  word 
copper,  the  French  cuiwe,  and  the  German  Kupfer. 

Copper  is  a  brilliant  metal  of  a  peculiar  red  colour  which 
assumes  a  pinkish  or  yellowish  tinge  on  a  freshly  fractured  surface 
of  the  pure  metal,  and  is  purplish  when  the  metal  contains 
cuprous  oxide.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  between  8-91  and 
8-95,  according  to  the  treatment  to  which  it  may  have  been 
subjected;  J.  F.  W.  Hampe  gives  8-945  (-JS)  for  perfectly  pure 
and  compact  copper.  Ordinary  commercial  copper  is  somewhat 
porous  and  has  a  specific  gravity  ranging  from  8-  2  to  8-  5.  It  takes 
a  brilliant  polish,  is  in  a  high  degree  malleable  and  ductile,  and 
in  tenacity  it  only  falls  short  of  iron,  exceeding  in  that  quality 
both  silver  and  gold.  By  different  authorities  its  melting-point 
is  stated  at  from  1000°  to  1200°  C.;  C.  T.  Heycock  and  F.  H. 
Neville  give  io8o°-5;  P.  Dejean  gives  1085°  as  the  freezing- 
point.  The  molten  metal  is  sea-green  in  colour,  and  at  higher 
temperatures  (in  the  electric  arc)  it  vaporizes  and  burns  with 
a  green  flame.  G.  W.  A.  Kahlbaum  succeeded  in  subliming  the 
metal  in  a  vacuum,  and  H.  Moissan  (Compt.  rend.,  1905,  141, 
p.  853)  distilled  it  in  the  electric  furnace.  Molten  copper  absorbs 
carbon  monoxide,  hydrogen  and  sulphur  dioxide;  it  also  appears 
to  decompose  hydrocarbons  (methane,  ethane),  absorbing  the 
hydrogen  and  the  carbon  separating  out.  These  occluded  gases 
are  all  liberated  when  the  copper  cools,  and  so  give  rise  to  porous 
castings,  unless  special  precautions  are  taken.  The  gases  are 
also  expelled  from  the  molten  metal  by  lead,  carbon  dioxide, 
or  water  vapour.  Its  specific  heat  is  0-0899  at  °°  C.  and  0-0942 
at  100°;  the  coefficient  of  linear  expansion  per  i°  C.  is  0-001869. 
In  electric  conductivity  it  stands  next  to  silver;  the  conducting 
power  of  silver  being  equal  to  100,  that  of  perfectly  pure  copper 
is  given  by  A.  Matthiessen  as  96-4  at  13°  C. 

Copper  is  not  affected  by  exposure  in  dry  air,  but  in  a  moist 
atmosphere,  containing  carbonic  acid,  it  becomes  coated  with  a 
green  basic  carbonate.  When  heated  or  rubbed  it  emits  a  peculiar 
disagreeable  odour.  Sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids  have  little 
or  no  action  upon  it  at  ordinary  temperatures,  even  when 
in  a  fine  state  of  division;  but  on  heating,  copper  sulphate  and 
sulphur  dioxide  are  formed  in  the  first  case,  and  cuprous  chloride 
and  hydrogen  in  the  second.  Concentrated  nitric  acid  has  also 
very  little  action,  but  with  the  dilute  acid  a  vigorous  action 
ensues.  The  first  products  of  this  reaction  are  copper  nitrate 
and  nitric  oxide,  but,  as  the  concentration  of  the  copper  nitrate 
increases,  nitrous  oxide  and,  eventually,  free  nitrogen  are  liberated. 

Many  colloidal  solutions  of  copper  have  been  obtained.  A 
reddish-brown  solution  is  obtained  from  solutions  of  copper 
chloride,  stannous  chloride  and  an  alkaline  tartrate  (Lotter- 
moser,  Anorganische  Colloide,  1901). 

Occurrence. — Copper  is  widely  distributed  in  nature,  occurring 
in  most  soils,  ferruginous  mineral  waters,  and  ores.  It  has  been 
discovered  in  seaweed;  in  the  blood  of  certain  Cephalopoda  and 
Ascidia  as  haemocyanin,  a  substance  resembling  the  ferruginous 


COPPER 


103 


haemoglobin,  and  of  a  species  of  Limulus;  in  straw,  hay,  eggs, 
cheese,  meat,  and  other  food-stuffs;  in  the  liver  and  kidneys, 
and,  in  traces,  in  the  blood  of  man  and  other  animals  (as  an  en- 
tirely adventitious  constituent,  however) ;  it  has  also  been  shown 
by  A.  H.  Church  to  exist  to  the  extent  of  5-9%  in  turacin,  the 
colouring-matter  of  the  wing-feathers  of  the  Turaco. 

Native  copper,  sometimes  termed  by  miners  malleable  or 
virgin  copper,  occurs  as  a  mineral  having  all  the  properties 
of  the  smelted  metal.  It  crystallizes  in  the  cubic  system,  but  the 
crystals  are  often  flattened,  elongated,  rounded  or  otherwise 
distorted.  Twins  are  common.  Usually  the  metal  is  arborescent, 
dendritic,  filiform,  moss-like  or  laminar.  Native  copper  is  found 
in  most  copper-mines,  usually  in  the  upper  workings,  where 
the  deposit  has  been  exposed  to  atmospheric  influences.  The 
metal  seems  to  have  been  reduced  from  solutions  of  its  salts,  and 
deposits  may  be  formed  around  mine-timber  or  on  iron  objects. 
It  often  fills  cracks  and  fissures  in  the  rock.  It  is  not  infrequently 
found  in  serpentine,  and  in  basic  eruptive  rocks,  where  it  occurs 
as  veins  and  in  amygdales.  The  largest  known  deposits  are  those 
in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  near  Keweenaw  Point,  Michigan, 
where  masses  upwards  of  400  tons  in  weight  have  been  dis- 
covered. The  metal  was  formerly  worked  by  the  Indians  for 
implements  and  ornaments.  It  occurs  in  a  series  of  amygdaloidal 
dolerites  or  diabases,  and  in  the  associated  sandstones  and  con- 
glomerates. Native  silver  occurs  with  the  copper,  in  some 
cases  embedded  in  it,  like  crystals  in  a  porphyry.  The  copper  is 
also  accompanied  by  epidote,  calcite,  prehnite,  analcite  and  other 
zeolitic  minerals.  Pseudomorphs  after  calcite  are  known;  and 
it  is  notable  that  native  copper  occurs  pseudomorphous  after 
aragonite  at  Corocoro,  in  Bolivia,  where  the  copper  is  disseminated 
through  sandstone. 

Ores. — The  principal  ores  of  copper  are  the  oxides  cuprite  and 
melaconite,  the  carbonates  malachite  and  chessylite,  the  basic 
chloride  atacamite,  the  silicate  chrysocolla,  the  sulphides 
chalcocite,  chalcopyrite,  erubescite  and  tetrahedrite.  Cuprite 
(q.v.)  occurs  in  most  cupriferous  mines,  but  never  by  itself  in 
large  quantities.  Melaconite  (q.v.)  was  formerly  largely  worked 
in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  and  is  abundant  in  some  of  the 
mines  of  Tennessee  and  the  Mississippi  valley.  Malachite  is  a 
valuable  ore  containing  about  56%  of  the  metal;  it  is  obtained 
in  very  large  quantities  from  South  Australia,  Siberia  and  other 
localities.  Frequently  intermixed  with  the  green  malachite  is 
the  blue  carbonate  chessylite  or  azurite  (q.v.),  an  ore  containing 
when  pure  55-16%  of  the  metal.  Atacamite  (q.v.)  occurs  chiefly 
in  Chile  and  Peru.  Chrysocolla  (q.v.)  contains  in  the  pure  state 
30%  of  the  metal;  it  is  an  abundant  ore  in  Chile,  Wisconsin 
and  Missouri.  The  sulphur  compounds  of  copper  are,  however, 
the  most  valuable  from  the  economic  point  of  view.  Chalcocite, 
redruthite,  copper-glance  (q.v.)  or  vitreous  copper  (Cu2S)  contains 
about  80%  of  copper.  Copper  pyrites,  or  chalcopyrite,  contains 
34-6%  of  copper  when  pure;  but  many  of  the  ores,  such  as 
those  worked  specially  by  wet  processes  on  account  of  the  presence 
of  a  large  proportion  of  iron  sulphide,  contain  less  than  5%  of 
copper.  Cornish  ores  are  almost  entirely  pyritic;  and  indeed 
it  is  from  such  ores  that  by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  copper 
is  extracted  throughout  the  world.  In  Cornwall  copper  lodes 
usually  run  east  and  west.  They  occur  both  in  the  "  killas  " 
or  clay-slate,  and  in  the  "  growan  "  or  granite.  Erubescite 
(q.v.),  bornite,  or  horseflesh  ore  is  much  richer  in  copper  than  the 
ordinary  pyrites,  and  contains  56  or  57%  of  copper.  Tetra- 
hedrite (q.v.),  fahlerz,  or  grey  copper,  contains  from  30  to 
48%  of  copper,  with  arsenic,  antimony,  iron  and  sometimes 
zinc,  silver  or  mercury.  Other  copper  minerals  are  percylite 
(PbCuCl2(OH)2),  boleite  (3PbCuCl2(OH)2,  AgCl),  stromeyerite 
l(Cu,  AgJjSI,  cubanite  (CuS,  Fe2S3),  stannite  (Cu2S,  FeSnS3), 
tennantite  (3Cu2S,  As2S3),  emplectite  (Cu2S,  Bi^s),  wolfsbergite 
(Cu;S,  Sb2S3),  famatinite  (3Cu2S,  Sb2S6)  and  enargite  (3Cu2S, 
As2S5).  For  other  minerals,  see  Compounds  of  Copper  below. 

Metallurgy. — Copper  is  obtained  from  its  ores  by  three  principal 
methods,  which  may  be  denominated — (i)  the  pyro-metallurgical 
or  dry  method,  (2)  the  hydro-metallurgical  or  wet  method,  and 
(3)  the  electro-metallurgical  method. 


The  methods  of  working  vary  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ores  treated  and  local  circumstances.  The  dry  method, 
or  ordinary  smelting,  cannot  be  profitably  practised  with  ores 
containing  less  than  4  %  of  copper,  for  which  and  for  still  poorer 
ores  the  wet  process  is  preferred. 

Copper  Smelling. — We  shall  first  give  the  general  principles 
which  underlie  the  methods  for  the  dry  extraction  of  copper,  and 
then  proceed  to  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  the  plant  used. 
Since  all  sulphuretted  copper  ores  (and  these  are  of  the  most 
economic  importance)  are  invariably  contaminated  with  arsenic 
and  antimony,  it  is  necessary  to  eliminate  these  impurities,  as 
far  as  possible,  at  a  very  early  stage.  This  is  effected  by  calcina- 
tion or  roasting.  The  roasted  ore  is  then  smelted  to  a  mixture 
of  copper  and  iron  sulphides,  known  as  copper  "  matte  "  or 
"  coarse-metal,"  which  contains  little  or  no  arsenic,  antimony 
or  silica.  The  coarse-metal  is  now  smelted,  with  coke  and 
siliceous  fluxes  (in  order  to  slag  off  the  iron),  and  the  product, 
consisting  of  an  impure  copper  sulphide,  is  variously  known  as 
"  blue-metal,"  when  more  or  less  iron  is  still  present,  "  pimple- 
metal,"  when  free  copper  and  more  or  less  copper  oxide  is  present, 
or  "  fine  "  or  "  white-metal,"  which  is  a  fairly  pure  copper 
sulphide,  containing  about  75%  of  the  metal.  This  product  is 
re-smelted  to  form  "  coarse-copper,"  containing  about  95  %  of 
the  metal,  which  is  then  refined.  Roasted  ores  may  be  smelted 
in  reverberatory  furnaces  (English  process),  or  in  blast-furnaces 
(German  or  Swedish  process).  The  matte  is  treated  either  in 
reverberatory  furnaces  (English  process),  in  blast  furnaces 
(German  process),  or  in  converters  (Bessemer  process).  The 
"  American  process  "  or  "  Pyritic  smelting  "  consists  in  the 
direct  smelting  of  raw  ores  to  matte  in  blast  furnaces.  The 
plant  in  which  the  operations  are  conducted  varies  in  different 
countries.  But  though  this  or  that  process  takes  its  name  from 
the  country  in  which  it  has  been  mainly  developed,  this  does  not 
mean  that  only  that  process  is  there  followed. 

The  "  English  process  "  is  made  up  of  the  following  operations: 
(i)  calcination;  (2)  smelting  in  reverberatory  furnaces  to  form 
the  matte;  (3)  roasting  the  matte;  and  (4)  subsequent  smelting 
in  reverberatory  furnaces  to  fine-  or  white-metal;  (5)  treating 
the  fine-metal  in  reverberatory  furnaces  to  coarse-  or  blister- 
copper,  either  with  or  without  previous  calcination;  (6)  refining 
of  the  coarse-copper.  A  shorter  process  (the  so-called  "  direct 
process  ")  converts  the  fine-metal  into  refined  copper  directly. 
The  "Welsh  process"  closely  resembles  the  English  method; 
the  main  difference  consists  in  the  enrichment  of  the  matte  by 
smelting  with  the  rich  copper-bearing  slags  obtained  in  sub- 
sequent operations.  The  "  German  or  Swedish  process  "  is 
characterized  by  the  introduction  of  blast-furnaces.  It  is  made 
up  of  the  following  operations:  (i)  calcination,  (2)  smelting  in 
blast-furnaces  to  form  the  matte,  (3)  roasting  the  matte,  (4) 
smelting  in  blast-furnaces  with  coke  and  fluxes  to  "  black-  "  or 
"  coarse-metal,"  (5)  refining  the  coarse-metal.  The  "  Anglo- 
German  Process  "  is  a  combination  of  the  two  preceding,  and 
consists  in  smelting  the  calcined  ores  in  shaft  furnaces,  con- 
centrating the  matte  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  and  smelting  to 
coarse-metal  in  either. 

The  impurities  contained  in  coarse-copper  are  mainly  iron,  lead, 
zinc,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth,  arsenic,  antimony,  sulphur, 
selenium  and  tellurium.  These  can  be  eliminated  by  an  oxidizing 
fusion,  and  slagging  or  volatilizing  the  products  resulting  from 
this  operation,  or  by  electrolysis  (see  below).  In  the  process 
of  oxidation,  a  certain  amount  of  cuprous  oxide  is  always  formed, 
which  melts  in  with  the  copper  and  diminishes  its  softness  and 
tenacity.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  reconvert  the  oxide  into 
the  metal.  This  is  effected  by  stirring  the  molten  metal  with  a 
pole  of  green  wood  ("  poling  ") ;  the  products  which  arise  from 
the  combustion  and  distillation  of  the  wood  reduce  the  oxide  to 
metal,  and  if  the  operation  be  properly  conducted  "tough-pitch  " 
copper,  soft,  malleable  and  exhibiting  a  lustrous  silky  fracture, 
is  obtained.  The  surface  of  the  molten  metal  is  protected  from 
oxidation  by  a  layer  of  anthracite  or  charcoal.  "  Bean-shot  " 
copper  is  obtained  by  throwing  the  molten  metal  into  hot  water; 
if  cold  water  be  used,  "  feathered-shot "  copper  is  formed. 


104 


COPPER 


"  Rosette  "  copper  is  obtained  as  thin  plates  of  a  characteristic 
dark-red  colour,  by  pouring  water  upon  the  surface  of  the  molten 
metal,  and  removing  the  crust  formed.  "  Japan  "  copper  is 
purple-red  in  colour,  and  is  formed  by  casting  into  ingots, 
weighing  from  six  ounces  to  a  pound,  and  rapidly  cooling  by 
immersion  in  water.  The  colour  of  these  two  varieties  is  due  to 
a  layer  of  oxide.  "  Tile  "  copper  is  an  impure  copper,  and  is 
obtained  by  refining  the  first  tappings.  "  Best-selected  "  copper 
is  a  purer  variety. 

Calcination  or  Roasting  and  Calcining  Furnaces. — The  roasting 
should  be  conducted  so  as  to  eliminate  as  much  of  the  arsenic 
and  antimony  as  possible,  and  to  leave  just  enough  sulphur  as  is 
necessary  to  combine  with  all  the  copper  present  when  the 
calcined  ore  is  smelted.  The  process  is  effected  either  in  heaps, 
stalls,  shaft  furnaces,  reverberatory  furnaces  or  muffle  furnaces. 
Stall  and  heap  roasting  require  considerable  time,  and  can  only 
be  economically  employed  when  the  loss  of  the  sulphur  is  of  no 
consequence;  they  also  occupy  much  space,  but  they  have  the 
advantage  of  requiring  little  fuel  and  handling.  Shaft  furnaces 
are  in  use  for  ores  rich  in  sulphur,  and  where  it  is  desirable  to 
convert  the  waste  gases  into  sulphuric  acid.  Reverberatory 
roasting  does  not  admit  of  the  utilization  of  the  waste  gases, 
and  requires  fine  ores  and  much  labour  and  fuel;  it  has,  however, 
the  advantage  of  being  rapid.  Muffle  furnaces  are  suitable  for 
fine  ores  which  are  liable  to  decrepitate  or  sinter.  They  involve 
high  cost  in  fuel  and  labour,  but  permit  the  utilization  of  the 
waste  gases. 

Reverberatory  furnaces  of  three  types  are  employed  in 
calcining  copper  ores:  (i)  fixed  furnaces,  with  either  hand  or 
mechanical  rabbling;  (2)  furnaces  with  movable  beds;  (3) 
furnaces  with  rotating  working  chambers.  Hand  rabbling 
in  fixed  furnaces  has  been  largely  superseded  by  mechanical 
rabbling.  Of  mechanically  rabbling  furnaces  we  may  mention 
the  O'Harra  modified  by  Allen-Brown,  the  Hixon,  the  Keller- 
Gaylord-Cole,  the  Ropp,  the  Spence,  the  Wethey,  the  Parkes, 
Pearce's  "  Turret  "  and  Brown's  "  Horseshoe "  furnaces. 
Blake's  and  Brunton's  furnaces  are  reverberatory  furnaces  with 
a  movable  bed.  Furnaces  with  rotating  working  chambers  admit 
of  continuous  working;  the  fuel  and  labour  costs  are  both  low. 

In  the  White-Howell  revolving  furnace  with  lifters — a  modifica- 
tion of  the  Oxland — the  ore  is  fed  and  discharged  in  a  continuous 
stream.  The  Bruckner  cylinder  resembles  the  Elliot  and  Russell 
black  ash  furnace;  its  cylinder  tapers  slightly  towards  each  end, 
and  is  generally  18  ft.  long  by  8  ft.  6  in.  in  its  greatest  diameter. 
Its  charge  of  from  8  to  12  tons  of  ore  or  concentrates  is  slowly 
agitated  at  a  rate  of  three  revolutions  a  minute,  and  in  from 
24  to  36  hours  it  is  reduced  from  say  40  or  35  %  to  7  %  of  sulphur. 
The  ore  is  under  better  control  than  is  possible  with  the  continu- 
ous feed  and  discharge,  and  when  sufficiently  roasted  can  be 
passed  red-hot  to  the  reverberatory  furnace.  These  advantages 
compensate  for  the  wear  and  tear  arid  the  cost  of  moving  the 
heavy  dead-weight. 

Shaft  calcining  furnaces  are  available  for  fine  ores  and  permit 
the  recovery  of  the  sulphur.  They  are  square,  oblong  or  circular 
in  section,  and  the  interior  is  fitted  with  horizontal  or  inclined 
plates  or  prisms,  which  regulate  the  fall  of  the  ore.  In  the 
Gerstenhoffer  and  Hasenclever-Helbig  furnaces  the  fall  is 
retarded  by  prisms  and  inclined  plates.  In  other  furnaces  the 
ore  rests  on  a  series  of  horizontal  plates,  and  either  remains  on 
the  same  plate  throughout  the  operation  (Ollivier  and  Ferret 
furnace),  or  is  passed  from  plate  to  plate  by  hand  (Maletra), 
or  by  mechanical  means  (Spence  and  M'Dougall). 

The  M'Dougall  furnace  is  turret-shaped,  and  consists  of  a  series 
of  circular  hearths,  on  which  the  ore  is  agitated  by  rakes  attached 
to  revolving  arms  and  made  to  fall  from  hearth  to  hearth.  It 
has  been  modified  by  Herreshoff,  who  uses  a  large  hollow  revolv- 
ing central  shaft  cooled  by  a  current  of  air.  The  shaft  is  provided 
with  sockets,  into  which  movable  arms  with  their  rakes  are 
readily  dropped.  The  Peter  Spence  type  of  calcining  furnace 
has  been  followed  in  a  large  number  of  inventions.  In  some  the 
rakes  are  attached  to  rigid  frames,  with  a  reciprocating  motion, 
in  others  to  cross-bars  moved  by  revolving  chains.  Some  of 


these  furnaces  are  straight,  others  circular.  Some  have  only 
one  hearth,  others  three.  This  and  the  previous  type  of  furnace, 
owing  to  their  large  capacity,  are  at  present  in  greatest  favour/ 
The  M'Dougall-Herreshoff,  working  on  ores  of  over  30%  of 
sulphur,  requires  no  fuel;  but  in  furnaces  of  the  reverberatory 
type  fuel  must  be  used,  as  an  excess  of  air  enters  through  the 
slotted  sides  and  the  hinged  doors  which  open  and  shut  frequently 
to  permit  of  the  passage  of  the  rakes.  The  consumption  of  fuel, 
however,  does  not  exceed  i  of  coal  to  10  of  ore.  The  quantity  of 
ore  which  these  large  furnaces,  with  a  hearth  area  as  great  as 
2000  ft.  and  over,  will  roast  varies  from  40  to  60  tons  a  day. 
Shaft  calcining  furnaces  like  the  Gerstenhoffer,  Hasenclever, 
and  others  designed  for  burning  pyrites  fines  have  not  found 
favour  in  modern  copper  works. 

The  Fusion  of  Ores  in  Reverberatory  and  Cupola  Furnaces. — 
After  the  ore  has  been  partially  calcined,  it  is  smelted  to  extract 
its  earthy  matter  and  to  concentrate  the  copper  with  part  of  its 
iron  and  sulphur  into  a  matte.  In  reverberatory  furnaces  it  is 
smelted  by  fuel  in  a  fireplace,  separate  from  the  ore,  and  in 
cupolas  the  fuel,  generally  coke,  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  ore. 
When  Swansea  was  the  centre  of  the  copper-smelting  industry 
in  Europe,  many  varieties  of  ores  from  different  mines  were 
smelted  in  the  same  furnaces,  and  the  Welsh  reverberatory 
furnaces  were  used.  To-day  more  than  eight-tenths  of  the 
copper  ores  of  the  world  are  reduced  to  impure  copper  bars  or  to 
fine  copper  at  the  mines;  and  where  the  character  of  the  ore 
permits,  the  cupola  furnace  is  found  more  economical  in  both 
fuel  and  labour  than  the  reverberatory. 

The  Welsh  method  finds  adherents  only  in  Wales  and  Chile. 
In  America  the  usual  method  is  to  roast  ores  or  concentrates 
so  that  the  matte  yielded  by  either  the  reverberatory  or  cupola 
furnace  will  run  from  45  to  50%  in  copper,  and  then  to  transfer 
to  the  Bessemer  converter,  which  blows  it  up  to  99  %.  In  Butte, 
Montana,  reverberatories  have  in  the  past  been  preferred  to 
cupola  furnaces,  as  the  charge  has  consisted  mainly  of  fine 
roasted  concentrates;  but  the  cupola  is  gaining  ground  there. 
At  the  Boston  and  Great  Falls  (Montana)  works  tilting  reverbera- 
tories, modelled  after  open  hearth .  steel  furnaces,  were  first 
erected;  but  they  were  found  to  possess  objectionable  features. 
Now  both  these  and  the  egg-shaped  reverberatories  are  being 
abandoned  for  furnaces  as  long  as  43  ft.  6  in.  from  bridge  to 
bridge  and  of  a  width  of  15  ft.  9  in.  heated  by  gas,  with  re- 
generative checker  work  at  each  end,  and  fed  with  ore  or  con- 
centrates, red-hot  from  the  calciners,  through  a  line  of  hoppers 
suspended  above  the  roof.  Furnaces  of  this  size  smelt  200  tons 
of  charge  a  day.  But  even  when  the  old  type  of  reverberatory 
is  preferred,  as  at  the  Argo  works,  at  Denver,  where  rich  gold- 
and  silver-bearing  copper  matte  is  made,  the  growth  of  the 
furnace  in  size  has  been  steady.  Richard  Pearce's  reverberatories 
in  187*  had  an  area  of  hearth  of  15  ft.  by  9  ft.  8  in.,  and  smelted 
12  tons  of  cold  charge  daily,  with  a  consumption  of  i  ton  of 
coal  to  2-4  tons  of  ore.  In  1900  the  furnaces  were  35  ft.  by  16  ft., 
and  smelt  50  tons  daily  of  hot  ore,  with  the  consumption  of  i  ton 
of  coal  to  3-7  tons  of  ore. 

The  home  of  cupola  smelting  was  Germany,  where  it  has  never 
ceased  to  make  steady  progress.  In  Mansfeld  brick  cupola 
furnaces  are  without  a  rival  in  size,  equipment  and  performance. 
They  are  round  stacks,  designed  on  the  model  of  iron  blast 
furnaces,  29  ft.  high,  fed  mechanically,  and  provided  with  stoves 
to  heat  the  blast  by  the  furnace  gases.  The  low  percentage  of 
sulphur  in  the  roasted  ore  is  little  more  than  enough  to  produce 
a  matte  of  40  to  45%,  and  therefore  the  escaping  gases  are 
better  fitted  than  those  of  most  copper  cupola  furnaces  for 
burning  in  a  stove.  But  as  the  slag  carries  on  an  average  46  % 
of  silica,  it  is  only  through  the  utmost  skill  that  it  can  be  made 
to  run  as  low  on  an  average  as  0-3%  in  copper  oxide.  As  the 
matte  contains  on  an  average  0-2%  of  silver,  it  is  still  treated 
by  the  Ziervogel  wet  method  of  extraction,  the  management 
dreading  the  loss  which  might  occur  in  the  Bessemer  process 
of  concentration,  applied  as  preliminary  to  electrolytic  separation. 
Blast  furnaces  of  large  size,  built  of  brick,  have  been  constructed 
for  treating  the  richest  and  more  silicious  ores  of  Rio  Tinto,  and 


COPPER 


105 


the  Rio  Tinto  Company  has  introduced  converters  at  the  mine. 
This  method  of  extraction  contrasts  favourably  in  time  with 
the  leaching  process,  which  is  so  slow  that  over  10,000,000 
tons  of  ore  are  always  under  treatment  on  the  immense  leaching 
floors  of  the  company's  works  in  Spain.  In  the  United  States 
the  cupola  has  undergone  a  radical  modification  in  being  built 
of  water-jacketed  sections.  The  first  water-jacketed  cupola 
which  came  into  general  use  was  a  circular  inverted  cone,  with 
a  slight  taper,  of  36  inches  diameter  at  the  tuyeres,  and  com- 
posed of  an  outer  and  an  inner  metal  shell,  between  which 
water  circulated.  As  greater  size  has  been  demanded,  oval  and 
rectangular  furnaces — as  large  as  180  in.  by  56  in.  at  the  tuyeres — 
have  been  built  in  sections  of  cast  or  sheet  iron  or  steel.  A  single 
section  can  be  removed  and  replaced  without  entirely  emptying 
the  stack,  as  a  shell  of  congealed  slag  always  coats  the  inner 
surface  of  the  jacket.  The  largest  furnaces  are  those  of  the 
Boston  &  Montana  Company  at  Great  Falls,  Montana,  which 
have  put  through  500  tons  of  charge  daily,  pouring  their  melted 
slag  and  matte  into  large  wells  of  10  ft.  in  diameter.  A  combined 
brick-  and  water-cooled  furnace  has  been  adopted  by  the  Iron 
Mountain  Company  at  Keswick,  Cal.,  for  matte  concentration. 
In  it  the  cooling  is  effected  by  water  pipes,  interposed  horizontally 
between  the  layers  of  bricks.  The  Mt.  Lyell  smelting  works  in 
Tasmania,  which  are  of  special  interest,  will  be  referred  to  later. 
(See  Pyritic  Smelting  below.) 

Concentrating  Matte  to  Copper  in  the  Bessemer  Converter. — As 
soon  as  the  pneumatic  method  of  decarburizing  pig  iron  was 
accepted  as  practicable,  experiments  were  made. with  a  view  to 
Bessemerizing  copper  ores  and  mattes.  One  of  the  earliest  and 
most  exhaustive  series  of  experiments  was  made  on  Rio  Tinto 
ores  at  the  John  Brown  works  by  John  Hollway,  with  the  aim 
of  both  smelting  the  ore  and  concentrating  the  matte  in  the 
same  furnace,  by  the  heat  evolved  through  the  oxidation  of 
their  sulphur  and  iron.  Experiments  along  the  same  lines  were 
made  by  Francis  Bawden  at  Rio  Tinto  and  Claude  Vautin  in 
Australia.  The  difficulty  of  effecting  this  double  object  in  one 
operation  was  so  great  that  in  subsequent  experiments  the  aim 
was  merely  to  concentrate  the  matte  to  metallic  copper  in  con- 
verters of  the  Bessemer  type.  The  concentration  was  effected 
without  any  embarrassment  till  metallic  copper  commenced  to 
separate  and  chill  in  the  bottom  tuyeres.  To  meet  this  obstacle 
P.  Manhes  proposed  elevated  side  tuyeres,  which  could  be  kept 
clear  by  punching  through  gates  in  a  wind  box.  His  invention 
was  adopted  by  the  Vivians,  at  the  Eguilles  works  near  Sargues, 
Vaucluse,  France,  and  at  Leghorn  in  Italy.  But  the  greatest 
expansion  of  this  method  has  been  in  the  United  States,  where 
more  than  400,000,000  ft.  of  copper  are  annually  made  in 
Bessemer  converters.  Vessels  of  several  designs  are  used — 
some  modelled  exactly  after  steel  converters,  other  barrel- 
shaped,  but  all  with  side  tuyeres  elevated  about  10  in.  above 
the  level  of  the  bottom  lining.  Practice,  however,  in  treating 
copper  matte  differs  essentially  from  the  treatment  of  pig  iron, 
inasmuch  as  from  20  to  30%  of  iron  must  be  eliminated  as  slag 
and  an  equivalent  quantity  of  silica  must  be  supplied.  The  only 
practical  mode  of  doing  this,  as  yet  devised,  is  by  lining  the  con- 
verter with  a  silicious  rnixture.  This  is  so  rapidly  consumed 
that  the  converters  must  be  cooled  and  partially  relined  after 
3  to  6  charges,  dependent  on  the  iron  contents  of  the  matte. 
When  available,  a  silicious  rock  containing  copper  or  the  precious 
metals  is  of  course  preferred  to  barren  lining.  The  material 
for  lining,  and  the  frequent  replacement  thereof,  constitute  the 
principal  expense  of  the  method.  The  other  items  of  cost  are 
labour,  the  quantity  of  whichdepends  on  themechanicalappliances 
provided  for  handling  the  converter  shells  and  inserting  the 
lining;  and  the  blast,  which  in  barrel-shaped  converters  is  low 
and  in  vertical  converters  is  high,  and  which  varies  therefore 
from  3  to  1 5  Ib  to  the  square  inch.  The  quantity  of  air  consumed 
in  a  converter  which  will  blow  up  about  35  tons  of  matte  per  day 
is  about  3000  cub.  ft.  per  minute.  The  operation  of  raising  a 
charge  of  50%  matte  to  copper  usually  consists  of  two  blows. 
The  first  blow  occupies  about  25  minutes,  and  oxidizes  all  but 
a  small  quantity  of  the  iron  and  some  of  the  sulphur,  raising 


the  product  to  white  metal.  The  slag  is  then  poured  and 
skimmed,  the  blast  turned  on  and  converter  retilted.  During  the 
second  blow  the  sulphur  is  rapidly  oxidized,  and  the  charge 
reduced  to  metal  of  99%  in  from  30  to  40  minutes.  Little  or 
no  slag  results  from  the  second  blow.  That  from  the  first  blow 
contains  between  i  %  and  2  %  of  copper,  and  is  usually  poured 
from  ladles  operated  by  an  electric  crane  into  a  reverberatory, 
or  into  the  settling  well  of  the  cupola.  The  matte  also,  in  all 
economically  planned  works,  is  conveyed,  still  molten,  by 
electric  cranes  from  the  furnace  to  the  converters.  When  lead 
or  zinc  is  not  present  in  notable  quantity,  the  loss  of  the  precious  • 
metals  by  volatilization  is  slight,  but  more  than  5%  of  these 
metals  in  the  matte  is  prohibitive.  Under  favourable  conditions 
in  the  larger  works  of  the  United  States  the  cost  of  converting 
a  50%  matte  to  metallic  copper  is  generally  understood  to  be 
only  about  7\  to  ^  of  a  cent  per  Ib.  of  refined  copper. 

Pyritic  Smelting. — The  heat  generated  by  the  oxidation  of 
iron  and  sulphur  has  always  been  used  to  maintain  combustion 
in  the  kilns  or  stalls  for  roasting  pyrites.  Pyritic  smelting  is 
a  development  of  the  Russian  engineer  Semenikov's  treatment 
(proposed  in  1866)  of  copper  matte  in  a  Bessemer  converter. 
Since  John  Hollway's  and  other  early  experiments  of  Lawrence 
Austin  and  Robert  Sticht,  no  serious  attempts  have  been  made 
to  utilize  the  heat  escaping  from  a  converting  vessel  in  smelting 
ore  and  matte  either  in  the  same  apparatus  or  in  a  separate 
furnace.  But  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  smelting 
highly  sulphuretted  ores  by  the  heat  of  their  own  oxidizable 
constituents.  At  Tilt  Cove,  Newfoundland,  the  Cape  Copper 
Company  smelted  copper  ore,  with  just  the  proper  proportion 
of  sulphur,  iron  and  silica,  successfully  without  any  fuel,  when 
once  the  initial  charge  had  been  fused  with  coke.  The  furnaces 
used  were  of  ordinary  design  and  built  of  brick.  Lump  ore  alone 
was  fed,  and  the  resulting  matte  showed  a  concentration  of  only 
3  into  i.  When,  however,  a  hot  blast  is  used  on  highly 
sulphuretted  copper  ores,  a  concentration  of  8  of  ore  into  i  of 
matte  is  obtained,  with  a  consumption  of  less  than  one-third 
the  fuel  which  would  be  consumed  in  smelting  the  charge  had 
the  ore  been  previously  calcined.  A  great  impetus  to  pyritic 
smelting  was  given  by  the  investigations  of  W.  L.  Austin,  of 
Denver,  Colorado,  and  both  at  Leadville  and  Silverton  raw  ores 
are  successfully  smelted  with  as  low  a  fuel  consumption  as  3  of 
coke  to  100  of  charge. 

Two  types  of  pyritic  smelting  may  be  distinguished:  one, 
in  which  the  operation  is  solely  sustained  by  the  combustion  of 
the  sulphur  in  the  ores,  without  the  assistance  of  fuel  or  a  hot 
blast;  the  other  in  which  the  operation  is  accelerated  by  fuel, 
or  a  hot  blast,  or  both.  The  largest  establishment  in  which 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  self-contained  fuel  is  at  the  smelting 
works  of  the  Mt.  Lyell  Company,  Tasmania.  There  the  blast 
is  raised  from  600°  to  700°  F.  in  stoves  heated  by  extraneous 
fuel,  and  the  raw  ore  smelted  with  only  3  %  of  coke.  The 
ore  is  a  compact  iron  pyrites  containing  copper  2-5%,  silver 
3-83  oz.,  gold  0-139  oz.  It  is  smelted  raw  with  hot  blast  in 
cupola  furnaces,  the  largest  being  210  in.  by  40  in.  The  resulting 
matte  runs  25%.  This  is  reconcentrated  raw  in  hot -blast 
cupolas  to  55%,  and  blown  directly  into  copper  in  converters. 
Thus  these  ores,  as  heavily  charged  with  sulphur  as  those  of  the 
Rio  Tinto,  are  speedily  reduced  by  three  operations  and  without 
roasting,  with  a  saving  of  97-6%  of  the  copper,  93-2%  of  the 
silver  and  93-6%  of  the  gold. 

Pyritic  smelting  has  met  with  a  varying  economic  success. 
According  to  Herbert  Lang,  its  most  prominent  chance  of  success 
is  in  localities  where  fuel  is  dear,  and  the  ores  contain  precious 
metals  and  sufficient  sulphides  and  arsenides  to  render  profitable 
dressing  unnecessary. 

The  Nicholls  and  James  Process. — Nicholls  and  James  have 
applied,  very  ingeniously,  well-known  reactions  to  the  refining 
of  copper,  raised  to  the  grade  of  white  metal.  This  process  is 
practised  by  the  Cape  Copper  and  Elliot  Metal  Company.  A 
portion  of  the  white  metal  is  calcined  to  such  a  degree  of  oxidation 
that  when  fused  with  the  unroasted  portion,  the  reaction  between 
the  oxygen  in  the  roasted  matte  and  the  sulphur  in  the  raw 


io6 


COPPER 


material  liberates  the  metallic  copper.  The  metal  is  so  pure  that 
it  can  be  refined  by  a  continuous  operation  in  the  same  furnace. 

Wet  Methods  for  Copper  Extraction. — Wet  methods  are  only 
employed  for  low  grade  ores  (under  favourable  circumstances 
ore  containing  from  j  to  i  %  of  copper  has  admitted  of  economic 
treatment),  and  for  gold  and  silver  bearing  metallurgical 
products. 

The  fundamental  principle  consists  in  getting  the  ore  into 
a  solution,  from  which  the  metal  can  be  precipitated.  The  ores 
of  any  economic  importance  contain  the  copper  either  as  oxide, 
carbonate,  sulphate  or  sulphide.  These  compounds  are  got  into 
solution  either  as  chlorides  or  sulphates,  and  from  either  of  these 
salts  the  metal  can  be  readily  obtained.  Ores  in  which  the 
copper  is  present  as  oxide  or  carbonate  are  soluble  in  sulphuric 
or  hydrochloricacids,ferrouschloride,ferric  sulphate,  ammoniacal 
compounds  and  sodium  thiosulphate.  Of  these  solvents,  only 
the  first  three  are  of  economic  importance.  The  choice  of  sul- 
phuric or  hydrochloric  acid  depends  mainly  upon  the  cost,  both 
acting  with  about  the  same  rapidity;  thus  if  a  Leblanc  soda 
factory  is  near  at  hand,  then  hydrochloric  acid  would  most 
certainly  be  employed.  Ferrous  chloride  is  not  much  used; 
the  Douglas-Hunt  process  uses  a  mixture  of  salt  and  ferrous 
sulphate  which  involves  the  formation  of  ferrous  chloride,  and 
the  new  Douglas-Hunt  process  employs  sulphuric  acid  in  which 
ferrous  chloride  is  added  after  leaching. 

Sulphuric  acid  may  be  applied  as  such  on  the  ores  placed  in 
lead,  brick,  or  stone  chambers;  or  as  a  mixture  of  sulphur 
dioxide,  nitrous  fumes  (generated  from  Chile  saltpetre  and 
sulphuric  acid),  and  steam,  which  permeates  the  ore  resting  on 
the  false  bottom  of  a  brick  chamber.  When  most  of  the  copper 
has  been  converted  into  the  sulphate,  the  ore  is  lixiviated. 
Hydrochloric  acid  is  applied  in  the  same  way  as  sulphuric  acid; 
it  has  certain  advantages  of  which  the  most  important  is  that 
it  does  not  admit  the  formation  of  basic  salts;  its  chief  dis- 
advantage is  that  it  dissolves  the  oxides  of  iron,  and  accordingly 
must  not  be  used  for  highly  ferriferous  ores.  The  solubility  of 
copper  carbonate  in  ferrous  chloride  solution  was  pointed  out 
by  Max  Schaffner  in  1862,  and  the  subsequent  recognition  of 
the  solubility  of  the  oxide  in  the  same  solvent  by  James  Douglas 
and  Sterry  Hunt  resulted  in  the  "  Douglas-Hunt  "  process  for 
the  wet  extraction  of  copper.  Ferrous  chloride  decomposes  the 
copper  oxide  and  carbonate  with  the  formation  of  cuprous  and 
cupric  chlorides  (which  remain  in  solution),  and  the  precipitation 
of  ferrous  oxide,  carbon  dioxide  being  simultaneously  liberated 
from  the  carbonate.  In  the  original  form  of  the  Douglas-Hunt 
process,  ferrous  chloride  was  formed  by  the  interaction  of  sodium 
chloride  (common  salt)  with  ferrous  sulphate  (green  vitriol), 
the  sodium  sulphate  formed  at  the  same  time  being  removed  by 
crystallization.  The  ground  ore  was  stirred  with  this  solution 
at  70°  C.  in  wooden  tubs  until  all  the  copper  was  dissolved.  The 
liquor  was  then  filtered  from  the  iron  oxides,  and  the  filtrate 
treated  with  scrap  iron,  which  precipitated  the  copper  and 
reformed  ferrous  chloride,  which  could  be  used  in  the  first  stage 
of  the  process.  The  advantage  of  this  method  rests  chiefly  on 
the  small  amount  of  iron  required;  but  its  disadvantages  are 
that  any  silver  present  in  the  ores  goes  into  solution,  the  forma- 
tion of  basic  salts,  and  the  difficulty  of  filtering  from  the  iron 
oxides.  A  modification  of  the  method  was  designed  to  remedy 
these  defects.  The  ore  is  first  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
and  then  ferrous  or  calcium  chloride  added,  thus  forming  copper 
chlorides.  If  calcium  chloride  be  used  the  precipitated  calcium 
sulphate  must  be  removed  by  filtration.  Sulphur  dioxide  is  then 
blown  in,  and  the  precipitate  is  treated  with  iron,  which  produces 
metallic  copper,  or  milk  of  lime,  which  produces  cuprous  oxide. 
Hot  air  is  blown  into  the  filtrate,  which  contains  ferrous  or  calcium 
chlorides,  to  expel  the  excess  of  sulphur  dioxide,  and  the  liquid 
can  then  be  used  again.  In  this  process  ("  new  Douglas-Hunt ") 
there  are  no  iron  oxides  formed,  the  silver  is  not  dissolved,  and 
the  quantity  of  iron  necessary  is  relatively  small,  since  all  the 
copper  is  in  the  cuprous  condition.  It  is  not  used  in  the  treat- 
ment of  ores,  but  finds  application  in  the  case  of  calcined  argenti- 
ferous lead  and  copper  mattes. 


The  precipitation  of  the  copper  from  the  solution,  in  which 
it  is  present  as  sulphate,  or  as  cuprous  and  cupric  chlorides,  is 
generally  effected  by  metallic  iron.  Either  wrought,  pig,  iron 
sponge  or  iron  bars  are  employed,  and  it  is  important  to  notice 
that  the  form  in  which  the  copper  is  precipitated,  and  also  the 
time  taken  for  the  separation,  largely  depend  upon  the  condition 
in  which  the  iron  is  applied.  Spongy  iron  acts  most  rapidly,  and 
after  this  follow  iron  turnings  and  then  sheet  clippings.  Other 
precipitants  such  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  solutions  of 
sulphides,  which  precipitate  the  copper  as  sulphides,  and  milk 
of  lime,  which  gives  copper  oxides,  have  not  met  with  commercial 
success.  When  using  iron  as  the  precipitant,  it  is  desirable  that 
the  solution  should  be  as  neutral  as  possible,  and  the  quantity  of 
ferric  salts  present  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum;  otherwise, 
a  certain  amount  of  iron  would  be  used  up  by  the  free  acid  and 
in  reducing  the  ferric  salts.  Ores  in  which  the  copper  is  present 
as  sulphate  are  directly  lixiviated  and  treated  with  iron.  Mine 
waters  generally  contain  the  copper  in  this  form,  and  it  is 
extracted  by  conducting  the  waters  along  troughs  fitted  with  iron 
gratings. 

The  wet  extraction  of  metallic  copper  from  ores  in  which  it 
occurs  as  the  sulphide,  may  be  considered  to  involve  the  following 
operations:  (i)  conversion  of  the  copper  into  a  soluble  form, 
(2)  dissolving  out  the  soluble  copper  salt,  (3)  the  precipitation 
of  the  copper.  Copper  sulphide  may  be  converted  either  into 
the  sulphate,  which  is  soluble  in  water;  the  oxide,  soluble  in 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid;  cupric  chloride,  soluble  in  water; 
or  cuprous  chloride,  which  is  soluble  in  solutions  of  metallic 
chlorides. 

The  conversion  into  sulphate  is  generally  effected  by  the 
oxidizing  processes  of  weathering,  calcination,  heating  with  iron 
nitrate  or  ferric  sulphate.  It  may  also  be  accomplished  by 
calcination  with  ferrous  sulphate,  or  other  easily  decomposable 
sulphates,  such  as  aluminium  sulphate.  Weathering  is  a  very 
slow,  and,  therefore,  an  expensive  process;  moreover,  the  entire 
conversion  is  only  accomplished  after  a  number  of  years.  Cal- 
cination is  only  advisable  for  ores  which  contain  relatively  much 
iron  pyrites  and  little  copper  pyrites.  Also,  however  slowly  the 
calcination  may  be  conducted,  there  is  always  more  or  less 
copper  sulphide  left  unchanged,  and  some  copper  oxide  formed. 
Calcination  with  ferrous  sulphate  converts  all  the  copper  sulphide 
into  sulphate.  Heap  roasting  has  been  successfully  employed 
at  Agordo,  in  the  Venetian  Alps,  and  at  Majdanpek  in  Servia. 
Josef  Perino's  process,  which  consists  in  heating  the  ore  with  iron 
nitrate  to  50°  — 150°  C.,  is  said  to  possess  several  advantages, 
but  it  has  not  been  applied  commercially.  Ferric  sulphate  is 
only  used  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  weathering  process  and  in  an 
electrolytic  process. 

The  conversion  of  the  sulphide  into  oxide  is  adopted  where  the 
Douglas-Hunt  process  is  employed,  or  where  hydrochloric  or 
sulphuric  acids  are  cheap.  The  calcination  is  effected  in  rever- 
beratory  furnaces,  or  in  muffle  furnaces,  if  the  sulphur  is  to  be 
recovered.  Heap,  stall  or  shaft  furnace  roasting  is  not  very 
satisfactory,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  transform  all  the  sulphide 
into  oxide. 

The  conversion  of  copper  sulphide  into  the  chlorides  may 
be  accomplished  by  calcining  with  common  salt,  or  by  treating 
the  ores  with  ferrous  chloride  and  hydrochloric  acid  or  with 
ferric  chloride.  Tha  dry  way  is  best;  the  wet  way  is  only 
employed  when  fuel  is  very  dear,  or  when  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  no  noxious  vapours  should  escape  into  the 
atmosphere.  The  dry  method  consists  in  an  oxidizing  roasting 
of  the  ores,  and  a  subsequent  chloridizing  roasting  with  either 
common  salt  or  Abraumsalz  in  reverberatory  or  muffle  furnaces. 
The  bulk  of  the  copper  is  thus  transformed  into  cupric  chloride, 
little  cuprous  chloride  being  obtained.  This  method  had  been 
long  proposed  by  William  Longmaid,  Max  Schaffner,  Becchi  and 
Haupt,  but  was  only  introduced  into  England  by  the  labours  of 
William  Henderson,  J.  A.  Phillips  and  others.  The  wet  method 
is  employed  at  Rio  Tinto,  the  particular  variant  being  known 
as  the  "  Dotsch  "  process.  This  consists  in  stacking  the  broken 
ore  in  heaps  and  adding  a  mixture  of  sodium  sulphate  and  ferric 


COPPER 


107 


chloride  in  the  proportions  necessary  for  the  entire  conversion 
of  the  iron  into  ferric  sulphate.  The  heaps  are  moistened  with 
ferric  chloride  solution,  and  the  reaction  is  maintained  by  the 
liquid  percolating  through  the  heap:  The  liquid  is  run  off  at  the 
base  of  the  heaps  into  the  precipitating  tanks,  where  the  copper 
is  thrown  down  by  means  of  metallic  iron.  The  ferrous  chloride 
formed  at  the  same  time  is  converted  into  ferric  chloride  which 
can  be  used  to  moisten  the  heaps.  This  conversion  is  effected  by 
allowing  the  ferrous  chloride  liquors  slowly  to  descend  a  tower, 
filled  with  pieces  of  wood,  coke  or  quartz,  where  it  meets  an 
ascending  current  of  chlorine. 

The  sulphate,  oxide  or  chlorides,  which  are  obtained  from 
the  sulphuretted  ores,  are -lixiviated  and  the  metal  precipitated 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  previously  described. 

The  metal  so  obtained  is  known  as  "  cement  "  copper.  If  it 
contains  more  than  55%  of  copper  it  is  directly  refined,  while 
if  it  contains  a  lower  percentage  it  is  smelted  with  matte  or 
calcined  copper  pyrites.  The  chief  impurities  are  basic  salts  of 
iron,  free  iron,  graphite,  and  sometimes  silica,  antimony  and  iron 
arsenates.  Washing  removes  some  of  these  impurities,  but  some 
copper  always  passes  into  the  slimes.  If  much  carbonaceous 
matter  be  present  (and  this  is  generally  so  when  iron  sponge  is 
used  as  the  precipitant)  the  crude  product  is  heated  to  redness 
in  the  air;  this  burns  out  the  carbon,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
oxidizes  a  little  of  the  copper,  which  must  be  subsequently 
reduced.  A  similar  operation  is  conducted  when  arsenic  is 
present;  basic-lined  reverberatory  furnaces  have  been  used  for 
the  same  purpose. 

Electrolytic  Refining. — The  principles  have  long  been  known 
on  which  is  based  the  electrolytic  separation  of  copper  from  the 
certain  elements  which  generally  accompany  it,  whether  these, 
like  silver  and  gold,  are  valuable,  or,  like  arsenic,  antimony, 
bismuth,  selenium  and  tellurium,  are  merely  impurities.  But  it 
was  not  until  the  dynamo  was  improved  as  a  machine  for  generat- 
ing large  quantities  of  electricity  at  a  very  low  cost  that  the 
electrolysis  of  copper  could  be  practised  on  a  commercial  scale. 
To-day,  by  reason  of  other  uses  to  which  electricity  is  applied, 
electrically  deposited  copper  of  high  conductivity  is  in  ever- 
increasing  demand,  and  commands  a  higher  price  than  copper 
refined  by  fusion.  This  increase  in  value  permits  of  copper  with 
not  over  £2  or  $10  worth  of  the  precious  metals  being  profitably 
subjected  to  electrolytic  treatment.  Thus  many  million  ounces 
of  silver  and  a  great  deal  of  gold  are  recovered  which  formerly 
were  lost. 

The  earliest  serious  attempt  to  refine  copper  industrially  was 
made  by  G.  R.  Elkington,  whose  first  patent  is  dated  1865. 
He  cast  crude  copper,  as  obtained  from  the  ore,  into  plates 
which  were  used  as  anodes,  sheets  of  electro-deposited  copper 
forming  the  cathodes.  Six  anodes  were  suspended,  alternately 
with  four  cathodes,  in  a  saturated  solution  of  copper  sulphate  in 
a  cylindrical  fire-clay  trough,  all  the  anodes  being  connected 
in  one  parallel  group,  and  all  the  cathodes  in  another.  A  hundred 
or  more  jars  were  coupled  in  series,  the  cathodes  of  one  to  the 
anodes  of  the  next,  and  were  so  arranged  that  with  the  aid  of 
side-pipes  with  leaden  connexions  and  india-rubber  joints  the 
electrolyte  could,  once  daily,  be  made  to  circulate  through  them 
all  from  the  top  of  one  jar  to  the  bottom  of  the  next.  The  current 
from  a  Wilde's  dynamo  was  passed,  apparently  with  a  current 
density  of  5  or  6  amperes  per  sq.  ft.,  until  the  anodes  were  too 

•  crippled  for  further  use.  The  cathodes,  when  thick  enough,  were 
either  cast  and  rolled  or  sent  into  the  market  direct.  Silver  and 
other  insoluble  impurities  collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  trough 
up  to  the  level  of  the  lower  side-tube,  and  were  then  run  off 
through  a  plug  in  the  bottom  into  settling  tanks,  from  which 
they  were  removed  for  metallurgical  treatment.  The  electrolyte 
was  used  until  the  accumulation  of  iron  in  it  was  too  great,  but 
was  mixed  from  time  to  time  with  a  little  water  acidulated  by 
sulphuric  acid.  This  process  is  of  historic  interest,  and  in 
principle  it  is  identical  with  that  now  used.  The  modifications 
introduced  have  been  chiefly  in  details,  in  order  to  economize 
materials  and  labour,  to  ensure  purity  of  product,  and  to  increase 
the  rate  of  deposition. 


The  chemistry  of  the  process  has  been  studied  by  Martin  Kiliani 
(Berg-  und  Hiittenmannische  Zeitung,  1885,  p.  249),  who  found 
that,  using  the  (low)  current-density  of  1-8  ampere  per  sq.  ft.  of 
cathode,  and  an  electrolyte  containing  ij  Ib  of  copper  sulphate 
and  J  Ib  of  sulphuric  acid  per  gallon,  all  the  gold,  platinum  and 
silver  present  in  the  crude  copper  anode  remain  as  metals,  undis- 
solved,  in  the  anode  slime  or  mud,  and  all  the  lead  remains  there 
as  sulphate,  formed  by  the  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  (or  SCX  ions) ; 
he  found  also  that  arsenic  forms  arscnious  oxide,  which  dissolves 
until  the  solution  is  saturated,  and  then  remains  in  the  slime,  from 
which  on  long  standing  it  gradually  dissolves,  after  conversion  by 
secondary  reactions  into  arsenic  oxide;  antimony  forms  a  bash 
sulphate  which  in  part  dissolves;  bismuth  partly  dissolves  and 
partly  remains,  but  the  dissolved  portion  tends  slowly  to  separate 
out  as  a  basic  salt  which  becomes  added  to  the  slime;  cuprous  oxide, 
sulphide  and  selenides  remain  in  the  slime,  and  very  slowly  pass 
into  solution  by  simple  chemical  action;  tin  partly  dissolves  (but 
in  part  separates  again  as  basic  salt)  and  partly  remains  as  basic 
sulphate  and  stannic  oxide;  zinc,  iron,  nickel  and  cobalt  pass  into 
solution — more  readily  indeed  than  does  the  copper.  Of  the  metals 
which  dissolve,  none  (except  bismuth,  which  is  rarely  present  in 
any  quantity)  deposits  at  the  anode  so  long  as  the  solution  retains 
its  proper  proportion  of  copper  and  acid,  and  the  current-density 
is  not  too  great.  Neutral  solutions  are  to  be  avoided  because  in  them 
silver  dissolves  from  the  anode  and,  being  more  electro-negative  than 
copper,  is  deposited  at  the  cathode,  while  antimony  and  arsenic  are 
also  deposited,  imparting  a  dark  colour  to  the  copper.  Electrolytic 
copper  should  contain  at  least  99-92  %  of  metallic  copper,  the  balance 
consisting  mainly  of  oxygen  with  not  more  than  o-oi  %  in  all  of 
lead,  arsenic,  antimony,  bismuth  and  silver.  Such  a  degree  of 
purity  is,  however,  unattainable  unless  the  conditions  of  electrolysis 
are  rigidly  adhered  to.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  free  acid  is 
gradually  neutralized,  partly  by  chemical  action  on  certain  con- 
stituents of  the  slime,  partly  by  local-action  between  different  metals 
of  the  anode,  both  of  which  effect  solution  independently  of  the 
current,  and  partly  by  the  peroxidation  (or  aeration)  of  ferrous 
sulphate  formed  from  the  iron  in  the  anode.  At  the  same  time  there 
is  a  gradual  substitution  of  other  metals  for  copper  in  the  solution, 
because  although  copper  plus  other  (more  electro-positive)  metals 
are  constantly  dissolving  at  the  anode,  only  copper  is  deposited  at 
the  cathode.  Hence  the  composition  and  acidity  of  the  solution, 
on  which  so  much  depends,  must  be  constantly  watched. 

The  dependence  of  the  mechanical  qualities  of  the  copper  upon 
the  current-density  employed  is  well  known.  A  very  weak  current 
gives  a  pale  and  brittle  deposit,  but  as  the  current-density  is  in- 
creased up  to  a  certain  point,  the  properties  of  the  metal  improve; 
beyond  this  point  they  deteriorate,  the  colour  becoming  darker  and 
the  deposit  less  coherent,  until  at  last  it  is  dark  brown  and  spongy 
or  pulverulent.  The  presence  of  even  a  small  proportion  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  imparts  a  brown  tint  to  the  deposit.  Baron  H.  v.  Hiibl 
(Mittheil.  des  k.  k.  militar-gepgraph.  Inst.,  1886,  vol.  vi.  p.  51)  has 
found  that  with  neutral  solutions  a  5  %  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
gave  no  good  result,  while  with  a  20  %  solution  the  best  deposit  was 
obtained  with  a  current-density  of  28  amperes  per  sq.  ft.;  with 
solutions  containing  2  %  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  5  %  solution  gave 
good  deposits  with  current-densities  of  4  to  7-5  amperes,  and  the 
20%  solution  with  11-5  to  37  amperes,  per  sq.  ft.  The  maximum 
current-densities  for  a  pure  acid  solution  at  rest  were :  for  15  %  pure 
copper  sulphate  solutions  14  to  21  amperes,  and  for  20%  solutions 
18-5  to  28  amperes,  per  sq.  ft.;  but  when  the  solutions  were  kept 
in  gentle  motion  these  maxima  could  be  increased  to  21-28  and 
28-37  amperes  per  sq.  ft.  respectively.  The  necessity  for  adjusting 
tiie  current-density  to  the  composition  and  treatment  of  the  electro- 
lyte is  thus  apparent.  The  advantage  of  keeping  the  solution  in 
motion  is  due  partly  to  the  renewal  of  solution  thus  effected  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  electrodes,  and  partly  to  the  neutralization  of 
the  tendency  of  liquids  undergoing  electrolysis  to  separate  into  layers, 
due  to  the  different  specific  gravities  of  the  solutions  flowing  from 
the  opposing  electrodes.  Such  an  irregular  distribution  of  the 
bath,  with  strong  copper  sulphate  solution  from  the  anode  at  the 
bottom  and  acid  solution  from  the  cathode  at  the  top,  not  only 
alters  the  conductivity  in  different  strata  and  so  causes  irregular 
current-distribution,  but  may  lead  to  the  current-density  in  the 
upper  layers  being  too  great  for  the  proportion  of  copper  there 
present.  Irregular  and  defective  deposits  are  therefore  obtained. 
Provision  for  circulation  of  solution  is  made  in  the  systems  of 
copper-refining  now  in  use.  Henry  Wilde,  in  1875,  'n  depositing 
copper  on  iron  printing-rollers,  recognized  this  principle  and  rotated 
the  rollers  during  electrolysis,  thereby  renewing  the  surfaces  of  metal 
and  liquid  in  mutual  contact,  and  imparting  sufficient  motion  to 
the  solution  to  prevent  stratification;  as  an  alternative  he  imparted 
motion  to  the  electrolyte  by  means  of  propeller  blades.  Other 
workers  have  followed  more  or  less  on  the  same  lines;  reference 
may  be  made  to  the  patents  of  F.  E.  and  A.  S.  Elmore,  who  sought 
to  improve  the  character  of  the  deposit  by  burnishing  during  electro- 
lysis, of  E.  Dumoulin,  and  Shcrard  Cowper-Coles  (Engineering 
Review,  1905,  vol.  xiii.  p.  392),  who  prefers  to  rotate  the  cathode 
at  a  speed  that  maintains  a  peripheral  velocity  of  at  least  1000  ft. 
per  minute.  Certain  other  inventors  have  applied  the  same  principle 
in  a  different  way.  H.  Thofehrn  in  America  and  J.  C.  Graham  in 


io8 


COPPER 


England  have  patented  processes  by  which  jets  of  the  electrolyte 
are  caused  to  impinge  with  considerable  force  upon  the  surface  of 
the  cathode,  so  that  the  renewal  of  the  liquid  at  this  point  takes 
place  very  rapidly,  and  current-densities  per  sq.  ft.  of  50  to  loo 
amperes  are  recommended  by  the  former,  and  of  300  amperes  by  the 
latter.  Graham  has  described  experiments  in  this  direction,  using 
a  jet  of  electrolyte  forced  (beneath  the  surface  of  the  bath)  through 
a  hole  in  the  anode  upon  the  surface  of  the  cathode.  Whilst  the  jet 
was  playing,  a  good  deposit  was  formed  with  so  high  a  current-density 
as  280  amperes  per  sq.  ft.,  but  if  the  jet  was  checked,  the  deposit 
(now  in  a  still  liquid)  was  instantaneously  ruined.  When  two  or 
more  jets  were  used  side  by  side  the  deposit  was  good  opposite  the 
centre  of  each,  but  bad  at  the  point  where  two  currents  met,  because 
the  rate  of  flow  was  reduced.  By  introducing  perforated  shields 
of  ebonite  between  the  electrodes,  so  that  the  full  current-density 
was  only  attained  at  the  centres  of  the  jets,  these  ill  effects  could 
be  prevented.  One  of  the  chief  troubles  met  with  was  the  formation 
of  arborescent  growths  around  the  edges  of  the  cathode,  due  to  the 
greater  current-density  in  this  region;  this,  however,  was  also 
obviated  by  the  use  of  screens.  By  means  of  a  very  brisk  rotation 
of  cathode,  combined  with  a  rapid  current  of  electrolyte,  J.  W. 
Swan  has  succeeded  in  depositing  excellent  copper  at  current- 
densities  exceeding  1000  amperes  per  sq.  ft.  The  methods  by  which 
such  results  are  to  be  obtained  cannot,  however,  as  yet  be  practised 
economically  on  a  working  scale;  one  great  difficulty  in  applying 
them  to  the  refining  of  metals  is  that  the  jets  of  liquid  would  be 
liable  to  carry  with  them  articles  of  anode  mud,  and  Swan  has  shown 
that  the  presence  of  solid  particles  in  the  electrolyte  is  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  causes  of  the  well-known  nodular  growths  on  electro- 
deposited  copper.  Experiments  on  a  working  scale  with  one  of  the 
jet  processes  in  America  have,  it  is  reported,  been  given  up  after  a 
full  trial. 

In  copper-refining  practice,  the  current-density  commonly  ranges 
from  7-5  to  12  or  15,  and  occasionally  to  18,  amperes  per  sq.  ft. 
The  electrical  pressure  required  to  force  a  current  of  this  intensity 
through  the  solution,  and  to  overcome  a  certain  opposing  electro- 
motive force  arising  from  the  more  electro-negative  impurities  of 
the  anode,  depends  upon  the  composition  of  the  bath  and  of  the 
anodes,  the  distance  between  the  electrodes,  and  the  temperature, 
but  under  the  usual  working  conditions  averages  0-3  volt  for  every 
pair  of  electrodes  in  series.  In  nearly  all  the  processes  now  used, 
the  solution  contains  about  I J  to  2  ft  of  copper  sulphate  and  from 
5  to  10  oz.  of  sulphuric  acid  per  gallon  of  water,  and  the  space 
between  the  electrodes  is  from  ij  to  2  in.,  whilst  the  total  area  of 
cathode  surface  in  each  tank  may  be  200  sq.  ft.,  more  or  less.  The 
anodes  are  usually  cast  copper  plates  about  (say)  3  ft.  by  2  ft.  by 
|  or  i  in.  The  cathodes  are  frequently  of  electro-deposited  copper, 
deposited  to  a  thickness  of  about  A  in.  on  black-leaded  copper  plates, 
from  which  they  are  stripped  before  use.  The  tanks  are  commonly 
constructed  of  wood  lined  with  lead,  or  tarred  inside,  and  are  placed 
in  terrace  fashion  each  a  little  higher  than  the  next  in  series,  to 
facilitate  the  flow  of  solution  through  them  all  from  a  cistern  at 
one  end  to  a  well  at  the  other.  Gangways  are  left  between  adjoining 
rows  of  tanks,  and  an  overhead  travelling-crane  facilitates  the 
removal  of  the  electrodes.  The  arrangement  of  the  tanks  depends 
largely  upon  the  voltage  available  from  the  electric  generator 
selected ;  commonly  they  are  -divided  into  groups,  all  the  baths  in 
each  group  being  in  series.  In  the  huge  Anaconda  plant,  for  example, 
in  which  150  tons  of  refined  copper  can  be  produced  daily  by  the 
Thofehrn  multiple  system  (not  the  jet  system  alluded  to  above), 
there  are  600  tanks  about  8J  ft.  by  4J  ft.  by  3i  ft.  deep,  arranged 
in  three  groups  of  200  tanks  in  series.  The  connexions  are  made 
by  copper  rods,  each  of  which,  in  length,  is  twice  the  width  of  the 
tank,  with  a  bayonet-bend  in  the  middle,  and  serves  to  support 
the  cathodes  in  the  one  and  the  anodes  in  the  next  tank.  Self- 
registering  voltmeters  indicate  at  any  moment  the  potential  differ- 
ence in  every  tank,  and  therefore  give  notice  of  short  circuits  occur- 
ring at  any  part  of  the  installation.  The  chief  differences  between  the 
commercial  systems  of  refining  lie  in  the  arrangement  of  the  baths, 
in  the  disposition  and  manner  of  supporting  the  electrodes  in  each, 
in  the  method  of  circulating  the  solution,  and  in  the  current-density 
employed.  The  various  systems  are  often  classed  in  two  groups, 
known  respectively  as  the  Multiple  and  Series  systems,  depending 
upon  the  arrangement  of  the  electrodes  in  each  tank.  Under  the 
multiple  system  anodes  and  cathodes  are  placed  alternately,  all  the 
anodes  in  one  tank  being  connected  to  one  rod,  and  all  the  cathodes 
to  another,  and  the  potential  difference  between  the  terminals  of 
each  tank  is  that  between  a  single  pair  of  plates.  Under  the  series 
system  only  the  first  anode  and  the  last  cathode  are  connected  to 
the  conductors;  between  these  are  suspended,  isolated  from  one 
another,  a  number  of  intermediate  bi-polar  electrode  plates  of  raw 
copper,  each  of  these  plates  acting  on  one  side  as  a  cathode,  receiving 
a  deposit  of  copper,  and  on  the  other  as  an  anode,  passing  into 
solution;  the  voltage  between  the  terminals  of  the  tank  will  be  as 
many  times  as  great  as  that  between  a  single  pair  of  plates  as  there 
are  spaces  between  electrodes  in  the  tank.  In  time  the  original 
impure  copper  of  the  plates  becomes  replaced  by  refined  copper, 
but  if  the  plates  are  initially  very  impure  and  dissolve  irregularly, 
it  may  happen  that  much  residual  scrap  may  have  to  be  remelted, 
or  that  some  of  the  metal  may  be  twice  refined,  thus  involving  a 


waste  of  energy.  Moreover,  the  high  potential  difference  between 
the  terminals  of  the  series  tank  introduces  a  greater  danger  of  short- 
circuiting  through  scraps  of  metal  at  the  bottom  of  the  bath;  for 
this  reason,  also,  lead-lined  vats  are  inadmissible,  and  tarred  slate 
tanks  are  often  used  instead.  A  valuable  comparison  of  the  multiple 
and  series  systems  has  been  published  by  E.  Keller  (see  The  Mineral 
Industry,  New  York,  1899,  vol.  vii.  p.  229).  G.  Kroupa  has  calcu- 
lated that  the  cost  of  refining  is  8s.  per  ton  of  copper  higher  under 
the  series  than  it  is  under  the  multiple  system ;  but  against  this,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  new  works  of  the  Baltimore  Copper 
Smelting  and  Rolling  Company,  which  are  as  large  as  those  of  the 
Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Company,  are  using  the  Hayden  process, 
which  is  the  chief  representative  of  the  several  series  systems.  In 
this  system  rolled  copper  anodes  are  used;  these,  being  purer  than 
many  cast  anodes,  having  flat  surfaces,  and  being  held  in  place  by 
guides,  dissolve  with  great  regularity  and  require  a  space  of  only 
|  in.  between  the  electrodes,  so  that  the  potential  difference  between 
each  pair  of  plates  may  be  reduced  to  0-15-0-2  volt. 

J.  A.  W.  Borchers,  in  Germany,  and  A.  E.  Schneider  and  O. 
Szontagh,  in  America,  have  introduced  a  method  of  circulating  the 
solution  in  each  vat  by  forcing  air  into  a  vertical  pipe  communi- 
cating between  the  bottom  and  top  of  a  tank,  with  the  result  that 
the  bubbling  of  the  air  upward  aspirates  solution  through  the  vertical 
pipe  from  below,  at  the  same  time  aerating  it,  and  causing  it  to 
overflow  into  the  top  of  the  tank.  Obviously  this  slow  circulation 
has  but  little  effect  on  the  rate  at  which  the  copper  may  be  de- 
posited. The  electrolyte,  when  too  impure  for  further  use,  is 
commonly  recrystallized,  or  electrolysed  with  insoluble  anodes  to 
recover  the  copper. 

The  yield  of  copper  per  ampere  (in  round  numbers,  I  oz.  of  copper 
per  ampere  per  diem)  by  Faraday's  law  is  never  attained  in  practice ; 
and  although  98  %  may  with  care  be  obtained,  from  94  to  96  % 
represents  the  more  usual  current-efficiency.  With  1 00%  current- 
efficiency  and  a  potential  difference  of  0-3  volt  between  the  electrodes, 
I  ft  of  copper  should  require  about  0-154  electrical  horse-power 
hours  as  the  amount  of  energy  to  be  expended  in  the  tank  for  its 
production.  In  practice  the  expenditure  is  somewhat  greater  than 
this;  in  large  works  the  gross  horse-power  required  for  the  refining 
itself  and  for  power  and  lighting  in  the  factory  may  not  exceed 
0-19  to  0-2  (or  in  smaller  works  0-25)  horse-power  hours  per  pound 
of  copper  refined. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  use  crude  sulphide  of  copper 
or  matte  as  an  anode,  and  recover  the  copper  at  the  cathode,  the 
sulphur  and  other  insoluble  constitutents  being  left  at  the  anode. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  the  Marchese  process,  which  was  tested 
on  a  working  scale  at  Genoa  and  Stolberg  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  As 
the  operation  proceeded,  it  was  found  that  the  voltage  had  to  be 
raised  until  it  became  prohibitive,  while  the  anodes  rapidly  became 
honeycombed  through  and,  crumbling  away,  filled  up  the  space  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vat.  The  process  was  abandoned,  but  in  a  modified 
form  appears  to  be  now  in  use  in  Nijni- Novgorod  in  Russia.  Siemens 
and  Halske  introduced  a  combined  process  in  which  the  ore,  after 
being  part-roasted,  is  leached  by  solutions  from  a  previous  electro- 
lytic operation,  and  the  resulting  copper  solution  electrolysed. 
In  this  process  the  anode  solution  had  to  be  kept  separate  from  the 
cathode  solution,  and  the  membrane  which  had  in  consequence  to  be 
used,  was  liable  to  become  torn,  and  so  to  cause  trouble  by  permitting 
the  two  solutions  to  mix.  Modifications  of  the  process  have  therefore 
been  tried. 

Modern  methods  in  copper  smelting  and  refining  have  effected 
enormous  economy  in  time,  space,  and  labour,  and  have  conse- 
quently increased  the  world's  output.  With  pyritic  smelting  a 
sulphuretted  copper  ore,  fed  into  a  cupola  in  the  morning,  can  be 
passed  directly  to  the  converter,  blown  up  to  metal,  and  shipped 
as  99%  bars  by  evening — an  operation  which  formerly,  with 
heap  roasting  of  the  ore  and  repeated  roasting  of  the  mattes  in 
stalls,  would  have  occupied  not  less  than  four  months.  A  large 
furnace  and  a  Bessemer  converter,  the  pair  capable  of  making  a 
million  pounds  of  copper  a  month  from  a  low-grade  sulphuretted 
ore,  will  not  occupy  a  space  of  more  than  25  ft.  by  100  ft.;  and 
whereas,  in  making  metallic  copper  out  of  a  low-grade  sulphuretted 
ore,  one  day's  labour  used  to  be  expended  on  every  ton  of  ore 
treated,  to-day  one  day's  labour  will  carry  at  least  four  tons  of 
ore  through  the  different  mechanical  and  metallurgical  processes 
necessary  to  reduce  them  to  metal.  About  70%  of  the  world's 
annual  copper  output  is  refined  electrolytically,  and  from  the 
461,583  tons  refined  in  the  United  States  in  1907,  there  were 
recovered  13,995,436  oz. of  silver  and  272,150  oz.  of  gold.  The 
recovery  of  these  valuable  metals  has  contributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  expansion  of  electrolytic  refining. 

Production. — The  sources  of  copper,  its  applications  and  its 
metallurgy,  have  undergone  great  changes.  Chile  was  the 
largest  producer  in  1869  with  54,867  tons;  but  in  1899  her 


COPPER 


109 


production  had  fallen  off  to  25,000  tons.  Great  Britain,  though 
she  had  made  half  the  world's  copper  in  1830,  held  second  place  in 
1860,  making  from  native  ores  15,968  tons;  in  1900  her  pro- 
duction was  777  tons,  and  in  1907,  711  tons.  The  United  States 
made  only  572  tons  in  1850,  and  12,600  tons  in  1870;  but  she  to- 
day makes  more  than  60%  of  the  world's  total.  In  1879,  Spain 
was  the  largest  producer,  but  now  ranks  third. 

The  estimated  total  production  for  each  decade  of  the  igth 
century  in  metric  tons  is  here  shown: — 

1801-1810  ...  .  91,000 

1811-1820  ...  .  96,000 

1821-1830  ...  .  135,000 

1831-1840  ...  .  218,400 

1841-1850  ...  .  291,000 

1851-1860  ...  .  506,999 

1861-1870  ...  .  900,000 

1871-1880  ...  .  1,189,000 

1881-1890  ...  .  2,373,398 

1891-1900  ...  .  3,708,901 

The  following  table  gives  the  output  of  various  countries 
and  the  world's  production  for  the  years  1895,  1900,  1905, 
1907:— 


Country. 

1895. 

1900. 

1905. 

1907. 

United  States   . 
Spain  and  Portugal 
Japan     
Chile      
Germany     .... 
Australasia 
Mexico  
Russia    

World's  production 

175,294 
55,755 
18,725 
22,428 

i6,799 
10,160 
12,806 
5,364 

274.933 
53.7J8 
28,285 
26,016 
20,635 
23,368 
22,473 
8,128 

397-003 
45,527 
36,485 
29,632 
22,492 

34,483 
70,010 

8,839 

398,736 
50,470 
49,718 
27,112 
20,818 
41,910 
61,127 
15-240 

339,994 

496,819 

699,5H 

723.807 

As  the  stock  on  hand  rarely  exceeds  three  months'  demand, 
and  is  often  little  more  than  a  month's  supply,  it  is  evident  that 
consumption  has  kept  close  pace  with  production. 

The  large  demand  for  copper  to  be  used  in  sheathing  ships 
ceased  on  the  introduction  of  iron  in  shipbuilding  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  coating  iron  with  an  impervious  layer  of  copper;  but 
the  consumption  in  the  manufacture  of  electric  apparatus  and  for 
electric  conductors  has  far  more  than  compensated. 

Alloys  of  Copper. — Copper  unites  with  almost  all  other  metals, 
and  a  large  number  of  its  alloys  are  of  importance  in  the  arts.  The 
principal  alloys  in  which  it  forms  a  leading  ingredient  are  brass, 
bronze,  and  German  or  nickel  silver;  under  these  several  heads  their 
respective  applications  and  qualities  wil!  be  found. 

Compounds  of  Copper. — Copper  probably  forms  six  oxides,  viz. 
Cu<O,  Cu3O,  Cu2O,  CuO,  CujOa  and  CuO2.  The  most  important  are 
cuprous  oxide,  Cu2O,  and  cupric  oxide,  CuO,  both  of 
Oxides  which  give  rise  to  well-defined  series  of  salts.  The  other 
and  by-  oxides  do  not  possess  this  property,  as  is  also  the  case 
droxldes.  of  the  hydrated  oxides  Cu3O22H2O  and  Cu,O35H2O,  de- 
scribed by  M.  Siewert. 

Cuprous  oxide,  Cu2O,  occurs  in  nature  as  the  mineral  cuprite  (?.».). 
It  may  be  prepared  artificially  by  heating  copper  wire  to  a  white 
heat,  and  afterwards  at  a  reu  heat,  by  the  atmospheric  oxidation 
of  copper  reduced  in  hydrogen,  or  by  the  slow  oxidation  of  the  metal 
under  water.  It  is  obtained  as  a  fine  red  crystalline  precipitate  by 
reducing  an  alkaline  copper  solution  with  sugar.  When  finely 
divided  it  is  of  a  fine  red  colour.  It  fuses  at  red  heat,  and  colours 
glass  a  ruby-red.  The  property  was  known  to  the  ancients  and 
during  the  middle  ages;  it  was  then  lost  for  several  centuries,  to 
be  rediscovered  in  about  1827.  Cuprous  oxide  is  reduced  by  hydro- 
gen, carbon  monoxide,  charcoal,  or  iron,  to  the  metal;  it  dissolves 
in  hydrochloric  acid  forming  cuprous  chloride,  and  in  other  mineral 
acids  to  form  cupric  salts,  with  the  separation  of  copper.  It  dissolves 
in  ammonia,  forming  a  colourless  solution  which  rapidly  oxidizes 
and  turns  blue.  A  hydrated  cuprous  oxide,  (4Cu2O,  H2O),  is  obtained 
as  a  bright  yellow  powder,  when  cuprous  chloride  is  treated  with 
potash  or  soda.  It  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen,  assuming  a  blue  colour. 
Cuprous  oxide  corresponds  to  the  series  of  cuprous  salts,  which  are 
mostly  white  in  colour,  insoluble  in  water,  and  readily  oxidized 
to  cupric  salts. 

Cupric  oxide,  CuO,  occurs  in  nature  as  the  mineral  melaconite 
(?.».),  and  can  be  obtained  as  a  hygroscopic  black  powder  by  the 
gentle  ignition  of  copper  nitrate,  carbonate  or  hydroxide;  also  by 
heating  the  hydroxide.  It  oxidizes  carbon  compounds  to  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  and  therefore  finds  extensive  application  in 
analytical  organic  chemistry.  It  is  also  employed  to  colour  glass, 
to  which  it  imparts  a  light  green  colour.  Cupric  hydroxide, 
Cu(OH)2,  is  obtained  as  a  greenish-blue  flocculent  precipitate  by 


mixing  cold  solutions  of  potash  and  a  cupric  salt.  This  precipitate 
always  contains  more  or  less  potash,  which  cannot  be  entirely 
removed  by  washing.  A  purer  product  is  obtained  by  adding 
ammonium  chloride,  filtering,  and  washing  with  hot  water.  Several 
hydrated  oxides,e.g.Cu(OH)2-3CuO,Cu(OH)2-6H2O,6Cu9-H2O,  have 
been  described.  Both  the  oxide  and  hydroxide  dissolve  in  ammonia 
to  form  a  beautiful  azure-blue  solution  (Schweizer's  reagent),  which 
dissolves  cellulose,  or  perhaps,  holds  it  in  suspension  as  water  does 
starch;  accordingly,  the  solution  rapidly  perforates  paper  or  calico. 
The  salts  derived  from  cupric  oxide  are  generally  white  when 
anhydrous,  but  blue  or  green  when  hydrated. 

Copper  quadrantoxide,  Cu4O,  is  an  olive-green  powder  formed  by 
mixing  well-cooled  solutions  of  copper  sulphate  and  alkaline  stannous 
chloride.  The  trientoxide,  Cu3O,  is  obtained  when  cupric  oxide  is 
heated  to  I5OO°-2OOO°  C.  It  forms  yellowish-red  crystals,  which 
scratch  glass,  and  are  unaffected  by  all  acids  except  hydrofluoric; 
it  also  dissolves  in  molten  potash.  Copper  dioxide,  CuO2H2O,  is 
obtained  as  a  yellowish-brown  powder,  by  treating  cupric  hydrate 
with  hydrogen  peroxide.  When  moist,  it  decomposes  at  about 
6°C.,  but  the  dry  substance  must  be  heated  to  about  180°,  before 
decomposition  sets  in  (see  L.  Moser,  Abst.  J.C.S.,  1907,  ii.  p.  549). 

Cuprous  hydride,  (CuH)n,  was  first  obtained  by  Wurtz  in  1844, 
who  treated  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  with  hypophosphorous 
acid,  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  70°  C.  According  to  E.  J. 
Bartlett  and  W.  H.  Merrill,  it  decomposes  when  heated,  and  gives 
cupric  hydride,  CuH2,  as  a  reddish-brown  spongy  mass,  which  turns 
to  a  chocolate  colour  on  exposure.  It  is  a  strong  reducing  agent. 

Cuprous  fluoride,  CuF,  is  a  ruby-red  crystalline  mass,  formed  by 
heating  cuprous  chloride  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrofluoric  acid  at 
noo°-i2OO°  C.  It  is  soluble  in  boiling  hydrochloric  acid,  but  it  is 
not  reprecipitated  by  water,  as  is  the  case  with  cuprous  chloride. 
Cupric  fluoride,  CuF2,  is  obtained  by  dissolving  cupric  oxide  in 
hydrofluoric  acid.  The  hydrated  form,  (CuF2,  2H2O,  5HF), is  obtained 
as  blue  crystals,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water;  when  heated  to 
100°  C.  it  gives  the  compound  CuF(OH),  which,  when  heated  with 
ammonium  fluoride  in  a  current  of  carbon  dioxide,  gives  anhydrous 
copper  fluoride  as  a  white  powder. 

Cuprous  chloride,  CuCl  or  Cu2Cl2,  was  obtained  by  Robert  Boyle 
by  heating  copper  with  mercuric  chloride.  It  is  also  obtained  by 
burning  the  metal  in  chlorine,  by  heating  copper  and  cupric  oxide 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  or  copper  and  cupric  chloride  with  hydro- 
chloric acid.  It  dissolves  in  the  excess  of  acid,  and  is  precipitated 
as  a  white  crystalline  powder  on  the  addition  of  water.  It  melts  at 
below  red  heat  to  a  brown  mass,  and  its  vapour  density  at  both 
red  and  white  heat  corresponds  to  the  formula  Cu2CJ2.  It  turns 
dirty  violet  on  exposure  to  air  and  light;  in  moist  air  it  absorbs 
oxygen  and  forms  an  oxychloride.  Its  solution  in  hydrochloric  acid 
readily  absorbs  carbon  monoxide  and  acetylene;  hence  it  finds 
application  in  gas  analysis.  Its  solution  in  ammonia  is  at  first 
colourless,  but  rapidly  turns  blue,  owing  to  oxidation.  This  solution 
absorbs  acetylene  with  the  precipitation  of  red  cuprous  acetylide, 
Cu2C2,  a  very  explosive  compound.  Cupric  chloride,  CuCl2,  is  ob- 
tained by  burning  copper  in  an  excess  of  chlorine,  or  by  heating  the 
hydrated  chloride,  obtained  by  dissolving  the  metal  or  cupric  oxide 
in  an  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  a  brown  deliquescent  powder, 
which  rapidly  forms  the  green  hydrated  salt  CuCl2, 2H2O  on  exposure. 
The  oxychloride  Cu3O2CI2-4H2O  is  obtained  a?  a  pale  blue  precipi- 
tate when  potash  is  added  to  an  excess  of  cupric  chloride.  The 
oxychloride  Cu4O3Cl2,4H2O  occurs  in  nature  as  the  mineral  atacamite. 
It  may  be  artificially  prepared  by  heating  salt  with  ammonium 
copper  sulphate  to  100  .  Other  naturally  occurring  oxychlorides 
are  botallackite  and  tallingite.  "  Brunswick  green,'  a  light  green 
pigment,  is  obtained  from  copper  sulphate  and  bleaching  powder. 

The  bromides  closely  resemble  the  chlorides  and  fluorides. 

Cuprous  iodide,  Cu2l2,  is  obtained  as  a  white  powder,  which  suffers 
little  alteration  on  exposure,  by  the  direct  union  of  its  components 
or  by  mixing  solutions  of  cuprous  chloride  in  hydrochjoric  acid  and 
potassium  iodide ;  or,  with  liberation  of  iodine,  by  adding  potassium 
iodide  to  a  cupric  salt.  It  absorbs  ammonia,  forming  the  compound 
Cu2I2,  4NHa.  Cupric  iodide  is  only  known  in  combination,  as  in 
CuI2,  4NH3,  H2O,  which  is  obtained  by  exposing  CujI»,4NHj  to 
moist  air. 

Cuprous  sulphide,  Cu2S,  occurs  in  nature  as  the  mineral  chalcocite 
or  copper-glance  (<?•»•),  and  may  be  obtained  as  a  black  brittle  mass 
by  the  direct  combination  of  its  constituents.  (See  above,  Metallurgy.) 
Cupric  sulphide,  CuS,  occurs  in  nature  as  the  mineral  covellite. 
It  may  be  prepared  by  heating  cuprous  sulphide  with  sulphur,  or 
triturating  cuprous  sulphide  with  cold  strong  nitric  acid,  or  as  a 
dark  brown  precipitate  by  treating  a  copper  solution  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  Several  polysulphides,  e.g.  CuzSj,  Cu2S«,  Cu«Si, 
Cu2S»,  have  been  described;  they  are  all  unstable,  decomposing 
into  cupric  sulphide  and  sulphur.  Cuprous  sulphite,  CuSOj-HiO,  is 
obtained  as  a  brownish-red  crystalline  powder  by  treating  cuprous 
hydrate  with  sulphurous  acid.  A  cuproso-cupric  sulphite,  Cu2SO», 
CuSO3,2H2O,  is  obtained  by  mixing  solutions  of  cupric  sulphate  and 
acid  sodium  sulphite. 

Cupric  sulphate  or  "  Blue  Vitriol,"  CuSO4,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant salts  of  copper.  It  occurs  in  cupriferous  mine  waters  and  as 
the  minerals  chalcanthite  or  cyanosite,  CuSOrSHjO,  and  boothite, 
CuSO«-7H2O.  Cupric  sulphate  is  obtained  commercially  by  the 


I  IO 


COPPERAS— COPPERHEADS 


oxidation  of  sulphuretted  copper  ores  (see  above,  Metallurgy;  wet 
methods),  or  by  dissolving  cupric  oxide  in  sulphuric  acid.  It  was 
obtained  in  1644  by  Van  Helmont,  who  heated  copper  with  sulphur 
and  moistened  the  residue,  and  in  1648  by  Glauber,  who  dissolved 
copper  in  strong  sulphuric  acid.  (For  the  mechanism  of  this  reaction 
see  C.  H.  Sluiter,  Chem.  Weekblad,  1906,  3,  p.  63,  and  C.  M.  van 
Deventer,  ibid.,  1906,  3,  p.  §15.)  It  crystallizes  with  five  molecules 
of  water  as  large  blue  triclinic  prisms.  When  heated  to  1 00°,  it  loses 
four  molecules  of  water  and  forms  the  bluish-white  monohydrate, 
which,  on  further  heating  to  25O°-26o°,  is  converted  into  the  white 
CuSp<.  The  anhydrous  salt  is  very  hygroscopic,  and  hence  finds 
application  as  a  desiccating  agent.  It  also  absorbs  gaseous  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Copper  sulphate  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  but  in- 
soluble in  alcohol;  it  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid  with  a  consider- 
able fall  in  temperature,  cupric  chloride  being  formed.  The  copper 
is  readily  replaced  by  iron,  a  knife-blade  placed  in  an  aqueous 
solution  being  covered  immediately  with  a  bright  red  deposit  of 
copper.  At  one  time  this  was  regarded  as  a  transmutation  of  iron 
into  copper.  Several  basic  salts  are  known,  some  of  which  occur  as 
minerals;  of  these,  we  may  mention  brochantite  (q.v.),  CuSO4, 
3Cu(OH2),  langite,  CuSO4,  3Cu(OH)2,  H2O,  lyellite  (or  devilline), 
warringtonite ;  woodwardite  and  enysite  are  hydrated  copper- 
aluminium  sulphates,  connellite  is  a  basic  copper  chlorosulphate, 
and  spangolite  is  a  basic  copper  aluminium  chlorosulphate.  Copper 
sulphate  finds  application  in  calico  printing  and  in  the  preparation 
of  the  pigment  Scheele's  green. 

A  copper  nitride,  Cu3N,  is  obtained  by  heating  precipitated  cuprous 
oxide  in  ammonia  gas  (A.  Guntz  and  H.  Bassett,  Bull.  Soc.  Chim., 
1906,  35,  p.  201).  Amaroon-colouredpowder,ofcompositionCuNO2) 
is  formed  when  pure  dry  nitrogen  dioxide  is  passed  over  finely- 
divided  copper  at  25°-3O°.  It  decomposes  when  heated  to  90°; 
with  water  it  gives  nitric  oxide  and  cupric  nitrate  and  nitrite. 
Cupric  nitrate,  Cu(NO3)2,  is  obtained  by  dissolving  the  metal  or  oxide 
in  nitric  acid.  It  forms  dark  blue  prismatic  crystals  containing 
3,  4,  or  6  molecules  of  water  according  to  the  temperature  of  crystal- 
lization. The  trihydrate  melts  at  114-5°,  and  boils  at  170°,  giving 
off  nitric  acid,  and  leaving  the  basic  salt  Cu(NOs)2-3Cu(OH)2.  The 
mineral  gerhardtite  is  the  basic  nitrate  Cu2(OH)3NO3. 

Copper  combines  directly  with  phosphorus  to  form  several 
compounds.  The  phosphide  obtained  by  heating  cupric  phosphate, 
Cu2H2P2Os,  in  hydrogen,  when  mixed  with  potassium  and  cuprous 
sulphides  or  levigated  coke,  constitutes  "  Abel's  fuse,"  which  is  used 
as  a  primer.  A  phosphide,  Cu3P2,  is  formed  by  passing  phosphor- 
etted  hydrogen  over  heated  cuprous  chloride.  (For  other  phosphides 
see  E.  Heyn  and  O.  Bauer,  Rep.  Chem.  Soc.,  1906,  3,  p.  39.)  Cupric 
phosphate,  Cu3(PO<)2,  may  be  obtained  by  precipitating  a  copper 
solution  with  sodium  phosphate.  Basic  copper  phosphates  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  mineral  kingdom.  Of  these  we  may 
notice  libethenite,  Cu2(OH)PO<;  chalcosiderite,  a  basic  copper  iron 
phosphate;  torbernite,  a  copper  uranyl  phosphate;  andrewsite,  a 
hydrated  copper  iron  phosphate;  and  henwoodite,  a  hydrated  copper 
aluminium  phosphate. 

Copper  combines  directly  with  arsenic  to  form  several  arsenides, 
some  of  which  occur  in  the  mineral  kingdom.  Of  these  we  may 
mention  whitneyite,  Cu9  As,  algodonite,  Cu6As, and domeykite,  Cu3As. 
Copper  arsenate  is  similar  to  cupric  phosphate,  and  the  resemblance 
is  to  be  observed  in  the  naturally  occurring  copper  arsenates, 
which  are  generally  isomorphous  with  the  corresponding  phosphates. 
Olivenite  corresponds  to  libethenite;  clinoclase,  euchroite,  corn- 
wallite  and  tyrolite  are  basic  arsenates;  zeunerite  corresponds  to 
torbernite;  chalcophyllite  (tamarite  or  "copper-mica  ")  is  a  basic 
copper  aluminium  sulphato-arsenate,  and  bayldonite  is  a  similar 
compound  containing  lead  instead  of  aluminium.  Copper  arsenite 
forms  the  basis  of  a  number  of  once  valuable,  but  very  poisonous, 
pigments.  Scheele's  green  is  a  basic  copper  arsenite;  Schweinfurt 
green,  an  aceto-arsemte ;  and  Casselmann's  green  a  compound  of 
cupric  sulphate  with  potassium  or  sodium  acetate. 

Normal  cupric  carbonate,  CuCOn,  has  not  been  definitely  obtained, 
basic  hydrated  forms  being  formed  when  an  alkaline  carbonate  is 
added  to  a  cupric  salt.  Copper  carbonates  are  of  wide  occurrence 
in  the  mineral  kingdom,  and  constitute  the  valuable  ores  malachite 
and  azurite.  Copper  rust  has  the  same  composition  as  malachite; 
it  results  from  the  action  of  carbon  dioxide  and  water  on  the  metal. 
Copper  carbonate  is  also  the  basis  of  the  valuable  blue  to  green 
pigments  verditer,  Bremen  blue  and  Bremen  green.  Mountain  or 
mineral  green  is  a  naturally  occurring  carbonate. 

By  the  direct  union  of  copper  and  silicon,  ruprosilicon,  consisting 
mainly  of  Cu4Si,  is  obtained  (Lebeau,  C.R.,  1906;  Vigouroux,  ibid.). 

Copper  silicates  occur  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  many  minerals 
owing  their  colour  to  the  presence  of  acupriferouselement.  Dioptase 
(q.v.)  and  chrysocolla  (q.v.)  are  the  most  important  forms. 

Detection. — Compounds  of  copper  impart  a  bright  green  coloration 
to  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner.  Ammonia  gives  a  characteristic 
blue  coloration  when  added  to  a  solution  of  a  copper  salt ;  potassium 
ferrocyamde  gives  a  brown  precipitate,  and,  if  the  solution  be  very 
dilute,  a  brown  colour  is  produced.  This  latter  reaction  will  detect 
one  part  of  copper  in  500,000  of  water.  For  the  borax  beads  and  the 
qualitative  separation  of  copper  from  other  metals,  see  CHEMISTRY: 
Analytical.  For  the  quantitative  estimation,  see  ASSAYING: 
Copper. 


The  crystals  have  the  form 


Medicine. — In  medicine  copper  sulphate  was  employed  as  an 
emetic,  but  its  employment  for  this  purpose  is  now  very  rare,  as  it  is 
exceedingly  depressant,  and  if  it  fails  to  act,  may  seriously  damage 
the  gastric  mucous  membrane.  It  is,  however,  a  useful  superficial 
caustic  and  antiseptic.  All  copper  compounds  are  poisonous,  but 
not  so  harmful  as  the  copper  arsenical  pigments. 

REFERENCES. — See  generally  H.  J.  Steven's  Copper  Handbook 
(annual),  W.  H.  Weld,  The  Copper  Mines  of  the  World  (1907),  The 
Mineral  Industry  (annual),  and  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States 
(annual).  For  the  dry  metallurgy,  see  E.  D.Peters,  Principles  of  Copper 
Smelting  (New  York,  1907);  for  pyritic  smelting,  see  T.  A.  Rickard, 
Pyrite  Smelting  (1905) ;  for  wet  methods,  see  Eissler,  Hydrometallurgy 
of  Copper  (London,  1902) ;  and  for  electrolytic  methods,  see  T.  Ulke, 
Die  electrolytische  Raffination  des  Kupfers  (Halle,  1904).  Reference 
should  also  be  made  to  the  articles  METALLURGY  and  ELECTRO- 
METALLURGY. For  the  chemistry  of  copper  and  its  compounds  see 
the  references  in  the  article  CHEMISTRY:  Inorganic.  Toxicologic 
and  hygienic  aspects  are  treated  in  Tschirsch's  Das  Kupfer  vom 
Standpunkt  der  gerichtlichen  Chemie,  Toxikologie  und  Hygiene 
(Stuttgart,  1893). 

COPPERAS  (Fr.  couperose;  Lat.  cupri  rosa.  the  flower  of 
copper),  green  vitriol,  or  ferrous  sulphate,  FeSO4-7H2O,  having 
a  bluish-green  colour  and  an  astringent,  inky  and  somewhat 
sweetish  taste.  It  is  used  in  dyeing  and  tanning,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  ink  and  of  Nordhausen  sulphuric  acid  or  fuming 
oil  of  vitriol  (see  IRON). 

COPPER-GLANCE,  a  mineral  consisting  of  cuprous  sulphide. 
Cu2S,  and  crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic  system.  It  is  known 
also  as  chalcocite,  redruthite  and  vitreous  copper  (German. 
Kupfer glaserz  of  G.  Agricola,  1546). 
of  six-sided  tables  or  prisms;  the 
angle  between  the  prism  faces 
(lettered  o  in  the  figure)  being 
60°  25'.  When  twinned  on  the 
prism  planes  o,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  the  crystals  simulate 
hexagonal  symmetry  still  more 
closely,  as  in  the  minerals  arag- 

onite  and  chrysoberyl.  Twinning  also  takes  place  according 
to  two  other  laws,  giving  rise  to  interpenetrating  crystals  with  the 
basal  planes  (s)  of  the  two  individuals  inclined  at  angles  of  69°  or 
87°  56'  respectively.  The  mineral  also  occurs  as  compact  masses 
of  considerable  extent.  The  colour  is  dark  lead-grey  with  a 
metallic  lustre,  but  this  is  never  very  bright,  since  the  material 
is  readily  altered,  becoming  black  and  dull  on  exposure  to 
light.  The  mineral  is  soft  (H.  =  2|)  and  sectile,  and  can  be 
readily  cut  with  a  knife,  like  argentite;  sp.  gr.  5-7.  Analyses 
agree  closely  with  the  formula  Cu2S,  which  corresponds  to 
79-8%  of  copper;  small  quantities  of  iron  and  silver  are  some- 
times present. 

Next  to  chalcopyrite,  copper-glance  is  the  most  important  ore 
of  copper.  It  usually  occurs  in  the  upper  part  of  the  copper- 
bearing  lodes,  and  is  a  secondary  sulphide  derived  from  the 
chalcopyrite  met  with  at  greater  depths;  sometimes,  however, 
the  two  minerals  are  found  together  in  the  same  part  of  the  lodes. 
The  best  crystals  are  from  St  Just,  St  Ives,  and  Redruth  in 
Cornwall,  and  from  Bristol  in  Connecticut.  Small  crystals  of 
recent  formation  are  found  on  Roman  bronze  coins  in  the  thermal 
springs  at  Bourbonne-les-Bains. 

Copper-glance  readily  alters  to  other  minerals,  such  as 
malachite,  covellite,  melaconite  and  chalcopyrite.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  found  as  pseudomorphs  after  chalcopyrite,  galena,  and 
organic  structures  such  as  wood;  copper-glance  pseudomorphous 
after  galena  preserves  the  cleavage  of  the  original  mineral  and  is 
known  as  harrisite. 

Isomorphous  with  copper-glance  is  the  orthorhombic  mineral 
stromeyerite,  a  double  copper  and  silver  sulphide,  CuAgS,  which 
occurs  in  abundance  in  the  Altai  Mountains.  (L.  J.  S.) 

COPPERHEADS,  an  American  political  epithet,  applied  by 
Union  men  during  the  Civil  War  to  those  men  in  the  North  who, 
deeming  it  impossible  to  conquer  the  Confederacy,  were  earnestly 
in  favour  of  peace  and  therefore  opposed  to  the  war  policy  of  the 
president  and  of  Congress.  Such  men  were  not  necessarily 
friends  of  the  Confederate  cause.  The  term  originated  in  the 
autumn  of  1862,  and  its  use  quickly  spread  throughout  the  North. 
In  the  Western  states  early  in  1863  the  terms  "  Copperhead  '" 


COPPERMINE— COPROLITES 


in 


and  "  Democrat  "  had  become  practically  synonymous.  The 
name  was  adopted  because  of  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the 
peace  party  to  the  venomous  copperhead  snake,  and,  though 
applied  as  a  term  of  opprobrium,  it  was  willingly  assumed  by 
those  upon  whom  it  was  bestowed. 

COPPERMINE,  a  river  of  Mackenzie  district,  Canada,  about 
475  m.  long,  rising  in  a  small  lake  in  approximately  110°  20'  W. 
and  65°  50'  N.,  and  flowing  south  to  Lake  Gras  and  then  north- 
westward to  Coronation  Gulf  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Like  Back's 
river,  the  only  other  large  river  of  this  part  of  Canada,  it  is 
unnavigable,  being  a  succession  of  lakes  and  violent  rapids. 
The  country  through  which  it  flows  is  a  mass  of  low  hills  and 
morasses.  The  river  was  discovered  by  Samuel  Hearne  in  1771, 
and  was  explored  from  Point  Lake  to  the  sea  by  Captain  (after- 
wards Sir  John)  Franklin  in  1821. 

COPPER-PYRITES,  or  CHALCOPYRITE,  a  copper  iron  sulphide 
(CuFeS2),  an  important  ore  of  copper.  The  name  copper-pyrites 
is  from  the  Ger.  Kupferkies,  which  was  used  as  far  back  as 
1546  by  G.  Agricola;  chalcopyrite  (from  \a\Kos,  "  copper," 
and  pyrites)  was  proposed  by  J.  F.  Henckel  in  his  Pyritologia, 
oder  Kiess-Historie  (1725).  By  the  ancients  copper-pyrites 
was  included  with  other  minerals  under  the  term  pyrites, 
though  the  copper-ore  from  Cyprus  referred  to  by  Aristotle 
as  chalcites  may  possibly  have  been  identical  with  this 
mineral. 

Chalcopyrite  crystallizes  in  the  tetragonal  system  with  inclined 
hemihedrism,  but  the  form  is  so  nearly  cubic  that  it  was  not 
recognized  as  tetragonal  until  accurate  measurements  were 
made  in  1822.  Crystals  are  usually  tetrahedral  in  aspect,  owing 
to  the  large  development  of  the  sphenoid  P  1 1 1 1  j .  The  faces 
of  this  form  are  dull  and  striated,  whilst  the  smaller  faces  of  the 
complementary  sphenoid  P'  !ln|  (fig.  i)  are  bright  and  smooth. 
The  combination  of  these  two  forms  produces  a  figure  resembling 

an  octahedron,  the 
angle  between  P  and 
P'  being  70°  7i', 
corresponding  to  the 
angle  70°  32'  of  the 
regular  octahedron. 
The  other  faces 
shown  in  fig.  i  are 
the  basal  pinacoid, 

FIG.  i.  FiG.2.  °     iooit'    and    'w° 

square        pyramids, 

b  lioij  and  c  (201).  Crystals  are  usually  twinned,  and  are 
often  complex  and  difficult  to  decipher.  There  are  three 
twin-laws,  the  twin-planes  being  (ui),  (101)  and  (no) 
respectively.  Twinning  according  to  the  first  law  is  effected 
by  rotation  about  an  axis  normal  to  the  sphenoidal  face  (in), 
the  resulting  form  resembling  the  twins  of  blende  and  spinel. 
Twinning  according  to  the  second  law  can  only  be  explained 
by  reflection  across  the  plane  (101),  not  by  rotation  about  an 
axis;  chalcopyrite  affords  an  excellent  example  of  this  com- 
paratively rare  type  of  symmetric  twinning.  Interpenetra- 
tion  twins  (fig.  2)  with  (no)  as  twin-plane  are  of  very  rare 
occurrence. 

Crystals  have  imperfect  cleavages  parallel  to  the  eight  faces 
of  the  pyramid  c  {201}.  The  fracture  is  conchoidal,  and  the 
material  is  brittle.  Hardness  4;  specific  gravity  4-2.  The 
colour  is  brass-yellow,  and  the  lustre  metallic;  the  streak,  or 
colour  of  the  powder,  is  greenish-black.  The  mineral  is  especially 
liable  to  surface  alteration,  tarnishing  with  beautiful  iridescent 
colours;  a  blue  colour  usually  predominates,  owing  probably 
to  the  alteration  of  the  chalcopyrite  to  covellite  (CuS).  The 
massive  and  compact  mineral  frequently  exhibits  this  iridescent 
tarnish,  and  is  consequently  known  to  miners  as  "  peacock 
ore  "  or  "  peacock  copper."  The  massive  mineral  sometimes 
occurs  in  mammillary  and  botryoidal  forms  with  a  smooth 
brassy  surface,  and  is  then  known  to  Cornish  miners  as  "  blister- 
copper-ore." 

Chalcopyrite  or  copper-pyrites  may  be  readily  distinguished 
from  iron-pyrites  (or  pyrites),  which  it  somewhat  resembles 


in  appearance,  by  its  deeper  colour  and  lower  degree  of  hardness: 
the  former  is  easily  scratched  by  a  knife,  whilst  the  latter  can 
only  be  scratched  with  difficulty  or  not  at  all.  Chalcopyrite 
is  decomposed  by  nitric  acid  with  separation  of  sulphur  and 
formation  of  a  green  solution;  ammonia  added  in  excess  to  this 
solution  changes  the  green  colour  to  deep  blue  and  precipitates 
red  ferric  hydroxide. 

The  chemical  formula  CuFeSj  corresponds  with  the  percentage 
composition  Cu  =  34'5,  Fe=3O's,  8  =  35-0.  Analyses  usually, 
however,  show  the  presence  of  more  iron,  owing  to  the  intimate 
admixture  of  iron-pyrites.  Traces  of  gold,  silver,  selenium  or 
thallium  are  sometimes  present,  and  the  mineral  is  sometimes 
worked  as  an  ore  of  gold  or  silver. 

Chalcopyrite  is  of  wide  distribution  and  is  the  commonest 
of  the  ores  of  copper.  It  occurs  in  metalliferous  veins,  often 
in  association  with  iron-pyrites,  chalybite,  blende,  &c.,  and  in 
Cornwall  and  Devon,  where  it  is  abundant,  with  cassiterite.  The 
large  deposits  at  Falun  in  Sweden  occur  with  serpentine  in 
gneiss,  and  those  at  Montecatini,  near  Volterra  in  the  province 
of  Pisa,  serpentine  and  gabbro.  At  Rammelsberg  in  the  Harz 
it  forms  a  bed  in  argillaceous  schist,  and  at  Mansfield  in  Thuringia 
it  occurs  in  the  Kupferschiefer  with  ores  of  nickel  and  cobalt. 
Extensive  deposits  are  mined  in  the  United  States,  particularly 
at  Butte  in  Montana,  and  in  Namaqualand,  South  Africa. 
Well-crystallized  specimens  are  met  with  at  many  localities; 
for  example,  formerly  at  Wheal  Towan  (hence  the  name 
towanite,  which  has  been  applied  to  the  species)  in  the  St 
Agnes  district  of  Cornwall,  at  Freiberg  in  Saxony,  and  Joplin, 
Missouri.  (L.  J.  S.) 

COPPICE,  or  COPSE  (from  an  O.  Fr.  copeis  or  coupeis,  from 
Late  Lat.  colpare,  to  cut  with  a  blow;  colpas,  the  Late  Lat.  for 
"blow,"  is  a  shortened  form  of  colapus  or  colaphus,  adapted 
from  the  Gr.  /coXa^os),  a  small  plantation  or  thicket  of  planted 
or  self-sown  trees,  which  are  cut  periodically  for  use  or  sale, 
before  the  trees  grow  into  large  timber.  Whether  naturally 
or  artificially  grown  the  produce  is  looked  on  by  the  English 
law  as  fructus  industrialis.  The  tenant  for  life  or  years  may 
appropriate  this  produce  (see  Dashwood  v.  Magniac,  1891, 
3  Ch.  306). 

COPRA  (a  Spanish  and  Portuguese  adaptation  of  the  Malay 
kopperah,  and  Hindustani  khopra,  the  coco-nut),  the  dried 
broken  kernel  of  the  coco-nut  from  which  coco-nut  oil  is  extracted 
by  boiling  and  pressing.  Copra  is  the  form  in  which  the  product 
of  the  coco-nut  is  exported  for  commercial  purposes  (see  COCO- 
NUT PALM). 

COPROLITES  (from  Gr.  K&irpos,  dung,  and  XWos,  stone),  the 
fossilized  excrements  of  extinct  animals.  The  discovery  of 
their  true  nature  was  made  by  Dr  William  Buckland,  who 
observed  that  certain  convoluted  bodies  occurring  in  the  Lias 
of  Gloucestershire  had  the  form  which  would  have  been  produced 
by  their  passage  in  the  soft  state  through  the  intestines  of  reptiles 
or  fishes.  These  bodies  had  long  been  known  as  "fossil  fir 
cones"  and  "bezoar  stones."  Buckland's  conjecture  that  they 
were  of  faecal  origin,  and  similar  to  the  album  grecum  or  ex- 
crement of  hyaenas,  was  confirmed  by  Dr  W.  Prout,  who  on 
analysis  found  they  consisted  essentially  of  calcium  phosphate 
and  carbonate,  and  not  infrequently  contained  fragments  of 
unaltered  bone.  The  name  "coprolites"  was  accordingly 
given  to  them  by  Buckland,  who  subsequently  expressed  his 
belief  that  they  might  be  found  useful  in  agriculture  on  account 
of  the  calcium  phosphate  they  contained.  The  Liassic  coprolites 
are  described  by  Buckland  as  resembling  oblong  pebbles,  or 
kidney-potatoes;  they  are  mostly  2  to  4  in.  long,  and  from 
i  to  2  in.  in  diameter,  but  those  of  the  larger  ichthyosauri  are 
of  much  greater  dimensions.  In  colour  they  vary  from  ash-grey 
to  black,  and  their  fracture  is  conchoidal.  Internally  they  are 
found  to  consist  of  a  lamina  twisted  upon  itself,  and  externally 
they  generally  exhibit  a  tortuous  structure,  produced,  before 
the  cloaca  was  reached,  by  the  spiral  valve  of  a  compressed 
small  intestine  (as  in  skates,  sharks  and  dog-fishes) ;  the  surface 
shows  also  vascular  impressions  and  corrugations  due  to  the 
same  cause.  Often  the  bones,  teeth  and  scales  of  fishes  are  to 


112 


COPTOS 


be  found  dispersed  through  the  coprolites,  and  sometimes  the 
bones  of  small  ichthyosauri,  which  were  apparently  a  prey  to 
the  larger  marine  saurians.  Coprolites  have  been  found  at  Lyme 
Regis,  enclosed  by  the  ribs  of  ichthyosauri,  and  in  the  remains  of 
several  species  of  fish ;  also  in  the  abdominal  cavities  of  a  species 
of  fossil  fish,  Macropoma  Mantelli,  from  the  chalk  of  Lewes. 
Professor  T.  Jager  has  described  coprolites  from  the  alum-slate 
of  Gaildorf  in  WUrttemberg;  the  fish-coprolites  of  Burdiehouse 
and  of  Newcastle-under-Lyme  are  of  Carboniferous  age.  The 
so-called  "  beetle-stones  "  of  the  coal-formation  of  Newhaven, 
near  Leith,  which  have  mostly  a  coprolite  nucleus,  have  been 
applied  to  various  ornamental  purposes  by  lapidaries.  The 
name  "  cololites  "  (from  the  Greek  K£J\OV,  the  large  intestine, 
Xi0os,  stone)  was  given  by  Agassiz  to  fossil  wormlike  bodies, 
found  in  the  lithographic  slate  of  Solenhofcn,  which  he  determined 
to  be  either  the  petrified  intestines  or  contents  of  the  intestines 
of  fishes.  The  bone-bed  of  Axmouth  in  Devonshire  and  West- 
bury  and  Aust  in  Gloucestershire,  in  the  Penarth  or  Rhaetic 
series  of  strata,  contains  the  scales,  teeth  and  bones  of  saurians 
and  fishes,  together  with  abundance  of  coproh'tes;  but  neither 
there  nor  at  Lyme  Regis  is  there  a  sufficient  quantity  of  phos- 
phatic  material  to  render  the  working  of  it  for  agricultural 
purposes  remunerative. 

The  term  coprolites  has  been  made  to  include  all  kinds  of 
phosphatic  nodules  employed  as  manures,  such,  for  example,  as 
those  obtained  from  the  Coralline  and  the  Red  Crag  of  Suffolk. 
At  the  base  of  the  Red  Crag  in  that  county  is  a  bed,  3  to  18  in. 
thick,  containing  rolled  fossil  bones,  cetacean  and  fish  teeth,  and 
shells  of  the  Crag  period,  with  nodules  or  pebbles  of  phosphatic 
matter  derived  from  the  London  Clay,  and  often  investing 
fossils  from  that  formation.  These  are  distinguishable  from 
the  grey  Chalk  coprolites  by  their  brownish  ferruginous  colour 
and  smooth  appearance.  When  ground  they  give  a  yellowish-red 
powder.  These  nodules  were  at  first  taken  by  Professor  J.  S. 
Henslow  for  coprolites;  they  were  afterwards  termed  by 
Buckland  "  pseudo-coprolites."  "  The  nodules,  having  been 
imbued  with  phosphatic  matter  from  their  matrix  in  the  London 
Clay,  were  dislodged,"  says  Buckland,  "  by  the  waters  of  the 
seas  of  the  first  period,  and  accumulated  by  myriads  at  the 
bottom  of  those  shallow  seas  where  is  now  the  coast  of  Suffolk. 
Here  they  were  long  rolled  together  with  the  bones  of  large 
mammalia,  fishes,  and  with  the  shells  of  molluscous  creatures 
that  lived  in  shells.  From  the  bottom  of  this  sea  they  have  been 
raised  to  form  the  dry  lands  along  the  shores  of  Suffolk,  whence 
they  are  now  extracted  as  articles  of  commercial  value,  being 
ground  to  powder  in  the  mills  of  Mr  [afterwards  Sir  John]  Lawcs, 
at  Dcptford,  to  supply  our  farms  with  a  valuable  substitute  for 
guano,  under  the  accepted  name  of  coprolite  manure."  The 
phosphatic  nodules  occurring  throughout  the  Red  Crag  of  Suffolk 
are  regarded  as  derived  from  the  Coralline  Crag.  The  Suffolk 
beds  have  been  worked  since  1846;  and  immense  quantities  of 
coprolite  have  also  been  obtained  from  Essex,  Norfolk  and 
Cambridgeshire.  The  Cambridgeshire  coprolites  are  believed 
to  be  derived  from  deposits  of  Gault  age;  they  are  obtained  by 
washing  from  a  stratum  about  a  foot  thick,  resting  on  the  Gault, 
at  the  base  of  the  Chalk  Marl,  and  probably  homotaxeous  with 
the  Chloritic  Marl.  An  acre  used  to  yield  on  an  average  300  tons 
of  phosphatic  nodules,  value  £750.  About  £140  per  acre  was 
paid  for  the  lease  of  the  land,  which  after  two  years  was  restored 
to  its  owners  re-soiled  and  levelled.  Plicatulae  have  been  found 
attached  to  these  coprolites,  showing  that  they  were  already  hard 
bodies  when  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  Chalk  ocean.  The 
Cambridgeshire  coprolites  are  either  amorphous  or  finger-shaped; 
the  coprolites  from  the  Greensand  are  of  a  black  or  dark-brown 
colour;  while  those  from  the  Gault  are  greenish-white  on  the 
surface,  brownish-black  internally.  Samples  of  Cambridgeshire 
and  Suffolk  coprolite  have  been  found  by  A.  Voelcker  to  give  on 
analysis  phosphoric  acid  equivalent  to  about  55  and  52-5% 
of  tribasic  calcium  phosphate  respectively  (Journ.  R.  Agric. 
Soc.  Eng.,  1860,  xxi.  358).  The  following  analysis  of  a  saurio- 
coprolite  from  Lyme  Regis  is  given  by  T.  J.  Herapath  (ibid. 
xii.  QI):— 


Water      . 
Organic  matter 
Calcium  sulphate 
Calcium  carbonate 
Calcium  fluoride    . 
Calcium  and  magnesiur 
Magnesium  carbonate 
Aluminic  phosphate 
Ferric  phosphate    . 
Silica 

n  ph 

osph 

ate 

2-OOI 

2-026 
28-121 
not  determined 
53-996 
"3-423 
1-276 
6-182 
0-733 

98-734 

An  ichthyo-coprolite  from  Tenby  was  found  to  contain  15.4% 
of  phosphoric  anhydride.  The  pseudo-coprolites  of  the  Suffolk 
Crag  have  been  estimated  by  Herapath  to  be  as  rich  in  phosphates 
as  the  true  ichthyo-coprolites  and  saurio-coprolites  of  other 
formations,  the  proportion  of  P2O6  contained  varying  between 
12-5  and  37-25%,  the  average  proportion,  however,  being  32 
or  33% 

Coprolite  is  reduced  to  powder  by  powerful  mills  of  peculiar 
construction,  furnished  with  granite  and  buhrstones,  before  being 
treated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  renders  it 
available  as  a  manure  by  converting  the  calcium  phosphate, 
CaaPjOg,  that  it  contains  into  the  soluble  monocalcium  salt, 
CaHjPjOs,  or  "  superphosphate."  The  phosphate  thus  produced 
forms  an  efficacious  turnip  manure,  and  is  quite  equal  in  value 
to  that  produced  from  any  other  source.  The  Chloritic  Marl  in 
the  Wealden  district  furnishes  much  phosphatic  material,  which 
has  been  extensively  worked  at  Froyle.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Farnham  it  contains  a  bed  of  "  coprolites  "  of  considerable  extent 
and  2  to  15  ft.  in  thickness.  Specimens  of  these  from  the  Dippen 
Hall  pits,  analysed  by  Messrs  J.  M.  Paine  and  J.  T.  Way,  showed 
the  presence  of  phosphates  equivalent  to  55-96  of  bone-earth 
(Journ.  R.  Agric.  Soc.  Eng.  ix.  56).  Phosphatic  nodules  occur 
also  in  the  Chloritic  Marl  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Dorset- 
shire, and  at  Wroughton,  near  Swindon.  They  are  found  in  the 
Lower  Greensand,  or  Upper  Neocomian  series,  in  the  Atherfield 
Clay  at  Stopham,  near  Pulborough;  occasionally  at  the  junction 
of  the  Hythe  and  Sandgate  beds;  and  in  the  Folkeston  beds, 
at  Farnham.  At  Woburn,  Leighton,  Ampthill,  Sandy,  Upware, 
Wicken  and  Potton,  near  the  base  of  Upper  Neocomian  iron- 
sands,  there  is  a  band  between  6  in.  and  2  ft.  in  thickness  con- 
taining "  coprolites ";  these  consist  of  phosphatized  wood, 
bones,  casts  of  shells,  and  shapeless  lumps.  The  coprolitic 
stratum  of  the  Speeton  Clay,  on  the  coast  to  the  north  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  is  included  by  Professor  Judd  with  the  Portland 
beds  of  that  formation.  In  1864  two  phosphatic  deposits,  a 
limestone  3  ft.  thick,  with  beds  of  calcium  phosphate,  and  a  shale 
of  half  that  thickness,  were  discovered  by  Hope  Jones  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  C wmgynen,  about  1 6  m.  from  Oswestry .  They 
are  at  a  depth  of  about  12  ft.,  in  slaty  shale  containing  Llandcilo 
fossils  and  contemporaneous  felspathic  ash  and  scoriae.  A 
specimen  of  the  phosphatic  limestone  analysed  by  A.  Voelcker 
yielded  34-92%  tricalcium  phosphate,  a  specimen  of  the  shale 
52-15%  (Report  of  Brit.  Assoc.,  1865).  Phosphatic  beds,  sup- 
posed to  have  had  a  coprolitic  origin,  are  found  in  the  Lower 
Silurian  rocks  of  Canada. 

See  T.  J.  Herapath,  Ghent.  Gaz.,  1849,  p.  4^9;  W.  Buckland, 
Geology  and  Mineralogy  (4th  ed.,  1869);  O.  Fisher,  Quart.  Journ. 
Geol.  Soc.,  1873,  p.  52;  J.  I.  H.  Teal!,  On  the  Potton  and  Wicken 
Phosphatic  Deposits  (Sedgwick  Prize  Essay  for  1873)  (1875)  and 
"  The  Natural  History  of  Phosphatic  Deposits,"  Proc.  Geol.  Assoc. 
xvi.  (1900);  L.  W.  Collet,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.  xxv.  pt.  10,  p.  862: 
T.  G.  Bonney,  Cambridgeshire  Geology  (1875);  L.  Gruner,  Bull, 
soc.  geol.  franc,  xxviii.  (2nd  series),  p.  62;  J.  Martin,  ibid.  iii.  (3rd 
series),  p.  273. 

COPTOS  (Egyptian  Kefl,  Kebto),  the  modern  KUFT  (a  village 
with  railway  station  a  short  distance  from  the  west  bank  of  the 
Nile  about  25  m.  north-east  of  Thebes),  an  ancient  city,  capital  of 
the  fifth  nome  of  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  starting-point  of  several 
roads  to  the  Red  Sea,  of  which  that  which  passes  along  the  valley 
running  due  east  to  Kosseir  past  the  ancient  quarries  of  Hamma- 
mJt  was  the  most  frequented,  until  the  foundation  of  Berenice 
(q.v.)  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  made  an  even  more  important  line 
of  traffic  to  the  south-west.  The  growth  of  trade  with  Arabia 


COPTS 


and  India  thereafter  raised  Coptos  to  great  commercial 
prosperity;  but  in  A.D.  292  its  share  in  the  rebellion  against 
Diocletian  led  to  an  almost  total  devastation.  It  again  appears, 
however,  as  a  place  of  importance,  and  as  the  seat  of  a  consider- 
able Christian  community,  though  the  stream  of  traffic  turned 
aside  to  the  neighbouring  Ku§.  During  part  of  the  yth  century 
it  was  called  Justinianopolis  in  honour  of  the  emperor  Justinian. 

The  local  god  of  Coptos,  as  of  Khemmis  (Akhmlm,  ?.».),  was 
the  ithyphallic  Min;  but  in  late  times  Isis  was  of  equal  import- 
ance in  the  city.  Min  was  especially  the  god  of  the  desert  routes. 
Petrie's  excavations  on  the  site  of  the  temple  brought  to  light 
remains  of  all  periods,  the  most  remarkable  objects  being  three 
very  primitive  limestone  statues  of  the  god  with  figures  of  an 
elephant,  swords  of  sword-fish,  sea-shells,  &c.,  engraved  upon 
them:  there  were  also  found  some  very  peculiar  terra-cottas  of 
the  Old  Kingdom,  and  the  decree  of  an  Antef  belonging  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  deposing  the  monarch  for 
siding  with  the  king's  enemy. 

COPTS,  the  early  native  Christians  of  Egypt  and  their  suc- 
cessors of  the  Monophysite  sect,  now  racially  the  purest  repre- 
sentatives of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  name  is  a  Europeanized 
form,  dating  perhaps  from  the  i4th  century,  of  the  Arabic  Kibt 
(or  Kubt),  which,  in  turn,  is  derived  from  the  Greek  At-yvirnoi, 
"  Egyptians  "  (the  Copts  in  the  Coptic  language  likewise  style 
themselves  peuiiXiuii,  "people  of  Egypt,"  "Egyptians"). 

The  limited  application  of  the  name  is  explained  by  the 
circumstances  of  the  time  when  Mahomet  sent  forth  his  challenge 
to  the  world  and  'Amr  conquered  Egypt  (A.D.  627-641).  At 
that  time  the  population  of  Egypt  was  wholly  Christian  (except 
for  a  sprinkling  of  Jews,  &c.),  divided  into  two  fiercely  hostile 
sects,  the  Monophysites  and  the  Melkites.  The  division  was  in 
great  measure  racial.  The  Melkites,  adherents  of  the  orthodox 
or  court  religion  sanctioned  by  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  were 
mainly  of  foreign  extraction,  from  the  various  Hellenistic  races 
which  peopled  the  Eastern  Roman  empire,  while  the  bulk  of  the 
population,  the  true  Egyptians,  were  Monophysite.  Amongst 
the  latter  political  aspirations,  apart  from  religion,  may  be  said 
not  to  have  existed.  It  has  generally  been  held  that  the  Copts 
invited  and  aided  the  Moslems  to  seize  the  country  in  order  that 
at  all  costs  they  might  be  freed  from  the  yoke  of  the  state  religion 
imposed  by  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire;  but  Dr  A.  J.  Butler 
has  shown  this  view  to  be  untenable,  while  admitting  that  the 
religious  feuds  of  the  Christians  made  the  task  of  the  Arabs  easy. 
The  mysterious  Mukaukis,  who  treacherously  handed  over 
Alexandria,  impregnable  as  it  was  for  Arab  warriors,  and  then 
capitulated,  was  none  other  than  Cyrus,  the  Melkite  patriarch 
and  governor  of  Egypt;  the  native  Monophysite  party,  however, 
smarting  under  the  persecution  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  seemed 
to  have  most  to  gain  by  a  change  of  masters.  The  prophet 
Mahomet  himself  had  prescribed  indulgence  to  the  Copts  before 
his  death,  and  'Amr  was  mercifully  disposed  to  them.  Although 
they  offered  resistance  in  some  places,  after  the  Roman  forces 
had  been  destroyed  or  had  abandoned  Egypt  they  generally 
acquiesced  in  the  inevitable;  and  when  in  646  a  Roman  fleet 
and  army  recaptured  Alexandria  and  harried  the  Delta,  the 
Copts  helped  the  Moslems  to  cast  out  the  Christian  invaders. 
Some  of  the  Copts  embraced  Islam  at  once,  but  as  yet  they 
formed  practically  a  solid  Christian  nation  under  the  protection 
of  the  conquering  Arabs,  and  the  religious  and  political  distinction 
between  the  "  true  believers  "  and  the  Christians  was  so  sharp 
that  a  native  Christian  turning  Moslem  was  no  longer  a  Copt, 
i.e.  Egyptian;  he  practically  changed  his  nationality. 

The  beginnings  of  Christianity  in  Egypt  are  obscure;  the 
existence  of  it  among  the  natives  (as  opposed  to  the  mixed 
"  Greek'"  population  of  Egypt  and  Alexandria  which  produced 
so  many  leading  figures  and  originated  leading  doctrines  in  the 
early  church)  can  be  traced  back  as  far  as  the  Decian  persecution 
(A.D.  249-251)  in  the  purely  Egyptian  names  of  several  martyrs. 

!St  Anthony  (c.  A.D.  270)  was  a  Copt;  so  also  was  Pachomius, 
the  founder  of  Egyptian  monasticism  at  the  beginning  of  the 
4th  century.  The  scriptures  were  translated  into  Coptic  not  later 
than  the  4th  century.  A  religion  founded  on  morality  and  with 


a  clear  doctrine  of  life  after  death  was  especially  congenial  to 
the  Egyptians;  thus  the  lower  orders  in  the  country  embraced 
Christianity  fervently,  while  the  Alexandrian  pagans  were  lost 
in  philosophical  speculation  and  Neoplatonism  was  spread 
amongst  the  rich  "Greek"  landowners;  these  last,  partly  out 
of  religious  enthusiasm,  partly  from  greed,  annoyed  and  oppressed 
their  Christian  peasantry.  Egypt  was  then  terribly  im- 
poverished; the  upper  country  was  constantly  overrun  by 
raiders  from  Nubia  and  the  desert;  and  the  authority  of  the 
imperial  government  was  too  weak  to  interfere  actively  on 
behalf  of  the  Christians.  The  monasteries,  however,  were 
refuges  that  could  bid  defiance  to  the  most  powerful  01  the  pagan 
aristocracy  as  well  as  to  barbarian  hordes,  and  became  centres 
of  united  action  that,  at  the  summons  of  Shenoute,  the  organizer 
of  the  national  church,  swept  away  the  idols  of  the  oppressors 
in  riot  and  bloodshed.  In  the  course  of  the  5th  century  the 
Christians  reached  a  position  in  which  they  were  able  to  treat 
the  pagans  mercifully  as  a  feeble  remnant. 

The  Copts  had  little  interest  in  theology;  they  were  content 
to  take  their  doctrine  as  prepared  for  them  by  the  subtler  minds 
of  their  Greek  leaders  at  Alexandria,  choosing  the  simplest 
form  when  disputes  arose.  In  325  their  elected  patriarch, 
Athanasius,  and  his  following  of  Greeks  and  Copts,  triumphed 
at  the  council  of  Nicaea  against  Arius;  but  in  451  the  banishment 
of  Dioscorus,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  by  the  council  of  Chalcedon 
created  a  great  schism,  the  Egyptian  church  holding  to  his 
Monophysite  tenets  (see  Coptic  Church,  below),  while  the  Catholic 
and  imperial  party  at  Constantinople  ever  sought  to  further 
the  "  Melkite"  cause  in  Egypt  at  the  expense  of  the  native  church. 
Thenceforward  there  were  generally  two  patriarchs,  belonging 
to  the  rival  communities,  and  the  Copts  were  oppressed  by  the 
Melkites;  Heraclius,  in  638  after  the  repulse  of  the  Persians, 
endeavoured  to  unite  the  churches,  but,  failing  in  that,  he 
persecuted  the  Monophysites  more  severely  than  ever  before, 
until  'Amr  brought  Egypt  under  the  Moslem  rule  of  'Omar,  as 
has  been  related  above.  Under  the  persecution  many  Copts 
had  gone  over  to  the  Melkites,  but  now  it  was  the  turn  of  the 
Melkites,  as  supporters  of  the  emperor  of  Constantinople,  to 
suffer,  and  they  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  Egypt,  though 
a  remnant  headed  by  a  patriarch  of  Alexandria  of  the  Orthodox 
Christians  has  survived  to  this  day. 

But  after  a  few  years  of  the  mild  rule  of  'Amr  the  Egyptians 
began  to  be  squeezed  for  the  benefit  of  the  Moslem  exchequer  and 
persecuted  for  their  religion.  Many  of  the  more  thoughtful  and 
sober  Christians  must  long  have  been  disgusted  with  religious 
strife,  and  had-  already  embraced  the  simple  and  congenial 
doctrines  of  Islam;  others  went  over  for  the  sake  of  material  gain. 
Conflicts  arose  from  time  to  time  between  the  Mahommedan 
minority  and  the  Christians.  The  Copts  were  excellent  scribes 
and  accountants  and  were  continued  in  their  posts  under  the 
Arab  rule;  the  government  offices  were  full  of  them;  sometimes 
even  the  wazirate  (vizierate)  was  held  by  a  Copt,  and  that  too  in  a 
time  of  persecution  of  the  Christians.  The  pride  of  the  Copts, 
still  seen  in  the  objection  which  the  poorest  among  them  have 
to  engaging  in  any  mean  work  or  trade,  was  a  serious  danger, 
perhaps  even  a  chief  source  of  their  troubles,  in  earlier  days; 
devout  Moslems  on  more  than  one  occasion  stirred  the  mob  to 
fury  when  they  saw  Christians  lording  it  over  "  true  believers." 
The  lower  orders  of  the  Copts  were  continually  oppressed.  Thus 
there  was  every*  inducement  amongst  the  Christians  to  turn 
Mahommedan.  Arab  tribes,  too,  were  encouraged  to  settle  in 
Egypt  until  the  Mahommedans  exceeded  the  Copts  in  numbers. 

The  history  of  the  Copts  consists  on  the  one  hand  of  the  record 
of  religious  strife,  of  growing  scandals  in  the  church,  such  as 
simony,  and  attempted  reforms;  and  on  the  other  hand  of 
persecutions  at  the  hands  of  the  Moslems.  As  examples  of  the 
severity  of  the  persecutions,  it  may  be  noted  that,  in  the  8th 
century,  the  monks  not  only  were  compelled  to  pay  a  capitation 
tax,  but  were  branded  with  name  and  number,  civilians  were 
oppressed  with  heavy  taxation,  churches  demolished,  pictures  and 
crosses  destroyed  (722-723).  Degrading  dresses  were  imposed 
upon  the  Christians  (849-850);  later,  under  Hakim  (997),  they 


COPTS 


were  compelled  to  wear  heavy  crosses  and  black  turbans  as 
an  ignominious  distinction.  Salaheddin  (Saladin)  in  1171  re- 
enforced  these  statutes  and  defiled  the  churches.  In  1301,  the 
blue  turban  was  introduced,  but  many  Copts  preferred  a  change 
of  religion  to  the  adoption  of  this  head-dress.  In  1348  a  religious 
war,  attended  by  the  destruction  of  churches  and  mosques  and 
great  loss  of  life,  raged  at  Cairo  between  the  Copts  and  Mahom- 
medans,  and  large  numbers  of  the  former  embraced  Islam. 
Their  oppression  practically  ceased  under  Mehemet  Ali  (1811). 

There  have  been  very  few  cases  of  conversion  from  Mahom- 
medanism  to  Christianity;  and,  as  intermarriage  of  Christians 
with  Mahcmmedans  implied  conversion  to  Islam,  the  Copts  have 
undoubtedly  preserved  the  race'of  the  Egyptians  as  it  existed  at 
the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  in  remarkable  purity.  The  Coptic 
agricultural  population  (fellahln)  in  the  villages  of  Upper  Egypt 
and  elsewhere  are  not  markedly  different  from  the  Mahommedan 
fellahln,  who,  of  course,  are  of  the  same  stock,  but  mixed  with 
Arab  blood.  The  Copts  in  the  towns,  who  have  always  been 
engaged  in  sedentary  occupations,  as  scribes  and  handicraftsmen, 
have  a  more  delicate  frame  and  complexion,  and  may  have 
mingled  with  Syrian  and  Armenian  Christians. 

According  to  the  1907  census,  there  were  667,036  orthodox 
Copts  in  Egypt,  or  less  than  ^th  of  the  total  population,  this 
being  the  same  proportion  as  in  1830,  when,  according  to  Lane, 
they  numbered  about  150,000.  The  number  of  churches  and 
monasteries  at  the  same  time  had  risen  from  146  to  450,  not 
including  Protestant  chapels  nor  Coptic  Catholic  churches.  At 
the  1907  census  the  total  number  of  Christians  in  Egypt  described 
as  Copts  was  706,322;  among  them  there  were  24,710  Protestants 
and  14,576  Roman  Catholics. 

Monogamy  is  strict  among  the  Copts,  and  divorce  is  granted 
only  for  adultery.  Circumcision  of  both  sexes  is  common  before 
baptism.  In  regard  to  dress,  at  present  only  the  clergy  retain 
the  old  distinctive  costume  and  black  turban.  The  rest  of  the 
Copts  dress  exactly  like  their  Moslem  brethren,  from  whom 
they  can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  cross  which  many  of  them 
still  have  tattooed  just  below  the  palm  of  the  right  hand.  Since 
the  British  occupation  of  the  country  there  has  been  a  tendency 
amongst  the  Coptic  women  to  give  up  the  veil,  which  they  had 
borrowed  from  the  Mahommedans;  this  is  especially  noticeable 
at  places  like  Assiut,  where,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  American 
missionaries,  female  education  has  made  much  progress. 

In  trades  and  professions,  so  long  as  the  Copts  had  no  foreign 
competition  to  contend  against,  they  maintained  their  supremacy 
over  the  rest  of  the  population.  They  filled  government  offices; 
in  towns  and  villages  they  monopolized  trades  and  professions 
requiring  care  and  skill.  They  were  the  accountants,  the 
architects,  the  goldsmiths,  the  carpenters,  the  land-surveyors,  the 
bonesetters,  &c.  But,  with  the  extension  of  railways  and 
agricultural  roads  and  the  increased  facilities  of  communication 
and  prosperity,  there  has  been  a  great  influx  of  Italian,  Greek, 
Armenian  and  other  Levantine  workmen,  who,  with  their  better 
tools,  are  undoubtedly  superior  to  the  Copts,  and  have  proved 
most  formidable  rivals.  Furthermore,  the  importation  of  cheap 
European  wares  of  every  description  is  slowly  killing  all  native 
industry.  Lastly,  since  the  British,  as  the  dominant  race,  have 
filled  most  posts  of  responsibility  in  the  government,  the  Moslems, 
in  general,  are  obliged  to  content  themselves  with  the  sub- 
ordinate posts  which  in  the  past  they  left  to  the  Copts.  Some 
Copts  have  attained  high  office,  and  in  1908  a  C6pt  became  prime 
minister.  Moreover,  the  Copts  have  to  a  certain  extent  made  up 
for  the  ground  they  lose  elsewhere  by  engaging  in  agriculture 
and  banking,  and  there  are  now  to  be  found  many  rich  Coptic 
landowners  and  farmers,  especially  in  Upper  Egypt. 

Language. — The  language  spoken  by  the  Copts  was  of  various 
dialects,  named  Sahidic,  Akhmimic,  Fayumic,  &c.,  descended 
from  the  ancient  Egyptian  with  more  or  less  admixture  of  Greek 
(for  the  Coptic  dialects  see  EGYPT  :  Language) .  Coptic,  however, 
has  been  entirely  extinct  as  a  spoken  language  for  over  200  years, 
having  been  supplanted  by  Arabic;  in  the  i3th  century  it  was 
already  so  much  decayed  that  Arabic  translations  of  the  liturgies 
were  necessary.  The  Gospels,  however,  are  still  read  in  the 


churches  in  the  Bohairic  dialect.  This  dialect  appears  in  litera- 
ture later  than  the  others,  having  become  of  importance  only 
with  the  extinction  of  Greek  in  Lower  Egypt;  for  a  time  it  shared 
the  field  with  Sahidic,  after  the  disappearance  of  Akhmimic  and 
Fayumic,  but  eventually  displaced  it  in  the  churches,  where  it  now 
survives  alone. 

Coptic  literature  is  almost  entirely  religious,  and  consists 
mainly  of  translations  from  the  Greek.  Such  was  the  enthusiasm 
for  Christianity  amongst  the  lower  classes  in  Egypt  that  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible  were  made  into  three  of  the  dialects  of  Coptic 
before  the  council  of  Chalcedon;  they  probably  date  back  at 
least  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  4th  century.  For  the  dwellers 
in  the  Delta  the  Greek  version  was  probably  sufficient,  until  the 
break  with  the  Greek  (Melkite)  Church  in  the  5th  century 
induced  them  to  make  a  separate  translation  in  their  own  native 
northern  or  Bohairic  dialect.  The  Gnostic  heresy,  otherwise 
known  only  through  the  works  of  its  opponents,  is  illustrated 
in  some  Coptic  MSS.  of  the  4th  century,  the  so-called  Pistis 
Sophia  or  Askew  Codex,  and  the  Bruce  Codex,  respectively  in 
the  British  Museum  and  Bodleian  Libraries.  According  to 
Schmidt  and  Hamack,  they  are  translations  dating  from  the 
3rd  century  and  belong  to  an  ascetic  or  encratitic  sect  of  the 
Gnostics  which  arose  in  Egypt  itself.  There  is  abundance  of 
apocryphal  works,  of  apocalypses,  of  patristic  writings  from 
Athanasius  to  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  homilies,  lives  of  saints 
and  anecdotes  of  holy  men,  acts  of  martyrs  extending  from  the 
persecution  of  Diocletian  to  that  of  the  Persians  in  the  7th 
century,  and  lives  of  later  ascetics  and  martyrs  reaching  down 
to  the  i4th  century.  Unless  some  of  the  Egyptian  acla  sanctorum 
et  martyrum  should  prove  to  have  been  originally  written  in 
Coptic,  almost  the  only  original  works  in  that  language  of  any 
importance  are  the  numerous  sermons  and  letters  of  Shenoute, 
a  monk  of  Atrepe  near  Akhmlm,  written  in  the  Sahidic  dialect 
in  the  4th  century.  After  the  Arab  conquest,  as  a  defence  to 
the  threatened  church,  language  and  nationality,  versifications 
of  the  Proverbs,  of  Solomon's  Song  and  of  various  legends  were 
composed,  with  other  religious  songs.  They  are  mostly  anti- 
phonal,  a  number  of  stresses  in  a  line  marking  the  rhythm. 
There  is  no  musical  notation  in  the  MSS.,  but  traditional  church 
tunes  are  generally  referred  to  or  prescribed  for  the  songs.  Of 
secular  literature  strangely  little  existed  or  at  least  has  survived : 
only  a  few  magical  texts,  fragments  of  a  medical  treatise,  of  the 
story  of  Alexander,  and  of  a  story  of  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Cambyses,  are  known,  apart  from  numerous  legal  and  business 
documents. 

Coptic  was  occasionally  employed  for  literary  purposes  as 
late  as  the  i4th  century,  but  from  the  loth  century  onward 
the  Copts  wrote  mostly  in  Arabic.  Severus  of  Eshmunain  (c.  950) , 
who  wrote  a  history  of  the  patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  was  one  of 
the  first  to  employ  Arabic;  Cyril  ibn  Laklak  and  others  in  the 
1 3th  and  I4th  centuries  translated  much  of  the  older  literature 
from  Coptic  into  Arabic  and  Ethiopic  for  the  use  of  the  Egyptian 
and  Abyssinian  churches.  From  this  period  also  date  the  native 
Coptic  grammars  and  lexicons  of  Ibn  'Assal  and  others.  At 
the  present  time  literature  among  the  Copts  is  represented  by 
Claudius  Lablb,  an  enthusiast  for  the  revival  of  the  Coptic 
tongue,  Marcus  Simaika,  a  leader  of  the  progressive  movement, 
and  others.  (F.  LL.  G.) 

The  Coptic  Church. — Up  to  the  sth  century  the  church  of 
Alexandria  played  a  part  in  the  Christian  world  scarcely  second 
to  that  of  Rome:  the  names  of  Origen,  Athanasius  and  Cyril 
bear  witness  to  her  greatness.  But  in  the  time  of  the  patriarch 
Dioscorus  the  church,  always  fond  of  speculation,  was  rent 
asunderby  the  controversy  concerning  the  single  or  twofold  nature 
of  our  Lord,  as  stated  by  Eutyches.  The  Eutychian  doctrine, 
approved  by  the  council  of  Ephesus,  was  condemned  by  that 
of  Chalcedon  in  451.  But  to  this  decision,  though  given  by  636 
bishops,  the  Copts  refused  assent — a  refusal  which  profoundly 
affected  both  the  religious  and  the  political  history  of  their 
country.  From  that  moment  they  were  treated  as  heretics. 
The  emperor  appointed  a  new  bishop  of  Alexandria,  whose 
adherents  the  Copts  styled  Melkites  or  Imperialists,  while  the 


COPTS 


Copts  are  distinguished  as  Monophysites  and  Jacobites.  The 
court  party  and  the  native  party  each  maintained  its  own  line 
of  patriarchs,  and  each  treated  the  other  with  bitter  hostility. 
For  nearly  two  centuries  strife  and  persecution  continued. 
The  well-meant  ecthesis  of  Heraclius  was  a  failure  and  was 
followed  by  repression,  till  in  640  the  Copts  were  released  from 
the  Roman  dominion  by  the  Saracen  invasion.  But  it  was  only 
after  prolonged  resistance  to  the  Arabs  that  the  Copts  accepted  a 
change  of  masters,  which  gave  them  for  a  while  religious  freedom. 
The  orthodox  or  Melkite  party,  consisting  mostly  of  Byzantine 
Greeks,  was  swept  away,  and  the  double  succession  of  patriarchs 
practically  ceased.  True,  even  now  there  is  an  orthodox 
patriarch  of  Alexandria  living  in  Cairo,  but  he  has  only  a  few 
Greeks  for  followers,  and  scarcely  a  nominal  succession  has  been 
maintained.  But  the  Coptic  succession  has  been  continuous  and 
real. 

The  distinctive  Monophysite  doctrine  of  the  Copts  is  not  easy 
to  state  intelligibly,  and  yet  they  cling  to  it  with  something  of 
Doctrine  ^ne  tenacity  which  has  marked  their  whole  history. 
They  repudiate  the  heresy  of  Eutyches  as  strongly 
as  that  of  Nestorius,  and  claim  to  stand  between  the  two  doctrines 
teaching  that  Christ  was  one  person  with  one  nature  which  was 
made  up  by  the  indissoluble  union  of  a  divine  and  a  human 
nature,  but  that  notwithstanding  this  absolute  union  the  two 
natures  remained  after  union  distinct,  unconfounded  and 
uncommingled,  separate  though  inseparable.  The  creed  thus 
savours  of  paradox,  not  to  say  contradiction.  It  is  set  forth  in 
the  Liturgy  and  recited  at  every  Coptic  mass  in  the  following 
words: — "  I  believe  that  this  is  the  life-giving  flesh  which  thine 
only  Son  took  from  the  .  .  .  Holy  Mary.  He  united  it  with 
His  Divinity  without  mingling  and  without  confusion  and  without 
alteration.  ...  I  believe  that  His  Divinity  was  not  separated 
from  His  Manhood  for  one  moment  or  for  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye."  On  all  other  points  of  dogma,  including  the  single  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Copts  agree  with  the  Greek 
Church. 

"  The  most  holy  pope  and  patriarch  of  the  great  city  of 
Alexandria  and  of  all  the  land  of  Egypt,  of  Jerusalem  the  holy 
Hierarchy  c'ty>  °^  Nubia,  Abyssinia  and  Pentapolis,  and  all  the 
preaching  of  St  Mark,"  as  he  is  still  called, had  originally 
jurisdiction  over  all  the  places  named.  Jurisdiction  over 
Abyssinia  remains,  but  from  Nubia  and  Pentapolis  Christianity 
has  disappeared.  The  ancient  rule  is  that  no  bishop  is  eligible 
for  the  patriarchate.  The  requirement  of  a  period  of  desert  life 
has  so  far  prevailed  that  no  one  but  a  monk  from  one  of  the 
desert  monasteries  is  now  qualified.  This  rule,  harmless  perhaps 
when  the  monasteries  were  the  great  schools  of  learning  and 
devotion,  now  puts  a  premium  on  ignorance,  and  is  disastrous 
to  the  church;  more  particularly  as  even  bishops  must  be  chosen 
from  the  monks.  The  patriarch  is  elected  by  an  assembly  of 
bishops  and  elders.  The  candidate  is  brought  in  chains  from 
the  desert,  and,  if  only  in  monk's  orders,  is  passed  through 
the  higher  grades  except  that  of  bishop.  The  patriarch's  seat 
was  transferred  some  time  after  the  Arab  conquest  from  Alex- 
andria to  the  fortress  town  of  Babylon  (Old  Cairo),  and  in  modern 
times  it  was  shifted  to  Cairo  proper.  The  other  orders  and  offices ' 
in  the  church  are  metropolitan,  bishop,  chief  priest,  priest, 
archdeacon,  deacon,  reader  and  monk.  The  number  of  bishoprics 
in  ancient  times  was  very  large — Athanasius  says  nearly  100.  At 
present  there  remain  ten  in  Egypt,  one  at  Khartum  and  three 
in  Abyssinia. 

The  numerous  remaining  churches  in  Egypt  but  faintly 
represent  the  vast  number  standing  in  ancient  times.  Rufinus 
says  that  he  found  10,000  monks  in  the  one  region  Buildings 
of  Arsinoe.  Later,  in  616,  the  Persians  are  described 
as  destroying  600  monasteries  near  Alexandria.  Abu  Salih 
(izth  century)  gives  a  list  of  churches  surviving  in  his  day,  and 
their  number  is  astonishing.  The  earliest  were  cut  out  of  rocks 
and  caverns.  In  the  days  of  Constantine  and  Justinian  basilicas 
of  great  splendour  were  built,  such  as  the  church  of  St  Mark 
at  Alexandria  and  the  Red  Monastery  in  Upper  Egypt.  This 
type  of  architecture  permanently  influenced  Coptic  builders, 


but  there  prevailed  also  a  type,  probably  native  in  origin,  though 
possessing  Byzantine  features,  such  as  the  domed  roofing. 
There  is  no  church  now  standing  which  bears  any  trace  of  the 
fine  glass  mosaics  which  once  adorned  the  basilicas,  nor  is  there 
any  example  of  a  well-defined  cruciform  ground-plan.  But  the 
use  of  the  dome  by  Coptic  architects  is  almost  universal,  and 
nearly  every  church  has  at  least  three  domes  overshadowing 
the  three  altars.  The  domes  are  sometimes  lighted  by  small 
windows;  but  the  walls  are  window-less,  and  the  churches  con- 
sequently gloomy.  Among  the  most  interesting  churches  are 
those  of  Old  Cairo,  those  in  the  Wadi  Natron,  and  the  Red  and 
White  Monasteries  (Der  el-Abiod  and  Der  el-Ahmar)  near 
Suhag  in  Upper  Egypt. 

Every  church  has  three  altars  at  the  eastern  end  in  three 
contiguous  chapels.  The  central  division  is  called  the  haikal 
or  sanctuary,  which  is  always  divided  from  the  choir 
by  a  fixed  partition  or  screen  with  a  small  arched 
doorway  closed  by  double  doors.  This  resembles 
the  Greek  iconostasis,  the  screen  on  which  the  "  icons  "  or 
sacred  pictures  are  placed.  Haikal  screen  and  choir  screen 
are  often  sumptuously  carved  and  inlaid.  A  marble  basin  for 
the  mandatum  in  the  nave,  and  an  epiphany  tank  at  the  west 
are  common  features.  The  altar  is  usually  built  of  brick  or 
stone,  hollow  within,  and  having  an  opening  to  the  interior. 
A  wooden  altar-slab  covered  with  crosses,  &c.,  lies  in  a  rectangular 
depression  on  the  surface,  and  it  is  used  in  case  of  need  as  a 
portable  altar.  Chalice  and  paten,  ewer  and  basin,  crewet  and 
chrismatory,  are  found  as  in  the  Western  churches.  The  aster 
consists  of  two  crossed  half-hoops  of  silver  and  is  used  to  place 
over  the  wafer.  The  flabellum  is  used,  though  now  rarely  made 
of  precious  metal.  Some  examples  of  silver-cased  textus  now 
remaining  are  very  fine.  Every  church  possesses  thuribles  — 
the  use  of  incense  being  universal  and  frequent  —  and  diadems 
for  the  marriage  service.  The  use  of  church  bells  is  forbidden 
by  the  Moslems,  except  in  the  desert,  and  church  music  consists 
merely  of  cymbals  and  triangles  which  accompany  the  chanting. 

The  sacramental  wine  is  usually  made  from  raisins,  but  the 
juice  must  be  fermented.  Churches  even  in  Cairo  have  a  press 
for  crushing  the  raisins.  The  eucharistic  bread  is  baked 
in  an  oven  built  near  the  sanctuary.  The  wafer  is  anacen- 
a  small  loaf  about  3  inches  in  diameter  and  i  inch  monies. 
thick,  stamped  with  the  trisagion  and  with  crosses. 
Communion  must  be  received  fasting.  Confession  is  required, 
but  has  somewhat  fallen  into  disuse.  Laymen  receive  in  both 
kinds.  The  wafer  being  broken  into  the  chalice,  crumbs  or 
"  pearls  "  are  taken  out  in  a  spoon  and  so  administered,  as  in 
the  Greek  rite.  Reservation  is  uncanonical.  Renaudot  states 
that  it  was  permitted  in  cases  of  great  extremity,  when  the  host 
remained  upon  the  altar  with  lamps  burning  and  a  priest  watching, 
but  it  is  not  now  practised,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  such 
vessel  as  a  pyx  in  Coptic  ritual.  Small  benedictional  crosses 
belong  to  each  altar,  and  processional  crosses  are  common.  The 
crucifix  is  unknown,  for  while  paintings  and  frescoes  abound, 
graven  images  are  absolutely  forbidden.  The  liturgy  was  read 
exclusively  in  the  extinct  Coptic  language  till  the  end  of  the 
1  9th  century,  but  parts  are  now  read  in  Arabic,  while  the  lessons 
have  long  been  read  in  Arabic  as  well  as  in  Coptic.  The  services 
are  still  excessively  long,  that  of  Good  Friday  lasting  eleven 
hours;  but  benches  are  now  provided  in  the  newer  churches. 
Seven  sacraments  are  recognized  —  baptism,  confirmation. 
eucharist,  penance,  orders,  matrimony,  and  unction  of  the  sick. 
The  chief  fasts  are  those  of  Advent,  of  Nineveh,  of  Heraclius. 
Lent  and  Pentecost.  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  is  a  duty  and 
sometimes  a  penance. 

The  Coptic  ritual  deserves  much  fuller  study  than  it  has 
received.  Since  the  7th  century  the  church  has  been  so  isolated 
as  to  be  little  influenced  by  changes  affecting  other  communions. 
Consequently  it  remains  in  many  respects  the  most  ancient 
monument  of  primitive  rites  and  ceremonies  in  Christendom. 
But  centuries  of  subjection  to  Moslem  rule  have  much  weakened 
it.  For  the  liturgical  dress  see  VESTMENTS;  CHASUBLE,  &c. 

The  British  occupation  of  Egypt  profoundly  modified  Coptic 


n6 


COPYHOLD 


religious  life.  Before  it  the  Copts  lived  in  their  own  semi- 
fortified  quarters  in  Cairo  or  Old  Cairo  or  in  country  or  desert 
Present  Dairs  (Ders).  Walls  and  gates  were  now  thrown 
state  down  or  disused:  the  Copts  began  to  mix  and  live 

°hun>i  freely  among  the  Moslems,  their  children  to  frequent 
the  same  schools,  and  the  people  to  abandon  their 
distinctively  Christian  dress,  names,  customs  and  even  religion. 
Freedom  and  prosperity  threatened  to  injure  the  Church  more 
than  centuries  of  persecution.  Many  of  the  younger  generation 
of  Copts  began  openly  to  boast  their  indifference  and  even 
scepticism:  in  the  large  towns  churches  came  to  be  too  often 
frequented  only  by  the  old  or  the  uneducated,  confession  and 
fasts  fell  into  neglect  and  the  number  of  communicants 
diminished;  while  the  facility  of  divorce  granted  by  Islam 
occasioned  many  perversions  from  among  the  Copts  to  that 
religion.  On  the  other  hand  the  necessity  of  resistance  to  these 
tendencies  and  of  reform  from  within  was  strongly  realized. 
Unfortunately,  the  institution  of  a  lay  council  of  eminent 
churchmen,  which  has  been  formed  for  the  patriarch  and  for 
every  bishop  in  his  own  diocese,  has  led  to  prolonged  struggles 
and  on  one  occasion  to  a  serious  crisis,  in  which  the  patriarch 
and  the  metropolitan  of  Alexandria  were  for  a  while  banished 
to  the  desert.  A  principal  object  of  these  lay  councils  is  to 
control  the  financial  and  legal  powers  vested  in  patriarch  and 
bishops — powers  which  have  often  been  greatly  abused.  Other 
objects  are  (i)  to  provide  Christian  religious  education  in  all 
Coptic  schools  and  to  raise  these  schools  to  a  high  standard  in 
secular  matters;  (2)  to  promote  the  education  of  women;  (3) 
to  apply  church  revenues  to  the  maintenance  of  churches  and 
schools  and  to  the  better  payment  of  the  clergy,  who  are  now 
often  compelled  to  live  on  charity;  (4)  to  ensure  prompt  ad- 
ministration of  justice  in  ecclesiastical  causes  such  as  divorce, 
inheritance,  &c. ;  and  (5)  to  establish  colleges  for  the  efficient 
training  of  the  clergy.  Educated  Copts  remember  the  time 
when  the  church  of  Alexandria  was  as  famous  for  learning  as 
for  zeal.  They  desire  also  to  resist  the  serious  encroachments 
of  Roman  Catholic,  American  Presbyterian,  and  other  foreign 
missions  upon  their  ancient  faith.  (A.  J.  B.) 

AUTHORITIES. — (i)  History  and  Religion:  Jphann  Michael 
Wansleben  (Vansleb),  a  Dominican  and  learned  orientalist  (1635- 
1679),  Hist,  de  I'eglise  d'Alexandrie  (Paris,  1677),  written  at  Cairo 
in  1672  and  1673  mainly  from  original  native  sources,  and  Nouvelle 
Relation  .  .  .  d'un  voyage  fait  en  Egypte,  &c.  (Paris,  1677  and  1698, 
Eng.  trans.,  London,  1678);  Eusebe  Renaudot  the  younger  (1646- 
1720),  Historia  Patriarcharum  Alexandrinorum  (Paris,  1713);  Abu 
Dakn  (Josephus  Abudacnus),  Historia  Jacobitarum  (Oxford,  1675, 
Eng.  trans,  by  Sir  E.  Sadleir,  London,  1693) ;  S.  C.  Malan,  Original 
Documents  of  the  Coptic  Church  (London,  1874);  Denzinger,  Ritus 
Orientalium  (VVurzburg,  1863);  Hon.  Robert  Curzon,  Visits  to 
Monasteries  in  the  Levant  (London,  1849);  I.  M.  Neale,  Hist,  of  the 
Patriarchate  of  Alexandria  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1847),  in  the  Hist,  of  the  Holy 
Eastern  Church,  coloured  by  the  writer's  Anglo-Catholic  point  of 
view;  A.  J.  Butler,  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt  (Oxford,  1884); 
B.  T.  A.  Evetts  and  Butler,  Churches  and  Monasteries  of  Egypt,  by 
Abu  Saleh  (Oxford,  1895);  E.  Amelineau,  Monuments  pour  servir  a 
I'hisloire  de  I' Egypte  chretienne  aux  IV'  et  V'  siecles,  Coptic  and 
Arabic  documents  published  and  translated  for  the  first  time,  in 
Mem.  de  la  mission  archeolog.  franc,,  au  Caire,  t.  iv.  (Paris,  1888),  and 
Monuments  .  .  .  au  IV'  siecle  in  the  Annales  du  musee  Guimet, 
t.  xvii.  (Paris,  1889);  P.  Rohrbach,  Die  alexandrinischen  Patriarchen 
(Berlin,  1891);  Jullien,  L'Egypte:  souvenirs  bibliques  et  Chretiens 
(Lille,  1891) ;  Macaire,  Histoire  de  I'eglise  d'Alexandrie  (Cairo,  1894) ; 
Porphyrius,  The  Christian  East:  Alexandrian  Patriarchate  (St 
Petersburg,  1898;  in  Russian);  Strzygowski,  Orient  oder  Rom? 
(Leipzig,  1901);  De  Bock,  Materiaux  pour  servir  a  I' archeologie  de 
I'Egypte  chretienne  (St  Petersburg,  1901);  Kitab  al  Hulajl  al 
Mufraddas  (Cairo,  1902) ;  A.  Gayet,  "  Les  Monuments  copies  du 
musee  de  Boulaq,"  in  the  Mem.  miss,  archeolog.  franc.,  au  Caire,  t.  iii. 
(Paris,  1889);  id.,  L 'Art  copte  (Paris,  1902);  Horner,  The  Statutes 
of  the  Apostles  (London,  1904);  Egypt  Exploration  Fund  Reports, 
section  Christian  Egypt";  W.  E.  Grum,  article  "  Koptische 
Kirche  "  in  Realencyklopadie  fur  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche, 
3.  Aufl. ;  J.  M.  Fuller's  article  "Coptic  Church  "  in  Smith's  Dictionary 
of  Biography;  A.  J.  Butler,  The  Arab  Conquest  of  Egypt  (Oxford, 
1902);  J.  Leipoldt,  Schenute  von  Atripe  und  die  Entstehung  des 
national-dgyptischen  Chrislentums  (Leipzig,  1903),  Die  Entstehung 
der  koptischen  Kirche  (a  valuable  essay  printed  as  the  introduction 
to  R.  Haupt's  Kataloe  5,  Halle,  1905);  B.  T.  A.  Evetts,  "  The 
Patriarchal  History  of  Severus  "  in  Graffin's  Patrologia  orientalis 
(Paris) ;  J.  Milne,  A  History  of  Egypt  under  Roman  Ruk  (1898). 


Literature. — See  Crum's  article  above  referred  to,  his  Catalogue 
of  Coptic  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  and  his  anrfual  reviews  in 
the  Archaeological  Report  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund;  J. 
Leipoldt  in  Geschichle  der  chrisllichen  Literaturen  des  Orients  (Leipzig, 
1907);  H.  Junker,  Koptische  Poesie  des  zehnten  Jahrhunderts,  I.  Teil 
(Berlin,  1908) ;  Archdeacon  Dowling,  The  Egyptian  Church  (London, 
1909). 

Modern  People.— E.  W.  Lane's  description  of  the  Copts  in  his 
Modern  Egyptians  is  interesting,  but  founded  on  imperfect  infor- 
mation, and,  moreover,  coloured  by  prejudices  in  favour  of  the 
Moslems  whom  he  studied  with  so  much  sympathy.  See  Klunzinger, 
Upper  Egypt,  pp.  61  et  sqq.;  also  the  last  chapter  of  The  Story  of 
the  Church  of  Egypt,  by  Mrs  E.  L.  Butcher  (1897),  on  the  social  life 
and  customs. 

COPYHOLD,  in  English  law,  an  ancient  form  of  land  tenure, 
legally  defined  as  a  "  holding  at  the  will  of  the  lord  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  manor."  Though  nowadays  of  diminishing 
practical  importance,  its  incidents  are  historically  interesting. 
Its  origin  is  to  be  found  in  the  occupation  by  villani,  or  non- 
freemen,  of  portions  of  land  belonging  to  the  manor  of  a  feudal 
lord.  In  the  time  of  the  Domesday  survey  the  manor  was  in  part 
granted  to  free  tenants,  in  part  reserved  by  the  lord  himself 
for  his  own  uses.  The  estate  of  the  free  tenants  is  the  freehold 
estate  of  English  law;  as  tenants  of  the  same  manor  they 
assembled  together  in  manorial  court  or  court  baron,  of  which 
they  were  the  judges.  The  portion  of  the  manor  reserved  for 
the  lord  (the  demesne,  or  domain)  was  cultivated  by  labourers 
who  were  bound  to  the  land  (adscripti  glebae).  They  could  not 
leave  the  manor,  and  their  service  was  obligatory.  These  villani, 
however,  were  allowed  by  the  lord  to  cultivate  portions  of  land 
for  their  own  use.  It  was  a  mere  occupation  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  lord,  but  in  course  of  time  it  grew  into  an  occupation  by 
right,  recognized  first  of  all  by  custom  and  afterwards  by  law. 
This  kind  of  tenure  is  called  by  the  lawyers  villenagium,  and  it 
probably  marks  a  great  advance  in  the  general  recognition  of 
the  right  when  the  name  is  applied  to  lands  held  on  the  same  con- 
ditions not  by  villeins  but  by  free  men.  The  tenants  in  villenage 
were  not,  like  the  freeholders,  members  of  the  court  baron,  but 
they  appear  to  have  attended  in  a  humbler  capacity,  and  to  have 
solicited  the  succession  to  the  land  occupied  by  a  deceased  father, 
or  the  admission  of  a  new  tenant  who  had  purchased  the  good- 
will, as  it  might  be  called,  of  the  holding,  paying  for  such  favours 
certain  customary  fines  or  dues.  In  relation  to  the  tenants  in 
villenage,  the  court  baron  was  called  the  customary  court.  The 
records  of  the  court  constituted  the  title  of  the  villein  tenant, 
held  by  copy  of  the  court  roll  (whence  the  term  "  copyhold  ") ; 
and  the  customs  of  the  manor  therein  recorded  formed  the  real 
property  law  applicable  to  his  case. 

Copyhold  had  long  been  established  in  practice  before  it  was 
formally  recognized  by  the  law.  At  first  it  was  in  fact,  as  it  is 
now  in  the  fictitious  theory  of  the  law,  a  tenancy  at  will,  for  which 
none  of  the  legal  remedies  of  a  freeholder  were  available.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  IV.,  however,  it  was  held  that  a  tenant  in 
villenage  had  an  action  of  trespass  against  the  lord.  In  this  way 
a  species  of  tenant-right,  depending  on  and  strongly  supported 
by  popular  opinion,  was  changed  into  a  legal  right.  But  it  retained 
many  incidents  characteristic  of  its  historical  origin.  The  life  of 
copyhold  assurance,  it  is  said,  is  custom.  Copyhold  is  necessarily 
parcel  of  a  manor,  and  the  freehold  is  said  to  be  in  the  lord  of 
the  manor.  The  court  roll  of  the  manor  is  the  evidence  of  title 
and  the  record  of  the  special  laws  as  to  fines,  quit  rents,  heriots, 
&c.,  prevailing  in  the  manor.  When  copyhold  land  is  conveyed 
from  one  person  to  another,  it  is  surrendered  by  the  owner  to  the 
lord,  who  by  his  payment  of  the  customary  fine  makes  a  new 
grant  of  it  to  the  purchaser.  The  lord  must  admit  the  vendor's 
nominee,  but  the  form  of  the  conveyance  is  still  that  of  surrender 
and  re-grant.  The  lord,  as  legal  owner  of  the  fee-simple  of  the 
lands,  has  a  right  to  all  the  mines  and  minerals  and  to  all  the 
growing  timber,  although  the  tenant  may  have  planted  it  himself. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  existence  of  copyhold  tenures  may 
sometimes  be  traced  by  the  total  absence  of  timber  from  such 
lands,  while  on  freehold  lands  it  grows  in  'abundance.  Hence 
also  the  popular  saying  that  the  "  oak  grows  not  except  on  free 
land."  The  copyholder  must  not  commit  waste  either  by  cutting 


COPYHOLD— COPYING  MACHINES 


117 


down  timber,  &c.,  or  by  neglecting  to  repair  buildings.  In  such 
respects  the  law  treats  him  as  a  mere  lessee, — the  real  owner 
being  supposed  to  be  the  lord.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lord 
may  not  enter  the  land  to  cut  his  own  timber  or  open  his  mines. 
The  limitations  of  estates  usual  in  respect  of  other  lands,  as  found 
in  copyhold,  become  subject  of  course  to  the  operations  of  its 
peculiar  conditions  as  to  the  relation  of  lord  and  tenant.  An 
estate  for  life,  or  pour  aulre  vie  (i.e.  for  another's  life),  an  estate 
entail,  cr  in  fee-simple,  may  be  carved  out  of  copyhold. 

A  species  of  tenure  resembling  copyhold  is  what  is  known  as 
customary  freehold.  The  land  is  held  by  copy  of  court-roll,  but 
not  by  will  of  the  lord.  The  question  has  been  raised  whether 
the  freehold  of  such  lands  is  in  the  lord  of  the  manor  or  in  the 
tenant,  and  the  courts  of  law  have  decided  in  favour  of  the  former. 
In  some  instances  copyhold  for  lives  alone  is  recognized,  and  in 
such  cases  the  lord  of  the  manor  may  ultimately,  when  all  the 
lives  have  dropped,  get  back  the  land  into  his  own  hands. 

The  feudal  obligations  attaching  to  copyhold  tenure  have 
been  found  to  cause  much  inconvenience  to  the  tenants,  while 
they  are  of  no  great  value  to  the  lord.  One  of  the  most  vexatious 
of  these  is  the  heriot,  under  which  name  the  lord  is  entitled  to 
seize  the  tenant's  best  beast  or  other  chattel  in  the  event  of  the 
tenant's  death.  The  custom  dates  from  the  time  when  all  the 
copyholder's  property,  including  the  copyholder  himself,  belonged 
to  the  lord,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  fixed  by  way  of  analogy 
to  the  custom  which  gave  a  military  tenant's  habiliments  to 
his  lord  in  order  to  equip  his  successor.  Instances  have  occurred 
of  articles  of  great  value  being  seized  as  heriots  for  the  copyhold 
tenements  of  their  owners.  A  race  horse  worth  £2000  or  £3000 
was  thus  seized.  The  fine  payable  on  the  admission  of  a  new 
tenant,  whether  by  alienation  or  succession,  is  to  a  certain  extent 
arbitrary,  but  the  courts  long  ago  laid  down  the  rule  that  it  must 
be  reasonable,  and  anything  beyond  two  years'  improved  value 
of  the  lands  they  disallowed. 

The  inconvenience  caused  by  these  feudal  incidents  of  the 
tenure  led  to  a  series  of  statutes,  having  for  their  object  the 
conversion  of  copyhold  into  freehold.  The  first  Copyhold  Act, 
that  of  1841,  was  consolidated  by  the  Copyhold  Act  1894. 
Owing  to  the  incidents  attaching  to  land  "  holden  by  copy  of 
court  roll  according  to  the  custom  of  the  manor  "  in  the  shape  of 
fines  and  heriots,  the  inability  to  grant  a  lease  for  a  term  exceed- 
ing a  year,  and  to  the  peculiar  rules  as  to  descent,  waste,  dower, 
curtesy,  alienation,  and  other  matters,  varying  often  from  manor 
to  manor  and  widely  differing  from  the  uniform  law  applicable 
to  land  in  general,  enfranchisement,  or  the  conversion  of  land 
held  by  copyhold  tenure  into  freehold,  is  often  desired.  This  could 
and  may  still  be  effected  at  common  law,  but  only  by  agreement 
on  the  part  of  both  the  lord  and  the  tenant.  Moreover,  it  was 
subject  to  other  disadvantages.  The  cost  fell  on  the  tenant,  and 
the  land  when  enfranchised  was  subject  to  the  encumbrances 
attaching  to  the  manor,  and  so  an  investigation  into  the  lord's 
title  was  necessary.  In  1841  an  act  was  passed  to  provide  a 
statutory  method  of  enfranchisement,  removing  some  of  the 
barriers  existing  at  common  law;  but  the  machinery  created 
was  only  available  where  both  lord  and  tenant  were  in  agreement. 
The  Copyhold  Act  1852  went  further,  and  for  the  first  time 
introduced  the  principle  of  compulsory  enfranchisement  on  the 
part  of  either  party.  By  the  Copyhold  Act  1894,  which  now 
governs  statutory  enfranchisement,  the  former  Copyhold  Acts 
1841-1887,  were  repealed,  and  the  law  was  consolidated  and 
improved.  Enfranchisement  is  now  effected  under  this  act, 
though  in  certain  cases  it  is  also  to  be  obtained  under  special 
acts,  such  as  the  Land  Clauses  Consolidation  Act  1848;  and  the 
old  common  law  method  with  all  its  disadvantages  is  still  open. 
The  Copyhold  Act  1894  deals  both  with  compulsory  and  with 
voluntary  enfranchisement.  In  either  case  the  sanction  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  must  be  obtained;  and  powers  are  bestowed 
on  it  to  decide  questions  arising  on  enfranchisement,  with  an 
appeal  to  the  High  Court.  The  actual  enfranchisement,  where 
it  is  compelled  by  one  of  the  parties,  is  effected  by  an  award 
made  by  the  board;  in  the  case  of  a  voluntary  enfranchisement 
it  is  completed  by  deed.  Under  the  act  it  is  open  to  both  lord 


and  tenant  to  compel  enfranchisement,  though  the  expenses  are 
to  be  borne  by  the  party  requiring  it.  The  compensation  to 
the  lord,  in  the  absence  of  an  agreement,  is  ascertained  under  the 
direction  of  the  board  on  a  valuation  made  by  a  valuer  or 
valuers  appointed  by  the  lord  and  tenant;  and  may  be  paid 
either  in  a  gross  sum  or  by  way  of  an  annual  rent  charge  issuing 
out  of  the  land  enfranchised,  and  equivalent  to  interest  at  the 
rate  of  4%  on  the  amount  fixed  upon  as  compensation.  This 
rent  charge  is  redeemable  on  six  months'  notice  at  twenty-five 
times  its  annual  amount.  The  tenant,  even  if  he  is  the  compelling 
party,  may  elect  either  method;  but  the  lord  has  not  the  same 
option,  and  where  the  enfranchisement  is  at  his  instance,  unless 
there  is  either  an  agreement  to  the  contrary  or  a  notice  on  the 
part  of  the  tenant  to  exercise  his  option,  the  compensation  is 
a  rent  charge.  Power  is  conferred  on  the  lord  to  purchase  the 
tenant's  interest  where  a  change  in  the  condition  of  the  land  by 
enfranchisement  would  prejudice  his  mansion  house,  park  or 
gardens;  while  on  the  other  hand,  hi  the  interest  of  the  public 
or  the  other  tenants,  the  board  is  authorized  to  continue  con- 
ditions of  user  for  their  benefit. 

So  far  the  provisions  relating  to  compulsory  enfranchisement 
have  been  dealt  with;  but  even  in  the  case  of  a  voluntary  agree- 
ment the  lord  and  tenant  are  only  entitled  to  accept  enfranchise- 
ment with  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  The 
consideration  in  addition  to  a  gross  sum  or  a  rent  charge  may 
consist  of  a  conveyance  of  land,  or  of  a  right  to  mines  or  minerals, 
or  of  a  right  to  waste  in  lands  belonging  to  the  manor,  or  partly 
in  one  way  and  partly  in  another.  The  effect  of  enfranchisement, 
whether  it  be  voluntary  or  compulsory,  is  that  the  land  becomes 
of  freehold  tenure  subject  to  the  same  laws  relating  to  descent, 
dower  and  curtesy  as  are  applicable  to  freeholds,  and  so  freed 
from  Borough  English,  Gavelkind  (save  in  Kent),  and  other  cus- 
tomary modes  of  descent,  and  from  any  custom  relating  to  dower 
or  free-bench  or  tenancy  by  curtesy.  Nevertheless,  the  lord  is 
entitled  to  escheat  in  the  event  of  failure  of  heirs,  just  as  if  the  land 
had  not  been  enfranchised.  The  land  is  held  under  the  same  title 
as  that  under  which  it  was  held  at  the  date  at  which  the  enfran- 
chisement takes  effect;  but  it  is  not  subject  to  any  estate  right, 
charge,  or  interest  affecting  the  manor.  Every  mortgage  of 
copyhold  estate  in  the  land  enfranchised  becomes  a  mortgage 
of  the  freehold,  though  subject  to  the  priority  of  the  rent  charge 
paid  in  compensation  under  the  act.  All  rights  and  interests  of 
any  person  in  the  land  and  all  leases  remain  binding  in  the  same 
manner.  On  the  other  hand  the  tenant's  rights  of  common  still 
continue  attached  to  the  freehold;  and,  without  express  consent 
in  writing  of  the  lord  or  tenant  respectively,  the  right  of  either 
in  mines  or  minerals  shall  not  be  affected  by  the  change.  No 
creation  of  new  copyholds  by  granting  land  out  of  the  waste  is 
permissible,  save  with  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture; 
and  the  act  enacts  that  a  valid  admittance  of  a  new  copy- 
holder may  be  made  without  holding  a  court. 

Under  the  earlier  acts,  machinery  to  free  the  land  from  the 
burden  of  the  old  rents,  fines  and  heriots  was  set  up,  commuting 
them  into  a  rent  charge  or  a  fine.  Commutation,  however,  is 
never  compulsory,  and  differs  from  enfranchisement  in  that, 
whereas  by  enfranchisement  the  land  in  question  js  converted 
into  freehold,  by  commutation  it  still  continued  parcel  of  the 
manor,  though  subject  to  a  rent  charge  or  a  fine,  as  might  have 
been  agreed.  The  ordinary  laws  of  descent,  dower,  and  curtesy 
were,  however,  substituted  for  the  customs  in  relation  to  these 
matters  incidental  to  the  land  in  question  before  commutation, 
and  the  timber  became  the  tenant's. 

AUTHORITIES. — C.  I.  Elton,  Law  of  Copyholds  (1898) ;  C.  Watkins, 
On  Copyholds  (1825);  Scriven  on  Copyholds,  ed.  A.  Brown  (1896); 
A.  Brown,  Copyhold  Enfranchisement  Acts  (1895). 

COPYING  MACHINES.  Appliances  of  various  kinds  have 
been  devised  for  producing  copies  of  writings  made  by  the  pen 
or  pencil.  A  simple  method  commonly  adopted  when  only  a 
single  copy  is  required  is  to  write  the  original  with  specially 
prepared  copying  ink  (formed  by  adding  some  thickening 
substance  like  sugar  or  gum  to  ordinary  ink),  to' place  upon  it  a 
damped  sheet  of  thin  absorbent  paper,  and  to  press  the  two 


n8 


COPYRIGHT 


together  in  some  way,  as  in  a  copying  press.  The  resulting 
impression,  being  reversed,  must  be  read  from  the  back  of  the 
absorbent  paper,  which  is  thin  enough  to  be  transparent. 
Another  process,  by  which  a  considerable  number  of  copies 
can  be  made  simultaneously,  consists  in  interleaving  a  number 
of  sheets  of  thin  white  paper  with  sheets  of  paper  prepared  with 
lampblack  ("  carbon  paper  ")  and  writing  on  the  top  sheet 
with  a  "  style "  or  other  sharp-pointed  instrument.  The 
hectograph  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  manifolding  processes 
analogous  to  lithography.  In  it  the  writing  is  in  first  instance 
done  with  aniline  ink,  and  then  a  transfer  is  made  to  a  plate  of 
a  gelatinous  composition,  from  which  a  series  of  duplicates  can 
be  taken  off.  Another  class  of  methods  involves  the  preparation 
of  what  are  essentially  stencils.  In  the  cyclostyle,  paper  of  a 
special  kind  is  stretched  over  a  smooth  metal  plate,  and  the 
writing  instrument  consists  of  a  holder  having  at  the  end  a 
small  wheel  provided  with  a  serrated  edge  on  its  periphery, 
which  perforates  the  paper  with  lines  of  minute  cuts  and  thus 
forms  a  stencil.  When  ink  is  passed  over  this  stencil  with  a  roller 
it  goes  through  the  perforations  and  leaves  an  impression  on  a 
piece  of  paper  placed  underneath.  In  the  trypograph  a  similar 
result  is  attained  by  using  a  simple  style  for  writing,  but  stretch- 
ing the  paper  over  a  metal  plate  having  its  surface  covered  with 
fine  sharp  corrugations  which  pierce  the  paper  as  the  style  is 
moved  over  them.  In  the  Edison  electric  pen  the  stencil  is 
formed  by  the  aid  of  a  style  containing  a  fine  needle,  which  is 
rapidly  moved  up  and  down  by  a  small  electric  motor  mounted 
at  the  top  of  the  pen,  and  thus  a  series  of  minute  holes  is 
punctured  in  the  paper  by  the  act  of  writing.  For  copying  plans 
and  drawings,  engineers,  architects,  &c.,  use  a  "  blue  print  " 
process  which  depends  on  the  action  of  light  on  certain  salts  of 
iron  (see  SUN-COPYING  and  PHOTOGRAPHY). 

COPYRIGHT,  in  law,  the  right,  belonging  exclusively  to 
the  author  or  his  assignees,  of  multiplying  for  sale  copies  of  an 
original  work  or  composition,  in  literature  or  art.  As  a  recognized 
form  of  property  it  is,  compared  with  others,  of  recent  origin, 
being  in  fact,  in  the  use  of  literary  works,  mainly  the  result  of  the 
facility  for  multiplying  copies  created  by  the  discovery  of  print- 
ing. It  is  with  copyright  in  literary  compositions  that  we  are  here 
primarily  concerned,  as  it  was  established  first,  the  analogous 
right  as  regards  works  of  plastic  art,  &c.,  following  in  its  train. 

i.  Whether  copyright  was  recognized  at  all  by  the  common 
law  of  England  was  long  a  much  debated  legal  question.  Black- 
stone  thinks  that  "  this  species  of  property,  being  grounded  on 
labour  and  invention,  is  more  properly  reducible  to  the  head  of 
occupancy  than  any  other,  since  the  right  of  occupancy  itself 
is  supposed  by  Mr  Locke  and  many  others  to  be  founded  on  the 
personal  labour  of  the  occupant."  But  he  speaks  doubtfully  of 
its  existence — merely  mentioning  the  opposing  views,  "  that 
on  the  one  hand  it  hath  been  thought  no  other  man  can  have  a 
right  to  exhibit  the  author's  work  without  his  consent,  and  that 
it  is  urged  on  the  other  hand  that  the  right  is  of  too  subtle  and 
unsubstantial  a  nature  to  become  the  subject  of  property  at 
the  common  law,  and  only  capable  of  being  guarded  by  positive 
statutes  and  special  provisions  of  the  magistrate."  He  notices 
that  the  Rtiman  law  adjudged  that  if  one  man  wrote  anything 
on  the  paper  or  parchment  of  another,  the  writing  should  belong 
to  the  owner  of  the  blank  materials,  but  as  to  any  other  property 
in  the  works  of  the  understanding  the  law  is  silent,  and  he  adds 
that "  neither  with  us  in  England  hath  there  been  (till  very  lately) 
any  final  determination  upon  the  rights  of  authors  at  the  common 
law."  The  common  law  undoubtedly  gives  a  right  to  restrain 
the  publication  of  unpublished  compositions;  but  when  a  work 
is  once  published,  its  protection  depends  on  the  statutes  regulat- 
ing copyright.  The  leading  case  on  the  subject  of  unpublished 
works  is  Prince  Albert  v.  Strange  (1849),  2  De  G.  &  Sm.  652. 
Copies  of  etchings  by  Queen  Victoria  and  Prince  Albert,  which 
had  been  lithographed  for  private  circulation,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  defendant,  a  London  publisher,  who  proposed  to  exhibit 
them,  and  issued  a  catalogue  entitled  A  Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  the  Royal  Victoria  and  Albert  Gallery  of  Etchings.  The  court 
of  chancery  restrained  the  publication  of  the  catalogue,  holding 


"re  ' 


that  property  in  mechanical  works,  or  works  of  art,  does  certainly 
subsist,  and  is  invaded,  before  publication,  not  only  by  copying 
but  by  description  or  catalogue.  This  protection  includes  news 
(Exchange  Telegraph  Co.  v.  Central  News,  1807). 

As  a  matter  of  principle,  the  nature  of  copyright  itself,  and  the 
reasons  why  it  should  be  recognized  in  law,  have,  as  already 
stated,  been  the  subject  of  bitter  dispute.  It  was 
attacked  as  constituting  a  monopoly,  and  it  has  been 
argued  that  copyright  should  be  looked  upon  as  a 
doubtful  exception  to  the  general  law  regulating  trade,  and  should 
be  strictly  limited  in  point  of  duration.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
claimed  that  copyright,  being  in  the  nature  of  personal  property, 
should  be  perpetual.  A  man's  own  work,  in  this  view,  is  as  much 
his  as  his  house  or  his  money,  and  should  be  protected  by  the 
state.  Historically,  and  in  legal  definition,  there  would  appear 
to  be  no  doubt  that  copyright,  as  regulated  by  statute,  is  strictly 
a  monopoly.  The  parliamentary  protection  of  works  of  art  for 
the  period  of  fourteen  years  by  an  act  of  1709  and  later  statutes 
appears,  as  Blackstone  points  out,  to  have  been  suggested  by 
the  exception  in  the  Statute  of  Monopolies  1623.  The  object  of 
that  statute  was  to  suppress  the  royal  grants  of  exclusive  right  to 
trade  in  certain  articles,  and  to  reassert  in  relation  to  all  such 
monopolies  the  common  law  of  the  land.  Certain  exceptions 
were  made  on  grounds  of  public  policy,  and  among  others  it  was 
allowed  that  a  royal  patent  of  privilege  might  be  granted  for 
fourteen  years  "  to  any  inventor  of  a  new  manufacture  for  the 
sole  working  or  making  of  the  same."  Copyright,  like  patent 
right,  would  be  covered  by  the  legal  definition  of  a  monopoly. 
It  is  a  mere  right  to  prevent  other  people  from  manufacturing 
certain  articles.  But  objections  to  monopolies  in  general  do 
not  apply  to  this  particular  class  of  cases,  in  which  the  author 
of  a  new  work  in  literature  or  art  has  the  right  of  preventing 
others  from  manufacturing  copies  thereof  and  selling  them  to 
the  public.  The  rights  of  persons  licensed  to  sell  spirits,  to  hold 
theatrical  exhibitions,  &c.,  are  also  of  the  nature  of  monopolies, 
and  may  be  defended  on  special  grounds  of  public  policy.  The 
monopoly  of  authors  and  inventors  rests  on  the  general  sentiment 
underlying  all  civilized  law,  that  a  man  should  be  protected  in 
the  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of  his  own  labour. 

LITERARY  COPYRIGHT 

2.  United  Kingdom.  —  On  the  invention  of  printing  (see  PRESS 
LAWS)  the  crown,  or  other  sovereign  powers,  granted  patents 

or  licences  with  the  object  of  restricting  the  right  of 
account*  multiplying  copies  of  literary  works,  and  this  super- 

vision of  publication  still  has  certain  historical  results. 
A  special  kind  of  what  amounts  to  perpetual  copyright  in  various 
publications  has  for  various  reasons  been  recognized  by  the  laws 
(i)  in  the  crown,  and  (2)  in  the  universities  and  colleges.  The 
various  copyright  acts,  referred  to  below,  except  from  their 
provisions  the  copyrights  vested  in  the  two  English  and  the  four 
Scottish  universities,  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  the  colleges  of 
Eton,  Westminster  and  Winchester.  Crown  copyrights  are  saved 
by  the  general  principle  which  exempts  crown  rights  from  the 
operation  of  statutes  unless  they  are  expressly  mentioned. 
Among  the  books  in  which  the  crown  has  claimed  copyright  are 
the  English  translation  of  the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  statutes,  orders  of  privy  council,proclamations,  almanacs, 
Lilly's  Latin  Grammar,  year  books  and  law  reports.  The  copy- 
right in  the  Bible  is  rested  by  some  on  the  king's  position  as 
head  of  the  church;  Lord  Lyndhurst  rested  it  on  his  duties  as 
the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  state  charged  with  the  publica- 
tion of  authorized  manuals  of  religion.  The  right  of  printing  the 
Bible  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  vested  in  the  king's 
printer  and  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  These 
copyrights  do  not  extend  to  prohibit  independent  translations 
from  the  original.  The  obsolete  copyright  of  the  crown  in  Lilly's 
Latin  Grammar  was  founded  on  the  fact  of  its  having  been 
drawn  up  at  the  king's  expense.  The  universities  have  a  joint. 
right  (with  the  crown's  patentees)  of  printing  acts  of  parliment. 
Law  reports  were  decided  to  be  the  property  of  the  crown  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.;  by  act  of  parliament  they  were  forbidden 


COPYRIGHT 


119 


to  be  published  without  licence  from  the  chancellor  and  the 
chiefs  of  the  three  courts,  and  this  form  of  licence  remained  in  use 
after  the  act  had  expired.  University  and  college  copyrights 
were  made  perpetual  by  an  act  of  George  III.,  but  only  on 
condition  of  the  books  being  printed  at  their  printing  presses 
and  for  their  own  benefit. 

3.  The  first  definite  statute,  or  Copyright  Act,  in  England  was 
passed  in  1709.  The  preamble  states  that  printers,  booksellers 
and  other  persons  were  frequently  in  the  habit  of  printing, 
reprinting,  and  publishing  "  books  and  other  writings  without 
the  consent  of  the  authors  or  proprietors  of  such  books  and 
writings,  to  their  very  great  detriment,  and  too  often  to  the 
ruin  of  them  and  their  families."  "  For  preventing,  therefore,  such 
practices  for  the  future,  and  for  the  encouragement  of  learned 
men  to  compose  and  write  useful  books,  it  is  enacted  that  the 
author  of  any  book  or  books  already  printed,  who  hath  not 
transferred  to  any  other  the  copy  or  copies  of  such  book  or  books 
in  order  to  print  or  reprint  the  same,  shall  have  the  sole  right  and 
liberty  of  printing  such  book  or  books  for  the  term  of  one-and- 
twenty  years,  and  that  the  author  of  any  book  or  books  already 
composed,  and  not  printed  and  published,  or  that  shall  hereafter 
be  composed,  and  his  assignee,  or  assignees,  shall  have  the  sole 
liberty  of  printing  and  reprinting  such  book  or  books  for  the  term 
of  fourteen  years,  to  commence  from  the  day  of  first  publishing 
the  same,  and  no  longer."  The  penalty  for  offences  against  the 
act  was  declared  to  be  the  forfeiture  of  the  illicit  copies  to  the 
true  proprietor,  and  the  fine  of  one  penny  per  sheet,  half  to  the 
crown,  and  half  to  any  person  suing  for  the  same.  "  After  the 
expiration  of  the  said  term  of  fourteen  years  the  sole  right  of 
printing  or  disposing  of  copies  shall  return  to  the  authors  thereof, 
if  they  are  then  living,  or  their  representatives,  for  another  term 
of  fourteen  years."  To  secure  the  benefit  of  the  act  registration 
at  Stationers'  Hall  was  necessary.  In  section  4  was  contained 
the  provision  that  if  any  person  thought  the  price  of  a  book 
"  too  high  and  unreasonable,"  he  might  complain  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  lord  chancellor,  the  bishop  of  London, 
the  chiefs  of  the  three  courts  at  Westminster,  and  the  vice- 
chancellors  of  the  two  universities  in  England,  and  to  the  lord 
president,  lord  justice  general,  lord  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer, 
and  the  rector  of  the  college  of  Edinburgh  in  Scotland,  who  might 
fix  a  reasonable  price.  Nine  copies  of  each  book  were  to  be  pro- 
vided for  the  royal  library,  the  libraries  of  the  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  the  four  Scottish  universites,  Sion 
College,  and  the  faculty  of  advocates  at  Edinburgh. 

It  was  believed  for  a  long  time  that  this  statute  had  not 
interfered  with  the  rights  of  authors  at  common  law.  Ownership 
of  literary  property  at  common  law  appears  indeed  to  have  been 
recognized  in  some  earlier  statutes.  The  Licensing  Act  1662 
prohibited  the  printing  of  any  work  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner  on  pain  of  forfeiture,  &c.  This  act  expired  in  1679,  and 
attempts  to  renew  it  were  unsuccessful.  The  records  of  the 
Stationers'  Company  show  that  the  purchase  and  sale  of  copy- 
rights had  become  an  established  usage,  and  the  loss  of  the  protec- 
tion, incidentally  afforded  by  the  Licensing  Act,  was  felt  as  a 
serious  grievance,  which  ultimately  led  to  the  statute  of  1709. 
That  statute,  as  the  judges  in  Millar  v.  Taylor  (17.69,  4  Burr. 
23°3)  pointed  out,  speaks  of  the  ownership  of  literary  property 
as  a  known  thing.  Many  cases  are  recorded  in  which  the  courts 
protected  copyrights  not  falling  within  the  periods  laid  down 
by  the  act.  Thus  in  1735  the  master  of  the  rolls  restrained  the 
printing  of  an  edition  of  the  Whole  Duty  of  Man,  published  in 
1657.  In  1739  an  injunction  was  granted  by  Lord  Hardwicke 
against  the  publication  of  Paradise  Lost,  at  the  instance  of  persons 
claiming  under  an  assignment  from  Milton  in  1667.  In  the  case 
of  Millar  v.  Taylor  the  plaintiff,  who  had  purchased  the  copy- 
right of  Thomson's  Seasons  in  1729,  claimed  damages  for  an 
unlicensed  publication  thereof  by  the  defendant  in  1763.  The 
jury  found  that  before  the  statute  it  was  usual  to  purchase  from 
authors  the  perpetual  copyright  of  their  works.  Three  judges, 
among  whom  was  Lord  Mansfield,  decided  in  favour  of  the 
common  law  right;  one  was  of  the  contrary  opinion.  The 
majority  thought  that  the  act  of  1709  was  not  intended  to  destroy 


copyright  at  common  law,  but  merely  to  protect  it  more  efficiently 
during  the  limited  periods.  Millar  v.  Taylor,  however,  was 
speedily  overruled  by  the  case  of  Donaldson  v,  Beckett  in  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1774.  The  judges  were  called  upon  to  state 
their  opinions.  A  majority  (seven  to  four)  were  of  opinion  that 
the  author  and  his  assigns  had  at  common  law  the  sole  right 
of  publication  in  perpetuity.  A  majority  (six  to  five)  were  of 
opinion  that  this  right  had  been  taken  away  by  the  statute  of 
1 709,  and  a  term  of  years  substituted  for  the  perpetuity.  The 
decision  appears  to  have  taken  the  trade  by  surprise.  Many 
booksellers  had  purchased  copyrights  not  protected  by  the 
statute,  and  they  now  petitioned  parliament  to  be  relieved 
from  the  consequences  of  the  decision  in  Donaldson  v.  Beckett. 
A  bill  for  this  purpose  actually  passed  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  Lord  Camden's  influence  succeeded  in  defeating  it  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  The  result  is  that  from  that  time  on  ordinary 
copyright  has  been  recognized  except  in  so  far  as  it  is  sanctioned 
by  statute.  The  university  copyrights  were,  however,  protected 
in  perpetuity  by  an  act  passed  in  1775. 

By  an  act  of  1801  the  penalty  for  infringement  of  copyright 
was  increased  to  threepence  per  sheet,  in  addition  to  the  forfeiture 
of  the  book.  The  proprietor  was  to  have  an  action  on  the  case 
against  any  person  in  the  United  Kingdom,  or  British  dominions 
in  Europe,  who  should  print,  reprint,  or  import  without  the 
consent  of  the  proprietor,  first  had  in  writing,  signed  in  the 
presence  of  two  or  more  credible  witnesses,  any  book  or  books,  or 
who  knowing  them  to  be  printed,  &c.,  without  the  proprietor's 
consent  should  sell,  publish,  or  expose  them  for  sale;  the 
proprietor  to  have  his  damages  as  assessed  by  the  jury,  and 
double  costs  of  suit.  A  second  period  of  fourteen  years  was 
confirmed  to  the  author,  should  he  still  be  alive  at  the  end  of  the 
first.  Further,  it  was  forbidden  to  import  into  the  United 
Kingdom  for  sale  books  first  composed,  written,  or  printed  and 
published  within  the  United  Kingdom,  and  reprinted  elsewhere. 
Another  change  was  made  by  the  act  of  1814,  which  in  substitu- 
tion for  the  two  periods  of  fourteen  years  gave  to  the  author  and 
his  assignees  copyright  for  the  full  term  of  twenty-eight  years 
from  the-date  of  the  first  publication,  "  and  also,  if  the  author  be 
living  at  the  end  of  that  period,  for  the  residue  of  his  natural  life." 

4.  The  Copyright  Act  of  1842  repealed  the  previous  acts  on  the 
same  subject,  and  is  the  basis  of  the  existing  law.  Its  preamble 
stated  its  object  to  be  to  encourage  the  production  of 
"  literary  matter  of  lasting  benefit  to  the  world."  The 
principal  clause  is  the  following  (§  3) :  "  That  the  copy- 
right in  every  book  which  shall  after,  the  passing  of  this  act  be 
published  in  the  lifetime  of  its  author  shall  endure  for  the  natural 
life  of  such  author,  and  for  the  further  term  of  seven  years, 
commencing  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  shall  be  the  property  of 
such  author  and  his  assignees;  provided  always  that  if  the  said 
term  of  seven  years  shall  expire  before  the  end  of  forty-two  years 
from  the  first  publication  of  such  book  the  copyright  shall  in  that 
case  endure  for  such  period  of  forty-two  years;  and  that  the 
copyright  of  every  book  which  shall  be  published  after  the  death 
of  its  author  shall  endure  for  the  term  of  forty-two  years  from  the 
first  publication  thereof,  and  shall  be  the  property  of  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  author's  manuscript  from  which  such  book  shall  be 
first  published  and  his  assigns."  The  benefit  of  the  enlarged  period 
was  extended  to  subsisting  copyrights,  unless  they  were  the 
property  of  an  assignee  who  had  acquired  them  by  purchase,  in 
which  case  the  period  of  copyright  would  be  extended  only  if  the 
author  or  his  personal  representative  agreed  with  the  proprietor 
to  accept  the  benefit  of  the  act.  By  section  5  the  judicial 
committee  of  the  privy  council  may  license  the  republication  of 
books  which  the  proprietor  of  the  copyright  thereof  refuses  to 
publish  after  the  death  of  the  author.  The  sixth  section  provides 
for  the  delivery  within  certain  times  of  copies  of  all  books 
published  after  the  passing  of  the  act,  and  of  all  subsequent 
editions  thereof,  at  the  British  Museum.  And  a  copy  of  every 
book  and  its  subsequent  editions  must  be  sent  on  demand  to  the 
following  libraries:  the  Bodleian  at  Oxford,  the  public  library  at 
Cambridge,  the  library  of  the  faculty  of  advocates  in  Edinburgh, 
and  that  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Other  libraries  (the  libraries 


I2O 


COPYRIGHT 


of  the  four  Scottish  Universities,  King's  Inns,  Dublin,  and  Sion 
College)  entitled  to  this  privilege  under  the  earlier  acts  had  been 
deprived  thereof  by  an  act  passed  in  1836,  and  grants  from  the 
treasury,  calculated  on  the  annual  average  value  of  the  books 
they  had  received,  were  ordered  to  be  paid  to  them  as  compensa- 
tion. A  book  of  registry  is  ordered  to  be  kept  at  Stationers'  Hall 
for  the  registration  of  copyrights,  to  be  open  to  inspection  on 
payment  of  one  shilling  for  every  entry  which  shall  be  searched 
for  or  inspected.  And  the  officer  of  Stationers'  Hall  shall  give  a 
certified  copy  of  any  entry  when  required,  on  payment  of  five 
shillings;  and  such  certified  copies  shall  be  received  in  evidence 
in  the  courts  as  prima  facie  proof  of  proprietorship  or  assignment 
of  copyright  or  licence  as  therein  expressed,  and,  in  the  case  of 
dramatic  or  musical  pieces,  of  the  right  of  representation  or 
performance.  False  entries  shall  be  punished  as  misdemeanours. 
The  entry  is  to  record  the  title  of  the  book,  the  time  of  its  publica- 
tion, and  the  name  and  place  of  abode  of  the  publisher  and 
proprietor  of  copyright.  Without  making  such  entry  no  pro- 
prietor can  bring  an  action  for  infringement  of  his  copyright,  but 
the  entry  is  not  otherwise  to  affect  the  copyright  itself.  Any 
person  deeming  himself  aggrieved  by  an  entry  in  the  registry  may 
complain  to  one  of  the  superior  courts,  which  will  order  it  to  be 
expunged  or  varied  if  necessary.  A  proprietor  may  bring  an 
action  on  the  case  for  infringement  of  his  copyright,  and  the 
defendant  in  such  an  action  must  give  notice  of  the  objections  to 
the  plaintiff's  title  on  which  he  means  to  rely.  No  person  except 
the  proprietor  of  the  copyright  is  allowed  to  import  into  the 
British  dominions  for  sale  or  hire  any  book  first  composed  or 
written  or  printed  and  published  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
reprinted  elsewhere,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  and  a  fine  of  £10. 
The  proprietor  of  any  encyclopaedia,  review,  magazine,  periodical 
work,  or  work  published  in  a  series  of  books  or  parts,  who  shall 
have  employed  any  person  to  compose  the  same,  or  any  volumes, 
parts,  essays,  articles,  or  portions  thereof,  for  publication  on  the 
terms  that  the  copyright  therein  shall  belong  to  such  proprietor, 
shall  enjoy  the  term  of  copyright  granted  by  the  act.1  But  the 
proprietor  may  not  publish  separately  any  article  or  review 
without  the  author's  consent,  nor  may  the  author  unless  he  has 
reserved  the  right  of  separate  publication.  Where  neither  party 
has  reserved  the  right  they  may  publish  by  agreement,  but  the 
author  at  the  end  of  twenty-eight  years  may  publish  separately. 
Proprietors  of  periodical  works  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  benefits 
of  registration  under  the  act,  on  entering  in  the  registry  the  title, 
the  date  of  first  publication  of  the  first  volume  or  part,  and  the 
names  of  proprietor  and  publisher. 

The  interpretation  clause  of  the  act  defines  a  book  to  be  every 
volume,  part,  or  division  of  a  volume,  pamphlet,  sheet  of  letter- 
press, sheet  of  music,  map,  chart,  or  plan  separately  published. 

5.  During  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth  century  the  question  of 
copyright  became  continually  more  prominent,  and  a  considerable 

extension  was  given  by  judicial  interpretation  to  the 
scope  of  the  act  of  1842.  "  Literary  matter  of  lasting 
benefit  to  the  world  "  came  to  include  every  publica- 
tion (not  being  illegal)  which  could  be  described  as 
"  literary  "  or  "  original,"  the  criterion  as  to  the  latter  qualifica- 
tion being,  in  the  last  resort,  whether  (see  Trade  Auxiliary  Co. 
v.  Middlesborough  Association,  1889,  40  Ch.D.  425)  the  author 
or  compiler  has  really  put  his  own  brain-work  into  it. 

6.  The  most  marked  and  certain  progress  has  been  in  the 
application  of  the  law  of  copyright  to  the  periodical  press,  in 

order  to  protect  within  reasonable  limits  the  labour 
papers.  an<^  expenditure  of  newspapers  that  obtain  for  the 

public  the  earliest  news  and  arrange  it  for  publication. 
It  is  settled  law  since  1881  (Walter  v.  Howe,  17  Ch.D.  708,  over- 
ruling Cox  v.  Land  &°  Water  Journal  Co.,  1869),  that  a  newspaper 
is  a  book  within  the  meaning  of  the  act,  and  can  claim  all  rights 
that  a  book  has  under  the  Copyright  Act.  Thus,  leading  articles, 
special  articles,  and  even  news  items  are  protected  (Waller  v. 
Steinkopf,  1892,  3  Ch.  489;  Exchange  Telegraph  Co.  v.  Gregory 

1  Such  articles  must  be  paid  for,  in  order  to  vest  copyright  in  the 
proprietor.  The  leading  case  about  encyclopaedias  is  that  of 
Lawrence  and  Bullen  v.  Aflalo,  decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  1904. 


and  Co.,  1896,  i  Q.B.  147).  Current  prices  of  stocks  and  shares, 
translations,  the  compilation  of  a  directory,  summaries  of  legal 
proceedings,  and  other  similar  literary  work,  so  far  as  the  literary 
form,  the  labour  and  money  are  concerned,  are  equally  protected. 
In  short,  the  test  may  now  be  broadly  stated  to  be,  whether 
labour  of  the  brain  and  expenditure  of  money  have  been  given 
for  the  production;  whilst  the  old  requirement  of  original 
matter  is  very  broadly  interpreted.  The  leading  case  on  the 
subject  is  Waller  v.  Lane  (decided  in  the  House  of  Lords,  6th 
August  1900).  The  question  there  raised  was,  whether  or  not 
copyright  applied  under  the  act  of  1842  in  respect  of  verbatim 
reports  of  speeches.  Four  law  lords,  viz.  Lord  Chancellor 
Halsbury,  Lord  Davey,  Lord  James  of  Hereford  and  Lord 
B  ramp  ton  upheld  the  claim  to  copyright  in  such  cases,  whilst 
Lord  Robertson  was  the  sole  dissentient. 

Apart  from  newspapers,  protection  has  been  extended  to 
publications  having  no  literary  character;  Messrs  Maple's 
furniture  catalogue,  and  the  Stock  Exchange  prices  on  the  "  tape  " 
have  been  awarded  the  same  protection  as  directories.  The 
courts  have  declined  to  protect  works  which  are  mere  copies 
of  railway  time-tables,  or  the  "  tips  "  of  a  sporting  prophet,  or 
mechanical  devices  with  no  independent  literary  matter,  such 
as  patterns  for  cutting  ladies'  sleeves. 

7.  The  publication  of  lectures  without  consent  of  the  authors 
or  their  assignees  is  prohibited  by  the  Lecture  Copyright  Act 
1  83  5,  which  reinforces  the  common  law  against  publica-    Lectures. 
tion  of  "  unpublished  "  matter,  and  gives  a  copyright 

for  28  years.  This  act,  however,  excepts  from  its  provisions: 
(i)  lectures  of  which  notice  has  not  been  given  two  days  before 
their  delivery  to  two  justices  of  the  peace  living  within  5  m. 
to  the  place  of  delivery  (an  impracticable  condition),  and  (2) 
lectures  delivered  in  universities  and  other  public  institutions. 
Sermons  by  clergy  of  the  established  Church  are  believed  to  fall 
within  this  exception.  The  leading  cases  are  Nicols  v.  Pitman, 
1884,  26  Ch.D.  374,  and  Caird  v.  Sime,  1887,  12  A.C.  326. 

8.  The  writer  of  private  letters  sent  to  another  person  may 
in  general  restrain  their  publication.     It  was  urged  in  some  of 
the  cases  that  the  sender  had  abandoned  his  property 

in  the  letter  by  the  act  of  sending;  but  this  was  denied  letters 
by  Lord  Hardwicke  (Pope  v.  Curl  in  1741),  who  held 
that  at  most  the  receiver  only  might  take  some  kind  of  joint 
property  in  the  letter  along  with  the  author.  Judge  Story,  in 
the  American  case  of  Folsom  v.  Marsh,  2  Story  (Amer.)  100, 
states  the  law  as  follows:  "  The  author  of  any  letter  or  letters, 
and  his  representatives,  whether  they  are  literary  letters  or 
letters  of  business,  possess  the  sole  and  exclusive  copyright 
therein;  and  no  person,  neither  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed, 
nor  other  persons,  have  any  right  or  authority  to  publish  the 
same  upon  their  own  account  or  for  their  own  benefit."  But 
there  may  be  special  occasions  justifying  such  publication.  See 
also  the  English  case  of  Macmillan  v.  Dent  (1905). 

9.  The  question  of  what  is  an  infringement  of  copyright  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.     It  was  decided  under  the 
statute  of  1  709  that  a  repetition  from  memory  was 

not  a  publication  so  as  to  be  an  infringement  of 
copyright.  In  the  case  of  Reade  v.  Conquest,  1861, 
9  C.B.,  the  same  view  was  taken.  The  defendant  had 
dramatized  the  plaintiff's  novel  It's  Never  too  Late  to  Mend, 
and  the  piece  was  performed  at  his  theatre.  This  was  held  to 
be  no  breach  of  copyright;  but  the  circulation  of  copies  of  a 
drama,  so  taken  from  a  copyright  novel,  whether  gratuitously  or 
for  sale,  is  not  allowed.  Then  again  it  is  often  a  difficult  question 
to  decide  whether  the  alleged  piratical  copyright  does  more  than 
make  that  fair  use  of  the  original  author's  materials  which  the  law 
permits.  It  is  not  every  act  of  borrowing  literary  matter  from 
another  which  is  piracy,  and  the  difficulty  is  to  draw  the  line 
between  what  is  fair  and  what  is  unfair.  Lord  Eldon  put  the 
question  thus,—  whether  the  second  publication  is  a  legitimate 
use  of  the  other  in  the  fair  exercise  of  a  mental  operation  deserving 
the  character  of  an  original  work.  Anothe'r  test  proposed  is 
"  whether  you  find  on  the  part  of  the  defendant  an  animus 
furandi  —  an  intention  to  take  for  the  purpose  of  saving  himself 


COPYRIGHT 


121 


labour."  No  one,  it  has  been  said,  has  a  right  to  take,  whether 
with  or  without  acknowledgment,  a  material  and  substantial 
portion  of  another's  work,  his  arguments,  his  illustrations,  his 
authorities,  for  the  purpose  of  makinng  or  improving  a  rival 
publication.  When  the  materials  are  open  to  all,  an  author  may 
acquire  copyright  in  his  selection  or  arrangement  of  them. 
Several  cases  have  arisen  on  this  point  between  the  publishers 
of  rival  directories.  Here  it  has  been  held  that  the  subsequent 
compiler  is  bound  to  do  for  himself  what  the  original  compiler  had 
done.  When  the  materials  are  thus  in  media,  as  the  phrase  is,  it  is 
considered  a  fair  test  of  piracy  to  examine  whether  the  mistakes 
of  both  works  are  the  same.  If  they  are,  piracy  will  be  inferred. 
Translations  stand  to  each  other  in  the  same  relation  as  books 
constructed  of  materials  in  common.  The  animus  furandi, 
mentioned  above  as  a  test  of  piracy,  does  not  imply  deliberate 
intention  to  steal;  it  may  be  quite  compatible  with  ignorance 
even  of  the  copyright  work.  Abridgments,  moreover,  of 
original  works  appear  to  be  favoured  by  the  courts — when  the 
act  of  abridgment  is  itself  an  act  of  the  understanding, 
"  employed  in  carrying  a  large  work  into  a  smaller  compass,  and 
rendering  it  less  expensive."  Lord  Hatherley,  however,  in 
Tinsley  v.  Lacy,  1863,  i  H.  &  M.  747,  incidentally  expressed  his 
disapproval  of  this  feeling — holding  that  the  courts  had  gone 
far  enough  in  this  direction,  and  that  it  was  difficult  to  acquiesce 
in  the  reason  sometimes  given  that  the  compiler  of  an  abridg- 
ment is  a  benefactor  to  mankind  by  assisting  in  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge.  A  mere  selection  or  compilation,  so  as  to  bring 
the  materials  into  smaller  space,  will  not  be  a  bona  fide  abridg- 
ment; "  there  must  be  real  substantial  condensation,  and 
intellectual  labour,  and  judgment  bestowed  thereon  "  (Justice 
Story).  A  publication  professing  to  be  A  Christmas  Ghost  Story, 
Reoriginated  from  the  Original  by  Charles  Dickens,  Esq.,  and 
Analytically  Condensed  expressly  for  this  Work,  was  found 
(Dickens  v.  Lee,  1844,  8  Jur.  183)  to  be  an  invasion  of  Charles 
Dickens's  copyright  in  the  original. 

10.  There  can  be  no  copyright  in  any  but  innocent  publica- 
tions.    Books  of  an  immoral  or  irreligious  tendency  have  been 

repeatedly  decided  to  be  incapable  of  being  made  the 
works."*  subject  of  copyright.  In  a  case  (Lawrence  v.  Smith, 

i  Jac.  471)  before  Lord  Eldon  in  1822,  an  injunction 
had  been  obtained  against  a  pirated  publication  of  the  plaintiff's 
Lectures  on  Physiology,  Zoology,  and  the  Natural  History  of  Man, 
which  the  judge  refused  to  continue,  "  recollecting  that  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  is  one  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  considering  that  the  law  does  not  give  protection  to  those 
who  contradict  the  Scriptures."  The  same  judge  refused  in 
1822  to  restrain  a  piracy  of  Lord  Byron's  Cain,  and  Don  Juan 
was  refused  protection  in  1823.  Compare  also  Cowan  v.  Milbourn, 
1867,  L.R.  2  Ex.  230,  in  which  a  contract  to  let  a  room  for 
lectures  of  an  irreligious  character  was  held  not  to  be  binding. 

11.  The  quasi -copyright  in  titles  of  books,  periodicals,  &c. 
is  founded  on  the  desirability  of  preventing  one  person  from 

putting  off  on  the  public  his  own  productions  as  those 
of  another.  This  is,  however,  not  copyright,  but  a 
question  of  ordinary  fraud.  The  name  of  a  journal 
(if  sufficiently  established)  is  a  species  of  trade-mark  in  which 
the  law  recognizes  what  it  calls  a  "  species  of  property,"  provided 
any  misleading  of  the  public  is  involved.  Thus,  the  Wonderful 
Magazine  was  invaded  (1803)  by  a  publication  calling  itself  the 
Wonderful  Magazine,  New  Series  Improved.  Bell's  Life  in 
London  was  pirated  (1859)  by  a  paper  calling  itself  the  Penny 
Bell's  Life.  The  proprietors  of  the  London  Journal  got  an 
injunction  (1859)  against  the  Daily  London  Journal,  which  was 
projected  by  the  person  from  whom  they  had  bought  their  own 
paper,  and  who  had  covenanted  with  them  not  to  publish  any 
weekly  journal  of  a  similar  nature.  A  song  published  under  the 
title  of  Minnie,  sung  by  Madame  Anna  Thillon  and  Miss  Dolby 
at  Monsieur  Jullien's  concerts,  was  invaded  (1855)  by  a  song  to 
the  same  air  published  as  Minnie  Dale,  Sung  at  Jullien's  Concerts 
by  Madame  Anna  Thillon.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Sphere  and 
Spear,  titles  of  misleading  similarity,  assumed  by  two  weekly 
periodicals  that  appeared  almost  simultaneously  in  London  in 


Titles  of 
works. 


1900,  could  not  successfully  attack  each  other,  because  neither 
had  an  established  reputation  when  first  adopted. 

1 2.  Dramatic  and  musical  compositions  stand  on  this  peculiar 
footing,  that  they  may  be  the  subject  of  two  entirely  distinct 
rights.  As  writings  they  come  within  the  general 
Copyright  Act,  and  the  unauthorized  multiplication  of  aaj""* 
copies  is  a  piracy  of  the  usual  sort.  This  was  decided  to  music. 
be  so  even  in  the  case  of  musical  compositions  under 
the  act  of  1709.  The  Copyright  Act  of  1842  includes  a  "  sheet 
of  music"  in  its  definition  of  a  book.  Separate  from  the  copy- 
right thus  existing  in  dramatic  or  musical  compositions  is  the 
stage-right  or  right  of  representing  them  on  the  stage;  this  was 
the  right  created  by  the  Dramatic  Copyright  Act  of  1833,  in  the 
case  of  dramatic  pieces.  This  act  gave  the  owner  of  the  stage- 
right  (right  of  representation)  a  period  of  twenty-eight  years,  or 
the  duration  of  the  author's  life  if  longer.  The  Copyright  Act 
1842  extended  this  right  to  musical  compositions,  and  made  the 
period  in  both  cases  the  same  as  that  fixed  for  copyright.  And 
the  act  expressly  provides  (meeting  a  contrary  decision  in  the 
courts)  that  the  assignment  of  copyright  of  dramatic  and  musical 
pieces  shall  not  include  the  right  of  representation  unless  that 
is  expressly  mentioned.  The  act  of  1833  prohibited  representa- 
tion "  at  any  place  of  public  entertainment,"  a  phrase  which  was 
omitted  in  the  act  of  1842,  and  it  may  perhaps  be  inferred  that 
the  restriction  is  now  more  general  and  would  extend  to  any 
unauthorized  representation  anywhere.  A  question  has  also 
been  raised  whether,  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  the  act,  a  musical 
piece  must  be  of  a  dramatic  character.  The  dramatization  of  a 
novel,  i.e.  the  acting  of  a  drama  constructed  out  of  materials 
derived  from  a  novel,  is  not  necessarily  an  infringement  of  the 
copyright  in  the  novel  (supposing  it  to  be  possible  to  do  it  without 
making  any  sort  of  colourable  copy  of  the  literary  form),  but  to 
publish  a  drama  so  constructed  has  been  held  to  be  a  breach  of 
copyright  (Tinsley  v.  Lacy,  1863,  i  H.  &M.  747,  where  defendant 
had  published  two  plays  founded  on  two  of  Miss  Braddon's 
novels,  and  reproducing  the  incidents  and  in  many  cases  the 
language  of  the  original) .  Where  two  persons  dramatize  the  same 
novel,  what,  it  may  be  asked,  are  their  respective  rights?  In 
Took  v.  Young,  1874,  9  Q.B.  523,  this  point  actually  arose. 
A,  the  author  of  a  published  novel,  dramatized  it  and  assigned 
the  drama  to  the  plaintiff,  but  it  was  never  printed,  published 
or  represented  upon  the  stage.  B,  ignorant  of  A's  drama,  also 
dramatized  the  novel  and  assigned  his  drama  to  the  defendant, 
who  represented  it  on  the  stage.  It  was  held  that  any  one  might 
dramatize  A's  published  novel,  and  that  the  representation  of 
B's  drama  was  not  a  representation  of  A's  drama.  This  case  may 
be  compared  with  Rcade  v.  Lacy  (1861). 

In  the  "  Little  Lord  Fauntlcroy  "  case  (1888)  the  person  who 
dramatized  the  novel  of  another  without  his  consent,  an  operation 
up  to  that  time  believed  to  be  unassailable  in  law,  was  attacked 
successfully,  by  preventing  him  from  using  printed  or  written 
copies  of  the  play,  either  to  deposit  with  the  lord  chamberlain 
or  as  prompt-books.  In  every  case  where  much  of  the  original 
dialogue  of  the  novel  is  taken,  this  stops  the  production  of  the 
dramatization. 

In  music,  statutes  of  1882  and  1888  have  prevented  the  use 
of  the  provisions  inflicting  penalties  for  the  performance  of  copy- 
right songs  for  purposes  of  extortion,  by  allowing  the  court  to 
inflict  a  penalty  of  one  farthing  and  make  the  plaintiff  pay  the 
costs,  if  justice  requires  it.  Authors  reserving  the  right  of  public 
performance  are  required  to  print  a  notice  to  that  effect  on  all 
copies  of  the  music. 

An  important  decision  (which  appears  to  be  a  grave  injustice) 
on  musical  copyright  is  the  case  of  Boosey  v.  Whight  (1899; 
followed  in  other  cases — see  Mabe  v.  Conner,  1909),  in  which  it 
was  held  that  the  reproduction  of  copyright  tunes  on  the  per- 
forated slips  for  an  Aeolian  or  other  mechanical  instrument 
is  not  an  infringement  of  copyright.  In  Germany  it  has  been 
decided  (Lincke  v.  Gramophone  Co.)  that  the  reproduction  of 
copyright  music  on  a  gramophone  is  an  infringement,  and  an 
injunction  was  granted.  It  has  also  been  held  in  France  that 
the  production  of  copyright  words  (but  not  music)  was  an 


122 


COPYRIGHT 


infringement,  while  in  the  United  States  the  •  Copyright  Act 
of  1909  extended  copyright  control  to  mechanical  reproductions 
and  gave  the  copyright  proprietor  power  to  exact  royalties. 

The  copyright  in  music  was  subject  to  serious  injury  in 
England  from  the  selling  of  pirated  copies  in  the  streets  by 
hawkers;  and  in  1902  an  act  was  passed  enabling  summary 
proceedings  to  be  taken  for  having  such  copies  seized  and 
destroyed.  But  this  act  had  various  practical  defects,  which 
still  left  publishers  largely  at  the  mercy  of  the  pirates.  In  1905 
the  evil  had  become  so  serious  that  the  chief  music  publishers 
announced  their  intention  of  not  producing  any  further  works 
till  the  law  was  altered;  but  the  new  Musical  Copyright  Bill  of 
that  year  was  obstructed  and  talked  out  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  November  1905  an  important  prosecution,  instituted  by  Messrs 
Chappell  on  behalf  of  the  associated  music-publishers  and 
composers,  was  brought  against  a  coterie  of  pirates.  In  the 
session  of  1906  another  attempt,  this  time  successful,  was  made 
to  pass  a  Musjcal  Copyright  Bill.  This  act  (the  Musical  Copy- 
right Act  1906)  made  it  a  criminal  offence,  punishable  with  fine 
and  imprisonment,  to  reproduce  or  sell,  or  to  possess  plates  for 
the  production  of,  pirated  copies  of  musical  works.  The  act  also 
gave  power  to  a  constable  to  arrest  without  warrant  any  person 
who  in  any  public  place  exposes  for  sale  or  has  in  his  possession 
for  sale,  or  canvasses  or  personally  advertises  pirated  copies, 
provided  that  the  apparent  owner  of  the  copyright  signs  an 
authority  requesting  such  arrest  at  his  own  risk.  Also  a  court 
of  summary  jurisdiction  may  grant  a  search  warrant,  if  there 
is  reasonable  ground  for  believing  that  an  offence  against  the  act 
is  being  committed  on  any  premises. 

13.  The  right  of  foreigners  under  the  English  copyright  acts 
produced  at  one  time  an  extraordinary  conflict  of  judicial 
Rights  of  °Pm'on-  A  foreigner  who  during  residence  in  the 
foreigners.  British  dominions  should  publish  a  work  was  admitted 
to  have  a  copyright  therein.  The  question  was  whether 
residence  at  the  time  of  publication  was  necessary.  In  Cocks  v. 
Purday,  the  court  of  common  pleas  held  that  it  was  not.  In 
Boosey  v.  Davidson,  the  court  of  queen's  bench,  following  the 
decision  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  Cocks  v.  Purday,  held 
that  a  foreign  author  might  have  copyright  in  works  first  pub- 
lished in  England,  although  he  was  abroad  at  the  time  of  publica- 
tion. But  the  court  of  exchequer,  in  Boosey  v.  Purday,  refused 
to  follow  these  decisions,  holding  that  the  legislature  intended 
only  to  protect  its  own  subjects, — whether  subjects  by  birth  or  by 
residence.  The  question  came  before  the  House  of  Lords  on 
appeal  in  the  case  of  Boosey  v.  Jefreys  (1854),  in  which  the 
court  of  exchequer  had  taken  the  same  line.  The  judges  having 
been  consulted  were  found  to  be  divided  in  opinion.  Six  of  them 
held  that  a  foreigner  resident  abroad  might  acquire  copyright 
by  publishing  first  in  England.  Four  maintained  the  contrary. 
The  views  of  the  minority  were  affirmed  by  the  House  of  Lords 
(Lord  Chancellor  Cranworth  and  Lords  Brougham  and  St 
Leonards).  The  lord  chancellor's  opinion  was  founded  upon 
"  the  general  doctrine  that  a  British  senate  would  legislate  for 
British  subjects  properly  so  called,  or  for  such  persons  who 
might  obtain  that  character  for  a  time  by  being  resident  in  this 
country,  and  therefore  under  allegiance  to  the  crown,  and  under 
the  protection  of  the  laws  of  England."  Lord  Brougham  said 
that 

"  The  statute  of  Anne  had  been  passed  for  the  purpose  of  encourag- 
ing learned  men,  and  with  that  view  that  act  had  given  them  the 
exclusive  right  in  their  publications  for  twenty-one  years.  This, 
however,  was  clear,  they  had  no  copyright  at  common  law,  for  if 
they  had  there  would  have  been  no  necessity  for  the  passing  of  that 
statute.  It  could  scarcely  be  said  that  the  legislature  had  decided 
a  century  and  a  half  since  that  act  was  to  be  passed  to  create  a 
monopoly  in  literary  works  solely  for  the  benefit  of  foreigners.  In 
the  present  case  he  was  clearly  of  opinion  that  the  copyright  did 
not  exist,  and  therefore  that  foreign  law  should  not  prevail  over 
British  law  where  there  was  such  diversity  between  the  two." 

Against  the  authority  of  this  case,  however,  must  be  set  the 

opinion  of  two  great  lord  chancellors— Lord  Cairns  and  Lord 

Westbury.     In  the  case  of  Routledge  v.  Low,  L.R.  3  H.  L.  100, 

1868,  Lord  Cairns  said, 

"  The  aim  of  the  legislature  is  to  increase  the  common   stock  of 


the  literature  of  the  country;  and  if  that  stock  can  be  increased  by 
the  publication  for  the  first  time  here  of  a  new  and  valuable  work 
composed  by  an  alien  who  has  never  been  in  the  country,  I  set- 
nothing  in  the  wording  of  the  act  which  prevents,  nothing  in  the 
policy  of  the  act  which  should  prevent,  and  everything  in  the  pro- 
fessed object  of  the  act  and  in  its  wide  and  general  provisions  which 
should  entitle  such  a  person  to  the  protection  of  the  act,  in  return 
and  compensation  for  the  addition  he  has  made  to  the  literature  of 
the  country." 

And  Lord  Westbury  said,  in  the  same  case, 

"  The  case  of  Jeffreys  v.  Boosey  is  a  decision  which  is  attached  to 
and  depends  on  the  particular  statute  of  which  it  was  the  exponent, 
and  as  that  statute  had  been  repealed  and  is  now  replaced  by  another 
act,  with  different  enactments  expressed  in  different  language, 
the  case  of  Jeffreys  v.  Boosey  is  not  a  binding  authority  in  the 
exposition  of  this  later  statute.  The  act  appears  to  have  been 
dictated  by  a  wise  and  liberal  spirit,  and  in  the  same  spirit  it  should 
be  interpreted,  adhering  of  course  to  the  settled  rules  of  legal  con- 
struction. The  preamble  is,  in  my  opinion,  quite  inconsistent  with 
the  conclusion  that  the  protection  given  by  the  statute  was  intended 
to  be  confined  to  the  works  of  British  authors.  The  real  condition 
of  obtaining  its  advantages  is  the  first  publication  by  the  author  of 
his  work  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Nothing  renders  necessary  his 
bodily  presence  here  at  the  time,  and  I  find  it  impossible  to  discover 
any  reason  why  it  should  be  required,  or  what  it  can  add  to  the 
merit  of  the  first  publication.  If  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  reason- 
ing on  which  Jeffreys  v.  Boosey  was  decided  be  considered,  I  must 
frankly  admit  that  it  by  no  means  commands  my  assent." 

These  conclusions  might  follow  also  from  the  Naturalization 
Act  of  1870,  which  enacts  that  real  and  personal  property  of 
every  description  may  be  taken,  acquired,  held,  and  disposed 
of  by  an  alien  in  the  same  manner  in  all  respects  as  by  a  natural 
born  British  subject.  At  the  present  time  the  International 
Copyright  Act  has  largely  removed  the  question  from  the  area 
of  conflict. 

14.  International  Copyright.- — Books  published  in  one  country 
and  circulated  in  another  depend  for  their  protection  in  the  latte'r 
upon  international  copyright.  Until  1886  international 
copyright  in  Great  Britain  rested  on  a  series  of  orders  The  Bern 
in  council,  made  under  the  authority  of  the  Inter-  C°"'a 
national  Copyright  Act  1844  (superseding  acts  of  1820 
and  1826),  conferring  on  the  authors  of  a  particular  foreign 
country  the  same  rights  in  Great  Britain  as  British  authors,  on 
condition  of  their  registering  their  work  in  Great  Britain  within  a 
year  of  first  publication  abroad.  A  condition  of  the  granting  of 
each  order  was  that  the  sovereign  should  be  satisfied  that 
reciprocal  protection  was  given  in  the  country  in  question  to 
British  authors.  As  the  result  of  conferences  at  Bern  in  1885  and 
1887,  this  system  was  simplified  and  made  more  general  by  the 
treaty  known  as  "  The  Bern  Convention,"  signed  at  Bern  on  the 
5th  of  September  1887.  The  contracting  parties  were  the 
British  Empire,  Belgium,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain, 
Switzerland,  Tunis  and  Hayti.  Luxemburg,  Monaco,  Norway 
and  Japan  afterwards  joined.  Austria  and  Hungary  have  a 
separate  convention  with  Great  Britain,  concluded  on  the  24th  of 
April  1893.  The  notable  absentees  among  European  powers  are 
Holland  and  Russia.  So  far  as  the  United  States  is  concerned,  the 
matter  is  regulated  by  the  American  copyright  acts,  which  are 
dealt  with  separately  below. 

The  basis  of  the  Bern  convention  was  that  authors  of  any  of  the 
countries  of  the  Union,  or  the  publishers  of  works  first  published 
"n  one  of  them,  should  enjoy  in  each  of  the  other  countries  of  the 
Union  the  same  rights  as  the  law  of  that  country  granted  to 
native  authors.  The  only  conditions  were  that  the  work  should 
comply  with  the  necessary  formalities,  such  as  registration,  in 
the  country  where  it  was  first  published,  in  which  case  it  was 
exempt  from  all  such  formalities  elsewhere;  and  that  the 
protection  required  from  any  country  should  not  exceed  that 
given  in  the  country  of  origin.  The  rights  conferred  included  the 
sole  right  of  making  a  translation  of  the  work  for  ten  years  from 
ts  first  publication.  The  convention  was  retrospective;  that  is 
to  say,  it  applied  to  copyright  works  published  before  its  coming 
nto  existence,  each  country  being  allowed  to  protect  vested 
nterests,  or  copies  already  made  by  others,  as  it  should  think 
best. 

The  rights  of  foreign  authors  in  Great  Britain  rest  on  legislation 


COPYRIGHT 


123 


giving  effect  to  the  Bern  convention,  namely,  the  International 
Copyright  Act  of  1886,  and  an  order  in  council  made  under  that 
act,  dated  28th  November  1887.  These  confer  on  the  author  or 
publisher  of  a  work  of  literature  or  art  first  published  in  one  of  the 
countries  which  are  parties  to  the  convention,  after  compliance 
with  the  formah'ties  necessary  there,  the  same  rights  as  if  the  work 
had  been  first  published  in  the  United  Kingdom,  provided  that 
those  rights  are  not  greater  than  those  enjoyed  in  the  foreign 
country. 

The  rights  of  British  authors  in  foreign  countries  rest  in  each 
country  on  the  domestic  legislation  by  which  the  particular 
country  has  given  effect  to  its  promise  contained  in  the  Bern 
convention,  and  are  enforced  by  the  courts  of  that  country. 
The  Bern  convention  was  revised  in  minor  details  not  affecting  its 
broad  principles  by  a  conference  meeting  in  1896  in  Paris,  and 
Great  Britain  adopted  the  results  of  their  labours  by  an  order  in 
council  dated  7th  March  1898.  A  further  simplification  in  the 
international  law  of  copyright  was  expected  to  result  from  the 
efforts  of  the  international  conference  at  Berlin  in  1908,  July  1910 
being  the  latest  date  at  which  ratification  by  the  states  concerned 
might  take  place,  but  it  cannot  here  be  stated  to  what  extent 
legislation  may  give  effect  to  the  decisions  arrived  at.  So  far  as 
these  decisions  affect  Great  Britain,  the  greatest  alterations  of 
existing  law  would  be  in  establishing  throughout  the  Union 
protection  of  musical  copyright,  especially  with  regard  to  singing 
and  talking  machines,  and  also  in  the  matter  of  newspaper 
copyright.  The  conference  adopted  a  threefold  division  of 
newspaper  matter  :  (i)  serial  stories,  tales  and  all  other  work, 
literary,  scientific  and  artistic,  which  is  to  have  absolute 
protection;  (2)  ah1  newspaper  matter,  except  the  foregoing  and 
mere  items  of  general  news  (fails  divers) ,  of  which  reproduction 
is  to  be  permitted  on  acknowledgment  of  the  source,  unless  such 
reproduction  is  expressly  forbidden;  (3)  news  of  the  day  and 
simple  facts,  to  which  no  protection  is  given.  An  endeavour  was 
also  made  to  have  a  uniform  period  throughout  the  Union  for 
copyright  of  the  author's  life  and  50  years. 

15.  Colonial  Copyright. — Under  English  copyright,  books  of 
the  United  Kingdom  were  formerly  protected  in  the  colonies  by 
the  Colonial  Copyright  Act  of  1847,  and  copies  of  them  printed  or 
reprinted  elsewhere  could  not  be  imported  into  the  colonies.  In 
1876  a  royal  commission  was  appointed  to  consider  the  whole 
question  of  home,  colonial  and  international  copyright;  and 
various  recommendations  were  made.  But  the  matter  now  rests 
on  the  English  International  Copyright  Act  1886,  which  con- 
tains provisions  designed  to  extend  the  be  lefit  of  the  British 
copyright  acts  to  works  first  produced  in  the  colonies,  while 
allowing  each  colony  to  legislate  separately  for  works  first 
produced  within  its  own  limits.  The  colonies  at  present  are  all 
included  in  the  system  of  international  copyright  established  by 
the  Bern  convention. 

In  1875  an  act  was  passed  (re-enacted  in  1886  in  the  revised 
Canadian  statutes)  to  give  effect  to  an  act  of  the  parliament  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  respecting  copyright.  An  order  in  council 
in  1868  had  suspended  the  prohibition  against  the  importation  of 
foreign  reprints  of  English  books  into  Canada,  and  the  parliament 
had  passed  a  bill  on  the  subject  of  copyright  as  to  which  doubts 
had  arisen  whether  it  was  not  repugnant  to  the  Order  in  Council. 
It  was  also  enacted  that,  after  the  bill  came  into  operation,  if  an 
English  copyright  book  became  entitled  to  Canadian  copyright, 
no  Canadian  reprints  thereof  should  be  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom,  unless  by  the  owner  of  the  copyright.  The  following 
points  in  the  Canadian  act  are  worth  noting: — Any  person  print- 
ing or  publishing  an  unprinted  manuscript  without  the  consent 
of  the  author  or  legal  proprietor  shall  be  liable  in  damages  (§  3). 
Any  person  domiciled  in  Canada,  or  in  any  part  of  the  British 
possessions,  or  being  a  citizen  of  any  country  having  an  inter- 
national copyright  treaty  with  the  United  Kingdom,  who  is  the 
author  of  any  book,  map,  &c.,  &c.,  shall  have  the  sole  right  and 
liberty  of  printing,  reprinting,  publishing,  &c.,  for  the  term  of 
twenty-eight  years.  The  work  must  be  printed  and  published,  or 
reprinted  or  republished  in  Canada,  whether  before  or  after  its 
publication  elsewhere :  and  the  Canadian  privilege  is  not  to  be  con- 


tinued after  the  copyright  has  ceased  elsewhere.  And  "  no  i  mmoral 
or  licentious,  or  irreligious,  or  treasonable,  or  seditious  literary, 
scientific  or  artistic  work  "  shall  be  the  subject  of  copyright  (§4). 
A  further  period  of  fourteen  years  will  be  continued  to  the  author 
or  his  widow  and  children.  An  "  interim  copyright  "  pending 
publication  may  be  obtained  by  depositing  in  the  office  of  the 
minister  of  agriculture  (who  keeps  the  register  of  copyrights)  a 
copy  of  the  title  of  the  work;  and  works  printed  first  in  a  series  of 
articles  in  a  periodical,  but  intended  to  be  published  as  books,  may 
have  the  benefit  of  this  interim  copyright.  If  a  copyright  work 
becomes  out  of  print,  the  owner  may  be  notified  of  the  act  through 
the  minister  of  agriculture,  who,  if  he  does  not  apply  a  remedy, 
may  license  a  new  edition,  subject  to  a  royalty  to  the  owner. 
Anonymous  books  may  be  entered  in  the  name  of  the  first 
publisher.  In  1889  an  amending  Canadian  act  was  passed,  which 
led  to  a  long  controversy  with  the  Mother  Country, — the  imperial 
government  refusing  to  sanction  it, — till  in  1900  a  compromise 
was  effected,  and  a  further  act  amending  that  of  1886  became 
law.  It  applies  only  to  books  copyright  in  Canada,  and,  subject 
to  certain  reservations,  allows  the  minister  of  agriculture  to 
prohibit  the  importation,  without  consent  of  the  licensees,  of  any 
copies  printed  elsewhere  of  books  published  in  the  British 
dominions  licensed  by  the  owners  to  be  reproduced  in  Canada. 

The  Australian  states  all  have  copyright  laws  modelled  on 
the  English.  New  Zealand  provides  for  a  term  of  28  years,  or 
the  author's  life.  In  Cape  Colony  the  term  for  books  is  the 
author's  life  and  5  years,  or  a  minimum  of  30  years.  The  Indian 
act  of  1847  is  modelled  on  the  English. 

16.  Other  Countries. — The  following  notes  give  the  general 
terms  of  the  copyright  law  in  other  countries  of  importance. 
For  details  reference  must  be  made  to  text-books. 
We  only  deal  specifically  with  the  history  and  par- 
ticulars  of  American  copyright. 

Austria,  by  a  law  of  1895,  gives  copyright  for  thirty  years 
after  author's  death. 

Belgium. — Copyright  formerly  perpetual,  now  limited  to  the 
life  of  the  author,  and  50  years  thereafter. 

France. — Copyright  in  France  is  recognized  in  the  most 
ample  manner.  Two  distinct  rights  are  secured  by  law — 
ist,  the  right  of  reproduction  of  literary  works,  musical  com- 
positions, and  works  of  art;  and  2nd,  the  right  of  representation 
of  dramatic  works  and  musical  compositions.  The  period 
is  for  the  life  of  the  author  and  fifty  years  after  his  death. 
After  the  author's  death  the  surviving  consort  has  the  usu- 
fructuary enjoyment  of  the  rights  which  the  author  has  not 
disposed  of  in  his  lifetime  or  by  will,  subject  to  reduction  for  the 
benefit  of  the  author's  protected  heirs  if  any.  The  author  may 
dispose  of  his  rights  in  the  most  absolute  manner  in  the  forms 
and  within  the  limits  of  the  Code  Napoleon.  Piracy  is  a  crime 
punishable  by  fine  of  not  less  than  100  nor  more  than  2000  francs; 
in  the  case  of  a  seller  from  25  to  500  francs.  The  pirated  edition 
will  be  confiscated.  Piracy  also  forms  the  ground  for  a  civil 
action  of  damages  to  the  amount  of  the  injury  sustained — the 
produce  of  the  confiscation,  if  any,  to  go  towards  payment  of 
the  indemnity  (Penal  Code,  Art.  425-429). 

Germany. — Period  fixed  in  1837  at  ten  years;  but  copyright 
for  longer  periods  was  granted  for  voluminous  and  costly  works, 
and  for  the  works  of  German  poets.  Among  others  the  works 
of  Schiller,  Goethe,  Wieland,  &c.,  were  protected  for  a  period  of 
twenty  years  from  the  date  of  the  decree  in  each  case.  In  1845 
the  period  was  extended  in  all  cases  to  the  author's  life  and 
thirty  years  after.  The  present  law  rests  on  a  Codifying  Act  of 
1901,  the  term  being  the  author's  life  and  30  years,  or  not  less 
than  10  years  in  any  case. 

Greece. — Copyright  is  for  fifteen  years  from  publication. 

Holland. — Fifty  years,  or  author's  life,  whichever  is  longer. 

Hungary. — by  a  law  of  1884,  gives  a  copyright  for  the  author's 
life  and  50  years  after. 

Italy. — Life  of  author,  or  40  years  from  date  of  publication; 
and  afterwards  a  further  period  of  40  years,  subject  to  a  right 
in  others  to  reproduce  on  payment  of  5  %  on  each  copy. 

Japan. — Author's  life  and  30  years  after. 


124 


COPYRIGHT 


American 
law. 


Norway,  by  a  la*  of  1893,  gives  protection  for  author's  life 
and  50  years  after. 

Portugal. — Author's  life  and  50  years  after. 

Russia. — Author's  life  and  50  years. 

Spain. — Author's  life  and  80  years  thereafter. 

Sweden  and  Denmark  provide  for  a  term  of  the  author's 
lifetime  and  50  years  after. 

Switzerland. — Author's  life  and  30  years  after. 

Turkey. — Author's  life,  or  40  years,  whichever  is  the  longer. 

17.  United  States. — American  copyright  is  provided  for  by 
an  act  of  March  1909,  which  replaced  acts  of  July  1870  and 
March  1891,  both  of  which  had  introduced  important 
modifications  in  the  original  act  of  1790.  Under  all 
acts  preceding  that  of 1 89 1 ,  copy  righ  t  had  been  granted 
to  "  citizens  or  residents  of  the  United  States,"  the  term 
"  resident  "  having  been,  in  decisions  prior  to  1891,  construed 
to  mean  a  person  domiciled  in  the  United  States  with  the 
intention  of  making  there  his  permanent  abode.  The  works 
of  foreigners  could  thus  be  reproduced  without  authorization, 
and  they  were  so  reproduced  in  so  far  as  there  was  prospect  of 
financial  gain.  The  leading  publishers,  however,  had  from  the 
earliest  times  made  terms  with  British  authors,  or  with  their 
representatives,  the  British  publishers,  for  producing  authorized 
American  editions.  But  at  most  they  were  only  able  to  secure 
by  this  means  an  advantage  of  a  few  weeks'  priority  over  the 
unauthorized  editions,  and  the  good-will  of  the  conscientious 
buyer;  so  that  if  they  paid  the  author  any  considerable  sum, 
the  price  of  the  authorized  editions  had  to  be  made  so  high  that 
it  was  not  easy  to  secure  a  remunerative  sale.  The  unauthorized 
editions  had  the  further  advantage  in  competition,  that  for  the 
purpose  of  being  manufactured  more  promptly  and  more 
economically,  they  could  be  and  often  were  issued  in  an  ab- 
breviated and  garbled  form,  an  injury  which  to  not  a  few  writers 
seemed  more  grievous  than  the  lack  of  pecuniary  profit.  In 
Great  Britain,  during  the  first  half  of  the  igth  century,  the  copy- 
right law  had  been  so  interpreted  as  to  secure  recognition  of  the 
rights  of  American  authors  for  such  works  as  were  produced 
there  not  later  than  in  any  other  country,  so  that  authors  like 
Washington  Irving  and  Fenimore  Cooper  secured  for  a  time 
satisfactory  returns;  but  after  1850  the  conditions  became  the 
same  as  in  the  United  States.  Unauthorized  editions  were 
published,  and  were  often  incomplete  and  garbled. 

As  from  decade  to  decade  the  books  produced  on  either  side 
of  the  Atlantic,  which  possessed  interest  for  readers  of  the  other 
side,  increased  in  quantity  and  in  importance,  the  evil  of  these 
unrestricted  piracies  increased.  The  injury  to  British  authors 
was  greater  only  in  proportion  as  the  English  books  were  more 
numerous.  The  pressure  from  Great  Britain  during  the  last 
half  of  the  igth  century  for  international  copyright  was  con- 
tinuous; and  in  America  it  was  recognized  by  authors,  by 
representative  publishers,  and  by  the  more  intelligent  people 
everywhere,  that  the  existing  conditions  were  of  material 
disadvantage.  The  loss  to  American  authors  was  direct;  and 
the  loss  to  legitimate  American  publishers  was  also  clear,  in  that 
better  returns  could  be  secured  by  adequate  payments  for 
rights  that  could  be  protected  -by  law  than  by  "  courtesy  " 
payments  for  authorizations  that  carried  no  legal  rights.  An 
injury  was  being  done  to  American  literature;  for,  when 
authorized  editions  of  American  works  had  to  compete  against 
unauthorized  and  more  cheaply  produced  editions  of  English 
works,  the  business  incentive  for  literary  production  was  seriously 
lessened.  In  fiction  particularly,  authors  had  to  contend  against 
a  flood  of  cheaply  produced  editions  of  "  appropriated  "  English 
books.  Equally  to  be  condemned  were  the  ethics  of  a'  relation 
under  which  one  class  of  property  could  be  appropriated  while 
other  classes  secured  legal  protection.  On  these  several  grounds 
efforts  had  long  been  made  to  secure  international  copyright. 
Between  1843  and  1886  no  less  than  eleven  international  copy- 
right bills  were  drafted,  for  the  most  part  at  the  instance  of  the 
copyright  associations  or  copyright  leagues.  They  were  one 
after  the  other  killed  in  committee.  In  1886  the  twelfth  inter- 
national copyright  bill  was  brought  before  the  Senate  by  Senator 


Jonathan  Chace  of  Rhode  Island,  and  was  referred  to  the 
committee  on  patents.  In  1887  the  American  Publishers' 
Copyright  League  (succeeding  the  earlier  American  Publishers' 
Association)  was  organized,  with  William  H.  Appleton  as 
president  and  G.  H.  Putnam  as  secretary.  The  executive 
committee  of  this  league  formed,  with  a  similar  committee  of 
the  Author's  Copyright  League,  a  conference  committee,  under 
the  direction  of  which  the  campaign  for  copyright  was  continued 
until  the  passage  of  the  act  of  March  1891.  Of  the  Authors' 
Copyright  League  James  Russell  Lowell  was  the  first  president, 
being  succeeded  by  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman.  The  secretary 
during  the  active  work  of  the  league  was  Robert  U.  Johnson. 
Under  the  initiative  of  the  conference  committee  copyright 
leagues  were  organized  in  Boston,  Chicago,  St  Louis,  Cincinnati, 
Minneapolis,  Denver,  Colorado  City  and  other  places.  The 
Chace  Bill  was  introduced  in  the  House  in  March  1888.  In 
May  1890  this  bill,  with  certain  modifications,  came  before  the 
House,  and  was  there  defeated.  In  March  1891  the  same 
measure,  with  certain  further  modifications,  secured  a  favourable 
vote  in  the  House  during  the  last  hour  of  the  last  day  of  the 
session,  was  passed  by  the  Senate,  and  was  promptly  signed 
by  President  Harrison.  Thus,  after  a  struggle  extending  over 
fifty-three  years,  the  United  States  accepted  the  principle  at 
all  events  of  international  copyright. 

18.  The  act  of  1891  was  criticized  in  several  respects:  (i) 
A  condition  was  that  books  or  works  of  art  must  be  "  manu- 
factured "  in  America;  consideration  not  being  given  to  books 
originally  produced  in  some  language  other  than  English.  (2) 
It  required  publication  in  the  United  States  simultaneously  with 
that  in  the  country  of  origin.  (3)  The  term  of  copyright  (28 
years,  with  an  extension  of  14  years  to  the  author  if  alive,  or  to 
widow  or  children)  was  shorter  than  that  accorded  under  the  law 
of  any  other  literature-producing  country,  excepting  Greece. 
Minor  amending  acts  were  passed  in  1893,  1895  and  1897,  that 
of  Feb.  19,  1897,  establishing  as  the  copyright  department  of 
the  library  of  Congress  a  Bureau  of  Copyrights,  the  head  of  which 
bears  the  title  of  Register  of  Copyrights.  Eventually,  after  hard 
work  by  the  American  Authors'  Copyright  League 
and  the  Publishers'  Copyright  League,  and  after  «™v/s/ons 
sittings  extending  to  a  period  of  three  years,  a  new  bill  °909i  ° 
submitted  to  Congress  by  the  two  Committees  on 
Patents  of  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate  was 
successfully  passed.  It  came  into  force  on  the  ist  of  July  1909. 
Its  provisions  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: — 

Copyright  is  granted  to  authors  for  twenty-eight  years  from  the 
date  of  first  publication,  whether  the  copyrighted  work  bears  the 
author's  true  name  or  is  published  anonymously  or  under  _  . 
an  assumed  name.  A  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  e  m.°ht 
is  granted  to  the  author  if  at  the  expiration  of  the  first  G0^>y  8 
term  he  be  still  living,  or  to  his  widow  and  children  if  he  be  dead. 
If  the  author's  widow  and  children  be  dead  an  extension  is  granted 
to  the  author's  executors,  or  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  to  his  next  of 
kin.  Applications  for  renewal  and  extension  must  be  made  to  the 
copyright  office  and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year  prior 
to  the  expiration  of  the  existing  term.  To  any  work  in  which 
copyright  subsists  at  the  time  the  act  went  into  force  the  act  extends 
renewal  for  a  period  of  twenty-eight  years  at  the  expiration  of  the 
time  provided  for  under  the  previously  existing  law  (first  period 
28  years,  renewal  period  14  years).  The  works  for  which  copyright 
may  be  secured  under  the  act  "  shall  include  all  the  writings  of  an 
author."  For  purposes  of  registration  the  act  classifies  (l)  books, 
including  composite  and  cyclopaedic  works,  directories,  oeanltioa 
gazetteers  and  other  compilations;  (2)  periodicals,  includ-  of  copy- 
ing newspapers;  (3)  lectures,  sermons,  addresses,  pre-  ri ,  ht 
pared  for  oral  delivery;  (4)  dramatic  or  dramatico- 
musical  compositions;  (5)  musical  compositions;  (6)  maps;  (7) 
works  of  art ;  models  or  designs  for  works  of  art ;  (8)  reproductions 
of  a  work  of  art;  (9)  drawings  or  plastic  works  of  a  scientific  or 
technical  character;  (10)  photographs  and  (ll)  prints  and  pictorial 
illustrations.  But  compilations  or  abridgments,  adaptations, 
arrangements,  dramatizations,  translations  or  other  versions  of 
copyrighted  works,  when  produced  with  the  consent  of  the  proprietors 
of  the  copyrighted  work  are,  under  the  1909  act,  new  works  subject 
to  copyright.  A  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state  can  secure 
copyright  only  when  he  is  domiciled  within  the  United  States  at  the 
time  of  the  first  publication  of  his  work,  or  when  the  foreign  state 
or  nation  of  which  he  is  a  subject  grants,  either  by  treaty,  convention, 
agreement  or  law,  to  citizens  of  the  United  States  the  benefit  of 


COPYRIGHT 


125 


copyright  on  substantially  the  same  basis  as  to  its  own  citizens,  or 
copyright  protection  equal  to  that  secured  by  the  foreign  author 
under  the  United  States  act,  or  when  the  foreign  state  is  a  party  to 
an  international  agreement  providing  for  reciprocity  in  the  grant- 
ing of  copyright,  and  the  United  States  may,  by  the  terms  of  that 
agreement,  become  a  -party  thereto.  After  copyright  has  been 
secured  by  publication  of  a  work,  two  complete  copies  of  the  best 
edition  published  must  be  "  promptly  "  deposited  in  the  copyright 
office,  or  mailed  to  the  register  of  copyrights,  the  postmaster,  on 
request,  giving  a  receipt  and  mailing  the  books  without  cost.  If  the 
work  be  a  contribution  to  a  periodical,  one  copy  of  the  issue  contain- 
ing it  must  be  sent,  or  if  it  be  a  work  not  reproduced  in  copies  for 
sale,  a  copy,  print,  photograph  or  other  identifying  reproduction 
must  accompany  the  claim.  Prior  to  1891  the  works  of  authors 
could  be  put  into  print  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  act  of 
1891  laid  down  that,  in  order  to  secure  copyright,  all  editions  of  the 
works  of  all  authors,  resident  or  non-resident,  must  be  entirely 
"Maau-  manufactured  within  the  United  States,  the  term  "  manu- 
.  ,"  factured  "  including  the  setting  of  type  as  well  as  printing 

and  binding.  This  manufacturing  condition  was  insisted 
on  by  the  typographical  unions.  There  is  no  logical 
connexion,  however,  between  the  right  of  an  author  or  artist  to  the 
control  of  his  production  and  the  interests  of  American  workmen; 
the  attempt  to  legislate  for  them  jointly  must  bring  about  no  little 
'  confusion  and  inequity.  If  American  working-men  cannot  secure  a 
living  in  competition  with  labourers  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
their  needs  should  be  cared  for  under  the  provisions  of  the  protective 
tariff.  It  is,  however,  the  belief  of  a  large  number  of  those  who  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacturing  of  books  that,  with  his  advanced 
methods  of  work,  the  skilled  American  labourer  has  no  reason  to 
dread  the  competition  of  European  craftsmen.  With  this  manu- 
facturing condition  out  of  the  way,  there  would  be  nothing  to 
prevent  the  United  States  from  becoming  a  party  to  the  Bern 
Convention.  This  would  place  intellectual  property  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic  on  the  same  footing.  The  power  of  the  unions  was 
sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  this  condition  being  eliminated  from 
the  act  of  1909,  but  the  just  claims  were  met  of  authors  whose  books 
are  originally  produced  in  some  language  other  than  English,  the 
E  tloa  "  or'S'na'  text  °f  a  book  of  foreign  origin  in  a  language  or 
of  text  of  'anSuai?es  other  than  English"  being  exempted  from  the 
forelza  requirements  as  to  type-setting  in  the  United  States.  On 
book  t'le  otner  hand  the  manufacturing  condition  is  extended  by 

the  act  of  1909  to  illustrations  within  a  book,  and  also  to 
separate  lithographs  or  photo-engravings,  "  except  where  in  either 
case  the  subjects  represented  are  located  in  a  foreign  country  and 
illustrate  a  scientific  work  or  reproduce  a  work  of  art."  The  notice 
of  copyrights  required  by  the  act  consists  either  of  the  word  "  copy- 
right "  or  by  the  abbreviation  "  Copr.,"  accompanied  by  the  name 
of  the  copyright  proprietor,  and  in  the  case  of  printed  literary, 
musical  or  dramatic  works,  the  notice  must  include  also  the  year  in 
which  the  copyright  was  secured  by  publication.  In  the  case  of 
works  specified  in  6  to  1 1  inclusive,  of  the  classification  given  above, 
the  copyright  notice  may  consist  of  the  letter  C  enclosed  within  a 

circle,  thus :  (C),  accompanied  by  'the  initials,  monogram,  mark  or 

symbol  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  provided  that  on  some  accessible 
portion  of  the  copy  or  of  the  margin,  or  on  the  back  or  pedestal  his 
name  appears. 

The  act  of  1909  gives  an  interim  protection  to  a  book  published 
abroad  in  the  English  language  before  publication  in  the  United 
States,  the  deposit  in  the  copyright  office,  not  later  than 
thirty  days  after  its  publication  abroad,  of  one  complete 
copy  of  the  foreign  edition,  with  a  request  for  the  reserva- 
tion of  the  copyright  and  a  statement  of  the  name  and 
nationality  of  the  author  and  copyright  proprietor,  securing  copy- 
right for  thirty  days  from  the  date  of  deposit.     Any  person  infringing 
.  f-jaeem     a  copyright  work  is  liable  to  an  injunction,  and  to  pay  such 
damages  as  the  copyright  proprietor  may  have  suffered 
by  the  infringement ;  in  lieu  of  actual  damages  and  profits 
the  courts  may  award  such  damages  as  appear  to  be  just,  and  in 
assessing  them  may,  at  its  discretion,  allow  the  amounts  mentioned 
below,  except  that  in  the  case  of  a  newspaper  reproduction  of  a 
copyrighted  photograph  such  damages  must  not  exceed  the  sum  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  nor  be  less  than  fifty  dollars,  and  in 
no  other  case  must  the  damages  be  more  than  five  thousand  dollars 
or  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars:  (l)  In  the  case  of  a 
painting,  statue  or  sculpture,  ten  dollars  for  any  infringing  copy 
made  or  sold  or  found  in  the  possession  of  the  infringcr  or  his  agents 
or  employees;  (2)  in  the  case  of  any  work  enumerated  in  the  classifi- 
cation given  before,  except  a  painting,  statue  or  sculpture,  one  dollar 
for  every  infringing  copy;  (3)  in  the  case  of  a  lecture,  sermon  or 
address,  fifty  dollars  for  every  infringing  delivery;  (4)  in  the  case  of 
dramatic  or  dramatico-musical  or  a  choral  or  orchestral  composition, 
one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  and  fifty  dollars  for  every  subsequent 
infringing  performance;  in  the  case  of  other  musical  compositions, 
Musical       *en  dollars  f°r  every  infringing  performance;  all  infring- 
composl-     *nS  copies  a"d  devices  must  also  be  delivered  up  for  de- 
tlons.          struction.     The  act  gives  full  control  over  his  compositions 
to  a   musical   composer,   and    the   right   to   make   any 
arrangement  or  setting  of  it,  or  of  the  melody  of  it,  in  any  system  of 


Transfer 
and  as- 
signment 
of  copy- 
right. 


Importa- 
tion at 
copyright 


notation  or  form  of  record  from  which  it  may  be  read  or  reproduced. 
His  right  to  control  the  reproduction  of  his  music  by  mechanical 
instruments  is  restricted  (l)  to  cover  only  music  published  and 
copyrighted  after  the  act  went  into  effect ;  (2)  to  include  a  musical 
composition  by  a  foreign  composer  only  in  the  case  of  a  citizen  of  a 
foreign  state  that  grants  to  citizens  of  the  United  States  similar 
rights;  (3)  where  the  owner  of  a  musical  copyright  has  permitted 
the  use  of  his  work  upon  parts  of  instruments  serving  to  reproduce 
the  composition  mechanically,  permission  for  a  similar  use  of  such 
work  must  be  accorded  to  any  other  person  on  the  payment  of  a 
fixed  royalty  of  two  cents  on  each  part  manufactured.  The  act  makes 
a  clear  distinction  between  the  property  in  the  copyright 
and  that  in  the  material  object  representing  the  copyright, 
and  enacts  that  the  sale  or  conveyance  of  the  material 
object  shall  not  of  itself  constitute  a  transfer  of  the  copy- 
right. Transfer  of  copyright  in  the  United  States  is  to  be 
effected  by  an  instrument  in  writing  signed  by  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  copyright,  or  the  copyright  may  be  bequeathed  by 
will.  Assignment  of  copyright  executed  in  a  foreign  country  must 
be  acknowledged  by  the  assignor  before  a  consular  officer  of  the 
United  States.  Every  assignment  of  copyright  must  be  recorded 
in  the  copyright  office  within  three  calendar  months  after  its  execu- 
tion in  the  United  States  or  within  six  months  without  the  limits  of 
the  United  States.  The  importation  into  the  United  States  is  for- 
bidden of  any  piratical  copies  of  a  copyrighted  book  or  of  any  copies 
not  produced  in  accordance  with  the  manufacturing 
provisions  of  the  act  (although  authorized  by  the  author 
or  proprietor),  but  importation  is  allowed  to  any  society 
or  institution  incorporated  for  educational,  literary,  "^ 
philosophical,  scientific  or  religious  purposes,  or  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  fine  arts,  or  to  any  State  school,  college,  &c., 
or  to  free  public  libraries,  when  importation  is  for  use  and  not  for 
sale.  The  act  of  1891  allowed  "  two  copies  in  any  one  invoice  "  to  be 
imported,  but  by  the  act  of  1909  not  more  than  one  copy  is  to  be 
imported  in  one  invoice. 

The  provisions  having  to  do  with  international  copyright 
become  operative  in  the  case  of  a  foreign  state  only  when  the 
president  proclaims  that  the  state  has  fulfilled  the  condition  of 
reciprocity.  The  act  of  1891  was  put  into  force  with  foreign 
states  as  follows: — ist  of  July  1891,  Great  Britain,  Belgium, 
France,  Switzerland;  8th  of  March  1892,  Germany  (by  separate 
treaty);  3ist  of  October  1892,  Italy;  8th  of  May  1893,  Denmark; 
1 5th  of  July  1895,  Spain;  2oth  of  July  1895,  Portugal;  27th  of 
February  1896,  Mexico;  i3th  of  April  1896,  Sweden  and  Norway; 
25th  of  May  1896,  Chile;  igih  of  October  1899,  Costa  Rica;  2oth 
of  November  1899,  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  In  the  case 
of  each  state  the  territory  covered  by  the  provisions  of  the  law 
included  the  possessions,  dependencies,  &c.  The  copyright  agree- 
ment with  Great  Britain  therefore  covered  the  crown  colonies 
of  the  empire,  including  India  and  the  self-governing  dominions 
and  states,  such  as  Canada,  Australia,  &c.  An  American  work 
duly  entered  for  copyright  in  Great  Britain  secures,  as  a  British 
publication  secures,  the  protection  of  copyright  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Bern  convention  throughout  the  territory  of 
the  several  states  that  are  parties  to  that  convention. 

ARTISTIC  COPYRIGHT 

19.  Literary  authors  had  protection  for  their  literary  work 
much  earlier  than  artists  for  their  artistic  productions.  Pictures 
and  illustrations,  when  included  in  books  or  newspapers,  are 
protected  by  the  law  which  applies  to  the  latter,  but  that  is  a 
separate  question.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  George  II.  that 
the  legislature  in  England  afforded  any  protection  for  the  work 
of  artists.  The  English  law  on  artistic  copyright  is  alone  con- 
sidered in  this  account,  the  American  having  been  included  in  the 
section  United  States  above  (18),  while  for  other  countries  the 
details  are  so  various  that  it  is  only  possible  to  refer  the  reader 
to  the  leading  text-books. 

The  first  Artists'  Copyright  Bill  was  passed  in  the  interest 
of  William  Hogarth,  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  painters, 
who  was  engraver  as  well  as  painter,  and  who  devoted 
a  considerable  portion  of  his  time  to  engraving  his 
own  works.  No  sooner,  however,  were  these  published 
than  his  market  was  seriously  damaged  by  the  issue  of  inferior 
copies  of  his  engravings  by  other  publishers.  To  protect  Hogarth 
from  such  piracy  the  Engraving  Copyright  Act  1734  was  passed, 
which  provided  that  "  every  person  who  should  invent  and 
design,  engrave,  etch,  or  work  in  mezzotinto  or  chiaroscuro,  any 
historical  or  other  print  or  prints,  should  have  the  sole  right  and 


126 


COPYRIGHT 


liberty  of  printing  and  representing  the  same  for  the  term  of 
fourteen  years,  to  commence  from  the  day  of  the  first  publishing 
thereof,  which  shall  be  truly  engraved  with  the  name  of  the  pro- 
prietor on  each  plate,  and  printed  on  every  such  print  or  prints." 
The  penalty  for  piracy  was  the  forfeiture  of  the  plate  and  all 
prints,  with  a  fine  of  53.  for  every  pirated  print. 

In  1766,  in  the  reign  of  George  III.,  a  second  Engraving 
Copyright  Act  was  passed  "  to  amend  and  render  more  effectual" 
the  first  act,  and  "  for  vesting  and  securing  to  Jane  Hogarth, 
widow,  the  property  in  certain  prints,"  which  extended  the 
protection  beyond  the  designer,  who  was  also  engraver,  to  any 
person  who,  not  being  himself  a  designer,  made,  or  caused  to 
be  made,  an  engraving  from  any  picture  or  other  work  of  art. 
Jane  Hogarth,  the  widow  of  the  painter,  found  herself  nearing 
the  termination  of  the  fourteen  years'  term  of  copyright  grant 
by  the  first  act,  with  the  probability  that  immediately  on  its 
expiry  the  engravings  of  her  husband  then  on  sale,  and  on  which 
her  livelihood  depended,  would  be  immediately  pirated.  It 
was  mainly  to  save  her  from  the  loss  of  her  livelihood  that  this 
second  Copyright  Bill  extended  the  term  of  the  copyright  to 
twenty-eight  years. 

The  engravers  and  publishers  of  the  day  were  not  over- 
scrupulous, and  they  sought  to  evade  the  penalties  of  the  copy- 
right acts  by  taking  the  designs,  and  adding  to  them  or  taking 
from  them,  or  both,  and  producing  fresh  engravings,  seeking  to 
make  it  appear  that  they  were  producing  new  works.  These  prac- 
tices assumed  such  proportions  that  it  became  necessary,  in  1777, 
to  call  upon  parliament  to  put  through  another  short  measure 
still  further  to  protect  the  engraver,  by  prohibiting  the  copying 
"  in  whole  or  in  part  "  (a  clause  not  contained  in  the  previous 
acts),  by  varying,  adding  to,  or  diminishing  from,  the  main  design 
of  an  engraving  without  the  express  consent  of  the  proprietor  or 
proprietors.  These  three  acts  remain  in  force  to  the  present  day. 
In  1852,  in  an  international  copyright  act,  it  was  declared  that  the 
Engraving  Copyright  Acts  collectively  were  intended  to  include 
prints  taken  by  lithography  or  any  other  mechanical  process. 

20.  In  May  1814  the  Sculpture  Copyright  Act  was  passed  to 
give  protection  to  sculptors.    The  term  of  copyright  for  sculptors 
Sculpture.    was  a  Peculiar  one-    It  was  to  last  for  fourteen  years, 

with  the  proviso  that,  should  the  author  be  still  alive, 
he  should  enjoy  a  further  period  of  fourteen  years,  the  copyright 
returning  to  him  for  the  second  fourteen  should  he  have  disposed 
of  it  for  the  first  period.  It  is  a  condition  of  copyright  with 
the  sculptor  that  the  author  must  put  his  name  with  the  date 
upon  every  work  before  putting  it  forth  or  publishing  it.  A 
curious  and  interesting  point  in  the  interpretation  of  this  act  is, 
that  according  to  the  opinion  of  eminent  jurists  it  is  necessary  to 
an  infringement  of  the  copyright  of  a  piece  of  sculpture  that  the 
copy  of  it  must  take  the  form  of  another  piece  of  sculpture; 
that  a  photograph,  drawing,  or  engraving  of  a  piece  of  sculpture 
is  not  to  be  considered  a  reproduction  of  it,  and  is  therefore 
not  an  infringement  of  the  sculptor's  copyright. 

21.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  painting  was  the  last  branch  of 
the  arts  to  receive  copyright   protection.     The  cause  of  the 
Painting.     Pamters  was  taken  up  by  the  Society  of  Arts,  who 

endeavoured,  in  the  first  instance,  to  pass  an  amend- 
ment and  consolidation  bill  dealing  with  engraving,  sculpture  and 
painting;  but,  failing  in  their  first  effort,  they  limited  their 
second  to  an  attempt  to  pass  a  bill  in  favour  of  painting,  drawing 
and  photography.  It  was  in  the  year  1862  that  this  act,  having 
passed  through  parliament,  came  into  force.  The  absence  of 
any  antecedent  protection  for  the  painter  is  clearly  stated  in 
its  preamble,  which  reads  as  follows:  "  Whereas  by  law  as  now 
established,  the  authors  of  paintings,  drawings,  and  photographs 
have  no  copyright  in  such  their  works,  and  it  is  expectant  that 
the  law  should  in  that  respect  be  amended.  Be  it,  therefore, 
enacted,"  &c.  This  preamble  makes  it  clear  that  there  is  no 
copyright  in  any  paintings,  drawings,  or  photographs  executed 
and  dealt  with  before  the  year  1862 — to  be  exact,  2pth  July  of 
that  year.  The  duration  of  the  term  of  copyright  in  this  act  of 
1862  differs  from  its  predecessors,  by  being  made  dependent  on 
the  life  of  the  author,  to  which  life  seven  years  were  added.  In 


the  Literary  Copyright  Act  there  are  two  terms — the  life  of  the 
author  and  seven  years,  or  forty-two  years,  whichever  may 
prove  the  longer.  In  taking  a  fixed  term  like  forty-two  years 
it  is  necessary  to  have  something  to  start  from,  and  with  a 
literary  work  it  was  easy  to  start  from  the  date  of  publication. 
But  pictures  are  not  published.  They  may  pass  from  the  studio 
to  the  wall  of  the  purchaser  without  being  made  public  in  any 
way.  The  difficulty  was  evidently  before  the  author  of  this  act, 
and  the  artist's  term  was  made  his  life  and  seven  years  after  his 
death  without  any  alternative.  This  term  applies  equally  to 
photographers.  Perhaps  no  bill  which  ever  passed  through 
parliament  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  benefiting  a  certain  set 
of  people  has  failed  so  completely  as  has  this  bill  to  accomplish 
its  end.  It  started  by  proposing  to  give  copyright  to  authors 
of  paintings,  drawings  and  photographs,  and  it  would  seem  that 
no  difficulty  ought  to  have  arisen  as  to  whom  such  copyright 
should  rightly  belong;  but  the  following  clause  of  the  act  has 
introduced  confusion  into  the  question  of  ownership: — 

Provided  that  when  any  painting,  or  drawing,  or  the  negative 
of  any  photograph,  shall  for  the  first  time  after  the  passing  of 
this  act  be  sold  or  disposed  of,  or  shall  be  made  or  executed  for 
or  on  behalf  of  any  other  person  for  a  good  or  valuable  considera- 
tion, the  person  so  selling  or  disposing  of,  or  making  or  executing 
the  same,  shall  not  retain  the  copyright  thereof  unless  it  be  expressly 
reserved  to  him  by  agreement  in  writing,  signed  at  or  before  the 
time  of  such  sale  or  disposition,  by  the  vendee  or  assignee  of  such 
painting  or  drawing,  or  such  negative  of  a  photograph,  or  by  the 
person  on  whose  behalf  the  same  shall  be  so  made  or  executed ; 
but  the  copyright  shall  belong  to  the  vendee  or  assignee  of  such 
painting  or  drawing,  or  such  negative  of  a  photograph,  or  to  the 
person  for  or  on  whose  behalf  the  same  shall  have  been  made  or 
executed ;  nor  shall  the  vendee  or  assignee  thereof  be  entitled  to  such 
copyright  unless  at  or  before  the  time  of  such  sale  or  disposition  an 
agreement  in  writing,  signed  by  the  person  so  selling  or  disposing  of 
the  same,  or  by  his  agent  duly  authorized,  shall  have  been  made  to 
that  effect. 

That  is  to  say,  after  promising  the  author  copyright  in  his  work 
for  h'fe  and  seven  years,  the  act  stipulates  that  in  order  to  get  it 
the  author  must,  at  the  time  of  the  first  sale  or  disposition  of  his 
picture,  obtain  a  document  in  writing  from  the  purchaser  of  the 
picture,  reserving  the  copyright  to  the  author,  and  the  act  goes 
on  to  say  that  if  he  does  not  take  this  step  the  copyright  becomes 
the  property  of  the  purchaser  of  the  picture,  but  with  the 
proviso,  in  order  to  secure  it  to  him,  he  must  have  a  document 
signed  by  the  artist  assigning  the  copyright  to  him;  but  if  neither 
of  these  things  is  done,  and  no  document  is  signed,  the  copyright 
does  not  belong  to  either  the  artist  who  sells  or  the  client  who 
buys,  and  the  act  is  silent  as  to  whom  it  does  belong  to.  It  has 
disappeared  and  belongs  to  no  one.  There  is  no  copyright  existing 
in  the  work  for  any  one.  It  has  passed  into  the  public  domain, 
and  any  one  who  can  get  access  to  the  work  may  reproduce  it. 
Now,  as  most  purchases  are  made  from  the  walls  of  exhibitions, 
in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  the  copyright  is  absolutely 
lost.  And  where  the  sale  is  arranged  directly  between  the  artist 
and  his  client,  the  difficulty  experienced  by  the  artist  in  raising 
the  question  as  to  whom  the  copyright  shall  belong  to  is  so  great, 
owing  to  the  dread  lest  the  mere  mention  of  the  signing  of  a 
document  should  cause  the  selling  of  the  picture  to  fall  through, 
that  in  numerous  such  cases  the  copyright  lapses  and  becomes 
public  property.  Photographers  are  not  affected  by  this  clause, 
because  they  do  not  as  a  rule  sell  the  negatives  they  produce,  and 
with  them  the  copyright  lies  in  the  negative.  They  carry  on  their 
trade  in  prints  without  the  question  of  the  negative  arising. 
The  picture-dealer,  also,  who  buys  a  picture  and  copyright  is 
not  subjected  to  the  same  disability  as  the  painter.  The  picture- 
dealer  can  sell  a  picture  without  saying  a  word  to  his  client  as 
to  the  copyright,  which  he,  nevertheless,  retains  intact;  the 
provision  is  applicable  only  to  the  first  sale  of  the  work,  which, 
therefore,  throws  the  whole  of  the  disability  upon  the  painter. 

The  act  gives  the  copyright  of  every  work  executed  on  com- 
mission to  the  person  by  whom  it  is  commissioned.  It  makes 
it  compulsory  upon  every  owner  of  a  copyright  that  he  should 
register  it  at  Stationers'  Hall  before  he  can  take  any  action  at 
law  to  protect  it.  The  copyright  does  not  lapse  if  unregistered, 
but  so  long  as  it  remains  unregistered  no  action  at  law  can  be 


COPYRIGHT 


127 


taken  on  account  of  any  infringement.  A  copyright  can  be 
registered  at  any  time,  even  after  an  infringement,  but  the  owner 
of  the  copyright  cannot  recover  for  any  infringement  before 
registration.  The  act  provides  for  both  penalties  and  damages 
in  the  following  cases: — (i)  For  infringing  copyright  in  the 
ordinary  way  by  issuing  unlawful  copies.  (2)  For  fraudulently 
signing  or  affixing  a  fraudulent  signature  to  a  work  of  art.  (3) 
For  fraudulently  dealing  with  a  work  so  signed.  (4)  For  fraudu- 
lently putting  forth  a  copy  of  a  work  of  art,  whether  there  be 
copyright  in  it  or  no,  as  the  original  work  of  the  artist.  (5)  For 
altering,  adding  to,  or  taking  away  from  a  work  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  author  if  it  is  signed,  and  putting  it  forth  as  the 
unaltered  work  of  the  author.  (6)  For  importing  pirated  works. 

The  incongruities  of  this  act  were  so  apparent  that  its  promoters 
desired  to  stop  it,  feeling  that  it  would  be  better  to  have  no  bill  at  all 
than  one  which  conferred  so  little  upon  the  people  it  was  intended  to 
benefit ;  but  Lord  Westbury,  the  lord  chancellor,  who  had  charge  of 
the  bill  in  the  House  of  Lords,  advised  them  to  let  it  go  through  with 
all  its  imperfections,  that  they  might  get  the  right  of  the  painter  to 
protection  recognized.  This  advice  was  followed,  and  the  bill  had  no 
sooner  become  law  than  a  fresh  effort  was  started  to  have  it  amended. 
Year  by  year  the  agitation  went  on,  with  the  exception  only  of  a 
period  when  Irish  affairs  took  up  all  the  attention  of  parliament,  and 
domestic  legislation  was  rendered  impossible.  But  in  1898  the 
Copyright  Association  of  Great  Britain  promoted  a  bill,  which 
was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  by  Lord  Herschell.  It 
was  a  measure  designed  to  deal  with  all  forms  of  copyright — literary, 
musical,  dramatic  and  artistic — and  was  remitted  by  the  House  of 
Lords  for  consideration  to  a  committee,  which,  having  sat  for  three 
sessions,  decided  not  to  proceed  with  Lord  Herschell's  measure, 
but  to  treat  literature  and  art  in  separate  bills.  It  had  under  its 
consideration  an  artistic  bill,  drafted  for  and  presented  by  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  a  literary  bill  and  an  artistic  bill  drafted  by  the 
committee  itself.  The  main  proposals  in  the  latter  were  to  give 
copyright  to  the  author  of  any  artistic  work  or  photograph  for  a 
period  of  life  and  thirty  years,  unless  the  work  be  commissioned, 
in  which  case  the  copyright  was  to  be  the  property  of  the  employer, 
except  in  the  case  of  sculpture  intended  to  be  placecj  in  a  street  or 
public  place.  The  bill  provided  summary  remedies  for  dealing  with 
pirated  works.  It  omitted  altogether  any  reference  to  registration, 
and  it  provided  for  international  copyright. 

22.  To  sum  up  the  position  of  artistic  copyright  in  1909,  we 
find  five  British  acts,  three  dealing  with  engraving,  one  with 
sculpture,  and  one  with  painting,  drawing  and  photography, 
and  between  them  very  little  relation.  We  have  three  terms  of 
duration  of  copyright — 28  years  for  engraving,  14  for  sculpture, 
with  a  second  14  if  the  artist  be  alive  at  the  end  of  the  first,  life 
and  7  years  for  painting,  drawing  or  photography.  There  are 
two  different  relations  of  the  artist  to  his  copyright.  The 
sculptor's  right  to  sell  his  work  and  retain  his  copyright  has 
never  been  questioned  so  long  as  he  signs  and  dates  it.  The 
painter's  copyright  is  made  to  depend  upon  the  signing  of  a 
document  by  the  purchaser  of  his  work.  The  engraver  and  the 
sculptor  are  not  required  to  register;  but  the  author's  name, 
and  the  date  of  putting  forth  or  publishing,  must  appear  on  his 
work.  The  painter  cannot  protect  his  copyright  without 
registration,  but  this  registration  as  it  is  now  required  is  merely 
a  pitfall  for  the  unwary.  Designed  to  give  the  public  information 
as  to  the  ownership  and  duration  of  copyrights,  the  uncertainty 
of  its  operation  results  in  the  prevention  of  information  on  these 
very  points. 

The  Berlin  Convention  of  1908  led  to  the  appointment  of  a 
British  committee  to  deal  with  its  recommendations,  and  their 
report  in  1909  foreshadowed  important  changes  in  the  law  both 
of  literary  and  of  artistic  copyright,  whenever  Parliament 
should  give  its  attention  seriously  to  the  subject. 

Difficult  and  complicated  as  is  the  whole  subject  of  artistic 
copyright,  it  is  perhaps  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  ignorance 
of  the  law  on  the  subject  is  very  widespread,  even 
amongst  those  who  are  most  interested  in  its  action. 
cutties.  One  °f  tne  commonest  beliefs  amongst  artists  is,  that 
all  they  have  to  do  to  secure  copyright  is  to  register  a 
picture  at  Stationers'  Hall;  but  the  authorities  at  Stationers' 
Hall  ask  no  questions,  and  simply  enter  any  particulars  submitted 
to  them  on  their  printed  form.  Some  artists  make  a  practice, 
when  they  send  a  picture  away  to  exhibition,  to  fill  up  one  of  these 
forms,  reserving  the  copyright  by  their  entry  to  themselves,  in 


the  belief  that,  if  accompanied  by  the  fee  required  by  the 
Hall,  its  entry  will  reserve  the  copyright  to  them,  oblivious  of  the 
fact  that  the  only  thing  which  can  reserve  the  copyright  to  them 
is  the  possession  of  a  document  assigning  the  copyright  to  them 
by  the  purchaser  of  the  picture.  Another  useless  method  of 
attempting  to  reserve  artists'  copyrights  is  that  adopted  by 
the  promoters  of  public  exhibitions,  with  whom  it  is  an  almost 
constant  practice  to  print  on  some  portion  of  the  catalogue 
of  the  exhibition  a  statement  that  "  copyrights  of  all  pictures 
are  reserved,"  the  impression  apparently  prevailing  that  a  notice 
of  this  kind  effectively  reserves  the  copyright  for  the  artist  while 
selling  his  picture  from  the  walls.  It,  of  course,  does  no  such 
thing,  and  the  copyright  of  any  picture  sold  in  these  circum- 
stances, without  the  necessary  document  from  the  purchaser, 
must  be  lost  to  the  artist,  and  pass  irrevocably  into  the  public 
domain. 

In  a  work  of  art  the  work  itself  and  the  copyright  are  two  totally 
distinct  properties,  and  may  be  held  by  different  persons.  The 
conditions  differ  materially  from  those  of  a  work  of  literature,  in 
which  as  a  rule  there  is  no  value  apart  from  publication.  There  is 
a  value  in  a  work  of  art  for  its  private  enjoyment  quite  apart 
from  its  commercial  value  in  the  form  of  reproductions;  but 
when  the  two  properties  exist  in  different  hands,  the  person 
holding  the  copyright  has  no  power  to  force  the  owner  of  the  work 
of  art  to  give  him  access  to  it  for  purposes  of  reproduction; 
this  can  only  be  effected  by  private  arrangement.  It  has  been 
argued  that,  as  the  two  properties  are  so  distinct,  the  owner  of  the 
copyright  ought  to  have  the  right  of  access  to  the  picture  for  the 
purpose  of  exercising  his  right  to  reproduce  it.  But  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  it  would  destroy  the  value  of  art  property  if  proprietors 
knew  that  at  any  moment  they  might  be  forced  to  surrender 
their  work  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction,  though  for  a  time 
only. 

There  is  often  a  strong  sympathy  between  the  artist  and  the 
person  who  buys  his  picture,  and  it  is  not  at  all  unusual,  when 
application  is  made  to  the  owner  of  the  picture  for  access  to  it, 
for  him  to  submit  the  question  of  reproduction  to  the  artist. 
Although  the  latter  may  really  have  no  right  in  it,  it  is  felt,  as 
a  practical  matter,  that  he  is  largely  interested  in  the  character 
of  the  reproduction  it  is  proposed  to  make.  Hence  the  courtesy 
which  is  usually  extended  to  him. 

Owing  also  to  the  increased  facilities  of  reproduction,  the 
practice  has  become  very  common  of  splitting  up  copyrights  and 
granting  licences  in  what  may  be  described  as  very  minute  forms. 
It  would,  of  course,  be  impossible  for  a  publisher  to  pay  an  artist 
the  sum  at  which  he  values  his  entire  copyright,  simply  that  he 
might  reproduce  his  picture  in  the  form  of  a  black-and-white 
block  in  a  magazine,  and  it  has  consequently  become  quite 
common  for  the  artist  to  grant  a  licence  for  any  and  every 
particular  form  of  reproduction  as  it  may  be  required,  so  that 
he  may  grant  the  right  of  reproduction  in  one  particular  form 
in  one  particular  publication,  and  even  for  a  particular  period 
of  time,  reserving  to  himself  thus  the  right  to  grant  similar 
licences  to  other  publishers.  This  is  apparently  not  to  the  injury 
of  the  artist;  it  is  probably  to  his  advantage,  and  it  certainly 
promotes  business. 

23.  The  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of  securing  a  really  good 
Artistic  Bill  has  been  the  introduction  into  it  of  photography. 
It  was  by  a  sort  of  accident  that  the  photographer  was 
given  the  same  privileges  as  the  painter  in  the  bill  of 
1862.  The  promoters  of  the  bill  thought  that  the 
photographer  would  be  protected  by  the  Engraving  Acts  which 
covered  prints;  but  since  the  photographers  feared  that,  as 
their  prints  were  of  a  different  character  from  the  prints  from  a 
plate,  the  Engraving  Acts  might  not  protect  them,  it  was  at  the 
last  moment  decided  to  put  photography  into  the  Art  Bill.  The 
result  of  this  was  that  the  painter  lost  his  chance  of  copyright  on 
all  works  executed  on  commission.  Legislators  feared  that  if 
photographers  held  copyright  in  all  their  works  the  public  would 
have  no  protection  from  the  annoyance  of  seeing  the  photographs 
of  their  wives  and  daughters  exhibited  and  sold  in  shop  windows 
by  the  side  of  "  professional  beauties  "  and  other  people,  and 


12 


8 


COPYRIGHT 


made  articles  of  commerce.     So  in  the  case  of  commissioned  works 
the  copyright  was  denied  to  both  painters  and  photographers. 

The  royal  commission  which  reported  on  the  subject  in  1878 
proposed  two  distinct  terms  of  copyright  for  painting  and 
photography.  The  term  for  the  painter  was  dependent  on  his 
life;  that  for  the  photographer  was  a  definitely  fixed  term  of 
years  from  the  date  of  publication  of  his  photographs;  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  this  is  the  right  way  to  deal  with  the  two 
branches  of  copyright.  The  artist  who  paints  a  picture  signs  it, 
and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  knowing  who  is  the  author  of  a  painting 
and  in  whom  the  term  of  copyright  is  vested.  In  a  very  large 
number  of  cases  a  photograph  is  taken  by  an  employee,  who  is 
here  to-day  and  gone  to-morrow,  and  even  his  employer  knows 
nothing  of  his  existence.  Of  course,  it  may  suit  an  employer  to  be 
able  to  maintain  secrecy  as  to  the  authorship  of  his  negative, 
inasmuch  as  it  enables  him  to  go  on  claiming  copyright  fees 
indefinitely;  but  it  is  not  to  the  public  interest.  In  most 
countrieson  the  continent  of  Europe  a  photographer  has  the  fixed 
term  of  five  years'  copyright  in  an  original  photograph  dating 
from  its  publication,  which  date,  together  with  the  name  and 
address  of  the  photographer,  has  to  be  stamped  on  every  copy 
issued.  In  the  public  interest  this  is  a  good  method  of  dealing 
with  photographs. 

24.  The   "  authorship  "   of  a  photograph   has  been   much 
debated  in  the    law   courts;   and  "author"    was   defined  in 
Nottage  v.  Jackson  (1883)  as  "  the  man  who  really  represents  or 
creates,  or  gives  to  ideas,  or  fancy,  or  imagination,  true  local 
habitation — the  man  in  fact  who  is  most  nearly  the  effective 
cause  of  the  representation  "  (per  Lord  Justice  Bowen) .     He  is  not 
necessarily  the  owner  of  the  camera,  or  the  proprietor  of  the  busi- 
ness; it  depends  on  the  circumstances.     He  is  essentially  the 
person  who  groups  and  effectively  superintends  the  picture.  When 
a  photographer  takes  a  portrait  without  fee,  the  copyright  vests 
in  him  and  not  in  the  sitter,  who  cannot  prevent  its  publication; 
but  if  the  photograph  is  commissioned  and  paid  for  by  the  sitter 
the  copyright — in  the  absence  of  contrary  stipulations — vests 
in  him,  and  he  can  restrain  exhibition  or  multiplication  of  copies; 
"  the  bargain  includes,  by  implication,  an  agreement  that  the 
prints  taken  from  the  negative  are  to  be  appropriated  to  the  use 
of  the  customer  only"  (Mr  Justice  North  in  Pollard  v.  Photo- 
graphic Co.,  1888).     And  this  applies  even  when  the  sitter  is  not 
the  actual  purchaser  of  the  negative  (Boucas  v.  Cooke,  1903). 
But  in  several  cases  the  "  celebrity  "  who  has  sat  to  a  photo- 
grapher at  his  request  and  without  payment  has  not  been  allowed 
to  distribute  his  photograph  to  newspapers  for  reproduction  with- 
out the  photographer's  consent.     The  fact  that  a  sitter  pays  the 
photographer  for  prints,  though  he  has  not  commissioned  the 
sitting,  would  not  vest  the  copyright  in  him. 

25.  The  "  Living  Pictures  "  case  in   1894  (Hanfstangel  v. 
Empire  Palace)  was  a  curious  one.     The  Empire  music-hall  in 
London  produced  some  tableaux  vivants,  representing  certain 
pictures,  of  which  Messrs   Hanfstangel  owned  the  copyright, 
and  an  action  was  brought  by  them  for  an  injunction.     The 
courts  of  chancery  and  of  appeal  decided  against  the  plaintiffs,  on 
the  ground  that  a  reproduction  of  a  painting   must  be  by  a 
painting  or  something  cognate;  but  in"  an  action  for  infringement, 
though  the  view  already  given  was  confirmed,  the  plaintiffs 
succeeded  so  far  as  the  backgrounds  to  the  grouping  were 
concerned.     Meanwhile  two  newspapers  had  published  sketches 
of  the  same  tableaux  vivants,  and  Messrs  Hanfstangel  brought 
actions  for  infringement  (Hanfstangel  v.  Newnes,  and  v.  Baines, 
1 804) .     Mr  Justice  Stirling  found  for  the  plaintiffs,  but  on  appeal, 
and  finally  in  the  House  of  Lords,  this  decision  was  reversed. 

26.  Copyright  in  Designs. — An  act  of  1787  first  gave  protection 
to  printed  designs  on  linen  and  cotton  fabrics;  and  in  1839 

a  further  act  included  designs  on  animal  fabrics,  or 
mixed  animal  and  vegetable  fabrics;  while  in  the  same 
year  another  act  protected  designs  for  manufactured  articles. 
These  acts  had  been  preceded  in  France  by  laws  of  1737  and 
1 744  creating  a  property  by  law  in  manufacturers'  designs.  The 
British  law,  which  in  various  acts  established  a  copyright  (a)  in 
ornamental  and  (6)  useful  designs,  was  in  1883  consolidated  in  the 


Designs. 


Patents,  Designs  and  Trade  Marks  Act,  with  amending  acts  up  to 
1888;  and  these  acts  were  further  consolidated  and  amended  by 
an  act  of  1905.  See  TRADE-MARKS  and  PATENTS. 

BRITISH  IMPERIAL  COPYRIGHT  BILL  OF  1910 

The  consolidation  of  the  British  copyright  law,  not  only  in  the 
United  Kingdom  but  in  the  Dominions,  and  its  amendment  so 
as  to  include  the  recommendations  of  the  Berlin  International 
Convention  of  1908,  were  the  objects  of  a  government  bill 
introduced  into  parliament  by  the  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  on  the  26th  of  July  1910,  discussion  on  which  was  reserved 
for  a  later  period  in  the  year.  The  passing  of  this  bill,  though 
the  date  of  it  was' uncertain  owing  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  English  politics  at  the  moment,  was  practically  assured  by 
the  facts  that,  apart  altogether  from  the  crying  need  for  a  re- 
vision of  the  English  law,  the  draft  had  previously  been  considered 
and  accepted,  not  only  by  a  Board  of  Trade  Committee  which 
reported  unanimously  in  favour  of  the  recommendations  of  the 
Berlin  Convention,  but  also  by  an  Imperial  Conference.  The 
bill  for  the  first  time  brought  British  copyright  entirely  under 
statutory  law  and  consolidated  and  amended  all  previous 
enactments;  it  adopted  the  suggestions  of  the  Imperial  Con- 
ference (attended  by  representatives  of  Canada,  Australia,  South 
Africa,  New  Zealand  and  Newfoundland,  other  interests  being 
covered  by  home  representatives  of  the  Foreign  Office,  India 
Office,  Colonial  Office  and  Board  of  Trade)  as  to  providing  for 
its  extension  by  their  declaration  to  the  Dominions;  and  with  its 
enactment  a  great  simplification  of  the  British  law  of  copy- 
right came  in  sight,  though  for  historical  reasons  the  details  given 
above  of  the  law  as  unamended  must  still  remain  of  value. 

Briefly,  the  new  points  of  importance,  apart  from  the  placing 
of  all  copyright  on  a  purely  statutory  basis  and  the  inclusion 
of  literary  and  artistic  copyright  within  one  arrangement,  were 
as  follows.  All  compulsory  formalities  of  registration  were 
abolished.  The  length  of  the  period  for  which  copyright  lasted 
was  extended  to  the  life  of  the  author  and  50  years  after.  This 
reform  was  qualified,  however,  by  a  clause  intended  to  protect 
the  public  from  its  abuse,  and  providing  that  after  the  author's 
death,  if  the  work  was  withheld  from  the  public  or  published 
at  too  high  a  price,  or  if  the  reasonable  requirements  of  the 
public  were  not  satisfied,  a  licence  might  be  granted  to  publish 
or  perform  it.  These  changes  appliod  to  all  the  subject-matters  of 
copyright,  which  were  now  put  on  the  same  level  and  treated 
uniformly.  In  certain  cases,  already  discussed  above,  protection 
was  extended:  e.g.  translations  and  lectures,  original  adapta- 
tions and  arrangements,  works  of  artistic  novelty,  including 
architectural  designs;  and  the  right  to  dramatize  a  novel  or 
"  novelize  "  a  drama  was  conferred  in  each  case  on  the  author. 
Musical  works  were  protected  against  unauthorized  reproduction 
by  mechanical  means  without  payment;  but  protection  was 
also  extended  to  the  mechanical  record  when  authorized. 

In  including  all  sorts  of  intellectual  product  the  bill  followed 
the  recommendation  (resolution  6)  of  the  Imperial  Conference 
as  to  the  definition  of  copyright  (Parl.  Paper  Cd.  5272):  "  the 
Conference  is  of  opinion  that,  subject  to  proper  qualifications, 
copyright  should  include  the  sole  right  to  produce  or  reproduce 
a  work,  or  any  substantial  part  thereof,  in  any  material  form 
whatsoever  and  in  any  language,  to  perform,  or  in  the  case  of  a 
lecture,  to  deliver,  the  work  or  any  substantial  part  thereof  in 
public,  and,  if  the  work  is  unpublished,  to  publish  the  work,  and 
should  include  the  sole  right  to  dramatize  novels  and  vice  versa, 
and  to  make  records,  &c.,  by  means  of  which  a  work  may  be 
mechanically  performed."  As  to  architecture  and  artistic  crafts 
the  Conference  recommended  (resolution  9)  that  "  an  original 
work  of  art  should  not  lose  the  protection  of  artistic  copyright 
solely  because  it  consists  of,  or  is  embodied  in,  a  work  of  archi- 
tecture or  craftsmanship;  but  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that 
such  protection  is  confined  to  its  artistic  form  and  does  not  extend 
to  the  processes  or  methods  of  reproduction,,  or  to  an  industrial 
design  capable  of  registration  under  the  law  relating  to  designs  and 
destined  to  be  multiplied  by  way  of  manufacture  or  trade." 

As  to  the  application  of  the  new  period  of  copyright  to  existing 


COQUELIN— COQUEREL 


129 


works,  the  Conference  recommended  (resolution  10)  "  that 
existing  works  in  which  copyright  actually  subsists  at  the 
commencement  of  the  new  act  (but  no  others)  should  enjoy, 
subject  to  existing  rights,  the  same  protection  as  future  works, 
but  the  benefit  of  any  extension  of  terms  should  belong  to  the 
author  of  the  work,  subject,  in  the  case  where  he  has  assigned 
his  existing  rights,  to  a  power  on  the  part  of  the  assignee  at  his 
option  either  to  purchase  the  full  benefit  of  the  copyright  during 
the  extended  term,  or,  without  acquiring  the  full  copyright,  to 
continue  to  publish  the  work  on  payment  of  royalties,  the 
payment  in  either  case  to  be  fixed  by  arbitration  if  necessary." 

The  Conference  was  also  of  opinion  (resolution  40)  that,  under 
the  new  Imperial  Act,  copyright  should  subsist  only  in  works 
of  which  the  author  was  a  British  subject  or  bona  fide  resident 
in  one  of  the  parts  of  the  British  Empire  to  which  it  extended; 
and  that  copyright  should  cease  if  the  work  were  first  published 
elsewhere  than  in  such  parts  of  the  Empire. 

The  sensible  basis  on  which  the  new  bill  was  framed,  and  the 
authority  it  represented,  commended  it,  in  spite  of  many  con- 
troversial points,  to  the  acceptance  both  of  the  public  and  of 
the  various  parties  concerned.  But  nobody  who  had  ever  wrestled 
with  all  the  difficulties  of  international  copyright,  as  complicated 
by  the  law  in  the  United  States,  would  suppose  that  it  was  the 
last  word  on  the  subject.  What  the  bill  did  was  to  bring  British 
legislation  into  better  shape,  and  to  amend  it  on  certain  points 
which  had  worked  unjustly.  The  great  distinction  between  the 
requirements  for  British  and  for  American  copyright  still  re- 
mained, namely,  the  American  manufacturing  clause.  Perhaps 
the  most  notable  innovation  was  the  clause  enabling  a  licence 
to  be  granted  for  the  publication  of  a  copyright  work  where  the 
owners  of  the  copyright  had  not  exercised  it  for  the  "  reasonable 
requirements "  of  the  public.  Some  such  clause  was  clearly 
called  for  when  the  period  of  monopoly  was  being  extended;  but 
the  interpretation  to  be  put  upon  the  occasions  which  would 
justify  such  interference  might  well  be  difficult.  It  may  perhaps 
be  suggested  that  this  innovation  pointed  to  a  reconsideration 
of  the  true  relations  of  "  publishers  "  and  "  authors  "  (in  the 
widest  sense)  in  respect  of  copyright,  which  sooner  or  later  might 
be  approached  from  a  different  point  of  view.  The  new  clause 
was  intended  for  the  protection  of  the  public  from  the  mis- 
handling of  an  author's  work  after  his  death,  while  greater 
protection  was  given  him  during  his  life.  From  a  purely 
business  point  of  view,  the  question  might  well  be  whether  a 
publisher  or  other  party  not  the  author  should  have  a  copyright 
at  all,  and  whether  equity  would  not  be  satisfied  if  copyright 
vested  solely  in  the  author  and  his  family,  with  liberty  to  any  one 
to  "  publish  "  on  fair  terms,  consideration  being  had  to  an 
original  publisher's  reasonable  claims  and  existing  contracts. 
The  advisability  of  any  such  advance  on  the  principle  now 
asserted  must  depend  rather  on  experience  of  actual  business 
and  the  working  of  the  clause;  but  even  under  the  procedure 
provided  by  the  bill  of  1910  it  would  equally  be  imperative  for 
a  publisher  who  owned  a  deceased  author's  copyright  to  show 
that  he  had  given  or  was  giving  the  public  valuable  consideration 
for  his  monopoly,  in  order  to  uphold  it  against  any  one  willing, 
on  payment  of  a  reasonable  royalty,  to  serve  the  public  better. 

AUTHORITIES. — For  special  points  see  W.  A.  Copinger's  The  Law 
of  Copyright  in  Works  of  Literature  and  Art,  4th  ed.,  by  J.  M.  Easton 
(1904);  or  T.  E.  Scrutton's  Law  of  Copyright  (yd  ed.,  1896).  See 
also  E.  J.  MacGillivray,  A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Copyright  (1902); 
Richard  Winslow,  M.A..LL.B.,  The  Law  of Artistic  Copyright(London, 
1889);  A.  Birrell,  Copyright  in  Books  (London,  1899);  B.  A.  Cohen, 
Law  of  Copyright  (London,  1896) ;  L.  Edmunds,  Copyright  in  Designs 
(London,  1908) ;  Knoxand  Hind,CopyrightinDesigns(London,  1899) ; 
W.  Briggs,  Law  of  International  Copyright  (1906);  W.  M.  Colics 
j  and  H.  Hardy,  Playright  and  Copyright  in  all  Countries  (1906). 

COQUELIN,  BENOIT  CONSTANT  (1841-1909),  French  actor, 
known  as  Coquelin  alne,  was  born  at  Boulogne  on  the  23rd  of 
January  1841.  He  was  originally  intended  to  follow  his  father's 
trade  of  baker  (he  was  once  called  un  boulanger  manque  by  a 
hostile  critic),  but  his  love  of  acting  led  him  to  the  Conservatoire, 
where  he  entered  Regnier's  class  in  1859.  He  won  the  first  prize 
for  comedy  within  a  year,  and  made  his  debut  on  the  7th  of 
December  1860  at  the  Comedie  Francaise  as  the  comic  valet, 


Gros-Rene,  in  Moliere's  Dipit  amoureux,  but  his  first  great  success 
was  as  Figaro,  in  the  following  year.  He  was  made  socUtaire  in 
1864,  and  during  the  next  twenty-two  years  he  created  at  the 
Frangais  the  leading  parts  in  forty-four  new  plays,  including 
Theodore  de  Banville's  Gringoire  (1867),  Paul  Ferrier's  Tabarin 
(1871),  Emile  Augier's  Paul  Forestier  (1871),  L'Etrangere  (1876) 
by  the  younger  Dumas,  Charles  Lomon's  Jean  Dacier  (1877), 
Edward  Pailleron's  Le  Monde  ou  Von  s'ennuie  (1881),  Erckmann 
and  Chatrian's  Les  Rantzau  (1884).  In  consequence  of  a  dispute 
with  the  authorities  over  the  question  of  his  right  to  make 
provincial  tours  in  France  he  resigned  in  1886.  Three  years  later, 
however,  the  breach  was  healed;  and  after  a  successful  series  of 
tours  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  he  rejoined  the  Comedie 
Francaise  as  pensionnaire  in  1890.  It  was  during  this  period  that 
he  took  the  part  of  Labussiere,  in  the  production  of  Sardou's 
Thermidor,  which  was  interdicted  by  the  government  after  three 
performances.  In  1892  he  broke  definitely  with  the  Comedie 
Francaise,  and  toured  for  some  time  through  the  capitals  of 
Europe  with  a  company  of  his  own.  In  1895  he  joined  the 
Renaissance  theatre  in  Paris,  and  played  there  until  he  became 
director  of  the  Porte  Saint  Martin  in  1897.  Here  he  won  successes 
in  Edmond  Rostand's  Cyranode  Bergerac  (1897),  Emile  Bergerat's 
Plus  que  reine  (1899),  Catulle  Mendes'  Scarron  (1905),  and 
Alfred  Capus  and  Lucien  Descaves'  L'Attentat  (1906).  In  1900  he 
toured  in  America  with  Sarah  Bernhardt,  and  on  their  return 
continued  with  his  old  colleague  to  appear  in  L'Aiglon,  at  the 
Theatre  Sarah  Bernhardt.  He  was  rehearsing  for  the  creation 
of  the  leading  part  in  Rostand's  Chanleder,  which  he  was  to 
produce,  when  he  died  suddenly  in  Paris,  on  the  27th  of  January 
1909.  Coquelin  was  an  Officier  de  ITnstruction  Publique  and  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  published  L' Ariel le  comedien  ( 1 880) , 
Moliere  et  le  misanthrope  (1881),  essays  on  Eugene  Manuel  (1881) 
and  Sully- Prudhomme  (1882),  L'Arnolphe  de  Moliere  (1882), 
Les  Comediens  (1882),  L' Art  de  dire  le  monologue  (with  his 
brother,  1884),  Tartu/e  (1884),  L'Art  du  comedien  (1894). 

His  brother,  ERNEST  ALEXANDRE  HONORE  COQUELIN  (1848- 
1909),  called  Coquelin  cadet,  was  born  on  the  i6th  of  May  1848  at 
Boulogne,  and  entered  the  Conservatoire  in  1864.  He  graduated 
with  the  first  prize  in  comedy  and  made  his  debut  in  1867  at  the 
Odeon.  The  next  year  he  appeared  with  his  brother  at  the 
Theatre  Franfais  and  became  a  societaire  in  1879.  He  played  a 
great  many  parts,  in  both  the  classic  and  the  modern  repertoire, 
and  also  had  much  success  in  reciting  monologues  of  his  own 
composition.  He  wrote  Le  Lime  des  convalescents  (1880),  Le 
Monologue  moderns  (1881),  Fairiboles  (1882),  Le  Rire  (1887), 
Pirouettes  ( 1 888) .  He  died  on  the  8th  of  February  1 909. 

JEAN  COQUELIN  (1865-  ),  son  of  Coquelin  atne,  was  also 
an  actor,  first  at  the  Theatre  Francais  (debut,  1890),  later  at  the 
Renaissance,  and  then  at  the  Porte  Saint  Martin,  where  he  created 
the  part  of  Raigon6  in  Cyrano  de  Bergerac. 

COQUEREL,  ATHANASE  JOSUE  (1820-1875),  French 
Protestant  divine,  son  of  A.  L.  C.  Coquerel  (q.v.),  was  born  at 
Amsterdam  on  the  i6th  of  June  1820.  He  studied  theology 
at  Geneva  and  at  Strassburg,  and  at  an  early  age  succeeded 
his  uncle,  C.  A.  Coquerel,  as  editor  of  Le  Lien,  a  post  which  he 
held  till  1870.  In  1852  he  took  part  in  establishing  the  Nouvelle 
Revue  de  thtologie,  the  first  periodical  of  scientific  theology 
published  in  France,  and  in  the  same  year  helped  to  found  the 
"  Historical  Society  of  French  Protestantism."  Meanwhile 
he  had  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  especially 
as  the  advocate  of  religious  freedom;  but  his  teaching  became 
more  and  more  offensive  to  the  orthodox  party,  and  on  the 
appearance  (1864)  of  his  article  on  Renan's  Vie  de  Jesus  in  the 
Nouvelle  Revue  de  theologie  he  was  forbidden  by  the  Paris  con- 
sistory to  continue  his  ministerial  functions.  He  received  an 
address  of  sympathy  from  the  consistory  of  Anduze,  and  a 
provision  was  voted  for  him  by  the  Union  Protestante  Lib6rale, 
to  enable  him  to  continue  his  preaching.  He  received  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1862.  He  died  at  Fismes  (Marne), 
on  the  24th  of  July  1875.  His  chief  works  were  Jean  Colas  et 
sa  famille  (1858);  Des  Beaux-Arts  en  Italie  (Eng.  trans.  1859); 
La  Saint  BarMlemy  (1860);  Pricis  de  Veglise  reformee  (1862); 


vn.  5 


130 


COQUEREL— COQUIMBO 


Le  Catholicisme  el  le  protestantisme  consideres  dans  leur  origine 
et  leur  develop pement  (1864);  Libres  tludes,  and  La  Conscience  el 
lafoi  (1867). 

COQUEREL,  ATHANASE  LAURENT  CHARLES  (1795-1868), 
French  Protestant  divine,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  i7th  of 
August  1795.  He  received  his  early  education  from  his  aunt, 
Helen  Maria  Williams,  an  Englishwoman,  who  at  the  close  of  the 
1 8th  century  gained  a  reputation  by  various  translations  and 
by  her  Letters  from  France.  He  completed  his  theological  studies 
at  the  Protestant  seminary  of  Montauban,  and  in  1816  was 
ordained  minister.  In  1817  he  was  invited  to  become  pastor 
of  the  chapel  of  St  Paul  at  Jersey,  but  he  declined,  being  unwilling 
to  subscribe  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England. 
During  the  following  twelve  years  he  resided  in  Holland,  and 
preached  before  Calvinistic  congregations  at  Amsterdam, 
Leiden  and  Utrecht.  In  1830,  at  the  suggestion  of  Baron  Georges 
de  Cuvier,  then  minister  of  Protestant  worship,  Coquerel  was 
called  to  Paris  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church.  In  the  course 
of  1833  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  consistory,  and  rapidly 
acquired  the  reputation  of  a  great  pulpit  orator,  but  his  liberal 
views  brought  him  into  antagonism  with  the  rigid  Calvinists. 
He  took  a  warm  interest  in  all  matters  of  education,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  so  much  by  his  defence  of  the  university  of 
Paris  against  a  sharp  attack,  that  in  1835  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  consistory  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  In  1841 
appeared  his  Reponse  to  the  Leben  Jesu  of  Strauss.  After  the 
revolution  of  February  1848,  Coquerel  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  Assembly,  where  he  sat  as  a  moderate  republican, 
subsequently  becoming  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
He  supported  the  first  ministry  of  Louis  Napoleon,  and  gave 
his  vote  in  favour  of  the  expedition  to  Rome  and  the  restoration 
of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the 
and  of  December  1851,  he  confined  himself  to  the  duties  of  his 
pastorate.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  as  well  as  a  popular  and 
eloquent  speaker.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  icth  of  January  1868. 
A  large  collection  of  his  sermons  was  published  in  8  vols.  between 
1819  and  1852.  Other  works  were  Biographie  sacrte  (1825-1826); 
Histoire  sainte  et  analyse  de  la  Bible  (1839);  Orthodoxie  moderne 
(1842);  Christologie  (1858),  &c. 

His  brother,  CHARLES  AUGUSTIN  COQUEREL  (1797-1851),  was 
the  author  of  a  work  on  English  literature  (1828),  an  Essai  sur 
I'histoire  generale  du  christianisme  (1828)  and  a  Histoire  des 
iglises  du  desert,  depuis  la  revocation  dc  Vtd.it  de  Nantes  (1841). 
A  liberal  in  his  views,  he  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the  Annales 
protestantes,  Le  Lien,  and  the  Revue  protestante. 

COQUES  (or  Cocx),  GONZALEZ  (1614-1684),  Flemish  painter, 
son  of  Pieter  Willemsen  Cocx,  a  respectable  Flemish  citizen,  and 
not,  as  his  name  might  imply,  a  Spaniard,  was  born  at  Antwerp. 
At  the  age  of  twelve  he  entered  the  house  of  Pieter,  the  son  of 
"  Hell "  Breughel,  an  obscure  portrait  painter,  and  at  the 
expiration  of  his  time  as  an  apprentice  became  a  journeyman 
in  the  workshop  of  David  Ryckaert  the  second,  under  whom 
he  made  accurate  studies  of  still  life.  At  twenty-six  he  matri- 
culated in  the  gild  of  St  Luke;  he  then  married  Ryckaert's 
daughter,  and  in  1653  joined  the  literary  and  dramatic  club 
known  as  the  "  Retorijkerkamer."  After  having  been  made 
president  of  his  gild  in  1665,  and  in  1671  painter  in  ordinary  to 
Count  Monterey,  governor-general  of  the  Low  Countries,  he 
married  again  in  1674,  and  died  full  of  honours  in  his  native 
place.  One  of  his  canvases  in  the  gallery  at  the  Hague  represents 
a  suite  of  rooms  hung  with  pictures,  in  which  the  artist  himself 
may  be  seen  at  a  table  with  his  wife  and  two  children,  surrounded 
by  masterpieces  composed  and  signed  by  several  contemporaries. 
Partnership  in  painting  was  common  amongst  the  small  masters 
of  the  Antwerp  school;  and  it  has  been  truly  said  of  Coques 
that  he  employed  Jacob  von  Arthois  for  landscapes,  Ghering 
and  van  Ehrenberg  for  architectural  backgrounds,  Steenwijck 
the  younger  for  rooms,  and  Pieter  Gysels  for  still  life  and  flowers; 
but  the  model  upon  which  Coques  formed  himself  was  Van  Dyck, 
whose  sparkling  touch  and  refined  manner  he  imitated  with  great 
success.  He  never  ventured  beyond  the  "cabinet,"  but  in  this 
limited  field  the.  family  groups  of  his  middle  time  are  full  of  life, 


brilliant  from  the  sheen  of  costly  dress  and  sparkling  play  of 
light  and  shade,  combined  with  finished  execution  and  enamelled 
surface. 

COQUET  (pronounced  Cocket),  a  river  of  Northumberland, 
draining  a  beautiful  valley  about  40  m.  in  length.  It  rises  in 
the  Cheviot  Hills.  Following  a  course  generally  easterly,  but 
greatly  winding,  it  passes  Harbottle,  near  which  relics  of  the  Stone 
Age  are  seen,  and  Holystone,  where  it  is  recorded  that  Bishop 
Paulinus  baptized  a  great  body  of  Northumbrians  in  the  year 
627.  Several  earthworks  crown  hills  above  this  part  of  the  valley, 
and  at  Cartington,  Fosson  and  Whitton  are  relics  of  medieval 
border  fortifications.  The  small  town  of  Rothbury  is  beautifully 
situated  beneath  the  rugged  Simonside  Hills.  The  river  dashes 
through  a  narrow  gully  called  the  Thrum,  and  then  passes  Brink- 
burn  priory,  of  which  the  fine  Transitional  Norman  church  was 
restored  to  use  in  1858,  while  there  are  fragments  of  the  monastic 
buildings.  This  was  an  Augustinian  foundation  of  the  time  of 
Henry  I.  The  dale  continues  well  wooded  and  very  beautiful 
until  Warkworth  is  reached,  with  its  fine  castle  and  remarkable 
hermitage.  A  short  distance  below  this  the  Coquet  has  its  mouth 
in  Alnwick  Bay  (North  Sea),  with  the  small  port  of  Amble  on  the 
south  bank,  and  Coquet  Island  a  mile  out  to  sea.  The  river  is 
frequented  by  sportsmen  for  salmon  and  trout  fishing.  No 
important  tributary  is  received,  and  the  drainage  area  does  not 
exceed  240  sq.  m. 

COQUET  (pronounced  co-kette),  to  simulate  the  arts  of  love- 
making,  generally  from  motives  of  personal  vanity,  to  flirt;  in 
a  figurative  sense,  to  trifle  or  dilly-dally  with  anything.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  French  coqueter,  which  originally  means, 
"  to  strut  about  like  a  cock-bird,"  i.e.  when  it  desires  to  attract 
the  hens.  The  French  substantive  coquet,  in  the  sense  of  "  beau  " 
or  '"lady-killer,"  was  formerly  commonly  used  in  English;  but 
the  feminine  form,  coquette,  now  practically  alone  survives,  in  the 
sense  of  a  woman  who  gratifies  her  vanity  by  using  her  powers 
of  attraction  in  a  frivolous  or  inconstant  fashion.  Hence  "  to 
coquet,"  the  original  and  more  correct  form,  has  come  fre- 
quently to  be  written  "  to  coquette."  Coquetry  (Fr.  coquetterie) , 
primarily  the  art  of  the  coquette,  is  used  figuratively  of  any 
dilly-dallying  or  "coquetting"  and,  by  transference  of  idea, 
of  any  superficial  qualities  of  attraction  in  persons  or  things. 
"  Coquet "  is  still  also  occasionally  used  adjectivally,  but 
the  more  usual  form  is  "coquettish";  e.g.  we  speak  of  a 
"  coquettish  manner,"  or  a  "  coquettish  hat."  The  crested 
humming-birds  of  the  genus  Lophornis  are  known  as  coquettes 
(Fr.  coquets). 

COQUIMBO,  an  important  city  and  port  of  the  province  and 
department  of  Coquimbo,  Chile,  in  29°  57'  4"  S.,  7i°2i'  12"  W. 
Pop.  (1895)  7322.  The  railway  connexions  are  with  Ovalle  to 
the  S.,  and  Vkufia  (or  Elqui)  to  the  E.,  but  the  proposed  exten- 
sion northward  of  Chile's  longitudinal  system  would  bring 
Coquimbo  into  direct  communication  with  Santiago.  The  city 
has  a  good  well-sheltered  harbour,  reputed  the  best  in  northern 
Chile,  and  is  the  port  of  La  Serena,  the  provincial  capital,  9  m. 
distant,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  There  are  large 
copper-smelting  establishments  in  the  city,  which  exports  a 
very  large  amount  of  copper,  some  gold  and  silver,  and  cattle 
and  hay  to  the  more  northern  provinces. 

The  province  of  Coquimbo,  which  lies  between  those  of 
Aconcagua  and  Atacama  and  extends  from  the  Pacific  inland 
to  the  Argentine  frontier,  has  an  area  of  13,461  sq.  m.  (official 
estimate)  and  a  population  (1895)  of  160,898.  It  is  less  arid 
than  the  province  of  Atacama,  the  surface  near  the  coast  being 
broken  by  well-watered  river  valleys,  which  produce  alfalfa, 
and  pasture  cattle  for  export.  Near  the  mountains  grapes  are 
grown,  from  which  wine  of  a  good  quality  is  made.  The  mineral 
resources  include  extensive  deposits  of  copper,  and  some  less 
important  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  The  climate  is  dry  and 
healthy,  and  there  are  occasional  rains.  Several  rivers,  the 
largest  of  which  is  the  Coquimbo  (or  Elqui)  with  a  length  of 
125  m.,  cross  the  province  from  the  mountains.  The  capital  is 
La  Serena,  and  the  principal  cities  are  Coquimbo,  Ovalle  (pop. 
5565),  and  Illapel  (3170). 


CORACLE— CORALLIAN 


CORACLE  (Welsh  convg-l,  from  corwg,  cf.  Irish  and  mod.  Gaelic 
curach,  boat),  a  species  of  ancient  British  fishing-boat  which  is 
still  extensively  used  on  the  Severn  and  other  rivers  of  Wales, 
notably  on  the  Towy  and  Teifi.  It  is  a  light  boat,  oval  in  shape, 
and  formed  of  canvas  stretched  on  a  framework  of  split  and 
interwoven  rods,  and  well-coated  with  tar  and  pitch  to  render 
it  water-tight.  According  to  early  writers  the  framework  was 
covered  with  horse  or  bullock  hide  (corium).  So  light  and 
portable  are  these  boats  that  they  can  easily  be  carried  on  the 
fisherman's  shoulders  when  proceeding  to  and  from  his  work. 
Coracle-fishing  is  performed  by  two  men,  each  seated  in  his 
coracle  and  with  one  hand  holding  the  net  while  with  the  other 
he  plies  his  paddle.  When  a  fish  is  caught,  each  hauls  up  his 
end  of  the  net  until  the  two  coracles  are  brought  to  touch  and 
the  fish  is  then  secured.  The  coracle  forms  a  unique  link 
between  the  modern  life  of  Wales  and  its  remote  past;  for  this 
primitive  type  of  boat  was  in  existence  amongst  the  Britons 
at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  has  left  a 
description  of  it,  and  even  employed  it  in  his  Spanish  campaign. 

CORAES  (KoRAls),  ADAMANTIOS  [in  French,  DIAMANT 
CORAY]  (1748-1833),  Greek  scholar  and  patriot,  was  born  at 
Smyrna,  the  son  of  a  merchant.  As  a  schoolboy  he  distinguished 
himself  in  the  study  of  ancient  Greek,  but  from  '1772  to  1779 
he  was  occupied  with  the  management  of  his  father's  business 
affairs  in  Amsterdam.  In  1782,  on  the  collapse  of  his  father's 
business,  he  went  to  Montpellier,  where  for  six  years  he  studied 
medicine,  supporting  himself  by  translating  German  and  English 
medical  works  into  French.  He  then  settled  in  Paris,  where 
he  lived  until  his  death  on  the  loth  of  April  1833.  Inspired 
by  the  ideals  of  the  French  Revolution,  he  devoted  himself  to 
furthering  the  cause  of  Greek  independence  both  among  the 
Greeks  themselves  and  by  awakening  the  interest  of  the  chief 
European  Powers  against  the  Turkish  rule.  His  great  object 
was  to  rouse  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Greeks  for  the  idea  that  they 
were,  the  true  descendants  of  the  ancient  Hellenes  by  teaching 
them  to  regard  as  their  own  inheritance  the  great  works  of 
antiquity.  He  sought  to  purify  the  ordinary  written  language 
by  eliminating  the  more  obvious  barbarisms,  and  by  enriching 
it  with  classical  words  and  others  invented  in  strict  accordance 
with  classical  tradition  (see  further  GREEK  LANGUAGE:  modern). 
Under  his  influence,  though  the  common  patois  was  practically 
untouched,  the  language  of  literature  and  intellectual  inter- 
course was  made  to  approximate  to  the  pure  Attic  of  the  sth 
and  4th  centuries  B.C.  His  chief  works  are  his  editions  of  Greek 
authors  contained  in  his  'EX\7jWK?j  Ei^\u>6rtKij  and  his  Hapepya; 
his  editions  of  the  Characters  of  Theophrastus,  of  the  De  aere, 
aquis,  el  locis  of  Hippocrates,  and  of  the  Aethiopica  of  Heliodorus, 
elaborately  annotated. 

His  literary  remains  have  been  edited  by  Mamoukas  and  Damalas 
(1881-1887);  collections  of  letters  written  from  Paris  at  the  time 
of  the  French  Revolution  have  been  published  (in  English,  by  P.  Ralli, 
1898;  in  French,  by  the  Marquis  de  Queux  de  Saint-Hilaire,  1880). 
His  autobiography  appeared  at  Paris  (1829;  Athens,  1891),  and  his 
life  has  been  written  by  D.  Thereianos  (1889-1890);  see  also  A.  R. 
Rhangabe,  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  Grece  moderne  (1877). 

CORAL,  the  hard  skeletons  of  various  marine  organisms.  It 
is  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  secreted  from  sea-water 
and  deposited  in  the  tissues  of  Anthozoan  polyps,  the  principal 
source  of  the  coral-reefs  of  the  world  (see  ANTHOZOA)  ,  'of  Hydroids 
(see  HYDROMEDUSAE),  less  important  in  modern  reef -building, 
but  extremely  abundant  in  Palaeozoic  times,  and  of  certain 
Algae.  The  skeletons  of  many  other  organisms,  such  as  Polyzoa 

»and  Mollusca,  contribute  to  coral  masses  but  cannot  be  included 
in  the  term  "  coral."  The  structure  of  coral  animals  (sometimes 
erroneously  termed  "coral  insects")  is  dealt  within  the  articles 
cited  above;  for  the  distribution  and  formation  of  reefs  see 

f  CORAL-REEFS. 
Beyond  their  general  utility  and  value  as  sources  of  lime, 
few  of  the  corals  present  any  special  feature  of  industrial  im- 
portance, excepting  the  red  or  precious  coral  (Corallium  rubrum) 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It,  however,  is  and  has  been  from 
remote  times  very  highly  prized  for  jewelry,  personal  orna- 
mentation and  decorative  purposes  generally.  About  the 


beginning  of  the  Christian  era  a  great  trade  was  carried  on  in 
coral  between  the  Mediterranean  and  India,  where  it  was  highly 
esteemed  as  a  substance  endowed  with  mysterious  sacred 
properties.  It  is  remarked  by  Pliny  that,  previous  to  the 
existence  of  the  Indian  demand,  the  Gauls  were  in  the  habit 
of  using  it  for  the  ornamentation  of  their  weapons  of  war  and 
helmets;  but  in  his  day,  so  great  was  the  Eastern  demand,  that 
it  was  very  rarely  seen  even  in  the  regions  which  produced  it. 
Among  the  Romans  branches  of  coral  were  hung  around  children's 
necks  to  preserve  them  from  danger,  and  the  substance  had 
many  medicinal  virtues  attributed  to  it.  A  belief  in  its  potency 
as  a  charm  continued  to  be  entertained  throughout  medieval 
times;  and  even  to  the  present  day  in  Italy  it  is  worn  as  a 
preservative  from  the  evil  eye,  and  by  females  as  a  cure  for 
sterility. 

The  precious  coral  is  found  widespread  on  the  borders  and 
around  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  ranges  in 
depth  from  shallow  water  (25  to  50  ft.)  to  water  over  1000  ft., 
but  the  most  abundant  beds  are  in  the  shallower  areas.  The 
most  important  fisheries  extend  along  the  coasts  of  Tunisia, 
Algeria  and  Morocco;  but  red  coral  is  also  obtained  in  the 
vicinity  of  Naples,  near  Leghorn  and  Genoa,  and  on  the  coasts 
of  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Catalonia  an"d  Provence.  It  occurs  also 
in  the  Atlantic  off  the  north-west  of  Africa,  and  recently  it 
has  been  dredged  in  deep  water  off  the  west  of  Ireland.  Allied 
species  of  small  commercial  value  have  been  obtained  off 
Mauritius  and  near  Japan.  The  black  coral  (Anlipathes  abies), 
formerly  abundant  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  for  which  India  is 
the  chief  market,  has  a  wide  distribution  and  grows  to  a  con- 
siderable height  and  thickness  in  the  tropical  waters  of  the 
Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia. 

From  the  middle  ages  downwards  the  securing  of  the  right 
to  the  coral  fisheries  on  the  African  coasts  was  an  object  of 
considerable  rivalry  among  the  Mediterranean  communities  of 
Europe.  Previous  to  the  i6th  century  they  were  controlled  by 
the  Italian  republics.  For  a  short  period  the  Tunisian  fisheries 
were  secured  by  Charles  V.  to  Spain;  but  the  monopoly  soon 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  who  held  the  right  till  the 
Revolutionary  government  in  1793  threw  the  trade  open.  For 
a  short  period  (about  1806)  the  British  government  controlled 
the  fisheries,  and  now  they  are  again  in  the  hands  of  the  French 
authorities.  Previous  to  the  French  Revolution  much  of  the  coral 
trade  centred  in  Marseilles;  but  since  that  period,  both  the 
procuring  of  the  raw  material  and  the  working  of  it  up  into  the 
various  forms  in  which  it  is  used  have  become  peculiarly  Italian 
industries,  centring  largely  in  Naples,  Rome  and  Genoa.  On 
the  Algerian  coast,  however,  boats  not  flying  the  French  flag 
have  to  pay  heavy  dues  for  the  right  to  fish,  and  in  the  early 
years  of  the  2oth  century  the  once  flourishing  fisheries  at  La 
Calle  were  almost  entirely  neglected.  Two  classes  of  boats 
engage  in  the  pursuit — a  large  size  of  from  1 2  to  14  tons,  manned 
by  ten  or  twelve  hands,  and  a  small  size  of  3  or  4  tons,  with  a 
crew  of  five  or  six.  The  large  boats,  dredging  from  March  to 
October,  collect  from  650  to  850  Ib  of  coral,  and  the  small, 
working  throughout  the  year,  collect  from  390  to  500  Ib.  The 
Algerian  reefs  are  divided  into  ten  portions,  of  which  only  one 
is  fished  annually — ten  years  being  considered  sufficient  for  the 
proper  growth  of  the  coral. 

The  range  of  value  of  the  various  qualities  of  coral,  according 
to  colour  and  size,  is  exceedingly  wide,  and  notwithstanding  the 
steady  Oriental  demand  its  price  is  considerably  affected  by  the 
fluctuations  of  fashion.  While  the  price  of  the  finest  tints  of  rose 
pink  may  range  from  £80  to  £120  per  oz.,  ordinary  red-coloured 
small  pieces  sell  for  about  £2  per  oz.,  and  the  small  fragments 
called  collette,  used  for  children's  necklaces,  cost  about  53.  per 
oz.  In  China  large  spheres  of  good  coloured  coral  command  high 
prices,  being  in  great  requisition  for  the  button  of  office  worn  by 
the  mandarins.  It  also  finds  a  ready  market  throughout  India 
and  in  Central  Asia;  and  with  the  negroes  of  Central  Africa  and 
of  America  it  is  a  favourite  ornamental  substance. 

CORALLIAN  (Fr.  Corallien),  in  geology,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  Jurassic  rocks.  The  rocks  forming  this  division 


132 


CORAL-REEFS 


are  mainly  calcareous  grits  with  oolites,  and  rubbly  coral  rock — 
often  called  "Coral  Rag";  ferruginous  beds  are  fairly  common, 
and  occasionally  there  are  beds  of  clay.  In  England  the  Corallian 
strata  are  usually  divided  into  an  upper  series,  characterized  by 
the  ammonite  Perisphinctes  plicatilis,  and  a  lower  series  with 
A  spidoceras  perarmatus  as  the  zonal  fossil.  When  well  developed 
these  beds  are  seen  to  lie  above  the  Oxford  Clay  and  below  the 
Kimeridge  Clay;  but  it  will  save  a  good  deal  of  confusion  if  it  is 
recognized  that  the  Corallian  rocks  of  England  are  nothing  more 
than  a  variable,  local  lithological  phase  of  the  two  clays  which 
come  respectively  a.bove  and  below  them.  This  caution  is 
particularly  necessary  when  any  attempt  is  being  made  to 
co-ordinate  the  English  with  the  continental  Corallian. 

The  Corallian  rocks  are  nowhere  better  displayed  than  in  the 
cliffs  at  Weymouth.  Here  Messrs  Blake  and  Huddleston  recog- 
nized the  following  beds: — 

(Upper  Coral  Rag  and  Abbotsbury  Iron  Ore. 
Sandsfoot  Grits. 
Sandsfoot  Clay. 
Trigonia  Beds 
Osmington  Oolite  (quarried  at  Marnhull  and 
Todbere). 
[Bencliff  Grits. 

Lower  Corallian  -J  Nothe  Clay. 
[Nothe  Grit. 

In  Dorsetshire  the  Corallian  rocks  are  200  ft.  thick,  in  Wiltshire 
100  ft.,  but  N.E.  of  Oxford  they  are  represented  mainly  by  clays, 
and  the  series  is  much  thinner.  (At  Upware,  the  "Upware 
limestone  "  is  the  only  known  occurrence  of  beds  that  correspond 
in  character  with  the  Coralline  oolite  between  Wiltshire  and 
Yorkshire).  In  Yorkshire,  however,  the  hard  rocky  beds  come 
on  again  in  full  force.  They  appear  once  more  at  Brora  in 
Sutherlandshire.  Corallian  strata  have  been  proved  by  boring 
in  Sussex  (241  ft.).  In  Huntingdon,  Bedfordshire,  parts  of 
Buckinghamshire,  Cambridgeshire  and  Lincolnshire  the 
Corallian  series  is  represented  by  the  "Ampthill  Clay,"  which 
has  also  been  called  "  Bluntesham  "  or  "  Tetworth"  Clay.  Here 
and  there  in  this  district  hard  calcareous  inconstant  beds  appear, 
such  as  the  Elsworth  rock,  St  Ives  rock  and  Boxworth  rock. 

In  Yorkshire  the  Corallian  rocks  differ  in  many  respects  from 
their  southern  equivalents.     They  are  subdivided  as  follows: — 
Upper  Calcareous  Grit 


Kimeridge  % 

Clay       e5 

q 

Oxford       IS 
Clay        5 


Coral  Rag  and  Upper  Lime- 
.j: :          stone 
^  £  I  Middle  Calcareous  Grit 

Lower  Limestone 
•  Passage  Beds 
Lower  Calcareous  Grit 


-A .  plicatilis. 


\A.  perarmatus. 


These  rocks  play  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Vale  of  Pickering,  and  the  Hambleton  and  Howardian  Hills; 
they  are  well  exposed  in  Gristhorpe  Bay. 

The  passage  beds,  highly  siliceous,  flaggy  limestones,  are  known 
locally  as  "Greystone"  or  "Wall  stones";  some  portions  of 
these  beds  have  resisted  the  weathering  agencies  and  stand  up 
prominently  on  the  moors — such  are  the  "  Bridestones."  Cement 
stone  beds  occur  in  the  upper  calcareous  grit  at  North  Grimstone; 
and  in  the  middle  and  lower  calcareous  grits  good  building  stones 
are  found. 

Among  the  fossils  in  the  English  Corallian  rocks  corals  play 
an  important  part,  frequently  forming  large  calcareous  masses 
or  "doggers";  Thamnastrea,  Thecosmilia  and  .  Isastrea  are 
prominent  genera.  Ammonites  and  belemnites  are  abundant 
and  gasteropods  are  very  common  (Nerinea,Chemnitzia,  Bourgelia, 
&c.) .  Trigonias  are  very  numerous  in  certain  beds  (  T.  perlata  and 
T.  mariani).  Astarte  ovala,  Lucina  aliena  and  other  pelecypods 
are  also  abundant.  The  echinoderms  Echinobrissus  scutatus  and 
Cidaris  florigemma  are  characteristic  of  these  beds. 

Rocks  of  the  same  age  as  the  English  Corallian  are  widely 
spread  over  Europe,  but  owing  to  the  absence  of  clearly-marked 
stratigraphical  and  palaeontological  boundaries,  the  nomen- 
clature has  become  greatly  involved,  and  there  is  now  a  tendency 
amongst  continental  geologists  to  omit  the  term  Corallian 
altogether.  According  to  A.  de  Lapparent's  classification  the 


English  Corallian  rocks  are  represented  by  the  Stquanien  stage, 
with  two  substages,  an  upper  Astarlien  and  lower  Rauracien; 
but  this  does  not  include  the  whole  Corallian  stage  as  defined 
above,  the  lower  part  being  placed  by  the  French  author  in  his 
Oxfordien  stage.  For  the  table  showing  the  relative  position  of 
these  stages  see  the  article  JURASSIC. 

See  also  "  The  Jurassic  Rocks  of  Great  Britain,"  vol.  i.  (1892) 
and  vol.  v.  (1805)  (Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey);  Blake  and 
Huddleston,  "  On  the  Corallian  Rocks  of  England,  Q.J.G.S.  vol. 
xxxiii.  (1877).  0-  A.  H.) 

CORAL-REEFS.  Many  species  of  coral  (q.v.)  are  widely 
distributed,  and  are  found  at  all  depths  both  in  warmer  and  colder 
seas.  Lophohelia  prolifera  and  Dendrophyllia  ramea  form  dense 
beds  at  a  depth  of  from  100  to  200  fathoms  off  the  coasts  of 
Norway,  Scotland  and  Portugal,  and  the  "  Challenger/'  and  other 
deep-sea  dredging  expeditions  have  brought  up  corals  from  great 
depths  in  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans.  But  the  larger 
number  of  species,  particularly  the  more  massive  kinds,  occur 
only  in  tropical  seas  in  shallow  waters,  whose  mean  temperature 
does  not  fall  below  68°  Fahr.,  and  they  do  not  flourish  unless 
the  temperature  is  considerably  higher.  These  conditions  of 
temperature  are  found  in  a  belt  of  ocean  which  may  roughly  be 
indicated  as  lying  between  the  28th  N.  and  S.  parallels.  Within 
these  limits  there  are  numerous  reefs  and  islands  formed  of  coral 
intermixed  with  the  calcareous  skeletons  of  other  animals,  and 
their  formation  has  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute  among 
naturalists  and  geologists. 

Coral  formations  may  be  classed  as  fringing  or  shore  reefs, 
barrier  reefs  and  atolls.  Fringing  reefs  are  platforms  of  coral 
rock  extending  no  great  distance  from  the  shores  of  a  continent 
or  island.  The  seaward  edge  of  the  platform  is  usually  somewhat 
higher  than  the  inner  part,  and  is  often  awash  at  low  water. 
It  is  intersected  by  numerous  creeks  and  channels,  especially 
opposite  those  places  where  streams  of  fresh  water  flow  down 
from  the  land,  and  there  is  usually  a  channel  deep  enough  to  be 
navigable  by  small  boats  between  the  edge  of  the  reef  and  the 
land.  The  outer  wall  of  the  reef  is  rather  steep,  but  descends 
into  a  comparatively  shallow  sea.  Since  corals  are  killed  by 
fresh  water  or  by  deposition  of  mud  or  sand,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  outer  edge  of  the  reef  is  the  region  of  most  active  coral  growth, 
and  the  boat  channel  and  the  passages  leading  into  it  from  the 
open  sea  have  been  formed  by  the  suppression  of  coral  growth 
by  one  of  the  above-mentioned  causes,  assisted  by  the  scour 
of  the  tides  and  the  solvent  action  of  sea-water.  Barrier  reefs 
may  be  regarded  as  fringing  reefs  on  a  large  scale.  The  great 
Australian  barrier  reef  extends  for  no  less  a  distance  than  1 250  m. 
from  Torres  Strait  in  9-5°  S.  lat.  to  Lady  Elliot  island  in  24°  S. 
lat.  The  outer  edge  of  a  barrier  reef  is  much  farther  from  the 
shore  than  that  of  a  fringing  reef,  and  the  channel  between  it  and 
the  land  is  much  deeper.  Opposite  Cape  York  the  seaward  edge 
of  the  great  Australian  barrier  reef  is  nearly  90  m.  distant  from 
the  coast,  and  the  maximum  depth  of  the  channel  at  this  point 
is  nearly  20  fathoms.  As  is  the  case  in  a  fringing  reef,  the  outer 
edge  of  a  barrier  reef  is  in  many  places  awash  at  low  tides,  and 
masses  of  dead  coral  and  sand  may  be  piled  up  on  it  by  the  action 
of  the  waves,  so  that  islets  are  formed  which  in  time  are  covered 
with  vegetation.  These  islets  may  coalesce  and  form  a  strip 
of  dry  land  lying  some  hundred  yards  or  less  from  the  extreme 
outer  edge  of  the  reef,  and  separated  by  a  wide  channel  from  the 
mainland.  Where  the  barrier  reef  is  not  far  from  the  land  there 
are  always  gaps  in  it  opposite  the  mouths  of  rivers  or  considerable 
streams.  The  outer  wall  of  a  barrier  reef  is  steep,  and  frequently, 
though  not  always,  descends  abruptly  into  great  depths.  In 
many  cases  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  a  barrier  reef  surrounds  one  or 
more  island  peaks,  and  the  strips  of  land  on  the  edge  of  the  reef 
may  encircle  the  peaks  with  a  nearly  complete  ring.  An  atoll 
is  a  ring-shaped  reef,  either  awash  at  low  tide  or  surmounted  by 
several  islets,  or  more  rarely  by  a  complete  strip  of  dry  land 
surrounding  a  central  lagoon.  The  outer  wall  of  an  atoll  generally 
descends  with  a  very  steep  but  irregular  slope  to  a  depth  of  500 
fathoms  or  more,  but  the  lagoon  is  seldom  more  than  20  fathoms 
deep,  and  may  be  much  less.  Frequently,  especially  to  the 


CORAL-REEFS 


133 


leeward  side  of  an  atoll,  there  may  be  one  or  more  navigable 
passages  leading  from  the  lagoon  to  the  open  sea. 

Though  corals  flourish  everywhere  under  suitable  conditions  in 
tropical  seas,  coral  reefs  and  atolls  are  by  no  means  universal  in  the 
torrid  zone.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  is  remarkably  free  from  coral 
formations,  though  there  are  numerous  reefs  in  the  West  Indian 
islands,  off  the  south  coast  of  Florida,  and  on  the  coast  of  Brazil. 
The  Bermudas  also  are  coral  formations,  their  high  land  being 
formed  by  sand  accumulated  by  the  wind  and  cemented  into 
rock,  and  are  remarkable  for  being  the  farthest  removed  from  the 
equator  of  any  recent  reefs,  being  situated  in  32°  N.  lat.  In  the 
Pacific  Ocean  there  is  a  vast  area  thickly  dotted  with  coral 
formations,  extending  from  5°  N.  lat.  1025°  S.  lat.,  and  from  130° 
E.  long,  to  145°  W.  long.  There  are  also  extensive  reefs  in  the 
westernmost  islands  of  the  Hawaiian  group  in  about  25°  N.  lat. 
In  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Laccadive  and  Maldive  islands  are 
large  groups  of  atolls  off  the  west  and  south-west  of  India.  Still 
farther  south  is  the  Chagos  group  of  atolls,  and  there  are  numerous 
reefs  off  the  north  coast  of  Madagascar,  at  Mauritius,  Bourbon  and 
the  Seychelles.  The  Cocos-Keeling  Islands,  in  1 2°  S.  lat.  and  g6°E. 
long.,  are  typical  atolls  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Theremarkablecharactersof  barrier  reefsand  atolls,  their  isolat- 
ed position  in  the  midst  of  the  great  oceans  the  seemingly  unfath- 
omable depths  from  which  they  rise  their  peaceful  and  shallow 
lagoons  and  inner  channels,  their  narrow  strips  of  land  covered 
with  coco-nut  palms  and  other  vegetation,  and  rising  but  a  few 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  naturally  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  earlier  navigators,  who  formed  sundry  speculations  as  to 
their  origin.  The  poet-naturalist,  A.  von  Chamisso,  was  the  first 
to  propound  a  definite  theory  of  the  origin  of  atolls  and  encircling 
reefs,  attributing  their  peculiar  features  to  the  natural  growth  of 
corals  and  the  action  of  the  waves.  He  pointed  out  that  the 
larger  and  more  massive  species  of  corals  flourish  best  on  the 
outer  sides  of  a  reef,  whilst  the  more  interior  corals  are  killed  or 
stunted  in  growth  by  the  accumulation  of  coral  and  other  debris. 
Thus  the  outer  edge  of  a  submerged  reef  is  the  first  to  reach  the 
surface,  and  a  ring  of  land  being  formed  by  materials  piled  up  by 
the  waves,  an  atoll  with  a  central  lagoon  is  produced.  Chamisso's 
theory  necessarily  assumed  the  existence  of  a  great  number  of 
submerged  banks  reaching  nearly,  but  not  quite,  to  the  surface  of 
the  sea  in  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans,  and  the  difficulty  of 
accounting  for  the  existence  of  so  many_of  these  led  C.  Darwin  to 
reject  his  views  and  bring  forward  an  explanation  which  may  be 
called  the  theory  of  subsidence.  Starting  from  the  well-known 
premise  that  reef-building  species  of  corals  do  not  flourish  in  a 
greater  depth  of  water  than  20  fathoms,  Darwin  argued  that  all 


Diagram  showing  the  formation  of  an  atoll  during  subsidence. 
(After  C.  Darwin.)  The  lower  part  of  the  figure  represents  a  barrier 
reef  surrcunding  a  central  peak. 

A,A,  outer  edges  of  the  barrier  reef  at  the  sea-level;  the  coco- 
nut trees  indicate  dry  land  formed  on  the  edges  of  the  reef. 

L  L,  lagoon  channel. 

A',A',  outer  edges  of  the  atoll  formed  by  upgrowth  of  the  coral 
during  the  subsidence  of  the  peak. 

L',  lagoon  of  the  atoll. 

The  vertical  scab  is  considerably  exaggerated  as  compared  with 
the  horizontal  scale. 

coral  islands  must  have  a  rocky  base,  and  that  it  was  inconceivable 
that,  in  such  large  tracts  of  sea  as  occur  in  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans,  there  should  be  a  vast  number  of  submarine  peaks  or 
banks  all  rising  to  within  20  or  30  fathoms  of  the  surface  and  none 
emerging  above  it.  But  on  the  supposition  that  the  atolls  and 


encircling  reefs  were  formed  round  land  which  was  undergoing 
a  slow  movement  of  subsidence,  their  structure  could  easily  be 
explained.  Take  the  case  of  an  island  consisting  of  a  single  high 
peak.  At  first  the  coral  growth  would  form  a  fringing  reef 
clinging  to  its  shores.  As  the  island  slowly  subsided  into  the 
ocean  the  upward  growth  of  coral  would  keep  the  outer  rim  of 
the  reef  level'with  or  within  a  few  fathoms  of  the  surface,  so  that, 
as  subsidence  proceeded,  the  distance  between  the  outer  rim  of 
the  reef  and  the  sinking  land  would  continually  increase,  with  the 
result  that  a  barrier-reef  would  be  formed  separated  by  a  wide 
channel  from  the  central  peak.  As  corals  and  other  organisms 
with  calcareous  skeletons  live  in  the  channel,  their  remains,  as  well 
as  the  accumulation  of  coral  and  other  debris  thrown  over  the 
outer  edge  of  the  reef,  would  maintain  the  channel  at  a  shallower 
depth  than  that  of  the  ocean  outside.  Finally,  if  the  subsidence 
continued,  the  central  peak  would  disappear  beneath  the  surface, 
and  an  atoll  would  he  left  consisting  of  a  raised  margin  of  reef 
surrounding  a  central  lagoon,  and  any  pause  during  the  move- 
ment of  subsidence  would  result  in  the  formation  of  raised  islets  or 
a  strip  of  dry  land  along  the  margin  of  the  reef.  Darwin's 
theory  was  published  in  1842,  and  found  almost  universal 
acceptance,  both  because  of  its  simplicity  and  its  applicability  to 
every  known  type  of  coral-reef  formation,  including  such  difficult 
cases  as  the  Great  Chagos  Bank,  a  huge  submerged  atoll  in  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

Darwin's  theory  was  adopted  and  strengthened  by  J.  D.  Dana, 
who  had  made  extensive  observations  among  the  Pacific  coral 
reefs  between  1838  and  1842,  but  it  was  not  long  before  it  was 
attacked  by  other  observers.  In  1851  Louis  Agassiz  produced 
evidence  to  show  that  the  reefs  off  the  south  coast  of  Florida  were 
not  formed  during  subsidence,  and  in  1863  Karl  Semper  showed 
that  in  the  Pelew  islands  there  is  abundant  evidence  of  recent 
upheaval  in  a  region  where  both  atolls  and  barrier-reefs  exist. 
Latterly,  many  instances  of  recently  upraised  coral  formations 
have  been  described  by  H.  B.  Guppy,  J.  S.  Gardiner  and  others, 
and  Alexander  Agassiz  and  Sir  J.  Murray  have  brought  forward 
a  mass  of  evidence  tending  to  shake  the  subsidence  theory  to  its 
foundations.  Murray  has  pointed  out  that  the  deep-sea  sound- 
ings of  the  "  Tuscarora  "  and  "  Challenger  "  have  proved  the 
existence  of  a  large  number  of  submarine  elevations  rising  out  of  a 
depth  of  2000  fathoms  or  more  to  within  a  few  hundred  fathoms 
of  the  surface.  The  existence  of  such  banks  was  unknown  to 
Darwin,  and  removes  his  objections  to  Chamisso's  theory.  For 
although  they  may  at  first  be  too  far  below  the  surface  for  reef- 
building  corals,  they  afford  a  habitat  for  numerous  echinoderms, 
molluscs,  Crustacea  and  deep-sea  corals,  whose  skeletons 
accumulate  on  their  summits,  and  they  further  receive  a  constant 
rain  of  the  calcareous  and  silicious  skeletons  of  minute  organisms 
which  teem  in  the  waters  above.  By  these  agencies  the  banks  are 
gradually  raised  to  the  lowest  depth  at  which  reef-building 
corals  can  flourish,  and  once  these  establish  themselves  they  will 
grow  more  rapidly  on  the  periphery  of  the  bank,  because  they  are 
more  favourably  situated  as  regards  food-supply.  Thus  the  reef 
will  rise  to  the  surface  as  an  atoll,  and  the  nearer  it  approaches 
the  surface  the  more  will  the  corals  on  the  exterior  faces  be 
favoured,  and  the  more  will  those  in  the  centre  of  the  reef  decrease, 
for  experiment  has  shown  that  the  minute  pelagic  organisms  on 
which  corals  feed  are  far  less  abundant  in  a  lagoon  than  in  the  sea 
outside.  Eventually,  as  the  margin  of  the  reef  rises  to  the  surface 
and  material  is  accumulated  upon  it  to  form  islets  or  continuous 
land,  the  coral  growth  in  the  lagoon  will  be  feeble,  and  the  solvent 
action  of  sea- water  and  the  scour  of  the  tide  will  tend  to  deepen  the 
lagoon.  Thus  the  considerable  depth  of  some  lagoons,  amounting 
to  40  or  50  fathoms,  may  be  accounted  for.  The  observations  of 
Guppy  in  the  Solomon  islands  have  gone  far  to  confirm  Murray's 
conclusions,  since  he  found  in  the  islands  of  Ugi,  Santa  Anna  and 
Treasury  and  Stirling  islands  unmistakable  evidences  of  a  nucleus 
of  volcanic  rock,  covered  with  soft  earthy  bedded  deposits 
several  hundred  feet  thick.  These  deposits  are  highly  fossili- 
ferous  in  parts,  and  contain  the  remains  of  pteropods,  lamelli- 
branchs  and  echinoderms,  embedded  in  a  foraminiferous  deposit 
mixed  with  volcanic  debris,  like  the  deep-sea  muds  brought  up  by 


V 


134 


CORAM— COR  ANGLAIS 


the  "Challenger."  The  flanks  of  these  elevated  beds  are  covered 
with  coralline  limestone  rocks  varying  from  100  to  16  ft.  in 
thickness.  One  of  the  islands,  Santa  Anna,  has  the  form  of  an 
upraised  atoll,  with  a  mass  of  coral  limestone  80  ft.  in  vertical 
thickness,  resting  on  a  friable  and  sparingly  argillaceous  rock 
resembling  a  deep-sea  deposit.  A.  Agassiz,  in  a  number  of 
important  researches  on  the  Florida  reefs,  the  Bahamas,  the 
Bermudas,  the  Fiji  islands  and  the  Great  Barrier  Reef  of 
Australia,  has  further  shown  that  many  of  the  peculiar  features  of 
these  coral  formations  cannot  be  explained  on  the  theory  of 
subsidence,  but  are  rather  attributable  to  the  natural  /growth  of 
corals  on  banks  formed  by  prevailing  currents,  or  on  extensive 
shore  platforms  or  submarine  flats  formed  by  the  erosion  of 
pre-existing  land  surfaces. 

In  face  of  this  accumulated  evidence,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  subsidence  theory  of  Darwin  is  inapplicable  to  a  large 
number  of  coral  reefs  and  islands,  but  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
assert,  as  Murray  does,  that  no  atolls  or  barrier  reefs  have  ever 
been  developed  after  the  manner  indicated  by  Darwin.     The 
most  recent  research  on  the  structure  of  coral  reefs  has  also  been 
the  most  thorough  and  most  convincing.     It  is  obvious  that, 
if  Murray's  theory  were  correct,  a  bore  hole  sunk  deep  into  an 
atoll  would  pass  through  some  100  ft.  of  coral  rock,  then  through 
a  greater  or  less  thickness  of  argillaceous  rock,  and  finally  would 
penetrate  the  volcanic  rock  on  which  the  other  materials  were 
deposited.     If  Darwin's  theory  is  correct,  the  boring  would  pass 
through  a  great  thickness  of  coral  rock,  and  finally,  if  it  went 
deep  enough,  would  pass  into  the  original  rock  which  subsided 
below  the  waters.     An  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  started  in  1896  for  the  island  of  Funafuti,  a  typical 
atoll  of  the  Ellice  group  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  with  the  purpose  of 
making  a  deep  boring  to  test  this  question.     The  first  attempt 
was  not  successful,  for  at  a  depth  of  105  ft.  the  refractory  nature 
of  the  rock  stopped  further  progress.     But  a  second  attempt, 
under  the  management  of  Professor  Edgeworth  David  of  Sydney, 
proved  a  complete  success.     With  improved  apparatus,  the  boring 
was  carried  down  to  a  depth  of  697  ft.  (116  fathoms),  and  a  third 
attempt  carried  it  down  to  1114  ft.  (185  fathoms).     The  boring 
proves  the  existence  of  a  mass  of  pure  limestone  of  organic  origin 
to  the  depth  of  1114  ft.,  and  there  is  no  trace  of  any  other  rock. 
The  organic  remains  found  in  the  core  brought  up  by  the  drill 
consist    of    corals,    foraminifera,    calcareous    algae    and    other 
organisms.    A  boring  was  also  made  from  the  deck  of  a  ship 
into  the  floor  of  the  lagoon,  which  shows  that  under  100  ft.  of 
water  there  exists  at  the  bottom  of  the  lagoon  a  deposit  more 
than  100  ft.  thick,  consisting  of  the  remains  of  a  calcareous  alga, 
Halimeda  opuntia,  mixed  with  abundant  foraminifera.    At  greater 
depths,  down  to  245  ft.,  the  same  materials,  mixed  with  the  re- 
mains of  branching  madrepores,  were  met  with,  and  further 
progress  was  stopped  by  the  existence  of  solid  masses  of  coral, 
fragments  of  porites,  madrepora   and   heliopora  having  been 
brought  up  in  the  core.     These  are  shallow-water  corals,  and  their 
existence  at  a  depth  of  nearly  46  fathoms,  buried  beneath  a  mass 
of  Halimeda  and  foraminifera,  is  clear  evidence  of  recent  sub- 
sidence.    Halimeda  grows  abundantly  over  the  floor  of  the  lagoon 
of  Funafuti,  and  has  been  observed  in  many  other  lagoons.    The 
writer  collected  a  quantity  of  it  in  the  lagoon  of  Diego  Garcia 
in  the  Chagos  group.     The  boring  demonstrates  that  the  lagoon 
of  Funafuti  has  been  filled  up  to  an  extent  of  at  least  245  ft. 
(nearly  41  fathoms),  and  this  fact  accords  well  with  Darwin's 
theory,  but  is  incompatible  with  that  of  Murray.     In  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  coral 
reefs  are  formed  wherever  the  conditions  suitable  for  growth 
exist,  whether  in  areas  of  subsidence,  elevation  or  rest.     A  con- 
siderable number  of  reefs,  at  all  events,  have  not  been  formed 
in  areas  of  subsidence,  and   of   these   the   Florida   reefs,   the 
Bermudas,  the  Solomon  islands,  and  possibly  the  Great  Barrier 
Reef  of  Australia  are  examples.     Funafuti  would  appear  to  have 
been  formed  in  an  area  of  subsidence,  and  it  is  quite  probable 
that  the  large  groups  of  low-lying  islands  in  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  oceans  have  been  formed  under  the  same  conditions. 
At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  atoll  or  barrier 


reef  shape  is  not  necessarily  evidence  of  formation  during  sub- 
sidence, for  the  observations  of  Karl  Semper,  A.  Agassiz,  and 
Guppy  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  these  forms  of  reefs  may  be 
produced  by  the  natural  growth  of  coral,  modified  by  the  action 
of  waves  and  currents  in  regions  in  which  subsidence  has  certainly 
not  taken  place. 

See  A.  Agassiz,  many  publications  in  the  Mem.  Amer.  Acad- 
(1883)  and  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  (Harvard,  1889-1899);  J.  D. 
Dana,  Corals  and  Coral  Islands  (1853 ;  2nd  ed.,  1872 ;  3rd  ed.,  1890) ; 
C.  Darwin,  The  Structure  and  Distribution  of  Coral  Reefs  (3rd  ed., 
1889);  H.  B.  Guppy,  "  The  Recent  Calcareous  Formations  of  the 
Solomon  Group,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb.  xxxii.  (1885) ;  R. 
Langenbeck,  "  Die  neueren  Forschungen  iiber  die  Korallenriffe," 
Hetlner  geogr.  Zeitsch.  iii.  (1897) ;  J.  Murray,  "  On  the  Structure 
and  Origin  of  Coral  Reefs  and  Islands,"  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb.  x. 
(1879-1880);  J.  Murray  and  Irvine,  "On  Coral  Reefs  and  other 
Carbonate  of  Lime  Formations  in  Modern  Seas,"  Proc.  Roy.  Soc. 
Edinb.  (1889);  W.  Savile  Kent,  The  Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia 
(London,  W.  H.  Allen  &  Co.,  1893);  Karl  Semper,  Animal  Life, 
"  Internat.  Sci.  Series,"  vol.  xxxi.  (1881);  J.  S.  Gardiner,  Nature, 
Ixix.  371.  (G.  C.  B.) 

CORAM,  THOMAS  (1668-1751),  English  philanthropist, 
was  born  at  Lyme  Regis,  Dorset.  He  began  life  as  a  seaman, 
and  rose-  to  the  position  of  merchant  captain.  He  settled  at 
Taunton,  Massachusetts,  for  several  years  engaging  there  in 
farming  and  boat-building,  and  in  1703  returned  to  England. 
His  acquaintance  with  the  destitute  East  End  of  London,  and 
the  miserable  condition  of  the  children  there,  inspired  him  with 
the  idea  of  providing  a  refuge  for  such  of  them  as  had  no  legal 
protector;  and  after  seventeen  years  of  unwearied  exertion, 
he  obtained  in  1739  a  royal  charter  authorizing  the  establishment 
of  his  hospital  for  foundling  infants  (see  FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS). 
It  was  opened  in  Hatton  Garden,  on  the  I7th  of  October  1740, 
•with  twenty  inmates.  For  fifteen  years  it  was  supported  by 
voluntary  contributions;  but  in  1756  it  was  endowed  with  a 
parliamentary  grant  of  £10,000  for  the  support  of  all  that  might 
be  sent  to  it.  Children  were  brought,  however,  in  such  numbers, 
and  so  few  (not  one-third,  it  is  said)  survived  infancy,  that  the 
grant  was  stopped,  and  the  charity,  which  had  been  removed 
to  Guilford  Street,  was  from  that  time  only  administered  under 
careful  restrictions.  Coram's  later  years  were  spent  in  watching 
over  the  interests  of  the  hospital;  he  was  also  one  of  the  pro- 
moters of  the  settlement  of  Georgia  and  Nova  Scotia;  and  his 
name  is  honourably  connected  with  various  other  charities. 
In  carrying  out  his  philanthropic  schemes  he  spent  nearly  all 
his  private  means;  and  an  annuity  of  £170  was  raised  for  him 
by  public  subscription.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  March  1751. 

COR  ANGLAIS,  or  ENGLISH  HORN  (Ger.  englisches  Horn  or 
alt  Hoboe;  Ital.  corno  inglese),  a  wood-wind  double-reed  instru- 
ment of  the  oboe  family,  of  which  it  is  the  tenor.  It  is  not  a  horn, 
but  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  oboe  as  the  basset  horn  does 
to  the  clarinet.  The  cor  anglais  differs  slightly  in  construction 
from  the  oboe;  the  conical  bore  of  the  wooden  tube  is  wider  and 
slightly  longer,  and  there  is  a  larger  globular  bell  and  a  bent  metal 
crook  to  which  the  double  reed  mouthpiece  is  attached.  The 
fingering  and  method  of  producing  the  sound  are  so  similar  in 
both  instruments  that  the  player  of  the  one  can  in  a  short  time 
master  the  other,  but  as  the  cor  anglais  is  pitched  a  fifth  lower, 
the  music  must  be  transposed  for  it  into  a  key  a  fifth  higher  than 
the  real  sounds  produced.  The  compass  of  the  cor  anglais  extends 
over  two  octaves  and  a  fifth: 


Notation  i 


Real  sounds 


The  true  quality  of  the  cor  anglais  is  penetrating  like  that  of 
the  oboe,  but  mellower  and  more  melancholy. 

The  cor  anglais  is  the  alto  Pommer  (q.v.)  or  haute-contre  de 
hautbois  (see  OBOE),  gradually  developed,  improved  and  provided 
with  key-work.  It  is  not  known  exactly  when  the  change  took 
place,  but  it  was  probably  during  the  I7th  century,  after  the 
Schalmey  or  Shawm  had  been  transformed  into  the  oboe.  In  a 
1 7th  century  MS.  (Add.  30,342,  f.  145)  irt  the  British  Museum, 
written  in  French,  giving  pen  and  ink  sketches  of  many  instru- 
ments, is  an  "  accord  de  hautbois  "  which  comprises  a  pedatte 


CORATO— CORBEIL,  WILLIAM  OF 


135 


(bass  oboe  or  Pommer),  a  sacquebute  (sackbut)  as  basse-conlre, 
a  tattle  (tenor)  with  a  note  that  the  haute-contre  (the  cor  anglais) 
est  de  mesme  sinon  plus  petite.  The  tubes  of  all  the  members  of 
the  hautbois  family  are  straight  in  this  drawing.  Before  1688 
the  French  hoboy,  made  in  four  parts  and  having  two  keys,  was 
known  in  England.1  It  is  probable  that  in  France,  where  the 
hautbois  played  such  an  important  part  in  court  music,  the  cor 
anglais,  under  the  name  of  haute-contre  de  hautbois,  was  also 
provided  with  keys.  At  the  end  of  the  lyth  century  there  were 
two  players  of  the  haute-contre  de  hautbois  among  the  musicians 
of  the  Grande  Ecurie  du  Roi.2 

The  origin  of  the  name  of  the  instrument  is  also  a  matter  of 
conjecture.  Two  theories  exist — one  that  cor  anglais  is  a  corruption 
of  cor  angle,  a  name  given  on  account  of 
the  angular  bend  of  the  early  specimens. 

In  that  case  the  name, 

but  not  necessarily  the 

instrument,  probably 

originated     in     France 

early  in  the  1 8th  century, 

for  Gluck  scored  for  two 

cors  anglais  in  his  Italian 

version  of  Alceste  played 

in  Vienna  in  1767.  When 

a  French  version  of  this 

opera  was  given  in  Paris 

two  years  later,  the  cor 

anglais, not  being  known 

or  available  there,  was 

replaced  by  oboes.     It 

was  not  until  1808  that 

the     cor     anglais     was 

heard  at  the  Paris  Opera, 

when  it  was  played  by 

the  oboist  Vogt  in  Catel's 

Alexandre    chez    Apelle. 

This,    however,    proves 

only  that  the  name  was 

not  familiar  in  France, 

where  the  oboe  of  the 

same   pitch   was  called 

haute-contre  de  hautbois. 

The  bending  of  the  tube 

and  the  development  of 

the  cor  anglais  as  solo 

instrument  originated  in 

Germany,     unless     the 

oboe  da  caccia  was  identi- 
cal with  the  cor  anglais, 

in     which     case     Italy 

would  be  the  country  of 

origin.          Thomas 

Stanesby,  junior,  made 

an    oboe    da    caccia    in 

J74O  of  straight  pattern 

in  four  pieces,  having  a 

bent  metal  crook  for  the 

insertion  of  the  reed  and 

two    saddle    keys;    but 

the  bell  was  like  the  bell 

of  the  oboe,  not  globular 

like    that    of    the    cor 

anglais,  a  form  to  which 

the  veiled  quality  of  its 

timbre  is  due.     It  is  in- 
teresting   in    this    con- 
TIG.  i. —Modern     nexion    to    recall    some 
Cor  anglais.         experiments  in  bending 
(Besson&Co.)      the  cor  anglais,   which 

do  not  appear  to  have 

to  any  practical  result.  A  French  broadside  (c.  1650),  "  La 
Musique,"  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  contains  drawings 
of  many  musical  instruments  in  use  in  the  1 7th  century; 
among  them  are  an  oboe  with  keys  in  a  perforated  case,  and  two 
other  wood  wind  instruments  of  the  same  family,  which  may  be 
taken  to  represent  attempts  to  dispose  of  the  inconvenient  length  of 
the  haute-contre  (l)  by  bending  the  tube  at  right  angles  for  about  one 
quarter  of  its  length  from  the  mouthpiece,  which  contains  a  large 

1  See  Harleian  MS.  2034,  f.  2O7b,  British  Museum,  in  the  third 
part  of  Randle  Holme's  Academy  of  Armoury,  written  before  1688, 
where  an  outline  sketch  in  ink  is  also  given. 

*  See  J.  Ecorcheville,  "  Quelques  documents  sur  la  musicjue  de  la 
Grande  Ecurie  du  Roi,"  Sammelband  intern.  Musikges,  ii.  4,  pp. 
609  and  625.  Deeds  exist  creating  charges  for  four  hautbois  and 
musettes  de  Poitou  in  the  hand  of  King  John,  middle  of  I4th  century, 
see  p.  633. 


From  Richard  Hofmann's 
Katechismus  der  Musik- 
instrumtnte. 

FIG.  2. — Cor  angle1, 
i 8th  century. 


double  reed,  (2)  by  bending  the  tube  in  the  elongated  "  S  "  shape  of 
the  corno  torto  or  bass  Zinke,  for  which  the  drawing  in  question 
might  be  mistaken  but  for  the  bent  crook  inserted  in  the  end  for  the 
reception  of  the  reed,  which,  however,  is  missing.  The  other  hypo- 
thesis is  that  when  the  cor  anglais  was  given  a  bend  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  handling,  the  name  was  adopted  to  mark  its  resemblance 
to  a  kind  of  hunting-horn  said  to  be  in  use  in  England  at  the  time. 
This  suggestion  does  not  seem  to  be  a  happy  one ;  for  if  the  reference 
be  to  the  crescent-shaped  horn,  that  instrument  was  in  use  in  all 
countries  at  various  periods  before  the  1 7th  century,  while  if  it  be 
to  the  angular  form,  then  a  reproduction  of  such  a  horn  should  be 
forthcoming  to  support  the  statement. 

The  idea  of  bending  the  instrument  is  attributed  to  Giovanni  or 
Giuseppe  Ferlendis  of  Bergamo,3  brothers  and  virtuosi  on  the  oboe. 
One  of  these  had  settled  in  Salzburg,  and  both  were  equally  renowned 
as  performers  on  the  English  horn.  They  visited  Venice,  Brescia, 
Trieste,  Vienna,  London  (in  1795)  and  Lisbon,  where  Giuseppe  died. 
In  this  case  we  might  expect  the  name  to  have  been  given  in  Italian, 
corno  inglese;  yet  Gluck  in  his  Italian  edition  used  the  French  name 
already  in  1767,  when  Giuseppe  was  but  twelve  years  old.  We  must 
await  some  more  conclusive  explanation,  but  we  may  suppose  that 
the  new  name  was  bestowed  when  the  instrument  assumed  a  form 
entirely  new  to  the  family  of  hautbois  or  oboes.  The  cor  anglais 
was  well  known  in  England  before  1 774,  for  in  a  quaint  book  of  travels 
through  England,  published  in  that  year,  we  read  that  Signer 
Sougelder,4  an  eminent  surgeon  of  Bristol,"  was  a  performer  '  on 
the  English  horn." 

The  experiment  of  bending  the  cor  anglais  did  not  prove  satis- 
factory, for  the  tube  instead  of  being  bored  had  to  be  cut  out  of  two 
pieces  of  wood  which  were  then  glued  together  and  covered  with 
leather.  Even  the  most  skilful  craftsman  did  not  succeed  in  making 
the  inside  of  the  tube  quite  smooth ;  the  roughness  of  the  wood  was 
detrimental  to  the  tone  and  gave  the  cor  anglais  a  veiled,  somewhat 
hoarse  quality,  and  makers  before  long  reverted  to  the  direct  or 
vertical  form.  (K.  S.) 

CORATO,  a  city  of  Apulia,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Bari, 
26  m.  W.  of  Bari  by  steam  tramway.  Pop.  (1901)  41,573.  It 
is  situated  in  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  district.  It  contains 
no  buildings  of  great  interest,  but  is  a  clean  and  well-kept  town. 

CORBAN  (!3"!B),  an  Aramaic  word  meaning  "  a  conse- 
crated gift."  Josephus  uses  the  word  of  Nazirites  and  of  the 
temple  treasure  of  Jerusalem.  Such  a  votive  offering  lay  under 
a  curse  if  it  were  diverted  to  ordinary  purposes,  like  the  spoil 
of  Jericho  which  Achan  appropriated  (Josh,  vii.),  or  the  temple 
treasure  of  Delphi  which  was  seized  by  the  Phocians,  356  B.C. 
The  word  is  found  in  Mark  vii.  n,  the  usual  interpretation  of 
which  is  that  Jesus  refers  to  an  abuse — a  man  might  declare 
that  any  part  of  his  property  which  came  into  his  parents'  hands 
was  corban,  consecrated,  i.e.  that  a  curse  rested  on  any  benefit 
they  might  get  from  it.  The  Jewish  scribes  thus  fenced  the  law 
of  vows  with  a  traditional  interpretation  which  made  men  break 
the  most  binding  injunctions  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  in  this  case 
the  fifth  commandment.  A  totally  different  explanation  of  the 
passage  is  put  forward  by  J.  H.  A.  Hart  in  The  Jewish  Quarterly 
Review  for  July  1907,  the  gist  of  which  is  that  Jesus  commends 
the  Pharisees  for  insisting  that  when  a  man  has  vowed  a 
vow  to  God  he  should  pay  it  even  though  his  parents  should 
suffer. 

CORBEIL,  WILLIAM  OF  (d.  1136),  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  born  probably  at  Corbeil  on  the  Seine,  and  was  educated 
at  Laon.  He  was  soon  in  the  service  of  Ranulf  Flambard, 
bishop  of  Durham;  then,  having  entered  the  order  of  St 
Augustine,  he  became  prior  of  the  Augustinian  foundation  at 
St  Osyth  in  Essex.  At  the  beginning  of  1123  he  was  chosen 
from  among  several  candidates  to  be  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  as  he  refused  to  admit  that  Thurstan,  archbishop  of  York, 
was  independent  of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  this  prelate  refused 
to  consecrate  him,  and  the  ceremony  was  performed  by  his  own 
suffragan  bishops.  Proceeding  to  Rome  the  new  archbishop 
found  that  Thurstan  had  anticipated  his  arrival  in  that  city  and 
had  made  out  a  strong  case  against  him  to  Pope  Calixtus  II.; 
however,  the  exertions  of  the  English  king  Henry  I.  and  of  the 
emperor  Henry  V.  prevailed,  and  the  pope  gave  William  the 
pallium.  The  archbishop's  next  dispute  was  with  the  papal 

8  See  Henri  Lavoix,  Histoire  de  I' instrumentation,  p.  ill;  Gerber, 
Lexikon,  "  Giuseppe  Ferlendis";  Robert  Eitner,  QueUen-Lexikon  der 
Tonkiinstler,  "  Gioseffo  Ferlendis."  F<5tis  and  Pohl  also  refer  to 
him. 

4  See  Musical  Travels  thro'  England  (London,  1774),  p.  56. 


136 


CORBEIL— CORBULO 


legate,  Cardinal  John  of  Crema,  who  had  arrived  in  England 
and  was  acting  in  an  autocratic  manner.  Again  travelling  to 
Rome,  William  gained  another  victory,  and  was  himself  appointed 
papal  legate  (legatus  natus)  in  England  and  Scotland,  a  precedent 
of  considerable  importance  in.  the  history  of  the  English  Church. 
The  archbishop  had  sworn  to  Henry  I.  that  he  would  support 
the  claim  of  his  daughter  Matilda  to  the  English  crown,  but 
nevertheless  he  crowned  Stephen  in  December  1135.  He  died 
at  Canterbury  on  the  zist  of  November  1136.  William  built 
the  keep  of  Rochester  Castle,  and  finished  the  building  of  the 
cathedral  at  Canterbury,  which  was  dedicated  with  great  pomp 
in  May  1130. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  (1860-1884) ; 
and  W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  History  of  the  English  Church  (1901). 

CORBEIL,  a  town  of  northern  France,  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Essonne  with  the  Seine,  21  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Paris  on  the 
Orleans  railway  to  Nevers.  Pop.  (1906)  9756.  A  bridge  across 
the  Seine  unites  the  main  part  of  the  town  on  the  left  bank  with 
a  suburb  on  the  other  side;  handsome  boulevards  lead  to  the 
village  of  Essonnes  (pop.  7255),  about  a  mile  to  the  south-west. 
St  Spire,  the  only  survivor  of  the  formerly  numerous  churches 
of  Corbeil,  dates  from  the  I2th  to  the  I5th  centuries.  Behind 
the  church  there  is  a  Gothic  gateway.  A  monument  has  been 
erected  to  the  brothers  Galignani,  publishers  of  Paris,  who  gave 
a  hospital  and  orphanage  to  the  town.  Corbeil  is  the  seat  of  a 
sub-prefect,  and  has  tribunals  of  first  instance  and  commerce 
and  a  chamber  of  commerce.  It  has  important  flour-mills, 
tallow-works,  printing-works,  large  paper-works  at  Essonnes, 
and  carries  on  boat  and  carriage-building,  and  the  manufacture 
of  plaster.  The  Decauville  engineering  works  are  in  the  vicinity. 
There  is  trade  in  grain  and  flour. 

From  the  loth  to  the  I2th  century  Corbeil  was  the  chief  town 
of  a  powerful  countship,  but  it  was  united  to  the  crown  by 
Louis  VI.;  it  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  an  important 
military  post  in  connexion  with  the  commissariat  of  Paris.  In 
1258  St  Louis  concluded  a  treaty  here  with  James  I.  of  Aragon. 
Of  the  numerous  sieges  to  which  it  has  been  exposed  the  most 
important  were  those  by  the  Huguenots  in  1562,  and  by  Alexander 
Farnese,  prince  of  Parma,  in  1590. 

CORBEL  (Lat.  corbellus,  a  diminutive  of  corvus,  a  raven,  on 
account  of  the  beak-like  appearance;  Ital.  mensola,  FT.  corbeau, 
cul-de-lampe,GeT.Kragstein),ihe  name  in  medieval  architecture 
for  a  piece  of  stone  jutting  out  of  a  wall  to  carry  any  super- 
incumbent weight.  A  piece  of  timber  projecting  in  the  same 
way  was  called  a  tassel  or  a  bragger.  Thus  the  carved  ornaments 
from  which  the  vaulting  shafts  spring  at  Lincoln  are  corbels. 
Norman  corbels  are  generally  plain.  In  the  Early  English  period 
they  are  sometimes  elaborately  carved,  as  at  Lincoln  above 
cited,  and  sometimes  more  simply  so,  as  at  Stone.  They  some- 
times end  with  a  point  apparently  growing  into  the  wall,  or 
forming  a  knot,  as  at  Winchester,  and  often  are  supported  by 
angels  and  other  figures.  In  the  later  periods  the  foliage  or 
ornaments  resemble  those  in  the  capitals.  The  corbels  carrying 
the  arches  of  the  corbel  tables  in  Italy  and  France  were  often 
elaborately  moulded,  and  sometimes  in  two  or  three  courses 
projecting  over  one  another;  those  carrying  the  machicolations 
of  English  and  French  castles  had  four  courses.  The  corbels 
carrying  balconies  in  Italy  and  France  were  sometimes  of  great 
size  and  richly  carved,  and  some  of  the  finest  examples  of  the 
Italian  Cinquecento  style  are  found  in  them.  Throughout 
England,  in  half-timber  work,  wood  corbels  abound,  carrying 
window-sills  or  oriels  in  wood,  which  also  are  often  carved.  A 
"  corbel  table  "  is  a  projecting  moulded  string  course  supported 
by  a  range  of  corbels.  Sometimes  these  corbels  carry  a  small 
arcade  under  the  string  course,  the  arches  of  which  are  pointed 
and  trefoiled.  As  a  rule  the  corbel  table  carries  the  gutter,  but 
in  Lombard  work  the  arcaded  corbel  table  was  utilized  as  a 
decoration  to  subdivide  the  storeys  and  break  up  the  wall  surface. 
In  Italy  sometimes  over  the  corbels  will  be  a  moulding,  and  above 
a  plain  piece  of  projecting  wall  forming  a  parapet  (see  also 
MASONRY). 


CORBET,  RICHARD  (1582-1635),  English  bishop  and  poet, 
was  born  in  1582,  the  son  of  a  nurseryman  at  Ewell,  Surrey.  At 
Oxford,  to  which  he  proceeded  from  Westminster  school  in 
1597,  he  was  noted  as  a  wit.  On  taking  orders  he  continued  to 
display  this  talent  from  the  pulpit,  and  James  I.,  in  consideration 
of  his  "  fine  fancy  and  preaching,"  made  hirn  one  of  the  royal 
chaplains.  In  1620  he  became  vicar  of  Stewkley,  Berkshire, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  made  dean  of  Christchurch,  Oxford. 
In  1628  he  was  made  bishop  of  Oxford,  and  in  1632  translated 
thence  to  the  see  of  Norwich.  Corbet  was  the  author  of  many 
poems,  for  the  most  part  of  a  lively,  satirical  order,  his  most 
serious  production  being  the  Fairies'  Farewell.  His  verses 
were  first  collected  and  published  in  1647.  His  conviviality 
was  famous,  and  many  stories  are  told  of  his  youthful  merry- 
making in  London  taverns  in  company  with  Ben  Jonson,  who 
always  remained  his  dose  friend,  and  other  dramatists.  He 
died  at  Norwich  on  the  28th  of  July  1635. 

CORBIE  (Lat.  corvus),  a  crow  or  raven.  In  architecture, 
"  corbie  steps  "  is  a  Scottish  term  (cf.  CORBEL)  for  the  steps 
formed  up  the  sides  of  the  gable  by  breaking  the  coping  into 
short  horizontal  beds. 

CORBRIDGE,  a  small  market  town  in  the  Hexham  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Northumberland,  England;  3!  m.  E.  of 
Hexham,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Tyne,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  a  fine  seven-arched  bridge  dating  from  1674.  Pop.  (1901) 
1647.  Corbridge  was  formerly  of  greater  importance  than  at 
present.  Its  name,  derived  from  the  small  river  Cor,  a  tributary 
of  the  Tyne,  is  said  to  be  associated  with  the  Brigantian  tribe 
of  Corionototai.  About  760  it  became  the  capital  of  Northum- 
bria;  later  it  was  a  borough  and  was  long  represented  in  parlia- 
ment. In  1138  David  of  Scotland  made  it  a  centre  of  military 
operations,  and  it  was  ravaged  by  Wallace  in  1 296,  by  Bruce  in 
1312,  and  by  David  II.  in  1346.  Its  chief  remains  of  antiquity  are 
a  square  peel-tower  and  the  cruciform  church  of  St  Andrew, 
of  which  part  of  the  fabric  is  of  pre-Conquest  date,  though  the 
building  is  mainly  Early  English.  Extensive  use  is  made  of 
building  materials  from  the  Roman  station  of  Corstopilum  (also 
called  Corchester),  which  lay  half  a  mile  west  of  Corbridge  at 
the  junction  of  the  Cor  with  the  Tyne.  This  site  has  from  time 
to  time  yielded  many  valuable  relics,  notably  a  silver  dish, 
discovered  in  1734,  148  oz.  in  weight  and  ornamented  with 
figures  of  deities;  but  the  first-rate  importance  of  the  station 
was  only  revealed  by  careful  excavations  undertaken  in  1907  seq. 
There  were  then  unearthed  remains  of  several  buildings  fronting 
a  broad  thoroughfare,  one  of  which  is  the  largest  Roman  building, 
except  the  baths  at  Bath,  yet  discovered  in  England.  Two  of 
these  buildings  were  granaries,  and  indicate  the  importance  of 
Corstopitum  as  a  base  of  the  northward  operations  of  Antoninus 
Pius.  After  his  conquests  had  been  lost,  and  Corstopitum 
ceased  to  be  a  military  centre,  its  military  buildings  passed  into 
civilian  occupation,  of  which  many  evidences  have  been  found. 
A  fine  hoard  of  gold  coins,  wrapped  in  lead-foil  and  hidden  in  a 
wall,  was  discovered  in  1908.  Corstopitum  ceased  to  exist 
early  in  the  5th  century,  and  the  site  was  never  again  occupied. 

CORBULO,  GNAEUS  DOMITIUS  (ist  century  A.D.),  Roman 
general,  was  the  half-brother  of  Caesonia,  one  of  the  wives  of  the 
emperor  Caligula.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  he  held  the  office 
of  praetor,  and  was  appointed  to  the  superintendence  of  the 
roads  and  bridges.  Under  Claudius  he  was  governor  of  lower 
Germany  (A.D.  47).  He  punished  the  Frisii  who  refused  to  pay 
the  tribute,  and  was  on  the  point  of  advancing  against  the  Chauci, 
but  was  recalled  by  the  emperor  and  ordered  to  withdraw  behind 
the  Rhine.  In  order  to  provide  employment  for  his  soldiers, 
Corbulo  made  them  cut  a  canal  from  the  Mosa  (Meuse)  to  the 
northern  branch  of  the  Rhine,  which  still  forms  one  of  the  chief 
drains  between  Leiden  and  Sluys,  and  before  the  introduction 
of  railways  was  the  ordinary  traffic  road  between  Leiden  and 
Rotterdam.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Nero,  Vologaeses  (Volo- 
gasus) ,  king  of  Parthia,  overran  Armenia,  drpve  out  Rhadamistus, 
who  was  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans,  and  set  his  own 
brother  Tiridates  on  the  throne.  Corbulo  was  thereupon  sent  out 
to  the  East  with  full  military  powers.  After  some  delay,  he  took 


CORD— CORDAY 


137 


the  offensive  in  58,  and,  reinforced  by  troops  from  Germany, 
attacked  Tiridates.  Artaxata  and  Tigranocerta  were  captured, 
and  Tigranes,  who  had  been  brought  up  in  Rome  and  was 
the  obedient  servant  of  the  government,  was  installed  king 
of  Armenia.  In  61  Tigranes  invaded  Adiabene,  an  integral 
portion  of  the  Parthian  kingdom,  and  a  conflict  between 
Rome  and  Parthia  seemed  unavoidable.  Vologaeses,  how- 
ever, thought  it  better  to  come  to  terms.  It  was  agreed 
that  both  the  Roman  and  Parthian  troops  should  evacuate 
Armenia,  that  Tigranes  should  be  dethroned,  and  the  position 
of  Tiridates  recognized.  The  Roman  government  declined  to 
accede  to  these  arrangements,  and  L.  Caesennius  Paetus,  governor 
of  Cappadocia,  was  ordered  to  settle  the  question  by  bringing 
Armenia  under  direct  Roman  administration.  The  protection 
of  Syria  in  the  meantime  claimed  all  Corbulo's  attention.  Paetus, 
a  weak  and  incapable  man,  suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Rhandea 
(62),  where  he  was  surrounded  and  forced  to  capitulate  and  to 
evacuate  Armenia.  The  command  of  the  troops  was  again 
entrusted  to  Corbulo.  In  63,  with  a  strong  army,  he  crossed  the 
Euphrates,  but  Tiridates  declined  to  give  battle  and  concluded 
peace.  At  Rhandea  he  laid  down  his  diadem  at  the  foot  of  the 
emperor's  statue,  promising  not  to  resume  it  until  he  received 
it  from  the  hand  of  Nero  himself  in  Rome.  In  67  disturbances 
broke  out  in  Judaea,  but  Nero,  jealous  of  Corbulo's  success  and 
popularity,  ordered  Vespasian  to  take  command  of  the  forces  and 
summoned  Corbulo  to  Greece.  On  his  arrival  at  Cenchreae,  the 
port  of  Corinth,  messengers  from  Nero  met  Corbulo,  and  ordered 
him  to  commit  suicide.  Without  hesitation  he  obeyed,  ex- 
claiming, "  I  have  deserved  it."  Whether  he  had  really  given 
any  grounds  for  suspicion  is  unknown;  but  there  is  no  doubt, 
so  great  was  his  popularity  with  the  soldiers  and  such  the  hatred 
felt  for  Nero,  that  he  could  easily  have  seized  the  throne. 
Corbulo  wrote  an  account  of  his  Asiatic  experiences,  which 
is  lost. 

See  Tacitus,  Annals,  xii.-xv. ;  Dio  Cassius  lix.  15,  Ix.  30,  Ixii. 
19-23,  Ixiii.  6,  17,  Ixvi.  3;  H.  Schiller,  Ceschichte  des  romischen 
Kaiserreicks  unter  der  Regierung  des  Nero  (1872) ;  E.  Egli,  "  Feldziige 
in  Armenien  von  41-63,"  in  M.  Biidinger's  Untersuchungen  zur 
romischen  Kaisergeschichie,  i.  (1868);  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  the  Roman 
Provinces,  ii.  (1886);  for  the  Armenian  campaigns  see  B.  W. 
Henderson  in  Classical  Review  (April,  May,  June,  1901);  in  general 
D.  T.  Schoonover,  A  Study  of  Cn.  Domitius  Corbulo  (Chicago,  1909). 

CORD  (derived  through  the  Fr.  corde,  from  the  Lat.  chorda, 
Gr.  Tiopbri,  the  string  of  a  musical  instrument),  a  length  of  twisted 
or  woven  strands,  in  thickness  coming  between  a  rope  and  a 
string,  a  smaller  kind  of  rope  (q.v.).  From  the  use  of  such  a 
cord  for  measuring,  the  word  is  applied  to  a  quantity  of  cut  wood, 
differing  according  to  locality.  The  variant  "  chord,"  which,  in 
spelling,  reverts  to  the  original  Latin,  is  used  in  particular  senses, 
as,  in  physiology,  for  such  cord-like  structures  as  the  vocal 
chords;  in  the  case  of  the  "  umbilical  cord,"  the  other  spelling 
is  usually  retained.  In  mathematics  a  "  chord  "  is  a  straight  line 

(ining  any  two  points  on  the  same  curve,  and,  in  music,  the  word 
used  of  several  musical  notes  sounded  simultaneously  and  in 
harmony  (q.v.).  In  this  last  sense,  "  chord  "  is  properly  a 
shortened  form  of  "  accord,"  agreement,  from  Late  Lat.  accordare, 
nd  the  spelling  with  h  is  due  to  a  confusion. 
CORDAY  D'ARMONT.  MARIE  ANNE  CHARLOTTE  (1768- 
1 793)>  French  revolutionary  heroine,  the  murderess  of  Marat, 
born  at  St  Satumin  des  Lignerets,  near  Seez  in  Normandy, 
descended  from  a  noble  but  poor  family,  and  numbered 
mg  her  ancestors  the  dramatist  Corneille.  Charlotte  Corday 
•as  educated  in  the  convent  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Caen,  and 
,en  sent  to  live  with  an  aunt.  Here  she  saw  hardly  any  one 
t  her  relative,  and  passed  her  lonely  hours  in  reading  the 
works  of  the  philosophes,  especially  Voltaire  and  the  Abbe 
Raynal.  Another  of  her  favourite  authors  was  Plutarch,  from 
hose  pages  she  doubtless  imbibed  the  idea  of  classic  heroism 
id  civic  virtue  which  prompted  the  act  that  has  made  her 
name  famous.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  she  began  to 
study  current  politics,  chiefly  in  the  papers  issued  by  the  party 
afterwards  known  as  the  Girondins.  On  the  downfall  of  this 
party,  on  May  31,  1793,  many  of  the  leaders  took  refuge  in  Nor- 


A.X  a 

whi 
and 


mandy,  and  proposed  to  make  Caen  the  headquarters  of  an  army 
of  volunteers,  at  the  head  of  whom  F61ix  de  Wimpffen,  who  com- 
manded the  army  assembled  for  the  defence  of  the  coasts  at 
Cherbourg,  was  to  have  marched  upon  Paris.  Charlotte  attended 
their  meetings,  and  heard  them  speak;  but  we  have  no  reason  to 
believe  that  she  saw  any  of  them  privately,  till  the  day  when  she 
went  to  ask  for  introductions  to  friends  of  theirs  in  Paris.  She 
saw  that  their  efforts  in  Normandy  were  doomed  to  fail.  She 
had  heard  of  Marat  as  a  tyrant  and  the  chief  agent  in  their  over- 
throw, and  she  had  conceived  the  idea  of  going  alone  to  Paris 
and  assassinating  him, — doubtless  thinking  that  this  would 
break  up  the  party  of  the  Terrorists  and  be  the  signal  of  a 
counter-revolution,  and  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  Marat  was  ill 
almost  to  the  point  of  death,  and  that  others  were  more  in- 
fluential than  he. 

Apparently  she  had  thought  of  going  to  Paris  in  April,  before 
the  fall  of  the  Girondins,  for  she  had  then  procured  a  passport 
which  she  used  in  July.  It  contained  the  usual  description  of  the 
bearer,  and  ran  thus:  Laissez  passer  la  citoyenne  Marie,  ffc., 
Corday,  dgee  de  24  ans,  taille  de  5  pied s  I  pouce,  cheveux  et  sovrcils 
ckdtains,  yeux  gris,  front  ttevt,  nez  long,  bouche  moyenne,  menlon 
rond  fourchu,  visage  male.  Arrived  in  Paris  she  first  attended  to 
some  business  for  a  friend  at  Caen,  and  then  she  wrote  to  Marat: 
"  Citizen,  I  have  just  arrived  from  Caen.  Your  love  for  your 
native  place  doubtless  makes  you  desirous  of  learning  the  events 
which  have  occurred  in  that  part  of  the  republic.  I  shall  call  at 
your  residence  in  about  an  hour;  have  the  goodness  to 'receive  me 
and  to  give  me  a  brief  interview.  I  will  put  you  in  a  condition  to 
render  great  service  to  France."  On  calling  she  was  refused 
admittance,  and  wrote  again,  promising  to  reveal  important 
secrets,  and  appealing  to  Marat's  sympathy  on  the  ground  that 
she  herself  was  persecuted  by  the  enemies  of  the  republic.  She 
was  again  refused  an  audience,  and  it  was  only  when  she  called  a 
.third  time  (July  13)  that  Marat,  hearing  her  voice  in  the  ante- 
chamber, consented  to  see  her.  He  lay  in  a  bathing  tub,  wrapped 
in  towels,  for  he  was  suffering  from  a  horrible  disease  which  had 
almost  reduced  him  to  a  state  of  putrefaction.  Our  only  source  of 
information  as  to  what  followed  is  Charlotte's  own  confession. 
She  spoke  to  Marat  of  what  was  passing  at  Caen,  and  his  only 
comment  on  her  narrative  was  that  all  the  men  she  had  mentioned 
should  be  guillotined  in  a  few  days.  As  he  spoke  she  drew  from 
her  bosom  a  dinner-knife  (which  she  had  bought  the  day  before 
for  two  francs)  and  plunged  it  into  his  left  side.  It  pierced  the  lung 
and  the  aorta.  He  cried  out,  "^4  mot,  ma  chere  amiel"  and 
expired.  Two  women  rushed  in,  and  prevented  Charlotte  from 
escaping.  A  crowd  collected  round  the  house,  and  it  was  with 
difficulty  that  she  was  escorted  to  the  prison  of  the  Abbaye. 
On  being  brought  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  she  gloried 
in  her  act,  and  when  the  indictment  against  her  was  read,  and  the 
president  asked  her  what  she  had  to  say  in  reply,  her  answer  was, 
"  Nothing,  except  that  I  have  succeeded."  Her  advocate, 
Claude  Francois  Chauveau  Lagarde,  put  forward  in  vain  the  plea 
of  insanity.  She  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  calmly  thanked  her 
counsel  for  his  efforts  on  her  behalf,  adding  that  the  only 
defence  worthy  of  her  was  an  avowal  of  the  act.  She  was  then 
conducted  to  the  Conciergerie,  where  at  her  own  desire  her 
portrait  (now  in  the  museum  of  Versailles)  was  painted  by  the 
artist  Jean  Jacques  Hauer.  She  preserved  her  perfect  calmness 
to  the  last.  When  she  saw  the  guillotine,  she  placed  herself  in 
position  under  the  fatal  blade  without  assistance  from  any  one. 
The  knife  fell,  and  one  of  the  executioners  held  up  her  head  by  the 
hair,  and  had  the  brutality  to  strike  it  with  his  fist.  Many 
believed  they  saw  the  dead  face  blush, — probably  an  effect  of  the 
red  stormy  sunset.  It  was  the  I7th  of  July  1793.  It  is  difficult 
to  analyse  the  character  of  Charlotte  Corday;  but  there  was  in  it 
much  that  was  noble  and  exalted.  Her  mind  had  been  formed 
by  her  studies  on  a  pagan  type.  To  C.  J.  M.  Barbaroux  and  the 
Girondins  of  Caen  she  wrote  from  her  prison,  anticipating 
happiness  "  with  Brutus  in  the  Elysian  Fields  "  after  her  death, 
and  with  this  letter  she  sent  a  simple  loving  farewell  to  her  father, 
revealing  a  tender  side  to  her  character  that  otherwise  we  would 
hardly  have  looked  for  in  such  a  woman.  Lamartine  called  her 


CORDELIERS— CORDITE 


I'ange  de  Vassassinat,  and  Vergniaud  said,  "Elk  nous  perd,  mais 
elle  nous  apprend  A  mourir." 

See  (Euvres  politiques  de  Charlotte  Corday  (Caen,  1863;  some 
letters  and  an  Adresse  aux  Fran^ais  amis  des  lois  et  de  la  £a»x),  with  a 
supplement  printed  in  the  same  year ;  Louvet  de  Couvrai,  Memoires 
(ed.  Aulard,  Paris,  1889) ;  Alphonse  Esquiros,  Charlotte  Corday 
(2nd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1841);  Cheron  de  Villiers,  Marie  Anne 
Charlotte  Corday  (Paris,  1865) ;  Casimir  Perier,  "  La  Jeunesse  de 
Charlotte  Corday  "  (Revue  des  deux  mondes,  1862) ;  C.  Vatel,  Dossiers 
du  proces  criminel  de  Charlotte  de  Corday  .  .  .  extraits  des  archives 
imperiales  (Paris,  1861),  and  Dossier  historique  de  Charlotte  Corday 
(Paris,  1872);  Austin  Dobson,  Four  Frenchwomen  (London,  1890); 
A.  Ducos,  Les  Trois  Girondines,  Mme  Roland,  Charlotte  Corday  .  .  . 
(Paris,  1896) ;  Dr  Cabanes,  "  La  vraie  Charlotte  Corday,"  in  Le 
Cabinet  secret  de  I'histoire  (4  vols.,  1897-1900).  Her  tragic  history 
was  the  subject  of  two  anonymous  tragedies,  Charlotte  Corday  (1795), 
said  to  be  by  the  Conventional  F.  J.  Gamon,  and  Charlotte  Corday 
(Caen,  1797),  neither  of  which  have  any  merit;  another  by  J.  B. 
Salles  is  published  by  C.  Vatel  in  Charlotte  de  Corday  et  les  Girondins 
(1864-1872).  See  further  bibliographical  articles  in  M.  Tpurneux, 
Bibl.  de  I'hist.  de  Paris  .  .  .  (vol.  iv.,  1906),  and  in  the  Bibliographie 
des  femmes  celebres  (3  vols.,  Turin  and  Rome,  1892-1905);  and  also 
E.  Defrance,  Charlotte  Corday  et  la  mart  de  Marat  (1909). 

CORDELIERS,  CLUB  OF  THE,  or  SOCIETY  OF  THE  FRIENDS  OF 
THE  RIGHTS  OF  MAN  AND  OF  THE  CITIZEN,  a  popular  society  of  the 
French  Revolution.  It  was  formed  by  the  members  of  the  district 
of  the  Cordeliers,  when  the  Constituent  Assembly  suppressed  the 
60  districts  of  Paris  to  replace  them  with  48  sections  (aist  of  May 
1 790) .  It  held  its  meetings  at  first  in  the  church  of  the  monastery 
of  the  Cordeliers, — the  name  given  in  France  to  the  Franciscan 
Observanttsts, — now  the  Dupuytren  museum  of  anatomy  in 
connexion  with  the  school  of  medicine.  From  1791,  however,  the 
Cordeliers  met  in  a  hall  in  the  rue  Dauphine.  The  aim  of  the 
society  was  to  keep  an  eye  on  the  government;  its  emblem  on  its 
papers  was  simply  an  open  eye.  It  sought  as  well  to  encourage 
revolutionary  measures  against  the  monarchy  and  the  old  regime, 
and  it  was  it  especially  which  popularized  the  motto  "  Liberty, 
Equality,  Fraternity."  It  took  an  active  part  in  the  movement 
against  the  monarchy  of  the  2oth  of  June  and  the  loth  of  August 
1792;  but  after  that  date  the  more  moderate  leaders  of  the  club, 
Danton,  Fabre  d'Eglantine,  Camille  Desmoulins,  seem  to  have 
ceased  attending,  and  the  "  enrages  "  obtained  control,  such  as 
J.  R.  Hebert,  F.  N.  Vincent,  C.  P.  H.  Ronsin  and  A.  F.  Momoro. 
Its  influence  was  especially  seen  in  the  creation  of  the  revolu- 
tionary army  destined  to  assure  provisions  for  Paris,  and  in  the 
establishment  of  the  worship  of  Reason.  The  Cordeliers  were 
combated  by  those  revolutionists  who  wished  to  end  the  Terror, 
especially  by  Danton,  and  by  Camille  Desmoulins  in  his  journal 
Le  Vieux  Cordelier.  The  club  disowned  Danton  and  Desmoulins 
and  attacked  Robespierre  for  his  "  moderation,"  but  the  new 
insurrection  which  it  attempted  failed,  and  its  leaders  were 
guillotined  on  the  24th  of  March  1 794,  from  which  date  nothing  is 
known  of  the  club.  We  know  little  of  its  composition. 

The  papers  emanating  from  the  Cordeliers  are  enumerated  in  M. 
Tourneux,  Bibliographie  de  I'histoire  de  Paris  pendant  la  Revolution 
(1894),  '•  (°n  tne  trlal  °f  tne  Hebertists)  Nos.  4204-4210,  ii.  Nos. 
9795-9834  and  11,813.  See  also  A.  Bougeart,  Les  Cordeliers,  docu- 
ments pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  Revolution  (Caen,  1891);  G.  Lenotre, 
Pom  revolutionnaire  (Paris,  1895) ;  G.  Tridon,  Les  Hebertists,  plainte 
contre  une  calomnie  de  I'histoire  (Paris,  1864).  The  last-named  author 
was  condemned  to  four  months'  prison ;  his  work  was  reprinted  in  1 87 1 . 
The  inventory  of  the  pictures  found  in  1790  in  the  monastery  of  the 
Cordeliers  was  published  by  J.  Guiffrey  in  Nouvelles  archives  de  I' art 
frangais,  viii.,  2nd  series,  iii.  (1880).  (R.  A.*) 

CORDERIUS,  the  Latinized  form  of  name  used  by  MATHURIN 
CORDIER  (c.  1480-1564),  French  schoolmaster,  a  native  of 
Normandy  or  Perche.  He  possessed  special  tact  and  liking  for 
teaching  children,  and  taught  first  at  Paris,  where  Calvin  was 
among  his  pupils,  and,  after  a  number  of  changes,  finally  at 
Geneva,  where  he  died  on  the  8th  of  September  1564.  He  wrote 
several  books  for  children;  the  most  famous  is  his  Colloquia 
(Colloquiorum  scholasticorum  libri  quatuor),  which  has  passed 
through  innumerable  editions,  and  was  used  in  schools  for  three 
centuries  after  his  time.  He  also  wrote:  Principia  Latine 
loquendi  scribendique,  sive  selecta  quaedam  ex  Epistolis  Ciceronis; 
De  corrupti  sermonis  apud  Gallos  emendatione  et  Latine  loquendi 
Ratione;  De  syttabarum  quantitate;  Condones  sacrae  viginti 
sex  Galliae;  Catonis  disticha  de  moribus  (with  Latin  and  French 


translation) ;  Remontrances  et  exhortations  an  roi  et  aux  grands  de 
son  royaume. 

See  monograph  by  E.  A.  Berthault,  De  M.  Corderio  et  creatis  apud 
Protestantes  litterarum  studiis  (1875). 

CORDES,  a  town  of  southern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Tarn,  15  m.  N.W.  of  Albi  by  road.  Pop.  (1906)  1619.  Cordes, 
which  covers  the  summit  and  slopes  of  an  isolated  hill,  was  a 
bastide  founded  by  Raymond  VII.,  count  of  Toulouse,  in  the  first 
half  of  the  I3th  century.  It  preserves  its  medieval  aspect  to  a 
remarkable  degree,  a  large  number  of  houses  of  the  I3th  and  I4th 
centuries,  with  decorated  fronts,  forming  its  chief  attraction.  A 
church  of  the  same  periods  and  remains  of  the  original  ramparts 
are  also  to  be  seen. 

CORDILLERA,  a  Spanish  term  for  a  range  or  chain  of 
mountains,  derived  from  the  Old  Spanish  cordilla,  the  diminutive 
of  cuerda,  a  cord  or  rope.  The  name  was  first  given  to  the  Andes 
ranges  of  South  America,  Las  Cordilleras  de  los  Andes,  and 
applied  to  the  extension  of  the  system  into  Mexico.  In  North 
America  the  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  running  between  and 
including  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  are  known 
as  the  "  Cordilleras,"  and  that  part  of  the  western  continent 
crossed  by  them  has  been  termed  the  "  Cordilleran  region." 
Although  the  name  has  been  applied  to  the  eastern  mountain 
system  of  Australia,  the  word  is  not,  outside  America,  used  as  a 
generic  term  for  parallel  ranges  of  mountains. 

CORDITE,  the  name  given  to  the  smokeless  propellant  in  use 
in  the  British  army  and  navy.  The  material  is  produced  in  the 
form  of  cylindrical  rods  or  strings  of  varying  thicknesses  by 
pressing  the  material,  whilst  in  a  soft  and  pasty  state,  through 
dies  or  perforations  in  a  steel  plate  by  hydraulic  or  screw  pressure, 
hence  the  name  cordite.  The  thickness  or  size  of  the  rods  varies 
from  about  i  mm.  diameter  to  5  or  more  mm.  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  charge  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  smallest 
diameter  is  used  for  revolver  cartridge  and  the  largest  for  heavy 
guns.  When  first  devised  by  the  Ordnance  Committee,  presided 
over  by  Sir  Frederick  Abel,  in  1891,  this  explosive  consisted  of 
58%  of  nitro-^lycerin,  37%  of  gun-cotton,  and  5%  of  mineral 
jelly.  This  variety  is  now  known  as  Cordite  Mark  i.  At  the 
present  time  a  modification  is  made  which  contains  gun-cotton 
65  %,  nitro-glycerin  30  %,  and  mineral  jelly  5  %.  This  is  known 
as  Cordite  M.D.  The  advantages  of  Cordite  M.D.  over  Mark  i 
are  slightly  reduced  rate  of  burning,  higher  velocities  and 
more  regular  pressure  in  the  gun,  and  lower  temperature. 

Cordite  of  either  mark  is  a  perfectly  waterproof  substance, 
containing  only  traces  of  water  remaining  from  the  manufactur- 
ing processes.  It  has  a  density  of  about  1-56  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  (15°  C.),  and,  as  its  coefficient  of  expansion  is  small, 
this  density  does  not  change  to  any  serious  extent  under  climatic 
temperature  variations.  A  rod  may  be  bent  to  a  moderate 
extent  without  breaking,  and  Cordite  M.D.  especially  shows 
considerable  elasticity.  It  can  be  impressed  by  the  nail  and  cut 
with  a  knife,  but  is  not  in  the  least  sticky,  nor  does  the  nitro- 
glycerin  exude  to  any  appreciable  extent.  It  can  be  obtained 
in  a  finely-divided  state  by  scraping  with  a  sharp  knife,  or  on  a 
new  file,  or  by  grinding  in  a  mill,  such  as  a  coffee-mill,  but  can 
scarcely  be  pounded  in  a  mortar.  Cordite  is  of  a  brownish 
colour  in  mass,  but  is  much  paler  when  finely  ground  or  scraped. 
The  rods  easily  become  electrified  by  gentle  friction  with  a  dry 
substance.  Like  all  colloidal  substances  it  is  an  exceedingly 
bad  conductor  of  heat.  A  piece  ignited  in  air  burns  with  a 
yellowish  flame.  With  the  smaller  sizes,  about  2  mm.  diameter 
or  less,  this  flame  may  be  blown  out,  and  the  rod  will  continue 
to  burn  in  a  suppressed  manner  without  actual  flame,  fumes 
containing  oxides  of  nitrogen  being  emitted.  Temperature 
appears  to  have  an  effect  on  the  rate  of  burning.  When  much 
cooled  it  certainly  burns  more  slowly  than  when  at  the  ordinary 
air  temperature,  and  is  also  more  difficult  to  ignite.  Rods  of 
moderate  thickness,  say  from  5  mm.  diameter,  will  continue  to 
burn  under  water  if  first  ignited  in  air  and  the  burning  portion 
slowly  immersed.  The  end  of  a  rod  of  cordite  may  be  struck  a 
moderately  heavy  blow  on  an  anvil  without  exploding  or  igniting. 
The  rod  will  first  flatten  out.  A  sharp  blow  will  then  detonate 


CORDOBA,  G.  F.  DE 


'39 


or  explode  the  portion  immediately  under  the  hammer,  the 
remainder  of  the  rod  remaining  quite  intact.  Bullets  may  be 
fired  through  a  bundle  or  package  of  cordite  without  detonating 
or  inflaming  it.  This  is  of  course  a  valuable  quality.  The 
exact  temperature  at  which  substances  ignite  or  take  fire  is  in 
all  cases  difficult  to  determine  with  any  exactness.  Cordite  is 
not  instantly  ignited  on  contact  with  a  flame  such  as  that  of  a 
candle,  because,  perhaps,  of  the  condensation  of  some  moisture 
from  the  products  of  burning  of  the  candle  upon  it.  A  blow-pipe 
flame  or  a  red-hot  wire  is  more  rapid  in  action.  The  ignition 
temperature  may  be  somewhere  in  the  region  of  180°  C. 

All  the  members  of  this  class  of  explosive  when  kept  for  some 
time  at  (for  them)  moderately  high  temperatures,  such  as  the 
boiling-point  of  water  (100°  C.),  show  signs  of  decomposition; 
oxides  of  nitrogen  are  liberated,  and  some  complex  oxidation 
processes  are  started.  Carefully  prepared  gun-cotton  and  nitro- 
glycerin  will,  however,  withstand  this  temperature  for  a  long 
time  without  serious  detriment,  excepting  that  nitro-glycerin 
is  slightly  volatilized.  When  incorporated  in  cordite,  however, 
the  nitro-glycerin  appears  to  be  much  less  volatile  than  when 
free  at  this  temperature.  Under  reduced  pressure  (3  or  4  in. 
only  of  mercury  instead  of  30)  it  is  possible  to  distil  away  a 
considerable  amount  of  nitro-glycerin  from  cordite  at  100°  C. 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether  at  ordinary  temperatures  and 
pressures  any  nitro-glycerin  whatever  evaporates. 

Cordite  may  be  kept  in  contact  with  clean,  dry  metals,  wood, 
paper,  and  a  number  of  ordinary  substances  without  deteriora- 
tion. In  contact  with  damp  and  easily  oxidizable  metals  all  the 
substances  of  the  gun-cotton  class  are  liable  to  a  slight  local 
action,  but  the  colloid  nature,  and  probably  also  the  contained 
mineral  jelly,  protect  cordite  considerably  in  these  circumstances. 
Ammonia  has  a  deleterious  action,  but  even  this  proceeds  but 
slowly.  Cordite  does  not  appear  to  change  when  kept  under 
water. 

The  manufacturing  processes  comprise:  drying  the  gun- 
cotton  and  nitro-glycerin;  melting  and  filtering  the  mineral 
jelly ;  weighing  and  mixing  the  nitro-glycerin  with  the  gun-cotton; 
moistening  this  mixture  with  acetone  until  it  becomes  a  jelly; 
and  then  incorporating  in  a  special  mixing  mill  for  about  three 
hours,  after  which  the  weighed  amount  of  mineral  jelly  is 
added  and  the  incorporation  continued  for  about  one  hour 
or  until  judged  complete.  The  incorporating  or  mixing  machine 
is  covered  as  closely  as  possible  to  prevent  too  great  evaporation 
of  the  very  volatile  acetone.  Before  complete  incorporation 
the  mixture  is  termed,  in  the  works,  "  paste,"  and,  when  finally 
mixed, "  dough." 

The  right  consistency  having  been  produced,  the  material  is 
placed  in  a  steel  cylinder  provided  with  an  arrangement  of  dies 
or  holes  of  regulated  size  at  one  end,  and  a  piston  or  plunger 
at  the  other.  The  plunger  is  worked  either  by  hydraulic  power 
or  by  a  screw  (driven  from  ordinary  shafting).  Before  reaching 
and  passing  through  the  holes  in  the  die,  the  material  is  filtered 
through  a  disk  of  fine  wire  gauze  to  retain  any  foreign  substances, 
such  as  sand,  bits  of  wood  or  metal,  or  unchanged  fibres  of 
cellulose,  &c.,  which  might  choke  the  dies  or  be  otherwise 
dangerous.  The  material  issues  from  the  cylinders  in  the  form 
of  cord  or  string  of  the  diameter  of  the  holes  of  the  die.  The 
thicker  sizes  are  cut  off,  as  they  issue,  into  lengths  (of  about 
3  ft.),  it  being  generally  arranged  that  a  certain  number  of  these — 
say  ten — should  have,  within  narrow  limits,  a 'definite  weight. 
The  small  sizes,  such  as  those  employed  for  rifle  cartridges,  are 
wound  on  reels  or  drums,  as  the  material  issues  from  the  press 
cylinders,  in  lengths  of  many  yards. 

Some  of  the  solvent  or  gelatinizing  material  (acetone)  is  lost 
during  the  incorporating,  and  more  during  the  pressing  process 
and  the  necessary  handling,  but  much  still  remains  in  the 
cordite  at  this  stage.  It  is  now  dried  in  heated  rooms,  where 
it  is  generally  spread  out  on  shelves,  a  current  of  air  passing 
through  carrying  the  acetone  vapour  with  it.  In  the  more 
modern  works  this  air  current  is  drawn,  finally,  through  a  solution 
of  a  substance  such  as  sodium  bisulphite;  a  fixed  compound 
is  thus  formed  with  the  acetone,  which  by  suitable  treatment 


may  be  recovered.  The  time  taken  in  the  drying  varies  with 
the  thickness  of  the  cordite  from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks. 
For  several  reasons  it  is  desirable  that  this  process  should  go  on 
gradually  and  slowly. 

After  drying,  all  the  various  batches  of  cordite  of  the  same 
size  are  carefully  "  blended,  "  so  that  any  slight  differences  in 
the  manufacture  of  one  batch  or  one  day's  output  may  be  equal- 
ized as  much  as  possible.  Slight  differences  may  arise  from  the 
raw  materials,  cotton  waste  or  glycerin,  or  in  the  making  of  these 
into  gun-cotton  or  nitro-glycerin  respectively.  To  help  in  con- 
trolling the  blending,  each  "  make  "  of  gun-cotton  and  nitro- 
glycerin  is  "  marked  "  or  numbered,  and  carries  its  mark  to  the 
cordite  batch  of  which  it  is  an  ingredient.  The  history  of  each 
box  of  large-sized  or  reel  of  small-sized  cordite  is  therefore  known 
up  to  the  operation  of  blending  and  packing.  The  final  testing 
is  by  firing  proofs,  as  in  the  case  of  the  old  gunpowders. 

The  gun-cotton  employed  for  cordite  is  made  in  the  usual  way 
(see  GUN-COTTON),  with  the  exception  of  treating  with  alkali. 
It  is  also  after  complete  washing  with  water  gently  pressed  into 
small  cylinders  (about  3  in.  diameter  and  4  in.  high)  whilst  wet, 
and  these  are  carefully  dried  before  the  nitro-glycerin  is  added.. 
The  pressure  applied  is  only  sufficient  to  make  the  gun-cotton 
just  hold  together  so  that  it  is  easily  mixed  with  the  nitro-glycerin. 
The  mineral  jelly  or  vaseline  is  obtained  at  a  certain  stage  of 
distillation  of  petroleum,  and  is  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons, 
paraffins,  defines  and  some  other  unsaturated  hydrocarbons, 
possibly  aromatic,  which  no  doubt  play  a  very  important  part 
as  preservatives  in  cordite. 

The  stability  of  cordite,  that  is,  its  capability  of  keeping 
without  chemical  or  ballistic  changes,  is  judged  of  by  certain 
"  heat  tests. ' '  The  Abel  heat  test  consists  in  subjecting  a  weighed 
quantity,  2  grams,  of  the  finely  divided  cordite  contained  in  a 
test  tube,  to  a  temperature  of  70°  C.  maintained  constant  by  a 
water  bath.  The  test  tube  is  about  6Xf  in.,  and  dips  into  the 
water  sufficiently  to  immerse  about  2  in.,  viz.  the  part  containing 
the  cordite.  In  the  upper  free  portion  a  piece  of  filter-paper 
impregnated  with  a  mixture  of  potassium  iodide  and  starch 
paste  is  suspended  by  a  platinum  wire  from  the  stopper  of  the 
tube.  A  portion  of  the  test  paper  is  moistened  with  a  solution 
of  glycerin  to  render  it  more  sensitive  than  the  dry  part.  A 
faint  brown  colour  appearing  on  the  moistened  portion  indicates 
that  some  oxides  of  nitrogen  have  been  evolved  from  the  cordite. 
This  brown  tint  is  compared  with  a  standard,  and  the  time  taken 
before  the  standard  tint  appears  is  noted.  The  time  fixed  upon 
as  a  test  of  relative  stability  is  an  arbitrary  one  determined 
by  examination  of  well-known  specimens.  Should  the  cordite 
or  other  explosive  contain  traces  of  mercury  salts,  such  as 
mercuric  chloride,  which  is  sometimes  added  as  a  preservative, 
this  test  is  rendered  nugatory,  and  no  coloration  may  appear 
(or  only  after  a  long  exposure) ,  although  the  sample  may  be  of 
indifferent  stability.  It  is  now  customary  to  examine  specially 
for  mercury,  either  by  heating  the  explosive  in  contact  with 
gold  leaf  or  silver  foil,  or  by  burning  the  substance  and 
examining  the  flame  in  the  spectroscope. 

The  method  of  examination  known  as  the  vacuum  silvered 
vessel  process  is  probably  not  interfered  with  by  the  presence 
of  very  small  quantities  of  mercury.  It  consists  in  heating 
50  grams  of  the  finely  divided  explosive  in  a  Dewar's  silvered 
vacuum  glass  bulb  to  a  rigidly  constant  temperature  of  80°  C. 
for  many  hours.  A  sensitive  thermometer  having  its  bulb 
immersed  in  the  centre  of  the  cordite  shows  when  the  temperature 
rises  above  80°.  Such  a  rise  indicates  internal  oxidation  or 
decomposition  of  the  explosive;  it  is  accompanied  by  an  evolu- 
tion of  nitrogen  dioxide,  NOz,  the  depth  of  colour  of  which  is 
noted  through  a  side  tube  attached  to  the  bulb.  As  all  explosives 
of  this  class  would  in  time  decompose  sufficiently  to  give  these 
indications,  time  periods  or  limits  have  been  fixed  at  which  an 
appreciable  and  definite  rise  in  temperature  and  production  of 
red  fumes  indicate  relative  stability  or  instability.  (W.  R.  E.  H.) 

CORDOBA,  GONZALO  FERNANDEZ  DE  (1453-1515),  Spanish 
general  and  statesman,  usually  spoken  of  by  the  Italianized 
form  of  his  Christian  name  as  GONSALVO  DE  C6RDOBA,  or  as  "  the 


140 


CORDOBA 


Great  Captain,"  was  the  second  son  of  Don  Pedro  Fernandez 
de  Cordoba,  count  of  Aguilar,  and  of  his  wife  Elvira  de  Herrera, 
who  belonged  to  the  family  of  Enriquez,  the  hereditary  admirals 
of  Castile,  a  branch  of  the  royal  house.  Gonzalo  was  born  at 
Montilla  near  the  city  of  Cordova  (Cordoba)  on  the  i6th  of  March 
1453.  The  father  died  when  he  and  his  elder  brother,  Don 
Alonso,  were  mere  boys.  The  counts  of  Aguilar  carried  on  an 
hereditary  feud  with  the  rival  house  of  Cabra,  and  the  children 
were  carried  by  their  vassals  into  the  faction  fights  of  the  two 
families.  As  a  younger  son  Gonzalo  had  his  fortune  to  make,  but 
he  was  generously  aided  by  the  affection  of  his  elder  brother, 
who  was  very  wealthy.  War  and  service  in  the  king's  court 
offered  the  one  acceptable  career  outside  the  church  to  a  gentle- 
man of  his  birth. 

He  was  first  attached  to  the  household  of  Don  Alphonso,  the 
king's  brother,  and  upon  his  death  devoted  himself  to  Isabella, 
afterwards  the  queen.  During  the  civil  war,  and  the  conflict 
with  Portugal  which  disturbed  the  first  years  of  her  reign,  he 
fought  under  the  grand  master  of  Santiago,  Alonso  de  Cardenas. 
After  the  battle  of  Albuera,  the  grand  master  gave  him  especial 
praise,  saying  that  he  could  always  see  Gonzalo  to  the  front 
because  he  was  conspicuous  by  the  splendour  of  his  armour. 
Indeed  the  future  Great  Captain,  who,  as  a  general,  was  above 
all  things  astute  and  patient,  could,  and  habitually  did,  display 
the  most  reckless  personal  daring,  going  into  a  fight  as  if  he  loved 
it,  and  having  a  shrewd  sense  that  a  reputation  for  intrepidity, 
a  free-handed  profusion,  and  the  personal  magnificence  which 
strikes  the  eye,  would  secure  him  the  devotion  of  his  soldiers. 
During  the  ten  years'  war  for  the  conquest  of  Granada  he  com- 
pleted his  apprenticeship  under  his  brother,  the  count  of  Aguilar, 
the  grand  master  of  Santiago,  and  the  count  of  Tendilla,  of  whom 
he  always  spoke  as  his  masters.  It  was  a  war  of  surprises  and 
defences  of  castles  or  towns,  of  skirmishes,  and  of  ambuscades 
in  the  defiles  of  the  mountains.  The  military  engineer  and  the 
"  guerrillero  "  were  about  equally  employed.  Gonzalo's  most 
distinguished  single  feat  was  the  defence  of  the  advanced  post  of 
Illora,  but  he  commanded  the  queen's  escort  when  she  wished 
to  take  a  closer  view  of  Granada,  and  he  beat  back  a  sortie  of  the 
Moors  under  her  eyes.  When  Granada  surrendered,  he  was  one 
of  the  officers  chosen  to  arrange  the  capitulation,  and  on  the 
peace  he  was  rewarded  by  a  grant  of  land. 

So  far  he  was  only  known  as  an  able  subordinate,  but  his 
capacity  could  not  be  hidden  from  such  an  excellent  judge  of 
character  as  Isabella,  to  whom  as  a  woman  he  appealed  by  a 
chivalrous  union  of  devotion  and  respect.  When,  therefore,  the 
Catholic  sovereigns  decided  to  support  the  Aragonese  house  of 
Naples  against  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  Gonzalo  was  chosen 
by  the  influence  of  the  queen,  and  in  preference  to  older  men, 
to  command  the  Spanish  expedition.  It  was  in  Italy  that  he  won 
the  title  of  the  Great  Captain;  Guicciardini  says  that  it  was 
given  him  by  the  customary  arrogance  of  the  Spaniards,  but  it 
was  certainly  accepted  as  just  by  all  the  soldiers  of  the  time  of 
whatever  nationality.  A  detailed  account  of  his  campaigns 
cannot  be  given  here.  He  held  the  command  in  Italy  twice.  In 
1495  he  was  sent  with  a  small  force  of  little  more  than  five 
thousand  men  to  aid  Ferdinand  of  Naples  to  recover  his  kingdom, 
and  he  returned  home  after  achieving  success,  in  1498.  After  a 
brief  interval  of  service  against  the  conquered  Moors  who  had 
risen  in  revolt,  he  returned  to  Italy  in  1501.  Ferdinand  of  Spain 
had  entered  in  to  his  iniquitous  compact  with  Louis  XII.  of  France 
for  the  spoliation  and  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  The 
Great  Captain  was  chosen  to  command  the  Spanish  part  of  this 
robber  coalition.  As  general  and  as  viceroy  of  Naples  he  re- 
mained in  Italy  till  1507.  During  his  first  command  he  was 
mostly  employed  in  Calabria  in  mountain  warfare  which  bore 
much  resemblance  to  his  former  experience  hi  Granada.  There 
was,  however,  a  material  difference  in  the  enemy.  The  French 
forces,  commanded  by  the  Scotsman  Stuart  d'Aubigny,  con- 
sisted largely  of  Swiss  pikemen,  and  of  their  own  men-at-arms. 
With  his  veterans  of  the  Granadine  war,  foot  soldiers  armed  with 
sword  and  buckler,  or  arquebuses  and  crossbows,  and  light 
cavalry,  trained  to  unsleeping  vigilance,  capable  of  long  marches, 


and  of  an  endurance  unparalleled  among  the  soldiers  of  the  time, 
he  could  carry  on  a  guerrillero  warfare  which  wore  down  his 
opponents,  who  suffered  far  more  than  the  Spaniards  from  the 
heat.  But  he  saw  clearly  that  this  was  not  enough.  His  ex- 
perience in  Seminara  showed  him  that  something  more  was 
wanted  on  the  battlefield.  The  action  was  lost  mainly  because 
King  Ferdinand,  disregarding  the  advice  of  Gonzalo,  persisted 
in  fighting  a  pitched  battle  with  inferior  numbers,  some  of  whom 
were  untrustworthy  Neapolitans.  The  Spanish  foot  behaved 
excellently,  but  the  result  showed  that  in  the  open  field  their  loose 
formation  and  their  swords  put  them  at  a  disadvantage  as  against 
a  charge  of  heavy  cavalry  or  pikemen.  Gonzalo  therefore 
introduced  a  much  more  strict  formation,  and  adopted  the  pike 
as  the  weapon  of  a  part  of  his  foot.  The  division  of  the  Spanish 
infantry  into  the  "  battle  "  or  main  central  body  of  pikemen, 
and  the  wings  (alas)  of  "  shot "  to  be  employed  in  outflanking  the 
enemy,  was  primarily  due  to  the  Great  Captain. 

The  French  were  expelled  by  1498  without  another  battle. 
When  the  Great  Captain  reappeared  in  Italy  he  had  first  to 
perform  the  congenial  task  of  driving  the  Turk  from  Cephalonia, 
then  to  aid  in  robbing  the  king  of  Naples,  Frederick,  brother  of 
his  old  ally  Ferdinand.  When  the  king  of  Naples  had  been 
despoiled,  the  French  and  Spaniards  quarrelled  over  the  booty. 
The  Great  Captain  now  found  himself  with  a  much  outnumbered 
army  in  the  presence  of  the  French.  The  war  was  divided  into 
two  phases  very  similar  to  one  another.  During  the  end  of  1502 
and  the  early  part  of  1503  the  Spaniards  stood  at  bay  in  the 
entrenched  camp  at  Barletta  near  the  Ofanto  on  the  shores  of 
the  Adriatic.  He  resolutely  refused  to  be  tempted  into  battle 
either  by  the  taunts  of  the  French  or  the  discontent  of  his  own 
soldiers.  Meanwhile  he  employed  the  Aragonese  partisans  in 
the  country,  and  flying  expeditions  of  his  own  men,  to  harass 
the  enemy's  communications.  When  he  was  reinforced,  and 
the  French  committed  the  mistake  of  scattering  their  forces  too 
much  to  secure  supplies,  he  took  the  offensive,  pounced  on  the 
enemy's  depot  of  provisions  at  Cerignola,  took  a  strong  position, 
threw  up  hasty  field  works,  and  strengthened  them  with  a  species 
of  wire  entanglements.  The  French  made  a  headlong  front 
attack,  were  repulsed,  assailed  in  flank,  and  routed.  The  later 
operations  on  the  Garigliano  were  very  similar,  and  led  to  the 
total  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Naples.  Gonzalo  remained 
as  governor  of  Naples  till  1507.  But  he  had  become  too  great 
not  to  arouse  the  jealousy  of  such  a  typical  king  of  the  Renais- 
sance as  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  The  death  of  the  queen  in  1 504 
had  deprived  him  of  a  friend,  and  it  must  be  allowed  that  he  was 
profuse  in  rewarding  his  captains  and  his  soldiers  out  of  the 
public  treasury.  Ferdinand  loaded  him  with  titles  and  fine 
words,  but  recalled  him  so  soon  as  he  could,  and  left  him  un- 
employed till  his  death  on  the  2nd  of  December  1515. 

The  Great  Captain  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  first  of  modern 
generals.  The  expression  is  uncritical,  for  modern  generalship 
arose  from  many  sides,  but  he  was  emphatically  a  general. 
There  is  much  in  his  methods  which  bears  a  curious  likeness 
to  those  of  the  duke  of  Wellington;  Barletta,  for  instance,  has  a 
distinct  resemblance  to  the  Torres  Vedras  campaign,  and  the 
battle  on  the  Garigliano  to  Assaye. '  As  an  organizer  he  founded 
the  Spanish  infantry  of  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries,  and  he  gave 
the  best  proof  of  his  influence  by  forming  a  school  of  officers. 
The  best  generals  of  Charles  V.  were  either  the  pupils  of  the 
Great  Captain  or  were  trained  by  them. 

There  is  no  life  of  Gonzalo  de  Cordoba  written  by  a  scholar  who 
was  also  a  good  judge  of  war.  The  dull  Cronica  del  Gran  Capitan 
gives  the  bare  events  of  his  campaigns  rather  wearisomely  but  fully. 
Paulus  Govius,  Vitae  illustrium  virorum,  translated  by  Domenichi 
(Florence,  I55<>),  is  elegant  and  very  readable.  Don  Jose  Quintana 
includes  him  in  his  Espanoles  celebres  (Rivadeneyra  Biblioteca  de 
autores  espanoles,  vol.  xix.,  Madrid,  1846-1880);  and  Prescott 
collected  the  authorities,  and  made  good  use  of  them  in  his  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella.  See  also  P.  du  Poncet,  Histoire  de  Gonsalve  de  Cordoue 
(Paris,  1714).  The  Gonsalve  de  Cordoue,  ou  Grenade  reconquise  of 
Florian  (Paris,  1791)  is  a  romance.  (D.  H.) 

CORDOBA,  a  large  central  province  of  the  Argentine  Republic, 
bounded  N.  by  Santiago  del  Estero,  E.  by  Santa  F6,  S.  by  Buenos 
Aires  and  La  Pampa,  W.  by  San  Luis  and  Rioja,  and  N.W.  by 


CORDOBA— CORDOVA 


141 


Catamarca.  Pop.  (1895)  351,223;  (io°4,  estimate)  465,464; 
area,  62,160  sq.  m.  The  greater  part  of  the  province  belongs  to 
the  pampas,  though  less  fertile  and  grassy  than  the  plains 
farther  E.  and  S.  It  likewise  includes  large  saline  and  swampy 
areas.  The  N.W.  part  of  the  province  is  traversed  by  an  isolated 
mountain  system  made  up  of  the  Cordoba,  Pocho  and  Ischilin 
sierras,  which  extend  for  a  distance  of  some  200  m.  in  a  N.  and 
S.  direction.  These  ranges  intercept  the  moist  winds  from  the 
Atlantic,  and  receive  on  their  eastern  slopes  an  abundant  rainfall, 
which  gives  them  a  strikingly  verdant  appearance  in  comparison 
with  the  surrounding  plains.  West  and  N.W.  of  the  sierras 
are  extensive  saline  basins  called  Las  Salinas  Grandes,  which 
extend  into  the  neighbouring  provinces  and  are  absolutely 
barren.  In  the  N.E.  the  land  is  low  and  swampy;  here  are 
the  large  saline  lagoons  of  Mar  Chiquita  and  Los  Porongos. 
The  principal  rivers,  which  have  their  sources  in  the  sierras  and 
flow  eastward,  are  the  Primero  and  Segundo,  which  flow  north- 
easterly into  the  lacustrine  basin  of  Mar  Chiquita;  the  Tercero 
and  Quarto,  which  unite  near  the  Santa  Fe  frontier  to  form  the 
Carcarana,  a  tributary  of  the  Parana;  and  the  Quinto,  which 
flows  south-easterly  into  the  swamps  of  the  Laguna  Amarga  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  province.  Countless  small  streams  also  descend 
the  eastern  slopes  of  the  sierras  and  are  lost  in  the  great  plains. 
The  eastern  districts  are  moderately  fertile,  and  are  chiefly 
devoted  to  cattle-breeding,  though  cereals  are  also  produced. 
In  the  valleys  and  well-watered  foothills  of  the  sierras,  however, 
cereals,  alfalfa  and  fruit  are  the  principal  products.  The  rainfall 
is  limited  throughout  the  province,  and  irrigation  is  employed 
in  but  few  localities.  The  mineral  resources  include  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead  and  iron,  but  mining  is  carried  on  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent.  Salt  and  marble  are  also  produced.  Cordoba 
is  traversed  by  several  railway  lines — those  running  westward 
from  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario  to  Mendoza  and  the  Chilean 
frontier,  those  connecting  the  city  of  Cordoba  with  the  same 
cities,  and  with  Tucuman  on  the  N.  and  Catamarca  and  Rioja 
on  the  N.W.  The  chief  towns  are  Cordoba,  the  capital,  Rio 
Quarto,  Villa  Maria,  an  important  railway  centre  82  m.  S.E. 
of  C6rdoba,  and  Cruz  del  Eje  on  the  W.  slopes  of  the  sierras, 
no  m.  N.W.  of  Cordoba. 

CORDOBA,  a  city  in  the  central  part  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, capital  of  the  above  province,  on  the  Rio  Primero,  435  m. 
by  rail  N.W.  of  Buenos  Aires  by  way  of  Rosario,  246  m.  from 
the  latter.  Pop.  (1895)  42,783 — the  suburbs  having  11,679 
more — (1905,  estimate)  60,000.  The  city  is  connected  by 
railway  with  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario,  and  with  the  capitals 
of  all  the  surrounding  provinces.  C6rdoba  stands  on  a  high 
eastward-sloping  plain  called  the  "Altos,"  1240  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  and  is  built  in  a  broad  river  bottom  washed  out  by 
periodical  inundations  and  the  action  of  the  rains  on  the  alluvial 
banks.  The  inundations  have  been  brought  under  control  by 
the  construction  of  barriers  and  dams,  but  the  banks  are  con- 
stantly broken  down.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  contains 
many  fine  edifices  and  dwellings.  Several  suburban  settlements 
surround  the  city,  the  more  important  of  which  are  served  by 
the  urban  tramway  lines.  The  streets  are  lighted  by  gas  and 
electricity,  and  an  excellent  telephone  service  is  maintained. 
The  noteworthy  public  buildings  include  the  cathedral,  a  hand- 
some edifice  curiously  oriental  in  appearance,  a  massive  old 
Jesuit  church  with  a  ceiling  of  richly  carved  and  gilded  cedar,  the 
old  university,  founded  in  1613,  which  still  occupies  the  halls 
built  by  the  Jesuits  around  a  large  quadrangle,  the  fine  old 
cabildo,  or  government  house,  of  Moorish  appearance,  and  the 
national  observatory  on  the  barranca  overlooking  the  city. 
There  are,  also,  two  national  normal  schools,  a  national  college, 
an  episcopal  seminary,  an  endowed  Carmelite  orphanage,  a 
national  meteorological  station,  a  national  academy  of  sciences, 
and  a  good  public  library.  Among  the  attractive  features  of 
the  city  is  an  alameda  of  about  six  acres,  within  which  is  a  square 
artificial  lake  of  4  acres,  surrounded  by  shrubbery  and  shaded 
walks ;  the  alameda  dates  from  the  time  when  the  Jesuits  ruled 
the  city,  and  to  them  also  are  due  the  tiled  baths,  supplied  with 
running  water.  A  short  avenue  connects  the  alameda  with  the 


principal  plaza,  a  pretty  garden  and  promenade.  The  water 
supply  of  C6rdoba  is  derived  from  the  Rio  Primero,  12  m.  above 
the  city,  where  an  immense  dam  (Dique  San  Roque),  one  of  the 
largest  of  its  kind  in  South  America,  has  been  built  across  the 
river  valley.  This  dam  also  serves  to  irrigate  the  valley  below, 
and  to  furnish  power  for  the  electric  plant  which  provides 
Cordoba  with  light  and  electric  power.  In  and  about  the  city 
there  are  several  industrial  establishments  which  have  sprung 
into  existence  since  the  opening  of  the  first  railway  in  1870.  The 
surrounding  country  is  irrigated  and  well  cultivated,  and  pro- 
duces an  abundance  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1573  by  Luis  Geronimo  de  Cabrera 
and  was  for  a  long  time  distinguished  for  its  learning  and  piety. 
It  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Jesuits  in  this  part  of  South 
America  for  two  centuries,  and  for  a  time  the  capital  of  the 
Spanish  intendencia  of  Tucuman.  The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
in  1767  proved  to  be  a  serious  blow  to  the  academic  reputation 
of  the  city,  from  which  it  did  not  recover  until  1870,  when 
President  Sarmientp  engaged  some  eminent  scientific  men  from 
Europe  to  teach  modern  science  in  the  university. 

CORDOBA,  a  town  of  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  55  m. 
W.S.W.  of  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz,  in  a  highly  fertile  valley,  near 
the  volcano  of  Orizaba,  and  2880  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1895) 
7974.  The  surrounding  district  produces  sugar,  tobacco  and 
coffee,  C6rdoba  being  one  of  the  principal  coffee-producing 
centres  of  Mexico.  It  also  manufactures  cotton  and  woollen 
fabrics.  The  town  is  regularly  laid  out  and  built  of  stone,  and 
contains  several  handsome  edifices,  chief  of  which  is  the  old 
cathedral.  C6rdoba  was  a  town  of  considerable  importance  in 
colonial  times,  but  fell  into  decay  after  the  revolution.  The  rail- 
way from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico,  which  passes  through  it,  and  the 
development  of  coffee  production,  have  helped  the  city  to  recover 
a  part  of  its  lost  trade. 

CORDON  (a  French  derivative  oicorde,  cord) ,  a  word  used  in  many 
applications  of  its  meaning  of  "  line  "  or  "  cord,"  and  particularly 
of  a  cord  of  gold  or  silver  lace  worn  in  military  and  other  uniforms. 
The  word  is  especially  used  of  the  sash  or  ribbon  worn  by  members 
of  an  order  of  knighthood,  crossing  from  one  shoulder  to  the 
opposite  hip.  The  cordon  bleu,  the  sky-blue  ribbon  of  the  knight's 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  highest  order  of  the 
Bourbon  kings  of  France,  was,  like  the  "  blue  ribbon  "  of  the 
English  Garter,  taken  as  a  type  of  the  highest  reward  or  prize 
to  which  any  one  can  attain  (see  also  COOKERY).  In  heraldry, 
"  cordons  "  are  the  ornamental  cords  which,  with  the  hats  to 
which  they  are  attached,  ensign  the  shields  of  arms  of  certain 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries;  they  are  interlaced  to  form  a  mesh 
or  network  and  terminate  in  rows  of  tassels.  A  cardinal's  cordon 
is  gules  with  five  rows  of  fifteen  tassels,  an  archbishop's  vert  with 
four  rows  of  ten,  and  a  bishop's  also  vert,  with  three  rows  of  six. 
In  architecture  a  "  cordon  "  is  a  projecting  band  of  stone  along 
the  outside  of  a  building,  a  string-course.  The  word  is  frequently 
used  in  a  transferred  sense  of  a  line  of  posts  or  stations  to  guard 
an  enclosed  area  from  unauthorized  passage,  e.g.  a  military  or 
police  cordon,  and  especially  a  sanitary  cordon,  a  line  of  posts  to 
prevent  communication  from  or  with  an  area  infected  with 
disease. 

CORDOVA  (Span.  C6rdoba),  an  inland  province  of  southern 
Spain,  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  Ciudad  Real,  E.  by  Ja6n,  S.E. 
by  Granada,  S.  by  Malaga,  S.W.  and  W.  by  Seville,  and  N.W. 
by  Badajoz.  Pop.  (1900)  455,859;  area,  5299  sq.  m.  The  river 
Guadalquivir  divides  the  province  into  two  very  dissimilar 
portions.  On  the  right  bank  is  the  mountainous  region  of  the 
Sierra  Morena,  less  peopled  and  fertile  than  the  left  bank,  with 
its  great  plains  (La  Campina)  and  slightly  undulating  country 
towards  the  south  and  south-east,  where  the  surface  again 
becomes  mountainous  with  the  outlying  ridges  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  The  Guadalquivir,  flowing  from  E.N.E.  to  W.S.W. , 
waters  the  richest  districts  of  Cordova,  and  has  many  tributaries, 
notably  the  Bembezar,  Guadiato  and  Guadamellato,  on  the  right, 
and  the  Genii  and  Guadajoz  on  the  left.  The  northern  districts 
(Los  Pedroches)  are  drained  by  several  small  tributaries  of  the 
Guadiana.  The  climate  is  much  varied.  Snow  is  to  be  found 


CORDOVA 


for  months  on  the  highest  peaks  of  the  mountains;  mild  tempera- 
ture in  the  plains,  except  in  the  few  torrid  summer  months,  when 
rain  seldom  falls.  The  peasantry  are  chiefly  occupied  in  various 
branches  of  husbandry;  sheep-farming  and  the  culture  of  the 
olive  employ  large  numbers.  The  agricultural  wealth  of  Cordova 
is,  however,  not  fully  exploited,  owing  to  the  conservatism  and 
backward  education  of  the  peasantry.  There  are  no  great  manu- 
facturing towns,  but  mining  is  an  industry  of  some  importance. 
In  1903  coal  was  obtained  in  considerable  quantities  in  the 
Belmez  district;  argentiferous  lead  and  zinc  near  Pozoblanco 
and  elsewhere;  iron  ore  at  Luque,  near  Baena.  A  small  amount 
of  bismuth  is  also  obtained.  Mining  is  facilitated  by  a  fairly 
complete  and  well-kept  system  of  communication  by  road  and 
railway.  The  main  line  Madrid-Linares-Seville  follows  the 
Guadalquivir  valley  throughout  the  province,  passing  through  the 
capital,  Cordova.  Here  it  meets  the  line  from  Almorch6n,  on 
the  north,  to  Malaga,  on  the  south,  which  has  three  important 
branches — Belmez-Fuente  del  Arco,  Cordova-Utrera,  and 
Puente  Genil-Ja6n.  After  the  capital,  the  principal  towns  are 
Aguilar  de  la  Frontera  (13,236),  Baena  (14,539),  Cabra  (13,127), 
Fuente  Ovejuna  (11,777),  Lucena  (21,179),  Montilla  (13,603), 
Montoro  (14,581),  Pozoblanco  (12,792),  Priego  de  Cordoba 
(16,904)  and  Puente  Genii  (12,956).  These  are  described  under 
separate  headings.  Other  towns  of  less  importance  are  Adamuz 
(6974),  Belalcazar  (7682),  Belmez  (8978),  Bujalance  (10,756), 
Castro  del  Rfo  (11,821),  Hinojosa  del  Duque  (10,673),  Palma 
del  Rfo  (7914),  Rute  (10,740)  and  Villafranca  de  C6rdoba  (9771). 

CORDOVA  (Span.  Cdrdoba;  Lat.  Corduba),  the  capital  of  the 
Spanish  province  of  Cordova,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
de  Cordova,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Guadalquivir.  Pop. 
(1900)  58,275.  At  Cordova  the  Madrid-Seville  railway  meets  the 
branch  line  from  Almorch6n  to  Malaga.  The  city  is  an  episcopal 
see.  Few  fragments  remain  of  its  Moorish  walls,  which  were 
erected  on  Roman  foundations  and  enclosed  a  very  wide  area, 
now  largely  occupied  by  garden-ground  cleared  from  the  ruins 
of  ancient  buildings.  On  the  outskirts  are  many  modern  factories 
in  striking  contrast  with  the  surrounding  orange,  lemon  and  olive 
plantations,  and  with  the  pastures  which  belong  to  the  celebrated 
Cordovan  school  of  bull-fighting.  Nearer  the  centre  the  streets 
are  for  the  most  part  narrow  and  crooked.  Almost  every 
building,  however,  is  profusely  covered  with  whitewash,  and  thus 
there  is  little  difference  on  the  surface  between  the  oldest  and  the 
most  modern  houses.  The  southern  suburb  communicates  with 
the  town  by  means  of  a  bridge  of  sixteen  arches  across  the  river, 
exhibiting  the  usual  combination  of  Roman  and  Moorish  masonry 
and  dominated  at  the  one  end  by  an  elevated  statue  of  the  patron 
saint,  St  Raphael,  whose  effigy  is  to  be  seen  in  various  other 
quarters  of  the  city.  The  most  important  of  the  public  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  the  old  monastic  establishments,  the  churches, 
the  bishop's  palace,  the  city  hall,  the  hospitals  and  the  schools  and 
colleges,  including  the  academy  for  girls  founded  in  1590  by 
Bishop  Pacheco  of  Cordova,  which  is  empowered  to  grant  degrees. 
The  Alcazar,  or  royal  palace,  stands  on  the  south-west  amid  the 
gardens  laid  out  by  its  builder,  the  caliph  Abd-ar-Rahman  III. 
(912-961).  Its  older  parts  are  in  ruins,  and  even  the  so-called 
New  Alcazar,  erected  by  Alphonso  XI.  of  Castile  in  1328,  and 
long  used  as  the  offices  of  the  Holy  Inquisition,  has  only  one  wing 
in  good  repair,  which  serves  as  a  prison. 

But  the  glory  of  Cordova,  surpassing  all  its  other  Moorish  or 
Christian  buildings,  is  the  mezquita,  or  mosque,  now  a  cathedral, 
but  originally  founded  on  the  'site  of  a  Roman  temple  and  a 
Visigothic  church  by  Abd-ar-Rahman  I.  (756-788),  who  wished 
to  confirm  the  power  of  his  caliphate  by  making  its  capital  a 
great  religious  centre.  Immigration  from  all  the  lands  of  Islam 
soon  rendered  a  larger  mosque  necessary,  owing  to  the  greatly 
increased  multitude  of  worshippers,  and,  by  orders  of  Abd-ar- 
Rahman  II.  (822-852)  and  Al-Hakim  II.  (961-976),  the  original 
size  was  doubled.  After  various  minor  additions,  Al-Mansur, 
the  vizier  of  the  caliph  Hisham  II.  (976-1009),  again  enlarged 
the  Zeca,  or  House  of  Purification,  as  the  mosque  was  named, 
to  twice  its  former  size,  rendering  it  the  largest  sacred  building 
cf  Islam,  after  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca.  The  ground  plan  of  the 


completed  mosque  forms  a  rectangle,  measuring  570  ft.  in  length 
and  425  in  breadth,  or  little  less  than  St  Peter's  in  Rome. 
About  one-third  of  this  area  is  occupied  by  the  courtyard,  and 
the  cloisters  which  surround  it  on  the  north,  west  and  east. 
The  exterior,  with  the  straight  lines  of  its  square  buttress  towers, 
has  a  heavy  and  somewhat  ungainly  appearance;  but  the 
interior  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  Moorish 
architecture.  Passing  through  a  grand  courtyard  about  500  ft. 
in  length,  shady  with  palm  and  cypress  and  orange  trees  and 
watered  by  five  fountains,  the  visitor  enters  on  the  south  a 
magnificent  and  bewildering  labyrinth  of  pillars  in  which  por- 
phyry, jasper  and  many-coloured  marbles  are  boldly  combined. 
Part  came  from  the  spoils  of  Nimes  or  Narbonne,  part  from 
Seville  or  Tarragona,  some  from  the  older  ruins  of  Carthage, 
and  others  as  a  present  to  Abd-ar-Rahman  I.  from  the  East 
Roman  emperor  Leo  IV.,  who  sent  also  from  Constantinople 
his  own  skilled  workmen,  with  16  tons  of  tesserae  for  the  mosaics. 
Originally  of  different  heights,  the  pillars  have  been  adjusted 
to  their  present  standard  of  12  ft.  either  by  being  sunk  into 
the  soil  or  by  the  addition  of  Corinthian  capitals.  Twelve 
hundred  was  the  number  of  the  columns  in  the  original  building, 
but  many  have  been  destroyed.  The  pillars  divide  the  area 
of  the  building  from  north  to  south,  longitudinally  into  nineteen 
and  transversely  into  twenty-nine  aisles — each  row  supporting  a 
tier  of  open  Moorish  arches  of  the  same  height  (12  ft.)  with  a 
third  and  similar  tier  superimposed  upon  the  second.  The  full 
height  of  the  ceiling  is  thus  about  35  ft.  The  Moorish  character 
of  the  building  was  unfortunately  impaired  in  the  i6th  century 
by  the  formation  in  the  interior  of  a  crucero,  or  high  altar  and 
cruciform  choir,  by  the  addition  of  numerous  chapels  along  the 
sides  of  the  vast  quadrangle,  and  by  the  erection  of  a  belfry 
300  ft.  high  in  room  of  the  old  minaret.  The  crucero  in  itself 
is  no  disgrace  to  the  architect  Hernan  Ruiz,  but  every  lover  of 
art  must  sympathize  with  the  rebuke  administered  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  (1500-1558)  to  the  cathedral  authorities: 
"  You  have  built  here  what  could  have  been  built  as  well  any- 
where else;  and  you  have  destroyed  what  was  unique  in  the 
world."  Magnificent,  indeed,  as  the  cathedral  still  is,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  realize  what  the  mosque  must  have  been 
when  the  worshippers  thronged  through  its  nineteen  gateways 
of  bronze,  and  its  4700  lamps,  fed  with  perfumed  oil,  illuminated 
its  brilliant  aisles.  Of  the  exquisite  elaboration  bestowed  on 
the  more  sacred  portions  abundant  proof  is  afforded  by  the 
third  Mikrab,  or  prayer-recess,  a  small  loth-century  chapel, 
heptagonal  in  shape,  roofed  with  a  single  shell-like  block  of 
snow-white  marble,  and  inlaid  with  Byzantine  mosaics  of  glass 
and  gold. 

Cordova  was  celebrated  in  the  time  of  the  Moors  for  its  silver- 
smiths, who  are  said  to  have  come  originally  from  Damascus; 
and  it  exported  a  peculiar  kind  of  leather  which  took  its  name 
from  the  city,  whence  is  derived  the  word  cordwainer.  Fine 
silver  filigree  ornaments  are  still  produced;  and  Moorish  work 
in  leather  is  often  skilfully  imitated,  although  this  handicraft 
almost  disappeared  in  the  i5th  century.  The  chief  modern 
industries  of  Cordova  are  distillation  of  spirits  and  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen,  linen  and  silken  goods. 

Corduba,  probably  of  Carthaginian  origin,  was  occupied  by 
the  Romans  under  Marcus  Marcellus  in  152  B.C.,  and  shortly 
afterwards  became  the  first  Roman  colonia  in  Spain.  From  the 
large  number  of  men  of  noble  rank  among  the  colonists,  the  city 
obtained  the  title  of  Patricia;  and  to  this  day  the  Cordovese 
pride  themselves  on  the  purity  and  antiquity  of  their  descent. 
In  the  ist  century  B.C.  Cordova  aided  the  sons  of  Pompey  against 
Caesar;  but  after  the  battle  of  Munda,  in  45  B.C.,  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Caesar,  who  avenged  the  obstinacy  of  its  resistance 
by  massacring  20,000  of  the  inhabitants.  Under  Augustus, 
if  not  before,  it  became  a  municipality,  and  was  the  capital  of 
the  thoroughly  Romanized  province  of  Baetica.  In  the  lifetime 
of  Strabo,  however  (c.  63  B.C.-A.D.  21),  it  stil}  ranked  as  the 
largest  city  of  Spain.  Its  prosperity  was  due  partly  to  its 
position  on  the  Baetis,  and  on  the  Via  Augusta,  the  great  com- 
mercial road  from  northern  Spain  built  by  Augustus,  and  partly 


CORDUROY— CORELLI 


to  its  proximity  to  mines  and'  rich  grazing  and  grain-producing 
districts.  Hosius,  its  bishop,  presided  over  the  first  council  of 
Nicaea  in  345;  and  its  importance  was  maintained  by  the 
Visigothic  kings,  whose  rule  lasted  from  the  5th  to  the  beginning 
of  the  8th  century.  Under  the  Moors,  Cordova  was  at  first  an 
appanage  of  the  caliphate  of  Damascus;  but  after  756  Abd-ar- 
Rahman  I.  made  it  the  capital  of  Moorish  Spain,  and  the  centre 
of  an  independent  caliphate  (see  ABD-AR-RAHMAN).  It  reached 
its  zenith  of  prosperity  in  the  middle  of  the  loth  century,  under 
Abd-ar-Rahman  III.  At  his  death,  it  is  recorded  by  native 
chroniclers,  probably  with  Arabic  exaggeration,  that  Cordova 
contained  within  its  walls  200,000  houses,  600  mosques,  900 
baths,  a  university,  and  numerous  public  libraries;  whilst  on 
the  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  under  the  power  of  its  monarch, 
there  were  eight  cities,  300  towns  and  12,000  populous  villages. 
A  period  of  decadence  began  in  1016,  owing  to  the  claims  of 
the  rival  dynasties  which  aimed  at  succeeding  to  the  line  of 
Abd-ar-Rahman;  the  caliphate  never  won  back  its  position,  and 
in  1236  Cordova  was  easily  captured  by  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile. 
The  substitution  of  Spanish  for  Moorish  supremacy  rather 
accelerated  than  arrested  the  decline  of  art,  industry  and  popula- 
tion; and  in  the  igth  century  Cordova  never  recovered  from  the 
<lisaster  of  1808,  when  it  was  stormed  and  sacked  by  the  French. 
Few  cities  of  Spain,  however,  can  boast  of  so  long  a  list  of 
illustrious  natives  in  the  Moorish  and  Roman  periods,  and  even, 
to  a  less  extent,  in  modern  times.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
rhetorician  Marcus  Annaeus  Seneca,  and  his  more  famous  son 
Lucius  (c.  3  B.C.-A.D.  65);  of  the  poet  Lucan  (A.D.  30-65);  of 
the  philosophers  Averroes  (1126-1198)  and  Maimonides  (1135- 
1204);  of  the  Spanish  men  of  letters  Juan  de  Mena  (c.  1411- 
1456),  Lorenzo  de  Sepulveda  (d.  1574)  and  Luis  de  Gongora 
y  Argote  (1561-1627);  and  the  painters  Pablo  de  Cespedes 
(1538-1608)  and  Juan  de  Valdes  Leal  (1630-1691).  The  cele- 
brated captain  Gonzalo  Fernandez  de  C6rdoba  (<?.».),  the  con- 
queror of  Naples  (1495-1498),  was  born  in  the  neighbouring 
town  of  Montilla. 

See  Estudio  descriptive  de  los  monumentos  drabes  de  Granada  y 
Cordoba,  by  R.  Contreras  (Madrid,  1885) ;  Cordoba,  a  large  illustrated 
volume  of  the  series  Espana,  by  P.  de  Madrazo  (Barcelona,  1884); 
Inscripciones  drabes  de  Cordoba,  by  R.  Amador  de  los  Rios  y  Villalta 
(Madrid,  1886). 

CORDUROY,  a  cotton  cloth  of  the  fustian  kind,  made  like  a 
ribbed  velvet.  It  is  generally  a  coarse  heavy  material  and  is 
used  largely  for  workmen's  clothes,  but  some  finer  kinds  are  used 
for  ladies'  dresses,  &c.  According  to  the  New  English  Dictionary 
the  word  is  understood  to  be  of  English  invention,  "  either 
originally  intended,  or  soon  after  assumed,  to  represent  a 
supposed  French  corde  du  roi."  It  is  said  that  a  coarse  woollen 
fabric  called  duroy,  made  in  Somerset  during  the  i8th  century, 
has  no  apparent  connexion  with  it.  From  the  ribbed  appearance 
•of  the  cloth  the  name  corduroy  is  applied,  particularly  in  Amercia, 
to  a  rough  road  of  logs  laid  transversely  side  by  side,  usually 
across  swampy  ground. 

CORDUS,  AULUS  CREMUTIUS,  Roman  historian  of  the  later 
Augustan  age.  He  was  the  author  of  a  history  (perhaps  called 
Annales)  of  the  events  of  the  civil  wars  and  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
embracing  the  period  from  at  least  43-18  B.C.  In  A.D.  25  he  was 
brought  to  trial  for  having  eulogized  Brutus  and  spoken  of 
Cassius  as  the  last  of  the  Romans.  His  real  offence  was  a  witti- 
•cism  at  the  expense  of  Sejanus,  who  put  up  two  of  his  creatures 
to  accuse  him  in  the  senate.  Seeing  that  nothing  could  save  him, 
Cordus  starved  himself  to  death.  A  decree  of  the  senate  ordered 
that  his  works  should  be  confiscated  and  burned  by  the  aediles. 
Some  copies,  however,  were  saved  by  the  efforts  of  Cordus's 
daughter  Marcia,  and  after  the  death  of  Tiberius  the  work  was 
published  at  the  express  wish  of  Caligula.  It  is  impossible  to  form 
an  opinion  of  it  from  the  scanty  fragments  (H.  Peter,  Historicorum 
Romanorum  Fragmenta,  1883).  According  to  ancient  authorities, 
the  writer  was  very  outspoken  in  his  denunciations,  and  his 
relatives  considered  it  necessary  to  strike  out  the  most  offensive 
passages  of  the  work  before  it  was  widely  circulated  (Quintilian, 
Instil,  x.  i,  104).  Two  passages  in  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  x.  74  [37], 
xvi.  108  [45])  seem  to  refer  to  a  work  of  a  different  nature  from 


the  history — perhaps  a  treatise  on  Admiranda  or  remarkable 
things. 

See  Tacitus,  Annals,  iv.  34,  35;  Suetonius,  Tiberius,  61,  Caligula, 
16;  Seneca,  Suasoriae,  vii.,  esp.  the  Consolatio  to  Cordus's  daughter 
Marcia;  Dio  Cassius  Ivii.  24.  There  are  monographs  by  J.  Held 
(1841)  and  C.  Rathlef  (1860).  Also  H.  Peter,  Die  geschichtliche 
Literatur  ilber  die  romische  Kaiserzeit  (1897);  Teuffel-Scnwabe,  Hist. 
of  Roman  Lit.,  Eng.  trans.,  277,  I. 

CORELLI,  ARCANGELO  (1653-1713),  Italian  violin-player 
and  composer,  was  bom  on  the  i2th  or  I3th  of  February  1653, 
at  Fusignano  near  Imola,  and  died  in  1713.  Of  his  life  little 
is  known.  His  master  on  the  violin  was  Bassani.  Matteo 
Simonelli,  the  well-known  singer  of  the  pope's  chapel,  taught 
him  composition.  His  first  decided  success  was  gained  in  Paris 
at  the  age  of  nineteen.  To  this  he  owed  his  European  reputation. 
From  Paris  Corelli  went  to  Germany.  In  1681  he  was  in  the 
service  of  the  electoral  prince  of  Bavaria;  between  1680  and  1685 
he  spent  a  considerable  time  in  the  house  of  his  friend  Farinelli. 
In  1685  he  was  certainly  in  Rome,  where  he  led  the  festival 
performances  of  music  for  Queen  Christine  of  Sweden  and  was 
also  a  favourite  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni.  From  1689  to  1690  he 
was  in  Modena,  the  duke  of  which  city  made  him  handsome 
presents.  In  1708  he  went  once  more  to  Rome,  living  in  the 
palace  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni.  His  visit  to  Naples,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  king,  took  place  in  the  same  year.  The  style  of  execu- 
tion introduced  by  Corelli  and  preserved  by  his  pupils,  such  as 
Geminiani,  Locatelli,  and  many  others,  has  been  of  vital  import- 
ance for  the  development  of  violin-playing,  but  he  employed 
only  a  limited  portion  of  his  instrument's  compass,  as  may  be 
seen  by  his  writings,  wherein  the  parts  for  the  violin  never 
proceed  above  D  on  the  first  string,  the  highest  note  in  the  third 
position;  it  is  even  said  that  he  refused  to  play,  as  impossible, 
a  passage  which  extended  to  A  in  altissimo  in  the  overture  to 
Handel's  Trionfo  del  Tempo,  and  took  serious  offence  when  the 
composer  played  the  note  in  evidence  of  its  practicability.  His 
compositions  for  the  instrument  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  chamber  music;  for  his  influence  was  not  confined  to  his 
own  country.  Even  Sebastian  Bach  submitted  to  it.  Musical 
society  in  Rome  owed  much  to  Corelli.  He  was  received  in  the 
highest  circles  of  the  aristocracy,  and  arranged  and  for  a  long 
time  presided  at  the  celebrated  Monday  concerts  in  the  palace 
of  Cardinal  Ottoboni.  Corelli  died  possessed  of  a  sum  of  120,000 
marks  and  a  valuable  collection  of  pictures,  the  only  luxury 
in  which  he  had  indulged.  He  left  both  to  his  benefactor  and 
friend,  who,  however,  generously  made  over  the  money  to  Corelli's 
relations.  Corelli's  compositions  are  distinguished  by  a  beautiful 
flow  of  melody  and  by  a  masterly  treatment  of  the  accompanying 
parts,  which  he  is  justly  said  to  have  liberated  from  the  strict 
rules  of  counterpoint.  Six  collections  of  concerti,  sonatas  and 
minor  pieces  for  violin,  with  accompaniment  of  other  instruments, 
besides  several  concerted  pieces  for  strings,  are  authentically 
ascribed  to  this  composer.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the 
XII.  Suonati  a  inolino  e  violone  o  cimbalo  (Rome,  1700). 

CORELLI,  MARIE  (1864-  ),  English  novelist,  was  the 
daughter  of  an  Italian  father  and  a  Scottish  mother,  but  in  infancy 
was  adopted  by  Charles  Mackay  (q.v.),  the  song- writer  and 
journalist,  whose  son  Eric,  at  his  death,  became  her  guardian. 
She  was  sent  to  be  educated  in  a  French  convent  with  the  object 
of  training  her  for  the  musical  profession,  and  while  still  a  girl 
composed  various  pieces  of  music.  But  her  journalistic  con- 
nexion proved  a  stronger  stimulus  to  expression,  and  editors 
who  were  friends  of  her  adopted  father  printed  some  of  her 
early  poetry.  Then  she  produced  what  was  at  least  a  clever,  if 
not  a  remarkably  well  written,  romantic  story,  on  the  theme  of 
a  self-revelation  connecting  the  Christian  Deity  with  a  world 
force  in  the  form  of  electricity,  which  was  published  in  1886 
under  the  title  of  A  Romance  of  Two  Worlds.  It  had  an  im- 
mediate and  large  sale,  which  resulted,  naturally,  in  her  devoting 
her  inventive  faculty  to  satisfy  the  public  demand  for  similar 
work.  Thus  she  wrote  in  succession  a  series  of  melodramatic 
romantic  novels,  original  in  some  aspects  of  their  treatment, 
daring  in  others,  but  all  combining  a  readable  plot  with  enough 
au  fond  of  what  the  majority  demanded  in  ethical  and  religious 


144 


CORENZIO— CORFINIUM 


correctness  to  suit  a  widespread  contemporary  taste;  these  were 
Vendetta  (1886),  Thslma  (1887),  Ardath  (1889),  The  Soul  of  L ilith 
(1892),  Barabbas  (1893),  The  Sorrows  of  Satan  (1895),— the  very 
titles  were  catching, — The  Mighty  Atom  (1896), — which  appealed 
to  all  who  knew  enough  of  modern  science  to  wish  to  think  it 
wicked,  — and  others,  down  to  The  Master  Christian  (1900),  again 
satisfying  the  socio-ethico-religious  demand,  and  Temporal 
Power  (1902),  with  its  contemporary  suggestion  from  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VII.  Miss  Corelli  had  the  advantage  of  writing 
quite  sincerely  and  with  conviction,  amid  what  superior  critics 
sneered  at  as  bad  style  and  sensationalism,  on  themes  which 
conventional  readers  nevertheless  enjoyed,  and  round  plots  which 
were  dramatic  and  vigorous.  Her  popular  success  was  great  and 
advertised  itself.  It  was  helped  by  a  well-spread  belief  that 
Queen  Victoria  preferred  her  novels  to  any  other.  Reviewers 
wrote  sarcastically,  and  justly,  of  her  obvious  literary  lapses  and 
failings;  she  retorted  by  pitying  the  poor  reviewers  and  letting 
it  be  understood  that  no  books  of  hers  were  sent  to  the  Press  for 
criticism.  When  she  went  to  live  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  her 
personality,  and  her  importance  in  the  literary  world,  became 
further  allied  with  the  historic  associations  of  the  place;  and 
in  the  public  life  of  women  writers  her  utterances  had  the  reclame 
which  is  emphasized  by  journalistic  publicity.  Such  success  is 
not  to  be  gauged  by  purely  literary  standards;  the  popularity  of 
Miss  Corelli 's  novels  is  a  phenomenon  not  so  much  of  literature  as 
of  literary  energy — entirely  creditable  to  the  journalistic  resource 
of  the  writer,  and  characteristic  of  contemporary  pleasure  in 
readable  fiction. 

CORENZIO,  BELISARIO  (c.  1558-1643),  Italian  painter,  a 
Greek  by  birth,  studied  at  Venice  under  Tintoretto,  and  then 
settled  at  Naples,  where  he  became  famous  for  unscrupulous 
conduct  as  a  man  and  rapid  execution  as  an  artist.  Though 
careless  in  composition  and  a  mannerist  in  style,  he  possessed 
an  acknowledged  fertility  of  invention  and  readiness  of  hand; 
and  these  qualities,  allied  to  a  certain  breadth  of  conception, 
seem  in  the  eyes  of  his  contemporaries  to  have  atoned  for  many 
defects.  When  Guido  Reni  came  in  1621  to  Naples  to  paint  in 
the  chapel  of  St  Januarius,  Corenzio  suborned  an  assassin  to  take 
his  life.  The  hired  bravo  killed  Guide's  assistant,  and  effectually 
frightened  Reni,  who  prudently  withdrew  to  Rome.  Corenzio, 
however,  only  suffered  temporary  imprisonment,  and  lived  long 
enough  to  supplant  Ribera  in  the  good  graces  of  Don  Pedro  di 
Toledo,  viceroy  of  Naples,  who  made  him  his  court  painter. 
Corenzio  vainly  endeavoured  to  fill  Guide's  place  in  the  chapel 
of  St  Januarius.  His  work  was  adjudged  to  have  been  under 
the  mark,  and  yet  the  numerous  frescoes  which  he  left  in  Nea- 
politan churches  and  palaces,  and  the  large  wall  paintings  which 
still  cover  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  Monte  Casino  are  evidence 
of  uncommon  facility,  and  show  that  Corenzio  was  not  greatly 
inferior  to  the  fa  prestos  of  his  time.  His  florid  style,  indeed, 
seems  well  in  keeping  with  the  overladen  architecture  and  full- 
blown decorative  ornament  peculiar  to  the  Jesuit  builders  of 
the  I7th  century.  Corenzio  died,  it  is  said,  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
five  by  a  fall  from  a  scaffolding. 

CO-RESPONDENT,  in  law,  generally,  a  person  made  respondent 
to,  or  called  upon  to  answer,  along  with  another  or  others,  a 
petition  or  other  proceeding.  More  particularly,  since  the 
Matrimonial  Causes  Act  1857,  the  term  it,  applied  to  the  person 
charged  by  a  husband,  when  presenting  a  petition  praying  for 
the  dissolution  of  his  marriage  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  with 
misconduct  with  his  wife,  and  made,  jointly  with  her,  a 
respondent  to  the  suit.  (See  also  DIVORCE.) 

CORFE  CASTLE,  a  town  in  the  eastern  parliamentary  division 
of  Dorsetshire,  England,  in  the  district  called  the  Isle  of  Purbeck, 
1295  m.  S.W.  by  W.  from  London  by  the  London  &  South- 
western railway.  Pop.  (1901)  1440.  The  castle,  through  which 
the  town  is  famous,  guarded  a  gap  in  the  line  of  considerable 
hills  which  rise  in  the  centre  of  Purbeck.  It  is  strongly  placed 
on  an  eminence  falling  almost  sheer  on  three  sides.  Its  ruins  are 
extensive,  and  date  for  the  most  part  from  the  Norman  period 
to  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  There  is,  however,  a  trace  of  early 
masonry  which  may  have  belonged  to  the  Saxon  house  where, 


in  978,  King  Edward  the  Martyr  was  murdered.  Corfe  Castle 
was  held  for  the  empress  Maud  against  King  Stephen  in  1139, 
was  frequently  the  residence  of  King  John,  and  was  a  stronghold 
of  the  barons  against  Henry  III.  Edward  II.  was  imprisoned 
here  for  a  short  period.  The  castle  withstood  a  protracted 
siege  by  the  Parliamentarians  in  1643,  and  fell  to  them  by 
treachery  in  1646,  after  which  it  was  dismantled  and  wrecked. 
The  church  in  the  town,  almost  wholly  rebuilt,  is  dedicated  to 
St  Edward  the  Martyr.  The  quarrying  of  Purbeck  stone  and 
the  raising  of  potters'  clay  are  the  chief  industries. 

Probably  Corfe  Castle  (Corfes  geat,  Corf  geat,  Cone,  Corph)  was 
an  early  Anglo-Saxon  settlement.  According  to  William  of 
Malmesbury  the  church  was  founded  by  St  Aldhelm  in  the  7th 
century.  In  1086  the  abbey  of  Shaftesbury  held  the  manor, 
which  afterwards  passed  to  the  Norman  kings,  who  raised  the 
castle.  Its  date  is  disputed,  but  the  town  dependent  on  it  seems 
to  have  grown  up  during  the  i3th  century,  being  first  mentioned 
in  1290,  when  an  inquisition  states  that  the  mayor  has  pesag« 
of  wool  and  cheese.  The  rights  of  the  burgesses  seem  to  have 
been  undefined,  for  frequent  commissions  attest  to  encroach- 
ments on  the  rights  of  warren,  forest  and  wreckage  belonging 
to  the  royal  manor.  In  1380-1381  at  an  inquisition  into  the 
liberties  of  Corfe  Castle,  the  jurors  declared  that  from  time 
immemorial  the  constable  and  his  steward  had  held  all  pleas  and 
amerciaments  except  those  of  the  mayor's  court  of  Pie  Powder, 
but  that  the  town  had  judgment  by  fire,  water  and  combat. 
The  tenants,  or  "  barons,"  elected  themselves  a  mayor  and 
coroners,  but  the  constable  received  the  assize  of  ale.  Elizabeth 
in  1577  gave  exclusive  admiralty  jurisdiction  within  the  island 
of  Purbeck  to  Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  and  granted  the  mayor 
and  "  barons  "  of  Corfe  the  rights  they  enjoyed  by  prescription 
and  charter  and  that  of  not  being  placed  on  juries  or  assizes  in 
matters  beyond  the  island.  Charles  II.  incorporated  Corfe 
Castle  in  1663,  the  mayor  being  elected  at  a  court  leet  from  three 
nominees  of  the  lord  of  the  manor.  Corfe  Castle  first  returned 
two  representatives  to  parliament  in  1572,  but  was  disfranchised 
in  1832.  A  market  for  each  Saturday  was  granted  to  Corfe  in 
1214,  and  in  1248  the  town  obtained  a  fair  and  a  market  on  each 
Thursday,  while  Elizabeth  granted  fairs  on  the  feasts  of  St 
Philip  and  St  James  and  of  St  Luke;  both  of  these  still  survive. 
As  early  as  the  i4th  century  the  quarrying  and  export  of  marble 
gave  employment  to  the  men  of  Corfe,  and  during  the  i8th 
century  the  knitting  of  stockings  was  a  flourishing  industry. 

See  T.  Bond,  History  and  Description  of  Corfe  Castle  (London  and 
Bournemouth,  1883). 

CORFINIUM,  in  ancient  Italy,  the  chief  city  of  the  Paeligni, 
7  m.  N.  of  Sulmona  in  the  valley  of  the  Aternus.  The  site  of 
the  original  town  is  occupied  by.  the  village  of  Pentima.  It 
probably  became  subject  to  Rome  in  the  4th  century  B.C., 
though  it  does  not  appear  in  Roman  history  before  the  Social 
War  (90  B.C.),  in  which  it  was  at  first  adopted  by  the  allies  as 
the  capital  and  seat  of  government  of  their  newly  founded  state 
under  the  name  Italia  (this  form,  not  Italica,  is  vouched  for  by 
the  coins).  It  appears  also  as  a  fortress  of  importance  in  the 
Civil  War,  though  it  only  resisted  Caesar's  attack  for  a  week 
(49  B.C.).  Whether  the  Via  Valeria  ran  as  far  as  Corfinium 
before  the  time  of  Claudius  is  uncertain:  he,  however,  certainly 
extended  it  to  the  Adriatic,  and  at  the  same  time  constructed 
a  cross  road,  the  Via  Claudia  Nova,  which  diverged  from  the 
Via  Claudia  Valeria  at  a  point  6  m.  farther  north,  and  led  past 
Peltuinum  and  Aveia  to  Foruli  on  the  Via  Salaria.  Another 
road  ran  S.S.E.  past  Sulmo  to  Aesernia.  It  was  thus  an  im- 
portant road  centre,  and  must  have  been,  in  the  imperial  period, 
a  town  of  some  size,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  inscriptions 
that  have  been  discovered  there,  and  from  the  extent  rather 
than  the  importance  of  the  buildings  visible  on  the  site  (among 
them  may  be  noted  the  remains  of  two  aqueducts),  which  has, 
however,  never  been  systematically  excavated.  Short  accounts 
of  discoveries  will  be  found  in  Notizie  degli  Scavi,  passim,  and  a 
museum,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  contents  of  tombs,  has  been 
formed  at  Pentima.  In  one  corner  of  a  large  enclosed  space 
(possibly  a  palaestra}  was  constructed  the  church  of  S.  Pelino. 


CORFU 


The  present  building  dates  from  the  i3th  century,  though  its 
origin  may  be  traced  to  the  end  of  the  sth  when  it  was  the 
cathedral  of  the  see  of  Valva,  which  appears  to  have  been  the 
name  of  Corfinium  at  the  close  of  the  Roman  period.  (T.  As.) 

CORFU  (anc.  and  mod.  Gr.  KepKvpaoT  Kbpnvpa,  Lat.  Corcyra), 
an  island  of  Greece,  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Albania 
or  Epirus,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  varying  in 
breadth  from  less  than  2  to  about  ism.  The  name  Corfu  is  an 
Italian  corruption  of  the  Byzantine  K.opv<j>u,  which  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  Kopucfai  (crests).  In  shape  it  is  not  unlike  the 
sickle  (drepane),  to  which  it  was  compared  by  the  ancients, — the 
hollow  side,  with  the  town  and  harbour  of  Corfu  in  the  centre, 
being  turned  towards  the  Albanian  coast.  Its  extreme  length 
is  about  40  m.  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  20.  The  area  is 
estimated  at  227  sq.  m.,  and  the  population  in  1907  was  99,571, 
of  whom  28,254  were  in  the  town  and  suburbs  of  Corfu.  Two 
high  and  well-defined  ranges  divide  the  island  into  three  districts, 
of  which  the  northern  is  mountainous,  the  central  undulating 
and  the  southern  low-lying.  The  most  important  of  the  two 
ranges  is  that  of  San  Salvador,  probably  the  ancient  Istone, 
which  stretches  east  and  west  from  Cape  St  Angelo  to  Cape 
St  Stefano,  and  attains  its  greatest  elevation  of  330x3  ft.  in  the 
summit  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  The  second  culminates  in 
the  mountain  of  Santi  Deca,  or  Santa  Decca,  as  it  is  called  by 
misinterpretation  of  the  Greek  designation  ol  "Ayiai.  A«ca,  or 
the  Ten  Saints.  The  whole  island,  composed  as  it  is  of  various 
limestone  formations,  presents  great  diversity  of  surface,  and 
the  prospects  from  the  more  elevated  spots  are  magnificent. 

Corfu  is  generally  considered  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the 
Greek  isles,  but  the  prevalence  of  the  olive  gives  some  monotony 
to  its  colouring.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Homer  names, 
as  adorning  the  garden  of  Alcinous,  seven  plants  only — wild  olive, 
oil  olive,  pear,  pomegranate,  apple,  fig  and  vine.  Of  these  the 
apple  and  the  pear  are  now  very  inferior  in  Corfu;  the  others 
thrive  well  and  are  accompanied  by  all  the  fruit  trees  known  in 
southern  Europe,  with  addition  of  the  Japanese  medlar(or  loquat) , 
and,  in  some  spots,  of  the  banana.  When  undisturbed  by 
cultivation,  the  myrtle,  arbutus,  bay  and  ilex  form  a  rich 
brushwood  and  the  minor  flora  of  the  island  is  extensive. 

The  common  form  of  land  tenure  is  the  colonia  perpetua,  by 
which  the  landlord  grants  a  lease  to  the  tenant  and  his  heirs  for 
ever,  in  return  for  a  rent,  payable  in  kind,  and  fixed  at  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  produce.  Of  old,  a  tenant  thus  obtaining  half 
the  produce  to  himself  was  held  to  be  co-owner  of  the  soil  to 
the  extent  of  one-fourth;  and  if  he  had  three-fourths  of  the 
crop,  his  ownership  came  to  one-half.  Such  a  tenant  could 
not  be  expelled  except  for  non-payment,  bad  culture  or  the 
transfer  of  his  lease  without  the  landlord's  consent.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  prohibit  so  embarrassing  a  system;  but  as 
it  is  preferred  by  the  agriculturists,  the  existing  laws  permit  it. 
The  portion  of  the  olive  crop  due  to  the  landlord,  whether  by 
colonia  or  ordinary  lease,  is  paid,  not  according  to  the  actual 
harvest,  but  in  keeping  with  the  estimates  of  valuators  mutually 
appointed,  who,  just  before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  calculate  how  much 
each  tree  will  probably  yield.  The  large  old  fiefs  (baronie)  in 
Corfu,  as  in  the  other  islands,  have  left  their  traces  in  the  form 
of  quit-rents  (known  in  Scotland  by  the  name  of  feu-duties), 
generally  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the  produce.  But  they  have 
been  much  subdivided,  and  the  vassals  may  by  law  redeem  them. 
Single  olive  trees  of  first  quality  yield  sometimes  as  much  as 
2  gallons  of  oil,  and  this  with  little  trouble  or  expense  beyond  the 
collecting  and  pressing  of  the  fallen  fruit.  The  trees  grow 
unrestrained,  and  some  are  not  less  than  three  hundred  years  old. 
The  vineyards  are  laboured  by  the  broad  heart-shaped  hoe. 
The  vintage  begins  on  the  festival  of  Santa  Croce,  or  the  26th  of 
September  (O.S.).  None  of  the  Corfu  wines  is  much  exported. 
The  capital  is  the  only  city  or  town  of  much  extent  in  the  island; 
but  there  are  a  number  of  villages,  such  as  Benizze,  Gasturi,  Ipso, 
Glypho,  with  populations  varying  from  300  to  1000.  Near 
Gasturi  stands  the  Achilleion,  the  palace  built  for  the  Empress 
Elizabeth  of  Austria,  and  purchased  in  1907  by  the  German 
emperor,  William  II. 


The  town  of  Corfu  stands  on  the  broad  part  of  a  peninsula, 
whose  termination  in  the  citadel  is  cut  from  it  by  an  artificial 
fosse  formed  in  a  natural  gully,  with  a  salt-water  ditch  at  the 
bottom.  Having  grown  up  within  fortifications,  where  every 
foot  of  ground  was  precious,  it  is  mostly,  in  spite  of  recent  im- 
provements, a  labyrinth  of  narrow,  tortuous,  up-and-down  streets, 
accommodating  themselves  to  the  irregularities  of  the  ground, 
few  of  them  fit  for  wheel  carriages.  There  is,  however,  a 
handsome  esplanade  between  the  town  and  the  citadel,  and 
a  promenade  by  the  seashore  towards  Castrades.  The  palace, 
built  by  Sir  Thomas  Maitland  (?i759~i824;  lord  high  com- 
missioner cf  the  Ionian  Islands,  1815),  is  a  large  structure  of 
white  Maltese  stone.  In  several  parts  of  the  town  may  be  found 
houses  of  the  Venetian  time,  with  some  traces  of  past  splendour, 
but  they  are  few,  and  are  giving  place  to  structures  in  the  modern 
and  more  convenient  French  style.  Of  the  thirty-seven  Greek 
churches  the  most  important  are  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to 
Our  Lady  of  the  Cave  (fi  Havayla  SmjXiomffcra) ;  St  Spiridion's, 
with  the  tomb  of  the  patron  saint  of  the  island;  and  the  suburban 
church  of  St  Jason  and  St  Sosipater,  reputed  the  oldest  in  the 
island.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop;  and  it  possesses  a  gymnasium,  a  theatre,  an 
agricultural  and  industrial  society,  and  a  library  and  museum 
preserved  in  the  buildings  formerly  devoted  to  the  university, 
which  was  founded  by  Frederick  North,  5th  earl  of  Guilford 
(1766-1827,  himself  the  first  chancellor  in  1824,)  in  1823,  but 
disestablished  on  the  cessation  of  the  English  protectorate. 
There  are  three  suburbs  of  some  importance — Castrades,  Man- 
duchio  and  San  Rocco.  The  old  fortifications  of  the  town, 
being  so  extensive  as  to  require  a  force  of  from  10,000  to  20,000 
troops  to  man  them,  were  in  great  part  thrown  down  by  the 
English,  and  a  simpler  plan  adopted,  limiting  the  defences  to 
the  island  of  Vido  and  the  old  citadel;  these  are  now  dismantled. 

History. — According  to  the  local  tradition  Corcyra  was  the 
Homeric  island  of  Scheria,  and  its  earliest  inhabitants  the 
Phaeacians.  At  a  date  no  doubt  previous  to  the  foundation  of 
Syracuse  it  was  peopled  by  settlers  from  Corinth,  but  it  appears 
to  have  previously  received  a  stream  of  emigrants  from  Eretria. 
The  splendid  commercial  position  of  Corcyra  on  the  highway 
between  Greece  and  the  West  favoured  its  rapid  growth,  and, 
influenced  oerhaps  by  the  presence  of  non-Corinthian  settlers, 
its  people,  quite  contrary  to  the  usual  practice  of  Corinthian 
colonies,  maintained  an  independent  and  even  hostile  attitude 
towards  the  mother  city.  This  opposition  came  to  a  head  in 
the  early  part  of  the  7th  century,  when  their  fleets  fought  the 
first  naval  battle  recorded  in  Greek  history  (about  664  B.C.). 
These  hostilities  ended  in  the  conquest  of  Corcyra  by  the 
Corinthian  tyrant  Periander  (c.  600),  who  induced  his  new 
subjects  to  join  in  the  colonization  of  Apollonia  and  Anactorium. 
The  island  soon  regained  its  independence  and  henceforth 
devoted  itself  to  a  purely  mercantile  policy.  During  the  Persian 
invasion  of  480  it  manned  the  second  largest  Greek  fleet  (60 
ships),  but  took  no  active  part  in  the  war.  In  435  it  was  again 
involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Corinth  and  sought  assistance  from 
Athens.  This  new  alliance  was  one  of  the  chief  immediate 
causes  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  (q.v.),  in  which  Corcyra  was 
of  considerable  use  to  the  Athenians  as  a  naval  station,  but  did 
not  render  much  assistance  with  its  fleet.  The  island  was  nearly 
lost  to  Athens  by  two  attempts  of  the  oligarchic  faction  to  effect 
a  revolution;  on  each  occasion  the  popular  party  ultimately 
won  the  day  and  took  a  most  bloody  revenge  on  its  opponents 
(427  and  425).  During  the  Sicilian  campaigns  of  Athens 
Corcyra  served  as  a  base  for  supplies;  after  a  third  abortive  rising 
of  the  oligarchs  in  410  it  practically  withdrew  from  the  war. 
Jn  375  it  again  joined  the  Athenian  alliance;  two  years  later  it 
was  besieged  by  a  Lacedaemonian  armament,  but  in  spite  of  the 
devastation  of  its  flourishing- countryside  held  out  successfully 
until  relief  was  at  hand.  In  the  Hellenistic  period  Corcyra  was 
exposed  to  attack  from  several  sides;  after  a  vain  siege  by 
Cassander  it  was  occupied  in  turn  by  Agathocles  and  Pyrrhus. 
It  subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  Illyrian  corsairs,  until  in 
229  it  was  delivered  by  the  Romans,  who  retained  it  as  a  naval 


146 


CORI— CORINGA 


station  and  gave  it  the  rank  of  a  free  state.  In  31  B.C.  it  served 
Octavian  (Augustus)  as  a  base  against  Antony. 

Eclipsed  by  the  foundation  of  Nicopolis,  Corcyra  for  a  long 
time  passed  out  of  notice.  With  the  rise  of  the  Norman  kingdom 
in  Sicily  and  the  Italian  naval  powers,  it  again  became  a  frequent 
object  of  attack.  In  1081-1085  it  was  held  by  Robert  Guiscard, 
in  1147-1154  by  Roger  II.  of  Sicily.  During  the  break-up  of 
the  Later  Roman  Empire  it  was  occupied  by  Genoese  privateers 
(1197-1207)  who  in  turn  were  expelled  by  the  Venetians.  In 
1214-1259  it  passed  to  the  Greek  despots  of  Epirus,  and  in  1267 
became  a  possession  of  the  Neapolitan  house  of  Anjou.  Under 
the  latter's  weak  rule  the  island  suffered  considerably  from  the 
inroads  of  various  adventurers ;  hence  in  1386  it  placed  itself 
under  the  protection  of  Venice,  which  in  1401  acquired  formal 
sovereignty  over  it.  Corcyra  remained  in  Venetian  hands  till 
1797,  though  several  times  assailed  by  Turkish  armaments  and 
subjected  to  two  notable  sieges  in  1536  and  1716-1718,  in  which 
the  great  natural  strength  of  the  city  again  asserted  itself.  The 
Venetian  feudal  families  pursued  a  mild  but  somewhat  enervating 
policy  towards  the  natives,  who  began  to  merge  their  nationality 
in  that  of  the  Latins  and  adopted  for  the  island  the  new  name 
of  Corfu.  The  Corfiotes  were  encouraged  to  enrich  themselves 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  but  were  debarred  from  entering 
into  commercial  competition  with  Venice.  The  island  served 
as  a  refuge  for  Greek  scholars,  and  in  1732  became  the  home 
of  the  first  academy  of  modern  Greece,  but  no  serious  impulse 
to  Greek  thought  came  from  this  quarter. 

By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  Corfu  was  ceded  to  the  French, 
who  occupied  it  for  two  years,  until  they  were  expelled  by  a 
Russo-Turkish  armament  (1799).  For  a  short  time  it  became 
the  capital  of  a  self-governing  federation  of  the  Hephtanesos 
("  Seven  Islands  ") ;  in  1807  its  faction-ridden  government 
was  again  replaced  by  a  French  administration,  and  in  1809  it 
was  vainly  besieged  by  a  British  fleet.  When,  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris  of  November  5,  1815,  the  Ionian  Islands  were  placed  under 
the  protectorate  of  Great  Britain,  Corfu  became  the  seat  of  the 
British  high  commissioner.  The  British  commissioners,  who 
were  practically  autocrats  in  spite  of  the  retention  of  the  native 
senate  and  assembly,  introduced  a  strict  method  of  government 
which  brought  about  a  decided  improvement  in  the  material 
prosperity  of  the  island,  but  by  its  very  strictness  displeased  the 
natives.  In  1864  it  was,  with  the  other  Ionian  Islands,  ceded 
to  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  island  has  again  become  an  important  point 
of  call  and  has  a  considerable  trade  in  olive  oil;  under  a  more 
careful  system  of  tillage  the  value  of  its  agricultural  products 
might  be  largely  increased. 

Corfu  contains  very  few  and  unimportant  remains  of  antiquity. 
The  site  of  the  ancient  cityof  Corcyra(KepKDpa)  is  well  ascertained, 
about  ij  m.  to  the  south-east  of  Corfu,  upon  the  narrow  piece 
of  ground  between  the  sea-lake  of  Calichiopulo  and  the  Bay  of 
Castrades,  in  each  of  which  it  had  a  port.  The  circular  tomb  of 
Menecrates,  with  its  well-known  inscription,  is  on  the  Bay  of 
Castrades.  Under  the  hill  of  Ascension  are  the  remains  of  a 
temple,  popularly  called  of  Neptune,  a  very  simple  Doric  struc- 
ture, which  still  in  its  mutilate'd  state  presents  some  peculiarities 
of  architecture.  Of  Cassiope,  the  only  other  city  of  ancient  im- 
portance, the  name  is  still  preserved  by  the  village  of  Cassopo, 
and  there  are  some  rude  remains  of  building  on  the  site;  but 
the  temple  of  Zeus  Cassius  for  which  it  was  celebrated  has  totally 
disappeared.  Throughout  the  island  there  are  numerous 
monasteries  and  other  buildings  of  Venetian  erection,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  Paleocastrizza,  San  Salvador  and  Pelleka. 

£AuT4?,°RIT';??-~?t.I?bo  vL  P-  269:  vii-  P-  329;  Herodotus  viii. 
168;  fhucydides  i.-iu. ;  Xenophon,  Hellenica,  vi.  2;  Polybius  if. 
9-1 1 ;  Plutarch,  Quaestiones  Graecae,  ch.  xi.;  H.  Jervis,  The  Ionian 
Islands  during  the  Present  Century  (London,  1863);  D.  F.  Ansted 
The  Ionian  Islands  in  the  Year  1863  (London,  1863);  Riemann, 
Recherches  archeologiques  sur  les  lies  ioniennes  (Paris,  1879-1880)- 
J.  Partsch,  Die  Insel  Korfu  (Gotha,  1887) ;  B.  Schmidt,  Korkyrdische 
Studien  (Leipzig,  1890);  B.  V.  Head,  Historia  Numorum  (Oxford, 
1887),  pp.  275-277;  H.  Lutz  in  Philologus,  56  (1897),  pp.  71-77; 
also  art.  NUMISMATICS:  Greek,  §  "  Epirus."  (E.  GR.-  M.  O  B  C  ) 


CORI  (anc.  Cora),  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  the  province  of 
Rome,  Italy,  36  m.  S.E.  by  rail  from  the  town  of  Rome,  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  Volscian  mountains,  1300  ft.  above  sea-level. 
Pop.  (1001)  6463.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Volscian 
town  of  Cora,  the  foundation  of  which  is  by  classical  authors 
variously  ascribed  to  Trojan  settlers,  to  the  Volscians  (with  a  later 
admixture  of  Latins),  and  to  the  Latins  themselves.  The  last 
is  more  probable  (though  in  that  case  it  was  the  only  town  of 
the  Prisci  Latini  in  the  Volscian  hills),  as  it  appears  among  the 
members  of  the  Latin  league.  Coins  of  Cora  exist,  belonging 
at  latest  to  350-250  B.C.  It  was  devastated  by  the  partisans 
of  Marius  during  the  struggle  between  him  and  Sulla.  Before 
the  end  of  the  Republic  it  had  become  a  municipium.  It  lay 
just  above  the  older  road  from  Velitrae  to  Terracina,  which 
followed  the  foot  of  the  Volscian  hills,  but  was  6  m.  from  the 
Via  Appia,  and  it  is  therefore  little  mentioned  by  classical 
writers.  It  is  comparatively  often  spoken  of  in  the  4th  century, 
but  from  that  time  to  the  i3th  we  hear  hardly  anything  of  it, 
as  though  it  had  almost  ceased  to  exist.  The  remains  of  the 
city  walls  are  considerable :  three  different  enceintes,  one  within 
the  other,  enclose  the  upper  and  lower  town  and  the  acropolis. 
They  are  built  in  Cyclopean  work,  and  different  parts  vary  con- 
siderably in  the  roughness  or  fineness  of  the  jointing  and  hewing 
of  the  blocks;  but  explorations  at  Norba  (q.v.)  have  proved  that 
inferences  as  to  their  relative  antiquity  based  upon  such  con- 
siderations are  not  to  be  trusted.  There  is  a  fine  single-arched 
bridge,  now  called  the  Ponte  della  Catena,  just  outside  the  town 
on  the  way  to  Norba,  to  which  an  excessively  early  date  is  often 
assigned. 

At  the  summit  of  the  town  is  a  beautiful  little  Doric  tetrastyle 
temple,  belonging  probably  to  the  ist  cenfury  B.C.,  built  of 
limestone  with  an  inscription  recording  its  erection  by  the 
duumviri.  It  is  not  known  to  what  deity  it  was  dedicated;  and 
there  is  no  foundation  for  the  assertion  that  the  porphyry 
statue  of  Minerva  (or  Roma)  now  in  front  of  the  Palazzo  del 
Sena  tore,  at  Rome,  was  found  here  in  the  i6th  century.  Lower 
down  are  two  columns  of  a  Corinthian  temple  dedicated  to  Castor 
and  Pollux,  as  the  inscription  records.  The  church  of  Santa 
Oliva  stands  upon  the  site  of  a  Roman  building.  The  cloister, 
constructed  in  1466-1480,  is  in  two  storeys;  the  capitals  of  the 
columns  are  finely  sculptured  by  a  Lombard  artist  (G.  Giovan- 
noni  in  L'Arte,  1906,  p.  108).  There  are  remains  of  several  other 
ancient  buildings  in  the  modern  town,  especially  of  a  series  of 
large  cisterns  probably  belonging  to  the  imperial  period.  Some 
interesting  frescoes  of  the  Roman  school  of  the  isth  century 
are  to  be  found  in  the  chapel  of  the  Annunziata  outside  the  town 
(F.  Hermanin  in  L'Arte,  1906,  p.  45). 

See  G.  B.  Piranesi,  Antichita  di  Cora  (Rome,  n.d.,  c.  1770);  A. 
Nibby,  Analisi  della  Carlo,  dei  Dintorni  di  Roma  (Rome,  1848), 
i.  487  seq.  (T.  As.) 

CORIANDER,  the  fruit,  improperly  called  seed,  of  an  umbelli- 
ferous plant  (Coriandrum  sativum),  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  but  cultivated  in  the  south  of  England, 
where  it  is  also  found  as  an  escape,  growing  apparently  wild. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Gr.  /copts  (a  bug) .  and  was  given 
on  account  of  its  foetid,  bug-like  smell.  The  plant  produces 
a  slender,  erect,  hollow  stem  rising  i  to  2  ft.  in  height,  with 
bipinnate  leaves  and  small  flowers  in  pink  or  whitish  umbels. 
The  fruit  is  globular  and  externally  smooth,  having  five  indistinct 
ridges,  and  the  mericarps,  or  half-fruits,  do  not  readily  separate 
from  each  other.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  aromatic  and 
carminative,  the  active  principle  being  a  volatile  oil,  obtained 
by  distillation,  which  is  isomeric  with  Borneo  camphor,  and  may 
be  given  in  doses  of  5  to  3  minims.  On  account  of  its  pleasant 
and  pungent  flavour  it  is  a  favourite  ingredient  in  hot  curries 
and  sauces.  The  fruit  is  atso  used  in  confectionery,  and  as  a 
flavouring  ingredient  in  various  liqueurs.  The  essential  oil  on 
which  its  aroma  depends  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation. 
The  tender  leaves  and  shoots  of  the  young  plant  are  used  in 
soups  and  salads. 

CORINGA,  a  seaport  of  British  India,  in  the  district  of  Godavari 
and  presidency  of  Madras,  on  the  estuary  of  a  branch  of  the 


CORINNA— CORINTH 


Godavari  river.  The  harbour  is  protected  from  the  swell  of  the 
sea  by  the  southward  projection  of  Point  Godavari,  and  affords 
a  shelter  to  vessels  during  the  south-west  monsoon;  but  though 
formerly  the  most  important  on  this  coast  it  has  been  silted  up 
and  lost  its  trade.  The  repairing  and  building  of  small  coasting 
ships  is  an  industry  at  Tallarevu  in  the  vicinity.  In  1787  a 
gale  from  the  north-east  occasioned  an  inundation  which  swept 
away  the  greater  part  of  Coringa  with  its  inhabitants;  and  in 
•1832  another  storm  desolated  the  place,  carrying  vessels  into 
the  fields  and  leaving  them  aground.  Of  Europeans  the  Dutch 
were  the  first  to  establish  themselves  at  Coringa.  In  1759  the 
English  took  possession  of  the  town,  and  erected  a  factory  5  m. 
to  the  south  of  it. 

CORINNA,  surnamed  "  the  Fly,"  a  Greek  poetess,  born  at 
Tanagra  in  Boeotia,  flourished  about  500  B.C.  She  is  chiefly 
known  as  the  instructress  and  rival  of  Pindar,  over  whom  she 
gained  the  victory  in  five  poetical  contests.  According  to 
Pausanias  (ix.  22.  3),  her  success  was  chiefly  due  to  her  beauty 
and  her  use  of  the  local  Boeotian  dialect.  The  extant  fragments 
of  her  poems,  dealing  chiefly  with  mythological  subjects,  such  as 
the  expedition  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  will  be  found  in 
Bergk's  Poetae  Lyrici  Graeci. 

Some  considerable  remains  of  two  poems  on  a  2nd-century 
papyrus  (Berliner  Klassikertexte,  v.,  1907)  have  also  been  attributed 
to  Corinna  (\V.  H.  D.  Rouse's  Year's  Work  in  Classical  Studies, 
1907;  J.  M.  Edmonds,  New  Frags,  of  .  .  .  and  Corinna,  1910). 

CORINTH,  a  city  of  Greece,  situated  near  the  isthmus  (see 
CORINTH,  ISTHMUS  OF)  which  connects  Peloponnesus  and  central 
Greece,  and  separates  the  Saronic  and  the  Corinthian  gulfs 
on  E.  and  W.  The  ancient  town  stood  15  m.  from  the  latter, 
in  a  plain  extending  westward  to  Sicyon.  The  citadel,  or  Acro- 
corinthus,  rising  precipitously  on  the  S.  to  a  height  of  1886  ft. 
was  separated  by  a  ravine  from  Oneium,  a  range  of  hills  which 
runs  E.  to  the  isthmus  entrance.  Between  this  ridge  and  the 
offshoots  of  Geraneia  opposite  a  narrow  depression  allowed  of 
easy  transit  across  the  Isthmus  neck.  The  territory  of  Corinth 
was  mostly  rocky  and  unfertile;  but  its  position  at  the  head 
of  two  navigable  gulfs  clearly  marked  it  out  as  a  commercial 
centre.  Its  natural  advantages  were  enhanced  by  the  "  Diolcus  " 
or  tram-road,  by  which  ships  could  be  hauled  across  the  Isthmus. 
It  was  connected  in  historic  times  with  its  western  port  of 
Lechaeum  by  two  continuous  walls,  with  Cenchreae  and  Schoenus 
on  the  east  by  chains  of  fortifications.  The  city  walls  attained 
a  circuit  of  10  m. 

I.  History. — In  mythology,  Corinth  (originally  named  Ephyre) 
appears  as  the  home  of  Medea,  Sisyphus  and  Bellerophon,  and 
already  has  over-sea  connexions  which  illustrate  its  primitive 
commercial  activity.  Similarly  the  early  presence  of  Phoenician 
traders  is  attested  by  the  survival  of  Sidonian  cults  (Aphrodite 
Urania,  Athena  Phoenicice,  Melicertes,  i.e.  Melkarth).  In  the 
Homeric  poems  Corinth  is  a  mere  dependency  of  Mycenae; 
nor  does  it  figure  prominently  in  the  tradition  of  the  Dorian 
migrations.  Though  ultimately  conquered  by  the  invaders  it 
probably  retained  much  of  its  former  "  Ionian  "  population, 
whose  god  Poseidon  continued  to  be  worshipped  at  the  national 
Isthmian  games  throughout  historic  times;  of  the  eight  com- 
munal tribes  perhaps  only  three  were  Dorian.  Under  the  new 
dynasty  of  Aletes,  which  reigned  according  to  tradition  from 
1074  to  747,  Corinthian  history  continues  obscure.  The  govern- 
ment subsequently  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  small  corporation 
of  nobles  descended  from  a  former  king  Bacchis,  and  known  as 
the  Bacchidae,  who  nominated  annually  a  Prytanis  (president) 
from  among  their  number.  The  maritime  expansion  of  Corinth 
at  this  time  is  proved  by  the  foundation  of  colonies  at  Syracuse 
and  Corcyra,  and  the  equipment  of  a  fleet  of  triremes  (the  newly 
invented  Greek  men-of-war)  to  quell  a  revolt  of  the  latter  city. 

But  Corinth's  real  prosperity  dates  from  the  time  of  the 
tyranny  (657-581),  established  by  a  disqualified  noble  Cypselus 
(q.v.).  and  continued  under  his  son  Periander  (q.v.).  Under 
these  remarkable  men,  whose  government  was  apparently  mild, 
the  city  rapidly  developed.  She  extended  her  sphere  of  influence 
throughout  the  coast-lands  of  the  western  gulf;  by  the  settle- 


ment of  numerous  colonies  in  N.W.  Greece  she  controlled  the 
Italian  and  Adriatic  trade-routes  and  secured  a  large  share  of 
the  commerce  with  the  western  Greeks.  In  Levantine  waters 
connexions  grew  up  with  the  great  marts  of  Chalcis  and  Miletus, 
with  the  rulers  of  Lydia,  Phrygia,  Cyprus  and  Egypt.  As  an 
industrial  centre  Corinth  achieved  pre-eminence  in  pottery, 
metal-work  and  decorative  handicraft,  and  was  the  reputed 
"  inventor  "  of  painting  and  tiling;  her  bronze  and  her  pottery, 
moulded  from  the  soft  white  clay  of  Oneium,  were  widely 
exported  over  the  Mediterranean.  The  chief  example  of  her 
early  art  was  the  celebrated  "  chest  of  Cypselus  "  at  Olympia, 
of  carved  cedar  and  ivory  inlaid  with  gold.  The  city  was  enriched 
with  notable  temples  and  public  works  (see  §  Archaeology),  and 
became  the  home  of  several  Cyclic  poets  and  of  Arion,  the 
perfecter  of  the  dithyramb. 

The  tyranny  was  succeeded  by  an  oligarchy  based  upon  a 
graduated  money  qualification,  which  ruled  with  a  consistency 
equalling  that  of  the  Venetian  Council,  but  pursued  a  policy 
too  purely  commercial  to  the  neglect  of  military  efficiency. 
Late  in  the  6th  century  Corinth  joined  the  Peloponnesian  league 
under  Sparta,  in  which  her  financial  resources  and  strategic 
position  secured  her  an  unusual  degree  of  independence.  Thus 
the  city  successfully  befriended  the  Athenians  against 
Cleomenes  I.  (?.».),  and  supported  them  against  Aegina,  their 
common  commercial  rival  in  eastern  waters.  In  the  great 
Persian  war  of  480  Corinth  served  as  the  Greek  headquarters: 
her  army  took  part  at  Thermopylae  and  Plataea  and  her  navy 
distinguished  itself  at  Salamis  and  Mycale.  Later  in  the  century 
the  rapid  development  of  Athenian  trade  and  naval  power 
became  a  serious  menace.  In  459  the  Corinthians,  in  common 
with  their  former  rivals  the  Aeginetans,  made  war  upon  Athens, 
but  lost  both  by  sea  and  land.  Henceforward  their  Levantine 
commerce  dwindled,  and  in  the  west  the  Athenians  extended 
their  rivalry  even  into  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  Though  Syracuse 
remained  friendly,  and  the  colonies  in  the  N.W.  maintained  a 
close  commercial  alliance  with  the  mother-city,  the  disaffection  of 
Corcyra  hampered  the  Italian  trade.  The  alliance  of  this  latter 
power  with  Athens  accentuated  the  rising  jealousy  of  the 
Corinthians,  who,  after  deprecating  a  federal  war  in  440,  virtually 
forced  Sparta's  hand  against  Athens  in  432.  In  the  subsequent 
war  Corinth  displayed  great  activity  in  the  face  of  heavy  losses, 
and  the  support  she  gave  to  Syracuse  had  no  little  influence 
on  the  ultimate  issue  of  the  war  (see  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR). 
In  395  the  domineering  attitude  of  Sparta  impelled  the 
Corinthians  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  Argos  which  they  had 
previously  contemplated  on  occasions  of  friction  with  the  former 
city,  as  well  as  with  Thebes  and  with  Athens,  whose  commercial 
rivalry  they  no  longer  dreaded.  In  the  ensuing  "  Corinthian 
War  "  the  city  suffered  severely,  and  the  war-party  only  main- 
tained itself  by  the  help  of  an  Argive  garrison  and  a  formal 
annexation  to  Argos.  Since  387  the  Spartan  party  was  again 
supreme,  and  after  Leuctra  Corinth  took  the  field  against  the 
Theban  invaders  of  Peloponnesus  (371-366).  In  344  party 
struggles  between  oligarchs  and  democrats  led  to  a  usurpation 
by  the  tyrant  Timophanes,  whose  speedy  assassination  was 
compassed  by  his  brother  Timoleon  (q.v.). 

After  the  campaign  of  Chaeronea,  Philip  II.  of  Macedon 
summoned  a  Greek  congress  at  Corinth  and  left  a  garrison  on 
the  citadel.  This  citadel,  one  of  the  "  fetters  of  Greece,"  was 
eagerly  contended  for  by  the  Macedonian  pretenders  after 
Alexander's  death;  ultimately  it  fell  to  Antigonus  Gonatas, 
who  controlled  it  through  a  tyrant.  In  243  Corinth  was  freed 
by  Aratus  and  incorporated  Into  the  Achaean  league.  After  a 
short  Spartan  occupation  in  224  it  was  again  surrendered  to 
Macedonia.  T.  Quinctius  Flamininus,  after  proclaiming  the 
liberty  of  Greece  at  the  Isthmus,  restored  Corinth  to  the  league 
(196).  With  the  revival  of  its  political  and  commercial  import- 
ance the  city  became  the  centre  of  resistance  against  Rome. 
In  return  for  the  foolish  provocation  of  war  in  146  B.C.  the  Roman 
conquerors  despoiled  Corinth  of  its  art  treasures  and  destroyed 
the  entire  settlement:  the  land  was  partly  made  over  to  Sicyon 
and  partly  became  public  domain. 


148 


CORINTH 


In  46  Julius  Caesar  repeopled  Corinth  with  Italian  freedmen 
and  dispossessed  Greeks.  Under  its  new  name  Laus  Julii  and 
an  Italian  constitution  it  rapidly  recovered  its  commercial 
prosperity.  Augustus  made  it  the  capital  of  Achaea;  Hadrian 
enriched  it  with  public  works.  Its  prosperity,  as  also  its  pro- 
fligacy, is  attested  by  the  New  Testament,  by  Strabo  and 
Pausanias.  After  the  Gothic  raids  of  267  and  395  Corinth  was 
secured  by  new  fortifications  at  the  Isthmus.  Though  restricted 
to  the  citadel,  the  medieval  town  became  the  administrative 
and  ecclesiastical  capital  of  Peloponnesus,  and  enjoyed  a  thriving 
trade  and  silk  industry  until  in  1147  it  was  sacked  by  the 
Normans.  In  1210  it  was  joined  to  the  Latin  duchy  of  the 
Morea,  and  subsequently  was  contended  for  by  various  Italian 
pretenders.  Since  the  Turkish  conquest  (1459)  the  history  of 
Corinth  has  been  uneventful,  save  for  a  raid  by  the  Maltese  in 
1611  and  a  Venetian  occupation  from  1687  to  1715. 

AUTHORITIES. — Strabo,  pp.  378-382;  Pausanias  ii.  1-4;  Curtius, 
Peloponnesos  (Gotha,  1851),  ii.  514-556;  E.  Wilisch,  Die  Altkorin- 
thische  Thonindustrie  (Leipzig,  1892)  and  Geschickte  Korinth's  (1887, 
1896,  1901);  G.  Gilbert,  Griechische  Staatsaltertumer  (Leipzig,  1885), 
Ii.  pp.  87-91.  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

II.  Archaeology  and  Modern  Town. — The  modern  town  of  New 
Corinth,  the  head  of  a  district  in  the  province  of  Corinth  (pop. 
71,229),  is  situated  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  near  the  south- 
eastern recess  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  3!  m.  N.E.  from  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city.  It  was  founded  in  1858,  when  Old  Corinth 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  It  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Athens  (57  m.),  with  Patras  (80  m.),  and  with  Nauplia 
(40  m.),  the  capital  of  Argolis.  Communication  by  sea  with 
Athens,  Patras,  the  Ionian  Islands  and  the  shores  of  the 
Ambracian  Gulf,  is  constant  since  the  opening  of  the  Corinthian 
ship  canal,  in  1893.  It  has  not,  however,  attained  great  pros- 
perity. It  has  broad  streets  and  low  houses,  but  is  architec- 
turally unattractive,  like  most  of  the  creations  of  the  time  of 
King  Otto.  Its  chief  exports  are  seedless  grapes  ("  currants  "), 
olive-oil,  silk  and  cereals.  Pop.  (1905)  about  4300. 

Old  Corinth  passed  through  its  various  stages,  Greek,  Roman, 
Byzantine,  Turkish.  After  the  War  of  Liberation  it  was  again 
Greek,  and,  being  a  considerable  town,  was  suggested  as  the 
capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece.  The  earthquake  of  1858 
levelled  it  to  the  ground  with  the  exception  of  about  a  dozen 
houses.  A  mere  handful  of  the  old  inhabitants  remained  on  the 
site.  But  fertile  fields  and  running  water  made  it  attractive; 
and  outsiders  gradually  came  in.  At  present  it  is  an  untidy, 
poverty-stricken  village  of  about  1000  inhabitants,  mostly  of 
Albanian  blood.  Like  the  ancient  city,  it  spreads  out  over  two 
terraces,  one  about  100  ft.  above  the  other.  These  were  formed 
in  different  geological  ages  by  the  gulf,  which  had  in  historical 
times  receded  to  a  distance  of  i  j  m.  from  the  city.  At  the  nearest 
point  to  the  city  was  laid  out  the  harbour,  Lechaeum,  a  basin  dug 
far  into  the  shore  and  joined  with  the  city  by  long  walls.  At 
about  the  middle  of  the  two  terraces,  15  m.  long,  the  edge  of  the 
upper  one  was  worn  back  into  a  deep  indentation,  probably 
by  running  water,  possibly  by  quarrying.  Here  was  the  heart 
of  the  ancient  city.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  indentation  is  the 
modern  public  square,  shaded  by  a  gigantic  and  picturesque 
plane  tree,  nourished  by  the  surplus  water  of  Pirene.  As  the 
visitor  looks  from  the  square  up  the  indentation  he  sees  on  a 
height  to  the  right  a  venerable  temple  ruin,  and,  directly  in  front, 
Aero-Corinth,  rising  over  1500  ft.  above  the  village.  Even  from 
the  village,  the  view  over  the  gulf ,  including  Parnassus  with  its 
giant  neighbours  on  the  N.,  Cyllene  and  its  neighbours  on  the 
W.,  and  Geraneia  on  the  N.E.,  is  very  fine.  But  from  Aero- 
Corinth  the  view  is  still  finer,  and  is  perhaps  unsurpassed  in 
Greece. 

The  excavations  begun  in  1896  by  the  American  school  of 
Classical  Studies  at  Athens,  under  the  direction  of  Rufus  B. 
Richardson,  have  brought  to  light  important  monuments  of 
the  ancient  city,  both  Greek  and  Roman. 

The  first  object  was  the  locating  of  the  agora,  or  public  square, 
first  because  Pausanias  says  that  most  of  the  important  monu- 
ments of  the  city  were  either  on  or  near  the  agora;  and  secondly 
because,  beginning  with  the  agora,  he  mentions,  sometimes  with 


a  brief  description,  the  principal  monuments  in  order  along  three 
of  the  principal  thoroughfares  radiating  from  it.  In  the  first 
year's  work  twenty-one  trial  trenches  were  dug  in  the  hope 
of  finding  a  clue  to  its  position.  Somewhat  less  than  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  to  the  N.W.  of  the  temple,  set  back  into  the  edge  of  the 
upper  terrace,  there  was  found,  under  20  ft.  of  soil,  a  ruined 
Roman  theatre  built  upon  the  ruins  of  a  Greek  theatre.  This 
theatre  was,  according  to  Pausanias,  on  the  street  leading  from 
the  agora  towards  Sicyon,  and  so  to  the  west  of  the  agora.- 
Another  trench  dug  across  the  deep  indentation  to  the  E.  of  the 
temple  revealed  a  broad  limestone  pavement  leading  from  the 
very  northern  edge  of  the  city  up  through  the  indentation,  in 
the  direction  of  Aero-Corinth.  It  required  little  sagacity  to 


CORINTH 

showing  sites  of  excavations 


Yards 


Theatre 


Metres 

IOO 


Clauce 


identify  it  with  the  street  mentioned  by  Pausanias  as  leading 
from  the  agora  towards  Lechaeum.  It  was  practically  certain 
that  by  following  up  this  pavement  to  its  point  of  intersection 
with  the  road  from  Sicyon  the  agora  would  be  discovered. 

The  limestone  pavement,  with  long  porches  on  either  side,  was 
found  to  stop  at  the  foot  of  a  marble  staircase  of  thirty-four 
steps  of  Byzantine  construction,  underneath  which  appeared  a 
Roman  arrangement  of  the  two  flights  with  a  platform  halfway 
up.  The  top  flight  led  up  to  the  propylaea.  The  remains  of  the 
propylaea  above  ground  are  few;  but  the  foundations  are 
massive  and  well  laid,  at  the  end  of  the  upper  terrace  where  it 
is  farthest  worn  back.  These  foundations  are  clearly  those  of 
a  Roman  triumphal  arch,  which  perhaps  took  the  name  "  pro- 
pylaea "  from  an  ancient  Greek  structure  on  the  same  spot.  This 
arch  appears  on  Roman  coins  from  Augustus  to  Commodus; 
according  to  Pausanias  it  bore  two  four-horse  chariots,  one 
driven  by  Helios  and  the  other  by  Phaethon,  his  son,  all  in  gilded 
bronze. 

Although  a  considerable  part  of  the  agora.has  been  excavated, 
none  of  the  statues  which  Pausanias  saw  in  it  have  been  dis- 
covered. On  the  upper  (S.)  side  are  excellent  foundations  of 
a  long  porch.  On  the  N.  side,  stretching  westward  from  the 


CORINTH 


149 


propylaea,  are  two  porches  of  different  periods.  The  older  one, 
which  still  existed  in  Roman  times,  was  backed  up  against  the 
temple  hill,  which  was  cut  away  to  make  room  for  it.  An  ancient 
staircase,  15  ft.  broad,  led  down  from  the  temple  hill  into  the 
lower  area  of  the  broad  pavement,  from  which  access  to  the  agora 
and  the  Pirene  was  easy. 

To  the  E.  of  the  paved  road  and  close  up  against  the  agora 
itself,  only  at  a  much  lower  level,  was  found,  buried  under 
35  ft.  of  earth,  the  famous  fountain  Pirene,  tallying  exactly 
with  the  description  of  Pausanias,  as  "  a  series  of  chambers  that 
are  like  caves,  and  bearing  a  facade  of  white  marble."  This 
Pirene  originally  had  a  two-storey  facade  of  Roman  fashion 
made  of  limestone,  but,  before  the  time  of  Pausanias,  it  had 
received  a  covering  of  marble  which  has  now  fallen  off,  but  has 
left  traces  of  itself  in  the  holes  drilled  into  the  limestone,  in  the 
rough  hacking  away  of  the  half  columns,  and  in  the  numerous 
marble  fragments  which  lay  in  front  of  the  facade.  This  was  not, 
however,  the  earliest  form  of  Pirene.  It  was  built  up  in  front  of 
a  more  simple  Greek  fountain-structure  which  consisted  of  seven 
cross-walls  placed  under  the  edge  of  the  stratum  forming  the 
upper  terrace.  Six  chambers  were  thus  formed  which  showed 
the  chaste  beauty  of  Greek  workmanship,  while  the  stratum 
of  native  rock  which  covered  them  gave  a  touch  of  nature  and 
made  them  caves.  The  walls  ended  at  the  front  in  the  form  of  an 
anta  delicately  carved.  On  a  parapet  at  the  rear  of  each  chamber 
a  single  slender  Ionic  column  between  two  antae  supported  an 
Ionic  entablature.  The  stuccoed  walls  were  striped  horizontally 
and  vertically  with  red  on  a  blue  field,  on  which  appear  fishes 
swimming.  The  chambers  were  really  reservoirs,  filled  by  the 
water  which  flowed  along  their  backs. 

We  know  nothing  further  about  the  Greek  system,  but  in 
the  Roman  adjustment  the  water  was  led  from  this  series  of 
cisterns  into  a  large  rectangular  basin  which  formed  the  centre  of 
a  quadrangle  50  ft.  square.  In  the  N.E.  corner  is  a  hole  through 
which  it  was  drained,  and  at  the  N.  end  a  flight  of  five  steps  led 
down  into  it.  Besides  the  four  orifices  through  which  water 
flowed  into  it  there  were  two  other  holes  about  4  in.  lower  down 
to  keep  the  basin  from  overflowing.  Two  uses  of  water  are 
mentioned  by  Pausanias.  "  The  water,"  he  says,  "  was  sweet 
to  drink,"  and  also  good  for  tempering  bronze.  It  seems  clear 
then,  that  the  basin  was  at  stated  times  used  for  the  latter 
purpose,  and  was  converted  into  a  tank.  The  bronze  was 
plunged  into  the  water  in  a  red  hot  condition,  and  thus  acquired 
its  peculiar  excellence. 

In  Byzantine  times  five  columns,  of  various  diameters,  with 
no  two  bases  of  the  same  size,  bearing  Corinthian  capitals,  were 
set  up  about  6  ft.  in  front  of  the  facade.  Blocks  of  marble 
which  had  seen  use  elsewhere  ran  from  them  back  into  the 
facade,  which  was  hacked  away  in  rough  fashion  to  receive  them. 
Probably  these  blocks  formed  the  floor  of  a  balcony,  a  tawdry 
marble  addition. 

Pirene  was  at  all  times  the  heart  of  the  city.  Here  it  was  that 
Athena  helped  Bellerophon  to  bridle  Pegasus;  and  hence  she 
received  the  epithet  of  "  the  Bridler,"  Chalinitis.  The  importance 
of  the  fountain  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  Greek  poets  and 
the  Delphic  oracle  instead  of  saying  Corinth  said,  "  the  city  of 
Pirene."  That  it  was  a  place  of  common  resort  is  shown  by 
Euripides  (Medea,  68  f.),  where  it  is  said  that  the  elders  were  to  be 
found  "  near  the  august  waters  of  Pirene,  playing  draughts 
(irwaoi) ."  The  quadrangle,  with  its  walls  20  ft.  high,  and  its 
three  apses  probably  covered  with  half  domes,  provided  con- 
siderable shade.  There  is  reason  for  supposing  that  the  marble 
coating  of  the  facade,  and  perhaps  the  erection  of  the  quadrangle, 
also  covered  with  marble,  were  the  work  of  Herodes  Atticus, 
and  therefore  just  completed  when  Pausanias  saw  them.  A  base 
on  which  stood  a  statue  of  Herodes'  wife,  Regilla,  was  found 
close  to  the  facade,  inscribed  with  fulsome  -praise,  stating  that 
the  statue  was  "  set  up  by  order  of  the  Sisyphaean  Senate  at 
the  outpouring  of  the  streams."  Two  inscriptions  of  Roman 
times  make  the  identity  of  Pirene  certain,  if  there  could  be  any 
doubt  in  the  face  of  the  exact  agreement  of  Pausanias's  descrip- 
tion with  the  structure. 


Of  the  surviving  monuments  of  the  Greek  city  the  most 
important  is  the  temple  of  Apollo.  While  it  was  probably  badly 
wrecked  by  the  Romans  at  the  sack  of  the  city,  its  massive 
columns  with  the  entablature  survived.  That  it  was  restored 
and  was  in  use  in  Roman  time  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  both 
the  seven  columns  still  standing  and  two  fallen  columns  dis- 
covered in  the  excavations,  to  say  nothing  of  several  fragments 
of  others,  have  a  thick  coating-  of  Roman  stucco  laid  over  the 
finer  Greek.  The  style  of  the  temple  points  to  600  B.C.,  when 
Periander  was  at  the  height  of  his  power.  According  to 
Herodotus  he  made  his  doubtful  adherents  deposit  pledges  of 
faithfulness  in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  Quite  near  the  W.  end  of 
the  temple  is  the  fountain  Glauce  cut  out  of  a  cube  of  rock, 
apparently  left  standing  when  the  material  for  the  temple  was 
quarried  around  it.  In  it  were  carved  out  four  chambers  or 
reservoirs  all  connected  and  a  porch  consisting  of  three  pillars 
between  two  antae  in  which  the  side  walls  ended.  The  water 
coming  down  from  Aero-Corinth  was  introduced  from  behind. 
Approached  by  a  flight  of  steps  partly  rock-cut,  it  had  at  the 
rear  of  the  porch  a  balustrade  with  marble  lions'  heads  through 
which  the  water  overflowed.  Two  of  these  heads  were  found. 
The  top  of  the  system  of  reservoirs  was  too  heavy  for  the  slender 
cross  walls  and  pillars,  only  the  stumps  of  which  remain;  a 
collapse  took  place,  by  which  the  porch  and  the  W.  compartment 
were  carried  away.  From  its  location  only  about  50  yds.  from 
the  temple  it  seems  to  have  been  the  temple  fountain.  It  was 
named  after  the  second  wife  of  Jason,  Glauce,  who  plunged  into 
it  to  quench  the  fire  of  the  poisoned  bridal  garments  given  her 
by  Medea. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  monuments  were  found  of  which  there 
is  no  record  in  ancient  writings.  Such  was  a  very  ancient 
fountain  W.  of  the  propylaea,  25  ft.  below  the  surface.  Under 
remains  of  the  Roman  city  appeared  a  triglyphon  of  porous  stone 
with  an  extent  from  N.  to  S.  of  about  30  ft.  At  the  N.  end  it 
turned  westward  at  an  obtuse  angle  and  extended  about  10  ft. 
in  that  direction.  The  system  is  about  4  ft.  high.  While  the 
colours  on  the  metopes  and  triglyphs  had  faded  somewhat, 
the  border  above  them,  topped  with  a  cornice  projecting  6  in., 
retained  a  most  brilliant  maeander  pattern  of  red,  blue  and 
yellow,  while  below  these  were  two  bands  of  godroons  of  blue  and 
red.  On  the  top  of  this  system  as  a  foundation  were  set  several 
statue  bases,  one  bearing  the  signature  of  Lysippus,  which  shows 
that  the  system  stood  there  at  least  as  early  as  the  4th  century 
B.C.  Some  parts  of  it  may  have  been  taken  from  older  buildings, 
but  not  the  cornice  nor  the  corner  metope  block  which  formed 
an  obtuse  angle.  Near  the  middle  of  the  long  side  is  an  opening; 
and  from  it  a  flight  of  seven  steps  led  down  to  a  trapezoidal 
chamber,  on  the  back  wall  of  which  are  two  lions'  heads  of  bronze, 
through  which  water,  conducted  in  long  semi-cylindrical  channels 
of  bronze,  from  behind  the  wall,  poured  out  into  pitchers  for 
which  holes  are  cut  in  the  floor.  Channels  for  the  overflow  were 
cut  along  the  back  and  sides  of  the  chamber.  All  this  was 
once  approached  from  the  front  at  the  level  of  the  floor,  long 
before  the  triglyphon  was  set  up,  7  ft.  above  it.  Considering 
its  depth  this  fountain  must  be  dated  back  to  the  5th  century, 
probably  near  the  beginning.  The  style  of  the  lions '  heads  would 
hardly  admit  a  later  date.  This  is  the  only  case  of  an  ancient 
Greek  fountain  of  such  an  early  date,  unaltered  and  intact. 
The  pains  taken  to  preserve  it  suggest  that  it  was  invested  with 
a  sacred  character. 

Sculptures  in  large  numbers,  both  of  the  Greek  city  and  the 
Roman,  are  collected  in  the  new  museum  erected  by  the  Greek 
government  near  the  plane  tree.  The  finest  of  the  Greek 
sculptures  is  the  head  of  a  youth  found  in  the  orchestra  of  the 
theatre  at  a  depth  of  23  ft.  It  lacks  only  the  lower  part  of  the 
bridge  of  the  nose,  and  has  style  and  character,  resembling 
Myron's  heads  in  shape  and  in  the  hair.  A  large  fragment  of  a 
relief  also  of  early  date,  represents  two  dancing  maenads  half 
life-size.  Most  impressive  is  a  colossal  female  figure  of  grand 
style  and  excellent  drapery.  If  not  an  original  of  the  sth  century 
it  is  one  of  the  finest  of  copies.  Of  the  great  amount  of  Roman 
sculpture  the  best  single  piece  is  a  head  of  Dionysus  under  the 


150 


CORINTH— CORINTHIANS 


influence  of  wine,  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  ivy,  his  right  hand 
thrown  carelessly  over  his  head.  The  fine  execution  is  all  that 
differentiates  it  from  the  numerous  copies  in  various  museums. 
The  most  important  sculptures  of  the  Roman  period,  however, 
are  a  group  of  colossal  figures  supporting  an  entablature,  a 
large  part  of  which  has  been  recovered.  One  of  the  figures, 
a  barbarian  captive,  effeminate  like  those  which  appear  on 
Roman  triumphal  arches,  is  practically  intact.  Another,  its 
counterpart,  is  preserved  down  to  the  hips.  These  differ  from 
Caryatids,  which  bear  the  architrave  on  their  heads.  Here  a 
pilaster  forming  the  back  of  the  figure  receives  a  Corinthian 
capital,  upon  which  the  architrave  rests;  and  the  figures  merely 
brace  up  the  pilaster.  Two  of  these  figures  stood  at  the  end  of 
a  re-entrant  curve,  several  pieces  of  which  are  preserved.  Two 
female  heads  of  like  proportions  belong  to  the  system,  since  the 
backs  of  their  heads  are  cut  away  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
male  heads.  The  building  to  which  the  figures  belonged,  a 
porch,  extended  westward  from  the  propylaea;  and  may  be 
traced  for  45  ft.  All  that  is  left  of  it  is  the  core  of  opus  incertum. 

The  excavations  brought  to  light  vases  and  fragments  of  vases, 
of  nearly  every  period  except  the  Mycenaean.  On  the  N.  side 
of  the  hill  on  which  stands  the  village  schoolhouse,  from  which 
one  looks  across  the  indentation  to  the  Apollo  temple,  several 
vertical  shafts  in  the  limestone  stratum  were  found,  and  under- 
neath it  in  horizontal  passages  were  bodies  surrounded  with 
vases.  These  are  pre-Mycenaean,  and  their  only  ornament 
is  scratches,  into  which  white  matter  has  been  pressed.  There 
are  over  fifty  of  these  vases,  of  multiform  shapes.  By  the  side 
of  the  Lechaeum  road,  near  the  steps  leading  to  the  propylaea, 
were  found  in  deep  diggings  thirteen  early  Geometric  vases. 
Proto-Corinthian  vases  also  were  everywherestronglyrepresented. 
The  best  find  of  pottery,  however,  was  an  Old  Corinthian  celebe 
((ceXe/3jj,  drinking  vessel) ,  about  a  foot  high,  in  forty-six  fragments , 
found  in  a  well,  30  ft.  below  the  surface.  On  one  side  are  a  boar 
and  a  leopard  confronting  each  other,  and  on  the  other  side  two 
cocks  in  the  same  heraldic  arrangement.  On  the  projecting 
plates  supported  by  the  handles  are  palmettes. 

Two  inscriptions  in  the  Old  Corinthian  alphabet  came  to  light. 
But,  on  the  whole,  inscriptions  before  the  Roman  times  were 
almost  entirely  lacking.  One  inscription,  though  of  late  date, 
deserves  mention.  On  a  marble  block  broken  away  at  both  ends, 
which  in  a  second  use  was  a  lintel,  we  read  AFOFHEBP,  which 
can  only  be  irwayiayfi  'Efipaliav  (synagogue  of  the  Hebrews). 

The  excavations  were  confined  to  a  small  part  of  the  city, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  most  important  part. 
By  good  fortune  the  earth  here  was  very  deep.  On  the  higher  level 
of  the  agora  and  the  Apollo  temple,  where  the  depth  of  earth 
is  comparatively  slight,  there  is  little  hope  of  important  finds. 
There  is  no  hope  of  finding  the  great  bronze  Athena,  which  stood 
in  the  middle  of  the  agora.  To  the  west,  beyond  the  theatre,  one 
might  find  the  temple  of  Athena  Chalinitis  and  the  fountain 
Lerna,  and  somewhere  near  Glauce,  the  Odeum  and  the  tomb 
of  Medea's  children;  but  it  is  more  likely  that  they  have  dis- 
appeared. On  the  Lechaeum  road,  on  which  a  bewildering 
wealth  of  fountains  and  statues  is  enumerated,  only  the  Baths 
of  Eurycles  below  the  plane  tree  were  found;  deep  diggings 
were  made  into  them,  and  the  foundations  of  the  facade  laid 
bare.  This  great  complex  was  apparently  supplied  with  water 
from  Hadrian's  aqueduct  from  Lake  Stymphalus.  On  the  street 
going  eastward  from  the  agora  nothing  is  mentioned  between 
it  and  the  city  wall.  This  level  eastern  part  was  probably  given 
up  to  fine  houses,  all  traces  of  which  have  perished.  Outside 
the  gate,  apparently,  was  the  famous  Craneion,  shaded  by 
cypress  trees,  and  near  it  the  tombs  of  Lais  and  Diogenes,  a 
precinct  of  Bellerophon  'and  of  Athena  Melaenis.  The 
number  of  temples  and  shrines  enumerated  by  Pausanias 
along  the  road  leading  up  to  Aero-Corinth  is  bewildering. 
Here  were  represented  Isis  and  Serapis,  Helios,  the  Mother  of 
the  Gods,  the  Fates,  Demeter  and  Persephone;  but  no  trace 
of  these  temples  remains.  At  the  highest  point  of  the  road, 
according  to  Pausanias,  there  stood  the  famous  temple  of 
Aphrodite,  but  the  remains  excavated  at  this  point  seem  to  be 


those  of  a  late  tower,  and  the  few  foundations  below  it  do  not 
resemble  those  of  a  temple.  We  are  equally  unfortunate  in 
regard  to  Strabo's  splendid  marble  Sisyphaeum  just  below 
the  summit.  The  fountain  Pirene,  "  behind  the  temple,"  still 
exists,  but  so  much  earth  has  accumulated  about  it  that  one 
now  approaches  it  by  going  down  a  ladder.  The  water  is  so 
crystal  clear  that  one  inadvertently  steps  into  it.  The  identity 
of  name  with  that  of  Pirene  in  the  city  is  justified  by  the  fact 
that  the  upper  spring  is  the  source  of  the  Pirene  below. 

See,  for  details,  the  American  Journal  of  Archaeology  (from  1896). 

(R.  B.  R.) 

CORINTH,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Alcorn  county, 
Mississippi,  U.S.A.,  situated  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  about 
90  m.  E.  by  S.  of  Memphis,  Tennessee.  Pop.  (1890)  2111;  (1900) 
3661  (1174  negroes);  (1910)  5020.  It  is  served  by  the  Mobile 
&  Ohio  and  the  Southern  railways;  and  by  a  branch  of  the 
Illinois  Central  connecting  Jackson,  Miss.,  and  Birmingham, 
Ala.  It  has  woollen  mills,  cotton  compresses,  clothing, 
furniture,  and  spoke  and  stave  factories  and  machine  shops, 
and  is  a  cotton  market.  Because  of  its  situation  and  its  import- 
ance as  a  railway  junction,  Corinth  played  an  important  part 
in  the  western  campaigns  of  the  Civil  War.  After  the  first  Con- 
federate line  of  defence  had  been  broken  by  the  capture  of  Fort 
Henry  and  Fort  Donelson  (February  1862),  Corinth  was  fortified 
by  General  P.  G.  T.  Beauregard,  and  was  made  the  centre  of  the 
new  line  along  the  Memphis  &  Charleston  railway,  "  the  great 
East  and  West  artery  of  the  Confederacy."  Grant's  advance 
on  this  centre,  then  defended  by  General  A.  S.  Johnston,  led  to 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  fought  on  April  6/7  about  20  m.  N.E.  of 
Corinth;  after  this  engagement  Beauregard  withdrew  to  Corinth. 
General  H.  W.  Halleck,  with  a  greatly  superior  force,  cautiously 
and  slowly  advanced  upon  the  Confederate  position,  consuming 
more  than  a  month  in  the  operation.  During  the  night  of  the 
29th  of  May  Beauregard  evacuated  the  place  (which  was  occupied 
by  the  Federals  on  the  following  day),  and  re-established  his  line 
at  Tupelo.  Corinth  then  became  the  headquarters  of  the  Union 
forces  under  General  W.  S.  Rosecrans,  who  on  the  3/4  of  October 
1862  was  fiercely  attacked  here  by  General  Earl  von  Dorn,  whom 
he  repulsed,  both  sides  suffering  considerable  losses  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  the  Confederates  leaving  many  prisoners  behind. 

CORINTH,  ISTHMUS  OF,  an  isthmus  of  Greece,  dividing  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth  from  the  Saronic  Gulf.  Ships  were  sometimes 
dragged  across  it  in  ancient  times  at  a  place  called  the  Diolcus 
(dtf\Ktn>,  to  pull  or  cut  through).  Nero,  in  A.D.  67,  began  cutting 
a  canal  through  it;  but  the  project  was  abandoned.  In  1893 
a  ship  canal  was  opened,  with  its  western  entrance  about  ij  m. 
N.E.  of  the  little  town  of  New  Corinth.  It  was  begun  in  1881 
by  a  French  company,  which  ceased  operations  in  1889,  a  Greek 
company  completing  the  undertaking.  The  canal  is  about 
70  ft.  broad,  nearly  4  m.  long,  and  26  ft.  deep.  It  shortens  the 
journey  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Peiraeus  by  202  m.,  but  foreign 
steamships  seldom  use  it,  as  the  narrowness  of  the  canal  and  the 
strength  of  the  current  at  times  render  the  passage  dangerous. 
About  i  m.  from  its  western  end  it  is  crossed  by  the  iron  bridge 
of  the  Athens  and  Corinth  railway.  Traces  of  the  Isthmian  wall 
may  still  be  seen  parallel  to  the  canal;  it  was  constructed,  at  an 
unknown  date,  for  the  fortification  of  the  Isthmus.  Just  to  the 
S.  of  it,  and  about  5  m.  from  the  sea  are  the  remains  of  the 
Isthmian  precinct  of  Poseidon  and  its  stadium,  where  the 
Isthmian  games  were  celebrated.  This  precinct  served  also 
as  a  fortress.  Within  it  have  been  found  traces  of  the  temple 
of  Poseidon  and  other  buildings.  (E.  GR.) 

CORINTHIANS,  EPISTLES  TO  THE,  two  books  of  the  Bible 
(New  Testament).  The  two  letters  addressed  to  the  Christian 
church  at  Corinth  are,  with  Romans,  the  longest  of  the  Pauline 
epistles.  They  possess  a  singular  interest  and  value,  due  to  the 
apostle's  close  acquaintance  with  the  members  of  the  church 
addressed  and  their  circumstances.  In  consequence  of  this 
intimate  character  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  presents 
a  picture,  unrivalled  in  fulness  and  colour,  of  the  life  of  a  Pauline 
church,  while  the  Second  Epistle,  written  out  of  strong  feeling 
gives  a  revelation  of  the  innermost  feelings  and  characteristic 


CORINTHIANS 


temperament  of  Paul  himself,  such  as  is  not  elsewhere  to  be  found. 
Dealing,  as  both  epistles  do,  with  concrete  problems  of  morals 
and  with  such  tendencies  of  thought  and  life  as  find  their  parallel 
in  all  times,  they  are  full  of  instruction  to  the  modern  Church; 
and  this  instruction  increases  in  effectiveness  the  better  we  come 
to  understand  ancient  modes  of  thought  in  their  diversity  from 
our  own. 

Lofty  and  vivid  expression  of  the  apostle's  thought  on  the 
highest  themes  is  also  to  be  found  here — witness  the  "  Hymn 
to  Love  "  (i  Cor.  xiii.),  the  declaration  of  the  resurrection 
(i  Cor.  xv.  51-57),  or  the  list  of  signatures  of  the  true  servant 
of  God  (2  Cor.  vi.  3-10).  In  important  historical  statements, 
also,  these  epistles  stand  second  to  none,  not  even  to  Galatians — 
as  may  be  indicated  by  a  reference  to  the  words  about  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Lord's  supper  (i  Cor.  xi.  23-26)  and  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ  (i  Cor.  xv.  1-8);  or  to  the  auto- 
biographical utterances  in  which  Paul  explains  that  he  was  once 
a  persecutor  of  Christians  ( i  Cor.  xv.  9),  mentions  his  escape  from 
Damascus  (2  Cor.  xi.  32  f.),  describes  his  coming  to  Corinth 
(i  Cor.  ii.  i  ff.),  enumerates  his  sufferings  for  the  Gospel  (2  Cor. 
xi.  16-31),  tells  of  his  visions  (2  Cor.  xii.  1-9).  In  the  Corinthian 
epistles  we  come  in  contact,  as  nowhere  else,  with  the  man  Paul 
and  his  daily  life. 

The  history  of  Paul's  relations  with  Corinth  can  be  made  out 
from  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles  with  considerable  clearness. 
The  chronology  of  Paul's  life  is  not  at  any  point  surely  determin- 
able  within  a  range  of  less  than  five  years,  but  it  must  have  been 
in  the  autumn  of  one  of  the  years  A.D.  49-53  (the  usual  chronology 
has  fixed  on  A.D.  52)  that  the  arrival  of  Paul  in  Corinth  took 
place  as  described  in  Acts  xviii.  i.  In  his  so-called  second 
missionary  journey  Paul  had  been  driven  by  irresistible  inner 
impulses  to  push  on  into  Greece  the  missionary  work  already 
begun  in  Asia  Minor.  First  he  preached  in  the  province  of 
Macedonia,  where  the  work  opened  auspiciously  at  Philippi, 
Thessalonica  and  Beroea;  then,  apparently  driven  out  by  the 
violent  opposition  of  the  Jews,  he  moved  on  to  Achaea,  and  after 
rather  unsuccessful  attempts  to  secure  converts  among  the 
philosophers  of  Athens  came  to  Corinth. 

This  ancient  city,  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in 
146  B.C.,  had  been  refounded  by  Julius  Caesar  as  a  Roman 
colony  in  46  B.C.,  settled  with  Italian  colonists,  and  made  a 
residence  of  the  Roman  governor.  Its  situation  on  the  isthmus 
of  Corinth  made  it  a  stage  on  the  greatest  of  the  trade  routes 
between  Rome  and  the  East,  and  it  was  at  this  time  the  com- 
mercial capital  of  Greece.  The  traditions  of  licentiousness  and 
sensuality  associated  with  the  worship  of  Aphrodite,  which  had 
given  rise  to  the  sinister  vtoTdtorinthianize,  increased  the  natural 
tendencies  of  a  great  city  to  wickedness  and  wanton  luxury. 
Here,  as  in  all  great  centres  of  trade  and  industry,  there  was  a 
body  of  Jews,  with  a  synagogue.  The  conditions  of  life  in 
Corinth — the  heathen  surroundings,  the  temptations  to  vice, 
the  competition  and  disputes  of  trading  life,  the  controversial 
arguments  of  Jews,  the  alertness  of  mind  of  a  lively  city  people, 
the  haughty  temper  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital — all  these 
are  to  be  seen  reflected  in  the  earnest  paragraphs  of  Paul's 
two  epistles. 

The  founding  of  the  church  in  Corinth  (cf.  i  Cor.  iv.  15)  and 
nearly  everything  important  that  we  know  of  Paul's  first  visit 
there  will  be  found,  well  told,  in  Acts  xviii.  1-18,  a  passage  for 
which,  evidently,  the  writer  of  the  history  had  excellent  sources 
of  information.  Of  the  somewhat  chastened  spirit  with  which 
Paul  came  he  himself  tells  in  i  Cor.  ii.  1-5.  His  success  was 
prompt  and  large,  and  in  the  year  and  six  months  of  his  stay 
a  vigorous  church  was  gathered,  including  Aquila  and  Priscilla, 
as  well  as  Crispus,  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  of  whom  we  hear 
again  in  i  Cor.  i.  14;  whether  Sosthenes,  who  seems  to  have 
succeeded  Crispus  in  his  office  (Acts  xviii.  17),  was  afterwards 
converted  and  became  the  Christian  brother  mentioned  in 
i  Cor.  i.  i  cannot  be  known.  The  church  evidently  consisted 
mainly  of  Gentile  converts,  but  with  some  Jews  (i  Cor.  x.  14, 
"  flee  from  idolatry  ";  xii.  2,  "  when  ye  were  Gentiles  ";  vii.  18, 
"was  any  man  called  being  circumcised?"). 


The  apostle's  next  long  stay  was  at  Ephesus,  whither  he  seems 
to  have  gone  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  in  which  he  left 
Corinth  (A.D.  51-55)  and  where  he  stayed  three  years.  Before 
he  arrived  at  Ephesus  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  had  settled 
there,  made  the  acquaintance  of  Apollos,  a  Jew  from  Alexandria, 
well-educated  and  zealous,  who  with  imperfect  Christian  know- 
ledge was  preaching  the  gospel  of  Jesus  to  his  fellow-countrymen 
in  the  synagogue.  He  presently  went  to  Corinth  and  carried 
on  Christian  work  there  with  success  (Acts  xviii.  24-28).  "  I 
planted,"  says  Paul  (i  Cor.  iii.  6),  "  Apollos  watered."  From 
this  point  on  our  information  comes  from  the  epistles,  of  which 
the  first  was  written  from  Ephesus  before  Pentecost  of  the  year 
in  which  Paul  left  that  city,  i.e.  A.D.  54-58  (i  Cor.  xvi.  8). 

It  appears  that  the  church  grew  in  numbers,  for  Paul  refers 
in  2  Cor.  i.  i  to  "  saints  who  are  in  all  Achaea."  Its  membership 
was  mostly  of  humble  people  (i  Cor.  i.  26-29),  but  probably 
not  exclusively  so,  for  Crispus  and  Stephanas  (who  with  his 
household  was  able  to  render  services  that  may  well  have  been 
costly,  i  Cor.  xvi.  15),  Gaius  and  Erastus  (Rom.  xvi.  23),  would 
appear  to  have  been  persons  of  substance.  The  references  to 
law-suits  perhaps  imply  fairly  prosperous  traders,  the  tone  of 
the  letters  suggests  considerable  education  and  a  reasonable 
degree  of  property  on  the  part  of  many  (though  not  all)  of  the 
readers. 

The  first  need  of  the  church  for  help  from  Paul  seems  to  have 
grown  out  of  the  dangers  from  surrounding  heathenism.  In 
i  Cor.  v.  9  we  read  of  a  letter  in  which  Paul  had  directed  the 
Christians  "  not  to  have  company  with  fornicators."  This 
letter,  so  far  as  we  know,  opened  the  correspondence  which 
was  maintained  during  the  three  years  of  Paul's  stay  in  Ephesus, 
whence  there  was  easy  and  frequent  communication  with 
Corinth.  He  refers  to  it  in  order  to  explain  the  injunction  which 
had  been  (perhaps  wilfully)  misunderstood  and  exaggerated.1 

While  at  Ephesus  Paul  was  visited  by  persons  of  the  household 
of  Chloe  (i  Cor.  i.  n),  and  by  Stephanas  with  Fortunatus  and 
Achaicus  (probably  his  slaves,  xvi.  17).  From  them  and  from  a 
letter  (vii.  i),  which  was  brought  perhaps  by  Stephanas,  he  was 
able  to  gain  the  intimate  knowledge  which  the  epistles  everywhere 
reveal.  The  letter  from  Corinth  must  have  contained  inquiries 
as  to  practical  conduct  with  regard  to  marriage  (vii.  i),  meat 
offered  to  idols  (viii.  i),  and  the  "  spiritual  gifts  "  (xii.  i),  and 
may  well  have  related  to  other  matters,  such  as  the  collection 
of  money  for  Jerusalem  (xvi.  i),  the  visit  of  Apollos  (xvi.  12), 
the  position  of  women  (xi.  2).  Paul's  reply  includes  many 
other  topics.  When  it  was  sent,  his  trusted  helper  Timothy 
had  also  started  on  his  way  (probably  through  Macedonia)  to 
Corinth,  to  contribute  there  to  the  edification  of  the  Christians 
(iv.  17,  xvi.  10).  The  letter  itself  was  doubtless  sent  by  the  hand 
of  returning  Corinthians,  possibly  by  the  unnamed  brethren 
referred  to  in  xvi.  1 1 ,  and  was  expected  to  arrive  before  Timothy. 

First  Epistle. — The  first  epistle  (in  many  respects  the  most 
systematic  of  all  Paul's  letters)  is  a  pastoral  letter,  dealing  both 
with  positive  evils  that  need  correction,  and  with  difficult 
questions  of  practice  and  of  thought  upon  which  advice  may  be 
valued.  Through  it  all  there  is  a  genial  undercurrent  of  con- 
fidence in  the  personal  loyalty  of  the  Corinthian  church  to  Paul, 
its  founder  and  father.  We  shall  be  aided  to  understand  its 
contents  by  a  brief  summary  of  the  tendencies  and  conditions 
at  Corinth  which  it  reflects. 

First  of  all  there  was  a  lack  of  supreme  devotion  to  the  Cause 
itself,  which  led  the  Corinthians  to  forget  that  they  were  first, 
last  and  always  Christians,  and  so  to  form  factions  and  parties. 
Of  these  there  were  distinguished  at  least  three,  attached  to 
the  names  respectively  of  the  founder  Paul,  of  the  learned 
Apollos,  and  of  the  great  pillar-apostle  at  Jerusalem,  Peter, 
besides,  as  many  hold,  a  fourth,  which  arrogantly  claimed  to  be 
the  party  of  Christ  (i.  12).  What  were  the  precise  motives  and 
principles  of  these  parties  cannot  be  determined.  They  do  not 
in  any  case  seem  to  represent  recognizable  definite  points  of  view 

1  Hilgenfeld,  Bacon  and  others  hold  that  this  letter  is  partly 
preserved  in  2  Cor.  vi.  I4~vii.  I,  but  the  evidence  for  removing  those 
verses  from  their  present  position  is  insufficient. 


CORINTHIANS 


with  regard  to  the  controverted  matters  that  are  taken  up  in  the 
epistle.  Yet  some  conjectures  are  possible.  Paul  and  Apollos 
were  personally  on  friendly  terms  (xvi.  12,  cf.  iii.  5-9,  iv.  6), 
and  were  understood  to  be  in  fundamental  agreement.  But 
doubtless  the  more  elaborate  discourses  of  Apollos  were  admired, 
and  Paul's  teaching  seemed  in  contrast  bare,  plain  and  crude 
(cf.  2  Cor.  x.  10).  The  contrast  between  the  Hellenic  and  Jewish 
types  of  thought  may  well  have  played  a  part  also.  Paul  seems 
to  be  replying  to  such  criticisms  brought  against  him  when  he 
declares  that  he  deliberately  chose  to  bring  to  Corinth  not  the 
"  wisdom  of  men  "  but  the  "  power  of  God  "  (i.  17,  ii.  1-5),  and 
informs  them  that  he  has  a  store  of  wisdom  for  those  who  are 
ready  for  it  (ii.  6).  On  the  other  hand  the  party  of  Cephas  must 
have  had  Jewish-Christian  leanings.  A  little  later,  in  the  second 
epistle,  such  a  tendency  is  seen  breaking  out  into  violent  opposi- 
tion to  Paul.  The  "  Christ-party,"  if,  as-is  probable,  it  existed, 
must  also  have  been  a  party  with  a  Judaizing  turn  (cf.  2  Cor.  x. 
7,  xi.  22  f.),  perhaps  of  a  more  extreme  character.  The  danger 
of  shattering  the  solid  front  of  the  Christian  church  against 
surrounding  heathenism  was  keenly  felt  by  Paul,  as  nearly 
every  one  of  his  epistles  testifies.  How  serious  it  was  at  Corinth 
is  shown  by  the  long  passage  (chaps,  i.-iv.)  in  which  he  points 
out  that  sectarianism  is  a  mark  not  of  superior  but  of  inferior 
maturity  and  devotion. 

Other  difficulties  arose  from  various  causes.  The  influences  of 
the  heathen  world,  from  which  most  of  the  Corinthian  Christians 
had  come  and  to  which  their  friends  and  neighbours  belonged, 
were  always  with  them,  and  the  problems  created  by  these  re- 
lations were  very  numerous.  Christianity  had  brought  over 
and  had  even  intensified  the  moral  code  of  Judaism,  and,  especi- 
ally in  the  relations  of  the  sexes,  this  brought  a  strain  upon  the 
naturalistic  impulses  and  lower  standards  of  converts  trained 
in  a  different  system. 

Again,  there  were  law-suits  in  the  ordinary  courts,  a  natural 
result  of  the  frictions  and  strains  of  an  oriental  trading  com- 
munity. To  Paul  this  was  abhorrent,  and  here  too  he  urges  a 
complete  break  with  their  past.  With  regard  to  the  social 
customs  of  meals  at  which  meat  that  had  been  offered  in  heathen 
sacrifices  was  a  part,  and  of  feasts  actually  at  heathen  temples, 
doubtful  questions  arose.  Was  it  a  denial  of  the  faith  to  eat 
such  food  or  not?  Mixed  marriages,  too,  had  their  problems; 
ought  the  believing  wife  to  separate  herself?  Ought  the  believing 
husband  to  insist  that  his  heathen  wife  stay  with  him  against  her 
will?  And,  further,  in  the  case  of  slaves,  does  the  consciousness 
of  Christian  manhood  give  a  new  motive  for  trying  to  gain 
worldly  freedom?  In  all  these  matters  Paul  gives  sensible 
advice.  There  were  clearly  two  groups  of  Christians,  the  "  weak," 
or  scrupulous,  whose  principle  was  to  abstain,  and  the  "  strong," 
or  free,  who  maintained  that  the  morally  insignificant  must  not 
usurp  a  place  to  which  it  has  no  right.  Paul  sides  with  neither, 
but  follows  two  principles,  one  that  the  church  and  its  members 
must  be  kept  pure,  the  other  that  the  moral  welfare  not  only 
of  the  individual  but  of  his  neighbour  must  be  the  controlling 
motive. 

Not  due  so  much  to  heathen  influences  as  to  the  natural 
tendencies  of  imperfect  and  passionate  human  nature  were  other 
conditions.  The  most  striking  incident  here,  and  one  which  gave 
Paul  much  concern,  was  the  case  of  a  man  who  after  his  father's 
death  had  married  his  own  stepmother  ("  the  case  of  incest  "). 
That  this  was  rare  in  the  ancient  world  and  generally  abominated 
both  by  Jews  and  Greeks  made  it  seem  to  Paul  the  more  impera- 
tive that  this  stain  on  the  Christian  church  should  be  removed. 
His  language  shows  his  indignation  and  grief  that  the  Corinthians 
themselves  have  not  already  taken  the  matter  in  hand. 

Besides  these  troubles  from  heathenism  there  were  questions 
of  asceticism;  the  Greek  reaction  against  naturalism  held  that 
nature  was  vile  and  marriage  wrong.  Paul  had  a  qualified 
tendency  to  asceticism,  but  he  shows  excellent  good  sense  in 
his  discussion  of  these  delicate  matters. 

A  different  set  of  difficulties  arose  from  the  freedom  into  which 
Christianity  had  introduced  persons  from  all  classes  of  life. 
What  degree  of  freedom  was  permissible  to  a  Christian  woman? 


How  far  must  a  woman  of  the  lower  classes  who  became  a 
Christian  subject  herself  to  the  restrictions  of  a  higher  class  of 
society?  Might  a  woman,  as  a  free  child  of  God,  take  part  in 
the  Christian  public  meeting? 

Also  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  common  religious  life  of  the 
new  society  the  new  situation  raised  new  problems.  How  should 
reasonable  order  be  maintained  in  the  wholly  democratic  forms 
of  the  church  devotional  meeting?  What  value  should  be 
assigned  to  the  different  religious  functions  or  "  spiritual 
gifts  "?  Did  any  of  them  confer  the  right  to  a  conscious- 
ness of  God's  special  favour?  Again,  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  supper,  which  was  associated  with  a  proper  meal,  was 
marred  by  exhibitions  of  selfishness  and  irreverence  that  needed 
correction. 

The  great  variety  of  practical  problems  present  to  the  anxious 
minds  of  the  Corinthians  themselves  and  of  germinant  abuses 
revealed  to  the  paternal  scrutiny  of  the  apostle,  opens  to  us 
some  notion  of  the  exciting  times  in  which  the  Corinthian 
Christians  stood,  and  explains  the  intensity  and  detailed  concern 
of  the  apostle.  From  every  side  and  at  every  moment  new  and 
often  difficult  questions  were  arising;  to  every  one  of  them 
belonged  remoter  relations  that  made  it  profoundly  important. 
It  is  by  no  accident  that  Paul  is  in  the  habit  of  treating  the 
simplest  moral  issues  by  reference  to  the  highest  principles  of 
his  theology.  From  the  situation  at  Corinth  we  gain  an  idea  of 
what  was  taking  place  in  many  cities,  but  in  the  seething  life 
of  so  great  a  capital  with  more  rapid  and  varied  development. 

Of  strictly  intellectual  and  theological  problems  or  errors  only 
one  is  treated  systematically,  although  at  many  other  points  in 
the  practical  discussions  we  can  detect  the  theoretical  basis 
cf  the  errors  combated  and  the  theological  foundations  of  Paul's 
own  judgments.  Questions  about  the  resurrection,  however, 
had  appeared,  of  a  rationalistic  nature  and  evincing  an  Hellenic 
failure  to  understand  the  Jewish  view.  In  his  reply  Paul  shows 
that  he  too  recognizes  the  significance  of  the  Greek's  difficulties 
and  he  presents  a  conception  which,  fortunately  for  the  later 
Church,  does  some  measure  of  justice  to  the  superior  scientific 
insight  of  their  attitude. 

Second  Epistle. — After  the  despatch  of  First  Corinthians 
there  took  place,  it  would  appear,  the  riot  in  the  theatre  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xix.  23  ff.),  to  which  2  Cor.  i.  8  seems  to  refer. 
On  leaving  Ephesus  Paul  went  to  Troas  (2  Cor.  ii.  12),  then  to 
Macedonia,  and  from  Macedonia  (2  Cor.  vii.  5,  viii.  i,  ix.  2) 
he  wrote  Second  Corinthians.  This  must  have  been  in  the  autumn 
of  one  of  the  years  A.D.  54-58,  nearly  or  quite  a  year  after 
First  Corinthians  was  written  (cf.  "  a  year  ago,"  2  Cor.  viii.  10, 
ix.  2  and  i  Cor.  xvi.  1-4).  In  the  meantime  there  had  been 
exciting  developments  in  Pa  ul's  relations  with  Corinth,  the  course 
of  which  we  can  partly  trace  by  the  aid  of  the  second  epistle. 
These  events  explain  the  great  difference  in  tone  between  the 
second  epistle  and  the  first. 

Several  allusions  in  Second  Corinthians  show  that  Paul  had 
already  twice  visited  Corinth  (2  Cor.  ii.  i,  xii.  14,  xii.  21,  xiii. 
2).  The  second  of  these  visits  is  not  mentioned  in  Acts;  it  is 
referred  to  by  Paul  as  having  a  painful  character.  The  most 
natural  hypothesis  is  that,  in  consequence  of  a  growing  spirit 
of  insubordination  on  the  part  of  the  Corinthians,  Paul  found  it 
necessary  to  go  to  Corinth  from  Ephesus  (probably  by  sea  direct) 
at  some  time  after  First  Corinthians  was  written.  Of  what 
happened  on  this  visit,  which  the  writer  of  Acts  has  naturally 
enough  thought  it  unnecessary  to  mention,  we  seem  to  learn 
further  from  certain  passages  in  the  letter  (2  Cor.  ii.  5-11,  vii.  9) 
which  refer  to  some  sort  of  an  insult  to  Paul  for  which  there  has 
now  been  repentance  and  which  the  apostle  heartily  forgives. 
For  the  offender  he  entreats  also  the  pardon  of  the  church.  It 
may  well  be  that  the  sad  affair  had  to  do  with  the  gross  offender 
of  the  "  case  of  incest  "  (i  Cor.  v.  1-8),  who  with  the  support 
of  his  fellow  Christians  may  have  refused  to  conform  to  Paul's 
imperative  commands.  We  may  suppose  an  angry  scene, 
possibly  an  attack  of  Paul's  bodily  ailment  (especially  if  the 
"  thorn  in  the  flesh  "  be  understood  to  be  epilepsy),  the  immediate 
triumph  of  the  adversaries,  Paul's  speedy  departure  in  grief. 


CORINTHIANS 


153 


If,  as  other  scholars  hold,  the  offender  was  not  the  same  as  in 
the  first  epistle,  the  general  picture  of  the  visit  will  not  have  to 
be  much  changed. 

Besides  making  this  visit  it  is  probable  that  Paul  also  wrote 
to  Corinth  a  letter,  now  lost,  intended  to  secure  the  result  of 
which  the  unfortunate  visit  had  failed  (ii.  3,  4,  9,  vii.  8,  12). 
It,  is,  however,  possible  that  the  allusions  merely  refer  to  i  Cor.  v., 
in  which  case  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  this  intermediate 
letter.  The  letter,  if  there  was  one,  may  have  been  sent  by  Titus, 
whom  Paul  in  any  case  commissioned  to  go  to  Corinth  and  try 
to  mend  matters.  Paul  describes  his  anxiety  over  this  last 
resource  in  touching  language  (ii.  12,  13).  Disappointed  that 
Titus  did  not  meet  him  at  Troas,  he  moved  on  to  Macedonia, 
and  there  (vii.  5-9)  was  rejoiced  by  the  coming  of  the  envoy  with 
good  news  of  the  complete  return  of  the  Corinthians  to  integrity 
and  loyalty. 

Second  Corinthians  was  Paul's  response  to  this  friendly 
attitude  reported  by  Titus.  It  went  by  the  hand  of  Titus,  who 
was  promptly  sent  back  to  complete  the  work  he  had  so  well 
begun  (viii.  6,  16-24).  In  company  with  him  (viii.  18)  was  sent 
&  brother  (unnamed)  who  had  already  been  appointed  as  the 
representative  of  the  churches  to  accompany  Paul  in  carrying 
to  Jerusalem  the  great  collection  of  money  now  nearly  completed. 
The  greater  part  of  the  epistle  consists  of  the  outpouring  of 
Paul's  thankful  and  loving  heart  (chaps,  i.-vii.),  together  with 
directions  and  exhortations  relating  to  the  collection. 

But  the  epistle  contains  evidence  of  another  and  a  disagreeable 
side  to  the  affairs  of  the  Corinthian  church.  Especially  the  last 
four  chapters,  but  also  references  in  the  earlier  chapters,  show 
that  virulent  personal  opponents  of  Paul  and  his  work  had  been 
exercising  an  evil  activity.  It  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  precise 
relation  of  these  persons  to  the  parties  at  Corinth  or  to  the  series 
of  events  which  have  just  been  sketched,  but  we  can  well  under- 
stand that  their  presence  and  efforts  played  a  large  part  in  the 
history.  We  learn  that  Jewish  Christians  (xi.  22)  had  come  to 
Corinth,  doubtless  from  Jerusalem,  with  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion (iii.  i).  They  urged  their  own  claims  as  apostles  (though 
not  of  the  twelve),  and  set  themselves  up  as  superior  to  Paul 
(xi.  5,  xii.  n,  v.  12,  xi.  18).  Paul  calls  them  "  false  apostles" 
(xi.  13-15),  and  declares  that  they  preach  "  another  Jesus, 
another  Spirit,  another  Gospel  "  (xi.  4).  That  in  Paul's  judg- 
ment his  influence  with  the  Corinthian  church  depended  on 
overthrowing  the  power  of  these  disturbers  of  the  peace  is  plain, 
and  this  accounts  for  the  strenuous,  and  occasionally  violent, 
tone  of  his  polemic  in  chapters  x.-xiii.  As  we  compare  them 
with  the  Judaizers  of  Galatia  it  seems  that  their  polemic  was 
less  on  the  ground  of  principles  and  doctrines,  and  more  a 
personal  attack.  Paul  does  not  much  argue,  as  he  does  in 
Galatians,  against  the  inclination  of  Gentile  Christians  to  subject 
themselves  to  the  Law  (yet  note  the  contrast  of  the  old  veiled 
covenant  and  the  new  open  revelation,  iii.  4-18,  esp.  iii.  6) ;  he 
is  engaged  in  personal  defence  against  charges  of  carnal  motives 
(x.  2),  perhaps  even  of  embezzlement  (xii.  16-18),  and  also  of 
fickleness  (i.  12-11.  4).  When  he  ironically  calls  himself  a  "  fool  " 
(xi.  i,  16,  17,  19,  21,  xii.  6-n),  he  is  doubtless  taking  up  their 
term  of  abuse,  and  in  many  of  the  hard  passages  of  this  most 
difficult  of  all  Paul's  epistles  we  may  suspect  that  half-quoted 
flings  of  the  enemy  glimmer  through  his  retort.  From  2  Cor. 
x.  7,  xi.  22  it  may  be  inferred  that  these  Jewish  Christians  had 
something  to  do  with  the  "  Christ-party  "  of  which  we  seem  to 
hear  in  the  first  epistle. 

To  the  tact  and  firmness  of  Titus  must  be  ascribed  much  of 
the  successful  issue  of  these  dealings  with  the  Corinthians.  Paul 
spent  the  following  winter  at  Corinth  (Acts  xx.  2,  3) ;  while  there 
he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  which  in  its  milder  tone 
gives  clear  indication  that  the  day  of  violent  controversy  with 
Judaizing  emissaries  like  those  who  came  to  Galatia"  had  passed. 
There  was  indeed,  as  might  have  been  expected,  trouble  from 
enemies  among  the  j£ws,  but  Paul  escaped  the  danger,  and  with 
the  money  for  the  mother  church,  the  collection  of  which  had 
so  long  lain  near  his  heart,  he  was  able  to  start  for  Jerusalem 
in  the  spring  of  one  of  the  years  55-59  (See  PAUL). 


In  later  time  (circ.  A.D.  95)  we  hear  from  the  epistle  of  Clement 
of  Rome  that  the  Corinthian  church  paid  full  honour  to  Paul's 
memory;  and  circ.  A.D.  139,  the  excellent  Catholic  (though 
Hebrew)  Christian  Hegesippus  found  himself  deeply  refreshed 
by  the  honest  life  and  the  fidelity  to  Christian  truth  of  the  de- 
scendants and  successors  of  the  Christians  over  whom  Paul  had 
laboured  with  such  faithful  oversight  and  so  many  anxious  tears. 

Critical  Questions. — The  manuscript  evidence  for  the 
Corinthian  epistles  is  the  same  as  for  the  other  epistles  of  Paul 
(see  BIBLE:  New  Testament).  Of  early  attestation  the  amount 
is  rather  greater  for  First  Corinthians  than  for  other  epistles. 
Not  only  were  both  epistles  included  without  question  in  the 
Pauline  canon  of  Marcion  (circ.  A.D.  150)  and  in  the  Muratorian 
list  (end  of  2nd  century),  and  known  to  various  Gnostic  sects 
of  the  2nd  century,  but  Clement  of  Rome  (circ.  A.D.  95)  makes 
a  specific  reference  (xlvii.  i)  to  the  fact  that  the  Corinthians 
"  received  the  Epistle  of  the  blessed  Apostle  Paul,"  and  pro- 
ceeds with  an  unmistakable  quotation  from  i  Cor.  i.  11-13. 
Other  quotations  from  First  Corinthians  are  found  in  Clement, 
Ignatius,  Polycarp,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus,  Irenaeus,  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  while  use  of  the  epistle  can  probably 
be  detected  in  Hermas.  Second  Corinthians  was,  and  still 
remains,  less  quotable,  but  it  is  probably  used  by  Polycarp, 
perhaps  by  Ignatius,  and  by  the  presbyters  known  to  Irenaeus, 
and  it  was  freely  used  by  Theophilus,  Irenaeus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  Tertullian. 

The  only  serious  doubt  of  the  genuineness  of  First  and  Second 
Corinthians  has  been  that  of  the  so-called  Dutch  school  of  critics, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  igth  century,  and  forms  a  part  of  their 
attempt  (the  first  since  that  of  Baur)  entirely  to  reconstruct 
the  history  of  early  Christianity.  Their  view  that  the  Corinthian 
epistles  are  the  product  of  a  body  of  progressive  Christians  in 
the  2nd  century,  who  ascribed  to  a  legendary  Paul  the  advanced 
views  they  had  themselves  •  developed,  has  not  commended 
itself  to  critics,  and  seems  to  be  burdened  by  nearly  all  possible 
difficulties.  The  genuineness  of  both  epistles  is,  in  fact,  amply 
attested  not  only  by  early  writers,  but  by  the  surer  proof  of 
complicated  and  consistent  concreteness,  with  perfect  adaptation 
to  all  we  know  of  Paul  and  of  the  passing  circumstances  of  the 
earliest  days  of  Christianity  in  Greece.  For  a  writer  a  century 
later  to  have  composed  the  Corinthian  epistles  and  then  success- 
fully passed  them  off  as  the  work  of  Paul  could  be  explained 
only  by  an  hypothesis  of  inspiration!  It  would  have  been  as 
difficult  as  to  forge  a  daily  newspaper.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
the  two  epistles  are  so  intimately  connected  by  their  contents 
with  Romans  and  Galatians  that  the  four  together  support  one 
another's  genuineness. 

In  Second  Corinthians  two  important  questions  of  integrity 
have  been  much  discussed,  (i)  2  Cor.  vi.  I4~vii.  i  is  a  passage 
somewhat  distinct  from  its  context,  and  introduced  by  a  seem- 
ingly abrupt  break  in  the  sequence  of  thought.  It  is,  therefore, 
held  by  some  (including  G.  Heinrici)  to  be  an  interpolation  by 
another  writer,  by  others  (as  A.  Hilgenfeld)  to  be  a  part  of  the 
letter  referred  to  in  i  Cor.  v.  9.  But  the  arguments  against 
Pauline  authorship  are  not  convincing;  there  is  after  all  a  certain 
real  connexion  to  be  traced  between  the  section  and  vi.  i ;  and 
the  resemblance  to  the  substance  of  i  Cor.  v.  9  is  natural  in  any 
case.  (2)  More  important  is  the  question  as  to  2  Cor.  x.-xiii. 
Since  J.  S.  Semler  (1776)  it  has  been  held  by  careful  scholars  that 
these  chapters  are  written  in  a  tone  of  excited  irritation  which 
is  out  of  accord  with  the  genial  tone  of  gratified  affection  and 
confidence  that  pervades  chaps,  i.-ix.  Hence  such  scholars  as 
A.  Hausrath,  R.  A.  Lipsius,  O.  Pfleiderer,  P.  W.  Schmiedel,  A.  C. 
M'Giffert  have  adopted  the  view  that  these  four  chapters  were 
not  written  as  part  of  Second  Corinthians,  but,  while  unquestion- 
ably from  Paul's  hand,  were  from  a  separate  letter  (the  "  Vier- 
kapitel-Brief  ") ,  probably  the  same  as  that  supposed  to  be  referred 
to  in  2  Cor.  ii.  3-9,  vii.  8-12.  This  theory  is,  however,  probably 
not  correct,  for  while,  on  the  one  hand,  it  is  based  on  an  exaggera- 
tion of  the  differences  and  a  neglect  of  certain  lines  of  connexion 
between  the  chaps,  x.-xiii.  and  chaps,  i.-ix.,  on  the  other  hand 
the  identification  supposed  is  made  difficult  by  several  facts. 


154 


CORINTO— CORIOLI 


Thus  these  chapters  contain  no  mention  whatever  of  the  offender 
of  2  Cor.  ii.  5-11,  of  whose  case  the  intervening  letter  must  have 
mainly  treated;  again,  x.  i,  9,  10,  n  imply  a  previous  sharp 
rebuke  already  administered,  such  as  is  hardly  accounted  for 
merely  by  First  Corinthians;  and  finally,  xii.  18  implies  that 
these  four  chapters  were  not  written  until  after  Titus's  visit, 
that  is,  that  they  were  written  at  just  the  same  time  as  Second 
Corinthians. 

An  apocryphal  correspondence  of  Paul  and  the  church  at 
Corinth,  consisting  of  the  church's  letter  and  Paul's  reply,  had 
canonical  authority  in  the  Syrian  church  in  the  4th  century 
(Aphraates,  Ephraem).  It  is  preserved  in  Armenian  and  Latin 
manuscripts,  and  is  now  known  to  have  been  a  part  of  the  Acts  of 
Paul,  written  in  the  2nd  century.  The  letters  relate  to  the  con- 
demnation of  certain  Gnostic  views.  For  a  translation  see 
Stanley's  Epistles  of  St  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  (4th  ed.,  1876), 
pp.  S93-S98.  See  Harnack,  Geschichte  der  altchristlichen  Litera- 
tur,  i.  pp.  37-39,  ii.  i,  pp.  506-508;  Bardenhewer,  Geschichte 
der  allkirchlichen  Literatur,  i.  pp.  463-467;  Hennecke,  Neutesta- 
mentliche  Apokryphen,  pp.  362-364,  378-380. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — On  the  Corinthian  Epistles  consult  the  Introduc- 
tions to  the  New  Testament  of  H.  Holtzmann  (1885,  3rd  ed.  1892); 

B.  Weiss    (1886,   3rd   ed.    1897,    Eng.   trans.    1887);   G.   Salmon 
(1887) ;   A.  Julicher  (1894,  5th  and  6th  ed.  1906,  Eng.  trans.  1904) ; 
T.  Zahn  (1897-1899,  2nd  ed.  1900);   and  the  articles  in  the  Bible 
dictionaries,  especially  those  by  A.  Robertson  in  Hastings's  Dic- 
tionary.    See   also    Lives  of  Paul;  and  the  general  works  on  the 
Apostolic  Age  of  C.    von  Weizsacker   (1886,   2nd  ed.    1892);    O. 
Pfleiderer,   Das    Urchristentum    (1887,   2nd  ed.    1902,   Eng:   trans. 
1906) ;  and  A.  C.  M'Giffert  (1897).    Especially  valuable  for  i  and  2 
Corinthians  is  E.  von  Dobschiitz,  Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive 
Church  (1902,  Eng.  trans.  1904). 

In  English,  Dean  Stanley's  work  (1855,  4th  ed.  1876)  is  now  out 
of  date.  On  First  Corinthians  reference  may  be  made  to  the  works 
of  T.  Evans  in  Speaker's  Commentary  (1881) ;  T.  C.  Edwards  (1885) ; 

C.  J.  Ellicott  (1887);    Fr.  Godet  (1886-1887,  Eng.  trans.  1887); 
on  both  epistles  to  those  of  H.  A.  W.  Meyer  (5th  ed.  1870,  Eng.  trans. 
1877-1879)  and  J.  J.  Lias,  in  Cambridge  Greek  Testament  (1886- 
1892).     F.  W.  Robertson's  classic  Sermons  on  St  Paul's  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians  (1859)  should  not  be  neglected.     In  German  there 
are  commentaries  of  much  value  by  G.  Heinrici  (1880-1887)  and  in 
Heinrici's  revision  of  Meyer's  Kommentar  (8th  ed.,  1 896-1900),  and  by 
P.  W.  Schmiedel  in  Hand-Commentar  (1891,  2nd  ed.  1892).     For 
further  literature  see  Robertson's  art.    "  Corinthians,  First  Epistle 
to  the,"  in  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.     On  early  attestation 
see  A.  H.  Charteris,  Canonicity  (1880),  and  the  Oxford  Committee's 
New  Testament  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers  (1905).  (J.  H.  Rs.) 

CORINTO,  a  seaport  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Nicaragua,  in  the 
department  of  Chinandega,  built  on  the  small  island  of  Asserra- 
dores  or  Corinto,  at  the  entrance  to  Realejo  Bay,  65  m.  by  rail 
N.W.  of  Managua.  Pop.  (1900)  about  3000.  The  town,  which 
was  founded  in  1849,  and  first  came  into  prominence  as  a  port 
in  1863,  has  a  spacious  and  sheltered  harbour,  the  best  in 
Nicaragua.  It  possesses  no  docks  or  wharves,  and  vessels 
anchor  some  500  yds.  off-shore  to  load  or  discharge  cargo  by 
means  of  lighters.  On  the  mainland  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway 
to  Leon,  Managua  and  other  commercial  centres.  Coffee,  gold, 
mahogany,  rubber  and  cattle  are  largely  exported;  and  more 
than  half  the  foreign  trade  of  Nicaragua  passes  through  this  port, 
which  has  completely  superseded  the  roadstead  of  Realejo,  now 
partly  filled  with  sandbanks,  but  from  1550  to  1850  the  principal 
seaport  of  the  country.  About  450  ocean-going  ships,  of  some 
450,000  tons,  annually  enter  the  port.  Most  of  the  foreign 
vessels  are  owned  in  Germany  or  the  United  States.  The  coasting 
trade  is  restricted  to  Nicaraguan  boats. 

CORIOLANUS,  GAIUS.(or  GNAEUS)  MARCIUS,  Roman  legend- 
ary hero  of  patrician  descent.  According  to  tradition,  his  surname 
was  due  to  the  bravery  displayed  by  him  at  the  siege  of  Corioli 
(493  B.C.)  during  the  war  against  the  Volscians  (but  see  below). 
In  492,  when  there  was  a  famine  in  Rome,  he  advised  that  the 
people  should  not  be  relieved  out  of  the  supplies  obtained  from 
Sicily,  unless  they  would  consent  to  the  abolition  of  their  tribunes. 
For  this  he  was  accused  by  the  tribunes,  and,  being  condemned 
to  exile,  took  refuge  with  his  friend  Attius  Tullius,  king  of  the 
Volscians.  A  pretext  for  a  quarrel  with  Rome  was  found,  and 
Coriolanus,  in  command  of  the  Volscian  army,  advanced  against 
his  native  city.  In  vain  the  first  men  of  Rome  prayed  for 


moderate  terms.  He  would  agree  to  nothing  less  than  the 
restoration  to  the  Volscians  of  all  their  land,  and  their  admission 
among  the  Roman  citizens.  A  mission  of  the  chief  priests  also 
failed.  At  last,  persuaded  by  his  mother  Veturia  and  his  wife 
Volumnia,  he  led  back  the  Volscian  army,  and  restored  the 
conquered  towns.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  exile  amongst 
the  Volscians;  according  to  others,  he  was  put  to  death  by  them 
as  a  traitor;  a  third  tradition  (mentioned,  but  ridiculed,  by 
Cicero)  represents  him  as  having  taken  his  own  life. 

The  whole  legend  is  open  to  serious  criticism.  At  the  tradi- 
tional date  (493  B.C.)  Corioli  was  not  a  Volscian  possession, 
but  one  of  the  Latin  cities  which  had  concluded  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Rome;  further,  Livy  himself  states  that  the 
chroniclers  knew  nothing  of  a  campaign  carried  on  by  the  consul 
Postumus  Cominius  Auruncus  (under  whom  Coriolanus  is  said 
to  have  served)  against  the  Volscians.  Only  one  of  the  consuls 
was  mentioned  as  having  concluded  the  treaty;  the  absence  of 
the  other  was  consequently  assumed,  and  a  reason  for  it  found  in 
a  Volscian  war.  The  bestowal  of  aw  cognomen  from  a  captured 
city  was  unknown  at  the  time,  the  first  instance  being  that  of 
Scipio;  in  any  case,  it  would  have  been  conferred  upon  the 
commander-in-chief,  Postumus  Cominius  Auruncus,  not  upon  a 
subordinate.  The  conquest  of  Corioli  by  Coriolanus  is  invented 
to  explain  the  surname.  The  details  of  the  famine  are  borrowed 
from  those  of  later  years,  especially  433  and  411.  The  incident 
of  Coriolanus  taking  refuge  with  the  Volscian  king, who,  according 
to  Plutarch,  was  his  bitter  enemy,  curiously  resembles  the  appeal 
of  Themistocles  to  the  Molossian  king  Admetus.  Further,  the 
tradition  that  Coriolanus,  like  Themistocles,  committed  suicide, 
renders  it  a  probable  conjecture  that  these  incidents  are  derived 
from  a  Greek  source.  The  contradictions  in  the  accounts  of  the 
campaign  against  Rome  and  its  inherent  improbability  give 
further  ground  for  suspicion.  Twelve  important  towns  are  taken 
in  a  single  summer  apparently  without  resistance  on  the  part  of 
the  Romans,  and  after  the  retirement  of  Coriolanus  they  are 
immediately  abandoned  by  the  conquerors.  It  is  strange  that 
the  Volscians  should  have  entrusted  a  stranger  with  the  command 
of  their  army,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  attribution  of  their 
successes  to  a  Roman  general  was  intended  to  gratify  the  national 
pride  and  obliterate  the  memory  of  a  disastrous  war.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  Coriolanus  never  commanded  the  Volscian  army  at 
all,  but  that,  like  Appius  Herdonius — the  Sabine  chieftain  who 
in  460,  with  a  band  of  fugitives  and  slaves,  obtained  possession 
of  the  capitol — he  appeared  at  the  gates  of  Rome  at  the  head  of 
a  body  of  exiles  (but  at  a  much  later  date,  c.  443),  at  a  time  when 
the  city  was  in  great  distress,  perhaps  as  the  result  of  a  pestilence, 
and  only  desisted  from  making  himself  master  of  Rome  at  the 
earnest  entreaty  of  his  mother.  This  seems  to  be  the  historical 
nucleus  of  the  tradition,  which  accentuates  the  great  influence 
exercised  by  and  the  respect  shown  to  the  Roman  matrons  in 
early  times. 

ANCIENT  AUTHORITIES. — Plutarch's  Life;  Livy  ii.  34-40;  Dion. 
Halic.  vi.  92-94,  vii.  21-27,  4!-47i  viii.  1-60;  Cicero,  Brutus,  x.  42. 
The  story  is  the  subject  of  Shakespeare's  Coriolanus.  For  a  critical 
examination  of  the  story  see  Schwegler,  Romische  Geschichte,  bk. 
xxiv. ;  Sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis,  Credibility  of  Early  Roman  History, 
ch.  xii.  19-23;  W.  Ihne,  History  of  Rome,  i.;  T.  Mommsen,  "  Die 
Erzahlung  von  Cn.  Marcius  Coriolanus,"  in  Hermes,  iv.  (1869); 
E.  Pais,  Storia  di  Roma,  i.  ch.  4  (1898). 

CORIOLI,  an  ancient  Volscian  city  in  Latium  adiectum,  taken, 
according  to  the  Roman  annals  in  493  B.C.,  with  Longula  and 
Pollusca,  and  retaken  (but  see  above)  for  the  Volsci  by  Gaius 
Marcius  Coriolanus,  its  original  conqueror,  who,  in  disgust  at 
his  treatment  by  his  countrymen,  had  deserted  to  the  enemy. 
After  this  it  does  not  appear  in  history,  and  we  hear  soon  after- 
wards (443  B.C.)  of  a  dispute  between  Ardea  and  Aricia  about 
some  land  which  had  been  part  of  the  territory  of  Corioli,  but  had 
at  an  unknown  date  passed  to  Rome  with  Corioli.  The  site  is  ap- 
parently to  be  sought  in  the  N.W.  portion  of  the  district  between 
the  sea,  the  river  Astura  and  the  Alban  Hills;  but  it  cannot 
be  more  accurately  fixed  (the  identification  with  Monte  Giove,  S. 
of  the  Valle-Aricciana,  rests  on  no  sufficient  evidence),  and  even 
in  the  time  of  Pliny  it  ranked  among  the  lost  cities  of  Latium. 


CORIPPUS — CORK,   IST  EARL  OF 


155 


CORIPPUS,  FLAVIUS  CRESCONIUS,  Roman  epic  poet  of  the 
6th  century  A.D.  He  was  a  native  of  Africa,  and  in  one  of  the 
MSS.  is  called  grammaticus  (teacher).  He  has  been  identified, 
but  on  insufficient  grounds,  with  Cresconius,  an  African  bishop 
(7th  century),  author  of  a  Concordia  Canonum,  or  collection  of 
the  laws  of  the  church.  Nothing  is  known  of  Corippus  beyond 
what  is  contained  in  his  own  poems.  He  appears  to  have  held 
the  office  of  tribune  or  notary  (scriniarius)  under  Anastasius, 
imperial  treasurer  and  chamberlain  of  Justinian,  at  the  end  of 
whose  reign  he  left  Africa  for  Constantinople,  in  consequence 
of  having  lost  his  property  during  the  Moorish  and  Vandal  wars. 
He  was  the  author  of  two  poems,  of  considerable  importance 
for  the  history  of  the  times,  one  of  which  was  not  discovered  till 
the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century.  The  latter  poem,  dedicated 
to  the  nobles  of  Carthage,  which  comes  first  in  point  of  time, 
is  called  Johannis  or  De  bellis  Libycis,  and  relates  the  overthrow 
of  the  Moors  by  a  certain  Johannes,  magister  militum  in  546;  it 
is  in  eight  books  (the  last  is  unfinished)  and  contains  about 
5000  hexameters.  The  narrative  commences  with  the  despatch 
of  Johannes  to  the  theatre  of  war  by  Justinian,  and  ends  with 
the  decisive  victory  near  Carthage  (548).  The  other  poem  (In 
laudem  Juslini  minoris),  in  four  books,  contains  the  death  of 
Justinian,  the  coronation  of  his  successor  Justin  II.  (i4th  of 
November  565),  and  the  early  events  of  his  reign.  It  is  preceded 
by  a  preface,  and  a  short  and  fulsome  panegyric  on  Anastasius, 
the  poet's  patron.  The  Laus  was  published  at  Antwerp  in  1581 
by  Michael  Ruyz  Azagra,  secretary  to  the  emperor  Rudolf  II., 
from  a  oth  or  loth  century  MS.  The  preface  contains  a  reference 
to  a  previous  work  by  the  author  on  the  wars  in  Africa,  and 
although  Johannes  Cuspinianus  (1473-1529)  in  his  De  Caesaribus 
et  Imperatoribus  professed  to  have  seen  a  MS.  of  it  in  the  library 
at  Buda  (destroyed  by  Suleiman  II.  in  1527),  it  was  not  till  1814 
that  it  was  discovered  at  Milan  by  Cardinal  Mazzucchelli, 
librarian  of  the  Ambros'an  library,  from  the  codex  Trivultianus 
(in  the  library  of  the  marquis  Trivulzi),  the  only  MS.  of  the 
Johannis  still  extant. 

The  Johannis  is  of  great  value,  not  only  from  a  purely  historical 
point  of  view,  but  also  as  giving  a  description  of  the  land  and 
people  of  Africa,  which  conscientiously  records  the  impressions 
of  an  intelligent  native  observer;  many  of  his  statements  as 
to  manners  and  customs  are  confirmed  both  by  independent 
ancient  authorities  (such  as  Procopius)  and  by  our  knowledge 
of  the  modern  Berbers.  Virgil,  Lucan,  and  Claudian  were  the 
poet's  chief  models.  The  Laus,  which  was  written  when  he  was 
advanced  in  years',  although  marred  by  Byzantine  servility  and 
gross  flattery  of  a  by  no  means  worthy  object,  throws  much  light 
upon  Byzantine  court  ceremony,  as  in  the  account  of  the  accession 
of  Justin  and  the  reception  of  the  embassy  of  the  Avars.  On 
the  whole  the  language  and  metre  of  Corippus,  considering  the 
age  in  which  he  lived  and  the  fact  that  he  was  not  a  native 
Italian,  is  remarkably  pure.  That  he  was  a  Christian  is  rendered 
probable  by  negative  indications,  such  as  the  absence  of  all  the 
usual  mythological  accessories  of  an  epic  poem,  positive  allusions 
to  texts  of  Scripture,  and  the  highly  orthodox  passage  Laus  iv. 
294  ff. 

The  editions  of  the  Johannis  by  P.  Mazzucchelli  (1820)  and  of  the 
Laus  by  P.  F.  Foggini  (1777)  are  still  valuable  for  their  commentaries. 
They  are  both  included  in  the  28th  volume  of  the  Bonn  Corpus 
scriptorum  historian  Byzantinae.  The  best  modern  editions  are  by 
J.  Partsch  (in  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica,  1879),  with  very 
valuable  prolegomena,  and  M.  Petschenig  (Berliner  Studien  fur 
klassische  Philologie,  iv.,  1886);  see  also  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall, 
ch.  xlv. 

CORISCO,  the  name  of  a  bay  and  an  island  on  the  Guinea 
Coast,  West  Africa.  The  bay  is  bounded  N.  by  Cape  San  Juan 
(i°  10'  N.)  and  S.  by  Cape  Esterias  (o°  36'  N.),  and  is  about  31  m. 
across,  while  it  extends  inland  some  15  m.  The  bay  is  much 
encumbered  with  sandbanks,  which  impair  its  value  as  a  harbour. 
Whereas  the  Muni  river  or  estuary,  which  enters  the  bay  on  its 
northern  side,  has  a  maximum  depth  of  over  100  ft.,  vessels 
entering  it  have  to  come  by  a  channel  with  an  average  depth  of 
six  fathoms.  The  entrance  to  the  southern  part  of  the  bay  is 
obstructed  by  the  Bana  Bank,  which  extends  for  9  m.,  rendering 


navigation  dangerous.  The  bay  encloses  many  small  islands 
and  islets,  some  hardly  distinguishable  from  sandbanks  and 
submerged  at  high  water,  giving  rise  to  a  native  saying  that 
"  half  the  islands  live  under  water."  The  principal  islands 
are  four,  Bana,  Great  and  Little  Elobey,  and  Corisco,  the  last- 
named  lying  farthest  to  seaward  and  giving  its  name  to  the 
bay. 

Corisco  Island,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is  some  3  m.  long  by 
1 1  m.  in  breadth  and  has  an  area  of  about  55  sq.  m.  The  surface 
of  the  island  is  very  diversified.  On  a  miniature  scale  it  possesses 
mountains  and  valleys,  rivers,  lakes,  forests  and  swamps,  grass- 
land and  bushland,  moorland  and  parkland.  The  forests  supply 
ebony  and  logwood  for  export.  The  natives  are  a  Bantu-Negro 
tribe  called  Benga.  There  are  among  them  many  converts  to 
Roman  Catholicism  and  a  few  Protestants.  Corisco  and  the 
other  islands  named  are  Spanish  possessions  and  are  governed 
as  dependencies  of  Fernando  Po. 

See  Mary  H.  Kingsley,  Travels  in  West  Africa,  ch.  xvii.  (London, 
1897);  E.  L.  Perea,  "Guinea  espanola;  La  isla  de  Corisco,"  in 
Revista  de  geog.  colon,  y  mercantil  (Madrid,  1906). 

CORK,  RICHARD  BOYLE,  IST  EARL  or  (1566-1643),  Irish 
statesman,  second  son  of  Roger  Boyle  of  Faversham  in  Kent, 
a  descendant  of  an  ancient  Herefordshire  family,  and  of  Joan, 
daughter  of  Robert  Naylor  of  Canterbury,  was  born  at  Canterbury 
on  the  3rd  of  October  1566,  and  was  educated  at  the  King's 
school  and  at  Bennet  (Corpus  Christi)  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  admitted  in  1 583.  He  afterwards  studied  law  at  the 
Middle  Temple  and  became  clerk  to  Sir  Richard  Manwood,  chief 
baron  of  the  exchequer;  but  finding  his  position  offered  little 
opportunity  for  advancement  he  determined  to  make  a  new 
start  in  Ireland.  He  landed  in  Dublin  on  the  23rd  of  June  1 588, 
as  he  relates  himself,  with  £27,  35.  in  money,  a  gold  bracelet 
worth  £10,  and  a  diamond  ring,  besides  some  fine  wearing 
apparel.  He  began  to  make  his  fortune  almost  immediately. 
In  1590  he  obtained  the  appointment  of  deputy  escheator  to 
John  Crofton,  the  eschea tor-general,  and  in  1595  he  married 
Joan,  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  William  Appsley  of  Limerick, 
who  died  in  1599,  having  brought  him  an  estate  of  £500  a 
year. 

Meanwhile  he  had  been  the  object  of  the  attacks  of  Sir  Henry 
Wallop  and  others,  incited,  according  to  his  own  account,  by 
envy  at  his  success  and  increasing  prosperity,  and  was  appre- 
hended on  various  charges  of  fraud  in  his  office,  being  more  than 
once  thrown  into  prison.  He  was  on  the  point  of  leaving  for 
England  to  justify  himself  to  the  queen,  when  the  rebellion  in 
Munster  in  October  1598  again  reduced  him  to  poverty  and 
obliged  him  to  return  to  London  to  his  chambers  at  the  Temple. 
He  was,  however,  almost  immediately  taken  by  Essex  into  his 
service,  when  Sir  Henry  Wallop  again  renewed  his  prosecution, 
with  the  result  that  Boyle  was  summoned  before  the  star 
chamber.  His  enemies  appear  to  have  failed  in  substantiating 
their  accusations,  and  in  the  course  of  the  inquiry,  at  which  he 
had  secured  the  presence  of  the  queen  herself,  he  was  able 
to  expose  several  instances  of  malversation  on  the  part  of  his 
opponent,  who  was  dismissed  in  consequence  from  his  office  of 
treasurer,  while  Boyle  himself,  who  had  favourably  impressed 
the  queen,  was  declared  by  her  as  "  a  man  fit  to  be  employed  by 
ourselves  "  and  was  at  once  made  clerk  of  the  council  of  Munster. 
He  brought  to  Elizabeth  the  news  of  the  victory  near  Kingsale 
in  December  1601,  and  in  October  1602  was  again  sent  over  by 
Sir  George  Carew,  the  president  of  Munster,  on  Irish  affairs; 
and  on  this  occasion,  at  the  instance  of  Carew,  he  bought  for 
£1000  the  whole  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  lands  in  Cork,  Waterford 
and  Tipperary,  consisting  of  12,000  acres  with  immense  capa- 
bilities of  development.  This  offered  a  splendid  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  his  genius  for  business  and  administration. 
Manufactures  were  established,  the  breeding  of  cattle  and  fish 
introduced,  mines  opened,  colonists  from  England  encouraged 
to  come  over,  the  natural  resources  of  the  land  developed, 
bridges,  harbours  and  roads  constructed,  and  towns  settled, 
order  being  maintained  by  13  castles  garrisoned  by  retainers. 

While  himself  quickly  accumulating  vast  riches,  the  services 


i56 


CORK 


which  Boyle  rendered  to  the  government  and  to  the  nation  at 
such  a  time  of  disorder  and  transition  were  incalculable.  He 
soon  became  the  most  powerful  subject  in  Ireland.  On  the 
25th  of  July  1603  he  married,  as  his  second  wife,  Catherine, 
daughter  of  Sir  Geoffrey  Fenton,  secretary  of  state,  and  was 
knighted.  In  1606  he  became  a  privy  councillor  for  Munster 
and  in  1613  for  Ireland.  On  the  6th  of  September  1616  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Boyle,  baron  of  Youghal,  and 
on  the  26th  of  October  1620  was  created  earl  of  Cork  and  Viscount 
Dungarvan.  He  was  appointed  on  the  26th  of  October  1629 
a  lord  justice,  and  on  the  pth  of  November  1631  lord  high 
treasurer.  Though  no  peer  of  England,  he  was  "  by  writ  called 
into  the  Upper  House  by  His  Majesty's  great  grace,"  and  took 
his  place  as  an  "  assistant  sitting  on  the  inside  of  the  Woolsack."1 
The  appointment  of  Wentworth  (Lord  Straff ord),  however,  as 
lord  deputy  in  1633  put  an  end  to  the  predominant  power  and 
influence  of  Cork  in  Ireland.  "  A  most  cursed  man,"  he  writes 
in  his  diary  on  Wentworth's  arrival,  "  to  all  Ireland  and  to  me 
in  particular."  In  reality  these  two  great  men  had  much  in 
common,  held  similar  views  of  administration,  and  had  the  same 
talents  for  practical  statesmanship.  Cork  had  already  carried 
out  in  Munster  the  policy  which  Strafford  desired  to  see  extended 
to  the  whole  of  Ireland.  But  Cork  belonged  to  the  "  spacious 
days  of  great  Elizabeth,"  and  for  such  a  man  there  was  no  room 
within  the  narrow  despotism  and  intolerance  of  the  government 
of  Charles.  The  subjection  of  the  great  was  part  of  Strafford's 
settled  policy,  and  consequently,  instead  of  seeking  his  collabora- 
tion in  developing  the  country  and  in  maintaining  order,  he 
studied  merely  to  diminish  his  influence.  He  subjected  him  to 
various  humiliations.  He  forced  him  to  remove  his  wife's  tomb 
from  the  choir  in  St  Patrick's  at  Dublin,  and  deprived  him 
arbitrarily  of  the  greater  part  of  the  revenues  of  Youghal,  a 
portion  of  the  Raleigh  estates.  "  No  physic,"  wrote  Laud, 
delighted,  "  better  than  a  vomit  if  it  be  given  in  time,  and  there- 
fore you  have  taken  a  very  judicious  course  to  administer  one  so 
early  to  my  Lord  of  Cork.  I  hope  it  will  do  him  good.  .  .  ."2 
Cork,  however,  refrained  from  any  systematic  or  retaliatory 
resistance,  and  even  simulated  an  admiration  for  Strafford's 
rule.  At  the  latter's  trial  he  was  an  important  witness,  but 
took  no  active  part  in  the  prosecution,  though  he  thoroughly 
approved  of  his  condemnation  and  execution.  Scarcely  had  he 
returned  to  Ireland  from  witnessing  his  rival's  destruction  when 
the  rebellion  broke  out,  but  his  influence  and  preparations, 
supported  by  the  military  prowess  of  his  sons,  were  sufficient  to 
offer  a  successful  resistance  to  the  rebels  in  Munster  and  to  save 
the  province  from  ruin.  This  was  his  last  great  service  to  the 
state.  He  died  about  the  isth  of  September  1643,  leaving  a 
large  and  illustrious  family  by  his  second  wife. 

Four  of  his  seven  sons  received  independent  peerages, — 
Richard,  created  Baron  Clifford  and  earl  of  Burlington;  Lewis, 
Viscount  Kinalmeaky,  killed  in  1642  at  the  battle  of  Liscarrol; 
Roger,  baron  of  Broghill  and  earl  of  Orrery;  and  Francis, 
Viscount  Shannon.  Another  son  was  Robert  Boyle  (q.v.),  the 
famous  natural  philosopher  and  chemist. 

The  title  passed  to  the  eldest  surviving  son,  RICHARD  BOYLE, 
ist  earl  of  Burlington  and  2nd  earl  of  Cork  (1612-1698),  who 
matriculated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  was  knighted  in 
1624.  Returning  home  after  travelling  abroad  he  married  in 
1635  Elizabeth,  daughter  and  heir  of  Henry,  Lord  Clifford,  later 
earl  of  Cumberland.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion  he  sup- 
ported his  father  in  Munster,  fought  at  the  battle  of  Liscarrol, 
and  raised  forces  for  the  first  war  with  the  Scots.  In  1640  he 
represented  Appleby  in  the  Long  Parliament,  and  in  the  civil 
war  he  supported  zealously  the  royal  cause,  being  created  in 
1643  Baron  Clifford  of  Lanesborough  in  the  peerage  of  England, 
in  addition  to  the  earldom  of  Cork  which  he  inherited  from  his 
father  the  same  year.  At  the  Restoration  he  obtained  also  the 
earldom  of  Burlington  (or  Bridlington),  and  was  appointed 
lord-lieutenant  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  resigning  this 
office  through  opposition  to  the  government  of  James  II.  He 
held  the  office  of  lord  treasurer  of  Ireland  from  1680  till  1695. 
r/i»//c  Jn,lr*,,,l<  2  Strafford  Letters,  I  156. 


Lords  Journals. 


He  died  on  the  isth  of  January  1698.  His  two  sons  having 
predeceased  him,  he  was  succeeded  in  his  titles  by  his  grandson 
Charles,  issue  of  his  eldest  son  Charles,  as  2nd  earl  of  Burlington 
and  3rd  earl  of  Cork;  and  on  the  extinction  of  the  direct  male 
line  in  the  person  of  Richard,  the  4th  earl,  in  1753  the  earldom 
of  Cork  fell  to  the  younger  branch  of  the  Boyle  family,  in  the 
person  of  John,  5th  earl  of  Orrery,  he  and  later  earls  being  "  of 
Cork  and  Orrery." 

JOHN  BOYLE,  5th  earl  of  Cork  and  Orrery  (1707-1762),  only 
son  of  the  4th  earl  of  Orrery,  was  born  on  the  2nd  of  January 
1707.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  was  led 
by  indifferent  health  and  many  untoward  accidents  to  cultivate 
in  retirement  his  talents  for  literature  and  poetry.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  Letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  with  various  notes, 
for  the  use  of  his  eldest  son,  was  published  in  1751.  He  also 
published  Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Jonathan  Swift 
(i  751), in  several  letters  addressed  to  his  second  son,  and  Memoirs 
of  Robert  Carey,  earl  of  Monmouth,  from  the  original  manuscript, 
with  preface  and  notes.  He  died  on  the  i6th  of  November  1 762. 
His  Letters  from  Italy  -appeared  in  1774,  edited,  with  memoir, 
by  the  Rev.  J.  Buncombe.  The  earldom  continued  in  later 
years  in  the  Boyle  family,  being  held  in  1909  by  the  zoth  earl 
(b.  1861).  The  wife  of  the  7th  earl  (see  CORK  AND  ORRERY, 
MARY,  COUNTESS  or)  was  a  famous  figure  in  society  in  the  early 
igth  century. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  IST  EARL. — True  Remembrances,  written  by 
himself  and  printed  by  Birch  in  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Robert 
Boyle;  Lismore  Papers,  ed.  by  A.  B.  Grosart  (10  vols.,  1886-1887), 
1st  series  consisting  of  the  diary  from  1611  to  his  death  and  of 
autobiographical  notes,  and  2nd  series  of  correspondence;  Life  of 
Lord  Cork,  by  Dorothea  Townshend  (1904);  article  in  the  Diet,  of 
Nat.  Biog.,  with  authorities  there  given;  Egerton  MSS.  80  (copies 
of  correspondence) ;  Add.  MSS.,  Brit.  Mus.,  19831-19832  (rebellion 
in  Muftster,  examination  before  the  Star  Chamber,  correspondence) 
and  18023;  Strafford's  Letters;  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  Domestic 
and  Irish,  and  Carew  Papers;  E.  Lodge's  Irish  Peerage,  i.  144; 
E.  Budgell's  Memoirs  of  the  Boyles  (1737);  Ed.  Edwards's  Life  of 
Raleigh;  Gardiner's  Hist,  of  England;  Charles  Smith's  History  of 
Cork  (1893);  R.  Caulfield's  Council  Book  of  Youghal;  also  the 
biography  in  Biographia  Brilannica,  Kippis,  vol.  ii. 

CORK,  a  county  of  Ireland  in  the  province  of  Munster,  bounded 
S.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  E.  by  the  counties  Waterford  and 
Tipperary,  N.  by  Limerick,  and  W.  by  Kerry."  It  is  the  largest 
county  in  Ireland,  having  an  area  of  1,849,686  acres,  or  about 
2890  sq.  m.  The  outline  is  irregular;  the  coast  is  for  the  most 
part  bold  and  rocky,  and  is  intersected  by  the  bays  of  Bantry, 
Dunmanus,  and  Roaring  Water.  The  southern  paTt  of  the  coast 
projects  several  headlands  into  the  Atlantic,  and  its  south- 
eastern side  is  indented  by  Cork  Harbour,  and  Ballycotton  and 
Youghal  Bays.  The  surface  is  undulating.  It  consists  of  low 
rounded  ridges,  with  corresponding  valleys,  running  east  and 
west,  except  in  the  western  portion  of  the  county,  which  is  more 
mountainous.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Blackwater,  the  Lee, 
and  the  Bandon,  flowing  generally  eastward  from  their  sources 
in  the  high  ground  of  the  west.  The  most  elevated  part  of  the 
county  is  in  the  Boggeragh  Mountains,  in  the  north-west,  which 
reach  an  extreme  height  of  21 18  ft.  To  the  south  are  the  Shehy 
Mountains,  at  the  root  of  the  two  promontories  flanking  Bantry 
Bay,  the  Caha  Mountains  forming  the  backbone  of  the  northern 
of  these  promontories,  and  the  hills  of  the  district  of  Corbery 
to  the  south  of  the  Shehy  range.  North  of  the  Blackwater  the 
country  is  comparatively  level,  being  a  branch  of  the  great  plain 
which  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  centre  of  Ireland.  Of  the 
principal  rivers  the  Blackwater  has  its  source  in  the  county 
Limerick.  The  Lee  originates  in  the  wild  and  picturesque 
Gouganebarra  Lough,  and  the  Bandon  river  rises  in  the  Cullinagh 
Lough.  There  are  also  some  smaller  streams  which  flow  directly 
into  the  sea,  the  more  important  of  these  being  in  the  south-west 
portion  of  the  county.  No  lakes  of  any  magnitude  occur,  the 
largest  being  Lough  Allua,  or  Inchigeelagh,  an  expansion  of  the 
river  Lee.  The  scenery  of  the  western  parts  of  the  county  is 
bold  and  rugged.  In  the  central  and  eastern  parts,  especially 
in  the  valleys,  it  is  green  and  quiet,  and.  in  some  spots  well 
wooded. 


CORK 


157 


Geology. — The  county  presents  a  remarkable  simplicity  of  geo- 
logical structure.  Its  surface  is  controlled  throughout  by  the 
"  Hercynian  "  folds,  running  from  the  Kerry  border  eastward  to  the 
sea  at  Voughal.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  comes  out  in  the  north 
forming  the  heather-clad  Ballyhoura  Hills,  which  are  repeated  across 
the  limestone  hollow  of  Mitchelstown  by  the  western  spur  of  the 
Knockmealdown  Mountains.  On  the  west,  beds  as  high  as  the 
Millstone  Grit  and  Coal  Measures  remain  above  the  limestone, 
extending  from  Mallow  and  Kanturk  to  the  Limerick  and  Kerry 
borders.  Another  synclinal  of  Carboniferous  Limestone  runs  from 
Millstreet  through  Lismore,  and  the  Blackwater  has  worn  out  an  easy 
course  along  it.  Then  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  again  rises  as  an 
undujating  upland  through  the  centre  of  the  county,  with  a  few 
synclinal  patches  of  Carboniferous  Shale  and  Limestone  caught  in 
on  its  back.  Cork  city  lies  on  the  north  slope  and  in  the  floor  of  a 
larger  synclinal,  and  the  Yellow  Sandstone,  which  forms  the  passage- 
beds  from  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  to  the  Carboniferous,  appears  near 
the  city.  This  hollow  continues  across  the  Lee  through  Middleton. 
The  limestone  in  it  has  become  crystalline,  veined  and  brecciated, 
while  a  fine  red  staining,  especially  at  Little  Island,  adds  to  its  value 
as  a  marble.  After  another  anticlinal  of  Old  Red  Sandstone,  the 
Carboniferous  Slate  occupies  most  of  the  country  southward,  with 
occasional  appearan~es  of  the  basal  Cpomhola  Grits  and  of  the  under- 
lying Old  Red  Sandstone  along  anticlinals.  The  soils  thus  vary  from 
sandy  loams,  usually  on  the  higher  ground,  to  stiff  clays  along  the 
limestone  hollows. 

This  country  admirably  illustrates  the  system  of  river-develop- 
ment originally  traced  out  by  Prof.  J.  B.  Jukes  in  1862,  and  further 
explained  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Davis  and  others.  The  folded  series, 
culminating  originally  in  Upper  Carboniferous  strata,  was  worn  down, 
perhaps  as  far  back  as  Permian  times,  until  it  possessed  a  fairly 
uniform  surface.  This  surface,  or  "  peneplain,"  was  probably  the 
result  of  denudation  working  away  the  beds  almost  to  sea-level. 
A  subsequent  elevation  enabled  the  streams,  as  in  so  many  cases 
now  recognized,  to  cut  into  the  surface  along  the  direction  of  greatest 
inclination,  which  here  happened  to  be  southward.  When  Ihe  higher 
strata  had  been  worn  away,  the  rivers  and  their  tributaries  worked 
upon  rocks  of  very  various  hardness,  but  with  a  common  strike  from 
east  to  west.  The  tributaries,  running  along  the  strike,  speedily 
confined  themselves  to  the  synclinals  of  limestone,  along  which  they 
could  erode  and  dissolve  long  valleys.  The  present  surface  of  anti- 
clinal sandstone  ridges  and  synclinal  limestone  hollows  thus  began 
to  arise;  but  the  main  streams  still  held  on  their  courses  across  the 
strike,  that  is,  from  north  to  south.  Here  and  there  a  more  active 
tributary  worked  its  way  back  at  its  head  into  the  basin  of  one  of  the 
cross-streams,  and  drew  off  into  its  own  system  the  head-waters  of 
this  other  stream.  With  this  new  flood  of  water  the  strengthened 
system  still  further  deepened  its  original  ravine  across  the  strike, 
while  the  beheaded  cross-stream  or  streams  rapidly  dwindled  in 
importance.  Ultimately,  the  tributaries  of  the  surviving  river- 
systems  appeared  as  the  most  important  feature,  stretching  far  west 
— in  the  case  of  county  Cork — along  the  synclinal  hollows;  while 
the  original  cross-ravine  remained  in  the  course  of  each  river,  a  right- 
angled  bend  occurring  thus  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  valleys. 
Jukes  urged  that  the  upper  part  of  the  original  cross-ravine  can  be 
traced  above  the  bend  in  each  case,  though  the  stream  now  descend- 
ing along  it  seems  merely  a  tributary  entering  parallel  with  the 
north-and-south  portion  of  the  main  stream.  Moreover,  the  tribu- 
taries on  the  north  side  of  the  great  synclinal  valleys  may  in  many 
cases  be  the  relics  of  original  cross-streams  that  once  flowed  directly 
to  the  sea  until  captured  by  the  growth  along  the  synclinal  of  the 
tributary  of  another  stream.  The  Blackwater,  rising  on  Upper 
Carboniferous  beds  on  the  Kerry  border,  thus  falls  steeply  southward 
to  Rathmore,  and  then  turns  eastward  along  the  synclinal  valley 
of  limestone  from  Millstreet  to  Cappoquin.  Here  it  abruptly  turns 
south,  keeping,  in  fact,  to  that  part  of  its  valley  which  was  first 
developed.  The  Lee,  rising  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  moors  of 
Gouganebarra,  runs  east,  encountering  one  or  two  patches  of  lime- 
stone in  the  floor  of  the  synclinal  on  its  way,  mere  residues  of  the 
rock  that  once  occupied  the  hollow.  Near  Cork,  the  limestone  and 
accompanying  shale  are  better  preserved;  but  the  river,  instead 
of  continuing  along  the  synclinal  through  Middleton  to  Youghal, 
turns  south,  and  forms  the  now  submerged  valley  of  Cork  Harbour. 
Observations  have  shown  that  the  coast  lay  much  at  its  present  level 
in  pre-Glacial  times,  and  that  Cork  Harbour  was  thus  a  marine  inlet 
before  the  ice  descended  into  it.  The  synclinal  valleys  of  Bantry 
Bay  and  Dunmanus  Bay  were  also,  in  all  probability,  submerged 
at  this  same  early  epoch. 

The  county  has  been  famous  for  its  copper-mines,  notably  at 
Alhhies  in  the  extreme  west.  The  region  south-west  of  Bantry 
has  been  mined  in  several  places.  Both  gold  and  silver  have  been 
found  in  the  copper-ores  of  this  latter  area.  Barytes  has  been  mined 
near  Bantry,  Schull  and  Clonakilty,  and  manganese-ore  at  Glandore. 
Anthracite  has  been  raised  from  time  to  time  in  the  band  of  Coal 
Measures  south-west  of  Kanturk.  The  marble  of  Little  Island  near 
Cork  is  quarried  under  the  name  of  "  Cork  Red,"  and  the  veined 
pink  and  grey  marble  of  Middleton  is  also  much  esteemed. 

Climate  and  Watering-places. — The  climate  is  moist  and  warm, 
the  prevailing  winds  being  from  the  west  and  south-west.  The 


annual  rainfall  in  the  city  of  Cork  is  about  40  in.,  that  of  the 
whole  county  being  somewhat  higher.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  52°  F.  The  snow-fall  during  the  winter  is 
usually  slight,  and  snow  rarely  remains  long  on  the  ground  except 
in  sheltered  places.  The  thermal  spring  of  Mallow  was  formerly 
in  considerable  repute;  it  is  situated  in  a  basin  on  the  banks 
of  the  Blackwater,  rising  from  the  base  of  a  limestone  hill.  The 
chief  places  for  sea-bathing  are  Blackrock,  Passage,  Monkstown, 
Queenstown,  and  other  waterside  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  Cork ; 
Bantry,  Baltimore,  Kinsale,  Glengarrif  and  Youghal  are  also 
much  frequented  during  the  summer  months. 

Industries. — The  soils  of  the  county  exhibit  no  great  variety. 
They  may  be  reduced  in  number  to  four:  the  calcareous  in  the 
limestone  districts;  the  deep  mellow  loams  found  in  districts 
remote  from  limestone,  and  generally  occurring  in  the  less 
elevated  parts  of  the  grey  and  red  sandstone  districts;  the  light 
shallow  soils,  and  the  moorland  or  peat  soils,  the  usual  substratum 
of  which  is  coarse  retentive  clay.  About  one-sixth  of  the  total 
area  is  quite  barren.  In  a  district  of  such  extent  and  variety  of 
surface,  the  state  of  agriculture  must  be  liable  to  much  variation. 
The  more  populous  parts  near  the  sea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
great  lines  of  communication,  exhibit  favourable  instances  of 
agricultural  improvement.  Oats,  potatoes  and  turnips  are  the 
principal  crops,  but  the  extent  of  land  under  tillage  shows  a 
general  decrease.  Pasture  land,  however,  extends,  and  the 
number  of  cattle,  sheep  and  poultry  rises;  for  dairies  are 
numerous  and  the  character  of  the  Cork  butter  and  farmyard 
produce  stands  high  in  English  and  foreign  markets. 

Youghal,  Kinsale,  Queenstown,  Castletown  and  Bearhaven 
are  the  deep-sea  and  coast  fishing  district  centres  of  the  county; 
while  the  salmon  fishing  is  distributed  among  the  districts  of 
Cork,  Bandon,  Skibbereen  and  Bantry.  The  mackerel  fishery 
is  especially  productive  from  mid-March  to  mid-June.  The 
Blackwater,  Lee  and  Bandon,  apart  from  the  netting  industry, 
afford  good  rod-fishing  for  salmon,  especially  the  first,  on  which 
Lismore,  Fermoy  and  Mallow  are  the  principal  centres.  The 
loughs,  the  upper  waters  of  these  rivers  and  their  tributaries, 
frequently  abound  in  trout.  Macroom,  Inchigeelagh,  Bandon, 
Dunmanway  and  Glandore,  with  Bantry  and  Skibbereen,  are 
all  good  stations. 

Communications. — The  main  line  of  the  Great  Southern  & 
Western  railway,  entering  the  county  from  the  north  at  Charle-" 
ville,  serves  Cork  and  Queenstown.  The  Cork,  Bandon  & 
South  Coast  line  runs  west  to  Skibbereen,  Baltimore,  Bantry, 
Clonakilty  and  Kinsale;  and  there  are  also  the  Cork  & 
Macroom  line  to  Macroom;  the  Cork,  Blackrock  &  Passage 
to  the  western  waterside  villages  of  Cork  Harbour,  and  the 
Great  Southern  &  Western  branch  eastward  from  Cork  to 
Youghal;  while  from  Mallow  a  branch  of  the  same  system 
continues  towards  Killarney  and  the  south-western  coast  of 
Ireland.  There  is  also  connexion  from  this  junction  with  Fermoy, 
Mitchelstown  and  county  Waterford  eastward.  The  Timoleague 
and  Courtmacsherry  line  connects  these  villages  with  the  Clona- 
dlty  branch  of  the  Cork,  Bandon  &  South  Coast  Railway. 

Popttlalion.—The  population  (438,432  in  1891;  404,611  in 
1901)  exhibits  a  decrease  among  the  most  serious  of  the  Irish 
counties,  and  emigration  is  correspondingly  heavy.  Of  the  total 
about  90%  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  about  70%  constitute 
he  rural  population.  The  principal  towns  are  Cork  (pop.  76,122, 
a  county  of  a  city);  Queenstown  (7909),  Fermoy  (6126); 
fCinsale  (4250),  Bandon  (2830),  Youghal  (5393),  Mallow  (4542), 
Skibbereen  (3208),  Macroom  (3016),  Bantry  (3109),  Middleton 
3361),  Clonakilty  (3098),  and  among  smaller  towns  Charleville, 
Vlitchelstown,  Passage  West,  Doneraile  and  Kantutk.  Crook- 
laven  in  the  extreme  S.W.  is  of  importance  as  a  harbour  of 
refuge,  but  the  chief  ports  are  Cork  and  Queenstown.  The  county 
s  divided  into  east  and  west  ridings,  and  contains  twenty-three 
>aronies  and  249  parishes.  Assizes  are  held  at  Cork,  and  quarter- 
sessions  at  Cork,  Fermoy,  Kanturk,  Kinsale,  Mallow,  Middleton, 
and  Youghal  in  the  east  riding;  and  Bandon,  Bantry,  Clonakilty, 
Vfacroom  and  Skibbereen  in  the  west  riding.  The  county  is  in 
he  Protestant  diocese  of  Cork,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  diocese 


iS8 


CORK 


of  Cork,  Cloyne,  Kerry  and  Ross.  There  are  seven  parliamentary 
divisions,  east,  mid,  north,  nqrth-east,  south,  south-east  and 
west,  each  returning  one  member. 

History. — Cork  is  one  of  the  counties  which  is  generally 
considered  to  have  been  instituted  by  King  John.  It  had  not 
always  its  present  extent,  for  its  existing  boundaries  include 
part  of  the  ancient  territory  of  Desmond  (q.v.),  which,  in  the 
later  half  of  the  i6th  century,  ranked  as  a  separate  county. 
In  1598,  however,  there  were  two  sheriffs  in  the  county  Cork, 
one  especially  for  Desmond,  which  was  then  included  in  Cork, 
but  was  afterwards  amalgamated  with  the  county  Kerry.  In 
the  same  period  wide  lands  in  the  county  were  given  to  settlers 
under  the  crown,  and  among  these  were  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
and  Edmund  Spenser  the  poet,  who  received  40,000  acres  and 
3028  acres  respectively.  In  1602  a  large  portion  of  the  estates 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  Fane  Beecher  were  purchased  by 
Richard  Boyle,  ist  earl  of  Cork,  who  had  them  colonized  with 
English  settlers;  and  by  founding  or  rebuilding  the  towns  of 
Bandon,  Clonakilty,  Baltimore,  Youghal,  and  afterwards  those 
of  Middleton,  Castlemartyr,  Charleville  and  Doneraile,  which 
were  incorporated  and  made  parliamentary  boroughs,  the  family 
of  Boyle  became  possessed  of  nearly  the  entire  political  power 
of  the  county. 

Antiquities. — The  earlier  antiquities  of  the  county  are  rude 
monuments  of  the  Pagan  era.  There  are  two  so-called  druids' 
altars,  the  most  perfect  near  Cloyne,  and  certain  pillar  stones 
scattered  through  the  county,  with  straight  marks  cut  on  the 
edges  called  Ogham  inscriptions,  the  interpretation  of  which  is 
a  subject  of  much  controversy.  The  remains  of  the  old  ecclesi- 
astical buildings  are  in  a  very  ruinous  condition,  being  used  as 
burial-places  by  the  country  people.  The  principal  is  Kilcrea, 
founded  by  Cormac  M'Carthy  about  1485,  some  of  the  tombs 
of  whose  descendants  are  still  in  the  chancel;  the  steeple  is  still 
nearly  perfect,  and  chapter-house,  cloister,  dormitory  and 
kitchen  can  be  seen.  Timoleague  church,  situated  on  a  romantic 
spot  on  rising  ground  at  the  extreme  end  of  Courtmacsherry 
Bay,  contains  some  tombs  of  interest,  and  is  still  in  fair  condition. 
Buttevant  Abbey  (i3th  century)  contains  some  tombs  of  the 
Barrys  and  other  distinguished  families.  There  is  a  good  crypt 
here.  All  these  were  the  property  of  the  Franciscans.  There 
are  two  round  towers  in  the  county,  one  in  a  fine  state  of 
preservation  opposite  Cloyne  Cathedral,  the  other  at  Kinneigh. 
On  the  chapter  seal  at  Ross,  which  is  dated  1661,  and  seems  to 
have  been  a  copy  of  a  much  earlier  one,  there  is  a  good  example 
of  a  round  tower  and  stone-roofed  church,  with  St  Fachnan,  to 
whom  the  church  is  dedicated,  standing  by,  with  a  book  in  one 
hand  and  a  cross  in  the  other.  The  present  church  dates  from 
1837,  but  is  on  the  site  of  a  former  cathedral  united  to  Cork  in 
1 583.  Of  Mourne  Abbey,  near  Mallow,  once  a  preceptory  of  the 
Knights  Templars,  and  Tracton  Abbey,  which  once  sent  a  prior 
to  parliament,  the  very  ruins  have  perished.  On  an  island  of 
Lough  Gouganebarra  are  remains  of  an  oratory  of  St  Finbar. 

Of  the  castles,  Lohort,  built  in  the  reign  of  King  John,  is  by  far 
the  oldest,  and  in  its  architectural  features  the  most  interesting ; 
it  is  still  quite  perfect  and  kept  in  excellent  repair  by  the  owner, 
the  Earl  of  Egmont.  Blarney  Castle,  built  by  Cormac  M'Carthy 
about  1449,  has  a  wide  reputation  (see  BLARNEY).  Castles 
Mahon  and  Macroom  have  been  incorporated  into  the  residences 
of  the  earls  of  Bandon  and  Bantry.  The  walls  of  Mallow  Castle 
attest  its  former  strength  and  extent,  as  also  the  castle  of 
Kilbolane.  The  castles  of  Buttevant,  Kilcrea  and  Dripsy  are 
still  in  good  cpndition.  At  Kanturk  is  a  huge  Elizabethan  castle 
still  known  as  "  M'Donagh's  Folly,"  left  unfinished  owing  to 
objections  raised  by  a  jealous  government.  At  Kilcolman  castle 
near  Doneraile  the  "  Faerie  Queene  "  was  written  by  Spenser. 

CORK,  a  city,  county  of  a  city,  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough  and  seaport  of  Co.  Cork,  Ireland,  at  the  head  of  the 
magnificent  inlet  of  Cork  Harbour,  on  the  river  Lee,  1655  m. 
S.W.  of  Dublin  by  the  Great  Southern  &  Western  railway.  Pop. 
(1001)  76,122.  Until  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  it  ranked 
second  only  to  Dublin,  but  is  now  surpassed  by  Belfast  in 
commercial  importance.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  considerable 


railway  system,  including  the  Great  Southern  &  Western,  the 
Cork,  Bandon  &  South  Coast,  the  Cork  &  Macroom  Direct, 
the  Cork.Blackrock  &  Passage  rail  ways,  and  the  Cork&Muskerry 
light  railway;  each  of  which  companies  possesses  a  separate 
station  in  the  city.  The  passenger  steamers  to  Great  Britain, 
mainly  under  the  control  of  the  City  of  Cork  Steam  Packet 
Company,  serve  Fishguard,  Glasgow,  Liverpool,  Plymouth  and 
Southampton,  London  and  other  ports,  starting  from  Penrose 
Quay  on  the  North  Channel. 

The  nucleus  of  the  city  occupies  an  island  formed  by  the  North 
and  South  Channels,  two  arms  of  the  river  Lee,  and  in  former 
times  no  doubt  merited  its  name,  which  signifies  a  swamp.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  indeed,  this  island  was  broken 
up  into  many  parts  connected  by  drawbridges,  by  numerous 
small  channels  navigable  at  high  tide.  It  now  includes  most 
of  the  principal  thoroughfares,  which  form  a  notable  contrast 
to  many  of  the  smaller  streets  and  alleys,  in  which  good  building 
and  cleanliness  are  lacking.  Three  bridges  cross  the  North 
Channel,  a  footbridge,  North  Gate  bridge  and  St  Patrick's  bridge, 
the  last  a  handsome  three-arch  structure  leading  to  St  Patrick's 
Street,  a  wide  and  pleasant  thoroughfare,  containing  a  statue 
of  Father  Mathew,  the  celebrated  Capuchin  advocate  of 
temperance,  born  in  1790.  It  communicates  with  the  Grand 
Parade  and  this  in  turn  with  Great  George's  Street,  to  the  west, 
and  the  South  Mall  to  the  east,  the  last  containing  the  principal 
banks,  the  County  Club  house,  and  good  commercial  buildings. 
The  darks,  South  Gate,  Parliament  and  Parnell  bridges  cross 
the  South  Channel  to  the  southern  parts  of  the  city.  Public 
grounds  are  few,  but  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  are  a  park  and 
race-course,  with  the  fashionable  Marina  promenade;  while  the 
Mardyke  walk,  on  the  west  of  the  island,  is  pleasantly  shaded 
by  a  fine  avenue,  and  was  the  site  of  the  International  exhibition 
held  in  1902.  Electric  tramways  connect  the  city  and  suburbs 
and  traverse  the  principal  streets  and  the  St  Patrick's  and 
Parnell  bridges.  Both  branches  of  the  Lee  are  lined  with  fine 
quays  of  cut  limestone,  extending  in  total  length  over  4  m. 

The  principal  church  is  the  Protestant  cathedral,  founded 
in  1865,  and  consecrated  on  St  Andrew's  Day  1870;  while  the 
central  tower  was  completed  in  1879.  It  is  dedicated  to  St  Fin 
Barre  or  Finbar,  who  founded  the  original  cathedral  in  the 
7th  century.  The  present  building  is  in  the  south-west  part 
of  the  city,  and  replaces  a  somewhat  mean  structure  erected  in 
1735  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  cathedral,  which  suffered  during 
the  siege  of  Cork  in  September  1689.  Money  for  the  erection  of 
the  building  of  1735  was  raised  by  the  curious  method  of  a  tax 
on  imported  coal.  The  new  cathedral  is  in  the  Early  French 
(pointed)  style,  with  an  eastern  apse  and  a  striking  west  front. 
Its  design  was  by  William  Surges  (d.  1881),  and  its  erection  was 
due  to  the  indefatigable  exertions  and  munificence  of  Dr  John 
Gregg,  bishop  of  Cork,  Cloyne  and  Ross;  while  the  tower  and 
spires  were  the  gift  of  two  merchants  of  Cork.  The  other 
principal  Protestant  churches  are  St  Luke's,  St  Nicholas  and 
St  Anne  Shandon,  with  its  striking  tower  of  parti-coloured  stones; 
and  its  peal  of  bells  extolled  in  Father  Prout's  lyric  "  The  Bells 
of  Shandon."  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  also  dedicated 
to  St  Finbar,  is  conspicuous  on  the  north  side  of  the  city;  it 
dates  from  1808,  but  has  been  since  restored.  Other  fine  churches 
of  this  faith  are  St  Mary,  St  Peter  and  Paul,  St  Patrick,  Holy 
Trinity  and  St  Vincent  de  Paul.  St  Finbar's  cemetery  has 
handsome  monuments,  and  St  Joseph's,  founded  by  Father 
Mathew  in  1830  on  the  site  of  the  old  botanic  gardens  of  the 
Cork  Institution,  is  beautifully  planted.  The  court  house  in 
Great  George's  Street  has  a  good  Corinthian  portico,  happily 
undamaged  in  a  fire  which  destroyed  the  rest  of  the  building 
in  1891.  The  custom-house  commands  the  river  in  a  fine  position 
at  the  lower  junction  of  the  branches.  The  usual  commercial 
and  public  buildings  are  mainly  on  the  island.  The  most  notable 
educational  establishment  is  the  University  College,  founded  as 
Queen's  College  (1849),  with  those  of  the  same  name  at  Belfast 
and  Gal  way,  under  an  Act  of  1845.  A  new  charter  was  granted 
to  it  under  letters  patent  pursuant  to  the  Irish  Universities 
Act  1908,  when  it  was  given  its  present  name.  The  building, 


CORK 


QUEENSTOWN 


Based  on  information  embodied  from  the  Ordnance  Survey,  by  permission  of  the  Controller  of  H.  M.  Stationery  Office. 


designed  by  Sir  Thomas  Deane,  occupies  a  beautiful  site  on  the 
river  in  the  west  of  the  city,  where  Gill  Abbey,  of  the  7th  century, 
formerly  stood.  It  is  a  fine  building  in  Tudor  Style,  "  worthy," 
said  Macaulay,  "to  stand  in  the  High  Street  of  Oxford."  A 
large  library,  museum  and  well-furnished  laboratory  are  here. 
The  Crawford  School  of  Science  (1885);  and  the  Munster  Dairy 
and  Agricultural  School,  i  m.  west  of  the  city,  also  claim 
notice;  while  besides  parochial  and  industrial  schools  several 
of  the  religious  orders  located  here  devote  themselves  to  education. 
The  Cork  library  (founded  1 790)  contains  a  valuable  collection 
of  books.  The  Royal  Cork  Institution  (1807),  in  addition  to  an 
extensive  library  and  a  rare  collection  of  Oriental  MSS.,  possesses 
a  valuable  collection  of  minerals,  and  the  collections  of  casts 
from  the  antique  presented  by  the  pope  to  George  IV.  There 
are  numerous  literary  and  scientific  societies,  including  the  Cork 
Cuvierian  and  Archaeological  Society.  The  principal  clubs  are 
the  County  and  the  Southern  in  South  Mall,  and  the  City  in 
Grand  Parade;  while  for  sport  there  are  the  Cork  Golf  Club, 
Little  Island,  three  rowing  clubs,  and  the  Royal  Munster  and 
Royal  Cork  Yacht  clubs,  the  latter  located  at  Queenstown.  The 
theatres  are  the  opera-house  in  Nelson's  Place,  and  the  Theatre 
Royal. 

The  country  neighbouring  to  Cork  is  highly  attractive.  The 
harbour,  with  the  ceaseless  activity  of  shipping,  its  calm  waters, 
sheltered  by  many  islands,  and  its  well-wooded  shores  studded 
with  pleasant  watering-places,  affords  a  series  of  charming  views, 
apart  from  its  claim  to  be  considered  one  of  the  finest  natural 
harbours  in  the  kingdom.  Military  depots  occupy  several  of 
the  smaller  islets,  and  three  batteries  guard  the  entry.  This 
is  about  i  m.  wide,  but  within  the  width  increases  to  3  m.  while 
the  length  is  about  10  m.  The  Atlantic  port  of  Queenstown 
(q.v.)  is  on  Great  Island  at  the  head  of  the  outer  harbour.  Tivoli 
(the  residence  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh), Fort  William, Lota  Park, 
and  Blackrock  Castle  are  notable  features  on  the  shore;  and 
Passage,  Blackrock,  Glenbrook  and  Monkstown  are  waterside 


resorts.  Inland  from  Cork  runs  the  picturesque  valley  of  the 
Lee,  and  low  hills  surround  the  commanding  situation  of  the 
port. 

The  harbour  is  by  far  the  most  important  on  the  south  coast 
of  Ireland,  and  dredging  operations  render  the  quays  approach- 
able for  vessels  drawing  20  ft.  at  all  states  of  the  tide.  Its  trade 
is  mainly  with  Bristol  and  the  ports  of  South  Wales.  The  imports, 
exceeding  £1,000,000  in  annual  value,  include  large  quantities 
of  wheat  and  maize,  while  the  exports  (about  £9000  annually) 
are  chiefly  of  cattle,  provisions,  butter  and  fish.  The  Cork 
Butter  Exchange,  where  classification  of  the  various  qualities 
is  carried  out  by  branding  under  the  inspection  of  experts,  was 
important  in  the  early  part  of  the  I7th  century,  and  an  unbroken 
series  of  accounts  dates  from  1769  when  the  present  market  was 
founded.  There  are  distilleries,  breweries,  tanneries  and  iron 
foundries  in  the  city;  and  manufactures  of  woollen  and  leather 
goods,  tweeds,  friezes,  gloves  and  chemical  manure.  Nearly 
six-sevenths  of  the  population  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  city 
does  not  share  with  the  county  the  rapid  decrease  of  population. 
It  is  governed  by  a  lord  mayor,  14  aldermen  and  42  councillors. 
The  parliamentary  borough  returns  two  members. 

The  original  site  of  Cork  seems  to  have  been  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Protestant  cathedral;  St  Finbar's  ecclesiastical  foundation 
attracting  many  students  and  votaries.  In  the  Qth  century  the 
town  was  frequently  pillaged  by  the  Northmen.  According  to 
the  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters  a  fleet  burned  Cork  in  821;  in 
846  the  Danes  appear  to  have  been  in  possession  of  the  town, 
for  a  force  was  collected  to  demolish  their  fortress;  and  in  1012 
Cork  again  fell  in  flames.  The  Danes  then  appear  to  have  founded 
the  new  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Lee  as  a  trading  centre.  It  was 
anciently  surrounded  with  a  wall,  an  order  for  the  reparation 
of  which  is  found  so  late  as  1748  in  the  city  council  books  (which 
date  from  1610).  Submission  and  homage  were  made  to  Henry 
II.  on  his  arrival  in  1172,  and  subsequently  the  English  held 
the  town  for  a  long  period  against  the  Irish,  by  constant  and 


i6o 


CORK— CORMENIN 


careful  watch.  Cork  showed  favour  to  Perkin  Warbeck  in  1492, 
and  its  mayor  was  hanged  in  consequence.  In  1649  it  surrendered 
to  Cromwell,  and  in  1689  to  the  earl  of  Marlborough  after  five 
•days'  siege,  when  Henry,  duke  of  Graf  ton,  was  mortally  wounded. 
Cork  was  a  borough  by  prescription,  and  successive  charters 
were  granted  to  it  from  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  onward.  By  a 
charter  of  Edward  IV.  the  lord  mayor  of  Cork  was  created  admiral 
of  the  port,  and  this  office  is  manifested  in  a  triennial  ceremony 
in  which  the  mayor  throws  a  dart  over  the  harbour. 

See  C.  Smith,  Ancient  and  Present  Slate  of  the  County  and  City  of 
Cork  (1750),  edited  by  R.  Day  and  W.  A.  Copinger  (Cork,  1893); 
•C.  B.  Gibson,  History  of  the  City  and  County  of  Cork  (London,  1861) ; 
M.  F.  Cusack,  History  of  the  City  and  County  of  Cork,  1875. 

CORK  (perhaps  through  Sp.  corcha  from  Lat.  cortex,  bark, 
but  possibly  connected  with  quercus,  oak),  the  outer  layer  of 
the  bark  of  an  evergreen  species  of  oak  (Quercus  Suber).  The 
tree  reaches  the  height  of  about  30  ft.,  growing  in  the  south  of 
Europe  and  on  the  North  African  coasts  generally;  but  it  is 
principally  cultivated  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  outer  layer 
of  bark  in  the  cork  oak  by  annual  additions  from  within  gradually 
becomes  a  thick  soft  homogeneous  mass,  possessing  those  com- 
pressible and  elastic  properties  upon  which  the  economic  value 
•of  the  material  chiefly  depends.  The  first  stripping  of  cork  from 
young  trees  takes  place  when  they  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
years  of  age.  The  yield,  which  is  rough,  unequal  and  woody  in 
texture,  is  called  virgin  cork,  and  is  useful  only  as  a  tanning 
•substance,  or  for  forming  rustic  work  in  ferneries,  conservatories, 
&c.  Subsequently  the  bark  is  removed  every  eight  or  ten  years, 
the  quality  of  the  cork  improving  with  each  successive  stripping; 
and  the  trees  continue  to  live  and  thrive  under  the  operation  for 
150  years  and  upwards.  The  produce  of  the  second  barking  is 
still  so  coarse  in  texture  that  it  is  only  fit  for  making  floats  for 
nets  and  for  similar  applications.  The  operation  of  stripping 
the  trees  takes  place  during  the  months  of  July  and  August. 
Two  cuts  are  made  round  the  stem — one  a  little  above  the 
ground,  and  the  other  immediately  under  the  spring  of  the  main 
tranches.  Between  these  three  or  four  longitudinal  incisions  are 
then  made,  the  utmost  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  inner 
bark.  The  cork  is  thereafter  removed  in  the  sections  into  which 
:it  has  been  cut,  by  inserting  under  it  the  wedge-shaped  handle 
of  the  implement  used  in  making  the  incisions.  After  the  outer 
surface  has  been  scraped  and  cleaned,  the  pieces  are  flattened 
by  heating  them  over  a  fire  and  submitting  them  to  pressure  on 
a  flat  surface.  In  the  heating  operation  the  surface  is  charred, 
and  thereby  the  pores  are  closed  up,  and  what  is  termed  "  nerve  " 
is  given  to  the  material.  In  this  state  the  cork  is  ready  for 
manufacture  or  exportation. 

Though  specially  developed  in  the  cork-oak,  the  substance 
cork  is  an  almost  universal  product  in  the  stems  (and  roots)  of 
woody  plants  which  increase  in  diameter  year  by  year.  Generally 
towards  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  original  thin  protective 
layer  of  a  stem  or  branch  is  replaced  by  a  thin  layer  of  "  cork," 
that  is  a  layer  of  cells  the  living  contents  of  which  have  dis- 
appeared while  the  walls  have  become  thickened  and  toughened 
as  the  result  of  the  formation  in  them  of  a  substance  known  as 
:suberin.  Fresh  cork  is  formed  each  season  by  an  active  form- 
ative layer  below  the  layer  developed  last  season,  which  generally 
peels  off.  Where  the  formation  is  extensive  and  persistent  as 
in  the  cork-oak,  a  thick  covering  of  cork  is  formed.  In  some 
•cases,  as  on  young  shoots  of  the  cork-elm,  the  development 
is  irregular  and  wing-like  outgrowths  of  cork  are  formed.  In 
northern  Russia  a  similar  method  to  that  used  for  obtaining 
cork  from  the  cork-oak  is  employed  with  the  birch. 

Cork  possesses  a  combination  of  properties  which  peculiarly 
fits  it  for  many  and  diverse  uses,  for  some  of  which  it  alone  is 
found  applicable.  The  leading  purpose  for  which  it  is  used  is 
for  forming  bungs  and  stoppers  for  bottles  and  other  vessels 
containing  liquids.  Its  compressibility,  elasticity  and  practical 
imperviousness  to  both  air  and  water  so  fit  it  for  this  purpose 
that  the  term  cork  is  even  more  applied  to  the  function  than  to 
the  substance.  Its  specific  lightness,  combined  with  strength 
and  durability,  recommend  it  above  all  other  substances  for 
forming  life-buoys,  belts  and  jackets,  and  in  the  construction 


of  life-boats  and  other  apparatus  for  saving  from  drowning. 
On  account  of  its  lightness,  softness  and  non-conducting  pro- 
perties it  is  used  for  hat-linings  and  the  soles  of  shoes,  the  latter 
being  a  very  ancient  application  of  cork.  It  is  also  used  in 
making  artificial  limbs,  for  lining  entomological  cases,  for 
pommels  in  leather-dressing,  and  as  a  medium  for  making 
architectural  models.  Chips  and  cuttings  are  ground  up  and 
mixed  with  india-rubber  to  form  kamptulicon  floor-cloth, 
or  "  cork-carpet."  The  inner  bark  of  the  cork-tree  is  a  valuable 
tanning  material. 

Certain  of  the  properties  and  uses  of  cork  were  known  to  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  latter,  we  find  by  Horace 
(Odes  iii.  8),  used  it  as  a  stopper  for  wine- vessels: — 
"  corticem  adstrictum  pice  dimovebit 
amphorae  " — 

It  appears,  however,  that  cork  was  not  generally  used  for 
stopping  bottles  till  so  recent  a  period  as  near  the  end  of  the 
1 7th  century,  and  bottles  themselves  were  not  employed  for 
storing  liquids  till  the  I5th  century.  Many  substitutes  have 
been  proposed  for  cork  as  a  stoppering  agent;  but  except  in  the 
case  of  aerated  liquids  none  of  these  has  recommended  itself 
in  practice.  For  aerated  water  bottles  several  successful  devices 
have  been  introduced.  The  most  simple  of  these  is  an  india- 
rubber  ball  pressed  upwards  into  the  narrow  of  the  bottle  neck 
by  the  force  of  the  gas  contained  in  the  water;  and  in  another 
system  a  glass  ball  is  similarly  pressed  against  an  india-rubber 
collar  inserted  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  By  analogy  the  term 
"  to  cork  "  is  used  of  any  such  devices  for  sealing  up  a  bottle  or 
aperture. 

CORK  AND  ORRERY,  MARY,  COUNTESS  OF  (Mary  Monckton) 
(1746-1840),  was  born  on  the  2ist  of  May  1746,  the  daughter 
of  the  first  Viscount  Galway.  From  her  early  years  she  took  a 
keen  interest  in  literature,  and  through  her  influence  her  mother's 
house  in  London  became  a  favourite  meeting-place  of  literary 
celebrities.  Dr  Johnson  was  a  frequent  guest.  According  to 
Boswell,  Miss  Monckton's  "  vivacity  enchanted  the  sage,  and 
they  used  to  talk  together  with  all  imaginable  ease."  Sheridan, 
Reynolds,  Burke  and  Horace  Walpole  were  among  her  constant 
visitors,  and  Mrs  Siddons  was  her  closest  friend.  In  1786  she 
married  the  seventh  earl  of  Cork  and  Orrery,  who  died  in  1 798. 
As  Lady  Cork,  her  love  of  social  "  lions  "  became  more  pro- 
nounced than  ever.  Among  her  regular  guests  were  Canning 
and  Castlereagh,  Byron,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Lord  John  Russell, 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  Theodore  Hook  and  Sydney  Smith.  She  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  original  of  Lady  Bellair  in  Disraeli's 
Henrietta  Temple,  and  Dickens  is  believed  to  have  drawn  on  her 
for  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  Mrs  Leo  Hunter  in  Pickwick. 
Lady  Cork  had  a  remarkable  memory,  and  was  a  brilliant  con- 
versationalist. She  died  in  London  on  the  3oth  of  May  1840. 
She  was  then  ninety-four,  but  within  a  few  days  of  her  death 
had  been  either  dining  out  or  entertaining  every  night.  There 
is  a  fine  portrait  of  her  by  Reynolds. 

CORLEONE  (Saracen,  Korliun),  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the 
province  of  Palermo,  42  m.  S.  of  Palermo  by  rail  and  21  m. 
direct,  1949  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  14,803.  The  town 
was  a  Saracen  settlement,  but  a  Lombard  colony  was  introduced 
by  Frederick  II.  Two  medieval  castles  rise  above  the  town, 
and  there  are  some  churches  of  interest. 

CORMENIN,  LOUIS  MARIE  DE  LA  HA  YE,  VICOMTE  DE 
(1788-1868),  French  jurist  and  political  pamphleteer,  was  born 
at  Paris  on  the  6th  of  January  1788.  His  father  and  his  grand- 
father both  held  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  admiralty. 
At  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  received  advocate,  and  about  the 
same  time  he  gained  some  reputation  as  a  writer  of  piquant 
and  delicate  poems.  In  1810  he  received  from  Napoleon  I.  the 
appointment  of  auditor  to  the  council  of  state;  and  after  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  became  master  of  requests. 
During  the  period  of  his  connexion  with  the  council  he  devoted 
himself  zealously  to  the  study  of  administrative  law.  He  was 
selected  to  prepare  some  of  the  most  important  reports  of  the 
council.  Among  his  separate  publications  at  this  time  are  noted, 
— Du  conseil  d'ftat  envisage  comme  conseil  et  comme  juridiclion 


CORMON— CORMORANT 


161 


dans  notte  monarchic  constitutionnelle  (1818),  and  De  la  responsa- 
bilite  des  agents  du  gowiernement.  In  the  former  he  claimed,  for 
the  protection  of  the  rights  of  private  persons  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  the  institution  of  a  special  court  whose  members 
should  be  irremovable,  the  right  of  oral  defence,  and  publicity 
of  trial.  In  1822  appeared  his  Questions  de  droit  administrate  f, 
in  which  he  for  the  first  time  brought  together  and  gave  scientific 
shape  to  the  scattered  elements  of  administrative  law.  These  he 
arranged  and  stated  clearly  in  the  form  of  aphorisms,  with  logical 
deductions,  establishing  them  by  proofs  drawn  from  the  archives 
of  the  council  of  state.  This  is  recognized  as  his  most  important 
work  as  a  jurist.  The  fifth  edition  (1840)  was  thoroughly 
revised. 

In  1828  Cormenin  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as  member 
for  Orleans,  took  his  seat  in  the  Left  Centre,  and  began  a  vigorous 
opposition  to  the  government  of  Charles  X.  As  he  was  not 
gifted  with  the  qualifications  of  the  orator,  he  seldom  appeared 
at  the  tribune;  but  in  the  various  committees  he  defended  all 
forms  of  popular  liberties,  and  at  the  same  time  delivered,  in  a 
series  of  powerful  pamphlets,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Timon," 
the  most  formidable  blows  against  tyranny  and  all  political 
and  administrative  abuses.  After  the  revolution  of  July  1830, 
Cormenin  was  one  of  the  221  who  signed  the  protest  against  the 
elevation  of  the  Orleans  dynasty  to  the  throne;  and  he  resigned 
both  his  office  in  the  council  of  state  and  his  seat  in  the  chamber. 
He  was,  however,  soon  re-elected  deputy,  and  now  voted  with 
the  extreme  Left.  The  discussions  on  the  budget  in  1831  gave 
rise  to  the  publication  of  his  famous  series  of  Lettres  sur  la  lisle 
civile,  which  in  ten  years  ran  through  twenty-five  editions.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  elected  deputy  for  Belley.  In  1834  he 
was  elected  by  two  arrondissements,  and  sat  for  Joigny,  which 
he  represented  till  1846.  In  this  year  he  lost  his  seat  in  con- 
sequence of  the  popular  prejudice  aroused  against  him  by  his 
trenchant  pamphlet  Oui  et  non  (1845)  against  attacks  on  religious 
liberty,  and  a  second  entitled  Feul  Feu!  (1845),  written  in 
reply  to  those  who  demanded  a  retractation  of  the  former. 
Sixty  thousand  copies  were  rapidly  sold. 

Cormenin  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  universal  suffrage  before 
the  revolution  of  February  1848,  and  had  remorselessly  exposed 
the  corrupt  practices  at  elections  in  his  pamphlet — Ordre  dujour 
sur  la  corruption  electorale.  After  the  revolution  he  was  elected 
by  four  departments  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  became 
one  of  its  vice-presidents.  He  was  also  member  and  president 
of  the  constitutional  commission,  and  for  some  time  took  a  leading 
part  in  drawing  up  the  republican  constitution.  But  the  disputes 
which  broke  out  among  the  members  led  him  to  resign  the 
presidency.  He  was  soon  after  named  member  of  the  council 
of  state  and  president  of  the  comite  du  contentieux.  It  was  at 
this  period  that  he  published  two  pamphlets — Sur  I'independance 
de  Vltalie.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851,  Cormenin, 
who  had  undertaken  the  defence  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  after 
his  attempt  at  Strassburg,  accepted  a  place  in  the  new  council 
of  state  of  the  empire.  Four  years  later,  by  imperial  ordinance, 
he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Institute.  One  of  the  most 
characteristic  works  of  Cormenin  is  the  Livre  des  orateurs,  a 
series  of  brilliant  studies  of  the  principal  parliamentary  orators 
of  the  restoration  and  the  monarchy  of  July,  the  first  edition 
of  which  appeared  in  1838,  and  the  eighteenth  in  1860.  In  1846 
he  published  his  Entretiens  de  village,  which  procured  him  the 
Montyon  prize,  and  of  which  six  editions  were  called  for  the 
same  year.  His  last  work  was  Le  Droit  de  tonnage  en  Algerie 
(1860).  He  died  at  Paris,  onthe6thof  May  1868.  Twovolumes 
of  his  Reliquiae  were  printed  in  Paris  in  the  same  year. 

CORMON,  FERN  AND  (1845-  ),  French  painter,  was  born 
in  Paris.  He  became  a  pupil  of  Cabanel,  Fronjentin  and  Portaels, 
and  one  of  the  leading  historical  painters  of  modern  France. 
At  an  early  age  he  attracted  attention  by  the  better  class  of 
sensationalism  in  his  art,  although  for  a  time  his  powerful  brush 
dwelled  with  particular  delight  on  scenes  of  bloodshed,  such  as 
the  "  Murder  in  the  Seraglio  "  ( 1 868)  and  the  "  Death  of  Ravara, 
Queen  of  Lanka  "  at  the  Toulouse  Museum.  The  Luxembourg 
has  his  "  Cain  flying  before  Jehovah's  Curse " ;  and  for  the 
VH.  6 


Mairie  of  the  fourth  arrondissement  of  Paris  he  executed  in 
grisaille  a  series  of  Panels:  "  Birth,"  "  Death,"  "  Marriage," 
"  War,"  &c.  "  A  Chief's  Funeral,"  and  pictures  having  the 
Stone  Age  for  their  subject,  occupied  him  for  several  years. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1880.  Subse- 
quently he  also  devoted  himself  to  portraiture. 

CORMONTAINGNE,  LOUIS  DE  (c.  1697-1752),  French  military 
engineer,  was  born  at  Strassburg.  He  was  present  as  a  volun  teer 
at  the  sieges  of  Freiburg  and  Landau  in  the  later  years  of  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  in  1715  he  entered  the 
engineers.  After  being  stationed  for  some  years  at  Strassburg 
he  became  captain,  and  was  put  in  charge  (at  first  in  a  sub- 
ordinate capacity,  and  subsequently  as  chief  engineer)  of  the 
new  works,  Forts  Moselle  and  Bellecroix,  at  Metz,  which  he 
built  according  to  his  own  system  of  fortification.  He  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Philipsburg  in  1733,  and  as  a  lieutenant-colonel 
took  part  in  most  of  the  sieges  in  the  Low  Countries  during  the 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
brigadier  and  finally  that  of  marechal  de  camp,  and  was  employed 
in  fortification  work  until  his  death.  His  Architecture  militaire, 
written  in  1714,  was  long  kept  secret  by  order  of  the  authorities, 
but,  an  unauthorized  edition  having  appeared  at  the  Hague 
in  1741,  he  himself  prepared  another  version  called  Premier 
memoire  sur  la  fortification,  which  from  1 741  onwards  was  followed 
by  others.  His  ideas  are  closely  modelled  on  those  of  Vauban 
(g.v.),  and  in  his  lifetime  he  was  not  considered  the  equal  of  such 
engineers  as  d'Asfeld  and  Filley.  It  was  not  until  twenty  years 
after  his  death  that  his  system  became  widely  known.  Fourcroy 
de  Rainecourt,  then  chief  of  engineers,  searching  the  archives 
for  valuable  matter,  chose  the  numerous  memoirs  of  Cormon- 
taingne  for  publication  amongst  engineer  officers  in  1776.  Even 
then  they  only  circulated  privately,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
engineer  Bousmard  published  Cormontaingne's  Memorial  de 
I'atlaque  des  places  (Berlin,  1803)  that  Fourcroy,  and  after  him 
General  La  Fitte  de  Clave,  actually  gave  to  the  general  public 
the  (Euvres  posthumes  de  Cormontaingne  (Paris,  1806-1809). 

His  system  of  fortification  was  not  marked  by  any  great 
originality  of  thought,  which  indeed  could  not  be  expected  of 
a  member  of  the  corps  du  genie,  the  characteristics  of  which  were 
a  close  caste  spirit  and  an  unquestioning  reverence  for  the 
authority  of  Vauban.  Forts  Moselle  and  Bellecroix  are  still 
in  existence. 

See  Von  Brese-Winiari,  Vber  Entstehen  etc.  der  neueren  Befestigungs- 
methode  (Berlin,  1844);  Prevostdu  Vernois,  De  la  fortification  depuis 
Vauban  (Paris,  1861) ;  Cosseron  de  Villenoisy,  Essai  historique  svr  la 
fortification  (Paris,  1869). 

CORMORANT  (from  the  Lat.  corous  marinus,1  through  the 
Fr.,  in  some  patois  of  which  it  is  still  "  cor  marin  ";  in  certain 
Ital.  dialects  are  the  forms  "  corvo  marin  "  or  "  corvo  marine  "), 
a  large  sea-fowl  belonging  to  the  genus  Phalacrocorax  *  (Carbo, 
Halieus  and  Graculus  of  some  ornithologists),  and  that  group  of 
the  Linnaean  order  Anseres,  now  partly  generally  recognized  by 
Illiger's  term  Steganopodes,  of  which  it  with  its  allies  forms  a 
family  Phalacrocoracidae. 

The  cormorant  (P.  carbo)  frequents  almost  all  the  sea-coast 
of  Europe,  and  breeds  in  societies  at  various  stations,  most 
generally  on  steep  cliffs,  but  occasionally  on  rocky  islands  as  well 
as  on  trees.  The  nest  consists  of  a  large  mass  of  sea- weed,  and, 
with  the  ground  immediately  surrounding  it,  generally  looks  as 
though  bespattered  with  whitewash,  from  the  excrement  of  the 
bird,  which  lives  entirely  on  fish.  The  eggs,  from  four  to  six  in 
number, are  small,  and  have  a  thick,  soft,  calcareous  shell,  bluish- 
white  when  first  laid,  but  soon  becoming  discoloured.  The  young 
are  hatched  blind,  and  covered  with  an  inky-black  skin.  They 
remain  for  some  time  in  the  squab-condition,  and  are  then  highly 
esteemed  for  food  by  the  northern  islanders,  their  flesh  being 
said  to  taste  as  well  as  a  roasted  hare's.  Their  first  plumage 
is  of  a  sombre  brownish-black  above,  and  more  or  less  white 
beneath.  They  take  two  or  three  years  to  assume  the  fully  adult 

1  Some  authors,  following  Caius,  derive  the  word  from  comts 
varans  and  spell  it  corvorant,  but  doubtless  wrongly. 

1  So  spelt  since  the  days  of  Gesner;  but  possibly  Phalarocorax 
would  be  more  correct. 


l62 


CORN— CORNARO,  C. 


dress,  which  is  deep  black,  glossed  above  with  bronze,  and  varied 
in  the  breeding-season  with  white  on  the  cheeks  and  flanks, 
besides  being  adorned  by  filamentary  feathers  on  the  head,  and 
further  set  off  by  a  bright  yellow  gape.  The  old  cormorant  looks 
nearly  as  big  as  a  goose,  but  is  really  much  smaller;  its  flesh  is 
quite  uneatable. 

Taken  when  young  from  the  nest,  this  bird  is  easily  tamed  and 
can  be  trained  to  fish  for  its  keeper,  as  was  of  old  time  commonly 
done  in  England,  where  the  master  of  the  cormorants  was  one 
of  the  officers  of  the  royal  household.  Nowadays  the  practice 
is  nearly  obsolete.  When  taken  out  to  furnish  sport,  a  strap  is 
fastened  round  the  bird's  neck  so  as,  without  impeding  its  breath, 
to  hinder  it  from  swallowing  its  captures.1  Arrived  at  the 
waterside,  it  is  cast  off.  It  at  once  dives  and  darts  along  the 
bottom  as  swiftly  as  an  arrow  in  quest  of  its  prey,  rapidly  scanning 
every  hole  or  pool.  A  fish  is  generally  seized  within  a  few  seconds 
of  its  being  sighted,  and  as  each  is  taken  the  bird  rises  to  the 
surface  with  its  capture  in  its  bill.  It  does  not  take  much  longer 
to  dispose  of  the  prize  in  the  dilatable  skin  of  its  throat  so  far 
as  the  strap  will  allow,  and  the  pursuit  is  recommenced  until 
the  bird's  gular  pouch,  capacious  as  it  is,  will  hold  no  more. 
It  then  returns  to  its  keeper,  who  has  been  anxiously  watching 
and  encouraging  its  movements,  and  a  little  manipulation  of 
its  neck  effects  the  delivery  of  the  booty.  It  may  then  be  let 
loose  again,  or,  if  considered  to  have  done  its  work,  it  is  fed  and 
restored  to  its  perch.  The  activity  the  bird  displays  under  water 
is  almost  incredible  to  those  who  have  not  seen  its  performances, 
and  in  a  shallow  river  scarcely  a  fish  escapes  its  keen  eyes,  and 
sudden  turns,  except  by  taking  refuge  under  a  stone  or  root,  or 
in  the  mud  that  may  be  stirred  up  during  the  operation,  and  so 
avoiding  observation  (see  Salvin  and  Freeman,  Falconry,  1859). 

Nearly  allied  to  the  cormorant,  and  having  much  the  same 
habits,  is  the  shag,  or  green  cormorant  of  some  writers  (P. 
graculus).  The  shag  (which  name  in  many  parts  of  the  world 
is  used  in  a  generic  sense)  is,  however,  about  one-fourth  smaller 
in  linear  dimensions,  is  much  more  glossy  in  plumage,  and  its 
nuptial  embellishment  is  a  nodding  plume  instead  of  the  white 
patches  of  the  cormorant.  The  easiest  diagnostic  on  examination 
will  be  found  to  be  the  number  of  tail-feathers,  which  in  the 
former  are  fourteen  and  in  the  shag  twelve.  The  latter,  too,  is 
more  marine  in  the  localities  it  frequents,  scarcely  ever  entering 
fresh  or  indeed  inland  waters. 

In  the  south  of  Europe  a  much  smaller  species  (P .  pygmaeus) 
is  found.  This  is  almost  entirely  a  fresh-water  bird,  and  is  not 
uncommon  on  the  lower  Danube.  Other  species,  to  the  number 
perhaps  of  thirty  or  more,  have  been  discriminated  from  other 
parts  of  the  world,  but  all  have  a  great  general  similarity  to  one 
another.  New  Zealand  and  the  west  coast  of  northern  America 
are  particularly  rich  in  birds  of  this  genus,  and  the  species  found 
there  are  the  most  beautifully  decorated  of  any.  All,  however, 
are  remarkable  for  their  curiously-formed  feet,  the  four  toes 
of  each  being  connected  by  a  web,  for  their  long  stiff  tails,  and 
for  the  absence,  in  the  adult,  of  any  exterior  nostrils.  When 
gorged,  or  when  the  state  of  the  tide  precludes  fishing,  they  are 
fond  of  sitting  on  an  elevated  perch,  often  with  extended  wings, 
and  in  this  attitude  they  will  remain  motionless  for  a  considerable 
time,  as  though  hanging  themselves  out  to  dry.  It  was  perhaps 
this  peculiarity  that  struck  the  observation  of  Milton,  and 
prompted  his  well-known  similitude  of  Satan  to  a  cormorant 
(Parad.  Lost,  iv.  194);  but  when  not  thus  behaving  they  them- 
selves provoke  the  more  homely  comparison  of  a  row  of  black 
bottles.  Their  voracity  is  proverbial.  (A.  N.) 

CORN  (a  common  Teutonic  word;  cf.  Lat.  granum,  seed, 
grain),  originally  meaning  a  small  hard  particle  or  grain,  as  of 
sand,  salt,  gunpowder,  &c.  It  thus  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
small  hard  seed  of  a  plant,  as  still  used  in  the  words  barley-corn 
and  pepper-corn.  In  agriculture  it  is  generally  applied  to  the 
seed  of  the  cereal  plants.  It  is  often  locally  understood  to  mean 
that  kind  of  cereal  which  is  the  leading  crop  of  the  district; 

1  According  to  Willoughby  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to  carry  the 
cormorant  hooded  till  it  was  required ;  in  modern  practice  the  bearer 
wears  a  face-mask  to  protect  himself  from  its  beak. 


thus  in  England  it  refers  to  wheat,  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  to 
oats,  and  in  the  United  States  to  maize  (Indian  corn).  See 
GRAIN  TRADE;  CORN  LAWS;  AGRICULTURE;  WHEAT; 
MAIZE;  &c. 

The  term  "  corned  "  is  given  to  a  preparation  of  meat  (especi- 
ally beef)  on  account  of  the  original  manner  of  preserving  it  by 
the  use  of  salt  in  grains  or  "  corns." 

CORN  (from  Lat.  cornu,  horn),  in  pathology  (technically 
claims),  a  localized  outgrowth  of  the  epidermic  layer  of  the  skin, 
most  commonly  of  the  toe,  with  a  central  ingrowth  of  a  hard 
horny  plug.  The  underlying  papillae  are  atrophied,  causing  a 
cup-shaped  hollow,  whilst  the  surrounding  papillae  are  hyper- 
trophied.  The  condition  is  mainly  caused  by  badly  fitting  boots, 
though  any  undue  pressure,  of  insufficient  power  to  give  rise 
to  ulceration,  may  be  the  cause  of  a  corn.  Corns  may  be  hard 
or  soft.  The  hard  corn  usually  occurs  on  one  of  the  toes,  is  a 
more  or  less  conical  swelling  and  may  be  extremely  painful  at 
times.  If  suppuration  occurs  around  the  corn,  it  is  apt  to 
burrow,  and  if  unattended  to  may  give  rise  to  arthritis  or  even 
necrosis.  The  best  treatment  is  to  soften  the  corn  with  hot 
water,  pare  it  very  carefully  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  then  paint 
it  with  a  solution  of  salicylic  acid  in  collodion.  The  painting 
must  be  repeated  three  times  a  day  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  The 
soft  corn  occurs  between  the  toes  and  is  usually  a  more  painful 
condition.  Owing  to  the  absorption  of  sweat  its  surface  may 
become  white  and  sodden  in  appearance.  The  treatment  is 
much  the  same,  but  spirits  of  camphor  should  be  painted  on 
each  night,  and  a  layer  of  cotton  wool  placed  between  the  toes 
during  the  daytime. 

CORNARO,  CATERINA  (1454-1510),  queen  of  Cyprus,  was 
the  daughter  of  Marco  Cornaro,  a  Venetian  noble,  whose  brother 
Andrea  was  an  intimate  friend  of  James  de  Lusignan,  natural 
son  of  King  John  II.  of  Cyprus.  In  the  king's  death  in  1458 
the  succession  was  disputed,  and  James ,  with  the  help  of  the 
sultan  of  Egypt,  seized  the  island.  But  several  powers  were 
arrayed  against  him— the  duke  of  Savoy,  who  claimed  the  island 
on  the  strength  of  the  marriage  of  his  son  Louis  to  Charlotte, 
the  only  legitimate  daughter  of  John  II.,2  the  Genoese,  and  the 
pope.  It  was  important  that  he  should  make  a  marriage  such 
as  would  secure  him  powerful  support.  Andrea  Cornaro  suggested 
his  niece  Caterina,  famed  for  her  beauty,  as  that  union  would 
bring  him  Venetian  help.  The  proposal  was  agreed  to,  and 
approved  of  by  Caterina  herself  and  the  senate,  and  the  contract 
was  signed  in  1468.  But  further  intrigues  caused  delay,  and 
it  was  not  until  1471  that  James's  hesitations  were  overcome. 
Caterina  was  solemnly  adopted  by  the  doge  as  a  "  daughter  of 
the  Republic  "  and  sailed  for  Cyprus  in  1472  with  the  title  of 
queen  of  Cyprus,  Jerusalem  and  Armenia.  But  she  only  enjoyed 
one  year  of  happiness,  for  in  1473  her  husband  died  of  fever, 
leaving  his  kingdom  to  his  queen  and  their  child  as  yet  unborn. 
Enemies  and  rival  claimants  arose  on  all  sides,  for  Cyprus  was 
a  tempting  bait.  In  August  the  child  James  III.  was  born,  but 
as  soon  as  the  Venetian  fleet  sailed  away  a  plot  to  depose  him 
in  favour  of  Zarla,  James's  illegitimate  daughter,  broke  out, 
and  Caterina  was  kept  a  prisoner.  The  Venetians  returned, 
and  order  was  soon  restored,  but  the  republic  was  meditating 
the  seizure  of  Cyprus,  although  it  had  no  valid  title  whatever, 
and  after  the  death  of  Caterina's  child  in  1474  it  was  Venice 
which  really  governed  the  island.  The  poor  queen  was  surrounded 
by  intrigues  and  plots,  and  although  the  people  of  the  coast 
towns  loved  her,  the  Cypriot  nobles  were  her  bitter  enemies  and 
hostile  to  Venetian  influence.  In  1488  the  republic,  fearing  that 
Sultan  Bayezid  II.  intended  to  attack  Cyprus,  and  having  also 
discovered  a  plot  to  marry  Caterina  to  King  Alphonso  II.  of 
Naples,  a  proposal  "to  which  she  seemed  not  averse,  decided  to 
recall  the  queen  to  Venice  and  formally  annex  the  island. 
Caterina  at  first  refused,  for  she  clung  to  her  royalty,  but  Venice 
was  a  severe  parent  to  its  adopted  daughter  and  would  not  be 
gainsaid;  she  was  forced  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  the  republic, 
and  returned  to  Venice  in  1489.  The  governmen't  conferred  on 

2  Whence  the  kings  of  Italy  derive  their  title  of  kings  of  Cyprus 
and  Jerusalem. 


CORNARO,  L.— CORNEILLE,  PIERRE 


163 


her  the  castle  and  town  of  Asolo  for  life,  and  there  in  the  midst 
of  a  learned  and  brilliant  little  court,  of  which  Cardinal  Bembo 
(q.v.)  was  a  shining  light,  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  days  in  idyllic 
peace.  She  died  in  July  1510.  Titian's  famous  portrait  of  her 
is  in  the  Uffizi  gallery  in  Florence. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A.  Centelli,  Caterina  Cornaro  e  U  suo  regno 
(Venice,  1892);  S.  Romanin,  Storia  documentata  di  Venezia,  vol.  iv. 
(Venice,  1855),  and  his  Lezioni  di  storia  Veneta  (Florence,  1875); 
L.  de  Mas  Latrie,  Histoire  de  I'Ue  de  Chypre  (Paris,  1852-1861); 
and  Horatio  Brown's  essay  in  his  Studies  in  Venetian  History  (London, 
1907),  which  gives  the  best  sketch  of  the  queen's  career  and  a  list  of 
authorities.  (L.  V.*) 

CORNARO,  LUIGI  (1467-1566),  a  Venetian  nobleman,  famous 
for  his  treatises  on  a  temperate  life.  In  his  youth  he  lived  freely, 
but  after  a  severe  illness  at  the  age  of  forty,  he  began  under 
medical  advice  gradually  to  reduce  his  diet.  For  some  time  he 
restricted  himself  to  a  daily  allowance  of  1 2  oz.  of  solid  food  and 
14  oz.  of  wine;  later  in  life  he  reduced  still  further  his  bill  of 
fare,  and  found  he  could  support  his  life  and  strength  with  no 
more  solid  meat  than  an  egg  a  day.  At  the  age  of  eighty-three 
he  wrote  his  treatise  on  The  Sure  and  Certain  Method  of  Attaining 
a  Long  and  Healthful  Life,  the  English  translation  of  which  went 
through  numerous  editions;  and  this  was  followed  by  three 
others  on  the  same  subject,  composed  at  the  ages  of  eighty-six, 
ninety-one  and  ninety-five  respectively.  The  first  three  were 
published  at  Padua  in  1558.  They  are  written,  says  Addjson 
(Spectator,  No.  195),  "  with  Such  a  spirit  of  cheerfulness,  religion 
and  good  sense,  as  are  the  natural  concomitants  of  temperance 
and  sobriety."  He  died  at  Padua  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight. 

CORNBRASH,  in  geology,  the  name  applied  to  the  uppermost 
member  of  the  Bathonian  stage  of  the  Jurassic  formation  in 
England.  It  is  an  old  English  agricultural  name  applied  in 
Wiltshire  to  a  variety  of  loose  rubble  or  "  brash  "  which,  in  that 
part  of  the  country,  forms  a  good  soil  for  growing  corn.  The 
name  was  adopted  by  William  Smith  for  a  thin  band  of  shelly 
limestone  which,  in  the  south  of  England,  breaks  up  in  the 
manner  indicated.  Although  only  a  thin  group  of  rocks  (10-25 
f t.) ,  it  is  remarkably  persistent ;  it  may  be  traced  from  Weymouth 
to  the  Yorkshire  coast,  but  in  north  Lincolnshire  it  is  very  thin, 
and  probably  dies  out  in 'the  neighbourhood  of  the  Humber. 
It  appears  again,  however,  as  a  thin  bed  in  Gristhorpe  Bay, 
Cayton  Bay,  Wheatcroft,  Newton  Dale  and  Langdale.  In  the 
inland  exposures  in  Yorkshire  it  is  difficult  to  follow  on  account 
of  its  thinness,  and  the  fact  that  it  passes  up  into  dark  shales 
in  many  places — the  so-called  "  clays  of  the  Cornbrash,"  with 
Avicula  echinata. 

The  Cornbrash  is  a  very  fossiliferous  formation;  the  fauna 
indicates  a  transition  from  the  Lower  to  the  Middle  Oolites, 
though  it  is  probably  more  nearly  related  to  that  of  the  beds 
above  than  to  those  below.  Good  localities  for  fossils  are 
Radipole  near  Weymouth,  Closworth,  Wincanton,  Trowbridge, 
Cirencester,  Witney,  Peterborough  and  Sudbrook  Park  near 
Lincoln.  A  few  of  the  important  fossils  are:  Waldheimia 
lagenalis,  Pecten  levis,  Avicula  echinata,  Ostrea  flabelloides, 
Myacites  decurlatus,  Echinobrissus  clunicularis;  Macrocephalites 
macrocephalus  is  abundant  in  the  midland  counties  but  rarer 
in  the  south;  belemnites  are  not  known.  The  remains  of 
saurians  (Sleneosaurus)  are  occasionally  found.  The  Cornbrash 
is  of  little  value  for  building  or  road-making,  although  it  is  used 
locally;  in  the  south  of  England  it  is  not  oolitic,  but  in  York- 
shire it  is  a  rubbly,  marly,  frequently  ironshot  oolitic  limestone. 
In  Bedfordshire  it  has  been  termed  the  Bedford  limestone. 

See  JURASSIC;  also  H.  B.  Woodward,  "The  Jurassic  Rocks  of 
Britain,"  vol.  iv.  (1894);  and  C.  Fox  Strangways,  vol.  i. ;  both 
Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey.  (J.  A.  H.) 

CORNEILLE,  PIERRE  (1606-1684),  French  dramatist  and 
poet,  was  born  at  Rouen,  in  the  rue  de  la  Pie,  on  the  6th  of  June 
1606.  The  house,  which  was  long  preserved,  was  destroyed 
not  many  years  ago.  His  father,  whose  Christian  name  was  the 
same,  was  avocat  du  roi  a  la  Table  de  Marbre  du  Palais,  and  also 
held  the  position  of  maltre  des  eaux  et  forets  in  the  vicomte 
(or  bailliage,  as  some  say)  of  Rouen.  In  this  latter  office  he  is 
said  to  have  shown  himself  a  vigorous  magistrate,  suppressing 


brigandage  and  plunder  without  regard  to  his  personal  safety. 
He  was  ennobled  in  1637  (it  is  said  not  without  regard  to  his 
son's  distinction),  and  the  honour  was  renewed  in  favour  of  his 
sons  Pierre  and  Thomas  in  1669,  when  a  general  repeal  of  the 
letters  of  nobility  recently  granted  had  taken  place.  There 
appears,  however,  to  be  no  instance  on  record  of  the  poet  himself 
assuming  the  "  de  "  of  nobility.  His  mother's  name  was  Marthe 
le  Pesant. 

After  being  educated  by  the  Jesuits  of  Rouen,  Corneille  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  was  entered  as  avocat,  and  in  1624  took  the 
oaths,  as  we  are  told,  four  years  before  the  regular  time,  a  dis- 
pensation having  been  procured.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
advocate  to  the  admiralty,  and  to  the  "  waters  and  forests," 
but  both  these  posts  must  have  been  of  small  value,  as  we  find 
him  parting  with  them  in  1650  for  the  insignificant  sum  of  6000 
livres.  In  that  year  and  the  next  he  was  procureur-syndic  des 
Etats  de  Normandie.  His  first  play,  Melite,  was  acted  in  1629. 
It  is  said  by  B.  le  B.  de  Fontenelle  (his  nephew)  to  have  been 
inspired  by  personal  experiences,  and  was  extremely  popular, 
either  because  or  in  spite  of  its  remarkable  difference  from  the 
popular  plays  of  the  day,  those  of  A.  Hardy.  In  1632  Clitandre, 
a  tragedy,  was  printed  (it  may  Have  been  acted  in  1631);  in 
1633  La  Veuve  and  the  Galerie  du  palais,  in  1634  La  Suivante  and 
La  Place  Royale,  all  the  last-named  plays  being  comedies,  saw 
the  stage.  In  1634  also,  having  been  selected  as  the  composer 
of  a  Latin  elegy  to  Richelieu  on  the  occasion  of  the  cardinal 
visiting  Rouen,  he  was  introduced  to  the  subject  of  his  verses, 
and  was  soon  after  enrolled  among  the  "  five  poets."  These 
officers  (the  others  being  G.  Colletet,  Boisrobert  and  C.  de 
1'Etoile,  who  in  no  way  merited  the  title,  and  J.  de  Rotrou, 
who  was  no  unworthy  yokefellow  even  of  Corneille)  had  for  task 
the  more  profitable  than  dignified  occupation  of  working  up 
Richelieu's  ideas  into  dramatic  form.  No  one  could  be  less 
suited  for  such  work  than  Corneille,  and  he  soon  (it  is  said) 
incurred  his  employer's  displeasure  by  altering  the  plan  of  the 
third  act  of  Les  Thuileries,  which  had  been  entrusted  to  him. 

Meanwhile  the  year  1635  saw  the  production  of  Medee,  a 
grand  but  unequal  tragedy.  In  the  next  year  the  singular 
extravaganza  entitled  L'lllusion  comique  followed,  and  was 
succeeded  about  the  end  of  November  by  the  Cid ,  based  on  the 
Mocedades  del  Cid  of  Guillem  de  Castro.  The  triumphant  success 
of  this,  perhaps  the  most  "  epoch-making  "  play  in  all  literature, 
the  jealousy  of  Richelieu  and  the  Academy,  the  open  attacks  of 
Georges  de  Scudery  and  J.  de  Mairet  and  others,  and  the  pamphlet- 
war  which  followed,  are  among  the  best-known  incidents  in  the 
history  of  letters.  The  trimming  verdict  of  the  Academy, 
which  we  have  in  J.  Chapelain's  Sentiments  de  I' Academic 
franfaise  sur  la  tragi-comidie  du  Cid  (1638),  when  its  arbitration 
was  demanded  by  Richelieu,  and  not  openly  repudiated  by 
Corneille,  was  virtually  unimportant ;  but  it  is  worth  remember- 
ing that  no  less  a  writer  than  Georges  de  Scudery,  in  his  Observa- 
tions sur  le  Cid  (1637),  gravely  and  apparently  sincerely  asserted 
and  maintained  of  this  great  play  that  the  subject  was  utterly 
bad,  that  all  the  rules  of  dramatic  composition  were  violated, 
that  the  action  was  badly  conducted,  the  versification  constantly 
faulty,  and  the  beauties  as  a  rule  stolen!  Corneille  himself  was 
awkwardly  situated  in  this  dispute.  The  esprit  bourru  by  which 
he  was  at  all  times  distinguished,  and  which  he  now  displayed 
in  his  rather  arrogant  Excuse  a  Ariste,  unfitted  him  for  contro- 
versy, and  it  was  of  vital  importance  to  him  that  he  should  not 
lose  the  outward  marks  of  favour  which  Richelieu  continued  to 
show  him.  Perhaps  the  pleasantest  feature  in  the  whole  matter 
is  the  unshaken  and  generous  admiration  with  which  Rotrou, 
the  only  contemporary  whose  genius  entiled  him  to  criticise 
Corneille,  continued  to  regard  his  friend,  rival,  and  in  some 
sense  (though  Rotrou  was  the  younger  of  the  two)  pupil.  Finding 
it  impossible  to  make  himself  fairly  heard  in  the  matter,  Corneille 
(who  had  retired  from  his  position  among  the  "  five  poets  ") 
withdrew  to  Rouen  and  passed  nearly  three  years  in  quiet  there, 
perhaps  revolving  the  opinions  afterwards  expressed  in  his 
three  Discours  and  in  the  Examens  of  his  plays,  where  he  bows, 
somewhat  as  in  the  house  of  Rimmon,  to  "  the  rules."  In  1639, 


164 


CORNEILLE,  PIERRE 


or  at  the  beginning  of  1640,  appeared  Horace  with  a  dedication  to 
Richelieu.  The  good  offices  of  Madame  de  Combalet,  to  whom 
the  Cid  had  been  dedicated,  and  perhaps  the  satisfaction  of  the 
cardinal's  literary  jealousy,  had  healed  what  breach  there  may 
have  been,  and  indeed  the  poet  was  in  no  position  to  quarrel 
with  his  patron.  Richelieu  not  only  allowed  him  500  crowns  a 
year,  but  soon  afterwards,  it  is  said,  though  on  no  certain 
authority,  employed  his  omnipotence  in  reconciling  the  father 
of  the  poet's  mistress,  Marie  de  Lamperiere,  to  the  marriage 
of  the  lovers  (1640).  In  this  year  also  Cinna  appeared.  A 
brief  but  very  serious  illness  attacked  him,  and  the  death  of  his 
father  the  year  before  had  increased  his  family  anxieties  by 
leaving  his  mother  in  very  indifferent  circumstances.  It  has, 
however,  been  recently  denied  that  he  himself  was  at  any  time 
poor,  as  older  traditions  asserted. 

In  the  following  year  Corneille  figured  as  a  contributor  to 
the  Guirlande  de  Julie,  a  famous  album  which  the  marquis  de 
Montausier,  assisted  by  all  the  literary  men  of  the  day,  offered  to 
his  lady-love,  Julie  d'Angennes.  1643  was,  according  to  the 
latest  authorities  (for  Cornelian  dates  have  often  been  altered), 
a  very  great  year  in  the  dramatist's  life.  Therein  appeared 
Polyeucte,  the  memorable  comedy  of  Le  Menteur,  which  though 
adapted  from  the  Spanish  stood  in  relation  to  French  comedy 
very  much  as  Le  Cid,  which  owed  less  to  Spain,  stood  to  French 
tragedy;  its  less  popular  and  far  less  good  Suite, — and  perhaps 
La  Mart  de  Pompee.  Rodogune  (1644)  was  a  brilliant  success; 
Theodore  (1645),  a  tragedy  on  a  somewhat  perilous  subject,  was 
the  first  of  Corneille's  plays  which  was  definitely  damned. 
Some  amends  may  have  been  made  to  him  by  the  commission 
which  he  received  next  year  to  write  verses  for  the  Triomphes 
poetiques  de  Louis  XIII.  Soon  after  (22nd  of  January  1647) 
the  Academy  at  last  (it  had  twice  rejected  him  on  frivolous  pleas) 
admitted  the  greatest  of  living  French  writers.  Heraclius  (1646) , 
Andromede  (1650),  a  spectacle-opera  rather  than  a  play,  Don 
Sanche  d'Aragon  (1650)  and  Nicomede  (1651)  were  the  products 
of  the  next  few  years'  work;  but  in  1652  Pertharite  was  received 
with  decided  disfavour,  and  the  poet  in  disgust  resolved,  like 
Ben  Jonson,  to  quit  the  loathed  stage.  In  this  resolution  he 
persevered  for  six  years,  during  which  he  worked  at  a  verse 
translation  of  the  Imitation  of  Christ  (finished  in  1656),  at  his 
three  Discourses  on  Dramatic  Poetry,  and  at  the  Examens  which 
are  usually  printed  at  the  end  of  his  plays.  In  1659  Fouquet, 
the  Maecenas  of  the  time,  persuaded  him  to  alter  his  resolve, 
and  (Edipe,  a  play  which  became  a  great  favourite  with  Louis 
XIV.,  was  the  result.  It  was  followed  by  La  Toison  d'or  (1660), 
Sertorius  (1662)  and  Sophonisbe  (1663).  In  this  latter  year 
Corneille  (who  had  at  last  removed  his  residence  from  Rouen  to 
Paris  in  1662)  was  included  among  the  list  of  men  of  letters 
pensioned  at  the  proposal  of  Colbert.  He  received  2000  livres. 
Othon  (1664),  Agesilas  (1666),  Attila  (1667),  and  Tile  et  Berenice 
(1670),  were  generally  considered  as  proofs  of  failing  powers, — 
the  cruel  quatrain  of  Boileau — 

"  Apres  VAghilas 

Helas! 

Mais  apres  \' Attila 
Hola!" 

in  the  case  of  these  two  plays,  and  the  unlucky  comparison  with 
Racine  in  the  Berenice,  telling  heavily  against  them.  In  1663 
and  1670  some  versifications  of  devotional  works  addressed  to 
the  Virgin  had  appeared.  The  part  which  Corneille  took  in 
Psyche  (1671),  Moliere  and  P.  Quinault  being  his  coadjutors, 
showed  signs  of  renewed  vigour;  but  Pukkerie  (1672)  and 
Surtna  (1674)  were  allowed  even  by  his  faithful  followers  to  be 
failures.  He  lived  for  ten  years  after  the  appearance  of  Surena, 
but  was  almost  silent  save  for  the  publication,  in  1676,  of  some 
beautiful  verses  thanking  Louis  XIV.  for  ordering  the  revival 
of  his  plays.  He  died  at  his  house  in  the  rue  d'Argenteuil  on 
the  30th  of  September  1684.  For  nine  years  (1674-1681),  and 
again  in  1683,  his  pension  had,  for  what  reason  is  unknown, 
been  suspended.  It  used  to  be  said  that  he  was  in  great  straits, 
and  the  story  went  (though,  as  far  as  Boileau  is  concerned,  it 
has  been  invalidated),  that  at  last  Boileau,  hearing  of  this, 


went  to  the  king  and  offered  to  resign  his  own  pension  if  there 
were  not  money  enough  for  Corneille,  and  that  Louis  sent  the 
aged  poet  two  hundred  pistoles.  He  might,  had  it  actually  been 
so,  have  said,  with  a  great  English  poet  in  like  case,  "  I  have  no 
time  to  spend  them."  Two  days  afterwards  he  was  dead. 

Corneille  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St  Roch,  where  no 
monument  marked  his  grave  until  1821.  He  had  six  children, 
of  whom  four  survived  him.  Pierre,  the  eldest  son,  a  cavalry 
officer  who  died  before  his  father,  left  posterity  in  whom  the 
name  has  continued;  Marie,  the  ^Idest"  daughter,  was  twice 
married,  and  by  her  second  husband,  M.  de  Farcy,  became  the 
ancestress  of  Charlotte  Corday.  Repeated  efforts  have  been 
made  for  the  benefit  of  the  poet's  descendants,  Voltaire,  Charles 
X.  and  the  Comedie  fran^aise  having  all  borne  part  therein. 

The  portraits  of  Corneille  (the  best  and  most  trustworthy  of 
which  is  from  the  burin  of  M.  Lasne,  an  engraver  of  Caen), 
represent  him  as  a  man  of  serious,  almost  of  stern  countenance, 
and  this  agrees  well  enough  with  such  descriptions  as  we  have 
of  his  appearance,  and  with  the  idea  of  him  which  we  should  form 
from  his  writings  and  conduct.  His  nephew  Fontenelle  admits 
that  his  general  address  and  manner  were  by  no  means  pre- 
possessing. Others  use  stronger  language,  and  it  seems  to  be 
confessed  that  either  from  shyness,  from  pride,  or  from  physical 
defects  of  utterance,  probably  from  all  three  combined,  he  did 
not  attract  strangers.  Racine  is  said  to  have  assured  his  son 
that  Corneille  made  verses  "cent  fois  plus  beaux"  than  his  own, 
but  that  his  own  greater  popularity  was  owing  to  the  fact  that 
he  took  some  trouble  to  make  himself  personally  agreeable. 
Almost  all  the  anecdotes  which  have  been  recorded  concerning 
him  testify  to  a  rugged  and  somewhat  unamiable  self-content- 
ment. "  Je  n'ai  pas  le  merite  de  ce  pays-ci,"  he  said  of  the 
court.  "  Je  n'en  suis  pas  moins  Pierre  Corneille,"  he  is  said 
to  have  replied  to  his  friends  as  often  as  they  dared  to  suggest 
certain  shortcomings  in  his  behaviour,  manner  or  speech.  "  Je 
suis  saoul  de  gloire  et  affame  d'argent  "  was  his  reply  to  the 
compliments  of  Boileau.  Yet  tradition  is  unanimous  as  to  his 
affection  for  his  family,  and  as  to  the  harmony  in  which  he  lived 
with  his  brother  Thomas  who  had  married  Marguerite  de  Lam- 
periere, younger  sister  of  Marie,  and  whose  household  both  at 
Rouen  and  at  Paris  was  practically  one  with  that  of  his  brother. 
No  story  about  Corneille  is  better  known  than  that  which  tells 
of  the  trap  between  the  two  houses,  and  how  Pierre,  whose 
facility  of  versification  was  much  inferior  to  his  brother's,  would 
lift  it  when  hard  bestead,  and  call  out  "  Sans-souci,  une  rime!" 
Notwithstanding  this  domestic  felicity,  an  impression  is  left  on 
the  reader  of  Corneille's  biographies  that  he  was  by  no  means 
a  happy  man.  Melancholy  of  temperament  will  partially  explain 
this,  but  there  were  other  reasons.  He  appears  to  have  been 
quite  free  from  envy  properly  so  called,  and  to  have  been  always 
ready  to  acknowledge  the  excellences  of  his  contemporaries. 
But,  as  was  the  case  with  a  very  different  man — Goldsmith — 
praise  bestowed  on  others  always  made  him  uncomfortable 
unless  it  were  accompanied  by  praise  bestowed  on  himself. 
As  Guizot  has  excellently  said,  "  Sa  jalousie  fut  celle  d'un  enfant 
qui  veut  qu'un  sourire  le  rassure  centre  les  caresses  que  recoit 
son  frere." 

Although  his  actual  poverty  has  been  recently  denied,  he 
cannot  have  been  affluent.  His  pensions  covered  but  a  small 
part  of  his  long  life  and  were  most  irregularly  paid.  He  was  no 
"  dedicator,"  and  the  occasional  presents  of  rich  men,  such  as 
Montauron  (who  gave  him  a  thousand,  others  say  two  hundred, 
pistoles  for  the  dedication  of  Cinna),  and  Fouquet  (who  com- 
missioned (Fdipe),  were  few  and  far  between,  though  they  have 
exposed  him  to  reflections  which  show  great  ignorance  of  the 
manners  of  the  age.  Of  his  professional  earnings,  the  small  sum 
for  which,  as  we  have  seen,  he  gave  up  his  offices,  and  the  expres- 
sion of  Fontenelle  that  he  practised  "  sans  gout  et  sans  succes," 
are  sufficient  proof.  His  patrimony  and  his  wife's  dowry  must 
both  have  been  trifling.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  during  the 
early  and  middle  part  of  his  career  impossible,  and  during  the 
later  part  very  difficu't,  for  a  dramatist  to  live  decently  by  his 
pieces.  It  was  not  till  the  middle  of  the  century  that  the  custom 


CORNEILLE,  PIERRE 


165 


of  allowing  the  author  two  shares  in  the  profits  during  the  first 
run  of  the  piece  was  observed,  and  even  then  revivals  profited 
him  nothing.  Thomas  Corneille  himself,  who  to  his  undoubted 
talents  united  wonderful  facility,  untiring  industry,  and  (gift 
valuable  above  all  others  to  the  playwright)  an  extraordinary 
knack  of  hitting  the  public  fancy,  died,  notwithstanding  his 
simple  tastes,  "  as  poor  as  Job."  We  know  that  Pierre  received 
for  two  of  his  later  pieces  two  thousand  livres  each,  and  we  do  not 
know  that  he  ever  received  more. 

But  his  reward  in  'fame  was  not  stinted.  Corneille,  unlike 
many  of  the  great  writers  of  the  world,  was  not  driven  to  wait 
for  "  the  next  age  "  to  do  him  justice.  The  cabal  or  clique  which 
attacked  the  Cid  had  no  effect  whatever  on  the  judgment  of  the 
public.  All  his  subsequent  masterpieces  were  received  with  the 
same  ungrudging  applause,  and  the  rising  star  of  Racine,  even 
in  conjunction  with  the  manifest  inferiority  of  Corneille's  last 
five  or  six  plays,  with  difficulty  prevailed  against  the  older  poet's 
towering  reputation.  The  great  men  of  his  time — Conde, 
Turenne,  the  marechal  de  Grammont,  the  knight-errant  due  de 
Guise — were  his  fervent  admirers.  Nor  had  he  less  justice  done 
him  by  a  class  from  whom  less  justice  might  have  been  expected, 
the  brother  men  of  letters  whose  criticisms  he  treated  with  such 
scant  courtesy.  The  respectable  mediocrity  of  Chapelain  might 
misapprehend  him;  the  lesser  geniuses  of  Scudery  and  Mairet 
might  feel  alarm  at  his  advent;  the  envious  Claverets  and 
D'Aubignacs  might  snarl  and  scribble.  But  Balzac  did  him 
justice;  Rotrou,  as  we  have  seen,  never  failed  in  generous 
appreciation;  Moliere  in  conversation  and  in  print  recognized 
him  as  his  own  master  and  the  foremost  of  dramatists.  We  have 
quoted  the  informal  tribute  of  Racine;  but  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  Racine,  in  discharge  of  his  duty  as  respondent  at 
the  Academical  reception  of  Thomas  Corneille,  pronounced  upon 
the  memory  of  Pierre  perhaps  the  noblest  and  most  just  tribute 
of  eulogy  that  ever  issued  from  the  lips  of  a  rival.  Boileau's 
testimony  is  of  a  more  chequered  character;  yet  he  seems  never 
to  have  failed  in  admiring  Corneille  whenever  his  principles  would 
allow  him  to  do  so.  Questioned  as  to  the  great  men  of  Louis 
XIV.'s  reign,  he  is  said  to  have  replied:  "  I  only  know  three, — 
Corneille,  Moliere  and  myself."  "'And  how  about  Racine?" 
his  auditor  ventured  to  remark.  "He  was  an  extremely  clever 
fellow  to  whom  I  taught  the  art  of  elaborate  rhyming  "  (rimer 
difficilement).  It  was  reserved  for  the  i8th  century  to  exalt 
Racine  above  Corneille.  Voltaire,  who  was  prompted  by  his 
natural  benevolence  to  comment  on  the  latter  (the  profits  went 
to  a  relation  of  the  poet) ,  was  not  altogether  fitted  by  nature  to 
appreciate  Corneille,  and  moreover,  as  has  been  ingeniously 
pointed  out,  was  not  a  little  wearied  by  the  length  of  his  task. 
His  partially  unfavourable  verdict  was  endorsed  earlier  by 
Vauvenargues,  who  knew  little  of  poetry,  and  later  by  La  Harpe, 
whose  critical  standpoint  has  now  been  universally  abandoned. 
Napoleon  I.  was  a  great  admirer  of  Corneille  ("  s'il  vivait,  je  le 
ferais  prince,"  he  said) ,  and  under  the  Empire  and  the  Restoration 
an  approach  to  a  sounder  appreciation  was  made.  But  it  was 
the  glory  of  the  romantic  school,  or  rather  of  the  more  catholic 
study  of  letters  which  that  school  brought  about,  to  restore 
Corneille  to  his  true  rank.  So  long,  indeed,  as  a  certain  kind  of 
criticism  was  pursued,  due  appreciation  was  impossible.  When 
it  was  thought  sufficient  to  say  with  Boileau  that  Corneille 
excited,  not  pity  or  terror,  but  admiration  which  was  not  a 
tragic  passion;  or  that 

'  D'un  seul  nom  quelquefois  le  son  dur  ou  bizarre 
Rend  un  poeme  entier  ou  burlesque  ou  barbare;" 

when  Voltaire  could  think  it  crushing  to  add  to  his  exposure  of 
the  "  infamies  "  of  Thtodore — "  apres  cela  comment  osons-nous 
condamner  les  pieces  de  Lope  de  Vega  et  de  Shakespeare?  " — it 
is  obvious  that  the  Cid  and  Polyeucte,  much  more  Don  Sanche 
d'Aragon  and  Rodogune,  were  sealed  books  to  the  critic. 

Almost  the  first  thing  which  strikes  a  reader  is  the  singular 
inequality  of  this  poet,  and  the  attempts  to  explain  this  in- 
equality, in  reference  to  his  own  and  other  theories,  leave  the 
fact  untouched.  Producing,  as  he  certainly  has  produced,  work 
which  classes  him  with  the  greatest  names  in  literature,  he  has 


also  signed  an  extraordinary  quantity  of  verse  which  has  not 
merely  the  defects  of  genius,  irregularity,  extravagance,  bizarreti, 
but  the  faults  which  we  are  apt  to  regard  as  exclusively  belonging 
to  those  who  lack  genius,  to  wit,  the  dulness  and  tediousness  oi 
mediocrity.  Moliere's  manner  of  accounting  for  this  is  famous 
in  literary  history  or  legend.  "  My  friend  Corneille,"  he  said, 
"  has  a  familiar  who  inspires  him  with  the  finest  verses  in  the 
world.  But  sometimes  the  familiar  leaves  him  to  shift  for 
himself,  and  then  he  fares  very  badly."  That  Corneille  was  by 
no  means  destitute  of  the  critical  faculty  his  Discourses  and  the 
Examens  of  his  plays  (often  admirably  acute,  and,  with  Dryden's 
subsequent  prefaces,  the  originals  to  a  great  extent  of  specially 
modern  criticism)  show  well  enough.  But  an  enemy  might 
certainly  contend  that  a  poet's  critical  faculty  should  be  of  the 
Promethean,  not  be  Epimethean  order.  The  fact  seems  to  be 
that  the  form  in  which  Corneille's  work  was  cast,  and  which  by  an 
odd  irony  of  fate  he  did  so  much  to  originate  and  make  popular, 
was  very  partially  suited  to  his  talents.  He  cou'd  imagine 
admirable  situations,  and  he  could  write  verses  of  incomparable 
grandeur — verses  that  reverberate  again  and  again  in  the 
memory,  but  he  could  not,  with  the  patient  docility  of  Racine, 
labour  at  proportioning  the  action  of  a  tragedy  strictly,  at 
maintaining  a  uniform  rate  of  interest  in  the  course  of  the  plot 
and  of  excellence  in  the  fashion  of  the  verse.  Especially  in  his 
later  plays  a  verse  and  a  couplet  will  crash  out  with  fulgurous 
brilliancy,  and  then  be  succeeded  by  pages  of  very  second-rate 
declamation  or  argument.  It  was  urged  against  him  also  by  the 
party  of  the  Doucereux,  as  he  called  them,  that  he  could  not 
manage,  or  did  not  attempt,  the  great  passion  of  love,  and  that 
except  in  the  case  of  Chimene  his  principle  seemed  to  be  that  of 
one  of  his  own  heroines: — 

"  Laissons,  seigneur,  laissons  pour  les  petites  &mes 
Ce  commerce  rampant  de  soupirs  et  de  flammes." 

(Aristie  in  Sertorius.) 

There  is  perhaps  some  truth  in  this  accusation,  however  much 
some  of  us  may  be  disposed  to  think  that  the  line  just  quoted 
is  a  fair  enough  description  of  the  admired  ecstasies  of  Achille 
and  Bajazet.  But  these  are  all  the  defects  which  can  be  fairly 
urged  against  him;  and  in  a  dramatist  bound  to  a  less  strict 
service  they  would  hardly  have  been  even  remarked.  They 
certainly  neither  require,  nor  are  palliated  by,  theories  of  his 
"  megalomania,"  of  his  excessive  attention  to  conflicts  of  will 
and  the  like.  On  the  English  stage  the  liberty  of  unrestricted 
incident  and  complicated  action,  the  power  of  multiplying 
characters  and  introducing  prose  scenes,  would  have  exactly 
suited  his  somewhat  intermittent  genius,  both  by  covering 
defects  and  by  giving  greater  scope  for  the  exhibition  of  power. 

How  great  that  power  is  can  escape  no  one.  The  splendid 
soliloquies  of  Medea  which,  as  Voltaire  happily  says,  "  annoncent 
Corneille,"  the  entire  parts  of  Rodogune  and  Chimene,  the  final 
speech  of  Camille  in  Horace,  the  discovery  scene  of  Cinna,  the 
dialogues  of  Pauline  and  Severe  in  Polyeucte,  the  magnificently- 
contrasted  conception  and  exhibition  of  the  best  and  worst  forms 
of  feminine  dignity  in  the  Cornelie  of  Pompee  and  the  C16opatre 
of  Rodogune,  the  singularly  fine  contrast  in  Don  Sanche  d'Aragon , 
between  the  haughtiness  of  the  Spanish  nobles  and  the  unshaken 
dignity  of  the  supposed  adventurer  Carlos,  and  the  characters 
of  Aristie,  Viriate  and  Sertorius  himself,  in  the  play  named  after 
the  latter,  are  not  to  be  surpassed  in  grandeur  of  thought, 
felicity  of  design  or  appropriateness  of  language.  "Admira- 
tion "  may  or  may  not  properly  be  excited  by  tragedy,  and  until 
this  important  question  is  settled  the  name  of  tragedian  may  be 
at  pleasure  given  to  or  withheld  from  the  author  of  Rodogune. 
But  his  rank  among  the  greatest  of  dramatic  poets  is  not  a 
matter  of  question.  For  a  poet  is  to  be  judged  by  his  best  things, 
and  the  best  things  of  Corneille  are  second  to  none. 

The  Plays. — It  was,  however,  some  time  before  his  genius 
came  to  perfection.  It  is  undeniable  that  the  first  six  or  seven 
of  his  plays  are  of  no  very  striking  intrinsic  merit.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  requires  only  a  very  slight  acquaintance  with  the  state  of 
the  drama  in  France  at  the  time  to  see  that  these  works,  poor  as 
they  may  now  seem,  must  have  struck  the  spectators  as  something 


i66 


CORNEILLE,  PIERRE 


new  and  surprising.  The  language  and  dialogue  of  Milite  are 
on  the  whole  simple  and  natural,  and  though  the  construction  is 
not  very  artful  (the  fifth  act  being,  as  is  not  unusual  in  Corneille, 
superfluous  and  clumsy),  it  is  still  passable.  The  fact  that  one 
of  the  characters  jumps  on  another's  back,  and  the  rather 
promiscuous  kissing  which  takes  place,  are  nothing  to  the 
liberties  usually  taken  in  contemporary  plays.  A  worse  fault 
is  the  (mxofJivdia,  or,  to  borrow  Butler's  expression,  the  Cat-and- 
Puss  dialogue,  which  abounds.  But  the  common  objection  to 
the  play  at  the  time  was  that  it  was  too  natural  and  too  devoid 
of  striking  incidents.  Corneille  accordingly,  as  he  tells  us,  set 
to  work  to  cure  these  faults,  and  produced  a  truly  wonderful 
work,  Clilandre.  Murders,  combats,  escapes  and  outrages  of  all 
kinds  are  provided;  and  the  language  makes  The  Rehearsal  no 
burlesque.  One  of  the  heroines  rescues  herself  from  a  ravisher 
by  blinding  him  with  a  hair-pin,  and  as  she  escapes  the  seducer 
apostrophizes  the  blood  which  trickles  from  his  eye,  and  the 
weapon  which  has  wounded  it,  in  a  speech  forty  verses  long. 
This,  however,  was  his  only  attempt  of  the  kind.  For  his  next 
four  pieces,  which  were  comedies,  there  is  claimed  the  introduction 
of  some  important  improvements,  such  as  the  choosing  for  scenes 
places  well  known  in  actual  life  (as  in  the  Galerie  du  palais),  and 
the  substitution  of  the  soubrette  in  place  of  the  old  inconvenient 
and  grotesque  nurse.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  there  is  more 
interval  between  these  six  plays  and  Medee  than  between  the 
latter  and  Corneille 's  greatest  drama.  Here  first  do  we  find 
those  sudden  and  magnificent  lines  which  characterize  the  poet. 
The  title-role  is,  however,  the  only  good  one,  and  as  a  whole  the 
play  is  heavy.  Much  the  same  may  be  said  of  its  curious  successor 
L'lllusion  comique.  This  is  not  only  a  play  within  a  play,  but 
in  part  of  it  there  is  actually  a  third  involution,  one  set  of  characters 
beholding  another  set  discharging  the  parts  of  yet  another. 
It  contains,  however,  some  very  fine  lines,  in  particular,  a 
defence  of  the  stage  and  some  heroics  put  into  the  mouth  of  a 
braggadocio.  We  have  seen  it  said  of  the  Cid  that  it  is  difficult 
to  understand  the  enthusiasm  it  excited.  But  the  difficulty 
can  only  exist  for  persons  who  are  insensible  to  dramatic  ex- 
cellence, or  who  so  strongly  object  to  the  forms  of  the  French 
drama  that  they  cannot  relish  anything  so  presented.  Rodrigue, 
Chimene,  Don  Diegue  are  not  of  any  age,  but  of  all  time.  The 
conflicting  passions  of  love,  honour,  duty,  are  here  represented 
as  they  never  had  been  on  a  French  stage,  and  in  the  "  strong 
style  "  which  was  Corneille's  own.  Of  the  many  objections 
urged  against  the  play,  perhaps  the  weightiest  is  that  which 
condemns  the  frigid  and  superfluous  part  of  the  Infanta.  Horace, 
though  more  skilfully  constructed,  is  perhaps  less  satisfactory. 
There  is  a  hardness  about  the  younger  Horace  which  might  have 
been,  but  is  not  made,  imposing,  and  Sabine's  effect  on  the  action 
is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  space  she  occupies.  The  splendid 
declamation  of  Camille,  and  the  excellent  part  of  the  elder 
Horace,  do  not  altogether  atone  for  these  defects.  Cinna  is 
perhaps  generally  considered  the  poet's  masterpiece,  and  it 
undoubtedly  contains  the  finest  single  scene  in  all  French 
tragedy.  The  blot  on  it  is  certainly  the  character  of  fimilie, 
who  is  spiteful  and  thankless,  not  heroic.  Polyeucte  has  some- 
times been  elevated  to  the  same  position.  There  is,  however, 
a  certain  coolness  about  the  hero's  affection  for  his  wife  which 
somewhat  detracts  from  the  merit  of  his  sacrifice;  while  the 
Christian  part  of  the  matter  is  scarcely  so  well  treated  as  in  the 
Saint  Genest  of  Rotrou  or  the  Virgin  Martyr  of  Massinger.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  entire  parts  of  Pauline  and  Severe  are  beyond 
praise,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  former  reconciles  her  duty 
as  a  wife  with  her  affection  for  her  lover  is  an  astonishing  success. 
In  Pompte  (for  La  Mart  de  Pompee,  though  the  more  appropriate, 
was  not  the  original  title)  the  splendid  declamation  of  Cornelie  is 
the  chief  thing  to  be  remarked.  Le  Menteur  fully  deserves  the 
honour  which  Moliere  paid  to  it.  Its  continuation,  notwithstand- 
ing the  judgment  of  some  French  critics,  we  cannot  think  so 
happy.  But  Theodore  is  perhaps  the  most  surprising  of  literary 
anomalies.  The  central  situation,  which  so  greatly  shocked 
Voltaire  and  indeed  all  French  critics  from  the  date  of  the  piece, 
does  not  seem  to  blame.  A  virgin  martyr  who  is  threatened 


with  loss  of  honour  as  a  bitterer  punishment  than  loss  of  life 
offers  points  as  powerful  as  they  are  perilous.  But  the  treatment 
is  thoroughly  bad.  From  the  heroine  who  is,  in  a  phrase  of 
Dryden's,  "  one  of  the  coolest  and  most  insignificant  "  heroines 
ever  drawn,  to  the  undignified  Valens,  the  termagant  Marcelle, 
and  the  peevish  Placide,  there  is  hardly  a  good  character.  Im- 
mediately upon  this  in  most  printed  editions,  though  older  in 
representation,  follows  the  play  which  (therein  agreeing  rather 
with  the  author  than  with  his  critics)  we  should  rank  as  his 
greatest  triumph,  Rodogune.  Here  there  is  hardly  a  weak  point. 
The  magnificent  and  terrible  character  of  Cleopatre,  and  the 
contrasted  dispositions  of  the  two  princes,  of  course  attract 
most  attention.  But  the  character  of  Rodogune  herself,  which 
has  not  escaped  criticism,  comes  hardly  short  of  these.  Heradius, 
despite  great  art  and  much  fine  poetry,  is  injured  by  the  extreme 
complication  of  its  argument  and  by  the  blustering  part  of 
Pulcherie.  Andromede,  with  the  later  spectacle  piece,  the 
Toison  d'or,  do  not  call  for  comment,  and  we  have  already 
alluded  to  the  chief  merit  of  Don  Sanche.  Nicomede,  often 
considered  one  of  Corneille's  best  plays,  is  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  curious  and  unusual  character  of  its  hero.  Of  Pertharite 
it  need  only  be  said  that  no  single  critic  has  to  our  knowledge 
disputed  the  justice  of  its  damnation.  (Edipe  is  certainly 
unworthy  of  its  subject  and  its  author,  but  in  Sertorius  we  have 
one  of  Corneille's  finest  plays.  It  is  remarkable  not  only  for 
its  many  splendid  verses  and  for  the  nobility  of  its  sentiment, 
but  from  the  fact  that  not  one  of  its  characters  lacks  interest,  a 
commendation  not  generally  to  be  bestowed  on  its  author's 
work.  Of  the  last  six  plays  we  may  say  that  perhaps  only  one 
of  them,  Ag&silas,  is  almost  wholly  worthless.  Not  a  few 
speeches  of  Surena  and  of  Othon  are  of  a  very  high  order.  As  to 
the  poet's  non-dramatic  works,  we  have  already  spoken  of  his 
extremely  interesting  critical  dissertations.  His  minor  poems 
and  poetical  devotions  are  not  likely  to  be  read  save  from 
motives  of  duty  or  curiosity.  The  verse  translation  of  a  Kempis, 
indeed,  which  was  in  its  day  immensely  popular  (it  passed 
through  many  editions),  condemns  itself. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  subject  of  the  bibliography  of  Corneille  was 
treated  in  the  most  exhaustive  manner  by  M.  E.  Picot  in  his  Biblio- 
graphie  Cornelienne  (Paris.  1875-1876).  Less  elaborate,  but  still 
ample  information  may  be  found  in  J.  A.  Taschereau's  Vie  and  in 
M.  Marty-La veaux's  edition  of  the  Works.  The  individual  plays 
were  usually  printed  a  year  or  two  after  their  first  appearance: 
but  these  dates  have  been  subjected  to  confusion  and  to  controversy, 
and  it  seems  better  to  refer  for  them  to  the  works  quoted  and  to  be 
quoted.  The  chief  collected  editions  in  the  poet's  lifetime  were 
those  of  1644,  16^.8,  1652,  1660  (with  important  corrections),  1664 
and  1682,  which  gives  the  definitive  text.  In  1692  T.  Corneille  pub- 
lished a  complete  The&tre  in  5  vols.  I2mo.  Numerous  editions 
appeared  in  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century,  that  of  1740  (6  vols. 
I2mo,  Amsterdam)  containing  the  (Euvres  diverses  as  well  as  the 
plays.  Several  editions  are  recorded  between  this  and  that  of 
Voltaire  (12  vols.  8vo;  Geneva,  1764,  1776,  8  vols.  4to),  whose 
Commentaires  have  often  been  reprinted  separately.  In  the  year  IX. 
(1801)  appeared  an  edition  of  the  Works  with  Voltaire's  commentary 
and  criticisms  thereon  by  Palissot  (12  vols.  8vo,  Paris).  Since  this 
the  editions  have  been  extremely  numerous.  Those  chiefly  to  be 
remarked  are  the  following.  Lefeyre's  (12  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1854), 
well  printed  and  with  a  useful  variorum  commentary,  lacks  biblio- 
graphical information  and  is  disfigured  by  hideous  engravings. 
Of  Taschereau's,  in  the  Bibliotheque  elzevirienne,  only  two  volumes 
were  published.  Lahure's  appeared  in  5  vols.  (1857-1862)  and  7 
vols.  (1864-1866).  The  edition  of  Ch.  Marty-Laveaux  in  Regnier's 
Grands  Ecrivains  de  la  France  (1862-1868),  in  12  vols.  8vo,  is  still  the 
standard.  In  appearance  and  careful  editing  it  leaves  nothing  to 
desire,  containing  the  entire  works,  a  lexicon,  full  bibliographical 
information,  and  an  album  of  illustrations  of  the  poet's  places  of 
residence,  his  arms,  some  title-pages  of  his  plays,  facsimiles  of  his 
writings,  &c.  Nothing  is  wanting -but  variorum  comments,  which 
Lefevre's  edition  supplies.  Fpntenelle's  life  of  his  uncle  is  the  chief 
original  authority  on  that  subject,  but  Taschereau's  Histoire  de  la  vie 
et  des  ouvrages  de  P.  Corneille  (ist  ed.  1829,  2nd  in  the  Bibl.  elzeviri- 
enne, 1855)  is  the  standard  work.  Its  information  has  been  corrected 
and  augmented  in  various  later  publications,  but  not  materially. 
Of  the  exceedingly  numerous  writings  relative  to  Corneille  we  may 
mention  the  Recueil  de  dissertations  sur  plusieurs  tragedies  de  Corneille 
et  de  Racine  of  the  abbe  Granet  (Paris,  1740),  the  criticisms  alreadv 
alluded  to  of  Voltaire,  La  Harpe  and  Palissot,  the  well-known  work 
of  Guizot,  first  published  as  Vie  de  Corneille  in  1813  and  revised  as 
Corneille  et  son  temps  in  1852,  and  the  essays,  repeated  in  his  Portraits 


CORNEILLE,  THOMAS— CORNELIUS,  C.  A.  P. 


167 


litteraires,  in  Port-Royal,  and  in  the  Nouveaux  Lundis  of  Sainte-Beuve. 
More  recently,  besides  essays  by  MM.  Brunettere,  Faguet  and 
Lemaltre  and  the  part  appurtenant  of  M.  E.  Rigal  s  work  on  1 6th 
century  drama  in  France,  see  Gustave  Lanson's  '  Corneille  m  the 
Grands  Ecrivains  frangais  (1898);  F.  Bouquet's  Points  obscurs  et 
noweaux  de  la  vie  de  Pierre  Corneille  (1888);  Corneille  tnconnu,  by 
I  Levallois  (1876) ;  J.  Lemaitre,  Corneille  et  la  poetique  d  Anstote 
(1888)-  I  B.  Segall,  Corneille  and  the  Spanish  Drama  (1902);  and 
the  recently  discovered  and  printed  Fragments  sur  Pierre  et  Thomas 
Corneille  of  Alfred  de  Vigny  (1905).  On  the  Cid  quarrel  E.  H 
Chardon's  Vie  de  Rotrou  (1884)  bears  mainly  on  a  whole  series  of 
documents  which  appeared  at  Rouen  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
Societ^  des  bibliophiles  normands  during  the  years  1891-1894.  1  he 
best-known  English  criticism,  that  of  Hallam  in  his  Literature  of 
Europe,  is  inadequate.  The  translations  of  separate  plays  are  very 
numerous,  but  of  the  complete  Theatre  only  one  version  (into  Italian) 
is  recorded  by  the  French  editors.  Fontenelle  tells  us  that  his  uncle 
had  translations  of  the  Cid  in  every  European  tongue  but  1  urkish 
and  Slavonic,  and  M.  Picot's  book  apprises  us  that  the  latter  want, 
at  any  rate,  is  now  supplied.  Corneille  has  suffered  less  than  some 
other  writers  from  the  attribution  of  spurious,  works.  Besides  a 
tragedy,  Sylla,  the  chief  piece  thus  assigned  is  L'Occasion  perdue 
recouverte,  a  rather  loose  tale  in  verse.  Internal  evidence  by  no 
means  fathers  it  on  Corneille,  and  all  external  testimony  is  against 
it  It  has  never  been  included  in  Corneille's  works.  It  is  curious 
that  a  translation  of  Statius  (Thebaid,  bk.  iii.),  an  author  of  whom 
Corneille  was  extremely  fond,  though  known  to  have  been  written, 
printed  and  published,  has  entirely  dropped  out  of  sight.  1  hree 
verses  quoted  by  Menage  are  all  we  possess.  (G.  SA.) 

CORNEILLE,  THOMAS  (1625-1709),  French  dramatist,  was 
born  at  Rouen  on  the  2oth  of  August  1625,  being  nearly  twenty 
years  younger  than  his  brother,  the  great  Corneille.     His  skill 
in  verse-making  seems  to  have  shown  itself  early,  as  at  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  composed  a  piece  in  Latin  which  was  represented 
by  his  fellow-pupils  at  the  Jesuits'  college  of  Rouen.     His  first 
French  play,  Les  Engagements  du  hasard,  was  acted  in  1647. 
Le  Feint  Astrologue,  imitated  from  the  Spanish,  and  imitated  by 
Dryden,  came  next  year.     At  his  brother's  death  he  succeeded 
to  his  vacant  chair  in  the  Academy.     He  then  turned  his  attention 
to  philology,  producing  a  new  edition  of  the  Remarques  of  C.  F. 
Vaugelas  in  1687,  and  in  1694  a  dictionary  of  technical  terms, 
intended  to  supplement  that  of  the  Academy.     A  complete 
translation  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses  (he  had  published  six  books 
with  the  Heroic  Epistles  some  years  previously)  followed  in  1697. 
In  1704  he  lost  his  sight  and  was  constituted  a  "veteran,"  a 
dignity  which  preserved  to  him  the  privileges,  while  it  exempted 
him  from  the  duties,  of  an  academician.     But  he  did  not  allow 
his  misfortune  to  put  a  stop  to  his  work,  and  in  1708  produced  a 
large  Dictionnaire  universel  geographique  et  hislorique  in  three 
volumes  folio.     This  was  his  last  labour.    He  died  at  Les  Andelys 
on  the  8th  of  December  1709,  aged  eighty-four.     It  has  been  the 
custom  to  speak  of  Thomas  Corneille  as  of  one  who,  but  for  the 
name  he  bore,  would  merit  no  notice.     This  is  by  no  means  the 
case;  on  the  contrary,  he  is  rather  to  be  commiserated  for  his 
connexion  with  a  brother  who  outshone  him  as  he  would  have 
outshone  almost  any  one.     But  the  two  were  strongly  attached 
to  one  another,  and  practically  lived  in  common.     Of  his  forty- 
two  plays  (this  is  the  utmost  number  assigned  to  him)  the  last 
edition  of  his  complete  works  contains  only  thirty-two,  but  he 
wrote  several  in   conjunction  with  other  authors.     Two  are 
usually  reprinted  as  his  masterpieces  at  the  end  of  his  brother's 
selected  works.     These  are  Ariane  (1672)  and  the  Comle  d'  Essex, 
in  the  former  of  which  Rachel  attained  success.     But  of  Laodice, 
Camma,  StUico  and  some  other  pieces,  Pierre  Corneille  himself 
said  that  "  he  wished  he  had  written  them,"  and  he  was  not 
wont  to  speak  lightly.     Camma  (1661,  on  the  same  story  as 
Tennyson's  Cup)  especially  deserves  notice.     Thomas  Corneille  is 
in  many  ways  remarkable  in  the  literary  gossip-history  of  his 
time.     His  Timocrate  boasted  of  the  longest  run  (80  nights) 
recorded  of  any  play  in  the  century.     For  La  Devineresse  he 
and  his  coadjutor  de  Vis6  (1638-1710,  founder  of  the  Mercure 
galant,  to  which  Thomas  contributed)  received  above  6000  livres, 
the  largest  sum  known  to  have  been  thus  paid.     Lastly,  one  of 
his  pieces  (Le  Baron  des  Fondrieres)  contests  the  honour  of  being 
the  first  which  was  hissed  off  the  stage. 

There  is  a  monograph ,  Thomas  Corneille,  sa  vie  el  ses  ouvrages  (l  892) , 
by  G.  Reynier.  See  also  the  Fragments  inedits  de  critique  sur  Pierre  et 
Thomas  Corneille  of  Alfred  de  Vigny,  published  in  1905.  (G.  SA.) 


CORNELIA  (2nd  cent.  B.C.),  daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus  the 
Elder,  mother  of  the  Gracchi  and  of  Sempronia,  the  wife  of  Scipio 
Africanus  the  Younger.  On  the  death  of  her  husband,  refusing 
numerous  offers  of  marriage,  she  devoted  herself  to  the  education 
of  her  twelve  children.  She  was  so  devoted  to  her  sons  Tiberius 
and  Gaius  that  it  was  even  asserted  that  she  was  concerned  in 
the  death  of  her  son-in-law  Scipio,  who  by  his  achievements  had 
eclipsed  the  fame  of  the  Gracchi,  and  was  said  to  have  approved 
of  the  murder  of  Tiberius.  When  asked  to  show  her  jewels  she 
presented  her  sons,  and  on  her  death  a  statue  was  erected  to  her 
memory  inscribed,  "  Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi." 
After  the  murder  of  her  second  son  Gaius  she  retired  to  Misenum, 
where  she  devoted  herself  to  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  and  to 
the  society  of  men  of  letters.  She  was  a  highjy  educated  woman, 
and  her  letters  were  celebrated  for  their  beauty  of  style.  The 
genuineness  of  the  two  fragments  oi  a  letter  from  her  to  her  son 
Gaius,  printed  in  some  editions  of  Cornelius  Nepos,  is  disputed. 

See  L.  Mercklin,  De  Corneliae  vita  (1844),  of  no  great  value; 
J.  Sorgel,  Cornelia,  die  Mutter  der  Gracchen  (1868),  a  short  popular 
sketch. 


CORNELIUS,  pope,  was  elected  in  251  during  the  lull  in  the 
persecution  of  the  emperor  Decius.  Two  years  afterwards,  under 
the  emperor  Callus,  he  was  exiled  to  Centumcellae  (Civita 
Vecchia) ,  where  he  died.  He  was  very  intimate  with  St  Cyprian, 
and  is  commemorated  with  him  on  the  i6th  of  September,  which 
is  not,  however,  the  anniversary  of  his  death.  He  died  in  June 

253. 

CORNELIUS,   CARL  AUGUST  PETER  (1824-1874),  German 
musician  and  poet,  son  of  an  actor  at  Wiesbaden,  grandson  of 
the  engraver  Ignaz  Cornelius,  and  nephew  of  Cornelius  the 
painter,  was  born  at  Mainz  on  the  24th  of  December  1824.     In 
his  childhood  his  bent  was  towards  languages,  but  his  musical 
gifts  were  carefully  cultivated  and  he  learned  to  sing  and  to 
play  the  violin.     Cornelius  the  elder,  anxious  for  his  son  to 
become  an  actor,  himself  taught  the  boy  the  elements  of  the  art. 
These  theatrical  studies,  however,  were  interrupted  early  by  a 
visit  paid  by  Peter  Cornelius  to  England  as  second  violin  in  the 
Mainz  orchestra.     On  returning  home  young  Cornelius  made  his 
stage  debut  as  John  Cook  in  Kean.     But  after  two  more  appear- 
ances, as  the  lover  in  the  comedy  Das  war  Ich  and  as  Perin  in 
Moreto's  Donna  Diana,  he  practically  abandoned  the  stage  for 
music,  his  idea  being  to  become  a  comic  opera  composer.     In 
1843  his  father  died.     Hitherto  Cornelius's  musical  studies  had 
been  unsystematic.     Now  opportunity  served  to  remedy  this, 
for  his  relative,  Cornelius  the  painter,  summoned  him  in  1844 
to  Berlin,  and  enabled  him  a  year  later  to  become  a  pupil  of 
Siegfried  Wilhelm  Dehn  (1799-1858),  counterpoint  and  theory 
generally  being  worked  at  laboriously.     After  leaving  Dehn, 
Cornelius  proved  his  independence  by  writing  a  trio  in  A  minor, 
a  quartet  in  C,  as  well  as  two  comic  opera  texts.     In  1847  he 
returned  to  Dehn  and  immediately  composed  an  enormous  mass 
of  music,  including  a  second  trio,  30  vocal  canons,  several  sonatas, 
a  Mass,  a  Stabat  Mater;  he  also  wrote  a  number  of  translations 
of  old  French  poems,  which  are  classics  of  their  kind.     In  1852 
he  first  came  in  touch  with  Liszt,  through  his  uncle's  instrumen- 
tality.    At  Weimar,  whither  he  went  in  1852,  he  heard  Berlioz's 
delightful  Benvenuto  Cellini,  a  work  which  ultimately  exercised 
great  influence  over  him.     For  the  time,  however,  he  devoted 
himself,  on  Liszt's  advice,  to  further  Church  compositions,  the 
influence  of  the  Church  on  him  at  that  time  being  so  great  that 
he  applied,  but  vainly,  for  a  place  in  a  Jesuit  college.     Still  his 
mind  was  bent  on  the  production  of  a  comic  opera,  but  the 
composition  was  long  delayed  by  the  work  of  translating  the 
prefaces  for  Liszt's  symphonic  poems  and  the  texts  of  works  by 
Berlioz  and  Rubinstein.     Between  October  1855  and  September 
in  the  following  year,  Cornelius  wrote  the  book  of  the  Barbier  von 
Bagdad,  and  on  December  15,  1858,  the  opera  was  produced  at 
Weimar  under  Liszt,  and  hissed  off  the  stage.     Thereupon  Liszt 
resigned  his  post,  and  shortly  afterwards  Cornelius  went  to 
Vienna  and   Munich,  and  still  later  came  very  much  under 
Wagner's  influence.    Cornelius's  Cid  was  completed  and  produced 
at  WeimafSn  1865.     For  the  last  nine  years  of  hislife  (1865-1874) 


i68 


CORNELIUS,  P.  VON 


Cornelius  was  occupied  with  his  opera  Gunlod  and  other  com- 
positions, besides  writing  ably  and  abundantly  on  Wagner's 
music-dramas.  In  1867  he  became  teacher  of  rhetoric  and 
harmony  at  the  Musikschule,  Munich,  and  married  Berthe  Jung. 
He  died  on  the  26th  of  October  1874.  Not  the  least  of  Cornelius's 
many  claims  to  fame  was  his  remarkable  versatility.  Many  of 
his  original  poems,  as  well  as  his  translations  from  the  French, 
rank  high.  Among  his  songs,  special  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  lovely  "  Weihnachtslieder,"  and  of  the  "  Vatergruft,"  an 
unaccompanied  vocal  work  for  baritone  solo  and  choir. 

CORNELIUS,  PETER  VON  (1784-1867),  German  painter, 
was  born  in  Dusseldorf  in  1784.  His  father,  who  was  inspector 
of  the  Dusseldorf  gallery,  died  in  1799,  and  the  young  Cornelius 
was  stimulated  to  extraordinary  exertions.  In  a  letter  to  the 
Count  Raczynski  he  says,  "  It  fell  to  the  lot  of  an  elder  brother 
and  myself  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  a  numerous  family. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  it  was  attempted  to  persuade  my  mother 
that  it  would  be  better  for  me  to  devote  myself  to  the  trade  of 
a  goldsmith  than  to  continue  to  pursue  painting — in  the  first 
place,  in  consequence  of  the  time  necessary  to  qualify  me  for  the 
art,  and  in  the  next,  because  there  were  already  so  many  painters. 
My  dear  mother,  however,  rejected  all  this  advice,  and  I  felt 
myself  impelled  onward  by  an  uncontrollable  enthusiasm,  to 
which  the  confidence  of  my  mother  gave  new  strength,  which 
was  supported  by  the  continual  fear  that  I  should  be  removed 
from  the  study  of  that  art  I  loved  so  much."  His  earliest  work 
of  importance  was  the  decoration  of  the  choir  of  the  church  of 
St  Quirinus  at  Neuss.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  produced 
his  designs  from  Faust.  On  October  14,  1811,  he  arrived  in 
Rome,  where  he  soon  became  one  of  the  most  promising  of  that 
brotherhood  of  young  German  painters  which  included  Overbeck, 
Schadow,  Veit,  Schnorr  and  Ludwig  Vogel  (1788-1879), — a 
fraternity  (some  of  whom  selected  a  ruinous  convent  for  their 
home)  who  were  banded  together  for  resolute  study  and  mutual 
criticism.  Out  of  this  association  came  the  men  who,  though 
they  were  ridiculed  at  the  time,  were  destined  to  found  a  new 
German  school  of  art. 

At  Rome  Cornelius  participated,  with  other  members  of  his 
fraternity,  in  the  decoration  of  the  Casa  Bartoldi  and  the  Villa 
Massimi,  and  wb^le  thus  employed  he  was  also  engaged  upon 
designs  for  the  illustration  of  the  Nibelungenlied.  From  Rome 
he  was  called  to  Dusseldorf  to  remodel  the  Academy,  and  to 
Munich  by  the  then  crown-prince  of  Bavaria,  afterwards  Louis 
I.,  to  direct  the  decorations  for  the  Glyptothek.  Cornelius, 
however,  soon  found  that  attention  to  such  widely  separated 
duties  was  incompatible  with  the  just  performance  of  either, 
and  most  inconvenient  to  himself;  eventually,  therefore,  he 
resigned  his  post  at  Dusseldorf  to  throw  himself  completely  and 
thoroughly  into  those  works  for  which  he  had  been  commissioned 
by  the  crown-prince.  He  therefore  left  Dusseldorf  for  Munich, 
where  he  was  joined  by  those  of  his  pupils  who  elected  to  follow 
and  to  assist  him.  At  the  death  of  Director  Langer,  1824-1825, 
he  became  director  of  the  Munich  Academy. 

The  fresco  decorations  of  the  Ludwigskirche,  which  were  for 
the  most  part  designed  and  executed  by  Cornelius,  are  perhaps 
the  most  important  mural  works  of  modern  times.  The  large 
fresco  of  the  Last  Judgment,  over  the  high  altar  in  that  church, 
measures  62  ft.  in  height  by  38  ft.  in  width.  The  frescoes  of  the 
Creator,  the  Nativity,  and  the  Crucifixion  in  the  same  building 
are  also  upon  a.  large  scale.  Amongst  his  other  great  works  in 
Munich  may  be  included  his  decorations  in  the  Pinakothek  and 
in  the  Glyptothek;  those  in  the  latter  building,  in  the  hall  of 
the  gods  and  the  hall  of  the  hero-myths,  are  perhaps  the  best 
known.  About  the  year  1839-1840  he  left  Munich  for  Berlin 
to  proceed  with  that  series  of  cartoons,  from  the  Apocalypse, 
for  the  frescoes  for  which  he  had  been  commissioned  by  Frederick 
William  IV.,  and  which  were  intended  to  decorate  the  Campo 
Santo  or  royal  mausoleum.  These  were  his  final  works. 

Cornelius,  as  an  oil  painter,  possessed  but  little  technical  skill, 
nor  do  his  works  exhibit  any  instinctive  appreciation  of  colour. 
Even  as  a  fresco  painter  his  manipulative  power  was  not  great. 
And  in  critically  examining  the  execution  in  colour  t>f  some  of 


his  magnificent  designs,  one  cannot  help  feeling  that  he  was,  in 
this  respect,  unable  to  do  them  full  justice.  Cornelius  and  his 
associates  endeavoured  to  follow  in  their  works  the  spirit  of  the 
Italian  painters.  But  the  Italian  strain  is  to  a  considerable 
extent  modified  by  the  Diirer  heritage.  This  Diirer  influence 
is  manifest  in  a  tendency  to  overcrowding  in  composition,  hi  a 
degree  of  attenuation  in  the  proportions  of,  and  a  poverty  of 
contour  in,  the  nude  figure,  and  also  in  a  leaning  to  the  selection 
of  Gothic  forms  for  draperies.  These  peculiarities  are  even 
noticeable  hi  Cornelius's  principal  work  of  the  "  Last  Judgment," 
in  the  Ludwigskirche  hi  Munich.  The  attenuation  and  want 
of  flexibility  of  contour  hi  the  nude  are  perhaps  most  conspicuous 
in  his  frescoes  of  classical  subjects  in  the  Glyptothek,  especially 
in  that  representing  the  contention  for  the  body  of  Patroclus. 
But  notwithstanding  these  peculiarities  there  is  always  in  his 
works  a  grandeur  and  nobleness  of  conception,  as  all  must 
acknowledge  who  have  inspected  his  designs  for  the  Ludwigs- 
kirche, for  the  Campo  Santo,  &c.  If  he  were  not  dexterous  hi 
the  handling  of  the  brush,  he  could  conceive  and  design  a  subject 
with  masterly  purpose.  If  he  had  an  imperfect  eye  for  colour, 
in  the  Venetian,  the  Flemish,  or  the  English  sense,  he  had  vast 
mental  foresight  in  directing  the  German  school  of  painting; 
and  his  favourite  motto  of  Deutschland  iiber  alles  indicates  the 
direction  and  the  strength  of  his  patriotism.  Karl  Hermann 
was  one  of  Cornelius's  earliest  and  most  esteemed  scholars,  a 
man  of  simple  and  fervent  nature,  painstaking  to  the  utmost, 
a  very  type  of  the  finest  German  student  nature;  Kaulbach 
and  Adam  Eberle  were  also  amongst  his  scholars.  Every  public 
edifice  in  Munich  and  other  German  cities  which  were  embellished 
with  frescoes,  became,  as  in  Italy,  a  school  of  art  of  the  very  best 
kind;  for  the  decoration  of  a  public  building  begets  a  practical 
knowledge  of  design.  The  development  of  this  institution  of 
scholarship  in  Munich  was  a  work  of  time.  The  cartoons  for 
the  Glyptothek  were  all  by  Cornelius's  own  hand.  In  the 
Pinakothek  his  sketches  and  small  drawings  sufficed;  but  in  the 
Ludwigskirche  the  invention  even  of  some  of  the  subjects  was 
entrusted  to  his  scholar  Hermann. 

To  comprehend  and  appreciate  thoroughly  the  magnitude  of 
the  work  which  Cornelius  accomplished  for  Germany,  we  must 
remember  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  Germany 
had  no  national  school  of  art.  Germany  was  in  painting  and 
sculpture  behind  all  the  rest  of  Europe.  Yet  in  less  than  half 
a  century  Cornelius  founded  a  great  school,  revived  mural 
painting,  and  turned  the  gaze  of  the  art  world  towards  Munich. 
The  German  revival  of  mural  painting  had  itseffect  upon  England, 
as  well  as  upon  other  European  nations,  and  led  to  the  famous 
cartoon  competitions  held  hi  Westminster  Hall,  and  ultimately 
to  the  partial  decoration  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  When 
the  latter  work  was  in  contemplation,  Cornelius,  in  response  to 
invitations,  visited  England  (November  1841).  His  opinion 
was  in  every  way  favourable  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  project, 
and  even  in  respect  of  the  durability  of  fresco  in  the  climate  of 
England.  Cornelius,  in  his  teaching,  always  inculcated  a  close 
and  rigorous  study  of  nature,  but  he  understood  by  the  study  of 
nature  something  more  than  what  is  ordinarily  implied  by  that 
expression,  something  more  than  constantly  making  studies  from 
life;  he  meant  the  study  of  nature  with  an  inquiring  and 
scientific  spirit.  "  Study  nature,"  was  the  advice  he  once  gave, 
"  in  order  that  you  may  become  acquainted  with  its  essential 
forms." 

The  personal  appearance  of  Cornelius  could  not  but  convey 
to  those  who  were  fortunate  enough  to  come  into  contact  with 
him  the  impression  that  he  was  a  man  of  an  energetic,  firm  and 
resolute  nature.  He  was  below  the  middle  height  and  squarely 
built.  There  was  evidence  of  power  about  his  broad  and  over- 
hanging brow,  in  his  eagle  eyes  and  firmly  gripped  attenuated 
lips,  which  no  one  with  the  least  discernment  could  misinterpret. 
Yet  there  was  a  sense  of  humour  and  a  geniality  which  drew 
men  towards  him;  and  towards  those  young  artists  who  sought 
his  teaching  and  his  criticism  he  always  exhibited  a  calm 
patience. 

See  Forster,  Peter  von  Cornelius  (Berlin,  1874).  (W.  C.  T.) 


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


169 


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  one  of  the  largest  of  American 
institutions  of  higher  education,  situated  at  Ithaca,  New  York. 
Its  campus  is  finely  situated  on  a  hill  above  the  main  part  of  the 
city;  it  lies  between  Fall  Creek  and  Cascadilla  Creek  (each  of 
which  has  cut  a  deep  gorge),  and  commands  a  beautiful  view 
of  the  valley  and  of  Lake  Cayuga.  The  university  is  co-educa- 
tional (since  1872),  and  comprises  the  graduate  school,  with 
306  students  in  1909;  the  college  of  arts  and  sciences  (902 
students);  the  college  of  law  (225  students),  established  in  1887;' 
the  medical  college  (217  students,  of  whom  29  were  taking 
freshman  or  sophomore  work  in  Ithaca,  where  all  women  entering 
the  college  must  pursue  the  first  two  years  of  work) — this  college 
was  established  in  1898  by  the  gift  of  Oliver  Hazard  Payne,  and 
has  buildings  opposite  Bellevue  hospital  on  First  Avenue  and 
28th  Street,  New  York  city;  the  New  York  state  veterinary 
college  (94  students),  established  by  the  state  legislature  in  1894; 
the  New  York  state  college  of  agriculture  (413  students),  estab- 
lished as  such  by  the  state  legislature  in  1904, — the  teaching 
of  agriculture  had  from  the  beginning  been  an  important  part 
of  the  university's  work, — with  an  agricultural  experiment 
station,  established  in  1887  by  the  Federal  government;  the 
college  of  architecture  (133  students) ;  the  college  of  civil  engineer- 
ing (569  students) ;  and  the  Sibley  College  of  mechanical  engineer- 
ing and  mechanic  arts  (i  163  students),  named  in  honour  of  Hiram 
Sibley  (1807-1888),  a  banker  of  Rochester,  N.Y.,  who  gave 
$180,000  for  its  endowment  and  equipment  and  whose  son 
Hiram  W.  Sibley  gave  $130,000  to  the  college.  A  state  college 
of  forestry  was  established  in  connexion  with  the  university  in 
1898,  but  was  discontinued  after  several  years.  The  total 
enrolment  of  regular  students  in  1909  was  3980;  in  addition, 
841  students  were  enrolled  in  the  1908  summer  session  (which 
is  especially  for  teachers)  and  364  in  the  "  short  winter  course 
in  agriculture  "  in  1909.  Nearly  all  the  states  and  territories 
of  the  United  States  and  thirty-two  foreign  countries  were 
represented — e.g.  there  v/ere  33  students  from  China,  12  from 
the  Argentine  Republic,  6  from  India,  10  from  Japan,  10  from 
Mexico,  5  from  Peru,  &c. 

In  the  W.  central  part  of  the  campus  is  the  university  library 
building,  which,  with  an  endowment  (1891)  of  $300,000  for  the 
purchase  of  books  and  periodicals,  was  the  gift  of  Henry  Williams 
Sage  (1814-1897),  second  president  of  the  board  of  trustees; 
in  1906  it  received  an  additional  endowment  fund  of  about 
$500,000  by  the  bequest  of  Prof.  Willard  Fiske.  The  building, 
of  light  grey  Ohio  sandstone,  houses  the  general  library  (300,050 
volumes  in  1909),  the  seminary  and  department  libraries  (7284 
volumes),  and  the  forestry  library  (1007  volumes).  Among  the 
special  collections  of  the  general  library  are  the  classical  library 
of  Charles  Anthon,  the  philological  library  of  Franz  Bopp,  the 
Goldwin  ,  Smith  library  (1869),  the  White  architectural  and 
historical  libraries,  the  Spinoza  collection  presented  by  Andrew 
D.  White  (1894),  the  library  of  Jared  Sparks,  the  Samuel  J.  May 
collection  of  works  on  the  history  of  slavery,  the  Zarncke  library, 
especially  rich  in  Germanic  philology  and  literature,  the  Eugene 
Schuyler  collection  of  Slavic  folk-lore,  literature  and  history,  the 
Willard  Fiske  Rhaeto-Romanic,  Icelandic,  Dante  and  Petrarch 
collections,  and  the  Herbert  H.  Smith  collection  of  works  on 
Latin  America  (in  addition  there  are  college  and  department 
libraries — that  of  the  college  of  law  numbers  38,735  volumes — 
bringing  the  total  to  353,638  bound  volumes  in  1909).  Among 
the  other  buildings  are:  Morse  Hall,  Franklin  Hall,  Sibley 
College,  Lincoln  Hall  (housing  the  college  of  civil  engineering), 
Goldwin  Smith  Hall  (for  language  and  history),  Stimson  Hall 
(given  by  Dean  Sage  to  the  medical  college),  Boardman  Hall 
(housing  the  college  of  law),  Morrill  Hall  (containing  the  psycho- 
logical laboratory),  McGraw  Hall  and  White  Hall— these,  with 
the  library,  forming  the  quadrangle;  S.  of  the  quadrangle, 
Sage  chapel  (with  beautiful  interior  decorations),  Barnes  Hall 
(the  home  of  the  Cornell  University  Christian  Association), 
Sage  College  (a  dormitory  for  women),  and  the  armoury  and 
gymnasium;  E.  of  the  quadrangle,  the  Rockefeller  Hall  of  Physics 
(1906)  and  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  (completed 
in  1907);  and  S.E.  of  the  quadrangle  the  New  York  State 


Veterinary  College  and  the  Fuertes  Observatory.  The  university 
is  well-equipped  with  laboratories,  the  psychological  laboratory, 
the  laboratories  of  Sibley  college  and  the  hydraulic  laboratory 
of  the  college  of  civil  engineering  being  especially  noteworthy; 
the  last  is  on  Fall  Creek,  where  a  curved  concrete  masonry  dam 
has  been  built,  forming  Beebe  Lake.  East  of  the  campus  is 
the  university  playground  and  athletic  field  (55  acres),  built 
with  funds  raised  from  the  alumni.  Cayuga  Lake  furnishes 
opportunity  for  rowing,  and  the  Cornell  crews  are  famous. 
During  their  first  two  years  all  undergraduates,  unless  properly 
excused,  must  take  a  prescribed  amount  of  physical  exercise. 
Normally  the  first  year's  exercise  for  male  students  is  military 
drill  under  the  direction  of  a  U.S.  army  officer  detailed  as  com- 
mandant. 

The  reputation  of  the  university  is  particularly  high  in 
mechanical  engineering;  Sibley  college  was  built  up  primarily 
under  Prof.  Robert  Henry  Thurston  (1839-1903),  a  well-known 
engineer,  its  director  in  1885-1903.  The  college  includes  the 
following  departments:  machine  design  and  construction, 
experimental  engineering,  power  engineering,  and  electrical 
engineering.  The  "  Susan  Linn  Sage  School  of  Philosophy," 
so  called  since  the  gift  (1891)  of  $200,000  from  Henry  W.  Sage 
in  memory  of  his  wife,  issues  The  Philosophical  Review  and  Cornell 
Studies  in  Philosophy,  and  is  well  known  for  the  psychological 
laboratory  investigations  under  Prof.  E.  B.  Titchener  (b.  1867). 
Equally  well  known  are  the  college  of  agriculture  under  Prof. 
Liberty  Hyde  Bailey  (b.  1858);  the  "  Cornell  School  "  of  Latin 
grammarians,  led  first  by  Prof.  W.  G.  Hale  and  then  by  Prof. 
C.  E.  Bennett;  the  department  of  entomology  under  Prof. 
J.  H.  Comstock  (b.  1849),  the  department  of  physics  under 
Prof.  E.  L.  Nichols  (b.  1854),  and  other  departments.  The  uni- 
versity publishes  Cornell  Studies  in  Classical  Philology,  the  Journal 
of  Physical  Chemistry,  the  Physical  Review,  Publications  of  Cornell 
University  Medical  College,  various  publications  of  the  college  of 
agriculture,  and  Studies  in  History  and  Political  Science  (of 
"  The  President  White  School  of  History  and  Political  Science  "). 
Among  the  student  publications  are  The  Cornell  Era  (1868, 
weekly),  The  Cornell  Daily  Sun  (1880),  The  Sibley  Journal  of 
Engineering  (1882),  The  Cornell  Magazine,  a  literary  monthly, 
and  The  Cornell  Widow  (1892),  a  comic  tri-weekly.  The  regular 
annual  tuition  fee  is  $100,  but  in  medicine,  in  architecture,  and  in 
civil  and  mechanical  engineering  it  is  $150.  In  the  veterinary 
and  agricultural  colleges  there  are  no  tuition  fees  for  residents  of 
New  York  state.  There  are  150  free- tuition  state  scholarships 
(one  for  each  of  the  state  assembly  districts),  and,  in  addition, 
there  are  36  undergraduate  university  scholarships  (annual 
value,  $200)  tenable  for  two  years,  and  23  fellowships  and  17 
graduate  scholarships  (annual  value,  $300-600  each).  In  the 
college  of  arts  and  sciences  the  elective  system,  with  certain 
restrictions,  obtains. 

The  university  has  always  been  absolutely  non-sectarian; 
its  charter  prescribes  that  "  persons  of  every  religious  denomina- 
tion, or  of  no  religious  denomination,  shall  be  equally  eligible  to 
all  offices  and  appointments  "  and  that  "  at  no  time  shall  a 
majority  of  the  board  (of  trustees)  be  of  one  religious  sect  or  of  no 
religious  sect."  There  is,  however,  an  active  Christian  Association 
andrcligious services — provided  for  by  theDean  Sage  Preachership 
Endowment — are  conducted  in  Sage  chapel  by  eminent  clergy- 
men representing  various  sects  and  denominations. 

The  affairs  of  Cornell  university  are  under  the  administration 
of  a  board  which  must  consist  of  forty  trustees,  of  whom  ten 
arc  elected  by  the  alumni.  The  following  are  ex  officio  members 
of  the  board:  the  president  of  the  university,  the  librarian  of 
the  Cornell  Library  (in  Ithaca),  the  governor  and  the  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  state,  the  speaker  of  the  state  assembly,  the  state 
commissioners  of  education  and  of  agriculture,  and  the  president 
of  the  state  agricultural  society.  The  internal  government  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  university  faculty  (which  consists  of  the 
president,  the  professors  and  the  assistant  professors,  and  has 
jurisdiction  over  matters  concerning  the  university  as  a  whole), 
and  of  the  special  faculties,  which  consist  of  the  president,  the 
professors,  the  assistant  professors,  and  the  instructors  of 


CORNET 


the  several  colleges,  and  which  have  jurisdiction  over  distinctively 
collegiate  matters. 

In  1909  the  invested  funds  of  the  university  amounted  to  about 
^8,594,300,  yielding  an  annual  income  of  about  $428,800;  the 
income  from  state  and  nation  was  about  $232,050,  and  from 
tuition  fees  about  $336,100;  the  campus  and  buildings  were 
valued  at  about  $4,263,400,  and  the  Library,  collections, 
apparatus,  &c.  at  about  $1,826,100. 

The  university  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  New 
York  state  on  the  27th  of  April  1865,  and  was  named  in  honour 
of  Ezra  Cornell,1  its  principal  benefactor.  In  1864  Cornell,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Andrew  D.  White,  his  fellow  member  of  the 
state  senate,  decided  to  found  a  university  of  a  new  type — which 
should  be  broad  and  liberal  in  its  scope,  should  be  absolutely  non- 
sectarian,  and  which  should  recognize  and  meet  the  growing 
need  for  practical  training  and  adequate  instruction  in  the 
sciences  as  well  as  in  the  humanities.  He  offered  to  the  state 
as  an  endowment  $500,000  (with  200  acres  of  land)  on  condition 
that  the  state  add  to  this  fund  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  public 
lands  granted  to  it  by  the  Morrill  Act  of  1862  for  "the  endow- 
ment, support  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college,  where 
the  leading  object  shall  be  ...  to  teach  such  branches  of  learn- 
ing as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  .  .  .  "2 
The  charter  provided  that  "  such  other  branches  of  science 
and  knowledge  may  be  embraced  in  the  plan  of  instruction 
and  investigation  pertaining  to  the  university  as  the  trustees 
may  deem  useful  and  proper,"  and  Ezra  Cornell  expressed 
his  own  ideal  in  the  oft-quoted  words:  "  I  would  found  an  in- 
stitution where  any  person  can  find  instruction  in  any  study." 
The  opposition  to  Cornell's  plan  was  bitter,  especially  on  the  part 
of  denominational  schools  and  press,  but  incorporation  was 
secured,  and  the  trustees  first  met  on  the  5th  of  September  1865. 
Andrew  D.  White  was  elected  president  and  the  entire  educational 
scheme  was  left  to  him.  Dr  White's  ideals  in  part  were:  a  closer 
union  between  the  advanced  and  the  general  educational  system 
of  the  state;  liberal  instruction  of  the  industrial  classes; 
increased  stress  on  technical  instruction;  unsectarian  control; 
"  a  course  in  history  and  political  and  social  science  adapted  to 
the  practical  needs  of  men  worthily  ambitious  in  public  affairs  "; 
a  more  thorough  study  of  modern  languages  and  literatures, 
especially  English;  the  "steady  effort  to  abolish  monastic 
government  and  pedantic  instruction  ";  the  elective  system  of 
studies;  and  the  stimulus  of  non-resident  lecturers.  On  the 
7th  of  October  1868  the  Cornell  University  opened  with  some 
confusion  due  to  the  condition  of  the  campus,  and  to  the  presence 
of  412  would-be  pupils,  many  of  whom  expected  to  "  work  their 
way  through."  The  brilliance  of  the  faculty  and  especially  of  its 
non-resident  members  (including  J.  R.  Lowell,  Louis  Agassiz, 
G.  W.  Curtis,  Bayard  Taylor,  Theodore  D.  Dwight,  and  Goldwin 
Smith,  who  was  a  resident  professor  in  1866-1869),  was  to  a 
degree  over-shadowed  during  the  fifteen  years  1868-1882  by 
financial  difficulties.  But  Ezra  Cornell  himself  paid  many 
salaries  during  early  years,  and  provided  much  valuable  equip- 
ment solely  at  his  own  expense;  and  because  the  state's  land 
scrip  was  selling  too  low  to  secure  an  adequate  endowment  for 
the  University,  in  1866  he  bought  the  land  scrip  yet  unsold 

1  Ezra  Cornell  (1807-1874)  was  born  in  Westchester  county,  New 
York,  on  the  nth  of  January  1807.  His  parents  were  Quakers 
from  Massachusetts.  He  received  a  scanty  education;  worked  as  a 
carpenter  in  Syracuse  and  as  a  machinist  in  Ithaca ;  became  interested 
(about  1842)  m  the  development  of  the  electric  telegraph;  and  after 
unsuccessful  or  over-expensive  attempts  to  ground  the  telegraph 
wires  in  1844  solved  the  difficulty  by  stringing  them  on  poles.  He 
organized  many  telegraph  construction  companies,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  and  accumulated 
a  large  fortune.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  national  convention 
of  the  Republican  party  (1856)  and  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
assembly  in  1862-1863  and  of  the  state  senate  in  1864-1867.  He 
founded  a  public  library  (dedicated  in  1866)  in  Ithaca,  and  died 
there  on  the  9th  of  December  1874.  Consult  Alonzo  B.  Cornell, 
True  and  Firm:  A  Biography  of  Ezra  Cornell  (New  York,  1884). 

1  New  York's  share  amounted  to  990,000  acres.  The  Morrill  Act 
prescribed  that  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  this  land  should  not  be 
used  for  the  purchase,  erection  or  maintenance  of  any  building  or 
buildings. 


(819,920  acres)3  by  the  state  at  the  rate  of  sixty  cents  an  acre 
on  the  understanding  that  all  profits,  in  excess  of  the  purchase 
money,  should  constitute  a  separate  endowment  fund  to  which 
the  restrictions  in  the  Morrill  Act  should  not  apply;  and  in 
1866-1867  he  "  located  "  512,000  acres  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
and  Kansas.  In  November  1874  he  transferred  these  lands, 
which  had  cost  him  $576,953  more  than  he  had  received  from 
them,  to  the  university.  This  actual  deficit  on  the  lands 
"owned  by  the  university  steadily  increased  up  to  1881,  when, 
after  the  trustees  had  refused  (in  1880)  an  offer  of  $1,250,000 
for  275,000  acres  of  pine  lands,  they  sold  about  140,600  acres 
for  $2,319,296;  ultimately  401,296  acres  of  the  land  turned 
over  to  the  university  by  Cornell  were  sold,  bringing  a  net 
return  of  about  $4,800,000.  The  university  was  put  on  a 
sound  financial  footing;  the  number  of  students,  less  in  1881- 
1882  than  in  1868  at  the  opening  of  the  university,  again 
increased,  so  that  it  was  585  in  1884-1885,  and  2120  in  1897- 
1898.  The  presidents  of  the  university  have  been:  Andrew 
Dickson  White,  1865-1885;  Charles  Kendall  Adams,  1885-1892; 
and  Jacob  Gould  Schurman. 

CORNET,  a  word  having  two  distinct  significations  and  two 
etymological  histories,  both,  however,  ultimately  referable  to 
the  same  Latin  origin: — 

1.  (Fr.  cornette,  dim.  of  corne,  from  Lat.  cornu,  a  horn),  a 
small  standard,  formerly  carried  by  a  troop  of  cavalry,  and 
similar  to  the  pennon  in  form,  narrowing  gradually  to  a  point. 
The  term  was  then  applied  to  the  body  of  cavalry  which  carried 
a  cornet.     In  this  sense  it  is  used  in  the  military  literature  of  the 
i6th  century  and,  less  frequently,  in  that  of  the  I7th.    Before 
the  close  of  the  i6th  century,  however,  the  world  had  also  come 
to  mean  a  junior  officer  of  a  troop  of  cavalry  who,  like  the 
"  ensign  "  of  foot,  carried  the  colour.     The  spelling  "  coronet  " 
occurs  in  the  i6th  century,  and  has  perhaps  contributed  to 
obscure  the  derivation  of  "  colonel  "  or  "  coronel."    The  rank 
of  "  cornet  "  remained  in  the  British  cavalry  until  the  general 
adoption  of  the  term  "second  lieutenant."     In  the  Boer  republics 
"  field-cornets  "  were  local  subordinate  officers  of  the  commando 
(q.v.),  the  unit  of  the  military  forces.     Elected  for  three  years  by 
the  wards  into  which  the  electoral  districts  were  divided,  they 
had  administrative  as  well  as  military  duties,  and  acted  as 
magistrates,  inspectors  of  natives  and  registration  officers  for 
their  respective  wards.     In   1907,  the   "  field-cornet  "  system 
was  re-established  in  the  Transvaal;   the  new  duties  of  the 
"  field-cornets  "  are  those  performed  by  assistant  magistrates, 
viz.  petty  jurisdiction,  registration  of  voters,  births  and    deaths, 
the  carrying  out  of  regulations  as  to  animal  diseases,  and  main- 
tenance of  roads.     The  "  field-cornets  "  are  appointed  by  govern- 
ment for  three  years. 

2.  (Fr.  cornet,  Ital.  cornetto,  Med.  Lat.  cornelum,  a  bugle,  from 
Lat.  cornu,  a  horn),  in  music,  the  name  of  two  varieties  of  wind 
instruments  (see  below),  and  also  of  certain  stops  of  the  organ. 
The  great  organ  "  solo  cornet "  was  a  mixture  or  compound  stop, 
having  either  5,  4,  or  3  ranges  of  pipes;  occasionally  it   was 
placed  on  a  separate  soundboard,  when  it  was  known  as  a 
"  mounted  cornet."     The  "  echo  cornet  "  was  a  similar  stop,  but 
softer  and  enclosed  in  a  box.     In  German  and  Dutch  organs  the 
term  cornet  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  pedal  reed  stop. 

(a)  CORNET  or  CORNETT  (Fr.  cornet,  cornet  d  bouquin;  Ger. 
Zinck,  Zincken;  Ital.  cornetto)  is  the  name  given  to  a  family  of 
wood  wind  instruments,  now  obsolete,  having  a  cup-shaped 
mouthpiece  and  a  conical  bore  without  a  bell,  and  differing 
entirely  from  the  modern  cornet  a  pistons.  The  old  cornets 
were  of  two  kinds,  the  straight  and  the  curved,  characterized 
by  radical  differences  in  construction.  There  were  two  very 
different  kinds  of  straight  cornets  (Ger.  gerader  Zinck,  Ital. 
cornetto  diretto  or  recto),  the  one  most  commonly  used  having  a 
detachable  cup-shaped  mouthpiece  similar  to  that  of  the  trumpet, 
while  the  other  was  made  to  all  apnearance  without  mouthpiece, 
there  being  not  even  a  moulded  rim  at  the  .end  of  the  tube  to 

*  He  had  previously — in  1865 — bought  scrip  for  100,000  acres  for 
$50,000,  on  the  understanding  that  all  profits  which  might  accrue 
from  the  sale  of  the  land  should  be  paid  to  the  university. 


CORNET 


171 


break  the  rigid  straight  line.  Examination  of  the  tube,  however, 
reveals  the  secret  of  the  characteristic  sweet  tone  of  this  latter 
kind  of  cornet;  unsuspected  inside  the  top  of  the  tube  is  cut  out 
of  the  thickness  of  the  wood  a  mouthpiece,  not  cup-shaped,  but 
like  a  funnel  similar  to  that  of  the  French  horn,  which  merges 
gradually  into  the  bore  of  the  instrument.  This  mode  of  con- 
struction, together  with  the  narrower  bore  adopted,  greatly 
influenced  the  timbre  of  the  instrument,  whose  softer  tone  was 
thus  due  mainly  to  the  substitution  of  the  funnel  for  the  sharp 
angle  of  incidence  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup  mouthpiece  known 
as  the  throat  (see  MOUTHPIECE),  where  it  communicates  with  the 
tube.  It  is  this  sharp  angle,  which  in  the  other  cornets  with 
detachable  mouthpiece,  causes  the  column  of  air  to  break, 
producing  a  shrill  quality  of  tone,  while  the  wider  bore  and 
slightly  rough  walls  of  the  tube  account  for  the  harshness.  In 
Germany  the  sweet-toned  cornet  was  known  as  stiller  or  sanfter 
Zinck,  and  in  Italy  as  cornetto  muto  (fig.  i),  while  in  France  the 
instruments  with  detachable  mouthpiece  were  distinguished 
by  the  adition  of  &  bouquin  ( =  with  mouth- 
piece). The  curved  cornet  (Ger.  krummer 
Zinck  or  Stadtkalb;  Ital.  cornetto  curvo)  could 
not  for  obvious  reasons  have  the  bore  pierced 
through  a  single  piece  of 
wood;  the  channel  for 
the  vibrating  column  of  air 
was,  therefore,  hollowed 
out  of  two  pieces  of  wood, 
the  diameter  increasing 
from  the  mouthpiece  to 
the  lower  end.  The  two 
pieces  of  wood  thus  pre- 
pared were  joined  together 
with  glue  and  covered 
with  leather,  the  outer 
surface  of  the  tube  being 
finished  off  in  octagonal 
shape.  The  separate 
mouthpiece,  made  in- 
differently of  wood,  horn, 
ivory  or  metal,1  analogous 
to  that  of  the  trumpet, 
was  distinctly  cup-shaped 
and  fixed  by  a  tenon  to 
the  upper  extremity  of 
the  pipe.  The  primitive 
instrument  was  an 
animal's  horn. 

Pipes  of  such  short 
length  give  only,  besides 
the  first  or  fundamental, 
the  second  and  sometimes 
the  third  note  of  the 
harmonic  series.  Thus  a 
pipe  that  has  forits  funda- 
mental A  will,  if  the  pressure  of  breath  and  tension  of  the 
lips  be  steadily  increased,  give  the  octave  A  and  the  twelfth  E. 
In  order  to  connect  the  first  and  second  harmonics  diatonically, 
the  length  of  the  pipe  was  progressively  shortened  by  boring 
lateral  holes  through  the  tube  for  the  fingers  to  cover.  The 
successive  opening  of  these  holes  furnished  the  instrumentalist 
with  the  different  intervals  of  the  scale,  six  holes  sufficing  for 
this  purpose: 


From  Capt.  C.  R.  Day's  Dcxriptive  Catalogue 
of  Musical  Instruments,  by  permission  of  Messrs. 
Eyre  &  Spottiswoode. 

FIG.  i. — Cornetto  FIG.  2. — Cornetto 
Muto.  Curvo. 


The  fundamental  was  thus  connected  with  its  octave  by  all  the 
degrees  of  a  diatonic  scale,  which  became  chromatic  by  the  help 
of  cross-fingering  and  the  greater  or  less  tension  of  the  lips 
stretched  as  vibrating  reeds  across  the  opening  of  the  mouth- 
piece. This  increased  compass  of  twenty-seven  notes  obtained 
'See  Marin  Mersenne, L'Harmonie  universelle  (Paris,  1636-1637), 
bk.  v.,  pp.  273-274. 


by  cross-fingering  is  very  clearly  shown  in  a  table  by  Eisel.2 
The  fingering  was  completed  by  a  seventh  hole,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  production  of  the  octave  without  the  necessity  of 
closing  all  the  holes  in  order  to  produce  the  second  note  of  the 
harmonic  series.  The  first  complete  octave,  thus  obtained  by  a 
succession  of  fundamental  notes,  was  easily  octaved  by  a  stronger 
pressure  of  breath  and  tension  of  the  lips  across  the  mouthpiece, 
and  thus  the  ordinary  limits  of  the  compass  of  a  Zinck  or  cornet 
could  be  extended  to  a  fifteenth.  Whether  straight  or  curved 
it  was  pierced  laterally  with  seven  holes,  six  through  the  front, 
and  the  seventh,  that  nearest  the  mouthpiece,  through  the  back. 
The  first  three  holes  were  usually  covered  with  the  third,  second 
and  first  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  the  next  four  with  the  third, 
second  and  first  fingers  and  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand.  But 
some,  instrumentalists  inverted  the  position  of  the  hands. 
Virdung3  shows,  besides  the  cornetto  recto,  a  kind  of  Zinck  made 
of  an  animal's  horn  with  only  four  holes,  three  in  the  front  of 
the  pipe  and  one  at  the  back.  Such  an  instrument  as  this  had 
naturally  a  very  limited  compass,  since  these  four  holes  only 
sufficed  to  produce  the  intermediate  notes  between  the  second 
and  third  proper  tones  of  the  harmonic  scale,  the  lower  octave, 
comprised  between  the  first  and  second  remaining  incomplete; 
by  overblowing,  however,  the  next  octave  would  be  obtained 
in  addition. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century  Praetorius4  represents  the 
Zincken  as  a  complete  family  comprising:  (i)  the  little  Zinck  with 

the  lowest  note 


(2)  the  ordinary  Zinck  with  the  lowest 


note 


=,  (3)  the  great  Zinck,  cornon  or  corno  torto,  a  great 


cornet  in  the  shape  of  an  3  with  the  lowest  note  &—  p~or:=j — .     In 
France6  the  family  was  composed   of  the  following  instruments: 

(1)  The  'dessus  or  treble  cornet  with  the  lowest    note 

(2)  the  haute-contre  or  alto  cornet  with  the  lowest  note 


(3)  the  tattle  or  tenor  cornet  with  the  lowest  note 


and  the 


basse  or  bass  or  pedalle'  cornet   with  the  lowest  note   &=^    — . 

The  cornets  of  the  lowest  pitch  were  sometimes  furnished  with  an 
open  key  which,  when  closed,  lengthened  the  tube  and  extended 
the  compass  downwards  by  a  note.  Mersenne  figures  a  cornon  with 
a  key. 

During  the  middle  ages  these  instruments  were  in  such  favour 
that  an  important  part  was  given  to  them  in  all  instrumental  com- 
binations. At  Dresden,7  between  1647  and  1651,  the  Kapelle  of  the 
electoral  prince  of  Saxony  included  two  cornets,  the  bass  being 
supplied  by  the  trombone.  Monteverde  introduced  two  cornets  in 
the  3rd  and  4th  acts  of  his  Orfeo  (1607).  In  France  the  charges  for 
the  Chapelle-Musique  of  the  kings  of  France  for  the  year  1619  contain 
two  entries  of  the  sum  of  450  livres  tournois,  salary  paid  to  one  Marcel 
Ca.yty,joueur  de  cornet,  a  post  held  by  him  from  1604  until  at  least 
1631,  when  another  cornet  player,  Jean  Daneau,  is  also  mentioned.8 

In  Germany  in  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries,  Zincken  were  used 
with  trombones  in  the  churches  to  accompany  the  chorales.  There 
are  examples  of  this  use  of  the  instrument  in  the  sacred  cantatas 
of  J.  S.  Bach,  where  the  cornet  is  added  to  the  upper  voice  parts 
to  strengthen  them.  Johann  Mattheson,  conductor  of  the  opera  at 


2  See  Eisel's  (Anon.)  Musicus  AirroSlioxTos,  oder  der  sick  selbst 
informirende  Musicus  (Erfurt,  1738),  p.  93  and  table  vi. 

5  Sebastian   Virdung,   Musica  getutscht  und  auszgezogen    (Basel, 
I51')- 

4  Michael  Praetorius,  Syntag.  Music.,  vol.  ii.  De  Organographia 
(Wolfenbuttel,  1618),  pp.  25  and  41,  pis.  8  and  13. 

6  See  Mersenne,  loc.  cit. 

'  See  Ad.  MS.  30342,  Brit.  Museum,  fol.  145.  A  tract  in  French 
containing  pen  and  ink  sketches  of  musical  instruments,  which  dates 
from  the  I7th  or  perhaps  the  i8th  century,  and  was  formerly  in  the 
possession  of  the  Jesuit  college  in  Paris.  Here  the  pedalle  is  the  bass 
pommer,  or  hautbois,  and  the  sackbut  is  indicated  as  second  bass  or 
oasse-contre.  As  also  in  Mersenne,  the  cornets  are  curved. 

7  See  Moritz  Filrstenau,  Geschichte  der  Musik  und  des  Theaters  am 
Hofe  zu  Dresden  (Dresden,  1861-1862),  p.  28. 

8  See  Michel  Brenet,  "  Deux  comptes  de  la  Chapelle  Musique  des 
rois  de  France,"  Sammelband  der  Intern.  Mus.  Ges.,  vi.  I  (Leipzig, 
1904),  pp.  20,  21,  29;  and  Archives  nationales  (Paris),  2..  la.  486. 


i72  CORNET 

Hamburg,  writing  on  the  orchestra  in  1713 l  gives  a  description  of 
the  Zinck  as  a  member  of  the  orchestra,  but  in  1739,*  in  his  work 


on  the  perfect  conductor,  he  deplores  the  decrease  of  its  popularity 
in  church  music,  from  which  it  seems  to  be  banished  as  useless. 
Gluck  was  the  last  composer  of  importance  who  scored  for  the  cornet, 
as  for  instance  in  Orfeo,  in  Paride  ed  Elena,  in  Alceste  and  in  Armide, 
&c.  The  great  vogue  of  the  curved  cornet  is  not  to  be  accounted  for 
by  its  musical  qualities,  for  it  had  a  hard,  hoarse,  piercing  sound, 
and  it  failed  utterly  in  truth  of  intonation;  these  natural  defects, 
moreover,  could  only  be  modified  with  great  difficulty.  Mersenne's 
eulogium  of  the  dessus,  then  more  employed  than  the  other  cornets, 
can  only  be  appreciated  at  its  full  value  if  we  look  upon  the  art  of 
cornet  playing  as  a  lost  art.  "  The  dessus,"  he  says,  "  was  used 
in  the  vocal  concerts  and  to  make  the  treble  with  the  organ,  which 
is  ravishing  when  one  knows  how  to  play  it  to  perfection  like  the 
Sieur  Guiclet;"  and  again  further  on,  "  the  character  of  its  tone 
resembles  the  brilliance  of  a  sunbeam  piercing  the  darkness,  when  it  is 
heard  among  the  voices  in  churches,  cathedrals  or  chapels."3 
Mersenne  further  observes  that  the  serpent  is  the  true  bass  of  the 
cornet,  that  one  without  the  other  is  like  body  without  soul. 
A  drawing  in  pen  and  ink  of  a  curved  cornet  is  given  by  Randle 
Holme  in  his  Academy  of  Armoury  (1688) ;  4  and  at  the  end  of  the 
description  of  the  instrument  he  adds,  "  It  is  a  delicate  pleasant  wind 
musick,  if  well  played  and  humoured."  Giovanni  Maria  Artusi5  of 
Bologna,  writing  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  devotes  much 
space  to  the  cornet,  explaining  in  detail  the  three  kinds  of  tonguing 
used  with  the  instrument.  By  tonguing  is  understood  a  method  of 
articulation  into  the  mouthpiece  of  flute,  cornet  a  pistons  or  trumpet, 
of  certain  syllables  which  add  brilliance  to  the  tone.  Artusi  advocates 
(i)  for  the  guttural  effect,  ler,  ler,  ler,  der,  ler,  der,  ler;  ter,  ler,  ter; 
ler,  ler,  ler;  (2)  for  the  tongue  effect,  tere,  tere,  lere;  (3)  for  the  dental 
effect,  teche,  teche,  teche,  used  by  those  who  wish  to  strike  terror  into 
the  hearts  of  the  hearers — an  effect,  however,  which  offends  the  ear. 
A  clue  to  the  popularity  of  the  instrument  during  the  middle  ages 
may  perhaps  be  found  in  Artusi's  remark  that  this  instrument  is 
the  most  apt  in  imitating  the  human  voice,  but  that  it  is  very 
difficult  and  fatiguing  to  play;  the  musician,  he  adds  elsewhere, 
should  adopt  an  instrument  to  imitate  the  voice  as  much  as  possible, 
such  as  the  cornetto  and  the  trombone.  He  mentions  two  players 
in  Venice,  II  Cavaliero  del  Cornetto  and  M.  Girolamo  da  Udine,  who 
excelled  in  the  art  of  playing  the  cornet. 

Being  derived  from  the  horn  of  an  animal  through  which  lateral 
holes  had  been  pierced,  the  curved  cornet  was  probably  the  earlier, 
and  when  the  instrument  came  to  be  copied  in  metal  and  in  wood 
the  straight  cornet  was  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  simplify  the 
construction.  The  evolution  probably  took  place  in  Asia  Minor, 
where  tubes  with  conical  bore  were  the  rule,  and  the  instrument  was 
thence  introduced  into  Europe.  A  straight  Zinck,  haying  a  grotesque 
animal's  head  at  the  bell-end,  and  six  holes  visible,  is  pictured  in  a 
miniature  of  the  nth  century.6  What  appears  to  be  precisely  the 
same  kind  of  instrument,  although  differing  widely  in  reality,  the 
chaunter  being  reed-blown,  is  to  be  found  in  illuminated  MSS.  as  the 
chaunter  of  the  bagpipe,  as  for  example  in  a  royal  roll  of  Henry  III. 
at  the  British  Museum,7  where  it  occurs  twice  played  by  a  man  on 
stilts.  The  grotesque  was  probably  added  to  the  chaunter  in  imita- 
tion of  that  on  the  straight  Zinck.  Two  stitte  Zincken  or  cornetti  muti 
are  among  the  musical  instruments  represented  in  the  triumphal 
procession  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.'  (d.  1519),  designed  at  his 
command  by  H.  Burgmair  under  the  superintendence  of  Albrecht 
Durer. 

(V)  CORNET  A  PISTONS,  CORNET,  CORNOPAEAN  (Fr.  cornet  d 
pistons;  Ger.  Cornett;  Ital.  cornetto),  are  the  names  of  a  modern 
brass  wind  instrument  of  the  same  pitch  as  the  trumpet.  Being 
a  transformation  of  the  old  post-horn,  the  cornet  should  have  a 
conical  bore  of  wide  diameter  in  proportion  to  the  length  of 
tube,  but  in  practice  usually  only  a  small  portion  of  the  tube 
is  conical,  i.e.  from  the  mouthpiece  to  the  slide  of  the  first  valve 
and  from  the  slide  of  the  third  valve  to  the  bell.  The  tube  of 
the  cornet  is  doubled  round  upon  itself.  The  cup-shaped  mouth- 
piece is  larger  than  that  of  the  trumpet;  the  shape  of  the  cup 
in  conjunction  with  the  length  of  the  tube  and  the  proportions 

1  Das  neu-eroffnete  Orchester  (Hamburg,  1713),  p.  253. 

1  Der  vollkommene  Kapellmeister  (Hamburg,  1739). 

8  See  Mersenne,  op.  cit.,  bk.  v.,  p.  274. 

4  Part  of  book  iii.  in  MS.  Harleian,  2034,  fol.  2O7b.  Brit.  Museum. 

*  Delle  imperfettioni  della  moderna  musica  (Venice,  1600),  pp.  4, 
5,  6  and  I2b. 

•  Grafl.  Schonborn  Bibl.  Pommersfelden,  Cod.  2776,  reproduced 
in  E.  Buhle's  Die  musikalischen  Instrumente  in  den  Miniatur-Hand- 
schrifttn  des  Mittelalters,  part  i.   (Leipzig,   1903)  pi.  6  and  p.  24, 
where  other  references  will  be  found. 

7  Royal  Roll,  14  B.  v.  I3th  century.     See  also  Augustus  Hughes- 
Hughes,  Catalogue  of  MS.  Music  in  the  British  Museum,  part  iii. 

8  See  "  Triumphzug  des  Kaisers  Maximilians  I.,"  Bettage  zum 
isten  Bd.  d.  Jahrbuch  der  Samml.  des  Allerhochsten  Kaiserhauses 
(Vienna,  1883),  part  i.  p.  26,  and  letterpress,  Bd.  i.  pp.  154-181. 


of  the  bore  determines  the  timbre  of  the  instrument.  The  outline 
of  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  where  it  communicates  with  the  bore, 
is  of  the  greatest  importance.9  If,  as  in  the  trumpet,  it  presents 
angles  against  which  the  column  of  air  breaks,  it  produces  a 
brilliant  tone  quality.  In  the  cornet  mouthpiece  there  are  no 
angles  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  which  curves  into  the  bore; 
hence  the  cornet's  loose,  coarse  quality  of  tone.  The  sound  is 
produced  by  stretching  the  lips  across  the  mouthpiece,  and 
making  them  act  as  double  reeds,  set  in  vibration  by  the  breath. 
There  are  no  fixed  notes  on  the  cornet  as  in  instruments  with 
lateral  holes,  or  with  keys;  the  musical  scale  is  obtained  by  means 
of  the  power  the  performer  possesses — once  he  has  learned  how 
to  use  it — of  producing  the  notes  of  the  harmonic  series  by  over- 
blowing, i.e.  by  varying  the  tension  of  the  lips  and  the  pressure 
of  breath.  In  the  cornet  this  series  is  short,  comprising  only 
the  harmonics  from  the  2nd  to  the  8th : 

„ f  (g:)jy-  ("Harmonic  series  of  the  B  b  cornet 

'/L           3-fr»    g^3  :] — the  7th  is  slightly  flat,  a  defect 

\-   •     I"     I       '  •  "l  which  the  performer  corrects,  if  he 

7  [uses  the  note  at  all. 

The  intermediate  notes  completing  the  chromatic  scale  are 
obtained  by  means  of  three  pistons  which,  on  being  depressed, 
open  valves  leading  into  supplementary  wind-ways,  which 
lengthen  the  original'tube.  The  pitch  of  the  instrument  is  thus 
lowered  respectively  one  tone,  half  a  tone,  and  one  tone  and  a 
half.  The  action  of  the  piston  temporarily  changes  the  key  of 
the  instrument  and  with  it  the  notes  of  the  harmonic  series. 
Before  a  performer,  therefore,  can  play  a  note  he  must  know 
in  which  harmonic  series  it  is  best  obtained  and  use  the  proper 
piston  in  conjunction  with  the  requisite  lip  tension.  By  means 
of  the  pistons  the  compass  of  tjje  cornet  is  thus  extended  from 

Real  sounds  for  the  cornet  in  C. 

(The  minims  indicate  the  practical 
compass  but  the  extension  shown 
by  the  crotchets  is  possible  to  all 
good  players.) 

The  treble  clef  is  used  in  notation,  and  in  England  the  music 
for  the  cornet  is  usually  written  as  sounded,  but  most  French 
and  German  composers  score  for  it  as  for  a  transposing  instru- 
ment; for  example,  the  music  for  the  Bb  cornet  is  written  in 
a  key  one  tone  higher  than  that  of  the  composition. 

The  timbre  of  the  cornet  lies  somewhere  between  that  of  the 
horn  and  the  trumpet,  having  the  blaring,  penetrating  quality 
of  the  latter  without  its  brilliant  noble  sonorousness.  The  great 
favour  with  which  the  cornet  meets  is  due  to  the  facility  with 
which  it  speaks,  to  the  little  fatigue  it  causes,  and  to  the  simpli- 
city of  its  mechanism.  We  must,  however,  regret  from  the  point 
of  view  of  art  that  its  success  has  been  so  great,  and  that  it  has 
ended  in  usurping  in  brass  bands  the  place  of  the  bugles,  the 
tone  colour  of  which  is  infinitely  preferable  as  a  foundation  for 
an  ensemble  composed  entirely  of  brass  instruments.  Even 
the  symphonic  orchestra  has  not  been  secure  from  its  intrusion, 
and  the  growing  tendency  in  some  orchestras,  notably  in  France, 
to  allow  the  cornet  to  supersede  the  trumpet,  to  the  great  de- 
triment of  tone  colour,  is  to  be  deplored.  The  cornet  used  in  a 
rich  orchestral  harmony  is  of  value  for  completing  the  chords 
of  trumpets,  or  to  undertake  diatonic  and  chromatic  passages 
which  on  account  of  their  rapidity  cannot  easily  be  fingered  by 
trombones  or  horns.  The  technical  possibilities  of  the  instru- 
ment are  very  great,  almost  unrivalled  in  the  brass  wind: — notes 
sustained,  crescendo  or  diminuendo;  diatonic  and  chromatic 
scale' and  arpeggio  passages;  leaps,  shakes,  and  in  fact  all  kinds 
of  musical  figures  in  any  key,  can  be  played  with  great  facility 
on  the  three-valved  cornet.  Double  tonguing  is  also  practic- 
able, the  articulation  with  the  tongue  of  the  syllables  ti-ke  for 
double,  and  of  ti-ke-ti  for  triple  time  producing  a  striking  staccato 
effect. 

The  cornet  was  evolved  in  Germany,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  from  the  post-horn,  by  the  application  of  the 

'  See  Victor  Mahillon,  Elements  d'acoustique"  musicals  et  instru- 
mentale  (Brussels,  1874),  PP-  96.  97.  &c.,  with  diagrams,  and  Friedrich 
Zamminer,  Die  Musik  und  die  musikalischen  Instrumente,  &c. 
(Giessen,  1855),  p.  310,  &c.,  with  diagrams. 


CORNETO— CORNIFICIUS 


newly  invented  pistons  of  Stoelzel  and  Bluemel  patented  in  1815. 
It  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  and  France  about  1830. 
There  were  at  first  only  two  pistons — for  a  whole  tone  and  for 
a  half  tone — from  which  there  naturally  resulted  gaps  in  the 
chromatic  scale  of  the  instrument.  The  use  of  a  combination 
of  pistons  (see  BOMBARDON  and  VALVES)  fails  to  give  acoustically 
correct  intervals,  because  the  length  of  tubing  thus  thrown  open 
is  not  of  the  theoretical  length  required  to  produce  the  interval. 
A  tube  about  4  ft.  long,  such  as  that  of  the  Bb  cornet,  needs  an 
additional  length  of  about  3  in.  to  lower  the  pitch  a  semitone  ; 
but,  if  this  cornet  has  already  been  lowered  one  tone  to  the  key 
of  Ab,  the  length  of  tube  has  increased  some  6  in.,  and  the 
3-in.  semitone  piston  no  longer  adds  sufficient  tubing  to 

produce  a  semitone 
of  correct   intona- 
tion.    To  the  per- 
former falls  the  task 
of    concealing    the 
shortcomings  of  his 
instrument,  and  he 
therefore    corrects 
the  intonation   by 
varying  the  lip  ten- 
sion.    At  first  the 
FIG.  3.— Bb  Cornet  with  enharmonic          cornet  was  supplied 
valves  (Besson  &  Co.).                      ^  &  ^  «^J 

crooks  for  A,  Ab,  G,  F,  E,  Eb  and  D,  but  from  the  explanation 
but  now  given,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  they  were 
found  unpractical  for  valve  instruments,  and  all  but  the  first 
two  mentioned  have  been  abandoned.  The  history  of  the  cornet 
is  a  record  of  the  endeavours  of  successive  musical  instrument 
makers  to  overcome  this  inherent  defect  in  construction.  The 
most  ingenious  and  successful  of  these  improvements  are  the 
following: — (i)  The  six-valve-independent  system1  of  Adolphe 
Sax,  designed  about  1850,  by  which  a  separate  valve  was  used 
for  each  position,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  using  combina- 
tions of  pistons.  This  theoretically  perfect  system  unfortunately 
introduced  great  difficulties  in  practice,  the  valves  being  made 
ascending  instead  of  descending,  and  each  piston  cutting  off  a 
definite  length  of  wind-way  from  the  open  tube,  instead  of  adding 
to  it.  The  system  was  eventually  abandoned.  (2)  The  Besson 


FIG.  4. — B!>  Cornet  with  strictly  conical  bore  throughout, 
Klussmann's  patent  (Rudall,  Carte  &  Co.). 

Registre  giving  eight  independent  positions,  afterwards  modified 
as  the  (3)  Besson  compensating  system  trans  posileur,  patented 
in  England  in  1859,  which  was  considered  so  successful  that  the 
idea  was  extensively  used  by  other  makers.  (4)  The  Boosey 
automatic  compensating  piston,  invented  by  D.  J.  Blaikley,  and 
patented  in  1878,  a  very  ingenious  device  whereby  when  two 
or  more  pistons  are  used  simultaneously  the  length  of  the  air 
column  is  automatically  adjusted  to  the  theoretical  length 
required  to  ensure  correct  intonation.  (5)  Victor  Mahillon's 
automatic  regulating  pistons  (pistons  rigtdaleur  automatique) 
produced  about  1886,  the  result  of  independent  efforts  in  the 
same  direction  as  Blaikley,  and  equally  ingenious  and  effectual.2 
Finally  we  have  (6)  more  recently  the  Besson  enharmonic  valve 
system  (fig.  3)  with  three  pistons  and  six  independent  tuning 

1  For  a  fuller  description  of  this  system  see  Capt.  C.  R.  Day, 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Musical  Instruments  (London,  1891),  p.  207, 
No.  406. 

1  Id.,  pp.  192-193. 


slides  which  give  the  seven  positions  independently,  thus  realiz- 
ing in  a  simple  effectual  manner  all  that  Sax  strove  to  accomplish 
with  his  six  pistons.  The  enharmonic  valves  give  all  notes 
theoretically  true;  there  are  in  addition  separate  means  for 
adjusting  each  of  the  first  six  lengths,  for  although  these  lengths 
are  theoretically  correct  there  are  always  certain  modifying 
conditions  connected  with  brass  instruments  which  render  it 
essential  to  provide  means  for  adjustment.  All  notes  being  true 
on  this  Besson  cornet,  they  can  be  fingered  to  the  greatest 
advantagefor  smoothness  and  rapidity.  (7)  Rudall,  Carte  &  Co.'s 
cornet  (fig.  4),  with  strictly  conical  bore  (Klussmann's  patent) 
throughout  the  open  tube  and  additional  lengths  from  the  mouth- 
piece to  the  bell,  gives  a  perfect  intonation  and  is  at  the  same 
time  easy  to  blow.  There  are  no  crooks  to  this  cornet  when 
constructed  in  Bb,  but  it  may  be  instantaneously  transposed 
into  the  key  of  A  major  by  means  of  an  undetachable  slide 
guided  by  a  piston  rod.  (V.  M.;  K.  S.) 

CORNETO  TARQUINIA  (anc.  Tarquinii),  a  town  of  Italy, 
in  the  province  cf  Rome,  62  m.  N.W.  by  rail  from  the  town  of 
Rome,  490  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  5273.  Corneto 
probably  arose  after  the  ancient  town  had  been  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens.  In  the  loth  century  it  began  to  acquire  import- 
ance, and  for  some  time  was  an  independent  commune.  It  is 
picturesquely  situated,  and  commands  a  fine  view.  It  possesses 
medieval  fortifications,  and  no  less  than  twenty-five  towers  are 
still  standing  in  various  parts  of  the  town,  which  thus  has  a 
remarkably  medieval  appearance.  The  castle  on  the  N.  contains 
the  Romanesque  church  of  S.  Maria  in  Castello,  begun  in  1121, 
with  a  fine  portal  of  1143,  a  ciborium  of  1168  and  a  pulpit  of 
1209,  both  in  "  cosmatesque  "  work:  the  pavement  in  marble 
mosaic  also  is  fine.  There  are  several  other  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  churches  in  the  town  more  or  less  restored.  The  oldest 
parts  of  the  Palazzo  Comunale  date  from  about  1000.  The 
Gothic  Palazzo  Vitelleschi  (1439)  contains  remarkably  rich 
windows.  The  municipal  museum  (which  is  to  be  transferred  to 
this  palace)  and  the  Palazzo  Bruschi,  contain  fine  collections 
of  Etruscan  antiquities  from  the  tombs  of  Tarquinii.  Four 
miles  to  the  S.W.  is  the  Porto  Clementino  (perhaps  the  ancient 
Graviscae,  the  port  of  Tarquinii),  with  government  saltworks, 
in  which  convicts  are  employed. 

See  L.  Dasti,  Nolizie  storiche  archeologiche  di  Tarquinia  e  Corneto 
(Rome,  1878);  for  the  cemeteries,  Notizie  degli  Scavi,  1906,  1907. 

CORNICE  (Fr.  corniche,  Ital.  cornice),  in  architecture,  the 
projection  at  the  top  of  a  wall,  which  is  provided  to  throw  off 
the  rain  water  from  the  roof,  beyond  the  face  of  the  building. 
As  employed  in  classic  architecture  it  forms  the  upper  part  of 
the  entablature  of  an  order,  and  is  there  subdivided  into  bed 
mould,  corona  and  cymatium.  The  term  is  also  generally 
applied  to  any  moulding  projection  which  crowns  the  feature  to 
which  it  is  attached;  thus  doors  and  windows,  internally  as  well 
as  externally,  have  each  their  cornice,  and  the  same  applies 
to  pieces  of  furniture  (see  also  MASONRY). 

CORNIFICIUS,  the  author  of  a  work  on  rhetorical  figures, 
and  perhaps  of  a  general  treatise  (ars,  rkxvrj)  on  the  art  of 
rhetoric  (Quintilian,  Instil.,  iii.  i.  21,  ix.  3.  89).  He  has  been 
identified  with  the  author  of  the  four  books  of  Rhctorica  dedicated 
to  a  certain  Q.  Herennius  and  generally  known  under  the  title 
of  Auctor  ad  Herennium.  The  chief  argument  in  favour  of  this 
identity  is  the  fact  that  many  passages  quoted  by  Quintilian 
from  Cornificius  are  reproduced  in  the  Rhetorica.  Jerome, 
Priscian  and  others  attributed  the  work  to  Cicero  (whose  DC 
inventione  was  called  Rhetorica  prima,  the  A  uclor  ad  Herennium, 
Rhetorica  secunda),  while  the  claims  of  L.  AeliusStilo,  M.  Antonius 
Gnipho,  and  Ateius  Praetextatus  to  the  authorship  have  been 
supported  by  modern  scholars.  But  it  seems  improbable  that 
the  question  of  authorship  will  ever  be  satisfactorily  settled. 
Internal  indications  point  to  the  date  of  compositions  as  86-82 
B.C.,  the  period  of  Marian  domination  in  Rome.  The  unknown 
author,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  treatise  itself,  did  not  write 
to  make  money,  but  to  oblige  his  relative  and  friend  Herennius, 
for  whose  instruction  he  promises  to  supply  other  works  on 
grammar,  military  matters  and  political  administration.  He 


174 


CORNING— CORN  LAWS 


expresses  his  contempt  for  the  ordinary  school  rhetorician,  the 
hair-splitting  dialecticians  and  their  "  sense  of  inability  to  speak, 
since  they  dare  not  even  pronounce  their  own  name  for  fear  of 
expressing  themselves  ambiguously."  Finally,  he  admits  that 
rhetoric  is  not  the  highest  accomplishment,  and  that  philosophy 
is  far  more  deserving  of  attention.  Politically,  it  is  evident  that 
he  was  a  staunch  supporter  of  the  popular  party. 

The  first  and  second  books  of  the  Rhelorica  treat  of  invcntio 
and  forensic  rhetoric;  the  third,  of  dispositio,  pronuntiatio, 
memoria,  deliberative  and  demonstrative  rhetoric;  the  fourth, 
of  elocutio.  The  chief  aims  of  the  author  are  conciseness  and 
clearness  (breviter  el  dilucide  scribere).  In  accordance  with  this, 
he  ignores  all  rhetorical  subtleties,  the  useless  and  irrelevant 
matter  introduced  by  the  Greeks  to  make  the  art  appear  more 
difficult  of  acquisition;  where  possible,  he  uses  Roman  ter- 
minology for  technical  terms,  and  supplies  his  own  examples 
of  the  various  rhetorical  figures.  The  work  as  a  whole  is  con- 
sidered very  valuable.  The  question  of  the  relation  of  Cicero's 
De  imenlione  to  the  Rhetorica  has  been  much  discussed.  Three 
views  were  held:  that  the  Auctor  copied  from  Cicero;  that  they 
were  independent  of  each  other,  parallelisms  being  due  to  their 
having  been  taught  by  the  same  rhetorician  at  Rome;  that 
Cicero  made  extracts  from  the  Rhetorica,  as  well  as  from  other 
authorities,  in  his  usual  eclectic  fashion.  The  latest  editor, 
F.  Marx,  puts  forward  the  theory  that  Cicero  and  the  Auctor  have 
not  produced  original  works,  but  have  merely  given  the  substance 
of  two  rixvat.  (both  emanating  from  the  Rhodian  school) ;  that 
neither  used  the  rexvcu  directly,  but  reproduced  the  revised 
version  of  the  rhetoricians  whose  school  they  attended,  the 
introductions  alone  being  their  own  work;  that  the  lectures  on 
which  the  Ciceronian  treatise  was  based  were  delivered  before 
the  lectures  attended  by  the  Auctor. 

The  best  modern  editions  are  by  C.  L.  Kayser  (1860),  in  the 
Tauchnitz,  and  W.  Friedrich  (1889),  in  the  Teubner  edition  of 
Cicero's  works,  and  separately  by  F.  Marx  (1894);  see  also 
De  scholiis  Rhetorices  ad  Herennium,  by  M.  Wisen  (I9°5)-  Full 
references  to  authorities  will  be  found  in  the  articles  by  Brzoska  in 
Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyclopddie  (1901);  M.  Schanz,  Geschichte 
der  romischen  Litt.,  i.  (2nd  ed.,  pp.  387-394);  and  Teuffel-Schwabe, 
Hist,  of  Roman  Lit.  (Eng.  trans.,  p.  162) ;  see  also  Mommsen,  Hist, 
of  Rome,  bk.  iv.  ch.  13. 

CORNING,  ERASTUS  (1794-1872),  American  capitalist,  was 
born  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  on  the  I4th  of  December  1794. 
In  1807  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  hardware  store  at  Troy,  New 
York,  but  in  1814  he  removed  to  Albany,  where  he  eventually 
became  the  owner  of  extensive  ironworks',  obtained  a  controlling 
interest  in  various  banking  institutions,  and  accumulated  a 
large  fortune.  He  was  prominently  connected  with  the  early 
history  of  railway  development  in  New  York,  became  president 
of  the  Utica  &  Schenectady  line,  and  was  the  principal  factor 
in  the  extension  and  consolidation  of  the  various  independent 
lines  that  formed  the  New  York  Central  system,  of  which  he 
was  president  from  1853  to  1865.  He  was  also  interested  in  the 
building  of  the  Michigan  Central  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington  & 
Quincy  railways,  and  was  president  of  the  company  which 
constructed  the  Sault  Sainte  Marie  ship  canal,  providing  a  navig- 
able waterway  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior.  He  was 
prominent  in  politics  as  a  Democrat,  and,  after  serving  as  mayor 
of  Albany  from  1834  to  1837,  and  as  state  senator  from  1842  to 
1845,  he  was  a  representative  in  Congress  in  1857-1859  and  in 
1861-1863,  being  re-elected  for  a  third  term  in  1862,  but  resigning 
before  the  opening  of  the  session.  In  1861  he  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Peace  Congress,  but  when  the  Civil  War  actually  began 
he  loyally  supported  the  Lincoln  administration.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  New  York  constitutional  convention  of  1867, 
and  was  for  many  years  vice-chancellor  of  the  board  of  regents 
of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  He  died  at  Albany, 
New  York,  on  the  9th  of  April  1872. 

CORNING,  a  city  of  Steuben  county,  New  York,  U.S.A.,  in 
the  S.  part  of  the  state,  on  the  Chemung  river,  10  m.  W.N.W. 
of  Elmira.  Pop.  (1890)  8550;  (1900)  11,061,  of  whom  1410 
were  foreign-born;  (1910)  13,730.  Corning  is  served  by  the 
Erie,  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western,  and  the  New 


York  Central  &  Hudson  River  railways.  Among  the  principal 
buildings  and  institutions  are  a  fine  city  hall,  a  Federal  building, 
a  county  court  house,  the  Corning  hospital,  a  free  public  library 
and  St  Mary's  orphan  asylum  (Roman  Catholic).  Corning  is  one 
of  the  principal  markets  in  New  York  state  for  tobacco,  which 
is  extensively  produced  in  the  surrounding  country.  The 
principal  industry  is  the  making  of  cut  and  flint  glass,  and,  of 
the  several  extensive  plants  devoted  to  this  industry,  that  of 
the  Corning  Glass  Works  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  The 
city  also  has  railway  car  shops  and  foundries,  and  among  its 
manufactures  are  pressed  brick,  tile  and  terra-cotta,  papier- 
mache  and  lumber.  The  total  value  of  the  factory  products  in 
1905  was  $3,083,515,  35-7%  more  than  in  1900.  There  were 
settlers  on  the  site  of  Corning  as  early  as  1789,  but  it  was  not 
until  1848  that  it  was  incorporated  as  a  village  under  its  present 
name,  given  in  honour  of  Erastus  Corning,  the  railway  builder. 
Corning  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1890. 

See  C.  H.  M'Master,  History  of  the  Settlement  of  Steuben  County 
(Bath,  N.Y.,  1853). 

CORN  LAWS.  In  England,  legislation  on  corn  was  early 
applied  both  to  home  and  foreign  trade  in  this  essential  produce. 
Roads  were  so  bad,  and  the  chain  of  home  trade  so  feeble,  that 
there  was  often  scarcity  of  grain  in  one  part,  and  plenty  in  another 
part  of  the  same  kingdom.  Export  by  sea  or  river  to  some  foreign 
market  was  in  many  cases  more  easy  than  the  carriage  of  corn 
from  one  market  to  another  within  the  country.  The  frequency 
of  local  dearths,  and  the  diversity  and  fluctuation  of  prices,  were 
thus  extreme.  It  was  out  of  this  general  situation  that  the  first 
corn  laws  arose,  and  they  appear  to  have  been  wholly  directed 
towards  lowering  the  price  of  corn.  Exportation  was  prohibited, 
and  home  merchandise  in  grain  was  in  no  repute  or  toleration. 
As  long  as  the  rent  of  land,  including  the  extensive  domains  of 
the  crown,  was  paid  in  kind,  the  sovereign,  the  barons  and  other 
landholders  had  little  interest  in  the  price  of  corn  different  from 
that  of  other  classes  of  people,  the  only  demand  for  corn  being 
for  consumption  and  not  for  resale  or  export.  But  as  rents 
of  land  came  to  be  paid  in  money,  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to 
be  distinguished  by  a  remove  from  that  of  the  landowner,  the 
difference  between  town  and  country  to  be  developed,  and  the 
business  of  society  to  be  more  complex,  the  ruling  powers  of  the 
state  were  likely  to  be  actuated  by  other  views;  and  hence  the 
force  which  corn  legislation  afterward  assumed  in  favour  of  what 
was  deemed  the  agricultural  interest.  But  during  four  centuries 
after  the  Conquest  the  corn  law  of  England  simply  was  that 
export  of  corn  was  prohibited,  save  in  years  of  extreme  plenty 
under  forms  of  state  licence,  and  that  producers  carried  their 
surplus  grain  into  the  nearest  market  town,  and  sold  it  there 
for  what  it  would  bring  among  those  who  wanted  it  to  consume; 
and  the  same  rule  prevailed  in  the  principal  countries  of  the 
continent  of  Europe.  This  policy,  though,  as  one  may  argue 
from  its  long  continuance,  probably  not  felt  to  be  acutely 
oppressive,  was  of  no  avail  in  removing  the  evils  against  which 
it  was  directed.  On  the  contrary  it  prolonged  and  aggravated 
them.  The  prohibition  of  export  discouraged  agricultural  im- 
provement, and  in  so  much  diminished  the  security  and  liberality 
even  of  domestic  supply;  while  the  intolerance  of  any  home 
dealing  or  merchandise  in  corn  prevented  the  growth  of  a  com- 
mercial and  financial  interest  strong  enough  to  improve  the  means 
of  transport  by  which  the  plenty  of  one  part  of  the  same  country 
could  have  come  to  the  aid  of  the  scarcity  in  another. 

Apart  from  this  general  feudal  germ  of  legislation  on  corn, 
the  history  of  the  British  corn  laws  may  be  said  to  have  begun 
with  the  statute  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  (1436),  by  Eagiisi, 
which  exportation  was  permitted  without  state  licence,  corn  laws, 
when  the  price  of  wheat  or  other  corn  fell  below  certain   t436- 
prices.     The   reason   given   in   the   preamble  of  the  l603' 
statute  was  that  the  previous  state  of  the  law  had  compelled 
farmers  to  sell  their  corn  at  low  prices,  which  was  no  doubt  true, 
but  which  also  showed  the  important  turn  of  .the  tide  that  had 
set  in.     J.  R.  M'Culloch,  in  an  elaborate  article  in  the  Commercial 
Dictionary,  says  that  the  fluctuation  of  the  prices  of  corn  in  that 
age  was  so  great,  and  beyond  all  present  conception,  that  "  it  is 


CORN  LAWS 


175 


not  easy  to  determine  whether  the  exportation  price  of  6s.  8d. 
for  wheat  "  [izs.  lod.  in  present  money  per  quarter  ]  "  was  above 
or  below  the  medium  price."  But  while  the  medium  price  of 
the  kingdom  must  be  held  to  be  unascertainable  in  a  remote 
time,  when  the  medium  price  in  any  principal  market  town  of 
England  did  not  agree  with  that  of  another  for  any  year  or  series 
of  years,  one  may  readily  perceive  that  the  cultivators  of  the 
wheat  lands  in  the  south-eastern  counties  of  England,  for  example, 
who  could  frequently  have  sold  their  produce  in  that  age  to 
Dutch  merchants  to  better  advantage  than  in  their  own  market 
towns,  or  even  in  London,  but  were  prohibited  to  export  abroad, 
and  yet  had  no  means  of  distributing  their  supplies  at  home  so 
as  to  realize  the  highest  medium  price  in  England,  must  have 
felt  aggrieved,  and  that  their  barons  and  knights  of  the  shire 
would  have  a  common  interest  in  making  a  strong  effort  to 
rectify  the  injustice  in  parliament.  This  object  appears  to  have 
been  in  some  measure  accomplished  by  this  statute,  and  twenty- 
seven  years  afterwards  (1463)  a  decided  step  was  taken  towards 
securing  to  agriculturists  a  monopoly  of  the  home  market  by  a 
statute  prohibitory  of  importation  from  abroad.  Foreign  import 
was  to  be  permitted  only  at  and  above  the  point  of  prices  where 
the  export  of  domestic  produce  was  prohibited.  The  landed 
interest  had  now  adopted  the  idea  of  sustaining  and  equalizing 
the  value  of  corn,  and  promoting  their  own  industry  and  gains, 
which  for  four  centuries,  under  various  modifications  of  plan, 
and  great  changes  of  social  and  political  condition,  were  to 
maintain  a  firm  place  in  the  legislation  and  policy  of  England. 
But  there  were  many  reasons  why  this  idea,  when  carried  into 
practice,  should  not  have  the  results  anticipated  from  it. 

The  import  of  grain  from  abroad,  even  in  times  of  dearth  and 
high  prices  at  home,  could  not  be  considerable  as  long  as  the 
policy  of  neighbouring  countries  was  to  prohibit  export;  nor 
could  the  export  of  native  corn,  even  with  the  Dutch  and  other 
European  ports  open  to  such  supplies,  be  effective  save  in  limited 
maritime  districts,  as  long  as  the  internal  corn  trade  was  sup- 
pressed, not  only  by  want  of  roads,  but  by  legal  interdict.  The 
regulation  of  liberty  of  export  and  import  by  rates  of  price, 
moreover,  had  the  same  practical  objection  as  the  various  sliding- 
scales,  bounties,  and  other  legislative  expedients  down  to  1846, 
viz.  that  they  failed,  probably  more  in  that  age  than  in  later 
times,  to  create  a  permanent  market,  and  aimed  only  at  a  casual 
trade.  When  foreign  supplies  were  needed,  they  were  often  not 
to  be  found;  and  when  there  was  an  excess  of  corn  in  the  country 
a  profitable  outlet  was  both  difficult  and  uncertain.  It  would 
appear,  indeed,  that  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  the  statutes 
of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV.  had  become  obsolete;  for  a  law 
regulating  export  prices  in  identical  terms  of  the  law  of  1436 
was  re-enacted  in  the  reign  of  Philip  and  Mary  (1554).  In  the 
preceding  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  as  well  as  in  the  succeeding  long 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  there  were  unceasing  complaints  of  the  decay 
of  tillage,  the  dearth  of  corn,  and  the  privations  of  the  labouring 
classes;  and  these  complaints  were  met  by  the  same  kind 
of  measures — by  statutes  encouraging  tillage,  forbidding  the 
enlargement  of  farms,  imposing  severer  restrictions  on  storing 
and  buying  and  selling  of  grain,  and  by  renewed  attempts  to 
regulate  export  and  import  according  to  prices.  In  1562  the 
price  at  which  export  might  take  place  was  raised  to  IDS.  per 
quarter  for  wheat,  and  6s.  8d.  for  barley  and  malt.  This  only 
lasted  a  few  years,  and  in  1570  the  export  of  wheat  and  barley 
was  permitted  from  particular  districts  on  payment  of  a  duty 
of  is.  8d.  per  quarter,  although  still  liable  to  prohibition  by  the 
government  or  local  authority,  while  it  was  entirely  prohibited 
under  the  old  regulations  from  other  districts.  Only  at  the  close 
of  Elizabeth's  reign  (1603)  did  a  spark  of  new  light  appear  in  a 
further  statute,  which  removed  the  futile  provisions  in  favour 
of  tillage  and  against  enlargement  of  pastoral  farms,  and  rested 
the  whole  policy  for  promoting  an  equable  supply,  of  corn,  while 
encouraging  agriculture,  on  an  allowed  export  of  wheat  and 
other  grain  at  a  duty  of  zs.  and  is.  4d.  when  the  price  of  wheat 
was  not  more  than  zos.,  and  of  barley  and  malt  izs.  per  quarter. 
The  import  of  corn  appears  to  have  been  much  lost  sight  of  from 
the  period  of  the  statute  of  1463.  The  internal  state  of  England, 


as  well  as  the  policy  of  other  countries  of  Europe,  was  unfavour- 
able to  any  regular  import  of  grain,  though  many  parts  of  the 
kingdom  were  often  suffering  from  dearth  of  corn.  It  is  obvious 
that  this  legislation,  carried  over  more  than  a  century  and  a  half, 
failed  of  its  purpose,  and  that  it  neither  promoted  agriculture 
nor  increased  the  supply  of  bread.  So  great  a  variance  and 
conflict  between  the  intention  of  statutes  and  the  actual  course 
of  affairs  might  be  deemed  inexplicable,  but  for  an  explanation 
which  a  close  economic  study  of  the  circumstances  of  the  times 
affords. 

Besides  the  general  reasons  of  the  failure  already  indicated, 
there  were  three  special  causes  in  active  operation,  which,  though 
not  seen  at  the  period,  have  become  distinct  enough  since,  (i) 
A  comparatively  free  export  of  wool  had  been  permitted  in 
England  from  time  immemorial.  It  was  subject  neither  to 
conditions  of  price  nor  to  duties  in  the  times  under  consideration, 
was  easier  of  transport  and  much  less  liable  to  damage  than  corn, 
and,  under  the  extending  manufactures  of  France  and  the  Low 
Countries,  was  sure  of  a  foreign  as  well  as  a  domestic  market. 
Here  was  one  description  of  rural  produce  on  which  there  was 
the  least  embargo,  and  on  which  some  reliance  could  be  placed 
that  it  would  in  all  circumstances  bring  a  fair  value;  while  corn, 
the  prime  rural  produce,  was  subject  as  a  commodity  of  mer- 
chandise to  every  difficulty,  internally  and  externally,  which 
meddling  legislation  and  popular  prejudice  could  impose.  The 
numerous  statutes  enjoining  tillage  and  discouraging  pastoral 
farms — or  in  other  words  requiring  that  agriculturists  should 
turn  from  what  was  profitable  to  what  was  unprofitable — had 
consequently  no  substantial  effect,  save  in  the  many  individual 
instances  in  which  the  effect  may  have  been  injurious.  (2)  The 
value  of  the  standard  money  of  the  kingdom  had  been  under- 
going great  depreciation  from  two  opposite  quarters  at  once. 
The  pound  sterling  of  England  was  reduced  in  weight  of  pure 
metal  from  £i  :  18  :  9  in  1436,  the  date  of  the  first  of  the  corn 
statutes,  to  43.  7^d.  in  1551,  as  far  as  can  be  estimated  in  present 
money,  and  to  £i  :  o  :  6f  under  the  restoration  of  the  coinage 
in  the  following  year.  At  the  same  time  the  greater  abundance 
of  silver,  which  now  began  to  be  experienced  in  Europe  from  the 
discovery  of  the  South  American  mines,  was  steadily  reducing 
the  intrinsic  value  of  the  metal.  Hence  a  general  rise  of  prices 
remarked  by  Hume  and  other  historians;  and  hence  also  it 
followed  that  a  price  of  corn  fixed  for  export  or  import  at  one 
period  became  always  at  another  period  more  or  less  restrictive 
of  export  than  had  been  designed.  (3)  The  wages  of  labour 
would  have  followed  the  advance  in  the  prices  of  commodities 
had  wages  been  left  free,  but  they  were  kept  down  by  statute 
to  the  three  or  four  pence  per  day  at  which  they  stood  when 
the  pound  sterling  contained  one-fourth  more  silver,  and  silver 
itself  was  much  more  valuable.  This  was  a  refinement  of 
cruelty.  The  feudal  system  was  breaking  up;  a  wage-earning 
population  was  rapidly  increasing  both  in  the  farms  and 
in  the  towns;  but  the  spirit  of  feudalism  remained,  and 
the  iron  collar  of  serfdom  was  riveted  round  the  necks  of 
the  labourers  by  these  statutes  many  generations  after  they  had 
become  nominally  freemen.1  The  result  was  chronic  privation 
and  discontent  among  the  common  people,  by  which  all  the 
conditions  of  agriculture  and  trade  in  corn  were  further  straitened 
and  barbarized;  and  an  age,  in  some  high  respects  among  the 
most  brilliant  in  the  annals  of  England,  was  marked  by  an 
enormous  increase  of  pauperism,  and  by  the  introduction  of  the 
merciful  but  wasteful  remedy  of  the  Poor  Laws. 

The  corn  legislation  of  Elizabeth  remained  without  change 
during  the  reign  of  James,  the  civil  wars  and  the  Commonwealth. 
But  on  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1660,  the  question  was 
resumed,  and  an  act  was  passed  of  a  more  prohibitory  char- 
acter. Export  and  import  of  corn,  while  nominally  permitted) 

1  M'Culloch  found  from  a  comparison  of  the  prices  of  corn  and 
wages  of  labour  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI  I.  and  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  that  in  the  former  period  a  labourer  could  earn 
a  quarter  of  wheat  in  20,  a  quarter  of  rye  in  12,  and  a  quarter  of 
barley  in  9  days;  whereas,  in  the  latter  period,  to  earn  a  quarter  of 
wheat  required  48,  a  quarter  of  rye  32,  and  a  quarter  of  barley  29 
days'  labour. 


176 


CORN  LAWS 


1660- 
1773. 


were  alike  subjected  to  heavy  duties — the  need  of  the  exchequer 
being  the  paramount  consideration,  while  the  agriculturists  were 
no  doubt  pleased  with  the  complete  command  secured 
to  them  in  the  home  market.  This  act  was  followed 
by  such  high  prices  of  corn,  and  so  little  advantage 
to  the  revenue,  that  parliament  in  1663  reduced  the  duties  on 
import  to  9%  ad  valorem,  while  at  the  same  time  raising  the 
price  at  which  export  ceased  to  485.,  and  reducing  the  duty 
on  export  from  203.  to  53.  4d.  per  quarter.  In  a  few  years 
this  was  found  to  be  too  much  free-trade  for  the  agricultural 
Liking,  and  in  1670  prohibitory  duties  were  re-imposed  on  import 
when  the  home  price  was  under  535.  4d.,  and  a  duty  of  8s. 
between  that  price  and  8os.,  with  the  usual  make-weight  in 
favour  of  home  supply,  that  export  should  be  prohibited  when 
the  price  was  535.  4d.  and  upwards.  But  complaints  of  the 
decline  of  agriculture  continued  to  be  as  rife  under  this  act  as 
under  the  others,  till  on  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  the 
landed  interest,  taking  advantage  of  the  Revolution  as  they 
had  taken  advantage  of  the  Restoration  to  promote  their  own 
interests,  took  the  new  and  surprising  step  of  enacting  a  bounty 
on  the  export  of  grain.  This  evil  continued  to  affect  the  corn 
laws  of  the  kingdom,  varied,  on  one  occasion  at  least,  with  the 
further  complication  of  bounties  on  import,  until  the  ipth  century. 
The  duties  on  export  being  abolished,  while  the  heavy  duties 
on  import  were  maintained,  this  is  probably  the  most  one-sided 
form  which  the  British  corn  laws  ever  assumed,  but  it  was 
attended  with  none  of  the  advantages  anticipated.  The  prices 
of  corn  fell,  instead  of  rising.  There  had  occurred  at  the  period 
of  the  Revolution  a  depreciation  of  the  money  of  the  realm, 
analogous  in  one  respect  to  that  which  marked  the  first  era  of 
the  corn  statutes  (1436-1551),  and  forming  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  which  the  government  of  William  had  to  encounter. 
The  coin  of  the  realm  was  greatly  debased,  and  as  rapidly  as 
the  mint  sent  out  money  of  standard  weight  and  purity,  it  was 
melted  down,  and  disappeared  from  the  circulation.  The  influx 
of  silver  from  South  America  to  Europe  had  spent  its  action  on 
prices  before  the  middle  of  the  century;  the  precious  metals 
had  again  hardened  in  value;  and  for  forty  years  before  the 
Revolution  the  price  of  corn  had  been  steadily  falling  in  money 
price.  The  liberty  of  exporting  wool  had  also  now  been  cut 
down  before  the  English  manufactures  were  able  to  take  up  the 
home  supply,  and  agriculturists  were  consequently  forced  to 
extend  their  tillage.  When  the  current  coin  of  the  kingdom 
became  wholly  debased  by  clipping  and  other  knaveries,  there 
ensued  both  irregularity  and  inflation  of  nominal  prices,  and 
the  producers  and  consumers  of  corn  found  themselves  equally 
ill  at  ease.  The  farmers  complained  that  the  home-market  for 
their  produce  was  unremunerative  and  unsatisfactory;  the 
masses  of  the  people  complained  with  no  less  reason  that  the 
money  wages  of  labour  could  not  purchase  them  the  usual 
necessaries  of  life.  Macaulay,  in  his  History  of  England,  says 
of  this  period,  with  little  exaggeration,  that  "  the  price  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  of  shoes,  of  ale,  of  oatmeal,  rose  fast.  The 
labourer  found  that  the  bit  of  metal  which,  when  he  received  it, 
was  called  a  shilling,  would  hardly,  when  he  purchased  a  pot 
of  beer  or  a  loaf  of  rye  bread,  go  as  far  as  sixpence."  The  state 
of  agriculture  could  not  be  prosperous  under  these  conditions. 
But  when  the  government  of  William  surmounted  this  difficulty 
of  the  coinage,  as  they  did  surmount  it,  under  the  guidance  of 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  with  remarkable  statesmanship,  it  necessarily 
followed  that  prices,  so  far  from  rising,  declined,  because,  for  one 
reason,  they  were  now  denominated  in  a  solid  metallic  value. 
The  rise  of  prices  of  corn  attending  the  first  years  of  the  export 
bounty  was  consequently  of  very  brief  duration.  The  average 
price  of  wheat  in  the  Winchester  market,  which  in  the  ten  years 
1690-1699  was  £2:  ios.,  fell  in  the  ten  years  1716-1725  to 
£i:  5:4,  and  in  the  ten  years  1746-1755  to  £1:1:2?.  The 
system  of  corn  law  established  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary 
was  probably  the  most  perfect  to  be  conceived  for  advancing 
the  agricultural  interest  of  any  country.  Every  stroke  of  the 
legislature  seemed  complete  to  this  end.  Yet  it  wholly  failed 
of  its  purpose.  The  price  of  wheat  again  rose  in  1750-1760  and 


1791- 
1846. 


1760-1770  to  £1:19:3!  and  £2:11:33,  but  many  causes 
had  meanwhile  been  at  work,  as  invariably  happens  in  such 
economic  developments,  the  operation  of  which  no  statutes 
could  embrace,  either  to  control  or  to  prevent.  Between  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mary  and  that  of  George  III.,  the  question 
of  bounty  on  export  of  grain  had,  in  the  general  progress  of  the 
country,  fallen  into  the  background,  while  that  of  the  heavy 
embargoes  on  import  had  come  to  the  front.  Therefore  it  is 
that  Burke's  Act  of  1773,  as  a  deliberate  attempt  to  bring  the 
corn  laws  into  some  degree  of  reason  and  order,  is  worthy  of 
special  mention.  This  statute  permitted  the  import  of  foreign 
wheat  at  a  nominal  duty  of  6d.  when  the  home  price  was  485. 
per  quarter,  and  it  stopped  both  the  liberty  to  export  and  the 
bounty  on  export  together  when  the  home  price  was  443.  per 
quarter.  The  one  blemish  of  this  statute  was  the  stopping 
export  and  cutting  off  bounty  on  export  at  the  same  point  of 
price. 

Few  questions  have  been  more  discussed  or  more  differently 
interpreted  than  the  elaborate  system  of  corn  laws  dating  from 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary.  So  careful  an  observer  as 
Malthus  was  of  opinion  that  the  bounty  on  export  had  enlarged 
the  area  of  subsistence.  That  it  had  large  operation  is  sufficiently 
attested  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  years  from  1 740  to  1 7  5 1 ,  bounties 
were  paid  out  of  the  exchequer  to  the  amount  of  £1,515,000, 
and  in  1749  alone  they  amounted  to  £324,000.  But  the  trade 
thus  forced  was  of  no  permanence,  and  the  British  exports  of 
corn,  which  reached  a  maximum  of  1,667,778  quarters  in  1740- 
1750,  had  fallen  to  600,000  quarters  in  1760  and  continued  to 
decrease. 

Burke's  Act  lasted  long  enough  to  introduce  a  regular  import 
of  foreign  grain,  varying  with  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the 
home  harvest,  yet  establishing  in  the  end  a  systematic 
preponderance  of  imports  over  exports.  The  period, 
moreover,  was  marked  by  great  agricultural  improve- 
ments, by  extensive  reclamation  of  waste  lands,  and  by  an 
increased  horne  produce  of  wheat,  in  the  twenty  years  from 
1773  to  1793,  of  nearly  2,000,000  quarters.  Nor  had  the  course 
of  prices  been  unsatisfactory.  The  average  price  of  British 
wheat  in  the  twenty  years  was  £2:6:3,  and  in  only  three 
years  of  the  twenty  was  the  price  a  fraction  under  £2.  But  the 
ideas  in  favour  of  greater  freedom  of  trade,  of  which  the  act  of 
1773  was  an  indication,  and  of  which  another  memorable  example 
was  given  in  Pitt's  commercial  treaty  with  France,  were  over- 
whelmed in  the  extraordinary  excitement  caused  by  the  French 
Revolution,  and  all  the  old  corn  law  policy  was  destined  to  have 
a  sudden  revival.  The  landowners  and  farmers  complained  that 
an  import  of  foreign  grain  at  a  nominal  duty  of  6d.,  when  the 
price  of  wheat  was  only  483.,  deprived  them  of  the  ascending 
scale  of  prices  when  it  seemed  due;  and  on  this  instigation  an 
act  was  passed  in  1791,  whereby  the  price  at  which  importation 
could  proceed  at  the  nominal  duty  of  6d.  was  raised  to  545.,  with 
a  duty  of  2s.  6d.  from  545.  to  503.,  and  at  503.  and  under  505.  a 
prohibitory  duty  of  245.  3d.  The  bounty  on  export  was  main- 
tained by  this  act,  but  exportation  was  allowed  without  bounty 
till  the  price  reached  465.;  and  the  permission  accorded  by  the 
statue  of  1773  to  import  foreign  corn  at  any  price,  to  be  re- 
exported  duty  free,  was  modified  by  a  warehouse  duty  of  25.  6d. 
in  addition  to  the  duties  on  import  payable  at  the  time  of  sale, 
when  the  corn,  instead  of  being  re-exported,  happened  to  be  sold 
for  home  consumption.  The  legislative  vigilance  in  this  statue 
to  prevent  foreign  bread  from  reaching  the  home  consumer  is 
remarkable.  There  were  deficient  home  harvests  for  some  years 
after  1791,  particularly  in  1795  and  1797,  and  parliament  was 
forced  to  the  new  expedient  of  granting  high  bounties  on  im- 
portation. At  this  period  the  country  was  involved  in  a  great 
war;  all  the  customary  commercial  relations  were  violently 
disturbed;  freight,  insurance  and  other  charges  on  import  and 
export  were  multiplied  fivefold;  heavier  and  heavier  taxes  were 
imposed;  and  the  capital  resources  of  the  kingdom  were  poured 
with  a  prodigality  without  precedent  into  the  war  channels. 
The  consequence  was  that  the  price  or  corn,  as  of  all  other 
commodities,  rose  greatly;  and  the  Bank  of  England  having 


CORN  LAWS 


177 


stopped  paying  in  specie  in  1797,  this  raised  nominal  prices  still 
more  under  the  liberal  use  of  bank  paper  in  loans  and  discounts, 
and  the  difference  that  began  to  be  established  in  the  actual 
value  of  Bank  of  England  notes  and  their  legal  par  in 
bullion. 

The  average  price  of  British  wheat  rose  to  £5  :  19  :  6  in  1801. 
So  unusual  a  value  must  have  led  to  a  large  extension  of  the  area 
under  wheat,  and  to  much  corn-growing  on  land  that  after  great 
outlay  was  ill  prepared  for  it.  In  the  following  years  there  were 
agricultural  complaints;  and  in  1804,  though  in  1803  the  average 
price  of  wheat  had  been  as  high  as  £2  :  18  :  10,  an  act  was 
passed,  so  much  more  severe  than  any  previous  statute,  that 
its  object  would  appear  to  have  been  to  keep  the  price  of  corn 
somewhere  approaching  the  high  range  of  1801.  A  prohibitory 
duty  of  245.  3d.  was  imposed  on  the  import  of  foreign  wheat 
when  the  home  price  was  633.  or  less;  and  the  price  at  which 
the  bounty  was  paid  on  export  was  lowered  to  405.,  while  the 
price  at  which  export  might  proceed  without  bounty  was  raised 
to  543.  Judging  from  the  prices  that  ruled  during  the  remaining 
period  of  the  French  wars,  this  statute  would  appear  to  have 
been  effective  for  its  end,  though,  under  all  the  varied  action 
of  the  times  on  a  rise  of  prices,  it  would  be  difficult  to  assign  its 
proper  place  in  the  general  effect.  The  average  price  of  wheat 
rose  to  £4  :  9  :  9  in  1805,  and  the  bank  paper  price  in  1812 
was  as  high  even  as  £6  :  6  :  6.  The  bullion  prices  from  1809 
to  1813  ranged  from  86s.  6d.  to  zoos.  3d.  But  it  was  foreseen 
that  when  the  wars  ended  a  serious  reaction  would  ensue,  and 
that  the  rents  of  land,  and  the  general  condition  of  agriculture, 
under  the  warlike,  protective  and  monetary  stimulation  they  had 
received,  would  be  imperilled.  In  the  brief  peace  of  1814  the 
average  bullion  price  of  British  wheat  fell  to  553.  8d.  All  the 
means  of  select  committees  of  inquiry  on  agricultural  distress, 
and  new  modifications  of  the  corn  laws,  were  again  brought  into 
requisition.  The  first  idea  broached  in  parliament  was  to  raise 
the  duties  on  foreign  imports,  as  well  as  the  prices  at  which  they 
were  to  be  leviable,  and  to  abolish  the  bounty  on  export,  while 
permitting  freedom  of  export  whatever  the  home  price  might 
be.  The  latter  part  of  the  scheme  was  passed  into  law  in  the 
session  of  1814;  but  the  irritation  of  the  manufacturing  districts 
against  the  new  scale  of  import  duties  was  too  great  to  be 
resisted.  In  the  subsequent  session  an  act  was  passed,  after  much 
opposition,  fixing  8os.  (143.  more  than  during  the  wars)  as  the 
price  at  which  import  of  wheat  was  to  become  free  of  duty. 

This  act  of  1815  was  intended  to  keep  the  price  of  wheat  in  the 
British  markets  at  about  8os.  per  quarter;  but  the  era  of  war  and 
great  expenditure  of  money  raised  by  public  loans  had  ended,  the 
ports  of  the  continent  were  again  open  to  some  measure  of  trade 
and  to  the  equalizing  effect  of  trade  upon  prices,  the  Bank  of 
England  and  other  banks  of  issue  had  to  begin  the  uphill  course  of 
a  resumption  of  specie  payments,  the  nation  had  to  begin  to  feel 
the  whole  naked  weight  of  the  war  debt,  and  the  idea  of  the 
protectors  of  a  high  price  of  corn  was  proved  by  the  event  to  be 
an  utter  hallucination.  The  corn  statutes  of  the  next  twenty 
years,  though  occupying  an  enormous  amount  of  time  and 
attention  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  may  be  briefly  treated,  for 
they  are  simplya  record  of  the  impotenceof  legislation  to  maintain 
the  price  of  a  commodity  at  a  high  point  when  all  the  natural 
economic  causes  in  operation  are  opposed  to  it.  In  182  2  a  statute 
was  passed  reducing  the  limit  of  prices  at  which  importation 
could  proceed  to  703.  for  wheat,  355.  for  barley,  255.  for  oats; 
but  behind  the  apparent  relaxation  was  a  new  scale  of  import 
duties,  by  which  foreign  grain  was  subjected  to  heavy  three-month 
duties  up  to  a  price  of  853., — 175.  when  wheat  was  705.,  123.  when 
between  705.  and  8os.,  and  los.  when  853.,  showing  the  grasping 
spirit  of  the  would-be  monopolizers  of  the  home  supply  of  corn, 
and  their  reluctance  to  believe  in  a  lower  range  of  value  for  corn 
as  for  all  other  commoditie's.  This  act  never  operated,  for  the 
reason  that,  with  the  exception  in  some  few  instances  of  barley, 
prices  never  were  so  high  as  its  projectors  had  contemplated. 
The  corn  trade  had  passed  rapidly  beyond  reach  of  the  statutes 
by  which  it  was  to  be  so  painfully  controlled;  and  as  there  were 
occasional  seasons  of  scarcity,  particularly  in  oats,  the  king  in 


council  was  authorized  for  several  years  to  override  the  statutes, 
and  do  whatever  the  public  interests  might  require. 

In  1827  Canning  introduced  a  new  system  of  duties,  under 
which  there  would  have  been  a  fixed  duty  of  is.  per  quarter 
when  the  price  of  wheat  was  at  or  above  703.,  and  an  increased 
duty  of  2s.  for  every  shilling  the  price  fell  below  693. ;  but  though 
Canning's  resolutions  were  adopted  by  a  large  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  his  death  and  the  consequent  change  of 
ministers  involved  the  failure  of  his  scheme  of  corn  duties.  In 
the  following  year  Charles  Grant  introduced  another  scale  of 
import  duties  on  corn,  by  which  the  duty  was  to  be  233.  when  the 
price  was  643.,  i6s.  8d.  when  the  price  was  693.,  and  only  is. 
when  the  price  was  735.  or  above  733.  per  quarter;  and  this 
became  law  the  same  year.  This  sliding  scale  was  more  objection- 
able, as  a  basis  of  foreign  corn  trade,  than  that  of  Canning, 
though  not  following  so  closely  shilling  by  shilling  the  variation  of 
prices,  because  of  the  abrupt  leaps  it  made  in  the  amount  of 
duties  leviable.  For  example,  a  merchant  who  ordered  a  ship- 
ment of  foreign  wheat  when  the  home  price  was  705.  and  rising  to 
735.,  instead  of  having  a  duty  of  is.  to  pay,  should  on  a  backward 
drop  of  the  home  price  to  695.  have  163.  8d.  of  duty  to  pay.  The 
result  was  to  introduce  wide  and  incalculable  elements  of  specula- 
tion into  all  transactions  in  foreign  corn.  The  prices  during  most 
part  of  this  period  were  under  the  range  at  which  import  was 
practically  prohibited.  The  average  price  of  British, wheat  was 
965.  i  id.  in  1817,  but  from  that  point  there  was  in  succeeding 
years  a  rapid  and  progressive  decline,  varied  only  by  the  results 
of  the  domestic  harvests,  till  in  1835  the  average  price  of  wheat 
was  393.  4d.,  of  barley  293.  nd.  and  oats  223.  The  import  of 
foreign  grain  in  these  years  consisted  principally  of  a  speculative 
trade,  under  a  privilege  of  warehousing  accorded  in  the  statute  of 
1773,  and  extended  in  subsequent  acts,  by  which  the  grain  might 
be  sold  for  home  consumption  on  payment  of  the  duties,  or 
re-exported  free,  as  suited  the  interest  of  the  holders. 

The  act  of  1822  admitted  corn  of  the  British  possessions  in 
North  America  under  a  favoured  scale  of  duties,  and  in  1825  a 
temporary  act  was  passed,  allowing  the  import  of  wheat  from 
these  provinces  at  a  fixed  duty  of  55.  per  quarter,  irrespective  of 
the  home  price,  which,  if  maintained,  would  have  given  some 
stability  to  the  trade  with  Canada.  The  idea  of  a  fixed  duty  on 
all  foreign  grain,  however,  appears  to  have  grown  in  favour  from 
about  this  period.  It  was  included  in  the  programme  of  import 
duty  reforms  of  the  Whig  government  in  1841,  and  fell  with  its 
propounders  in  the  general  election  of  that  year.  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  on  succeeding  to  office,  and  commencing  his  remarkable 
career  as  a  free-trade  statesman,  introduced  and  carried  in  1842 
a  new  sliding  scale  of  duties  somewhat  better  adjusted  to  the 
current  values.  But  public  opinion  by  this  time  was  changing, 
and  the  prime  minister,  convinced,  as  he  confessed,  by  the 
arguments  of  Cobden  and  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League,  and 
stimulated  into  action  by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in 
Ireland,  put  an  effectual  end  to  the  history  of  the  corn  laws  by 
the  famous  act  of  1846.  It  was  provided  under  this  measure  that 
the  maximum  duty  on  foreign  wheat  was  to  be  immediately 
reduced  to  los.  per  quarter  when  the  price  was  under  483.,  to  53. 
on  barley  when  the  price  was  under  265.,  and  to  45.  on  oats  when 
the  price  was  under  i8s.,  with  lower  duties  as  prices  rose  above 
these  figures;  but  the  conclusive  part  of  the  enactment  was  that 
in  three  years — on  the  ist  of  February  1849 — these  duties  were 
to  cease,  and  all  foreign  corn  to  be  admitted  at  a  duty  of  is.  per 
quarter,  and  all  foreign  meal  and  flour  at  a  duty  of  4$  d.  per  cwt. — 
the  same  nominal  imposts  which  were  conceded  to  grain  and  flour 
of  British  possessions  abroad  from  the  date  of  the  act.  In  1869 
even  these  nominal  duties  were  abolished  by  Robert  Lowe  in  a 
Customs  Duties  Act.  In  1902  a  registration  duty  of  3d.  per  cwt. 
was  imposed  on  imported  corn,  and  $d.  per  cwt.  on  imported 
flour,  in  the  expectation  that  such  a  duty  would  broaden  the 
basis  of  taxation.  The  duty  was,  however,  repealed  the  following 
year.  But  a  low  duty  on  imported  foreign  corn  was  made  an 
essential  part  of  the  tariff  reform  scheme  advocated  by  Mr  J. 
Chamberlain  (g.v.)  from  1903  onwards. 

Foreign  Corn  Laws. —  Freedom  of  export  of  corn  from  customs 


i78 


CORN-SALAD 


duties  has  become  the  general  rule  of  nearly  all  foreign  countries. 
It  is  somewhat  curious  that  Spain  saw  the  advantage  to  her  wheat- 
producing  provinces  of  freedom  of  export  of  wheat  as 


Spain. 


early  as  1820,  and  three  years  afterwards  extended 


this  freedom  to  all  "  fruits  of  the  soil  "  in  Spain.  The  import 
duty  on  wheat,  as  on  other  grain,  has  varied  from  time  to  time. 
The  tariff  of  1882  fixed  the  duty  at  as.  aid.  per  cwt.;  a  law  of 
February  1895  raised  the  duty  to  45.  3^d.  per  cwt.,  at  which  rate 
it  remained  till  1898,  when  it  was  reduced  to  23.  sJd.,  though  in 
this  same  year,  that  of  the  war  with  the  United  States,  it  was  for 
some  three  months  suspended,  owing  to  distress  in  the  country. 
In  1899  it  was  raised  to  33.  3d.,  and  by  a  law  of  March  1904  fixed 
at  6-00  pesetas  per  too  kilos  (23.  sid.  per  cwt.)  as  long  as  the 
average  price  of  wheat  in  the  markets  of  Castile  does  not  fall 
below  27-00  pesetas  per  100  kilos  (us.  per  cwt.).  The  duty  on 
rye,  oats,  barley  and  maize  is  is.  9jd.  per  cwt.  The  duty  on 
flour  varied  from  35.  4\A.  per  cwt.  in  1882  to  73.  o^d.  in  1895;  by 
the  law  of  March  1904  it  was  fixed  at  43.  ojd.  per  cwt.  The  duty 
on  rice  is  23.  if  d.  per  cwt.  in  the  husk  and  43.  3!  d.  not  in  the  husk. 
rt  In  Portugal  the  import  duty  on  wheat  was  fixed  by  a 

law  of  May  1888  at  20  reis  per  kilo  (43.  7d.  per  cwt.). 
By  a  law  of  July  1889,  as  amended  by  laws  of  August  1891  and 
July  1899,  importation  is  prohibited  except  in  the  event  of  the 
home-grown  crop  being  insufficient,  and  even  then  permission  is 
confined  to  millers.  The  duty,  in  the  event  of  permission  to 
import  being  accorded,  is  to  be  charged  on  a  sliding  scale  intended 
to  keep  the  cost  of  wheat  to  the  millers,  including  the  duty,  at 
60  reis  (sld.)  per  kilo  (2-2  Ibs.).  Maize  is  subject  to  a  duty  of 
43.  i|d.  per  cwt.,  and  rye,  oats  and  barley  to  one  of  33.  8d.  per  cwt. 
By  laws  of  July  1889  and  August  1891  the  importation  of  flour 
was  prohibited  except  in  the  event  of  a  strike  of  the  mill-hands, 
and  the  duty  was  fixed  at  6s.  2d.  per  cwt.  Export  and  import  of 
grain  in  France  were  prohibited  down  to  the  period  of 
the  repeal  of  the  British  corn  laws,  save  when  prices 
were  below  certain  limits  in  the  one  case  and  above  certain  other 
limits  in  the  other.  But  export  of  grain  and  flour  from  France  has 
long  been  free  of  duty.  On  the  other  hand,  import  duties  have 
varied  considerably.  By  a  law  of  1881,  the  duty  on  wheat  was 
fixed  at  3d.  per  cwt.;  this  duty  was  raised  in  1885  to  is.  2|d.  per 
cwt.  and  again  in  1887  to  23.  ojd.  By  a  law  of  1894  the  duty  was 
fixed  at  2s.  iojd.  per  cwt.  In  1898,  owing  to  the  sudden  rise  in 
the  price  of  corn  occasioned  by  the  war  between  Spain  and  the 
United  States,  the  duty  was  temporarily  (the  4th  of  May  to  the 
3Oth  of  June)  suspended.  By  a  law  of  1873  free  importation  of 
rye,  barley,  maize  and  oats  was  permitted,  but  by  a  law  of  1885 
a  duty  was  fixed  at  7jd.  per  cwt., and  this  was  subsequently  (1887) 
increased  to  is.  2fd.  In  1881  the  duty  on  imported  flour  was  as 
low  as  sJd.  per  cwt.,  but  this  was  increased  successively  by  laws 
of  1885, 1887,  1891  and  1892,  and  in  1894  was  fixed  at  43.  sfd.  per 
cwt.  at  the  rate  of  extraction  of  70%  and  over;  53.  sfd.  at  70  to 
60%;  and  6s.  6d.  at  60%  and  under.  In  Belgium  both  the 
.  export  and  import  of  wheat,  rye,  barley  and  maize  are 

free  of  duty;  so  also  were  oats  and  flour.    Since  1895, 
however,  there  has  been  a  duty  of  is.  2jd.  on  oats,  and  of  gfd.  on 
flour.  The  policy  of  the  Netherlands  was,  owing  to  the  advantages 
possessed  by  its  ports,  long  favourable  to  the  import 
and  export  of  grain.    But  for  some  years  prior  to  1845 
there  was  a  moderate  sliding  scale  of  import  duties, 
and  this  gave  place,  on  the  ravages  of  the  potato  disease,  to  a  low 
fixed  duty;  since  1877,  however,  the  importation  of  cereals  and 
.  flour  has  been  free.    In  Italy  there  are  no  duties  on  the 

export  of  grain.  The  import  duties  show  a  progressive 
increase.  In  1878  the  import  duty  on  wheat  was  6jd.  per  cwt.; 
this  was  increased  to  is.  2|d.  in  1888,  and  in  1894  to  33.  ojd.  As 
in  Spain  and  France,  there  was  a  temporary  reduction  and 
suspension  during  1898,  on  the  Spanish- American  war.  The 
duty  on  rye,  barley,  oats  and  maize  was  fixed  by  the  tariff  of  1878 
at  s^d.  per  cwt.  By  a  decree  of  1894  the  duty  on  rye  was  raised 
to  is.  iod.;  that  on  barley,  by  a  decree  of  1896,  to  is.  7jd.;  that 
on  oats,  by  a  decree  of  1888,  to  is.  7sd.;  and  that  on  maize,  by  a 
decree  of  1896,  to  35.  ofd.  The  duty  on  flour,  fixed  at  is.  i^d., 
by  the  tariff  of  1878,  was  raised  to  23.  sJd.  in  1888,  to  35.  6Jd.  in 


1888,  and  to  55.  in  1894.  In  Germany,  the  duty  on  wheat  and 
rye,  as  fixed  by  the  tariff  of  1879,  was  6d.  per  cwt.  In  1885  this 
was  raised  to  is.6id.,and  in  1888  to  2s.  6|d.  By  treaty  Qemaay 
in  1892  this  was  decreased  to  is.  9jd.  On  oats  the 
duty  in  1879  was  6d.  per  cwt.,  increased  to  9jd.  in  1885,  and 
again,  in  1888,  to  23.  o|d.,  but  reduced  to  is.  5d.  in  1892.  On 
barley  the  duty  in  1879  was  3d.,  in  1885  9jd.,  in  1888  is.  i  Jd.,  and 
in  1892  is.  oid.  On  maize,  3d.  in  1879,  6d.  in  1885,  is.  oid.  in 
1888,  and  9fd.  in  1892.  On  flour,  is.  o|d.  in  1879,  35.  9$d.  in 
1885,  53.  4d.  in  1888,  and  35.  8jd.  in  1892.  The  new  German 
tariff  of  1906  which  formed  the  basis  for  the  new  German  com- 
mercial treaties  with  Russia,  Italy,  Austria-Hungary,  &c.,  and 
which  was  passed  when  the  influence  of  the  agrarian  party  was 
predominant,  increased  still  more  the  import  duties  on  cereals. 
Under  this  tariff  there  are  two  rates  of  duties:  (i).  Those  of  the 
new  "  general  "  tariff  as  applied  to  imports  from  all  countries 
entitled  to  most  favoured-nation  treatment.  (2).  "  Conven- 
tional "  tariff  rates,  conceded  to  other  states  as  the  result  of 
treaties.  Under  this  tariff  the  "  general  "  and  "  conventional  " 
duties,  respectively,  on  wheat  are  35.  g%d.  and  2s.  9d.;  on  oats 
and  rye,  33.  6jd.  and  23.  6jd. ;  on  "  common  baker's 
produce,"  8s.  3d.  and  53.  2d.  In  Austria-Hungary  the 
import  duty  on  wheat  and  rye  is,  under  the  tariff  of 
1887,  is.  6jd.  per  cwt.;  on  barley  and  oats,  9jd.;  on  maize, 
6d.,  and  on  flour,  33.  gfd. 

The  great  countries,  famous  for  a  production  of  raw  materials 
much  beyond  their  own  means  of  consumption,  are  favourable,  of 
course,  to  the  utmost  freedom  of  export.    The  empire 
of  China  itself  was  never  unwilling  to  sell  to  foreigners        states. 
tea  for  which  there  was  no  domestic  use.    The  United 
States  promotes  transit  and  export  of  grain,  internally  and 
externally,  with  all  the  intelligence  and  resources  of  a  civilized 
people.    Although  the  import  duty  on  "  breadstuffs  "  imposed 
by  the  United  States  tariff  is  very  high,  and  is,  possibly,  a 
useful  protection  against  the  importation  of  "baker's  products," 
yet  it  is  to  a  certain  extent  unnecessary  for  a  country  which  must 
dispose  of  its  surplus  by  exportation.    The  same  remark  applies 
to  Russia,  whose  exportation  and  importation  are       R 
alike  free,  though  there  is  an  import  duty  on  wheat 
flour  of  2s.  n^d.  per  cwt.    In  the  British  colonies  probably  the 
only  example  of  an  export  duty  is  that  on  rice  in  British  India; 
it  amounts  to  3  annas  per  maund  (4d.  per  cwt.).    The 
import  of  grain  into  India  is  free.    In  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  Canada,  and  all  mainly  agricultural  countries,  there  is 
no  export  duty.    In  each  of  these  countries,  however,  there  is  an 
import  duty;   in   the  cases  of  Australia  and   New    Australia, 
Zealand,  designed,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  a  precaution    New 
against  possible  rivalry  on  the  part  of  the  other.    The    Zeaiaad, 
Australian  import  duty  is  is.  6d.  per  cental  (100  ft>  av.),    Caaada- 
and  the  New  Zealand  gd.  per  cental.     The  Canadian  import 
duties  on  grain  are  important  only  in  the  light  of  being  a  species  of 
retaliation  against  similar  duties  imposed  by  the  United  States 
with  the  design  of  restricting  inter-frontier  exchange.     The 
Canadian   import   duty  is,   on   barley,   30%   ad  valorem;   on 
buckwheat,  rye  and  oats,  4'93d.  per  bushel,  and  on  wheat, 
S-92d.  per  bushel.    The  South  African  production  of 
cereal  is  still  insufficient  to  meet  the  demand  for  home        Africa. 
consumption,  and  there  is  a  considerable  grain  importa- 
tion.   The  import  duty,  which  undoubtedly  acts  as  an  encourage- 
ment to  home  agriculture,  is  is.  per  cental.     (See  also  GRAIN 
TRADE.)  (R.  So.;  T.  A.  I.) 

CORN-SALAD,  or  LAMB'S  LETTUCE,  Volerianella  olitoria 
(natural  order  Valerianaceae),  a  weedy  annual,  native  of  southern 
Europe,  but  naturalized  in  cornfields  in  central  Europe,  and  not 
infrequent  in  Britain.  In  France  it  is  used  in  salads  during 
winter  and  spring  as  a  substitute  for  lettuces,  but  it  is  less 
esteemed  in  England.  The  plant  is  raised  from  seed  sown  on  a 
bed  or  border  of  light  rich  earth,  and  should  be  weeded  and 
watered,  as  occasion  requires,  till  winter,  when  it  should  be 
protected  with  long  litter  during  severe  frost.  The  largest 
plants  should  be  drawn  for  use  in  succession.  Sowing  may  be 
made  every  two  or  three  weeks  from  the  beginning  of  August  till 


CORNU— CORNWALL 


179 


October,  and  again  in  March,  if  required  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
spring.  The  sorts  principally  grown  are  the  Round-leaved  and 
the  Italian;  the  last  is  a  distinct  species,  Valerianella  eriocarpa. 

CORNU,  MARIE  ALFRED  (1841-1902),  French  physicist,  was 
born  at  Orleans  on  the  6th  of  March  1841,  and  after  being 
educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  and  the  Ecole  des  Mines, 
became  in  1867  professor  of  experimental  physics  in  the  former 
institution,  where  he  remained  throughout  his  life.  Although  he 
made  various  excursions  into  other  branches  of  physical  science, 
undertaking,  for  example,  with  J.  B.  A.  Bailie  about  1870  a 
repetition  of  Cavendish's  experiment  for  determining  the  mean 
density  of  the  earth,  his  original  work  was  mainly  concerned  with 
optics  and  spectroscopy.  In  particular  he  carried  out  a  classical 
redetermination  of  the  velocity  of  light  by  A.  H.  L.  Fizeau's 
method,  introducing  various  improvements  in  the  apparatus, 
which  added  greatly  to  the  accuracy  of  the  results.  This  achieve- 
ment won  for  him,  in  1878,  the  prix  Lacaze  and  membership  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  France,  and  the  Rumford  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  England.  In  1899,  at  the  jubilee  commemora- 
tion of  Sir  George  Stokes,  he  was  Rede  lecturer  at  Cambridge, 
his  subject  being  the  undulatory  theory  of  light  and  its  influence 
on  modern  physics;  and  on  that  occasion  the  honorary  degree  of 
D.Sc.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  university.  He  died  at  Paris 
on  the  nth  of  April  1902. 

CORNU  COPIAE,  later  CORNUCOPIA  ("  horn  of  plenty  "),  a 
horn;  generally  twisted,  filled  with  fruit  and  flowers,  or  an 
ornament  representing  it.  It  was  used  as  a  symbol  of  prosperity 
and  abundance,  and  hence  in  works  of  art  it  is  placed  in  the  hands 
of  Plutus,  Fortuna  and  similar  divinities  (for  the  mythological 
account  see  AMALTHEIA).  The  symbol  probably  originated  in  the 
practice  of  using  the  horns  of  oxen  and  goats  as  drinking-cups; 
hence  the  rhyton  (drinking-horn)  is  often  confounded  with  the 
cornu  copiae.  For  its  representation  in  works  of  art,  in  which  it  is 
very  common,  especially  in  those  belonging  to  the  Roman  period, 
see  article  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquites. 

CORNUS,  an  ancient  town  of  Sardinia,  of  Phoenician  origin,  on 
the  west  coast,  18  m.  from  Tharros,  and  the  same  from  Bosa. 
At  the  time  of  the  Second  Punic  War  it  is  spoken  of  as  the 
principal  city  of  the  district,  and  its  capture  by  the  Romans  was 
the  last  act  in  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  of  215  B.C.,  it 
having  served  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  fugitives  after  the 
defeat  of  the  combined  forces  of  the  rebels  and  the  Carthaginians. 
The  site  of  the  ancient  acropolis,  covered  with  debris,  may  still  be 
made  out.  Here  were  found  three  inscriptions  in  1831,  with 
dedications  by  the  ordo,  or  town  council,  of  Cornus  to  various 
patrons,  from  one  of  which  it  seems  that  it  was  a  colony,  though 
when  it  became  so  is  unknown  (Th.  Mommsen,  Corp.  Inscr.  Lai. 
x.  7915  sqq.).  Unimportant  remains  of  an  aqueduct  and 
(perhaps)  of  a  church  exist.  Excavations  in  the  necropolis  of 
the  Roman  period  are  recorded  by  F.  Nissardi,  Notizie  degli 
Scavi,  1887,  p.  47.  Phoenician  rock-cut  tombs  may  also  be  seen. 

CORNUTUS,  LUCIUS  ANNAEUS,  Stoic  philosopher,  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Nero.  He  was  a  native  of  Leptis  in  Libya,  but 
resided  for  the  most  part  in  Rome.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
teacher  and  friend  of  Persius,  whose  satires  he  revised  for  publica- 
tion after  the  poet's  death,  but  handed  them  over  to  Caesius 
Bassus  to  edit,  at  the  special  request  of  the  latter.  He  was 
banished  by  Nero  (in  66  or  68)  for  having  indirectly  disparaged 
the  emperor's  projected  history  of  the  Romans  in  heroic  verse 
(Dio  Cassius  Ixii.  29),  after  which  time  nothing  more  is  heard 
of  him.  He  was  the  author  of  various  rhetorical  works  in  both 
Greek  and  Latin  ('PijropocoZ  Tkxvat,  De  figwis  sententiarum) . 
Another  rhetorician,  also  named  Cornutus,  who  flourished  A.D. 
200-250  (or  in  the  second  half  of  the  2nd  century)  was  the  author 
of  a  treatise  Tkxvrj  rov  iroXiTOCoD  Mr/ov  (ed.  J.  Graeven,  1890). 
A  philosophical  treatise,  Theologiae  Graecae  compendium  (of 
which  the  Greek  title  is  uncertain;  perhaps,  "EXXiji'oci)  Btakayia, 
or  Tltpi  TTJJ  r&v  Ot&v  0w7ews,  though  the  latter  may  be  the  title  of 
an  abridgment  of  the  former)  is  still  extant.  It  is  a  manual  of 
"  popular  mythology  as  expounded  in  the  etymological  and 
symbolical  interpretations  of  the  Stoics  "  (Sandys),  and  although 
paired  by  many  absurd  etymologies,  abounds  in  beautiful 


thoughts  (ed.  C.  Lang,  1881).  Simplicius  and  Porphyry  refer 
to  his  commentary  on  the  Categories  of  Aristotle,  whose  philosophy 
he  is  said  to  have  defended  against  an  opponent  Athenodorus 
in  a  treatise  'Avnypattt'fi  irpbs  'Afh]v65tapot>.  His  Aristotelian  studies 
were  probably  his  most  important  work.  A  commentary  on 
Virgil  (frequently  quoted  by  Servius)  and  Scholia  to  Persius  are 
also  attributed  to  him;  the  latter,  however,  are  of  much  later 
date,  and  are  assigned  by  Jahn  to  the  Carolingian  period. 
Excerpts  from  his  treatise  De  enuntiatione  vel  orlhographia  are 
preserved  in  Cassiodorus.  The  so-called  Disticha  Cornuli  (ed. 
Liebl,  Straubing,  1888)  belong  to  the  late  middle  ages. 

See  G.  Martini,  De  L.  Annaeo  Cornuto  (1825);  O.  Jahn,  Prolego- 
mena to  his  edition  of  Persius;  H.  von  Arnim  in  Pauly-Wissowa's 
Realencyclopadie,  i.  pt.  ii.  (1894) ;  M.  Schanz,  Geschichte der  romischen 
Litteratur,  i.  2  (1901),  p.  285;  W.  Christ,  Geschichte  der  griechischen 
Litteralur  (1898),  pp.  702,  755;  Teuffel-Schwabe,  Hist,  of  Roman 
Literature  (Eng.  trans.),  §  299,  2. 

CORNWALL,  the  capital  of  the  united  counties  of  Stormont, 
Dundas  and  Glengarry,  Ontario,  Canada,  67m.  S.W.  of  Montreal, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  St  Lawrence  river.  Pop.  (1901)  6704. 
It  is  an  important  station  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Ottawa 
&  New  York  railways,  and  is  a  port  of  call  for  all  steamers  between 
Montreal  and  Lake  Ontario  ports.  The  surplus  from  the  Cornwall 
canal  furnishes  excellent  water  privileges  for  its  factories,  which 
include  cotton  and  woollen  mills  and  grist  and  saw  mills.  The 
town  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  lacrosse  club.  On  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river  is  St  Regis,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Indians  of  the  Iroquois  tribe. 

CORNWALL,  the  south-westernmost  county  of  England, 
bounded  N.  and  N.W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  E.  by  Devonshire, 
and  S,  and  S.W.  by  the  English  Channel.  The  area  is  1356-6 
sq.  m.  The  most  southerly  extension  is  Lizard  Point,  and  the 
most  westerly  point  of  the  mainland  Land's  End,  but  the  county 
also  includes  the  Scilly  Isles  (q.v.),  lying  25  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Land's 
End.  No  county  in  England  has  a  stronger  individuality  than 
Cornwall,  whether  in  economic  or  social  conditions,  in  history, 
nomenclature,  tradition,  or  even  in  the  physical  characteristics 
of  the  land.  Such  individuality  is  hardly  to  be  compassed 
within  political  boundaries,  and  in  some  respects  it  is  shared  by 
the  neighbouring  county  of  Devon,  yet  the  traveller  hardly  feels 
its  influence  before  passing  west  of  the  Tamar. 

Physically,  Cornwall  is  a  great  promontory  with  a  direct 
length  of  75  m.  from  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.,  and  an  extreme  breadth, 
at  the  junction  with  Devonshire,  of  45  m.  The  river  Tamar 
here  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  boundary,  and  its  valley 
divides  the  high  moors  of  Devonshire  and  the  succession  of  similar 
broad-topped  hills  which  form  the  backbone  of  the  Cornish 
promontory.  The  scenery  is  full  of  contrast.  To  the  west  of 
Launceston  the  principal  mass  of  high  land  rises  to  1375  ft.  in 
Brown  Willy,  the  highest  point  in  the  county.  This  district  is 
broken  and  picturesque,  with  rough  tors  or  hills  and  boulders. 
A  remarkable  pile  of  rocks  called  the  Cheese-wring,  somewhat 
resembling  an  inverted  pyramid  in  form,  is  seen  on  the  moor 
north  of  Liskeard.  This  district  is  for  the  most  part  a  region  of 
furze  and  heather;  but  after  passing  Bodmin,  the  true  Cornish 
moorland  asserts  itself,  bare,  desolate  and  impracticable,  broken 
and  dug  into  hillocks,  which  are  sometimes  due  to  early  mining 
works,  sometimes  to  more  modern  search  for  metals.  The 
seventy  miles  from  Launceston  to  Mount's  Bay  have  been  called 
not  untruly  "  the  dreariest  strip  of  earth  traversed  by  any 
English  high  road."  There  is  hardly  more  cultivation  on  the 
higher  ground  west  of  Mount's  Bay,  or  in  the  Meneage  or  "  rocky 
country,"  the  old  Cornish  name  for  the  promontory  which  ends 
in  the  Lizard.  Long  combes  and  valleys,  however,  descend 
from  this  upper  moorland  towards  the  coast  on  both  sides.  These 
are  in  general  well  wooded,  and,  in  the  luxuriance  of  their  vegeta- 
tion, strongly  characteristic.  The  small  rivers  traversing  them 
in  several  cases  enter  fine  estuaries,  which  ramify  deeply  into  the 
land.  Such  are,  on  the  south  coast,  the  great  estuary  of  the 
Tamar,  and  other  streams,  on  which  the  port  of  Plymouth  is 
situated  (but  only  the  western  shore  is  Cornish),  the  Looe  and 
Fowey  rivers,  Falmouth  Harbour,  the  most  important  of  the 
purely  Cornish  inlets  and  accessible  for  the  largest  vessels,  and 


i8o 


CORNWALL 


the  Helford  river.  On  the  north  are  the  estuaries  of  the  Camel 
and  the  Hayle,  debouching  into  Padstow  Bay  and  St  Ives  Bay 
respectively.  The  Fowey  and  Camel  valleys  almost  completely 
break  the  continuation  of  the  central  high  ground,  and  the  up- 
lands west  of  Mount's  Bay  are  similarly  parted  from  the  main 
mass  by  the  low  tract  between  Hayle  and  Marazion.  Except  at 
the  mouth  of  a  stream  or  estuary  the  coast  is  almost  wholly 
rock-bound,  and  the  cliff  scenery  is  unsurpassed  in  England. 
Three  different  types  are  found.  On  the  north  coast,  from 
Tintagel  Head  and  Boscastle  northward  to  Hartland  Point  in 
Devonshire,  the  dark  slate  cliffs,  with  their  narrow  and  distorted 
strata,  are  remarkably  rugged  of  outline,  owing  to  the  ease  with 
which  the  waves  fret  the  loosely-bound  rock.  On  the  south, 
in  the  beautiful  little  bays  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lizard 
Point,  the  serpentine  rock  is  noted  for  its  exquisite  colouring. 
Between  Treryn  and  Land's  End,  at  the  south-west,  a  majestic 
barrier  of  granite  is  presented  to  the  sea.  The  beautiful  Scilly 
Isles  continue  the  line  of  the  granite,  and  the  intervening  sea 
is  said  to  have  submerged  a  tract  of  land  named  Lyonesse, 
containing,  according  to  tradition,  140  parish  churches,  and 
intimately  connected  with  the  Arthurian  romances. 

Geology. — One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Cornwall  is  the 
presence  of  the  four  great  masses  of  granite  which  rise  up  and  form 
as  many  elevated  areas  out  of  a  lower-lying  region  occupied  by  rocks 
almost  entirely  slaty  in  character,  generally  known  as  "  Killas." 
The  granite  is  not  the  oldest  of  the  Cornish  rocks;  these  are  found 
in  the  Lizard  peninsula  and  are  represented  by  serpentine,  gabbro 
and  metamorphic  schists.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  about 
Veryan  and  Gprran,  of  Ordovician  age,  all  the  sedimentary  rocks, 
as  far  as  a  line  joining  Boscastle  and  South  Petherwin,  were  formerly 
classed  as  Devonian;  to  the  north  of  the  line  are  the  Culm  measures 
— slates,  grits  and  limestones — of  Carboniferous  age.  The  extensive 
spread  of  Killas  is  not,  however,  entirely  Devonian,  as  it  is  shown 
on  most  maps.  In  the  northern  portion,  Lower,  Middle  and  Upper 
Devonian  can  be  distinguished;  the  lower  beds  at  Polperro,  Looe 
and  Watergate,  the  higher  beds  along  the  line  indicated  above. 
Farther  south  it  has  been  shown  that  an  older  set  of  Palaeozoic  rocks 
constitutes  at  least  a  part  of  the  Killas;  the  Veryan  series,  with 
Caradoc  fossils,  is  succeeded  in  descending  order  by  the  Portscatho 
series,  the  Falmouth  series  and  the  Mylor  series ;  the  lowest  Devonian 
beds  represented  here  by  the  Menaccan  series,  rest  unconformably 
upon  these  Ordovician  beds.  Upper  Silurian  fossils  have  been  found 
near  Veryan.  All  these  rocks  have  been  subjected  to  severe  thrusting 
from  the  south,  consequently  they  are  much  contorted  and  folded. 
After  this  thrusting  and  folding  had  taken  place,  intrusions  of  diabase, 
&c.,  penetrated  the  sedimentary  strata  in  numerous  places,  but  it 
was  not  until  post-Carboniferous  times  that  the  granite  masses  were 
intruded.  The  principal  granite  masses  are  those  of  St  Just  and 
Land's  End,  Penryn,  St  Austell  and  Bodmin  Moor.  To  the  granite 
Cornwall  owes  much  of  its  prosperity;  it  has  altered  the  Killas  for 
some  distance  around  each  mass,  and  the  veins  of  tin  and  copper  ore, 
though  richest  in  the  Killas,  are  evidently  genetically  related  to  the 

§ranite.  The  principal  metalliferous  districts,  Camborne,  Redruth, 
t  Just,  &c.,  all  lie  near  the  granite  margins.  The  china  clay  and 
china  stone  industry  is  dependent  on  the  fact  that  the  granite  was 
itself  altered  in  patches  during  the  later  phases  of  eruptive  activity 
by  the  agency  of  boric  and  fluoric  vapours  which  kaolinized  the 
felspar  of  the  granite.  Later  eruptions  produced  dykes  of  quartz- 
porphyry  and  other  varieties,  all  locally  called  "  elvans,"  which 
penetrate  both  the  granite  and  the  Killas.  Small  patches  of  Pliocene 
strata  are  found  at  St  Erth  and  St  Agnes  Beacon.  Blown  sand  is  an 
important  feature  at  St  Pijran,  Lelant,  Gwythian  and  elsewhere, 
and  raised  beaches  are  frequent  round  the  coast  A  characteristic 
Cornish  deposit  is  the  "  Head,"  an  old  consolidated  scree  or  talus. 
Many  rare  minerals  have  been  obtained  from  the  mines  and  much 
tin  ore  has  been  taken  from  the  river  gravels.  The  river  gravel  at 
Carnon  has  yielded  native  gold. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Cornwall  is  peculiar.  Snow  seldom 
lies  for  more  than  a  few  days,  and  the  winters  are  less  severe 
than  in  any  other  part  of  England,  the  average  temperature 
for  January  being  34°  F.  at  Bude  and  43-7°  at  Falmouth.  The 
sea-winds,  except  in  a  few  sheltered  places,  prevent  timber  trees 
from  attaining  to  any  great  size,  but  the  air  is  mild,  and  the 
lower  vegetation,  especially  in  the  Penzance  district,  is  almost 
southern  in  its  luxuriance.  Geraniums,  fuchsias,  myrtles, 
hydrangeas  and  camellias  grow  to  a  considerable  size,  and 
flourish  through  the  winter  at  Penzance  and  round  Falmouth; 
and  in  the  Scilly  Isles  a  great  variety  of  exotics  may  be  seen 
flourishing  in  the  open  air.  Stone  fruit,  and  even  apples  and 
pears,  do  not  attain  the  same  full  flavour  as  in  the  neighbouring 
county,  owing  to  the  want  of  dry  heat.  The  pinaster,  the  Finns 


auslriaca,  Pinus  insignis  and  other  firs  succeed  well  in  the 
western  part  of  the  county.  All  native  plants  display  a  per- 
fection of  beauty  hardly  to  be  seen  elsewhere,  and  the  furze, 
including  the  double-blossomed  variety,  and  the  heaths,  among 
which  Erica  vagans  and  ciliaris  are  characteristic,  cover  the 
moorland  and  the  cliff  summits  with  a  blaze  of  the  richest  colour. 
On  the  whole  the  climate  is  healthy,  though  the  prevalent  westerly 
and  south-westerly  winds,  bringing  with  them  great  bodies  of 
cloud  from  the  Atlantic,  render  it  damp;  the  mean  annual 
rainfall,  though  only  32-85  in.  at  Bude,  reaches 44-41  at  Falmouth, 
and  50-57  at  Bodmin. 

Agriculture. — About  seven- tenths  of  the  total  area  is  under 
cultivation,  but  oats  form  the  only  important  grain-crop.  Turnips, 
swedes  and  mangolds  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  green  crops. 
The  number  of  cattle  (chiefly  of  the  Devonshire  breed)  is  large, 
and  many  sheep  are  kept;  nearly  60,000  acres  of  hill  pasture, 
being  recorded.  As  regards  agricultural  produce,  however, 
Cornwall  is  chiefly  famous  for  the  market-gardening  carried  on 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Penzance,  where  the  climate  is  specially 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  early  potatoes,  broccoli  and  asparagus. 
These  are  despatched  in  large  quantities  to  the  London  market ; 
the  Scilly  Isles  sharing  in  the  industry.  Fruit  and  flowers  are 
also  grown  for  the  market.  In  the  valleys  the  soil  is  frequently 
rich  and  deep;  there  are  good  arable  and  pasture  farms,  and 
the  natural  oak-wood  of  these  coombes  has  been  preserved  and 
increased  by  plantation. 

Mining. — The  wealth  of  Cornwall,  however,  lies  not  so  much  in 
the  soil,  as  underground  and  in  the  surrounding  seas.  Hence  the 
favourite  Cornish  toast,  "  fish,  tin  and  copper."  The  tin  of 
Cornwall  has  been  known  and  worked  from  a  period  anterior  to 
certain  history.  There  is  no  direct  proof  that  the  Phoenician 
traders  came  to  Cornwall  for  tin;  though  it  has  been  sought  to 
identify  the  Cassiterides  (q.v.)  or  Tin  Islands  with  the  county 
or  the  Scilly  Isles.  By  ancient  charters  the  "  tinners  "  were 
exempt  from  all  jurisdiction  (save  in  cases  affecting  land,  life  and 
limb)  other  than  that  of  the  Stannary  Courts,  and  peculiar  laws 
were  enacted  in  the  Stannary  parliaments  (see  STANNARIES). 
For  many  centuries  a  tax  on  the  tin,  after  smelting,  was  paid  to 
the  earls  and  dukes  of  Cornwall.  The  smelted  blocks  were 
carried  to  certain  towns  to  be  coined,  that  is,  stamped  with  the 
duchy  seal  before  they  could  be  sold.  By  an  act  of  1838  the  dues 
payable  on  the  coinage  of  tin  were  abolished,  and  a  compensation 
was  awarded  to  the  duchy  instead  of  them.  The  Cornish  miners 
are  an  intelligent  and  independent  body,  and  the  assistance  of  a 
Cornishman  has  been  found  necessary  to  the  successful  develop- 
ment of  mining  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  while  many  miners 
have  emigratedfrom  Cornwall  to  more  remunerative  fields  abroad. 
The  industry  has  suffered  from  periods  of  depression,  as  before 
the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  introduced  miners  from 
Germany  to  resuscitate  it;  and  in  modern  times  the  shallow 
workings,  from  which  tin  could  be  easily  "  streamed,"  have 
become  practically  exhausted.  The  deeper  workings  to  which 
the  miners  must  needs  have  recourse  naturally  render  production 
more  costly,  and  the  competition  of  foreign  mines  has  been 
detrimental.  The  result  is  that  the  industry  is  comparatively 
less  prosperous  than  formerly,  and  employs  far  fewer  of  the 
inhabitants.  However,  in  the  district  of  Camborne,  Carn  Brea, 
Illogan  and  Redruth,  and  near  St  Just  in  the  extreme  west,  the 
mines  are  still  active,  while  there  are  others  of  less  importance 
elsewhere,  as  near  Callington  in  the  south-east.  And  when,  as  in 
1906,  circumstances  affecting  the  production  of  foreign  mines 
cause  a  rise  in  the  price  of  tin,  the  Cornish  mines  enjoy  a  period  of 
greater  prosperity;  the  result  being  the  recent  reopening  of  many 
of  the  mines  which  had  been  closed  for  twenty  years.  The  largest 
tin-mine  is  that  of  Dolcoath  near  Camborne.  Copper  is  extracted 
at  St  Just  and  at  Carn  Brea;  but  the  output  has  decreased  much 
further  than  that  of  tin.  As  it  lies  deeper  in  the  earth,  and 
consequently  could  not  be  "  streamed  "  for,  it  was  almost 
unnoticed  in  the  county  until  the  end  of  the  isth  century,  and 
little  attention  was  paid  to  it  until  the  last  years  of  the  lyth. 
No  mine  seems  to  have  been  worked  exclusively  for  copper  before 
the  year  1770;  and  up  to  that  time  the  casual  produce  had  been 


CORNWALL 


181 


bought  by  Bristol  merchants,  to  their  great  gain,  at  rates  from 
£2:105.  to  £4  per  ton.  In  1718  John  Coster  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  trade  by  draining  some  of  the  deeper  mines,  and 
instructing  the  men  in  an  improved  method  of  dressing  the  ore. 
The  trade  thereafter  progressively  increased,  and  in  1851  the 
mines  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  together  were  estimated  to 
furnish  one-third  of  the  copper  raised  throughout  Europe, 
including  the  British  Isles.  Antimony  ores  and  manganese  are 
found,  and  some  lead  occurs,  being  worked  without  great  result. 
Iron  in  lodes,  as  brown  haematite,  has  been  worked  near  Lost- 
withiel  and  elsewhere.  In  the  St  Austell  district  the  place  of  tin 
and  copper  mining  has  been  taken  by  that  of  the  raising  and 
preparation  of  china  clay.  Granite  is  largely  quarried  in  various 
districts,  as  at  Luxulian  (between  St  Austell  and  Lostwithiel), 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Penryn.  This  is  the  material  of 
London  and  Waterloo  Bridges,  the  Chatham  docks,  and  many 
other  great  works.  It  is  for  the  most  part  coarse-grained,  though 
differing  greatly  in  different  places  in  this  respect.  Fine  slate  is 
quarried  and  largely  exported,  as  from  the  Delabole  quarries  near 
Tintagel.  These  slates  were  in  great  repute  in  the  i6th  century 
and  earlier.  Serpentine  is  quarried  in  the  Lizard  district,  and  is 
worked  there  into  small  ornamental  objects  for  sale  to  visitors; 
it  is  in  favour  as  a  decorative  stone.  Pitchblende  also  occurs, 
and  is  mined  for  the  extraction  of  radium. 

Fisheries. — The  fisheries  of  Cornwall  and  Devon  are  the  most 
important  on  the  south-west  coasts.  The  pilchard  is  in  great 
measure  confined  to  Cornwall,  living  habitually  in  deep  water  not 
far  west  of  the  Scilly  Isles,  and  visiting  the  coast  in  great  shoals, 
— one  of  which  is  described  as  having  extended  from  Mevagissey 
to  the  Land's  End,  a  distance,  including  the  windings  of  the  coast, 
of  nearly  100  m.  In  summer  and  autumn  pilchards  are  caught 
by  drift  nets;  later  in  the  year  they  are  taken  off  the  northern 
coast  by  seine  nets.  Forty  thousand  hogsheads,  or  120  million 
fish,  have  been  taken  in  the  course  of  a  single  season,  requiring 
20,000  tons  of  salt  to  cure  them.  Twelve  millions  have  been 
taken  in  a  single  day;  and  the  sight  of  this  great  army  of  fish 
passing  the  Land's  End,  and  pursued  by  hordes  of  dog-fish,  hake, 
and  cod,  besides  vast  flocks  of  sea-birds,  is  most  striking.  The 
principal  fishing  stations  are  on  Mount's  Bay  and  at  St  Ives,  but 
boats  are  employed  all  along  the  coast.  When  brought  to  shore 
the  pilchards  are  carried  to  the  cellars  to  be  cured.  They  are 
then  packed  in  hogsheads,  each  containing  about  2400  fish. 
These  casks  are  largely  exported  to  Naples  and  other  Italian  ports 
— whence  the  fisherman's  toast,  "  Long  life  to  the  pope,  and  death 
to  thousands."  Besides  pilchards,  mackerel  and  herring  are  taken 
in  great  numbers,  and  conger  eels  of  great  size;  mullet  and  John 
Dory  may  be  mentioned.  There  is  also  a  trade  in  "  sardines," 
young  pilchards  taking  the  place  of  the  real  Mediterranean  fish. 

Communications. — The  principal  ports  are  Falmouth  and 
Penzance,  but  that  of  Hayle  is  of  some  importance,  and  there  are 
large  engineering  works  here.  It  lies  on  the  estuary  of  the  Hayle 
river,  which  opens  into  St  Ives  Bay,  the  township  of  Phillack 
adjoining  on  the  north-east.  A  brisk  coasting  trade  is  maintained 
at  many  small  ports  along  the  coast.  Communications  are 
provided  chiefly  by  the  Great  Western  railway,  the  main  line  of 
which  passes  through  the  county  and  terminates  at  Penzance. 
Fowey,  Penryn  and  Falmouth,  and  Helston  on  the  south,  and 
Bodmin  and  Wadebridge,  Newquay  and  St  Ives,  are  served  by 
branch  lines.  A  light  railway  runs  from  Liskeard  to  Looe. 
The  north-eastern  parts  of  the  county  (Launceston,  Bude, 
Wadebridge)  are  served  by  the  London  &  South-Western 
railway.  Coaches  are  run  in  several  districts  during  the  summer, 
and  in  some  parts,  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Penzance,  and 
between  Helston  and  the  Lizard,  the  Great  Western  company 
provides  a  motor-car  service  to  places  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
railway.  Many  of  the  small  seaside  towns  have  become  favourite 
holiday  resorts,  such  as  Bude,  Newquay  and  St  Ives,  and  the 
south-coast  ports. 

Population  and  Administration. — The  area  of  the  ancient 
county  is  868,220  acres,  with  a  population  in  1891  of  322,571,  and 
in  1901  of  322,334.  In  1861  the  population  was  369,390,  and  had 
shown  an  increase  up  to  that  census.  The  area  of  the  adminis- 


trative county  is  886,384  acres.  The  county  contains  9  hundreds. 
The  municipal  boroughs  are  Bodmin  (pop.  5353),  the  county 
town;  Falmouth  (11,789),  Helston  (3088),  Launceston  (4053), 
Liskeard  (4010),  Lostwithiel  (1331),  Penryn  (3190),  Penzance 
(13,136),  St  Ives  (6699),  Saltash  (3357),  Truro  (11,562),  an 
episcopal  city.  The  other  urban  districts  are  Callington  (1714), 
Camborne  (14,726),  Hayle  (1084),  Looe  (2548),  Ludgvan  (2274), 
Madron  (3486),  Newquay  (3115),  Padstow  (1566),  Paul  (6332), 
Phillack  (3881),  Redruth  (io,4Si),  St  Austell  (3340),  St  Just 
(5646),  Stratton  and  Bude  (2308),  Torpoint  (4200),  Wadebridge 
(2186).  Small  market  and  other  towns,  beyond  those  in  the 
above  lists,  are  numerous.  Such  are  Calstock  in  the  east,  St 
Germans  in  the  south-east  near  Saltash,  St  Blazey  near  St 
Austell,  Camelford,  St  Columb  Major,  and  Perranzabuloe  in  the 
north,  with  the  mining  towns  of  Gwennap  and  Illogan  in  the 
Redruth  district  and  Wendron  near  Helston,  all  inland  towns; 
while  on  the  south  coast  may  be  mentioned  Fowey  and  Meva- 
gissey, on  either  side  of  St  Austell  Bay,  and  Marazion  on  Mount's 
Bay,  close  by  St  Michael's  Mount.  Cornwall  is  in  the  western 
circuit,  and  assizes  are  held  at  Bodmin.  It  has  one  court  of 
quarter  sessions,  and  is  divided  into  17  petty  sessional  divisions. 
The  boroughs  of  Bodmin,  Falmouth,  Helston,  Launceston, 
Liskeard,  Penryn,  Penzance,  St  Ives  and  Truro  have  separate 
commissions  of  the  peace,  and  Penzance  has  a  separate  court  of 
quarter  sessions.  The  Scilly  Isles  are  administered  by  a  separate 
council,  and  form  one  of  the  petty  sessional  divisions.  There  are 
239  civil  parishes,  of  which  5  are  in  the  Scilly  Isles.  Cornwall  is 
in  the  diocese  of  Truro,  and  there  are  227  ecclesiastical  parishes  or 
districts  wholly  or  in  part  within  the  county.  The  parliamentary 
divisions  are  the  North-Eastern  or  Launceston,  South-Eastern  or 
Bodmin,  Mid  or  St  Austell,  Truro,  North-Western  or  Camborne, 
and  Western  or  St  Ives,  each  returning  one  member;  while  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Penryn  and  Falmouth  returns  one 
member. 

Language. — The  old  Cornish  language  survives  in  a  few  words 
still  in  use  in  the  fishing  and  mining  communities,  as  well  as  in 
the  names  of  persons  and  places,  but  the  last  persons  who  spoke 
it  died  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  It  belonged  to  the 
Cymric  division  of  Celtic,  in  which  Welsh  and  Armorican  are 
also  included.  The  most  important  relics  of  the  language  known 
to  exist  are  three  dramas  or  miracle  plays,  edited  and  translated 
by  Edwin  Norris,  Oxford,  1859.  A  sketch  of  Cornish  grammar 
is  added,  and  a  Cornish  vocabulary  from  a  MS.  of  the  i3th 
century  (Cotton  MSS.  Vespasian  A.  14,  p.  70).  (See  CELT: 
Language  and  Literature.)  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  great 
numbers  of  saints  whose  names  survive  in  the  topography  of  the 
county  are  largely  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  here,  as  in 
Wales,  it  was  the  practice  to  canonize  the  founder  of  a  church. 
The  natives  have  many  traits  in  common  with  the  Welsh,  such 
as  their  love  of  oratory  and  their  strong  tribal  attachment  to 
the  county. 

History. — Cornwall  was  the  last  portion  of  British  territory 
in  the  south  to  submit  to  the  Saxon  invader.  Viewed  from  its 
eastern  boundary  it  doubtless  appeared  less  attractive  than  the 
rich,  well-wooded  lands  of  Wessex,  while  it  unquestionably 
afforded  greater  obstacles  in  the  way  of  conquest.  In  815 
Ecgbert  directed  his  efforts  towards  the  subjugation  of  the 
West- Welsh  of  Cornwall,  and  after  eight  years'  fighting  compelled 
the  whole  of  Dyvnaint  to  acknowledge  his  supremacy.  Assisted 
by  the  Danes  the  Cornish  revolted  but  were  again  defeated, 
probably  in  836,  at  the  battle  of  Hengestesdun,  Kingston  Down 
in  Stoke-Climsland.  Ninety  years  later  Aethelstan  banished 
the  West- Welsh  from  Exeter  and  made  the  Tamar  the  boundary 
of  their  territory.  The  thoroughness  of  the  Saxon  conquest  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  in  the  days  of  the  Confessor  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  land  in  Cornwall  was  held  by  men  bearing 
English  names.  As  the  result  of  the  Norman  conquest  less  than 
one-twelfth  of  the  land  (exclusive  of  that  held  by  the  Church) 
remained  in  English  hands.  Six-sevenths  of  the  manors  were 
assigned  to  Robert,  count  of  Mortain,  and  became  the  foundation 
of  the  territorial  possessions  and  revenues  of  the  earldom  which 
was  held  until  1337,  usually  by  special  grant,  by  the  sons  or 


182 


CORNWALL 


near  relatives  of  the  kings  of  England.  On  the  death  of  John 
of  Eltham  the  last  earl,  in  1337,  Edward  the  Black  Prince  was 
created  duke  of  Cornwall.  By  the  terms  of  the  statute  under 
which  the  dukedom  was  created  the  succession  was  restricted 
to  the  eldest  son  of  the  king,  but  in  1613,  on  the  death  of  Prince 
Henry,  an  extended  interpretation,  given  by  the  king's  advisers, 
enabled  his  brother  Charles  (afterwards  Charles  I.)  to  succeed 
as  son  of  the  king  and  next  heir  to  the  realm  of  England. 

Traces  of  jurisdictional  differentiation  anterior  to  Domesday 
survive  in  the  names  of  at  least  five  of  the  hundreds,  although 
these  names  do  not  appear  in  the  Survey  itself.  The  hundreds 
into  which  the  county  was  divided  at  the  time  of  the  Inquisitio 
Geldi  were  as  follows:— Straton,  which  embraced  the  present 
hundreds  of  Stratton,  Lesnewth  and  Trigg;  Fawiton,  approxi- 
mately conterminous  with  West;  Panton,  now  included  in 
Pydasr,  Tibeste,  Wineton,  Conarditon  and  Rileston,  very  nearly 
identical  with  Powder,  Kerrier,  Penwith  and  East.  The  shire 
court  was  held  at  Launceston  except  from  about  1260  to  1386, 
when  it  was  held  at  Lostwithiel.  In  1716  the  summer  assize 
was  transferred  to  Bodmin.  Since  1836  both  assizes  have  been 
held  at  Bodmin.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  hundred  courts  became 
early  attached  to  various  manors,  and  their  bailiwicks  and 
bedellaries  descended  with  the  real  estate  of  their  owners.  There 
is  much  obscurity  concerning  theearly  ecclesiastical  organization. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  Cornwall  had  its  own  bishops  from 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century  until  the  year  1018,  when  the  see 
was  removed  to  Crediton.  During  the  interval  the  see  had  been 
placed  sometimes  at  Bodmin  and  sometimes  at  St  Germans.  In 
1049  the  see  of  the  united  dioceses  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  was 
fixed  at  Exeter.  Cornwall  was  formed  into  an  archdeaconry 
soon  after,  and,  as  such,  continued  until  1876,  when  it  was  re- 
constituted a  diocese  with  its  see  at  Truro.  The  parishes  of 
St  Giles-on-the-Heath,  North  Petherwin  and  Werrington,  wholly 
in  Devon,  and  Boy  ton,  partly  in  Devon  and  partly  in  Cornwall, 
which  were  portions  of  the  ancient  archdeaconry,  and  also  the 
parishes  of  Broadwoodwidger  and  Virginstowe,  both  in  Devon, 
which  had  been  added  to  it  in  1875,  thus  came  to  be  included 
in  the  Truro  diocese.  The  present  archdeaconries  of  Bodmin 
embracing  the  eastern,  and  of  Cornwall  embracing  the  western 
portion  of  the  newly  constituted  diocese  were  formed,  by  order 
in  council,  in  1878.  Aethelstan's  enactment  had  doubtless 
roughly  determined  the  civil  boundary  of  the  Celtic-speaking 
county.  In  1386  disputes  having  arisen,  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  determine  the  Cornish  border  between  North 
Tamerton  and  Hornacot. 

For  the  first  four  centuries  after  the  Norman  conquest  the 
part  played  by  Cornwall  in  England's  political  history  was  com- 
paratively unimportant.  In  her  final  attempt  in  1471  to  restore 
the  fortunes  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  Queen  Margaret  received 
the  active  support  of  the  Cornish,  who,  under  Sir  Hugh  Courtenay 
and  Sir  John  Arundell,  accompanied  her  to  the  fatal  field  of 
Tewkesbury,  and  in  1473  John  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  held 
St  Michael's  Mount  in  her  behalf  until  the  following  February, 
when  he  surrendered  to  John  Fortescue.  A  rising  of  considerable 
magnitude  in  1497  at  the  instigation  of  Thomas  Flamank, 
occasioned  by  the  levy  of  a  tax  for  the  Scottish  war,  was  only 
repelled  after  the  arrival  of  the  insurgents  at  Blackheath  in  Kent. 
Perkin  Warbeck,  who  landed -at  Whitsand  Bay  in  the  parish  of 
Sennen,  obtained  general  support  in  the  same  year.  The  im- 
position of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  the  abrogation  of 
various  religious  ceremonies  led  to  a  rebellion  in  1549  under  Sir 
Humphry  Arundell  of  Lanherne,  the  rebels,  who  knew  little 
English,  demanding  the  restoration  of  the  Latin  service,  but  a 
fatal  delay  under  the  walls  of  Exeter  led  to  their  early  defeat 
and  the  execution  of  their  leaders.  During  the  Civil  War  of  the 
1 7th  century  Cornwall  won  much  glory  in  the  royal  cause.  In 
1643  Sir  Ralph  Hopton,  who  commanded  the  king's  Cornish 
troops,  defeated  General  Ruthe'n  on  Bradoc  Down,  while  General 
Chudleigh,  another  parliamentary  general,  was  repulsed  near 
Launceston,  and  the  earl  of  Stamford  at  Stratton.  The  whole 
county  was  thereby  secured  to  the  king.  Led  by  Sir  Seville 
Grenville  of  Stow  the  Cornish  troops  now  marched  into  Somerset- 


shire, where  in  the  indecisive  battle  of  Lansdowne  they  greatly 
distinguished  themselves,  but  lost  their  brave  leader.  In  July 
1644  the  earl  of  Essex  marched  into  Cornwall  and  was  followed 
soon  afterwards  by  the  king's  troops  in  pursuit.  Numerous 
engagements  were  fought,  in  which  the  latter  were  uniformly 
successful.  The  troops  of  Essex  were  surrounded  and  their 
leader  escaped  in  a  boat  from  Fowey  to  Plymouth.  In  1646, 
owing  to  dissensions  amongst  the  king's  officers,  and  in  particular 
to  the  refusal  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville  to  serve  under  Lord 
Hopton,  and  to  the  defection  of  Colonel  Edgcumbe,  the  royal 
cause  declined  and  became  desperate.  On  the  i6th  of  August 
1646  articles  of  capitulation  were  signed  by  the  defenders  of 
Pendennis  Castle. 

Two  members  for  the  county  were  summoned  by  Edward  I. 
to  the  parliament  of  1295,  and  two  continued  to  be  the  number 
of  county  members  until  1832.  Six  boroughs — Launceston, 
Liskeard,  Lostwithiel,  Bodmin,  Truro  and  Helston— were  granted 
the  like  privilege  by  the  same  sovereign.  To  strengthen  and 
augment  the  power  of  thecrownas  against  theHouseof  Commons, 
between  1547  and  1584,  fifteen  additional  towns  and  villages 
received  the  franchise,  with  the  result  that,  between  the  latter 
date  and  1821,  Cornwall  sent  no  less  than  forty-four  members 
to  parliament.  In  1821  Grampound  lost  both  its  members,  and 
by  the  Reform  Act  in  1832  fourteen  other  Cornish  boroughs 
shared  the  same  fate.  Cornwall  was,  in  fact,  notorious  for  the 
number  of  its  rotten  boroughs.  In  the  vicinity  of  Liskeard 
"  within  an  area,  which  since  1885  ...  is  represented  by  only 
one  member,  there  were  until  1832  nine  parliamentary  boroughs 
returning  eighteen  members.  In  this  area,  on  the  eve  of  the 
Reform  Act,  there  was  a  population  of  only  14,224  "  (Porrit, 
Unreformed  House  of  Commons,  vol.  i.  p.  92).  Bossiney,  a  village 
near  Camelford,  Camelford  itself,  Lostwithiel,  East  Looe,  West 
Looe,  Fowey  and  several  others  were  disfranchised  in  1832,  but 
even  until  the  act  of  1885  Bodmin,  Helston,  Launceston,  Liskeard 
and  St  Ives  were  separately  represented,  whereas  Penzance  was 
not.  Until  this  act  was  passed  Truro,  and  Penryn  with  Falmouth, 
returned  two  members  each. 

Antiquities.— No  part  of  England  is  so  rich  as  Cornwall  in 
prehistoric  antiquities.  These  chiefly  abound  in  the  district 
between  Penzance  and  the  Land's  End,  but  they  occur  in  all  the 
wilder  parts  of  the  county.  They  may  be  classed  as  follows, 
(i)  Cromlechs.  These  in  the  west  of  Cornwall  are  called  "  quoits," 
with  reference  to  their  broad  and 'flat  covering  stones.  The 
largest  and  most  important  are  those  known  as  Lanyon,  Mulfra, 
Chun  and  Zennor  quoits,  all  in  the  Land's  End  district.  Of  these 
Chun  is  the  only  one  which  has  not  been  thrown  down.  Zennor  is 
said  to  be  the  largest  in  Europe,  while  Lanyon,  when  perfect,  was 
of  sufficient  height  for  a  man  on  horseback  to  ride  under.  Of 
those  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cornwall,  Trevethy  near  Liskeard  and 
Pawton  in  the  parish  of  St  Breock  are  the  finest.  (2)  Rude 
uninscribed  monoliths  are  common  to  all  parts  of  Cornwall. 
Those  at  Boleigh  or  Boleit,  in  the  parish  of  St  Buryan,  S.W.  of 
Penzance,  called  the  Pipers,  are  the  most  important.  (3) 
Circles,  none  of  which  is  of  great  dimensions.  The  principal  are 
the  Hurlers,  near  Liskeard;  the  Boskednan,  Boscawen-un,  and 
Tregeseal  circles;  and  that  called  the  Dawns-fin,  or  Merry 
Maidens,  at  Boleigh.  All  of  these,  except  the  Hurlers,  are  in  the 
Land's  End  district.  Other  circles  that  may  be  mentioned  are  the 
Trippet  Stones,  in  the  parish  of  Blisland,  near  Bodmin,  and  one  at 
Duloe,  near  Liskeard.  (4)  Long  alignments  or  avenues  of  stones, 
resembling  those  on  Dartmoor,  but  not  so  perfect,  are  to  be 
found  on  the  moors  near  Rough  Tor  and  Brown  Willy.  A  very 
remarkable  monument  of  this  kind  exists  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
St  Columb  Major,  called  the  Nine  Maidens.  It  consists  of  nine 
rude  pillars  placed  in  a  line,  but  now  imperfect,  while  near  them 
is  a  single  stone  known  as  the  Old  Man.  (5)  Hut  dwellings.  Of 
these  there  are  at  least  two  kinds,  those  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  county  resembling  the  beehive  structures  and  enclosures  of 
Dartmoor,  and  those  in  the  west  comprising  "  hut-clusters," 
having  a  central  court,  and  a  surrounding  wall  sometimes  of 
considerable  height  and  thickness.  The  beehive  masonry  is 
also  found  in  connexion  with  these,  as  are  also  (6)  Caves,  or 


CORNWALLIS 


183 


subterraneous  structures,  resembling  those  of  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  (7)  Cliff  castles  are  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
Cornish  coast,  especially  in  the  west,  such  as  Treryn,  Men, 
Kenedjack,  Bosigran  and  others.  These  are  all  fortified  on  the 
landward  side.  At  Treryn  Castle  is  the  Logan  Stone,  a  mass  of 
granite  so  balanced  as  to  rock  upon  its  support.  (8)  Hill  castles, 
or  camps,  are  very  numerous.  Castelan-Dinas,  near  St  Columb, 
is  the  best  example  of  the  earthwork  camp,  and  Chun  Castle, 
near  Penzance,  of  the  stone. 

Early  Christian  remains  in  Cornwall  include  crosses,  which 
occur  all  over  the  country  and  are  of  various  dates  from  the  6th 
century  onward;  inscribed  sepulchral  stones,  generally  of  the 
;th  and  8th  centuries;  and  oratories.  These  last  have  their 
parallels  in  Ireland,  which  is  natural,  since  from  that  country  and 
Wales  Cornwall  was  christianized.  The  buildings  (also  called 
baptisteries)  are  very  small  and  rude,  a  simple  parallelogram  in 
form,  always  placed  near  a  spring.  The  best  example  is  St 
Piran's  near  Perranzabuloe,  which  long  lay  buried  in  sand  dunes. 
St  Piran  was  one  of  the  missionaries  sent  from  Ireland  by  St 
Patrick  in  the  5th  century,  and  became  the  patron  saint  of  the 
tin-miners. 

The  individuality  of  Cornwall  is  reflected  in  its  ecclesiastical 
architecture.  The  churches  are  generally  massive,  plain  struc- 
tures of  granite,  built  as  it  were  to  resist  the  storms  which 
sweep  up  from  the  sea,  low  in  the  body,  but  with  high  unadorned 
towers.  Within,  a  common  feature  is  the  absence  of  a  chancel 
arch.  In  a  few  cases,  of  which  Gwennap  church  is  an  illustration, 
where  the  body  of  the  church  lies  low  in  a  valley,  there  is  a 
detached  campanile  at  a  higher  level.  The  prevalent  style  is 
Perpendicular,  much  rebuilding  having  taken  place  in  this  period, 
but  there  are  fine  examples  of  the  earlier  styles.  The  west  front 
and  part  of  the  towers  of  the  church  of  St  Germanus  of  Auxerre 
at  St  Germans  form  the  best  survival  of  Norman  work  in  the 
county;  there  are  good  Norman  doorways  at  Manaccan  and 
Kilkhampton  churches,  and  the  church  of  Morwenstow,  near  the 
coast  north  of  Bude,  is  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  same  style. 
This  church  has  the  further  interest  of  having  had  as  its  rector 
the  Cornish  poet  Robert  Stephen  Hawker  (1803-1875).  The 
Early  English  style  is  not  commonly  seen,  but  the  small  church 
of  St  Anthony  in  Roseland,  near  the  east  shore  of  Falmouth 
harbour  (with  an  ornate  Norman  door),  and  portions  of  the 
churches  of  Camelf  ord  and  Manaccan,  are  instances  of  this  period. 
Decorated  work  is  similarly  scanty,  but  the  churches  of  Sheviock, 
in  the  south-east,  and  St  Columb  Major  have  much  that  is  good, 
and  that  of  St  Bartholomew,  Lostwithiel,  has  a  beautiful  and  rich 
lantern  and  spire  in  this  style  surmounting  an  Early  English 
tower,  while  the  body  of  the  church  is  also  largely  Decorated. 
Perpendicular  churches  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  only  needful  to 
mention  those  possessing  some  peculiar  characteristic.  Thus, 
the  high  ornamentation  of  Launceston  and  St  Austell  churches  is 
unusual  in  Cornwall,  as  is  the  rich  and  graceful  tower  of  Probus 
church.  St  Neot's  church,  near  Liskeard,  has  magnificent  stained 
glass  of  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries. 

The  ruined  castles  of  Launceston,  Trematon  near  Saltash, 
Restormel  near  Lostwithiel,  and  Tintagel,  date,  at  least  in  part, 
from  Norman  times.  St  Michael's  Mount  was  at  once  a  fortress 
and  an  ecclesiastical  foundation.  Pendennis  Castle,  Falmouth, 
is  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  The  mansions  of  Cornwall  are 
generally  remarkable  rather  for  their  position  than  for  archi- 
tectural interest,  but  Trelawne,  partly  of  the  1 5th  century,  near 
Looe,  and  Place  House,  a  Tudor  building,  at  Fowey,  may  be 
noted. 

AUTHORITIES. — See  Richard  Carew,  Survey  of  Cornwall  (London, 
1602);  W.  Borlase,  Antiquities  of  Cornwall  (Oxford,  1754  and  1769); 
D.  Gilbert,  Parochial  History  of  Cornwall  (London,  1837-1838), 
incorporating  collections  of  W.  Hals  and  Tonkin;  J.  T.  Blight, 
Ancient  Crosses  in  the  East  of  Cornwall  (London,  1858),  and  Churches 
of  West  Cornwall  (London,  1865) ;  G.  C.  Boase  and  W.  P.  Courtney, 
Bibliotheca  Cornubiensis,  a  catalogue  of  the  writings,  both  MS.  and 
printed,  of  Cornishmen,  and  of  works  relating  to  Cornwall  (Truro 
and  London,  1864-1881);  R.  Hunt,  Popular  Romances  and  Drolls 
of  the-  West  of  England  (London,  1865);  W.  Bottrell,  Traditions  and 
Hearlhside  Stories  of  West  Cornwall  (Penzance,  1870-1873)  ;_T.  H. 
Collins,  Handbook  to  the  Mineralogy  of  Cornwall  and  Devon  (Truro, 


1871);  W.  C.  Borlase,  Naenia  Cornubiae  (1872);  Early  Christianity 
in  Cornwall  (London,  1893) ;  J.  Bannister,  Glossary  of  Cornish  Names 
(London,  1878) ;  W.  P.  Courtney,  Parliamentary  Representation  of 
Cornwall  to  1832  (London,  1889);  G.  C.  Boase,  Collectanea  Cornubt- 
ensia  (Truro,  1890);  J.  R.  Allen,  Old  Cornish  Crosses  (Truro,  1896); 
A.  H.  Norway,  Highways  and  Byways  in  Cornwall  (1904);  Lewis 
Hind,  Days  in  Cornwall  (1907) ;  Victoria  County  History,  Cornwall. 

CORNWALLIS,  CHARLES  CORNWALLIS,  ist  MARQUESS 
(1738-1805),  eldest  son  of  Charles,  ist  earl  of  Cornwallis  (1700- 
1762),  was  born  on  the  3 ist  of  December  1738.  Having  been 
educated  at  Eton  and  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  he  entered 
the  army.  For  some  time  he  was  member  of  parliament  for  Eye; 
in  1761  he  served  a  campaign  in  Germany,  and  was  gazetted  to  a 
lieutenant-colonelcy  in  the  I2th  Foot.  In  1762  he  succeeded  to 
the  earldom  and  estates  of  his  father;  in  1765  he  was  made  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  king  and  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber;  in  1766 
he  obtained  a  colonelcy  in  the  33rd  Foot;  and  in  1770  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  Tower.  In  public  life  he  was  dis- 
tinguished by  independence  of  character  and  inflexible  integrity; 
he  voted  without  regard  to  party,  and  opposed  the  ministerial 
action  against  Wilkes  and  in  the  case  of  the  American  colonies. 
But  when  the  American  War  of  Independence  broke  out,  he 
accompanied  his  regiment  across  the  Atlantic,  and  served  not 
without  success  as  major-general.  In  1780  he  was  appointed  to 
command  the  British  forces  in  South  Carolina,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  routed  Gates  at  Camden.  In  1781  he  defeated  Greene  at 
Guilford  Court  House,  and  made  a  destructive  raid  into  Virginia ; 
but  he  was  besieged  at  Yorktown  by  French  and  American  armies 
and  a  French  fleet,  and  was  forced  to  capitulate  on  the  iQth  of 
October  1781.  With  him  fell  the  English  cause  in  the  United 
States.  He  not  only  escaped  censure,  however,  but  in  1786 
received  a  vacant  Garter,  and  was  appointed  governor-general  of 
India  and  commander-in-chief  in  Bengal.  As  an  administrator 
he  projected  many  reforms,  but  he  was  interrupted  in  his  work  by 
the  quarrel  with  Tippoo  Sahib.  In  1 79 1  he  assumed  in  person  the 
conduct  of  the  war  and  captured  Bangalore;  and  in  1792  he 
laid  siege  to  Seringapatam,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  Tippoo 
Sahib,  which  stripped  the  latter  of  half  his  realm,  and  placed 
his  two  sons  as  hostages  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  For  the 
permanent  settlement  of  the  land  revenue  under  his  administra- 
tion, see  BENGAL.  He  returned  to  England  in  1793,  received  a 
marquessate  and  a  seat  in  the  privy  council,  and  was  made 
master-general  of  the  ordnance  with  a  place  in  the  Cabinet. 
In  June  1798  he  was  appointed  to  the  viceroyalty  of  Ireland,  and 
the  zeal  with  which  he  strove  to  pacify  the  country  gained  him  the 
respect  and  good- will  of  both  Roman  Catholics  and  Orangemen. 
On  the  1 7th  of  July  a  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed,  and  a 
few  weeks  afterwards  the  French  army  under  Humbert  was 
surrounded  and  forced  to  surrender.  In  1801  Cornwallis  was 
replaced  by  Lord  Hardwicke,  and  soon  after  he  was  appointed 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  the  treaty  of  Amiens  (1802).  In 
1805  he  was  again  sent  to  India  as  governor-general,  to  replace 
Lord  Wellesley,  whose  policy  was  too  advanced  forthedirectors  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  was  in  ill-health  when  he  arrived 
at  Calcutta,  and  while  hastening  up  the.  country  to  assume 
command  of  the  troops,  he  died  at  Ghazipur,  in  the  district  of 
Benares,  on  the  5th  of  October  1805.  He  was  succeeded  as  2nd 
marquess  by  his  only  son,  Charles  (1774-1823).  On  his  death  the 
marquessate  became  extinct,  but  the  title  of  Earl  Cornwallis 
passed  to  his  uncle,  James  (1743-1824),  who  was  bishop  of 
Lichfield  from  1781  until  his  death.  His  son  and  successor, 
James,  the  5th  earl,  whose  son  predeceased  him  in  1835,  died  in 
May  1852,  when  the  Cornwallis  titles  became  extinct. 

See  W.  S.  Seton-Karr,  The  Marquess  Cornwallis,  "  Rulers  of 
India  "  series  (1890). 

CORNWALLIS,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1744-1819),  British  admiral, 
was  the  brother  of  the  ist  Marquess  Cornwallis,  governor-general 
of  India.  He  was  born  on  the  2oth  of  February  1 744,  and  entered 
the  navy  in  1755.  His  promotion  was  naturally  rapid,  and  in 
1 766*  he  had  reached  post-rank.  Until  1779  he  held  various 
commands  doing  the  regular  work  of  the  navy  in  convoy.  In 
that  year  he  commanded  the  "  Lion  "  (64)  in  the  fleet  of  Admiral 
Byron.  The  "  Lion  "  was  very  roughly  handled  in  the  battle 


184 


CORO— CORONA 


off  Grenada  on  the  6th  of  July  1779,  and  had  to  make  her  way 
alone  to  Jamaica.  In  March  1 780  he  fought  an  action  in  company 
with  two  other  vessels  against  a  much  superior  French  force  off 
Monti  Cristi,  and  had  another  encounter  with  them  near  Bermuda 
in  June.  The  force  he  engaged  was  the  fleet  carrying  the  troops 
of  Rochambeau  to  North  America,  and  was  too  strong  for  his 
squadron  of  two  small  liners,  two  fifty-gun  ships  and  a  frigate. 
After  taking  part  in  the  second  relief  of  Gibraltar,  he  returned 
to  North  America,  and  served  with  Hood  in  the  actions  at  the 
Basse  Terre  of  St  Kitts,  and  with  Rodney  in  the  battle  of  Dominica 
on  the  1 2th  of  April  1 782.  Some  very  rough  verses  which  he  wrote 
on  the  action  have  been  printed  in  Leyland's  "  Brest- Papers," 
published  for  the  Navy  Record  Society,  which  show  that  he 
thought  very  ill  of  Rodney's  conduct  of  the  battle.  In  1788  he 
went  to  the  East  Indies  as  commodore,  where  he  remained  till 

1794.  He  had  some  share  in  the  war  with  Tippoo  Sahib,  and 
helped  to  reduce  Pondicherry.    His  promotion  to  rear-admiral 
dates  from  the  ist  of  February  1793,  and  on  the  4th  of  July 
1794  he  became  vice-admiral. 

In  the  Revolutionary  War  his  services  were  in  the  Channel. 
The  most  signal  of  them  was  performed  on  the  i6th  of  June 

1795,  when  he  carried  out  what  was  always  spoken  of  with  respect 
as  "  the  retreat  of  Cornwallis."     He  was  cruising  near  Brest  with 
four  sail  of  the  line  and  two  frigates,  when  he  was  sighted  by  a 
French  fleet  of  twelve  sail  of  the  line,  and  many  large  frigates 
commanded  by  Villaret  Joyeuse.    The  odds  being  very  great 
•he  was  compelled  to  make  off.    But  two  of  his  ships  were  heavy 
sailers  and  fell  behind.     He  was  consequently  overtaken,  and 
attacked  on  both  sides.    The  rearmost  ship,  the  "  Mars  "  (74), 
suffered  severely  in  her  rigging  and  was  in  danger  of  being 
surrounded  by  the  French.    Cornwallis  turned  to  support  her, 
and  the  enemy,  impressed  by  a  conviction  that  he  must  be 
relying  on  help  within  easy  reach,  gave  up  the  pursuit.    The 
action  affords  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  moral  superiority  which 
the  victory  of  the  ist  of  June,  and  the  known  efficiency  of  the 
crews,  had  given  to  the  British  navy.    The  reputation  of  Corn- 
wallis was  immensely  raised,  and  the  praise  given  him  was  no 
doubt  the  greater  because  he  was  personally  very  popular  with 
officers  and  men.    In  1796  he  incurred  a  court-martial  in  conse- 
quence of  a  misunderstanding  and  apparently  some  temper  on 
both  sides,  on  the  charge  of  refusing  to  obey  an  order  from  the 
Admiralty.    He  was  practically  acquitted.    The  substance  of  the 
case  was  that  he  demurred  on  the  ground  of  health  at  being 
called  upon  to  go  to  the  West  Indies,  in  a  small  frigate,  and 
without  "  comfort."    He  became  full  admiral  in  1799,  and  held 
the  Channel  command  for  a  short  interval  in  1801  and  from  1803 
to  1806,  but  saw  no  further  service.    He  was  made  a  G.C.B.  in 
1815,  and  died  on  the  5th  of  July  1819.    His  various  nicknames 
among  the  sailors,  "  Billy  go  tight,"  given  on  account  of  his 
rubicund   complexion,   "  Billy   Blue,"   "  Coachee,"   and   "  Mr 
Whip,"  seem  to  show  that  he  was  regarded  with  more  of  affection 
than  reverence. 

See  also  Ralfe,  New.  Biog.  i.  387 ;  Naval  Chronicle,  vii.  I ;  Char- 
nock,  Biogr.  Nav.  vi.  523. 

CORO,  a  small  city  and  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Falcon, 
Venezuela,  7  m.  W.  of  La  Vela  de  Coro  (its  port  on  the  Caribbean 
coast),  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail,  and  199  m.  W.N.W. 
of  Caracas.  Pop.  (1904,  estimate)  9500.  Coro  stands  on  a  sandy 
plain  between  the  Caribbean  and  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela,  and 
near  the  isthmus  connecting  the  peninsula  of  Paraguana  with  the 
mainland.  Its  elevation  above  sea-level  is  only  105  ft.,  and  its 
climate  is  hot  but  not  unhealthy.  -The  city  is  badly  built,  its 
streets  are  unpaved,  and  it  has  no  public  buildings  of  note  except 
two  old  churches.  Its  water-supply  is  derived  from  springs 
some  distance  away.  Coro  is  the  commercial  centre  for  an 
extensive  district  on  the  E.  side  of  Lake  Maracaibo  and  the 
Gulf  of  Venezuela,  which  exports  large  quantities  of  goat-skins, 
an  excellent  quality  of  tobacco,  and  some  coffee,  cacao,  castor 
beans,  timber  and  dyewoods.  It  was  founded  in  1527  by  Juan 
de  Ampues,  who  gave  to  it  the  name  of  Santa  Ana  de  Coriana 
(afterwards  corrupted  to  Santa  Ana  de  Coro)  in  honour  of  the 
day  and  of  the  tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  this  locality.  It  was 


also  called  Venezuela  (little  Venice)  because  of  an  Indian  village 
on  the  gulf  coast  built  on  piles  over  the  shallow  water;  this, 
name  was  afterwards  bestowed  upon  the  province  of  which 
Coro  was  the  capital.  Coro  was  also  made  the  chief  factory  of 
the  Welsers,  the  German  banking  house  to  which  Charles  V. 
mortgaged  this  part  of  his  colonial  possessions,  and  it  was  the 
starting-point  for  many  exploring  and  colonizing  expeditions 
into  the  interior.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1536,  and  for  a 
time  Coro  was  one  of  the  three  most  important  towns  on  the 
northern  coast.  The  seat  of  government  was  removed  to 
Caracas  in  1578  and  the  bishopric  five  years  later.  Coro  is 
celebrated  in  Venezuelan  history  as  the  scene  of  Miranda's  first 
attempt  to  free  his  country  from  Spanish  rule.  It  suffered 
greatly  in  the  war  which  followed. 

COROMANDEL  COAST,  a  name  formerly'  applied  officially 
to  the  eastern  seaboard  of  India  approximately  between  Cape 
Calimere,  in  10°  17'  N.,  79°  56'  E.,  and  the  mouths  of  the  Kistna 
river.  The  shore,  which  is  low,  is  without  a  single  good  natural 
harbour,  and  is  at  all  times  beaten  by  a  heavy  sea.  Communica- 
tion with  ships  can  be  effected  only,  by  catamarans  and  flat- 
bottomed  surf-boats.  The  north-east  monsoon,  which  lasts 
from  October  till  April,  is  exceedingly  violent  for  three  months 
after  its  commencement.  From  April  till  October  hot  southerly 
winds  blow  by  day ;  at  night  the  heat  is  tempered  by  sea- 
breezes.  The  principal  places  frequented  by  shipping  are  Pulicat, 
Madras,  Sadras,  Pondicherry,  Cuddalore,  Tranquebar,  Nagore, 
and  Negapatam.  The  name  Coromandel  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  Cholamandal,  the  mandal  or  region  of  the  ancient  dynasty 
of  the  Chola.  Its  official  use  has  lapsed. 

CORONA  (Lat.  for  "  crown  "),  in  astronomy,  the  exterior 
envelope  of  the  sun,  being  beyond  the  photosphere  and  chromo- 
sphere, invisible  in  the  telescope  and  unrecognized  by  the 
spectroscope,  except  during  a  total  eclipse  (see  SUN;  ECLIPSE). 

Corona  Borealis,  also  known  as  the  Corona  septentrionalis, 
and  the  Northern  Crown  or  Garland,  is  a  constellation  of  the 
Northern  hemisphere,  mentioned  by  Eudoxus  (4th  cent.  B.C.)  and 
Aratus  (3rd  cent.  B.C.).  In  the  catalogues  of  Ptolemy,  Tycho 
Brahe,  and  Hevelius,  eight  stars  are  mentioned;  but  recent 
uranographic  surveys  have  greatly  increased  this  number.  The 
most  interesting  members  are:  a  Coronae,  a  binary  consisting 
of  a  yellow  star  of  the  6th  magnitude,  and  a  bluish  star  of  the 
7th  magnitude ;  R  Coronae,  an  irregular  variable  star ;  and 
T  Coronae  or  Nova  Coronae,  a  temporary  or  new  star,  first 
observed  in  1866.  Corona  Australis,  also  known  as  Corona 
meridionalis,  or  the  Southern  Crown,  is  a  constellation  of  the 
Southern  hemisphere,  mentioned  by  Eudoxus  and  Aratus.  In 
Ptolemy's  catalogue  thirteen  stars  are  described. 

In  physical  science,  coronae  (or  "  glories  ")  are  the  coloured 
rings  frequently  seen  closely  encircling  the  sun  or  moon.  Formerly 
classified  by  the  ancient  Greeks  with  halos,  rainbows,  &c.,  under 
the  general  group  of  "  meteors,"  they  came  to  receive  considerable 
attention  at  the  hands  of  Descartes,  Christiaan  Huygens,  and 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  ;  but  the  correct  explanation  of  coronae  was 
reserved  until  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century,  when  Thomas 
Young  applied  the  theories  of  the  diffraction  and  interference 
of  light  to  this  phenomenon.  Prior  to  Young,  halos  and  coronae 
had  not  been  clearly  differentiated ;  they  were  both  regarded  as 
caused  by  the  refraction  of  light  by  atmospheric  moisture  and 
ice,  although  observation  had  shown  that  important  distinctions 
existed  between  these  phenomena.  Thus,  while  halos  have 
certain  definite  radii,  viz.  22°  and  46°,  the  radii  of  coronae 
vary  very  considerably ;  also,  halos  are  coloured  red  on 
the  inside,  whereas  coronae  are  coloured  red  on  the  outside 
(see  HALO). 

It  has  now  been  firmly  established,  both  experimentally  and 
mathematically,  that  coronae  are  due  to  diffraction  by  the 
minute  particles  of  moisture  and  dust  suspended  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  the  radii  of  the  rings  depend  on  the  size  of  the 
diffracting  particles.  (See  DIFFRACTION  OF  LrGHT.) 

Other  meteorological  phenomena  caused  by  the.  diffraction  of 
light  include  the  anthelia,  and  the  chromatic  rings  seen  encircling 
shadows  thrown  on  a  bank  of  clouds,  mist  or  fog.  These  appear- 


CORONACH— CORONATION 


185 


ances  differ  from  halos  and  coronae  inasmuch  as  their  centres  are 
at  the  anti-solar  point;  they  thus  resemble  the  rainbow.  The 
anthelia  (from  the  Greek  am,  opposite,  and  ijXios,  the  sun)  are 
coloured  red  on  the  inside,  the  outside  being  generally  colour- 
less owing  to  the  continued  overlapping  of  many  spectra.  The 
diameter  increases  with  the  size  of  the  globules  making  up  the 
mist.  The  chromatic  rings  seen  encircling  the  "  spectre  of  the 
Brocken  "  are  similarly  explained. 

The  blue  colour  of  the  sky  (q.v.),  supernumerary  rainbows,  and 
the  gorgeous  sunsets  observed  after  intense  volcanic  disturbances, 
when  the  atmosphere  is  charged  with  large  quantities  of  extremely 
minute  dust  particles  (e.g.  Krakatoa),  are  also  explicable  by  the 
diffraction  of  light.  (See  DUST.) 

See  E.  Mascart,  Traite  d'optique  (1899-1903) ;  J.  Pernter,  Meteoro- 
logische  Optik  (1902-1905). 

In  architecture,  the  term  "  corona  "  is  used  of  that  part  of  a 
cornice  which  projects  over  the  bed  mould  and  constitutes  the 
chief  protection  to  the  wall  from  rain;  it  is  always  throated,  and 
its  soffit  rises  towards  the  wall.  •  The  term  is  also  given  to  the 
apse  or  semicircular  termination  of  the  choir;  as  at  Canterbury  in 
the  part  called  "  Becket's  crown."  The  large  circular  chandelier 
suspended  in  churches,  of  which  the  finest  example  is  that  given 
by  Barbarossa  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  often  called  a  corona.  The 
term  is  also  used  in  botany  of  the  crown-like  appendage  at  the 
top  of  compound  flowers,  the  diminutive  being  coronule. 

CORONACH  (a  Gaelic  word,  from  comh,  with,  and  ranach, 
wailing),  the  lamentation  or  dirge  for  the  dead  which  accom- 
panied funerals  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland. 
The  more  usual  term  in  Ireland  is  "  keen  "  or  "  keening." 

CORONADO,  FRANCISCO  VASQUEZ  DE  (c.  isoo-c.  1545), 
Spanish  explorer  of  the  south-western  part  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  He  accompanied  Antonio  de  Mendoza  to  New  Spain  in 
'535)  by  a  brilliant  marriage,  became  a  leading  grandee,  and  in 
1539  was  appointed  governor  of  the  province  of  New  Galicia. 
The  report  presented  by  Fray  Marcos  de  Niza  concerning  the 
"  Seven  cities  of  Cibola  "  (now  identified  almost  certainly  with 
the  Zuni  pueblos  of  New  Mexico)  aroused  great  interest  in 
Mexico;  Melchior  Diaz  was  sent  late  in  1539  to  retrace  Fray 
Marcos's  route  and  report  on  his  story;  and  an  expedition  under 
Coronado  left  Compostela  for  the  "  Seven  Cities  "  in  February 
1540.  This  expedition  consisted  of  a  provision  train  and  droves 
of  live-stock;  several  hundred  friendly  Indians,  Spanish  footmen, 
and  more  than  250  horsemen.  Coronado,  with  a  part  of  this 
force,  captured  the  "  Seven  Cities."  The  fabled  wealth,  however, 
was  not  there.  In  the  autumn  ( 1 540)  Coronado  was  joined  by  the 
rest  of  his  army.  Meanwhile  exploring  parties  were  sent  out: 
Tusayan,  the  Hopi  or  Moki  (Moqui)  country  of  north-eastern 
Arizona,  was  visited;  Garcia  Lopez  de  Cardenas  discovered  and 
described  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado;  and  expeditions 
were  sent  along  the  Rio  Grande  (Tuguez),  where  the  army 
wintered.  The  Indians  revolted  but  were  put  down.  The  army, 
reinspirited  by  the  tales  of  a  plains-Indian  slave1  about  vast 
herds  of  cows  (bison)  on  the  plains,  and  about  an  Eldorado  called 
"  Quivira  "  far  to  the  N.E.,  started  thither  in  April  1541,  and, 
with  a  few  horsemen,  penetrated  at  least  to  what  is  now  central 
Kansas.  Here  Coronado  found  a  few  permanent  settlements  of 
Indians;  in  October  he  was  again  on  the  Rio  Grande;  and  in  the 
spring  of  1542  he  led  his  followers  home.  Thereafter  he  practi- 
cally disappears  from  history.  The  first  description  of  the  bison 
and  the  prairie  plains,  the  first  trustworthy  account  of  the  Zuni 
pueblos,  the  discovery  of  the  Grand  Canyon,  a  vast  increase  of 
the  nominal  dominion  of  Spain  and  Christianity  (the  priests  did 
not  return  from  Cibola),  and  a  notable  addition  to  geographical 
knowledge,  which,  however,  was  long  forgotten,  were  the  results 
of  this  expedition;  which  is,  besides,  for  its  duration  and  the  vast 
distance  covered,  over  mountains,  desert  and  plains,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  expeditions  in  the  history  of  American  dis- 
covery. In  connexion  with  it,  in  1540,  Hcrnando  de  Alarcon 
ascended  the  Gulf  of  California  to  its  head  and  the  Colorado  river 
for  a  long  distance  above  its  mouth. 

1  He  was  later  killed  for  deception,  and  confessed  that  the  Pecos 
Indians  induced  him  to  lure  Coronado  to  destruction. 


All  the  essential  sources  with  a  critical  narrative  are  available  in 
G.  P.  Winship's  The  Coronado  Expedition  (in  the  I4th  Report  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  for  1892-1893,  Washington, 
1896),  except  the  Tratado  del  descubrimiento  de  las  Yndias  y  su 
conquesta  of  Juan  Suarez  de  Peralta  (written  in  the  last  third  of  the 
i6th  century,  republished  at  Madrid,  1878).  See  also  especially 
Justo  Zaragoza,  Noticias  historicas  de  la  Nueva  Espana  (Madrid, 
1878),  the  various  writings  of  A.  F.  A.  Bandelier  (q.v.);  General 
J.  H.  Simpson  in  Smithsonian  Institution  Report  (Washington,  1869), 
with  an  excellent  map;  and  Winship  for  a  full  bibliography.  H.  H. 
Bancroft's  account  in  his  Pacific  States  (vols.  5,  10,  12)  is  less 
authoritative. 

CORONATION  (Lat.  corona,  crown),  a  solemnity  whereby 
sovereigns  are  inaugurated  in  office.  In  pre-Christian  times  in 
Europe  the  king  or  ruler,  upon  his  election,  was  raised  on  a  shield, 
and,  standing  upon  it,  was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  certain 
of  the  chief  men  of  the  tribe,  or  nation,  round  the  assembled 
people.  This  was  called  the  gyratio,  and  it  was  usually  performed 
three  times.  At  its  conclusion  a  spear  was  placed  in  the  king's 
hand,  and  the  diadem,  a  richly  wrought  band  of  silk  or  linen, 
which  must  not  be  confused  with  the  crown  (see  CROWN  AND 
CORONET),  was  bound  round  his  forehead,  as  a  token  of  regal 
authority.  When  Europe  became  Christian,  a  religious  service  of 
benediction  was  added  to  the  older  form,  which,  however,  was  not 
abandoned.  Derived  from  the  Teutons,  the  Franks  continued  the 
gyratio,  and  Clovis,  Sigcbert,  Pippin  and  others  were  thus 
elevated  to  the  royal  estate.  From  a  combination  of  the  old 
custom  with  the  religious  service,  the  later  coronation  ceremonies 
were  gradually  developed.  In  the  ceremonial  procession  of  the 
English  king  from  the  Tower  to  Westminster  (first  abandoned  at 
the  coronation  of  James  II.),  in  the  subsequent  elevation  of  the 
king  into  what  was  known  as  the  marble  chair  in  Westminster 
Hall,  and  in  .the  showing  of  the  king  of  France  to  the  people,  as 
also  in  the  universal  practice  of  delivering  a  sceptre  to  the  new- 
ruler,  traces,  it  is  thought,  may  be  detected  of  the  influence  of  the 
original  function. 

The  added  religious  service  was  naturally  derived  from  the 
Bible,  where  mention  is  frequently  made,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, of  the  anointing  and  crowning  of  kings.  The  anointing 
of  the  king  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  important,  if 
not  essential,  feature  of  the  service.  By  virtue  of  the  unction 
which  he  received,  the  sovereign  was  regarded,  in  the  middle 
ages,  as  a  mixta  persona,  in  part  a  priest,  and  in  part  a  layman. 
It  was  a  strange  theory,  and  Lyndwode,  the  great  English 
canonist,  is  cautious  as  to  it,  and  was  content  to  say  that  it  was 
the  opinion  of  some  people.  It  gained  very  wide  acceptance,  and 
the  anointed  sovereign  was  generally  regarded  as,  in  some  degree, 
possessed  of  the  priestly  character.  By  virtue  of  the  unction  he 
had  received,  the  emperor  was  made  a  canon  of  St  John  Lateran 
and  of  St  Peter  at  Rome,  and  also  of  the  collegiate  church  of 
Aachen,  while  the  king  of  France  was  premier  chanoine  of  the 
primatial  church  of  Lyons,  and  held  canonries  at  Embruri,  Le 
Mans,  Montpellier,  St  Pol-de-Leon,  Lodeve,  and  other  cathedral 
churches  in  France.  There  are,  moreover,  trustworthy  records 
that,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  a  king  of  France,  habited  in  a 
surplice  and  choir  robes,  took  part  with  the  clergy  in  the  services 
of  some  of  those  churches.  Martene  quotes  an  order,  which 
directs  that  at  the  imperial  coronation  at  Rome,  the  pope  ought 
to  sing  the  mass,  the  emperor  read  the  gospel,  and  the  king  of 
Sicily,  or  if  present  the  king  of  France,  the  epistle.  Nothing  like 
this  was  known  in  England,  and  a  theory,  which  has  prevailed  of 
late,  that  the  English  sovereign  is,  in  a  personal  sense,  canon  of 
St  David's,  is  based  on  a  misconception.  The  canonry  in  question 
was  attached  to  St  Mary's  College  at  St  David's  before  the 
Reformation,  and,  at  the  dissolution  of  the  college,  became  crown 
property,  which  it  has  remained  ever  since;  but  the  king  of 
England  is  not,  and  never  was  personally,  a  canon  of  St  David's, 
nor  did  he  ever  perform  any  quasi-clerical  function. 

At  first  a  single  anointing  on  the  head  was  the  practice,  but 
afterwards  other  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  breast,  arms,  shoulders 
and  hands  received  the  unction.  From  a  very  early  period  in 
the  West  three  kinds  of  oil  have  been  blessed  each  year  on 
Maundy  Thursday,  the  oil  of  the  catechumens,  the  oil  of  the 
sick,  and  the  chrism.  The  last,  a  compound  of  olive  oil  and 


i86 


CORONATION 


balsam,  is  only  used  for  the  most  sacred  purposes,  and  the  oil 
of  the  catechumens  was  that  used  for  the  unction  of  kings.  In 
France,  however,  a  legend  gained  credence  that,  as  a  special 
sign  of  divine  favour,  the  Holy  Dove  had  miraculously  descended 
from  heaven,  bearing  a  vessel  (afterwards  called  the  Sainte 
Ampoule),  containing  holy  oil,  and  had  placed  it  on  the  altar 
for  the  coronation  of  Clovis.  A  drop  of  oil  from  the  Sainte 
Ampoule  mixed  with  chrism  was  afterwards  used  for  anointing 
the  kings  of  France.  Similarly  the  chrism  was  introduced  into 
English  coronations,  for  the  first  time  probably  at  the  coronation 
of  Edward  II.  To  rival  the  French  story  another  miracle  was 
related  that  the  Virgin  Mary  had  appeared  to  Thomas  Becket, 
and  had  given  him  a  vessel  with  holy  oil,  which  at  some  future 
period  was  to  be  used  for  the  sacring  of  the  English  king.  A  full 
account  of  this  miracle,  and  the  subsequent  finding  of  the  vessel, 
is  contained  in  a  letter  written  in  1318  by  Pope  John  XXII.  to 
Edward  II.  The  chrism  was  used  in  addition  to  the  holy  oil. 
The  king  was  first  anointed  with  the  oil,  and  then  signed  on 
the  head  with  the  chrism.  In  all  other  countries  the  oil  of  the 
catechumens  was  alone  used.  In  consequence  of  the  use  of 
chrism  the  kings  of  England  and  France  were  thought  to  be 
able  to  cure  scrofula  by  the  imposition  of  their  hands,  and  hence 
arose  the  practice  in  those  countries  of  touching  for  the  king's 
evil,  as  it  was  called.  In  England  the  chrism  disappeared  at 
the  Reformation,  but  touching  for  the  evil  was  continued  till  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover  in  1714. 

The  oldest  of  all  existing  rituals  for  the  coronation  of  a  king 
is  contained  in  what  is  known  as  the  Pontifical  of  Egbert,  who 
was  archbishop  of  York  in  the  middle  of  the  8th  century.  The 
coronation  service  in  it  is  entitled  Missa  pro  rege  in  die  bene- 
dictionis  ejus,  and  the  coronation  ceremony  is  interpolated  in 
the  middle  of  the  mass.  After  the  Gospel  the  officiant  recites 
some  prayers  of  benediction,  and  then  pours  oil  from  a  horn  on 
the  king's  head,  while  the  anthem  "  Zadok  the  priest,"  &c.,  is 
sung.  After  this  the  assembled  bishops  and  nobles  place  a 
sceptre  in  the  king's  hands,  while  a  form  of  intercessory  bene- 
diction is  recited.  Then  the  staff  (baculus)  is  delivered  to  him, 
and  finally  a  helmet  (galea)  is  set  upon  his  head,  the  whole 
assembly  repeating  thrice  "  May  King  N.  live  for  ever.  Amen. 
Amen.  Amen."  The  enthronement  follows,  with  the  kisses 
of  homage  and  of  fealty,  and  the  mass,  with  special  prayers, 
is  concluded. 

Another  coronation  service  of  Anglo-Saxon  date  bearing,  but 
with  no  good  reason,  the  name  of  ^Ethelred  II.,  has  also  been 
preserved,  and  is  of  importance  as  it  spread  from  England  to 
the  continent,  and  was  used  for  the  coronations  of  the  kings  of 
France.  It  differs  from  the  Egbert  form  as  the  coronation 
precedes  the  mass,  while  the  use  of  a  ring,  and  the  definite 
allusion  to  a  crown  (corona  not  galea)  occur  in  it.  Joined 
to  it  is  the  form  for  the  coronation  of  a  queen  consort.  It  may 
have  been  used  for  the  crowning  of  Harold  and  of  William  the 
Conqueror. 

A  third  English  coronation  form,  of  the  izth  century,  bears 
the  name  of  Henry  I.,  but  also  without  good  reason.  The 
ceremonial  is  more  fully  developed,  and  the  king  is  anointed 
on- the  head,  breast,  shoulders  and  elbows.  The  royal  mantle 
appears  for  the  first  time,  as  does  the  sceptre.  The  queen  consort 
is  to  be  crowned  secundum  ordinem  Romanum,  and  the  whole 
function  precedes  the  mass. 

The  fourth  and  most  important  of  all  English  coronation 
services  is  that  of  the  Liber  Regalis,  a  manuscript  still  in  the 
keeping  of  the  dean  of  Westminster.  It  was  introduced  in  1307, 
and  continued  in  use  till  the  Reformation,  and,  in  an  English 
translation  and  with  the  Communion  service  substituted  for 
the  Latin  mass,  it  was  used  for  the  coronation  of  James  I.  In  it 
the  English  coronation  ceremonies  reached  their  fullest  develop- 
ment. The  following  is  a  bare  outline  of  its  main  features: — 

The  ceremonies  began  the  day  before  the  coronation,  the  king 
being  ceremonially  conducted  in  a  procession  from  the  Tower 
of  London  to  Westminster.  There  he  reposed  for  the  night, 
and  was  instructed  by  the  abbot  as  to  the  solemn  obligations 
of  the  kingly  office.  Early  next  morning  he  went  to  Westminster 


Hall,  and  there,  among  other  ceremonies,  as  rex  regnaturus 
was  elevated  into  a  richly  adorned  seat  on  the  king's  bench, 
called  the  Marble  Chair.  Then  a  procession  with  the  regalia  was 
marshalled,  and  led  into  the  abbey  church,  the  king  wearing 
a  cap  of  estate  on  his  head,  and  supported  by  the  bishops  of 
Bath  and  Durham.  A  platform  with  thrones,  &c.,  having  been 
previously  prepared  under  the  crossing,  the  king  ascended  it, 
and  all  being  in  order,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  called  for 
the  Recognition,  after  which  the  king,  approaching  the  high 
altar,  offered  a  pall  to  cover  it,  and  a  pound  of  gold.  Then  a 
sermon  appropriate  to  the  occasion  was  preached  by  one  of  the 
bishops,  the  oath  was  administered  by  the  archbishop,  and  the 
Veni  Creator  and  a  litany  were  sung.  Then  the  king  was  anointed 
with  oil  on  his  hands,  breast,  between  the  shoulders,  on  the 
shoulders,  on  the  elbows,  and  on  the  head;  finally  he  was 
anointed  with  the  chrism  on  his  head.  Thus  blessed  and  anointed, 
the  king  was  vested,  first  with  a  silk  dalmatic,  called  the  colobium 
sindonis,  then  a  long  tunic,  reaching  to  the  ankles  and  woven 
with  great  golden  images  before  and  behind,  was  put  upon  him. 
He  then  received  the  buskins  (caligae),  the  sandals  (sandalia), 
and  spurs  (calcaria),  then  the  sword  and  its  girdle;  after  this  the 
stole,  and  finally  the  royal  mantle,  four-square  in  shape  and 
woven  throughout  with  golden  eagles.  Thus  vested,  the  crown 
of  St  Edward  was  set  on  his  head,  the  ring  placed  on  his  wedding 
finger,  the  gloves  drawn  over  his  hands,  and  the  golden  sceptre, 
in  form  of  an  orb  and  cross,  delivered  to  him.  Lastly,  the  golden 
rod  with  the  dove  at  the  top  was  placed  in  the  king's  left  hand. 
Thus  consecrated,  vested  and  crowned,  the  king  kissed  the 
bishops  who,  assisted  by  the  nobles,  enthroned  him,  while  the 
Te  Deum  was  sung.  When  a  queen  consort  was  also  crowned, 
that  ceremony  immediately  followed,  and  the  mass  with  special 
collect,  epistle,  gospel  and  preface  was  said,  and  during  it  both 
king  and  queen  received  the  sacrament  in  one  kind.  At  the 
conclusion  the  king  retired  to  a  convenient  place,  surrounded 
with  curtains,  where  the  great  chamberlain  took  off  certain  of 
the  robes,  and  substituted  others  for  them,  and  the  archbishop, 
still  wearing  his  mass  vestments,  set  other  crowns  on  the  heads 
of  the  king  and  queen,  and  with  these  they  left  the  church. 

This  service,  in  English,  was  used  at  the  coronation  of  James 
I.,  Elizabeth  having  been  crowned  with  the  Latin  service. 
Little  change  was  made  till  1685,  when  it  was  considerably 
altered  for  the  coronation  of  James  II.  The  Communion  was 
necessarily  omitted  in  the  case  of  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  other 
changes  were  introduced  quite  needlessly  by  Archbishop  Sancroft, 
and  four  years  later  the  old  order  was  still  more  seriously  changed, 
with  the  result  that  the  revisions  of  1685  and  1689  have  grievously 
mutilated  the  service,  by  confusing  the  order  of  its  different 
sections,  while  the  meaning  of  the  prayers  has  been  completely 
changed  for  no  apparent  reason.  Alterations  since  then  have 
been  verbal  rather  than  essential,  but  at  each  subsequent 
coronation  some  feature  has  disappeared,  the  proper  preface 
having  been  abandoned  at  the  coronation  of  Edward  VII. 

In  connexion  with  the  English  coronation  a  number  of  claims 
to  do  certain  services  have  sprung  up,  and  before  each  coronation 
a  court  of  claims  in  constituted,  which  investigates  and  adjudi- 
cates on  the  claims  that  are  made.  The  most  striking  of  all  these 
services  is  that  of  the  challenge  made  by  the  king's  champion,  an 
office  which  has  been  hereditary  in  the  Dymoke  family  for  many 
centuries.  Immediately  following  the  service  in  the  church  a 
banquet  was  held  in  Westminster  Hall,  during  the  first  course  of 
which  the  champion  entered  the  hall  on  horseback,  armed  cap-a- 
pie,  with  red,  white  and  blue  feathers  in  his  helmet.  He  was 
supported  by  the  high  constable  on  his  right,  and  the  earl  marshal 
on  his  left,  both  of  whom  were  also  mounted.  On  his  appearance 
in  the  hall  a  herald  in  front  of  him  read  the  challenge,  the  words 
of  which  have  not  materially  varied  at  any  period,  as  follows: 
"  If  any  person,  of  what  degree  soever,  high  or  low,  shall  deny  or 
gainsay  our  sovereign  lord  .  .  .,  king  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  defender  of  the  faith  (son  and),  next 
heir  unto  our  sovereign  lord  the  last  king  deceased,  to  be  the  right 
heir  to  the  imperial  crown  of  this  realm  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  or  that  he  ought  not  to  enjoy  the  same;  here  is  his 


CORONER 


187 


champion,  who  saith  that  he  lieth,  and  is  a  false  traitor,  being 
ready  in  person  to  combat  with  him;  and  in  this  quarrel  will 
adventure  his  life  against  him,  on  what  day  soever  he  shall  be 
appointed."  The  champion  then  threw  down  the  gauntlet.  The 
challenge  was  again  made  in  the  centre  of  the  hall,  and  a  third 
time  before  the  high  table,  at  which  the  king  was  seated.  The 
king  then  drank  to  the  champion  out  of  a  silver-gilt  cup,  with  a 
cover,  which  he  handed  to  him  as  his  fee.  The  banquet  was  last 
held,  and  the  challenge  made,  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV.  in 
1821.  The  champion's  claim  was  admitted  in  1902,  but  as  there 
was  no  banquet  the  duty  of  bearing  the  standard  of  England  was 
assigned  to  him.  There  is  no  record  of  the  challenge  having  been 
ever  accepted. 

The  revival  of  the  western  empire  under  Charlemagne  was 
marked  by  his  coronation  by  the  pope  at  Rome  in  the  year  800. 
His  successors,  for  several  centuries,  went  to  Rome,  where  they 
received  the  imperial  crown  in  St  Peter's  from  the  pope,  the 
crown  of  Lombardy  being  conferred  in  the  church  of  St  Ambrose 
(Sant'  Ambrogio)  at  Milan,  that  of  Burgundy  at  Aries,  and  the 
German  crown,  which  came  to  be  the  most  important  of  all,  most 
commonly  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  must  suffice  to  speak  of  the 
coronations  at  Rome  and  Aix-la-Chapelle.  From  Martene  we 
learn  the  early  form  of  the  ceremony  at  Rome.  The  emperor 
was  met  at  the  silver  door  of  St  Peter's,  where  the  first  coronation 
prayer  was  recited  over  him  by  the  bishop  of  Albano.  He  was  then 
conducted  within  the  church,  where  in  media  rotae  majoris,  the 
bishop  of  Porto  said  the  second  prayer.  Thence  the  emperor 
went  to  the  confessio  of  St  Peter,  where  the  litany  was  said,  and 
there,  or  before  the  altar  of  St  Maurice,  the  bishop  of  Ostia 
anointed  him  on  the  right  arm  and  between  the  shoulders.  Then 
he  ascended  to  the  high  altar,  where  the  pope  delivered  the  naked 
sword  to  him.  This  he  flourished,  and  then  sheathed  in  its 
scabbard.  The  pope  then  delivered  the  sceptre  to  the  emperor,  and 
placed  the  crown  on  his  head.  The  ceremony  was  concluded  by 
the  coronation  mass  said  by  the  pope.  The  custom  of  the  emperors 
going  to  Rome  to  be  crowned  was  last  observed  by  Frederick  III. 
in  1440,  and  after  that  the  German  coronation  was  alone  cele- 
brated. The  form  followed  was  mainly  thus:  the  electors  first 
met  at  Frankfort,  under  the  presidency  of  the  elector-archbishop 
of  Mainz,  and,  the  election  having  been  made,  the  emperor  was  led 
to  the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral  and  seated  at  it.  He  was  then 
conducted  to  a  gallery  over  the  entrance  to  the  choir,  where, 
seating  himself  with  the  electors,  proclamation  was  made  of  the 
election,  and  on  a  subsequent  day  the  coronation  took  place. 
If  the  coronation  was  performed,  as  it  most  commonly  was,  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  then  the  archbishop  of  Cologne,  as  diocesan,  was 
the  chief  officiant,  and  the  emperor  was  presented  to  him  by  the 
two  other  clerical  electors,  the  archbishops  of  Mainz  and  Trier. 
The  emperor  was  anointed  on  the  head,  the  nape  of  the  neck,  the 
breast,  the  right  arm  between  the  wrist  and  the  elbow,  and  on  the 
palms  of  both  hands.  After  this,  he  was  vested  in  what  were 
called  the  imperial  and  pontifical  robes,  which  included  the 
buskins,  a  long  alb,  the  stole  crossed  priest-wise  over  the  breast, 
and  the  mantle.  The  regalia  were  then  delivered  to  him,  and  the 
crown  was  set  on  his  head  conjointly  by  the  three  archbishop- 
electors.  Mass  was  then  said,  during  which  the  emperor  com- 
municated in  one  kind.  When  the  coronation  was  performed  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  emperor  was  at  once  made,  at  its  conclusion, 
a  canon  of  the  church. 

The  coronation  form  in  France  bore  much  resemblance,  in  its 
general  features,  to  the  English  coronation,  and  was,  it  is  believed 
originally  based  on  the  English  form.  The  unction  was  given, 
first  on  the  top  of  the  head  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  on  the  breast, 
between  the  shoulders,  and  at  the  bending  and  joints  of  both  arms. 
Then,  standing  up,  the  king  was  vested  in  the  dalmatic,  tunic  and 
royal  robe,  all  of  purple  velvet  sprinkled  with  fleurs-de-lys  of  gold, 
and  representing,  it  was  said,  the  three  orders  of  subdeacon, 
deacon  and  priest.  Then,  kneeling  again,  he  was  anointed  in  the 
palms  of  the  hands,  after  which  the  gloves,  ring  and  sceptre  were 
delivered.  Then  the  peers  were  summoned  by  name  to  come 
near  and  assist,  and  the  archbishop  of  Reims,  taking  the  crown  of 
Charlemagne  from  the  altar,  set  it  on  the  king's  head.  After 


which  the  enthronement,  and  showing  of  the  king  to  the  people, 
took  place.  All  the  unctions  were  made  with  the  chrism,  mixed 
with  a  drop  of  oil  from  the  Sainte  Ampoule.  After  the  enthrone- 
ment, mass  was  said,  and  at  its  conclusion  the  king  communicated 
in  both  kinds.  The  third  day  after  the  coronation,  the  king 
touched  for  the  evil. 

On  the  "n  Frimaire  an  13"  Napoleon  and  Josephine  were 
jointly  crowned  at  Paris,  by  the  pope.  Napoleon  entered  Notre- 
Dame  wearing  a  crown,  and  before  him  were  carried  the  imperial 
ornaments,  to  wit:  "  la  couronne  de  I'empereur,  I'6p6e,  la  main  de 
justice,  le  sceptre,  le  manleau  de  I'empereur,  son  anneau,  son  collier, 
le  globe  imperial,  la  couronne  de  I'imperalrice,  son  manleau,  son 
anneau."  Each  of  these  was  blessed,  and  delivered  with  a 
benediction  to  the  emperor  and  empress,  kneeling,  side  by  side,  to 
receive  them,  both  having  previously  received  the  unction  on  the 
head  and  on  each  hand.  Napoleon  placed  the  crown  on  his 
head  himself.  Mass  with  special  prayers  followed. 

In  Spain  the  coronation  ceremony  never  assumed  the  fullness, 
or  magnificence,  that  might  have  been  expected.  It  was  usually 
performed  at  Toledo,  or  in  the  church  of  St  Jerome  at  Madrid,  the 
king  being  anointed  by  the  archbishop  of  Toledo.  The  royal 
ornaments  were  the  sword,  sceptre,  crown  of  gold  and  the  apple 
of  gold,  which  the  king  himself  assumed  after  the  unction.  In 
recent  years  the  unction  and  coronation  have  been  disused. 

In  Sweden  the  king  was  anointed  and  crowned  at  Upsala  by  the 
archbishop.  The  ceremony  is  now  performed  in  the  Storkyrka, 
at  Stockholm,  where  the  archbishop  of  Upsala  anoints  the  king  on 
the  breast,  temples,  forehead  and  palms  of  both  hands.  The 
crown  is  placed  on  the  king's  head  by  the  archbishop  and  the 
minister  of  justice  jointly,  whereupon  the  state  marshal  pro- 
claims: "  Now  is  crowned  king  of  the  Swedes,  Goths  and  Wends, 
he  and  no  other."  When  there  is  a  queen  consort,  she  is  then 
anointed,  crowned  and  proclaimed,  in  the  same  manner. 

In  Norway,  according  to  the  law  of  1814,  the  coronation  is 
performed  in  the  cathedral  at  Trondhjem,  when  the  Lutheran 
superintendent,  or  bishop,  anoints  the  king.  The  crown  is 
placed  on  the  king's  head  jointly  by  the  bishop  and  the  prime 
minister. 

In  Russia  the  coronation  is  celebrated  at  Moscow,  and  is  full  of. 
religious  significance.  The  tsar  is  anointed  by  the  metropolitan, 
but  places  the  crown  on  his  head  himself.  He  receives  the 
sacrament  among  the  clergy,  the  priestly  theory  of  his  office  being 
recognized.  In  some  other  European  countries  the  coronation 
ceremony,  as  in  Austria  and  Hungary,  is  also  performed  with 
much  significant  ritual.  In  other  countries,  as  Prussia,  it  is 
retained  in  a  modified  form;  but  in  the  remaining  states  such  as 
Denmark,  Belgium,  Italy,  &c.,  it  has  been  abandoned,  or  never 
introduced. 

AUTHORITIES. — L.  G.  Wickham  Legg,  English  Coronation  Records; 
Roxburgh  Club — Liber  Regalis;  Anon.,  A  Complete  Account  of  the 
Ceremonies  observed  in  the  Coronations  of  the  Kings  and  Queens  oj 
England  (London,  1727);  F.  Sandford,  Description  of  the  Coronation 
of  James  II.  (1687) ;  Menin,  The  Form,  Order  and  Ceremonies  oj 
Coronations,  trans,  from  the  French  (1727);  Martene,  De  Antiquis 
Ecclesiae  Ritibus,  lib.  ii.  (T.  M.  F.) 

CORONER,  an  ancient  officer  of  the  English  common  law, 
so  called,  according  to  Coke,  because  he  was  a  keeper  of  the  pleas 
of  the  crown  (cuslos  placitorum  coronae).  At  what  period  the 
office  of  coroner  was  instituted  is  a  matter  of  considerable  doubt; 
some  modern  authorities  (Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  260;  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  Hist.  Eng.  Law,  i.  519)  date  its  origin  from  1194, 
but  C.  Gross  (Political  Science  Quarterly,  vol.  vii.)  has  shown 
that  it  must  have  existed  before  that  date.  The  office  was  always 
elective,  the  appointment  being  made  by  the  freeholders  of  the 
county  assembled  in  county  court.  By  the  Statute  of  West- 
minster the  First  it  was  ordered  that  none  but  lawful  and  discreet 
knights  should  be  chosen  as  coroners,  and  in  one  instance  a 
person  was  actually  removed  from  office  for  insufficiency  of 
estate.  Lands  to  the  value  of  £20  per  annum  (the  qualification 
for  knighthood)  were  afterwards  deemed  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  requirements  as  to  estate  which  ought  to  be  insisted  on  in 
the  case  of  a  coroner.  The  complaint  of  Blackstone  shows  the 
transition  of  the  office  from  its  original  dignified  and  honorary 


i88 


CORONIUM— COROT 


character  to  a  paid  appointment  in  the  public  service.  "  Now, 
indeed,  through  the  culpable  neglect  of  gentlemen  of  property, 
this  office  has  been  suffered  to  fall  into  disrepute,  and  get  into 
low  and  indigent  hands;  so  that,  although  formerly  no  coroners 
would  condescend  to  be  paid  for  serving  their  country,  and  they 
were  by  the  aforesaid  Statute  of  Westminster  expressly  forbidden 
to  take  a  reward,  under  pain  of  a  great  forfeiture  to  the  king; 
yet  for  many  years  past  they  have  only  desired  to  be  chosen 
for  their  perquisites;  being  allowed  fees  for  their  attendance 
by  the  statute  3  Henry  VII.  c.  i,  which  Sir  Edward  Coke  com- 
plains of  heavily;  though  since  his  time  those  fees  have  been 
much  enlarged."  The  mercenary  character  of  the  office,  thus 
deprecated  by  Coke  and  Blackstone,  is  now  firmly  established, 
without,  however  (it  need  hardly  be  said),  affording  the  slightest 
ground  for  such  reflections  as  the  above.  The  coroner  is  in  fact  a 
public  officer,  and  like  other  public  officers  receives  payment  for 
his  services.  The  person  appointed  is  almost  invariably  a  qualified 
legal  or  medical  practitioner;  how  far  one  is  a  more  "  fit  person  " 
than  another  has  frequently  been  a  matter  of  dispute — a  Bill 
of  1879,  which,  however,  failed  to  pass,  decided  in  favour  of 
the  legal  profession.  The  property  qualification  for  a  county 
coroner  ("  having  land  in  fee  sufficient  in  the  same  county 
whereof  he  may  answer  to  all  manner  of  people,"  14  Ed.  III. 
st.  i,  c.  8),  although  re-enacted  in  the  Coroners  Act  1887,  is  now 
virtually  dispensed  with.  The  appointment  is  for  life,  but  is 
vacated  by  the  holder  being  made  sheriff.  A  coroner  may  be 
removed  by  the  writ  de  coronatore  exonerando,  for  sufficient 
cause  assigned,  or  the  lord  chancellor  may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  remove 
any  coroner  from  his  office  for  inability  or  misbehaviour  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duty. 

Coroners  are  of  three  kinds:  (i)  coroners  by  virtue  of  their 
office,  e.g.  the  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  is  the  principal 
coroner  of  England;  the  puisne  judges  of  the  king's  bench  are 
sovereign  coroners — they  may  exercise  their  jurisdiction  within 
any  part  of  the  realm,  even  in  .the  verge1  or  other  exempt 
liberties  or  franchises;  (2)  coroners  by  charter  or  commission, 
e.g.  in  certain  liberties  and  franchises  coroners  are  appointed 
by  the  crown  or  by  lords  holding  a  charter  from  the  crown; 
(3)  coroners  by  virtue  of  election,  e.g.  county  and  borough 
coroners.  County  coroners  in  England  were,  until  1888,  elected 
by  the  freeholders,  but  by  the  Local  Government  Act  1888  the 
appointment  was  given  to  the  county  council,  who  may  appoint 
any  fit  person,  not  being  a  county  alderman  or  county  councillor, 
to  fill  the  office.  By  an  act  of  1860  the  system  of  payment  by 
fees,  established  by  an  act  of  1843,  was  abolished  and  payment 
made  by  salary  calculated  on  the  average  amount  of  the  fees, 
mileage,  and  allowances  usually  received  by  the  coroner  for  a 
period  of  five  years,  and  the  calculation  revised  every  five  years. 
In  boroughs  having  a  separate  court  of  quarter  sessions,  and 
whose  population  exceeds  10,000,  the  coroner  is  appointed  by 
the  town  council  and  is  paid  by  fees.  A  county  coroner  must 
reside  within  his  district  or  not  more  than  two  miles  out  of  it. 
Deputy  coroners  are  also  appointed  in  both  counties  andboroughs, 
and  the  law  relating  to  their  appointment  is  contained  in  the 
Coroners  Act  1892.  The  duties  of  a  coroner  were  ascertained 
by  4  Edward  I.  st.  2: — "  A  coroner  of  our  Lord  the  king  ought 
to  inquire  of  these  things,  first,  when  coroners  are  commanded 
by  the  king's  bailiffs  or  by  the  honest  men  of  the  county,  they 
shall  go  to  the  places  where  any  be  slain,  or  suddenly  dead  or 
wounded,  or  where  houses  are  broken,  or  where  treasure  is  said 
to  be  found,  and  shall  forthwith  command  four  of  the  next 
towns,  or  five,  or  six,  to  appear  before  him  in  such  a  place;  and 
when  they  are  come  thither,  the  coroner  upon  the  oath  of  them 
shall  inquire  in  this  manner,  that  is,  to  wit,  if  it  concerns  a  man 
slain,  if  they  know  when  the  person  was  slain,  whether  it  were 
in  any  house,  field,  bed,  tavern,  or  company,  and  if  any,  and 

1  Coroner  of  the  Verge. — The  verge  comprised  a  circuit  of  12  m. 
round  the  king's  court,  and  the  coroner  of  the  king's  house,  called 
the  coroner  of  the  verge,  has  jurisdiction  within  this  radius.  By  the 
Coroners  Act  1887  the  jurisdiction  of  the  verge  was  abolished  and 
became  absorbed  m  that  of  the  county,  but  the  appointment  of  the 
king's  coroner  was  left  with  the  lord  steward,  while  his  jurisdiction 
was  limited  to  the  precincts  of  the  palace. 


who,  were  there,  &c.  It  shall  also  be  inquired  if  the  dead  person 
were  known,  or  else  a  stranger,  and  where  he  lay  the  night  before. 
And  if  any  person  is  said  to  be  guilty  of  the  murder,  the  coroner 
shall  go  to  their  house  and  inquire  what  goods  they  have,  &c." 
Similar  directions  were  given  for  cases  of  persons  found  drowned 
or  suddenly  dead,  for  attachment  of  criminals  in  cases  of  violence, 
&c.  His  functions  are  now,  by  the  Coroners  Act  1887,  limited 
to  an  inquiry  upon  "  the  dead  body  of  a  person  lying  within  his 
jurisdiction,  where  there  is  reasonable  cause  to  suspect  that  such 
person  has  died  either  a  violent  or  an  unnatural  death,  or  has 
died  a  sudden  death  of  which  the  cause  is  unknown,  or  that  such 
person  has  died  in  prison,  or  in  such  place  or  under  such  circum- 
stances as  to  require  an  inquest  in  pursuance  of  any  act  "  (s.  3), 
and  upon  treasure-trove  (s.  36).  The  inquisition  must  be 
super  visum  corporis  (that  is,  after  "  viewing  the  body  ") ;  the 
evidence  is  taken  on  oath;  and  any  party  suspected  may  tender 
evidence.  The  Coroners  Act  1887,  s.  21,  gives  power  to  the 
coroner  to  summon  medical  witnesses  and  to  direct  the  per- 
formance''of  a  post-mortem  examination.  The  verdict  must 
be  that  of  twelve  at  least  of  the  jury.  If  any  person  is  found 
guilty  of  murder  or  other  homicide,  the  coroner  shall  commit 
him  to  prison  for  trial ;  he  shall  also  certify  the  material  evidence 
to  the  court,  and  bind  over  the  proper  persons  to  prosecute  or 
to  give  evidence  at  the  trial.  He  may  in  his  discretion  accept 
bail  for  a  person  found  guilty  of  manslaughter.  Since  the  aboli- 
tion of  public  executions,  the  coroner  is  required  to  hold  an 
inquest  on  the  body  of  any  criminal  on  whom  sentence  of  death 
has  been  carried  into  effect.  The  duty  of  coroners  to  inquire 
into  treasure-trove  (q.v.)  is  still  preserved  by  the  Coroners  Act 
1887,  which,  however,  repealed  certain  other  jurisdictions,  as, — 
inquests  of  royal  fish  (whale,  sturgeon)  thrown  ashore  or  caught 
near  the  coast;  inquest  of  wrecks,  and  of  felonies,  except  felonies 
on  inquisitions  of  death.  By  the  City  of  London  Fire  Inquests 
Act  1888  the  duty  is  imposed  upon  the  coroner  for  the  city  to 
hold  inquests  in  cases  of  loss  or  injury  by  fire  in  the  city  of  London 
and  the  liberties  thereof  situated  in  the  county  of  Middlesex. 
This  is  a  practice  which  exists  in  several  European  countries. 

In  Scotland  the  duties  of  a  coroner  are  performed  by  an  officer 
called  a  procurator-fiscal. 

In  the  United  States  and  in  most  of  the  colonies  of  Great 
Britain  the  duties  of  a  coroner  are  substantially  the  same.  In 
some  cases  his  duties  are  more  enlarged,  his  inquisition  embracing 
the  origin  of  fires;  in  others  they  are  confined  to  holding 
inquests  in  cases  of  suspicious  deaths.  Unlike  a  coroner  in 
England,  he  is  elected  generally  only  for  a  specified  period. 

AUTHORITIES. — Jervis,  Office  and  Duties  of  Coroners  (6th  ed., 
1898);  R.  H.  Wellington,  The  King's  Coroner  (2  vols.,  1905-1906). 
In  1908  a  committee  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  law  relating 
to  coroners  and  coroners'  inquests  and  into  the  practice  in  coroners' 
courts.  (T.  A.  I.) 

CORONIUM,  that  constituent  (otherwise  unknown)  of  the 
sun's  corona,  which  emits  the  characteristic  green  coronal  ray, 
of  which  the  wave-length  is  5303. 

COROT,  JEAN-BAPTISTE  CAMILLE  (1796-1875),  French 
landscape  painter,  was  born  in  Paris,  in  a  house  on  the  Quai  by  the 
rue  du  Bac,  now  demolished,  on  the  a6th  of  July  1796.  His 
family  were  well-to-do  bourgeois  people,  and  whatever  may  have 
been  the  experience  of  some  of  his  artistic  colleagues,  he  never, 
throughout  his  life,  felt  the  want  of  money.  He  was  educated  at 
Rouen  and  was  afterwards  apprenticed  to  a  draper,  but  hated 
commercial  life  and  despised  what  he  called  its  "  business  tricks," 
yet  he  faithfully  remained  in  it  until  he  was  twenty-six,  when  his 
father  at  last  consented  to  his  adopting  the  profession  of  art. 
Corot  learned  little  from  his  masters.  He  visited  Italy  on  three 
occasions;  two  of  his  Roman  studies  are  now  in  the  Louvre. 
He  was  a  regular  contributor  to  the  Salon  during  his  lifetime,  and 
in  1846  was  "  decorated  "  with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  officer  in  1867.  His  many  friends 
considered  nevertheless  that  he  was  officially  neglected,  and  in 
1874,  only  a  short  time  before  his  death,  they  presented  him  with 
a  gold  medal.  He  died  in  Paris,  on  the  22nd  of  February  1875, 
and  was  buried  at  Pere  Lachaise. 

Of  the  painters  classed  in  the  Barbizon  school  it  is  probable 


CORPORAL— CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


189 


that  Corot  will  live  the  longest,  and  will  continue  to  occupy  the 
highest  position.  His  art  is  more  individual  than  Rousseau's, 
whose  works  are  more  strictly  traditional;  more  poetic  than  that 
of  Daubigny,  who  is,  however,  Corot's  greatest  contemporary 
rival;  and  in  every  sense  more  beautiful  than  J.  F.  Millet,  who 
thought  more  of  stern  truth  than  of  aesthetic  feeling. 

Corot's  works  are  somewhat  arbitrarily  divided  into  periods, 
but  the  point  of  division  is  never  certain,  as  he  often  completed  a 
picture  years  after  it  had  been  begun.  In  his  first  style  he 
painted  traditionally  and  "  tight  " — that  is  to  say,  with  minute 
exactness,  clear  outlines,  and  with  absolute  definition  of  objects 
throughout.  After  his  fiftieth  year  his  methods  changed  to 
breadth  of  tone  and  an  approach  to  poetic  power,  and  about 
twenty  years  later,  say  from  1865  onwards,  his  manner  of 
painting  became  full  of  "  mystery  "  and  poetry.  In  the  last  ten 
vcars  of  his  work  he  became  the  Pere  Corot  of  the  artistic  circles 
of  Paris,  in  which  he  was  regarded  with  personal  affection,  and  he 
was  acknowledged  as  one  of  the  five  or  six  greatest  landscape 
painters  the  world  has  ever  seen,  along  with  Hobbema,  Claude, 
Turner  and  Constable.  During  the  last  few  years  of  his  life  he 
earned  large  sums  by  his  pictures,  which  became  greatly  sought 
after.  In  1871  he  gave  £2000  for  the  poor  of  Paris  (where  he 
remained  during  the  siege),  and  his  continued  charity  was  long 
the  subject  of  remark.  Besides  landscapes,  of  which  he  painted 
several  hundred,  Corot  produced  a  number  of  figure  pictures 
which  are  much  prized.  These  were  mostly  studio  pieces, 
executed  probably  with  a  view  to  keep  his  hand  in  with  severe 
drawing,  rather  than  with  the  intention  of  producing  pictures. 
Yet  many  of  them  are  fine  in  composition,  and  in  all  cases  the 
colour  is  remarkable  for  its  strength  and  purity.  Corot  also 
executed  a  few  etchings  and  pencil  sketches.  In  his  landscape 
pictures  Corot  was  more  traditional  in  his  method  of  work  than  is 
usually  believed.  If  even  his  latest  tree-painting  and  arrange- 
ment are  compared  with  such  a  Claude  as  that  which  hangs  in  the 
Bridgewater  gallery,  it  will  be  observed  how  similar  is  Corot's 
method  and  also  how  masterly  are  his  results. 

The  works  of  Corot  are  scattered  over  France  and  the  Nether- 
lands, Great  Britain  and  America.  The  following  may  be 
considered  as  the  first  half-dozen :  "  Une  Matinee  "  (i85o),nowin 
the  Louvre;  "  Macbeth  "  (1859),  in  the  Wallace  collection;  "  Le 
Lac"  (1861);  "L'Arbre  brise  "  (1865);  "  Pastorale— Souvenir 
d'ltalie "  (1873),  in  the  Glasgow  Corporation  Art  Gallery ; 
"  Biblis  "  (1875).  Corot  had  a  number  of  followers  who  called 
themselves  his  pupils.  The  best  known  are  Boudin,  Lepine, 
Chintreuil,  Francais  and  Le  Roux. 

AUTHORITIES. — H.  Dumesnil,  Souvenirs  intimes  (Paris,  1875); 
Roger-Miles,  Les  Artistes  celebres:  Corot  (Paris,  1891);  Roger- 
Miles,  Album  classique  des  chefs-d'ceuvres  de  Corot  (Paris,  1895) ; 
J.  Rousseau,  BiUiolheque  d'art  moderne :  Camille  Corot  (Paris,  1884) ; 
.  Claretie,  Peintres  el  sculpteurs  contemporains :  Corot  (Paris, 
1884) ;  Ch.  Bigot,  Peintres  franc.ais  conlemporains:  Corot  (Paris, 
1888) ;  Geo.  Moore,  Ingres  and  Corot  in  Modern  Painting  (London, 
1893);  David  Croal  Thomson,  Corot  (4to,  London,  1892);  Mrs 
Schuyler  van  Rensselaer,  "  Corot,"  Century  Magazine  (June  1889); 
Corot,  The  Portfolio  (1870),  p.  60,  (1875)  p.  146;  R.  A.  M.  Stevenson, 
"  Corot  as  an  Example  of  Style  in  Painting,"  Scottish  Art  Review 
(Aug.  1888);  Ethel  Birnstigl  and  Alice  Pollard,  Corot  (London, 
1904) ;  Alfred  Robaut,  L'CEuvre  de  Corot,  catalogue  raisonne  el 
illustre,  precede  de  I'histoire  de  Corot  et  de  ses  ceuvres  par  £tienne 
M or  cean-N Baton  (Paris,  1905).  (D.  C.  T.) 

CORPORAL,  i.  (From  Lat.  corporalis,  belonging  to  the 
corpus  or  body),  an  adjective  appearing  in  several  expressions, 
such  as  "  corporal  punishment  "  (see  below),  or  in  "  corporal 
works  of  mercy,"  for  those  acts  confined  to  the  succouring  of  the 
bodily  needs,  such  as  feeding  the  hungry,  visiting  the  sick, 
rescuing  captives.  A  "  corporal  oath  "  was  sworn  with  the  body 
in  contact  with  a  sacred  object  (see  OATH). 

2.  (From  Lat.  corporals,  sc.  palla,  or  corporate,  sc.  pallium) ,  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a  small  square  linen  cloth,  which  at 
the  service  of  the  Mass  is  placed  on  the  altar  under  the  chalice  and 
paten.  It  was  originally  large  enough  to  cover  the  whole  surface 
of  the  altar,  and  was  folded  over  so  as  to  cover  the  chalice — a 
custom  still  observed  by  the  Carthusians.  The  chalice  is  now, 
however,  covered  by  another  small  square  of  linen,  stiffened  with 


cardboard,  &c. ,  known  as  the  pall  (palla) .  When  not  in  use  both 
corporal  and  pall  are  carried  in  a  square  silken  pocket  called  the 
burse.  The  corporal  must  be  blessed  by  the  bishop,  or  by  a  priest 
with  special  faculties,  the  ritual  prayers  invoking  the  divine 
blessing  that  the  linen  may  be  worthy  to  cover  and  enwrap  the 
body  and  blood  of  the  Lord.  It  represents  the  winding-sheet  in 
which  Joseph  of  Arimathea  wrapped  the  body  of  the  dead 
Christ. 

3.  (Of  uncertain  derivation;  the  French  form  caporal,  and 
Ital.  caporale,  point  to  an  origin  from  capo,  Italian  for  head;  the 
New  English  Dictionary,  however,  favours  the  derivation  from 
Lat.  corpus,  Ital.  corpo,  body),  a  non-commissioned  officer  of 
infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery,  ranking  below  a  sergeant.  This 
rank  is  almost  universal  in  armies.  In  the  i6th  and  i7th  centuries 
there  were  corporals  but  no  sergeants  in  the  cavalry,  and  this 
custom  is  preserved  in  the  three  regiments  of  British  household 
cavalry,  the  rank  of  sergeant  being  replaced  by  that  of  "  corporal 
of  horse,"  and  that  of  sergeant-major  by  "  corporal-major."  In 
the  i6th  and  early  i7th  centuries  the  title  "  corporal  of  the  field  "  « 
was  often  given  to  a  superior  officer  who  acted  as  a  staff -officer  to 
the  sergeant-major-general.  In  the  navy  the  "  ship's  corporal," 
formerly  a  semi-military  instructor  to  the  crew,  is  now  a  petty 
officer  charged  with  assisting  the  master-at-arms  in  police  duties 
on  board  ship. 

CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT,  chastisement  inflicted  by  one 
person  on  the  body  (corpus)  of  another.  By  the  common  law  of 
England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  the  infliction  of  corporal  punish- 
ment is  illegal  unless  it  is  done  in  self-defence  or  in  defence  of 
others,  or  is  done  either  by  some  person  having  punitive  authority 
over  the  person  chastised  or  under  the  authority  of  a  competent 
court  of  justice.  Corporal  punishment  in  defence  of  self  or 
others  needs  no  comment,  except  that,  like  all  other  acts  done  in 
defence,  its  justification  depends  on  whether  or  not  it  was 
reasonably  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  person  attacked. 
Among  persons  invested  with  punitive  authority,  mention  must 
first  be  made  of  parents  and  guardians,  and  of  teachers,  who 
have,  by  implied  delegation  from  the  parents,  and  as  incidental 
to  the  relation  of  master  and  pupil,  powers  of  reasonable  corporal 
punishment.  Such  powers  are  not  limited  to  offences  committed 
by  the  pupil  upon  the  premises  of  the  school,  but  extend  to  acts 
done  on  the  way  to  and  from  school  and  during  what,  may  be 
properly  regarded  as  school  hours  (Cleary  v.  Booth,  1893,  i 
Q.B.  465).  The  rights  of  parents,  guardians  and  teachers,  in 
regard  to  the  chastisement  of  children,  were  expressly  recognized 
in  English  law  by  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children  Act  1904 
(§  28).  Poor  law  authorities  and  managers  of  reformatories  are  in 
the  same  position  in  this  respect  as  teachers.  The  punitive 
authority  of  elementary  school  teachers  is  subject  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  education  authority:  that  of  poor  law  authorities  to 
the  regulation  of  the  Home  Office  and  the  Local  Government 
Board.  A  master  has  a  right  to  inflict  moderate  chastisement 
upon  his  apprentice  for  neglect  or  other  misbehaviour,  provided 
that  he  does  so  himself,  and  that  the  apprentice  is  under  age 
(Archbold,  Cr.  PL,  23rd  ed.,  795).  Where  a  legal  right  of  chastise- 
ment is  exercised  immoderately,  the  person  so  exercising  it  incurs 
both  civil  and  criminal  liability. 

In  some  of  the  older  English  legal  authorities  (e.g.  Bacon, 
Abridg.  tit.  "  Baron  and  Feme,"  B),  it  was  stated  that  a  husband 
might  inflict  moderate  corporal  punishment  on  his  wife  in  order 
to  keep  her  "  within  the  bounds  of  duty."  But  these  authorities 
were  definitely  discredited  in  1891  in  the  case  of  R.  v.  Jackson 
(i  Q.B.  671).  By  the  unmodified  Mahommedan  law,  a  husband 
may  administer  moderate  corporal  punishment  to  his  wife;  but 
it  is  doubtful  whether  this  right  could  be  legally  exercised  in 
British  India  (Wilson,  Digest  of  Anglo-M ahommedan  Law,  2nd  ed., 
pp.  153,  154).  In  Hawkins's  Pleas  of  the  Crown  (Bk.  i,  c.  63, 
§  29)  it  is  laid  down  that  "  churchwardens,  and  perhaps  private 
persons,  may  whip  boys  playing  in  church  "  during  divine  . 
service.  But  while  the  right  to  remove  such  offenders  is  un- 
doubted, the  right  of  castigation  could  not  now  safely  be 
exercised.  At  common  law  the  master  of  a  ship  is  entitled  to 
inflict  reasonable  chastisement  on  a  seaman  for  gross  breach  of 


CORPORATION 


duty.  But  such  offences  are  now  specially  provided  for  by  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  1894  (§§  220-238);  and  where  the 
provisions  of  that  statute  are  available,  corporal  punishment 
would  probably  be  illegal. 

As  to  corporal  punishment  in  the  army  and  navy,  see  articles 
MILITARY  LAW;  NAVY.  In  civil  prisons,  whether  they  are  convict 
prisons  or  local  prisons,  corporal  punishment  may  not  be  inflicted 
except  under  sentence  of  a  competent  court,  or  except  in  the  case 
of  prisoners  under  sentence  of  penal  servitude,  or  convicted  of 
felony,  or  sentenced  to  hard  labour,  who  have  been  guilty  of  mutiny 
or  incitement  to  mutiny,  or  of  gross  personal  violence  to  an  officer 
or  servant  of  the  prison  (Act  of  1898,  §  5).  Flogging  for  these  offences 
in  prison  may  not  be  inflicted  except  by  order  of  the  board  of  visitors 
or  visiting  committee  of  the  prison,  made  at  a  meeting  specially 
constituted,  and  confirmed  by  a  secretary  of  state  (Prison  Act  of 

1898,  §  5;  Convict  Prison  Rules  1899;  Stat.  R.  and  O.  1899,  No. 

321,  rr.  77-79;  Local  Prison  Rules  1899;  Stat.  R.  and  O.  1899,  No. 

322,  rr.  84,  85).     The  mode  of  inflicting  the  punishment  is  prescribed 
by  the  Convict  Prison  Rules  (rr.  82-85)  and  the  Local  Prison  Rules 
(rr.  88-91),  which  limit  the  number  of  strokes  and  prescribe  the 
instrument  to  be  used  for  inflicting  them,  the  cat  or  birch  for  prisoners 
over  l8,and  the  birch  for  prisoners  under  18. 

Corporal  punishment  for  breaches  of  prison  discipline  in  Scottish 
prisons  is  not  authorized  by  any  statute  nor  under  the  Scottish  Prison 
Rules  (see  Stat.  R.  and  O.  Revised,  ed.  1904,  vol.  x.  tit.  "  Prison, 
Scotland,"  p.  60).  In  Irish  convict  prisons  corporal  punishment 
may  be  inflicted  by  order  of  justices  specially  appointed  by  the  lord- 
lieutenant  under  §  3  of  the  Penal  Servitude  Act  1864,  but  the  Irish 
Prison  Rules  of  i9O2(Stat.R.and  0.1902, No.  59o)contain  no  reference 
to  this  power. 

At  common  law,  courts  of  justice  had  jurisdiction  to  impose  a 
sentence  of  whipping  on  persons  cohvicted  on  indictment  for 
petty  larceny  or  misdemeanours  of  the  meaner  kind  (see  i 
Bishop,  Amer.  Cr.  Law,  8th  ed.,  §  942).  But  they  do  not  now 
impose  such  sentence  except  under  statutory  authority.  The 
whipping  of  women  was  absolutely  prohibited  in  1820  by  the 
Whipping  of  Female  Offenders  Abolition  Act  of  that  year.  But 
there  are  numerous  statutes  authorizing  the  imposition  of  a 
sentence  of  whipping  on  male  offenders.  The  following  cases 
may  be  noted,  i.  Adults:  (a)  who  are  incorrigible  rogues 
(Vagrancy  Act  1824,  §  10);  (6)  who  discharge  fire-arms,  &c.,  with 
intent  to  injure  or  alarm  the  sovereign  (Treason  Act  1842,  §  2, 
and  see  8  St.  Tr.  N.S.  i,  and  O'Connor's  Case,  1872,  ib.  p.  3  n.); 
(c)  who  are  guilty  of  robbery  with  violence  (Larceny  Act  1861, 
§  43),  or  offences  against  §  21  of  the  Offences  against  the  Person 
Act  of  1861;  there  has  been  much  controversy  as  to  whether 
the  Garrotters  Actof  1861,  which  authorized  the  ordering  of  more 
than  one  whipping  in  the  case  of  an  offender  over  16  years  of 
age,  was  the  effective  cause  of  the  diminution  of  the  offences 
against  which  it  was  directed,  but  the  best  judicial  opinion  is  in 
the  affirmative.  2.  Males  under  sixteen:  (a)  in  any  of  the  cases 
above  noted ;  (b)  for  many  statutory  offences,  e.g.  larceny 
(Larceny  Act  1861),  malicious  damage  (Malicious  Damage  Act 
1861,  §  75;  Criminal  Law  Amendment  Act  1885,  §  4);  (c)  by 
courts  of  summary  jurisdiction  (Summary  Jurisdiction  Act  1879, 
§§  10,  n,  and  1899;  First  Offenders  Act  1887);  if  a  boy  is  over 
7  and  under  1 2,  not  more  than  6  strokes,  if  he  is  over  12,  but  under 
14,  not  more  than  12  strokes  may  be  inflicted  ;  the  birch-rod  is 
to  be  used,  and  the  punishment  is  to  be  given  by  a  police 
constable  in  the  presence  of  a  superior  officer,  and  of  the  parent  or 
guardian  if  he  desire  it. 

In  Scotland  the  whipping  of  male  offenders  under  14  is  regulated 
by  the  Prisons  (Scotland)  Act  1860,  §  74,  the  Whipping  Act  1862, 
and  §  514  of  the  Burgh  Police  (Scotland)  Act  1892;  and  offenders 
over  16  may  not  be  wTiipped  for  offences  against  person  or  property 
(Whipping  Act  1862,  §  2). 

In  Ireland  the  law  is  in  substance  the  same  as  in  England;  for 
special  statutes  see  official  Index  to  Statutes  (ed.  1905),  p.  985,  art. 
Punishment,  6. 

The  flogging  of  women  is  prohibited  throughout  British  India 
(Code  of  Criminal  Procedure,  Act  v.  of  1898,  §  393)  and  the  British 
colonies,  where  the  infliction  of  corporal  punishment  by  judicial 
order  is  in  the  main  regulated  on  the  lines  of  modern  English  legisla- 
tion. In  some  British  colonies  the  list  of  offences  punishable  by 
whipping  is  larger  than  in  England  (see  Queensland  Criminal  Code 

1899,  arts.  212,  213,  216). 

In  the  United  States  whipping  is  not  a  legal  punishment  under 
the  Federal  Law  (Revised  Stats.  U.S.  §  5327).  But  in  some  of  the 
states  of  the  Union  whipping  is  inflicted  under  statute,  and  is  not 
held  cruel  or  unusual  within  the  Federal  Constitution  (i  Bishop, 


A  mer.  Crim.  Law,  8th  ed.,  §  947) .  In  Delaware  wife-beating  and 
certain  offences  against  property  by  males  are  punishable  with 
flogging ;  and  in  Maryland  the  same  punishment  is  applicable 
for  wife-beating.  Flogging  is  in  force  as  a  disciplinary  measure 
in  some  penal  institutions. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Laurent  (Principes  de  droit  civil 
franc.ais  (1870),  vol.  iv.  §  275)  that  the  express  definition  in  the 
French  Code  Civil  (arts.  371  et  seq.)  of  parental  rights  over 
children  excludes  the  power  of  corporal  punishment.  But  this 
view  is  not  generally  accepted.  The  parental  right  of  moderate 
chastisement  is  expressly  reserved  in  the  Civil  Code  of  Spain 
(art.  155,  2).  Flogging  is  not  recognized  as  a  legal  punish- 
ment by  the  French  Code  Penal,  nor  by  the  Penal  Codes 
of  Germany,  Italy,  Spain  or  Portugal.  (See  also  WHIPPING 
OR  FLOGGING.)  (A.  W.  R.) 

CORPORATION  (from  Lat.  corporare,  to  form  into  a  body, 
corpus,  corporis),in  English  law,  an  association  of  persons  which 
is 'treated  in  many  respects  as  if  it  were  itself  a  person.  It  has 
rights  and  duties  of  its  own  which  are  not  the  rights  and  duties  of 
the  individual  members  thereof.  Thus  a  corporation  may  own 
land,  but  the  individual  members  of  the  corporation  have  no 
rights  therein.  A  corporation  may  owe  money,  but  the 
corporators  as  individuals  are  under  no  obligation  to  pay  the 
debt.  The  rights  and  duties  descend  to  the  successive  members 
of  the  corporation.  This  capacity  of  perpetual  succession  is 
regarded  as  the  distinguishing  feature  of  corporations  as  com- 
pared with  other  societies.  One  of  the  phrases  most  commonly 
met  with  in  law-books  describes  a  corporation  as  a  society  with 
perpetual  succession  and  a  common  seal.  The  latter  point, 
however,  is  not  conclusive  of  the  corporate  character. 

The  legal  attributes  of  a  corporation  have  been  worked  out 
with  great  fulness  and  ingenuity  in  English  law,  but  the  con- 
ception has  been  taken  full-grown  from  the  law  of  Rome.  The 
term  in  Roman  law  corresponding  to  the  modern  corporation  is 
collegium;  a  more  general  term  is  universitas.  A  collegium  or 
corpus  must  have  consisted  of  at  least  three  persons,  who  were 
said  to  be  corporati — habere  corpus.  They  could  hold  property  in 
common  and  had  a  common  chest.  They  might  sue  and  be  sued 
by  their  agent  (syndicus  or  actor).  There  was  a  complete  separa- 
tion in  law  between  the  rights  of  the  collegium  as  a  body  and 
those  of  its  individual  members.  The  collegium  remained  in 
existence  although  all  its  original  members  were  changed.  It 
was  governed  by  its  own  by-laws,  provided  these  were  not 
contrary  to  the  common  law.  The  power  of  forming  collegia  was 
restrained,  and  societies  pretending  to  act  as  corporations  were 
often  suppressed.  In  all  these  points  the  collegia  of  Roman 
closely  resemble  the  corporations  of  English  law.  There  is  a 
similar  parallel  between  the  purposes  for  which  the  formation  of 
such  societies  is  authorized  in  English  and  in  Roman  law.  Thus 
among  the  Roman  collegia  the  following  classes  are  distin- 
guished : — ( i )  Public  governing  bodies,  or  municipalities,  civilates ; 
(2)  religious  societies,  such  as  the  collegia  of  priests  and  Vestal 
Virgins ;  (3)  official  societies,  e.g.  the  scribae,  employed  in  the 
administration  of  the  state  ;  (4)  trade  societies,  e.g.fabri,  pictores, 
navicularii,  &c.  This  class  shades  down  into  the  socielates  not 
incorporated,  just  as  our  own  trading  corporations  partake 
largely  of  the  character  of  ordinary  partnerships.  In  the  later 
Roman  law  the  distinction  of  corporations  into  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical, into  lay  and  eleemosynary,  is  recognized.  The  latter 
could  not  alienate  without  just  cause,  nor  take  land  without 
a  licence — a  restriction  which  may  be  compared  with  modern 
statutes  of  mortmain.  All  these  privileged  societies  are  what  we 
should  call  corporations  aggregate.  The  corporation  sole  (i.e.  con- 
sisting of  only  a  single  person)  is  a  later  refinement,  for  although 
Roman  law  held  that  the  corporation  subsisted  in  full  force, 
notwithstanding  that  only  one  member  survived,  it  did  not 
impute  to  the  successive  holders  of  a  public  office  the  character 
of  a  corporation.  When  a  public  officer  in  English  law  is  said  to 
be  a  corporation  sole,  the  meaning  is  that  the  rights  acquired  by 
him  in  that  capacity  descend  to  his  successor  in  office,  and  not 
(as  the  case  is  where  a  public  officer  is  not  a  corporation)  to  his 
ordinary  legal  representative.  The  best  known  instances  of 


CORPORATION 


191 


corporation  sole  are  the  king  and  the  parson  of  a  parish.  The 
conception  of  the  king  as  a  corporation  is  the  key  to  many  of  his 
paradoxical  attributes  in  constitutional  theory — his  invisibility, 
immortality,  &c. 

The  term  quasi-corporation  is  applied  to  holders  for  the  time 
being  of  certain  official  positions,  though  not  incorporated,  as 
the  churchwardens  of  a  parish,  guardians  of  the  poor,  &c. 

The  Roman  conception  of  a  corporation  was  kept  alive  by 
ecclesiastical  and  municipal  bodies.  When  English  lawyers 
came  to  deal  with  such  societies,  the  corporation  law  of  Rome 
admitted  of  easy  application.  Accordingly,  in  no  department 
has  English  law  borrowed  so  copiously  and  so  directly  from  the 
civil  law.  The  corporations  known  to  the  earlier  English  law 
were  mainly  the  municipal,  the  ecclesiastical,  and  the  educational 
and  eleemosynary.  To  all  of  these  the  same  principles,  borrowed 
from  Roman  jurisprudence,  were  applied.  The  different  purposes 
of  these  institutions  brought  about  in  course  of  time  differences 
in  the  rules  of  the  law  applicable  to  each.  In  particular,  the 
great  development  of  trading  companies  under  special  statutes 
has  produced  a  new  class  of  corporations,  differing  widely  from 
those  formerly  known  to  the  law.  The  reform  of  municipal 
corporations  has  also  restricted  the  operation  of  the  principles  of 
the  older  corporation  law.  These  principles,  however,  still 
apply  when  special  statutes  have  not  intervened. 

The  legal  origin  of  corporation  is  ascribed  by  J.  Grant  ( Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Corporations,  1850)  to  five  sources,  viz.  common 
law,  prescription,  act  of  parliament,  charter  and  implication. 
Prescription  in  legal  theory  implies  a  grant,  so  that  corporations 
by  prescription  would  be  reducible  to  the  class  of  chartered  or 
statutory  corporations.  A  corporation  is  said  to  exist  by  implica- 
tion when  the  purposes  of  a  legally  constituted  society  cannot  be 
carried  out  without  corporate  powers.  .  Corporations  are  thus 
ultimately  traceable  to  the  authority  of  charters  and  acts  of 
parliament.  The  power  of  creating  corporations  by  charter  is  an 
important  prerogative  of  the  crown,  but  in  the  present  state  of 
the  constitution,  when  all  the  powers  of  the  crown  are  practically 
exercised  by  parliament,  there  is  no  room  for  any  jealousy  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  it  may  be  exercised.  The  power  of  charter- 
ing corporations  belonged  also  to  subjects  who  had  jura  regalia, 
e.g.  the  bishops  of  Durham  granted  a  charter  of  incorporation  to 
the  city  of  Durham  in  1565,  1602  and  1780.  The  charter  of  a 
corporation  is  regarded  as  being  of  the  nature  of  a  contract 
between  the  king  and  the  corporation.  It  will  be  construed 
more  favourably  for  the  crown,  and  more  strictly  as  against  the 
grantee.  It  cannot  alter  the  law  of  the  land,  and  it  may  be 
surrendered,  so  that,  if  the  surrender  is  accepted  by  the  crown 
and  enrolled  in  chancery,  the  corporation  is  thereby  dissolved. 
Great  use  was  made  of  this  power  of  the  crown  in  the  reigns 
of  Charles  II.  and  James  II. 

Every  corporation,  it  is  said,  must  have  a  name,  and  it  may 
have  more  names  than  one,  but  two  corporations  cannot  have 
the  same  name.  And  corporations  cannot  change  their  name 
save  by  charter  or  some  equivalent  authority. 

The  possession  of  a  common  seal,  though,  as  already  stated, 
not  conclusive  of  the  corporate  character,  is  an  incident  of 
every  corporation  aggregate.  The  inns  of  courts  have  common 
seals,  but  they  are  only  voluntary  societies,  not  corporations. 
Generally  speaking,  all  corporate  acts  affecting  strangers  must 
be  performed  under  the  common  seal;  acts  of  internal  administra- 
tion affecting  only  the  corporators,  need  not  be  under  seal.  The 
rule  has  been  defended  as  following  necessarily  from  the  im- 
personal character  of  a  corporation;  either  a  seal  or  something 
equivalent  must  be  fixed  upon  so  that  the  act  of  the  corporation 
may  be  recognized  by  all. 

A  corporation  may  be  abolished  by  statute,  but  not  by  the 
mere  authority  of  the  crown.  It  may  also  become  extinct  by  the 
disappearance  of  all  its  members  or  of  any  integral  part,  by 
surrender  of  charter  if  it  is  a  chartered  society,  by  process  of 
law,  or  by  forfeiture  of  privileges. 

The  power  of  the  majority  to  bind  the  society  is  one  of 
the  first  principles  of  corporation  law,  even  in  cases  where 
the  corporation  has  a  head.  It  is  even  said  that  only  by  an 


act  of  parliament  can  this  rule  be  avoided.  The  binding 
majority  is  that  of  the  number  present  at  a  corporate  meeting 
duly  summoned. 

In  corporations  which  have  a  head  (as  colleges) ,  although  the 
head  cannot  veto  the  resolution  of  the  majority,  he  is  still 
considered  an  integral  part  of  the  society,  and  his  death  suspends 
its  existence,  so  that  a  head  cannot  devise  or  bequeath  to  the 
corporation,  nor  can  a  grant  be  made  to  a  corporation  during 
vacancy  of  the  headship. 

A  corporation  has  power  to  make  such  regulations  (by-laws) 
as  are  necessary  for  carrying  out  its  purposes,  and  these  are 
binding  on  its  members  and  on  persons  within  its  local  jurisdic- 
tion if  it  has  any. 

The  power  to  acquire  and  hold  land  was  incident  to  a  corpora- 
tion at  common  law,  but  its  restriction  by  the  statutes  of  mort- 
main dates  from  a  very  early  period.  The  English  law  against 
mortmain  was  dictated  by  the  jealousy  of  the  feudal  lords,  who 
lost  the  services  they  would  otherwise  have  been  entitled  to, 
when  their  land  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  perpetual  corporation. 
The  vast  increase  in  the .  estates  of  ecclesiastical  corporations 
constituted  by  itself  a  danger  which  might  well  justify  the 
operation  of  the  restricting  statutes. 

The  Mortmain  Acts  applied  only  to  cases  of  alienation  inter 
vivos.  There  was  no  power  to  devise  lands  by  will  until  32  Henry 
VIII.  c.  i  (1540),  and  when  the  power  was  granted  corporations 
were  expressly  excluded  from  its  benefits.  No  devise  to  a 
corporation,  whether  for  its  own  use  or  in  trust,  was  allowed  to 
be  good;  land  so  devised  went  to  the  heir,  either  absolutely  or 
charged  with  the  trusts  imposed  upon  it  in  the  abortive  devise. 
A  modification,  however,  was  gradually  wrought  by  the  judicial 
interpretations  of  the  Charitable  Trusts  Act  1601,  and  it  was 
held  that  a  devise  to  a  corporation  for  a  charitable  purpose 
might  be  a  good  devise,  and  would  stand  unless  voided  by  the 
Mortmain  Acts;  so  that  no  corporation  could  take  land,  without 
a  licence,  for  any  purpose  or  in  any  way;  and  no  localised 
corporation  could  take  lands  by  devise,  save  for  charitable 
purposes.  Then  came  the  act  of  1 736,  commonly  but  improperly 
called  the  Mortmain  Act.  Its  effect  was  generally  to  make  it 
impossible  for  land  to  be  left  by  will  for  charitable  uses,  whether 
through  a  corporation  or  a  natural  person.1  The  Wills  Act  1837 
did  not  renew  the  old  provision  against  devises  to  corporations, 
which  therefore  fell  under  the  general  law  of  mortmain.  The  law 
was  consolidated  by  the  Mortmain  and  Charitable  Uses  Act  1888, 
and  the  result  is  simply  that  corporations  cannot  take  land  for  any 
purpose  without  a  licence,  and  no  licence  in  mortmain  is  granted 
by  the  crown,  except  in  certain  statutory  cases  in  the  interests 
of  religion,  charity  or  other  definite  public  object. 

The  power  of  corporations  at  common  law  to  alienate  their 
property  is  usually  restricted,  as  is  their  power  to  lease  it  for  more 
than  a  certain  number  of  years,  except  by  sanction  of  a  public 
authority.  The  more  important  classes  of  corporations,  how- 
ever, are  now  governed  by  special  statutes  which  exclude  or 
modify  the  operation  of  the  common  law  principles.  The  most 
considerable  class  of  societies  still  unaffected  by  such  special 
legislation  are  the  Livery  Companies  (q.v.).  Under  COMPANY 
will  be  found  an  account  of  the  important  enactments  regulating 
joint-stock  companies. 

The  question  to  what  extent  the  common  law  incidents  of  a 
corporation  have  been  interfered  with  by  special  legislation  has 
become  one  of  much  importance,  especially  under  the  acts 
relating  to  joint-stock  companies.  The  most  important  case 
on  this  subject  is  that  of  Riche  v.  The  Askbury  Railway  Carriage 
Company,  1875  (L.R.  9  Ex.  224;  L.R.  7  H.L.  653),  in  which,  the 
judges  of  the  exchequer  chamber  being  equally  divided,  the 
decision  of  the  court  below  was  affirmed.  The  view  taken  by  the 
affirming  judges,  viz.  that  the  common  law  incidents  of  a  corpora- 
tion adhere  unless  expressly  removed  by  the  legislature,  may  be 

1  Devises  to  colleges  are  excepted  from  the  operation  of  the  act, 
but  such  devises  must  be  for  purposes  identical  with  or  closely 
resembling  the  original  purposes  of  the  college;  and  the  exception 
from  this  act  does  not  supersede  the  necessity  for  a  licence  in 
mortmain. 


CORPS— CORPULENCE 


illustrated  by  a  short  extract  from  the  judgment  of  Mr  Justice 
Blackburn : — 

"  If  I  thought  it  was  at  common  law  an  incident  to  a  corporation 
that  its  capacity  should  be  limited  by  the  instrument  creating  it,  I 
should  agree  that  the  capacity  of  a  company  incorporated  under 
the  act  of  1862  was  limited  to  the  object  in  the  memorandum  of 
association.  But  if  I  am  right  in  the  opinion  which  I  have  already 
expressed,  that  the  general  power  of  contracting  is  an  incident  to  a 
corporation  which  it  requires  an  indication  of  intention  in  the 
legislature  to  take  away,  I  see  no  such  indication  here.  If  the 
question  was  whether  the  legislature  had  conferred  on  a  corporation, 
created  under  this  act,  capacity  to  enter  into  contracts  beyond 
the  provisions  of  the  deed,  there  could  be  only  one  answer.  The 
legislature  did  not  confer  such  capacity.  But  if  the  question  be, 
as  I  apprehend  it  is,  whether  the  legislature  have  indicated  an 
intention  to  take  away  the  power  of  contracting  which  at  common 
law  would  be  incident  to  a  body  corporate,  and  not  merely  to  limit 
the  authority  of  the  managing  body  and  the  majority  of  the  share- 
holders to  bind  the  minority,  but  also  to  prohibit  and  make  illegal 
contracts  made  by  the  body  corporate,  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
would  be  binding  on  the  body  if  incorporated  at  common  law,  I 
think  the  answer  should  be  the  other  way." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  House  of  Lords,  agreeing  with  the 
three  dissentient  judges  in  the  exchequer  chamber,  pronounced 
the  effect  of  the  Companies  Act  to  be  the  opposite  of  that  indi- 
cated by  Mr  Justice  Blackburn.  "  It  was  the  intention  of  the 
legislature,  not  implied,  but  actually  expressed,  that  the  corpora- 
tions, should  not  enter,  having  regard  to  this  memorandum  of 
association,  into  a  contract  of  this  description.  The  contract  in 
my  judgment  could  not  have  been  ratified  by  the  unanimous 
assent  of  the  whole  corporation."  In  such  companies,  therefore, 
objects  beyond  the  scope  of  the  memorandum  of  association  are 
ultra  vires  of  the  corporation.  The  doctrine  of  ultra  vires,  as  it  is 
called,  is  almost  wholly  of  modern  and  judicial  creation.  The 
first  emphatic  recognition  of  it  appears  to  have  been  in  the  case 
of  companies  created  for  special  purposes  with  extraordinary 
powers,  by  act  of  parliament,  and,  more  particularly,  railway 
companies.  The  funds  of  such  companies,  it  was  held,  must  be 
applied  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  created,  and  to  no 
other.  Whether  this  doctrine  is  applicable  to  the  older  or,  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  ordinary  corporations,  appears  to  be 
doubtful.  S.  Brice  (Ultra  Vires')  writes: — 

"  Take,  as  a  strong  instance,  a  university  or  a  London  guild. 
Either  can  undoubtedly  manage,  invest,  transform  and  expend 
the  corporate  property  in  almost  any  way  it  pleases,  but  if  they 
proposed  to  exhaust  the  same  on  the  private  pleasures  of  existing 
members,  or  to  abandon  the  promotion,  the  one  of  education,  the 
other  of  their  art  and  mystery,  it  is  very  probable,  if  not  absolutely 
certain,  that  the  court  of  chancery  would  restrain  the  same,  as 
being  ultra  vires." 

CORPS  (pronounced  as  in  French,  from  which  it  is  taken,  being 
a  late  spelling  of  cors,  from  Lat.  corpus,  a  body;  cf.  "  corpse  "),r 
a  word  in  very  general  use  since  the  1 7th  century  to  denote  a  body 
of  troops,  varying  from  a  few  hundred  to  the  greater  part  of  an 
army.  In  a  special  sense  "  corps  "  is  used  as  synonymous  with 
"army  corps"  (corps  d'armee).  The  word  is  applied  to  any 
organized  body,  as  in  corps  diplomatique,  the  general  body  of 
foreign  diplomatic  agents  accredited  to  any  government  (see 
DIPLOMACY),  or  corps  de  ballet,  the  members  of  a  troop  of  dancers 
at  a  theatre;  so  in  esprit  de  corps,  the  common  spirit  of  loyalty 
which  animates  any  body  of  associated  persons. 

CORPSE  (Lat.  corpus,  the  body),  a  dead  human  body.  By  the 
common  law  of  England  a  corpse  is  not  the  subject  of  property 
nor  capable  of  holding  property.  It  is  not  therefore  larceny  to 
steal  a  corpse,  but  any  removal  of  the  coffin  or  grave-cloths  is 
otherwise,  such  remaining  the  property  of  the  persons  who 
buried  the  body.  It  is  a  misdemeanour  to  expose  a  naked  corpse 
to  public  view,  to  prevent  the  burial  of  a  dead  body,  or  to 
disinter  it  without  authority;  also  to  bury  or  otherwise  dispose 
of  a  dead  body  on  which  an  inquest  ought  to  be  held,  without 
giving  notice  to  a  coroner.  Anyone  who,  having  the  means, 
neglects  to  bury  a  dead  body  which  he  is  legally  bound  to  bury, 
is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  but  no  one  is  bound  to  incur  a  debt 
for  such  a  purpose.  It  is  incumbent  on  the  relatives  and  friends 
of  a  deceased  person  to  provide  Christian  burial  for  him ;  failing 
relatives  and  friends,  the  duty  devolves  upon  the  parish.  No 
corpse  can  be  attached,  taken  in  execution,  arrested  or  detained 


for    debt.     See    further    BODY-SNATCHING,    and    BURIAL    AND 
BURIAL  ACTS. 

CORPULENCE  (Lat.  corpus,  body),  or  OBESITY  (Lat.  ob, 
against,  and  edere,  to  eat),  a  condition  of  the  animal  body 
characterized  by  the  over-accumulation  of  fat  under  the  skin  and 
around  certain  of  the  internal  organs.  In  all  healthy  persons  a 
greater  or  less  amount  of  fat  is  present  in  these  parts,  and  serves 
important  physiological  ends,  besides  contributing  to  the  proper 
configuration  of  the  body  (see  NUTRITION)  .  Even  a  considerable 
measure  of  fatness,  however  inconvenient,  is  not  inconsistent 
with  a  high  degree  of  health  and  activity,  and  it  is  only  when  in 
great  excess  or  rapidly  increasing  that  it  can  be  regarded  as  a 
pathological  state  (see  METABOLIC  DISEASES).  The  extent  to 
which  excess  of  fat  may  proceed  is  illustrated  by  numerous  well- 
authenticated  examples  recorded  in  medical  works,  of  which  only 
a  few  can  be  here  mentioned.  Thus  Bright,  a  grocer  of  Maldon, 
in  Essex,  who  died  in  1750,  in  his  twenty-ninth  year,  weighed 
616  ft.  Dr  F.  Dancel  ( Traite  de  l'obisit&,  Paris,  1863)  records  the 
case  of  a  young  man  of  twenty-two,  who  died  from  excessive 
obesity,  weighing  643  ft.  In  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for 
1813  a  case  is  recorded  of  a  girl  of  four  years  of  age  who  weighed 
256  Ib.  But  the  most  celebrated  case  is  that  of  Daniel  Lambert 
(q.v.)  of  Leicester,  who  died  in  1809  in  his  fortieth  year.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  heaviest  man  that  ever  lived,  his  weight 
being  739  Ib  (52  st.  n  Ib).  Health  cannot  be  long  maintained 
under  excessive  obesity,  for  the  increase  in  bulk  of  the  body, 
rendering  exercise  more  difficult,  leads  to  relaxation  and  defective 
nutrition  of  muscle,  while  the  accumulations  of  fat  in  the  chest 
and  abdomen  occasion  serious  embarrassment  to  the  functions  of 
the  various  organs  in  those  cavities.  In  general  the  mental 
activity  of  the  highly  corpulent  becomes  impaired,  although 
there  have  always  been  many  notable  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Various  causes  are  assigned  for  the  production  of  corpulence 
(see  METABOLIC  DISEASES).  In  some  families  there  exists  an 
hereditary  predisposition  to  an  obese  habit  of  body,  the  mani- 
festation of  which  no  precautions  as  to  living  appear  capable  of 
averting.  But  it  is  unquestionable  that  certain  habits  favour 
the  occurrence  of  corpulence.  A  luxurious,  inactive,  or  sedentary 
life,  with  over-indulgence  in  sleep  and  absence  of  mental  occu- 
pation, are  well  recognized  predisposing  causes.  The  more 
immediate  exciting  causes  are  over-feeding  and  the  large  use  of 
fluids  of  any  kind,  but  especially  alcoholic  liquors.  Fat  persons 
are  not  always  great  eaters,  though  many  of  them  are,  while 
leanness  and  inordinate  appetite  are  not  infrequently  associated. 
Still,  it  may  be  stated  generally  that  indulgence  in  food,  beyond 
what  is  requisite  to  repair  daily  waste,  goes  towards  the  increase 
of  flesh,  particularly  of  fat.  This  is  more  especially  the  case 
when  the  non-nitrogenous  (the  fatty,  saccharine  and  starchy) 
elements  of  the  food  are  in  excess.  The  want  of  adequate  bodily 
exercise  will  in  a  similar  manner  produce  a  like  effect,  and  it  is 
probable  that  many  cases  of  corpulence  are  to  be  ascribed  to  this 
cause  alone,  from  the  well-known  facts  that  many  persons  of 
sedentary  occupation  become  stout,  although  of  most  abstemious 
habits,  and  that  obesity  frequently  comes  on  in  the  middle-aged 
and  old,  who  take  relatively  less  exercise  than  the  young,  in 
whom  it  is  comparatively  rare.  Women  are  more  prone  to 
become  corpulent  than  men,  and  appear  to  take  on  this  condition 
more  readily  after  the  cessation  of  the  function  of  menstruation. 

For  the  prevention  of  corpulence  and  the  reduction  of  super- 
fluous fat  many  expedients  have  been  resorted  to,  and  numerous 
remedies  recommended.  These  have  included  bleeding,  blister- 
ing, purging,  starving  (see  FASTING),  the  use  of  different  kinds  of 
baths,  and  of  drugs  innumerable.  The  drinking  of  vinegar  was 
long  popularly,  but  erroneously,  supposed  to  be  a  remedy  for 
obesity.  It  is  related  of  the  marquis  of  Cortona,  a  noted  general 
of  the  duke  of  Alva,  that  by  drinking  vinegar  he  so  reduced  his 
body  from  a  condition  of  enormous  obesity  that  he  could  fold  his 
skin  about  him  like  a  garment. 

In  1863  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Letter  on  Corpulence,  Addressed 
to  the  Public  by  William  Banting,"  in  which  was  narrated  the 
remarkable  experience  of  the  writer  in  accomplishing  the  reduc- 
tion of  his  own  weight  in  a  short  space  of  time  by  the  adoption  of  a 


CORPUS  CHRISTI— CORREA  DA  SERRA 


193 


particular  kind  of  diet,  started  the  modern  dietetic  treatment,  at 
first  called  "  Banting  "  after  the  author.  After  trying  almost 
every  known  remedy  without  effect,  Banting  was  induced,  on  the 
suggestion  of  Mr  Harvey,  a  London  aurist,  to  place  himself  upon 
an  entirely  new  form  of  diet,  which  consisted  chiefly  in  the 
removal,  as  far  as  possible,  of  all  saccharine,  starchy  and  fat  food, 
the  reduction  of  liquids,  and  the  substitution  of  meat  or  fish  and 
fruit  in  moderate  quantity  at  each  meal,  together  with  the  daily 
use  of  an  antacid  draught.  Under  this  regimen  his  weight  was 
reduced  46  Ib  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  while  his  health 
underwent  a  marked  improvement.  His  experience,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  induced  many  to  follow  his  example;  and 
since  then  various  regimens  have  been  propounded,  all  aiming 
at  treating  corpulence  on  modern  physiological  principles  (see  also 
DIETETICS,  METABOLIC  DISEASES  and  NUTRITION).  It  is 
important,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  treatment  should 
be  followed  under  medical  advice  and  observation;  for,  however 
desirable  it  be  to  get  rid  of  superabundant  fat,  it  would  be 
manifestly  no  gain  were  this  to  be  achieved  by  the  sacrifice  of  the 
general  health. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Nueces 
county,  Texas,  U.S.A.,  situated  on  Corpus  Christi  Bay  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Nueces  river,  192  m.  W.S.W.  of  Galveston  and 
about  150  m.  S.S.E.  of  San  Antonio.  Pop.  (1890)  4387;  (1900) 
4703,  including  963  foreign-born  and  460  negroes;  (1910)  8299. 
It  is  served  by  the  National  of  Mexico,  the  St  Louis,  Brownsville  & 
Mexico,  and  the  San  Antonio  &  Aransas  Pass  railways.  In  1908 
the  Federal  government  began  work  on  a  project  to  connect 
Corpus  Christi  harbour  with  Aransas  Pass  by  a  channel  85  ft. 
deep  at  low  water  and  75  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  following  a 
natural  depression  between  the  two  bays.  Corpus  Christi  is  a 
summer  and  winter  resort,  with  a  very  dry  equable  climate 
(average  annual  mean,  70-2°  F.)  and  good  bathing  on  the  horse- 
shoe beach  of  Corpus  Christi  Bay.  The  city  has  an  extensive 
coasting  trade,  and  exports  fruit,  early  vegetables,  fish  and 
oysters.  There  was  a  small  Spanish  settlement  here  at  an 
early  date,  but  no  American  settlement  was  made  until  after  the 
Mexican  War.  Corpus  Christi  was  the  base  from  which  General 
Zachary  Taylor  made  his  forward  movement  to  the  Rio  Grande 
in  1846.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1876. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI,  FEAST  OF  (Lat.  festum  corporis  Christi, 
i.e.  festival  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  Fr.  fete-Dieu  or  fete  du  sacrement, 
Ger.  Frohnleichnamsfest),  a  festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  honour  of  the  Real  Presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament 
of  the  altar,  observed  on  the  first  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday. 
The  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was  defined  by  the  Lateran 
Council  in  1215,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  elevation  and  adora- 
tion of  the  Host  were  formally  enjoined.  This  naturally  stimu- 
lated the  popular  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  which  had 
been  already  widespread  before  the  definition  of  the  dogma. 
The  movement  was  especially  strong  in  the  diocese  of  Liege,  and 
when  Julienne,  prioress  of  Mont-Cornillon  near  Liege  (1222- 
1258),  had  a  vision  in  which  the  need  for  the  establishment  of  a 
festival  in  honour  of  the  Sacrament  was  revealed  to  her,  the 
matter  was  taken  up  with  enthusiasm  by  the  clergy,  and  in  1 246 
Robert  de  Torote,  bishop  of  Liege,  instituted  such  a  festival  for 
his  diocese.  The  idea,  however,  did  not  spread  until,  in  1261, 
Jacob  Pantaleon,  archdeacon  of  Liege,  ascended  the  papal 
throne  as  Urban  IV.  By  a  bull  of  1264  Urban  made  the  festival, 
hitherto  practically  confined  to  the  diocese  of  Liege,  obligatory  on 
the  whole  Church,1  and  a  new  office  for  the  festival  was  written 
by  Thomas  Aquinas  himself.  As  yet  the  stress  was  laid  on 
reverence  for  the  Holy  Sacrament  as  a  whole;  there  is  no  mention 
in  Urban's  bull  of  the  solemn  procession  and  exposition  of  the 
Host  for  the  adoration  of  the  faithful,  which  are  the  main 
features  of  the  festival  as  at  present  celebrated.  Urban's  bull 
was  once  more  promulgated,  at  the  council  of  Vienne  in  1311,  by 

1  The  pope's  decision,  so  the  story  goes,  was  hastened  by  a  miracle. 
A  priest,  saying  mass  at  the  church  of  Santa  Christina  at  Bolsena, 
was  troubled,  after  the  consecration,  with  grave  doubts  as  to  the 
truth  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  His  temptation  was 
removed  by  the  Host  beginning  to  bleed,  the  blood  soaking  through 
the  corporal  into  the  marble  of  the  altar. 

VH.  7 


Pope  Clement  V.;  and  the  procession  of  the  Host  in  connexion 
with  the  festival  was  instituted,  if  the  accounts  we  possess  are 
trustworthy,  by  Pope  John  XXII. 

From  this  time  onwards  the  festival  increased  in  popularity 
and  in  splendour.  It  became  in  effect  the  principal  feast  of  the 
Church,  the  procession  of  the  Sacrament  a  gorgeous  pageant,  in 
which  not  only  the  members  of  the  trade  and  craft  gilds,  with 
the  magistrates  of  the  cities,  took  part,  but  princes  and 
sovereigns.  It  thus  became  in  a  high  degree  symbolical  of  the 
exaltation  of  the  sacerdotal  power.2  In  the  isth  century  the 
custom  became  almost  universal  of  following  the  procession  with 
the  performance  of  miracle-plays  and  mysteries,  generally 
arranged  and  acted  by  members  of  the  gilds  who  had  formed 
part  of  the  pageant. 

The  rejection  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  at  the 
Reformation  naturally  involved  the  suppression  of  the  festival  of 
Corpus  Christi  in  the  reformed  Churches.  Luther,  in  spite  of  his 
belief  in  the  Real  Presence,  regarded  it  as  the  most  harmful  of  all 
the  medieval  festivals  and,  though  he  fully  realized  its  popularity, 
it  was  the  first  that  he  abolished.  This  attitude  of  the  reformers 
towards  the  festival,  however,  intensified  by  their  abhorrence  of 
the  traffic  in  indulgences  with  which  it  had  become  closely 
associated,  only  tended  to  establish  it  more  firmly  among  the 
adherents  of  the  "  old  religion."  The  procession  of  the  Host  on 
Corpus  Christi  day  became,  as  it  were,  a  public  demonstration  of 
Catholic  orthodoxy  against  Protestantism  and  later  against 
religious  Liberalism.  In  most  countries  where  religious  opinion 
is  sharply  divided  the  procession  of  Corpus  Christi  is  therefore 
now  forbidden,  even  when  Catholicism  is  the  dominant  religion. 
In  England  occasional  breaches  of  the  law  in  this  respect  have 
been  for  some  time  tolerated,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Corpus  Christi 
procession  annually  held  by  the  Italian  community  in  London. 
An  attempt  to  hold  a  public  procession  of  the  Host  in  connexion 
with  the  Eucharistic  Congress  at  Westminster  in  1908,  however, 
was  the  signal  for  the  outburst  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
opposition,  and  was  eventually  abandoned  owing  to  the  personal 
intervention  of  the  prime  minister. 

CORRAL  (Span,  from  corro,  a  circle),  a  word  used  chiefly  in 
Spanish  America  and  the  United  States  for  an  enclosure  for 
cattle  and  horses,  and  also  for  a  defensive  circle  formed  of 
wagons  against  attacks  from  Indians.  It  is  also  used  as  a  verb, 
meaning  to  drive  into  a  corral,  and  so  figuratively  to  enclose, 
hem  in.  The  word  is  probably  connected  with  the  South  African 
Dutch  word  kraal  (?.».).  In  Ceylon  it  is  especially  used  for  an 
enclosure  meant  for  the  capture  of  wild  elephants.  In  this  last 
sense  of  the  word  the  corresponding  term  in  India  is  keddah  (q.v.). 

CORREA,  a  genus  of  Australian  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Rutaceae,  named  after  the  Portuguese  botanist 
Jose  Francisco  Correa  da  Serra.  The  plants  are  evergreen  shrubs 
and  extremely  useful  for  winter  flowering.  They  are  increased  by 
cuttings,  and  grown  in  a  cool  greenhouse  in  rough  peaty  soil, 
with  a  slight  addition  of  loam  and  sand.  After  the  plants  have 
done  flowering,  they  should  all  get  a  little  artificial  warmth, 
plenty  of  moisture,  and  a  slight  shade,  while  they  are  making 
their  growth,  during  which  period  the  tips  of  the  young  shoots 
should  be  nipped  out  when  6  or  8  in.  long.  When  the  growth  is 
complete,  a  half-shady  place  outdoors  during  August  and 
September  will  be  suitable,  with  protection  from  parching  winds 
and  hot  sunshine. 

CORREA  DA  SERRA,  JOSE  FRANCISCO  (1750-1823), 
Portuguese  politician  and  man  of  science,  was  born  at  Serpa,  in 
Alemtejo,  in  1750.  Educated  at  Rome,  he  took  orders  under  the 
protection  of  the  duke  of  Alafoes,  uncle  of  Mary  I.  of  Portugal. 
In  1777  he  returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he  resided  with  his  patron, 
with  whose  assistance  he  founded  the  Portuguese  Academy  of 
Sciences.  Of  this  institution  he  was  named  perpetual  secre- 
tary, and  he  received  the  privilege  of  publishing  its  trans- 
actions without  reference  to  any  censor  whatever.  His  use  of 
this  right  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Holy  Office;  and 

*  Nothing  caused  more  offence  to  Liberal  sentiment  in  France  after 
the  Restoration  than  the  spectacle  of  King  Louis  XVIII.  walking 
and  carrying  a  candle  in  the  procession  through  the  streets  of  Paris. 


CORREGGIO 


consequently  in  1786  he  fled  to  France,  and  remained  there  till 
the  death  of  Pedro  III.,  when  he  again  took  up  his  residence 
with  Alafoes.  But  having  given  a  lodging  in  the  palace  to  a 
French  Girondist,  he  was  forced  to  flee  to  England,  where  he 
found  a  protector  in  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1797  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Portuguese  embassy,  but  a  quarrel  with  the  ambassador  drove 
him  once  more  to  Paris  (1802),  and  in  that  city  he  resided  till 
1813,  when  he  crossed  over  to  New  York.  In  1816  he  was  made 
Portuguese  minister-plenipotentiary  at  Washington,  and  in  1820 
he  was  recalled  home,  appointed  a  member  of  the  financial 
council,  and  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  Cortes.  Three  years  after, 
and  in  the  same  year  with  the  fall  of  the  constitutional  govern- 
ment, he  died.  Correa  da  Serra  ranks  high  as  a  botanist,  though 
he  published  no  great  special  work.  His  principal  claim  to 
renown  is  the  Colec$ao  de  livros  ineditos  da  historia  Porlugueza, 
(4  vols.,  1790-1816),  an  invaluable  selection  of  documents, 
exceedingly  well  edited. 

CORREGGIO,  or  COREGGIO,  the  name  ordinarily  given  to 
Antonio  Allegri  (1494-1534),  the  celebrated  Italian  painter,  one 
of  the  most  vivid  and  impulsive  inventors  in  expression  and  pose 
and  the  most  consummate  executants.  The  external  circum- 
stances of  his  life  have  been  very  diversely  stated  by  different 
writers,  and  the  whole  of  what  has  been  narrated  regarding  him, 
even  waiving  the  question  of  its  authenticity,  is  but  meagre. 

The  first  controversy  is  as  to  his  origin.  Some  say  that  he  was 
born  of  poor  and  lowly  parents;  others,  that  his  family  was  noble 
and  rich.  Neither  account  is  accurate.  His  father  was  Pelle- 
grino  Allegri,  a  tradesman  in  comfortable  circumstances,  living 
at  Correggio,  a  small  city  in  the  territory  of  Modena;  his  mother 
Bernardina  Piazzoli  degli  Aromani,  also  of  a  creditable  family  of 
moderate  means.  Antonio  was  born  at  Correggio,  and  was 
carefully  educated.  He  was  not  (as  has  been  often  alleged) 
strictly  self-taught  in  his  art — a  supposition  which  the  internal 
evidence  of  his  pictures  must  of  itself  refute.  They  show  a 
knowledge  of  optics,  perspective,  architecture,  sculpture  and 
anatomy.  The  last-named  science  he  studied  under  Dr  Giovanni 
Battista  Lombardi,  whom  he  is  believed  to  have  represented  in 
the  portrait  currently  named  "  II  Medico  del  Correggio " 
(Correggio's  physician).  It  is  concluded  that  he  learned  the  first 
elements  of  design  from  his  uncle,  Lorenzo  Allegri,  a  painter  of 
moderate  ability  at  Correggio,  and  from  Antonio  Bartolotti, 
named  Tognino,  and  that  he  afterwards  went  to  the  school  of 
Francesco  Ferrari  Bianchi  (named  Frare),  and  perhaps  to  that  of 
the  successors  of  Andrea  Mantegna  in  Mantua.  He  is  said  to  have 
learned  modelling  along  with  the  celebrated  Begarelli  at 
Parma;  and  it  has  even  been  suggested  that,  in  the  "  Pieta  " 
executed  by  Begarelli  for  the  church  of  Santa  Margherita,  the 
three  finest  figures  are  the  work  of  Correggio,  but,  as  the  group 
appears  to  have  been  completed  three  years  after  the  painter's 
death,  there  is  very  little  plausibility  in  this  story.  Another 
statement  connecting  Begarelli  with  Correggio  is  probably  true, 
namely,  that  the  sculptor  executed  models  in  relief  for  the  figures 
which  the  painter  had  to  design  on  the  cupolas  of  the  churches  in 
Parma.  This  was  necessarily  an  expensive  item,  and  it  has  been 
cited  as  showing  that  Correggio  must  have  been  at  least  tolerably 
well  off, — an  inference  further  supported  by  the  fact,  that  he  used 
the  most  precious  and  costly  colours,  and  generally  painted  on 
fine  canvases  or  sometimes  on  sheets  of  copper. 

The  few  certain  early  works  of  Correggio  show  a  rapid  pro- 
gression towards  the  attainment  of  his  own  original  style. 
Though  he  never  achieved  any  large  measure  of  reputation 
during  his  brief  lifetime,  and  was  perhaps  totally  unknown 
beyond  his  own  district  of  country,  he  found  a  sufficiency  of 
employers,  and  this  from  a  very  youthful  age.  One  of  his  early 
pictures,  painted  in  1514  when  he  was  nineteen  or  twenty  years 
old,  is  a  large  altar-piece  commissioned  for  the  Franciscan 
convent  at  Carpi,  representing  the  Virgin  enthroned,  with 
Saints;  it  indicates  a  predilection  for  the  style  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  and  has  certainly  even  greater  freedom  than  similarly 
early  works  of  Raphael.  This  picture  is  now  in  the  Dresden 
gallery.  Another  painting  of  Correggio's  youth  is  the  "  Arrest  of 


Christ."  A  third  is  an  Ancona  (or  triple  altar-piece — the 
"  Repose  in  Egypt,  with  Sts  Bartholomew  and  John  ")  in  the 
church  of  the  Conventual!  at  Correggio,  showing  the  transition 
from  the  painter's  first  to  his  second  style.  Between  1514  and 
1 520  Correggio  worked  much,  both  in  oil  and  in  fresco,  for  churches 
and  convents.  In  1521  he  began  his  famous  fresco  of  the 
"  Ascension  of  Christ,"  on  the  cupola  of  the  Benedictine  church  of 
'San  Giovanni  in  Parma;  here  the  Redeemer  is  surrounded  by 
the  twelve  apostles  and  the  four  doctors  of  the  church,  supported 
by  a  host  of  wingless  cherub  boys  amid  the  clouds.  This  he 
finished  in  1524,  and  soon  afterwards  undertook  his  still  vaster 
work  on  another  cupola,  that  of  the  cathedral  of  the  same  city, 
presenting  the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  amid  an  un- 
numbered host  of  saints  and  angels  rapt  in  celestial  joy.  It 
occupied  him  up  to  1 530.  The  astounding  boldness  of  scheme  in 
these  works,  especially  as  regards  their  incessant  and  audacious 
foreshortenings — the  whole  mass  of  figures  being  portrayed  as  in 
the  clouds,  and  as  seen  from  below — becomes  all  the  more 
startling  when  we  recall  to  mind  the  three  facts — that  Correggio 
had  apparently  never  seen  any  of  the  masterpieces  of  Raphael  or 
his  other  great  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  in  Rome, 
Florence,  or  other  chief  centres  of  art;  that  he  was  the  first 
artist  who  ever  undertook  the  painting  of  a  large  cupola;  and 
that  he  not  only  went  at  once  to  the  extreme  of  what  can  be 
adventured  in  foreshortening,  but  even  forestalled  in  this  attempt 
the  mightiest  geniuses  of  an  elder  generation — the  "  Last 
Judgment  "  of  Michelangelo,  for  instance,  not  having  been 
begun  earlier  than  1533  (although  the  ceiling  of  the  Sixtine 
chapel,  in  which  foreshortening  plays  a  comparatively  small  part, 
dates  from  1508  to  1512).  The  cupola  of  the  cathedral  has 
neither  skylight  nor  windows,  but  only  light  reflected  from  below; 
the  frescoes,  some  portions  of  which  were  ultimately  supplied  by 
Giorgio  Gandini,  are  now  dusky  with  the  smoke  of  tapers,  and 
parts  of  them,  in  the  cathedral  and  in  the  church  of  St  John, 
have  during  many  past  years  been  peeling  off.  The  violent 
foreshortenings  were  not,  in  the  painter's  own  time,  the  object  of 
unmixed  admiration;  some  satirist  termed  the  groups  a  "  guaz- 
zetto  di  rane,"  or  "  hash  of  frogs."  This  was  not  exactly  the 
opinion  of  Titian,  who  is  reported  to  have  said,  on  seeing  the 
pictures,  and  finding  them  lightly  esteemed  by  local  dignitaries, 
"  Reverse  the  cupola,  and  fill  it  with  gold,  and  even  that  will  not 
be  its  money's  worth."  Annibale  Caracci  and  the  Eclectics 
generally  evinced  their  zealous  admiration  quite  as  ardently. 
Parma  is  the  only  city  which  contains  frescoes  by  Correggio. 
For  the  paintings  of  the  cupola  of  San  Giovanni  he  received  the 
moderate  sum  of  472  sequins;  for  those  of  the  cathedral,  much 
less  proportionately,  350.  On  these  amounts  he  had  to  subsist, 
himself  and  his  family,  and  to  provide  the  colours,  for  about  ten 
years,  having  little  time  for  further  work  meanwhile.  Parma  was 
in  an  exceedingly  unsettled  and  turbulent  condition  during  some 
of  the  years  covered  by  Correggio's  labours  there,  veering 
between  the  governmental  ascendancy  of  the  French  and  of  the 
Pope,  with  wars  and  rumours  of  wars,  alarms,  tumults  and 
pestilence. 

Other  leading  works  by  Correggio  are  the  following: — The 
frescoes  in  the  Camera  di  San  Paolo  (the  abbess's  saloon)  in  the 
monastery  of  S.  Lodovico  at  Parma,  painted  towards  1519  in 
fresco, — "  Diana  returning  from  the  Chase,"  with  auxiliary 
groups  of  lovely  and  vivacious  boys  of  more  than  life  size,  in 
sixteen  oval  compartments.  In  the  National  Gallery,  London, 
the  "  Ecce  Homo,"  painted  probably  towards  1520  (authenticity 
Dot  unquestioned);  and  "  Cupid,  Mercury  and  Venus,"  the 
latter  more  especially  a  fine  example.  The  oil-painting  of  the 
Nativity  named  "  Night  "  ("  La  Notte  "),  for  which  40  ducats 
and  208  livres  of  old  Reggio  coin  were  paid,  the  nocturnal  scene 
partially  lit  up  by  the  splendour  proceeding  from  the  divine 
Infant.  This  work  was  undertaken  at  Reggio  in  1 5  2  2  for  Alberto 
Pratoneris,  and  is  now  in  the  Dresden  gallery.  The  oil-painting 
of  St  Jerome,  termed  also  "  Day  "  ("  II  Giorno  "),  as  contrasting 
with  the  above-named  "  Night."  Jerome  is  here  with  the 
Madonna  and  Child,  the  Magdalene,  and  two  Angels,  of  whom 
one  points  out  to  the  Infant  a  passage  in  the  book  held  by  the 


CORRENTI 


Saint.  This  was  painted  for  Briseida  Bergonzi  from  1527  on- 
wards, and  was  remunerated  by  400  gold  imperials,  some  cartloads 
of  faggots  and  measures  of  wheat,  and  a  fat  pig.  It  is  now  in 
the  gallery  at  Parma.  The  "  Magdalene  lying  at  the  entrance 
of  her  Cavern  "  :  this  small  picture  (only  18  in.  wide)  was  bought 
by  Augustus  III.  of  Saxony  for  6000  louis  d'or,  and  is  in  Dresden. 
In  the  same  gallery,  the  two  works  designated  "  St  George  " 
(painted  towards  1532)  and  "  St  Sebastian."  In  the  Parma 
gallery,  the  Madonna  named  "  della  Scala,"  a  fresco  which  was 
originally  in  a  recess  of  the  Porta  Romana,  Parma;  also  the 
Madonna  "  della  Scodella  "  (of  the  bowl,  which  is  held  by  the 
Virgin — the  subject  being  the  Repose  in  Egypt) :  it  was  executed 
for  the  church  of  San  Sepolcro.  Both  these  works  date  towards 
1526.  In  the  church  of  the  Annunciation,  "  Parma,"  a  fresco 
of  the  Annunciation,  now  all  but  perished.  Five  celebrated 
pictures  painted  or  begun  in  1 532, — "  Venus,"  "  Leda,"  "  Danae," 
"  Vice,"  and  "  Virtue  " :  the  "  Leda,"  with  figures  of  charming 
girls  bathing,  is  now  in  the  Berlin  gallery,  and  is  a  singularly 
delightful  specimen  of  the  master.  In  Vienna,  "Jupiter  and 
lo."  In  the  Louvre,  "  Jupiter  and  Antiope,"  and  the  "  Mystic 
Marriage  of  St  Catharine."  In  the  Naples  Museum,  the 
"  Madonna  Reposing,"  commonly  named  "  La  Zingarclla,"  or 
the  "  Madonna  del  Coniglio  "  (Gipsy-girl,  or  Madonna  of  the 
Rabbit).  On  some  of  his  pictures  Correggio  signed  "  Lieto," 
as  a  synonym  of  "  Allegri."  About  forty  works  can  be  con- 
fidently assigned  to  him,  apart  from  a  multitude  of  others 
probably  or  manifestly  spurious. 

The  famous  story  that  this  great  but  isolated  artist  was  once, 
after  long  expectancy,  gratified  by  seeing  a  picture  of  Raphael's, 
and  closed  an  intense  scrutiny  of  it  by  exclaiming  "  Anch'  io  son 
pittore  "  (I  too  am  a  painter),  cannot  be  traced  to  any  certain 
source.  It  has  nevertheless  a  great  internal  air  of  probability; 
and  the  most  enthusiastic  devotee  of  the  Umbrian  will  admit 
that  in  technical  bravura,  in  enterprizing,  gifted,  and  consummated 
execution,  not  Raphael  himself  could  have  assumed  to  lord  it 
over  Correggio. 

In  1520  Correggio  married  Girolama  Merlino,  a  young  lady 
of  Mantua,  who  brought  him  a  good  dowry.  She  was  but  sixteen 
years  of  age,  very  lovely,  and  is  said  by  tradition  to  have  teen 
the  model  of  his  Zingarella.  They  lived  in  great  harmony 
together,  and  had  a  family  of  four  children.  She  died  in  1529. 
Correggio  himself  expired  at  his  native  place  on  the  sth  of  March 
1534.  His  illness  was  a  short  one,  and  has  by  some  authors  been 
termed  pleurisy.  Others,  following  Vasari,  allege  that  it  was 
brought  on  by  his  having  had  to  carry  home  a  sum  of  money, 
50  scudi,  which  had  been  paid  to  him  for  one  of  his  pictures,  and 
paid  in  copper  coin  to  humiliate  and  annoy  him;  he  carried  the 
money  himself,  to  save  expense,  from  Parma  to  Correggio  on  a 
hot  day,  and  his  fatigue  and  exhaustion  led  to  the  mortal  illness. 
In  this  curious  tale  there  is  no  symptom  of  authenticity,  unless 
its  very  singularity,  and  the  unlikelihood  of  its  being  invented 
without  any  foundation  at  all,  may  be  allowed  to  count  for 
something.  He  is  said  to  have  died  with  Christian  'piety;  and 
his  eulogists  (speaking  apparently  from  intuition  rather  than 
record)  affirm  that  he  was  a  good  citizen,  an  affectionate  son  and 
father,  fond  and  observant  of  children,  a  sincere  and  obliging 
friend,  pacific,  beneficent,  grateful,  unassuming,  without  mean- 
ness, free  from  envy  and  tolerant  of  criticism.  He  was  buried 
with  some  pomp  in  the  Arrivabene  chapel,  in  the  cloister  of  the 
Franciscan  church  at  Correggio. 

Regarding  the  art  of  Correggio  from  an  intellectual  or  emotional 
point  of  view,  his  supreme  gift  may  be  defined  as  suavity, — a 
vivid,  spontaneous,  lambent  play  of  the  affections,  a  heartfelt 
inner  grace  which  fashions  the  forms  and  features,  and  beams 
like  soft  and  glancing  sunshine  in  the  expressions.  We  see 
lovely  or  lovable  souls  clothed  in  .bodies  or  corresponding  loveli- 
ness, which  are  not  only  physically  charming,  but  are  so  informed 
with  the  spirit  within  as  to  become  one  with  that  in  movement 
and  gesture.  In  these  qualities  of  graceful  naturalness,  not 
heightened  into  the  sacred  or  severe,  and  of  joyous  animation, 
in  momentary  smiles  and  casual  living  turns  of  head  or  limb, 
Correggio  undoubtedly  carried  the  art  some  steps  beyond  any- 


thing it  had  previously  attained,  and  he  remains  to  this  day  the 
unsurpassed  or  unequalled  model  of  pre-eminence.  From  a 
technical  point  of  view,  his  supreme  gift — even  exceeding  his 
prodigious  faculty  in  foreshortening  and  the  like — is  chiaroscuro, 
the  power  of  modifying  every  tone,  from  bright  light  to  depth 
of  darkness,  with  the  sweetest  and  most  subtle  gradations,  all 
being  combined  into  harmonious  unity.  In  this  again  he  far 
distanced  all  predecessors,  and  defied  subsequent  competition. 
His  colour  also  is  luminous  and  precious,  perfectly  understood 
and  blended;  it  does  not  rival  the  superb  richness  or  deep  intense 
glow  of  the  Venetians,  but  on  its  own  showing  is  a  perfect  achieve- 
ment, in  exact  keeping  with  his  powers  in  chiaroscuro  and  in 
vital  expression.  When  we  come,  however,  to  estimate  painters 
according  to  their  dramatic  faculty,  their  power  of  telling  a  story 
or  impressing  a  majestic  truth,  their  range  and  strength  of  mind, 
we  find  the  merits  of  Correggio  very  feeble  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  highest  masters,  and  even  of  many  who  without 
being  altogether  great  have  excelled  in  these  particular  qualities. 
Correggio  never  means  much,  and  often,  in  subjects  where  fulness 
of  significance  is  demanded,  he  means  provokingly  little.  He 
expressed  his  own  miraculous  facility  by  saying  that  he  always 
had  his  thoughts  at  the  end  of  his  pencil;  in  truth,  they  were 
often  thoughts  rather  of  the  pencil  and  its  controlling  hand  than 
of  the  teeming  brain.  He  has  the  faults  of  his  excellences — 
sweetness  lapsing  into  mawkishness  and  affectation,  empty  in 
elevated  themes  and  lasciviously  voluptuous  in  those  of  a 
sensuous  type,  rapid  and  forceful  action  lapsing  into  posturing 
and  self-display,  fineness  and  sinuosity  of  contour  lapsing  into 
exaggeration  and  mannerism,  daring  design  lapsing  into  incorrect- 
ness. No  great  master  is  more  dangerous  than  Correggio  to 
his  enthusiasts;  round  him  the  misdeeds  of  conventionalists 
and  the  follies  of  connoisseurs  cluster  with  peculiar  virulence, 
and  almost  tend  to  blind  to  his  real  and  astonishing  excellences 
those  practitioners  or  lovers  of  painting  who,  while  they  can 
acknowledge  the  value  of  technique,  are  still  more  devoted  to 
greatness  of  soul,  and  grave  or  elevated  invention,  as  expressed 
in  the  form  of  art. 

Correggio  was  the  head  of  the  school  of  painting  of  Parma, 
which  forms  one  main  division  of  the  Lombardic  school.  He 
had  more  imitators  than  pupils.  Of  the  latter  one  can  name 
with  certainty  only  his  son  Pomponio,  who  was  born  in  1521 
and  died  at  an  advanced  age;  Francesco  Capelli;  Giovanni 
Giarola;  Antonio  Bernieri  (who,  being  also  a  native  of  the  town 
of  Correggio,  has  sometimes  been  confounded  with  Allegri); 
and  Bernardo  Gatti,  who  ranks  as  the  best  of  all.  The  Par- 
migiani  (Mazzuoli)  were  his  most  highly  distinguished  imitators. 

A  large  number  of  books  have  been  written  concerning  Correggio. 
The  principal  modern  authority  is  Conrado  Ricci,  Life  and  Times  of 
Correggio  (1896);  see  also  Pungileoni,  Memorie  storiche  di  Antonio 
Allegri  (1817);  Julius  Meyer,  Antonio  Allegri  (1870,  English  trans- 
lation, 1876);  H.  Thode,  Correggio  (1898);  Bigi,  Vita  ed  opere 
(1881);  Colnaghi,  Correggio  Frescoes  at  Parma  (1845);  Pagan, 
Works  of  Correggio  (1873);  and  T.  Sturge  Moore,  Correggio  (1906) 
(a  work  which  includes  some  adverse  criticism  on  the  "views 
of  Bernhard  Berenson,  in  his  Study  of  Italian  Art,  1901,  and  else- 
where). (W.  M.  R.) 

'  CORRENTI,  CESARE  (1815-1888),  Italian  revolutionist  and 
politician,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  January  1815,  at  Milan,  of  a 
poor  but  noble  family.  While  employed  in  tie  public  debt 
administration,  he  flooded  Lombardy  with  revolutionary 
pamphlets  designed  to  excite  hatred  against  the  Austrians,  and  in 
1848  proposed  the  general  abstention  of  the  Milanese  from 
smoking,  which  gave  rise  to  the  insurrection  known  as  the  Five 
Days.  During  the  revolt  he  was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  of  the 
operations  of  the  insurgents.  Until  the  reoccupation  of  Milan  by 
the  Austrians  he  was  secretary-general  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, but  afterwards  he  fled  to  Piedmont,  whence  he  again 
distributed  his  revolutionary  pamphlets  throughout  Lombardy, 
earning  a  precarious  livelihood  by  journalism.  Elected  deputy  in 
1849,  he  worked  strenuously  for  the  national  cause,  supporting 
Cavour  in  his  Crimean  policy,  although  he  belonged  to  the  Left. 
After  the  annexation  of  Lombardy  he  was  made  commissioner  for 
the  liquidation  of  the  Lombardo-Venetian  debt,  in  1860  was 


CORRESPONDENCE— CORRIENTES 


appointed  councillor  of  state,  and  received  various  other  public 
positions,  especially  in  connexion  with  the  railway  and  financial 
administration.  He  veered  round  to  the  Right,  and  in  1867  and 
again  in  1869  he  held  the  portfolio  of  education;  he  played  an 
important  part  in  the  events  consequent  upon  the  occupation  of 
Rome,  and  helped  to  draft  the  Law  of  Guarantees.  As  minister 
of  education  he  suppressed  the  theological  faculties  in  the  Italian 
universities,  but  eventually  resigned  office  and  allied  himself 
with  the  Left  again  on  account  of  conservative  opposition  to  his 
reforms.  His  defection  from  the  Right  ultimately  assured  the 
advent  of  the  Left  to  power  in  1876;  and  while  declining  office, 
he  remained  chief  adviser  of  Agostino  Depretis  until  the  latter's 
death.  On  several  occasions — notably  in  connexion  with  the 
redemption  of  the  Italian  railways,  and  with  the  Paris  exhibition 
o'f  1878 — he  acted  as  representative  of  the  government.  In  1877 
he  was  given  the  lucrative  appointment  of  secretary  of  the  order 
of  Saints  Maurice  and  Lazarus  by  Depretis,  and  in  1886  was 
created  senator.  He  died  at  Rome  on  the  4th  of  October  1888. 
He  left  a  considerable  body  of  writings  on  a  variety  of  subjects, 
none  of  which  is  of  exceptional  merit. 

See  E.  Massarani,  Cesare  Correnti  nella  vita  e  nelle  opere 
(1800);  and  L.  Carpi,  II  Risorgimento  italiano,  vol.  iv.  (Milan, 
1888).  (L.  V.*) 

CORRESPONDENCE  (from  med.  scholastic  Lat.  correspondentia, 
correspondere,  compounded  of  Lat.  cum,  with,  and  respondere,  to 
answer;  cf.  Fr.  correspondance) ,  strictly  a  mutual  agreement  or 
fitness  of  parts  or  character,  that  which  fits  or  answers  to  a 
requirement  in  another,  or  more  generally  a  similarity  or  parallel- 
ism. In  the  1 7th  and  i8th  centuries  the  word  was  frequently 
applied  to  relations  and  communications  between  states.  It  is 
now,  outside  special  applications,  chiefly  applied  to  the  inter- 
change of  communications  by  letter,  or  to  the  letters  themselves, 
between  private  individuals,  states,  business  houses,  or  from 
individuals  to  the  press.  The  "  doctrine  of  correspondence  or 
correspondences,"  one  of  the  leading  tenets  of  Swedenborgianism, 
is  that  every  natural  object  corresponds  to  and  typifies  some 
spiritual  principle  or  truth,  this  being  the  only  key  to  the  true 
interpretation  of  Scripture.  In  mathematics,  the  term  "  corre- 
spondence "  implies  the  existence  of  some  relation  between  the 
members  of  two  groups  of  objects.  If  each  object  of  one  group 
corresponds  to  one  and  only  one  object  of  the  second,  and  vice 
versa,  then  a  one-to-one  correspondence  exists  between  the 
groups.  If  each  object  of  the  first  group  corresponds  to  /3  objects 
of  the  second  group,  and  each  object  of  the  second  group  corre- 
sponds to  a  objects  of  the  first  group,  then  an  a  to  ^  corre- 
spondence exists  between  the  two  groups.  For  examples  of  the 
application  of  this  notion  see  CURVE. 

CORREZE,  a  department  of  south-central  France,  formed 
from  the  southern  portion  of  the  old  province  of  Limousin, 
bounded  N.  by  the  departments  of  Haute-Vienne  and  Creuse,  E. 
by  Puy-de-D&me,  S.E.  by  Cantal,  S.  by  Lot,  and  W.  by  Dordogne. 
Area,  2273  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1906)  317,430.  Correze  is  situated  on 
the  western  fringe  of  the  central  plateau  of  France.  It  forms  a 
hilly  tableland  elevated  in  the  east  and  north,  and  intersected  by 
numerous  fertile  river  valleys,  trending  for  the  most  part  to  the 
south  and  south-west.  The  highest  points,  many  of  which 
exceed  3000  ft.,  are  found  in  the  north,  where  the  Plateau  de 
Millevaches  separates  the  basins  of  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne. 
Except  for  a  small  district  in  the  extreme  north,  which  is  watered 
by  the  Vienne,  Correze  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Garonne.  The 
Dordogne  waters  its  south-eastern  region.  The  Correze,  from 
which  the  department  takes  its  name,  and  the  Vezere,  of  which 
the  Correze  is  the  chief  tributary,  rise  in  the  Plateau  de  Mille- 
vaches, flow  south-west,  and  unite  to  the  west  of  Brive.  The 
climate  of  Correze  is,  in  general,  cold,  damp  and  variable,  except 
in  the  south-west,  where  it  is  mild  and  agreeable.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  live  by  agriculture.  About  one-third  of  the 
department  is  arable  land,  most  of  which  is  found  in  the  south- 
west. Rye,  buckwheat  and  wheat  (in  the  order  named)  are  the 
most  abundant  cereals.  Hemp,  flax  and  tobacco  are  also  grown. 
The  more  elevated  regions  of  the  north  and  east  are  given  over  to 
pasture,  sheep  being  specially  numerous  on  the  Plateau  de 


Millevaches.  Pigs  and  goats  are  reared  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
and  poultry-farming  and  cheese-making  are  much  practised. 
The  vineyards  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Brive  produce  wine  of 
medium  quality.  Chestnuts,  largely  used  as  an  article  of  food, 
walnuts  and  cider-apples  are  the  chief  fruits.  Coal  in  small 
quantities,  slate,  building-stone  and  other  stone  are  the  mineral 
products,  and  clay,  used  in  potteries  and  tile-works,  is  also 
worked.  The  most  important  industrial  establishment  is  the 
government  manufactory  of  fire-arms  at  Tulle.  There  are 
flour-mills,  breweries,  oil- works,  saw-mills  and  dye-works;  and 
hats  (Bort),  coarse  woollens,  silk,  preserved  foods,  wooden  shoes, 
chairs,  paper  and  leather  are  manufactured.  Coal  and  raw 
materials  for  textile  industries  are  leading  imports;  live  stock 
and  agricultural  products  are  the  chief  exports.  The  department 
is  served  by  the  Orleans  railway,  and  the  Dordogne  is  navigable. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Tulle, 
Brive  and  Ussel,  containing  29  cantons  and  289  communes.  It 
belongs  to  the  archdiocese  of  Bourges,  the  region  of  the  XII. 
army  corps,  and  the  Academic  (educational  division)  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand.  Its  court  of  appeal  is  at  Limoges.  Tulle,  the  capital, 
and  Brive  are  the  principal  towns  of  the  department.  Uzerche  is 
a  picturesque  old  town  on  the  Vezere,  with  a  Romanesque  church, 
old  houses,  a  gate  and  other  remains  of  medieval  fortifications. 
At  Aubazine  (or  Obazine)  there  is  a  Romanesque  church  of  the 
1 2th  century,  formerly  belonging  to  the  celebrated  Cistercian 
abbey,  of  which  Etienne  "  of  Obazine  "  (d.  1159  and  subsequently 
beatified)  was  the  founder  and  first  abbot.  It  contains  the  fine 
sculptured  tomb  of  the  founder.  To  the  same  style  belong  the 
abbey  church  of  Beaulieu,  the  south  portal  of  which  is  elaborately 
carved,  the  abbey  church  of  Meymac,  and  the  abbey  church  of 
Vigeois.  Treignac,  with  its  church,  bridge  and  ramparts  of  the 
1 5th  century,  and  Turenne,  dominated  by  the  ruins  of  the  castle 
of  the  famous  family  of  that  name,  are  ancient  and  interesting 
towns.  The  dolmen  at  Espartignac  and  the  cromlech  of  Aubazine 
are  the  chief  megalithic  remains  in  the  department.  A  Roman 
eagle  and  other  antiquities  have  been  found  close  to  Ussel,  which 
at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  became  the  centre  of  the  duchy  of 
Ventadour. 

CORRIB,  LOUGH,  a  lake  of  western  Ireland,  in  the  counties 
Galway  and  Mayo.  It  lies  N.W.  and  S.E.,  and  is  27  m.  long, 
including  a  long  projecting  arm  at  the  north-west.  The  extreme 
breadth  is  7  m.,  but  the  outline  is  extremely  irregular,  and  the 
lough  narrows  near  the  centre  to  a  few  hundred  yards.  Lough 
Corrib  is  very  shallow,  hardly  exceeding  30  ft.  in  depth  at  any 
point,  and  it  is  covered  with  islands,  of  which  there  are  some 
300.  It  lies  29  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  drains  by  the  short  river 
Corrib  to  Galway  Bay.  The  large  Lough  Mask  lies  to  its  north 
and  is  connected  with  it  by  a  partly  subterranean  channel. 
The  scenery  is  pleasant,  but  the  shores  are  low,  except  at  the 
north-west,  where  the  wild  foothills  of  Joyce's  Country  rise. 

CORRIDOR  (Fr.  corridor,  from  Ital.  corridore,  Med.  Lat.  corri- 
dorium,  a  "  running-place,"  from  currere,  to  run),  a  main  passage 
in  a  large  building,  on  which  various  apartments  open.  In  public 
offices,  prisons,  workhouses,  hospitals,  &c.,  the  corridors  are 
usually  of  severe  simplicity;  but  in  mansions  and  palaces  large 
corridors  (galleries)  are  often  adorned  with  works  of  art,  whence 
comes  the  term  "  picture  gallery  "  applied  to  many  collections. 
The  term  "  corridor  carriage  "  is  applied  to  the  modern  style  of 
railway  carriage  in  which  a  narrow  passage  connects  the  separate 
compartments,  the  object  being  to  combine  a  certain  degree  of 
privacy  for  the  traveller  with  access  from  one  compartment  to 
another  whilst  the  train  is  in  motion. 

CORRIE  (Gaelic  coire,  cauldron;  hence  whirlpool,  or  circular 
hollow),  a  term  used  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  for  a  steep- 
sided,  rounded  hollow  in  a  mountain-side,  from  the  lower  part 
of  which  a  stream  usually  issues  as  the  outlet  of  a  small  lake 
ponded  by  glacial  debris.  Corrie-lakes  are  common  in  all 
glaciated  mountain  regions.  (See  CIRQUE.) 

CORRIENTES,  a  north-eastern  province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  and  part  of  a  region  known  as  the  Argentine  Mesopo- 
tamia, bounded  N.  by  Paraguay,  N.E.  by  Misiones  (territory), 
E.  by  Brazil,  S.  by  Entre  Rios,  and  W.  by  Santa  F6  and  the 


CORRIENTES— CORRUPT  PRACTICES 


197 


Chaco.  Pop.  (1895)  239,618;  (1904  estimate)  299,479;  area, 
32,580  sq.  m.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  province  is  covered  by 
swamps  and  lagoons,  or  is  so  little  above  their  level  as  to  be 
practically  unfit  for  permanent  settlement  unless  drained.  The 
Ibera  lagoon  (c.  8500  sq.  m.,  according  to  the  Argentine  Year 
Book  for  1905-1906)  includes  a  large  part  of  the  central 
and  north-eastern  departments,  and  the  Maloya  lagoon  covers 
a  large  part  of  the  north-western  departments.  Several  streams 
flowing  into  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  have  their  sources  in  these 
lagoons,  the  Ibera  sending  its  waters  in  both  directions.  The 
southern  districts  of  the  province,  however,  are  high  and  rolling, 
similar  to  the  neighbouring  departments  of  'Entre  Rios,  and 
are  admirably  adapted  to  grazing  and  agriculture.  The  north- 
eastern corner  is  also  high,  but  it  is  broken  by  ranges  of  hills 
and  is  heavily  forested,  like  the  adjacent  territory  of  Misiones. 
The  climate  on  the  higher  plains  is  sub-tropical,  but  in  the 
northern  swamps  it  is  essentially  tropical.  Corrientes  is  the 
hottest  province  of  Argentina,  notwithstanding  its  large  area  of 
water  and  forest.  The  exports  include  cattle  and  horses,  jerked 
beef,  hides,  timber  and  firewood,  cereals  and  fruit.  The  principal 
towns  are  Corrientes,  the  capital;  Goya,  a  flourishing  agri- 
cultural town  (1906  estimate,  7000)  on  a  side  channel  of  the 
Parana,  150  m.  S.  of  Corrientes,  the  seat  of  a  modern  normal 
school  and  the  market-town  of  a  prosperous  district;  Bella 
Vista  (pop.  1906  estimate,  3000),  prettily  situated  on  the  Parana, 
80  m.  S.  of  Corrientes,  the  commercial  centre  of  a  large  district; 
Esquina  (pop.  1906  estimate,  3000)  on  the  Parana  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Corrientes  river,  86  m.  S.  of  Goya,  which  exports  timber 
and  firewood  from  the  neighbouring  forest  of  Payubre;  Monte 
Caseros  (pop.  1906  estimate,  4000)  on  the  Uruguay  river,  from 
which  cattle  are  shipped  to  Brazil,  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
Argentine  North-Eastern  railway  (which  crosses  the  province 
in  a  N.W.  direction  to  Corrientes),  and  a  station  on  the  East 
Argentine  railway  (which  runs  northward  to  Pa.so  de  Los  Libres, 
opposite  Uruguayana,  Brazil  and  to  San  Tome,  and  southward 
to  a  junction  with  the  Eri'tre  Rios  railways).  A  considerable 
district  on  the  upper  Uruguay  was  once  occupied  by  prosperous 
Jesuit  missions,  all  of  which  fell  into  decay  and  ruins  after  the 
expulsion  of  that  order  from  the  Spanish  possessions  in  1767. 
The  population  of  the  province  is  composed  very  largely  of 
Indian  and  mixed  races,  and  Guarani  is  still  the  language  of  the 
country  people. 

CORRIENTES  (San  Juan  de  Corrientes),  a  city  and  river  port, 
and  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  in  the  north  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Parana  river,  20  m. 
below  the  junction  of  the  Upper  Parana  and  Paraguay,  and 
832  m.  N.  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  siete 
corrientes  (seven  currents)  caused  by  rocks  in  the  bed  of  the 
river  just  above  the  town.  Pop.  (1895)  16,129;  (19°7  local 
estimate)  30,172,  largely  Indian  and  of  mixed  descent.  The 
appearance  of  Corrientes  is  not  equal  to  its  commercial  and 
political  importance,  the  buildings  both  public  and  private 
being  generally  poor  and  antiquated.  There  are  four  churches, 
the  more  conspicuous  of  which  are  the  Matriz  and  San  Francisco. 
The  government  house,  originally  a  Jesuit  college,  is  an  anti- 
quated structure  surrounding  an  open  court  (patio).  There  is 
a  national  college.  The  commercial  importance  of  Corrientes 
results  from  its  unusually  favourable  situation  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Upper  Parana  and  Paraguay,  and  a  short  distance 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Bermejo.  The  navigation  of  the  Upper 
Parana  and  Bermejo  rivers  begins  here,  and  freight  for  the 
Upper  Parana  and  Chaco  rivers  is  transhipped  at  Corrientes, 
which  practically  controls  the  trade  of  the  extensive  regions 
tributary  to  them.  Corrientes  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Argentine  North-Eastern  railway,  which  crosses  the  province  S.E. 
to  Monte  Caseros,  where  it  connects  with  the  East  Argentine 
line  running  S.  to  Concordia  and  N.  to  San  Tome.  The  principal 
exports  are  timber,  cereals,  mate,  sugar,  tobacco,  hides,  jerked 
beef,  fruit  and  quebracho. 

CORRIGAN,  MICHAEL  AUGUSTINE  (1830-1902),  third 
archbishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic  archdiocese  of  New  York, 
in  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  on  the 


I3th  of  August  1839.  In  1859  he  graduated  at  Mount  St  Mary's 
College,  Emmittsburg,  Maryland,  and  began  his  studies  for  the 
priesthood  as  the  first  of  the  twelve  students  with  whom  the 
American  College  at  Rome  was  opened.  On  the  igth  of  September 
1863  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  in  1864  obtained  the  degree 
of  D.D.  Returning  to  America,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Dogmatic  Theology  and  Sacred  Scripture,  and  director  of  the 
ecclesiastical  seminary  of  Seton  Hall  College  at  South  Orange, 
New  Jersey;  soon  afterwards  he  was  made  vice-president  of 
the  institution;  and  in  1868  became  president,  succeeding  Rev. 
Bernard  J.  M'Quaid  (b.  1823),  the  first  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
of  Rochester.  In  October  1868  Corrigan  became  vicar-general 
of  Newark,  a  diocese  then  including  all  the  state  of  New  Jersey. 
When  Archbishop  Bayley  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Baltimore 
in  1873,  Pius  IX.  appointed  Corrigan  bishop  of  Newark.  In 
1876  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  Seton  Hall  College.  In  1880 
Bishop  Corrigan  was  made  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  succession, 
to  Cardinal  McCloskey,  archbishop  of  New  York,  under  the 
title  of  archbishop  of  Petra;  and  thereafter  nearly  all  the  practical 
work  of  the  archdiocese  fell  to  his  hands.  He  was  at  the  time 
the  youngest  archbishop  in  the  Catholic  Church  in  America. 
On  the  death  of  Cardinal  McCloskey  in  1885  Archbishop  Corrigan 
became  metropolitan  of  the  diocese  of  New  York.  He  died  on 
the  5th  of  May  1902.  He  was  a  scholar  of  much  erudition,  with 
great  power  of  administrative  organization,  simple,  generous  and 
kindly  in  character.  The  earlier  years  of  his  archiepiscopate 
were  disturbed  by  his  controversy  with  Edward  McGlynn 
(1839-1900),  a  New  York  priest  (and  a  fellow-student  with 
Corrigan  at  Rome),  who  disapproved  of  parochial  schools, 
refused  to  go  to  Rome  for  examination,  and  was  excom- 
municated in  July  1887,  but  returned  to  the  church  five  years 
later. 

See  Michael  Augustine  Corrigan:  A  Memorial,  with  biographical 
sketch  by  John  A.  Mooney  (New  York,  1902). 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE,  MERCURIC  CHLORIDE,  PER- 
CHLORIDE  OF  MERCURY  (HgQ2),  a  white  solid  obtained  by  the 
action  of  chlorine  on  mercury  or  calomel,  by  the  addition  of 
hydrochloric  acid  to  a  hot,  strong  solution  of  mercurous  nitrate, 
Hg2(NO3)2+.iHCl  =  2HgCl2+2H2O+2NO2,  and,  commercially, 
by  heating  a  mixture  of  mercuric  sulphate  and  common  salt,  the 
mercuric  chloride  subliming  and  being  condensed  in  the  form  of 
small  rhombic  crystals.  It  melts  at  288°,  and  boils  at  303°;  it  is 
sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  more  so  in  hot;  it  is  very  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  forming  com- 
pounds such  as  HgCl2-2HCl,  3HgCl2-4HCl,  2HgCl2-HCl,  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature  and  concentration;  it  also  forms  double 
salts  with  many  chlorides;  sal  alembroth,  2NH»Cl-HgCl2-H2O, 
is  the  compound  with  ammonium  chloride.  It  absorbs  ammonia 
to  form  HgQ2-NH3,  which  may  be  distilled  without  decomposi- 
tion. Various  oxychlorides  are  formed  by  digesting  corrosive 
sublimate  with  mercuric  oxide.  Corrosive  sublimate  has  im- 
portant applications  in  medicine — as  an  astringent,  stimulant, 
caustic  and  antiseptic  (see  MERCURY). 

CORRUPT  PRACTICES,  a  term  used  in  English  election  law,  as 
denned  by  the  Corrupt  and  Illegal  Practices  Prevention  Act  1883, 
to  include  bribery,  treating,  undue  influence,  personation,  and 
aiding,  abetting,  counselling  and  procuring  personation.  Bribery 
and  corruption  at  elections  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
legislation,  statutes  for  their  prevention  have  been  passed  in  1729, 
1809,  1827,  1842,  1854,  1868  and  1883. 

By  the  Corrupt  and  Illegal  Practices  Prevention  Act  1883 
(which  incorporated  the  Corrupt  Practices  Prevention  Act  1854, 
an  act  that  repealed  all  former  legislation)  the  following  persons 
are  to  be  deemed  guilty  of  bribery: — 

1.  Every  person  who  shall  directly  or  indirectly,  by    himself 
or  by  any  other  person  on  his  behalf,  give,  lend,  &c.,  or  offer, 
promise,  or  promise  to  procure,  &c.,  any  money  or  valuable  con- 
sideration to  or  for  any  voter  or  any  other  person  in  order  to 
induce  any  voter  to  vote  or  refrain  from  voting,  or  shall  corruptly 
do  any  such  act  on  account  of  such  voter  having  voted  or  refrained 
from  voting  at  any  election. 

2.  Every  person  who  shall  similarly  give  or  procure  or  promise, 


CORRY 


&c.,  any  office,  place  or  employment  to  or  for  any  voter  or  other 
person  in  order  to  induce  him  to  vote,  &c. 

3.  Every  person  who  shall  make  any  gift,  loan,  promise,  &c.,  as 
aforesaid  to  any  person  to  induce  such  person  to  procure  the 
return  of  any  person  to  serve  in  parliament  or  the  vote  of  any 
voter. 

4.  Every  person  who  shall,  in  consequence  of  such  gift,  procure 
or  engage,  promise  or  endeavour  to  procure  the  return  of  any 
person  or  the  vote  of  any  voter. 

5.  Every  person  who  shall  pay  any  money  with  the  intent  that 
it  should  be  spent  in  bribery,  or  who  shall  pay  money  in  repay- 
ment of  any  money  wholly  or  in  part  expended  in  bribery. 

6.  Every  person  who  before  or  during  an  election  shall  receive 
or  contract  for  any  money,  &c.,  for  voting,  or  refraining,  or 
agreeing  to  vote  or  to  refrain  from  voting. 

7.  Every  person  who,  after  the  election,  receives  money,  &c., 
on  account  of  any  person  having  voted  or  refrained,  &c. 

Treating. — Any  person  who  corruptly  by  himself  or  by  any 
other  person  either  before,  during  or  after  an  election,  directly  or 
indirectly  gives  or  provides,  or  pays  wholly  or  in  part  the  expense 
of  giving  or  providing  any  meat,  drink  or  entertainment,  or 
orovision  to  or  for  any  person  in  order  to  be  elected,  or  for  being 
elected,  or  for  the  purpose  of  corruptly  influencing  such  person  to 
give  or  refrain  from  giving  his  vote  at  an  election,  &c.,  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  treating,  and  every  elector  corruptly  accepting 
such  meat,  drink,  &c.,  shall  also  be  guilty  of  treating. 

Undue  Influence. — Every  person  who  shall  directly  or  in- 
directly make  use  of  or  threaten  to  make  use  of  any  force, 
violence,  &c.,  or  inflict  or  threaten  to  inflict  any  temporal  or 
spiritual  injury,  &c.,  upon  any  person  to  induce  or  compel  such 
person  to  vote  or  refrain  from  voting,  or  who  shall  by  abduction, 
duress,  or  any  fraudulent  device  or  contrivance  impede  or 
prevent  the  exercise  of  the  franchise  of  any  elector,  or  shall 
thereby  compel,  induce,  &c.,  any  elector  to  give  or  refrain  from 
giving  his  vote,  shall  be  guilty  of  undue  influence. 

Illegal,  as  distinguished  from  "  corrupt,"  practices  are  certain 
acts  and  omissions  in  regard  to  an  election  which  are  now 
prohibited,  whether  done  or  omitted,  honestly  or  dishonestly. 
They  may  be  classified  under  the  following  heads: — (i)  Acts 
which  are  illegal  practices  by  whomsoever  committed.  These  are 
as  follows:  Payment  or  receipt  or  contracts  to  pay  or  receive 
money  for  conveyance  of  voters  to  or  from  the  poll,  on  account  of 
any  committee  room  beyond  the  number  allowed  by  the  act,  or 
to  an  elector  for  use  of  house  or  land  to  exhibit  addresses,  &c.,  or 
for  exhibition  by  him  (otherwise  than  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
his  business  of  advertising  agent)  of  such  addresses,  &c.;  pay- 
ment of  election  expenses  otherwise  than  by  or  through  the 
election  agent,  and  payment  otherwise  than  to  a  candidate  or 
election  agent  of  money  provided  by  any  other  person  for  election 
expenses;  voting  or  procuring  to  vote  of  any  person  prohibited 
from  voting,  if  the  person  offending  knows  of  the  prohibition; 
knowingly  publishing  a  false  statement  that  a  candidate  has 
withdrawn,  or  publishing  with  a  view  to  affect  the  return  of  a 
candidate  a  false  statement  as  to  his  character  or  conduct.  (2) 
Acts  and  omissions  which  are  illegal  practices  in  the  case  of 
candidates  and  agents  only,  being  breaches  of  duties  specially 
imposed  on  them.  These  are  the  payment  or  incurring  expenses 
in  excess  of  the  maximum  authorized  by  the  legislature,  the 
omitting  without  lawful  excuse  to  make  a  return  and  declaration 
of  expenses  in  due  time,  and  the  payment  by  an  election  agent 
of  any  election  expense  amounting  to  403.  not  vouched  by  bill  of 
particulars  and  receipt,  of  any  claim  for  expenses  not  sent  in  in 
due  time,  or  of  any  such  claim  after  the  time  allowed  for  payment 
thereof.  (3)  Acts  which  are  illegal  practices  when  done  by  a 
candidate  or  agent,  and  are  a  minor  offence  when  done  by  any  one 
else.  These  are  illegal  payments,  employment  and  hiring,  and 
printing,  publishing  or  posting  a  bill,  placard  or  poster  not 
bearing  on  its  face  the  name  of  the  printer  or  publisher.  Illegal 
payments  are  knowingly  providing  money  for  prohibited  pay- 
ments or  expenses  in  excess  of  the  maximum,  corruptly  inducing 
a  candidate  to  withdraw  by  payment  or  promise  of  payment  (the 
candidate  so  induced  being  guilty  of  the  like  offence),  paying  or 


agreeing  to  pay  for  torches,  flags,  banners,  cockades,  ribbons  and 
other  marks  of  distinction  (the  receiver  being  guilty  of  the  like 
offence  if  he  is  aware  of  the  illegality).  Illegal  employment  is  the 
employment  for  payment  or  promise  of  payment  of  persons 
beyond  the  number  allowed  by  the  legislature  or  for  purposes  not 
authorized.  The  employe  is  guilty  of  the  like  offence  if  he  knows 
of  the  illegality.  Illegal  hiring  is  the  letting  or  lending,  or  the 
employing,  hiring,  borrowing  or  using  to  carry  voters  to  the  poll 
of  stage,  or  hackney  carriages,  or  horses,  or  of  carriages  or  horses 
ordinarily  let  for  hire,  and  the  hiring  of  committee  rooms  in 
premises  licensed  for  the  sale  of  intoxicants,  in  a  club  (not  being  a 
permanent  political  club)  where  intoxicants  are  sold,  in  premises 
where  refreshments  are  ordinarily  sold,  or  in  a  public  elementary 
school  in  receipt  of  a  parliamentary  grant.  Personation  and 
aiding,  abetting,  &c.,  of  personation  are  felonies  punishable  with 
two  years'  imprisonment  with  hard  labour.  All  other  corrupt 
practices  are  indictable  misdemeanours  (in  Scotland,  crimes  and 
offences)  punishable  with  one  year's  imprisonment,  with  or 
without  hard  labour,  or  a  fine  not  exceeding  £200.  Conviction  of 
any  corrupt  practice  also  renders  the  offender  incapable  for  seven 
years  of  being  registered  as  an  elector,  or  voting  at  any  election, 
parliamentary  or  other,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  or  of  holding  any 
public  or  judicial  office,  or  of  being  elected  to  or  sitting  in  the 
House  of  Commons;  and  any  such  office  or  seat  held  by  him  at 
the  time  is  vacated.  In  the  case  of  a  parliamentary  candidate,  if 
an  election  court  finds  that  there  has  been  treating  or  undue 
influence  by  him,  or  any  other  corrupt  practice  with  his  know- 
ledge or  consent,  he  becomes  incapable  of  ever  being  elected  for 
the  same  constituency,  and  incurs  the  like  incapacities  as  if  he 
had  been  convicted  on  indictment;  if  it  is  found  by  the  election 
court  that  he  has  been  guilty  by  his  agents  of  a  corrupt  practice, 
he  becomes  incapable  for  seven  years  of  being  elected  for  the 
same  constituency.  Illegal  practices  are  offences  punishable  on 
summary  conviction  with  a  fine  not  exceeding  £100,  and  with 
five  years'  incapacity  for  being  registered  or  voting  as  a  parlia- 
mentary elector,  or  an  elector  to  public  office  within  the  county 
or  borough  where  the  offence  was  committed.  Illegal  payments, 
employment  and  hiring,  and  printing  and  publishing  of  Lills,  &c., 
not  bearing  the  printer's  or  publisher's  name,  are,  when  com- 
mitted by  any  one  who  is  not  a  candidate  or  agent,  offences 
punishable  on  summary  conviction  with  a  fine  not  exceeding 
£100,  but  carry  with  them  no  incapacities.  Where  an  election 
court  finds  that  any  illegal  practice  has  been  committed  with  the 
knowledge  or  consent  of  a  parliamentary  candidate,  he  becomes 
incapable  for  seven  years  of  being  elected  to  or  sitting  in  the 
House  of  Commons  for  the  same  constituency.  He  incurs  the 
like  incapacity,  limited  to  the  duration  of  the  parliament  for 
which  the  election  was  held,  if  the  election  court  finds  that  he  was 
guilty  by  his  agents  of  an  illegal  practice.  A  prosecution  for  any 
of  the  above  offences  cannot  be  instituted  more  than  a  year  after 
the  offence  was  committed,  unless  an  inquiry  by  election  com- 
missioners takes  place,  in  which  case  it  may  be  institute  d  at  any 
time  within  two  years  from  the  commission  of  the  offence,  not 
being  more  than  three  months  after  the  date  of  the  commissioners' 
report. 

The  law  as  to  corrupt  and  illegal  practices,  as  above  stated, 
applies  equally  to  parliamentary,  municipal,  county  and  parish 
council  elections.  Incapacities  corresponding  to  those  incurred 
by  parliamentary  candidates  found  guilty  by  an  election  court  are 
incurred  by  municipal  and  other  candidates  in  the  like  case, 
e.g.  a  municipal  candidate  found  personally  guilty  of  a  corrupt 
practice  is  incapacitated  forever,  and  a  candidate  found  guilty  by 
his  agents  is  incapacitated  for  three  years  from  holding  corporate 
office  in  the  borough. 

See  Rogers,  On  Elections,  3  vols. ;  Fraser,  Law  of  Parliamentary 
Elections. 

CORRY,  a  city  of  Erie  county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  37  m. 
S.E.  of  Erie,  in  the  N.W.  part  of  the  state,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  1430  ft.  Pop.  (1890)  5677;  (1900)  5369  (671  foreign- 
born);  (1910)  5991.  It  is  served  by  the  Erie  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania railways.  Corry  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  fine 
farming  region,  which  is  rich  in  petroleum  and  natural  gas,  and 


CORSAIR— CORSICA 


199 


is  widely  known  for  its  mineral  springs.  One  mile  W.  of  the  city 
is  a  state  fish  hatchery,  and  there  are  fine  trout  streams  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Among  the  city's  manufactures  are  steel, 
engines,  locomotives,  radiators,  shovels,  bricks,  flour,  furniture 
and  leather.  Corry  was  settled  in  1860,  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1863  and  as  a  city  in  1866. 

CORSAIR  (through  the  Fr.  from  the  Med.  Lat.  cursarius,  a 
pirate;  cursus,  or  cursa,  from  currere,  to  run,  being  Late  Latin 
for  a  plundering  foray),  the  name  given  by  the  Mediterranean 
peoples  to  the  privateers  of  the  Barbary  coast  who  plundered 
the  shipping  of  Christian  nations;  they  were  not  strictly 
pirates,  as  they  were  commissioned  by  their  respective  govern- 
ments, but  the  word  came  to  be  synonymous,  in  English, 
with  "  pirate."  The  French  word  corsaire  is  still  used  for 
"  privateer,"  and  guerre  de  course  is  applied  to  the  use  in  naval 
warfare  of  "  commerce-destroyers."  (See  PIRATE,  BARBARY 
PIRATES  and  PRIVATEER.) 

CORSICA  (Fr.  Corse),  a  large  island  of  the  Mediterranean, 
forming  a  department  of  France.  It  is  situated  immediately 
to  the  north  of  Sardinia  (from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  narrow 
strait  of  Bonifacio),  between  41°  21'  and  43°  N.  and  8°  30'  and 
9°  30'  E.  Area,  3367  sq.m.  Pop.  (1906)  291,160.  Corsica  lies 
within  54  m.  W.  of  the  coast  of  Tuscany,  98  m.  S.  of  Genoa  and 
106  m.  S.E.  of  the  French  coast  at  Nice.  The  extreme  length 
of  the  island  is  114  m.  and  its  breadth  52  m.  The  greater  part 
of  the  surface  of  Corsica  is  occupied  by  forest-clad  mountains, 
whose  central  ridge  describes  a  curve  from  N.W.  to  S.W.,  pre- 
senting its  convexity  towards  the  E.  Secondary  chains  diverge 
in  all  directions  from  this  main  range,  enclosing  small  basins 
both  geographically  and  socially  isolated;  on  the  west  and  south 
of  the  island  they  either  terminate  abruptly  on  the  shore  or 
run  out  to  a  great  distance  into  the  sea,  forming  picturesque 
bays  and  gulfs,  some  of  which  afford  excellent  harbours.  The 
highest  peaks  are  the  Monts  Cinto  (8881  ft.),  Rotondo  (8612), 
Paglia  Orba  (8284),  Padro  (7851)  and  d'Oro  (7845).  On  the 
eastern  side  of  the  island,  between  Bastia  and  Porto  Vecchio, 
there  intervenes  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  a  considerable 
tract  of  low  and  unhealthy,  but  fertile  country,  and  the  coast  is 
fringed  in  places  by  lagoons. 

Geology. — Corsica  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  which  are  geo- 
logically distinct,  by  a  line  drawn  from  Belgodere  through  Corte 
to  the  east  coast  near  Favone.  West  of  this  line  the  island  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  granite,  with  a  large  mass  of  granophyres,  quartz 
porphyries  and  similar  rocks  forming  the  high  mountains  around 
Mt.  Cinto;  but  between  the  Gulfs  of  Porto  and  Galeria,  schists, 
limestones  and  anthracite,  containing  fossils  of  Upper  Carboniferous 
age,  occur.  The  famous  orbicular  diorite  of  Corsica  is  found  near 
Sta.  Lucia-di-Tallano  in  the  arrondissement  of  Sartene.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island  the  predominant  rocks  are  schists  of 
unknown  age,  with  intrusive  masses  of  serpentine  and  euphotide. 
Folded  amongst  the  schists  are  strips  of  Upper  Carboniferous  beds 
similar  to  those  of  the  west  coast.  Overlying  these  more  ancient 
rocks  are  limestones  with  Rhaetic  and  Liassic  fossils,  occurring  in 
small  patches  at  Oletta,  Morosaglia,  &c.  Nummulitic  limestone  of 
Eocene  age  is  found  near  St  Florent,  and  occupies  several  large 
basins  near  the  boundary  between  the  granite  and  the  schist.  Mio- 
cene molasse  with  Clypeaster,  &c.,  forms  the  plain  of  Aleria  on  the 
east  coast,  and  occurs  also  at  St  Florent  in  the  north  and  Bonifacio 
in  the  south.  A  small  patch  of  Pliocene  has  been  found  near  Aleria. 
The  caves  of  Corsica,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bastia, 
contain  numerous  mammalian  remains,  the  commonest  of  which 
belong  to  Lagomys  corsicanus,  Cuv. 

See  Hollande,  "  Geologic  de  la  Corse,"  Ann.  sci.  geol.,  vol.  ix. 
(1877) ;  Nentien,  "  fitudes  sur  les  gites  mineraux  de  la  Corse,"  Ann. 
Mines  Paris,  ser.  9,  vol.  xii.  pp.  231-296,  pi.  v.  (1897). 

Corsica  is  well  watered  by  rivers  and  torrents,  which,  though 
short  in  their  course,  bring  down  large  volumes  of  water  from 
the  mountains.  The  longest  is  the  Golo,  which  rises  in  the 
pastoral  region  of  Niolo,  isolated  among  the  mountains  to  the 
west  of  Corte  and  inhabited  by  a  distinct  population  of  obscure 
origin.  It  enters  the  sea  on  the  east  coast  to  the  south  of 
the  salt-water  lake  of  Biguglia;  farther  south,  on  the  same 
side  of  the  island,  is  the  Tavignano,  while  on  the  west  there 
are  the  Liamone,  the  Gravone  and  the  Taravo.  The  other 
streams  are  all  comparatively  small.  Owing  to  the  rugged  and 
indented  outline  of  the  western  coast  there  are  an  unusual  number 
of  bays  and  harbours.  Of  the  bays  the  most  important  are 


Porto,  Sagone,  Ajaccio  and  Valinco;  of  the  ports,  St  Florent 
(San  Fiorenzo),  lie  Rousse  (Isola  Rossa),  Calvi,  Ajaccio  and 
Propriano.  On  the  eastern  side,  which  is  much  less  rugged  and 
broken,  the  only  harbours  worth  mentioning  are  those  of  Bastia 
and  Porto  Vecchio  (the  Portus  Syracusanus  of  the  ancients), 
and  the  only  gulfs  those  of  Porto  Vecchio  and  Santa  Manza. 
At  the  extreme  south  are  the  harbour  and  town  of  Bonifacio, 
giving  name  to  the  strait  which  separates  Corsica  from  Sardinia. 

The  climate  of  the  island  ranges  from  warmth  in  the  low- 
lands to  extreme  rigour  in  the  mountains.  The  intermediate 
region  is  the  most  temperate  and  healthy.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Ajaccio  is  63°  F.  The  dominant  winds  are  those 
from  the  south-west  and  south-east. 

There  are  mines  of  anthracite,  antimony  and  copper;  the 
island  produces  granite,  building  stone,  marble,  and  amianthus, 
and  there  are  salt  marshes.  Among  other  places  Guagno, 
Pardina  Guitera,  and  Orezza  have  mineral  springs. 

The  agriculture  of  Corsica  suffers  from  scarcity  of  labour,  due 
partly  to  the  apathy  of  the  inhabitants,  and  from  scarcity  of 
capital.  The  cultivation  of  cereals,  despite  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  is  neglected;  wheat  is  grown  to  some  extent,  but  in  this 
respect,  the  population  is  dependent  to  a  large  degree  on  outside 
supplies.  The  culture  of  fruit,  especially  of  the  vine,  cedrates, 
citrons  and  olives  (for  which  the  Balagne  region,  in  the  north- 
west, is  noted),  of  vegetables  and  of  tobacco,  and  sheep  and  goat 
rearing  are  the  main  rural  industries,  to  which  may  be  added 
the  rearing  of  silk-worms.  The  exploitation  of  the  fine  forests, 
which  contain  the  well-known  Corsican  pine,  beeches,  oaks  and 
chestnuts,  is  also  an  important  resource,  but  tends  to  proceed 
too  rapidly.  Chestnuts  are  exported,  and,  ground  into  flour, 
are  used  as  food  by  the  mountaineers.  Most  of  the  inhabitants 
are  proprietors  of  land,  but  often  the  properties  are  so  split 
up  that  many  hours,  or  even  a  whole  day,  are  spent  in  going 
from  the  vineyard  or  olive  plantation  to  the  arable  land  in  the 
plain  or  the  chestnut-wood  in  the  mountain.  A  great  part  of  the 
agricultural  labour  is  performed  by  labourers  from  Tuscany 
and  Lucca,  who  periodically  visit  the  island  for  that  purpose. 
Sheep  of  a  peculiar  breed,  resembling  chamois  and  known  as 
mouflons,  inhabit  the  more  inaccessible  parts  of  the  mountains. 
The  uncultivated  districts  are  generally  overgrown  with  a  thick 
tangled  underwood,  consisting  of  arbutus,  myrtle,  thorn,  laurel 
broom  and  other  fragrant  shrubs,  and  known  as  the  maquis,  the 
fragrance  of  which  can  be  distinguished  even  from  the  sea. 

Fishing  and  shooting  are  allowed  almost  everywhere  to  the 
possessor  of  a  government  licence;  special  permission,  T?here 
it  is  necessary,  is  easily  obtained.  Wild  boars,  stags,  in  the 
eastern  districts,  and  hares  as  well  as  the  mouflon  are  found, 
while  partridges,  quail,  woodcock,  wild  duck  and  water-fowl 
are  abundant.  Trout  and  eels  are  the  chief  fish.  The  flesh  of 
the  Corsican  blackbird  is  considered  a  delicacy.  The  fisheries 
of  tunny,  pilchard  and  anchovy  are  extensively  prosecuted  for 
the  supply  of  the  Italian  markets;  but  comparatively  few  of 
the  natives  are  engaged  in  this  industry. 

The  Corsican  is  simple  and  sober  but  unenterprising;  dignified 
and  proud,  he  is  possessed  of  a  native  courtesy,  manifested  in 
his  hospitality  to  strangers,  the  refusal  of  which  is  much  resented. 
He  is,  however,  implacable  towards  his  own  countrymen  when 
his  enmity  is  once  aroused,  and  the  practice  of  the  blood-feud 
or  vendetta  has  not  died  out.  Each  individual  is  attached  to 
some  powerful  family,  and  the  influence  of  this  usage  is  specially 
marked  in  politics,  the  individual  voting  with  his  clan  on  pain 
of  arousing  the  vindictiveness  of  his  fellow-members.  Another 
dominant  factor  in  social  life  in  Corsica  is  the  almost  universal 
ambition  on  the  part  of  the  natives  towards  an  official  career, 
a  tendency  from  which  commerce  and  agriculture  inevitably 
suffer. 

The  manufactures  of  the  island  are  of  small  importance. 
They  include  the  extraction  of  gallic  acid  from  chestnut-bark, 
the  preparation  of  preserved  citrons  and  other  delicacies,  and 
of  macaroni  and  similar  foods  and  the  manufacture  of  fancy 
goods  and  cigars. 

The  chief  ports  are  Bastia,  Ajaccio  and  lie  Rousse.    A  railway 


200 


CORSICA 


runs  from  Bastia  to  Ajaccio  with  branches  to  Calvi  and  Ghiso- 
naccia,  but,  in  general,  lack  of  means  of  communication  as  well 
as  of  capital  are  a  barrier  to  commercial  activity.  In  1905 
imports  reached  a  value  of  £113,000.  The  chief  were  tobacco, 
furniture  and  wooden  goods,  wine,  cereals,  coal,  cheese  and  bran. 
Exports  were  valued  at  £336,000,  and  included  chestnut-extract, 
charcoal,  timber,  citrons  and  other  fruits,  seeds,  casks,  skins, 
chestnuts  and  tanning  bark. 

Corsica  is  divided  into  five  arrondissements  (chief  towns — 
Ajaccio,  Bastia,  Calvi,  Corte  and  Sartene),  with  62  cantons 
and  364  communes.  It  forms  part  of  the  academic  (educational 
circumscription)  and  archiepiscopal  province  of  Aix  (Bouches-du- 
Rh6ne)  and  of  the  region  of  the  XV.  army  corps.  The  principal 
towns  are  Ajaccio,  the  capital  and  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  the 
island  and  of  the  prefect;  Bastia,  the  seat  of  the  court  of  appeal  and 
of  the  military  commander;  Calvi,  Corte  and  Bonifacio.  Other 
places  of  interest  are  St  Florent,  near  which  stand  the  ruins  of 
the  cathedral  (i2th  century)  of  the  vanished  town  of  Nebbio; 
Murato,  which  has  a  church  (i2th  or  i3th  century)  of  Pisan 
architecture,  which  is  exemplified  in  other  Corsican  churches;  and 
Cargese,  where  there  is  a  Greek  colony,  dating  from  the  lyth 
century.  Near  Lucciana  are  the  ruins  of  a  fine  Romanesque  church 
called  La  Canonica.  Megalithic  monuments  are  numerous,  chief 
among  them  being  the  dolmen  of  Fontanaccia  in  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Sartene. 

History. — The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Corsica  were  probably 
Ligurian.  The  Phocaeans  of  Ionia  were  the  first  civilized  people 
to  establish  settlements  there.  About  560  B.C.  they  landed  in  the 
island  and  founded  the  town  of  Alalia.  By  the  end  of  the  6th 
century,  however,  their  power  had  dwindled  before  that  of  the 
Etruscans,  who  were  in  their  turn  driven  out  by  the  Carthaginians. 
The  latter  were  followed  by  the  Romans,  who  gained  a  footing  in 
the  island  at  the  time  of  the  First  Punic  War,  but  did  not  estab- 
lish themselves  there  till  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.  Both 
Marius  and  Sulla  founded  colonies — the  one  at  Mariana  (near 
Lucciana)  in  104,  the  second  at  Aleria  in  88.  In  the  early 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era  Corsica  formed  one  of  the  senatorial 
provinces  of  the  Empire,  but  though  it  was  in  continuous 
commercial  communication  with  Italy,  it  was  better  known  as  a 
place  of  banishment  for  political  offenders.  One  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  those  was  the  younger  Seneca,  who  spent  in 
exile  there  the  eight  years  ending  A.D.  49. 

During  the  break-up  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  West  the 
possession  of  Corsica  was  for  a  while  disputed  between  the 
Vandals  and  the  Gothic  allies  of  the  Roman  emperors,  until  in 
469  Genseric  finally  made  himself  master  of  the  island.  For 
65  years  the  Vandals  maintained  their  domination,  the  Corsican 
forests  supplying  the  wood  for  the  fleets  with  which  they  terror- 
ized the  Mediterranean.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Vandal 
power  in  Africa  by  Belisarius,  his  lieutenant  Cyril  conquered 
Corsica  (534)  which  now,  under  the  exarchate  of  Africa,  became 
part  of  the  East  Roman  empire.  The  succeeding  period  was 
one  of  great  misery.  Goths  and  Lombards  in  turn  ravaged  the 
island,  which  in  spite  of  the  prayers  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
the  exarch  of  Africa  did  nothing  to  defend;  the  rule  of  the 
Byzantines  was  effective  only  in  grinding  excessive  taxes  out  of 
the  wretched  population;  and,  to  crown  all,  in  713  the  Mussul- 
mans from  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  made  their  first  descent 
upon  the  island.  Corsica  remained  nominally  attached  to  the 
East  Roman  empire  until  Charlemagne,  having  overthrown  the 
Lombard  power  in  Italy  (774),  proceeded  to  the  conquest  of  the 
island,  which  now  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks.  In  806, 
however,  occurred  the  first  of  a  series  of  Moorish  incursions  from 
Spain.  Several  times  defeated  by  the  emperor's  lieutenants,  the 
Moors  continually  returned,  and  in  810  gained  temporary 
possession  of  the  island.  They  were  crushed  and  exterminated 
by  an  expedition  under  the  emperor's  son  Charles,  but  none  the 
less  returned  again  and  again.  In  828  the  defence  of  Corsica  was 
entrusted  to  Boniface  II.,  count  of  the  Tuscan  march,  who 
conducted  a  successful  expedition  against  the  African  Mussul- 
mans, and  returning  to  Corsica  built  a  fortress  in  the  south  of  the 
island  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  town  (Bonifacio)  that 


bears  his  name.  Boniface's  war  against  the  Saracens  was 
continued  by  his  son  Adalbert,  after  he  had  been  restored  to  his 
father's  dignities  in  846;  but,  in  spite  of  all  efforts,  the  Mussul- 
mans seem  to  have  remained  in  possession  of  part  of  the  island 
until  about  930.  Corsica,  of  which  Berengar  II.,  king  of  Italy, 
had  made  himself  master,  became  in  962,  after  his  dethronement 
by  Otto  the  Great,  a  place  of  refuge  for  his  son  Adalbert,  who 
succeeded  in  holding  the  island  and  in  passing  it  on  to  his  son, 
another  Adalbert.  This  latter  was,  however,  defeated  by  the 
forces  of  Otto  II.,  and  Corsica  was  once  more  attached  to  the 
marquisate  of  Tuscany,  of  which  Adalbert  was  allowed  to  hold 
part  of  the  island  in  fee. 

The  period  of  feudal  anarchy  now  began,  a  general  mellay 
of  petty  lords  each  eager  to  expand  his  domain.  The  counts 
of  Cinarca,  especially,  said  to  be  descended  from 
Adalbert,  aimed  at  establishing  their  supremacy  over 
the  whole  island.  To  counteract  this  and  similar  mime. 
ambitions,  in  the  nth  century,  a  sort  of  national  diet 
was  held,  and  Sambucuccio,  lord  of  Alando,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  movement  which  resulted  in  confining  the  feudal  lords 
to  less  than  half  of  the  island  to  the  south,  and  in  establishing  in 
the  rest,  henceforth  known  as  the  Terra  di  Comune,  a  sort  of 
republic  composed  of  autonomous  parishes.  This  system,  which 
survived  till  the  Revolution,  is  thus  described  by  Jacobi  (torn.  i. 
p.  137).  "  Each  parish  or  commune  nominated  a  certain  number 
of  councillors  who,  under  the  name  of  '  fathers  of  the  commune,' 
were  charged  with  the  administration  of  justice  under  the 
direction  of  a  podestd,  who  was  as  it  were  their  president.  The 
podestas  of  each  of  the  states  or  enfranchised  districts  chose  a 
member  of  the  supreme  council  charged  with  the  making  of 
laws  and  regulations  for  the  Terra  di  Comune.  This  council  or 
magistracy  was  called  the  Twelve,  from  the  number  of  districts 
taking  a  share  in  its  nomination.  Finally,  in  each  district  the 
fathers  of  the  commune  elected  a  magistrate  who,  under  the 
name  of  caporale,  was  entrusted  with  the  defence  of  the  interests 
of  the  poor  and  weak,  with  seeing  that  justice  was  done  to  them, 
and  that  they  were  not  made  the  victims  of  the  powerful  and 
rich." 

Meanwhile  the  south  remained  under  the  sway  of  the  counts  of 
Cinarca,  while  in  the  north  feudal  barons  maintained  their 
independence  in  the  promontory  of  Cape  Corso.  In- 
ternal feuds  continued;  William,  marquis  of  Massa,  of 
the  family  known  later  as  the  Malaspina,  was  called  in  eigaty. 
by  the  communes  (1020),  drove  out  the  count  of 
Cinarca,  reduced  the  barons  to  order,  and  in  harmony  with  the 
communes  established  a  dominion  which  he  was  able  to  hand  on 
to  his  son.  Towards  the  end  of  the  nth  century,  however,  the 
popes  laid  claim  to  the  island  in  virtue  of  the  donation  of  Charle- 
magne, though  the  Prankish  conqueror  had  promised  at  most  the 
reversion  of  the  lands  of  the  Church.  The  Corsican  clergy  sup- 
ported the  claim,  and  in  1077  the  Corsicans  declared  themselves 
subjects  of  the  Holy  See  in  the  presence  of  the  apostolic  legate 
Landolfo,  bishop  of  Pisa.  Pope  Gregory  VII.  thereupon  invested 
the  bishop  and  his  successors  with  the  island,  an  investiture 
confirmed  by  Urban  II.  in  i  too  and  extended  into  a  concession  of 
the  full  sovereignty.  The  Pisans  now  took  solemn  possession  of 
the  island  and  their  "  grand  judges  "  (judices)  took  the  place  of 
the  papal  legates.  Corsica,  valued  by  the  Pisans  as  by 
the  Vandals  as  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  materials 
for  their  fleet,  flourished  exceedingly  under  the  en- 
lightened rule  of  the  great  commercial  republic.  Causes  of 
dissension  remained,  however,  abundant.  The  Corsican  bishops 
repented  their  subjection  to  the  Pisan  archbishop;  the  Genoese 
intrigued  at  Rome  to  obtain  a  reversal  of  the  papal  gift  to  the 
rivals  with  whom  they  were  disputing  the  supremacy  of  the  seas. 
Successive  popes  followed  conflicting  policies  in  this  respect; 
until  in  1138  Innocent  II.,  by  way  of  compromise,  divided  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  island  between  the  archbishops 
of  Pisa  and  Genoa.  This  gave  the  Genoese  great  influence  in 
Corsica,  and  the  contest  between  the  Pisans  and  Genoese  began  to 
distract  the  island.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1195  that  the 
Genoese,  by  capturing  Bonifacio — a  nest  of  pirates  preying  on  the 


Ruleol 
Pisa, 


CORSICA 


201 


commerce  of  both  republics — actually  gained  a  footing  in  the 
country.  For  twenty  years  the  Pisans  fought  to  recover  the 
fortress  for  themselves,  until  in  1217  the  pope  settled  the  matter 
by  taking  it  into  his  own  hands. 

Throughout  the  I3th  century  the  struggle  between  Pisans 
and  Genoese  continued,  reproducing  in  the  island  the  feud  of 
Ghibellines  and  Guelphs  that  was  desolating  Italy.  In  order 
to  put  a  stop  to  the  ruinous  anarchy  the  chiefs  of  the  Terra  di 
Comune  called  in  the  marquis  Isnard  Malaspina;  the  Pisans 
set  up  the  count  of  Cinarca  once  more;  and  the  war  between 
the  marquis,  the  Pisans  and  Genoese  dragged  on  with  varying 
fortunes, -neither  succeeding  in  gaining  the  mastery.  Then,  in 
1 298,  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  added  to  the  complication  by  investing 
King  James  of  Aragon  with  the  sovereignty  of  Corsica  and  of 
Sardinia.  In  1325,  after  long  delay,  the  Aragonese  attacked 
and  reduced  Sardinia,  with  the  result  that  the  Pisans,  their 
sea-power  shattered,  were  unable  to  hold  their  own  in  Corsica. 
A  fresh  period  of  anarchy  followed  until,  in  1347,  a  great  assembly 
of  caporali  and  barons  decided  to  offer  the  sovereignty  of  the 
island  to  Genoa.  A  regular  tribute  was  to  be  paid  to  the  re- 
public; the  Corsicans  were  to  preserve  their  laws  and  customs, 
under  the  council  of  Twelve  in  the  north  and  a  council  of  Six 
in  the  south;  Corsican  interests  were  to  be  represented  at 
Genoa  by  an  orator. 

The  Genoese  domination,  which  began  under  evil  auspice_s — 
for  the  Black  Death  killed  off  some  two-thirds  of  the  population — 
was  not  destined  to  bring  peace  to  the  island.  The 
feudal  barons  of  the  south  and  the  hereditary  caporali 
toa.  of  the  north  alike  resisted  the  authority  of  the  Genoese 

governors;  and  King  Peter  of  Aragon  took  advantage 
of  their  feuds  to  reassert  his  claims.  In  1372  Arrigo,  count  of 
La  Rocca,  with  the  assistance  of  Aragonese  troops,  made  himself 
master  of  the  island;  but  his  very  success  stirred  up  against 
him  the  barons  of  Cape  Corso,  who  once  more  appealed  to  Genoa. 
The  republic,  busied  with  other  affairs,  hit  upon  the  luckless 
expedient  of  investing  with  the  governorship  of  the  island  a  sort 
of  chartered  company,  consisting  of  five  persons,  known  as  the 
Maona.  They  attempted  to  restore  order  by  taking  Arrigo 
della  Rocca  into  partnership,  with  disastrous  results.  In  1380 
four  of  the  "  governors  of  the  Maona  "  resigned  their  rights  to 
the  Genoese  republic,  and  Leonello  Lomellino  was  left  as  sole 
governor.  It  was  he  who,  in  1383,  built  Bastia  on  the  north 
coast,  which  became  the  bulwark  of  the  Genoese  power  in  the 
island.  It  was  not  till  1401,  after  the  death  of  Count  Arrigo, 
that  the  Genoese  domination  was  temporarily  re-established. 

Meanwhile  Genoa  itself  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  French, 
and  in  1407  Leonello  Lomellino  returned  as  governor  with  the 
title  of  count  of  Corsica  bestowed  on  him  by  Charles  VI.  of  France. 
But  Vincentello  d'  Istria,  who  had  gained  distinction  in  the 
service  of  the  king  of  Aragon,  had  captured  Cinarca,  rallied  round 
him  all  the  communes  of  the  Terra  di  Comune,  proclaimed  him- 
self count  of  Corsica  at  Biguglia  and  even  seized  Bastia.  Lomel- 
lino was  unable  to  make  headway  against  him,  and  by  1410  all 
Corsica,  with  the  exception  of  Bonifacio  and  Calvi,  was  lost  to 
Genoa,  now  once  more  independent  of  France.  A  feud  of 
Vincentello  with  the  bishop  of  Mariana,  however,  led  to  the 
loss  of  his  authority  in  the  Terra  di  Comune;  he  was  compelled 
to  go  to  Spain  in  search  of  assistance,  and  in  his  absence  the 
Genoese  reconquered  the  island.  Not,  however,  for  long.  The 
Great  Schism  was  too  obvious  an  opportunity  for  quarrelling 
for  the  Corsicans  to  neglect;  and  the  Corsican  bishops  and  clergy 
were  more  ready  with  the  carnal  than  with  spiritual  weapons. 
The  suffragans  of  Genoa  fought  for  Benedict  XIII.,  those  of 
Pisa  for  John  XXIII.;  and  when  Vincentello  returned  with  an 
Aragonese  force  he  was  able  to  fish  profitably  in  troubled  waters. 
He  easily  captured  Cinarca  and  Ajaccio,  came  to  terms  with  the 
Pisan  bishops,  mastered  the  Terra  di  Comune  and  built  a  strong 
castle  at  Corte;  by  1419  the  Genoese  possessions  in  Corsica 
were  again  reduced  to  Calvi  and  Bonifacio. 

At  this  juncture  Alphonso  of  Aragon  arrived,  with  a  large 
fleet,  to  take  possession  of  the  island.  Calvi  fell  to  him;  but 
Bonifacio  held  out,  and  its  resistance  gave  time  for  the 


Corsicans,    aroused    by    the    tyranny   and    exactions   of    the 

Aragonese,    to    organize    revolt.     In    the    end    the    siege    of 

Bonifacio  was  raised,  and  the  town,  confirmed  in  its 

privileges,  became  practically  an  independent  republic 

under   Genoese   protection.    As   for   Vincentello   he   veatloa., 

managed  to  hold  his  own  for  a  while;  but  ultimately 

the  country  rose  against  him,  and  in  1435  he  was  executed  as  a 

rebel  by  the  Genoese,  who  had  captured  him  by  surprise  in  the 

port  of  Bastia. 

The  anarchy  continued,  while  rival  factions,  nominal  adherents 
of  the  Aragonese  and  Genoese,  contended  for  the  mastery. 
Profiting  by  the  disturbed  situation,  the  Genoese  doge,  Janus, 
da  Fregoso,  succeeded  in  reducing  the  island,  his  artillery  secur- 
ing him  an  easy  victory  over  the  forces  of  Count  Paolo  della 
Rocca  (1441).  To  secure  his  authority  he  built  and  fortified 
the  new  city  of  San  Fiorenzo,  near  the  ruins  of  Nebbio.  But  again 
the  Aragonese  intervened,  and  the  anarchy  reached  its  height. 
An  appeal  to  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  resulted  in  the  despatch  of  a 
pontifical  army  of  14,000  men  (1444),  which  was  destroyed 
in  detail  by  a  league  of  some  of  the  caporali  and  most  of  the  barons 
under  the  bold  leadership  of  Rinuccio  da  Leca.  A  second 
expedition  was  more  fortunate,  and  Rinuccio  was  killed  before 
Biguglia.  In  1447  Eugenius  was  succeeded  on  the  papal  throne 
by  Nicholas  V.,  a  Genoese,  who  promptly  made  over  his  rights 
in  Corsica,  with  all  the  strong  places  held  by  his  troops,  to  Genoa. 
The  island  was  now,  in  effect,  divided  between  the  Genoese 
republic;  the  lords  of  Cinarca,  who  held  their  lands  in  the  south 
under  the  nominal  suzerainty  of  Aragon;  and  Galeazzo  da 
Campo  Fregoso,  who  was  supreme  in  the  Terra  di  Comune. 

An  assembly  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Terra  di  Comune  now  decided 
to  offer  the  government  of  the  island  to  the  Company  or  Bank 
of  San  Giorgio,  a  powerful  commercial  corporation 
established  at  Genoa  in  the  i4th  century.1    The  bank     The  baak 
accepted;  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  the  country;     o/oiyto. 
and  a  government   was  organized.     But  the  bank 
soon  fell  foul  of  the  barons,  and  began  a  war  of  extermination 
against  them.    Their  resistance  was  finally   broken  in  1460, 
when  the  survivors  took  refuge  in  Tuscany.      But  order  had 
scarcely  been  established  when  the  Genoese  Tommasinoda  Campo 
Fregoso,  whose  mother  was  a  Corsican,  revived  the  claims  of 
his  family  and  succeeded  in  mastering  the  interior  of  the  island 
(1462).    Two  years  later  the  duke  of  Milan,  Francesco  Sforza, 
overthrew  the  power  of  the  Fregoso  family  at  Genoa,  and  promptly 
proceeded  to  lay  claim  to  Corsica.    His  lieutenant  had  no 
difficulty  in  making  the  island  accept  the  overlordship  of  the 
duke  of  Milan;  but  when,  in  1466,  Francesco  Sforza  died,  a 
quarrel  broke  out,   and   Milanese  suzerainty  became  purely- 
nominal  save  in  the  coast  towns.    Finally,  in  1484, 
Tommasino  da  Campo  Fregoso  persuaded  the  duke  to     MUaneif 
grant  him  the  government  of  the  island.     The  strong     ventioa. 
places  were  handed  over  to  him;  he  entered  into 
marriage  relations  with  Gian  Paolo  da  Leca,  the  most  powerful: 
of  the  barons,  and  was  soon  supreme  in  the  island. 

Within  three  years  the  Corsicans  were  up  in  arms  again.  A 
descendant  of  the  Malaspinas  who  had  once  ruled  in  Corsica, 
Jacopo  IV.  (d'Appiano),  was  now  prince  of  Piombino,  and  to  him 
the  malcontents  applied.  His  brother  Gherardo,  count  of 
Montagnano,  accepted  the  call,  proclaimed  himself  count  of 
Corsica,  and,  landing  in  the  island,  captured  Biguglia  and  San 
Fiorenzo;  whereupon  Tommasino  da  Campo  Fregoso  discreetly 
sold  his  rights  to  the  bank  of  San  Giorgio.  No  sooner,  however, 
had  the  bank — with  the  assistance  of  the  count  of  Leca — beaten 
Count  Gherardo  than  the  Fregoso  family  tried  to  repudiate  their 
bargain.  Their  claims  were  supported  by  the  count  of  Leca,  and 
it  cost  the  agents  of  the  bank  some  hard  fighting  before  the 
turbulent  baron  was  beaten  and  exiled  to  Sardinia.  Twice  he 
returned,  and  he  was  not  finally  expelled  from  the  country  till 
1501;  it  was  not  till  rsn  that  the  other  barons  were  crushed  and 

1  See  "  Conventions  entre  quelques  seigneurs  Corses  et  1'office  de 
St  Georges  (1453),"  in  Bulletin  soc.  scientif.  Corse  (1881-1882),  pp. 
286,  305,  413,  501,  549  and  (1883)  147;  also  the  report  of  the 
deputies  sent  by  the  bank  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.  in  1453,  ib.  p.  141. 


202 


CORSICA 


that  the  bank  could  consider  itself  in  secure  possession  of  the 
island. 

If  the  character  of  the  Corsicans  has  been  distinguished  in 
modern  times  for  a  certain  wild  intractableness  and  ferocity,  the 
cause  lies  in  their  unhappy  past,  and  not  least  in  the  character 
of  the  rule  established  by  the  bank  of  San  Giorgio.  The  power 
which  the  bank  had  won  by  ruthless  cruelty,  it  exercised  in  the 
spirit  of  the  narrowest  and  most  short-sighted  selfishness.  Only 
a  shadow  of  the  native  institutions  was  suffered  to  survive,  and 
no  adequate  system  of  administration  was  set  up  in  the  place  of 
that  which  had  been  suppressed.  In  the  absence  of  justice  the 
blood-feud  or  vendetta  grew  and  took  root  in  Corsica  just  at  the 
time  when,  elsewhere  in  Europe,  the  progress  of  civilization  was 
making  an  end  of  private  war.  The  agents  of  the  bank,  so  far 
from  discouraging  these  internecine  quarrels,  looked  on  them  as 
the  surest  means  for  preventing  a  general  rising.  Concerned, 
moreover,  only  with  squeezing  taxes  out  of  a  recalcitrant 
population,  they  neglected  the  defence  of  the  coast,  along 
which  the  Barbary  pirates  harried  and  looted  at  will;  and  to 
all  these  woes  were  added,  in  the  i6th  century,  pestilences  and 
disastrous  floods,  which  tended  scill  further  to  impoverish  and 
barbarize  the  country. 

In  these  circumstances  King  Henry  II.  of  France  conceived  the 
project  of  conquering  the  island.  From  Corsican  mercenaries  in 
First  French  service,  men  embittered  by  wrongs  suffered  at 

Preach  the  hands  of  the  Genoese,  he  obtained  all  the  necessary 
latervea-  information;  by  a  treaty  of  alliance  concluded  at  Con- 
tion,i5S3.  stantinople  (February  i,  1553)  with  Sultan  Suleiman 
the  Magnificent  he  secured  the  co-operation  of  the  Turkish 
fleet.  The  combined  forces  attacked  the  island  the  same 
year;  the  citadel  of  Bastia  fell  almost  without  a  blow,  and  siege 
was  at  once  laid  simultaneously  to  all  the  other  fortresses.  The 
capitulation  of  Bonifacio  to  the  Turks,  after  an  obstinate  resist- 
ance, was  followed  by  the  treacherous  massacre  of  the  garrison; 
soon,  of  all  the  strong  places,  the  Genoese  held  Calvi  alone.  At 
this  juncture  the  emperor  Charles  V.  intervened;  a  strong  force 
of  imperial  troops  and  Genoese  was  poured  into  the  island,  and 
the  tide  of  war  turned.  The  details  of  the  struggle  that  followed, 
in  which  the  Corsican  national  hero  Sampiero  da  Bastelica  gained 
his  first  laurels,  are  of  little  general  importance.  Fortresses  were 
captured  and  recaptured;  and  for  three  years  French,  Germans, 
Spaniards,  Genoese  and  Corsicans  indulged  in  a  carnival  of 
mutual  slaughter  and  outrage.  The  outcome  of  all  this  was  a 
futile  reversion  to  the  status  quo.  In  1556,  indeed,  the  conclusion 
of  a  truce  left  Corsica — with  the  exception  of  Bastia — in  the 
hands  of  the  French,  who  proceeded  to  set  up  a  tolerable  govern- 
ment; but  in  1559,  by  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  the 
island  was  restored  to  the  bank  of  San  Giorgio,  from  which  it 
was  at  once  taken  over  by  the  Genoese  republic. 

Trouble  at  once  began  again.  The  Genoese  attempted  to  levy 
a  tax  which  the  Corsicans  refused  to  pay;  in  violation  of  the 
terms  of  the  treaty,  which  had  stipulated  for  a  uni- 
Samplero  versai  amnesty,  they  confiscated  the  property  of 
Bastoiica.  Sampiero  da  Bastelica.  Hereupon  Sampiero  again  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  national  movement.  The 
suzerainty  of  the  Turk  seemed  preferable  to  that  of  Genoa,  and, 
armed  with  letters  from  the  king  of  France,  he  went  to  Constanti- 
nople to  ask  the  aid  of  a  fleet  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  Corsica 
to  the  status  of  an  Ottoman  province.1  All  his  efforts  to  secure 
foreign  help  were,  however,  vain;  he  determined  to  act  alone, 
and  in  June  1564  landed  at  Valinco  with  only  fifty  followers. 
His  success  was  at  first  extraordinary,  and  he  was  soon  at  the 
head  of  8000  men;  but  ultimate  victory  was  rendered  impossible 
by  the  indiscipline  among  the  Corsicans  and  by  the  internecine 
feuds  of  which  the  Genoese  well  knew  how  to  take  advantage. 
For  over  two  years  a  war  was  waged  in  which  quarter  was  given 
on  neither  side;  but  after  the  assassination  of  Sampiero  in  1567 
the  spirit  of  the  insurgents  was  broken.  In  1368  an  honourable 
peace,  including  a  general  amnesty,  was  arranged  with  the 
Genoese  commander  Giorgio  Doria  by  Sampiero's  son  Alphonso 

1  Hammer-Purgstall,  Cesch.  des  Osmanischen  Reichs  (Pest.  1840), 
ii.  288. 


d'Ornano,  who  with  300  of  his  friends  emigrated  to  France, 
where  he  rose  to  be  a  marshal  under  Henry  IV. 

From  this  time  until  1729  Corsica  remained  at  peace  under 
the  government  of  Genoa.  It  was,  however,  a  peace  due  to 
lassitude  and  despair  rather  than  contentment.  The  settlement 
of  1568  had  reserved  a  large  measure  of  autonomy  to  the 
Corsicans;  during  the  years  that  followed  this  was  withdrawn 
piecemeal",  until,  disarmed  and  powerless,  they  were  excluded 
from  every  office  in  the  administration.  Nor  did  the  Genoese 
substitute  any  efficient  system  for  that  which  they  had  destroyed. 
In  the  absence  of  an  effective  judiciary  the  vendetta  increased;  in 
the  absence  of  effective  protection  the  sea-board  was  exposed  to 
the  ravages  of  the  Barbary  pirates,  so  that  the  coast  villages  and 
towns  were  abandoned  and  the  inhabitants  withdrew  into  the 
interior,  leaving  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  country  to  fall  into 
the  condition  of  a  malarious  waste.  To  add  to  all  this,  in  1576 
the  population  had  been  decimated  by  a  pestilence.  Emigration 
en  masse  continued,  and  an  attempt  to  remedy  this  by  introducing 
a  colony  of  Greeks  in  1688  only  added  one  more  element  of 
discord  to  the  luckless  island.  To  the  Genoese  Corsica  continued 
to  be  merely  an  area  to  be  exploited  for  their  profit;  they 
monopolized  its  trade;  they  taxed  -it  up  to  and  beyond  its 
capacity;  they  made  the  issue  of  licences  to  carry  firearms  a 
source  of  revenue,  and  studiously  avoided  interfering  with  the 
custom  of  the  vendetta  which  made  their  fiscal  expedient  so 
profitable.2 

In  1729  the  Corsicans,  irritated  by  a  new  hearth-tax  known  as 
the  due  seini,  rose  in  revolt,  their  leaders  being  Andrea  Colonna 
Ceccaldi  and  Luigi  Giafferi.  As  usual,  the  Genoese 
were  soon  confined  to  a  few  coast  towns;  but  the  Ofi729 
intervention  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  and  the 
despatch  of  a  large  force  of  German  mercenaries  turned  the 
tide  of  war,  and  in  1732  the  authority  of  Genoa  was  re-estab- 
lished. Two  years  later,  however,  Giacinto  Paoli  once  more 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt;  and  in  1735  an  assembly  at  Corte 
proclaimed  the  independence  of  Corsica,  set  up  a  constitution,  and 
entrusted  the  supreme  leadership  to  Giafferi,  Paoli  and  Ceccaldi. 
Though  the  Genoese  were  again  driven  into  the  fortresses,  lack  of 
arms  and  provisions  made  any  decisive  success  of  the  insurgents 
impossible,  and  when,  on  the  I2th  of  March  1736,  the  German 
adventurer  Baron  Theodor  von  Neuhof  arrived  with  a  shipload  of 
muskets  and  stores  and  the  assurance  of  further  help  Ktag 
to  come,  leaders  and  people  were  glad  to  accept  his  aid  Theodore 
on  his  own  conditions,  namely  that  he  should  be  »' 
acknowledged  as  king  of  Corsica.  On  the  isth  of  Corslca- 
April,  at  Alesani,  an  assembly  of  clergy  and  of  representatives 
of  the  communes,  solemnly  proclaimed  Corsica  an  independent 
kingdom  under  the  sovereignty  of  Theodore  "I."  and  his  heirs. 
The  new  king's  reign  was  not  fated  to  last  long.  The  opera 
boujfe  nature  of  his  entry  on  the  stage — he  was  clad  in  a  scarlet 
caftan,  Turkish  trousers  and  a  Spanish  hat  and  feather,  and  girt 
with  a  scimitar — did  not,  indeed,  offend  the  unsophisticated 
islanders;  they  were  even  ready  to  take  seriously  his  lavish 
bestowal  of  titles  and  his  knightly  order  "della  Liberazione"; 
they  appreciated  his  personal  bravery;  and  the  fact  that  the 
Genoese  government  denounced  him  as  an  impostor  and  set  a 
price  on  his  head  could  only  confirm  him  in  their  affection.  But 
it  was  otherwise  when  the  European  help  that  he  had  promised 
failed  to  arrive,  and,  still  worse,  the  governments  with  which  he 
had  boasted  his  influence  disclaimed  him.  In  November  he 
thought  it  expedient  to  proceed  to  the  continent,  ostensibly  in 
search  of  aid,  leaving  Giafferi,  Paoli  and  Luca  d'Ornano  as 
regents.  In  spite  of  several  attempts,  he  never  succeeded  in 
returning  to  the  island.  The  Corsicans,  weary  of  the  war, 
opened  negotiations  with  the  Genoese;  but  the  refusal  of  the 
latter  to  regard  the  islanders  as  other  than  rebels  made  a  mutual 
agreement  impossible.  Finally  the  republic  decided  to  seek  the 
aid  of  France,  and  in  July  1737  a  treaty  was  signed  by  which  the 
French  king  bound  himself  to  reduce  the  Corsicans  to  order. 

*  Father  Cancellotti,  who  visited  every  part  of  the  island,  estimated 
the  number  of  murders  committed  in  20  years  at  28,000  (quoted  in 
the  article  on  Corsica  in  La  Grande  Encyclopedic). 


CORSICA 


203 


The  object  of  the  French  in  assisting  the  Genoese  was  not  the 
acquisition  of  the  island  for  themselves  so  much  as  to  obviate 
later-  l^e  danger,  of  which  they  had  long  been  aware,  of  its 
vent/on  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  another  power,  notably  Great 
France,  Britain.  The  Corsicans,  on  the  other  hand,  though 

ready  enough  to  come  to  terms  with  the  French  king, 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  Genoa  even  when 
backed  by  the  power  of  France.  A  powerful  French  force,  under 
the  comte  de  Boissieux,  arrived  in  the  spring  of  1738,  and  for 
some  months  negotiations  proceeded.  But  the  effect  of  the  French 
guarantee  of  Corsican  liberties  was  nullified  by  the  demand  that 
the  islanders  should  surrender  their  arms,  and  the  attempt  of 
Boissieux  to  enforce  the  order  for  disarmament  was  followed,  in 
the  winter  of  1738-39,  by  his  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Cor- 
sicans and  by  the  cutting  up  of  several  isolated  French  detach- 
ments. In  February  1739  Boissieux  died.  His  successor,  the 
marquis  de  Maillebois,  arrived  in  March  with  strong  reinforce- 
ments, and  by  a  combination  of  severity  and  conciliation  soon 
reduced  the  island  to  order.  Its  maintenance,  however,  depended 
on  the  presence  of  the  French  troops,  and  in  October  1740  the 
death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  and  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession  necessitated  their  withdrawal.  Genoese 
and  Corsicans  were  once  more  left  face  to  face,  and  the  perennial 
struggle  began  anew. 

In  1743  "  King  Theodore,"  supported  by  a  British  squadron, 
made  a  descent  on  the  island,  but  finding  that  he  no  longer 
Sardinian  Possesse(l  a  following,  departed  never  to  return.  The 
and  Corsicans,  assembled  in  diet  at  Casinca,  now  elected 

British        Giampietro  Gaffori  and  Alerio  Matra  as  generals  and 

' '  Protectors  of  the  fatherland  ' '  (protettori  della  patria) , 

and  began  a  vigorous  onslaught  on  the  Genoese  strong- 
holds. They  were  helped  now  by  the  sympathy  and  active  aid 
of  European  powers,  and  in  1746  Count  Domenico  Rivarola,  a 
Corsican  in  Sardinian  service,  succeeded  in  capturing  Bastia  and 
San  Fiorenzo  with  the  aid  of  a  British  squadron  and  Sardinian 
troops.  The  factious  spirit  of  the  Corsicans  themselves  was, 
however,  their  worst  enemy.  The  British  commander  judged  it 
inexpedient  to  intervene  in  the  affairs  of  a  country  of  which  the 
leaders  were  at  loggerheads;  Rivarola,  left  to  himself,  was  unable 
to  hold  Bastia — a  place  of  Genoese  sympathies — and  in  spite  of 
the  collapse  of  Genoa  itself,  now  in  Austrian  hands,  the  Genoese 
governor  succeeded  in  maintaining  himself  in  the  island.  By  the 
time  of  the  signature  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  the 
situation  of  the  island  had  again  changed.  Rivarola  and  Matra 
had  departed,  and  Gaffori  was  left  nominally  supreme  over  a 
people -torn  by  intestine  feuds.  Genoa,  too,  had  expelled  the 
Austrians  with  French  aid,  and,  owing  to  a  report  that  the  king 
of  Sardinia  was  meditating  a  fresh  attempt  to  conquer  the  island, 
a  strong  French  expedition  under  the  marquis  de  Cursay  had, 
at  the  request  of  the  republic,  occupied  Calvi,  Bonifacio,  Ajaccio 
and  Bastia.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Renewed  Corsica  was  once  more  assigned  to  Genoa,  but  the 
French  French  garrison  remained,  pending  a  settlement 
later-  between  the  republic  and  the  islanders.  In  view  of  the 

intractable  temper  of  the  two  parties  no  agreement 
could  be  reached;  but  Cursay's  personal  popularity  served  to 
preserve  the  peace  for  a  while.  His  withdrawal  in  1 752,  however, 
was  the  signal  for  a  general  rising,  and  once  more,  at  a  diet  held 
at  Orezza,  Gaffori  was  elected  general  and  protector.  In  October 
of  the  following  year,  however,  he  fell  victim  to  a  vendetta  and  the 
nation  was  once  more  leaderless.  His  place  was  taken  for  a  while 
by  Clemente  Paoli,  son  of  Giacinto,  who  for  a  year  or  two  suc- 
ceeded, with  the  aid  of  other  lieutenants  of  Gaffori,  in  holding  the 
Genoese  at  bay.  He  was,  however,  by  temperament  unfitted  to 
lead  a  turbulent  and  undisciplined  people  in  time  of  stress,  and  in 
1755.  at  his  suggestion,  his  brother  Pasquale  was  invited  to  come 
from  Naples  and  assume  the  command. 

The  first  task  of  Pasquale  Paoli,  elected  general  in  April  at  an 
assembly  at  San  Antonio  della  Casablanca,  was  to  suppress  the 
rival  faction  led  by  Emanuele  Matra,  son  of  Gaffori's  former 
colleague.  By  the  spring  of  1756  this  was  done,  and  the  Cor- 
sicans were  able  to  turn  a  united  front  against  the  Genoese.  At 


Pasquale 
PaolL 


this  juncture  the  French,  alarmed  by  a  supposed  understanding 
between  Paoli  and  the  British,  once  more  intervened,  and  occupied 
Calvi,  Ajaccio  and  San  Fiorenzo  until  1757,  when  their 
forces  were  once  more  called  away  by  the  wars  on  the 
continent.  In  1758  Paoli  renewed  the  attack  on  the 
Genoese,  founding  the  new  port  of  Isola  Rossa  as  a  centre  whence 
the  Corsican  ships  could  attack  the  trading  vessels  of  Genoa.  The 
republic,  indeed,  was  now  too  weak  to  attempt  seriously  to  re- 
assert its  sway  over  the  island,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
coast  towns,  Paoli  ruled  with  absolute  authority  and  with  con- 
spicuous wisdom.  In  the  intervals  of  fighting  he  was  occupied 
in  reducing  Corsican  anarchy  into  some  sort  of  civilized  order. 
The  vendetta  was  put  down,  partly  by  religious  influence,  partly 
with  a  stern  hand;  the  surviving  oppressive  rights  of  the  feudal 
signori  were  abolished;  and  the  traditional  institutions  of  the 
Terra  di  Comune  were  made  the  basis  of  a  democratic  constitution 
for  the  whole  island. 

As  regarded  the  relations  of  Corsica  all  now  depended  on  the 
attitude  of  France  to  which  both  Paoli  and  the  republic  made 
overtures.  In  1764  a  French  expedition  under  the 
comte  de  Marbeuf  arrived,  and,  by  agreement  with 
Genoa,  garrisoned  three  of  the  Genoese  fortresses.  France. 
Though  Genoese  sovereignty  had  been  expressly 
recognized  in  the  agreement  authorizing  this,  it  was  in  effect 
non-existent.  French  and  Corsicans  remained  on  amicable  terms, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  nominally  Genoese  towns  actually 
sent  representatives  to  the  national  consul/a  or  parliament.  The 
climax  came  early  in  1767  when  the  Corsicans  captured  the 
Genoese  island  of  Capraja,  and  occupied  Ajaccio  and  other  places, 
evacuated  by  the  French  as  a  protest  against  the  asylum  given  to 
the  Jesuits  exiled  from  France.  Genoa  now  recognized  that  she 
had  been  worsted  in  the  long  contest,  and  on  the  1  5th  of  May  1768 
signed  a  treaty  selling  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  to  France. 

The  Corsicans,  intent  on  independence,  were  now  faced  with  a 
more  formidable  enemy  than  the  decrepit  republic  of  Genoa. 
A  section  of  the  people  indeed,  were  in  favour  of  submission; 
but  Paoli  himself  declared  for  resistance;  and  among  those  who 
supported  him  at  the  consulla  summoned  to  discuss  the  question 
was  his  secretary  Carlo  Buonaparte,  father  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, the  future  emperor  of  the  French.  Into  the  details  of  the 
war  that  followed,  it  is  impossible  to  enter  here;  in  the  absence 
of  the  hoped-for  help  from  Great  Britain  its  issue  could  not  be 
doubtful;  and,  though  the  task  of  the  French  was  a  hard  one, 
by  the  summer  of  1  769  they  were  masters  of  the  island.  On  the 
i6th  of  June  Pasquale  and  Clemente  Paoli,  with  some 
400  of  their  followers,  embarked  on  a  British  ship  for 
Leghorn.  On  the  isth  of  September  7:770,  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Corsicans  was  summoned  and  the  deputies 
swore  allegiance  to  King  Louis  XV. 

For  twenty  years  Corsica,  while  preserving  many  of  its  old 
institutions,  remained  a  dependency  of  the  French  crown. 
Then  came  the  Revolution,  and  the  island,  conformed  Corsica 
to  the  new  model,  was  incorporated  in  France  as  a  and  the 
separate  department  (see  Renucci,  ii.  p.  271  seq.).  revolution 
Paoli,  recalled  from  exile  by  the  National  Assembly  * 
on  the  motion  of  Mirabeau,  after  a  visit  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  acclaimed  as  "the  hero  and  martyr  of  liberty  "  by  the 
National  Assembly  and  the  Jacobin  Club,  returned  in  1790  to 
Corsica,  where  he  was  received  with  immense  enthusiasm  and 
acclaimed  as  "  father  of  the  country."  With  the  new  order 
in  the  island,  however,  he  was  little  in  sympathy.  In  the  towns 
branches  of  the  Jacobin  Club  had  been  established,  and  these 
tended,  as  elsewhere,  to  usurp  the  functions  of  the  regular  organs 
of  government  and  to  introduce  a  new  element  of  discord  into 
a  country  which  it  had  been  Paoli's  life's  work  to  unify. 
Suspicions  of  his  loyalty  to  revolutionary  principles  had  already 
been  spread  at  Paris  by  Bartolomeo  Arena,  a  Corsican  deputy 
and  ardent  Jacobin,  so  early  as  1791;  yet  in  1792,  after  the  fall 
of  the  monarchy,  the  French  government,  in  its  anxiety  to  secure 
Corsica,  was  rash  enough  to  appoint  him  lieutenant-general  of 
the  forces  and  governor  (capo  comandante)  of  the  island.  Paoli 
accepted  an  office  which  he  had  refused  two  years  before  at  the 


204 


CORSICANA— CORSSEN 


hands  of  Louis  XVI.  With  the  men  and  methods  of  the  Terror, 
however,  he  was  wholly  out  of  sympathy.  Suspected  of  throwing 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  expedition  despatched  in  1 793  against 
Sardinia,  he  was  summoned,  with  the  procurator-general  Pozzo 
di  Borgo,  to  the  bar  of  the  Convention.  Paoli  now  openly  defied 
the  Convention  by  summoning  the  representatives  of  the  com- 
munes to  meet  in  diet  at  Corte  on  the  27th  of  May. 
under'  ^-°  l^e  remonstrances  of  Saliceti,  who  attended  the 
Paoli.  meeting,  he  replied  that  he  was  rebelling,  not 
against  France,  but  against  the  dominant  faction  of 
whose  actions  the  majority  of  Frenchmen  disapproved.  Saliceti 
thereupon  hurried  to  Paris,  and  on  his  motion  Paoli  and  his 
sympathizers  were  declared  by  the  Convention  hors  la  loi  (June  26) . 
Paoli  had  already  made  up  his  mind  to  raise  the  standard 
of  revolt  against  France.  Rut  though  the  consulta  at  Corte 
British  elected  him  president,  Corsican  opinion  was  by  no 
occupa-  means  united.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  whom  Paoli  had 
tion,  1794-  expected  to  win  over  to  his  views,  indignantly  rejected 
the  idea  of  a  breach  with  France,  and  the  Bonapartes 
were  henceforth  ranked  with  his  enemies.  Paoli  now  appealed 
for  assistance  to  the  British  government,  which  despatched  a 
considerable  force.  By  the  summer  of  1 794,  after  hard  fighting, 
the  island  was  reduced,  and  in  June  the  Corsican  assembly 
formally  offered  the  sovereignty  to  King  George  III.  The 
British  occupation  lasted  two  years,  the  island  being  administered 
by  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot.  Paoli,  whose  presence  was  considered 
inexpedient,  was  invited  to  return  to  England,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death.  In  1 796  Bonaparte,  after  his  victorious  Italian 
campaign,  sent  an  expedition  against  Corsica.  The  British, 
weary  of  a  somewhat  thankless  task,  made  no  great  resistance, 
and  in  October  the  island  was  once  more  in  French  hands.  It 
was  again  occupied  by  Great  Britain  for  a  short  time  in  1814, 
but  in  the  settlement  of  1815  was  restored  to  the  French  crown. 
Its  history  henceforth  is  part  of  that  of  France. 

See  F.  Girolami-Cortona,  Geographic  generals  de  la  Corse  (Ajaccio, 
1893);  A.  Andrei,  A  travers  la  Corse  (Paris,  1893);  Forcioli-Conti, 
Notre  Corse  (Ajaccio,  1897);  R.  Le  Joindre,  La  Corse  et  les  Corses 
(Paris,  1904) ;  F.  O.  Renucci,  Storia  di  Corsica  (2  vpls.,  Bastia,  1833), 
fervidly  Corsican,  but  useful;  Antonio  Pietro  Filippini,  Istoria  di 
Corsica  (ist  ed.,  1594;  2nd  ed.,  corrected  and  illustrated  with  un- 
published documents  by  G.  C.  Gregori,  5  vols.,  Pisa,  1827—1832); 
J.  M.  Jacobi,  Hist.  gen.  de  la  Corse,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1833-1835),  with 
many  unpublished  documents;  L.  H.  Caird,  History  of  Corsica 
(London,  1899).  Further  works  and  references  to  articles  in  reviews, 
&c.,  are  given  in  Ulysse  Chevalier's  Repertoire  des  sources,  &c., 
Topo-bibliographie,  t.  ii.  s.v. 

CORSICANA,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Navarro  county, 
Texas,  U.S.A.,  situated  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  about 
55  m.  S.  of  Dallas.  Pop.  (1890)  6285;  (1900)  9313,  of  whom 
2399  were  of  negro  descent;  (1910  census)  9749.  It  is 
served  by  the  Houston  &  Texas  Central,  the  St  Louis  South 
Western,  and  the  Trinity  &  Brazos  Valley  railways.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  and  productive  wheat-  and  cotton-growing 
region,  which  has  also  numerous  oil  wells  (with  a  total  produc- 
tion in  1907  of  226,311  barrels).  The  city  has  two  oil  refineries, 
a  large  cotton  j  gin  and  a  cotton  compress,  and  among  its 
manufactures  are  cotton-seed  oil,  cotton-doth,  flour  and  ice. 
The  total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was  $1,796,805, 
being  an  increase  of  50-3%  since  1900.  Natural  gas  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  fuel  and  for  lighting.  Corsicana  is  the  seat 
of  the  Texas  state  orphan  home  and  of  an  Odd  Fellows  widows' 
and  orphans'  home,  and  has  a  Carnegie  library.  Corsicana  was 
named  in  honour  of  the  wife  of  a  Mexican,  Navarro,  who  owned 
a  large  tract  of  land  in  the  county  and  from  whom  the  county 
was  named.  The  first  permanent  settlement  here  was  made 
in  1848,  and  Corsicana  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1850 
and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1871. 

CORSINI,  the  name  of  a  Florentine  princely  family,  of  which 
the  founder  is  said  to  be  Neri  Corsini,  who  flourished  about  the 
year  1170.  Like  other  Florentine  nobles  the  Corsini  had  at 
first  no  titles,  but  in  more  recent  times  they  received  many  from 
foreign  potentates  and  from  the  later  grand  dukes  of  Tuscany. 
The  emperor  Charles  IV.  created  the  head  of  the  house  a  count 
palatine  in  1371;  the  marquisate  of  Sismano  was  conferred  on 


them  in  1620,  those  of  Casigliano  and  Civitella  in  1629,  of 
Lajatico  and  Orciatico  in  1644,  of  Giovagallo  and  Tresana  in 
1652;  in  1730  Lorenzo  Corsini  was  elected  pope  as  Clement 
XII.,  and  conferred  the  rank  of  Roman  princes  and  the  duchy 
of  Casigliano  on  his  family,  and  in  1732  they  were  created 
grandees  of  Spain.  They  own  two  palaces  in  Florence,  one  of 
which  on  the  Lung'  Arno  Corsini  contains  the  finest  private 
picture  gallery  in  the  city,  and  many  villas  and  estates  in 
various  parts  of  Italy. 

See  L.  Passerini,  Genealogia  e  storia  dellafamiglia  Corsini  (Florence, 
1858);  A.  von  Reumont,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Rom  (Berlin,  1868); 
Almanack  de  Gotha.  (L.  V.*) 

CORSON,  HIRAM  (1828-  ),  American  scholar,  was  born 
on  the  6th  of  November  1828,  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 
He  held  a  position  in  the  library  [of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
Washington  D.C.(  1840-1856) ,  was  a  lecturer  on  English  literature 
in  Philadelphia  (1859-1865),  and  was  professor  of  English  at 
Girard  College,  Philadelphia  (1865-1866),  and  in  St  John's  Col- 
lege, Annapolis,  Maryland  (1866-1870).  In  1870-1871  he  was 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  oratory  at  Cornell  University,  where  he 
was  professor  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  English  literature  (1872-1886), 
of  English  literature  and  rhetoric  (1886-1890),  and  from  1890 
to  1903  (when  he  became  professor  emeritus)  of  English  literature, 
a  chair  formed  for  him.  He  edited  Chaucer's  Legende  of  Goode 
Women  (1863)  and  Selections  from  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales 
(1896),  and  wrote  a  Hand-Book  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English 
(1871),  and,  among  other  text-books,  An  Elocutionary  Manual 
(1864),  A  Primer  of  English  Verse  (1892),  and  Introductions  to 
the  study  of  Browning  (1886,  1889),  of  Shakespeare  (1889)  and 
of  Milton  (1899).  The  volume  on  Shakespeare  and  the  Jottings 
on  the  Text  of  Macbeth  (1874)  contain  some  excellent  Shake- 
spearian criticism.  He  also  published  The  University  of  the 
Future  (1875),  The  Aims  of  Literary  Study  (1895),  and  The 
Voice  and  Spiritual  Education  (1896).  He  translated  the 
Satires  of  Juvenal  (1868)  and  edited  a  translation  by  his  wife, 
Caroline  Rollin  (d.  1901),  of  Pierre  Janet's  Mental  State  of 
Hystericals  (1901). 

CORSSEN,  WILHELM  PAUL  (1820-1875),  German  philologist, 
was  born  at  Bremen  on  the  2oth  of  January  1820,  and  received 
his  school  education  in  the  Prussian  town  of  Schwedt,  to  which 
his  father,  a  merchant,  had  removed.  After  spending  some 
time  at  the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  where  his 
interest  in  philological  pursuits  was  awakened  by  the  rector, 
Meinike,  he  proceeded  to  the  university,  and  there  came  especi- 
ally under  the  influence  of  Bockh  and  Lachmann.  His  first 
important  appearance  in  literature  was  as  the  author  of  Origines 
poesis  romanae,  by  which  he  had  obtained  the  prize  offered  by 
the  "  philosophical  "  or  "  arts  "  faculty  of  the  university.  In 
1846  he  was  called  from  Stettin,  where  he  had  for  nearly  two 
years  held  a  post  in  the  gymnasium,  to  occupy  the  position  of 
lecturer  in  the  royal  academy  at  Pforta  (commonly  called 
Schulpforta),  and  there  he  continued  to  labour  for  the  next 
twenty  years.  In  1854  he  won  a  prize  offered  by  the  Royal 
Prussian  Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  best  work  on  the  pronuncia- 
tion and  accent  of  Latin,  a  treatise  which  at  once  took  rank,  on 
its  publication  under  the  title  of  Uber  Aussprache,  Vocalismus, 
und  Betonung  der  lateinischen  Sprache  (1858-1859),  as  one  of 
the  most  erudite  and  masterly  works  in  its  department.  This 
was  followed  in  1863  by  his  Kritische  Beitrdge  zur  lot.  Formen- 
lehre,  which  were  supplemented  in  1866  by  Kritische  Nachtrdge 
zur  lot.  Formenlehre.  In  the  discussion  of  the  pronunciation  of 
Latin  he  was  naturally  led  to  consider  the  various  old  Italian 
dialects,  and  the  results  of  his  investigations  appeared  in  miscel- 
laneous communications  to  Kuhn's  Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende 
Schriftforschung.  Ill-health  obliged  him  to  give  up  his  professor- 
ship at  Pforta,  and  return  to  Berlin,  in  1866;  but  it  produced 
almost  no  diminution  of  his  literary  activity.  In  1867  he  pub- 
lished an  elaborate  archaeological  study  entitled  the  Alterthumer 
und  Kunstdenkmale  des  Cistercienserklosters  St  Marien  und  der 
Landesschule  Pforta,  in  which  he  gathers  together  all  that  can  be 
discovered  about  the  history  of  the  Pforta  academy,  the  German 
"  Eton,"  and  in  1868-1869  he  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  his 


CORT— CORTES 


205 


work  on  Latin  pronunciation.  From  a  very  early  period  he  had 
been  attracted  to  the  special  study  of  Etruscan  remains,  and  had 
at  various  times  given  occasional  expression  to  his  opinions  on 
individual  points;  but  it  was  not  till  1870  that  he  had  the 
opportunity  of  visiting  Italy  and  completing  his  equipment  for  a 
formal  treatment  of  the  whole  subject  by  personal  inspection  of 
the  monuments.  In  1874  appeared  the  first  volume  of  Uber  die 
Sprache  der  Etrusker,  in  which  with  great  ingenuity  and  erudition 
he  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the  Etruscan  language  was  cognate 
with  that  of  the  Romans.  Before  the  second  volume  (published 
posthumously  under  the  editorship  of  Kuhn)  had  received  the 
last  touches  of  his  hand,  he  was  cut  off  in  1875  by  a  compara- 
tively early  death. 

CORT,  CORNELIS  (1536-1578),  Dutch  engraver,  was  born  at 
Horn  in  Holland,  and  studied  engraving  under  Hieronymus 
Cockx  of  Antwerp.  About  1565  he  went  to  Venice,  where  Titian 
employed  him  to  execute  the  well-known  copperplates  of  St 
Jerome  in  the  Desert,  the  Magdalen,  Prometheus,  Diana  and 
Actaeon,  and  Diana  and  Calisto.  From  Italy  he  wandered  back 
to  the  Netherlands,  but  he  returned  to  Venice  soon  after  1567, 
proceeding  thence  to  Bologna  and  Rome,  where  he  produced 
engravings  from  all  the  great  masters  of  the  time.  At  Rome  he 
founded  the  well-known  school  in  which,  as  Bartsch  tells  us,  the 
simple  line  of  Marcantonio  was  modified  by  a  brilliant  touch  of 
the  burin,  afterwards  imitated  and  perfected  by  Agostino 
Caracci  in  Italy  and  Nicolas  de  Bruyn  in  the  Netherlands. 
Before  visiting  Italy,  Cort  had  been  content  to  copy  Michael 
Coxcie,  F.  Floris,  Heemskerk,  G.  Mostaert,  Bartholomaus 
Spranger  and  Stradan.  In  Italy  he  gave  circulation  to  the 
works  of  Raphael,  Titian,  Polidoro  da  Caravaggio,  Baroccio, 
Giulio  Clovio,  Muziano  and  the  Zuccari.  His  connexion  with 
Cockx  and  Titian  is  pleasantly  illustrated  in  a  letter  addressed  to 
the  latter  by  Dominick  Lampson  of  Liege  in  1567.  Cort  is  said 
to  have  engraved  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  plates. 
In  Italy  he  was  known  as  Cornelio  Fiammingo. 

CORTE,  a  town  of  central  Corsica,  52  m.  N.E.  of  Ajaccio  by  the 
railway  between  that  town  and  Bastia.  Pop.  (1006)  4839.  The 
upper  town  is  situated  on  a  precipitous  rock  overhanging  the 
confluence  of  the  Tavignano  and  Restonica,  the  rest  of  the  town 
lying  below  it  on  both  banks  of  the  rivers.  On  the  summit  of  the 
rock  stands  a  citadel  built  by  Vincentello  d'Istria  (see  CORSICA)  . 
Other  interesting  buildings  are  the  house  in  which  Pasquale 
Paoli  lived  while  Corte  was  the  seat  of  his  government  ^755 
to  1769),  and  the  house  of  another  patriot,  Giampietro  Gaffori, 
whose  wife  defended  it  from  the  Genoese  in  1750.  There  are 
statues  of  Paoli,  of  General  Gaffori,  an'd  of  General  Arrighi  di 
Casanova,  duke  of  Padua  (d.  1853).  Corte  is  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  of  the  island,  has  a  subprefecture,  a  tribunal 
of  first  instance  and  a  communal  college,  and  manufactures 
alimentary  paste.  There  are  marble  quarries  in  the  vicinity,  and 
the  town  has  trade  in  wine  and  timber.  In  the  i8th  century 
Corte  was  the  centre  of  the  resistance  to  the  Genoese,  and  it 
was  the  seat  of  a  university  erected  by  Paoli. 

CORTE-REAL,  JERONYMO  (1533-1588),  Portuguese  epic 
poet,  came  of  a  noble  Portuguese  stock.  Of  the  same  family 
were  Caspar  Corte-Real,  who  in  1500  and  1501  sailed  to 
Labrador  and  the  Arctic  seas;  and  his  brothers  Miguel  and 
Vasco.  Their  voyages  opened  the  way  for  important  Portuguese 
fisheries  on  the  Newfoundland  coast  (see  Henry  Harrisse,  Les 
Corte-Real  et  leurs  voyages  au  Nouveau- Monde,  and  Gasper 
Corle-Real:  la  dale  exacte  de  sa  derniere  expedition  au  Nouveau- 
Monde,  Paris,  1883).  In  his  youth  Jeronymo  fought  in  Africa  and 
Asia  according  to  the  custom  of  noblemen  in  that  age.  There  is  a 
tradition  that  he  was  present  at  the  affair  of  Tangier  on  the  i8th 
of  May  1553,  when  D.  Pedro  de  Menezes  met  his  death.  Return- 
ing home,  it  is  supposed  about  1570,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days 
in  retirement.  In  1578  he  placed  his  sword  at  the  disposal  of 
King  Sebastian  for  the  fatal  expedition  to  Africa,  but  the 
monarch  dispensed  him  from  the  journey  (it  is  said)  on  account  of 
his  age,  and  in  1586  we  find  him  acting  as  provedor  of  the  Miseri- 
cordia  of  Evora.  He  married  D.  Luiza  da  Silva,  but  left  no 
legitimate  issue.  Corte-Real  was  painter  as  well  as  soldier  and 


poet,  and  one  of  his  pictures  is  still  preserved  in  the  church  of 
S.  Antao  at  Evora.  His  poetical  works  are  believed  to  have  been 
composed  in  his  old  age  at  the  mansion  on  his  estate  near  Evora, 
known  as  "  Valle  de  Palma."  O  Segundo  cerco  de  Diu,  an  epic  in 
21  cantos,  deals  with  the  historic  siege  of  that  Indian  island- 
fortress  of  the  Portuguese.  First  printed  in  1574,  it  had  a  second 
edition  in  1783,  while  a  Spanish  version  appeared  at  Alcala  in 
1597.  Austriada,  an  epic  in  15  cantos  celebrating  the  victory  of 
Don  John  of  Austria  over  the  Turks  at  Lepanto,  was  written  in 
Spanish  and  published  in  1578.  King  Philip  II.  accepted  the 
dedication  in  flattering  terms  and  visited  the  poet  when  he 
came  to  Portugal.  Naufragio  de  Sepultseda,  an  epic  in  1 7  cantos, 
describes  the  tragic  shipwreck  on  the  South  African  coast  and 
the  death  of  D.  Manoel  de  Sepulveda  with  his  beautiful  wife  and 
young  children,  a  disaster  which  drew  some  feeling  stanzas  from 
Camoens  (Lusiads,  v.  46) .  The  poem  was  published  four  years 
after  the  death  of  Corte-Real  by  his  heirs,  and  had  two  later 
editions,  while  a  Spanish  version  appeared  in  Madrid  in  1624  and 
a  French  in  Paris  in  1844.  Auto  dos  quatro  novissimos  do  homem 
is  a  short  poem  printed  in  1768.  Except  the  Naufragio  de 
Sepulveda,  which  is  highly  considered  in  Portugal,  Corte-Real's 
poetry  has  hardly  stood  the  test  of  time,  and  critics  of  later 
generations  have  refused  to  ratify  the  estimate  formed  by 
contemporaries,  who  considered  him  the  equal,  if  not  the  superior, 
of  Camoens.  His  lengthy  epics  suffer  from  a  want  of  sustained 
inspiration,  and  are  marred  by  an  abuse  of  epithet,  though  they 
contain  episodes  of  considerable  merit,  vigorous  and  well- 
coloured  descriptive  passages,  and  exhibit  a  pure  diction. 

See  Subsidies  para  a  biographia  do  poeta  Jeronymo  Corte-Real 
(Evora,  1899) ;  also  Ernesto  do  Canto's  Memoir  on  the  family  in 
Nos.  23  and  24  of  the  Archive  dos  Azores,  and  Dr  Sousa  Viterbo's 
Trabalhos  nauticos  dos  Portuguezes,  ii.  153  et  seq.  (E.  PR.) 

CORTES,  HERMAN  or  HERNANDO  (1485-1547),  Spanish 
soldier,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  was  born  at  Medellin,  a  small 
town  of  Estremadura,  in  1485.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of 
decayed  fortune,  and,  being  destined  for  the  law,  was  sent,  at 
fourteen  years  of  age,  to  the  university  of  Salamanca;  but  study 
was  distasteful  to  him,  and  he  returned  home  in  1501,  resolved 
to  enter  upon  a  life  of  adventure.  He  arranged  to  accompany 
Ovando,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  San  Domingo, 
but  was  prevented  from  joining  the  expedition  by  an  accident 
that  happened  to  him  in  a  love  adventure.  He  next  sought 
military  service  under  the  celebrated  Gonsalvo  de  Cordoba,  but 
a  serious  illness  frustrated  his  purpose.  At  last,  in  1504,  he  set 
out,  according  to  his  first  plan,  for  San  Domingo,  where  he  was 
kindly  received  by  Ovando.  He  was  then  only  nineteen,  and 
remarkable  for  a  graceful  physiognomy  and  amiable  manners, 
as  well  as  for  skill  and  address  in  all  military  exercises.  He 
remained  in  San  Domingo,  where  Ovando  had  successively  con- 
ferred upon  him  several  lucrative  and  honourable  employments, 
until  1511,  when  he  accompanied  Diego  Velazquez  in  his  ex- 
pedition to  the  island  of  Cuba.  Here  he  became  alcalde  of 
Santiago,  and  displayed  great  ability  on  several  trying  occasions. 

An  opportunity  was  soon  afforded  him  of  showing  his  powers 
as  a  military  leader.  Juan  Grijalva,  lieutenant  of  Velazquez, 
had  just  discovered  Mexico,  but  had  not  attempted  to  effect  a 
settlement.  This  displeased  the  governor  of  Cuba,  who  super- 
seded Grijalva,  and  entrusted  the  conquestof  the  newly  discovered 
country  to  Cortes.  The  latter  hastened  his  preparations,  and,  on 
the  i8th  of  November  1518,  he  set  out  from  Santiago,  with  10 
vessels,  600  or  700  Spaniards,  18  horsemen  and  some  pieces  of 
cannon.  Scarcely  had  he  set  sail,  however,  when  Velazquez  re- 
called the  commission  which  he  had  granted  to  Cortes,  and  even 
ordered  him  to  be  put  under  arrest;  but  the  attachment  of  the 
troops,  by  whom  he  was  greatly  beloved,  enabled  him  to  persevere 
in  spite  of  the  governor;  and  on  the  4th  of  March  1519  he  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Mexico.  Advancing  along  the  gulf,  sometimes 
taking  measures  to  conciliate  the  natives,  and  sometimes  spread- 
ing terror  by  his  arms,  he  took  possession  of  the  town  of  Tobasco. 
The  noise  of  the  artillery,  the  appearance  of  the  floating  for- 
tresses which  had  transported  the  Spaniards  over  the  ocean, 
and  the  horses  on  which  they  fought,  all  new  objects  to  the 


2O6 


CORTES 


natives,  inspired  them  with  astonishment  mingled  with  terror 
and  admiration;  they  regarded  the  Spaniards  as  gods,  and  sent 
them  ambassadors  with  presents.  Cortes  here  learned  that  the 
native  sovereign  was  called  Montezuma;  that  he  reigned  over 
an  extensive  empire,  which  had  lasted  for  three  centuries;  that 
thirty  vassals,  called  caciques,  obeyed  him;  and  that  his  riches 
were  immense  and  his  power  absolute.  No  more  was  necessary 
to  inflame  the  ambition  of  the  invader,  who  did  not  hesitate  to 
undertake  the  conquest  of  this  great  empire,  which  could  only  be 
effected  by  combining  stratagem  and  address  with  force  and 
courage.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the  town  of  Vera  Cruz, 
caused  himself  to  be  elected  captain-general  of  the  new  colony,  and 
burned  his  vessels  to  cut  off  the  possibility  of  retreat  and  show 
his  soldiers  that  they  must  either  conquer  or  perish.  He  then 
penetrated  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  drew  to  his  camp 
several  caciques  hostile  to  Montezuma,  and  induced  these  native 
princes  to  facilitate  his  progress.  The  republic  of  Tlaxcala, 
which  was  hostile  to  Montezuma,  opposed  him;  but  he  routed 
its  army,  which  had  resisted  all  the  forces  of  the  Mexican  empire, 
dictated  peace  on  moderate  terms  and  converted  the  people 
into  powerful  auxiliaries.  His  farther  advance  was  in  vain 
attempted  to  be  checked  by  an  ambuscade  laid  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Cholula,  on  whom  he  took  signal  vengeance. 

Surmounting  all  other  obstacles  he  arrived,  with  6000  natives 
and  a  handful  of  Spaniards,  in  sight  of  the  immense  lake  on  which 
was  built  the  city  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  empire.  Monte- 
zuma received  him  with  great  pomp,  and  his  subjects,  believing 
Cortes  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  sun,  prostrated  themselves 
before  him.  The  first  care  of  Cortes  was  to  fortify  himself  in  one 
of  the  beautiful  palaces  of  the  prince,  and  he  was  planning  how 
to  possess  himself  of  the  riches  of  so  opulent  an  empire,  when 
intelligence  reached  him  that  a  general  of  the  emperor,  who  had 
received  secret  orders,  had  just  attacked  the  garrison  of  Vera 
Cruz  and  killed  several  of  his  soldie/s.  The  head  of  one  of  the 
Spaniards  was  sent  to  the  capital.  This  event  undeceived  the 
Mexicans,  who  had  hitherto  believed  the  Spaniards tobe immortal, 
and  necessarily  altered  the  whole  policy  of  Cortes.  Struck  with 
the  greatness  of  the  danger,  surrounded  by  enemies,  and  having 
only  a  handful  of  soldiers,  he  conceived  and  instantly  executed  a 
most  daring  project.  Haying  repaired  with  his  officers  to  the 
palace  of  the  emperor,  he  announced  to  Montezuma  that  he  must 
either  accompany  him  or  perish.  Being  thus  master  of  the  per- 
son of  the  monarch,  he  next  demanded  that  the  Mexican  general 
and  his  officers  who  had  attacked  the  Spaniards  should  be  de- 
livered into  his  hands ;  and  when  this  had  been  done  he  caused 
these  unfortunate  men,  who  had  only  obeyed  the  orders  of  their 
sovereign,  to  be  burned  alive  before  the  gates  of  the  imperial 
palace.  During  this  cruel  execution  Cortes  entered  the  apartment 
of  Montezuma,  and  caused  him  to  be  loaded  with  irons,  in  order 
to  force  him  to  acknowledge  himself  a  vassal  of  Charles  V.  The 
unhappy  prince  yielded,  and  was  restored  to  a  semblance  of  liberty 
on  presenting  the  fierce  conqueror  with  600,000  marks  of  pure 
gold,  and  a  prodigious  quantity  of  precious  stones.  Scarcely  had 
he  reaped  the  fruits  of  his  audacity,  however,  when  he  was  in- 
formed of  the  landing  of  a  Spanish  army,  under  Narvaez,  which 
had  been  sent  by  Velazquez  to  compel  him  to  renounce  his 
command.  In  this  emergency  Cortes  acted  with  his  usual 
decision  and  courage.  Leaving  200  men  at  Mexico,  under  the 
orders  of  his  lieutenant  (Alvarado),  he  marched  against  Narvaez, 
whom  he  defeated  and  made  prisoner,  and  he  then  enlisted  under 
his  standard  the  Spanish  soldiers  who  had  been  sent  to  attack 
him.  On  his  return  to  the  capital,  however,  he  found  that  the 
Mexicans  had  revolted  against  the  emperor  and  the  Spaniards, 
and  that  dangers  thickened  around  him.  Montezuma  perished 
in  attempting  to  address  his  revolted  subjects;  the  latter,  hav- 
ing chosen  a  new  emperor,  attacked  the  headquarters  of  Cortes 
with  the  utmost  fury,  and,  in  spite  of  the  advantage  of  firearms, 
forced  the  Spaniards  to  retire,  as  the  only  means  of  escaping 
destruction.  Their  rear-guard,  however,  was  cut  in  pieces,  and 
they  suffered  severely  during  the  retreat,  which  was  continued 
during  six  days.  Elated  with  their  success,  the  Mexicans  offered 
battle  in  the  plain  of  Otumba.  This  was  what  Cortes  desired,  and 


It  proved  their  destruction.  Cortes  gave  the  signal  for  battle, 
and,  on  the  7th  of  July  1520,  gained  a  victory  which  decided 
the  fate  of  Mexico.  Immediately  afterwards  he  proceeded  to 
Tlaxcala,  assembled  an  auxiliary  army  of  natives,  subjected 
the  neighbouring  provinces,  and  then  marched  a  second  time 
against  Mexico,  which,  after  a  gallant  defence  of  several 
months,  was  retaken  on  the  i^th  of  August  1521. 

These  successes  were  entirely  owing  to  the  genius,  valour  and 
profound  but  unscrupulous  policy  of  Cortes;  and  the  account  of 
them  which  he  transmitted  to  Spain  excited  the  admiration  of  his 
countrymen.  The  extent  of  his  conquests,  and  the  ability  he 
had  displayed,  effaced  the  censure  which  he  had  incurred  by  the 
irregularity  of  his  operations;  and  public  opinion  having  declared 
in  his  favour,  Charles  V.,  disregarding  the  pretensions  of  Velaz- 
quez, appointed  him  governor  and  captain-general  of  Mexico,  at 
the  same  time  conferring  on  him  the  valley  of  Oaxaca,  which  was 
erected  (1529)  into  a  marquisate,  with  a  considerable  revenue. 
But  although  his  power  was  thus  confirmed  by  royal  authority, 
and  although  he  exerted  himelf  to  consolidate  Spanish  domina- 
tion throughout  all  Mexico,  the  means  he  employed  were  such  that 
the  natives,  reduced  to  despair,  took  arms  against  the  Spaniards. 
This  revolt,  however,  was  speedily  subdued,  and  the  Mexicans 
were  everywhere  forced  to  yield  to  the  ascendancy  of  European 
discipline  and  valour.  Guatemotzin,  who  had  been  recognized 
as  emperor,  and  a  great  number  of  caciques,  accused  of  having 
conspired  against  the  conquerors,  were  publicly  executed,  with 
circumstances  of  great  cruelty,  by  order  of  Cortes.  Meanwhile 
the  court  of  Madrid,  dreading  the  ambition  and  popularity  of 
the  victorious  chief,  sent  commissioners  to  watch  his  conduct 
and  thwart  his  proceedings;  and  whilst  he  was  completing  the 
conquest  of  New  Spain  his  goods  were  seized  by  the  fiscal  of 
the  Council  of  the  Indies,  and  his  retainers  imprisoned  and  put 
into  irons.  Indignant  at  the  ingratitude  of  his  sovereign,  Cortes 
returned  in  person  to  Spain  to  appeal  to  the  justice  of  the  emperor, 
and  appeared  there  with  great  splendour.  The  emperor  received 
him  with  every  mark  of  distinction,  and  decorated  him  with  the 
order  of  St  lago.  Cortes  returned  to  Mexico  with  new  titles 
but  diminished  authority,  a  viceroy  having  been  entrusted  with 
the  administration  of  civil  affairs,  whilst  the  military  department, 
with  permission  to  push  his  conquests,  was  all  that  remained  to 
Cortes.  This  division  of  powers  became  a  source  of  continual 
dissension,  and  caused  the  failure  of  the  last  enterprises  in  which 
he  engaged.  Nevertheless,  in  1536,  he  discovered  the  peninsula 
of  Lower  California,  and  surveyed  a  part  of  the  gulf  which 
separates  it  from  Mexico. 

At  length,  tired  of  struggling  with  adversaries  unworthy  of 
him,  whom  the  court  took  care  to  multiply,  he  returned  to  Europe, 
hoping  to  confound  his  enemies.  But  Charles  V.  received  him 
coldly.  Cortes  dissembled,  redoubled  the  assiduity  of  his  attend- 
ance on  the  emperor,  accompanied  him  in  the  disastrous  expedi- 
tion to  Algiers  in  i54r,  served  as  a  volunteer,  and  had  a  horse 
killed  under  him.  This  was  his  last  appearance  in  the  field,  and 
if  his  advice  had  been  followed  the  Spanish  arms  would  have  been 
saved  from  disgrace,  and  Europe  delivered  nearly  three  centuries 
earlier  from  the  scourge  of  organized  piracy.  Soon  afterwards 
he  fell  into  neglect,  and  could  scarcely  obtain  an  audience.  The 
story  goes  that,  having  forced  his  way  through  the  crowd  which 
surrounded  the  emperor's  carriage,  and  mounted  on  the  door- 
step, Charles,  astonished  at  an  act  of  such  audacity,  demanded 
to  know  who  he  was.  "  I  am  a  man,"  replied  the  conqueror  of 
Mexico  proudly,  "  who  has  given  you  more  provinces  than  your 
ancestors  left  you  cities."  So  haughty  a  declaration  of  important 
services  ill-requited  could  scarcely  fail  to  offend  a  monarch 
on  whom  fortune  had  lavished  her  choicest  favours.  Cortes, 
overwhelmed  with  disgust,  withdrew  from  court,  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  solitude,  and  died,  near  Seville,  on  the 
2nd  of  December  1547. 

The  only  writings  of  Cortes  are  five  letters  on  the  subject  of  his 
conquests,  which  he  addressed  to  Charles  V.  The  best  edition  of 
them  is  that  of  Don  Francisco  Antonio  Lorenzana,  archbishop  of 
Mexico,  entitled  Historia  de  Nueva-Rspana  escrita  par  su  esclarecido 
conquistador,  Hernan  Cortes,  aumentada  con  otros  documientos  y  notas 
(Mexico,  1770,  4to),  a  work  the  noble  simplicity  of  which  attests 


CORTES— CORUNDUM 


207 


the  truth  of  the  recital  it  contains.  An  English  translation  of  the 
letters,  edited  by  Francis  A.  MacNutt,  was  published  in  1908.  The 
conquests  of  Cortes  have  been  described  with  pompous  elegance  by 
Antonio  de  Solis  in  his  Historia  de  la  conquista  de  Mejico  (1684),  and 
with  more  truth  and  simplicity  by  Bernardo  Diaz  del  Castillo  in  his 
work  under  the  same  title  (1632).  See  also  Sir  Arthur  Helps's  Life 
ofHernando  Cortes  (2  vols.,  London,  1871),  F.  A.  MacNutt's  Fernando 
Cortes  ("  Heroes  of  the  Nations  "  Series,  1909),  and  the  bibliography 
to  MEXICO. 

CORTES,  a  Spanish  term  literally  signifying  the  "  courts,"  and 
applied  to  the  states,  or  assembly  of  the  states,  of  the  kingdom. 
(See  SPAIN  and  PORTUGAL.) 

CORTI,  LODOVICO,  COUNT  (1823-1888),  Italian  diplomatist, 
was  born  at  Gambarano  on  the  28th  of  October  1823.  Early 
involved  with  Benedetto  Cairoli  in  anti-Austrian  conspiracies, 
he  was  exiled  to  Turin,  where  he  entered  the  Piedmontese  foreign 
office.  After  serving  as  artillery  officer  through  the  campaign 
of  1848,  he  was  in  1850  appointed  secretary  of  legation  in  London, 
whence  he  was  promoted  minister  to  various  capitals,  and  in 
1875  ambassador  to  Constantinople.  Called  by  Cairoli  to  the 
direction  of  foreign  affairs  in  1878,  he  took  part  in  the  congress 
of  Berlin,  but  unwisely  declined  Lord  Derby's  offer  for  an  Anglo- 
Italian  agreement  in  defence  of  common  interests.  At  Berlin 
he  sustained  the  cause  of  Greek  independence,  but  in  all  other 
respects  remained  isolated,  and  excited  the  wrath  of  his  country- 
men by  returning  to  Italy  with  "  clean  hands."  For  a  time  he 
withdrew  from  public  life,  but  in  1881  was  again  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople by  Cairoli,  where  he  presided  over  the  futile  conference 
of  ambassadors  upon  the  Egyptian  question.  In  1886  he  was 
transferred  to  the  London  embassy,  but  was  recalled  by  Crispi 
in  the  following  year  through  a  misunderstanding.  He  died 
in  Rome  on  the  pth  of  April  1888. 

CORTLAND,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Cortland  county, 
New  York,  U.S.A.,  in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  on  Tiough- 
nioga  river,  at  the  junction  of  its  E.  and  W.  branches.  Pop. 
(1890)  8590;  (1900)  9014,  of  whom  682  were  foreign  born; 
(1905)  n,272;(i9io)  11,504.  It  is  served  by  the  Delaware,  Lacka- 
wanna  &  Western  and  the  Lehigh  Valley  railways.  The  Franklin 
Hatch  library  and  a  state  normal  and  training  school  (opened 
in  1869)  are  in  Cortland.  The  city  has  important  manufactories 
of  wire,  and  wire-cloth  and  netting  (one  of  the  largest  in  America), 
cabs,  carriages  and  waggons,  iron  and  steel,  wall-paper,  dairy 
supplies,  corundum  wheels,  and  clothing.  The  value  of  the  city's 
factory  products  increased  from  $3,063,828  in  1900  to  $4,574,191 
in  1905  or  49-3%.  The  town  of  Cortlandville,  which  formed  a 
part  of  the  Phelps  and  Gorham  Purchase,  was  first  settled  in 
1792,  and  until  1829  was  a  part  of  the  town  of  Homer;  from 
which  in  the  latter  year  it  was  separated,  and  made  the  county- 
seat.  In  1 900  the  village  of  Cortland  in  the  town  of  Cortlandville 
was  chartered  as  a  city. 

See  H.  C.  Goodwin,  Cortland  County  and  the  Border  Wars  of  New 
York  (New  York,  1859). 

CORTONA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Arezzo,  18  m.  S.  by  E.  from  the  town  of  Arezzo  by  rail.  The 
ancient  and  modern  names  are  identical.  Pop.  (1901)  of  town, 
3579;  commune,  29,296.  The  highest  point  of  Cortona,  a 
medieval  castle  (Fortezza),  is  situated  2130  ft.  above  sea-level 
on  a  hill  commanding  a  splendid  view,  and  is  approached  by  a 
winding  road.  It  is  surrounded  by  its  ancient  Etruscan  walls, 
which  for  the  greater  part  of  the  circuit  are  fairly  well  preserved. 
They  are  constructed  of  parallelepipedal  blocks  of  limestone, 
finely  jointed  (though  the  jointing  has  often  been  spoilt  by 
weathering),  and  arranged  in  regular  courses  which  vary  in 
size  in  different  parts  of  the  enceinte.  Near  the  N.W.  angle 
some  of  the  blocks  are  7  to  8J  ft.  long  and  2\  ft.  high,  while  on 
the  W.  side  they  are  a  good  deal  smaller — sometimes  only  i  ft. 
high  (see  F.  Noack  in  Romische  Mitleilungen,  1897, 184).  Within 
the  town  are  two  subterranean  vaulted  buildings  in  good  masonry, 
of  uncertain  nature,  some  other  remains  under  modern  buildings, 
and  a  concrete  ruin  known  as  the  "Bagni  di  Bacco."  The 
museum  of  the  Accademia  Etrusca,  a  learned  body  founded  by 
Ridolfino  Venuti  in  1726,  is  situated  in  the  Palazzo  Pretorio; 
it  contains  some  Etruscan  objects,  among  which  may  be  specially 
noted  a  magnificent  bronze  lamp  with  16  lights,  of  remarkably 


fine  workmanship,  found  in  1740,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  two 
votive  hands  and  a  few  other  bronzes,  and  a  little  gold  jewellery. 
The  library  has  a  good  MS.  of  Dante.  The  cathedral,  originally 
a  Tuscan  Romanesque  building  of  the  uth-i2th  centuries,  is 
now  a  fine  Renaissance  basilica  restored  in  the  i8th  century, 
containing  some  paintings  by  Luca  Signorelli,  a  native  of  the 
place.  Opposite  is  the  baptistery,  with  three  fine  pictures  by 
Fra  Angelico.  S.  Margherita,  just  below  the  Fortezza,  is  an 
ugly  modern  building  occupying  the  site  of  a  Gothic  church  of 
1294,  and  containing  a  fine  original  rose  window  and  relief? 
from  the  tomb  of  the  saint  by  Angelo  e  Francesco  di  maestro 
Pietro  d'Assisi.  Other  works  by  Signorelli  are  to  be  seen  else- 
where in  the  town,  especially  in  S.  Domenico;  Pietro  Berettini 
(Pietro  da  Cortona,  1596-1669)  is  hardly  represented  here  at  all. 
Below  the  town  is  the  massive  tomb  chamber  (originally  sub- 
terranean, but  now  lacking  the  mound  of  the  earth  which  covered 
it)  known  as  the  Grotta  di  Pitagora  (grotto  of  Pythagoras).  To 
the  E.  is  the  church  of  S.  Maria  del  Calcinaio,  a  fine  early  Re- 
naissance building  by  Francesco  di  Giorgio  Martini  of  Siena, 
with  fine  stained  glass  windows. 

The  foundation  of  Cortona  belongs  to  the  legendary  period 
of  Italy.  It  appears  in  history  as  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the 
Etruscan  power;  but  in  Roman  times  it  is  hardly  mentioned. 
Dionysius's  statement  that  it  was  a  colony  (i.  26)  is  probably 
due  to  confusion. 

See  G.  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (London,  1883),  ii. 
394  seq. ;  A.  Delia  Cella,  Cortona  Antica  (Cortona,  1900).  (T.  As.) 

CORUMBA,  a  town  and  river  port  of  Brazil  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Paraguay  river,  1986  m.  above  Buenos  Aires  and  486  m. 
above  the  Paraguayan  frontier.  Pop.  (1890)  8414.  Corumba 
is  a  fortified  military  post,  has  the  large  Ladario  naval  arsenal, 
where  small  river  boats  are  built  and  repaired,  and  is  the  com- 
mercial entrep6t  of  the  state  of  Matto  Grosso.  It  is  near  the 
Bolivian  frontier  and  is  strongly  garrisoned.  Although  the 
climate  is  extremely  hot,  the  neighbouring  country  has  many 
large  cattle  farms.  Corumba  is  one  of  the  most  important  places 
in  the  interior  of  Brazil. 

CORUNDUM,  a  mineral  composed  of  native  alumina  (A12O3), 
remarkable  for  its  hardness,  and  forming  in  its  finer  varieties 
a  valuable  gem-stone.  Specimens  were  sent  from  India  to 
England  in  the  i8th  century,  and  were  described  in  1798  by  the 
Hon.  C.  Greville  under  the  name  of  corundum — a  word  which 
he  believed  to  be  the  native  name  of  the  stone  (Hindi,  kurund; 
Tamil,  kurundam;  Sanskrit,  kuruvinda,  "  ruby  ").  The  finely 
coloured,  transparent  varieties  include  such  gem-stones  as  the 
ruby  and  sapphire,  whilst  the  impure  granular  and  massive  forms 
are  known  as  emery.  The  term  corundum  is  often  restricted  to 
the  remaining  kinds,  i.e.  those  crystallized  and  crystalline 
varieties  which  are  not  sufficiently  transparent  and  brilliant 
for  ornamental  purposes,  and  which  were  known  to  the  older 
mineralogists  as  "  imperfect  corundum."  Such  varieties  were 
termed  by  J.  Black,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  hardness, 
adamantine  spar,  but  this 
name  is  now  usually  re- 
stricted to  a  hair-brown 
corundum,  remarkable  for  a 
pearly  sheen  on  the  basal 
plane. 

Corundum  crystallizes  in 
the  hexagonal  system.  In 
fig.  i,  which  is  a  form  of 
ruby,  the  prism  a  is  com- 
bined with  a  hexagonal  pyra- 
mid n,  a  rhombohedron  R, 
and  the  basal  pinacoid  C.  In 
fig.  2,  which  represents  a  typical  crystal  of  sapphire,  the  prism 
s  is  associated  with  the  acute  pyramids  b,  r,  and  a  rhombohedron 
a.  Other  crystals  show  a  tabular  habit,  consisting  usually  of 
the  basal  pinacoid  with  a  rhombohedron,  and  it  is  notable  that 
this  habit  is  said  to  be  characteristic  of  corundum  which  has 
consolidated  from  a  fused  magma.  Corundum  has  no  true 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


208 


CORUNNA 


cleavage,  but  presents  parting  planes  due  to  the  structure  of 
the  crystal,  which  have  been  studied  by  Prof.  J.  W.  Judd. 

Next  to  diamond,  corundum  is  the  hardest  known  mineral. 
Its  hardness  is  generally  given  as  9,  but  there  are  slight  variations 
in  different  stones,  sapphire  being  rather  harder  than  ruby,  and 
ruby  than  common  corundum.  The  colours  are  very  varied, 
and  it  is  probable  that  iron  is  responsible  for  many  of  the 
tints,  though  chromium  is  a  possible  agent  in  certain  cases.  The 
transparent  varieties  are  often  distinguished  as  "  Oriental  " 
stones.  (See  RUBY  and  SAPPHIRE.)  Corundum  is  used  largely 
for  watch-jewels,  and  for  bearings  in  electrical  apparatus. 

The  coloured  corundums  fit  for  gem-stones  come  chiefly  from 
Ceylon,  Burma,  Siam  and  Montana.  Coarse  dull  corundum  is 
found  in  many  localities,  and  usually  has  higher  commercial 
value  as  an  abrasive  agent  than  emery,  which  is  less  pure.  The 
coarse  corundum,  however,  is  often  partially  hydrated  or  other- 
wise altered,  whereby  its  hardness  is  diminished.  In  India, 
where  the  native  lapidaries  use  corundum-sticks  and  rubbers 
formed  of  the  powdered  mineral  cemented  with  lac,  it  occurs 
in  the  Salem  district,  Madras,  hi  Mysore  and  in  Rewa.  Large 
deposits  of  corundum  exist  in  the  United  States,  especially  in  N. 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  where  they  are  associated  with  peridotites, 
often  near  contact  with  gneiss.  The  mineral  has  been  extensively 
worked,  as  at  Corundum  Hill,  Macon  county,  N.C.,  near  which, 
in  1871,  were  discovered  numerous  rubies,  sapphires  and  pebbles 
of  coarse  corundum  in  the  bed  of  a  river.  Corundum  occurs  also 
at  many  localities  in  Montana,  where  the  crystals  are  often  of  gem 
quality.  They  are  found  mostly  as  loose  crystals  in  gravel,  but 
are  known  also  in  igenous  rocks  like  andesite  and  lamprophyre. 
Prof.  J.  H.  Pratt,  who  has  studied  the  occurrence  both  in  Montana 
and  in  N.  Carolina,  considers  that  the  alumina  was  dissolved  in 
a  molten  magma,  from  which  it  separated  at  an  early  period  of 
consolidation,  as  illustrated  by  the  experiments  of  J.  Moroze- 
wicz.  Corundum  occurs  also  in  Canada  in  an  igneous  rock,  a 
nepheline-syenite,  associated  with  Laurentian  gneiss.  Important 
deposits  were  discovered  by  the  Geological  Survey  in  1896,  in 
Hastings  county,  Ontario;  and  corundum  is  now  worked  there 
and  in  Renfrew  county.  New  South  Wales,  Queensland  and 
Victoria  are  other  localities  for  corundum.  The  mineral  is  found 
also  in  the  Urals  and  the  Ilmen  Mountains,  in  the  Alps  (in 
dolomite) ,  in  the  basalts  of  the  Rhine,  and  indeed  as  a  subordinate 
rock-constituent  corundum  seems  to  enjoy  a  wide  distribution, 
being  found  even  in  the  British  Isles. 

See  Joseph  Hyde  Pratt,  "Corundum  and  its  Occurrence  and 
Distribution  in  the  United  States,"  Bulletin  U.S.  Geol.  Sum.,  No. 
269  (1906);  T.  H.  Holland,  Economic  Geology  of  India  (2nd  ed.), 
part  i.  (1898).  (F.  W.  R.*) 

CORUNNA,  a  maritime  province  in  the  extreme  north-west  of 
Spain;  forming  part  of  Galicia,  and  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Lugo, 
S.  by  Pontevedra,  W.  and  N.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Pop.  (1900) 
653,556;  area,  3051  sq.  m.  The  coast  of  Corunna  is  exposed  to 
the  full  force* of  the  Atlantic;  it  forms  one  succession  of  fantastic- 
ally shaped  promontories,  divided  by  bays  and  estuaries  which 
often  extend  for  many  miles  inland,  with  reefs  and  small  islands 
in  their  midst.  Though  well  lighted,  this  coast  is  very  dangerous 
to  navigation,  gales  and  fogs  being  frequent  in  winter  and  spring. 
The  most  conspicuous  headlands  are  Cape  Ortegal  and  Cape  de 
Vares,  the  most  northerly  points  of  the  Spanish  seaboard,  and 
Capes  Finisterre  and  Torinana  in  the  extreme  west.  The 
principal  bays  are  those  of  Santa  Marta,  Ferrol  and  Corunna, 
on  the  north  ;  Corcubion,  Muros  y  Noya  and  Arosa,  on  the  west. 
Wild  and  rugged  though  this  region  appears  to  travellers  at  sea, 
the  mountains  which  overspread  the  ulterior  are  covered  with 
forests  and  pastures,  and  watered  by  an  abundance  of  small 
rivers  and  streams.  The  climate  is  mild  and  singularly  equable, 
but  the  rainfall  is  very  heavy.  All  the  fruits  and  vegetables 
of  northern  Europe  thrive  in  the  sheltered  valleys,  and  the 
cultivation  of  cherries,  strawberries,  peas  and  onions,  for  export, 
ranks  among  the  most  profitable  local  industries.  Heavy  crops 
of  wheat,  rye,  maize  and  sugar-beet  are  raised.  The  wines  of 
Corunna  are  heady  and  of  inferior  flavour.  Cattle-breeding, 
once  a  flourishing  industry,  had  greatly  declined  by  the  beginning 


of  the  2oth  century,  owing  to  foreign  competition.  All  along 
the  coast  there  are  valuable  fisheries  of  sardines,  lobsters,  cod, 
hake  and  other  fish.  Copper,  tin  and  gold  are  procured  in  small 
quantities,  and  other  minerals  undoubtedly  exist.  The  exports 
consist  chiefly  of  farm  produce  and  fish;  the  imports,  of  coal  and 
textiles  from  England,  petroleum  from  the  United  States,  marble 
from  Italy,  salt  fish  from  Norway  and  Newfoundland,  and  hides. 
The  principal  towns  are  Corunna,  the  capital  and  chief  port  (pop. 
1900,  43,971);  Ferrol  (25,281),  another  seaport;  Santiago  de 
Compostela  (24,120),  famous  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage;  Carballo 
(13,032);  Ortigueira  (18,426)  and  Ribeira  (12,218).  These  are 
described  under  separate  headings.  Along  the  coast  there  are 
numerous  trading  and  fishing  stations  of  minor  importance. 
Railway  communication  is  very  defective.  From  Corunna  a  line 
passes  south-eastward  to  Lugo  and  Madrid,  and  from  Santiago 
another  line  goes  southward  to  Vigo  and  Oporto;  but  the  centre 
and  the  north-west  of  the  province  are,  to  a  great  extent,  in- 
accessible except  by  road;  and  many,  even  of  the  main  highways, 
are  ill-constructed  and  ill-kept.  Very  few  Spanish  provinces 
have  so  high  a  birthrate,  but  the  population  increases  very 
slowly  owing  to  emigration.  For  a  description  of  the  peasantry, 
who  are  distinguished  in  may  respects  from  those  inhabiting 
other  parts  of  Spain,  see  GALICIA. 

CORUNNA  (Span.  La  Coruna;  Fr.  La  Corogne;  Eng.  formerly 
often  The  Groyne),  the  capital  of  the  province  described  above; 
in  43°  22'  N.,  and  8°  22'  W.;  on  the  bay  of  Corunna,  an  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Pop.  (1900)  43,971.  The  principal  railways  of 
north-western  Spain  converge  on  Corunna,  and  afford  direct 
communication  with  Madrid  and  Oporto.  Corunna  consists  of 
an  upper  and  a  lower  town,  built  respectively  on  the  eastern  side 
of  a  small  peninsula,  and  on  the  isthmus  connecting  the  peninsula 
with  the  mainland.  The  upper  town  is  the  more  ancient,  and  is 
still  surrounded  by  walls  and  bastions,  and  defended  by  a  citadel ; 
but  it  has  been  gradually  outgrown  by  the  lower,  which,  though 
at  first  a  mere  fishing  village,  as  its  name  of  Pescaderia  implies, 
is  now  comparatively  well  built,  and  has  many  broad  and  hand- 
some streets.  There  is  little  remarkable  in  the  public  buildings, 
although  the  churches  of  Santiago  and  the  Colegiata  date  respec- 
tively from  the  I2th  and  I3th  centuries,  and  there  are  several 
convents,  two  hospitals,  a  palace  for  the  captain-general  of 
Galicia,  a  theatre,  a  school  of  navigation,  an  arsenal  and  barracks. 
The  harbour  is  on  the  east.  Though  difficult  to  approach  in 
stormy  weather,  it  is  completely  sheltered,  and  accommodates 
vessels  drawing  22  ft.  It  is  defended  by  several  forts,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  San  Diego,  on  the  east,  and  San  Antonio, 
on  the  west.  These  fortifications  are  of  little  practical  value  on 
the  landward  side,  as  they  are  commanded  by  a  hill  which  over- 
looks the  town.  The  so-called  Tower  of  Hercules,  on  the  north, 
has  been  increased  by  modern  additions  to  a  height  of  nearly 
400  ft.,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  fine  revolving  light.  Many 
foreign  steamers  call  here,  for  emigrants  or  mails,  on  their  way 
to  South  America.  Upwards  of  1200  merchant  ships,  mostly 
British,  entered  the  port  in  1905.  The  exports  are  chiefly 
agricultural  produce,  wine  and  fish;  the  imports  are  coal, 
colonial  products,  and  manufactured  goods.  Chief  among  the 
industrial  establishments  is  a  state  tobacco  factory;  the  sardine 
and  herring  fisheries  also  employ  alarge  number  of  the  inhabitants. 

Corunna,  possibly  at  first  a  Phoenician  settlement,  is  usually 
identified  with  the  ancient  Ardobrica,  a  seaport  mentioned  by 
the  ist-century  historian,  Pomponius  Mela,  as  in  the  country  of 
the  Artabri,  from  whom  the  name  of  Portus  Artabrorum  was 
given  to  the  bay  on  which  the  city  is  situated.  In  the  middle 
ages,  and  probably  at  an  earlier  period,  it  was  called  Caronium; 
and  this  name  is  much  more  probably  .the  origin  of  the  present 
designation  than  the  Latin  Columna  which  is  sometimes  put 
forward.  The  harbour  has  always  been  of  considerable  import- 
ance, but  it  is  only  in  comparatively  modem  times  that  it  has 
made  a  figure  in  history.  In  1 588  it  gave  shelter  to  the  Invincible 
Armada;  in  1598  the  town  was  captured  and  burned  by  the 
British  under  Drake  and  Norris.  In  1747,  and  again  in  1805, 
the  bay  was  the  scene  of  a  naval  victory  of  the  British  over  the 
French;  and  on  the  i6th  of  January  1809  a  battle  took  place 


CORVEE 


209 


in  the  neighbourhood,  which  is  celebrated  in  British  military 
annals  (see  PENINSULAR  WAR).  The  French  under  Marshal 
Soult  attempted  to  prevent  the  embarcation  of  the  English 
under  Sir  John  Moore,  but  were  successfully  repulsed  in  spite  of 
their  superior  numbers.  Moore  was  mortally  wounded  and 
died  shortly  afterwards.  He  was  hastily  buried  in  the  ramparts 
near  the  sea;  a  monument  in  the  Jardin  de  San  Carlos  raised 
by  the  British  government  commemorates  his  death.  The  town 
joined  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1820,  but  in  1823  it  was 
forced  to  capitulate  by  French  troops.  In  1836  it  was  captured 
by  the  Carlists.  Corunna  suffered  heavily  when  Spain  was  de- 
prived of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  by  the  Spanish-American  War 
of  1898,  for  it  had  hitherto  had  a  thriving  trade  with  these 
colonies. 

CORVEE,  in  feudal  law,  the  term  used  to  designate  the  unpaid 
labour  due  from  tenants,  whether  free  or  unfree,  to  their  lord; 
hence  any  forced  labour,  especially  that  exacted  by  the  state, 
the  word  being  applied  both  to  each  particular  service  and  to  the 
system  generally.  Though  the  corv6e  formed  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  feudal  system,  it  was,  as  an  institution,  much  older 
than  feudalism,  and  was  already  developed  in  its  main  features 
under  the  Roman  Empire.  Thus,  under  the  Roman  system, 
personal  services  (operae)  were  due  from  certain  classes  of  the 
population  not  only  to  the  state  but  to  private  proprietors. 
Apart  from  the  obligations  (operae  officiates)  imposed  on  freed- 
men  as  a  condition  of  their  enfranchisement,  which  in  the  country 
usually  took  the  form  of  unpaid  work  on  the  landlord's  domain, 
the  semi-servile  coloni  were  bound,  besides  paying  rent  in  money 
or  kind,  to  do  a  certain  number  of  days'  unremunerated  labour  on 
that  part  of  the  estate  reserved  by  die  landed  proprietor.  The 
state  also  exacted  personal  labour  (operae  publicae),  in  lieu  of 
taxes,  from  certain  classes  for  such  purposes  as  the  upkeep  of 
roads,  bridges  and  dykes;  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  various 
regions  were  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  the  posting 
system  (cursus  publicus),  for  which  horses,  carts  or  labour  would 
be  requisitioned. 

Under  the  Prankish  kings,  who  in  their  administration 
followed  the  Roman  tradition,  this  system  was  preserved.  Thus 
for  the  repair  of  roads,  or  other  public  works,  within  their 
jurisdiction  the  counts  were  empowered  to  requisition  the  labour 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  pagus,  while  the  missi  and  other 
public  functionaries  on  their  travels  were  entitled  to  demand 
from  the  population  en  route  entertainment  and  the  means  of 
transport  for  themselves  and  their  belongings.  It  was,  however, 
the  economic  revolution  which  between  the  6th  and  roth  centuries 
converted  the  Gallo-Roman  estates  into  the  feudal  model,  and 
the  political  conditions  under  which  the  officials  of  the  Prankish 
empire  developed  into  hereditary  feudal  nobles,  that  evolved  the 
system  of  the  corvee  as  it  existed  throughout  the  middle  ages 
and,  in  some  countries,  survived  far  into  the  ipth  century. 
The  Roman  estate  had  been  cultivated  by  free  farmers,  by 
coloni,  and  by  slave  labour.  Under  Prankish  rule  the  farmers 
became  coloni  or  hospites,  the  slaves,  serfs.  The  estate  was  now 
habitually  divided  into  the  lord's  domain  (terra  indominicata, 
dominicum)  and  a  series  of  allotments  (mansi),  parcels  of  land 
distributed  by  lot  to  the  cultivators  of  the  domain,  who  held 
them,  partly  by  payment  of  rent  in  money  or  kind,  partly  by 
personal  service  and  labour  on  the  domain,  these  obligations 
both  as  to  their  nature  and  amount  being  very  rigorously  denned 
and  permanently  fixed  in  the  case  of  each  mansus  and  passing 
with  the  land  to  each  new  tenant.  They  varied,  of  course,  very 
greatly  according  to  the  size  of  the  holding  and  the  needs  of  the 
particular  estate,  but  they  possessed  certain  common  character- 
istics which  are  everywhere  found.  Luchaire  (Manuel,  p.  346) 
divides  all  corvees  into  two  broad  categories,  (i)  corv6es  properly 
so  called,  (2)  military  services.  The  second  of  these,  so  far  as  the 
obligation  to  serve  in  the  host  (Hostis  et  equitatus)  is  concerned, 
was  common  to  all  classes  of  feudal  society;  though  the  obliga- 
tion of  villeins  to  keep  watch  and  ward  (guela,  warda)  and  to 
labour  at  the  building  or  strengthening  of  fortifications  (muragium, 
munilio  castri)  are  special  corvdes.  We  are,  however,  mainly 
concerned  with  the  first  category,  which  may  again  be  subdivided 


into  two  main  groups,  (i)  personal  service  of  men  and  women 
(manoperae,  manuum  operae,  Fr.  manoeuvres,  manual  labour), 
(2)  carriage  (carroperae,  carragia,  carrata,  &c.,  Fr.  charrois),  i.e. 
service  rendered  by  means  of  carts,  barrows  or  draught  animals. 
These  again  were  divided  into  fixed  services  (operae  rigae)  and 
exceptional  services,  demanded  when  the  others  proved  in- 
sufficient. To  these  latter  was  given  in  the  8th  century  the  name 
of  operae  corrogatae  (i.e.  requisitioned  works,  from  rogare,  to 
request.  From  this  term  (corrupted  into  corvatae,  cuniadae, 
corveiae,  &c.)  is  derived  the  word  corv6e,  which  was  gradually 
applied  as  a  general  term  for  all  the  various  services. 

As  to  the  nature  of  these  corvees  it  must  be  noted  that  in  the 
middle  ages  the  feudal  lords  had  replaced  the  centralized  state 
for  all  administrative  purposes,  and  the  services  due  to  them 
by  their  tenants  and  serfs,  were  partly  in  the  nature  of  rent  in 
the  form  of  labour,  partly  those  which  under  the  Roman  and 
Prankish  monarchs  had  been  exacted  in  lieu  of  taxes,  and  which 
the  feudal  lords  continued  to  impose  as  sovereigns  of  their 
domains.  To  the  former  class  belonged  the  service  of  personal 
labour  in  the  fields,  of  repairing  buildings,  felling  trees,  threshing 
corn,  and  the  like,  as  well  as  the  hauling  of  corn,  wine  or  wood; 
to  the  latter  belonged  that  of  labouring  on  the  roads,  of  building 
and  repairing  bridges,  castles  and  churches,  and  of  carrying 
letters  and  despatches.  Corvees  were  further  distinguished  as 
real,  i.e.  attached  to  certain  parcels  of  land,  and  personal,  i.e.  due 
from  certain  persons. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  corvees  were  usually  strictly 
defined  by  local  custom  and  by  the  contracts  of  tenancy,  and  that, 
in  an  age  when  currency  was  rare,  payment  in  personal  labour 
was  a  convenience  to  the  poor,  the  system  was  open  to  obvious 
abuses.  With  the  growth  of  communal  life  in  the  towns  the 
townsmen  early  managed  to  rid  themselves  of  these  burdensome 
obligations  either  by  purchase,  or  by  exchanging  the  obligation 
of  personal  work  for  that  of  supplying  carts,  draught  animals  and 
the  like.  In  the  country,  however,  the  system  survived  all  but 
intact;  and,  so  far  as  it  was  modified,  was  modified  for  the  worse. 
Whatever  safeguards  the  free  cultivators  may  have  possessed, 
the  serfs  were  almost  everywhere — especially  in  the  loth  and 
nth  centuries — actually  as  well  as  nominally  in  this  respect  at 
the  mercy  of  their  lords  (coneables  a  merci),  there  being  no  limit 
to  the  amount  of  money  or  work  that  could  be  demanded  of 
them.  The  system  was  oppressive  even  when  the  nobles  to 
whom  these  services  were  paid  gave  something  in  return,  namely, 
protection  to  the  cultivator,  his  family  and  his  land;  they 
became  intolerable  when  the  development  of  the  modern  state 
deprived  the  land-owners  of  their  duties,  but  not  of  their  rights. 
In  the  case  of  France,  in  the  iyth  century  the  so-called  corvee 
royale  was  added  to  the  burden  of  the  peasants,  i.e.  the  obligation 
to  do  unpaid  labour  on  the  public  roads,  an  obligation  made 
general  hi  1738;  and  this,  together  with  the  natural  resentment 
of  men  at  the  fact  that  the  land  which  then-  ancestors  had  bought 
was  still  subject  to  burdensome  personal  obligations  in  favour 
of  people  whom  they  rarely  saw  and  from  whom  they  derived 
no  benefit,  was  one  of  the  most  potent  causes  of  the  Revolution. 
By  the  Constituent  Assembly  personal  corv6es  were  abolished 
altogether,  while  owners  of  land  were  allowed  the  choice  of 
continuing  real  corvees  or  commuting  them  for  money.  The 
corvee  as  an  incident  of  land  tenure  has  thus  disappeared  in 
France.  The  corvee  royale  of  repairing  the  roads,  however, 
abolished  in  1789,  was  revived,  under  the  name  of  prestation, 
under  the  Consulate,  by  the  law  of  4  Thermidor  an  X.,  modified 
by  subsequent  legislation  in  1824,  1836  and  1871.  Under 
these  laws  the  duty  of  keeping  the  roads  in  repair  is  still 
vested  in  the  local  communities,  and  all  able-bodied  men  are 
called  upon  either  to  give  three  days'  work  or  its  equivalent 
hi  money  to  this  purpose.  It  is  precisely  the  same  system 
as  that  in  force  under  the  Roman  Empire,  and  if  it  differ 
from  the  corv6e  it  is  mainly  in  the  fact  that  the  burden  is 
equitably  distributed,  and  that  the  work  done  is  of  actual  value 
to  those  who  do  it. 

As  regards  other  countries,  the  corv6e  was  everywhere,  sooner 
or  later,  abolished  with  the  serfdom  of  which  it  was  the  principal 


2IO 


CORVEY— CORWEN 


incident  (see  SERFDOM).  Though  so  early  as  1772  Maria  Theresa 
had  endeavoured  to  mitigate  its  hardships  in  her  dominions  (in 
Hungary  unpaid  labour  was  only  to  be  demanded  of  the  serfs  on 
52  days  in  the  year!)  it  survived  longest  in  the  Austrian  empire, 
being  finally  abolished  by  the  revolution  of  1848.  The  duty  of 
personal  labour  on  the  public  roads  is,  however,  still  maintained 
in  other  countries  besides  France.  This  was  formerly  the  case  in 
England  also,  where  the  occupiers  of  each  parish  who,  by  the 
common  law,  had  access  to  the  roads  were  responsible  also  for 
their  upkeep.  An  act  of  1 555  imposed  four  days  of  forced  labour 
for  the  repair  of  roads,  and  an  act  of  Elizabeth  (5  Eliz.  c.  13) 
raised  the  number  of  days  to  six,  or  the  payment  of  a  composition 
instead.  Ths  system  of  turnpikes,  dating  from  1663,  which 
gradually  extended  over  the  whole  of  England,  lessened  the 
burden  of  this  system  of  taxation,  so  far  as  main  roads  were 
concerned,  but  the  greater  number  of  the  local  roads  were  subject 
to  repair  by  statutory  labour  until  the  Highways  Act  1835,  by 
which  highways  were  put  under  the  direction  of  a  parish  surveyor, 
and  the  necessary  expenses  met  by  a  rate  levied  on  the  occupiers 
of  land.  In  Scotland,  statutory  labour  on  highways  was  created 
by  an  act  of  1719,  and  abolished  in  1883. 

In  Egypt,  the  corvee  has  been  employed  from  time  immemorial, 
more  especially  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  out  the  irrigation 
canals.  In  the  days  when  only  one  harvest  a  year  was  reaped, 
this  forced  labour  was  not  a  very  great  burden,  but  the  intro- 
duction of  cotton  and  the  sugar-cane  under  Mehemet  Ali  changed 
the  conditions.  These  latter  are  crops  which  require  watering 
at  various  seasons  of  the  year,  and  very  often  the  fellah  was 
called  away  for  work  in  the  canals  at  times  when  his  own  crops 
required  the  utmost  attention.  Moreover,  the  inequality  of 
the  corvee  added  to  the  evil.  In  some  districts  it  was  possible 
to  purchase  exemption,  and  the  more  wealthy  paid  no  more  for 
the  privilege  than  the  humblest  fellah,  consequently  the  corvee 
fell  with  undue  hardship  on  the  poorer  classes.  Under  the 
premiership  of  Riaz  Pasha  the  corvee  was  gradually  abolished 
in  Egypt  between  the  years  1888  and  1891,  and  a  small  rate  on 
the  land  substituted  to  provide  the  labour  necessary  for  cleaning 
the  canals.  The  corvee  is  now  employed  only  to  a  limited 
extent  to  guard  the  banks  of  the  Nile  during  flood. 

See  Du  Cange,  Glossarium  inf.  et  med.  Lat.  s.v.  "Corvatae"; 
A  Luchaire,  Manuel  des  institutions  franfaises  (Paris,  1892),  pp. 
346-349;  La  Grande  Encyclopedic,  s.v.,  with  bibliography.  For 
further  works  see  the  bibliography  to  the  article  SERFDOM. 

CORVEY,  a  place  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia,  on 
the  Weser,  a  mile  north  of  the  town  of  Hoxter,  with  which  it 
communicates  by  an  avenue  of  lime  trees.  During  the  middle 
ages  it  was  famous  for  its  great  Benedictine  abbey,  which  was 
founded  and  endowed  by  the  emperor  Louis  the  Pious  about 
820,  and  received  its  name  from  having  been  first  occupied  by 
a  body  of  monks  coming  from  Corbie  in  Picardy.  The  bones 
of  St  Vitus,  the  patron  saint  of  Saxony,  were  removed  thither 
according  to  legend  in  836,  but  apart  from  this  attraction,  Corvey 
became  the  centre  of  Christianity  in  Saxony  and  a  nursery  of 
classical  studies.  The  abbot  was  a  prince  of  the  Empire,  and 
Corvey  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1783.  In  1803  the  abbey  was 
secularized,  in  1815  its  lands  were  given  to  Prussia,  and  in  1822 
they  were  bestowed  on  Victor  Amadeus,  landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Rotenburg,  by  whom  they  were  bequeathed,  in  1834,  to  Prince 
Victor  of  Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst,  duke  of  Ratibor.  The 
abbey,  which  is  now  used  as  a  residence,  possesses  a  magnificent 
library  of  150,000  volumes  especially  rich  in  old  illustrated 
works,  though  the  ancient  collection  due  to  theliterary  enthusiasm 
of  the  Benedictines  is  no  longer  extant.  Here  in  1517  the 
manuscript  of  the  five  first  books  of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus  was 
discovered.  Here  Widukind  wrote  his  Res  gestae  .Saxonicae. 
Here,  also,  the  librarian  and  poet  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben 
lived  and  worked.  The  Annales  Corbejenses  648-1148  of  the 
monks  can  be  read  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica,  Band 
iii.  The  Chronicon  Corbejense,  published  by  A.  C.  Wedekind 
in  1823,  has  been  declared  by  S.  Hirsch  and  Waitz  (Kritische 
Prufung,  Berlin,  1839)  to  be  a  forgery. 

See  P.  Wigand,  Geschichte  der  Abtci  Korvey  (Hoxter,  1819) ;  and  M. 
Meyer,  Zur  dltern  Geschichte  Coneys  und  Hoxters  (Paderborn,  1893). 


CORVINUS,  JANOS  [JOHN]  (1473-1504),  illegitimate  son  of 
Matthias  Hunyadi,  king  of  Hungary,  and  one  Barbara,  supposed 
to  be  the  daughter  of  a  burgess  of  Breslau.  He  took  his  name 
from  the  raven  (corvus)  in  his  father's  escutcheon.  Matthias 
originally  intended  him  for  the  Church,  but  on  losing  all  hope 
of  offspring  from  his  consort  Queen  Beatrice,  determined,  towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  to  make  the  youth  his  successor  on  the  throne. 
He  loaded  him  with  honours  and  riches,  till  he  was  by  far  the 
wealthiest  magnate  in  the  land.  He  publicly  declared  him  his 
successor,  created  him  a  prince  with  vast  apanages  in  Silesia, 
made  the  commandants  of  all  the  fortresses  in  the  kingdom 
take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  him,  and  tried  to  arrange  a  marriage 
for  him  with  Bianca  Maria  Sforza  of  Milan,  a  project  which  was 
frustrated  by  the  intrigues  of  Queen  Beatrice.  Matthias  also 
intended  to  make  the  recognition  of  Janos  as  prince  royal  of 
Hungary  by  the  emperor  Frederick  a  condition  precedent  of 
relinquishing  all  or  part  of  the  conquered  hereditary  domains 
of  the  house  of  Habsburg;  but  his  sudden  death  left  the  matter 
still  pending,  and  the  young  prince  suddenly  found  himself 
alone  in  the  midst  of  enemies.  The  inexperienced  and  irresolute 
youth  speedily  became  the  victim  of  the  most  shameful  chicanery. 
He  was  first  induced  formally  to  resign  his  claims  to  the  throne, 
on  the  understanding  that  he  was  to  be  compensated  with  the 
crown  of  Bosnia.  He  was  then  persuaded  to  retire  southwards 
with  the  royal  treasures  which  Matthias  had  confided  to  him, 
whereupon  an  army  immediately  started  in  pursuit,  scattered 
his'  forces,  and  robbed  "him  of  everything.  Meanwhile  the  diet 
had  elected  Vladislav  of  Bohemia  king  (July  15,  1490),  to  whom 
Janos  hastened  to  do  homage,  in  order  to  save  something  from 
the  wreck  of  his  fortunes.  He  was  also  recognized  as  prince  of 
Slavonia  and  duke  of  Troppau,  but  compelled  to  relinquish  both 
titles  five  years  later.  On  the  invasion  of  Hungary  by  Maxi- 
milian, he  shewed  his  loyalty  to  the  crown  by  relinquishing  into 
the  hands  of  Vladislav  the  three  importantfortressesof  Pressburg, 
Komarom  and  Tata,  which  had  been  entrusted  to  him  by  his 
father.  But  now,  encouraged  by  his  complacency,  the  chief 
dignitaries,  headed  by  the  palatine  Stephen  Zapolya,  laid  claim 
to  nearly  all  his  remaining  estates  and  involved  him  in  a  whole 
series  of  costly  processes.  This  they  could  do  with  perfect 
impunity,  as  they  had  poisoned  the  mind  of  the  indolent  and 
suspicious  king  against  their  victim.  In  1496  Corvinus  married 
Beatrice,  the  daughter  of  Bernard  Frangepan.  His  prospects 
now  improved,  and  in  1498  he  was  created  perpetual  ban  of 
Croatia  and  Slavonia.  From  1499  to  1502  he  successfully 
defended  Bosnia  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  following  year 
aspired  to  the  dignity  of  palatine,  but  was  defeated  by  a  com- 
bination of  Queen  Beatrice  and  his  other  enemies.  He  died  on 
the  1 2th  of  October  1504,  leaving  one  son,  Prince  Christopher, 
who  died  on  the  1 7th  of  March  1505. 

See  Gyula  Schonherr,  Janos  Corvinus  Hunyadi  (Hung.)  (Budapest, 
1894).  (R.  N.  B.) 

CORVUS,  MARCUS  VALERIUS  (c.  370-270  B.C.),  Roman 
general  of  the  early  republican  period.  According  to  the  legend 
a  raven  settled  on  his  helmet  during  his  combat  with  a  gigantic 
Gaul,  and  distracted  the  enemy's  attention  by  flying  in  his  face. 
He  was  twice  dictator  and  six  times  consul,  and  occupied  the 
curule  chair  twenty-one  times.  In  his  various  campaigns  he 
defeated  successively  the  Gauls,  the  Volscians,  the  Samnites, 
the  Etruscans  and  the  Marsians.  His  most  important  victory 
(343)  was  over  the  Samnites  at  Mount  Gaurus. 

See  Livy  vii.  26-42,  x.  2-1 1. 

CORWEN  ("  the  white  choir  "),  a  market  town  of  Merioneth- 
shire, Wales,  on  branches  of  the  London  &  North  Western  and 
the  Great  Western  railways;  10  m.  from  Llangollen,  through 
the  Glyn  Dyfrdwy  (Dee  Vale).  Pop.  (1901)  2680.  Telford's 
road,  raised  on  the  lower  Berwyn  range  side  and  overlooking 
the  Dee,  opens  up  the  picturesqueness  of  Corwen,  historically 
interesting  from  the  reminiscences  of  Wales's  last  struggle  for 
independence  under  Owen  Glendower.  In  the  old  parish  church 
was  traditionally  Owen's  pew;  his  knife,  fork,  and  dagger,  are 
at  the  neighbouring  Rug  (Rhug);  his  palace,  3  m.  distant 
at  Sychnant  (dry  stream).  Here  is  the  church  dedicated  to  St 


CORWIN— CORYBANTES 


211 


Julian,  archbishop  of  St  David's  (d.  1009),  with  "  the  college," 
an  almshouse  endowed  by  William  Eyton  of  Plas  Warren, 
Shropshire.  The  old  British  fort,  Caer  Drewyn,  one  of  a  chain 
of  forts  from  Dyserth  to  Canwyd,  is  the  supposed  scene  of  Glen- 
dower's  retreat  under  Henry  IV.,  and  here  Owen  Cwynedd  is 
said  to  have  prepared  to  repulse  Henry  II.  To  the  N.E.  are  the 
Clwyd  hills;  to  the  S.  the  Berwyn  range,  to  the  S.W.  Arran 
Mawddy  and  Cadair  (Cader)  Idris;  to  the  W.  the  two  Arenigs; 
to  the  N.W.  Snowdon.  Corwen  is  a  favourite  station  for  artists 
and  anglers.  Besides  the  Dee,  there  are  several  streamlets,  such 
as  the  Trystion,  which  forms  the  Rhaiadr  Cynwyd  (waterfall), 
the  Ceudiog,  and  the  Alwen. 

CORWIN,  THOMAS  (1794-1865),  American  statesman  and 
orator,  was  born  in  Bourbon  county,  Kentucky,  on  the  2gth 
of  July  1794.  In  1708  his  father,  Matthias  Corwin  (1761-1829), 
removed  to  what  later  became  Lebanon,  Ohio,  where  the  son 
worked  on  a  farm,  read  much,  and  in  1817  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  As  an  advocate  he  was  at  once  successful,  but  after 
1831  be  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  politics,  identifying 
himself  first  with  the  Whig  and  after  1858  with  the  Republican 
party.  He  was  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  Ohio  legis- 
lature in  1821,  1822  and  1829,  and  of  the  national  House  of 
Representatives  from  1831  to  1840;  was  governor  of  Ohio  in 
1840-1842;  served  in  the  United  States  Senate  from  1845  to 
1850;  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  cabinet  of  President 
Fillmore  in  1850-1853;  was  again  a  member  of  the  national 
House  of  Representatives  from  1859  to  1861;  and  from  1861 
to  1864  was  minister  of  the  United  States  to  Mexico — a  position 
of  peculiar  difficulty  at  that  time.  As  a  legislator  he  spoke 
seldom,  but  always  with  great  ability,  his  most  famous  speech 
being  that  of  the  nth  of  February  1847  opposing  the  Mexican 
War.  In  1860  he  was  chairman  of  the  House  "  Committee  of 
Thirty-three,"  consisting  of  one  member  from  each  state,  and 
appointed  to  consider  the  condition  of  the  nation  and,  if  possible, 
to  devise  some  scheme  for  reconciling  the  North  and  the  South. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  as  an  orator.  Many  anecdotes  have 
been  told  to  illustrate  his  kindliness,  his  inimitable  humour,  and 
his  remarkable  eloquence.  He  died  at  Washington,  D.C.,  on  the 
i8th  of  December  1865. 

See  the  Life  and  Speeches  of  Thomas  Corwin  (Cincinnati,  1896), 
edited  by  Josiah  Morrow;  and  an  excellent  character  sketch,  Thomas 
Corwin  (Cincinnati,  1881),  by  A.  P.  Russell. 

CORY,  WILLIAM  JOHNSON  (1823-1892),  English  school- 
master and  author,  son  of  Charles  Johnson  of  Torrington,  Devon- 
shire, was  born  on  the  gth  of  January  1823.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  At  Cambridge  he  gained 
the  chancellor's  medal  for  an  English  poem  on  Plato  in  1843, 
and  the  Craven  Scholarship  in  1844.  In  1845,  after  graduating 
at  the  university,  he  was  made  an  assistant  master  at  Eton, 
where  he  remained  for 'some  twenty-six  years.  He  has  been 
called  "  the  most  brilliant  Eton  tutor  of  his  day."  He  had  a 
great  influence  on  his  pupils,  and  he  defended  the  Etonian 
system  against  the  criticism  of  Matthew  James  Higgins.  In 
1872,  having  inherited  an  estate  at  Halsdon  and  assumed  the 
name  of  Cory,  he  left  Eton.  He  married  late  in  life,  and  after  four 
years  spent  in  Madeira  he  settled  in  1882  at  Hampstead.  He  died 
on  the  nth  of  June  1892.  He  proved  his  genuine  lyrical  power 
in  lonica  (1858),  which  was  republished  with  some  additional 
poems  in  1891.  He  also  produced  Lucretilis  (1871),  a  work  on 
the  writing  of  Latin  verses;  lophon  (1873),  on  Greek  Iambics; 
and  Guide  to  Modern  History  from  1815  to  1835  (1882).  Extracts 
from  the  Letters  and  Journals  of  William  Cory,  which  contains 
much  paradoxical  and  suggestive  criticism,  were  edited  by  F.W. 
Cornish  and  published  by  private  subscription  in  1897. 

His  elder  brother,  Charles  Wellington  Johnson  Furse  (1821- 
1900),  who,  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1854,  took  the  name 
of  Furse,  was  canon  and  archdeacon  of  Westminster  from  1894 
till  his  death.  The  artist  Charles  Wellington  Furse,  A.R.A. 
(1868-1904),  was  a  son  of  Archdeacon  Furse. 

CORYATE,  THOMAS  (1577  ?-i6i7),  English  traveller  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Odcombe,  Somersetshire,  where  his  father, 
the  Rev.  George  Coryate,  prebendary  of  York  Cathedral,  was 


rector.  Educated  at  Westminster  school  and  at  Oxford,  he 
became  a  kind  of  court  fool,  eventually  entering  the  household 
of  Prince  Henry,  the  eldest  son  of  James  I.  In  161 1  he  published 
a  curious  account  of  a  prolonged  walking  tour  undertaken  in 
1608,  under  the  title  of  Coryate's  Crudities  hastily  gobbled  up 
in  Five  Months  Travels  in  France,  Italy,  6*c.  At  the  command 
of  Prince  Henry,  verses  in  mock  praise  of  the  author,  and  in- 
tended originally  to  persuade  some  bookseller  to  undertake  the 
publication  of  the  Crudities,  were  added  to  the  volume.  These 
commendatory  verses,  written  in  a  number  of  languages,  and 
some  in  a  mixture  of  languages,  by  Ben  Jonson,  Donne,  Chapman, 
Dray  ton  and  others,  were  afterwards  published  (1611)  by  them- 
selves as  the  Odcombian  Banquet.  The  book  contains  a  clear  and 
interesting  account  of  Coryate's  travels,  and,  being  the  first  of  its 
kind,  was  extremely  popular.  It  is  now  very  rare,  and  the  copy 
in  the  Chetham  library  is  said  to  be  the  only  perfect  one.  In  the 
same  year  was  published  a  second  volume  of  a  similar  kind, 
Coryats  Crambe,  or  his  Coleworte  twice  Sodden.  In  1612  he  set 
out  on  another  journey,  which  also  was  mostly  performed 
on  foot.  He  visited  Greece,  the  Holy  Land,  Persia  and 
India;  from  Agra  and  Ajmere  he  sent  home  an  account  of  his 
adventures.  Some  of  his  letters  were  published  in  1616  under  the 
title  of  Letters  from  Asmere,  the  Court  of  the  Great  Mogul,  to  several 
Persons  of  Quality  in  England,  and  some  fragments  of  his  writings 
were  included  in  Purchas  his  Pilgrimes  in  1625.  Coryate  was  a 
curious  and  observant  traveller;  he  gives  accounts  of  inscrip- 
tions he  had  copied,  of  the  antiquities  of  the  towns  he  passed 
through,  and  of  manners  and  customs,  from  the  Italian  pronuncia- 
tion of  Latin  to  the  new-fangled  use  of  forks.  He  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  Turkish,  Persian  and  Hindustani  in  the  course  of 
his  travels,  and  on  being  presented  by  the  English  ambassador, 
Sir  Thomas  Roe,  to  the  Great  Mogul,  he  delivered  a  speech  in 
Persian.  His  journeys  were  performed  at  small  expense,  for  he 
says  that  he  spent  only  three  pounds  between  Aleppo  and  Agra, 
and  often  lived  "  competently  "  for  a  penny  a  day.  Coryate  died 
at  Surat  in  1617. 

Coryate's  Crudities,  with  his  letters  from  India,  was  reprinted 
from  the  edition  of  161 1  in  1776,  and  at  the  Glasgow  University  Press 
(2  vols.,  1905).  The  Odcombian  Banquet  was  ridiculed  by  John 
Taylor,  the  Water  Poet,  in  his  Laugh  and  be  Fat,  or  a  Commentary  on 
the  Odcombian  Banket  (1613)  and  two  other  satires. 

CORYBANTES  (Gr.  KopujSaires) ,  in  Greek  mythology,  half 
divine,  half  demonic  beings,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  the 
Asiatic  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods  that  the  Curetes  bear  to  Rhea. 
From  their  first  appearance  in  literature,  they  are  already  often 
identified  or  confused  with  them,  and  are  distinguished  only  by 
their  Asiatic  origin  and  by  the  more  pronouncedly  orgiastic  nature 
of  their  rites.  Various  accounts  of  their  origin  are  given:  they 
were  earth-born,  sons  of  Cronus,  sons  of  Zeus  and  Calliope,  sons 
of  Rhea,  of  Ops,  of  the  Great  Mother  and  a  mystic  father,  of 
Apollo  and  Thalia,  of  Athena  and  Helios.  Their  names  and 
number  were  as  indistinct  even  to  the  ancients  as  those  of  the 
Curetes  and  Idaean  Dactyli.  Like  the  Curetes,  Dactyli,  Telchines 
and  Cabeiri  (q.v.\  however,  they  represent  primitive  gods  of 
procreative  significance,  who  survived  in  the  historic  period  as 
subordinate  deities  associated  with  a  form  of  the  Great  Mother 
goddess,  their  relation  to  the  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods,  Cybele, 
being  comparable  with  that  of  Attis  (q.v.).  They  may  have  been 
represented  or  impersonated  by  priests  in  her  rites  as  Attis 
was,  but  they  were  also,  like  him,  not  actual  priests  in  the  first 
instance,  but  objects  of  worship  in  which  a  frenzied  dance,  with 
accompaniment  of  flute  music,  the  beating  of  tambourines,  the 
clashing  of  cymbals  and  castanets,  wild  cries  and  self-infliction 
of  wounds — the  whole  culminating  in  a  state  of  ecstasy  and 
exhaustion — were  the  most  prominent  features.  The  dance  of 
the  Corybantic  priests,  like  that  of  the  priests  who  represented 
the '  Curetes,  may  have  originated  in  a  primitive  faith  in  the 
power  of  noise  to  avert  evil.  Its  psychic  effect,  both  upon  the 
dancer  and  upon  the  mystic  about  whom  he  danced  during  the 
initiation  of  the  Cybele-Attis  mysteries,  made  it  a  widely  known 
and  popular  feature  of  the  cult. 

In  art  the  Corybantes  appear,  usually  not  more  than  two  or 
three  in  number,  fully  armed  and  executing  their  orgiastic 


212 


CORYDON— COSA 


dance  in  the  presence  of  the  Great  Mother,  her  lions  and  Attis. 
They  sometimes  appear  with  the  child  Dionysus,  between  whose 
cult  and  that  of  the  Mother  there  was  a  close  affinity.  (G.  SN.) 

CORYDON,  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Harrison  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  on  Indian  Creek,  about  21  m.  W.  by  S.  of 
Louisville,  Kentucky.  Pop.  (1900)  1610;  (1910)  1703.  Corydon 
is  served  by  the  Louisville,  New  Albany  &  Corydon  railway, 
which  connects  at  Corydon  Junction,  8  m.  N.,  with  the  Southern 
railway.  There  are  sulphur  springs  here,  and  the  town  is  a 
summer  and  health  resort.  Wyandotte  Cave  is  several  miles 
W.  of  Corydon.  Corydon  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  there 
are  valuable  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood;  among  the  town's 
manufactures  are  waggons,  and  building  and  lithographic  stone. 
Corydon  was  settled  about  1805,  and  was  the  capital  of  Indiana 
Territory  from  1813  to  1816,  and  of  the  state  until  1824.  The 
convention  which  framed  the  first  state  constitution  met  here 
in  June  1816.  The  original  state  house,  an  unpretentious  two- 
storey  stone  building,  is  still  standing.  Corydon  was  captured 
by  the  Confederates  during  Gen.  Morgan's  raid  on  the  9th  of 
July  1863. 

CORYPHAEUS  (from  Gr.  Kopvfa,  the  top  of  the  head),  in 
Attic  drama,  the  leader  of  the  chorus.  Hence  the  term  (some- 
times in  an  Anglicized  form  "  coryphe  ")  is  used  for  the  chief 
or  leader  of  any  company  or  movement.  In  1 8  56  in  the  university 
of  Oxford  there  was  founded  the  office  of  Coryphaeus  or  Prae- 
centor,  whose  duty  it  was  to  lead  the  musical  performances 
directed  by  the  Choragus  (?.».).  The  office  ceased  to  exist  in  1899. 

COS,  or  STANKO  (Ital.  Stanchio,  Turk.  Istan-keui,  by  corruption 
from  Ew  rav  Koi) ,  an  island  in  that  part  of  the  Turkish  archi- 
pelago which  was  anciently  known  as  the  Myrtoan  Sea,  not  far 
from  the  south-western  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Gulf  of  Halicarnassus,  or  Bay  of  Budrum.  Its  total  length  is 
about  25  m.  and  its  circumference  about  74.  Its  population  is 
estimated  at  about  10,000,  of  whom  nearly  all  are  Greeks. 

A  considerable  chain  of  mountains,  known  to  the  ancients  as 
Oromedon,  or  Prion,  extends  along  the  southern  coast  with 
hardly  a  break  except  near  the  island  of  Nisyros;  so  that  the 
greatest  versant  and  most  important  streams  turn  towards  the 
north.  The  whole  island  is  little  more  than  a  mass  of  limestone, 
and  consequently  unites  great  aridity  in  the  drier  mountain 
regions  with  the  richest  fertility  in  the  alluvial  districts.  As  the 
attention  of  the  islanders  is  mainly  directed  to  the  culture  of 
their  vineyards,  which  yield  the  famous  sultana  raisins,  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  arable  land  is  left  untouched, 
though  wheat,  barley  and  maize  are  sown  in  some  quarters,  and 
melons  and  sesamum  seed  appear  among  the  exports.  The  Cos 
lettuce  is  well  known.  Fruit,  especially  grapes,  is  exported  in 
large  quantities  to  Egypt,  mostly  in  local  sailing  boats.  The 
wild  olive  is  abundant  enough,  but  neglected;  and  cotton, 
though  it  thrives  well,  is  grown  only  in  small  quantities.  As  the 
principal  harbour,  in  spite  of  dredging  operations,  is  fit  only  for 
smaller  vessels,  the  island  is  not  of  so  much  commercial  import- 
ance as  it  would  otherwise  be;  but  since  1868  it  has  been 
regularly  visited  by  steamers.  The  only  to wn  in  the  island  is  Cos , 
or  Stanko,  at  the  eastern  extremity,  remarkable  for  its  fortress, 
founded  by  the  knights  of  Rhodes,  and  for  the  gigantic  plane- 
tree  in  the  public  square.  The  fortress  preserves  in  its  walls  a 
number  of  interesting  architectural  fragments.  The  plane-tree 
has  a  circumference  of  about  30  ft.,  and  its  huge  and  heavy 
branches  have  to  be  supported  by  pillars;  of  its  age  there  is  no 
certain  knowledge,  but  the  popular  tradition  connects  it  with 
Hippocrates.  The  town  is  supplied  by  an  aqueduct,  about  4  m. 
in  length,  with  water  from  a  hot  chalybeate  spring,  which  is 
likewise  named  after  the  great  physician  of  the  island.  The 
villages  of  Pyli  and  Kephalas  are  interesting,  the  former  for  the 
Greek  tomb  of  a  certain  Charmylos,  and  the  latter  for  a  castle  of 
the  knights  of  St  John  and  the  numerous  inscriptions  that  prove 
that  it  occupies  the  site  of  the  chief  town  of  the  ancient  deme  of 
Isthmos.  The  most  interesting  site  on  the  island  is  the  precinct 
of  Asclepius,  which  was  excavated  in  1900-1904  on  the  slope  of 
Mount  Prion,  about  2  m.  from  the  town  of  Cos.  It  consists  of 
three  terraces,  the  uppermost  containing  a  temple,  a  cypress 


grove  and  porticoes;  the  middle,  which  is  the  earliest  portion, 
two  or  three  temples,  an  altar,  and  other  buildings;  and  the 
lower  a  kind  of  sacred  agora  enclosed  by  porticoes.  The  precinct 
had  been  enlarged  and  reconstructed  at  various  times.  The 
earliest  buildings  on  the  middle  terrace  probably  date  from  the 
6th  century  B.C.  The  temple  on  the  upper  terrace,  with  the 
imposing  flight  of  steps  by  which  it  is  approached,  seems  to 
belong  to  the  2nd  century  B.C.  when  the  whole  precinct  was 
enlarged  and  reconstructed.  After  a  destructive  earthquake,  the 
whole  appears  to  have  been  rebuilt  by  Xenophon,  the  physician 
and  poisoner  of  the  emperor  Claudius.  The  final  destruction  was 
brought  about  by  the  earthquake  of  A.D.  554.  Among  other 
things  the  precinct  contains  a  fountain  of  water  with  medicinal 
properties.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  water  is  brought  from 
Burinna,  the  famous  fountain  of  Hippocrates  in  the  mountain 
above. 

History. — Cos  was  a  Dorian  colony  with  a  large  contingent  of 
settlers  from  Epidaurus  who  took  with  them  their  Asclepius 
cult  and  made  their  new  home  famous  for  its  sanatoria.  The 
other  chief  sources  of  the  island's  wealth  lay  in  its  wines,  and  in 
later  days,  in  its  silk  manufacture.  Its  early  history  is  obscure. 
During  the  Persian  wars  it  was  ruled  by  tyrants,  but  as  a  rule  it 
seems  to  have  been  under  an  oligarchic  government.  In  the  sth 
century  it  joined  the  Delian  League,  and  after  the  revolt  of 
Rhodes  served  as  the  chief  Athenian  station  in  the  south-eastern 
Aegean  (411-407).  In  366  a  democracy  was  instituted.  After 
helping,  in  the  Social  War  (357-355),  to  weaken  Athenian 
power  it  fell  for  a  few  years  to  the  Carian  prince  Maussollus. 
In  the  Hellenistic  age  Cos  attained  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity. 
Its  alliance  was  valued  by  the  kings  of  Egypt,  who  used  it  as 
an  outpost  for  their  navy  to  watch  the  Aegean.  As  a  seat  of 
learning  it  rose  to  be  a  kind  of  provincial  branch  of  the  museum  of 
Alexandria,  and  became  a  favourite  resort  for  the  education  of 
the  princes  of  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty;  among  its  most  famous 
sons  were  the  physician  Hippocrates,  the  painter  Apelles,  the 
poets  Philetas  and,  perhaps,  Theocritus  (q.v.).  Following  the 
lead  of  its  great  neighbour,  Rhodes,  Cos  generally  displayed  a 
friendly  attitude  towards  the  Romans;  in  A.D.  53  it  was  made  a 
free  city.  In  A.D.  1315  it  was  occupied  by  the  Knights  of  St 
John;  in  1523  it  passed  under  Ottoman  sway.  Except  for 
occasional  incursions  by  corsairs  and  some  severe  earthquakes 
the  island  has  rarely  had  its  peace  disturbed. 

AUTHORITIES. — L.  Ross,  Reisen  nach  Kos,  &c.  (Halle,  1852),  pp. 
11-29,  and  Reisen  auf  den  griechischen  Inseln  (Stuttgart,  1840-1845), 
ii.  86  ff.;  O.  Rayet,  Memoire  sur  Vile  de  Cos  (Paris,  1876);  M. 
Dubois,  De  Co  Insula  (Paris  and  Nancy,  1884);  W.  Paton  and  E. 
Hicks,  The  Inscriptions  of  Cos  (Oxford,  1891) ;  B.  V.  Head,  Historia 
Numorum  (Oxford,  1887),  pp.  535-537;  Archaol.  Anzeiger,  1905,  i. ; 
for  coins  see  also  NUMISMATICS:  Greek,  §  "  Calymna  and  Cos." 

(E.GR.;M.O.  B.  C.) 

COSA,  an  ancient  city  of  Etruria,  on  the  S.W.  coast  of  Italy, 
close  to  the  Via  Aurelia,  45  m.  E.S.E.  of  the  modern  town  of 
Orbetello.  Apparently  it  was  not  an  independent  Etruscan 
town,  but  was  founded  as  a  colony  by  the  Romans  in  the  territory 
of  the  Volceientes,  whom  they  had  recently  conquered,  in  273 
B.C.  The  town  was  strongly  fortified,  and  the  walls,  about  a  mile 
in  circuit,  with  three  gates,  and  seventeen  projecting  rectangular 
towers  at  intervals,  are  in  places  preserved  to  a  height  of  over 
30  ft.  on  the  outside,  and  15  on  the  inside.  The  lower  part  is 
built  of  polygonal,  the  upper  of  rectangular,  blocks,  and  the 
masonry  is  of  equal  fineness  all  through,  so  that  a  difference  of 
date  cannot  be  assumed;  such  a  change  of  technique  is  not 
without  parallel  in  Greece  (F.  Noack  in  Romische  Mitteilungen, 
1897,  194).  Within  the  city  no  remains  are  visible.  The  place 
was  of  importance  as  a  fortress;  it  was  approached  by  a  branch 
road  which  diverged  from  the  Via  Aurelia  at  the  post  station  of 
Succosa,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  town  stood.  The 
harbour,  too,  was  of  some  importance.  In  the  5th  century  we 
hear  of  it  as  deserted,  and  in  the  9th  a  town  called  Ansedonia 
took  its  place  for  a  short  time,  but  itself  soon  perished,  though  it 
has  left  its  name  to  the  ruins. 

See  G.  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (London,  1883),  ii. 
245.  (T.  As.) 


COSEL— COSIN 


213 


COSEL,  or  KOSEL,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Silesia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Klodnitz  and  the  Oder,  29  m. 
S.E.  of  Oppeln  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  7085.  It  has  an  Evangelical 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  an  old  chateau  and  a  grammar- 
school  (Progymnasium).  Its  industries  are  of  some  importance, 
including  a  manufactory  of  cellulose  (employing  1200  hands), 
steam  saw-  and  flour-mills  and  a  petroleum  refinery.  There  is  a 
lively  trade  by  river. 

The  first  record  of  Cosel  dates  from  1286.  From  1306  to  1359 
it  was  the  seat  of  an  independent  duchy  held  by  a  cadet  line  of  the 
•dukes  of  Teschen.  In  1 53  2  it  fell  to  the  emperor,  was  several  times 
besieged  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  came  into  Prussian 
possession  by  the  treaty  of  Breslau  in  1742.  Frederick  II. 
converted  it  into  a  fortress,  which  was  besieged  in  vain  by  the 
Austrians  in  1758,  1759,  1760  and  1762.  In  1807  it  withstood 
another  siege,  by  the  Bavarian  allies  of  Napoleon.  The  fortifica- 
tions were  razed  and  their  site  converted  into  promenades  in  1874. 

COSENZ,  ENRICO  (1812-1898),  Italian  soldier,  was  born  at 
Gaeta,  on  the  I2th  of  January  1812.  As  captain  of  artillery  in 
the  Neapolitan  army  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  sent  by 
Ferdinand  II.  against  the  Austrians  in  1848;  but  after  the 
coup  d'etat  at  Naples  he  followed  General  Guglielmo  Pepe  in 
disobeying  Ferdinand's  order  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  troops, 
and  proceeded  to  Venice  to  aid  in  defending  that  city.  As 
commandant  of  the  fort  of  Marghera,  Cosenz  displayed  dis- 
tinguished valour,  and  after  the  fall  of  the  fort  assumed  the 
defence  of  the  Piazzale,  where  he  was  twice  wounded.  Upon  the 
fall  of  Venice  he  fled  to  Piedmont,  where  he  remained  until,  in 
1859,  he  assumed  the  command  of  a  Garibaldian  regiment.  In 
1860  he  conducted  the  third  Garibaldian  expedition  to  Sicily, 
defeated  two  Neapolitan  brigades  at  Piale  (August  23),  and 
marched  victoriously  upon  Naples,  where  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  war,  and  took  part  in  organizing  the  plebiscite. 
During  the  war  of  1866  his  division  saw  but  little  active  service. 
After  the  war  he  repeatedly  declined  the  portfolio  of  war.  In 
1 88 1,  however,  he  became  chief  of  the  general  staff,  and  held  that 
position  until  a  short  time  before  his  death  at  Rome  on  the  7th  of 
August  1898. 

COSENZA  (anc.  Consentia),  a  town  and  archiepiscopal  see  of 
Calabria,  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Cosenza,  755  ft. 
above  sea-level,  43  m.  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Sibari,  which  is  a  station 
on  the  E.  coast  railway  between  Metaponto  and  Reggio.  Pop. 
(1901)  town,  13,841;  commune,  20,857.  It  is  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  between  the  Crati  and  Busento,  just  above  the 
junction,  and  is  commanded  by  a  castle  (1250  ft.).  The  Gothic 
cathedral,  consecrated  in  1 222,  on  the  site  of  another  ruined  by  an 
earthquake  in  1184,  goes  back  to  French  models  in  Champagne, 
and  is  indeed  unique  in  Italy.  It  contains  the  Gothic  tomb  of 
Isabella  of  Aragon,  wife  of  Philip  III.  of  France,  and  also  the 
tomb  of  Louis  III.,  duke  of  Anjou;  but  it  has  been  spoilt  by 
restoration  both  inside  and  out.  S.  Domenico  has  a  fine  rose 
window.  The  Palazzo  del  Tribunale  (law  courts)  is  a  fine 
building,  and  the  upper  town  contains  several  good  houses  of 
rich  proprietors  of  the  province;  while  the  lower  portion  is 
unhealthy.  Earthquakes,  and  a  fire  in  1901,  have  done  con- 
siderable damage  to  the  town. 

The  ancient  Consentia  is  first  named  as  the  burial  place  of 
Alexander  of  Epirus  in  about  330  B.C.  In  204  it  became  Roman, 
though  it  was  more  under  the  influence  of  Greek  culture.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Strabo  as  the  chief  town  of  the  Bruttii,  and 
frequently  spoken  of  in  classical  authors  as  an  important  place. 
It  lay  on  the  Via  Popillia.  Varro  speaks  of  its  apple  trees  which 
gave  fruit  twice  in  the  year  and  Pliny  praises  its  wine  also.  It 
is  the  more  surprising  that  in  the  whole  of  its  territory  no  in- 
scriptions, either  Greek  or  Latin,  have  ever  been  found,  those 
that  are  recorded  by  some  writers  being  fabrications.  In  A.D.  410 
Alaric  fell  in  battle  here  and  was  buried,  it  is  said,  in  the  bed  of 
the  Busento,  which  was  temporarily  diverted  and  then  allowed 
to  resume  its  natural  course.  Cosenza  became  an  archbishopric 
in  the  nth  century.  In  1461  it  was  taken  by  Roberto. Orsini, 
and  suffered  severely.  It  was  the  home  of  a  scientific  academy 
founded  by  the  philosopher  Bernardino  Telesio  (1509-1588). 


In  1555-1561  it  was  the  centre  of  the  persecution  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  the  Waldenses  who  had  settled  there  towards  the  end  of 
the  I4th  century.  (T.  As.) 

COSHOCTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Coshocton  county, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tuscarawas  and  the  Wal- 
honding  rivers,  with  the  Muskingum  river,  and  about  70  m.  E.N.E. 
of  Columbus.  Pop.  (1890)  3672;  (1900)  6473  (364  foreign- 
born)  ;  (1910)  9603.  It  is  served  by  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Pitts- 
burg,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis  (controlled  by  the  Penn- 
sylvania), and  the  Wheeling  &  Lake  Erie  rail  ways.  The  city  is 
built  on  a  series  of  four  broad  terraces,  the  upper  one  of  which  has 
an  elevation  of  824  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  commands  pleasant 
views  of  the  river  and  the  valley.  It  has  a  public  library. 
Coshocton  is  the  commercial  centre  of  an  extensive  agricultural 
district  and  has  manufactories  of  paper,  glass,  flour,  china-ware, 
cast-iron  pipes  and  especially  of  advertising  specialities.  The 
municipality  owns  and  operates  its  water-works.  Coshocton 
occupies  the  site  of  a  former  Indian  village  of  the  same  name — 
the  chief  village  of  the  Turtle  tribe  of  the  Delawares.  This 
village  was  destroyed  by  the  whites  in  1781.  The  first  settlement 
by  whites  was  begun  in  1801;  and  in  1802  the  place  was  laid 
out  as  a  town  and  named  Tuscarawas.  In  1811,  when  it  was 
made  the  county-seat,  the  present  name  was  adopted.  Coshocton 
was  first  incorporated  in  1833. 

COSIN,  JOHN  (1594-1672),  English  divine,  was  born  at  Nor- 
wich on  the  3oth  of  November  1594.  He  was  educated  at 
Norwich  grammar  school  and  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  scholar  and  afterwards  fellow.  On  taking  orders 
he  was  appointed  secretary  to  Bishop  Overall  of  Lichfield,  and 
then  domestic  chaplain  to  Bishop  Neile  of  Durham.  In  December 
1624  he  was  made  a  prebendary  of  Durham,  and  in  the  following 
year  archdeacon  of  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  In  1628  he 
took  his  degree  of  D.D.  He  first  became  known  as  an  author  in 
1627,  when  he  published  his  Collection  of  Private  Devotions,  a 
manual  stated  to  have  been  prepared  by  command  of  Charles  I., 
for  the  use  of  the  queen's  maids  of  honour.1  This  book,  together 
with  his  insistence  on  points  of  ritual  in  his  cathedral  church  and 
his  friendship  with  Laud,  exposed  him  to  the  suspicions  and 
hostility  of  the  Puritans;  and  the  book  was  rudely  handled  by 
William  Prynne  and  Henry  Burton.  In  1628  Cosin  took  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  a  brother  prebendary,  Peter  Smart,  for  a 
sermon  against  high  church  practices;  and  the  prebendary  was 
deprived.  In  1634  Cosin  was  appointed  master  of  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge;  and  in  1640  he  became  vice-chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity. In  October  of  this  year  he  was  promoted  to  the  deanery 
of  Peterborough.  A  few  days  before  his  installation  the  Long 
Parliament  had  met;  and  among  the  complainants  who  hastened 
to  appeal  to  it  for  redress  was  the  ex-prebendary,  Smart.  His 
petition  against  the  new  dean  was  considered ;  and  early  in  1641 
Cosin  was  sequestered  from  his  benefices.  Articles  of  impeach- 
ment, were,  two  months  later,  presented  against  him,  but  he 
was  dismissed  on  bail,  and  was  not  again  called  for.  For  sending 
the  university  plate  to  the  king,  he  was  deprived  of  the  mastership 
of  Peterhouse  ( 1 64  2 ) .  He  thereupon  withdrew  to  France,  preached 
at  Paris,  and  served  as  chaplain  to  some  members  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  exiled  royal  family.  At  the  Restoration  he  returned 
to  England,  was  reinstated  in  the  mastership,  restored  to  all  his 
benefices,  and  in  a  few  months  raised  to  the  see  of  Durham 
(December  1660).  At  the  convocation  in  1661  he  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  revision  of  the  prayer-book,  and  endeavoured 
with  some  success  to  bring  both  prayers  and  rubrics  into  com- 
pleter  agreement  with  ancient  liturgies.  He  administered  his 
diocese  with  conspicuous  ability  and  success  for  about  eleven 
years;  and  applied  a  large  share  of  his  revenues  to  the  promotion 
of  the  interests  of  the  Church,  of  schools  and  of  charitable 
institutions.  He  died  in  London  on  the  isth  of  January  1672. 

Cosin  occupies  an  interesting  and  peculiar  position  among  the 
churchmen  of  his  time.  Though  a  ritualist  and  a  rigorous 
enforcer  of  outward  conformity,  he  was  uncompromisingly 
hostile  to  Roman  Catholicism,  and  most  of  his  writings  illustrate 
this  antagonism.  In  France  he  was  on  friendly  terms  with 
1  See  John  Evelyn's  Diary  (Oct.  12,  1651). 


214 


COSMAS— COSMIC 


Huguenots,  justifying  himself  on  the  ground  that  their  non- 
episcopal  ordination  had  not  been  of  their  own  seeking,  and  at 
the  Savoy  conference  in  1661  he  tried  hard  to  effect  a  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  Presbyterians.  He  differed  from  the  majority  of  his 
colleagues  in  his  strict  attitude  towards  Sunday  observance 
and  in  favouring,  in  the  case  of  adultery,  both  divorce  and  the 
re-marriage  of  the  innocent  party.  He  was  a  genial  companion, 
frank  and  outspoken,  and  a  good  man  of  business. 

Among  his  writings  (most  of  which  were  published  posthumously) 
are  a  Historia  Transubstantiationis  Papalis  (1675),  Notes  and  Collec- 
tions on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  (1710)  and  A  Scholastical  History 
of  the  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture  (1657).  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works,  forming  5  vols.  or  the  Oxford  Library  of  Anglo- Catholic 
Theology,  was  published  between  1843  and  1855 ;  and  his  Correspond- 
ence (2  vols.)  was  edited  by  Canon  Ornsby  for  the  Suttees  Society 
(1868-1870). 

COSHAS,  of  Alexandria,  surnamed  from  his  maritime  ex- 
periences Indicopleusles,  merchant  and  traveller,  flourished 
during  the  6th  century  A.D.  The  surname  is  inaccurate,  since 
he  never  reached  India  proper;  further,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
Cosmas  is  a  family  name,  or  merely  refers  to  his  reputation  as  a 
cosmographer.  In  his  earlier  days  he  had  sailed  on  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Indian  Ocean,  visiting  Abyssinia  and  Socotra  and 
apparently  also  the  Persian  Gulf,  western  India  and  Ceylon. 
He  subsequently  became  a  monk,  and  about  548,  in  the  retire- 
ment of  a  Sinai  cloister,  wrote  a  work  called  Topographia 
Christiana.  Its  chief  object  is  to  denounce  the  false  and  heathen 
doctrine  of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  and  to  vindicate  the 
scriptural  account  of  the  world.  Photius,  who  had  read  it, 
calls  it  a  "  commentary  on  the  Octateuch  "  (meaning  the  eight 
books  of  Ptolemy's  great  geographical  work;  according  to  some, 
the  first  eight  books  of  the  Old  Testament).  According  to 
Cosmas  the  earth  is  a  rectangular  plane,  covered  by  the  vaulted 
roof  of  the  firmament,  above  which  lies  heaven.  In  the  centre  of 
the  plane  is  the  inhabited  earth,  surrounded  by  ocean,  beyond 
which  lies  the  paradise  of  Adam.  The  sun  revolves  round  a 
conical  mountain  to  the  north— round  the  summit  in  summer, 
round  the  base  in  winter,  which  accounts  for  the  difference  in 
the  length  of  the  day.  Cosmas  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
a  Nestorian.  Although  not  to  be  commended  from  a  theological 
standpoint,  the  Topographia  contains  some  curious  information. 
Especially  to  be  noticed  is  the  description  of  a  marble  seat 
discovered  by  him  at  Adulis  (Zula)  in  Abyssinia,  with  two 
inscriptions  recounting  the  heroic  deeds  and  military  successes 
of  Ptolemy  Euergetes  and  an  Axumitic  king.  It  also  contains 
in  all  probability  the  oldest  Christian  maps.  From  allusions 
in  the  Topographia  Cosmas  seems  to  have  been  the  author  of  a 
larger  cosmography,  a  treatise  on  the  motions  of  the  stars, 
and  commentaries  on  the  Psalms  and  Canticles.  Photius  (Cod. 
36)  speaks  contemptuously  of  the  style  and  language  of  Cosmas, 
and  throws  doubt  upon  his  truthfulness.  But  the  author 
himself  expressly  disclaims  any  claims  to  literary  elegance,  which 
in  fact  he  considers  unsuited  to  a  Christian  circle  of  readers,  and 
the  accuracy  of  his  statements  has  been  confirmed  by  later 
travellers. 

The  Topographia  will  be  found  in  Migne,  Patrologia  Graeca, 
Ixxxviii. ;  an  edition  by  G.  Siefert  is  promised  in  the  Teubner  series. 
See  H.  Gelzer,  "  Kosmas  der  Indienfahrer,"  in  Jahrbiicher  fur 
protestantische  Theologie,  ix.  (1883)  and  C.  R.  Beazley,  The  Dawn  of 
Modern  Geography,  i.  (1897).  There  is  an  English  translation,  with 
introduction  and  notes,  by  J.  W.  McCrindle  (1897),  published  by  the 
Hakluyt  society. 

COSMAS,  of  Prague  (1045-1125),  dean  of  the  cathedral  and 
the  earliest  Bohemian  historian.  His  Chronicae  Bohemorum 
libri  Hi.,  which  contains  the  history  and  traditions  of  Bohemia 
up  to  nearly  the  time  of  his  death,  has  earned  him  the  title  of 
the  Herodotus  of  his  country.  This  work,  which  his  continuators 
brought  down  to  the  year  1 283,  is  of  the  highest  value  to  historians 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  its  reputation  for  disingenuousness  and 
credibility  has  been  greatly  affected  by  the  critical  attacks  of 
J.  Loserth  (Studienzu  Cosmas  von  Prag,  Vienna,  1880,  &c.). 

The  work  was  first  published  at  Hanover  in  1602,  from  the  im- 
perfect Strassburg  codex.  A  perfected  edition  was  brought  out  at 
the  same  place  in  1607;  this  was  reprinted,  with  notes  by  C.  G. 
Schwarz  in  I.  B.  Menckenius,  Scriptores  rer.  Germ.  (3  vols.,  Lips., 


1728-1730).  It  is  included  in  Pelzel  and  Dobrowsky,  Script,  rer. 
Bohem.  i.  pp.  1-282,  after  collation  with  Dresden  MS.,  edited  very 
fully  by  R.  Kopke  in  Man.  Germ.  Hist.  Scrip,  ix.  1-132,  and  repeated 
in  Migne,  Patrol,  lat.  clxvi.  pp.  55-388,  and  in  Fontes  rer.  Bohem.  ii. 
(1874),  1-370  (Latin  and  Czech),  by  W.  Wl.  Tomek.  See  A.  Potthast, 
Bibliotheca  Hist.  Med.  Aevi. 

COSMATI,  the  name  of  a  Roman  family,  seven  members  of 
which,  for  four  generations,  were  skilful  architects,  sculptors  and 
workers  in  mosaic.  The  following  are  the  names  and  dates 
known  from  existing  inscriptions: — 

Lorenzo  (born  in  the  second  half  of  the  izth  century). 
Jacopo  (dated  works  1205  and  1210). 


I 
Cosimo  (  " 


1210-1235). 


Luca  Jacopo          Adeodato  Giovanni 

(1231  and  1235).    (1231-1293).       (1294).          (1296  and  1303). 

Their  principal  works  in  Rome  are:  ambones  of  S.  Maria  in 
Ara  Coeli  (Lorenzo);  door  of  S.  Saba,  1205,  and  door  with 
mosaics  of  S.  Tommaso  in  Formis  (Jacopo);  chapel  of  the 
Sancta  Sanctorum,  by  the  Lateran  (Cosimo);  pavement  of  S. 
Jacopo  alia  Lungara,  and  (probably)  the  magnificent  episcopal 
throne  and  choir-screen  in  S.  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  of  1254 
(Jacopo  the  younger);  baldacchino  of  the  Lateran  and  of  S. 
Maria  in  Cosmedin,  c.  1294  (Adeodato);  tombs  in  S.  Maria 
sopra  Minerva  (c.  1296),  in  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  in  S.  Balbina 
(Giovanni).  The  chief  signed  works  by  Jacopo  the  younger 
and  his  brother  Luca  are  at  Anagni  and  Subiaco.  A  large 
number  of  other  works  by  members  and  pupils  of  the  same 
family,  but  unsigned,  exist  in  Rome.  These  are  mainly  altars 
and  baldacchini,  choir-screens,  paschal  candlesticks,  ambones, 
tombs  and  the  like,  all  enriched  with  sculpture  and  glass  mosaic 
of  great  brilliance  and  decorative  effect. 

Besides  the  more  mechanical  sort  of  work,  such  as  mosaic 
patterns  and  architectural  decoration,  they  also  produced 
mosaic  pictures  and  sculpture  of  very  high  merit,  especially  the 
recumbent  effigies,  with  angels  standing  at  the  head  and  foot, 
in  the  tombs  of  Ara  Coeli,  S.  Maria  Maggiore  and  elsewhere. 
One  of  their  finest  works  is  in  S.  Cesareo;  this  is  a  marble  altar 
richly  decorated  with  mosaic  in  sculptured  panels,  and  (below) 
two  angels  drawing  back  a  curtain  (all  in  marble)  so  as  to  expose 
the  open  grating  of  the  confessio.  The  magnificent  cloisters  of  S. 
Paolo  fuori  le  Mura,  built  about  1285  by  Giovanni,  the  youngest 
of  the  Cosmati,  are  one  of  the  most  beautiful  works  of  this  school. 
The  baldacchino  of  the  same  basilica  is  a  signed  work  of  the 
Florentine  Arnolfo  del  Cambio,  1285,  "cum  suo  socio  Petro," 
probably  a  pupil  of  the  Cosmati.  Other  works  of  Arnolfo,  such 
as  the  Braye  tomb  at  Orvieto  (q.ii.),  show  an  intimate  artistic 
alliance  between  him  and  the  Cosmati.  The  equally  magnificent 
cloisters  of  the  Lateran,  of  about  the  same  date,  are  very  similar 
in  design;  both  these  triumphs  of  the  sculptor-architect's  and 
mosaicist's  work  have  slender  marble  columns,  twisted  or  straight, 
richly  inlaid  with  bands  of  glass  mosaic  in  delicate  and  brilliant 
patterns.  The  shrine  of  the  Confessor  at  Westminster  is  a  work  of 
this  school,  executed  about  1268.  The  general  style  of  works  of 
the  Cosmati  school  is  Gothic  in  its  main  lines,  especially  in  the 
elaborate  altar-canopies,  with  their  pierced  geometrical  tracery. 
In  detail,  however,  they  differ  widely  from  the  purer  Gothic 
of  northern  countries.  The  richness  of  effect  which  the  English 
or  French  architect  obtained  by  elaborate  and  carefully  worked 
mouldings  was  produced  in  Italy  by  the  beauty  of  polished 
marbles  and  jewel-like  mosaics — the  details  being  mostly  rather 
coarse  and  often  carelessly  executed. 

An  excellent  account  of  the  Cosmati  is  given  by  Boito,  Archi- 

tettura  del  media  evo  (Milan,  1880),  pp.  117-182. 


COSMIC  (from  Gr.  Koapos,  order  or  universe),  pertaining  to 
the  universe,  universal  or  orderly.  In  ancient  astronomy,  the 
word  "  cosmical  "  means  occurring  at  sunrise,  and  designates 
especially  the  rising  or  sett'ng  of  the  stars-  at  that  time. 
"  Cosmical  physics  "  is  a  term  broadly  applied  to  the  totality 
of  those  branches  of  science  which  treat  of  cosmical  phenomena 


COSMOGONY 


215 


and  their  explanation  by  the  laws  of  physics.  It  includes 
terrestrial  magnetism,  the  tides,  meteorology  as  related  to 
cosmical  causes,  the  aurora,  meteoric  phenomena,  and  the 
physical  constitution  of  the  heavenly  bodies  generally.  It 
differs  from  astrophysics  only  in  dealing  principally  with 
phenomena  in  their  wider  aspects,  and  as  the  products  of  physical 
causes,  while  astrophysics  is  more  concerned  with  minute  details 
of  observation. 

COSMOGONY  (from  Gr.  <co<rjuos,  world  and  yiyv&rdtu,  to  be 
born),  a  theory,  however  incomplete,  of  the  origin  of  heaven  and 
earth,  such  as  is  produced  by  primitive  races  in  the  myth-making 
age,  and  is  afterwards  expanded  and  systematized  by  priests, 
poets  or  philosophers.  Such  a  theory  must  be  mythical  in  form, 
and,  after  gods  have  arisen,  is  likely  to  be  a  theogony  (6e6s,  god) 
as  well  as  a  cosmogony  (Babylonia,  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Polynesia). 

1.  To  many  the  interest  of  such  stories  will  depend  on  their 
parallelism  to  the  Biblical  account  in  Genesis  i.;    the  anthropo- 
logist, however,  will  be  attracted  by  them  in  proportion  as  they 
illustrate  the  more  primitive  phases  of  human  culture.^   In  spite 
of  the  frequent  overgrowth  of  a  luxuriant  imagination,  the  leading 
ideas  of  really  primitive  cosmogonies  are  extremely  simple. 
Creation  out  of  nothing  is  nowhere  thought  of,  for  this  is  not  at 
all  a  simple  idea.     The  pre-existence  of  world-matter  is  assumed ; 
sometimes  too  that  of  heaven,  as  the  seat  of  the  earth-maker, 
and  that  of  preternatural  animals,  his  coadjutors.     The  earth- 
making  process  may,  among  the  less  advanced  races,  be  begun 
by  a  bird,  or  some  other  ammal  (whence  the  term  "  therio- 
morphism  "),  for  the  high  idea  of  a  god  is  impossible,  till  man 
has  fully  realized  his  own  humanity.     Of  course,  the  earth- 
forming  animal  is  a  preternaturally  gifted  one,  and  is  on  the  line 
of  development  towards  that  magnified  man  who,  in  a  later 
stage,  becomes  the  demiurge.1     Between  the    two   comes  the 
animal — man,  i.e.  a  being  who  has  not  yet  shed  the  slough  of 
an  animal  shape,  but  combines  the  powers —  natural  and  preter- 
natural— of  some  animal  with  those  of  a  man.     Let  us  now 
collect  specimens  of  the  evidence  for  different  varieties  of  cos- 
mogony, ranging  from  those  of  the    Red  Indian  tribes  to  that 
of  the  people  of  Israel. 

2.  North  American  Stories. — Theriomorphic  creators  are  most 
fully  attested  for  the  Red  Indian  tribes,  whose  very  backwardness 
renders  them  so  valuable  to  an  anthropologist.     There   is   a 
painted  image  from  Alaska,  now  in  the  museum  of  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  which  represents  such  an  one.     We  see  a  black 
crow  tightly  holding  a  human  mask  which  he  is  in  the  act  of 
incubating.     Let  us  pass  on  to  the  Thlinkit  Indians  of  the  N.W. 
coast.    A  cycle  of  tales  is  devoted  to  a  strange  humorous  being 
called  Yehl  or  Yelch,  i.e.  the  Raven,  miraculously  born,  not  to 
be  wounded,  and  at  once  a  semi-developed  creator  and  a  culture 
hero.2    His  bitter  foe  is  his  uncle;  the  germs  of  dualism  appear 
early.     Like  some  other  culture-heroes,  he  steals  sun,  moon  and 
stars  out  of  a  box,  so  enlightening  the  dark  earth.      These  people 
are  at  any  rate  above  the  Greenlanders,  but  are  surpassed  by 
the  Algonkins  described  by  Nicholas  Perrot  in  1700,  and  by  the 
Iroquois,  whom  the  heroic  Father  Brebeuf  (1593-1649)  learned 
to  know  so  well.3    The  earth-maker  of  the  former  was  called 
Michabo,  i.e.  the  Great  Hare.4    He  is  the  leader  of  some  animals 
on  a  raft  on  a  shoreless  sea.     Three  of  these  in  succession  are 
sent  to  dive  for  a  little  earth.     A  grain  of  sand  is  brought;   out 
of  it  he  makes  an  island  (America?).     Of  the  carcases  of  the 
dead  animals  he  makes  the  present  men  (N.  Americans?).     There 
is  also  a  Flood-story,  an  episode  in  which  has  a  bearing  on  the 

1  Cf.  Miss  Harrison,  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Creek  Religion, 
chaps,  vi.,  vii.,  "  The  Making  of  a  Goddess  and  of  a  God." 

'See  Ratzel,  Hist,  of  Mankind,  ii.  147-148;  Breysig,  Die  Ent- 
stehung  des  Gottesgedankens  (1905),  pp.  10-12. 

•See  Chamberlain,  Journ.  of  American  Folklore,  iv.  208-209 
(analysis  of  Perrot's  account) ;  Brinton,  Myths  of  the  New  World, 
pp.  176-179;  Breysig,  op.  cit.,  pp.  15-20. 

4  On  Michabo  see  Brinton,  op.  cit.  (1876),  pp.  176  ff.,  Essays  of  an 
Americanist  (1890),  p.  132.  This  scholar  holds  that  "Michabo" 
has  properly  nothing  to  do  with  "  Great  Hare,"  but  should  be 
translated  "  the  Great  White  One,"  i.e.  the  light  of  the  dawn.  The 
Algonkins,  however,  thought  otherwise,  and  the  myth  itself  suggests 
a  theriomorphic  earth-maker. 


great  dragon-myth 5  (see  DELUGE).  The  Iroquois  are  in  advance 
of  the  Algonkins;  their  creator-hero  has  no  touch  of  the  animal 
in  him.  Above  the  waters  there  existed  a  heaven,  or  a  heavenly 
earth  (cf.  Mexico,  Babylonia,  Egypt),  through  a  hole  in  which 
Aataentsic  fell  to  the  water.  The  broad  back  of  a  tortoise 
(cf .  §  6)  on  which  a  diving  animal  had  placed  some  mud,  received 
her.  Here,  being  already  pregnant,  she  gave  birth  to  a  daughter, 
who  in  turn  bore  the  twins  Joskeha  and  Tawiscara  (myth  of 
hostile  brothers).  By  his  violence  (cf.  Gen.  xxv.  22)  tie  latter 
killed  his  mother,  out  of  whose  corpse  grew  plants.  Tawiscara 
fled  to  the  west,  where  he  rules  over  the  dead.  Joskeha  made  the 
beasts  and  also  men.  After  acting  as  culture-giver  he  disappeared 
to  the  east,  where  he  is  said  to  dwell  with  his  grandmother  as 
her  husband.6 

3.  Mexican. — The  most   interesting  feature  in  the  Mexican 
cosmology  is  the  theory  of  the  ages  of  the  world.     Greece,  Persia 
and  probably  Babylon,  knew  of  four  such  ages.7    The  Priestly 
Writer  in  the  Pentateuch  also  appears  to  be  acquainted  with  this 
doctrine;  it  is  the  first  of  four  ages  which  begins  with   the 
Creation  and  ends  with  the  Deluge.     The  Mexicans,  however,  are 
said  to  have  assumed  five  ages  called  "  suns."    The  first  was  the 
sun  of  earth;  the  second,  of  fire;  the  third,  of  air;  the  fourth, 
of  water;   the  fifth  (which  is  the  present)  was  unnamed.     Each 
of  these  closed  with  a  physical  catastrophe.8    The  speculations 
which  underlie  the  Mexican  theory  have  not  come  down  to  us. 
For  the  Iranian  parallel,  see  §  8,  and  on  the  Hebrew  Priestly 
Writer,  Gunkel,  Genesis'',  pp.  233  ff. 

4.  Peruvian. — In   Peru,  as  in  Egypt,  the  sun-god  obtained 
universal  homage.     But  there  were  creator-gods  in  the  back- 
ground.    A  theoretical  supremacy  was  accorded  by  the  Incas  to 
Pachacamac,  whose  worship,  like  that  of  Viracocha,  they  appear 
to    have   already    found    when    they    conquered    the    land. 
Pachacamac   means,   in   Quichua,      "world-animator."'    The 
"  philosophers  "  of  Peru  declared  that  he  desired  no  temples  or 
sacrifices,  no  worship  but  that  of  the  heart.     This  is  conceivable; 
Maui,  too,  in  New  Zealand  had  no  temple  or  priests.     But  most 
probably  this  deity  had  another  less  abstract  name,  and  the 
horrible  worship  offered  in  the  one  temple  which  he  really  had 
under  the  Incas,  accorded  with  his  true  cosmic  significance  as  the 
god  of  the  subterranean  fire.     Viracocha  too  had  a  cosmic 
position;     an  old  Peruvian  hymn  calls  him     "  world-former, 
world-animator."10    He  was  connected  with  water.    A  third 
creator  was  Manco  Capac  ("  the  mighty  man  "),  whose  sister  and 
wife  is  called  Mama  Oello,  "  the  mother-egg."     Afterwards,  the 
creator  and  the  mother-egg  became  respectively  the  sun  and  the 
moon,  represented  by  the  Inca  priest-king  and  his  wife,  the 
supposed  descendants  of  Manco  Capac.11    Dualist  ic  tendencies 
were  also  developed.     Las  Casas12  reports  a  story  that  before 
creation  the  creator-god  had  a  bad  son  who  sought,  after  creation, 
to  undo  all  that  his  father  had  done.     Angered  at  this,  his  father 
hurled  him  into  the  sea.     We  need  not  suspect  Christian  in- 
fluences, but  the  parallelism  of  Rev.  xx.  3,  Isa.  xiv.  12,  15,  Ezek. 
xxviii.  16  is  obvious. 

5.  Polynesian. — Polynesia,  that  classic  land  of  mythology,  is 
specially  rich  in  myths  of  creation.     The  Maori  story,  told  by 
Grey  and  others,  of  the  rending  apart  of  Rangi  (  =  Langi,  heaven) 

6  See  Schoolcraft,  Myth  of  Hiawatha  (1856),  pp.  35-39;    and  cf. 
the  myth  of  Manabush,  analysed  in  Journ.  of  Amer.  Folklore,  iv. 
210-213. 

*  The  latest  explanation  of  Joskeha  is  "  dear  little  sprout,"  and  of 
Tawiscara,  "  the  ice-one,"  while  Aataentsic  becomes  "  she  of  the 
swarthy  body."     Hewitt,  Journ.  of  Amer.  Folklore,  x.  68.     Brebeuf 
(1635)  says  that  louskeha  gives  growth  and  fair  weather  (Tylor, 
Prim.  Cult.  i.  294). 

7  See  Jeremias,  Das  Alte  Testament  im  Lichte  des  Alien  Orients, 
p.  121,  i;  Winckler,  Die  Keilinschriften  und  das  Alte  Testament', 

P-  333- 

8  Reville,  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  p.  129. 

*  Garcilasso  el  Inca,  Comment,  de  los  Incas,  lib.  ii.  c.  2;  cf.  Lang, 
The  Making  of  Religion,  pp.  262-270. 

10  Reville,  p.  187. 

11  Rfrville,  p.  158.    Garcilasso  (lib.  i.  c.  18)  says  that  Manco  Capac 
"  taught  the  subject  nations  to  be  men,"  and  also  founded  the 
imperial  city  of  Cuzco  (  =  navel). 

11  De  las  antiquas  gentes  del  Peru  (ed.  1892),  pp.  55,  56. 


2l6 


COSMOGONY 


and  Papa  (earth)  can  be  paralleled  in  China,  India  and  Greece, 
and  more  remotely  in  Egypt  and  Babylonia.  The  son  of  Rangi 
and  Papa  was  Tangaloa  (also  called  Tangaroa  and  Taaroa),  the 
sea-god  and  the  father  of  fishes  and  reptiles.1  In  other  parts  of 
Polynesia  he  is  the  Heaven  God,  to  whom  there  is  no  like,  no 
second.  In  Samoa  he  is  even  called  Tangaloa-Langi  (Tangaloa  = 
heaven).  And  if  he  is  the  sea-god,  we  must  remember  that  there  is 
a  heavenly  as  well  as  an  earthly  ocean;  hence  the  clouds  are 
sometimes  called  Tangaloa's  ships.  It  is  true,  the  popular 
imagery  is  unworthy  of  such  a  god.  Sometimes  he  is  said  to  live 
in  a  shell,  by  throwing  off  which  from  time  to  time  he  increases 
the  world;  or  in  an  egg,  which  at  last  he  breaks  in  pieces;  the 
pieces  are  the  islands.  We  also  hear  that  long  ago  he  hovered  as 
an  enormous  bird  over  the  waters,  and  there  deposited  an  egg. 
The  egg  may  be  either  the  earth  with  the  overarching  vault  of 
heaven  or  (as  in  Egypt — but  this  is  a  later  view)  the  sun.  The 
latter  received  mythical  representation  in  that  most  interesting 
god  (butoriginallyrather  culture-hero)  Maui,  who,  in  New  Zealand 
practically  supplants  Tangaloa,  and  becomes  the  god  of  the  air 
and  of  the  heaven,  the  creator  and  the  causer  of  the  flood.2 
Speculation  opened  the  usual  deep  problem;  whence  came  the 
gods?  It  was  answered  that  Po,  i.e.  darkness,  was  the  begetter 
of  all  things,  even  of  Tangaloa. 

6.  Indian. — India,  however,  is  the  natural  home  of  a  mythology 
recast  by  speculation.     The  classical  specimen  of  an  advanced 
cosmogony  is  to  be  found  in  the  Rig  Veda  (x.  129) ;  it  is  the  hymn 
which  begins,  "  There  then  was  neither  Aught  nor  Naught!"3 
Another  such  cosmogony  is  given  in  Manu.     It  is  "  the  self- 
existent  Lord,"  who,  "  with  a  thought,  created  the  waters,  and 
deposited  in  them  a  seed  which  became  a  golden  egg,  in  which  egg 
he  himself  is  born  as  Brahma,  the  progenitor  of  the  worlds."4 
The  doctrine  of  creation  by  a  thought  is  characteristically  Indian. 
In  the  satapatha  Brahmana  (cf.   DELUGE),  we  meet  again  with 
the  primeval  waters  and  the  world-egg,  and  with  the  famous 
mythological  tortoise-theory,5  also  found  among  the  Algonkins 
(§  2) — antique  beliefs  gathered  up  by  the  framers  of  philosophic 
systems,  who  felt  the  importance  of  maintaining  such  links  with 
the  distant  past. 

7.  Egyptian. — In  Egypt   too   the  systematizers  were  busily 
engaged  in   the  co-ordination  of  myths.     They  retained   the 
belief  that  the  germs  of  all  things  slept  for  ages  within  the  dark 
flood,  personified  as  Nun  or  Nu.     How  they  were  drawn  forth 
was  variously  told.6    In  some  districts  the  demiurge  was  called 
Khnumu;    it  was  he  who  modelled  the  egg  (of  the  world?)  and 
also  man.7     Elsewhere  he  was  the  artizan-god  Ptah,  who  with  his 
hammer  broke  the  egg;    sometimes  Thoth,  the  moon-god  and 
principle  of  intelligence,  who  spoke  the  world  into  existence.8 
A  strange  episode  in  the  legend  of  the  destruction  of  man  by  the 
gods  tells  how  Ra  (or  Re) ,  the  first  king  of  the  world,  finding  in  his 
old  age  that  mankind  ceased  to  respect  him,  first  tried  the  remedy 
of  massacre,  and  then  ascended  the  heavenly  cow,  and  organized 
a  new  world — that  of  heaven.9 

8.  Iranian. — The  Iranian  account  of  creation  10  is  specially 
interesting  because  its  religious  spirit  is  akin  to  that  of  Genesis  i. 
From  a  literary  point  of  view,  indeed,  it  cannot  compare  with  the 
dignified  Hebrew  narrative,   but  considering  the  misfortunes 
which  have  befallen  the  collection  of  Zoroastrian  traditions  now 
represented  by  the  Bundahish  (the  Parsee  Genesis)  we  cannot 
reasonably    be    surprised.     The    work    referred  to  begins  by 

1  See  especially  Waitz-Gerland,  Anthropologie  der  Naturvolker,  vi. 
229-302;    Gill,   Myths  and  Songs  of  the  South  Pacific;    Schirren, 
Wandersagen  der  Neuseeliinder;    also  an  older  work  (Sir  George) 
Grey's  Polynesian  Mythology. 

2  See  Schirren,  op.  cit.,  pp.  64-89. 

3  I.  Muir,  Metrical  Translations,  pp.  188-189. 

4  J.  Muir,  Sanscrit  Texts,  iv.  26. 

6  See  Tylor,  Early  History  of  Mankind,  p.  340 ;  Primitive  Culture, 
\.  329 ;  Oldenberg,  Religion  des  Veda,  pp.  85  f . 

6  See  Maspero,  Dawn  of  Civilization,  p.  127;  also  Brugoch, 
Religion  und  Mythologie  der  alien  Agypter. 

'  See  illustration  in  Maspero,  p.  157. 

8  See  Maspero,  pp.  146-147. 

9  Maspero,  pp.  160-169. 

10  See  ZOROASTER,  and  cf.  Ency.  Bib.,  "  Creation,"  §9;    "  Zoro- 
astrianism,"  §§  20,  21. 


describing  the  state  of  things  in  the  beginning;  the  good  spirit 
in  endless  light  and  omniscient,  and  the  evil  spirit  in  endless 
darkness  and  with  limited  knowledge.  Both  produced  their  own 
creatures,  which  remained  apart,  in  a  spiritual  or  ideal  state,  for 
3000  years,  after  which  the  evil  spirit  began  his  opposition  to  the 
good  creation  under  an  agreement  that  his  power  was  not  to  last 
more  than  9000  years,  of  which  only  the  middle  3000  were  to  see 
him  successful.  By  uttering  a  sacred  formula  the  good  spirit 
throws  the  evil  one  into  a  state  of  confusion  for  a  second  3000 
years,  while  he  produces  the  archangels  and  the  material  creation, 
including  the  sun,  moon  and  stars.  At  the  end  of  that  period  the 
evil  spirit,  encouraged  by  the  demons  he  had  produced,  once 
more  rushes  upon  the  good  creation  to  destroy  it.  The  demons 
carry  on  conflicts  with  each  of  the  six  classes  of  creation,  namely, 
the  sky,  water,  earth,  plants,  animals  represented  by  the  primeval 
ox,  and  mankind  represented  by  Gayomard  or  Kayumarth  (the 
"  first  man  "  of  the  Avesta).11  Four  points  to  be  noticed  here:  (i) 
the  belief  in  the  four  periods  of  the  world,  each  of  3000  years 
(cf.  §  3);. (2).  the  comparative  success  for  a  time  of  Angra 
Mainyu  (the  evil  principle  personified) ;  (3)  the  absence  of  any 
recognition  of  pre-existent  matter;  (4)  the  mention  of  six 
classes  of  good  creatures.  Each  of  these  deserves  a  comment 
which  we  cannot,  however,  here  give,  and  the  third  may  seem 
to  suggest  direct  influence  of  the  Iranian  upon  the  Jewish 
cosmogony.  But  though  there  are  in  Gen.  i.  six  days  of  creative 
activity,  and  the  creative  works  are  not  six,  but  eight,  if  not  ten 
in  number,  and  indirect  Babylonian  influence  is  more  strongly 
indicated.  Jewish  thinkers  would  have  been  attracted  by  the 
emphatic  assertion  of  the  creatorship  of  the  One  God  in  the 
royal  Persian  inscriptions  more  than  by  the  traditional 
cosmogony.  See  further  Ency.  Bib.,  "  Creation,"  §  9. 

9.  Phoenician  and    Greek. — Phoenician    cosmogonies    would 
appear,  from  the  notices  which  have  come  down  to  us,12  to  have 
been  composite.     The  traditions  are  pale  and  obscure.     It  is 
clear,   however,   that   the   primeval  flood   and   the  world-egg 
(out  of  which  came  heaven  and  earth)  are  referred  to.     See 
Ency.  Bib.,   "Creation"   §  7;   "Phoenicia"  §  15;   Lagrange, 
Religions    semitiques,    pp.    351    ff.     Greek    cosmogonies    (the 
orientalism  of  which  is  clear)  will  be  found  in  Hesiod,  Theog. 
1 16  ff . ;  Aristophanes,  Birds,  692  ff. ;  cf .  Clem.  Rom.,  Homil.  vi.  4. 
See  Miss  Harrison,  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Greek  Religion, 
chap.  xii.  "  Orphic  Cosmogony." 

10.  Babylonian  and    Israelitish. — Of    the    Babylonian    and 
Israelitish  cosmogonies  we  have  several  more  or  less  complete 
records.    .For  details  as  to  the  former,  see  BABYLONIAN  AND 
ASSYRIAN  RELIGION.    With  regard  to  thelatter,  wemaynoticethat 
in  Gen.  ii.  46-25  we  have  an  account  of  creation  which,  though  in 
its  present  form  very  incomplete,  is  highly  attractive,  because  it  is 
pervaded  by  a  breath  from  primitive  times.     It  has,  however, 
been  interwoven  with  an  account  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  from 
some  other  source  (see  EDEN;  PARADISE),  and  perhaps  in  order 
to  concentrate  the  attention  of  the  reader,  the  description  of  the 
origin  of  "  earth  and  heaven  "  as  well  as  of  the  plants  and  of  the 
rain,  appears  to  have  been  omitted.     In  fact,  both  the  creation- 
stories  at  the  opening  of  Genesis  must  have  undergone  much 
editorial  manipulation.     Originally,   for  instance,    Gen.   i.    26 
must  have  said  that  man  was  made  out  of  earth;   this  point  of 
contact  between  the  two  cosmogonic  traditions  has,  however, 
been  effaced. 

The  other  narrative,  Gen.  i.  i-ii.  40,  is  a  much  more  complete 
cosmogony,  and  since  the  theory  of  P.  A.  Lagarde  (1887),  which 
ascribes  it  to  Iranian  influence  (see  §  8),  has  no  very  solid  ground, 
whereas  the  theory  which  explains  it  as  largely  Babylonian  is  in 
a  high  degree  plausible,  we  must  now  consider  the  relations 
between  the  Israelitish  and  Babylonian  cosmogonies.  The  short 
account  of  creation  first  translated  in  1890  by  T.  G.  Pinches  is 
distinguished  by  its  non-mythical  character;  in  particular,  the 

11  West,  Pahlavi  Texts  (S.B.E.),  vol.  i.,  introd.  p.  xxiii.    We  need 
not  deny  that,  late  as  the  Bundahish  may  be  as  a  whole,  the  tradi- 
tions which  it  contains  are  often  old. 

12  Fragments  of  older  works  are  cited  by  Philo  of  Byblus   (in 
Eusebius,   Praep.   Bvang.   i.    ip)   and   Mochus  and   Endemus   (in 
Damascius,  De  primis  principiis,  c.  125). 


COSMOPOLITAN— COSSA,  LUIGI 


217 


•dragon  of  chaos  and  darkness  is  conspicuous  by  her  absence. 
This  may  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  dragon  is  also  unmentioned 
in  the  Hebrew  cosmogony;  to  some  writers  the  dragon-element 
may  have  seemed  grotesque  and  inappropriate.  We  must, 
however,  study  this  element  in  the  most  important  Babylonian 
tradition,  even  if  only  for  its  relation  to  non-Semitic  myths  and 
especially  to  some  striking  passages  in  the  Bible  (Isa.  xxvii.  I,  li. 
gb;  Ps.  Ixxiv.  14,  Ixxxix.  10,  n;  Job  iii.  8,  ix.  13,  xxvi.  12,  13; 
Rev.  xii.  3,  4,  xx.  1-3).  One  may  also  be  permitted  to  hold  that 
the  mythic  figure  of  the  dragon,  if  used  poetically,  is  a  highly 
serviceable  one,  and  consider  that  "  in  the  beginning  God  fought 
with  the  dragon,  and  slew  him  "  would  have  formed  an  admirable 
illustration  of  the  passages  just  now  referred  to,  especially  to 
those  in  the  Apocalypse. 

The  student  should,  however,  notice  that  the  dragon-element 
is  not  entirely  unrepresented  even  in  the  priestly  Hebrew  cos- 
mogony. It  is  said  in  Gen.  i.  9,  10,  14,  15,  that  God  divided  the 
primeval  waters  into  two  parts  by  an  intervening  "  firmament  " 
or  "  platform,"  on  which  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  (planets)  were 
placed  to  mark  times  and  to  give  light.  This  division  (cp. 
Ps.  Ixxiv.  13)  is  really  a  pale  version  of  the  old  mythic  statement 
respecting  the  cleaving  of  the  carcase  of  Tiamat  (the  Dragon) 
into  two  parts,  one  of  which  kept  the  upper  waters  from  coming 
down.1  And  we  must  affirm  that  the  technical  term  tt  horn 
(rendered  in  the  English  Bible  "  the  deep  "),  which  evidently 
signifies  the  enveloping  primeval  flood,  and  which  closely 
resembles  Tiamat,  the  name  given  to  the  dragon  or  serpent  in 
the  epic  (cf.  tiamtu  and  tamtu,  Babylonian  words  for  "  the 
ocean  "),  can  only  be  due  to  the  influence — probably  the  very 
early  influence — of  Babylonia. 

But  we  are  far  from  having  exhausted  the  evidence  of  Baby- 
lonian influence  on  the  Hebrew  cosmogony.  The  description  of 
chaos  in  v.  2  not  only  mentions  the  great  water  (tZhom) ,  but  the 
earth,  i.e.  the  earth-matter,  out  of  which  the  earth  and  (potenti- 
ally) its  varied  products  (vv.  9-11),  and  (as  we  know  from  the 
Babylonian  epic)  the  "  firmament  "  or  "  platform  "  of  the 
heaven  were  to  appear.  This  earth-matter  is  called  "  tohu  and 
bohu  ";  there  is  nothing  like  this  phrase  in  the  epic,  but  we  may 
infer  from  Jer.  iv.  23,  where  the  same  phrase  occurs,  that  it 
means  "  devoid  of  living  things."  For  a  commentary  on  this  see 
the  opening  of  the  Babylonian  account  referred  to  above,  which 
refers  to  the  period  of  chaos  as  one  in  which  there  were  neither 
reeds  nor  trees,  and  where  "  the  lands  altogether  were  sea." 
As  to  the  creative  acts,  we  may  admit  that  the  creation  of  light 
does  not  form  one  of  them  in  the  epic  (cf.  Gen.  i.  3),  but  the 
existence  of  light  apart  from  the  sun  is  presupposed;  Marduk 
the  creator  is  in  fact  a  god  of  light.  Nor  ought  we  to  find  a 
discrepancy  between  the  Babylonian  and  the  Hebrew  accounts 
in  the  creation  of  the  heavenly  bodies  after  the  plants,  related 
in  Gen.  i.  14-18.  For  the  position  of  this  creative  act  is  due  to  the 
necessity  of  bringing  all  the  divine  acts  into  the  framework  of 
six  working  days.  On  the  whole,  the  Hebrew  statement  of 
the  successive  stages  of  creation  corresponds  so  nearly  to  that  in 
the  Babylonian  epic  that  we  are  bound  to  assume  that  one  has 
been  influenced  by  the  other.  And  if  we  are  asked, "  Which  is  the 
more  original  ?  "  we  answer  by  appealing  to  the  well-established 
fact  of  the  profound  influence  of  Babylonian  culture  upon  Canaan 
in  remote  times  (see  CANAAN).  An  important  element  in  this 
culture  would  be  mythic  representations  of  the  origin  of  things, 
such  as  the  Babylonian  Creation  and  Deluge-stories  in  various 
forms.  Indeed,  not  only  Canaan  but  all  the  neighbouring 
regions  must  have  been  pervaded  by  Babylonian  views  of  the 
universe  and  its  origin.  Myths  of  origins  there  must  indeed  have 
been  in  those  countries  before  Babylonian  influence  became  so 
overpowering,  but,  if  so,  these  myths  must  have  become  recast 
when  the  great  Teacher  of  the  Nations  half-attracted  and  half- 
compelled  attention.  More  than  this  we  need  not  assert. 
Zimmern's  somewhat  different  treatment  of  the  subject  in  Ency. 
Biblica,  "  Creation,"  §  4,  may  be  compared. 

Popular  writers  are  in  some  danger  of  misrepresenting  this 
important  result.  It  is  tempting,  but  incorrect,  to  suppose  that 
'See  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  428. 


a  docile  Israelitish  writer  accepted  one  of  the  chief  forms  of  the 
Babylonian  cosmogony,  merely  omitting  its  polytheism  and 
substituting  "  Yahweh  "  for  "  Marduk."  As  we  have  seen, 
various  myths  of  Creation  may  have  been  current  both  in  N. 
Arabia  (whence  the  Israelites  may  have  come)  and  in  Canaan 
prior  to  the  great  extension  of  Babylonian  influence.  These 
myths  doubtless  had  peculiarities  of  their  own.  From  one  of 
them  may  have  come  that  remarkable  statement  in  Gen.  i.  2b, 
"  and  the  spirit  of  God  (Elohim)  was  hovering  over  the  face  of 
the  waters,"  which,  until  we  find  some  similar  myth  nearer 
home,  is  best  illustrated  and  explained  by  a  Polynesian  myth 
(see  Cheyne,  Traditions  and  Beliefs  of  Ancient  Israel,  ad  loc.). 
It  is  also  probably  to  a  non-Babylonian  source  that  we  owe  the 
prescription  of  vegetarian  or  herb  diet  in  Gen.  i.  29,  30,  which 
has  a  Zoroastrian  parallel 2  and  is  evidently  based  on  a  myth  of 
the  Golden  Age,  independent  of  the  Babylonian  cosmogony. 
Gen.  i.,  therefore,  has  not,  as  it  stands,  been  directly  borrowed 
from  Babylonia,  and  yet  the  infused  Babylonian  element  is  so 
considerable  that  the  story  is,  in  a  purely  formal  aspect, 
much  more  Babylonian  than  either  Israelitish  or  Canaanitish  or 
N.  Arabian.  We  say  "  in  a  purely  formal  aspect,"  because  the 
strictness  with  which  Babylonian  mythic  elements  have  been 
adapted  in  Gen.  i.  to  the  wants  of  a  virtually  monotheistic 
community  is  in  the  highest  degree  remarkable. 

On  the  literary  scheme  of  the  Creation-story  in  Gen.  i.  see  the 
commentaries  (e.g.  Dillman's  and  Driver's).  On  the  other  Old 
Testament  references  to  creation,  and  on  the  prophetic  doctrine  of 
creation,  see  Ency.  Bib.,  "  Creation,"  §§  27-29.  On  the  traces  of 
dragon  and  serpent  myths  in  the  Old  Testament  and  their  signifi- 
cance, see  Gunkel,  Schopfung  und  Chaos  (1895) — a  pioneering  work 
of  the  highest  merit — and  Ency.  Bib.,  "  Behemoth,"  "  Dragon," 
"  Rahab,"  "  Serpent."  On  the  connexion  of  the  Creation  and  the 
Deluge-stories,  see  DELUGE.  Cf.  also  the  article  on  BABYLONIAN 
AND  ASSYRIAN  RELIGION;  and  Cheyne,  Traditions  and  Beliefs  of 
Ancient  Israel  (1907).  (T.  K.  C.) 

COSMOPOLITAN  (Gr.  KOOIUK,  world,  and  TroXurjs,  citizen), 
of  or  belonging  to  a  "  citizen  of  the  world,"  i.e.  one  whose 
sympathies,  interests,  whether  commercial,  political  or  social, 
and  culture  are  not  confined  to  the  nation  or  race  to  which  he 
may  belong,  opposed  therefore  to  "  national  "  or  "  insular." 
As  an  attribute  the  word  may  be  applied  to  a  cultured  man  of 
the  world,  who  has  travelled  widely  and  is  at  home  in  many  forms 
of  civilization,  to  such  races  as  the  Jewish,  scattered  through  the 
civilized  world,  yet  keeping  beneath  their  cosmopolitanism  the 
racial  type  pure,  and  also  to  mark  a  profound  line  of  cleavage  in 
economic  and  political  thought. 

COSNE,  a  town  of  central  France,  capital  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Nievre,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire  at 
its  junction  with  the  Nohain,  37  m.  N.N.W.  of  Nevers  by  the 
Paris-Lyon  railway.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  5750;  commune,  8437. 
Two  suspension  bridges  unite  it  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire. 
The  church  of  St  Aignan  is  a  building  of  the  I2th  century, 
restored  in  the  i6th  and  i8th  centuries;  the  only  portions  in 
the  Romanesque  style  are  the  apse  and  the  north-west  portal. 
It  formerly  belonged  to  a  Benedictine  priory  depending  on  the 
abbey  of  La  Charite  (Nievre).  The  manufacture  of  files,  flour- 
milling  and  tanning  are  carried  on  in  the  town  which  has  a 
subprefecture,  a  tribunal  of  first  instance  and  a  communal 
college.  Cosne  is  mentioned  in  the  Antonine  Itinerary  under 
the  name  of  Condate,  but  it  was  not  till  the  middle  ages  that  it 
rose  into  importance  as  a  military  post.  In  the  izth  century 
the  bishop  of  Auxerre  and  the  count  of  Nevers  agreed  to  a 
division  of  the  supremacy  over  the  town  and  its  territory. 

COSSA,  LUIGI  (1831-1896),  Italian  economist,  was  born  at 
Milan  on  the  27th  of  May  1831.  Educated  at  the  universities 
of  Pavia,  Vienna  and  Leipzig,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
political  economy  at  Pavia  in  1858.  He  died  at  Pavia  on  the 
loth  of  May  1896.  Cossa  was  the  author  of  several  works  which 
established  for  him  a  high  reputation;  including  Scienza  delle 
finanze  (1875,  English  translation  1888  under  title  Taxation, 
Us  Principles  and  Methods);  Guida  olio  studio  dell'  economia 
politica  (1876,  English  translation  1880),  an  admirable  com- 
pendium of  the  theoretical  preliminaries  of  economics,  with  a 
1  See  Bundahish,  xv.  2  (S.B.E.,  v.  53). 


2l8 


COSSA,  PIETRO— COSSIMBAZAR 


brief  critical  history  of  the  science  and  an  excellent  bibliography; 
Introduzione  allo  sludio  dell'  economics  politico.  (1876,  English 
translation  by  L.  Dyer,  1893);  and  Saggi  di  economia  politico,, 
1878. 

COSSA,  PIETRO  (1830-1880),  Italian  dramatist,  was  born 
at  Rome  in  1830,  and  claimed  descent  from  the  family  of  Pope 
John  XXIII.,  deposed  by  the  council  of  Constance.  He  mani- 
fested an  independent  spirit  from  his  youth,  and  was  expelled 
frcm  a  Jesuit  school  on  the  double  charge  of  indocility  and 
patriotism.  After  fighting  for  the  Roman  republic  in  1849,  he 
emigrated  to  South  America,  but  failing  to  establish  himself 
returned  to  Italy,  and  lived  precariously  as  a  literary  man  until 
1870,  when  his  reputation  was  established  by  the  unexpected 
success  of  his  first  acted  tragedy,  Nero.  From  this  time  to  his 
death  in  1880  Cossa  continued  to  produce  a  play  a  year,  usually 
upon  some  classical  subject.  Cleopatra,  Messalina,  Julian, 
enjoyed  great  popularity,  and  his  dramas  on  subjects  derived 
from  Italian  history,  Rienzi  and  The  Borgias,  were  also  successful. 
Plautus,  a  comedy,  was  preferred  by  the  author  himself,  and  is 
more  original.  Cossa  had  neither  the  divination  which  would 
have  enabled  him  to  reconstruct  the  ancient  world,  nor  the 
imagination  which  would  have  enabled  him  to  idealize  it.  But 
he  was  an  energetic  writer,  never  tame  or  languid,  and  at  the 
same  time  able  to  command  the  attention  of  an  audience  without 
recourse  to  melodramatic  artifice;  while  his  sonorous  verse, 
if  scarcely  able  to  support  the  ordeal  of  the  closet,  is  sufficiently 
near  to  poetry  for  the  purposes  of  the  stage. 

His  collected  Teatro  poetico  was  published  in  1887. 

COSSACKS  (Russ.  Kazak;  plural,  Kazaki,  from  the  Turki 
quzzaq,  "  adventurer,  free-booter  "),  the  name  given  to  consider- 
able portions  of  the  population  of  the  Russian  empire,  endowed 
with  certain  special  privileges,  and  bound  in  return  to  give 
military  service,  all  at  a  certain  age,  under  special  conditions. 
They  constitute  ten  separate  voiskos,  settled  along  the  frontiers: 
Don,  Kuban,  Terek,  Astrakhan,  Ural,  Orenburg,  Siberian, 
Semiryechensk,  Amur  and  Usuri.  The  primary  unit  of  this 
organization  is  the  stanitsa,  or  village,  which  holds  its  land  as 
a  commune,  and  may  allow  persons  who  are  not  Cossacks 
(excepting  Jews)  to  settle  on  this  land  for  payment  of  a  certain 
rent.  The  assembly  of  all  householders  in  villages  of  less  than 
30  households,  and  of  30  elected  men  in  villages  having  from 
30  to  300  households  (o'ne  from  each  10  households  in  the  more 
populous  ones),  constitutes  the  village  assembly,  similar  to  the 
mir,  but  having  wider  attributes,  which  assesses  the  taxes, 
divides  the  land,  takes  measures  for  the  opening  and  support 
of  schools,  village  grain-stores,  communal  cultivation,  and  so 
on,  and  elects  its  ataman  (elder)  and  its  judges,  who  settle  all 
disputes  up  to  £10  (or  above  that  sum  with  the  consent  of  both 
sides).  Military  service  is  obligatory  for  all  men,  for  20  years, 
beginning  with  the  age  of  18.  The  first  3  years  are  passed  in 
the  preliminary  division,  the  next  12  in  active  service,  and 
the  last  5  years  in  the  reserve.  Every  Cossack  is  bound  to 
procure  his  own  uniform,  equipment  and  horse  (if  mounted) — 
the  government  supplying  only  the  arms.  Those  on  ac  ti ve  service 
arc  divided  into  three  equal  parts  according  to  age,  and  the  first 
third  only  is  in  real  service,  while  the  two  others  stay  at  home, 
but  are  bound  to  march  out  as  soon  as  an  order  is  given.  The 
officers  are  supplied  in  the  usual  way  by  the  military  schools, 
in  which  all  Cossack  voiskos  have  their  own  vacancies,  or  are 
non-commissioned  Cossack  officers,  with  officers'  grades.  In 
return  for  this  service  the  Cossacks  have  received  from  the 
state  considerable  grants  of  land  for  each  voisko  separately. 

The  total  Cossack  population  in  1893  was  2,648,049  (1,331,470 
women),  and  they  owned  nearly  146,500,000  acres  of  land,  of 
which  105,000,000  acres  were  arable  and  9,400,000  under  forests. 
This  land  was  divided  between  the  stanitsas,  at  the  rate  of  81 
acres  per  each  soul,  with  special  grants  to  officers  (personal  to 
some  of  them,  in  lieu  of  pensions),  and  leaving  about  one-third 
of  the  land  as  a  reserve  for  the  future.  The  income  which  the 
Cossack  voiskos  receive  from  the  lands  which  they  rent  to  different 
persons,  also  from  various  sources  (trade  patents,  rents  of  shops, 
fisheries,  permits  of  gold-digging,  &c.),  as  also  from  the  subsidies 


they  receive  from  the  government  (about  £712,500  in  1893),  is 
used  to  cover  all  the  expenses  of  state  and  local  administration. 
They  have  besides  a  special  reserve  capital  of  about  £2,600,000. 
The  expenditure  of  the  village  administration  is  covered  by 
village  taxes.  The  general  administration  is  kept  separately 
for  each  voisko,  and  differs  with  the  different  voiskos.  The  central 
administration,  at  the  Ministry  of  War,  is  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives of  each  voisko,  who  discuss  the  proposals  of  all  new 
laws  affecting  the  Cossacks.  In  time  of  war  the  ten  Cossack 
voiskos  are  bound  to  supply  890  mounted  sotnias  or  squadrons 
(of  125  men  each),  108  infantry  sotnias  or  companies  (same 
number),  and  236  guns,  representing  4267  officers  and  177,100 
men,  with  170,695  horses.  In  time  of  peace  they  keep  314 
squadrons,  54  infantry  sotnias,  and  20  batteries  containing  108 
guns  (2574 officers,  60,532  men,  50,054  horses).  Altogether,  the 
Cossacks  have  328,705  men  ready  to  take  arms  in  case  of  need. 
As  a  rule,  popular  education  amongst  the  Cossacks  stands  at  a 
higher  level  than  in  the  remainder  of  Russia.  They  have  more 
schools  and  a  greater  proportion  of  their  children  go  to  school. 
In  addition  to  agriculture,  which  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Usuri  Cossacks)  is  sufficient  to  supply  their  needs  and  usually 
to  leave  a  certain  surplus,  they  carry  on  extensive  cattle  and  horse 
breeding,  vine  culture  in  Caucasia,  fishing  on  the  Don,  the  Ural, 
and  the  Caspian,  hunting,  bee-culture,  &c.  The  extraction  of 
coal,  gold  and  other  minerals  which  are  found  on  their  territories 
is  mostly  rented  to  strangers,  who  also  own  most  factories. 

A  military  organization  similar- to  that  of  the  Cossacks  has  been 
introduced  into  certain  districts,  which  supply  a  number  of 
mounted  infantry  solnias.  Their  peace-footing  is  as  follows: — 
Daghestan,  6  regular  squadrons  and  3  of  militia;  Kuban 
Circassians,  i  sotnia;  Terek,  8  sotnias;  Kars,  3  solnias;  Batum, 
2  infantry  and  i  mounted  sotnia;  Turkomans,  3  sotnias;  total, 
25  squadrons  and  2  companies. 

For  the  origin  and  history  of  the  Cossacks  see  POLAND:  History, 
and  the  biographies  of  Razin,  Chmielnicki  and  Mazepa.  (P.  A.  K.) 

COSSIMBAZAR,  or  KASIMBAZAR,  a  decayed  town  on  the  river 
Bhagirathi  in  the  Murshidabad  district  of  Bengal,  India,  now 
included  in  the  Berhampur  municipality.  Pop.  (1901)  1262. 
Though  the  history  of  the  place  cannot  be  traced  back  earlier 
than  the  i?th  century,  it  was  of  great  importance  long  before  the 
foundation  of  Murshidabad.  From  the  firct  European  traders  set 
up  factories  here,  and  after  the  ruin  of  Satgaon  by  the  silting  up 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Saraswati  it  gained  a  position,  as  the  great 
trading  centre  of  Bengal,  which  was  not  challenged  until  after  the 
foundation  of  Calcutta.  In  1658  the  first  English  agent  was 
established  at  Cossimbazar,  and  in  1667  the  chief  of  the  factory 
there  became  an  ex-officio  member  of  council.  In  English  docu- 
ments of  this  period,  and  till  the  early  igth  century,  the  Bhagi- 
rathi was  described  as  the  Cossimbazar  river,  and  the  triangular 
piece  of  land  between  the  Bhagirathi,  Padma  and  Jalangi,  on 
which  the  city  stands,  as  the  island  of  Cossimbazar.  The 
proximity  of  the  factory  to  Murshidabad,  the  Mahommedan 
capital,  while  it  was  the  main  source  of  its  wealth  and  of  its 
political  importance,  exposed  it  to  constant  danger.  Thus  in 
1757  it  was  the  first  to  be  taken  by  Suraj-ud-dowlah,  the  nawab; 
and  the  resident  with  his  assistant  (Warren  Hastings)  were  taken 
as  prisoners  to  Murshidabad. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  the  city  still  flourished; 
so  late  as  1811  it  was  described  as  famous  for  its  silks,  hosiery, 
koras  and  beautiful  ivory  work.  But  an  insidious  change  in  its 
once  healthy  climate  had  begun  to  work  its  decay;  the  area  of 
cultivated  land  round  it  had  shrunk  to  vanishing  point,  jungle 
haunted  by  wild  beasts  taking  its  place;  and  in  1813  its  ruin 
was  completed  by  a  sudden  change  in  the  course  of  the  Bhagi- 
rathi, which  formed  a  new  channel  3  m.  from  the  old  town, 
leaving  an  evil-smelling  swamp  around  the  ancient  wharves. 
Of  its  splendid  buildings  the  fine  palace  of  the  maharaja  of 
Cossimbazar  alone  remains,  the  rest  being  in  ruins  or  represented 
only  by  great  mounds  of  earth.  The  first  wife  of  Warren 
Hastings  was  buried  at  Cossimbazar,  where  her  tomb  with  its 
inscription  still  remains. 

See  Imp.  Gaz.  of  India  (Oxford,  1908),  s.v. 


COSTA— COSTA  RICA 


219 


COSTA,  GIOVANNI  (1826-1903),  Italian  painter,  was  born  in 
Rome.  He  fought  under  Garibaldi  in  1848,  and  served  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  war  of  1859;  and  his  enthusiasm  for  Italian 
unity  was  actively  shown  again  in  1870,  when  he  was  the  first  to 
mount  the  breach  in  the  assault  of  Rome  near  the  Porta  Pia. 
He  had  settled  meanwhile  at  Florence,  where  his  fight  for  the 
independence  of  art  from  worn-out  traditions  was  no  less 
strenuous,  and  he  became  known  as  a  landscape-painter  of 
remarkable  originality,  and  of  great  influence  in  the  return  to 
minute  observation  of  nature.  He  had  many  English  friends  and 
followers,  notably  Matthew  Ridley  Corbet  (1850-1902),  and 
Lord  Carlisle,  and  was  closely  associated  with  Corot  and  the 
Barbizon  school.  In  later  years  he  lived  and  worked  mainly  in 
Rome,  where  his  studio  was  an  important  centre.  An  exhibition 
of  his  pictures  was  held  in  London  in  1904,  and  he  is  represented 
in  the  Tate  Gallery.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1903. 

See  also  Madame  Agresti's  Giovanni  Costa  (1904). 

COSTA,  LORENZO  (1460-1535),  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Ferrara,  but  went  in  early  life  to  Bologna  and  ranks  with  the 
Bolognese  school.  In  1438  he  painted  his  famous  "  Madonna 
and  Child  with  the  Bentivoglio  family,"  and  other  frescoes,  on 
the  walls  of  the  Bentivoglio  chapel  in  San  Giacomo  Maggiore,  and 
he  followed  this  with  many  other  works.  He  was  a  great  friend  of 
Francia,  who  was  much  influenced  by  him.  In  1509  he  went  to 
Mantua,  where  his  patron  was  the  Marquis  Francesco  Gonzaga, 
and  he  eventually  died  there.  His  "  Madonna  and  Child  en- 
throned "  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  but  his  chief  works 
are  at  Bologna.  His  sons,  Ippolito  (1506-1561)  and  Girolamo, 
were  also  painters,  and  so  was  Girolamo's  son  Lorenzo  the 
younger  (1537-1583)- 

COSTA,  SIR  MICHAEL  ANDREW  AGNUS  (1808-1884), 
British  musical  conductor  and  composer,  the  son  of  Cavaliere 
Pasquale  Costa,  a  Spaniard,  was  born  at  Naples  on  the  i4th  of 
February  1808.  Here  he  became  at  an  early  age  a  scholar  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Music.  His  cantata  Ulmmagine  was  composed 
when  he  was  fifteen.  In  1826  he  wrote  his  first  opera  //  Delilto 
Punito;  in  1827  another  opera  //  sospetto  funesto.  To  this 
period  belong  also  his  oratorio  La  Passione,  a  grand  Mass  for 
four  voices,  a  Dixit  Dominus,  and  three  symphonies.  The  opera 
II  Carcere  d'lldegonda  was  composed  in  1828  for  the  Teatro 
Nuovo,  and  in  1829  Costa  wrote  his  Mahina  for  Barbaja,  the 
impresario  of  San  Carlo.  In  this  latter  year  he  visited  Birming- 
ham to  conduct  Zingarelli's  Cantata  Sacra,  a  setting  of  some 
verses  from  Isaiah  ch.  xii.  Instead,  however,  of  conducting,  he 
sang  the  tenor  part.  In  1830  he  settled  in  London,  having  a 
connexion  with  the  King's  theatre.  His  ballet  Kenilworth  was 
written  in  1831,  the  ballet  Une  Heure  a  Naples  in  1832,  and  the 
ballet  Sir  Huon  (composed  for  Taglioni)  in  1833.  In  this  latter 
year  he  wrote  his  famous  quartet  Ecco  quel  fiero  istante. 
Malek  Adhel,  an  opera,  was  produced  in  Paris  in  1837.  In  1842 
he  wrote  the  ballet  music  of  Alma  for  Cerito,  and  in  1844  his  opera 
Don  Carlos  was  produced  in  London.  Costa  became  a  naturalized 
Englishman  and  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1869.  He 
conducted  the  opera  at  Her  Majesty's  from  1832  till  1846,  when 
he  seceded  to  the  Italian  Opera  at  Covent  Garden;  he  was 
conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  from  1846  to  1854,  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society  from  1848,  and  of  the  Birmingham 
festival  from  1849.  In  1855  Costa  wrote  Eli,  and  in  1864 
Naaman,  both  for  Birmingham.  Meanwhile  he  had  conducted 
the  Bradford  (1853)  and  Handel  festivals  (1857-1880),  and  the 
Leeds  festivals  from  1874  to  1880.  On  the  2gth  of  April  1884  he 
died  at  Brighton.  Costa  was  the  great  conductor  of  his  day,  but 
both  his  musical  and  his  human  sympathies  were  somewhat 
limited;  his  compositions  have  passed  into  oblivion,  with  the 
exception  of  the  least  admirable  of  them — his  arrangement  of  the 
national  anthem. 

COSTAKI,  ANTHOPOULOS  (1835-1902),  Turkish  pasha,  was 
born  in  1835.  He  became  a  professor  at  the  Turkish  naval 
college;  then  entered  the  legal  branch  of  the  Turkish  service, 
rising  to  the  post  of  procureur  imperial  at  the  court  of  cassation. 
He  was  governor-general  of  Crete;  and  in  1895  was  appointed 
Ottoman  ambassador  in  London,  a  post  which  he  continued  to 


hold  until  his  death  at  Constantinople  in  1902.  He  bore  through- 
out his  career  the  reputation  of  an  intelligent  and  upright  public 
servant. 

COSTANZO,  ANGELO  DI  (c  1507-1591),  Italian  historian  and 
poet,  was  born  at  Naples  about  1507.  He  lived  in  a  literary 
circle,  and  fe.l  in  love  with  the  beautiful  Vittoria  Colonna.  His 
great  work,  Le  Istorie  del  regno  di  Napoli  dal  1250  fino  al  1498, 
first  appeared  at  Naples  in  1572,  and  was  the  fruit  of  thirty  or 
forty  years'  labour;  but  nine  more  years  were  devoted  to  the 
task  before  it  was  issued  in  its  final  form  at  Aquila  (1581).  It 
is  still  one  of  the  best  histories  of  Naples,  and  the  style  is  dis- 
tinguished by  clearness,  simplicity  and  elegance.  The  Rime  of 
di  Costanzo  are  remarkable  for  finical  taste,  for  polish  and 
frequent  beauty  of  expression,  and  for  strict  obedience  to  the 
poetical  canons  of  his  time. 

See  G.  Tiraboschi,  Storia  delta  letteratura  italiana,  vol.  vii.  (Flor- 
ence, 1812). 

COSTA  RICA,  a  republic  of  Central  America,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Nicaragua,  E.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  S.E.  and  S.by  Panama, 
S. W. ,  W.  and  N. W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  (For  map,  see  CENTRAL 
AMERICA.)  The  territory  thus  enclosed  has  an  area  of  about 
18,500  sq.  m.,  and  may  be  roughly  described  as  an  elevated 
tableland,  intersected  by  lofty  mountain  ranges,  with  their  main 
axis  trending  from  N.W.  to  S.E.  It  is  fringed,  along  the  coasts, 
by  low-lying  marshes  and  lagoons,  alternating  with  tracts  of 
rich  soil  and  wastes  of  sand. 

Physical  Description. — The  northern  frontier,  drawn  2  m.  S.  of 
the  southern  shores  of  the  river  San  Juan  and  of  Lake  Nicaragua, 
terminates  at  Salinas  Bay  on  the  Pacific;  its  southern  frontier 
skirts  the  valley  of  the  Sixola  or  Tiliri,  strikes  south-east  along  the 
crests  of  the  Talamanca  Mountains  as  far  as  9°  N.,  and  then  turns 
sharply  south,  ending  in  Burica  Point.  The  monotonous  Atlantic 
littoral  is  unbroken  by  any  large  inlet  or  estuary,  and  thus 
contrasts  in  a  striking  manner  with  the  varied  outlines  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  which  includes  the  three  bold  promontories  of 
Nicoya,  Golfo  Dulce  and  Burica,  besides  the  broad  sweep  of 
Coronada  Bay  and  several  small  harbours.  The  Gulf  of  Nicoya, 
a  shallow  landlocked  inlet,  containing  a  whole  archipelago  of 
richly-wooded  islets,  derives  its  name  from  Nicoya,  an  Indian 
chief  who,  with  his  tribe,  was  here  converted  to  Christianity  in  the 
i6th  century.  It  is  famous  for  its  purple-yielding  murex,  pearls 
and  mother-of-pearl.  The  Golfo  Dulce  has  an  average  depth  of 
100  fathoms  and  contains  no  islands.  Two  volcanic  Cordilleras 
or  mountain  chains,  separated  from  one  another  by  the  central 
plateau  of  San  Jose  and  Cartago,  traverse  the  interior  of  Costa 
Rica,  and  form  a  single  watershed,  often  precipitous  on  its 
Pacific  slope,  but  descending  more  gradually  towards  the  Atlantic, 
where  there  is  a  broad  expanse  of  plain  in  the  north-east.  The 
more  northerly  range,  in  which  volcanic  disturbances  on  a  great 
scale  have  been  comparatively  recent,  extends  transversely 
across  the  country,  from  a  point  a  little  south  of  Salinas  Bay, 
to  the  headland  of  Carreta,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  also  known  as  Monkey  Point.  Its  direction  changes 
from  south-east  to  east-south-east  opposite  to  the  entrance  into 
the  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  where  it  is  cut  into  two  sections  by  a  depres- 
sion some  20  m.  wide.  At  first  it  is  rather  a  succession  of  isolated 
volcanic  cones  than  a  continuous  ridge,  the  most  conspicuous 
peaks  being  Orosi  (5185  ft.),  the  four-crested  Rincon  de  la  Vieja 
(4500),  Miravalles  (4698)  and  Tenorio  (6800).  In  this  region  it 
is  known  as  the  Sierra  de  Tilaran.  Then  succeed  the  Cerros  de 
los  Guatusos,  a  highland  stretching  for  more  than  50  m.  without 
a  single  volcano.  Poas  (8895),  the  scene  of  a  violent  eruption  in 
1834,  begins  a  fresh  series  of  igneous  peaks,  some  with  flooded 
craters,  some  with  a  constant  escape  of  smoke  and  vapour. 
From  Irazu  (11,200),  the  culminating  point  of  the  range,  both 
oceans  and  the  whole  of  Costa  Rica  are  visible;  its  altitude 
exceeds  that  of  Aneto,  the  highest  point  in  the  Pyrenees,  but  so 
gradual  is  its  acclivity  that  the  summit  can  easily  be  reached  by  a 
man  on  horseback.  Turialba  (10,910),  adjoining  Irazu  on  the  east, 
was  in  eruption  in  1866.  Its  name,  though  probably  of  Indian 
origin,  is  sometimes  written  Turrialba,  and  connected  with  the 
Latin  Turris  Alba,  "  White  Tower."  The  more  southerly  of 


220 


COSTA  RICA 


the  two  Costa  Rican  ranges,  known  as  the  Cordillera  de  Tala- 
manca,  rises  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  and  extends  midway 
between  the  two  oceans  towards  the  south-east.  It  follows 
exactly  the  curve  of  the  mainland,  and  is  continued  into  Panama, 
under  the  name  of  the  Cordillera  de  Chiriqui.  Its  chief  summits 
are  Chirripo  Grande  (11,485),  the  loftiest  in  the  whole  country, 
Buena  Vista  (10,820),  Ujum  (8695),  Pico  Blanco  (9645)  and 
Rovalo  (7050),  on  the  borders  of  Panama.  Throughout  the 
volcanic  area  earthquakes  and  landslides  are  of  frequent 
occurrence. ' 

The  narrowness  of  the  level  ground  between  the  mountains 
and  the  sea  renders  almost  impossible  the  formation  of  any 
navigable  river.  The  most  important  streams  are  those  of  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  notably  the  San  Juan,  which  drains  Lake 
Nicaragua.  Issuing  from  the  lake  within  Nicaraguan  territory,  the 
San  Juan  has  a  course  of  95  m.,  mostly  along  the  frontier,  to  the 
Colorado  Mouth,  which  is  its  main  outfall,  and  belongs  wholly 
to  Costa  Rica.  Its  chief  right-hand  tributaries  are  the  San  Carlos 
and  Sarapiqui.  The  Reventazon,  or  Parismina,  flows  from  the 
central  plateau  to  the  Caribbean  Sea;  despite  the  shortness  of 
its  valley,  its  volume  is  considerable,  owing  to  the  prevalence 
of  moist  trade-winds  near  its  sources.  Six  small  streams  and  one 
large  river,  the  Rio  Frio,  flow  across  the  northern  frontier  into 
Lake  Nicaragua.  On  the  Pacific  coast  all  the  rivers  are  rapid 
and  liable  to  sudden  floods.  None  is  large,  although  three  bear 
the  prefix  Rio  Grande,  "great  river."  The  Tempisque  enters 
the  Pacific  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  and  tends  to  silt 
up  that  already  shallow  inlet  (5-10  fathoms)  with  its  alluvial 
deposits.  The  Rio  Grande  de  Tarcoles  also  enters  the  gulf,  and 
the  Rio  Grande  de  Pirris  and  Rio  Grande  de  Terrabis  or  Diquis 
flow  into  Coronada  Bay.  The  Rio  Grande  de  Tarcoles  rises 
close  to  the  Ochomogo  Pass  and  the  sources  of  the  Reventazon, 
at  the  base  of  Irazu;  and  the  headwaters  of  these  two  streams 
indicate  precisely  the  depression  in  the  central  plateau  which 
severs  the  northern  from  the  southern  mountains. 

Costa  Rica  is  not  differentiated  from  the  neighbouring  lands 
by  any  very  marked  peculiarities  of  geological  formation,  or  of 
plant  and  animal  life.  Its  geology,  flora  and  fauna  are  therefore 
described  under  CENTRAL  AMERICA  (q.v.). 

Climate. — Owing  to  the  proximity  of  two  oceans,  and  the  varied 
configuration  of  the  surface  of  Costa  Rica,  an  area  of  a  few  square 
miles  may  exhibit  the  most  striking  extremes  of  climate;  but, 
over  the  entire  country,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  three  climatic 
zones — tropical,  temperate  and  cold.  These  generally  succeed 
one  another  as  the  altitude  increases,  although  the  heat  is 
greater  at  the  same  elevation  on  the  Pacific  than  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  It  is,  however,  less  oppressive,  as  cool  breezes  prevail 
and  damp  is  comparatively  rare.  The  tropical  zone  comprises 
the  coast  and  the  foothills,  and  ranges,  in  its  mean  annual 
temperature,  from  72°  F.  to  82°.  In  the  San  Jose  plateau 
(3000-5000  ft.),  which  is  the  most  densely  populated  portion  of 
the  temperate  zone,  the  average  is  68°,  with  an  average  variation 
for  all  seasons  of  only  5°.  Above  7500  ft.  frosts  are  frequent,  but 
snow  rarely  falls.  The  wet  season,  lasting  during  the  prevalence 
of  the  south-west  monsoon,  from  April  to  December,  is  clearly 
defined  on  the  Pacific  slope.  It  is  curiously  interrupted  by  a 
fortnight  of  dry  weather,  known  as  the  Veranillo  de  San  Juan, 
in  June.  Towards  the  Atlantic  the  trade-winds  may  bring  rain 
in  any  month.  Winter  lasts  from  December  to  February. 
The  normal  rainfall  is  about  80  in.,  but  as  cloud-bursts  are 
common,  it  may  rise  to  150  in.  or  even  more.  Rheumatism 
on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  malaria  on  both  coasts,  are  the 
commonest  forms  of  disease;  but,  as  a  whole,  Costa  Rica  is  one 
of  the  healthiest  of  tropical  lands. 

Population. — In  1004,  according  to  the  official  returns,  the 
total  population  numbered  331,340;  having  increased  by  more 
than  one-fourth  in  a  decade.  Spanish,  with  various  modifications 
of  dialect,  and  the  introduction  of  many  Indian  words,  is  the 
principal  language;  and  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  claim 
descent  from  the  Spanish  colonists — chiefly  Galicians — who 
came  hither  during  the  i6th  and  subsequent  centuries.  The 
percentage  of  Spanish  blood  is  greater  than  in  the  other  Central 


American  republics;  but  there  is  also  a  large  population  of 
half-castes  (ladinos  or  mestizos)  due  to  intermarriage  with  native 
Indians.  The  resident  foreigners,  who  are  mostly  Spaniards, 
Italians,  Germans  and  British  subjects,  numbered  less  than  8000 
in  1904;  immigration  is,  however,  encouraged  by  the  easy  terms 
on  which  land  can  be  purchased  from  the  state.  The  native 
Indians,  though  exterminated  in  many  districts,  and  civilized 
in  others,  remain  in  a  condition  of  complete  savagery  along  parts 
of  the  Nicaraguan  border,  where  they  are  known  as  Prazos  or 
Guatusos,  in  the  Talamanca  country  and  elsewhere.  Their 
numbers  may  be  estimated  at  4000.  They  are  a  quiet  and  in- 
offensive folk,  who  dwell  in  stockaded  encampments,  and  preserve 
their  ancestral  language  and  customs.  For  an  account  of  early 
Indian  civilization  in  Costa  Rica,  see  CENTRAL  AMERICA: 
Archaeology.  The  Mosquito  Indians  come  every  summer  to 
fish  for  turtle  off  the  Atlantic  coast.  As  only  200  negroes  were 
settled  in  Costa  Rica  when  slavery  was  abolished  in  1824,  and 
no  important  increase  ever  took  place  through  immigration, 
the  black  population  is  remarkably  small,  amounting  only  to 
some  1 200. 

Chief  Towns  and  Communications. — The  whites  are  congre- 
gated in  or  near  the  chief  towns,  which  include  the  capital,  San 
Jose  (pop.  1904  about  24,500),  the  four  provincial  capitals  of 
Alajuela  (4860),  Cartago  (4536),  Heredia  (7151)  and  Liberia  or 
Guanacaste  (2831),  with  the  seaports  of  Puntarenas  (3569),  on  the 
Pacific,  and  Limon  (3171)  on  the  Atlantic.  These,  with  the 
exception  of  Heredia  and  Liberia,  are  described  in  separate 
articles.  The  transcontinental  railway  from  Limon  to  Puntarenas 
was  begun  in  1871,  and  forms  the  nucleus  of  a  system  intended 
ultimately  to  connect  all  the  fertile  parts  of  the  country,  and  to 
join  the  railways  of  Nicaragua  and  Panama.  It  skirts  the 
Atlantic  coast  as  far  as  the  small  port  of  Matina;  thence  it 
passes  inland  to  Reventazon,  and  bifurcates  to  cross  the  northern 
mountains;  one  branch  going  north  of  Irazu,  while  the  other 
traverses  the  Ochomogo  Pass.  At  San  Jose  these  lines  reunite, 
and  the  railway  is  continued  to  Alajuela,  the  small  Pacific  port 
of  Tivives,  and  Puntarenas.  The  railways  are  owned  partly  by 
the  state,  partly  by  the  Costa  Rica  railway  company,  which,  in 
1904,  arranged  to  build  several  branch  lines  through  the  banana 
districts  of  the  Atlantic  littoral.  Apart  from  the  main  lines  of 
communication  the  roads  are  very  rough,  often  mere  tracks; 
and  the  principal  means  of  transport  are  ox-carts  or  pack-mules. 
The  postal  and  telegraphic  services  are  also  somewhat  inadequate. 

Agriculture  and  Industries. — The  name  "  Costa  Rica,"  meaning 
"  rich  coast,"  is  well  deserved;  for,  owing  to  the  combination  of 
ample  sunshine  and  moisture  with  a  wonderfully  fertile  soil, 
almost  any  kind  of  fruit  or  flower  can  be  successfully  cultivated ; 
while  the  vast  tracts  of  virgin  forest,  which  remain  along  the 
Atlantic  slopes,  contain  an  abundance  of  cedar,  mahogany, 
rosewood,  rubber  and  ebony,  with  fustic  and  other  precious 
dye-woods.  The  country  is  essentially  agricultural,  and  owes  its 
political  stability  to  the  presence  of  a  large  class  of  peasant  pro- 
prietors, who  number  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  population. 
Coffee,  first  planted  in  1838,  is  grown  chiefly  on  the  plateau  of 
San  Jose.  The  special  adaptability  of  this  region  to  its  growth  is 
attributed  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  which  consists  of  layers  of 
black  or  dark-brown  volcanic  ash,  varying  in  depth  from  I  to 
6  yds.  Bananas  are  grown  over  a  large  and  increasing  area; 
rice,  maize,  barley,  potatoes  and  beans  are  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  the  interior;  cocoa,  vanilla,  sugar-cane,  cotton  and 
indigo  are  products  of  the  warm  coast-lands,  but  are  hardly 
raised  in  sufficient  quantities  to  meet  the  local  demand.  Stock- 
farming,  a  relatively  undeveloped  industry,  tends  to  become 
more  important,  owing  to  the  assistance  which  the  state  renders 
by  the  importation  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  from 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  in  order  to  improve  the  native 
breeds.  In  the  south-east  farmers  are  often  compelled  to  retire 
with  their  flocks  and  herds  before  the  thousands  of  huge, 
migratory  vampires,  which  descend  suddenly  on  the  pastures  and 
are  able  in  one  night  to  bleed  the  strongest  animal  to  death. 
The  manufactures  are  insignificant;  and  although  silver,  copper, 
iron,  zinc,  lead  and  marble  are  said  to  exist  in  considerable 


COSTA  RICA 


221 


quantities,  the  only  ores  that  have  been  worked  are  gold,  silver 
and  copper.  At  the  beginning  of  the  aoth  century  the  silver  and 
copper  mines  had  been  abandoned.  The  goldfields  are  exploited 
with  American  capital,  and  yield  a  fair  return. 

Commerce. — The  exports,  which  comprise  coffee,  bananas, 
cocoa,  cabinet-woods  and  dye-woods,  with  hides  and  skins, 
mother-of-pearl,  tortoiseshell  and  gold,  were  officially  valued  at 
£1,398,000  in  1904;  and  in  the  same  year  the  imports,  including 
foodstuffs,  dry  goods  and  hardware,  were  valued  at  £1,229,000. 
Over  £1,250,000  worth  of  the  exports  consisted  of  coffee  and 
bananas,  and  these  commodities  were  of  almost  equal  value. 
Nearly  85  %  of  the  coffee,  or  more  than  20,000,000  Ib,  were  sent 
to  Great  Britain.  The  development  of  the  banana  trade  dates 
from  1 88 1,  when  3500  bunches  of  fruit  were  exported  to  New 
Orleans.  This  total  increased  very  rapidly,  and  in  1902  a 
monthly  service  of  steamers  was  established  from  Limon  to 
Bristol  and  Manchester.  The  service  to  England  soon  became  a 
weekly  one,  while  there  are  at  least  three  weekly  sailings  to  the 
United  States.  In  1904  the  number  of  bunches  sent  abroad 
exceeded  6,000,000.  So  important  is  this  crop  that  the  rate  of 
wages  to  labourers  in  the  banana  districts  is  nearly  33.  daily, 
as  compared  with  an  average  of  is.  8d.  in  the  coffee  plantations. 
The  bulk  of  the  imports  comes  from  the  United  States  (52%  in 
1904),  Great  Britain  (19%)  and  Germany  (13%).  Almost  the 
whole  foreign  trade  passes  through  Limon  and  Puntarenas.  In 
1904,  exclusive  of  banana  steamers,  there  were  regular  steamship 
services  weekly  from  Limon  to  the  United  States  and  Germany, 
fortnightly  to  Great  Britain,  and  monthly  to  France,  Italy  and 
Spain ;  while  at  Puntarenas  four  American  liners  called  monthly 
on  the  voyage  between  San  Francisco  and  Panama. 

Finance. — The  valuable  resources  of  the  republic,  and  its 
comparative  immunity  from  revolution,  formerly  attracted  the 
attention  of  European  and  American  investors,  who  supplied 
the  capital  for  internal  development.  In  1871  the  government 
contracted  a  loan  of  £1,000,000  in  London,  and  in  1872  it  borrowed 
an  additional  £2,400,000  for  railway  construction.  The  outstand- 
ing foreign  debt  amounted  in  1887  to  £2,691,300,  while  the 
arrears  of  interest  were  no  less  than  £2,119,500.  An  arrangement 
with  the  creditors  was  concluded  in  1888;  but  in  1895  the 
republic  again  became  bankrupt,  and  a  fresh  arrangement  was 
sanctioned  in  March  1897,  by  which  the  interest  on  £1,475,000 
was  reduced  to  25%  and  that  on  £525,000  to  3%.  It  was  pro- 
vided that  amortization,  at  £10,000  yearly,  should  begin  in  1917. 
In  1904  the  service  of  the  external  debt,  which  then  amounted  to 
£2,500,000,  including  £500,000  arrears  of  interest,  was  again 
suspended;  the  total  of  the  internal  debt  was  £815,000.  About 
one-half  of  the  national  revenue  is  derived  from  customs,  the 
remainder  being  principally  furnished  by  railways,  stamps,  and 
the  salt  and  tobacco  monopolies.  In  the  financial  year  1904- 
1905  the  revenue  was  £503,000,  the  expenditure  £390,000. 
Education,  internal  development  and  the  service  of  the  internal 
debt  were  the  chief  sources  of  expenditure. 

Money  and  Credit. — There  are  three  important  banks,  the 
Anglo-Costa  Rican  Bank,  with  a  capital  of  £i  20,000,  the  Bank  of 
Costa  Rica  (£200,000),  and  the  Commercial  Bank  of  Costa  Rica 
(£100,000),  founded  in  1905.  On  the  25th  of  April  1900  a  law 
was  enacted  for  the  regulation  of  the  constitution,  capital,  note 
emission  and  metallic  reserves  of  banks.  On  the  24th  of  October 
1896  an  act  was  passed  for  the  adoption  of  a  gold  coinage,  and  the 
execution  of  this  act  was  decreed  on  the  i7th  of  April  1900. 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  gold  colon  weighing  -778  gramme, 
•900  fine,  and  thus  worth  about  23d.  It  is  legally  equivalent  to 
the  silver  peso,  which  continues  in  circulation.  The  gold  coins 
of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France  and  Germany  are 
legally  current.  The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  was 
introduced  by  law  in  1884,  but  the  old  Spanish  system  is  still 
in  use. 

Constitution  and  Government. — Costa  Rica  is  governed  under  a 
constitution  of  1870,  which,  however,  only  came  into  force  in  1882, 
and  has  often  been  modified.  The  legislative  power  resides  in 
a  House  of  Representatives,  consisting  of  about  30  to  40  deputies, 
or  one  for  every  8000  inhabitants.  The  deputies  are  chosen  for  a 


term  of  four  years  by  local  electoral  colleges,  whose  members  are 
returned  by  the  votes  of  all  self-supporting  citizens.  One-half 
of  the  chamber  retires  automatically  every  two  years.  The 
president  and  three  vice-presidents  constitute  the  executive. 
They  are  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  four  ministers,  representing  the 
departments  of  the  interior,  police  and  public  works;  foreign 
affairs,  justice,  religion  and  education;  finance  and  commerce; 
war  and  marine.  For  purposes  of  local  administration  the  state 
is  divided  into  five  provinces,  Alajuela,  Cartage,  Guanacaste, 
Heredia  and  San  Jose,  and  two  maritime  districts  (comarcas), 
Limon  and  Puntarenas.  All  these  divisions  except  Guanacaste 
— which  takes  its  name  from  a  variety  of  mimosa  very  common  in 
the  province — are  synonymous  with  their  chief  towns;  and  each 
is  controlled  by  a  governor  or  prefect  appointed  by  the  president. 
Justice  is  administered  by  a  supreme  court,  two  courts  of  appeal, 
and  the  court  of  cassation,  which  sit  in  San  Jose,  and  are  supple- 
mented by  various  inferior  tribunals. 

Religion  and  Education. — The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is 
supported  by  the  state,  and  the  vast  majority  of  the  people 
accept  its  doctrines;  but  complete  religious  liberty  is  guaranteed 
by  the  constitution.  The  Jesuits,  who  formerly  exercised  wide- 
spread influence,  were  expelled  in  1884.  Of  the  other  religious 
communities,  the  most  important  are  the  Protestants,  numbering 
3000,  and  the  Buddhists,  about  250.  Primary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory;  the  standard  of  attendance  is  high  and  the 
instruction  fair,  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  older  inhabitants 
were  illiterate  at  the  beginning  of  the  2oth  century.  In  the 
matter  of  secondary  education  considerable  neglect  has  been 
shown.  In  1904  there  were  only  six  secondary  schools,  including 
the  institute  of  law  and  medicine  and  the  training-school  for 
teachers  at  San  Jose.  The  state  grants  scholarships  tenable 
at  European  universities  to  promising  pupils,  and  there  are 
three  important  public  libraries. 

Defence. — Military  service  in  time  of  war  is  compulsory  for  all 
able-bodied  citizens  aged  18-50.  There  are  a  permanent  army, 
of  about  600;  a  militia,  comprising  an  active  service  branch 
to  which  all  under  40  belong,  with  a  reserve  for  those  between 
40  and  50;  and  a  national  guard,  including  all  males  under 
1 8  and  over  50  who  are  capable  of  bearing  arms.  On  a  war 
footing  these  forces  would  number  about  36,000.  A  gunboat 
and  a  torpedo  boat  constitute  the  navy,  which,  however,  requires 
the  services  of  an  admiral,  subordinate  to  the  ministry  of  marine. 

History. — The  origin  of  the  name  Costa  Rica  (Spanish  for 
"  Rich  Coast  ")  has  been  much  disputed.  It  is  often  stated 
that  the  territories  to  which  the  name  is  now  applied  were  first 
known  as  Nueva  Cartago,  while  Costa  Rica  was  used  in  a  wider 
sense  to  designate  the  whole  south-western  coast  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  from  the  supposed  mineral  wealth  of  this  region.  Then,  in 
1540,  the  name  was  restricted  to  an  area  approximately  equal 
to  that  of  modern  Costa  Rica.  In  such  a  case  it  must  have  been 
bestowed  ironically,  for  the  country  proved  very  unprofitable 
to  the  gold-seekers,  who  were  its  earliest  European  settlers. 
Col.  Church,  in  the  paper  cited  below,  derives  it  from  Costa  de 
Oreja,  "  Earring  Coast,"  in  allusion  to  the  earrings  worn  by  the 
Indians  and  remarked  by  their  conquerors.  He  quotes  evidence 
to  show  that  this  name  was  known  to  16th-century  cartographers. 

With  the  rest  of  Central  America,  Costa  Rica  remained  a 
province  of  the  Spanish  captaincy-general  of  Guatemala  until 
1821.  Its  conquest  was  completed  by  1530,  and  ten  years  later 
it  was  made  a  separate  province,  the  limits  of  which  were  fixed, 
by  order  of  Philip  II.,  between  1560  and  1573.  This  task  was 
principally  executed  by  Juan  Vazquez  de  Coronado  (or  Vasquez 
de  Coronada),  an  able  and  humane  governor  appointed  in  1562, 
whose  civilizing  work  was  undone  by  the  almost  uninterrupted 
maladministration  of  his  fifty-eight  successors.  The  Indians 
were  enslaved,  and  their  welfare  was  wholly  subordinated  to 
the  quest  for  gold.  From  1 666  onwards  both  coasts  were  ravaged 
by  pirates,  who  completed  the  ruin  of  the  country.  Diego  de 
la  Haya  y  Fernandez,  governor  in  1718,  reported  to  the  crown 
that  no  province  of  Spanish  America  was  in  so  wretched  a  condi- 
tion. Cocoa-beans  were  the  current  coinage.  Tomas  de  Acosta, 
governor  from  1797  to'  1809,  confirmed  this  report,  and  stated 


222 


COSTELLO— COSTS     . 


that  the  Indians  were  clothed  in  bark,  and  compelled  in  many 
cases  to  borrow  even  this  primitive  attire  when  the  law  required 
their  attendance  at  church. 

On  the  isth  of  September  1821  Costa  Rica,  with  the  other 
Central  American  provinces,  revolted  and  joined  the  Mexican 
empire  under  the  dynasty  of  Iturbide;  but  this  subjection  never 
became  popular,  and,  on  the  establishment  of  a  Mexican  republic 
in  1823,  hostilities  broke  out  between  the  Conservatives,  who 
desired  to  maintain  the  union,  and  the  Liberals,  who  wished  to 
set  up  an  independent  republic.  The  opposing  factions  met 
near  the  Ochomogo  Pass;  the  republicans  were  victorious,  and 
the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  from  Cartago,  the  old 
capital,  to  San  Jose,  the  Liberal  headquarters.  From  1824  to 
1839  Costa  Rica  joined  the  newly  formed  Republic  of  the  United 
States  of  Central  America;  but  the  authority  of  the  central 
government  proved  little  more  than  nominal,  and  the  Costa 
Ricans  busied  themselves  with  trade  and  abstained  from  politics. 
The  exact  political  status  of  the  country  was  not,  however, 
definitely  assured  until  1848,  when  an  independent  republic  was 
again  proclaimed.  In  1856-60  the  state  was  involved  in  war 
with  the  adventurer  William  Walker  (see  CENTRAL  AMERICA); 
but  its  subsequent  history  has  been  one  of  immunity  from 
political  disturbances,  other  than  boundary  disputes,  and 
occasional  threats  of  revolution,  due  chiefly  to  unsatisfactory 
economic  conditions.  The  attempt  of  J.  R.  Barrios,  president 
of  Guatemala,  to  restore  federal  unity  to  Central  America  failed 
in  1885,  and  had  little  influence  on  Costa  Rican  affairs.  In  1897 
the  state  joined  the  Greater  Republic  of  Central  America,  estab- 
lished in  1895  by  Honduras,  Nicaragua  and  Salvador,  but 
dissolved  in  1898.  The  boundary  question  between  Costa  Rica 
and  Nicaragua  was  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the  president 
of  the  United  States,  who  gave  his  award  in  1888,  confirming 
a  treaty  of  1858;  further  difficulties  arising  from  the  work  of 
demarcation  were  settled  by  treaty  in  1896.  The  boundary 
between  Costa  Rica  and  Panama  (then  a  province  of  Colombia) 
was  fixed  by  the  arbitration  of  the  French  president,  who  gave 
his  award  on  the  15th  of  September  1900.  The  frontiers  de- 
limited in  accordance  with  these  awards  have  already  been 
described. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — In  addition  to  the  works  on  Central  America 
cited  under  that  heading,  the  following  give  much  general  infor- 
mation: G:  Niederlein,  The  Republic  of  Costa  Rica  (Philadelphia, 
1898);  R.  Villafranca,  Costa  Rica  (New  York,  1895);  L.  Z.  Baron, 
Compendia  geographico  y  estadistico  de  la  Rcpublica  de  Costa  Rica 
(San  Jose,  1894) ;  H.  Pittier,  Apuntaciones  sobre  el  dima  y  geographia 
de  la  Republica  de  Costa  Rica  (San  Jose,  1890);  P.  Biolley,  Costa 
Rica  and  her  Future  (Washington,  1889);  M.  M.  de  Peralta,  Costa 
Rica  (London,  1873).  For  an  account  of  immigration,  commerce 
and  other  mainly  statistical  matters,  see  J.  Schroeder,  Costa  Rica 
State  Immigration  (San  Jose,  1894);  Bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  (Washington) ;  British  Diplomatic  and  Consular 
Reports  (London) ;  U.S.A.  Consular  Reports  (Washington) ;  Reports 
of  the  Ministries  (San  Jose).  For  the  history  of  Costa  Rica,  sec 
L.  Z.  Baron,  Compendia  de  la  historia  de  Costa  Rica  (San  Jose,  1894) ; 
F.  M.  Barrantes,  Elementos  de  historia  de  Costa  Rica  (San  Jose, 
1892);  J.  B.  Calvo,  The  Republic  of  Costa  Rica  (Chicago,  1890), 
gives  a  partisan  account  of  local  politics,  trade  and  finance,  author- 
ized by  the  government.  Frontier  questions  are  discussed  fully  in 
Col.  G.  E.  Church's  "  Costa  Rica,"  a  very  valuable  paper  in  vol.  x. 
of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (London,  1897); 
and,  by  Dr  E.  Seler,  in  "  Der  Grenzstreit  zwischen  den  Repubhken 
Costa  Rica  und  Colombia,"  in  Petermann's  Mittheilungen,  vol.  xlvi. 
(1900).  For  a  detailed  bibliography  see  D.  J.  Maluquer,  Republica 
de  Costa  Rica  (Madrid,  1890).  The  best  maps  are  that  of  the  Bureau 
of  American  Republics  (1903),  and,  for  physical  features,  that  of 
Col.  Church,  published  by  the  R.G.S.  (London,  1897). 

COSTELLO,  DUDLEY  (1803-1865),  English  journalist  and 
novelist,  son  of  Colonel  J.  F.  Costello,  was  born  in  Ireland  in 
1803.  He  was  educated  for  the  army  at  Sandhurst,  and  served 
for  a  short  time  in  India,  Canada  and  the  West  Indies.  His 
literary  and  artistic  tastes  led  him  to  quit  the  army  in  1828, 
and  he  then  passed  some  years  in  Paris.  He  was  introduced  to 
Baron  Cuvier,  who  employed  him  as  draughtsman  in  the  pre- 
paration of  his  Regne  animal.  He  next  occupied  himself  in 
copying  illuminated  manuscripts  in  the  Bibliotheque  Royale; 
and  to  him  and  his  sister  belongs  the  merit  of  being  the  first  to 
draw  general  attention  to  this  beautiful  forgotten  art,  and  of 


thus  leading  to  its  revival.  About  1838  Costello  became  foreign 
correspondent  to  the  Morning  Herald;  in  1846  he  became  foreign 
correspondent  of  the  Daily  News;  and  during  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life  he  held  the  post  of  sub-editor  of  the  Examiner. 
He  wrote  A  Tour  through  the  Valley  of  the  Meuse  (1845)  and 
Piedmont  and  Italy,  from  the  Alps  to  the  Tiber  (1850-1861). 
Among  his  novels  are  Stories  from  a  Screen  (1855),  The  Millionaire 
(1858),  Faint  Heart  never  -won  Fair  Lady  (1859)  and  Holidays 
•with  Hobgoblins  (1860).  He  died  on  the  3oth  of  September  1865. 

HSs elder  sister,  LOUISA  STUART  COSTELLO  (1799-1870),  author 
and  miniature  painter,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1799.  Her  father 
died  while  she  was  young,  and  Louisa,  who  removed  to  Paris 
with  her  mother  in  1814,  helped  to  support  her  mother  and 
brother  by  her  skill  as  an  artist.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  she 
published  a  volume  of  verse  entitled  The  Maid  of  the  Cyprus  Isle, 
and  other  poems.  This  was  followed  in  1825  by  Songs  of  a  Stranger, 
dedicated  to  W.  L.  Bowles.  Ten  years  later  appeared  her 
Specimens  of  the  Early  Poetry  of  France,  illustrated  by  beautifully 
executed  illuminations,  the  work  of  her  brother  and  herself.  It 
was  dedicated  to  Moore,  and  procured  her  his  friendship  as  well 
as  that  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Her  principal  works  are — A  Summer 
among  the  Bocages  and  Vines  (1840);  The  Queen's  Poisoner  (or 
The  Queen -M other) ,  a  historical  romance  (1841);  Beam  and 
the  Pyrenees  (1844);  Memoirs  of  Eminent  Englishwomen  (1844); 
The  Rose  Garden  of  Persia  (1845),  a  series  of  translations  from 
Persian  poets,  with  illuminations  by  herself  and  her  brother; 
The  Falls,  Lakes  and  Mountains  of  North  Wales  (1845);  Clara 
Fane  (1848),  a  novel;  Memoirs  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  (1853); 
and  Memoirs  of  Anne  of  Brittany  (1855).  She  died  at  Boulogne 
on  the  24th  of  April  1870. 

COSTER-MONGER  (originally  COSTARD-MONGER,  a  seller  of 
costards,  a  species  of  large  ribbed  apple).  The  word  "  monger  " 
is  common,  in  various  forms,  in  Teutonic  languages  in  the  sense 
of  trader  or  dealer,  and  appears  in  "iron-monger"  and  "fish- 
monger," and  with  a  derogatory  significance  of  petty  or  under- 
hand dealing  in  such  words  as  "scandal-monger."  A  "coster- 
monger,"  or  "  coster,"  originally,  therefore,  one  who  sold  apples 
and  fruit  in  the  street,  is  now  an  itinerant  dealer  in  fruit, 
vegetables  or  fish,  but  more  particularly,  as  distinguished  from  a 
"hawker"  on  the  one  hand,  and  "  general  dealer  "  on  the  other, 
is  a  street  trader  in  the  above  commodities  who  uses  a  barrow. 
The  coster-monger's  trade  in  London,  so  far  as  it  falls  under 
clause  6  of  the  Metropolitan  Streets  Act  1867,  which  deals  with 
obstruction  by  goods  to  footways  and  streets  is  subject  to  regula- 
tions of  the  commissioner  of  police.  So  long  as  these  are  carried 
out,  coster-mongers,  street  hawkers  and  itinerant  traders  are 
exempted,  by  an  amending  act,  from  the  liabilities  imposed 
by  clause  6  of  the  above  act. 

COSTS,  a  term  used  in  English  law  to  denote  the  expenses 
incurred  (i)  in  employing  a  lawyer  in  his  professional  capacity 
for  purposes  other  than  litigation;  (2)  in  instituting  and  carrying 
on  litigation  whether  with  or  without  the  aid  of  a  lawyer. 

Solicitor  and  Client. — The  retainer  of  a  solicitor  implies  a 
contract  to  pay  to  him  his  proper  charges  and  disbursements 
with  respect  to  the  work  done  by  him  as  a  solicitor.  In  cases  of 
conveyancing  his  remuneration  is  now  for  the  most  part  regulated 
by  scales  ad  valorem  on  the  value  of  the  property  dealt  with 
(Solicitors'  Remuneration  Order  1882),  and  clients  are  free  to 
make  written  agreements  for  the  conduct  of  any  class  of  non- 
litigious  business,  fixing  the  costs  by  a  percentage  on  the  value  of 
the  amount  involved.  So  far  as  litigious  business  is  concerned, 
the  arrangement  known  as  "  no  cure  no  pay  "  is  objected  to  by 
the  courts  and  the  profession  as  leading  to  speculative  actions,  and 
stipulations  as  to  a  share  of  the  proceeds  of  a  successful  action  are 
champertous  and  illegal.  An  English  solicitor's  bill  drawn  in 
the  old  form  is  a  voluminous  itemized  narrative  of  every  act  done 
by  him  in  the  cause  or  matter  with  a  charge  set  against  each 
entry  and  often  against  each  letter  written.  Before  the  solicitor 
can  recover  from  his  client  the  amount  of  his  charges,  he  must 
deliver  a  signed  bill  of  costs  and  wait  a  month  before  suing. 

The  High  Court  has  a  threefold  jurisdiction  to  deal  with 
solicitors'  costs: — (i)  by  virtue  of  its  jurisdiction  over  them 


COSTS 


223 


as  its  officers;  (2)  statutory,  under  the  Solicitors  Act  1843 
and  other  legislation;  (3)  ordinary,  to  ascertain  the  reasonable- 
ness of  charges  made  the  subject  of  a  claim. 

The  client  can,  as  a  matter  of  course,  get  an  order  for  taxation 
within  a  month  of  the  delivery  of  the  solicitor's  bill,  and  either 
client  or  solicitor  can  get  such  an  order  as  of  course  within  twelve 
months  of  delivery.  After  expiry  of  that  time  the  court  may  order 
taxation  if  the  special  circumstances  call  for  it,  and  even  so  late 
as  twelve  months  after  actual  payment. 

Costs  as  between  solicitor  and  client  are  taxed  in  the  same 
office  as  litigious  costs,  and  objections  to  the  decisions  of  the 
taxing  officer,  if  properly  made,  can  be  taken  for  review  to  a  judge 
of  the  High  Court  and  to  the  Court  of  Appeal. 

Litigious  Costs. — The  expenses  of  litigation  fall  in  the  first 
instance  on  the  person  who  undertakes  the  proceedings  or  retains 
and  employs  the  lawyer.  It  is  in  accordance  with  the  ordinary 
ideas  of  justice  that  the  expenses  of  the  successful  party  to  litiga- 
tion should  be  defrayed  by  the  unsuccessful  party,  a  notion  ex- 
pressed in  the  phrase  that  "  costs  follow  the  event."  But  there 
are  many  special  circumstances  which  interfere  to  modify  the 
application  of  this  rule.  The  action,  though  successful,  may  be 
in  its  nature  frivolous  or  vexatious,  or  it  may  have  been  brought 
in  a  higher  court  where  a  lower  court  would  have  been  competent 
to  deal  with  it.  On  the  other  hand  the  defendant,  although  he 
has  escaped  a  judgment  against  him,  may  by  his  conduct  have 
rendered  the  action  necessary  or  otherwise  justifiable.  In  such 
cases  the  rule  that  costs  should  follow  the  event  would  be  felt 
to  work  an  injustice,  and  exceptions  to  its  operation  have 
therefore  been  devised.  In  the  law  of  England  the  provisions  as  to 
litigious  costs,  though  now  simpler  than  of  old,  are  still  elaborate 
and  complicated,  and  the  costs  themselves  are  on  a  higher  scale 
than  is  known  in  most  other  countries. 

Except  as  regards  appeals  to  the  House  of  Lords  and  suits 
in  equity,  the  right  to  recover  costs  from  the  opposite  party  in 
litigation  has  always  depended  on  statute  law  or  on  rules  made 
under  statutory  authority.  "  Costs  are  the  creature  of  statute." 
The  House  of  Lords  has  declared  its  competence  to  grant  costs 
on  appeals  independently  of  statute. 

In  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council  the  power  to 
award,  in  its  discretion,  costs  on  appeals  from  the  colonies  or 
other  matters  referred  to  it,  is  given  by  §  15  of  the  Judicial 
Committee  Act  1833;  and  the  costs  are  taxed  by  the  registrar 
of  the  council. 

Courts  of  equity  have  always  claimed  a  discretion  independently 
of  statute  to  give  or  refuse  costs,  but  as  a  general  rule  the  maxim 
of  the  civil  law,  victus  victori  in  expensis  condemnatus  est,  was 
followed.  The  successful  party  was  recognized  to  have  a  prima 
facie  claim  to  costs,  but  the  court  might,  on  sufficient  cause 
shown,  not  only  deprive  him  of  his  costs,  but  even  in  some  rare 
cases  order  him  to  pay  the  costs  of  his  unsuccessful  opponent. 
There  was  a  class  of  cases  in  which  the  court  generally  gave  costs 
to  parties  sustaining  a  certain  character,  whatever  might  be  the 
result  of  the  suit  (e.g.  trustees,  executors  and  mortgagees). 

In  the  courts  of  common  law,  costs  were  not  given  either  to 
plaintiff  or  defendant,  although  the  damages  given  to  a  successful 
plaintiff  might  suffice  to  cover  not  only  the  loss  sustained  by  the 
wrong  done,  but  also  the  expense  he  had  been  put  to  in  taking 
proceedings.  The  defendant  in  a  baseless  or  vexatious  action 
could  not  even  recover  his  costs  thus  indirectly,  and  the  indirect 
costs  given  to  a  plaintiff  under  the  name  of  damages  were  often 
inadequate  and  uncertain.  Costs  were  first  given  under  the 
Statute  of  Gloucester  (1277,  6  Edward  I.  c.  i),  which  enacted 
that  "  the  demandant  shall  recover  damages  in  an  assize  of  novel 
disseisin  and  in  writs  of  mort  d'ancestor,  cosinage,  aiel  and  beziel, 
and  further  that  the  demandant  may  recover  against  the  tenant 
the  costs  of  his  writ  purchased  together  with  the  damages  above 
said.  And  this  act  shall  hold  in  all  cases  when  the  party  is  to 
recover  damages."  The  words"  costs  of  his  writ  "  were  extended 
to  mean  all  the  legal  costs  in  the  suit.  The  statute  gave  costs, 
wherever  damages  were  recovered,  and  no  matter  what  the 
amount  of  the  damages  may  be.  Costs  were  first  given  to  a 
defendant  by  the  Statute  of  Marlbridge  (1267)  in  a  case  relating 


to  wardship  in  chivalry  (52  Henry  III.  c.  6);  but  costs  were  not 
given  generally  to  successful  defendants  until  1531  (23  Henry  VIII. 
c.  15),  when  it  was  enacted  that  "  if  in  the  actions  therein  men- 
tioned the  plaintiff  after  appearance  of  the  defendant  be  non- 
suited, or  any  verdict  happen  to  pass  by  lawful  trial  against  the 
plaintiff,  the  defendant  shall  have  judgment  to  recover  his  costs 
against  the  plaintiff,  to  be  assessed  and  taxed  at  the  discretion  of 
the  court,  and  shall  have  such  process  and  execution  for  the 
recovery  and  paying  his  costs  against  the  plaintiff,  as  the  plaintiff 
should  or  might  have  had  against  the  defendant,  in  case  the  judg- 
ment had  been  given  for  the  plaintiff."  In  1606  by  4  James  I.  c.  3, 
this  "  good  arid  profitable  law  "  was  extended  to  other  actions 
not  originally  specified,  although  within  the  mischief  of  the  act, 
so  that  in  any  action  wherein  the  plaintiff  might  have  costs  if 
judgment  were  given  for  him,  the  defendant  if  successful  should 
have  costs  against  the  plaintiff.  The  policy  of  these  enactments 
is  expressed  to  be  the  discouragement  of  frivolous  and  unjust 
suits.  This  policy  was  carried  out  by  other  and  later  acts. 
The  Limitations  Act  1623,  §  6,  ordered  that  if  the  plaintiff  in  an 
action  of  slander  recovered  less  than  403.  damages,  the  plaintiff 
should  be  allowed  no  more  as  costs  than  he  got  as  damages. 
By  43  Elizabeth  c.  6  it  was  enacted  that  in  any  personal  action  not 
being  for  any  title  or  interest  in  land,  nor  concerning  the  freehold 
or  inheritance  of  lands  nor  for  battery,  where  the  damages 
did  not  amount  to  405.  no  more  costs  than  damages  could  be 
allowed.  By  3  &  4  Viet.  c.  24  (Lord  Denman's  Act  1840), 
where  the  plaintiff  in  an  action  of  tort  recovered  less  than  405., 
he  was  not  allowed  costs  unless  the  judge  certified  that  the  action 
was  really  brought  to  try  a  right  besides  the  right  to  recover 
damages,  or  that  the  injury  was  wilful  or  malicious. 

All  these  enactments  have  been  superseded  by  the  Judicature 
Acts,  but  in  the  case  of  slander  on  women  the  provisions  of  the 
act  of  1623  were  re-enacted  in  the  Slander  of  Women  Act  1891. 

Supreme  Court. — The  general  rule  now  in  force  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature  is  as  follows: — "  Subject  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Judicature  Acts  and  the  rules  of  the  court  made  thereunder, 
and  to  the  express  provision  of  any  statute  whether  passed  before 
or  after  the  i4th  of  August  1890,  the  costs  of  and  incident  to  all 
proceedings  in  the  Supreme  Court,  including  the  administration 
of  estates  and  trusts,  shall  be  in  the  discretion  of  the  court  or 
judge,  and  the  court  or  judge  shall  have  full  power  to  determine 
by  whom  and  to  what  extent  such  costs  are  to  be  paid.  Provided 
(i)  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall  deprive  an  executor, 
administrator,  trustee  or  mortgagee  who  has  not  unreasonably 
carried  on  or  resisted  any  proceedings  of  any  right  to  costs  out 
of  a  particular  estate  or  fund  to  which  he  would  be  entitled 
under  the  rules  hitherto  (i.e.  before  1883)  acted  upon  in  the 
chancery  division  as  successor  of  the  court  of  chancery;  (2) 
that  where  an  action,  cause,  matter  or  issue  is  tried  with  a  jury, 
the  costs  shall  follow  the  event  unless  the  judge  who  tried  the  case 
or  the  court  shall  for  good  cause  otherwise  order."  (R.S.C.,O. 
65,  r.  i.) 

The  rule  above  stated  applies  to  civil  proceedings  on  the 
crown  side  of  the  king's  bench  division,  including  mandamus, 
prohibition  quo  warranto,  and  certiorari  (R.  v.  Woodhouse,  1906, 
2  K.B.  502,  540);  and  to  proceedings  on  the  revenue  side  of  that 
division  (O.  68,  r.  i) ;  but  it  does  not  apply  to  criminal  proceedings 
in  the  High  Court,  which  are  regulated  by  the  crown  office  rules  of 
1906,  or  by  statutes  dealing  with  particular  breaches  of  the  law, 
and  as  to  procedure  in  taxing  costs  by  O.  65,  r.  27,  of  the  Rules 
of  the  Supreme  Court. 

The  rule  is  also  subject  to  specific  provision  empowering  the 
courts  to  limit  the  costs  to  be  adjudged  against  the  unsuccessful 
party  in  proceedings  in  the  High  Court,  which  could  and  should 
have  been  instituted  in  a  county  court,  e.g.  actions  of  contract 
under  £100,  or  actions  of  tort  in  which  less  than  £10  is  recovered 
(County  Courts  Act  1888,  §§  65,  66,  116;  County  Courts  Act 

1903,  §  3)- 

For  instance,  in  actions  falling  within  the  Public  Authorities 
Protection  Act  1893  against  public  bodies  or  officials,  the 
defendant,  if  successful,  is  entitled  to  recover  costs  as  between 
solicitor  and  client  unless  a  special  order  to  the  contrary  is  made 


224 


COSTUME 


by  the  court;  and  under  some  statutes  still  unrepealed,  double 
or  treble  costs  are  to  be  allowed.  Besides  the  rules  above  stated, 
there  is  also  a  provision,  adopted  from  the  practice  of  courts  of 
equity,  that  if  tender  was  made  before  action  of  a  sum  sufficient  to 
satisfy  the  plaintiff's  just  demand  and  is  followed  by  payment 
into  court  in  the  action  of  the  sum  tendered,  the  court  will  make 
the  plaintiff  pay  the  costs  of  action  as  having  been  unnecessarily 
brought. 

Costs  of  interlocutory  proceedings  in  the  course  of  a  litigation 
are  sometimes  said  to  be  "  costs  in  the  cause,"  that  is,  they  abide 
the  result  of  the  principal  issue.  A  party  succeeding  in  inter- 
locutory proceedings,  and  paying  the  costs  therein  made  "  costs 
in  the  cause,"  would  recover  the  amount  of  such  costs  if  he  had 
a  judgment  for  costs  on  the  result  of  the  whole  trial,  but  not 
otherwise.  But  it  is  usual  now  not  to  tax  the  costs  of  inter- 
locutory proceedings  till  after  final  judgment. 

Taxation. — When  an  order  to  pay  the  costs  of  litigation  is  made 
the  costs  are  taxed  in  the  central  office  of  the  High  Court, 
unless  the  court  when  making  the  order  fixes  the  amount  to  be 
paid  (R.S.C.,O.  65,^23).  Recent  changes  in  the  organization  for 
taxing  have  tended  to  create  a  uniformity  of  system  and  method 
which  had  long  been  needed. 

The  taxation  is  effected,  under  an  elaborate  set  of  regulations, 
by  reference  to  the  prescribed  scales,  and  on  what  is  known  as  the 
lower  scale,  unless  the  court  has  specially  ordered  taxation  on  the 
higher  scale  (R.S.C.,  O.  65,  rr.  8,  9,  appendix  N). 

In  the  taxation  of  litigious  costs  two  methods  are  still  adopted, 
known  as  "  between  party  and  party  "  and  "  between  solicitor 
and  client."  Unless  a  special  order  is  made  the  first  of  the  two 
methods  is  adopted.  Until  very  recently  "  party  and  party  " 
costs  were  found  to  be  a  very  imperfect  indemnity  to  the  success- 
ful litigant;  because  many  items  which  his  solicitor  would  be 
entitled  to  charge  against  him  for  the  purposes  of  the  litigation 
were  not  recoverable  from  his  unsuccessful  opponent.  The  High 
Court  can  now,  in  exercise  of  the  equitable  jurisdiction  derived 
from  the  court  of  chancery,  make  orders  on  the  losing  party  to 
pay  the  costs  of  the  winner  as  between  solicitor  and  client. 
These  orders  are  not  often  made  except  in  the  chancery  division. 
But  even  where  party  and  party  costs  only  are  ordered  to  be  paid 
under  the  present  practice  (dating  from  1902),  the  taxing  office 
allows  against  the  unsuccessful  party  all  costs,  charges  and 
expenses  necessary  or  proper  for  the  attainment  of  justice  or 
defending  the  rights  of  the  successful  party,  but  not  costs  incurred 
through  over-caution,  negligence,  or  by  paying  special  fees  to 
counsel  or  special  fees  to  witnesses  or  other  persons,  or  by  any 
other  unusual  expenses  (R.S.C.,O.65,  rr.  27,  29).  This  practice 
tends  to  give  an  approximate  indemnity,  while  preventing 
oppression  of  the  losing  party  by  making  him  pay  for  lavish 
expenditure  by  his  opponent.  The  taxation  is  subject  to  review 
by  a  judge  on  formal  objections  carried  on,  and  an  appeal  lies  to 
the  Court  of  Appeal. 

County  Courts. — The  costs  of  all  proceedings  in  county  courts 
follow  the  event,  unless  the  judge  in  his  discretion  otherwise 
orders.  The  amount  allowed  is  regulated  by  scales  included  in 
the  county  court  rules,  and  is  ascertained  by  the  registrar  of  the 
court  subject  to  any  special  direction  by  the  judge,  and  to  review 
by  him.  The  costs  are  allowed  as  between  party  and  party,  but 
the  registrar  on  the  application  of  solicitor  or  party,  and  subject 
to  the  like  review,  taxes  costs  as  between  solicitor  and  client. 
Nothing  is  allowed  which  is  not  sanctioned  by  the  scales,  unless  it 
is  proved  that  the  client  has  agreed  in  writing  to  pay  (County 
Courts  Act  1888,  §  118). 

Costs  in  Criminal  Cases. — In  criminal  cases  the  right  to  recover 
the  expenses  of  prosecution  or  defence  from  public  funds  or  the 
opposite  party  depends  wholly  on  statute.  According  to  the 
common  law  rule  the  crown  neither  pays  nor  receives  costs,  but 
the  rule  is  in  some  cases  altered  by  statute  (Thomas  v.  Pritchard, 
1003,  i  K.B.  209). 

Courts  of  summary  jurisdiction  may  order  costs  to  be  paid  by 
the  unsuccessful  to  the  successful  party  (Summary  Jurisdiction 
Act  1848,  §  1 8). 

On  prosecutions  for  treason  or  felony  the  court  may  order  the 


accused  person,  if  convicted,  to  pay  the  costs  of  his  prosecution 
(Forfeiture  Act  1870);  and  the  like  power  exists  as  to  persons 
convicted  of  offences  indictable  under  the  Criminal  Law  Amend- 
ment Act  1885  (see  §  18),  and  as  to  persons  convicted  on  indict- 
ment of  assault,  corrupt  practices  at  elections,  offences  against 
the  Merchandise  Marks  Acts,  or  of  defamatory  libel,  if  they  have 
unsuccessfully  pleaded  jurisdiction. 

Provision  is  also  made  for  the  payment  out  of  the  local  rate  of 
the  district  of  the  costs  of  prosecuting  all  felonies  (except  treason- 
felony)  and  a  number  of  misdemeanours.  A  list  of  these  offences 
will  be  found  in  Archbold,  Criminal  Pleading,  23rd  ed.,  246. 
The  legislation  on  this  subject  authorizes  the  payment  of  the 
expenses  of  witnesses  and  of  the  prosecutor,  both  at  a  pre- 
liminary inquiry  before  justices  and  at  the  trial,  and  in  the  case  of 
summary  conviction  for  any  of  the  indictable  offences  in  question. 
It  has  been  extended  so  as  to  include  the  expenses  of  witnesses  for 
the  defence  in  any  indictable  case  if  they  have  given  evidence  at 
the  preliminary  inquiry,  and  the  costs  of  the  defence  of  poor 
prisoners  in  every  indictable  case  in  which  the  committing 
justices  or  the  court  of  trial  certify  for  legal  aid  (Poor  Prisoners' 
Defence  Act  1903).  The  costs  are  taxed  by  the  proper  officer  of 
the  court  of  assize  or  the  clerk  of  the  peace  in  accordance  with 
scales  issued  by  the  Home  Office  in  1903  and  1904.  These  scales 
do  not  fix  the  fees  to  be  allowed  to  counsel  or  solicitor  for  the 
prosecution.  The  costs,  when  taxed,  are  paid  by  the  treasurer  of 
the  county  or  borough  on  whom  the  order  for  payment  is  made. 

Where  a  prosecution  or  indictment  fails,  the  prosecutor 
cannot  as  a  rule  be  made  to  pay  the  costs  of  the  defence:  except 
in  cases  within  the  Vexatious  Indictments  Act  1859  and  its 
amendments  (i.e.  where  he  has,  after  a  refusal  by  justices  to 
commit  for  trial,  insisted  on  continuing  the  prosecution);  or 
where  a  defamatory  libel  is  successfully  justified,  or  where 
prosecutions  in  respect  of  merchandise  marks  or  corrupt  practices 
at  elections  have  failed.  (W.  F.  C.) 

COSTUME  (through  the  Fr.  costume,  from  Ital.  costume,  Late 
Lat.  costuma,  a  contracted  form  of  Lat.  consuetudinem,  ace.  of 
consuetttdo,  custom,  habit,  manner,  &c.),  dress  or  clothing, 
especially  the  distinctive  clothing  worn  at  different  periods  by 
different  peoples  or  different  classes  of  people.  The  word  appears 
in  English  in  the  i8th  century,  and  was  first  applied  to  the 
correct  representation,  in  literature  and  art,  of  the  manners, 
dress,  furniture  and  general  surroundings  of  the  scene  repre- 
sented. By  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century  it  became  restricted 
to  the  fashion  or  style  of  personal  apparel,  including  the  head- 
dresses, jewelry  and  the  like. 

The  subject  of  clothing  is  far  wider  than  appears  at  first  sight. 
To  the  average  man  there  is  a  distinction  between  clothing  and 
ornament,  the  first  being  regarded  as  that  covering  which  satisfies 
the  claims  of  modesty,  the  second  as  those  appendages  which 
satisfy  the  aesthetic  sense.  This  distinction,  however,  does  not 
exist  for  science,  and  indeed  the  first  definition  involves  a  fallacy 
of  which  it  will  be  as  well  to  dispose  forthwith. 

Modesty  is  not  innate  in  man,  and  its  conventional  nature  is 
easily  seen  from  a  consideration  of  the  different  ideas  held  by 
different  races  on  this  subject.  With  Mahommedan  peoples 
it  is  sufficient  fora  woman  to  cover  her  face;  the  Chinese  women 
would  think  it  extremely  indecent  to  show  their  artificially 
compressed  feet,  and  it  is  even  improper  to  mention  them  to  a 
woman;  in  Sumatra  and  Celebes  the  wild  tribes  consider  the 
exposure  of  the  knee  immodest;  in  central  Asia  the  finger-tips, 
and  in  Samoa  the  navel  are  similarly  regarded.  In  Tahiti  and 
Tonga  clothing  might  be  discarded  without  offence,  provided 
the  individual  were  tattooed;  and  among  the  Caribs  a  woman 
might  leave  the  hut  without  her  girdle  but  not  unpainted. 
Similarly,  in  Alaska,  women  felt  great  shame  when  seen  without 
the  plugs  they  carried  in  their  lips.  Europeans  are  considered 
indelicate  in  many  ways  by  other  races,  and  a  remark  of  Peschel l 
is  to  the  point:  "  Were  a  pious  Mussulman  of  Ferghana  to  be 
present  at  our  balls  and  see  the  bare  shoulders  of  our  wives  and 
daughters,  and  the  semi-embraces  of  our  round  dances,  he  would 
silently  wonder  at  the  long-suffering  of  Allah  who  had  not  long 
1  The  Races  of  Man. 


COSTUME 


225 


ago  poured  fire  and  brimstone  on  this  sinful  and  shameless 
generation."  Another  point  of  interest  lies  in  the  difference  of 
outlook  with  which  nudity  is  regarded  by  the  English  and 
Japanese.  Among  the  latter  it  has  been  common  for  the  sexes 
to  take  baths  together  without  clothing,  while  in  England  mixed 
bathing,  even  in  full  costume,  is  even  now  by  no  means  universal. 
Yet  in  England  the  representation  of  the  nude  in  art  meets 
with  no  reproach,  though  considered  improper  by  the  Japanese. 
Even  more  striking  is  the  fact  that  in  civilized  countries  what 
is  permitted  at  certain  times  is  forbidden  at  others;  a  woman 
will  expose  far  more  of  her  person  at  night,  in  the  ballroom  or 
theatre,  than  would  be  considered  seemly  by  day  in  the  street; 
and  a  bathing  costume  which  would  be  thought  modest  on  the 
beach  would  meet  with  reprobation  in  a  town. 

Modesty  therefore  is  highly  conventional,  and  to  discover  its 
origin  the  most  primitive  tribes  must  be  observed.  Among  these, 
in  Africa,  South  America,  Australia  and  so  forth,  where  clothing 
is  at  a  minimum,  the  men  are  always  more  elaborately  orna- 
mented than  the  women.  At  the  same  time  it  is  noticeable  that 
no  cases  of  spinsterhood  are  found;  celibacy,  rare  as  it  is,  is 
confined  to  the  male  sex.  It  is  reasonable,  therefore,  to  conclude 
that  ornament  is  a  stimulus  to  sexual  selection,  and  this  con- 
clusion is  enforced  by  the  fact  that  among  many  comparatively 
nude  peoples  clothing  is  assumed  at  certain  dances  which  have 
as  their  confessed  object  the  excitation  of  the  passions  of  the 
opposite  sex.  Many  forms  of  clothing,  moreover,  seem  to  call 
attention  to  those  parts  of  the  body  of  which,  under  the  conditions 
of  Western  civilization  at  the  present  day,  it  aims  at  the  conceal- 
ment; certain  articles  of  dress  worn  by  the  New  Hebrideans, 
the  Zulu-Xosa  tribes,  certain  tribes  of  Brazil  and  others,  are 
cases  in  point.  Clothing,  moreover — and  this  is  true  also  of  the 
present  day — almost  always  tends  to  accentuate  rather  than  to 
conceal  the  difference  between  the  sexes.  Looking  at  the  question 
then  from  the  point  of  view  of  sexual  selection  it  would  seem 
that  a  stage  in  the  progress  of  human  society  is  marked  by  the 
discovery  that  concealment  affords  a  greater  stimulus  than 
revelation;  that  the  fact  is  true  is  obvious, — even  to  modern 
eyes  a  figure  partially  clad  appears  far  more  indecent  than  a 
nude.  That  the  stimulus  is  real  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  among 
nude  races  flagrant  immorality  is  far  less  common  than  among 
the  more  clothed;  the  contrast  between  the  Polynesians  and 
Melanesians,  living  as  neighbours  under  similar  conditions,  is 
striking  evidence  on  this  point.  Later,  when  the  novelty  of 
clothing  has  spent  its  force,  the  stimulus  is  supplied  by  nudity 
complete  or  partial. 

One  more  point  must  be  considered:  there  is  the  evidence 
of  competent  observers  to  show  that  members  of  a  tribe  accus- 
tomed to  nudity,  when  made  to  assume  clothing  for  the  first 
time,  exhibit  as  much  confusion  as  would  a  European  compelled 
to  strip  in  public.  This  fact,  considered  together  with  what 
has  been  said  above,  compels  the  conclusion  that  modesty  is  a 
feeling  merely  of  acute  self-consciousness  due  to  appearing 
unusual,  and  is  the  result  of  clothing  rather  than  the  cause.  In 
the  words  of  Westermarck:  "  The  facts  appear  to  prove  that  the 
feeling  of  shame,  far  from  being  the  cause  of  man's  covering  his 
body,  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  result  of  this  custom;  and  that  the 
covering,  if  not  used  as  a  protection  from  the  climate,  owes  its 
origin,  at  least  in  a  great  many  cases,  to  the  desire  of  men  and 
women  to  make  themselves  mutually  attractive." 

Primitive  adornment  in  its  earliest  stages  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes;  first  the  moulding  of  the  body  itself  to  certain 
local  standards  of  beauty.  In  this  category  may  be  placed 
head-deformation,  which  reached  its  extreme  development 
among-  the  Indians  of  North-West  America  and  the  ancient 
Peruvians;  foot-constriction  as  practised  by  the  Chinese; 
tooth-chipping  among  many  African  tribes;  and  waist -com- 
pression common  in  Europe  at  the  present  day.  Many  forms  of 
deformation,  it  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  emphasize  some 
natural  physical  characteristic  of  the  people  who  practise  them. 
Secondly,  the  application  of  extraneous  matter  to  the  body,  as 
painting  and  tattooing,  and  the  raising  of  ornamental  scars 
often  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  matter  into  flesh-wounds 

VII.  8 


(this  practice  belongs  partly  to  the  first  category  also).  Thirdly, 
the  suspension  of  foreign  bodies  from,  or  their  attachment  to, 
convenient  portions  of  the  body.  This  category,  by  far  the 
largest,  includes  ear-,  nose-  and  lip-ornaments,  head-dresses, 
necklets,  armlets,  wristlets,  leglets,  anklets,  finger-  and  toe-rings 
and  girdles.  The  last  are  important,  as  it  is  from  the  waist- 
ornaments  chiefly  that  what  is  commonly  considered  clothing 
at  the  present  day  has  been  developed. 

Setting  aside  for  the  moment  the  less  important,  historically, 
of  these,  nearly  all  of  which  exist  in  Western  civilization  of  the 
present  day,  it  will  be  as  well  to  consider  that  form  of  dress  which 
is  marked  by  the  greatest  evolution.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  man  originated  in  tropical  or  subtropical  latitudes,  and 
spread  gradually  towards  the  poles.  Naturally,  as  the  tempera- 
ture became  lower,  a  new  function  was  gradually  acquired  by 
his  clothing,  that  of  protecting  the  body  of  the  wearer.  Climate 
then  is  one  of  the  forces  which  play  an  important  part  in  the 
evolution  of  dress;  at  the  same  time  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
attribute  too  much  influence  to  it.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  Arabs,  who  inhabit  an  extremely  hot  country,  are  very  fully 
clothed,  while  the  Fuegians  at  the  extremity  of  Cape  Horn, 
exposed  to  all  the  rigours  of  an  antarctic  climate,  have,  as  sole 
protection,  a  skin  attached  to  the  body  by  cords,  so  that  it  can 
be  shifted  to  either  side  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Dr.  C.  H.  Stratz  divides  clothing  climatically  into  two  classes: 
tropical,  which  is  based  on  the  girdle  (or,  when  the  attachment 
is  fastened  round  the  neck,  the  cloak),  and  the  arctic,  based  on  the 
trouser.  This  classification  is  ingenious  and  convenient  as  far 
as  it  goes,  but  it  seems  probable  that  the  trouser,  which  also  has 
the  waist  as  its  point  of  attachment,  may  itself  be  a  further 
development  of  the  girdle.  Certainly,  however,  in  historical 
times  the  division  holds  good,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  one 
of  the  points  about  the  northern  barbarians  which  struck  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  most  forcibly  was  the  fact  that  they 
wore  trousers.  Amongst  the  most  northerly  races  the  latter 
garb  is  worn  by  both  sexes  alike;  farther  south  by  the  men,  the 
women  retaining  the  tropical  form;  farther  south  still  the  latter 
reigns  supreme.  No  distinct  latitude  can  be  assigned  as  a 
boundary  between  the  two  forms,  from  the  simple  fact  that 
where  migration  in  comparatively  recent  times  has  taken  place 
a  natural  conservatism  has  prevented  the  more  familiar  garb 
from  being  discarded;  at  the  same  time  the  two  forms  can  often 
be  seen  within  the  limits  of  the  same  country;  as,  for  instance, 
in  China,  where  the  women  of  Shanghai  commonly  wear  trousers, 
those  of  Hong-Kong  skirts.  The  retention  by  women  in  Europe 
of  the  tropical  garb  can  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  her  sphere 
has  been  mainly  confined  to  the  house,  and  her  life  has  been  less 
active  than  that  of  man;  consequently  the  adoption  of  the 
arctic  dress  has  been  in  her  case  less  necessary.  But  it  is  notice- 
able that  where  women  engage  in  occupations  of  a  more  than 
usually  strenuous  nature,  they  frequently  don  male  costume 
while  at  their  work;  as,  for  instance,  women  who  work  in  mines 
(Belgium)  and  who  tend  cattle  (Switzerland,  Tirol).  The 
retention  of  the  tropical  pattern  by  the  Highlanders  is  due 
directly  to  environment,  since  the  kilt  is  better  suited  than 
trousers  for  walking  over  wet  heather. 

Another  factor  besides  climate  which  has  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  on  dress — more  .perhaps  on  what  is  commonly  regarded 
as  "  jewelry  ''  as  distinct  from  "  clothing  " — is  superstition. 
Doubtless  many  of  the  smaller  objects  with  which  primitive 
man  adorned  himself,  especially  trophies  from  the  animal  world, 
were  supposed  to  exert  some  beneficial  or  protective  influence 
on  the  wearer,  or  to  produce  in  him  the  distinguishing  character- 
istics attributed  to  the  object,  or  to  the  whole  of  which  the  object 
was  a  part.  Such  objects  might  be  imitated  in  other  materials 
and  by  successive  copying  lose  their  identity,  or  their  first  mean- 
ing might  be  otherwise  forgotten,  and  they  would  ultimately 
exercise  a  purely  decorative  function.  Though  this  factor  may 
be  responsible  for  much,  or  even  the  greater  part,  of  primitive 
"  jewelry,"  yet  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  it  is  the  cause  of  all 
forms  of  ornament;  much  must  be  attributed  to  the  desire 
to  satisfy  an  innate  aesthetic  sense,  which  is  seen  in  children 


226 


COSTUME 


and  of  which  some  glimmerings  appear  among  the  lower  animals 
also. 

See  Ed.  Westermarck,  The  History  of  Human  Marriage  (London, 
1901);  Racinet,  Le  Costume  historique  (Paris,  1888);  C.  H.  Stratz, 
Frauenkleidung  (Stuttgart).  (T.  A.  J.) 

I.  ANCIENT  COSTUME 

i.  Ancient  Oriental. — Although  the  numerous  discoveries  of 
monuments,  sculptures,  wall-paintings,  seals,  gems,  &c.,  combine 
with  the  evidence  from  inscriptions  and  from  biblical  and  classical 
writers  to  furnish  a  considerable  accumulation  of  material,  the 
methodical  study  of  costume  (in  its  widest  sense)  in  the  ancient 
oriental  world  (western  Asia  and  Egypt)  has  several  difficulties 
of  its  own.  It  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  quite  accurate  or  even 
adequate  reproductions  of  scenes  and  subjects,  and,  when  this 
is  done,  it  is  obviously  necessary  to  refrain  from  treating  the 
work  of  the  old  artists  and  sculptors  as  equivalent  to  photo- 
graphic representations.  Art  tended  to  become  schematic, 
artists  were  bound  by  certain  limitations  and  conventions  (Egypt 
under  Amenophis  IV.  is  a  notable  exception),  and  their  work 
was  apt  to  be  stilted.  In  Egypt,  too,  the  spirit  of  caricature 
occasionally  shows  itself.  But  when  every  allowance  is  made  for 
the  imperfections  or  the  cunning  of  the  workman,  one  need  only 
examine  any  collection  of  antiquities  to  see  that  there  was  a  dis- 
tinct appreciation  of  foreign  physical  types  (not  so  much  for 
personal  portraiture),  costumes,  toilet,  armour  and  decoration, 
often  markedly  different  from  native  forms,  and  that  a  single 
scene  (e.g.  war,  tribute-bearers,  captives)  will  represent  varieties 
of  dress  which  are  consistently  observed  in  other  scenes  or 
which  can  be  substantiated  from  native  sources.1  Important 
evidence  can  thus  be  obtained  on  ethnological  relations,  foreign 
influences  and  the  like.  Speaking  generally,  it  has  been  found 
that  the  East  as  opposed  to  the  West  has  undergone  relatively 
little  alteration  in  the  principal  constituents  of  dress  among  the 
bulk  of  the  population,  and,  although  it  is  often  difficult  to 
interpret  or  explain  some  of  the  details  as  represented  (one  may 
contrast,  for  example,  worn  sculptures  or  seals  with  the  vivid 
Egyptian  paintings),  comparison  with  later  descriptions  and  even 
with  modern  usage  is  frequently  suggestive.  The  vocabulary 
of  old  oriental  costume  is  surprisingly  large,  and  some  perplexity 
is  caused  by  the  independent  evolution  both  of  the  technical 
terms  (where  they  are  intelligible)  and  of  the  articles  of  dress 
themselves.  In  reality  there  were  numerous  minor  variations 
in  the  cut  and  colour  of  ancient  dress  even  as  there  are  in  the 
present  day  in  or  around  Palestine.  These  differences  have 
depended  upon  climate,  occupation,  occasion  (e.g.  marriage, 
worship,  feasts),  and  especially  upon  individual  status  and  taste. 
Rank  has  accounted  for  much,  and  ceremonial  dress— the  apparel 


Romans,  naturally  left  its  mark,  and  there  have  been  ages  of 
increasing  luxury  followed  by  periods  of  reaction,  with  a  general 
levelling  and  nationalization  on  religious  grounds  (Judaism, 
Islam) .  All  in  all  the  study  of  oriental  costume  down  to  the  days 
of  Hellenism  proves  to  be  something  more  than  that  of  mere 
apparel,  and  any  close  survey  of  the  evidence  speedily  raises 
questions  which  concern  old  oriental  history  and  thought. 

The  simplest  of  all  coverings  is  the  loin-cloth  characteristic 
of  warm  climates,  and  a  necessary  protection  where  there  are 
trying  extremes  of  temperature.  Clothing  did  not 
originate  in  ideas  of  decency  (Gen.  ii.  zs.iii.  7).  Children 
ran  and  still  run  about  naked,  the  industrious  work- 
man upon  the  Egyptian  monuments  is  often  nude,  and  the 
worshipper  would  even  appear  before  his  deity  in  a  state  of 
absolute  innocence.2  The  Hebrews  held  that  the  leaves  of  the 
fig-tree  (the  largest  available  tree  in  Palestine)  served  primitive 
man  and  that  the  Deity  gave  them  skins  for  a  covering — evidently 
after  he  had  slain  the  animals  (Gen.  iii.  21).  With  this  one  may 
compare  the  Phoenician  myth  (now  in  a  late  source)  which 
ascribed  the  novelty  of  the  use  of  skins  to  the  hero  Usoos 
(cf.  the  biblical  Esau,  q.v.).  The  loin-  or  waist-cloth  prevailed 
under  a  very  great  variety  of  minor  differentiated  forms.  In 
Egypt  it  was  the  plain  short  linen  cloth  wrapped  around  the  loins 
and  tied  in  front  (see  fig.  i).  It  was  the  usual  garb  of  scribes, 
servants  and  peasants,  and  in  the  earlier  dynasties  was  worn  even 
by  men  of  rank.  Sometimes, 
however,  it  was  of  matting  or 
was  seated  with  leather,  or  it 
would  take  the  form  of  a  narrow 
fringed  girdle  resembling  that 
of  many  African  tribes.  The 
Semites  who  visited  Egypt  wore 
a  larger  and  coloured  cloth,  orna- 
mented with  parallel  stripes  of 
patterns  similar  to  those  found 
upon  some  early  specimens  of 
Palestinian  pottery.  The  border 
was  fringed  or  was  ornamented 
with  bunches  of  tassels.  But  a 
close-fitting  skirt  or  tunic  was 
more  usual,  and  the  Semites  on 
the  famous  Beni-Hasan  tombs 
(about  the  2oth  or  igth  century 
B.C.)  wear  richly  decorated  cloth  FIG.  i. — Egyptian  Loin-cloth, 
(pattern  similar  to  the  above), 

while  the  leader  is  arrayed  in  a  magnificent  wrapper  in  blue, 
red  and  white,  with  fringed  edges,  and  a  neck-ribbon  to  keep 


FIG.  2. — Asiatics  visiting  Egypt  (Beni-Hasan  Tombs). 


of  the  gods,  their  representatives  and  their  ministers — opens  out 
several  interesting  lines  of  inquiry.  The  result  of  intercourse, 
whether  with  other  Orientals,  or  (in  later  times)  with  Greeks  and 

1  The  comprehensive  description  by  Herodotus  (vii.  61  sqq.) 
of  the  costumes  of  the  mercenaries  of  Xerxes  is  classical  (see  Rawlin- 
son's  edition,  iv.  56  sqq.).  For  archaeological  parallels  one  may 
compare  the  tombs  of  Rekhmire  (isth  cent.  B  c.)  and  Harmhab 
(141(1  cent.)  in  Egypt,  the  "  Black  Obelisk  "  of  the  Assyrian  king 
Shalmaneser  II.  (gih  cent.)  or  his  famous  gates  at  Balawat  (ed.  W. 
Birch  and  T.  G.  Pinches,  and  with  critical  description  and  plates  by 
A.  Billerbeck  and  F.  Delitzsch,  Beitrage  z.  Asiyriologie,  vi.  i ;  Leipzig, 
1908). 


it  in  position  (see  fig.  2).3  In  harmony  with  prevailing  custom 
the  women's  dress  is  rather  longer  than  that  of  the  men,  but  both 
sexes  have  the  arms  free  and  the  right  shoulder  is  exposed. 
Returning  to  Egypt  we  find  that  the  loin-cloth  developed  down- 
wards into  a  skirt  falling  below  the  knees.  Among  the  upper 
classes  it  was  unusually  broad  and  was  made  to  stand  out  in 

*  Old  Babylonian  sculptors  who  represent  the  enemy  as  naked 
(Meyer  [see  bibliography  below],  pp.  12,  70  seq.,  1 16),  conventionally 
anticipate  the  usual  treatment  of  the  slain  and  wounded  warriors. 

3  Edited  P.  C.  Newberry  (Archaeol.  Survey  of  Egypt,  1893).  Cf. 
also  the  Palestinian  short  coloured  skirt  with  black  tassels  of  the 
I4th  century  (Zeit.j.  Agypt.  Sprache,  1898,  pp.  126  sqq.). 


COSTUME 


227 


front  in  triangular  form.  In  the  Middle  Kingdom  an  outer  fine 
light  skirt  was  worn  over  the  loin-cloth;  ordinary  people, 
however,  used  thicker  material.  Egyptian  women  had  a  tight 
foldless  tunic  which  exposed  the  breasts;  it  was  generally  kept 
up  by  means  of  braces  over  the  shoulders.  This  plain  diaphanous 
garment,  without  distinction  of  colour  (white,  red  or  yellow),  and 
with  perhaps  only  an  embroidered  hem  at  the  top,  was  worn  by 
the  whole  nation,  princess  and  peasant,  from  the  IVth  to  the 
XVIIIth  Dynasties  (Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt,  p.  212). 
Variation,  such  as  it  was,  consisted  of  a  sleeveless  dress  covering 


K 


From  Hilprcchl's  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands,  by  permission  of 
A.  J.  Holman  &  Co.  and  T.  &  T.  Clark. 

FIG.  3. — Old  Babylonian  Costume. 

the  shoulders,  the  neck  being  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  V-  Female 
servants  and  peasants  when  engaged  at  work,  however,  had  a 
short  skirt  which  left  the  legs  free  and  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  bare;  a  like  simplicity  was  probably  customary  among 
female  servants  or  captives  throughout  (cf.  Isa.  xlvii.  2).  Even 
at  the  present  day  the  wardrobe  of  the  Sinaitic  Bedouin  is  much 
more  complicated  than  that  of  their  female  folk. 

The  earliest  dress  of  Babylonia  also  covered  only  the  lower  half 
of  the  body.  As  worn  by  gods  and  men  it  was  a  long  and  rather 
loose  kind  of  skirt  suspended  from  a  girdle.  It  is  sometimes 
smooth,  but  sometimes  it  is  a  shaggy  skin  (or  woollen)  skirt 
with  horizontal  rows  of  vertically  furrowed  stuff.  It  allowed  a 

certain  freedom  to  the  legs,  but 
often  it  is  not  clear  whether  it 
was  joined  down  the  middle.  An 
instructive  development  shows 
the  upper  part  of  the  skirt  hang- 
ing over  the  girdle  so  that  an 
'  ^  elementary  mantle  would  be 
'•'  obtained  by  drawing  the  loose 
end  up  over  the  shoulders  (Meyer, 
p.  93,  cf.  pp.  55,  76).  The  char- 
acteristic skirt  is  sometimes  sup- 
plemented by  a  coarse  cloth,  per- 
haps a  fleece,  thrown  over  the 
shoulders;  and  in  later  times  it 
is  seen  fastened  outside  a  tunic 
by  means  of  a  girdle  (see  fig.  3). 

The  favourite  attitude,  one  leg 
planted  firmly  before  the  other, 
shows  the  right  leg  fully  exposed. 
A  tunic  or  skirt  is  found  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Naram-Sin,  son 
of  the  great  Sargon;  it  reaches 
to  his  knees  and  appears  to  be 
held  up  by  ornamental  shoulder- 
bands  (Meyer,  pp.  n,  115;  fig.  4).  Egyptian  monuments  depict 
Semites  with  long  bordered  tunics  reaching  from  neck  to 
ankle;  they  have  sleeves,  which  are  sometimes  curiously 
decorated,  and  are  tied  at  the  neck  with  tasselled  cords;  some- 


FIG.   4. — Naram-Sin   on 
Stele  of  Victory. 


times  there  is  a  peculiar  design  at  the  neck  resembling  a  cross 
(Miiller,  Asien  und  Europa,  pp.  298  seq.).  The  Hittite  warriors 
upon  north  Syrian  sculptures  (Zenjirli,  perhaps  nth  to  gth 
centuries)  have  a  short-sleeved  tunic  which  ends  above  the 
knees,  and  this  type  of  garment  recurs  over  a  large  area  with 
numerous  small  variations  (with  or  without  girdle,  slits  at  the 
neck,  or  bordering).  An  interesting  example  of  the  long  plain 
variety  is  afforded  by  the  prisoners  of  Lachish  before  Sennacherib 
(701  B.C.);  the  circumstances  and  a  comparison  of  the  details 
would  point  to  its  being  essentially  a  simple  dress  indicative  of 
mourning  and  humiliation.  It  may  be  compared  in  its  general 
form  with  the  woollen  juSba  of  Arabia,  which  reached»to  the 
knees  and  was  sewn  down  the  front  (except  at  the  top  and 
bottom).  A  modern  Bedouin  equivalent  has  long  sleeves;  it  is 
common  to  both  sexes,  the  chief  difference  lying  in  the  colour — 
white  for  men,  dyed  with  indigo  for  women. 


FIG.  5. — Asiatic  Envoys  in  Egypt. 

Another  very  characteristic  garment  suggests  an  original 
loin-cloth  considerably  longer  than  the  elementary  article  which 
was  noticed  above.  The  Arab  izdr,  though  now  a  large  outer 
wrapper,  was  once  a  loin-cloth  (like  the  Hebrew  tzdr),  which, 
however,  was  long  enough  to  be  trodden  upon.  At  the  present 
day  male  and  female  pilgrims  at  Mecca  wear  such  a  cloth  (the 
ihrdm) ;  it  covers  the  knees  and  one  end  of  it  may  be  cast  over 
the  shoulder.  In  Egyptian  tombs  have  been  found  linen  bands 
no  less  than  30  ft.  in  length  and  3  ft.  in  width.  The  distinctive 
feature  is  the  spiral  arrangement  of  the  garment, the  body  being 
wrapped  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  a  bandage  of  varying 
length  in  more  or  less  parallel  stripes.  In  old  Babylonia  both  the 
arms  and  the  whole  of  the  right  shoulder  were  originally  un- 
covered, and  one  end  of  the  garment  was  allowed  to  hang  loose 
over  the  left  arm.  It  is  frequently  found  upon  deities,  kings  and 
magnates,  and  appears  to  have  been  composed  of  some  thick 
furrowed  or  fluted  material,  sometimes  of  bright  and  variegated 
design.  Not  seldom  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  true 
spiral  garment  and  a  dress  with  parallel  horizontal  stripes,  and 


"228 


COSTUME 


one  could  sometimes  suppose  that  the  flounced  dress  with  volants, 
well  known  in  the  Aegean  area,  had  its  parallel  in  Babylonia.1 
Egypt  furnishes  admirable  painted  and  sculptured  representa- 
tions of  the  forms  taken  by  the  Semitic  spiral  dress  in  the 
XVIIIth  and  XlXth  Dynasties;  the  highly-coloured  and  gay 
apparel  of  Palestine  and  Syria  standing  in  the  strongest 
contrast  to  the  plain,  simple  and  often 
scanty  garments  of  the  Egyptians  (fig.  5). 
While  the  common  Semite  wore  a  short 
skirt,  often  with  tassels  and  sometimes 
with  an  upper  tunic,  the  more  important 
had  an  elaborate  scarf  (extending  from 
waist  to  knee)  wound  over  the  long  tunic, 
or  a  longer  and  close-fitting  variety  coloured 
blue  and  red  and  generally  adorned  with 
rich  embroidery.  A  significant  feature  is 
the  kind  of  cape  which  covers  the  shoulders ; 
it  would  not  and  no  doubt  was  not  intended 
to  leave  play  for  the  arms;  it  was  the 
dress  of  the  leisured  classes,  and  a  typical 
FlG'  6'T)ffi"  Egyptian  scene  depicts  the  chiefs  of  Lebanon  thus 
arrayed  submissively  felling  cedars  for 
Seti  I.  (about  1300  B.C.). 

Not  until  the  XVIIIth  and  XlXth  Dynasties  does  a  change 
come  over  Egyptian  costume.  The  Asiatic  conquests  made 
Egypt  politically  supreme,  the  centre  of  life  and  intercourse,  and 
the  tendency  arose  to  pay  some  attention  to  outward  appearance. 
From  the  highest  to  the  lowest — with  the  important  exception 
of  the  priests — the  new  age  of  luxury  wiped  out  the  earlier 
simplicity.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  was  covered  with  a  tunic 
fastened  over  the  girdle.  Often  the  left  arm  had  a  short  sleeve 
while  the  right  was  bare,  but  flowing  sleeves  came  into  use  and 
various  pleated  skirts  became  customary.  Garments  were 
multiplied,  and  the  cape  and  long  mantle,  which  had  previously 
been  uncommon,  were  now  usual.  Fashions  changed  in  quick 
succession;  upper  clases  were  successively  copied  by  those 

beneath  them  and 
were  forced  to  ensure 
their  dignity  by  as- 
suming new  styles. 
Whether  for  ordinary 
or  for  special  occa- 
sions a  great  variety 
of  costume  prevailed, 
and  several  types  can 
be  distinguished 
among  both  sexes  (Er- 
man,  pp.  207  seq.,  213 
sqq.;  see  fig.  6).  The 
fashionable  material 
was  linen,  and  al- 
though, according  to 
Herodotus  (ii.  81),  a 
woollen  mantle  was 
worn  over  the  fringed 
linen  skirt,  wool  was 
forbidden  to  the 
priests  in  the  temple. 
The  preference  for 
fine  white  linen,  quite 
in  keeping  with  the 
Egyp- 
tian ideas  of  cleanli- 


Drawn  from  a  photo  by  Giraudon. 

FIG. 7.  SargonandhisCommander-in-Chief.    exaggerated 


ness,  brought  the  art  of  spinning  and  weaving  to  a  singularly 
high  level;  in  embroidery,  as  in  tapestry,  however,  it  is  prob- 
able that  western  Asia  more  than  held  its  own  (see  figs.  7  and  8). 

Quite  distinct  from  the  spiral  is  the  old  Babylonian  cloak, 
which  was  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder,  passed  under  the  right 

1  See  e.g.  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  p.  36.  On  the  Aegean  dress 
(whether  a  development  from  spiral  swathes  or  perhaps  rather  from 
a  series  of  skirts  one  above  the  other),  see  the  discussion  of  the  Aegean 
loin-cloth  by  D.  Mackenzie,  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens, 
xii.  233-249  (esp.  242  seq.). 


armpit,  and  hung  down,  leaving  sufficient  freedom  for  the  legs. 
It  is  often  decorated  with  a  fringed  border  from  top  to  bottom. 
In  time  this  mantle  covered  both  shoulders  and  assumed  sleeves, 
and  in  one  form  or  another  it  is  frequently  represented.  So 


FIG.  8. — Assyrian  Officers. 

Jehu's  tribute-bearers  wear  short  sleeves,  trimmed  border,  and 
the  general  effect  could  even  suggest  an  Assyrian  dress  (see  fig.  9). 
Not  unlike  this  is  the  style  on  the  bilingual  Hittite  boss  of 
Tarkudimme,  where  the  skirt  ends  in  a  point  nearly  to  the  ground 
and  one  leg  stands  out  bare  to  the  front — the  very  favourite 
attitude.  Long  fringed  robes  were  worn  by  Hittites  of  both 
sexes,  and  the  women  represented  at  Mar' ash  and  Zenjirli  wear 


FIG.  9. — Israelite  Tribute-bearers  introduced  by  two 
Assyrian  Officers. 

it  hung  over  the  characteristic  Hittite  cylindrical  head-dress 
(fig.  10).  On  the  other  hand,  the  unhappy  females  of  Lachish 
have  a  long  plain  mantle  which  covers  the  head  and  forehead 
(fig.  1 1) ,  and  the  same  principle  recurs  in  modern  usage,  where  the 
tunic  will  be  supplemented  by  a  veil  or  shawl  which  (generally 
bound  to  the  head  by  a  band)  frames  the  face  and  falls  back  to 
the  waist.  A  large  mantle  could  thus  serve  as  a  veil,  and 
Rebekah  covered  her  face  with  her  square  or  oblong  wrapper  on 
meeting  Isaac  (Gen.  xxiv.  65).  Veiling  was  ceremonial  (i  Cor. 
xi.  5),  and  customary  on  meeting  a  future  bridegroom  or  at 
marriage  (see  Gen.  xxix.  23-25).  Nevertheless  veils  were  not 
usually  worn  out  of  doors,  the  countrywoman  of  to-day  is  not 
veiled,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether  there  is  any  early  parallel 
for  the  yashmak,  the  narrow  strip  which  covers  the  face  below 
the  eyes  and  hangs  down  to  the  feet. 

Before  passing  to  the  special  covering  for  the  feet  and  head 
some  further  reference  to  the  Old  Testament  usage  may  be  made. 
Among  the  Hebrews  the  outer  garment,  as  distinct  from  the 
inner  loin  wrapper  (Izor)  or  tunic,  evidently  took  many  forms. 


COSTUME 


229 


The  tunic  (kuttonelk,  cf.  \vrwv,  tunica),\ike  its  Greek  counterpart, 
was  apparently  of  two  kinds,  for,  although  essentially  a  simple 
and  probably  sleeveless  garment,  there  was  a  special  variety 
worn  by  royal  maidens  and  men  of  distinction,  explicitly 
described  as  a  tunic  of  palms  or  soles  (passim),  that  is,  one 
presumably  reaching  to  the  hands  and  feet  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3; 
2  Sam.  xiii.  18  sq.).1  The  kutloneth  could  be  removed  at  night 
(Cant.  v.  3).  For  the  outer  garments  the  most  distinctive  term 


From  Dcr  allc  Orient,  by  permission  of  J.  C.  Hinrichs'ache  Buchhundlung. 

FIG.  10. — Hittite  Women. 

is  the  simlah.  This  was  worn  by  both  sexes,  though  obviously 
there  was  some  difference  as  regards  length,  &c.  (Deut.  xxii.  5). 
Ruth  put  one  on  before  going  out  of  doors,  and  its  folds  could 
be  used  for  carrying  small  loads  (Ruth  iii.  9;  Ex.  xii.  34).  The 
law  forbade  the  creditor  to  retain  it  over-night  as  a  pledge 
(Ex.  xxii.  26  sq.),  and  consequently  we  may  assume  that  it  was 
a  large  outer  wrapper  which  could  be  dispensed  with  out  of 
doors  by  men,  or  indoors  by  women.  The  simlah  of  the  warrior 
(Isa.  ix.  5)  can  be  illustrated  from  the  Assyrian  sculptures 
(Ency.  Bib.,  art.  "Siege");  according  to  Herodotus  (vii.  69) 
the  Arabs  under  Xerxes  wore  a  long  cloak  fastened  by  a  girdle. 
The  outer  girdle  (Heb.  hagorah;  the  Arabic  equivalent  term 
is  a  kilt  from  thigh  to  knee)  varied,  as  the  monuments  show, 
in  richness  and  design,  and  could  be  used  as  a  sword-belt  or 

pocket  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the 
modern  native  uses 
the  long  cloth  twined 
twice  or  thrice 
around  his  body. 
The  more  ornate 
variety,  called  abnel, 
was  worn  by  promi- 
nent officials  (Isa. 
xxii.  21)  and  by  the 
high  priest.  The 
modern  oriental  open 
waistcoat  finds  its 
fellow  in  the  jacket 


FIG.  n. — Prisoners  of  Lachish. 


or  bolero  from  ancient  Crete,  and  seems  to  have  been  dis- 
tinctively Aegean.  The  same  may  also  be  true  of  breeches. 
The  pantaloons  worn  by  modern  females,  with  short  tunic 
and  waistcoat,  are  not  found  among  the  Bedouin  (e.g.  of 
Sinai),  trousers  being  considered  undignified  even  for  men. 
But  a  baggy  kind  of  knickerbockers  is  represented  in  old 

1  Joseph's  familiar  "  coat  of  many  colours,"  which  we  owe  to  the 
Septuagint,  can  perhaps  be  justified:  R.  Eisler,  Orient.  Lit.  Zeitun& 
August,  1908 


Aegean  scenes,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  Arab  mi'zar 
(drawers  such  as  were  worn  by  wrestlers  or  sailors)  takes  its 
name  from  the  izdr  or  loin-cloth  (Ency.  Bib.  1734).  Such  a 
cloth  may  once  have  passed  between  the  legs,  being  kept  in 
position  by  the  waistband  (examples  in  Perrot  and  Chipiez, 
Greece,  ii.  198  sq.,  456).  On  the  other  hand,  among  the  Africans 
of  Punt  the  waistcloth  passes  from  each  knee  to  the  opposite 
thigh,  and  two  sashes  hang  down  to  conceal  the  parts  where  they 
intersect  (Miiller,  108).  The  people  of  Keft  (Aegeans)  wore  a 
similar  arrangement  which  is  a  step  in  the  direction  of  the  proper 
drawers.  The  latter  are  found  exceptionally  upon  Semitic 
Bedouin  with  an  upper  covering  of  bands  wound  round  the  body 
(Miiller,  140).  However,  the  woven  decorated  drawers  in 
Cyprus  do  not  appear  to  be  of  Semitic  origin  (J.  L.  Myres, 
Classical  Review,  x.  355),  and  it  is  not  until  later  that  they  were 
prescribed  to  the  Israelite  priests  (Ezek.  xliv.  18).  But  the 
garment  as  explained  by  Josephus  (Ant.  iii.  7.  i)  was  properly 
a  lion-cloth  (cf.  the  examples  from  Punt),  and  the  reason  given 
for  its  use  (Ex.  xxviii.  42)  points  to  a  later  date  than  the  law 
which  enforced  the  same  regard  for  decency  by  forbidding  the 
priests  to  ascend  altars  with  steps  (ib.  xx.  26).  As  trousers  were 
distinctively  Persian — though  the  Persians  had  the  reputation 
for  borrowing  Median  and  foreign  dress  (Herod,  i.  71,  vii.  61) — 
they  were  no  doubt  familiar  in  Palestine  in  the  post-exilic  age, 
and  in  the  Roman  period  the  braccae  undfeminalia  were  certainly 
known.  On  supposed  references  to  breeches  in  Dan.  iii.  21,  see 
Journ.  of  Philology,  xxvi.  307-313. 

Special  protection  for  the  feet  was  chiefly  necessary  in  rocky 
districts  or  upon  long  journeys.    In  early  Egypt  men  of  rank 
would  be  followed  by  a  servant  carrying  a  pair  of 
sandals  in  case  of  need;  but  in  the  New  Kingdom  they 
were  in  common  use,  although  a  typical  difference  is  observed 
when  princes  appear  unshod  in  the  presence  of  the  Pharaoh, 
who  wears  sandals  him- 
self.    The  simplest  kind 
was    a   pad    or   sole    of 
leather  or  papyrus  bound 
to  the  foot  by  two  straps, 
one  passing  over  the  in- 
step, the  other  between 
the  toes.2     A  third  was 
sometimes    fastened    be- 
hind  the   heel,   and   the 
front  is  often  turned  up 
to  protect  the  toe  (Egypt 
and    elsewhere).        The 
Semites    of    the    XHth 
Dynasty   wore   on   their 
journeys  sandals  of  black 
leather,     those     of     the          FlG-  I2-  Assyrian  Warriors  with 

...  ,  captured  Idols, 

women      and      children 

being  more  serviceable,  and,  in  the  case  of  women,  parti- 
coloured. Practically  the  same  simple  sandal  came  into  use 
everywhere  when  required.  But  the  warrior  had  something 
stouter,  and  the  Hittites  wore  a  turned -up  shoe  bound 
round  the  legs  with  thongs.  Among  the  latter  is  also  found 
a  piece  of  protecting  leather  reaching  halfway  up  the  shin, 
and  similar  developments  with  tight-fitting  bandages,  buskins 
or  laced  garters  were  worn  in  Assyria  and  Asia  Minor 
(see  fig.  12).  Such  coverings  find  their  analogies  among  the 
peasants  of  modern  Cilicia  and  Cappadocia.  Stockings,  it  may 
be  added,  do  not  apnear.  and  are  quite  exceptional  at  the  present 
daj 

The  treatment  of  the  hair,  moustache  and  beard  is  extremely 
interesting  in  the  study  of  oriental  archaeology  (see  Miiller, 
Meyer,  opp.  cill.).  A  special  covering  for  the  head 
was  not  indispensable.  The  Semites  often  bound 
their  bushy  locks  with  a  fillet,  which  varies  from  a  single  band 
(so  often,  e.g.  Palestinian  captives,  loth  century)  to  a  fourfold 

1  Erman,  226  sqq.,  cf.  the  modern  Bedouin  shoe,  Jennings- 
Bramley,  Quart.  Stat.  of  Palest.  Explor.  Fund  (1908),  p.  115  sq. 
(on  dress  of  Sinaitic  Bedouin  generally). 


230 


COSTUME 


From  Palestine  Exploration  Fund 
Quarterly  Statement,  Oct.,  1907. 

FIG.  13. — Sacrificial  Scene 
on  a  Seal  from  Gezer. 


one,  from  a  plain  band  to  highly  decorated  diadems.  The 
Ethiopians  of  Tirhakah's  army  (7th  cent.)  stuck  a  single  feather 
in  the  front  of  their  fillet,  and  a  feathered  ornament  recurs  from 
the  old  Babylonian  goddess  with  two  large  feathers  on  her  head 
to  the  feathered  crown  common  from  Assur-bani-pal's  Arabians 
to  Ararat,  and  is  familiar  from  the  later  distinctive  Persian  head- 
dress.1 But  the  ordinary  Semitic  head  covering  was  a  cloth 
which  sometimes  appears  with  two  ends  tied  in  front,  the  third 
falling  behind.  Or  it  falls  over  the  nape  of  the  neck  and  is  kept 
in  position  with  a  band;  or  again  as  a  cloth  cap  has  lappets 

to  protect  the  ears.  Sometimes  it 
has  a  more  bulky  appearance.  In 
general,  the  use  of  a  square  or 
rectangular  cloth  (whether  folded 
diagonally  or  not)  corresponds  to 
the  modern  keffiyeh  woven  with 
long  fringes  which  are  plaited  into 
cords  knitted  at  the  ends  or 
worked  into  little  balls  sewn  over 
with  coloured  silks  and  golden 
threads.2  The  keffiyeh  covering 
cheek,  neck  and  throat,  is  worn 
over  a  small  skull-cap  and  will 
be  accompanied  with  the  rela- 
tively modern  fez  (larbusk)  and  a  woollen  cloth.  Probably 
the  oldest  head-dress  is  the  circular  close-fitting  cap 
(plain  or  braided),  which,  according  to  Meyer,  is  of  Sumerian 
(non-Semitic)  origin.  But  it  has  a  long  history.  Palestinian 
captives  in  the  Assyrian  age  wear  it  with  a  plain  close-fitting 
tunic,  and  it  appears  upon  the  god  Hadad  in  north  Syria  (cf. 
also  the  Gezer  seal,  fig.  13).  With  some  deities  (e.g.  the 
moon-god  Sin)  it  has  a  kind  of  straight  brim  which  gives  it  a 
certain  resemblance  to  a  low-crowned  "  bowler."  Very  character- 
istic is  the  conical  cap  which,  like  the  Persian  hat  (Gr.  kurbasia), 
resembled  a  cock's  comb.  It  is  worn  by  gods  and  men,  and  with 
the  latter  sometimes  has  ear-flaps  (at  Lachish,  with  other 
varieties,  Ball,  190)  or  is  surmounted  by  a  feather  or  crest.  It 
was  probably  made  of  plaited  leather  or  felt.  Veritable  helmets 
of  metal,  such  as  Herodotus  ascribes  to 
Assyrians  and  Chalybians  (vii.  63, 76) ,  and 
metal  armour,  though  known  farther 
west,  scarcely  appear  in  old  oriental 
costume,  and  the  passage  which  attri- 
butes bronze  helmets  and  coats  of  mail 
to  the  Philistine  Goliath  and  the  Israelite 
Saul  cannot  be  held  (on  other  grounds)  to 
be  necessarily  reliable  for  the  middle  or 
close  of  the  nth  century  (i  Sam.  xvii.). 
A  loftier  head-covering  was  sometimes 
spherical  at  the  top  and  narrowed  in  the 
middle;  with  a  brim  or  border  turned  up 
back  and  front  it  is  worn  by  Hittite 
warriors  of  Zenjlrli  and  by  their  god  of 
storm  and  war  (fig.  14).  Elongated  and 
more  pointed  it  is  the  archaic  crown  of 
the  Pharaohs  (symbolical  of  upper  Egypt) , 
*s  worn  by  a  Hittite  god  of  the  i4th 
century,  and  finds  parallels  upon  old 
FIG.  14. — Hittite  cultus  images  from  Asia  Minor,  Crete  and 
Weather-god.  Cyprus.  Later,  Herodotus  describes  it  as 

distinctively  Scythian  (vii.  64).  Finally  the  cylindrical  hat  of 
Hittite  kings  and  queens  reappears  with  lappets  in  Phoenicia 
(Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Phoen.  ii.  77);  without  the  brim  it  resembles 
the  crown  of  the  Babylonian  Merodach-nadin-akhi,  with  afeathered 
top  it  distinguishes  Adad  (god  of  storm,  &c.)  at  Babylonia. 
Narrower  at  the  top  and  surmounted  by  a  spike  it  distinguishes 
the  Assyrian  kings. 

1  Meyer,  97,  see  F.  Hommel,  Aufsatze  u.  Abhandlungen  (Munich, 
1900),  160  sqq.,  214  sqq.  For  other  feathered  head-dresses  in 
western  Asia,  see  Muller,  361  sqq. 

*  Such  tasselled  or  fringed  caps  were  used  by  the  Syrians  in  the 
Christian  era,  see  W.  Budge,  Book  of  Governors,  ii.  339,  367. 


When  the  deities  were  regarded  as  anthropomorphic  they 
naturally  wore  clothing  which,  on  the  whole,  was  less  subject 
to  change  of  fashion  and  was  apt  to  be  symbolical  of 
their  attributes.  The  old  Babylonian  hero  Gilgamesh 
and  the  Egyptian  Bes  (perhaps  of  foreign  extraction)  gods. 
are  nude,  and  so  in  general  are  the  figurines  of  the 
Ishtar-Astarte  type.  Numerous  bronze  images  of  a  kneeling 
god  at  Telloh  give  him  only  a  loin-cloth,  and  often  the  deity,  like 
the  monarch,  has  only  a  skirt.  In  course  of  time  various  plaids 
or  mantles  are  assumed,  and  in  Babylonia  the  goddesses  were 
the  first  to  have  both  shoulders  covered.  Distinctive  features 
are  found  in  the  head-dress,  e.g.  crowns  (cf.  the  Ammonite  god, 
2  Sam.  xii.  30)  or  horns  (a  single  pair  or  an  arrangement  of  four 
pairs),  and  in  Babylonia  symbolical  emblems  are  attached  to  the 
shoulders  (e.g.  the  rays  of  the  sun-god,  stalks,  running  water). 
Long  garments  ornamented  with  symbolical  designs  (stars,  &c.) 
are  worn  by  Marduk  and  Adad.  The  custom  of  clothing  images 
is  well  known  in  the  ancient  world,  and  at  the  restoration  of  an 
Egyptian  temple  care  was  taken  to  anoint  the  divine  limbs  and  to 
prepare  the  royal  linen  fot  the  god.  The  ceremonial  clothing 
of  the  god  on  the  occasion  of  festal  processions,  undertaken  in 
Egypt  by  the  ''  master  of  secret  things,"  may  be  compared  with 
the  well-known  Babylonian  representations  of  such  promenades. 
The  Babylonian  temples  received  garments  as  payment  in  kind, 
and  the  Egyptian  lists  in  the  Papyrus  Harris  (Rameses  III.) 
enumerate  an  enormous  number  of  skirts,  tunics  and  mantles, 
dyed  and  undyed,  for  the  various  deities.  A  priest,  "  master  of 
the  wardrobe,"  is  named  as  early  as  the  Vlth  Dynasty,  and  later 
texts  refer  to  the  weavers  and  laundry  servants  of  the  temple. 
It  is  probable  that  2  Kings  xxiii.  7  originally  referred  to  the 
women  who  wove  garments  for  the  goddess  in  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem. 

In  Egypt  the  king  was  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  the  deity, 
his  son  and  earthly  likeness.  The  underlying  conception  shows 
itself  under  differing  though  not  unrelated  forms  over  _  . 
western  Asia,  and  in  their  light  the  question  of  religious  costume. 
and  ceremonial  dress  is  of  great  interest.  Throughout 
Egyptian  history  the  official  costume  was  conventionalized,  and 
the  latest  kings  and  even  the  Roman  emperors  are  arrayed  like 
their  predecessors  of  the  IVth  Dynasty.  The  crook  which  figures 
among  royal  and  divine  insignia  may  go  back  to  the  boomerang- 
like  object  which  was  a  prominent  weapon  in  antiquity  (Muller, 
123  sq.).  It  appears  in  old  Babylonia  as  a  curved  stick,  and, 
like  the  club,  is  a  distinctive  symbol  of  god  and  king.  It  resembles 
the  sceptre  curved  at  the  end,  which  was  carried  by  old  Hittite 
gods.  The  Pharaoh's  characteristic  crown  (or  crowns) 
symbolized  his  royal  domains,  the  sacred  uraeus  marked  his 
divine  ancestry,  and  he  sometimes  appeared  in  the  costume 
of  the  gods  with  their  fillets  adorned  with  double  feathers  and 
horns.  In  Babylonia  Naram-Sin  in  the  guise  of  a  god  wears  the 
pointed  helmet  and  two  great  horns  distinctive  of  the  deities.1 
This  relationship  between  the  gods  and  their  human  representa- 
tives is  variously  expressed.  Khammurabi  and  the  sun-god 
Shamash,  on  the  former's  famous  code  of  laws,  have  the  same 
features  and  almost  the  same  frizzled  beard,  and,  according  to 
Meyer,  the  king  in  claiming  supremacy  over  Sumer  and  Akkad 
wears  the  costume  of  the  lands.11  Ordinary  folk  could  not  claim 
these  honours,  and  in  Egypt,  where  shaving  was  practically 
universal,  artificial  beards  were  worn  upon  solemn  occasions  as  a 
peculiar  duty.  But  the  appendage  of  the  official  was  shorter 
than  that  of  the  king,  and  the  gods  had  a  distinctive  shape  for 
themselves;  if  it  appears  upon  the  dead  it  is  because  they  in 
their  death  had  become  identified  with  the  god  Osiris  (Erman, 
59,  225  sq.).  Young  Egyptian  princes  and  youthful  kings  had 

*  Comp.  the  horns  of  Bau  ("  mother  of  the  gods  "),  Samas  (Sha- 
mash), (H)adad,  and  (in  Egypt)  of  the  Asiatic  god  assimilated  to 
Set  (so,  too,  Rameses  III.  is  styled  "  strong-horned  "  like  Baal). 
With  the  band  dependent  from  the  conical  hat  of  Marduk-bal-iddin 
II.  (Meyer,  8)  and  other  kings,  cf.  the  tail  on  the  head-dress  of  this 
foreign  Set  (e.g.  Proc.  Soc.  of  BiU.  Arch.  xvi.  87  sq.).  The  consort 
of  the  Pharaoh,  in  turn,  wore  the  sacred  vulture  head-dress. 

4  On  the  resemblance  between  divine  and  royal  figures  in  costume, 
&c.,  see  further  Meyer,  9,  14  sq.,  17,  23,  53  sq.,  67,  79,  102,  105  sq. 


COSTUME 


231 


a  long  plaited  lock  (or  later  a  lappet)  on  the  side  of  their  head  in 
imitation  of  the  youthful  Horus,  and  the  peculiar  tonsure  adopted 
by  the  later  Arabs  of  Sinai  was  inspired  by  the  desire  to  copy  their 
god  Orotal-Dionysus.1  Thus  we  perceive  that  ancient  costume 
and  toilet  involves  the  relations  between  the  gods  and  men, 
and  also,  what  is  extremely  important,  the  political  conditions 
among  the  latter.  When  the  king  symbolizes  both  the  god  and 
the  extent  of  his  kingdom,  ceremonies  which  could  appear 
commonplace  often  acquire  a  new  significance,  any  discussion  of 
which  belongs  to  the  intricacies  of  the  history  of  religion  and 
pre-monarchical  society.  It  must  suffice,  therefore,  to  record  the 
Pharaoh's  simple  girdle  (with  or  without  a  tunic)  from  which 
hangs  the  lion's  tail,  or  the  tail-like  band  suspended  from  the 
extremity  of  his  head-dress  (above),  or  the  panther  or  leopard 
skin  worn  over  the  shoulders  by  the  high  priest  at  Memphis, 
subsequently  a  ceremonial  dress  of  men  of  rank.  That  the 
Pharaoh's  skirt,  sometimes  decorated  with  a  pleated  golden 
material,  should  become  an  honorific  garment,  the  right  of  wear- 
ing which  was  proudly  recorded  among  the  bearer's  titles,  is 
quite  intelligible,  but  many  difficulties  arise  when  one  attempts 
to  identify  the  individuals  represented,  or  to  trace  the  evolution 
of  ideas.2 

The  well-known  conservatism  of  religious  practice  manifests 
itself  in  ceremonial  festivals  (where  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
original  religious  meaning  to  be  obscured)  and  among 
men/a/  tne  Pr'ests>  and  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  despite 
costume,  the  great  changes  in  Egyptian  costume  in  the  New 
Kingdom  the  priests  still  kept  to  the  simple  linen 
skirt  of  earlier  days  (Erman,  206).  Religious  dress  (whether  of 
priests  or  worshippers)  was  regulated  by  certain  fundamental 
ideas  concerning  access  to  the  deity  and  its  consequences.  That 
it  was  proper  to  wear  special  garments  (or  at  least  to  rearrange 
one's  weekday  clothes)  on  the  Jewish  sabbath  was  recognized  in 
the  Talmud,  and  Mahommedans,  after  discussing  at  length  the 
most  suitable  raiment  for  prayer,  favoured  the  use  of  a  single 
simple  garment  (Bukhari,  viii.).  It  was  a  deep-seated  belief 
that  those  who  took  part  in  religious  functions  were  liable  to 
communicate  this  "  holiness  "  to  others  (compare  the  complex 
ideas  associated  with  the  Polynesian  taboo).  Hence  priests  would 
remove  their  ceremonial  dress  before  leaving  the  sanctuary  "  that 
they  sanctify  not  the  people  with  their  garments  "  (Ezek.  xliv. 
19;  cf.  xlii.  14),  and  every  precaution  was  taken  on  religious 
occasions  to  ensure  purity  by  special  ablutions  and  by  cleansing 
the  clothes.3  In  the  old  ritual  at  Mecca,  the  man  who  wore  his 
own  garments  must  leave  them  in  the  sanctuary,  as  they  had 
become  "taboo";  hence  the  sacred  circumambulation  of  the 
Ka'ba  was  performed  naked  (prohibited  by  Mahomet),  or  in 
clothes  provided  for  the  occasion.  The  old  archaic  waist-cloth 
was  used,  and  at  the  present  day  both  male  and  female  pilgrims 
enter  bare-footed  and  clad  in  the  scanty  ihram  (C.  M.  Doughty, 
Arabia  Deserta,  ii.  479,  481,  537).  In  several  old  Babylonian 
representations  the  priests  or  worshippers  appear  before  the 
deity  in  a  state  of  nature.4  It  is  known  that  laymen  were 
required  to  wear  special  garments,  and  the  priests  (who  wore 
dark-red  or  purple)  were  sometimes  called  upon  to  change  their 
garments  in  the  course  of  a  ceremony.  Thus  the  temples  required 
clothing  not  merely  for  the  gods  but  also  for  the  attendants 
(so  at  Samaria,  2  Kings  x.  22). 

In  the  late  usage  at  Harran  the  worshipper,  after  purifying  his 
garments  and  his  heart,  was  advised  to  put  on  the  clothing  of  the 
particular  god  he  addressed  (de  Goejc,  Oriental  Congress,  Leiden, 

1  Herod,  iii.  8.  If  the  bald  Sumeriaris  wore  wigs  in  time  of  war 
(Meyer,  81,  86),  war  itself  from  beginning  to  end  was  essentially  a 
religious  rite;  see  W.  R.  Smith,  Rel.  of  Semites,  pp.  401  sqq.,  491  sq.; 
F.  Schwalty,  Semitische  Kriegsaltertiimer,  i.  On  the  importance 
attached  to  the  beard,  see  Ency.  Bib.,  s.v. 

*  A  typical  example  is  afforded  by  the  solitary  representation  of  a 
Moabite  (Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Phoen.  ii.  45)  whose  helmet  and  dress 
suggest  a  god  or  king.  Equally  perplexing  is  the  Egyptian  style  on 
the  Phoenician  statue,  ib.  28. 

»  Cf.  Lev  xvi.  23  sq. ;  Ex.  xix.  10;  Herod,  ii.  37  (ed.  Wiedemann) ; 
Lagrange,  Etudes  sur  les  relig.  sent.  239. 

4  M.  Jastrow,  Relig.  of  Bab.  and  Ass.  p.  666;  cf.  Rev.  biblique, 
1908,  p.  466  sq.,  and  Meyer,  59,  86,  97,  101.  According  to  the  latter 
Sumerian  priests  served  naked  (p.  112). 


1883,  pp.  341  sqq.).  The  reason  is  obvious,  and  the  principle  could 
be  variously  expressed.  But  we  are  not  told  whether  the  prophetess 
who  wore  bands  on  her  arm  and  drew  a  mantle  over  her  head  (so 
read  in  Ezek.  xiii.  17-23)  actually  used  the  clothing  peculiar  to  some 
deity,  nor  is  it  quite  clear  what  is  meant  when  a  Babylonian  ritual 
text  refers  to  the  magical  use  of  the  linen  garment  of  Eridu  (seat  of 
the  cult  of  Ea).  The  Bishop  Gregentius  denounced  as  heathenish 
the  rites  in  which  the  Arabs  wore  masks  (W.  R.  Smith,  438),  and  one 
is  tempted  to  compare  the  use  of  masks  elsewhere  in  animal  worship. 
Next,  one  may  observe  upon  old  Babylonian  seals,  eagle-headed 
deities  with  short  feathered  skirts  attended  by  human  beings  similarly 
arrayed  (Ball,  151)  or  figures  draped  in  a  fish  skin  (Menant,  Rev.  de 
I'hist.  des  relig.  xi.  295-301)  or  a  worshipper  arrayed  somewhat 
like  a  cock  (Meyer,  63 ;  cf.  Lucian's  De  Dea  Syria,  §  48 ;  for  "  bees," 
&c.,  as  titles  of  sacred  attendants,  see  J.  G.  Frazer,  Pausanias,  iv. 
223,  v.  621).  Although  there  is  much  that  is  obscure  in  this  line  of 
research,  it  is  a  natural  assumption  that,  in  those  ritual  functions 
where  the  gods  were  supposed  to  participate,  the  r61e  was  taken  by 
men,  and  the  general  idea  of  assimilating  oneself  to  the  god  (and  the 
reverse  process)  manifests  itself  in  too  many  ways  to  be  ignored 
(cf.  W.  R.  Smith,  293,  437  sq.,  474;  C.  J.  Ball,  Ency.  Bib.,  art. 
"  Cuttings  ").  But  the  deities  were  not  originally  anthropomorphic, 
and  it  is  with  the  earlier  stages  in  their  development  that  some 
of  the  more  remarkable  costumes  are  apparently  concerned. 

Of  all  priestly  costumes 5  the  most  interesting  is  undoubtedly 
that  of  the  Jewish  Levitical  high-priest.  In  addition  to  a  tunic 
(kuttoneth)  and  a  seamless  mantle  or  robe  (mi'il),  he  wore  the 
breastplate  (hoshen),  the  ephod,  and  a  rich  outer  girdle.  Breeches 
were  assumed  on  the  Day  of  Atonement.  His  head-dress  was 
as  distinctive  as  that  of  the  high  priest  at  Hierapolis,  who  wore 
a  golden  tiara  and  a  purple  dress,  while  the  ordinary  priests  had  a 
pilos  (conical  cap,  also  worn  in  Israel,  Ex.  xxviii.  40)  and  white 
garments.  But  the  various  descriptions  cannot  be  easily  re- 
conciled.8 The  robe  had  pomegranates  and  golden  bells  that  the 
sound  might  give  warning  as  he  went  in  and  out  of  the  sanctuary, 
and  "  that  he  died  not  "  (Ex.  xxviii.  35).  According  to  Josephus 
they  symbolized  the  lightning  and  thunder  respectively.  The 
"  ephod  of  prophecy  "  (so  Test,  of  Levi,  viii.  2)  was  essentially 
once  an  object  of  divination  (see  EPHOD).  The  "  breastplate 
of  judgment  "  was  set  with  twelve  jewels  engraved  with  the 
names  of  the  tribes;  the  foreordained  covering  of  the  semi- 
divine  being  in  the  garden  of  the  gods  bore  the  same  number 
of  stones  (Ezek.  xxviii.  13,  Septuagint).  This  breast  ornament 
finds  analogies  in  the  royal  and  high  priestly  dress  of  Egypt, 
and  in  the  six  jewels  of  the  Babylonian  king.7  The  sacred  lots 
which  gave  "  judgment  "  in  accordance  with  the  divine  oracle 
(Num.  xxvii.  21)  have  been  plausibly  compared  with  the  Babylon- 
ian tablets  of  destiny  worn  by  the  gods  and  the  mystic  lots  upon 
the  bosom  of  Noah.8  The  two  jewels  also  engraved  with  the 
names  of  the  tribes  in  a  suitable  setting,  worn  upon  the  shoulder 
(see  p.  102,  c.),  served,  like  the  twelve  mentioned,  for  a  memorial 
before  the  Deity,  effectively  bringing  them  to  remembrance, 
without  any  action  on  the  part  of  the  bearer,  and  thus  tacitly 
involving  supernatural  intervention  as  amulets  are  regularly 
expected  to  do.  The  golden  plate  inscribed  "  holy  to  Yahweh  " 
placed  over  the  head  (the  details  are  discrepant)  had  a  mystic 
atoning  force  (Ex.  xxviii.  38),  and  in  general  writers  recognized 
the  peculiar  efficacy  of  the  costume  and  its  symbolical  meaning 
(Philo,  Vita  Mosis,  iii.  14;  Jos.  Ant.  iii.  7.  7;  Talm.  Zeb.  88fr). 
Although  Jewish  tradition  ascribed  this  gorgeous  and  significant 
array  to  the  Mosaic  age  (if  not  to  the  pre-Mosaic  days  of  Levi, 
so  the  Test,  of  Levi),  its  very  character,  in  common  with  the 
high  priest's  status,  combines  kingly  and  priestly  powers  in  a 
manner  which  is  impossible  for  the  period  (about  1 5th-i  3th  cent.) . 
Where  the  king  is  the  human  representative  of  the  Deity  he  is 
theoretically  and  officially  the  priesthood,  although  the  priests 
carry  on  the  ordinary  subordinate  functions.  The  Hebrew 

5  For   the   conspicuous   dress   of   Syrian   and    Phrygian   priests 
in  Rome  and  for  other  incidental  references,  see  D.  Chwolsohn, 
Die  Ssabier  (1856),  ii.  655,  712  sc|. 

6  Ex.  xxviii.,  xxix.  5;  Lev.  viii.  6-9,  xvi.;  Ecclus.  xlv.;  Joseph. 
Ant.  iii.  7,  Wars,  v.  5,  7;  see  commentaries  and  special  dictionaries 
of  the  Bible. 

7  Zimmern,  Keilinschrift.  it.  Alte  Test.  629,  n.  5;  cf.  the  Bab. 
priests'  pectoral;  Lagrange,  op.  cit.,  236,  n.  I. 

8  Jubilees,  viii.  n,  see  W.  Muss-Arnolt,  Amer.  Journ.  of  Semit. 
Lang.,  1900,  pp.  207-212. 


232 


COSTUME 


kings,  at  all  events,  undertook  priestly  duties,  and  not  until  after 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  does  the  history  allow  that  usurpation  of 
monarchical  rights  upon  which  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (g.v.)  en- 
croaches. The  embodiment  of  political  and  religious  supremacy 
displayed  in  the  high  priest's  authority,  clothing  and  symbols 
can  only  reflect  exilic  or  rather  post-exilic  conditions.1  (See 
further  PRIEST.)  In  the  Maccabaean  age  the  high  priest  Jonathan 
received  the  purple  robe  and  crown  and  the  buckle  of  gold  worn 
on  the  shoulder  as  a  sign  of  priestly  and  secular  rank  (i  Mace. 
x.  20,  38,  89,  xi.  58).  His  brother  Simon  received  similar  honours 
(xiv.  48  sq.),  and  Hyrcanus,  the  "  second  David,"  was  supposed 
to  have  had  two  crowns,  one  royal  and  the  other  priestly  (Talm. 
Kidd.  66a).  The  later  Rabbis  wore  most  sumptuous  apparel, 
and  were  crowned  until  the  death  of  Eliezer  ben  Azarya. 

Thus  there  was  a  real  significance  in  ceremonial  investiture  (cf. 
Num.  xx.  26,  28)  and  in  the  transference  of  clothes  (cf.  Elisha  and 
Elijah's  mantle,  2  Kings  ii.  13).  Further  the  exchange  of  garments 
was  not  meaningless,  and  the  prohibition  in  Deut.  xxii.  5  points  to 
religious  or  superstitious  beliefs,  on  which  see  T.  G.  Frazer,  Adonis, 
Attis  and  Osiris  (2nd  ed.),  pp.  428-435.  On  the  claim  involved  by 
the  act  of  throwing  a  garment  over  another  (Ruth  iii.  9 ;  cf.  I  Kings 
xix.  19),  see  W.  R.  Smith,  Kinship  and  Marriage2,  105  sq. ;  J.  Well- 
hausen,  Archiv  f.  Religionswiss.  (1907),  pp.  40  sqq.;  and  on  some 
interesting  ideas  associated  with  sandals,  see  Ency.  Bib.,  s.v."  Shoes." 
As  a  sign  of  grief,  or  on  any  occasion  when  the  individual  felt  himself 
brought  into  closer  contact  with  his  deity,  the  garments  were  rent 
(subsequently  a  conventional  slit  at  the  breast  sufficed)  and  he 
donned  the  sak,  a  loin-cloth  or  wrapper  which  appears  to  be  a  survival 
of  older  and  more  primitive  dress.2  Later  tradition  (Mish.,  Kit. 
ix.  i)  does  not  endorse  Ezekiel's  prohibition  of  woollen  garments 
among  the  priests  in  the  sanctuary  (xliv.  17  sq.).  Why  the  layman 
was  forbidden  a  mixture  of  wool  and  linen  (sha'atnez,  Deut.  xxii.  1 1) 
is  difficult  to  explain,  though  Maimonides  perhaps  correctly  regarded 
the  law  as  a  protest  against  heathenism  (on  the  magical  use  of 
representatives  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom,  in  conjunction 
with  a  metal  ring,  see  I.  Goldziher,  Zeit.f.  alttest.  Wissens.  xx.  36  sq.). 

Ancient  oriental  costume  then  cannot  be  severed  from  the 
history  and  development  of  thought.  On  the  one  side  we  may 
see  the  increase  of  rich  apparel  and  the  profusion  of  clothes  by 
which  people  of  rank  indicated  their  position.  On  the  other  are 
such  figures  as  the  Hebrew  prophets,  distinguished  by  their 
hairy  garment  and  by  their  denunciation  of  the  luxury  of  both 
sexes.3  Superfluous  clothing  was  both  weakening  and  deteriorat- 
ing; this  formed  the  point  of  the  advice  of  Croesus  to  Cyrus 
(Herod,  i.  155).  But  "foreign  apparel  "  was  only  too  apt  to 
involve  ideas  of  foreign  worship  (Zeph.  i.  8.  sq.),  and  the  recogni- 
tion that  national  costume,  custom  and  morality  were  inseparable 
underlay  the  objection  to  the  Greek  cap  (theireracros)  introduced 
among  the  Jews  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (2  Mace.  iv.  10-17, 
with  the  parallel  i  Mace,  i  11-15).  The  Israelite  distinctive 
costume  and  toilet  as  part  of  a  distinctive  national  religion 
was  in  harmony  with  oriental  thought,  and,  as  a  people  chosen 
and  possessed  by  Yahweh,  "  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  an  holy 
nation"  (Ex.  xix.  5  sq.;  cf.  Is.  Ixi.  6),  certain  outward  signs 
assumed  a  new  significance  and  continued  to  be  cherished  by 
orthodox  Jews  as  tokens  of  their  faith.  The  tassels  attached  by 
blue  threads  to  the  four  corners  of  the  outer  garment  were 
unique  only  as  regards  the  special  meaning  attached  to  them 
(Num.  xv.  37-41;  Deut.  xxii.  12),  and  when  in  the  middle  ages 
they  marked  out  the  Jew  for  persecution  they  were  transferred  to 
a  small  under-garment  (the  little  tdlith),  the  proper  laltih  being 
worn  over  the  head  in  the  synagogue.  Similarly,  sentences 
bound  on  the  left  arm  or  placed  upon  the  forehead  (Deut.  xi. 

1  The  relations  between  sacerdotal  and  civic  authority  may  be 
seen  in  the  vestments  of  the  church  (chasuble,  alb,  stole),  which 
probably  were  once  the  official  garments  of  magistrates. 

2  See  articles  on  mourning  customs  in  the  Bible  Dictionaries,  and, 
for  special  studies,  Buchler,  Zeit.f.  alttest.  Wissens.,  1901,  pp.  81-92; 
M.  Jastrow,  ib.,  1907,  117  sqq.;  and  in  Journ.  Amer.  Or.  Soc.  xx. 
133  sqq.,  xxi.  23-39.     F°r  the  Babylonian  evidence  see  Zimmern, 
op.  cit.,  603.     The  sculptures  of  Sennacherib  show  the  bare-headed 
and  bare-footed  suppliants  of  Lachish  meanly  clad  before  Sennacherib 
(Ball,  p.  192,  contrast  the  warriors  with  caps  and  helmets,  ib.  p.  190, 
and  on  the  simple  dress,  cf.  above). 

3  Ezek.  xvi.  xxiii. ;  Isa.  iii.  i6-iv.  I.     For  the  hairy  garb,  cf.  John 
the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii.  4) ;  it  became  the  ascete's  dress.     The  founder 
of  the  Jacobite  Church  in  Asia  owed  his  surname  (Burde'ana)  to  his 
rough  horse-cloth.     Here  may  be  mentioned  the  archaic  revival  in 
Egypt  in  the  8th  century  B.C.,  which  also  extended  to  the  costume. 


18,  cf.  the  high  priest's  plate)  find  analogies  in  the  means  taken 
elsewhere  to  ensure  the  protection  of  or  to  manifest  one's 
adherence  to  a  deity;  the  novelty  lies  in  the  part  these  sentences 
took  in  the  religion  (see  PHYLACTERY).  While  the  particular 
prohibition  regarding  the  beard  and  hair  in  Lev.  xix.  27  (cf. 
Ezek.  xliv.  20)  was  for  the  avoidance  of  heathen  customs,  the 
peyolk  or  long  curls  which  became  typical  in  the  middle  ages  are 
reminiscent  of  the  Horus-curl  of  Egypt  and  the  Mahommedan 
"  heaven  lock  "  and  evidently  served  as  positive  distinctive 
marks.  Apart  from  these  details  later  Jewish  dress  does  not 
belong  to  this  section.  In  the  Greek  and  Roman  period  foreign 
influence  shows  itself  very  strongly  in  the  introduction  of  novelties 
of  costume  and  of  classical  terms,  and  the  subject  belongs  rather 
to  the  Greek  and  Roman  dress  of  the  age.4  Two  conflicting 
tendencies  were  constantly  at  work,  and  reached  their  climax  in 
the  middle  ages.  There  was  an  anxiety  to  avoid  articles  of  dress 
peculiar  to  other  religions,  especially  when  these  were  associated 
with  religious  practices;  and  there  was  a  willingness  to  refrain 
from  costume  contrary  to  the  customs  of  an  unsympathetic  land. 
On  the  one  hand,  there  was  a  conservatism  which  is  exemplified 
when  the  Jews  in  course  of  immigration  took  with  them  the 
characteristic  dress  of  their  former  adopted  home,  or  when  they 
remained  unmoved  by  the  changes  of  the  Renaissance.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  prominent  badge  enforced  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 
in  1215  was  intended  to  prevent  Jews  from  being  mistaken  for 
Christians,  and  similarly  in  Mahommedan  lands  they  were 
compelled  to  wear  some  distinctive  indication  of  their  sect. 
Thus  the  many  quaint  and  interesting  features  of  later  Jewish 
costume  have  arisen  from  certain  specific  causes,  any  considera- 
tion of  which  concerns  later  and  medieval  costume  generally. 
See  I.  Abrahams,  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages  (1896),  chap. 
xv.  sq.;  and  especially  the  Jew.  Encyc.,  s.v.  "Dress"  (with 
numerous  illustrations). 

AUTHORITIES.  —  Much  useful  material  will  be  found  in  popular 
illustrated  books  (especially  C.  J.  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  London, 
1899)  and  in  the  magnificent  volumes  on  the  history  of  ancient  art 
by  G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez.  On  Egyptian  costume  see  especially 
J.  G.  Wilkinson,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians 
(ed.  by  S.  Birch,  1878),  and  A.  ErmanZ,i/e  in  Ancient  Egypt  (1894, 
especially  pp.  200-233)  ;  for  Egyptian  evidence,  see  W.  M.  Muller, 
Asien  und  Europa  nach  altdgypt.  Denkmdler  (Leipzig,  1893),  Mitteil. 
d.  vorderasiat.  Gesellschaft  (1904),  ii.  (and  elsewhere).  The  most 
important  study  on  old  Babylonian  dress  is  that  of  E.  Meyer, 
"  Sumerier  und  Semiten  in  Babylonien,"  in  theAbhandlungen  of  the 
Berlin  University  (1906).  For  Hittite  material,  see  the  collection  by 
L.  Messerschrnidt,  Mitteil.  d.  vorderas.  Ges.  (1900  and  1902).  For 
special  discussions,  see  H.  Weiss,  Kostumkunde,  i.  (Stuttgart,  1881), 
articles  in  Diet.  Bible  (Hastings),  Ency.  Biblica,  and  Jewish  Encyc., 
and  I.  Benzinger,  Hebr.  Archdologie  (Tubingen,  1907),  pp.  73  sqq. 
See  also  the  general  bibliography  at  the  end.  (S.  A.  C.) 

ii.  Aegean  Costume.  —  The  discoveries  made  at  Mycenae  and 
other  centres  of  "Mycenaean"  civilization,  and  those  of  more 
recent  date  due  to  the  excavations  of  Dr 
A.  J.  Evans  and  others  in  Crete,  have  shown 
that  Hellenic  culture  was  preceded  in  the 
Aegean  by  a  civilization  differing  from  it  in 
many  respects  (see  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION), 
and  not  least  in  costume.  The  essential 
feature  both  of  male  and  female  dress  during 
the"Minoan"  and  "Mycenaean"  periods 
was  the  loin-cloth,  which  is  best  represented 
by  the  votive  terra-cotta  statuettes  from 
Petsofa  in  Crete  discovered  by  Professor 
J.  L.  Myres  and  published  in  the  ninth 
volume  of  the  Annual  of  the  British  School 
at  Athens  (fig.  15).  J.  L.  Myres  shows  that 
the  costume  consists  of  three  parts  —  the 
loin-cloth  itself,  a  white  wrapper  or  kilt 

.  .  .  ,      j         •     ji  i_*i 

worn  over  it,  and  a  knotted  girdle  which  <>/  the 
secured  the  whole  and  perhaps  played  its 
part  in  producing  and  maintaining  the  wasp 
waists  characteristic  of  the  Aegean  race.. 
The  loin-cloth  was  the  only  costume  (except  for  high  boots, 
probably  made  of  pale  leather,  since  they  are  represented 
4  See  for  details,  A.  Brull,  Trachten  d.  Juden  (1873). 


From  Petsofd  (Annual 
Brit.    School   at 


'  Statuette." 


COSTUME 


233 


with  white  paint)  regularly  worn  by  the  male  sex,  though 
we  sometimes  find  a  hood  or  wrapper,  as  on  a  lead  statuette 
found  in  Laconia  (fig.  16),  but  the  Aegean  women  developed 
it  into  a  bodice-and-skirt  costume,  well  represented  by  the 

frescoes  of  Cnossus  and 
the  statuettes  of  the 
snake-goddess  and  her 
votaries  there  dis- 
covered. This  trans- 
formation of  the  loin- 
cloth has  been  illustrated 
by  Mr  D.  Mackenzie(see 
below)  from  Cretan  seal- 
impressions.  In  place 
of  the  belted  kilt  of  the 
men  we  find  a  belted 
panier  or  polonaise,  con- 
siderably elongated  in 
front,  worn  by  Aegean 
women;  and  Mackenzie 
shows  that  this  was  re- 
peated several  times 
until  it  formed  the 
compound  skirt  with  a 
number  of  flounces  which 
is  represented  on  many 
Mycenaean  gems.  On  a  fresco  discovered  at  Phaestus  (Hagia 
Triada)  (fig.  17)  and  a  sealing  from  the  same  place  this  multiple 
skirt  is  clearly  shown  as  divided;  but  this  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  the  general  rule.  On  other  sealings  we  find  a  single  overskirt 
with  a  pleated  underskirt.  The  skirts  were  held  in  place  by  a 
thick  rolled  belt,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body  remained  quite 
nude  in  the  earliest  times;  but  from  the  middle  Minoan  period 
onward  we  often  find  an  important  addition  in  the  shape  of  a 
low-cut  bodice,  which  sometimes  has  sleeves,  either  tight-fitting  or 
purled,  and  ultimately  develops  into  a  laced  corsage.  A  figurine 
from  Petsofa  (fig.  18)  shows  the  bodice-and-skirt  costume, 
together  with  a  high  pointed  head-dress,  in  one  of  its  most 


Perrot  et  Chipiez's  A  rt  in  Primitive  Greece,  by 
permission  of  Chapman  &  Hall. 

FIG.  16. — Lead  Statuette  from  Kampos. 


From  Monumcnti  antichi 
(Acad.  Lincei). 

FIG.  17.— Part  of  a  Fresco 
discovered  at  Phaestus. 


From  Annual  oj  the  Brit. 
School  at  Athens. 

FIG.  18. — Terra-cotta 
Statuette  from  Petsofa. 


elaborate  forms.  The  bodice  has  a  high  peaked  collar  at  the 
back.  Other  forms  of  head-dress  are  seen  on  the  great  signet 
from  Mycenae.  The  fact  that  both  male  and  female  costume 
amongst  the  primitive  Aegean  peoples  is  derivable  from  the 
simple  loin-cloth  with  additions  is  rightly  used  by  Mackenzie  as  a 
proof  that  their  original  home  is  not  to  be  sought  in  the  colder 
regions  of  central  Europe,  but  in  a  warm  climate  such  as  that  of 
North  Africa.  It  is  not  until  the  latest  Mycenaean  period  that 
we  find  brooches,  such  as  were  used  in  historical  Greece,  to  fasten 
woollen  garments,  and  their  presence  in  the  tombs  of  the  lower 
city  of  Mycenae  indicates  the  coming  of  a  northern  race. 


See  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  ix.  356  sqq.  (Myres); 
xii.  233  sqo,.  (Mackenzie) ;  Tsountas  and  Manatt,  The  Mycenaean 
Age,  ch.  vii. 

iii.  Greek  Costume. — All  articles  of  Greek  costume  belong 
either  to  the  class  of  ivdvuara,  more  or  less  close-fitting,  sewn 
garments,  or  of  irepi/SXij/xara,  loose  pieces  of  stuff  draped  round 
the  body  in  various  ways  and  fastened  with  pins  or  brooches. 
For  the  former  class  the  generic  name  is  xvruv,  a  word  of  Semitic 
origin,  which  denotes  the  Eastern  origin  of  the  garment ;  for  the 
latter  we  find  in  Homer  and  early  poetry  irtirXos,  in  later  times 
I/J.O.TIOV.  The  7r«rXos  (also  called  tavos  and  0apos  in  Homer) 
was  the  sole  indispensable  article  of  dress  in  early  Greece,  and, 
as  it  was  always  retained  as  such  by  the  women  in  Dorian  states, 
is  often  called  the  "  Doric  dress  "  (iadrp  Aupis) .  It  was  a  square 
piece  of  woollen  stuff  about  a  foot  longer  than  the  height  of  the 
wearer,  and  equal  in  breadth  to  twice  the  span  of  the  arms 
measured  from  wrist  to  wrist.  The  upper  edge  was  folded  over 
for  a  distance  equal  to  the  space  from  neck  to  waist — this  folded 
portion  was  called  aTroirnryjua  or5«rXots, — and  the  whole  garment 
was  then  doubled  and  wrapped  round  the  body  below  the  armpits, 
the  left  side  being  closed  and  the  right  open.  The  back  and 
front  were  then  pulled  up  over  the  shoulders  and  fastened 
together  with  brooches  like  safety-pins  (irepovai).  This  was  the 
Doric  costume,  which  left  the  right  side  of  the  body  exposed 
and  provoked  the  censure  of  Euripides  (Andr.  598).  It  was 
usual,  however,  to  hold  the  front  and  back  of  the  7r«rXos  together 
by  a  girdle  (£uvrj),  passed  round  the  waist  below  the  cbroirTiry/ia ; 
the  superfluous  length  of  the  garment  was  pulled  up  through  the 
girdle  and  allowed  to  fall  over  in  a  baggy  fold  («6X7ros)  (see 
GREEK  ART,  fig.  75).  Sometimes  the  dTroTrrtry/ia  was  made  long 
enough  to  fall  below  the  waist,  and  the  girdle  passed  outside 
it  (cf.  the  figure  of  Artemis  on  the  vase  shown  in  GREEK  ART,  fig. 
29);  this  was  the  fashion  in  which  the  Athena  Parthenos  of 
Pheidias  was  draped.  The  "  Attic  "  or  "  Corinthian  "  irerrXos 
was  sewn  together  on  the  right  side  from  below  the  arm,  and  thus 
became  an  'iv5v/j.a.  The  ir«r\os  was  worn  in  a  variety  of  colours 
and  often  decorated  with  bands  of  ornament,  both  horizontal 
and  vertical;  Homer  uses  the  epithets  KpoK^rreirXos  and 
wavoireTrXos,  which  show  that  yellow  and  dark  blue  7r£jrXoi  were 
worn,  and  speaks  of  embroidered  ireirhoi  (TrowiXoi).  Such 
embroideries  are  indicated  by  painting  on  the  statues  from  the 
Acropolis  and  are  often  shown  on  vase  paintings. 

The  chiton,  \ITUV,  was  formed  by  sewing  together  at  the 
sides  two  pieces  of  linen,  or  a  double  piece  folded  together,  leaving 
spaces  at  the  top  for  the  arms  and  neck,  and  fastening  the  top 
edges  together  over  the  shoulders  and  upper  arm  with  buttons 
or  brooches;  more  rarely  we  find  a  plain  sleeveless  chiton.  The 
length  of  the  garment  varied  considerably.  The  xnuviaKos, 
worn  in  active  exercise,  as  by  the  so-called  "  Atalanta  "  of  the 
Vatican,  or  the  well-known  Amazon  statues  (GREEK  ART,  fig. 
40),  reached  only  to  the  knee;  the  \wuiv  iro&jpijs  covered  the 
feet.  This  long,  trailing  garment  was  especially  characteristic 
of  Ionia;  in  the  Homeric  poems  (//.  xiii.  685)  we  read  of  the 
'laovts  t\KtxiTcovts.  If  worn  without  a  girdle  it  went  by  the 
name  of  \ITUV  6p0oard5tos.  The  long  chiton  was  regularly 
used  by  musicians  (e.g.  Apollo  the  lyre-player)  and  charioteers. 
In  ordinary  life  it  was  generally  pulled  up  through  the  girdle 
and  formed  a  KoXTros  (GREEK  ART,  fig.  2). 

Herodotus  (v.  82-88)  tells  a  story  (cf.  AEGINA),  the  details 
of  which  are  to  all  appearance  legendary,  in  order  to  account 
for  a  change  in  the  fashion  of  female  dress  which  took  place  at 
Athens  in  the  course  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  Up  to  that  time 
the  "  Dorian  dress  "  had  been  universal,  but  the  Athenians  now 
gave  up  the  use  of  garments  fastened  with  pins  or  brooches,  and 
adopted  the  linen  chiton  of  the  lonians.  The  statement  of 
Herodotus  is  illustrated  both  by  Attic  vase-paintings  and  also 
by  the  series  of  archaic  female  statues  from  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens,  which  (with  the  exception  of  one  clothed  in  the  Doric 
7r«rXos)  wear  the  Ionic  chiton,  together  with  an  outer  garment, 
sometimes  laid  over  both  shoulders  like  a  cloak  (GREEK  ART, 
fig.  3),  but  more  usually  fastened  on  the  right  shoulder  only,  and 
passed  diagonally  across  the  body  so  as  to  leave  the  left  arm. 


234 


COSTUME 


free.  The  garment  (which  resembles  the  Doric  TrerrXos,  but 
seems  to  have  been  rectangular  rather  than  square)  is  folded 
over  at  the  top,  and  the  central  part  is  drawn  up  towards  the 
right  shoulder  to  produce  an  elaborate  system  of  zigzag  folds 
(GREEK  ART,  fig.  22).  The  borders  of  the  garment  are  painted 
with  geometrical  patterns  in  vivid  colours;  a  broad  stripe  of 
ornament  runs  down  the  centre  of  the  skirt.1 

This  fashion  of  dress  was  only  temporary.  Thucydides  (i.  6) 
tells  us  that  in  his  own  time  the  linen  chiton  of  Ionia  had  again 
been  discarded  in  favour  of  the  Doric  dress,  and  the  monuments 
show  that  after  the  Persian  wars  a  reaction  against  Oriental- 
ism showed  itself  in  a  return  to  simpler  fashions.  The  long 
linen  chiton,  which  had  been  worn  by  men  as  well  as  women, 
was  now  only  retained  by  the  male  sex  on  religious  and  festival 
occasions;  a  short  chiton  was,  however,  worn  at  work  or  in 
active  exercise  (GREEK  ART,  fig.  3)  and  often  fastened  on  the 
left  shoulder  only,  when  it  was  called  xir&v  £r«pojja(rxa.Xos  or 
e&fiis.  But  the  garment  usually  worn  by  men  of  mature  age 
was  the  IHO.TIOV,  which  was  (like  the  TrtirXos)  a  plain  square  of 
woollen  stuff.  One  corner  of  this  was  pulled  over  the  left  shoulder 
from  the  back  and  tucked  in  under  the  left  arm;  the  rest  of  the 
garment  was  brought  round  the  right  side  of  the  body  and  either 
carried  under  the  right  shoulder,  across  the  chest  and  over  the 
left  shoulder,  if  it  was  desired  that  the  right  arm  should  be  free, 
or  wrapped  round  the  right  arm  as  well  as  the  body,  leaving  the 
right  hand  in  a  fold  like  a  sling  (GREEK  ART,  fig.  2).  The  luanov 
was  also  worn  by  women  over  the  linen  chiton,  and  draped  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways,  which  may  be  illustrated  by  the  terra- 
cotta figurines  from  Tanagra  (4th-3rd  cent.  B.C.)  and  the  numerous 
types  of  female  statues,  largely  represented  by  copies  of  Roman 
date,  made  to  serve  as  grave-monuments.  The  upper  part  of 
the  IfiaTiav  was  often  drawn  over  the  head  as  in  the  example  here 
shown  (Plate,  fig.  2 1 ) ,  a  statue  formerly  in  the  duke  of  Sutherland's 
collection  at  Trentham  and  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

A  lighter  garment  was  the  xXajtus,  chlamys,  a  mantle  worn  by 
young  men,  usually  over  a  short  chiton  girt  at  the  waist,  and 
fastened  on  the  right  shoulder  (cf .  the  figure  of  Hermes  in  GREEK 
ART,  fig.  2).  The  x^atva  was  a  heavy  woollen  cloak  worn  in 
cold  weather.  Peasants  wore  sheepskins  or  garments  of  hide 
called  /SaiTij  or  olerupa;  slaves,  who  were  required  by  custom 
to  conceal  their  limbs  as  much  as  possible,  wore  a  sleeved  chiton 
and  long  hose. 

A  woman's  head  was  usually  covered  by  drawing  up  the 
IIMTUOV  (see  above) ,  but  sometimes  instead  of  this,  a  separate 
piece  of  cloth  was  made  to  perform  this  service,  the  end  of  it 
falling  over  the  himalion.  This  was  the  KaXirarpa,  or  veil  called 
Kprifcuvov  in  Homer.  A  cap  merely  intended  to  cover  in  the 
hair  and  hold  it  together  was  called  /ce/cpiK^aXos.  When  the 
object  was  only  to  hold  up  the  hair  from  the  neck,  the  afavSovri 
was  used,  which,  as  its  name  implies,  was  in  the  form  of  a  sling; 
but  in  this  case  it  was  called  more  particularly  awurdoafcvSovri, 
as  a  distinction  from  the  sphendone  when  worn  in  front  of  the 
head.  The  head  ornaments  include  the  diatrrina,  a  narrow  band 
bound  round  the  hair  a  little  way  back  from  the  brow  and 
temples,  and  fastened  in  the  knot  of  the  hair  behind;  thea/iiru£, 
a  variety  of  the  diadem;  the  ffreQAvri,  a  crown  worn  over  the 
forehead,  its  highest  point  being  in  the  centre,  and  narrowing  at 
each  side  into  a  thin  band  which  is  tied  at  the  back  of  the  head. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  this  should  be  distinguished  from  the 
(7T€0aws,  a  crown  of  the  same  breadth  and  design  all  round,  as 
on  the  coins  of  Argos  with  the  head  of  Hera,  who  is  expressly 
said  by  Pausanias  to  wear  a  Stephanos.  This  word  is  also  employed 
for  crowns  of  laurel,  olive  or  other  plant.  High  crowns  made  of 
wicker-work  (776X01,  KdXafloi)  were  also  worn  (see  Gerhard, 
Antike  Bildwerke,  pis.  303-305).  When  the  hair,  as  was  most 
usual,  was  gathered  back  from  the  temples  and  fastened  in  a  knot 
behind,  hair-pins  were  required,  and  these  were  mostly  of  bone  or 
ivory,  mounted  with  gold  or  plain;  so  also  when  the  hair  was 

1  These  ornamental  bands  are  carefully  described  and  reproduced 
in  colour  by  A.  Lermann,  Altgriechische  Plastik  (1907),  pp.  85  ff., 
pis.  i.-xx.  Some  authorities  hold  that  the  skirt  forms  part  of  the 
over-garment,  but  it  seems  clear  that  it  belongs  to  the  XIT&V. 


tied  in  a  large  knot  above  the  forehead,  as  in  the  case  of  Artemis, 
or  of  Apollo  as  leader  of  the  Muses.  The  early  Athenians  wore 
their  hair  in  the  fashion  termed  <cpai/3uXos,  with  fastenings  called 
"  grasshoppers  "  (rtTTiyti),  in  allusion  to  their  claim  of  having 
originally  sprung  from  the  soil  (Thuc.  i.  6).  The  remyes  have 
been  identified  by  Helbig  with  small  spirals  of  gold  wire,  such  as 
are  found  in  early  Etruscan  tombs  lying  near  the  head  of  the 
skeleton.  Such  spirals  were  used  in  early  Athens  to  confine  the  back 
hair,  and  this  fashion  may  therefore  be  identified  as  the  Kpci>0uXos. 
In  archaic  figures  the  hair  is  most  frequently  arranged  over  the 
brow  and  temples  in  parallel  rows  of  small  curls  which  must  have 
been  kept  in  their  places  by  artificial  means.  Ear-rings  (kvuria., 
£XX6j3ia,  eXiwi7p«s)  of  gold,  silver,  or  bronze  plated. with  gold, 
and  frequently  ornamented  with  pearls,  precious  stones,  or 
enamel,  were  worn  attached  to  the  lobes  of  the  ear.  For  neck- 
laces (opfioi),  bracelets  (6<(xa),  brooches  (irtpovaC),  and  finger- 
rings  (ScurtiXioi  or  a^paylda)  the  same  variety  and  preciousness 
of  material  was  employed.  For  the  feet  the  sandal  (cravSakov, 
m5t\ov)  was  the  usual  wear;  for  hunting  and  travelling  high 
boots  were  worn.  The  hunting-boot  (evSpo^is)  was  laced  up  the 
front,  and  reached  to  the  calves;  the  KoBopvos  (cothurnus)  was  a 
high  boot  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  and  as  worn  by  tragic 
actors  had  high  soles.  Slippers  (mpaiKoi)  were  adopted  from 
the  East  by  women;  shoes  (epijSdSes)  were  worn  by  the  poorer 
classes.  Gloves  (x«ipT5«)  were  worn  by  the  Persians,  but  ap- 
parently never  by  the  Greeks  unless  to  protect  the  hands  when 
working  (Odyssey,  xxiv.  230).  Hats,  which  were  as  a  rule  worn 
only  by  youths,  workmen  and  slaves,  were  of  circular  shape,  and 
either  of  some  stiff  material,  as  the  Boeotian  hat  observed  in 
terra-cottas  from  Tanagra,  or  of  pliant  material  which  could  be 
bent  down  at  the  sides  like  the  Treracros  worn  by  Hermes  and 
sometimes  even  by  women.  The  Kavffia,  or  Macedonian  hat, 
seems  to  have  been  similar  to  this.  The  Kuppaaia,  or  tdHapa, 
was  a  high-pointed  hat  of  Persian  origin,  as  was  also  the  Tidpa, 
which  served  the  double  purpose  of  an  ornament  and  a  covering 
for  the  head.  Workmen  wore  a  close-fitting  felt  cap  (irlXos). 

See  F.  Studniczka,  "  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  altgriechischen 
Tracht  "  (Abhandlungen  des  arch.-epigr.  Seminars  in  Wien,  vii. 
1886) ;  Lady  Evans,  Chapters  on  Greek  Dress  (1893) ;  W.  Kalkmann, 
"  Zur  Tracht  archaischer  Gewandfiguren  "  (Jahrb.  des  k.  deutschen 
arch.  Instituts,  1896,  pp.  19  ff.);  S.  Cybulski,  Tabulae  quibus  anti- 
quitates  Graecae  et  Romanae  illustrantur,  Nos.  16-18  (1903),  with  text 
by  W.  Amelung;  Ethel  B.  Abrahams,  Greek  Dress  (1908). 

iv.  Etruscan  Costume. — The  female  dress  of  the  Etruscans  did 
not  differ  in  any  important  respect  from  that  of  the  Greeks;  it 
consisted  of  the  chiton  and  himation,  which  was  in  earlier  times 
usually  worn  as  a  shawl,  not  after  the  fashion  of  the  Doric  irerrXos. 
Two  articles  of  costume,  however,  were  peculiar  to  the  Etrusca.ns 
— the  high  conical  hat  known  as  the 
tutulus?  and  the  shoes  with  turned-up 
points  (Latin  calcei  repandi).  These 
have  oriental  analogies,  and  lend  support 
to  the  tradition  that  the  Etruscans  came 
from  Asia.  Both  are  represented  on 
a  small  bronze  figure  in  the  British 
Museum  (fig.  1 9) .  On  a  celebrated  terra- 
cotta sarcophagus  in  the  British  Museum 
of  much  later  date  (fig.  20),  the  female 
figure  reclining  on  the  lid  wears  a  Greek 
chiton  of  a  thin  white  material,  with 
short  sleeves  fastened  on  the  outside  of 
the  arm,  by  means  of  buttons  and  loops; 
a  himation  of  dark  purple  thick  stuff 
is  wrapped  round  her  hips  and  legs;  on 
her  feet  are  sandals,  consisting  of  a  sole 

apparently  of  leather,  and  attached  to  the  foot  and  leg  with 
leather  straps;  under  the  straps  are  thin  socks  which  do  not 
cover  the  toes;  she  wears  a  necklace  of  heavy  pendants;  her 
ears  are  pierced  for  ear-rings;  her  hair  is  partly  gathered 
together  with  a  ribbon  at  the  roots  behind,  and  partly  hangs 
in  long  tresses  before  and  behind;  a  flat  diadem  is  bound 
round  her  head  a  little  way  back  from  the  brow  and 
1  The  tululus  was  worn  at  Rome  by  the  flaminica. 


COSTUME 


235 


temples.  Purple,  pale  green  and  white,  richly  embroidered,  are 
favourite  colours  in  the  dresses  represented  on  the  painted 
tombs. 

The  chief  article  of  male  dress  was  called  the  tebenna.  We  are 
told  by  ancient  writers  that  the  toga  praetexta,  with  its  purple 
border  (irepiir6p<t>vpos  rriflevva.) ,  as  worn  by  Roman  magistrates 
and  priests,  had  been  derived  from  the  Etruscans  (Pliny,  N.H. 
ix.  63,  "  praetextae  apud  Etruscos  originem  invenere  ") ;  and  the 
famous  statue  of  the  orator  in  Florence  (Plate,  fig.  22),  an 
Etruscan  work  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  represents  a  man  clothed 
in  this  garment,  which  will  be  described  below.  Under  the 
tebenna,  or  toga,  which  was  necessary  only  for  public  appearance, 
the  Etruscans  wore  a  short  tunic  similar  to  the  Greek  chiton. 
For  workmen  and  others  of  inferior  occupation  this  appears  to 
have  been  the  only  dress.  Youths,  when  engaged  in  horseman- 
ship and  other  exercises,  wore  a  chlamys  round  the  shoulders, 
which,  however,  was  semicircular  in  cut,  and  was  fastened  on 
the  breast  by  buttons  and  a  loop,  or  tied  in  a  knot,  whereas  the 
Greek  chlamys  was  oblong  and  fastened  on  the  shoulder  by  a 
brooch.  On  public  or  festal  occasions  the  Etruscan  noble  wore, 
besides  the  tebenna,  a  bulla,  or  necklace  of  bullae,  and  a  wreath, 
corona  Etrusca.  The  bulla  was  a  circular  gold  locket  containing 
a  charm  of  some  kind  against  evil.1  On  the  later  sarcophagi  the 


Redrawn  from  photo  (Mansell). 


FlG.  20. 


male  figures  wear  not  only  a  wreath  or  corona  proper,  but  also  a 
garland  of  flowers  hung  round  the  neck.  The  male  head-dress 
was  the  galerus,  a  hat  of  leather,  said  to  have  been  worn  by  the 
Lucumos  in  early  times,  or  the  apex,  a  pointed  hat  corresponding 
to  the  tutulus  worn  by  females.  The  fashion  of  shoes  worn  by 
Roman  senators  was  said  to  have  been  derived  from  Etruria. 
Etruscan  shoes  were  prized  both  in  Greece  and  in  Rome. 

Helbig's  articles,  referred  to  at  the  close  of  the  next  section, 
should  be  consulted.  J.  Martha,  L'Art  etrusque,  gives  reproductions 
of  the  most  important  monuments.  See  also  the  works  on  Etruscan 
civilization  named  in  the  art.  ETRURIA. 

v.  Roman  Costume. — We  are  told  that  the  toga,  the  national 
garment  of  the  Romans,  was  originally  worn  both  by  men  and  by 
women;  and  though  the  female  dress  of  the  Romans  was  in 
historical  times  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  Greeks,  young 
girls  still  wore  the  toga  on  festal  occasions,  as  we  see  from  the 
reliefs  of  the  Ara  Pacis  Augustae.  In  early  times  no  under- 
garment was  worn  save  a  loin-cloth  (subligaculum),  which  seems 
to  be  a  survival  of  early  Mediterranean  fashions  (see  above,  sect. 
Aegean  Costume),  and  candidates  for  office  in  historical  times 
appeared  in  the  toga  and  subligaculum  only.  In  this  period, 
however,  the  tunica,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  chiton,  was 
universally  worn  in  ordinary  life,  and  the  toga  gradually  became  a 
full-dress  garment  which  was  only  worn  over  the  tunica  on 
important  social  occasions;  Juvenal  (iii.  171)  tells  us  that  in  a 
great  part  of  Italy  no  one  wore  the  toga  except  at  his  burial ! 

The  toga  was  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  in  the  form  of  a  segment 
of  a  circle,2  the  chord  of  the  arc  being  about  three  times  the 
height  of  the  wearer,  and  the  height  a  little  less  than  one-half 
of  this  length.  One  end  of  this  garment  was  thrown  over  the 
left  shoulder  and  allowed  to  hang  down  in  front;  the  remainder 

'  It  was  also  worn  by  Roman  children. 

*  This  seems  more  likely  than  the  alternative  view  that  it  was  of 
elliptical  shape  and  was  folded  before  being  put  on.  Quintilian  (xi. 
„  139,  a  locus  classicus  for  the  toga)  speaks  of  it  as  "  rotunda  "; 
>ut  this  need  not  be  taken  literally 


o 


was  drawn  round  the  body  and  disposed  in  various  ways.  In  the 
cinctus  Gabinus,  which  was  the  fashion  adopted  in  early  times 
when  fighting  was  in  prospect,  the  end  of  the  toga  was  drawn 
tightly  round  the  waist  and  formed  a  kind  of  girdle;  this  was 
retained  in  certain  official  functions,  such  as  the  opening  of  the 
emple  of  Janus  in  historical  times.3  In  time  of  peace  the  toga 
was  wrapped  round  the  right  arm,  leaving  the  hand  only  free, 
much  after  the  fashion  of  the  Greek  himation,  and  thrown  over 
the  left  shoulder  so  as  to  fall  down  behind  (see  ROMAN  ART, 
Plate  II.,  fig.  w,  male  figure  to  I.);  or,  if  greater  freedom  were 
desired,  it  was  passed  under  the  right  arm-pit.  In  religious 
ceremonies,  the  magistrate  presiding  at  the  sacrifice  drew  the 
back  of  the  toga  over  his  head;  see  in  the  same  illustration  the 
priest  with  veiled  head,  ritu  Gabino,  who  also  wears  his  toga 
with  the  cinctus  Gabinus.  Towards  the  end  of  the  republic 
a  new  fashion  was  generally  adopted.  A  considerable  length 
of  the  toga  was  allowed  to  hang  from  the  left  shoulder;  the 
remainder  was  passed  round  the  body  so  as  to  rise  like  a  baldric 
(balteus)  from  the  right  hip  to  the  left  shoulder,  being  folded  over 
in  front  (the  fold  was  called  sinus) ,  then  brought  round  the  back  of 
the  neck  so  that  the  end  fell  over  the  right  shoirider;  the  hanging 
portion  on  the  left  side  was  drawn  up  through  the  sinus,  and 
bulged  out  in  an  umbo  (Plate,  fig.  24).  Later  still,  this  portion, 
instead  of  forming  a  bundle  of  folds  in  the  centre,  was  carefully 
folded  over  and  carried  up  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  in  course 
of  time  these  folds  were  carefully  arranged  in  several  thicknesses 
resembling  boards,  tabulae,  hence  called  contabulalio  (Plate, 
fig.  23).  Yet  another  fashion  was  that  adopted  by  the  flamens, 
who  passed  the  right-hand  portion  of  the  toga  over  the  right 
shoulder  and  arm  and  back  over  the  left  shoulder,  so  that  it 
hung  down  in  a  curve  over  the  front  of  the  body;  the  upper 
edge  was  folded  over.  The  flamens  are  thus  represented  on  the 
Ara  Pacis  Augustae. 

•  The  plain  white  toga  (toga  pura)  was  the  ordinary  dress  of  the 
citizen,  but  the  toga  praetexta,  which  had  a  border  of  purple, 
was  worn  by  boys  till  the  age  of  sixteen,  when  they  assumed 
the  plain  toga  virilis,  and  also  by  curule  magistrates  and  some 
priests.  A  purple  toga  with  embroidery  (toga  picla)  was  worn 
together  with  a  gold-embroidered  tunic  (tunica  palmala)  by 
generals  while  celebrating  a  triumph  and  by  magistrates  pre- 
siding at  games;  it  represented  the  traditional  dress  of  the  kings 
and  was  adopted  by  Julius  Caesar  as  a  permanent  costume. 
The  emperors  wore  it  on  occasions  of  special  importance.  The 
Irabea,  which  in  historical  times  was  worn  by  the  consuls  when 
opening  the  temple  of  Janus,  by  the  equites  at  their  yearly  in- 
spection and  on  some  other  occasions,  and  by  the  Salii  at  their 
ritual  dances,  and  had  (according  to  tradition)  formed  the 
original  costume  of  the  augurs  and  flamens  (who  afterwards 
adopted  the  toga  praetexta),  was  apparently  a  toga  smaller  in  size 
than  the  ordinary  civil  dress,  decorated  with  scarlet  stripes 
(trabes).  It  was  fastened  with  brooches  (fibulae)  and  appears 
to  have  been  worn  by  the  equites,  e.g.  at  the  funeral  ceremony  of 
Antoninus  Pius. 

The  tunica  was  precisely  like  the  Greek  chiton;  that  of  the 
senator  had  two  broad  stripes  of  purple  (latus  clavus)  down  the 
centre,  that  of  the  knight  two  narrow  stripes  (angustus  clavus). 
A  woollen  undergarment  (subucula)  was  often  worn  by  men; 
the  women's  under-tunic  was  of  linen  (indusium).  When  women 
gave  up  the  use  of  the  toga,  they  adopted  the  slola,  a  long  tunic 
with  a  border  of  a  darker  colour  (instita)  along  the  lower  edge; 
the  neck  also  sometimes  had  a  border  (patagium) .  The  tunic  with 
long  sleeves  (tunica  manicata)  was  a  later  fashion.  Over  this  the 
ricinium  or  rica,  a  shawl  covering  the  head  and  shoulders,  was 
worn  in  early  times,  and  retained  by  certain  priestesses  as  an 
official  costume;4  but  it  gave  place  to  the  palla,  the  equivalent 
of  the  Greek  himation,  and  the  dress  of  the  Roman  women 
henceforward  differed  in  no  essential  particular  from  that  of 
the  Greek. 

'  The  Lares  are  thus  represented  in  art. 

4  The  suffibulum  of  the  vestals,  which  was  fastened  on  the  breast 
by  a  brooch  (fibula),  was  a  garment  of  this  sort.  The  marriage-veil 
(flammeum)  derived  its  name  from  its  bright  orange  colour.  The 
palliolum  was  a  kind  of  mantilla. 


236 


COSTUME 


A  variety  of  cloaks  were  worn  by  men  during  inclement 
weather;  in  general  they  resembled  the  Greek  chlamys,  but  often 
had  a  hood  (cucullus)  which  could  be  drawn  over  the  head. 
Such  were  the  birrus  (so-called  from  its  red  colour),  abolla  and 
lacerna.  The  paemda,  which  was  the  garment  most  commonly 
worn,  especially  by  soldiers  when  engaged  on  peace  duties,  was 
an  oblong  piece  of  cloth  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  for  the  neck; 
a  hood  was  usually  attached  to  the  back.  It  survives  in  the 
ritual  chasuble  of  the  Western  Church.  The  Greek  military 
chlamys  appears  in  two  forms — the  paludamentum  of  the 
general  (e.g.  Trajan  as  represented  on  the  Arch  of  Constantine, 
ROMAN  ART,  Plate  III.,  fig.  16),  and  the  sagum  worn  by  the 
common  soldier  (e.g.  by  some  of  the  horsemen  on  the  base  of  the 
Antonine  column,  ROMAN  ART,  Plate  V.,  fig.  21).  When  the 
toga  went  out  of  use  as  an  article  of  everyday  wear,  the  pallium, 
i.e.  the  Greek  himation,  was  at  first  worn  only  by  Romans 
addicted  to  Greek  fashions,  but  from  the  time  of  Tiberius,  who 
wore  it  in  daily  life,  its  use  became  general.  Long  robes  bearing 
Greek  names  (synthesis,  syrma,  &c.)  were  worn  at  dinner-parties. 

The  Romans  often  wore  sandals  (soleae)  or  light  shoes  (socci), 
but  in  full  dress  (i.e.  with  the  toga)  it  was  necessary  to  wear  the 
calceus,  which  had  various  forms  by  which  classes  were  dis- 
tinguished, e.g.  the  calceus  patricius,  mulleus  (of  red  leather)  and 
senatorius  (of  black  leather).  This  was  a  shoe  with  slits  at  the 
sides  and  straps  knotted  in  front;  its  forms  may  be  seen  on  the 
relief  from  the  Ara  Pacis.  The  senators'  calceus  had  four  such 
straps  (quattuor  corrigiae),  which  were  wound  round  the  ankle 
(cf.  theflamen  on  the  Ara  Pacis),  and  was  also  adorned  with  an 
ivory  crescent  (lunula).  A  leathern  tongue  (lingula)  is  often 
seen  to  project  from  beneath  the  straps.  The  soldier's  boot 
(caliga,  from  which  the  emperor  Gaius  derived  his  nickname, 
Caligula)  was  in  reality  a  heavy  hobnailed  sandal  with  a  number 
of  straps  wound  round  the  ankle  and  lower  leg.  A  high  hunting 
boot  was  called  compagus.  Women  at  times  wore  the  calceus, 
but  are  generally  represented  in  art  with  soft  shoes  or  sandals. 

Hats  were  seldom  worn  except  by  those  who  affected  Greek 
fashions,  but  the  close-fitting  leather  pileus  seems  to  have  been  an 
article  of  eafly  wear  in  Italy,  since  its  use  survived  in  the  ceremony 
of  manumission,  and  the  head-dress  of  the  pontifices  and  flamines 
(cf .  the  relief  of  the  Ara  Pacis  already  referred  to)  consisted  in  such 
a  cap  (galerus)  with  an  apex,  or  spike,  of  olive  wood  inserted  in 
the  crown. 

For  personal  ornament  finger-rings  of  great  variety  in  the 
material  and  design  were  worn  by  men,  sometimes  to  the  extent 
of  one  or  more  on  each  finger,  many  persons  possessing  small 
cabinets  of  them.  But  at  first  the  Roman  citizen  wore  only  an 
iron  signet  ring,  and  this  continued  to  be  used  at  marriages.  The 
jus  annuli  aurei,  or  right  of  wearing  a  gold  ring,  originally  a 
military  distinction,  became  a  senatorial  privilege,  which  was 
afterwards  extended  to  the  knights  and  gradually  to  other 
classes.  Women's  ornaments  consisted  of  brooches  (fibulae), 
bracelets  (armittae),  armlets  (armillae,  bracchialia) ,  ear-rings 
(inaures),  necklaces  (monilia),  wreaths  (coronae)  and  hair-pins 
(crinales).  The  tore  (torques),  or  cord  of  gold  worn  round  the 
neck,  was  introduced  from  Gaul.  A  profusion  of  precious  stones, 
and  absence  of  skill  or  refinement  in  workmanship,  distinguish 
Roman  from  Greek  or  Etruscan  jewelry;  but  in  the  character  of 
the  designs  there  is  no  real  difference. 

See  Marquardt-Mau,  Privatleben der Romer ,  pp.  550 seq.  (givesafull 
collection  of  literary  references) ;  Cybulski,  op.  cit.,  pis.  xix.,  xx.,  with 
Amelung's  text;  articles  by  W.  Helbig,  especially  Sitzungsberichte 
der  bayrischen  Akademie  (1880),  pp.  487  seq.  (on  headgear);  Hermes 
xxxix.  161  seq.  (on  toga  and  trabea),  and  Memoires  de  I'Academie 
des  inscriptions,  xxxvii.  (1905)  (on  the  costume  of  the  Salii) ;  articles 
by  L.  Heuzey  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites, 
also  in  Revue  de  I'art,  i.  98  seq.,  204  seq.,  ii.  193  seq.,  295  seq.  (on 
the  toga).  See  also  the  general  bibliography  at  the  end.  (H.  S.  J.) 

II.  COSTUME  IN  MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  EUROPE 
i.  Pre-Roman  and  Roman  Britain. — Men  who  had  found 
better  clothing  than  the  skins  of  beasts  were  in  Britain  when 
Caesar  landed.  Little  as  we  know  of  England  before  the  English, 
we  have  at  least  the  knowledge  that  Britons,  other  than  the 
poorer  and  wilder  sort  of  the  north  and  the  fens,  wore  cloaks  and 


hats,  sleeved  coats  whose  skirts  were  cut  above  the  knee  and 
loose  trousers  after  the  fashion  of  the  Gauls.  They  were  not  an 
armoured  race,  for  they  would  commonly  fight  naked  to  the  waist, 
dreadful  with  tattooing  and  woad  staining,  but  Pliny  describes 
their  close-woven  felts  as  all  but  sword-proof.  Dyers  as  well 
as  weavers,  their  cloaks,  squares  of  cloth  like  a  Highland  plaid, 
were  of  black  or  blue,  rough  on  the  one  side,  while  coats  and 
trousers  were  bright  coloured,  striped  and  checkered,  red  being 
the  favourite  hue.  For  ornament  the  British  chiefs  wore  golden 
torques  about  their  necks  and  golden  arm-rings  with  brooches 
and  pins  of  metal  or  ivory,  beads  of  brass,  of  jet  and  amber  from 
their  own  coasts,  and  of  glass  bought  of  the  Southern  merchants. 
Their  women  had  gowns  to  the  ankle,  with  shorter  tunics  above 
them.  The  Druid  bards  had  their  vestments  of  blue,  while  the 
star-gazers  and  leeches  went  in  green. 

Agricola's  Romanizing  work  must  have  made  great  changes 
in  dress  as  in  policy.  The  British  chief  with  the  Latin  tongue 
in  his  mouth,  living  in  a  Roman  villa  and  taking  his  bath  as  did 
the  Romans,  wore  the  white  woollen  toga  and  the  linen  tunic, 
his  wife  having  the  stole,  the  pall  and  the  veil. 

ii.  Old  English  Dress. — The  skill  of  their  artists  gives  us  many 
accurate  pictures  of  the  dress  of  the  English  before  the  Norman 
Conquest,  the  simple  dress  of  a  nation  whose  men 
fight,  hunt  and  plough.  The  man's  chief  garment  is 
a  sleeved  tunic  hanging  to  the  knee,  generally  open 
at  the  side  from  hip  to  hem  and  in  front  from  the  throat  to  the 
breast.  Sleeves  cut  loosely  above  the  elbow  are  close  at  the 


FIG.  25. — Old    English  FIG.  26. — The  Blessed 

Dress.     From  the  Bene-  Virgin.     From  the  Bene- 

dictional    of    St    ^Ethel-  dictional    of    St    jEthel- 

wold  (c.  963-984).  wold  (c.  963-984). 

forearm.  The  legs  are  in  hose  like  a  Highlander's  or  in  long 
breeches  bandaged  or  cross-gartered  below  the  knee.  A  short 
mantle  to  the  calf  is  brooched  at  the  shoulder  or  breast  (fig.  25). 
There  are  long  gowns  and  toga-like  cloaks,  but  these  as  a  rule 
seem  garments  for  the  old  man  of  rank.  In  the  open  air  the  cloak 
is  often  pulled  over  the  head,  for  hats  and  caps  are  rare,  the 
Phrygian  bonnet  being  the  commonest  form.  Girdles  of  folded 
cloth  gather  the  loose  tunic  at  the  waist.  Most  paintings  show 
the  ankle  shoe  as  black,  cut  with  a  pointed  tab  before  and  behind, 
the  soles  being  sometimes  of  wood  like  the  sole  of  the  Lancashire 
clog  of  our  own  days.  A  nobleman  will  have  his  shoes  embroidered 
with  silks  or  coloured  yarns,  and  the  like  decoration  for  the  hem 
and  collar  of  his  tunic.  Poor  men  wear  little  but  the  tunic, 
often  going  barelegged,  although  the  hinds  in  the  well-known 
pictures  of  the  twelve  months  have  shoes,  and  the  shepherd  as 
he  watches  his  flock  covers  himself  with  a  cloak.  In  every  grave- 
yard of  the  old  English  we  find  the  brooches,  armlets,  rings  and 
pins  of  a  people  loving  jewelry.  Women  wore  a  long  gown 
covering  the  feet,  the  loose  sleeves  sometimes  hanging  over  the 
hands  to  the  knee.  Over  this  there  is  often  a  shorter  tunic  with 
short  sleeves.  Their  mantles  were  short  or  long,  the  hood  or 


COSTUME 


PLATE, 


Photo.  Walker. 


FIG.  2i— GRAVE-STATUE. 


Pfiotot  Alinari. 

FIG.  22.— THE  ORATOR   (R.  ARCH.  Mus.,  FLORENCE). 


Photo,  Anderson. 

FIG.  23— BUST  OF  PHILIP  THE  ARABIAN   (VATICAN). 
VH.  »#. 


Photo,  lloxitmi. 


FIG.  24.— TITUS  (VATICAN). 


COSTUME 


237 


The 
Normaas. 


13th 
centuries. 


head  rail  wrapped  round  the  chin  (fig.  26).  In  broidery  and 
ornament  the  women's  dress  matched  that  of  the  men.  The 
Danes,  warriors  of  the  sea,  soon  took  the  English  habit,  becoming 
notable  for  their  many  changes  of  gay  clothing. 

The  Norman  Conquest  is  marked  by  no  great  change  in  English 
clothing,  the  conquerors  inclining  towards  the  island  fashions, 
as  we  may  see  by  the  fact  that  they  gave  up  their 
curious  habit  of  shaving  the  back  of  the  head.  But 
with  the  reign  of  the  second  William  came  the  taste 
for  the  luxury  of  clothing  and  that  taste  for  flowing  hair  and  shoes 
with  sharp  points  which  is  lamented  by  William  of  Malmesbury. 
In  this  reign  we  have  the  story  of  the  Red  King  refusing  to  put 
on  boots  that  cost  but  three  shillings — the  price  of  an  ox — and 
wearing  the  same  gladly  when  his  chamberlain  told  him  that  they 
were  a  new  pair  worth  a  mark.  Even  more  than  the  fashion 
of  long  cloaks  and  trailing  gowns  whose  sleeves  hang  far  below 
the  hands,  the  fantastic  boot  and  shoe  toes  bring  the  curses  of 
the  clergy  and  the  moralizings  of  chroniclers.  Fulk  Rechin  of 
Anjou  is  said  by  Orderic  to  have  invented  such  gear  to  hide  the 
monstrous  bunions  upon  his  toes,  but  a  worthless  Robert,  a 
hanger-on  of  the  court  of  William  II.,  distinguishes  himself  and 
gains  the  surname  of  Cornard  by  stuffing  his  shoe  tips  with  tow 
and  twisting  them  like  the  horns  of  the  ram. 

There  are  many  illuminations  which  give  us  in  plenty  the 
details  of  all  costumes  of  the  i2th  century.  Thus  the  devil  in  a 
well-known  MS.  wears  the  gown  of  a  lady  of  rank,  the 
12th  and  boc]jce  tightly  laced,  the  hanging  sleeve  knotted  to 
keep  it  out  of  the  mud.  A  MS.  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  shows  in  a  picture  of  the  vision  of 
Henry  I.  that  the  men  who  reap  and  dig  are  simply  clad  in  loose 
skirted  tunics  with  close  sleeves,  that  they  have  hats  with 
brims,  and  cloaks  caught  by  a  brooch  at  the  shoulder.  Hats 
and  caps  are  common  in  all  classes  and  take  many  shapes — the 
Phrygian  cap,  the  flat  bonnet,  the  brimmed  hat  and  the  skull-cap. 
With  the  coming  of  the  house  of  Anjou  English  dress  clears 
itself  of  the  more  fantastic  features  of  an  earlier  generation. 
Henry  II.  brought  in  the  short  Angevin  mantle  and  from  it  had 
his  name  of  Curtmantle,  but  it  was  not  a  mastering  fashion  and 
the  long  cloak  holds  its  own.  Rich  stuffs,  cloth  of  gold  or  silk 
woven  with  gold,  webs  of  damask  wrought  with  stripes  or  rays 
and  figured  with  patterns  are  brought  in  from  the  ports.  Rare 
furs  are  eagerly  sought.  But  the  simplicity  of  line  is  remarkable. 
The  drawings  made  for  Matthew  Paris's  lives  of  the  two  Offas 
show  people  of  all  ranks  clad  without  a  trace  of  the  tailor's 

fantasy.  Kings  and  lords,  church- 
men and  men  of  substance  go  in 
long  gowns  to  the  feet,  the  great 
folk  having  an  orphrey  or  band  of 
embroidery  at  the  somewhat  low- 
cut  neck  (fig.  27).  Some  of  the 
sleeves  have  wide  ends  cut  off  at 
the  mid-forearm,  showing  the  tight 
sleeve  of  a  shirt  or  smock  below. 
Fashion,  however,  tends  to  lengthen 
sleeves  to  a  tight  wrist,  the  upper 
halves  being  cut  wide  and  loose  with 
the  large  armholes  characteristic  of 
most  ancient  tailoring.  Over  this 
gown  is  worn  an  ample  cloak 

FIG.  27--A  Lady  and    a  fastfed  at  <lhe  neck  with  a  "f00 
King(temp.  Hen. III.). (From  or  clasp,  and  sometimes  fitted  with 
Cotton  MS.  Nero,  D.  i.)          a  hood.     The  dress  of  the  common 

folk    and    of    men    of    rank    when 

actively  employed  is  a  tunic  which  is  but  the  gown  shortened 
to  the  knee,  a  short  cloak  to  the  knee  being  worn  with 
it  (fig.  28).  Belts  and  girdles  are  narrow  and  plain,  the  thongs 
without  enrichment,  showing  no  beginnings  of  the  rich  buckles 
and  heavy  bosses  of  a  later  fashion.  Shoes  and  low-cut  boots 
are  slightly  pointed,  and  hats,  caps,  hoods  and  coifs  of  many 
types  cover  the  head.  The  women  are  like  to  the  men  in  their 
long  gown,  but  the  head  is  wrapped  in  a  coverchef  hanging 
over  the  shoulder  and  bound  with  a  fillet  round  the  brow. 


Gloves  are  common  in  this  age;  "  scraps  of  the  cloth  or  the 
skin,"  says  a  poet,  "  do  not  want  for  a  use:  of  them  gloves 
are  made." 


Hth 
century. 


FIG.  28. — Labourers  (temp.  Hen.  III.).  (From  Cotton  MS.  Nero,  D.i.) 

At  the  court  of  Edward  II.,  son  of  a  king  who  went  simply 
clad,  Piers  Gaveston  and  his  like  began  to  set  the  fashions  for  a 
century  which  to  the  curious  antiquary  is  a  garden 
of  delights.  For  the  history  of  the  14th-century 
clothing  illuminations  are  supplemented  by  a  number 
of  effigies  upon  which  the  carver  has  wrought  out  the  last  details, 
by  monumental  brasses,  and  by  contemporary  literature  and 
records  (fig.  29).  Garments  take  many  shapes;  sleeves,  skirts 
and  head-dresses  run  through  many  fashions;  while  personal 
ornaments  are  rich  and  beautiful  to  a  degree  never  yet  surpassed. 
With  the  beginning  of  the  century  there  is  seen  a  tendency  to 
shorten  the  long  gown,  which 
had  been  the  best  wear  of  a 
man  of  good  estate,  to  a  more 
convenient  length,  although 
the  knees  are  still  well  covered. 
Loose  sleeves  falling  below 
the  elbow  leave  to  view  the 
sleeve  of  an  under-garment, 
buttoned  tightly  to  the  arm. 
In  winter  time  a  man's  gown 
will  have  long  sleeves  that 
cover  the  hands  when  the  arms 
are  at  length.  The  full  cloak, 
although  still  found,  is  some- 
what rare  among  a  people 
that  has,  perhaps,  learned  FIG.  29. — A  Group  of  Clerks  (early 
to  wear  more  clothes  and  Hth  century).  (From  Royal  MS. 
warmer  upon  the  body.  *9  B-  xv-) 

Hoods  are  worn  in  many  fashions,  to  be  cast  back  upon  the 
shoulders  like  a  monk's  cowl,  the  part  at  the  back  of  the  head 
being  drawn  out  into  a  "  liripipe  "  long  enough  at  times,  when 


FIG.  30. — English  Ploughmen  of  the  I4th  century. 

the  hood  is  drawn  up,  to  be  knotted  round  the  brow  turban- 
fashion  (fig.  30).     Long  hose  are  drawn  up  the  legs  to  join  the 


238 


COSTUME 


short  breech,  and  the  toes  of  the  ankle-shoes  are  pointed  so  long 
that  holy  men  see  visions  of  little  devils  using  them  as  chariots. 
The  women  love  trailing  gowns.  They  have  under-skirts  and 
loose  over-garments,  sometimes  sleeveless.  Their  hair  at  least 
would  not  shock  those  earlier  prelates  who  cursed  the  long 
plaits,  for  it  is  caught  up  in  a  caul  or  braided  at  the  sides  of  the 
head.  In  the  second  half  of  the  century  men  of  rank  borrow 
from  Germany  the  fashion  of  the  cote-hardie.  In  its  plainest 
form  this  short  tunic,  covering  the  fork  of  the  leg,  is  cut  closely 
to  the  body  and  arms  (fig.  31).  Sometimes  the  sleeve  ends  at 
the  elbow  and  then  another  streamer  is  added  to  the  one  which 
falls  from  the  hood,  a  strip  of  stuff  continuing  the  elbow-sleeve 
as  low  as  the  coat  edge.  This  strip  and  the  hem  of  the  skirt  are 


FIG.  31. — Sons  and  Daughters  of  Edward  III.     (From  his  tomb 
in  Westminster  Abbey.) 

often  "  slittered  "  with  fanciful  jags,  a  fashion  which  soon  draws 
down  the  satirist's  anger.  Parti-coloured  garments  were  an 
added  offence;  a  gentleman  would  have  his  coat  parted  down 
the  middle  in  red  and  white,  with  hose  of  white  and  red  to  match. 
Men  and  women  of  rank  wear  a  twisted  garland  of  rich  stuff, 
crown-wise  on  the  head,  set  with  pearls  and  precious  stones, 
a  fashion  which  is  followed  on  the  great  helm  of  the  knights, 
being  the  "  wreath  "  or  "  torce  "  of  heraldry.  The  dames  of 
such  as  wear  the  cote-hardie  imitate  its  tightness  in  the  sleeves 
and  bodices  of  their  long  gown.  A  curious  fashion  which  now 
begins  is  the  sleeveless  upper  gown  whose  sides  are  cut  away 
in  curved  sweeps  from  the  shoulder  to  below  the  waist,  the  edges 
of  the  opening  being  deeply  furred.  The  strange  head-dress  with 
a  steeple-horn  draped  with  lawn  kerchiefs  makes  its  appearance 
to  shock  the  moralists.  Although  it  was  probably  a  rare  sight 
in  this  century,  the  horn  could  easily  fulfil  its  mission  of  drawing 
notice  to  all  its  wearers. 

Of  the  cote-hardie  it  might  at  least  be  said  that  it  was  the 
symbol  of  a  knightly  age  in  arms,  the  garment  of  a  man  who 
must  have  hand  and  limbs  free,  and,  save  for  its  sleeves,  it  faith- 
fully copied  the  aoat-armour  of  the  armed  knight.  The  softer 
days  of  Richard  II.  are  remarkable  for  a  dress  which  has  also 
its  significance,  men  of  high  rank  taking  to  themselves  gowns 
of  such  fulness  that  the  satirists  may  be  justified  who  declare 
that  men  so  clad  may  be  hardly  known  from  women.  The  close 
collar  of  these  gowns  rises  high  as  the  neckcloth  of  a  French 
incroyable,  the  upper  edge  turned  slightly  over  and  jagged.  The 
full  skirts  sweep  on  the  ground,  which  is  touched  by  the  last  jags 
of  the  vast  sleeves,  whose  openings,  wide  as  a  woman's  skirts, 
are  dagged  like  the  edges  of  vine  or  oak  leaves.  "  And  but  if 
the  slevis,"  says  the  satirist,  "  slide  on  the  erthe,  thei  wolle  be 
wroth  as  the  wynde."  Sometimes  this  gown  is  slit  at  the  sides 
that  the  gallant  may  the  better  show  his  coloured  hose  and  tips 
of  shoes  that  pike  out  two  feet  from  heel  to  toe.  When  not 
wearing  the  gown  such  a  lord  would  have  a  high-necked  coat, 
shorter  even  than  the  cote-hardie,  but  looser  in  the  skirt,  the 
sleeves  ending  full  and  loose  with  dagged  edges  turned  over  at 


the  cuff..  Hats  are  more  commonly  worn  in  this  century, and 
in  its  latter  half  take  many  shapes,  a  notable  one  being  that  of  a 
shortened  sugar-loaf  or  thimble  with  a  brim  turned  up,  either 
all  round,  or,  more  frequently,  behind  or  before.  The  long 
shoes,  as  their  name  of  crackowes  or  poleynes  implies,  were  a 
fashion  which,  by  repute,  came  from  Poland,  a  land  ruled  by 
the  grandfather  of  Richard's  first  queen.  When  medieval 
fashions  were  past,  they  were  remembered  as  a  type  of  the  old 
time,  and  a  certain  French  conteur  begins  a  tale  of  old  days,  not 
with  jadis,  but  with  "  In  the  time  when  they  wore  poleynes." 
Even  parish  priests,  whose  preaching  should  "  dryve  out  the 
daggis  and  alle  the  Duche  cotis,"  went,  in  this  age  of  fine 
apparel,  gaily  clad  in  gowns  of  scarlet  and  green,  "  shape  of  the 
newe,"  in  "  cutted  clothes  "  with  "  long  pikes  on  her  shone." 
More  than  this,  they  made  scandal  by  ruffling  with  weapons — 
"  bucklers  brode  and  sweardes  long,  bandrike  with  baselardes 
kene."  The  skill  of  goldsmiths  and  craftsmen  decorates  all 
the  appurtenances  of  the  dress  of  this  i4th  century.  Buttons, 
which  appear  in  the  first  Edward's  time  as  a  scandalous  orna- 
ment on  men  of  low  degree,  have  now  become  common,  and, 
cunningly  wrought,  are  used  as  much  for  queintise  as  for  service. 
A  close  row  of  them  will  run  from  wrist  to  elbow  of  tight  sleeve. 
A  row  of  buttons  goes  from  the  neck  of  a  woman's  gown,  and 
the  cote-hardie  may  be  fastened  down  the  front  with  a  dozen  and 
a  half  of  rich  buttons.  A  purse  or  gipciere  hung  by  a  ring  to  the 
girdle  gives  more  room  for  ornament  in  the  silver  or  brass  bar 
on  which  the  bag  depends.  Above  all  the  girdle,  which — La 
harness  or  in  silk — rich  men  wear  broad  and  bossed  with  jewels 
across  the  thigh  below  the  waist,  makes  work  for  the  jeweller's 
craftsman.  Such  a  girdle  is  for  great  folk  alone;  but  lesser  men, 
wearing  a  strap  about  their  waists,  will  yet  have  a  handsome 
buckle  and  a  fanciful  pendant  of  metal  guarding  the  loose  end 
of  the  strap. 

However  fantastic  the  fashions  of  this  or  any  other  ages,  folk 
of  the  middling  sort  will  avoid  the  extremes.  From  the  Knight 
to  the  Reve,  no  man  of  Chaucer's  company  calls  to  us  by  the 
fantasy  of  his  clothing.  The  Knight  himself  rides  in  his  fustian 
gipoun,  the  grime  of  his  habergeon  upon  it,  although  his  son's 
short  gown,  the  gayest  garment  at  the  Tabard,  had  long  and 
wide  sleeves  and  is  embroidered  with  flowers  like  any  mead.  A 
coat  and  hood  of  green 
mark  the  Yeoman,  who 
has  a  silver  Christopher 
brooch  for  ornament. 
The  Merchant  is  in 
motley  stuff,  his  beaver 
hat  from  Flanders  and 
his  clasped  boots  taking 
Chaucer's  eye,  as  do  the 
anlas  and  silken  gipser 
which  hang  at  the  rich 
Franklin's  belt.  As  for 
the  London  burgesses, 
their  knife-chapes,  girdles 
and  pouches  are  in  clean 
silver.  The  Shipman 
wears  his  knife  in  a  lan- 
yard about  his  neck,  as 
his  fellows  do  to  this 
day,  and  his  coat  is  of 
coarse  falding  to  the  knee. 


FIG.  32. — Henry,  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  Occleve  the  Poet  (c.  1410).  (From 
Arundel  MS.  38.) 


The  Wife  of  Bath  has  the  wimple 

below  her  broad  hat  and  rides  in  a  foot  mantle  about  her  hips. 
Poorer  men's  dress  is  on  the  Reve  and  the  Ploughman,  the  one 
in  a  long  surcote  of  sky-blue  and  the  other  in  the  tabard  which 
we  may  recognize  as  that  smock-frock  which  goes  down  the  ages 
with  little  change. 

In  the  isth  century  the  middle  ages  run  out.     Fashions  in 
this  period  become,  if  not  more  fantastic,  more  various.     Its 
earlier  years  see  men  of  rank  still  inclined  to  the.  rich       uf^ 
modes  of  the  last  age:  Harry  of  Monmouth,  drawn      century. 
about  1410  by  an  artist  who  shows  him  as  Occleve's 
patron,  wears  a  blue  gown  which  might  have  passed  muster  at  the 


COSTUME 


239 


court  of  Richard  II.  for  its  trailing  skirts  and  its  long  sleeves, 
their  slittered  edges  turned  back  (fig.  32).  A  strange  fancy  at  this 
time  was  the  hanging  of  silver  bells  on  the  dress.  One  William 
Staunton,  in  1409,  seeing  in  a  vision  at  St  Patrick's  Purgatory  the 
fate  of  earth's  proud  ones,  is  exact  to  note  that  in  the  place  of 
torment  the  jags  in  men's  clothes  turn  to  adders,  that  women's 
trailing  skirts  are  burnt  over  their  heads,  and  that  those  men 
whose  garments  are  overset  with  silver  gingles  and  bells  have 
burning  nails  of  fire  driven  through  each  gingle.  As  for  the 
chaplets  of  gold,  of  pearls  and  precious  stones,  they  turn  into 
nails  of  iron  on  which  the  fiends  hammer. 

The  common  habit  of  a  well-clad  man  in  the  first  half  of  this 
century  is  a  loose  tunic,  lined  with  fur,  or  edged  with  fur  at  neck, 


FIG.  33. — The  Squire.  (From  FIG.  34. — An  English  Squire 
the  Ellesmere  MS.  of  the  Canter-  and  his  Wife.  (From  a  brass 
bury  Tales.)  of  1409.) 

wrist  and  skirt.  At  first  the  sleeves  are  long  and  bag-like,  like  to 
the  Richard  II.  sleeve  but  drawn  in  to  the  wrist,  where  early 
examples  are  fastened  with  a  button.  A  shorter  tunic  is  worn 
below,  whose  tight  sleeves  are  seen  beyond  the  furred  edge  of  the 
upper  garment,  mittens  being  sometimes  attached  to  them. 
Over  the  shoulders  the  hood  is  thrown,  or,  in  foul  weather,  a  hood 
and  cloak.  The  gown  is  girdled  at  the  waist  with  a  girdle  from 
which  hangs  the  anelace  or  baselard  (fig.  34).  Shoes  are  pointed. 
Hats  and  caps  are  seen  in  many  shapes,  but  the  most  remarkable 
is  the  developed  form  of  that  head-dress  which  the  14th-century 
man  seems  to  have  achieved  by  putting  his  pate  into  the  face- 
hole  of  his  hood  and  twisting  its  liripipe  round  his  brows.  In  the 
1 5th  century  the  effect  is  produced  with  a  thick,  turban-like  roll 
of  stuff  from  the  top  of  which  hung  down  on  one  side  folds  of 

cloth  coming  nigh  to  the 
shoulder,  and  on  the  other 
the  liripipe  broadened  and 
lengthened  to  4  or  5  ft.  of  a 
narrower  folded  cloth.  As 
the  century  advances  the 
bagpipe  sleeves  shrink  in 
size  and  the  tunic  skirts  are 
shortened  (fig.  35).  The 
old  habit  of  going  armed 
with  anelace  or  baselard 
dies  away  in  spite  of 
troublous  times.  In  the 
middle  of  the  century  the 
tunic  is  often  no  longer 
than  a  modern  frock-coat, 
its  sleeves  little  wider  than  those  of  a  modern  overcoat.  Dress, 
indeed,  becomes  at  this  time  convenient  and  attractive  to  our 
modern  eyes.  The  last  quarter  of  the  century  sees  a  new  and 
important  change.  The  tunic  or  gown,  which  was  the  garment 
of  ceremony  answering  at  once  to  our  dress  coats  and  frock 
coats,  runs  down  to  the  feet.  An  act  of  1463  ordered  that 
coats  should  at  least  cover  the  buttocks,  but  fashion  achieved 


FIG.  35.— English  Dress,  c.  1433. 
(From  Harl.  MS.  2278.) 


FIG.  36. — A  Gentleman  and  his 
Wife.     (From  a  brass  of  1435.) 


suddenly  what  law  failed  to  enforce.  Men  who  had  polled  their 
hair  short  allowed  it  to  grow  and  hang  over  the  shoulders.  The 
belt  carries  the  purse  or  gipciere  more  commonly,  although 
weapons  are  rarely  seen,  and  it  is  notable  that,  as  the  Reforma- 
tion approaches,  the  fashion  of  wearing  a  large  "  pair  of  beads  " 
in  the  belt  becomes  a  very  common  one.  Last  of  all,  the  shoes 
change  their  shape.  The  reign 
of  Edward  IV.  had  seen  the 
pointed  toes  as  iniquitously 
long  as  ever  the  I4th  century 
saw  them.  Even  the  long 
riding  boot  has  the  curving 
point,  although  otherwise  much 
resembling  the  jack-boot  of  the  . 
i8th  century.  But  after  Bos- 
worth  Field  the  soles  broaden, 
the  point  shrinks  back  and 
then  disappears,  and  the  foot- 
print becomes  shovel-shaped. 

Women's  dress  in  the  isth 
century  often  follows  the  man's 
'  fashion  of  the  furred  gown,  the 
skirts  being  lengthened  for  all 
difference.  But  the  close-bodied 
and  close-sleeved  gown,  with 
skirts  broadening  into  many 
folds  below  the  hips,  is  often 
seen  with  the  long  and  plain 
cloak  drawn  with  a  cord  at  the  breast,  widows  wearing  this 
dress  with  the  barbe,  a  crimped  cloth  of  linen  drawn  up  under 
the  chin  and  ears  and  covering  the  collar-bone.  With  the 
barbe  went  the  kerchief,  draping  head  and  shoulders.  The 
bossed  cauls  of  the  earlier  head-dress,  drawn  high  on  either 
side  of  the  head  until  face  and  head-dress  took  the  shape  of  a 
heart,  are  characteristic  of  the  age  (fig.  36).  In  some  cases  the 
cauls  are  drawn  out  at  the  sides  to  the  form  of  a  pair  of  bulls' 
horns  or  of  a  mitre  set  sideways.  In  the  time  of  Edward  IV.  we 
have  a  popular  head-dress  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of 
the  butterfly.  The  hair  in  its  caul  is  pulled  backward,  and  wires 
set  in  it  allow  the  ends  of  a  cambric  veil  to  float  behind  like  the 
wings  of  a  butterfly  settled  on  a  flower. 

The  new  England  of  the  i6th  century  breaks  with  the  past  in 
most  of  its  fashions.  Never  again  does  an  Englishman  return  to 
the  piked  shoes.  High  fashion  under  Henry  VIII.  is  all 
for  broad  toes,  so  broad  that  the  sumptuary  laws,  from 
banning  long  toes,  swing  about  to  condemn  excess  in 
the  new  guise.  Under  Henry  VII.  the  medieval  influence  is  still 
strong  in  the  body-clothing.  A  bravely  dressed  man  will  go  in 
long  hose,  cut  close  to  the 
body,  and  a  short  vest  under 
which  the  shirt  is  seen  at 
waist  and  wrist.  Over  this  he 
will  wear  the  open  gown,  lined 
with  fur,  and  cut  short  as  a 
jacket  but  having  the  sleeves 
hanging  below  the  knee.  Such 
sleeves  are  commonly  slashed 
open  at  the  sides  to  allow  the 
forearm  to  pass  through. 
Shorter  false  sleeves  of  this 
pattern  had  become  popular 
in  the  age  of  Edward  IV. 
Graver  men  will  wear,  in  place 
of  this  short  gown,  a  long  one 
dropping  to  the  broad  shoe- 
toes,  the  sleeves  wide-mouthed 
(fig-  3?)-  Sometimes  it  hangs 
loosely;  sometimes  it  has  the 
girdle  with  purse  and  beads.  Notaries  and  scriveners  add 
to  the  girdle  a  penner,  or  pen-case,  and  a  stoppered  ink- 
bottle.  Wide  hats  are  found,  crowned  with  huge  plumes  of 
feathers,  but  the  characteristic  headgear  is  that  made  familiar  by 


FIG.  37. — A  Gentleman  and  his 
Wife.     (From  a  brass  of  1508.) 


240 


COSTUME 


portraits  of  Henry  VII.,  a  low-crowned  cap  whose  upturned  brim 
is  nicked  at  one  side.  A  few  sober  men  wear  coats  differing  little 
from  the  short  gown  of  forty  years  before.  Among  ladies  the 
butterfly  head-dress  and  the  steeple  cap  passed  out  of  fashion, 
and  a  grave  headgear  comes  in  which  has  been  compared  with  a 
dog-kennel,  a  hood-cap  thrown  over  head  and  shoulders,  the 
front  being  edged  with  a  broad  band  which  was  often  enriched 
with  needlework,  the  ends  falling  in  lappets  to  the  breast. 
This  band  is  stiffened  until  the  face  looks  out  as  from  the  open 
gable-end  of  a  house.  The  gown  is  simple  in  form,  close-fitting 
to  the  body,  the  cuffs  turned  up  with  fur  and  the  skirts  long.  A 
girdle  is  worn  loosely  drawn  below  the  waist,  its  long  strap 
letting  the  metal  pendant  fall  nearly  to  the  feet.  Long  cloaks, 
plainly  cut,  are  gathered  at  the  neck  with  a  pair  of  long  cords, 
like  tasselled  bell-pulls.  While  Henry  VIII.  is  spending  his 
father's  hoards  we  have  a  splendid  court,  gallantly  dressed  in  new 
fashions.  His  own  broad  figure,  in  cloth  of  gold,  velvet  and 
damask,  plaits,  puffs  and  slashes,  stiff  with  jewels,  is  well  known 
through  scores  of  portraits,  and  may  stand  for  the  high-water 
mark  of  the  modes  of  his  age.  The  Hampton  Court  picture  of  the 

earl  of  Surrey  is  characteristic  of  a 
great  lord's  dress  of  a  somewhat 
soberer  style  (see  fig.  38).  The  king, 
proud  of  his  own  broad  shoulders, 
set  the  fashion  to  accent  this 
breadth,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  earl's  figure,  leaving  out  the 
head  and  hose,  all  but  fills  a  perfect 
square.  Such  men  have  the  air  of 
playing-card  knaves.  Surrey's  cap 
is  flat,  with  a  rich  brooch  and  a 
small  side  -  feather.  His  short 
doublet  of  the  new  style  is  open  in 
front  to  show  a  white  shirt  covered 
with  black  embroidery  whose  ruffles 
cover  his  wrists.  His  over-garment 
or  jerkin  has  vast  sleeves,  rounded, 
puffed  and  slashed.  Under  the 
doublet  are  seen  wide  trunk- 
breeches.  He  goes  all  in  scarlet, 
even  to  the  shoes,  which  are  of 
moderate  size.  The  girdle  carries 
a  sword  with  the  new  guard  and  a 
dagger  of  the  Renascence  art,  graced 
with  a  vast  tassel.  All  is  in  the 


Drawn  from  a  photo  by  Mansell. 

FIG.  38. — The  Earl  of 
Surrey  (late  in  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.). 


new  fashion,  nothing  recalling  the  earlier  century  save  the 
hose  and  the  immodest  braguette  which,  seen  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourteen -hundreds,  is  defiantly  displayed  in  the 
dress  and  armour  of  this  age  of  Henry  VIII.  Even  the  hair 
follows  the  new  French  mode  and  is  cropped  close.  Other 
fashionable  suits  of  the  time  give  us  the  tight  doublets,  loose 
upper  sleeves  and  trunk  hose  as  a  mass  of  small  slashes  and  puffs, 
a  fashion  which  came  in  from  the  Germans  and  Switzers  whom 
Henry  saw  in  the  imperial  service.  Such  clothing  goes  with  the 
shoes  whose  broad  toes  are  slashed  with  silk,  and  the  wide  and 
flat  caps  with  slashed  edges,  bushed  with  feathers,  which  head- 
gear was  often  allowed  to  hang  upon  the  shoulders  by  a  pair  of 
knotted  bonnet-st  rings,  while  a  skull-cap  covered  the  head.  With 
all  this  fantasy  the  dress  of  simpler  folk  has  little  concern,  and 
a  man  in  a  plain,  short-skirted  doublet,  with  a  flat  cap,  trunk 
breeches,  long  hose  and  plain  shoes,  has  nothing  grotesque  or 
unserviceable  in  his  attire.  The  new  sumptuary  laws,  which 
were  not  allowed  to  become  a  dead  letter,  had  their  influence  in 
restraining  middle-class  extravagance.  No  man  under  a  knight's 
degree  was  to  wear  a  neck-chain  of  gold  or  gilded,  or  a  "  garded  or 
pinched  shirte."  Brooches  of  goldsmith's  work  were  for  none 
below  a  gentleman.  Women  whose  husbands  could  not  afford  to 
maintain  a  light  horse  for  the  king's  service  had  no  business  with 
gowns  or  petticoats  of  silk,chains  of  gold,  French  hoods,  or  bonnets 
of  velvet.  This  French  hood  is  the  small  bonnet,  two  of  whose 
many  forms  may  be  seen  in  the  best-known  portraits  of  Mary  of 
England  and  Mary,  queen  of  Scots — a  cap  stiffened  with  wires. 


With  its  introduction  the  fashionable  skirt  began  to  lose  its 
graceful  folds  and  to  spread  stiffly  outward  in  straight  lines  from 
the  tight-laced  waist,  the  front  being  open  to  show  a  petticoat  as 
stiff  and  enriched  as  the  skirt.  The  neck  of  the  gown,  cut  low  and 
square,  showed  the  partlet  of  fine  linen  pleated  to  the  neck.  In 
the  days  of  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Mary  the  dress  of  most  men 
and  women  loses  the  fantastic  detail  of  the  earlier  Tudor  age. 
In  the  dress  of  both  sexes  the  joining  of  the  sleeve  to  the  shoulder 
has,  as  a  rule,  that  large  puff  which  stage  dressmakers  bestow  so 
lavishly  upon  all  old  English  costumes,  but  otherwise  the  woman's 
gown  and  hood  and  the  man's  .doublet,  jerkin  and  trunk  hose  are 
plain  enough,  even  the  shoes  losing  all  the  fanciful  width.  Mary, 
indeed,  added  to  the  statute  book  more  stringent  laws  against 
display  of  rich  apparel,  laws  that  would  fine  even  a  gentleman  of 
under  £20  a  year  if  silk  were  found  in  his  cap  or  shoe.  Small 
ruffs,  however,  begin  to  appear  at  the  neck,  and  most  wrists  are 
ruffled.  The  ruff,  which  began  simply  enough  in  the  first  half  of 
this  century  as  a  little  cambric  collar  with  a  goffered  edge,  is  for 
all  of  us  the  distinguishing  note  of  Elizabethan  dress.  It  grew 
wide  and  flapping,  therefore  it  was  stiffened  upon  wires  and  spread 
from  a  concealed  frame,  row  on  row  of  ruffs  being  added  one  above 
the  other  until  the  wearer,  man  or  woman,  seemed  to  carry  the 
head  in  a  cambric  charger.  Starch,  cursed  as  a  devilish  liquor  by 
the  new  Puritan,  gave  it  help,  and  English  dress  acquired  a 
deformity  which  can  only  be  compared  with  the  great  farthingale 
or  with  the  last  follies  of  the  wig.  The  skirt  of  a  woman  of  fashion , 
which  had  already  begun  to  jut  from  the  waist,  was  drawn  out 
before  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign  at  right  angles  from  the  waist 
until  the  dame  had  that  air  of  standing  within  a  great  drum 
which  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  remarked  in  the  portrait  of  an 
ancestress.  Elizabeth  herself,  long-waisted  and  of  meagre  body, 
set  the  fashions  of  her  court,  other  women  pinching  their  waists 
into  the  long  and  straight  stomacher  ending  in  a  peak  before. 
She  herself  followed  her  father's  taste  in  ornament,  and  on  great 
days  was  set  about  like  the  Madonna  of  a  popular  shrine  with 
decorations  of  all  kinds,  patterns  in  pearl,  quillings,  slashings, 
puffings  and  broidery,  tassels  and  rich  buttons.  Among  men  the 
important  change  is  the  disappearance  of  the  last  of  the  long  hose, 
all  men  taking  to  trunk-hose  and  nether-stocks  or  stockings, 
while  their  doublets  tend  to  follow  the  same  long-waisted  fashion 
as  the  bodices  of  the  women,  whose  doublets  and  jerkins, 
buttoned  up  the  breast,  bring  the  Puritan  satirists  against  them. 
Of  these  satirists  Philip  Stubbes  is  the  best-known,  his  Anatomic 
of  A  buses,  published  in  1583,  being  a  very  wardrobe  of  Elizabethan 
fashions,  although  false  or  dyed  hair,  the  ruff  and  its  starch,  and 
the  ear-rings  worn  by  some  women  and  many  men  draw  his 
hottest  anger.  William  Harrison  sings  on  a  like  note  about 
the  same  time,  declaiming  especially  against  the  mutability 
of  fashion,  declaring  that  the  imported  Spanish,  French  and 
German  guises  made  it  easier  to  inveigh  against  such  enormities 
than  to  describe  the  English  attire  with  any  certainty.  For  him 
women  were  become  men,  and  men  transformed  into  monsters. 
"  Neither  was  it  ever  merrier  with  England  than  when  an  English- 
man was  known  abroad  by  his  own  cloth  and  contented  himself 
at  home  with  his  fine  carsey  hosen  and  a  mean  slop;  his  coat, 
.gown  and  cloak  of  brown,  blue  or  puke,  with  some  pretty 
furniture  of  velvet  or  fur  and  a  doublet  of  sad  tawny  or  black 
velvet  or  other  comely  silk,  without  such  cuts  and  garish  colours 
as  are  worn  in  these  days,  and  never  brought  in  but  by  the 
consent  of  the  French,  who  think  themselves  the  gayest  men 
when  they  have  most  diversities  of  jags  and  change  of  colours 
about  them."  He  adds  that  "  certes  of  all  estates  our  merchants 
do  least  alter  their  attire  .  .  .  for  albeit  that  which  they  wear 
be  very  fine  and  costly,  yet  in  form  and  colour  it  representeth 
a  great  piece  of  the  ancient  gravity  appertaining  to  citizens 
and  burgesses."  But  as  for  the  "  younger  sort  "  of  citizens' 
wives,  Harrison  finds  in  their  attire  "  all  kind  of  curiosity  ...  in 
far  greater  measure  than  in  women  of  a  higher  calling." 

The  coming  of  King  James  is  not  marked  by  any  sudden  change 
of  attire,  most  of  the  Elizabethan  fashions  running  on  into  his 
reign.  The  tight  doublet  has  stiff  wings  at  the  shoulders,  close 
sleeves  and  short  skirt.  The  many  fashions  of  breeches  are  still 


COSTUME 


241 


popular,  most  of  them  padded  or  stuffed.  There  are  trunk  hose 
that  have  the  air  of  petticoats  rolled  inward  half  way  up  the 
thigh.  There  is  the  "  great  round  abominable  breech," 
pegtop  shaped  from  below  the  knee  to  waist,  as  it 
appears  in  the  well-known  print  of  James  himself  with 
hawk  on  fist.  Among  women  of  fashion  obtained  a  remarkable 
mode  of  exposing  the  breast,  when  the  ruff  and  bodice  were  cut 
away;  and  the  wheel  fardingale  was  still  worn,  an  order  against 


17th 
century. 


FIG.  39. — An  English 
Lady.  From  a  brass  of 
1605. 


FIG.  40. — An  English  Lady 
of  rank  in  1643.  After 
Hollar. 


it  in  1613  rather  increasing  than  diminishing  its  size.  But 
simpler  fashions  were  setting  in,  and  with  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
the  extravagances  of  padding  and  slashing  disappear.  The  ruff 
gives  place  at  last  to  the  falling  band,  a  wide  collar  of  lace  or 
plain  linen.  The  belt  or  girdle  ceases  to  be  common  wear,  save 
for  those  who  hang  a  sword  from  it.  Parties  in  the  state  come  to 
be  known  by  their  dress,  and  we  have  the  Puritan,  his  crop  head 
covered  by  a  wide-brimmed,  high-crowned  felt,  without  hatband 
or  feather,  and  his  plain  falling  band  over  a  staidly-cut  coat. 
Beside  him  we  set  the  cavalier,  lace 
at  his  band  edge,  wrist  and  wide  boot 
tops.  His  hat  is  feathered,  his 
doublet  lets  the  fine  cambric  of  the 
shirt  be  seen  at  the  waist,  his  short 
breeches  are  fringed  with  points  or 
tags.  His  long  hair  has  one  lock 
brought  over  the  left  shoulder  to  be 
marked  as  a  lovelock  by  a  ribbon  at 
the  end.  But  the  clothing  of  this  age 
has  been  illustrated  by  Van  Dyck 
and  by  a  hundred  other  portrait 
painters,  who  as  illustrators  of 
costume  take  the  place  of  the  monu- 
mental sculptors,  then  less  commonly 
called  on  for  an  effigy  in  the  habit  of 
life.  And  the  time  of  the  Common- 
wealth passes  without  notable  change. 
Those  who  were  in  power  favoured  a 
sober  habit,  although  we  find  General 
Harrison  in  scarlet  and  clinquant 
matching  with  Colonel  Hutchinson 

in  courtly  apparel,  and  before  the  Restoration  the  tract  -writers 
find  matter  of  condemnation,  especially  in  the  items  of  patches, 
hair-powder  and  face  paints. 

So  far  as  the  court  was  concerned,  King  Charles  II.  brought  in 
the  extravagant  fashions  of  the  courtiers  of  Louis  XIV.     The 


After  Hollar. 


FIG.  42. — A  Squire  of  a  Knight 
of  the  Bath  at  the  Crowning  of 
Charles  II. 


short-waisted  doublets  with  loose  sleeves  slashed  open  at  the 
sides,  the  short  and  wide  petticoat  breeches,  their  lining  lower 
than  the  petticoat  edge  and  tied  below  the  knee,  and  the  hose 
whose  tops  bagged  over  the  garter,  were  in  England  before  King 
Charles  returned.  He  added  to  the  breeches  the  rows  of  looped 
ribbons,  gave  falling  ruffles 
to  the  knees  of  the  hose  and 
many  feathers  to  the  hat. 
The  long,  narrow-bladed 
rapier  hung  in  a  broad,  em- 
broidered belt,  passed  over 
the  right  shoulder,  and  the 
high-heeled  shoes  and  knots 
of  ribbons.  Lely  painted  the 
women  of  this  court  in  a 
studied  negligence,  but  many 
pictures  show  us  the  loose 
sleeves  turned  up  to  the  elbow 
with  bows  of  ribbon,  the  close 
bodice  ending  in  a  loose  gown 
worn  over  a  full  skirted  petti- 
coat, a  wide  collar  covering 
the  shoulders. 

Pepys  is  our  chief  authority 
for  the  remarkable  resolution 
of  Charles  to  change  the 
fashion  of  his  dress  to  one 
which  he  would  never  alter, 
a  decision  which  the  king  com- 
municated to  his  council  in 
October  1666.  On  the  is 
of  that  month  the  diarist 
noted  that  "  this  day  the  king  begins  to  put  on  his  vest,  and  I 
did  see  several  persons  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  Commons 
too,  great  courtiers,  who  are  in  it;  being  a  long  cassocke  close 
to  the  body,  of  black  cloth  and  pinked  with  white  silk  under  it, 
and  a  coat  over  it,  and  the  legs  ruffled  with  black  riband  like 
a  pigeon's  leg  .  .  .  a  very  fine  and  handsome  garment."  Rugge's 
diary  records  the  same  change  to  "  a  close  coat  of  cloth  pinkt, 
with  a  white  taffety  under  the  cults.  This  in  length  reached  the 
calf  of  the  leg,  and  upon  that  a  sercoatt  cutt  at  the  breast, 
which  hung  loose  and  shorter  than  the  vest  six  inches.  The 
breeches  the  Spanish  cut,  and  buskins,  some  of  cloth,  some  of 
leather,  but  of  the  same  colour  as  the  vest  or  garment."  Says 
Evelyn,  "  a  comely  and  manly  habit,  too  good  to  hold."  Later 
in  the  same  month  Pepys  saw  the  court  "  all  full  of  vests,  only 
my  Lord  St  Albans  not  pinked,  but  plain  black;  and  they  say 
the  king  says  the  pinking  upon  whites  makes  them  look  too  much 
like  magpies,  and  therefore  hath  bespoke  one  of  plain  velvet." 
The  change,although  the  court  was  fickle,  isof  the  first  importance 
in  the  history  of  costume,  for  we  have  here  the  coat  and  waist- 
coat in  a  form  from  which  our  own  coats  and  waistcoats  derive 
without  a  break.  Another  important  change  affects  dress  for 
a  century  and  a  half.  Just  as  costume  begins  to  take  the  modern 
path  we  have  the  wig  or  peruke,  strangest  of  all  the  fantasies 
of  fashion,  introduced  as  the  wear  for  all  men  of  standing.  Pepys, 
the  son  of  a  tailor  and  a  man  with  a  shy  affection  for  fine  clothing, 
may  again  here  be  quoted.  On  a  Sunday  in  February  1661  he 
"  began  to  go  forth  in  my  coat  and  sword,  as  the  manner  now 
among  gentlemen  is."  In  November  1663  he  takes  another  step 
with  fashion,  going  to  the  periwig-maker  to  have  his  hair  cut 
off  and  to  put  on  his  first  periwig,  for  which  he  paid  3',  another 
to  be  made  up  of  the  hair  with  which  he  had  parted.  The  next 
day  he  wore  the  periwig  to  his  office,  and  "  no  great  matter  was 
made  of  it."  Two  days  later  my  Lord  Sandwich  "  wondered  at 
first  to  see  me  in  my  peruque,"  but  even  in  church  Pepys  found 
that  he  drew  little  attention  in  the  new  guise.  The  same  month 
the  duke  of  York  announced  that  he  would  wear  the  periwig, 
"  and  they  say  the  king  also  will."  Thus  began  this  costly  and 
inconvenient  mode.  At  home  and  at  their  ease  men  commonly 
replaced  the  wig  with  a  soft  silk  or  velvet  "  night-cap,"  and  the 
coat  with  a  "  morning  gown  "  like  our  modern  dressing  gown. 


242 


COSTUME 


Powder,  which  had  been  dusted  about  the  hair  by  a  few  courtiers 
and  fashionable  folk  since  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  used  by 
most  wearers  of  the  wig.  Hair  "  dressed  with  a  powder  "  was 
often  seen  in  London  under  the  Commonwealth,  and  now  the 
great  periwig  brought  powder  into  frequent  use. 

Before  the  end  of  the  i7th  century  the  periwig  reached  its 
greatest  height  and  breadth,  the  curls  of  a  fine  gentleman 
towering  in  a  mass  above  the  brow  and 
flowing  far  down  over  the  shoulders  or 
nigh  to  the  waist.  Guardsmen  wore 
them  tossing  over  their  corslets, 
although  a  smaller  variety,  the  cam- 
paign wig,  had  been  introduced  for 
war  or  travel.  Many  portraits  of  this 
ageshowitslockscontrastingstrangely 
with  the  soldier's  steel  breastplate 
and  pauldrons,  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  martial  gentlemen 
would  often  choose  to  be  painted  in 
armour  although  such  harness  was 
disappearing  from  actual  use. 

Under  James  II.  the  coat  adopted 
in  the  late  reign  was  firmly  established 
as  the  principal  garment  of  a  well- 
dressed  man.     Gowns  remained  but 
to    make    a    ceremonial    dress    for 
the  great  officers  of  state,  for  the 
&7yAChae±rat    judges  and  the  London  liverymen, 
the  Crowning  of  James  II.    for  suc.h>  indeed,  as  those  who  wear 
them  in    our    own    days.     As    for 

"  the  comely  cloak,  altogether  used  in  the  beginning  of  my 
time,"  Randle  Holme  notes  that  it  was  "  now  scarce  used  but 
by  old  and  grave  persons."  The  coat  was  sometimes  buttoned 
down  the  front  but  was  more  often  thrown  open  to  display  the 
waistcoat,  a  lesser  coat  with  skirts.  The  great  turned  over  cuffs 
were  now  below  the  elbow,  although  there  was  good  space  for 
the  display  of  the  ruffle,  and  at  the  neck  was  the  large  cravat 
with  laced  ends.  After  the  battle  of  Steinkirk,  in  1692,  to  which 
the  young  French  nobles  hastened  with  disarranged  neckcloths, 
the  cravat  was  sometimes  worn  twisted,  the  ends  passed  through 
a  ring,  although  the  word  Steinkirk  was  in  later  years  often 
carelessly  given  to  the  neckcloth  worn  in  any  style.  For 
riding,  the  big  jack-boot  of  earlier  days,  with  spurs  and  broad 
spur-leathers,  remained  in  fashion,  although  the  bell-shaped 
tops  were  turned  up  and  not  down.  Boots,  however,  were 


FIG.  44. — The  Herbwoman  and  her  Maids  at  the"] 
Crowning  of  James  II. 

riding-gear.  Gondomar,  the  Spanish  ambassador  to  James  I., 
had  laughed  over  the  citizens  of  London  "  all  booted  and  ready 
to  go  out  of  town,"  but  this  custom  died  away,  and  a  man  in 
boots  showed  that  he  was  for  the  road.  William  III.'s  grave 
court  was  not  one  in  which  new  fashions  flourished,  but  it  is 
remarkable  that  feminine  modes  take  curious  variety  before 
the  century  end.  Long-waisted  and  straitly  cut  stays  were  worn, 
the  gown  sleeve  is  short  as  the  coat-sleeve  of  a  Charles  II.  courtier. 
The  gown  itself  has  the  skirts  gathered  to  show  the  petticoat, 


The  18th 
century. 


and  small  aprons  fringed  with  lace  are  often  seen.  The  simple 
head-dresses  of  the  Restoration  are  changed  for  caps  with  long 
lace  lappets,  or  for  a  cap  whose  top-knot  or  commode  stood  up 
stiff  and  fan-shaped  like  a  section  cut  out  of  an  old  ruff.  When 
no  commode  was  worn,  a  loose  hood,  thrown  gracefully  over  the 
head  and  gathered  at  the  shoulders,  sometimes  took  its  place. 
As  a  riding  or  walking  dress,  ladies  of  quality  often  wore  coats, 
waistcoats,  hats  and  cravats,  not  to  be  distinguished  from  those 
of  their  lords. 

For  a  distinguishing  note  of  the  i8th  century,  we  may  take 
the  three-cornered  cocked  hat.  Even  in  the  Elizabethan  age 
we  have  the  gallant  cocking  up  one  side  of  his  broad- 
brimmed,  high-crowned  felt  or  beaver  and  securing 
it  with  a  jewel.  Brims  were  as  wide  at  the  end  of  the 
1 7th  century,  but  the  crown  was  lower.  From  the  French  court 
came  the  fashion  of  cocking  up  three  sides,  one  at  least  being 
fastened  with  a  loop  of  ribbon  from  which  developed  the  cockade. 
A  black  cockade  became  the  sign  of  a  military  man  in  England 
before  1750,  and  the  same  ornament,  highly  conventionalized, 
is  now  at  the  side  of  the  tall  hats  worn  by  the  grooms  and  coach- 
men of  military  and  naval  officers.  Following  varying  fashions, 
the  18th-century  cocked  hat  was  laced  with  gold  and  silver  or 
edged  with  feathers.  It  was  cocked  in  a  hundred  forms,  from 
that  which  has  three  sides  slightly  curled  upward  to  the  great 
Khevenhueller  cock,  wherewith  a  very  wide-brimmed  hat  was 
flapped  up  at  the  front  and  rear,  a  military  or  martial  hat.  Wigs, 
worn  by  all  the  upper-  and  middle-class  men,  were  generally 
powdered,  but  the  lesser  or  Ramillie  wig  soon  drove  out  the  huge 
and  costly  full-bottomed  periwig,  even  for  ceremonial  occasions. 
Of  Lord  Bolingbroke  it  is  told  that  he  once  attended  Queen  Anne 
in  haste  with  a  tie  or  Ramillie  wig  on  his  head.  Her  Majesty  showed 
her  displeasure  by  remarking  that  his  lordship  would  next  come 
to  court  in  a  night-cap.  Nevertheless,  the  tie-wig  soon  became 
court  wear,  secured  at  the  back  with  a  huge  bow  of  ribbon  below 
which  hung  the  plaited  pigtail,  worn  waist-long  about  1740. 
But  by  that  time  young  bloods  were  leaving  campaign-wigs 
for  the  bob-wig  which  sat  yet  more  closely  to  the  head,  the 
curls  leaving  the  neck  uncovered.  Bag-wigs,  found  early  in 
the  century,  covered  the  looped  up  pigtail  in  a  black  silk  bag. 
Clergymen  and  grave  physicians  affected  the  full-bottomed  wig 
after  it  became  old  fashioned.  Subject 
to  slight  changes,  eagerly  followed  by  the 
beaux  and  mocked  by  the  satirists,  the 
habit  of  well-dressed  men  shows  no 
great  variety — the  large-cuffed,  collar- 
less  coats  whose  full  skirts  are  now 
shortened,  now  lengthened,  the  long 
waistcoat  to  match,  the  closely  fitting 
breeches,  the  stockings,  the  shoes  and 
jack-boots.  The  coat  tends  to  be 
thrown  open  to  show  the  waistcoat, 
upon  which  brocade  and  embroideries 
were  lavished.  Stockings,  until  the 
middle  of  the  century,  were  commonly 
drawn  over  the  ends  of  the  breeches 
and  gartered  below  the  knee.  By  1740 
the  long  cravat  with  hanging  ends  grows 
old  fashioned.  Young  men  take  to  the 
solitaire,  a  black  cravat  which  became 
a  mere  loop  of  ribbon  passed  loosely 
round  the  neck  and  secured  to  the 
black  tie  of  the  wig. 

George  III.'s  long  reign  begins  with 
men's  fashions  little  changed  from 
those  of  his  great-grandfather's  time,  although  his  sixty 
years  carry  us  to  the  beginning  of  all  the  modern  modes. 
The  small  wig  long  holds  its  own.  The  coat  begins  to  show 
the  broad  skirts  cut  away  diagonally  from  the  waist  to  the 
skirt  edge,  and  stockings  are  no  longer  rolled  over  the  knee. 
Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  fashion  was  that  which  dis- 
tinguished the  Macaronis,  travelled  exquisites  with  whom  the 
wig  or  long  hair  was  dragged  high  above  the  forehead  in  a  tall 


FIG.  45. — An  English 
Gentleman  (c.  1730). 


COSTUME 


243 


"  toupee  "  with  two  large  rows  of  curls  at  the  side.  This  head- 
dress, clubbed  into  a  heavy  knot  behind,  was  surmounted  by  a 
very  little  hat.  The  coat  with  small  cuffs  was  much  cut  away 
before,  the  skimped  skirts  reaching  midway  down  the  thigh. 
Waistcoat  flaps  were  but  little  below  the  waist.  Breeches, 
striped  or  spotted  like  those  of  a  Dresden  china  shepherd,  were 
fastened  at  the  knee  with  a  bunch  of  ribbon  ends;  a  watch-guard 
hung  from  each  fob.  The  shirt-front  was  frilled  and  a  white 
cravat  was  tied  in  a  great  bow  at  the  chin.  Macaronis  wore  a 
little  curved  hanger,  or  replaced  the  sword  with  a  long,  heavily 
tasselled  cane,  which  served  to  lift  the  little  hat  off  the  topmost 
peak  of  the  toupee.  The  woman-Macaroni  wore  no  hoop  but  in 
full  dress.  Her  gown  was  a  loose  wrapper,  the  sleeves  short  and 
wide  with  many  ruffles,  the  skirt  pulled  aside  to  show  a  petti- 
coat laced  and  embroidered  with  flowers.  But  her  distinguishing 
mark  was  her  head-dress,  which  exaggerated  the  male  fashion, 
towering  upward  until  the  flowers  and  feathers  at  the  top 
threatened  the  candelabra  of  the  assembly  room.  The  Macaronis 
appear  about  1772  and  stay  but  a  short  while,  for  the  revolu- 
tionary fashions  tread  upon  their  heels. 

Women's  dress  in  this  i8th  century  is  dominated  by  the  hoop- 
petticoat  which  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  recognizes  in  1711  as  a 

new  fashion  and  an  old  one 
revived.  A  stiff  bodice  laced 
in  front,  a  gown,  with  short 
and  wide  -  ended  sleeves, 
gathered  up  in  folds  above 
.the  petticoat,  a  laced  apron 
and  a  lace  cap  with  hanging 
lappets,  is  the  dress  of  the 
century's  beginning.  So  the 
women  of  fashion  are  com- 
pared with  children  in  go- 
carts,  their  tight -laced  waists 
rising  from  vast  bells  of 
petticoats  over  which  the 
gown  is  looped  up  like  a 
drawn  curtain.  By  17  50  the 
hoop-petticoat  ringed  with 
whalebone  is  so  vast  that 
architects,  begin  to  allow  for 
its  passage  up  London  stair- 
ways by  curving  the  balusters 
outward.  Great  variety  of 
women's  dress  appears  under 
George  II.,  but  those  in  the 
height  of  the  mode  affected  a  shepherdess  simplicity  in  their 
walking  clothes,  wearing  the  flat-crowned  or  high-crowned  hats 
and  long  aprons  of  the  dairymaid.  At  this  time  a  new  fashion 
comes  in,  the  sacgue,  a  gown,  sometimes  sleeveless,  open  to  the 
waist,  hanging  loosely  from  the  shoulders  to  near  the  edge  of  the 
hoop-petticoat.  George  III.'s  reign  saw  women's  head-dressings 
reach  an  extravagance  of  folly  passing  all  that  had  come  before  it. 
Hair  kneaded  with  pomatum  and  flour  was  drawn  up  over  a  cushion 
or  pad  of  wool,  and  twisted  into  curls  and  knots  and  decorated 
with  artificial  flowers  and  bows  of  ribbon.  As  this  could  not  be 
achieved  without  the  aid  of  a  skilled  barber,  the  "  head  "  some- 
times remained  unopened  for  several  weeks.  At  the  end  of  that 
time  sublimate  powder  was  needed  to  kill  off  the  tenantry  which 
had  multiplied  within.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  quarter  of 
the  century  the  feathers  grew  larger,  chains  of  beads  looped 
about  the  curls,  while  ships  in  full  sail,  coaches  and  horses,  and 
butterflies  in  blown  glass,  rocked  upon  the  upper  heights.  Loose 
mob-caps  or  close  "  Joans  "  were  worn  in  undress,  often  as  simple 
as  the  full  dress  was  fantastic.  Varieties  of  the  gown  and  sacque 
remained  in  fashion,  the  petticoat  being  still  much  in  evidence, 
flounced  or  quilted,  or  festooned  with  ribbons.  Before  the 
'eighties  of  this  century  were  over,  a  new  taste,  encouraged  by 
the  painters  of  the  school  of  Reynolds,  began  to  sweep  away 
many  follies,  and  the  revolutionary  fashions  of  France,  breaking 
with  all  that  spoke  of  the  old  regime,  expelled  many  more.  The 
age  of  powder  and  gold  lace,  of  peach-bloom  brocade  coats  with 


FIG.  46. — An  English  Lady 
(c.  1730). 


muff-shaped  cuffs,  of  bag-wigs  and  three-cornered  hats  drew 
suddenly  to  an  end.  Mr  Pitt  killed  hair-powder  by  his  tax  of 
1795,  but  before  that  time  fashionable  men,  who  since  the  begin- 
ning of  George  Ill's,  reign  had  been  somewhat  inconstant  to  the 
wig,  were  wearing  their  own  hair  unpowdered  and  tied  in  a  club 
at  the  back  of  the  coat  collar.  Before  the  century  end  the 
roughly  cropped  "  Brutus  "  head  was  seen.  The  wig  remained 
here  and  there  on  some  old-fashioned  pates.  Bishops  wore  it 
until  far  into  the  Victorian  age,  and  it  may  still  be  seen  in  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  and  in  the  courts  of  law.  Even  breeches 
were  passing,  tight  pantaloons  showing  themselves  in  the  streets. 
The  coat,  cut  away  over  the  hips,  began  to  take  a  high  collar 
and  the  beginnings  of  the  lappel.  Its  cuffs  were  of  the  modern 
shape,  showing  a  narrow  ruffle.  The  waistcoat  ended  at  the 
waist.  Loose  neck-cloths  were  worn  above  a  frilled  shirt-front. 
Great  jack-boots  were  given  to  postillions,  and  men  of  fashion 
walked  the  streets  in  short  top-boots  of  soft  black  leather.  Most 
remarkable  of  the  revolutionary  changes,  the  round  hat  came 
back,  sometimes  in  a  form  which  recalled  the  earlier  1 7th  century, 
and  at  last  took  shape  as  the  predecessor  of  our  modern  silk  hat. 
Court  dresses  kept  something  of  their  magnificence,  but  men 
at  home  or  in  the  streets  were  giving  up  in  this  time  of  change 
their  ancient  right  to  wear  rich  and  figured  stuffs.  Laces  and 
embroideries  were  henceforward  but  for  military  and  civil 
uniforms. 

Before  1790  women  had  begun  to  dismantle  their  high  head- 
gear, returning  to  nature  by  way  of  a  frizzled  bush,  like  a  bishop's 
wig,  with  a  few  curls  hanging  over  the  shoulders.  Over  such 
heads  would  be  seen  towering  mob-caps  tied  with  ribbon  and 
edged  deeply  with  lace.  Skirts  took  a  moderate  size  and  even 
court  hoops  were  but  panniers  hung  on  either  side  of  the  hips. 
Short  jackets  with  close  half-sleeves  were  worn  with  the  neck 
and  breast  covered  with  a  cambric  bujfant  that  borrowed  a  mode 
from  the  pouter  pigeon.  A  riding  habit  follows  as  far  as  the 
short  waist  the  new  fashions  for  men's  coats,  the  wide-brimmed 
hat  being  to  match.  Short  waists  came  in  soon  after  1790,  the 
bodice  ending  under  the  arm  pits,  "  a  petticoat  tied  round  the 
neck:  the  arms  put  through  the  pocket-holes."  With  these 
French  gowns  came  small  coal-scuttle-shaped  bonnets  of  straw, 
hung  with  many  ribbons  and  decorated  with  feathers.  At  last 
the  woman  of  fashion,  dressed  by  a  Parisian  modiste  after  the 
orders  of  David  the  painter,  gathered  her  hair  in  a  fillet  and 
clothed  herself  in  little  more  than  a  diaphanous  tunic  gown 
over  a  light  shift  and  close,  flesh-coloured  drawers.  Her  shoes 
became  sandals:  her  jewels  followed  the  patterns  of  old  Rome. 
Yet  the  same  woman,  shivering  half-clad  in  something  that 
wrapped  her  less  than  a  modern  bathing-dress,  appeared  at 
court  in  the  ancient  hoop-skirt,  tasselled,  ribboned  and  garlanded, 
hung  with  heavy  swags  of  coloured  silk,  and  this  until  George 
IV.  at  last  broke  the  antique  order  by  a  special  command. 

The  i  Qth  century  soon  made  an  end  of  i8th  century  fashions 
already  discredited  by  the  revolutionary  spirit.  The  three- 
cornered  hat  had  gone,  the  heavy  coat  cuff  and  the 
cravat  with  hanging  ends.  Civilians  had  given  up  the  century. 
ancient  custom  of  going  armed  with  a  sword.  The  wig 
and  even  the  pigtail  tied  with  black  shalloon  were  abandoned  by 
all  but  a  few  old  folk.  Soldiers  cut  off  their  pigtails  in  1808. 
But  judges  and  lawyers  wear  their  wigs  in  court  in  the  zoth 
century,  state  coachmen  wear  them  on  the  box,  and  physicians 
and  the  higher  clergy  wore  them  even  in  the  street  long  after 
laymen  had  given  them  up.  George  IV.  refused  to  receive  a 
bishop  of  London  who  appeared  at  court  without  a  wig,  and 
Sumner,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  wore  one  until  his  death  in 
1862.  A  few  powdered  heads  were  seen  as  late  as  the  'forties. 
M.  de  Ste  Aulaire,  the  ambassador,  made,  as  Lord  Palmerston 
writes,  a  very  deep  and  general  impression  in  London  society  of 
1841,  not  because  he  wore  hair-powder  but  because  he  used  so 
much  of  it.  It  is  now  used  only  by  a  few  lacqueys.  In  the  early 
Victorian  period  the  cropped  "  Brutus "  head  was  out  of 
fashion,  many  men  wearing  their  hair  rather  long  and  so  freely 
oiled  that  the  "  anti-macassar  "  came  in  to  protect  drawing- 
room  chair-backs. 


244 


COSTUME 


With  powdered  hair  and  the  pigtail  passed  away  the  i8th 
century  cloth  breeches.  Here  again  some  old-fashioned  people 
made  a  stand  against  the  change,  the  opposition  of  the  clergy 
being  commemorated  in  the  black  breeches  still  worn  by  bishops 
and  other  dignitaries  of  the  church.  But  in  the  regent's  time 
pantaloons  of  closely  fitting  and  elastic  cloth  were  worn  with 
low  shoes  or  Hessians,  and  pantaloons  and  Hessians  did  not 
utterly  disappear  from  the  streets  until  the  end  of  the  'fifties. 
Squires  and  sportsmen  put  on  buckskins  of  an  amazing  tightness 
and  walked  the  street  in  top-boots.  But  the  loose  Cossack 
trousers  soon  made  their  appearance.  The  regent's  influence 
made  the  blue  coat  with  a  very  high  velvet  collar,  a  high-waisted 
Marcella  waistcoat  and  white  duck  trousers  strapped  under  the 
instep,  a  mode  in  which  men  even  ventured  to  appear  at  evening 
receptions,  although,  in  the  year  before  Waterloo,  the  duke  of 
Wellington  was  refused  admittance  to  Almack's  when  thus  clad. 
Long  skirted  overcoats,  fur-collared  and  tight  in  the  waist, 
completed  this  costume.  Coats  were  blue,  claret,  buff  and  brown. 
"  Pea-green  Hayne  "  was  known  among  clubmen  by  a  brighter 
coloured  garment.  Civilians,  like  Jos  Sedley,  would  sometimes 
affect  a  frock  frogged  and  braided  in  semi-military  fashion. 
The  shirt  collar  turned  upward,  the  points  showing  above  vast 

cravats  whose  careful  arrangement 
was  maintained  by  one  or  two  scarf- 
pins.  Brummel  the  master  dandy 
of  his  age,  may  be  called  the  first 
dandy  of  the  modern  school.  Dress- 
ing, as  a  rule,  in  black,  he  distin- 
guished himself,  not  as  the  bucks  of 
an  earlier  age  by  bright  colours,  rich 
materials  or  jewellery,  but  by  his 
extravagant  neatness  and  by  the 
superb  fit  of  garments  which  set  the 

s          i  •  yg_«.^ai      fashion  for  lesser  men.    To    him, 

\  \  \  I  vP*V'  according  to  Grantley  Berkeley,  we 
owe  the  modern  dress-coat.  An  idle 
phrase  in  Bulwer-Lyttcn's  Pelham 
(1828),  that  "people  must  be  very 
distinguished  in  appearance  "to  look 
well  in  black,  made  black  hence- 
forward the  colour  of  evening  coats 
and  frock  coats.  W,ith  the  perfection 

From  Fraur's  Magazine,  Dec.  1834.  of  the  silk  hat  'in  the  'thirties, 
FIG.  47. — Count  D'Orsay.  English  costume  enters  on  its  last 
Ph-e.  Thecoatcut  away  squarely 
in  front  was  then  out  of  the  mode; 
it  remains  but  in  the  evening-dress  coat  now  always  worn 
unbuttoned,  and  in  the  dress  of  the  hunting  field.  The 
rest  is  a  record  of  such  slight  changes  as  tailors  may  cautiously 
introduce  among  customers,  no  one  of  whom  will  dare  to 
lead  a  new  fashion  boldly.  For  many  decades  the  fashionably 
dressed  man  has  been  eager  to  conform  to  the  last  authorized 
vogue  and  to  lose  himself  among  others  as  shyly  obedient. 
The  tubular  lines  of  20th-century  clothing  advantage  the  tailor 
by  the  tendency  of  new  clothing  to  crease  at  the  elbow  and 
bag  at  the  knee.  In  preserving  the  necessary  straight  lines  of 
his  garments,  in  following  the  season's  fashions  in  details  which 
only  an  expert  eye  would  mark,  and  in  providing  himself  with 
clothes  specialized  for  every  hour  of  the  day,  for  a  score  of  sports 
and  for  the  gradations  of  social  ceremonial — in  these  things  only 
can  the  modern  dandy  rival  his  magnificent  predecessors.  For 
ornament,  other  than  plain  shirt  studs,  a  plain  seal  ring,  a  simple 
watch  guard  and  a  rarely- worn  scarf  pin,  is  denied  him. 

Women  at  the  beginning  of  the  loth  century  were  clad  in  those 
fashions  which  revolutionary  France  borrowed  from  the  antique. 
The  simplicity  of  this  style  gave  it  a  certain  grace;  it  was  at  the 
other  pole  from  the  absurdity  of  the  court  dress  which,  until 
George  IV.  ordered  otherwise,  perpetuated  the  bunched  draperies, 
the  flounces  and  furbelows  and  even  the  hoop  of  the  worst 
period  of  the  i8th  century.  The  gown,  lightly  girdled  near  the 
arm-pits  with  a  tasselled  cord,  fell  in  straight  clinging  folds. 
Soft  muslin  was  the  favourite  material,  and  in  muslin  fashionable 


women  faced  the  winter  winds,  protected  only  by  the  long 
pelisses  which  in  summer  were  replaced  by  short  spencers. 
Turbans,  varying  from  a  light  headscarf  of  lace  or  muslin  to  a 
velvet  confection  like  that  of  a  Turk  on  a  signboard,  were  the 
favourite  headgear,  although  bonnets,  hats  and  caps  are  found  in 
a  hundred  shapes.  Muslin  handkerchiefs  or  small  ruffs  were  worn 
about  the  neck  in  the  morning  dress.  About  the  Waterloo  period 
the  elegance  of  the  classical  gown  disappeared.  The  waist  was 
still  high  at  first  but  the  gown  was  shorter  and  wider  at  the  skirt. 
For  evening  dress  these  skirts  were  stiffened  with  buckram  and 
trimmed  with  much  tasteless  trumpery.  Large  bonnets  were 
common,  and  the  hair  was  dragged  stiffly  to  the  back  of  the  head, 
to  be  secured  by  a  large  comb.  From  1830  begins  a  period  of 
singular  ugliness.  Tight  stays  came  back  again,  the  skirt  swept 
the  pavements,  a  generation  of  over-clad  matrons  seemed  to 
have  followed  a  generation  of  nymphs.  The  'fifties  showed  even 
more  barbarous  devices,  and  about  1854  came  in  from  France  the 
crinoline,  that  strange  revival  of  the  ancient  hoop.  Plaids, 
checks  and  bars,  bright  blues,  crude  violets  and  hideous  crimsons, 
were  seen  in  French  merinos,  Irish  poplins  and  English  alpacas. 
Women  in  short  jackets,  hooped  skirts,  hideous  bonnets  and 
shawls  seemed  to  have  banished  their  youth.  The  empress 
Eugenie,  a  leader  of  European  fashion,  decreed  that  white  muslin 
should  be  the  evening  mode,  and  at  balls,  where  the  steels  and 
whalebones  of  the  crinoline  were  impossible,  the  women  swelled 
their  skirts  by  wearing  a  dozen  or  fourteen  muslin  petticoats  at 
once.  Towards  the  end  of  the  'sixties  the  crinolines  disappeared 
as  suddenly  as  they  came,  and  by  1875  skirts  were  so  tight  at  the 
knees  that  walking  upstairs  in  them  was  an  affair  of  deliberation. 
Before  1880  dress-reformers  and  aesthetes  had  attacked  on  two 
sides  the  fashions  which  had  halted  at  the  "  Princesse  "  robe, 
draped  and  kilted.  Both  movements  failed,  but  left  marked 
effects.  From  that  time  fashion  has  been  less  blindly  followed, 
and  women  have  enjoyed  some  limited  individual  freedom  in 
designing  their  costumes.  Of  20th-century  fashions  it  is  most 
notable  that  they  change  year  by  year  with  mechanical  regu- 
larity. The  clothes  of  smart  women  can  no  longer  be  said  to 
express  any  tendency  of  an  age.  Year  by  year  the  modes  are 
deliberately  altered  by  a  conclave  of  the  great  modistes  whose 
desire  is  less  to  produce  rich  or  beautiful  garments  than  to  make 
that  radical  alteration  from  loose  sleeve  to  tight  sleeve,  from 
draped  skirt  to  plain  skirt,  which  will  force  every  women  to  cast 
aside  the  last  season's  garments  and  buy  those  of  the  newer 
device.  But  of  modern  dress  it  may  at  least  be  said  that  cheaper 
materials,  the  sewing  machine  and  the  popular  fashion  papers 
allow  women  of  the  humbler  classes  to  dress  more  decently  and 
tastefully.  Their  dress  is  no  longer  that  frowsy  parody  of 
richer  women's  frippery  which  shocked  observant  foreigners  a 
generation  ago. 

Underclothing. — Of  the  underclothing  worn  next  the  skin 
something  may  be  said  apart  from  the  general  history  of  costume. 
Linen  shirts  were  worn  by  both  men  and  women  in  the  age  before 
the  Conquest,  and  even  in  the  zoth  century  it  was  a  penance  to 
wear  a  woollen  one.  After  that  time  we  soon  hear  of  embroidery 
and  ornament  applied  to  them,  presumably  at  the  collar  which 
would  be  visible  above  gown  or  tunic.  Men  added  short  drawers, 
or  breeches,  a  word  which  does  not  secure  its  modern  value  until 
the  end  of  the  i6th  century.  "  Drawers  "  signified  various 
descriptions  of  overall,  Cotgrave  explaining  the  word  as  coarse 
stockings  drawn  over  others  although  Randle  Holme  gives  it  in 
its  later  sense.  Isaac  of  Cyprus  is  named  by  Robert  of  Brunne  as 
escaping  "  bare  in  his  serke  and  breke."  Henry  Christall,  who 
brought  four  Irish  kings  to  London,  told  Froissart  how,  finding 
that  they  wore  no  breeches,  he  bought  linen  cloth  for  them. 
Medieval  romances  and  the  like  give  us  the  choice  of  shirts  of 
linen,  of  fine  Holland,  of  cloth  of  Rennes  and  even  of  silk,  and 
Chaucer  speaks  of  women's  smocks  wrought  with  silk,  em- 
broidered behind  and  before.  Poorer  folk  went,  like  Thynne's 
poor  countryman,  in  shirts  of  "  canvas  hard  and  tough,"  or 
of  coarse  Breton  dowlas.  Under  the  first  Tudors,  shirts  are 
decorated  with  gold,  silk  and  black  thread  embroideries,  the 
latter  being  seen  in  the  ruffled  shirt  worn  by  the  earl  of  Surrey 


COSTUME 


245 


in  our  illustration  (see  fig.  38).  Stubbes,  in  his  often-quoted 
Anatomic  of  Abuses  (1583)  declaims  against  the  extravagant 
sums  spent  in  shirts,  the  meanest  of  which  would  cost  a  crown  or 

a  noble,  while  the  most  curiously 
stitched  were  valued  at  ten 
pounds  a  piece,  "  which  is 
horrible  to  hear."  The  Puritans, 
many  of  whom,  like  the  later 
Clapham  sect,  were  careful  of 
intimate  luxuries,  had  a  curious 
fashion  of  wearing  shirts  and 
smocks  worked  with  "  holy  em- 
broideries," Biblical  sentences  or 
figures,  which  recall  a  similar 
custom  among  the  early 
Christians.  At  this  time  under- 
clothing had  increased  in  quan- 
tity, for  there  are  many  indica- 
tions that  the  men  and  women  of 
the  middle  ages  were  often 
content  with  a  bare  change  of 
linen  at  the  best.  The  Book  of 
Courtesy  (temp.  Hen.  VII.)  orders 

the  servant  to  provide    "  clene 
FIG.  48.-A  Man-at-arms  and    ht          d  b      h    „          inst   hjs 
a  Man  in  a  Shirt   (early   i-lth 

•century).     From  Royal  MS.  19  master's      uprising,       but       the 
B.  xv.  laundering  of   the   linen  of   the 

Percy  household,  a  hundred  and 

seventy  people,  costs  but  forty  shillings  a  year  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. 

With  that  modern  period  of  dress  which  may  be  said  to  begin 
with  the  Restoration,  shirts  increased  in  number.  Women  shifted 
their  smocks  when  coming  in  from  field  sports,  fine  gentlemen 
became  proud  of  the  number  of  their  shirts,  as  was  that  i8th- 
century  lord  who  boasted  to  Casanova  of  his  changing  a  shirt 
several  times  in  the  day,  his  chin  being  shaved  on  each  occasion. 
A  valuable  document  concerning  the  underclothing  worn  by  a 
citizen  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  is  afforded  by  the  evidence  of 
the  man  who  helped  to  strip  the  body  of  the  suicide  Sir  Edmond 
Berry  Godfrey.  "  I  pulled  off  his  shoes,"  says  Fisher,  "  three 
pairs  of  stockings  and  a  pair  of  socks,  his  black  breeches  and  his 
drawers."  His  coat  and  waistcoat,  his  shirt  and  his  flannel  shirt 
are  also  named.  The  knight  came  by  his  end  on  an  October  day. 
He  was  therefore  warmly  clad.  His  three  pair  of  stockings  will  be 
noted:  two  pair  are  worn  at  the  present  day  by  most  men  in 
court  dress.  The  socks  are  a  rarely  named  addition,  and  the 
flannel  shirt  may  be  remarked.  Loose  ruffles  of  lace  were 
attached  to  shirt  cuffs  until  during  the  great  part  of  the  i8th 
century,  and  the  ruffled  or  goffered  shirt-front,  which  became 
common  under  George  III.,  continued  in  use  in  the  early  Victorian 
period,  the  stiffly  starched  shirt-front  taking  its  place  at  last  even 
in  evening  dress.  The  last  quarter  of  the  igth  century,  breaking 
through  the  strange  mock-modesty  which  spoke  of  breeches  as 
"  inexpressibles,"  saw  the  question  of  hygienic  underclothing 
a  subject  much  in  debate,  and  now  most  men  other  than  the 
poorer  sort  wear,  besides  the  shirt,  a  light  woollen  vest  and  short 
drawers  or  long  pantaloons  of  wool  or  wool's  counterfeit.  Woollen 
shirts  are  worn  by  bicyclists,  cricketers  and  tennis  players.  In 
morning  dress  the  inconvenience  of  the  starched  shirt-front  is 
commonly  avoided.  A  goffered  shirt-front  worn  with  evening 
dress  is  the  mark  of  a  foreigner  in  London,  but  some  few  men 
venture  to  clothe  themselves  for  the  evening  in  a  shirt  whose  front 
is  pleated  and  but  slightly  starched.  Loose  collars,  formerly 
known  as  false  collars,  descendants  of  the  Puritan's  "  plain 
band,"  have  been  attached  to  the  shirt  by  studs  at  least  for  the 
last  fifty  years.  Their  fashions  often  change,  but  the  older  type 
turned  down  at  the  edge  is  not  often  seen.  To  women's  under- 
clothing drawers  have  been  added  in  the  ipth  century.  Brant6me, 
writing  in  the  i6th,  speaks  of  this  garment  as  then  lately  intro- 
duced since  the  time  of  Henri  II.,  but  the  fashion,  apparently, 
did  not  long  endure  in  France.  In  England  they  are  noted  as  in 
occasional  use  at  the  Restoration.  After  1820  a  sort  of  trouser 


with  a  frilled  edge  was  worn  for  a  time  by  fashionable  women  in 
England.  The  pantalette  which  afterwards  appears  in  pictures 
of  young  girls  was  a  mere  legging  fastened  by  tapes  above  the 
knees.  Many  women  of  the  better  class  only  adopted  drawers  at 
the  end  of  the  'forties,  and  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  fashion 
reached  the  humble  sort  at  a  much  later  date.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  igth  century  both  drawers  and  smock  or  "  chemise  " 
were  commonly  exchanged  for  a  more  convenient  "  combination 
garment." 

European  Fashions. — Race,  climate,  poverty  and  wealth  have 
all  had  their  part  in  the  fashion  of  clothing.  A  mountaineer  is  not 
clad  as  a  lowlander;  the  Tirolese  in 
his  short  breeches,  the  Highlanders  of 
Scotland  and  Albania  in  their  tartan 
or  white  linen  kilts  go  with  uncovered 
knees.  The  Russian  moujik  in  winter 
has  his  frowsy  sheepskin  coat,  and  the 
Russian  prince  imitates  it  in  costly 
furs.  While  the  rich  man's  clothing 
alters  with  every  fancy  of  the  tailors, 
the  poor  man's  garments,  fewer  and 
cheaper,  change  slowly  in  the  ages. 
An  old  Lincolnshire  peasant  wearing 
his  smock  frock  and  leathern  gaiters 
might  pass  unnoted  in  a  peasant  crowd 
of  centuries  ago.  Here  and  there  in 
Europe  we  find  in  the  zoth  century  a 
peasantry  in  whose  clothing  fashion 
seems  to  have  been  suddenly  stayed. 
A  Breton  peasant  in  his  holiday  dress 
gives  us  a  man  of  the  late  1 7th  century, 
even  as  an  Irish  peasant  may  keep  the 
breeches,  shoes  and  tailed  coat  of  the 
early  loth.  But  the  old  fashions  are 
passing  from  Europe:  the  sewing 
machine  and  the  railway  sweep  before 
them  the  pleasant  provincialisms  of 
dress.  A  shirt  with  the  bosom  heavily  embroidered,  a  skirt 
with  a  year's  stitching  in  the  hem  are  not  to  be  imitated  by 
the  dealer  in  ready-made  clothing,  who  offers,  instead,  cheap- 
ness and  the  brisk  variety  of  the  town.  Old  writers,  each  in 
turn,  set  up  their  wail  that  the  time  was  come  when  you 
could  not  tell  Jack  from  his  master,  the  burgess  from  the  knight. 
And  now  that  time  has  come  in  some  sort,  for  the  town  dress  of 
the  richer  classes  of  London  or  Paris  is  imitated  by  all  peoples 


From  Hollenroth,  Trachlen 
der  Vdlker,  by  permission  of 
Gustav  Weise  Verlag. 

FIG.  49. — German  Dress 
(early  l6th  century). 


From   Hollenrolh,  Trachlen  der 

ViXker. 

FIG.  50. — A  French 
Nobleman  (c.  1660). 


From  Hollenrolh,  Trachlen  der 
V  Hiker. 

FlG.  51. — A  Spanish  Nobleman 
(latter  half  of  i6th  century). 


and  by  rich  and  poor.  Especially  is  this  the  case  in  England 
where  the  clean  and  honourable  blouse  of  the  French  workman  is 
not,  a  journeyman  painter  or  labourer  often  going  to  his  work 


246 


COSTUME 


in  a  frayed  and  greasy  morning  coat  after  the  cut  of  that  in  which 
a  rich  man  will  pay  a  London  morning  call.  English  fashions  for 
men  are  followed  in  Paris.  London  women  follow  the  modes  of 
the  rue  de  la  Paix.  Berlin  tailors  and  dressmakers  laboriously 
misapprehend  both  styles.  To  those  who  do  not  understand  the 
international  trafficking  of  the  middle  ages  and  the  age  of 
renascence  it  is  strange  to  note  how  little  the  fashions  varied  in 
European  lands.  All  kinds  of  folks,  crusaders  and  merchants, 
diplomatists  and  religious,  carried  between  nation  and  nation  the 
news  of  the  latest  cut  of  the  shears. 

Nevertheless,  national  character  touched  each  nation's  dress — 
the  Venetian  loving  the  stateliness  of  flowing  line,  the  Germans 
grotesque  slashings  and  jaggings.  Frenchmen,  says  Randle 
Holme  in  the  I7th  century,  keep  warm  and  muff  themselves  in 
cold  weather,  "  but  in  summer  through  fantastical  dresses  go 
almost  naked."  For  the  same  writer  the  Spaniard  was  noted  as  a 
man  in  a  high-crowned  hat  with  narrow  brim,  a  ruff  about  his 
neck,  a  doublet  with  short  and  narrow  skirts  and  broad  wings  at 
the  shoulders,  ruff-cuffs  at  his  hands,  breeches  narrow  and  close 
to  his  thighs,  hose  gartered,  shoes  with  rounded  toes,  a  short 
cloak  and  a  long  sword.  In  all  of  those  points  we  may  take  it 
that  the  Spaniard  differed  from  the  Englishman  as  observed  by 
this  observant  one.  Even  in  our  own  days  we  may  catch 
something  of  those  national  fashions.  The  Spaniard  may  no 
longer  walk  with  his  long  sword,  his  ruff  and  gartered  hose, 
but  he  keeps  his  fancy  for  sombre  blacks,  and  so  do  the  citizens  of 
those  Netherlands  which  he  once  ruled.  (O.-BA.) 

III.    NATIONAL  AND  CLASS  COSTUME 

Costume,  as  readers  of  Carlyle's  Sartor  Resarlus  know,  always 
has  a  significance  deeper  than  the  mere  whims  of  fashion.  In 
the  cosmopolitan  society  of  modern  times  dress  everywhere 
tends  to  become  assimilated  to  a  common  model,  and  this 
assimilation,  however  regrettable  from  the  picturesque  point  of 
view,  is  one  of  the  most  potent  forces  in  the  break-down  of  the 
traditional  social  distinctions.  In  the  middle  ages  in  Europe, 
and  indeed  down  to  the  French  Revolution,  the  various  classes 
of  the  community  were  clearly  differentiated  by  their  dress. 
Everywhere,  of  course,  it  happened  that  occasionally  jackdaws 
strutted  in  peacock's  feathers;  but  even  in  England,  where  class 
distinctions  were  early  less  clearly  marked  than  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  the  assumption  of  a  laced  coat  and  a  sword  marked 
the  development  of  a  citizen  into  a  "  gentleman  "(q.v.).  Nothing 
has  more  powerfully  contributed  to  the  social  amalgamation  of 
the  "  upper-middle  "  and  the  "  upper  "  classes  in  England  than 
the  fashion,  introduced  in  the  igth  century,  of  extreme  simplicity 
in  the  costume  of  men.  But,  apart  from  the  properties  of 
richness  in  material  or  decoration  as  a  symbol  of  class  distinction 
— at  one  time  enforced  by  sumptuary  laws — there  have  been, 
and  still  are,  innumerable  varieties  of  costume  more  or  less 
traditional  as  proper  to  certain  nationalities  or  certain  classes 
within  those  nationalities.  Of  national  costumes  properly  so 
called  the  best  known  to  the  English-speaking  world  is  that  of  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland.  This  is, indeed,  no  longer  generally  worn, 
being  usually  confined  to  gentlemen  of  birth  and  their  dependents, 
but  it  remains  a  national  dress  and  is  officially  recognized  as  such 
by  the  English  court  and  in  the  uniforms  of  the  Highland 
regiments  in  the  British  army.  The  chief  peculiarity  of  this 
costume,  distinguishing  it  from  any  others,  is  the  tartan,  an 
arrangement  of  a  prevailing  colour  with  more  or  less  narrow 
checks  of  other  colours,  by  which  the  various  clans  or  septs  of  the 
same  race  can  be  distinguished,  while  a  certain  general  uniformity 
symbolizes  the  union  of  the  clans  in  a  common  nationality. 
Thus,  e.g.  the  tartan  of  the  clan  McDonell  is  green  with  narrow 
checks  of  red,  that  of  the  clan  Gregarach  red  with  narrow  checks 
of  black.  The  costume  consists  of  a  short  tunic,  vest,  a  kilt — 
heavily  pleated — fastened  round  the  waist,  and  reaching  not 
quite  to  the  knees  (like  a  short  petticoat),  stockings  gartered 
below  the  bare  knee,  and  shoes.  In  front  of  the  person,  hanging 
from  a  belt  round  the  waist,  is  the  "  sporran  "  or  "  spleuchan,"  a 
pocket-purse  covered  with  fur;  and  a  large  "  plaid  "  or  scarf, 
usually  wrapped  round  the  body,  the  ends  hanging  down  from  a 


brooch  fastened  on  the  left  shoulder,  but  sometimes  gathered  up 
and  hanging  from  the  brooch  behind,  completes  the  costume. 
The  head-gear  is  a  cloth  cap  or  "  bonnet,"  in  which  a  sprig  of 
heather  is  stuck,  or  an  eagle's  feather  in  the  case  of  chiefs.  A 
dirk  is  worn  thrust  into  the  right  stocking.  Up  to  the  end  of  the 
i6th  century  the  tunic  and  "  philibeg  "  or  kilt  formed  a  single 
garment;  but  otherwise  the  costume  has  come  down  the  ages 
without  sensible  modification.  Kilt  and  plaid  are  of  tartan ;  and 
sometimes  tartan  "  trews,"  i.e.  trousers,  are  substituted  for  the 
former. 

Among  other  national  costumes  still  surviving  in  Europe  may 
be  mentioned  the  Albanian- Greek  dress  (characterized  by  the 
spreading,  pleated  white  kilt,  or  fustanella),  and  the  splendid 
full-dress  of  a  Hungarian  gentleman,  the  prototype  of  the  well- 
known  hussar  uniform;  to  which  may  be  added  the  Tirolese 
costume,  which,  so  far  as  the  men  are  concerned,  is  characterized 
by  short  trousers,  cut  off  above  the  knee,  and  a  short  jacket,  the 
colour  varying  in  different  districts.  This  latter  trait  illustrates 
the  fact  that  most  of  the  still  surviving  "  national  "  costumes  in 
Europe  are  in  fact  local  and  distinctive  of  class,  though  they 
conform  to  a  national  type.  These  "  folk-costumes  "  ( Volks- 
trachten) ,  as  the  Germans  call  them,  survive  most  strongly  in  the 
most  conservative  of  all  classes,  thatof  thepeasants,  andnaturally 
mainly  in  those  districts  least  accessible  to  modern  "  enterprise." 
These  peasant  costumes,  often  of  astonishing  richness  and 
beauty,  vary  more  or  less  in  every  village,  each  community 
having  its  own  traditional  type;  and,  since  this  type  does  not 
vary,  they  can  be  handed  down  as  valuable  heirlooms  from 
father  to  son  and  from  mother  to  daughter.  But  they  are  fast 
disappearing.  In  the  British  islands,  where  there  were  no  free 
peasant  cultivators  to  maintain  the  pride  of  class,  they  vanished 
long  since;  the  white  caps  and  steeple-crowned  hats  of  Welsh 
women  were  the  last  to  go;  and  even  the  becoming  and  con- 
venient "  sun  bonnet,"  which  survives  in  the  United  States,  has 
given  place  almost  everywhere  to  the  hideous  "  cloth  cap  "  of 
commerce;  while  the  ancient  smocked  frock,  the  equivalent  of 
the  French  peasant's  workmanlike  blouse,  has  become  a  curiosity. 
The  same  process  is  proceeding  elsewhere;  for  the  simple 
peasant  women  cannot  resist  the  blandishments  of  the  commercial 
traveller  and  the  temptation  of  change  and  cheap  finery.  The 
transition  is  at  once  painful  and  amusing,  and  not  without  interest 
as  illustrating  the  force  of  tradition  in  its  struggle  with  fashion; 
for  it  is  no  uncommon  thing,  e.g.  in  France  or  Holland,  to  see  a 
"  Paris  model  "  perched  lamentably  on  the  top  of  the  beautiful 
traditional  head-dress.  Similarly  in  the  richer  Turkish  families 
women  are  rapidly  acquiring  a  taste  for  Parisian  costumes, 
frequently  worn  in  absurd  combination  with  their  ordinary 
garments. 

The  same  process  has  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
Europe.  Improved  communication  and  industrial  enterprise 
have  combined  with  the  prestige  of  European  civilization  to 
commend  the  European  type  of  costume  to  peoples  for  whom 
it  is  eminently  unsuited.  Even  the  peoples  of  the  East,  whose 
costume  has  remained  unchanged  for  untold  centuries,  and  for 
whom  the  type  has  been  (as  in  India)  often  determined  by 
religious  considerations,  are  showing  an  increasing  tendency  to 
yield  to  the  world-fashion.  Turkey,  as  being  most  closely  in 
touch  with  Europe,  was  the  first  to  feel  the  influence;  the  intro- 
duction of  the  fez  and  the  frock-coat,  in  place  of  the  large  turban 
and  flowing  caftan  of  the  old  Turk,  was  the  most  conspicuous  of 
the  reforms  of  Sultan  Mahmud  II.;  and  when,  in  1909,  the  first 
Turkish  parliament  met,  only  a  small  minority  of  its  members 
wore  their  traditional  costumes.  The  introduction  of  Japan  into 
the  comity  of  nations  was  followed  by  the  adoption  of  European 
costume  by  the  court  and  the  upper  classes,  at  least  in  public 
and  on  ceremonial  occasions;  in  private  the  wide-sleeved,  loose, 
comfortable  kimono  continues  to  be  worn,  China,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  been  more  conservative,  even  her  envoys  in  Europe 
preserving  intact  (except  sometimes  in  the  matter  of  boots)  the 
traditional  costume  of  their  nation  and  class,  while  those  of 
Japan,  Corea  and  Siam  appear  in  the  conventional  diplomatic  or 
"evening"  dress  in  Europe.  In  the  Mussulman  East,  even  when 


COSTUME 


247 


European  dress  has  been  adopted,  an  exception  has  usually  been 
made  in  favour  of  head-gear,  which  has  a  special  religious 
significance.  In  Turkey,  for  instance,  the  hat  has  not  succeeded 
in  displacing  the  fez;  and  in  India,  though  the  Parsis  had  by  the 
beginning  of  the  2oth  century  begun  to  modify  their  traditional 
high  turban-like  hat  into  a  modified  "  bowler,"  and  Hindus — 
abroad  at  least — were  affecting  the  head-gear  of  the  West,  those 
Mussulman  princes  who  had  adopted,  wholly  or  partially, 
European  dress  continued  to  wear  the  turban.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  amir  of  Afghanistan,  when  he  visited  India,  had — out  of 
doors  at  least — discarded  the  turban  for  the  ugly  "  solar  topee." 
In  spite  of  the  natural  conservatism,  strengthened  by  religious 
conventions,  of  the  Eastern  races,  there  is  a  growing  danger  that 
the  spread  of  European  enlightenment  will  more  or  less  rapidly 
destroy  that  picturesque  variety  of  costume  which  is  the  delight 
of  the  traveller  and  the  artist.  For  Indian  costumes  see  INDIA: 
Costume;  for  Chinese  see  CHINA;  &c. 

IV.    OFFICIAL  COSTUME 

Official  costumes,  in  so  far  as  they  are  not,  like  the  crowns  and 
tabards  of  heralds,  the  coronets  of  peers,  or  the  gold  keys  tacked 
to  the  coat-tails  of  royal  chamberlains — consciously  symbolical, 
are  for  the  most  part  ceremonious  survivals  of  bygone  general 
fashions.  This  is  as  true  of  the  official  costume  of  the  past  as  of 
the  present;  as  may  be  illustrated  from  ancient  Rome,  where 
the  toga,  once  the  general  costume  of  Roman  citizens,  in  the  3rd 
and  4th  centuries  was  the  official  robe  of  senators  and  officials 
(see  also  under  VESTMENTS).  Thus,  at  the  present  time,  the  lay 
chamberlains  of  the  pope  and  the  members  of  his  Swiss  guard 
wear  costumes  of  the  i6th  century,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
king's  yeomen  of  the  guard  in  England.  In  general,  however 
(apart  from  robes,  which  are  much  older  in  their  origin),  official 
costumes  in  Europe,  or  in  countries  of  European  origin,  are 
based  on  the  fashions  of  the  i8th  and  early  ipth  centuries. 
Knee-breeches,  however,  which  survive  in  the  full-dress  of  many 
British  officials,  as  in  ordinary  court  dress,  had  practically 
disappeared  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  surviving  only  in  certain 
peasant  costumes,  when  the  emperor  William  II.  reintroduced 
them  at  the  court  of  Berlin.  The  tendency  in  the  modern 
democratic  communities  of  Anglo-Saxon  race  has  been  to  dispense 
with  official  costumes.  In  the  United  States  the  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court  alone  wear  robes;  the  president  of  the  Republic 
wears  on  all  occasions  the  dress  of  an  ordinary  citizen,  unrelieved 
by  order  or  decoration,  and  thus  symbolizes  his  pride  of  place  as 
primus  inter  pares;  an  American  ambassador  appears  on  state 
occasions  among  his  colleagues,  gorgeous  in  bullion-covered 
coats,  in  the  ordinary  black  "  evening  dress  "  of  a  modern 
gentleman.  The  principle,  which  tends  to  assert  itself  also  in  the 
autonomous  "  British  dominions  beyond  the  seas,"  is  not  the 
result  of  that  native  dislike  of  "dressing  up  "  which  characterizes 
many  Englishmen  of  the  upper  and  middle  classes;  for  modern 
democracy  shares  to  the  full  the  taste  of  past  ages  for  official  or 
quasi-official  finery,  as  is  proved  by  the  costumes  and  insignia  of 
the  multitudinous  popular  orders,  Knights  Templars,  Foresters, 
Oddfellows  and  the  like.  It  is  rather  cherished  as  the  outward 
and  visible  sign  of  that  doctrine  of  the  equality  of  all  men  which 
remains  the  most  generally  gratifying  of  the  gifts  of  French 
18th-century  philosophy  to  the  world.  In  Great  Britain,  where 
equality  has  ever  been  less  valued  than  liberty,  official  costumes 
have  tended  to  increase  rather  than  to  fall  into  disuse;  mayors  of 
new  boroughs,  for  instance,  are  not  considered  properly  equipped 
until  they  have  their  gown  and  chain  of  office.  In  France,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  taste  of  the  people  for  pomp  and  display,  and,  it 
may  be  added,  their  innate  artistic  sense,  have  combined  with 
their  passion  for  equality  to  produce  a  somewhat  anomalous 
situation  as  regards  official  costume.  Lawyers  have  their  robes, 
judges  their  scarlet  gowns,  diplomatists  their  gold-laced  uni- 
forms; but  the  state  costume  of  the  president  of  the  Republic 
is  "evening  dress,"  relieved  only  by  the  red  riband  and  star  of  the 
'  Legion  of  Honour.  In  the  Latin  states  of  South  America,  which 
tend  to  be  disguised  despotisms  rather  than  democracies,  the 
actual  rather  than  the  theoretical  state  of  things  is  symbolized 


by  the  gorgeous  official  uniforms  which  are  among  the  rewards  of 
those  who  help  the  dictator  for  the  time  being  to  power.  See  also 
ROBES;  for  military  costume  see  UNIFORMS;  for  ecclesiastical 
costume  see  VESTMENTS  and  subsidiary  articles.  (W.  A.  P.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Apart  from  the  enormous  number  of  books 
especially  devoted  to  costume,  innumerable  illustrated  works  exist 
which  are,  in  various  degrees,  useful  for  the  study  of  the  history  of 
this  subject.  It  may  be  noted  here,  e.g.  that  the  illuminators  and 
painters  of  the  middle  ages  did  not  affect  historical  accuracy  in  their 
presentment  of  biblical  or  secular  subjects,  but  clothed  their  patri- 
archs, apostles  or  Roman  warriors  in  the  dress  of  their  own  ages, 
their  pictures  thus  becoming  invaluable  records  of  the  costume  of 
their  time.  In  this  respect  the  knowledge  of  classical  antiquity 
revived  during  the  Renaissance  introduced  a  certain  confusion. 
Artists  began  to  realize  the  incongruity  of  representing  antique 
figures  in  modern  garb,  but,  in  the  absence  of  exact  knowledge, 
fancy  began  to  play  a  greater  part  than  research  in  the  dressing 
of  their  characters.  Portraits  and  representations  of  contemporary 
scenes  (e.g.  Rembrandt's  "  Night  Watch  ")  continue  to  be  first-hand 
authorities  for  the  costume  of  the  period  in  which  they  were  pro- 
duced; but  representations  of  biblical  or  historical  scenes  have 
little  or  no  value  from  this  point  of  view.  Thus  in  Rubens's  famous 
picture  of  St  Ambrose  repelling  Theodosius  from  the  door  of  his 
cathedral,  the  bishop  is  vested  in  the  mitre  and  cope  which  only 
came  into  vogue  centuries  later,  while  the  emperor  wears  a  military 
costume  modelled  on  that  of  Roman  imperators  of  an  earlier  day. 
Even  in  portraiture,  however,  a  certain  conservatism  tends  to  make 
the  record  untrustworthy;  thus,  great  men  continued  to  be  painted 
in  full  armour  long  after  it  had  in  fact  ceased  to  be  worn. 

Of  authorities  for  English  costume  the  following  may  be  selected 
as  especially  useful:  J.  C.  Bruce,  The  Bayeux  Tapestry  Elucidated 
(London,  1856),  with  17  plates;  F.  W.  Fairholt,  Costume  in  England 
to  the  end  of  the  i8th  Century  (2nd  ed.,  ib.,  1860);  William  Fowler, 
Examples  of  Medieval  Art  (1796-1829),  Il6  plates;  Froissart's 
Chronicles,  translated  by  T.  Johnes  (4  vols.,  1844),  72  plates  and 
many  woodcuts;  R.  N.  Humphrey,  Illuminated  Books  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (ib.,  1849);  Facsimiles  of  Original  Drawings  by  Holbein,  in  the 
Collection  of  His  Majesty,  for  Portraits  of  Persons  of  the  Court  of 
Henry  VIII.,  engraved  by  F.  Bartolozzi,  &c.  (London,  1884) ;  John 
Nichols,  Progresses,  Pageants,  &c.,  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (3  vols., 
1823),  and  of  James  I.  (4  vols.,  1828),  with  numerous  plates; 
Hogarth's  Works,  engraved  by  himself,  with  descriptions  by  J. 
Nichols  (1822),  153  plates;  Edmund  Lodge,  Portraits  of  Illustrious 
Personages  of  Great  Britain  (12  vols.,  1823-1835),  240  plates;  J.  R. 
Planche,  Hist,  of  British  Costume  (3rd  ed.,  Bohn,  1874),  and  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Costume  (2  vols.,  1876-1877);  Henry  Shaw,  Dresses  and 
Decorations  of  the  Middle  Ages  (2  vols.,  1840-1843),  94  plates  and 
many  woodcuts;  Joseph  Strutt,  engraver,  Dress  and  Habits  of  the 
People  of  England  (2  vols.,  1796-1799),  and  Regal  and  Ecclesiastical 
Antiquities  of  Great  Britain,  new  edition  with  notes  by  J.  R.  Planchfe 
(1842),  153  plates;  Westwood,  Miniatures  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Irish 
Manuscripts  (1868),  54  plates;  C.  A.  Stothard,  The  Monumental 
Effigies  of  Great  Britain  (1817-1832;  ed.  Hewitt,  1876);  Herbert 
Haines,  Manual  of  Monumental  Brasses  (Oxford,  1861),  with  many 
woodcuts;  J.  G.  and  L.  A.  B.  Waller,  A  Series  of  Monumental 
Brasses  (London,  1864);  H.  Druitt,  Costume  on  Brasses  (London, 
1906).  Of  foreign  works  on  costume  the  most  important  are  Hefner- 
Alteneck,  Trathten,  &c.,  vom  friihesten  Mittelalter  bis  Ende  des  18. 
Jahrhunderts  (2nd  ed.,  Frankfort,  1879-1890);  Viollet-le-Duc, 
Dictionnaire  raisonne  du  mobilier  franfais  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1858-1875), 
the  first  four  volumes  devoted  to  armour  and  costume;  Friedrich 
Hottenroth,  Trachlen  der  Volker  alter  und  neuer  Zeit  (2nd  ed., 
Stuttgart,  1882-1890),  with  excellent  plates,  Fr.  transl.  by  J.  Bern- 
hoff,  Les  Costumes  chez  les  peuples,  &c.  (Paris,  1885),  and  Handbuch 
der  deutschen  Tracht  (1898) ;  Bonnard  et  Mercuri,  Costumes  historiques 
des  XII',  XIII',  XIV'  et  XV'  siecles  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1867),  200 
plates;  Burgmair,  Triomphe  de  I'empereur  Maximilien  I.  (Vienna, 
1796),  135  plates;  Chapuy,  Le  Moyen  Age  pittoresque  (2  vols.,  1837), 
1 80  plates;  Chevignard  et  Duplessis,  Costumes  historiques  des  XVI', 
XVII'  et  XVIII'  siecles  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1867),  150  plates;  du 
Sommerard,  Les  Arts  au  moyen  Age  (10  vols.,  Paris,  1838-1848),  510 
plates;  Duflos,  Recueil  d'estampes,  representant  les  grades,  les  ranges, 
et  les  dignites,  suivant  le  costume  de  toutes  les  nations  existantes  (Pans, 
1779-1780),  240  plates;  Espana  artistica  y  monumental  (3  vols.. 


Paris,  1842-1859),  145  plates;  Fabri,  Raccolta  di  varii  vestimenti 
ed  arti  del  regno  di  Napoli  (Naples,  1773),  27  plates;  Jaquemin, 
Iconographie  methodique  du  costume  du  V*  au  XIX'  siecle  (Paris), 


200  plates;  Lacombe,  Calorie  de  Florence  et  du  palais  Pitti  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1789-1807),  192  plates;  Paul  Lacroix,  Manners,  Customs 
and  Dress  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance,  Eng.  trans. 
(London,  1874),  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  Renaissance  (London,  1874),  and  The  l8th  Century,  its  Institutions, 
Customs,  Costumes  (London,  1875-1876);  L.  M.  Lantfi,  Galerie 
francaise  de  femmes  cflebres,  atlas  (Pans,  1841),  70  plates;  Malliot 
et  Martin,  Recherches  sur  les  costumes,  les  mceurs,  les  usages  religieux, 
civils  et  militaires  des  anciens  peuples  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1809),  228 
plates;  Pauly,  Description  ethnographique  des  peuples  (St  Petersburg, 
1862);  Pauquet  FrAres,  Modes  et  costumes  historiques  et  (trangert 


248 


COSWAY— COTE-D'OR 


(2  vols.,  Paris,  1873),  *96  plates;  Auguste  Racinet,  Le  Costume 
Mstorique,  in  two  forms,  large  and  small  (Paris,  1876,  another  ed. 
in  6  vols.,  with  500  plates,  1888);  G.  M.  Straub,  Trachlen  oder 
Stammbuch  (1600),  several  hundreds  of  curious  woodcuts  of  costumes ; 
Vecellio,  Habiti  antichi  et  moderni  di  tutto  U  mondo  (3  vols.,  Venice, 
1859-1863). 

Examples  and  illustrations  of  early  costume  of  great  interest  and 
value  may  be  found  in  the  Archaeologia,  M.  Didron's  Annales 
archeologiques,  the  Journals  of  the  Archaeological  Societies,  the 
various  county  histories,  the  Monumenta  Vetusta  of  the  London 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  and  other  kindred  works. 

Besides  works  on  costume  generally,  there  are  a  large  number 
devoted  specially  to  national  or  "  folk  "  costumes.  Of  these  may  be 
mentioned:  F.  Hottenroth,  Deutsche  Volkstrachten,  stadtische  und 
landliche,  vom  XVI.  Jahrhundert  bis  zum  Anfange  des  XIX.  Jahr- 
hunderts  (Frankfort,  1898,  1900,  1902,  &c.),  including  German, 
Bohemian,  Swiss  and  Dutch  local  costumes,  with  references  to  further 
works;  L.  M.  Lante,  Costume  de  divers  pays  (undated,  c.  1825), 
177  coloured  plates  of  female  costumes,  mainly  French,  some  Spanish, 
German,  &c. ;  A.  Hard,  Swedish  Costumes  (Stockholm,  1858),  10 
coloured  plates;  Felix  Benoist,  La  Normandie  illustree  (2  vols.  fol., 
Nantes,  1854),  with  excellent  coloured  lithographs  of  costumes  by 
Hyppolite  Lalaine;  E.  H.  T.  Pingret,  Galerie  royale  de  costumes 
(Paris,  undated),  beautiful  lithographs  of  costumes,  principally 
Italian  with  some  Spanish  and  Swiss,  lithographed  from  paintings 
by  Pingret  by  various  artists;  Edward  Harding,  Costume  of  the 
Russian  Empire  (London,  1811),  with  70  hand-coloured  plates, 
including  costumes  of  many  of  the  semi-barbaric  tribes  of  central 
Asia;  for  Turkish  costume  in  the  1 8th  century  see  Recueil  de  cent 
estampes  representant  differentes  nations  du  Levant,  engraved  by  Le 
Hay  (Paris,  1714);  for  Greek  costume  at  the  time  of  the  War  of 
Independence  see  Baron  O.  M.  von  Stackelberg,  Costumes  et  usages 
des  peuples  de  la  Grece  moderne  (Rome,  1825),  with  30  beautiful 
plates.  For  Highland  costume  see  R.  R.  Maclan,  Costumes  of  the 
Clans  (Glasgow,  1899),  with  letterpress  by  J.  Logan. 

COSWAY,  RICHARD  (c.  1742-1821),  English  miniature 
painter,  was  baptized  in  1742;  his  father  was  master  of  Blundell's 
school,  Tiverton,  where  Cosway  was  educated,  and  his  uncle 
mayor  of  that  town.  He  it  was  who,  in  conjunction  with  the 
boy's  godfather,  persuaded  the  father  to  allow  Richard  to  proceed 
to  London  before  he  was  twelve  years  old,  to  take  lessons  in 
drawing,  and  undertook  to  support  him  there.  On  his  arrival, 
the  youthful  artist  won  the  first  prize  given  by  the  newly  founded 
Society  of  Arts,  of  the  money  value  of  five  guineas.  He  went  to 
Thomas  Hudson  for  his  earliest  instruction,  but  remained  with 
him  only  a  few  months,  and  then  attended  William  Shipley's 
drawing  class,  where  he  remained  until  he  began  to  work  on  his 
own  account  in  1760.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  members  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  Associate  in  1770  and  Royal  Academician  in 
1771.  His  success  in  miniature  painting  is  said  to  have  been 
started  by  his  clever  portrait  of  Mrs  Fitzherbert,  which  gave 
great  satisfaction  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  brought  Cosway 
his  earliest  great  patron.  He  speedily  became  one  of  the  most 
popular  artists  of  the  day,  and  his  residence  at  Schomberg  House, 
Pall  Mall,  was  a  well-known  aristocratic  rendezvous.  In  1791  he 
removed  to  Stratford  Place,  where  he  lived  in  a  state  of  great 
magnificence  till  1821,  when  after  selling  most  of  the  treasures  he 
had  accumulated  he  went  to  reside  in  Edgware  Road.  He  died  on 
the  4th  of  July  1821,  when  driving  in  a  carriage  with  his  friend 
Miss  Udney.  He  was  buried  in  Marylebone  New  church. 

He  married  in  1781  Maria  Hadfield,  who  survived  him  many 
years,  and  died  in  Italy  in  January  1838,  in  a  school  for  girls 
which  she  had  founded,  and  which  she  had  attached  to  an 
important  religious  order  devoted  to  the  cause  of  female  educa- 
tion, known  as  the  Dame  Inglesi.  She  had  been  created  a 
baroness  of  the  Empire  on  account  of  her  devotion  to  female 
education  by  the  emperor  Francis  I.  in  1834.  Her  college  still 
exists,  and  in  it  are  preserved  many  of  the  things  which  had 
belonged  to  her  and  her  husband. 

Cosway  had  one  child  who  died  young.  She  is  the  subject  of 
one  of  his  most  celebrated  engravings.  He  painted  miniatures  of 
very  many  members  of  the  royal  family,  and  of  the  leading 
persons  who  formed  the  court  of  the  prince  regent.  Perhaps  his 
most  beautiful  work  is  his  miniature  of  Madame  du  Barry, 
painted  in  1791,  when  that  lady  was  residing  in  Bruton  Street, 
Berkeley  Square.  This  portrait,  together  with  many  other 
splendid  works  by  Cosway,  came  into  the  collection  of  Mr  J. 
Pierpont  Morgan.  There  are  many  miniatures  by  this  artist  in 


the  royal  collection  at  Windsor  Castle,  at  Belvoir  Castle  and  in 
other  important  collections.  His  work  is  of  great  charm  and 
of  remarkable  purity,  and  he  is  certainly  the  most  brilliant 
miniature  painter  of  the  i8th  century. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  artist  and  his  wife,  see  Richard  Cosway, 
R.A.,  by  G.  C.  Williamson  (1905).  (G.  C.  W.) 

COTA  DE  MAGUAQUE,  RODRIGO  (d.  c.  1498),  Spanish  poet, 
who  flourished  towards  the  end  of  the  i  sth  century,  was  born  at 
Toledo.  Little  is  known  of  him  save  that  he  was  of  Jewish  origin. 
The  Coplas  de  Mingo  Revulgo,  the  Coplas  del  Provincial,  and  the 
first  act  of  the  Celestina  have  been  ascribed  to  him  on  insufficient 
grounds.  He  is  undoubtedly  the  author  of  the  Dialogo  enlre  el 
amor  y  un  viejo,  a  striking  dramatic  poem  first  printed  in  the 
Cancionero  general  of  1511,  and  of  a  burlesque  epithalamium 
written  in  1472  or  later.  He  abjured  Judaism  about  the  year 
1497,  and  is  believed  to  have  died  shortly  afterwards. 

See  "  Epithalame  burlesque,"  edited  by  R.  Foulche-Delbosc,  in 
the  Revue  hispanique  (Paris,  1894),  i.  69-72;  A.  Bonilla  y  San 
Martin,  Anales  de  la  literatura  espanola  (Madrid,  1904),  pp.  164-167. 

C6TE-D'OR,  a  department  of  eastern  France,  formed  of  the 
northern  region  of  the  old  province  of  Burgundy,  bounded  N.  by 
the  department  of  Aube,  N.E.  by  Haute-Marne,  E.  by  Haute- 
Saone  and  Jura,  S.  by  Saone-et-Loire,  and  W.  by  Nievre  and 
Yonne.  Area,  3392  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1906)  357,959.  A  chain  of  hills 
named  the  Plateau  de  Langres  runs  from  north-east  to  south- 
west through  the  centre  of  the  department,  separating  the  basin 
of  the  Seine  from  that  of  the  Saone,  and  forming  a  connecting- 
link  between  the  Cevennes  and  the  Vosges  mountains.  Extend- 
ing southward  from  Dijon  is  a  portion  of  this  range  which,  on 
account  of  the  excellence  of  its  vineyards,  bears  the  name  of 
Cote-d'Or,  whence  that  of  the  department.  The  north-west 
portion  of  the  department  is  occupied  by  the  calcareous  and 
densely-wooded  district  of  Chatillonais,  the  south-west  by  spurs 
of  the  granitic  chain  of  Morvan,  while  a  wide  plain  traversed  by 
the  Saone  extends  over  the  eastern  region.  The  Chatillonais  is 
watered  by  the  Seine,  which  there  takes  its  rise,  and  by  the  Ource, 
both  fed  largely  by  the  douix  or  abundant  springs  characteristic 
of  Burgundy.  The  Armancon  and  other  affluents  of  the  Yonne, 
and  the  Arroux,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire,  water  the  south-west. 

The  climate  of  Cote-d'Or  is  temperate  and  healthy;  the  rainfall 
is  abundant  west  of  the  central  range,  but  moderate,  and,  in 
places,  scarce,  in  the  eastern  plain.  Husbandry  flourishes,  the 
wealth  of  the  department  lying  chiefly  in  its  vineyards,  especially 
those  of  the  C6te-d'Or,  which  comprise  the  three  main  groups  of 
Beaune,  Nuits  and  Dijon,  the  latter  the  least  renowned  of  the 
three.  The  chief  cereals  are  wheat,  oats  and  barley;  potatoes, 
hops,  beetroot,  rape-seed,  colza  and  a  small  quantity  of  tobacco 
are  also  produced.  Sheep  and  cattle-raising  is  carried  on  chiefly 
in  the  western  districts.  The  department  has  anthracite  mines 
and  produces  freestone,  lime  and  cement.  The  manufactures 
include  iron,  steel,  nails,  tools,  machinery  and  other  iron  goods, 
paper,  earthenware,  tiles  and  bricks,  morocco  leather  goods, 
biscuits  and  mustard,  and  there  are  flour-mills,  distilleries,  oil 
and  vinegar  works  and  breweries.  The  imports  of  the  department 
are  inconsiderable,  coal  alone  being  of  any  importance;  there  is 
an  active  export  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  cereals  and  live  stock  and 
in  manufactured  goods.  The  Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee  railway 
serves  the  department,  its  main  line  passing  through  Dijon. 
The  canal  of  Burgundy,  connecting  the  Saone  with  the  Yonne, 
has  a  length  of  94  m.  in  the  department,  while  that  from  the 
Marne  to  the  Saone  has  a  length  of  24  m. 

C6te-d'Or  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Dijon,  Beaune, 
Chatillon  and  Semur,  with  36  cantons  and  717  communes.  It 
forms  the  diocese  of  the  bishop  of  Dijon,  and  part  of  the  archi- 
episcopal  province  of  Lyons  and  of  the  Sth  military  region. 
Dijon  is  the  seat  of  the  educational  circumscription  (academic) 
and  court  of  appeal  to  which  the  department  is  assigned.  The 
more  noteworthy  places  are  Dijon,  the  capital,  Beaune,  Chatillon, 
Semur,  Auxonne,  Flavigny  and  Citeaux,  all  separately  treated. 
St  Jean  de  Losne,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Burgundy  canal,  is 
famous  for  its  brave  and  successful  resistance  in  1636  to  an 
immense  force  of  Imperialists.  Chateauneuf  has  a  chateau  of  the 


COTES— CQTHEN 


249 


1 5th  century,  St  Seine-l'Abbaye,  a  fine  Gothic  abbey  church,  and 
Saulieu,  a  Romanesque  abbey  church  of  the  nth  century.  The 
chateau  of  Bussy  Rabutin  (at.Bussy-le-Grand),  founded  in  the 
1 2th  century,  has  an  interesting  collection  of  pictures  made  by 
Roger  de  Rabutin,  comte  de  Bussy,  who  also  rebuilt  the  chateau. 
Montbard,  the  birthplace  of  the  naturalist  Buffon,  has  a  keep  of 
the  i4th  century  and  other  remains  of  a  castle  of  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy.  The  remarkable  Renaissance  chapel  (i  536)  of  Pagny- 
le-Chateau,  belonging  to  the  chateau  destroyed  in  1768,  contains 
the  tomb  of  Jean  de  Vienne  (d.  1455)  and  that  of  Jean  de 
Longwy  (d.  1460)  and  Jeanne  de  Vienne  (d.  1472),  with  alabaster 
effigies.  At  Fontenay,  ne.ar  Marmagne,  a  paper-works  occupies 
the  buildings  of  a  well-preserved  Cistercian  abbey  of  the  i2th 
century.  At  Vertault  there  are  remains  of  a  theatre  and  other 
buildings  marking  the  site  of  the  Gallo-Roman  town  of  Vertilium. 

COTES,  ROGER  (1682-1716),  English  mathematician  and 
philosopher,  was  born  on  the  toth  of  July  1682  at  Burbage, 
Leicestershire,  of  which  place  his  father,  the  Rev.  Robert  Cotes, 
was  rector.  He  was  educated  at  Leicester  school,  and  afterward 
at  St  Paul's  school,  London.  Proceeding  to  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1699,  he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  1705,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  appointed  Plumian  professor  of  astronomy 
and  experimental  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Cambridge. 
He  took  orders  in  1713;  and  the  same  year,  at  the  request  of  Dr 
Richard  Bentley,  he  published  the  second  edition  of  Newton's 
Principia  with  an  original  preface.  He  died  on  the  sth  of  June 
1716,  leaving  unfinished  a  series  of  elaborate  researches  on  optics, 
and  a  large  amount  of  unpublished  manuscript.  He  contributed 
two  memoirs  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  one,  "  Logo- 
metria,"  which  discusses  the  calculation  of  logarithms  and 
certain  applications  of  the  infinitesimal  calculus,  the  other,  a 
"  Description  of  the  great  fiery  meteor  seen  on  March  6th,  1716." 
After  his  death  his  papers  were  collected  and  published  by  his 
cousin  and  successor  in  the  Plumian  chair,  Dr  Robert  Smith, 
under  the  title  Harmonia  Mensurarum  (1722).  This  work 
included  the  "  Logometria,"  the  trigonometrical  theorem  known 
as  "  Cotes'  Theorem  on  the  Circle  "  (see  TRIGONOMETRY),  his 
theorem  on  harmonic  means,  subsequently  developed  by  Colin 
Maclaurin,  and  a  discussion  of  the  curves  known  as  "  Cotes' 
Spirals,"  which  occur  as  the  path  of  a  particle  described  under  the 
influence  of  a  central  force  varying  inversely  as  the  cube  of  the 
distance.  In  1738  Dr  Robert  Smith  published  Cotes'  Hydro- 
statical  and  Pneumatical  Lectures,  a  work  which  was  held  in  great 
estimation.  The  exceptional  genius  of  Cotes  earned  encomiums 
from  both  his  contemporaries  and  successors;  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
said,  "  If  Mr  Cotes  had  lived,  we  should  have  known  something." 

C6TES-DU-NORD,  a  maritime  department  of  the  north-west 
of  France,  formed  in  1 790  from  the  northern  part  of  the  province 
of  Brittany,  and  bounded  N.  by  the  English  Channel,  E.  by 
the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  S.  by  Morbihan,  and  W.  by 
Finistere.  Pop.  (1006)  611,506.  Area,  2786  sq.  m.  In  general 
conformation,  C6tes-du-Nord  is  an  undulating  plateau  including 
in  its  more  southerly  portion  three  well-marked  ranges  of  hills. 
A  granitic  chain,  the  Monts  du  Mene,  starting  in  the  south-east 
of  the  department  runs  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  forming  the 
watershed  between  the  rivers  running  respectively  to  the  Channel 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Towards  its  western  extremity  this 
chain  bifurcates  to  form  the  Montagnes  Noires  in  the  south-west 
and  the  Montagne  d'Arree  in  the  west  of  the  department.  The 
rivers  of  the  Channel  slope  are  the  Ranee,  Arguenon,  Gouessan, 
Gouet,  Trieux,  Treguier  and  Leguer,  while  the  Blavet,  Meu, 
Oust  and  Aulne  belong  to  the  southern  slope.  Off  the  coast, 
which  is  steep,  rocky  and  much  indented,  are  the  Sept-lies, 
Brehat  and  other  small  islands.  The  principal  bays  are  those  of 
St  Malo  and  St  Brieuc. 

The  climate  is  mild  and  not  subject  to  extremes;  in  the  west  it 
is  especially  humid.  Agriculture  is  more  successful  on  the  coast, 
where  seaweed  can  be  used  as  a  fertilizer,  than  in  the  interior. 
Cereals  are  largely  grown,  wheat,  oats  and  buck-wheat  being  the 
chief  crops.  Potatoes,  flax,  mangels,  apples,  plums,  cherries  and 
honey  are  also  produced.  Pasture  and  various  kinds  of  forage 
are  abundant,  and  there  is  a  large  output  of  milk  and  butter. 


The  horses  of  the  department  are  in  repute.  It  produces  slate, 
building-stone,  lime  and  china-clay.  Flour-mills,  saw-mills, 
sardine  factories,  tanneries,  iron-works,  manufactories  of  polish, 
boat-building  yards,  and  rope-works  employ  many  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  cloth,  agricultural  implements  and  nails  are 
manufactured.  The  chief  imports  are  coal,  wood  and  salt. 
Exports  include  agricultural  products  (eggs,  butter,  vegetables, 
&c.),  horses,  flax  and  fish.  The  chief  commercial  ports  are  Le 
Legue  and  Paimpol;  and  Paimpol  also  equips  a  large  fleet  for 
the  Icelandic  fisheries.  The  coast  fishing  is  important  and  large 
quantities  of  sardines  are  preserved.  The  department  is  served 
by  the  Ouest-Etat  railway;  its  chief  waterway  is  the  canal 
from  Nantes  to  Brest  which  traverses  it  for  73  m. 

C6tes-du-Nord  is  divided  into  the  five  arrondissements  of  St 
Brieuc,  Dinan,  Guingamp,  Lannion  and  Loudeac,  which  contain 
48  cantons  and  390  communes.  Bas  Breton  is  spoken  in  the 
arrondissements  of  Guingamp  and  Lannion,  and  in  part  of  those 
of  Loudeac  and  St  Brieuc.  '  The  department  belongs  to  the 
ecclesiastical  province,  the  academic  (educational  division),  and 
the  appeal  court  of  Rennes,  and  in  the  region  of  the  X.  army  corps. 
St  Brieuc,  Dinan,  Guingamp,  Lamballe,  Paimpol  and  Treguier, 
the  more  noteworthy  towns,  are  separately  treated.  Extensive 
remains  of  an  abbey  of  the  Premonstratensian  order,  dating 
chiefly  from  the  i3th  century,  exist  at  Kerity;  and  Lehon  has 
remains  of  a  priory,  which  dates  from  the  same  period.  The 
department  is  rich  in  interesting  churches,  among  which  those  of 
Ploubezre  (i2th,  i4th  and  i6th  centuries),  Perros-Guirec  (i2th 
century),  Plestin-les-Greves  (i6th  century)  and  Lanleff  (i2th 
century)  may  be  mentioned.  The  church  of  St  Mathurin  at 
Moncontour,  which  is  a  celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage,  contains 
fine  stained  glass  of  the  i6th  century,  and  the  mural  paintings  of 
the  chapel  of  Kermaria-an-Isquit  near  Plouha,  which  belongs  to 
the  i3th  and  i4th  centuries,  are  celebrated.  Near  Lannion  (pop. 
5336),  itself  a  picturesque  old  town,  is  the  ruined  castle  of 
Tonquedec,  built  in  the  i4th  century  and  sometimes  known  as 
"  the  Pierrefonds  of  Brittany,"  owing  to  its  resemblance  to  the 
more  famous  castle.  At  Corseul  are  a  temple  and  other  Roman 
remains. 

COTGRAVE,  RANDLE  (?-i634),  English  lexicographer,  came 
of  a  Cheshire  family,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  entering 
St  John's  College  in  1 587.  He  became  secretary  to  Lord  Burghley, 
and  in  1611  published  his  French-English  dictionary  (2nd  ed., 
1632),  a  work  of  real  historical  importance  in  lexicography,  and 
still  valuable  in  spite  of  such  errors  as  were  due  to  contemporary 
want  of  exact  scholarship. 

COTHEN,  or  KOTHEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  duchy  of 
Anhalt  on  the  Ziethe,  at  the  junction  of  several  railway  lines, 
42  m.  N.W.  of  Leipzig  by  rail.  Pop.  (1005)  22,978.  It  consists 
of  an  old  and  a  new  town  with  four  suburbs.  The  former  palace 
of  the  dukes  of  Anhalt-Cothen,  in  the  old  town,  has  fine  gardens 
and  contains  collections  of  pictures  and  coins,  the  famous 
ornithological  collection  of  Johann  Friedrich  Naumann  (1780- 
1857),  and  a  library  of  some  20,000  volumes.  Of  the  churches  the 
Lutheran  Jakobskirche  (called  the  cathedral),  a  Gothic  building 
with  some  fine  old  stained  glass,  is  noteworthy.  Besides  the  usual 
classical  and  modern  schools  (Gymnasium  and  Realschule) 
Cothen  possesses  a  technical  institute,  a  school  of  .gardening  and 
a  school  of  forestry.  The  industries  include  iron-founding  and 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  and  other  machinery,  malt, 
beet-root  sugar,  leather,  spirits,  &c.;  a  tolerably  active  trade  is 
carried  on  in  grain,  wool,  potatoes  and  vegetables.  Among 
others,  there  is  a  monument  to  Sebastian  Bach,  who  was  music 
director  here  from  1717  to  1723. 

In  the  icth  century  Cothen  was  a  Slav  settlement,  which  was 
captured  and  destroyed  by  the  German  king  Henry  I.  in  927. 
By  the  i2th  century  it  had  secured  town  rights  and  become  a 
considerable  centre  of  trade  in  agricultural  produce.  In  1300  it 
was  burned  by  the  margrave  of  Meissen.  In  1547  the  town  was 
taken  from  its  prince,  Wolfgang  (a  cadet  of  the  house  of  Anhalt), 
who  had  joined  the  league  of  Schmalkalden,  and  given  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  with  the  rest  of  the  prince's  possessions, 
to  the  Spanish  general  and  painter,  Felipe  Ladron  y  Guevara 


250 


COTMAN— COTTA 


(1510-1563),  from  whom  it  was,  however,  soon  repurchased. 
Hahnemann,  the  founder  of  homoeopathy,  lived  and  worked 
in  Cothen.  From  1603  to  1847  Cothen  was  the  capital  of  the 
principality,  later  duchy,  of  Anhalt-Cothen. 

COTMAN,  JOHN  SELL  (1782-1842),  English  landscape- 
painter  and  etcher,  son  of  a  well-to-do  silk  mercer,  was  born  at 
Norwich  on  the  i6th  of  May  1782.  He  showed  a  talent  for  art 
and  was  sent  to  London  to  study,  where  he  became  the  friend  of 
Turner,  T.  Girtin  and  other  artists.  He  first  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1800.  In  1807  he  went  back  to  Norwich  and 
joined  the  Norwich  Society  of  Artists,  of  which  in  181 1  he  became 
president.  In  1825  he  was  made  an  associate  of  the  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water-colours;  in  1834  he  was  appointed  drawing- 
master  at  King's  College,  London;  and  in  1836  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  24th  of  July  1842.  Cotman's  work  was  not  con- 
sidered of  much  importance  in  his  own  day,  and  his  pictures 
only  procured  small  prices;  but  he  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  great 
figures  of  the  Norwich  school.  He  was  a  fine  draughtsman,  and 
a  remarkable  painter  both  in  oil  and  water-colour.  One  of  his 
paintings  is  in  the  National  Gallery.  His  fine  architectural 
etchings,  published  in  a  series  of  volumes,  the  result  of  tours  in 
Norfolk  and  Normandy,  are  valuable  records  of  his  interest  in 
archaeology.  He  married  early  in  life,  and  had  five  children,  his 
sons,  Miles  Edmund  (1810-1858)  and  Joseph  John  (1814-1878), 
both  becoming  landscape-painters  of  merit;  and  his  younger 
brother  Henry's  son,  Frederic  George  Cotman  (b.  1850),  the 
water-colour  artist,  continued  the  family  reputation. 

COTONEASTER,  a  genus  of  the  rose  family  (Rosaceae), 
containing  about  twenty  species  of  shrubs  and  small  trees, 
natives  of  Europe,  North  Africa  and  temperate  Asia.  C.  vulgaris 
is  native  on  the  limestone  cliffs  of  the  Great  Orme  in  North  Wales. 
Several  species  are  grown  in  shrubberies  and  borders,  or  as  wall 
plants,  mainly  for  their  clusters  of  bright  red  or  yellow  berry-like 
fruits.  Plants  are  easily  raised  by  seeds,  cuttings  or  layers,  and 
grow  well  in  ordinary  soil. 

COTOPAXI,  a  mountain  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecuador,  South 
America,  35  m.  S.S.E.  of  Quito,  remarkable  as  the  loftiest  active 
volcano  in  the  world.  The  earliest  outbursts  on  record  took 
place  in  1532  and  1533;  and  since  then  the  eruptions  have  been 
both  numerous  and  destructive.  Among  the  most  important  are 
those  of  1744,  1746,  1766,  1768  and  1803.  In  1744  the  thunder- 
ings  of  the  volcano  were  heard  at  Honda  on  the  Rio  Magdalena, 
about  500  m.  distant;  in  1768  the  quantity  of  ashes  ejected  was 
so  great  that  it  covered  all  the  lesser  vegetation  as  far  as 
Riobamba;  and  in  1803  Humboldt  reports  that  at  the  port  of- 
Guayaquil,  160  m.  from  the  crater,  he  heard  the  noise  day  and 
night  like  continued  discharges  of  a  battery.  There  were  con- 
siderable outbursts  in  1851,  1855,  1856,  1864  and  1877.  In  1802 
Humboldt  made  a  vain  attempt  to  scale  the  cone,  and  pronounced 
the  enterprise  impossible;  and  the  failure  of  Jean  Baptiste 
Boussingault  in  1831,  and  the  double  failure  of  M.  Wagner  in 
1858,  seemed  to  confirm  his  opinion.  In  1872,  however,  Dr 
Wilhelm  Reiss  succeeded  on  the  27th  and  28th  of  November  in 
reaching  the  top;  in  the  May  of  the  following  year  the  same 
feat  was  accomplished  by  Dr  A.  Stubel,  and  he  was  followed 
by  T.  Wolf  in  1877,  M.  von  Thielmann  in  1878  and  Edward 
Whymper  in  1880. 

Cotopaxi  is  frequently  described  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
mountain  masses  of  the  world,  rivalling  the  celebrated  Fuji- 
yama of  Japan  in  its  symmetry  of  outline,  but  overtopping  it 
by  more  than  7000  ft.  It  is  more  than  15,000  ft.  higher  than 
Vesuvius,  over  7000  ft.  higher  than  Teneriffe,  and  nearly  2000  ft. 
higher  than  Popocatepetl.  Its  slope,  according  to  Orton,  is 
30°,  according  to  Wagner  29°,  the  north-western  side  being 
slightly  steeper  than  the  south-eastern.  The  apical  angle  is  122° 
3°'-  The  snowfall  is  heavier  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  cone 
which  is  permanently  covered,  while  the  western  side  is  usually 
left  bare,  a  phenomenon  occasioned  by  the  action  of  the  moist 
trade  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  Its  height  according  to  Whymper 
is  19,613  ft.,  and  its  crater  is  2300  ft.  in  diameter  from  N.  to  S., 
1650  ft.  from  E.  to  W.,  and  has  an  approximate  depth  of  1200  ft. 


It  is  bordered  by  a  rim  of  trachytic  rock,  forming  a  black  coronet 
above  the  greyish  volcanic  dust  and  sand  which  covers  its  sides  to 
a  great  depth.  Whymper  found  snow  and  ice  under  this  sand. 
On  the  southern  slope,  at  a  height  of  15,059  ft.,  is  a  bare  cone  of 
porphyritic  andesite  called  El  Picacho,  "  the  beak,"  or  Cabeza 
del  Inca,  "  the  Inca's  head,"  with  dark  cliffs  rising  fully  1000  ft., 
which  according  to  tradition  is  the  original  summit  of  the 
volcano  blown  off  at  the  first-known  eruption  of  1532.  The 
summit  of  Cotopaxi  is  usually  enveloped  in  clouds;  and  even 
an  the  clearest  month  of  the  year  it  is  rarely  visible  for  more  than 
eight  or  ten  days.  Its  eruptions  produce  enormous  quantities  of 
pumice,  and  deep  layers  of  mud,  volcanic  sand  and  pumice 
surround  it  on  the  plateau.  Of  the  air  currents  about  and  above 
Cotopaxi,  Wagner  says  (Naturw.  Reisen  im  trap.  Amerika,  p.  514) : 
"  On  the  Tacunga  Plateau,  at  a  height  of  8000  Paris  feet,  the 
prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  is  meridional,  usually  from  the 
south  in  the  morning,  and  frequently  from  the  north  in  the 
evening;  but  over  the  summit  of  Cotopaxi,  at  a  height  of  18,000 
ft.,  the  north-west  wind  always  prevails  throughout  the  day. 
The  gradually- widening  volcanic  cloud  continually  takes  a  south- 
eastern direction  over  the  rim  of  the  crater;  at  a  height,  however, 
of  about  21,000  ft.  it  suddenly  turns  to  the  north-west,  and 
maintains  that  direction  till  it  reaches  a  height  of  at  least  28,000 
ft.  There  are  thus  from  the  foot  of  the  volcano  to  the  highest 
level  attained  by  its  smoke-cloud  three  quite  distinct  regular 
currents  of  wind." 

COTRONE  (anc.  Crolo,  Crotona),  a  seaport  and  episcopal  see  on 
the  E.  coast  of  Calabria,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Catanzaro,  37 
m.  E.N.E.  of  Catanzaro  Marina  by  rail,  143  ft.  above  sea-level. 
Pop.  (1901)  town,  79.17;  commune,  9545.  It  has  a  castle  erected 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  a  small  harbour,  which  evero  in 
ancient  times  was  not  good,  but  important  as  the  only  one 
between  Taranto  and  Reggio.  It  exports  a  considerable  quantity 
of  oranges,  olives  and  liquorice. 

COTTA,  the  name  of  a  family  of  German  publishers,  intimately 
connected  with  the  history  of  German  literature.  The  Cottas 
were  of  noble  Italian  descent,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
the  family  was  settled  in  Eisenach  in  Thuringia. 

JOHANN  GEORG  COTTA  (i)  (1631-1692),  the  founder  of  the 
publishing  house  of  J.  G.  Cotta,  married  in  1659  the  widow  of  the 
university  bookseller,  Philipp  Braun,  in  Tubingen,  and  took  over 
the  management  of  his  business,  thus  establishing  the  firm  which 
was  subsequently  associated  with  Cotta's  name.  On  his  death, 
in  1692,  the  undertaking  passed  to  his  only  son,  Johann  Georg 
(2);  and  on  his  death  in  1712,  to  the  latter's  eldest  son,  also 
named  Johann  Georg  (3),  while  the  second  son,  Johann  Friedrich 
(see  below),  became  the  distinguished  theologian. 

Although  the  eldest  son  of  Johann  Georg  (3),  Christoph 
Friedrich  Cotta  (1730-1807),  established  a  printing-house  to  the 
court  at  Stuttgart,  the  business  languished,  and  it  was  reserved 
to  his  youngest  son,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH,  FREIHERR  COTTA  VON 
COTTENDORF  (1764-1832),  who  was  born  at  Stuttgart  on  the 
27th  of  April  1764,  to  restore  the  fortunes  of  the  firm.  He 
attended  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  place,  and  was  originally 
intended  to  study  theology.  He,  however,  entered  the  university 
of  Tubingen  as  a  student  of  mathematics  and  law,  and  after 
graduating  spent  a  considerable  time  in  Paris,  studying  French 
and  natural  science,  and  mixing  with  distinguished  literary  men. 
After  practising  as  an  advocate  in  one  of  the  higher  courts,  Cotta, 
in  compliance  with  his  father's  earnest  desire,  took  over  the 
publishing  business  at  Tubingen.  He  began  in  December  1787, 
and  laboured  incessantly  to  acquire  familiarity  with  all  the 
details.  The  house  connexions  rapidly  extended;  and,  in  1794, 
the  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  of  which  Schiller  was  to  be  editor,  was 
planned.  Schiller  was  compelled  to  withdraw  on  account  of  his 
health;  but  his  friendship  with  Cotta  deepened  every  year,  and 
was  a  great  advantage  to  the  poet  and  his  family.  Cotta 
awakened  in  Schiller  so  warm  an  attachment  that, -as  Heinrich 
Doring  tells  us  in  his  life  of  Schiller  (1824),  when  a  bookseller 
offered  him  a  higher  price  than  Cotta  for  the  copyright  of  Wallen- 
stein,  the  poet  firmly  declined  it,  replying  "  Cotta  deals  honestly 
with  me,  and  I  with  him."  In  1795  Schiller  and  Cotta  founded 


COTTA,  B.  VON— COTTA,  G.  A. 


251 


the  Horen,  a  periodical  very  important  to  the  student  of  German 
literature.  The  poet  intended,  by  means  of  this  work,  to  infuse 
higher  ideas  into  the  common  lives  of  men,  by  giving  them  a 
nobler  human  culture,  and  "  to  reunite  the  divided  political  world 
under  the  banner  of  truth  and  beauty."  The  Horen  brought 
Goethe  and  Schiller  into  intimate  relations  with  each  other  and 
with  Cotta;  and  Goethe,  while  regretting  that  he  had  already 
promised  Wilhelm  Meister  to  another  publisher,  contributed  the 
Unterhaltung  deutscher  Ausgewanderten,  the  Roman  Elegies  and 
a  paper  on  Literary  Sansculottism.  Fichte  sent  essays  from  the 
first,  and  the  other  brilliant  German  authors  of  the  time  were 
also  represented.  In  1798  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung  appeared  at 
Tubingen,  being  edited  first  by  Posselt  and  then  by  Huber.  Soon 
the  editorial  office  of  the  newspaper  was  transferred  to  Stuttgart, 
in  1803  to  Ulm,  and  in  1810  to  Augsburg;  it  is  now  in  Munich.  In 
1799  Cotta  entered  on  his  political  career,  being  sent  to  Paris  by 
the  Wurttemberg  estates  as  their  representative.  Here  he  made 
friendships  which  proved  very  advantageous  for  the  Allgemeine 
Zeitung.  In  1801  he  paid  another  visit  to  Paris,  also  in  a  political 
capacity,  when  he  carefully  studied  Napoleon's  policy,  and 
treasured  up  many  hints  which  were  useful  to  him  in  his  literary 
undertakings.  He  still,  however,'  devoted  most  of  his  attention 
to  his  own  business,  and,  for  many  years,  made  all  the  entries  into 
the  ledger  with  his  own  hand.  He  relieved  the  tedium  of  almost 
ceaseless  toil  by  pleasant  intercourse  with  literary  men.  With 
Schiller,  Huber,  and  Gottlieb  Konrad  Pfeffel  (1736-1809)  he  was 
on  terms  of  the  warmest  friendship;  and  he  was  also  intimate 
with  Herder,  Schelling,  Fichte,  Richter,  Voss,  Hebel,  Tieck, 
Therese  Huber,  Matthisson,  the  brothers  Humboldt,  Johann 
Mtiller,  Spittler  and  others,  whose  works  he  published  in  whole 
or  in  part.  In  the  correspondence  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt 
with  Varnhagen  von  Ense  we  see  the  familiar  relations  in  which 
the  former  stood  to  the  Cotta  family.  In  1795  he  published  the 
Politischen  Annalen  and  the  Jahrbiicher  der  Baukunde,  and  in 
1798  the  Damenalmanach,  along  with  some  works  of  less  import- 
ance. In  1807  he  issued  the  Morgenblatt,  to  which  Schorn's 
Kunstblatt  and  Menzel's  Literaturblatl  were  afterwards  added. 
In  1810  he  removed  to  Stuttgart;  and  from  that  time  till  his 
death  he  was  loaded  with  honours.  State  affairs  and  an  honour- 
able commission  from  the  German  booksellers  took  him  to  the 
Vienna  congress;  and  in  1815  he  was  deputy-elect  at  the 
Wurttemberg  diet.  In  1819  he  became  representative  of  the 
nobility;  then  he  succeeded  to  the  offices  of  member  of  committee 
and  (1824)  vice-president  of  the  Wurttemberg  second  chamber. 
He  was  also  appointed  Prussian  Geheimrat,  and  knight  of  the 
order  of  the  Wurttemberg  crown;  King  William  I.  of  Wurttem- 
berg having  already  revived  the  ancient  nobility  in  his  family  by 
granting  him  the  patent  of  Freiherr  (Baron)  Cotta  von  Cottendorf . 
Meanwhile  such  publications  as  the  Polytechnische  Journal,  the 
Hesperus,  the  Wiirttembergische  Jahrbiicher,  the  Hertha,  the 
Ausland,  and  the  Inland  issued  from  the  press.  In  1828-1829 
appeared  the  famous  correspondence  between  Schiller  and 
Goethe.  Cotta  was  an  unfailing  friend  of  young  struggling  men 
of  talent.  In  addition  to  his  high  standing  as  a  publisher,  he  was 
a  man  of  great  practical  energy,  which  flowed  into  various  fields 
of  activity.  He  was  a  scientific  agriculturist,  and  promoted 
many  reforms  in  farming.  He  was  the  first  Wurttemberg  land- 
holder to  abolish  serfdom  on  his  estates.  In  politics  he  was 
throughout  his  life  a  moderate  liberal.  In  1824  he  set  up  a  steam 
printing  press  in  Augsburg,  and,  about  the  same  time,  founded  a 
literary  institute  at  Munich.  In  1825  he  started  steamboats,  for 
the  first  time,  on  Lake  Constance,  and  introduced  them  in  the 
folio  wing  year  on  the  Rhine.  In  1828  he  was  sent  to  Berlin,  on  an 
important  commission,  by  Bavaria  and  Wurttemberg,  and  was 
there  rewarded  with  orders  of  distinction  at  the  hands  of  the 
three  kings.  He  died,  on  the  29th  of  December  1832  leaving  a  son 
and  a  daughter  as  coheirs. 

His  son,  JOHANN  GEORG  (4),  FREIHERR  COTTA  VON  COTTEN- 
DORF (1796-1863),  succeeded  to  the  management  of  the  business 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  and  was  materially  assisted  by  his 
sister's  husband,  Freiherr  Hermann  von  Reischach.  He  greatly 
extended  the  connexions  of  the  firm  by  the  purchase,  in  1839,  of 


the  publishing  business  of  G.  J.  Goschen  in  Leipzig,  and  in  1845  of 
that  of  Vogel  in  Landshut;  while,  in  1845,  "  Bible"  branches 
were  established  at  Stuttgart  and  Munich.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  younger  son,  Karl,  and  by  his  nephew  (the  son  of  his  sister), 
Hermann  Albert  von  Reischach.  Under  their  joint  partnership, 
the  before-mentioned  firms  in  Leipzig  and  Landshut,  and  an 
artistic  establishment  in  Munich  passed  into  other  hands,  leaving 
on  the  death  of  Hermann  Albert  von  Reischach,  in  1876,  Karl 
von  Cotta  the  sole  representative  of  the  firm,  until  his  death  in 
1888.  In  1889  the  firm  of  J.  G.  Cotta  passed  by  purchase  into 
the  hands  of  Adolf  and  Paul  Kroner,  who  took  others  into 
partnership.  In  1899  the  business  was  converted  into  a  limited 
liability  company. 

See  Albert  Schaffle,  Cotta  (1895);  Verlags-Katalog  der  J.  G. 
Cotta' schen  Buchhandlung,  Nachfolger  (1900) ;  and  Lord  Goschen's 
Life  and  Times  of  G.  J.  Goschen  (1903). 

JOHANN  FRIEDRICH  COTTA  (1701-1779),  the  theologian,  was 
born  on  the  i2th  of  March  1701,  the  son  of  Johann  Georg  Cotta 
(2).  After  studying  theology  at  Tubingen  he  began  his  public 
career  as  lecturer  in  Jena  University.  He  then  travelled  in 
Germany,  France  and  Holland,  and,  after  residing  several  years 
in  London,  became  professor  at  Tubingen  in  1733.  In  1736  he 
removed  to  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  university  of  Gottingen, 
which  had  been  instituted  as  a  seat  of  learning,  two  years  before, 
by  George  II.  of  England,  in  his  capacity  as  eftctor  of  Hanover. 
In  1739,  however,  he  returned,  as  extraordinary  professor  of 
theology,  to  his  Alma  Mater,  and,  after  successively  filling  the 
chairs  of  history,  poetry  and  oratory,  was  appointed  ordinary 
professor  of  theology  in  1741.  Finally  he  died,  as  chancellor  of 
Tubingen  University,  on  the  3ist  of  December  1779.  His 
learning  was  at  once  wide  and  accurate;  his  theological  views 
were  orthodox,  although  he  did  not  believe  in  strict  verbal 
inspiration.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer.  His  chief  works  are 
his  edition  of  Johann  Gerhard's  Loci  Theologici  (1762-1777),  and 
the  Kirchenhistorie  des  Neuen  Testaments  (1768-1773). 

COTTA,  BERNHARD  VON  (1808-1879),  German  geologist,  was 
born  in  a  forester's  lodge  near  Eisenach,  on  the  24th  of  October 
1808.  He  was  educated  atFreibergandHeidelberg.andfrom  1842 
to  1874  he  held  the  professorship  of  geology  in  the  Bergakademie 
of  Freiberg.  Botany  at  first  attracted  him,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
earliest  to  use  the  microscope  in  determining  the  structure  of 
fossil  plants.  Later  on  he  gave  his  attention  to  practical  geology, 
to  the  study  of  ore-deposits,  of  rocks  and  metamorphism ;  and  he 
was  regarded  as  an  excellent  teacher.  His  Rocks  classified  and 
described:  a  Treatise  on  Lithology  (translated  by  P.  H.  Lawrence, 
1866)  was  the  first  comprehensive  work  on  the  subject  issued  in 
the  English  language,  and  it  gave  great  impetus  to  the  study  of 
rocks  in  Britain.  He  died  at  Freiberg  on  the  I4th  of  September 
1879. 

PUBLICATIONS. — Geognostische  Wanderungen  (1836-1838) ;  Grund- 
riss  der  Geognosie  und  Geologic  (1846) ;  Geologische  Brief e  aus  den 
Alpen  (1850);  Praktische  Geologie  (1852);  Geologische  Bilder  (1852, 
ed.  4,  1861);  Die  Gesteinslehre  (1855,  ed.  2,  1862). 

COTTA,  GAIUS  AURELIUS  (c.  124-73  B.C.),  Roman  states- 
man and  orator.  In  92  he  defended  his  uncle  P.  Rutilius  Rufus, 
who  had  been  unjustly  accused  of  extortion  in  Asia.  He  was  on 
intimate  terms  with  the  tribune  M.  Livius  Drusus,  who  was 
murdered  in  91,  and  in  the  same  year  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  tribunate.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  prose- 
cuted under  the  lex  Varia,  directed  against  all  who  had  in  any 
way  supported  the  Italians  against  Rome,  and,  in  order  to  avoid 
condemnation,  went  into  voluntary  exile.  He  did  not  return  till 
82,  during  the  dictatorship  of  Sulla.  In  75  he  was  consul,  and 
excited  the  hostility  of  the  optimates  by  carrying  a  law  that 
abolished  the  Sullan  disqualification  of  the  tribunes  from  holding 
higher  magistracies;  another  law  de  judiciis  privatis,  of  which 
nothing  is  known,  was  abrogated  by  his  brother.  In  74  Cotta 
obtained  the  province  of  Gaul,  and  was  granted  a  triumph  for 
some  victory  of  which  we  possess  no  details;  but  on  the  very  day 
before  its  celebration  an  old  wound  broke  out,  and  he  died 
suddenly.  According  to  Cicero,  P.  Sulpicius  Rufus  and  Cotta 
were  the  best  speakers  of  the  young  men  of  their  time.  Physically 
incapable  of  rising  to  passionate  heights  of  oratory,  Cotta's 


252 


COTTABUS— COTTENHAM 


successes  were  chiefly  due  to  his  searching  investigation  of  facts; 
he  kept  strictly  to  the  essentials  of  the  case  and  avoided  all 
irrelevant  digressions.  His  style  was  pure  and  simple.  He  is 
introduced  by  Cicero  as  an  interlocutor  in  the  De  oratore  and  De 
natura  deorum  (iii.),  as  a  supporter  of  the  principles  of  the  New 
Academy.  The  fragments  of  Sallust  contain  the  substance  of  a 
speech  delivered  by  Cotta  in  order  to  calm  the  popular  anger  at  a 
deficient  corn-supply. 

See  Cicero,  De  oratore,  iii.  3,  Brutus,  49,  55,  90,  92 ;  Sallust,  Hist. 
Frag. ;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.  i.  37. 

His  brother,  Lucius  AURELIUS  COTTA,  when  praetor  in  70  B.C. 
brought  in  a  law  for  the  reform  of  the  jury  lists,  by  which  the 
judices  were  to,,  be  eligible,  not  from  the  senators  exclusively  as 
limited  by  Sulla,  but  from  senators,  equites  and  tribuni  aerarii. 
One-third  were  to  be  senators,  and  two-thirds  men  of  equestrian 
census,  one-half  of  whom  must  have  been  tribuni  aerarii,  a  body 
as  to  whose  functions  there  is  no  certain  evidence,  although  in 
Cicero's  time  they  were  reckoned  by  courtesy  amongst  the 
equites.  In  66  Cotta  and  L.  Manlius  Torquatus  accused  the 
consuls-elect  for  the  following  year  of  bribery  in  connexion  with 
the  elections;  they  were  condemned,  and  Cotta  and  Torquatus 
chosen  in  their  places.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Catilinarian 
conspiracy,  Cotta  proposed  a  public  thanksgiving  for  Cicero's 
services,  and  after  the  latter  had  gone  into  exile,  supported  the 
view  that  there  was  no  need  of  a  law  for  his  recall,  since  the 
law  of  Clodius  was  legally  worthless.  He  subsequently  attached 
himself  to  Caesar,  and  it  was  currently  reported  that  Cotta  (who 
was  then  quindecimvir)  intended  to  propose  that  Caesar  should 
receive  the  title  of  king,  it  being  written  in  the  books  of  fate  that 
the  Parthians  could  only  be  defeated  by  a  king.  Cotta's  intention 
was  not  carried  out  in  consequence  of  the  murder  of  Caesar,  after 
which  he  retired  from  public  life. 

See  Cicero,  Orelli's  Onomasticon;  Sallust,  Catiline,  18;  Suetonius, 
Caesar,  79;  Livy,  Epit.  97;  Veil.  Pat.  ii.  32;  Dio  Cassius  xxxvi. 
44,  xxxvii.  I. 

COTTABUS  (Gr.  KOTTO^OS),  a  game  of  skill  for  a  long  time  in 
great  vogue  at  ancient  Greek  drinking  parties,  especially  in  the 
4th  and  5th  centuries  B.C.  It  is  frequently  alluded  to  by  the 
classical  writers  of  the  period,  and  not  seldom  depicted  on  ancient 
vases.  The  object  of  the  player  was  to  cast  a  portion  of  wine  left 
in  his  drinking  cup  in  such  a  way  that,  without  breaking  bulk  in 
its  passage  through  the  air,  it  should  reach  a  certain  object  set  up 
as  a  mark,  and  there  produce  a  distinct  noise  by  its  impact. 
Both  the  wine  thrown  and  the  noise  made  were  called  \ara^. 
The  thrower,  in  the  ordinary  form  of  the  game,  was  expected  to 
retain  the  recumbent  position  that  was  usual  at  table,  and,  in 
flinging  the  cottabus,  to  make  use  of  his  right  hand  only.  To 
succeed  in  the  aim  no  small  amount  of  dexterity  was  required, 
and  unusual  ability  in  the  game  was  rated  as  high  as  correspond- 
ing excellence  in  throwing  the  javelin.  Not  only  was  the  cottabus 
the  ordinary  accompaniment  of  the  festal  assembly,  but  at  least 
in  Sicily  a  special  building  of  a  circular  form  was  sometimes  erected 
so  that  the  players  might  be  easily  arranged  round  the  basin,  and 
follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession.  Like  all  games  in  which 
the  element  of  chance  found  a  place,  it  was  regarded  as  more  or 
less  ominous  of  the  future  success  of  the  players,  especially  in 
matters  of  love;  and  the  excitement  was  sometimes  further 
augmented  by  some  object  of  value  being  staked  on  the  event. 

Various  modifications  of  the  original  principle  of  the  game  were 
gradually  introduced,  but  for  practical  purposes  we  may  reckon 
two  varieties,  (i)  In  the  Korra^os  8i  o^vftatftcav  shallow  saucers 
(  6£ii/3a$a)  were  floated  in  a  basin  or  mixing-bowl  filled  with  water; 
the  object  was  to  sink  the  saucers  by  throwing  the  wine  into  them, 
and  the  competitor  who  sank  the  greatest  number  was  considered 
victorious,  and  received  the  prize,  which  consisted  of  cakes  or 
sweetmeats.  (2)  K6rni/3os  KaToxros,1  is  not  so  easy  to  under- 
stand, although  there  is  little  doubt  as  to  the  apparatus.  This 
consisted  of  a  /id/35os  or  bronze  rod;  a  TXAowyf,  a  small  disk  or 
basin,  resembling  a  scale-pan;  a  larger  disk  (\tKavis);  and  (in- 

_*The  epithet  KO.TOKT&S  (let  down)  may  refer  to  the  rod,  which 
might  be  raised  or  lowered  as  required;  to  the  lower  disk,  which 
might  be  moved  up  and  down  the  stem ;  to  the  moving  up  and  down 
of  the  scales,  in  the  supposed  variety  of  the  game  mentioned  below. 


most  cases)  a  small  bronze  figure  called  navrrs.  The  discovery 
(by  Professor  Helbig  in  1886)  of  two  sets  of  actual  apparatus  near 
Perugia  and  various  representations  on  vases  help  to  elucidate 
the  somewhat  obscure  accounts  of  the  method  of  playing  the  game 
contained  in  the  scholia  and  certain  ancient  authors  who,  it  must 
not  be  forgotten,  wrote  at  a  time  when  the  game  itself  had  become 
obsolete,  and  cannot  therefore  be  looked  to  for  a  trustworthy 
description  of  it. 

The  first  specimen  of  the  apparatus  found  at  Perugia  resembles 
a  candelabrum  on  a  base,  tapering  towards  the  top,  with  a  blunt 
end,  on  which  the  small  disk  (found  near  the  rod),  which  has  a 
hole  near  the  edge  and  is  slightly  hollow  in  the  middle,  could  be 
balanced.  At  about  a  third  of  the  height  of  the  rod  is  a  large 
disk  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  through  which  the  rod  runs;  in  a 
socket  at  the  top  is  a  small  bronze  figure,  with  right  arm  and 
right  leg  uplifted.  In  the  second  specimen  there  is  no  large 
disk,  and  the  figure  is  holding  up  what  is  apparently  a  rhyton  or 
drinking-horn. 

According  to  Prof.  Helbig  in  Mittheilungen  des  deutschen 
archaologischen  Instituts  (Romische  Abtheilung  i.,  1886)  three 
games  were  played  with  this  apparatus.  In  the  first  the  smaller 
disk  was  placed  on  the  top  of  the  rod,  and  the  object  of  the 
player  was  to  dislodge  it  with  a  cast  of  the  wine,  so  that  it  would 
fall  with  a  clatter  on  the  larger  disk  below.  In  the  second  (as  in 
the  third)  the  bronze  figure  was  used;  the  smaller  disk  was  placed 
above  the  figure,  upon  which  it  fell  when  hit,  and  thence  on  to  the 
larger  disk  below.  In  the  third,  there  was  no  smaller  disk;  the 
wine  was  thrown  at  the  figure,  and  fell  on  to  the  larger  disk 
underneath.  Another  supposed  variety,  in  which  two  scales 
were  balanced  in  such  a  manner  that  the  weight  of  the  liquid  cast 
into  either  scale  caused  it  to  dip  down  and  touch  the  top  of  an 
image  placed  under  each,  probably  had  no  real  existence,  but  is 
due  to  a  confusion  of  the  ir\aarLy^  with  a  scale-pan  by  reason  of 
its  shape.  The  game  appears  to  have  been  of  Sicilian  origin,  but 
it  spread  through  Greece  from  Thessaly  to  Rhodes,  and  was 
especially  fashionable  at  Athens.  Dionysius,  Alcaeus,  Anacreon, 
Pindar,  Bacchylides,  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Aristo- 
phanes, Antiphanes,  make  frequent  and  familiar  allusion  to  the 
Korra/Sos;  but  in  the  writers  of  the  Roman  and  Alexandrian 
period  such  reference  as  occurs  shows  that  the  fashion  had  died 
out.  In  Latin  literature  it  is  almost  entirely  unknown. 

The  most  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  is  C.  Sartori's  Das 
Kottabps-Spiel  der  alien  Griechen  (1893),  in  which  a  full  bibliography 
of  ancient  and  modern  authorities  is  given.  English  readers  may  be 
referred  to  an  article  by  A.  Higgins  on  "  Recent  Discoveries  of  the 
Apparatus  used  in  playing  the  Game  of  Kottabos  "  (Arckaeologia,  li. 
1888);  see  also  "  Kottabos  "  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnairc 
des  antiquites,  and  L.  Becq  de  Fouquieres,Z,w  Jeux  des  anciens  (1 873). 

COTTBUS,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  on 
the  Spree,  72m.  S.E.  of  Berlin  by  the  main  railway  to  Gorlitz,  and 
at  the  intersection  of  the  lines  Halle-Sagan  and  Grossenhain- 
Frankfort-on-Oder.  Pop.  (1905)  46,269.  It  has  four  Protestant 
churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  church  and  a  synagogue.  The  chief 
industry  of  the  town  is  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  which  has 
flourished  here  for  centuries  and  now  employs  more  than  6000 
hands.  Wool-spinning,  cotton-spinning  and  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco,  machinery,  beer,  brandy,  &c.,  are  also  carried  on.  The 
town  is  also  a  considerable  trading  centre,  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
chamber  of  commerce  and  of  a  branch  of  the  Imperial  Bank 
(Reichsbank) .  In  the  Stadtwald,  close  to  the  town,  is  a  women's 
hospital  for  diseases  of  the  lungs,  a  government  institution  in 
connexion  with  the  state  system  of  insurance  against  incapacity 
and  old  age.  At  Branitz,  a  neighbouring  village,  are  the  magni- 
ficent chateau  and  park  of  Prince  Puckler-Muskau. 

At  one  time  Cottbus  formed  an  independent  lordship  of  the 
Empire,  but  in  1462  it  passed  by  the  treaty  of  Guben  to  Branden- 
burg. From  1807  to  1813  it  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 

COTTENHAM,  CHARLES  CHRISTOPHER  PEPYS,  ist  EARL 
OF  (1781-1851),  lord  chancellor  of  England,  was  born  in  London 
on  the  2pth  of  April  1781.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Sir  William 
W.  Pepys,  a  master  in  chancery,  who  was  descended  from  John 
Pepys,  of  Cottenham,  Cambridgeshire,  a  great-uncle  of  Samuel 
Pepys,  the  diarist.  Educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College, 


COTTER— COTTIN 


253 


Cambridge,  Pepyswas  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1804. 
Practising  at  the  chancery  bar,  his  progress  was  extremely  slow, 
and  it  was  not  till  twenty-two  years  after  his  call  that  he  was 
made  a  king's  counsel.  He  sat  in  parliament,  successively,  for 
Higham  Ferrars  and  Malton,  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in 

1834,  and  in  the  same  year  became  master  of  the  rolls.     On  the 
formation  of  Lord  Melbourne's  second  administration  in  April 

1835,  the  great  seal  was  for  a  time  in  commission,  but  eventually 
Pepys,  who  had  been  one  of  the  commissioners,  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  (January  1836)  with  the  title  of  Baron  Cottenham. 
He  held  office  until  the  defeat  of  the  ministry  in  1841.     In  1846 
he  again  became  lord  chancellor  in  Lord  John  Russell's  adminis- 
tration.    His  health,  however,  had  been  gradually  failing,  and 
he  resigned  in  1850.     Shortly  before  his  retirement  he  had  been 
created  Viscount  Crowhurst  and  earl  of  Cottenham.     He  died  at 
Pietra  Santa,  in  the  duchy  of  Lucca,  on  the  zgth  of  April  1851. 

Both  as  a  lawyer  and  as  a  judge,  Lord  Cottenham  was  remark- 
able for  his  mastery  of  the  principles  of  equity.  An  indifferent 
speaker,  he  nevertheless  adorned  the  bench  by  the  soundness  of 
his  law  and  the  excellence  of  his  judgments.  As  a  politician  he 
was  somewhat  of  a  failure,  while  his  only  important  contribution 
to  the  statute-book  was  the  Judgments  Act  1838,  which  amended 
the  law  for  the  relief  of  insolvent  debtors. 

The  title  of  earl  of  Cottenham  descended  in  turn  to  two  of  the 
earl's  sons,  Charles  Edward  (1824-1863),  and  William  John 
(1825-1881),  and  then  to  the  latter's  son,  Kenelm  Charles 
Edward  (b.  1874). 

AUTHORITIES. — Campbell,  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors  (1869) ; 
E.  Foss,  The  Judges  of  England  (1848-1864);  E.  Manson,  Builders 
of  our  Law  (1904) ;  J.  B.  Atlay,  The  Victorian  Chancellors  (1906). 

COTTER,  COTTAR,  or  COTTIER,  a  word  derived  from  the  Latin 
cola,  a  cot  or  cottage,  and  used  to  describe  a  man  who  occupies  a 
cottage  and  cultivates  a  small  plot  of  land.  .This  word  is  often 
employed  to  translate  the  cotarius  of  Domesday  Book,  a  class 
whose  exact  status  has  been  the  subject  of  some  discussion,  and 
is  still  a  matter  of  doubt.  According  to  Domesday  the  cotarii 
were  comparatively  few,  numbering  less  than  seven  thousand,  and 
were  scattered  unevenly  throughout  England,  being  principally 
in  the  southern  counties ;  they  were  occupied  either  in  cultivating 
a  small  plot  of  land,  or  in  working  on  the  holdings  of  the  villani. 
Like  the  villani,  among  whom  they  were  frequently  classed, 
their  economic  condition  maybe  described  as"  free  in  relation  to 
every  one  except  their  lord." 

See  F.  W.  Maitland,  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond  (Cambridge, 
1897);  and  P.  Vinogradoff,  Villainage  in  England  (Oxford,  1892). 

COTTESWOLD  HILLS,  or  COTSWOLDS,  a  range  of  hills  in  the 
western  midlands  of  England.  The  greater  part  lies  in  Glou- 
cestershire, but  the  system  covered  by  the  name  also  extends 
into  Worcestershire,  Warwickshire,  Oxfordshire,  Wiltshire  and 
Somersetshire.  It  extends  on  a  line  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  forming 
a  part  of  the  great  Oolitic  belt  extending  through  the  English 
midlands.  On  the  west  the  hills  overlook  the  vales  of  Evesham, 
Gloucester  and  Berkeley  (valleys  of  the  Worcestershire  Avon  and 
the  Severn),  with  a  bold  escarpment  broken  only  by  a  few  abrupt 
spurs,  such  as  Bredon  hill,  between  Tewkesbury  and  Evesham. 
On  the  east  they  slope  more  gently  towards  the  basins  of  the 
upper  Thames  and  the  Bristol  Avon.  The  watershed  lies  close  to 
the  western  line,  except  where  the  Stroud  valley,  with  the  Frome, 
draining  to  the  Severn,  strikes  deep  into  the  heart  of  the  hills. 
The  principal  valleys  are  those  of  the  Windrush,  Lech,  Coin  and 
Churn,  feeders  of  the  Thames,  the  Thames  itself,  and  the  Bristol, 
Avon.  The  last,  wherein  lie  Bath  and  Bristol,  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Cotteswolds;  the  northern  is  formed  by  the 
valleys  of  the  Evenlode  (draining  to  the  Thames)  and  the  Stour 
(to  the  Worcestershire  Avon),  with  the  low  divide  between  them. 
The  crest-line  from  Bath  at  the  south  to  Meon  Hill  at  the  north 
measures  57  m.  The  breadth  varies  from  6  m.  in  the  south  to 
28  towards  the  north,  and  the  area  is  some  300  sq.  m.  The 
features  are  those  of  a  pleasant  sequestered  pastoral  region, 
rolling  plateaus  or  wolds  and  bare  uplands  alternating  with  deep 
narrow  valleys,  well  wooded  and  traversed  by  shallow,  rapid 
streams.  The  average  elevation  is  about  600  ft.,  but  Cleeve 


Cloud  above  Cheltenham  in  the  Vale  of  Gloucester  reaches 
1 134  f  t.>  and  Broadway  Hill,  in  the  north,  1086  ft.  These  heights 
command  splendid  views  over  the  rich  vales  towards  the 
distant  hills  of  Herefordshire  and  the  Forest  of  Dean.  The 
picturesque  village  of  Broadway  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  of  that 
name  is  much  in  favour  with  artists. 

In  the  soil  of  the  hill  country  is  so  much  lime  that  a  liberal 
supply  of  manure  is  required.  With  this  good  crops  of  barley 
and  oats  are  obtained,  and  even  of  wheat,  if  the  soil  is  mixed  with 
clay.  But  the  poorest  land  of  the  hill  country  affords  excellent 
pasturage  for  sheep,  the  staple  commodity  of  the  district;  and 
the  sainfoin,  which  grows  wild,  yields  abundantly  under  cultiva- 
tion. The  Cotteswolds  have  been  famous  for  the  breed  of  sheep 
named  from  them  since  the  early  part  of  the  isth  century,  a 
breed  hardy  and  prolific,  with  lambs  that  quickly  put  on  fleece, 
and  become  hardened  to  the  bracing  cold  of  the  hills,  where 
vegetation  is  a  month  later  than  in  the  vales.  Improved  by 
judicious  crossing  with  the  Leicester  sheep,  the  modern  Cottes- 
wold  has  attained  high  perfection  of  weight,  shape,  fleece  and 
quality.  An  impulse  was  given  to  Cotteswold  fanning  by  the 
chartering  in  1845  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  at 
Cirencester. 

A  number  of  small  market-towns  or  large  villages  lie  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  hills,  but  in  the  inner  parts  of  the  district  villages 
are  few.  The  "  capital  of  the  Cotteswolds  "  is  Cirencester,  in  the 
east.  In  the  north  is  Chipping  Campden,  its  great  Perpendicular 
church  and  the  picturesque  houses  of  its  wide  street  commemorat- 
ing the  wealth  of  its  wool-merchants  between  the  i4th  and  I7th 
centuries.  Near  this  town,  in  the  parish  of  Weston-sub-Edge, 
Robert  Dover,  an  attorney,  founded  the  once  famous  Cotteswold 
games  early  in  the  I7th  century.  Horse-racing  and  coursing 
were  included  with  every  sort  of  athletic  exercise  from  quoits  and 
skittles  to  wrestling,  cudgels  and  singlestick.  The  games  were 
suppressed  by  act  of  parliament  in  1851. 

See  Proceedings  of  the  Cotteswold  Naturalists'  Field  Club,  passim ; 
W.  H.  Hutton,  By  Thames  and  Cotswold  (London,  1903). 

COTTET,  CHARLES  (1863-  ),  French  painter,  was  born  at 
Puy.  He  studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  under  Puvis 
de  Chavannes  and  Roll.  He  travelled  and  painted  in  Egypt, 
Italy,  and  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  but  he  made  his  name  with  his 
sombre  and  gloomy,  firmly  designed,  severe  and  impressive 
scenes  of  life  on  the  Brittany  coast.  His  signal  success  was 
achieved  by  his  painting  of  the  triptych,  "  Au  pays  de  la  mer," 
now  at  the  Luxembourg  museum.  The  Lille  gallery  has  his 
"  Burial  in  Brittany." 

COTTII  REGNUM,  a  district  in  the  north  of  Liguria,  including 
a  considerable  part  of  the  important  road  which  led  over  the  pass 
(6 1 1 9  ft.)  of  the  Alpis  Cottia  (Mont  Genevre)  into  Gaul.  Whether 
Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps  by  this  route  is  disputed,  but  it  was 
certainly  in  use  about  100  B.C.  (see  PUNIC  WARS).  In  58  B.C. 
Caesar  met  with  some  resistance  on  crossing  it,  but  seems  after- 
wards to  have  entered  into  friendly  relations  with  Donnus,  the 
king  of  the  district;  he  must  have  used  it  frequently,  and  refers 
to  it  as  the  shortest  route.  Donnus's  son  Cottius  erected  the 
triumphal  arch  at  his  capital  Segusio,  the  modern  Susa,  in 
honour  of  Augustus.  Under  Nero,  after  the  death  of  the  last 
Cottius,  it  became  a  province  under  the  title  of  "  Alpes  Cottiae," 
being  governed  by  a  procurator  Augusti,  though  it  still  kept  its  old 
name  also. 

COTTIN,  MARIE  [called  SOPHIE]  (1770-1807),  French  novelist, 
nee  Risteau  (not  Ristaud),  was  born  in  Paris  in  1770.  At 
seventeen  she  married  a  Bordeaux  banker,  who  died  three  years 
after,  when  she  retired  to  a  house  in  the  country  at  Champlan, 
where  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life.  In  1799  she  published 
anonymously  her  Claire  d'Albe.  Malvina  (1801)  was  also  anony- 
mous; but  the  success  of  Amelie  Mansfield  (1803)  induced 
her  to  reveal  her  identity.  In  1805  appeared  Mathilde,  an 
extravagant  crusading  story,  and  in  1806  she  produced  her  last 
tale,  the  famous  Elisabeth,  ou  les  exiles  de  Sibtrie,  the  subject  of 
which  was  treated  later  with  an  admirable  simplicity  by  Xavier 
de  Maistre.  Sainte-Beuve  asserted  that  she  committed  suicide  on 
account  of  an  unfortunate  attachment.  This  story  is,  however, 


254 


COTTINGTON— COTTON 


unauthenticated.    She  died  at  Champlan  (Seine  et  Oise)  on  the 
25th  of  April  1807. 

A  complete  edition  of  her  works,  with  a  notice  by  A.  Petitot,  was 
published,  in  five  volumes,  in  1817. 

COTTINGTON,  FRANCIS  COTTINGTON,  BARON  (1578-1652), 
English  lord  treasurer  and  ambassador,  was  the  fourth  son  of 
Philip  Cottington  of  Godmonston  in  Somersetshire.  According 
to  Hoare,  his  mother  was  Jane,  daughter  of  Thomas  Biflete,  but 
according  to  Clarendon  "  a  Stafford  nearly  allied  to  Sir  Edward 
Stafford,"  through  whom  he  was  recommended  to  Sir  Charles 
Cornwallis,  ambassador  to  Spain,  becoming  a  member  of  his  suite 
and  acting  as  English  agent  on  the  latter's  recall,  from  1609  to 
1611.  In  1612  he  was  appointed  English  consul  at  Seville. 
Returning  to  England,  he  was  made  a  clerk  of  the  council  in 
September  1613.  His  Spanish  experience  rendered  him  useful  to 
the  king,  and  his  bias  in  favour  of  Spain  was  always  marked. 
He  seems  to  have  promoted  the  Spanish  policy  from  the  first, 
and  pressed  on  Gondomar,  the  Spanish  ambassador,  the  proposal 
for  the  Spanish  in  opposition  to  the  French  marriage  for  Prince 
Charles.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic  at  least  at  heart,  becoming  a 
member  of  that  communion  in  1623,  returning  to  Protestantism, 
and  again  declaring  himself  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1636,  and 
supporting  the  cause  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  England.  In 
1616  he  went  as  ambassador  to  Spain,  making  in  1618  James's 
proposal  of  mediation  in  the  dispute  with  the  elector  palatine. 
After  his  return  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  prince  of 
Wales  in  October  1622,  and  was  knighted  and  made  a  baronet  in 
1623.  He  strongly  disapproved  of  the  prince's  expedition  to 
Spain,  as  an  adventure  likely  to  upset  the  whole  policy  of 
marriage  and  alliance,  but  was  overruled  and  chosen  to  accom- 
pany him.  His  opposition  greatly  incensed  Buckingham,  and 
still  more  his  perseverance  in  the  Spanish  policy  after  the  failure 
of  the  expedition,  and  on  Charles's  accession  Cottington  was 
through  his  means  dismissed  from  all  his  employments  and 
forbidden  to  appear  at  court.  The  duke's  assassination,  however, 
enabled  him  to  return.  On  the  i2th  of  November  1628  he  was 
made  a  privy  councillor, and  in  March  1629  appointed  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  In  the  autumn  he  was  again  sent  ambassador 
to  Spain;  he  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  of  the  5th  of  November 
1630,  and  subsequently  a  secret  agreement  arranging  for  the 
partition  of  Holland  between  Spain  and  England  in  return  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Palatinate.  On  the  loth  of  July  1631  he  was 
created  Baron  Cottington  of  Hanworth  in  Middlesex. 

In  March  1635  he  was  appointed  master  of  the  court  of  wards, 
and  his  exactions  in  this  office  were  a  principal  cause  of  the 
unpopularity  of  the  government.  He  was  also  appointed  a 
commissioner  for  the  treasury,  together  with  Laud.  Between 
Cottington  and  the  latter  there  sprang  up  a  fierce  rivalry.  In  these 
personal  encounters  Cottington  had  nearly  always  the  advantage, 
for  he  practised  great  reserve  and  possessed  great  powers  of  self- 
command,  an  extraordinary  talent  for  dissembling  and  a  fund  of 
humour.  Laud  completely  lacked  these  qualities,  and  though 
really  possessing  much  greater  influence  with  Charles,  he  was 
often  embarrassed  and  sometimes  exposed  to  ridicule  by  his 
opponent.  The  aim  of  Cottington's  ambition  was  the  place  of 
lord  treasurer,  but  Laud  finally  triumphed  and  secured  it  for  his 
own  nominee,  Bishop  Juxon,  when  Cottington  became  "  no  more  a 
leader  but  meddled  with  his  particular  duties  only."1  He  con- 
tinued, however,  to  take  a  large  share  in  public  business  and 
served  on  the  committees  for  foreign,  Irish  and  Scottish  affairs. 
In  the  last,  appointed  in  July  1638,  he  supported  the  war,  and  in 
May  1640,  after  the  dismissal  of  the  Short  Parliament,  he  declared 
it  his  opinion  that  at  such  a  crisis  the  king  might  levy  money 
without  the  Parliament.  His  attempts  to  get  funds  from  the  city 
were  unsuccessful,  and  he  had  recourse  instead  to  a  speculation  in 
pepper.  He  had  been  appointed  constable  of  the  Tower,  and  he 
now  prepared  the  fortress  for  a  siege.  In  the  trial  of  Strafford  in 
1641  Cottington  denied  on  oath  that  he  had  heard  him  use  the 
incriminating  words  about "  reducing  this  kingdom."  When  the 
parliamentary  opposition  became  too  strong  to  be  any  longer 
defied,  Cottington,  as  one  of  those  who  had  chiefly  incurred  their 
1  Strafford's  Letters,  ii.  52. 


hostility,  hastened  to  retire  from  the  administration,  giving  up 
the  court  of  wards  in  May  1641  and  the  chancellorship  of  the 
exchequer  in  January  1642.  He  rejoined  the  king  in  1643,  took 
part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Oxford  parliament,  and  was  made 
lord  treasurer  on  the  3rd  of  October  1643.  He  signed  the 
surrender  of  Oxford  in  July  1646,  and  being  excepted  from 
the  idemnity  retired  abroad.  He  joined  Prince  Charles  at  the 
Hague  in  1648,  and  became  one  of  his  counsellors.  In  1649, 
together  with  Hyde,  Cottington  went  on  a  mission  to  Spain  to 
obtain  help  for  the  royal  cause,  having  an  interview  with  Mazarin 
at  Paris  on  the  way.  They  met,  however,  with  an  extremely 
ill  reception,  and  Cottington  found  he  had  completely  lost  his 
popularity  at  the  Spanish  court,  one  cause  being  his  shortcomings 
and  waverings  in  the  matter  of  religion.  He  now  announced  his 
intention  of  remaining  in  Spain  and  of  keeping  faithful  to  Roman 
Catholicism,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Valladolid,  where  he  was 
maintained  by  the  Jesuits.  He  died  there  on  the  igthof  June 
1652,  his  body  being  subsequently  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
He  had  amassed  a  large  fortune  and  built  two  magnificent  houses 
at  Hanworth  and  Founthill.  Cottington  was  evidently  a  man  of 
considerable  ability,  but  the  foreign  policy  pursued  by  him  was 
opposed  to  the  national  interests  and  futile  in  itself.  According 
to  Clarendon's  verdict  "  he  left  behind  him  a  greater  esteem  of 
his  parts  than  love  of  his  person."  He  married  in  1623  Anne, 
daughter  of  Sir  William  Meredith  and  widow  of  Sir  Robert  Brett. 
All  his  children  predeceased  him,  and  his  title  became  extinct 
at  his  death. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biography  and 
authorities  there  quoted;  Clarendon's  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion,  passim, 
and  esp.  xiii.  30  (his  character),  and  xii.,  xiii.  (account  of  the  Spanish 
mission  in  1649);  Clarendon's  State  Papers  and  Life;  Strafford's 
Letters;  Gardiner's  Hist,  of  England  and  of  the  Commonwealth; 
Hoare's  Wiltshire;  Laud's  Works,  vols.  iii.-vii. ;  Winwood's 
Memorials:  A  Refutation  of  a  False  and  Impious  Aspersion  cast 
on  the  late  Lord  Cottington;  Dart,  Westmonasterium,  i.  181  (epitaph 
and  monument).  (P.  C.  Y.) 

COTTON,  the  name  of  a  well-known  family  of  Anglo-Indian 
administrators,  of  whom  the  following  are  the  most  notable. 

SIR  ARTHUR  THOMAS  COTTON  (1803-1899),  English  engineer, 
tenth  son  of  Henry  Calveley  Cotton,  was  born  on  the  isth  of  May 
1803,  and  was  educated  at  Addiscombe.  He  entered  the  Madras 
engineers  in  1819,  served  in  the  first  Burmese  war  (1824-26),  and 
in  1828  began  his  life-work  on  the  irrigation  works  of  southern 
India.  He  constructed  works  on  the  Cauvery,Coleroon,Godavari 
and  Kistna  rivers,  making  anicuts  (dams)  on  the  Coleroon 
(1836-1838)  for  the  irrigation  of  the  Tanjore,  Trichinopoly  and 
South  Arcot  districts;  and  on  the  Godivari  (1847-1852)  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  Godavari  district.  He  also  projected  the  anicut 
on  the  Kistna  (Krishna),  which  was  carried  out  by  other  officers. 
Before  the  beginning  of  his  work  Tanjore  and  the  adjoining 
districts  were  threatened  with  ruin  from  lack  of  water;  on  its 
completion  they  became  the  richest  part  of  Madras,  and  Tanjore 
returned  the  largest  revenue  of  any  district  in  India.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  school  of  Indian  hydraulic  engineering,  and 
carried  out  much  of  his  work  in  the  face  of  opposition  and 
discouragement  from  the  Madras  government;  though,  in  the 
minute  of  the  isth  of  May  1858,  that  government  paid  an  ample 
tribute  to  the  genius  of  Cotton's  "  master  mind."  He  was 
knighted  in  1861.  Sir  Arthur  Cotton  believed  in  the  possibility 
of  constructing  a  complete  system  of  irrigation  and  navigation 
canals  throughout  India,  and  devoted  the  whole  of  a  long  life  to 
the  partial  realization  of  this  project.  He  died  on  the  24th  of 
July  1899. 

See  Lady  Hope,  General  Sir  Arthur  Cotton  (1900). 

SIR  HENRY  JOHN  STEDMAN  COTTON  (1845-  ),  Anglo- 
Indian  administrator,  son  of  J.  J.  Cotton  of  the  Madras  Civil 
Service,  was  born  on  the  I3th  of  September  1845, t  and  was 
educated  at  Magdalen  College  school  and  King's  College,  London. 
He  entered  the  Bengal  Civil  Service  in  1867,  and  held  various 
appointments  of  increasing  importance  until  he  became  chief 
secretary  to  the  Bengal  government  (1891-1896),  acting  home 
secretary  to  the  government  of  India  (1896),  and  chief  com- 
missioner of  Assam  (1896-1902).  He  retired  in  1902,  and  soon 
became  known  as  the  leading  English  champion  of  the  Indian 


COTTON,  C.— COTTON,  J. 


nationalists.  In  1906  he  entered  parliament  as  Liberal  member 
for  East  Nottingham.  He  was  the  author  of  New  India  (1885; 
revised  1904-1907). 

His  brother,  JAMES  SUTHERLAND  COTTON  (1847-  ),  was 
born  in  India  on  the  I7th  of  July  1847,  and  was  educated  at 
Magdalen  College  school  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  For 
many  years  he  was  editor  of  the  Academy;  he  published  various 
works  on  Indian  subjects,  and  was  the  English  editor  of  the 
revised  edition  of  the  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India  (1908). 

COTTON,  CHARLES  (1630-1687),  English  poet,  the  translator 
of  Montaigne,  was  born  at  Beresford  in  Staffordshire  on  the  28th 
of  April  1630.  His  father,  Charles  Cotton,  was  a  man  of  marked 
ability,  and  counted  among  his  friends  Ben  Jonson,  John  Selden, 
Sir  Henry  Wotton  and  Izaak  Walton.  The  son  was  apparently 
not  sent  to  the  university,  but  he  had  as  tutor  Ralph  Rawson,  one 
of  the  fellows  ejected  from  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  in  1648. 
Cotton  travelled  in  France  and  perhaps  in  Italy,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-eight  he  succeeded  to  an  estate  greatly  encumbered  by 
lawsuits  during  his  father's  lifetime.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
spent  chiefly  in  country  pursuits,  but  from  his  Voyage  to  Ireland 
in  Burlesque  (1670)  we  know  that  he  held  a  captain's  commission 
and  was  ordered  to  that  country.  His  friendship  with  Izaak 
Walton  began  about  1655,  and  the  fact  of  this  intimacy  seems  a 
sufficient  answer  to  the  charges  sometimes  brought  against 
Cotton's  character,  based  chiefly  on  his  coarse  burlesques  of 
Virgil  and  Lucian.  Walton's  initials  made  into  a  cipher  with  his 
own  were  placed  over  the  door  of  his  fishing  cottage  on  the  Dove; 
and  to  the  Compleat  Angler  he  added  "  Instructions  how  to  angle 
for  a  trout  or  grayling  in  a  clear  stream."  He  married  in  1656 
his  cousin  Isabella,  who  was  a  sister  of  Colonel  Hutchinson.  It 
was  for  his  wife's  sister,  Miss  Stanhope  Hutchinson,  that  he 
undertook  the  translation  of  Corneille's  Horace  (1671).  His  wife 
died  in  1670  and  five  years  later  he  married  the  dowager  countess 
of  Ardglass;  she  had  a  jointure  of  £1500  a  year,  but  it  was 
secured  from  his  extravagance,  and  at  his  death  in  1687  he  was 
insolvent.  He  was  buried  in  St  James's  church,  Piccadilly,  on 
the  i6th  of  February  1687.  Cotton's  reputation  as  a  burlesque 
writer  may  account  for  the  neglect  with  which  the  rest  of  his 
poems  have  been  treated.  Their  excellence  was  not,  however, 
overlooked  by  good  critics.  Coleridge  praises  the  purity  and 
unaffectedness  of  his  style  in  Biographia  Literaria,  and  Words- 
worth (Preface,  1815)  gave  a  copious  quotation  from  the  "  Ode  to 
Winter."  The  "  Retirement  "  is  printed  by  Walton  in  the  second 
part  of  the  Compleat  Angler.  His  masterpiece  in  translation,  the 
Essays  of  M.  de  Montaigne  (1685-1686,  1693,  1700,  &c.),  has 
often  been  reprinted,  and  still  maintains  its  reputation;  his  other 
works  include  The  Scarronides,  or  Virgil  Traiiestie  (1664-1670),  a 
gross  burlesque  of  the  first  and  fourth  books  of  the  Aeneid, 
which  ran  through  fifteen  editions;  Burlesque  upon  Burlesque, 
.  .  .  being  some  of  Lucian's  Dialogues  newly  put,  into  English 
fustian  (1675);  The  Moral  Philosophy  of  the  Stoicks  (1667),  from  the 
French  of  Guillaume  du  Vair;  The  History  of  the  Life  of  the  Duke 
d'Espernon  (1670),  from  the  French  of  G.  Girard;  the  Com- 
mentaries (1674)  of  Blaise  de  Montluc;  the  Planter's  Manual 
(1675),  a  practical  book  on  arboriculture,  in  which  he  was  an 
expert;  The  Wonders  of  the  Peake  (1681);  the  Compleat  Gamester 
and  The  Fair  one  of  Tunis,  both  dated  1674,  are  also  assigned  'to 
Cotton. 

William  Oldys  contributed  a  life  of  Cotton  to  Hawkins's  edition 

51760)  of  the  Compleat  Angler.  His  Lyrical  Poems  were  edited  by 
.  R.  Tutin  in  1903,  from  an  unsatisfactory  edition  of  1689.  His 
translation  of  Montaigne  was  edited  in  1892,  and  in  a  more  elaborate 
form  in  1902,  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt,  who  omitted  or  relegated  to  the  notes 
the  passages  in  which  Cotton  interpolates  his  own  matter,  and 
supplied  his  omissions. 

COTTON,  GEORGE  EDWARD  LYNCH  (1813-1866),  English 
educationist  and  divine,  was  born  at  Chester  on  the  29th  of 
October  1813.  He  received  his  education  at  Westminster  school, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Here  he  joined  the  Low 
Church  party,  and  was  also  the  intimate  friend  of  several  dis- 
ciples of  Thomas  Arnold,  among  whom  were  C.  J.  Vaughan 
and  W.  J.  Conybeare.  The  influence  of  Arnold  determined  the 
character  and  course  of  his  life.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  1836,  and 


255 

became  an  assistant-master  at  Rugby.  Here  he  worked  devotedly 
for  fifteen  years,  inspired  with  Arnold's  spirit,  and  heartily  enter- 
ing into  his  plans  and  methods.  He  became  master  of  the  fifth 
form  about  1840  and  was  singularly  successful  with  the  boys. 
In  1852  he  accepted  the  appointment  of  headmaster  at  Marl- 
borough  College,  then  in  a  state  of  almost  hopeless  disorganiza- 
tion, and  in  his  six  years  of  rule  raised  it  to  a  high  position.  In 
1858  Cotton  was  offered  the  see  of  Calcutta,  which,  after  much 
hesitation  about  quitting  Marlborough,  he  accepted.  For  its 
peculiar  duties  and  responsibilities  he  was  remarkably  fitted  by 
the  simplicity  and  strength  of  his  character,  by  his  large  tolerance, 
and  by  the  experience  which  he  had  gained  as  teacher  and  ruler 
at  Rugby  and  Marlborough.  The  government  of  India  had  just 
been  transferred  from  the  East  India  Company  to  the  crown, 
and  questions  of  education  were  eagerly  discussed.  Cotton  gave 
himself  energetically  to  the  work  of  establishing  schools  for 
British  and  Eurasian  children,  classes  which  had  been  hitherto 
much  neglected.  He  did  much  also  to  improve  the  position  of  - 
the  chaplains,  and  was  unwearied  in  missionary  visitation.  His/ 
sudden  death  was  widely  mourned.  On  the  6th  of  October  i860 
he  had  consecrated  a  cemetery  at  Kushtea  on  the  Ganges,  and 
was  crossing  a  plank  leading  from  the  bank  to  the  steamer  when 
he  slipped  and  fell  into  the  river.  He  was  carried  away  by  the 
current  and  never  seen  again. 

A  memoir  of  his  life  with  selections  from  his  journals  and  corre- 
spondence, edited  by  his  widow,  was  published  in  1871. 

COTTON,  JOHN  (1585-1652),  English  and  American  Puritan 
divine,  sometimes  called  "  The  Patriarch  of  New  England,"  born 
in  Derby,  England,  on  the  4th  of  December  1585.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  graduating  B.A.  in  1603 
and  M.A.  in  1606,  and  became  a  fellow  in  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  then  a  stronghold  of  Puritanism,  where,  during  the 
next  six  years,  according  to  his  friend  and  biographer,  Rev. 
Samuel  Whiting,  he  was  "  head  lecturer  and  dean,  and  Catechist," 
and  "  a  dilligent  tutor  to  many  pupils."  In  June  161 2  he  became 
vicar  of  the  parish  church  of  St  Botolphs  in  Boston,  Lincolnshire, 
where  he  remained  for  twenty-one  years  and  was  extremely 
popular.  Becoming  more  and  more  a  Puritan  in  spirit,  he  ceased, 
about  1615,  to  observe  certain  ceremonies  prescribed  by  the 
legally  authorized  ritual,  and  in  1632  action  was  begun  against 
him  in  the  High  Commission  Court.  He  thereupon  escaped, 
disguised,  to  London,  lay  in  concealment  there  for  several 
months,  and,  having  been  deeply  interested  from  its  beginning  in 
the  colonization  of  New  England,  he  eluded  the  watch  set  for  him 
at  the  various  English  ports,  and  in  July  1633  emigrated  to 
the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  arriving  at  Boston  early  in 
September.  On  the  loth  of  October  he  was  chosen  "  teacher  "  of 
the  First  Church  of  Boston,  of  which  John  Wilson  (1588-1667) 
was  pastor,  and  here  he  remained  until  his  death  on  the  23rd 
of  December  1652.  In  the  newer,  as  in  the  older  Boston,  his 
popularity  was  almost  unbounded,  and  his  influence,  both  in 
ecclesiastical  and  in  civil  affairs,  was  probably  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  minister  in  theocratic  New  England.  According  to 
the  contemporary  historian,  William  Hubbard,  "  Whatever  he 
delivered  in  the  pulpit  was  soon  put  into  an  order  of  court,  if  of  a 
civil,  or  set  up  as  a  practice  in  the  church,  if  of  an  ecclesiastical 
concernment."  His  influence,  too,  was  generally  beneficent, 
though  it  was  never  used  to  further  the  cause  of  religious  freedom, 
or  of  democracy,  his  theory  of  government  being  given  in.an  oft- 
quoted  passage:  "  Democracy,  I  do  not  conceyve  that  ever  God 
did  ordeyne  as  a  fitt  government  eyther  for  church  or  common- 
wealth. ...  As  for  Monarchy  and  aristocracy  they  are  both  for 
them  clearly  approved,  and  directed  in  Scripture  yet  so  as  (God) 
referreth  the  sovereigntie  to  himselfe,  and  setteth  up  Theocracy 
in  both,  as  the  best  form  of  government."  He  naturally  took  an 
active  part  in  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  political  and  theological 
controversies  of  his  time,  the  two  principal  of  which  were  those 
concerning  Antinomianism  and  the  expulsion  of  Roger  Williams. 
In  the  former  his  position  was  somewhat  equivocal — he  first 
supported  and  then  violently  opposed  Anne  Hutchinson, — in  the 
latter  he  approved  Williams's  expulsion  as  "  righteous  in  the  eyes 
of  God,"  and  subsequently  in  a  pamphlet  discussion  with 


256 


COTTON,  SIR  R.  B.— COTTON 


Williams,  particularly  in  his  Bloudy  Tenent,  Washed  and  made 
White  in  the  Bloud  of  the  Lamb  (1647),  vigorously  opposed 
religious  freedom.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  was  a 
prolific  writer.  His  writings  include:  The  Key es  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Heaven  and  the  Power  thereof  (1644) ,  The  Way  of  the  Churches  of 
Christ  in  New  England  (1645),  and  The  Way  of  Congregational 
Churches  Cleared  (1648),  these  works  constituting  an  invaluable 
exposition  of  New  England  Congregationalism;  and  Milk  for 
Babes,  Drawn  out  of  the  Breasts  of  Both  Testaments,  Chiefly  for 
the  Spirituall  Nourishment  of  Boston  Babes  in  either  England, 
but  may  be  of  like  Use  for  any  Children  (1646),  widely  used  for 
many  years,  in  New  England,  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
children. 

See  the  quaint  sketch  by  Cotton  Mather,  John  Cotton's  grandson, 
in  Magnolia  (London,  1702),  and  a  sketch  by  Cotton's  contemporary 
and  friend,  Rev.  Samuel  Whiting,  printed  in  Alexander  Young's 
Chronicles  of  the  First  Planters  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
from  1623  to  1636  (Boston,  1846) ;  also  A.  W.  McClure's  The  Life  of 
John  Cotton  (Boston,  1846),  a  chapter  in  Arthur  B.  Ellis's  History 
of  the  First  Church  in  Boston  (Boston,  1 88 1 ), and  a  chapter  in  Williston 
Walker's  Ten  New  England  Leaders  (New  York,  1901).  (W.  WR.) 

COTTON,  SIR  ROBERT  BRUCE,  Bart.  (1571-1631),  English 
antiquary,  the  founder  of  the  Cottonian  library,  born  at  Denton 
in  Huntingdonshire  on  the  2  2nd  of  January  1571,  was  a 
descendant,  as  he  delighted  to  boast,  of  Robert  Bruce.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school  under  William  Camden  the 
antiquary,  and  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  His  antiquarian 
tastes  were  early  displayed  in  the  collection  of  ancient  records, 
charters  and  other  manuscripts,  which  had  been  dispersed  from 
the  monastic  libraries  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.;  and  through- 
out the  whole  of  his  life  he  was  an  energetic  collector  of  antiquities 
from  all  parts  of  England  and  the  continent.  His  house  at 
Westminster  had  a  garden  going  down  to  the  river  and  occupied 
part  of  the  site  of  the  present  House  of  Lords.  It  was  the 
meeting-place  in  the  last  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  of  the  anti- 
quarian society  founded  by  Archbishop  Parker.  In  1600  Cotton 
visited  the  north  of  England  with  Camden  in  search  of  Pictish 
and  Roman  monuments  and  inscriptions.  His  reputation  as  an 
expert  in  heraldry  led  to  his  being  asked  by  Queen  Elizabeth 
to  discuss  the  question  of  precedence  between  the  English 
ambassador  and  the  envoy  of  Spain,  then  in  treaty  at  Calais. 
He  drew  up  an  elaborate  paper  establishing  the  precedence  of 
the  English  ambassador.  On  the  accession  of  James  I.  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1608  he  wrote  a  Memorial  on  Abuses  in  the 
Navy,  that  resulted  in  a  navy  commission,  of  which  he  was  made  a 
member.  He  also  presented  to  the  king  an  historical  Inquiry 
into  the  Crown  Revenues,  in  which  he  speaks  freely  about  the 
expenses  of  the  royal  household,  and  asserts  that  tonnage  and 
poundage  are  only  to  be  levied  in  war  time,  and  to  "  proceed  out 
of  good  will,  not  of  duty."  In  this  paper  he  supported  the 
creation  of  the  order  of  baronets,  each  of  whom  was  to  pay  the 
crown  £1000;  and  in  1611  he  himself  received  the  title. 

Cotton  helped  John  Speed  in  the  compilation  of  his  History  of 
England  (1611),  and  was  regarded  by  contemporaries  as  the 
compiler  of  Camden's  History  of  Elizabeth.  It  seems  more  likely 
that  it  was  executed  by  Camden,  but  that  Cotton  exercised  a 
general  supervision,  especially  with  regard  to  the  story  of  Mary 
queen  of  Scots.  The  presentation  of  his  mother's  history  was 
naturally  important  to  James  I.,  and  Cotton  himself  took  a  keen 
interest  in  the  matter.  He  had  had  the  room  in  Fotheringay 
where  Mary  was  executed  transferred  to  his  family  seat  at 
Connington.  Meanwhile  he  was  enlarging  his  collection  of 
documents.  In  1614  Arthur  Agarde  (q.v.)  left  his  papers  to  him, 
and  Camden's  manuscripts  came  to  him  in  1623.  In  1615  Cotton, 
as  the  intimate  of  the  earl  of  Somerset,  whose  innocence  he 
always  maintained,  was  placed  in  confinement  on  the  charge  of 
being  implicated  in  the  murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury;  he 
confessed  that  he  had  acted  as  intermediary  between  Sarmiento, 
the  Spanish  ambassador,  and  Somerset,  and  had  altered  the 
dates  of  Somerset's  correspondence.  He  was  released  after 
about  eight  months'  imprisonment  without  formal  trial,  and 
obtained  a  pardon  on  payment  of  £500.  His  friendship  with 
Gondomar,  Spanish  ambassador  in  England  from  1613  to  1621, 


brought  further  suspicion,  probably  undeserved,  upon  Cotton, 
of  unduly  favouring  the  Catholic  party.  From  Charles  I.  and 
Buckingham  Cotton  received  no  favour;  his  attitude  towards 
the  court  had  begun  to  change,  and  he  became  the  intimate 
friend  of  Sir  John  Eliot,  Sir  Simonds  d'Ewes  and  John  Selden. 
He  had  entered  parliament  in  1604  as  member  for  Huntingdon; 
in  1624  he  sat  for  Old  Sarum;  in  1625  for  Thetford;  and  in  1628 
for  Castle  Rising,  Norfolk.  In  the  debate  on  supply  in  1625 
Cotton  provided  Eliot  with  full  notes  defending  the  action  of  the 
opposition  in  parliament,  and  in  1628  the  leaders  of  the  party 
met  at  Cotton's  house  to  decide  on  their  policy.  In  1626  he  gave 
advice  before  the  council  against  debasing  the  standard  of  the 
coinage;  and  in  January  1628  he  was  again  before  the  council, 
urging  the  summons  of  a  parliament.  His  arguments  on  the 
latter  occasion  are  contained  in  his  tract  entitled  The  Danger  in 
which  the  Kingdom  now  standeth  and  the  Remedy.  In  October  of 
the  next  year  he  was  arrested,  together  with  the  earls  of 
Bedford,  Somerset,  and  Clare,  for  having  circulated,  with 
ironical  purpose,  a  tract  known  as  the  Proposition  to  bridle 
Parliament,  which  had  been  addressed  some  fifteen  years  before 
by  Sir  Robert  Dudley  to  James  I.,  advising  him  to  govern  by 
force;  the  circulation  of  this  by  Parliamentarians  was  regarded 
as  intended  to  insinuate  that  Charles's  government  was  arbitrary 
and  unconstitutional.  Cotton  denied  knowledge  of  the  matter, 
but  the  original  was  discovered  in  his  house,  and  the  copies  had 
been  put  in  circulation  by  a  young  man  who  lived  after  him  and 
was  said  to  be  his  natural  son.  Cotton  was  himself  released  the 
next  month;  but  the  proceedings  in  the  star  chamber  continued, 
and,  to  his  intense  vexation,  his  library  was  sealed  up  by  the 
king.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  May  1631,  and  was  buried  in 
Connington  church,  Huntingdonshire,  where  there  is  a  monu- 
ment to  his  memory. 

Many  of  Cotton's  pamphlets  were  widely  read  in  manuscript 
during  his  lifetime,  but  only  two  of  his  works  were  printed,  The 
Reign  of  Henry  III.  (1627)  and  The  Danger  in  which  the  Kingdom 
now  Standeth  (1628).  His  son,  Sir  Thomas  (1594-1662),  added 
considerably  to  the  Cottonian  library;  and  Sir  John,  the  fourth 
baronet,  presented  it  to  the  nation  in  1700.  In  1731  the  collection, 
which  had  in  the  interval  been  removed  to  the  Strand,  and  thence  to 
Ashburnham  House,  was  seriously  damaged  by  fire.  In  1753  it  was 
transferred  to  the  British  Museum. 

See  the  article  LIBRARIES,  and  Edwards's  Lives  of  the  Founders 
of  the  British  Museum,  vol.  i.  Several  of  Cotton's  papers  have 
been  printed  under  the  title  Cottoni  Posthuma;  others  were  published 
by  Thomas  Hearne. 

COTTON  (Fr.  colon;  from  Arab,  qulun),  the  most  important  of 
the  vegetable  fibres  of  the  world,  consisting  of  unicellular  hairs 
which  occur  attached  to  the  seeds  of  various  species  of  plants  of 
the  genus  Gossypium,  belonging  to  the  Mallow  order  (Malvaceae). 
Each  fibre  is  formed  by  the  outgrowth  of  a  single  epidermal  cell 
of  the  testa  or  outer  coat  of  the  seed. 

Botany  and  Cultivation. — The  genus  Gossypium  includes  herbs 
and  shrubs,  which  have  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial, 
and  are  now  found  widely  distributed  throughout  the  tropical 
and  subtropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  South  America, 
the  West  Indies,  tropical  Africa  and  Southern  Asia  are  the 
homes  of  the  various  members,  but  the  plants  have  been  intro- 
duced with  success  into  other  lands,  as  is  well  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  although  no  species  of  Gossypium  is  native  to  the 
United  States  of  America,  that  country  now  produces  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  world's  supply  of  cotton.  Under  normal  conditions 
in  warm  climates  many  of  the  species  are  perennials,  but,  in  the 
United  States  for  example,  climatic  conditions  necessitate  the 
plants  being  renewed  annually,  and  even  in  the  tropics  it  is  often 
found  advisable  to  treat  them  as  annuals  to  ensure  the  production 
of  cotton  of  the  best  quality,  to  facilitate  cultural  operations,  and 
to  keep  insect  and  fungoid  pests  in  check. 

Microscopic  examination  of  a  specimen  of  mature  cotton  shows 
that  the  hairs  are  flattened  and  twisted,  resembling  somewhat 
in  general  appearance  an  empty  and  twisted  fire  hose.  This 
characteristic  is  of  great  economic  importance,  the  natural  twist 
facilitating  the  operation  of  spinning  the  fibres  into  thread  or 
yarn.  It  also  distinguishes  the  true  cotton  from  the  silk  cottons 
or  flosses,  the  fibres  of  which  have  no  twist,  and  do  not  readily 


COTTON 


257 


spin  into  thread,  and  for  this  reason,  amongst  others,  are  very 
considerably  less  important  as  textile  fibres.  The  chief  of  these 
silk  cottons  is  kapok,  consisting  of  the  hairs  borne  on  the  interior 
of  the  pods  (but  not  attached  to  the  seeds)  of  Eriodendron 
an/ractuosum,  the  silk  cotton  tree,  a  member  of  the  Bombacaceae, 
an  order  very  closely  allied  to  the  Malvaceae. 

Classification. — Considerable  difficulty  is  encountered  in 
attempting  to  draw  up  a  botanical  classification  of  the  species  of 
Gossypium.  Several  are  only  known  in  cultivation,  and  we  have 
but  little  knowledge  of  the  wild  parent  forms  from  which  they 
have  descended.  During  the  periods  the  cottons  have  been 
cultivated,  selection,  conscious  or  unconscious,  has  been  carried 
on,  resulting  in  the  raising,  from  the  same  stock  probably,  in 
.different  places,  of  well-marked  forms,  which,  in  the  absence  of  the 
history  of  their  origin,  might  be  regarded  as  different  species. 
Then  again,  during  at  least  the  last  four  centuries,  cotton  plants 
have  been  distributed  from  one  country  to  another,  only  to  render 

still  more  difficult  any 
attempt  to  establish  de- 
finitely the  origin  of  the 
varieties    now    grown. 
Under     these     circum- 
stances it   is   not   sur- 
prising   to    find    that 
those    who    have    paid 
attention  to  the  botany 
of    the    cottons    differ 
greatly  in  the  number 
[of  species  they  recog- 
Inize.    Linnaeus  de- 
Ascribed  five  or  six 
species,  de  Candolle 
thirteen.     Of    the    two 
Italian    botanists    who 
in  comparatively  recent 
years    have    mono- 
graphed the  group, 
Parlatore  (Le  Specie  dei 
coloni,  1866)  recognizes 
seven     species,     whilst 
Todaro  (Relazione  sulla 
cidta  dei  coloni,    1877- 
1878)     describes     over 
fifty  species:    many  of 
these,  however,  are  of 
but  little  economic  im- 
FIG.  i. — Seed-hairs  of  the  Cotton,  Cos-   portance,  and,  in  spite 
sypium  herbaceum.    A ,  Part  of  seed-coat 
with  hairs  (X3);  B\,  insertion  and  lower 
part ;  52,  middle  part ;  and  B3,  upper  part 
of  a  hair  (X3oo). 


From  Strasburger's  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik,  by 
permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 


of  the  difficulties  men- 
tioned above,  it  is 
possible  for  practical 
purposes  to  divide  the 
commercially  important  plants  into  five  species,  placing  these 
in  two  groups  according  to  the  character  of  the  hairs  borne  on 
the  seeds.  Sir  G.  Watt's  exhaustive  work  on  Wild  and  Cultivated 
Cotton  Plants  of  the  World  (1007)  is  the  latest  authority  on  the 
subject;  and  his  views  on  some  debated  points  have  been  in- 
corporated in  the  following  account. 

A  seed  of  "  Sea  Island  cotton  "  is  covered  with  long  hairs  only, 
which  are  readily  pulled  off,  leaving  the  comparatively  small 
black  seed  quite  clean  or  with  only  a  slight  fuzz  at  the  end, 
whereas  a  seed  of  "  Upland  "  or  ordinary  American  cotton  bears 
both  long  and  short  hairs;  the  former  are  fairly  easily  detached 
(less  easily,  however,  than  in  Sea  Island  cotton),  whilst  the  latter 
adhere  very  firmly,  so  that  when  the  long  hairs  are  pulled  off  the 
seed  remains  completely  covered  with  a  short  fuzz.  This  is  also 
the  case  with  the  ordinary  Indian  and  African  cottons.  There 
remains  one  other  important  group,  the  so-called  "  kidney  " 
cottons  in  which  there  are  only  long  hairs,  and  the  seed  easily 
comes  away  clean  as  with  "  Sea  Island,"  but,  instead  of  each 
seed  being  separate,  the  whole  group  in  each  of  the  three  com- 
partments of  the  capsule  is  firmly  united  together  in  a  more  or  less 
kidney-shaped  mass.  Starting  with  this  as  the  basis  of  classifica- 
vii.  9 


I  ft. 


tion,  we  can  construct  the  following  key,  the  remaining  principal 
points  of  difference  being  indicated  in  their  proper  places: — 

i.  Seeds  covered  with  long  hairs  only,  flowers  yellow,   turning 
to  red. 

{A.  Seeds  separate. 
Country  of  origin.Tropical  America— (i)  G.barbadense,L. 
B.  Seeds  of  each  loculus  united. 
Country  of  origin,  S.  America— (2)  G.brasiliense,  Macf. 
i-ii.  Seeds  covered  with  long  and  short  hairs. 

'A.  Flowers  yellow  or  white,  turning  to  red. 

-a.  Leaves  3  to  5  lobed,  often  large. 
Flowers  white. 

Country  of  origin,  Mexico — (3)  G.  hirsutum,  L. 
Leaves  3  to  5,  seldom  7  lobed.     Small. 
Flowers  yellow. 

Country  of  origin,  India— (4)  G.  herbaceum,  L. 
B.  Flowers  purple  or  red.     Leaves  3  to  7  lobed. 
Place  of  origin,  Old  World — (5)  G.  arboreum,  L. 

1.  G.barbadense,L,inn.     This  plant, known  only  in  cultivation, 
is  usually  regarded  as  native  to  the  West  Indies.     Watt  regards  it 
as  closely  allied  to  G.  vitifolium,  and  considers  the  modern  stock  a 
hybrid,  and  probably  not  indigenous  to  the  West  Indies.     He 
classifies  the  modern  high-class  Sea  Island  cottons  as  G.  barba- 
dense,  var.  maritima.     Whatever  may  be  its  true  botanical  name  it 
is  the  plant  known  in  commerce  as  "  Sea  Island  "  cotton,  owing  to 
its  introduction  and  successful  cultivation  in  the  Sea  Islands  and 
the  coastal  districts  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Florida. 
It  yields  the  most  valuable  of  all  cottons,  the  hairs  being  long, 
fine  and  silky,  and  ranging  in  length  from  f  to  25  in.     By  careful 
selection  (the  methods  of  which  are  described  below)  in  the 
United  States,  the  quality  of  the  product  was  much  improved, 
and  on  the  recent  revival  of  the  cotton  industry  in  the  West  Indies 
American  "  Sea  Island  "  seed  was  introduced  back  again  to  the 
original  home  of  the  species. 

Egyptian  cotton  is  usually  regarded  as  being  derived  from  the 
same  species.  Watt  considers  many  of  the  Egyptian  cottons  to 
be  races  or  hybrids  of  G.  peruvianum,  Cav.  Egyptian  cotton  in 
length  of  staple  is  intermediate  between  average  Sea  Island  and 
average  Upland.  It  has,  however,  certain  characteristics  which 
cause  it  to  be  in  demand  even  in  the  United  States,  where  during 
recent  years  Egyptian  cotton  has  comprised  about  80%  of  all  the 
"  foreign  "  cottons  imported.  These  special  qualities  are  its 
fineness,  strength,  elasticity  and  great  natural  twist,  which 
combined  enable  it  to  make  very  fine,  strong  yarns,  suited  to  the 
manufacture  of  the  better  qualities  of  hosiery,  for  mixing  with 
silk  and  wool,  for  making  lace,  &c.  It  also  mercerizes  very  well. 
The  principal  varieties  of  Egyptian  cotton  are:  Mitafifi,  the  best- 
known  and  most  extensively  grown,  hardy  and  but  little  affected 
by  climatic  variation.  It  is  usually  regarded  as  the  standard 
Egyptian  cotton;  the  lint  is  yellowish  brown,  the  seeds  black  and 
almost  smooth,  usually  with  a  little  tuft  of  short  green  hairs  at 
the  ends.  Abassi,  a  variety  comparatively  recently  obtained  by 
selection.  The  lint  is  pure  white,  very  fine  and  silky,  but  not  so 
strong  as  Mitafifi  cotton.  Yannovitch,  a  variety  known  since 
about  1897,  yields  the  finest  and  most  silky  lint  of  the  white 
Egyptian  cottons.  Bamia,  yielding  a  brown  lint,  very  similar 
to  Mitafifi,  but  slightly  less  valuable.  Ashmouni,  a  variety 
principally  cultivated  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  lint  is  brown  and 
generally  resembles  Mitafifi  but  is  less  valuable. 

Other  varieties  are  Zifiri,  Hamouli  and  Gallini,  all  of  minor 
importance. 

2.  G.  brasiliense,  Macf.  (G.  peruvianum,  Engler),  or  kidney 
cotton.    Amongst  the  varieties  of  cotton  which  are  derived  from 
this   species   appear   to   be   Pernambuco,    Maranham,   Ceara, 
Aracaty  and   Maceio  cottons     The  fibre  is  generally  white, 
somewhat  harsh  and  wiry,  and  especially  adapted  for  mixing 
with  wool.     The  staple  varies  in  length  from  i  to  about  i  J  in. 

3.  G.  hirsulum,  Linn.     Although  G.  barbadense  yields  the  most 
valuable  cotton,  G.  hirsulum  is   the   most   important   cotton- 
yielding  plant,  being  the  source  of  American  cotton,  i.e.  Upland, 
Georgia,  New  Orleans  and  Texas  varieties.    The  staple  varies 
usually  in  length  between  }  and  ij  in.     According  to  Watt  there 
are  many  hybrids  in  American  cottons  between  G.  hirsutum  and 
G.  mexicanum. 


COTTON 


4.  G.  herbaceum,  Linn.     Levant  cotton  is  derived  from  this 
species.     The  majority  of  the  races  of  cotton  cultivated  in  India 
are  often  referred  to  this  species,  which  is  closely  allied  to 
G.  hirsutum  and  has  been  regarded  as  identical  with  it.     Amongst 
the  cottons  of  this  source  are  Hinganghat,  Tinnevelly,  Dharwar, 
Broach,  Amraoti  (Oomras  or  Oomrawattee),  Kumta,  Westerns, 
Dholera,  Verawal,  Bengals,  Sind  and  Bhaunagar.     Watt  dissents 
from  this  view  and  classes  these  Indian  cottons  as  G.  obtusifolium 
and  G.  Nanking  with  their  varieties.     The  Indian  cottons  are 
usually  of  short  staple  (about  f  in.),  but  are  probably  capable  of 
improvement. 

5.  G.  arboreum,  Linn.     This  species  is  often  considered  as 
indigenous  to  India,  but  Dr  Engler  has  pointed  out  that  it  is 
found  wild  in  Upper  Guinea,  Abyssinia,  Senegal,  etc.      It  is  the 
"  tree  cotton  "  of  India  and  Africa,  being  typically  a  large  shrub 
or  small  tree.     The  fibre  is  fine  and  silky,  of  about  an  inch  in 
length.     In  India  it  is  known  as  Nurma  or  Deo  cotton,  and 
is  usually  stated  to  be  employed  for  making  thread  for  the 
turbans  of  the  priests.     Commercially  it  is  of  comparatively  minor 
importance. 

The  following  table,  summarized  from  the  Handbook  to  the 
Imperial  Institute  Cotton  Exhibition,  1905,  giving  the  length  of 
staple  and  value  on  one  date  (January  16,  1905),  will  serve  to 
indicate  the  comparative  values  of  some  of  the  principal  com- 
mercial cottons.  The  actual  value,  of  course,  fluctuates  greatly. 

Length  of  Staple.  Value 

Inches.  Per  tt>. 

Sea  Island  Cotton —  s.    d. 

Carolina  Sea  Island   ....      1-8  13 

Florida      „ 1-8  I     o 

Georgia     „       „        ....      1-7  nj 

Barbados  „„....      2-0  13 

Egyptian  Cottons — 

Yannovitch 1-5  9! 

Abassi  ...  1-5  8} 

Good  Brown  Egyptian  (Mitafifi)     .1-2  7J 

American  Cotton — 

Good  middling  Memphis  .  .  •  i'3 
Good  middling  Texas  .  .  .  I-o 
Good  middling  Upland  .  .  .  I-o  4 

Indian  Cottons — 

Fine  Tinnevelly  .       .       .      0-8  4} 

Fine  Bhaunagar  i-o  3J 

Fine  Amraoti      .  .        .       .      i  -o  3! 

Fine  Broach        .  ...      0-9  3fj| 

Fine  Bengal         .  ...      0-9  3}J 

Fine  ginned  Sind  .        .        .      O-8  3H 

Good  ginned  Kumta         .        .        .      i-o  3$ 

The  close  relationship  between  the  length  of  the  staple  and  the 
market  price  will  be  at  once  apparent. 

Cultivation. — Cotton  is  very  widely  cultivated  throughout  the 
world,  being  grown  on  a  greater  or  less  scale  as  a  commercial 
crop  in  almost  every  country  included  in  the  broad  belt  be- 
tween latitudes  43°  N.  and  33°  S.,  or  approximately  within  the 
isothermal  lines  of  60°  F. 

The  cotton  plant  requires  certain  conditions  for  its  successful 
cultivation;  but,  given  these,  it  is  very  little  affected  by  seasonal 
vicissitudes.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  United  States  the  worst 
season  rarely  diminishes  the  crop  by  more  than  about  a  quarter  or 
one-third;  such  a  thing  as  a  "  half-crop  "  is  unknown.  Various 
climatic  factors  may  cause  temporary  checks,  but  the  growing 
and  maturing  period  is  sufficiently  long  to  allow  the  plants  to 
overcome  these  disturbances. 

Cotton  requires  for  its  development  from  six  to  seven  months  of 
favourable  weather.  It  thrives  in  a  warm  atmosphere,  even  in  a 
very  hot  one,  provided  that  it  is  moist  and  that  the  transpiration 
is  not  in  excess  of  the  supply  of  water.  An  idea  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  plant  will  perhaps  be  afforded  by  summarizing  the 
conditions  which  have  been  found  to  give  the  best  results  in  the 
United  States. 

During  April  (when  the  seed  is  usually  sown)  and  May 
frequent  light  showers,  which  keep  the  ground  sufficiently  moist 
to  assist  germination  and  the  growth  of  the  young  plants,  are 
desired.  Three  to  four  inches  of  rain  per  month  is  the  average. 
The  active  growing  period  is  from  early  June  to  about  the  middle 
of  August.  During  June  and  the  first  fortnight  in  July  plenty  of 


sunshine  is  necessary,  accompanied  by  sufficient  rain  to  promote 
healthy,  but  not  excessive,  growth;  the  normal  rainfall  in  the 
cotton  belt  for  this  period  is  about  4^  in.  per  month.  During  the 
second  portion  of  July  and  the  first  of  August  a  slightly  higher 
rainfall  is  beneficial,  and  even  heavy  rains  do  little  harm,  pro- 
vided the  subsequent  months  are  dry  and  warm.  The  first 
flowers  usually  appear  in  June,  and  the  bolls  ripen  from  early  in 
August.  Picking  takes  place  normally  during  September  and 
October,  and  during  these  months  dry  weather  is  essential. 
Flowering  and  fruiting  go  on  continually,  although  in  diminishing 
degree,  until  the  advent  of  frost,  which  kills  the  flowers  and 
young  bolls  and  so  puts  an  end  to  the  production  of  cotton  for 
the  season. 

In  the  tropics  the  essential  requirements  are  very  similar,  but 
there  the  dry  season  checks  production  in  much  the  same  way  as 
do  the  frosts  in  temperate  climates.  In  either  case  an  adequate 
but  not  excessive  rainfall,  increasing  from  the  time  of  sowing  to 
the  period  of  active  growth,  and  then  decreasing  as  the  bolls 
ripen,  with  a  dry  picking  season,  combined  with  sunny  days  and 
warm  nights,  provide  the  ideal  conditions  for  successful  cotton 
cultivation.  In  regions  where  climatic  conditions  are  favourable, 
cotton  grows  more  or  less  successfully  on  almost  all  kinds  of  soil; 
it  can  be  grown  on  light  sandy  soils,  loams,  heavy  clays  and 
sandy  "  bottom  "  lands  with  varying  success.  Sandy  uplands 
produce  a  short  stalk  which  bears  fairly  well.  Clay  and  "  bottom  " 
lands  produce  a  large,  leafy  plant,  yielding  less  lint  in  proportion. 
The  most  suitable  soils  are  medium  grades  of  loam.  The  soil 
should  be  able  to  maintain  very  uniform  conditions  of  moisture. 
Sudden  variations  in  the  amount  of  water  supplied  are  injurious: 
a  sandy  soil  cannot  retain  water;  on  the  other  hand  a  clay  soil 
often  maintains  too  great  a  supply,  and  rank  growth  with  excess 
of  foliage  ensues.  The  best  soil  for  cotton  is  thus  a  deep,  well- 
drained  loam,  able  to  afford  a  uniform  supply  of  moisture  during 
the  growing  period.  Wind  is  another  important  factor,  as 
cotton  does  not  do  well  in  localities  subject  to  very  high  winds; 
and  in  exposed  situations,  otherwise  favourable,  wind  belts 
have  at  times  to  be  provided. 

Cultivation  in  the  United  Stales. — The  United  States  being  the 
most  important  cotton-producing  country,  the  methods  of 
cultivation  practised  there  are  first  described,  notes  on  methods 
adopted  in  other  countries  being  added  only  when  these  differ 
considerably  from  American  practice. 

The  culture  of  cotton  must  be  a  clean  one.  It  is  not  necessarily 
deep  culture,  and  during  the  growing  season  the  cultivation  is 
preferably  very  shallow.  The  result  is  a  great  destruction  of  the 
humus  of  the  soil,  and  great  leaching  and  washing,  especially  in 
the  light  loams  of  the  hill  country  of  the  United  States.  The  main 
object,  therefore,  of  the  American  cotton-planter  is  to  prevent 
erosion.  Wherever  the  planters  have  failed  to  guard  their  fields 
by  hillside  ploughing  and  terracing,  these  have  been  extensively 
denuded  of  soil,  rendering  them  barren,  and  devastating  other 
fields  lying  at  a  lower  level,  which  are  covered  by  the  wash.  The 
hillsides  have  gradually  to  be  terraced  with  the  plough,  upon 
almost  an  exact  level.  On  the  better  farms  this  is  done  with  a 
spirit-level  or  compass  from  time  to  time  and  hillside  ditches  put 
in  at  the  proper  places.  In  the  moist  bottom-lands  along  the 
rivers  it  is  the  custom  to  throw  the  soil  up  in  high  beds  with  the 
plough,  and  then  to  cultivate  them  deep.  This  is  the  more 
common  method  of  drainage,  but  it  is  expensive,  as  it  has  to  be 
renewed  every  few  years.  More  intelligent  planters  drain  their 
bottom-lands  with  underground  or  open  drains.  In  the  case  of 
small  plantations  the  difficulties  of  adjusting  a  right-of-way  for 
outlet  ditches  have  interfered  seriously  with  this  plan.  Many 
planters  question  the  wisdom  of  deepbreaking  and  subsoiling. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  a  deep  soil  is  better  for  the  cotton- 
plant;  but  the  expense  of  obtaining  it,  the  risk  of  injuring  the 
soil  through  leaching,  and  the  danger  of  bringing  poor  soil  to  the 
surface,  have  led  many  planters  to  oppose  this  plan.  Sandy  soils 
are  made  thereby  too  dry  and  leachy,  and  it  is  a  questionable 
proceeding  to  turn  the  heavy  clays  upon  the  top.  Planters  are, 
as  a  result,  divided  in  opinion  as  to  the  wisdom  of  subsoiling. 
Nothing  definite  can  be  said  with  regard  to  a  rotation  of  crops 


COTTON 


259 


upon  the  cotton  plantation.  Planters  appreciate  generally  the 
value  of  broad-leaved  and  narrow-leaved  plants  and  root  crops, 
but  there  is  an  absence  of  exact  knowledge,  with  the  result  that 
their  practices  are  very  varied.  It  is  believed  that  the  rotation 
must  differ  with  every  variety  of  soil,  with  the  result  that  each 
planter  has  his  own  method,  and  little  can  be  said  in  general.  A 
more  careful  study  of  the  physical  as  well  as  the  chemical 
properties  of  a  soil  must  precede  intelligent  experimentation  in 
rotation.  This  knowledge  is  still  lacking  with  regard  to  most  of 
the  cotton  soils.  The  only  uniform  practice  is  to  let  the  fields 
"  rest "  when  they  have  become  exhausted.  Nature  then  restores 
them  very  rapidly.  The  exhaustion  of  the  soil  under  cotton 
culture  is  chiefly  due  to  the  loss  of  humus,  and  nature  soon  puts 
this  back  in  the  excellent  climate  of  the  cotton-growing  belt. 
Fields  considered  utterly  used  up,  and  allowed  to  "  rest  "  for 
years,  when  cultivated  again  have  produced  better  crops  than 
those  which  had  been  under  a  more  or  less  thoughtful  rotation. 
In  spite  of  the  clean  culture,  good  crops  of  cotton  have  been  grown 
on  some  soils  in  the  south  for  more  than  forty  successive  years. 
The  fibre  takes  almost  nothing  from  the  land,  and  where  the 
seeds  are  restored  to  the  soil  in  some  form,  even  without  other 
fertilizers,  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  is  very  slow.  If  the  burning- 
up  of  humus  and  the  leaching  of  the  soil  could  be  prevented,  there 
is  no  reason  why  a  cotton  soil  should  not  produce  good  crops 
continuously  for  an  indefinite  time.  Bedding  up  land  previous 
to  planting  is  almost  universal.  The  bed  forms  a  warm  seed-bed 
in  the  cool  weather  of  early  spring,  and  holds  the  manure  which  is 
drilled  in  usually  to  better  advantage.  The  plants  are  generally 
left  2  or  3  in.  above  the  middle  of  the  row,  which  in  four-foot  rows 
gives  a  slope  of  i  in.  to  the  foot,  causing  the  plough  to  lean  from 
the  plants  in  cultivating,  and  thus  to  cut  fewer  roots.  The  plants 
are  usually  cut  out  with  a  hoe  from  8  to  14  in.  apart.  It  seems  to 
make  little  difference  exactly  what  distance  they  are,  so  long  as 
they  are  not  wider  apart  on  average  land  than  i  ft.  On  rich 
bottom-land  they  should  be  more  distant.  The  seed  is  dropped 
from  a  planter,  five  or  six  seeds  in  a  single  line,  at  regular  intervals 
10  to  1 2  in.  apart.  A  narrow  deep  furrow  is  usually  run  immedi- 
ately in  advance  of  the  planter,  to  break  up  the  soil  under  the 
seed.  The  only  time  the  hoe  is  used  is  to  thin  out  the  cotton  in 
the  row;  all  the  rest  of  the  cultivation  is  by  various  forms  of 
ploughs  and  so-called  cultivators.  The  question  of  deep  and 
shallow  culture  has  been  much  discussed  among  planters  without 
any  conclusion  applicable  to  all  soils  being  reached.  All  grass 
and  weeds  must  be  kept  down,  and  the  crust  must  be  broken 
after  every  rain,  but  these  seem  to  be  the  only  principles  upon 
which  all  agree.  The  most  effective  tool  against  the  weeds  is  a 
broad  sharp  "  sweep,"  as  it  is  called,  which  takes  everything  it 
meets,  while  going  shallower  than  most  ploughs.  Harrows  and 
cultivators  are  used  where  there  are  few  weeds,  and  the  mulching 
process  is  the  one  desired. 

The  date  of  cotton-planting  varies  from  March  i  to  June  i , 
according  to  situation.  Planting  begins  early  in  March  in 
Southern  Texas,  and  the  first  blooms  will  appear  there  about  May 
15.  Planting  may  be  done  as  late  as  April  15  in  the  Piedmont 
region  of  North  Carolina,  and  continue  as  late  as  the  end  of  May. 
The  first  blooms  will  appear  in  this  region  about  July  1 5.  Picking 
may  begin  on  July  10  in  Southern  Texas,  and  continue  late  into 
the  winter,  or  until  the  rare  frost  kills  the  plants.  It  may  not 
begin  until  September  10  in  Piedmont,  North  Carolina.  It  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  cotton-plant  to  lose  a  great  many  of  its  blooms 
and  bolls.  When  the  weather  is  not  favourable  at  the  fruiting 
stage,  the  otherwise  hardy  cotton  plant  displays  its  great  weak- 
ness in  this  way.  It  sheds  its  "  forms  "  (as  the  buds  are  called), 
blooms,  and  even  half-grown  bolls  in  great  numbers.  It  has 
frequently  been  noted  that  even  well-fertilized  plants  upon  good 
soil  will  mature  only  15  or  20%  of  the  bolls  produced.  No 
means  are  known  so  far  for  preventing  this  great  waste.  Experts 
are  at  an  entire  loss  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  cause,  or  to 
apply  any  effective  remedy. 

Cotton-picking  is  at  once  the  most  difficult  and  most  expensive 
operation  in  cotton  production.  It  is  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  from 
45  to  50  cents  per  cwt.  of  seed  cotton.  The  work  is  light,  and 


is  effectually  performed  by  women  and  even  children,  as  well  as 
men;  but  it  is  tedious  and  requires  care.  The  picking  season 
will  average  100  days.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  hands  to  work 
until  the  cotton  is  fully  opened,  and  it  is  hard  to  induce  them  to 
pick  over  100  Ib  a  day,  though  some  expert  hands  are  found  in 
every  cotton  plantation  who  can  pick  twice  as  much.  The  loss 
resulting  from  careless  work  is  very  serious.  The  cotton  falls  out 
easily  or  is  dropped.  The  careless  gathering  of  dead  leaves  and 
twigs,  and  the  soiling  of  the  cotton  by  earth  or  by  the  natural 
colouring  matter  from  the  bolls,  injure  the  quality.  It  has  been 
commonly  thought  that  the  production  of  cotton  in  the  south  is 
limited  by  the  amount  that  can  be  picked,  but  this  limit  is 
evidently  very  remote.  The  negro  population  of  the  towns  and 
villages  of  the  cotton  country  is  usually  available  for  a  consider- 
able share  in  cotton-picking.  There  is  in  the  cotton  states  a  rural 
population  of  over  7,000,000,  more  or  less  occupied  in  cotton- 
growing,  and  capable,  at  the  low  average  of  too  ft>  a  day,  of 
picking  daily  nearly  500,0x20  bales.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  if 
this  number  could  work  through  the  whole  season  of  100  days, 
they  could  pick  three  or  four  times  as  much  cotton  as  the  largest 
crop  ever  made.  Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  devise  cotton- 
picking  machines,  but,  as  yet,  complete  success  has  not  been 
attained.  Lowne's  machine  is  useful  in  specially  wide-planted 
fields  and  when  the  ground  is  sufficiently  hard. 

Cotton  Ginning. — The  crop  having  been  picked,  it  has  to  be 
prepared  for  purpose  of  manufacture.  This  comprises  separating 
the  fibre  or  lint  from  the  seeds,  the  operation  being  known  as 
"  ginning."  When  this  has  been  accomplished  the  weight  of  the 
crop  is  reduced  to  about  one-third,  each  100  Ib  of  seed  cotton  as 
picked  yielding  after  ginning  some  33  Ib  of  lint  and  66  Ib  of  cotton 
seed.  The  actual  amounts  differ  with  different  varieties,  condi- 
tions of  cultivation,  methods  of  ginning,  &c.;  a  recent  estimate 
in  the  United  States  gives  35%  of  Jint  for  Upland  cotton  and 
25%  for  Sea  Island  cotton  as  more  accurate. 

The  separation  of  lint  from  seed  is  accomplished  in  various 
ways.  The  most  primitive  is  hand-picking,  the  fibre  being 
laboriously  pulled  from  off  each  seed,  as  still  practised  in  parts 
of  Africa.  In  modern  commercial  cotton  production  ginning 
machines  are  always  used.  Very  simple  machines  are  used  in 
some  parts  of  Africa.  The  simplest  cotton  gin  in  extensive  use 
is  the  "  churka,"  used  from  early  times,  and  still  largely  employed 
in  India  and  China.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  rollers  either 
both  of  wood,  or  one  of  wood  and  one  of  iron,  geared  to  revolve 
in  contact  in  opposite  directions;  the  seed  cotton  is  fed  to  the 
rollers,  the  lint  is  drawn  through,  and  the  seed  being  unable  to 
pass  between  the  rollers  is  rejected.  With  this  primitive  machine, 
worked  by  hand,  about  5  Ib  of  lint  is  the  daily  output.  In  the 
Macarthy  roller  gin,  the  lint,  drawn  by  a  roller  covered  with 
leather  (preferably  walrus  hide),  is  drawn  between  a  metal  plate 
called  the  "  doctor  "  (fixed  tangentially  to  the  roller  and  very 
close  to  it)  and  a  blade  called  the  "beater"  or  knife,  which 
rapidly  moves  up  and  down  immediately  behind,  and  parallel  to, 
the  fixed  plate.  The  lint  is  held  by  the  roughness  of  the  roller, 
and  the  blade  of  the  knife  or  beater  readily  detaches  the  seed 
from  the  lint;  the  seed  falls  through  a  grid,  while  the  lint  passes 
over  the  roller  to  the  other  side  of  the  machine.  A  hand 
Macarthy  roller  gin  worked  by  two  men  will  dean  about  4  to  6  Ib 
of  lint  per  hour.  A  similar,  but  larger  machine,  requiring  about 
ij  horse-power  to  run  it,  will  turn  out  50  to  60  Ib  of  Egyptian  or 
60  to  80  Ib  of  Sea  Island  cleaned  cotton  per  hour.  By  simple 
modifications  the  Macarthy  gin  can  be  used  for  all  kinds  of 
cotton.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  a  comb 
for  the  knife  or  beater,  and  one  of  the  latest  productions  is  the 
"  Universal  fibre  gin,"  in  which  a  series  of  blunt  combs  working 
horizontally  replace  the  solid  beater  and  so-called  knife  of  the 
Macarthy  gin. 

Opposed  to  the  various  types  of  roller  gins  is  the  "  saw  gin," 
invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  an  American,  in  1792.  This  machine, 
under  various  modifications,  is  employed  for  ginning  the  greater 
portion  of  the  cotton  grown  in  the  Southern  States  of  America. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  series  of  circular  notched  disks,  the 
so-called  saws,  revolving  between  the  interstices  of  an  iron  bed 


26o 


COTTON 


upon  which  the  cotton  is  placed:  the  teeth  of  the  "  saws  " 
catch  the  lint  and  pull  it  off  from  the  seeds,  then  a  revolving 
brush  removes  the  detached  lint  from  the  saws,  and  creates 
sufficient  draught  to  carry  the  lint  out  of  the  machine  to  some 
distance.  Saw  gins  do  considerable  damage  to  the  fibre,  but  for 
short-stapled  .cotton  they  are  largely  used,  owing  to  their  great 
capacity.  The  average  yield  of  lint  per  "  saw  "  in  the  United 
States,  when  working  under  perfect  conditions,  is  about  6  Ib  per 
hour.  Some  of  the  American  ginners  are  very  large  indeed,  a 
number  (Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  on  Cotton  Produc- 
tion) being  reported  as  containing  on  the  average  1156  saws 
with  an  average  production  of  4120  bales  of  cotton.  Saw  gins 
are  not  adapted  to  long-stapled  cottons,  such  as  Sea  Island 
and  Egyptian,  which  are  generally  ginned  by  machines  of  the 
Macarthy  type. 

The  machine  which  will  gin  the  largest  quantity  in  the  shortest 
time  is  naturally  preferred,  unless  such  injury  is  occasioned  as 
materially  to  diminish  the  market  value  of  the  cotton.  This  has 
sometimes  been  to  the  extent  of  id.  or  2d.  per  Ib  and  even  more  as 
regards  Sea  Island  and  other  long-stapled  cottons.  The  produc- 
tion, therefore,  of  the  most  perfect  and  efficient  cotton-cleaning 
machinery  is  of  importance  alike  to  the  planter  and  manu- 
facturer. 

Baling. — The  cotton  leaves  the  ginning  machine  in  a  very  loose 
condition,  and  has  to  be  compressed  into  bales  for  convenience 
of  transport.  Large  baling  presses  are  worked  by  hydraulic 
power;  the  operation  needs  no  special  description.  Bales  from 
different  countries  vary  greatly  in  size,  weight  and  appearance. 
The  American  bale  has  been  described  in  a  standard  American 
book  on  cotton  as  "  the  clumsiest,  dirtiest,  most  expensive  and 
most  wasteful  package,  in  which  cotton  or  any  other  commodity 
of  like  value  is  anywhere  put  up."  Suggestions  for  its  improve- 
ment, which  if  carried  out  would  (it  is  estimated)  result  in  a 
monetary  saving  of  £1,000,000  annually,  were  made  by  the 
Lancashire  Private  Cotton  Investigation  Commission  which 
visited  the  Southern  States  of  America  in  1906. 

The  approximate  weights  of  some  of  the  principal  bales  on  the 
English  market  are  as  follows: — 


United  States 
Indian 
Egyptian   . 
Peruvian    . 
Brazilian    . 


500  Ib 
400  ft 
700  Ib 
200  ft 
200  to  300  ft 


With  baling  the  work  of  the  producer  is  concluded. 

Cultivation  in  Egypt. — Climatic  conditions  in  Egypt  differ 
radically  from  those  in  the  United  States,  the  rainfall  being  so 
small  as  to  be  quite  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  plant,  very 
little  rain  indeed  falling  in  the  Nile  Delta  during  the  whole  grow- 
ing season  of  the  crop:  yet  Egypt  is  in  order  the  third  cotton- 
producing  country  of  the  world,  elaborate  irrigation  works 
supplying  the  crop  with  the  requisite  water.  The  area  devoted 
to  cotton  in  Egypt  is  about  1,800,000  acres,  and  nine-tenths  of  it 
is  in  the  Nile  Delta.  The  delta  soil  is  typically  a  heavy,  black, 
alluvial  clay,  very  fertile,  but  difficult  to  work;  admixture  of 
sand  is  beneficial,  and  the  localities  where  this  occurs  yield  the 
best  cotton.  Formerly  in  Egypt  the  cotton  was  treated  as  a 
perennial,  but  this  practice  has  been  generally  abandoned,  and 
fresh  plants  are  raised  from  seed  each  year,  as  in  America;  one 
great  advantage  is  that  more  than  one  crop  can  thus  be  obtained 
each  year.  The  following  rotation  is  frequently  adopted.  It 
should  be  noted  that  in  Egypt  the  year  is  divided  into  three 
seasons — winter,  summer  and  "  Nili."  The  two  first  explain 
themselves;  Nili  is  the  season  in  which  the  Nile  overflows  its 
banks. 


First  year 
Second  year 

Winter. 

Summer. 

Nili. 

Clover 
Beans  or  wheat 

Cotton 

Corn  or  fallow 

For  cotton  cultivation  the  land  is  ploughed,  carefully  levelled, 
and  then  thrown  up  into  ridges  about  3  ft.  apart.  Channels 
formed  at  right  angles  to  the  cultivation  ridges  provide  for  the 


access  of  water  to  the  crop.  The  seeds,  previously  soaked,  are 
sown,  usually  in  March,  on  the  sides  of  the  ridges,  and  the  land 
watered.  After  the  seedlings  appear,  thinning  is  completed  in 
usually  three  successive  hoeings,  the  plants  being  watered  after 
thinning,  and  subsequently  at  intervals  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
days,  until  about  the  end  of  August  when  picking  commences. 
The  total  amount  of  water  given  is  approximately  equivalent  to  a 
rainfall  of  about  35  in.  The  crop  is  picked,  ginned  and  baled  in 
the  usual  way,  the  Macarthy  style  action  roller  gins  being  almost 
exclusively  employed. 

Cotton  Seed. — The  history  of  no  agricultural  product  contains 
more  of  interest  and  instruction  for  the  student  of  economics  than 
does  that  of  cotton  seed  in  the  United  States.  The  revolution  in 
its  treatment  is  a  real  romance  of  industry.  Up  till  1870  or 
thereabouts,  cotton  seed  was  regarded  as  a  positive  nuisance  upon 
the  American  plantation.  It  was  left  to  accumulate  in  vast  heaps 
about  ginhouses,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  farmer  and  the  injury 
of  his  premises.  Cotton  seed  in  those  days  was  the  object  of  so 
much  aversion  that  the  planter  burned  it  or  threw  it  into  running 
streams,  as  was  most  convenient.  If  the  seed  were  allowed  to  lie 
about,  it  rotted,  and  hogs  and  other  animals,  eating  it,  often  died. 
It  was  very  difficult  to  burn,  and  when  dumped  into  rivers  and 
creeks  was  carried  out  by  flood  water  to  fill  the  edges  of  the  flats 
with  a  decaying  and  offensive  mass  of  vegetable  matter.  Although 
used  in  the  early  days  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  food  for  milch  cows 
and  other  stock,  and  to  a  larger  extent  as  a  manure,  no  systematic 
efforts  were  made  anywhere  in  the  South  to  manufacture  the 
seed  until  the  later  'fifties,  when  the  first  cotton  seed  mills  were 
established.  It  is  said  that  there  were  only  seven  cotton  oil 
mills  in  the  South  in  1860.  The  cotton-growing  industry  was 
interrupted  by  the  Civil  War,  and  the  seed-milling  business  did 
not  begin  again  until  1868.  After  that  time  the  number  of  mills 
rapidly  increased.  There  were  25  in  the  South  in  1870,  50  in 
1880,  120  in  1890,  and  about  500  in  iqoi,  about  one-third  being 
in  Texas. 

Experience  shows  that  1000  Ib  of  seed  are  produced  for 
every  500  ft  of  cotton  brought  to  market.  On  the  basis, 
therefore,  of  a  cotton  crop  of  10,000,000  bales  of  500  ft 
each,  there  are  produced  5,000,000  tons  of  cotton  seed.  If 
about  3,000,000  tons  only  are  pressed,  there  remain  to  be 
utilized  on  the  farm  2,000,000  tons  of  cotton  seed,  which,  if 
manufactured,  would  produce  a  total  of  $100,000,000  from  cotton 
seed.  In  contrast  with  the  farmers  of  the  'sixties,  the  southern 
planter  of  the  2oth  century  appreciates  the  value  of  his  cotton 
seed,  and  farmers,  too  remote  from  the  mills  to  get  it  pressed, 
now  feed  to  their  stock  all  the  cotton  seed  they  conveniently  can, 
and  use  the  residue  either  in  compost  or  directly  as  manure. 
The  average  of  a  large  number  of  analyses  of  Upland  cotton  seed 
gives  the  following  figures  for  its  fertilizing  constituents: — 
Nitrogen,  3-07%;  phosphoric  acid,  1-02%;  potash,  1-17%; 
besides  small  amounts  of  lime,  magnesia  and  other  valuable  but 
less  important  ingredients.  Sea  Island  cotton  seed  is  rather  more 
valuable  than  Upland:  the  corresponding  figures  for  the  three 
principal  constituents  being  nitrogen  3-51,  phosphoric  acid  1-69, 
potash  i  •  59  %.  Using  average  prices  paid  for  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  when  bought  in  large  quantities  and  in  good 
forms,  these  ingredients,  in  a  ton  of  cotton  seed,  amount  to 
$9.00  worth  of  fertilizing  material.  Compared  with  the  com- 
mercial fertilizer  which  the  farmer  has  to  buy,  cotton  seed 
possesses,  therefore,  a  distinct  value. 

The  products  of  cotton  seed  have  become  important  elements 
in  the  national  industry  of  the  United  States.  The  main  product 
is  the  refined  oil,  which  is  used  for  a  great  number  of  purposes, 
such  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil,  mixed  with  beef  products  for 
preparation  of  compound  lard,  which  is  estimated  to  consume 
one-third  of  cotton  seed  oil  produced  in  the  States.  The  poorer 
grades  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  candles  and 
phonograph  records.  Miners'  lamp  oil  consists  of  the  bleached 
oil  mixed  with  kerosene.  Cotton  seed  cake  or  meal  (the  residue 
after  the  oil  is  extracted)  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  feeding 
stuffs,  as  the  following  simple  comparison  between  it  and  oats  and 
corn  will  show: — 


COTTON 


261 


Average  Analyses. 

Proteins 
or  Flesh 
Formers. 

Carbo- 
hydrates or 
Fuel  and  Fat 
Suppfiers. 

Fats. 

Ash  or  Bone 
Makers. 

Cotton  seed  meal 
Corn  .... 
Oats  .... 

43-26 
10-5 
17-0 

22-31 
70-0 
65-0 

13-45 
5-5 
8-0 

7-02 
i  -02 

1-2 

Cotton  seed  meal,  though  poor  in  carbohydrates,  the  fat-  and 
energy-supplying  ingredients,  is  exceedingly  rich  in  protein,  the 
nerve-  and  muscle-feeding  ingredients.  But  it  still  contains  a 
large  amount  of  oil,  which  forms  animal  fat  and  heat,  and  thus 
makes  up  for  part  of  its  deficiency  in  carbohydrates.  The  meal, 
in  fact,  is  so  rich  in  protein  that  it  is  best  utilized  as  a  food  for 
animals  when  mixed  with  some  coarse  fodder,  thus  furnishing  a 
more  evenly-balanced  ration.  In  comparative  valuations  of 
feeding  stuffs  it  has  been  found  that  cotton  seed  meal  exceeds 
corn  meal  by  62  %,  wheat  by  67  %,  and  raw  cotton  seed  by  26  %. 
Cotton  seed  meal,  in  the  absence  of  sufficient  stock  to  consume  it, 
is  also  used  extensively  as  a  fertilizer,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
worth,  determining  the  price  on  the  same  basis  as  used  above  for 
the  seed,  from  $19  to  $20  per  ton.  But  it  has  seldom  reached 
this  price,  except  in  some  of  the  northern  states,  where  it  is  used 
for  feeding  purposes.  A  more  rational  proceeding  would  be  to 
feed  the  meal  to  animals  and  apply  the  resulting  manure  to  the 
soil.  When  this  is  done,  from  80  to  90%  of  the  fertilizing 
material  of  the  meal  is  recovered  in  the  manure,  only  10  to  20% 
being  converted  by  the  animal  into  meat  and  milk.  The  profit 
derived  from  the  20  %  thus  removed  is  a  very  large  one.  These 
facts  indicate  that  we  have  here  an  agricultural  product  the 
market  price  of  which  is  still  far  below  its  value  as  compared,  on 
the  basis  of  its  chemical  composition,  either  with  other  feeding 
stuffs  or  with  other  fertilizers.  Though  it  is  probably  destined  to 
be  used  even  more  extensively  as  a  fertilizer  before  the  demand 
for  it  as  a  feeding  stuff  becomes  equal  to  the  supply,  practically 
all  the  cotton  seed  meal  of  the  south  will  ultimately  be  used  for 
feeding.  One  explanation  of  this  condition  of  things  is  that 
there  is  still  a  large  surplus  of  cotton  seed  which  cannot  be 
manufactured  by  the  mills.  Another  reason  is  found  in  the 
absence  of  cattle  in  the  south  to  eat  it. 

With  the  consideration  of  cotton  seed  oil  and  meal  we  have 
not,  however,  exhausted  its  possibilities.  Cotton  seed  hulls 
constitute  about  half  the  weight  of  the  ginned  seed.  After  the 
seed  of  Upland  cotton  has  been  passed  through  a  fine  gin,  which 
takes  off  the  short  lint  or  linters  left  upon  it  by  the  farmer,  it  is 
passed  through  what  is  called  a  shelter,  consisting  of  a  revolving 
cylinder,  armed  with  numerous  knives,  which  cut  the  seed  in  two 
and  force  the  kernels  or  meats  from  the  shells.  The  shells  and 
kernels  are  then  separated  in  a  winnowing  machine.  This 
removal  of  the  shell  makes  a  great  difference  in  the  oilcake,  as 
the  decorticated  cake  is  more  nutritious  than  the  undecorticated. 
For  a  long  time  these  shells  or  hulls,  as  they  are  called, 
were  burned  at  oil  mills  for  fuel,  2§  tons  being  held  equal 
to  a  cord  of  wood,  and  4$  tons  to  a  ton  of  coal.  The  hulls 
thus  burned  produced  an  ash  containing  an  average  of  9%  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  24%  of  potash — a  very  valuable  fertilizer 
in  itself,  and  one  eagerly  sought  by  growers  of  tobacco  and 
vegetables.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  stock-feeder  in 
the  South  found  that  cotton  seed  hulls  were  an  excellent  substitute 
for  hay.  They  are  used  on  a  very  large  scale  in  the  vicinity  of 
oil  mills  in  southern  cities  like  Memphis,  New  Orleans,  Houston, 
and  Little  Rock,  from  500  to  5000  cattle  being  often  collected  in 
a  single  yard  for  this  purpose.  No  other  feed  is  required,  the 
only  provision  necessary  being  an  adequate  supply  of  water  and 
an  occasional  allowance  of  salt.  Many  thousands  of  cattle  are 
fattened  annually  in  this  way  at  remarkably  low  cost. 

Careful  attention  is  now  given  to  the  employment  of  the  seed 
in  new  cotton  countries,  and  oil  expression  is  practised  in  the 
West  Indies.  Hull  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  industry  in  Great 
Britain,  and  enormous  quantities  of  Indian  and  Egyptian  cotton 
seed  are  imported  and  worked  up. 

The  following  diagram,  modified  from  one  by  Grimshaw,  in 


accordance  with  the  results  obtained  by  the  better  class  of 
modern  mills,  gives  an  interesting  resume  of  the  products  obtained 
from  a  ton  of  cotton  seed: — 

Products  from  a  Ton  of  Cotton  Seed. 

Cotton  »eed.  2000  pounds. 
Meals.  1090  pounds 


Linters,  23  pounds. 

Hulls.  888 


Cake,  800  pounds. 

Fibre. 

Bran. 

Meal. 

(Feeding  stuff.     Fertilizer.) 

Crude  oil,  290  pounds. 

1 

(High-grade  paper.) 

If  attle  food.) 

Summer  Yellow.        |  Soai 

>  stock.              (Fuel.) 

(Winter 
vellow 

Cotton  seed 
stearin.)                   Sc 

1                            1 
>aps.                   Ashes. 

Fertilizer. 

1 

Salad  oil. 

(Cuttle  food) 
with  the  meal. 

These  together, 
a  very  valuable 
manure. 

Summer  white. 

Lard.  | 
Cottolene  (with  beef  stearin,  cooking  oil). 

Miners' 

oil. 

Soap. 

Pests  and  Diseases  of  the  Cotton  Plant. 

Insect  Pests. — It  is  common  knowledge  that  when  any  plant  is 
cultivated  on  a  large  scale  various  diseases  and  pests  frequently 
appear.  In  some  cases  the  pest  was  already  present  but  of  minor 
importance.  As  the  supply  of  its  favourite  food  plant  is  increased, 
conditions  of  life  for  the  pest  are  improved,  and  it  accordingly 
multiplies  also,  possibly  becoming  a  serious  hindrance  to  success- 
ful cultivation.  At  other  times  the  pest  is  introduced,  and  under 
congenial  conditions  (and  possibly  in  the  absence  of  some  other 
organism  which  keeps  it  in  check  in  its  native  country)  increases 
accordingly.  Some  idea  of  the  enormous  damage  wrought  by  the 
collective  attacks  of  individually  small  and  weak  animals  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  a  conservative  estimate  places  the 
loss  due  to  insect  attacks  on  cotton  in  the  United  States  at  the 
astounding  figure  of  $60,000,000  (£12,000,000)  annually.  Of  this 
total  no  less  than  $40,000,000  (£8,000,000)  is  credited  to  a  small 
beetle,  the  cotton  boll  weevil,  and  to  two  caterpillars.  The  best 
means  of  combating  these  attacks  depends  on  a  knowledge  of  the 
life-histories  and  habits  of  the  pests.  The  following  notes  deal 
only  with  the  practical  side  of  the  question,  and  as  the  United 
States  produce  some  seven-tenths  of  the  world's  cotton  crop 
attention  is  especially  directed  to  the  principal  cotton  pests  of 
that  country.  Those  of  other  regions  are  only  referred  to  when 
sufficiently  important  to  demand  separate  notice. 

The  cotton  boll  weevil  (Anthonomus  grandis),  a  small  grey 
weevil  often  called  the  Mexican  boll  weevil,  is  the  most  serious 
pest  of  cotton  in  the  United  States,  where  the  damage  done  by  it 
in  1907  was  estimated  at  about  £5,000,000.  It  steadily  increased 
in  destructiveness  during  the  preceding  eight  years.  Attention  was 
drawn  to  it  in  1862,  when  it  caused  the  abandonment  of  cotton 
cultivation  about  Monclova  in  Mexico.  About  1893  it  appeared 
in  Texas,  and  then  rapidly  spread.  It  is  easily  transported  from 
place  to  place  in  seed-cotton,  and  for  this  reason  the  Egyptian 
government  in  1904  prohibited  the  importation  of  American 
cotton  seed.  Not  only  is  the  pest  carried  from  place  to  place, 
but  it  also  migrates,  and  in  1907  it  crossed  from  Louisiana, 
where  it  first  appeared  in  1905,  to  Mississippi.  That  the  insect 
is  likely  to  prove  adaptable  is  perhaps  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
in  1906  it  made  a  northward  advance  of  about  60  m.  in  a  season 
with  no  obvious  special  features  favouring  the  pest.  Its  eastern 
progress  was  also  rapid.  "  The  additional  territory  infested 
during  1904  aggregates  about  15,000,000  sq.  m.,  representing 
approximately  an  area  devoted  to  the  culture  of  cotton  of 
900,000  acres"  (Year-book,  U.S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  1004).  In 
1906  the  additional  area  invaded  amounted  to  1,500,000  acres 
(Ibid.,  1906). 


262 


COTTON 


The  adult  weevils  puncture  the  young  flower-buds  and  deposit 
eggs;  and  as  the  grubs  from  the  eggs  develop,  the  bud  drops. 
They  also  lay  eggs  later  in  the  year  in  the  young  bolls.  These  do 
not  drop,  but  as  the  grubs  develop  the  cotton  is  ruined  and  the 
bolls  usually  become  discoloured  and  crack,  their  contents 
being  rendered  useless. 

No  certain  remedy  is  known  for  the  destruction  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  of  the  boll  weevil,  but  every  effort  has  been  made  in 
the  United  States  to  check  the  advance  of  the  insect,  to  ascertain 
and  encourage  its  natural  enemies,  and  to  propagate  races  of 
cotton  which  resist  its  attacks.  Special  interest  attaches  to  the 
investigations  made  by  Mr  O.  F.  Cook,  of  the  U.S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  in  Guatemala.  The  Indians  in  part  of  Guatemala 
raise  cotton,  although  the  boll  weevil  is  abundant.  Examination 
showed  that  although  the  weevil  attacked  the  young  buds  these 
did  not  drop  off,  but  that  a  special  growth  of  tissue  inside  the  bud 
frequently  killed  the  grub.  Also,  inside  the  young  bolls  which 
had  been  pierced  a  similar  poliferation  or  growth  of  the  tissue 
was  set  up,  which  enveloped  and  killed  the  pest.  Probably  by 
unconscious  selection  of  surviving  plants  through  long  ages  this 
type  has  been  evolved  in  Guatemala,  and  expeiiments  have  been 
made  to  develop  weevil-resistant  races  in  the  United  States. 
Mr  Cook  also  found  that  the  boll  weevil  was  attacked,  killed  and 
eaten  by  an  ant-like  creature,  the  "  kelep."  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  introduce  this  into  the  infested  area  in  Texas;  but  owing 
to  the  winter  proving  fatal  to  the  "  kelep  "  its  usefulness  may  be 
restricted  to  tropical  and  subtropical  regions. 

The  cotton  boll  worm  (Chloridea  obsoleta,  also  known  as  Heliothis 
armiger)  is  a  caterpillar.  The  parent  moth  lays  eggs,  from  which 
the  young  "worms  "hatch  out.  Theyboreholesandpenetrateinto 
flower-buds  and  young  bolls,  causing  them  to  drop.  Fortunately 
the  "  worms  "  prefer  maize  to  cotton,  and  the  inter-planting  at 
proper  times  of  maize,  to  be  cut  down  and  destroyed  when  well 
infested,  is  a  method  commonly  employed  to  keep  down  this  pest. 
Paris  green  kills  it  in  its  young  stages  before  it  has  entered  the  buds 
or  bolls.  The  boll  worm  is  most  destructive  in  the  south-western 
states,  where  the  damage  done  is  said  to  vary  from  2  to  60  % 
of  the  crop.  Taking  a  low  average  of  4  %,  the  annual  loss  due  to 
the  pest  is  estimated  at  about  £2,500,000,  and  it  occupies  second 
place  amongst  the  serious  cotton  pests  of  the  U.S.A.  The  boll 
worm  is  widely  spread  through  the  tropical  and  temperate 
zones.  It  may  occur  in  a  country  without  being  a  pest  to  cotton, 
e.g.  in  India  it  attacks  various  plants  but  not  cotton.  It  has  not 
yet  been  reported  as  a  cotton  pest  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  Egyptian  boll  worm  (Earias  insulana)  is  the  most 
important  insect  pest  in  Egypt  and  occurs  also  in  other  parts  of 
Africa.  Indian  boll  worms  include  the  same  species,  and  the 
closely  related  Earias  fabia,  which  also  occurs  in  Egypt. 

The  cotton  worm  (Aletia  argillacea) — also  called  cotton 
caterpillar,  cotton  army  worm,  cotton-leaf  worm — is  also  one 
stage  in  the  life-history  of  a  moth.  It  is  a  voracious  creature,  and 
unchecked  will  often  totally  destroy  a  crop.  In  former  years  the 
annual  damage  done  by  it  in  the  United  States  was  assessed  at 
£4,000,000  to  £6,000,000.  Dusting  with  Paris  green  is,  however, 
an  efficient  remedy  if  promptly  applied  at  the  outset  of  the  attack. 
The  annual  damage  was  in  1906  reduced  to  £1,000,000  to 
£2,000,000,  and  this  on  a  larger  area  devoted  to  cotton  than  in 
the  case  of  the  estimate  given  above.  It  is  the  most  serious  pest 
of  cotton  in  the  West  Indies.  The  Egyptian  cotton  worm  is 
Prodenia  liltoralis. 

The  caterpillars  ("cut  worms")  of  various  species  of  Agrotis 
and  other  moths  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  attack  young 
cotton.  They  can  be  killed  by  spreading  about  cabbage  leaves, 
&c.,  poisoned  with  Paris  green. 

Locusts,  green-fly,  leaf-bugs,  blister  mites,  and  various  other 
pests  also  damage  cotton,  in  a  similar  way  to  that  in  which  they 
injure  other  crops. 

The"  cotton  stainers,"  various  species  of  Dysdercus,  are  widely 
distributed,  occurring  for  example  in  America,  the  West  Indies, 
Africa,  India,  &c.  The  larvae  suck  the  sap  from  the  young  bolls 
and  seeds,  causing  shrivelling  and  reduction  in  quantity  of  fibre. 
They  are  called  "  stainers  "  because  their  excrement  is  yellow 


and  stains  the  fibre;  also  if  crushed  during  the  process  of 
ginning  they  give  the  cotton  a  reddish  coloration.  The  Egyptian 
cotton  seed  bug  or  cotton  stainer  belongs  to  another  genus,  being 
Oxycarenus  hyalinipennis.  Other  species  of  this  genus  occur  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa.  They  do  considerable  damage  to  cotton 
seed. 

Fungoid  Diseases. — "  Wilt  disease,"  or  "  frenching,"  perhaps 
the  most  important  of  the  fungoid  disease  of  cotton  in  the  United 
States,  is  due  to  Neocosmospora  iiasinfecta.  Young  plants  a  few 
inches  high  are  usually  attacked;  the  leaves,  beginning  with  the 
lower  ones,  turn  yellow,  and  afterwards  become  brown  and  drop. 
The  plants  remain  very  dwarf  and  generally  unhealthy,  or  die. 
The  roots  also  are  affected,  and  instead  of  growing  considerably  in 
length,  branch  repeatedly  and  give  rise  to  little  tufts  of  rootlets. 
There  is  no  method  known  of  curing  this  disease,  and  all  that  can 
be  done  is  to  take  every  precaution  to  eradicate  it,  by  pulling  up 
and  burning  diseased  plants,  isolating  the  infected  area  by  means 
of  trenches,  and  avoiding  growing  cotton,  or  an  allied  plant  such 
as  the  ochro  (Hibiscus  esculentus),  in  the  field.  Fortunately  the 
careful  work  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  of  planters 
such  as  Mr  E.  L.  Rivers  of  James  Island,  South  Carolina,  has 
resulted  in  the  production  of  disease-resistant  races.  In  one 
instance  Mr  Rivers  found  one  healthy  plant  in  a  badly  affected 
field.  The  seed  was  saved  and  gave  rise  to  a  row  of  plants  all  of 
which  grew  healthily  in  an  infected  field,  whereas  95%  of 
ordinary  Sea  Island  cotton  plants  from  seed  from  a  non-infected 
field  planted  alongside  as  a  control  were  killed.  The  resistance 
was  well  maintained  in  succeeding  generations,  and  races  so 
raised  form  a  practical  means  of  combating  this  serious  disease. 

In  "  Root  rot,"  as  the  name  implies,  the  roots  are  attacked,  the 
fungus  being  a  species  of  Ozonium,  which  envelops  the  roots  in  a 
white  covering  of  mould  or  mycelium.  The  roots  are  prevented 
from  fulfilling  their  function  of  taking  up  water  and  salts  from  the 
soil;  the  leaves  accordingly  droop,  and  the  whole  plant  wilts  and 
in  bad  attacks  dies.  It  has  yearly  proved  a  more  serious  danger 
in  Texas  and  other  parts  of  the  south-west  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  damage  due  to  it  in  Texas  during  1905  was  estimated  at 
about  £750,000.  No  remedy  is  known  for  the  disease,  and 
cotton  should  not  be  planted  on  infected  land  for  at  least  three  or 
four  years. 

"  Boll  rot,"  or  "  Anthracnose,"  is  a  disease  which  may  at  times 
be  sufficiently  serious  to  destroy  from  10  to  50%  of  the  crop. 
The  fungus  which  causes  it  (Colletotrichum  gossypii)  is  closely 
related  to  one  of  the  fungi  attacking  sugar-cane  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  Small  red-brown  spots  appear  on  the  bolls, 
gradually  enlarge,  and  develop  into  irregular  black  and  grey 
patches.  The  damage  may  be  only  slight,  or  the  entire  boll  may 
ripen  prematurely  and  become  dry  and  dead. 

Many  other  diseases  occur,  but  the  above  are  sufficient  to 
indicate  some  of  the  principal  ones  in  the  most  important  cotton 
countries  of  the  world. 

Improvement  of  Cotton  by  Seed  Selection. 
In  the  cotton  belt  of  the  United  States  it  would  be  possible  to 
put  a  still  greater  acreage  under  this  crop,  but  the  tendency  is 
rather  towards  what  is  known  as  "  diversified  "  or  mixed  farming 
than  to  making  cotton  the  sole  important  crop.  Cotton,  however, 
is  in  increasing  demand,  and  the  problem  for  the  American 
cotton  planter  is  to  obtain  a  better  yield  of  cotton  from  the  same 
area, — by  "  better  yield  "  meaning  an  increase  not  only  in 
quantity  but  also  in  quality  of  lint.  This  ideal  is  before  the 
cotton  grower  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  practical  steps  are  not 
always  taken  to  realize  it.  Some  of  the  United  States  planters  are 
alert  to  take  advantage  of  the  application  of  science  to  industry, 
and  in  many  cases  even  to  render  active  assistance,  and  very 
successful  results  have  been  attained  by  the  co-operation  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  planters.  With 
the  improvement  of  cotton  the  name  of  Mr  Herbert  J.  Webber 
is  prominently  associated,  and  a  full  discussion  of  methods  and 
results  will  be  found  in  his  various  papers  in"  the  Year-books  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  principle  on  which 
the  work  is  based  is  that  plants  have  their  individualities 


COTTON 


263 


and  tend  to  transmit  them  to  their  progeny.  Accordingly  a 
selection  of  particular  plants  to  breed  from,  because  they  possess 
certain  desirable  characteristics,  is  as  rational  as  the  selection  of 
particular  animals  for  breeding  purposes  in  order  to  maintain  the 
character  of  a  herd  of  cattle  or  of  a  flock  of  sheep. 

Inspection  of  a  field  of  cotton  shows  that  different  plants  vary 
as  regards  productiveness,  length,  and  character  of  the  lint, 
period  of  ripening,  power  of  resistance  to  various  pests  and  of 
withstanding  drought.  A  simple  method  of  increasing  the  yield 
is  that  pra'ctised  with  success  by  some  growers  in  the  States. 
Pickers  are  trained  to  recognize  the  best  plants,  "  that  is,  those 
most  productive,  earliest  in  ripening,  and  having  the  largest, 
best  formed  and  most  numerous  bolls."  These  pickers  go 
carefully  over  the  field,  usually  just  before  the  second  picking, 
and  gather  ripe  cotton  from  the  best  plants  only;  this  selected 
seed  cotton  is  ginned  separately,  and  the  seed  used  for  sowing  the 
next  year's  crop. 

A  more  elaborate  method  of  selection  is  practised  by  some  of  the 
Sea  Island  cotton  planters  in  the  Sea  Islands,  famous  for  the  quality 
of  their  cotton.  A  field  is  gone  over  carefully,  and  perhaps  some 
50  of  the  best  plants  selected;  a  second  examination  in  the  field 
reduces  these  perhaps  to  one  half,  and  each  plant  is  numbered. 
The  cotton  from  each  is  collected  and  kept  separately,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  season  carefully  examined  and  weighed,  and  a  final 
selection  is  then  made  which  reduces  the  number  to  perhaps  five; 
the  cotton  from  each  of  these  plants  is  ginned  separately  and  the 
seed  preserved  for  sowing.  The  simplest  possible  case  in  which 
only  one  plant  is  finally  selected  is  illustrated  in  the  diagram. 
ist  Year  and.  Year  yd.  Year  4th.  Year  sth.Year 


Select  PUnl(  i 

>M 

After  Webber,  Year-book,  U.S.  Depl.  of  Agriculture,  1902. 

Improvement  of  Cotton  by  Seed  Selection. 

From  the  seeds  of  the  selected  plant  of  the  ist  year  about  500 
plants  can  be  raised  in  the  next  year.  One  plant  is  selected 
again  from  these  500,  and  the  general  crop  of  seed  is  used  to  sow 
about  five  acres  for  the  3rd  year,  from  which  seed  is  obtained  for 
the  general  crop  in  the  4th  year.  One  special  plant  is  selected 
each  year  from  the  500  raised  from  the  previous  season's  test 
plant,  and  in  four  years'  time  the  progeny  of  this  plant  con- 
stitutes the  "  general  crop."  The  practice  may  be  modified 
according  to  the  size  of  estate  by  selecting  more  than  one 
plant  each  year,  but  the  principle  remains  unaltered.  This 
method  is  in  actual  use  by  growers  of  Sea  Island  cotton  in 
America  and  in  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  S.  Carolina;  the 
greatest  care  is  taken  to  enhance  the  quality  of  the  lint,  which 
has  been  gradually  improved  in  length,  fineness  and  silkiness. 
Mr  Webber,  in  summing  up,  says,  "  When  Sea  Island  cotton  was 
first  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  the  West  Indies,  it 
was  a  perennial  plant,  unsuited  to  the  duration  of  the  season  of 
the  latitude  of  the  Sea  Islands  of  S.  Carolina;  but,  through  the 
selection  of  seed  from  early  maturing  individual  plants,  the 
cotton  has  been  rendered  much  earlier,  until  now  it  is  thoroughly 
adapted  to  the  existing  conditions.  The  fibre  has  increased  in 
length  from  about  if  to  2$  in.,  and  the  plants  have  at  the  same 
time  been  increased  in  productiveness.  The  custom  of  carefully 
selecting  the  seed  has  grown  with  the  industry  and  may  be  said 
to  be  inseparable  from  it.  It  is  only  by  such  careful  and  con- 


tinuous selection  that  the  staple  of  these  high-bred  strains  can  be 
kept  up  to  its  present  superiority,  and  if  for  any  reason  the 
selection  is  interrupted  there  is  a  general  and  rapid  decline  in 
quality." 

When  selection  is  being  made  for  several  characters  at  the 
same  time,  and  also  in  hybridization  experiments,  where  it  is 
important  to  have  full  records  of  the  characters  of  individual 
plants  and  their  progeny,  "  score  cards,"  such  as  are  used  in 
judging  stock,  with  a  scale  of  points,  are  used. 

The  improvements  desired  in  cotton  vary  to  some  degree  in 
different  countries,  according  to  the  present  character  of  the 
plants,  climatic  conditions,  the  chief  pests,  special  market 
requirements,  and  other  circumstances.  Amongst  the  more 
important  desiderata  are: — 

1.  Increased  Yield. 

2.  Increase  in  Length  of  Lint. — Webber  records  the  case  of 
Stamm  Egyptian  cotton  imported  into  Columbia,  in  which  by 
simple  selection,  as  outlined  above,  during  two  years  plants  were 
obtained  uniformly  earlier,  more  productive,  and  yielding  longer 
and  better  lint. 

3 .  Uniformity  in  Length  of  the  Lint. — This  is  important  especi- 
ally in  the  long-stapled  cottons,  unevenness  leading  to  waste  in 
manufacture,  and  consequently  to  a  lower  price  for  the  cotton. 

4.  Strength  of  Fibre. — Long-stapled  cottons  have  been  pro- 
duced in  the  States  by  crossing  Upland  and  Sea  Island  cotton. 
These  hybrids  produce  a  lint  which  is  long  and  silky,  but  often 
deficient  in  strength:  selection  for  strength  amongst  the  hybrids, 
with  due  regard  to  length,  may  overcome  this. 

5.  Season  of  Maturing. — Seed  should  be  selected  from  early 
and  late  opening  bolls,  according  to  requirements.     Earliness  is 
especially  important  in  countries  where  the  season  is  short. 

6.  Adaptation  to  Soil  and  Climate. — High-class  cottons  often 
do  not  flourish  if  introduced  into  a  new  country.     They  are 
adapted  to  special  conditions  which  are  lacking  in  their  new 
surroundings,  but  a  few  will  probably  do  fairly  well  the  first  year, 
and  the  seeds  from  these  probably  rather  better  the  next,  and  so 
on,  so  that  in  a  few  years'  time  a  strain  may  be  available  which  is 
equal  or  even  superior  to  the  original  one  introduced. 

7.  Resistance  to  Disease. — The  method  employed  is  to  select, 
for  seed  purposes,  plants  which  are  resistant  to  the  particular 
disease.    Thus  sometimes  a  field  of  cotton  is  attacked  by  some 
disease,  perhaps  "  wilt,"  and  a  comparatively  few  plants  are  but 
very  slightly  affected.     These  are  propagated,  and  there  are 
instances  as  described  above  of  very  successful  and  commercially 
important  results  having  been  attained.     Special  interest  attaches 
to  experiments  made  in  the  United  States  to  endeavour  to  raise 
races  of  cotton  resistant  to  the  boll  weevil. 

8.  Resistance  to  Weather. — Strong  winds  and  heavy  rains  do 
much  damage  to  cotton  by  blowing  or  beating  the  lint  out  of  the 
bolls.     In  some  instances  a  slight  difference  in  the  shape,  mode  of 
opening,  &c.,  of  the  boll  prevents  this,  and  accordingly  seed  is 
selected   from   bolls  which   suffer  least   under   the   particular 
adverse  conditions. 

Attention  has  been  paid  in  the  West  Indies  to  seed  selection,  by 
the  officers  of  the  imperial  Department  of  Agriculture,  with  the 
object  of  retaining  for  West  Indian  Sea  Island  cotton  its  place  as 
the  most  valuable  cotton  on  the  British  market. 

In  India,  where  conditions  are  much  more  diversified  and  it 
is  more  difficult  to  induce  the  native  cultivator  to  adopt  new 
methods,  attention  has  also  been  directed  during  recent  years 
to  the  improvement  of  the  existing  races.  Efforts  have  been 
made  in  the  same  direction  in  Egypt,  West  Africa,  &c. 

The  World's  Commercial  Cotton  Crop. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  an  exact  return  of  the  total  amount  of 
cotton  produced  in  the  world,  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  China, 
India  and  other  eastern  countries,  in  Mexico,  Brazil,  parts  of  the 
Russian  empire,  tropical  Africa,  &c.,  considerable — in  some  cases 
very  large — quantities  of  cotton  are  made  up  locally  into  wearing 
apparel,  &c.,  and  escape  all  statistical  record.  .It  is  estimated 
that  the  amount  thus  used  in  India  exclusive  of  the  consumption 
of  mills  is  equivalent  to  about  400,000  bales.  Neglecting,  however, 


264 


COTTON 


these  quantities,  which  do  not  affect  the  world's  market,  the 
annual  supplies  of  cotton  are  approximately  as  follows: — 


Country. 

Approximate 
Production. 
Bales  of  500  Ib. 

Percentage. 

United  States  of  America 
India          
Egypt        .       .,      . 
All  other  countries  .... 

Total 

11,000,000 
3,000,000 
1,000,000 
1,000,000 

68-75 
18-75 
6-25 
6-25 

16,000,000 

IOO-OO 

In  1905  the  world's  crop  closely  approximated  to  16,000,000 
bales,  whilst  in  1904  it  was  nearly  19,000,000  bales  and  in  1906 
nearly  20,000,000  bales.  The  United  States  produced  very  nearly 
seven-tenths  of  the  total  "  visible  "  cotton  crops  of  the  world. 
This,  however,  is  quite  a  modern  development,  comparatively 
speaking.  "  During  the  period  from  1786  to  1790  the  West 
Indies  furnished  about  70%  of  the  British  supply,  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  20%,  and  Brazil  8%;  whilst  the  quantity 
contributed  by  the  United  States  and  India  was  less  than  i  %  and 
Egypt  contributed  none.  In  1906  the  United  States  contributed 
65%  of  the  commercial  cotton,  British  India  19%,  Egypt  7%, 
and  Russia  3  %.  Of  the  countries  which  were  prominent  in  the 
production  of  cotton  in  1790,  Brazil  and  Asiatic  Turkey  alone 
remain  "  (U.S.A.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Bulletin  No. 76).  The 
actual  figures  for  the  chief  countries  for  1904-1906,  taken  from 
the  same  source,  are  as  follows: — 

The  World's  Commercial  Cotton  Crop.     (In  500  ft  Bales.) 


Country. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

United  States  . 
British  India     . 
Egypt    
Russia    
China     
Brazil     

13,085,000 
2,843,000 
1,258,000 
554.ooo 
468,000 
210,000 
114,000 

10,340,000 
2,519,000 
1,181,000 
585,000 
415,000 
258,000 
125,000 

13,016,000 
3,708,000 
i  ,400,000 
675,000 
418,000 
275,000 
130,000 

Peru             .... 

40,000 

55.000 

55,000 

Turkey  
Persia     . 
Japan     
Other  countries 

100,000 

45,000 
16,000 
70,000 

107,000 
47,000 
15,000 
100,000 

107,000 
47,000 
11,000 
100,000 

Total        .      . 

18,803,000 

15,747,000 

19,942,000 

This  title  serves  to  indicate  the  principal  countries  contributing 
to  the  world's  supply  of  cotton.  The  following  notes  afford  a 
summary  of  the  position  of  the  industry  in  the  more  important 
countries. 

United  States  of  A  merica. — The  cultivation  of  cotton  as  a  staple 
crop  in  the  United  States  dates  from  about  1770,'  although 
efforts  appear  to  have  been  made 
in  Virginia  as  far  back  as  1621. 
The  supplies  continued  to  be  small 
up  to  the  end  of  the  century. 
In  1792  the  quantity  exported 
from  the  United  States  was  only 

1  It  is  related  that  in  the  year 
1784  William  Rathbone,  an  Ameri- 
can merchant  resident  in  Liver- 
pool, received  from  one  of  his 
correspondents  in  the  southern 
states  a  consignment  of  eight  bags 
of  cotton,  which  on  its  arrival  in 
Liverpool  was  seized  by  the  custom- 
house officers,  on  the  allegation  that 
it  could  not  have  been  grown  in 
the  United  States,  and  that  it  was 
liable  to  seizure  under  the  Shipping 
Acts,  as  not  being  imported  in  a 
vessel  belonging  to  the  country  of 
its  growth.  When  afterwards  re- 
leased, it  lay  for  many  months 
unsold,  in  consequence  of  the  spin- 
ners doubting  whether  it  could  be 
profitably  worked  up. 


equivalent  to  275  bales,  but  by  the  year  1800  it  had  increased  to 
nearly  36,000  bales.  At  the  close  of  the  war  in  1815  the  revival 
of  trade  led  to  an  increased  demand,  and  the  progress  of 
cotton  cultivation  in  America  became  rapid  and  continuous, 
until  at  length  about  85%  of  the  raw  material  used  by  English 
manufacturers  was  derived  from  this  one  source.  With  a 
capacity  for  the  production  of  cotton  almost  boundless,  the  crop 
which  was  so  insignificant  when  the  century  began  had  in  1860 
reached  the  enormous  extent  of  4,824,000  bales.  This  great 
source  of  supply,  when  apparently  most  abundant  and  secure, 
was  shortly  after  suddenly  cut  off,  and  thousands  were  for  a  time 
deprived  of  employment  and  the  means  of  subsistence.  In  this 
period  of  destitution  the  cotton-growing  resources  of  every  part 
of  the  globe  were  tested  to  the  utmost;  and  in  the  exhibition  of 
1862  the  representatives  of  every  country  from  which  supplies 
might  be  expected  met  to  concert  measures  for  obtaining  all  that 
was  wanted  without  the  aid  of  America.  The  colonies  and 
dependencies  of  Great  Britain,  including  India,  seemed  well  able 
to  grow  all  the  cotton  that  could  be  required,  whilst  numerous 
other  countries  were  ready  to  afford  their  co-operation.  A 
powerful  stimulus  was  thus  given  to  the  growth  of  cotton  in  all 
directions;  a  degree  of  activity  and  enterprise  never  witnessed 
before  was  seen  in  India,  Egypt,  Turkey,  Greece,  Itary,  Africa, 
the  West  Indies,  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  Peru,  Brazil,  and 
in  short  wherever  cotton  could  be  produced;  and  there  seemed 
no  room  to  doubt  that  in  a  short  time  there  would  be  abundant 
supplies  independently  of  America.  But  ten  years  afterwards, 
in  the  exhibition  of  1872,  which  was  specially  devoted  to  cotton, 
a  few  only  of  the  thirty-five  countries  which  had  sent  their  samples 
in  1862  again  appeared,  and  these  for  the  most  part  only  to  bear 
witness  to  disappointment  and  failure.  America  had  re-entered 
the  field  of  competition,  and  was  rapidly  gaining  ground  so  as  to 
be  able  to  bid  defiance  to  the  world.  True,  the  supply  from  India 
had  been  more  than  doubled,  the  adulteration  once  so  rife  had 
been  checked,  and  the  improved  quality  and  value  of  the  cotton 
had  been  fully  acknowledged,  but  still  the  superiority  of  the 
produce  of  the  United  States  was  proved  beyond  all  dispute,  and 
American  cotton  was  again  king.  Slave  labour  disappeared,  and 
under  new  and  more  promising  auspices  a  fresh  career  of  progress 
began.  With  rare  combination  of  facilities  andadvantages,  made 
available  with  remarkable  skill  and  enterprise,  the  production  of 
cotton  in  America  seems  likely  for  a  long  series  of  years  to 
continue  to  increase  in  magnitude  and  importance.  The  total 
area  of  the  cotton-producing  region  in  the  States  is  estimated  at 
448,000,000  acres,  of  which  in  1906  only  about  one  acre  in  fifteen 
was  devoted  to  cotton.  The  potentialities  of  the  region  are 
thus  enormous. 

Cotton  is  now  the  second  crop  of  the  United  States,  being 
surpassed  in  value  only  by  Indian  corn  (maize).  The  area 
devoted  to  this  crop  in  1879  was  14,480,019  acres,  and  the-total 


Upland 

Cotton. 

Sea  Islan 

d  Cotton. 

Trttol   \7o1im 

btates  ana  1  erntones. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1  (Hill    ValUC. 

ft 

$ 

ft 

$ 

f 

Alabama 

603,651,989 

60,425,564 

60,425,564 

Arkansas 

450,99i.36i 

45,144,235 

45,144,235 

Florida 

17,876,133 

1,789,401 

9,031,896 

2,587  638 

4.377,039 

Georgia 

750,762,910 

75,151,367 

9,950,634 

2,850  857 

78,002,224 

Indian  Territory 

196,648,765 

19,684,542 

19,684,542 

Kansas 

9,844 

985 

. 

985 

Kentucky 

1,008,290 

100,930 

. 

100,930 

Louisiana 

473,222,310 

47,369,553 

. 

47,369,553 

Mississippi 

732,755,978 

73.348.874 

. 

73,348,874 

Missouri 

26,040,093 

2,606,613 

. 

. 

2,606,613 

New  Mexico 

74.340 

7.442 

7-442 

North  Carolina 

276,215,506 

27,649,172 

27,649,172 

Oklahoma 

233,396,905 

23.363,030 

23,363,030 

South  Carolina 

415,386,362 

41,580,175 

2,723,859 

999656 

42,579.831 

Tennessee 

146,569,434 

14,671,600 

14,671,600 

Texas     . 

2,001,181,289 

200,318,247 

200,318,247 

Virginia 

6,609,963 

661,657 

661,657 

Total—  United  States 

6,332,401,472 

633,873,387 

21,706,389 

6,438  ISL 

640,311,538 

(  =  12,644,803 

(  =  43,413 

bales) 

bales) 

COTTON 


265 


commercial  crop  was  5,755,359  bales.  In  1899  the  acreage  had 
increased  to  24,275,101  and  the  crop  to  9,507,786  bales.  In  1906 
the  total  area  was  28,686,000  acres  and  the  crop  13,305,265  bales. 

The  preceding  table  gives  the  quantity,  value  and  character  of 
the  crop  for  each  of  the  cotton-growing  states  in  1906,  as  reported 
by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

Mexico. — Cotton  is  extensively  grown  in  Mexico,  and  large 
quantities  are  used  for  home  consumption.  The  cultivation  is  of 
very  old  standing.  Cortes  in  1 5 1 9  is  said  to  have  received  cotton 
garments  as  presents  from  the  natives  of  Yucatan,  and  to 
have  found  the  Mexicans  using  cotton  extensively  for  clothing. 
From  1900  to  1905  the  crop  was  about  100,000  bales  per  annum; 
the  whole  is  consumed  in  local  mills,  and  cotton  is  imported  also 
from  the  United  States. 

Brazil. — The  cotton-growing  region  in  Brazil  comprises  a  belt 
some  200  m.  in  width,  in  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the  country, 
and  a  strip  along  the  valley  of  the  San  Francisco,  where  a  large 
amount  of  the  present  crop  is  produced.  The  cotton  is  known  in 
commerce  under  the  name  of  the  place  of  export,  e.g.  Maceio, 
Pernambuco  or  Pernam,  Ceara,  Rio  Grande,  &c.  The  export 
fluctuates  greatly. 

Bales  of  500  ft.       Approx.  Value. 

1901  53.002        £500,000 

1902  143,963       1,200,000 

1903  126,896       1,300,000 

1904  59413         800,000 

1905  107,887       1,000,000 

1906  142,972       1,500,000 

The  total  production  in  1906  was  estimated  at  about  275,000 
bales,  but  only  a  portion  was  available  for  export,  there  being  an 
increasing  consumption  in  Brazil  itself. 

Peru. — Cotton  is  an  important  crop  in  Peru,  where  it  has 
long  been  cultivated.  Most  of  the  crop  is  grown  in  the  irrigated 
coastal  valleys.  With  more  water  available,  the  output  could 
be  considerably  increased,  e.g.  in  the  Piura  district.  "  Rough 
Peruvian,"  the  produce  of  one  of  the  tree  cottons,  has  a  special 
use,  as  being  rather  harsh  and  wiry  it  is  well  adapted  for  mixing 
with  wool.  Egyptian  cotton  is  also  grown.  The  annual  export 
is  about  30,000  bales. 

British  West  Indies. — Cotton  was  cultivated  as  a  minor  crop 
in  parts  of  the  West  Indies  as  long  ago  as  the  i7th  century,  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  i8th  century  the  islands  supplied  about  70  % 
of  all  the  cotton  used  in  Great  Britain.  Greater  profits  obtained 
from  sugar  caused  the  industry  to  be  abandoned,  except  in  the 
small  island  of  Carriacou.  In  1900  the  Imperial  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  private  planters  began  experiments  with  the 
object  of  reintroducing  the  cultivation,  owing  to  the  decline  in 
value  of  sugar.  The  department  was  actively  assisted  by  the 

Cotton  Production  in  the  British  West  Indies:    1905-1906.* 


Island. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Yield  = 
Bales  of 
500  Ib. 

Average 
Price 
in  Pence 
per  Ib. 

Value  of 
Lint  and 
Seed. 

Barbados     .... 
St  Vincent  . 
Grenada  (mostly  Marie 
galante  cotton)    . 
St  Kitts      .... 
Nevis     

2,000 
790 

3,600 
1,000 
1,700 

951 
330 

623 
241 
240 

15-2 
18-0 

5-o 
15-0 
13-0 

£33-557 
13.557 

8,400 
8,380 
8,364 

Anguilla      .... 
Antigua       .... 
Montserrat. 
Virgin  Islands  . 
Jamaica      .... 

1,000 

700 
770 
40 
1,500 

161 

200 
196 

'4 
123 

15-0 
14-2 

15-0 

5.280 
6,522 
6,789 
400 
4.025 

Total        .      . 

12,900 

3087 

£95.274 

British  Cotton  Growing  Association,  and  the  results  have  been 
very  successful,  as  was  shown  at  an  exhibition  held  in  Manchester 
in  1908.  A  supply  of  seed  of  a  high  grade  of  Sea  Island  cotton 
was  obtained  from  Colonel  Rivers's  estate  in  the  Sea  Islands,  S. 
Carolina,  and  so  successful  has  the  cultivation  been  that  from 
some  of  the  islands  West  Indian  Sea  Island  cotton  obtains  a 

1  Taken  with  some  modifications  from  the  Agricultural  News 
(1907),  vi.  p.  38. 


higher  price  than  the  corresponding  grade  of  cotton  from  the  Sea 
Islands  themselves. 

In  1902  the  total  area  under  cotton  cultivation  in  the  British 
West  Indies  was  500  acres.  The  industry  made  rapid  progress. 
In  1903  it  was  4000;  in  1905-1906  it  was  12,900;  and  for  1906- 
1907  it  was  18,166  acres.  The  table  indicates  the  chief  cotton- 
producing  islands,  the  acreage  in  each,  yield,  average  value  per 
pound  and  total  value  of  the  crop  in  1905-1906. 

The  whole  of  this  crop  was  Sea  Island  cotton,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  "  Marie  galante  "  grown  in  Carriacou.  Marie  galante 
is  a  harsh  cotton  of  the  Peruvian  or  Brazilian  type.  The  low 
yield  per  acre  in  this  island,  and  also  the  low  value  of  the  lint 
per  Ib  compared  with  the  Sea  Island  cotton,  is  clearly  apparent. 

In  1906-1907  the  acreage  was  substantially  increased  in  many 
of  the  islands,  e.g.  Barbados  from  2000  to  5000;  St  Vincent  790 
to  1533;  St  Kitts  and  Anguilla  1000  to  1500  each;  Antigua  700 
to  1883.  In  Jamaica,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  reduced  from 
1500  to  300  acres. 

Spain. — Cotton  was  formerly  grown  in  southern  Spain  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and  as  recently  as  during  the  American  Civil 
War  a  crop  of  8000  to  10,000  bales  was  obtained.  It  is  con- 
sidered that  with  facilities  for  irrigation  Andalusia  could  produce 
1 50,000  bales  annually.  The  former  industry  was  abandoned  as 
other  crops  became  more  remunerative.  The  government  is 
encouraging  recent  efforts  to  re-establish  the  cultivation. 

Malta. — Cotton  has  long  been  cultivated  in  Malta,  but  the 
acreage  diminished  from  1750  acres  in  1899  to  670  acres  in  1906. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  the  produce  is  spun  and  woven  locally; 
e.g.  in  1904  the  export  was  equivalent  to  about  120  bales  out  of  a 
total  production  of  330  bales,  and  in  1905  to  258  out  of  333  bales 
(of  500  Ib  each). 

Cyprus  has  a  soil  and  climate  suited  to  cotton,  which  was 
formerly  grown  here  on  a  large  scale.  The  rainfall  is  uncertain 
and  low,  however,  never  exceeding  40  in.,  and  on  the  supply  of 
water  by  irrigation  the  future  of  the  industry  mainly  depends. 
The  exports  dwindled  from  3600  bales  in  1865  to  946  in  1905; 
great  fluctuations  occur,  the  export  in  1904,  for  example,  being 
only  338  bales.  The  cotton  grown  is  rather  short-stapled  and 
goes  mainly  to  Marseilles  and  Trieste.  Some  is  used  locally  in  the 
manufacture  of  cloth. 

Egypt. — The  position  of  Egypt  as  the  third  cotton-producing 
country  of  the  world  has  already  been  pointed  out,  and  the 
varieties  grown  and  the  mode  of  cultivation  described.  The 
introduction  of  the  exotic  varieties  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  I9th  century.  The  industry  was  actively  promoted  by  a 
Frenchman  named  Jumel,  in  the  service  of  Mehemet  Ali,  from 
1820  onwards  with  great  success.  The  area  under  cotton  is 
about  1,800,000  acres. 


1850 
1865 
1890 
1904 
1905 
1906 


Cotton  Production  in  Egypt. 

87,200  bales  of  500  Ib. 

439,000 

798,000 
1,258,000 
1,250,000 
1 ,400,000 


The  Egyptian  Sudan. — Egyptian  cotton  was  cultivated  in  the 
Sudan  to  the  extent  of  21,788  acres  in  1006  chiefly  on  non- 
irrigated  land.  The  exports,  however,  are  small,  almost  all  the 
crop  being  used  locally.  The  chief  difficulties  are  the  supply  of 
water,  labour  and  transport  facilities.  Lord  Cromer  in  his  report 
on  the  Sudan  for  1906  remarks  that:  "  There  seems  to  be  some 
reason  for  thinking  that  the  future — or  at  all  events  the  immediate 
future — of  Sudan  agriculture  lies  more  in  the  direction  of  cultivat- 
ing wheat  and  other  cereals  than  in  that  of  cultivating  cotton." 

West  Africa. — Cotton  has  long  been  grown  in  the  various 
countries  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  ginned  by  hand  or  by  very 
primitive  means,  spun  into  yarn,  and  woven  on  simple  looms  into 
"  country  cloths  ";  these  are  often  only  a  few  inches  wide,  so 
that  any  large  cloths  have  to  be  made  by  sewing  the  narrow 
strips  together.  These  native  cloths  are  exceedingly  durable,  and 
many  of  them  are  ornamented  by  using  dyed  yarns  and  in  other 
ways. 


266 


COTTON 


Southern  Nigeria  (Lagos)  and  northern  Nigeria  are  the  most 
important  cotton  countries  amongst  the  British  possessions  on 
the  coast.  From  the  former  there  has  been  an  export  trade  for 
many  years  which  fluctuates  remarkably  according  to  thedemand. 
Northern  Nigeria  is  the  seat  of  a  very  large  native  cotton  industry, 
to  supply  the  demand  for  cotton  robes  for  the  Mahommedan 
races  inhabiting  the  country.  The  province  of  Zaria  alone  is 
estimated  to  produce  annually  30,000  to  40,000  bales,  all  of 
which  is  used  locally.  Northern  Nigeria  contributes  to  the 
cotton  exported  from  Lagos.  The  country  offers  a  fairly  promis- 
ing field  for  development,  especially  now  that  arrangements 
have  been  made  for  providing  the  necessary  means  of  transport  by 
the  construction  of  the  new  railways.  The  profits  obtained  from 
ground-nuts  (Arachis  hypogea)  in  Gambia,  gold  mining  in  the 
Gold  Coast,  and  from  products  of  the  oil  palm  (Elaeis  guineensis) 
in  the  palm-oil  belt  serve  to  prevent  much  attention  being  given 
to  cotton  in  these  districts. 

Exports  of  Cotton  from  Lagos. 


1865 
1869 
1900 
1901 
1902 

1903 
1904 
1905     • 

Exports  of  Cotton  from  Bi 

itish 

We. 

868  bales  of  500  Ib. 
1785 
48 
15 

A5 

1725 
2578 

t  Africa,  1904,  1905  and  1906. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

Gambia   
Sierra  Leone   .... 
Gold  Coast     .... 
Southern  Nigeria  and  Lagos 
Northern  Nigeria  . 

Total      . 

Bales 
(500  Ib). 
1  20 
56 
U5 
2296 

574 

Bales 
(500  ft). 

5 
139 
5» 
2771 
250' 

Bales 
(500  ft). 

0 

176 
1  86 
5392 
712 

3161 

3215 

6466 

Nyasaland  (British  Central  Africa). — The  cultivation  of  cotton 
on  a  commercial  scale  is  quite  new  in  Nyasaland,  and  although 
general  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  appear  favourable  the 
question  of  transport  is  serious  and  labour  is  not  abundant. 
The  exports  were  equivalent  to  2  bales  of  500  Ib  in  1902-1903, 
114  bales  in  1903-1904,  570  bales  in  1904-1905,  1553  bales  in 
1005-1906  and  1052  bales  in  1906-1907.  In  the  lower  river  lands 
Egyptian  cotton  has  been  the  most  successful,  whilst  Upland 
cotton  is  more  suited  to  the  highlands. 

British  East  Africa  and  Uganda. — In  these  adjoining  pro- 
tectorates wild  cottons  occur,  and  suitable  conditions  exist  in 
certain  localities.  Experimental  work  has  been  carried  on,  and  in 
1904  Uganda  exported  about  43  bales  of  cotton,  and  British 
East  Africa  about  177  bales.  In  1006  the  combined  exports  had 
risen  to  362  bales,  including  a  little  from  German  East  Africa. 
In  1004-1905  there  were  some  300  acres  under  cotton  in  British 
East  Africa.  Lack  of  direct  transport  facilities  is  a  difficulty. 
Some  of  the  native  cottons  are  of-  fair  quality,  but  Egyptian 
cotton  appears  likely  to  be  best  suited  for  growing  for  export. 

India  is  probably  the  most  ancient  cotton-growing  country. 
For  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era  cotton  was  largely  used 
in  the  domestic  manufactures  of  India;  and  the  clothing  of  the 
inhabitants  then  consisted,  as  now,  chiefly  of  garments  made  from 
this  vegetable  product.  More  than  two  thousand  years  before 
Europe  or  England  had  conceived  the  idea  of  applying  modern 
industry  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  India  had  matured  a 
system  of  hand-spinning,  weaving  and  dyeing  which  during  that 
vast  period  received  no  recorded  improvement.  The  people, 
though  remarkable  for  their  intelligence  whilst  Europe  was  in  a 
state  of  barbarism,  made  no  approximation  to  the  mechanical 
operations  of  modern  times,  nor  was  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
either  improved  or  considerably  extended.  Possessing  soil, 
climate  and  apparently  all  the  requisite  elements  from  nature  for 
the  production  of  cotton  to  an  almost  boundless  extent,  and  of  a 
1  Approximately. 


useful  and  acceptable  quality,  India  for  a  long  series  of  years  did 
but  little  towards  supplying  the  manufactures  of  other  countries 
with  the  raw  material  which  they  required.  Between  the  years 
1788  and  1850  numerous  attempts  were  made  by  the  East  India 
Company  to  improve  the  cultivation  and  to  increase  the  supply  of 
cotton  in  India,  and  botanists  and  American  planters  were 
engaged  for  the  purpose.  One  great  object  of  then-  experiments 
was  to  introduce  and  acclimatize  exotic  cottons.  Bourbon,  New 
Orleans,  Upland,  Georgia,  Sea  Island,  Pernambuco,  Egyptian, 
&c.,  were  tried  but  with  little  permanent  success.  The  results  of 
these  and  similar  attempts  led  to  the  conclusion  that  efforts  to 
improve  the  indigenous  cottons  were  most  likely  to  be  rewarded 
with  success.  Still  more  recently,  however,  experiments  have 
been  made  to  grow  Egyptian  cotton  hi  Sind  with  the  help  of 
irrigation.  Abassi  has  given  the  best  results,  and  the  experiments 
have  been  so  successful  that  in  1004-1905  an  out-turn  of  not  less 
than  100,000  bales"  was  prophesied  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  " 
(Report  of  Director,  Land  Records  and  Agriculture).  The 
average  annual  production  in  India  approximates  to  3,000,000 
bales.  The  area  under  cotton  in  all  British  India  is  about 
20,000,000  acres,  the  crop  being  grown  in  a  very  primitive 
manner.  The  bulk  of  the  cotton  is  of  very  short  staple,  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  is  not  well  suited  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  English  spinner,  but  very  large  mills  specially  fitted 
to  deal  with  short-stapled  cottons  have  been  erected  in  India  and 
consume  about  one-half  the  total  crop,  the  remainder  being 
exported  to  Germany  and  other  European  countries,  Japan  and 
China.  In  1906  the  United  Kingdom  took  less  than  5%  of  the 
cotton  exported. 

Cotton  Production  in  British  India.1 
1859        .        .        .      1,316,800  bales  of  500  ft. 

1904  .       .       .     3,172,800      „ 

1905  .       .       .     2,848,800      „  „ 

1906  .        .       .     4,038,400      „  „ 

About  50%  of  the  cotton  produced  is  consumed  in  Indian 
mills  and  the  remainder  is  exported. 

China. — Cotton  has  not  been  cultivated  in  China  from  such 
early  times  as  in  India,  and  although  cotton  cloths  are  mentioned 
in  early  writings  it  was  not  until  about  A.D.  1300  that  the  plant 
was  grown  on  any  considerable  scale.  There  are  no  figures 
obtainable  as  to  the  production,  but  it  must  be  very  large, 
considering  that  the  crop  provides  clothing  for  a  large  proportion 
of  the  population  of  China.  During  recent  years  a  considerable 
quantity  of  cotton  has  been  exported,  but  more  than  a  com- 
pensating amount  of  raw  cotton,  yarns  and  textiles,  is  imported. 
An  estimate  of  the  crop  puts  it  at  about  1,500,000  bales. 

Korea  is  stated  to  have  originally  received  its  cotton  plants 
from  China  some  500  years  ago.  Conditions  are  well  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  plant,  and  since  the  cessation  of  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  the  Japanese  have  undertaken  the  development 
of  the  industry.  Figures  are  difficult  to  obtain,  but  an  official 
report  from  the  Japanese  Residency  General  in  1007  estimated 
the  crop  at  about  214,000  bales,  all  being  used  locally.  In  the 
future  Korea  may  become  an  important  source  of  supply  for 
Japan,  especially  if,  as  appears  likely,  Korea  proves  suited  to  the 
cultivation  of  American  cotton. 

Japan  received  cotton  from  India  before  China,  and  the  plant 
is  extensively  grown,  especially  in  West  and  Middle  Japan. 
The  production  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  home  demand; 
during  the  five  years  of  normal  trade  before  the  war  with  Russia 
Japan  imported  annually  about  800,000  bales  of  cotton,  chiefly 
from  British  India,  China  and  the  United  States,  and  during  the 
same  period  exported  each  year  some  2000  bales,  mainly  to 
Korea. 

Dutch  East  Indies. — In  Java  and  other  Dutch  possessions  in  the 
East  cotton  is  cultivated.  A  considerable  amount  is  used  locally, 
and  during  the  six  years  ending  in  1907  the  surplus  exported 
ranged  from  about  24,000  to  40,000  bales  per  annum. 

Russia. — Some  cotton  is  produced  in  European  Russia  in  the 
southern  Caucasus,  but  Turkestan  in  central  Asia  is  by  far  the' 

1  Cotton  Production  1906,  U.S.A.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Bulletin 
No.  76. 


COTTON 


267 


more  important  source  of  Russian-grown  cotton.  In  this  region 
cotton  has  been  cultivated  from  very  early  times  to  supply  loca 
demands,  and  to  a  minor  degree  for  export.  Since  about  1875  the 
Russians  have  fostered  the  industry,  introducing  American 
Upland  varieties,  distributing  seed  free,  importing  gins,  providing 
instruction,  and  guaranteeing  the  purchase  of  the  crops.  The 
Trans-Caspian  railway  has  been  an  important  factor;  almost  al 
the  cotton  exported  passes  over  this  line,  and  the  statistics  of  this 
trade  indicate  the  progress  made.  The  shipments  increased  from 
250,978  bales  in  1896-1897  to  495,962  bales  in  1901-1902 — part 
however,  being  Persian  cotton.  The  production  of  cotton  in 
Russia  in  1906  was  estimated  at  675,000  bales  of  500  Ib  each 
About  one-third  of  the  cotton  used  in  Russian  mills  is  grown 
on  Russian  territory,  the  remainder  coming  chiefly  from  the 
United  States. 

Asia  Minor. — Smyrna  is  the  principal  centre  of  cotton 
cultivation  in  this  region.  A  native  variety  known  as  "  Terli," 
and  American  cotton,  are  grown.  The  general  conditions  are 
favourable.  According  to  the  Liverpool  Cation  Gazette,  Asiatic 
Turkey  produced  in  1906  about  100,000  bales,  and  Persia  about 
47,000  bales.  Cotton  was  formerly  cultivated  profitably  in 
Palestine. 

Australasia. — The  quantity  of  cotton  now  produced  in  Austra- 
lasia is  extremely  small.  Queensland,  New  South  Wales  and 
South  Australia  possess  suitable  climatic  conditions,  and  in  the 
first-named  state  the  cotton  has  been  grown  on  a  commercial 
scale  in  past  years,  the  crop  in  1897  being  about  450  bales. 
Considerable  interest  attaches  to  the  "  Caravonica "  cotton 
raised  in  South  Australia,  which  has  been  experimented  with 
in  Australia,  Ceylon  and  elsewhere.  It  is  probably  a  hybrid 
between  Sea  Island  and  rough  Peruvian  cotton,  but  lacks  most  of 
the  essential  features  of  Sea  Island. 

In  Fiji  the  cotton  exported  in  the  'sixties  and  'seventies  was 
worth  £93,000  annually;  but  the  cultivation  has  been  practically 
abandoned.  In  1899  about  60  bales,  and  in  1900  about  6  bales, 
were  exported.  During  1901-1903  there  were  no  exports  of 
cotton,  and  in  1904  only  70  bales  were  sent  out. 

Into  the  Society  Islands  Sea  Island  cotton  was  introduced 
about  1860-1870.  Up  to  the  year  1885  there  was  an  average 
yearly  export  equivalent  to  about  2140  bales  of  500  Ib,  after 
which  date  the  export  practically  ceased.  The  industry  has, 
however,  been  revived,  and  in  1906  over  100  bales,  valued  at 
£1052,  were  exported.  (W.  G.  F.) 

MARKETING  AND  SUPPLY 

In  the  days  of  slave-grown  cotton,  the  American  planters, 
being  men  of  wealth  farming  on  a  large  scale,  consigned  the  bulk 
Moving  of  their  produce  as  a  rule  direct  to  the  ports.  Now, 
the  however,  a  large  proportion  of  the  crop  is  sold  to  local 

store-keepers  wno  transfer  it  to  exporting  firms  in 
neighbouring  cities.  The  cultivators,  whether  owners 
of  the  plantations,  as  is  usual  in  some  districts,  or  tenants,  as  is 
customary  in  others,  are  financed  as  a  rule  by  commission  agents. 
The  dech'ne  of  "  spot  "  sales  at  the  ports,  partly  but  not  entirely 
in  consequence  of  the  appearance  of  the  small  cultivator,  has 
proceeded  steadily.  Hammond1  has  constructed  a  table  from 
information  supplied  by  the  secretaries  of  the  cotton  exchanges 
at  New  York,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Mobile,  New  Orleans  and 
Galveston,  showing  the  sales  of  "  spot  "  cotton  at  those  ports  for 
the  twenty-two  years  between  1874-1875  and  1895-1896,  and  in 
all  cases  an  absolute  decline  is  evident.  The  receipts  of  cotton  in 
the  season  1904-1905  at  the  leading  interior  towns  and  ports  of 
the  United  States  are  given  below. 

Receipts  of  Cotton  at  28  Interior  Towns. 
(In  Thousand  Statistical  Bales  of  500  Ib  each.) 


Brenham,  Tex. 
Dallas,  Tex.  . 
Shreveport,  La. 
Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Helena,  Ark.. 
Vicksburg,  Miss. 
Columbus,  Miss. 
Natchez,  Miss. 

17 
96 
256 
219 
91 

100 

57 
76 

Memphis,  Tenn. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 
Selma,  Ala.    . 
Montgomery,  Ala 
Eufaula,  Ala. 
Columbus,  Ga. 
Macon,  Ga.    . 
Albany,  Ga. 

984 
"9 
126 

211 
29 

74 
87 
35 

1  Cotton  Culture  and  the  Cotton  Trade,  p.  298. 


Atlanta,  Ga. 
Rome,  Ga.     . 
Augusta,  Ga. 
Columbia,  S.C. 
Newberry,  S.C. 
Charlotte,  N.C. 
Raleigh,  N.C. 

134 
72 

H 

17 

21 
IQ 

Houston,  Tex. 
Meridian,  Miss.     . 
Cincinnati,  Ohio  . 
Yazoo  City,  Miss  . 

Total  . 

2-423 
133 
167 

65 
6712 

St  Louis,  Mo. 

J" 

672 

Crop. 

13-565 

of  Cotton  at  American  Ports. 
Statistical  Bales  of  500  Ib  each.) 


.    2,879 

Boston,  Mass. 

84 

2,690 

330 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Brunswick,  Ga. 

H 
200 

1,877 

Pensacola,  Fla. 

187 

225 

•Z7C 

Minor  Ports  . 

518 

O/  O 

820 
62 

Total  . 

10,295 

34 

Crop   . 

13,565 

Receipts 
(In  Thousand 
Galveston,  Tex. 
New  Orleans,  La. 
Mobile,  Ala. 
Savannah,  Ga. 
Charleston,  S.C. 
Wilmington,  N.C 
Norfolk,  Va. 
Baltimore,  Md. 
New  York 

Galveston  and  Savannah  have  risen  considerably  in  relative 
importance  of  late  years. 

Before  the  Civil  War  each  planter  would  have  his  own  gin- 
house.  Now,  however,  ginning  is  a  distinct  business,  and  one  gin 
will  serve  on  an  average  about  thirty  farmers.  Moveable 
gins  were  tried  for  a  time  in  some  places;  they  were  oiaalag 
dragged  by  traction  engines  from  farm  to  farm,  like  packing 
threshing  machines  in  parts  of  England,  but  the  plan 
proved  uneconomical  because,  among  other  reasons,  farmers  were 
not  prepared  to  meet  the  cost  of  providing  facilities  for  storing 
their  cotton.  In  addition  to  the  small  country  ginneries,  large 
modern  ginneries  have  now  been  set  up  in  all  the  leading  Southern 
market  towns.  The  cotton  is  pressed  locally  and  afterwards 
"  compressed "  into  a  very  small  compass.  The  bales  are 
usually  square,  but  cylindrical  bales  are  becoming  more  common, 
though  their  cost  is  greater.  In  the  latter,  the  cotton  is  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  rolled  sheet  or  "  lap."  Owing  to  complaints  of 
the  careless  packing  of  American  cotton,  attention  has  b«n 
devoted  of  late  to  the  improvement  of  the  square  bale. 

London  used  to  be  the  chief  cotton  port  of  England,  but 
Liverpool  had  assumed  undisputed  leadership  before  the  igth 
century  began.  Some  arrivals  have  been  diverted  to 
Manchester  since  the  opening  of  the  Manchester  ship 
canal;  shipments  through  the  canal  from  the  ist  of 
September  to  the  3oth  of  August  in  each  year  for  the 
decade  1894-1895  to  1904-1905  are  appended — six  to  eight  times 
as  much  is  still  unloaded  at  Liverpool. 

A  Manchester  cotton-importing  company  was  recently  formed 
for  increasing  deliveries  direct  to  Manchester,  and  establishing 
a  "  spot  "  market  there,  an  end  to  which  the  Manchester  Cotton 
Association  had  directed  its  efforts  for  some  time  past.  The 
latter  association  was  established  at  the  end  of  1894,  with  a 
membership  of  265,  in  the  interests  of  those  spinners  who  desired 
importations  direct  to  Manchester.  The  objects  of  the  associa- 
tion are  officially  stated  to  be:  (i)  to  frame  suitable  and  authori- 
tative forms  of  contract,  and  to  make  rules  and  regulations  for  the 
proper  conduct  of  the  trade;  (2)  to  supervise  and  facilitate  the 
delivery  of  the  importation&of  cotton  at  the  Manchester  docks  to 
the  various  consignees;  (3)  to  provide  and  maintain  trustworthy 
standards  of  classification;  (4)  to  procure  and  disseminate  useful 
information  on  all  subjects  pertaining  to  the  trade;  (5)  to  act  in 
concert  with  chambers  of  commerce  and  other  bodies  throughout 
the  world  for  mutual  protection;  (6)  to  establish  a  inarket  for 
cotton  at  Manchester.  Spinning  members  preponderate,  but 
almost  all  the  Manchester  cotton  merchants  and  cotton  brokers 
have  also  joined  the  association.  The  importance  of  the  original 
spinners'  representation  on  the  association  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  they  worked  over  14,000,000  spindles:  in  December  1905 
he  spindles  represented  by  members  had  risen  to  nearly 
20,000,000.  Some  73,000  looms  are  also  represented.  As  most 
of  the  Lancashire  cotton  mills  lie  far  from  Manchester,  direct 
mportations  to  that  city  do  not  usually  dispense  with  a  "  hand- 
ing," and  frequently  save  little  or  nothing  in  freight  rates, 
hough  in  some  cases  the  economy  derived  from  direct  importa- 
ion  is  considerable.  One  gain  accruing  to  Lancashire  from  the 


268 


COTTON 


Canal,  however,   is  that  its  competition  has  brought  down 
railway  rates. 

Fundamental  alterations  have  been  made  in  the  structure  of 
the  leading  cotton  markets,  and  in  methods  of  buying  and  selling 
cotton,  in  the  last  hundred  years.  We  shall  not  attempt 
'market  to  trace  tne  changes  as  they  appeared  in  every  market 
methods,  of  importance,  but  shall  confine  our  attention  to  one 
only,  and  that  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all, 
namely,  the  market  at  Liverpool.  This  selection  of  one  market 
for  detailed  examination  does  not  rob  our  sketch  of  generality, 
as  might  at  first  be  thought,  since  broadly  the  history  of  the 
development  of  one  market  is  the  history  of  the  development  of 
all,  and  on  the  whole  the  economic  explanation  of  the  evolution 
that  has  taken  place  may  be  universalized. 


with  less  easy  terms  for  payment  than  were  usual  in  Manchester, 
prevented  any  great  numbers  from  departing  from  the  beaten 
track.  Cotton  dealers  up  to  this  time  had  regularly  financed  the 
spinners,  who  were  frequently  men  of  little  capital,  by  allowing 
long  credit,  and  had  even  employed  them  to  spin  on  commission. 
As  men  of  substance  increased  among  the  ranks  of  the  spinners, 
the  Manchester  cotton  dealers  found  it  impossible  to  retard  a 
movement  set  on  foot  by  the  prospects  of  such  appreciable 
advantages.  Ultimately  many  of  the  old  Manchester  cotton 
dealers  became  brokers  for  their  old  customers.  In  1875  there 
were  said  to  be  upwards  of  100  cotton  dealers  in  Manchester,  but 
from  that  time  onward  their  members  steadily  declined.  It  is 
interesting  to  observe  that  a  later  development  of  transport 
between  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  namely,  the  Manchester 


Cotton  landed  at  the  Port  of  Manchester  since  the  Canal  was  opened. 

(In  thousand  Bales.) 
The  season  is  from  the  1st  of  September  to  the  3 1st  of  August  each  year. 


Jan.  1894,  to 
Aug.  31, 
1894. 

Season 
1894-1895. 

Season 
1895-1896. 

Season 
1896-1897. 

Season 
1897-1898. 

Season 
1898-1899. 

American  
Egyptian   
East  Indian      .... 
West  African    .... 

Total 

Total  American  Crop1    . 
Total  Egyptian  Crop 
(in  bales  of  7§  cantars)2 

21 

1-4 

32 
34 

121 

68 

211 

88 

245 
98 

3" 

84 

22 

66 

189 

299 

344 

395 

7,549 
657 

9,901 
615 

7-157 
703 

8,757 
783 

11,199 
872 

",274 
745 

Season 
1899-1900. 

Season 
1900-1901. 

Season 
1901-1902. 

Season 
1902-1903. 

Season 
1903-1904. 

Season 
1904-1905. 

American  
Egyptian  
East  Indian      .... 
West  African    .... 

Total 

Total  American  Crop1     . 
Total  Egyptian  Crop 
(in  bales  of  7j  cantars)2 

415 
136 

442 
107 

421 
125 

478 
H5 
2-5 

365 
148 
6 

552 
183 
1-3 
•i 

551 

549 

546 

626 

519 

736 

9,436 
868 

10,383 
723 

10,680 
849 

10,727 

778 

10,011 

867 

13,565 
846 

Originally  cotton  was  imported  by  the  Liverpool  dealer  as  an 
agent  for  American  firms  or  at  his  own  risk,  and  then  sold 
by  private  treaty,  auction,  or  through  brokers,  to 
Evoiut/ca  Manchester  dealers,  who  retailed  it  to  the  spinners. 
broking.  This  statement  is,  of  course,  only  roughly  correct. 
Some  Manchester  dealers  imported  themselves,  and 
some  spinners  bought  direct  from  Liverpool  importers,  but  the 
rule  was  the  arrangement  first  described.  Early  in  the  ipth 
century  it  became  customary  for  Manchester  dealers  and  Liver- 
pool importers  to  carry  on  business  with  one  another  through 
representatives  known  as  "  buying  "  and  "  selling  "  brokers. 
About  this  time  the  broker  of  cotton  only  began  to  specialize 
from -the  ranks  of  the  brokers  who  dealt  in  all  kinds  of  colonial 
produce.  Previously  there  had  not  been  enough  business  done 
in  cotton  to  make  it  worth  any  person's  while  to  devote  himself 
to  the  buying  and  selling  on  commission  of  cotton  only.  The 
evolution  of  the  distinct  business  of  cotton  broking  is  readily 
comprehensible  when  we  remind  ourselves  that  the  requirements, 
as  regards  raw  material,  of  all  spinners  are  much  alike  generally, 
and  that  no  spinner  could  afford  to  pay  an  expert  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  purchasing  cotton  for  his  mill. 

So  far  change  had  been  gradual,  but  the  success  of  the 
Manchester  and  Liverpool  railway  undermined  beyond  repair  the 
old  system  of  doing  business.  Spinners  could  easily  run  over  to 
Liverpool  and  buy  their  cotton  from  the  large  stocks  displayed 
at  that  port.  Before  the  railway  was  opened  some  spinners  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  making  their  purchases  of  raw  material  in 
Liverpool,  but  the  great  inconveniences  of  the  journey,  combined 

1  Commercial  crop. 
2  A  cantar  is  99-05  Ib  avoirdupois. 


Ship  Canal,  has  drawn  back  into  Manchester  a  part  of  the  cotton 
market  which  was  attracted  from  Manchester  into  Liverpool  by 
the  famous  improvement  in  transport  opened  to  the  public 
three-quarters  of  a  century  ago. 

The  centralization  of  the  cotton  market  in  Liverpool  fixed 
firmly  the  system  of  buying  through  brokers,  for  the  Liverpool 
importer,  or  his  broker,  was  in  no  sense  a  professional  adviser  to 
the  spinners,  informally  pledged  to  advance  the  latter's  interests, 
as  the  old  Manchester  dealers  had  been.  The  system  was 
rendered  comparatively  inexpensive  by  the  drop  in  commissions 
from  i  to  J%  which  had  followed  the  adoption  of  selling  by 
sample.  This  custom  of  buying  and  selling  through  brokers 
continued  unshaken  until  the  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable  tempted 
selling  brokers  occasionally,  and  even  some  buying  brokers,  to 
buy  direct  from  American  factors  by  telegraph  and  thus  transform 
themselves  into  quasi-importers.  The  temptation  was  made  the 
more  difficult  to  resist  by  the  development  of  "  future  "  dealings. 
When  the  agents  of  the  spinners,  that  is,  the  buying  brokers,  by 
becoming  principals  in  some  transactions,  had  acquired  interests 
diametrically  opposed  to  those  of  their  customers,  the  consequent 
feeling  of  distrust  among  spinners  gave  birth  to  the  Cotton 
Buying  Company,  which,  constituted  originally  of  twenty  to 
thrity  limited  cotton-spinning  companies,  represents  to-day 
nearly  6,000,000  spindles  distributed  among  nearly  one  hundred 
firms.  Its  object  was  to  squeeze  out  some  middlemen  and 
economize  for  its  members  on  brokerage.  This  company,  it  is 
said,  helped  to  attract  the  brokers  back  to  the  spinners,  and  an 
informal  understanding  was  arrived  at  that  the  "buying  broker 
should  not  figure  both  as  agent  and  principal  in  the  same 
transaction. 


COTTON 


269 


Cotton- 

Cltarlnf 

house. 

Cotton 

Bank  and 

periodic 


By  1876  "  forward  "  operations  had  become  so  vast  and 
complicated  that  a  cotton-clearing  house  had  to  be  established 
to  deal  with  the  confusing  networks  of  debits  and 
credits  created  by  them.  Its  principle  was  exactly 
that  of  the  clearing  houses  used  by  the  railways  and  the 
banks,  the  cancellation  of  indebtedness  and  discharge 
simply  of  balances.  The  final  settlement  of  a  "  future  " 
settlement  contract  involved  usually  a  crowd  of  persons,  and  the 
of" differ-  passage  of  large  sums  of  money  backwards  and  for- 
wards, so  that  the  amount  of  cash  required  for  cir- 
culation on  the  exchange  became  unreasonably  excessive 
and  an  annoying  waste  of  time  was  entailed.  The  cotton- 
clearing  house  substituted  book-keeping  for  the  bulk  of  these 
payments.  The  establishment  of  the  Cotton  Bank  naturally 
followed.  Now  debts  are  discharged  in  the  first  instance  by 
vouchers.  Dealers  pass  their  debit  and  credit  vouchers  into  the 
Cotton  Bank  and  pay  or  receive  the  balances  which  they  owe  or 
are  entitled  to.  In  order  to  protect  dealers  against  the  losses  due 
to  the  insolvency  of  those  with  whom  they  have  had  transactions, 
weekly  settlements  on  the  exchange  have  been  made  compulsory; 
between  brokers  and  their  clients  they  are  also  usual.  At  the 
settlement,  every  member  of  the  exchange  receives  the  "  differ- 
ences "  owing  to  him  and  pays  those  which  he  has  incurred. 
Thus  if  a  person  holds  futures  for  10,000  bales  which  stood  at 
5-20  on  the  last  settlement  day  and  now  stand  at  5-30,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  previous  week  has  sold  5000  bales  of  "  futures  "  at 
5-10,  he  receives  10,000  X  iVffd.  on  his  old  holding,  and  has  to  pay 
5000  X  y%d.  on  his  sales,  and  therefore  on  balance  neither 
receives  nor  pays.  Differences  may  be  very  large  sums.  The 
unit  of  a  "  future  "  being  100  bales,  an  alteration  in  the  price  of 
cotton  of  -oid.  causes  a  difference  on  each  unit  of  £2.  Periodic 
settlements  are  obviously  periodic  tests  of  the  solvency  of 
dealers.  If  the  test  of  the  settlement  were  not  frequently  applied , 
speculators  who  were  unfortunate  would  be  tempted  to  plunge 
deeper  until  finally  some  became  insolvent  for  large  sums.  As  it 
is,  the  speculator  who  has  incurred  losses  beyond  his  means  tends 
to  be  discovered  before  his  creditors  are  heavily  involved. 
Settlement  days  fall  on  Thursday,  and  the  closing  prices  on  the 
preceding  Monday  are  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  settlement. 
From  all  differences  interest  at  5%  is  deducted  for  the  time 
between  settlement  day  and  the  tenth  day  of  the  second  month  on 
which  the  "  future  "  elapses,  since  settlement  terms  mean  that 
money  is  paid  in  instalments  before  it  is  actually  due.  To  the 
admission  of  periodic  settlements  there  was  for  a  time  vehement 
opposition  on  the  ground  that  the  door  would  be  opened  to 
gambling  on  "  differences."  Hence  at  first,  in  1882,  they  were 
used  only  by  a  section  of  the  market  constituted  of  members  who 
had  voluntarily  agreed  to  do  business  with  one  another  upon 
these  terms  alone.  By  1 884,  however,  the  advantages  of  "  settle- 
ment terms  "  became  so  evident  that  they  were  adopted  by  the 
Cotton  Association,  at  first  for  fortnightly  periods,  with  the 
saving  clause  originally  that  they  should  not  be  compulsory. 

As  soon  as  the  clearing  house  was  set  up  it  became  evident  that 
"  futures  "  were  an  impossibility  away  from  it.  At  the  same  time 
"  futures  "  were  becoming  an  increasing  necessity  to 
importers,  because  through  "  futures  "  alone  could  they 
hedge  on  thejr  purchases  of  cotton,  or  buy  when  the 
market  seemed  favourable,  and  they  were  not  prepared 
to  assume  heavy  risks.  Now  from  the  clearing  house 
importers  were  rigorously  excluded,  and  on  invoking  the  aid  of 
"  futures,"  therefore,  they  were  penalized  to  the  extent  of  double 
broker's  commission,  one  commission  being  charged  on  the  sale 
of  the  "  futures  "  and  one  on  their  purchase  back.  The  importers, 
therefore,  found  it  necessary  to  establish  a  club  of  their  own,  the 
Liverpool  Cotton  Exchange,  which  they  as  rigorously  guarded 
against  brokers.  The  split  in  the  market  so  caused  was  so 
damaging  to  both  parties  that  a  satisfactory  arrangement  was 
eventually  agreed  upon,  and  both  institutions  were  absorbed  in 
the  Liverpool  Cotton  Association. 

A  condition  of  specialist  dealers  working  to  the  public  service 
is  that  they  should  not  act  in  the  dark.  They  must  watch 
demand,  be  able  to  form  reasonable  anticipations  ol  its  move- 


Orlgin  of 
Liverpool 
Cotton 
Associa- 
tion. 


Year. 

June  1st. 

July  1st. 

Aug.  1st. 

Sept.  ist. 

Oct.  1st. 

1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 

81-5 
95-1 

74-1 

83 
77-2 

81-1 
84-7 

77-i 
88 

77 

77-2 
81-9 

79-7 
91-6 

74-9 

71-4 
64-0 
81-2 
84-1 

72-1 

61-4 

58-3 
65-1 

75-8 
71-2 

Publica- 
tion of  In- 
formation 
relating  to 
demand 
and 
supply. 


ments,  and  at  the  same  time  know  the  existing  stocks  of  cotton, 
the  sales  taking  place  from  day  to  day,  and  the  best  forecasts  of 
the  coming  supplies.  A  man  accustomed  to  devote  the 
whole  of  his  time  to  the  study  of  demand  and  supply 
in  relation  to  cotton,  after  some  years  of  experience, 
will  be  qualified  ordinarily  to  form  fairly  accurate  judg- 
ments of  the  prices  to  be  expected.  His  success  depends 
upon  his  ability  to  interpret  rightly  the  facts  and  intan- 
gible signs  with  which  he  is  brought  in  contact.  The 
information  at  the  disposal  of  dealers  has  steadily  enlarged  in 
volume  and  improved  in  trustworthiness,  though  some  of  it  is 
not  yet  invariably  above  suspicion,  and  the  time  elapsing  between 
an  event  and  the  knowledge  of  it  becoming  common  property 
has  been  reduced  to  a  fraction  of  what  it  used  to  be,  in  consequence 
chiefly  of  the  telegraph  and  cables.  All  sales  that  take  place  on 
the  Exchange  must  be  returned.  Estimates  are  published  of  the 
area  under  cotton  cultivation,  and  conditions  of  the  American 
crop  are  issued  by  the  American  agricultural  bureau  at  the 
beginning  of  the  months  of  June,  July,  August,  September  and 
October  of  each  year.  To  represent  the  standard  of  perfect 
healthiness  and  exemption  from  injury  due  to  insects,  or  drought, 
or  any  other  causes,  one  hundred  is  taken.  The  estimates  for 
1901  to  1905  are  given,  to  illustrate  their  variations: — 


These  estimates  are  the  averages  of  separate  estimates  which 
are  published  for  the  states  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
Arkansas,  Tennessee.  The  official  figures  are  supplemented 
from  time  to  time  by  numerous  private  forecasts,  for  instance 
those  in  "  Neild's  circular."  Ellison,  in  his  work  on  the  cotton 
trade  of  Great  Britain,  traces  in  detail  the  increase  in  the  volume 
of  information  collected  and  made  public.  At  the  close  of  the 
1 8th  century  there  was  a  tacit  understanding  among  brokers  to 
supply  one  another  with  information.  There  were  no  printed 
circulars,  except  the  monthly  prices  current  of  all  kinds  of 
produce,  but  brokers  used  to  send  particulars  of  business  done 
to  their  customers  in  letters.  These  letters  were  the  origin  of 
circulars.  Messrs  Ewart  and  Rutson  pioneered  in  1805  by 
issuing  a  weekly  account  of  the  sales  and  imports  of  cotton,  and 
three  years  later  three  such  circulars  were  on  the  market,  though 
Hope's  alone  was  confined  to  cotton.  For  the  first  associated 
circular  of  any  importance,  the  market  had  to  wait  until  1832. 
The  issue  of  this  circular  by  subscribing  firms,  on  the  basis  of 
particulars  collected  by  brokers  appointed  at  a  weekly  meeting, 
gave  rise  in  1841  to  the  Cotton  Brokers'  Association,  to  which  the 
development  of  the  market  by  the  systematizing  of  procedure  is 
largely  due.  The  rest  of  the  tale  may  be  told  in  Mr  Ellison's  own 
words: — 

"  Down  to  1864  the  leading  firms  continued  to  issue  weekly  market 
reports,  but  in  that  year  the  association  commenced  the  publication 
of  an  associated  circular.  This  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by 
the  Daily  Table  of  sales  and  imports,  which  in  1874  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  more  complete  Daily  Circular.  To  these  publications 
were  at  various  times  added  the  annual  report,  issued  in  December, 
the  American  crop  report,  issued  in  September,  and  the  daily  advices 
by  cable  from  America,  issued  every  morning."  l 

We  shall  now  enter  upon  a  detailed  analysis  of  "  forward  " 
operations.  The  term  "  futures  "  is  used  broadly  and  narrowly: 
broadly  it  is  a  generic  term  denoting  "  futures  "  in  the  patart* 
narrow  sense,  and  also  "  options  "  and  "  straddles  "; 
narrowly  it  implies  merely  contracts  for  future  delivery  at  a  price 
fixed  in  the  present.  Again  we  must  distinguish  between  the 
"  future  "  contracts  for  the  delivery  of  a  particular  kind  of  cotton, 
which  may  be  entered  into  by  spinners  and  their  brokers,  and 
are  real  purchases  in  the  sense  that  the  spinners  want  delivery 
of  the  cotton  referred  to,  and  the  "  futures,"  which  always  relate 

1  The  Cotton  Trade  of  Great  Britain,  by  Thomas  Ellison,  p.  1 86. 


270 


COTTON 


to  the  same  grade  of  cotton,  and  are  drawn  up  according  to  certain 
forms  and  circulate  on  the  exchange  as  media  for  the  shifting 
of  risks  connected  with  purchase  and  sale.  The  latter  are  not 
"  real  "  purchases  in  the  sense  given  to  that  term  above,  but 
fictitious  because  delivery  of  the  cotton  is  not  desired.  It  will  no 
doubt  aid  the  understanding  of  the  functions  of  the  latter  if  some 
explanation  is  offered  of  the  needs  met  by  the  former,  which  are 
sometimes  known  technically  as  "  deferred  deliveries." 

When  a  spinner  is  required  to  quote  prices  of  yarn  for  delivery 
in  the  future  he  is  fixed  on  the  horns  of  a  dilemma.  If  he  does  not 
at  once  buy  cotton,  but  quotes  on  the  assumption  that 
Th"  .  price  will  remain  steady,  he  may  be  involved  in  serious 
risks.  loss  through  his  estimate  being  mistaken.  If  he  de- 
termines to  buy  cotton  at  once,  others  who  risk  more, 
and  trust  their  judgment  of  the  future,  may  secure  the  contract. 
On  first  thoughts  it  would  seem  desirable  that  all  spinners  should 
buy  cotton  outright  to  cover  their  contracts,  but  on  second 
thoughts  the  social  disadvantage  of  their  doing  so  becomes 
apparent.  Much  buying  might  take  place  when  stocks  were 
scanty,  with  the  result  that  prices  would  be  needlessly  forced 
up;  and  when  stocks  were  plentiful  demand  might  be  weak  and 
prices,  therefore,  be  unduly  depressed.  It  is  evident  that  the 
buying  of  cotton  on  the  principles  suggested  would  be  calculated 
to  cause  great  unsteadiness  of  prices,  especially  as  cotton  is 
not  continuously  forthcoming,  but  is  produced  periodically  in 
harvests.  Demands  for  yarn  cannot  be  expected  to  come  always 
at  the  most  favourable  time  socially  for  the  distribution  of  the 
cotton.  One  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is  that  the  spinner  should 
exercise  his  judgment  and  buy  his  raw  material  at  what  seems  to 
him  the  most  suitable  times.  But  to  this  course  there  are  three 
objections.  The  first  is  that  spinners  would  be  performing  the  two 
functions  of  industrial  management  and  cotton  buying  (together 
with  others  perhaps),  and  that  in  consequence  the  best  industrial 
men  would  not  necessarily  be  able  to  maintain  their  position  in 
the  trade  because  as  buyers  of  cotton  they  might  be  unfortunate. 
The  second  is  that  spinners  being  required  to  give  attention  to 
two  distinct  classes  of  problems  would  be  less  likely  as  a  body 
to  become  complete  masters  of  either.  The  third,  which  is  not 
distinct  in  principle  from  the  two  preceding,  is  that  such  limited 
speculation  in  cotton  buying  on  the  part  of  spinners  worried  with 
other  matters  would  not  be  likely  to  steady  the  cotton  market  in 
any  high  degree.  It  may  be  assumed  as  desirable  that  the  demand 
for  cotton  should  be  so  spread  as  to  keep  its  price  as  steady  as 
possible — "  steadiness  "  will  be  defined  more  exactly  later — and 
that  to  this  end  it  is  essential  that  specialists  should  devote 
themselves  to  the  task  of  spreading  it.  Such  specialists  have 
appeared  in  the  cotton  brokers  and  dealers  who  make  their  living 
out  of  bearing  the  risks  connected  with  anticipating  demand  and 
supply  in  relation  to  cotton.  To-day  a  spinner  who  is  asked  to 
quote  for  deliveries  of  yarn  for,  say,  the  next  six  months,  may 
obtain  from  a  broker  quotations  for  deliveries  of  the  cotton  that 
he  needs,  in  quantities  as  he  needs  it,  for  the  next  six  months,  and 
upon  these  quotations  he  may  base  his  own  for  yarn.  If  a  spinner 
is  pressed  by  a  shipper  to  make  quotations  with  refusal  for  two  or 
three  days  to  give  time  for  business  to  be  settled  by  cable,  it  is 
evidently  not  impossible  for  the  spinner  to  shift  the  risk  involved 
by  getting  in  turn  from  his  broker  refusal  quotations  for  cotton. 
But  spinners  do  not  try  always  to  take  the  safest  course. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  brokers  in  turn  require  some  means  of 
passing  on  the  risks  that  they  are  bearing,  or  some  portion  of  them 
from  one  to  another,  or  of  sharing  them  with  other 
mar'cet;  experts,  as  they  find  themselves  overburdened, 
ing  risks,  and  as  their  judgment  of  the  situation  changes.  The 
means  have  been  provided  in  the  "  futures  "  which 
circulate  on  the  Cotton  Exchange.  The  risks  of  anticipating  are 
carried  by  those  who  create  or  hold  "  futures  "  without  a  hedge. 
In  order  to  facilitate  business,  "  futures  "  are  all  drawn  in  the 
same  unit  (100  bales),  and  are  all  based  on  the  same  class  of 
cotton,  namely  Upland  cotton  of  middling  grade  of  "  no 
staple  "  (i.e.  with  a  fibre  of  about  f  in.)  and  of  the  worst  growth. 
American  cotton,  we  may  remind  the  reader,  is  graded  into  a 
number  of  classes,  both  on  the  Liverpool  and  New  York  Ex- 


changes, and  an  attempt  is  made  in  each  market  to  keep  the 
grades  as  fixed  as  possible.  But  what,  it  may  be  inquired,  is  the 
value  of  "  futures  "  relating  to  "  middling  "  cotton  to  a  broker 
whose  contracts  with  spinners  are  not  in  "  middling  "  cotton? 
The  answer  is  that  though  the  ratios  between  the  prices  of  the 
various  grades  alter,  the  prices  of  all  of  them  move  generally 
together,  and  that  the  "  futures  "  of  the  Exchange  at  least 
provide  a  hedge  against  the  latter  movements.  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  broker  would  be  better  off  if  he  could  hedge 
with  equal  ease  against  all  his  risks.  But  other  things  are  not 
equal:  the  market  would  be  more  confusing  and  quotations 
would  be  complicated  if  "  futures  "  were  in  use  for  all  grades. 

We  may  now  examine  the  exchange  "  futures  "  in  minuter 
detail.  They  are  quoted  as  a  rule  for  about  ten  months  ahead. 
Thus  in  January  the  futures  quoted  will  be  January 
(technically  termed  "  current,"  "  present  month  "  or 
"near  month,"  "futures"),  January- February,  ••  futures." 
February-March,  March-April,  April-May,  May- June, 
June-July,  July-August,  and  perhaps  two  or  three  more. 
Each  group,  it  will  be  observed,  except  "  current  futures," 
culminates  in  two  defined  months.  The  rule  is  that  on  the  first 
of  the  two  months  the  seller  of  "  futures  "  may,  and  before  the 
last  day  of  the  second  month  must,  deliver  cotton  against  them, 
or,  what  comes  to  the  same  thing,  buy  back  the  "  futures  "  on  the 
basis  of  the  price  of  "  spot  "  cotton  of  middling  grade.  Various 
grades  of  cotton  are  tenderable  against  "  futures  ":  if  this  were 
not  so  "  futures  "  would  be  in  danger  of  defeating  their  object, 
because  the  price  of  the  grade  upon  which  they  were  founded 
would  probably  at  times  be  thrown  widely  out  of  relation  to  the 
general  level  of  prices  in  the  cotton  market.  The  lowest  grade 
tenderable  used  to  be  "  low  middling,"  but  since  October  1901 
"  good  ordinary  "  has  also  been  accepted.  Arbitrators  report  on 
deliveries  and  award  allowances  on  those  of  grades  above 
"  middling "  and  deductions  of  price  from  those  below.  A 
sample  is  taken  from  each  bale  and  the  "  points  on  or  off  " 
are  fixed  for  each  bale  separately.  If  either  party  is  dissatisfied 
with  the  award,  he  may  appeal  to  an  appeals  committee  on 
paying  £3:3:0:  which  is  refunded  to  him  by  the  other  party 
if  the  appeal  be  upheld.  The  detailed  arrangements  described 
above  are  those  of  the  Liverpool  market.  The  great  bulk  of 
"  futures,"  however,  are  bought  back  and  not  delivered  against. 

Beneath  are  the  official  Liverpool  quotations  of 
"  futures,"  as  they  appeared  on  the  morning  of  the 
igth  of  April  1906: — 

American  Deliveries,  any  port,  basis  of  middling,  good  ordinary 
clause  (the  fractions  are  given  in  looths  of  a  penny). 


Quota~ 

lions. 


Yesterday's 
Close. 

To-day's  Early  Sales. 

Values 
12.15. 

April     . 

6-05 

6-03 

April-May 
May-June 

6-05 
6-05 

6-06,  5,  4,  3,  2,  I,  2,  3 

6-03 
6-03 

June-July  . 
July-August 

6-05 
6-04 

6-05,  2,1  3 
6-05,  4,  3,  2 

6-03 
6-03 

Aug.-Sept. 

5-98 

5-99.  8,  6 

5-97 

Sept.-Oct. 

5'34 

5-85,4 

5-84 

Oct.-Nov.  . 

5-76 

5-77,  6 

5-76 

Nov.-Dec. 

575 

575,  41 

5-75 

Dec.-Jan.  . 
Jan.-Feb.  . 

5-74 
5-75 

5-75  ' 

5-75  ' 

5-75 
5-75 

Late  Business. 

Closing 
Values. 

April     . 

6-031 

5-98 

April-May 

6-03 

5-98 

May-  June 

6-03,  4,  3,  2,  i,  2,  o 

5-99 

June-July  . 

6-04,  3,  2 

5-99 

July-Aug.  . 

6-03,  4,  3,  2,  i,  o,1  i,  2,1  i,  o, 

5-99.  6-0,'  5-99,  6-0,  5-99,  8 

5-98 

Aug.-Sept. 

5-98,1  6,  5,  4,  5 

5-92 

Sept.-Oct. 

5-84.  2  ' 

5-78 

Oct.-Nov.  . 

5-76,'  s,1  4,  3,  4,  3,1  2,  i,  o 

5-70 

Nov.-Dec. 

570  l 

5-69 

Dec.-Jan.  . 
Jan.-Feb.  . 

5-72,  I.21 

5-69 
5-69 

1  Transactions  of  100  bales  only. 

COTTON 


271 


Egyptian  Deliveries,  fully  good  fair  (in  6$ths  of  a  penny). 


Yesterday's 
Close. 

Business 
before  Noon. 

To-day's 
Business 
Afternoon. 

Closing 
Values. 

April  .      . 

IO-II 

IO-I 

May  . 

IO-I2 

9-62,  3,  10-0 

10-2  ' 

IO-I 

9-63,  2,  10-0 

June  .      .      . 

IO-II 

IO-O 

uly    .      .      . 

10-9 

9-60,  i  ,  o  l 

9-63,'  io-o,1 

9-62 

9-63-  2 

Aug.  .      .      . 

IO-O 

. 

9-54 

Sept..      .      . 

9-58 

9-48 

Oct.    ... 

9-24 

9-18 

Nov.  . 

8-58 

8-52,'  o,  49 

. 

8-52 

Dec.   .      .      . 

8-50 

8-39  ' 

8-42 

Jan.    . 

8-44 

8-36 

8-35 

Egyptian  futures,  it  will  be  observed,  run  out  in  single  months. 
As  the  cost  of  dealing  in  "  futures  "  is  only  one  shilling  on  each 
transaction  for  a  member  of  the  Cotton  Exchange  (the  outsider  is 
charged  in  addition  a  commission  by  his  broker),  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  transactions  taking  place  in  "  futures  "  number 
legion. 

The  methods  of  dealing  in  cotton  are  very  intricate,  and  it  is 
necessary  here  to  interpolate  an  explanation  of  the  relations 
between  the  prices  paid  by  spinners  for  cotton  and  the  quoted 
"  spot  "  prices.  We  begin  by  giving  the  official  quotations  of 
"  spot,"  .and  statement  of  business  done,  published  on  the 
morning  of  the  ipth  of  April  1906. 


American 


Quotations. 

G.O.        L.M.        Mid. 
5-87          6-05         6-21 

Mid  Fair. 


Pernam  . 
Ceara 
Paraiba  . 
Maceio  . 


5-95 
6-02 

5-94 
5'96n 


G.M. 
6-41 

Fair. 

6-35 
6-40 
6-32 


F.G.M. 
6-49 


M.F. 
6-71 


Gd.  Fair. 

6-61 
6-62 
6-56 
6-s6n 


Fair.         Gd.  Fair.         F.G.F. 


Egyptian  br'n   .   8J 
Upper  — 


M.  G.  Broach 
Bhownuggar 
No.  I  Comra 
Bengal    . 
Tinnevelly  . 


Good.  Fine. 

II  nf 

9t  9Jn  ion 

Gd.  Fr.  F.G.F.     Gd.       G.F.       Fine.  S'fine. 
5ft        5Hn      5 1 


9* 
9A 


311         3H         4s"z        45^        4ft  4i 

5i         5ft        5ft 

Cotton  Ships  arrived. 
Boston:  Canadian  S.  Hamburg:  Iceland  S. 


Sales. 

Speculation  and 
Export. 

Imports  including 
Hull,  &c. 

To-day. 

Previous 
this 
Week. 

To-day. 

Previous 
this 
Week. 

To-day. 

Week's 
Total. 

American  . 
Pernam,  &c.    . 
Paraiba,  &c.    . 
Ceara  and  Arac'ty 
Egyptian 
Peruvian  . 
W.  I.  and  African 
Surat 
Madras    . 
Bengal 
Sundries  . 

Total  . 
Since  Wednesday   . 

6330 
150 
460 

500 
460 
50 

50 

18,050 
200 

130 
30 
1  200 

35° 
20 

20 

500 

1500 

17.665 

321 

32 

3-664 
'008 

53.684 

2 

7.983 
32 

3^829 

'<5o8 

8000 

20,000 
8,000 

500 

1500 
500 

22,290 

66,138 

28,000 

2OOO 

Purchases   for   "  speculation "   remain   in   the   market   and 
therefore  figure  again  in  the  sales.     These  official  prices  are 
sometimes  prices  actually  paid,  and  sometimes  prices  settled  by 
1  Transactions  of  100  bales  only. 


a  committee  according  to  their  notions  of  the  prices  that  would 
have  been  realized  at  the  close  of  the  market  had  business  been 
done.  The  work  of  the  committee  is  by  no  means  ¥ 
simple,  as  frequently  very  few  transactions  take  place 
in  the  kinds  of  cotton  of  which  quotations  are  given.  As 
regards  "  middling  "  American,  the  committee  fixes  "  spot  "  by 
allowing  so  many  "  points  on  or  off  "  present  month  futures.  The 
variations  of  the  gaps  between  "  spot  "  and  "  present  month 
futures  "  are  somewhat  mysterious,  a  matter  to  which  we  shall 
recur.  "  Spot  "  quotations,  the  reader  will  now  understand,  are 
partly  nominal,  and  must  therefore  be  taken  as  affording  a 
general  idea  only  of  movements  in  the  prices  of  cotton.  While 
quoted  "  spot  "  remained  low,  the  prices  paid  by  most  spinners 
for  the  special  kinds  of  cotton  that  they  needed  might  rise. 
When  the  spinner  has  informed  the  dealer  exactly  what  quality  of 
cotton  he  needs,  the  dealer  quotes  so  many  "  points  on  or  off  " 
the  "  future  "  quotations  prevailing  in  Liverpool  at  the  time  of 
the  purchase,  which  refer  to  Upland  cotton  of  "  middling  grade," 
of  "  no  staple  "  and  of  the  worst  growth.  Then,  according  as  the 
spinner  wants  immediate  delivery  or  delivery  in  some  future 
month,  he  pays  the  price  of  current  "  futures,"  or  of  "  futures  " 
of  the  month  in  which  he  requires  delivery,  plus  or  minus  the 
"  points  on  or  off  "  previously  fixed. 

The  considerations  which  determine  the  "  points  on  or  off  " 
charged  to  the  spinner  may  be  taken  roughly  as  three: — 

1.  The  grade,  i.e.  the  colour,  cleanliness,  &c.,  of  the  cotton. 
These  are  of  importance  to  the  spinner  owing  to  the  necessity  of 
his  cleaning  machinery  being  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the 
cotton.     The  lower  the  grade  the  more  elaborate  and  expensive  is 
the  machinery  required  to  clean  it,  and  consequently  a  spinner  is 
willing  to  pay  a  certain  amount  extra  for  high  grade  cotton  in 
order  to  save  expenditure  on  preparatory  machinery. 

2.  The  length  of  the  staple.     This  determines  to  a  large  extent 
the  fineness  of  the  yarn  which  can  be  spun.     Only  the  very 
lowest  counts  can  be  spun  from  cotton  with  "  no  staple,"  that  is, 
with  a  fibre  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch.     The  longer  the 
staple  above  the  minimum  the  higher  the  counts  that  can 
be  spun. 

3.  The  growth.    The  best  American  cotton  (Sea  Island  and 
Florida  cotton  are  always  considered  quite  apart)  is  grown  in  the 
Mississippi  valley,  the  next  best  in  Texas,  and  the  poorest  on  the 
Uplands   (i.e.   in   Georgia  and   Alabama).     Considerations  of 
growth  determine  to  a  great  extent  the  hardness  or  softness,  and 
strength  or  weakness,  of  the  fibre,  and  thus,  indirectly,  whether 
the  cotton  is  suitable  for  warp  or  weft. 

Some  spinners  cover  their  yarn  contracts  merely  by  buying 
"  futures,"  but  the  cover  thus  provided  is 
frequently  most  inadequate  owing  to  variations 
in  the  "  points  on  or  off "  for  the  particular 
cotton  that  they  want.  For  example,  after  the 
size  of  1004-1905  crops  became  known,  and  the 
Americans  attempted  to  hold  back  cotton,  the 
"  points  on  "  for  many  qualities  rose  consider- 
ably owing  to  artificial  scarcity,  though  the  price 
of  cotton,  as  indicated  by  "  spot,"  remained 
low.  There  is  a  tendency  for  cautious  spinners 
in  England  to  run  no  risks  and  fix  the  prices 
of  their  yarn  in  accordance  with  quotations  for 
actual  cotton  of  specified  qualities  made  by 
their  brokers. 

We  now  return  to  exchange  "  future  "  trans- 
actions regarded  as  a  genus.    In  addition  to 
"futures"  properthereare  "options" 
and  "straddles."  Options  are  single  "Option*" 
("  puts  "  or  "  calls  ")  or  double  (that  £*•«*•.« 
is,  alternative  "puts "or  "calls"). 
The  "  put  "  is  a  right  to  sell  cotton  within  some 
specified  time  in  the  future  at  a  price  fixed  in  the 
present,  which  need  not,  of  course,  be  exercised.     The  "call"  is 
similar,  but  relates  to  buying.     It  will  be  evident  that  the  "put" 
is  a  hedge  against  prices  falling,  and  the  "  call  "  a  hedge  against 
their  rising.    The  basis  of  "  options  "  is  the  same  as  that  of 


272 


COTTON 


ordinary  "  futures,"  i.e.  middling  American  cotton  of  "  no  staple," 
&c.  Whether  the  purchaser  of  an  option  gains  or  loses  depends 
upon  the  price  that  he  has  paid  in  relation  to  the  gain,  if  any,  that 
he  makes  out  of  his  power.  The  price  of  options  of  course 
varies:  that  of  double  options  is  always  highest,  but  they  are 
little  used.  A  "  straddle  "  is  a  speculation  on  the  difference 
between  the  prices  of  nearer  and  more  distant  futures,  which 
varies  from  time  to  time,  or  on  the  difference  between  the  prices 
of  different  kinds  of  cotton.  An  example  will  make  the  nature  of 
the  straddle  clear.  Suppose  a  dealer  buys  April- May  "  futures  " 
at  4d.  a  Ib  and  sells  the  same  quantity  of  May-June 
"  futures  "  at  4^-Jd-  a  Ib.  Then,  whether  prices  rise  or  fall 
as  a  whole,  he  gains  if  the  difference  between  the  two  prices  be- 
comes less  than  ^Jd.,  but  if  it  becomes  more,  he  loses.  On 
the  other  hand,  had  the  dealer  bought  May-June  at  4j-Jd- 
and  sold  April-May  at  4d.  he  would  have  gained  in  the  event  of 
the  difference  increasing,  and  lost  in  the  event  of  its  decreasing. 

A  question  which  has  met  with  a  good  deal  of  attention  is 
whether  the  speculation,  which  has  been  encouraged  by  the 
Measures  var'ous  arrangements  made  for  facilitating  operations 
of  stead!-  in  "  futures,"  has  steadied  or  unsteadied  prices. 
ness  in  Before  we  are  prepared  to  answer  this  question  we  must 
prices.  ^  furnisnecj  wjth  a  precise  conception  of  what  is  meant 
by  "  steadiness  "  in  prices.  It  is  sometimes  assumed  that  this  is 
measured  perfectly  by  the  standard  deviation,1  which  is  obtained 
by  taking  the  squares  of  the  differences  between  the  average  and 
the  individual  prices,  summing  them  and  extracting  the  square 
root.  But  obviously  the  information  given  by  the  standard  devia- 
tion is  limited:  the  frequency  of  movement  cannot  be  inferred 
from  it;  two  series'  might  have  quite  different  average  oscillations 
and  yet  the  same  standard  deviation;  and  the  range  of  movement, 
or  spread  of  the  variations  from  the  average  price  (though  allowed 
for  in  the  standard  deviation  more  than  in  the  average  error),  is 
hidden.  Now  frequency  of  movement,  average  daily  price 
variation,  and  range  of  price  movements  are  matters  of  funda- 
mental importance  to  the  public.  Hence  for  practical  purposes 
we  require  several  kinds  of  measurement  of  price  movements,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  weigh  exactly  the  one  against  the  other  in 
respect  of  importance.  Observe  that  an  increase  of  the  frequency 
of  movement,  or  even  of  the  average  daily  movement,  is  not 
necessarily  objectionable,  since  changes  are  less  harassing  when 
they  take  place  by  small  increments  than  when  they  are  brought 
about  by  a  few  big  variations.  The  difference  between  the 
highest  and  lowest  price,  we  may  observe,  is  a  very  imperfect 
indication  of  the  range  of  movement  (though,  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  standard  deviation,  it  is  the  best  at  our  disposal), 
because  either  of  the  extreme  prices  might  be  accidental  and 
quite  out  of  relation  to  all  others.  An  investigator  must  be  on 
his  guard  against  using  quotations  of  this  kind.  There  is  also  a 
difficulty  about  the  frequency  of  movement,  because  as  a  rule 
many  movements  take  place  in  one  day  the  total  over  a  period 
sufficiently  lengthy  to  yield  general  results  is  enormous,  and  many 
are  unrecorded.  In  one  day,  for  instance,  when  the  net  drop  was 
33  points  and  the  range  of  variation  59  points  (namely,  8-45  to 
7-86),  150  price  fluctuations  were  recorded.  However,  the  count 
of  frequency  of  movement  from  daily  closing  prices  would  prob- 
ably afford  a  roughly  satisfactory  comparative  measurement  in 
markets  in  which  prices  sometimes  remain  the  same  for  a  day  or 
two  together.  The  points  just  noted  apply  also  to  the  average 
fluctuation  and  the  standard  deviation,  but  it  is  probable  in  these 
cases  that  daily  or  even  weekly  quotations  would  be  sufficient  to 
yield  the  information  sought  for  with  sufficient  exactness  for 
purposes  of  comparison. 

Now,  supposing  dealing  to  be  confined  to  experts,  what 
effects  upon  the  course  of  prices  would  one  expect  from  the 
Effect  of  sPecialism  of  the  cotton  market  and  improved  facilities 
specula-  f°r  dealing,  on  the  assumption  that  dealers  were 
tloa  oa  governed  wholly  in  their  actions  by  the  course  of  prices 

*of  "rices**  and  never  tried  to  mam'Pulate  them?    The  frequency 
of  movement  ought  to  increase  because  the  market 

1  See  article  on  "  Dealings  in  Futures  in  the  Cotton  Market,"  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  vol.  Ixix,  p.  325. 


would  become  more  sensitive,  but,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
range  of  movement  ought  to  diminish,  and  ultimately  the  average 
daily  movement  also,  though  at  first  the  latter  might  not  fall 
appreciably  if,  indeed,  it  did  not  rise,  owing  to  the  increased 
frequency  of  movement.  These  results  would  prove  beneficial  to 
the  community.  May  we  infer  deductively  that  they  have  been 
attained  because  of  the  increase  of  speculative  transactions? 
By  no  means,  and  for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  the  public 
speculates  to  a  large  extent  on  the  cotton  exchange,  and  its 
speculation  (taken  as  a  whole)  is  sheer  gambling.  But,  it  may  be 
replied,  the  outsiders,  being  as  a  whole  completely  ignorant  of  the 
forces  at  work,  so  that  they  cannot  form  rational  anticipations, 
cannot  have  any  effect  either  way:  by  the  law  of  chance  their 
influences  would  neutralize  one  another.  This  would  be  so  if 
people  acted  independently  and  without  guidance,  but  actually 
they  are  sometimes  misled  by  published  advice  and  movements  in 
the  market  intended  to  deceive  them,  and,  even  when  they  are  not, 
they  watch  each  other's  attitudes  and  tend  to  act  as  a  crowd. 
The  mass  becomes  unduly  sanguine  or  weakly  surrenders  to 
panic.  Hence  the  law  of  error  does  not  apply,  and  speculation  by 
the  public  may  unsteady  prices.  Again,  dealers  sometimes  try  to 
create  corners  and  form  powerful  syndicates  for  that  purpose :  the 
dealing  syndicate  of  late  years  has  become  a  force  to  be  reckoned 
with.  Many  large-scale  operations  are  entered  into,  not  because 
prices  are  relatively  high  or  low,  but  to  make  them  high  or  low  for 
ulterior  purposes;  i.e.  the  market  is  deliberately  "  bulled  or 
beared."  In  consequence  of  this  tampering  with  the  market  no 
certainty  can  be  felt  about  the  effect  even  of  expert  dealing. 

What,  then,  we  may  profitably  inquire  next,  has  actually 
happened  to  price  movements  generally  as  the  market  has 
developed?  This  question  can  readily  be  answered  as 
regards  the  past  forty  years  or  so,  for  which  material 
has  been  collected,  but  the  reader  must  bear  in  mind 
that  if  improvement  can  be  traced  it  cannot  logically  be  attributed 
unhesitatingly  to  the  perfecting  of  the  machinery  of  speculation, 
whereby  a  larger  use  has  been  made  of  "  futures,"  since  many 
other  economic  changes  have  taken  place  concomitantly  and  they 
may  have  wrought  the  major  effect.  The  world  may  be  steadying 
and  steeling  its  nerves.  Now,  turning  to  the  actual  effects,  we 
discover  somewhat  remarkable  facts.  Expressed  both  absolutely 
and  as  percentages  of  the  price  averaged  from  the  ist  of  October 
to  the  3ist  of  July,  the  range  of  movement,  standard  deviation, 
and  mean  weekly  movement  calculated  between  the  times 
mentioned  above  (October  ist  to  July  3ist),  after  diminishing 
significantly  for  some  years  after  the  later  'sixties,  have  risen 
appreciably  on  the  whole  of  late  years.  The  figures  in  the  table 
below  are  from  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society,  June 
1006:  quotations  for  August  and  September  were  omitted  to 
avoid  the  transition  movements  between  the  price  levels  of 
two  crops. 

In  this  table  measurements  of  price  movements  stated  both 
absolutely  and  as  percentages  of  price  levels  are  given,  because 
authorities  have  expressed  doubts  as  to  whether  the  former  or  the 
latter  might  be  expected  to  remain  constant,  other  things  being 
equal,  when  price  rose.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  argued  that 
speculators  are  affected  only  by  the  absolute  variations  in  price, 
while  on  the  other  hand  it  is  contended  that  a  movement  of  one 
"  point,"  say,  is  less  influential  when  the  price  is  about  8d.  than 
when  it  is  about  4d.  In  response  to  the  first  view  it  might  be 
argued  that  if  speculators  are  influenced  only  by  the  differences 
for  which  they  become  liable,  a  "  point "  movement  would  have  a 
somewhat  slighter  effect'on  their  action,  other  things  being  equal, 
when  price  was  high,  because,  supplies  being  relatively  short, 
each  of  them  would  tend  to  be  engaged  in  a  smaller  volume  of 
transactions  measured  in  quantity  of  cotton,  than  when  supplies 
were  larger.  But  the  point  need  not  be  discussed  further  here, 
since  both  percentage  and  absolute  indices  of  unsteadiness  have 
risen  of  late  years.  The  explanation  pf  this  change  in  the 
direction  of  indices  of  steadiness  cannot  be  proved  to  consist  in 
any  peculiarity  in  the  supplies  of  recent  years.  But  the  dealing 
syndicate  has  probably  been  of  late  more  common  and  more 
powerful — that  is,  the  syndicate  which  exists  to  make  profits  out 


COTTON 

Table  calculated  from  Weekly  Prices  between  the  ist  of  October  and  the  3  ist  of  July  in  each  Year. 


273 


Expressed  as  Percentage  of 
Average  (ist  Oct.  to  3ist  July) 
Weekly  Prices. 

Year. 

Average 
Price. 

Lowest 
Price. 

Highest 
Price. 

Range  of 
Movement. 

Standard 
Deviation. 

Mean 

Weekly 
Movement. 

Range  of 
Movement. 

Standard 
Deviation. 

Mean 
Weekly 
Movement. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

1867-1868 

H 

7i 

ia{ 

Si 

1-74 

0-31 

57-i 

18-1 

3-22 

1868-1869 

"1 

ioi 

128 

2i 

0-58 

0-19 

,8.5 

5'° 

1-65 

1869-1870 

7i 

I2§ 

4* 

o  92 

0-23 

416 

83 

2-07 

1870-1871 

*8i 

7ft 

9ft 

2 

0-65 

0-17 

24-6 

8-0 

2-09 

1871-1872 

ioi 

9t 

"1 

2i 

o-75 

0-15 

19-5 

6-9 

•38 

1872-1873 

9l 

8} 

i  oft 

1/8 

o-53 

O-IO 

16-9 

57 

•08 

1873-1874 

8A 

7f 

9i 

if 

0-32 

O-IO 

165 

3-9 

•20 

1874-1875 

8 

618 

8 

xft 

0-26 

0-07 

13-8 

3-4 

89 

1875-1876 

Si 

7i 

ij 

o-37 

0-08 

19-2 

5-7 

•23 

1876-1877 

Si 

7 

ij 

o-33 

O-II 

17-8 

5'2 

•74 

1877-1878 

6J 

5i 

6ft 

ill 

O-2I 

0-07 

II-O 

3'4 

•12 

1878-1879 

6 

4li 

7  A 

2i 

0-67 

0-13 

37-S 

II-2 

•I? 

1879-1880 

7 

6)8 

7i 

if 

0-24 

0-12 

10-7 

3'4 

•71 

1880-1881 

6ft 

si 

6}1 

ift 

0-34 

0-o8 

168 

5-4 

•27 

1881-1882 

61 

H 

7ft 

H 

0-15 

0-07 

10-4 

2-3 

•06 

1882-1883 

sH 

Si's 

6f 

ift 

0-31 

0-07 

20-4 

5-3 

•20 

1883-1884 

si 

6ft 

H 

0-20 

0-o8 

"•3 

3'3 

•32 

1884-1885 

SM 

5ft 

6i 

H 

O-I9 

0-07 

n-8 

3-3 

•20 

1885-1886 

Si 

4i 

5  A 

J 

0-18 

0-07 

I4'S 

3-5 

•35 

1886-1887 

sft 

Si 

6 

i 

0-28 

0-05 

16-1 

5-2 

092 

1887-1888 

5l 

5ft 

SH 

4 

0-14 

0-05 

9-1 

2-5 

0-91 

1888-1889 

si 

Sft 

6ft 

i 

0-23 

0-00 

15-0 

4-0 

•04 

1889-1890 

6i 

5ft 

6'i 

i 

0-34 

0-o8 

18-4 

5-5 

•3i 

1890-1891 

5 

4i 

si 

if 

0-36 

O-o6 

27-5 

7-2 

•20 

1891-1892 

4i 

3ft 

4H 

if 

0-36 

0-07 

33-3 

8-7 

•70 

1892-1893 

41 

4i 

slS 

ift 

o-37 

0-09 

25-0 

7-8 

•89 

1893-1894 

4*. 

3f! 

4U 

H 

0-22 

0-04 

18-4 

5-2 

0-94 

1894-1895 

31 

2|i 

3i 

A 

0-30 

O-O6 

26-9 

8.9 

•79 

1895-1896 

4i 

31 

4l| 

R 

0-28 

0-07 

25-0 

6-4 

•60 

1896-1897 

4ft 

311 

4H 

1! 

0-22 

0-07 

21-6 

5-2 

67 

1897-1898 

3  it 

3ft 

3i? 

1 

0-18 

0-05 

18-5 

5-3 

•47 

1898-1899 

3^2 

3 

|H 

ii 

0-15 

0-04 

14-3 

4-6 

•22 

1899-1900 

4iS 

^8 

ii 

063 

0.12 

43'6 

12-8 

2-48 

1900-1901 

Si 

4ft 

61 

2ft 

o-53 

0-13 

42-7 

10-3 

2-54 

1901-1902 

4i 

4ft 

Sii 

*ft 

0-24 

O-O9 

22-4 

5'° 

I-89 

1902—1903 

5-35 

4-42 

7-12 

2-70 

0-78 

0-13 

50-5 

14-6 

2-43 

1903-1904 

7-04 

5-78 

8-92 

3-14 

0-91 

o-33 

44.4 

12-9 

4-83 

1904-1905 

4-86 

3-63 

6-01 

2-38 

0-71 

0-15 

48.9 

14-6 

3-09 

of  manipulating  the  market — and  the  public  has  probably  been 
speculating  increasingly.  It  is  plausible,  then,  to  suppose  that 
the  dealing  syndicate  primarily,  and  the  speculations  of  the 
public  secondarily  (secondarily,  because  in  all  likelihood  the 
effect  of  its  operation  would  be  much  less  in  magnitude),  may 
account  for  the  change. 

"Futures"  are  not  used  in  all  markets — for  instance,  they  are 
not  to  be  found  at  Bremen;  and  in  those  in  which  they  are  used 
they  play  parts  of  different  prominence — at  Havre, 
for  instance,  the  transactions  in  "futures"  are  of 
incomparably  less  relative  importance  than  they  are  at 
Liverpool.  But  it  is  futile  to  seek  the  effect  of  much 
dealing  in  "  futures  "  in  the  differences  between  price 
movements  in  the  various  markets,  because  (i)  demand  expresses 
itself  in  different  ways — in  Germany,  for  example,  spinners  buy  to 
hold  large  stocks — and  (2)  the  markets  are  in  telegraphic  com- 
munication, so  that  their  price  movements  are  kept  parallel. 
Mr  Hooker  has  shown  with  reference  to  the  wheat  market  how 
close  is  the  correlation  between  prices  in  different  places,1  and 
the  same  has  been  observed  of  the  cotton  market,  though  the 


Price 
move- 
meats  la 

different 
markets. 


distant 
'  futures. ' 


Conceivably  some  indication  of  the  working  of  "futures" 
might  be  gleaned  from  observation  of  the  relations  of  near  and 

distant  "  futures "  to  one  another  and  of  both   to  _ 

.  ,,     ~,.  , .  ...  Differences 

spot.       The  complete   explanation   of   changes   in  between 

these    relations   is    still    a    mystery.3    Probably   an  the  prices 
infinitude  of  subtle  influences  came  into  play,  and 
among  these  there  seems  reason  to  include  the  in- 
tentional and  unintentional  "  bulling "  or  "bearing" 
of  the  market.     Some  examples  of  the  diverse  relations  to  be 
found,  even  when  all  the  "futures"  fall  in  the  same  crop  year, 
may  be  quoted  here — quotations  running  into  the  new  crop  year 
are  obviously  affected  by  anticipations  of  the  new  crop. 

As  we  pass  from  the  "  future "  of  the  month  in  which  the 
quotation  is  made  to  the  most  distant  "future"  it  will  be  observed 
that  in  the  first  and  second  cases  price  rises  continuously,  in  the 
second  case  even  passing  "spot,"  whereas  in  the  third  case  it  falls 
first  and  then  rises.  Instances  might  be  given  of  its  falling  un- 
intermittently.  It  seems  a  plausible  conjecture  that  if  "  futures  " 
were  "  bulling  "  the  market  in  the  first  case,  they  were  at  least 
"  bulling  "  it  less  in  the  second  case  celeris  paribus,  and  probably 


Spot. 

Jan.- 
Feb. 

Feb.- 
March 

March- 
April. 

April- 
May. 

May- 
June. 

June- 
July. 

July- 
Aug. 

Aug.- 
Sept. 

Sept.- 
Oct. 

Oct.- 
Nov. 

Nov.- 
Dec. 

Dec.- 
Jan. 

Nov.  l8th,  1895  .      . 

4-34 

27 

28 

28! 

29l 

31 

32 

33 

27 

27 

Jan.    I8th,  1899  .      . 
Sept.  1  4th,  1899  . 

3-36 

61 

24! 

61 

25 

251. 

26 

9i 

27 

12 
30 

28 

26} 

25 

61 

24! 

correlations  have  not  been  worked  out.5  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  Liverpool  "futures"  are  largely  used  for  hedging  by 
continental  cotton  dealers. 

1  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society,  1906. 

1  See  paper  in  the  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  for  June  1906. 


"  bearing  "  it  in  the  last  case.   A  closer  examination  will  reveal 
further  that  the  magnitude  of  these  gaps  varies  a  great  deal;  and 

3  Attempts  to  explain  them  were  made  in  an  article  in  the  Economic 
Journal  in  December  1904,  and  in  the  paper  already  referred  to 
read  to  the  Royal  Statistical  Society. 


274 


COTTON 


if  the  "futures"  do  "bear"  and  "bull,"  as  has  been  supposed, 
they  probably  influence  these  magnitudes.  It  might  be  thought 
that  the  "futures"  of  different  months,  being  substitutes  in 
proportion  to  their  temporal  proximity  to  one  another,  should 
vary  together  exactly;  but  it  would  seem  to  be  a  sufficient  reply 
that  as  they  are  not  perfect  substitutes  they  are  in  some  slight 
degree  independent  variables.  The  "spot"  market  might  be 
judged  generally  as  too  high,  in  view  of  crops  and  the  probable 
normal  demand  of  the  year,  but  it  might  not  therefore  drop 
immediately,  owing  partly  to  the  pressure  of  demand  that  must 
be  satisfied  instantaneously.  "Current  futures"  would  be 
affected  more  than  "spot"  by  this  impression  as  to  the  relation 
of  "spot"  to  a  conceived  normal  price  for  the  year,  and  they 
might  therefore  be  expected  to  drop  more  than  "spot"  when 
this  impression  was  at  all  widely  entertained.  But  the  fall  of 
"current  futures"  would  be  checked  by  the  demands  that  must 
be  satisfied  in  the  near  future.  Probably  the  prices  of  the  more 
distant  "futures"  are  determined  in  a  higher  degree  by  far- 
reaching  imagination  than  the  prices  of  nearer  futures.  This 
explains  what  has  been  called  above  the  unintentional  "bearing" 
of  "spot"  by  "futures."  And  it  is  immediately  evident  that 
the  deliberate  "bear"  works  by  selling  "futures,"  and  that  the 
effect  of  his  sales  is  propagated  to  "spot."  These  statements  are 
equally  true  of  "bulling."  The  influence  of  expectations  of  the 
new  crop  on  "futures"  running  into  the  new  crop  is  plain  on 
inspection;  but  owing  to  the  gap  between  the  two  crop  years  it 
would  be  astonishing  if  "futures"  against  which  cotton  from  a 
new  crop  could  be  delivered  were  not  appreciably  independent  of 
"spot"  at  the  time  of  their  quotation.  However,  it  is  noticeable 
that  they  are  still  so  closely  bound  up  with  "futures"  culminat- 
ing in  the  old  crop  year  that  the  daily  movements  of  the  former 
are  closely  correlated  with  those  of  the  latter.  Concluding 
cautiously,  we  may  admit  the  probability  of  the  relations  between 
near  and  distant  "futures"  and  "spot"  (even  in  respect  of 
"futures"  running  out  in  the  same  crop  year)  indicating  some- 
times at  least  the  intentional  or  unintentional  "bulling"  or 
"bearing"  or  "spot"  by  "futures."  But  nothing  has  yet  been 
proved  from  these  facts  as  to  the  effect  "futures"  are  having 
upon  the  steadiness  of  prices.  In  the  case  of  any  crop  year,  if 
the  relations  which  are  suggested  as  indicating  the  "bulling" 
work  of  "futures"  usually  corresponded  with  "spot"  prices 
being  below  the  normal  price  of  the  crop  year,  or  of  what  was 
left  of  the  crop  year,  while  the  relations  which  are  suggested  to 
indicate  the  "bearing"  work  of  "futures"  on  the  whole  corre- 
sponded with  a  relatively  abnormal  height  of  "spot,"  it  would  be 
a  legitimate  inference  that  "futures"  were  tending  to  smooth 
prices.  However,  it  is  made  clear  as  the  result  of  an  elaborate 
examination  that  the  generality  of  these  correspondences  cannot 
be  affirmed.1  The  outcome  of  the  whole  matter  is  that  the 
investigator  is  still  baffled  in  his  attempt  to  discover  what  effect 
the  use  of  "futures"  is  having  upon  prices  to-day.  The  sole 
piece  of  evidence,  from  which  probable  conclusions  may  be 
drawn,  is  that  three  separate  measurements  of  price  fluctua- 
tions over  some  forty  years  reveal  a  growing  unsteadiness 
of  late,  whether  they  be  expressed  absolutely  or  as  percentages 
of  price. 

The  uneasiness  caused  by  the  excessive  dependence  of  Great 
Britain  upon  the  United  States  for  cotton,  coupled  with  the 
belief  that  shortages  of  supply  are  more  frequent  than 
they  ought  to  be,  and  the  fear  that  diminishing  returns 
may  operate  in  America,  occasioned  the  formation  in 
England  of  the  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  on 
the  I2th  of  June  1902.  The  proportions  of  England's 
supplies  drawn  from  different  fields  is  indicated  in  the 
table  below. 

British  dependence  on  American  supplies  is  greater  even  than 
that  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  for  Russia  possesses  some 
internal  supplies,  and  more  Indian  cotton  is  used  in  continental 
countries  than  in  England. 

1  See  the  paper  already  mentioned  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Statistical  Society  for  June  1906,  where  the  several  points  noticed 
briefly  above  are  fully  discussed. 


Recent 
attempt* 
to  open 
up  new 
cotton- 
fields. 


Average  Quantities  of  Raw  Cotton  imported  Annually  into  the  United 
Kingdom  from  the  following  Countries  in  the  Periods  1896-1  poo 

and  1^01-1904. 

Country. 

1896-1900. 
Million  Ib. 

1901-1904. 
Million  Ib. 

United  States  

1436 

1424 

Brazil         

13-8 

31-5 

Peru           

8-5 

8-6 

Chile   (including  the  Pacific  coast  of 

Patagonia)     

•8 

2-2 

Venezuela  and  Republic  of  Colombia  . 

•5 

•5 

British  West  Indies  and  British  Guiana 

•3 

•6 

Turkey  (European  and  Asiatic)    . 

•5 

i-i 

Egypt        .                       .        . 
British  possessions  in  the  East  Indies  . 

2957 
40-7 

3I4-4 
61-9 

Australasia        

•035 

•041 

All  other  countries  

2-3 

3-8 

Total 

1800 

1849 

Re-exported 

223 

260 

The  annual  average  shipments  from  Bombay  to  the  European 
continent  and  to  Great  Britain  in  1900-1904  were  as  follows: — 

To  the  continent 600  bales  of  3J  cwt. 

To  Great  Britain 50    „         „         „ 

At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  the  bulk  of  British  cotton  was 
obtained  from  the  West  Indies.  Approximately  the  supplies 
were  as  follows  in  million  Ib : — 

British  West  Indies  .  6-6 

French  and  Spanish  settlements  6 

Dutch  settlements   ...  1-7 

Portuguese     ,,          ...  2-5 

East  Indies    „          .        .        .  *  -r 

Smyrna  or  Turkey  .        .  5-7 

The  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  works  under  the 
sanction  of  a  royal  charter  and  has  met  with  valuable  official 
support.  Financial  assistance  and  assurances  as  to  sales  and 
prices  have  been  given  liberally  by  the  association  where  they 
are  needed;  ginning  and  buying  centres  have  been  established; 
experts  have  been  engaged  to  distribute  seed  and  afford  instruc- 
tion; and  some  land  has  been  acquired  for  working  under  the 
direct  management  of  the  association.  The  governments  of 
some  colonies  have  aided  the  efforts  of  the  association.  Professor 
Wyndham  Dunstan  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  on  a  reference  from 
the  government,  made  favourable  reports  as  to  the  possibilities 
of  extending  cotton  cultivation.  The  results  may  be  seen  in  the 
approximate  estimates  below  of  cotton  grown  more  or  less 
directly  under  the  auspices  of  the  association. 

Bales  of  400  Ib. 


1903. 

1904. 

1905. 

1906. 

Gambia 
Sierra  Leone 
Gold  Coast  . 
Lagos 
Nigeria 

West  Africa. 
West  Indies. 
East  Africa  . 
Sind 
Sundries 

5° 
50 

50 

500 

100 

75» 
1,000 

150 

100 
100 

150 

2,000 

2OO 

300 

2OO 
200 

3,200 
650 

4.550 

4,000 
2,000 
500 
250 

250 
250 
6,300 
1,200 

8,000 
6,000 

3.500 

2,000 

500 

2,55° 
2,000 

850 

IOO 

Total      . 

1,900 

5.500 

11,300 

20,000 

Approximate  value 

£29,000 

£75.000 

£150,000 

£270,000 

In  the  West  Indies  results  are  most  favourable,  both  as 
regards  quantity  and  quality  of  the  crops.  West  Indian  grown 
cotton  has  realized  even  higher  prices  than  American  grown  Sea 
Island.  In  West  Africa  also  prospects  appear  encouraging. 
In  Sierra  Leone  little  success  has  been  met  with,  but  on  the  Gold 
Coast  some  cotton  better  than  middling  American  has  been 
grown,  and  the  association  has  concluded  an  agreement  with  the 
government  for  an  extension  of  its  work.  In  Lagos  crops 
increased  rapidly.  The  cotton  is  almost  entirely  grown  by 
natives  in  small  patches  round  their  villages,  and  generally  it 


COTTON 


275 


has  sold  for  about  the  same  price  as  middling  American,  though 
some  of  it  realized  as  much  as  25  to  30  "points  on."  The 
quality  in  greatest  demand  in  England,  it  should  be  observed,  is 
worth  about  Jd.  to  |d.  per  Ib.  above  middling  American.  In 
Southern  Nigeria  the  association  has  met  with  only  slight 
success;  in  Northern  Nigeria,  a  working  arrangement  was  entered 
into  with  the  Niger  Company,  and  a  small  ginning  establishment 
was  set  to  work  in  February  1906.  In  British  Central  Africa,  the 
results  on  the  whole  have  not  been  satisfactory.  Though 
planters  who  confined  their  efforts  to  the  lower  lying  grounds — 
of  which  there  is  a  fairly  large  tract — succeeded,  all  the  cotton 
planted  on  the  highlands  proved  more  or  less  a  failure.  In 
Uganda  the  association  took  no  steps,  but  activity  in  cotton- 
growing  is  not  unknown,  and  some  good  cotton  is  being  produced. 
Arrangements  were  concluded  with  the  British  South  Africa 
Company  for  the  formation  of  a  small  syndicate  for  working  in 
Rhodesia. 

The  general  movement  for  the  extension  of  cotton  cultivation 
was  welcomed  by  the  International  Congress  of  representatives 
of  master  cotton  spinners  and  manufacturers'  associations  at 
the  meeting  at  Zurich  in  May  1904.  It  placed  on  record  "its 
cordial  appreciation  of  the  efforts  of  those  governments  and 
institutions  which  have  already  supported  cotton-growing  in 
their  respective  colonies."  England  is  pre-eminent  but  not 
alone  in  the  matter.  Germany  and  France,  and  in  a  less  degree 
Belgium,  Portugal  and  Italy,  have  taken  some  steps.  Russia, 
too,  is  developing  her  internal  supplies. 

The  advantages  that  might  accrue  from  the  wider  distribution 
of  cotton-growing  are  mainly  fourfold,  (i)  Greater  elasticity  of 
supply  might  be  caused.  It  is  probably  easier  to  extend  the  area 
under  cotton  rapidly  when  crops  are  raised  from  many  places  in 
proximity  to  other  crops  than  when  the  mass  of  the  cotton  is 
obtained  from  a  few  highly  specialized  districts.  Possibly  the 
advantages  of  specialism  might  be  retained  and  yet  the  elasticity 
of  supply  be  enhanced.  (2)  Greater  stability  of  crops  in  pro- 
portion to  area  cultivated  is  hoped  for.  The  eggs  are  now  too 
much  in  one  basket,  and  local  disease,  or  bad  weather,  or  some 
other  misfortune,  may  diminish  by  serious  percentages  the 
supplies  anticipated.  Were  there  numerous  important  centres 
the  bad  fortune  of  one  would  be  more  adequately  offset  by  the 
good  fortune  of  another.  (3)  Desirable  variations  in  the  raw 
material  might  conceivably  eventuate  from  the  introduction  of 
cotton  to  spots  in  the  globe  where  its  growth  was  previously 
unknown  or  little  regarded.  The  results  of  the  enterprise  of 
Mehemet  AH  and  Jumel  in  Egypt  prove  such  an  idea  to  be  not 
altogether  fanciful,  and  warn  us  also  against  hastily  arguing  that 
the  plan  is  too  artificial  to  succeed  on  a  large  scale.  Without  the 
active  intervention  of  a  strong  body  of  interested  parties  it  is 
sometimes  unlikely  that  new  industries  will  be  undertaken  even 
in  places  well  suited  for  them.  (4)  Lastly,  the  countries  to  which 
cotton-growing  is  carried  should  gain  in  prosperity. 

The  general  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  British  Cotton 
Growing  Association  are  many  and  will  be  sufficiently  evident. 
Lessons  of  value  may  be  learnt  from  the  fate  of  similar 
The  Cotton  work  undertaken  by  the  Cotton  Supply  Association, 
'  which  was  instituted  in  April  1857.  According  to  its 
fifth  report,  it  originated  "  in  the  prospective  fears  of  a 
portion  of  the  trade  that  some  dire  calamity  must  inevitably, 
sooner  or  later,  overtake  the  cotton  manufacture  of  Lancashire, 
whose  vast  superstructure  had  so  long  rested  upon  the  treacherous 
foundation  of  restricted  slave  labour  as  the  main  source  of  supply 
for  its  raw  material."1  Its  methods  were  stated  to  be:  "To 
afford  information  to  every  country  capable  of  producing 
cotton,  both  by  the  diffusion  of  printed  directions  for  its 
cultivation,  and  sending  competent  teachers  of  cotton  planting 
and  cleaning,  and  by  direct  communication  with  Christian 
missionaries  whose  aid  and  co-operation  it  solicits;  to 
supply,  gratuitously,  in  the  first  instance,  the  best  seeds  to 
natives  in  every  part  of  the  world  who  are  willing  to  receive 
them;  to  give  prizes  for  the  extended  cultivation  of  cotton;  and 

The  Association  published  a  weekly  paper  known  as  The  Cotton 
Supply  Reporter. 


to  lend  gins  and  improved  machines  for  cleaning  and  preparing 
cotton."  Though  the  association  brought  about  an  extension  and 
improvement  of  the  Indian  crop,  in  which  result  it  was  enormously 
assisted  by  the  high  prices  consequent  upon  the  American  Civil 
War,  it  sank  after  a  few  years  into  obscurity,  and  soon  passed  out 
of  existence  altogether,  while  the  effects  of  its  work  dwindled 
finally  into  insignificance.  Much  the  same  had  been  the  ultimate 
outcome  of  the  spasmodic  attempt  of  the  British  government  to 
bring  about  the  introduction  of  cotton  to  new  districts,  after  it  had 
been  pressed  to  take  some  action  a  few  years  prior  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Cotton  Supply  Association.  A  Mr  Clegg,  who  after- 
wards interested  himself  keenly  in  the  activities  of  the  Cotton 
Supply  Association  reported  that  in  the  course  of  a  tour  in  1855 
through  the  Eastern  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean 
he  had  found  none  of  the  gins  presented  by  the  British  govern- 
ment at  work  or  workable. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — On  the  question  of  cotton  supplies,  as  treated 
in  this  article,  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  Brook^  Cotton,  its  Uses, 
&c. ;  Dabney's  Cotton  Plant  (Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  United 
States);  Foaden's  Cotton  Culture  in  Egypt;  Dunstan's  Report  on 
Cotton  Cultivation  for  the  British  government;  Oppel's  Die  Bourn' 
•wolle;  Leconte's  Le  Colon;  publications  of  the  British  Cotton 
Growing  Association;  Report  of  the  Lancashire  Commission  on  the 
possibility  of  extending  cotton  cultivation  in  the  Southern  States  of 
North  America;  Watt's  Lancashire  and  the  Cotton  Famine ;  publica- 
tions of  the  old  Cotton  Supply  Association  (many  will  be  found  in 
the  Manchester  public  library  in  the  volume  marked  "  677  I.  C.  ii."), 
including  their  weekly  paper,  The  Cotton  Supply  Reporter;  Ham- 
mond's Cotton  Culture  and  Trade.  On  methods  of  marketing  to 
certain  portions  of  the  above  must  be  added :  Ellison's  Cotton  Trade 
of  Great  Britain;  Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry  (ch.  vii.); 
articles  by  Chapman  and  Knoop  in  the  Economic  Journal  (December, 
1904)  and  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society  (April,  1906); 
Emery's  Speculation  on  Stock  and  Produce  Exchanges  of  the  United 
States  (small  portions  of  which  relate  to  cotton).  Many  statistics 
will  be  found  in  the  works  mentioned,  and  these  may  be  supplemented 
from  the  trade  publications  of  different  countries.  Many  valuable 
figures  of  cotton  imports,  &c.,  in  early  years  will  be  found  in  Baines' 
History  of  the  Cotton  Trade.  Recent  statistics  bearing  upon  cotton 
are  collected  annually  in  the  two  publications,  Shepperson's  Cotton 
Facts  and  Jones's  Handbook  for  Daily  Cable  Records  of  Cotton  Crop 
Statistics.  For  current  information  the  following  may  be  added: 
Nield's,  Ellison's  and  Tattersall's  circulars;  Cotton  (the  publication 
of  the  Manchester  Cotton  Association);  and  daily  reports  and  articles 
in  the  local  press.  Price  curves  are  published  by  Messrs  Turner, 
Routledge  &  Co.  (S.  J.  C.) 

COTTON  GOODS  AND  YARN 

The  two  great  sections  of  the  cotton  industry  are  yarn  and 
cloth,  and  in  Great  Britain  the  production  of  both  of  these  is 
mainly. in  South  Lancashire,  though  the  area  extends  to  parts  of 
Cheshire,  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire,  and  there  is  a  Scottish 
branch,  besides  certain  isolated  ventures  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Though  there  are  local  rivalries  there  is  nothing  in 
competitive  division  to  compare  with  the  northern  and  southern 
sections  in  America,  and  the  British  industry  is,  for  its  size,  more 
homogeneous  than  most  of  the  European  industries.  Both 
operatives  and  employers  are  highly  organized  and  both  parties 
are  able  to  make  articulate  contribution  to  the  solution  of  the 
various  problems  connected  with  the  trade. 

Cotton  Yarn. — The  yarn  trade  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of 
'limited  companies,  and  a  private  firm  is  looked  upon  as  something 
of  a  survival  from  the  past.  The  two  great  centres  of  production 
are  Oldham,  in  which  American  cotton  is  chiefly,  though  not 
exclusively,  spun,  and  Bolton,  which  spins  the  finer  counts  from 
Egyptian  or  Sea  Island  cotton.  Spinning  mills  are  established, 
however,  in  most  of  the  large  Lancashire  towns  as  well  as  in  some 
parts  of  Cheshire  and  in  Yorkshire,  where  there  is  a  considerable 
industry  in  doubling  yarns.  The  centre  of  trade  is  the  Manchester 
Royal  Exchange,  and  though  some  companies  or  firms  prefer  to 
do  business  by  means  of  their  own  salaried  salesmen,  managers  or 
directors,  most  of  the  yarn  is  sold  by  agents.  Frequently  a  single 
agent  has  the  consignment  of  the  whole  of  a  company's  yarn,  but 
many  spinners,  especially  those  whose  business  connexion  is  not 
perfectly  assured,  prefer  to  have  more  outlets  than  can  be 
explored  by  an  individual.  At  times  of  bad  trade  even  those 
who  usually  depend  on  their  own  resources  seek  the  aid  of 
experienced  agents,  who  sometimes  find  a  grievance  if  their 


276 


COTTON 


services  are  rejected  when  trade  improves  and  sales  are  made 
easily. 

Yarn  is  sold  upon  various  terms,  but  a  regular  custom  in  the 
home  trade  is  for  the  spinner  to  allow  4%  discount,  for  payment 
in  14  days,  of  which  i\  goes  to  the  buyer,  who  is  commonly  a 
manufacturer,  and  ij  to  the  agent  for  sale  and  guaranteeing  the 
account.  In  selling  yarn  for  export  it  is  usual  to  allow  the  buyer 
only  i|%  for  payment  in  14  days,  or  in  some  cases  the  discount 
is  at  the  rate  of  5  %  per  annum  for  3  months,  which  is  equivalent 
toii%. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  yarn  spun  in  Great  Britain  ranges  between 
comparatively  narrow  limits  of  count,  and  such  staples  as  32"  to 
36' twist  and  36"  to  46"  weft  in  American,  50' to  60"  twist  and  42" 
to  62'  weft  in  Egyptian,  make  up  a  large  part  of  the  total.  It  is 
nevertheless  the  experience  of  yarn  salesmen  that  Lancashire 
produces  an  increasingly  large  amount  of  specialities  that  indicate 
a  continued  differentiation  in  trade.  The  tendency  to  spin  finer 
counts  has  been  to  some  extent  counteracted  by  the  development 
of  the  flannelette  trade,  for  which  heavy  wefts  are  used,  and  there 
has  been  again  a  tendency  lately  to  use  "condenser"  or  waste 
wefts,  which  has  worked  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  spinners  of 
the  regular  coarse  counts  spun  at  Royton  and  elsewhere.  The 
demand  for  cloths  which  require  careful  handling  and  regularity 
in  weaving  has  helped  to  develop  the  supply  of  ring  yarns  which 
will  stand  the  strain  of  the  loom  better  than  mule  twists.  A 
great  amount  of  doubled  and  trebled  yarn  is  now  sold,  though  it 
does  not  appear  that  recent  expansions  have  added  much  to 
doubling  spindles,  and  considerable  developments  continue  in  the 
use  of  dyed  and  mercerized  yarns. 

Yarns  are  sold  according  to  their  "actual"  counts,  though 
when  they  are  woven  into  cloth  they  frequently  attain  nominal 
or  brevet  rank.  There  has  been  a  long- 
continued  discussion,  which  between  buyer 
and  seller  sometimes  degenerates  into  a  dis- 
pute, on  the  subject  of  moisture  in  yarns,  and 
the  difficulty  is  not  confined  to  the  Lancashire 
industry.  The  amount  permissible,  accord- 
ing to  the  recommendation  of  the  Manchester 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  is  8%,  but  while  it 
may  be  assumed  that  yarns  at  the  time  of 
their  sale  rarely  contain  less  than  this,  they 
frequently  contain  a  good  deal  more.  It  is 
a  matter  of  experience  that  cotton  yarns  which 
when  spun  contain  only  a  small  percentage 
of  moisture  will  absorb  up  to  about  8  % 
when  they  are  exposed  to  what  may  be  rather 
vaguely  described  as  natural  conditions.  The 
exigencies  of  competition  prompted  the  dis- 
covery that  if  yarn  were  sold  by  weight  fresh 
from  the  spindle  its  comparative  dryness  made 
such  early  sale  less  profitable  than  if  it  were 
allowed  to  "condition."  Between  loss  and 
delay  the  spinner  found  an  obvious  alter- 
native in  damping  the  yarn  artificially.  As 
it  was  often  clearly  to  the  advantage  of  the 
buyer  that  he  should  receive  immediate 
delivery  he  did  not  object  to  water  in  modera- 
tion, but  art  soon  began  to  run  a  little  ahead  of 
nature.  The  essentially  dishonest  practice  of  deluging  yarn  with 
water,  which  has  sometimes  even  degenerated  into  the  use  of 
weighting  materials  deleterious  to  weaving,  has  been  recognized 
as  a  great  nuisance,  but  while  various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
protect  the  buyer  the  question  seems  to  have  pretty  well  settled 
itself  on  the  principles  which  commonly  rule  the  sales  of  com- 
modities between  those  who  intend  to  do  business  continuously. 
The  spinner  who  persists  in  over-weighting  his  yarn  finds  it 
difficult  to  obtain  "repeat"  orders. 

A  remarkable  point  in  the  Lancashire  yarn  trade  is  the  loose- 
ness of  the  contracts  between  spinner  and  manufacturer.  Doubt- 
less some  kind  of  sale  note  or  acknowledgment  usually  passes 
between  them,  but  in  the  home  trade  at  least  it  is  quite  usual  to 
leave  the  question  of  delivery  an  open  one.  It  would  not  be 


correct  to  say  that  this  system  or  want  of  system  is  satisfactory, 
but  the  trade  manages  to  rub  along  very  well  with  it,  although 
inconveniences  and  disagreements  sometimes  arise  when  prices 
have  advanced  or  declined  considerably.  Thus  when  prices  have 
advanced  the  manufacturer  may  find  it  difficult  to  obtain  delivery 
of  the  yarn  that  he  'had  bought  at  low  rates,  for  some  spinners 
have  a  curious,  indefensible  preference  for  delivering  their  higher- 
priced  orders;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  when  prices  have  fallen 
the  manufacturer  sometimes  ceases  to  take  delivery  of  the  high- 
priced  yarn  and  actually  purchases  afresh  for  his  needs.  Yet 
positive  repudiation  is  very  rare  though  compromises  are  not 
uncommon,  and  a  good  many  illogical  arrangements  are  made 
that  imply  forbearance  and  amity.  Litigation  in  the  yarn  trade 
is  very  unusual,  and  Lancashire  traders  generally  have  only 
vague  notions  of  the  bearing  of  law  upon  their  transactions,  and 
a  wholesome  dread  of  the  experience  that  would  lead  to  better 
knowledge. 

The  average  yearly  values  of  the  exports  of  cotton,  yarn  and 
cloth  from  Great  Britain  for  the  decades  1881-1890  and  1891-1900 
respectively,  are  given  by  Professor  Chapman  in  his  Cotton  Industry 
and  Trade,  in  million  pounds: — 

1881-1890.         1891-1900. 

Cloth £60-4  £57-3 

Yarn 12-3  9-3 


Total 


£72-7 


£66-6 


During  the  earlier  decade  the  prices  of  cotton  were  comparatively  high 
The  whole  of  the  cloth  exports  represent,  of  course,  a  corresponding 
home  trade  in  yarns.  The  following  table,  taken  from  the  Manchester 
Guardian,  gives  in  thousands  of  Ib  the  amounts  of  cotton  yarns 
exported  from  Great  Britain  during  1903,  1904  and  1905  respectively, 
according  to  the  Board  of  Trade  returns,  together  with  the  average 
value  per  Ib  for  each  of  the  countries: — 


1903. 

1904. 

1905- 

Price 

Price 

Price 

ft.1 

per  ft. 

ft.1 

per  ft. 

Ib.1 

per  ft. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

Russia     

814 

30-22 

713 

30-7I 

557 

30-66 

Sweden-  

1,526 

II-OO 

1,486 

12-55 

1,512 

11-12 

Norway   

1,656 

9-54 

i,5" 

1  1  -OS 

i,  606 

9-73 

Denmark         .... 

2,429 

8-91 

2,368 

10-18 

2,860 

9-5" 

Germany         .... 

27,239 

16-05 

40,295 

16-27 

39,5i3 

16-38 

Netherlands    .... 

29,591 

9-10 

29-384 

10-48 

.37,341 

8-93 

Belgium  ..... 

3,97° 

15-89 

5-864 

16-50 

7-205 

16-12 

France     

3.974 

17-59 

3,084 

2O-OI 

3,518 

22-64 

Italy        

204 

21-78 

174 

24-70 

204 

22-21 

Austria-Hungary   . 

2,662 

1  1  -60 

3,329 

I4-36 

3,066 

I3-36 

Rumania  

4,608 

8-55 

5,072 

10-13 

7-856 

9-73 

Turkey    

12,966 

8-93 

14,253 

10-05 

17-389 

9-37 

Egypt      ... 
China  (including  Hong-  Kong) 

4,590 
4,660 

8-66 
9-45 

4,38i 
2.457 

9-83 
IO-24 

4-382 
8,441 

8-59 
8-70 

Japan       
British  India  — 

1,406 

12-98 

68  1 

11-46 

4,071 

13-99 

Bombay       .... 

6,286 

1  0-80 

8,145 

1  1  -88 

13,112 

10-86 

Madras        .... 

6,683 

11-07 

8,288 

12-48 

10,930 

11-91 

Bengal         .... 

6,777 

11-04 

6,596 

12-82 

1  1,  068 

II  -20 

Burma         .... 

5,611 

12-17 

3,388 

12-39 

4,211 

12-31 

Straits  Settlements 

1-945 

10-81 

i,  137 

"•57 

2,149 

10-71 

Ceylon     .        .    -   .  '     . 
Other  countries 

33 
21,129 

11-92 
12-39 

44 
21,252 

16-51 
13-28 

42 

23,970 

13-55 

12-43 

Total  and  average 

"50,758 

11-79 

163,901 

13-11 

205,001 

12-08 

It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  in  some  cases  the  Board 
of  Trade  figures  represent  only  an  approximation  to  the  ultimate 
distribution,  as  the  exports  are  sometimes  assigned  to  the  inter- 
mediate country,  and  in  particular  it  is  understood  that  a  considerable 
part  of  theyarn  sent  to  the  Netherlands  is  destined  for  Germany  or 
Austria.  The  large  business  done  in  yarns  with  the  continent  of 
Europe  is  in  some  respects  an  extension  of  the  British  home  trade, 
though  certain  countries  have  their  own  specialities.  A  considerable 
business  is  done  with  European  countries  in  doubled  yarns  and  in 
fine  counts  of  Egyptian,  including  "  gassed  "  yarns,  which  are  also 
sent  intermittently  to  Japan.  Extra  hard  "  yarns  are  sent  to 
Rumania  and  other  Near  Eastern  markets,  and  Russia,  as  the  average 
price  indicates,  buys  sparingly  of  very  fine  yarns.  The  trade  with 
the  Far  East,  which,  though  not  very  large  for  any  one  market,  is 
important  in  the  aggregate,  is  a  good  deal  specialized,  and  since  the 

1  ooo  omitted. 


COTTON 


277 


development  of  Indian  and  Japanese  cotton  mills  some  of  the  trade 
in  the  coarser  counts  has  been  lost.  The  various  Indian  markets 
fake  largely  of  40'  mule  twist  and  in  various  proportions  of  30"  mule, 
water  twists,  two-folds  grey  and  bleached,  fine  Egyptian  counts 
and  dyed  yarns.  China  also  takes  40'  mule,  water  twists  and  two- 
folds.  The  general  export  of  yarn  varies  according  to  influences 
such  as  tariff  charges,  spinning  and  manufacturing  development 
in  the  importing  countries  and  the  price  of  cotton.  A  particular 
effect  of  high-priced  piece-goods  is  seen  in  various  Eastern  countries 
that  are  still  partly  dependent  on  an  indigenous  hand-loom  industry. 
The  big  price  of  imported  cloths  throws  the  native  consumer  to 
some  extent  upon  the  local  goods,  and  so  stimulates  the  imports  of 
yarn.  It  appears  that  as  the  native  industries  decline  the  weaving 
section  persists  longer  than  the  spinning  section. 

Cotton  Goods. — Cotton  goods  are  of  an  infinite  variety,  and  the 
titles  that  experience  or  fancy  have  evoked  are  even  more 
numerous  than  the  kinds.  Descriptions  of  the  following  fabrics, 
which  are  not  of  course  invariably  made  of  cotton,  will  be  found 
in  separate  articles:  BAIZE,  BANDANA,  BOMBAZINE,  BROCADE, 
CALICO,  CAMBRIC,  CANVAS,  CHINTZ,  CORDUROY,  CRAPE, 
CRETONNE,  DENIM,  DIMITY,  DRILL,  DUCK,  FLANNELETTE, 
FUSTIAN,  GAUZE,  GINGHAM,  LONGCLOTH,  MOLESKIN,  MULL, 
MUSLIN,  NANKEEN,  PRINT,  REP,  TICKING,  TWILL,  VELVETEEN. 
The  following  are  notes  on  other  varieties. 

Grey  cloth  is  a  comprehensive  term  that  includes  unbleached 
cotton  cloth  generally.  It  may  be  a  nice  question  whether 
"  yellow  "  would  not  have  been  the  more  nearly  correct  descrip- 
tion. A  very  large  proportion  of  the  Lancashire  export  trade  is 
in  grey  goods  and  a  smaller  yet  considerable  proportion  of  the 
home  trade. 

Shirting,  which  has  long  since  ceased  to  refer  exclusively  to 
shirt  cloths,  includes  a  large  proportion  of  Lancashire  manu- 
facture. Grey  and  white  shirtings  are  exported  to  all  the 
principal  Eastern  markets  and  also  to  Near  Eastern,  European, 
South  American,  &c.  markets.  Certain  staple  kinds,  such  as 
39  in. 375  yd.  Sjlb.  16X15  (threads  to  the  j  in.),  largely  exported 
to  China  and  India,  are  made  in  various  localities  and  by  many 
manufacturers.  The  length  quoted  is  to  some  extent  a  con- 
ventional term,  as  the  pieces  in  many  cases  actually  measure 
considerably  more.  The  export  shirting  trade  is  done  mainly  on 
"  repeat  "  orders  for  well-known  "  chops  "  or  marks.  These 
trade  marks  are  sometimes  the  property  of  the  manufacturer, 
but  more  commonly  of  the  exporter.  Generally  the  China  markets 
use  rather  better  qualities  than  the  Indian  markets.  The 
principal  China  market  for  shirtings  and  other  staple  goods  is 
Shanghai,  which  holds  a  large  stock  and  distributes  to  minor 
markets.  A  considerable  trade  is  also  done  through  Hong-Kong 
and  other  Far  Eastern  ports.  The  principal  Indian  markets  are 
Calcutta,  Bombay,  Karachi  and  Madras. 

Shirt-cloth  is  the  term  more  commonly  applied  to  what  is 
actually  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shirts,  and  it  may  be  used 
for  either  plain  or  fancy  goods. 

Sheeting  has  two  meanings  in  the  cotton  trade:  (i)  the 
ordinary  bed  sheeting,  usually  a  stout  cloth  of  anything  from 
45  in.  to  1 20  in.  wide  (the  extremes  being  used  on  the  one  hand  for 
children's  cots  or  ship  bunks  and  on  the  other  for  old-fashioned 
four-posters),  which  may  be  either  plain  or  twilled,  bleached, 
unbleached  or  half-bleached;  (2)  a  grey  calico,  heavier  than  a 
shirting,  sent  largely  to  China  and  other  markets,  usually  36  in. 
by  40  yd.  and  weighing  about  1 2  Ib.  American  sheetings  com- 
pete with  Lancashire  goods  in  the  China  market.  The  Cabot  is 
a  kind  of  heavy  sheeting,  and  for  the  Levant  markets  the  name 
as  a  trade  mark  is  said  to  be  the  exclusive  property  of  an  American 
firm,  although  the  general  class  is  known  by  the  name  and 
supplied  by  other  firms. 

Mexican  is  a  plain,  heavy  grey  calico,  sometimes  heavily  sized. 
The  origin  of  the  word  is  doubtful,  and  it  seems  to  be  an  arbitrary 
term.  Mexicans  are  exported  to  various  markets  and  also  used 
in  the  home  trade.  For  export  the  dimensions  are  commonly 
32  or  36  in.  by  24  yd.,  and  a  usual  count  is  18X18.  In  the 
Mexican  the  yarns  were  originally  of  nearly  the  same  weight 
and  number  of  threads  to  the  J  in.,  an  arrangement  which 
gave  the  cloth  an  even  appearance,  thus  differing  from  the 
"  pin-head  "  or  medium  makes.  Now,  however,  Mexicans  are 


often  made  with  lighter  wefts,  though  the  name  is  usually  applied 
to  the  better  class  of  cloths  of  the  particular  character.  Punjum 
is  a  Mexican,  generally  36  yd.  in  length,  sent  mainly  to  the  South 
African  market. 

T  Cloth  is  a  plain  grey  calico,  similar  in  kind  to  the  Mexican 
and  exported  to  the  same  markets.  There  is  no  absolute  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  cloths,  but  the  T  cloth  is  generally  lower  in 
quality  than  the  Mexican.  The  name  seems  to  have  been 
originally  an  arbitrary  identification  or  trade  mark. 

Domestic,  a  name  originally  used  in  the  sense  of  "  home-made," 
is  applied  especially  to  home-made  cotton  goods  in  the  United 
States.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  employed  rather  loosely,  but 
commonly  to  describe  the  kind  of  cloth  which  if  exported  would 
be  called  a  Mexican.  It  .may  be  either  bleached  or  unbleached. 

Medium  is  a  plain  calico,  grey  or  bleached,  of  medium  weight, 
used  principally  in  the  home  and  colonial  trade.  The  word  is 
sometimes  particularly  applied  to  cloths  with  a  comparatively 
heavy  weft,  the  distinction  being  made  between  the  even 
"Mexican  make"  and  the  "pin-head"  or  "medium-make." 

Raising-cloths  are  of  various  kinds  and  may  be  merely  mediums 
with  a  heavy  weft,  or  "  condenser  "  weft  made  from  waste  yarns. 
The  essence  of  the  raising-cloth  is  a  weft  that  will  provide  plenty 
of  nap  and  yet  have  sufficient  fibre  to  maintain  the  strength  of 
the  web. 

Wigan  is  a  name  derived  from  the  town  Wigan  and  seems  to 
have  been  originally  applied  to  a  stiff  canvas-like  cloth  used  for 
lining  skirts.  Now  it  is  commonly  applied  to  medium  or  heavy 
makes  of  calico. 

Double-warp,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  cloth  with  a  twofold 
warp.  It  is  usually  a  strong  serviceable  material  and  may  be 
either  twilled  or  plain.  Sheetings  for  home  trade  are  often 
double-warp,  and  double-warp  twills  and  Wigans  were  and  are 
used  for  the  old-fashioned  type  of  men's  night-shirts. 

Croydon,  which  seems  to  be  an  arbitrary  trade  name,  is  a  heavy, 
bleached,  plain  calico,  usually  stiff  and  glossy  in  finish.  It  used 
to  be  sold  largely  in  the  Irish  trade  as  well  as  in  the  English  home 
trade,  but  it  has  been  supplanted  a  good  deal  by  softer  finishes. 

Printing-cloth  is  a  term  with  a  general  significance,  but  it  is  also 
particularly  applied  to  a  class  of  plain  cloths  in  which  a  very 
large  trade  is  done  both  for  home  trade  and  export.  The  chief 
place  in  Lancashire  for  the  manufacture  of  printing-cloths  is 
Burnley,  and  in  the  United  States,  Fall  River.  The  Burnley 
cloths  range  in  width  from  29  in.  to  40  in.,  and  are  usually  about 
1 20  yd.  in  length.  The  warp  is  commonly  from  36"  to  44",  the 
weft  from  36"  to  54",  and  the  threads  from  13X13  to  20X20 
to  the  i  in.  Cheshire  printers,  which  are  made  at  Hyde, 
Stockport,  Glossop  and  elsewhere,  are  commonly  34  in.  to  36  in. 
wide,  the  warp  is  from  32"  to  36",  the  weft  32'  to  40",  and  the 
counts  16X16  to  19X22. 

Jacconet  is  understood  to  be  the  corruption  of  an  Indian  name, 
and  the  first  jacconets  were  probably  of  Indian  origin.  They  now 
make  one  of  the  principal  staple  trades  of  Lancashire  with  India. 
The  jacconet  is  a  plain  cloth,  lighter  than  a  shirting  and  heavier 
than  a  mull.  When  bleached  it  is  usually  put  into  a  firm  and 
glossy  finish.  A  nainsook  is  a  jacconet  bleached  and  finished  soft. 
It  also  goes  largely  to  India. 

Dhootie  is  a  name  taken  from  a  Hindu  word  of  similar  sound  and 
referred  originally  to  the  loin-cloth  worn  by  Hindus.  It  is  a  light, 
narrow  cloth  made  with  a  coloured  border  which  is  often  so 
elaborate  as  to  require  a  dobby  loom  for  its  manufacture.  The 
finer  kinds,  made  from  Egyptian  yarns,  are  called  mull-dhooties. 
The  dhootie  is  one  of  the  principal  staples  for  India  and  is  exported 
both  white  and  grey. 

Scarf  is  a  kind  of  dhootie  made  usually  with  a  taped  or  corded 
border. 

Madapolam  or  Madapottam  is  a  name  derived  from  a  suburb  of 
Narsapur  in  the  Madras  presidency  where  the  cloth  was  first  made. 
It  is  now  exported  grey  or  white  to  India  and  other  countries. 
In  weight  it  is  lighter  than  a  shirting,  and  it  is  usually  ornamented 
with  a  distinctive  coloured  heading. 

Baft,  probably  of  Persian  derivation,  and  originally  a  fine  cloth, 
is  now  a  coarse  and  cheap  cloth  exported  especially  to  Africa. 


278 


COTTON 


Sarong,  the  Malay  word  for  a  garment  wrapped  round  the  lower 
part  of  the  body  and  used  by  both  men  and  women,  is  now 
applied  to  plain  or  printed  cloths  exported  to  the  Indian  or 
Eastern  Archipelago  for  this  purpose. 

Jean,  said  to  be  derived  from  Genoa  where  a  kind  of  fustian 
with  this  title  was  made,  is  a  kind  of  twilled  cloth.  The  cloth  is 
woven  "one  end  up  and  two  ends  down,"  and  as  there  are  more 
picks  of  weft  per  inch  than  ends  of  warp  the  diagonal  lines  pass 
from  selvage  to  selvage  at  an  angle  of  less  than  45  degrees.  The 
weft  surface  is  the  face  or  wearing  surface  of  the  cloth.  Jeans  are 
exported  to  China  and  other  markets,  and  are  also  used  in  the 
home  trade.  Jeanette  is  the  converse  of  jean,  being  a  twill  of 
"two  ends  up  to  one  down";  the  diagonal  passes  from  selvage  to 
selvage  at  a  greater  angle  than  45  degrees  and  the  warp  makes  the 
wearing  surface. 

Oxford  is  a  plain-woven  cloth  usually  with  a  coloured  pattern, 
and  is  used  for  shirts  and  dresses.  The  name  is  comparatively 
modern,  and  is,  no  doubt,  arbitrarily  selected. 

Harvard  is  a  twilled  cloth  similar  to  the  Oxford. 

Regatta  is  a  stout,  coloured  shirt  cloth  similar  in  make  to  a 
jeanette.  It  was  originally  made  in  blue  and  white  stripes  and 
was  used  largely  and  is  still  used  for  men's  shirts. 

Fancy  cotton  goods  are  of  great  variety,  and  many  of  them 
have  trade  names  that  are 
used  temporarily  or  occasion- 
ally. Apart  from  the  large 
class  of  brocaded  cloths  made 
in  Jacquard  looms  there  are 
innumerable  simpler  kinds, 
including  stripes  and  checks 
of  various  descriptions,  such 
as  Swiss,  Cord,  Satin,  Doriah 
stripes,  &c.  Mercerized  cloths 
are  of  many  kinds,  as  the 
mercerizing  process  can  be 
applied  to  almost  anything. 
Lace  and  lace  curtains  are 
made  largely  at  Nottingham. 
Various  light  goods  are  made  in 
Scotland,  such  as  book  muslin; 
a  fine  light  muslin  with  an 
elastic  finish,  so  called  from 
being  folded  in  book-form. 

Among  the  fancy  cloths 
made  in  cotton  may  be  men- 
tioned: matting,  which  in- 
cludes various  kinds  with 
some  similarity  in  appearance 
to  a  matting  texture;  mate- 
lasse,  which  is  in  some  degree 
an  imitation  of  French  dress 
goods  of  that  name;  pique, 
also  of  French  origin,  woven 
in  stripes  in  relief,  which  cross 
the  width  of  the  piece,  and 
usually  finished  stiff;  Bedford 
cord,  a  cheaper  variety  of 
piqu6  in  which  the  stripes  run 
the  length  of  the  piece;  oatmeal 
cloth,  which  has  an  irregular 
surface  suggesting  the  grain 
of  oatmeal,  commonly  dyed 
cream  colour;  crimp  cloth,  in 
which  a  puckered  effect  is 
obtained  by  uneven  shrinkage; 
grenadine,  said  to  be  derived 
from  Granada, -a  light  dress 
material  originally  made  of 
silk  or  silk  and  wool;  brilliant,  a  dress  material,  usually  with  a 
small  raised  pattern;  leno,  possibly  a  corrupt  form  of  the 
French  linon  or  lawn,  a  kind  of  fancy  gauze  used  for  veils, 
curtains,  &c.;  lappet,  a  light  material  with  a  figure  or  pattern 


produced  on  the  surface  of  the  cloth  by  needles  placed  in  a 
sliding  frame;  lustre,  a  light  dress  material  with  a  lustrous  face 
sometimes  made  with  a  cotton  warp  and  woollen  weft;  zephyr,  a 
light,  coloured  dress  material  usually  in  small  patterns;  bobbin- 
net,  a  machine-made  fabric,  originally  an  imitation  of  lace  made 
with  bobbins  on  a  pillow. 

Some  fancy  cloths  have  descriptive  names  such  as  herringbone 
stripe,  and  there  are  many  arbitrary  trade  names,  such  as  Yosemite 
stripe,  which  may  prevail  and  become  the  designation  of  a  regular 
class  or  die  after  a  few  seasons. 

Cotton  linings  include  silesia,  originally  a  linen  cloth  made  in 
Silesia  and  now  usually  a  twilled  cotton  cloth  which  is  dyed 
various  colours;  Italian  cloth,  a  kind  of  jean  or  sateen  produced 
originally  in  Italy.  Various  cotton  cloths  are  imitations  of  other 
textures  and  have  modified  names  which  indicate  their  superficial 
character,  frequently  produced  by  finishing  processes.  Among 
these  are  sateen,  which,  dyed  or  printed,  is  largely  used  for 
dresses,  linings,  upholstery,  &c.;  linenette,  dyed  and  finished  to 
imitate  coloured- linen  in  the  north  of  Ireland  and  elsewhere; 
hollandette,  usually  unbleached  or  half-bleached  and  finished  to 
imitate  linen  holland;  and  interlining,  a  coarse,  plain  white 
calico  used  as  padding  for  linen  collars. 

Various  cotton  imitations  share  the  name  of  the  original,  such 


190; 

1- 

190* 

t- 

190, 

Country. 

Thousands 

Price 

Thousands 

Price 

Thousands 

Price 

of  Yards. 

per  Yard. 

of  Yards. 

per  Yard. 

of  Yards. 

per  Yard. 

Germany     

60,650 

3-77 

60,129 

4-02 

65,842 

3-98 

Netherlands        .        .        .        . 

47.57° 

3-57 

46,187 

3-68 

56,639 

3-47 

Belgium      

52M99 

4-34 

56,237 

4-42 

67-509 

4-41 

France         

17-552 

4-61 

17,759 

4'39 

14.875 

4-65 

Portugal,  Azores  and  Madeira  . 

32,824 

2-70 

29,440 

2-92 

29,867 

3-03 

Italy    

6,363 

5-07 

7,904 

5-19 

8,746 

5-31 

Austria-Hungary 

2,405 

3-44 

2,102 

3-40 

1,905 

3'6o 

AO  Q7-2 

2-64. 

32  6i;8 

I'll 

28,190 

3*2O 

Turkey        

t^.Wo 
305,6H 

m  \jf 

2-45 

O^f^O" 

379,557 

o  *  j 
2-53 

376,209 

•*" 

2-53 

Egypt  

229,704 

2-41 

283,521 

2-57 

272,737 

2-53 

Algeria        .        .        .        . 

709 

2-74 

438 

2-71 

455 

2-63 

Morocco      

52,368 

2-28 

51,262 

2-44 

44,407 

2-44 

Foreign  West  Africa 

64,589 

2-92 

55,131 

3-12 

69,163 

3-o8 

Persia  

34,859 

2-46 

33-1  19 

2-67 

38,647 

2-59 

Dutch  East  Indies 

156,905 

2-45 

185,196 

2-72 

226,586 

2-57 

Philippine  Islands 

25,558 

2-59 

25,969 

2-86 

42,876 

2-66 

China,  including  Hong-Kong  . 

477,691 

2-83 

548,974 

3-34 

799,732 

3-06 

Japan  

67,315 

3-08 

42,373 

3-34 

128,725 

2-99 

United  States  of  America 

72,360 

6-80 

52,391 

7-18 

65,563 

7-40 

Foreign  West  Indies  . 

86,349 

2-08 

98,797 

2-21 

80,679 

2-24 

Mexico         .... 

19,327 

3-10 

21,679 

3-42 

21,028 

3-3' 

Central  America 

40,879 

1-97 

53-OiS 

2-21 

49,523 

2-29 

Colombia  and  Panama     . 

44,299 

2-25 

44,648 

2-54 

3L798 

2-41 

Venezuela 

52,330 

1-87 

52,934 

2-07 

32,717 

2-II 

Peru     .                        ... 

28,962 

2-66 

32,430 

2-85 

39,035 

2-78 

Chile    .                       ... 

84,118 

2-50 

80,836 

2-57 

96,996 

2-62 

Brazil  .                        ... 

152,402 

2-64 

134-841 

2-89 

131,504 

2-50 

Uruguay            .... 

44,062 

2-79 

35,670 

2-85 

56,770 

2-95 

Argentine  Republic  . 

151,003 

2-91 

186,022 

3-04 

I59,H5 

3-24 

Gibraltar 

11,961 

2-39 

10,578 

2-47 

3,96o 

2-73 

Malta  .                       ... 

4,o65 

3-n 

3,659 

3-45 

4,006 

3-31 

British  W.  Africa 

69,795 

3-27 

69,308 

3-43 

74,392 

3-40 

„  .       S.        

61,778 

3'6i 

29,670 

4-03 

50,592 

3-69 

British  India  — 

Bombay  .               ... 

678,684 

2-07 

818,261 

2-23 

908,619 

2-24 

Madras    .                ... 

132,825 

2-48 

H1-  675 

2-63 

I3i,i45 

2-62 

Bengal     .               ... 

1,122,004 

1-97 

1,215,607 

2-18 

1,280,314 

2-18 

Burma     .                ... 

64,654 

2-84 

79,765 

3-10 

72,528 

3:13 

Straits  Settlements  >  . 

112,006 

2-61 

100,230 

2-84 

121,690 

2-71 

Ceylon  .       .                ... 

17-395 

2-75 

19,336 

2-95 

24.991 

2-94 

Australia     .               ... 

106,000 

3-83 

128,247 

4-01 

136,481 

3-85 

New  Zealand 

38,499 

3-58 

33.538 

3-8i 

32,315 

3-63 

Canada        .               ... 

47,439 

4-15 

49,903 

4-25 

45,i89 

4-47 

British    West    India    Islands, 

Bahamas  and  British  Guiana 

49,614 

2-49 

43-487 

2-61 

47,173 

2-21 

Other  countries  .... 

188,662 

2-84 

197,339 

3-14 

226,971 

3-03 

Total      . 

5,i57,3i6 

2-57 

5,591,822 

2-75 

6,198,200 

2-74 

as  lawn,  batiste,  serge,  huckaback,  galloon,  and  a  large  number 

of  names  are  of  obvious  derivation  and  use,  such  as  umbrella 

cloth,  apron  cloth,  sail  cloth,  book-binding  cloth,  shroud  cloth, 

1  Including  Federated  Malay  States. 


COTTON 


279 


butter  cloth,  mosquito  netting,  handkerchief,  blanket,  towelling, 
bagging. 

Among  the  miscellaneous  cloths  made  or  made  partly  of  cotton 
may  be  mentioned:  waste  cloths,  made  from  waste  yarns  and 
usually  coarse  in  texture;  khaki  cloth,  made  largely  for  military 
clothing  in  cotton  as  well  as  in  woollen;  coltonade,  a  name  given  to 
various  coarse  low  cloths  in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere; 
lasting,  which  seems  to  be  an  abbreviation  of  "  lasting  cloth,"  a 
stiff,  durable  texture  used  in  making  shoes,  &c. ;  bolting  cloth, 
used  in  bolting  or  sifting;  brattice  cloth,  a  stout,  tarred  cloth  made 
of  cotton  or  wool  and  used  for  bratticing  or  lining  the  sides  of 
shafts  in  mines;  sponge  cloths,  used  for  cleaning  machinery; 
shoddy  and  mungo,  which  though  mainly  woollen  have  frequently 
a  cotton  admixture;  and  splits,  either  plain  or  fancy,  usually  of 
low  quality,  which  include  any  cloth  woven  two  or  three  in  the 
breadth  of  the  loom  and  "split"  into  the  necessary  width. 
Cotton  is  used  too  for  many  miscellaneous  purposes,  including 
the  manufacture  of  lamp  wicks  and  even  of  billiard  balls. 

British  Cotton  Cloth  Exports. — The  main  lines  of  the  Lancashire 
export  trade  in  cotton  goods  are  indicated  in  the  Board  of  Trade 
returns.  The  table  on  p.  278  compiled  from  them  is  taken  from 
the  Manchester  Guardian.  It  gives  in  thousands  of  yards  the 
quantities  of  cotton  goods  exported  from  Great  Britain  during 
1903, 1 904  and -i  90  5  respectively,  together  with  average  value  per 
yard  for  each  of  the  countries. 

The  following  table  gives,  approximately,  in  thousands  of  yards 
the  quantities  exported  of  the  four  main  divisions  of  cotton 
doths:— 


1903. 

1904. 

1905- 

Thousands 
of  Yards. 

Thousands 
of  Yards. 

Thousands 
of  Yards. 

Grey  or  unbleached  . 
Bleached     . 

1,880,321 
1.126.235 

2,033,895 
i.  528,  165 

2,336,018 

I.7IO.74.2 

Printed        .... 
Dyed  and  coloured    . 

1,027,925 
922,735 

1,036,901 
993,009 

1,053-900 
1,097,540 

In  the  case  of  cloth,  too,  the  Board  of  Trade  returns  must  not  be 
taken  as  an  absolute  record  of  imports  to  the  particular  countries, 
as  the  ultimate  recipient  is  not  always  determined.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  Eastern  trade  has  been  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
features  of  the  cotton  trade  in  the  igth  century.  Professor 
Chapman  writes  in  his  Cotton  Industry  and  Trade:  "In  1820 
Europe  received  about  half  the  cotton  fabrics  which  were  sent 
abroad,  while  the  United  States  received  nearly  one-tenth  and 
eastern  Asia  little  more  than  one-twentieth.  By  1880  Europe 
was  taking  less  than  one-twelfth,  the  United  States  less  than 
one-fiftieth,  and  eastern  Asia  more  than  a  half." 

Naturally  a  trade  tends  to  find  out  the  most  direct  means  of 
distribution,  and  Manchester  merchants  are  now  generally  in 
direct  connexion  with  native  dealers  in  India.  Bombay  was  the 
pioneer  in  the  custom,  followed  now  by  Calcutta  and  Karachi,  by 
which  deliveries  of  goods  from  British  merchants  remained  under 
the  control  of  the  banks  until  the  native  dealers  took  them  up. 
Manchester  business  with  India,  China,  &c.,  is 'done  under 
various  conditions,  however,  and  a  good  many  firms  have 
branches  abroad.  The  regular  "indent"  by  which  most  of  the 
Manchester  Eastern  business  is  conducted  now  implies  a  definite 
offer  for  shipment  from  the  dealer  abroad,  either  direct  or  through 
the  exporter's  agents,  and  commonly  includes  freight  and  insur- 
ance. The  term  "commission  agent"  is  now  discredited,  and 
buying  done  by  Manchester  houses  on  simple  commission  terms 
is  unusual  though  not  unknown.  This, has  been  so  since  the 
famous  law  case  of  Williamson  v.  Bar  hour  in  1877,  when  it  was 
established  tljat  whatever  might  be  the  custom  of  the  trade  a 
commission  agent  was  not  entitled  to  make  a  profit  over  his 
commission  on  the  various  processes,  such  as  handling  and 
packing,  which  are  a  necessary  part  of  the  exporter's  work.  A 
good  deal  of  business  is  done,  however,  for  South  America  and 
other  markets  in  which  the  goods  are  bought  for  delivery  in  the 
Manchester  warehouse,  all  charges  for  packing,  &c.,  and  carriage 
being  extra. 


Transactions  with  distant  markets  are  now  done  almost  en- 
tirely by  cable,  and  a  remarkable  development  of  the  telegraphic 
code  has  enabled  merchants  to  pack  a  good  deal  into  a  brief 
message.  A  cable  sent  to  India  in  the  evening  may  bring  a  reply 
next  morning,  and  in  these  days  of  rapid  cotton  fluctuations  mail 
advices  are  confined  mainly  to  general  discussion,  hypothetical 
inquiry,  advice,  admonition  and  complaint.  Some  Manchester 
export  business  is  done  through  London,  Glasgow,  and  continental 
towns,  of  which  Hamburg  is  the  principal.  Glasgow  buys  largely 
of  yarns  and  cloth,  some  considerable  part  of  which  is  dyed  or 
printed,  for  India  and  elsewhere,  and  has  an  indigenous  manu- 
facture and  trade  in  fine  goods  such  as  book-muslins  and  lappets, 
a  somewhat  delicate  department  of  manufacture  which  necessi- 
tates a  slower  running  of  machinery  than  is  usual  in  Lancashire. 

Besides  the  indent  business  there  is,  of  course,  purely  merchant 
business  by  Manchester  exporters,  who  buy  on  their  own  initia- 
tive at  what  they  consider  to  be  opportune  times  or  on  recom- 
mendations from  their  houses  or  correspondents  abroad.  In  the 
Indian  trade,  especially  in  the  Calcutta  trade,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  total  amount  is  done  by  a  few  houses  who  buy  in  this  way, 
and  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  method, 
which  had  fallen  out  of  fashion,  may  not  further  develop.  It  is 
more  speculative  than  the  indent  business,  but  the  dealing  with 
large  quantities  which  it  involves  gives  the  opportunity  to  buy 
very  cheaply.  A  good  many  firms  venture  occasionally  to  buy  in 
anticipation  of  their  customers'  needs,  especially  when  they  expect 
a  rising  market.  During  the  great  trade  "boom"  of  1905  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  buying  by  exporters  in  advance  of  their 
indents  because  manufacturers  continued  to  contract  engagements 
which  threatened  to  exclude  dilatory  buyers.  On  the  whole, 
however,  what  may  be  called  the  speculative  centre  of  gravity 
of  Great  Britain's  export  business  in  cotton  goods  is  not  in 
Manchester  but  abroad. 

The  terms  on  which  business  is  conducted  are  various  even  in  a 
single  market,  and  it  is  sometimes  a  reproach  that  British  firms 
are  old-fashioned  in  their  reluctance  to  give  credit.  The  so- 
called  enterprising  methods  of  some  German  traders  are,  however, 
condemned  by  many  experienced  English  traders,  and  it  is  said 
that  in  China,  for  instance,  the  seeming  successes  of  the  new- 
comers are  delusive.  The  Tientsin  developments  of  German 
business  on  credit  terms  are  said  to  have  proved  unsatisfactory, 
and  heavy  losses  were  suffered  in  Hong-Kong  some  years  ago  by 
merchants  who  endeavoured  to  initiate  a  bolder  system  of  trading. 
The  very  common  complaint  of  British  consuls  that  British 
firms  neglect  to  send  out  travellers  may  have  some  foundation, 
but  a  commercial  house  naturally  follows  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance to  the  development  of  its  trade,  and  cannot  be  expected  to 
work  remote  and  barren  ground  when  better  opportunities  are 
near  at  hand.  On  the  whole  it  appears  that  the  British  cotton 
trade  continues  to  increase  to  a  satisfactory  degree  in  fancy  and 
special  goods,  which  require  for  their  production  a  comparatively 
high  degree  of  technical  skill,  and  are  more  lucrative  than  some 
of  the  simpler  products  in  which  competitors  have  been  most 
formidable.  Various  finishing  processes,  and  particularly  the 
mercerizing  of  yarn  and  cloth,  have  increased  the  possibilities  in 
cotton  materials,  and  while  staples  still  form  the  bulk  of  our 
foreign  trade,  it  seems  that  as  the  stress  of  competition  in  these 
grows  acute,  more  and  more  of  our  energy  may  be  transferred  to 
the  production  of  goods  which  appeal  to  a  growing  taste  or  fancy. 

British  Home  Trade. — The  home  trade  in  cotton  cloths  is  a 
great  and  important  section,  but  it  is  not  comparable  in  volume  to 
the  export  trade.  It  involves  more  numerous  and  more  elaborate 
processes,  and  the  qualities  for  home  use  are  generally  finer  and 
more  costly  than  those  for  export.  Of  course  by  far  the  larger 
part  of  the  yarn  spun  in  Lancashire  is  woven  in  Lancashire,  but  of 
the  cotton  cloth  woven  in  Lancashire  it  is  roughly  estimated  that 
about  20%  is  used  in  Great  Britain.  Not  only  is  the  average  of 
quality  better,  but  the  variety  of  kinds  and  designs  is  greater  in 
the  home  trade  than  in  the  export  trade.  A  good  home  trade 
connexion  is  considered  an  extremely  valuable  asset,  and  as  the 
trade  is  highly  differentiated  the  profits  are  usually  good.  Some 
manufacturers  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  the  home  trade, 


280 


COTTON 


and  some  exclusively  to  foreign  trade,  but  there  is  a  large  class 
with  what  may  be  called  a  margin  of  alternation,  which  serves  to 
redress  the  balance  as  business  in  one  or  other  of  the  sections  is 
good  or  bad. 

Certain  kinds  of  light  goods  made  for  India  and  other  Eastern 
markets  are  not  used  in  the  home  trade,  and  the  typical  Eastern 
staples  are  not  generally  used  in  their  particular  "sizings,"  but 
with  these  exceptions  and  various  specialities  almost  every  kind 
of  cotton  cloth  is  used  to  some  extent  in  Great  Britain.  Grey 
calicoes  for  home  use,  except  the  lowest  kinds,  are  comparatively 
pure,  and  of  late  years  the  heavy  fillings  which  used  to  be  common 
in  bleached  goods  have  become  discredited.  The  housewife  long 
persisted  in  deceiving  herself  by  purchasing  filled  calicoes,  and  the 
movement  in  favour  of  purer  goods  owes  a  good  deal,  strangely 
enough,  to  the  increase  in  the  making-up  trade  and  the  consequent 
inconveniences  to  workers  of  sewing  machines,  whose  needles 
were  constantly  broken  by  hard  filled  calicoes. 

This  development  of  the  making-up  trade  has  become  an 
important  element  in  the  home  trade,  and  it  has  greatly  reduced 
the  retail  sale  of  piece-goods.  The  purchase  of  ready-made  shirts, 
underclothing,  &c.,  corresponds  to  a  change  in  the  habits  of  the 
people.  The  factories  which  have  been  erected  in  the  north  of 
Ireland,  on  the  outskirts  of  London  and  elsewhere  turn  out 
millions  of  garments  that  would,  under  the  old  conditions,  have 
been  made  at  home.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  balance  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  two  systems,  and  it  must  not 
be  supposed  that  made-up  cotton  garments  are  necessarily  cheap 
and  inefficient. 

The  chief  distributing  centre  of  cotton  made-up  goods  is 
London,  though  a  considerable  trade  is  done  through  wholesale 
houses  in  Manchester  and  elsewhere.  Large  warehouses  in  the 
city  of  London  carry  on  the  trade  and  frequently  supply  Lanca- 
shire with  her  own  goods.  Of  course  the  partial  loss  of  the 
piece-goods  trade  by  the  shops  is  not  a  loss  in  aggregate  trade,  as 
they  are  the  ultimate  distributors  of  the  made-up  garments, 
which  are  probably  at  least  as  profitable  to  retail  as  calico  or 
flannelette  sold  in  lengths. 

The  normal  course  of  home  trade  piece-goods  is  from  manu- 
facturer to  bleacher,  dyer,  printer  or  finisher,  either  on  account  of 
a  merchant  to  whom  the  goods  are  sold  or  on  the  manufacturer's 
own  account.  By  far  the  majority  of  Lancashire  manufacturers 
sell  their  goods  as  they  come  from  the  loom,  or,  as  it  is  called,  in 
the  "grey  state,"  but  an  increasing  number  now  cultivate  the 
trade  in  finished  goods.  Usually  the  manufacturer  sells  either 
directly  or  through  an  agent  to  a  merchant  who  sells  again  to  the 
shopkeeper,  but  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  have  seen  a 
considerable  development  of  more  direct  dealing.  Some  manu- 
facturers now  go  to  the  shopkeeper,  and  this  has  made  it  difficult 
for  the  merchant  with  a  limited  capital  and  therefore  a  limited 
assortment  to  survive.  The  great  general  houses  such  as 
Rylands's,  Philips's  and  Watt's  in  Manchester,  and  Cook's  and 
Pawson's  in  London,  some  of  which  are  manufacturers  to  a  minor 
degree,  continue  to  flourish  because  under  one  roof  they  can 
supply  all  that  the  draper  requires,  and  so  enable  him  to  econo- 
mize in  the  time  spent  in  buying  and  to  save  himself  the  trouble 
of  attending  to  many  accounts.  Some  general  merchants, 
indeed,  supply  what  are  practically  "  tied  houses,"  which  give  all 
their  trade  in  return  for  pecuniary  assistance  or  special  terms. 

The  tendency  to  eliminate  the  middleman  has  not  only 
brought  a  good  many  manufacturers  into  direct  relation  with  the 
shopkeeper,  but  in  some  exceptional  cases  the  manufacturer, 
adopting  some  system  of  broadcast  advertisement  and  postal 
delivery,  has  dealt  with  the  consumer.  Naturally,  the  merchant 
resents  any  developments  which  exclude  him,  and  some  mild  forms 
of  boycott  have  occasionally  been  instituted.  In  the  United 
States  there  has  been  an  arduous  struggle  over  this  question,  and 
combinations  of  merchants  have  sometimes  compelled  favourable 
terms.  In  England,  though  the  merchant  has  maintained  a  great 
part  of  the  trade  with  shopkeepers,  the  developing  trade  with 
makers  of  shirts,  underclothing,  &c.,  is  mainly  done  by  the 
manufacturers  directly,  and  perhaps  the  simplification  of 
relations  by  direct  dealing  in  the  cotton  trade  has  now  reached 


a  point  of  fairly  stable  compromise.  The  tendency  to  direct 
trading  is  naturally  controlled  by  the  exigencies  of  capital.  Those 
manufacturers  who  act  as  merchants  aim  to  retain  the  merchant 
profit  and  must  employ  a  merchant  capital  in  stocks.  There  has 
been  a  tendency,  indeed,  to  make  the  manufacturer  the  stock- 
keeper,  and  some  merchants  do  little  more  than  pass  on  the 
goods  a  stage  after  taking  toll.  The  great  improvement  in  trade 
during  1905  and  1906  checked  this  tendency,  and  probably  the 
manufacturing  extensions  owed  something  to  the  capital  set  free 
by  the  reductions  of  stocks. 

It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  while  most  of  the  spinning 
concerns  are  worked  by  limited  companies  or  individuals  with  a 
considerable  capital,  a  good  many  small  manufacturers  exist  who 
have  little  capital  and  are  practically  financied  by  their  agents  or 
customers.  This  is  so  in  both  the  export  and  home  trades. 

The  home  trade  merchant  or  merchant-manufacturer  works 
largely  through  agents  and  travellers,  and  though  railway 
facilities  continue  to  improve,  some  shopkeepers  rarely  visit  their 
markets.  The  difficulty  that  is  naturally  experienced  by  a 
traveller  in  finding  sufficient  support  on  a  sparsely  populated 
"ground"  has  brought  into  vogue  the  traveller  on  commission 
who  represents  several  firms.  The  traveller  with  salary  and 
allowances  for  expenses  survives,  but  the  quickening  induced  by 
an  interest  in  the  amount  of  sales  has  caused  many  firms  to  adopt 
the  principle  of  commission,  which  may,  however,  be  an  addition 
to  a  minimum  salary.  Of  course,  such  travellers  are  not  peculiar 
to  the  cotton  trade,  but  cotton  goods  in  various  forms  are  an 
important  factor  in  the  home  trade. 

The  profits  of  manufacturers,  merchants  and  shopkeepers  are 
commonly  very  much  less  on  the  lower  classes  of  cotton  goods 
than  on  the  higher  ones.  Thus  while  there  may  be  a  difference  of 
id.  per  yd.  between  the  qualities  on  a  manufacturer's  list,  the 
difference  in  cost  may  not  be  more  than  a  farthing;  and,  again, 
while  the  shopkeeper  sometimes  pays  a|d.  or  even  afd.  per  yd. 
for  a  calico  to  retail  at  2$d.,  his  next  selling  price  may  be  3!  d.  for 
one  which  costs  him  only  zf  d.  or  3d.  per  yd.  It  appears,  there- 
fore, that  if  the  poorer  classes  of  the  community  have  the 
discretion  to  avoid  the  lowest  qualities  they  may  obtain  very  good 
value  in  serviceable  goods.  In  the  matter  of  profits,  however, 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  irregularity. 

The  Manchester  Royal  Exchange. — There  are  not  many  cotton 
mills  or  weaving  sheds  in  Manchester,  which  is,  however,  the 
great  distributive  centre,  and  its  Exchange  is  the  meeting-place  of 
most  classes  of  buyers  and  sellers  in  the  cotton  trade  and  various 
trades  allied  to  it.  As  buyers  of  finished  goods  for  London  and  the 
country  do  not  attend  it,  certain  departments  of  the  home  trade 
are  hardly  represented,  but  practically  all  the  spinners  and 
manufacturers  and  all  the  export  merchants  of  any  importance 
are  subscribers.  Transactions  between  spinners  and  manu- 
facturers are  largely  effected  on  Tuesdays  and  Fridays,  the  old 
"market  days,"  when  the  manufacturing  towns  are  well  repre- 
sented, but  a  large  amount  of  business  is  transacted  every  day. 
Besides  the  persons'immediately  concerned  in  the  cotton  trade  and 
connected  with  allied  trades,  a  large  number  of  members  find  it 
convenient  to  use  this  great  meeting-place  as  a  means  of  approach 
to  a  body  of  responsible  persons.  Thus  not  only  bleachers, 
carriers,  chemical  manufacturers,  mill  furnishers  and  account- 
ants find  their  way  there,  but  also  tanners,  timber  merchants, 
stockbrokers  and  even  wine  merchants.  Since  the  Ship  Canal 
made  Manchester  into  a  cotton  port  there  has  been  a  steady 
development  of  the  raw  cotton  trade  in  Manchester,  and  many 
cotton  brokers  and  merchants  have  Manchester  offices  or  pay 
regular  visits  from  Liverpool. 

The  various  expansions  and  developments  have  made  it 
difficult  to  maintain  the  ratio  between  accommodation  and 
requirements,  and  although  overcrowding  is  troublesome  only 
during  some  three  or  four  hours  a  week,  at  "high  'Change"  on 
market  days,  various  complaints  and  suggestions  provoked  in 
1906  an  appeal  from  the  chairman  of  directors  to  the  Manchester 
corporation.  This  took  the  form  of  a  suggestion  that  the 
Exchange  should  be  worked  as  a  municipal  institution  on  a  new 
site,  and  though  such  a  development  met  with  opposition  it  was 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


281 


apparent  that  Manchester  must  presently  have  a  new  or  an 
enlarged  Exchange.  The  present  building  is,  however,  the 
largest  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  and  the  history  of  the  various 
exchanges  coincides  with  the  expansion  of  the  Lancashire 
industry. 

According  to  semi-official  records  "  the  first  building  in  the 
nature  of  an  Exchange  "  was  erected  in  1729  by  Sir  Oswald 
Mosley,  and  though  designed  for  "  chapmen  to  meet  and  transact 
their  business  "  it  appears  that,  as  to-day,  encroachments  were 
made  by  other  traders  until  cotton  manufacturers  and  merchants 
preferred  to  do  their  business  in  the  street.  In  1 792  the  building 
was  demolished,  and  for  a  period  of  some  eighteen  years  there  was 
nothing  of  the  kind.  In  1809  the  new  Exchange  was  opened,  and 
terms  of  membership  were  fixed  at  two  guineas  for  those  within 
6  m.  of  the  building  and  one  guinea  for  those  outside  this  radius. 
In  the  following  year  plans  for  enlargement  were  submitted  to  the 
shareholders,  and  various  extensions  followed,  particularly  in 
1830  and  1847.  The  present  building  was  opened  partly  in  1871 
and  partly  in  1874.  The  area  of  the  great  room  is  4405  sq.  yds. 
The  subscription  was  raised  on  the  ist  of  January  1906  from 
three  guineas  to  four  guineas  for  new  members,  but  the  number  of 
members  continues  to  increase  and  early  in  1906  amounted 
to  8786. 

Of  course  in  this  great  mart  a  large  variety  of  types  is  to  be 
found  and  the  members  fall  into  some  kind  of  rough  grouping. 
Export  buyers,  attended  by  salesmen,  are  commonly  more  or  less 
stationary  and  prominent;  Burnley  manufacturers  abound  in  one 
locality  and  spinners  of  Egyptian  yarns  in  another.  The  import- 
ance of  the  Exchange  as  a  bargaining  centre  is  fairly  maintained, 
though  buyers  are  assiduously  cultivated  in  their  own  offices,  and 
the  telephone  has  done  a  good  deal  to  abbreviate  negotiation. 
As  to  the  amount  of  business  transacted  on  the  Exchange  there 
is  no  record.  The  market  reporters  make  some  attempt  to 
materialize  the  current  gossip,  and  doubtless  catch  well  enough 
the  great  movements  in  the  ebb  and  flow  of  demand,  but  the  sum 
of  countless  obscure  transactions  cannot  be  estimated.  Some 
few  years  ago  an  attempt  was  made  to  mark  more  clearly  the 
course  of  business  in  Manchester,  and  a  scheme  was  prepared  for 
the  recording  of  daily  transactions.  This  could  only  have  been  a 
somewhat  rough  affair,  but  its  originator  maintained  reasonably 
that  it  would  be  of  interest  if  some  indication  of  the  daily  move- 
ments could  be  obtained.  For  some  time  a  memorandum  of  the 
total  of  daily  sales  reported  was  posted  on  'Change,  but  the 
indifference  of  traders,  together  with  the  distrust  that  makes  any 
innovation  difficult,  caused  the  scheme  to  be  abandoned. 

It  would  be  difficult  in  any  attempt  to  estimate  the  volume  of 
British  home  trade  to  distinguish  what  may  be  called  the 
effective  movements  of  goods.  There  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  re-selling  both  in  yarn  and  cloth,  and,  though  the  bulk  of 
cotton  goods  finds  the  way  through  regular  and  normal  channels 
to  the  consumer,  these  channels  are  not  always  direct.  A  good 
many  transactions  on  the  Manchester  Exchange  are  intermediate, 
without  fulfilling  any  useful  function,  and  could  be  accomplished 
by  the  principals  if  they  were  brought  together.  Agents,  of  whom 
there  are  many,  sometimes  occupy  a  precarious  position,  but  they 
are  protected  in  some  degree  by  law  as  well  as  by  the  custom  of 
the  trade  and  the  point  of  honour.  Points  of  honour  in  the 
Manchester  business  may  seem  to  be  arbitrarily  selected,  but  they 
are  an  important  part  of  the  scheme.  An  immense  amount  of 
business  is  done  without  any  apparent  check  against  repudiation. 
It  is,  of  course,  the  verbal  bargain  that  binds,  and  large  transac- 
tions are  commonly  completed  without  witnesses,  though  before 
the  contract  or  memorandum  of  sale  passes  the  fluctuations  of  the 
market  may  have  made  the  bargain,  to  one  side  or  the  other,  a 
very  bad  one.  (A.  N.  M.) 

COTTON  MANUFACTURE.  The  antiquity  of  the  cotton 
industry  has  hitherto  proved  unfathomable,  as  can  readily  be 
understood  from  the  difficulty  of  proving  a  universal  negative, 
especially  from  such  scanty  material  as  we  possess  of  remote  ages. 
That  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  cotton  fabrics  were  unknown  or 
quite  uncommon  in  Europe  may  be  inferred  from  Herodotus' 
mention  of  the  cotton  clothing  of  the  Indians.  Ultimately  the 


cotton  industry  was  imported  into  Europe,  and  by  the  middle  of 
the  1 3th  century  we  find  it  flourishing  in  Spain.  In  the  New 
World  it  would  seem  to  have  originated  spontaneously,  since  on 
the  discovery  of  America  the  wearing  apparel  in  use  included 
cotton  fabrics.  After  the  collapse  of  Spanish  prosperity  before 
the  Moors  in  the  I4th  century  the  Netherlands  assumed  a 
leadership  in  this  branch  of  the  textile  industries  as  they  did  also 
in  other  branches.  It  has  been  surmised  that  the  cotton  manu- 
facture was  carried  from  the  Netherlands  to  England  by  refugees 
during  the  Spanish  persecution  of  the  second  half  of  the  i6th 
century;  but  no  absolute  proof  of  this  statement  has  been 
forthcoming,  and  although  workers  in  cotton  may  have  been 
among  the  Flemish  weavers  who  fled  to  England  about  that  time, 
and  some  of  whom  are  said  to  have  settled  in  and  about 
Manchester,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  cotton  fabrics  were  made 
on  an  insignificant  scale  in  England  years  before,  and  there  is 
some  evidence  to  show  that  the  industry  was  not  noticeable  till 
many  years  later.  If  England  did  derive  her  cotton  manufacture 
from  the  Netherlands  she  was  unwillingly  compelled  to  repay 
the  loan  with  interest  more  than  two  hundred  years  later  when 
the  machine  industry  was  conveyed  to  the  continent  through  the 
ingenuity  of  Lievin  Bauwens,  despite  the  precautions  taken  to 
preserve  it  for  the  British  Isles.  About  the  same  time  English 
colonists  transported  it  to  the  United  States.  Since,  as  trans- 
formed in  England,  the  cotton  industry,  particularly  spinning,  has 
spread  throughout  the  civilized  and  semi-civilized  world,  though 
its  most  important  seat  still  remains  the  land  of  its  greatest 
development. 

As  early  as  the  i3th  century  cotton- wool  was  used  in  England 
for  candle-wicks.1  The  importation  of  the  cotton  from  the 
Levant  in  the  i6th  century  is  mentioned  by  Hakluyt,2 

and  according  to  Macpherson  it  was  brought  over    ff'*' 

A    ,  .          ,         T,   r  ,  history  la 

from  Antwerp  in  1 560.     Reference  to  the  manufacture    England. 

of  cottons  in  England  long  before  the  second  half  of  the 
i6th  century  are  numerous,  but  the  "  cottons  "  spoken  of  were 
not  cottons  proper  as  Defoe  would  seem  to  have  mistakenly 
imagined.  Thus,  for  example,  there  is  a  passage  by  William 
Camden  (writing  in  1590)  quoted  below,  in  which  Manchester 
cottons  are  specifically  described  as  woollens,  and  there  is  a  notice 
in  the  act  of  33  Henry  VIII.  (c.  xv.)  of  the  Manchester  linen  and 
woollen  industries,  and  of  cottons — which  are  clearly  woollens 
since  their  "  dressyng  and  frisyng  "  is  noted,  and  the  latter 
process,  which  consists  in  raising  and  curling  the  nap,  was 
not  applicable  to  cotton  textiles.  John  Leland,  after  his 
visit  to  Manchester  about  1538,  used  these  words — "  Bolton- 
upon-Moore  market  standeth  most  by  cottons;  divers  villages  in 
the  Moores  about  Bolton  do  make  cottons."  Leland,  it  is  true, 
might  conceivably  be  referring  to  manufactures  from  the  vegetable 
fibre,  but  it  is  exceedingly  unlikely,  since  the  term  "  cottons  " 
would  seem  to  have  been  current  with  a  perfectly  definite 
meaning.  The  goods  were  probably  an  English  imitation  in  wool 
of  continental  cotton  fustians — which  would  explain  the  name. 
Again  we  may  quote  from  the  act  of  5  and  6  Edward  VI.,  "  all 
the  cottons  called  Manchester,  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  cottons, 
full  wrought  to  the  sale,  shall  be  in  length  twenty-two  yards  and 
contain  in  breadth  three-quarters  of  a  yard  in  the  water  and  shall 
weigh  thirty  pounds  in  the  piece  at  least  ";  and  from  the  act 
8  Elizabeth  c.  xi.,  "  every  of  the  said  cottons  being  sufficiently 
milled  or  thicked,  clean  scoured,  well-wrought  and  full-dried, 
shall  weigh  21  ft  at  the  least."3  These  are  evidently  the  weights 
of  woollen  goods:  further,  it  may  be  observed  that  milling  is  not 
applicable  to  cotton  goods.  The  earliest  reference  to  a  cotton 
manufacture  in  England  which  may  reasonably  be  regarded  as 
pointing  to  the  fabrication  of  textiles  from  cotton  proper,  is  in  the 
will  of  James  Billston  (a  not  un-English  name),  who  is  described 
as  a"  cotton  manufacturer,"  proved  at  Chester  in  i  S78.4  It  may 
plausibly  be  contended  that  James  Billston  was  a  worker  in  the 

1  See  the  extract  from  the  books  of  Bolton  Abbey,  given  by  Baines 
(p.  96)  and  dated  1298. 
8  Vol.  ii.  p.  206;  Baines,  pp.  96-97. 
8  Baines,  pp.  93  and  94. 
4  Lancashire  and  Cheshire  Record  Society,  vol.  ii. 


282 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


vegetable  fibre,  since  otherwise  "  manufacturer  of  cottons  " 
would  have  been  a  more  natural  designation.  But  the  proof  of 
the  will  of  one  cotton  manufacturer  establishes  very  little. 

The  next  earliest  known  reference  to  the  cotton  industry 
proper  occurs  in  a  petition  to  the  earl  of  Salisbury,  made  presum- 
ably in  1610,  asking  for  the  continuance  of  a  grant  for  reforming 
frauds  committed  in  the  manufacture  of  "  bambazine  cotton  such 
as  groweth  in  the  land  of  Persia  being  no  kind  of  wool."1  But 
a  far  more  valuable  piece  of  evidence,  discovered  by  W.  H.  Price, 
is  a  petition  of  "  Merchants  and  citizens  of  London  that  use 
buying  and  selling  of  fustians  made  in  England,  as  of  the  makers 
of  the  same  fustians. " 2  Its  probable  date  is  1 6  2 1 ,  and  it  contains 
the  following  important  passages: — 

"  About  twenty  years  past,  divers  people  in  this  kingdom,  but 
chiefly  in  the  county  of  Lancaster,  have  found  out  the  trade  of 
making  of  other  fustians,  made  of  a  kind  of  bombast  or  down, 
being  a  fruit  of  the  earth  growing  upon  little  shrubs  or  bushes, 
brought  into  this  kingdom  by  the  Turkey  merchants,  from  Smyrna, 
Cyprus,  Acra  and  Sydon,  but  commonly  called  cotton  wool;  and 
also  of  linen  yarn  most  part  brought  out  of  Scotland,  and  othersome 
made  in  England,  and  no  part  of  the  same  fustians  of  any  wool  at  all, 
for  which  said  bombast  and  yarn  imported,  his  majesty  has  a  great 
yearly  sum  of  money  for  the  custom  and  subsidy  thereof. 

"  There  is  at  the  least  40  thousand  pieces  of  fustian  of  this  kind 
yearly  made  in  England,  the  subsidy  to  his  majesty  of  the  materials 
for  making  of  every  piece  coming  to  between  8d.  and  lod.  the  piece; 
and  thousands  of  poor  people  set  on  working  of  these  fustians. 

"  The  right  honourable  duke  of  Lennox  in  II  of  Jacobus  1613 
procured  a  patent  from  his  majesty,  of  alnager  of  new  draperies  for 
60  years,  upon  pretence  that  wool  was  converted  into  other  sorts  of 
commodities  to  the  loss  of  customs  and  subsidies  for  wool  transported 
beyond  seas;  and  therein  is  inserted  into  his  patent,  searching  and 
sealing;  and  subsidy  for  80  several  stuffs;  and  among  the  rest 
these  fustians  or  other  stuffs  of  this  kind  of  cotton  wool,  and  subsidy 
and  a  fee  for  the  same,  and  forfeiture  of  2os.  for  putting  any  to  sale 
unsealed,  the  moiety  of  the  same  forfeiture  to  the  said  duke,  and 
power  thereby  given  to  the  duke  or  his  deputies,  to  enter  any  man's 
house  to  search  for  any  such  stuffs,  and  seize  them  till  the  forfeiture 
be  paid;  and  if  any  resist  such  search,  to  forfeit  £10  and  power 
thereby  given  to  the  lord  treasurer  or  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
to  make  new  ordinances  or  grant  commissions  for  the  aid  of  the 
duke  and  his  officers  in  execution  of  their  office." 

Here  the  date  of  the  appearance  of  the  cotton  industry  on  an 
appreciable  scale — it  is  questionable  whether  any  importance 
should  be  attached  to  the  expression  "  found  out  " — is  given  by 
those  who  would  be  speaking  of  facts  within  the  memory  of 
themselves  or  their  friends  as  "  about  twenty  years  past  "  from 
1621,  and  the  annual  output  of  the  industry  in  1621  is  mentioned. 
Moreover,  it  is  established  by  this  document  that  for  a  time  at 
least  the  cotton  manufacture  was  "  regulated  "  like  the  other 
textile  trades.  The  date  assigned  by  the  petitioners  for  the  first 
attraction  of  attention  by  the  English  cotton  industry  may  be 
supported  on  negative  grounds. 

Baines  assures  us  that  William  Camden,  who  wrote  in  1590, 
devoted  not  a  sentence  to  the  cotton  industry,  though  Manchester 
figures  among  his  descriptions:  "  This  town,"  he  says,  "  excels 
the  towns  immediately  around  it  in  handsomeness,  populousness, 
woollen  manufacture,  market  place,  church  and  college;  but  did 
much  more  excel  them  in  the  last  age,  as  well  by  the  glory  of  its 
woollen  cloths  (laneorum  pannorum  honor e),  which  they  call 
Manchester  cottons,  as  by  the  privilege  of  sanctuary,  which  the 
authority  of  parliament  under  Henry  VIII.  transferred  to 
Chester."  8  It  is  significant  too  that  in  the  Elizabethan  poorlaw 
of  1601  (43  Elizabeth),  neither  cotton-wool  nor  yarn  is  included 
among  the  fabrics  to  be  provided  by  the  overseers  to  set  the 
poor  to  work  upon;  though,  of  course,  it  might  be  argued  that 
so  short-stapled  a  fibre  needed  for  its  working,  when  machinery 
was  rough,  a  skill  in  the  operative  which  would  be  above  that  of 
the  average  person  unable  to  find  employment.  However,  a 
proposal  was  made  in  1626  to  employ  the  poor  in  the  spinning 
of  cotton  and  weaving  wool.4 

1  State  Papers,  Domestic,  lix.  5.     See  W.  H.  Price,  Quar.  Jour. 
Econ.,  vol.  xx. 

2  London  Guildhall  Library,  vol.  Beta,  Petitions  and  Parliamentary 
Matters  (1620-1621),  No.  16  (old  No.  25). 

*  The  act  referred  to  is  33  Henry  VIII.  c.  xv.,  already  mentioned. 

4  Cunningham,  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  (1903), 

vol.  ii.  p.  623. 


Prior  to  Mr  Price's  discovery  of  the  petition  mentioned  above, 
the  earliest  known  notice  of  the  existence  in  England  of  a  cotton 
industry  of  any  magnitude  was  the  oft-quoted  passage  from 
Lewes  Roberts's  Treasure  of  Traffic  (1641),  which  runs:  "  The 
town  of  Manchester,  in  Lancashire,  must  be  also  herein  re- 
membered, and  worthily  for  their  encouragement  commended, 
who  buy  the  yarne  of  the  Irish  in  great  quantity,  and  weaving 
it,  return  the  same  again  into  Ireland  to  sell:  Neither  doth 
their  industry  rest  here,  for  they  buy  cotton-wool  in  London 
that  comes  first  from  Cyprus  and  Smyrna,  and  at  home  work 
the  same,  and  perfect  it  into  fustians,  vermillions,  dimities  and 
other  such  stuffs,  and  then  return  it  to  London,  where  the  same 
is  vented  and  sold,  and  not  seldom  sent  into  foreign  parts."6 

Despite  Lewes  Roberts's  flattering  reference,  the  trade  of 
Manchester  about  that  time  consisted  chiefly  in  woollen  frizes, 
fustians,  sackcloths,  mingled  stuffs,  caps,  inkles,  tapes,  points, 
&c.,  according  to  "  A  Description  of  the  Towns  of  Manchester  and 
Salford,"  1650,*  and  woollens  for  a  long  time  held  the  first  place. 
But  before  another  century  had  run  its  course  cottons  proper  had 
pushed  into  the  first  rank,  though  the  woollen  industry  continued 
to  be  of  unquestionable  importance.  In  1 7  2  7  Daniel  Defoe  could 
write,  "  the  grand  manufacture  which  has  so  much  raised  this 
town  is  that  of  cotton  in  all  its  varieties,"  7  and  he  did  not  mean 
the  woollen  "  cottons,"  as  he  made  plain  by  other  references  to 
the  industry  in  the  same  connexion;  but  it  was  not  until  some 
fifty  years  later  that  the  ousting  of  the  woollen  industry  from 
what  is  now  peculiarly  the  cotton  district  became  unmistakable.8 
As  a  rule  the  woollen  weavers  were  driven  farther  and  farther  east 
— Bury  lay  just  outside  the  cotton  area  when  Defoe  wrote — and 
finally  many  of  them  settled  in  the  West  Riding.  Edwin  Butter- 
worth  even  tells  of  woollen  weavers  who  migrated  from  Oldham 
to  the  distant  town  of  Bradford  in  Wiltshire  because  of  the 
decline  of  their  trade  before  the  victorious  cotton  industry.  Much 
the  same  fate  was  being  shared  by  the  linen  industry  in  Lanca- 
shire, which  was  forced  out  of  the  county  westwards  and  north- 
wards. The  explanation  of  the  three  centralizations,  namely  of 
the  woollen  industry,  the  cotton  industry  and  the  linen  industry, 
is  not  far  to  seek.  The  popularity  of  the  fabrics  produced  by 
the  rising  cotton  industry  enabled  it  to  pay  high  wages,  which, 
indeed,  were  essential  to  bring  about  its  expansion.  This  a  priori 
diagnosis  is  supported  by  contemporary  analysis:  thus  "the 
rapid  progress  of  that  business  (cotton  spinning)  and  the  higher 
wages  which  it  afford,  have  so  far  distressed  the  makers  of 
worsted  goods  in  that  county  (Lancashire),  that  they  have 
found  themselves  obliged  to  offer  their  few  remaining  spinners 
larger  premiums  than  the  state  of  their  trade  would  allow."9 
The  best  operatives  of  Lancashire  were  attracted  sooner  or 
later  to  assist  the  triumphs  of  art  over  the  vegetable  wool. 
At  the  same  time  the  scattered  woollen  and  linen  workers 
of  Lancashire  were  suffering  from  the  competition  of  rivals 
enjoying  elsewhere  the  economies  of  some  centralization,  and 
the  demand  for  woollen  and  linen  warps  in  the  cotton  industry 
ceased  after  the  introduction  of  Arkwright's  water-twist.  When 
the  factory  becamecommon  the  economies  of  centralization(which 
arise  from  the  wide  range  of  specialism  laid  open  to  a  large  local 
industry)  increased;  moreover  they  were  reinforced  by  the 
diminution  of  social  friction  and  the  intensification  of  business 
sensitiveness  which  marked  the  development  of  the  igth  century. 
Once  begun,  the  centralizing  movement  proceeded  naturally  with 
accelerating  speed.  The  contrast  beneath  is  an  instructive 
statistical  comment: — 

6  Original  edition,  pp.  32,  33. 

6  Aikin's  Description  of  the  Country  from  Thirty  to  Forty  Miles 
round  Manchester,  p.  154. 

7  Tour,  vol.  iii.  p.  219. 

8  For  instance  Radcliffe  p.  61.     Ogden  (author  of  A  Description 
of  Manchester,  &c.,  published  in  1783),  if  Aikin's  "accurate  and 
well-informed  enquirer  "  by  Ogden,  says  that  the  period  of  rapid 
extension   of   the   cotton   industry   began   about    1770.     See  also 
Butterworth's  History  of  Oldham  and  the  passage  quoted  below  in 
the  text. 

9  Account  of  Society  for  Promotion  of  Industry  in  Lindsey  (1789), 
Brit.  Mus.  103,  L.  56.     Quoted  from  Cunningham's  English  Industry 
and  Commerce,  vol.  ii.  p.  452,  n.  ed.,  1892. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


283 


Distribution  of  Cotton  Operatives  in  1838  and  1898-1899  (from  Returns 
of  Factory  Inspectors). 

1838. 

1898-1899. 

Cheshire        
Cumberland         

36,400 
2,000 
10,500 
152,200 
1,500 
2,000 
12,400 

34-300 
700 
10,500 
398,100 
i,  600 
2,300 
35,200 

Lancashire    
Nottinghamshire         
Staffordshire         
Yorkshire      

England  and  Wales  l 
Scotland    
Ireland      

United  Kingdom      

219,100 
35,600 
4,600 

496,200 
29,000 
800 

259,300 

526,000 

The  distribution  of  the  industry  has  varied  greatly  in  the  two 
periods.  If  it  had  remained  constant  Lancashire  would  only 
have  contained  300,000  operatives  in  1899,  instead  of  the  actual 
400,000.  Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  only  contained  30,000 
instead  of  70,000,  and  in  Ireland  the  numbers  were  one-tenth  of 
what  they  should  have  been.  The  percentage  of  operatives  in 
Lancashire  in  1838  was  58-5,  but  this  increased  to  75-7  in  1898. 

Why,  we  may  naturally  inquire,  did  not  the  cotton  industry 
localize  in  the  West  Riding  or  Cheshire  and  the  woollen  industry 
maintain  its  position  in  Lancashire?  Accident  no 
doubt  partly  explains  why  the  cotton  industry  is 
vantages,  carried  on  where  it  is  in  the  various  parts  of  the  globe, 
but  apart  from  accident,  as  regards  Lancashire,  it  is 
sufficient  answer  to  point  to  the  peculiarly  suitable  congeries  of 
conditions  to  be  found  there.  There  is  firstly  the  climate,  which 
for  the  purpose  of  cotton  spinning  is  unsurpassed  elsewhere,  and 
which  became  of  the  first  order  of  importance  when  fine  spinning 
was  developed.  In  the  Lancashire  atmosphere  in  certain  districts 
just  about  the  right  humidity  is  contained  on  a  great  number  of 
days  for  spinning  to  be  done  with  the  least  degree  of  difficulty. 
Some  dampness  is  essential  to  make  the  fibres  cling,  but  excessive 
moisture  is  a  disadvantage.  Over  the  county  of  Lancashire  the 
prevailing  west  wind  carries  comparatively  continuous  currents 
of  humidified  air.  These  currents  vary  in  temperature  according 
to  their  elevation.  Hot  and  cold  layers  mix  when  they  reach 
the  hills,  and  the  mixture  of  the  two  is  nearer  to  the  saturation 
point  than  either  of  its  components.  The  degree  of  moisture  is 
measured  by  ^ie  ratio  of  the  actual  amount  of  moisture  to  the 
moisture  of  the  saturation  point  for  that  particular  temperature. 
Owing  to  the  sudden  elevation  the  air  is  rarefied,  its  temperature 
being  thereby  lowered,  and  in  consequence  condensation  tends  to 
be  produced.  In  several  places  in  England  and  abroad,  where 
there  is  a  scarcity  of  moisture,  artificial  humidifiers  have  been 
tried,  but  no  cheap  and  satisfactory  one  has  hitherto  been 
discovered.  To  the  advantages  of  the  Lancashire  climate  for 
cotton  spinning  must  be  added — especially  as  regards  the  early 
days  of  the  cotton  industry —  its  disadvantages  for  other  callings. 
The  unpleasantness  of  the  weather  renders  an  indoor  occupation 
desirable,  and  the  scanty  sunshine,  combined  with  the  unfruitful 
nature  of  much  of  the  soil,  prevents  the  absorption  of  the  popula- 
tion in  agricultural  pursuits.  In  later  years  the  port  of  Liverpool 
and  the  presence  of  coal  supplemented  the  attractions  which  were 
holding  the  cotton  industry  in  Lancashire.  All  the  raw  material 
must  come  from  abroad,  and  an  enormous  proportion  of  English 
cotton  products  figures  as  exports.  The  proximity  of  Liverpool 
has  aided  materially  in  making  the  cotton  industry  a  great 
exporting  industry. 

Before  the  localization  of  the  separate  parts  of  the  industry  can 
be  treated  the  differentiation  of  the  industry  must  be  described. 
We  pass  then,  at  this  stage,  to  consider  the  manufacture  in  its 
earliest  form  and  the  lines  of  its  development.  First,  and  some- 
what incidentally,  we  notice  the  early  connexion  between  the 
conduct  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  when  it  was  a  domestic 
'In  1838  the  only  other  county  with  more  than  I  ooo  was  Gloucester 
with  1500.  217,000  of  the  219,100  operatives  in  England  and  Wales 
were  employed  in  the  counties  enumerated.  Of  the  2000  operatives 
whose  location  is  not  given,  about  1000  worked  in  Flintshire. 


Early 
system  of 
manufac- 
ture and 

organisa- 
tion. 


industry  in  its  primitive  form,  and  the  performance  of  agri- 
cultural operations.  A  few  short  extracts  will  place  before 
us  all  the  evidence  that  it  is  here  needful  to  adduce. 
First  Radcliffe,  an  eye-witness,  writing  of  the  period 
about  1770,  says  "  the  land  in  our  township  (Mellor) 
was  occupied  by  between  fifty  and  sixty  farmers  .  .  . 
and  out  of  these  fifty  or  sixty  farmers  there  were 
only  six  or  seven  who  raised  their  rents  directly  from 
the  produce  of  their  farms,  all  the  rest  got  their  rent  partly  in 
some  branch  of  trade,  such  as  spinning  and  weaving  woollen, 
linen  or  cotton.  The  cottagers  were  employed  entirely  in 
this  matter,  except  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  harvest."  '  Next 
we  may  cite  Edwin  Butterworth  who,  though  not  an  eye- 
witness (he  was  not  born  till  1812),  proved  himself  by  his 
researches  to  be  a  careful  and  trustworthy  investigator. 
In  the  parish  of  Oldham,  he  recorded,  there  were  "a  number 
of  master  (cotton-linen  fustian) 3  manufacturers,  as  well  as 
many  weavers  who  worked  for  manufacturers,  and  at  the  same 
time  were  holders  of  land  or  farmers.  .  .  .  The  number  of 
fustian  farmers  who  were  cottagers  working  for  manufacturers, 
without  holding  land,  were  few;  but  there  were  a  considerable 
number  of  weavers  who  worked  on  their  own  account,  and  held  at 
the  same  time  small  pieces  of  land."  4  Other  passages  might  be 
quoted,  but  these  two  will  suffice.  Weaving  was  not  exactly  a 
by-employment  of  farm  labourers,  but  many  weavers  made 
agriculture  a  by-employment  to  some  extent,  (a)  by  working 
small  parcels  of  land,  which  varied  from  the  size  of  allotments  to 
farms  of  a  very  few  acres,  and  (b)  by  lending  aid  in  gathering  in 
the  harvest  when  their  other  work  enabled  them  to  do  so.  The 
association  of  manufacturing  and  weaving  survived  beyond  the 
first  quarter  of  the  igth  century.  Of  the  weavers  in  many 
districts  and  "  more  especially  in  Lancashire  "  we  read  in  the 
report  of  the  committee  on  emigration,  "  it  appears  that  persons 
of  this  description  for  many  years  past,  have  been  occupiers  of 
small  farms  of  a  few  acres,  which  they  have  held  at  high  rents,  and 
combining  the  business  of  the  hand-loom  weaver  with  that  of  a 
working  farmer  have  assisted  to  raise  the  rent  of  their  land  from 
the  profits  of  their  loom."6  One  of  the  first  lines  of  specialism 
to  appear  was  the  severing  of  the  connexion  described  above,  and 
the  concentration  of  the  weavers  in  hamlets  and  towns.  Finer 
fabrics  and  more  complicated  fabrics  were  introduced,  and  the 
weaver  soon  learnt  that  such  rough  work  as  farming  unfitted  his 
hands  for  the  delicate  tasks  required  of  them.  Again,  really  to 
prosper  a  weaver  found  it  necessary  to  perfect  himself  by  close 
application.  The  days  of  the  rough  fabrics  that  anybody  could 
make  with  moderate  success  were  closing  in.  As  a  consequence 
the  dispersion  of  the  weavers  becomes  less  and  less.  They  no 
longer  wanted  allotments  or  farms;  and  their  looms  having 
become  more  complicated,  the  mechanic  proved  himself  a 
convenient  neighbour.  Finding  spinners  too  was  an  easier  task 
in  the  hamlet  or  town  than  in  the  remote  country  parts.  But 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  agriculture  and  the  processes  of 
the  domestic  cotton  manufacturer  had  ever  been  universally 
twin  callings.  There  never  was  a  time,  probably,  when  weavers 
who  did  nothing  but  weave  were  not  a  significant  proportion,  if 
not  the  major  part,  of  the  class  of  weavers.  All  again  were  not 
independent  and  all  were  not  employees.  Some  were  simply 
journeymen  in  small  domestic  workshops;  others  were  engaged 
by  fustian  masters  or  Manchester  merchants  and  paid  by  the  piece 
for  what  they  made  out  of  material  supplied  them ;  others  again 
bought  their  warps  and  cotton  and  sold  to  the  merchants  their 
fabrics,  which  were  their  own  property.  The  last  class  was  swept 
away  soon  after  the  industry  became  large,  when  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  men  of  capital  consumers  and  producers  were  more  and 

1 W.  Radcltffe's  Origin  of  the  New  System  of  Manufacturing,  p.  59. 

'  The  term  "  fustian  "  had  originally  been  used  to  designate 
certain  woollen  or  worsted  goods  made  at  Norwich  and  in  Scotland. 
A  reference  to  Norwich  fustians  of  as  early  a  date  as  the  I4th  century 
is  quoted  by  Baines. 

4  E.  Butterworth's  History  of  Oldham,  p.  101. 

6  Parliamentary  Reports,  &c.  (1826-1827),  v.  p.  5.  See  for  even 
later  examples  Gardner's  evidence  to  the  committee  on  hand-loom 
weavers  in  1835. 


284 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


more  kept  in  touch.  In  early  days  most  weavers  owned  their 
looms,  the  great  part  of  which  they  had  frequently  constructed 
themselves :  later,  however,  a  large  number  hired  looms,  and  it 
was  as  usual  in  certain  quarters  for  lodgings  to  be  let  with  a  loom 
as  it  is  to-day  for  them  to  be  provided  with  a  piano.  When  it 
became  customary  for  weavers  to  undertake  a  variety  of  work, 
the  masters  usually  provided  reeds  (which  had  to  vary  in  fineness 
with  the  fineness  of  the  warp),  healds,  and  other  changeable  parts, 
and  sometimes  they  employed  the  gaiters  to  fit  the  new  work  in 
the  looms. 

Until  the  success  of  the  water-frame,  cotton  could  not  be  spun 
economically  of  sufficient  strength  and  fineness  for  warps,  and  the 
warps  were  therefore  invariably  made  of  either  linen  or  wool. 
Some  were  manufactured  locally,  others  were  imported  from 
Germany,  Ireland  and  Scotland.  The  weaver  prepared  them  for 
his  loom  by  the  system  of  peg-warping,1  but  after  the  introduction 
of  the  warping-mill  he  received  them  as  a  rule  all  ready  for 
insertion  into  the  loom  from  the  Manchester  merchant  or  local 
fustian  master. 

"  It  did  not  pay  the  individual  weaver  to  keep  a  warping-mill  for 
occasional  use  only,  and  frequently  the  contracted  space  of  his  work- 
room precluded  even  the  possibility  of  his  doing  so.  The  invention 
of  the  warping-mill  necessitated  specialism  in  warping,  and  it  was 
essential  that  warping  should  be  done  to  order,  since  at  that  time, 
the  state  of  the  industrial  world  being  what  it  was,  no  person  could 
ordinarily  have  been  found  to  adventure  capital  in  producing  warps 
ready  made  in  anticipation  of  demand  for  the  great  variety  offabrics 
which  was  even  then  produced.  Moreover,  had  the  weaver  himself 
placed  the  orders  for  his  warps,  any  occasional  delay  in  the  execution 
of  his  commissions  might  have  stopped  his  work  entirely  until  the 
warps  were  ready;  for  warps  cannot  be  delivered  partially,  like 
weft,  in  quantities  sufficient  for  each  day's  work.  To  ensure  con- 
tinuous working  in  the  industry,  therefore,  it  was  almost  inevitable 
that  the  merchant  should  himself  prepare  the  warps  for  such  fabrics 
as  he  required,  or  possibly  have  them  prepared.  To  the  system  of 
the  merchant  delegating  the  preparation  of  warps  there  was  less 
objection  than  to  the  system  of  the  weaver  doing  so,  since  the 
merchant,  dealing  in  large  quantities,  was  more  likely  to  get  pressing 
orders  completed  to  time.  Further,  the  merchant  knew  first  what 
kind  of  warps  would  be  needed.  The  first  solution,  however,  that 
of  the  merchant  undertaking  the  warping  himself,  was  the  surer, 
and  there  was  no  doubt  as  to  its  being  the  one  destined  for  selection 
in  a  period  when  a  tendency  to  centralize  organization,  responsibility 
and  all  that  could  be  easily  centralized,  was  steadily  gaining  in 
strength."2 

Guest  says  the  system  by  which  the  weaver  was  supplied  with 
warps  and  other  material  was  substituted  for  the  purchase  of 
warps  and  cotton-wool  by  the  weaver  about  1740.  No  doubt 
the  change  was  very  gradual,  especially  as  Aikin  mentions  the  use 
of  warping-mills  in  the  i?th  century.  The  weaver  as  a  rule 
received  his  weft  material  in  the  form  of  cotton-wool  and  was 
required  to  arrange  himself  for  its  cleaning  and  spinning.  Accord- 
ing to  Aikin,3  dealers  tried  the  experiment  of  giving  out  weft 
instead  of  cotton- wool,  but  "  the  custom  grew  into  disuse  as 
there  was  no  detecting  the  knavery  of  the  spinners  till  a  piece 
came  in  woven."  As  it  was  impossible  to  unwrap  the  yarn  and 
test  it  throughout  its  length,  defects  were  hidden  until  it  came  to 
be  used,  and  the  complaints  of  weavers  were  not  conclusive  as  to 
the  inferiority  of  the  yarn,  since  their  own  bad  workmanship 
might  have  had  something  to  do  with  its  having  proved  un- 
satisfactory. It  was  therefore  found  best  to  saddle  the  weaver 
with  full  responsibility  for  both  the  spinning  and  weaving. 
Women  and  children  cleaned,  carded  and  spun  the  rotton-wool  in 
their  homes.  The  cotton  had  to  be  more  thoroughly  cleaned 
after  its  arrival  in  this  country.  The  ordinary  process  of  cleaning 
was  known  as  "  willowing,"  because  the  cotton  was  beaten  with 
willow  switches  after  it  had  been  laid  out  on  a  tight  hammock  of 
cords.  The  cotton  used  for  fine  spinning  was  also  carefully 
washed;  and  even  when  it  was  not  washed  it  was  soaked  with 
water  and  partially  dried  so  that  the  fibres  might  be  made  to 
cling  together.4  Most  of  the  weaving  was  done  by  men,  and  until 

1  This  is  illustrated  in  one  of  the  plates  to  Guest's  History  of  the 
Cotton  Manufacture. 

1  Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry,  pp.  15  and  16. 
'  Page  167. 
4  Mrs  Crompton,  wife  of  Samuel  Crompton,  we  are  told,  used  to 


ventioa 


the  invention  of  the  fly-shuttle  they  cast  the  shuttle  from  hand  to 
hand  in  the  manner  of  their  remotest  ancestors.  For  the  making 
of  the  broader  fabrics  two  weavers  were  required  when  the 
width  was  greater  than  the  easy  stretch  of  a  man's  arms.  Some- 
times cloths  were  woven  wide  and  then  split  into  two  or  more: 
hence  the  term  "  splits."  This  became  a  common  practice 
when  the  hand-loom  workers  were  groaning  under  the  pressure  of 
competition  from  the  power-loom. 

We  now  reach  the  era  of  the  great  inventions.  In  order  to 
ensure  clearness  it  will  be  desirable  to  consider  separately  the 
branches  of  spinning  and  weaving:  to  pass  from  the 
one  to  the  other,  and  follow  the  chronological  order, 
might  cause  confusion.  First  emphasis  must  be  laid 
upon  the  point  that  it  was  not  mechanical  change  alone 
which  constituted  the  industrial  revolution.  No  doubt  small 
hand-looms  factories  would  have  become  the  rule,  and  more  and 
more  control  over  production  would  have  devolved  upon  the 
factory  master,  and  the  work  to  be  done  would  have  been 
increasingly  assigned  by  merchants,  had  the  steam-engine 
remained  but  the  dream  of  Watt,  and  semi-automatic  machinery 
not  been  invented.  The  spirit  of  the  times  was  centralizing 
management  before  any  mechanical  changes  of  a  revolutionizing 
character  had  been  devised.  Loom-shops,  in  which  several 
journeymen  were  employed,  were  not  uncommon:  thus  "  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  (i8th)  and  the  beginning  of  the  present 
(igth)  century,"  says  Butterworth,  describing  the  state  of  affairs 
in  Oldham  and  the  neighbourhood,  "  a  large  number  of  weavers 
.  .  .  possessed  spacious  loom-shops,  where  they  not  only 
employed  many  journeymen  weavers,  but  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  apprentice  children."  It  is  true  that  both  the  fly- 
shuttle  and  drop-box  had  been  invented  by  that  time,  but  the 
loom  was  still  worked  by  human  power.  Specialism,  however, 
was  on  the  increase,  the  capitalist  was  assuming  more  control,  and 
the  operative  was  being  transformed  more  and  more  into  the  mere 
executive  agent.  Further,  as  creative  of  enterprise,  an  atmo- 
sphere of  freedom  and  a  general  economic  restlessness,  consequent 
upon  the  reaction  against  mercantilism,  were  noticeable.  Great 
changes,  no  doubt,  would  soon  have  swept  over  Lancashire  had  a 
new  source  of  power  and  big  factories  not  been  rendered  essential 
by  inventions  in  spinning. 

The  chief  inventors  were  Lewis  Paul  and  John  Wyatt,  James 
Hargreaves  and  Samuel  Crompton.  The  two  first  originated  the 
principle  of  spinning  by  rollers.  Their  patent  was  taken  spinning 
out  in  1  738,  but  no  good  came  of  it  immediately,  though  aaj  pn. 
many  trials  were  made  and  moderately  large  sums  of  paratory 
money  were  lost.  Ultimately  RichardArkwright  brought  "»«*'»• 
forward  the  same  plan  improved:6  his  first  patent  was 
dated  1769.  Over  the  real  authorship,  of  the  fundamental  idea 
there  has  been  much  controversy,  and  it  has  not  been  absolutely 
proved  that  the  second  inventor,  whether  Thomas  Highs, 
Arkwright  or  John  Kay  (a  clockmaker  of  Warrington  who 
assisted  Arkwright  to  construct  his  machine  and  is  said  by  some 
to  have  told  him  of  an  invention  by  Highs),  did  not  hit  upon  the 
device  afresh  in  ignorance  of  the  work  already  done.  Even  as 
between  Paul  and  Wyatt  it  is  not  easy  to  award  due  measure  of 
praise.  Probably  the  invention,  as  a  working  machine,  resulted 
from  real  collaboration,  each  having  an  appreciable  share  ia  it. 
Robert  Cole,  in  his  paper  to  the  British  Association  in  1858 
(reprinted  as  an  appendix  to  the  ist  ed.  of  French's  Life  of 
Crompton),  championed  the  claims  of  Paul,  but  Mantoux,  in  his 
La  Revolution  industrielle  au  XVIII'  siecle,  after  studying  the 
Wyatt  MSS.,  inclines  to  attribute  to  Wyatt  a  far  more  important 
position,  though  he  dissents  from  the  view  of  Baines,  who  ascribes 
little  or  nothing  to  Paul. 

Arkwright's  prospects  of  financial  success  were  much  greater 
than  those  of  his  predecessors,  because,  first,  there  was  more 

employ  her  son  George  shortly  after  he  could  walk,  as  a  "  dolly-peg  " 
to  tread  the  cotton  in  the  soapy  water  in  which  it  was  placed  for 
washing.  See  French's  Life  of  Crompton,  pp.  58-59  (3rd  ed.).  Row- 
botham  in  his  diary  gives  two  accounts  of  fires  which  were  caused  by 
carelessness  in  drying  cotton. 

6  On  the  difference  between  the  two  machines  see  Baines's  History, 
p.  138  et  seq. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


285 


need  in  his  time  of  mechanical  aids,  and  secondly,  he  was  highly 
talented  as  a  business  man.  In  1775  he  followed  up  his  patent  of 
1 769  with  another  relating  to  machinery  for  carding,  drawing  and 
roving.  The  latter  patent  was  widely  infringed,  and  Arkwright 
was  compelled  to  institute  nine  actions  in  1781  to  defend  his 
rights.  An  association  of  Lancashire  spinners  was  formed  to 
defend  them,  and  by  the  one  that  came  to  trial  the  patent  was 
set  aside  on  the  ground  of  obscurity  in  the  specifications. 
Arkwright  again  attempted  to  recover  his  patent  rights  in  1785, 
after  the  first  patent  had  been  in  abeyance  for  two  years.  Before 
making  this  further  trial  of  the  courts  he  had  thought  of  pro- 
ceeding by  petition  to  parliament,  and  had  actually  drawn  up  his 
"  case,"  which  he  was  ultimately  dissuaded  from  presenting. 
In  it  he  prayed  not  only  that  the  decision  of  1781  should  be  set 
aside,  but  that  both  patents  should  be  continued  to  him  for  the 
unexpired  period  of  the  second  patent,  i.e.  until  1789.  In  his 
"  case  "  (i.e.  the  petition  mentioned  above)  Arkwright  stated  that 
he  had  sold  to  numbers  of  adventurers  residing  in  the  different 
counties  of  Derby,  Leicester,  Nottingham,  Worcester,  Stafford, 
York,  Hertford  and  Lancaster,  many  of  his  patent  machines,  and 
continued:  "  Upon  a  moderate  computation,  the  money  ex- 
pended in  consequence  of  such  grants  (before  1782)  amounted 
to  at  least  £60,000.  Mr  Arkwright  and  his  partners  also  expended 
in  large  buildings  in  Derbyshire  and  elsewhere  upwards  of 
£30,000,  and  Mr  Arkwright  also  erected  a  very  large  and  extensive 
building  in  Manchester  at  the  expense  of  upwards  of  £4000. 
Thus  a  business  had  been  formed  which  already  (he  calculated) 
employed  upwards  of  five  thousand  persons,  and  a  capital  on  the 
whole  of  not  less  than  £200,000." 1  It  is  impossible  to  discover 
exactly  the  rights  of  the  matter.  Certainly  Arkwright  fcad  been 
intentionally  obscure  in  his  specifications,  as  he  admitted,  and 
for  his  defence,  namely  that  it  was  to  preserve  the  secret  for  his 
countrymen,  there  was  only  his  word.  He  may  have  hoped  to 
keep  the  secret  for  himself;  and  as  to  the  originality  of  both 
inventions  there  were  grave  doubts.  But  Arkwright  has  received 
little  sympathy,  because  his  claims  were  regarded  as  grasping  in 
view  of  the  large  fortune  which  he  had  already  won.  He  began 
work  with  his  first  partners  at  Nottingham  (when  power  was 
derived  from  horses)  and  started  at  Cromford  in  1771  (where  the 
force  of  water  was  used).  Soon  he  was  involved  in  numerous 
undertakings,  and  he  remained  active  till  his  death  in  1792. 
He  had  met  throughout  with  a  good  deal  of  opposition,  which 
possibly  to  a  man  of  his  temperament  was  stimulating.  Even  in 
the  matter  of  getting  protective  legislation  reframed  to  give 
scope  to  the  application  of  the  water-frame,  a  powerful  section  of 
Lancashire  employers  worked  against  him.  This  protective 
legislation  must  here  be  shortly  reviewed. 

In  1700  an  act  had  been  passed  (n  &  12  William  III.  c.  10) 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  the  printed  calicoes  of  India, 
Persia  and  China.  In  1 7  2 1  the  act  7  George  I.  c.  7  prohibited  the 
use  of  any  "  printed,  painted,  stained  or  dyed  calico,"  excepting 
only  calicoes  dyed  all  blue  and  muslins,  neckcloths  and  fustians. 
This  act  was  modified  by  the  act  9  George  II.  c.  4  (allowing 
British  calicoes  with  linen  warps).  Thus  the  matter  stood  as 
regards  prints  when  Arkwright  had  demonstrated  that  stout 
cotton  warps  could  be  spun  in  England,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  officers  of  excise  insisted  upon  exacting  a  tax  of  6d.  from  the 
plain  all-cottons  instead  of  the  3d.  paid  by  the  cotton-linens,  on 
the  ground  that  the  former  were  calicoes.  Arkwright's  plea, 
however,  was  admitted,  and  by  the  act  14  George  II.  c.  72  the 
still  operative  part  of.  the  act  of  1721  was  set  aside,  and  the 
manufacture,  use,  and  wear  of  cottons  printed  and  stained,  &c., 
was  permitted  subject  to  the  payment  of  a  duty  of  3d.  per  sq.  yd. 
(the  same  as  the  excise  on  cotton-linens)  provided  they  were 
stamped  "  British  manufactory."  The  duty  was  varied  from 
time  to  time  until  its  repeal  in  1832. 

Some  more  powerful  force  than  that  of  man  or  horse  was 
soon  needed  to  work  the  heavy  water-frames.  Hence  Ark- 
wright placed  his  second  mill  on  a  water-course,  fitting  it 
with  a  water-wheel,  and  until  the  steam-engine  became  eco- 
nomical most  of  the  new  twist  mills  were  built  on  water- 
1  Baines  p.  183. 


courses.    On  rare  occasions  the  old  fire-engines  seem  to  have 
been  tried. 

The  followine;  passage  quoted  from  a  note  in  Barnes's  History 
illustrates  the  pressing  need  of  the  early  mills:  "  On  the  river  Irwcll, 
from  the  first  mill  near  B?cup,  to  Prestolee,  near  Bolton,  there  is 
about  900.  ft.  of  fall  available  from  mills,  800  of  which  is  occupied. 
On  this  river  and  its  branches  it  is  computed  that  there  are  no  less 
than  three  hundred  mills.  A  project  is  in  course  of  execution  to 
increase  the  water-power  of  the  district,  already  so  great  and  so 
much  concentrated,  and  to  equalize  the  force  of  the  stream  by 
forming  eighteen  reservoirs  on  the  hills,  to  be  filled  in  times  of  flood, 
and  to  yield  their  supplies  in  the  drought  of  summer.  These  reser- 
voirs, according  to  the  plan,  would  cover  270  acres  of  ground,  and 
contain  241,300,000  cub.  ft.  of  water,  which  would  give  a  power 
equal  to  6600  horses.  The  cost  is  estimated  at  £59,000.  One 
reservoir  has  been  completed,  another  is  in  course  of  formation, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  wholedesign  will  be  carried  into  effect."1 

As  early  as  1788  there  were  143  water-mills  in  the  cotton 
industry  of  the  United  Kingdom,  which  were  distributed  as 
follows  among  the  counties  which  had  more  than  one.3 


Lancashire 

Derbyshire  . 

Nottinghamshire 

Yorkshire     . 

Cheshire 

Staffordshire 

Westmorland 


41 
22 

17 
II 

8 
7 
5 


Flintshire 
Berkshire 
Lanarkshire  . 
Renfrewshire 
Perthshire 
Midlothian    . 
Isle  of  Man 


The  need  of  water  to  drive  Arkwright's  machinery,  and  its 
value  for  working  other  machinery,  caused  a  strong  decentralizing 
tendency  to  show  itself  in  the  cotton  industry  at  this  time,  but 
more  particularly  in  the  twist-spinning  branch.  Ultimately  the 
steam-engine  (first  used  in  the  cotton  industry  in  1785)  drew  all 
branches  of  the  industry  into  the  towns,  where  the  advantages  of 
their  juxtaposition — i.e.  the  external  economies  of  centralization 
— could  be  enjoyed.  Out  of  the  crowding  of  the  mills  in  one 
locality  sprang  the  business  specialism  which  has  continued  up 
to  the  present  day.  Here  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  notice  the 
appearance  of  the  new  power,  electricity,  in  the  cotton  industry, 
the  extension  of  which  may  involve  striking  economic  changes. 
The  first  electric-driven  spinning-mill  in  Lancashire,  that  of  the 
"  Acme  "  Spinning  Company  at  Pendlebury,  the  work  of  which 
is  confined  to  the  ring-frame,  was  opened  in  1905.  Power  is 
obtained  from  the  stations  of  the  Lancashire  Power  Company  at 
Outwood  near  Radcliffe,  some  5  m.  distant. 

The  chief  principle  of  the  water-frame  was  the  drawing  out 
of  the  yarn  to  the  required  degree  of  tenuity  by  sets  of  grip- 
ping rollers  revolving  at  different  speeds.  This  principle  is  still 
applied  universally.  Twist  was  given  by  a  "  flyer  "  revolving 
round  the  bobbin  upon  which  the  yarn  was  being  wound;  the 
spinning  so  effected  was  known  as  throstle-spinning.  The  plan  is 
still  common  in  the  subsidiary  processes  of  the  cotton  industry, 
but  for  spinning  itself  the  ring-frame,  which  appears  to  have  been 
invented  simultaneously  in  England  and  the  United  States  (the 
first  American  patent  is  dated  1828),  is  rapidly  supplanting  the 
throstle-frame,4  though  the  "  ooziness  "  of  mule  yarn  has  not  yet 
been  successfully  imitated  by  ring-frame  yarn.  The  great  inven- 
tion relating  to  weft-spinning  was  the  jenny,  introduced  by  James 
Hargreaves  probably  about  1764,  and  first  tried  in  a  factory  four 
years  later.6  Hargreaves  unfortunately  was  unable  to  maintain 
his  patent,  because  he  had  sold  jennies  before  applying  for 
protection.  Crompton's  mule,  which  combined  the  principles  of 
the  rollers  and  the  jenny,  was  perfected  about  1779.  Both 
jennies  and  mules  were  known  as  "  wheels,"  because  they  were 
worked  in  part  by  the  turning  of  a  wheel.  As  they  could  be  set  in 
motion  without  using  much  power,  being  light  when  of  moderate 

*  Baines's  History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture,  p.  86  n. 

'These  figures  are  quoted  from  a  pamphlet  published  in  1788 
entitled  "An  Important  Crisis  in  the  Calico  and  Muslin  Manufactory 
in  Great  Britain  explained."  Many  of  the  estimates  given  in  this 
pamphlet  are  worthless,  but  there  seems  no  reason  why  the  figures 
quoted  here  should  not  be  at  least  approximately  correct. 

4  See  article  on  COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY. 

6  Hargreaves'  claim  to  this  invention  has  been  disputed,  but  no 
satisfactory  evidence  has  been  brought  forward  to  disprove  his 
claim.  Hargreaves  was  a  carpenter  and  weaver  of  Stand-hill  near 
Blackburn,  and  died  in  1778. 


286 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


size,  for  a  long  time  they  were  worked  entirely  by  hand  or 
partially  with  the  aid  of  horses  or  water.  The  first  jenny-  and 
mule-factories  were  small  for  this  reason,  and  also  because  skill  in 
the  operative  was  a  matter  of  fundamental  importance,1  as  it  was 
not  in  twist-spinning  on  the  water-frame.  The  size  of  the  typical 
weft-spinning  mill  suddenly  increased  after  the  scope  for  the 
application  of  power  was  enlarged  by  the  use  of  the  self-actor 
mule,  invented  in  1825  by  Richard  Roberts,  of  the  firm  of  Sharp, 
Roberts  &  Co.,  machinists,  of  Manchester.  In  1830  Roberts 
improved  his  invention  and  brought  out  the  complete  self-actor. 
Self-actors  had  been  put  forward  by  others  besides  Roberts — for 
instance  by  William  Strutt,  F.R.S.  (son  of  Arkwright's  partner), 
before  1790;  William  Kelly,  formerly  of  Lanark  mills,  in  1792; 
William  Eaton  of  Wiln  in  Derbyshire ;  Peter  Ewart  of  Manchester ; 
de  Jongh  of  Warrington;  Buchanan,  of  Catrine  works,  Scotland; 
Knowles  of  Manchester;  and  Dr  Brewster  of  America2 — but 
none  had  succeeded.  And  Roberts's  machines  did  not  immediately 
win  popularity.  For  a  long  time  the  winding  done  by  them  was 
defective,  and  they  suffered  from  other  imperfections.  Broadly 
speaking,  until  the  American  Civil  War  the  number  of  hand- 
mules  in  use  remained  high.  It  was  for  the  fine  "  counts  "  in 
particular  that  many  employers  preferred  them.3  About  the  end 
of  the  'sixties,  however,  and  in  the  early  'seventies,  great 
improvements  were  effected  in  machinery,  partly  under  the 
stimulus  of  a  desire  to  elevate  its  fitness  for  dealing  with  short- 
staple  cotton,  and  it  became  evident  that  hand-mules  were 
doomed.  Here  we  may  suitably  refer  to  the  scutching  machine 
for  opening  and  cleaning  cotton,  invented  by  Mr  Snodgrass  of 
Glasgow  in  1797,  and  introduced  by  Kennedy4  to  Manchester  in 
1808  or  1809;  the  cylinder  carder  invented  by  Lewis  Paul  and 
improved  by  Arkwright;  and  the  lap-machine  first  constructed 
by  Arkwright's  son. 

We  now  transfer  our  attention  to  that  accumulation  of  im- 
provements in  manufacturing  (as  weaving  is  technically  termed) 

which,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  inventions  already 
machinery,  described,  presaged  the  large  factory  system  which 

covers  Lancashire  to-day.  Gradually,  for  many  years, 
the  loom  had  been  gathering  complexities,  though  no  funda- 
mental alteration  was  introduced  into  its  structure  until  1738, 
when  John  Kay  of  Bury  excited  the  wrath  of  his  fellow-weavers 
by  designing  and  employing  the  device  of  the  fly-shuttle.  For 
some  unfathomable  reason — for  the  opposition  of  the  weavers 
hardly  explains  it,  though  they  expressed  their  views  forcibly  and 
acted  upon  them  violently — this  invention  was  not  much  applied 
in  the  cotton  industry  until  about  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  its 
appearance.  The  plan  was  merely  to  substitute  for  human  hands 
hammers  at  the  ends  of  a  lengthened  lathe  along  which  the 
shuttle  ran,  the  hammers  being  set  in  motion  by  the  jerking  of  a 
stick  (the  picking  peg)  to  which  they  were  attached  by  strings. 
The  output  of  a  weaver  was  enormously  increased  in  consequence. 
In  1 760  John  Kay's  son  Robert  added  the  drop-box,  by  the  use  of 
which  many  different  kinds  of  weft  could  be  worked  into  the  same 
fabric  without  difficulty.  It  was  in  fact  a  partitioned  lift,  any 
partition  of  which  could  be  brought  to  a  level  with  the  lathe  and 
made  for  the  time  continuous  with  it.  The  drop-box  usefully 
supplemented  the  "draw-boy,"  or  "draught-boy,"  which  provided 
for  the  raising  of  warps  in  groups,  and  thereby  enabled  figured 
goods  to  be  produced.  The  "  draw-boy  "  had  been  well  known 
in  the  industry  for  a  long  time;  in  1687  a  Joseph  Mason  patented 
an  invention  for  avoiding  the  expense  of  an  assistant  to  work 
it,6  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  his  invention  was  of 

1  See  Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry,  pp.  59  et  seq. 
8  See  Baines  p.  207. 

3  "  Counts  "  are  determined  by  the  number  of  hanks  to  the 
Ib.     A  hank  is  840  yds.     The  origin  of  the  hank  of  840  yds.  is 
probably  that  spinners  used  a  winding-reel  of  I J  yds.  in  circumference, 
so  that  80  threads  (one  "  lea  "  or      rap  "  according  to  old  phrase- 
ology) would  contain  120  yds.,  and  seven  leas  (i.e.  a  hank)  would 
contain  840  yds.     A  hank  of  seven  leas  was  the  common  measure 
in  the  woollen  industry,  in  which  the  reels  were  I  yd.  or  2  yds.  in  cir- 
cumference.    For  details  see  an  article  on  the  subject  in  the  Textile 
World  Record,  vol.  xxxi.  No.  I. 

4  The  author  of  the  memoir  of  Crompton  (see  bibliography). 
'  Specification  257. 


practical  value.  Looms  with  "  draw-boys  "  affixed,  which  could 
sometimes  be  worked-by  the  weavers  themselves,  later  became 
common  under  the  name  of  harness-looms,  which  have  since  been 
supplanted  by  Jacquard  looms,  wherein  the  pattern  is  picked  out 
mechanically. 

The  principle  of  the  fly-shuttle  was  a  first  step  towards  the 
complete  mechanizing  of  the  action  required  for  working  a 
loom.  The  second  step  was  the  power-loom,  the  initial  effort  to 
design  which  was  created  by  the  tardiness  of  weaving  as  contrasted 
with  the  rapidity  of  spinning  by  power.  After  the  general 
adoption  of  the  jenny,  supplies  of  yarn  outran  the  productive 
powers  of  the  agencies  that  existed  for  converting  them  into 
fabrics,  and  as  a  consequence,  it  would  seem,  some  yarn  was 
directed  into  exports  which  might  have  been  utilized  for  the 
manufacture  of  cloth  for  export  had  the  loom  been  more  pro- 
ductive. The  agitation  for  the  export  tax  on  yarn  at  the  end  of 
the  i8th,  and  in  the  first  years  of  the  igth  century,  is  therefore 
comprehensible,  but  there  was  no  foundation  for  some  of  the 
allegations  by  which  it  was  supported.  For  a  large  proportion  of 
the  exported  yarn,  fabrics  could  not  have  been  substituted,  since 
the  former  was  required  to  feed  the  hand-looms  in  continental 
homes  and  domestic  workshops,  against  much  of  the  product  of 
which  there  was  no  chance  of  competing.  The  hand-loom  was 
securely  linked  to  the  home  of  the  peasant,  and  though  he  would 
buy  yarn  to  feed  his  loom  he  would  not  buy  cloth  and  break 
it  up.* 

Cartwright's  loom  was  not  the  first  design  adapted  for  weav- 
ing by  power.  A  highly  rudimentary  and  perfectly  futile  self- 
actor  weaving  machine,  which  would  have  been  adapted  for 
power-working  had  it  been  capable  of  working  at  all,  had  been 
invented  by  a  M.  de  Gennes:  a  description  of  it,  extracted  from 
the  Journal  de  sfavans,  appeared  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions for  July  and  August  1678,  and  again  in  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine  in  1751  (vol.  xxi.  pp.  391-392).  It  consisted  of 
mechanical  hands,  as  it  were,  that  shot  in  and  out  of  the  warp  and 
exchanged  the  shuttle.7  Another  idea,  which  however  proved 
fruitful,  was  that  of  grinding  the  shuttle  through  the  warps  by 
the  agency  of  cog-wheels  working  at  each  end  upon  teeth  affixed 
to  the  upper  side  of  the  shuttle.  Though  shuttles  could  not  in 
this  fashion  be  set  in  rapid  movement,  the  machine  turned  out  to 
be  economical  for  the  production  of  ribbons  and  tapes,  because 
many  pieces  could  be  woven  by  it  at  once.  These  contrivances 
were  known  as  swivel-looms,  and  in  1724  Stukeley  in  his  Itine- 
rarium  curiosum  wrote  that  the  people  of  Manchester  have 
"  looms  that  work  twenty-four  laces  at  a  time,  which  was 
stolen  from  the  Dutch."  Ogden  says  also  that  they  were  set 
up  in  Imitation  of  Dutch  machines  by  Dutch  mechanics 
invited  over  for  the  purpose.  Another  interesting  passage 
relating  to  the  swivel-looms  will  be  found  in  the  rules  of 
the  Manchester  small- ware  weavers  dated  1756,  where  the 
complaint  is  made  that  the  masters  have  acquired  by  the  employ- 
ment of  "  engine  or  Dutch  looms  such  large  and  opulent  fortunes 
as  hath  enabled  them  to  vie  with  some  of  the  best  gentlemen 
of  the  country,"  and  it  is  alleged  that  these  machines,  which 
wove  twelve  or  fourteen  pieces  at  once,  "  were  in  use  in  Man- 
chester thirty  years  ago." 8  One  power-factory  at  least  was 
devoted  to  them  as  early  as  1760,  namely  that  of  a  Mr  Gartside 
at  Manchester,  where  water-power  was  applied,  but  the  enterprise 
failed.*  Cartwright's  invention  was  probably  perfected  in  its 

8  For  further  analysis  of  the  arguments  current  see  Chapman's 
Lancashire  Cotton  Industry,  pp.  66  et  seq. 

7  Also  in  the  I7th  century  a  John  Barkstead  was  granted  a  patent 
for  a  method  of  manufacturing  cotton  goods,  but  the  method  is  not 
described.     1691,  Specification  276. 

8  In  the  parliamentary  reports  (1840),  xxiv.  p.  6n,  the  invention 
of  the  swivel-loom  is  claimed  for  a  "  Van  Anson."     It  is  a  plausible 
supposition  that  by  "  Van  Anson  "  is  meant  Vaucanson,  as  he 
appears  to  have  improved  the  swivel-loom.     But  he  could  not  have 
been  the  original  inventor,  since  in  1724  (that  is,  when  Vaucanson 
was  at  the  most  fifteen  years  of  age)  they  were  being  employed  in 
Manchester. 

9  Aikin,  pp.  175-176,  and  Guest,  p.  44.     An  explanation  of  the 
mechanism  .of  the  swivel-loom  will  be  found  in  the  Encyclopedia 
methodique,  manufactures,  arts  et  metiers,  pt.  i.  vol.  ii.  pp.  202,  ao8, 
and  Recueil  de  planches,  vol.  vi.  (1786),  pp.  72-78. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


287 


Year. 

Imports  of 
Raw  Cotton, 

Million  Ib. 

Raw  Cotton 
re-exported, 
Million  Ib. 

Exports  of  Cotton  Yarns  and 
Manufactures,  Million  £. 

Imports  of  Cotton  Yarns  and 
Manufactures,  Million  £. 

Yarns. 

Manu- 
factures. 

Total. 

Yarns. 

Manu- 
factures 
(excluding 
Lace). 

Total. 

1700-1705 

I77I-I775 
1785-1789 
1791-1795 
1816-1820 
1831-1835 
1851-1855 
1876-1880 
1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 

1-17 
4-76 

26-00 
139-00 
313-00 
872-00 
1456-00 
1746-00 
1798-00 
1920-00 

10-6 
23-0 
124-0 
180-0 
217-0 
223-0 
265-0 

2-5 
4-8 
6-8 
12-4 

97 
8-9 

8-4 

I3:8 
14-2 
24-9 
56-1 
56-6 
58-2 
70-7 

1-07  * 
2-09  3 
16-30 
19-00 
31-70 
68-30 
66-30 
67-10 
79-10 

•42 
•26 

•22 

2-29 

2-78 
4-27 
5-io 

2-29 
3-20 
4-53 
5-32 

first  form  about   1787,  but  many  corrections,  improvements 

and  additions  had  to  be  effected  before  it  became  an  unqualified 

success.     Cartwright's  original  idea  was  elaborated  by  numerous 

followers,  and  supplementary  ideas  were  needed  to  make  the 

system   complete.     Of   the   latter   the   most   important   were 

those  due  to  William  Radcliffe,  and  an  ingenious  mechanic 

who  worked  with  him,  Thomas  Johnson,  which  were  patented  in 

1 803  and  1 804.     They  related  to  the  dressing  of  the  warp  before  it 

was  placed  in  the  loom,  and  for  the  mechanical  taking  up  of  the 

cloth  and  drawing  forward  of 

the  warp,  so  that  the  loom  had 

not  to  be  stopped  for  the  cloth 

to  be  moved  on  and  the  warp 

brought    within    play  of  the 

shuttle  to  be   sized.     Looms 

fitted  with  the  latter  of  these 

devices      were      known     as 

"  dandy  "  looms.     The  looms 

that    followed   need    not    be 

described   here,  nor  need  we 

concern   ourselves   with    the 

degree    in   which  some  were 

imitations  of  others.     It  is  of 

interest  to  note,  however,  in 

view  of  recent  developments, 

that    one     of     Cartwright's 

patents  included  a  warp-stop  motion,  though  it  was  never  tried 

practically  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware.     Looms  with  warp-stop 

motions  are  now  common  in  the  United  States,  as  are  also 

automatic  looms,  but  both  are  still  the  exception  in  Lancashire 

for  reasons  that  will  be  sketched  later. 

Power-looms  won  their  way  only  very  gradually.  Cartwright 
and  others  lost  fortunes  in  trying  to  make  them  pay,  but  the 
former  was  compensated  by  a  grant  of  £10,000  from  govern- 
ment. In  1813  there  were  2400  only  in  the  whole  of  the  United 
Kingdom;  in  1820  there  were  14,000,  beside  some  240,000 
hand-looms;  in  1829,  55,500;  in  1833,  100,000;  and  in  1870, 
440,700.'  To-day  there  are  about  700,000  in  the  cotton 
industry.  The  beginning,  and  the  final  consequences,  of  the 
competitive  pressure  of  the  power-looms  may  be  read  in  the 
reports  of  official  inquiries  and  in  Rowbotham's  diary.2  It  was 
upon  the  fine  work  that  the  hand-loom  weavers  retained  their 
last  hold.  In  '1829  John  Kennedy  wrote  in  his  paper  to  the 
Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  on  "  The  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Cotton  Trade,"  "  It  is  found  .  .  .  that  one  person 
cannot  attend  upon  more  than  two  power-looms,  and  it  is  still 
problematical  [even  in  1829,  observe]  whether  the  saving  of 
labour  counterbalances  the  expense  of  power  and  machinery  and 
the  disadvantage  of  being  obliged  to  keep  an  establishment  of 
power-looms  constantly  at  work."  It  was  not  easy  to  obtain 
a  sufficiency  of  good  hands  for  the  power-looms,  because  the 
operatives,  who  had  acquired  their  habits  under  the  domestic 
system,  hated  factory  life.  This,  in  conjunction  with  the  ease 
with  which  the  art  of  coarse  weaving  could  be  acquired  and  the 
cheapness  of  rough  looms,  helps  to  explain  the  wretched  straits 
into  which  the  hand-loom  weavers  were  driven. 

Improvements  in  machinery,  which  ultimately  affected  every 
process  from  cleaning  the  cotton  to  finishing  the  fabric,  and  the 
Growth.  aPPlicati0n  of  water  and  steam-power,  so  lowered  the 
cost  of  production  as  to  render  Lancashire  the  cotton 
factory  of  the  world.  Figures  are  quoted  in  the  table  to  show 
the  rate  of  growth  in  different  periods  of  England's  imports  and 
exports  as  regards  the  raw  material  and  products  of  this  industry. 
It  is  important  to  remember  when  reading  the  last  6  columns 
that  the  value  of  money  was  the  same  in  1831-1835,  1851-1855 

1  Figures  for  the  years  above  up  to  1838  will  be  found  in  parlia- 
mentary reports  (1840),  xxiv.  p.  611. 

*  This  is  the  manuscript  diary  of  a  weaver  of  Oldham  roughly 
covering  the  period  1787  to  1830.  It  is  now  in  the  Oldham  public 
library.  Mr  S.  Andrew  edited  extracts  from  it  in  a  series  of  articles 
in  the  Standard  (an  Oldham  paper),  under  the  title  Annals  of  Oldham, 
beginning  January  I,  1887. 


and  1876-1880:  the  sums  of  Sauerbeck's  index  numbers  for  these 
periods  were  454,  451  and  444  respectively.  In  the  last  two 
periods  there  were  considerable  depressions  in  prices.  If  prices 
had  remained  constant,  in  the  periods  1891-1895  and  1896-1900 
the  figures  of  exports  would  have  been  £00  millions  and  £91 
millions  respectively.  The  growth  in  trade  has  been  partly 
occasioned  by  the  enormous  increase  in  the  volume  of  cotton 
goods  consumed  all  over  the  world,  which  in  turn  has  been  due  to 
(i)  the  growth  of  population,  (2)  the  increase  in  productive 


efficiency  and  well-being,  and  (3)  the  substitution  of  cotton 
fabrics  for  woollen  and  linen  fabrics.  The  rate  of  growth  between 
the  periods  1771-1781  and  1781-1791  (which  is  not  shown  in 
the  above  table)  was  particularly  remarkable,  and  reached  as 
high  a  figure  (when  measured  by  importations  of  weight  of 
cotton)  as  320%. 

Nothing  is  more  interesting  in  the  cotton  industry  than  the 
processes  of  differentiation  and  integration  that  have  taken  place 
from  time  to  time.  Weaving  and  spinning  had  been  to  Ditfma- 
a  large  extent  united  in  the  industry  in  its  earliest  form,  tiation 
in  that  both  were  frequently  conducted  beneath  the  •nainte- 
same  roof.  With  mechanical  improvements  in  spinning,  f'aoa' 
that  branch  of  the  industry  became  a  separate  business,  and  a 
substantial  section  of  it  was  brought  under  the  factory  regime. 
Weaving  continued  to  be  performed  in  cottages  or  in  hand-loom 
sheds  where  no  spinning  at  all  was  attempted.  Cartwright's 
invention  carried  weaving  back  to  spinning,  because  both  opera- 
tions then  needed  power,  and  the  trouble  of  marketing  yarn  was 
largely  spared  by  the  reunion.  Mr  W.  R.  Grey  stated  in  1833 
to  the  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  manufactures, 
commerce  and  shipping,  that  he  knew  of  no  single  person  then 
building  a  spinning  mill  who  was  not  attaching  to  it  a  power- 
loom  factory.  Some  years  later  the  weaving-shed  split  away 
from  spinning,  partly  no  doubt  because  of  the  economies  of 
industrial  specialism,  partly  because  of  commercial  developments, 
to  be  described  later,  which  rendered  dissociation  less  hazardous 
than  it  had  been,  and  partly  because,  in  consequence  of  these 
developments,  much  manufacturing  (as  weaving  is  termed)  was 
constituted  a  business  strikingly  dissimilar  from  spinning.  The 
manufacturer  runs  more  risks  in  laying  by  stocks  than  the 
spinner,  because  of  the  greater  variety  of  his  product  and  the 
more  frequent  changes  that  it  undergoes.  The  former,  therefore, 
must  devote  more  time  than  the  latter  to  keeping  his  order  book 
and  the  productive  power  of  his  shed  in  close  correspondence. 
The  minute  care  of  this  kind  that  must  be  exercised  in  some 
classes  of  businesses  explains  why  the  small  manufacturer  still 
holds  his  own  while  the  small  spinner  has  been  crushed  out. 
It  also  explains  to  some  extent  the  prevalence  of  joint-stock 
companies  in  spinning,  and  their  comparative  rarity  in  manu- 
facturing. Here  we  should  notice,  perhaps,  that  the  only 
combination  of  importance  in  the  cotton  industry  proper  (apart 
from  calico-printing,  bleaching,  &c.,  and  the  manufacture  of 
sewing-cotton)  is  the  Fine  Cotton  Spinners  and  Doublers 
Association,  founded  in  1898,  which  is  practically  coextensive 
with  fine  spinning  and  doubling. 

*  Official  values. 


288 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


Localiza- 
tion of 
branches 
of  the 
Industry. 


The  specialism  of  the  two  main  branches  of  the  industry 
has  been  followed  by  the  specialism  of  sub-branches 
and  by  the  localization  of  specialized  parts.  Of  the 
localization  of  certain  sections  of  the  cotton  industry 
the  late  Mr  Elijah  Helm,  who  spoke  with  the  authority 
of  great  local  knowledge,  has  written  as  follows: — 
"  Spinning  is  largely  concentrated  in  south  Lancashire  and  in  the 
adjoining  borderland  of  north  Cheshire.  But  even  within  this  area 
there  is  further  allocation.  The  finer  and  the  very  finest  yarns  are 
spun  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bolton,  and  in  or  near  Manchester, 
much  of  this  being  used  for  the  manufacture  of  sewing-thread; 
whilst  other  descriptions,  employed  almost  entirely  for  weaving, 
are  produced  in  Oldham  and  other  towns.  The  weaving  branches 
of  the  industry  are  chiefly  conducted  in  the  northern  half  of  Lanca- 
shire— most  of  it  in  very  large  boroughs,  as  Blackburn,  Burnley 
and  Preston.  Here,  again,  there  is  a  differentiation.  Preston  and 
Chorley  produce  the  finer  and  lighter  fabrics;  Blackburn,  Darwen 
and  Accrington,  shirtings,  dhooties  and  other  goods  extensively 
shipped  to  India;  whilst  Nelson  and  Colne  make  cloths  woven  from 
dyed  yarn,  and  Bolton  is  distinguished  for  fine  quillings  and  fancy 
cotton  dress  goods.  These  demarcations  are  not  absolutely  observed, 
but  they  are  sufficiently  clear  to  give  to  each  town  in  the  area 
covered  by  the  cotton  industry  a  distinctive  place  in  its  general 
organization."  * 

The  present  local  distribution  of  the  cotton  industry,  as  far  as  it 
is  displayed  statistically,  is  revealed  in  the  table  beneath,  based 
upon  the  figures  of  spindles  and  looms  given  by  Worrall  and  those 
of  operatives  in  the  census  returns  of  1901. 

Distribution  of  Cotton  Operatives  in  Lancashire  and  the  Vicinity 
according  to  the  Census  Returns  0/1901,  together  with  the  Number 
of  Spindles  and  Looms  according  to  Worrall. 


No.  of 
Operatives. 

No.  of 
Spindles  (in 
Thousands). 

No.  of 
Looms. 

Blackburn   
Bolton          

41,400 
29,800 

L325 
5.035 

75,300 
20,100 

Oldham       .... 

29,500 
27,900 

11,603 
687 

18,500 
79,300 

Manchester  and  Salford   . 
Preston        

27,200 
25,000 

2,666 
2,036 

24,200  2 
57,900 

Rochdale     

14,800 

2,168 

25,100 

12,500 

336 

28,700 

12,400 

23 

39,000 

Glossop  3      

10,700 

968 
818 

15,400 
22,200 

Stockport    
Ashton-under-Lyne     . 
Accrington  
Colne           

9,700 
8,600 
8,300 
7,300 

1,803 
1.839 
417 
140' 

8,700 
11,500 
36,400 
20,500 

7.3°o 

869 

6,400 

Stalybridge 
Todmorden       .            .      . 
Rawtenstall 
Hyde      
Chadderton 
Haslingden 
Bacup    ...           . 
Chorley       .      .            .      . 
Farn  worth,  near  Bolton   . 
Leigh     ...            .      . 
Great  Harwood 
Middleton   .      .            .      . 
Radcliffe      .      .            .      . 

7,100 
6,900 
6,600 
6,500 
6,400 
6,100 
5.900 
5.900 
5,700 
5,000 
4,900 
4.900 
4,800 

1,106 
261 
356 
553 

148 
315 
547 
738 
1,667 
72 
5" 
157 

7,100 
15,800 
8,800 
7,900 

12,000 
9,300 
17,900 
10,600 
5,900 
12,400 
2,500 
8,900 

Local  markets  have  steadily  lost  in  importance,  partly  owing  to 
railway  development,  and  it  is  now  almost  entirely  in  Manchester, 
on  the  Exchange,  that  dealing  in  yarns  and  fabrics  takes  place, 
and  arrangements  are  made  for  export.  The  old  Manchester 
Exchange,  built  in  1729,  was  taken  down  in  1792.  A  new 
Exchange,  reared  on  a  contiguous  site,  was  opened  in  1809,  the 
first  stone  having  been  laid  in  1806.  The  present  building  was 
erected  in  1869.  The  great  bulk  of  the  exports  of  cotton  goods 
proceeds  from  Liverpool,  though  London  used  to  be  the  leading 
port,  and  Liverpool  is  still  the  chief  English  market  for  raw 
cotton,  though  now  from  one-sixth  to  one-eighth  of  English 
cotton  supplies  come  up  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal. 

1  Printed  in  British  Industries.     Edited  by  W.  J.  Ashley. 

2  Manchester  only. 

*  The  number  of  operatives  in  places  in  Derbyshire  is  not  separately 
specified. 

4  Includes  Foulridge  with  Colne. 


To  understand  the  present  organization  of  the  cotton  industry 
the  reader  must  begin  by  mentally  separating  the  commercial 
from  the  industrial  functions.  By  the  industrial 
functions  are  meant  the  arrangements  of  factors  in  Moder" 
production — choosing  the  most  suitable  machinery  and  tioa. 
hands,  combining  them  in  the  most  economical  system, 
adapting  the  material  used  to  this  system,  and  keeping  its 
working  at  the  highest  attainable  level.  The  commercial 
functions  consist  in  business  which  is  not  industrial.  Analysis 
will  show  that  there  are,  broadly  speaking,  two  classes  of  com- 
mercial functions,  namely  (i)  arranging  for  purchases  and  sales, 
and  (2)  the  bearing  of  risks.  The  character  of  the  former  is 
apparent:  it  consists,  as  regards  yarn,  in  discovering  for  each 
manufacturer  which  spinner  makes  the  yarn  which  is  best 
adapted  to  his  requirements  at  the  lowest  cost,  and  in  finding  the 
most  suitable  customers  for  spinners.  Risk -bearing  is  a  com- 
mercial function  of  another  kind.  Every  business  that  involves 
anticipation  involves  commercial  risks.  Thus  the  spinner  who 
sells  "  forward  "  yarn,  trusting  that  the  price  of  cotton  will  not 
rise,  is  taking  commercial  risks,  and  so  is  the  spinner  who  pro- 
duces for  stock,  trusting  that  the  class  of  yarn  that  he  is  making 
will  continue  in  demand.  These  two  instances  will  suffice  to 
indicate  what  is  meant  by  the  carrying  of  commercial  risks.  To 
make  the  rest  of  our  argument  clear  it  will  be  well  to  write  down 
formulae.  Let  A  and  B  represent  respectively  the  industrial 
operations  of  spinning  and  manufacturing.  Let  a  and  a  represent 
respectively  the  commercial  operations  implied  by  the  separate 
existence  of  A,  that  is,  the  buying  of  cotton  and  the  selling  of  yarn ; 
and  let  b  and  /3  stand  for  the  commercial  operations  associated 
with  manufacturing,  that  is,  the  buying  of  yarn  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  finding  of  customers  and  arranging  for  their  purchases 
on  the  other  hand.  Then,  A  and  B  being  distinct  businesses,  it 
is  obvious  that  a  range  of  schemes  is  possible  of  which  the 
extremes  may  be  roughly  represented  as  follows: — 

1.  (aAa),  (bB/3) 

2.  (a),  (A),  (ab),  (B),  05), 

where  the  brackets  signify  independent  businesses.  In  case  i 
each  spinning  business  would  be  engaged  with  three  problems, 
namely,  (i.)  buying  material  at  the  most  favourable  time,  (ii.) 
producing  at  the  lowest  cost,  and  (iii.)  finding  buyers  and  selling 
at  the  highest  price,  including  the  arranging  for  the  performance  of 
the  most  remunerative  work.  But  in  case  2  the  spinner  would 
confine  his  attention  to  purely  industrial  matters,  while  the 
problem  of  finding  cotton  and  arranging  for  the  bearing  of  the 
risks  as  to  future  prices  would  rest  with  other  persons,  and  the 
business  of  bringing  spinner  and  manufacturer  together  and 
taking  such  risks  as  may  be  involved  in  ordering  or  disposing  of 
yarn  would  be  the  function  of  yet  others.  In  case  2  the  com- 
mercial functions  may  be  said  to  have  differentiated  completely 
from  the  main  body  of  the  industry.  We  need  hardly  give 
illustrations  of  the  intermediate  arrangements  that  formally  lie 
between  cases  i  and  2.  A  may  retain  commercial  risks  but  find 
customers  through  intermediaries;  in  such  an  event  there  would 
be  only  partial  differentiation  of  the  commercial  functions.  The 
reader  must  be  reminded  also  that  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  in  the 
formulae  we  have  overlooked  different  classes  of  A  and  of  B, 
omitted  bleaching,  dyeing,  printing  and  finishing,  and  drawn  no 
distinction  between  the  various  classes  of  commercial  work 
covered  by  one  letter,  for  instance,  selling  in  the  home  market 
and  selling  abroad. 

It  may  help  the  reader  to  appreciate  the  organic  growth  of  the 
cotton  industry  if  we  now  run  over  the  main  lines  of  its  evolution. 
Originally  the  industrial  units  were  held  together  in  one  homo- 
geneous commercial  setting.  The  Manchester  merchants  bought 
cotton  and  warps,  put  them  out  to  the  weavers,  and  arranged  for 
the  finishing  of  the  cloth  and  then  for  its  sale,  so  far  as  they  had 
not  been  acting  on  orders  already  received.  There  were  varia- 
tions of  this  system — for  instance,  in  early  years  weavers  some- 
times bought  their  own  yarns  and  cotton  and  sold  their  cloth 
— but  just  before  the  industrial  revolution  the  arrangement 
sketched  above  was  the  most  usual.  Adverting  to  our  formula, 
the  Manchester  merchants,  we  observe,  performed  functions 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


289 


a  (in  conjunction  with  importers),  b  (as  regarded  warps),  and  ft. 
Weft  the  weaver  had  to  get  spun  by  his  family  or  outsiders.  So, 
broadly  speaking,  there  was  one  single  commercial  setting.  After 
the  appearance  of  the  factory,  the  commercial  work  as  between  the 
water-twist  mills,  the  mule-spinning  businesses  and  the  manu- 
facturers, so  far  as  the  businesses  were  distinct,  appears  to  have 
been  done  by  the  several  producing  firms  concerned.  Jt  was  not 
at  once  that  (ob)  began  to  differentiate.  j3  was  already  a  separate 
business  in  the  hands  of  Manchester  merchants  and  the  foreign 
houses  who  had  established  themselves  in  Manchester  to  direct  the 
export  trade.  At  the  present  time  an  advanced  stage  of  com- 
mercial specialism  has  been  reached.  From  the  risks  connected 
with  the  buying  of  cotton  the  spinner  may  if  he  please  escape 
entirely.1  Selling  work  is  now  done  usually  through  inter- 
mediaries, but  there  is  no  one  uniform  rule  as  to  the  carrying  of 
the  commercial  risks  involved.  This  appears  to  be  now  to  some 
extent  a  matter  of  arrangement  between  the  persons  concerned, 
but  ultimately  no  doubt  the  risks  will  have  to  be  borne  by  those 
most  qualified  by  experience  to  bear  them,  namely,  the  com- 
mercial specialists.  In  no  other  trade  in  England,  and  in  no  other 
cotton  industry  abroad,  has  commercial  specialism  been  carried 
so  far  as  in  the  cotton  trade  of  Lancashire.  It  is  partly  in 
consequence  of  the  difference  in  this  respect  between  the  cotton 
industry  in  Lancashire  and  abroad  that  the  separation  of  spinning 
from  weaving  is  far  more  common  in  England  than  elsewhere. 
Elsewhere  producers  are  deterred  from  specializing  processes 
further  in  distinct  businesses  by  the  fear  of  the  worries  of  buying 
and  selling  as  between  them. 

The  explanation  of  differences  in  respect  of  the  degree  of 
commercial  specialism  in  different  places  and  industries  can  be 
formulated  only  very  generally.  Time  is  required  for  the 
differentiation  and  localization  to  take  place.  The  English 
cotton  trade  had  not  advanced  very  far  in  the  "  "thirties,"  if  we 
are  to  judge  from  the  evidence  given  to  commissions  and  parlia- 
mentary committees.  The  general  conditions  under  which 
commercial  specialism  evolves  may  be  taken  to  be  a  moderately 
limited  range  of  products  which  do  not  present  many  varieties, 
and  the  qualities  of  which  can  be  judged  generally  on  inspection. 
In  such  circumstances  private  markets  need  not  be  built  up,  as 
they  must  be,  for  instance,  for  a  new  brand  of  soap  which 
claims  some  subtle  superiority  to  all  others.  Soaps  under 
present  conditions  must  be  marketed  by  their  producers. 
Broadly  stated,  if  there  be  little  competition  as  to  substitutes, 
though  there  may  be  much  as  to  price  in  relation  to  quality, 
commercial  functions  may  specialize.  On  the  whole  this  is  the 
case  in  the  cotton  industry;  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  and  firms 


produce  specialities,  they  undertake  much  of  the  marketing 
work  themselves. 

The  advantages  of  commercial  specialism  are  numerous. 
Firstly  it  allows  of  differentiation  of  industrial  processes,  and 
this,  of  necessity,  is  accompanied  by  increasing  returns.  When 
weaving  dissociates  from  spinning,  both  the  number  of  looms 
in  each  business  and  the  number  of  spindles  in  each  business 
tend  to  increase;  more  division  of  labour  is  therefore  secured, 
and  lower  costs  of  production  are  reached,  and  there  is  a  further 
gain  because  producers  concentrate  their  attention  upon  a 
smaller  range  of  work.  Again  when  producers  are  freed  entirely, 
or  to  some  extent,  from  commercial  worries,  they  can  attain  a 
higher  level  of  efficiency  at  the  industrial  task  of  mill  organiza- 
tion, and  a  more  perfect  accommodation  of  capacity  to  function 
will  be  brought  about.  If  the  business  unit  is  (aAa),  a  particular 
person  may  retain  his  place  in  the  market  by  reason  of  his 
excellence  at  the  work  a  or  o,  though  as  works  organizer  (i.e.  at 
the  performances  of  function  A)  he  may  be  incompetent.  The 
heads  of  businesses  will  succeed  according  to  their  average 
capacities  at  the  three  tasks  a,  A  and  a,  and  there  is  no  guarantee, 
therefore,  that  any  one  of  these  tasks  will  be  performed  with  the 
highest  attainable  efficiency  in  our  present  somewhat  immobile 
economic  system.  But  if  the  three  functions  are  separated 
there  is  more  certainty  of  a  person's  success  in  the  perform- 
ance of  each  determining  his  continued  discharge  of  it.  The 
problems  that  arise  when  specialized  markets  become  very 
highly  developed  are  dealt  with  in  the  article  COTTON: 
Marketing  and  Supply. 

The  distribution  of  cotton  operatives  among  the  chief  centres 
has  already  been  shown,  but  their  distribution  between  processes 
has  yet  to  be  considered,  and  the  proportions  of  different 
ages  and  sexes  from  time  to   time,    together    with    the  Operative* 
total.      Wrth   such   statistical   material   as  is  available       v     °' 
relating  to  supplies  of  labour  we  may  set  forth  also  the 
official  returns  made  of  the  quantity  of  machinery  at  work  from 
time  to  time.     It  hardly  need  be  pointed  out  that  the  ratio  of 
machinery  to  operatives  roughly  measures  the  efficiency  of  labour, 
other  things  being  equal. 

Machinery  in  the  United  Kingdom  (in  Thousands). 


Years. 

Spinning 
Spindles. 

Doubling 
Spindles. 

Power- 
Looms. 

1874 
1878 
1885 
1890 
1903 

37-516 
39,528 
40,120 
40,512 
43,905 

4366 
4679 
4228 
3993 
3952 

463 
515 
56i 
616 
684 

Operatives  employed  in  the  Cotton  Industry  (in  Thousands).     (From  the  Census  Returns.'') 
(The  figures  in  italics  relate  to  Married  and  Widowed  Women.) 


1901. 

1891. 

1881. 

Lancashire. 

England  and 
Wales. 

Lancashire. 

England  and 
Wales. 

Lancashire. 

England  and 
Wales. 

Cotton,  card  and  blowing-room  processes 
Cotton  spinning  processes   
Cotton  winding,  warping,  &c  
Cotton  weaving,  warping,  &c.   .... 

Total    . 
Cotton  workers  in  other  processes  or  undefined 

Tape,  manufacturer  dealer         .... 
Thread,  manufacturer  dealer      .... 
Fustian,  manufacturer  dealer    .... 

Cotton,  calico,  warehouseman,  dealer 

M. 
n-4 

49-5 
14-8 
57-6 

F. 

28-7 

IO-I 

19-6 

4-3 
38-6 
13-0 
"3-5 
38-1 

M. 
13-8 

64-1 
18-3 
66-1 

F. 
34-0 

12-2 
28-6 
6-0 
48-9 

15-8 
130-8 
44-4 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F. 

M. 

F. 

133-3 

265-9 

162-3 

320-7 

178-2 

281-8 

213-2 

332-8 

150-7 

249-8 

185-4 

302-4 

29-0 
•6 

6-7 
1-8 

1-2 

•55 

34-5 

2-1 

9-4 
2-3 

'2-6 

I-O 

•47 

•2 
I-I 

•25 
•9 
2-9 

•9 
•6 

3-2 

'•5 

2-1 

5-o 

•4 
•i 

'•7 

2-5 

•24 
•9 
3-5 

•3 

•7 
•5 
3-o 

3-2 

1-2 

J-7 

5'2 

•38 

1  This  is  explained  in  the  article  COTTON  :   Marketing  and  Supply. 
*  Census  classifications  have  been  altered  twice  in  the  period  covered  by  this  table. 


VII.  IO 


290 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


the  proportion  of  children  employed  and  the  steady  increase  in  the 
number  of  operatives  as  a  whole  until  recent  years.  The  contraction 
of  the  body  of  operatives  of  late  years  seems  to  have  occurred 
primarily  among  children  and  young  persons  (where  the  first  check 
would  naturally  be  looked  for),  and  secondarily  among  adult  males. 
If  allowance  be  made  for  the  smaller  value  of  children  as  compared 
with  adults,  and  the  census  results  be  taken,  it  is  not  evident  that 
there  has  been  any  diminution  in  the  amount  of  labour-power; 
and  if  the  factory  inspectors'  returns  be  accepted,  the  falling  off 
in  the  number  of  operatives  cannot  be  proved  to  have  taken  place 

in    either    of    the    chief 

Operatives  employed  in  Cotton  Factories  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  Percentages  of  each  Class. 
(From  Returns  of  Factory  Inspectors.) 


In  Scotland  there  are  less  than  15,000  cotton  operatives  distributed 
as  follows : — 

In  Thousands. 
Card  and  blowing-room  processes  ....      -4 

Spinning-room  processes 2-1 

Winding,  warping,  &c 2-7 

Weaving,  warping,  &c 6-8 

Workers  in  other  processes  or  undefined       .        .    2-8 


Total 


14-8 


I835- 

1838. 

1847. 

1850. 

1856. 

1862. 

1867. 

Male  and  Female  under  13,  or  half-timers. 
Male,  13  to  18  
Male,  over  1  8  
Female,  over  13  

13-2 

12-5 
26-4 

47-9 

45-7 
16-6 

24-9 
53-8 

5-8 
11-8 
27-1 

55-3 

4-6 

II-2 

28-7 
55-5 

6-5 
10-3 
27-4 
55-8 

8-8 
9-1 

26-4 
55-7 

10-4 
8-6 
26-0 
55-o 

Total  number  of  Cotton  Operatives 

218,000 

259.500 

316,400 

33i,ooo 

379.300 

451,600 

401,100 

1870. 

1874. 

1878. 

1885. 

1890. 

1895- 

1901. 

Male  and  Female  under  13,  or  half-timers  . 
Male,  13  to  18  
Male,  over  18  ....... 
Female,  over  13  

9-6 

8-5 
26-0 

55-9 

14-0 
8-0 
24-1 
53-9 

12-8 
7'2 

25-3 

54-7 

9-9 
7-9 
26-4 
55-8 

9-1 

8-2 

26-9 
55-8 

5-8 
7-9 
27-6 

58-7 

4-1 
7-0 
27-8 
61-1 

Total  number  of  Cotton  Operatives 

450,100 

479,600 

483,000 

504,100 

528,800 

538,900 

513,000 

Number  of  Operatives  (in  Thousands)  engaged  in  Spinning,  Manufacturing  and  Subsidiary  Processes 
(excluding  Lace-making,  but  including  the  Fustian  Manufacture).     (From  Census  Returns.) 


Males. 

Females. 

Males  and  Females. 

Under 
15- 

15-20. 

Over 
20. 

All 
Ages. 

Under 
15- 

15-20. 

Over 
20. 

All 
Ages. 

Under 
15- 

15-20. 

Over 

20. 

All 
Ages. 

1881 
1891 
1901 

29 
36 

24 

39 
45 
36 

121 

137 
139 

189 
218 
199 

40 
50 
36 

81 

'94 

92 

189 

197 

207 

310 

341 

335 

69 
86 
60 

1  20 

139 

128 

310 

334 
346 

500 
560 
535 

branches  of  the  industry 
at  so  rapid  a  rate  as  to 
have  occasioned  the  en- 
forced dismissal  of  any 
hands.  An  industry 
which  was  not  recruited 
at  all  would  have 
dwindled  at  a  greater 
rate.  At  least  it  may 
be  inferred  from  these 
figures,  when  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the 
large  increase  in  spindles 
and  looms,  that  the  out- 
put per  head  has  con- 
siderably advanced  in 
spite  of  the  rise  in  the 
average  quality  of  both 
yarns  and  fabrics  pro- 
duced. This  rise  in  the 
value  per  unit  of  the  out- 
put accounts  to  some 
extent  for  the  fact  that 
wages  have  not  been 
adversely  affected  of  late. 
Mr  A.  L.  Bowley  has 
calculated  index  numbers 


of 


for  . 


The  fact  that  the  branches  of  work  covered  by  the  figures  are  not 
identical  explains  discrepancies  between  this  and  the  previous  table. 


Number  of  Operatives  engaged  in  the  Cotton  Industry  (Processes  being  distinguished  and  Ages  and  Sex). 
(From  Special  Returns  made  by  Factory  Inspectors.) 


ixlaSF' 

ing  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton.     Those 
for   the   cotton   industry 

are  given  below,  together  with  averages  for  cotton  and  wool 
workers,  the  building  trades,  mining,  workers  in  iron,  sailors,  com- 
positors and  agriculturists 
(England), 


Males  in  Thousands. 

Females  in  Thousands. 

Total  in 
Thousands. 

Half- 
timers. 

Under  18. 

1  8  and 
over. 

Half- 
timers. 

Under  1  8. 

1  8  and 
over. 

1896 
1898-1899' 
1901 

1896 
1898-1899' 
1901 

5-58 
5-42 
4.98 

7-54 

6-21 

4-72 

22-24 
21-57 

2I-IO 

18-79 
I7-29 
14-86 

Spinnin 
71-44 
71-37 
68-98 
Weavin 

75-81 
72-74 

73-8i 

5  and  Pr 
4-40 
3-86 
3-10 
g  and  Pr 
11-87 
10-38 
8-0 

eparatory  Pro 
30-12 
30-44 
30-98 
eparatory  Pro 
49-19 
48-38 
45-66 

cesses 
78-69 
77-64 
81-68 
cesses 

I5I-34 
150-99 

I55-03 

218 
2IO 
211 

3'5 
306 
302 

The  figures  in  this  table  are  not  quite  complete  except  for  1901 ; 
the  relations  between  the  changes  shown  for  each  class  should 
nevertheless  be  accurately  represented. 

The  most  noticeable  features  of  these  tables  are  the  decrease  in 


the  numbers  n 
each  class  being  allowed  for 
in  the  average.  Side  by  side 
with  these  figures,  Sauerbeck's 
index  numbers  of  general 
wholesale  prices  are  given, 
together  with  the  average 
prices  of  wheat  per  quarter. 

It  must  be  remembered  that 
the    figures    given    above    for 
cotton    workers    and    average 
wages  for  eight  trades  do  not 
measure    the    differences    be- 
tween each,  but  only  the  differ- 
ences between  the  movements 
of  each.    Actual  average  money 
wages  in  the  cotton  industry 
have  probably  been  approximately  those  stated  in  the  second  table 
beneath,  but  as  these  figures  are  culled  from  various  sources  they 
must  not  be  taken  to  indicate  fluctuations.2 
The  wage  of  fine  spinners  exceeds  the  average  wage  of  spinners 


Index  Numbers  of  Money,  Wages  and  Prices. 


1840. 

1855- 

i860. 

1866. 

1870. 

1874. 

1877. 

1880. 

1883. 

1886. 

1891. 

1902. 

Cotton  operatives    ... 
Average  wages  for  eight  trades 
Sauerbeck's  index  number 
Average  price  of  wheat  per  quarter 

50 
61 
103 

66/4 

54 
61 

73 
40/3 

64 
73 

99 

53/3 

74 
81 
1  02 

49/11 

74 
83 
96 
46/11 

90 

97 
1  02 

55/9 

90 
94 
94 
56/9 

85 
89 
88 

44/4 

90 
92 
82 

41/7 

93 
90 

69 

3i/- 

IOO 
IOO 

72 

37/- 

105 
108-7' 

69 

28/1 

Weekly  Wages  in  the  Manchester  and  District  Cotton  Trade. 


Spinners'  average         ..... 
Big  piecers'  average    
Weavers'  average        .        .         .       .      Vi 

1834. 

1836. 

1839- 

1841. 

1849. 

1850. 

1859- 

i860. 

1870. 

1877. 

1882. 

1883. 

1886. 

s.  d. 
23  4 

II  0 
II  0 

s.  d. 
23  ii 
93 

IO  2 

s.  d. 

22   II 
80 
96 

s.  d. 

22    O 

8  8 
9  6 

s.  d. 
21  7 
8  6 
10  6 

s.  d. 
20  5 
13  o 
10  3 

s.  d. 
24  i 

IO  O 
II  2 

s.  d. 

23  2 
IO  O 

10  8 

s.  d. 
27  8 

II  O 
12  2 

s.  d. 
34  4 
12  4 
15  i 

s.  d. 
31  6 
16  o 
15  6 

s.  d. 

32  4 
16  o 

15  0 

s.  d. 
35  7 
13  7 
13  3 

1  Average  for  1898  and  1899. 


2  See  chapter  on  cotton  in  Bpwley's  Wages  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  table  there  given. 
3  Average  for  a  slightly  different  group. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


291 


by  percentages  varying  from  about  25  to  35.  In  the  above  figures 
the  earnings  of  three  classes  of  spinners  are  averaged. 

The  highest  wages  are  earned  by  mule-spinners  (who  are  all 
males) ;  their  assistants,  known  as  piecers,  are  badly  paid.  Persons 
can  easily  be  found,  however,  to  work  as  piecers,  because  they  hope 
ultimately  to  become  "  minders,"  i.e.  mule-spinners  in  charge  of 
mules.  The  division  of  the  total  wage  paid  on  a  pair  of  mules 
between  the  minder  and  the  piecers  is  largely  the  result  of  the 
policy  of  the  spinners'  trade  union.  Almost  without  exception  in 
Lancashire  one  minder  takes  charge  of  a  pair  of  mules  with  two  or 
three  assistants  according  to  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done.  Among 
the  weavers  there  is  no  rule  as  to  the  number  of  assistants  to  full 
weavers  (who  are  both  male  and  female),  or  as  to  the  number  of 
looms  managed  by  a  weaver,  but  the  proportion  of  assistants  is 
much  less  than  in  the  spinning  branches,  perhaps  because  of  the 
inferior  strength  of  the  weavers'  unions.  For  the  calculation  of  wages 
piece-rate  lists  are  universally  employed  as  regards  the  payment  of 
full  weavers  and  spinners;  some  piecers  get  a  definite  share  of  the 
total  wage  thus  assigned  to  a  pair  of  mules,  while  others  are  paid  a 
fixed  weekly  amount.  Many  ring-spinners  are  now  paid  also  by 
piece-rate  lists,  and  all  other  operatives  are  almost  universally  so 
paid,  except,  as  a  rule,  the  hands  in  the  blowing-room  and  on  the 
carding-machines.  Spinning  and  weaving  lists  are  most  complicated ; 
allowances  are  made  in  them  for  most  incidents  beyond  the  opera- 
tives' control,  by  which  the  amount  of  the  wage  might  be  affected. 
Still,  however,  they  could  not  cover  all  circumstances,  and  much  is 
left  to  the  manner  of  their  application  and  private  arrangement. 
They  should  be  regarded  as  giving  the  basis,  rather  than  as  actually 
settling,  the  wage  in  all  cases.  The  history  of  lists  stretches  back 
to  the  first  quarter  of  the  I9th  century  as  regards  spinners,  and 
to  about  the  middle  of  the  century  generally  as  regards  weavers, 
though  a  weaving  list  agreed  to  by  eleven  masters  was  drawn  up 
as  early  as  1834.  There  are  still  many  different  district  lists  in  use, 
but  the  favourite  spinning  lists  are  those  of  Oldham  and  Bolton, 
and  the  weaving  list  most  generally  employed  is  that  known  as  the 
"  Uniform  List,  which  is  a  compromise  between  the  lists  of  Black- 
burn, Preston  and  Burnley.  Under  the  "  Particulars  Clause,"  first 
included  in  a  Factory  Act  in  1891  and  given  extended  application  in 
1895,  the  particulars  required  for  the  calculation  of  wages  must  be 
rendered  by  the  employer.  As  in  spinning  there  used  to  be  doubts 
about  the  quantity  of  work  done,  the  "  indicator,"  which  measures 
the  length  of  yarn  spun,  is  coming  into  general  use  under  pressure 
from  the  operatives.  We  ought  to  observe  here  that  the  Oldham 
spinning  list  differs  from  all  others  in  that  its  basis  is  an  agreed 
normal  time-wage  for  different  kinds  of  work  on  which  piece-rates 
are  reckoned.  But  in  effect  understandings  as  to  the  level  of  normal 
time-wages  are  the  real  basis  everywhere.  If  the  average  wages  in  a 
particular  mill  are  lower  than  elsewhere  for  reasons  not  connected 
with  the  quality  of  labour  (e.g.  because  of  antiquated  machinery  or 
the  low  quality  of  the  cotton  used),  the  men  demand  "  allowances  " 
to  raise  their  wages  to  the  normal  level.  Advances  and  reductions 
are  made  on  the  lists,  and  under  the  Brooklands  Agreement,  entered 
into  by  masters  and  men  in  the  cotton  spinning  industry  in  1893, 
advances  and  reductions  in  future  must  not  exceed  5  %  or  succeed 
one  another  by  a  shorter  period  than  twelve  months.  The  changes 
as  a  rule  now  are  5  %  or  2  J  %.  In  all  branches  of  the  cotton  industry 
it  is  usual  for  a  conference  to  take  place  between  the  interested 
parties  before  a  strike  breaks  out,  on  the  demand  of  one  or  other 
for  an  advance  or  reduction. 

Organization  among  the  workers  in  the  cotton  industry  is  remark- 
ably thorough.  Almost  all  spinners  are  members  of  trade  unions, 
Trade  anc^  though  the  weavers  are  not  so  strongly  united, 
Union*.  the  bulk  of  them  are  organized.  The  piecers  are  admitted 
as  members  of  piecers  associations,  connected  with  the 
spinners'  associations  and  controlled  by  them.  Attempts  to  form 
independent  piecers'  unions  have  failed.  Weavers'  assistants  are 
included  in  the  weavers'  unions,  which  may  be  joined  in  different 
classes,  the  benefits  connected  with  which  vary  with  the  amounts 
paid.  One  subscription  only,  however,  is  imposed  by  each  branch 
spinners'  association,  but  in  all  branches  it  is  not  the  same,  though 
every  branch  pays  the  same  per  member  to  the  amalgamation. 
All  the  trade  unions  of  the  chief  workers  in  the  cotton  industry  are 
federated  in  the  four  societies:  (i)  the  Amalgamated  Association 
of  Operative  Cotton  Spinners  (created  in  1853  and  reformed  in 
1870),  (2)  the  Northern  Counties  Amalgamated  Association  of 
Weavers  (founded  1884),  (3)  the  Amalgamated  Association  of  Card 
and  Blowing-room  Operatives  (established  1886),  and  (4)  the  Amal- 
gamated Association  of  Power-loom  Overlookers  (founded  1884). 
These  were  not,  however,  the  first  attempts  at  federation,  and  the 
term  "  federation  "  must  not  be  taken  in  any  strict  sense.  The 
distribution  of  power  between  the  central  authority  and  the  local 
societies  varies,  but  in  some  cases,  for  instance  among  the  spinners, 
the  local  societies  approximate  as  closely  to  the  status  of  mere 
branches,  as  to  that  of  independent  units  federated  for  limited 
objects.  We  ought  also  to  mention  the  societies  of  warp-dressers  and 
warpers,  tape-sizers  and  cloth-workers  and  warehousemen.  There 
is  no  one  federation  of  all  cotton-workers,  but  the  United  Textile 
Factory  Workers  has  been  periodically  called  into  being  to  press  the 
matter  of  factory  legislation,  and  international  textile  congresses 
are  occasionally  held  by  the  operatives  of  different  countries. 


As  to  employers,  fouf  extensive  associations  include  almost  all 
the  organization  among  them,  two  concerned  chiefly  with  spinning 
and  two  with  weaving.  The  former  two*  are  the  Federation  of 
Master  Cotton  Spinners'  Associations  with  local  associations  and 
including 2 1 ,000,000  spindles,  and  the  Bolton  Master  Cotton  Spinners' 
Association  with  7,000,000  spindles;  the  latter  two  are  the  North 
and  North-East  Lancashire  Spinners'  and  Manufacturers'  Associa- 
tion, covering  about  3,000,000  spindles  in  addition  to  a  large  section 
of  the  looms  of  Lancashire,  and  the  United  Cotton  Manufacturers' 
Association.1 

Factory  legislation  began  in  the  cotton  industry,  and  in  no  in- 
dustry is  it  now  more  developed.  The  first  acts  were  those  of  1802 
and  1819,  both  of  which  applied  only  to  cotton-mills,  Factory 
and  the  former  of  which  related  only  to  parish  apprentices.  Acts 
The  first  really  important  measure  was  that  of  1833, 
which  curtailed  the  abuse  of  child-labour,  enforced  some  education 
and  provided  for  factory  inspectors,  of  whom  there  were  at  first  only 
four.  The  next  act  of  importance,  that  of  1844,  was  chiefly  remark- 
able for  its  inclusion  of  all  women  among  young  persons.  The 
proportion  of  women,  young  persons  and  children  engaged  in  the 
cotton  industry  is  so  high,  that  most  regulations  affecting  them, 
e.g.  those  relating  to  the  hours  of  labour,  must  practically  be  extended 
to  all  cotton  operatives.  This  act  killed  night  work  for  "  young 
persons,"  and  children  were  not  allowed  to  work  at  night.  The  year 
1847  saw  the  introduction  of  what  was  known  as  the  Ten  Hours  Act 
— after  the  1st  of  May  1848  the  hours  of  young  persons  (women 
included)  and  children  were  not  to  exceed  ten  a  day  and  fifty-eight 
a  week.  A  further  limitation  of  hours  to  56$  a  week  was  secured  in 
1874,  and  this  was  cut  down  by  another  hour  (the  concession  of  the 
12  o'clock  Saturday)  in  1901.  "  Young  persons  "  now  includes  all 
who  are  not  half-timers  and  have  not  attained  the  age  of  eighteen, 
and  all  women.  The  rules  as  regards  the  employment  of  children, 
which  have  steadily  improved,  are  at  present  as  follows.  No  child 
under  twelve  may  be  employed.  On  attaining  the  age  of  thirteen  the 
child  may  become  a  full-timer  if  he  has  obtained  the  prescribed 
educational  certificate  (i.e.  fifth  standard  attainment  or  three 
hundred  attendances  each  year  for  five  consecutive  years).  Failing 
this  he  must  wait  till  he  is  fourteen  before  he  can  be  employed  full 
time.  Half-timers  may  be  employed  either  (a)  on  alternate  days, 
which  must  not  be  the  same  days  in  two  successive  weeks,  or  (6) 
in  morning  and  afternoon  sets.  In  the  case  of  arrangement  (a), 
the  child  when  at  work  may  be  employed  during  the  same  period 
as  a  young  person  or  woman,  which  in  Lancashire  is  almost  uni- 
versally from  6  to  6  with  two  hours  for  meals.2  In  the  case  of 
arrangement  (&),  which  is  the  system  generally  adopted  in  Lanca- 
shire, a  half-timer  in  the  morning  set  works  from  6  to  12.30,  with 
half  an  hour  for  breakfast,  and  in  the  afternoon  from  1.30  to  6, 
except  on  Saturdays,  when  the  hours  are  from  6  till  11.30  for  a 
manufacturing  operative,  or  till  12  for  other  work,  for  instance,  clean- 
ing. The  child  must  not  work  two  consecutive  weeks  in  the  same 
set  (that  is,  in  mornings  or  afternoons),  nor  on  two  successive  Satur- 
days, nor  on  Saturday  at  all  if  during  any  other  day  of  the  same  week 
the  period  of  employment  has  exceeded  5i  hours  (i.e.  a  child  in  the 
morning  set  does  not  work  on  the  Saturday).  Other  important 
features  of  factory  legislation  relate  to  the  fencing  of  dangerous 
machinery  and  its  cleaning  when  in  motion  (the  regulations  being 
strictest  in  the  case  of  children  and  most  lax  in  the  case  of  male 
adults),  and  conditions  of  health,  including  the  amount  of  steaming 
allowed,  which  was  first  regulated  by  the  Cotton  Cloth  Factories 
Act  ot  1889. 

The  Cotton  Industry  outside  England. 

A  brief  survey  will  now  be  made  of  the  cotton  industry  in  parts 
of  the  globe  other  than  the  British  Isles,  and  as  a  prelude  the 
following  broad  estimates  of  the  numbers  of  spindles  and  looms  in 
the  chief  national  seats  of  the  cotton  industry  may  be  put 
forward.3  The  table  is  further  supplemented  by  other  figures  * 
for  the  number  of  spindles  at  different  times  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  United  States  and  the  continent;  and  finally 
we  may  add  the  figures  of  cotton  consumed. 

The  different  average  fineness  of  counts  spun  in  different 
places  must  be  borne  in  mind  when  the  consumption  of  each 
district  at  the  same  time  is  being  considered,  but  the  relations 
between  the  amounts  consumed  in  the  contrasted  districts  in 
the  two  periods  would  not  be  affected  much  by  this  difference. 

1 A  detailed  analysis  of  the  whole  labour  question  in  the  cotton 
industry  will  be  found  in  Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry. 

*  There  are  other  permissible  arrangements,  namely  from  7  to  7 
and  from  8  to  8,  but  they  are  not  used  in  the  textile  trades  of  Lanca- 
shire. 

'  The  figures  for  looms  are  based  upon  a  number  of  returns  and 
estimates.  Those  for  spindles  are  taken  from  the  highly  authori- 
tative, estimates  of  the  International  Federation  of  Master  Cotton 
Spinners. 

4  Journal  of  Board  of  Trade,  April  28th,  1904. 


2<)2 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


Estimated^ 
Population 
in  1902. 
In  Millions. 

Million 
Spinning 
Spindles 
in  1909. 

Thousand 
Power- 
Looms 
about  1906. 

Unitec 
Unitec 
Germa 
Franc* 
Russia 
India 
Austri 
Spain 
Italy. 
Switze 
Japan 
Belgiu 

Kingdom 
States    . 
ny      .      . 

42 
79 
58 
39 
139 
294  (1901) 
26-7 
18-6  (1900) 
33 
3'4 
46 

53-5 
27-8 
9-8 
6-8 
7-8 
5-8 
4-2 
1-9 
4-0 

i-5 

1-7 

1-2 

700 
550 
215 
no 

150 

45 
80 
69 

100 

30 

El    ... 

rland  . 
m  . 

Cotton  Spindles 

(including  Doubling  Spindles)  in  Millions. 

United 
Kingdom. 

United 
Europe.        States. 

Other 
Countries. 

Total. 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1903 

37-7 
44-5 
44'5 
46-2 

47-9 

13                 7-1 

21                      IO-6 

26              14-2 

32           19 

33                     22-2 

2 

4 
7 

7'5 

57-8 
78-1 
88-7 
104-2 
no-6 

Average  Annual  Consumption  of  Cotton  in  the  Period  1831-1835. 

Millions  of  ft. 

United  Kingdom 295 

Continent  of  Europe 143 

United  States  79 

Average  Annual  Consumption  of  Cotton  in  the  Period  1000-1905. 

Millions  of  ft. 

United  Kingdom 1634 

Continent  of  Europe 2486 

United  States 1995 

Roughly  the  consumption  of  cotton  per  spindle  in  the  three 
areas  to-day  is,  in  Ib,  35  for  the  United  Kingdom,  70  for  the 
continent,  and  95  for  the  United  States. 

Before  the  cotton  industry  in  other  countries  is  described  it  will 
be  necessary  to  explain  how  it  could  have  developed  there  on  a 
large  scale  at  all.  Of  course  this  growth  is  to  be  accounted  for 
very  largely  by  the  natural  protection  of  cost  of  transport  aided 
by  tariffs.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake  for  Englishmen  to  imagine 
that  all  foreign  cotton  mills  are  the  product  of  a  forcing  culture, 
and  that  if  the  favourable  conditions  created  by  import  duties 
were  removed  they  would  totally  disappear.  No  doubt  some  of 
the  growth  is  artificial,  but  much  is  natural  and  would  have  taken 
place  under  universal  free  trade  conditions.  Much  of  it,  indeed, 
would  have  appeared  in  these  circumstances  even  were  cost  of 
production  a  negligible  quantity,  difficult  though  it  may  be  at 
first  to  reconcile  this  statement  with  certain  ordinary  conceptions 
of  the  operations  of  the  law  of  increasing  returns.  Lancashire 
secured  an  immense  lead  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century, 
and  if  the  cost  of  production  may  be  represented  as  varying 
inversely  as  the  magnitude  of  the  industry,  every  addition  to  her 
success  increased  her  advantages.  How  could  the  small  industry, 
with  a  high  cost  of  production  because  it  was  small,  compete  with 
Lancashire?  The  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  peculiar  conditions 
governing  international  trade  and  a  closer  analysis  of  "  increasing 
returns."  "  Increasing  returns  "  in  any  place  are  a  function  of 
two  variables,  (i)  the  magnitude  of  the  world  market  under 
conditions  of  world  commerce,  and  (2)  the  magnitude  of  the 
industry  in  the  spot  in  question.  The  economies  connected  with 
the  first  variable,  which  in  such  an  industry  as  the  cotton  in- 
dustry are  enormous,  and  govern  ultimately  the  limits  of  business 
specialism,  are  shared  by  every  national  section  of  the  industry 
whether  it  be  great  or  small.  If  Haiti  started  a  cotton  factory  she 
might  import  all  her  specialized  machinery — the  specialism 
involved  in  producing  which  is  dependent  upon  the  exportation 
of  some  of  it — and  restrict  narrowly  the  work  undertaken  by  her 
one  factory.  The  cotton  goods  outside  this  range  she  would  still 
import,  and  if  her  specialized  product  were  in  excess  of  local 
demand  she  could  export  some  of  it,  if  she  were  favourably 
placed  in  respect  of  cost  of  carriage,  for  cost  of  production  in 


Haiti  would  not  be  impossibly  high,  since  machinery  and  the 
general  system  of  production  would  be  quite  up  to  date  though 
labour  might  be  highly  inefficient.  Of  course,  the  country  with  a 
large  industry  enjoys  high  local  economies,  and  it  might  be 
thought  that  these  alone  would  be  a  menace  to  the  stability  of 
the  small  industry,  because  if  the  industry  in  the  favoured 
locality  increased  these  would  increase  also  and  the  small  industry 
would  be  undersold.  The  answer  to  this  difficulty  is  that  foreign 
trade  depends  upon  ratios  between  ratios,  that  is,  upon  the 
ratios  between  the  costs  of  production  of  all  the  products  of 
each  country  in  relation  to  similar  ratios  for  other  countries. 
Relatively,  therefore,  diminishing  returns  operate  in  every 
country.  In  every  country  there  must  come  a  time,  the  utility  of 
commodities  being  taken  into  account,  when  a  unit  of  labour  and 
capital  provides  less  utility  when  applied  to  the  creation  of  cotton 
goods,  say,  than  when  applied  to  producing  something  else  foi 
home  consumption  or  for  export  in  exchange  for  commodities 
wanted  at  home.  It  becomes  apparent,  therefore,  that  cotton 
industries  of  widely  varying  sizes  dispersed  throughout  the 
world  can  settle  into  relations  of  perfectly  stable  equilibrium,  as 
that  term  is  understood  by  the  economist.  Slow  changes,  of 
course,  in  their  relative  volumes  might  be  looked  for  with 
changes  in  a  mutable  world,  but  very  sudden  collapses  would  be 
impossible  unless  the  general  course  of  human  affairs  were 
revolutionized. 

The  United  States. — The  machine-cotton  industry  was  carried 
to  North  America  almost  as  soon  as  it  evolved  in  England. 
Models  of  Arkwright's  machines  were  smuggled  across  the 
Atlantic  in  1786 — Arkwright's  first  mill  had  not  been  started  in 
England  until  1769 — and  these  with  a  jenny  and  stock-card 
were  publicly  exhibited.  From  these  models  a  great  mass  of 
machinery  was  soon  constructed.  The  first  mill  was  erected  in 
1788  (that  of  the  Beverly  Association),  the  second  appeared  in 
1790,  the  third  five  years  later,  and  in  1798  Samuel  Slater 
started  with  some  of  his  wife's  relatives  the  first  mill  in  which  the 
principle  of  the  water-frame  was  carried  throughout.  It  is  said 
that  it  was  not  until  1814  that  power-loom  manufacturing  was 
commenced,  but  in  England  success  with  the  power-loom  was 
long  delayed.  As  early  as  1831,  however,  there  were  in  the 
United  States — mainly  in  the  New  England  states — 800  factories, 
a  million  and  a  quarter  spindles,  33,50x1  looms  and  62,200 
operatives.  At  this  time  the  annual  consumption  of  cotton  was 
about  77,000,000  Ib  as  compared  with  some  300,000,000  Ib  in 
England  at  the  same  date,  and  2,000,000,000  approximately  in 
the  United  States  at  the  present  time.1  Writing  in  1840,  James 
Montgomery  said  that,  in  respect  of  cost  of  production,  the 
American  industry  was  19%  behind  that  of  England  apart  from 
the  cost  of  raw  material,  which  was  then  a  good  deal  less  to  the 
Americans.  In  1878,  when  there  was  much  interest  in  the 
question  of  British  efficiency  in  the  cotton  industry  because  the 
passage  of  the  Factory  Act  of  1874  had  cut  down  the  working 
hours,  the  Economist  contrasted  the  result  of  twenty-five  years  ' 
growth  in  England  and  America: — 

"  In  1853  the  average  English  production  per  weaver  of  8j  ft 
shirting  was  825  yds.  per  week  of  sixty  hours.  In  1878  the  working 
hours  had  fallen  to  fifty-seven,  and  the  production  had  risen  to 
975  yds.  An  increased  production  of  23  %  is  thus  due  to  improve- 
ment in  the  processes  of  manufacture.  In  1865  there  were  24,151 
persons  employed  in  Massachusetts  in  the  production  of  cotton 
goods,  and  they  produced  175,000,000  yds.  In  1875  the  operatives 
numbered  60,176,  and  their  product  was  874,000,000  yds.  The 
operatives  had  increased  150  %  and  their  products  had  increased 
500  %.  The  increase  of  production  due  to  improved  methods  was 
thus  in  England  23  %,  and  in  Massachusetts  100  %.  I  do  not,  of 
course,  suppose  that  the  American  manufacturer  is  in  advance  of 
his  English  rival  to  the  extent  of  this  difference,  for  I  presume 
that  he  started  upon  the  career  of  improvement  from  a  lower  plat- 
form. But  a  progress  so  greatly  more  rapid  than  ours  will  be  ad- 
mitted to  cast  much  light  on  the  change  which  has  occurred  in  our 
relative  positions." 

The  contrast  no  doubt  was  not  perfect,  as  indeed  it  could  not  be 

1  The  early  history  of  the  industry  in  the  United  States 
is  summarized  in  one  of  the  official  bulletins  of  the  state  of 


Massachusetts,  dated  1798. 
of  the  U.  S.  (1893). 


See  W.  R.  Bagnall,  Textile  Industries 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


293 


in  view  of  the  varieties  of  product  and  their  changes,  but  it  proves 
at  any  rate  that  Americans  were  making  vast  strides  in  industrial 
efficiency  even  before  the  period  when  American  methods  and 
American  enterprise  were  monopolizing  in  a  wonderful  degree  the 
attention  of  the  business  world.1  About  a  dozen  years  later  the 
low  real  cost  of  production  of  simple  fabrics  in  the  United  States 
was  universally  admitted,  and  also  that  American  manufacturers 
were  making  more  use  of  machinery  than  their  European  rivals. 
In  a  typical  weaving  shed  in  Massachusetts,  for  instance,  of 
which  particulars  were  published,  twenty  women  "  tended  "  as 
many  as  eight  looms  apiece,  forty-three  managed  seven,  two 
hundred  and  thirty-two  managed  six,  and  only  eleven  had  five 
only.2  Since  then,  moreover,  advance  has  been  rapid,  and  the 
sudden  development  of  the  South  has  astonished  the  business 
community  of  other  centres  of  the  cotton  industry. 

Before  the  lines  of  development  in  America  are  specifically 
dealt  with,  and  particularly  the  industrial  phenomena  in  the 
South,  a  few  words  must  be  said  of  the  general  extension  of  the 
industry.  The  consumption  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  in 
million  Ib  was  about  75  in  1830,  390  in  1860,  noo  in  1890  and 
nearly  2000  on  an  average  of  the  five  crop  years  from  1900-1901  to 
1904-1905:  active  spindles  advanced  from  1,250,000  in  1830  to 
10,653,000  in  1880  and  about  21,250,000  in  1905.  Looms  which 
numbered  33,500  in  1830  had  reached  226,000  in  1880  and  nearly 
550,000  in  1905.  At  the  same  time  population,  it  must  be 
remembered,  was  growing  at  a  phenomenal  rate:  from  31-4 
millions  in  1860  it  had  passed  to  38-6,  50-2,  62-6  and  76-3  at  the 
succeeding  decennial  censuses,  the  decennial  rates  of  increase 
being  in  order  22-5,  30,  25  and  20-5  as  compared  with  8-5,  10-5, 
8  and  9  as  shown  by  the  corresponding  censuses  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  Protection  was  of  course  contributory  to  the  growth 
of  the  American  cotton  industry.  It  may  be  remarked  incident- 
ally that  the  New  World,  including  the  West  Indies  and  the 
Chinese  empire,  take  the  bulk  of  American  exports,  which  for  so 
large  an  industry  are  inconsiderable.  The  imports  have  always 
been  well  in  excess  of  the  exports.  The  encouragement  of  home 
industries  by  tariffs  was  definitely  aimed  at  after  the  war  with 
England  during  the  Napoleonic  struggles,  and  although  a 
sensible  reduction  of  duties  was  experienced  after  1845  the 
reaction  to  protection  that  followed  the  Civil  War  was  never 
significantly  departed  from  except  by  the  single  act  of  1883. 
In  1790  the  duties  on  cotton  goods  were  75%  ad  valorem,  and 
they  rose  gradually  until  they  reached  25%  in  1816.  Slight 
reductions  some  seventeen  years  later  were  followed  in  the  early 
'forties  by  a  tariff  of  30%.  Diminutions  were  succeeded  by 
oscillations,  though  at  no  point  was  a  low  level  touched.  Severe 
charges  were  imposed  in  1890,  and  after  some  relaxation  in  1894 
the  policy  of  restrictiveness  was  restored  in  1897.  According  to 
the  calculations  made  by  the  English  Board  of  Trade  in  1903 3 
no  fabrics  were  admitted  at  a  charge  equivalent  to  less  than  68  % 
ad  valorem,  and  no  yarns  were  admitted  at  a  charge  lower  than 
45  %  ad  valorem.  Cotton  thread  is  subjected  to  a  rate  equivalent 

t037S%-4 

The  character  of  the  growth  of  the  cotton  industry  in  the 
United  States,  as  revealed  by  recent  census  returns,  is  peculiarly 
interesting: — 


Cotton  small  wares  are  included  in  the  totals  for  1880  and 
1890,  but  excluded  from  those  for  1900  and  1905.  We  must 
observe  further  that  "  capital  "  is  a  vague  term.  Recent  events 
in  the  United  States  afford  a  valuable  empirical  indication  of  the 
effect  that  improved  machinery  actually  has  upon  wages.  The 
new  automatic  looms  caused  a  saving  of  labour  per  unit  of  product 
which  recalled  the  complete  subversion  at  the  industrial  revolu- 
tion of  the  proportions  in  which  the  several  factors  in  production 
were  organized.  Displacement  of  labour  and  falling  wages  might 
not  unreasonably  have  been  looked  for  temporarily,  but  wages 
stuck  at  their  old  level  or  rose.  The  rise  was  caused  by  numer- 
ous converging  forces  which  brought  their  united  weight  to  bear. 
First,  prices  so  fell  as  the  result  of  the  new  machinery  that  the  in- 
creased volume  of  commodities  which  the  market  could  absorb 
more  than  counterbalanced,  it  would  seem,  the  labour-saving  of 
the  new  machinery,  the  cotton  industry  being  taken  as  a  whole. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  to  increase  the  output  from  the 
subsidiary  processes  where  labour  had  not  been  saved  more 
hands  had  to  be  drafted  in.  Thus,  a  contraction  of  the  body  of 
weavers  was  accompanied  by  an  expansion  of  the  body  of  cotton 
operatives.  Again  weavers'  wages  were  naturally  raised  in  a 
special  degree  because  automatic  machinery  called  for  quick, 
trustworthy  and  intelligent  hands,  endowed  with  versatility, 
especially  in  the  days  when  the  machinery  was  still  in  the  semi- 
experimental  stage.  The  American  employer  tries  to  save  in  labour 
but  not  to  save  in  wages,  if  a  generalization  may  be  ventured. 
The  good  workman  gets  high  pay,  but  he  is  kept  at  tasks  requiring 
his  powers  and  is  not  suffered  to  waste  his  time  doing  the  work  of 
unskilled  and  boy  labour.  There  is,  certainly,  in  the  American 
labour  problem  no  serious  grievance  on  the  question  of  wages. 
If  there  is  any  abuse  it  consists  in  excessively  fierce  work. 
Mr.  T.  M.  Young,  who  visited  the  American  cotton  districts  in 
1904  with  an  informal  commission  of  Lancashire  spinners  and 
manufacturers,  did  not  think  that  the  cause  of  the  high  wages — 
allowance  being  made  for  the  purchasing  power  of  money,  they 
are  above  those  of  England,  though  cotton  operatives  in  England 
are  well  paid  relatively — was  the  superiority  of  the  American 
cotton  worker;  neither  did  the  representatives  of  the  English 
cotton  operatives  who  accompanied  the  Moseley  Commission. 
As  often  as  not  "  the  cotton  operative  in  the  United  States 
is  a  French  Canadian,  a  German,  an  Italian,  a  Hungarian,  an 
Albanian,  a  Portuguese,  a  Russian,  a  Greek,  or  an  Armenian." 
It  is  the  extensive  "  exploitation  "  of  machinery  seemingly, 
together  with  the  speed  of  work,  which  keep  wages  high,  com- 
bined with  the  horizontal  and  vertical  mobility  of  American 
labour,  which  prevents  it  from  accumulating  in  pools,  and  causes 
streams  of  the  best  hands  to  be  flowing  continuously  to  other 
callings  and  places,  and  no  insignificant  proportion  to  climb  the 
social  ladder.  The  remainder  naturally  profit,  for  a  local  or  trade 
congestion  of  labour  is  avoided,  and  the  voluminous  recruiting 
of  enterprise  by  the  intensified  competition  among  employers 
keeps  the  demand  for  labour  high. 

One  noticeable  point  in  the  table  quoted  above  is  that  until 
recently  cotton  consumed  increased  much  faster  than  the 
number  of  spindles.  This  might  be  explained  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Average  counts  remaining  constant,  the  average  speed  of  the 


Thousands. 

Percentage  Increases. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1905- 

1880-1890. 

1890-1900. 

1900-1905. 

Active  Spindles 

10,653 

14,188 

19,008 

23.156 

33-8 

34 

21-8 

Looms        ...                               .        . 

226 

325 

451 

54i 

43-90 

38-7 

20 

Ib  cotton  consumed 

750,344 

1,117,946 

1,814,003 

1,873,075 

48-99 

62-3 

3'3 

Wages         ...                                . 
Capital       ...                               .        . 
Employees  not  officers  and  clerks 

$42.041 
$208,280 
174-7 

$66,025 
$354,021 
218-9 

$85,126 
$460,843 
c.  297-9 

$94,378 
$605,100 
310-5 

57 
70 

25-3 

28-9 
30-2 
36-1 

10-9 

3>'3 
4-2 

1  See  also  the  official  report  of  J.  P.  Harris-Gastrell  in  1873. 

*  Quoted  by  Schulze-Gaeyernitz. 

1  Memorandum  on  British  and  foreign  trade  and  industrial 
conditions. 

4  The  method  of  calculating  these  percentages  is  discussed  in 
the  blue-book  mentioned. 


spindle  might  have  risen;  or  the  latter  remaining  constant, 
counts  might  have  been  getting  finer.  Speeds  have  certainly 
gone  up  a  good  deal  of  late  on  some  counts.  And  it  is 
quite  likely,  too,  that  concentration  on  the  manufacture  of 
coarse  goods  for  export,  with  stout  warps  to  keep  down  the 


294 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


breakages  and  raise  the  output  per  loom,  may  be  reckoned  as 
one  cause. 

Despite  the  recent  sensational  growth  in  the  South,  the  New 
England  States  still  remain  the  most  prominent  seat  of  the 
American  cotton  industry.  They  contained  in  1905  about  14 
million  spindles  as  compared  with  7-7  millions  in  the  South  and 
West,  and  their  relative  possession  of  looms  approaches,  though 
it  does  not  quite  reach,  the  same  proportion.  The  leading  States 
in  the  South  in  order  of  importance  are  South  Carolina,  North 
Carolina,  Georgia  and  Alabama,  and  in  the  North,  first  Massa- 
chusetts with  an  enormous  lead,  then,  in  order,  Rhode  Island, 
New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  Maine,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey.  The  bulk  of  the  cotton  industry  in  the  North  is 
contained  within  a  small  area.  A  circle  around  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  of  30  m.  radius  includes,  according  to  the 
twelfth  census,  nearly  7j  million  spindles, — there  were  only 
58,500  spindles  in  this  area  in  1809.  Of  the  chief  towns  Fall 
River  stood  first  in  1900  in  value  output,  and  was  followed  in 
order  by  Philadelphia,  New  Bedford,  Lowell,  Manchester  and 
Pawtucket.  The  climate  of  Fall  River  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  English  spinning  districts.  Its  population  in  1900  was  105,000, 
and  of  these  only  14,600  were  of  American  parentage.  Of  the 
remainder,  16,700  were  English,  17,800  Irish,  29,600  French 
Canadians  and  about  5000  Portuguese.  Among  the  rest  of  foreign 
parentage,  Armenians,  Russians  and  Italians  are  numerous. 
But  Massachusetts  is  famous  for  the  number  of  immigrants  it 
attracts.  It  is  almost  incredible,  but  nevertheless  a  fact  accord- 
ing to  a  recent  statistical  report,  that  in  1903  as  many  as  91  %  of 
the  cotton  operatives  of  the  State  were  of  foreign  descent — 
chiefly  French  Canadian  and  Irish.  In  1902  there  were  nearly 
90  mills  at  Fall  River  with  3,000,000  spindles  and  16,000  looms. 
The  spindles  amount  to  about  one-third  of  all  in  Massachusetts, 
but  Fall  River's  share  of  the  looms  of  the  State  is  not  large. 
The  spindles  exceed  in  number  those  possessed  by  any  State 
except  of  course  the  one  in  which  it  is  placed.  In  comparison 
with  a  great  spinning  town  in  England,  nevertheless;  Fall  River 
does  not  appeal  strongly  to  the  English  imagination.  It  has 
little  over  a  quarter  of  the  spindles  of  Oldham,  or  three-fifths  of 
those  of  Bolton, — among  English  towns  it  would  stand  third, 
i.e.  between  Bolton  and  Manchester  and  Salford,  which,  in  spite 
of  the  movement  of  spinning  to  the  hills,  still  holds  in  England  a 
leading  place.  The  whole  of  Massachusetts,  it  is  of  interest  to 
observe,  has  fewer  spindles  than  Oldham,  and  only  about  half 
those  of  Oldham  and  Bolton  together.  Originally  it  was  the 
river  which  attracted  the  mills  to  Fall  River,  and  as  the  water- 
power  available  was  almost  inexhaustible,  it  was  possible  for  the 
mills  to  congregate  together  and  for  a  town  to  grow  up.  In 
England,  when  much  of  the  industry  was  dependent  for  power 
upon  water,  decentralization  was  entailed,  for  the  thin  streams 
of  Lancashire  could  not  support  more  than  two  or  three  mills  at 
most  in  proximity.  Hence  in  England,  after  Watt's  steam- 
engine  had  succeeded,  the  economies  of  centralization  led 
eventually  to  the  desertion  of  the  mills  on  the  water-courses. 
But  at  Fall  River  the  perfecting  of  the  application  of  steam- 
power  merely  involved  its  use  to  supplement  the  water-power 
on  the  old  site.  The  presence  of  water-power  explains  half  the 
success  of  New  England.  In  the  six  States  35 %  of  all  the  power 
used  is  derived  from  water,  and  in  the  cotton-manufacturing  of 
these  States  water  provides  32-6%  of  the  power.  For  industrial 
purposes  generally  the  river  most  exploited  is  the  Merrimac, 
upon  which  stand  the  leading  cotton  towns  of  Lowell,  Lawrence 
and  Manchester.  Hitherto  little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
using  water  to  generate  electric  power.1 

The  two  most  striking  features  of  the  American  industry 
to-day  are  the  introduction  of  the  automatic  looms,  already 
briefly  referred  to,  and  the  development  of  the  South.  The 
Northrop  Loom  Company  has  spent  a  fortune  in  pushing  its 
loom  on  to  the  market.  It  has  not  hesitated  to  share  risks,  and 
it  has  run  one  "  advertisement  "  mill  at  least,  namely  that  at 
Burlington,  Vermont,  with  55,000  spindles  and  nearly  1300 
looms.  In  this  mill  the  labour-saving  is  shown  by  the  following 
1  Upon  the  above  see  Uttley's  report. 


figures,  the  looms  being  of  two  sizes,  32  in.  and  44  in.  Of  the 
former,  3  weavers  run  18  each,  39  tend  16  each,  only  a  few  odd 
weavers  tend  less  than  16,  and  learners  even  are  at  work  on  8  to  1 1 
each;  on  the  latter,  of  29  weavers  17  mind  16  looms  each  and  12 
mind  1 2  (on  stripped  fabrics)  .2  Of  course  a  high  level  of  efficiency 
would  be  expected  in  this  show  mill.  That  American  employers 
have  readily  been  converted  to  a  belief  in  the  economy  of  the 
new  machinery  we  are  not  astonished  to  learn  in  view  of  the 
American  temperament,  the  intensity  of  competition  among 
business  leaders,  and  the  prevailing  spirit  of  adventure. 
Thousands  of  workable  old  looms  have  been  scrapped,  and  prob- 
ably at  the  present  time  there  are  100,000  automatic  looms 
running  in  the  United  States.  No  other  country  can  point 
to  a  rate  of  substitution  which  approaches  that  in  the  United 
States.  The  causes,  apart  from  the  temperamental  and  social  to 
which  reference  has  already  been  made,  are  probably  (i)  that 
there  is  disagreement  as  to  the  present  economy  of  automatic 
looms  on  many  fabrics,3  (2)  that  Americans  aim  at  frequency  of 
renewal  of  plant,  and  avoid  making  their  machinery  so  durable 
as  to  prove  ultimately,  perhaps,  a  handicapping  inheritance,  and 
(3)  that  a  greater  bulk  of  American  work  is  appropriate  for  the 
new  looms  than  of  English  or  continental  work.  But  automatic 
machinery  is  being  used  increasingly  in  Lancashire.4  And  the 
operatives  ultimately  benefit.  It  is  the  half-developed  machine, 
to  which  labour  must  actually  be  linked  as  an  essential  part, 
which  is  responsible  for  monotonous  work  and  creates  the  dislike 
of  mechanical  aids. 

Now  we  turn  to  the  recent  development  of  the  Southern 
States.  Never  has  an  industry  grown  faster  than  that  of  the  two 
Carolinas,  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Some  of  the  earliest  experi- 
ments with  the  machine  industry  were  conducted  in  South 
Carolina,  but  from  that  time  till  the  end  of  the  igth  century 
nobody  imagined  the  possibility  of  a  great  Southern  expansion.  ' 
In  1880  the  South  contained  less  than  half  a  million  spindles — 
i.e.  about  as  many  as  Hyde,  Middleton  or  Chorley,  and  one- 
twenty-third  of  the  numbers  in  Oldham.  Twenty  years  later 
they  had  increased  twelvefold  and  the  Southern  States,  in 
respect  of  the  number  of  spindles,  had  taken  precedence  of 
Bolton.  To-day  probably  about  eight  and  a  half  millions  might 
be  counted.  In  addition  there  are  some  two  hundred  thousand 
looms,  or  nearly  as  many  as  in  the  three  leading  cotton-weaving 
towns  of  England — Burnley,  Blackburn  and  Preston.  The  rapid 
oncoming  of  the  South  may  also  be  traced  by  its  consumption  of 
cotton — which  as  an  index,  however,  is  not  perfect.  This  on  an 
annual  average  was,  in  thousand  bales,  164,  269,  453,  717  and 
1233  in  each  of  the  periods  1876-1880,  1881-1885,  1886-1889, 
1891-1895  and  1895-1900  successively.  The  consumption  since 
then,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Northern  States,  Great  Britain 
and  the  European  continent,  has  been  as  follows.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  consumption  per  spindle  varies  greatly 
from  place  to  place. 

Consumption  of  Cotton  in  Thousand  Bales  of  about  500  ft  each. 


Southern 
States. 

Northern 
States. 

Total 
United 
States. 

Great 
Britain. 

Europe. 

1900-1901 
1901-1902 
1902-1903 
1903-1904 
1904-1905 

1583 
2017 
1958 
1889 
2270 

1963 
2066 
1866 
2046 
2292 

3546 
4083 
3824 
3935 
4562 

3269 
3253 
3185 
301? 
3620 

4576 
4836 
5148 
5H8 
5H8 

The  densest  distribution  of  mills  in  the  South  is  along  the  line  of 
the  Southern  railroad,  in  the  district  known  as  the  Piedmont. 
Of  this  group  Charlotte  in  North  Carolina  is  the  natural  centre : 
roughly,  half  the  spindles  and  half  the  looms  in  the  Southern 
States  would  be  included  within  a  circle  around  Charlotte  of  a 

2  The  figures  are  those  quoted  by  Mr  T.  M.  Young  and  relate  to 
the  year  1902. 

3  See  e.g.  some  passages  upon  this  point  in  Uttley's  report. 

4  For  an  account  of  the  numerous  types  of  automatic  looms  see 
the  article  on  WEAVING  :     §  Machinery. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


295 


radius  of  about  100  m.  Of  the  remainder  a  large  proportion  is 
scattered  over  a  wide  area. 

Much  interest  has  been  excited  by  this  newly  created  Lanca- 
shire of  a  new  type,  and  much  speculation  as  to  the  causes  that 
account  for  it  has  been  elicited.  An  informal  commission  of 
Lancashire  spinners  and  manufacturers  crossed  the  Atlantic  to 
make  inquiries  in  1902  and  investigations  have  been  undertaken 
by  other  persons,1  and  much  has  been  written  on  the  subject. 
A  general  explanation  can  now  be  framed  without  much  difficulty, 
as  in  all  probability  most  of  the  relevant  facts  have  been  brought 
to  light.  First  and  foremost  the  general  development  of  the 
cotton  industry  in  the  United  States  must  be  emphasized.  The 
industry  was  unquestionably  foredoomed  to  expansion  at  this 
time,  and  the  only  question  was  where  the  expansion  should  take 
place.  It  was  plain  that  the  growth  might  be  so  great  as  to  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  a  new  industry  created  with  new  labour 
rather  than  an  extension  of  an  old  industry.  It  was  not 
altogether  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  exploitation  of  a  new 
field  of  labour  was  thought  of.  The  labour  market  of  the  North 
was  comparatively  exhausted;  in  less  developed  parts  of  the 
country  larger  supplies  of  intrinsically  good  labour  might  be 
looked  for  at  lower  wages.  Skill  was  not  a  matter  of  much 
moment,  because  in  the  North  it  would  have  been  necessary  to 
incorporate  much  labour  without  previous  experience  in  the 
industry,  the  work  was  intended  to  be  of  the  rough  kind  upon 
which  manual  skill  is  least  important,  and  it  wasintended  to  repose 
reliance  for  economy  upon  machinery  in  the  main.  The  choice 
of  new  fields  meant  at  the  outset  the  sacrifice  of  some  of  the 
economies  of  localization,  but  so  large  an  expansion  was  looked 
for  that  projectors  did  not  despair  of  creating  fresh  industrial 
localization  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  produce  such  economies  as 
are  derived  from  it,  which,  it  must  be  observed,  are  inconsiderable 
in  America,  and  have  declined  relatively  with  falling  cost  of  trans- 
port and  the  adoption,  as  regards  machinery,  of  the  principle  of 
in  terchangeable  parts.  And  at  any  rate  a  new  local  industry  would 
have  a  slight  advantage  in  supplying  markets  in  proximity  to  it. 

These  were  the  main  general  considerations,  and  the  scale  was 
turned  in  favour  of  the  new  locality  (a)  by  the  advantage  of 
nearer  supplies  of  cotton,  and  (b)  by  the  known  presence  of  much 
half-occupied  white  labour  in  the  vicinity  of  otherwise  suitable 
sites  close  to  the  cotton-fields.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
whole  calculation  had  not  to  be  reared  merely  upon  an  intangible 
theoretical  basis.  Cotton  mills  already  existed  in  the  South,  and 
comparisons  of  costs  of  production,  as  things  were  then,  afforded 
some  groundwork  for  judgment. 

As  regards  the  first  of  the  two  special  advantages  mentioned 
above,  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  carriage  of  the  raw  material  is  not 
commonly  held  to  be  high.  Transport  to  the  cotton  ports  is  so 
well  organized  and  sea-carriage  is  so  cheap  that  Lancashire's 
distance  from  the  source  of  her  raw  material  is  not  a  very  appreci- 
able handicap.  A  good  deal  of  the  cotton  that  must  be  used  in 
some  of  the  Southern  mills  cannot  be  supplied  locally  because  it  is 
not  grown  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  requirements  of  these 
mills  are  met  by  transport  arrangements  which  at  present  cost 
a  sum  not  altogether  out  of  relation  to  similar  costs  in  the  New 
England  States  and  Lancashire.  The  percentages  of  freight 
charges  on  raw  material  in  1900  were  $2-18  in  Georgia,  $1-59  in 
North  Carolina,  $1-17  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  amazingly  low 
figure  of  $1-20  in  Massachusetts,  but  of  course  some  part  of  the 
explanation  is  the  somewhat  higher  quality  of  cotton  on  an 
average  that  is  worked  up  in  Massachusetts.  For  some  years, 
however,  the  saving  in  labour  has  been  a  most  important  economy. 
Large  supplies  of  half-occupied  white  labour  existed  in  the 
Southern  States  among  the  families  of  small  farmers  who  flocked 
South  after  the  Civil  War,  and  in  the  districts  of  the  decayed 
hand  industry  in  the  mountains  of  Kentucky  and  North  Carolina. 
For  small  money  wages  much  of  this  labour  could  be  attracted  to 
the  mills.  Negroes  do  not  work  in  the  mills;  the  reason  is  said  to 

1  Of  which  special  mention  may  be  made  of  Uttley's  report  as  a 
Gartside  scholar  of  the  university  of  Manchester,  already  referred 
to,  and  Pidgin's  report  for  the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Labour 
Statistics. 


be  partly  their  own  disinclination  and  partly  that  they  are  not  very 
efficient  at  factory  work.  As  outside  labourers,  however,  they 
have  afforded  important  aid  at  a  very  trifling  cost,  but  the  expense 
of  outside  labour  to  a  mill  is  never  an  item  of  much  weight. 
The  halcyon  days  to  employers,  when  keen  workers  could  be  had 
for  low  wages,  are  now  said  to  be  past.  The  demand  for  labour 
was  considerable,  and  as  time  went  on  additional  supplies  could 
be  enticed  only  with  the  offer  of  better  pay.  In  1004  it  was 
reported  that  some  mills  were  unable  to  get  fully  to  work  for 
want  of  hands  even  at  the  improved  rates.  Again  the  Southern 
operatives  have  been  visited  by  emissaries  from  the  operatives 
of  the  New  England  States,  which  explains  partly  the  present 
aspect  of  the  wages  question.  Mr  Pidgin,  in  his  official  report  to 
the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics,  questions  whether 
a  saving  in  wages  can  be  expected  to  continue,  and  points  out 
that  though  wages  have  been  low  the  average  efficiency  of  the 
operatives  has  not  been  high.  Some,  indeed,  were  sent  to  gain 
experience  in  Northern  mills  in  the  hopes  that  on  their  return 
they  would  spread  the  tradition  of  working  at  high  pressure. 
Mr  Pidgin  is  at  some  pains  to  measure  labour  efficiency  in  the 
South  and  North  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  but  no  simple 
sets  of  figures  will  prove  very  much.  The  value  of  the  product 
per  operative  in  1900  was  $1200  in  Massachusetts,  $1010  in 
Georgia,  $937  in  North  Carolina  and  $984  in  South  Carolina,  but 
the  value  of  the  product  per  operative  depends  as  much  upon  the 
fixed  capital  charge  per  operative  as  upon  the  latter's  efficiency. 
And  the  amount  of  machinery  used  per  head  is  higher  in  the 
South  than  in  the  North.  The  percentage  of  operatives  to 
machinery  in  Massachusetts  being  expressed  as  100,  that  of 
Georgia  was  53,  that  of  North  Carolina  43  and  that  of  South 
Carolina  55  in  1900.  These  figures  must  be  borne  in  mind  when 
the  average  numbers  employed  in  a  mill  in  different  States  are 
being  considered:  in  1900  the  averages  were  565  for  Massa- 
chusetts, 273  for  Georgia,  171  for  North  Carolina  and  378  for 
South  Carolina.  Measured  by  quantity  of  machinery  the  sizes  of 
mills  would  stand  in  quite  different  relations.  Hours  of  work  in 
the  South  are  bound  to  fall  and  the  abuse  of  child  labour,  which 
had  unquestionably  crept  in,  may  be  expected  to  discontinue 
entirely.  The  factory  conditions  of  children  are  better  now  than 
they  were,  but  in  some  places  they  are  still  very  bad.  In 
Georgia  no  children  under  twelve  are  employed,  but  infants 
without  fathers  may  begin  work  at  ten  years  of  age,  and  accord- 
ing to  Mr  Pidgin's  report,  "  it  certainly  seemed  as  though  the 
intention  was  honoured  more  in  the  breach  than  in  the  observ- 
ance, or  that  there  must  be  many  widows  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  cotton  mills."  In  North  and  South  Carolina  the  employ- 
ment of  children  under  twelve  is  illegal,  but  in  these  States  also 
conditions  are  recognized  under  which  it  is  possible  to  employ 
them  earlier.  According  to  figures  relating  to  1 900  the  dependence 
on  child  labour  in  the  Southern  States  is  very  striking.  The 
proportions  engaged  at  different  ages  in  the  three  chief  cotton- 
manufacturing  Southern  States  and  Massachusetts  are  as  follows: 


Men, 
1  6  Years 
and  over. 

Women, 
1  6  Years 
and  over. 

Children 
under  16. 

Massachusetts        .... 
Georgia    
North  Carolina      .... 
South  Carolina       .... 

48-98 
39-98 
42-22 

44-43 

44-59 
35-52 
34-23 

28-72 

6-43 
24-50 

23-55 
26-85 

It  might  be  said  that  children  are  more  useful  when  the  work  is 
rough,  but  this  argument  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  accounting 
altogether  for  the  great  discrepancy  as  between  Massachusetts 
and  the  South.  The  work  is  much  rougher  in  the  South:  in  1900 
the  counts  spun  respectively  in  Massachusetts,  Georgia,  North 
Carolina  and  South  Carolina  were  25-10,  14-37, 18-83,  and  19-04, 
and  on  the  showing  of  the  American  census  of  1900  spinning  was 
getting  finer  over  the  last  decade  of  the  igth  century. 

As  contributory  to  the  influences  already  recorded  as  account- 
ing for  Southern  success  it  has  been  hinted  that  in  the  North 
employers  have  been  less  ready  to  welcome  the  new  machinery, 
though  in  comparison  with  European  rivals  they  would  seem  at 


296 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


first  to  have  acted  rashly.  However  this  may  be,  the  South 
enjoyed  the  important  advantage  that  its  industry  began  justafter 
a  great  technical  advance  had  been  made.  When  Northern  mill- 
owners  were  anxiously  deliberating  about  the  destruction  of  good 
machinery  merely  because  it  was  antiquated  in  design,  the 
fortunate  Southern  mill-proprietor  was  getting  to  work  with 
appliances  up  to  date  in  every  particular.  It  will  be  easier  to 
balance  comparative  advantages  as  between  North  and  South 
when  undertakers  in  the  newer  district  are  confronted  by 
problems  concerning  replacements  and  alterations.  The 
rapidity  of  Southern  growth  need  not  astonish  those  who  have 
watched  the  operations  by  which  new  mills  are  frequently  set  up 
in  Lancashire  and  remember  that  the  American  business  man  is 
more  daring  than  his  British  cousin.  Company  promotion  in  the 
great  financial  centres,  payment  for  machinery  and  other  plant 
in  shares,  or  partially  in  shares,  a  general  diffusion  of  risks  and 
pledging  of  credit,  would  explain  even  more  rapid  growth  of 
industries  of  even  greater  magnitude. 

Broad  generalizations  are  difficult  to  frame,  hard  to  estab- 
lish and  liable  to  be  misleading;  some  generalizations  relating 
Character  to  the  features  of  the  American  cotton  industry  taken 
ofthe  as  a  whole  the  author  is  tempted  to  venture  never- 
Americaa  theless.  The  characteristics  of  labour  have  already 
15  ry'  been  incidentally  commented  upon.  We  have  also 
noticed  that  the  bulk  of  the  work  done  is  of  a  rough  and 
simple  character.  In  spite  of  American  nationalism  and 
the  prevalence  of  protective  sentiments  it  is  said  that  there 
is  still  a  prejudice  in  the  United  States  against  home-made 
fine  cotton  goods.1  "  The  product  of  the  American  system  is  a 
cloth  which  is,  on  the  whole,  distinctly  inferior  in  appearance, 
'  feel '  and  finish  to  that  produced  by  the  Lancashire  system. 
To  equal  a  Lancashire  cloth  in  these  respects  an  American  cloth 
must  not  only  be  made  of  better  cotton,  but  must  contain  more  of 
it — perhaps  5  %  more.  To  this  rule  of  inferiority  there  are,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  exceptions,  notably  some  of  the  American  drills 
made  for  the  China  market.  But  the  American  home  market, 
which  absorbs  nearly  the  whole  of  the  product  of  American 
looms,  is  less  exacting  in  these  matters  than  the  markets  in  which 
Lancashire  cloths  are  sold."  2  It  follows  that  the  average  counts 
spun  in  the  United  States  are  lower  than  in  England,  though  they 
have  been  rising  somewhat.  Another  feature  of  American 
spinning  as  compared  with  English  is  the  high  proportion  of 
ring-frames  to  mules.  In  New  England  between  1890  and  1900 
mule-spindles  advanced  by  100,000  and  ring-spindles  by  nearly 
2,000,000:  in  the  South  mule-spindles  increased  only  from 
108,500  to  180,500,  while  to  the  ring-frames  2,700,000  were 
added.  To  the  general  rule  Rhode  Island  is  the  sole  exception; 
here  mule-spindles  have  increased  and  ring-spindles  decreased; 
but  in  Rhode  Island  much  of  the  fine  spinning — for  instance  that 
for  hosiery — is  congregated.3  One  explanation  of  the  preponder- 
ance of  ring-spinning  is  to  be  found  in  the  character  of  American 
fabrics.  Again  most  of  the  operatives  are  not  of  a  kind  likely  to 
acquire  great  excellence  at  mule-spinning.  To  the  Americans 
we  largely  owe  the  ring-frame,  because  their  encouragement 
helped  it  through  the  difficult  period  when  its  defects  were 
serious,  though  it  appears  to  have  been  discovered  independently 
in  both  countries. 

American  organization  displays  intense  specialism,  but  of  a 
type  different  from  that  in  England,  where  businesses  are 
specialized  by  processes;  in  America  they  are  specialized  by 
products  but  hardly  at  all  by  processes.  Independent  spinning, 
independent  manufacturing,  independent  bleaching,  dyeing  and 
finishing  are  the  significant  features  of  English  industry  to  the 
bird's-eye  view;  in  the  United  States  the  typical  firm  will  spin, 
make  up  its  own  yarn,  and  perhaps  complete  its  fabrics  for  the 
market;  but  the  mills,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  intensely 
specialized  as  to  the  range  of  their  product,  so  that  the  statement 
that  American  mills  are  less  specialized  than  English  mills  must 
be  received  with  caution.  For  some  reasons  we  should  expect  to 

1  Textile  Recorder,  August  I5th,  1905. 

2  Young's  American  Cotton  Industry,  p.  13. 

3  Uttley's  report,  p.  4. 


find  the  American  method  applied  even  in  England  for  fabrics  of 
the  highest  qualities,  because  in  their  case  the  adaptation  of  the 
yarn  to  the  fabric,  and  finishing  to  the  fabric,  are  of  great 
importance,  and  actually  where  the  American  plan  is  followed  in 
England  the  explanation  is  frequently  the  speciality  of  the 
product  which  is  associated  with  the  particular  firm  producing  it. 
When  a  firm  manufactures  a  speciality  of  this  kind  it  cannot 
always  trust  bought  yarn,  or  the  finishing  applied  to  fabrics  in  the 
ton.  But  for  other  reasons  specialized  processes  might  be  looked 
for  where  qualities  were  highest,  as  by  specialism  alone  can  the 
greatest  excellence  be  attained.  The  final  selection  of  method 
depends  upon  the  relative  importance  for  high  qualities  in  the 
finished  product  of  the  connectedness  of  processes  and  the 
perfection  of  parts;  and  to  these  considerations  must  be  added 
cost  of  transport  between  the  works  devoted  to  distinct  processes, 
and  the  development  of  the  commercial  functions  by  which 
specialized  process  businesses  are  kept  functioning  as  a  whole. 
Probably  it  is  the  high  development  of  British  industry  on  the 
commercial  side  which  chiefly  explains  the  arrangements  found 
in  England.  Attention  should  also  be  directed  to  the  huge 
magnitude  of  American  businesses.  This  is  partly  a  consequence 
of  American  ambition  in  business,  and  partly  a  consequence  of 
the  undeveloped  commercial  ligaments  by  which  producing 
businesses  are  brought  into  union.  American  producers  in  both 
North  and  South  are  too  widely  scattered  for  one  town,  like 
Manchester  in  the  English  cotton  district,  to  be  visited  frequently 
by  them  for  the  purpose  of  making  purchases  and  effecting  sales. 
Even  if  the  Americans  did  possess  a  convenient  commercial 
centre,  the  high  cost  of  transport  between  works  distributed  over 
a  very  wide  area  would  prevent  much  specialism  of  businesses  by 
processes  from  appearing.  Writing  capital  letters  for  industrial 
processes  and  small  letters  and  Greek  letters  for  commercial 
functions,  the  possible  arrangements  in  the  cotton  industry  may 
be  represented  broadly  as  follows,  brackets  indicating  the  scope  of 
businesses:4 

I.  (a,A,B,C,d) 

II.  (a)(A,B,C)(d). 

III.  (aAo)(bB0)(cC-y). 

IV. 


The  American  industry  approximates  to  the  first  type,  while 
the  English  approximates  rather  to  the  last.  Differences  in 
respect  of  specialism  by  range  of  product  are  not  shown  in  the 
formulae. 

Other  Parts  of  America.  —  Little  need  be  said  of  the  cotton  industry 
in  other  parts  of  the  New  World.  In  Canada  in  1909  there  were, 
approximately,  855,000  spindles,  and  in  Mexico  in  1906,  where  the  first 
factory  was  established  in  1834,  450,000  spindles.  In  Brazil  also 
there  is  an  appreciable  number  of  spindles,  distributed  (in  1895) 
among  134  factories,  which  are  located  chiefly  in  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Minas  Geraes,  and  are  run  for  the  most  part  by  turbines  and 
water-wheels. 

Germany.  —  In  Germany  the  cotton  industry  is  by  no  means  so 
intensely  localized  as  in  England,  but  three  large  districts  may  be 
distinguished  :  — 

1.  The  north-west  district,  which  consists  of  the  Rhine  Province 
and  Westphalia  and  contained  if  million  spindles  in  1901. 

2.  The  country  north  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  northern  Bohemia 
comprises  the  middle  district,  which  contained  2\  million  spindles  in 
1901.     In  Saxony  the  industry  has  been  carried  on  for  four  centuries. 

3.  Alsace,    Baden,    Wiirttemberg    and    Bavarian   Swabia  make 
up  the  south-west  district,  to  which  some  3^  million  spindles  were 
assigned.     It  is  in  close  proximity  to  the  cotton  districts  of  east 
France,  Switzerland  and  Vorarlberg. 

According  to  Oppel  (1902)  the  German  spinning  industry  is  chiefly 
localized  in  — 

Prussia  with  2020  thousand  spindles 
Saxony    „     1870          „  „ 

Alsace      „     1600          ,,  „ 

Bavaria    ,,     1390          „  „ 

The  spindles  of  Wurttemberg,  which  stands  next,  do  not  much 
exceed  half  a  million.  Only  sixteen  places  in  Germany  (shown  in 
tabular  form  on  p.  169)  contained  as  many  as  100,000  spindles  in  1901. 
The  history  of  the  hand  industry  in  Germany  runs  back  some 
centuries.  At  the  time  when  it  flourished  in  the  Netherlands 
we  may  be  sure  that  it  was  prosecuted  to  some  extent  farther 
north  and  east.  The  start  with  the  machine  industry  was  not  long 


4  Similar  formulae  have  been  used  above,  where  a  fuller  explana- 
tion is  given. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


297 


delayed  after  its  economies  had  been  learnt  in  England.  It  was 
fostered  by  protection  against  the  cheap  products  of  Lancashire, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  stimulated  by  every  step  taken  towards  the 
economic  unity  of  the  German  states  which  broke  down  local  barriers 


Spindles  in 
Thousands. 

Spindles  in 
Thousands. 

Miilhausen  . 
Augsburg     . 
Gronau  .... 
Werdau 
Rheydt        .      . 
Miinchen-Gladbach 
Rheine  .... 
Hof  

471 
373 
274 
249 
248 
216 
198 
196 

Chemnitz  . 
Gebweiler 
Leipzig 
Crimmitzschau     . 
Logelbach 
Bocholt     .      .      . 
Bamberg 
Bayreuth 

195 
187 
182 
168 
141 
128 
"5 

IOO 

and  therefore  enlarged  the  German  market.  Duties  upon  cotton 
goods,  however,  were  not  immoderately  high  until  the  measure  of 
1879,  the  policy  of  which  was  carried  to  a  further  stage  in  1885. 
Slight  reactions  were  brought  about  in  1888  and  1891,  largely  by  the 
complaints,  not  only  of  the  consumers  of  finished  goods,  but  also  of 
manufacturers  whose  costs  of  production  were  kept  up  by  the  high 
prices  of  home-spun  yarns  and  the  tax  on  imported  substitutes. 
According  to  the  investigations  made  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  the 
general  ad  valorem  impact  of  German  duties  on  British  goods  stood 
somewhat  as  follows  in  1902 : — 

Statement  showing  the  Average  Incidence  (ad  valorem)  of  the  Import  Duties  levied  by 
Germany  on  British  Cotton  Goods. 


Average  Value  of 
Exports  from  the 
United  Kingdom 
to  all  Countries 
in  1902. 

Rate  of  Duty 
estimated 
Equivalent. 

Approximate 
Equivalent 
Rate  of  Duty 
ad  valorem. 

Cotton  manufactures  — 
Piece  goods,  unbleached  . 
„        „      bleached 
„         „       printed 
„         „      dyed,  &c.    . 
Cotton  thread  for  sewing    . 
Cotton  yarn  — 
Grey    
Bleached  or  dyed 

2-oid.  per  yd. 
2-46d. 
2-68d. 

26-89d.  per  Ib 

lo-49d.       „ 
1  1  -23d. 

o-87d.  per  yd. 

i*3id.     ,, 
i'3id.     ,, 
3-8id.  per  Ib 

o-gSd.     „ 
I  -6sd.     „ 

Per  Cent. 
43 
44 
49 
38 
H 

9 
15 

The  duties  are  not  prohibitive — they  are  much  less  than  those  of 
the  United  States  at  the  same  time-^-but  they  are  heavy  on  the  classes 
of  goods  which  come  into  competition  with  home-made  goods.  The 
general  principle  of  the  tariff  is  to  treat  easiest  commodities  which 
are  made  with  least  success  at  home,  or  are  in  the  highest  degree 
raw  material  for  a  home  manufacture.  Therefore  yarns  are  not  taxed 
very  heavily,  and  of  these  the  finest  counts  escape  with  slight  dis- 
couragement. 

In  the  cotton  industry,  as  well  as  in  numerous  other  industries 
of  Germany,  almost  feverish  activity  was  shown  after  the  Franco- 
German  War.  Previously  great  advance  had  been  made,  but  it 
was  not  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth  century  that  Germany 
forced  herself  into  the  first  rank.  As  measured  by  the  annual 
consumption  of  cotton  the  German  industry  increased  as  follows : — 

Metric  Tons  of  Cotton  per  Annum. 

(In  Thousands.) 

1836-1840         9 

1856-1860 46 

1876-1880 124 

1886-1890 201 

1899-1903 .324 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  spindles  and  looms  of  Alsace  and 
Lorraine  were  reckoned  as  German  after  the  war:  they  amounted 
in  1895  to  one  and  a  half  million  spindles  and  nearly  forty  thousand 
looms. 

In  the  'seventies  there  was  no  dispute  as  to  England's  sub- 
stantial lead  in  respect  of  efficiency.  Alexander  Redgrave,  the  chief 
factory  inspector,  made  inquiries  on  the  continent  both  in  1873, 
when  Lancashire  was  anxious  as  to  the  comparative  cost  of  pro- 
duction abroad  because  of  the  short-time  bill  then  before  parliament, 
'and  previously,  and  reported  most  unfavourably  upon  the  state  of 
the  industry  in  Germany.  Hours  were  long,  the  skill  of  the  hands  was 
inferior,  speeds  were  low  and  time  was  wasted.  In  several  important 
respects  his  views  were  corroborated  by  M.  Taine  in  his  Notes  on 
England,  and  by  the  evidence  adduced  before  the  German  commission 
upon  the  cotton  and  linen  industries  in  1878.  A  marked  contrast  is 
noticeable  between  the  sketches  drawn  of  this  period  and  the  careful 
picture  presented  by  Professor  Schulze-Gaevernitz  of  the  early 
"nineties,"  but  even  in  the  latter  the  advantage  of  England  is 
represented  as  substantial  in  every  essential  respect.  The  gap 


which  existed  has  narrowed,  but  it  is  still  unmistakable.  To  give 
one  example,  according  to  Dr  Huber's  figures  there  were  in  Saxony 
at  the  end  of  the  igth  century  106  spindles  to  an  operative  and  about 
as  many  weavers  as  looms,  whereas  in  England  there  were  about 
twice  as  many  spindles  to  an  operative  and  twice  as  many  looms 
as  persons  engaged  in  weaving  sheds.1  As  regards  manufacturing, 
the  character  of  the  product  may  partly  explain  the  difference, 
but  it  will  not  entirely.  The  reader  need  hardly  be  warned  that  the 
comparison  drawn  is  exceedingly  rough.  German  cotton  operatives 
taken  all  round  are  certainly  less  efficient  than  English  labour  of  the 
same  kind.  The  reason  is  partly  that  the  proportion  of  the  German 
workpeople  who  have  been  for  long  specialized  to  the  industry, 
and  took  forward  to  continuing  in  it  all  their  lives,  is  not  high. 
Complaint  is  constantly  made  of  the  number  of  vacancies  created 
in  the  mills  each  year  by  operatives  leaving,  and  of  the  impossibility 
of  filling  them  with  experienced  hands.  Many  of  the  vacancies 
are  caused  by  the  return  of  workpeople  to  the  country  parts. 
Sometimes  the  mills  are  in  the  country,  or  within  easy  reach  of  it, 
and  labour  is  obtained  from  the  unoccupied  members  of  peasants' 
families.  In  these  cases  the  factories  do  not  always  succeed  in 
attracting  the  most  capable  people,  and  work  in  the  factory  is  not 
infrequently  looked  upon  as  a  makeshift  to  supplement  a  family's 
earnings.  Among  Lancashire  operatives  far  more  pride  of  occupation 
may  be  met  with.  In  many  of  the  industrial  parts  of  Germany 
English  conditions  are  evolving,  but  they  are  not  generally  the  rule. 
An  American  consul  may  be  taken  to  report  to  his  own  country 
without  prejudice  as  to  the  rival  merits  of  German  and  English 
conditions :  one  such  wrote  in  1901 : — "  The  task  of  educating  labour 
up  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  is  difficult,  and 
many  generations  are  necessary  to  achieve  that 
result.  The  English  cotton  spinners  have  attained 
such  a  degree  of  skill  and  intelligence  that,  for  the 
most  part,  no  supervision  is  necessary. '  In  Germany 
the  presence  of  a  technical  overseer  is  indispensable. 
Another  advantage  which  England  enjoys  is  the 
cheap  price  of  machinery.  Germany  imports  the 
major  part  of  her  machinery  from  England,  and 
German  wholesale  dealers  in  these  machines  have 
not  been  able,  by  placing  large  orders,  to  overcome 
the  difference  caused  by  freight  and  tariff." 
Wages  reflect  the  efficiencies  of  countries,  not  of 
course  perfectly,  but  in  some  degree.  They  are 
much  higher  in  Lancashire  than  in  Germany,  as  is 
made  evident  by  an  article  from  the  pen  of  Professor 
Hasbach  in  Schmollers  Jahrbuch  (vol.  ii.,  1903). 
The  author  tries  to  show  that  Germany  is  not  so 
far  behind  England  industrially  as  is  generally 
believed,  and  the  contrast  drawn  by  him,  greatly  to 
the  advantage  of  Lancashire,  is  not  likely  to  ex- 
aggerate the  superiority  of  English  conditions.  It  is  calculated  by 
Professor  Hasbach  that  the  daily  wages  of  spinners  are  about 
5/10  to  6/  at  Oldham,  6/6  at  Bolton  and  5/6  in  Stalybridge  and 
neighbouring  places.  With  these  he  compares  the  V7O  to  3-80 
marks  paid  in  the  Rhine  Province  and  Leipzig,  and  the  3  to  3-15 
marks  paid  in  the  Vogtland,  Bavaria  and  Alsace,  and  mentions 
an  exceptionally  high  wage  of  4§  marks,  which  was  earned  by 
an  operative  who  worked  a  new  and  long  doubling  mule.  The 
wage  paid  to  the  big  piecer  in  England,  Dr  Hasbach  goes  on  to 
show,  is  not  much  greater  than  that  received  by  a  good  assistant 
in  Germany.  This  comparison  as  it  stands  will  probably  give 
some  readers  an  idea  that  English  advantages  are  greater  than  they 
actually  are,  because  it  may  be  overlooked  that  the  great  difference 
between  wages  in  the  case  of  English  and  German  spirtners 
is  not  repeated  among  the  piecers.  Taking  a  spinner  and  his  first 
assistant  as  the  unit,  we  should  have  a  joint  average  daily  wage  of 
about  8/6  in  England  and  6/  in  Germany.  In  the  case  of  weavers, 
comparison  of  wages  is  more  difficult  to  draw,  but  the  advantage  of 
England  would  seem  to  be  but  little  less.  However,  in  instituting 
a  comparison  between  two  countries,  as  regards  the  relative  efficiency 
of  labour  in  some  industries,  we  should  do  well  to  remind  ourselves 
that  efficiency  is  a  somewhat  transitory  thing,  dependent  upon 
education  and  experience  as  much  as  upon  aptitude.  In  respect  of 
the  capacity  of  labour  for  the  task  required  in  the  cotton  industry, 
we  could  not  (writing  in  1907)  make  the  statement  that  England 
leads  significantly  with  the  assurance  with  which  we  can  assert  her 
superiority  in  respect  of  present  attainments.  The  cotton  industry 
has  not  been  prosecuted  on  a  large  scale  in  Germany  so  long  as  in 
England,  and  the  Germans  have  not,  therefore,  had  the  same 
opportunity  for  developing  their  latent  powers.  But  the  thoughtful- 
ness  and  carefulness  of  the  German  workman  are  beyond  dispute, 
and  these  qualities  will  procure  for  him  a  leading  place  where  work 
is  not  mechanical.  Already  in  the  cotton  industry  it  is  said  that 
the  operatives  are  displaying  quite  striking  powers  of  undertaking 
a  wide  range  of  work  and  changing  easily  from  one  pattern  toanother. 
Hence  German  firms  feel  little  hesitation  in  taking  small  orders  on 
special  designs;  they  do  not  experience  any  great  difficulty  in 
getting  their  factors  accommodated  to  produce  the  required  articles. 
Apart  from  the  efficiency  of  labour,  reasons  exist  for  the  lower 

1  Deutschland  als  Industrie  stoat. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


real  cost  of  production  in  England  in  the  organization  of  the  industry. 
The  German  industry  is  not  only  less  localized,  but,  as  we  might 
perhaps  infer  from  that  circumstance,  less  specialized.  A  German 
factory  will  turn  out  scores  of  patterns  where  an  English  firm  will 
confine  itself  to  a  few  specialities.  Time  is  wasted  in  accommodating 
machinery  to  changes  and  in  accustoming  the  hands  to  new  work. 
The  German  producer  suffers  from  the  undeveloped  state  of  the 
market.  In  England  specialized  markets  with  specialized  dealers 
have  greatly  assisted  producers  both  in  their  buying  and  selling. 
A  German  manufacturer  may  have  to  find  his  customers  as  the 
English  manufacturer  need  not;  at  least,  so  Professor  Schulze- 
Gaevernitz  has  assured  us,  and  conditions  have  not  been  wholly 
transformed  since  he  made  his  careful  analysis.  He  wrote: — "  But 
especially  disadvantageous  is  the  decentralization  in  respect  to  the 
sale.  Here  also  the  German  manufacturer  stands  under  the  same 
disadvantages  with  which  the  English  had  to  struggle  in  the 
'thirties.  The  German  manufacturer  still  seeks  his  customers 
through  travellers  and  agents,  and  in  many  instances  through  retail 
sellers,  whose  financial  standing  is  of  ten  questionable,  whose  necessity 
for  credit  is  always  certain.  Hence  the  complaints  about  the  bad 
conditions  of  payment  in  Germany  which  crop  up  continually  in  the 
enqutte.  The  manufacturers  had  to  wait  three,  four  or  six  months, 
and  even  twelve  months  and  longer  for  payment.  In  reality  there 
existed  '  termless  terms,'  a  '  complete  anarchy  in  the  method  of 
payment.'  .  .  .  The  manufacturer  cannot  be  at  the  same  time 
commission  agent,  banker,  merchant  and  retail  dealer;  he  needs 
sound  customers  capable  of  paying.  He  fares  best  if  the  sale  is 
concentrated  in  one  market,  and  '  change  '  prices  simplify  the 
struggle  between  buyer  and  seller.  The  search  for  customers, 
foreign  as  well  as  home,  and  the  bearing  of  all  possible  risks  of 
disposal,  are  in  any  case  difficult  enough  to  necessitate  the  whole 
strength  of  a  man.  The  wholesale  merchant  alone  is  in  a  position 
to  pay  the  manufacturer  in  cash  or  on  sure,  short  terms.  But 
especially  where  export  is  in  question  is  the  dispersal  of  sales  an 
extreme  impediment.  The  manufacturer  cannot  follow  the  fashions 
in  Australia  and  South  America;  the  foreign  buyer  cannot  travel 
from  mill  to  mill." 

It  is  the  want  of  commercial  development  in  Germany  which 
accounts  for  the  more  frequent  combination  of  weaving  and  spinning 
there  than  in  England.  But  in  Germany  to-day  economic  enterprise 
is  flourishing,  and  commercial  development  may  confidently  be 
looked  for  together  with  advance  in  other  directions.  It  is  not  many 
years  since  the  typical  German  cotton  factory  was  comparatively 
primitive;  now  mills  can  be  exhibited  which  might  have  been 
erected  recently  in  Oldham.  Between  the  early  'eighties  and  the 
'nineties  the  expansion  of  the  German  industry  was  enormous — 
the  imports  of  cotton-wool  rose  by  nearly  70  % — yet  the  number  of 
spinning-mills  was  actually  reduced  from  6750  to  2450,  while  the 
number  of  weaving-sheds  fell  from  56,200  to  32,750.  At  the  same 
time  the  factories  devoted  to  mixed  goods  declined  from  25,200  to 
less  than  16,350.  From  these  figures  we  may  gather  how  rapidly 
the  average  size  of  mills  and  weaving-sheds  enlarged  in  the  period. 
One  cause,  no  doubt,  was  that  improved  economies  in  the  new 
businesses  forced  antiquated  factories  to  shut  down  and  make  way 
for  still  newer  erections.  There  were  recently  about  twice  as  many 
persons  engaged  in  weaving  as  in  spinning,  but  the  largest  numbers 
of  all-y-sligntly  in  excess  of  those  in  weaving-sheds — were  the  persons 
occupied  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton-lace,  trimmings,  &c.  As  we 
might  imagine,  Germany's  exports  of  cotton  goods  are  not  high. 
Including  yarns  they  amounted  to  £13-7  million  per  annum  in 
1899-1903.  In  order  of  value  their  largest  exports  are  (l)  coloured 
goods,  (2)  hosiery,  (3)  lace  and  embroidery,  (4)  yarns,  and  (5) 
trimmings,  &c. 

France. — Into  the  industrial  conditions  of  the  two  leading  rivals 
of  England  we  have  entered  in  some  detail;  the  state  of  affairs 
in  the  rest  of  the  world  must  be  dealt  with  more  briefly.  Of  France 
more  ought  to  be  said  than  we  can  find  place  for,  though  in  respect 
of  the  magnitude  of  her  cotton  industry,  as  measured  by  the  quantity 
of  spindles,  she  stands  now  not  fourth,  but  fifth,  Russia  taking 
precedence.  But  the  work  of  the  French  is  incomparably  superior 
to  anything  that  is  turned  out  from  Russia.  France  suffered  a 
severe  blow  when  the  industry  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  was  lost  to 
Germany,  but  the  inexhaustible  originality  of  French  design  will 
always  secure  for  her  goods  a  place  in  the  first  rank.  As  regards 
artistic  results  France  leads,  but  the  real  cost  of  her  spinning  and 
weaving  cannot  approach  in  lowness  that  of  Lancashire.  After 
costly  strikes  the  French  workmen  have  succeeded  in  shortening 
their  hours  to  ten  and  a  half  a  day;  and  here  it  may  be  remarked 
that  the  International  Association  of  Textile  Operatives  tends  to 
equate  continental  industrial  conditions  to  those  of  England.  The 
French  industry  has  been  fostered  by  tariffs.  When  the  Board  of 
Trade  calculation  was  made,  French  tariffs  were  found  to  bear  upon 
British  cotton  goods  with  about  the  same  severity  as  those  of 
Germany,  except  that  the  former  treated  more  hardly  yarns  and 
cotton  thread  for  sewing.  French  protectionism  has  kept  down  her 
exports ;  such  as  they  are  the  majority  proceed  now  to  her  colonies. 
Normandy,  the  north  and  east,  in  order,  are  the  chief  seats  of  the 
industry.  In  Normandy  the  leading  city  is  Rouen,  and  Darnetal, 
Marpmme,  Sotteville,  Havre,  Yvetot,  Dieppe,  Evreux,  Gisors, 
Falaise  and  Flers  are  important  places.  The  north  contains  the 


important  towns  of  Lille,  Tourcoing,  Roubaix,  St  Quentin,  Amiens 
and  Hellemmes.  The  Vosges  is  the  chief  district  of  the  east,  and  the 
leading  towns  are  Epinal,  St  Die,  Remiremont,  Senones,  Val  d'Ajpl, 
Cornimont  and  La  Bresse.  The  following  towns  which  are  not  in- 
cluded in  any  of  the  districts  mentioned  above  are  also  noteworthy : — 
Troyes,  Nantes,  Cholet,  Laval,  Tarare,  Roanne,  Thizy  and  Ville- 
franche  upon  the  Sa&ne.  Cotton  arrives  at  Havre  and  Marseilles; 
at  the  latter  chiefly  the  product  of  Egypt  and  the  East.  Havre 
used  to  be  the  most  important  cotton  port  in  continental  Europe, 
but  to-day  more  spindles  are  fed  from  Bremen  than  from  Havre. 
France's  consumption  of  cotton  annually  in  the  period  1899-1903 
was  215,000  metric  tons. 

Russia. — Power-spinning  was  carried  into  Russia  by  Ludwig 
Knoop,  who  had  learnt  the  trade  in  Manchester,  and  to  his  efforts 
its  early  success  was  due.  The  growth,  largely  the  result  'of  very 
heavy  protectionism — according  to  the  Board  of  Trade  report, 
from  50  to  more  than  100%  more  severe  than  that  of  Germany, — 
has  been  rapid,  as  the  following  table  bears  witness: — 

Average  yearly  Importation  of  Cotton  wool  and 
Yarn  into  Russia. 


The  chiel 

Raw  Cotton  in 
thousand  tons. 

Cotton  Yarn  in 
thousand  tons. 

1824-1826 
1836-1838 
1842-1844 
1848-1850 
1889-1891 
1899-1903 

•  "9 

4-6 
8-4 
21-4 
117-4 
1  80-0 

5-4 

IO-I 

9-5 
4-5 
3'4 
2-9 

Table  showing  approximately  the  Growth  of 
Spindles  and  Looms  in  Russia. 

Spindles. 

Looms. 

1857 
1877 
1887 
1900 
1909 

1,000,000 

4,000,000 
6,000,000 
7,800,000 

55,ooo 
85,000 
146,000 

districts  were  the  following  in  1900:  — 

Government. 

Factories. 

Spindles 
(in  thousands). 

Looms 
(in  thousands). 

Moscow     .... 
Vladimir    .... 
Piotrkov    .... 
St  Petersburg 
Jaroslaw     .... 
Kostroma  .... 
Tver     
Esthonia     .... 
Ryazan       .... 
Elsewhere 

56 
67 
25 
24 
4 
25 
6 
I 
4 
15 

1295 

1224 

745 
1074 

347 
274 
348 
440 
146 
198 

33 
42 
20 
ii 

2 
2O 

9 

2 

3 

4 

Total      .      . 

227 

6091 

146 

Fine  spinning  has  been  attempted  only  recently.  Generally 
speaking  70*5  used  to  be  the  upper  limit,  but  now  counts  up  to  I4p's 
are  tried,  though  the  bulk  of  the  output  is  coarse  yarn.  The  in- 
efficiency of  the  labour  was  made  abundantly  plain  by  Dr  Schulze- 
Gaevernitz  in  his  economic  study  of  Russia,  and  conditions  have  not 
greatly  altered  for  the  better  since.  Roughly,  170,000  operatives 
worked  6,000,000  spindles  in  1900,  which  means  35  spindles  per  head 
as  compared  with  more  than  100  in  Saxony  and  more  than  200  in 
England.  In  weaving  the  ratio  of  operatives  to  machinery  worked 
out  at  about  one  loom  to  each  weaver,  which  is  comparatively  much 
less  unfavourable  to  Russia.  The  proportion  in  Saxony  is  about  the 
same,  but  in  England  the  average  approaches  two  looms  to  a  weaver. 
The  speed  of  machinery  cannot  be  compared,  and  we  must  remember 
that  the  above  contrasts  are  rough  only,  and  made  without  regard  to 
differences  of  product.  Russia  is  encouraging  the  growth  of  cotton 
at  home.  It  is  of  very  inferior  quality,  but  100,000  tons  from  the 
provinces  of  central  Asia  and  Trans-Caucasia  were  used  in  1900: 
her  imports  in  the  same  year  were  about  170,000  tons. 

Switzerland. — Swiss  spindles  advanced  until  the  early  "  "seventies," 
but  a  decline  followed.  Details  are : — 


1830 
1850 
1876 
1883 
1898 
1909  (estimated) 


400,000 
950,000 
i  ,854,000 
1,809,000 
1,704,000 
1,500,000 


The  falling  off  is  occasioned  mainly  by  (a)  the  developing  indus- 
trialism of  the  rest  of  Europe,  notably  Germany,  and  (b)  the  diminish- 
ing importance  of  the  natural  advantage  of  water-power  with  the 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


299 


improvement  of  steam-engines.  Swiss  yarns  have  been  kept  out  of 
continental  markets  in  the  interests  of  home  spinning.  Now  fancy 
cotton  goods,  laces  and  trimmings  are  the  leading  specialities  of  the 
Swiss  textile  workers.  About  half  the  Swiss  spindles  are  in  the 
canton  of  Zurich,  between  a  quarter  and  a  third  in  Glarus,  about  the 
same  in  St  Gall  and  9  %  in  Aargau.  Figures  show  that  the  average 
size  of  the  Swiss  mill  is  small.  The  average  spindles  to  a  mill  were 
22,000,  and  very  few  mills  held  more  than  50,000  spindles.  Some 
9000  of  the  power-looms  are  in  Zurich,  some  4500  in  Glarus  and  4000 
in  St  Gall.  Wald  in  the  south-east  of  the  canton  of  Zurich  is  an 
important  centre  of  the  muslin  manufacture. 

Austria. — Austria  contains  about  4,200,000  spindles  and  more 
yarn  is  consumed  than  it  produces,  as  on  balance  there  is  an  excess 
of  imports  of  yarn.  Bohemia,  lower  Austria,  Tirol  and  Vorarlberg 
account  for  the  mass  of  Austrian  spinning.  The  following  details 
relating  to  these  districts  recently  are  of  interest : — 


Mills. 

Spindles. 

Average 
spindles 
to  a  mill. 

Bohemia    

82 

1,870,000 

22,8oo 

Lower  Austria 
Tirol  and  Vorarlberg 

23 
20 

460,000 
435.o<w 

20,000 
21,700 

Reichenberg  and  the  surrounding  district  is  the  chief  manufacturing 
place :  here  are  more  than  80,000  looms,  nearly  a  half  of  which  are 
hand-looms. 

Italy. — Recent  industrial  growth  in  Italy  is  remarkable :  statistics 
of  spindles  since  1870  are  as  follows,  but  the  percentage  of  error  is 
probably  high: — 

1870  .  .  .  500,000 
1888  .  .  .  900,000 
1898  .  .  .  2,100,000 
1909  .  .  .  4,000,000 

The  distribution  of  spindles  is  roughly  as  follows: — 
Lpmbardy  ....  1,850,000 
Piedmont  ....  1,000,000 

Venetia 550,000 

Campania        ....        250,000 

Liguria 250,000 

Tuscany 100,000 

The  distribution  of  spindles  and  power-looms  in  the  chief  manu- 
facturing towns  in  Italy  is  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


Turin    . 
Bergamo    . 
Como    . 
Milan   . 
Novara 

Spindles. 
470,000 
450,000 
250,000 
660,000 
410,000 

Genoa  . 
Salerno 
Brescia 
Naples. 
Udine  .      .      . 

Spindles. 
210,000 
150,000 
310,000 
100,000 
240,000 

Milan   . 
Turin    . 
Novara 
Genoa  . 

Power- 
Looms. 
40,000 

22,000 

13,000 
6,000 

Pisa      .      .      . 
Como  . 
Bergamo    . 
Udine  . 

Power- 
Looms. 
2,500 
6,000 
13,000 
3,5oo 

The  district  between  Milan  and  Lago  Maggiore  contains  numerous 
villages  devoted  to  the  cotton  industry.  Many  of  the  factories  in  the 
province  of  Bergamo  are  situated  in  the  Valle  Seriana,  which  is 
endowed  with  abundant  water-power.  In  this  district  coarse  and 
medium  yarns  and  grey  cloth  are  the  chief  products.  I  n  the  province 
of  Milan  there  are  several  small  towns,  notably  Gallarate,  Busto 
Arsizio  and  Monza,  in  which  the  manufacture  of  coloured  and  fancy 
goods  is  extensively  carried  on.  The  finest  spinning  in  Italy  is  done 
in  Turin.  The  coarsest  spinning  is  done  in  Venetia. 

The  Netherlands. — In  1805  the  cotton  industry  was  reintroduced 
into  the  Netherlands  from  England  in  its  factory  form.  Seventeen 
mules  bearing  16,000  spindles  are  said  to  have  been  smuggled  across 
the  channel,  while  forty  Englishmen  were  enticed  over  to  work  them, 
in  spite  of  English  legal  prohibitions.  Li^vin  Bauwens  was  the 
prime  mover  of  the  achievement.  Expansion  rapidly  followed,  and 
in  1892  Belgian  spindles  numbered  nearly  a  million.  Since  then  a 
decline  has  set  in.  Ghent,  with  about  600,000  spindles,  is  the  only 
really  important  place:  no  other  place  has  as  many  as  50,000. 
Holland  possesses  about  417,000  spindles:  the  leading  district  is 
Twente  and  the  leading  town  Enschede ;  Twente  contains  also  about 
20,000  power-looms.  Rotterdam  is  the  chief  cotton  port ;  Amster- 
dam, always  a  far-away  second,  has  lost  place  still  further  of  late. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — The  greatness  of  Spain  in  the  cotton  in- 
dustry lies  buried  in  the  remote  past,  but  of  late  she  has  awakened 
somewhat,  with  the  result  that  her  spindles  now  number  about 
1,853,000.  Catalonia  is  the  chief  province  where  the  industry  is 
carried  on,  and  Barcelona  surpasses  all  other  centres.  Portugal 
possesses  nearly  half  a  million  spindles  (the  bulk  in  Lisbon  and 
Oporto),  many  of  which  have  appeared  since  1894. 


The  Rest  of  Europe. — Of  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  Greece  and 
Macedonia  no  special  mention  need  be  made,  nor  of  other  parts  where 
the  cotton  industry  may  just  exist.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  that 
among  the  scattered  rural  populations  of  many  parts  of  the  continent, 
even  in  such  advanced  countries  as  France  and  Germany,  hand- 
looms  are  still  to  be  found  in  large  numbers. 

India. — The  hand-cotton-industry  has  been  carried  on  in 
India  since  the  earliest  times,  and  for  many  years  English  fabrics 
were  protected  against  the  all-cottons  of  India.  Soon  after  the 
introduction  of  spinning  by  rollers,  English  all-cottons  began  to 
rival  the  Indian  in  quality  as  well  as  in  cost.  A  large  export  trade 
to  India  has  grown  up,  but  Indian  hand-loom  weavers  stiff  ply  their 
craft.  In  1851  power-spinning  was  started,  and  by  1876  there  were 
in  India  1,000,000  spindles.  Since  then  they  have  nearly  reached  six 
millions  and  importations  of  yarn  have  been  significantly  affected. 
The  growth  of  Indian  power-spinning,  which  is  almost  entirely  of  the 
ring  variety,  was  attributed  by  some  to  the  depreciation  of  the  rupee 
after  1873,  but  the  fall  in  the  value  of  the  rupee  was  stopped  in  1893 
and  the  competition  continued.  The  real  explanation,  no  doubt, 
is  that  at  the  cost  of  Indian  labour  it  is  found  cheaper  to  import 
machinery  and  coal  than  to  export  or  cease  to  grow  cotton  and 
import  yarn.  This  was  the  conclusion  of  the  majority  report  of  the 
committee  of  the  Manchester  Chamber  of  Commerce,  which  made 
an  inquiry  into  Bombay  and  Lancashire  spinning  in  1888.  Besides, 
as  regards  Indian  exports  to  China,  the  remission  in  1875  of  the  3% 
export  duty  on  yarns  must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  efficiency  of 
labour  in  India  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  that  of  Lancashire 
operatives.  Recently  complaint  has  been  made  that  Indian  mills 
are  being  run  inhumanely  long  hours  with  the  same  set  of  labour, 
and  that  child-labour  is  being  abused,  both  legally  and  illegally — 
legally  as  regards  children  over  fourteen  who  are  classed  as  adults. 
The  working  of  heavy  hours  began  with  the  electric  lighting  of  the 
mills;  previously  all  shut  down  at  sunset  largely  because  of  the  cost 
of  illumination.  The  outcry  which  has  been  raised  is,  perhaps, 
sufficient  guarantee  that  the  worst  evils  will  be  remedied.  Indian 
spinning,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  still  very  coarse  as  a  rule, 
though  some  fine  work  is  attempted  and  the  average  of  counts  spun 
is  rising.  Though  there  are  about  a  ninth  as  many  spindles  in 
India  as  in  the  United  Kingdom,  there  are  only  about  one-fifteenth 
as  many  power-looms,  46,400  in  all,  to  which  figure  they  rose  between 
1891  and  1904  from  24,700.  The  reason  for  the  paucity  of  power- 
looms  is  probably  two-fold,  (i)  the  low  cost  of  production  of  Lanca- 
shire weavers,  and  (2)  the  habit  of  hand-loom  weaving  which  is  fixed 
in  the  Indian  people.  A  rapid  increase  of  power-looms  is,  however, 
observable.  The  hand-loom  industry  is  gigantic,  particularly  in  the 
Madras  Presidency  and  the  Central  Provinces;  in  the  latter  district 
alone  there  were  estimated  to  be  150,000  hand-looms  in  1883.  The 
following  details  relating  to  the  Indian  cotton  industry  are  supplied 
officially : — 

Cotton  Mills  in  India,  including  Mills  in  Native  States  and 
French  India. 


Mills. 

1897-1898. 

1903-1904. 

Mills  (number)       
Capital  (thousand  £s)   .... 
Looms  (number)    
Spindles  (thousands)     .... 
Persons  employed  (daily  average) 
Yarn  produced:  — 
Counts  (i  to  20  thousand  lb)  . 
Counts  (above  „         „         ,,) 

164 
648 
36,946 
4-219 
148.753 

400,384 
62,212 

204 
1,067 
46,421 

5.213 
186,271 

474.509 
104,250 

Total  ft  . 

462,596 

578,759 

Yarn  produced:  — 
Bombay  (thousand  lb) 
Bengal           „             
Madras          „             ,, 
United  Provinces  (including  Ajmere- 
Merwara)  (thousand  lb) 
Central  Provinces  (thousand  ft)     . 
Punjab            „              „ 
Elsewhere       ,,              „          „ 

324.649 
44,807 

32.516 

26.747 
«  8,334 

(>,(x>7 

8,936 

414.932 
46,487 
28,714 

29.930 
24.549 
•1,578 
22,569 

Total  ft  . 

462,596 

578,759 

Woven  goods:  — 
Grey  (thousand  ft)    . 
Others       ,,           „      . 

83,136 

8.IS2 

111494 

26.SSO 

Total  ft  . 

91,288 

138,044 

China.  —In  China  spinning  has  not  met  with  the  same  success  as 
India,  and  power-manufacturine  has  not  yet  obtained  a  sure  footing. 
The  ingrained  conservatism  of  the  Chinese  temperament  is  no  doubt 
a  leading  cause.  Of  the  spindles  in  China — about  600,000  in  all — 
from  a  half  to  three-fifths  are  in  Shanghai.  The  following  details 


300 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE 


relating  to  the  inception  of  the  power-industry  are  quoted  from  a 
Diplomatic  and  Consular  Report  of  1905: — 

"The  initial  experiment  on  modern  lines  was  made  in  1891,  when 
a  semi-official  Chinese  syndicate  started  at  Shanghai — the  Chinese 
Cotton  Cloth  Mill  and  the  Chinese  Cotton  Spinning  Company.  Its 
originators  claimed  for  themselves  a  quasi-monopoly,  and  prohibited 
outsiders  who  were  not  prepared  to  pay  a  fixed  royalty  for  the  privi- 
lege from  engaging  in  similar  undertakings.  Although  certain 
Chinese  accepted  this  onerous  condition,  foreigners  resented  it  as 
an  undue  interference.with  their  treaty  rights,  and  it  was  only  when 
Japan,  in  1895,  after  her  war  with  China,  inserted  in  the  treaty  of 
Shimonoseki  an  article  providing  for  the  freedom  of  Japanese  sub- 
jects to  engage  in  all  kinds  of  manufacturing  industries  in  the  open 
ports  of  China,  and  permitting  them  to  import  machinery  for  such 
purposes,  that  outsiders  were  afforded  an  opportunity  of  exploiting 
the  rich  field  for  commercial  development  thereby  thrown  open. 
Accordingly,  so  soon  as  the  Japanese  treaty  came  into  force  no  time 
was  lost  in  turning  this  particular  clause  to  account,  and  the  erection 
of  no  less  than  n  mills — Chinese  and  foreign — was  taken  in  hand. 
At  that  time  the  pioneer  mill,  which  was  burnt  to  the  ground  in 
October  1893,  but  subsequently  rebuilt,  and  other  Chinese-owned 
mills  were  together  working  some  120,000  spindles  and  850  looms." 

By  1905  the  mills  increased  to  17,  the  spindles  to  620,000  and 
the  looms  to  2250,  but  there  is  little  inclination  to  expansion. 
Yarns  for  the  hand-looms  are  obtained  primarily  from  India  and 
secondarily  from  Japan.  The  following  are  the  recent  figures  relating 
to  imported  yarns: — 

In  million  Ib 


1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

British 

9-1 

7-8 

4-1 

7-0 

4-3 

2-2 

Indian 

186-7 

254-2 

I3I-5 

228-9 

251-6 

250-8 

Japanese  . 
Hong-Kong   . 

64-7 

104-0 

62-9 

66-4 
•7 

69-7 
•8 

IIO-9 
1-2 

Tongkinese    . 

•• 

•OI 

Total     .      . 

260-5 

366-0 

198-5 

303-0 

326-4 

365-I 

Japan. — If  in  China  the  factory  cotton  industry  reveals  no  pros- 
pects as  yet  of  a  great  future,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  Japan. 

The  chief  centres  of  spinning  with  their  outputs  in  value  of  yarn 
for  a  year  at  the  beginning  of  the  2Oth  century  are  stated  beneath : 


Thousands. 

Thousands. 

£    s. 

i    s. 

Osaka 

1226-5 

Nara   . 

in-5 

Hyogo 
Okayama 

495-5 
374-4 

Hiroshima 
Kyoto 

9i-3 

82-2 

Miye  . 

238-1 

Wakayama    . 

79-2 

Tokyo 

227-9 

Ehime 

7°-5 

Aichi  . 

224-3 

Kajawa    . 

36-4 

Fukuoka  . 

168-1 

The  following  table  gives  other  valuable  information : — 


Japanese  work  has  been  severely  criticized,  but  the  recency  of  the 
introduction  of  the  cotton  industry  must  not  be  forgotten. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  literature  relating  to  the  cotton  industry 
is  enormous.  The  most  complete  bibliographies  will  be  found  in 
Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry  (where  short  descriptions  of 
the  several  works  included,  which  relate  only  to  the  United  King- 
dom, are  given) ;  Hammond's  Cotton  Culture  and  Trade;  and  OppePs 
Die  Baumwolle.  The  list  of  books  set  forth  here  must  be  select  only. 

The  development  of  the  English  industry  can  be  traced  through 
the  following: — Aikin,  A  Description  of  the  Country  from  Thirty 
to  Forty  Miles  round  Manchester  (1795);  Andrew,  Fifty  Years' 
Cotton  Trade  (1887);  Baines,  History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in 
Great  Britain  (1835);  Banks,  A  Short  Sketch  of  the  Cotton  Trade  of 
Preston  for  the last  Sixty-Seven  Kearj  (1888);  Butterworth,  Historical 
Sketches  of  Oldham  (1847  or  1848);  Butterworth,  An  Historical 
Account  of  the  Towns  of  Ashton-under-Lyne,  Stalybridse  and  Dukin- 
field  (1842) ;  Chapman,  The  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry  (1904) ; 
Cleland,  Description  of  the  City  of  Glasgow  (1840);  A  Complete 
History  of  the  Cotton  Trade,  &fc.,  by  a  person  concerned  in  trade 
(1823);  Ellison,  The  Cotton  Trade  of  Great  Britain  including  a 
History  of  the  Liverpool  Cotton  Market  and  of  the  Liverpool  Cotton 
Brokers'  Association  (1886);  L£on  Faucher,  Etudes  sur  Angleterre 
(1845);  French,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Samuel  Grampian  (1859); 
Guest,  A  Compendious  History  of  the  Cotton-manufacture,  with  a 
Disproval  of  the  Claim  of  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  to  the  Invention  of  its 
Ingenious  Machinery  (1823);  Guest,  The  British  Cotton  Manufacture 
and  a  Reply  to  the  Article  on  Spinning  Machinery,  contained  in  a 
recent  Number  of  the  Edinburgh  Review  (1828) ;  Helm,  Chapters  in  the 
History  of  the  Manchester  Chamber  of  Commerce  (1902);  Kennedy, 
Miscellaneous  Papers  on  Subjects  connected  with  the  Manufactures 
of  Lancashire  (1849);  Ogden,  A  Description  of  Manchester  .  .  .  with 
a  Succinct  History  of  its  former  original  Manufactories,  and  their 
Gradual  Advancement  to  the  Present  State  of  Perfection  at  which  they 
are  arrived,  by  a  Native  of  the  Town  (1783) ;  Radcliffe,  Origin  of  the 
New  System  of  Manufacture,  commonly  called  "  Power-Loom  Weav- 
ing "  and  the  Purposes  for  which  this  System  was  invented  and  brought 
into  use,  fully  explained  in  a  Narrative  concerning  William  Radcliffe' s 
Struggles  through  Life  to  remove  the  Cause  which  has  brought  this 
Country  to  its  Present  Crisis  (1828);  Rees"  Cyclopaedia,  articles  on 
Cotton  (1808),  Spinning  (1816)  and  Weaving  (1818);  Ure,  The 
Cotton  Manufacture  of  Great  Britain,  investigated  and  illustrated,  with 
an  Introductory  View  of  its  Comparative  State  in  Foreign  Countries 
(2  vols.);  Ure,  The  Philosophy  of  Manufacture;  or  An  Exposition 
of  the  Scientific,  Moral  and  Commercial  Economy  of  the  Factory 
System  of  Great  Britain  (1835);  Watts,  Facts  of  the  Cotton  Famine 
(1866);  Wheeler,  Manchester:  its  Political,  Social  and  Commercial 
History,  Ancient  and  Modern  (1836). 

In  addition  there  are  many  short  papers  in  the  Manchester  public 
library.  Much  valuable  information  may  be  obtained  from  parlia- 
mentary papers;  a  list  of  relevant  ones  is  printed  as  an  appendix 
to  Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry,  but  it  is  too  lengthy  to 
repeat  here.  The  most  important  are  the  reports  relating  to  the 
hand-loom  weavers,  those  on  the  employment  of  children  in  factories 
(of  which  a  list  will  be  found  in  Hutchms  and  Harrison's  History  of 
the  Factory  Legislation),  and  the  state  of  trade  and  the  annual  reports 
of  the  factory  inspectors.  On  labour  questions  there  is  a  list  of 
authorities  in  Chapman's  Lancashire  Cotton  Industry  and  also  of 


Year. 

Gross 
Amount 
of  Capital 
invested. 

Average 
Number 
of 
Spindles, 
used  daily. 

Quantity 
of  Raw 
and 
Ginned 
Cotton 
demanded. 

Total 
Production 
of  Cotton 
Yarn. 

Average 
Number 
of  Male 
Opera- 
tives daily 
employed. 

Average 
Number 
of  Female 
Opera- 
tives daily 
employed. 

Annual 
Working 
Days. 

Daily 
Working 
Hours. 

Average 
Daily 
Wage 
of  Male 
Opera- 
tives. 

Average 
Daily 
Wage  of 
Female 
Opera- 
tives. 

1892-1894 
1900-1902 

1903 
1904 

Thousand  £ 
1123 
3569 
3441 
3470 

Thousands. 
420 
1209 
1290 
1306 

Million  Ib. 
112-9 
335-3 
375-5 
332-1 

Million  Ib. 

97-9 
288-0 

322-7 
285-9 

6,916 

!3.373 
13,160 
10,967 

21,695 

50.271 
57-166 

52,115 

290 

312 
308 
309 

22 

19 

20 

20 

4d.  to  4Jd- 
7*d. 
^\A.  to  8d. 
8d. 

2d.  t02id. 

4Jd.  to  5d. 
4id.  to  5d. 
5d. 

With  amazing  adaptability  the  Japanese  ha veassumed  the  methods 
of  Western  civilization  as  a  whole.  But  hand-weaving  more  than 
holds  its  own,  and  power-weaving  has  as  yet  met  with  little  success. 
The  custom  already  mentioned  as  a  cause  of  the  continued  triumph 
of  the  hand-loom  in  India  and  China  is  strong  also  in  Japan,  and  the 
economy  of  the  factory  system  is  greater  relatively  in  spinning  than 
in  manufacturing.  In  Japan  it  is  ring-spinning  which  prevails: 
95  %  of  the  spindles  are  on  ring-frames.  Ring-spinning  entails  less 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  operative,  and  ring-yarn  is  quite  satisfactory 
for  the  sort  of  fabrics  used  most  largely  in  the  Far  East.  The  counts 
produced  are  low  as  a  rule.  Generally  mills  run  day  and  night  with 
double  shifts,  and  the  system  seems  to  pay,  though  night-work  is 
found  to  be  less  economical  than  day-work  there  as  elsewhere. 
More  operatives  are  placed  on  a  given  quantity  of  machinery  in  Japan 
than  in  Lancashire — possibly  more  "  labour  "  as  well  as  more 
operatives,  because  labour  as  well  as  operatives  may  be  cheaper. 
On  the  same  work  the  output  per  spindle  per  hour  is  less  in  Japan 
than  in  England,  even  when  day-shifts  only  are  taken  into  account. 


parliamentary  papers  containing  useful  material.  Printed  copies  of 
the  "  Wages  Lists  "  are  issued  by  the  trade  unions.  The  Factory 
Acts  are  dealt  with  in  Hutchins  and  Harrison's  History,  mentioned 
above,  as  well  as  the  literature  relating  to  them;  while  the  hand- 
books by  Redgrave  and  by  Abraham  and  Da  vies  are  specially  useful. 
On  the  industry  abroad  the  following  are  the  fullest  authorities: — 
Besso,  The  Cotton  Industry  in  Switzerland,  Vorarlberg  and  Italy  (1910) 
(a  report  madeas  a  Gartside  Scholar  of  the  University  of  Manchester) ; 
Chapman's  Cotton  Industry  and  Trade  (1905);  Hammond,  The 
Cotton  Industry,  Hasbach's  article,  "  Zur  Characteristik  der  en- 
glischen  Industrie,"  in  Schmollers  Jahrbuch,  vol.  ii.  (1903);  Leconte, 
Le  Colon;  Lochmiiller,  Zur  Entwicklung  der  Baumwollindustrie  in 
Deutschland  (1906) ;  Montgomery,  The  Cotton  Manufacture  of  the 
United  States  of  America  contrasted  and  compared  with  that  of  Great 
Britain  (1840);  Oppel,  Die  Baumwolle  (1902);  Schulze-Gaevernitz, 
Der  Grossbetrieb :  ein  wirtschaftlicher  und  socialer  Tortschritt:  eine 
Studie  auf  dent  Gebiete  der  Baumwollindustrie  (1892;  translated  as 
The  Cotton  Trade  in  England  and  on  the  Continent) ;  T.  M.  Young, 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


PLATE  I. 


FIG.  io.— BLOWING   ROOM. 


VII.  300. 


FIG.  n.— CARDING   ROOM. 
(From  Photographs  taken  in  a  Manchester  Fine  Cotton-spinning  Milt,  by  R.  Banks.) 


PLATE  II. 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


FIG.  12.— JACK-FRAME   ROOM. 


FIG.   13.— SPINNING-ROOM. 

(From  Photographs  taken  in  a  Manchester  Fine  Cotton-spinning  Mill,  by  R.  Banks.) 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


American  Cotton  Industry  (1902);  Uttley,  Cotton  Spinning  and 
Manufacturing  in  the  United  States  of  North  America  (1905;  a  report 
of  a  tour  as  Gartside  scholar  of  the  university  of  Manchester) ; 
and  the  Gartside  reports  on  the  cotton  industries  of  France  and 
Germany  by  Forrester  and  Dehn  respectively.  Information  will 
also  be  found  in  Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports,  and  fragments 
may  be  gathered  from  other  books  such  as  G.  Drage's  Russian  Affairs, 
Dyer's  Dai  Nippon,  and  Huber's  Deutschland  als  Industriestaat. 
Japan  has  published  since  1901  a  very  full  financial  and  economical 
annual,  and  the  British  government  issues  annually  a  good  statistical 
abstract  for  India.  The  American  census  contains  much  detailed 
information,  and  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  statistics  issued  by  the 
Federal  government,  those  of  Massachusetts,  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  which  has  also  reported  the  results  of  an  investigation  into  the 
industry  in  the  Southern  states.  Among  official  matter  the  semi- 
official Bombay  and  Lancashire  cotton  spinning  inquiry  of  the  Man- 
chester Chamber  of  Commerce  may  be  included.  The  census  of  pro- 
duction of  thellnited  Kingdom  must  be  mentioned, and  the  reports  of 
the  International  Congresses  of  Cotton  Spinners  and  Manufacturers. 
As  to  labour,  see  the  reports  of  the  International  Textile  Congresses. 
The  periodical  literature  is  of  good  quality  and  much  of  it  is  filed 
in  the  Patent  Office  library.  We  may  notice  particularly  the  Cotton 
Factory  Times;  Textile  Journal;  Textile  Manufacturer;  Textile 
Mercury;  Textile  Recorder;  Textile  World  Record  (American); 
Der  Leipzige  Monatsschrift  fur  Textilindustrie;  and  the  French 
Textile  Journal.  Shepperson's  Cotton  Facts  is  an  annual  which  relates 
chiefly,  though  not  entirely,  to  raw  cotton,  as  does  also  Cotton,  the 
periodical  of  the  Manchester  Cotton  Association.  For  technical 
works  we  may  refer  here  to  the  well-known  treatises  of  Brooks, 
Guest,  Marsden,  Nasmith  and  Walmsley,  and  to  Johannsen's 
ponderous  two-volumed  Handbuch  der  Baumwollspinnerei,  Roh- 
weissweberei  und  Fabrikanlagen.  (S.  J.  C.) 

COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY.  The  earliest  inventors  of 
spinning  machinery  (see  SPINNING)  directed  their  energies  chiefly 
to  the  improvement  of  the  final  stage  of  the  operation,  but  no 
sooner  were  these  machines  put  to  practical  use  than  it  became 
apparent  that  success  depended  upon  mechanically  conducting 
the  operations  preliminary  to  spinning.  Later  inventors  were, 
therefore,  called  upon  not  only  to  improve  the  inventions  of  their 
predecessors,  but  to  devise  machinery  for  preparing  the  fibres  to 
be  spun.  Arkwright  quickly  perceived  the  importance  of  this 
aspect  of  the  problem,  and  he  devoted  even  more  energy  to  it  than 


301 


growers,  for  by  the  then  existing  methods  of  separating  cotton  lint 
from  seed  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  provide  an  adequate 
supply  of  raw  material.  By  inventing  the  saw  gin,  Eh'  Whitney, 
an  American,  in  the  year  1792,  did  for  cotton  planters  what  Paul, 


FIG.  i. 


to  the  invention  with  which  his  name  is  more  intimately  associ- 
ated. But,  given  a  complete  series  of  machines  for  preparing  and 
spinning,  the  cotton  industry  (see  COTTON  MANUFACTURE)  must 
have  remained  unprogressive  without  the  co-operation  of  cotton 


FIG.  2. 

Arkwright,  Crompton,  Cartwright,  Watt  and  others  did  for 
textile  manufacturers,  for  he  provided  them  with  the  means  for 
increasing  their  output  almost  indefinitely. 

Cotton-ginning  is  the  process  by  which  cotton  seeds  are  separated 
from  the  adhering  fibres.     The  most  primitive  machine  employed  in 
India  and  China  for  this  purpose  is  the  churka,  which  consists  of  two 
wooden  rollers  fixed  in  a  frame  and  re- 
volving in  contact.     Seed  cotton  is  fed  into 
these  rollers  and  the  fibres  pass  forward 
but   the   seeds   remain   behind.     It   is  a 
device  which  does  not  injure  the  fibres,  but 
no  improvement  has  been  found  by  which 
the  churka  can  be  converted  into  a  suffi- 
ciently productive  machine  for  modern  re- 
quirements.    In  a  modified  form  Whitney's 
saw   gin   is   still    used   to   clean   a   large 
portion  of  the  annual  crop  of  short  and 
medium  stapled  cottons.     It   consists  of 
from  60  to  70  saws  (A,  fig.  i),  which  are 
mounted  upon  a  shaft  and  revolve  between 
the  interstices  of  an  iron  grid  (B);  against 
this  grid  the  seed  cotton  is  held  whilst  the 
fibres  are  drawn  through,  the  seeds  being 
left  behind.     The  operation  is  as  follows : — 
seed  cotton  is  fed  into  the  hopper  (C),  and 
conveyed  by  a  lattice  (D)  to  a  spiked  roller 
(E),  which  regulates  the  supply  tothe  hopper 
(F).     Whilst  in  (F)  the  cotton  is  engaged 
by  the  teeth  of  the  saws  (A),  and  drawn 
through  the  grid  (B),  but  the  bars  are  too 
close  to  permit  the  seeds  to  pass.     A  brush 
(G)  strips  the  cotton  lint  from  the  saws, 
after  which  it  is  drawn  through  a  flue  (H) 
to  the  surface  of  a  perforated  roller  (I)  by 
pneumatic  action;  it  then  passes  between 
(I)   and    (J)   out   of   the   machine.     The 
Macarthy  gin  is  the  only  other  type  in 
extensive  use;    it   is   employed    to  clean 
both  long  and  short  stapled  cottons.     In 
this  gin  the  fibres  are  drawn  by  a  leather- 
covered  roller   (A,  fig.  a)  over  the  edge 
of  a  stationary  blade  (B)  called  a  doctor, 
which    is   fixed   tangential   to   the   roller. 
Two  cranks  (E)   move  two  other  blades 
(C,  D)  up  and  down  immediately  behind, 
and  parallel  to,  the  fixed  blade  (B).     The 

cotton  is  thrown  into  the  hopper  (F)  and  the  fibres  are  drawn 
by  the  roller  (A)  until  the  seeds  are  against  the  edge  of  the  doctor 
(B),  when  the  beaters  (C,  D)  strike  them  off,  but  permit  the  fibres 
to  go  forward  with  the  roller.  Attempts  continue  to  be  made 
so  to  improve  both  machines,  that  production  may  be  increased. 


LINT 
COTTON 


302 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


FIG.  3. 


and  labour  charges,  and  the  risks  of  injuring  the  fibres, 
reduced. 

Baling. — -As  cotton  leaves  the  gin,  it  is  in  some  cases  rolled,  under 
compression,  into  cylindrical  bales;  but  it  is  usually  packed  into 
rectangular  bales,  that  vary  in  weight  from  160  Ib  to  750  ifo,  by  steam 
or  hydraulic  presses.  After  pressing,  the  cotton  is  covered  with 
coarse  jute  bagging,  and  the  whole  secured  by  iron  bands.  In  this 
form  it  arrives  at  the  spinning  mills. 

In  the  mill  treatment  of  cotton  it  soon  became  an  established 
practice  to  divide  the  work  into  the  following  operations,  namely 
(i)  Mixing  the  fibres  into  a  homogenepus  mass;  (2)  removing  im- 
purities; (3)  combing  out  entanglements  in,  and  ranging  the  fibres 
in  parallel  lines;  (4)  simultaneous  combination  and  attenuation  of 
groups  of  parallel  fibres ;  (5)  completing  the  combination  and  attenu- 
ation, and  twisting  the  fibres  into  a  thread;  (6)  compounding, 
finishing  and  making-up  of  threads.  These  remain  the  essential 
conditions  of  cotton-spinning.  The  principal  machines  used  to  carry 
out  the  foregoing  stages  are:  The  bale  breaker,  opener  and  scutcher; 
the  card  and  comber;  the  drawing,  slubbing,  intermediate  and 
roving  frames;  ring  and  mule  spinning;  winding,  doubling;  clear- 
ing and  gassing  the  reel,  and  bundling  press,  together  with  several 
auxiliary  machines.  All  the  operations  included  in  this  list  are  not 


low 


necessarily  employed  in  the  production  of  all  kinds  of  yarn; 
counts  require  fewer,  and  high  counts  more  processes. 

A  bale  breaker  is  used  to  disentangle  fibres  which  have  been,  by 
hydraulic  or  steam  presses,  converted  into  hard  masses  that  resist 
manual  efforts  to  disentangle  them.  It  may  consist  of  three  pairs 
of  spiked  and  one  pair  of  fluted  rollers.  If  so,  the  matted  cotton  is 
fed  into  the  first  pair,  seized  by  the  second  pair,  which  have  a  higher 
surface  velocity,  and  pulled,  while  the  third  pair  reduce  the  whole 
to  a  more  or  less  fluffy  mass,  and  the  fluted  rollers  deliver  it  upon 
a  travelling  lattice  by  which  it  is  conveyed  to,  and  deposited  upon, 
the  floor  of  the  mixing  room.  Instead  of  rollers,  a  hopper  breaker 
may  be  used.  In  this  machine  the  cotton  is  carried  by  a  horizontal 
lattice  into  contact  with  a  sloping  spiked  one,  whose  spikes  tear  away 
small  tufts  and  deposit  them  upon  a  second  lattice  for  removal  to 
the  mixing  room.  A  stack  of  pulled  cotton  is  formed  by  superposing 
thin  layers  from  different  bales,  and  when  completed  the  cotton  is 
drawn  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  stack.  By  this  means  a  thorough 
mixing  of  fibres  is  effected. 

The  Opener. — Mixed  cotton  may  be  thrown  upon  a  lattice  and 
conveyed  to  a  spiked  roller  to  be  pulled,  beaten,  discharged  into  a 
trunk,  and  drawn  by  pneumatic  force  to  the  opener.  Or  it  may  be 
spread  (fig.  3)  upon  a  lattice  (I),  and  carried  between  feed-rollers  (E) 


r 


i 


A' 


B 

m 


FIG.  4. 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


303 


ROLLER 


FIG.  5. 


to  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  beater  (A)  whose  teeth  first  seize 
tufts  of  cotton  and  then  fling  them  upon  a  grid  (B),  to  be  subse- 
quently seized  by  other  teeth  and  again  flung  off  until  dirt  and  other 
impurities  pass  between  the  grating.  The  beater  may  be  cylindrical 
(as  at  A)  or  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone:  in  either  event,  from 
four  to  twelve  rows  of  teeth  project  from  its  surface.  It  is  from 
1 8  in.  to  upwards  of  36  in.  in  diameter,  approximately  40  in.  wide, 
and  the  largest  cylindrical  beaters  make  trom  300  to  700  revolutions; 
whilst  conical  beaters  make  about  1000,  and  small  ones  make  from 
looo  to  1500  revolutions  per  minute.  The  opened  cotton  is  carried, 
in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrows,  upon  a  strong  blast  of  air 
which  is  generated  by  a  fan  (H),  and  this  deposits  it  in  patches 
upon  the  surfaces  of  two  perforated  zinc  or  wire  cylinders  (C),  but 
dust  and  foreign  particles  pass  through  the  interstices.  As  these 
cylinders  revolve  towards  each  other  the  cotton  passes  between 
them  in  the  form  of  a  sheet  to  a  pair  of  feed-rollers  (D),  which  may 
again  deliver  it  to  a  beater  with  two  or  three  blades;  if  so,  from  this 
beater  the  cotton  is  next  borne  on  an  air  current  to,  and  between, 
a  second  pair  of  perforated  cylinders.  In  either  event,  the  final 
cages  (C,  C)  deliver  the  cotton  to  feed-rollers  (D)  and  they  pass  it  to 
calender-rollers  (F),  by  which  it  is  compressed  into  a  sheet,  and 
finally  coiled  into  a  lap  (G).  Various  kinds  of  openers  have  been 
patented,  all  of  which  differ  in  some  important  respects;  for  example, 
a  hopper  feed  may  be  substituted  for  the  trunk  or  the  lattice  feed, 
in  which  event  the  cotton  from  the  mixing  room  is  conveyed  mechani- 
cally'upon  lattices,  and  deposited  in  a  hopper  affixed  to  an  opener. 
In  this  hopper  a  sloping  spiked  lattice  elevates  the  cotton  to  an 
evening  roller,  whose  office  is  to  sweep  back  the  surplus  supply  from 
the  spikes,  but  allow  the  requisite  quantity  to  pass  forward  to  the 
beater.  A  regular  supply  of  cotton  to  an  opener  is  of  great  importance, 
and  in  order  to  insure  it  a  table  is  often  formed  by  substituting  for 
the  lower  roller  (E)  a  series  of  levers  (A,  fig.  4)  all  mounted  upon  a 
fulcrum  (B),  and  having  their  free  arms  weighted  by  wedge-shaped 
pendents  (C),  that  are  separated  by  bowls  (D).  A  fluted  feed-roller 
(E)  is  fixed  above  this  table  and  the  cotton  is  led  over  the  lever 
but  beneath  the  roller.  If  the  cotton  is  unequally  distributed,  thick 
places  will  press  down  the  levers  and  thin  ones  will  permit  them  to 
rise  (as  at  A',  E').  The  rise  of  one  pendent  may  be  cancelled  by  the 
fall  of  another,  but  any  balance  of  their  movements  is  transmitted 
to  a  belt  fork  which  governs  a  belt  running  upon  a  pair  of  inverted 
cones,  and  by  this  means  the  belt  is  traversed  to  and  fro  to  drive  the 
feed-roller  (E)  at  a  superior  speed  when  the  supply  of  cotton  is 
insufficient,  and  at  an  inferior  speed  when  the  supply  is  excessive. 

The  Scutcher. — In  many  respects  a  scutcher  resembles  an  opener; 
its  function  is  to  continue  the  cleaning  and  form  laps  of  uniform 


weight  and  density  for  the  carding  engine.  Occasionally  the  scutcher 
is  the  first  cleaning  machine,  in  which  event  cotton,  in  a  loose  fleece, 
is  spread  evenly  upon  a  lattice.  But  in  order  to  carry  the  combination 
of  fibres  one  stage  further,  three  or  four  opener  laps  are  generally 
placed  upon  the  feeder,  so  that,  as  the  laps  unroll,  three  or  four  sheets 
of  cotton  will  be  superposed,  and  in  this  form  are  passed  by  the 
lattice  (F,  fig.  4)  and  the  feed-roller  (E)  to  either  one  or  two  beaters, 
which  are  furnished  with  two  or  three  blades.  The  beater  (G)  flings 
the  cotton  against  the  bars  of  a  grid  (H)  to  loosen,  and  cause  the  dirt 
to  pass  between  the  bars,  after  which  the  cotton  is  carried  forward 
upon  an  air  current,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  an  opener,  and  formed 
into  a  lap.  In  case  two  scutchers  are  required,  the  laps  from  the 
first  are  fed  into  the  second,  where  they  are  similarly  treated;  in 
both  machines  the  lever  and  pendent  mechanism  furnishes  the  means 
by  which  uniformity  is  attained.  A  beater  may  consist  of  a  straight, 
smooth  blade  (as  at  G),  or  of  a  blade  provided  with  stout  teeth;  in 
the  latter  event  the  operation  resembles  combing  rather  than  beating. 
Two-bladed  beaters  revolve  from  1200  to  1500  times  per  minute; 
those  with  three  blades  from  900  to  1000  times  per  minute. 

Carding  Engine. — The  functions  of  a  card  (see  CARDING)  are: 
to  place  the  fibres  parallel;  to  remove  remaining  impurities  and 
immature  fibres ;  and;  to  form  mature  fibres  into  a  porous  band,  called 
a  sliver.  A  carding  engine  consists  of  three  cylinders  which  are 
covered  with  cards;  the  first,  or  taker-in  (see  fig.  5),  is  the  smallest; 
the  second  and  largest  is  the  main  cylinder ;  and  the  third  is  the  doff er. 
If  the  main  cylinder  is  surmounted  with  a  series  of  small  ones  (as 
at  A),  the  engine  is  called  a  roller  and  clearer  card.  If  a  series  of 
fixed  strips  of  card  are  placed  above  the  main  cylinder,  the  engine 
is  known  as  a  stationary  flat  card.  But  if  the  strips  move  forward 
(as  at  B),  it  is  a  revolving  flat  card.  In  a  roller  and  clearer  card  the 
small  cylinders  (E)  are  also  covered  with  cards,  but  their  teeth  are 
bent  to  oppose  those  on  the.  main  cylinder,  and  they  revolve  with 
a  different  velocity.  The  taker-in  is  covered  with  saw  teeth  cut  in 
a  strip  of  steel  which  is  fixed  in  the  surface  of  that  cylinder;  it  re- 
ceives the  cotton  (I)  from  a  feed-roller  (C)  that  turns  above  a  smooth 
iron  table  (D)  called  the  feed  plate,  and  strikes  out  the  heaviest 
particles  of  remaining  dirt.  In  passing  through  the  fringe  of  lap, 
the  teeth  comb  the  attached  fibres  but  deliver  the  loose  ones  to  the 
main  cylinder.  The  latter  carries  them  into  contact  with  the  teeth 
on  the  rollers  (E),  by  whose  lower  surface  velocity  combing  is  again 
effected.  Short  fibres  become  fixed  amongst  the  teeth  of  (A)  and 
(E),  but  those  lying  crosswise  are  transferred  from  (A)  to  (E)  and 
from  (E)  to  the  clearer,  which  again  presents  them  to  the  cylinder. 

When  long  fibres  are  turned  to  point  in  the  direction  of  rotation 
they  advance  upon  the  cylinder  A  to  the  doffer  teeth,  where  the 


3°4 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


scattered  fibres  on  the  surface  of  A  are  collected  into  a  light  fleece. 
In  this  condition  they  are  stripped  by  a  vibrating  comb  (F),  drawn 
together  by  a  funnel,  formed  into  a  sliver,  and  deposited  in  a  can  (G). 
This  machine  is  now  chiefly  used  to  card  waste  and  low-class  cotton. 
If  such  a  card  is  made  with  two  main  cylinders,  a  connecting  cylinder 
called  a  tummer  collects  the  fibres  from  the  first  and  passes  them  on 
to  a  second  main  cylinder,  where  they  are  again  treated  as  already 
described.  In  a  stationary  flat  card  the  teeth  in  the  flats  are  bent 
to  oppose  those  on  the  main  cylinder,  and  by  this  means  the  fibres 
are  combed  and  straightened.  In  a  revolving  flat  card  the  flats (H) 
are  formed  into  an  endless  chain,  and  they  travel  slowly  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  cylinder.  In  other  respects  both  fiat  cards  are 
similartoa  roller  and  clearer  card.  Formerly  double  carding, namely, 
two  passages  of  the  fibres  through  separate  cards,  or  one  passage 
through  a  double  card,  was  general,  but  single  carding  is  now  em- 
ployed for  most  purposes. 

Combing. — For  counts  from  60'  upward,  and  for  exceptionally 
good  yarn  of  lower  counts,  from  14  to  20  cans  from  the  carding 
engine  are  taken  to  a  sliver  lap  machine 
where  the  slivers  are  drawn  alongside 
each  other,  passed  between  three  pairs 
of  drawing  rollers  and  two  pairs  of 
calender  rollers,  and  formed  into  laps 
that  vary  in  width  from  7j  in.  to  12  in. 
This  machine  is  provided  with  mechani- 
cal devices  for  stopping  it  on  the  failure 
of  a  sliver,  and  on  the  completion  of  a 
predetermined  length  of  lap,  When  the 
sliver  lap  machine  furnishes  laps  for  the 
comber,  the  slivers  are  previously  put 
through  one  head  of  drawing,  namely, 
between  four  lines  of  drawing  rollers, 
to  straighten  out  the  fibres.  The  more 
general  practice  is  to  pass  sliver  laps  to 
a  ribbon  lap  machine,  at  the  back  of  which 
six  laps  are  placed,  end  facing  end,  in  one 
long  line  and  simultaneously  unrolled 
to  feed  each  web  between  four  pairs  of 
drawing  rollers.  From  the  rollers  the 
cotton  passes  in  separate  films  over 
curved  plates  to  a  smooth  table  where 
one  is  superposed  upon  another,  and 
in  the  combined  state  it  is  led  between 
two  pairs  of  calender  rollers  and  formed 
into  a  lap  from  7l  to  ioj  in.  wide.  In 
the  cotton  industry  the  Heilmann 
comber,  or  some  modification  of  that 

machine,  is  used  to  straighten  thoroughly  the  fibres  of  carded 
cotton,  to  cast  out  all  below  a  certain  length,  and  leave  only  those 
that  are  perfectly  clean  and  approximate  to  uniformity  in  length. 
For  fine  yarns  of  medium  quality  only  part  of  the  slivers  required 
to  form  a  thread  are  combed.  But  for  fine  yarns  of  good  quality 
all  slivers  are  once  combed,  and  those  for  superfine  yarns  are  twice, 
or  "  double  combed."  This  machine  is  made  with  six  or  eight  heads, 
each  of  which  is  supplied  with  a  ribbon  lap.  One  end  of  every  lap  is 
fed  by  a  pair  of  rollers  between  the  open  jaws  of  a  nipper  which 
immediately  closes  upon  the  sheet  of  cotton,  but  a  fringe  is  left 
protruding  into  the  path  of  a  cylinder,  on  whose  periphery  either 
one  set  of  17,  or  two  sets  of  13,  graduated  needle  combs,  and  one,  or 
two,  fluted  segments  are  secured.  The  first  comb  to  reach  the  cotton 
may  have  as  few  as  16,  and  the  last  90  teeth  per  inch.  After  the 
combs  have  passed  successively  through  the  overhanging  fringe  of 
fibres,  the  nipper  opens  and  a  fresh  length  of  about  -fa  to  -fa  of  an  inch 
is  fed  in.  Meanwhile,  a  fluted  segment  on  the  cylinder  has  moved 
up  to  support  the  fringe;  a  top  comb,  which  was  inoperative  when 
the  cylinder  combs  were  acting,  has  descended  into  the  fringe,  and 
three  rollers  first  return  a  portion  of  the  material  already  combed 
so  that  it  may  overlap  that  last  treated.  The  rollers  then  reverse 
the  direction  of  their  rotation ;  one  of  them  and  the  segment  engage 
the  fringe,  and  draw  the  tail  ends  of  all  free  fibres  through  the  teeth 
of  the  top  comb.  The  product  of  all  the  heads  is  next  united,  con- 
densed, formed  into  a  continuous  sliver,  and  deposited  in  a  can. 
One  cycle  of  movements,  therefore,  only  combs  from  ,\  to  ft  of  an 
inch  of  each  fibre;  the  top  comb  deals  with  the  tail  ends,  and  the 
major  portion  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  cylinder  combs.  The  fore- 
going operations  are  repeated  at  the  rate  of  from  85  to  90  times  per 
minute,  during  which  from  15%  to  upwards  of  25%  of  carded 
material  is  removed ;  but  this  is  capable  of  being  spun  into  coarse 
yarns.  A  comber  invented  by  John  W.  Nasmith  is  a  modification 
of  the  foregoing.  In  his  machine  the  cylinder  combs  act  upon  the 
forward  ends  of  the  fibres  whilst  under  the  control  of  the  nipper, 
after  which  two  pairs  of  rollers  return  a  sufficient  portion  of  the 
previously  combed  film  to  overlap,  and  to  enable  the  front  rollers 
to  engage  the  fringe.  The  rollers  then  draw  a  part  of  the  fringe 
through  the  teeth  of  the  top  comb,  which,  as  a  sequence,  treats  all 
but  the  forward  ends  of  the  fibres.  Since  one  passage  through  the 
cylinder  and  top  combs  completes  the  operation  for  one  set  of  fibres, 
this  machine  gives  a  higher  production ;  it  also  gives  a  wider  range 
of  adaptability,  and  a  lower  percentage  of  waste  than  the  Heilmann 
machine. 


The  Drawing  Frame. — For  fine  counts  the  slivers  from  the  comber, 
and  for  low  or  medium  counts  those  from  the  card,  are  passed  to  the 
drawing  frame,  because  in  both  conditions  the  material  is  irregularly 
distributed  throughout  the  several  slivers,  and  it  is  the  function 
of  the  drawing  frame  to  eliminate  all  such  irregularities  by  drawing 
several  slivers  down  to  the  dimensions  of  one,  for  here  the  processes 
of  combination  and  attenuation  are  carried  further  than  in  any  other 
machine.  A  drawing  frame  consists  of  three  or  four  heads, 
each  of  four  pairs  of  drawing  rollers  (A,  B,  fig.  6).  The  lower  rollers 
(B)  are  fluted  longitudinally  and  the  upper  ones  (A)  are  covered 
with  leather,  and  weighted  as  at  (H)  to  give  the  two  a  proper  hold 
of  the  cotton.  Each  head  contains  several  deliveries.  Six  or  eight 
slivers  (C)  are  put  up  to  each  delivery  and  drawn  down  into  one  by 
causing  succeeding  lines  of  rollers  (A,  B)  to  move  at  an  accelerated 
speed ;  the  front  one  revolving  about  six  or  eight  times  faster  than 
the  back  one.  On  leaving  the  front  roller  the  sliver  is  conducted 
to  a  trumpet-shaped  tube  (D),  thence  between  a  pair  of  calender 
rollers  (E),  and,  finally,  through  a  diagonal  passage  in  a  plate  (F) ; 


H 


H 


H 


H 


FIG.  6. 


the  latter  coils  the  sliver  into  a  rotating  can  (G).  Back  and  front 
devices  are  provided  to  arrest  motion  in  this  machine  when  a  sliver 
fails.  At  the  back,  each  sliver  passes  over  and  depresses  a  separate 
spoon-shaped  lever  (I),  thereby  lifting  the  hooked  lower  end  of  (I) 
high  enough  to  allow  an  arm  (J)  to  vibrate.  On  the  failure  of  a  sliver 
the  hook  of  (I)  engages  with  (J)  and  dislocates  the  driving  gear.  In 
front,  the  trumpet-shaped  tube  (D)  is  mounted  on  a  lever  (K),  and 
so  long  as  a  sliver  presses  down  the  mouth  of  (D),  the  machine  con- 
tinues in  motion,  but  when  a  sliver  fails,  the  lever  (K)  causes  the 
driving  gear  to  stop  the  machine.  Six  or  eight  cans  containing  once 
drawn  slivers  are  put  up  to  the  second  head  and  similarly  drawn, 
and  finally,  a  similar  number  of  twice  drawn  slivers  are  fed  into  the 
third  head  and  again  drawn,  giving  in  all  6X6X6  =  216  doublings; 
or  8X8X8  =  512  doublings.  Occasionally  four  heads  of  drawings 
are  used  and  eight  slivers  drawn  into  one,  which  gives  8X8X8X8  = 
4096  doublings;  hence,  irregularities  in  an  original  sliver  have  been 
minimized  by  successive  combination  and  attenuation. 

Flyer  Frames. — Cotton  in  cans,  from  the  final  head  of  drawing,  is 
transferred  to  the  slubbing  frame,  by  which  it  is  attenuated,  slightly 
twisted,  and  wound  upon  spools.  Each  sliver  is  drawn  out  by  means 
of  three  pairs  of  rollers,  and  as  it  emerges  from  the  front  pair,  a 
flyer  (A,  fig.  7),  which  revolves  uniformly  upon  a  spindle  (B),  carries 
the  sliver  (C)  round  with  it  to  twist  the  fibres  axially.  This  flyer 
coils  the  twisted  material  upon  a  wooden  tube  (D)  in  close-wound 
spirals  and  in  successive  layers.  The  tube  is  loosely  mounted  upon, 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


305 


but  driven  independently  of,  the  spindle,  in  order  that  as  the  tube 
increases  in  diameter  the  number  of  revolutions  it  makes  may  be 
reduced  to  suit  the  constant  delivery  of  the  roving.  This  is  effected 
by  a  differential  motion  which  usually  consists  of  a  large  wheel, 
within  which  two  other  wheels  are  made  to  work ;  the  interior  wheels 
have  a  regular  motion,  but  the  large  wheel  is  driven  from  a  pair  of 
cone  drums  at  a  decreasing  speed. 

The  intermediate  frame  comes  between  the  stubbing  and  roving 
frames  and  is  of  similar  construction  to  the  slubber,  but  has  a  larger 
number  of  spindles  and  smaller  tubes. 
Instead    of   having   cans   put  at    the 
C\_^  back,  the  stubbing  tubes  are  mounted 

j~~\    /— ^          vertically  in  a  creel,  passed  in  pairs 
J  **W       N.        through  the  rollers,  and  drawn  down 
— — — — —     »       to  a  smaller  diameter  than  a  single 
stubbing.        In    this    machine,    there- 
fore,  the   fourfold    processes  of   com- 
bination,   attenuation,    twisting    and 
winding  are  effected  consecutively  and 
continuously. 

The  roving  frame  is  similar  in 
principle  to  the  slubber  and  inter- 
mediate machines,  but  it  contains  a 
greater  number  of  spindles,  and  the 
tubes  are  smaller  than  either.  It 
receives  the  rovings  from  the  inter- 
mediate frame,  draws  two  into  one, 
twists  them  and  winds  them  upon 
tubes.  This  machine  is  usually  the 
last  employed  to  prepare  cotton  for 
spinning,  but  for  spinning  fine  yarns 
from  the  best  Egyptian  and  Sea 
Islands  cottons,  a  second  roving,  or 
Jack  frame  may  be  required,  in  which 
event  pairs  of  rovings  from  the  first 
machine  are  similarly  treated  in  the 
second  in  order  to  render  the  final 
product  sufficiently  fine  for  spinning 
yarns  of  the  requisite  counts. 

Spinning  (see  SPINNING).  —  Im- 
provements upon  the  Saxony  wheel 
caused  continuous  spinning  to  become 
a  mechanical  art  at  an  earlier  date 
than  intermittent  spinning.  Ark- 
wright's  water-twist  frame  was  gradu- 
ally changed  to  the  throstle,  which 
was  a  duplex  machine  furnished  with 
one  set  of  drawing  rollers,  and  one  set 
of  spindles  and  flyers  at  each  side  of 
the  frame-work.  All  the  bosses  of  one 
line  of  rollers  were  connected  so  that 
one  driving  gear  would  serve  for  the 
whole  length,  and  all  the  spindles 
were  driven  by  bands  from  a  central  cylinder.  The  roving  spools 
were  placed  vertically  in  a  creel  between  the  two  sets  of  rollers, 
and  the  rovings  reduced  to  the  requisite  fineness  by  the  latter; 
after  which  each  was  passed  through  a  coiled  eye  at  the  lower 
end  of  a  flyer  leg,  and  attached  to  a  double-flanged  spool  which 
was  loosely  mounted  upon  a  spindle.  At  each  revolution  of  a 
flyer  a  twist  was  put  into  the  attenuated  roving,  and  the  flyer 
wrapped  as  much  thread  upon  a  spool  as  the  rollers  delivered. 
The  spools  rested  upon  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  stretched  over 
a  rail,  and  this  rail  rose  and  fell  through  a  space  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  spool  barrel.  On  account  of  a  thread  having  to  pull 
a  spool  round,  it  was  not  possible  to  spin  finer  counts  than  60", 
and  since  each  flyer  was  mounted  upon  the  top  of  an  unsupported 
spindle,  vibration  increased  with  speed.  In  order  to  avoid  such 
vibration  Mr  Danforth,  in  or  about  1829,  placed  an  inverted  cup 
upon  the  top  of  a  stationary  spindle,  and  upon  the  spindle  a  freely 
fitting  sleeve  and  wharve ;  the  former  to  receive  a  spool,  the  latter 
to  rotate  both.  By  a  traverse  motion  all  the  spools  were  simul- 
taneously raised  or  depressed,  so  as  to  have  their  barrels,  when  at 
the  highest  point,  entirely  within  the  cup,  and  when  at  the  lowest 
entirely  below  it.  A  thread  passed  from  the  drawing  rollers,  outside 
the  cup,  to  a  spool.  As  a  spool  rotated  its  thread  was  uniformly 
twisted,  the  lower  edge  of  the  cup  built  the  yarn  equally  on  every 
part  of  the  spool  barrel,  and  the  requisite  drag  resulted  from  friction 
set  up  by  the  thread  rubbing  against  the  surface  of  the  cup.  The 
throstle  has  almost  disappeared  from  the  cotton  industry,  and 
Danforth's  cap  frame  entirely  so,  but  the  latter  is  still  used  to  spin 
worsted. 

Ring  spinning  is  practically  the  only  system  of  continuous  spinning 
used  in  the  cotton  industry;  it  was  first  patented  in  the  United 
States  of  America  by  J.  Thorpe,  in  1828,  and  in  that  country  was 
extensively  used  long  before  it  became  established  in  England. 
Its  chief  feature  consists  in  the  substitution  for  the  flyer,  or  the  cap, 
of  a  smooth  annular  ring  (A,  fig.  8)  formed  with  a  flange  at  the  upper 
edge,  over  which  a  light  C-shaped  piece  of  wire  (B),  called  a  traveller, 
is  sprung.  The  rings  are  secured  in  a  rail  (C)  that  rises  quickly  and 
falls  slowly,  but  at  each  succeeding  ascent  and  descent  it  attains 


FIG.  7. 


a  higher  point  than  that  previously  reached.  A  spindle  (D)  is  sup- 
ported by,  and  turns  in  a  bolster  secured  to  a  fixed  rail  (E).  If  the 
bolster  only  provides  a  bearing  for  the  centre  of  the  spindle,  and  so 
leaves  the  foot  free  to  find  its  own  position  of  steadiness,  it  is  known 
as  a  self-balancing  or  gravity  spindle.  A  recess  in  the  bolster  is 
filled  with  oil  to  automatically  lubricate  the  bearing.  A  spindle  is 
placed  in  the  centre  of  each  ring;  it  has  a  sleeve  fitted  upon  it  which 
carries  a  wharve  (F)  that  covers  the  upper  part  of  the  bolster,  and 
a  band  from  a  pair  of 
drums  is  drawn  round 
the  wharve  to  drive 
the  spindle.  So  per- 
fect is  the  construc- 
tion of  these  spindles 
that  they  can  be  run 
without  appreciable 
vibration  at  speeds 
far  beyond  the  ability 
of  operatives  to  at- 
tend them;  although 
a  speed  of  11,000  re- 
volutions per  minute 
is  a  practicable  one. 
After  passing  the 
drawing  rollers  (G), 
the  roving  (H)  is 
twisted,  hooked  into 
the  traveller  (B),  and 
made  fast  to  a  spool 
(I)  placed  upon  the 
spindle.  As  spinning 
proceeds  the  traveller 
is  pulled  round  the 
ring  by  the  thread ;  it 
thus  puts  a  drag 
upon,  and  holds  the 
thread  at  the  winding 
point.  In  all  con- 
tinuous spinning  the 
number  of  twists  in- 
serted into  a  given 

length    of   thread    is  FIG.  8. 

governed  by  the  sur- 
face speed  of  the  front  roller,  relatively  to  the  revolutions  of  the  flyer, 
or  to  the  speed  of  the  winding  surface. 

Intermittent  Spinning. — The  essential  difference  between  continu- 
ous and  intermittent  spinning  is  that  the  former  draws  and  twists 
consecutively,  whilst  the  latter  draws  and  twists  simultaneously. 
In  the  mule,  a  creel  (A,  fig.  9),  fixed  at  the  back  of  the  machine, 
is  designed  to  hold  the  rovings  (B)  in  three  or  four  tiers,  from  whence 
they  pass  between  three  lines  of  drawing  rollers  (C)  and  two  faller 
wires  (D).  They  are  next  led  to  spindles  (E)  mounted  in  a  carriage 
(F)  whose  wheels  run  upon  rails  (G)  called  slips.  As  the  rollers  (C) 
feed  the  partially  attenuated  rovings  the  carnage  recedes  from  the 
rollers  a  little  faster  than  the  rovings  are  delivered,  thus  completing 
the  attenuation.  Meanwhile,  the  spindles  are  revolved  rapidly  by 
bands  passing  from  a  tinned  cylinder  (H)  and  the  threads  are  twisted. 
This  twist  goes  first  to  the  thin  places  where  least  resistance  is  offered 
to  it,  leaving  thick  places  almost  untwisted ;  the  pull  of  the  carriage, 
therefore,  causes  the  fibres  to  slip  most  readily  where  there  are 
fewest  twists,  and  gives  to  a  thread  an  approximation  to  uniformity 
in  diameter.  For  fine  yarns  the  rollers  cease  to  rotate  slightly  before 
the  carriage  has  attained  the  end  of  its  outward  run,  or  stretch,  and 
at  such  times  all  attenuation  is  due  to  the  pull  of  the  spindles  upon 
the  threads.  On  the  termination  of  a  stretch  the  carriage  stops,  the 
twisting  is  completed,  the  spindles  reverse  the  direction  of  their 
rotation  to  back  off,  or  remove  the  yarn  which  is  coiled  round  the 
spindles  above  the  winding  point,  and  whilst  one  faller  wire  (D), 
operating  on  all  the  threads  at  once,  descends  to  the  winding  position 
of  each  spindle,  the  other  rises  to  take  up  the  yarn  delivered  by  the 
spindles.  This  completed,  the  carriage  returns  to  the  roller  beam, 
and  in  doing  so  the  spindles  revolve  in  their  normal  direction  to  wind 
the  stretch  of  48  to  66  in.  of  yarn  spun  in  the  outward  journey.  All 
the  foregoing  movements  are  regulated  to  succeed  each  other  in  their 
proper  order,  the  termination  of  one  operation  being  the  initiation 
of  the  next. 

Crompton's  original  machine  was  controlled  manually  through- 
out, but  later  he  devised  means  for  moving  the  carriage  out  mechani- 
cally, for  stopping  the  rollers  at  the  proper  time,  and  for  locking  the 
carriage  whilst  the  spindles  added  the  final  twist  to  the  threads. 
After  which  all  parts  became  stationary  and  the  manual  operations 
commenced.  These  consisted  in  backing  off,  operating  the  faller 
wire,  rotating  the  spindles  and  pushing  the  carnage  home.  In  the 
year  1785  the  first  steam-engine  was  employed  for  cotton  spinning, 
and  in  1792  William  Kelly  placed  the  headstock  of  a  mule,  in  which 
the  chief  mechanism  is  situated,  in  the  middle  of  the  carriage, 
instead  of  at  one  end.  By  this  device  one  machine  was  doubled  in 
length,  and  shortly  afterwards  two  mules,  each  of  300  to  400  spindles, 
were  allotted  to  one  spinner  and  his  assistants.  Kelly  also  at- 
tempted to  control  all  parts  of  the  machine  mechanically,  but  in 


306 


COTTON-SPINNING  MACHINERY 


FIG.  9. 


this  he  failed,  as  did  Eaton,  Smith  and  many  others,  although 
each  contributed  something  towards  the  solution  of  the  problems  in- 
volved in  automatic  spinning.  Eventually  the  hand  mule  became  a 
machine  in  which  most  of  the  work  was  done  automatically;  the 
spinner  being  chiefly  required  to  regulate  the  velocity  of  the  backing 
off,  and  the  inward  run  of  the  carriage,  and  to  actuate  the  fallers. 
As  a  result  of  these  alterations  the  machine  was  made  almost  double 
the  length  of  Kelly's.  In  this  state  many  mules  continued  to  be 
used  until  the  last  decade  of  the  igth  century,  and  a  few  are  still  in 
use.  Between  the  years  1824  and  1830  Richard  Roberts  invented 
mechanism  that  rendered  all  parts  of  the  mule  self-acting,  the  chief 
parts  of  which  are  shown  at  (I,J),  and  they  regulate  the  rotation 
of  the  spindles  during  the  inward  run  of  the  carriage.  At  first  his 
machine  was  only  used  to  spin  coarse  and  low-medium  counts, 
but  it  is  now  employed  to  spin  all  counts  of  yarn.  Although  numerous 
changes  have  since  been  made  in  the  self-acting  mule,  the 
machine  still  bears  indelible  marks  of  the  genius  of  Roberts. 

For  many  purposes  the  threads  as  spun  by  the  ring  frame  or  the 
mule  are  ready  for  the  manufacturer;  but  where  extra  strength  or 
smoothness  is  required,  as  in  threads  for  sewing,  crocheting,  hosiery, 
lace  and  carpets;  also  where  multicoloured  effects  are  needed,  as  in 
Grandrelle,  or  some  special  form  of  irregularity,  as  in  corkscrewed, 
and  knopped  yarns,  two  or  more  single  threads  are  compounded 
and  twisted  together.  This  operation  is  known  as  doubling.  In 
order  to  prepare  threads  for  doubling  it  may  be  necessary  to  wind 
side  by  side  upon  a  flanged  bobbin,  or  upon  a  straight  or  a  tapering 
spool,  from  two  to  six  threads  before  twisting  them  into  one. 

Winding  machines  for  this  purpose  are  of  various  kinds.  There 
are  those  in  which  the  threads  are  laid  evenly  between  the  flanges 
of  a  bobbin,  and  those  that  coil  the  threads  upon  a  straight  or  a 
tapering  tube  to  form  "  cheeses."  In  the  latter  the  tubes  may  be 
laid  upon  diagonally  split  drums  and  rotated  by  frictional  contact. 
By  placing  each  group  of  threads  to  be  wound  in  the  slit  of  a  rotating 
drum,  it  is  drawn  quickly  to  and  fro  and  coiled  upon  a  spool.  If 
solid  instead  of  split  drums  be  used,  the  guides  for  all  the  threads 
on  one  side  of  a  machine  are  attached  to  a  bar,  which  is  traversed 
by  a  cam  placed  at  one  end  of  the  frame.  Or  independent  mechan- 
ism may  be  provided  throughout  for  treating  each  group  of  threads 
to  be  wound.  The  bobbins  or  tubes  may  be  filled  from  cops,  ring 
spools  or  hanks,  but  a  stop  motion  is  required  for  each  thread, 
which  will  come  into  operation  immediately  a  fracture  occurs. 

Doublers. — In  action  doublers  are  continuous  and  intermittent. 
The  former  resemble  throstle  and  ring  spinning  machines,  but  since 
they  do  not  attenuate  the  material,  only  one  line  of  rollers  is  pro- 
vided. The  folded  material  is  placed  in  a  creel  and  led  through  the 
rollers  to  the  spindles  to  be  twisted  in  a  wet  or  dry  condition.  If 
wet,  the  moisture  flattens  down  most  of  the  protruding  ends  of  the 
fibres  and  produces  a  comparatively  smooth  thread;  if  dry,  the 
doubled  yarn  retains  some  of  its  furry  character.  There  are  two 
types  of  continuous  doublers,  which  are  known  respectively  as 
English  and  Scotch.  By  the  English  system  of  dry  doubling  the 
yarn  from  the  creel  may  be  treated,  on  its  way  to  the  spindle,  in 
various  ways  to  obtain  the  desired  tension.  It  may  be  led  under  a 
rod,  over  a  guide,  round  and  between  the  rollers,  and  round  a  glass 
peg.  For  wet  doubling,  a  trough  containing  water  is  placed  behind 
the  rollers,  and  the  yarn  passes  beneath  a  glass  rod  in  the  water, 
thence  over  a  guide,  beneath,  between  and  over  the  rollers  to  the 
spindles.  By  the  Scotch  system  the  trough  is  placed  below  the 


rollers,  and  the  bottom  roller  is  partly  immersed  in  water.  It  is 
claimed  that  this  system  wets  the  fibres  more  thoroughly  than  the 
English  one.  For  the  purpose  of  twisting  the  strands  together  the 
spindles  may  be  provided  either  with  flyers,  as  in  throstle  spinning, 
or  with  rings  and  travellers,  as  in  ring  spinning.  The  twist  is  gener- 
ally in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  the  single  threads.  When 
more  than  three  strands  are  required  in  a  compound  thread  it  is 
customary  to  pass  the  material  more  than  once  through  the  doubler, 
as,  for  example,  in  a  sixfold  thread,  two  strands  may  be  first  twisted 
together  in  the  same  or  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  spinning 
twist;  after  which  the  once-doubled  thread  is  "  cleared,"  folded,  and 
three  strands  of  twofold  yarn  are  twisted  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  that  employed  in  the  first  operation.  In  some  machines  folding 
and  twisting  proceed  simultaneously,  and  some  are  furnished  with 
an  automatic  stop  motion.  But  when  twisting  two  threads  together 
to  oppose  the  spinning  twist,  the  failure  of  one  causes  the  other  to 
untwist  and  break,  therefore,  under  such  circumstances  a  stop 
motion  is  unnecessary. 

Intermittent  doublers  are  known  as  twinners,  and  these  are  of 
two  kinds,  namely,  English  and  French.  In  the  former  the  spindles 
are  fitted  in  a  stationary  rail,  but  the  creel,  containing  the  cops  or 
ring  spools,  is  mounted  upon  a  carriage  and  moves  in  and  out,  as  in 
Hargreaves'  spinning  jenny  (see  SPINNING).  French  twinners  have  a 
stationary  creel,  and  the  spindles  move  in  and  out  with  the  carriage, 
as  in  the  spinning  mule.  The  material  to  be  folded  is  often  subjected 
to  the  action  of  steam  in  order  to  render  it  less  resilient,  after  which 
it  is  mounted  upon  skewers  in  the  creel,  and  two  or  three  threads  are 
passed  to  each  spindle  to  be  twisted  together  and  formed  into  a  cop. 
Between  the  creel  and  the  spindles  all  the  strands  are  kept  equally 
tense  by  drawing  them  over  flannel-covered  boards  and  under  porce- 
lain weights.  For  wet  doubling,  the  strands  pass  through  a  trough 
containing  water,  and  the  flannel  surfaces  are  also  wet. 

Clearing. — After  the  first,  or  the  final,  doubling  it  is  often  necessary 
to  remove  lumps,  imperfect  knots  and  loose  fibres  from  a  thread1. 
This  is  accomplished  by  passing  each  through  a  slit,  or  clearer,  whose 
width  is  adjusted  to  the  diameter  of  the  thread  to  be  treated.  By 
this  means  anything  which  gives  a  thread  abnormal  bulk  will  be 
prevented  from  passing  the  slit.  Once  through  the  slit,  a  thread 
is  coiled  upon  a  friction-driven,  double  or  single-headed  bobbin. 
If  the  former,  the  coils  are  evenly  laid;  if  the  latter,  they  are  dis- 
posed into  a  bottle  shape  Or,  again,  cheeses  may  be  wound. 

Gassing. — In  cases  where  a  thread  with  a  smooth  surface  is  re- 
quired the  extending  ends  of  fibres  must  be  burned  off.  Thus: 
each  thread  from  a  creel  is  drawn  over  a  tension  rod  to  two  freely 
mounted  pulleys,  haying  parallel  grooves  cut  in  their  surfaces  and 
axes  in  the  same  horizontal  plane.  After  bending  a  thread  forward 
and  backward  in  the  grooves  of  both  pulleys,  it  passes  through  a 
Bunsen  flame  and  is  coiled  upon  a  tube,  which  is  held  against  the 
face  of  a  rotating  drum,  while  a  vibrating  guide  distributes  the  thread 
across  the  tube.  The  gas-burner  is  situated  midway  between  the 
grooved  pulleys,  and  so  mounted  beneath  the  thread  that  it  will 
automatically  swivel  sideways  and  thus  move  the  flame  away  from 
a  stationary  thread.  Winding  begins  slightly  before  the  flame 
moves  beneath  a  thread,  and  the  rapid  motion  of  the  latter  permits 
the  flame  to  burn  off  undesirable  matters  without  injuring  the 
thread. 

Reeling. — Doubled  or  gassed  yarn  may  be  wound  upon  warpers' 
bobbins  and  made  into  warps  for  the  loom,  or  it  may  be  reeled  into 


COTYS— COUCY-LE-CHATEAU 


307 


hanks  for  the  preparing  and  finishing  processes.  But  a  reel  hanks 
yarns  for  bleaching,  dyeing,  printing,  polishing  and  bundling,  and 
is  adapted  for  cops,  ring  spools,  doubling  bobbins  or  cheeses.  From 
cops,  ring  spools  and  cheeses  the  yarn  is  usually  drawn  over  one 
end,  but  flanged  bobbins  are  mounted  upon  spindles  and  the  yarn  is 
drawn  from  the  side.  A  reel  has  a  circumference  of  54  in.,  and  after 
making  80  or  560  revolutions  it  automatically  stops;  the  first  gives 
a  lea  of  120  yds.  and  the  last  a  hank  of  840  yds.  For  grant  reeling, 
however,  a  hank  may  be  from  5000  to  10,000  yds.  long.  Reeling  is 
of  two  kinds,  namely,  open  and  crossed.  Open  reeling  forms  leas, 
and  seven  of  these  are  united  in  one  hank  by  a  lease  band  which 
retains  the  divisions.  In  cross  reeling  a  thread  is  traversed  over 
a  portion  of  the  reel  surface  by  a  reciprocating  guide  to  form  a 
hank  without  divisions.  On  the  completion  of  a  set  of  hanks 
the  reel  is  made  to  collapse  and  thus  facilitate  the  removal  of  the 
yarn. 

Bundling  Press. — Hanks  are  made  into  short  or  long  bundles, 
each  weighing  5  or  IO  Ib.  In  short  bundles  it  is  usual  to  form 
groups  of  ten  hanks,  and  these  are  twisted  together,  folded  and 
compressed  into  bundles;  but  in  long  bundles  the  hanks  are  com- 
pressed without  being  folded.  A  press  consists  of  a  strong  table  upon 
which  a  box,  with  open  ends,  is  formed.  The  bottom  of  this  box 
is  grooved  transversely  and  made  to  rise  and  fall  by  wheel  gearing 
or  by  eccentrics.  The  sides  and  top  are  made  of  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal bars,  set  to  coincide  with  the  grooves  in  the  bottom.  To 
one  set  of  vertical  bars  a  similar  number  of  horizontal  top  pieces  are 
hinged,  and  to  the  other  set  levers  are  jointed,  which  hold  the  hori- 
zontal bars  in  position.  When  the  hinged  bars  are  turned  up,  strings 
are  drawn  through  the  grooves,  and  the  bottom  is  covered  with  stout 
paper.  The  hanks  are  then  laid  in  the  box,  another  paper  is  placed 
above  them,  and  the  hinged  bars  are  drawn  down  and  locked.  The 
bottom  then  rises  a  predetermined  distance,  and  automatically 
stops.  While  in  this  position  the  strings  are  tied,  the  bottom  of 
the  press  next  descends,  and  the  bundle  is  removed.  (T.  W.  F.) 

COTYS,  a  name  common  to  several  kings  of  Thrace.  The  most 
important  of  them,  a  cruel  and  drunken  tyrant,  who  began  to 
reign  in  382  B.C.,  was  involved  with  the  Athenians  in  a  dispute 
for  the  possession  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese.  In  this  he  was 
assisted  by  the  Athenian  Iphicrates,  to  whom  he  had  given  his 
daughter  in  marriage.  On  the  revolt  of  Ariobarzanes  from 
Persia,  Cotys  opposed  him  and  his  ally,  the  Athenians.  In 
358  he  was  murdered  by  the  sons  of  a  man  whom  he  had 
wronged. 

See  Cornelius  Nepos,  Iphicrates,  Timotlieus;  Xenqphon,  Agesilaus; 
Demosthenes,  Contra  Aristocratcm;  Theopompus  in  Muller,  Frag- 
menta  Hisloricorum  Graecorum,  i. 

COUCH,  DARIUS  NASH  (1822-1897),  American  soldier,  was 
born  at  South  East,  Putnam  county,  N.Y.,  on  the  23rd  of  July 
1822,  and  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1846,  serving  in  the 
Mexican  war  and  in  the  war  against  the  Seminole  Indians.  He 
left  the  army  in  1855,  but  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  U.S.  V.  He  served  as  a  divisional 
commander  in  the  battles  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862, 
and  at  Fredericksburg  (December  1862)  and  Chancellorsville 
(May  1863)  he  commanded  the  II.  corps.  He  had  been  made 
a  major-general  U.S.V.  in  July  1862.  During  the  Gettysburg 
campaign  he  was  employed  in  organizing  the  Pennsylvanian 
militia,  and  he  subsequently  served  in  the  West,  taking  part  in  the 
battle  of  Nashville,  and  in  the  final  operations  in  the  Carolinas. 
He  left  the  army  after  the  war.  General  Couch  died  on  the  I2th 
of  February  1897  at  Norwalk,  Connecticut. 

COUCY,  LE  CHATELAIN  DE,  French  trouvlre  of  the  I2th 
century.  He  is  probably  the  Guy  de  Couci  who  was  castellan  of 
the  castle  of  that  name  from  1186  to  1203.  Some  twenty-six 
songs  are  attributed  to  him,  and  about  fifteen  or  sixteen  are 
undoubtedly  authentic.  They  are  modelled  very  closely  on 
Provencal  originals,  but  are  saved  from  the  category  of  mere 
imitations  by  a  grace  and  simplicity  peculiar  to  the  author. 
The  legend  of  the  love  of  the  Chatelain  de  Coucy  and  the  Lady 
of  Fayel,  in  which  there  figures  a  jealous  husband  who  makes  his 
wife  eat  the  heart  of  her  lover,  has  no  historical  basis,  and  dates 
from  a  late  I3th  century  romance  by  Jakemon  Sakesep.  It  is 
worth  noting  that  the  story,  which  seems  to  be  Breton  in  origin, 
has  been  also  told  of  a  Provencal  troubadour,  Guilhern  de  Cabes- 
taing,  and  of  the  minnesinger  Reinmar  von  Brennenberg.  Pierre 
de  Belloy,  who  wrote  some  account  of  the  family  of  Couci,  made 
the  story  the  subject  of  his  tragedy  Gabrielle  de  Vergy. 

The  songs  of  the  Chitelain  de  Coucy  were  edited  by  Fritz  Fath 


(Heidelberg,  1883).  For  the  romance  see  Gaston  Paris,  in  the  Hist. 
litt.  de  la  France  (vol.  28,  pp.  352-360).  An  exquisite  song,  "  Chanterai 
por  mon  courage,"  expressing  a  woman's  regrets  for  her  lover  at  the 
Crusade,  is  attributed  in  one  MS.,  probably  erroneously,  to  the  Lady 
of  Fayel  (Hist.  litt.  xxiii.  556).  An  English  metrical  romance  of 
"  The  Knight  of  Curtesy,"  and  the  "  Fair  Lady  of  Faguell,"  was 
printed  by  William  Copland,  and  reprinted  in  Ritson's  Eng.  Metrical 
Romances  (ed.  E.  Goldsmid,  vol.  iii.,  1885). 

COUCY-LE-CHATEAU,  a  village  of  northern  France,  in  the 
department  of  Aisne,  18  m.  W.S.W.  of  Laon  on  a  branch  of  the 
Northern  railway.  Pop.  ( 1 906)  663 .  It  has  extensive  remains  of 
fortifications  of  the  I3th  century,  the  most  remarkable  feature  of 
which  is  the  Porte  de  Laon,  a  gateway  flanked  by  massive  towers 
and  surmounted  by  a  fine  apartment.  Coucy  also  has  a  church  of 
the  isth  century,  preserving  a  facade  in  the  Romanesque  style. 
The  importance  of  the  place  is  due,  however,  to  the  magnificent 
ruins  of  a  feudal  fortress  (see  CASTLE)  crowning  the  eminence 
on  the  slope  of  which  the  village  is  built.  The  remains,  which 
embrace  an  area  of  more  than  10,000  sq.  yds.,  form  an  irregular 
quadrilateral  built  round  a  court-yard  and  flanked  by  four  huge 
towers.  The  nucleus  of  the  stronghold  is  a  donjon  over  200  ft. 
high  and  over  100  ft.  in  diameter,  standing  on  the  south  side 
of  the  court.  Three  large  vaulted  apartments,  one  above  the 
other,  occupy  its  interior.  The  court-yard  was  surrounded  on  the 
ground-floor  by  storehouses,  kitchens,  &c.,  above  which  on  the 
west  and  north  sides  were  the  great  halls  known  as  the  Salle  des 
preux  and  the  Salle  des  preuses.  A  chapel  projected  from  the 
west  wing.  The  bailey  or  base-court  containing  other  buildings 
and  covering  three  times  the  area  of  the  chateau  extended 
between  it  and  the  village.  The  architectural  unity  of  the 
fortress  is  due  to  the  rapidity  of  its  construction,  which  took 
place  between  1230  and  1242,  under  Enguerrand  III.,  lord  of 
Coucy.  A  large  part  of  the  buildings  was  restored  or  enlarged 
at  the  end  of  the  I4th  century  by  Louis  d'Orleans,  brother  of 
Charles  VI.,  by  whom  it  had  been  purchased.  The  place  was 
dismantled  in  1652  by  order  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  It  is  now 
state  property.  In  1856  researches  were  carried  on  upon  the  spot 
by  Viollet-le-Duc,  and  measures  for  the  preservation  of  the  ruins 
were  subsequently  undertaken. 

Sires  de  Coney. — Coucy  gave  its  name  to  the  sires  de  Coucy,  a 
feudal  house  famous  in  the  history  of  France.  The  founder  of  the 
family  was  Enguerrand  de  Boves,  a  warlike  lord,  who,  at  the  end  of 
the  nth  century  seized  the  castle  of  Coucy  by  force.  Towards 
the  close  of  his  life,  he  had  to  fight  against  his  own  son,  Thomas 
de  Marie,  who  in  1115  succeeded  him,  subsequently  becoming 
notorious  for  his  deeds  of  violence  in  the  struggles  between  the 
communes  of  Laon  and  Amiens.  He  was  subdued  by  King  Louis 
VI.  in  1117,  but  his  son  Enguerrand  II.  continued  the  struggle 
against  the  king.  Enguerrand  III.,  the  Great,  fought  at  Bouvines 
under  Philip  Augustus  (1214),  but  later  he  was  accused  of 
aiming  at  the  crown  of  France,  and  he  took  part  in  the  disturb- 
ances which  arose  during  the  regency  of  Blanche  of  Castile. 
These  early  lords  of  Coucy  remained  till  the  I4th  century  in 
possession  of  the  land  from  which  they  took  their  name. 
Enguerrand  IV.,  sire  de  Coucy,  died  in  1320  without  issue  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew  Enguerrand,  son  of  Arnold,  count  of 
Guines,  and  Alix  de  Coucy,  from  whom  is  descended  the  second 
line  of  the  house  of  Coucy.  Enguerrand  VI.  had  his  lands 
ravaged  by  the  English  in  1339  and  died  at  Crecy  in  1346. 
Enguerrand  VII.,  sire  de  Coucy,  count  of  Soissons  and  Marie,  and 
chief  butler  of  France,  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  England,  where  he 
married  Isabel,  the  eldest  daughter  of  King  Edward  III.  Wish- 
ing to  remain  neutral  in  the  struggle  between  England  and 
France,  he  went  to  fight  in  Italy.  Having  made  claims  upon  the 
domains  of  the  house  of  Austria,  from  which  he  was  descended 
through  his  mother,  he  was  defeated  in  battle  (1375-1376).  He 
was  entrusted  with  various  diplomatic  negotiations,  and  took 
part  in  the  crusade  of  Hungary  against  the  Sultan  Bayezid, 
during  which  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  died  shortly  after  the 
battle  of  Nicopolis  (1397).  His  daughter  Marie  sold  the  fief  of 
Coucy  to  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  in  1400.  The  Chatelain  de 
Coucy  (see  above)  did  not  belong  to  the  house  cf  the  lords  of 
Coucy,  but  was  castellan  of  the  castle  of  that  name. 


3o8 


COUES— COUMARIN 


COUES,  ELLIOTT  (1842-1899),  American  naturalist,  was  born 
at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  9th  of  September  1842. 
He  graduated  at  Columbian  (nowGeorge  Washington)University, 
Washington,  D.C.,  in  1861,  and  at  the  Medical  school  of  that 
institution  in  1863.  He  served  as  a  medical  cadet  at  Washington 
in  1862-1863,  and  in  1864  was  appointed  assistant-surgeon  in  the 
regular  army.  In  1872  he  published  his  Key  to  North  American 
Birds,  which,  revised  and  rewritten  in  1884  and  1901,  has  done 
much  to  promote  the  systematic  study  of  ornithology  in  America. 
In  1873-1876  Coues  was  attached  as  surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the 
United  States  Northern  Boundary  Commission,  and  in  1876-1880 
was  secretary  and  naturalist  to  the  United  States  Geological  and 
Geographical  Survey  of  the  Territories,  the  publications  of  which 
he  edited.  He  was  lecturer  on  anatomy  in  the  medical  school 
of  the  Columbian  University  in  1877-1882,  and  professor  of 
anatomy  there  in  1882-1887.  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1881 
to  devote  himself  entirely  to  scientific  research.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union,  and  edited  its 
organ,  The  Auk,  and  several  other  ornithological  periodicals.  He 
died  at  Baltimore,  Maryland,  on  the  2Sth  of  December  1899. 
In  addition  to  ornithology  he  did  valuable  work  in  mammalogy; 
his  book  Fur-Bearing  Animals  (1877)  being  distinguished  by  the 
accuracy  and  completeness  of  its  description  of  species,  several  of 
which  are  already  becoming  rare.  In  1 887  he  became  president  of 
the  Esoteric  Theosophical  Society  of  America.  Among  the  most 
important  of  his  publications,  in  several  of  which  he  had  collabora- 
tion, are4  Field  Ornithology  (1874);  Birds  oj 'the  North-west  (187 4); 
Monographs  on  North  American  Rodentia,  with  J.  A.  Allen  (1877) ; 
Birds  of  the  Colorado  Valley  (1878);  A  Bibliography  of  Ornithology 
(1878-1880,  incomplete);  New  England  Bird  Life  (1881);  A 
Dictionary  and  Check  List  of  North  American  Birds  (1882); 
Biogen,  A  Speculation  on  the  Origin  and  Motive  of  Life  (1884); 
The  Daemon  of  Darwin  (1884);  Can  Matter  Think  f  (1886);  and 
Neuro-Myology  (1887).  He  also  contributed  numerous  articles 
to  the  Century  Dictionary,  wrote  for  various  encyclopaedias,  and 
edited  the  Journals  of  Lewis  and  Clark  (1893),  and  The  Travels  of 
Zebulon  M.  Pike  (1895). 

COULISSE  (French  for  "  groove,"  from  couler,  to  slide),  a  term 
for  a  groove  in  which  a  gate  of  a  sluice,  or  the  side-scenes  in  a 
theatre,  slide  up  and  down,  hence  applied  to  the  space  on  the 
stage  between  the  wings,  and  generally  to  that  part  of  the  theatre 
"  behind  the  scenes  "  and  out  of  view  of  the  public.  It  is  also 
a  term  of  the  Paris  Bourse,  derived  from  a  coulisse,  or  passage 
in  which  transactions  were  carried  on  without  the  authorized 
agents  de  change.  The  name  coulissier  was  thus  given  to  un- 
authorized agents  de  change,  or  "  outside  brokers  "  who,  after 
many  attempts  at  suppression,  were  finally  given  a  recognized 
status  in  1901.  They  bring  business  to  the  agents  de  change,  and 
act  as  intermediaries  between  them  and  other  parties.  (See 
STOCK  EXCHANGE:  Paris.) 

COULOMB,  CHARLES  AUGUSTIN  (1736-1806),  French 
natural  philosopher,  was  born  at  Angoul£me  on  the  I4th  of  June 
1736.  He  chose  the  profession  of  military  engineer,  spent  three 
years,  to  the  decided  injury  of  his  health,  at  Fort  Bourbon, 
Martinique,  and  was  employed  on  his  return  at  Rochelle,  the 
Isle  of  Aix  and  Cherbourg.  In  1 781  he  was  stationed  permanently 
at  Paris,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  1789  he 
resigned  his  appointment  as  intendant  des  eaux  et  fontaines,  and 
retired  to  a  small  estate  which  he  possessed  at  Blois.  He  was 
recalled  to  Paris  for  a  time  in  order  to  take  part  in  the  new 
determination  of  weights  and  measures,  which  had  been  decreed 
by  the  Revolutionary  government.  Of  the  National  Institute  he 
was  one  of  the  first  members;  and  he  was  appointed  inspector 
of  public  instruction  in  1802.  But  his  health  was  already  very 
feeble,  and  four  years  later  he  died  at  Paris  on  the  23rd  of 
August  1806.  Coulomb  is  distinguished  in  the  history  alike  of 
mechanics  and  of  electricity  and  magnetism.  In  1779  he  pub- 
lished an  important  investigation  of  the  laws  of  friction  (Theorie 
des  machines  simples,  en  ay  ant  regard  aufrottement  de  leurs  parties 
et  d,  la  roideur  des  cordages) ,  which  was  followed  twenty  years  later 
by  a  memoir  on  fluid  resistance.  In  1785  appeared  his  Recherches 
theoriques  et  exptrimentales  sur  la  force  de  torsion  et  sur  I' elasticity 


des  fils  de  metal,  &c.  This  memoir  contained  a  description  of 
different  forms  of  his  torsion  balance,  an  instrument  used  by  him 
with  great  success  for  the  experimental  investigation  of  the 
distribution  of  electricity  on  surfaces  and  of  the  laws  of  electrical 
and  magnetic  action,  of  the  mathematical  theory  of  which  he  may 
also  be  regarded  as  the  founder.  The  practical  unit  of  quantity 
of  electricity,  the  coulomb,  is  named  after  him. 

COULOMMIERS,  a  town  of  northern  France,  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Marne,  45  m.  E. 
of  Paris  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  5217.  It  is  situated  in  the  fertile 
district  of  Brie,  in  a  valley  watered  by  the  Grand-Morin.  The 
church  of  St  Denis  (i3th  and  i6th  centuries),  and  the  ruins  of  a 
castle  built  by  Catherine  of  Gonzaga,  duchess  of  Longueville, 
in  the  early  i7th  century,  are  of  little  importance.  There  is  a 
statue  to  Commandant  Beaurepaire,  who,  in  1792,  killed  him- 
self rather  than  surrender  Verdun  to  the  Prussians.  Coulom- 
miers  is  the  seat  of  a  subprefect,  and  has  a  tribunal  of  first 
instance  and  a  communal  college.  Printing  is  the  chief  industry, 
tanning,  flour-milling  and  sugar-making  being  also  carried  on. 
Trade  is  in  agricultural  products,  and  especially  in  cheeses 
named  after  the  town. 

COUMARIN,  C9H6O2,  a  substance  which  occurs  naturally  in 
sweet  woodruff  (Asperula  odorata),  in  the  tonka  bean  and  in 
yellow  melilot  (Melilotus  officinalis) .  It  can  be  obtained  from  the 
tonka  bean  by  extraction  with  alcohol.  It  is  prepared  artificially 
by  heating  aceto-ortho-coumaric  acid  (which  is  formed  from 
sodium  salicyl  aldehyde)  or  from  the  action  of  acetic  anhydride 
and  sodium  acetate  on  salicyl  aldehyde  (Sir  W.  H.  Perkin, 
Berichte,  1875,  8,  p.  1599).  It  can  also  be  prepared  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  phenol  and  malic  acid  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  by 
passing  bromine  vapour  at  107°  C.  over  the  anhydride  of  melilotic 
acid.  It  forms  rhombic  crystals  (from  ether)  melting  at  67°  C. 
and  boiling  at  290°  C.,  which  are  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
moderately  soluble  in  hot  water.  It  is  applied  in  perfumery 
for  the  preparation  of  the  Asperula  essence.  On  boiling  with 
concentrated  caustic  potash  it  yields  the  potassium  salt  of 
coumaric  acid,  whilst  when  fused  with  potash  it  is  completely 
decomposed  into  salicylic  and  acetic  acids.  Sodium  amalgam 
reduces  it,  in  aqueous  solution,  to  melilotic  acid.  It  forms 
addition  products  with  bromine  and  hydrobromic  acid.  By 
the  action  of  phosphorus  pentasulphide  it  is  converted  into 
thiocoumarin,  which  melts  at  101°  C.;  and  in  alcoholic  solution, 
on  the  addition  of  hydroxylamine  hydrochloride  and  soda,  it 
yields  coumarin  oxime. 

Ortho-coumaric  acid  (o-oxycinnamic  acid)  is  obtained  from 
coumarin  as  shown  above,  or  by  boiling  coumarin  for  some  time 
with  sodium  ethylate.  It  melts  at  208°  C.  and  is  easily  soluble  in 
hot  water  and  in  alcohol.  It  cannot  be  converted  into  coumarin 
by  heating  alone,  but  it  is  readily  transformed  on  heating  with 
acetic  anhydride  or  acetyl  chloride.  By  the  action  of  sodium 
amalgam  it  is  readily  converted  into  melilotic  acid,  which  melts  at 
81°  C.,  and  on  distillation  furnishes  its  lactone,  hydrocoumarin, 
melting  at  25°  C.  For  the  relations  of  coumaric  and  coumarinic 
acid  see  Annalen,  254,  p.  181.  The  homologues  of  coumarin  may 
be  obtained  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  phenol  and  the 
higher  fatty  acids  (propionic,  butyric  and  isovaleric  anhydrides) , 
substitution  taking  place  at  the  carbon  atom  in  the  a  position  to 
the  -CO-  group,  whilst  by  the  condensation  of  acetoacetic 
ester  and  phenols  with  sulphuric  acid  the  /3  substituted  coumarins 
are  obtained. 

Umbelliferone  or  4-oxycoumarin,  occurs  in  the  bark  of  Daphne 
mezereum  and  may  be  obtained  by  distilling  such  resins  as 
galbanum  or  asafoetida.  It  may  be  synthesized  from  resorcin 
and  malic  anhydride  or  from  |3  resorcyl  aldehyde,  acetic 
anhydride  and  sodium  acetate.  Daphnetin  and  Aesculetin  are 
dioxy  coumarins. 

The  structural  formulae  of  coumarin  and  the  related  substances 


are: 


a 
CH: 
- 


H:CHCO,H 


*CH 
t 

CO 


adtjCHjCO.il 
OH 


CO 


Onhucounurtc  «ctd,         Coum 


Hydrocounurln.          UMKUiftratt 


COUMARONES— COUNCIL 


309 


COUMARONES   or   BENZOFURFURANES,   organic  compounds 

C*H 
containing  the  ring  system  C6H4<[  Q  ^>CH.    This  ring  system 

may  be  synthesized  in  many  different  ways,  the  chief  methods 
employed  being  as  follows:  by  the  action  of  hot  alcoholic 
potash  on  a-bromcoumarin(R.  Fittig,  Ann.,  1883,  216,  p.  162), 


from  sodium  salts  of  phenols  and  a-chloracetoacetic  ester  (A. 
Hantzsch,  Ber.,  1886,  19,  p.  1292), 

H  PAPH  C'Cris 

c*<SN.->ci.CH  COOR->C«H<<O>C-COOR: 

or   from   ortho-oxyaldehydes  by   condensation    with    ketones 
(S.  Kostanecki  and  J.  lambor,  Ber.,  1896,  29,  p.  237),  or  with 
chloracetic  acid  (A.  Rossing,  Ber.,  1884,  17,  p.  3000), 
.OH    CH.CO-C.H  OH  2  Br 


^OH  KHO 

C«H'<CHBr.CHBr.COC6Hs 

OH    Cl-CHj-COOH  .CHO 

CHO 


O 


X-.rU, 


CH.COONa 


The  parent  substance  coumarone,  CsH60,  is  also    obtained 
by  heating   co-chlor-ortho-oxystyrol  with  concentrated  potash 
solution  (G.  Komppa,  Ber.,  1893,  26.  p.  2971), 
CH:CHCt    KOH  .CH 


It  is  a  colourless  liquid  which  boils  at  171-1  72°  C.  and  is  readily 
volatile  in  steam,  but  is  insoluble  in  water  and  in  potash  solution. 
Concentrated  acids  convert  it  into  a  resin.  When  heated  with 
sodium  and  absolute  alcohol,  it  is  converted  into  hydrocoumarone, 
CgH8O,  and  ethyl  phenol. 

COUNCIL  (Lat.  concilium,  from  cum,  together,  and  the  root  cal, 
to  call),  the  general  word  for  a  convocation,  meeting,  assembly. 
The  Latin  word  was  frequently  confused  with  consilium  (from 
consulere,  to  deliberate,  cf.  consul),  advice,  i.e.  counsel,  and  thus 
specifically  an  advisory  assembly.  Du  Cange  (Gloss.  Med. 
Infim.  Latin.)  quotes  the  Greek  words  avvoBos,  ffvvidptov, 
ffvpfioiiluov  as  the  equivalent  of  concilium.  In  French  the 
distinction  between  conseil  (from  consilium),  advice,  and 
concile,  council  (i.e.  ecclesiastical  —  its  only  meaning)  has  survived, 
but  the  two  English  derivatives  are  much  confused.  In  the  New 
Testament,  "  council  "  is  the  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  Sanhedrin, 
Gr.  vwiSpiav.  The  word  is  generally  used  in  English  for  all 
kinds  of  congregations  or  convocations  assembled  for  adminis- 
trative and  deliberative  purposes.1 

The  present  article  is  confined  to  a  history  of  the  development 
of  the  ecclesiastical  council,  summoned  to  adjust  matters  in 
dispute  with  the  civil  authority  or  for  the  settlement  of  doctrina 
and  other  internal  disputes.  For  details  see  under  separate 
headings,  NICAEA,  &c. 

From  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church,  councils 
or  synods  have  been  held  to  decide  on  matters  of  doctrine  anc 
discipline.     They  may  be  traced  back  to  the  second  half  of  the 
2nd  century  A.D.,  when  sundry  churches  in  Asia  Minor  helc 
consultations  about  the  rise  of  Montanism.     Their  precise  origin 
is  disputed.     The  common  Roman  Catholic  view  is  that  they  an 
apostolic  though  not  prescribed  by  divine  law,  and  the  apostolii 
precedent  usually  cited  is  the  "  council  "  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv. 
Galatians    ii.).     Waiving    the   consideration   of   vital    critica 
questions  and  accepting  Acts  xv.  at  its  face  value,  the  assembly  a 
Jerusalem  would  scarcely  seem  to  have  been  a  council  in  the 
technical  sense  of  the  word;  it  was  in  essence  a  meeting  of  the 
Jerusalem  church  at  which  delegates  from  Antioch  were  heard 
but  apparently  had  no  vote,  the  decision  resting  solely  with  the 
mother  church.     R.   Sohm   argues  that  synods  grew  from  th 
custom  of  certain  local  churches  which,  when  confronted  with  a 

1  For  the  Greek  Council  see  BOULE;  for  the  Hebdomadal  Counc 
see  OXFORD;  see  also  ENGLAND:    Local  Government. 


erious  problem  of  their  own,  augmented  their  numbers  by 
eceiving  delegates  from  the  churches  of  the  neighbourhood. 
Hauck,  however,  holds  that  these  augmented  church  meetings, 
rhich  dealt  with  the  affairs  of  but  a  single  church,  are  to  be 
istinguished  from  the  synods,  which  took  cognizance  of  matters 
f  general  interest.  Older  Protestant  writers  have  contented 
hemselves  with  saying  either  that  synods  were  of  apostolic 
rigin,  or  that  they  were  the  inevitable  outcome  of  the  need  of 
he  leaders  of  churches  to  take  counsel  together,  and  that  they 
were  perhaps  modelled  on  the  secular  provincial  assemblies 
concilia  promncialia). 

Every  important  alteration  in  the  constitution  of  the  Church 
las  affected  the  composition  and  function  of  synods;  but  the 
hanges  were  neither  simultaneous  nor  precisely  alike  throughout 
he  Roman  empire.  The  synods  of  the  2nd  century  were  extra- 
ordinary assemblies  which  met  to  deliberate  upon  pressing 
>roblems.  They  had  no' fixed  geographical  limits  for  membership , 
10  ex-officio  members,  nor  did  they  possess  an  authority  which 
did  away  with  the  independence  of  the  local  church.  In  the 
course  of  the  3rd  century  came  the  decisive  change,  which 
ncreased  the  prestige  of  the  councils:  the  right  to  vote  was 
imited  to  bishops.  This  was  the  logical  outgrowth  of  the 
>elief  that  each  local  church  ought  to  have  but  one  bishop 
.monarchical  episcopate),  and  that  these  bishops  were  the  sole 
egitimate  successors  of  the  apostles  (apostolic  succession),  and 
therefore  official  organs  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Although  as  late  as 
250  the  consensus  of  the  priests,  the  deacons  and  the  people  was 
still  considered  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  conciliar  decision  at 
Rome  and  in  certain  parts  of  the  East,  the  development  had 
already  run  its  course  in  northern  Africa.  It  was  a  further  step 
in  advance  when  synods  began  to  meet  at  regular  intervals. 
They  were  held  annually  in  Cappadocia  by  the  middle  of  the  3rd 
century,  and  the  council  of  Nicaea  commanded  in  325  that  semi- 
annual synods  be  held  in  every  province,  an  arrangement  which 
was  not  systematically  enforced,  and  was  altered  in  692,  when 
the  Trullan  Council  reduced  the  number  to  one  a  year. 

With  the  multiplication  of  synods  came  naturally  a  differentia- 
tion of  type.  In  text-books  we  find  clear  lines  drawn  between 
diocesan,  provincial,  national,  patriarchal  and  oecumenical 
synods;  but  the  first  thousand  years  of  church  history  do  not 
justify  the  sharpness  of  the  traditional  distinction.  The  pro- 
vincial synods,  presided  over  by  the  metropolitan  (archbishop), 
were  usually  held  at  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  attempted 
to  legislate  on  all  sorts  of  questions.  The  state  had  nothing  to  do 
with  calling  them,  nor  did  their  decrees  require  governmental 
sanction.  Various  abortive  attempts  were  made  to  set  up 
synods  of  patriarchal  or  at  least  of  more  than  provincial  rank. 
In  North  Africa  eighteen  such  synods  were  held  between  393  and 
424;  during  part  of  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  primatial  councils 
assembled  at  Aries;  and  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  were 
accustomed  to  invite  to  their  "  endemic  synods "  (avvodoi 
ev5r)MoO<7tu)  all  bishops  who  happened  to  be  sojourning  at  the 
capital.  Papal  synods  from  the  sth  and  especially  from  the  9th 
century  onward  included  members  such  as  the  archbishops  of 
Ravenna,  Milan,  Aquileia  and  Grado,  who  resided  outside  the 
Roman  archdiocese;  but  the  territorial  limits  from  which  the 
membership  was  drawn  do  not  appear  to  have  been  precisely 
defined. 

Before  the  form  of  the  provincial  synod  had  become  absolutely 
fixed,  there  arose  in  the  4th  century  the  oecumenical  council. 
The  Greek  term  avvoios  olKov^fvudt2  (i)  (used  by  Eusebius, 
Vita  Constanlini,  iii.  6)  is  preferable  to  the  Latin  concilium 
universale  or  generale,  which  has  been  applied  loosely  to  national 
and  even  to  provincial  synods.  The  oecumenical  synods  were  not 
the  logical  outgrowth  of  the  network  of  provincial  synods;  they 
were  creations  of  the  imperial  power.  Constantine,  who  had  not 
even  been  baptized,  laid  the  foundations  when,  in  response  to  a 
petition  of  the  Donatists,  he  referred  their  case  to  a  committee  of 
bishops  that  convened  at  Rome,  which  meeting  Eusebius  calls  a 

'From  i)  oUouMlni  (7*).  the  inhabited  world;  Latin  oecu- 
menicus  or  universalis.  The  English  forms  "oecumenical"  and 
"ecumenical"  are  both  used. 


310 


COUNCIL 


synod.  After  that  the  emperor  summoned  the  council  of  Aries  to 
settle  the  matter.  For  both  of 'these  assemblies  it  was  the  emperor 
that  decided  who  should  be  summoned,  paid  the  travelling 
expenses  of  the  bishops,  determined  where  the  council  should  be 
held  and  what  topics  should  be  discussed.  He  regarded  them 
as  temporary  advisory  bodies,  to  whose  recommendations  the 
imperial  authority  might  give  the  force  of  law.  In  the  same 
manner  he  appointed  the  time  and  place  for  the  council  of 
Nicaea,  summoned  the  episcopate,  paid  part  of  the  expenses  out 
of  the  public  purse,  nominated  the  committee  in  charge  of  the 
order  of  business,  used  his  influence  to  bring  about  the  adoption 
of  the  creed,  and  punished  those  who  refused  to  subscribe.  To  be 
sure,  the  council  of  Nicaea  commanded  great  veneration,  for  it 
was  the  first  attempt  to  assemble  the  entire  episcopate;  but  no 
more  than  the  synods  of  Rome  and  of  Aries  was  it  an  organ  of 
ecclesiastical  self-government — it  was  rather  a  means  whereby 
the  Church  was  ruled  by  the  secular  power.  The  subsequent 
oecumenical  synods  of  the  undivided  Church  were  patterned  on 
that  of  Nicaea.  Most  Protestant  scholars  maintain  that  the 
secular  authorities  decided  whether  or  not  they  should  be 
convened,  and  issued  the  summons;  that  imperial  commissioners 
were  always  present,  even  if  they  did  not  always  preside;  that  on 
occasion  emperors  have  confirmed  or  refused  to  confirm  synodal 
decrees;  and  that  the  papal  confirmation  was  neither  customary 
nor  requisite.  Roman  Catholic  scholars  to-day  tend  to  recede 
from  the  high  ground  very  generally  taken  several  centuries  ago, 
and  Funk  even  admits  that  the  right  to  convoke  oecumenical 
synods  was  vested  in  the  emperor  regardless  of  the  wishes  of  the 
pope,  and  that  it  cannot  be  proved  that  the  Roman  see  ever 
actually  had  a  share  in  calling  the  oecumenical  councils  of 
antiquity.  Others,  however,  while  acknowledging  the  futility  of 
seeking  historical  proofs  that  the  popes  formally  called,  directed 
and  confirmed  these  synods,  yet  assert  that  the  emperor  per- 
formed these  functions  not  of  his  own  right  but  in  his  quality  as 
protector  of  the  Church,  that  this  involved  his  acting  at  the 
request  or  at  least  with  the  permission  and  approval  of  the 
Church,  and  in  particular  of  the  pope,  and  that  a  special  though 
not  a  stereotyped  papal  confirmation  of  conciliar  decrees  was 
necessary  to  their  validity. 

In  the  Germanic  states  which  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Western 
Empire  we  find  national  and  diocesan  synods;  provincial  synods 
were  unusual.  National  synods  were  summoned  by  the  king  or 
with  his  consent  to  meet  special  needs;  and  they  were  frequently 
concilia  mixta,  at  which  lay  dignitaries  appeared.  Although  the 
Prankish  monarchs  were  not  abolute  rulers,  nevertheless  they 
exercised  the  right  of  changing  or  rejecting  synodal  decrees 
which  ran  counter  to  the  interests  of  the  state.  Clovis  held  the 
first  French  national  synod  at  Orleans  in  511;  Reccared,  the 
first  in  Spain  in  589  at  Toledo.  Under  Charlemagne  they  were 
occasionally  so  representative  that  they  might  almost  be  ranked 
as  general  synods  of  the  West  (Regensburg,  792,  Frankfort,  794). 
Contemporaneous  with  the  evolution  of  the  national  synod  was 
the  development  of  a  new  type  of  diocesan  synod,  which  included 
the  priests  of  separate  and  mutually  independent  parishes  and 
also  the  leaders  of  the  monastic  clergy. 

The  papal  synods  came  into  the  foreground  with  the  success  of 
the  Cluniac  reform  of  the  Church,  especially  from  the  Lateran 
synod  of  1059  on.  They  grew  in  importance  until  at  length 
Calixtus  II.  summoned  to  the  Lateran  the  synod  of  1123  as 
"  generale  concilium."  The  powers  which  the  pope  as  bishop  of 
the  church  in  Rome  had  exercised  over  its  synods  he  now  extended 
to  the  oecumenical  councils.  They  were  more  completely  under 
his  control  than  the  ancient  ones  had  been  under  the  sway  of  the 
emperor.  The  Pseudo-Isidorean  principle  that  all  major  synods 
need  papal  authorization  was  insisted  on,  and  the  decrees  were 
formulated  as  papal  edicts. 

The  absolutist  principles  cherished  by  the  papal  court  in  the 
1 2th  and  i3th  centuries  did  not  pass  unchallenged;  but  the 
protests  of  Marsilius  of  Padua  and  the  less  radical  William  of 
Occam  remained  barren  until  the  Great  Schism  of  1378.  As 
neither  the  pope  in  Rome  nor  his  rival  in  Avignon  would  give  way, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  idea  that  the  supreme  power  was  vested 


not  in  the  pope  but  in  the  oecumenical  council.  This  "  conciliar 
theory,"  propounded  by  Conrad  of  Gelnhausen  and  championed 
by  the  great  Parisian  teachers  Pierre  d'Ailly  and  Gerson,  pro- 
ceeded from  the  nominalistic  axiom  that  the  whole  is  greater 
than  its  part.  The  decisive  revolutionary  step  was  taken  when 
the  cardinals  independently  of  both  popes  ventured  to  hold  the 
council  of  Pisa  (1409).  The  council  of  Constance  asserted  the 
supremacy  of  oecumenical  synods,  and  ordered  that  these  be 
convened  at  regular  intervals.  The  last  of  the  Reform  councils, 
that  of  Basel,  appoved  these  principles,  and  at  length  passed  a 
sentence  of  deposition  against  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  Eugenius, 
however,  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  power,  and  at  the  council 
of  Florence  (1439)  secured  the  condemnation  of  the  conciliar 
theory;  and  this  was  reiterated  still  more  emphatically,  on  the 
eve  of  the  Reformation,  by  the  fifth  Lateran  council  (1516). 
Thenceforward  the  absolutist  theories  of  the  I3th  and  I4th 
centuries  increasingly  dominated  the  Roman  Church.  The 
popes  so  distrusted  oecumenical  councils  that  between  1517  and 
1869  they  called  but  one;  at  this  (Trent,  1545-1563),  however, 
all  treatment  of  the  question  of  papal  versus  conciliar  authority 
was  purposely  avoided.  Although  the  Declaration  of  the  French 
clergy  of  1682  reaffirmed  the  conciliar  doctrines  of  Constance, 
since  the  French  Revolution  this  "  Gallicanism  "  has  shown 
itself  to  be  but  a  passing  phase  of  constitutional  theory;  and  in 
the  i  gth  century  the  ascendancy  of  Ultramontanism  became  so 
secure  that  Pius  IX.  could  confidently  summon  to  the  Vatican  a 
synod  which  set  its  seal  on  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility.  Yet 
it  would  be  a  misconception  to  suppose  that  the  Vatican  decrees 
mean  the  surrender  of  the  ancient  belief  in  the  infallibility  of 
oecumenical  synods;  their  decisions  may  still  be  regarded  as 
more  solemn  and  more  impressive  than  those  of  the  pope  alone; 
their  authority  is  fuller,  though  not  higher.  At  present  it  is 
agreed  that  the  pope  has  the  sole  right  of  summoning  oecumenical 
councils,  of  presiding  or  appointing  presidents  and  of  determining 
the  order  of  business  and  the  topics  which  shall  come  up.  The 
papal  confirmation  is  indispensable;  it  is  conceived  of  as  the 
stamp  without  which  the  expression  of  conciliar  opinion  lacks 
legal  validity.  In  other  words,  the  oecumenical  council  is  now 
practically  in  the  position  of  the  senate  of  an  absolute  monarch. 
It  is  in  fact  an  open  question  whether  a  council  is  to  be  ranked  as 
really  oecumenical  until  after  its  decrees  have  been  approved  by  the 
pope.  (See  VATICAN  COUNCIL,  ULTRAMONTANISM,  INFALLIBILITY.) 

The  earlier  oecumenical  councils  have  well  been  called  "  the 
pitched  battles  of  church  history."  Summoned  to  combat 
heresy  and  schism,  in  spite  of  degrading  pressure  from  without 
and  tumultuous  disorder  within,  they  ultimately  brought  about 
a  modicum  of  doctrinal  agreement.  On  the  one  side  as  time  went 
on  they  bound  scholarship  hand  and  foot  in  the  winding-sheet  of 
tradition,  and  also  fanned  the  flames  of  intolerance;  yet  on  the 
other  side  they  fostered  the  sense  of  the  Church's  corporate 
oneness.  The  diocesan  and  provincial  synods  have  formed  a 
valuable  system  of  regularly  recurring  assemblies  for  disposing  of 
ecclesiastical  business.  They  have  been  held  most  frequently, 
however,  in  times  of  stress  and  of  reform,  for  instance  in  the  nth, 
1 6th  and  igth  centuries;  at  other  periods  they  have  lapsed  into 
disuse:  it  is  significant  that  to-day  the  prelate  who  neglects  to 
convene  them  suffers  no  penalty.  At  present  the  main  function 
of  both  provincjal  and  oecumenical  synods  seems  to  be  to  facilitate 
obedience  to  the  wishes  of  the  central  government  of  the  Church. 

The  right  to  vote  (votum  definitivum)  has  been  distinguished 
from  early  times  from  the  right  to  be  heard  (votum  consultalivum) . 
The  Reform  Synods  of  the  isth  century  gave  a  decisive  vote  to 
doctors  and  licentiates  of  theology  and  of  laws,  some  of  them 
sitting  as  individuals,  some  as  representatives  of  universities. 
Roman  Catholic  canonists  now  confine  the  right  to  vote  at 
oecumenical  councils  to  bishops,  cardinal  deacons,  generals  or 
vicars  general  of  monastic  orders  and  the  praelati  nullius  (exempt 
abbots,  &c.);  all  other  persons,  lay  or  clerical,  who  are  admitted 
or  invited,  have  merely  the  votum  consullativum—they  are 
chiefly  procurators  of  absent  bishops,  or  very  learned  priests. 
It  was  but  a  clumsy  and  temporary  expedient,  designed  to  offset 
the  preponderance  of  Italian  bishops  dependent  on  the  pope 


COUNCIL 


311 


A.D. 

325 
381 
431 
451 


787 

869 

"23 

"39 

"79 

1215 

1245 
1274 
13" 


when  the  council  of  Constance  subdivided  itself  into  several 
groups  or  "  nations,"  each  of  which  had  a  single  vote.  In 
voting,  the  simple  majority  decides;  yet  such  is  the  importance 
attached  to  a  unanimous  verdict  that  an  irreconcilable  minority 
may  absent  itself  from  the  final  vote,  as  was  the  case  at  the 
Vatican  Council. 

The  numbering  of  oecumenical  synods  is  not  fixed;  the  list 
most  used  in  the  Roman  Church  to-day  is  that  of  Hefele  (Con- 
ciliengeschichte,  2nd  ed.,  1. 59  f.) : 

1.  Nicaea  I.        .... 

2.  Constantinople  I.  . 

3.  Ephesus          .... 

4.  Chalcedon      .... 

5.  Constantinople  II. 

6.  Constantinople  III. 

7.  Nicaea  II 

8.  Constantinople  IV. 

9.  Lateran  I 

10.  Lateran  II 

11.  Lateran  III 

12.  Lateran  IV 

13.  Lyons  I.          .... 

14.  Lyons  II.        .... 

15.  Vienna 

16.  Constance  (in  part)      .        .    1414-1418 
173.   Basel  (in  part)        ....      1431  ff. 
I7b.  Ferrara-Florence  (a  continuation 

of  Basel)     ....  1438-1442 

18.  Lateran  V 1512-1517 

19.  Trent 1545-1563 

20.  Vatican 1869-1870 

(Each  of  these  and  certain  other  important  synods  are  treated  in 
separate  articles.) 

By  including  Pisa  (1409)  and  by  treating  Florence  as  a  separate 
synod,  certain  writers  have  brought  the  number  of  oecumenical 
councils  up  to  twenty-two.  These  standard  lists  are  of  the  type 
which  became  established  through  the  authority  of  Cardinal 
R.  F.  Bellarmine  (1542-1621),  who  criticized  Constance  and 
BaseL  while  defending  Florence  and  the  fifth  Lateran  council 
against  the  Gallicans.  As  late  as  the  i6th  century,  however, 
"  the  majority  did  not  regard  those  councils  in  which  the  Greek 
Church  did  not  take  part  as  oecumenical  at  all  "  (Harnack, 
History  of  Dogma,  vi.  17).  The  Greek  Church  accepts  only  the 
first  seven  synods  as  oecumenical;  and  it  reckons  the  Trullan 
synod  of  692  (the  Quinisextum)  as  a  continuation  of  the  sixth 
oecumenical  synod  of  680.  But  concerning  the  first  seven 
councils  it  should  be  remarked  that  Constantinople  I.  was  but  a 
general  synod  of  the  East;  its  claim  to  oecumenicity  rests  upon 
its  reception  by  the  West  about  two  centuries  later.  Similarly 
the  only  representatives  of  the  West  present  at  Constantinople  II. 
were  certain  Africans;  the  pope  did  not  accept  the  decrees  till 
afterwards  and  they  made  their  way  in  the  West  but  gradually. 
Just  as  there  have  been  synods  which  have  come  to  be  considered 
oecumenical  though  not  convoked  as  such,  so  there  have  been 
synods  which  though  summoned  as  oecumenical,  failed  of 
recognition:  for  instance  Sardica  (343),  Ephesus  (449),  Con- 
stantinople (754).  The  last  two  received  the  imperial  confirma- 
tion and  from  the  legal  point  of  view  were  no  whit  inferior  to  the 
others;  their  decrees,  however,  were  overthrown  by  subsequent 
synods.  As  the  Protestant  leaders  of  the  i6th  century  held  fast 
the  traditional  christology,  they  regarded  with  veneration  the 
dogmatic  decisions  of  Nicaea  I.,  Constantinople  I.,  Ephesus  and 
Chalcedon.  These  four  councils  had  enjoyed  a  more  or  less 
fortuitous  pre-eminence  both  in  Roman  and  in  canon  law,  and  by 
many  Catholics  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  were  regarded, 
along  with  the  three  great  creeds  (Apostles',  Nicene,  Athanasian), 
as  a  sort  of  irreducible  minimum  of  orthodoxy.  In  the  I7th 
century  the  liberal  Lutheran  George  Calixtus  based  his  attempts 
at  reuniting  Christendom  on  this  consensus  quinquesaecularis. 
Many  other  Protestants  have  accepted  Constantinople  II.  and 
III.  as  supporting  the  first  four  councils;  and  still  others, 
notably  many  Anglican  high  churchmen,  have  felt  bound  by  all 
the  oecumenical  synods  of  the  undivided  Church.  The  common 
Protestant  attitude  toward  synods  is,  however,  that  they  may 
err  and  have  erred,  and  that  the  Scriptures  and  not  conciliar 


decisions  are  the  sole  infallible  standard  of  faith,  morals  and 
worship. 

Protestant  Councils. — The  churches  of  the  Reformation  have  all 
had  a  certain  measure  of  synodal  life.  The  Church  of  England 
has  maintained  its  ancient  provincial  synods  or  convocations, 
though  for  the  greater  part  of  the  i8th  and  the  first  part  of  the 
igth  centuries  they  transacted  no  business.  In  the  Lutheran 
churches  of  Germany  there  was  no  strong  agitation  in  favour  of 
introducing  synods  until  the  I9th  century,  when  a  movement, 
designed  to  render  the  churches  less  dependent  on  the  govern- 
mental consistories,  won  its  way,  until  at  length  Prussia  itself 
fell  into  line  (1873  and  1876).  As  the  powers  granted  to  the 
German  synods  are  very  limited,  many  of  their  advocates  have 
been  disillusioned;  but  the  Lutheran  churches  of  America, 
being  independent  of  the  state,  have  developed  synods  both 
numerous  and  potent.  In  the  Reformed  churches  outside 
Germany  synodal  life  is  vigorous;  its  forms  were  developed  by 
the  Huguenots  in  days  of  persecution,  and  passed  thence  to 
Scotland  and  other  presbyterian  countries.  Even  many  of  the 
churches  of  congregational  polity  have  organized  national 
councils  (see  CONGREGATIONALISM)  ;  but  here  the  principle  of  the 
independence  of  the  local  church  prevents  the  decisions  from 
binding  those  congregations  which  do  not  approve  of  the  decrees. 
Moreover,  in  the  last  decade  of  the  igth  century  a  growing 
desire  for  a  rapprochement  between  the  Free  Churches  in  the 
United  Kingdom  as  a  whole  led  to  the  annual  assembly  of  the 
Free  Church  Council  for  the  consideration  of  all  matters  affecting 
the  dissenting  bodies.  This  body  has  no  executive  or  doctrinal 
authority  and  is  rather  a  conference  than  a  council.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  synods  are  becoming  more  and  more  powerful 
in  Protestant  lands,  and  that  they  are  destined  to  still  greater 
prominence  because  of  the  growing  sentiment  for  Christian 
unity. 

AUTHORITIES. — GENERAL  COLLECTIONS:  Collectio  regia  (Paris, 
1644,  37  vols.)  (the  first  very  extensive  work) ;  P.  Labbe  (not  Labbe) 
and  G.  Cossart, .Sacrosancta  concilia  (Paris,  1672,  17  vols.),  with 
supplement  by  Etienne  Baluze  (Baluzius),  1683  (based  on  above); 
J.  Hardouin  (Harduinus),  Concilior-um  collect™  regia  maxima  (Paris, 
1715),  II  tomi  in  12  vols.  (to  1714;  more  exact;  indexed;  serious 
omissions);  enlarged  edition  by  N.  Coletus  (Venice,  1728-1732), 
supplemented  by  J.  D.  Mansi,  Sanctorum  conciliorum  et  decretorum 
nova  collectio  (Lucca,  1748,  6  tomi).  Convenient  but  fallible  is 
Mansi's  Sacrorum  conciliorum  et  decretorum  nova  et  amplissima 
collectio  (Florence,  1759-1767;  completed  Venice,  1769-1798,  31 
vols.);  facsimile  reproduction  by  Welter  (Paris,  1901  ff.),  adding 
(torn.  O)  Introductio  seu  apparatus  ad  sacrosancta  concilia,  and 
(torn.  176  and  i8B)  Baluze,  Capitularia  regum  Francorum,  and  con- 
tinuing to  date  by  reproducing  parts  of  Coletus  and  of  Mansi's 
supplement  to  Coletus,  and  furnishing  (torn.  37  ff.)  a  new  edition 
of  the  councils  from  1720  on  by  J.  B.  Martin  and  L.  Petit.  A  careful 
text  of  Roman  Catholic  synods  from  1682  to  1870  is  Collectio  Lacensis 
(Acta  et  decreta  sacrorum  conciliorum  recentiorum,  Friburgi,  1870  ff.), 
7  vols. 

SPECIAL  COLLECTIONS:  GREAT  BRITAIN:  Concilia  Magnae 
Britanniae  et  Hiberniae,  ed.  D.  Wilkins  (London,  1737,  4  vols.); 
Councils  and  Ecclesiastical  Documents  relating  to  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  ed.  by  A.  W.  Haddan  and  W.  Stubbs  (Oxford,  1869  ff.,  4 
vols.);  J.  W.  Joyce,  Handbook  of  the  Convocations  or  Provincial 
Synods  of  the  Church  of  England  (London,  1887);  Concilia  Scotiae 
(1225-1559),  ed.  Joseph  Robertson  (Edinburgh,  Bannatyne  Club, 
1866,  2  torn.). 

UNITED  STATES:  Collectio  Lacensis  (Roman  Catholic  synods); 
The  American  Church  History  Series  (New  York,  1893  ff.  13  vols.) 
gives  information  on  the  various  Protestant  synods. 

FRANCE. — Concilia  aevi  Merovingici,  rec.  F.  Maassen  (Hanover, 
1893)  (Monumenta  Germaniae  historica,  Legum  sectio  iii.,  Concilia, 
torn,  i.);  Concilia  antiqua  Galliae,  cur.  J.  Sirmond  (Paris,  1629,  3 
vols.);  supplement  byT*.  de  la  Lande  (Paris,  1666);  L.  Odespun, 
Concilia  novissima  Galliae  (Paris,  1646) ;  Conciliorum  Galliae  tarn 
editorum  quam  ineditorum,  stud.  congreg.S,Mauri,tom.\.  (Paris,  1789). 
Synods  of  the  Reformed  Churches  of  France  are  contained  in  J. Quick, 
Synodicon  in  Gallia  reformata  (London,  1692,  2  vols.);  J.  Aymon, 
Tous  les  synodes  nationaux  des  eglises  reformies  de  France  (La  Haye, 
1710,  2  vols.);  E.  Hugues,  Les  Synodes  du  desert  (Paris,  1885  f.,  3 
vols.).  For  the  synods  of  other  countries  see  Herzog-Hauck,  3rd 
ed.,  19,262  f.,  and  Wetzer  and  Welte,  2nd  ed.,  3809  f. 

LESS  ELABORATE  TEXTS:  Canones  apostolorum  et  conciliorum 
saeculorum,  iv.-vii.,  rec.  H.  T.  Bruns  (Berlin,  1839,  2  vols.)  (still 
useful);  J.  Fulton,  Index  Canonum  (3rd  ed.,  New  York,  1892) 
(3rd  and  4th  centuries) ;  W.  Bright,  Notes  on  the  Canons  of  the  First 
four  General  Councils  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford,  1892);  Die  Kanones  dtr 


312 


COUNCIL  BLUFFS— COUNT 


•uiichtigsten  altkirchlichen  Conzilien  nebst  den  apostolischen  Kanones, 
ed.  F.  Lauchert  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1896);  Enchiridion  symbolorum  et 
definitionum,  quae  de  rebus  fidei  et  morum  a  conciliis  oecumenicis  et 
summis  pontificibus  emanarunt,  ed.  H.  Denzinger  (7th  ed.,  Wurzburg, 
1895);  Biblwthek  der  Symbole  und  Glaubensregetn  der  alien  Kirche, 
ed.  by  A.  Hahn  (3rd  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  Breslau,  1897), 
with  variant  readings ;  C.Mirbt,  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  Papsttums 
und  des  romischen  Katholizismus  (2nd  much  enlarged  ed.,  Tubingen, 
1901);  E.  F.  Karl  Miiller,  Die  Bekenntnisschriften  der  reformierlen 
Kirche  (Leipzig,  1903)  (for  all  countries).  These  last  five  are 
elaborately  indexed. 

TRANSLATIONS:  John  Johnson,  A  Collection  of  the  Laws  and 
Canons  of  the  Church  of  England  [601-1519],  2  parts  (London,  1720; 
reprinted  Oxford,  1850  f.,  in  the  Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology) ; 
P.  Schaff,  The  Creeds  of  Christendom  (New  York,  1877,  3  vols.) 
(texts  and  translations  parallel) ;  Canons  and  Creeds  of  the  First 
Four  Councils,  ed.  by  E.  K.  Mitchell,  in  Translations  and  Reprints 
from  the  Original  Sources  of  European  History,  published  by  the 
Department  of  History  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  vol.  iv.  2 
(1897);  H.  R.  Percival,  The  Ecumenical  Councils  (New  York,  1900) 
(Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  second  series,  vol.  xiv. ;  translates 
canons  and  compiles  notes;  bibliography  in  Introduction). 

GENERAL  HISTORIES  OF  COUNCILS:  C.  J.  von  Hefele,  Concilien- 
geschichte  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1855);  English  translation  of  the  earlier 
volumes  to  A.D.  787,  from  A.D.  326  on,  based  on  the  second  German 
edition  (Edinburgh,  1871  ff.);  French,  by  Delarc  (Paris,  1869-1874, 
10  vols.).  This  first  edition  not  entirely  superseded  by  the  second, 
made  after  the  Vatican  council,  and  continued  by  Knppfler  and  by 
Hergenrother  (Freiburg,  1873-1890,  9  vols.) ;  a  French  translation, 
with  continuation  and  critical  and  bibliographical  notes,  par  un 
religieux  benedictin  de  Farnborough,  tome  i.  i™  partie  (Paris,  Letou- 
zey,  1907);  Paul  Viollet,  Examen  de  Vhistoire  des  candles  de  Mgr 
Hefele  (Paris,  1876)  (Extrait  de  la  Revue  historique) ;  W.  P.  du  Bose, 
The  Ecumenical  Councils  (New  York,  1896)  (popular);  P.  Guerin, 
Les  Conciles  generaux  et  particuliers  (Paris,  1868,  3rd  impression,  1897, 
3  torn.) ;  see  also  A.  Harnack,  History  of  Dogma  (Boston,  1895-1900, 
7  vols.) ;  F.  Loofs,  Leitfaden  der  Dogmengeschichte  (4th  ed.,  enlarged, 
Halle,  1906). 

LITERATURE:  Dictionnaire  universel  et  cpmplet  des  candles,  redige 
par  A.  C.  Peltier,  publie  par  Migne  (Paris,  1847,  2  vols.)  (Migne, 
Encyclopedie  theologique,  vol.  13  f.);  Z.  Zitelli-Natali,  Epitome 
historico-canonica  concttiorum  generalium  (Rome,  1881);  F.  X. 
Kraus,  Realencyklopadie  der  chnstlichen  Altertumer,  vol.  i.(Freiburg- 
i.-B.,  1882)  (art.  "  Concilien  "  by  Funk) ;  William  Smith  and  S. 
Cheetham,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities  (London,  1876-1880, 
2  vols.)  (erudite  detail);  Wetzer  und  Welte's  Kirchenlexikon, 
2nd  ed.  by  Hergenrother  and  Kaulen  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1882-1903, 
13  vols.)  (art.  Concil  "  by  Scheeben);  La  Grande  Encyclopedie 
(Paris,  s.d.,  31  vols.)  (numerous  articles);  P.  Hinschius, Das Kirchen- 
recht  der  Katholiken  und  Protestanten  in  Deutschland,  vol.  3  (Berlin, 
1883)  (fundamental  and  masterly);  R.  von  Scherer,  Handbuch  des 
Kirchenrechtes,  vol.  i.  (Graz,  1886)  (excellent  notes  and  references) ; 
E.  H.  Landon,  A  Manual  of  Councils  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church, 
(revised  ed.,  London,  [1893],  2  vols.)  (paraphrases  chief  canons; 
needs  revision);  Martigny,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  chretiennes 
(3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1889)  (for  ceremonial);  R.  Sohm,  Kirchenrecht, 
vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1892)  (brilliant);  A.  Kneer,  Die  Entstehung  der 
konziliaren  Theorie  (Rome,  1893)  I  Realencyklopadie  fur  protestanlische 
Theologie  und  Kirche,  begrundet  von  J.  I.  Herzog,  3rd  revised  ed. 
by  A.  Hauck  ( Leipzig,  1896(1. )  (in  vol.  19  Hauck' s  excellent  Synod  en, 
1907);  F.  X.  Funk,  Kirchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungen  und 
Untersuchungen  (Paderborn,  1897) ;  A.  V.  G.  Allen,  Christian  Insti- 
tutions (New  York,  1897),  chap,  xi.;  C.  A.  Kneller,  "  Papst  und 
Konzil  im  ersten  Jahrtausend  "  (Ze itschrift  fur  katholische  Theologie, 
vols.  27  and  28,  Innsbruck,  1893  f.);  F.  Bliemetzrieder,  Das  General- 
konzil  im  grossen  abendlandischen  Schisma  (Paderborn,  1904) ; 
Wilhelm  and  Scannell,  Manual  of  Catholic  Theology  (3rd  ed.,  London, 
1906,  sect.  32) ;  J.  Forget,  "  Conciles,"  in  A.  Vacant  and  E.  Mangeot, 
Dictionnaire  de  theologie  catholique,  tome  3,  636-676  (Paris,  1906  ff.), 
with  elaborate  bibliography ;  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  (New  York, 
1907  ff.).  (W.  W.  R.*) 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Pottawattamie 
county,  Iowa,  U.S.A.,  about  2|  m.  E.  of  the  Missouri  river 
opposite  Omaha,  Nebraska,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  road 
bridge  and  two  railway  bridges.  Pop.  (1890)  21,474;  (1900) 
25,802,  of  whom  3723  were  foreign-born;  (1910)  29,292.  It 
is  pre-eminently  a  railway  centre,  being  served  by  the  Union 
Pacific,  of  which  it  is  the  principal  eastern  terminus,  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul,  the 
Chicago  &  Northwestern,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific, 
the  Chicago  Great-Western,  the  Illinois  Central,  and  the  Wabash, 
which  together  have  given  itconsiderable  commercialimportance. 
It  is  built  for  the  most  part  on  level  ground  at  the  foot  of  high 
bluffs;  and  has  several  parks,  the  most  attractive  of  which, 
commanding  fine  views,  is  Fairmount  Park.  With  the  exception 


of  bricks  and  tiles,  carriages  and  wagons,  agricultural  implements, 
and  the  products  of  its  railway  shops,  its  manufactures  are 
relatively  unimportant,  the  factory  product  in  1905  being  valued 
at  only  $1,924,109.  Council  Bluffs  is  the  seat  of  the  Western 
Iowa  Business  College,  and  of  the  Iowa  school  for  the  deaf. 
On  or  near  the  site  of  Council  Bluffs,  in  1804,  Lewis  and  Clark 
held  a  council  with  the  Indians,  whence  the  city's  name.  In 
1838  the  Federal  government  made  this  the  headquarters  of  the 
Pottawattamie  Indians,  removed  from  Missouri.  They  remained 
until  1846-1847,  when  the  Mormons  came,  built  many  cabins, 
and  named  the  place  Kanesville.  The  Mormons  remained  only 
about  five  years,  but  on  their  departure  for  Utah  their  places 
were  speedily  taken  by  new  immigrants.  During  1840-1850 
Council  Bluffs  became  an  important  outfitting  point  for  California 
gold  seekers — the  goods  being  brought  by  boat  from  Saint 
Louis — and  in  1853  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city. 

COUNSEL  AND  COUNSELLOR,  one  who  gives  advice,  more 
particularly  in  legal  matters.  The  term  "  counsel  "  is  employed 
in  England  as  a  synonym  for  a  barrister-at-law,  and  may  refer 
either  to  a  single  person  who  pleads  a  cause,  or  collectively,  to  the 
body  of  barristers  engaged  in  a  case.  Counsellor  or,  more  fully, 
counsellor-at-law,  is  practically  an  obsolete  term  in  England,  but 
is  still  in  use  locally  in  Ireland  as  an  equivalent  to  barrister.  In 
the  United  States,  a  counsellor-at-law  is,  specifically,  an  attorney 
admitted  to  practice  in  all  the  courts;  but  as  there  is  no  formal 
distinction  of  the  legal  profession  into  two  classes,  as  in  England, 
the  term  is  more  often  used  loosely  in  the  same  sense  as  "  lawyer,  " 
i.e.  one  who  is  versed  in,  or  practises  law. 

COUNT  (Lat.  comes,  gen.  comitis,  Fr.  comte,  Ital.  conte,  Span. 
conde),  the  English  translation  of  foreign  titles  equivalent 
generally  to  the  English  "  earl."1  In  Anglo-French  documents 
the  word  counte  was  at  all  times  used  as  the  equivalent  of  earl,  but, 
unlike  the  feminine  form  "  countess,"  it  did  not  find  its  way  into 
the  English  language  until  the  i6th  century,  and  then  only  in  the 
sense  defined  above.  The  title  of  earl,  applied  by  the  English  to 
the  foreign  counts  established  in  England  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  is  dealt  with  elsewhere  (see  EARL).  The  present 
article  deals  with  (i)  the  office  of  count  in  the  Roman  empire 
and  the  Frankish  kingdom,  (2)  the  development  of  the  feudal 
count  in  France  and  under  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  (3)  modern 
counts. 

i.  The  Latin  comes  meant  literally  a  companion  or  follower.  In 
the  early  Roman  empire  the  word  was  used  to  designate  the 
companions  of  the  emperor  (comites  principis)  and  so  became  a 
title  of  honour.  The  emperor  Hadrian  chose  senators  as  com- 
panions on  his  travels  and  to  help  him  in  public  business.  They 
formed  a  permanent  council,  and  Hadrian's  successors  entrusted 
these  comites  with  the  administration  of  justice  and  finance,  or 
placed  them  in  military  commands.  The  designation  comes  thus 
developed  into  a  formal  official  title  of  high  officers  of  state,  some 
qualification  being  added  to  indicate  the  special  duties  attached 
to  the  office  in  each  case.  Thus  in  the  5th  century,  among  the 
comites  attached  to  the  emperor's  establishment,  we  find,  e.g.,  the 
comes  sacrarum  largitionum  and  the  comes  rei  privatae;  while 
others,  forming  the  council,  were  styled  comites  consistorii. 
Others  were  sent  into  the  provinces  as  governors,  comites  per 
provincial  constituti;  thus  in  the  Notitia  dignitatum  we  find  a 
comes  Aegypti,  a  comes  Africae,  a  comes  Belgicae,  a  comes 
Lugdunensis  and  others.  Two  of  the  generals  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Britain  were  styled  the  comes  Britanniae  and  the 
comes  littoris  Saxonici  (count  of  the  Saxon  shore). 

At  Constantinople  in  the  latter  Roman  empire  the  Latin  word 
comes  assumed  a  Greek  garb  as  KO/WJS  and  was  declined  as  a 
Greek  noun  (gen.  «6/«jTOs);  the  comes  sacrarum  largitionum 
(count  of  the  sacred  bounties)  was  called  at  Constantinople 
6  /c6/i?js  TUV  O-OKP&V  \apyiTiuvuv  and  the  comes  rerum  privatarum 

1  The  exact  significance  of  a  title  is  difficult  to  reproduce  in  a 
foreign  language.  Actually,  only  some  foreign  counts  could  be  said 
to  be  equivalent  to  English  earls;  but  "  earl  "  is  always  translated 
by  foreigners  by  words  (comte,  Graf)  which  in  English  are  represented 
by  "  count,"  itself  never  used  as  the  synonym  of  "  earl."_  Con- 
versely old  English  writers  had  no  hesitation  in  translating  as 
"  earl  "  foreign  titles  which  we  now  render  "  count." 


COUNT 


(count  of  the  private  estates)  was  called  Ko/nr;s  TWV 
The  count  of  the  sacred  bounties  was  the  lord  treasurer  or 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  for  the  public  treasury  and  the 
imperial  fisc  had  come  to  be  identical;  while  the  count  of  the 
private  estates  managed  the  imperial  demesnes  and  the  privy 
purse.  In  the  sth  century  the  "  sacred  bounties  "  corresponded 
to  the  aerarium  of  the  early  Empire,  while  the  res  privatae 
represented  the  fisc.  The  officers  connected  with  the  palace  and 
the  emperor's  person  included  the  count  of  the  wardrobe  (comes 
sacrae  vestis),  the  count  of  the  residence  (comes  domorum),  and, 
most  important  of  all,  the  comes  domesticorum  et  sacri  stabuli 
(graecized  as  KO^TJS  rov  ord/3Xoi>).  The  count  of  the  stable, 
originally  the  imperial  master  of  the  horse,  developed  into  the 
"  illustrious  "  commander-in-chief  of  the  imperial  army  (Stilicho, 
e.g.,  bore  the  full  title  as  given  above),  and  became  the  prototype 
of  the  medieval  constable  (q.v.). 

An  important  official  of  the  second  rank  (spectabilis,  "  re- 
spectable "  as  contrasted  with  those  of  highest  rank  who  were 
"  illustrious  ")  was  the  count  of  the  East,  who  appears  to  have  had 
the  control  of  a  department  in  which  600  officials  were  engaged. 
His  power  was  reduced  in  the  6th  century,  when  he  was  deprived 
of  his  authority  over  the  Orient  diocese,  and  became  civil 
governor  of  Syria  Prima,  retaining  his  "  respectable "  rank. 
Another  important  officer  of  the  later  Roman  court  was  the 
comes  sacri  patrimonii,  who  was  instituted  by  the  emperor 
Anastasius.  In  this  connexion  it  should  be  observed  that  the 
word  palrimonium  gradually  changed  in  meaning.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  3rd  century  patrimonium  meant  crown  property, 
and  res  privata  meant  personal  property:  at  the  beginning  of  the 
6th  century  patrimonium  meant  personal  property,  and  res 
privata  meant  crown  property.  It  is  difficult  to  give  briefly  a 
clear  idea  of  the  functions  of  the  three  important  officials  comes 
sacrarum  largitionum,  comes  rei  privatae  and  comes  sacri  partri- 
monii;  but  the  terms  have  been  well  translated  by  a  German 
author  as  Finanzminister  des  Reichsschatzes  (finance  minister  of 
the  treasury  of  the  Empire),  F.  des  Kronschatzes  (of  the  crown 
treasury),  and  F.  des  kaiserlichen  Prwatvermogens  (of  the 
«mperor's  private  property). 

The  Prankish  kings  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  retained  the 
Roman  system  of  administration,  and  under  them  the  word 
comes  preserved  its  original  meaning;  the  comes  was  a  companion 
of  the  king,  a  royal  servant  of  high  rank.  Under  the  early 
Prankish  kings  some  comites  did  not  exercise  any  definite 
functions;  they  were  merely  attached  to  the  king's  person  and 
executed  his  orders.  Others  filled  the  highest  offices,  e.g.  the 
comes  palatii  and  comes  stabuli  (see  CONSTABLE).  The  kingdom 
was  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  small  areas  called 
pagi  (pays,  Ger.  Gau),  corresponding  generally  to  the  Roman 
civitates  (see  Cmr).1  At  the  head  of  the  pagus  was  the  comes, 
corresponding  to  the  German  Graf  (Gaugraf,  cf.  Anglo-Saxon 
scire-gerefa?  sheriff).  The  comes  was  appointed  by  the  king  and 
removable  at  his  pleasure,  and  was  chosen  originally  from  all 
classes,  sometimes  from  enfranchised  slaves.  His  essential 
functions  were  judicial  and  executive,  and  in  documents  he  is 
often  described  as  the  king's  agent  (agens  publicus)  or  royal 
judge  (judex  publicus  orfiscalis) .  As  the  delegate  of  the  executive 
power  he  had  the  right  to  military  command  in  the  king's  name, 
and  to  take  all  the  measures  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the 
peace,  i.e.  to  exercise  the  royal "  ban  "  (bannus  regis).  He  was  at 
once  public  prosecutor  and  judge,  was  responsible  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  sentences  of  the  courts,  and  as  the  king's  representa- 
tive exercised  the  royal  right  of  protection  (mundium  regis)  over 
churches,  widows,  orphans  and  the  like.  He  enjoyed  a  triple 
wergeld,  but  had  no  definite  salary,  being  remunerated  by  the 
receipt  of  certain  revenues,  a  system  which  contained  the  germs 
of  discord,  on  account  of  the  confusion  of  his  public  and  private 

1  The  changing  language  of  this  epoch  speaks  of  civilates,  subse- 
quently of  pagi,  and  later  of  comitatus  (counties). 

2  The  A.S.  gerefa,  however,  meaning  "illustrious,"  "chief,"  has 
apparently,  according  to  philologists,  no  connexion  with  the  German 
Graf,  which  originally  meant      servant  "  (cf.  "  knight,"  "  valet," 
&c.).     It  is  the  more  curious  that  the  gerefa  should  end  as  a  servant 
("  reeve  "),  the  Graf  as  a  noble  (count). 


estates.  He  also  retained  a  third  of  the  fines  which  he  im- 
posed in  his  judicial  capacity. 

Under  the  early  Carolings  the  title  count  did  not  indicate  noble 
birth.  A  comes  was  generally  raised  from  childhood  in  the  king's 
palace,  and  rose  to  be  a  count  through  successive  stages.  The 
count's  office  was  not  yet  a  dignity,  nor  hereditary;  he  was  not 
independent  nor  appointed  for  life,  but  exercised  the  royal  power 
by  delegation,  as  under  the  Merovingians.  While,  however,  he 
was  theoretically  paid  by  the  king,  he  seems  to  have  been 
himself  one  of  the  sources  of  the  royal  revenue.  The  counties 
were,  it  appears,  farmed  out;  but  in  the  7th  century  the  royal 
choice  became  restricted  to  the  larger  landed  proprietors,  who 
gradually  emancipated  themselves  from  royal  control,  and  in  the 
Sth  century  the  term  comitatus  begins  to  denote  a  geographical 
area,  though  there  was  little  difference  in  its  extent  under  the 
Merovingian  kings  and  the  early  Carolings.  The  count  was 
about  to  pass  into  the  feudatory  stage.  Throughout  the  middle 
ages,  however,  the  original  official  and  personal  connotation  of 
the  title  was  never  wholly  lost;  or  perhaps  it  would  be  truer  to 
say,  with  Selden,  that  it  was  early  revived  with  the  study  of  the 
Roman  civil  law  in  the  I2th  century.  The  unique  dignity  of 
count  of  the  Lateran  palace,3  bestowed  in  1328  by  the  emperor 
Louis  IV.  the  Bavarian  on  Castrucio  de'  Antelminelli,  duke  of 
Lucca,  and  his  heirs  male,  was  official  as  well  as  honorary, 
being  charged  with  the  attendance  and  service  to  be  per- 
formed at  the  palace  at  the  emperor's  coronation  at  Rome  (Du 
Cange,  s.v.  Comites  Palatii  Later anensis;  Selden,  op.  cit.  p.  321). 
This  instance,  indeed,  remained  isolated;  but  the  personal 
title  of  "  count  palatine,"  though  honorary  rather  than  official, 
was  conferred  on  officials — especially  by  the  popes  on  those  of 
the  Curia — had  no  territorial  significance,  and  was  to  the  last 
reminiscent  of  those  early  comites  palatii  whose  relations  to  the 
sovereign  had  been  purely  personal  and  official  (see  PALATINE). 
A  relic  of  the  old  official  meaning  of  "  count  "  still  survives  in 
Transylvania,  where  the  head  of  the  political  administration  of 
the  Saxon  districts  is  styled  count  (comes,  Graf)  of  the  Saxon 
Nation. 

2.  Feudal  Counts. — The  process  by  which  the  official  counts 
were  transformed  into  feudal  vassals  almost  independent  is 
described  in  the  article  FEUDALISM.  In  the  confusion  of  the 
period  of  transition,  when  the  title  to  possession  was  usually  the 
power  to  hold,  designations  which  had  once  possessed  a  definite 
meaning  were  preserved  with  no  defined  association.  In  France, 
by  the  loth  century,  the  process  of  decomposition  of  the  old 
organization  had  gone  far,  and  in  the  nth  century  titles  of 
nobility  were  still  very  loosely  applied.  That  of  "  count  "  was, 
as  Luchaire  points  out,  "  equivocal  "  even  as  late  as  the  I2th 
century;  any  castellan  of  moderate  rank  could  style  himself 
comte  who  in  the  next  century  would  have  been  called  seigneur 
(dominus).  Even  when,  in  the  I3th  century,  the  ranks  of  the 
feudal  hierarchy  in  France  came  to  be  more  definitely  fixed,  the 
style  of  "  count  "  might  imply  much,  or  comparatively  little. 
In  the  oldest  register  of  Philip  Augustus  counts  are  reckoned 
with  dukes  in  the  first  of  the  five  orders  into  which  the  nobles  are 
divided,  but  the  list  includes,  besides  such  almost  sovereign 
rulers  as  the  counts  of  Flanders  and  Champagne,  immediate 
vassals  of  much  less  importance — such  as  the  counts  of  Soissons 
and  Dammartin — and  even  one  mediate  vassal,  the  count  of 
Bar-sur-Seine.  The  title  was  still  in  fact  "  equivocal,"  and  so  it 
remained  throughout  French  history.  In  the  official  lists  it  was 
early  placed  second  to  that  of  duke  (Luchaire,  Manuel,  p.  181, 
note  i),  but  in  practice  at  least  the  great  comtes-pairs  (e.g.  of 
Champagne)  were  the  equals  of  any  duke  and  the  superiors  of 
many.  Thus,  too,  in  modern  times  royal  princes  have  been  given 
the  title  of  count  (Paris,  Flanders,  Caserta),  the  heir  of  Charles  X. 
actually  changing  his  style,  without  sense  of  loss,  from  that  of  due 
de  Bordeaux  to  that  of  comte  de  Chambord.  From  the  i6th 

* "  Count  of  the  Lateran  Palace "  (Comes  Sacri  Lateranensis 
Palatii)  was  later  the  title  usually  bestowed  by  the  popes  in  creating 
counts  palatine.  The  emperors,  too,  continued  to  make  counts 
palatine  under  this  title  long  after  the  Lateran  had  ceased  to  be  an 
imperial  palace. 


3M- 


COUNTER 


century  onwards  the  equivocal  nature  of  the  title  in  France  was 
increased  by  the  royal  practice  of  selling  it,  either  to  viscounts  or 
barons  in  respect  of  their  fiefs,  or  to  rich  roturiers. 

In  Germany  the  change  from  the  official  to  the  territorial  and 
hereditary  counts  followed  at  the  outset  much  the  same  course  as 
in  France,  though  the  later  development  of  the  title  and  its 
meaning  was  different.  In  the  loth  century  the  counts  were 
permitted  by  the  kings  to  divide  their  benefices  and  rights 
among  their  sons,  the  rule  being  established  that  countships 
(Grafschaften)  were  hereditary,  that  they  might  be  held  by  boys, 
that  they  were  heritable  by  females  and  might  even  be  ad- 
ministered by  females.  The  Grafschaft  became  thus  merely  a 
bundle  of  rights  inherent  in  the  soil;  and,  the  count's  office 
having  become  his  property,  the  old  counties  or  Gauen  rapidly 
disappeared  as  administrative  units,  being  either  amalgamated  or 
subdivided.  By  the  second  half  of  the  i2th  century  the  official 
character  of  the  count  had  quite  disappeared;  he  had  become  a 
territorial  noble,  and  the  foundation  had  been  laid  of  territorial 
sovereignty  (Landeshoheit) .  The  first  step  towards  this  was  the 
concession  to  the  counts  of  the  military  prerogatives  of  dukes, 
a  right  enjoyed  from  the  first  by  the  counts  of  the  marches  (see 
MARGRAVE),  then  given  to  counts  palatine  (see  PALATINE)  and, 
finally,  to  other  counts,  who  assumed  by  reason  of  it  the  style  of 
landgrave  (Landgraf,  i.e.  count  of  a  province).  At  first  all  counts 
were  reckoned  as  princes  of  the  Empire  (Reichsfiirsteri);  but 
since  the  end  of  the  1 2th  century  this  rank  was  restricted  to  those 
who  were  immediate  tenants  of  the  crown,1  the  other  counts  of 
the  Empire  (Reichsgrafen)  being  placed  among  the  free  lords 
(barones,  liberi  domini).  Counts  of  princely  rank  (gefiirstete 
Graf  en)  voted  among  the  princes  in  the  imperial  diet;  the  others 
(Reichsgrafen)  were  grouped  in  the  Grafenbanke — originally  two, 
to  which  two  more  were  added  in  the  I7th  century— each  of 
which  had  one  vote.  In  1 806,  on  the  formation  of  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  the  sovereign  counts  were  all  mediatized  (see 
MEDIATIZATION).  Even  before  the  end  of  the  Empire  (1806) 
the  right  of  bestowing  the  title  of  count  was  freely  exercised  by 
the  various  German  territorial  sovereigns. 

3.  Modern  Counts. — Any  political  significance  which  the  feudal 
title  of  count  retained  in  the  i8th  century  vanished  with  the 
changes  produced  by  the  Revolution  .  It  is  now  simply  a  title  of 
honour  and  one,  moreover,  the  social  value  of  which  differs 
enormously,  not  only  in  the  different  European  countries,  but 
within  the  limits  of  the  same  country.  In  Germany,  for  instance, 
there  are  several  categories  of  counts:  (i)  the  mediatized  princely 
counts  (gefiirstete  Graf  en),  who  are  reckoned  the  equals  in  blood 
of  the  European  sovereign  houses,  an  equality  symbolized  by 
the  "  closed  crown  "  surmounting  their  armorial  bearings.  The 
heads  of  these  countly  families  of  the  "  high  nobility  "  are 
entitled  (by  a  decree  of  the  federal  diet,  1829)  to  the  style  of 
Erlaucht  (illustrious,  most  honourable);  (2)  Counts  of  the 
Empire2  (Reichsgrafen),  descendants  of  those  counts  who, 
before  the  end  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (1806),  were  Reichs- 
stdndisch,  i.e.  sat  in  one  of  the  Grafenbanke  in  the  imperial  diet, 
and  entitled  to  a  ducal  coronet;  (3)  Counts  (a)  descended  from 
the  lower  nobility  of  the  old  Empire,  titular  •  since  the  isth 
century,  (6)  created  since;  their  coronet  is  nine-pointed  (cf.  the 
nine  points  and  strawberry  leaves  of  the  English  earl).  The 
difficulty  of  determining  in  any  case  the  exact  significance  of 
the  title  of  a  German  count,  illustrated  by  the  above,  is  increased 
by  the  fact  that  the  title  is  generally  heritable  by  all  male 
descendants,  the  only  exception  being  in  Prussia,  where,  since 
1840,  the  rule  of  primogeniture  has  prevailed  and  the  bestowal  of 
the  title  is  dependent  on  a  rent-roll  of  £3000  a  year.  The  result 

1  Of  these  there  were  four  who,  as  counts  of  the  Empire  par 
excellence,  were  sometimes  styled  "  simple  counts  "  (Schlechtgrafen) , 
i.e.  the  counts  of  Cleves,  Schwarzburg,  Cilli  and  Savoy;  they 
were  entitled  to  the  ducal  coronet.  Three  of  these  had  become  dukes 
by  the  1 7th  century,  but  the  count  (now  prince)  of  Schwarzburg  still 
styled  himself  "  Of  the  four  counts  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
count  of  Schwarzburg  "  (see  Selden,  ed.  1672,  p.  312). 

1  This  title  is  borne  by  certain  English  families,  e.g.  by  Lord 
Arundell  of  Wardour.  In  other  cases  it  has  been  assumed  without 
due  warrant.  See  J.  H.  Round,  "  English  Counts  of  the  Empire," 
in  The  Ancestor,  vii.  15  (Westminster,  October  1903). 


is  that  the  title  is  very  widespread  and  in  itself  little  significant. 
A  German  or  Austrian  count  may  be  a  wealthy  noble  of  princely 
rank,  a  member  of  the  Prussian  or  Austrian  Upper  House,  or  he 
may  be  the  penniless  cadet  of  a  family  of  no  great  rank  or 
antiquity.  Nevertheless  the  title,  which  has  long  been  very 
sparingly  bestowed,  always  implies  a  good  social  position.  The 
style  Altgraf  (old  count),  occasionally  found,  is  of  some  antiquity, 
and  means  that  the  title  of  count  has  been  borne  by  the  family 
from  time  immemorial. 

In  medieval  France  the  significance  of  the  title  of  count  varied 
with  the  power  of  those  who  bore  it;  in  modern  France  it  varies 
with  its  historical  associations.  It  is  not  so  common  as  in 
Germany  or  Italy;  because  it  does  not  by  custom  pass  to  all 
male  descendants.  The  title  was,  however,  cheapened  by  its 
revival  under  Napoleon.  By  the  decree  of  the  ist  of  March  1808, 
reviving  titles  of  nobility,  that  of  count  was  assigned  ex  officio  to 
ministers,  senators  and  life  councillors  of  state,  to  the  president  of 
the  Corps  Legislatif  and  to  archbishops.  The  title  was  made 
heritable  in  order  of  primogeniture,  and  in  the  case  of  archbishops 
through  their  nephews.  These  Napoleonic  countships,  increased 
under  subsequent  reigns,  have  produced  a  plentiful  crop  of  titles 
of  little  social  significance,  and  have  tended  to  lower  the  status  of 
the  counts  deriving  from  the  ancien  regime.  The  title  of  marquis, 
which  Napoleon  did  not  revive,  has  risen  proportionately  in  the 
estimation  of  the  Faubourg  St  Germain.  As  for  that  of  count,  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  in  France  its  social  value  is  solely  dependent  on 
its  historical  associations. 

Of  all  European  countries  Italy  has  been  most  prolific  of  counts. 
Every  petty  Italian  prince,  from  the  pope  downwards,  created 
them  for  love  or  money;  and,  in  the  absence  of  any  regulating 
authority,  the  title  was  also  widely  and  loosely  assumed,  while 
often  the  feudal  title  passed  with  the  sale  of  the  estate  to  which  it 
was  attached.  Casanova  remarked  that  in  some  Italian  cities 
all  the  nobles  were  baroni,  in  others  all  were  conti.  An  Italian 
conte  may  or  may  not  be  a  gentleman;  he  has  long  ceased, 
qua  count,  to  have  any  social  prestige,  and  his  rank  is  not  re- 
cognized by  the  Italian  government.  As  in  France,  however, 
there  are  some  Italian  conti  whose  titles  are  respectable,  and 
even  illustrious,  from  their  historic  associations.  The  prestige 
belongs,  however,  not  to  the  title  but  to  the  name.  As  for  the 
papal  countships,  which  are  still  freely  bestowed  on  those  of  all 
nations  whom  the  Holy  See  wishes  to  reward,  their  prestige 
naturally  varies  with  the  religious  complexion  of  the  country  in 
which  the  titles  are  borne.  They  are  esteemed  by  the  faithful ,  but 
have  small  significance  for  those  outside.  In  Spain,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  title  of  conde,  the  earlier  history  of  which  follows  much 
the  same  development  as  in  France,  is  still  of  much  social  value, 
mainly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  rule  of  primogeniture  exists, 
and  that,  a  large  fee  being  payable  to  the  state  on  succession  to 
a  title,  it  is  necessarily  associated  with  some  degree  of  wealth. 
The  Spanish  counts  of  old  creation,  some  of  whom  are  grandees 
and  members  of  the  Upper  House,  naturally  take  the  highest 
rank;  but  the  title,  still  bestowed  for  eminent  public  services  or 
other  reasons,  is  of  value.  The  title,  like  others  in  Spain,  can 
pass  through  an  heiress  to  her  husband.  In  Russia  the  title  of 
count  (graf,  fern,  grafinya),  a  foreign  importation,  has  little  social 
prestige  attached  to  it,  being  given  to  officials  of  a  certain  rank. 
In  the  British  empire  the  only  recognized  counts  are  those  of 
Malta,  who  are  given  precedence  with  baronets  of  the  United 
Kingdom. 

See  Selden,  Titles  of  Honor  (London,  1672) ;  Du  Cange,  Glos- 
sarium  Med.  Lat.  (ed.  Niort,  1883)  s.v.  "Comes";  La  Grande 
Encyclopedie,  s.v.  "  Comte  ";  A.  Luchaire,  Manuel  des  institutions 
frangaises  (Paris,  1892);  P.  Guilhiermoz,  Essai  sur  I'origine  de  la 
noblesse  en  France  au  moyen  age  (Paris,  1902) ;  Brunner,  Deutsche 
Rechtsgeschichte,  Band  ii.  (Leipzig,  1892). 

COUNTER,  (i)  (Through  the  O.  Fr.  conteoir,  modern  comptoir, 
from  Lat.  computare,  to  reckon),  a  round  piece  of  metal,  wood  or 
other  material  used  anciently  in  making  calculations,  and  now  for 
reckoning  points  in  games  of  cards,  &c.,  or  as  tokens  representing 
actual  coins  or  sums  of  money  in  gambling  games  such  as  roulette. 
The  word  is  thus  used,  figuratively,  of  something  of  no  real  value, 
a  sham.  In  the  original  sense  of  "  a  means  of  counting  money, 


COUNTERFEITING— COUNTERPOINT 


or  keeping  accounts,"  "  counter  "  is  used  of  the  table  or  flat- 
topped  barrier  in  a  bank,  merchant's  office  or  shop,  on  which 
money  is  counted  and  goods  handed  to  a  customer.  The  term 
was  aiso  applied,  usually  in  the  form  "  compter,"  to  the  debtors' 
prisons  attached  to  the  mayor's  or  sheriff's  courts  in  London  and 
some  other  boroughs  in  England.  The  "  compters  "  of  the 
sheriff's  courts  of  the  city  of  London  were,  at  various  times,  in 
the  Poultry,  Bread  St.,  Wood  St.  and  Giltspur  St.;  the  Giltspur 
St.  compter  was  the  last  to  be  closed,  in  1854.  (2)  (From  Lat. 
contra,  opposite,  against),  a  circular  parry  in  fencing,  and  in 
boxing,  a  blow  given  as  a  parry  to  a  lead  of  an  opponent.  The 
word  is  also  used  of  the  stiff  piece  of  leather  at  the  back  of  a  boot 
or  shoe,  of  the  rounded  angle  at  the  stern  of  a  ship,  and,  in  a 
horse,  of  the  part  lying  between  the  shoulder  and  the  under  part 
of  the  neck.  In  composition,  counter  is  used  to  express  contrary 
action,  as  in  "  countermand,"  "  counterfeit,"  &c.  . 

COUNTERFEITING  (from  Lat.  contra-facere,  to  make  in 
opposition  or  contrast),  making  an  imitation  without  authority 
and  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding.  The  word  is  more  particularly 
used  in  connexion  with  the  making  of  imitations  of  money, 
whether  paper  or  coin.  (See  COINAGE  OFFENCES;  FORGERY.) 

COUNTERFORT  (Fr.  contrefort),  in  architecture,  a  buttress  or 
pier  built  up  against  the  wall  of  a  building  or  terrace  to  strengthen 
it,  or  to  resist  the  thrust  of  an  arch  or  other  constructional 
feature  inside.  • 

COUNTERPOINT  (Lat.  contrapunctus,  "  point  counter  point," 
"  note  against  note  "),  in  music,  the  art  happily  defined  by  Sir 
Frederick  Gore  Ouseley  as  that  "  of  combining  "  melodies:  this 
should  imply  that  good  counterpoint  is  the  production  of  beauti- 
ful harmony  by  a  combination  of  well-characterized  melodies. 
The  individual  audibility  of  the  melodies  is  a  matter  of  which 
current  criticism  enormously  overrates  the  importance.  What  is 
always  important  is  the  peculiar  life  breathed  into  harmony  by 
contrapuntal  organization.  Both  historically  and  aesthetically 
"  counterpoint  "  and  "  harmony  "  are  inextricably  blended;  for 
nearly  every  harmonic  fact  is  in  its  origin  a  phenomenon  of 
counterpoint.  And  if  in  later  musical  developments  it  becomes 
possible  to  treat  chords  as,  so  to  speak,  harmonic  lumps  with  a 
meaning  independent  of  counterpoint,  this  does  not  mean  that 
they  have  really  changed  their  nature;  but  it  shows  a  difference 
between  modern  andearliermusicpreciselysimilartothatbetween 
modern  English,  in  which  metaphorical  and  abstract  expressions 
are  so  constantly  used  that  they  have  become  a  mere  shorthand 
for  the  literal  and  concrete  expression,  and  classical  Greek,  where 
metaphors  and  abstractions  can  appear  only  as  elaborate 
similes  or  explicit  philosophical  ideas.  The  laws  of  counterpoint 
are,  then,  laws  of  harmony  with  the  addition  of  such  laws  of 
melody  as  are  not  already  produced  by  the  interaction  of 
harmonic  and  melodic  principles.  In  so  far  as  the  laws  of 
counterpoint  are  derived  from  purely  harmonic  principles,  that  is 
to  say,  derived  from  the  properties  of  concord  and  discord,  their 
origin  and  development  are  discussed  in  the  article  HARMONY. 
In  so  far  as  they  depend  entirely  on  melody  they  are  too  minute 
and  changeable  to  admit  of  general  discussion ;  and  in  so  far  as 
they  show  the  interaction  of  melodic  and  harmonic  principles  it  is 
more  convenient  to  discuss  them  under  the  head  of  harmony, 
because  they  appear  in  such  momentary  phenomena  as  are  more 
easily  regarded  as  successions  of  chords  than  as  principles  of 
design.  All  that  remains,  then,  for  the  present  article  is  the 
explanation  of  certain  technical  terms. 

1.  Canto  Fermo  (i.e.  plain  chant)  is  a  melody  in  long  notes 
given  to  one  voice  while  others  accompany  it  with  quicker 
counterpoints     (the  term  "  counterpoint  "  in  this  connexion 
meaning  accompanying  melodies).     In  the  simplest  cases  the 
Canto  Fermo  has  notes  of  equal  length  and  is  unbroken  in  flow. 
When  it  is  broken  up  and  its  rhythm  diversified,  the  gradations 
between  counterpoint  on  a  Canto  Fermo  and  ordinary  forms  of 
polyphony,  or  indeed  any  kind  of  melody  with  an  elaborate 
accompaniment,  are  infinite  and  insensible. 

2.  Double  Counterpoint  is  a  combination  of  melodies  so  designed 
that  either  can  be  taken  above  or  below  the  other.     When  this 
change  of  position  is  effected  by  merely  altering  the  octave  of 


either  or  both  melodies  (with  or  without  transposition  of  the 
whole  combination  to  another  key),  the  artistic  value  of  the 
device  is  simply  that  of  the  raising  of  the  lower  melody  to  the 
surface.  The  harmonic  scheme  remains  the  same,  except  in  so  far 
as  some  of  the  chords  are  not  in  their  fundamental  position,  while 
others,  not  originally  fundamental,  have  become  so.  But  double 
counterpoint  may  be  in  other  intervals  than  the  octave;  that  is 
to  say,  while  one  of  the  parts  remains  stationary,  the  other  may 
be  transposed  above  or  below  it  by  some  interval  other  than  an 
octave,  thus  producing  an  entirely  different  set  of  harmonies. 

Double  Counterpoint  in  the  izth  has  thus  been  made  a  powerful 
means  of  expression  and  variety.  The  artistic  value  of  this 
device  depends  not  only  on  the  beauty  and  novelty  of  the  second 
scheme  of  harmony  obtained,  but  also  on  the  change  of  melodic 
expression  produced  by  transferring  one  of  the  melodies  to 
another  position  in  the  scale.  Two  of  the  most  striking  illustra- 
tions of  this  effect  are  to  be  found  in  the  last  chorus  of  Brahms's 
Triumphlied  and  in  the  fourth  of  his  variations  on  a  theme  by 
Haydn. 

Double  Counterpoint  in  the  loth  has,  in  addition  to  this,  the 
property  that  the  inverted  melody  can  be  given  in  the  new  and  in 
the  original  positions  simultaneously. 

Double  counterpoint  in  other  intervals  than  the  octave,  loth 
and  1 2th,  is  rare,  but  the  general  principle  and  motives  for  it 
remain  the  same  under  all  conditions.  The  two  subjects  of  the 
Confileor  in  Bach's  B  minor  Mass  are  in  double  counterpoint  in 
the  octave,  nth  and  I3th.  And  Beethoven's  Mass  in  D  is  full  of 
pieces  of  double  counterpoint  in  the  inversions  of  which  a  few 
notes  are  displaced  so  as  to  produce  momentary  double  counter- 
point in  unusual  intervals,  obviously  with  the  intention  of 
varying  the  harmony.  Technical  treatises  are  silent  as  to  this 
purpose,  and  leave  the  student  in  the  belief  that  the  classical 
composers  used  these  devices,  if  at  all,  in  a  manner  as  meaningless 
as  the  examples  in  the  treatises. 

3.  Triple,  Quadruple  and  Multiple  Counterpoint. — When  more 
than  two  melodies  are  designed  so  as  to  combine  in  interchange- 
able positions,  it  becomes  increasingly  difficult  to  avoid  chords 
and  progressions  of  which  some  inversions  are  incorrect.  In 
triple  counterpoint  this  difficulty  is  not  so  great;  although  a 
complete  triad  is  dangerous,  as  it  is  apt  to  invert  as  a  "  -J  " 
which  requires  careful  handling.  On  the  other  hand,  in  triple 
counterpoint  the  necessity  for  strictness  is  at  its  greatest, 
because  there  are  only  six  possible  inversions,  and  in  a  long 
polyphonic  work  most  of  these  will  be  required.  Moreover,  the 
artistic  value  of  the  device  is  at  its  highest  in  three-part  poly- 
phonic harmony,  which,  whether  invertible  or  not,  is  always  a 
fine  test  of  artistic  economy,  while  the  inversions  are  as  evident 
to  the  ear,  especially  where  the  top  part  is  concerned,  as  those 
in  double  counterpoint.  Triple  counterpoint  (and  a  fortiori 
multiple  counterpoint)  is  normally  possible  only  at  the  octave; 
for  it  will  be  found  that  if  three  parts  are  designed  to  invert  in 
some  other  interval  this  will  involve  two  of  them  inverting  in  a 
third  interval  which  will  give  rise  to  incalculable  difficulty. 
This  makes  the  fourth  of  Brahms's  variations  on  a  theme  of 
Haydn  almost  miraculous.  The  plaintive  expression  of  the  whole 
variation  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  flowing  sen  iquaver 
counterpoint  below  the  main  theme  is  on  each  repeat  inverted  in 
the  1 2th,  with  the  result  that  its  chief  emphasis  falls  upon  the 
most  plaintive  parts  of  the  scale.  But  in  the  first  eight  bars  of 
the  second  part  of  the  variation  a  third  contrapuntal  voice 
appears,  and  this  too  is  afterwards  inverted  in  the  I2th,  with 
perfectly  natural  and  smooth  effect.  But  this  involves  the 
inversion  of  two  of  the  counterpoints  with  each  other  in  the  gth, 
a  kind  of  double  counterpoint  which  is  almost  impossible.  The 
case  is  unique,  but  it  admirably  illustrates  the  difference  between 
artistic  and  merely  academic  mastery  of  technical  resource. 

Quadruple  Counterpoint  is  not  rare  with  Bach.  It  would  be 
more  difficult  than  triple,  but  for  the  fact  that  of  its  twenty-four 
possible  inversions  not  more  than  four  or  five  need  be  correct. 
Quintuple  counterpoint  is  admirably  illustrated  in  the  finale  of 
Mozart's  Jupiter  Symphony,  in  which  everything  in  the  successive 
statement  and  gradual  development  of  the  five  themes  conspires 


316 


COUNTERSCARP— COUNTY 


to  give  the  utmost  effect  to  their  combination  in  the  coda.  Of 
course  Mozart  has  not  room  for  more  than  five  of  the  1 20  possible 
combinations,  and  from  these  he  selects  such  as  bring  fresh 
themes  into  the  outside  parts,  which  are  the  most  clearly  audible. 
Sextuple  Counterpoint  may  be  found  in  Bach's  great  double 
chorus,  Nun  ist  das  Hell,  and  in  the  finale  of  his  concerto  for 
three  claviers  in  C,  and  probably  in  other  places. 

4.  Added  Thirds  and  Sixths. — An  easy  and  effective  imitation 
of  triple  and  quadruple  counterpoint,  embodying  much  of  the 
artistic  value  of  inversion,  is  found  in  the  numerous  combinations 
of  themes  in  thirds  and  sixths  which  arise  from  an  extension  of 
the  principle  which  we  mentioned  in  connexion  with  double 
counterpoint  in  the  loth,  namely,  the  possibility  of  performing 
it  in  its  original  and  inverted  positions  simultaneously.  The 
Pleni  sunt  coeli  of  Bach's  B  minor  Mass  is  written  in  this  kind  of 
transformation  of  double  into  quadruple  counterpoint;  and  the 
artistic  value  of  the  device  is  perhaps  never  so  magnificently 
realized  as  in  the  place,  at  bar  84,  where  the  trumpet  doubles  the 
bass  three  octaves  and  a  third  above  while  the  alto  and  second 
tenor  have  the  counter  subjects  in  close  thirds  in  the  middle. 

Almost  all  other  contrapuntal  devices  are  derived  from  the 
principle  of  the  canon  and  are  discussed  in  the  article  CONTRA- 
PUNTAL FORMS. 

As  a  training  in  musical  grammar  and  style,  the  rhythms  of 
16th-century  polyphony  were  early  codified  into  "  the  five 
species  of  counterpoint  "  (with  various  other  species  now  for- 
gotten) and  practised  by  students  of  composition.  The  classical 
treatise  on  which  Haydn  and  Beethoven  were  trained  was  Fux's 
Gradus  ad  Parnassum  (1725).  This  was  superseded  in  the  ipth 
century  by  Cherubini's,  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  attempts  to 
bring  up  to  date  as  a  dead  language  what  should  be  studied  in  its 
original  and  living  form.  (D.  F.  T.) 

COUNTERSCARP  (  =  "  opposite  scarp,"  Fr.  contrescarpe),  a 
term  used  in  fortification  for  the  outer  slope  of  a  ditch;  see 
FORTIFICATION  AND  SIEGECRAFT. 

COUNTERSIGN,  a  military  term  for  a  sign,  word  or  signal  pre- 
viously arranged  and  required  to  be  given  by  persons  approach- 
ing a  sentry,  guard  or  other  post.  In  some  armies  the  "  counter- 
sign "  is  strictly  the  reply  of  the  sentry  to  the  pass-word  given  by 
the  person  approaching. 

COUNTRY  (from  the  Mid.  Eng.  centre  or  contrie,  and  O.  Fr. 
cuntree;  Late  Lat.  contrata,  showing  the  derivation  from  contra, 
opposite,  over  against,  thus  the  tract  of  land  which  fronts  the 
sight,  cf.  Ger.  Gegend,  neighbourhood),  an  extent  of  land  without 
definite  limits,  or  such  a  region  with  some  peculiar  character,  as 
the  "  black  country,"  the  "  fen  country  "  and  the  like.  The 
extension  from  such  descriptive  limitation  to  the  limitation  of 
occupation  by  particular  owners  or  races  is  easy;  this  gives  the 
common  use  of  the  word  for  the  land  inhabited  by  a  particular 
nation  or  race.  Another  meaning  is  that  part  of  the  land  not 
occupied  by  towns,  "  rural  "  as  opposed  to  "  urban  "  districts; 
this  appears  too  in  "  country-house  "  and  "  country  town  "; 
so  too  "  countryman  "  is  used  both  for  a  rustic  and  for  the  native 
of  a  particular  land.  The  word  appears  in  many  phrases,  in  the 
sense  of  the  whole  population  of  a  country,  and  especially  of 
the  general  body  of  electors,  as  in  the  expression  "go  to  the 
country,"  for  the  dissolution  of  parliament  preparatory  to  a 
general  election. 

COUNTY  (through  Norm.  Fr.  counte,  cf.  O.  Fr.  cunte,  conte, 
Mod.  Fr.  comte,  from  Lat.  comitatus,  cf .  Ital.  comitato,  Prov.  comtat ; 
see  COUNT),  in  its  most  usual  sense  the  name  given  to  certain 
important  administrative  divisions  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
British  dominions  beyond  the  seas,  and  the  United  States  of 
America.  The  word  was  first  introduced  after  the  Norman 
Conquest  as  the  equivalent  of  the  old  English  "  shire,"  which  has 
survived  as  its  synonym,  though  occasionally  also  applied  to 
divisions  smaller  than  counties,  e.g.  Norhamshire,  Hexhamshire 
and  Hallamshire.  The  word  "  county  "  is  also  sometimes  used, 
alternatively  with  "  countship,"  to  translate  foreign  words, 
e.g.  the  French  comte  and  the  German  Grafschaft,  which  connote 
the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  a  count  (q.v.).  The  present  article 
is  confined  to  a  sketch  of  the  origin  and  development  of  English 


counties,  which  have  served  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  as  the 
model  for  the  county  organizations  in  the  various  countries  of  the 
English-speaking  world  which  are  described  under  their  proper 
headings. 

About  one-third  of  the  English  counties  represent  ancient 
kingdoms,  sub-kingdoms  or  tribal  divisions,  such  as  Kent, 
Sussex,  Norfolk,  Devon;  but  most  of  the  remaining  counties 
take  their  names  from  some  important  town  within  their  re- 
spective boundaries.  The  counties  to  the  south  of  the  Thames 
(except  Cornwall)  already  existed  in  the  time  of  Alfred,  but  those 
of  the  midlands  seem  to  have  been  created  during  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Elder  (901-925)  and  to  have  been  artificially 
bounded  areas  lying  around  some  stronghold  which  became  a 
centre  of  civil  and  military  administration.  There  is  reason, 
however,  for  thinking  that  the  counties  of  Bedford,  Cambridge, 
Huntingdon  and  Northampton  are  of  Danish  origin. 
Northumberland,  Cumberland  and  Westmorland  were  not 
recognized  as  English  counties  until  some  time  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  the  last  two  definitely  appearing  as  fiscal  areas  in  1 177. 
The  origin  of  Rutland  as  a  county  is  obscure,  but  it  had  its  own 
sheriff  in  1154. 

In  the  period  preceding  the  Norman  Conquest  two  officers 
appear  at  the  head  of  the  county  organization.  These  are  the 
ealdorman  or  earl,  and  the  scirgerefa  or  sheriff.  The  shires  of 
Wessex  appear  each  to  have  had  an  ealdorman,  whose  duties 
were  to  command  its  military  forces,  to  preside  over  the  county 
assembly  (scirgemot),  to  carry  out  the  laws  and  to  execute 
justice.  The  name  ealdorman  gave  way  to  that  of  earl,  probably 
under  Danish  influence,  in  the  first  half  of  the  nth  century,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  office  of  sheriff  came  into  existence  in  the 
reign  of  Canute  (1017-1035),  when  the  great  earldoms  were 
formed  and  it  was  no  longer  possible  for  the  earl  to  perform  his 
various  administrative  duties  in  person  in  a  group  of  counties. 
After  the  Norman  Conquest  the  earl  was  occasionally  appointed 
sheriff  of  his  county,  but  in  general  his  only  official  connexion 
with  it  was  to  receive  the  third  penny  of  its  pleas,  and  the 
earldom  ceased  to  be  an  office  and  became  merely  a  title.  In  the 
1 2th  century  the  office  of  coroner  was  created,  two  or  more  of 
them  being  chosen  in  the  county  court  as  vacancies  occurred. 
In  the  same  century  verderers  were  first  chosen  in  the  same 
manner  for  the  purpose  of  holding  inquisitions  on  vert  and 
venison  in  those  counties  which  contained  royal  forests.  It  was 
the  business  of  the  sheriff  (vicecomes)  as  the  king's  representative 
to  serve  and  return  all  writs,  to  levy  distresses  on  the  king's 
behalf,  to  execute  all  royal  precepts  and  to  collect  the  king's 
revenue.  In  this  work  he  was  assisted  by  a  large  staff  of  clerks 
and  bailiffs  who  were  directly  responsible  to  him  and  not  to  the 
king.  The  sheriff  also  commanded  the  armed  forces  of  the  crown 
within  his  county,  and  either  in  person  or  by  deputy  presided 
over  the  county  court  which  was  now  held  monthly  in  most 
counties.  In  1300  it  was  enacted  that  the  sheriffs  might  be 
chosen  by  the  county,  except  in  Worcestershire,  Cornwall, 
Rutland,  Westmorland  and  Lancashire,  where  there  were  then 
sheriffs  in  fee,  that  is,  sheriffs  who  held  their  offices  hereditarily 
by  royal  grant.  The  elective  arrangement  was  of  no  long 
duration,  and  it  was  finally  decided  in  1340  that  the  sheriffs 
should  be  appointed  by  the  chancellor,  the  treasurer  and  the 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  but  should  hold  office  for  one  year 
only.  The  county  was  from  an  early  period  regarded  as  a 
community,  and  approached  the  king  as  a  corporate  body,  while  . 
in  later  times  petitions  were  presented  through  the  knights  of  the 
shire.  It  was  also  an  organic  whole  for  the  purpose  of  the 
conservation  of  the  peace.  The  assessment  of  taxation  by 
commissioners  appointed  by  the  county  court  developed  in  the 
I3th  century  into  the  representation  of  the  county  by  two  knights 
of  the  shire  elected  by  the  county  court  to  serve  in  parliament, 
and  this  representation  continued  unaltered  save  for  a  short 
period  during  the  Protectorate,  until  1832,  when  many  of  the 
counties  received  a  much  larger  representation,  which  was  still 
further  increased  by  later  acts. 

The  royal  control  over  the  county  was  strengthened  from  the 
I4th  century  onward  by  the  appointment  of  justices  of  the  peace. 


COUNTY  COURT 


31? 


This  system  was  further  developed  under  the  Tudors,  while  in  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century  the  military  functions  of  the  sheriff 
were  handed  over  to  a  new  officer,  the  lord-lieutenant,  who  is  now 
more  prominently  associated  with  the  headship  of  the  county 
than  is  the  sheriff.  The  lord-lieutenant  now  usually  holds  the 
older  office  of  custos  rotulorum,  or  keeper  of  the  records  of  the 
county.  The  justices  of  the  peace  are  appointed  upon  his 
nomination,  and  until  lately  he  appointed  the  clerk  of  the  peace. 
The  latter  appointment  is  now  made  by  the  joint  committee  of 
quarter  sessions  and  county  council. 

The  Tudor  system  of  local  government  received  little  alteration 
until  the  establishment  of  county  councils  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Act  of  1888  handed  over  to  an  elected  body  many  of  the 
functions  previously  exercised  by  the  nominated  justices  of  the 
peace.  For  the  purposes  of  this  act  the  ridings  of  Yorkshire,  the 
divisions  of  Lincolnshire,  east  and  west  Sussex,  east  and  west 
Suffolk,  the  soke  of  Peterborough  and  the  Isle  of  Ely  are  regarded 
as  counties,  so  that  there  are  now  sixty  administrative  counties 
of  England  and  Wales.  Between  1373  and  1692  the  crown 
granted  to  certain  cities  and  boroughs  the  privilege  of  being 
counties  of  themselves.  There  were  in  1835  eighteen  of  these 
counties  corporate,  Bristol,  Chester,  Coventry,  Gloucester, 
Lincoln,  Norwich,  Nottingham,  York  and  Carmarthen,  each  of 
which  had  two  sheriffs,  and  Canterbury,  Exeter,  Hull,  Lichfield, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Poole,  Southampton,  Worcester  and 
Haverfordwest,  each  of  which  had  one  sheriff.  All  these 
boroughs,  with  the  exception  of  Carmarthen,  Lichfield,  Poole  and 
Haverfordwest,  which  remain  counties  of  themselves,  and  forty- 
seven  others,  were  created  county  boroughs  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Act  1888,  and  are  entirely  dissociated  from  the  control  of 
a  county  council.  The  City  of  London  is  also  a  county  of  itself, 
whose  two  sheriffs  are  also  sheriffs  of  Middlesex,  while  for  the 
purposes  of  the  act  of  1888  the  house-covered  district  which 
extends  for  many  miles  round  the  City  constitutes  a  county. 

The  county  has  always  been  the  unit  for  the  organization  of  the 
militia,  and  from  about  1782  certain  regiments  of  the  regular 
army  were  associated  with  particular  counties  by  territorial 
titles.  The  army  scheme  of  1907-1908  provided  for  the  forma- 
tion of  county  associations  under  the  presidency  of  the  lords- 
lieutenant  for  the  organization  of  the  new  territorial  army. 

See  Statutes  of  the  Realm;  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of 
England  (1874-1878);  F.  W.  Maitland,  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond 
(1897);  Sir  F.  Pollock  and  F.  W.  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law 
(1895) ;  H.  M.  Chadwick,  Studies  on  Anglo-Saxon  Institutions  (1905), 
and  The  Victoria  History  of  the  Counties  of  England.  (G.  J.  T.) 

COUNTY  COURT,  in  England,  a  local  court  of  civil  jurisdiction. 
The  county  court,  it  has  been  said,  is  at  once  the  most  ancient 
and  the  most  modern  of  English  civil  tribunals.  The  Saxon 
Curia  Comitatus,  maintained  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  was  a 
local  court  and  a  small  debts  court.  It  was  instituted  by  Alfred 
the  Great,  its  jurisdiction  embracing  civil,  and,  until  the  reign  of 
William  I.,  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  officers  of  the  court 
consisted  of  the  earldorman,  the  bishop  and  the  sheriff.  The 
court  was  held  once  in  every  four  weeks,  being  presided  over  by 
the  earl,  or,  in  his  absence,  the  sheriff.  The  suitors  of  the  court, 
i.e.  the  freeholders,  were  the  judges,  the  sheriff  being  simply 
a  presiding  officer,  pronouncing  and  afterwards  executing  the 
judgment  of  the  court.  The  court  was  not  one  of  record.  The 
appointment  of  judges  of  assize  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  as  well 
as  the  expensive  and  dilatory  procedure  of  the  court,  brought 
about  its  gradual  disuse,  and  other  local  courts,  termed  courts 
of  request  or  of  conscience,  were  established.  These,  in  turn, 
proved  unsatisfactory,  owing  both  to  the  limited  nature  of  their 
jurisdiction  (restricted  to  causes  of  debt  not  exceeding  405.  in 
value,  and  to  the  fact  that  they  were  confined  to  particular  places. 
Accordingly,  with  the  view  of  making  justice  cheaper  and  more 
accessible  the  County  Courts  Act  1846  was  passed.  This  act  had 
the  modest  title  of  "  An  Act  for  the  Recovery  of  Small  Debts  and 
Demands  in  England."  The  original  limit  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  new  courts  was  £20,  extended  in  1850  to  £50  in  actions  of 
debt,  and  in  1903  (by  an  act  which  came  into  force  in  1905) 
to  £100.  Thirteen  amending  acts  were  passed,  by  which  new 
jurisdiction  was  from  time  to  time  conferred  on  the  county 


courts,  and  in  the  year  1888  an  act  was  passed  repealing  the 
previous  acts  and  consolidating  their  provisions,  with  some 
amendment.  This  is  now  the  code  or  charter  of  the  county  courts. 

The  grain  of  mustard-seed  sown  in  1846  has  grown  into  a 
goodly  tree,  with  branches  extending  over  the  whole  of  England 
and  Wales;  and  they  embrace  within  their  ambit  a  more 
multifarious  jurisdiction  than  is  possessed  by  any  other  courts 
in  the  kingdom.  England  and  Wales  were  mapped  out  into  50 
circuits  (not  including  the  city  of  London),  with  power  for  the 
crown,  by  order  in  council,  to  abolish  any  circuit  and  rearrange 
the  areas  comprised  in  the  circuits  (sec.  4).  There  is  one 
judge  to  each  circuit,  but  the  lord  chancellor  is  empowered  to 
appoint  two  judges  in  a  circuit,  provided  that  the  total  number  of 
judges  does  not  exceed  60.  The  salary  of  a  county  court  judge 
was  originally  fixed  at  £1200,  but  he  now  receives  £1500.  He 
must  at  the  time  of  his  appointment  be  a  barrister-at-law  of  at 
least  seven  years'  standing,  and  not  more  than  sixty  years  of  age; 
after  appointment  he  cannot  sit  as  a  member  of  parliament  or 
practise  at  the  bar. 

Every  circuit  (except  in  Birmingham,  Clerkenwell,  and  West- 
minster) is  divided  into  districts,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a 
court,  with  a  registrar  and  bailiffs.  The  judges  are  directed  to 
attend  and  hold  a  court  in  each  district  at  least  once  in  every 
month,  unless  the  lord  chancellor  shall  otherwise  direct  (sees. 
10,  n).  But  in  practice  the  judge  sits  several  times  a  month  in 
the  large  centres  of  population,  and  less  frequently  than  once  a 
month  in  the  court  town  of  sparsely  inhabited  districts.  By  sec. 
185  of  the  act  of  1888  the  judges  and  officers  of  the  city  of  London 
court  have  the  like  jurisdiction,  powers,  and  authority  as  those  of 
a  county  court,  and  the  county  court  rules  apply  to  that  court. 

The  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the  county  courts  may  be  thus 
tabulated: — 

Subject  matter.  Pecuniary  limit 

of  jurisdiction. 
Common-law  actions,  with  written  consent 

of  both  parties Unlimited. 

Actions    founded    on    contract    (except    for 

breach  of  promise  of  marriage,  in  which 

the  county  courts  have  no  jurisdiction)     .  £100. 

Actions  founded  on  tort  (except  libel,  slander, 

and  seduction,  in  which  the  county  courts 

have  no  jurisdiction) £100. 

Counter  claims  (unless  plaintiff  gives  written 

notice  of  objection) Unlimited. 

Ejectment  or  questions  of  title  to  reality      .   £100  annual  value. 

Equity  jurisdiction £500. 

Probate  jurisdiction   .       .        .  .        .     £200  personalty 

and  £300  realty. 

Admiralty  jurisdiction £39°- 

Bankruptcy  jurisdiction    .        .        .        .  •      .          Unlimited. 

Replevin Unlimited. 

Interpleader  transferred  from  High  Court     .  £500. 

Actions  in  contract  transferred  from   High 

Court £IO°- 

Actions  in  tort  transferred  from  High  Court  .         Unlimited. 
Companies  (winding  up),  when  the  paid-up 

capital  does  not  exceed £10,000. 

There  is  no  discoverable  principle  upon  which  these  limits  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  county  courts  have  been  determined.  But 
the  above  table  is  not  by  any  means  an  exhaustive  statement  of 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  courts.  For  many  years  it  has  been 
the  practice  of  parliament  to  throw  on  the  county  court  judges 
the  duty  of  acting  as  judges  or  arbitrators  for  the  purpose  of  new 
legislation  relating  to  social  subjects.  It  is  impossible  to  classify 
the  many  statutes  which  have  been  passed  since  1846  and  which 
confer  some  jurisdiction,  apart  from  that  under  the  County  Courts 
Act,  on  county  courts  or  their  judges.  Some  of  these  acts 
impose  exceptional  duties  on  the  judges  of  the  county  courts, 
others  confer  unlimited  jurisdiction  concurrently  with  the  High 
Court  or  some  other  court,  others,  again,  confer  limited  or, 
sometimes,  exclusive  jurisdiction.  A  list  of  all  the  acts  will  be 
found  in  the  Annual  County  Courts  Practice.  A  county  court 
judge  may  determine  all  matters  of  fact  as  well  as  law,  but  a  jury 
may  be  summoned  at  the  option  of  either  plaintiff  or  defendant 
when  the  amount  in  dispute  exceeds  £5,  and  in  actions  under  £5 
the  judge  may  in  his  discretion,  on  application  of  either  of  the 
parties,  order  that  the  action  be  tried  by  jury.  The  number  of 


3i8 


COUPE— COURBET 


jurymen  impanelled  and  sworn  at  the  trial  was,  by  the  County 
Courts  Act  1903,  increased  from  five  to  eight. 

There  is  an  appeal  from  the  county  courts  on  matters  of  law 
to  a  divisional  court  of  the  High  Court,  i.e.  to  the  admiralty 
division  in  admiralty  cases  and  to  the  king's  bench  division  in 
other  cases  (sec.  120  of  act  of  1888).  The  determination  of  the 
divisional  court  is  final,  unless  leave  be  given  by  that  court  or 
the  court  of  appeal  (Judicature  Acts  1894).  (See  further  APPEAL.) 
In  proceedings  under  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act  the 
appeal  from  a  county  court  judge  is  to  the  court  of  appeal,  with 
a  subsequent  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1908  a  Committee 
was  appointed  by  the  lord  chancellor  "  to  inquire  into  certain 
matters  of  county  court  procedure."  The  committee  presented 
a  report  in  1909  (H.C.  71),  recommending  the  extension  of 
existing  county  court  jurisdiction,  but  a  bill  introduced  to  give 
effect  to  the  recommendations  was  not  proceeded  with. 

See  Annual  County  Courts  Practice,  also  "  Fifty  Years  of  the 
English  County  Courts,"  by  County  Court  Judge  Sir  T.  W.  Snagge, 
in  Nineteenth  Century,  October  1897. 

COUPE  (French  for  "  cut  off  "),  a  small  closed  carriage  of  the 
brougham  type,  with  four  wheels  and  seats  for  two  persons; 
the  term  is  also  used  of  the  front  compartment  on  a  diligence  or 
mail-coach  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  of  a  compartment  in  a 
railway  carriage  with  seats  on  one  side  only. 

COUPLET,  a  pair  of  lines  of  verse,  which  are  welded  together 
by  an  identity  of  rhyme.  The  New  English  Diet,  derives  the  use 
of  the  word  from  the  French  couplet,  signifying  two  pieces  of 
iron  riveted  or  hinged  together.  In  rhymed  verse  two  lines 
which  complete  a  meaning  in  themselves  are  particularly  known 
as  a  couplet.  Thus,  in  Pope's  Eloisa  to  Abelard: — 
"  Speed  the  soft  intercourse  from  soul  to  soul, 

And  waft  a  sigh  from  Indus  to  the  Pole." 

In  much  of  old  English  dramatic  literature,  when  the  mass  of  the 
composition  is  in  blank  verse  or  even  in  prose,  particular  emphasis 
is  given  by  closing  the  scene  in  a  couplet.  Thus,  in  the  last  act 
of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  Thierry  and  Theodoret  the  action 
culminates  in  an  unexpected  rhyme: — 

"  And  now  lead  on;  they  that  shall  read  this  story 

Shall  find  that  virtue  lives  in  good,  not  glory." 
In  French  literature,  the  term  couplet  is  not  confined  to  a  pair  of 
lines,  but  is  commonly  used  for  a  stanza.  A  "  square  "  couplet, 
in  French,  for  instance,  is  a  strophe  of  eight  lines,  each  composed 
of  eight  syllables.  In  this  sense  it  is  employed  to  distinguish  the 
more  emphatic  parts  of  a  species  of  verse  which  is  essentially  gay, 
graceful  and  frivolous,  such  as  the  songs  in  a  vaudeville  or  a 
comic  opera.  In  the  i8th  century,  Le  Sage,  Piron  and  even 
Voltaire  did  not  hesitate  to  engage  their  talents  on  the  production 
of  couplets,  which  were  often  witty,  if  they  had  no  other  merit, 
and  were  well  fitted  to  catch  the  popular  ear.  This  signification 
of  the  word  couplet  is  not  unknown  in  England,  but  it  is  not 
customary;  it  is  probably  used  in  a  stricter  and  a  more  technical 
sense  to  describe  a  pair  of  rhymed  lines,  whether  serious  or  merry. 
The  normal  type,  as  it  may  almost  be  called,  of  English  versifica- 
tion is  the  metre  of  ten-syllabled  rhymed  lines  designated  as 
heroic  couplet.  This  form  of  iambic  verse,  with  five  beats  to  each 
line,  is  believed  to  have  been  invented  by  Chaucer,  who  employs 
it  first  in  the  Prologue  The  Legend  of  Good  Women  the 
composition  of  which  is  attributed  to  the  year  1385.  That  poem 
opens  with  the  couplet: — 

"  A  thousand  times  have  I  heard  man  tell 

That  there  is  joy  in  heaven  and  pain  in  hell." 
This  is  an  absolutely  correct  example  of  the  heroic  couplet, 
which  ultimately  reached  such  majesty  in  the  hands  of  Dryden 
and  such  brilliancy  in  those  of  Pope.  It  has  been  considered 
proper  for  didactic,  descriptive  and  satirical  poetry,  although  in 
the  course  of  the  igth  century  blank  verse  largely  took  its  place. 
Epigram  often  selects  the  couplet  as  the  vehicle  of  its  sharpened 
arrows,  as  in  Sir  John  Harington's 

"  Treason  doth  never  prosper:  what's  the  reason? 
Why,  if  it  prosper,  none  dare  call  it  treason." 

(E.  G.) 

COUPON  (from  Fr.  couper,  to  cut),  a  certificate  entitling  its 
owner  to  some  payment,  share  or  other  benefit;  more  specifically, 


one  of  a  series  of  interest  certificates  or  dividend  warrants 
attached  to  a  bond  running  for  a  number  of  years.  The  word 
coupon  (a  piece  cut  off)  possesses  an  etymological  meaning  so 
comprehensive  that,  while  on  the  Stock  Exchange  it  is  only  used 
to  denote  such  an  interest  certificate  or  a  certificate  of  stock 
of  a  joint-stock  company,  it  may  be  as  suitably,  and  elsewhere 
is  perhaps  more  frequently,  applied  to  tickets  sold  by  tourist 
agencies  and  others.  The  coupons  by  means  of  which  the  interest 
on  a  bond  or  debenture  is  collected  are  generally  printed  at  the 
side  or  foot  of  that  document,  to  be  cut  off  and  presented  for 
payment  at  the  bank  or  agency  named  on  them  as  they  become 
due.  The  last  portion,  called  a  "  talon,"  is  a  form  of  certificate, 
and  entitles  the  holder,  when  all  the  coupons  have  been  presented, 
to  obtain  a  fresh  coupon  sheet.  They  pass  by  delivery,  and  are  as 
a  rule  exempt  from  stamp  duty.  Coupons  for  the  payment  of 
dividends  are  also  attached  to  the  share  warrants  to  bearer 
issued  by  some  joint-stock  companies.  The  coupons  on  the 
bonds  of  most  of  the  principal  foreign  loans  are  payable  in 
London  in  sterling  as  well  as  abroad. 

COURANTE  (a  French  word  derived  from  courir,  to  run),  a 
dance  in  3-2  time  march  in  vogue  in  France  in  the  I7th  century 
(see  DANCE).  It  is  also  a  musical  term  for  a  movement  or 
independent  piece  based  on  the  dance.  In  a  suite  it  followed  the 
Allemande  (q.v.),  with  which  it  is  contrasted  in  rhythm. 

COURAYER,  PIERRE  FRANCOIS  LE  (1681-1776),  French 
Roman  Catholic  theological  writer,  was  born  at  Rouen  on  the 
1 7th  of  November  1681.  While  canon  regular  and  librarian  of 
the  abbey  of  St  Genevieve  at  Paris,  he  conducted  a  correspond- 
ence with  Archbishop  Wake  on  the  subject  of  episcopal  succes- 
sion in  England,  which  supplied  him  with  material  for  his  work, 
Dissertation  sur  la  validili  des  ordinations  des  Anglais  et  sur  la 
succession  des  eveques  de  l'£glise  anglicane,  aiiec  les  preuves 
justificatives  des  fails  avances  (Brussels,  1723;  Eng.  trans,  by 
D.  Williams,  London,  1725;  reprinted  Oxford,  1844,  with 
memoir  of  the  author) ,  an  attempt  to  prove  that  there  has  been 
no  break  in  the  line  of  ordination  from  the  apostles  to  the  English 
clergy.  His  opinions  exposed  him  to  a  prosecution,  and  with  the 
help  of  Bishop  Atterbury,  then  in  exile  in  Paris,  he  took  refuge 
in  England,  where  he  was  presented  by  the  university  of  Oxford 
with  a  doctor's  degree.  In  1 736  he  published  a  French  transla- 
tion of  Paolo  Sarpi's  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  dedicated 
it  to  Queen  Caroline,  from  whom  he  received  a  pension  of  £200  a 
year.  Besides  this  he  translated  Sleidan's  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  wrote  several  theological  works.  He  died  in  London  on 
the  i7th  of  October  1776,  and  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  In  his  will,  dated  two  years  before  his 
death,  he  declared  himself  still  a  member  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  although  dissenting  from  many  of  its  opinions. 

COURBET,  GUSTAVE  (1819-1877),  French  painter,  was  born 
at  Ornans  (Doubs)  on  the  roth  of  June  1819.  He  went  to  Paris 
in  1839,  and  worked  at  the  studio  of  Steuben  and  Hesse;  but 
his  independent  spirit  did  not  allow  him  to  remain  there  long,  as 
he  preferred  to  work  out  his  own  way  by  the  study  of  Spanish, 
Flemish  and  French  painters.  His  first  works,  an  "  Odalisque," 
suggested  by  Victor  Hugo,  and  a  "  Lelia,"  illustrating  George 
Sand,  were  literary  subjects;  but  these  he  soon  abandoned  for 
the  study  of  real  life.  Among  other  works  he  painted  his  own 
portrait  with  his  dog,  and  "  The  Man  with  a  Pipe,"  both  of  which 
were  rejected  by  the  jury  of  the  Salon;  but  the  younger  school  of 
critics,  the  neo-romantics  and  realists,  loudly  sang  the  praises  of 
Courbet,  who  by  1849  began  to  be  famous,  producing  such  pictures 
as  "  After  Dinner  at  Ornans  "  and  "  The  Valley  of  the  Loire." 
The  Salon  of  1850  found  him  triumphant  with  the  "  Burial  at 
Ornans,"  the  "  Stone-Breakers  "  and  the  "  Peasants  of  Flazey." 
His  style  still  gained  in  individuality,  as  in  "  Village  Damsels  " 
(1852),  the  "  Wrestlers,"  "  Bathers,"  and  "A  Girl  Spinning" 
(1852).  Though  Courbet's  realistic  work  is  not  devoid  of  import- 
ance, it  is  as  a  landscape  and  sea  painter  that  he  will  be  most 
honoured  by  posterity.  Sometimes,  it  must  be  owned,  his 
realism  is  rather  coarse  and  brutal,  but  when  'he  paints  the 
forests  of  Franche-Comte',  the  "  Stag-Fight,"  "  The  Wave,"  or 
the  "  Haunt  of  the  Does,"  he  is  inimitable.  When  Courbet  had 


COURBEVOIE— COURIER,  P.  L. 


made  a  name  as  an  artist  he  grew  ambitious  of  other  glory;  he 
tried  to  promote  democratic  and  social  science,  and  under  the 
Empire  he  wrote  essays  and  dissertations.  His  refusal  of  the 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  offered  to  him  by  Napoleon  III., 
made  him  immensely  popular,  and  in  1871  he  was  elected, 
under  the  Commune,  to  the  chamber.  Thus  it  happened  that  he 
was  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  the  Vend6me  column.  A 
council  of  war,  before  which  he  was  tried,  condemned  him  to  pay 
the  cost  of  restoring  the  column,  300,000  francs  (£12,000).  To 
escape  the  necessity  of  working  to  the  end  of  his  days  at  the  orders 
of  the  State  in  order  to  pay  this  sum,  Courbet  went  to  Switzer- 
land in  1873,  and  died  at  La  Tour  du  Peilz,  on  the  3ist  of 
December  1877,  of  a  disease  of  the  liver  aggravated  by  intemper- 
ance. An  exhibition  of  his  works  was  held  in  1882  at  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux-Arts. 

See  Champfleury ,  Les  Grandes  Figures  d'hier  el  d'aujourd'  hui  (Paris, 
1861);  Mantz,  "  G.  Courbet,"  Gaz.  des  beaux-arts  (Paris,  1878); 
Zola,  Mes  Haines  (Paris,  1879) ;  C.  Lemonnier,  Les  Peintres  de  la 
Vie  (Paris,  1888).  (H.  FR.) 


COURBEVOIE,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department 
of  Seine,  5  m.  W.N.W.  of  Paris  on  the  railway  to  Versailles. 
Pop.  (1906)  29,339.  It  is  a  residential  suburb  of  Paris,  and 
has  a  fine  avenue  opening  on  the  Neuilly  bridge,  and  forming 
with  it  a  continuation  of  the  Champs  Elysees.  It  carries  on 
bleaching  and  the  manufacture  of  carriage  bodies,  awnings,  drugs, 
biscuits,  &c. 

COURCELLE  -  SENEUIL,  JEAN  GUSTAVE  (1813-1892), 
French  economist,  was  born  at  Seneuil  (Dordogne)  on  the  22nd  of 
December  1813.  Seneuil  was  an  additional  name  adopted  from 
his  native  place.  Devoting  himself  at  first  to  the  study  of  the 
la w,  he  was  called  to  the  French  bar  in  1 83  5 .  Soon  after,  however, 
he  returned  to  Dordogne  and  settled  down  as  a  manager  of  iron- 
works. He  found  leisure  to  study  economic  and  political 
questions,  and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  republican 
papers.  On  the  establishment  of  the  second  republic  in  1848  he 
became  director  of  the  public  domains.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of 
Napoleon  III.  in  1851  he  went  to  South  America,  and  held  the 
professorship  of  political  economy  at  the  National  Institute  of 
Santiago,  in  Chile,  from  1853  to  1863,  when  he  returned  to  France. 
In  1879  he  was  made  a  councillor  of  state,  and  in  1882  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Acadtmie  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques.  He 
died  at  Paris  on  the  2gth  of  June  1892.  Courcelle-Seneuil,  as  an 
economist,  was  strongly  inclined  towards  the  liberal  school,  and 
was  equally  partial  to  the  historical  and  experimental  methods; 
but  his  best  energies  were  directed  to  applied  economy  and 
social  questions.  His  principal  work  is  Traits  Ihtorique  et 
pratique  d'tconomie  polilique  (2  vols.,  1858);  among  his  others 
may  be  mentioned  Traiti  Manque  et  pratique  des  operations  de 
banque  (1853);  £.ludes  sur  la  science  sociale  (1862);  La  Banque 
libre  (1867);  Libertt  et  socialisme  (1868);  Protection  et  libre 
(change  (1879);  he  also  translated  into  French  John  Stuart 
Mill's  Principles. 

COURCI,  JOHN  DE  (d.  1219?),  Anglo-Norman  conqueror  of 
Ulster,  was  a  member  of  a  celebrated  Norman  family  of  Oxford- 
shire and  Somersetshife,  whose  parentage  is  unknown,  and 
around  whose  career  a  mass  of  legend  has  grown  up.  It  would 
appear  that  he  accompanied  William  Fitz-Aldelm  to  Ireland 
when  the  latter,  after  the  death  of  Strongbow,  was  sent  thither 
by  Henry  II.,  and  that  he  immediately  headed  an  expedition  from 
Dublin  to  Ulster,  where  he  took  Downpatrick,  the  capital  of  the 
northern  kingdom.  After  some  years  of  desultory  fighting  de 
Courci  established  his  power  over  that  part  of  Ulster  comprised 
in  the  modern  counties  of  Antrim  and  Down,  throughout  which 
he  built  a  number  of  castles,  where  his  vassals,  known  as  "  the 
barons  of  Ulster,"  held  sway  over  the  native  tribes.  After  the 
accession  of  Richard  I.,  de  Courci  in  conjunction  with  William 
de  Lacy  appears  in  some  way  to  have  offended  the  king  by  his 
proceedings  in  Ireland.  De  Lacy  quickly  made  his  peace  with 
Richard,  while  de  Courci  defied  him;  and  the  subsequent  history 
of  the  latter  consisted  mainly  in  the  vicissitudes  of  a  lasting  feud 
with  the  de  Lacys.  In  1 204  Hugh  de  Lacy  utterly  defeated  de 
Courci  in  battle,  and  took  him  prisoner.  De  Courci,  however, 


soon  obtained  his  liberty,  probably  by  giving  hostages  as  security 
for  a  promise  of  submission  which  he  failed  to  carry  out,  seeking 
an  asylum  instead  with  the  O'Neills  of  Tyrone.  He  again 
appeared  in  arms  on  hearing  that  Hugh  de  Lacy  had  obtained  a 
grant  of  Ulster  with  the  title  of  earl;  and  in  alliance  with  the 
king  of  Man  he  ravaged  the  territory  of  Down;  but  was  com- 
pletely routed  by  Walter  de  Lacy,  and  disappeared  from  the  scene 
till  1207,  when  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  England.  In 
1 2 10  he  was  in  favour  with  King  John,  from  whom  he  received  a 
pension,  and  whom  he  accompanied  to  Ireland.  There  is  some 
indication  of  his  having  sided  with  John  in  his  struggle  with  the 
barons;  but  of  the  later  history  of  de  Courci  little  is  known. 
He  probably  died  in  the  summer  of  1 2 1 9.  Both  de  Courci  and  his 
wife  Affreca  were  benefactors  of  the  church,  and  founded  several 
abbeys  and  priories  in  Ulster. 

A  story  is  told  that  de  Courci  when  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
volunteered  to  act  as  champion  for  King  John  in  single  combat 
against  a  knight  representing  Philip  Augustus  of  France;  that 
when  he  appeared  in  the  lists  his  French  opponent  fled  in  panic; 
whereupon  de  Courci,  to  gratify  the  French  king's  desire  to 
witness  his  prowess,  "  cleft  a  massive  helmet  in  twain  at  a  single 
blow,"  a  feat  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  a  grant  of  the 
privilege  for  himself  and  his  heirs  to  remain  covered  in  the 
presence  of  the  king  and  all  future  sovereigns  of  England.  This 
tale,  which  still  finds  a  place  in  Burke's  Peerage  in  the  account 
of  the  baron  Kingsale,  a  descendant  of  the  de  Courci  family,  is  a 
legend  without  historic  foundation  which  did  not  obtain  currency 
till  centuries  after  John  de  Courci's  death.  The  statement  that 
he  was  created  earl  of  Ulster,  and  that  he  was  thus  "  the  first 
Englishman  dignified  with  an  Irish  title  of  honour,"  is  equally 
devoid  of  foundation.  John  de  Courci  left  no  legitimate 
children. 

See  J.  H.  Round's  art.  "  Courci,  John  de,"  in  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography,  vol.  xii.  (London,  1887),  to  which  is  added  a  bibliography 
of  the  original  and  later  authorities  for  the  life  of  de  Courci. 

COURIER,  PAUL  LOUIS  (1773-1825),  French  Hellenist  and 
political  writer,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  January  1773. 
Brought  up.  on  his  father's  estate  of  Mere  in  Touraine,  he  con- 
ceived a  bitter  aversion  for  the  nobility,  which  seemed  to 
strengthen  with  time.  He  would  never  take  the  name  "  de  Mer6," 
to  which  he  was  entitled,  lest  he  should  be  thought  a  nobleman. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  complete  his  educa- 
tion; his  father's  teaching  had  already  inspired  him  with  a 
passionate  devotion  to  Greek  literature,  and  although  he  showed 
considerable  mathematical  ability,  he  continued  to  devote  all  his 
leisure  to  the  classics.  He  entered  the  school  of  artillery  at 
Chalons,  however,  and  immediately  on  receiving  his  appointment 
as  sub-lieutenant  in  September  1793  he  joined  the  army  of  the 
Rhine.  He  served  in  various  campaigns  of  the  Revolutionary 
wars,  especially  in  those  of  Italy  in  1798-0,9  and  1806-7,  and  in 
the  German  campaign  of  1809.  He  became  chef  d'escadron  in 
1803. 

He  made  his  first  appearance  as  an  author  in  1802,  when  he 
contributed  to  the  Magasin  encyclopidique  a  critique  on  Johannes 
Schweighauscr's  edition  of  Athenaeus.  In  the  following  year 
appeared  his  Aloge  d'HUene,  a  free  imitation  rather  than  a 
translation  from  Isocrates,  which  he  had  sketched  in  1798. 
Courier  had  given  up  his  commission  in  the  autumn  of  1808,  but 
the  general  enthusiasm  in  Paris  over  the  preparations  for  the  new 
campaign  affected  him,  and  he  attached  himself  to  the  staff  of  a 
general  of  artillery.  But  he  was  horror-struck  by  the  carnage  at 
Wagram  (1809),  refusing  from  that  time  to  believe  that  there  was 
any  art  in  war.  He  hastily  quitted  Vienna,  escaping  the  formal 
charge  of  desertion  because  his  new  appointment  had  not  been 
confirmed.  The  savage  independence  of  his  nature  rendered 
subordination  intolerable  to  him;  he  had  been  three  times 
disgraced  for  absenting  himself  without  leave,  and  his  superiors 
resented  his  satirical  humour.  After  leaving  the  army  he  went 
to  Florence,  and  was  fortunate  enough  to  discover  in  the 
Laurentian  Library  a  complete  manuscript  of  Longus's  Daphnis 
and  Chloe,  an  edition  of  which  he  published  in  1810.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  misadventure — blotting  the  manuscript — he  was 


320 


COURIER— COURLAND 


r  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the  librarian,  and  was  compelled  by 
the  government  to  leave  Tuscany.  He  retired  to  his  estate 
at  Veretz  (Indre-et-Loire),  but  frequently  visited  Paris,  and 
divided  his  attention  between  literature  and  his  farm. 

After  the  second  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  the  career  of 
Courier  as  political  pamphleteer  began.  He  had  before  this  time 
waged  war  against  local  wrongs  in  his  own  district,  and  had  been 
the  adviser  and  helpful  friend  of  his  neighbours.  He  now  made 
himself  by  his  letters  and  pamphlets  one  of  the  most  dreaded 
opponents  of  the  government  of  the  Restoration.  The  first  of 
these  was  his  Petition  aux  deux  chambres  (1816),  exposing  the 
sufferings  of  the  peasantry  under  the  royalist  reaction.  In  1817 
he  was  a  candidate  for  a  vacant  seat  in  the  Institute;  and 
failing,  he  took  his  revenge  by  publishing  a  bitter  Lettre  a  Messieurs 
de  I' Academic  des  Inscriptions  el  Belles-Lettres  (1819).  This  was 
followed  (1819-1820)  by  a  series  of  political  letters  of  extra- 
ordinary power  published  in  Le  Censeur  Europeen.  He  advocated 
a  liberal  monarchy,  at  the  head  of  which  he  doubtless  wished  to 
see  Louis  Philippe.  The  proposal,  in  1821,  to  purchase  the 
estate  of  Chambord  for  the  duke  of  Bordeaux  called  forth  from 
Courier  the  Simple  Discours  de  Paul  Louis,  vigneron  de  la 
Chavonniere,  one  of  his  best  pieces.  For  this  he  was  tried  and 
condemned  to  suffer  a  short  imprisonment  and  to  pay  a  fine. 
Before  he  went  to  prison  he  published  a  compte  rendu  of  his  trial, 
which  had  a  still  larger  circulation  than  the  Discours  itself.  In 
1823  appeared  the  Livret  de  Paul  Louis,  the  Gazette  de  village, 
followed  in  1824  by  his  famous  Pamphlet  des  pamphlets,  called 
by  his  biographer,  Armand  Carrel,  his  swan-song.  Courier  pub- 
lished in  1807  his  translation  from  Xenophon,  Du  commande- 
ment  de  la  cavalerie  et  de  I 'equitation,  and  had  a  share  in  editing 
the  Collections  des  romans  grecs.  He  also  projected  a  translation 
of  Herodotus,  and  published  a  specimen,  in  which  he  attempted 
to  imitate  archaic  French;  but  .he  did  not  live  to  carry  out 
this  plan.  In  the  autumn  of  1825,  on  a  Sunday  afternoon 
(August  1 8th),  Courier  was  found  shot  in  a  wood  near  his  house. 
The  murderers,  who  were  servants  of  his  own,  remained  undis- 
covered for  five  years. 

The  writings  of  Courier,  dealing  with  the  facts  and  events  of 
his  own  time,  are  valuable  sources  of  information  as  to  the 
condition  of  France  before,  during,  and  after  the  Revolution. 
Sainte-Beuve  finds  in  Courier's  own  words,  "  peu  de  matiere  et 
beaucoup  d'art,"  the  secret  and  device  of  his  talent,  which  gives 
his  writings  a  value  independent  of  the  somewhat  ephemeral 
subject-matter. 

A  Collection  complete  des  pamphlets  politiques  et  opuscules  litteraires 
de  P.  L.  Courier  appeared  in  1826.  See  editions  of  his  (Euvres  (1848), 
with  an  admirable  biography  by  Armand  Carrel,  which  is  reproduced 
in  a  later  edition,  with  a  supplementary  criticism  by  F.  Sarcey  (1876- 
1877);  also  three  notices  by  Sainte-Beuve  in  the  Causeries  du  lundi 
and  the  Nouveaux  Lundis. 

COURIER  (from  the  O.  Fr.  courier,  modern  courrier,  from  Lat. 
currere,  to  run),  properly  a  running  messenger,  who  carried 
despatches  and  letters;  a  system  of  couriers,  mounted  or  on 
foot,  formed  the  beginnings  of  the  modern  post-office  (see  POST, 
and  POSTAL  SERVICE).  The  despatches  which  pass  between  the 
foreign  office  and  its  representatives  abroad,  and  which  cannot 
be  entrusted  to  the  postal  service  or  the  telegraph,  are  carried  by 
special  couriers,  styled,  in  the  British  service,  King's  Messengers. 
"  Courier,"  more  particularly,  is  applied  to  a  travelling  attendant, 
whose  duties  are  to  arrange  for  the  carrying  of  the  luggage, 
obtaining  of  passports,  settling  of  hotel  accommodation,  and 
generally  to  look  to  the  comfort  and  facility  of  travel.  The 
name  "  courier  "  and  the  similar  word  "courant  "  (Ital.  coranto) 
have  often  been  used  as  the  title  of  a  newspaper  or  periodical  (see 
NEWSPAPERS);  the  Courier,  founded  in  1792,  was  for  some  time 
the  leading  London  journal. 

COURLAND,  or  KURLAND,  one  of  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Russia,  lying  between  55°  45'  and  57°  45'  N.  and  21°  and  27°  E. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  the  river  Dvina,  separating  it  from 
the  governments  of  Vitebsk  and  Livonia,  N.  by  the  Gulf  of  Riga, 
W.  by  the  Baltic,  and  S.  by  the  province  of  East  Prussia  and  the 
Russian  government  of  Kovno.  The  area  is  10,535  sq.  m.,  of 
which  101  sq.  m.  are  occupied  by  lakes.  The  surface  is  generally 


low  and  undulating,  and  the  coast-lands  flat  and  marshy.  The 
interior  is  characterized  by  wooded  dunes,  covered  with  pine,  fir, 
birch  and  oak,  with  swamps  and  lakes,  and  fertile  patches 
between.  The  surface  nowhere  rises  more  than  700  ft.  above  sea- 
level.  The  Mitau  plain  divides  it  into  two  parts,  of  which  the 
western  is  fertile  and  thickly  inhabited,  except  in  the  north, 
while  the  eastern  is  less  fertile  and  thinly  inhabited.  One-third 
of  the  area  is  still  forest. 

Courland  is  drained  by  nearly  one  hundred  rivers,  of  which 
only  three,  the  Dvina,  the  Aa  and  the  Windau,  are  navigable. 
They  all  flow  north-westwards  and  discharge  into  the  Baltic 
Sea.  Owing  to  the  numerous  lakes  and  marshes,  the  climate  is 
damp  and  often  foggy,  as  well  as  changeable,  and  the  winter  is 
severe.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  the  principal  crops 
being  rye,  barley,  oats,  wheat,  flax  and  potatoes.  The  land  is 
mostly  owned  by  nobles  of  German  descent.  In  1863  laws  were 
issued  to  enable  the  Letts,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population, 
to  acquire  the  farms  which  they  held,  and  special  banks  were 
founded  to  help  them.  By  this  means  some  12,000  farms  were 
bought  by  their  occupants;  but  the  great  mass  of  the  population 
are  still  landless,  and  live  as  hired  labourers,  occupying  a  low 
position  in  the  social  scale.  On  the  large  estates  agriculture  is 
conducted  with  skill  and  scientific  knowledge.  Fruit  grows  well. 
Excellent  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  pigs  are  kept.  Libau  and 
Mitau  are  the  principal  industrial  centres,  with  iron-works, 
agricultural  machinery  works,  tanneries,  glass  and  soap  works. 
Flax  spinning  is  mostly  a  domestic  industry.  Iron  and  limestone 
are  the  chief  minerals;  a  little  amber  is  found  on  the  coast. 
The  only  seaports  are  Libau,  Windau  and  Polangen,  there  being 
none  on  the  Courland  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga.  The  population 
was  619,154  in  1870;  674,437  in  1897,  of  whom  345,756  were 
women;  714,200  (estimate)  in  1906.  Of  the  whole,  79  %  are 
Letts,  8J  %  Germans,  1-7  %  Russians,  and  i  %  each  Poles  and 
Lithuanians.  In  addition  there  are  about  8  %  Jews  and  some 
Lives.  The  chief  towns  of  the  ten  districts  are  Mitau  (Doblenskiy 
district),  capital  of  the  government  (pop.  35,011  in  1897), 
Bauske  (6543),  Friedrichstadt  (5223),  Goldingen  (9733),  Grobin 
(1489),  Hasenpoth  (3338),  Illuxt  (2340),  Talsen  (6215),  Tuckum 
(7542)  and  Windau  (7132).  The  prevailing  religion  is  the 
Lutheran,  to  which  76  %  of  the  population  belong;  the  rest 
belong  to  the  Orthodox  Eastern  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
churches. 

Anciently  Courland  was  inhabited  by  the  Cours  or  Kurs,  a 
Lettish  tribe,  who  were  subdued  and  converted  to  Christianity 
by  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword,  a  German  military  order,  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  I3th  century.  In  1237  it  passed  under  the 
rule  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  owing  to  the  amalgamation  of  this 
order  with  that  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword.  At  that  time  it 
comprised  the  two  duchies  of  Courland  and  Semgallen.  LTnder 
the  increasing  pressure  of  Russia  (Muscovy)  the  Teutonic  Knights 
in  1 561  found  it  expedient  to  put  themselves  under  the  suzerainty 
of  Poland,  the  grandmaster  Gotthard  Kettler  (d.  1587)  becoming 
the  first  duke  of  Courland.  The  duchy  suffered  severely  in  the 
Russo-Swedish  wars  of  1700-9.  But  by  the  marriage  in  1710 
of  Kettler's  descendant,  Duke  Frederick  William  (d.  1711),  to  the 
princess  Anne,  niece  of  Peter  the  Great  and  afterwards  empress 
of  Russia,  Courland  came  into  close  relation  with  the  latter  state, 
Anne  being  duchess  of  Courland  from  1711  to  1730.  The 
celebrated  Marshal  Saxe  was  elected  duke  in  1726,  but  only 
managed  to  maintain  himself  by  force  of  arms  till  the  next  year. 
The  last  Kettler,  William,  titular  duke  of  Courland,  died  in  1737, 
and  the  empress  Anne  now  bestowed  the  dignity  on  her  favourite 
Biren,  who  held  it  from  1737  to  1740  and  again  from  1763  till  his 
death  in  1772.  During  nearly  the  whole  of  the  i8th  century 
Courland,  devastated  by  continual  wars,  was  a  shuttlecock 
between  Russia  and  Poland;  until  eventually  in  1795  the 
assembly  of  the  nobles  placed  it  under  the  Russian  sceptre. 
The  Baltic  provinces — Esthonia,  Livonia  and  Courland — ceased 
to  form  collectively  one  general  government  in  1876. 

See  H.  Hollmann,  Kurlands  Agrarverhaltnisse  (Riga,  1893),  and 
E.  Seraphim,  Geschichte  Liv-,  Esth-,  und  Kurlands  (2  vols.,  Reval, 
1895-1896). 


COURNOT- -COURT,  A. 


321 


COURNOT,  ANTOINE  AUGUSTIN  (1801-1877),  French 
economist  and  mathematician,  was  born  at  Gray  (Haute-Sa6ne) 
on  the  28th  of  August  1801.  Trained  for  the  scholastic  pro- 
fession, he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  at  the  Academy  of 
Paris  in  1831,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Lyons  in  1834,  rector  of 
the  Academy  of  Grenoble  in  1835,  inspector-general  of  studies  in 
1838,  rector  of  the  Academy  of  Dijon  and  honorary  inspector- 
general  in  1854,  retiring  in  1862.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  3ist  of 
March  1877.  Cournot  was  the  first  who,  with  a  competent 
knowledge  of  both  subjects,  endeavoured  to  apply  mathematics 
to  the  treatment  of  economic  questions.  His  Recherches  sur  les 
principes  mathematiques  de  la  theorie  des  richesses  (English  trans, 
by  N.  T.  Bacon,  with  bibliography  of  mathematics  of  economics 
by  Irving  Fisher,  1897)  was  published  in  1838.  He  mentions 
in  it  only  one  previous  enterprise  of  the  same  kind  (though 
there  had  in  fact  been  others) — that,  namely,  of  Nicholas 
Francois  Canard  (£.1750-1833),  whose  book,  Principes  d'economie 
politique  (Paris,  1802),  was  crowned  by  the  French  Academy, 
though  "  its  principles  were  radically  false  as  well  as  erroneously 
applied."  Notwithstanding  Cournot's  just  reputation  as  a 
writer  on  mathematics,  the  Recherches  made  little  impression. 
The  truth  seems  to  be  that  his  results  are  in  some  cases  of  little 
importance,  in  others  of  questionable  correctness,  and  that,  in 
the  abstractions  to  which  he  has  recourse  in  order  to  facilitate  his 
calculations,  an  essential  part  of  the  real  conditions  of  the 
problem  is  sometimes  omitted.  His  pages  abound  in  symbols 
representing  unknown  functions,  the  form  of  the  function  being 
left  to  be  ascertained  by  observation  of  facts,  which  he  does  not 
regard  as  a  part  of  his  task,  or  only  some  known  properties  of 
the  undetermined  function  being  used  as  bases  for  deduction. 
In  his  Principes  de  la  theorie  des  richesses  (1863)  he  abandoned 
the  mathematical  method,  though  advocating  the  use  of  mathe- 
matical symbols  in  economic  discussions,  as  being  of  service  in 
facilitating  exposition.  Other  works  of  Cournot's  were  Traite 
elementaire  de  la  thtorie  des  fonctions  et  du  calcul  infinitesimal 
(1841);  Exposition  de  la  theorie  des  chances  et  des  probabilites 
(1843);  De  I'origine  et  des  limites  de  la  correspondance  enlre 
Valgebre  et  la  geometrie  (1847);  Traite  de  I'enchatnement  des  idecs 
fondamentales  dans  les  sciences  et  dans  I'histoire  (1861) ;  and  Revue 
sommaire  des  doctrines  economiques  (1877). 

COURSING  (from  Lat.  cursus,  currere,  to  run),  the  hunting  of 
game  by  dogs  solely  by  sight  and  not  by  scent.  From  time  to 
time  the  sport  has  been  pursued  by  various  nations  against 
various  animals,  but  the  recognized  method  has  generally  been 
the  coursing  of  the  hare  by  greyhounds.  Such  sport  is  of  great 
antiquity,  and  is  fully  described  by  Arrian  in  his  Cynegeticus 
about  A.D.  150,  when  the  leading  features  appear  to  have  been 
much  the  same  as  in  the  present  day.  Other  Greek  and  Latin 
authors  refer  to  the  sport;  but  during  the  middle  ages  it  was  but 
little  heard  of.  Apart  from  private  coursing  for  the  sake  of 
filling  the  pot  with  game,  public  coursing  has  become  an  exhilarat- 
ing sport.  The  private  sportsman  seldom  possesses  good  strains 
of  blood  to  breed  his  greyhounds  from  or  has  such  opportunities 
of  trying  them  as  the  public  courser. 

The  first  known  set  of  rules  in  England  for  determining  the 
merits  of  a  course  were  drawn  up  by  Thomas,  duke  of  Norfolk,  in 
Queen  Elizabeth's  reign;  but  no  open  trials  were  heard  of  until 
half  a  century  later,  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  The  oldest  regular 
coursing  club  of  which  any  record  exists  is  that  of  Swaffham,  in 
Norfolk,  which  was  founded  by  Lord  Orford  in  1766  ;  and  in 
1780  the  Ashdown  Park  (Berkshire)  meeting  was  established. 
During  the  next  seventy  years  many  other  large  and  influential 
societies  sprang  up  throughout  England  and  Scotland,  the 
Altcar  Club  (on  the  Sefton  estates,  near  Liverpool)  being  founded 
in  1825.  The  season  lasts  about  six  months,  beginning  in  the 
middle  of  September.  It  was  not  until  1858  that  a  coursing 
parliament,  so  to  speak,  was  formed,  and  a  universally  accepted 
code  of  rules  drawn  up.  In  that  year  the  National  Coursing  Club 
was  founded.  It  is  composed  of  representatives  from  all  clubs  in 
the  United  Kingdom  of  more  than  a  year's  standing,  and  possess- 
ing more  than  twenty-four  members.  Their  rules  govern 
meetings,  and  their  committee  adjudicate  on  matters  of  dispute. 

VII.  II 


A  comparative  trial  of  two  dogs,  and  not  the  capture  of  the  game 
pursued,  is  the  great  distinctive  trait  of  modern  coursing.  A 
greyhound  stud-book  was  started  in  1882. 

The  breeding  and  training  of  a  successful  kennel  is  a  precarious 
matter;  and  the  most  unaccountable  ups  and  downs  of  fortune 
often  occur  in  a  courser's  career.  At  a  meeting  an  agreed-on 
even  number  of  entries  are  made  for  each  stake,  and  the  ties 
drawn  by  lot.  After  the  first  round  the  winner  of  the  first  tie  is 
opposed  to  the  winner  of  the  second,  and  so  on  until  the  last  two 
dogs  left  in  compete  for  victory;  but  the  same  owner's  grey- 
hounds are  "  guarded  "  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  A  staff 
of  beaters  drive  the  hares  out  of  their  coverts  or  other  hiding- 
places,  whilst  the  slipper  has  the  pair  of  dogs  in  hand,  and  slips 
them  simultaneously  by  an  arrangement  of  nooses,  when  they 
have  both  sighted  a  hare  promising  a  good  course.  The  judge 
accompanies  on  horseback,  and  the  six  points  whereby  he 
decides  a  course  are — (i)  speed;  (2)  the  go-by,  or  when  a 
greyhound  starts  a  clear  length  behind  his  opponent,  passes  him 
in  the  straight  run,  and  gets  a  clear  length  in  front;  (3)  the  turn, 
where  the  hare  turns  at  not  less  than  a  right  angle;  (4)  the 
wrench,  where  the  hare  turns  at  less  than  a  right  angle;  (5)  the 
kill;  (6)  the  trip,  or  unsuccessful  effort  to  kill.  He  may  return  a 
"  no  course  "  as  his  verdict  if  the  dogs  have  not  been  fairly  tried 
together,  or  an  "  undecided  course  "  if  he  considers  their  merits 
equal.  The  open  Waterloo  meeting,  held  at  Altcar  every  spring, 
— the  name  being  taken  from  its  being  originated  by  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  Waterloo  Hotel,  Liverpool, — is  now  the  recognized 
fixture  for  the  decision  of  the  coursing  championship,  and  the 
Waterloo  Cup  (1836)  is  the  "  Blue  Riband  "  of  the  leash.  In  the 
United  States,  several  British  colonies,  and  other  countries,  the 
name  has  been  adopted,  and  Waterloo  Coursing  Cups  are  found 
there  as  in  England.  In  America  an  American  Coursing  Board 
controls  the  sport,  the  chief  meetings  being  in  North  and  South 
Dakota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa  and  Minnesota. 

The  chief  works  on  coursing  are: — Arrian's  Cynegelicus,  translated 
by  the  Rev.  W.  Dansey  (1831);  T.  Thacker,  Courser's  Companion 
and  Breeder's  Guide(i83$) ;  Thacker's  Courser's  Annual  Remembrancer 
(1849-1851);  D.  P.  Elaine,  Encyclopaedia  of  Rural  Sports  (yA  ed., 
1870);  and  J.  H.  Walsh,  The  Greyhound  (yA  ed.,  1875).  See  also 
the  Coursing  Calendar  (since  1857);  Coursing  arid  Falconry  (Bad- 
minton Library,  1892) ;  The  Hare  ("  Fur  and  Feather  "  series,  1896) ; 
and  The  Greyhound  Stud  Book  (since  1882). 

COURT,  ANTOINE  (1696-1 760),  French  Protestant  divine,  was 
born  in  the  village  of  Villeneuve-de-Berg,  in  the  province  of  the 
Vivarais.  He  has  been  designated  the  "  Restorer  of  Protestantism 
in  France,"  and  was  the  organizer  of  the  "  Church  of  the  Desert." 
He  was  eight  years  old  when  the  Camisard  revolt  was  finally 
suppressed,  and  nineteen  when  on  the  8th  of  March  1715  the 
edict  of  Louis  XIV.  was  published,  declaring  that  "  he  had 
abolished  entirely  the  exercise  of  the  so-called  reformed  religion" 
("  qu'il  a  vait  aboli  tout  exercice  de  la  religion  pretendue  rdformSe") . 
Antoine,  taken  to  the  secret  meetings  of  the  persecuted  Calvinists, 
began,  when  only  seventeen,  to  speak  and  exhort  in  these  congrega- 
tions of  "  the  desert."  He  came  to  suspect  after  a  time  that 
many  of  the  so-called  "  inspired  "  persons  were  "  dupes  of  their 
own  zeal  and  credulity,"  and  decided  that  it  was  necessary  to 
organize  at  once  the  small  communities  of  believers  into  properly 
constituted  churches.  To  the  execution  of  this  vast  undertaking 
he  devoted  his  life.  On  the  2ist  of  August  1715  he  summoned 
all  the  preachers  in  the  Cevennes  and  Lower  Languedoc  to  a 
conference  or  synod  near  the  village  of  Monoblet.  Here  elders 
were  appointed,  and  the  preaching  of  women,  as  well  as  pretended 
revelations,  was  condemned.  The  village  of  Monoblet  "  thus 
seems  entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  had  the  first  organized 
Protestant  church  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  " 
(H.  M.  Baird).  But  there  were  as  yet  no  ordained  pastors. 
Pierre  Corteiz  was  therefore  sent  to  seek  ordination.  He  was 
ordained  at  Zurich,  and  from  him  Court  himself  received  ordina- 
tion. The  scene  of  his  labours  for  fifteen  years  was  Languedoc, 
the  Vivarais,  and  Dauphin6.  His  beginnings  were  very  small 
prayer-meetings  in  "  the  desert."  But  the  work  progressed 
under  his  wise  direction,  and  he  was  able  "  to  be  present,  in  1744, 
at  meetings  of  ten  thousand  souls."  In  1724  Louis  XV.,  again 


322 


COURT 


assuming  that  there  were  no  Protestants  in  France,  prohibited 
the  most  secret  exercise  of  the  Reformed  religion,  and  imposed 
severe  penalties.  It  was  impossible  fully  to  carry  out  this  menace. 
But  persecution  raged,  especially  against  the  pastors.  A  price 
was  set  on  the  life  of  Court;  and  in  1730  he  escaped  to  Lausanne. 
He  had  already,  with  the  aid  of  some  of  the  Protestant  princes, 
established  a  theological  college  ("  Seminaire  de  Lausanne  ") 
there,  and  during  the  remaining  thirty  years  of  his  life  he  filled 
the  post  of  director.  He  had  the  title  of  deputy-general  of  the 
churches,  and  was  really  the  pillar  of  their  hope.  The  Seminary 
of  Lausanne  sent  forth  all  the  pastors  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
France  till  the  days  of  the  first  French  Empire.  Court  formed 
the  design  of  writing  a  history  of  Protestantism,  and  made  large 
collections  for  the  purpose,  which  have  been  preserved  in  the 
Public  Library  of  Geneva;  but  this  he  did  not  live  to  carry  out. 
He  died  at  Lausanne  in  1 760.  He  wrote,  amongst  other  works,  a 
Histoire  des  troubles  des  Cevennes  ou  de  la  guerre  des  Camisards 
(1760).  He  was  the  father  of  the  more  generally  known  Antoine 
Court  de  Gebelin  (q.v.). 

For  details  of  his  life  see  Napoleon  Peyrat's  Histoire  des  pasleurs 
du  desert  (1842;  English  translation,  1852);  Edmond  Hugues, 
Antoine  Court,  histoire  de  la  restauration  du  protestantisme  en 
France  au  XVIII"  siecle  (2nd  ed.,  1872),  Les  Synodes  du  desert 
(3  vols.,  1885-1886),  Memoires  d' Antoine  Court  (1885);  E.  and  E. 
Haag,  La  France  protestante,  vol.  iv.  (1884,  new  edition);  H.  M. 
Baird,  The  Huguenots  and  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1895), 
vol.  ii.;  cf.  Bulletin  de  la  societe  de  I'histoire  du  protestantisme 
franfais  (1893-1906). 

COURT  (from  the  O.  Fr.  court,  Late  Lat.  cortis,  curtis,  a 
popular  form  of  class.  Lat.  cohors,  gen.  cohortis;  the  mod.  Fr. 
form  cour  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Lat.  curia,  the  word  used 
in  medieval  documents  to  translate  "  court  "  in  the  feudal  sense), 
a  word  originally  denoting  an  enclosed  place,  and  so  surviving 
in  its  architectural  sense  (courtyard,  &c.),  but  chiefly  used  as  a 
general  term  for  judicial  tribunals  and  in  the  special  sense  of  the 
household  of  the  king,  called  "the  court."1  All  law  courts 
were  not,  however,  purely  judicial  in  character;  the  old  county 
court,  for  instance,  was  the  assembly  of  the  freeholders  of  the 
county  in  which  representatives  and  certain  officers  were  elected. 
Such  assemblies  in  early  times  exercised  political  and  legislative 
as  well  as  judicial  functions.  But  these  have  now  been  almost 
entirely  separated  everywhere,  and  only  judicial  bodies  are  now 
usually  called  courts.  In  every  court,  says  Blackstone,  there 
must  be  three  parts, — an  actor  or  plaintiff,  reus  or  defendant,  and 
judex,  or  judge. 

The  language  of  legal  fictions,  which  English  lawyers  invariably 
use  in  all  constitutional  subjects,  makes  the  king  the  ultimate 
source  of  all  judicial  authority,  and  assumes  his  personal  presence 
in  all  the  courts. 

"  As  by  our  excellent  constitution,"  says  Blackstone,  "  the  sole 
executive  power  of  the  laws  is  vested  in  the  person  of  the  king,  it 
will  follow  that  all  courts  of  justice,  which  are  the  medium  by  which 
he  administers  the  laws,  are  derived  from  the  power  of  the  crown. 
For  whether  created  by  act  of  parliament  or  letters  patent,  or 
subsisting  by  prescription  (the  only  methods  by  which  any  court  of 
judicature  can  exist),  the  king's  consent  in  the  two  former  is  ex- 
pressly, in  the  latter  impliedly  given.  In  all  these  courts  the  king  is 
supposed  in  contemplation  of  law  to  be  always  present ;  but  as  that 
is  in  fact  impossible,  he  is  then  represented  by  his  judges,  whose 
power  is  only  an  emanation  of  the  royal  prerogative." 

These  words  might  give  a  false  impression  of  the  historical  and 
legal  relations  of  the  courts  and  the  crown,  if  it  is  not  remembered 
that  they  are  nothing  more  than  the  expression  of  a  venerable 
fiction.  The  administration  of  justice  was,  indeed,  one  of  the 
functions  of  the  king  in  early  times;  the  king  himself  sat  on 
circuit  so  late  as  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. ;  and  even  after  regular 
tribunals  were  established,  a  reserve  of  judicial  power  still 
remained  in  the  king  and  his  council,  in  the  exercise  of  which  it 
was  possible  for  the  king  to  participate  personally.  The  last 
judicial  act  of  an  English  king,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  was  that 
by  which  James  I.  settled  the  dispute  between  the  court  of 
chancery  and  courts  of  common  law.  Since  the  establishment 
of  parliamentary  government  the  courts  take  their  law  directly 
from  the  legislature,  and  the  king  is  only  connected  with  them 

1  Cf.  the  German  Hoffor  court-yard,  court  of  law,  and  royal  court. 


indirectly  as  a  member  of  the  legislative  body.  The  king's  name, 
however,  is  still  used  in  this  as  in  other  departments  of  state 
action.  The  courts  exercising  jurisdiction  in  England  are  divided 
by  certain  features  which  may  here  be  briefly  indicated. 

We  may  distinguish  between  (i)  superior  and  inferior,  courts. 
The  former  are  the  courts  of  common  law  and  the  Court  of 
chancery,  now  High  Court  of  Justice.  The  latter  are  the  local  or 
district  courts,  county  courts,  &c.  (2)  Courts  of  record  and  courts 
not  of  record.  "  A  court  of  record  is  one  whereof  the  acts  and 
judicial  proceedings  are  enrolled  for  a  perpetual  memory  and 
testimony,  which  rolls  are  called  the  records  of  the  court,  and  are 
of  such  high  and  supereminent  authority  that  their  truth  is  not 
to  be  called  in  question.  For  it  is  a  settled  rule  and  maxim  that 
nothing  shall  be  averred  against  a  record,  nor  shall  any  plea  or 
even  proof  be  admitted  to  the  contrary.  And  if  the  existence  of 
the  record  shall  be  denied  it  shall  be  tried  by  nothing  but  itself; 
that  is,  upon  bare  inspection  whether  there  be  any  such  record  or 
no;  else  there  would  be  no  end  of  disputes.  All  courts  of  record 
are  the  courts  of  the  sovereign  in  right  of  the  crown  and  royal 
dignity,  and  therefore  any  court  of  record  has  authority  to  fine 
and  imprison  for  contempt  of  its  authority  "  (Stephen's  Black- 
stone)  .  (3)  Courts  may  also  be  distinguished  as  civil  or  criminal. 
(4)  A  further  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  courts  of  first 
instance  and  courts  of  appeal.  In  the  former  the  first  hearing  in 
any  judicial  proceeding  takes  place;  in  the  latter  the  judgment 
of  the  first  court  is  brought  under  review.  Of  the  superior 
courts,"the  High  Court  of  Justice  in  its  various  divisions  is  a  court 
of  first  instance.  Over  it  is  the  court  of  appeal,  and  over  that 
again  the  House  of  Lords.  The  High  Court  of  Justice  is  (through 
divisional  courts)  a  court  of  appeal  for  inferior  courts.  (5)  There 
is  a  special  class  of  local  courts,  which  do  not  appear  to  fall 
within  the  description  of  either  superior  or  inferior  courts. 
Some,  while  administering  the  ordinary  municipal  law,  have  or 
had  jurisdiction  exclusive  of  their  superior  courts;  such  were  the 
common  pleas  of  Durham  and  Lancaster.  Others  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  superior  courts;  such  are  the  lord  mayor's 
court  of  London,  the  passage  court  of  Liverpool,  &c. 

The  distribution  of  judicial  business  among  the  various  courts 
of  law  in  England  may  be  exhibited  as  follows. 

Criminal  Courts. — (i)  The  lowest  is  that  of  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  sitting  in  petty  sessions  of  two  or  more,  to  determine  in  a 
summary  way  certain  specified  minor  offences.  In  populous 
districts,  such  as  London,  Manchester,  &c.,  stipendiary  magis- 
trates are  appointed,  generally  with  enlarged  powers.  Besides 
punishing  by  summary  conviction,  justices  may  commit  prisoners 
for  trial  at  the  assizes,  (^j  The  justices  in  quarter  _§£gsions  are 
commissioned  to  determine  felonies  and  other  offences.  An  act 
of  1842  (5  &  6  Viet.  c.  38)  contains  a  list  of  offences"  not  triable 
at  quarter  sessions — treason,  murder,  forgery,  bigamy,  &c.  (see 
QUARTER  SESSIONS,  COURT  OF).  The  corresponding  court  in 
a  borough  is  presided  over  by  a  recorder.  (3)  The  more  serious 
offences  are  reserved  for  the  judges  of  the  superior  courts  sitting 
under  a  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer  or  gaol  delivery  for  each 
county.  The  assize  courts,  as  they  are  called,  sit  in  general  in 
each  county  twice  a  year,  following  the  division  of  circuits;  but 
additional  assizes  are  also  held  under  acts  of  1876  and  1877, 
which  permit  several  counties  to  be  united  together  for  that 
purpose  (see  CIRCUIT).  London,  which  occupies  an  exceptional 
position  in  all  matters  of  judicature,  has  a  high  criminal  court  of 
its  own,  established  by  the  Central  Criminal  Court  Act  1834, 
under  the  name  of  the  central  criminal  court.  Its  judges  usually 
present  are  a  rota  selected  from  the  superior  judges  of  common 
law,  the  recorder,  common  Serjeant,  and  the  judge  of  the  City  of 
London  court.2  The  criminal  appeal  court,  to  which  all  persons 
convicted  on  indictment  may  appeal,  superseded  in  1908  (by  the 
Criminal  Appeal  Act  1907)  the  court  for  crown  cases  reserved, 
to  which  any  question  of  law  arising  on  the  trial  of  a  prisoner 

1  The  sittings  are  held  in  the  court-house  in  the  Old  Bailey.  The 
old  sessions  house  was  destroyed  in  the  Gordon  riots  of  1 780.  The 
building  erected  in  its  place,  although  enlarged  from  time  to  time, 
was  very  incommodious,  and  a  new  structure,  occupying  the  site  of 
Newgate  Prison,  which  was  pulled  down  for  the  purpose,  was  com- 
pleted in  1907. 


COURT 


323 


could  after  conviction  be  remitted  by  the  judge  in  his  discretion. 
To  the  criminal  appeal  court  there  is  an  appeal  both  on  questions 
of  fact  and  of  law  (see  APPEAL). 

Civil  Courts. — In  certain  special  cases,  civil  claims  of  small 
importance  may  be  brought  before  justices  or  stipendiaries. 
Otherwise,  and  excepting  the  special  and  peculiar  jurisdictions 
above  mentioned,  the  civil  business  of  England  and  Wales  may  be 
said  to  be  divided  between  the  county  courts  (taking  small  cases) 
and  the  High  Court  of  Justice  (taking  all  others). 

The  effect  of  the  Judicature  Acts  on  the  constitution  of  the 
superior  courts  may  be  briefly  stated.  There  is  now  one  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature,  consisting  of  two  permanent  divisions 
called  the  High  Court  of  Justice  and  the  court  of  appeal.  The 
former  takes  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  of  chancery,  the  three 
common  law  courts,  the  courts  of  admiralty,  probate,  and  divorce, 
the  courts  of  pleas  at  Lancaster  and  Durham,  and  the  courts 
created  by  commissions  of  assize,  oyer  and  terminer,  and  gaol 
delivery.  The  latter  takes  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  of  appeal 
in  chancery  (including  chancery  of  Lancaster),  the  court  of  the 
lord  warden  of  the  stannaries,  and  of  the  exchequer  chamber,  and 
the  appellate  jurisdiction  in  admiralty  and  heresy  matters  of  the 
judicial  committee;  and  power  is  given  to  the  sovereign  to 
transfer  the  remaining  jurisdiction  of  that  court  to  the  court  of 
appeal.  By  the  Appellate  Jurisdiction  Act  of  1876  the  House  of 
Lords  is  enabled  to  sit  for  the  hearing  of  appeals  from  the 
English  court  of  appeal  and  the  Scottish  and  Irish  courts  during 
the  prorogation  and  dissolution  of  parliament.  The  lords  of 
appeal,  of  whom  three  must  be  present,  are  the  lord  chancellor, 
the  lords  of  appeal  in  ordinary,  and  peers  who  have  held  "  high 
judicial  office  "  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland.  The  lords  in 
ordinary  are  an  innovation  in  the  constitution  of  the  House. 
They  hold  the  rank  of  baron  for  life  only,  have  a  right  to  sit  and 
vote  in  the  House  during  tenure  of  office  only,  and  a  salary  of 
£6000  per  annum. 

There  are  also  many  obsolete  or  decayed  courts,  of  which  the 
most  noticeable  are  dealt  with  under  their  individual  headings,  as 
COURT  BARON,  COURT  LEET,  &c. 

The  history  of  English  courts  affords  a  remarkable  illustration 
of  the  continuity  that  characterizes  English  institutions.  It 
might  perhaps  be  too  much  to  say  that  all  the  courts  now  sitting 
in  England  may  be  traced  back  to  a  common  origin,  but  at  any 
rate  the  higher  courts  are  all  offshoots  from  the  same  original 
judicature.  Leaving  out  of  account  the  local  courts,  we  find  the 
higher  jurisdiction  after  the  Norman  Conquest  concentrated 
along  with  all  other  public  functions  in  the  king  and  council. 
The  first  sign  of  a  separation  of  the  judicial  from  the  other 
powers  of  this  body  is  found  in  the  recognition  of  a  Curia  Regis, 
which  may  be  described  as  the  king's  council,  or  a  portion  of  it, 
charged  specially  with  the  management  of  judicial  and  revenue 
business.  In  relation  to  the  revenue  it  became  the  exchequer, 
under  which  name  a  separate  court  grew  up  whose  special  field 
was  the  judicial  business  arising  out  of  revenue  cases.  By  Magna 
Carta  the  inconvenience  caused  by  the  curia  following  the  king's 
person  was  remedied,  in  so  far  as  private  litigation  was  concerned, 
by  the  order  that  common  pleas  (Communia  Placita)  should  be 
held  at  some  fixed  place;  and  hence  arose  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  The  Curia  Regis,  after  having  thrown  off  these  branches, 
is  represented  by  the  king's  bench,  so  that  from  the  same  stock 
we  have  now  three  courts,  differing  at  first  in  functions,  but 
through  competition  for  business,  and  the  ingenious  use  of 
fictions,  becoming  finally  the  co-ordinate  courts  of  common  law 
of  later  history.  But  an  inner  circle  of  counsellors  still  surrounded 
the  king,  and  in  his  name  claimed  to  exercise  judicial  as  well  as 
other  power;  hence  the  chancellor's  jurisdiction,  which  became, 
partly  in  harmony  with  the  supra-legal  power  claimed  from  which 
it  sprang,  and  partly  through  the  influence  of  the  ecclesiastical 
chancellors  by  whom  it  was  first  administered,  the  equity  of 
English  law.  Similar  developments  of  the  same  authority  were 
the  court  of  requests  (which  was  destroyed  by  a  decision  of  the 
common  pleas)  and  the  court  of  star  chamber — a  court  of 
criminal  equity,  as  it  has  been  called, — which,  having  been  made 
the  instrument  of  tyranny,  was  abolished  in  1641.  Even  then 


the  productive  power  of  the  council  was  not  exhausted;  the 
judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  established  in  1832. 
superseding  the  previous  court  of  delegates,  exercises  the  juris- 
diction in  appeal  belonging  to  the  king  in  council.  The  appellate 
jurisdiction  of  the  Lords  rests  on  their  claim  to  be  the  representa- 
tives of  the  ancient  great  council  of  the  realm. 

See  further  ADMIRALTY,  HIGH  COURT  OF;  APPEAL;  CHANCERY; 
COMMON  LAW;  COMMON  PLEAS,  COURT  OF;  DIVORCE;  EQUITY;  &c. 

United  States. — The  Federal  judicial  system  of  the  United 
States  is  made  by  the  Constitution  independent  both  of  the 
Legislature  and  of  the  Executive.  It  consists  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  the  circuit  courts,  and  the  district  courts. 

The  Supreme  Court  is  created  by  the  Constitution,  and 
consisted  in  1909  of  nine  judges,  who  are  nominated  by  the 
President  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  They  hold  office  during 
good  behaviour,  i.e.  are  removable  only  by  impeachment,  thus 
having  a  tenure  even  more  secure  than  that  of  English  judges. 
The  court  sits  at  Washington  from  October  to  July  in  every  year. 
The  sessions  of  the  court  are  held  in  the  Capitol.  A  rule  requiring 
the  presence  of  six  judges  to  pronounce  a  decision  prevents  the 
division  of  the  court  into  two  or  more  benches;  and  while  this 
secures  a  thorough  consideration  of  every  case,  it  also  retards  the 
despatch  of  business.  Every  case  is  discussed  twice  by  the  whole 
body,  once  to  ascertain  the  view  of  the  majority,  which  is  then 
directed  to  be  set  forth  in  a  written  opinion;  then  again,  when 
the  written  opinion,  prepared  by  one  of  the  judges,  is  submitted 
for  criticism  and  adoption  by  the  court  as  its  judgment. 

The  other  Federal  courts  have  been  created  by  Congress  under 
a  power  in  the  Constitution  to  establish  "  inferior  courts."  The 
circuit  courts  consist  of  twenty-nine  circuit  judges,  acting  in  nine 
judicial  circuits,  while  to  each  circuit  there  is  also  allotted  one  of 
the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Circuit  courts  of  appeals, 
established  to  relieve  the  Supreme  Court,  consist  of  three  judges 
(two  forming  a  quorum),  and  are  made  up  of  the  circuit  and 
district  judges  of  each  circuit  and  the  Supreme  Court  justice 
assigned  to  the  circuit.  Some  cases  may,  however,  be  appealed 
to  the  Supreme  Court  from  the  circuit  court  of  appeals,  and 
others  directly  from  the  lower  courts.  The  district  courts 
number  (1909)  ninety,  in  most  cases  having  a  single  justice. 
There  is  also  a  special  tribunal  called  the  court  of  claims,  which 
deals  with  the  claims  of  private  persons  against  the  Federal 
government.  It  is  not  strictly  a  part  of  the  general  judicial 
system,  but  is  a  creation  of  Congress  designed  to  relieve  that  body 
of  a  part  of  its  own  labours. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  courts  extends  only  to  those 
cases  in  which  the  Constitution  makes  Federal  law  applicable. 
All  other  cases  are  left  to  the  state  courts,  from  which  there  is  no 
appeal  to  the  Federal  courts,  unless  where  some  specific  point 
arises  which  is  affected  by  the  Federal  Constitution  or  a  Federal 
law.  The  classes  of  cases  dealt  with  by  the  Federal  courts  are  as 
follows: — 

1.  Cases  in  law  and  equity  arising  under  the  Constitution, 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made  under  their 
authority; 

2.  Cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls; 

3.  Cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction; 

4.  Controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party; 

5.  Controversies  between  two  or  more  states,  between  a  state 
and  citizens  of  another  state,  between  citizens  of  different  states, 
between  citizens  of  the  same  state  claiming  lands  under  grants  of 
different  states,  and  between  a  state  or  the  citizens  thereof  and 
foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects  (Const.,  Art.  III.,  §  2).     Part 
of  this  jurisdiction  has,  however,  been  withdrawn  by  the  eleventh 
Amendment   to   the   Constitution,   which   declares   that   "  the 
judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  state,  or  by  citizens  or 
subjects  of  any  foreign  state." 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  original  in  cases 
affecting  ambassadors,  and  wherever  a  state  is  a  party;  in  other 
cases  it  is  appellate.  In  some  matters  the  jurisdiction  of  the 


324 


COURT  BARON— COURTENAY  FAMILY 


Federal  courts  is  exclusive;  in  others  it  is  concurrent  with  that  of 
the  state  courts. 

As  it  frequently  happens  that  cases  come  before  state  courts  in 
which  questions  of  Federal  law  arise,  a  provision  has  been  made 
whereby  due  respect  for  the  latter  is  secured  by  giving  the  party 
to  a  suit  who  relies  upon  Federal  law,  and  whose  contention  is 
overruled  by  a  state  court,  the  right  of  having  the  suit  removed 
to  a  Federal  court.  The  Judiciary  Act  of  1789  (as  amended  by 
subsequent  legislation')  provides  for  the  removal  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  of  "  a  final  judgment  or  decree  in  any 
suit  rendered  in  the  highest  court  of  a  state  in  which  a  decision 
could  be  had,  where  is  drawn  in  question  the  validity  of  a  treaty 
or  statute  of,  or  an  authority  exercised  under  the  United  States, 
and  the  decision  is  against  their  validity;  or  where  is  drawn  in 
question  the  validity  of  a  statute  of,  or  an  authority  exercised 
under,  any  state,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  repugnant  to  the 
Constitution,  treaties  or  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
decision  is  in  favour  of  their  validity;  or  where  any  title,  right, 
privilege  or  immunity  is  claimed  under  the  Constitution,  or  any 
treaty  or  statute  of,  or  commission  held,  or  authority  exercised 
under  the  United  States,  and  the  decision  is  against  the  title, 
right,  privilege  or  immunity  specially  set  up  or  claimed  by  either 
party  under  such  Constitution,  treaty,  statute,  commission  or 
authority."  If  the  decision  of  the  state  court  is  in  favour  of  the 
right  claimed  under  Federal  law  or  against  the  validity  or  appli- 
cability of  the  state  law  set  up,  there  is  no  ground  for  removal, 
because  the  applicability  or  authority  of  Federal  law  in  the 
particular  case  could  receive  no  further  protection  from  a  Federal 
court  than  has  in  fact  been  given  by  the  state  court. 

The  power  exercised  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  declaring 
statutes  of  Congress  or  of  state  legislatures  (or  acts  of  the 
Executive)  to  be  invalid  because  inconsistent  with  the  Federal 
Constitution,  has  been  deemed  by  many  Europeans  a  peculiar 
and  striking  feature  of  the  American  system.  There  is,  however, 
nothing  novel  or  mysterious  about  it.  As  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, which  emanates  directly  from  the  people,  is  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land  everywhere,  any  statute  passed  by  any  lower 
authority  (whether  the  Federal  Congress  or  a  state  legislature), 
which  contravenes  the  Constitution,  must  necessarily  be  invalid 
in  point  of  law,  just  as  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  railway  by-law 
which  contravened  an  act  of  parliament  would  be  invalid.  Now, 
the  functions  of  judicial  tribunals — of  all  courts  alike,  whether 
Federal  or  state,  whether  superior  or  inferior — is  to  interpret  the 
law,  and  if  any  tribunal  finds  a  Congressional  statute  or  state 
statute  inconsistent  with  the  Constitution,  the  tribunal  is 
obliged  to  hold  such  statute  invalid.  A  tribunal  does  this  not 
because  it  has  any  right  or  power  of  its  own  in  the  matter,  but 
because  the  people  have,  in  enacting  the  Constitution  as  a  supreme 
law,  declared  that  all  other  laws  inconsistent  with  it  are  ipso  jure 
void.  When  a  tribunal  has  ascertained  that  an  inferior  law  is 
thus  inconsistent,  that  inferior  law  is  therewith,  so  far  as 
inconsistent,  to  be  deemed  void.  The  tribunal  does  not  enter 
any  conflict  with  the  Legislature  or  Executive.  All  it  does 
is  to  declare  that  a  conflict  exists  between  two  laws  of  different 
degrees  of  authority,  whence  it  necessarily  follows  that  the 
weaker  law  is  extinct.  This  duty  of  interpretation  belongs  to  all 
tribunals,  but  as  constitutional  cases  are,  if  originating  in  a  lower 
court,  usually  carried  by  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court,  men  have 
grown  accustomed  to  talk  of  the  Supreme  Court  as  in  a  special 
sense  the  guardian  of  the  Constitution. 

The  Federal  courts  never  deliver  an  opinion  on  any  consti- 
tutional question  unless  or  until  that  question  is  brought  before 
them  in  the  form  of  a  lawsuit.  A  judgment  of  the  Supreme 
Court  is  only  a  judgment  on  the  particular  case  before  it,  and 
does  not  prevent  a  similar  question  being  raised  again  in  another 
lawsuit,  though  of  course  this  seldom  happens,  because  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  court  will  adhere  to  its  former  opinion. 
There  have,  however,  been  instances  in  »which  the  court  has 
virtually  changed  its  view  on  a  constitutional  question,  and  it  is 
understood  to  be  entitled  so  to  do. 

COURT  BARON,  an  English  manorial  court  dating  from  the 
middle  ages  and  still  in  existence.  It  was  laid  down  by  Coke 


that  a  manor  had  two  courts,  "  the  first  by  the  common  law,  and 
is  called  a  court  baron,"  the  freeholders  ("  barons  ")  being  its 
suitors;  the  other  a  customary  court  for  the  copyholders. 
Stubbs  adopted  this  explanation,  but  the  latest  learning,  ex- 
pounded by  Professor  Maitland,  holds  that  court  baron  means 
curia  baronis,  "  la  court  de  seigneur,"  and  that  there  is  no  evidence 
for  there  being  more  than  one  court.  The  old  view  that  at  least 
two  freeholders  were  required  for  its  composition  is  also  now 
discarded.  Prof.  Maitland's  conclusion  is  that  the  "  court  baron  " 
was  not  even  differentiated  from  the  "  court-leet  "  at  the  close 
of  the  i3th  century,  but  that  there  was  a  distinction  of  juris- 
dictional  rights,  some  courts  having  only  feudal  rights,  while 
others  had  regalities  as  well.  When  the  court-leet  was  differ- 
entiated, the  court  baron  remained  with  feudal  rights  alone. 
These  rights  he  was  disposed  to  trace  to  a  lord's  jurisdiction  over 
his  men  rather  than  to  his  possession  of  the  manor,  although  in 
practice,  from  an  early  date,  the  court  was  associated  with  the 
manor.  Its  chief  business  was  to  administer  the  "  custom  of  the 
manor  "  and  to  admit  fresh  tenants  who  had  acquired  copyholds 
by  inheritance  or  purchase,  and  had  to  pay,  on  so  doing,  a  "  fine  " 
to  the  lord  of  the  manor.  It  is  mainly  for  the  latter  purpose  that 
the  court  is  now  kept.  It  is  normally  presided  over  by  the 
steward  of  the  lord  of  the  manor,  who  is  a  lawyer,  and  its  pro- 
ceedings are  recorded  on  "  the  court  rolls,"  of  which  the  older 
ones  are  now  valuable  for  genealogical  as  well  as  for  legal  purposes. 
See  Select  Pleas  in  Manorial  and  other  Seignorial  Courts,  vol.  i., 
and  The  Court  Baron  (Selden  Society).  (J.  H.  R.) 

COURT  DE  GEBELIN,  ANTOINE  (1728-1784),  French  scholar, 
son  of  Antoine  Court  (q.v.),  was  born  at  Nimes  in  1728.  He 
received  a  good  education,  and  became,  like  his  father,  a  pastor 
of  the  Reformed  Church.  This  office,  however,  he  soon  re- 
linquished, to  devote  himself  entirely  to  literary  work.  He  had 
conceived  the  project  of  a  work  which  should  set  in  a  new  light 
the  phenomena,  especially  the  languages  and  mythologies,  of  the 
ancient  world;  and,  after  his  father's  death,  he  went  to  Paris  in 
order  to  be  near  the  necessary  books.  After  long  years  of  research, 
he  published  in  1775  the  first  volume  of  his  vast  undertaking 
under  the  title  of  Le  Monde  primitif,  analyse  et  compart  avec  le 
monde  moderne.  The  ninth  volume  appeared  in  1784,  leaving  the 
work  still  unfinished.  The  literary  world  marvelled  at  the  encyclo- 
paedic learning  displayed  by  the  author,  and  supposed  that  the 
French  Academy,  or  some  other  society  of  scholars,  must  have 
combined  their  powers  in  its  production.  Now,  however,  the 
world  has  well-nigh  forgotten  the  huge  quartos.  These  learned 
labours  did  not  prevent  Gebelin  from  pleading  earnestly  the  cause 
of  religious  tolerance.  In  1760  he  published  a  work  entitled 
Les  Toulousaines,  advocating  the  rights  of  the  Protestants;  and 
he  afterwards  established  at  Paris  an  agency  for  collecting 
information  as  to  their  sufferings,  and  for  exciting  general 
interest  in  their  cause.  He  co-operated  with  Franklin  and 
others  in  the  periodical  work  entitled  Affaires  de  I'Angleterre  et 
de  I'Amerique  (1776,  sqq.),  which  was  devoted  to  the  support 
of  American  independence.  He  was  also  a  supporter  of  the 
principles  of  the  economists,  and  Quesnay  called  him  his  well- 
beloved  disciple.  In  the  last  year  of  his  life  he  became  acquainted 
with  Mesmer,  and  published  a  Lettre  sur  le  magnetisme  animal. 
He  was  imposed  upon  by  speculators  in  whom  he  placed 
confidence,  and  was  reduced  to  destitution  by  the  failure  of  a 
scheme  in  which  they  engaged  him.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the 
loth  of  May  1784. 

See  La  France  protestante,  by  the  brothers  Haag,  tome  iv. ;  Charles 
Dardier,  Court  de  Gebelin  (Nimes,  1890). 

COURTENAY,  the  name  of  a  famous  English  family.  French 
genealogists  head  the  pedigree  of  this  family  with  one  Athon  or 
Athos,  who  is  said  to  have  fortified  Courtenay  in  Gatinois  about 
the  year  1010.  His  son  Josselin  had,  with  other  issue,  Miles, 
lord  of  Courtenay,  founder  of  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Fontaine- 
Jean.  By  his  wife  Ermengarde,  daughter  of  Renaud,  count  of 
Nevers,  Miles  left  a  son  Renaud,  one  of  the  magnates  who 
followed  Louis  le  Jeune  to  the  Holy  Land.  This  was  the  last  lord 
of  Courtenay  of  the  line  of  Athon.  Elizabeth,  his  elder  daughter 
— a  younger  daughter  died  without  issue, — carried  Courtenay  and 


COURTENAY  FAMILY 


325 


other  lordships  to  her  husband  Pierre,  seventh  and  youngest  son 
of  the  French  king  Louis  VI.  the  Fat,  the  marriage  taking  place 
about  1 1 50,  and  the  many  descendants  of  this  royal  match  bore 
the  surname  of  Courtenay. 

Pierre,  the  eldest  son,  was  founder  of  a  short-lived  dynasty  of 
emperors  of  Constantinople,  which  ended  in  1261  when  Baldwin 
(Baudouin),  last  of  the  Prankish  emperors,  fled  before  Michael 
Palaeologus  from  a  capital  in  flames.  Baldwin's  son  Philip, 
however,  bore  the  empty  title,  and  his  granddaughter  Catherine, 
wife  of  Charles,  count  of  Valois,  was  titular  empress.  Other 
lines  of  the  royal  Courtenays,  sprung  from  Pierre  of  France, 
were  lords  of  Champignolles,  Tanlai,  Yerre,  Bleneau,  La  Ferte 
Loupiere  and  Chevillon.  On  the  death  of  Gaspard,  sieur  de 
Bleneau,  in  1655,  his  cousin  Louis  de  Courtenay,  comte  de  Cesi 
(jure  uxoris)  and  sieur  de  Chevillon,  had  Bleneau,  and  reckoned 
himself  the  surviving  chief  of  his  house.  He  styled  himself  Prince 
de  Courtenay  and  his  family  made  attempts  to  obtain  recognition 
for  their  royal  blood.  But  their  laboriously  constructed  genea- 
logies availed  nothing  to  this  impoverished  race.  The  last 
"  Prince  de  Courtenay,"  an  ex-captain  of  dragoons,  died  in  1730; 
his  uncle  Roger  de  Courtenay,  abbe  des  Eschalis,  who  died  in 
1733,  was  the  last  recognized  member  of  the  line  of  Pierre  of 
France. 

A  younger  branch  of  the  first  house  of  Courtenay  came  from 
Josselin,  second  son  of  Josselin,  son  of  Athon.  This  Josselin,  a 
notable  crusader,  went  to  the  Holy  Land  with  the  count  of  Blois, 
and  held  by  the  sword  for  eleven  years  the  county  of  Edessa, 
given  him  by  his  cousin  King  Baldwin  II.  Edessa  was  won  back 
by  the  infidel  from  his  son  Josselin,  who  died  a  prisoner  in  Aleppo 
in  1 147.  A  grandson,  also  a  Josselin,  was  seneschal  of  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem. 

In  England  a  house  of  Courtenay  has  flourished  with  varying 
fortunes  since  the  reign  of  the  first  Angevin  king.  The  monks  of 
Ford,  to  whom  they  were  benefactors,  complacently  set  down 
their  patrons  as  the  offspring  of  the  royal  Courtenays,  of  whose 
origin  they  had  some  dim  knowledge,  deriving  them  from 
"  Florus,"  son  of  Louis  the  Fat.  A  comparison  of  dates  destroys 
the  story.  But  they  were,  doubtless,  Courtenays  of  the  stock  of 
Athon.  Josselin,  the  first  count  of  Edessa,  has  been  suggested  by 
modern  writers  as  their  founder,  but  the  name  Reinaud,  borne  by 
the  first  known  ancestor  of  the  English  house,  suggests  that  they 
may  have  sprung  from  a  younger  son  of  Josselin  I.  of  Courtenay 
by  his  marriage  about  1095  with  Ermengarde,  daughter  of 
Reinaud,  count  of  Nevers.  It  is  also  notable  that  the  English 
Courtenays  have,  from  the  first  introduction  of  armorial  bearings, 
borne  with  various  differences  the  three  red  roundels  in  a  golden 
field,  the  arms  of  the  Courtenays  in  France,  the  shield  of  the  earls 
of  Devonshire  being  identical  with  that  of  the  lords  of  La  Fert6 
Loupiere. 

Several  Courtenays  whose  kinship  cannot  be  exactly  ascer- 
tained, appear  in  English  records  of  the  i2th  century.  One 
of  them,  Robert  de  Courtenay,  married  the  daughter  and 
heir  of  Reynold  fitz  Urse,  the  leader  of  the  murderers  of  Arch- 
bishop Thomas  Becket.  His  son,  William,  a  Shropshire  baron, 
held  the  castle  of  Montgomery,  as  heir  by  his  mother  of  Baldwin 
de  Buslers,  or  Boilers,  to  whom  Henry  I.  had  given  it  with  his 
"  niece  "  Sibil  de  Falaise.  This  William  married  Ada  of  Dunbar, 
daughter  of  Patrick,  earl  of  Dunbar,  but  died  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  without  issue. 

Reinaud  de  Courtenay,  ancestor  of  the  main  English  line,  may 
well  have  been  a  brother  of  the  Robert  above  named.  The 
English  pedigrees  confuse  him  with  his  son  of  the  same  name. 
He  was  a  favourite  with  Henry  II.,  his  attestations  of  charters 
showing  him  as  a  constant  companion  at  home  and  abroad  of  the 
king,  whom  he  followed  to  Wexford  in  the  Irish  expedition  of 
1172.  Henry  gave  him  Berkshire  lands  at  Sutton,  still  known  as 
Sutton  Courtenay,  by  a  charter  to  which  the  date  of  1 161  can  be 
assigned.  In  England  he  had  to  wife  Maude,  daughter  of  Robert 
fitz  Roy  by  Maude  of  Avranches,  the  elder  Maude  being  the  heir 
of  the  house  of  Brionne.  By  her,  who  survived  him,  dying 
before  January  1224,  he  had  no  issue,  but  by  a  wife  who  may 
have  died  before  his  coming  to  England  he  had,  with  other  issue, 


Robert  and  Reinaud.  Robert,  who  succeeded  to  Sutton  about 
1192,  was  husband  of  Alice  de  Rumeli,  widow  of  Gilbert  Pipard, 
and  one  of  the  three  sisters  and  co-heirs  of  William,  the  boy  of 
Egremond,  of  whose  drowning  in  the  Strid  Wordsworth  has 
made  a  ballad.  Robert  died  childless  in  1209.  Of  his  brother 
Reinaud  or  Reynold  de  Courtenay  little  is  known,  save  that  he 
was  a  married  man  in  1178  when  he  and  his  wife  Hawise  were 
given  by  the  pope  a  licence  to  have  a  free  chapel  at  Okehampton. 
This  wife,  Hawise  de  Ayencourt,  was,  with  Maude  his  father's 
second  wife,  a  daughter  and  co-heir  of  Maude  of  Avranches,  her 
father  being  the  lord  of  Ayencourt,  first  husband  of  the  last 
named  Maude.  Her  great  inheritance  included  the  honour  of 
Okehampton  in  Devonshire  of  which,  as  a  widow,  she  had  livery 
about  1205.  Her  son,  Robert  de  Courtenay,  succeeded  to  her 
land  in  1219,  having  been  his  uncle  Robert's  heir  in  Sutton  ten 
years  before.  Like  his  father  he  advanced  his  house  by  a  great 
marriage,  his  wife  being  Mary,  the  younger  daughter  of  William 
de  Vernon,  earl  of  Devon  and  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  was 
succeeded  in  1242  by  his  son  John,  who  by  Isabel,  a  daughter  of 
Hugh  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  has  issue  Hugh,  whose  wife  was 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Winchester,  elder  of  the  two 
favourites  of  Edward  II. .  The  son  of  this  marriage,  another 
Hugh,  followed  his  father  at  Okehampton  in  1291.  Two  years 
later  died  Isabel,  surviving  sister  and  heir  of  Baldwin  de  Reviers, 
earl  of  Devon,  and  widow  of  William  de  Forz,  last  earl  of 
Aumerle  (Albemarle).  On  her  death-bed  she  had  granted  her 
lordship  of  the  Wight  to  the  king,  but  her  cousin  Hugh  de 
Courtenay  succeeded  her  in  the  unalienated  estates  of  the  house  of 
Reviers.  He  was  summoned  as  a  baron  on  the  6th  of  February 
1298/9,  and  in  1300  he  displayed  his  banner  before  the  castle 
of  Caerlaverock.  Claiming  the  "  third  penny  "  of  the  county  of 
Devon,  he  was  refused  by  the  exchequer  as  he  did  not  claim  in  the 
name  of  an  earl.  Following,  however,  a  writ  of  inquiry,  a  patent 
of  the  22nd  of  February  1334/5  declared  him  earl  of  Devon 
and  qualified  to  take  such  style  as  his  ancestors,  earls  of  Devon, 
were  wont  to  take.  Hugh,  his  son,  the  second  earl,  a  warrior  who 
drove  the  French  back  from  their  descent  on  Cornwall  in  1339, 
made  another  of  the  brilliant  marriages  of  this  family,  his  wife 
being  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Humfrey  de  Bohun,  earl  of  Hereford 
and  Essex,  by  Elizabeth  daughter  of  Edward  I.  Their  eldest 
son,  Sir  Hugh  de  Courtenay,  shared  in  the  honours  of  Crecy  and 
Calais,  and  was  one  of  the  knights  founders  of  the  order  of  the 
Garter,  the  stall-plate  of  his  arms  being  yet  in  St  George's 
chapel  at  Windsor.  This  knight  died  in  the  lifetime  of  the  earl, 
as  did  his  only  son  Hugh,  summoned  as  a  baron  on  the  3rd  of 
January  1370/1,  a  companion  at  Najara  of  the  Black  Prince, 
whose  step-daughter  Maude  of  Holland  he  had  married.  The 
earl  was  therefore  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Edward  (son  of 
Edward  his  third  son),  earl  marshal  of  England  in  1385,  who  died 
blind  in  1419,  the  year  after  the  death  of  Sir  Edward  his  heir 
apparent,  one  of  the  conquerors  at  Agincourt.  Hugh,  a  second 
son  of  Earl  Edward,  succeeded  as  fourth  earl  of  the  Courtenay 
line.  By  his  wife,  a  sister  of  the  renowned  Talbot,  earl  of  Shrews- 
bury, he  had  issue  Thomas  the  fifth  earl,  a  partisan  of  Henry  VI., 
whose  wife  was  Margaret  Beaufort,  daughter  of  John,  earl  of 
Somerset.  The  effigy  of  this  grandaughter  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
with  the  shields  of  Courtenay  and  Beaufort  above  it,  is  in  Coly  ton 
church.  It  is  less  than  life  size,  a  fact  which  has  given  rise  to  a 
village  legend  that  it  represents  "  Little  choke-a-bone,"  an  infant 
daughter  of  the  tenth  earl,  who  died  "  choked  by  a  fish  bone." 
In  spite  of  the  evidence  of  the  shields  and  the  isth  century  dress 
of  the  effigy,  the  legend  has  now  been  strengthened  by  an 
inscription  upon  a  brass  plate,  and  in  the  year  1007  ignorance 
engaged  a  monumental  sculptor  to  deface  the  effigy  by  giving  its 
broken  features  the  newly  carved  face  of  a  young  child.  Both 
sons  of  this  marriage  fell  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  Thomas  the 
sixth  earl  being  taken  at  Towton  by  the  Yorkists  and  beheaded 
at  York  in  1462,  his  younger  brother  Henry  having  the  same  fate 
at  Salisbury  in  1466. 

The  earldom  being  extinguished  by  attainder,  Sir  Humphrey 
Stafford  was  created  earl  of  Devon  in  1469,  but  in  the  same 
year,  having  retired  with  his  men  from  the  expedition  against 


326 


COURTENAY,  R. 


Robin  of  Redesdale,  another  earl  of  Devon  suffered  at  the 
headsman's  hands,  his  patent  being  afterwards  annulled  by  a 
statute  of  Henry  VII.  On  the  restoration  of  Henry  VI.  John 
Courtenay,  only  surviving  brother  of  Thomas  and  Henry,  was 
restored  to  the  earldom  by  the  reversal  of  attainder.  He,  too, 
died  in  the  Lancastrian  cause,  being  killed  on  the  4th  of  May  1471 
at  Tewkesbury,  where  he  led  the  rear  of  the  host.  The  representa- 
tion of  the  Reviers  earls  and  of  the  Courtenay  barony  fell  then  to 
his  sisters  and  their  descendants.  Beside  him  at  Tewkesbury 
died  his  cousin  Sir  Hugh  Courtenay  of  Boconnoc,  son  of  Hugh, 
a  younger  brother  of  the  blind  earl,  leaving  a  son  Edward,  who 
thus  became  the  heir  male  of  the  house  though  not  its  heir 
general.  Joining  in  the  cause  which  had  cost  so  many  of  his 
kinsmen  their  lives,  he  and  his  brother  Walter  shared  the  duke  of 
Buckingham's  rising.  On  its  failure  they  fled  into  France  to  the 
earl  of  Richmond,  beside  whom  Sir  Edward  fought  at  Bosworth. 
By  a  patent  of  the  26th  of  October  1485  he  was  created  earl  of 
Devon  with  remainder  to  the  heirs  male  of  his  body,  and  by  an 
act  of  1485  he  was  restored  to  all  honours  lost  in  his  attainder  by 
the  Yorkist  parliament.  He  defended  Exeter  against  Warbeck's 
rebels  and  was  a  knight  of  the  Garter  in  1489,  dying  twenty  years 
later,  when  the  earldom  became  again  forfeit  by  his  son's  attainder. 
That  son,  William  Courtenay,  had  drawn  the  jealousy  of  Henry 
VII.  by  a  marriage  with  Catherine,  sister  of  the  queen  and 
daughter  of  King  Edward  IV.,  the  Yorkist  sovereign  whose  hand 
had  been  so  heavy  on  the  Courtenays.  After  the  queen's  death, 
Henry  sent  his  wife's  brother-in-law  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of 
corresponding  with  Edmund  Pole,  an  attainder  following.  But 
on  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  young  king  released  his 
uncle,  who  although  styled  an  earl  was  not  fully  restored  in  blood 
at  his  death  in  1511.  His  son  Henry  Courtenay  obtained  from 
parliament  in  December  15123  reversal  of  his  father's  attainder, 
thus  succeeding  to  the  earldom  of  his  grandfather.  At  the  Field 
of  Cloth  of  Gold  he  ran  a  course  with  the  king  of  France.  He 
was  knight  of  the  Garter  and  on  the  isth  of  June  1525  had  a 
patent  as  marquess  of,  Exeter.  Profiting  by  the  suppression  of 
the  monasteries  he  increased  his  estate,  his  power  being  all  but 
supreme  in  the  west  country.  But  Cromwell  was  his  enemy  and 
the  royal  strain  in  his  blood  was  a  dangerous  thing.  Involved  in 
correspondence  with  Cardinal  Pole,  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower  with 
his  wife  and  his  young  son,  and  on  the  gth  of  December  1538  he 
was  beheaded  as  a  traitor.  The  misfortunes  of  the  house  were 
heavy  upon  the  son,  who  at  twelve  years  old  was  a  prisoner  for 
the  sake  of  his  high  descent.  His  honours  had  been  forfeited, 
and  release  did  not  come  until  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  who 
took  him  into  favour.  Noailles  the  ambassador  found  him  le 
plus  beau  etle  plus  agreable  gentilhomme  d' Angleterre,  and  he  had 
some  hopes  of  becoming  king  consort.  The  queen  created  him 
earl  of  Devonshire  by  a  patent  of  the  3rd  of  September  1553  and 
in  the  next  month  he  was  restored  in  blood.  But,  disappointed  in 
his  hopes,  he  formed  some  wild  plans  for  marrying  the  Lady 
Elizabeth  and  making  her  queen.  He  could  raise  Devon  and 
Cornwall.  Wyat  did  raise  Kent,  but  the  plot  was  soon  crushed. 
The  earl  was  sent  back  to  the  Tower  and  thence  to  Fotheringhay. 
At  Easter  of  1555  he  was  released  on  parole  and  exiled,  dying 
suddenly  at  Padua  in  1 5  56.  His  co-heirs  were  the  descendants  of 
the  four  sisters  of  Earl  Edward  (d.  1519),  the  wives  of  four 
Cornish  squires,  and  with  him  was  extinguished,  to  the  belief  of 
all  men,  the  Courtenays'  earldom  of  Devon.  His  heir  male  was 
Sir  William  Courtenay,  his  sixth  cousin  once  removed,  head  of  a 
knightly  line  of  Courtenays  whose  seat  was  Powderham  Castle, 
a  line  which,  during  the  civil  wars,  stood  for  the  White  Rose. 
Sir  William,  who  is  said  to  have  been  killed  at  St  Quintin  in  1557, 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  another  Sir  William,  one  of  the  under- 
takers for  the  settling  of  Ireland,  where  the  family  obtained  great 
estates.  William  Courtenay  of  Powderham,  of  whose  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Sir  William  Waller  (the  parliament's 
general)  it  is  remarked  that  the  years  of  bride  and  bridegroom 
added  together  were  less  than  thirty  when  their  first  child  was 
born,  was  created  a  baronet  by  writ  of  privy  seal  in  February 
1644,  the  patent  being  never  enrolled.  His  great  grandson,  Sir 
William  Courtenay,  many  years  a  member  of  parliament,  was  on 


the  6th  of  May  1762,  ten  days  before  his  death,  created  Viscount 
Courtenay  of  Powderham  Castle. 

Since  the  death  at  Padua  in  1556  of  Edward,  earl  of  Devon, 
that  ancient  title  had  been  twice  revived.  Charles  Blount, 
Lord  Mountjoy,  who  was  created  earl  of  Devon  in  1603,  died 
without  lawful  issue  in  1606.  In  1618  Sir  William  Cavendish, 
son  of  the  famous  Bess  of  Hardwick,  was  given  the  same  title, 
which  is  still  among  the  peerage  honours  of  the  ducal  house 
descending  from  him.  For  the  Courtenays,  who  had  without 
protest  accepted  a  baronetcy  and  a  viscounty,  their  earldom  was 
dead.  In  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  the  third  and  last  Viscount 
Courtenay  was  living  unmarried  in  Paris,  an  exile  who  for 
sufficient  reasons  was  keeping  out  of  the  reach  of  the  English 
criminal  law.  In  the  name  of  this  man,  his  presumptive  heir 
male,  William  Courtenay,  clerk  assistant  of  the  parliament, 
succeeded  in  persuading  the  House  of  Lords  that  the  Courtenay 
earldom  under  the  patent  of  1553  was  still  in  existence,  the  plea 
being  that  the  terms  of  the  remainder — to  him  and  his  heirs  male 
for  ever — did  not  limit  the  succession  to  heirs  male  of  the  body 
of  the  grantee.  Five  other  cases  wherein  the  words  de  cor  pore  suo 
had  been  omitted  from  the  patent  are  known  to  peerage  lawyers. 
In  no  case  had  a  peerage  before  been  claimed  by  collateral 
heirs  male.  "  I  have  often  rallied  Brougham,"  writes  Lord 
Campbell,  "  upon  his  creating  William  Courtenay  earl  of  Devon. 
He  says  he  consulted  Chief  Justice  Tenterden.  But  Tenterden 
knew  nothing  of  peerage  law."  After  the  death  of  the  exile  in 
1835  the  clerk  of  the  parliament  succeeded  him  as  an  earl  by 
force  of  the  House  of  Lords  decision  of  the  isth  of  March  1831. 
His  second  son,  the  Rev.  Henry  Hugh  Courtenay  (1811-1904), 
succeeded,  as  i3th  earl,  a  nephew  whose  extravagance  had  im- 
poverished the  estates.  He  in  turn  was  followed,  as  i4th  earl,  by 
his  grandson  Charles  Pepys  Courtenay  (b.  1870). 

No  other  recognized  branch  of  this  house,  once  so  widely 
spread  in  the  western  counties,  is  now  among  the  landed  houses  of 
England.  Among  its  cadets  were  many  famous  warriors,  but 
three  prelates  must  be  reckoned  as  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Courtenays.  William,  a  younger  son  of  the  match  of  Courtenay 
and  Bohun,  was  bishop  of  Hereford  in  1370,  bishop  of  London  in 
1375  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1381.  Proceeding  against 
Wycliffe  he  opposed  John  of  Gaunt,  who,  taunting  him  with  his 
trust  in  his  great  kinsfolk,  threatened  to  drag  him  out  of  St  Paul's 
by  his  hair,  a  threat  which  roused  the  angry  Londoners  in  his 
defence.  He  died  in  1396  and  lies  buried  at  the  feet  of  the  Black 
Prince  in  his  cathedral  of  Canterbury.  By  his  will  he  left  his  best 
mitre  to  his  nephew  Richard  Courtenay — son  and  pupil,  as  he 
styles  him — against  the  time  he  should  be  a  bishop.  This  Richard, 
a  friend  of  Henry  V.  when  prince,  and  treasurer  of  his  household, 
was  bishop  of  Norwich  in  1413.  Twice  chancellor  of  Oxford,  he 
repelled  Archbishop  Arundel  and  all  his  train  when  that  primate 
would  have  had  a  visitation  of  the  university,  although  the 
claim  of  the  university  to  independence  was  at  last  broken  down. 
Tall  of  stature,  eloquent  and  learned,  he  kept  the  favour  of  the 
king,  who  was  with  him  when  he  died  of  dysentery  in  the  host 
before  Harfleur.  Heir  of  this  bishop  was  his  nephew  Sir  Philip 
of  Powderham,  whose  younger  son  Peter  Courtenay  was  the 
third  of  the  Courtenay  prelates,  being  bishop  of  Exeter  from  1478 
to  1487,  when  he  was  translated  to  Winchester.  Although  of  the 
Yorkist  Courtenays,  he  was  of  Buckingham's  party  and,  being 
attainted  by  Richard  III.  for  joining  with  certain  of  his  kinsfolk  in 
an  attempt  to  raise  the  west,  he  escaped  to  Brittany,  whence  he 
returned  with  the  first  Tudor  sovereign,  who  had  him  in  high 
favour.  A  fourth  prelate  of  this  family  was  Henry  Reginald 
Courtenay,  who  was  bishop  of  Bristol  1794-1797  and  bishop  of 
Exeter  from  1797  to  his  death  in  1803. 

See  charter,  patent,  close,  fine  and  plea  rolls,  inquests  post  mortem 
and  other  records.  G.  E.  C.'s  Complete  Peerage;  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography;  Notes  and  Queries,  series  viii.  vol.  7;  I.  H. 
Round's  Peerage  Studies;  Calendars  of  State  Papers;  Macnyn's 
Diary  (Camden  Society) ;  Chronicles  of  Capgrave,  Wavrin,  Adam  of 
Usk,  &c.  (O.  BA.) 

COURTENAY,  RICHARD  (d.  1415),  English  prelate,  was  a  son 
of  Sir  Philip  Courtenay  of  Powderham  Castle,  near  Exeter,  and 
a  grandson  of  Hugh  Courtenay,  earl  of  Devon  (d.  1377).  He 


COURTENAY,  W.— COURT  LEET 


327 


was  a  nephew  of  William  Courtenay,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  a  descendant  of  Edward  I.  Educated  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  he  entered  the  church,  where  his  advance  was  rapid. 
He  held  several  prebends,  was  dean  of  St  Asaph  and  then  dean  of 
Wells,  and  became  bishop  of  Norwich  in  1413.  As  chancellor  of 
the  university  of  Oxford,  an  office  to  which  he  was  elected  in  1407 
and  again  in  1410,  Courtenay  asserted  the  independence  of  the 
university  against  Thomas  Arundel,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
1411;  but  the  archbishop,  supported  by  Henry  IV.  and  Pope 
John  XXIII.,  eventually  triumphed.  Courtenay  was  a  personal 
friend  of  Henry  V.  both  before  and  after  he  came  to  the  throne; 
and  in  1413,  immediately  after  Henry's  accession,  he  was  made 
treasurer  of  the  royal  household.  On  two  occasions  he  went  on 
diplomatic  errands  to  France,  and  he  was  also  employed  by 
Henry  on  public  business  at  home.  Having  accompanied  the 
king  to  Harfleur  in  August  1415,  Courtenay  was  attacked  by 
dysentery  and  died  on  the  i$th  of  September  1415,  his  body 
being  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Another  member  of  this  family,  PETER  COURTENAY  (d.  1492), 
a  grandnephew  of  Richard,  also  attained  high  position  in  the 
English  Church.  Educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  Peter 
became  dean  of  Windsor,  then  dean  of  Exeter;  in  1478  bishop 
of  Exeter;  and  in  1487  bishop  of  Winchester  in  succession  to 
William  of  Waynflete.  With  Henry  Stafford,  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, and  others  he  attempted  to  raise  a  rebellion  against  Richard 
III.  in  1483,  and  fled  to  Brittany  when  this  enterprise  failed. 
Courtenay  was  restored  to  his  dignities  and  estates  in  1485  by 
Henry  VII.,  whom  he  had  accompanied  to  England,  and  he  died 
on  the  23rd  of  September  1492. 

See  J.  H.  Wylie,  History  of  England  under  Henry  IV.  (London, 
1884-1898). 

COURTENAY,  WILLIAM  (c.  1342-1396),  English  prelate,  was 
a  younger  son  of  Hugh  Courtenay,  earl  of  Devon  (d.  1377),  and 
through  his  mother  Margaret,  daughter  of  Humphrey  Bohun, 
earl  of  Hereford,  was  a  great-grandson  of  Edward  I.  Being  a 
native  of  the  west  of  England  he  was  educated  at  Stapledon  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  after  graduating  in  law  was  chosen  chancellor  of 
the  university  in  1367.  Courtenay's  ecclesiastical  and  political 
career  began  about  the  same  time.  Having  been  made  prebendary 
of  Exeter,  of  Wells  and  of  York,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Hereford  in  1370,  was  translated  to  the  see  of  London  in  1375, 
and  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1381,  succeeding  Simon 
of  Sudbury  in  both  these  latter  positions.  As  a  politician  the 
period  of  his  activity  coincides  with  the  years  of  Edward  III.'s 
dotage,  and  with  practically  the  whole  of  Richard  II. 's  reign. 
From  the  first  he  ranged  himself  among  the  opponents  of  John 
of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster;  he  was  a  firm  upholder  of  the 
rights  of  the  English  Church,  and  was  always  eager  to  root  out 
Lollardry.  In  1373  he  declared  in  convocation  that  he  would  not 
contribute  to  a  subsidy  until  the  evils  from  which  the  church 
suffered  were  removed;  in  1375  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
king  by  publishing  a  papal  bull  against  the  Florentines;  and  in 
1377  his  decided  action  during  the  quarrel  between  John  of 
Gaunt  and  William  of  Wykeham  ended  in  a  temporary  triumph 
for  the  bishop.  Wycliffe  was  another  cause  of  difference  between 
Lancaster  and  Courtenay.  In  1377  the  reformer  appeared 
before  Archbishop  Sudbury  and  Courtenay,  when  an  altercation 
between  the  duke  and  the  bishop  led  to  the  dispersal  of  the  court, 
and  during  the  ensuing  riot  Lancaster  probably  owed  his  safety 
to  the  good  offices  of  his  foe.  Having  meanwhile  become  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  Courtenay  summoned  a  council,  or  synod, 
in  London,  which  condemned  the  opinions  of  Wycliffe;  he  then 
attacked  the  Lollards  at  Oxford,  and  urged  the  bishops  to 
imprison  heretics.  He  was  for  a  short  time  ch  ancellor  of  England 
during  1381,  and  in  January  1382  he  officiated  at  the  marriage  of 
Richard  II.  with  Anne  of  Bohemia,  afterwards  crowning  the 
queen.  In  1382  the  archbishop's  visitation  led  to  disputes  with 
the  bishops  of  Exeter  and  Salisbury,  and  Courtenay  was  only 
partially  able  to  enforce  the  payment  of  a  special  tax  to  meet  his 
expenses  on  this  occasion.  During  his  concluding  years  the 
archbishop  appears  to  have  upheld  the  papal  authority  in 
England,  although  not  to  the  injury  of  the  English  Church. 


He  protested  against  the  confirmation  of  the  statute  of  pro  visors 
in  1390,  and  he  was  successful  in  slightly  modifying  the  statute  of 
praemunire  in  1393.  Disliking  the  extravagance  of  Richard  II. 
he  publicly  reproved  the  king,  and  after  an  angry  scene  the  royal 
threats  drove  him  for  a  time  into  Devonshire.  In  1386  he  was 
one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  reform  the  kingdom  and 
the  royal  household,  and  in  1387  he  arranged  a  peace  between 
Richard  and  his  enemies  under  Thomas  of  Woodstock,  duke  of 
Gloucester.  Courtenay  died  at  Maidstone  on  the  3ist  of  July 
1396,  and  was  buried  in  Canterbury  cathedral. 

See  W.  F.  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  vol.  iv. 
(London,  1860-1876);  and  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional  History,  vols. 
ii.  and  iii.  (Oxford,  1895-1896). 

COURTESY  (O.  Fr.  curlesie,  later  courtoisie),  manners  or 
behaviour  that  suit  a  court,  politeness,  due  consideration  for 
others.  A  special  application  of  the  word  is  in  the  expression 
"  by  courtesy,"  where  something  is  granted  out  of  favour  and 
not  of  right,  hence  "  courtesy  "  titles,  i.e.  those  titles  of  rank 
which  are  given  by  custom  to  the  eldest  sons  of  dukes,  marquesses 
and  earls,  usually  the  second  title  held  by  the  father;  to  the 
younger  sons  and  to  the  daughters  of  dukes  and  marquesses, 
viz.  the  prefix  "  lord  "  and  "  lady  "  with  the  Christian  and 
surname.  For  "  tenure  by  the  courtesy  "  see  CURTESY.  Another 
form  of  the  word,  "  curtsey  "  or  "  curtsy,"  was  early  confined 
to  the  expression  of  courtesy  or  respect  by  a  gesture  or  bow, 
now  only  of  the  reverence  made  by  a  woman,  consisting  in  a 
bending  of  the  knees  accompanied  by  a  lowering  of  the  body. 

COURTHOPE,  WILLIAM  JOHN  (1842-  ),  English  writer 
and  historian  of  poetry,  whose  father  was  rector  of  South  Mailing. 
Essex,  was  born  on  the  I7th  of  July  1842.  From  Harrow  school 
he  went  to  New  College,  Oxford;  took  first-classes  in  classical 
"  moderations  "  and  "  greats  ";  and  won  the  Newdigate  prize 
for  poetry  (1864)  and  the  Chancellor's  English  essay  (1868). 
He  seemed  destined  for  distinction  as  a  poet,  his  volume  of 
Ludibria  Lunae  (1869)  being  followed  in  1870  by  the  remarkably 
fine  Paradise  of  Birds.  But  a  certain  academic  quality  of  mind 
seemed  to  check  his  output  in  verse  and  divert  it  into  the  field 
of  criticism.  Apart  from  many  contributions  to  the  higher 
journalism,  his  literary  career  is  associated  mainly  with  his 
continuation  of  the  edition  of  Pope's  works,  begun  by  Whitwell 
Elwin  (1816-1900),  which  appeared  in  ten  volumes  from  1871- 
1889;  his  life  of  Addison  (Men  of  Letters  series,  1882);  his 
Liberal  Movement  in  English  Literature  (1885);  and  his  tenure 
of  the  professorship  of  Poetry  at  Oxford  (1895-1901),  which 
resulted  in  his  elaborate  History  of  English  Poetry  (the  first 
volume  appearing  in  1895),  and  his  Life  in  Poetry  (1901).  He 
deals  with  the  history  of  English  poetry  as  a  whole,  and  in  its 
unity  as  a  result  of  the  national  spirit  and  thought  in  succeeding 
ages,  and  attempts  to  bring  the  great  poets  into  relation  with 
this.  In  1887  he  was  appointed  a  civil  service  commissioner, 
being  first  commissioner  in  1892,  and  being  made  a  C.B.  He 
was  made  an  honorary  fellow  of  his  old  college  at  Oxford  in  1896, 
and  was  given  the  honorary  degrees  of  D.Litt.  by  Durham  in 
1895  and  of  LL.D.  by  Edinburgh  University  in  1898. 

COURT  LEET,  an  English  petty  criminal  court  for  the  punish- 
ment of  small  offences.  It  has  been  usual  to  make  a  distinction 
between  court  baron  and  court  leet1  as  being  separate  courts, 
but  in  the  early  history  of  the  court  leet  no  such  distinction 

1  The  history  of  the  word  "  leet  "  is  very  obscure.  It  appears  in 
Anglo-French  documents  as  lete  and  in  Anglo-Latin  as  leta.  Pro- 
fessor W.  W.  Skeat  has  connected  it  with  Old  English  Idetan,  to  let, 
which  is  very  doubtful,  though  this  is  the  origin  of  the  use  of  the 
word  in  such  expressions  as  "  two-"  "  three-way  leet,"  a  place 
where  cross-roads  me3t.  The  New  English  Dictionary  suggests  a 
connexion  with  "  lathe,"  a  term  which  survives  as  a  division  of  the 
county  of  Kent,  containing  several  "  hundreds."  This  is  of  Oltl 
Norwegian  origin,  and  seems  to  have  meant  "  landed  possessions." 
There  is  also  another  Old  Norwegian  leith,  a  court  or  judicial  assembly, 
and  modern  Danish  has  laegd,  a  division  of  the  country  for  military 

eurposes.  J.  H.  Round  (Feudal  England,  p.  101)  points  out  that  the 
uffolk  hundred  was  divided  for  assessment  into  equal  blocks  called 
"  leets"  (see  further  F.  W.  Mainland,  Select  Pleas  in  Manorial  Courts, 
Selden  Soc.  Publications  I.  Ixxiii-lxxvi).  "  Leet  "  is  also  used,  chiefly 
in  Scotland,  for  a  list  of  persons  nominated  for  election  to  an  office. 
This  is,  apparently,  a  shortened  form  of  the  French  elite,  elected. 


COURT-MARTIAL—COURTNEY 


can  be  drawn.  At  a  very  early  time  the  lords  of  manors  exercised 
or  claimed  certain  jurisdictional  franchises.  Of  these  the  most 
important  was  the  "  view  of  frankpledge  "  and  its  attendant 
police  jurisdiction.  Some  time  in  the  later  middle  ages  the 
court  baron  when  exercising  these  powers  gained  the  name  of 
leet,  and,  later,  of  "  court  leet."  The  quo  warranto  proceedings 
of  Edward  I.  established  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  court 
baron,  exercising  strictly  manorial  rights,  and  the  court  leet, 
depending  for  its  jurisdiction  upon  royal  franchise.  The  court 
leet  was  a  court  of  record,  and  its  duty  was  not  only  to  view  the 
pledges  but  to  present  by  jury  all  crimes  that  might  happen 
within  the  jurisdiction,  and  punish  the  same.  The  steward  of 
the  court  acted  as  judge,  presiding  wholly  in  a  judicial  character, 
the  ministerial  acts  being  executed  by  the  baOiff.  The  court 
leet  began  to  decline  in  the  i4th  century,  being  superseded  by 
the  more  modern  courts  of  the  justices,  but  in  many  cases  courts 
leet  were  kept  up  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  igth  century. 
Indeed,  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  are  now  actually  extinct, 
as  many  still  survive  for  formal  purposes,  and  by  s.  40  of  the 
Sheriffs  Act  1887  they  are  expressly  kept  up. 

COURT-MARTIAL,  a  court  for  the  trial  of  offences  against 
military  or  naval  discipline,  or  for  the  administration  of  martial 
law.  In  England  courts-martial  have  inherited  part  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  old  Curia  militaris,  or  court  of  the  chivalry, 
in  which  a  single  marshal  and  at  one  time  th£  high  constable 
proceeded  "  according  to  the  customs  and  usages  of  that  court, 
and,  in  cases  omitted  according  to  the  civil  law,  secundum  legem 
armorum  "  (Coke,  4  Ins.  17).  The  modern  form  of  the  courts 
was  adopted  by  ordinance  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  when  English 
soldiers  were  studying  the  "  articles  and  military  laws  "  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the  Dutch  military  code  of  Arnheim; 
it  is  first  recognized  by  statute  in  the  first  Mutiny  Act  of  1689. 
The  Mutiny  Act  (with  various  extensions  and  amendments) 
and  the  statutory  articles  of  war  continued  to  be  the  sources 
of  military  law  which  courts-martial  administered  until  1879, 
when  they  were  codified  in  the  Army  Discipline  and  Regulation 
Act  1879,  which  was,  in  turn,  superseded  by  the  Army  Act  1881. 
This  act  is  re-enacted  annually  by  the  Army  (Annual)  Act. 
The  constitution  of  courts-martial,  their  procedure,  &c.,  are 
dealt  with  under  MILITARY  LAW. 

Naval  Courts-Martial. — The  administration  of  the  barbarous 
naval  law  of  England  was  long  entrusted  to  the  discretion  of 
commanders  acting  under  instructions  from  the  lord  high 
admiral,  who  was  supreme  over  both  the  royal  and  merchant 
navy.  It  was  the  leaders  of  the  Long  Parliament  who  first 
secured  something  like  a  regular  tribunal  by  passing  in  1645 
an  ordinance  and  articles  concerning  martial  law  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  navy.  Under  this  ordinance  Blake,  Monk  and  Penn 
issued  instructions  for  the  holding  general  and  ship  courts- 
martial  with  written  records,  the  one  for  captains  and  com- 
manders, the  other  for  subordinate  officers  and  men.  Of  the 
latter  the  mate,  gunner  and  boatswain  were  members,  but  the 
admirals  reserved  a  control  over  the  more  serious  sentences. 
Under  an  act  of  1661  the  high  admiral  again  received  power 
to  issue  commissions  for  holding  courts-martial — a  power  which 
continues  to  be  exercised  by  the  board  of  admiralty.  During 
the  i8th  century,  under  the  auspices  of  Anson,  the  jurisdiction 
was  greatly  extended,  and  the  Consolidation  Act  of  1749  was 
passed  in  which  the  penalty  of  death  occurs  as  frequently  as  the 
curses  in  the  commination  service.  The  Naval  Articles  of  War 
have  always  been  statutory,  and  the  whole  system  may  now  be 
said  to  rest  on  the  Naval  Discipline  Act  1866,  as  amended  by  the 
act  of  1884.  The  navy  has  its  courts  of  inquiry  for  the  con- 
fidential investigation  of  charges  "  derogatory  to  the  character 
of  an  officer  and  a  gentleman."  Under  the  act  of  1866  a  court- 
martial  must  consist  of  from  five  to  nine  officers  of  a  certain 
rank,  and  must  be  held  publicly  on  board  of  one  of  H.M.  ships 
of  war,  and  where  at  least  two  such  ships  are  together.  The 
rank  of  the  president  depends  on  that  of  the  prisoner.  A  judge- 
advocate  attends,  and  the  procedure  resembles  that  in  military 
courts,  except  that  the  prisoner  is  not  asked  to  plead,  and  the 
sentence,  if  not  one  of  death,  does  not  require  the  confirmation 


of  the  commander-in-chief  abroad  or  of  the  admiralty  at  home. 
The  court  has  a  large  and  useful  power  of  finding  the  prisoner 
guilty  of  a  less  serious  offence  than  that  charged,  which  might 
well  be  imitated  in  the  ordinary  criminal  courts.  The  death 
sentence  is  always  carried  out  by  hanging  at  the  yard-arm; 
Admiral  Byng,  however,  was  shot  in  1757.  The  board  of 
admiralty  have,  under  the  Naval  Discipline  Acts,  a  general 
power  of  suspending,  annulling,  and  modifying  sentences  which 
are  not  capital.  The  jurisdiction  extends  to  all  persons  belonging 
to  the  navy,  to  land  forces  and  other  passengers  on  board,  ship- 
wrecked crews,  spies,  persons  borne  on  the  books  of  H.M.  s,hips 
in  commission,  and  civilians  on  board  who  endeavour  to  seduce 
others  from  allegiance.  The  definition  of  the  jurisdiction  by 
locality  includes  harbours,  havens  or  creeks,  lakes  or  rivers, 
in  or  out  of  the  United  Kingdom;  all  places  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  admiralty;  all  places  on  shore  out  of  the  United 
Kingdom;  the  dockyards,  barracks,  hospitals,  &c.,  of  the 
service  wherever  situated;  all  places  on  shore  in  or  out  of  the 
United  Kingdom  for  all  offences  punishable  under  the  Articles 
of  War  except  those  specified  in  section  38  of  the  Naval  Discipline 
Act  1860,  which  are  punishable  by  ordinary  law.  The  Royal 
Marines,  while  borne  on  the  books  of  H.M.  ships,  are  subject 
to  the  Naval  Discipline  Acts,  and,  by  an  order  in  council,  1882, 
when  they  are  embarked  on  board  ship  for  service  on  shore; 
otherwise  they  are  under  the  Army  Acts.  By  s.  179,  sub. -sec. 
7,  of  the  Army  Act,  in  the  application  of  the  act  to  the  Royal 
Marines  the  admiralty  is  substituted  for  military  authorities. 

AUTHORITIES. — Simmons,  On  the  Constitution  and  Practice  of 
Courts-Martial;  Clode,  Military  and  Martial  Law,  Stephens, 
Gifford  and  Smith,  Manual  of  Naval  Law  and  Court-Martial  Pro- 
cedure. The  earlier  writers  on  courts-martial  are  Adye  (1796), 
M'Arthur  (1813),  Maltby  (1813,  Boston),  James  (1820),  D'Aguilar 
(1843),  and  Hough,  Precedents  in  Military  Law  (1855). 

COURTNEY,  LEONARD  HENRY  COURTNEY,  BARON  (1832- 
),  English  politician  and  man  of  letters,  eldest  son  of  J.  S. 
Courtney,  a  banker,  was  born  at  Penzance  on  the  6th  of  July 
1832.  At  Cambridge,  Leonard  Courtney  was  second  wrangler 
and  first  Smith's  prizeman,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college, 
St  John's.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1858, 
was  professor  of  political  economy  at  University  College  from 
1872  to  1875,  and  in  December  1876,  after  a  previous  unsuccessful 
attempt,  was  elected  to  parliament  for  Liskeard  in  the  Liberal 
interest.  He  continued  to  represent  the  borough,  and  the 
district  into  which  it  was  merged  by  the  Reform  Act  of  1885, 
until  1900,  when  his  attitude  towards  the  South  African  War — 
he  was  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  so-called  "  Pro-Boer  "  party — 
compelled  his  retirement.  Until  1885  he  was  a  devoted  adherent 
of  Mr  Gladstone,  particularly  in  finance  and  foreign  affairs. 
In  1880  he  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department, 
in  1881  for  the  colonies,  and  in  1882  secretary  to  the  treasury; 
but  he  was  always  a  stubborn  fighter  for  principle,  and  upon 
finding  that  the  government's  Reform  Bill  in  1884  contained 
no  recognition  of  the  scheme  for  proportional  representation, 
to  which  he  was  deeply  committed,  he  resigned  office.  He 
refused  to  support  Mr  Gladstone's  Home  Rule  Bill  in  1885,  and 
was  one  of  those  who  chiefly  contributed  to  its  rejection,  and 
whose  reputation  for  unbending  integrity  and  intellectual 
eminence  gave  solidity  to  the  Liberal  Unionist  party.  In  1886 
he  was  elected  chairman  of  committees  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  his  efficiency  in  this  office  seemed  to  mark  him  out  for  the 
speakership  in  1895.  A  Liberal  Unionist,  however,  could  only 
be  elected  by  Conservative  votes,  and  he  had  made  himself 
objectionable  to  a  large  section  of  the  party  by  his  independent 
attitude  on  various  questions,  on  which  his  Liberalism  outweighed 
his  party  loyalty.  He  would  in  any  case  have  been  incapacitated 
by  an  affection  of  the  eyesight,  which  for  a  while  threatened 
to  withdraw  him  from  public  life  altogether.  After  1895  Mr 
Courtney's  divergences  from  the  Unionist  party  on  questions 
other  than  Irish  politics  became  gradually  more  marked.  He 
became  known  in  the  House  of  Commons  principally  for  his 
candid  criticism  of  the  measures  introduced  by  his  nominal 
leaders,  and  he  was  rather  to  be  ranked  among  the  Opposition 
than  as  a  Ministerialist;  and  when  the  crisis  with  the  Transvaal 


COURTOIS— COURVOISIER 


329 


came  in  1899,  Mr  Courtney's  views,  which  remained  substantially 
what  they  were  when  he  supported  the  settlement  after  Majuba 
in  1881,  had  plainly  become  incompatible  with  his  position  even 
as  a  nominal  follower  of  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mr  Chamberlain. 
He  gradually  reverted  to  formal  membership  of  the  Liberal 
party,  and  in  January  1906  unsuccessfully  contested  a  division 
of  Edinburgh  as  a  supporter  of  Sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman 
at  the  general  election.  Among  the  birthday  honours  of  1906 
he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Courtney  of  Penwith 
(Cornwall).  Lord  Courtney,  who  in  1883  married  Miss  Catherine 
Potter  (an  elder  sister  of  Mrs  Sidney  Webb),  was  a  prominent 
supporter  of  the  women's  movement.  In  earlier  years  he  was  a 
regular  contributor  to  The  Times,  and  he  wrote  numerous  essays 
in  the  principal  reviews  on  political  and  economic  subjects. 
In  1901  he  published  a  book  on  The  Working  Constitution  of  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Two  of  his  brothers,  John  Mortimer  Courtney  (b.  1838),  and 
William  Prideaux  Courtney  (b.  1845),  also  attained  public  dis- 
tinction, the  former  in  the  government  service  in  Canada  (from 
1869,  retiring  in  1906),  rising  to  be  deputy-minister  of  finance, 
and  the  latter  in  the  British  civil  service  (1865-1892),  and  as  a 
prominent  man  of  letters  and  bibliographer. 

COURTOIS,  JACQUES  (1621-1676)  and  GUILLAUME  (1628- 
1679).  The  two  French  painters  who  bore  these  names  are  also 
called  by  the  Italian  equivalents  Giacomo  (or  Jacopo)  Cortese 
and  Guglielmo  Cortese.  Each  of  the  brothers  is  likewise  named, 
from  his  native  province,  Le  Bourguignon,  or  II  Borgognone. 

Jacques  Courtois  was  born  at  St  Hippolyte,  near  Besanfon,  in 
1621.  His  father  was  a  painter,  and  with  him  Jacques  remained 
studying  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen.  Towards  1637  he  came  to  Italy, 
was  hospitably  received  at  Milan  by  a  Burgundian  gentleman, 
and  entered,  and  for  three  years  remained  in,  the  French  military 
service.  The  sight  of  some  battle-pictures  revived  his  taste  for 
fine  art.  He  went  to  Bologna,  and  studied  under  the  friendly 
tutelage  of  Guido;  thence  he  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he 
painted,  in  the  Cistercian  monastery,  the  "  Miracle  of  the  Loaves." 
Here  he  took  a  house  and  after  a  while  entered  upon  his  own 
characteristic  style  of  art,  that  of  battle-painting,  in  which  he  has 
been  accounted  to  excel  all  other  old  masters;  his  merits  were 
cordially  recognized  by  the  celebrated  Cerquozzi,  named  Michel- 
angelo delle  Battaglie.  He  soon  rose  from  penury  to  ease,  and 
married  a  painter's  beautiful  daughter,  Maria  Vagini;  she  died 
after  seven  years  of  wedded  life.  Prince  Matthias  of  Tuscany 
employed  Courtois  on  some  striking  works  in  his  villa,  Lappeggio, 
representing  with  much  historical  accuracy  the  prince's  military 
exploits.  In  Venice  also  the  artist  executed  for  the  senator 
Sagredo  some  remarkable  battle-pieces.  In  Florence  he  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  taking  the  habit  in  Rome  in  1655;  it  was 
calumniously  rumoured  that  he  adopted  this  course  in  order  to 
escape  punishment  for  having  poisoned  his  wife.  As  a  Jesuit 
father,  Courtois  painted  many  works  in  churches  and  monasteries 
of  the  society.  He  lived  piously  in  Rome,  and  died  there  of  apo- 
plexy on  the  2oth  of  May  1676  (some  accounts  say  1670  or  1671). 
His  battle-pieces  have  movement  and  fire,  warm  colouring  (now 
too  often  blackened),  and  great  command  of  the  brush, — those  of 
moderate  dimensions  are  the  more  esteemed.  They  are  slight 
in  execution,  and  tell  out  best  from  a  distance.  Courtois  etched 
with  skill  twelve  battle-subjects  of  his  own  composition.  The 
Dantzig  painter  named  in  Italy  Pandolfo  Reschi  was  his  pupil. 

Guillaume  Courtois,  born  likewise  at  St  Hippolyte,  came  to 
Italy  with  his  brother.  He  went  at  once  to  Rome,  and  entered 
the  school  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  studied  also  the  Bolognese 
painters  and  Giovanni  Barbieri,  and  formed  for  himself  a  style 
with  very  little  express  mannerism,  partly  resembling  that  of 
Maratta.  He  painted  the  "  Battle  of  Joshua  "  in  the  Quirinal 
Gallery,  the  "  Crucifixion  of  St  Andrew  "  in  the  church  of  that 
saint  on  Monte  Cavallo,  various  works  for  the  Jesuits,  some  also 
in  co-operation  with  his  brother.  His  last  production  was 
Christ  admonishing  Martha.  His  draughtsmanship  is  better  than 
that  of  Jacques,  whom  he  did  not,  however,  rival  in  spirit, 
colour  or  composition.  He  also  executed  some  etchings. 
Guillaume  Courtois  died  of  gout  on  the  isth  of  June  1679. 


COURTRAI  (Flemish,  Kortryk),  an  important  and  once  famous 
town  of  West  Flanders,  Belgium,  situated  on  the  Lys.  Pop. 
(1904)  34,564.  It  is  now  best  known  for  its  fine  linen,  which 
ranks  with  that  of  Larne.  The  lace  factories  are  also  important 
and  employ  5000  hands.  But  considerable  as  is  the  prosperity  of 
modern  Courtrai  it  is  but  a  shadow  of  what  it  was  in  the  middle 
ages  during  the  halcyon  period  of  the  Flemish  communes.  Then 
Courtrai  had  a  population  of  200,000,  now  it  is  little  over  a  sixth 
of  that  number.  On  the  nth  of  July  1302  the  great  battle  of 
Courtrai  (see  INFANTRY)  was  fought  outside  its  walls,  when  the 
French  army,  under  the  count  of  Artois,  was  vanquished  by  the 
allied  burghers  of  Bruges,  Ypres  and  Courtrai  with  tremendous 
loss.  As  many  as  700  pairs  of  golden  spurs  were  collected  on  the 
field  from  the  bodies  of  French  knights  and  hung  up  as  an 
offering  in  an  abbey  church  of  the  town,  which  has  long  dis- 
appeared. There  are  still,  however,  some  interesting  remains  of 
Courtrai's  former  grandeur.  Perhaps  the  Pont  de  Broel,  with  its 
towers  at  either  end  of  the  bridge,  is  as  characteristic  and 
complete  as  any  monument  of  ancient  Flanders  that  has  come 
down  to  modern  times.  The  h6tel  de  ville,  which  dated  from  the 
earlier  half  of  the  i6th  century,  was  restored  in  1846,  and  since 
then  statues  have  also  been  added  to  represent  those  that 
formerly  ornamented  the  facade.  Two  richly  and  elaborately 
carved  chimney-pieces  in  the  h6tel  de  ville  merit  special  notice. 
The  one  in  the  council  chamber  upstairs  dates  from  1527  and 
gives  an  allegorical  representation  of  the  Virtues  and  the  Vices. 
The  other,  three-quarters  of  a  century  later,  contains  an  heraldic 
representation  of  the  noble  families  of  the  town.  The  church  of 
St  Martin  dates  from  the  15th  century,  but  was  practically 
destroyed  in  1862  by  a  fire  caused  by  lightning.  It  has  been 
restored.  The  most  important  building  at  Courtrai  is  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame,  which  was  begun  by  Count  Baldwin  IX.  in  1191 
and  finished  in  1 2 1 1 .  The  portal  and  the  choir  were  reconstructed 
in  the  i8th  century.  In  the  chapel  behind  the  choir  is  hung  one 
of  Van  Dyck's  masterpieces,  "  The  Erection  of  the  Cross."  The 
chapel  of  the  counts  attached  to  the  church  dates  from  1373,  and 
contained  mural  paintings  of  the  counts  and  countesses  of 
Flanders  down  to  the  merging  of  the  title  in  the  house  of 
Burgundy.  Most  if  not  all  of  these  had  become  obliterated,  but 
they  have  now  been  carefully  restored.  With  questionable 
judgment  portraits  have  been  added  of  the  subsequent  holders  of 
the  title  down  to  the  emperor  Francis  II.  (I.  of  Austria),  the  last 
representative  of  the  houses  of  Flanders  and  Burgundy  to  rule 
in  the  Netherlands.  Courtrai  celebrated  the  6ooth  anniversary 
of  the  battle  mentioned  above  by  erecting  a  monument  on  the 
field  in  1902,  and  also  by  fetes  and  historical  processions  that 
continued  for  a  fortnight. 

Courtrai,  the  Cortracum  of  the  Romans,  ranked  as  a  town  from 
the  7th  century  onwards.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Normans,  but 
was  rebuilt  in  the  loth  century  by  Baldwin  III.  of  Flanders, 
who  endowed  it  with  market  rights  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
its  industrial  importance  by  inviting  the  settlement  of  foreign 
weavers.  The  town  was  once  more  burnt,  in  1382,  by  the  French 
after  the  battle  of  Roosebeke,  but  was  rebuilt  in  1385  by  Philip 
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy. 

COURVOISIER,  JEAN  JOSEPH  ANTOINE  (1775-1835), 
French  magistrate  and  politician,  was  born  at  Besancon  on  the 
30th  of  November  1775.  During  the  revolutionary  period  he 
left  the  country  and  served  in  the  army  of  the  tmigres  and  later 
in  that  of  Austria.  In  1801,  under  the  Consulate,  he  returned 
to  France  and  established  himself  as  an  advocate  at  Besancon, 
being  appointed  conseiller-auditeur  to  the  court  of  appeal  there  in 
1808.  At  the  Restoration  he  was  made  advocate-general  by 
Louis  XVIII.,  resigned  and  left  France  during  the  Hundred  Days, 
and  was  reappointed  after  the  second  Restoration  in  1815.  In 
1817,  after  the  modification  of  the  constitution  by  the  ordonnance 
of  the  5th  of  September,  he  was  returned  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  where  he  attached  himself  to  the  left  centre  and 
supported  the  moderate  policy  of  Richelieu  and  Decazes.  He 
was  an  eloquent  speaker,  and  master  of  many  subjects;  and  his 
proved  royalism  made  it  impossible  for  the  ultra-Royalists  to 
discredit  him,  much  as  they  resented  his  consistent  opposition  to 


330 


COUSCOUS— COUSIN,  V. 


their  short-sighted  violence.  After  the  revolt  at  Lyons  in  1817  he 
was  nominated  procureur-general  of  the  city,  and  by  his  sense 
and  moderation  did  much  to  restore  order  and  confidence.  He 
was  again  a  member  of  the  chamber  from  1819  to  1824,  and 
vigorously  opposed  the  exceptional  legislation  which  the  second 
administration  of  Richelieu  passed  under  the  influence  of  the 
ultra-Royalists.  In  1824  he  failed  to  secure  re-election,  and 
occupied  himself  with  his  judicial  duties  until  his  nomination  as 
councillor  of  state  in  1827.  On  the  8th  of  August  1829  he 
accepted  the  offer  of  the  portfolio  of  justice  in  the  Polignac 
ministry,  but  resigned  on  the  igth  of  May  1830,  when  he  realized 
that  the  government  intended  to  abrogate  the  Charter  and  the 
inevitable  revolution  that  would  follow.  During  the  trial  of  the 
ex-ministers,  in  December,  he  was  summoned  as  a  witness,  and 
paid  a  tribute  to  the  character  of  his  former  colleagues  which, 
under  the  circumstances,  argued  no  little  courage.  He  refused 
to  take  office  under  Louis  Philippe,  and  retired  into  private  life, 
dying  on  the  i8th  of  September  1835. 

COUSCOUS,  or  KOUS-KOUS  (an  Arabic  word  derived  from 
kaskasa,  to  pound),  a  dish  common  among  the  inhabitants  of 
North  Africa,  made  of  flour  rubbed  together  and  steamed  over 
a  stew  of  mutton,  fowl,  &c.,  with  which  it  is  eaten. 

COUSIN,  JEAN  (1500-1590),  French  painter,  was  born  at 
Soucy,  near  Sens,  and  began  as  a  glass-painter,  his  windows  in 
the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Vincennes  being  considered  the  finest  in 
France.  As  a  painter  of  subject  pictures  he  is  ranked  as  the 
founder  of  the  French  school,  as  having  first  departed  from  the 
practice  of  portraits.  His  "  Last  Judgment,"  influenced  by 
Parmigiano,  is  in  the  Louvre,  and  a  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  " 
(1523)  in  the  museum  at  Mainz  is  attributed  to  him.  He  was 
known  also  as  a  sculptor,  and  an  engraver,  both  in  etching  and 
on  wood,  his  wood-cuts  for  Jean  le  Clerc's  Bible  (1596)  and 
other  books  being  his  best-known  work.  He  also  wrote  a  Livre 
de  perspective  (1560),  and  a  Livre  de  portraiture  (1571). 

See  Ambroise  Firmin-Didot,  £,tude  sur  J.  Cousin  (1872),  and 
Recueil  des  auvres  choisies  de  J.  Cousin  (1873). 

COUSIN,  VICTOR  (1792-1867),  French  philosopher,  the  son 
of  a  watchmaker,  was  born  in  Paris,  in  the  Quartier  St  Antoine, 
on  the  28th  of  November  1792.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent 
to  the  grammar  school  of  the  Quartier  St  Antoine,  the  Lycee 
Charlemagne.  Here  he  studied  until  he  was  eighteen.  The 
lycee  had  a  connexion  with  the  university,  and  when  Cousin 
left  the  secondary  school  he  was  "  crowned  "  in  the  ancient  hall 
of  the  Sorbonne  for  the  Latin  oration  delivered  by  him  there, 
in  the  general  concourse  of  his  school  competitors.  The  classical 
training  of  the  lycee  strongly  disposed  him  to  literature.  He 
was  already  known  among  his  compeers  for  his  knowledge  of 
Greek.  From  the  lycee  he  passed  to  the  Normal  School  of  Paris, 
where  Laromiguiere  was  then  lecturing  on  philosophy.  In 
the  second  preface  to  the  Fragmens  philosophiques,  in  which 
he  candidly  states  the  varied  philosophical  influences  of  his  life, 
Cousin  speaks  of  the  grateful  emotion  excited  by  the  memory 
of  the  day  in  1811,  when  he  heard  Laromiguiere  for  the  first 
time.  "  That  day  decided  my  whole  life.  Laromiguiere  taught 
the  philosophy  of  Locke  and .  Condillac,  happily  modified  on 
some  points,  with  a  clearness  and  grace  which  in  appearance 
at  least  removed  difficulties,  and  with  a  charm  of  spiritual 
bonhomie  which  penetrated  and  subdued."  Cousin  was  set 
forthwith  to  lecture  on  philosophy,  and  he  speedily  obtained 
the  position  of  master  of  conferences  (maitre  de  conferences)  in 
the  school.  The  second  great  philosophical  impulse  of  his  life 
was  the  teaching  of  Royer-Collard.  This  teacher,  as  he  tells 
us,  "  by  the' severity  of  his  logic,  the  gravity  and  weight  of  his 
words,  turned  me  by  degrees,  and  not  without  resistance,  from 
the  beaten  path  of  Condillac  into  the  way  which  has  since 
become  so  easy,  but  which  was  then  painful  and  unfrequented, 
that  of  the  Scottish  philosophy."  In  1815-1816  Cousin  attained 
the  position  of  suppleant  (assistant)  to  Royer-Collard  in  the 
history  of  modern  philosophy  chair  of  the  faculty  of  letters. 
There  was  still  another  thinker  who  influenced  him  at  this  early 
period, — Maine  de  Biran,  whom  Cousin  regarded  as  the  un- 
equalled psychological  observer  of  his  time  in  France. 


These  men  strongly  influenced  both  the  method  and  the 
matter  of  Cousin's  philosophical  thought.  To  Laromiguiere 
he  attributes  the  lesson  of  decomposing  thought,  even  though 
the  reduction  of  it  to  sensation  was  inadequate.  Royer-Collard 
taught  him  that  even  sensation  is  subject  to  certain  internal 
laws  and  principles  which  it  does  not  itself  explain,  which  are 
superior  to  analysis  and  the  natural  patrimony  of  the  mind. 
De  Biran  made  a  special  study  of  the  phenomena  of  the  will. 
He  taught  him  to  distinguish-  in  all  cognitions,  and  especially 
in  the  simplest  facts  of  consciousness,  the  fact  of  voluntary 
activity,  that  activity  in  which  our  personality  is  truly  revealed. 
It  was  through  this  "  triple  discipline,"  as  he  calls  it,  that 
Cousin's  philosophical  thought  was  first  developed,  and  that 
in  1815  he  Centered  on  the  public  teaching  of  philosophy  in  the 
Normal  School  and  in  the  faculty  of  letters.1  He  then  took  up 
the  study  of  German,  worked  at  Kant  and  Jacobi,  and  sought 
to  master  the  Philosophy  of  Nature  of  Schelling,  by  which  he 
was  at  first  greatly  attracted.  The  influence  of  Schelling  may  be 
observed  very  markedly  in  the  earlier  form  of  his  philosophy. 
He  sympathized  with  the  principle  of  faith  of  Jacobi,  but  re- 
garded it  as  arbitrary  so  long  as  it  was  not  recognized  as  grounded 
in  reason.  In  1817  he  went  to  Germany,  and  met  Hegel  at 
Heidelberg.  In  this  year  appeared  Hegel's  Encyclopadie  der 
philosophischen  Wissenschaften,  of  which  Cousin  had  one  of  the 
earliest  copies.  He  thought  Hegel  not  particularly  amiable, 
but  the  two  became  friends.  The  following  year  Cousin  went  to 
Munich,  where  he  met  Schelling  for  the  first  time,  and  spent  a 
month  with  him  and  Jacobi,  obtaining  a  deeper  insight  into  the 
Philosophy  of  Nature. 

The  political  troubles  of  France  interfered  for  a  time  with 
his  career.  In  the  events  of  1814-1815  he  took  the  royalist  side. 
He  at  first  adopted  the  views  of  the  party  known  as 
doctrinaire,  of  which  Royer-Collard  was  the  philo-  trouble*. 
sophical  chief.  He  seems  then  to  have  gone  farther 
than  his  party,  and  even  to  have  approached  the  extreme  Left. 
Then  came  a  reaction  against  liberalism,  and  in  1821-1822 
Cousin  was  deprived  of  his  offices  alike  in  the  faculty  of  letters 
and  in  the  Normal  School.  The  Normal  School  itself  was  swept 
away,  and  Cousin  shared  at  the  hands  of  a  narrow  and  illiberal 
government  the  fate  of  Guizot,  who  was  ejected  from  the  chair 
of  history.  This  enforced  abandonment  of  public  teaching  was 
not  wholly  an  evil.  He  set  out  for  Germany  with  a  view  to 
further  philosophical  study.  While  at  Berlin  in  1824-1825  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  either  on  some  ill-defined  political 
charge  at  the  instance  of  the  French  police,  or  on  account  of 
certain  incautious  expressions  which  he  had  let  fall  in  conversa- 
tion. Liberated  after  six  months,  he  continued  under  the 
suspicion  of  the  French  government  for  three  years.  It  was 
during  this  period,  however,  that  he  thought  out  and  developed 
what  is  distinctive  in  his  philosophical  doctrine.  His  eclecticism, 
his  ontology  and  his  philosophy  of  history  were  declared  in 
principle  and  in  most  of  their  salient  details  in  the  Fragmens 
philosophiques  (Paris,  1826).  The  preface  to  the  Frag- 
second  edition  (1833)  and  the  Avertissement  to  the  mens 
third  (1838)  aimed  at  a  vindication  of  his  principles  phiioso- 
against  contemporary  criticism.  Even  the  best  of  his  P*'fl"es- 
later  books,  the  Philosophie  ecossaise  (4th  ed.,  1863),  the  Du 
vrai,  du  beau,  et  du  bien  (i2th  ed.,  1872;  Eng.  trans.,  3rd  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1854),  and  the  Philosophie  de  Locke  (4th  ed.,  1861) 
were  simply  matured  revisions  of  his  lectures  during  the  period 
from  1815  to  1820.  The  lectures  on  Locke  were  first  sketched 
in  1819,  and  fully  developed  in  the  course  of  1829. 

During  the  seven  years  of  enforced  abandonment  of  teaching 
he  produced,  besides  the  Fragmens,  the  edition  of  the  works 
of  Proclus  (6  vols.,  1820-1827),  and  the  works  of  Descartes 
(n  vols.,  1826).  He  also  commenced  his  Translation  of  Plato 
(13  vols.),  which  occupied  his  leisure  time  from  1825  to  1840. 

We  see  in  the  Fragmens  very  distinctly  the  fusion  of  the 

different  philosophical  influences  by  which  .his  opinions  were 

finally  matured.     For  Cousin  was  as  eclectic  in  thought  and  habit 

of  mind  as  he  was  in  philosophical  principle  and  system.     It  is 

1  Fragmens  philosophiques — preface  aeuxieme. 


COUSIN,  V. 


331 


with  the  publication  of  the  Fragment  of  1826  that  the  first  great 
widening  of  his  reputation  is  associated.  In  1827  followed  the 
Cows  de  I'histoire  de  la  philosophic. 

In  1828  M.  de  Vatimesnil,  minister  of  public  instruction  in 
Martignac's  ministry,  recalled  Cousin  and  Guizot  to  their 
professorial  positions  in  the  university.  The  three 
years  which  followed  were  the  period  of  Cousin's 
greatest  triumph  as  a  lecturer.  His  return  to  the 
chair  was  the  symbol  of  the  triumph  of  constitutional  ideas  and 
was  greeted  with  enthusiasm.  The  hall  of  the  Sorbonne  was 
crowded  as  the  hall  of  no  philosophical  teacher  in  Paris  had  been 
since  the  days  of  Abelard.  The  lecturer  had  a  singular  power 
of  identifying  himself  for  the  time  with  the  system  which  he 
expounded  and  the  historical  character  he  portrayed.  Clear 
and  comprehensive  in  the  grasp  of  the  general  outlines  of  his 
subject,  he  was  methodical  and  vivid  in  the  representation  of 
details.  In  exposition  he  had  the  rare  art  of  unfolding  and 
aggrandizing.  There  was  a  rich,  deep-toned,  resonant  eloquence 
mingled  with  the  speculative  exposition;  his  style  of  expression 
was  clear,  elegant  and  forcible,  abounding  in  happy  turns  and 
striking  antitheses.  To  this  was  joined  a  singular  power  of 
rhetorical  climax.  His  philosophy  exhibited  in  a  striking 
manner  the  generalizing  tendency  of  the  French  intellect,  and 
its  logical  need  of  grouping  details  round  central  principles. 

There  was  withal  a  moral  elevation  in  his  spiritual  philosophy 
which  came  home  to  the  hearts  of  his  hearers,  and  seemed  to 
afford  a  ground  for  higher  development  in  national  literature  and 
art,  and  even  in  'politics,  than  the  traditional  philosophy  of 
France  had  appeared  capable  of  yielding.  His  lectures  produced 
more  ardent  disciples,  imbued  at  least  with  his  spirit,  than  those 
of  any  other  professor  of  philosophy  in  France  during  the  i8th 
century.  Tested  by  the  power  and  effect  of  his  teaching  influence, 
Cousin  occupies  a  foremost  place  in  the  rank  of  professors  of 
philosophy,  who  like  Jacobi,  Schelling  and  Dugald  Stewart 
have  united  the  gifts  of  speculative,  expository  and  imaginative 
power.  Tested  even  by  the  strength  of  the  reaction  which  his 
writings  have  in  some  cases  occasioned,  his  influence  is  hardly  less 
remarkable.  The  taste  for  philosophy — especially  its  history — 
was  revived  in  France  to  an  extent  unknown  since  the  lyth 
century. 

Among  the  men  who  were  influenced  by  Cousin  we  may  note 
T.  S.  Jouffroy,  J.  P.  Damiron,  Gamier,  J.  Barthelemy  St  Hilaire, 
F.  Ravaisson-Mollien,  Remusat,  Jules  Simon  and 
A.  Franck.  Jouffroy  and  Damiron  were  first  fellow- 
foiiowen.  students  and  then  disciples.  Jouffroy,  however, 
always  kept  firm  to  the  early — the  French  and 
Scottish — impulses  of  Cousin's  teaching.  Cousin  continued  to 
lecture  regularly  for  two  years  and  a  half  after  his  return  to  the 
chair.  Sympathizing  with  the  revolution  of  July,  he  was  at  once 
recognized  by  the  new  government  as  a  friend  of  national  liberty. 
Writing  in  June  1833  he  explains  both  his  philosophical  and  his 
political  position: — 

"  I  had  the  advantage  of  holding  united  against  me  for  many 
years  both  the  sensational  and  the  theological  school.  In  1830 
both  schools  descended  into  the  arena  of  politics.  The  sensational 
school  quite  naturally  produced  the  demagogic  party,  and  the  theo- 
logical school  became  quite  as  naturally  absolutism,  safe  to  borrow 
from  time  to  time  the  mask  of  the  demagogue  in  order  the  better 
to  reach  its  ends,  as  in  philosophy  it  is  by  scepticism  that  it  under- 
takes to  restore  theocracy.  On  the  other  hand,  he  who  combated 
any  exclusive  principle  in  science  was  bound  to  reject  also  any  exclu- 
sive principle  in  the  state,  and  to  defend  representative  government." 

The  government  was  not  slow  to  do  him  honour.  He  was 
induced  by  the  ministry  of  which  his  friend  Guizot  was  the  head 
to  become  a  member  of  the  council  of  public  instruction  and 
counsellor  of  state,  and  in  1832  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France. 
He  ceased  to  lecture,  but  retained  the  title  of  professor  of 
philosophy.  Finally,  he  accepted  the  position  of  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  1840  under  Thiers.  He  was  besides  director 
of  the  Normal  School  and  virtual  head  of  the  university,  and  from 
1840  a  member  of  the  Institute  (Academy  of  the  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences).  His  character  and  his  official  position  at  this 
period  gave  him  great  power  in  the  university  and  in  the  educa- 


tional arrangements  of  the  country.  In  fact,  during  the  seventeen 
and  a  half  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  Cousin  mainly 
moulded  the  philosophical  and  even  the  literary  tendencies  of  the 
cultivated  class  in  France. 

But  the  most  important  work  he  accomplished  during  this 
period  was  the  organization  of  primary  instruction.  It  was  to  the 
efforts  of  Cousin  that  France  owed  her  advance,  in  Relation  to 
primary  education,  between  1830  and  1848.  Prussia  primary 
and  Saxony  had  set  the  national  example,  and  France  ettu^tlo° 
was  guided  into  it  by  Cousin.  Forgetful  of  national 
calamity  and  of  personal  wrong,  he  looked  to  Prussia  as  affording 
the  best  example  of  an  organized  system  of  national  education; 
and  he  was  persuaded  that  "  to  carry  back  the  education  of 
Prussia  into  France  afforded  a  nobler  (if  a  bloodless)  triumph 
than  the  trophies  of  Austerlitz  and  Jena."  In  the  summer  of 
1831,  commissioned  by  the  government,  he  visited  Frankfort  and 
Saxony,  and  spent  some  time  in  Berlin.  The  result  was  a  series 
of  reports  to  the  minister,  afterwards  published  as  Rapport  stir 
Vital  de  V instruction  publique  dans  quelques  pays  de  I'Allemagne 
et  parliculierement  en  Prusse.  (Compare  also  De  I'instruction 
publique  en  Hollande,  1837.)  His  views  were  readily  accepted  on 
his  return  to  France,  and  soon  afterwards  through  his  influence 
there  was  passed  the  law  of  primary  instruction.  (See  his 
Expose  des  motifs  et  projet  de  lot  sur  I' instruction  primaire, 
presentes  a  la  chambre  des  deputes,  seance  du  2  Janvier  1833.) 

In  the  words  of  the  Edinburgh  Review  (July  1833),  these 
documents  "  mark  an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  national  education, 
and  are  directly  conducive  to  results  important  not  only  to 
France  but  to  Europe."  The  Report  was  translated  into  English 
by  Mrs  Sarah  Austin  in  1834.  The  translation  was  frequently 
reprinted  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  legislatures  of 
New  Jersey  and  Massachusetts  distributed  it  in  the  schools  at 
the  expense  of  the  states.  Cousin  remarks  that,  among  all  the 
literary  distinctions  which  he  had  received,  "  None  has  touched 
me  more  than  the  title  of  foreign  member  of  the  American 
Institute  for  Education."  To  the  enlightened  views  of  the 
ministries  of  Guizot  and  Thiers  under  the  citizen-king,  and  to  the 
zeal  and  ability  of  Cousin  in  the  work  of  organization,  France 
owes  what  is  best  in  her  system  of  primary  education, — a  national 
interest  which  had  been  neglected  under  the  Revolution,  the 
Empire  and  the  Restoration  (see  Expose,  p.  17).  In  the  first  two 
years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  more  was  done  for  the 
education  of  the  people  than  had  been  either  sought  or  accom- 
plished in  all  the  history  of  France.  In  defence  of  university 
studies  he  stood  manfully  forth  in  the  chamber  of  peers  in  1844, 
against  the  clerical  party  on  the  one  hand  and  the  levelling 
or  Philistine  party  on  the  other.  His  speeches  on  this  occasion 
were  published  in  a  tractate  Defense  de  I'universite  et  de  la 
philosophic  (1844  and  1845). 

This  period  of  official  life  from  1830  to  1848  was  spent,  so  far  as 
philosophical  study  was  concerned,  in  revising  his  former  lectures 
and  writings,  in  maturing  them  for  publication  or 
reissue,  and  in  research  into  certain  periods  of  the  ^^, 
history  of  philosophy.  In  1835  appeared  De  la  writings. 
Mttaphysique  d'Aristote,  suivi  d'un  essai  de  traduction 
des  deux  premiers  livres;  in  1836,  Cours  de  philosophic  professt  a 
lafaculte  des  lettres  pendant  I'annee  1818,  and  Outrages  inldits 
d  Abelard.  This  Cours  de  philosophic  appeared  later  in  1854  as 
Du  vrai,  du  beau,  et  du  bien.  From  1825  to  1840  appeared 
Cours  de  I'histoire  de  la  philosophic,  in  1829  Manuel  de  I'histoire  de 
la  philosophic  de  Tennemann,  translated  from  the  German.  In 
1840-1841  we  have  Cours  d'histoire  de  la  philosophic  morale  au 
XVIII'  siecle  (5  vols.).  In  1841  appeared  his  edition  of  the 
(Euvres  philosophiques  de  Maine-de-Biran;  in  1842,  Lemons  de 
philosophic  sur  Kant  (Eng.  trans.  A.  G.  Henderson,  1854),  and  in 
the  same  year  Des  Pensies  de  Pascal.  The  Nouveaux  fragments 
were  gathered  together  and  republished  in  1847.  Later,  in  1859, 
appeared  Petri  Abaelardi  Opera. 

During  this  period  Cousin  seems  to  have  turned  with  fresh 
interest  to  those  literary  studies  which  he  had  abandoned  for 
speculation  under  the  influence  of  Laromiguiere  and  Royer- 
Collard.  To  this  renewed  interest  we  owe  his  studies  of  men 


332 


COUSIN,  V. 


and  women  of  note  in  France  in  the  I7th  century.  As  the  results 
of  his  work  in  this  line,  we  have,  besides  the  Des  Pensees  de 
Pascal,  1842,  Etudes  sur  les  femmes  et  la  societe  du 
X  VII'  siecle,  1853.  He  has  sketched  Jacqueline  Pascal 
(1844),  Madame  de  Longueville  (1853),  the  marquise  de 
Sable  (1854),  the  duchesse  de  Chevreuse  (1856),  Madame  de 
Hautefort  (1856). 

When  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  came  to  a  close  through  the 
opposition  of  his  ministry,  with  Guizot  at  its  head,  to  the  demand 
for  electoral  reform  and  through  the  policy  of  the  Spanish 
marriages,  Cousin,  who  was  opposed  to  the  government  on  these 
points,  lent  his  sympathy  to  Cavaignac  and  the  Provisional 
government.  He  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  Justice  et 
charite,  the  purport  of  which  showed  the  moderation  of  his 
political  views.  It  was  markedly  anti-socialistic.  But  from  this 
period  he  passed  almost  entirely  from  public  life,  and  ceased  to 
wield  the  personal  influence  which  he  had  done  during  the 
preceding  years.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  2nd  of  December, 
he  was  deprived  of  his  position  as  permanent  member  of  the 
superior  council  of  public  instruction.  From  Napoleon  and  the 
Empire  he  stood  aloof.  A  decree  of  1852  placed  him  along  with 
Guizot  and  Villemain  in  the  rank  of  honorary  professors.  His 
sympathies  were  apparently  with  the  monarchy,  under  certain 
constitutional  safeguards.  Speaking  in  1853  of  the  political 
issues  of  the  spirituan  philosophy  which  he  had  taught  during  his 
lifetime,  he  says, — ')  It  conducts  human  societies  to  the  true 
republic,  that  dream  of  all  generous  souls,  which  in  our  time  can 
be  realized  in  Europe  only  by  constitutional  monarchy."1 

During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  occupied  a  suite  of  rooms  in 
the  Sorbonne,  where  he  lived  simply  and  unostentatiously.  The 
chief  feature  of  the  rooms  was  his  noble  library,  the  cherished 
collection  of  a  lifetime.  He  died  at  Cannes  on  the  i3th  of 
January  1867,  in  his  sixty-fifth  year.  In  the  front  of  the 
Sorbonne,  below  the  lecture  rooms  of  the  faculty  of  letters,  a 
tablet  records  an  extract  from  his  will,  in  which  he  bequeaths 
his  noble  and  cherished  library  to  the  halls  of  his  professorial 
work  and  triumphs. 

Philosophy. — There  are  three  distinctive  points  in  Cousin's 
philosophy.  These  are  his  method,  the  results  of  his  method, 
and  the  application  of  the  method  and  its  results  to  history, — 
especially  to  the  history  of  philosophy.  It  is  usual  to  speak  of  his 
philosophy  as  eclecticism.  It  is  eclectic  only  in  a  secondary  and 
subordinate  sense.  All  eclecticism  that  is  not  self-condemned 
and  inoperative  implies  a  system  of  doctrine  as  its  basis, — in  fact, 
a  criterion  of  truth.  Otherwise,  as  Cousin  himself  remarks,  it 
is  simply  a  blind  and  useless  syncretism.  And  Cousin  saw  and 
proclaimed  from  an  early  period  in  his  philosophical  teaching  the 
necessity  of  a  system  on  which  to  base  his  eclecticism.  This  is 
indeed  advanced  as  an  illustration  or  confirmation  of  the  truth  of 
his  system, — as  a  proof  that  the  facts  of  history  correspond  to  his 
analysis  of  consciousness.  These  three  points — the  method,  the 
results,  and  the  philosophy  of  history — are  with  him  intimately 
connected;  they  are  developments  in  a  natural  order  of  sequence. 
They  become  in  practice  Psychology,  Ontology  and  Eclecticism 
in  history. 

First,  as  to  method.  On  no  point  has  Cousin  more  strongly 
insisted  than  the  importance  of  method  in  philosophy.  That 
Method  which  he  adopts,  and  the  necessity  of  which  he  so 
strongly  proclaims,  is  the  ordinary  one  of  observation, 
analysis  and  induction.  This  observational  method  Cousin 
regards  as  that  of  the  1 8th  century, — the  method  which  Descartes 
began  and  abandoned,  and  which  Locke  and  Condillac  applied, 
though  imperfectly,  and  which  Reid  and  Kant  used  with  more 
success,  yet  not  completely.  He  insists  that  this  is  the  true 
method  of  philosophy  as  applied  to  consciousness,  in  which 
alone  the  facts  of  experience  appear.  But  the  proper  condition 
of  the  application  of  the  method  is  that  it  shall  not  through 
prejudice  of  system  omit  a  single  fact  of  consciousness.  If  the 
authority  of  consciousness  is  good  in  one  instance,  it  is  good  in  all. 
If  not  to  be  trusted  in  one,  it  is  not  to  be  trusted  in  any.  Previous 
systems  have  erred  in  not  presenting  the  facts  of  consciousness, 
1  Du  vrai,  du  beau,  et  du  bien  (preface). 


i.e.  consciousness  itself,  in  their  totality.  The  observational 
method  applied  to  consciousness  gives  us  the  science  of  psycho- 
logy. This  is  the  basis  and  the  only  proper  basis  of  ontology  or 
metaphysics — the  science  of  being — and  of  the  philosophy  of 
history.  To  the  observation  of  consciousness  Cousin  adds 
induction  as  the  complement  of  his  method,  by  which  he  means 
inference  as  to  reality  necessitated  by  the  data  of  consciousness, 
and  regulated  by  certain  laws  found  in  consciousness,  viz. 
those  of  reason.  By  his  method  of  observation  and  induction  as 
thus  explained,  his  philosophy  will  be  found  to  be  marked  off 
very  clearly,  on  the  one  hand  from  the  deductive  construction  of 
notions  of  an  absolute  system,  as  represented  either  by  Schelling 
or  Hegel,  which  Cousin  regards  as  based  simply  on  hypothesis 
and  abstraction,  illegitimately  obtained;  and  on  the  other, 
from  that  of  Kant,  and  in  a  sense,  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  both  of 
which  in  the  view  of  Cousin  are  limited  to  psychology,  and 
merely  relative  or  phenomenal  knowledge,  and  issue  in  scepticism 
so  far  as  the  great  realities  of  ontology  are  concerned.  What 
Cousin  finds  psychologically  in  the  individual  consciousness,  he 
finds  also  spontaneously  expressed  in  the  common  sense  or 
universal  experience  of  humanity.  In  fact,  it  is  with  him  the 
function  of  philosophy  to  classify  and  explain  universal  con- 
victions and  beliefs;  but  common-sense  is  not  with  him 
philosophy,  nor  is  it  the  instrument  of  philosophy;  it  is 
simply  the  material  on  which  the  philosophical  method  works, 
and  in  harmony  with  which  its  results  must  ultimately  be  found. 

The  three  great  results  of  psychological  observation  Results 
are  Sensibility,  Activity  or  Liberty,  and  Reason. 

These  three  facts  are  different  in  character,  but  are  not  found 
apart  in  consciousness.  Sensations,  or  the  facts  of  the  sensibility, 
are  necessary;  we  do  not  impute  them  to  ourselves.  The  facts  of 
reason  are  also  necessary,  and  reason  is  not  less  independent  of 
the  will  than  the  sensibility.  Voluntary  facts  alone  are  marked 
in  the  eyes  of  consciousness  with  the  characters  of  imputability 
and  personality.  The  will  alone  is  the  person  or  Me.  The  me 
is  the  centre  of  the  intellectual  sphere  without  which  conscious- 
ness is  impossible.  We  find  ourselves  in  a  strange  world,  between 
two  orders  of  phenomena  which  do  not  belong  to  us,  which  we 
apprehend  only  on  the  condition  of  our  distinguishing  ourselves 
from  them.  Further,  we  apprehend  by  means  of  a  light  which 
does  not  come  from  ourselves.  All  light  comes  from  the  reason, 
and  it  is  the  reason  which  apprehends  both  itself  and  the  sensi- 
bility which  envelops  it,  and  the  will  which  it  obliges  but  does  not 
constrain.  Consciousness,  then,  is  composed  of  these  three 
integrant  and  inseparable  elements.  But  Reason  is  the  im- 
mediate ground  of  knowledge  and  of  consciousness  itself. 

But  there  is  a  peculiarity  in  Cousin's  doctrine  of  activity  or 
freedom,  and  in  his  doctrine  of  reason,  which  enters  deeply  into 
his  system.  This  is  the  element  of  spontaneity  in 
volition  and  in  reason.  This  is  the  heart  of  what  is 
new  alike  in  his  doctrine  of  knowledge  and  being.  ia  will. 
Liberty  or  freedom  is  a  generic  term  which  means  a 
cause  or  being  endowed  with  self-activity.  This  is  to  itself  and 
its  own  development  its  own  ultimate  cause.  Free-will  is  so, 
although  it  is  preceded  by  deliberation  and  determination,  i.e. 
reflection,  for  we  are  always  conscious  that  even  after  determina- 
tion we  are  free  to  will  or  not  to  will.  But  there  is  a  primary  kind 
of  volition  which  has  not  reflection  for  its  condition,  which  is  yet 
free  and  spontaneous.  We  must  have  willed  thus  spontaneously 
first,  otherwise  we  could  not  know,  before  our  reflective  volition, 
that  we  could  will  and  act.  Spontaneous  volition  is  free  as 
reflective,  but  it  is  the  prior  act  of  the  two.  This  view  of  liberty 
of  will  is  the  only  one  in  accordance  with  the  facts  of  humanity; 
it  excludes  reflective  volition,  and  explains  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
poet  and  the  artist  in  the  act  of  creation;  it  explains  also  the 
ordinary  actions  of  mankind,  which  are  done  as  a  rule  spon- 
taneously and  not  after  reflective  deliberation. 

But  it  is  in  his  doctrine  of  the  Reason  that  the  distinctive 
principle  of  the  philosophy  of  Cousin  lies.  The  reason  given  to 
us  by  psychological  observation,  the  reason  of  our  consciousness, 
is  impersonal  in  its  nature.  We  do  not  make  it;  its  character 
is  precisely  the  opposite  of  individuality;  it  is  universal  and 


COUSIN,  V. 


333 


Laws  of 
reason. 


necessary.  The  recognition  of  universal  and  necessary  principles 
in  knowledge  is  the  essential  point  in  psychology;  it  ought  to 
be  put  first  and  emphasized  to  the  last  that  these 
'aJi?e'o°''~  ex^st'  an<*  tnat  tney  are  wholly  impersonal  or  absolute. 
reason.  The  number  of  these  principles,  their  enumeration 
and  classification,  is  an  important  point,  but  it  is 
secondary  to  that  of  the  recognition  of  their  true  nature.  This 
was  the  point  which  Kant  missed  in  his  analysis,  and  this  is  the 
fundamental  truth  which  Cousin  thinks  he  has  restored  to  the 
integrity  of  philosophy  by  the  method  of  the  observation  of 
consciousness.  And  how  is  this  impersonality  or  absoluteness  of 
the  conditions  of  knowledge  to  be  established  ?  The  answer  is  in 
substance  that  Kant  went  wrong  in  putting  necessity  first  as  the 
criterion  of  those  laws.  This  brought  them  within  the  sphere  of 
reflection,  and  gave  as  their  guarantee  the  impossibility  of 
thinking  them  reversed;  and  led  to  their  being  regarded  as 
wholly  relative  to  human  intelligence,  restricted  to  the  sphere  of 
the  phenomenal,  incapable  of  revealing  to  us  substantial  reality — 
necessary,  yet  subjective.  But  this  test  of  necessity  is  a  wholly 
secondary  one;  these  laws  are  not  thus  guaranteed  to  us;  they 
are  each  and  all  given  to  us,  given  to  our  consciousness,  in  an 
act  of  spontaneous  apperception  or  apprehension,  immediately, 
instantaneously,  in  a  sphere  above  the  reflective  consciousness, 
yet  within  the  reach  of  knowledge.  And  "  all  subjectivity  with 
all  reflection  expires  in  the  spontaneity  of  apperception.  The 
reason  becomes  subjective  by  relation  to  the  voluntary  and  free 
self;  but  in  itself  it  is  impersonal;  it  belongs  not  to  this  or  to  that 
self  in  humanity;  it  belongs  not  even  to  humanity.  We  may  say 
with  truth  that  nature  and  humanity  belong  to  it,  for  without 
its  laws  both  would  perish." 

But  what  is  the  number  of  those  laws?  Kant  reviewing  the 
enterprise  of  Aristotle  in  modern  times  has  given  a  complete  list 
of  the  laws  of  thought,  but  it  is  arbitrary  in  classifica- 
tion and  may  be  legitimately  reduced.  According  to 
Cousin,  there  are  but  two  primary  laws  of  thought,  that 
of  causality  and  that  of  substance.  From  these  flow  naturally 
all  the  others.  In  the  order  of  nature,  that  of  substance  is  the 
first  and  causality  second.  In  the  order  of  acquisition  of  our 
knowledge,  causality  precedes  substance,  or  rather  both  are  given 
us  in  each  other,  and  are  contemporaneous  in  consciousness. 

These  principles  of  reason,  cause  and  substance,  given  thus 
psychologically,  enable  us  to  pass  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
relative  and  subjective  to  objective  and  absolute  reality, — enable 
us,  in  a  word,  to  pass  from  psychology,  or  the  science  of  know- 
ledge, to  ontology  or  the  science  of  being.  These  laws  are 
inextricably  mixed  in  consciousness  with  the  data  of  volition  and 
sensation,  with  free  activity  and  fatal  action  or  impression,  and 
they  guide  us  in  rising  to  a  personal  being,  a  self  or  free  cause, 
and  to  an  impersonal  reality,  a  not-me — nature,  the  world  of 
force — lying  out  of  us,  and  modifying  us.  As  I  refer  to  myself 
the  act  of  attention  and  volition,  so  I  cannot  but  refer  the 
sensation  to  some  cause,  necessarily  other  than  myself,  that  is, 
to  an  external  cause,  whose  existence  is  as  certain  for  me  as  my 
own  existence,  since  the  phenomenon  which  suggests  it  to  me  is 
as  certain  as  the  phenomenon  which  had  suggested  my  reality, 
and  both  are  given  in  each  other.  I  thus  reach  an  objective 
impersonal  world  of  forces  which  corresponds  to  the  variety  of  my 
sensations.  The  relation  of  these  forces  or  causes  to  each  other 
is  the  order  of  the  universe. 

But  these  two  forces,  the  me  and  the  not-me,  are  reciprocally 

limitative.     As  reason  has  apprehended  these  two  simultaneous 

phenomena,    attention    and    sensation,    and   led    us 

The  immediately  to  conceive  the  two  sorts  of  distinct 

In  finite  or  ,      .  .  11^-^  i.-  i_ 

absolute,  causes,  correlative  and  reciprocally  finite,  to  which 
they  are  related,  so,  from  the  notion  of  this  limitation, 
we  find  it  impossible  under  the  same  guide  not  to  conceive  a 
supreme  cause,  absolute  and  infinite,  itself  the  first  and  last 
cause  of  all.  This  is  relatively  to  self  and  not-self  what  these 
are  to  their  proper  effects.  This  cause  is  self-sufficient,  and 
is  sufficient  for  the  reason.  This  is  God;  he  must  be  conceived 
under  the  notion  of  cause,  related  to  humanity  and  the  world. 
He  is  absolute  substance  only  in  so  far  as  he  is  absolute  cause, 


and  his  essence  lies  precisely  in  his  creative  power.    He  thus 
creates,  and  he  creates  necessarily. 

This  theodicy  of  Cousin  laid  him  open  obviously  enough  to 
the  charge  of  pantheism.  This  he  repels,  and  his  answer  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows.  Pantheism  is  properly  the 
deification  of  the  law  of  phenomena,  the  universe  God. 
But  I  distinguish  the  two  finite  causes  self  and  not-self  /,„,. 
from  each  other  and  from  the  infinite  cause.  They 
are  not  mere  modifications  of  this  cause  or  properties,  as  with 
Spinoza, — they  are  free  forces  having  their  power  or  spring  of 
action  in  themselves,  and  this  is  sufficient  for  our  idea  of 
independent  finite  reality.  I  hold  this,  and  I  hold  the  relation  of 
these  as  effects  to  the  one  supreme  cause.  The  God  I  plead  for 
is  neither  the  deity  of  Pantheism,  nor  the  absolute  unity  of  the 
Eleatics,  a  being  divorced  from  all  possibility  of  creation  or 
plurality,  a  mere  metaphysical  abstraction.  The  deity  I  maintain 
is  creative,  and  necessarily  creative.  The  deity  of  Spinoza  and 
the  Eleatics  is  a  mere  substance,  not  a  cause  in  any  sense.  As 
to  the  necessity  under  which  Deity  exists  of  acting  or  creating, 
this  is  the  highest  form  of  liberty,  it  is  the  freedom  of  spontaneity, 
activity  without  deliberation.  His  action  is  not  the  result  of  a 
struggle  between  passion  and  virtue.  He  is  free  in  an  unlimited 
manner  the  purest  spontaneity  in  man  is  but  the  shadow  of  the 
freedom  of  God.  He  acts  freely  but  not  arbitrarily,  and  with 
the  consciousness  of  being  able  to  choose  the  opposite  part. 
He  cannot  deliberate  or  will  as  we  do.  His  spontaneous  action 
excludes  at  once  the  efforts  and  the  miseries  of  will  and  the 
mechanical  operation  of  necessity. 

The  elements  found  in  consciousness  are  also  to  be  found  in 
the  history  of  humanity  and  in  the  history  of  philosophy.     In 
external  nature  there  are  expansion  and  contraction 
which  correspond  to  spontaneity  and  reflection.     Ex- 
ternal  nature  again  in  contrast  with  humanity  expresses      Sopt>y. 
spontaneity;     humanity     expresses     reflection.     In 
human   history   the   East   represents   the   spontaneous   stage; 
the  Pagan  and  Christian  world  represent  stages  of  reflection. 

This  was  afterwards  modified,  expp.nded  and  more  fully 
expressed  by  saying  that  humanity  in  its  universal  development 
has  three  principal  moments.  First,  in  the  spontaneous  stage, 
where  reflection  is  not  yet  developed,  and  art  is  imperfect, 
humanity  has  thought  only  of  the  immensity  around  it.  It  is 
preoccupied  by  the  infinite.  Secondly,  in  the  reflective  stage, 
mind  has  become  an  object  to  itself.  It  thus  knows  itself  ex- 
plicitly or  reflectively.  Its  own  individuality  is  now  the  only 
or  at  least  the  supreme  thing.  This  is  the  moment  of  the  finite. 
Thirdly,  there  comes  an  epoch  in  which  the  self  or  me  is  sub- 
ordinated. Mind  realizes  another  power  in  the  universe.  The 
finite  and  the  infinite  become  two  real  correlatives  in  the  relation 
of  cause  and  product.  This  is  the  third  and  highest  stage  of 
development,  the  relation  of  the  finite  and  the  infinite.  As 
philosophy  is  but  the  highest  expression  of  humanity,  these  three 
moments  will  be  represented  in  its  history.  The  East  typifies 
the  infinite,  Greece  the  finite  or  reflective  epoch,  the  modern 
era  the  stage  of  relation  or  correlation  of  infinite  and  finite.  In 
theology,  the  dominant  philosophical  idea  of  each  of  these  epochs 
results  in  pantheism,  polytheism,  theism.  In  politics  we  have 
in  correspondence  also  with  the  idea,  monarchy,  democracy, 
constitutionalism. 

Eclecticism  thus  means  the  application  of  the  psychological 
method  to  the  history  of  philosophy.  Confronting  the  various 
systems  co-ordinated  as  sensualism,  idealism,  seep-  mgco. 
ticism,  mysticism,  with  the  facts  of  consciousness,  the  clou' 
result  was  reached  "  that  each  system  expresses  an 
order  of  phenomena  and  ideas,  which  is  in  truth  very  real,  but 
which  is  not  alone  in  consciousness,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
holds  an  almost  exclusive  place  in  the  system;  whence  it 
follows  that  each  system  is  not  false  but  incomplete,  and  that 
in  re-uniting  all  incomplete  systems,  we  should  have  a  complete 
philosophy,  adequate  to  the  totality  of  consciousness."  Philo- 
sophy, as  thus  perfected,  would  not  be  a  mere  aggregation  of 
systems,  as  is  ignorantly  supposed,  but  an  integration  of  the 
truth  in  each  system  after  the  false  or  incomplete  is  discarded. 


334 


COUSIN,  V. 


Such  is  the  system  in  outline.  The  historical  position  of  the 
system  lies  in  its  relations  to  Kant,  Schelling  and  Hegel.  Cousin 
Relations  was  opposed  to  Kant  in  asserting  that  the  uncondi- 
to  Kant,  tioned  in  the  form  of  infinite  or  absolute  cause  is  but 
Schilling  a  mere  unrealizable  tentative  or  effort  on  the  part  of 
ana  Hegel,  ^g  mind,  something  different  from  a  mere  negation, 
yet  not  equivalent  to  a  positive  thought.  With  Cousin  the 
absolute  as  the  ground  of  being  is  grasped  positively  by  the 
intelligence,  and  it  renders  all  else  intelligible;  it  is  not  as  with 
Kant  a  certain  hypothetical  or  regulative  need. 

With  Schelling  again  Cousin  agrees  in  regarding  this  supreme 
ground  of  all  as  positively  apprehended,  and  as  a  source  of 
development,  but  he  utterly  repudiates  Schelling's  method. 
The  intellectual  intuition  either  falls  under  the  eye  of  conscious- 
ness, or  it  does  not.  If  not,  how  do  you  know  it  and  its  object 
which  are  identical?  If  it  does,  it  comes  within  the  sphere  of 
psychology;  and  the  objections  to  it  as  thus  a  relative,  made 
by  Schelling  himself,  are  to  be  dealt  with.  Schelling's  intellectual 
intuition  is  the  mere  negation  of  knowledge. 

Again  the  pure  being  of  Hegel  is  a  mere  abstraction, — a 
hypothesis  illegitimately  assumed,  which  he  has  nowhere  sought 
to  vindicate.  The  very  point  to  be  established  is  the  possibility 
of  reaching  being  per  se  or  pure  being;  yet  in  the  Hegelian 
system  this  is  the  very  thing  assumed  as  a  starting-point.  Besides 
this,  of  course,  objections  might  be  made  to  the  method  of 
development,  as  not  only  subverting  the  principle  of  contradic- 
tion, but  as  galvanizing  negation  into  a  means  of  advancing  or 
developing  the  whole  body  of  human  knowledge  and  reality. 
The  intellectual  intuition  of  Schelling,  as  above  consciousness, 
the  pure  being  of  Hegel,  as  an  empty  abstraction,  unvindicated, 
illegitimately  assumed,  and  arbitrarily  developed,  are  equally 
useless  as  bases  of  metaphysics.  This  led  Cousin,  still  holding 
by  essential  knowledge  of  being,  to  ground  it  in  an  analysis  of 
consciousness, — in  psychology. 

The  absolute  or  infinite — the  unconditioned  ground  and  source 
of  all  reality — is  yet  apprehended  by  us  as  an  immediate  datum 
or  reality;  and  it  is  apprehended  in  consciousness — under  its 
condition,  that,  to  wit,  of  distinguishing  subject  and  object, 
knower  and  known.  The  doctrine  of  Cousin  was  criticized  by 
Sir  W.  Hamilton  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  of  1829,  and  it  was 
animadverted  upon  about  the  same  time  by  Schelling. 
Hamilton's  objections  are  as  follows.  The  correlation  of  the 
ideas  of  infinite  and  finite  does  not  necessarily  imply  their 
correality,  as  Cousin  supposes;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  pre- 
sumption that  finite  is  simply  positive  and  infinite  negative  of 
the  same — that  the  finite  and  infinite  are  simply  contradictory 
relatives.  Of  these  "  the  positive  alone  is  real,  the  negative  is 
only  an  abstraction  of  the  other,  and  in  the  highest  generality 
even  an  abstraction  of  thought  itself."  A  study  of  the  few 
sentences  under  this  head  might  have  obviated  the  trifling 
criticism  of  Hamilton's  objection  which  has  been  set  'afloat 
recently,  that  the  denial  of  a  knowledge  of  the  absolute  or  in- 
finite implies  a  foregone  knowledge  of  it.  How  can  you  deny 
the  reality  of  that  which  you  do  not  know?  The  answer  to  this 
is  that  in  the  case  of  contradictory  statements — A  and  not  A 
— the  latter  is  a  mere  negation  of  the  former,  and  posits  nothing; 
and  the  negation  of  a  notion  with  positive  attributes,  as  the 
finite,  does  not  extend  beyond  abolishing  the  given  attributes  as 
an  object  of  thought.  The  infinite  or  non-finite  is  not  necessarily 
known,  ere  the  finite  is  negated,  or  in  order  to  negate  it;  all  that 
needs  be  known  is  the  finite  itself;  and  the  contradictory 
negation  of  it  implies  no  positive.  Non-organized  may  or  may 
not  correspond  to  a  positive — i.e.  an  object  or  notion  with 
qualities  contradictory  of  the  organized;  but  the  mere  sublation 
of  the  organized  does  not  posit  it,  or  suppose  that  it  is  known 
beforehand,  or  that  anything  exists  corresponding  to  it.  This  is 
one  among  many  flaws  in  the  Hegelian  dialectic,  and  it  paralyzes 
the  whole  of  the  Logic.  Secondly,  the  conditions  of  intelligence, 
which  Cousin  allows,  necessarily  exclude  the  possibility  of  know- 
ledge of  the  absolute— they  are  held  to  be  incompatible  with  its 
unity.  Here  Schelling  and  Hamilton  argue  that  Cousin's  absolute 
is  a  mere  relative.  Thirdly,  it  is  objected  that  in  order  to  deduce 


the  conditioned,  Cousin  makes  his  absolute  a  relative;  for  he 
makes  it  an  absolute  cause,  i.e.  a  cause  existing  absolutely  under 
relation.  As  such  it  is  necessarily  inferior  to  the  sum  total  of  its 
effects,  and  dependent  for  reality  on  these— in  a  word,  a  mere 
potence  or  becoming.  Further,  as  a  theory  of  creation,  it  makes 
creation  a  necessity,  and  destroys  the  notion  of  the  divine. 
Cousin  made  no  reply  to  Hamilton's  criticism  beyond  alleging 
that  Hamilton's  doctrine  necessarily  restricted  human  knowledge 
and  certainty  to  psychology  and  logic,  and  destroyed  meta- 
physics by  introducing  nescience  and  uncertainty  into  its  highest 
sphere — theodicy. 

The  attempt  to  render  the  laws  of  reason  or  thought  impersonal 
by  professing  to  find  them  in  the  sphere  of  spontaneous  appercep- 
tion, and  above  reflective  necessity,  can  hardly  be 
regarded  as  successful.  It  may  be  that  we  first  of  all  Of  M/" 
primitively  or  spontaneously  affirm  cause,  substance, 
time,  space,  &c.,  in  this  way.  But  these  are  still  in 
each  instance  given  us  as  realized  in  a  particular  form. 
In  no  single  act  of  affirmation  of  cause  or  substance, 
much  less  in  such  a  primitive  act,  do  we  affirm  the  universality 
of  their  application.  We  might  thus  get  particular  instances  or 
cases  of  these  laws,  but  we  could  never  get  the  laws  themselves 
in  their  universality,  far  less  absolute  impersonality.  And  as 
they  are  not  supposed  to  be  mere  generalizations  from  experience, 
no  amount  of  individual  instances  of  the  application  of  any  one 
of  them  by  us  would  give  it  a  true  universality.  The  only  sure 
test  we  have  of  their  universality  in  our  experience  is  the  test 
of  their  reflective  necessity.  We  thus  after  all  fall  back  on 
reflection  as  our  ground  for  their  universal  application;  mere 
spontaneity  of  apprehension  is  futile;  their  universality  is 
grounded  in  their  necessity,  not  their  necessity  in  their  uni- 
versality. •  How  far  and  in  what  sense  this  ground  of  necessity 
renders  them  personal  are  of  course  questions  still  to  be  solved. 

But  if  these  three  correlative  facts  are  immediately  given,  it 
seems  to  be  thought  possible  by  Cousin  to  vindicate  them  in 
reflective  consciousness.  He  seeks  to  trace  the  steps  which  the 
reason  has  spontaneously  and  consciously,  but  irreflectively, 
followed.  And  here  the  question  arises — Can  we  vindicate  in  a 
reflective  or  mediate  process  this  spontaneous  apprehension  of 
reality? 

The  self  is  found  to  be  a  cause  of  force,  free  in  its  action,  on  the 
ground  that  we  are  obliged  to  relate  the  volition  of  consciousness 
to  the  self  as  its  cause,  and  its  ultimate  cause.  It  is  not  clear  from 
the  analysis  whether  the  self  is  immediately  observed  as  an  acting 
or  originating  cause,  or  whether  reflection  working  on  the  principle 
of  causality  is  compelled  to  infer  its  existence  and  character.  If 
self  is  actually  so  given,  we  do  not  need  the  principle  of  causality 
to  infer  it;  if  it  is  not  so  given,  causality  could  never  give  us 
either  the  notion  or  the  fact  of  self  as  a  cause  or  force,  far  less 
as  an  ultimate  one.  All  that  it  could  do  would  be  to  warrant 
a  cause  of  some  sort,  but  not  this  or  that  reality  as  the  cause. 
And  further,  the  principle  of  causality,  if  fairly  carried  out,  as 
universal  and  necessary,  would  not  allow  us  to  stop  at  personality 
or  will  as  the  ultimate  cause  of  its  effect — volition.  Once 
applied  to  the  facts  at  all,  it  would  drive  us  beyond  the  first 
antecedent  or  term  of  antecedents  of  volition  to  a  still  further 
cause  or  ground — in  fact,  land  us  in  an  infinite  regress  of  causes. 

The  same  criticism  is  even  more  emphatically  applicable  to 
the  influence  of  a  not-self,  or  world  of  forces,  corresponding  to 
our  sensations,  and  the  cause  of  them.  Starting  from  sensation 
as  our  basis,  causality  could  never  give  us  this,  even  though  it 
be  allowed  that  sensation  is  impersonal  to  the  extent  of  being 
independent  of  our  volition.  Causality  might  tell  us  that  a  cause 
there  is  of  sensation  somewhere  and  of  some  sort;  but  that  this 
cause  is  a  force  or  sum  of  forces,  existing  in  space,  independently 
of  us,  and  corresponding  to  our  sensations,  it  could  never  tell  us, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  such  a  notion  is  not  supposed  to  exist 
in  our  consciousness.  Causality  cannot  add  to  the  number  of 
our  notions, — cannot  add  to  the  number  of  realities  we  know. 
All  it  can  do  is  to  necessitate  us  to  think  that  a  cause  there  is 
of  a  given  change,  but  what  that  cause  is  it  cannot  of  itself  inform 
us,  or  even  suggest  to  us,  beyond  implying  that  it  must  be  adequate 


COUSIN— COUSINS 


335 


to  the  effect.  Sensation  might  arise,  for  aught  we  know,  so  far 
as  causality  leads  us,  not  from  a  world  of  forces  at  all,  but  from 
a  will  like  our  own,  though  infinitely  more  powerful,  acting  upon 
us,  partly  furthering  and  partly  thwarting  us.  And  indeed  such 
a  supposition  is,  with  the  principle  of  causality  at  work,  within 
the  limits  of  probability,  as  we  are  already  supposed  to  know 
such  a  reality — a  will — in  our  own  consciousness.  When  Cousin 
thus  set  himself  to  vjndicate  those  points  by  reflection,  he  gave  up 
the  obvious  advantage  of  his  other  position  that  the  realities  in 
question  are  given  us  in  immediate  and  spontaneous  apprehension. 
The  same  criticism  applies  equally  to  the  inference  of  an  absolute 
cause  from  the  two  limited  forces  which  he  names  self  and  not-self. 
Immediate  spontaneous  apperception  may  seize  this  supreme 
reality;  but  to  vindicate  it  by  reflection  as  an  inference  on  the 
principle  of  causality  is  impossible.  This  is  a  mere  paralogism; 
we  can  never  infer  either  absolute  or  infinite  from-  relative  or 
finite. 

The  truth  is  that  Cousin's  doctrine  of  the  spontaneous  apper- 
ception of  impersonal  truth  amounts  to  little  more  than  a  pre- 
sentment in  philosophical  language  of  the  ordinary  convictions 
and  beliefs  of  mankind.  This  is  important  as  a  preliminary 
stage,  but  philosophy  properly  begins  when  it  attempts  to  co- 
ordinate or  systematize  those  convictions  in  harmony,  to  conciliate 
apparent  contradiction  and  opposition,  as  between  the  correlative 
notions  of  finite  and  infinite,  the  apparently  conflicting  notions 
of  personality  and  infinitude,  self  and  not-self;  in  a  word,  to 
reconcile  the  various  sides  of  consciousness  with  each  other. 
And  whether  the  laws  of  our  reason  are  the  laws  of  all  intelligence 
and  being — whether  and  how  we  are  to  relate  our  fundamental, 
intellectual  and  moral  conceptions  to  what  is  beyond  our 
experience,  or  to  an  infinite  being — are  problems  which  Cousin 
cannot  be  regarded  as  having  solved.  These  are  in  truth  the 
outstanding  problems  of  modern  philosophy. 

Cousin's  doctrine  of  spontaneity  in  volition  can  hardly  be  said 
to  be  more  successful  than  his  impersonality  of  the  reason  through 
spontaneous  apperception.  Sudden,  unpremeditated 
volition  may  be  the  earliest  and  the  most  artistic, 
but  it  is  not  the  best.  Volition  is  essentially  a  free  choice  between 
alternatives,  and  that  is  best  which  is  most  deliberate,  because 
it  is  most  rational.  Aristotle  touched  this  point  in  his  distinction 
between  fiovhjaa  and  xpoaipecns.  The  sudden  and  unpre- 
meditated wish  represented  by  the  former  is  wholly  inferior  in 
character  to  the  free  choice  of  the  latter,  guided  and  illumined 
by  intelligence.  In  this  we  can  deliberately  resolve  upon  what 
is  in  our  power;  in  that  we  are  subject  to  the  vain  impulse  of 
wishing  the  impossible.  Spontaneity  is  pleasing,  sometimes 
beautiful,  but  it  is  not  in  this  instance  the  highest  quality  of 
the  thing  to  be  obtained.  That  is  to  be  found  in  a  guiding  and 
illumining  reflective  activity. 

Eclecticism  is  not  open  to  the  superficial  objection  of  pro- 
ceeding without  a  system  or  test  in  determining  the  complete 
or  incomplete.  But  it  is  open  to  the  objection  of 
estimate,  assuming  that  a  particular  analysis  of  consciousness  has 
reached  all  the  possible  elements  in  humanity  and  in 
history,  and  all  their  combinations.  It  may  be  asked,  Can 
history  have  that  which  is  not  in  the  individual  consciousness? 
In  a  sense  not;  but  our  analysis  may  not  give  all  that  is  there, 
and  we  ought  not  at  once  to  impose  that  analysis  or  any  formula 
on  history.  History  is  as  likely  to  reveal  to  us  in  the  first  place 
true  and  original  elements,  and  combinations  of  elements  in 
man,  as  a  study  of  consciousness.  Besides,  the  tendency  of 
applying  a  formula  of  this  sort  to  history  is  to  assume  that  the 
elements  are  developed  in  a  certain  regular  or  necessary  order, 
whereas  this  may  not  at  all  .be  the  case;  but  we  may  find  at 
any  epoch  the  whole  mixed,  either  crossing  or  co-operative, 
as  in  the  consciousness  of  the  individual  himself.  Further,  the 
question  as  to  how  these  elements  may  possibly  have  grown  up 
in  the  general  consciousness  of  mankind  is  assumed  to  be  non- 
existent or  impossible. 

It  was  the  tendency  of  the  philosophy  of  Cousin  to  outline 
things  and  to  fill  up  the  details  in  an  artistic  and  imaginative 
interest.  This  is  necessarily  the  case,  especially  in  the  application 


to  history  of  all  formulas  supposed  to  be  derived  either  from  an 
analysis  of  consciousness,  or  from  an  abstraction  called  pure 
thought.  Cousin  was  observational  and  generalizing  rather  than 
analytic  and  discriminating.  His  search  into  principles  was  not 
profound,  and  his  power  of  rigorous  consecutive  development 
was  not  remarkable.  He  left  no  distinctive  permanent  principle 
of  philosophy.  But  he  left  very  interesting  psychological 
analyses,  and  several  new,  just,  and  true  expositions  of  philo- 
sophical systems,  especially  that  of  Locke  and  the  philosophers 
of  Scotland.  He  was  at  the  same  time  a  man  of  impressive 
power,  of  rare  and  wide  culture,  and  of  lofty  aim, — far  above 
priestly  conception  and  Philistine  narrowness.  He  was  familiar 
with  the  broad  lines  of  nearly  every  system  of  philosophy  ancient 
and  modern.  His  eclecticism  was  the  proof  of  a  reverential 
sympathy  with  the  struggles  of  human  thought  to  attain  to 
certainty  in  the  highest  problems  of  speculation.  It  was 
eminently  a  doctrine  of  comprehension  and  of  toleration.  In 
these  respects  it  formed  a  marked  and  valuable  contrast  to  the 
arrogance  of  absolutism,  to  the  dogmatism  of  sensationalism, 
and  to  the  doctrine  of  church  authority,  preached  by  the  theo- 
logical school  of  his  day.  His  spirit,  while  it  influenced  the  youth 
of  France,  saved  them  from  these  influences.  As  an  educational 
reformer,  as  a  man  of  letters  and  learning,  who  trod  "  the  large 
and  impartial  ways  of  knowledge,"  and  who  swayed  others  to  the 
same  paths,  as  a  thinker  influential  alike  in  the  action  and  the 
reaction  to  which  he  led,  Cousin  stands  out  conspicuously  among 
the  memorable  Frenchmen  of  the  igth  century. 

Sir  W.  Hamilton  (Discussions,  p.  541),  one  of  his  most  resolute 
opponents,  described  Cousin  as  "  A  profound  and  original  thinker, 
a  lucid  and  eloquent  writer,  a  scholar  equally  at  home  in  ancient 
and  in  modern  learning,  a  philosopher  superior  to  all  prejudices 
of  age  or  country,  party  or  profession,  and  whose  lofty  eclecticism, 
seeking  truth  under  every  form  of  opinion,  traces  its  unity  even 
through  the  most  hostile  systems." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J.  Barthelemy  StHilaire,  V.  Cousin,  sa  vie  etsa 
correspondence  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1895) ;  H.  Hoffding,  Hist,  of  Mod.  Phil. 
ii.  311  (Eng.  trans.,  1900);  C.  E.  Fuchs,  Die  Philosophie  Victor 
Cousins  (Berlin,  1847) ;  J.  Alaux,  La  Philos.  de  M.  Cousin  (Paris, 
1864);  P.  Janet,  Victor  Cousin  et  son  muvre  (Paris,  1885);  Jules 
Simon,  V.  Cousin  (1887);  Adolphe  Franck,  Moralistes  et  philosophes 

1859):' 


;  J.  P.  Darriiron,  Souvenirs  de  vingt  ans  d'enseignement  (Paris, 
H.  Taine  in  Les  Philosophes  (Paris,  1868),  DD.  79-202. 

O.V.;  X.) 

COUSIN  (Fr.  cousin,  Ital.  cugino,  Late  Lat.  cosinus,  perhaps 
a  popular  and  familiar  abbreviation  of  consobrinus,  which  has  the 
same  sense  in  classical  Latin),  a  term  of  relationship.  Children 
of  brothers  and  sisters  are  to  each  other  first  cousins,  or  cousins- 
german;  the  children  of  first  cousins  are  to  each  other  second 
cousins,  and  so  on;  the  child  of  a  first  cousin  is  to  the  first  cousin 
of  his  father  or  mother  a  first  cousin  once  removed. 

The  word  cousin  has  also,  since  the  i6th  century,  been  used 
by  sovereigns  as  an  honorific  style  in  addressing  persons  of 
exalted,  but  not  equal  sovereign,  rank,  the  term  "  brother  " 
being  reserved  as  the  style  used  by  one  sovereign  in  addressing 
another.  Thus,  in  Great  Britain,  dukes,  marquesses  and  earls 
are  addressed  by  the  sovereign  in  royal  writs,  &c.,  as  "  cousin." 
In  France  the  kings  thus  addressed  princes  of  the  blood  royal, 
cardinals  and  archbishops,  dukes  and  peers,  the  marshals  of 
France,  the  grand  officers  of  the  crown  and  certain  foreign 
princes.  In  Spain  the  right  to  be  thus  addressed  is  a  privilege  of 
the  grandees. 

COUSINS,  SAMUEL  (1801-1887),  English  mezzotint  engraver, 
was  born  at  Exeter  on  the  gth  of  May  1801.  He  was  pre- 
eminently the  interpreter  of  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  his  con- 
temporary. During  his  apprenticeship  to  S.  W.  Reynolds  he 
engraved  many  of  the  best  amongst  the  three  hundred  and  sixty 
little  mezzotints  illustrating  the  works  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
which  his  master  issued  in  his  own  name.  In  the  finest  of  his 
numerous  transcripts  of  Lawrence,  such  as  "  Lady  Acland  and 
her  Sons,"  "  Pope  Pius  VII."  and  "  Master  Lambton,"  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  engraver's  work,  brilliancy 
and  force  of  effect  in  a  high  key,  corresponded  exactly  with 
similar  qualities  in  the  painter.  After  the  introduction  of  steel 


33^ 


COUSTOU— COUTANCES 


for  engraving  purposes  about  the  year  1823,  Cousins  and  his 
contemporaries  were  compelled  to  work  on  it,  because  the  soft 
copper  previously  used  for  mezzotint  plates  did  not  yield  a 
sufficient  number  of  fine  impressions  to  enable  the  method  to 
compete  commercially  against  line  engraving,  from  which  much 
larger  editions  were  obtainable.  The  painter-like  quality  which 
distinguished  the  18th-century  mezzotints  on  copper  was  wanting 
in  his  later  works,  because  the  hardness  of  the  steel  on  which 
they  were  engraved  impaired  freedom  of  execution  and  richness 
of  tone,  and  so  enhanced  the  labour  of  scraping  that  he  accelerated 
the  work  by  stipple,  etching  the  details  instead  of  scraping  them 
out  of  the  "ground"  in  the  manner  of  his  predecessors.  To 
this  "mixed  style,"  previously  used  by  Richard  Earlom  on 
copper,  Cousins  added  heavy  roulette  and  rocking-tool  textures, 
tending  to  fortify  the  darks,  when  he  found  that  the  "burr" 
even  on  steel  failed  to  yield  enough  fine  impressions  to  meet  the 
demand.  The  effect  of  his  prints  in  this  method  after  Reynolds 
and  Millais  was  mechanical  and  out  of  harmony  with  the 
picturesque  technique  of  these  painters,  but  the  phenomenal 
popularity  which  Cousins  gained  for  his  works  at  least  kept  alive 
and  in  favour  a  form  of  mezzotint  engraving  during  a  critical 
phase  of  its  history.  Abraham  Raimbach,  the  line  engraver, 
dated  the  decline  of  his  own  art  in  England  from  the  appearance 
in  1837  of  Cousins's  print  (in  the  "mixed  style")  after  Landseer's 
"Bolton  Abbey."  Such  plates  as  "Miss  Peel,"  after  Lawrence 
(published  in  1833);  "A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  after 
Landseer  (1857);  "The  Order  of  Release"  and  "The  First 
Minuet,"  after  Millais  (1856  and  1868);  "The  Strawberry  Girl" 
and  "Lavinia,  Countess  Spencer,"  after  Reynolds;  and  "  Miss 
Rich,"  after  Hogarth  (1873-1877),  represent  various  stages 
of  Cousins's  mixed  method.  It  reached  its  final  development 
in  the  plates  after  Millais's  "Cherry  Ripe"  and  "Pomona," 
published  in  1881  and  1882,  when  the  invention  of  coating 
copper-plates  with  a  film  of  steel  to  make  them  yield  larger 
editions  led  to  the  revival  of  pure  mezzotint  on  copper,  which 
has  since  rendered  obsolete  the  steel  plate  and  the  mixed  style 
which  it  fostered.  The  fine  draughtsmanship  of  Cousins  was  as 
apparent  in  his  prints  as  in  his  original  lead-pencil  portraits 
exhibited  in  London  in  1882.  In  1885  he  was  elected  a  full 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy,  to  which  institution  he  later  gave 
in  trust  £15,000  to  provide  annuities  for  superannuated  artists 
who  had  not  been  so  successful  as  himself.  One  of  the  most 
important  figures  in  the  history  of  British  engraving,  he  died  in 
London,  unmarried,  on  the  7th  of  May  1887. 

See  George  Pycroft,  M.R.C.S.E.,  Memoir  of  Samuel  Cousins,  R.A., 
Member  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  (published  for  private  circulation  by 
E.  E.  Leggatt,  London,  1899);  Algernon  Graves,  Catalogue  of  the 
Works  of  Samuel  Cousins,  R.A.  (published  by  H.  Graves  and  Co., 
London,  1888);  and  Alfred  Whitman,  Samuel  Cousins  (published 
by  George  Bell  &  Sons,  London,  1904),  which  contains  a  catalogue, 
good  illustrations,  and  much  detail  useful  to  the  collector  and 
dealer.  (G.  P.  R.) 

COUSTOU,  the  name  of  a  famous  family  of  French  sculptors. 

NICOLAS  COUSTOU  (1658-1733)  was  the  son  of  a  wood-carver  at 
Lyons,  where  he  was  born.  At  eighteen  he  removed  to  Paris, 
to  study  under  C.  A.  Coysevox,  his  mother's  brother,  who 
presided  over  the  recently-established  Academy  of  Painting  and 
Sculpture;  and  at  three-and-twenty  he  gained  the  Colbert 
prize,  which  entitled  him  to  four  years'  education  at  the  French 
Academy  at  Rome.  He  afterwards  became  rector  and  chancellor 
of  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture.  From  the  year  1700 
he  was  a  most  active  collaborator  with  Coysevox  at  the  palaces 
of  Marly  and  Versailles.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  facility; 
and  though  he  was  specially  influenced  by  Michelangelo  and 
Algardi,  his  numerous  works  are  among  the  most  typical  speci- 
mens of  his  age  now  extant.  The  most  famous  are  "La  Seine  et 
la  Marne,"  "La  Saone,"  the  "Berger  Chasseur"  in  the  gardens 
of  the  Tuileries,  the  bas-relief  "Le  Passage  du  Rhin"  in  the 
Louvre,  and  the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  "  placed  behind  the 
choir  altar  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris. 

His  younger  brother,  GUILLAUME  COUSTOU  (1677-1746),  was 
a  sculptor  of  still  greater  merit.  He  also  gained  the  Colbert 
prize;  but  refusing  to  submit  to  the  rules  of  the  Academy,  he 


soon  left  it,  and  for  some  time  wandered  houseless  through  the 
streets  of  Rome.  At  length  he  was  befriended  by  the  sculptor 
Legros,  under  whom  he  studied  for  some  time.  Returning  to  Paris, 
he  was  in  1704  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Painting  and 
Sculpture,  of  which  he  afterwards  became  director;  and,  like 
his  brother,  he  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  His  finest  works 
are  the  famous  group  of  the  "Horse  Tamers,"  originally  at 
Marly,  now  in  the  Champs  Elysees  at  Paris,  the  colossal  group 
"The  Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean"  at  Marly,  the  bronze 
"Rhone"  which  formed  part  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV.  at 
Lyons,  and  the  sculptures  at  the  entrance  of  the  H6tel  des 
Invalides.  Of  these  latter,  the  bas-relief  representing  Louis 
XIV.  mounted  and  accompanied  by  Justice  and  Prudence  was 
destroyed  during  the  Revolution,  but  was  restored  in  1815  by 
Pierre  Cartellier  from  Coustou's  model;  the  bronze  figures  of 
Mars  and  Minerva,  on  either  side  of  the  doorway,  were  not 
interfered  with. 

Another  GUILLAUME  COUSTOU  (1716-1777),  the  son  of  Nicolas, 
also  studied  at  Rome,  as  winner  of  the  Colbert  prize.  While 
to  a  great  extent  a  copyist  of  his  predecessors,  he  was  much 
affected  by  the  bad  taste  of  his  time,  and  produced  little  or 
nothing  of  permanent  value. 

See  Louis  Gougenot,  Hloge  de  M.  Coustou  lejeune  (1903) ;  Arsene 
Houssaye,  Histoire  de  I' art  frangais  au  X  VIII'  siecle  ( 1 860) ;  Lady 
Dilke,  Gazette  des  beaux-arts,  vol.  xxv.  (1901)  (2  articles). 

COUTANCES,  WALTER  OF  (d.  1207),  bishop  of  Lincoln  and 
archbishop  of  Rouen,  commenced  his  career  in  the  chancery  of 
Henry  II.,  was  elected  bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1182,  and  in  1184 
obtained,  with  the  king's  help,  the  see  of  Rouen.  Throughout 
his  career  he  was  much  employed  in  diplomatic  and  administra- 
tive duties.  He  started  with  Richard  I.  for  the  Third  Crusade, 
but  was  sent  back  from  Messina  to  investigate  the  charges  which 
the  barons  and  the  official  class  had  brought  against  the  chan- 
cellor, William  Longchamp.  There  was  no  love  lost  between 
the  two;  and  they  were  popularly  supposed  to  be  rivals  for 
the  see  of  Canterbury.  The  archbishop  of  Rouen  sided  with  the 
bUrons  and  John,  and  sanctioned  Longchamp's  deposition — a 
step  which  was  technically  warranted  by  the  powers  which 
Richard  had  given,  but  by  no  means  calculated  to  protect  the 
interests  of  the  crown.  The  Great  Council  now  recognized  the 
archbishop  as  chief  justiciar,  and  he  remained  at  the  head  of  the 
government  till  1193,  when  he  was  replaced  by  Hubert  Walter. 
The  archbishop  did  good  service  in  the  negotiations  for  Richard's 
release,  but  subsequently  quarrelled  with  his  master  and  laid 
Normandy  under  an  interdict,  because  the  border  stronghold 
of  Chateau  Gaillard  in  the  Vexin  had  been  built  on  his  land 
without  his  consent.  After  Richard's  death  the  archbishop 
accepted  John  as  the  lawful  heir  of  Normandy  and  consecrated 
him  as  duke.  But  his  personal  inclinations  leaned  to  Arthur 
of  Brittany,  whom  he  was  with  difficulty  dissuaded  from  support- 
ing. The  archbishop  accepted  the  French  conquest  of  Normandy 
with  equanimity  (1204),  although  he  kept  to  his  old  allegiance 
while  the  issue  of  the  struggle  was  in  doubt.  He  did  not  long 
survive  the  conquest,  and  his  later  history  is  a  blank. 

See  W.  Stubbs's  editions  of  Benedictus  Abbas,  Hoveden and  Diceto 
(Rolls  series) ;  R.  Hewlett's  edition  of  "  William  of  Newburgh  "  and 
"  Richard  of  Devizes  "  in  Chronicles,  &c.,  of  the  Reigns  of  Stephen, 
Henry  II,  and  Richard  I.  (Rolls  series).  See  also  the  preface  to  the 
third  volume  of  Stubbs's  Hoveden,  pp.  lix.-xcviii. ;  J.  H.  Round's 
Commune  of  London,  and  the  French  poem  on  Guillaume  M  Marechal 
(ed.  P.  Meyer,  Soc.  de  I'Hisloire  de  France).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 

COUTANCES,  a  town  of  north-western  France,  capital  of  tin 
arrondissement  of  the  department  of  Manche,  7  m.  E.  of  the 
English  Channel  and  58  m.  S.  of  Cherbourg  on  the  Western 
railway.  Pop.  (1906)  6089.  Coutances  is  beautifully  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Soulle  on  a  granitic  eminence  crowned 
by  the  celebrated  cathedral  of  Notre-Dame.  The  date  of  this 
church  has  been  much  disputed,  but  while  traces  of  Romanesque 
architecture  survive,  the  building  is,  in  the  main,  Gothic  in 
style  and  dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  I3th  century.  The 
slender  turrets  massed  round  the  western  towers  and  the  octagonal 
central  tower,  which  forms  a  lantern  within,  are  conspicuous 
features  of  the  church.  In  the  interior,  which  comprises  the 


COUTHON— COUVADE 


337 


nave  with  aisles,  transept  and  choir  with  ambulatory  and  side 
chapels,  there  are  fine  rose-windows  with  stained  glass  of  the 
I4th  century,  and  other  works  of  art.  Of  the  other  buildings  of 
Coutances  the  church  of  St  Pierre,  in  which  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture is  mingled  with  Gothic,  and  that  of  St  Nicolas,  of  the 
i6th  and  1 7th  centuries,  demand  mention.  There  is  an  aqueduct 
of  the  1 4th  century  to  the  west  of  the  town.  Coutances  is  a  quiet 
town  with  winding  streets  and  pleasant  boulevards  bordering 
it  on  the  east;  on  the  western  slope  of  the  hill  there  is  a  public 
garden.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  a  court  of  assizes  and 
a  sub-prefect ;  it  has  tribunals  of  first  instance  and  of  commerce, 
a  lycee  for  boys,  a  communal  college  and  a  training  college  for 
girls,  and  an  ecclesiastical  seminary.  Leather-dressing  and 
wool-spinning  are  carried  on  and  there  is  trade  in  live-stock,  in 
agricultural  produce,  especially  eggs,  and  in  marble. 

Coutances  is  the  ancient  Cosedia,  which  before  the  Roman 
conquest  was  one  of  the  chief  towns  in  the  country  of  the  Unelli. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  3rd  century  its  name  was  changed  to 
Constantia,  in  honour  of  the  emperor  Constantius  Chlorus,  who 
fortified  it.  It  became  the  capital  of  the  pagus  Constantinus 
(Cotentin),  and  in  the  middle  ages  was  the  seat  of  a  viscount. 
It  has  been  an  episcopal  see  since  the  5th  century.  In  the  i?th 
century  it  was  the  centre  of  the  revolt  of  the  Nu-pieds,  caused 
by  the  imposition  of  the  salt-tax  (gabelle). 

A  good  bibliography  of  general  works  and  monographs  on  the 
archaeology  and  the  history  of  the  town  and  diocese  of  Coutances 
is  given  in  U.  Chevalier,  Repertoire  des  sources,  &c.,  Topo-Biblio- 
graphie  (Montbeliard,  1894-1899),  s.v. 

COUTHON,  GEORGES  (1755-1704),  French  revolutionist, 
was  born  at  Orcet,  a  village  in  the  district  of  Clermont  in 
Auvergne.  He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  advocate  at 
Clermont  in  1785.  At  this  period  he  was  noted  for  his  integrity, 
gentle-heartedness  and  charitable  disposition.  His  health  was 
feeble  and  both  legs  were  paralysed.  In  1787  he  was  a  member 
of  the  provincial  assembly  of  Auvergne.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  Couthon,  who  was  now  a  member  of  the  munici- 
pality of  Clermont-Ferrand,  published  his  L' ' Aristocrate  comierti, 
in  which  he  revealed  himself  as  a  liberal  and  a  champion  of 
constitutional  monarchy.  He  became  very  popular,  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  tribunal  of  the  town  of  Clermont  in 
1791,  and  in  September  of  the  same  year  was  elected  deputy  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly.  His  views  had  meanwhile  been 
embittered  by  the  attempted  flight  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  he 
distinguished  himself  now  by  his  hostility  to  the  king.  A  visit 
to  Flanders  for  the  sake  of  his  health  brought  him  into  close 
intercourse  and  sympathy  with  Dumouriez.  In  September  1 792 
Couthon  was  elected  member  of  the  National  Convention,  and 
at  the  trial  of  the  king  voted  for  the  sentence  of  death  without 
appeal.  He  hesitated  for  a  time  as  to  which  party  he  should 
join,  but  finally  decided  for  that  of  Robespierre,  with  whom  he 
had  many  opinions  in  common,  especially  in  matters  of  religion. 
He  was  the  first  to  demand  the  arrest  of  the  proscribed  Girondists. 
On  the  30th  of  May  1 793  he  became  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  and  in  August  was  sent  as  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  Convention  attached  to  the  army  before  Lyons.  Impatient 
at  the  slow  progress  made  by  the  besieging  force,  he  decreed 
a  levee  en  masse  in  the  department  of  Puy-de-D6me,  collected 
an  army  of  60,000  men,  and  himself  led  them  to  Lyons.  When 
the  city  was  taken,  on  the  gth  of  October  1793,  although  the 
Convention  ordered  its  destruction,  Couthon  did  not  carry  out 
the  decree,  and  showed  moderation  in  the  punishment  of  the 
rebels.  The  Republican  atrocities  began  only  after  Couthon 
was  replaced,  on  the  3rd  of  November  1793,  by  Collot  d'Herbois. 
Couthon  returned  to  Paris,  and  on  the  zist  of  December  was 
elected  president  of  the  Convention.  He  contributed  to  the 
prosecution  of  the  Hebertists,  and  was  responsible  for  the  law 
of  the  22nd  Prairial,  which  in  the  case  of  trials  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal  deprived  the  accused  of  the  aid  of  counsel  or 
of  witnesses  or  their  defence,  on  the  pretext  of  shortening  the 
proceedings.  During  the  crisis  preceding  the  gth  Thermidor, 
Couthon  showed  considerable  courage,  giving  up  a  journey  to 
Auvergne  in  order,  as  he  wrote,  that  he  might  either  die  or 


triumph  with  Robespierre  and  liberty.  Arrested  with  Robes- 
pierre and  Saint-Just,  his  colleagues  in  the  triumvirate  of  the 
Terror,  and  subjected  to  indescribable  sufferings  and  insults, 
he  was  taken  to  the  scaffold  on  the  same  cart  with  Robespierre 
on  the  28th  of  July  1794  (loth  Thermidor). 

See  Fr.  Mege,  Correspondance  de  Couthon  .  .  .  suivie  de  "  I' Aristo- 
crate converti,  '  comedie  en  deux  actes  de  Couthon  (Paris,  1872);  and 
Nouveaux  Documents  sur  Georges  Couthon  (Clermont-Ferrand,  1890) ; 
also  F.  A.  Aulard,  Les  Orateurs  de  la  Legislative  et  de  la  Convention 
(Paris,  1885-1886),  ii.  425-443. 

COUTTS,  THOMAS  (1735-1822),  English  banker  and  founder  oi 
the  banking  house  of  Coutts  &  Co.,  was  born  on  the  7th  of 
September  1735.  He  was  the  fourth  son  of  John  Coutts  (1699- 
1751),  who  carried  on  business  in  Edinburgh  as  a  corn  factor  and 
negotiator  of  bills  of  exchange,  and  who  in  1742  was  elected  lord 
provost  of  the  city.  The  family  was  originally  of  Montrose,  but 
one  of  its  members  had  settled  at  Edinburgh  about  1696.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  John  Coutts  the  business  was  divided  into  two 
branches,  one  carried  on  in  Edinburgh,  the  other  in  London. 
The  banking  business  in  London  was  in  the  hands  of  James  and 
Thomas  Coutts,  sons  of  John  Coutts.  From  the  death  of  his 
brother  in  1778,  Thomas,  as  surviving  partner,  became  sole  head 
of  the  firm;  and  under  his  direction  the  banking  house  rose 
to  the  highest  distinction.  His  ambition  was  to  establish  his 
character  as  a  man  of  business  and  to  make  a  fortune;  and  he 
lived  to  succeed  in  this  aim  and  long  to  enjoy  his  reputation  and 
wealth.  A  gentleman  in  manners,  hospitable  and  benevolent,  he 
counted  amongst  his  friends  some  of  the  literary  men  and  the 
best  actors  of  his  day.  Of  the  enormous  wealth  which  came  into 
his  hands  he  made  munificent  use.  His  private  life  was  not 
without  its  romantic  elements.  Soon  after  his  settlement  in 
London  he  married  Elizabeth  Starkey,  a  young  woman  of  humble 
origin,  who  was  in  attendance  on  the  daughter  of  his  brother 
James.  They  lived  happily  together,  and  had  three  daughters — 
Susan,  married  in  1796  to  the  3rd  earl  of  Guilford;  Frances, 
married  in  1800  to  John,  ist  marquess  of  Bute;  and  Sophia, 
married  in  1793  to  Sir  Francis  Burdett.  Mrs  Coutts  dying  in 
1815,  her  husband  soon  after  married  the  popular  actress, 
Harriet  Mellon;  and  to  her  he  left  the  whole  of  his  immense 
fortune.  He  died  in  London  on  the  24th  of  February  1822. 
His  widow  married  in  1827  the  9th  duke  of  St  Albans,  and  died 
ten  years  later,  having  bequeathed  her  property  to  Angela, 
youngest  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  who  then  assumed  the 
additional  name  and  arms  of  Coutts.  In  1871  this  lady  was 
created  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts  (?.».). 

See  C.  Rogers,  Genealogical  Memoirs  of  the  Families  of  Coll  and 
Coutts  (1879);  and  R.  Richardson,  Coutts  &  Co.  (1900). 

COUTURE,  THOMAS  (1815-1879),  French  painter,  was  born 
at  Senlis  (Oise),  and  studied  under  Baron  A.  J.  Gros  and  Paul 
Delaroche,  winning  a  Prix  de  Rome  in  1837.  He  began  exhibiting 
historical  and  genre  pictures  at  the  Salon  in  1840,  and  obtained 
several  medals.  His  masterpiece  was  his  "  Romans  in  the 
Decadence  of  the  Empire"  (1847),  now  in  the  Luxembourg; 
and  his  " Love  of  Money "  (1844;  at  Toulouse),  "Falconer" 
(1855),  and  "Damocles"  (1872),  are  also  good  examples. 

COUVADE  (literally  a  "  brooding,"  from  Fr.  cower,  to  hatch, 
Lat.  cubare,  to  lie  down),  a  custom  so  called  in  B6arn,  prevalent 
among  several  peoples  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  requiring 
that  the  father,  at  and  sometimes  before  the  birth  of  his  child, 
shall  retire  to  bed  and  fast  or  abstain  from  certain  kinds  of  food, 
receiving  the  attentions  generally  shown  to  women  at  their 
confinements.  The  existence  of  the  custom  in  ancient  classical 
times  is  testified  to  by  Apollonius  Rhodius,  Diodorus  (who  refers 
to  its  existence  among  the  Corsicans),  and  Strabo  (who  noticed  it 
among  the  Spanish  Basques,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  the  Gascons, 
it  has  been  said  to  be  still  observed,  though  the  most  recent 
researches  entirely  discredit  this).  Travellers,  from  the  time  of 
Marco  Polo,  who  relates  its  observance  in  Chinese  Turkestan, 
have  found  the  custom  to  prevail  in  China,  India,  Borneo,  Siam, 
Africa  and  the  Americas.  Even  in  Europe  it  cannot  be  said  to 
have  entirely  disappeared.  In  certain  of  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Russia  the  husband,  on  the  lying-in  of  the  wife,  takes  to  his  bed 
and  groans  in  mock  pain.  One  writer  believes  he  found  traces  of 


338 


COVE— COVENANT 


it  in  the  little  island  of  Marken  in  the  Zuyder  Zee.  Even  in  rural 
England,  notably  in  East  Anglia,  a  curiously  obstinate  belief 
survives  (the  prevalence  of  which  in  earlier  times  is  proved  by 
references  to  it  in  Elizabethan  drama)  that  the  pregnancy  of  the 
woman  affects  the  man,  and  the  young  husband  who  complains 
of  a  toothache  is  assailed  by  pleasantries  as  to  his  wife's  condition. 
In  Guiana  the  custom  is  observed  in  its  most  typical  form.  The 
woman  works  to  within  a  few  hours  of  the  birth,  but  some  days 
before  her  delivery  the  father  leaves  his  occupations  and  abstains 
from  certain  kinds  of  animal  food  lest  the  child  should  suffer. 
Thus  the  flesh  of  the  agouti  is  forbidden,  lest  the  child  should  be 
lean,  and  that  of  the  capibara  or  water-cavy,  for  fear  he  should 
inherit  through  his  father's  gluttony  that  creature's  projecting 
teeth.  A  few  hours  before  delivery  the  woman  goes  alone,  or 
with  one  or  two  women-friends,  into  the  forest,  where  the  baby  is 
born  She  returns  as  soon  as  she  can  stand,  to  her  work,  and  the 
man  then  takes  to  his  hammock  and  becomes  the  invalid.  He 
must  do  no  work,  must  touch  no  weapons,  is  forbidden  all  meat 
and  food,  except  at  first  a  fermented  liquor  and  after  the  twelfth 
day  a  weak  gruel  of  cassava  meal.  He  must  not  even  smoke,  or 
wash  himself,  but  is  waited  on  hand  and  foot  by  the  women. 
So  far  is  the  comedy  carried  that  he  whines  and  groans  as  if  in 
actual  pain.  Six  weeks  after  the  birth  of  the  child  he  is  taken  in 
hand  by  his  relatives,  who  lacerate  his  skin  and  rub  him  with  a 
decoction  of  the  pepper-plant.  A  banquet  is  then  held  from 
which  the  patient  is  excluded,  for  he  must  not  leave  his  bed  till 
several  days  later;  and  for  six  months  he  must  eat  the  flesh 
of  neither  fish  nor  bird.  Almost  identical  ceremonies  have  been 
noticed  among  the  natives  of  California  and  New  Mexico;  while 
in  Greenland  and  Kamchatka  the  husband  may  not  work  for 
some  time  before  and  after  his  wife's  confinement.  Among  the 
Larkas  of  Bengal  a  period  of  isolation  and  uncleanness,  syn- 
chronous with  that  compulsory  on  the  woman,  is  imperative  for 
the  man,  on  the  conclusion  of  which  the  child's  parentage  is 
publicly  proclaimed. 

No  certain  explanation  can  be  offered  for  the  custom.  The 
most  reasonable  view  is  that  adopted  by  E.  B.  Tylor,  who  traces 
in  it  the  transition  from  the  earlier  matriarchal  to  the  later 
patriarchal  system  of  tribe-organization.  Among  primitive 
tribes,  and  probably  in  all  ages,  the  former  order  of  society,  in 
which  descent  and  inheritance  are  reckoned  through  the  mother 
alone,  as  being  the  earliest  form  of  family  life,  is  and  was  very 
common,  if  not  universal.  The  acknowledgment  of  a  relation- 
ship between  father  and  son  is  characteristic  of  the  progress  of 
society  towards  a  true  family  life.  It  may  well  be  that  the 
Couvade  arose  in  the  father's  desire  to  emphasize  the  bond  of 
blood  between  himself  and  his  child.  It  is  a  fact  that  in  some 
countries  the  father  has  to  purchase  the  child  from  its  mother; 
and  in  the  Roman  ceremony  of  the  husband  raising  the  baby  from 
the  floor  we  may  trace  the  savage  idea  that  the  male  parent  must 
formally  proclaim  his  adoption  of  and  responsibility  for  the 
offspring.  Max  Muller,  in  his  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop, 
endeavoured  to  find  an  explanation  in  primitive  "  henpecking," 
asserting  that  the  unfortunate  husband  was  tyrannized  over  by 
"  his  female  relatives  and  afterwards  frightened  into  superstition," 
— that,  in  fact,  the  whole  fabric  of  ceremony  is  reared  on  nothing 
but  masculine  hysteria;  but  this  theory  can  scarcely  be  taken 
seriously.  The  missionary,  Joseph  Frangois  Lafitau,  suspected  a 
psychological  reason,  assuming  the  custom  to  be  a  dim  recollec- 
tion of  original  sin,  the  isolation  and  fast  types  of  repentance. 
The  explanation  of  the  American  Indians  is  that  if  the  father 
engaged  in  any  hard  or  hazardous  work,  e.g.  hunting,  or  was 
careless  in  his  diet,  the  child  would  suffer  and  inherit  the  physical 
faults  and  peculiarities  of  the  animals  eaten.  This  belief  that  a 
person  becomes  possessed  of  the  nature  and  form  of  the  animal  he 
eats  is  widespread,  being  as  prevalent  in  the  Old  World  as  in  the 
New,  but  it  is  insufficient  to  account  for  the  minute  ceremonial 
details  of  La  Couvade  as  practised  in  many  lands.  It  is  far  more 
likely  that  so  universal  a  practice  has  no  trivial  beginnings,  but  is 
to  be  considered  as  a  mile-stone  marking  a  great  transitional 
epoch  in  human  progress. 

AUTHORITIES. — E.  B.  Tylor's  Early  History  of  Man  (1865;  and 


ed.  p.  301);  F.  Max  Muller,  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop  (1868- 
1875),  ii.  281;  Lord  Avebury,  Origin  of  Civilisation  (1900); 
Brett's  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana;  Johann  Baptist  von  Spix  and 
Karl  F.  P.  von  Martius,  Travels  in  Brazil  (1823-1831),  ii.  281 ; 
J.  F.  Lafitau,  Mtzurs  des  sauvages  americains  (ist  ed.,  1724)  ;  W.  Z. 
Ripley,  Races  of  Europe  (1900);  A.  H.  Keane's  Ethnology  (1896), 
p.  368  and  footnote;  A.  Giraud-Teulon,  Les  Origines  du  mariage  et 
delafamille  (Paris,  1884). 

COVE,  a  word  mostly  used  in  the  sense  of  a  small  inlet  or 
sheltered  bay  in  a  coast-line.  In  English  dialect  usage  it  is  also 
applied  to  a  cave  or  to  a  recess  in  a  mountain-side.  The  word 
in  0.  Eng.  is  cofa,  and  cognate  forms  are  found  in  the  Ger. 
Koben,  Norwegian  kove,  and  in  various  forms  in  other  Teutonic 
languages.  It  has  no  connexion  with  "alcove,"  recess  in  a  room 
or  building,  which  is  derived  through  the  Span,  alcoba  from  Arab. 
al,  the,  and  qubbah,  vault,  arch,  nor  with  "cup"  or  "coop," 
nor  with  "cave"  (Lat.  cava).  The  use  of  the  word  was  first 
confined  to  a  small  chamber  or  cell  or  inner  recess  in  a  room  or 
building.  From  this  has  come  the  particular  application  in 
architecture  to  any  kind  of  concave  moulding,  the  term  being 
usually  applied  to  the  quadrantal  curve  rising  from  the  cornice 
of  a  lofty  room  to  the  moulded  borders  of  the  horizontal  ceiling. 
The  term  "coving"  is  given  in  half-timbered  work  to  the  curved 
soffit  under  a  projecting  window,  or  in  the  i8th  century  to  that 
occasionally  found  carrying  the  gutter  of  a  house.  In  the  Musee 
Plantin  at  Antwerp  the  hearth  of  the  fireplace  of  the  upper 
floor  is  carved  on  coving,  which  forms  part  of  the  design  of  the 
chimney-piece  in  the  room  below.  The  slang  use  of  "cove" 
for  any  male  person,  like  a  "fellow,"  "chap,"  &c.,  is  found  in 
the  form  "cofe"  in  T.  Harman's  Caveat  for  Cursetors  (1587) 
and  other  early  quotations.  This  seems  to  be  identical  with  the 
Scots  word  "cofe,"  a  pedlar,  hawker,  which  is  formed  from 
"coff,"  to  sell,  purchase,  cognate  with  the  Ger.  kaufen,  to 
buy,  and  the  native  English  "cheap."  The  word  "cove," 
therefore,  is  in  ultimate  origin  the  same  as  "  chap,"  short  for 
"chapman,"  a  pedlar. 

COVELLITE,  a  mineral  species  consisting  of  cupric  sulphide, 
CuS,  crystallizing  in  the  hexagonal  system.  It  is  of  less  frequent 
occurrence  in  nature  than  copper-glance,  the  orthorhombic 
cuprous  sulphide.  Crystals  are  very  rare,  the  mineral  being 
usually  found  as  compact  and  earthy  masses  or  as  a  blue  coating 
on  other  copper  sulphides.  Hardness  15-2;  specific  gravity  4-6. 
The  dark  indigo-blue  colour  is  a  characteristic  feature,  and  the 
mineral  was  early  known  as  indigo-copper  (Ger.  Kupferindig). 
The  name  covellite  is  taken  from  N.  Covelli,  who  in  1839  observed 
crystals  of  cupric  sulphide  encrusting  Vesuvian  lava,  the  mineral 
having  been  formed  here  by  the  interaction  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
and  cupric  chloride,  both  of  which  are  volatile  volcanic  products. 
Covellite  is,  however,  more  commonly  found  in  copper-bearing 
veins,  where  it  has  resulted  by  the  alteration  of  other  copper 
sulphides,  namely  chalcopyrite,  copper-glance  and  erubescite. 
It  is  found  in  many  copper  mines;  localities  which  may  be 
specially  mentioned  are  Sangerhausen  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
Butte  in  Montana,  and  Chile;  in  the  Medicine  Bow  Mountains 
of  Wyoming  a  platiniferous  covellite  is  mined,  the  platinum 
being  present  as  sperrylite  (platinum  arsenide).  (L.  J.  S.) 

COVENANT  (an  O.  Fr.  form,  later  comienant,  from  convenir, 
to  agree,  Lat.  convenire),  a  mutual  agreement  of  two  or  more 
parties,  or  an  undertaking  made  by  one  of  the  parties.  In  the 
Bible  the  Hebrew  word  rvn,  b£rlth,  is  used  widely  for  many 
kinds  of  agreements;  it  is  then  applied  to  a  contract  between 
two  persons  or  to  a  treaty  between  two  nations,  such  as  the 
covenant  made  between  Abimelech  and  Isaac,  representing  a 
treaty  between  the  Israelites  and  the  Philistines  (Gen.  xxvi. 
26  seq.);  more  particularly  to  an  engagement  made  between 
God  and  men,  or  such  agreements  as,  by  the  observance  of  a 
religious  rite,  regarded  God  as  a  parl;y  to  the  engagement.  Two 
suggestions  have  been  made  for  the  derivation  of  berith:  (i) 
tracing  the  word  from  a  root  "to  cut,"  and  the  reference  is  to 
the  primitive  rite  of  cutting  victims  into  parts,  between  which 
the  parties  to  an  agreement  passed,  cf.  the  Greek  opxia  Ttfivtiv, 
and  the  account  (Gen.  xv.  17)  of  the  covenant  between  God  and 
Abraham,  where  "a  smoking  furnace  and  burning  lamp  passed 


COVENANT— COVENANTERS 


339 


between  the  pieces"  of  the  victims  Abraham  had  sacrificed; 
(2)  connecting  it  with  an  Assyrio-Babylonian  biritu,  fetter, 
alliance.  Berlin  was  translated  in  the  Septuagint  by  3ia0j?K7j, 
which  in  classical  Greek  had  the  meaning  of  "will";  hence 
the  Vulgate,  in  the  Psalms  and  the  New  Testament,  translates 
the  word  by  testamentum,  but  elsewhere  in  the  Old  Testament 
by  foedus  or  pactum;  similarly  Wycliffe's  version  gives  "testa- 
ment" and  "covenant"  respectively.  The  books  of  Scripture 
dealing  with  the  old  or  Mosaic,  and  new  or  Christian  dispensation 
are  sometimes  known  as  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  the  New 
Covenant.  The  word  appears  in  the  system  of  theology  developed 
by  Johannes  Cocceius  (q.v.),  and -known  as  the  "Covenant" 
or  "  Federal "  Theology,  based  on  the  two  Covenants  of  Works 
or  Life  made  by  God  with  Adam,  on  condition  of  obedience, 
and  of  grace  or  redemption,  made  with  Christ.  In  Scottish 
ecclesiastical  history,  covenant  appears  in  the  two  agreements 
signed  by  the  members  of  the  Scottish  Church  in  defence  of 
their  religious  and  ecclesiastical  systems  (see  COVENANTERS). 

COVENANT,  in  law,  is  the  English  equivalent  of  the  Lat. 
conventio,  which,  although  not  technical,  was  the  most  general 
word  in  Roman  law  for  "agreement."  It  was  frequently  used 
along  with  paclum,  also  a  general  term,  but  applied  especially 
to  agreements  to  settle  a  question  without  carrying  it  before  the 
courts  of  law. 

The  word  "  covenant "  has  been  used  in  a  variety  of  senses 
in  English  law. 

1.  In  its  strict  sense,  covenant  means  an  agreement  under 
seal,  that  something  has  or  has  not  already  been  done,  or  shall 
or  shall  not  be  done  hereafter  (Shep.  Touchstone,  160,  162).     It 
is  most  commonly  used  with  reference  to  sales  or  leases  of  land, 
but  is  sometimes  applied  to  any  promise  or  stipulation,  whether 
under  seal  or  not.     The  person  who  makes,  and  is  bound  to 
perform,   the  promise  or  stipulation   is   the   covenantor:   the 
person  in  whose  favour  it  is  made  is  the  covenantee. 

2.  Covenants  have  been  subdivided  into  numerous  classes, 
only  a  few  of  which  need  to  be  described.     It  is  unnecessary 
to  do  more  than  mention  affirmative  and  negative  covenants, 
joint  or  several,  alternative  or  disjunctive  covenants,  dependent 
or  independent  covenants.     As  to  collateral  covenants,  covenants 
"running  with  the  land,"  and  covenants  in  leases  (including 
"usual,"  "proper"  and  "restrictive"  covenants),    see  LAND- 
LORD AND  TENANT.     But  there  are  other  classes  as  to  which 
something  must  be  said. 

A  covenant  is  said  to  be  express  when  it  is  created  by  the 
express  words  of  the  parties  to  the  deed  declaratory  of  their 
intention.  It  is  not  indispensable  that  the  word  "  covenant " 
should  be  used.  Any  word  which  clearly  indicates  the  intention 
of  the  parties  to  covenant  will  suffice.  An  implied  covenant, 
or  covenant  in  law,  "  depends  for  its  existence  on  the  intendment 
and  construction  of  law.  There  are  some  words  which  of  them- 
selves do  not  import  an  express  covenant,  yet,  being  made  use  of 
in  certain  contracts,  have  a  similar  operation  and  are  called 
covenants  in  law;  and  they  are  as  effectually  binding  on  the 
parties  as  if  expressed  in  the  most  unequivocal  terms  "  (Platt  on 
Covenants,  p.  40).  Thus,  the  word  "demise,"  used  in  a  lease 
of  deed,  raises  the  implication  of  a  covenant  both  for  "  quiet 
enjoyment"  and  for  title  to  let;  and  it  has  been  judicially 
suggested  that  a  covenant  for  quiet  enjoyment  may  be  implied 
from  any  word  or  words  of  like  import  (Budd-Scott  v.  Daniell, 
1902,  2  K.B.  p.  359).  The  Conveyancing  Act  1881  provides 
(§  7)  that  in  a  conveyance  for  valuable  consideration,  other 
than  a  mortgage,  there  shall  be  implied,  as  against  the  person 
who  conveys  and  is  expressed  to  convey  as  "beneficial  owner," 
certain  qualified  covenants — i.e.  covenants  extending  only  to 
the  acts  or  omissions  of  the  vendor,  persons  through  whom  he 
derives  title  otherwise  than  "by  purchase  for  value,  and  persons 
claiming  under  them — for  "right  to  convey,"  "quiet enjoyment," 
"  freedom  from  incumbranccs  "  and  "further  assurance."  Of 
these  statutory  covenants  for  title  the  only  one  which  requires 
explanation  is  the  covenant  for  further  assurance.  It  imports 
an  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  covenantor  to  do  such  reasonable 
acts,  in  addition  to  those  already  performed,  as  may  be  necessary 


for  the  completion  of  the  transfer  made  (or  intended  to  be  made) 
at  the  requirements  of  the  covenantee  (Platt  on  Covenants,  p.  341). 
All  these  statutory  implied  covenants  "  run  with  the  land " 
(see  LANDLORD  AND  TENANT).  Where  a  mortgagor  conveys, 
and  is  expressed  to  convey,  as  "  beneficial  owner,"  there  are 
implied  absolute  covenants — i.e.  covenants  amounting  to  a 
warranty  against  and  for  the  acts  and  omissions  of  the  whole 
world — that  he  has  a  right  to  convey,  that  the  mortgagee  shall 
have  quiet  enjoyment  of  the  property  after  default,  free  from 
incumbrances  and  for  further  assurance.  Special  provisions  as 
to  implied  covenants  by  the  lessor  in  leases  are  made  in  England 
by  §  7  (B)  of  the  Conveyancing  Act  1881  and  in  Ireland  by  the 
Land  Act  (Ireland)  1860,  §  41.  The  distinction  between  real 
and  personal  covenants  is  that  the  former  do,  while  the  latter 
do  not,  run  with  the  land.  An  inherent  covenant  is  another 
name  for  a  real  covenant  (Shep.  Touchstone,  176;  Platt,  60). 
When  a  covenant  relates  to  an  act  already  done,  it  is  usually 
termed  a  covenant  executed;  where  the  performance  is  future, 
the  covenant  is  termed  executory.  The  covenant  for  seisin  was 
an  assurance  to  the  grantee  that  the  grantor  had  the  estate 
which  he  purported  to  convey.  In  England  it  is  now  included 
in  the  covenant  for  right  to  convey;  but  is  still  in  separate  use 
in  several  states  in  America.  The  covenant  to  stand  seised  to 
uses  was  an  assurance  by  means  of  which,  under  the  Statute  of 
Uses  [1536]  (see  USES),  a  conveyance  of  an  estate  might  be 
effected.  When  such  a  covenant  is  made,  the  legal  estate  in  the 
land  passes  at  once  to  the  covenantee  under  the  statute.  The 
consideration  for  the  covenant  must  be  relationship  by  blood  or 
marriage.  It  is  still  occasionally  though  very  rarely  employed. 
The  covenant  not  to  sue  belongs  to  the  law  of  contract  and  needs 
no  explantion. 

Most  of  the  classes  of  covenants  above  mentioned  are  in  use  in 
the  United  States.  In  New  York,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Oregon, 
Wisconsin  and  Wyoming  the  implication  of  covenants  for  title  has 
been,  with  certain  exceptions,  prohibited  by  statute.  In  Alabama, 
Arkansas,  Delaware,  Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, 
Nevada,  New  Mexico,  Pennsylvania  and  Texas  the  words  grant,  bar- 
gain and  sell,  in  conveyances  in  fee,  unless  specially  restricted,  amount 
to  qualified  covenants  that  the  grantor  was  seised  in  fee,  free  from 
incumbrances,  and  for  quiet  enjoyment  (4  Kent,  Commentaries,  §47 3 ; 
Bouvier,  Law  Dictionary,  s.v.  Covenant).  In  some  of  the  states 
a  covenant  of  non-claim,  or  of  warranty,  an  assurance  by  the  grantor 
that  neither  he  nor  his  heirs,  nor  any  other  person  shall  claim  any 
title  in  the  premises  conveyed,  is  in  general  use. 

3.  An  action  of  covenant  lay  for  breaking  covenant.  As  to  the 
history  of  this  action  see  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of 
English  Law,  ii.  106;  and  Holmes,  The  Common  Law,  p.  272. 
There  was  also  a  writ  of  covenant.  But  this  remedy  had  fallen 
into  disuse  before  1830  (see  Platt  on  Covenants,  p.  543),  and  was 
abolished  by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Acts.  Since  the 
Judicature  Acts,  an  action  on  a  covenant  follows  the  same 
course  as,  and  is  indistinguishable  from,  any  ordinary  action 
for  breach  of  contract.  The  remedy  is  by  damages,  decree  of 
specific  performance  or  injunction  to  prevent  the  breach. 

The  term  "  covenant  "  is  unknown  to  Scots  law.  But  its  place  is 
filled  to  some  extent  by  the  doctrine  of  "  warrandice."  Many  of  the 
British  colonies  have  legislated,  as  to  the  implication  of  covenants 
for  title,  on  the  lines  of  the  English  Conveyancing  Act  1881 ;  e.g. 
Tasmania,  Conveyancing  and  Law  of  Property  Act  1884  (47  Viet. 
No.  10). 

As  to  covenants  in  restraint  of  trade  see  RESTRAINT. 

AUTHORITIES. — In  addition  to  the  authorities  cited  in  the  text 
see:  English  Law;  Goodeve,  Law  of  Real  Property  (sth  ed., 
London,  1906) ;  C.  Foa,  Landlord  and  Tenant  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1901) : 
Hamilton,  Law  of  Covenants  (London) ;  Fawcett,  Law  of  Landlord 
and  Tenant  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1905).  American  Law:  Rawle,  Law 
of  Covenants  for  Title  (Boston,  1887);  Encyclopaedia  of  American 
Law  (3rd  ed.,  1890),  vol.  viii.,  tit.  "  Covenants."  (A.  W.  R.) 

COVENANTERS,  the  name  given  to  a  party  which,  originating 
in  the  Reformation  movement,  played  an  important  part  in  the 
history  of  Scotland,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  that  of  England, 
during  the  I7th  century.  The  Covenanters  were  thus  named 
because  in  a  series  of  bands  or  covenants  they  bound  themselves 
to  maintain  the  Presbyterian  doctrine  and  polity  as  the  sole 
religion  of  their  country.  The  first  "  godly  band "  is  dated 
December  1557;  but  more  important  is  the  covenant  of  1581, 
drawn  up  by  John  Craig  in  consequence  of  the  strenuous  efforts 


340 


COVENT  GARDEN— COVENTRY,  LORD 


which  the  Roman  Catholics  were  making  to  regain  their  hold 
upon  Scotland,  and  called  the  King's  Confession  or  National 
Covenant.  Based  upon  the  Confession  of  Faith  of  1560,  this 
document  denounced  the  pope  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  no  measured  terms.  It  was  adopted  by  the 
General  Assembly,  signed  by  King  James  VI.  and  his  household, 
and  enjoined  on  persons  of  all  ranks  and  classes;  and  was  again 
subscribed  in  1590  and  1596.  In  1637  Scotland  was  in  a  state  of 
turmoil.  Charles  I.  and  Archbishop  Laud  had  just  met  with  a 
reverse  in  their  efforts  to  impose  the  English  liturgy  upon  the 
Scots;  and  fearing  further  measures  on  the  part  of  the  king, 
it  occurred  to  Archibald  Johnston,  Lord  Warriston,  to  revive 
the  National  Covenant  of  1581.  Additional  matter  intended 
to  suit  the  document  to  the  special  circumstances  of  the  time 
was  added,  and  the  covenant  was  adopted  and  signed  by  a  large 
gathering  in  Greyfriars'  churchyard,  Edinburgh,  on  the  28th 
of  February  1638,  after  which  copies  were  sent  throughout  the 
country  for  additional  signatures.  The  subscribers  engaged  by 
oath  to  maintain  religion  in  the  state  in  which  it  existed  in  1580, 
and  to  reject  all  innovations  introduced  since  that  time,  while 
professed  expressions  of  loyalty  to  the  king  were  added.  The 
General  Assembly  of  1638  was  composed  of  ardent  Covenanters, 
and  in  1640  the  covenant  was  adopted  by  the  parliament,  and 
its  subscription  was  required  from  all  citizens.  Before  this  date 
the  Covenanters  were  usually  referred  to  as  Supplicants,  but  from 
about  this  time  the  former  designation  began  to  .prevail. 

A  further  development  took  place  in  1643.  The  leaders  of 
the  English  parliament,  worsted  in  the  Civil  War,  implored  the 
aid  of  the  Scots,  which  was  promised  on  condition  that  the 
Scottish  system  of  church  government  was  adopted  in  England. 
After  some  haggling  a  document  called  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant  was  drawn  up.  This  was  practically  a  treaty  between 
England  and  Scotland  for  the  preservation  of  the  reformed 
religion  in  Scotland,  the  reformation  of  religion  in  England  and 
Ireland  "according  to  the  word  of  God  and  the  example  of  the 
best  reformed  churches,"  and  the  extirpation  of  popery  and 
prelacy.  It  was  subscribed  by  many  in  both  kingdoms  and  also 
in  Ireland,  and  was  approved  by  the  English  parliament,  and 
with  some  slight  modifications  by  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines.  Charles  I.  refused  to  accept  it  when  he  surrendered 
himself  to  the  Scots  in  1646,  but  he  made  important  concessions 
in  this  direction  in  the  "  Engagement  "  made  with  the  Scots  in 
December  16*47.  Charles  II.  before  landing  in  Scotland  in  June 
1650  declared  by  a  solemn  oath  his  approbation  of  both  covenants, 
and  this  was  renewed  on  the  occasion  of  his  coronation  at  Scone 
in  the  following  January. 

From  1638  to  1651  the  Covenanters  were  the  dominant  party 
in  Scotland,  directing  her  policy  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
Their  power,  however,  which  had  been  seriously  weakened  by 
Cromwell's  victory  at  Dunbar  in  September  1651,  was  practically 
destroyed  when  Charles  II.  was  restored  nine  years  later.  Firmly 
seated  upon  the  throne  Charles  renounced  the  covenants,  which 
in  1662  were  declared  unlawful  oaths,  and  were  to  be  abjured 
by  all  persons  holding  public  offices.  Episcopacy  was  restored, 
the  court  of  high  commission  was  revived,  and  ministers  who 
refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  bishops  were  expelled 
from  their  livings.  Gathering  around  them  many  of  the 
Covenanters  who  clung  tenaciously  to  their  standards  of  faith, 
these  ministers  began  to  preach  in  the  fields,  and  a  period  of 
persecution  marked  by  savage  hatred  and  great  brutality 
began.  Further  oppressive  measures  were  directed  against  the 
Covenanters,  who  took  up  arms  about  1665,  and  the  struggle 
soon  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  rebellion.  The  forces  of  the 
crown  under  John  Graham  of  Claverhouse  and  others  were  sent 
against  them,  and  although  the  insurgents  gained  isolated 
successes,  in  general  they  were  worsted  and  were  treated  with 
great  barbarity.  They  maintained,  however,  their  cherished 
covenants  with  a  zeal  which  persecution  only  intensified;  in 
1 680  the  more  extreme  members  of  the  party  signed  a  document 
known  as  the  "  Sanquhar  Declaration,"  and  were  afterwards 
called  Cameronians  from  the  name  of  their  leader,  Richard 
Cameron  (?.».).  They  renounced  their  allegiance  to  King  James 


and  were  greatly  disappointed  when  their  standards  found  no 
place  in  the  religious  settlement  of  1689,  continuing  to  hold  the 
belief  that  the  covenants  should  be  made  obligatory  upon  the 
entire  nation.  The  Covenanters  had  a  martyrology  of  their  own, 
and  the  halo  of  romance  has  been  cast  around  their  exploits  and 
their  sufferings.  Their  story,  however,  especially  during  the 
time  of  their  political  predominance,  is  part  of  the  general  history 
of  Scotland  (q.v.). 

The  texts  of  the  National  Covenant  and  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant  are  printed  in  S.  R.  Gardiner's  Constitutional  Documents 
of  the  Puritan  Revolution  (Oxford,  1899).  See  also  J.  H.  Burton, 
History  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1905) ;  A.  Lang,  History  of  Scotland 
(Edinburgh,  1900) ;  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of  England  (London, 
1883-1884) ;  G.  Grub,  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh. 
1861);  J.  Macpherson,  History  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  (Paisley, 
1901);  and  J.  K.  Hewison,  The  Covenanters  (1908). 

COVENT  GARDEN,  formerly  an  open  space  north  of  the 
Strand,  London,  England,  now  occupied  by  the  principal  flower, 
fruit  and  vegetable  market  in  the  metropolis.  This  was  originally 
the  so-called  "  convent  garden  "  belonging  to  the  abbey  of  St 
Peter,  Westminster.  In  the  first  half  of  the  I7th  century  the 
site  of  the  garden  was  laid  out  as  a  square  by  Inigo  Jones,  with  a 
piazza  on  two  sides;  and  as  early  as  1656  it  was  becoming  a 
market  place  for  the  same  commodities  as  are  now  sold  in  it. 
Co  vent  Garden  Theatre  (1858)  is  the  chief  seat  of  grand  opera 
in  London.  The  site  has  carried  a  theatre  since  1733,  but  earlier 
buildings  were  burnt  in  1809  and  1856. 

COVENTRY,  SIR  JOHN  (d.  1682),  son  of  John  Coventry,  the 
second  son  of  Thomas,  Lord  Keeper  Coventry,  was  returned  to 
the  Long  Parliament  in  1640  as  member  for  Evesham.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  served  for  the  king,  and  at  the  Restoration  was 
created  a  knight.  In  1667,  and  in  the  following  parliaments  of 
1678,  1679  and  1681,  he  was  elected  f or  Weymouth,  and  opposed 
the  government.  On  the  2ist  of  December  1670,  owing  to  a  jest 
made  by  Coventry  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  subject  of 
the  king's  amours,  Sir  Thomas  Sandys,  an  officer  of  the  guards, 
with  other  accomplices,  by  the  order  of  Monmouth,  and  (it  was 
said)  with  the  approval  of  the  king  himself,  waylaid  him  as  he 
was  returning  home  to  Suffolk  Street  and  slit  his  nose  to  the  bone. 
The  outrage  created  an  extraordinary  sensation,  and  in  conse- 
quence a  measure  known  as  the  "  Coventry  Act  "  was  passed, 
declaring  assaults  accompanied  by  personal  mutilation  a  felony 
without  benefit  of  clergy.  Sir  John  died  in  1682.  Sir  William 
Coventry,  his  uncle,  speaks  slightingly  of  him,  ridicules  his 
vanity  and  wishes  him  out  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  be  "  out 
of  harm's  way." 

COVENTRY,  THOMAS  COVENTRY,  IST  BARON  (1578-1640), 
lord  keeper  of  England,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Coventry, 
judge  of  the  common  pleas  (a  descendant  of  John  Coventry, 
lord  mayor  of  London  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.) ,  and  of  Margaret 
Jeffreys  of  Earls  Croome,  or  Croome  D'Abitot,  in  Worcestershire, 
was  born  in  1578.  He  entered  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1592, 
and  the  Inner  Temple  in  1594,  becoming  bencher  of  the  society 
in  1614,  reader  in  1616,  and  holding  the  office  of  treasurer  from 
1617  till  1621.  His  exceptional  legal  abilities  were  rewarded 
early  with  official  promotion.  On  the  i6th  of  November  1616  he 
was  made  recorder  of  London  in  spite  of  Bacon's  opposition,  who, 
although  allowing  him  to  be  "  a  well  trained  and  an  honest  man," 
objected  that  he  was  "  bred  by  my  Lord  Coke  and  seasoned  in 
his  ways."  *  On  the  I4th  of  March  1617  he  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  and  was  knighted;  was  returned  for  Droitwich 
to  the  parliament  of  1621;  and  on  the  nth  of  January  in  that 
year  was  made  attorney-general.  He  took  part  in  the  proceedings 
against  Bacon  for  corruption,  and  was  manager  for  the  Commons 
in  the  impeachment  of  Edward  Floyd  for  insulting  the  elector 
and  electress  palatine. 

On  the  ist  of  November  1625  he  was  made  lord  keeper  of  the 
great  seal;  in  this  capacity  he  delivered  the  king's  reprimand  to 
the  Commons  on  the  29th  of  March  1626,  when  he  declared  that 
"  liberty  of  counsel  "  alone  belonged  to  them  and  not  "  liberty  of 
control."  On  the  loth  of  April  1628  he  received  the  title  of 
Baron  Coventry  of  Aylesborough  in  Worcestershire.  At  the 
1  Spedding's  Bacon,  vi.  97. 


COVENTRY,  SIR  W. 


opening  of  parliament  in  1628  he  threatened  that  the  king 
would  use  his  prerogative  if  further  thwarted  in  the  matter  of 
supplies.  In  the  subsequent  debates,  however,  while  strongly 
supporting  the  king's  prerogative  against  the  claims  of  the 
parliament  to  executive  power,  he  favoured  a  policy  of  modera- 
tion and  compromise.  He  defended  the  right  of  the  council  to 
commit  to  prison  without  showing  cause,  and  to  issue  "  general  " 
warrants;  though  he  allowed  it  should  only  be  employed  in 
special  circumstances,  disapproved  of  the  king's  sudden  dis- 
solution of  parliament,  and  agreed  to  the  liberation  on  bail  of  the 
seven  imprisoned  members  on  condition  of  their  giving  security 
for  their  good  behaviour.  He  showed  less  subservience  than 
Bacon  toBuckingham,  and  his  resistance  to  the  latter's  pretensions 
to  the  office  of  lord  high  constable  greatly  incensed  the  duke. 
Buckingham  taunted  Coventry  with  having  gained  his  place  by 
his  favour;  to  which  the  lord  keeper  replied,  "  Did  I  conceive  I 
had  my  place  by  your  favour,  I  would  presently  unmake  myself 
by  returning  the  seal  to  his  Majesty."  1  After  this  defiance 
Buckingham's  sudden  death  alone  probably  prevented  Coventry's 
displacement.  He  passed  sentence  of  death  on  Lord  Audley  in 
1631,  drafted  and  enforced  the  proclamation  of  the  2oth  of  June 
1632  ordering  the  country  gentlemen  to  leave  London,  and  in 
1634  joined  in  Laud's  attack  on  the  earl  of  Portland  for  pecula- 
tion. The  same  year,  in  an  address  to  the  judges,  he  supported 
the  proposed  levy  of  ship-money  on  the  inland  as  well  as  the 
maritime  counties  on  the  plea  of  the  necessity  of  effectually 
arming,  "  so  that  they  might  not  be  enforced  to  fight,"  "  the 
wooden  walls  "  being  in  his  opinion  "  the  best  walls  of  this 
kingdom."  2  In  the  Star  Chamber  Coventry  was  one  of  Lilburne's 
judges  in  1637,  but  he  generally  showed  conspicuous  moderation, 
inclining  to  leniency  in  the  cases  of  Richard  Chambers  in  1629  for 
seditious  speeches,  and  of  Henry  Sherfield  in  1632  for  breaking 
painted  glass  in  a  church.  He  prevented  also  the  hanging  of  men 
for  .resistance  to  impressment,  and  pointed  out  its  illegality,  since 
the  men  were  not  subject  to  martial  law.  While  contributing 
thirty  horse  to  the  Scottish  expedition  in  1638,  and  lending  the 
king  £10,000  in  1639,  he  gave  no  support  to  the  forced  loan 
levied  upon  the  city  in  the  latter  year.  He  died  on  the  I4th  of 
January  1640. 

Lord  Coventry  held  the  great  seal  for  nearly  fifteen  years,  and 
was  enabled  to  collect  a  large  fortune.  He  was  an  able  judge,  and 
he  issued  some  important  orders  in  chancery,  probably  alluded  to 
by  Wood,  who  ascribes  to  him  a  tract  on  "  The  Fees  of  all  law 
Officers."3  Whitelocke  accuses  him  of  mediocrity,4  but  his 
contemporaries  in  general  have  united  in  extolling  his  judicial 
ability,  his  quick  despatch  of  business  and  his  sound  and  sterling 
character.  Clarendon  in  particular  praises  his  statesmanship, 
and  compares  his  capacity  with  Lord  Strafford's,  adding, 
however,  that  he  seldom  spoke  in  the  council  except  on  legal 
business  and  had  little  influence  in  political  affairs;  to  the  latter 
circumstance  he  owed  his  exceptional  popularity.  He  describes 
him  as  having  "  in  the  plain  way  of  speaking  and  delivery  a 
strange  power  of  making  himself  believed,"  as  a  man  of  "  not 
only  firm  gravity  but  a  severity  and  even  some  morosity,"  as 
"  rather  exceedingly  liked  than  passionately  loved." 

Lord  Coventry  married  (i)  Sarah,  daughter  of  Sir  Edward 
Sebright  of  Besford  in  Worcestershire,  by  whom  besides  a 
daughter  he  had  one  son,  Thomas,  who  succeeded  him  as  2nd 
baron,  and  (2)  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  John  Aldersley  of  Spurstow, 
Cheshire,  and  widow  of  William  Pitchford,  by  whom  he  had  four 
sons,  John,  Francis,  Henry  and  Sir  William  Coventry,  the 
statesman. 

Thomas  Coventry,  $th  baron  (d.  1699),  was  created  an  earl  in 
1697  with  a  special  limitation,  on  failure  of  his  own  male  issue, 
to  that  of  Walter,  youngest  brother  of  the  lord  keeper,  from 
whom  the  present  earl  of  Coventry  is  descended. 

COVENTRY,  SIR  WILLIAM  (c.  1628-1686),  English  statesman, 
son  of  the  lord  keeper,  Thomas,  Lord  Coventry,  by  his  second 

1  Racket's  Life  of  Bishop  Williams,  ii.  19. 

2  Rushworth  (1680),  part  ii.  vol.  i.  294.         '  Ath.  Oxon.  ii.  650. 

4  There  is  an  adverse  opinion  also-  expressed  in  Pepys's  Diary, 
August  26,  1666,  probably  based  on  little  real  knowledge. 


wife  Elizabeth  Aldersley,  was  born  about  1628.  He  matriculated 
at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  Owing  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  obliged  to  quit  his  studies,  but 
according  to  Sir  John  Bramston  "  he  had  a  good  tutor  who  made 
him  a  scholar,  and  he  travelled  and  got  the  French  language  in 
good  perfection."  "  He  was  young  whilst  the  war  continued," 
wrote  Clarendon,  "  yet  he  had  put  himself  before  the  end  of  it 
into  the  army  and  had  the  command  of  a  foot  company  and 
shortly  after  travelled  into  France."  Here  he  remained  till  all 
hopes  of  obtaining  foreign  assistance  and  of  raising  a  new  army 
had  to  be  laid  aside,  when  he  returned  to  England  and  kept 
aloof  from  the  various  royalist  intrigues.  When,  however,  a  new 
prospect  of  a  restoration  appeared  in  1660,  Coventry  hastened  to 
Breda,  was  appointed  secretary  to  James,  duke  of  York,  lord 
high  admiral  of  England,  and  headed  the  royal  procession  when 
Charles  entered  London  in  triumph. 

He  was  returned  to  the  Restoration  parliament  of  1661  for 
Great  Yarmouth,  became  commissioner  for  the  navy  in  May  1662 
and  in  1663  was  made  D.C.L.  at  Oxford.  His  great  talents  were 
very  soon  recognized  in  parliament,  and  his  influence  as  an 
official  was  considerable.  His  appointment  was  rather  that  of 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  than  of  personal  assistant  to  the  duke 
of  York,6  and  was  one  of  large  gains.  Wood  states  that  he 
collected  a  fortune  of  £60,000.  Accusations  of  corruption  in  his 
naval  administration,  and  especially  during  the  Dutch  war,  were 
brought  against  him,  but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  he  ever 
transgressed  the  limits  sanctioned  by  usage  and  custom  in 
obtaining  his  emoluments.  Pepys  in  his  diary  invariably  testifies 
to  the  excellence  of  his  administration  and  to  his  zeal  for  reform 
and  economy.  His  ability  and  energy,  however,  did  little  to 
avert  the  naval  collapse,  owing  chiefly  to  financial  mismanage- 
ment and  to  the  ill-advised  appointments  to  command.  Coventry 
denied  all  responsibility  for  the  Dutch  War  in  1665,  which 
Clarendon  sought  to  place  upon  his  shoulders,  and  his  repudiation 
is  supported  by  Pepys;  it  was,  moreover,  contrary  to  his  well- 
known  political  opinion.  The  war  greatly  increased  his  influence, 
and  shortly  after  the  victory  off  Lowestoft,  on  the  3rd  of  June 
1665,  he  was  knighted  and  made  a  privy  councillor  (26th  of  June) 
and  was  subsequently  admitted  to  the  committee  on  foreign 
affairs.  In  1667  he  was  appointed  to  the  board  of  treasury  to 
effect  financial  reforms.  "  I  perceive,"  writes  Pepys  on  the  23rd 
of  August  1667,  "  Sir  William  Coventry  is  the  man  and  nothing 
done  till  he  comes,"  and  on  his  removal  in  1669  the  duke  of 
Albemarle,  no  friendly  or  partial  critic,  declares  that  "  nothing 
now  would  be  well  done."  His  appointment,  however,  came  too 
late  to  ward  off  the  naval  disaster  at  Chatham  the  same  year  and 
the  national  bankruptcy  in  1672. 

Meanwhile  Coventry's  rising  influence  had  been  from  the  first 
the  cause  of  increasing  jealousy  to  the  old  chancellor  Clarendon, 
who  especially  disliked  and  discouraged  the  younger  generation. 
Coventry  resented  this  repression  and  thought  ill  of  the  conduct 
of  the  administration.  He  became  the  chief  mover  in  the  success- 
ful attack  made  upon  Clarendon,  but  refused  to  take  any  part  in 
his  impeachment.  Two  days  after  Clarendon's  resignation  (on 
the  3ist  of  August),  Coventry  announced  his  intention  of  leaving 
the  duke's  service  and  of  terminating  his  connexion  with  the 
navy.6  As  the  principal  agent  in  effecting  Clarendon's  fall  he 
naturally  acquired  new  power  and  influence,  and  the  general 
opinion  pointed  to  him  as  his  successor  as  first  minister  of  the 
crown.  Personal  merit,  patriotism  and  conspicuous  ability, 
however,  were  poor  passports  to  place  and  power  in  Charles  II. 's 
reign.  Coventry  retained  merely  his  appointment  at  the 
treasury,  and  the  brilliant  but  unscrupulous  and  incapable  duke 
of  Buckingham,  a  favourite  of  the  king,  succeeded  to  Lord 
Clarendon.  The  relations  between  the  two  men  soon  became 
unfriendly.  Buckingham  ridiculed  Sir  William's  steady  attention 
to  business,  and  was  annoyed  at  his  opposition  to  Clarendon's 
impeachment.  Coventry  rapidly  lost  influence,  was  excluded 
from  the  cabinet  council,  and  six  months  after  Clarendon's  fall 
complains  he  has  scarcely  a  friend  at  court.  Finally,  in  March 

6  Pepysiana,  by  H.  B.  Wheatley  (1903),  154. 
1  Foxcroft,  Life  of  Sir  C.  Savile,  i.  54. 


342 


COVENTRY 


1669,  Buckingham  having  written  a  play  in  which  Sir  William 
was  ridiculed,  the  latter  sent  him  a  challenge.  Notice  of  the 
challenge  reached  the  authorities  through  the  duke's  second, 
and  Sir  William  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  the  3rd  of  March 
and  subsequently  expelled  from  the  privy  council.  He  was 
superseded  in  the  treasury  on  the  i  ith  of  March  by  Buckingham's 
favourite,  Sir  Thomas  Osborne,  afterwards  earl  of  Danby  and 
duke  of  Leeds,  and  was  at  last  released  from  the  Tower  on  the 
2ist  in  disgrace.  The  real  cause  of  his  dismissal  was  clearly  the 
final  adoption  by  Charles  of  the  policy  of  subservience  to  France 
and  desertion  of  Holland  and  Protestant  interests.  Six  weeks 
before  Coventry's  fall,  the  conference  between  Charles,  James, 
Arlington,  Clifford  and  Arundel  had  taken  place,  which  resulted 
a  year  and  a  half  later  in  the  disgraceful  treaty  of  Dover.  To 
such  schemes  Sir  William,  with  his  steady  hostility  to  France 
and  active  devotion  to  Protestantism,  was  doubtless  a  formidable 
opponent.  He  now  withdrew  definitely  from  official  life,  still 
retaining,  however,  his  ascendancy  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
leading  the  party  which  condemned  and  criticized  the  reactionary 
and  fatal  policy  of  the  government,  his  credit  and  reputation 
being  rather  enhanced  than  diminished  by  his  dismissal.1 

In  1673  was  published  a  pamphlet  which  went  through  five 
editions  the  same  year,  entitled  England's  appeal  from  the 
Private  Cabal  at  Whitehall  to  the  Great  Council  of  the  Nation  .  .  . 
by  a  true  Lover  of  his  Country,  an  anonymous  work  universally 
ascribed  to  Sir  William,  which  forcibly  reflects  his  opinions  on 
the  French  entanglement.  In  the  great  matter  of  the  Indulgence, 
while  refusing  to  discuss  the  limits  of  prerogative  and  liberty,  he 
argued  that  the  dispensing  power  of  the  crown  could  not  be  valid 
during  the  session  of  parliament,  and  criticized  the  manner  of 
the  declaration  while  approving  its  ostensible  object.  He  sup- 
ported the  Test  Act,  but  maintained  a  statesmanlike  moderation 
amidst  the  tide  of  indignation  rising  against  the  government,  and 
refused  to  take  part  in  the  personal  attacks  upon  ministers, 
drawing  upon  himself  the  same  unpopularity  as  his  nephew 
Halifax  incurred  later.  In  the  same  year  he  warmly  denounced 
the  alliance  with  France.  During  the  summer  of  1674  he  was 
again  received  at  court.  In  1675  he  supported  the  bill  to  ex- 
clude Roman  Catholics  from  both  Houses,  and  also  the  measure 
to  close  the  House  of  Commons  to  placemen;  and  he  showed 
great  activity  in  his  opposition  to  the  French  connexion,  especially 
stigmatizing  the  encouragement  given  by  the  government  to 
the  levying  of  troops  for  the  French  service.  In  May  1677  he 
voted  for  the  Dutch  alliance.  Like  most  of  his  contemporaries 
he  accepted  the  story  of  the  popish  plot  in  1678.  Coventry 
several  times  refused  the  highest  court  appointments,  and  he  was 
not  included  in  Sir  W.  Temple's  new-modelled  council  in  April 
1679.  In  the  exclusion  question  he  favoured  at  first  a  policy  of 
limitations,  and  on  his  nephew  Halifax,  who  on  his  retirement 
became  the  leader  of  the  moderate  party,  he  enjoined  prudence 
and  patience,  and  greatly  regretted  the  violence  of  the  opposition 
which  eventually  excited  a  reaction  and  ruined  everything.  He 
refused  to  stand  for  the  new  parliament,  and  retired  to  his  country 
residence  at  Minster  Lovell  near  Witney,  in  Oxfordshire.  He 
died  unmarried  on  the  23rd  of  June  1686,  at  Somerhill  near 
Tunbridge  Wells,  where  he  had  gone  to  take  the  waters,  and 
was  buried  at  Penshurst,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory.  In  his  will  he  ordered  his  funeral  to  be  at  small  expense, 
and  left  £2000  to  the  French  Protestant  refugees  in  England, 
besides  £3000  for  the  liberation  of  captives  in  Algiers.  He  had 
shortly  before  his  death  already  paid  for  the  liberation  of  sixty 
slaves.  He  was  much  beloved  and  respected  in  his  family  circle, 
his  nephew,  Henry  Savile,  alluding  to  him  in  affectionate  terms 
as  "  our  dearest  uncle  "  and  "  incomparable  friend." 

Though  Sir  William  Coventry  never  filled  that  place  in  the 
national  administration  to  which  his  merit  and  exceptional 
ability  clearly  entitled  him,  his  public  life  together  with  his 
correspondence  are  sufficient  to  distinguish  him  from  amongst 
his  contemporaries  as  a  statesman  of  the  first  rank.  Lord 
Halifax  obviously  derived  from  his  honoured  mentor  those 
principles  of  government  which,  by  means  of  his  own  brilliant 
1  Savile  Correspondence  (Camden  Soc.),  295. 


intellectual  gifts,  originality  and  imaginative  insight,  gained 
further  force  and  influence.  Halifax  owed  to  him  his  interest 
in  the  navy  and  his  grasp  of  the  necessity  to  a  country  of  a 
powerful  maritime  force.  He  drew  his  antagonism  to  France, 
his  religious  tolerance,  wide  religious  views  but  firm  Protestantism 
doubtless  from  the  same  source.  Sir  William  was  the  original 
"Trimmer."  Writing  to  his  nephew  Viscount  Weymouth, 
while  denying  the  authorship  of  The  Character  of  a  Trimmer, 
he  says: — "  I  have  not  been  ashamed  to  own  myself  to  be  a 
trimmer  .  .  .  one  who  would  sit  upright  and  not  overturn  the 
boat  by  swaying  too  much  to  either  side."  He  shared  the 
Trimmer's  dislike  of  party,  urging  Halifax  in  the  exclusion 
contest  "  not  to  be  thrust  by  the  opposition  of  his  enemies  into 
another  party,  but  that  he  keep  upon  a  national  bottom  which 
at  length  will  prevail."  His  prudence  is  expressed  in  his 
"  perpetual  unwillingness  to  do  things  which  I  cannot  undo." 
"  A  singular  independence  of  spirit,  a  breadth  of  mind  which 
refused  to  be  contracted  by  party  formulas,  a  sanity,  which  was 
proof  against  the  contagion  of  national  delirium,  were  equally 
characteristic  of  uncle  and  nephew."  2  Sir  William  Coventry's 
conceptions  of  statesmanship,  under  the  guiding  hand  of  his 
nephew,  largely  inspired  the  future  revolution  settlement,  and 
continued  to  be  an  essential  condition  of  English  political 
growth  and  progress. 

Besides  the  tract  already  mentioned  Coventry  was  the  author 
of  A  Letter  to  Dr  Burnet  giving  an  Account  of  Cardinal  Pool's 
Secret  Powers  .  .  .  (1685).  The  Character  of  a  Trimmer,  often 
ascribed  to  him,  is  now  known  to  have  been  written  by  Lord 
Halifax.  "  Notes  concerning  the  Poor,"  and  an  essay  "  concern- 
ing the  decay  of  rents  and  the  remedy,"  are  among  the  Malet 
Papers  (Hist.  MSS.  Comm.  Ser.  sth  Rep.  app.  320  (a))  and 
Add.  MSS.  Brit.  Mus.  (cal.  1882-1887);  an  "  Essay  concerning 
France  "  (4th  Rep.  app.  2  29  (6))  and  a  "Discourse  on  the  Manage- 
ment of  the  Navy  "  (23ob)  are  among  the  MSS.  of  the  marquess 
of  Bath,  also  a  catalogue  of  his  library  (233(0)). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — No  adequate  life  of  Sir  William  Coventry  has 
been  written;  the  most  satisfactory  appreciation  of  his  character 
and  abilities  is  to  be  found  in  the  several  passages  relating  to  him 
in  the  Life  of  George  Savile,  Marquis  of  Halifax,  by  Miss  A.  C.  Fox- 
croft  (1898);  see  also  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.  3  and  4  Rep.  (Longleat 
Collection),  5  Rep.  (Malet  Collection  and  see  Index)  now  in  the  Brit. 
Mus.  add.  Cal.  (1882-1887),  some  of  his  papers  being  also  at  Devon- 
shire House;  MSS.  of  Marquis  of  Ormond,  iii.  of  J.  M.  Heathcpte 
and  Miscellaneous  Collections;  Clarendon's  Life  and  Continuation 
(Oxford,  1857);  Calendar  of  Clarendon  Papers;  Burnet' s  Hist,  of 
His  Own  Times  (Oxford,  1823);  Hallam's  Constitutional  Hist.  (1854), 
chap.  xi. ;  John  Evelyn's  Memoirs;  Pepys's  Diary  and  Pepysiana 
(ed.  H.  B.  Wheatley,  1903);  Calendar  of  State  Papers,  Domestic; 
Savile  Correspondence  (Camden  Society,  1858,  vol.  Ixxi.);  A.  Grey's 
Debates;  Sir  John  Bramston's  Autobiography  (Camden  Soc.,  1845); 
Wood's  Athenae  Oxonienses,  iv.  190;  Saturday  Review  (Oct.  n, 
1873)-  (P.  C.  Y.) 

COVENTRY,  a  municipal,  county  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  Warwickshire,  England;  94  m.  N.W.  from  London  by  the 
London  &  North  Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  69,978.  The 
Coventry  canal  communicates  with  the  Trent  and  Mersey  and 
Birmingham  canals,  and  the  midland  system  generally. 
Coventry  stands  on  a  gentle  eminence,  with  higher  ground  lying 
to  the  west,  and  is  watered  by  the  Sherbourne  and  the  Radford 
Brook,  feeders  of  the  Avon,  which  unite  within  the  town.  Of  its 
ancient  fortifications  two  gates  and  some  portions  of  the  wall  are 
still  extant,  and  several  of  the  older  streets  are  picturesque  from 
the  number  of  half-timbered  houses  projecting  over  the  footways. 

The  most  remarkable  buildings  are  the  churches;  of  these  the 
oldest  are  St  Michael's,  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Perpen- 
dicular architecture  in  England,  with  a  beautiful  steeple  rising 
to  a  height  of  303  ft. ;  Holy  Trinity  church,  a  cruciform  structure 
with  a  lofty  steeple  at  the  intersection  ;  and  St  John's,  or 
Bablake  church,  which  is  nearly  a  parallelogram  on  the  ground 
plan,  but  cruciform  in  the  clerestory  with  a  central  tower. 
Christ  church  dates  only  from  1832,  but  it  is  attached  to  the 
ancient  spire  of  the  Grey  Friars'  church.  Of  secular  buildings  the 
most  interesting  is  St  Mary's  hall,  erected  by  the  united  gilds  in 
the  early  part  of  the  isth  century.  The  principal  chamber, 
2  Foxcroft's  Life  of  Sir  G.  Savile,  i.  36. 


COVERDALE 


343 


situated  above  a  fine  crypt,  is  76  ft.  long,  30  ft.  wide  and  34  ft. 
high;  its  roof  is  of  carved  oak,  and  in  the  north  end  there  is  a 
large  window  of  old  stained  glass,  with  a  curious  piece  of  tapestry 
beneath  nearly  as  old  as  the  building.  In  the  treasury  is  preserved 
a  valuable  collection  of  ancient  muniments.  A  statue  of  Sir 
Thomas  White,  lord  mayor  of  London  (1532-1533),  founder  of 
St  John's  College,  Oxford,  was  erected  in  1883.  The  cemetery, 
laid  out  by  Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  the  architect  and  landscape 
gardener,  and  enlarged  in  1887,  is  particularly  beautiful.  The 
educational  institutions  include  a  well-endowed  free  grammar 
school,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  in  modern  buildings 
(1885),  a  technical  school,  school  of  art,  endowed  charity  schools, 
and  a  county  reformatory  for  girls;  and  among  the  charitable 
foundations,  which  are  numerous  and  valuable,  Bond's  hospital 
for  old  men  and  Ford's  hospital  for  old  women  are  remarkable  as 
fine  specimens  of  ancient  timber  work.  Swanswell  and  Spenser 
Parks  were  opened  in  1883,  and  a  recreation  ground  in  1880. 

Coventry  was  formerly  noted  for  its  woollens,  and  subsequently 
acquired  such  a  reputation  for  its  dyeing  that  the  expression  "  as 
true  as  Coventry  blue  "  became  proverbial.  Existing  industries 
are  the  making  of  motor  cars,  cycles  and  their  accessories,  for 
which  Coventry  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  in  Great  Britain; 
sewing  machines  are  also  produced;  and  carpet- weaving  and 
dyeing,  art  metal  working  and  watch  making  are  carried  on. 
An  ancient  fair  is  held  in  Whit- week.  A  county  of  itself  till  1 843 , 
the  town  became  a  county  borough  in  1888.  The  corporation 
consists  of  a  mayor,  10  aldermen  and  30  councillors.  The 
parliamentary  borough  returns  one  member.  In  1 894  a  suffragan 
bishopric  of  Coventry  was  established  under  the  see  of  Wor- 
cester, but  no  longer  exists.  Area,  4149  acres. 

The  village  which  afterwards  became  important  as  Coventry 
(Covenireu,  Coventre)  owed  its  existence  to  the  foundation  of  a 
Benedictine  monastery  by  Earl  Leofric  and  his  wife  Godgyfu, 
the  famous  Lady  Godiva  (q.v.),  in  1043.  The  manor,  which  in 
1066  belonged  to  the  latter,  descended  to  the  earls  of  Chester  and 
to  Robert  de  Montalt,  and  from  him  passed  to  Isabella  queen  of 
Edward  II.  and  the  crown.  Ranulf,  earl  of  Chester,  granted  the 
earliest  extant  charter  to  the  town  in  1 1 53,  by  which  his  burgesses 
were  to  hold  of  him  in  free  burgage  as  they  held  of  his  father, 
and  to  have  their  portmote.  This,  with  further  privileges,  was 
confirmed  by  Henry  II.  in  1177,  and  by  nearly  every  succeeding 
sovereign  until  the  I7th  century.  In  1345  Edward  III.  gave 
Coventry  a  corporation,  mayor  and  bailiffs  empowered  to  hold 
pleas  and  keep  the  town  prison.  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
granted  the  mayor  and  bailiffs  the  right  to  hold  the  town  in  fee 
farm  of  £50  and  to  build  a  wall.  In  1452  Henry  VI.  formed  the 
city  and  surrounding  hamlets  into  a  county,  and  James  I. 
incorporated  Coventry  in  1622.  It  first  sent  two  representatives 
to  parliament  in  1295,  but  the  returns  were  irregular.  The 
prior's  market  on  Fridays  was  probably  of  Saxon  origin;  a 
second  market  was  granted  in  1348,  while  fairs,  still  held,  were 
obtained  in  1 21 7  for  the  octave  of  Holy  Trinity,  and  in  1348  and  in 
1442  for  eight  days  from  the  Friday  after  Corpus  Christi.  As 
early  as  1216  Coventry  was  important  for  its  trade  in  wool,  cloth 
and  caps,  its  gilds  later  being  particularly  numerous  and  wealthy. 
In  1 568  Flemish  weavers  introduced  new  methods,  but  the  trade 
was  destroyed  in  the  wars  of  the  I7th  century.  During  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century  there  was  a  flourishing  manufacture 
of  blue  thread,  but  this  decayed  before  1581;  in  the  i8th 
century  the  manufacture  of  ribbon  was  introduced. 

The  popular  phrase  "  to  send  to  Coventry  "  (i.e.  to  refuse  to 
associate  with  a  person)  is  of  uncertain  derivation.  The  New 
English  Dictionary  selects  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  of  the  1 7th 
century  as  that  in  which  the  origin  of  the  phrase  is  probably  to  be 
found.  Clarendon  (History  of  the  Great  Rebellion,  1647)  states 
that  the  citizens  of  Birmingham  rose  against  certain  small 
parties  of  the  king's  supporters,  and  sent  the  prisoners  they 
captured  to  Coventry,  which  was  then  strongly  parliamentarian. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Warwick;  William  Dugdale,  The 
Antiquities  of  Coventre,  illustrated  from  records  (Coventry,  1765). 

COVER  (from  the  Fr.  cowert,  from  cottvrir,  to  cover,  Lat. 
cooperire),  that  which  hides,  shuts  in  or  conceals,  a  lid  to  a 


box  or  vessel,  &c.,  the  binding  of  a  book  or  wrapper  of  a  parcel; 
as  a  hunting  term,  the  wood  or  undergrowth  which  shelters  game. 
As  a  commercial  term,  the  word  means  in  its  widest  sense  a 
security  against  loss,  but  is  employed  more  particularly  in 
connexion  with  stock  exchange  transactions  to  signify  a  "  deposit 
made  with  a  broker  to  secure  him  from  being  out  of  pocket  in  the 
event  of  the  stocks  falling  against  his  client  and  the  client  not 
paying  the  difference  "  (In  re  Cronmire,  1898,  2  Q.  B.  383).  It  is  a 
mode  of  speculation  engaged  in  almost  entirely  by  persons  who 
wish  to  limit  their  risk  to  a  small  amount,  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
transactions  are  largely  carried  out  in  England  with  "  outside  " 
brokers,  i.e.  those  dealers  in  securities  who  are  not  members  of 
the  Stock  Exchange.  The  deposit  is  so  much  per  cent  or  per 
share,  usually  i  %  on  the  market  value  of  the  securities  up  to 
about  twice  the  amount  of  the  turn  of  the  market;  the  client 
being  able  to  close  the  transaction  at  any  time  during  the  currency 
of  the  cover,  but  the  broker  only  when  the  cover  is  exhausted  or 
has  "  run  off."  Cover  is  not  money  deposited  to  abide  the  event 
of  a  wager,  but  as  security  against  a  debt  which  may  arise  from 
a  gaming  contract,  and  it  may  be  recovered  back,  if  un- 
appropriated. 

COVERDALE,  MILES  (1488  7-1569),  English  translator  of  the 
Bible  and  bishop  of  Exeter,  was  born  of  Yorkshire  parents  about 
1488,  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  Cambridge,  was 
ordained  priest  at  Norwich  in  1 514,  and  then  entered  the  convent 
of  Austin  friars  at  Cambridge.  Here  he  came  under  the  influence 
of  the  prior,  Robert  Barnes,  made  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Thomas 
More  and  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  and  began  a  thorough  study  of 
the  Scriptures.  He  was  one  of  those  who  met  at  the  White 
Horse  tavern  to  discuss  theological  questions,  and  when  Barnes 
was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  Coverdale  went  up  to  London 
to  assist  him  in  drawing  up  his  defence.  Soon  afterwards  he 
left  the  convent,  assumed  the  habit  of  a  secular  priest,  and  began 
to  preach  against  confession  and  the  worship  of  images.  In 
1531  he  graduated  "bachelor  of  canon  law  at  Cambridge,  but  from 
1528  to  1534  he  prudently  spent  most  of  his  time  abroad.  No 
corroboration  has,  however,  been  found  for  Foxe's  statement 
that  in  1529  he  was  at  Hamburg  assisting  Tyndale  in  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch.  In  1 534  he  published  two  translations  of 
his  own,  the  first  Dulichius's  Vom  alien  und  newen  Colt,  and  the 
second  a  Paraphrase  upon  the  Psalms,  and  in  1535  he  completed 
his  translation  of  the  Bible.  The  venture  seems  to  have  been 
projected  by  Jacob  van  Meteren,  who  apparently  employed 
Coverdale  to  do  the  translation,  and  Froschover  of  Zurich  to 
do  the  printing.  No  perfect  copy  is  known  to  exist,  and  the  five 
or  six  which  alone  have  title-pages  give  no  name  of  publisher 
or  place  of  publication.  The  volume  is  dedicated  to  the  king  of 
England,  where  Convocation  at  Cranmer's  instance  had,  in 
December  1534,  petitioned  for  an  authorized  English  version  of 
the  Scriptures.  As  a  work  of  scholarship  it  does  not  rank 
particularly  high.  Some  of  the  title-pages  state  that  it  had  been 
translated  out  of  "Douche"  (i.e.  German)  "and  Latyn":  and 
Coverdale  mentions  that  he  used  five  interpreters,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  Vulgate,  the  Latin  version  of  Pagninus, 
Luther's  translation,  the  Zurich  version,  and  Tyndale's  Penta- 
teuch and  New  Testament.  There  is  no  definite  mention  of  the 
original  Greek  and  Hebrew  texts;  but  it  has  considerable 
literary  merit,  many  of  Coverdale's  phrases  are  retained  in  the 
authorized  version,  and  it  was  the  first  complete  Bible  to  be 
printed  in  English.  Two  fresh  editions  were  issued  in  1537,  but 
none  of  them  received  official  sanction.  Coverdale  was,  however, 
employed  by  Cromwell  to  assist  in  the  production  of  the  Great 
Bible  of  1539,  which  was  ordered  to  be  placed  in  all  English 
churches.  The  work  was  done  at  Paris  until  the  French  govern- 
ment stopped  it,  when  Coverdale  and  his  colleagues  returned 
to  England  early  in  1539  to  complete  it.  He  was  also  employed 
in  the  same  year  in  assisting  at  the  suppression  of  superstitious 
usages,  but  the  reaction  of  1540  drove  him  once  more  abroad. 
His  Bible  was  prohibited  by  proclamation  in  1 542,  while  Coverdale 
himself  defied  the  Six  Articles  by  marrying  Elizabeth  Macheson. 
sister-in-law  to  Dr  John  MacAlpine. 

For  a  time  Coverdale  lived  at  Tubingen,  where  he  was  created 


344 


COVERTURE— COVILHAM 


D.D.  In  1545  he  was  pastor  and  schoolmaster  at  Bergzabern 
in  the  duchy  of  Pfalz-Zweibriicken.  In  March  1548  he  was  at 
Frankfort,  when  the  new  English  Order  of  Communion  reached 
him;  he  at  once  translated  it  into  German  and  Latin  and  sent 
a  copy  to  Calvin,  whose  wife  had  befriended  Coverdale  at  Strass- 
burg.  Calvin,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  approved  of  it 
so  highly  as  Coverdale. 

Coverdale  was  already  on  his  way  back  to  England,  and  in 
October  1548  he  was  staying  at  Windsor  Castle,  where  Cranmer 
and  some  other  divines,  inaccurately  called  the  Windsor  Com- 
mission, were  preparing  the  First  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  His 
first  appointment  had  been  as  almoner  to  Queen  Catherine  Parr, 
then  wife  of  Lord  Seymour;  and  he  preached  her  funeral  sermon 
in  September  1548.  He  was  also  chaplain  to  the  young  king 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  reforming  measures  of  his  reign. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  effective  preachers  of  the  time.  A  sermon 
by  him  at  St  Paul's  on  the  second  Sunday  in  Lent,  1549,  was 
immediately  followed  by  the  pulling  down  of  "  the  sacrament 
at  the  high  altar."  A  few  weeks  later  he  preached  at  the  penance 
of  some  Anabaptists,  and  in  January  1550  he  was  put  on  a 
commission  to  prosecute  Anabaptists  and  all  who  infringed  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  In  1549  he  wrote  a  dedication  to 
Edward  for  a  translation  of  the  second  volume  of  Erasmus's 
Paraphrases;  and  in  1550  he  translated  Otto  Wermueller's 
Precious  Pearl,  for  which  Protector  Somerset,  who  had  derived 
spiritual  comfort  from  the  book  while  in  the  Tower,  wrote  a 
preface.  He  was  much  in  request  at  funerals:  he  preached 
at  Sir  James  Wilford's  in  November  153°,  and  at  Lord  Went- 
worth's  before  a  great  concourse  in  Westminster  Abbey  in 
March  1551. 

Perhaps  it  was  his  gift  of  oratory  which  suggested  his  appoint- 
ment as  bishop  of  the  refractory  men  of  Devon  and  Cornwall. 
He  had  already,  in  August  1549,  at  some  risk,  gone  down  with 
Lord  Russell  to  turn  the  hearts  of  the  rebels  by  preaching  and 
persuasion,  and  two  years  later  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Exeter 
by  letters  patent,  on  the  compulsory  retirement  of  his  pre- 
decessor, Veysey,  who  had  reached  an  almost  mythical  age. 
He  was  an  active  prelate,  and  perhaps  the  vigorous  Protestantism 
of  the  West  in  Elizabeth's  reign  was  partly  due  to  his  persuasive 
powers.  He  sat  on  the  commission  for  the  reform  of  the  canon 
law,  and  was  in  constant  attendance  during  the  parliaments  of 
1552  and  1553.  On  Mary's  accession  he  was  at  once  deprived 
on  the  score  of  his  marriage,  and  Veysey  in  spite  of  his  age  was 
restored.  Coverdale  was  called  before  the  privy  council  on  the 
ist  of  September,  and  required  to  find  sureties;  but  he  was  not 
further  molested,  and  when  Christian  III.  of  Denmark  at  the 
instance  of  Coverdale's  brother-in-law,  MacAlpine,  interceded 
in  his  favour,  he  was  in  February  1555  permitted  to  leave  for 
Denmark  with  two  servants,  and  his  baggage  unsearched;  one 
of  these  "  servants  "  is  said  to  have  been  his  wife.  He  declined 
Christian's  offer  of  a  living  in  Denmark,  and  preferred  to  preach 
at  Wesel  to  the  numerous  English  refugees  there,  until  he  was 
invited  by  Duke  Wolfgang  to  resume  his  labours  at  Bergzabern. 
He  was  at  Geneva  in  December  1558,  and  is  said  to  have  partici- 
pated in  the  preparation  of  the  Geneva  version  of  the  Bible. 

In  1559  Coverdale  returned  to  England  and  resumed  his 
preaching  at  St  Paul's  and  elsewhere.  Clothed  in  a  plain  black 
gown,  he  assisted  at  Parker's  consecration,  in  spite  of  the  facts 
that  he  had  himself  been  deprived,  and  did  not  resume  his 
bishopric,  and  that  his  original  appointment  had  been  by  the 
uncanonical  method  of  letters  patent.  Conscientious  objections 
were  probably  responsible  for  his  non-restoration  to  the  see  of 
Exeter,  and  his  refusal  of  that  of  Llandaff  in  1563.  He  objected 
to  vestments,  and  in  his  living  of  St  Magnus  close  to  London 
Bridge,  which  he  received  in  1563,  he  took  other  liberties  with 
the  Act  of  Uniformity.  His  bishop,  Grindal,  was  his  friend,  and 
his  vagaries  were  overlooked  until  1566,  when  he  resigned  his 
living  rather  than  conform.  He  still  preached  occasionally,  and 
always  drew  large  audiences.  He  died  in  February  1568,  and 
was  buried  on  the  igth  in  St  Bartholomew's  behind  the  Exchange. 
When  this  church  was  pulled  down  in  1840  to  make  room  for 
the  new  Exchange,  his  remains  were  removed  to  St  Magnus. 


Coverdale's  works,  most  of  them  translations,  number  twenty-six 
in  all;  nearly  all,  with  his  letters,  were  published  in  a  collected 
edition  by  th'e  Parker  Soc.,  2  vols.,  1846.  An  excellent  account  is 
given  in  the  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  of  his  life,  with  authorities,  to  which 
may  be  added  R.  W.  Dixon's  Church  History,  Bishop  and  Gasquet's 
Edward  VI.  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer;  Acts  of  the  Privy 
Council;  Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII.;  Lit.  Rem.  of 
Edward  VI.  (Roxburghe  Club) ;  Whittingham's  Brief  Discourse  of 
Troubles  at  Frankfort;  Pocock's  Troubles  connected  with  the  Prayer- 
Book  (Camden  Soc.).  (A.  F.  P.) 

COVERTURE  (a  covering,  an  old  French  form  of  the  modern 
couverture),  a  term  in  English  law  applied  to  the  condition  of  a 
woman  during  marriage,  when  she  is  supposed  to  be  under  the 
cover,  influence  and  protection  of  her  husband,  and  so  immune 
in  certain  cases  from  punishment  for  crime  committed  in  the 
presence  and  on  the  presumed  coercion  of  her  husband.  (See 
further  HUSBAND  AND  WIFE.) 

COVILHA,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  district  of  Castello 
Branco,  formerly  included  in  the  province  of  Beira;  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Serra  da  Estrella,  and  on  the  Abrantes- 
Guarda  railway.  Pop.  (190x5)  15,469.  Covilha,  which  has  been 
often  compared  with  a  collection  of  swallows'  nests  clinging  to 
the  rugged  granitic  mountain  side,  is  shaped  like  an  amphi- 
theatre of  closely  crowded  houses,  overlooking  the  river  Zezere 
and  its  wild  valley  from  a  height  of  2 1 80  ft.  Over  4000  operatives 
are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  saragoqa,  a  coarse  brown 
cloth  worn  by  the  peasantry  throughout  Portugal.  The  village 
of  Unhaesda  Serra  (1507),  6  m.  W.S.W.,  is  no  ted  for  its  sulphurous 
springs  and  baths. 

COVILHAM  (COVILHAO,  COVILHA),  PERO  or  PEDRO  DE, 
Portuguese  explorer  and  diplomatist  (fl.  1487-1525),  was  a  native 
of  Covilha  in  Beira.  In  early  life  he  had  gone  to  Castile  and 
entered  the  service  of  Alphonso,  duke  of  Seville;  later,  when  war 
broke  out  between  Castile  and  Portugal,  he  returned  to  his  own 
country,  and  attached  himself,  first  as  a  "  groom,"  then  as  a 
"  squire,"  to  King  Alphonso  V.  and  his  successor  John  II. 
On  the  7th  of  May  1487,  he  was  despatched,  in  company  with 
Alphonso  de  Payva,  on  a  mission  of  exploration  in  the  Levant  and 
adjoining  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa,  with  the  special  object  of 
learning  where  "  cinnamon  and  other  spices  could  be  found,"  as 
well  as  of  discovering  the  land  of  Prester  John,  by  "  overland  " 
routes.  Bartholomeu  Diaz,  at  this  very  time,  went  out  to  find 
the  Prester's  country,  as  well  as  the  termination  of  the  African 
continent  and  the  ocean  route  to  India,  by  sea.  Covilham  and 
Payva  were  provided  with  a  "  letter  of  credence  for  all  the 
countries  of  the  world  "  and  with  a  "  map  for  navigating,  taken 
from  the  map  of  the  world"  and  compiled  by  Bishop  Calcadilha, 
and  doctors  Rodrigo  and  Moyses.  The  first  two  of  these  were 
prominent  members  of  the  commission  which  advised  the 
Portuguese  government  to  reject  the  proposals  of  Columbus. 
The  explorers  started  from  Santarem  and  travelled  by  Barcelona 
to  Naples,  where  their  bills  of  exchange  were  paid  by  the  sons  of 
Cosimo  de'  Medici;  thence  they  passed  to  Rhodes,  where  they 
lodged  with  two  other  Portuguese,  and  so  to  Alexandria  and 
Cairo,  where  they  posed  as  merchants.  In  company  with  certain 
Moors  from  Fez  and  Tlempen  they  now  went  by  way  of  Tor  to 
Suakin  and  Aden,  where  (as  it  was  now  monsoon  time)  they 
parted,  Covilham  proceeding  to  India  and  Payva  to  Ethiopia — 
the  two  companions  agreeing  to  meet  again  in  Cairo.  Covilham 
thus  arrived  at  Cannanore  and  Calicut,  whence  he  retraced  his 
course  to  Goa  and  Ormuz,  the  Red  Sea  and  Cairo,  making  an 
excursion  on  his  way  down  the  East  African  coast  to  Sofala, 
which  he  was  probably  the  first  European  to  visit.  At  Cairo  he 
heard  of  Payva's  death,  and  met  with  two  Portuguese  Jews — 
Rabbi  Abraham  of  Beja,  and  Joseph,  a  shoe-maker  of  Lamego — 
who  had  been  sent  by  King  John  with 'letters  for  Covilham 
and  Payva.  By  Joseph  of  Lamego  Covilham  replied  with  an 
account  of  his  Indian  and  African  journeys,  and  of  his  observa- 
tions on  the  cinnamon,  pepper  and  clove  trade  at  Calicut, 
together  with  advice  as  to  the  ocean  way  to  India.  This  he  truly 
represented  as  quite  practicable:  "  to  this  they  (of  Portugal) 
could  navigate  by  their  coast  and  the  seas  of  Guinea."  The 
first  objective  in  the  eastern  ocean,  he  added,  was  Sofala  or  the 


COVIN— COWBRIDGE 


345 


Island  of  the  Moon,  our  Madagascar — "  from  each  of  these  lands 
one  can  fetch  the  coast  of  Calicut."  With  this  information 
Joseph  returned  to  Portugal,  while  Covilham,  with  Abraham  of 
Beja,  again  visited  Aden  and  Ormuz.  At  the  latter  he  left  the 
rabbi ;  and  himself  came  back  to  Jidda,  the  port  of  the  Arabian 
holy  land,  and  penetrated  (as  he  told  Alvarez  many  years  later) 
even  to  Mecca  and  Medina.  Finally,  by  Mount  Sinai,  Tor  and 
the  Red  Sea,  he  reached  Zeila,  whence  he  struck  inland  to  the 
court  of  Prester  John  (i.e.  Abyssinia).  Here  he  was  honourably 
received;  lands  and  lordships  were  bestowed  upon  him;  but  he 
was  not  permitted  to  leave.  When  the  Portuguese  embassy 
under  Rodrigo  de  Lima,  including  Father  Francisco  Alvarez, 
entered  Abyssinia  in  1520,  Covilham  wept  with  joy  at  the  sight 
of  his  fellow-countrymen.  It  was  then  forty  years  since  he  had 
left  Portugal,  and  over  thirty  since  he  had  been  a  prisoner  of 
state  in  "  Ethiopia."  Alvarez,  who  professed  to  know  him  well, 
and  to  have  heard  the  story  of  his  life,  both  "  in  confession  and 
out  of  it,"  praises  his  power  of  vivid  description  "  as  if  things 
were  present  before  him,"  and  his  extraordinary  knowledge  of 
"  all  spoken  languages  of  Christians,  Moors  and  Gentiles."  His 
services  as  an  interpreter  were  valuable  to  Rodrigo  de  Lima's 
embassy;  but  he  never  succeeded  in  escaping  from  Abyssinia. 

See  Francisco  Alvarez,  Verdadera  Informa$am  das  terras  do 
Presle  Joam,  esp.  chs.  73,  89,  98,  102-103,  105  (pp.  177,  224,  254,  264, 
265-270,  275,  of  the  Hakluyt  Society's  English  edition,  The  Portu- 
guese Embassy  to  Abyssinia  .  .  .  1520-1727,  London,  1881);  an 
abstract  of  this,  with  some  inaccuracies,  is  given  in  Major's  Prince 
Henry  the  Navigator  (London,  1868),  pp.  339-340. 

COVIN  (from  the  Fr.  covine,  or  couvine,  from  Lat.  convenire,  to 
come  together),  an  association  of  persons,  so  used  in  the  Statute  of 
Labourers  of  1360,  which,  inter  alia,  declared  void  "  all  alliances 
and  covins  of  masons  and  carpenters."  The  more  common  use  of 
the  term  in  English  law  was  for  a  secret  agreement  between 
persons  to  cheat  and  defraud,  but  the  word  is  now  obsolete,  and 
has  been  superseded  by  "  collusion  "  or  "  conspiracy  to  cheat 
and  defraud." 

COVINGTON,  a  city  and  one  of  the  two  county-seats  of  Kenton 
county,  Kentucky,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Ohio  river  opposite  Cincinnati, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  bridges;  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Licking  river  (also  spanned  by  bridges),  opposite  Newport,  Ky. 
Pop.  (1890)  37,371;  (1900)  42,938,  of  whom  5223  were  foreign- 
born  and  2478  were  negroes;  (1910)  53,270.  In  1900  it  ranked 
second  in  population  among  the  cities  of  Kentucky.  The 
city  is  served  by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  and  the  Louisville 
&  Nashville  railways,  by  interurban  electric  railways,  and  by 
steamboat  lines  to  the  Ohio  river  ports.  It  is  built  on  a  plain 
commanding  good  views  and  partly  shut  in  by  neighbouring 
hills.  Its  streets,  mostly  named  from  eminent  Kentuckians, 
are  paved  chiefly  with  asphalt,  macadam  and  brick.  There 
are  numerous  fine  residences  and  several  attractive  public 
buildings,  including  that  of  the  United  States  government — 
modern  Gothic  in  style — the  court-house  and  city  hall  com- 
bined, and  the  public  library.  Covington  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishopric,  and  its  cathedral,  in  the  flamboyant 
Gothic  style,  is  one  of  the  finest  church  buildings  in  the  state. 
In  the  city  are  the  Academy  of  Notre  Dame  and  St  Joseph's 
high  school  for  boys,  both  Roman  Catholic.  The  principal 
charitable  institutions  are  the  hospital  of  Saint  Elizabeth,  a 
German  orphan  asylum,  a  Protestant  children's  home,  a  home 
for  aged  women  and  a  Wayfarers'  Rest.  Covington  is  the  trade 
centre  of  an  extensive  district  engaged  in  agriculture  and  stock 
raising,  and  as  a  manufacturing  centre  it  ranked  second  in  the 
state  in  1905  (value  of  factory  products  $6,099,715),  its  products 
including  tobacco,  cotton  goods,  structural  iron  and  steel,  foundry 
and  machine  shop  products,  liquors  and  cordage.  A  settlement 
was  established  here  in  1812,  and  three  years  later  a  town  was  laid 
out  and  named  in  honour  of  Gen.  Leonard  Covington  (1768-1813), 
who  was  mortally  wounded  at  Chrystler's  Field  during  the  War 
of  1812.  In  1834  Covington  was  chartered  as  a  city;  and  in 
1908  it  annexed  Central  Covington  (pop.  in  1900,  2155). 

COWARD,  a  term  of  contempt  for  one  who,  before  danger, 
pain  or  trouble,  shows  fear,  whether  physical  or  moral.  The 
derivation  of  the  word  has  been  obscured  by  a  connexion  in  sense 


with  the  verb  "  cow,"  to  instil  fear  into,  which  is  derived  from 
old  Norse  kuga,  a  word  of  similar  meaning,  and  with  the  verb 
"  cower,"  to  crouch,  which  is  also  Scandinavian  in  origin.1  The 
true  derivation  is  from  the  French  coe,  an  old  form  of  queue,  a 
tail,  from  Lat.  cauda,  hence  couart  or  couard.  The  reference  to 
"  tail  "  is  either  to  the  expression  "  turn  tail  "  in  flight,  or  to  the 
habit  of  animals  dropping  the  tail  between  the  legs  when 
frightened;  in  heraldry,  a  lion  in  this  position  is  a  "  lion  coward." 
In  the  fable  of  Reynard  the  Fox  the  name  of  the  hare  is  Coart, 
Kywart,  Cuwaert  or  other  variants. 

COWBRIDGE,  a  market  town  and  a  municipal  and  contri- 
butory parliamentary  borough  of  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  with 
a  station  on  the  Taff  Vale  railway  branch  from  Llantrisant  to 
Aberthaw  on  the  coast,  distant  by  rail  162^  m.  from  London, 
12  m.  W.  of  Cardiff,  7  m.  S.E.  of  Bridgend,  and  6  m.  S.  of  Llan- 
trisant station.  The  population  in  1901  was  1202,  a  decrease 
of  over  12%  since  1891.  Less  than  one-third  of  the  number  was 
Welsh-speaking.  The  town  mainly  consists  of  one  long  street 
running  east  and  west,  and  is  in  a  wide  valley  through  which 
runs  the  river  Thaw  (Welsh,  Ddawan),  here  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge. 

Cowbridge  is  probably  situated  on  the  Roman  road  from 
Cardiff  westwards,  which  seems  to  have  kept  nearly  the  course 
of  the  present  main  road.  Roman  coins  have  been  discovered 
here.  It  has  in  fact  been  suggested,  mainly  on  etymological 
grounds,  that  the  town  occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  Bovium: 
the  modern  Welsh  name,  y  Bontfaen  ("  stone  bridge  ")  is 
probably  a  corruption  of  the  medieval,  Pont  y  f6n,  the  precise 
equivalent  of  "  Cowbridge,"  which  is  first  found  in  documents 
of  the  second  half  of  the  i3th  century  as  Covbruge  and  Cubrigg. 
Others  place  Bovium  on  a  vicinal  road,  at  Boverton  near 
Llantwit  Major,  about  6  m.  to  the  south  near  the  coast,  though 
the  most  likely  site  is  near  Ewenny,  5  m.  to  the  west  of  Cow- 
bridge.  After  the  Norman  conquest  of  Glamorgan,  the  town 
grew  up  as  an  appanage  of  the  castle  of  St  Quentin,  which 
occupies  a  commanding  position  half  a  mile  south-west  of  the 
town.  It  was  walled  round  before  the  i3th  century.  A  tower 
is  mentioned  in  1487  when  it  was  granted  away  by  the  burgesses. 
Leland  in  his  itinerary  (c.  1535)  describes  the  town  wall  as  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  round  and  as  having  three  gates.  There  was 
even  then  a  considerable  suburb  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river 
and  outside  the  walls.  The  south  wall  and  gateway  are  still 
standing. 

The  town  was  a  borough  by  prescription  until  1682,  when  it 
received  a  charter  of  incorporation  from  Charles  II.  confirming 
its  previous  privileges.  Under  the  Unreformed  Corporations 
Act  of  1883  the  corporation  was  dissolved,  but  on  the  petition 
of  the  inhabitants  a  new  charter  was  granted  in  March  1887. 
During  the  Tudor  and  Stuart  periods  Cowbridge  was  almost 
if  not  quite  the  chief  town  of  Glamorgan,  its  importance  being 
largely  due  to  its  central  and  accessible  position  in  a  rich  agri- 
cultural district  where  a  large  number  of  the  county  gentry  lived. 
The  great  sessions  were  held  here  alternately  with  Cardiff  and 
Swansea  from  1542  till  their  abolition  in  1830,  and  the  quarter 
sessions  were  held  here  once  a  year  down  to  1850.  From  1536 
to  1832  it  was  one  of  the  eight  contributory  boroughs  within  the 
county  which  returned  a  member  to  parliament,  but  since  1832 
it  has  been  contributory  with  Cardiff  and  Llantrisant  in  returning 
a  member.  It  has  a  separate  commission  of  the  peace.  Sir 
Edward  Stradling  (1529-1609)  established  a  grammar  school 
here,  but  died  before  endowing  it;  it  was  refounded  in  1685  by 
SirLeoline  Jenkins,  who  provided  that  it  should  be  administered 
by  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  which  body  erected  the  present 
buildings  in  1847.  It  has  throughout  its  existence  been  one  of 
the  leading  schools  in  Wales.  An  intermediate  school  for  girls 
was  established  here  by  the  county  in  1896.  The  church  of  St 
Mary  (formerly  chapelry  to  Llanblethian)  is  of  early  English 
style  and  has  a  fine  embattled  tower,  of  the  same  military 

1 A  connexion  has  also  been  imagined  with  cow  (O.  Eng.  cu ;  common 
in  Scandinavian  languages,  and  of  similar  root  to  Skr.  go,  whence 
also  Gr.  0oOj,  Lat.  bos),  the  female  bovine  animal,  on  account  of  its 
timidity. 


34-6 


COWDENBEATH— COWES 


type  as  the  towers  of  Llamblethian  and  Ewenny.  There  are 
three  Nonconformist  chapels.  There  are  a  town  hall  and  market 
place.  The  town  is  now  wholly  dependent  on  agriculture,  and 
has  good  markets  and  cattle  fairs,  that  on  the  4th  of  May  being 
a  charter  fair. 

COWDENBEATH,  a  police  burgh,  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  sf  m. 
N.E.  of  Dunfermline  by  the  North  British  railway.  Pop.  (1891) 
4249;  (1901)  7908.  The  principal  industry  is  coal-mining, 
and  the  public  buildings  include  churches,  schools  and  a  hall. 
Meetings  in  connexion  with  the  adoption  and  promulgation  of 
the  Covenant  were  held  in  the  old  parish  church  of  Beath. 

COWELL,  JOHN  (1554-1611),  English  jurist,  was  born  at 
Ernsborough,  Devonshire.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  ultimately  becoming  professor  of 
civil  law  in  that  university,  and  master  of  Trinity  Hall.  In 
1607  he  compiled  a  law  dictionary,  The  Interpreter,  in  which  he 
exalted  the  king's  prerogative  so  much  that  he  was  prosecuted 
before  the  House  of  Commons  by  Sir  Edward  Coke,  and  saved 
from  imprisonment  only  by  the  interposition  of  James  I.  His 
book  was  burnt  by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Dr  Cowell 
also  wrote  a  work  entitled  Institutiones  Juris  Anglicani.  He 
died  at  Oxford  on  the  nth  of  October  1611. 

COWEN,  FREDERIC  HYMEN  (1852-  ),  English  musical 
composer,  was  born  at  Kingston,  Jamaica,  on  the  29th  of  January 
1852.  At  four  years  old  he  was  brought  to  England,  where  his 
father  became  treasurer  to  the  opera  at  Her  Majesty's  theatre, 
and  private  secretary  to  the  earl  of  Dudley.  His  first  teacher 
was  Henry  Russell,  and  his  first  published  composition  appeared 
when  he  was  but  six  years  old.  He  studied  the  piano  with 
Benedict,  and  composition  with  Goss;  in  1865  he  was  at  Leipzig 
under  Hauptmann,  Moscheles,  Reinecke  and  Plaidy.  Returning 
home  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Austro-Prussian  War,  he  appeared 
as  a  composer  for  the  orchestra  in  an  overture  played  at  the 
Promenade  Concerts  at  Covent  Garden  in  September  1866.  In 
the  following  autumn  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  under 
Kiel,  at  Stern's  conservatorium.  A  symphony  and  a  piano 
concerto  were  given  in  St  James's  Hall  in  1869,  and  from  that 
time  Cowen  has  been  recognized  as  primarily  a  composer,  his 
talents  as  a  pianist  being  subordinate,  although  his  public 
appearances  were  numerous  for  some  time  afterwards.  His 
cantata,  The  Rose  Maiden,  was  given  in  London  in  1870,  his 
second  symphony  by  the  Liverpool  Philharmonic  Society  in  1872, 
and  his  first  festival  work,  The  Corsair,  in  1876  at  Birmingham. 
In  that  year  his  opera,  Pauline,  was  given  by  the  Carl  Rosa 
Company  with  moderate  success.  In  1884  he  conducted  five 
concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  in  1888,  on  the 
resignation  of  Arthur  Sullivan,  became  the  regular  conductor 
of  the  society,  resigning  the  post  in  1892.  In  the  year  of  his 
appointment,  1888,  he  went  to  Melbourne  as  the  conductor  of 
the  daily  concerts  given  in  connexion  with  the  Exhibition  there. 
In  1896  Cowen  was  appointed  conductor  of  the  Liverpool 
Philharmonic  Society  and  of  the  Manchester  orchestra,  in  succes- 
sion to  Sir  Charles  Halle.  In  1899  he  was  reappointed  conductor 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  His  works  include: — Operettas: 
Garibaldi  (1860)  and  One  Too  Many  (1874);  operas:  Pauline 
(1876),  Thorgrim  (1890),  Signa  (Milan,  1893),  and  Harold  (1895); 
oratorios:  The  Deluge  (1878),  St  Ursula  (1881),  Ruth  (1887), 
Song  of  Thanksgiving  (1888),  The  Transfiguration  (1895); 
cantatas:  The  Rose  Maiden  (1870),  The  Corsair  (1876),  The 
Sleeping  Beauty  (1885),  St  John's  Eve  (1889),  The  Water  Lily 
(1893),  Ode  to  the  Passions  (1898),  besides  short  cantatas  for 
female  voices;  a  large  number  of  songs,  ranging  from  the  popular 
"  ballad  "  to  more  artistic  lyrics,  anthems,  part-songs,  duets, 
&c.;  six  symphonies,  among  which  No  3,  the  "  Scandinavian," 
has  had  the  greatest  success;  four  overtures;  suites,  The 
Language  of  Flowers  (1880),  In  the  Olden  Times  (1883),  In  Fairy- 
land (1896);  four  English  dances  (1896);  a  concerto  for  piano 
and  orchestra,  and  a  fantasia  for  the  same  played  by  M. 
Paderewski  (1900) ;  a  quartet  in  C  minor,  and  a  trio  in  A  minor, 
both  early  works;  pianoforte  pieces,  &c.  Cowen  is  never  so 
happy  as  when  treating  of  fantastic  or  fairy  subjects;  and 
whether  in  his  cantatas  for  female  voices,  his  charming  Sleeping 


Beauty,  his  Water  Lily  or  his  pretty  overture,  The  Butterfly's 
Ball  (1901),  he  succeeds  wonderfully  in  finding  graceful  expression 
for  the  poetical  idea.  His  dance  music,  such  as  is  to  be  found 
in  various  orchestral  suites,  is  refined,  original  and  admirably 
instrumented;  and  if  he  is  seldom  as  successful  in  portraying 
the  graver  aspects  of  emotion,  the  vogue  of  his  semi-sacred  songs 
has  been  widespread. 

COWEN,  JOSEPH  (1831-1900),  English  politician  and 
journalist,  son  of  Sir  Joseph  Cowen,  a  prominent  citizen  and 
mine-owner  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  was  born  in  1831,  and  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  In  1874  he  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  the  borough  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
who  had  held  the  seat  as  a  Liberal  since  1865.  Joseph  Cowen  was 
at  that  time  a  strong  Radical  on  domestic  questions,  an  advocate 
of  co-operation,  an  admirer  of  Garibaldi,  Mazzini  and  Kossuth,  a 
sympathizer  with  Irish  Nationalism,  and  one  who  in  speech, 
dress  and  manner  identified  himself  with  the  North-country 
mining  class.  Short  in  stature  ana  uncouth  in  appearance,  his 
individuality  first  shocked  and  then  by  its  earnestness  impressed 
the  House  of  Commons;  and  his  sturdy  independence  of  party 
ties,  combined  with  a  gift  of  rough  but  genuine  eloquence  (of 
which  his  speech  on  the  Royal  Title  Bill  of  1876  was  an  example), 
rapidly  made  him  one  of  the  best-known  public  men  in  the 
country.  He  was,  moreover,  an  Imperialist  and  a  Colonial 
Federationist  at  a  time  when  Liberalism  was  tied  and  bound  to  the 
Manchester  traditions;  and,  to  the  consternation  of  the  official 
wire-pullers,  he  vigorously  supported  Disraeli's  foreign  policy, 
and  in  1881  opposed  the  Gladstonian  settlement  with  the  Boers. 
His  independence  (which  his  detractors  attributed  in  some 
degree  to  his  alleged  susceptibility  to  Tory  compliments)  brought 
him  into  collision  both  with  the  Liberal  caucus  and  with  the 
party  organization  in  Newcastle  itself,  but  Cowen's  personal 
popularity  and  his  remarkable  powers  as  an  orator  triumphed 
in  his  own  birthplace,  and  he  was  again  elected  in  1885  in  spite  of 
Liberal  opposition.  Shortly  afterwards,  however,  he  retired 
both  from  parliament  and  from  public  life,  professing  his  disgust 
at  the  party  intrigues  of  politics,  and  devoted  himself  to  conduct- 
ing his  newspaper,  the  Newcastle  Daily  Chronicle,  and  to  his 
private  business  as  a  mine-owner.  In  this  capacity  he  exercised 
a  wide  influence  on  local  opinion,  and  the  revolt  of  the  Newcastle 
electorate  in  later  years  against  doctrinaire  Radicalism  was 
largely  due  to  his  constant  preaching  of  a  broader  outlook  on 
national  affairs.  He  continued  behind  the  scenes  to  play  a 
powerful  part  in  forming  North-country  opinion  until  his  death 
on  the  i8th  of  February  1900. 

His  letters  were  published  by  his  daughter  in  1909. 

COWES,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
England,  12  m.  S.S.E.  of  Southampton.  West  Cowes  is  separ- 
ated from  East  Cowes  by  the  picturesque  estuary  of  the  river 
Medina,  the  two  towns  (each  of  which  is  an  urban  district) 
lying  on  opposite  sides  of  its  mouth  at  the  apex  of  the  northern 
coast  of  the  island.  Pop.  (1901)  West  Cowes,  8652 ;  East  Cowes, 
3196.  The  port  between  them  is  the  chief  on  the  island,  and  is 
the  headquarters  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron  (founded  in  1 8 1 2) ; 
it  is  in  regular  steamship  communication  with  Southampton  and 
Portsmouth.  West  Cowes  is  served  by  the  Isle  of  Wight  Central 
railway.  A  steam  ferry  and  a  floating  bridge  across  the  Medina, 
here  600  yds.  broad,  unite  the  towns.  Behind  the  harbour  the 
houses  rise  picturesquely  on  gentle  wooded  slopes,  and  numerous 
villas  adorn  the  vicinity.  The  towns  owe  their  origin  to  two 
forts  or  castles,  built  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Medina  by 
Henry  VIII.  in  1540,  for  the  defence  of  the  coast;  the  eastern 
one  has  disappeared,  but  the  west  castle  remains  and  is  used  as 
the  club-house  of  the  Yacht  Squadron.  The  marine  parade  of 
West  Cowes,  and  the  public  promenade  called  the  Green,  are 
close  to  the  castle.  The  industrial  population  is  chiefly  employed 
in  the  shipbuilding  yards,  in  the  manufacture  of  ships'  fittings, 
and  in  engineering  works.  The  harbour  is  under  an  elective 
body  of  commissioners.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Medina  a 
broad  carriageway  leads  to  East  Cowes  Castle,  a  handsome 
edifice  built  by  John  Nash,  the  favourite  architect  of  George  IV., 
in  1798,  and  immediately  beyond  it  are  the  grounds  surrounding 


COWL— COWLEY,  ABRAHAM 


347 


Osborne  House  (see  OSBORNE),  built  in  1845  after  the  property 
had  been  purchased  by  Queen  Victoria,  the  church  of  St  Mildred, 
Whippingham,  lying  a  mile  to  the  south. 

COWL  (through  Fr.  coule,  from  Lat.  cucullus  or  cuculla,  a 
covering ;  the  word  is  found  in  various  forms  in  most  European 
languages,  cf.  Ger.  Kugel  or  Kigel,  Dutch  kovel,  Irish  cochal  or 
cochull ;  the  ultimate  origin  may  be  the  root  kal,  found  in  Lat. 
clam,  secretly,  and  Gr.  KaXvirrtiv,  to  hide,  cover  up),  an  outer 
garment  worn  by  both  sexes  in  the  middle  ages;  a  part  of  the 
monastic  dress,  hence  the  phrase  "  to  take  the  cowl,"  signifying 
entry  upon  the  religious  life.  The  cucullus  worn  by  the  early 
Egyptian  anchorites  was  a  hood  covering  the  head  and  neck. 
Later  generations  lengthened  the  garment  until  it  reached  to  the 
heels,  and  St  Benedict  issued  a  rule  restricting  its  length  to  two 
cubits.  Chapter  55  of  his  Institute  prescribes  the  following  dress 
in  temperate  climates:  a  cowl  and  tunic,  thick  in  winter  and 
thin  in  summer,  with  a  scapular  for  working  hours  and  shoes  and 
stockings,  all  of  simple  material  and  make.  In  the  i4th  century 
the  cowl  and  the  frock  were  frequently  confounded,  but  the 
council  of  Vienne  defined  the  former  as  "  a  habit  long  and  full 
without  sleeves,"  and  the  latter  as  "  a  long  habit  with  long  and 
wide  sleeves."  While  the  term  thus  seems  strictly  to  imply  a 
hooded  gown  it  is  often  applied  to  the  hood  alone.  It  is  also 
used  to  describe  a  loose  vestment  worn  over  the  frock  in  the 
winter  season  and  during  the  night  office. 

The  word  "  cowl  "  is  also  applied  to  a  hood-shaped  covering 
to  a  chimney  or  ventilating  shaft,  to  help  down-draught,  and  to 
clear  the  up-current  of  foul  air  (see  VENTILATION). 

COWLEY,  ABRAHAM  (1618-1667),  English  poet,  was  born  in 
the  city  of  London  late  in  1618.  His  father,  a  wealthy  citizen, 
who  died  shor.tly  before  his  birth,  was  a  stationer.  His  mother 
was  wholly  given  to  works  of  devotion,  but  it  happened  that 
there  lay  in  her  parlour  a  copy  of  The  Faery  Queen.  This  became 
the  favourite  reading  of  her  son,  and  he  had  twice  devoured  it  all 
before  he  was  sent  to  school.  As  early  as  1628,  that  is,  in  his 
tenth  year,  he  composed  his  Tragicall  History  of  Piramus  and 
Thisbe,  an  epical  romance  written  in  a  six-line  stanza,  of  his  own 
invention.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  this  work  is  the  most 
astonishing  feat  of  imaginative  precocity  on  record;  it  is 
marked  by  no  great  faults  of  immaturity,  and  possesses  con- 
structive merits  of  a  very  high  order.  Two  years  later  the  child 
wrote  another  and  still  more  ambitious  poem,  Constantia  and 
Philelus,  being  sent  about  the  same  time  to  Westminster  school. 
Here  he  displayed  the  most  extraordinary  mental  precocity  and 
versatility,  and  wrote  in  his  thirteenth  year  yet  another  poem, 
the  Elegy  on  the  Death  of  Dudley,  Lord  Carlton.  These  three 
poems  of  considerable  size,  and  some  smaller  ones,  were  collected 
in  1633,  and  published  in  a  volume  entitled  Poetical  Blossoms, 
dedicated  to  the  head  master  of  the  school,  and  prefaced  by 
many  laudatory  verses  by  schoolfellows.  The  author  at  once 
became  famous,  although  he  had  not,  even  yet,  completed  his 
fifteenth  year.  His  next  composition  was  a  pastoral  comedy, 
entitled  Love's  Riddle,  a  marvellous  production  for  a  boy  of 
sixteen,  airy,  correct  and  harmonious  in  language,  and  rapid  in 
movement.  The  style  is  not  without  resemblance  to  that  of 
Randolph,  whose  earliest  works,  however,  were  at  that  time  only 
just  printed.  In  1637  Cowley  was  elected  into  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  betook  himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the 
study  of  all  kinds  of  learning,  and  early  distinguished  himself  as  a 
ripe  scholar.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  composed  his 
scriptural  epic  on  the  history  of  King  David,  one  book  of  which 
still  exists  in  the  Latin  original,  the  rest  being  superseded  in 
favour  of  an  English  version  in  four  books,  called  the  Davideis, 
which  he  published  a  long  time  after.  This  his  most  grave  and 
important  work  is  remarkable  as  having  suggested  to  Milton 
several  points  which  he  afterwards  made  use  of.  The  epic, 
written  in  a  very  dreary  and  turgid  manner,  but  in  good  rhymed 
heroic  verse,  deals  with  the  adventures  of  King  David  from  his 
boyhood  to  the  smiting  of  Amalek  by  Saul,  where  it  abruptly 
closes.  In  1638  Love's  Riddle  and  a  Latin  comedy,  the  Nau- 
fragium  Joculare,  were  printed,  and  in  1641  the  passage  of  Prince 
Charles  through  Cambridge  gave  occasion  to  the  production  of 


another  dramatic  work,  The  Guardian,  which  was  acted  before 
the  royal  visitor  with  much  success.  During  the  civil  war  this 
play  was  privately  performed  at  Dublin,  but  it  was  not  printed 
till  1650.  It  is  bright  and  amusing,  in  the  style  common  to  the 
"  sons  "  of  Ben  Jonson,  the  university  wits  who  wrote  more 
for  the  closet  than  the  public  stage. 

The  learned  quiet  of  the  young  poet's  life  was  broken  up  by 
the  Civil  War;  he  warmly  espoused  the  royalist  side.  He  became 
a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  but  was  ejected  by  the 
Parliamentarians  in  1643.  He  made  his  way  to  Oxford,  where  he 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Lord  Falkland,  and  was  tossed,  in  the 
tumult  of  affairs,  into  the  personal  confidence  of  the  royal  family 
itself.  After  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor  he  followed  the  queen  to 
Paris,  and  the  exile  so  commenced  lasted  twelve  years.  This 
period  was  spent  almost  entirely  in  the  royal  service,  "  bearing 
a  share  in  the  distresses  of  the  royal  family,  or  labouring  in  their 
affairs.  To  this  purpose  he  performed  several  dangerous  journeys 
into  Jersey,  Scotland,  Flanders,  Holland,  or  wherever  else  the 
king's  troubles  required  his  attendance.  But  the  chief  testimony 
of  his  fidelity  was  the  laborious  service  he  underwent  in  maintain- 
ing the  constant  correspondence  between  the  late  king  and  the 
queen  his  wife.  In  that  weighty  trust  he  behaved  himself  with 
indefatigable  integrity  and  unsuspected  secrecy;  for  he  ciphered 
and  deciphered  with  his  own  hand  the  greatest  part  of  all  the 
letters  that  passed  between  their  majesties,  and  managed  a  vast 
intelligence  in  many  other  parts,  which  for  some  years  together 
took  up  all  his  days,  and  two  or  three  nights  every  week."  In 
spite  of  these  labours  he  did  not  refrain  from  literary  industry. 
During  his  exile  he  met  with  the  works  of  Pindar,  and  determined 
to  reproduce  their  lofty  lyric  passion  in  English.  At  the  same 
time  he  occupied  himself  in  writing  a  history  of  the  Civil  War, 
which  he  completed  as  far  as  the  battle  of  Newbury,  but  un- 
fortunately afterwards  destroyed.  In  1647  a  collection  of  his  love 
verses,  entitled  The  Mistress,  was  published,  and  in  the  next  year 
a  volume  of  wretched  satires,  The  Four  Ages  of  England,  was 
brought  out  under  his  name,  with  the  composition  of  which  he 
had  nothing  to  do.  In  spite  of  the  troubles  of  the  times,  so  fatal 
to  poetic  fame,  his  reputation  steadily  increased,  and  when,  on 
his  return  to  England  in  1656,  he  published  a  volume  of  his 
collected  poetical  works,  he  found  himself  without  a  rival  in 
public  esteem.  This  volume  included  the  later  works  already 
mentioned,  the  Pindarique  Odes,  the  Davideis,  the  Mistress  and 
some  Miscellanies.  Among  the  latter  are  to  be  found  Cowley's 
most  vital  pieces.  This  section  of  his  works  opens  with  the 
famous  aspiration — 

"  What  shall  I  do  to  be  for  ever  known, 
And  make  the  coming  age  my  own?" 

It  contains  elegies  on  Wotton,  Vandyck,  Falkland,  William 
Hervey  and  Crashaw,  the  last  two  being  among  Cowley's  finest 
poems,  brilliant,  sonorous  and  original;  the  amusing  ballad  of 
The  Chronicle,  giving  a  fictitious  catalogue  of  his  supposed 
amours;  various  gnomic  pieces;  and  some  charming  para- 
phrases from  Anacreon.  The  Pindarique  Odes  contain  weighty 
lines  and  passages,  buried  in  irregular  and  inharmonious  masses 
of  moral  verbiage.  Not  more  than  one  or  two  are  good  through- 
out, but  a  full  posy  of  beauties  may  easily  be  culled  from  them. 
The  long  cadences  of  the  Alexandrines  with  which  most  of  the 
strophes  close,  continued  to  echo  in  English  poetry  from  Dryden 
down  to  Gray,  but  the  Odes  themselves,  which  were  found  to  be 
obscure  by  the  poet's  contemporaries,  immediately  fell  into 
disesteem.  The  Mistress  was  the  most  popular  poetic  reading  of 
the  age,  and  is  now  the  least  read  of  all  Cowley's  works.  It  was 
the  last  and  most  violent  expression  of  the  amatory  affectation  of 
the  1 7th  century,  an  affectation  which  had  been  endurable  in 
Donne  and  other  early  writers  because  it  had  been  the  vehicle  of 
sincere  emotion,  but  was  unendurable  in  Cowley  because  in  him  it 
represented  nothing  but  a  perfunctory  exercise,  a  mere  exhibition 
of  literary  calisthenics.  He  appears  to  have  been  of  a  cold,  or  at 
least  of  a  timid,  disposition;  in  the  face  of  these  elaborately 
erotic  volumes,  we  are  told  that  to  the  end  of  his  days  he  never 
summoned  up  courage  to  speak  of  love  to  a  single  woman  in  real 
life.  The  "  Leonora  "  of  The  Chronicle  is  said  to  have  been  the 


COWLEY,  HANNAH— COWPER,   IST  EARL 


only  woman  he  ever  loved,  and  she  married  the  brother  of  his 
biographer,  Sprat. 

Soon  after  his  return  to  England  he  was  seized  in  mistake  for 
another  person,  and  only  obtained  his  liberty  on  a  bail  of  £1000. 
In  1658  he  revised  and  altered  his  play  of  The  Guardian,  and 
prepared  it  for  the  press  under  the  title  of  The  Cutter  of  Coleman 
Street,  but  it  did  not  appear  until  1663.  Late  in  1658  Oliver 
Cromwell  died,  and  Cowley  took  advantage  of  the  confusion  of 
affairs  to  escape  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  the  Restora- 
tion brought  him  back  in  Charles's  train.  He  published  in  1663 
Verses  upon  several  occasions,  in  which  The  Complaint  is 
included. 

Wearied  with  the  broils  and  fatigues  of  a  political  life,  Cowley 
obtained  permission  to  retire  into  the  country;  through  his 
friend,  Lord  St  Albans,  he  obtained  a  property  near  Chertsey, 
and  here,  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  botany,  and  buried  in 
his  books,  he  lived  in  comparative  solitude  until  his  death.  He 
took  a  great  and  practical  interest  in  experimental  science,  and  he 
was  one  of  those  who  were  most  prominent  in  advocating  the 
foundation  of  an  academy  for  the  protection  of  scientific  enter- 
prise. Cowley's  pamphlet  on  The  Advancement  of  Experimental 
Philosophy,  1661,  led  directly  to  the  foundation  of  the  Royal 
Society,  to  which  body  Cowley,  in  March  1667,  at  the  suggestion 
of  Evelyn,  addressed  an  ode  which  is  the  latest  and  one  of  the 
strongest  of  his  poems.  He  died  in  the  Porch  House,  in  Chertsey, 
on  the  28th  of  July  1667,  in  consequence  of  having  caught  a  cold 
while  superintending  his  farm-labourers  in  the  meadows  late  on  a 
summer  evening.  On  the  3rd  of  August  Cowley  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey  beside  the  ashes  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser, 
where  in  1675  the  duke  of  Buckingham  erected  a  monument  to  his 
memory.  His  Po'emata  Latino,  including  six  books  "  Plantarum," 
were  printed  in  1668. 

Throughout  their  parallel  lives  the  fame  of  Cowley  completely 
eclipsed  that  of  Milton,  but  posterity  instantly  and  finally  reversed 
the  judgment  of  their  contemporaries.  The  poetry  of  Cowley 
rapidly  fell  into  a  neglect  as  unjust  as  the  earlier  popularity  had 
been.  As  a  prose  writer,  especially  as  an  essayist,  he  holds,  and 
will  not  lose,  a  high  position  in  literature;  as  a  poet  it  is  hardly 
possible  that  he  can  enjoy  more  than  a  very  partial  revival. 
The  want  of  nature,  the  obvious  and  awkward  art,  the  defective 
melody  of  his  poems,  destroy  the  interest  that  their  ingenuity  and 
occasional  majesty  would  otherwise  excite.  He  had  lofty  views 
of  the  mission  of  a  poet  and  an  insatiable  ambition,  but  his  chief 
claim  to  poetic  life  is  the  dowry  of  sonorous  lyric  style  which  he 
passed  down  to  Dry  den  and  his  successors  of  the  i8th  century. 

The  works  of  Cowley  were  collected  in  1668,  when  Thomas  Sprat, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Rochester,  brought  out  a  splendid  edition 
in  folio,  to  which  he  prefixed  a  graceful  and  elegant  life  of  the 
poet.  There  were  many  reprints  of  this  collection,  which  formed 
the  standard  edition  till  1 88 1,  when  it  was  superseded  by  A.  B. 
Grosart's  privately  printed  edition  in  two  volumes,  for  the  Chertsey 
Worthies  library.  The  Essays  have  frequently  been  revived  with 
approval.  (E.  G.) 

COWLEY,  HANNAH  (1743-1809),  English  dramatist  and  poet, 
daughter  of  Philip  Parkhouse,  a  bookseller  at  Tiverton,  Devon- 
shire, was  born  in  1743.  When  about  twenty-five  years  old  she 
married  Mr  Cowley,  of  the  East  India  Company's  service,  who 
died  in  1 797.  Some  years  after  her  marriage,  being  at  the  theatre 
with  her  husband,  she  expressed  the  opinion  that  she  could 
write  as  good  a  piece  as  the  one  being  performed,  and  within  a 
fortnight  she  had  written  her  first  play,  The  Runaway.  She  sent 
it  to  Garrick,  who  produced  it  at  Drury  Lane  in  1776.  Between 
then  and  1795  she  wrote  twelve  more  plays,  all  of  which  (with  one 
exception)  were  produced  at  Drury  Lane  or  Covent  Garden ;  and 
The  Belle's  Stratagem  (1782),  with  one  or  two  others,  still  survives 
in  the  list  of  acting  plays.  Among  other  pieces  were  Albina, 
Countess  Raimond,  A  Bold  Stroke  for  a  Husband,  More  Ways 
than  One,  and  A  School  for  Greybeards,  or  The  Mourning  Bride. 
Mrs  Cowley  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  indifferent  poems, 
mainly  historical,  and  under  the  name  of  "  Anna  Matilda," 
which  has  since  become  proverbial,  she  carried  on  a  sentimental 
correspondence  in  the  World  with  Robert  Merry.  She  died  at 
Tiverton  on  the  nth  of  March  1809. 


COWLEY,   HENRY  RICHARD  CHARLES  WELLESLEY,   IST 

EARL  (1804-1884),  British  diplomatist,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Henry  Wdlesley,  ist  Baron  Cowley  (1773-1847),  and  Charlotte, 
daughter  of  Charles,  ist  Earl  Cadogan,  and  was  consequently  a 
nephew  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  of  the  marquess  Wellesley. 
Born  on  the  i7th  of  June  1804,  he  entered  the  diplomatic  service 
in  1824,  receiving  his  first  important  appointment  in  1848,  when 
he  became  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Swiss  cantons;  and 
in  the  same  year  he  was  sent  to  Frankfort  to  watch  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  German  parliament.  This  was  followed  by  his 
appointment  as  envoy  extraordinary  to  the  new  Germanic 
confederation,  a  position  which  he  only  held  for  a  short  time, 
as  he  was  chosen  in  1852  to  succeed  the  ist  marquess  of  Normanby 
as  the  British  ambassador  in  Paris.  Baron  Cowley,  as  Wellesley 
had  been  since  his  father's  death  in  1847,  held  this  important 
post  for  fifteen  years,  and  the  story  of  his  diplomatic  life  in  Paris 
cannot  be  separated  from  the  general  history  of  England  and 
France.  As  minister  during  the  greater  part  of  the  reign  of 
Napoleon  III.,  he  conducted  the  delicate  negotiations  between 
the  two  countries  during  the  time  of  those  eastern  complications 
which  preceded  and  followed  the  Crimean  War,  and  also  during 
the  excitement  and  unrest  produced  by  the  attempt  made  in 
1858  by  Felice  Orsini  to  assassinate  the  emporor  of  the  French; 
while  his  diplomatic  skill  was  no  less  in  evidence  during  the  war 
between  France  and  Austria  and  the  subsequent  course  of  events 
in  Italy.  In  1857  he  had  been  created  Earl  Cowley  and  Viscount 
Dangan;  in  1866  he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Garter;  and 
having  assisted  Richard  Cobden  to  conclude  the  commercial 
treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  France  in  1860,  he  retired  in 
1867  from  a  position  which  he  had  filled  with  distinction  to 
himself  and  with  benefit  to  his  country.  In  1863  Cowley  had 
inherited  the  estate  of  Draycot  in  Wiltshire  from  his  kinsman 
the  5th  earl  of  Mornington,  and  he  lived  in  retirement  until  his 
death  on  the  isth  of  July  1884.  He  had  married  in  1833  Olivia 
Cecilia  (d.  1885),  daughter  of  Charlotte,  baroness  de  Ros  and 
Lord  Henry  Fitzgerald,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons  and  two 
daughters,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  titles  by  his  eldest  son, 
William  Henry,  2nd  Earl  Cowley  (1834-1895),  father  of  Henry 
Arthur  Mornington,  3rd  earl  (b.  1866). 

COWLEY  FATHERS,  the  name'commonly  given  to  the  members 
of  the  Society  of  Mission  Priests  of  St  John  the  Evangelist,  an 
Anglican  religious  community,  the  headquarters  of  which  are 
in  England,  at  Cowley  St  John,  close  to  Oxford.  The  society 
was  founded  in  1865  by  the  Rev.  R.  M.  Benson  "  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  life  dedicated  to  God  according  to  the  principles  of 
poverty,  chastity  and  obedience."  The  society,  which  is  occupied 
both  with  educational  and  missionary  work,  has  a  house  in 
London  and  branch  houses  at  Bombay  and  Poona  in  India,  at 
Cape  Town  and  at  St  Cuthbert's,  Kaffraria,  in  South  Africa;  and 
at  Boston  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  costume  of  the 
Cowley  Fathers  consists  of  a  black  frock  or  cassock  confined  by 
a  black  cord  and  a  long  black  cloak. 

COWPENS,  a  town  of  Spartanburg  county,  South  Carolina, 
U.S. A.,  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state.  Pop.  (1900)  692;  (1910)  noi. 
It  is  served  by  the  Southern  railway.  In  colonial  days  cattle 
were  rounded  up  and  branded  here — whence  the  name.  Seven 
miles  N.  of  the  town  is  the  field  of  the  battle  of  Cowpens,  fought 
on  the  1 7th  of  January  1781,  during  the  War  of  American 
Independence,  between  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Daniel 
Morgan  and  the  British  under  Gen.  Banastre  Tarleton,  the 
British  being  defeated.  A  monument  was  erected  on  the  battle- 
field in  1859,  but  was  much  defaced  during  the  Civil  War.  The 
town  of  Cowpens  was  founded  in  1876,  and  was  incorporated 
in  1880. 

COWPER,  WILLIAM  COWPER,  IST  EARL  (c.  1665-1723), 
lord  chancellor  of  England,  was  the  son  of  Sir  William  Cowper, 
Bart.,  of  Ratling  Court,  Kent,  a  Whig  member  of  parliament 
of  some  mark  in  the  two  last  Stuart  reigns.  Educated  at  St 
Albans  school,  Cowper  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1688;  having 
promptly  given  his  allegiance  to  the  prince  of  Orange  on  his 
landing  in  England,  he  was  made  recorder  of  Colchester  in  1694, 
and  in  1695  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Hertford.  He 


COWPER,  WILLIAM 


349 


enjoyed  a  large  practice  at  the  bar,  and  had  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  most  effective  parliamentary  orators  of  his 
generation.  He  lost  his  seat  in  parliament  in  1702  owing  to 
the  unpopularity  caused  by  the  trial  of  his  brother  Spencer  on 
a  charge  of  murder.  In  1705  he  was  appointed  lord  keeper  of 
the  great  seal,  and  took  his  seat  on  the  woolsack  without  a  peerage. 
In  the  following  year  he  conducted  the  negotiations  between  the 
English  and  Scottish  commissioners  for  arranging  the  union 
with  Scotland.  In  November  of  the  same  year  (1706)  he  succeeded 
to  his  father's  baronetcy;  and  on  the  I4th  of  December  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Cowper  of  Wingham,  Kent. 

When  the  union  with  Scotland  came  into  operation  in  May 
1707  the  queen  in  council  named  Cowper  lord  high  chancellor 
of  Great  Britain,  he  being  the  first  to  hold  this  office.  He  presided 
at  the  trial  of  Dr  Sacheverell  in  1710,  but  resigned  the  seal  when 
Harley  and  Bolingbroke  took  office  in  the  same  year.  On  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne,  George  I.  appointed  Cowper  one  of  the 
lords  justices  for  governing  the  country  during  the  king's 
absence,  and  a  few  weeks  later  he  again  became  lord  chancellor. 
A  paper  which  he  drew  up  for  the  guidance  of  the  new  king  on 
constitutional  matters,  entitled  An  Impartial  History  of  Parties, 
marks  the  advance  of  English  opinion  towards  party  government 
in  the  modern  sense.  It  was  published  by  Lord  Campbell  in 
his  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors.  Cowper  supported  the  impeach  - 
ment  of  Lord  Oxford  for  high  treason  in  1715,  and  in  1716 
presided  as  lord  high  steward  at  the  trials  of  the  peers  charged 
with  complicity  in  the  Jacobite  rising,  his  sentences  on  whom 
have  been  censured  as  unnecessarily  severe.  He  warmly  sup- 
ported the  septennial  bill  in  the  same  year.  On  the  i8th  of 
March  1 7 18  he  was  created  Viscount  Fordwich  and  Earl  Cowper, 
and  a  month  later  he  resigned  office  on  the  plea  of  ill-health,  but 
probably  in  reality  because  George  I.  accused  him  of  espousing 
the  prince  of  Wales's  side  in  his  quarrel  with  the  king.  Taking 
the  lead  against  his  former  colleagues,  Cowper  opposed  the 
proposal  brought  forward  in  1719  to  limit  the  number  of  peers, 
and  also  the  bill  of  pains  and  penalties  against  Atterbury  in 
1723.  In  his  last  years  he  was  accused,  but  probably  without 
reason,  of  active  sympathy  with  the  Jacobites.  He  died  at  his 
residence,  Colne  Green,  built  by  himself  on  the  site  of  the  present 
mansion  of  Panshanger  on  the  loth  of  October  1723. 

Cowper  was  not  a  great  lawyer,  but  Burnet  says  that  "  he 
managed  the  court  of  chancery  with  impartial  justice  and  great 
despatch  ";  the  most  eminent  of  his  contemporaries  agreed  in 
extolling  his  oratory  and  his  virtues.  He  was  twice  married — 
first,  about  1686,  to  Judith,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Sir  Robert 
Booth,  a  London  merchant;  and  secondly,  in  1706,  to  Mary, 
daughter  of  John  Clavering,  of  Chopwell,  Durham.  Swift 
(Examiner,  xvii.,  xxii.)  alludes  to  an  allegation  that  Cowper 
had  been  guilty  of  bigamy,  a  slander  for  which  there  appears  to 
have  been  no  solid  foundation.  His  younger  brother,  Spencer 
Cowper  (1669-1728),  was  tried  for  the  murder  of  Sarah  Stout  in 
1699,  but  was  acquitted;  the  lady,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with 
Cowper,  having  in  fact  committed  suicide  on  account  of  his 
inattention.  He  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment 
of  Sacheverell;  was  attorney-general  to  the  prince  of  Wales 
(1714),  chief  justice  of  Chester  (1717),  and  judge  of  the  common 
pleas  (1727).  He  was  grandfather  of  William  Cowper,  the  poet. 

The  ist  earl  left  two  sons  and  two  daughters  by  his  second 
wife.  The  eldest  son,  William  (1709-1764),  who  succeeded  to 
the  title,  assumed  the  name  of  Clavering  in  addition  to  that  of 
Cowper  on  the  death  of  his  maternal  uncle.  His  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Grantham,  and  grand-daughter  of  the 
earl  of  Ossory.  The  son  of  this  marriage,  George  Nassau,  3rd 
Earl  Cowper  (1738-1789),  inherited  the  estates  of  the  earl  of 
Grantham;  and  in  1778  he  was  created  by  the  emperor  Joseph 
II.  a  prince  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  The  5th  earl  (1778- 
1837)  married  a  daughter  of  Lord  Melbourne,  the  prime  minister, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons;  and  his  widow  married  as  her  second 
husband  Lord  Palmerston,  who  devised  his  property  of  Broad- 
lands  to  her  second  son,  William  Francis  Cowper-Temple  (1811- 
),  who  was  created  Baron  Mount  Temple  in  1880.  The 


elder  son,  George  Augustus  Frederick  (1806-1856),  6th  Earl 


Cowper,  married  Anne  Florence,  daughter  of  Thomas  Philip, 
earl  de  Grey;  and  this  lady  at  her  father's  death  became  suo 
jure  baroness  Lucas  of  Cradwell.  Francis  Thomas  de  Grey, 
7th  Earl  Cowper  (1834-1005),  in  addition  to  the  other  family 
titles,  became  in  1871  loth  Baron  Dingwall  in  the  peerage  of 
Scotland,  and  8th  Baron  Butler  of  Moore  Park  in  the  peerage 
of  Ireland  as  heir-general  of  Thomas,  earl  of  Ossory,  son  of  the 
ist  duke  of  Ormonde;  the  attainder  of  1715  affecting  those 
titles  having  been  reversed  in  July  1871.  On  the  death  of  his 
mother  he  also  inherited  the  barony  of  Lucas  of  Cradwell.  On 
the  death  without  issue  in  1905  of  the  7th  earl,  who  was  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  1880-1882,  the  earldom  and  barony  of 
Cowper,  together  with  the  viscountcy  of  Fordwich,  became 
extinct;  the  barony  of  Butler  fell  into  abeyance  among  his 
sisters  and  their  heirs,  and  the  baronies  of  Lucas  and  Dingwall 
devolved  on  his  nephew,  Auberon  Thomas  Herbert  (b.  1876). 

See  Private  Diary  of  Earl  Cowper,  edited  by  E.  C.  Hawtrey  for  the 
Roxburghe  Club  (Eton,  1833);  The  Diary  of  Mary,  Countess  Cowper, 
edited  by  the  Hon.  Spencer  Cowper  (London,  1864) ;  Lord  Camp- 
bell, Livesofthe  Lord  Chancellors  and  Keepers  of  the  Great  Seal  (Svols., 
London,  1845-1869);  Edward  Foss,  The  Judges  of  England  (9  vols., 
London,  1848-1864);  Gilbert  Burnet,  History  of  his  Own  Time 
(6  vols.,  Oxford,  1833);  T.  B.  Howell,  State  Trials,  vol.  xii.-xv. 
(33  vols.,  London,  1809-1828);  G.  E.  C.,  Complete  Peerage  (London, 
1889).  (R.  J.  M.) 

COWPER,  WILLIAM  (1731-1800),  English  poet,  was  born  in 
the  rectory  (now  rebuilt)  of  Great  Berkhampstead,  Hertfordshire, 
on  the  26th  of  November  (O.S.  isth)  1731,  his  father  the  Rev. 
John  Cowper  being  rector  of  the  parish  as  well  as  a  chaplain  to 
George  II.  On  both  the  father's  and  the  mother's  side  he  was 
of  ancient  lineage.  The  father  could  trace  his  family  back  to 
the  time  of  Edward  IV.  when  the  Cowpers  were  Sussex  land- 
owners, while  his  mother,  Ann,  daughter  of  Roger  Donne  of 
Ludham  Hall,  Norfolk,  was  of  the  same  race  as  the  poet  Donne, 
and  the  family  claimed  to  have  Plantagenet  blood  in  its  veins. 
Of  more  human  interest  were  Cowper's  immediate  predecessors. 
His  grandfather  was  that  Spencer  Cowper  who,  after  being  tried 
for  his  life  on  a  charge  of  murder,  lived  to  be  a  judge  of  the  court 
of  common  pleas,  while  his  elder  brother  became  lord  chancellor 
and  Earl  Cowper,  a  title  which  became  extinct  in  1905.  Here  is 
the  poet's  genealogical  tree. 

John  Cooper,1  Alderman  of  London  (d.  1609). 

Sir  William  Cowper,  Bart.  (d.  1642). 

John  Cowper  (died  in  prison  1643). 

Sir  William  Cowper,  and  Bart.  (d.  1706). 


William,  Earl  Cowper, 
Lord  Chancellor  (d.  1723). 


Spencer  Cowper, 
Judge  (1669-1728). 


William  Cowper         Rev.  John  Cowper  Ashley  Cowper 

(d.  1740).  (d.  1756).  (d.  1788). 

William  Cowper,  J  | 

the  poet         Lady  Hesketh.     Theodora. 
(1731-1800). 

The  Rev.  John  Cowper  was  twice  married.  Cowper's  mother, 
to  whom  the  memorable  lines  were  written  beginning  "  Oh  that 
these  lips  had  language,"  was  his  first  wife.  She  died  in  1737 
at  the  age  of  thirty-four,  when  the  poet  was  but  six  years  old, 
and  she  is  buried  in  Berkhampstead  church.  Cowper's  step- 
mother is  buried  in  Bath,  and  a  tablet  on  the  walls  of  the  cathedral 
commemorates  her  memory.  The  father,  who  appears  to  have 
been  a  conscientious  clergyman  with  no  special  interest  in  his 
sons,  died  in  1756  and  was  buried  in  the  Cowper  tomb  at  Pans- 
hanger.  Only  one  other  of  his  seven  children  grew  to  manhood — 
John,  who  was  born  in  1737. 

The  poet  appears  to  have  attended  a  dame's  school  in  earliest 
infancy,  but  on  his  mother's  death,  when  he  was  six  years  old, 
he  was  sent  to  boarding-school,  to  a  Dr  Pitman  at  Markyate,  a 

1  Alderman  Cooper  thus  spelt  his  name  and  all  the  family  from 
that  day  to  this,  including  the  poet,  have  so  pronounced  it. 


350 


COWPER,  WILLIAM 


village  6  m.  from  Berkhampstead.  From  1738  to  1741  he  was 
placed  in  the  care  of  an  oculist,  as  he  suffered  from  inflammation 
of  the  eyes.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  sent  to  Westminster 
school,  where  he  had  Warren  Hastings,  Impey,  Lloyd,  Churchill 
and  Colman  for  schoolfellows.  It  was  at  the  Markyate  school 
that  he  suffered  the  tyranny  that  he  commemorated  in  Tirocinium. 
His  days  at  Westminster,  Southey  thinks,  were  "  probably  the 
happiest  in  his  life,"  but  a  boy  of  nervous  temperament  is  always 
unhappy  at  school.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  Cowper  entered  a 
solicitor's  office  in  Ely  Place,  Holborn.  Here  he  had  Thurlow, 
the  future  lord  chancellor,  as  a  fellow-clerk,  and  it  is  stated  that 
Thurlow  promised  to  help  his  less  pushful  comrade  in  the  days 
of  realized  ambition.  Three  years  in  Ely  Place  were  rendered 
happy  by  frequent  visits  to  his  uncle  Ashley's  house  in  South- 
ampton Row,  where  he  fell  deeply  in  love  with  his  cousin 
Theodora  Cowper.  At  twenty -one  years  of  age  he  took  chambers 
in  the  Middle  Temple,  where  we  first  hear  of  the  dejection  of 
spirits  that  accompanied  him  periodically  through  manhood. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1754.  In  1759  he  removed  to  the 
Inner  Temple  and  was  made  a  commissioner  of  bankrupts.  His 
devotion  to  his  cousin,  however,  was  a  source  of  unhappiness.  Her 
father,  possibly  influenced  by  Cowper's  melancholy  tendencies, 
perhaps  possessed  by  prejudices  against  the  marriage  of  cousins, 
interposed,  and  the  lovers  were  separated — as  it  turned  out  for 
ever.  During  three  years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Nonsense 
Club  with  his  two  schoolfellows  from  Westminster,  Churchill 
and  Lloyd,  and  he  wrote  sundry  verses  in  magazines  and  trans- 
lated two  books  of  Voltaire's  Henriade.  A  crisis  occurred  in 
Cowper's  life  when  his  cousin  Major  Cowper  nominated  him  to 
a  clerkship  in  the  House  of  Lords.  It  involved  a  preliminary 
appearance  at  the  bar  of  the  house.  The  prospect  drove  him 
insane,  and  he  attempted  suicide;  he  purchased  poison,  he  placed 
a  penknife  at  his  heart,  but  hesitated  to  apply  either  measure 
of  self-destruction.  He  has  told,  in  dramatic  manner,  of  his 
more  desperate  endeavour  to  hang  himself  with  a  garter.  Here 
he  all  but  succeeded.  His  friends  were  informed,  and  he  was 
sent  to  a  private  lunatic  asylum  at  St  Albans,  where  he  remained 
for  eighteen  months  under  the  charge  of  Dr  Nathaniel  Cotton, 
the  author  of  Visions.  Upon  his  recovery  he  removed  to 
Huntingdon  in  order  to  be  near  his  brother  John,  who  was  a 
fellow  of  St  Benet's  College,  Cambridge.  John  had  visited  his 
brother  at  St  Albans  and  arranged  this.  An  attempt  to  secure 
suitable  lodgings  nearer  to  Cambridge  had  been  ineffectual.  In 
June  1 765  he  reached  Huntingdon, and  his  life  here  was  essentially 
happy.  His  illness  had  broken  him  off  from  all  his  old  friends 
save  only  his  cousin  Lady  Hesketh,  Theodora's  sister,  but  new 
acquaintances  were  made,  the  Unwins  being  the  most  valued. 
This  family  consisted  of  Morley  Unwin  (a  clergyman),  his  wife 
Mary,  and  his  son  (William)  and  daughter  (Susannah).  The  son 
struck  up  a  warm  friendship  which  his  family  shared.  Cowper 
entered  the  circle  as  a  boarder  in  November  (1765).  All  went 
serenely  until  in  July  1767  Morley  Unwin  was  thrown  from  his 
horse  and  killed.  A  very  short  time  before  this  event  the  Unwins 
had  received  a  visit  from  the  Rev.  John  Newton  (<?.!>.),  the  curate 
of  Olney  in  Buckinghamshire,  with  whom  they  became  friends. 
Newton  suggested  that  the  widow  and  her  children  with  Cowper 
should  take  up  their  abode  in  Olney.  This  was  achieved  in  the 
closing  months  of  1767.  Here  Cowper  was  to  reside  for  nineteen 
years,  and  he  was  to  render  the  town  and  its  neighbourhood 
memorable  by  his  presence  and  by  his  poetry.  His  residence 
in  the  Market  Place  was  converted  into  a  Cowper  Museum  a 
hundred  years  after  his  death,  in  1900.  Here  his  life  went  on  its 
placid  course,  interrupted  only  by  the  death  of  his  brother  in 
1 770,  until  1773,  when  he  became  again  deranged.  It  can  scarcely 
be  doubted  that  this  second  attack  interrupted  the  contemplated 
marriage  of  Cowper  with  Mary  Unwin,  although  Southey  could 
find  no  evidence  of  the  circumstance  and  Newton  was  not  in- 
formed of  it.  J.  C.  Bailey  brings  final  evidence  of  this  (The 
Poems  of  Cowper,  page  15).  The  fact  was  kept  secret  in  later 
years  in  order  to  spare  the  feelings  of  Theodora  Cowper,  who 
thought  that  her  cousin  had  remained  as  faithful  as  she  had  done 
to  their  early  love. 


It  was  not  until  1776  that  the  poet's  mind  cleared  again.  In 
1779  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  an  author  by  the  Olney 
Hymns,  written  in  conjunction  with  Newton,  Cowper's  verses 
being  indicated  by  a  "  C."  Mrs  Unwin  suggested  secular  verse, 
and  Cowper  wrote  much,  and  in  1782  when  he  was  fifty-one 
years  old  there  appeared  Poems  of  William  Cowper  of  the  Inner 
Temple,  Esq. :  London,  Printed  for  J.  Johnson,  No.  72  St  Paul's 
Churchyard.  The  volume  contained  "  Table  Talk,"  "  The 
Progress  of  Error,"  "  Truth,"  "Expostulation  "  and  much  else 
that  survives  to  be  read  in  our  day  by  virtue  of  the  poet's  finer 
work.  This  finer  work  was  the  outcome  of  his  friendship  with 
Lady  Austen,  a  widow  who,  on  a  visit  to  her  sister,  the  wife  of  the 
vicar  of  the  neighbouring  village  of  Clifton,  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Cowper  and  Mrs  Unwin.  The  three  became  great  friends. 
Lady  Austen  determined  to  give  up  her  house  in  London  and  to 
settle  in  Olney.  She  suggested  The  Task  and  inspired  John 
Gilpin  and  The  Royal  George.  But  in  1784  the  friendship  was  at 
an  end,  doubtless  through  Mrs  Unwin's  jealousy  of  Lady  Austen. 
Cowper's  second  volume  appeared  in  1785; — The  Task: A  Poem 
in  Six  Books.  By  William  Cowper  of  the  Inner  Temple,  Esq.;  To 
which  are  added  by  the  same  author  An  Epistle  to  Joseph  Hill,  Esq., 
Tirocinium  or  a  Review  of  Schools,  and  the  History  of  John 
Gilpin:  London,  Printed  for  J.  Johnson,  No.  72  St  Paul's  Church 
Yard;  1783.  His  first  book  had  been  a  failure,  one  critic  even 
declaring  that  "  Mr  Cowper  was  certainly  a  good,  pious  man,  but 
without  one  spark  of  poetic  fire."  This  second  book  was  an 
instantaneous  success,  and  indeed  marks  an  epoch  in  literary 
history.  But  before  its  publication — in  1784 — the  poet  had 
commenced  the  translation  of  Homer.  In  1786  his  life  at  Olney 
was  cheered  by  Lady  Hesketh  taking  up  a  temporary  residence 
there.  The  cousins  met  after  an  interval  of  twenty-three  years, 
and  Lady  Hesketh  was  to  be  Cowper's  good  angel  to  the  end,  even 
though  her  letters  disclose  a  considerable  impatience  with  Mrs 
Unwin.  At  the  end  of  1786  a  removal  was  made  to  Weston 
Underwood,  the  neighbouring  village  which  Cowper  had 
frequently  visited  as  the  guest  of  his  Roman  Catholic  friends  the 
Throckmortons.  This  was  to  be  his  home  for  yet  another  ten 
years.  Here  he  completed  his  translation  of  Homer,  materially 
assisted  by  Mr  Throckmorton's  chaplain  Dr  Gregson.  There  are 
six  more  months  of  insanity  to  record  in  1787.  In  1790,  a 
year  before  the  Homer  was  published,  commenced  his  friendship 
with  his  cousin  John  Johnson,  known  to  all  biographers  of  the 
poet  as  "  Johnny  of  Norfolk."  Johnson  also  aspired  to  be  a 
poet,  and  visited  his  cousin  armed  with  a  manuscript.  Cowper 
discouraged  the  poetry,  but  loved  the  writer,  arid  the  two 
became  great  friends.  New  friends  were  wanted,  for  in  1 792  Mrs 
Unwin  had  a  paralytic  stroke,  and  henceforth  she  was  a  hopeless 
invalid.  A  new  and  valued  friend  of  this  period  was  Hayley, 
famous  in  his  own  day  as  a  poet  and  in  history  for  his  association 
with  Romney  and  Cowper.  He  was  drawn  to  Cowper  by  the  fact 
that  both  were  contemplating  an  edition  of  "  Milton,"  Cowper 
having  received  a  commission  to  edit,  writing  notes  and  trans- 
lating the  Latin  and  Italian  poems.  The  work  was  never  com- 
pleted. In  1794  Cowper  was  again  insane  and  his  lifework  was 
over.  In  the  following  year  a  removal  took  place  into  Norfolk 
under  the  loving  care  of  John  Johnson.  Johnson  took  Cowper  and 
Mary  Unwin  to  North  Tuddenham,  thence  to  Mundesley,  then  to 
Dunham  Lodge,  near  Swaffham,  and  finally  in  October  1796  they 
moved  to  East  Dereham.  In  December  of  that  year  Mrs  Unwin 
died.  Cowper  lingered  on,  dying  on  the  25th  of  April  1800.  The 
poet  is  buried  near  Mrs  Unwin  in  East  Dereham  church. 

Cowper  is  among  the  poets  who  are  epoch-makers.  He  brought 
a  new  spirit  into  English  verse,  and  redeemed  it  from  the  arti- 
ficiality and  the  rhetoric  of  many  of  his  predecessors.  With  him 
began  the  "  enthusiasm  of  humanity  "  that  was  afterwards  to 
become  so  marked  in  the  poetry  of  Burns  and  Shelley,  Words- 
worth and  Byron.  With  him  began  the  deep  sympathy  with 
nature,  and  love  of  animal  life,  which  was  to  characterize  so 
much  of  later  poetry. 

Although  Cowper  cannot  rank  among  the  world's  greatest 
poets  or  even  among  the  most  distinguished  of  poets  of  his  own 
country,  his  place  is  a  very  high  one.  He  had  what  is  a  rare 


COWRY— COX,  DAVID 


quality  among  English  poets,  the  gift  of  humour,  which  was  very 
singularly  absent  from  others  who  possessed  many  other  of  the 
higher  qualities  of  the  intellect.  Certain  of  his  poems,  moreover, 
— for  example,  "  To  Mary,"  "  The  Receipt  of  my  Mother's 
Portrait,"  and  the  ballad  "  On  the  Loss  of  the  Royal  George,"— 
will,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed,  continue  to  be  familiar  to  each 
successive  generation  in  a  way  that  pertains  to  few  things  in 
literature.  Added  to  this,  one  may  note  Cowper's  distinction  as  a 
letter-writer.  He  ranks  among  the  half-dozen  greatest  letter- 
writers  in  the  English  language,  and  he  was  perhaps  the  only 
great  letter-writer  with  whom  the  felicity  was  due  to  the  power  of 
what  he  has  seen  rather  than  what  he  has  read. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  first  important  lifeof  Cowper  was  by  Hayley 
in  1803.  In  its  complete  form  it  appeared  in  4  volumes  in  1806  and 
was  reprinted  in  1809  and  1812.  It  was  reprinted  again  by  the  Rev. 
T.  S.  Grimshawe  with  the  Correspondence  in  8  volumes  in  1835. 
Robert  Southey's  much  more  valuable  Life  and  Letters  appeared 
also  in  15  volumes  in  1834—1837.  The  Private  Correspondence,  edited 
by  John  Johnson,  appeared  in  2  volumes  in  1824  and  again  in  1835. 
The  Complete  Correspondence,  edited  by  Thomas  Wright,  was  pub- 
lished in  1904,  but  more  correspondence  appeared  in  Notes  and 
Queries,  July,  August  and  September  1904,  and  in  The  Poems  of 
William  Cowper,  edited  by  J.  C.  Bailey  (1905).  Edward  Dowden 
unearthed  new  correspondence  with  William  Hayley  in  The  Atlantic 
Monthly  (1907).  Short  lives  of  Cowper  have  appeared  in  many 
quarters,  from  Thomas  Taylor's  (1833)  to  Goldwin  Smith's  in  the 

English  Men  of  Letters  "  series  (1880).  Another  brief  biography 
of  great  merit  is  attached  to  the  Globe  edition  of  Cowper's  Works. 
Essays  by  Leslie  Stephen,  Stopford  Brooke,  Whitwell  Elwin,  George 
Eliot  and  Walter  Bagehot  deserve  attention.  See  also  St  Beuve's 
Causeries  du  Lundi  (1868),  vol.  xi. ;  Letters  of  Lady  Hesketh  to  John 
Johnson  (1901);  John  Newton,  by  the  Rev.  Josiah  Bull  (1868); 
Cowper  and  Mary  Unwin,  by  Caroline  Gearey  (1900) ;  and  A  Con- 
cordance to  the  Poetic  Works  of  William  Cowper,  by  John  Neave 
(1887).  '  (C.  K.  S.) 

COWRY,  the  popular  name  of  the  shells  of  the  Cypraeida,  a 
family  of  mollusks.  Upwards  of  100  species  are  recognized, 
and  they  are  widely  distributed  over  the  world — their  habitat 
being  the  shallow  water  along  the  sea-shore.  The  best  known 
is  the  money  cowry  or  Cypraea  moneta,  a  small  shell  about  half 
an  inch  in  length,  white  and  straw-coloured  without  and  blue 
within,  which  derives  its  distinctive  name  from  the  fact  that  in 
various  countries  it  has  been  employed  as  a  kind  of  currency. 
(See  SHELL-MONEY.)  In  Africa  among  those  tribes,  such  as  the 
Niam-Niam,  who  do  not  recognize  their  monetary  value,  the 
shells  are  in  demand  as  fashionable  decorations,  just  as  in 
Germany  they  were  in  use  as  an  ornament  for  horses'  harness,  and 
were  popular  enough  to  acquire  several  native  names,  such  as 
Brustharnisch  or  breastplates,  and  Otterkopfchen  or  little  adders' 
heads.  Besides  the  Cypraea  moneta  various  species  are  employed 
in  this  decorative  use.  The  Cypraea  aurora  is  a  mark  of  chieftain- 
ship among  the  natives  of  the  Friendly  Islands;  the  Cypraea 
annulus  is  a  favourite  with  the  Asiatic  islanders;  and  several  of 
the  larger  kinds  have  been  used  in  Europe  for  the  carving  of 
cameos.  The  tiger  cowry,  Cypraea  tigris,  so  well  known  as  a 
mantelpiece  ornament  in  England  and  America,  is  commonly 
used  by  the  natives  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  to  sink  their  nets; 
and  they  have  also  an  ingenious  plan  of  cementing  portions  of 
several  shells  into  a  smooth  oval  ball  which  they  then  employ  as  a 
bait  to  catch  the  cuttle-fish.  While  the  species  already  mentioned 
occur  in  myriads  in  their  respective  habitats,  the  Cypraea  princeps 
and  the  Cypraea  umbilicata  are  extremely  rare. 

COW-TREE,  or  MILK-TREE,  Brosimum  Galactodendron  (natural 
order  Moraceae) ,  a  native  of  Venezuela.  As  in  other  members  of 
the  order,  the  stem  contains  a  milky  latex,  which  flows  out  in 
considerable  quantities  when  a  notch  is  cut  in  it.  The  "  milk  " 
is  sweet  and  pleasant  tasting.  Another  species,  B.  Alicaslrum, 
the  bread-nut  tree,  a  native  of  central  America  and  Jamaica, 
bears  a  fruit  which  is  cooked  and  eaten.  The  bread-fruit 
(Arlocarpus)  is  an  allied  genus  of  the  same  natural  order. 

COX,  DAVID  (1783-1859),  English  painter,  was  born  on  the 
29th  of  April  1783,  in  a  small  house  attached  to  the  forge  of  his 
father,a  hardworking  master  smith,  in  a  mean  suburb  of  Birming- 
ham. Turning  his  hand  to  what  he  could  get  to  do,  Joseph  Cox, 
the  father,  was  both  blacksmith  and  whitesmith,  and  when  the 
war  with  France  began  took  to  the  making  of  bayonets  and  horse 


shoes,  on  wholesale  commission,  and  immediately  the  boy  David 
was  thought  able  to  assist  he  was  taken  from  the  poor  elementary 
school  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  set  to  the  anvil.  The  attempt 
to  turn  the  boy  to  this  kind  of  labour  had,  however,  been  made 
too  early;  it  was  too  heavy  for  his  strength,  and  he  was  sent  to 
what  was  called  by  the  Cyclops  of  Birmingham  a  "  toy  trade," 
making  lacquered  buckles,  painted  lockets,  tin  snuff-boxes  and 
other  "  fancy  "  articles.  Here  David  very  soon  acquired  some 
power  of  painting  miniatures,  and  his  talents  might  have  been 
misdirected  had  his  master,  Fieldler  by  name,  not  released  him 
from  his  apprenticeship  by  dying  by  his  own  hand;  and  David 
found  an  opening  as  colour-grinder  and  scene-painter's  fag  in  the 
theatre  then  leased,  with  several  others,  by  the  father  of 
Macready,  the  tragedian. 

This  obscure  step,  not  one  of  promotion  at  the  time,  was  really 
the  most  important  incident  in  the  uneventful  career  of  Cox. 
The  boy,  who  had  inherited  a  rather  weakly  body,  and  had  been 
trained  with  care  by  a  pious  mother,  while  intellectually  negative 
and  unable  to  cope  with  any  kind  of  learning  whatever,  had 
endless  perseverance,  great  strength  of  application,  and  all 
through  life  remained  genial,  gentle,  simple-minded  and  modest, 
his  penetration  and  self-reliance  being  wholly  professional, 
inspired  by  his  love  of  nature  and  his  knowledge  of  his  subject. 
Not  very  quick,  and  with  little  versatility,  he  went  step  by  step 
in  one  line  of  study  from  the  time  he  began  to  get  the  smallest 
remuneration  for  his  pictures  to  the  age  of  seventy-five,  when  he 
painted  large  in  oil  very  much  the  same  class  of  subjects  he  had 
of  old  produced  small  in  water-colours,  with  the  same  impressive 
and  unaffectedly  noble  sentiment,  only  increased  by  the  mastery 
of  almost  infinite  practice.  He  was  never  led  astray  by  fictitious 
splendour  of  any  kind,  except  once  indeed  in  1825,  when  he 
imitated  Turner,  and  produced  a  classic  subject  he  called 
"  Carthage,  Aeneas,  and  Achates."  He  never  visited  Venice  or 
Egypt,  or  crossed  the  Channel  except  for  a  week  or  two  in 
Belgium  and  Paris,  and  never  even  went  to  Scotland  for  painting 
purposes.  Bettws-y-Coed  and  its  neighbourhood  was  everything 
to  him,  and  characteristics  most  truly  English  were  beloved  by 
him  with  a  sort  of  filial  instinct.  So  completely  did  he  love  the 
country,  that  even  London,  where  it  was  his  interest  to  live,  had 
few  attractions,  and  did  not  retain  him  long. 

This  residence  in  the  metropolis  which  began  in  1804  was, 
however,  of  the  most  essential  educational  advantage  to  him. 
The  Water-Colour  Society  was  established  the  year  after  he 
arrived,  and  was  mainly  supported  by  landscape-painters.  He 
was  not,of  course,admitted  at  first  into  membership,  not  till  1813, 
before  which  time  an  attempt  to  establish  a  rival  exhibition  had 
been  made.  In  this  Cox  joined,  the  result  being  very  serious  to 
him,  an  entire  failure  entailing  the  seizure  and  forced  sale  of  all 
the  pictures.  At  that  time  the  tightest  economy  was  the  rule 
with  him,  and  to  save  the  trifling  cost  of  new  strainers  or  stretch- 
ing boards,  he  covered  up  one  picture  by  another.  When  these 
works  were  prepared  for  re-sale,  fifty  years  afterwards,  some  of 
them  yielded  picture  after  picture,  peeled  off  the  boards  like  the 
waistcoats  from  the  body  of  the  gravedigger  in  Hamlet! 

While  lodging  near  Astley's  Circus  he.  married  his  landlady's 
daughter,  and  then  took  a  modest  cottage  at  Dulwich,  where  he 
gradually  left  off  scene-painting  and  became  teacher,  giving 
lessons  at  ten  shillings  a  lesson.  This  entailed  walking  to  the 
pupils'  homes,  and  the  gift  of  the  paintings  done  before  the  pupils. 
These  have  since  been  frequently  sold  for  large  sums,  but  his  own 
price,  when  lucky  enough  to  sell  his  best  works,  was  never  over 
a  few  pounds,  and  more  frequently  about  fifteen  shillings. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  he  sold  them  in  quantities  at  two  pounds  a 
dozen  to  be  resold  to  country  teachers.  By  and  by  he  resisted  the 
leaving  of  the  work  done  to  the  pupil,  but  with  little  advantage 
to  himself,  as  he  saw  no  end  to  the  accumulation  of  his  own 
productions,  and  actually  tore  them  up,  and  threw  them  into 
areas,  or  pushed  them  into  drains  during  his  trudge  homeward. 
A  number  of  years  after  he  pointed  out  a  particular  drain  to  a 
friend,  and  said,  "  Many  a  work  of  mine  has  gone  down  that  way 
to  the  Thames!" 

Shortly  after  he  had  turned  thirty,  his  stay  in  London  suddenly 


352 


COX,  SIR  G.  W.— COX,  J.  D. 


ended.     He  was  offered  the  enormous  sum  of  £100  per  annum 
by  a  ladies'  college  in  Hereford,  and  thither  he  went.   This  sum  h 
supplemented  by  teaching  in  the  Hereford  grammar  school  fo 
many  years,  at  six  guineas  a  year,  and  in  other  schools  at  bette: 
pay,  but  still,  and  up  to  his  fortieth  year,  we  find  his  prices  fo 
pictures  from  eight  to  twenty-five  shillings.     Cox  has  no  histor} 
apart  from  his  productions,  and  these  particulars  as  to  his 
remuneration  possess  an  interest  almost  dramatic  when  we 
contrast  them  with  the  enormous  sums  realized  by  his  later 
works,  and  with  the  "  honours  and  observance,  troops  of  friends,' 
that  accompanied  old  age  with  him,  when  settled  down  in  his  own 
home  at  Harborne,  near  his  native  town,  where  he  died  on  the 
7th  of  June  1859. 

Cox's  second  short  residence  in  London,  dating  from  1835  to 
1840,  marks  the  period  of  his  highest  powers.  During  those 
years,  and  for  twelve  years  after,  his  productiveness  kept  pace 
with  his  mastery,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  overrate  the 
impressiveness  of  effect,  and  high  feeling,  within  the  narrow  range 
of  subject  displayed  by  many  of  these  works.  He  was  now 
surrounded  by  dealers,  and  wealth  flowed  in  upon  him.  Still  he 
remained  the  same,  a  man  with  few  wants  and  scarcely  any 
enjoyments  except  those  furnished  by  his  brush  and  his  colours. 
The  home  at  Harborne  was  a  pleasant  one,  but  the  approach  to 
the  front  was  useless  as  the  door  was  kept  fastened  up,  the  only 
entrance  being  through  the  garden  at  the  back,  and  the  principal 
room  appropriated  as  his  studio  he  was  content  to  reach  by  a 
narrow  stair  from  the  kitchen.  Neither  in  it  nor  elsewhere  was 
there  any  luxury  or  even  taste  visible: — no  bric-a-brac,  no 
objects  of  interest,  few  or  no  books,  no  pictures  except  landscapes 
by  his  friends.  When  in  winter,  after  his  wife's  death,  the  fire 
went  out,  and  the  cold  at  last  surprised  him,  he  lifted  his  easel 
into  the  little  dining-room  and  began  again.  A  union  of  his  friends 
was  formed  in  1855  to  procure  a  portrait  of  him,  which  was 
painted  by  Sir  J.  Watson  Gordon;  and  an  exhibition  of  his  works 
was  opened  in  London  in  1858  and  again  another  in  1859.  This 
was  actually  open  when  the  news  of  his  death  arrived. 

The  number  of  David  Cox's  works,  great  and  small,is  enormous. 
He  produced  hundreds  annually  for  perhaps  forty-five  years. 
Before  his  death  and  for  ten  years  thereafter,  their  prices  were 
remarkable,  as  witness  the  following  obtained  at  auction — 
"  Going  to  the  Mill,"  £1575;  "  Old  Mill  at  Bettws-y-Coed," 
£1575;  "Outskirts  of  a  Wood,  with  Gipsies,"  £2305;  "Peace 
and  War,"  £3430. 

See   Hall,  Biography  of  David  Cox  (1881).  (W.  B.  Sc.) 

COX,  SIR  GEORGE  WILLIAM  (1827-1902),  English  divine 
and  scholar,  was  born  on  the  loth  of  January  1827,  at  Benares, 
India,  and  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford. 
In  1850  he  was  ordained,  and  in  1860  took  a  mastership  at 
Cheltenham  College,  which  he  held  for  only  a  year.  He  had 
already  contributed  to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  and  had  published 
in  1850  Poems,  Legendary  and  Historical  (with  E.  A.  Freeman), 
and  in  1853  a  Life  of  St  Boniface.  From  1861  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  literary  work,  chiefly  in  connexion  with  history  and 
comparative  mythology.  Many  of  his  works  were  avowedly 
popular  in  character,  and  the  most  important,  the  History  of 
Greece,  has  been  superseded  and  is  now  of  little  value.  His 
studies  in  mythology  were  inspired  by  Max  Muller,  but  his 
treatment  of  the  subjects  was  his  own.  He  was  an  extreme 
supporter  of  the  solar  and  nebular  theory  as  the  explanation  of 
myths.  He  also  edited  (with  W.  T.  Brande)  A  Dictionary  of 
Science,  Literature  and  Art  (1875).  Sir  George  Cox  (who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  baronetcy  in  1877  )was  a  Broad  Churchman,  and  a 
prominent  supporter  of  Bishop  Colenso  in  1863-1865;  and  five 
years  after  Colenso's  death  he  published  (1888)  his  Life  of  the 
bishop.  He  was  himself  nominated  to  the  see  of  Natal,  but  was 
refused  consecration.  In  188 1  he  was  made  vicar  of  Scrayingham, 
York,  but  resigned  the  living  in  1897.  In  1896  he  was  given  a 
civil  list  pension.  He  died  at  Walmer  on  the  gth  of  February 
1902. 

WORKS. — Tales  from  Greek  Mythology  (1861);  A  Manual  of 
Mythology  (1867);  Latin  and  Teutonic  Christendom  (1870);  The 
Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations  (1870,  new  ed.,  1882);  History 


of  Greece  (1874);  General  History  of  Greece  (1876);  History  of  the 
Establishment  of  British  Rule  in  India,  and  An  Introduction  to  the 
Science  of  Comparative  Mythology  (1881);  Lives  of  Greek  Statesmen 
(1885) ;  Concise  History  of  England  (1887). 

COX,  JACOB  DOLSON  (1828-1900),  American  general,  political 
leader  and  educationalist,  was  born  on  the  27th  of  October  1828 
in  Montreal,  Canada.     His  father,  a  shipbuilder  of  German 
descent  (Koch),and  his  mother,a  descendant  of  William  Brewster, 
were  natives  of  New  York  City,  where  the  boy  grew  up,  studying 
law  in  an  office  in  1842-1844,  and  working  in  a  broker's  office  in 
1844-1846,  and  where,  under  the  influence  of  Charles  G.  Finney 
(1792-1875),  whose  daughter  he  afterwards  married,  he  prepared 
himself  for  the  ministry.     He  graduated  at  Oberlin  College  in 
1851,  having  in  the  meantime  given  up  his  theological  studies  in 
rebellion  at  Finney's  dogmatism.     In  1851-1853  he  was  super- 
intendent of  schools  at  Warren,  Ohio;  in  1853  was  admitted 
to  the  Ohio  bar,  being  at  that  time  an  anti-slavery  Whig;  and  in 
1859  was  elected  to  the  state  senate,  in  which  with  Garfield  and 
James  Monroe  ( 1 8  2 1- 1 898)  he  formed  the  "  Radical  Triumvirate, " 
Cox  himself  presenting  a  petition  for  a  personal  liberty  law  arid 
urging  woman's  rights,  especially  larger  property  rights  to  married 
women.    Appointed  by  Governor  Dennison  one  of  three  brigadiers- 
general  of  militia  in  1860,  he  eagerly  undertook  the  study  of 
tactics,    strategy   and   military    history.     He    rendered   great 
assistance  in  raising  troops  for  the  Union  service  in  1861,  enlisted 
himself  in  spite  of  poor  health  and  a  family  of  six  small  children, 
and  in  April  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general,  U.S.V.     He 
took  part  in  the  West  Virginia  campaign  of  1861,  served  in  the 
Kanawha  region,  in  supreme  command  after  Rosecrans's  relief 
in  the  spring,  until  August  1862,  when  his  troops  were  ordered  to 
join  Burnside's  9th  Corps  in  Virginia.     After  the  death  at  his 
side  of  General  Reno  in  the  battle  of  South  Mountain,  and  during 
Antietam,  Cox  commanded  the  corps,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
campaign   (6th  Oct.    1862)   he  was  appointed  major-general, 
U.S.V.,  but  the  appointment  was  not  confirmed.     In  April- 
December  1863  he  was  head  of  the  department  of  Ohio.     In 
1864  he  took  part  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  under  Sherman,  as  a 
divisional  and  subsequently  corps-commander:  at  the  battle 
of  Franklin  he  commanded  the  23rd  Corps,  and  he  served  at 
Nashville  also.     He  led  an  expedition  following  Sherman  into 
the  Carolinas  and  fought  two  successful  actions  with  Bragg  at 
Kinston,  N.C.     He  was  governor  of  Ohio  in  1866-1867,  and  as 
such  advocated  the  colonization  of  the  freedmen  in  a  restricted 
area,  and  sympathized  with  President  Johnson's  programme  of 
Reconstruction  and  worked  for  a  compromise  between  Johnson 
and  his  opponents,  although  he  finally  deserted  Johnson.     In 
1868  he  was  chairman  of  the  Republican  national  convention 
which  nominated  Grant.     He  was  secretary  of  the  interior  in 
1869-1870;     opposed  the  confirmation  of  the  treaty  for  the 
annexation  of  Santo  Domingo,  negotiated  by  O.  E.  Babcock 
and  urged  by  President  Grant;  introduced  the  merit  system 
in  his  department,  and  resigned  in  October  1870  because  of 
pressure  put  on  him  by  politicians  piqued  at  his  prohibition  of 
campaign  levies  on  his  clerks,  and  because  of  the  interference 
of  Grant  in  favour  of  William  McGarrahan's  attempt  by  legal 
proceedings  to  obtain  from  Cox  a  patent  to  certain  California 
mining  lands.     He  took  up  legal  practice  in  Cincinnati,  became 
resident  in  1873,  and  until  1877  was  receiver,  of  the  Toledo 

Wabash  &  Western.  In  1877-1879  he  was  a  representative  in 
'ongress.  From  1881  to  1897  he  was  dean  of  the  Cincinnati 
aw  school,  and  from  1885  to  1889  president  of  the  University  of 

incinnati.  He  died  at  Magnolia,  Massachusetts,  on  the  4th 
of  August  1900.  A  successful  lawyer,  and  in  his  later  years  a 
>rominent  microscopist,  who  won  a  gold  medal  of  honour  for 
nicrophotography  at  the  Antwerp  Exposition  of  1891,  he  is 
>est  known  as  one  of  the  greatest  "  civilian  "  generals  of  the 
Divil  War,  and,  with  the  possible  exception  of  J.  C.  Ropes,  the 
lighest  American  authority  of  his  time  on  military  history, 
>articularly  the  history  of  the  American  Civil  War.  He  wrote 
Atlanta  (New  York,  1882)  and  The  March  to  the  Sea,  Franklin 
and  Nashville  (New  York,  1882),  both  in  the  series  Campaigns 
jf  the  Civil  War;  The  Second  Battle  of  Bull  Run,  as  Connected 


COX,  KENYON— COX,  S.  H. 


353 


with  the  Fitz-John  Porter  Case  (Cincinnati,  1882);  and  the 
valuable  Military  Reminiscences  of  the  Civil  War  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1900)  published  posthumously. 

See  J.  R.  Ewing,  Public  Services  of  Jacob  Dolson  Cox  (Washington, 
1902),  a  Johns  Hopkins  University  dissertation;  and  W.  C.  Cochran, 
"  Early  Life  and  Military  Services  of  General  Jacob  Dolson  Cox," 
in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol.  58  (Oberlin,  Ohio,  1901). 

COX,  KENYON  (1856-  ),  American  painter,  was  born  at 
Warren,  Ohio,  on  the  27th  of  October  1856,  being  the  son  of 
Gen.  Jacob  Dolson  Cox.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Carolus-Duran  and 
of  J.  L.  Ger6me  in  Paris  from  1877  to  1882,  when  he  opened  a 
studio  in  New  York,  subsequently  teaching  with  much  success 
in  the  Art  Students'  League.  His  earlier  work  was  mainly  of 
the  nude  drawn  with  great  academic  correctness  in  somewhat 
conventional  colour.  Receiving  little  encouragement  for  such 
pictures,  he  turned  to  mural  decorative  work,in  which  he  achieved 
prominence.  Among  his  better-known  examples  are  the  frieze 
for  the  court  room  of  the  Appellate  Court,  New  York,  and  decora- 
tions for  the  Walker  Art  Gallery,  Bowdoin  College;  for  the 
Capitol  at  Saint  Paul,  Minnesota,  and  for  other  public  and  private 
buildings.  He  wrote  with  much  authority  on  art  topics,  and  is 
the  author  of  the  critical  reviews,  Old  Masters  and  New  (1905) 
and  Painters  and  Sculptors  (1907),  besides  some  poems.  He 
became  a  National  Academician  in  1903.  His  wife,  nee  Louise 
H.  King  (b.  1865),  whom  he  married  in  1892,  also  became  a 
figure  and  portrait-painter  of  note. 

COX,  RICHARD  (1500  ?-i  581),  dean  of  Westminster  and 
bishop  of  Ely,  was  born  of  obscure  parentage  at  Whaddon, 
Buckinghamshire,  in  1499  or  150x1.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Benedictine  priory  of  St  Leonard  Snelshall  near  Whaddon,  at 
Eton,  and  at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
B.A.  in  1524.  At  Wolsey's  invitation  he  became  a  member  of 
the  cardinal's  new  foundation  at  Oxford,  was  incorporated  B.A. 
in  1525,  and  created  M.A.  in  1526.  In  1530  he  was  engaged  in 
persuading  the  more  unruly  members  of  the  university  to  approve 
of  the  king's  divorce.  A  premature  expression  of  Lutheran 
views  is  said  to  have  caused  his  departure  from  Oxford  and  even 
his  imprisonment,  but  the  records  are  silent  on  these  sufferings 
which  do  not  harmonize  with  his  appointment  as  master  of  the 
royal  foundation  at  Eton.  In  1533  he  appears  as  author  of  an 
ode  on  the  coronation  of  Anne  Boleyn,  in  1535  he  graduated  B.D. 
at  Cambridge,  proceeding  D.D.  in  1537,  and  in  the  same  year 
subscribing  the  Institution  of  a  Christian  Man.  In  1540  he  was 
one  of  the  fifteen  divines  to  whom  were  referred  crucial  questions 
on  the  sacraments  and  the  seat  of  authority  in  the  Church;  his 
answers  (printed  in  Pocock's  Burnet,  iii.  443-496)  indicate  a 
mind  tending  away  from  Catholicism,  but  susceptible  to  "  the 
king's  doctrine  ";  and,  indeed,  Cox  was  one  of  the  divines  by 
whom  Henry  said  the  "  King's  Book  "  had  been  drawn  up  when 
he  wished  to  impress  upon  the  Regent  Arran  that  it  was  not 
exclusively  his  own  doing.  Moreover,  he  was  present  at  the 
examination  of  Barnes,  subscribed  the  divorce  of  Anne  of  Cleves, 
and  in  that  year  of  reaction  became  archdeacon  and  prebendary 
of  Ely  and  canon  of  Westminster.  He  was  employed  on  other 
royal  business  in  1541,  was  nominated  to  the  projected  bishopric 
of  Southwell,  and  was  made  king's  chaplain  in  1542.  In  1543 
he  was  employed  to  ferret  out  the  "  Prebendaries'  Plot  "  against 
Cranmer,  and  became  the  archbishop's  chancellor.  In  December 
he  was  appointed  dean  of  Oseney  (afterwards  Christ  Church) 
Oxford,  and  in  July  was  made  almoner  to  Prince  Edward,  in 
whose  education  he  took  an  active  part.  He  was  present  at 
Dr  Crome's  recantation  in  1546,  denounced  it  as  insincere  and 
insufficient,  and  severely  handled  him  before  the  privy  council. 

After  Edward's  accession,  Cox's  opinions  took  a  more  Pro- 
testant turn,  and  he  became  one  of  the  most  active  agents  of 
the  Reformation.  He  was  consulted  on  the  compilation  of  the 
Communion  office  in  1548,  and  the  first  and  second  books  of 
Common  Prayer,  and  sat  on  the  commission  for  the  reform  of  the 
canon  law.  As  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford  (1547- 
1552)  he  promoted  foreign  divines  such  as  Peter  Martyr,  and  was 
a  moving  spirit  of  the  two  commissions  which  sought  with  some 
success  to  eradicate  everything  savouring  of  popery  from  the 

VII.  12 


books,  MSS.,  ornaments  and  endowments  of  the  university,  and 
earned  Cox  the  sobriquet  of  its  canceller  rather  than  its  chan- 
cellor. He  received  other  rewards,  a  canonry  of  Windsor  ( 1 548) , 
the  rectory  of  Harrow  (1347)  and  the  deanery  of  Westminster 
(1549).  He  lost  these  prefermentson  Mary's  accession, and  wasfor 
a  fortnight  in  August  1553  confined  to  the  Marshalsea.  He  was 
not  of  the  stuff  of  which  martyrs  are  made;  he  remained  in 
obscurity  until  after  the  failure  of  Wyatt's  rebellion,  and  then  in 
May  1554  escaped  in  the  same  ship  as  the  future  archbishop 
Sandys,  to  Antwerp.  Thence  in  March  1 555  he  made  his  way  to 
Frankfort,  where'he  played  an  important  part  in  the  first  struggle 
between  Anglicanism  and  Puritanism.  The  exiles  had,  under  the 
influence  of  Knox  and  Whittingham,  adopted  Calvinistic  doctrine 
and  a  form  of  service  far  more  Puritanical  than  the  Prayer-Book 
of  i  ss  2.  Cox  stood  up  for  that  service,  and  the  exiles  were  divided 
into  Knoxians  and  Coxians.  Knox  attacked  Cox  as  a  pluralist, 
Cox  accused  Knox  of  treason  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  This 
proved  the  more  dangerous  charge:  Knox  and  his  followers 
were  expelled,  and  the  Prayer-Book  of  1552  was  restored. 

In  1559  Cox  returned  to  England,  and  was  elected  bishop  of 
Norwich,  but  the  queen  changed  her  mind  and  Cox's  destination 
to  Ely,  where  he  remained  twenty-one  years.  He  was  an  honest, 
but  narrow-minded  ecclesiastic,  who  held  what  views  he  did  hold 
intolerantly,  and  was  always  wanting  more  power  to  constrain 
those  who  differed  from  him  (see  his  letter  in  Hatfield  MSS.  i. 
308).  While  he  refused  to  minister  in  the  queen's  chapel  because 
of  the  crucifix  and  lights  there,  and  was  a  bitter  enemy  to  the 
Roman  Catholics,  he  had  little  more  patience  with  the  Puritans. 
He  was  grasping,  or  at  least  tenacious  of  his  rights  in  money 
matters,  and  was  often  brought  into  conflict  with  courtiers  who 
coveted  episcopal  lands.  The  queen  herself  intervened,  when  he 
refused  to  grant  Ely  House  to  her  favourite,  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton;  but  the  well-known  letter  beginning  "  Proud  Prelate  " 
and  threatening  to  unfrock  him  seems  to  be  an  impudent  forgery 
which  first  saw  the  light  in  the  Annual  Register  for  1761.  It 
hardly,  however,  misrepresents  the  queen's  meaning,  and  Cox 
was  forced  to  give  way.  These  and  other  trials  led  him  to 
resign  his  see  in  1580,  and  it  is  significant  that  it  remained  vacant 
for  nineteen  years.  Cox  died  on  the  22nd  of  July  1581:  a 
monument  erected  to  his  memory  twenty  years  later  in  Ely 
cathedral  was  defaced,  owing,  it  was  said,  to  his  evil  repute. 
Strype  (Whitgift,  i.  2)  gives  Cox's  hot  temper  and  marriage  as 
reasons  why  he  was  not  made  archbishop  in  1 583  in  preference  to 
Whitgift,  who  had  been  his  chaplain;  but  Cox  had  been  dead  two 
years  in  1583.  His  first  wife's  name  is  unknown;  she  was  the 
mother  of  his  five  children,  of  whom  Joanna  married  the  eldest 
son  of  Archbishop  Parker.  His  second  wife  was  the  widow  of 
William  Turner  (d.  1568),  the  botanist  and  dean  of  Wells. 

Voluminous  details  about  Cox's  life  are  given  in  Strype's  Works, 
Parker  Soc.  Publ.,  and  Cooper's  A  thenae  Cantab,  i.  437-445.  See  also 
Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII.;  Acts  of  the  Privy  Council;  Cal. 
Dom.  State  Papers;  Cal.  Hatfield  MSS.;  Lit.  Rem.  of  Edward  VI.; 
Whittingham's  Troubles  at  Frankfort;  Machyn's  Diary;  Pocock's 
Burnet;  Bentham's  Ely;  Willis's  Cathedrals;  Le  Neve's  Fasti; 
R.  W.  Dixon's  Church  History.  (A.  F.  P.) 

COX,  SAMUEL  (1826-1893),  English  nonconformist  divine, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  igth  of  April  1826.  For  some  years 
he  worked  as  an  apprentice  in  the  London  docks,  and  then 
entered  the  Baptist  College  at  Stepney.  In  1851  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  at  Southsea,  removing  in  1855  to  Ryde, 
and  in  1863  to  Nottingham.  He  was  president  of  the  Baptist 
Association  in  1873  and  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  St 
Andrews  in  1882.  Cox  had  distinct  gifts  as  a  biblical  expositor 
and  was  the  founder  and  first  editor  of  a  monthly  journal  The 
Expositor  (1875-1884).  Among  the  best  known  of  his  numerous 
theological  publicationsare  SalvatorMundi(i&lj'j),AContmentary 
on  the  Book  of  Job  (1880),  The  Larger  Hope  (1883). 

COX,  SAMUEL  HANSON  (1793-1880),  American  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  at  Rahway,  N.J.,  on  the  25th  of  August  1793, 
of  Quaker  stock.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  at 
Mendham,  N.J.,  in  1817-1821,  and  of  two  churches  in  New  York 
from  1821  to  1834.  He  helped  to  found  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  and  from  183410  1837  was  professor  of  pastoral 


354 


COXCIE— COXWELL 


theology  at  Auburn.  The  next  seventeen  years  were  passed  in 
active  ministry  at  Brooklyn,  whence  in  1854,  owing  to  a  throat 
affection,  he  removed  to  Owego,  N.Y.  He  died  at  Bronxville, 
N.Y.,  on  the  2nd  of  October  1880.  Cox  was  a  fine  orator,  and  a 
speech  made  in  Exeter  Hall  in  1833,  in  which  he  put  the  responsi- 
bility for  slavery  in  America  on  the  British  government,  made 
a  great  impression.  It  was  he  who  described  the  appellation 
D.D.  as  a  couple  of  "  semi-lunar  fardels." 

His  son,  ARTHUR  CLEVELAND  COXE  (1818-1896),  who  changed 
the  spelling  of  the  family  name,  graduated  at  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1838  and  at  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  in  1841.  He  was  rector  of  St  John's  Church,  Hartford, 
in  1843-1854,  of  Grace  Church,  Baltimore,  in  1854-1863,  and  of 
Calvary  Church,  New  York  City,  in  1863.  In  1863  he  became 
assistant  bishop  and  in  1865  bishop  of  western  New  York.  He 
was  strongly  influenced  by  the  Oxford  Movement.  Bishop  Coxe 
wrote  spirited  defences  of  Anglican  orders  and  published  several 
volumes  of  verse,  notably  Christian  Ballads  (1845). 

COXCIE,  MICHAEL  (1499-1592),  Flemish  painter,  was  born  at 
Malines,  and  studied  under  Bernard  van  Orley,  who  probably 
induced  him  to  visit  Italy.  At  Rome  in  1532  he  painted  the 
chapel  of  Cardinal  Enckenvoort  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
dell'  Anima;  and  Vasari,  who  knew  him,  says  with  truth  "  that  he 
fairly  acquired  the  manner  of  an  Italian."  But  Coxcie's  principal 
occupation  was  designing  for  engravers;  and  the  fable  of  Psyche 
in  thirty-two  sheets  by  Agostino  Veneziano  and  the  Master  of  the 
Die  are  favourable  specimens  of  his  skill.  During  a  subsequent 
residence  in  the  Netherlands  Coxcie  greatly  extended  his  practice 
in  this  branch  of  art.  But  his  productions  were  till  lately  con- 
cealed under  an  interlaced  monogram  M.C.O.K.X.I.N.  Coxcie 
returned  in  1539  to  Malines,  where  he  matriculated,  and  painted 
for  the  chapel  of  the  gild  of  St  Luke  the  wings  of  an  altar- 
piece  now  in  Sanct  Veit  of  Prague.  The  centre  of  this  altar- 
piece,  by  Mabuse,  represents  St  Luke  portraying  the  Virgin; 
the  side  pieces  contain  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Vitus  and  the  Vision 
of  St  John  in  Patmos.  At  van  Orley 's  death  in  1541  Coxcie 
succeeded  to  the  office  of  court  painter  to  the  regent  Mary  of 
Hungary,  for  whom  he  decorated  the  castle  of  Binchc.  He  was 
subsequently  patronized  by  Charles  V.,  who  often  coupled  his 
works  with  those  of  Titian;  by  Philip  II.,  who  paid  him  royally 
fora  copy  of  van  Eyck's  "  Agnus  Dei  ";  and  by  the  duke  of  Alva, 
who  once  protected  him  from  the  insults  of  Spanish  soldiery  at 
Malines.  There  are  large  and  capital  works  of  his  ( 1 587-1 588)  in 
St  Rombaud  of  Malines,  in  Ste  Gudule  of  Brussels,  and  in  the 
museums  of  Brussels  and  Antwerp.  His  style  is  Raphaelesque 
grafted  on  the  Flemish,  but  his  imitation  of  Raphael,  whilst  it 
distantly  recalls  Giulio  Romano,  is  never  free  from  affectation 
and  stiffness.  He  died  at  Malines  on  the  5th  of  March  1592. 

COXE,  HENRY  OCTAVIUS  (1811-1881),  English  librarian  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Bucklebury,  in  Berkshire,  on  the  2oth  of 
September  1811.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  school  and 
Worcester  College,  Oxford.  Immediately  on  taking  his  degree  in 
1833,  he  began  work  in  the  manuscript  department  of  the  British 
Museum,  became  in  1838  sub-librarian  of  the  Bodleian,  at  Oxford, 
and  in  1860  succeeded  Dr  Bandinel  as  head  librarian,  an  office  he 
held  until  his  death  in  1881.  Having  proved  himself  an  able 
palaeographer,  he  was  sent  out  by  the  British  government  in 
1857  to  inspect  the  libraries  in  the  monasteries  of  the  Levant. 
He  discovered  some  valuable  manuscripts,  but  the  monks  were 
too  wise  to  part  with  their  treasures.  One  valuable  result  of  his 
travels  was  the  detection  of  the  forgery  attempted  by  Constantine 
Simonides.  He  was  the  author  of  various  catalogues,  and  under 
his  direction  that  of  the  Bodleian,  in  more  than  720  volumes,  was 
completed.  He  published  Rogeri  de  Wendover  Chronica,  5  vols. 
(1841-1844);  the  Black  Prince,  an  historical  poem  written  in 
French  by  Chandos  Herald  (1842);  and  Report  on  the  Greek 
Manuscripts  yet  remaining  in  the  Libraries  of  the  Levant  (1858). 
He  was  not  only  an  accurate  librarian  but  an  active  and  hard- 
working clergyman,  and  was  for  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his 
life  in  charge  of  the  parish  of  Wytham,  near  Oxford.  He  was 
likewise  honorary  fellow  of  Worcester  and  Corpus  Christi  Colleges. 
He  died  on  the  8th  of  July  1881. 


COXE,  WILLIAM  (1747-1828),  English  historian,  son  of  Dr 
William  Coxe,  physician  to  the  royal  household,  was  born  in 
London  on  the  7th  of  March  1747.  Educated  at  Marylebone 
grammar  school  and  at  Eton  College,  he  proceeded  to  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  this  society  in 
1768.  In  1771  he  took  holy  orders,  and  afterwards  visited  many 
parts  of  Europe  as  tutor  and  travelling  companion  to  various 
noblemen  and  gentlemen.  In  1786  he  was  appointed  vicar  of 
Kingston-on-Thames,  and  in  1788  rector  of  Bemerton,  Wiltshire. 
He  also  held  the  rectory  of  Stourton  from  1801  to  1811  and  that 
of  Fovant  from  1811  until  his  death.  In  1791  he  was  made 
prebendary  of  Salisbury,  and  in  1804  archdeacon  of  Wiltshire. 
He  married  in  1803  Eleanora,  daughter  of  William  Shairp,  consul- 
general  for  Russia,  and  widow  of  Thomas  Yeldham  of  St  Peters- 
burg. He  died  on  the  8th  of  June  1828. 

During  a  long  residence  at  Bemerton  Coxe  was  mainly  occupied 
in  literary  work.  His  Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  (London, 
1 798),  Memoirs  of  Horatio, Lord  Walpole  (London,  1802),  Memoirs 
of  John,  duke  of  Marlborough  (London,  1818-1819),  Private  and 
Original  Correspondence  of  Charles  Talbot,  duke  of  Shrewsbury 
(London,  1821),  Memoirs  of  the  A  dministrations  of  Henry  Pelham 
(London,  1829),  are  very  valuable  for  the  history  of  the  i8th 
century.  His  History  of  the  House  of  Austria  (London,  1807, 
new  ed.  1853  and  1873),  and  Memoirs  of  the  Bourbon  Kings  of 
Spain  (London,  1813),  give  evidence  of  careful  and  painstaking 
work  on  the  part  of  the  author.  The  style,  however,  as  in  all  his 
works,  is  remarkably  dull.  His  other  works  are  mainly  accounts 
of  his  travels:  Sketches  of  the  Natural,  Political  and  Civil  Stale 
of  Switzerland  (London,  1779),  Account  of  the  Russian  Discoveries 
between  Asia  and  America  (London,  1780),  Account  of  Prisons 
and  Hospitals  in  Russia,  Sweden  and  Denmark  (London,  1781), 
Travels  into  Poland,  Russia, Sweden  and  Denmark  (London,  1784), 
Travels  in  Switzerland  (London,  1789),  Letter  on  Secret  Tribunals 
of  Westphalia  (London,  1796),  Historical  Tour  in  Monmouthshire 
(London,  1801).  He  also  edited  Gay's  Fables,  and  wrote  a  Life 
of  John  Gay  (Salisbury,  1797),  Anecdotes  of  G.  F.  Handel  and 
J.  C.  Smith  (London,  1798),  and  a  few  other  works  of  minor 
importance.  Some  of  his  books  have  been  translated  into 
French,  and  several  have  gone  through  two  or  more  editions. 

COXSWAIN  (properly  "  cockswain,"  and  pronounced  cox'n, 
usually  shortened  to  "  cox  ";  from  "  cock,"  a  small  boat,  and 
swain,  a  servant),  in  the  navy,  a  petty  officer  in  charge  of  a  ship's 
boat  and  its  crew,  who  steers;  the  coxswain  of  the  captain's 
gig  takes  a  special  rank  among  petty  officers.  In  the  National 
Lifeboat  Institution  of  Great  Britain  the  "  coxswain  "  is  a  paid 
permanent  official  on  each  station,  who  has  charge  of  the  lifeboat 
and  house,  is  responsible  for  its  care,  and  steers  and  takes  com- 
mand when  afloat.  The  word  is  also  used,  generally,  of  any  one 
who  steers  a  boat. 

COXWELL,  HENRY  TRACEY  (1810-1900),  English  aeronaut, 
was  born  at  Wouldham,  Kent,  on  the  2nd  of  March  1819,  the 
son  of  a  naval  officer.  He  was  educated  for  the  army,  but 
became  a  dentist.  From  a  boy  he  had  been  greatly  interested 
in  ballooning,  then  in  its  infancy,  but  his  own  first  ascent  was  not 
made  until  1844.  In  1848  he  became  a  professional  aeronaut, 
making  numerous  public  ascents  in  the  chief  continental  cities. 
Returning  to  London,  he  gave  exhibitions  from  the  Cremorne 
and  subsequently  from  the  Surrey  Gardens.  By  1861  he  had 
made  over  400  ascents.  In  1862  in  company  with  Dr  James 
Glaisher,  he  attained  the  greatest  height  on  record,  about 
7  m.  His  companion  became  insensible,  and  he  himself, 
unable  to  use  his  frost-bitten  hands,  opened  the  .gas-valve  with 
his  teeth,  and  made  an  extremely  rapid  but  safe  descent.  The 
result  of  this  and  other  aerial  voyages  by  Coxwell  and  Glaisher 
was  the  making  of  some  important  contributions  to  the  science 
of  meteorology.  Coxwell  was  most  pertinacious  in  urging  the 
practical  utility  of  employing  balloons  in  time  of  war.  He  says: 
"  I  had  hammered  away  in  The  Times  for  little  less  than  a  decade 
before  there  was  a  real  military  trial  of  ballooning  for  military 
purposes  at  Aldershot."  His  last  ascent  "was  made  in  1885,  and 
he  died  on  the  5th  of  January  1900. 

See  his  My  Life  and  Balloon  Experiences  (1887). 


COYOTE— COYSEVOX 


355 


COYOTE,  the  Indian  name  for  a  North  American  member  of 
the  dog  family,  also  known  as  the  prairie-wolf,  and  scientifically 
as  Canis  latrans.  Ranging  from  Canada  in  the  north  to  Guatemala 
in  the  south,  and  chiefly  frequenting  the  open  plains  on  both 
sides  of  the  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  coyote,  under  all 
its  various  local  phases,  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  true  wolf, 
and  may  apparently  be  regarded  as  the  New  World  repre- 
sentative of  the  jackals,  or  perhaps,  like  the  Indian  wolf  (C. 
pallipes),  as  a  type  intermediate  between  wolves  and  jackals. 
In  addition  to  its  inferior  size,  the  coyote  is  also  shorter  in  the 
leg  than  the  wolf,  and  carries  a  more  luxuriant  coat  of  hair. 
The  average  length  is  about  40  in.,  and  the  general  tone  of 
colour  tawny  mingled-  with  black  and  white  above  and  whitish 
below,  the  tail  having  a  black  tip  and  likewise  a  dark  gland- 
patch  near  the  root  of  the  upper  surface.  There  is,  however, 
considerable  local  variation  both  in  the  matter  of  size  and 
of  colour  from  the  typical  coyote  of  Iowa,  which  measures 
about  50  in.  in  total  length  and  is  of  a  full  rich  tint.  The 
coyote  of  the  deserts  of  eastern  California,  Nevada  and  Utah 
is,  for  instance,  a  smaller  and  paler-coloured  animal,  whose 
length  is  usually  about  42  in.  On  this  and  other  local  varia- 
tions a  number  of  nominal  species  have  been  founded;  but 
it  is  preferable  to  regard  them  in  the  light  of  geographical  phases 
or  races,  such  as  the  above-mentioned  C.  latrans  estor  of  Nevada 
and  Utah,  C.  1.  mearnsi  of  Arizona  and  Sonora,  and  C.  I.  frustor 
of  Oklahoma  and  the  Arkansas  River  district. 

It  is  to  distinguish  them  from  the  grey,  or  timber,  wolves  that 
coyotes  have  received  the  name  of  "prairie-wolves  ";  the  two 
titles  indicating  the  nature  of  the  respective  habitats  of  the  two 
species.  Coyotes  are  creatures  of  slinking  and  stealthy  habits, 
living  in  burrows  in  the  plains,  and  hunting  in  packs  at  night, 
when  they  utter  yapping  cries  and  blood-curdling  yells  as  they 
gallop.  Hares  ("  jack-rabbits  ") ,  chipmunks  or  ground-squirrels, 
and  mice  form  a  large  portion  of  their  food;  but  coyotes  also 
kill  the  fawns  of  deer  and  prongbuck,  as  well  as  sage-hens  artd 
other  kinds  of  game-birds.  "  In  the  flat  lands,"  write  Messrs 
Witmer  Stone  and  W.  E.  Cram,  in  their  American  Animals 
(1902),  "  they  dig  burrows  for  themselves  or  else  take  possession 
of  those  already  made  by  badgers  and  prairie-dogs.  Here  in  the 
spring  the  half-dozen  or  more  coyote  pups  are  brought  forth; 
and  it  is  said  that  at  this  season  the  old  ones  systematically 
drive  any  large  game  they  may  be  chasing  as  near  to  their  burrow, 
where  the  young  coyotes  are  waiting  to  be  fed,  as  possible  before 
killing  it,  in  order  to  save  the  labour  of  dragging  it  any  great 
distance.  When  out  after  jack-rabbits  two  coyotes  usually 
work  together.  When  a  jack-rabbit  starts  up  before  them,  one 
of  the  coyotes  bounds  away  in  pursuit  while  the  other  squats 
on  his  haunches  and  waits  his  turn,  knowing  full  well  that  the 
hare  prefers  to  run  in  a  circle,  and  will  soon  come  round  again, 
when  the  second  wolf  takes  up  the  chase  and  the  other  rests  in 
his  turn.  .  .  .  When  hunting  antelope  (prongbuck)  and  deer 
the  coyotes  spread  out  their  pack  into  a  wide  circle,  endeavouring 
to  surround  their  game  and  keep  it  running  inside  their  ring 
until  exhausted.  Sage-hens,  grouse  and  small  birds  the  coyote 
hunts  successfully  alone,  quartering  over  the  ground  like  a  trained 
pointer  until  he  succeeds  in  locating  his  bird,  when  he  drops 
flat  in  the  grass  and  creeps  forward  like  a  cat  until  dose  enough 
for  the  final  spring." 

When  hard  put  to  it  for  food,  coyotes  will,  it  is  reported,  eat 
hips,  juniper-berries  and  other  wild  fruits.  (R.  L.*) 

COYPEL,  the  name  of  a  French  family  of  painters.  Noel 
Coypel  (1628-1707),  also  called,  from  the  fact  that  he  was  much 
influenced  by  Poussin,  COYPEL  LE  POUSSIN,  was  the  son  of  an 
unsuccessful  artist.  Having  been  employed  by  Charles  Errard  to 
paint  some  of  the  pictures  required  for  the  Louvre,  and  having 
afterwards  gained  considerable  fame  by  other  pictures  produced 
at  the  command  of  the  king,  in  1672  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome.  After  four  years  he  returned  to 
France;  and  not  long  after  he  became  director  of  the  Academy 
of  Painting.  The  Martyrdom  of  St  James  in  Notre  Dame  is 
perhaps  his  finest  work. 

His  son,  ANTOINE  COYPEL  (1661-1772), wasstill  more  celebrated 


than  his  father.  Antoine  studied  under  his  father,  with  whom 
he  spent  four  years  at  Rome.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was 
admitted  into  the  Academy  of  Painting,  of  which  he  became 
professor  and  rector  in  1707,  and  director  in  1714.  In  1716  he 
was  appointed  king's  painter,  and  he  was  ennobled  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Antoine  Coypel  received  a  careful  literary  education, 
the  effects  of  which  appear  in  his  works;  but  the  graceful 
imagination  displayed  by  his  pictures  is  marred  by  the  fact  that 
he  was  not  superior  to  the  artificial  taste  of  his  age.  He  was  a 
clever  etcher,  and  engraved  several  of  his  own  works.  His 
Discours  prononces  dans  les  conferences  de  V  Acadtmie  royale  de 
Peinture,  6*c.;  appeared  in  1741. 

Antoine's  half-brother,  NOEL  NICHOLAS  COYPEL  (1692-1734), 
was  also  an  exceedingly  popular  artist;  and  his  son,  Charles 
Antoine  (1694-1752),  was  painter  to  the  king  and  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  The  latter  published  interesting 
academical  lectures  in  Le  Mercure  and  wrote  several  plays  which 
were  acted  at  court,  but  were  never  published. 

COYPU,  the  native  name  of  a  large  South  American  aquatic 
rodent  mammal,  known  very  generally  among  European  residents 
in  the  country  as  nutria  (the  Spanish  word  for  otter)  and  scientifi- 
cally as  Myocaslor  (or  Myopo(amus)  coypu.  Its  large  size, 
aquatic  habits,  partially  webbed  hind-toes,  and  the  smooth, 
broad,  orange-coloured  incisors,  are  sufficient  to  distinguish 
this  rodent  from  the  other  members  of  the  family  Capromyidae. 
Coypu  are  abundant  in  the  fresh  waters  of  South  America,  even 
small  ponds  being  often  tenanted  by  one  or  more  pairs.  Should 
the  water  dry  up,  the  coypu  seek  fresh  homes.  Although 
subsisting  to  a  considerable  extent  on  aquatic  plants,  these 
rodents  frequently  come  ashore  to  feed,  especially  in  the  evening. 
Several  young  are  produced  at  a  birth,  which  are  carried  on  their 
mother's  back  when  swimming.  The  fur  is  of  some  commercial 
value,  although  rather  stiff  and  harsh;  its  colour  being  reddish- 
brown.  (See  RODENTIA.) 

COYSEVOX,  CHARLES  ANTOINE  (1640-1720),  French 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Lyons  on  the  29th  of  September  1640,  and 
belonged  to  a  family  which  had  emigrated  from  Spain.  The 
name  should  be  pronounced  Coezevo.  He  was  only  seventeen 
when  he  produced  a  statue  of  the  Madonna  of  considerable 
merit;  and  having  studied  under  Lerambert  and  trained  himself 
by  taking  copies  in  marble  from  the  Greek  masterpieces  (among 
others  from  the  Venus  de  Medici  and  the  Castor  and  Pollux),  he 
was  engaged  by  the  bishop  of  Strassburg,  Cardinal  Fiirstenberg, 
to  adorn  with  statuary  his  chateau  at  Saverne  (Zabern).  In 
1666  he  married  Marguerite  Quillerier,  Lerambert's  niece,  who 
died  a  year  after  the  marriage.  In  1671,  after  four  years  spent 
on  Saverne,  which  was  subsequently  destroyed  by  fire  in  1780, 
he  returned  to  Paris.  In  1676  his  bust  of  the  painter  Le  Brun 
obtained  admission  for  him  to  the  Academic  Royale.  A  year 
later  he  married  Claude  Bourdict. 

In  consequence  of  the  influence  exercised  by  Le  Brun  between 
the  years  1677  and  1685,  he  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  producing  much  of  the  decoration  and  a  large  number  of 
statues  for  Versailles;  and  he  afterwards  worked,  between  1701 
and  1709,  with  no  less  facility  and  success,  for  the  palace  at 
Marly,  subsequently  destroyed  in  the  Revolution. 

Among  his  works  are  the  "  Mercury  and  Fame,"  first  at  Marly 
and  afterwards  in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries;  "Neptune  and 
Amphitrite,"  in  the  gardens  at  Marly;  "  Justice  and  Force,"  at 
Versailles;  and  statues,  in  which  the  likenesses  are  said  to  have 
been  remarkably  successful,  of  most  of  the  celebrated  men  of  his 
age,  including  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV.  at  Versailles,  Colbert 
(at  Saint-Eustache),  Mazarin  (in  the  church  desQuatre-Nations), 
Conde  the  Great  (in  the  Louvre),  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria, 
Turcnne,  Vauban,  Cardinals  de  Bouillon  and  de  Polignac, 
F6nelon,  Racine,  Bossuet  (in  the  Louvre),  the  comte  d'Harcourt, 
Cardinal  Fiirstenberg  and  Charles  Le  Brun  (in  the  Louvre). 
Coysevox  died  in  Paris  on  the  loth  of  October  1720. 

Besides  the  works  given  above  he  carved  about  a  dozen 
memorials,  including  those  to  Colbert  (at  Saint-Eustache),  to 
Cardinal  Mazarin(  in  the  Louvre),  and  to  the  painter  Le  Brun  (in 
the  church  of  Saint  Nicholas-du-Chardon). 


356 


CRAB 


Among  the  pupils  of  Coysevox  were  Nicolas  and  Guillaume 
Coustou. 

See  Henry  Jouin,  A.  Coysevox,  sa  vie,  son  ceuvre  (1883);  Jean  du 
Seigneur,  Revue  universelle  des  arts,  vol.  i.  (1855),  pp.  32  et  seq. 

CRAB  (Ger.  Krabbe,  Krebs),  a  name  applied  to  the  Crustacea  of 
the  order  Brachyura,  and  to  other  forms,  especially  of  the  order 
A  nomura,  which  resemble  them  more  or  less  closely  in  appearance 
and  habits. 

The  Brachyura,  or  true  crabs,  are  distinguished  from  the  long- 
tailed  lobsters  and  shrimps  which  form  the  order  Macrura,  by 
the  fact  that  the  abdomen  or  tail  is  of  small  size  and  is  carried 
folded  up  under  the  body.  In  most  of  them  the  body  is  trans- 
versely oval  or  triangular  in  outline  and  more  or  less  flattened, 
and  is  covered  by  a  hard  shell,  the  carapace.  There  are  five 
pairs  of  legs.  The  first  pair  end  in  nippers  or  chelae  and  are 
usually  much  more  massive  than  the  others  which  are  used  in 
walking  or  swimming.  The  eyes  are  set  on  movable  stalks  and 
can  be  withdrawn  into  sockets  in  the  front  part  of  the  carapace. 
There  are  six  pairs  of  jaws  and  foot-jaws  (maxillipedes)  enclosed 
within  a  "  buccal  cavern,"  the  opening  of  which  is  covered  by  the 


FIG.  I. — Side  view  of  Crab  (Morse),  the  abdomen  extended  and 
carrying  a  mass  of  eggs  beneath  it ;  e,  eggs. 

broad  and  flattened  third  pair  of  foot-jaws.  The  abdomen  is 
usually  narrow  and  triangular  in  the  males,  but  in  the  females  it 
is  broad  and  rounded  and  bears  appendages  to  which  the  eggs  are 
attached  after  spawning  (fig.  i). 

As  in  most  Crustacea,  the  young  of  nearly  all  crabs,  when 
newly  hatched,  are  very  different  from  their  parents.  The  first 

larval  stage  is  known 
as  a  Zoea,  this  name 
having  been  given  to  it 
when  it  was  believed 
by  naturalists  to  be 
a  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent species  of 
animal.  The  Zoea  is 
a  minute  transparent 
organism,  swimming 
at  the  surface  of  the 
sea.  It  has  a  rounded 
body,  armed  with 
long  spines,  and  a  long 
segmented  tail.  The 
eyes  are  large  but  not 
set  on  stalks,  the  legs 
are  not  yet  developed, 
and  the  foot-jaws  form 
swimming  paddles. 
After  casting  its  skin 
several  times  as  it 

FIG.  2.-Zoea  of  Common  Shore-Crab  in  Srows  in  size'  .the 
its  second  stage,  r.  Rostral  spine ;  s,  Dorsal  young  crab  passes  into 
spine;  m,  Maxillipeds;  t,  Buds  of  thoracic  a  stage  known  as  the 
feet ;  a.  Abdomen.  (Spence  Bate.)  Megalopa  (fig.  2),  also 

formerly  regarded  as 

an  independent  animal,  in  which  the  body  and  limbs  are  more 
crab-like,  but  the  abdomen  is  large  and  not  filled  up.  After  a 


further  moult  the  animal  assumes  a  form  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  adult.  There  are  a  few  crabs,  living  on  land  or  in  fresh  water, 
which  do  not  pass  through  a  metamorphosis  but  leave  the  egg  as 
miniature  adults. 

Most  crabs  live  in  the  sea,  and  even  the  land-crabs,  which  are 
abundant  in  tropical  countries,  nearly  all  visit  the  sea  occasionally 
and  pass  through  their  early  stages  in  it.  Many  shore-crabs 
living  between  tide-marks  are  more  or  less  amphibious,  and  the 
river-crab  of  southern  Europe  or  Lenten  crab  (Potamon  edule, 
better  known  as  Thelphusa  fluviatilis)  is  an  example  of  the  fresh- 
water crabs  which  are  abundant  in  most  of  the  warmer  regions  of 
the  world.  As  a  rule,  crabs  breathe  by  gills,  which  are  lodged  in 
a  pair  of  cavities  at  the  sides  of  the  carapace,  but  in  the  true 
land-crabs  the  cavities  become  enlarged  and  modified  so  as  to  act 
as  lungs  for  breathing  air. 

Walking  or  crawling  is  the  usual  mode  of  locomotion,  and  the 
peculiar  sidelong  gait  familiar  to  most  people  in  the  common 
shore-crab,  is  characteristic  of  most  members  of  the  group.  The 
crabs  of  the  family  Portunidae,  and  some  others,  swim  with 
great  dexterity  by  means  of  their  flattened  paddle-shaped 
feet. 

Like  many  other  Crustacea,  crabs  are  often  omnivorous  and 
act  as  the  scavengers  of  the  sea,  but  many  are  predatory  in  their 
habits  and  some  are  content  with  a  vegetable  diet. 

Though  no  crab,  perhaps,  is  truly  parasitic,  some  live  in 
relations  of  "  commensalism  "  with  other  animals.  The  best 
known  examples  of  this  are  the  little  "  mussel-crabs  "  (Pinno- 
theridae)  which  live  within  the  shells  of  mussels  and  other  bivalve 
mollusca  and  probably  share  the  food  of  their  hosts.  Some 
crabs  live  among  corals,  and  one  species  at  least  gives  rise  to 
hollow  swellings  on  the  branches  of  a  coral  like  the  "galls" 
which  are  formed  on  plants  by  certain  insects.  Another 
crab  (Melia  tesselata)  carries  in  each  of  its  claws  a  living  sea- 
anemone  which  it  uses  as  an  animated  weapon  of  defence  and 
a»  implement  for  the  capture  of  prey.  Many  of  the  sluggish 
spider-crabs  (Maiidae)  have  their  shells  covered  by  a  forest 
of  growing  sea-weeds,  zoophytes  and  sponges,  which  are 
"  planted  "  there  by  the  crab  itself,  and  which  afford  it  a  very 
effective  disguise. 

Many  of  the  larger  crabs  are  sought  for  as  food  by  man.  The 
most  important  and  valuable  are  the  edible  crab  of  British 
and  European  coasts  (Cancer  pagurus)  and  the  blue  crab  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  (Callinectes  sapidus). 

Among  the  Anomura,  the  best  known  are  the.  hermit-crabs, 
which  live  in  the  empty  shells  of  Gasteropod  Mollusca,  which 
they  carry  about  with  them  as  portable  dwellings.  In  these, 
the  abdomen  is  soft-skinned  and  spirally  twisted  so  as  to  fit  into 
the  shells  which  they  inhabit.  The  common  hermit-crab  of  the 
British  coasts  (Pagurus  or  Eupagurus  Bernhardus)  is  sometimes 
called  the  soldier-crab  from  its  pugnacity.  Small  specimens 
are  found  between  tide-marks  inhabiting  the  shells  of  periwinkles 
and  other  small  molluscs,  but  the  full-grown  specimens  live  in 
deeper  water  and  are  usually  found  in  the  shell  of  the  whelk 
(Buccinum).  As  the  crab  grows  it  changes  its  dwelling  from 
time  to  time,  often  having  to  fight  with  its  fellows  for  the  pos- 
session of  an  empty  shell.  Sometimes  an  annelid  worm  lives 
inside  the  shell  along  with  the  hermit  and  often  the  outside  is 
covered  with  zoophytes.  In  some  species,  as  in  the  British 
Eupagurus  prideauxi,  a  sea-anemone  is  constantly  found  attached 
to  the  shell,  profiting  by  the  active  locomotion  of  the  crab  and 
probably  sharing  the  crumbs  of  its  food,  while  it  affords  its  host 
protection  by  its  stinging  powers. 

In  tropical  countries  the  hermit-crabs  of  the  family  Coeno- 
bitidae  live  on  land,  often  at  considerable  distances  from  the 
sea,  to  which,  however,  they  return  for  the  purpose  of  hatching 
out  their  spawn.  The  large  robber-crab  or  cocoa-nut  crab  of 
the  Indo-Pacific  islands  (Birgus  latro),  which  belongs  to  this 
family,  has  given  up  the  habit  of  carrying  a  portable  dwelling, 
and  the  upper  surface  of  its  abdomen  has  become  covered  by 
shelly  plates.  The  stories  of  its  climbing  palm-trees  to  get  the 
fruit  were  long  doubted,  but  it  has  been  seen,  and  even  photo- 
graphed in  the  act.  (W.  T.  CA.) 


CRAB 


357 


FIG.  4. — Portunus  puber 
(Velvet  Swimming  Crab). 


3. — Gecarcinus  run 
(Violet  Land  Crab) 


FIG.  6. — Eupagurus  Bern- 
hardus  (Soldier  Crab). 


FIG.  7. — Pinnotheres 
pisum  (Pea  Crab). 


FIG.  8.  —  Corystes 
Cassivelaunus  (Masked 
Crab). 


FIG.  9. — Eupagurus- angulatus  (a  Hermit  Crab). 


CRABBE 


CRABBE,  GEORGE  (1754-1832),  English  poet,  was  born  at 
Aldeburgh  in  Suffolk  on  the  24th  of  December  1754.  His  family 
was  partly  of  Norfolk,  partly  of  Suffolk  origin,  and  the  name 
was  doubtless  originally  derived  from  "  crab."  His  grandfather, 
Robert  Crabbe,  was  the  first  of  the  family  to  settle  at  Aldeburgh, 
where  he  held  the  appointment  of  collector  of  customs.  He  died 
in  1 734,  leaving  one  son,  George,who  practised  many  occupations, 
including  that  of  a  schoolmaster,  in  the  adjoining  village  of 
Orford.  Finally  the  poet's  father  obtained  a  small  post  in  the 
customs  of  Aldeburgh,  married  Mary  Lodwick,  the  widow  of  a 
publican,  and  had  six  children,  of  whom  George  was  the  eldest. 

The  sea  has  swept  away  the  small  cottage  that  was  George 
Crabbe's  birthplace,but  one  may  still  visit  the  quay  at  Slaughden, 
some  half-mile  from  the  town,  where  the  father  worked  and  the 
son  was  at  a  later  date  to  work  with  him.  At  first  attending 
a  dame's  school  in  Aldeburgh,  when  nine  or  ten  years  of  age  he 
was  sent  to  a  boarding-school  at  Bungay,  and  at  twelve  to  a  school 
at  Stowmarket,  where  he  remained  two  years.  His  father  dreamt 
of  the  medical  profession  for  his  clever  boy,  and  so  in  1768  he 
went  to  Wickham  Brook  near  Newmarket  as  an  apothecary's 
assistant.  In  1 771  we  find  him  assisting  a  surgeon  at  Woodbridge, 
and  it  was  while  here  that  he  met  Sarah  Elmy.  Crabbe  was  now 
only  eighteen  years  of  age,  but  he  became  "  engaged  "  to  this 
lady  in  1772.  It  was  not  until  1783  that  the  pair  were  married. 
The  intervening  years  were  made  up  of  painful  struggle,  in  which, 
however,  not  only  the  affection  but  the  purse  of  his  betrothed 
assisted  him.  About  the  time  of  Crabbe's  return  from  Wood- 
bridge  to  Aldeburgh  he  published  at  Ipswich  his  first  work,  a 
poem  entitled  Inebriety  (1775).  He  found  his  father  fallen  on 
evil  days.  There  was  no  money  to  assist  him  to  a  partnership, 
and  surgery  for  the  moment  seemed  out  of  the  question.  For 
a  few  weeks  Crabbe  worked  as  a  common  labourer,  rolling  butter 
casks  on  Slaughden  quay.  Before  the  year  was  out,  however, 
the  young  man  bought  on  credit  "  the  shattered  furniture  of  an 
apothecary's  shop  and  the  drugs  that  stocked  it."  This  was  at 
Aldeburgh.  A  year  later  Crabbe  installed  a  deputy  in  the 
surgery  and  paid  his  first  visit  to  London.  He  lodged  in  White- 
chapel,  took  lessons  in  midwifery  and  walked  the  hospitals. 
Returning  to  Aldeburgh  after  nine  months — in  1777 — he  found 
his  practice  gone.  Even  as  a  doctor  for  the  poor  he  was  an  utter 
failure,  poetry  having  probably  taken  too  firm  a  hold  upon  his 
mind.  At  times  he  suffered  hunger,  so  utterly  unable  was  he 
to  earn  a  livelihood.  After  three  years  of  this,  in  1780  Crabbe 
paid  his  second  visit  to  London,  enabled  thereto  by  the  loan  of 
five  pounds  from  Dudley  Lang,  a  local  magnate.  This  visit 
to  London,  which  was  undertaken  by  sea  on  board  the  "  Unity  " 
smack,  made  for  Crabbe  a  successful  career.  His  poem  The 
Candidate,  issued  soon  after  his  arrival,  helped  not  at  all.  For 
a  time  he  almost  starved,  and  was  only  saved,  it  is  clear,  by  gifts 
of  money  from  his  sweetheart  Sarah  Elmy.  He  importuned 
the  great,  and  the  publishers  also.  Everywhere  he  was  refused, 
but  at  length  a  letter  which  reached  Edmund  Burke  in  March 
1781  led  to  the  careful  consideration  on  the  part  of  that  great 
man  of  Crabbe's  many  manuscripts.  Burke  advised  the  publi- 
cation of  The  Library,  which  appeared  in  1781.  He  invited  him 
to  Beaconsfield,  and  made  interest  in  the  right  quarters  to  secure 
Crabbe's  entry  into  the  church.  He  was  ordained  in  December 
1781  and  was  appointed  curate  to  the  rector  of  Aldeburgh. 

Crabbe  was  not  happy  in  his  new  post.  The  Aldeburgh  folk 
could  not  reverence  as  priest  a  man  they  had  known  as  a  day 
labourer.  Crabbe  again  appealed  to  Burke,  who  persuaded  the 
duke  of  Rutland  to  make  him  his  chaplain  (1782),  and  Crabbe 
took  up  his  residence  in  Belvoir  Castle,  accompanying  his  new 
patron  to  London,  when  Lord  Chancellor  Thurlow  (who  told 
him  he  was  "  as  like  Parson  Adams  as  twelve  to  the  dozen  ") 
gave  him  the  two  livings  of  Frome  St  Quentin  and  Evershot  in 
Dorsetshire,  worth  together  about  £200  a  year.  In  May  1783 
Crabbe's  poem  The  Village  was  published  by  Dodsley,  and  in 
December  of  this  year  he  married  Sarah  Elmy.  Crabbe  continued 
his  duties  as  ducal  chaplain,  being  in  the  main  a  non-resident 
priest  so  far  as  his  Dorsetshire  parishes  were  concerned.  In 
1785  he  published  The  Newspaper.  Shortly  after  this  he  moved 


with  his  wife  from  Belvoir  Castle  to  the  parsonage  of  Stathern, 
where  he  took  the  duties  of  the  non-resident  vicar  Thomas  Parke, 
archdeacon  of  Stamford.  Crabbe  was  at  Stathern  for  four  years. 
In  1789,  through  the  persuasion  of  the  duchess  of  Rutland  (now 
a  widow,  the  duke  having  died  in  Dublin  as  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  1787),  Thurlow  gave  Crabbe  the  two  livings  of  Muston 
in  Leicestershire  and  West  Allington  in  Lincolnshire.  At 
Muston  parsonage  Crabbe  resided  for  twelve  years,  divided  by 
a  long  interval.  He  had  been  four  years  at  Muston  when  his 
wife  inherited  certain  interests  in  a  property  of  her  uncle's  that 
placed  her  and  her  husband  in  possession  of  Ducking  Hall, 
Parham,  Suffolk.  Here  he  took  up  his  residence  from  1793  to 
1796,  leaving  curates  in  charge  of  his  two  livings.  In  1796  the 
loss  of  their  son  Edmund  led  the  Crabbes  to  remove  from  Parham 
to  Great  Glemham  Hall,  Suffolk,  where  they  lived  until  1801. 
In  that  year  Crabbe  went  to  live  at  Rendham,  a  village  in  the 
same  neighbourhood.  In  1805  he  returned  to  Muston.  In  1807 
he  broke  a  silence  of  more  than  twenty  years  by  the  publication 
of  The  Parish  Register,  in  1810  of  The  Borough,  and  in  1812  of 
Tales  in  Verse.  In  1813  Crabbe's  wife  died,  and  in  1814  he  was 
given  the  living  of  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire,  by  the  duke  of  Rutland, 
a  son  of  his  early  patron,  who,  it  is  interesting  to  recall,  wanted 
the  living  of  Muston  for  a  cousin  of  Lord  Byron.  From  1814 
to  his  death  in  1832  Crabbe  resided  at  Trowbridge. 

These  last  years  were  the  most  prosperous  of  his  life.  He  was 
a  constant  visitor  to  London,  and  in  friendship  with  all  the 
literary  celebrities  of  the  time.  "  Crabbe  seemed  to  grow  young 
again,"  remarks  his  biographer,  M.  Rene  Huchon.  He  certainly 
carried  on  a  succession  of  mild  flirtations,  and  one  of  his 
parishioners,  Charlotte  Ridout,  would  have  married  him.  The 
elderly  widower  had  proposed  to  her  and  had  been  accepted  in 
1814,  but  he  drew  out  of  the  engagement  in  1816.  He  proposed 
to  yet  another  friend,  Elizabeth  Charter,  somewhat  later.  In 
his  visits  to  London  Crabbe  was  flie  guest  of  Samuel  Rogers,  in 
St  James's  Place,  and  was  a  frequent  visitor  to  Holland  House, 
where  he  met  his  brother  poets  Moore  and  Campbell.  In  1817 
his  Tales  of  the  Hall  were  completed,  and  John  Murray  offered 
£3000  for  the  copyright,  Crabbe's  previous  works  being  included. 
The  offer  after  much  negotiation  was  accepted,  but  Crabbe's 
popularity  was  now  on  the  wane. 

In  1822  Crabbe  went  to  Edinburgh  on  a  visit  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  The  adventure,  complicated  as  it  was  by  the  visit  of 
George  IV.  about  the  same  time,  is  most  amusingly  described  in 
Lockhart's  biography  of  Scott,  although  one  episode — that  of  the 
broken  wine-glass — is  discredited  by  Crabbe's  biographer,  M. 
Huchon.  Crabbe  died  at  Trowbridge  on  the  3rd  of  February 
1832,  and  was  buried  in  Trowbridge  church,  where  an  ornate 
monument  was  placed  over  his  tomb  in  August  1833. 

Never  was  any  poet  at  the  same  time  so  great  and  continuous 
a  favourite  with  the  critics,  and  yet  so  conspicuously  allowed  to 
fall  into  oblivion  by  the  public.  All  the  poets  of  his  earlier  and 
his  later  years,  Cowper,  Scott,  Byron,  Shelley  in  particular,  have 
been  reprinted  again  and  again.  With  Crabbe  it  was  long  quite 
otherwise.  His  works  were  collected  into  eight  volumes,  the 
first  containing  his  life  by  his  son,  in  1832.  The  edition  was 
intended  to  continue  with  some  of  his  prose  writings,  but  the 
reception  of  the  eight  volumes  was  not  sufficiently  encouraging. 
A  reprint,  however,  in  one  volume  was  made  in  1847,  and  it  has 
been  reproduced  since  in  1854,  1867  and  1901.  The  exhaustion  of 
the  copyright,  however,  did  no  good  for  Crabbe's  reputation,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  century  that  sundry  volumes  of 
"  selections  "  from  his  poems  appeared;  Edward  FitzGerald,  of 
Omar  Khayyam  fame,  always  a  loyal  admirer,  made  a 
"  Selection,"  privately  printed  by  Quaritch,  in  1879.  A  "  Selec- 
tion "  by  Bernard  Holland  appeared  in  1899,  another  by  C.  H. 
Herford  in  1902  and  a  third  by  Deane  in  1903.  The  Complete 
Works  were  published,  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press  in 
three  volumes,  edited  by  A.  W.  Ward,  in  1906. 

Crabbe's  poems  have  been  praised  by  many  competent  pens,  by 
Edward  FitzGerald  in  his  Letters,  by  Cardinal  Newman  in  his 
Apologia,  and  by  Sir  Leslie  Stephen  in  his  Hours  in  a  Library, 
most  notably.  His  verses  comforted  the  last  hours  of~Charles 


CRACKER— CRACOW 


359 


James  Fox  and  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  while  Thomas  Hardy  has 
acknowledged  their  influence  on  the  realism  of  his  novels.  But 
his  works  have  ceased  to  command  a  wide  public  interest.  He 
just  failed  of  being  the  artist  in  words  who  is  able  to  make  the 
same  appeal  in  all  ages.  Yet  to-day  his  poems  will  well  repay 
perusal.  His  stories  are  profoundly  poignant  and  when  once 
read  are  never  forgotten.  He  is  one  of  the  great  realists  of 
English  fiction,  for  even  considered  as  a  novelist  he  makes 
fascinating  reading.  He  is  more  than  this:  for  there  is  true 
poetry  in  Crabbe,  although  his  most  distinctively  lyric  note  was 
attained  when  he  wrote  under  the  influence  of  opium,  to  which  he 
became  much  addicted  in  his  later  years. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  Works  of  Crabbe  (8  vols.,  Murray,  1834; 
I  vol. .Murray,  1901),  and  the  Works  in  the  Cambridge  Press  Classics, 
edited  by  A.  W.  Ward  (1906),  have  already  been  referred  to.  The 
life  by  Crabbe's  son  in  one  volume,  The  Life  of  the  Rev.  George  Crabbe, 
LL.B.,  by  his  son  the  Rev.  George  Crabbe,  A.M.  (1834),  has  not  been 
separately  reprinted  as  it  deserves  to  be.  A  recent  biography  is 
George  Crabbe  and  His  Times,  1754-1832;  A  Critical  and  Bio- 
graphical Study,  by  Rene  Huchon,  translated  from  the  French  by 
Frederick  Clarke  (1907).  Brief  biographies  by  T.  H.  Kebbel 
("  Great  Writers  "  series)  and  by  Canon  Ainger  ("  English  Men  of 
Letters  "  series)  also  deserve  attention.  (C.  K.  S.) 

CRACKER  (from  "  crack,"  a  common  Teutonic  word,  cf.  Ger. 
krachen,  Dutch  kraken,  meaning  to  break  with  a  sharp  sound), 
that  which  "  cracks  ";  it  is,  therefore,  applied  (i)  to  a  firework 
so  constructed  that  it  explodes  with  several  reports  and  jumps  at 
each  explosion,  when  placed  on  the  ground  (see  FIREWORKS); 
(2)  to  a  roll  of  coloured  and  ornamented  paper  containing  sweets, 
small  articles  of  cheap  jewelry,  paper  caps  and  other  trifles, 
together  with  a  strip  of  card  with  a  fulminant  which  explodes 
with  a  "  crack  "  on  being  pulled;  (3)  to  a  thin  crisp  biscuit 
(q.v.);  in  America  the  general  name  for  a  biscuit.  In  the 
southern  states  of  America,  "  cracker  "  is  a  term  of  contempt  for 
the  "  poor  "  or  "  mean  whites,"  particularly  of  Georgia  and 
Florida;  the  term  is  an  old  one  and  dates  back  to  the  Revolution, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  "cracked  corn  "  which 
formed  the  staple  food  of  the  class  to  whom  the  term  refers. 

CRACOW  (Pol.  Krakov;  Ger.  Krakau),  a  town  and  episcopal 
see  of  Austria,  in  Galicia,  212  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Lemberg  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1900)  91,310,  of  which  21,000  were  Jews,  5000  Germans 
and  the  remainder  Poles.  Although  in  regard  to  its  population 
it  is  only  the  second  place  in  Galicia,  Cracow  is  the  most  interest- 
ing town  in  the  whole  of  Poland.  No  other  Polish  town  possesses 
so  many  old  and  historic  buildings,  none  of  them  contains  so 
many  national  relics,  or  has  been  so  closely  associated  with 
the  development  and  destinies  of  Poland  as  Cracow.  And  the 
ancient  capital  is  still  the  intellectual  centre  of  the  Polish  nation. 

Cracow  is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vistula  (which  becomes  navigable  here)  and  occupies  a  position  of 
great  strategical  importance.  It  consists  of  the  old  inner  town 
and  seven  suburbs.  The  only  relics  of  the  fortifications  of  the 
old  town,  whose  place  is  now  occupied  by  shady  promenades,  is 
the  Florian's  Gate  and  the  RondelJ,  a  circular  structure,  built  in 
1498.  Cracow  has  39  churches — about  half  the  number  it 
formerly  had — and  25  convents  for  monks  and  nuns.  Of  these 
the  most  important  is  the  Stanislaus  cathedral,  in  Gothic  style, 
consecrated  in  1359,  and  built  on  the  Wawel,  the  rocky  eminence 
to  the  S.W.  of  the  old  town.  Here  the  kings  of  Poland  were 
crowned,  and  this  church  is  also  the  Pantheon  of  the  Polish 
nation,  the  burial  place  of  its  kings  and  its  great  men.  Here 
lie  the  remains  of  John  Sobieski,  of  Thaddaeus  Kosciuszko,  of 
Joseph  Poniatowski  and  of  Adam  Mickiewicz.  Here  also  are 
conserved  the  remains  of  St  Stanislaus,  the  patron  saint  of  the 
Poles,  who,  as  bishop  of  Cracow,  was  slain  before  the  altar  by 
King  Boleslaus  in  1079.  The  cathedral  is  adorned  with  many 
valuable  objects  of  art,  paintings  and  sculptures,  by  such  artists 
as  Veil  Stoss,  Guido  Reni,  Peter  Vischer,  Thorwaldsen,  &c. 
Part  of  the  ancient  Polish  regalia  is  also  kept  here.  The  Gothic 
church  of  St  Mary,  founded  in  1223,  rebuilt  in  the  I4th  century 
with  several  chapels  added  in  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries,  was 
restored  in  1889-1893,  and  decorated  with  paintings  from  the 
designs  by  Matejko.  It  contains  a  huge  high  altar,  the  master- 
piece of  Veit  Stoss,  who  was  a  native  of  Cracow,  executed  in 


1477-1489;  a  colossal  stone  crucifix,  dating  from  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  and  several  sumptuous  tombs  of  noble  families 
from  the  i6th  and  i?th  centuries.  The  Dominican  church,  a 
Gothic  building  of  the  I3th  century,  but  practically  rebuilt  after  a 
fire  in  1850;  the  Franciscan  church,  also  of  the  I3th  century,  also 
much  modernized;  the  church  of  St  Florian  of  the  I2th  century, 
rebuilt  in  1768,  which  contains  the  late-Gothic  altar  by  Veit 
Stoss,  executed  in  1518,  during  his  last  sojourn  in  Cracow;  the 
church  of  St  Peter,  with  a  colossal  dome,  built  in  1597,  after  the 
model  of  that  of  St  Peter  at  Rome,  and  the  beautiful  Augustinian 
church  in  the  suburb  of  Kazimierz,  are  all  worth  mentioning. 
Of  the  principal  secular  buildings,  the  royal  castle  (Zamek 
Krdlowsk),  a  huge  building,  begun  in  the  I3th  century,  and 
successively  enlarged  by  Casimir  the  Great  and  by  Sigismund  I. 
Jagiello  (1510-1533),  is  situated  on  the  Wawel,  and  was  until 
1610  the  residence  of  the  Polish  kings.  It  suffered  much  from 
fires  and  other  disasters,  and  from  1846  onward  was  used  as  a 
barracks  and  a  military  hospital;  it  has  now,  however,  been 
cleared  out  and  restored.  The  Jagellonian  university,  now 
housed  in  a  magnificent  Gothic  building  erected  in  1881-1887, 
was  attended  in  1901  by  1255  students,  and  had  175  professors 
and  lecturers.  The  language  of  instruction  is  Polish.  It  is  the 
second  oldest  university  in  Europe — the  oldest  being  that  of 
Prague — and  was  famous  during  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries. 
It  was  founded  by  Casimir  the  Great  in  1364,  and  completed  by 
Ladislaus  Jagiello  in  140-0.  Its  rich  library  is  now  housed  in  the 
old  university  buildings,  erected  in  the  15th  century,  in  the 
beautiful  Gothic  court  of  which  a  bronze  statue  of  Copernicus  was 
placed  in  1900.  The  Polish  Academy  of  Science,  founded  in  1872, 
is  housed  in  the  new  university  buildings.  In  the  Ring-Platz, 
or  the  principal  square,  opposite  the  church  of  St  Mary,  is  the 
Tuchhaus  (cloth-hall,  Pol.  Sukiennice),  a  building  erected  in  1257, 
several  times  renovated  and  enlarged,  most  recently  in  1879, 
which  contains  the  Polish  national  museum  of  art.  Behind  it  is  a 
Gothic  tower,  the  only  relic  of  the  old  town  hall,  demolished  in 
1820.  The  Czartoryski  museum  contains  a  large  collection  of 
objects  of  art,  a  rich  library  and  a  precious  collection  of  manu- 
scripts, relating  to  the  history  of  Poland. 

Among  the  manufactures  of  the  town  are  machinery,  agri- 
cultural implements,  chemicals,  soap,  tobacco,  &c.  But  Cracow 
is  more  important  as  a  trading  than  as  an  industrial  centre. 
Its  position  on  the  Vistula  and  at  the  junction  of  several  railways 
makes  it  the  natural  mart  for  the  exchange  of  the  products  of 
Silesia,  Hungary  and  Russian  and  Austrian  Poland.  Its  trade 
in  timber,  salt,  textiles,  cattle,  wine  and  agricultural  produce  of 
all  kinds  is  very  considerable.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Cracow 
there  are  mines  of  coal  and  zinc,  and  not  far  away  lies  the  village 
of  Krzeszowice  with  sulphur  baths.  About  2^-  m.  N.W.  lies  the 
Kosciuszko  Hill,  a  mound  of  earth  100  ft.  high,  thrown  up  in 
1820-1823  on  the  Borislava  hill  (1093  ft.),  in  honour  of  Thaddaeus 
Kosciuszko,  the  hero  of  Poland.  On  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  united  to  Cracow  by  a  bridge,  lies  the  town  of  Podgorze 
(pop.  18,142);  near  it  is  the  Krakus  Hill,  smaller  than  the 
Kosciuszko  Hill,  and  a  thousand  years  older  than  it,  erected  in 
honour  of  Krakus,  the  founder  of  Cracow.  'About  8  m.  S.E.  of 
Cracow  is  situated  Wieliczka  (q.v.),  with  its  famous  salt  mines. 

History. — Tradition  assigns  the  foundation  of  Cracow  to  the 
mythical  Krak,  a  Polish  prince  who  is  said  to  have  built  a  strong- 
hold here  about  A.D.  700.  Its  early  history  is,  however,  entirely 
obscure.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  loth  century  it  was  annexed  to 
the  Bohemian  principality,  but  was  recaptured  by  Boleslaus 
Chrobry,  who  made  it  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  it  became  the 
capital  of  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  principalities  into 
which  Poland  was  divided  from  the  i2th  century  onwards.  The 
city  was  practically  ruined  during  the  first  Tatar  invasion  in 
1.241,  but  the  introduction  of  German  colonists  restored  its 
prosperity,  and  in  1257  it  received  "  Magdeburg  rights,"  i.e.  a 
civic  constitution  modelled  on  that  of  Magdeburg.  In  this  year 
the  Tuchhalle  was  built.  The  town,  however,  had  yet  to  pass 
through  many  vicissitudes.  It  suffered  again  from  Tatar  in- 
vasions; in  1290  it  was  captured  by  Wenceslaus  II.  of  Bohemia 
and  was  held  by  the  Bohemians  until,  in  1305,  the  Polish  king 


36° 


CRADDOCK— CRAG 


Ladislaus  Lokietek  recovered  it  from  Wenceslaus  III.  Ladislaus 
made  it  his  capital,  and  from  this  time  until  1764  it  remained 
the  coronation  and  burial  place  of  the  Polish  kings,  even  after 
the  royal  residence  had  been  removed  by  Siegmund  III.  (1587- 
1632)  to  Warsaw.  On  the  third  partition  of  Poland  in  1795 
Austria  took  possession  of  Cracow;  but  in  1809  Napoleon 
wrested  it  from  that  power,  and  incorporated  it  with  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  which  was  placed  under  the  rule  of  the  king  of 
Saxony.  In  the  campaign  of  1812  the  emperor  Alexander  made 
himself  master  of  this  and  the  other  territory  which  formed  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw.  At  the  general  settlement  of  the  affairs  of 
Europe  by  the  great  powers  in  1815,  it  was  agreed  that  Cracow 
and  the  adjoining  territory  should  be  formed  into  a  free  state; 
and,  by  the  Final  Act  of  the  congress  signed  at  Vienna  in  1815, 
"  the  town  of  Cracow,  with  its  territory,  is  declared  to  be  for 
ever  a  free,  independent  and  strictly  neutral  city,  under  the 
protection  of  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia."  In  February  1846, 
however,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Cracow,  apparently  a 
ramification  of  a  widely  spread  conspiracy  throughout  Poland. 
The  senate  and  the  other  authorities  of  Cracow  were  unable  to 
subdue  the  rebels  or  to  maintain  order,  and,  at  their  request,  the 
city  was  occupied  by  a  corps  of  Austrian  troops  for  the  protection 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  three  powers,  Russia,  Austria  and 
Prussia,  made  this  a  pretext  for  extinguishing  this  independent 
state;  and  as  the  outcome  of  a  conference  at  Vienna  (November 
1846)  the  three  courts,  contrary  to  the  assurance  previously 
given,  and  in  opposition  to  the  expressed  views  of  the  British  and 
French  governments,  decided  to  extinguish  the  state  of  Cracow 
and  to  incorporate  it  with  the  dominions  of  Austria. 

CRADDOCK,  CHARLES  EGBERT  (1850-  ),  the  pen-name 
of  MARY  NOAILLES  MURFREE,  American  author,  who  was  born 
near  Murfreesboro,  Tennessee,  on  the  24th  of  January  1850,  the 
great-granddaughter  of  Col.  Hardy  Murfree.  She  was  crippled 
in  childhood  by  paralysis.  She  attended  school  in  Nashville  and 
Philadelphia.  Spending  her  summers  in  the  mountains  of  eastern 
Tennessee,  she  came  to  know  the  primitive  people  there  with 
whose  life  her  writings  deal.  She  contributed  to  Appleton's 
Journal,  and,  first  in  1878,  to  The  Atlantic  Monthly.  No  one, 
apparently,  suspected  that  the  author  of  these  stories  was  a 
woman,  and  her  identity  was  not  disclosed  until  1885,  a  year 
after  the  publication  of  her  first  volume  of  short  stories,  In  the 
Tennessee  Mountains.  She  deals  mainly  with  the  narrow,  stern 
life  of  the  Tennessee  mountaineers,  who,  left  behind  in  the  advance 
of  civilization,  live  amid  traditions  and  customs,  and  speak  a 
dialect,  peculiarly  their  own;  and  her  work  abounds  in  exquisite 
descriptions  of  scenery.  Among  her  other  books  are:  Where 
the  Battle  was  Fought  (1884),  a  novel  dealing  with  the  old  aristo- 
cratic southern  life;  Down  the  Ravine  (1885)  and  The  Story  of 
Keedon  Bluffs  (1887)  for  young  people;  The  Prophet  of  the  Great 
Smoky  Mountains  (1885),  a  novel;  In  the  Clouds  (1886),  a  novel ; 
The  Despot  of  Broomsedge  Cove  (1888),  a  novel;  In  the  "  Stranger- 
People's"  Country  (1891);  His  Vanished  Star  (1894),  a  novel; 
The  Mystery  of  Witch-Face  Mountain  and  Other  Stories  (1895); 
The  Phantoms  of  the  Footbridge  and  Other  Stories  (1895);  The 
Young  Mountaineers  (1897),  short  stories;  The  Juggler  (1897); 
The  Story  of  Old  Fort  London  (1899);  The  Bushwhackers  and 
Other  Stories  (1899);  The  Champion  (1902);  A  Spectre  of  Power 
(1903);  The  Frontiersman  (1904);  The  Storm  Centre  (1905); 
The  Amulet  (1906);  The  Windfall  (1907);  and  Fair  Mississippian 
(1908). 

CRADLE  (of  uncertain  etymology,  possibly  connected  with 
"  crate  "  and  "  creel,"  i.e.  basket;  the  derivation  from  a  Celtic 
word,  with  a  sense  of  rocking,  is  scouted  by  the  New  English 
Dictionary),  a  child's  bed  of  wood,  wicker  or  iron,  with  enclosed 
sides,  slung  upon  pivots  or  mounted  on  rockers.  It  is  a  very 
ancient  piece  of  furniture,  but  the  date  when  it  first  assumed 
its  characteristic  swinging  or  rocking  form  is  by  no  means  clear. 
A  miniature  in  an  illuminated  Histoire  de  la  belle  Helaine  in  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris  (end  of  the  i4th  or  beginning  of 
the  i  sth  century)  shows  an  infant  sleeping  in  a  tiny  four-post 
bed  slung  upon  rockers.  In  its  oldest  forms  the  cradle  is  an 
oblong  oak  box  without  a  lid — originally  the  rockers  appear  to 


have  been  detachable — but,  like  all  other  household  appliances, 
it  has  been  subject  to  changes  of  fashion  alike  in  shape  and 
adornment.  It  has  been  panelled  and  carved,  supported  on 
Renaissance  pillars,  inlaid  with  marqueterie  or  mounted  in 
gilded  bronze.  The  original  simple  shape  persisted  for  two  or 
three  centuries — even  the  hood  made  its  appearance  very  early. 
In  the  i  Sth  century,  however,  cradles  were  often  very  elaborate — 
indeed  in  France  they  had  begun  to  be  so  much  earlier,  but  the 
richly  carved  and  upholstered  examples  were  used  chiefly  for 
purposes  of  state,  being  in  fact  miniature  lits  de  parade.  In 
modern  times  they  have  become  lighter  and  simpler,  the  old  hood 
being  very  often  replaced  by  a  draped  curtain  dependent  from  a 
carved  or  shaped  upright.  About  the  middle  of  the  1 9th  century 
iron  cradles  were  introduced,  along  with  iron  bedsteads.  A 
number  of  undoubted  historic  cradles  have  been  preserved, 
together  with  many  others  with  doubtful  attributions.  Two 
alleged  cradles  of  Henry  V.  exist;  one  which  claims  to  have  been 
used  by  the  unhappy  earl  of  Derwentwater  is  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum  in  London;  the  other  is  at  Windsor  Castle. 
That  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  now  in  the  Chateau  de  Pau,  is 
mounted  upon  a  large  tortoiseshell.  That  of  the  king  of  Rome 
("  Napoleon  II.")  was  designed  by  Prud'hon,  and  along  with  that 
of  the  comte  de  Chambord  is  preserved  in  the  Garde  Meuble. 
In  England  a  cradle  is  now  often  called  a  "  bassinet  "  (i.e. 
little  basket),  and  the  "  cot  "  has  to  some  extent  taken  its  place. 
By  analogy,  the  word  "  cradle  "  is  also  applied  to  various 
sorts  of  framework  in  engineering,  and  to  a  rocking-tool 
used  in  engraving. 

CRADOCK,  a  town  of  South  Africa,  capital  of  a  division  of  the 
Cape  province,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Great  Fish  river,  181  m. 
by  rail  N.  by  E.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  Pop.  (1904)  7762.  It  is  one 
of  the  chief  centres  of  the  wool  industry  of  the  Cape,  and  does  also 
a  large  trade  in  ostrich  feathers,  mohair,  &c.  The  town  enjoys 
a  reputation  as  one  of  the  best  health  resorts  in  the  province. 
It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  2856  ft.;  the  climate  is  very  dry, 
the  average  annual  rainfall  being  14-50  in.  The  mean  maximum 
temperature  is  77-6°  F.  Three  miles  N.  of  the  town  are  sulphur 
baths  (temp.  100°  F.)  used  for  the  treatment  of  rheumatism.  In 
the  neighbouring  district  survive  a  few  herds  of  zebras,  now 
protected  by  the  game  laws.  The  town  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  1 9th  century  and  is  named  after  Sir  John  Cradock, 
governor  of  the  Cape  1811-1813.  The  division  has  an  area  of 
3048  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1904)  of  18,803,  of  whom  41  %  are  white. 

CRAFT  (a  word  common  to  Teutonic  languages  for  strength, 
or  power;  cf.  Ger.  Kraft),  a  word  confined  in  English  only,  of 
the  Teutonic  languages  in  which  it  occurs,  to  intellectual  power, 
and  used  as  a  synonym  of  "  art."  It  then  means  skill  or  in- 
genuity, especially  in  the  manual  arts,  hence  its  use  in  the 
expression  "  Arts  and  Crafts  "  (q.v.),  and  it  is  thus  applied  to 
the  trade'  or  profession  in  which  such  skill  is  displayed,  to  an 
association  of  workmen  of  a  particular  trade,  a  trade  gild,  and 
in  particular  to  Freemasons,  "  the  craft  ";  the  word  appears 
also  in  words  such  as  "  handicraft  "  or  "  craftsman."  Skill 
applied  to 'outwit  or  deceive  gives  the  common  sense  of  cunning 
or  trickery,  and  it  is  this  meaning  which  is  implied  in  such 
combined  words  as  "  priestcraft,"  "  witchcraft "  and  the  like. 
A  more  particular  use  of  the  word  is  in  the  nautical  sense  of 
vessels  of  transport  by  water;  this  is  probably  a  colloquially 
shortened  form  either  of  "  vessels  of  a  fisherman's,  lighterman's 
&c.,  craft,"  i.e.  "  art,"  or  of  "-vessels  of  a  heavier  or  lighter 
craft,"  i.e.  burden  or  capacity;  in  both  cases  the  qualifying 
words  are  dropped  and  the  word  comes  to  be  used  of  vessels  in 
general. 

CRAG  (a  Celtic  word,  cf .  Gael,  creag,  Manx  creg,  and  Welsh  and 
modern  Scots  craig),  a  steep  rock.  The  word  appears  in  many 
place-names  in  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  and  is  also 
connected  with  "  carrick,"  a  word  of  similar  meaning,  also 
found  in  place-names.  In  geology,  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
strata  in  which  a  shelly  sand  deposit  is  found,  and,  in  the  expres- 
sion "  crag  and  tail,"  to  a  formation  of  hills,  in  which  one  side  is 
precipitous  and  lofty  and  the  other  slopes  or  "  tails  "  gradually 
away,  as  in  the  Castle  Rock  in  Edinburgh. 


CRAGGS— CRAIGIE 


361 


CRAGGS,  JAMES  (1657-1721),  English  politician,  was  a  son  of 
Anthony  Craggs  of  Holbeck,  Durham,  and  was  baptized  on  the 
icth  of  June  1657.  After  following  various  callings  in  London, 
Craggs,  who  was  a  person  of  considerable  financial  ability, 
entered  the  service  of  the  duchess  of  Marlborough,  and  through 
her  influence  became  in  1702  member  of  parliament  for  Gram- 
pound,  retaining  his  seat  until  1713.  He  was  in  business  as  an 
army  clothier  and  held  several  official  positions,  becoming  joint 
postmaster-general  in  1715;  and,  making  the  most  of  his 
opportunities  in  all  these  capacities,  he  amassed  a  great  deal  of 
money.  Craggs  also  increased  his  wealth  by  mixing  in  the 
affairs  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  but  after  his  death  an  act  of 
parliament  confiscated  all  the  property  which  he  had  acquired 
since  December  1719.  He  left  an  enormous  fortune  when  he 
died  on  the  i6th  of  March  1721.  It  is  possible  that  Craggs 
committed  suicide. 

His  son,  JAMES  CRAGGS  the  younger  (1686-1721),  was  born  at 
Westminster  on  the  Qth  of  April  1686.  Part  of  his  early  life  was 
spent  abroad,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  George 
Louis,  elector  of  Hanover,  afterwards  King  George  I.  In  1713 
he  became  member  of  parliament  for  Tregoney,  in  1717  secretary- 
at-war,  and  in  the  following  year  one  of  the  principal  secretaries 
of  state.  Craggs  was  implicated  in  the  South  Sea  Bubble,  but 
not  so  deeply  as  his  father,  whom  he  predeceased,  dying  on  the 
i6th  of  February  1721.  Among  Craggs's  friends  were  Pope,  who 
wrote  the  epitaph  on  his  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
Addison  and  Gay. 

CRAIG,  JOHN  (1512  ?-i6oo),  Scottish  reformer,  born  about 
1512,  was  the  son  of  Craig  of  Craigston,  Aberdeenshire,  who  was 
killed  at  Flodden  in  1513.  After  an  education  at  St  Andrews, 
and  acting  as  tutor  to  the  children  of  Lord  Darcy,  the  English 
warden  of  the  North,  he  became  a  Dominican,  but  was  soon  in 
trouble  as  a  heretic.  In  1536  he  made  his  way  to  England,  but 
failing  to  obtain  the  preferment  he  desired  at  Cambridge,  he 
went  on  to  Italy,  where  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Pole,  who  was 
himself  accused  of  heresy,  secured  him  the  post  of  master  of  the 
novices  in  the  Dominican  convent  at  Bologna.  For  some  years  he 
was  busy  travelling  in  the  Levant  in  the  interests  of  his  order,  but 
a  perusal  of  Calvin's  Institutes  revived  his  heretical  tendencies, 
and  he  was  condemned  to  be  burnt.  Like  the  English  scholar  and 
statesman,  Thomas  Wilson,  he  owed  his  escape  to  the  riot  which 
broke  out  on  the  death  of  Paul  IV.  on  the  i8th  of  August  1559, 
when  the  mob  burst  open  the  prison  of  the  Inquisition.  After 
various  adventures  he  reached  Vienna,  where  he  preached,  and 
was  protected  by  the  semi-Lutheran  archduke  (afterwards  the 
emperor)  Maximilian  II. 

In  1 560  he  returned  to  Scotland ,  where  in  1 56 1  he  was  ordained 
minister  of  Holyrood,  and  in  1562  Knox's  colleague  in  the  High 
Church.  His  defence  of  church  property  and  privilege  against  the 
predatory  instincts  of  the  nobles  and  tbe  pretensions  of  the  state 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  Lethington  and  others;  but  he 
seems  to  have  condoned,  if  he.  was  not  privy  to,  Riccio's  murder. 
At  first  he  refused  to  publish  the  banns  of  marriage  between 
Mary  and  Bothwell,  though  in  the  end  he  yielded  with  a  protest 
that  he  "  abhorred  and  detested  the  marriage."  He  had  been 
associated  with  Knox  in  various  commissions  for  the  organization 
of  the  church,  but  he  wished  to  compromise  between  the  two 
extreme  parties.  From  1571-1579  Craig  was  in  the  north, 
whither  he  had  been  sent  to  "  illuminate  those  dark  places  in  Mar, 
Buchan  and  Aberdeen."  In  1579  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
the  young  James  VI.,  and  returned  to  Edinburgh.  In  1581 
episcopacy  was  abolished  as  a  result  of  the  report  of  a  commission 
on  which  Craig  had  sat;  he  also  assisted  at  the  composition  of 
the  Second  Book  of  Discipline  and  the  National  Covenant  of  1580, 
and  in  1581  compiled  "Ane  Shorte  and  Generale  Confession" 
called  the  "  King's  Confession,"  which  was  imposed  on  all  parish 
ministers  and  graduates  and  became  the  basis  of  the  Covenant  of 
1638.  He  approved  of  the  Ruthven  raid,  and  admonished  James 
in  terms  which  made  him  weep,  but  produced  no  alteration  in  his 
conduct,  and  before  long  Craig  was  denouncing  the  supremacy  of 
Arran.  But  he  was  averse  from  the  violence  of  Melville,  and  was 
willing  to  admit  the  royal  supremacy  "  as  far  as  the  word  of  God 


allows."  James  VI.,  Like  Henry  VIII.,  accepted  this  compromise, 
and  the  oath  in  this  form  was  taken  by  Craig,  the  royal  chaplains 
and  some  others.  In  1592  was  published  Craig's  Catechism. 
He  died  on  the  I2th  of  December  1600. 

See  T.  G.  Law's  Pref.  to  Craig's  Catechism  (1885);  Bain's  Cat. 
Scottish  State  Papers;  Reg.  P.  C.  Scotl.;  Hew  Scott  s  Fasti  Eccles. 
Sept.;  Knox's,  Calderwood's  and  Grub's  Ecdes.  Histories;  McCrie's 
Life  of  Melville;  Hay  Fleming's  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots;  Bannatyne's 
Memorials.  (A.  F.  P.) 

CRAIG,  SIR  THOMAS  (  c.  1538-1608),  Scottish  jurist  and  poet, 
was  born  about  1 538.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  the  eldest  son  of 
William  Craig  of  Craigfintray,  or  Craigston,  in  Aberdeenshire,  but 
beyond  the  fact  that  he  was  in  some  way  related  to  the  Craigfin- 
tray family  nothing  regarding  his  birth  is  known  with  certainty. 
He  was  educated  at  St  Andrews,  where  he  took  the  B.A.  degree  in 
IS5S-  From  St  Andrews  he  went  to  France,  to  study  the  canon 
and  the  civil  law.  He  returned  to  Scotland  about  1561,  and  was 
admitted  advocate  in  February  1563.  In  1564  he  was  appointed 
justice-depute  by  the  justice-general,  Archibald,  earl  of  Argyll; 
and  in  this  capacity  he  presided  at  many  of  the  criminal  trials 
of  the  period.  In  1573  he  was  appointed  sheriff-depute  of 
Edinburgh,  and  in  1606  procurator  for  the  church.  He  never 
became  a  lord  of  session,  a  circumstance  that  was  unquestionably 
due  to  his  own  choice.  It  is  said  that  he  refused  the  honour  of 
knighthood  which  the  king  wished  to  confer  on  him  in  1604, 
when  he  came  to  London  as  one  of  the  Scottish  commissioners 
regarding  the  union  between  the  kingdoms — the  only  political 
object  he  seems  to  have  cared  about;  but  in  accordance  with 
James's  commands  he  has  always  been  styled  and  reputed  a 
knight.  Craig  was  married  to  Helen,  daughter  of  Heriot  of 
Lumphoy  in  Midlothian,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  three 
daughters.  His  eldest  son,  Sir  Lewis  Craig  (1560-1622),  was 
raised  to  the  bench  in  160$,  and  among  his  other  descendants  are 
several  well-known  names  in  the  list  of  Scottish  lawyers.  He  died 
on  the  26th  of  February  1608. 

Except  his  poems,  the  only  one  of  Craig's  works  which  appeared 
during  his  lifetime  was  his  Jus  feudale  (1603;  ed.  R.  Burnet, 
1655;  Leipzig,  1716;  ed.  J.  Baillie  1732).  The  object  of  this 
treatise  was  to  assimilate  the  laws  of  England  and  Scotland,  but, 
instead  of  this,  it  was  an  important  factor  in  building  up  and 
solidifying  the  law  of  Scotland  into  a  separate  system.  Other 
works  were  De  unione  regnorum  Britanniae  tractatus,  De  jure 
successions  regni  Angliae  and  De  hominio disputalio.  Translations 
of  the  last  two  have  been  published,  and  in  1910  an  edition  of  the 
De  Unione  appeared,  with  translation  and  notes  by  C.  S.  Terry. 
Craig's  first  poem,  an  Epithalamium  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of 
Mary  queen  of  Scots  and  Darnley,  appeared  in  1565.  Most  of  his 
poems  have  been  reprinted  in  the  Deliliae  poetarum  Scotorum. 

See  P.  F.  Tytler,  Life  of  Craig  (1823) ;  Life  prefixed  to  Baillie's 
edition  of  the  Jus  feudale. 

CRAIGIE,  PEARL  MARY  TERESA  (1867-1906),  Anglo- 
American  novelist  and  dramatist,  who  wrote  under  the  pen-name 
of  "  JOHN  OLIVER  HOBBES,"  was  born  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  on  the 
3rd  of  November  1867.  She  was  the  elder  daughter  of  John 
Morgan  Richards,  and  was  educated  in  London  and  Paris. 
When  she  was  nineteen  she  married  Reginald  Walpole  Craigie, 
by  whom  she  had  one  son,  John  Churchill  Craigie:  but  the 
marriage  proved  an  unhappy  one,  and  was  dissolved  on  her 
petition  in  July  1895.  She  was  brought  up  as  a  Noncon- 
formist, but  in  1892  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  of  which  she  remained  a  devout  and  serious  member. 
Her  first  little  book,  the  brilliant  and  epigrammatic  Some 
Emotions  and  a  Moral,  was  published  in  1891  in  Mr  Fisher  Unwin's 
"  Pseudonym  Library,"  and  was  followed  by  The  Sinner's 
Comedy  (1892),  A  Study  in  Temptations  (1893) ,  A  Bundle  of  Life 
(1894),  The  Gods,  Some  Mortals,  and  Lord  Wickenham.  The  Herb 
Moon  (1896),  a  country  love  story,  was  followed  by  The  School  for 
Saints  (1897),  with  a  sequel,  Robert  Orange  (1900).  Mrs  Craigie 
had  already  written  a  one-act  "  proverb,"  Journeys  end  in  Lovers 
Meeting,  produced  by  Ellen  Terry  in  1894,  and  a  three-act 
tragedy,  "  Osbern  and  Ursyne,"  printed  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Review  (1899),  when  her  successful  piece,  The  Ambassador,  was 
produced  at  the  St  James's  Theatre  in  1898.  A  Repentance  (one 


362 


CRAIK— CRAMBO 


act,  1899)  and  The  Wisdom  of  the  Wise  (1900)  were  produced  at 
the  same  theatre,  and  The  Flute  of  P.an  (1904)  first  at 
Manchester  and  then  at  the  Shaftesbury  theatre;  she  was  also 
part  author  of  The  Bishop's  Move  (Garrick  Theatre,  1902). 
Later  books  are  The  Serious  Wooing  (1901),  Love  and  the  Soul 
Hunters  (1902),  Tales  about  Temperament  (1902),  The  Vineyard 
( 1 904) .  Mrs  Craigie  died  suddenly  of  heart  failure  in  London  on 
the  I3th  of  August  1906. 

CRAIK,  DINAH  MARIA  (1826-1887),  English  novelist, 
better  known  by  her  maiden  name  of  Mulock,  and  still  better 
as  "  the  author  of  John  Halifax,  Gentleman,"  was  the  daughter 
of  Thomas  Mulock,  an  eccentric  religious  enthusiast  of  Irish 
extraction,  and  was  born  on  the  2oth  of  April  1826  at  Stoke-upon- 
Trent,  in  Staffordshire,  where  her  father  was  the  minister  of  a 
small  congregation.  She  settled  in  London  about  1846,  deter- 
mined to  obtain  a  livelihood  by  her  pen,  and,  beginning  with 
fiction  for  children,  advanced  steadily  until  John  Halifax, 
Gentleman  (1857),  placed  her  in  the  front  rank  of  the  women 
novelists  of  her  day.  A  Life  for  a  Life  (1859),  though  inferior, 
maintained  a  high  position,  but  she  afterwards  wrote  little  of 
importance  except  some  very  charming  tales  for  children.  Her 
most  remarkable  novels,  after  those  mentioned  above,  were  The 
Ogihies  (1849),  Olive  (1850),  The  Head  of  the  Family  (1851), 
Agatha's  Husband  (1853).  There  is  much  passion  and  power  in 
these  early  works,  and  all  that  Mrs  Craik  wrote  was  characterized 
by  high  principle  and  deep  feeling.  Some  of  the  short  stories  in 
Avillion  and  other  Tales  also  exhibit  a  fine  imagination.  She 
published  some  poems  distinguished  by  genuine  lyrical  spirit, 
narratives  of  tours  in  Ireland  and  Cornwall,  and  A  Woman's 
Thoughts  about  Women.  She  married  Mr  G.  L.  Craik,  a  partner  in 
the  house  of  Macmillan  &  Company,  in  1864,  and  died  at  Short- 
lands,  near  Bromley,  Kent,  on  the  i2th  of  October  1887. 

CRAIK,  GEORGE  LILLIE  (1798-1866),  English  man  of  letters, 
the  son  of  a  schoolmaster,  was  born  at  Kennoway,  Fifeshire,  in 
1798.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  St  Andrews  with  the 
intention  of  entering  the  church,  but,  altering  his  plans,  became 
the  editor  of  a  local  newspaper,  and  went  to  London  in  1824  to 
devote  himself  to  literature.  He  became  connected  with  a  short- 
lived literary  paper  called  the  Verulam;  hi  1831  he  published  his 
Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties  among  the  works  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge;  he  contributed  a 
considerable  number  of  biographical  and  historical  articles  to 
the  Penny  Cyclopaedia;  and  he  edited  the  Pictorial  History  of 
England,  himself  writing  much  of  the  work.  In  1844  he  published 
his  History  of  Literature  and  Learning  in  England  from  the  Norman 
Conquest  to  the  Present  Time,  illustrated  by  extracts.  Craik  is 
best  known  for  his  abridged  version  of  this  work,  The  History  of 
English  Literature  and  the  English  Language  (1861),  which  passed 
through  several  editions.  In  the  next  year  appeared  his  Spenser 
and  his  Poetry,  an  abstract  of  Spenser's  poems,  with  historical 
and  biographical  notes  and  frequent  quotations;  and  in  1847  his 
Bacon,  his  Writings  and  his  Philosophy,  a  work  of  a  similar  kind. 
The  two  last-mentioned  works  appeared  among  Knight's  Weekly 
Volumes.  Two  years  later  Craik  obtained  the  chair  of  history  and 
English  literature  at  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  a  position  which  he 
held  till  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the  2$th  of  June  1866. 
He  had  married  Miss  Jeannette  Dempster  (d.  1856)  in  1826,  and 
his  daughter,  Georgiana  Marion  Craik  (Mrs  A.  W.  May),  wrote 
over  thirty  novels,  of  which  Lost  and  Won  (1859)  was  the  best. 
Besides  the  works  already  noticed,  Craik  published  the  History  of 
British  Commerce  from  the  Earliest  Times  (1844),  Romance  of  the 
Peerage  (1848-1850)  and  The  English  of  Shakespeare  (1856). 

CRAIL  (formerly  KAREL),  a  royal  and  police  burgh  of  Fifeshire, 
Scotland,  2  m.  from  Fife  Ness,  the  most  easterly  point  of  the 
county,  and  n  m.  S.E.  of  St  Andrews  by  the  North  British 
railway,  but  2  m.  nearer  by  road.  Pop.  (1901)  1077.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  a  town  of  some  note  as  early  as  the  gth  century; 
and  its  castle,  of  which  there  are  hardly  any  remains,  was  the 
residence  of  David  I.  and  other  Scottish  kings.  It  was  consti- 
tuted a  royal  burgh  by  a  charter  of  Robert  Bruce  in  1306,  and 
had  its  privileges  confirmed  by  Robert  II.  in  1371,  by  Mary  in 
1553;  and  by  Charles  I.  in  1635.  Of  its  priory,  dedicated  to 


St  Rufus,  a  few  ruins  still  exist.  The  church  of  Maelrubha,  the 
patron  saint  of  Crail,  is  an  edifice  of  great  antiquity.  Many  of  the 
ordinary  houses  are  massive  and  quaint.  The  public  buildings 
include  a  library  and  reading-room  and  town  hall.  The  chief 
industries  comprise  fisheries,  especially  for  crabs,  shipping  and 
brewing.  It  is  growing  in  favour  as  a  summer  resort.  It  unites 
with  St  Andrews,  the  two  Anstruthers,  Kilrenny,  Pittenweem 
and  Cupar  in  returning  one  member  to  parliament. 

Balcomie  Castle,  about  2  m.  to  the  N.E.,  dates  from  the  i4th 
century.  Here  Mary  of  Guise  landed  in  1538,  a  few  days  before 
her  marriage  to  James  V.  in  St  Andrews  cathedral.  In  the  i8th 
century  it  passed  through  the  hands  of  various  proprietors  and 
was  ultimately  shorn  of  much  of  its  original  size  and  grandeur. 
The  East  Neuk  is  a  term  applied  more  particularly  to  the 
country  round  Fife  Ness,  and  more  generally  to  all  of  the  peninsula 
east  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  St  Andrews  to  Elie.  For 
fully  half  the  year  the  cottages  of  its  villages  are  damp  with-  the 
haar,  or  dense  mist,  borne  on  the  east  wind  from  the  North  Sea. 

CRAILSHEIM,  or  KRAILSHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg,  on  the  Jagst,  a  tributary  of  the 
Neckar,  at  the  junction  of  railways  to  Heilbronn  and  Fiirth. 
Pop.  (1900)  5251.  There  are  two  Evangelical  churches  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  a  handsome  town  hall,  with  a  tower 
225  ft.  high.  The  industrial  establishments  include  extensive 
tanneries  and  machine  workshops,  and  there  is  a  brisk  trade  in 
cattle  and  agricultural  produce. 

Crailsheim  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1338,  successfully 
withstood  a  siege  by  the  forces  of  several  Swabian  imperial  cities 
(1379-1380),  a  feat  which  is  annually  celebrated,  passed  later 
into  the  possession  of  the  burgraves  of  Nuremberg,  and  came 
in  1791  to  Prussia,  in  1806  to  Bavaria  and  1810  to  Wiirttemberg. 

CRAIOVA,  or  KRAJOVA,  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Doljiu,  Rumania,  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Jiu,  and 
on  the  main  Walachian  railway  from  Verciorova  to  Bucharest. 
Pop.  (1900)  45,438.  A  branch  railway  to  Calafat  facilitates  the 
export  trade  with  Bulgaria.  Craiova  is  the  chief  commercial 
town  west  of  Bucharest;  the  surrounding  uplands  are  very  rich 
in  grain,  pasturage  and  vegetable  products,  and  contain  extensive 
forests.  The  town  has  rope  and  carriage  factories,  and  close  by 
is  a  large  tannery,  worked  by  convict  labour,  and  supplying  the 
army.  The  principal  trade  is  in  cattle,  cereals,  fish,  linen, 
pottery,  glue  and  leather.  In  the  town,  which  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  First  Army  Corps,  there  are  military  and  com- 
mercial academies,  an  appeal  court  and  a  chamber  of  commerce, 
besides  many  churches,  Greek  Orthodox,  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Protestant,  with  synagogues  for  the  Jews. 

Craiova,  which  occupied  the  site  of  the  Roman  Castra  Nova, 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  Little  Walachia.  Its  ancient  bans  or 
military  governors  were,  next  to  the  princes,  the  chief  dignitaries 
of  Walachia,  and  the  district  is  still  styled  the  banat  of  Craiova. 
Among  the  holders  of  this  office  were  Michael  the  Brave  (1593- 
1601),  and  several  members  of  the  celebrated  Bassarab  family 
(q.v.).  The  bans  had  the  right  of  coining  money  stamped  with 
their  own  effigies,  and  hence  arose  the  name  of  bani  (centimes). 
The  Rumanian  franc,  or  leu  ("  lion  "),  so  called  from  the  image  it 
bore,  came  likewise  from  Craiova.  In  1397  Craiova  was  the 
scene  of  a  victory  won  by  Prince  Mircea  over  Bayezid  I.  sultan 
of  the  Turks;  and  in  October  1853,  of  an  engagement  between 
Turks  and  Russians. 

CRAMBO,  an  old  rhyming  game  which,  according  to  Strutt 
(Sports  and  Pastimes),  was  played  as  early  as  the  I4th  century 
under  the  name  of  the  ABC  of  Aristotle.  In  the  days  of  the 
Stuarts  it  was  very  popular,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
writings  of  the  time.  Thus  Congreve's  Love  for  Love,  i.  i ,  contains 
the  passage,  "  Get  the  Maids  to  Crambo  in  an  Evening,  and 
learn  the  knack  of  Rhiming."  Crambo,  or  capping  the  rhyme, 
is  now  played  by  one  player  thinking  of  a  word  and  telling  the 
others  what  it  rhymes  with,  the  others  not  naming  the  actual 
word  they  guess  but  its  meaning.  Thus  one  says  "  I  know  a  word 
that  rhymes  with  bird."  A  second  asks  ""Is  it  ridiculous?" 
"No,  it  is  not  absurd."  "  Is  it  a  part  of  speech  ?"  "No.itisnot 
a  word."  This  proceeds  until  the  right  word  is  guessed. 


CRAMER— CRAMP 


363 


In  Dumb  Crambo  the  guessers,  instead  of  naming  the  word, 
express  its  meaning  by  dumb  show,  a  rhyme  being  given  them  as 
a  clue. 

CRAMER,  JOHANN  BAPTIST  (1771-1858),  English  musician, 
of  German  extraction,  was  born  in  Mannheim,  on  the  24th  of 
February  1771.  He  was  the  son  of  Wilhelm  Cramer  (1743-1799), 
a  famous  London  violinist  and  musical  conductor,  one  of  a 
numerous  family  who  were  identified  with  the  progress  of  music 
during  the  1  8th  and  i  gth  centuries.  Johann  Baptist  was  brought 
to  London  as  a  child,  and  it  was  in  London  that  the  greater  part 
of  his  musical  efforts  was  exercised.  From  1782  to  1784  he 
studied  the  pianoforte  under  Muzio  Clementi,  and  soon  became 
known  as  a  professional  pianist  both  in  London  and  on  the 
continent;  he  enjoyed  a  world-wide  reputation,  and  was 
particularly  appreciated  by  Beethoven.  He  died  in  London 
on  the  i6th  of  April  1858.  Apart  from  his  pianoforte-playing 
Cramer  is  important  as  a  composer,  and  as  principal  founder 
in  1824  of  the  London  music-publishing  house  of  Cramer  &  Co. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  sonatas,  &c.,  for  pianoforte,  and  other 
compositions;  but  his  Etudes  is  the  work  by  which  he  lives  as 
a  composer.  These  "  studies  "  have  appeared  in  numerous 
editions,  from  1810  onwards,  and  became  the  staple  pieces  in  the 
training  of  pianists. 

CRAMER,  JOHN  ANTONY  (1793-1848),  English  classical 
scholar  and  geographer,  was  born  at  Mitlodi  in  Switzerland. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
He  resided  in  Oxford  till  1844,  during  which  time  he  held  many 
important  offices,  being  public  orator,  principal  of  New  Inn  Hall 
(which  he  rebuilt  at  his  own  expense),  and  professor  of  modern 
history.  In  1844  he  was  appointed  to  the  deanery  of  Carlisle, 
which  he  held  until  his  death  at  Scarborough  on  the  24th  of 
August  1848.  His  works  are  of  considerable  importance:  A 
Dissertation  on  the  Passage  of  Hannibal  over  the  Alps,  published 
anonymously  with  H.  L.  Wickham  (2nd  ed.,  1828),  "  a  scholar- 
like  work  of  first-rate  ability  ";  geographical  and  historical 
descriptions  of  Ancient  Italy  (1826),  Ancient  Greece  (1828),  Asia 
Minor  (1832);  Travels  of  Nicander  Nucius  of  Corcyra  [Greek 
traveller  of  the  i6th  century]  in  England  (1841);  Catenae 
Graecorum  Patrum  in  Novum  Testamentum  (1838-1844); 
Anecdota  Graeca  (from  the  MSS.  of  the  royal  library  in  Paris, 


_ 

CRAMER,  KARL  VON  (1818-1902),  Bavarian  politician,  had 
a  very  remarkable  career,  rising  gradually  from  a  mere  workman 
in  a  factory  at  Doos  near  Nuremberg  to  the  post  of  manager, 
and  finally  becoming  part  proprietor  of  the  establishment.  Leav- 
ing business  in  1870  he  devoted  his  time  entirely  to  politics. 
From  1  848  he  had  been  a  member  of  the  Bavarian  second  chamber, 
at  first  representing  the  district  of  Erlangen-Fiirth,  and  after- 
wards Nuremberg,  which  city  also  sent  him  after  the  war  of 
1866  as  its  deputy  to  the  German  customs  parliament,  and  from 
1871  to  1874  to  the  first  German  Reichstag.  He  sat  in  these 
bodies  as  a  member  of  the  Progressive  party  (Fortschriltspartei), 
and  in  Bavaria  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal  (Freisinnige) 
party.  His  eloquence  had  a  great  hold  upon  the  masses.  As  a 
parliamentarian  he  was  very  clear-headed,  and  thoroughly 
understood  how  to  lead  a  party.  For  many  years  he  was  the 
reporter  of  the  finance  committee  of  the  chamber.  In  1882,  on 
account  of  his  great  services  in  connexion  with  the  Bavarian 
National  Exhibition  of  Nuremberg,  the  order  of  the  crown  of 
Bavaria  was  conferred  upon  him,  carrying  with  it  the  honour  of 
nobility.  He  died  at  Nuremberg  on  the  3ist  of  December  1902. 

CRAMP,  CHARLES  HENRY  (1828-  ),  American  ship- 
builder, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  9th 
of  May  1828,  of  German  descent,  his  family  name  having  been 
Krampf.  He  was  the  eldest  of  eleven  children  of  William 
Cramp  (1807-1869),  a  pioneer  American  shipbuilder,  who  in  1830 
established  shipyards  on  the  Delaware  river  near  Philadelphia. 
The  son  was  educated  at  the  Philadelphia  Central  high  school, 
after  which  he  .was  employed  in  his  father's  shipyards  and  made 
himself  master  of  every  detail  of  ship  construction.  He  showed 
especial  aptitude  as  a  naval  architect  and  designer,  and  after 
becoming  his  father's  partner  in  1849  it  was  to  that  branch  of 


the  work  that  he  devoted  himself.  His  inventive  capacity  and 
resourcefulness,  together  with  the  complete  success  of  his 
innovations  in  naval  construction,  soon  gave  him  high  rank 
as  an  authority  on  shipbuilding,  and  made  his  influence  in  that 
industry  widely  felt.  In  the  Mexican.  War  he  designed  surf 
boats  for  the  landing  of  troops  at  Vera  Cruz;  during  the  Civil 
War  he  designed  and  built  several  ironclads  for  the  United 
States  navy,  notably  the  "  New  Ironsides  "  in  1862,  and  the 
light-draught  monitors  used  in  the  Carolina  sounds  ;  and  after 
1887  constructed  wholly  or  in  part  from  his  own  designs  many 
of  the  most  powerful  ships  in  the  "  new  "  navy,  including 
the  cruisers  "Columbia,"  "Minneapolis"  and  "Brooklyn," 
and  the  battleships  "  Indiana,"  "  Iowa,"  "  Massachusetts," 
"  Alabama  "  and  "  Maine."  In  every  progressive  step  in  ocean 
shipbuilding,  in  the  transformation  from  sail  to  steam,  and 
from  wood  to  iron  and  steel,  Cramp  had  a  prominent  part.  His 
fame  as  a  shipbuilder  extended  to  Europe,  and  he  built  war- 
ships for  several  foreign  navies,  among  others  the  "  Retvizan  " 
and  the  "  Variag  "  for  the  Russian  government.  He  also  con- 
structed a  number  of  freight  and  passenger  steamships  for  several 
trans-Atlantic  lines. 

See  A.  C.  Buel,  Memoirs  of  C.  H.  Cramp  (Philadelphia,  1906). 

CRAMP,  a  painful  spasmodic  contraction  of  muscles,  most 
frequently  occurring  in  the  limbs,  but  also  apt  to  affect  certain 
internal  organs.  This  disorder  belongs  to  the  class  of  diseases 
known  as  local  spasms,  of  which  other  varieties  exist  in  such 
affections  as  spasmodic  asthma  and  colic.  The  cause  of  these 
painful  seizures  resides  in  the  nervous  system,  and  operates 
either  directly  from  the  great  nerve  centres,  or,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  indirectly  by  reflex  action,  as,  for  example,  when  attacks 
are  brought  on  by  some  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs. 

In  its  most  common  form,  that  of  cramp  in  the  limbs,  this 
disorder  comes  on  suddenly,  often  during  sleep,  the  patient 
being  aroused  by  an  agonizing  feeling  of  pain  in  the  calf  of  the 
leg  or  back  of  the  thigh,  accompanied  in  many  instances  with  a 
sensation  of  sickness  or  faintness  from  the  intensity  of  the  suffer- 
ing. During  the  paroxysm  the  muscular  fibres  affected  can  often 
be  felt  gathered  up  into  a  hard  knot.  The  attack  in  general 
lasts  but  a  few  seconds,  and  then  suddenly  departs,  the  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  muscles  ceasing  entirely,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  relief  may  come  more  gradually  during  a  period  of  minutes 
or  even  hours.  A  liability  to  cramp  is  often  associated  with  a 
rheumatic  or  gouty  tendency,  but  occasional  attacks  are  common 
enough  apart  from  this,  and  are  often  induced  by  some  peculiar 
posture  which  a  limb  has  assumed  during  sleep.  Exposure  of  the 
limbs  to  cold  will  also  bring  on  cramp,  and  to  this  is  probably  to 
be  ascribed  its  frequent  occurrence  in  swimmers.  Cramp  of  the 
extremities  is  also  well  known  as  one  of  the  most  distressing 
accompaniments  of  cholera.  It  is  likewise  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  process  of  parturition,  just  before  delivery. 

This  painful  disorder  can  be  greatly  relieved  and  often  entirely 
removed  by  firmly  grasping  or  briskly  rubbing  the  affected  part 
with  the  hand,  or  by  anything  which  makes  an  impression  on  the 
nerves,  such  as  warm  applications.  Even  a  sudden  and  vigorous 
movement  of  the  limb  will  often  succeed  in  terminating  the  attack. 

What  is  termed  cramp  of  the  stomach,  or  gastralgia,  usually 
occurs  as  a  symptom  in  connexion  with  some  form  of  gastric 
disorder,  such  as  aggravated  dyspepsia,  or  actual  organic  disease 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach. 

The  disease  known  as  Writer's  Cramp,  or  Scrivener's  Palsy,  is 
a  spasm  which  affects  certain  muscles  when  engaged  in  the  per- 
formance of  acts,  the  result  of  education  and  long  usage,  and 
which  does  not  occur  when  the  same  muscles  are  employed  in 
acts  of  a  different  kind.  This  disorder  owes  its  name  to  the 
relative  frequency  with  which  it  is  met  in  persons  who  write 
much,  although  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  them,  but  is  liable 
to  occur  in  individuals  of  almost  any  handicraft.  It  was  termed 
by  Dr  Duchenne  Functional  Spasm. 

The  symptoms  are  in  the  first  instance  a  gradually  increasing 
difficulty  experienced  in  conducting  the  movements  required 
for  executing  the  work  in  hand.  Taking,  for  example,  the  case 
of  writers,  there  is  a  feeling  that  the  pen  cannot  be  moved  with 


364 


CRAMP-RINGS— CRANACH 


the  same  freedom  as  before,  and  the  handwriting  is  more  or  less 
altered  in  consequence.  At  an  early  stage  -of  the  disease  the 
difficulty  may  be  to  a  large  extent  overcome  by  persevering 
efforts,  but  ultimately,  when  the  attempt  is  persisted  in,  the 
muscles  of  the  fingers,  and  occasionally  also  those  of  the  forearm, 
are  seized  with  spasm  or  cramp,  so  that  the  act  of  writing  is 
rendered  impossible.  Sometimes  the  fingers,  instead  of  being 
cramped,  move  in  a  disorderly  manner  and  the  pen  cannot  be 
grasped,  while  in  other  rare  instances  a  kind  of  paralysis  affects 
the  muscles  of  the  fingers,  and  they  are  powerless  to  make  the 
movements  necessary  for  holding  the  pen.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
it  is  only  in  the  act  of  writing  that  these  phenomena  present 
themselves,  and  that  for  all  other  movements  the  fingers  and 
arms  possess  their  natural  power.  The  same  symptoms  are 
observed  and  the  same  remarks  apply  mutatis  mutandis  in  the 
case  of  musicians,  artists,  compositors,  seamstresses,  tailors  and 
many  mechanics  in  whom  this  affection  may  occur.  Indeed, 
although  actually  a  rare  disease,  no  muscle  or  group  of  muscles 
in  the  body  which  is  specially  called  into  action  in  any  particular 
occupation  is  exempt  from  liability  to  this  functional  spasm. 

The  exact  pathology  of  writer's  cramp  has  not  been  worked 
out,  but  it  is  now  generally  accepted  that  the  disease  is  not  a  local 
one  of  muscles  or  nerves,  but  that  it  is  an  affection  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  The  complaint  never  occurs  under  thirty  years 
of  age,  and  is  more  frequent  in  males  than  females.  Occasionally 
there  is  an  inherited  tendency  to  the  disease,  but  more  usually 
there  is  a  history  of  alcoholism  in  the  parents,  or  some  neuro- 
pathic heredity.  In  its  treatment  the  first  requisite  is  absolute 
cessation  from  the  employment  which  caused  it.  Usually, 
however,  complete  rest  of  the  arm  is  undesirable,  and  recovery 
takes  place  more  speedily  if  other  actions  of  a  different  kind  are 
regularly  practised.  If  a  return  to  the  same  work  is  a  necessity, 
then  Sir  W.  R.  Gowers  insists  on  some  modification  of  method  in 
performing  the  act,  as  writing  from  the  shoulder  instead  of  the 
wrist. 

CRAMP-RINGS,  rings  anciently  worn  as  a  cure  for  cramp  and 
"  falling-sickness  "  or  epilepsy.  The  legend  is  that  the  first  one 
was  presented  to  Edward  the  Confessor  by  a  pilgrim  on  his 
return  from  Jerusalem,  its  miraculous  properties  being  explained 
to  the  king.  At  his  death  it  passed  into  the  keeping  of  the  abbot 
of  Westminster,  by  whom  it  was  used  medically  and  was  known 
as  St  Edward's  Ring.  From  that  time  the  belief  grew  that  the 
successors  of  Edward  inherited  his  powers,  and  that  the  rings 
blessed  by  them  worked  cures.  Hence  arose  the  custom  for  the 
successive  sovereigns  of  England  each  year  on  Good  Friday 
formally  to  bless  a  number  of  cramp-rings.  A  service  was  held; 
prayers  and  psalms  were  said;  and  water  "  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  "  was  poured  over  the  rings,  which 
were  always  of  gold  or  silver,  and  made  from  the  metal  that  the 
king  offered  to  the  Cross  on  Good  Friday.  The  ceremony 
survived  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  but  the  belief  in  the  curative 
powers  of  similar  circlets  of  sacred  metal  has  lingered  on  even  to 
the  present  day. 

For  an  account  of  the  ceremony  see  F.  G.  Waldron,  The  Literary 
Museum  (London,  1792);  see  also  Notes  and  Queries,  vol.  vii.,i853; 
vol.  ix.,  1878. 

CRANACH,  LUCAS  (1472-1553),  German  painter,  was  born  at 
Cronach  in  upper  Franconia,  and  learnt  the  art  of  drawing  from 
his  father.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  trace  his  descent  or  the 
name  of  his  parents.  We  are  not  informed  as  to  the  school  in 
which  he  was  taught,  and  it  is  a  mere  guess  that  he  took  lessons 
from  the  south  German  masters  to  whom  Mathew  Grunewald 
owed  his  education.  But  Grunewald  practised  at  Bamberg  and 
Aschaffenburg,  and  Bamberg  is  the  capital  of  the  diocese  in 
which  Cronach  lies.  According  to  Gunderam,  the  tutor  of 
Cranach's  children,  Cranach  signalized  his  talents  as  a  painter 
before  the  close  of  the  isth  century.  He  then  drew  upon  himself 
the  attention  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  attached  him  to  his 
person  in  1 504.  The  records  of  Wittenberg  confirm  Gunderam's 
statement  to  this  extent  that  Cranach's  name  appears  for  the 
first  time  in  the  public  accounts  on  the  24th  of  June  1504,  when 
he  drew  50  gulden  for  the  salary  of  half  a  year,  as  piclor  ducalis. 


The  only  clue  to  Cranach's  settlement  previous  to  his  Witten- 
berg appointment  is  afforded  by  the  knowledge  that  he  owned  a 
house  at  Gotha,  and  that  Barbara  Brengbier,  his  wife,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  burgher  of  that  city. 

Df  his  skill  as  an  artist  we  have  sufficient  evidence  in  a  picture 
dated  1504.  But  as  to  the  development  of  his  manner  prior  to 
that  date  we  are  altogether  in  ignorance.  In  contrast  with  this 
obscurity  is  the  light  thrown  upon  Cranach  after  1504.  We  find 
him  active  in  several  branches  of  his  profession, — sometimes  a 
mere  house-painter,  more  frequently  producing  portraits  and 
altar-pieces,  a  designer  on  wood,  an  engraver  of  copper-plates, 
and  draughtsman  for  the  dies  of  the  electoral  mint.  Early  in  the 
days  of  his  official  employment  he  startled  his  master's  courtiers 
by  the  realism  with  which  he  painted  still  life,  game  and  antlers 
on  the  walls  of  the  country  palaces  at  Coburg  and  Lochau  ;  his 
pictures  of  deer  and  wild  boar  were  considered  striking,  and  the 
duke  fostered  his  passion  for  this  form  of  art  by  taking  him  out  to 
the  hunting  field,  where  he  sketched  "  his  grace  "  running  the 
stag,  or  Duke  John  sticking  a  boar.  Before  1508  he  had  painted 
several  altar-pieces  for  the  Schlosskirche  at  Wittenberg  in 
competition  with  Purer,  Burgkmair  and  others;  the  duke  and  his 
brother  John,  were  portrayed  in  various  attitudes  and  a  number 
of  the  best  woodcuts  and  copper-plates  were  published.  Great 
honour  accrued  to  Cranach  when  he  went  in  1 509  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  took  sittings  from  the  emperor  Maximilian  and  the  boy 
who  afterwards  became  Charles  V.  Till  1 508  Cranach  signed  his 
works  with  the  initials  of  his  name.  In  that  year  the  elector  gave 
him  the  winged  snake  as  a  motto,  and  this  motto  or  Kleinod,  as  it 
was  called,  superseded  the  initials  on  all  his  pictures  after  that 
date.  Somewhat  later  the  duke  conferred  on  him  the  monopoly 
of  the  sale  of  medicines  at  Wittenberg,  and  a  printer's  patent  with 
exclusive  privileges  as  to  copyright  in  Bibles.  The  presses  of 
Cranach  were  used  by  Luther.  His  chemist's  shop  was  open  for 
centuries,  and  only  perished  by  fire  in  1871.  Relations  of  friend- 
ship united  the  painter  with  the  Reformers  at  a  very  early  period; 
yet  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  time  of  his  first  acquaintance  with 
Luther.  The  oldest  notice  of  Cranach  in  the  Reformer's  corre- 
spondence dates  from  1520.  In  a  letter  written  from  Worms  in 
1521,  Luther  calls  him  his  gossip,  warmly  alluding  to  his 
"  Gevatterin,"  the  artist's  wife.  His  first  engraved  portrait  by 
Cranach  represents  an  Augustinian  friar,  and  is  dated  1520. 
Five  years  later  the  friar  dropped  the  cowl,  and  Cranach  was 
present  as  "  one  of  the  council  "  at  the  betrothal  festival  of 
Luther  and  Catherine  Bora.  The  death  at  short  intervals  of  the 
electors  Frederick  and  John  (1525  and  1532)  brought  no  change 
in  the  prosperous  situation  of  the  painter;  he  remained  a 
favourite  with  John  Frederick  I.,  under  whose  administration  he 
twice  (1537  and  1540)  filled  the  office  of  burgomaster  of  Witten- 
berg. But  1 547  witnessed  a  remarkable  change  in  these  relations. 
John  Frederick  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Miihlberg, 
and  Wittenberg  was  subjected  to  stress  of  siege.  As  Cranach 
wrote  from  his  house  at  the  corner  of  the  market-place  to  the 
grand-master  Albert  of  Brandenburg  at  Konigsberg  to  tell  him 
of  John  Frederick's  capture,  he  showed  his  attachment  by 
saying,  "  I  cannot  conceal  from  your  Grace  that  we  have  been 
robbed  of  our  dear  prince,  who  from  his  youth  upwards  has  been  a 
true  prince  to  us,  but  God  will  help  him  out  of  prison,  for  the 
Kaiser  is  bold  enough  to  revive  the  Papacy,  which  God  will 
certainly  not  allow."  During  the  siege  Charles  bethought  him  of 
Cranach,  whom  he  remembered  from  his  childhood  and  summoned 
him  to  his  camp  at  Pistritz.  Cranach  came,  reminded  his  majesty 
of  his  early  sittings  as  a  boy,  and  begged  on  his  knees  for  kind 
treatment  to  the  elector.  Three  years  afterwards,  when  all  the 
dignitaries  of  the  Empire  met  at  Augsburg  to  receive  commands 
from  the  emperor,  and  when  Titian  at  Charles's  bidding  came  to 
take  the  likeness  of  Philip  of  Spain,  John  Frederick  asked 
Cranach  to  visit  the  Swabian  capital  ;  and  here  for  a  few  months 
he  was  numbered  amongst  the  household  of  the  captive  elector, 
whom  he  afterwards  accompanied  home  in  1552.  He  died 
on  the  i6th  of  October  1553  at  Weimar,  where  the  house  in 
which  he  lived  still  stands  in  the  market-place. 

The  oldest  extant  picture  of  Cranach,  the  "  Rest  of  the  Virgin 


CRANBERRY 


during  the  Flight  into  Egypt,"  marked  with  the  initials  L.C.,  and 
the  date  of  1 504,  is  by  far  the  most  graceful  creation  of  his  pencil. 
The  scene  is  laid  on  the  margin  of  a  forest  of  pines,  and  discloses 
the  habits  of  a  painter  familiar  with  the  mountain  scenery  of 
Thuringia.  There  is  more  of  gloom  in  landscapes  of  a  later  time ; 
and  this  would  point  to  a  defect  in  the  taste  of  Cranach,  whose 
stag  hunts  are  otherwise  not  unpleasing.  Cranach's  art  in  its 
prime  was  doubtless  influenced  by  causes  which  but  slightly 
affected  the  art  of  the  Italians,  but  weighed  with  potent  con- 
sequence on  that  of  the  Netherlands  and  Germany.  The  business 
of  booksellers  who  sold  woodcuts  and  engravings  at  fairs  and 
markets  in  Germany  naturally  satisfied  a  craving  which  arose 
out  of  the  paucity  of  wall-paintings  in  churches  and  secular 
edifices.  Drawing  for  woodcuts  and  engraving  of  copper-plates 
became  the  occupation  of  artists  of  note,  and  the  talents  devoted 
in  Italy  to  productions  of  the  brush  were  here  monopolized  for 
designs  on  wood  or  on  copper.  We  have  thus  to  account  for 
the  comparative  unproductiveness  as  painters  of  Diirer  and 
Holbein,  and  at  the  same  time  to  explain  the  shallowness  apparent 
in  many  of  the  later  works  of  Cranach;  but  we  attribute  to  the 
same  cause  also  the  tendency  in  Cranach  to  neglect  effective 
colour  and  light  and  shade  for  strong  contrasts  of  flat  tint. 
Constant  attention  to  mere  contour  and  to  black  and  white 
appears  to  have  affected  his  sight,  and  caused  those  curious 
transitions  of  pallid  light  into  inky  grey  which  often  characterize 
his  studies  of  flesh;  whilst  the  mere  outlining  of  form  in  black 
became  a  natural  substitute  for  modelling  and  chiaroscuro. 
There  are,  no  doubt,  some  few  pictures  by  Cranach  in  which 
the  flesh-tints  display  brightness  and  enamelled  surface,  but 
they  are  quite  exceptional.  As  a  composer  Cranach  was  not 
greatly  gifted.  His  ideal  of  the  human  shape  was  low;  but  he 
showed  some  freshness  in  the  delineation  of  incident,  though  he 
not  unfrequently  bordered  on  coarseness.  His  copper-plates 
and  woodcuts  are  certainly  the  best  outcome  of  his  art;  and 
the  earlier  they  are  in  date  the  more  conspicuous  is  their  power. 
Striking  evidence  of  this  is  the  "  St  Christopher  "  of  1 506,  or  the 
plate  of  "  Elector  Frederick  praying  before  the  Madonna  "  (1509). 
It  is  curious  to  watch  the  changes  which  mark  the  development 
of  his  instincts  as  an  artist  during  the  struggles  of  the  Reformation. 
At  first  we  find  him  painting  Madonnas.  His  first  woodcut 
(1505)  represents  the  Virgin  and  three  saints  in  prayer  before 
a  crucifix.  Later  on  he  composes  the  marriage  of  St  Catherine, 
a  series  of  martyrdoms,  and  scenes  from  the  Passion.  After  1517 
he  illustrates  occasionally  the  old  gospel  themes,  but  he  also 
gives  expression  to  some  of  the  thoughts  of  the  Reformers. 
In  a  picture  of  1518  at  Leipzig,  where  a  dying  man  offers  "  his 
soul  to  God,  his  body  to  earth,  and  his  worldly  goods  to  his 
relations,"  the  soul  rises  to  meet  the  Trinity  in  heaven,  and 
salvation  is  clearly  shown  to  depend  on  faith  and  not  on  good 
works.  Again  sin  and  grace  become  a  familiar  subject  of  pictorial 
delineation.  Adam  is  observed  sitting  between  John  the  Baptist 
and  a  prophet  at  the  foot  of  a  tree.  To  the  left  God  produces 
the  tables  of  the  law,  Adam  and  Eve  partake  of  the  forbidden 
fruit,  the  brazen  serpent  is  reared  aloft,  and  punishment  super- 
venes in  the  shape  of  death  and  the  realm  of  Satan.  To  the 
right,  the  Conception,  Crucifixion  and  Resurrection  symbolize 
redemption,  and  this  is  duly  impressed  on  Adam  by  John  the 
Baptist,  who  points  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  crucified  Saviour. 
There  are  two  examples  of  this  composition  in  the  galleries  of 
Gotha  and  Prague,  both  of  them  dated  1529.  One  of  the  latest 
pictures  with  which  the  name  of  Cranach  is  connected  is  the  altar- 
piece  which  Cranach's  son  completed  in  1555,  and  which  is  now 
in  the  Stadtkirche  (city  church)  at  Weimar.  It  represents  Christ 
in  two  forms,  to  the  left  trampling  on  Death  and  Satan,  to  the 
right  crucified,  with  blood  flowing  from  the  lance  wound.  John 
the  Baptist,  points  to  the  suffering  Christ,  whilst  the  blood-stream 
falls  on  the  head  of  Cranach,  and  Luther  reads  from  his  book 
the  words,  "  The  blood  of  Christ  cleanseth  from  all  sin."  Cranach 
sometimes  composed  gospel  subjects  with  feeling  and  dignity. 
"  The  Woman  taken  in  Adultery  "  at  Munich  is  a  favourable  speci- 
men of  his  skill,  and  various  repetitions  of  Christ  receiving  little 
children  show  the  kindliness  of  his  disposition.  But  he  was  not 


exclusively  a  religious  painter.  He  was  equally  successful,  and 
often  comically  naive,  in  mythological  scenes,  as  where  Cupid, 
who  has  stolen  a  honeycomb,  complains  to  Venus  that  he  has  been 
stung  by  a  bee  (Weimar,  1530;  Berlin,  1534),  or  where  Hercules 
sits  at  the  spinning-wheel  mocked  by  Omphale  and  her  maids. 
Humour  and  pathos  are  combined  at  times  with  strong  effect  in 
pictures  such  as  the  "  Jealousy  "  (Augsburg,  1527;  Vienna,  1530), 
where  women  and  children  are  huddled  into  telling  groups  as 
they  watch  the  strife  of  men  wildly  fighting  around  them.  Very 
realistic  must  have  been  a  lost  canvas  of  1545,  in  which  hares 
were  catching  and  roasting  sportsmen.  In  1546,  possibly  under 
Italian  influence,  Cranach  composed  the  "  Fons  Juventutis  " 
of  the  Berlin  Gallery,  executed  by  his  son,  a  picture  in  which 
hags  are  seen  entering  a  Renaissance  fountain,  and  are  received 
as  they  issue  from  it  with  all  the  charms  of  youth  by  knights 
and  pages. 

Cranach's  chief  occupation  was  that  of  portrait-painting,  and 
we  are  indebted  to  him  chiefly  for  the  preservation  of  the  features 
of  all  the  German  Reformers  and  their  princely  adherents.  But 
he  sometimes  condescended  to  depict  such  noted  followers  of  the 
papacy  as  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  archbishop  elector  of  Mainz, 
Anthony  Granvelle  and  the  duke  of  Alva.  A  dozen  likenesses 
of  Frederick  III.  and  his  brother  John  are  found  to  bear  the  date 
of  1532.  It  is  characteristic  of  Cranach's  readiness,  and  a  proof 
that  he  possessed  ample  material  for  mechanical  reproduction, 
that  he  received  payment  at  W'ittenberg  in  1533  for  "sixty 
pairs  of  portraits  of  the  elector  and  his  brother  "  in  one  day. 
Amongst  existing  likenesses  we  should  notice  as  the  best  that  of 
Albert,  elector  of  Mainz,  in  the  Berlin  museum,  and  that  of  John, 
elector  of  Saxony,  at  Dresden. 

Cranach  had  three  sons,  all  artists: — John  Lucas,  who  died 
at  Bologna  in  1536;  Hans  Cranach,  whose  life  is  obscure;  and 
Lucas,  born  in  1515,  who  died  in  1586. 

See  Heller,  Leben  und  Werke  Lukas  Cranachs  (and  ed.,  Bamberg, 
1844) ;  Chr.  Schuchard,  Lukas  Cranachs  des  alteren  Leben  und  Werke 
(3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1851-1871);  Warnecke,  Cranach  der  altere  (Gorlitz, 
1879);  M.  B.  Lindau,  Lucas  Cranach  (1883);  Lippmann,  Lukas 
Cranach,  Sammlung,  &c.  (Berlin,  1895),  reproductions  of  his  most 
notable  woodcuts  and  engravings;  Woermann,  Verzeichnis  der 
Dresdener  Cranach-Ausstellung  von  1899  (Dresden,  1899);  Flechsig, 
Tafelbilder  Cranach's  des  dltern  und  seiner  Werkstatt  (Leipzig,  1900) ; 
Muther,  Lukas  Cranach  (Berlin,  1902) ;  Michaelson,  L.  Cranach  der 
altere  (Leipzig,  1902).  (J.  A.  C.) 

CRANBERRY,  the  fruit  of  plants  of  the  genus  Oxycoccus, 
(natural  order  Vacciniaceae) ,  often  considered  part  of  the  genus 
V actinium.  0.  palustris  (or  V actinium  Oxycoccus),  the  cotamon 
cranberry  plant,  is  found  in  marshy  land  in  northern  and  central 
Europe  and  North  America.  Its  stems  are  wiry,  creeping  and 
of  varying  length;  the  leaves  are  evergreen,  dark  and  shining 
above,  glaucous  below,  revolute  at  the  margin,  ovate,  lanceolate 
or  elliptical  in  shape,  and  not  more  than  half  an  inch  long;  the 
flowers,  which  appear  in  May  or  June,  are  small  and  stalked,  and 
have  a  four-lobed,  rose-tinted  corolla,  purplish  filaments,  and 
anther-cells  forming  two  long  tubes.  The  berries  ripen  in  August 
and  September;  they  are  pear-shaped  and  about  the  size  of 
currants,  are  crimson  in  colour  and  often  spotted,  and  have 
an  acid  and  astringent  taste.  The  American  species,  O.  macro- 
carpus,  is  found  wild  from  Maine  to  the  Carolinas.  It  attains  a 
greater  size  than  O.  palustris,  and  bears  bigger  and  finer  berries, 
which  are  of  three  principal  sorts,  the  cherry  or  round,  the  buglr. 
or  oblong,  and  the  pear  or  bell-shaped,  and  vary  in  hue  from 
light  pink  to  dark  purple,  or  may  be  mottled  red  and  white. 
O.  erythrocarpus  is  a  species  indigenous  in  the  mountains  from 
Virginia  to  Georgia,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  excellent  flavour 
of  its  berry. 

Air  and  moisture  are  the  chief  requisites  for  the  thriving  of  the 
cranberry  plant.  It  is  cultivated  in  America  on  a  soil  of  peat  or 
vegetable  mould,  free  from  loam  and  clay,  and  cleared  of  turf, 
and  having  a  surface  layer  of  clean  sand.  The  sand,  which  needs 
renewal  every  two  or  three  years,  is  necessary  for  the  vigorous 
existence  of  the  plants,  and  serves  both  to  keep  the  underlying 
soil  cool  and  damp,  and  to  check  the  growth  of  grass  and  weeds. 
The  ground  must  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  should  be  provided 
with  a  supply  of  water  and  a  dam  for  flooding  the  plants  during 


366 


CRANBROOK— CRANE,  WALTER 


winter  to  protect  them  from  frost,  and  occasionally  at  other 
seasons  to  destroy  insect  pests;  but  the  use  of  spring  water 
should  be  avoided.  The  flavour  of  the  fruit  is  found  to  be 
improved  by  growing  the  plants  in  a  soil  enriched  with  well- 
rotted  dung,  and  by  supplying  them  with  less  moisture  than  they 
obtain  in  their  natural  habitats.  Propagation  is  effected  by 
means  of  cuttings,  of  which  the  wood  should  be  wiry  in  texture, 
and  the  leaves  of  a  greenish-brown  colour.  In  America,  where, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts,  the  cultivation  of  the 
cranberry  commenced  early  in  the  last  century,  wide  tracts  of 
waste  land  have  been  utilized  for  that  purpose — low,  easily 
flooded,  marshy  ground,  worth  originally  not  more  than  from 
$10  to  $20  an  acre,  having  been  made  to  yield  annually  $200  or 
$300  worth  of  the  fruit  per  acre.  The  yield  varies  between  50 
and  400  bushels  an  acre,  but  100  bushels,  or  about  35  barrels, 
is  estimated  to  be  the  average  production  when  the  plants 
have  begun  to  bear  well.  The  approximate  cranberry  crop  of 
the  United  States  from  1890  to  1899  varied  from  410,000  to 
1,000,000  bushels. 

Cranberries  should  be  gathered  when  ripe  and  dry,  otherwise 
they  do  not  keep  well.  The  darkest-coloured  berries  are  those 
which  are  most  esteemed.  The  picking  of  the  fruit  begins  in  New 
Jersey  in  October,  at  the  close  of  the  blackberry  and  whortleberry 
season,  and  often  lasts  until  the  coming  in  of  cold  weather. 
From  3  to  4  bushels  a  day  may  be  collected  by  good  workers. 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston  and  Baltimore  are  the  leading 
American  markets  for  cranberries,  whence  they  are  exported  to 
the  West  Indies,  England  and  France  in  great  quantities. 
England  was  formerly  supplied  by  Lincolnshire  and  Norfolk 
with  abundance  of  the  common  cranberry,  which  it  now  largely 
imports  from  Sweden  and  Russia.  The  fruit  is  much  used  for 
pies  and  tarts,  and  also  for  making  an  acid  summer  beverage. 
The  cowberry,  or  red  whortleberry,  Vaccinium  Vilis-ldaea,  is 
sometimes  sold  for  the  cranberry.  The  Tasmanian  and  the 
Australian  cranberries  are  the  produce  respectively  of  Astroloma 
humifusum  and  Lissanthe  sapida,  plants  of  the  order  Epacridaceac. 

For  literature  of  the  subject  see  the  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Cranberry  Growers'  Association  (Trenton,  N.  J.).  There  is  a  good 
article  on  the  American  cranberry  in  L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Horticulture  (1900). 

CRANBROOK,  GATHORNE  GATHORNE-HARDY,  JST  EARL 
or  (1814-1906),  British  statesman,  was  born  at  Bradford  on 
the  ist  of  October  1814,  the  son  of  John  Hardy,  and  belonged  to 
a  Yorkshire  family.  Entering  upon  active  political  life  in  1847, 
eleven  years  after  his  graduation  at  Oxford,  and  nine  years  after 
his  call  to  the  bar,  he  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  Bradford, 
but  was  unsuccessful.  In  1856  he  was  returned  for  Leominster,and 
in  1865  defeated  Mr  Gladstone  at  Oxford.  In  1866  he  became 
president  of  the  Poor  Law  Board  in  Lord  Derby's  new  administra- 
tion. When  in  1867  Mr  Walpole  resigned,  from  dissatisfaction 
with  Mr  Disraeli's  Reform  Bill,  Mr  Hardy  succeeded  him  at 
the  home  office.  In  1874  he  was  secretary  for  war;  and  when  in 
1878  Lord  Salisbury  took  the  foreign  office  upon  the  resignation 
of  Lord  Derby,  Viscount  Cranbrook  (as  Mr  Hardy  became 
within  a  month  afterwards)  succeeded  him  at  the  India  office. 
At  the  same  time  he  had  assumed  the  additional  family  surname 
of  Gathorne,  which  had  been  that  of  his  mother.  In  Lord 
Salisbury's  administrations  of  1885  and  1886  Lord  Cranbrook 
was  president  of  the  council,  and  upon  his  retirement  from 
public  life  concurrently  with  the  resignation  of  the  cabinet  in 
1892  he  was  raised  to  an  earldom.  He  died  on  the  3oth  of 
October  1906,  being  succeeded  as  2nd  earl  by  his  son  John 
Stewart  Gathorne-Hardy,  previously  known  as  Lord  Medway 
(b.  1839),  who  from  1868  to  1880  sat  in  parliament  as  a  conserva- 
tive for  Rye,  and  from  1884  to  1892  for  a  division  of  Kent. 

See  Gathorne  Hardy,  1st  earl  of  Cranbrook,  a  memoir  with  extracts 
from  his  correspondence,  edited  by  the  Hon.  A.  E.  Gathorne-Hardy 
(1910). 

CRANBROOK,  a  market-town  in  the  southern  parliamentary 
division  of  Kent,  England,  45  m.  S.E.  of  London  on  a  branch  of 
the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham  railway  from  Paddock  Wood. 
Pop.  (1901)  3949.  It  lies  on  the  Crane  brook,  a  feeder  of  the 
river  Beult,  in  a  pleasant  district,  hilly  and  well  wooded.  It  has 


a  fine  church  (mainly  Perpendicular)  dedicated  to  St  Dunstan, 
which  is  remarkable  for  a  baptistery,  built  in  the  early  part  of  the 
1 8th  century,  and  some  ancient  stained  glass.  As  the  centre  of 
the  agricultural  district  of  the  Kentish  Weald,  it  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade  in  malt,  hops  and  general  goods;  but  its  present 
condition  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  activity  it  displayed  from 
the  i4th  to  the  i7th  century,  when  it  was  one  of  the  principal 
seats  of  the  broadcloth  manufacture.  Remains  of  some  of  the 
old  factories  still  exist.  The  town  has  a  grammar  school  of 
Elizabethan  foundation,  which  now  ranks  as  one  of  the 
smaller  public  schools.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of 
the  old  mansion  house  of  Sissinghurst,  or  Saxenhurst,  built  in  the 
time  of  Edward  VI. 

CRANDALL,  PRUDENCE  (1803-1889),  American  school- 
teacher, was  born,  of  Quaker  parentage,  at  Hopkinton,  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  3rd  of  September  1803.  She  was'educated  in  the 
Friends'  school  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  taught  school  at  Plainfield, 
Conn.,  and  in  1831  established  a  private  academy  for  girls  at 
Canterbury,  Windham  county,  Connecticut.  By  admitting  a 
negro  girl  she  lost  her  white  patrons,  and  in  March  1833,  on  the 
advice  of  William  Lloyd  Garrison  and  Samuel  J.  May  (1797- 
1871),  she  opened  a  school  for  "  young  ladies  and  little  misses  of 
colour."  For  this  she  was  bitterly  denounced,  not  only  in  Canter- 
bury but  throughout  Connecticut,  and  was  persecuted,  boycotted 
and  socially  ostracized;  measures  were  taken  in  the  Canterbury 
town-meeting  to  break  up  the  school,  and  finally  in  May  1833  the 
state  legislature  passed  the  notorious  Connecticut  "  Black  Law," 
prohibiting  the  establishment  of  schools  for  non-resident  negroes 
in  any  city  or  township  of  Connecticut,  without  the  consent  of  the 
local  authorities.  Miss  Crandall,  refusing  to  submit,  was  arrested, 
tried  and  convicted  in  the  lower  courts,  whose  verdict,  however, 
was  reversed  on  a  technicality  by  the  court  of  appeals  in  July  1834. 
Thereupon  the  local  opposition  to  her  redoubled,  and  she  was 
finally  in  September  1834  forced  to  close  her  school.  Soon 
afterward  she  married  the  Rev.  Calvin  Philleo.  She  died  at  Elk 
Falls,  Kansas,  on  the  28th  of  January  1889.  The  Connecticut 
Black  Law  was  repealed  in  1838.  Miss  Crandall 's  attempt  to 
educate  negro  girls  at  Canterbury  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
whole  country;  and  the  episode  is  of  considerable  significance  as 
showing  the  attitude  of  a  New  England  community  toward  the 
negro  at  that  time. 

See  J.  C.  Kimball's  Connecticut  Canterbury  Tale  (Hartford.Conn., 
1889),  and  Samuel  J.May's  Recollections  of  Our  Anti-Slavery  Conflict 
(Boston,  1869). 

CRANE,  STEPHEN  (1870-1900),  American  writer,  was  born 
at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  on  the  ist  of  November  1870,  and  was 
educated  at  Lafayette  College  and  Syracuse  University.  His 
first  story,  Maggie,  a  Girl  of  the  Streets,  was  published  in  1891, 
but  his  greatest  success  was  made  with  The  Red  Badge  of  Courage 
( 1 896) ,  a  brilliant  and  highly  realistic,  though  of  course  imaginary, 
description  of  the  experiences  of  a  private  in  the  Civil  War.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  various  other  stories,  and  acted  as  a  war 
correspondent  in  the  Greco-Turkish  War  (1897)  and  the  Spanish 
American  War  (1898).  His  health  became  seriously  affected  in 
Cuba,  and  on  his  return  he  settled  down  in  England.  He  died 
at  Baden weiler,  Germany,  on  the  sth  of  June  1900. 

CRANE,  WALTER  (1845-  ),  English  artist,  second  son 
of  Thomas  Crane,  portrait  painter  and  miniaturist,  was  born 
in  Liverpool  on  the  I5th  of  August  1845.  The  family  soon 
removed  to  Torquay,  where  the  boy  gained  his  early  artistic 
impressions,  and,  when  he  was  twelve  years  old,  to  London.  He 
early  came  under  the  influence  of  the  Pre-Raphaelites,  and  was 
a  diligent  student  of  Ruskin.  A  set  of  coloured  page  designs 
to  illustrate  Tennyson's  "  Lady  of  Shalott  "  gained  the  approval 
of  William  James  Linton,  the  wood-engraver,  to  whom  Walter 
Crane  was  apprenticed  for  three  years  (1859-1862).  As  a  wood- 
engraver  he  had  abundant  opportunity  for  the  minute  study  of 
the  contemporary  artists  whose  work  passed  through  his  hands, 
of  Rossetti,  Millais,  Tenniel  and  F.  Sandys,  and  of  the  masters 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  but  he  was  more  influenced  by  the 
Elgin  marbles  in  the  British  Museum.  A  further  and  important 
element  in  the  development  of  his  talent,  was  the  study  of 


CRANE,  W.  H.— CRANE 


367 


Japanese  colour-prints,  the  methods  of  which  he  imitated  in  a 
series  of  toy-books,  which  started  a  new  fashion.  In  1862  a 
picture  of  his,  "  The  Lady  of  Shalott,"  was  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  but  the  Academy  steadily  refused  his  maturer 
work;  and  after  the  opening  of  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  in  1877 
he  ceased  to  send  pictures  to  Burlington  House.  In  1864  he 
began  to  illustrate  for  Mr  Edmund  Evans,  the  colour  printer,  a 
series  of  sixpenny  toy-books  of  nursery  rhymes,  displaying 
admirable  fancy  and  beauty  of  design,  though  he  was  limited 
to  the  use  of  three  colours.  He  was  allowed  more  freedom  in  a 
delightful  series  begun  in  1873,  The  Frog  Prince, &c.,  which  showed 
markedly  the  influence  of  Japanese  art,  and  of  a  long  visit  to 
Italy  following  on  his  marriage  in  1871.  The  Baby's  Opera  was 
a  book  of  English  nursery  songs  planned  in  1877  with  Mr  Evans, 
and  a  third  series  of  children's  books  with  the  collective  title, 
A  Romance  of  the  Three  R's,  provided  a  regular  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  art  for  the  nursery.  In  his  early  "  Lady  of  Shalott  "  the 
artist  had  shown  his  preoccupation  with  unity  of  design  in  book 
illustration  by  printing  in  the  words  of  the  poem  himself,  in  the 
view  that  this  union  of  the  calligrapher's  and  the  decorator's  art 
was  one  secret  of  the  beauty  of  the  old  illuminated  books.  He 
followed  the  same  course  in  The  First  of  May:  A  Fairy  Masque 
by  his  friend  John  R.  Wise,  text  and  decoration  being  in  this 
case  reproduced  by  photogravure.  The  "  Goose  Girl  "  illustra- 
tion taken  from  his  beautiful  Household  Stories  from  Grimm 
(1882)  was  reproduced  in  tapestry  by  William  Morris,  and  is 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Flora's  Feast,  A  Masque 
of  Flowers  had  lithographic  reproductions  of  Mr  Crane's  line 
drawings  washed  in  with  water  colour;  he  also  decorated  in 
colour  The  Wonder  Book  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  and  Margaret 
Deland's  Old  Garden;  in  1894  he  collaborated  with  William 
Morris  in  the  page  decoration  of  The  Story  of  the  Glittering  Plain, 
published  at  the  Kelmscott  press,  which  was  executed  in  the 
style  of  16th-century  Italian  and  German  woodcuts;  but  in 
purely  decorative  interest  the  finest  of  his  works  in  book  illustra- 
tion is  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  (12  pts.,  1894-1896)  and  the 
Shepheard's  Calendar.  The  poems  which  form  the  text  of  Queen 
Summer  (1891),  Renascence  (1891),  and  The  Sirens  Three  (1886) 
are  by  the  artist  himself. 

In  the  early  'eighties  under  Morris's  influence  he  was  closely 
associated  with  the  Socialist  movement.  He  did  as  much  as 
Morris  himself  to  bring  art  into  the  daily  life  of  all  classes.  With 
this  object  in  view  he  devoted  much  attention  to  designs  for 
textile  stuffs,  for  wall-papers,  and  to  house  decoration;  but  he 
also  used  his  art  for  the  direct  advancement  of  the  Socialist 
cause.  For  a  long  time  he  provided  the  weekly  cartoons  for  the 
Socialist  organs,  Justice  and  The  Commonweal.  Many  of  these 
were  collected  as  Cartoons  for  the  Cause.  He  devoted  much  time 
and  energy  to  the  work  of  the  Art  Workers'  Guild,  and  to  the 
Arts  and  Crafts  Exhibition  Society,  founded  by  him  in  1888. 
His  own  easel  pictures,  chiefly  allegorical  in  subject,  among  them 
"  The  Bridge  of  Life  "  (1884)  and  "  The  Mower  "  (1891),  were 
exhibited  regularly  at  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  and  later  at  the 
New  Gallery.  "  Neptune's  Horses,"  which,  with  many  other  of 
Mr  Crane's  pictures,  came  into  the  possession  of  Herr  Ernst 
Seeger  of  Berlin,  was  exhibited  at  the  New  Gallery  in  1893,  and 
with  it  may  be  classed  his  "  The  Rainbow  and  the  Wave." 

His  varied  work  includes  examples  of  plaster  relief,  tiles, 
stained  glass,  pottery,  wall-paper  and  textile  designs,  in  all  of 
which  he  applied  the  principle  that  in  purely  decorative  design 
"  the  artist  works  freest  and  best  without  direct  reference  to 
nature,  and  should  have  learned  the  forms  he  makes  use  of  by 
heart."  An  exhibition  of  his  work  of  different  kinds  was  held 
at  the  Fine  Art  Society's  galleries  in  Bond  Street  in  1891,  and 
taken  over  to  the  United  States  in  the  same  year  by  the  artist 
himself.  It  was  afterwards  exhibited  in  the  chief  German, 
Austrian  and  Scandinavian  towns,  arousing  great  interest 
throughout  the  continent. 

Mr  Crane  became  an  associate  of  the  Water  Colour  Society 
in  1888;  he  was  an  examiner  of  .the  science  and  art  department 
at  South  Kensington;  director  of  design  at  the  'Manchester 
Municipal  school  (1894);  art  director  of  Reading  College  (1896); 


and  in  1898  for  a  short  time  principal  of  the  Royal  College  of  Art. 
His  lectures  at  Manchester  were  published  with  illustrated 
drawings  as  The  Bases  of  Design  (1898)  and Lineand Form (1900). 
The  Decorative  Illustration  of  Books,  Old  and  New  (2nd  ed., 
London  and  New  York,  1900)  is  a  further  contribution  to  theory. 
A  well-known  portrait  of  Mr  Crane  by  G.  F.  Watts,  R.A.,  was 
exhibited  at  the  New  Gallery  in  1893.  There  is  a  comprehensive 
and  sumptuously  illustrated  book  on  The  Art  of  Walter  Crane,  by 
P.  G.  Konody;  a  monograph  (1902)  by  Otto  von  Schleinitz  in  the 
Kiinstler  Monographien  series  (Bielefeld  and  Leipzig);  and  an 
account  of  himself  by  the  artist  in  the  Easter  number  of  1898  of  the 
Art  Journal. 

CRANE,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1845-  ),  American  actor, 
was  born  on  the  3oth  of  April  1845,  in  Leicester,  Massachusetts, 
and  made  his  first  appearance  at  Utica,  New  York,  in  Donizetti's 
Daughter  of  the  Regiment  in  1863.  Later  he  had  a  great  success 
as  Le  Blanc  the  Notary,  in  the  burlesque  Evangeline  (1873).  He 
made  his  first  hit  in  the  legitimate  drama  with  Stuart  Robson 
(1836-1903),  in  The  Comedy  of  Errors  and  other  Shakespearian 
plays,  and  in  The  Henrietta  (1881)  by  Bronson  Howard  (1842- 
1908).  This  partnership  lasted  for  twelve  years,  and  subse- 
quently Crane  appeared  in  various  eccentric  character  parts  in 
such  plays  as  The  Senator  and  David  Harum.  In  1904  he  turned 
to  more  serious  work  and  played  Isidore  Izard  in  Business  is 
Business,  an  adaptation  from  Octave  Mirbeau's  Les  Ajfaires 
sont  les  affaires. 

CRANE  (in  Dutch,  Kraan;  O.  Ger.  Kraen;  cognate,  as  also 
the  Lat.  grus,  and  consequently  the  Fr.  grue  and  Span,  grulla, 
with  the  Gr.  yipavos),  the  Grus  communis  or  G.  cinerea  of 
ornithologists,  one  of  the  largest  wading-birds,  and  formerly  a 
native  of  England,  where  William  Turner,  in  1544,  said  that  he 
had  very  often  seen  its  young  ("  earum  pipiones  saepissime  vidi  "). 
Notwithstanding  the  protection  afforded  it  by  sundry  acts  of 
parliament,  it  has  long  since  ceased  from  breeding  in  England. 
Sir  T.  Browne  (ob.  1682)  speaks  of  it  as  being  found  in  the  open 
parts  of  Norfolk  in  winter.  In  Ray's  time  it  was  only  known  as 
occurring  at  the  same  season  in  large  flocks  in  the  fens  of  Lincoln- 
shire and  Cambridgeshire;  and  though  mention  is  made  of  cranes' 
eggs  and  young  in  the  fen-laws  passed  at  a  court  held  at  Revesby 
in  1780,  this  was  most  likely  but  the  formal  repetition  of  an 
older  edict;  for  in  1768  Pennant  wrote  that  after  the  strictest 
inquiry  he  found  the  inhabitants  of  those  counties  to  be  wholly 
unacquainted  with  the  bird.  The  crane,  however,  no  doubt 
then  appeared  in  Britain,  as  it  does  now,  at  uncertain  intervals 
and  in  unwonted  places,  having  strayed  from  the  migrating 
bands  whose  movements  have  been  remarked  from  almost  the 
earliest  ages.  Indeed,  the  crane's  aerial  journeys  are  of  a  very 
extended  kind;  and  on  its  way  from  beyond  the  borders  of  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  to  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  or  on  the  return 
voyage,  its  flocks  may  be  descried  passing  overhead  at  a 
marvellous  height,  or  halting  for  rest  and  refreshment  on  the 
wide  meadows  that  border  some  great  river,  while  the  seeming 
order  with  which  its  ranks  are  marshalled  during  flight  has  long 
attracted  attention.  The  crane  takes  up  its  winter  quarters 
under  the  burning  sun  of  Central  Africa  and  India,  but  early  in 
spring  returns  northward.  Not  a  few  examples  reach  the  chill 
polar  soils  of  Lapland  and  Siberia,  but  some  tarry  in  the  south 
of  Europe  and  breed  in  Spain,  and,  it  is  supposed,  in  Turkey. 
The  greater  number,  however,  occupy  the  intermediate  zone  and 
pass  the  summer  in  Russia,  north  Germany,  and  Scandinavia. 
Soon  after  their  arrival  in  these  countries  the  flocks  break  up  into 
pairs,  whose  nuptial  ceremonies  are  'accompanied  by  loud  and 
frequent  trumpetings,  and  the  respective  breeding-places  of  each 
are  chosen. 

The  nest  is  formed  with  little  art  on  the  ground  in  large  open 
marshes,  where  the  herbage  is  not  very  high — a  tolerably  dry 
spot  being  selected  and  u$ed  apparently  year  after  year.  Here 
the  eggs,  which  are  of  a  rich  brown  colour  with  dark  spots,  and 
always  two  in  number,  are  laid.  The  young  are  able  to  run  soon 
after  they  are  hatched,  and  are  at  first  clothed  with  tawny  down. 
In  the  course  of  the  summer  they  assume  nearly  the  same  grey 
plumage  that  their  parents  wear,  except  that  the  elongated 
plumes,  which  in  the  adults  form  a  graceful  covering  of  the  hinder 


368 


CRANES 


parts  of  the  body,  are  comparatively  undeveloped,  and  the  clear 
black,  white  and  red  (the  last  being  due  to  a  patch  of  papillose 
skin  of  that  colour)  of  the  head  and  neck  are  as  yet  indistinct. 
During  this  time  they  keep  in  the  marshes,  but  as  autumn 
approaches  the  different  families  unite  by  the  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  ultimately  form  the  enormous  bands  which  after  much  more 
trumpeting  set  out  on  their  southward  journey. 

The  crane's  power  of  uttering  its  sonorous  and  peculiar 
trumpet-like  notes  is  commonly  ascribed  to  the  formation  of  its 
trachea,  which  on  quitting  the  lower  end  of  the  neck  passes 
backward  between  the  branches  of  the  furcula  and  is  received 
into  a  hollow  space  formed  by  the  bony  walls  of  the  carina  or 
keel  of  the  sternum.  Herein  it  makes  three  turns,  and  then  runs 
upwards  and  backwards  to  the  lungs.  The  apparatus  on  the 
whole  much  resembles  that  found  in  the  whooping  swans  (Cygnus 
musicus,  C.  buccinator  and  others),  though  differing  in  some  not 
unimportant  details;  but  at  the  same  time  somewhat  similar 
convolutions  of  the  trachea  occur  in  other  birds  which  do  not 
possess,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  faculty  of  trumpeting.  The 
crane  emits  its  notes  both  during  flight  and  while  on  the  ground. 
In  the  latter  case  the  neck  and  bill  are  uplifted  and  the  mouth 
kept  open  during  the  utterance  of  the  blast,  which  may  be  often 
heard  from  birds  in  confinement,  especially  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year. 

As  usually  happens  in  similar  cases,  the  name  of  the  once 
familiar  British  species  is  now  used  in  a  general  sense,  and  applied 
to  all  others  which  are  allied  to  it.  Though  by  former  systematists 
placed  near  or  even  among  the  herons,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
cranes  have  only  a  superficial  resemblance  and  no  real  affinity  to 
the  Ardeidae.  In  fact  the  Gruidae  form  a  somewhat  isolated 
group.  Huxley  included  them  together  with  the  Rallidae  in  his 
Geranomorphae;  but  a  more  extended  view  of  their  various 
characters  would  probably  assign  them  rather  as  relatives  of  the 
Bustards — not  that  it  must  be  thought  that  the  two  families  have 
not  been  for  a  very  long  time  distinct.  Grus,  indeed,  is  a  very 
ancient  form,  its  remains  appearing  in  the  Miocene  of  France  and 
Greece,  as  well  as  in  the  Pliocene  and  Post-pliocene  of  North 
America.  In  France,  too,  during  the  "  Reindeer  Period " 
there  existed  a  huge  species — the  G.  primigenia  of  Alphonse 
Milne-Edwards — which  has  doubtless  been  long  extinct.  At  the 
present  time  cranes  inhabit  all  the  great  zoogeographical  regions 
of  the  earth,  except  the  Neotropical,  and  some  sixteen  or  seventeen 
species  are  discriminated.  In  Europe,  besides  the  G.  communis 
already  mentioned,  the  Numidian  or  demoiselle-crane  (C.  virgo)  is 
distinguished  from  every  other  by  its  long  white  ear-tufts.  This 
bird  is  also  widely  distributed  throughout  Asia  and  Africa,  and  is 
said  to  have  occurred  in  Orkney  as  a  straggler.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  Palaearctic  Region  is  inhabited  by  four  other  species  that 
do  not  frequent  Europe  (G.  antigone,  G.  japonensis,  G.  monachus, 
and  G.  leucogeranus),  of  which  the  last  is  perhaps  the  finest  of  the 
family,  with  nearly  the  whole  plumage  of  a  snowy  white.  The 
Indian  Region,  besides  being  visited  in  winter  by  four  of  the 
species  already  named,  has  two  that  are  peculiar  to  it  (G.  torquata 
and  G.  indica,  both  commonly  confounded  under  the  name  of 
G.  antigone).  The  Australian  Region  possesses  a  large  species 
known  to  the  colonists  as  the  "  native  companion  "  (G.  australis), 
while  the  Nearctic  is  tenanted  by  three  species  (G.  americana, 
G.  canadensis  and  G.  fraterculus) ,  to  say  nothing  of  the  possibility 
of  a  fourth  (G.  schlegeli),  a  little-known  and  somewhat  obscure 
bird,  finding  its  habitat  here.  In  the  Ethiopian  Region  are  two 
species  (G.  paradisea  and  G.  carunculata) ,  which  do  not  occur  out 
of  Africa,  as  well  as  three  others  forming  the  group  known  as 
"  crowned  cranes  " — differing  much  from  other  members  of  the 
family,  and  justifiably  placed  in  a  separate  genus,  Balearica. 
One  of  these  (B.  pavonina)  inhabits  northern  and  western  Africa, 
while  another  (B.  regulorum)  is  confined  to  the  eastern  and 
southern -parts  of  that  continent.  The  third  (B.  ceciliae),  from 
the  White  Nile,  has  been  described  by  Dr  P.  Chalmers  Mitchell 
(P.Z.S.,  1904). 

With  regard  to  the  literature  of  this  species,  a  paper  "  On  the 
Breeding  of  the  Crane  in  Lapland  "  (Ibis,  1859,  p.  191),  by  John 
Wolley,  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  contributions  to  natural  history 


ever  written,  and  an  admirably  succinct  account  of  all  the  different 
species  was  communicated  by  Blyth  to  The  Field  in  1873  (vol.  xl. 
p.  631,  vol.  xli.  pp.  7,  61,  136,  189,  248,  384,  408,  418).  A  beautiful 
picture  representing  a  flock  of  cranes  resting  by  the  Rhine  during 
one  of  their  annual  migrations  is  to  be  found  in  Wolf's  Zoological 
Sketches.  (A.  N.) 

CRANES  (so  called  from  the  resemblance  to  the  long  neck  of  the 
bird,  cf.  Gr.  yfpavos,  Fr.  grue),  machines  by  means  of  which 
heavy  bodies  may  be  lifted,  and  also  displaced  horizontally,  within 
certain  defined  limits.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name  alludes  to  the 
arm  or  jib  from  which  the  load  to  be  moved  is  suspended,  but 
it  is  now  used  in  a  wider  sense  to  include  the  whole  mechanism 
by  which  a  load  is  raised  vertically  and  moved  horizontally. 
Machines  used  for  lifting  only  are  not  called  cranes,  but  winches, 
lifts  or  hoists,  while  the  term  elevator  or  conveyor  is  commonly 
given  to  appliances  which  continuously,  not  in  separate  loads, 
move  materials  like  grain  or  coal  in  a  vertical,  horizontal  or 
diagonal  direction  (see  CONVEYORS)  .  The  use  of  cranes  is  of  great 
antiquity,  but  it  is  only  since  the  great  industrial  development  of 
the  i  pth  century,  and  the  introduction  of  other  motive  powers 
than  hand  labour,  that  the  crane  has  acquired  the  important 
and  indispensable  position  it  now  occupies.  In  all  places  where 
finished  goods  are  handled,  or  manufactured  goods  are  made, 
cranes  of  various  forms  are  in  universal  use. 

Cranes  may  be  divided  into  two  main  classes — revolving  and 
non-revolving.  In  the  first  the  load  can  be  lifted  vertically,  and 
then  moved  round  a  central  pivot,  so  as  to  be  deposited 
at  any  convenient  point  within  the  range.  The  type  of 
this  class  is  the  ordinary  jib  crane.  In  the  second 
class  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  lifting  motion,  two  horizontal 
movements  at  right  angles  to  one  another.  The  type  of  this 
class  is  the  overhead  traveller.  The  two  classes  obviously 
represent  respectively  systems  of  polar  and  rectangular  co- 
ordinates. Jib  cranes  can  be  subdivided  into  fixed  cranes  and 
portable  cranes;  in  the  former  the  central  post  or  pivot  is 
firmly  fixed  in  a  permanent  position,  while  in  the  latter  the 
whole  crane  is  mounted  on  wheels,  so  that  it  may  be  transported 
from  place  to  place. 

The  different  kinds  of  motive  power  used  to  actuate  cranes — 
manual,  steam,  hydraulic,  electric — give  a  further  classification. 
Hand  cranes  are  extremely  useful  where  the  load  is  not 
excessive,  and  the  quantities  to  be  dealt  with  are  not 
great;  also  where  speed  is  not  important,  and  first  cost 
is  an  essential  consideration.  The  net  effective  work  of  lifting 
that  can  be  performed  by  a  man  turning  a  handle  may  be  taken, 
for  intermittent  work,  as  being  on  an  average  about  5000  foot-lb 
per  minute;  this  is  equivalent  to  i  ton  lifted  about  2j  ft.  per 
minute,  so  that  four  men  can  by  a  crane  raise  i  ton  9  ft.  in  a 
minute  or  9  tons  i  ft.  per  minute.  It  is  at  once  evident  that 
hand  power  is  only  suitable  for  cranes  of  moderate  power,  or  in 
cases  where  heavy  loads  have  to  be  lifted  only  very  occasionally. 
This  point  is  dwelt  upon,  because  the  speed  limitations  of  the 
hand-crane  are  often  overlooked  by  engineers.  Steam  is  an 
extremely  useful  motive  power  for  all  cranes  that  are  not  worked 
off  a  central  power  station.  The  steam  crane  has  the  immense 
advantage  of  being  completely  self-contained.  It  can  be  moved 
(by  its  own  locomotive  power,  if  desired)  long  distances  without 
requiring  any  complicated  means  of  conveying  power  to  it ;  and 
it  is  rapid  in  work,  fairly  economical,  and  can  be  adapted  to  the 
most  varying  circumstances.  Where,  however,  there  are  a 
number  of  cranes  all  belonging  to  the  same  installation,  and 
these  are  placed  so  as  to  be  conveniently  worked  from  a  central 
power  station,  and  where  the  work  is  rapid,  heavy  and  con- 
tinuous, as  is  the  case  at  large  ports,  docks  and  railway  or  other 
warehouses,  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  best  to  produce  the 
power  in  a  generating  station  and  distribute  it  to  the  cranes. 
Down  to  the  closing  decades  of  the  loth  century  hydraulic 
power  was  practically  the  only  system  available  for  working 
cranes  from  a  power  station.  The  hydraulic  crane  is  rapid  in 
action,  very  smooth  and  silent  in  working,  easy  to  handle,  and 
not  excessive  in  cost  or  upkeep, — advantages  which  have  secured 
its  adoption  in  every  part  of  the  world.  Electricity  as  a  motive 
power  for  cranes  is  of  more  recent  introduction.  The  electric 


Motive 
powers. 


CRANES 


369 


transmission  of  energy  can  be  performed  with  an  efficiency  not 
reached  by  any  other  method,  and  the  electric  motor  readily 
adapts  itself  to  cranes.  When  they  are  worked  from  a  power 
station  the  great  advantage  is  gained  that  the  same  plant  which 
drives  them  can  be  used  for  many  other  purposes,  such  as 
working  machine  tools  and  supplying  current  for  lighting.  For 
dock-side  jib  cranes  the  use  of  electric  power  is  making  rapid 
strides.  For  overhead  travellers  in  workshops,  and  for  most  of 
the  cranes  which  fall  into  our  second  class,  electricity  as  a 
motive  power  has  already  displaced  nearly  every  other  method. 
Cranes  driven  by  shafting,  or  by  mechanical  power,  have  been 
largely  superseded  by  electric  cranes,  principally  oft  account  of 
the  much  greater  economy  of  transmission.  For  many  years  the 
best  workshop  travellers  were  those  driven  by  quick  running 
ropes;  these  performed  admirable  service,  but  they  have  given 
place  to  the  more  modern  electric  traveller. 

The  principal   motion  in  a  crane  is  naturally  the  hoisting  or 

lifting  motion.     This  is  effected  by  slinging  the  load  to  an  eye  or 

LHtl  hook,  and  elevating  the  hook  vertically.    There  are  three 

"g  _      typical  methods:     (i)  A  direct  pull  may  be  applied  to 

the  hook,  either  by  screws,  or  by  a  cylinder  fitted  with 

piston  and  rod  and  actuated  by  direct  hydraulic  or  other 

pressure,  as  shown  diagrammatically  in  fig.  i.     These  methods  are 

used  in  exceptional  cases,  but  present  the  obvious  difficulty  of  giving 


FIG.  i. 


FIG  2. 


FIG.  3. 


a  very  short  range  of  lift.  (2)  The  hook  may  be  attached  to  a  rope 
or  chain,  and  the  pulling  cylinder  connected  with  a  system  of  pulleys 
around  which  the  rope  is  led ;  by  these  means  the  lift  can  be  very 
largely  increased.  Various  arrangements  are  adopted;  the  one 
indicated  in  fig.  2  gives  a  lift  of  load  four  times  the  stroke  of  the 
cylinder.  This  second  method  forms  the  basis  of  the  lifting  gear  in 
all  hydraulic  cranes.  (3)  The  lifting  rope  or  chain  is  led  over  pulley 
to  a  lifting  barrel,  upon  which  it  is  coiled  as  the  barrel  is  rotated  by 
the  source  of  power  (fig.  3).  Sometimes,  especially  in  the  case  of 
overhead  travelling  cranes  for  very  heavy  loads,  the  chain  is  a  special 
pitch  chain,  formed  of  flat  links  pinned  together,  and  the  barrel  is 
reduced  to  a  wheel  provided  with  teeth,  or  "  sprockets,"  which 
engage  in  the  links.  In  this  case  the  chain  is  not  coiled,  but  simply 
passes  over  the  lifting  wheel,  the  free  end  hanging  loose.  All  the 
methods  in  this  third  category  require  a  rotating  lifting  or  barrel 
shaft,  and  this  is  the  important  difference  between  them  and  the 
hydraulic  cranes  mentioned  above.  Cranes  fitted  with  rotating 
hydraulic  engines  may  be  considered  as  coming  under  the  third 
category. 

When  the  loads  are  heavy  the  above  mechanisms  are  supple- 
mented by  systems  of  purchase  blocks  suspended  from  the  jib  or  the 
traveller  crab;  and  in  barrel  cranes  trains  of  rotating  gearing  are 
interposed  between  the  motor,  or  manual  handle,  and  the  barrel 
(fig.  3). 

When  a  load  is  lifted,  work  has  to  be  done  in  overcoming  the 
action  of  gravity  and  the  friction  of  the  mechanism;  when  it  is 
Brakes  lowered,  energy  is  given  out.  To  control  the  speed  and 
absorb  this  energy,  brakes  have  to  be  provided.  The 
hydraulic  crane  has  a  great  advantage  in  possessing  an  almost  ideal 
brake,  for  by  simply  throttling  the  exhaust  from  the  lifting  cylinder 
the  speed  of  descent  can  be  regulated  within  very  wide  limits  and 
with  perfect  safety.  Barrel  cranes  are  usually  fitted  with  band 
brakes,  consisting  of  a  brake  rim  with  a  friction  band  placed  round 
it,  the  band  being  tightened  as  required.  In  ordinary  cases  conduc- 
tion and  convection  suffice  to  dissipate  the  heat  generated  by  the 
brake,  but  when  a  great  deal  of  lowering  has  to  be  rapidly  performed, 
or  heavy  loads  have  to  be  lowered  to  a  great  depth,  special  arrange- 
ments have  to  be  provided.  An  excellent  brake  for  very  large  cranes 
is  Matthew's  hydraulic  brake,  in  which  water  is  passed  from  end  to 
end  of  cylinders  fitted  with  reciprocating  pistons,  cooling  jackets 
being  provided.  In  electric  cranes  a  useful  method  is  to  arrange 
the  connexions  so  that  the  lifting  motor  acts  as  a  dynamo,  and, 
driven  by  the  energy  of  the  falling  load,  generates  a  current  which 
is  converted  into  heat  by  being  passed  through  resistances.  That 
the  quantity  of  heat  to  be  got  rid  of  may  become  very  considerable 
is  seen  when  it  is  considered  that  the  energy  of  a  load  of  60  tons 


descending  through  50  ft.  is  equivalent  to  an  amount  of  heat  sufficient 
to  raise  nearly  6  gallons  of  water  from  60°  F.  to  boiling  point.  Crane 
brakes  are  usually  under  the  direct  control  of  the  driver,  and  they  are 
generally  arranged  in  one  of  two  ways.  In  the  first,  the  pressure 
is  applied  by  a  handle  or  treadle,  and  is  removed  by  a  spring  or 
weight;  this  is  called  "  braking  on."  In  the  second,  or  "  braking 
off  "  method,  the  brake  is  automatically  applied  by  a  spring  or 
weight,  and  is  released  either  mechanically  or,  in  the  case  of  electric 
cranes,  by  the  pull  of  a  solenoid  or  magnet  which  is  energized  by  the 
current  passing  through  the  motor.  When  the  motor  starts  the 
brake  is  released;  when  it  stops,  or  the  current  ceases,  the  brake 
goes  on.  The  first  method  is  in  general  use  for  steam  cranes;  it 
allows  for  a  far  greater  range  of  power  in  the  brake,  but  is  not 
automatic,  as  is  the  second. 

In  free-barrel  cranes  the  lifting  barrel  is  connected  to  the  revolving 
shaft  by  a  powerful  friction  clutch;  this,  when  interlocked  with 
the  brake  and  controller,  renders  electric  cranes  exceedingly  rapid 
in  working,  as  the  barrel  can  be  detached  and  lowering  performed 
at  a  very  high  speed,  without  waiting  for  the  lifting  motor  to  come 
to  rest  in  order  to  be  reversed.  This  method  of  working  is  very 
suitable  for  electric  dock-side  cranes  of  capacities  up  to  about  5  or 
7  tons,  and  for  overhead  travellers  where  the  height  of  lift  is 
moderate.  Where  high  speed  lowering  is  not  required  it  is  usual  to 
employ  a  reversing  motor  and  keep  it  always  in  gear. 

In  steam  cranes  it  is  usual  to  work  all  the  motions  from  one  double 
cylinder  engine.  In  order  to  enable  two  or  more  motions  to  be 
worked  together,  or  independently  as  required,  reversing  friction 
cones  are  used  for  the  subsidiary  motions,  especially  the  slewing 
motion.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  special  cranes  in  which  friction 
wheels  are  employed,  it  is  universally  the  practice,  in  steam  cranes, 
to. connect  the  engine  shaft  with  the  barrel  shaft  by  spur  toothed 
gearing,  the  gear  being  connected  or  disconnected  by  sliding  pinions. 
In  electric  cranes  the  motor  is  connected  to  the  barrel,  either  in  a 
similar  manner  by  spur  gear  or  by  worm  gear.  The  toothed  wheels 
give  a  slightly  better  efficiency,  but  the  worm  gear  is  somewhat 
smoother  in  its  action  and  entirely  silent;  the  noise  of  gearing  can, 
however,  be  considerably  reduced  by  careful  machining  of  the  teeth, 
as  is  now  always  done,  and  also  by  the  use  of  pinions  made  of  raw- 
hide leather  or  other  non-resonant  material.  When  quick-running 
metal  pinions  are  used  they  are  arranged  to  run  in  closed  oil-baths. 
Leather  pinions  must  be  protected  from  rats,  which  eat  them  freely. 
Worm  wheel  gearing  is  of  very  high  efficiency  if  made  very  quick  in 
pitch,  with  properly  formed  teeth  perfectly  lubricated,  and  with 
the  end  thrust  of  the  worm  taken  on  ball  bearings.  Much  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  mechanical  details  of  the 
lifting  and  other  motions  of  cranes,  and  in  important  installations 
the  gearing  is  now  usually  made  of  cast  steel.  In  revolving  cranes 
ease  of  slewing  can  be  greatly  increased  by  the  use  of  a  live  ring  of 
conical  rollers. 

Electric  motors  for  barrel  cranes  are  not  essentially  different  from 
those  used  for  other  purposes,  but  in  proportioning  the  sizes  the 
intermittent  output  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration.      _ 
This  fact  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  "  crane  rated  "  e.r  . 

motor,  with  a  given  "  load  factor."  This  latter  gives  the  niulna. 
ratio  of  the  length  of  the  working  periods  to  the  whole  time;  e.g. 
a  motor  rated  for  a  quarter  load  factor  means  that  the  motor  is 
capable  of  exerting,  its  full  normal  horse-power  for  three  minutes 
out  of  every  twelve,  the  pause  being  nine  minutes,  or  one  minute 
out  of  every  four,  the  pause  being  three  minutes.  The  actual  load 
factor  to  be  chosen  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  kind 
of  crane.  A  dock-side  crane  unloading  cargo  with  high  lifts  follow- 
ing one  another  in  rapid  succession  will  require  a  higher  load  factor 
than  a  workshop  traveller  with  a  very  short  lift  and  only  a  very 
occasional  maximum  load;  and  a  traveller  with  a  very  long  longi- 
tudinal travel  will  require  a  higher  load  factor  for  the  travelling 
motor  than  for  the  lifting  motor.  In  practice,  the  load  factor  for 
electric  crane  motors  varies  from  f  to  J.  In  steam  cranes  much  the 
same  principle  obtains  in  proportioning  the  boiler;  e.g.  the  engines 
of  a  lo-ton  steam  crane  have  cylinders  capable  of  indicating  about 
60  horse-power  when  working  at  full  speed,  but  it  is  found  that,  in 
consequence  of  the  intermittent  working,  sufficient  steam  can  be 
supplied  with  a  boiler  whose  heating  surface  is  only  J  to  1  of  that 
necessary  for  the  above  power,  when  developed  continuously  by  a 
stationary  engine. 

In  well-designed,  quick-running  cranes  the  mechanical  efficiency 
of  the  lifting  gear  may  be  taken  as  about  85%;  a  good  electric  jib 
crane  will  give  an  efficiency  of  72  %,  i.e.  when  actually  lifting  at 
full  speed  the  mechanical  work  of  lifting  represents  about  72  %  of 
the  electric  energy  put  into  the  lifting  motor.  A  very  convenient 
rule  is  to  allow  one  brake  horse-power  of  motor  for  every  10  foot- 
tons  of  work  done  at  the  hook;  this  is  equivalent  to  an  efficiency 
of  66f  %,  and  is  well  on  the  safe  side. 

The  motor  in  most  common  use  for  electric  cranes  is  the  scries 
wound,  continuous  current  motor,  which  has  many  advantages. 
It  has  a  very  large  starting  torque,  which  enables  it  to  overcome  the 
inertia  of  getting  the  load  into  motion,  and  it  lifts  heavy  loads  at  a 
slower  speed  and  lighter  loads  at  a  quicker  one,  behaving,  under  the 
action  of  the  controller  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  to  that  in 
which  the  cylinders  of  the  steam  crane  respond  to  the  action  of 
the  stop-valve.  Three-phase  motors  are  also  much  used  for 


370 


CRANES 


crane-driving,  and  it  is  probable  that  improvements  in  single  and 
two-phase  motors  will  eventually  largely  increase  their  use  for  this 
class  of  work. 

Tests  of  the  comparative  efficiencies  of  hydraulic  and  electric 
cranes  tend  to  show  that,  although  they  do  not  vary  to  any  very 
considerable  extent  with  full  load,  yet  the  efficiency  of  the  hydraulic 
crane  falls  away  very  much  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  electric 
crane  when  working  on  smaller  loads.  This  drawback  can  be 
corrected  to  a  slight  extent  by  furnishing  the  hydraulic  crane  with 
more  than  one  cylinder,  and  thus  compounding  it,  but  the  arrange- 
ment does  not  give  the  same  economical  range  of  load  as  in  an 
electric  crane.  In  first  cost  the  hydraulic  crane  has  the  advantage, 
but  the  power  mains  are  much  less  expensive  and  more  convenient 
to  arrange  in  the  electric  crane. 

The  limit  of  speed  of  lift  of  hand  cranes  has  already  been  men- 
tioned; for  steam  jib  cranes  average  practice  is  represented  by  the 
Speed.  formula  V=3O+2OO/T,  where  V  is  the  speed  of  lift  in 
feet  per  minute,  and  T  the  load  in  tons.  Where  electric 
or  hydraulic  cranes  are  worked  from  a  central  station  the  speed  is 
greater,  and  may  be  roughly  represented  by  V  =  5+300 /T;  e.g.  a. 
3O-cwt.  crane  would  lift  with  a  speed  of  about  200  ft.  per  minute, 
and  ico-ton  crane  with  a  speed  of  about  8  ft.  per  minute,  but  these 
speeds  vary  with  local  circumstances.  The  lifting  speed  of  electric 
travellers  is  generally  less,  because  the  lift  is  generally  much  shorter, 
and  may  in  ordinary  cases  be  taken  as  V  =  3+85/T.  The  cross- 
traversing  speed  of  travellers  varies  from  60  to  120  ft.  per  minute, 
and  the  longitudinal  from  100  to  300  ft.  per  minute.  The  speed  of 
these  two  motions  depends  much  on  the  length  of  the  span  and  of  the 
longitudinal  run,  and  on  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done;  in 
certain  cases,  e.g.  foundries,  it  is  desirable  to  be  able  to  lift,  on 
occasions,  at  an  extremely  slow  speed.  In  addition  to  the  brakes 
on  the  lifting  gear  of  cranes  it  is  found  necessary,  especially  in  quick- 
running  electric  cranes,  to  provide  a  brake  on  the  subsidiary 
motions,  and  also  devices  to  stop  the  motor  at  the  end  of  the  lift 
or  travel,  so  as  to  prevent  over-running. 

There  are  many  other  important  points  of  crane  construction  too 
numerous  to  mention  here,  but  it  may  be  said  generally  that  the 
advent  of  electricity  has  tended  to  increase  speeds,  and  in  conse- 
quence great  attention  is  paid  to  all  details  that  reduce  friction  and 
wear,  such  as  roller  and  ball  bearings  and  improved  methods  of 
lubrication;  and,  as  in  all  other  quick-running  machinery,  great 
stress  has  to  be  laid  on  accuracy  of  workmanship.  The  machinery, 
thus  being  of  a  higher  class,  requires  more  protection,  and  cranes 
that  work  in  the  open  are  now  fitted  with  elaborate  crane-houses  or 
cabins,  furnished  with  weather-tight  doors  and  windows,  and  more 
care  is  taken  to  provide  proper  platforms,  hand-rails  and  ladders 
of  access,  and  also  guards  for  the  revolving  parts  of  gearing. 

Typical  Forms  of  Cranes. — Fig.  4  is  a  diagram  of  a  fixed  hand 
revolving  jib  crane,  of  moderate  size,  as  used  in  railway  goods  yards 
and  similar  places.  It  consists  of  a  heavy  base,  which  is 
securely  bolted  to  the  foundation,  and  which  carries  the 
strong  crane-post,  or  pillar,  around  which  the  crane  re- 
volves. The  revolving  part  is  made  with  two  side  frames  of  cast 
iron  or  steel  plates,  and  to  these  the  lifting  gear  is  attached.  The 


Fixed 


FIG.  4. 


FIG.  5. 


load  is  suspended  from  the  crane  jib;  this  jib  is  attached  at  the 
lower  end  to  the  side  frames,  and  the  upper  end  is  supported  by  tie- 
rods,  connected  to  the  framework,  the  whole  revolving  together. 
This  simple  form  of  crane  thus  embodies  the  essential  elements  of 
foundation,  post,  framework,  jib,  tie-rods  and  gearing. 

Fig.  5  shows  another  type  of  fixed  crane,  known  as  a  derrick  crane. 
Here  the  crane-post  is  extended  into  a  long  mast  and  is  furnished 
with  pivots  at  the  top  and  bottom ;  the  mast  is  supported  by  two 
"  back  ties,"  and  these  are  connected  to  the  socket  of  the  bottom 
pivot  by  the  "  sleepers."  This  is  a  very  good  and  comparatively 
cheap  form  of  crane,  where  a  long  and  variable  radius  is  required, 
but  it  cannot  slew  through  a  complete  circle.  Derrick  cranes  are 
made  of  all  powers,  from  the  timber  l-ton  hand  derrick  to  the  steel 
ISO-ton  derrick  used  in  shipbuilding  yards.  The  derrick  crane 
introduces  a  problem  for  which  many  solutions  have  been  sought, 
that  of  preventing  the  load  from  being  lifted  or  lowered  when  the 
jib  is  pivoted  up  or  down  to  alter  the  radius.  To  keep  the  load 
level,  there  are  various  devices  for  automatically  coupling  the  jib- 
raising  and  the  load-lowering  motions. 

Somewhat  allied  to  the  derrick  are  the  sheer  legs  (fig.  6).  Here 
the  place  of  the  jib  is  taken  by  two  inclined  legs  joined  together 


at  the  top  and  pivoted  at  the  bottom ;  a  third  back-leg  is  connected 
at  the  top  to  the  other  two,  and  at  the  bottom  is  coupled  to  a  nut 
which  runs  on  a  long  horizontal  screw.  This  horizontal  movement 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  back 
leg  allows  the  whole  arrange- 
ment to  assume  the  position 
shown  in  fig.  7,  so  that  a 
load  can  be  taken  out  of  a 
vessel  and  deposited  on  a 
quay  wall.  The  same  effect 
can  be  produced  by  shorten- 
ing the  back  leg  by  a  screw 
placed  in  the  direction  of  its 
length.  Sheer  legs  are  gener- 
ally built  in  very  large  sizes, 
and  their  use  is  practically 
confined  to  marine  work. 

Another  type  of  fixed  crane  FIG.  6. 

is     the     "  Fairbairn  "  crane, 

shown  in  fig.  8.  Here  the  jib,  superstructure  and  post  are  all  united 
in  one  piece,  which  revolves  in  a  foundation  well,  being  supported  at 
the  bottom  by  a  toe-step  and  near  the  ground  level  by  horizontal 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8. 


rollers.  This  type  of  crane  used  to  be  in  great  favqur,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  clearance  it  gives  under  the  jib,  but  it  is  expensive  and 
requires  very  heavy  foundations. 

The  so-called  "  hammer-headed  "  crane  (fig.  9)  consists  of  a  steel 
braced  tower,  on  which  revolves  a  large  horizontal  double  canti- 
lever; the  forward  part  of  this  cantilever  or  jib  carries  the  lifting 
crab,  and  the  jib  is  extended  backwards  in  order  to  form  a  support 
for  the  machinery  and  counter-balance.  Besides  the  motions  of 
lifting  and  revolving,  there  is  provided  a  so-called  "  racking  " 
motion,  by  which  the  lifting  crab,  with  the  load  suspended,  can  be 
moved  in  and  out  along  the  jib  without  altering  the  level  of  the  load. 
Such  horizontal  movement  of  the  load  is  a  marked  feature  of  later 
crane  design;  it  first  became  prominent  in  the  so-called  "  Titan  " 
cranes,  mentioned  below  (fig.  14).  Hammer-headed  cranes  are 
generally  constructed  in  large  sizes,  up  to  200  tons. 

Another  type  of  fixed  revolving  crane  is  the  foundry  or  smithy 
crane  (fig.  10).  It  has  the  horizontal  racking  motion  mentioned 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


above,  and  revolves  either  on  upper  and  lower  pivots  supported  by 
the  structure  of  the  workshop,  or  on  a  fixed  pillar  secured  to  a  heavy 
foundation.  The  type  is  often  used  in  foundries,  or  to  serve  heavy 
hammers  in  a  smithy,  whence  the  name. 

Portable  cranes  are  of   many  kinds.      Obviously,   nearly  every 
kind  of  crane  can  be  made  portable  by  mounting  it  on  a  carriage, 
fitted  with  wheels;    it  is  even  not  unusual  to  make  the 
Scottish  derrick  portable  by  using  three  trucks,  one  under 
the  mast,  and  the  others  under  the  two  back  legs. 

Fig.  II  represents  a  portable  steam  jib  crane;  it  contains  the 
same  elements  as  the  fixed  crane  (fig.  4),  but  the  foundation  bed 
is  mounted  on  a  truck  which  is  carried  on  railway  or  road  wheels. 
With  portable  cranes  means  must  be  provided  to  ensure  the  requisite 
stability  against  overturning ;  this  is  done  by  weighting  the  tail  of 
the  revolving  part  with  heavy  weights,  and  in  steam  cranes  the 


CRANES 


boiler  is  so  placed  as  also  to  form  part  of  the  counterbalance.  Where 
the  rail-gauge  is  narrow  and  great  weight  is  not  desired,  blocking 
girders  are  provided  across  the  under  side  of  the  truck;  these  are 
arranged  so  that,  by  means  of  wedges  or  screws,  they  can  be  made 
to  increase  the  base.  In  connexion  with  the  stability  of  portable 
cranes,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  accidents  more  often  arise  from 


FIG.  11. 


FIG.  12.' 


overturning  backwards  than  forwards.  In  the  latter  case  the  over- 
turning tendency  begins  as  soon  as  the  load  leaves  the  ground,  but 
ceases  as  soon  as  the  load  again  touches  the  ground  and  thus  relieves 
the  crane  of  the  extra  weight,  whereas  overturning  backwards  is 
caused  either  by  the  reaction  of  a  chain  breaking  or  by  excessive 
counterweight.  When  portable  cranes  are  fitted  with  springs  and 

axle-boxes,  drawgear  and 
buffers,  so  that  they  can  be 
coupled  to  an  ordinary  railway 
train,  they  are  called  "  break- 
down "  or  "  wrecking  "  cranes. 
Dock-side  jib  cranes  for 
working  general  cargo  are 
almost  always  made  portable, 
in  order  to  enable  them  to  be 
placed  in  correct  position  in 
regard  to  the  hatchways  of 
the  vessels  which  they  serve. 
Fig.  12  shows  an  ordinary 
hydraulic  dock-side  jib  crane. 
This  type  is  usually  fitted  with 
a  very  high  jib,  so  as  to  lift 
goods  in  and  out  of  high-sided 
vessels.  The  hydraulic  lifting 
cylinders  are  placed  inside  the 
revolving  steel  mast  or  post, 


FIG.   13. 


and  the  cabin  for  the  driver 
is  arranged  high  up  in  the  front 
of  the  post,  so  as  to  give  a  good 
view  of  the  work.  The  pressure  is  conveyed  to  the  crane  by  means  of 
jointed  "  walking  "  pipes,  or  flexible  hose,  connected  to  hydrants 
placed  at  regular  intervals  along  the  quay.  It  is'often  very  desirable 
to  have  the  quay  space  as  little  obstructed  by  the  cranes  as  possible, 
so  as  not  to  interfere  with  railway  traffic  ;  this  has  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  cranes  mounted  on  high  trucks  or  gantries,  sometimes 
also  called  "  portal  "  cranes.  Where  warehouses  or  station  buildings 
run  parallel  to  the  quay  line,  the  high  truck  is  often  extended,  so 
as  to  span  the  whole  quay;  on  one  side  the  "  long  leg  "  runs  on  a 
rail  at  the  quay  edge,  and  on  the  other  the  "  short  leg  "  runs  on  a 
runway  placed  on  the  building.  Cranes  of  this  type  are  called 
"  half-portal  "  cranes.  Fig.  13  shows  an  electric  crane  of  this  class. 

They   give   the   minimum   of 

n  interference  with  quay  space 

and  have  rapidly  come  into 
favour.  Where  the  face  of  the 
warehouse  is  sufficiently  close 
to  the  water  to  permit  of  the 
craneropeplumbingthehatches 
without  requiring  a  jib  of  ex- 
cessive radius,  it  is  a  very 
convenient  plan  to  place  the 
whole  crane  on  the  warehouse 


roof. 

A  special  form  of  jib  crane, 
designed  to  meet  a  particular 
(fig.  14)  largely  used  in  the  construction  of 
It  contains  all  the  essential  elements  of  the 

hammer-headed  crane,  of  which  it  may  beconsideredtpbetheparent; 
in  fact,  the  only  essential  difference  is  that  the  Titan  is  portable  and 
the  hammer-head  crane  fixed.  The  Titan  was  the  first  type  of  large 


FIG. 


purpose,  is  the  "  Titan  ' 
piers  and  breakwaters. 


portable  crane  in  which  full  use  was  made  of  a  truly  horizontal 
movement  of  the  load;  for  the  purpose  for  which  the  type  is  de- 
signed, viz.  setting  concrete  blocks  in  courses,  this  motion  is  almost 
a  necessity. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


As  types  of  non-revolving  cranes,  fig.    15  shows  'an  overhead 
traveller  worked  by  hand,  and  fig.  16  a  somewhat  similar  machine 
worked   by  electric   power.      The   principal   component      .„ 
parts  of  a  traveller  are  the  main  cross  girders  forming  the     n    ~i  ia 
bridge,  the  two  end  carriages  on  which  the  bridge  rests,  the     „,„„ 
running  wheels  which  enable  the  end  carriages  to  travel 
on  the  longitudinal  gantry  girders  or  runway,  and  the  crab  or  jenny, 
which  carries  the  hoisting  mechanism,  and  moves  across  the  span  on 


f 


FIG.  17. 


FIG.  18. 


rails  placed  on  the  bridge  girders.  There  are  numerous  and  important 
variations  of  these  two  types,  but  the  above  contain  the  elements 
out  of  which  most  cranes  of  the  class  are  built. 

One  variation  is  illustrated  in  fig.  17,  and  is  called  a  "  Goliath  " 
or  "  Wellington."  It  is  practically  a  traveller  mounted  on  high 
legs,  so  as  to  permit  of  its  being  travelled  on  rails  placed  on  the 
ground  level,  instead  of  on  an  elevated  gantry.  Of  other  variations 
and  combinations  of  types,  fig. 
18  shows  a  modern  design  of 
crane  intended  to  command  the 
maximum  of  yard  space,  and 
having  some  of  the  character- 
istics both  of  the  Goliath  and 
of  the  revolving  jib  crane,  and 
fig.  19  depicts  a  combination  of 
a  traveller  and  a  hanging  jib 
crane. 

When  the  cross  traverse 
motion  of  a  traveller  crab  is 
suppressed,  and  the  longitudinal 
travelling  motion  is  increased 


in   importance  we  come   to  a  FIG.  19. 

type  of  crane,  the  use  of  which 

is   rapidly    increasing;    it   goes   by   the    name    of   "  transporter." 
Transporters  can  only  move  the  load   to  any  point  on  a  vertical 
surface  (generally  a  plane  surface);    they  have  a  lifting       _ 
motion  and  a  movement  of  translation.   They  are  of  two 
kinds:    (l)  those  in  which  the  motive  power  and  lifting 
gear  are  self-contained  on  the  crab ;  and  (2)  those  in  which  the  motive 
power  is  placed  in  a  fixed  position.  A  transporter  of  the  first  class  is 
shown  in  fig.  20.    From  the 
lower  flange  of  a  suspended 
runway,  made  of  a  single  I 
section,  run  wheels,  from  the 
axles    of    which    the    trans- 
porter  is   suspended.      The 
latter   consists   of  a   frame- 
work  carrying   the   hoisting 
barrel,  with  its  driving  motor 
and  gearing,  and  a  travelling 
motor,  which  is  geared  to  the 
running    wheels    in    such    a 
manner    as    to    be    able_  to 
propel   the   whole   machine;  p|G>  2o. 

a   seat   is   provided   for  the 

driver  who  manipulates  the  controllers.  A  transporter  of  this  kind, 
when  fitted  with  a  grab,  is  a  very  efficient  machine  for  taking  coal 
from  barges  and  depositing  it  in  a  coal  store. 

In  the  other  class  of  transporter  the  load  is  not  usually  moved 


372 


CRANIOMETRY 


through  such  long  distances.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  jib  made 
of  single  (-sections, and  supported  by  tie-rods  (fig.  21),  the  load  to  be 
lifted  being  suspended  from  a  small  travelling  carriage  which  runs 
on  the  lower  flange.  The  lifting  gear  is  located  in  any  convenient 

fixed  position.  In  order  that 
only  one  motor  may  be  used, 
and  also  that  the  load  may  be 
lifted  by  a  single  part  of  rope, 
various  devices  have  been  in- 
vented. The  jib  is  usually  in- 
clined, so  as  to  enable  the 
travel  to  be  performed  by 

»  gravity  in  one  direction,  and 
the  object  of  the  transporter 
mechanism  is  to  ensure  that 
pulling  in  or  slacking  out  the 

pIG   2I  lifting  rope  shall  perform  the 

cycle    of    operations    in    the 

following  order: — Supposing  the  Itoad  is  ready  to  be  lifted  out  of 
a  vessgl  on  to  a  quay,  the  pull  of  the  lifting  rope  raises  the  load,  the 
travelling  jenny  being  meanwhile  locked  in  position.  On  arriving 
at  a  certain  height  the  lift  ceases  and  the  jenny  is  released,  and  by 
the  continued  pull  of  the  rope,  it  runs  up  the  jib;  on  arriving  at  an 
adjustable  stop,  the  jenny  is  again  locked,  and  the  load  can  be 
lowered  out ;  the  hook  can  then  be  raised,  when  the  jenny  is  auto- 
matically unlocked,  and  on  paying  out  the  rope  the  jenny  gravitates 
to  its  first  position,  when  the  load  is  lowered  and  the  cycle  repeated. 
The  jibs  of  transporters  are  often  made  to  slide  forward,  or  lift  up, 
so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  when  not  in  use.  Transporters  are  largely 
used  for  dealing  with  general  cargo  between  vessels  and  warehouses, 
and  also  for  coaling  vessels;  they  have  a  great  advantage  in  not 
interfering  with  the  rigging  of  vessels. 

Nearly  all  recent  advances  in  crane  design  are  the  result  of  the 
introduction  of  the  electric  motor.  It  is  now  possible  to  apply 
motive  power  exactly  where  it  is  wanted,  and  to  do  so  economically, 
so  that  the  crane  designer  has  a  perfectly  free  hand  in  adding  the 
various  motions  required  by  the  special  circumstances  of  each  case. 
The  literature  which  deals  specially  with  cranes  is  not  a  large  one, 
but  there  are  some  good  German  text-books  on  the  subject,  amongst 
which  may  be  mentioned  Die  Hebezeuge  by  Ernst  (4th  ed.,  Berlin, 
1903),  and  Cranes,  by  Anton  Bottcher,  translated  with  additions  by 
A.  Tolhausen  (London,  1908).  (W.  P.*) 

CRANIOMETRY.  The  application  of  precise  methods  of 
measurement  marks  a  definite  phase  in  the  development  of  most 
branches  of  modern  science,  and  thus  craniometry,  a  compre- 
hensive expression  for  all  methods  of  measuring  the  skull 
(cranium),  provides  a  striking  landmark  in  the  progress  of 
anthropological  studies.  The  origin  of  craniometry  appears  to  be 
twofold.  Certain  artists  made  measurements  of  heads  and  skulls 
with  a  view  to  attaining  greater  accuracy  in  their  representation 
of  those  parts  of  the  human  frame.  Bernard  de  Palissy  and 
A.  Durer  may  be  mentioned  as  pioneers  in  such  researches. 
Again,  it  is  clearly  shown  in  the  literature  of  this  subject,  that 
anatomists  were  led  to  employ  methods  of  measurement  in  their 
study  of  the  human  skull.  The  determining  cause  of  this 
improvement  in  method  is  curious,  for  it  appeared  at  the  end  of  a 
famous  anatomical  controversy  of  the  later  middle  ages,  namely 
the  dispute  as  to  whether  the  Galenic  anatomy  was  based  on  the 
study  of  the  human  body  or  upon  those  of  apes.  In  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  dissection  of  a  chimpanzee  (in  1680)  Tyson  explains 
that  the  measurements  he  made  of  the  skull  of  that  animal  were 
devised  with  a  view  to  exhibiting  the  difference  between  this  and 
the  human  skull. 

The  artists  did  not  carry  their  researches  very  far.  The 
anatomists  on  the  contrary  continued  to  make  measurements,  and 
in  1764  Daubenton  published  a  noteworthy  contribution  to 
craniometry.  Six  years  later,  Pieter  Camper,  distinguished  both 
as  an  artist  and  as  an  anatomist,  published  some  lectures  contain- 
ing an  account  of  his  craniometrical  methods,  and  these  may  be 
fairly  claimed  as  having  laid  the  foundation  of  all  subsequent 
work.  That  work  has  been  described  above  as  anthropological, 
but  as  the  studies  thus  defined  are  very  varied  in  extent,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  subdivisions  into  which  they  naturally 
fall. 

In  the  first  place  (and  omitting  further  reference  to  the  contri- 
butions of  artists),  it  has  been  explained  that  the  measurements 
were  first  made  with  a  view  to  elucidating  the  comparison  of  the 
skulls  of  men  with  those  of  otheranimals.  This  wide  comparison 
constitutes  the  first  subdivision  of  craniometric  studies.  And 
craniometric  methods  have  rendered  the  results  of  comparison 


much  more  clear  and  comprehensible  than  was  formerly  the  case. 
It  is  further  remarkable  that  among  the  first  measurements 
employed  angular  determinations  occur,  and  indeed  the  name  of 
Camper  is  chiefly  perpetuated  in  anthropological  literature  by  the 
"  facial  angle  "  invented  by  that  artist -anatomist  (fig.  i).  It 
appears  impossible  to  improve  on  the  simple  terms  in  which 

M 
M 


FIG.  i . — The  skull  and  head  of  a  young  orang-utan,  and  of  a  negro, 
showing  the  lines  including  the  facial  angle  (MGND)  devised  by 
Pieter  Camper. 

Camper  describes  the  general  results  of  the  employment  of  this 
angle  for  comparative  purposes,  as  will  appear  from  the  following 
brief  extract  from  the  translation  of  the  original  work:  "  The 
two  extremities  of  the  facial  line  are  from  70  to  80  degrees  from 
the  negro  to  the  Grecian  antique:  make  it  under  70,  and  you 
describe  an  ourang  or  an  ape:  lessen  it  still  more,  and  you  have 
the  head  of  a  dog.  Increase  the  minimum,  and  you  form  a  fowl, 
a  snipe  for  example,  the  facial  line  of  which  is  nearly  parallel 
with  the  horizon."  (Camper's  Works,  p.  42,  translated  by 
Cogan,  1821.) 

In  the  igth  century  the  names  of  notable  contributors  to  the 
literature  of  craniometry  quickly  increase  in  number;  while  it 
is  impossible  to  analyse  each  contribution,  or  even  record  a 
complete  list  of  the' names  of  the  authors,  it  must  be  added  that 
for  the  purposes  of  far-reaching  comparisons  of  the  lower  animals 
with  mankind,  craniometric  methods  were  used  by  P.  P.  Broca  in 
France  and  by  T.  H.  Huxley  (figs.  2  and  3)  in  England,  with  such 
genius  and  success  as  have  not  yet  been  surpassed. 

The  second  division  of  craniometric  studies  includes  those  in 
which  the  skulls  of  the  higher  and  lower  races  of  mankind  are 
compared.  And  in  this  domain,  the  advent  of  accurate  numerical 
methods  of  recording  observations  brought  about  great  advances. 
In  describing  the  facial  angle,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  modern 
European,  the  Greek  of  classical  antiquity  and  the  Negro  are 
compared.  Thus  it  is  that  Camper's  name  appears  as  that  of  a 
pioneer  in  this  second  main  division  of  the  subject.  Broca  and 
Huxley  cultivated  similar  comparative  racial  fields  of  research, 
but  to  these  names  that  of  Anders  Retzius  of  Stockholm  must  be 
added  here.  The  chief  claim  of  Retzius  to  distinction  rests  on  the 
merits  of  his  system  of  comparing  various  dimensions  of  the 
skull,  and  of  a  classification  based  on  such  comparisons.  These 
indices  will  be  further  defined  below.  It  is  convenient  to  mention 
here  that  the  first  aim  of  all  these  investigators  was  to  obtain 
from  the  skull  reliable  data  having  reference  to  .the  conformation 
or  size  of  the  brain  once  contained  within  it.  Only  in  later  days 
did  the  tendency  to  overlook  this,  the  fundamental  aim  and  end 


CRANIOMETRY 


373 


of  craniometry,  make  its  appearance;  such  nevertheless  was  the 
case,  much  to  the  detriment  of  craniometric  science,  which  for  a 
time  seems  to  have  become  purely  empirical. 

The  third  subdivision  of  craniometric  researches  is  one  in  which 
the  field  of  comparison  is  still  further  narrowed.     For  herein  the 


FIG.  2. — The  spheno-ethmoidal,  spheno-maxillary  and  foramino-basal  angles  are  shown  in  the 
crania  of: — A,  a  New  Britain  native  (male);  B,  a  gorilla  (male);  C,  a  dog.  N.Pr.B,  Spheno- 
ethmoidal  angle;  P.  Pr.  B,  Spheno-maxillary  angle;  Pr.  B.Op,  Foramino-basal  angle.  The  spheno- 
ethmoidal  and  spheno-maxillary  angles  were  first  employed  by  Huxley. 

various  sub-racial  types  such  as  the  dark  and  fair  Europeans  are 
brought  together  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  or  contrast. 
But  although  the  range  of  research  is  thus  narrowed  and  re- 
stricted, the  guiding  principles  and  the  methods  remain  un- 
changed. In  this  department  of  craniometry,  Anders  Retzius 
has  gained  the  foremost  place  among  the  pioneers  of  research. 


FIG.  3. — The  spheno-ethmoidal,  spheno-maxillary  and  foramino- 
basal  angles  are  shown  in  the  crania  of: — A,  a  New  Guinea  native 
(male);  B,  a  European  woman.  N.Pr.B,  Spheno-ethmoidal  angle; 
P.Pr.B,  Spheno-maxillary  angle;  Pr.B.Op,  Foramino-basal  angle. 

Retzius's  name  is,  as  already  mentioned,  associated  not  with  any 
particular  angle  or  angular  measurement,  but  rather  with  a 
method  of  expressing  as  a  formula  two  cranial  dimensions 
which  have  been  measured  and  which  are  to  be  compared.  *  Thus 
for  instance  one  skull  may  be  so  proportioned  that  its  greatest 
width  measures  75%  of  its  greatest  length  (i.e.  its  width  is  to  its 
length  as  three  to  four). 

This  ratio  (of  75%)  is  termed  the  cephalic  or  breadth-index, 
which  in  such  an  instance  would  be  described  as  equal  to  75. 


A  B  C 

From  Tylor's  Anthropology,  by  permission  of  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd. 

FIG.  4. — Top  view  of  skulls.  (A)  Negro,  index  70,  dolichocephalic ; 
(B)  European,  index  80,  mesaticephalic ;  (C)  Samoyed,  index  85, 
brachycephalic. 

A  skull  providing  a  breadth-index  of  75  will  naturally  possess 
very  different  proportions  from  another  which  provides  a  corre- 
sponding index  equal  to  85.  And  in  fact  this  particular  index  in 
human  skulls  varies  from  about  58  to  90  in  undistorted  examples 
(fig.  4).  Such  is  the  general  scheme  of  Retzius's  system  of 
classification  of  skulls  by  means  of  indices,  and  one  of  his  earliest 
applications  of  the  method  was  to  the  inhabitants  of  Sweden. 


One  striking  result  was  to  exhibit  a  most  marked  contrast  in 
respect  of  the  breadth-index  of  the  skull,  between  the  Lapps  and 
their  Scandinavian  neighbours,  and  thus  a  craniometric  difference 
was  added  to  the  list  of  characters  (such  as  stature,  hair-colour 
and  complexion)  whereby  these  two  types  were  already  dis- 
tinguished. Since  the  publication 
of  Retzius's  studies,  the  cephalic  or 
breadth-index  of  the  skull  has 
retained  a  premier  position  among 
its  almost  innumerable  successors, 
though  it  is  of  historical  interest  to 
note  that,  while  Retzius  had  un- 
doubtedly devised  the  method  of 
comparing  "  breadth-indices,"  he 
always  qualified  the  results  of  its 
use  by  reference  to  other  data. 
These  qualifications  were  over- 
looked by  the  immediate  successors 
of  Retzius,  much  to  the  disadvan- 
tage of  craniometry.  In  addition 
to  the  researches  on  the  skull 

forms  of  Lapps  and  Swedes,  others  dealing  with  the  comparison 
of  Finns  and  Swedes  (by  Retzius)  as  well  as  the  investigation  of 
the  form  of  skull  in  Basques  and  Guanches  (by  Broca)  possess 
historic  interest. 

Thus  far  little  or  nothing  has  been  said  with  regard  to  instru- 
ments. Camper  devised  a  four-sided  open  frame  with  cross- 
wires,  through  which  skulls  were 
viewed  and  by  means  of  which 
accurate  drawings  could  be  pro- 
jected on  to  paper.  The  methods 
of  Retzius  as  here  described 
require  the  aid  of  callipers  of 
various  sorts,  and  such  instru- 
ments were  quickly  devised  and 
applied  to  the  special  needs  of 
the  case.  Such  instruments  are 
still  in  use,  and  two  forms  of 
simple  craniometer  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustrations 
(figs.  5  and  6).  For  the  more 
accurate  comparison  required  in 
the  study  of  various  European 
types,  delicate  instruments  for 
measuring  angles  were  invented 
by  Anthelme  in  Paris  (1836)  and 
John  Grattan  in  Belfast  (1853). 


(p.  Hermann,  Zurich)  model. 


These  instruments  enabled  the  observer  to  transmit  to  the  plane 
surface  of  a  sheet  of  drawing  paper  a  correct  tracing  of  the  contour 
of  the  specimen  under  investigation.  A  further  modification  was . 
devised  by  the  talented  Dr  Busk  in  the  year  1861,  and  since  that 
date  the  number  and  forms  of  these  instruments  have  been 
greatly  multiplied.  With  reference  to  contributors  to  the  advance 
of  knowledge  in  this  particular  department  of  craniometry, 
there  should  be  added  to  the  foregoing  names  those  ef  Huxley, 
Sir  W.  H.  Flower  and  Sir  W.  Turner  in  England,  J.  L.  A.  de 
Quatrefages  in  France,  J.  C.  G.  Lucae  and  H. Welcker  in  Germany. 
Moreover,  the  methods 
have  also  been  multi- 
plied, so  that  in  addition 
to  angular  and  linear 
measurements,  those 
the  capacity  or  cubical! 
contents  of  the  cranium 

and   those  of  the  curva-     FlG.6._n0wer'.  Craniometer  asmodi- 
ture  of  its  surface  demand         fied  by  Dr  w.  L.  H.  Duckworth, 
reference.     The  masterly 

work  of  Cleland  claims  special  mention  in  this  connexion. 
And  finally  while  two  dimensions  are  combined  in  the 
cephalic  index  of  Retzius,  the  combination  of  three  dimen- 
sions (in  a  formula  called  a  modulus)  distinguishes  some 
recent  work,  although  the  employment  of  the  modulus  is 


i T- 


374 

actually  a  return 
von  Baer. 


CRANK 


to  a   system  devised   in    1859  by   Karl   E. 


The  fourth  subdivision  of  craniometry  is  closely  allied  to  that 
which  has  just  been  described,  and  it  deals  with  the  comparison 
of  the  prehistoric  and  the  recent  types  of  mankind.  The  methods 
are  exactly  similar  to  those  employed  in  the  comparison  of 
living  races;  but  in  some  particular  instances  where  the  pre- 
historic individual  is  represented  only  by  a  comparatively  minute 
portion  of  the  skull,  some  special  modifications  of  the  usual 
procedures  have  been  necessitated.  In  this  field  the  works  of 
W.  His  and  L.  Riitimeyer  on  the  prehistoric  races  of  Switzerland, 
those  of  Ecker  (South  Germany),  of  Broca  in  France,  of  Thurnam 
and  Davis  in  England,  must  be  cited.  G.  Schwalbe,  Kramberger, 


1'homme  et  dans  les  animaux,"  Comptes  rendus  de  I'academie  des 
sciences  (Paris,  1764);  Camper,  Works  (1770,  translated  by  Cogan, 
1821);  Broca,  Memoires  (1862  and  following  years);  Huxley, 
Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  vol.  I  (1867);  Retzius,  Ober 
die  Schadelformen  der  Nordbewohner  (Stockholm,  1842);  Anthelme, 
Physiologic  de  la  pensee  (Paris,  1836);  Grattan,  Ulster  Journal  of 
Archaeology,  vol.  I  (1853);  Busk,  "A  System  of  Craniometry, 
Transactions  of  the  Ethnological  Society  (1861);  Flower,  Catalogue 
of  the  Hunterian  Museum,  Osteology,  part  I  (London,  1879);  Turner, 
"  '  Challenger  '  Reports,"  Zoology,  vol.  x.  pt.  29,  "  Human  Crania  " 
(1884);  de  Quatrefages,  Crania  ethnica  (Paris,  1873);  Lucae, 
Architectur  des  menschlichen  Schadels  (Frankfort,  1855);  Welcker, 
Bau  und  Wachsthum  des  menschlichen  Schadels  (1862);  Cleland, 
"  An  Inquiry  into  the  Variations  of  the  Human  Skull,"  Phil.  Trans. 
Roy.  Society  (1870),  vol.  160,  pp.  117  et  seq.;  von  Baer,  "Crania 
selecta,"  Acade'mie  impe'riale  des  sciences  de  S.  Pdtersbourg  (1859); 


His  and  Rfitimeyer,  Crania  Helvetica 
(Basel,  1866);  Ecker,  Crania  Ger- 
maniae  meridionalis  (1865) ;  Thurnam 
and  Davis,  Crania  Britannica;  von 
Torok,  Craniometrie(Stuttgart,  1890) ; 
Benedikt,  Manuel  technique  et  pra- 
tique d'anthropometrie  cranio-cepha- 
lique  (Paris,  1889);  Pearson,  Biome- 
trika,  from  vol.  I  (in  1902)  onwards; 
Sergi,  "  The  Varieties  of  the  Human 
Species,"  English  translation,  Smith- 
sonian Institution  (Washington, 
1894);  Schwalbe,  "  Der  Neander- 
thalschadel,"  Banner  Jahrbucher.Heh 
106;  also  Sonderheft  der  Zeitschrift 
fur  Morphologie  und  Anthropologie; 
FIG.  7. — The  facial  angle  of  the  Frankfort  Agreement  is  shown  in  the  crania  of : — -A,  a  New  Britain  Kramberger,  Der  palaolithische 

native  (male)  62°;  B,  a  gorilla  (male)  50°;  C,  a  dog  42°.     This  angle  has  now  replaced  the  facial 

angle  of  Camper  (cf.  fig.  i). 


W.  J.  Sollas  and  H.  Klaatsch  are  the  most  recent  contributors  to 
this  department  of  craniometry. 

Thus  the  complexity  of  craniometric  studies  has  inevitably 
increased.  In  the  hands  of  von  Torok  of  Budapest ,  as  in  those  of 
M.  Benedikt  of  Vienna  at  an  earlier  date,  the  number  of  measure- 
ments regarded  as  necessary  for  the  complete  "  diagnosis  "  of  a 
skull  has  reached  a  colossal  total.  Of  the  trend  and  progress  of 
craniometry  at  the  present  day,  three  particular  developments 
are  noteworthy.  First  come  the  attempts  made  at  various  times 
to  co-ordinate  the  systems  of  measurements  so  as  to  ensure 
uniformity  among  all  observers;  of  these  attempts  two,  viz.  that 
of  the  German  anthropologists  at  Frankfort  in  1882  (figs.  7  and 
8),  and  that  of  the  Anthropometric  Committee  of  the  British 


FIG.  8. — The  facial  angle  of  the  Frankfort  Agreement  is  shown  in  the  crania  of : — A,  a  New 
Guinea  native  (male)  75   ;  B,  a  European  (woman)  93°;  C,  a  new-born  infant  (93°). 


Association  (1906)  seem  to  require  at  least  a  record.  In  the 
second  place,  the  application  of  the  methods  of  statistical 
science  in  dealing  with  large  numbers  of  craniometric  data  has 
been  richly  rewarded  in  Prof.  Karl  Pearson's  hands.  Thirdly, 
and  in  connexion  with  such  methods,  there  may  be  mentioned 
the  extension  of  these  systems  of  measurement,  and  of  the 
methods  of  dealing  with  then!  on  statistical  principles,  to  the 


study  of  large  numbers  of  the  skulls  of  domestic  and 
animals,  such  as  white  rats  or  the  varieties  of  the  horse. 


feral 
And 

lastly  no  account  of  craniometry  would  be  complete  without 
mention  of  the  revolt,  headed  by  the  Italian  anthropologist 
Sergi,  against  metrical  methods  of  all  kinds.  It  cannot,  however, 
be  alleged  that  the  substitutes  offered  by  the  adherents  of 
Sergi's  principles  encourage  others  to  forsake  the  more  orthodox 
numerical  methods. 

LITERATURE. — Tyson,  The  Anatomy  of  a  Pygmie  (London,  1699); 
Daubenton,  "  Sur  la  difference  de  la  situation  du  tron  occipital  dans 


Mensch  von  Krapina  (Nagele,  Stutt- 
gart, 1901);  Sollas,  "The  Cranial 
Characters  of  the  Neanderthal  Race," 
Phil.  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society,  vol.  199,  Series  B,  p.  298,  1908 ; 
Klaatsch,  "  Bericht  iiber  einen  anthropologischen  Streifzug  nach 
London,"  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologie,  Heft  6,  1903,  p.  875. 

Handbooks. — Topinard,  Elements  d' anthropologie  glnerale  (Paris, 
1885);  Schmidt,  Anthropologische  Methoden  (Leipzig,  1888);  Duck- 
worth, Morphology  and  Anthropology  (Cambridge,  1904). 

Journals. — Bulletins  de  la  Societe  d' Anthropologie  de  Paris,  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Archiv  fur  Anthropologie,  Zeitschrift  fur  Morphologie  und  Anthro- 
pologie. (W.  L.  H.  D.) 

CRANK,  a  word  of  somewhat  obscure  etymology,  probably 
connected  with  a  root  meaning  "  crooked,"  and  appearing  in  the 
Ger.  krank,  ill,  a  figurative  use  of  the  original  word;  among 
other  words  in  English  containing  the  same  original  meaning  are 
"  cringe  "  and  "  crinkle."  In  mechanics,  a  crank  is  a  device  by 

which  reciprocating  motion  is  con- 
verted into  circular  motion  or 
vice  versa,  consisting  of  a  crank- 
arm,  one  end  of  which  is  fastened 
rigidly  at  right  angles  to  the 
rotating  shaft  or  axis,  while  the 
other  end  bears  a  crank-pin,  pro- 
jecting from  it  at  right  angles  and 
parallel  to  the  shaft.  When  the 
reciprocating  part  of  a  machine,  as 
the  piston  and  piston-rod  of  a 
steam  engine,  is  linked  to  this 
crank  by  a  crank-rod  or  connecting 

one  end  of  which  works  on  the  crank-pin  and  the  other 
on  a  pin  in  the  end  of  the  reciprocating  part,  the  to-and-fro 
motion  of  the  latter  imparts  a  circular  motion  to  the  shaft 
and  vice  versa.  The  crank,  instead  of  being  made  up  as  de- 
scribed above,  may  be  formed  by  bending  the  shaft  to  the 
required  shape,  as  sometimes  in  the  handle  of  a  winch.  A 
bell-crank,  so  called  because  of  its  use  in  bell-hanging  to  change 
the  direction  of  motion  of  the  wires  from  horizontal  to  vertical 
or  vice  versa,  consists  of  two  arms  rigidly  connected  at  an  angle, 
say  of  90°,  to  each  other  and  pivoted  on  a  pin  placed  at  the  point 
of  junction. 

Crank  is  also  the  name  given  to  a  labour  machine  used  in 
prisons  as  a  means  of  punishment  (see  TREAD-MILL).  Other  uses 
of  the  word,  connected  with  the  primary  meaning,  are  for  a 
crooked  path,  a  crevice  or  chink;  and  a  freakish -turn  of  thought 
or  speech,  as  in  Milton's  phrase  "  quips  and  cranks."  It  is  also 
used  as  a  slang  expression,  American  in  origin,  for  a  harmless 


rod. 


CRANMER 


375 


lunatic,  or  a  faddist,  whose  enthusiasm  for  some  one  idea  or 
hobby  becomes  a  monomania.  "  Crank  "  or  "  crank-sided  "  is  a 
nautical  term  used  of  a  ship  which  by  reason  of  her  build  or  from 
want  of  balance  is  liable  t»  overturn.  This  strictly  nautical 
sense  is  often  confused  with  "  crank  "  or  "  cranky,"  that  is, 
rickety  or  shaky,  probably  derived  direct  from  the  German 
krank,  weak  or  ill. 

CRANMER,  THOMAS  ({480-1556),  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
born  at  Aslacton  or  Aslockton  in  Nottinghamshire  on  the  2nd  of 
July  1489,  was  the  second  son  of  Thomas  Cranmer  and  of  his 
wife  Anne  Hatfield.  He  received  his  early  education,  according 
to  Morice  his  secretary,  from  "  a  marvellous  severe  and  cruel 
schoolmaster,"  whose  discipline  must  have  been  severe  indeed  to 
deserve  this  special  mention  in  an  age  when  no  schoolmaster 
bore  the  rod  in  vain.  The  same  authority  tells  us  that  he  was 
initiated  by  his  father  in  those  field  sports,  such  as  hunting  and 
hawking,  which  formed  one  of  his  recreations  in  after  life.  To 
early  training  he  also  owed  the  skilful  horsemanship  for  which 
he  was  conspicuous.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  sent  by  his 
mother,  who  had  in  1501  become  a  widow,  to  Cambridge. 
Little  is  known  with  certainty  of  his  university  career  beyond  the 
facts  that  he  became  a  fellow  of  Jesus  College  in  1510  or  1511, 
that  he  had  soon  after  to  vacate  his  fellowship,  owing  to  his 
marriage  to  "  Black  Joan,"  a  relative  of  the  landlady  of  the 
Dolphin  Inn,  and  that  he  was  reinstated  in  it  on  the  death  of  his 
wife,  which  occurred  in  childbirth  before  the  lapse  of  the  year  of 
grace  allowed  by  the  statutes.  During  the  brief  period  of  his 
married  life  he  held  the  appointment  of  lecturer  at  Buckingham 
Hall,  now  Magdalene  College.  The  fact  of  his  marrying  would 
seem  to  show  that  he  did  not  at  the  time  intend  to  enter  the 
church;  possibly  the  death  of  his  wife  caused  him  to  qualify 
for  holy  orders.  He  was  ordained  in  1523,  and  soon  after  he  took 
his  doctor's  degree  in  divinity.  According  to  Strype,  he  was 
invited  about  this  time  to  become  a  fellow  of  the  college  founded 
by  Cardinal  Wolsey  at  Oxford;  but  Dean  Hook  shows  that 
there  is  some  reason  to  doubt  this.  If  the  offer  was  made,  it  was 
declined,  and  Cranmer  continued  at  Cambridge  filling  the 
offices  of  lecturer  in  divinity  at  his  own  college  and  of  public 
examiner  in  divinity  to  the  university.  It  is  interesting,  in  view 
of  his  later  efforts  to  spread  the  knowledge  of  the  Bible  among 
the  people,  to  know  that  in  the  capacity  of  examiner  he  insisted 
on  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  re- 
jected several  candidates  who  were  deficient  in  this  qualification. 

It  was  a  somewhat  curious  concurrence  of  circumstances  that 
transferred  Cranmer,  almost  at  one  step,  from  the  quiet  seclusion 
of  the  university  to  the  din  and  bustle  of  the  court.  In  August 
1529  the  plague  known  as  the  sweating  sickness,  which  prevailed 
throughout  the  country,  was  specially  severe  at  Cambridge,  and 
all  who  had  it  in  their  power  forsook  the  town  for  the  country. 
Cranmer  went  with  two  of  his  pupils  named  Cressy,  related  to 
him  through  their  mother,  to  their  father's  house  at  Waltham  in 
Essex.  The  king  (Henry  VIII.)  happened  at  the  time  to  be 
visiting  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  and  two  of  his  chief 
counsellors,  Gardiner,  secretary  of  state,  afterwards  bishop  of 
Winchester,  and  Edward  Fox,  the  lord  high  almoner,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Hereford,  were  lodged  at  Cressy's  house.  Meeting 
with  Cranmer,  they  were  naturally  led  to  discuss  the  king's 
meditated  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon.  Cranmer  suggested 
that  if  the  canonists  and  the  universities  should  decide  that 
marriage  with  a  deceased  brother's  widow  was  illegal,  and  if  it 
were  proved  that  Catherine  had  been  married  to  Prince  Arthur, 
her  marriage  to  Henry  could  be  declared  null  and  void  by  the 
ordinary  ecclesiastical  courts.  The  necessity  of  an  appeal  to 
Rome  was  thus  dispensed  with,  and  this  point  was  at  once  seen 
by  the  king,  who,  when  Cranmer's  opinion  was  reported  to  him, 
is  said  to  have  ordered  him  to  be  summoned  in  these  terms: 
"  I  will  speak  to  him.  Let  him  be  sent  for  out  of  hand.  This 
man,  I  trow,  has  got  the  right  sow  by  the  ear." 

At  their  first  interview  Cranmer  was  commanded  by  the  king 
to  lay  aside  all  other  pursuits  and  to  devote  himself  to  the 
question  of  the  divorce.  He  was  to  draw  up  a  written  treatise, 
stating  the  course  he  proposed,  and  defending  it  by  arguments 


from  scripture,  the  fathers  and  the  decrees  of  general  councils. 
His  material  interests  certainly  did  not  suffer  by  compliance. 
He  was  commended  to  the  hospitality  of  Anne  Boleyn's  father, 
the  earl  of  Wiltshire,  in  whose  house  at  Durham  Place  he  resided 
for  some  time;  the  king  appointed  him  archdeacon  of  Taunton 
and  one  of  his  chaplains;  and  he  also  held  a  parochial  benefice, 
the  name  of  which  is  unknown.  When  the  treatise  was  finished 
Cranmer  was  called  upon  to  defend  its  argument  before  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  which  he  visited,  accom- 
panied by  Fox  and  Gardiner.  Immediately  afterwards  he  was 
sent  to  plead  the  cause  before  a  more  powerful  if  not  a  higher 
tribunal.  An  embassy,  with  the  earl  of  Wiltshire  at  its  head, 
was  despatched  to  Rome  in  1530,  that  "  the  matter  of  the  divorce 
should  be  disputed  and  ventilated,"  and  Cranmer  was  an  im- 
portant member  of  it.  He  was  received  by  the  Pope  with 
marked  courtesy,  and  was  appointed  "  Grand  Penitentiary  of 
England,"  but  his  argument,  if  he  ever  had  the  opportunity  of 
stating  it,  did  not  lead  to  any  practical  decision  of  the  question. 

Cranmer  returned  in  September  1530,  but  in  January  1531  he 
received  a  second  commission  from  the  king  appointing  him 
"  Conciliarius  Regius  et  ad  Caesarem  Orator."  In  the  summer 
of  1 53 1  he  accordingly  proceeded  to  Germany  as  sole  ambassador 
to  the  emperor.  He  was  also  to  sound  the  Lutheran  princes 
with  a  view  to  an  alliance,  and  to  obtain  the  removal  of  some 
restrictions  on  English  trade.  At  Nuremberg  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Osiander,  whose  somewhat  isolated  theological 
position  he  probably  found  to  be  in  many  points  analogous  to  his 
own.  Both  were  convinced  that  the  old  order  must  change; 
neither  saw  clearly  what  the  new  order  should  be  to  which  it  was 
to  give  place.  They  had  frequent  interviews,  which  had  doubtless 
an  important  influence  on  Cranmer's  opinions.  But  Osiander's 
house  had  another  attraction  of  a  different  kind  from  theological 
sympathy.  His  niece  Margaret  won  the  heart  of  Cranmer,  and  in 
1532  they  were  married.  Hook  finds  in  the  fact  of  the  marriage 
corroboration  of  Cranmer's  statement  that  he  never  expected  or 
desired  the  primacy;  and  it  seems  probable  enough  that,  if  he 
had  foreseen  how  soon  the  primacy  was  to  be  forced  upon  him, 
he  would  have  avoided  a  disqualification  which  it  was  difficult  to 
conceal  and  dangerous  to  disclose. 

Expected  or  not,  the  primacy  was  forced  upon  him  within  a 
very  few  months  of  his  marriage.  In  August  1532  Archbishop 
Warham  .died,  and  the  king  almost  immediately  afterwards 
intimated  to  Cranmer,  who  had  accompanied  the  emperor  in  his 
campaign  against  the  Turks,  his  nomination  to  the  vacant  see. 
Cranmer's  conduct  was  certainly  consistent  with  his  profession 
that  he  did  not  desire,  as  he  had  not  expected,  the  dangerous 
promotion.  He  sent  his  wife  to  England,  but  delayed  his  own 
return  in  the  vain  hope  that  another  appointment  might  be  made. 
The  papal  bulls  of  confirmation  were  dated  February  and  March 
!S33»  and  the  consecration  took  place  on  the  3oth  March.  One 
peculiarity  of  the  ceremony  had  occasioned  considerable  discus- 
sion. It  was  the  custom  for  the  archbishop  elect  to  take  two 
oaths,  the  first  of  episcopal  allegiance  to  the  pope,  and  the  second 
in  recognition  of  the  royal  supremacy.  The  latter  was  so  wide 
in  its  scope  that  it  might  fairly  be  held  to  supersede  the  former  in 
so  far  as  the  two  were  inconsistent.  Cranmer,  however,  was  not 
satisfied  with  this.  He  had  a  special  protest  recorded,  in  which 
he  formally  declared  that  he  swore  allegiance  to  the  pope  only  in 
so  far  as  that  was  consistent  with  his  supreme  duty  to  the  king. 
The  morality  of  this  course  has  been  much  canvassed,  though  it 
seems  really  to  involve  nothing  more  than  an  express  declaration 
of  what  the  two  oaths  implied.  It  was  the  course  that  would 
readily  suggest  itself  to  a  man  of  timid  nature  who  wished  to 
secure  himself  against  such  a  fate  as  Wolsey's.  It  showed 
weakness,  but  it  added  nothing  to  whatever  immorality  there 
might  be  in  successively  taking  two  incompatible  oaths. 

In  the  last  as  in  the  first  step  of  Cranmer's  promotion  Henry 
had  been  actuated  by  one  and  the  same  motive.  The  business  of 
the  divorce — or  rather,  of  the  legitimation  of  Anne  Boleyn's 
expected  issue — had  now  become  very  urgent,  and  in  the  new 
archbishop  he  had  an  agent  who  might  be  expected  to  forward  it 
with  the  needful  haste.  The  celerity  and  skill  with  which 


37^ 


CRANMER 


Cranmer  did  the  work  intrusted  to  him  must  have  fully  satisfied 
his  master.  During  the  first  week  of  April  Convocation  sat  almost 
from  day  to  day  to  determine  questions  of  fact  and  law  in  relation 
to  Catherine's  marriage  with  Henry  as  affected  by  her  previous 
marriage  with  his  brother  Arthur.  Decisions  favourable  to  the 
object  of  the  king  were  given  on  these  questions,  though  even 
the  despotism  of  the  most  despotic  of  the  Tudors  failed  to  secure 
absolute  unanimity.  The  next  step  was  taken  by  Cranmer,  who 
wrote  a  letter  to  the  king,  praying  to  be  allowed  to  remove  the 
anxiety  of  loyal  subjects  as  to  a  possible  case  of  disputed  succes- 
sion, by  finally  determining  the  validity  of  the  marriage  in  his 
archiepiscopal  court.  There  is  evidence  that  the  request  was 
prompted  by  the  king,  and  his  consent  was  given  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Queen  Catherine  was  residing  at  Ampthill  in  Bedford- 
shire, and  to  suit  her  convenience  the  court  was  held  at  the  priory 
of  Dunstable  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  Declining  to 
appear,  she  was  declared  contumacious,  and  on  the  23rd  of  May 
the  archbishop  gave  judgment  declaring  the  marriage  null  and 
void  from  the  first,  and  so  leaving  the  king  free  to  marry  whom  he 
pleased.  The  Act  of  Appeals  had  already  prohibited  any  appeal 
from  the  archbishop's  court.  Five  days  later  he  pronounced 
the  marriage  between  Henry  and  Anne — which  had  been  secretly 
celebrated  about  the  25th  of  January  1533 — to  be  valid.  On  the 
ist  of  June  he  crowned  Anne  as  queen,  and  on  the  loth  of  Sep- 
tember stood  godfather  to  her  child,  the  future  Queen  Elizabeth. 

The  breach  with  Rome  and  the  subjection  of  the  church  in 
England  to  the  royal  supremacy  had  been  practically  achieved 
before  Cranmer's  appointment  as  archbishop:  and  he  had  little 
to  do  with  the  other  constitutional  changes  of  Henry's  reign. 
But  his  position  as  chief  minister  of  Henry's  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  forced  him  into  unpleasant  prominence  in  connexion 
with  the  king's  matrimonial  experiences.  In  1536  he  was 
required  to  revise  his  own  sentence  in  favour  of  the  validity  of 
Henry's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn;  and  on  the  i7th  of  May 
the  marriage  was  declared  invalid.  The  ground  on  which  this 
sentence  is  pronounced  is  fairly  clear.  Anne's  sister,  Mary 
Boleyn,  had  been  Henry  VIII. 's  mistress;  this  by  canon  law  was 
a  bar  to  his  marriage  with  Anne — a  bar  which  had  been  removed 
by  papal  dispensation  in  1527,  but  now  the  papal  power  to 
dispense  in  such  cases  had  been  repudiated,  and  the  original  ob- 
jection revived.  The  sentence  was  grotesquely  legal  and  unjust. 
With  Anne's  condemnation  by  the  House  of  Lords  Cranmer 
had  nothing  to  do.  He  interceded  for  her  in  vain  with  the 
king,  as  he  had  done  in  the  cases  of  Fisher,  More  and  the  monks 
of  Christchurch.  His  share  in  the  divorce  of  Anne  of  Cleves  was 
less  prominent  than  that  of  Gardiner,  though  he  did  preside  over 
the  Convocation  in  which  nearly  all  the  dignitaries  of  the  church 
signified  their  approval  of  that  measure.  To  his  next  and  last 
interposition  in  the  matrimonial  affairs  of  the  king  no  discredit 
attaches  itself.  When  he  was  made  cognizant  of  the  charges 
against  Catherine  Howard,  his  duty  to  communicate  them  to  the 
king  was  obvious,  though  painful. 

Meanwhile  Cranmer  was  actively  carrying  out  the  policy 
which  has  associated  his  name  more  closely,  perhaps,  than  that 
of  any  other  ecclesiastic  with  the  Reformation  in  England.  Its 
most  important  feature  on  the  theological  as  distinct  from  the 
political  side  was  the  endeavour  to  promote  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible  in  the  vernacular,  by  encouraging  translation  and  procuring 
an  order  in  1538  that  a  copy  of  the  Bible  in  English  should  be 
set  up  in  every  church  in  a  convenient  place  for  reading.  Only 
second  in  importance  to  this  was  the  re-adjustment  of  the  creed 
and  liturgy  of  the  church,  which  formed  Cranmer's  principal  work 
during  the  latter  half  of  his  life.  The  progress  of  the  archbishop's 
opinion  towards  that  middle  Protestantism,  if  it  may  be  so 
called,  which  he  did  so  much  to  impress  on  the  formularies  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  gradual,  as  a  brief  enumeration  of  the 
successive  steps  in  that  progress  will  show.  In  1538  an  embassy 
of  German  divines  visited  England  with  the  design,  among  other 
things,  of  forming  a  common  confession  for  the  two  countries. 
This  proved  impracticable,  but  the  frequent  conferences  Cranmer 
had  with  the  theologians  composing  the  embassy  had  doubtless  a 
great  influence  in  modifying  his  views.  Both  in  parliament  and 


in  Convocation  he  opposed  the  Six  Articles  of  1539,  but  he  stood 
almost  alone.  During  the  period  between  1540  and  1543  the 
archbishop  was  engaged  at  the  head  of  a  commission  in  the 
revision  of  the  "  Bishop's  Book  ".  (1537)  or  Institutions  of  a 
Christian  Man,  and  the  preparation  of  the  Necessary  Erudition 
(1543)  known  as  the  "  King's  Book,"  which  was  a  modification 
of  the  former  work  in  the  direction  of  Roman  Catholic  doctrine. 
In  June  1545  was  issued  his  Litany,  which  was  substantially  the 
same  as  that  now  in  use,  and  shows  his  mastery  of  a  rhythmical 
English  style. 

The  course  taken  by  Cranmer  in  promoting  the  Reformation 
exposed  him  to  the  bitter  hostility  of  the  reactionary  party  or 
"  men  of  the  old  learning,"  of  whom  Gardiner  and  Bonner  were 
leaders,  and  on  various  occasions — notably  in  1543  and  1545 — 
conspiracies  were  formed  in  the  council  or  elsewhere  to  effect  his 
overthrow.  The  king,  however,  remained  true  to  him,  and  ail  the 
conspiracies  signally  failed.  It  illustrates  a  favourable  trait  in 
the  archbishop's  character  that  he  forgave  all  the  conspirators. 
He  was,  as  his  secretary  Morice  testifies,  "  a  man  that  delighted 
not  in  revenging." 

Cranmer  was  present  with  Henry  VIII.  when  he  died  (1547). 
By  the  will  of  the  king  he  was  nominated  one  of  a  council  of 
regency  composed  of  sixteen  persons,  but  he  acquiesced  in  the 
arrangement  by  which  Somerset  became  lord  protector.  He 
officiated  at  the  coronation  of  the  boy  king  Edward  VI.,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  instituted  a  sinister  change  in  the  order  of  the 
ceremony,  by  which  the  right  of  the  monarch  to  reign  was  made  to 
appear  to  depend  upon  inheritance  alone,  without  the  concurrent 
consent  of  the  people.  But  Edward's  title  had  been  expressly 
sanctioned  by  act  of  parliament,  so  that  there  was  no  more  room 
for  election  in  his  case  than  in  that  of  George  I.,  and  the  real 
motive  of  the  changes  was  to  shorten  the  weary  ceremony  for  the 
frail  child. 

During  this  reign  the  work  of  the  Reformation  made  rapid 
progress,  the  sympathies  both  of  the  Protector  and  of  the  young 
king  being  decidedly  Protestant.  Cranmer  was  therefore  enabled 
without  let  or  hindrance  to  complete  the  preparation  of  the  church 
formularies,  on  which  he  had  been  for  some  time  engaged.  In 
1547  appeared  the  Homilies  prepared  under  his  direction. 
Four  of  them  are  attributed  to  the  archbishop  himself — those  on 
Salvation,  Faith,  Good  Works  and  the  Reading  of  Scripture. 
His  translation  of  the  German  Catechism  of  Justus  Jonas,  known 
as  Cranmer's  Catechism,  appeared  in  the  following  year.  Im- 
portant, as  showing  his  views  on  a  cardinal  doctrine,  was  the 
Defence  of  the  True  and  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Sacrament, 
which  he  published  in  1550.  It  was  immediately  answered  from 
the  side  of  the  "  old  learning  "  by  Gardiner.  The  first  prayer- 
book  of  Edward  VI.  was  finished  in  November  1548,  and  received 
legal  sanction  in  March  1549;  the  second  was  completed  and 
sanctioned  in  April  1552.  The  archbishop  did  much  of  the  work 
of  compilation  personally.  The  forty-two  articles  of  Edward 
VI.  published  in  1553  owe  their  form  and  style  almost  entirely 
to  the  hand  of  Cranmer.  The  last  great  undertaking  in  which  he 
was  employed  was  the  revision  of  his  codification  of  the  canon 
law,  which  had  been  all  but  completed  before  the  death  of  Henry. 
The  task  was  one  eminently  well  suited  to  his  powers,  and  the 
execution  of  it  was  marked  by  great  skill  in  definition  and  arrange- 
ment. It  never  received  any  authoritative  sanction,  Edward  VI. 
dying  before  the  proclamation  estabh'shing  it  could  be  made,  and 
it  remained  unpublished  until  1571,  when  a  Latin  translation  by 
Dr  Walter  Haddon  and  Sir  John  Cheke  appeared  under  the  title 
Reformatio  legum  ecclesiaslicarum.  It  laid  down  the  lawfulness 
and  necessity  of  persecution  to  the  death  for  heresy  in  the  most 
absolute  terms;  and  Cranmer  himself  condemned  Joan  Bocher 
to  the  flames.  But  he  naturally  loathed  persecution,  and  was  as 
tolerant  as  any  in  that  age. 

Cranmer  stood  by  the  dying  bed  of  Edward  as  he  had  stood  by 
that  of  his  father,  and  he  there  suffered  himself  to  be  persuaded  to 
take  a  step  against  his  own  convictions.  He  had  pledged  himself 
to  respect  the  testamentary  disposition  of  Henry  VIII.  by  which 
the  succession  devolved  upon  Mary,  and  now  he  violated  his  oath 
by  signing  Edward's  "  device  "  of  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Grey. 


CRANNOG 


377 


On  grounds  of  policy  and  morality  alike  the  act  was  quite 
indefensible;  but  it  is  perhaps  some  palliation  of  his  perjury 
that  it  was  committed  to  satisfy  the  last  urgent  wish  of  a  dying 
man,  and  that  he  alone  remained  true  to  the  nine  days'  queen 
when  the  others  who  had  with  him  signed  Edward's  device 
deserted  her.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  was  summoned  to  the 
council — most  of  whom  had  signed  the  same  device — reprimanded 
for  his  conduct,  and  ordered  to  confine  himself  to  his  palace  at 
Lambeth  until  the  queen's  pleasure  was  known.  He  refused  to 
follow  the  advice  of  his  friends  and  avoid  the  fate  that  was 
clearly  impending  over  him  by  flight  to  the  continent.  Any 
chance  of  safety  that  lay  in  the  friendliness  of  a  strong  party  in 
the  council  was  more  than  nullified  by  the  bitter  personal  enmity 
of  the  queen,  who  could  not  forgive  his  share  in  her  mother's 
divorce  and  her  own  disgrace.  On  the  I4th  of  September  1553  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  Ridley  and  Latimer  were  also 
confined.  The  immediate  occasion  of  his  imprisonment  was  a 
strongly  worded  declaration  he  had  written  a  few  days  previously 
against  the  mass,  the  celebration  of  which,  he  heard,  had  been 
re-established  at  Canterbury.  He  had  not  taken  steps  to 
publish  this,  but  by  some  unknown  channel  a  copy  reached  the 
council,  and  it  could  not  be  ignored.  In  November,  with  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  her  husband,  and  two  other  Dudleys,  Cranmer  was 
condemned  for  treason.  Renard  thought  he  would  be  executed, 
but  so  true  a  Romanist  as  Mary  could  scarcely  have  an  ecclesiastic 
put  to  death  in  consequence  of  a  sentence  by  a  secular  court,  and 
Cranmer  was  reserved  for  treatment  as  a  heretic  by  the  highest  of 
clerical  tribunals,  which  could  not  act  until  parliament  'had 
restored  the  papal  jurisdiction.  Accordingly  in  March  1554  he 
and  his  two  illustrious  fellow-prisoners,  Ridley  and  Latimer,  were 
removed  to  Oxford,  where  they  were  confined  in  the  Bocardo  or 
common  prison.  Ridley  and  Latimer  were  unflinching,  and 
suffered  bravely  at  the  stake  on  the  i6th  of  October  1555. 
Cranmer  had  been  tried  by  a  papal  commission,  over  which 
Bishop  Brooks  of  Gloucester  presided,  in  September  1555. 
Brooks  had  no  power  to  give  sentence,  but  reported  to  Rome, 
where  Cranmer  was  summoned,  but  not  permitted,  to  attend. 
On  the  25th  of  November  he  was  pronounced  contumacious  by 
the  pope  and  excommunicated,  and  a  commission  was  sent  to 
England  to  degrade  him  from  his  office  of  archbishop.  This  was 
done  with  the  usual  humiliating  ceremonies  in  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  on  the  i4th  of  February  1556,  and  he  was  then  handed 
over  to  the  secular  power.  About  the  same  time  Cranmer 
subscribed  the  first  two  of  his  "  recantations."  His  difficulty 
consisted  in  the  fact  that,  like  all  Anglicans  of  the  1 6th  century,  he 
recognized  no  right  of  private  judgment,  but  believed  that  the 
state,  as  represented  by  monarchy,  parliament  and  Convocation, 
had  an  absolute  right  to  determine  the  national  faith  and  to 
impose  it  on  every  Englishman.  All  these  authorities  had  now 
legally  established  Roman  Catholicism  as  the  national  faith,  and 
Cranmer  had  no  logical  ground  on  which  to  resist.  His  early 
"  recantations  "  are  merely  recognitions  of  his  lifelong  conviction 
of  this  right  of  the  state.  But  his  dilemma  on  this  point  led  him 
into  further  doubts,  and  he  was  eventually  induced  to  revile  his 
whole  career  and  the  Reformation.  This  is  what  the  govern- 
ment wanted.  Northumberland's  recantation  had  done  much 
to  discredit  the  Reformation,  Cranmer's,  it  was  hoped,  would 
complete  the  work.  Hence  the  enormous  effect  of  Cranmer's 
recovery  at  the  final  scene.  On  the  2ist  of  March  he  was  taken 
to  St  Mary's  church,  and  asked  to  repeat  his  recantation  in  the 
hearing  of  the  people  as  he  had  promised.  To  the  surprise  of  all 
he  declared  with  dignity  and  emphasis  that  what  he  had  recently 
done  troubled  him  more  than  anything  he  ever  did  or  said  in  his 
whole  life;  that  he  renounced  and  refused  all  his  recantations  as 
things  written  with  his  hand,  contrary  to  the  truth  which  he 
thought  in  his  heart;  and  that  as  his  hand'  had  offended,  his 
hand  should  be  first  burned  when  he  came  to  the  fire.  As  he  had 
said,  his  right  hand  was  steadfastly  exposed  to  the  flames.  The 
calm  cheerfulness  and  resolution  with  which  he  met  his  fate  show 
that  he  felt  that  he  had  cleared  his  conscience,  and  that  his 
recantation  of  his  recantations  was  a  repentance  that  needed  not 
to  be  repented  of. 


It  was  a  noble  end  to  what,  in  spite  of  its  besetting  sin  of 
infirmity  of  moral  purpose,  was  a  not  ignoble  life.  The  key  to  his 
character  is  well  given  in  what  Hooper  said  of  him  in  a  letter  to 
Bullinger,  that  he  was  "  too  fearful  about  what  might  happen  to 
him."  This  weakness  was  the  worst  blot  on  Cranmer's  character, 
but  it  was  due  in  some  measure  to  his  painful  capacity  for  seeing 
both  sides  of  a  question  at  the  same  time,  a  temperament  fatal  to 
martyrdom.  As  a  theologian  it  is  difficult  to  class  him.  As  early 
as  1538  he  had  repudiated  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation; 
by  1550  he  had  rejected  also  the  Real  Presence  (Pref.  to  his 
Answer  to  Dr  Richard  Smith] .  But  here  he  used  the  term  "  real " 
somewhat  unguardedly ,  for  in  his  Defence  he  asserts  a  real  presence, 
but  defines  it  as  exclusively  a  spiritual  presence;  and  he  re- 
pudiates the  idea  that  the  bread  and  wine  were  "  bare  tokens." 
His  views  on  church  polity  were  dominated  by  his  implicit 
belief  in  the  divine '  right  of  kings  (not  of  course  the  divine 
hereditary  right  of  kings)  which  the  Anglicans  felt  it  necessary  to 
set  up  against  the  divine  right  of  popes.  He  set  practically  no 
limits  to  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  kings;  they  were  as  fully 
the  representatives  of  the  church  as  the  state,  and  Cranmer  hardly 
distinguished  between  the  two.  Church  and  state  to  him  were 
one. 

AUTHORITIES. — Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII.  vols.  iv.-xx. : 
Acts  of  the  Privy  Council,  1542-1556;  Cat.  of  State  Papers,  Dom. 
and  Foreign;  Foxe's  Acts  and  Monuments;  Strype's  Memorials  of 
Cranmer  (1694) ;  Anecdotes  and  Character  of  Archbishop  Cranmer, 
by  Ralph  Morice,  and  two  contemporary  biographies  (Camden 
Society's  publications) ;  Remains  of  Thomas  Cranmer,  by  Jenkyns 
(1833);  Lives  of  Cranmer,  by  Gilpin  (1784),  Todd  (1831),  Le  Bas,  in 
Hook's  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  vols.  vi.  and  vii.  (1868), 
by  Canon  Mason  (1897),  A.  D.  Innes  (1900)  and  A.  F.  Pollard  (1904) ; 
Froude's  History;  R.  W.  Dixon's  History;  J.  Gairdner's  History 
of  the  Church,  1485-1558;  Bishop  Cranmer's  Recantacyons,  ed. 
Gairdner  (1885).  R.  E.  Chester  Waters's  Chester!  of  Chicheley  (1877) 
contains  a  vast  amount  of  genealogical  information  about  Cranmer 
which  has  only  been  used  by  one  of  his  biographers.  (A.  F.  P.) 

CRANNOG  (Celt,  crann,  a  tree),  the  term  applied  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland  to  the  stockaded  islands  so  numerous  in  ancient 
times  in  the  lochs  of  both  countries.  The  existence  of  these  lake- 
dwellings  in  Scotland  was  first  made  known  by  John  Mackinlay,  a 
fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  in  a  letter  sent  to 
George  Chalmers,  the  author  of  Caledonia,  in  1813,  describing  two 
crannogs,  or  fortified  islands  in  Bute.  The  crannog  of  Lagore,  the 
first  discovered  in  Ireland,  was  examined  and  described  by  Sir 
William  Wilde  in  1840.  But  it  was  not  until  after  the  discovery 
of  the  pile-villages  of  the  Swiss  lakes,  in  1853,  had  drawn  public 
attention  to  the  subject  of  lake-dwellings,  that  the  crannogs  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland  were  systematically  investigated. 

The  results  of  these  investigations  show  that  they  have  little 
in  common  with  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings,  except  that  they  are 
placed  in  lakes.  Few  examples  are  known  in  England,  although 
over  a  hundred  and  fifty  have  been  examined  in  Ireland,  and  more. 
than  half  that  number  in  Scotland.  As  a  rule  they  have  been 
constructed  on  islets  or  shallows  in  the  lochs,  which  have  been 
adapted  for  occupation,  and  fortified  by  single  or  double  lines  of 
stockaded  defences  drawn  round  the  margin.  To  enlarge  the 
area,  or  raise  the  surface-level  where  that  was  necessary, 
layers  of  logs,  brushwood,  heather  and  ferns  were  piled  on 
the  shallow,  and  consolidated  with  gravel  and  stones.  Over  all 
there  was  laid  a  layer  of  earth,  a  floor  of  logs  or  a  pavement  of 
flagstones.  In  rare  instances  the  body  of  the  work  is  entirely  of 
stones,  the  stockaded  defence  and  the  huts  within  its  enclosure 
being  the  only  parts  constructed  of  timber.  Occasionally  a 
bridge  of  logs,  or  a  causeway  of  stones,  formed  a  communication 
with  the  shore,  but  often  the  only  means  of  getting  to  and  from 
the  island  was  by  canoes  hollowed  out  of  a  single  tree.  Remains 
of  huts  of  logs,  or  of  wattled  work,  are  often  found  within  the 
enclosure.  Three  crannogs  in  Dowalton  Loch,  Wigtownshire, 
examined  by  Lord  Lovaine  in  1863,  were  found  to  be  constructed 
of  layers  of  fern  and  birch  and  hazel  branches,  mixed  with 
boulders  and  penetrated  by  oak  piles,  while  above  all  there  was  a 
surface  layer  of  stones  and  soil.  The  remains  of  the  stockade 
round  the  margin  were  of  vertical  piles  mortised  into  horizontal 
bars,  and  secured  by  pegs  in  the  mortised  holes.  The  crannog  oi 


378 


CRANSAC— GRANTOR 


Lochlee,  near  Tarbolton,  Ayrshire,  explored  by  Dr  R.  Munro  in 
1878,  was  100  ft.  in  diameter,  and  had  a  double  row  of  piles,  bound 
by  horizontal  stretchers  with  square  mortise-holes,  enclosing  an 
area  60  ft.  in  diameter.  In  the  centre  was  a  space  40  ft.  square, 
bounded  by  the  remains  of  a  wooden  wall  and  paved  inside  with 
split  logs.  A  partition  divided  it  into  two  equal  parts,  one  of 
which  had  a  doorway  opening  to  the  south,  and  close  by  it  an 
extensive  refuse-heap.  In  the  middle  of  the  other  part  was  a 
stone-paved  hearth,  with  remains  of  three  former  hearths 
underneath.  The  substructure  was  built  up  from  the  bottom  of 
the  loch,  partly  of  brushwood  but  chiefly  of  logs  and  trunks  of 
trees  with  the  branches  lopped  off,  placed  in  layers,  each  disposed 
transversely  or  obliquely  across  the  one  below  it.  A  crannog  in 
Loch-an-Dhugael,  Balinakill,  Argyllshire,  described  by  the  same 
explorer  in  1893,  revealed  a  substructure  similar  to  that  at 
Lochlee,  with  a  double  row  of  piles  enclosing  an  area  45  to  50  ft. 
in  diameter,  within  which  was  a  circular  construction  3  2  ft.  in 
diameter,  which  had  been  supported  by  a  large  central  post  and 
about  twenty  uprights  ranged  round  the  circumference. 

From  their  common  feature  of  a  substructure  of  brushwood  and 
logs  built  up  from  the  bottom,  the  crannogs  have  been  classed  as 
fascine-dwellings,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  typical  pile- 
dwellings  of  the  earlier  periods  in  Switzerland,  whose  platforms 
are  supported  by  piles  driven  into  the  bed  of  .the  lake.  The 
crannog  of  Cloonfinlough  in  Connaught  had  a  triple  stockade  of 
oak  piles,  connected  by  horizontal  stretchers  and  enclosing  an 
area  130  ft.,  in  diameter,  laid  with  trunks  of  oak  trees.  In  the 
crannog  of  Lagore,  county  Meath,  there  were  about  1 50  cartloads 
of  bones,  chiefly  of  oxen,  deer,  sheep  and  swine,  the  refuse  of  the 
food  of  the  occupants.  In  the  crannog  of  Lisnacroghera,  county 
Antrim,  iron  swords,  with  sheaths  of  thin  bronze  ornamented  with 
scrolls  characteristic  of  the  Late  Celtic  style,  iron  daggers,  an  iron 
spear-head  16%  in.  in  length,  and  pieces  of'what  are  called  large 
caldrons  of  iron,  were  found.  Among  the  few  remains  of 
lacustrine  settlements  in  England  and  Wales,  some  are  suggestive 
of  the  typical  crannog  structure.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
the  Glastonbury  lake  village,  excavated  by  Mr  A.  Bulleid  and 
Mr  St  George  Gray.  It  consists  of  more  than  sixty  separate 
dwellings,  grouped  within  a  triangular  palisaded  defence,  formed 
in  the  midst  of  a  marsh  now  partially  reclaimed.  The  dwellings 
were  circular,  from  18  to  35  ft.  in  diameter,  the  substructure 
formed  of  logs  and  brushwood  mingled  with  stones  and  clay,  and 
outlined  by  piles  driven  into  the  bottom  of  the  shallow  lake. 
The  walls  of  the  houses  seem  to  have  been  made  of  wattle-work, 
supported  by  posts  sometimes  not  more  than  a  single  foot  apart. 
The  floors  are  of  clay,  with  a  hearth  of  stones  in  the  centre,  often 
showing  several  renewals  over  the  original.  The  relics  recovered 
show  unmistakably  that  the  occupation  must  be  dated  within 
the  Iron  Age,  but  probably  pre-Roman,  as  no  evidence  of  contact 
with  Roman  civilization  has  been  discovered.  The  stage  of 
civilization  indicated  is  nevertheless  not  a  low  one.  Besides  the 
implements  and  weapons  of  iron  there  are  fibulae  and  brooches  of 
bronze,  weaving  combs  and  spindle-whorls,  a  bronze  mirror  and 
tweezers,  wheel-made  pottery  as  well  as  hand-made,  ornamented 
with  Late  Celtic  patterns,  a  bowl  of  thin  bronze  decorated  with 
bosses,  the  nave  of  a  wooden  wheel  with  holes  for  twelve  spokes, 
and  a  dug-out  canoe.  Another  site  in  Holderness,  Yorkshire, 
examined  by  Mr  Boynton  in  1881,  yielded  evidence  of  fascine 
construction,  with  suggestions  of  occupation  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  Bronze  Age.  Similar  indications  are  adduced  by  Professor 
Boyd  Dawkins  from  the  site  on  Barton  Mere.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  implements  and  weapons  found  in  the  Scottish  and 
Irish  crannogs  are  usually  of  iron,  or,  if  objects  of  bronze  and 
stone  are  found,  they  are  commonly  such  as  were  in  use  in  the 
Iron  Age.  Crannogs  are  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Irish 
annals.  Under  the  year  848  the  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters 
record  the  burning  of  the  island  of  Lough  Gabhor  (the  crannog 
of  Lagore) ,  and  the  same  stronghold  is  noticed  as  again  destroyed 
by  the  Danes  in  933.  Under  the  year  1246  it  is  recorded  that 
Turlough  O'Connor  made  his  escape  from  the  crannog  of  Lough 
Leisi,  and  drowned  his  keepers.  Many  other  entries  occur  in  the 
succeeding  centuries.  In  the  register  of  the  privy  council  of 


Scotland,  April  14,  1608,  it  is  ordered  that  "  the  haill  houssis  of 
defence,  strongholds,  and  crannokis  in  the  Yllis  (the  western 
isles)  pertaining  to  Angus  M'Conneill  of  Dunnyvaig  and  Hector 
M'Cloyne  of  Dowart  sal  be  delyverit  to  His  Majestic."  Judging 
from  the  historical  evidence  of  their  late  continuance,  and  from 
the  character  of  the  relics  found  in  them,  the  crannogs  may  be 
included  among  the  latest  prehistoric  strongholds,  reaching  their 
greatest  development  in  early  historic  times,  and  surviving 
through  the  middle  ages.  In  Ireland,  Sir  William  Wilde  has 
assigned  their  range  approximately  to  the  period  between  the 
9th  and  i6th  centuries;  while  Dr  Munro  holds  that  the  vast 
majority  of  them,  both  in  Ireland  and  in  Scotland,  were  not  only 
inhabited,  but  constructed  during  the  Iron  Age,  and  that  their 
period  of  greatest  development  was  as  far  posterior  to  Roman 
civilization  as  that  of  the  Swiss  Pfahlbateten  was  anterior  to  it. 
(See  LAKE  DWELLINGS.) 

AUTHORITIES. — Dr  R.  Munro,  The  Lake  Dwellings  of  Europe: 
being  the  Rhind  Lectures  in  Archaeology  for  1888  (with  a  bibliography 
of  the  subject)  (London,  1890) ;  Ancient  Scottish  Lake-Dwellings 
or  Crannogs  (Edinburgh,  1882);  Col.  W.  G.  Wood-Martin,  The 
Lake-Dwellings  of  Ireland,  or  Ancient  Lacustrine  Habitations  of  Erin, 
commonly  called  Crannogs  (Dublin,  1886);  Sir  W.  Wilde,  Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  the  Antiquities  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
article  "  Crannogs,  pp.  220-233  (Dublin,  1857);  John  Stuart, 
"  Scottish  Artificial  Islands  or  Crannogs,"  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  vol.  vi.  (Edinburgh,  1865);  A. 
Bulleid,  "  The  Lake  Village  near  Glastonbury,"  in  Proceedings  of 
the  Somersetshire  Archaeological  Society,  vol.  xl.  (1894).  (J.  AN.) 

CRANSAC,  a  town  of  southern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Ave'yron,  28m.  N.W.  of  Rodezby  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  4988; 
commune,  6953.  The  town  is  a  coal-mining  centre  and  has  cold 
mineral  springs,  known  in  the  middle  ages.  There  are  iron- 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  Hills  to  the  north  of  the  town 
contain  disused  coal-mines  which  have  been  on  fire  for  centuries. 
About  5  m.  to  the  south  is  the  fine  Renaissance  chateau  of 
Bournazel,  built  for  the  most  part  by  Jean  de  Buisson,  baron  of 
Bournazel,  about  IS4S-  The  barony  of  Bournazel  became  a 
marquisatein  1624. 

CRANSTON,  a  city  of  Providence  county,  Rhode  Island, 
U.S.A.,  adjoining  the  city  of  Providence  on  the  S.  Pop.  (1890) 
8099;  (1900)  13,343;  (191°)  21,107;  area,  30  sq.  m.  It  is' 
served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway. 
The  surface  of  the  E.  part  is  level,  that  of  the  W.  part  is  some- 
what rolling.  Within  the  city  are  several  villages,  including 
Arlington,  Auburn,  Edgewood,  Fiskeville  and  Oaklawn.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  country  districts  are  engaged  largely  in  the 
growing  of  hay,  Indian  corn,  rye,  oats  and  market-garden 
produce;  in  the  several  villages  cotton  and  print  goods,  fuses  for 
electrical  machinery,  and  automatic  fire-protection  sprinklers  are 
manufactured.  The  value  of  Cranston's  factory  product 
increased  from  $1,402,359  in  1900  to  $2,130,969  in  1905,  or  52%. 
The  state  has  a  farm  of  667  acres  in  the  S.  part  of  the  city; 
on  this  are  the  state  prison,  the  Providence  county  jail,  the 
state  workhouse  and  the  house  of  correction,  the  state  alms- 
house,  the  state  hospital  for  the  insane,  the  Sockanosset  school  for 
boys,  and  the  Oaklawn  school  for  girls — the  last  two  being 
departments  of  the  state  reform  school.  The  post-office  address 
of  all  these  state  institutions  is  Howard.  Cranston  was  settled 
as  ajpart  of  Providence  about  1640  by  associates  of  Roger  Williams, 
and  in  1754  was  incorporated  as  a  separate  township,  but  in  1868, 
in  1873  and  in  1892  portions  of  it  were  reannexed  to  Providence. 
The  township  is  said  to  have  been  named  in  honour  of  Samuel 
Cranston  (1659-1727),  governor  of  Rhode  Island  from  1698  until 
his  death.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1910. 

CRANTOR,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Old  Academy,  was  born, 
probably  about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century  B.C.,  at  Soli  in 
Cilicia.  He  was  a  fellow-pupil  of  Polemo  in  the  school  of  Xeno- 
crates  at  Athens,  and  was  the  first  commentator  on  Plato.  He 
is  said  to  have  written  some  poems  which  he  sealed  up  and 
deposited  in  the  temple  of  Athens  at  Soli  (Diog.  Laertius 
iv.  5.  25).  Of  his  celebrated  work  On  Grief  (Ilept  irevOovs),  a 
letter  of  condolence  to  his  friend  Hippocles  on  the  death  of  his 
children,  numerous  extracts  have  been  preserved  in  Plutarch's 
Consolatio  ad  Apollonium  and  in  the  De  consolatione  of  Cicero, 


CRANWORTH— CRASHAW 


379 


who  speaks  of  it  (Acad.  ii.  44.  135)  in  the  highest  terms  (aureolus 
et  ad  verbum  ediscendus).  Grantor  paid  especial  attention  to 
ethics,  and  arranged  "  good  "  things  in  the  following  order — 
virtue,  health,  pleasure,  riches. 

See  F.  Kayser,  De  Crantore  Academico  (1841);  M.  H.  E.  Meier, 
Opuscula  academica,  ii.  (1863);  F.  Susemihl,  Geschichte  der  griechi- 
schen  Litteratur  in  der  Alexandrinerzeit,  i.  (1891),  p.  118. 

CRANWORTH,  ROBERT  MONSEY  ROLFE,  BARON  (1790- 
1868),  lord  chancellor  of  England,  elder  son  of  the  Rev.  E. 
Rolfe,  was  born  at  Cranworth,  Norfolk,  on  the  i8th  of  December 
1700.  Educated  at  Bury  St  Edmunds,  Winchester,  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in 
1816,  and  attached  himself  to  the  chancery  courts.  He  repre- 
sented Penryn  and  Falmouth  in  parliament  from  1832  till  his 
promotion  to  the  bench  as  baron  of  the  exchequer  in  1839.  In 
1850  he  was  appointed  a  vice-chancellor  and  created  Baron 
Cranworth,  and  in  1852  he  became  lord  chancellor  in  Aberdeen's 
ministry.  He  continued  to  hold  the  chancellorship  in  the 
administration  of  Palmerston  until  the  latter's  resignation  in 
1857.  He  was  not  reappointed  when  Palmerston  returned  to 
office  in  1859,  but  on  the  retirement  of  Lord  Westbury  in  1865  he 
accepted  the  great  seal  for  a  second  time,  and  held  it  till  the  fall 
of  the  Russell  administration  in  1 866.  Cranworth  died  in  London 
on  the  26th  of  July  1868.  Never  a  very  zealous  law  reformer, 
Cranworth's  name  is  associated  in  the  statute  book  with  only  one 
small  measure  on  conveyancing.  But  as  a  judge  he  will  continue 
to  hold  first  rank.  His  judgments  were  marked  by  sound  common 
sense,  while  he  himself  was  remarkably  free  from  the  prejudices 
of  his  profession.  Few  men  of  his  day  enjoyed  greater  personal 
popularity  than  Cranworth.  He  left  no  issue  and  the  title 
became  extinct  on  his  death. 

See  The  Times,  27th  of  July  1868;  E.  Manson,  The  Builders  of 
our  Law  (1904);  E.  Foss,  The  Judges  of  England  (1848-1864); 
J.  B.  Atlay,  Lives  of  the  Chancellors,  vol.  ii.  (1908). 

CRAPE  (an  anglicized  version  of  the  Fr.  cr&pc),  a  silk  fabric  of 
a  gauzy  texture,  having  a  peculiar  crisp  or  crimpy  appearance. 
It  is  woven  of  hard  spun  silk  yarn  "  in  the  gum  "  or  natural 
condition.  There  are  two  distinct  varieties  of  the  textile — soft, 
Canton  or  Oriental  crape,  and  hard  or  crisped  crape.  The  wavy 
appearance  of  Canton  crape  results  from  the  peculiar  manner  in 
which  the  weft  is  prepared,  the  yarn  from  two  bobbins  being 
twisted  together  in  the  reverse  way.  The  fabric  when  woven  is 
smooth  and  even,  having  no  crepe  appearance,  but  when  the  gum 
is  subsequently  extracted  by  boiling  it  at  once  becomes  soft,  and 
the  weft,  losing  its  twist,  gives  the  fabric  the  waved  structure 
which  constitutes  its  distinguishing  feature.  Canton  crapes  are 
used,  either  white  or  coloured,  for  ladies'  scarves  and  shawls, 
bonnet  trimmings,  &c.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  excel  in  the 
manufacture  of  soft  crapes.  The  crisp  and  elastic  structure  of 
hard  crape  is  not  produced  either  in  the  spinning  or  in  the  weaving, 
but  is  due  to  processes  through  which  the  gauze  passes  after  it  is 
woven.  What  the  details  of  these  processes  are  is  known  to  only 
a  few  manufacturers,  who  so  jealously  guard  their  secret  that,  in 
some  cases,  the  different  stages  in  the  manufacture  are  conducted 
in  towns  far  removed  from  each  other.  Commercially  they  are 
distinguished  as  single,  double,  three-ply  and  four-ply  crapes, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  yarn^iscd  in  their  manufacture. 
They  are  almost  exclusively  dyed  black  and  used  in  mourning 
dress,  and  among  Roman  Catholic  communities  for  nuns'  veils, 
&c.  In  Great  Britain  hard  crapes  are  made  at  Braintree  in  Essex, 
Norwich,  Yarmouth,  Manchester  and  Glasgow.  The  crape 
formerly  made  at  Norwich  was  made  with  a  silk  warp  and 
worsted  weft,  and  is  said  to  have  afterwards  degenerated  into 
bombazine.  A  very  successful  imitation  of  real  crape  is  made  in 
Manchester  of  cotton  yarn,  and  sold  under  the  name  of  Victoria 
crape. 

CRASH,  a  technical  textile  term  applied  to  a  species  of  narrow 
towels,  from  14  to  20  in.  wide.  The  name  is  probably  of  Russian 
origin,  the  simplest  and  coarsest  type  of  the  cloth  being  known  as 
"  Russia  crash."  The  latter  is  made  from  grey  flax  or  tow  yarns, 
and  sometimes  from  boiled  yarns.  The  simple  term  "  crash  "  is 
given  to  all  these  narrow  cloths,  but  the  above  distinction  is 
very  convenient,  as  also  are  the  following:  grey,  boiled, bleached, 


plain,  twilled  and  fancy  crash.  A  large  variety  obtains  with  and 
without  fancy  borders,  while  of  late  years  cotton  has  been 
introduced  as  warp,  as  well  as  mixed  and  jute  yarns  for  weft. 
After  the  cloth  has  passed  through  all  the  finishing  operations, 
it  is  cut  up  into  lengths  of  about  3  yds.,  the  two  ends  sewn 
together  "and  it  is  then  ready  to  be  placed  over  a  suspended  roller; 
for  this  reason  it  is  often  termed  "  roller  towelling." 

CRASHAW,  RICHARD  (1613-1650),  English  poet,  styled 
"  the  divine,"  was  born  in  London  about  1613.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  strongly  anti-papistical  divine,  Dr  William  Crashaw  (1572- 
1626),  who  distinguished  himself,  even  in  those  times,  by  the 
excessive  acerbity  of  his  writings  against  the  Catholics.  In  spite 
of  these  opinions,  however,  he  was  attracted  by  Catholic  devotion, 
for  he  translated  several  Latin  hymns  of  the  Jesuits.  Richard 
Crashaw  was  originally  put  to  school  at  Charterhouse,  but  in 
July  1631  he  was  admitted  to  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1634.  The  publication  of 
Herbert's  Temple  in  1633  seoms  to  have  finally  determined  the 
bias  of  his  genius  in  favour  of  religious  poetry,  and  next  year  he 
published  his  first  book,  Epigrammatum  sacrorum  liber,  a 
volume  of  Latin  verses.  In  March  1636  he  removed  to  Peter- 
house,  was  made  a  fellow  of  that  college  in  1637,  and  proceeded 
M.A.  in  1638.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance and  secured  the  lasting  friendship  of  Abraham  Cowley. 
He  was  also  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  Anglican  monk 
Nicholas  Ferrar,  and  frequently  visited  him  at  his  religious 
house  at  Little  Gidding.  In  1641  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to 
Oxford,  but  only  for  a  short  time;  for  when  in  1643  Cowley  left 
Cambridge  to  seek  a  refuge  at  Oxford,  Crashaw  remained  behind, 
and  was  forcibly  ejected  from  his  fellowship  in  1644.  In  the 
confusion  of  the  civil  wars  he  escaped  to  France,  where  he 
finally  embraced  the  Catholic  religion,  towards  which  he  had 
long  been  tending. 

During  his  exile  his  religious  and  secular  poems  were  collected 
by  an  anonymous  friend,  and  published  under  the  title  of  Steps  to 
the  Temple  and  The  Delights  of  the  Muses,  in  one  volume,  in  1646. 
The  first  part  includes  the  hymn  to  St  Teresa  and  the  version  of 
Marini's  Sospetto  d'  H  erode.  This  same  year  Cowley  found  him  in 
great  destitution  at  Paris,  and  induced  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  to 
extend  towards  him  what  influence  she  still  possessed.  At  her 
introduction  he  proceeded  to  Italy,  where  he  became  attendant 
to  Cardinal  Palotta  at  Rome.  In  1648  he  published  two  Latin 
hymns  at  Paris.  He  remained  until  1649  in  the  service  of  the 
cardinal,  to  whom  he  had  a  great  personal  attachment;  but  his 
retinue  contained  persons  whose  violent  and  licentious  behaviour 
was  a  source  of  ceaseless  vexation  to  the  sensitive  English 
mystic.  At  last  his  denunciation  of  their  excesses  became  so 
public  that  the  animosity  of  those  persons  was  excited  against 
him,  and  in  order  to  shield  him  from  their  revenge  he  was  sent  by 
the  cardinal  in  1650  to  Loretto,  where  he  was  made  a  canon  of  the 
Holy  House.  In  less  than  three  weeks,  however,  he  sickened  of 
fever,  and  died  on  the  25th  of  August,  not  without  grave  suspicion 
of  having  been  poisoned.  He  was  buried  in  the  Lady  chapel  at 
Loretto.  A  collection  of  his  religious  -poems,  entitled  Carmen 
Deo  nostro,  was  brought  out  in  Paris  in  1652,  dedicated  at 
the  dead  poet's  desire  to  the  faithful  friend  of  his  sufferings, 
the  countess  of  Denbigh.  The  book  is  illustrated  by  thirteen 
engravings  after  Crashaw's  own  designs. 

Crashaw  excelled  in  all  manner  of  graceful  accomplishments; 
besides  being  an  excellent  Latinist  and  Hellenist,  he  had  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  Italian  and  Spanish;  and  his  skill  in  music, 
painting  and  engraving  was  no  less  admired  in  his  lifetime  than 
his  skill  in  poetry.  Cowley  embalmed  his  memory  in  an  elegy 
that  ranks  among  the  very  finest  in  our  language,  in  which  he, 
a  Protestant,  well  expressed  the  feeling  left  on  the  minds  of 
contemporaries  by  the  character  of  the  young  Catholic  poet: — 

"His  faith,  perhaps,  in  some  nice  tenets  might 
Be  wrong;  his  life,  I'm  sure,  was  in  the  right: 
And  I,  myself,  a  Catholic  will  be, 
So  far  at  least,  dear  saint,  to  pray  to  thee  !  " 

The  poetry  of  Crashaw  will  be  best  appreciated  by  those  who  can 
with  most  success  free  themselves  from  thebondage  of  a  traditional 


38o 


CRASSULACEAE— CRASSUS 


sense  of  the  dignity  of  language.  The  custom  of  his  age  permitted 
the  use  of  images  and  phrases  which  we  now  justly  condemn  as 
incongruous  and  unseemly,  and  the  fervent  fancy  of  Crashaw 
carried  this  licence  to  excess.  At  the  same  time  his  verse  is 
studded  with  fiery  beauties  and  sudden  felicities  of  language, 
unsurpassed  by  any  lyrist  between  his  own  time  and  Shelley's. 
There  is  no  religious  poetry  in  English  so  full  at  once  of  gross  and 
awkward  images  and  imaginative  touches  of  the  most  ethereal 
beauty.  The  temper  of  his  intellect  seems  to  have  been  delicate 
and  weak,  fiery  and  uncertain;  he  has  a  morbid,  almost 
hysterical,  passion  about  him,  even  when  his  ardour  is  most 
exquisitely  expressed,  and  his  adoring  addresses  to  the  saints  have 
an  effeminate  falsetto  that  makes  their  ecstasy  almost  repulsive. 
The  faults  and  beauties  of  his  very  peculiar  style  can  be  studied 
nowhere  to  more  advantage  than  in  the  Hymn  to  Saint  Teresa. 
Among  the  secular  poems  of  Crashaw  the  best  are  Music's  Duel, 
which  deals  with  that  strife  between  the  musician  and  the  night- 
ingale which  has  inspired  so  many  poets,  and  Wishes  to  his 
supposed  Mistress.  In  his  latest  sacred  poems,  included  in  the 
Carmen  Deo  nostro,  sudden  and  eminent  beauties  are  not  wanting, 
but  the  mysticism  has  become  more  pronounced,  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical mannerism  more  harsh  and  repellent.  The  themes  of 
Crashaw's  verses  are  as  distinct  as  possible  from  those  of  Shelley's, 
but  it  may,  on  the  whole,  be  said  that  at  his  best  moments  he 
reminds  the  reader  more  closely  of  the  author  of  Epipsychidion 
than  of  any  earlier  or  later  poet. 

Crashaw  s  works  were  first  collected,  in  one  volume,  in  1858  by 
W.  B.  Turnbull.  In  1872  an  edition,  in  2  volumes,  was  printed  for 
private  subscription  by  the  Rev.  A.  B.  Grosart.  A  complete  edition 
was  edited  (1904)  for  the  Cambridge  University  Press  by  Mr  A.  R. 
Waller.  (E.  G.) 

CRASSULACEAE,  in  botany,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyledons, 
containing  13  genera  and  nearly  500  species;  of  cosmopolitan 
distribution,  but  most  strongly  developed  in  South  Africa.  The 
plants  are  herbs  or  small  shrubs,  generally  with  thick  fleshy  stems 
and  leaves,  adapted  for  life  in  dry,  especially  rocky  places.  The 
fleshy  leaves  are  often  reduced  to  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
structure,  as  in  the  stonecrops  (Sedum),  or  form  closely  crowded 
rosettes  as  in  the  house-leek  (Sempervivum).  Correlated  with 
their  life  in  dry  situations,  the  bulk  of  the  tissue  is  succulent, 
forming  a  water-store,  which  is  protected  from  loss  by  evapora- 
tion by  a  thickly  cuticularized  epidermis  covered  with  a  waxy 
secretion  which  'gives  a  glaucous  appearance  to  the  plant.  The 
flowers  are  generally  arranged  in  terminal  or  axillary  clusters,  and 
are  markedly  regular  with  the  same  number  of  parts  in  each 
series.  This  number  is,  however,  very  variable,  and  often  not 


Stonecrop  (Sedum  acre)  slightly  reduced.     I,  Horizontal  plan  of 
arrangement  of  flower  of  stonecrop ;  2,  flower  of  Sedum  rubens. 

constant  in  one  and  the  same  species.  The  sepals  and  petals  are 
free  or  more  or  less  united,  the  stamens  as  many  or  twice  as  many 
as  the  petals;  the  carpels,  usually  free,  are  equal  to  the  petals  in 
number,  and  form  in  the  fruit  follicles  with  two  or  more  seeds. 


Opposite  each  carpel  is  a  small  scale  which  functions  as  a  nectary. 
Means  of  vegetative  propagation  are  general.  Many  species 
spread  by  means  of  a  creeping  much-branched  rootstock,  or  as  in 
house-leek,  by  runners  which  perish  after  producing  a  terminal 
leaf-rosette.  In  other  cases  small  portions  of  the  stem  or  leaves 
give  rise  to  new  plants  by  budding,  as  in  Bryophyllum,  where 
buds  develop  at  the  edges  of  the  leaf  and  form  new  plants. 

The  order  is  almost  absent  from  Australia  and  Polynesia,  and 
has  but  few  representatives  in  South  America;  it  is  otherwise  very 
generally  distributed.  The  largest  genus,  Sedum,  contains  about 
140  species  in  the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere;  eight  occur  wild  in  Britain,  including  S.  Telephium 
(orpine)  and  5.  acre  (common  stonecrop)  (see  fig.).  The  species 
are  easily  cultivated  and  will  thrive  in  almost  any  soil.  They 
are  readily  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings  or  divisions.  Crassula 
has  about  100  species,  chiefly  at  the  Cape.  Cotyledon,  a  widely 
distributed  genus  with  about  90  species,  is  represented  in  the 
British  Isles  by  C.  Umbilicus,  pennywort,  or  navelwort,  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  succulent  peltate  leaves.  It  grows 
profusely  on  dry  rocks  and  walls,  especially  on  the  western 
coasts,  and  bears  a  spike  of  drooping  greenish  cup-shaped  flowers. 
The  Echeveria  of  gardens  is  now  included  in  this  genus.  Semper- 
vivum has  about  50  species  in  the  mountains  of  central  and 
southern  Europe,  in  the  Himalayas,  Abyssinia,  and  the  Canaries 
and  Madeira;  5.  tectorum,  common  house-leek,  is  seen  often 
growing  on  tops  of  walls  and  house-roofs.  The  hardy  species  will 
grow  well  in  dry  sandy  soil,  and  are  suitable  for  rockeries,old  walls 
or  edgings.  They  are  readily  propagated  by  offsets  or  by  seed. 

The  order  is  closely  allied  to  Saxifragaceae,  from  which  it  is 
distinguished  by  its  fleshy  habit  and  the  larger  number  of  carpels. 

CRASSUS  (literally  "  dense,"  "  thick,"  "  fat  "),  a  family  name 
in  the  Roman  gens  Licinia  (plebeian).  The  most  important  of 
the  name  are  the  following: 

1.  PUBLIUS  LICINIUS  CRASSUS,   surnamed    Dives  Mucianus, 
Roman  statesman,  orator  and  jurist,  consul,  131  B.C.     He  was 
the  son  of  P.  Mucius  Scaevola  (consul  175)  and  was  adopted  by 
a  P.  Licinius  Crassus  Dives.     An  intimate  friend  of  Tiberius 
Gracchus,  he  was  chosen  after  his  death  to  take  his  place  on  the 
agrarian  commission  (see  GRACCHUS).     In  131  when  Crassus  was 
consul  with  L.  Valerius  Flaccus,  Aristonicus,  an  illegitimate  son 
of  Eumenes  II.  of  Pergamum,  laid  claim  to  the  kingdom,  which 
had  been  bequeathed  by  Attalus  III.  to  Rome.     Both  consuls 
were  anxious  to  obtain  the  command  against  him;   Crassus 
was  pontifex  maximus,  and  Flaccus  a  flamen  of  Mars.     Crassus 
declared  that  Flaccus  could  not  neglect  his  sacred  office,  and  im- 
posed a  conditional  fine  on  him  in  the  event  of  his  leaving  Rome. 
The  popular  assembly  remitted  the  fine,  but  Flaccus  was  ordered 
to  obey  the  pontifex  maximus.     Crassus  accordingly  proceeded 
to  Asia,  although  in  doing  so  he  violated  the  rule  which  forbade 
the  pontifex  maximus  to  leave  Italy.     Nothing  is  known  of  his 
military  operations.     But  in  the  following  year,  when  he  was 
making  preparations  to  return,  he  was  surprised  near  Leucae. 
He  was  himself  taken  prisoner  by  a  Thracian  band,  and  provoked 
his  captors,  who  were  ignorant  of  his  identity,  to  put  him  to 
death.     Crassus  does  not  seem  to  have  possessed  much  military 
ability,  but  he  was  greatly  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  law 
and  his  accomplished  oratory.     He  had  acquired  such  a  mastery 
of  the  Greek  language  that,  when  he  presided  over  the  courts  in 
Asia,  he  was  able  to  answer  each  suitor  in  ordinary  Greek  or  any 
of  the  dialects  in  use. 

Cicero,  De  oralore,  i.  50;  Philippics,  xi.  8;  .Plutarch,  Tib. 
Gracchus,  21;  Livy,  Epit.  59;  Val.  Max.  iii.  2.  12,  viii.  7.  6;  Veil. 
Pat.  ii.  4;  Justin  xxxvi.  4;  Orosius  v.  10. 

2.  Lucius  LICINIUS  CRASSUS  (140-91    B.C.),  the   orator,   of 
unknown  parentage.     At  the  age  of  nineteen  (or  twenty-one)  he 
made  his  reputation  by  a  speech  against  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  the 
friend  of  the  Gracchi.     The  law  passed  by  him  and  his  colleague 
Q.  Mucius  Scaevola  during  their  consulship  (95),  to  prevent  those 
passing  as  Roman  citizens  who  had  no  right  to  the  title,  was  one  of 
the  prime  causes  of  the  Social  War  (Cicero,  Pro  Balbo,  xxi.,  De 
officiis,  iii.  u).     During  his  censorship  Crassus  suppressed  the 
newly   founded   schools  of   Latin   rhetoricians   (Aulus   Gellius 


CRATER— CRATINUS 


xv.  n).  He  died  from  excitement  caused  by  his  passionate 
speech  against  the  consul  L.  Marcius  Philippus,  who  had  insulted 
the  Senate.  Crassus  is  one  of  the  chief  speakers  in  the  De  oratore 
of  Cicero,  who  has  also  preserved  a  few  fragments  of  his  speeches. 

3.  PUBLIUS  LICLNIUS  CRASSUS,  called  Dives,  father    of   the 
triumvir.     Little  is  known  of  him  before  he  became  consul  in  97, 
except  that  he  proposed  a  law  regulating  the  expenses  of  the  table, 
which  met  with  general  approval.     During  his  consulship  the 
practice  of  magic  arts  was  condemned  by  a  decree  of  the  senate, 
and    human    sacrifice   was   abolished.     He   was   subsequently 
governor  of  Spain  for  some  years,  during  which  he  gained  several 
successes  over  the  Lusitanians,  and  on  his  return  in  93  was 
honoured  with  a  triumph.     After  the  Social  War,  as  censor  with 
L.  Julius  Caesar,  he  had  the  task  of  enrolling  in  new  tribes  certain 
of  the  Latins  and  Italians  as  a  reward  for  their  loyalty  to  the 
Romans,  but  the  proceedings  seem  to  have  been  interrupted 
by  certain  irregularities.     They  also  forbade  the  introduction  of 
foreign  wines  and  unguents.     Crassus  committed  suicide  in  87,  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Marian  party. 

Plutarch,  Crassus,  4 ;  Aulus  Gellius  ii.  24;  Macrobius,  Saturnalia, 
ii.  13;  Livy,  Epit.  80;  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  xxx.  3;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ. 
i.  72 ;  Festus,  under  Referri. 

4.  MARCUS  LICINIUS  CRASSUS  (c.  115-53  B.C.),  the  Triumvir, 
surnamed  Dives  (rich)  on  account  of  his  great  wealth.     His 
wealth  was  acquired  by  traffic  in  slaves,  the  working  of  silver 
mines,  and  judicious  purchases  of  lands  and  houses,  especially 
those  of  proscribed  citizens.     The  proscription  of  Cinna  obliged 
him  to  flee  to  Spain;  but  after  Cinna's  death  he  passed  into 
Africa,  and  thence  to  Italy,  where  he  ingratiated  himself  with 
Sulla.     Having  been  sent  against  Spartacus,  he  gained  a  decisive 
victory,  and  was  honoured  with  a  minor  triumph.     Soon  after- 
wards he  was  elected  consul  with  Pompey,  and  (70)  displayed  his 
wealth   by   entertaining   the   populace   at    10,000   tables,   and 
distributing  sufficient  corn  to  last  each  family  three  months.     In 
65  he  was  censor,  and  in  60  he  joined  Pompey  and  Caesar  in  the 
coalition  known  as  the  first  triumvirate.     In  55  he  was  again 
consul  with  Pompey,  and  a  law  was  passed,  assigning  the  provinces 
of  the  two  Spains  and  Syria  to  the  two  consuls  for  five  years. 
Crassus  was  satisfied  with  Syria,   which  promised  to  be  an 
inexhaustible  source  of  wealth.     Having  crossed  the  Euphrates 
he  hastened  to  make  himself  master  of  Parthia;  but  he  was 
defeated  at  Carrhae  (53  B.C.)  and  taken  prisoner  by  Surenas,  the 
Parthian  general,  who  put  him  to  death  by  pouring  molten  gold 
down  his  throat.     His  head  was  cut  off  and  sent  to  Orodes,  the 
Parthian  king.     Crassus  was  a  man  of  only  moderate  abilities, 
and  owed  his  importance  to  his  great  wealth. 

See  Plutarch's  Life;  also  CAESAR,  GAIUS  JULIUS;  POMPEY; 
ROME:  History,  II.  "  The  Republic." 

CRATER,  the  cavity  at  the  mouth  of  a  volcanic  duct,  usually 
funnel-shaped  or  presenting  the  form  of  a  bowl,  whence  the  name, 
from  the  Gr.  KparTjp,  a  bowl.  A  volcanic  hill  may  have  a  single 
crater  at,  or  near,  its  summit,  or  it  may  have  several  minor  craters 
on  its  flanks:  the  latter  are  sometimes  called  "  adventitious 
craters  "  or  "  craterlets."  Much  of  the  loose  ejected  material, 
falling  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent,  rolls  down  the  inner 
wall  of  the  crater,  and  thus  produces  a  stratification  with  an 
inward  dip.  The  crater  in  an  active  volcano  is  kept  open  by 
intermittent  explosions,  but  in  a  volcano  which  has  become 
dormant  or  extinct  the  vent  may  become  plugged,  and  the  bowl- 
shaped  cavity  may  subsequently  be  filled  with  water,  forming  a 
crater-lake,  or  as  it  is  called  in  the  Eifel  a  Maar.  In  some 
basaltic  cones,  like  those  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  crater  may 
be  a  broad  shallow  pit,  having  almost  perpendicular  walls,  with 
horizontal  stratification.  Such  hollows  are  consequently  called 
pit-craters.  The  name  caldera  (Sp.  for  cauldron)  was  suggested 
for  such  pits  by  Capt.  C.  E.  Button,  who  regarded  them  as 
having  been  formed  by  subsidence  of  the  walls.  The  term 
caldera  is  often  applied  to  bowl-shaped  craters  in  Spanish- 
speaking  countries.  (See  VOLCANO.) 

CRATES,  Athenian  actor  and  author  of  comedies,  flourished 
about  470  B.C.  He  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Greek  comedy 
proper,  since  he  abandoned  political  lampoons  on  individuals, 
and  introduced  more  general  subjects  and  a  well-developed  plot 


(Aristotle,  Poetica,  5).     He  is  stated  to  have  been  the  first  to 
represent  the  drunkard  on  the  stage  (Aristophanes,  Knights, 

37  SO- 

Fragments  in  Meineke,  Poetarum  Comicorum  Graecorum  frag- 
menta,  i. 

CRATES,  the  name  of  two  Greek  philosophers. 

1.  CRATES,  of  Athens,  successor  of  Polemo  as  leader  of  the 
Old  Academy. 

2.  CRATES,  of  Thebes,  a  Cynic  philosopher  of  the  latter  half  of 
the  4th  century.     He  was  the  famous  pupil  of  Diogenes,  and  the 
last  great  representative  of  Cynicism.   It  is  said  that  he  lost  his 
ample  fortune  owing  to  the  Macedonian  invasion,  but  a  more 
probable  story  is  that  he  sacrificed  it  in  accordance  with  his 
principles,  directing  the  banker,  to  whom  he  entrusted  it,  to  give 
it  to  his  sons  if  they  should  prove  fools,  but  to  the  poor  if  his  sons 
should  prove  philosophers.     He  gave  up  his  life  to  the  attainment 
of  virtue  and  the  propagation  of  ascetic  self-control.     His  habit  of 
entering  houses  for  this  purpose,  uninvited,  earned  him  the 
nickname  QvptvavoixTT}^  ("  Door-opener  ").      His  marriage  with 
Hipparchia,  daughter  of  a  wealthy  Thracian  family,  was  in 
curious  contrast  to  the  prosaic  character  of  his  life.     Attracted  by 
the  nobility  of  his  character  and  undeterred  by  his  poverty  and 
ugliness,  she  insisted  on  becoming  his  wife  in  defiance  of  her 
father's  commands.     The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown,  though  he 
seems  to  have  lived  into  the  3rd  century.     His  writings  were  few. 
According  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  he  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  letters  on  philosophical  subjects;  but  those  extant  under  the 
name  of  Crates  (R.  Hercher,  Epistolographi  Graeci,  1873)  are 
spurious,   the  work  of  later  rhetoricians.     Diogenes  Laertius 
credits  him  with  a  short  poem,  H.aiyi'ia,  and  several  philosophic 
tragedies.     Plutarch's  life  of  Crates  is  lost.    The  great  importance 
of  Crates'  work  is  that  he  formed  the  link  between  Cynicism  and 
the  Stoics,  Zeno  of  Citium  being  his  pupil. 

See  N.  Postumus,  De  Cratete  Cynico  (1823);  F.  Mullach,  Frag. 
Philosophorum  Graecorum,  ii.  (1867);  E.  Wellmann  in  Ersch  and 
Gruber  s  Allgemeine  Encyklopddie;  Diog.  Laert.  vi.  85-93,  96-98. 

CRATES,  of  Mallus  in  Cilicia,  a  Greek  grammarian  and  Stoic 
philosopher  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  leader  of  the  literary  school 
and  head  of  the  library  of  Pergamum.  His  principles  were 
opposed  to  those  of  Aristarchus,  the  leader  of  the  Alexandrian 
school.  He  was  the  chief  representative  of  the  allegorical  theory 
of  exegesis,  and  maintained  that  Homer  intended  to  express 
scientific  or  philosophical  truths  in  the  form  of  poetry.  About 
170  B.C.  he  visited  Rome  as  ambassador  of  Attalus  II.,  king  of 
Pergamum;  and  having  broken  his  leg  and  been  compelled  to 
stay  there  for  some  time,  he  delivered  lectures  which  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  study  of  grammar  and  criticism  among  the 
Romans  (Suetonius,  De  grammalicis,  2).  His  chief  work  was  a 
critical  and  exegetical  commentary  on  Homer. 

See  C.  Wachsmuth,  De  Cratete  Mallota  (1860),  containing  an 
account  of  the  life,  pupils  and  writings  of  Crates;  J.  E.  Sandys, 
Hist,  of  Class.  Schol.  i.  156  (ed.  2,  1906). 

CRATINUS  (c.  520-423  B.C.),  Athenian  comic  poet,  chief 
representative  of  the  old,  and  founder  of  political,  comedy. 
Hardly  anything  is  known  of  his  life,  and  only  fragments  of  his 
works  have  been  preserved.  But  a  good  idea  of  their  character 
can  be  gained  from  the  opinions  of  his  contemporaries,  especially 
Aristophanes.  His  comedies  were  chiefly  distinguished  by  their 
direct  and  vigorous  political  satire,  a  marked  exception  being  the 
burlesque  'OSvo-ffels,  dealing  with  the  story  of  Odysseus  in  the 
cave  of  Polyphemus,  probably  written  while  a  law  was  in  force 
forbidding  all  political  references  on  the  stage.  They  were  also 
remarkable  for  the  absence  of  the  parabasis  and  chorus.  Persius 
calls  the  author  "  the  bold,"  and  even  Pericles  at  the  height  of  his 
power  did  not  escape  his  vehement  attacks,  as  in  the  Nemesis  and 
Archilochi,  the  last-named  a  lament  for  the  loss  of  the  recently 
deceased  Cimon,  with  whose  conservative  sentiments  Cratinus 
was  in  sympathy.  The  Panoptae  was  a  satire  on  the  sophists 
and  omniscient  speculative  philosophers  of  the  day.  Of  his  last 
comedy  the  plot  has  come  down  to  us.  It  was  occasioned  by  the 
sneers  of  Aristophanes  and  others,  who  declared  that  he  was  no 
better  than  a  doting  drunkard.  Roused  by  the  taunt,  Cratinus 
put  forth  all  his  strength,  and  in  423  B.C.  produced  the  Hvriinj, 


CRATIPPUS— CRAUFURD 


or  Bottle,  which  gained  the  first  prize  over  the  Clouds  of  Aristo- 
phanes. In  this  comedv,  good-humouredly  making  fun  of  his 
own  weakness,  Cratinus  represents  the  comic  muse  as  the 
faithful  wife  of  his  youth.  His  guilty  fondness  for  a  rival — the 
bottle — has  aroused  her  jealousy.  She  demands  a  divorce  from 
the  archon;  but  her  husband's  love  is  not  dead  and  he  returns 
penitent  to  her  side.  In  Grenfell  and  Hunt's  Oxyrhynchus 
Papyri,  iv.  (1904),  containing  a  further  instalment  of  their 
edition  of  the  Behnesa  papyri  discovered  by  them  in  1896-1897, 
one  of  the  greatest  curiosities  is  a  scrap  of  paper  bearing  the 
argument  of  a  play  by  Cratinus, — the  Dionysalexandros  (i.e. 
Dionysus  in  the  part  of  Paris),  aimed  against  Pericles;  and  the 
epitome  reveals  something  of  its  wit  and  point.  The  style  of 
Cratinus  has  been  likened  to  that  of  Aeschylus;  and  Aristophanes, 
i  n  the  Knights,  compares  him  to  a  rushing  torrent.  He  appears  to 
have  been  fond  of  lofty  diction  and  bold  figures,  and  was  most 
successful  in  the  lyrical  parts  of  his  dramas,  his  choruses  being  the 
popular  festal  songs  of  his  day.  According  to  the  statement  of  a 
doubtful  authority,  which  is  not  borne  out  by  Aristotle,  Cratinus 
increased  the  number  of  actors  in  comedy  to  three.  He  wrote 
21  comedies  and  gained  the  prize  nine  times. 

Fragments  in  Meineke,  Fragmenla  Comicorum  Graecorwn,  or 
Kock,  Comicorum  Alticorum  fragmenta.  A  younger  Cratinus 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  It  is  considered  that 
some  of  the  comedies  ascribed  to  the  elder  Cratinus  were  really  the 
work  of  the  younger. 

CRATIPPUS  (fl.  c.  375  B.C.),  Greek  historian.  There  are  only 
three  or  four  references  to  him  in  ancient  literature,  and  his 
importance  is  due  to  the  fact  that  he  has  been  identified  by  several 
scholars  (e.g.  Blass)  with  the  author  of  the  historical  fragment 
discovered  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt,  and  published  by  them  in 
Oxyrhynchus  Papyri,  vol.  v.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  fairly 
certain  inference  from  a  passage  in  Plutarch  (De  Gloria  Alhe- 
niensium,  p.  345  E,  ed.  Bernardakis,  ii.  p.  455)  that  he  was  an 
Athenian  writer,  intermediate  in  date  between  Thucydides  and 
Xenophon,  and  that  his  work  continued  the  narrative  of  Thucy- 
dides, from  the  point  at  which  the  latter  historian  stopped  (410 
B.C.)  down  to  the  battle  of  Cnidus  (394  B.C.). 

The  fragments  are  published  in  C.  Miiller's  Fragmenta Historicorum 
Graecorum.  For  authorities  see  under  THEOPOMPUS. 

CRATIPPUS,  of  Mitylene  (ist  century  B.C.),  Peripatetic 
philosopher,  contemporary  with  Cicero,  whose  son  he  taught  at 
Athens,  and  by  whom  he  is  praised  in  the  De  officiis  as  the 
greatest  of  his  school.  He  was  the  friend  of  Pompey  also  and 
shared  his  flight  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  for  the  purpose,  it 
is  said,  of  convincing  him  of  the  justice  of  providence.  Brutus, 
while  at  Athens  after  the  assassination  of  Caesar,  attended  his 
lectures.  The  freedom  of  Rome  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
Caesar,  at  the  request  of  Cicero.  The  only  work  attributed  tc 
him  is  a  treatise  on  divination,  but  his  reputation  may  be 
gauged  by  the  fact  that  in  44  B.C.  the  Areopagus  invited  him  to 
succeed  Andronicus  of  Rhodes  as  scholarch.  He  seems  to  have 
held  that,  while  motion,  sense  and  appetite  cannot  exist  apart 
from  the  body,  thought  reaches  its  greatest  power  when  most  free 
from  bodily  influence,  and  that  divination  is  due  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  divine  mind  on  that  faculty  of  the  human  soul 
which  is  not  dependent  on  the  body. 

Cicero,  De  divinatione,  i.  3,  32,  50,  ii.  48,  52 ;  De  officiis,  i.  I ,  iii.  2 ; 
Plutarch,  Cicero,  24. 

CRAU  (from  a  Celtic  root  meaning  "  stone  "),  a  region  of 
southern  France,  comprised  in  the  department  of  Bouches-du- 
Rhone,  and  bounded  W.  by  the  canal  from  Aries  to  Port  du 
Bouc  and  the  Rhone,  N.  by  the  chain  of  the  Alpines  separating  it 
from  an  analogous  region,  the  Petite  Crau,  E.  by  the  hills  around 
Salon  and  Isties,  S.  by  the  gulf  of  Fos,  an  inlet  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Covering  an  area  of  about  200  sq.  m.,  the  Crau  is  a 
low-lying,  waterless  plain,  owing  its  formation  to  a  sudden 
inundation,  according  to  some  authorities,  of  the  Rhone  and  the 
Durance,  according  to  others  of  the  Durance  alone.  Its  surface 
is  formed  chiefly  of  stones  varying  in  size  from  an  egg  to  a  man's 
head ;  these,  mixed  with  a  proportion  of  fine  soil,  overlie  a 
subsoil  formed  of  stones  cemented  into  a  hard  mass  by  deposits  of 
calcareous  mud,  beneath  which  lies  a  bed  of  loose  stones,  once  the 


sea-bed.  Naturally  sterile  and  poor  in  lime,  the  Crau  is  adapted 
for  agriculture  by  the  process  of  warping,  carried  out  by  means  of 
the  Canal  de  Craponne,  which  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century;  about  one-quarter  of  the  region  in  the  north  and  east 
has  thus  been  covered  by  the  rich  deposits  of  the  waters  of  the 
Durance.  The  soil  also  responds  in  places  to  deep  cultivation 
and  the  application  of  artificial  manures.  By  these  aids,  un- 
cultivated land,  which  before  supplied  only  rough  and  scanty 
pasture  for  a  few  sheep,  has  been  fitted  for  the  growth  of  the  vine, 
olive  and  other  fruits;  where  irrigation  is  practicable,  water- 
meadows  have  been  formed.  The  dryness  of  the  climate  is 
unfavourable  to  the  production  of  cereals. 

CRAUCK,  GUSTAVE  (1827-1905),  French  sculptor,  was  born 
and  died  at  Valenciennes,  where  a  special  museum  for  his  works 
was  erected  in  his  honour.  Though  little  known  to  the  world 
at  large  during  his  long  life,  he  ranks  among  the  best  modern 
sculptors  of  France.  At  Paris  his  "  Coligny  "  monument  is  in  the 
rue  de  Rivoli;  his  "  Victory  "  in  the  Place  des  Arts  et  Metiers; 
and  "  Twilight  "  in  the  Avenue  de  1'Observatoire.  Among  his 
finest  works  is  his  "  Combat  du  Centaure,"  on  which  he  was 
engaged  for  thirty  years,  the  figure  of  the  Lapith  having  been 
modelled  after  the  athlete,  Eugene  Sandow.  In  1907  an  exhibi- 
tion of  his  works  was  held  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts. 

CRAUFURD,  QUINTIN  (1743-1819),  British  author,  was  born 
at  Kilwinnock  on  the  22nd  of  September  1743.  In  early  life  he 
went  to  India,  where  he  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company.  Returning  to  Europe  before  the  age  of  forty  with  a 
handsome  fortune,  he  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  gave  himself  to 
the  cultivation  of  literature  and  art,  and  formed  a  good  library 
and  collection  of  paintings,  coins  and  other  objects  of  antiquarian 
interest.  Craufurd  was  on  intimate  terms  with  the  French  court, 
especially  with  Marie  Antoinette,  and  was  one  of  those  who 
arranged  the  flight  to  Varennes.  He  escaped  to  Brussels,  but  in 
1792  he  returned  to  Paris  in  the  hope  of  rescuing  the  royal 
prisoners.  He  lived  among  the  French  emigres  until  the  peace  of 
Amiens  made  it  possible  to  return  to  Paris.  Through  Talley- 
rand's influence  he  was  able  to  remain  in  Paris  after  the  war  was 
renewed,  and  he  died  there  on  the  23rd  of  November  1819. 

He  wrote,  among  other  works,  The  History,  Religion,  Learning 
and  Manners  of  the  Hindus  ( 1 790) ,  Secret  History  of  the  King  of  France 
and  his  Escape  from  Paris  (first  published  in  1885),  Researches  con- 
cerning the  Laws,  Theology,  Learning  and  Commerce  of  Ancient  and 
Modern  India  (1817),  History  of  the  Bastille  (1798),  On  Pericles  and 
the  Arts  in  Greece  (1815),  Essay  on  Swift  and  his  Influence  on  the 
British  Government  (1808),  Notice  sur  Marie  Antoinette.  (1809), 
Memoires  de  Mme  du  Hausset  (1808). 

CRAUFURD,  ROBERT  (1764-1812),  British  major-general, 
was  born  at  Newark,  Ayrshire,  on  the  sth  of  May  1764,  and 
entered  the  25th  Foot  in  1779.  As  captain  in  the  75th  regiment 
he  first  saw  active  service  against  Tippoo  Sahib  in  1 790-92.  The 
next  year  he  was  employed,  under  his  brother  Charles,  with  the 
Austrian  armies  operating  against  the  French.  Returning  to 
England  in  1797,  he  soon  saw  further  service,  as  a  lieutenant- 
colonel,  on  Lake's  staff  in  the  Irish  rebellion.  A  year  later  he  was 
British  commissioner  onSuvarov's  staff  when  the  Russians  invaded 
Switzerland,  and  at  the  end  of  1 799  was  in  the  Helder  expedition. 
From  1801  to  1805  Lieutenant-Colonel  Craufurd  sat  in  parliament 
for  East  Retford,  but  in  1807  he  resumed  active  service  with 
Whitelock  in  the  unfortunate  Buenos  Aires  expedition.  He  was 
almost  the  only  one  of  the  senior  officers  who  added  to  his 
reputation  in  this  affair,  and  in  1808  he  received  a  brigade 
command  under  Sir  John  Moore.  His  regiments  were  heavily 
engaged  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  famous  retreat,  but  were  not 
present  at  Corunna,  having  been  detached  to  Vigo,  whence  they 
returned  to  England.  Later  in  1809,  once  more  in  the  Peninsula, 
Brigadier-General  Craufurd  was  three  marches  or  more  in  rear 
of  Wellesley's  army  when  a  report  came  in  that  a  great  battle  was 
in  progress.  The  march  which  followed  is  one  almost  un- 
paralleled in  military  annals.  The  three  battalions  of  the 
"  Light  Brigade  "  (43rd,  52nd  and  95th)  started  in  full  marching 
order,  and  arrived  at  the  front  on  the  day  after  the  battle  of 
Talavera,  having  covered  62  m.  in  twenty-six  hours.  Beginning 
their  career  with  this  famous  march,  these  regiments  and  their 


CRAVAT— CRAVEN,  EARL  OF 


chief,  under  whom  served  such  men  as  Charles  and  William 
Napier,  Shaw  and  Colborne,  soon  became  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
best  corps  of  troops  in  Europe,  and  every  engagement  added  to 
their  laurels.  Craufurd's  operations  on  the  Coa  and  Agueda  in 
1810  were  daring  to  the  point  of  rashness,  but  he  knew  the 
quality  of  the  men  he  led  better  than  his  critics  did,  and  though 
Wellington  censured  him  for  his  conduct,  he  at  the  same  time 
increased  his  force  to  a  division  by  the  addition  of  two  picked 
regiments  of  Portuguese  Cacpdores.  The  conduct  of  the  renowned 
"  Light  Division  "  at  Busaco  is  described  by  Napier  in  one  of  his 
most  vivid  passages.  The  winter  of  1810-1811  Craufurd  spent  in 
England,  and  his  division  was  commanded  in  the  interim  by 
another  officer,  who  did  not  display  much  ability.  He  reappeared 
on  the  field  of  the  battle  of  Fuentes  d'Onoro  amidst  the  cheers  of 
his  men,  and  nothing  could  show  his  genius  for  war  better  than  his 
conduct  on  this  day,  in  covering  the  strange  readjustment  of  his 
line  which  Wellington  was  compelled  to  make  in  the  face  of  the 
enemy.  A  little  later  he  obtained  major-general's  rank;  and  on 
the  i gth  of  January  1812,  as  he  stood  on  the  glacis  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  directing  the  stormers  of  the  Light  Division,  he  fell 
mortally  wounded.  His  body  was  carried  out  of  action  by  his 
staff  officer,  Lieutenant  Shaw  of  the  43rd  (see  SHAW  KENNEDY), 
and,  after  lingering  four  days,  he  died.  He  was  buried  in  the 
breach  of  the  fortress  where  he  had  met  his  death,  and  a 
monument  in  St  Paul's  cathedral  commemorates  Craufurd  and 
Mackinnon,  the  two  generals  killed  at  the  storming  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo.  The  exploits  of  Craufurd  and  the  Light  Division  are 
amongst  the  most  cherished  traditions  of  the  British  and 
Portuguese  armies.  One  of  the  quickest  and  most  brilliant ,  if  not 
the  very  first,  of  Wellington's  generals,  he  had  a  fiery  temper, 
which  rendered  him  a  difficult  man  to  deal  with,  but  to  the  day  of 
his  death  he  possessed  the  confidence  and  affection  of  his  men  in 
an  extraordinary  degree. 

His  elder  brother,  Lieutenant-General  Sir  CHARLES  CRAUFURD 
(1761-1821),  entered  the  ist  Dragoon  Guards  in  1778.  Made 
captain  in  the  Queen's  Bays  in  1785,  he  became  the  equerry  and 
intimate  friend  of  the  duke  of  York.  He  studied  in  Germany  for 
some  time,  and,  with  his  brother  Robert's  assistance,  translated 
Tielcke's  book  on  the  Seven  Years'  War  (The  Remarkable  Events 
of  the  War  between  Prussia,  Austria  and  Russia  from  1736  to  1763). 
As  aide-de-camp  he  accompanied  the  duke  of  York  to  the  French 
War  in  1793,  and  was  at  once  sent  as  commissioner  to  the 
Austrian  headquarters,  with  which  he  was  present  at  Neerwinden, 
Caesar's  Camp,  Famars,  Landrecies,  &c.  Major  in  1793,  and 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1794,  he  returned  to  the  English  army  in  the 
latter  year,  and  on  one  occasion  distinguished  himself  at  the 
head  of  two  squadrons,  taking  3  guns  and  1000  prisoners.  When 
the  British  army  left  the  continent  Craufurd  was  again  attached 
to  the  Austrian  army,  and  was  present  at  the  actions  on  the 
Lahn,  the  combat  of  Neumarkt,  and  the  battle  of  Amberg.  At 
the  last  battle  a  severe  wound  rendered  him  incapable  of  further 
service,  and  cut  short  a  promising  career.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  Robert  as  member  of  parliament  for  East  Retford  (1806- 
1812).  He  died  in  1821,  having  become  a  lieutenant-general  and 
a  G.C.B. 

CRAVAT  (from  the  Fr.  cravale,  a  corruption  of  "  Croat  "), 
the  name  given  by  the  French  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  to  the 
scarf  worn  by  the  Croatian  soldiers  enlisted  in  the  royal  Croatian 
regiment.  Made  of  linen  or  muslin  with  broad  edges  of  lace,  it 
became  fashionable,  and  the  name  was  applied  both  in  England 
and  France  to  various  forms  of  neckerchief  worn  at  different 
times,  from  the  loosely  tied  lace  cravat  with  long  flowing  ends, 
called  a  "  Steinkirk  "  from  the  battle  of  1692  of  that  name,  to  the 
elaborately  folded  and  lightly  starched  linen  or  cambric  neckcloth 
worn  during  the  period  of  Beau  Brummell. 

CRAVEN,  PAULINE  MARIE  ARMANDE  AGLAfi  (1808- 
1891),  French  author,  the  daughter  of  an  emigrt  Breton  nobleman, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  i2th  of  April  1808.  Her  father,  the 
comte  Auguste  de  la  Ferronays,  was  a  close  friend  of  the  due  de 
Berri,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  return  to  France  in  1814. 
He  and  his  wife  were  attached  to  the  court  of  Charles  X.  at  the 
Tuileries,  but  a  momentary  quarrel  with  the  due  de  Berri  made 


retirement  imperative  to  the  count's  sense  of  honour.  He  was 
appointed  ambassador  at  St  Petersburg,  and  in  1827  became 
foreign  minister  in  Paris.  Pauline  was  thus  brought  up  in 
brilliant  surroundings,  but  her  strongest  impressions  were  those 
which  she  derived  from  the  group  of  Catholic  thinkers  gathered 
round  Lamennais,  and  her  ardent  piety  furnishes  the  key  of  her 
life.  In  1828  her  father  was  sent  to  Rome,  and  Pauline,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Alexis  Rio,  the  art  critic,  made  her  first  literary 
essay  with  a  description  of  the  emotions  she  experienced  on  a 
visit  to  the  catacombs.  At  the  revolution  of  July,  M.  de  la 
Ferronays  resigned  his  position,  and  retired  with  his  family  to 
Naples.  Here  Pauline  met  her  future  husband,  Augustus 
Craven,  who  was  then  attache  to  the  British  embassy.  His 
father,  Keppel  Richard  Craven,  the  well-known  supporter  of 
Queen  Caroline,  objected  to  his  son's  marriage  with  a  Catholic; 
but  his  scruples  were  overcome,  and  immediately  after  the 
marriage  (1834)  Augustus  Craven  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Mrs  Craven,  whose  family  life  as  revealed  in 
the  Redt  d'une  steur  was  especially  tender  and  intimate,  suffered 
several  severe  bereavements  in  the  years  following  on  her 
marriage.  The  Cravens  lived  abroad  until  1851,  when  the  death 
of  Keppel  Craven  made  his  son  practically  independent  of  his 
diplomatic  career,  in  which  he  had  not  been  conspicuously 
successful.  He  stood  unsuccessfully  for  election  to  parliament 
for  Dublin  in  1852,  and  from  that  time  retired  into  private  life. 
They  went  to  live  at  Naples  in  1853,  and  Mrs  Craven  began  to 
write  the  history  of  the  family  life  of  the  la  Ferronays  between 
1830  and  1836,  its  incidents  being  grouped  round  the  love  story 
of  her  brother  Albert  and  his  wife  Alexandrine.  This  book,  the 
Recit  d'une  sasur  (1866,  Eng.  trans.  1868),  was  enthusiastically 
received  and  was  awarded  a  prize  by  the  French  Academy. 
Straitened  circumstances  made  it  desirable  for  Mrs  Craven  to  earn 
money  by  her  pen.  Anne  Severin  appeared  in  1868,  Fleurange  in 
1871,  Le  Mot  d'enigme  in  1874,  Le  Valbriant  (Eng.  trans.,  Lucia) 
in  1886.  Among  her  miscellaneous  works  may  be  mentioned 
La  Sceur  Natalie  Narischkin  (1876),  Deux  Incidents  de  la  question 
catholique  en  Angleterre  (1875),  Lady  Georgiana  Fullerton,  sa 
vie  et  ses  (enures  (1888).  Mrs  Craven's  charming  personality  won 
her  many  friends.  She  was  a  frequent  guest  with  Lord 
Palmerston,  Lord  Ellesmere  and  Lord  Granville.  She  died  in 
Paris  on  the  ist  of  April  1891.  Her  husband,  who  died  in  1884, 
translated  the  correspondence  of  Lord  Palmerston  and  of  the 
Prince  Consort  into  French. 

See  Memoir  of  Mrs  Augustus  Craven  (1894),  by  her  friend  Mrs 
Mary  Catherine  Bishop;  also  Paolina  Craven,  by  T.  F.  Ravaschieri 
Fieschi  (1892).  There  is  a  biography  of  Mrs  Craven's  father,  "  En 
Emigration,"  in  Etienne  Lamy's  Temoins  des  jours  passes  (1907). 

CRAVEN,  WILLIAM  CRAVEN,  EARL  OF  (1608-1697),  eldest 
son  of  Sir  William  Craven,  lord  mayor  of  London,  and  of 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Alderman  William  Whitmore,  was  born  in 
June  1608,  matriculated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1623,  and 
joined  the  society  of  the  Middle  Temple  in  1624.  He  had  already 
inherited  his  father's  vast  fortune  by  the  latter's  death  in  1618, 
and  before  he  came  of  age  he  had  distinguished  himself  in  the 
military  service  of  the  princes  of  Orange.  Returning  home  he  was 
knighted  and  created  Baron  Craven  of  Hampstead  Marshall  in 
Berkshire  in  1627.  He  early  showed  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  of 
the  unfortunate  king  and  queen  of  Bohemia,  driven  from  their 
dominions,  and  in  1632  joined  Frederick  in  a  military  expedition 
to  recover  the  Palatinate,  meeting  Gustavus  Adolphus  at 
Hochst,  whose  praise  he  gained  by  being  the  first,  though 
wounded,  to  mSunt  the  breach  at  the  capture  of  Kreuznach  on 
the  22nd  of  February.  The  Swedish  king,  however,  refused  to 
allow  the  elector  an  independent  command  for  the  defence  of  the 
Palatinate,  and  Craven  returned  to  England.  In  May  1633  he 
was  placed  on  the  council  of  Wales.  '  In  1637  he  took  part  in  a 
second  expedition  in  aid  of  the  palatine  family  on  the  Lower 
Rhine,  with  the  young  elector  Charles  Louis  and  his  brother 
Rupert,  and  offered  as  a  contribution  the  sum  of  £30,000,  but 
their  forces  were  defeated  near  Wessel  and  Craven  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  together  with  Rupert.  He  purchased  his  freedom 
in  1639,  and  then  joined  the  small  court  of  the  exiled  queen 


CRAWFORD,  EARLS  OF 


Elizabeth  at  the  Hague  and  at  Rhenen,  supplying  her  generously 
with  funds  on  the  cessation  of  her  English  pension  owing  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  He  contributed  also  large  sums  in  aid 
of  Charles  I.,  and,  after  his  execution,  of  Charles  II.,  the  amount 
bestowed  upon  the  latter  being  alone  computed  at  £50,000,' 
notwithstanding  that  since  1651  the  greater  part  of  his  estates  had 
been  confiscated  by  the  parliament  and  his  house  at  Caversham 
reduced  to  ruins.2  At  the  Restoration  he  accompanied  Charles  to 
England,  regained  his  estates,  and  was  rewarded  with  offices  and 
honours.  He  was  made  colonel  of  several  regiments  including 
the  Coldstream,  and  in  1667  lieutenant-general  and  also  high 
steward  of  Cambridge  University.  In  1666  he  became  a  privy 
councillor,  but  was  not  included  later  in  1679  in  Sir  William 
Temple's  remodelled  council.3  In  1668  he  became  a  governor  of 
the  Charterhouse,  was  appointedlord-lieutenantof  Middlesex, and 
master  of  the  Trinity  House  in  1670;  and  in  1673  a  commissioner 
for  Tangier.  He  was  one  of  the  lords  proprietors  of  Carolina  and 
a  member  of  the  Fishery  Committee. 

In  March  1664  he  was  created  viscount  and  earl  of  Craven. 
Meanwhile  his  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  queen  of  Bohemia 
was  unceasing,  and  on  her  return  to  England  he  offered  her 
hospitality  at  his  house  in  Drury  Lane,  where  she  remained  till 
February  1662.  At  her  death,  within  a  fortnight  afterwards,  she 
bequeathed  to  Craven  her  papers  and  her  valuable  collection  of 
portraits,  but  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  belief  entertained 
later  that  she  had  married  him.  In  1682  he  became  the  guardian 
of  Ruperta,  the  natural  daughter  of  his  old  comrade  in  arms, 
Prince  Rupert.  He  was  again  made  a  privy  councillor  and 
lieutenant-general  of  the  forces  by  James  on  his  accession,  and  at 
the  ageof  eighty  was  incommandof  the  Coldstreams  at  Whitehall 
on  the  1 7th  of  December  1688  when  the  Dutch  troops  arrived. 
He  refused  to  withdraw  them  at  the  bidding  of  Count  Solms,  the 
Dutch  commander,  but  obeyed  later  James's  own  orders  to 
retire.  His  public  career  now  closed  and  he  filled  no  office  after 
the  revolution.  Although  his  claims  upon  the  gratitude  of  the 
Stuart  royal  family  were  immense,  Craven  had  never  been 
considered  a  possible  candidate  for  high  political  place.  His 
ability  was  probably  small,  and  he  is  spoken  of  with  little  respect 
in  the  V  erney  Papers  and  by  the  electress  Sophia  in  her  Memoirs. 
The  latter  retails  some  foolish  observations  made  by  Craven,  and 
Pepys  was  disgusted  at  his  coarse  and  stupid  jests  at  the  Fishery 
Board,  where  his  "very  confused  and  very  ridiculous  proceedings" 
are  also  censured.4  His  military  prowess,  however,  his  generosity 
and  his  public  spirit  are  undoubted.  He  showed  great  activity 
during  the  plague  and  fire  of  London.  He  was  a  patron  of 
letters  and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  inherited  Combe 
Abbey  near  Coventry  from  his  father,  and  purchased  Hampstead 
Marshall  in  Berkshire,  where  he  built  a  house  on  the  model  of 
Heidelberg  Castle. 

He  died  unmarried  on  the  9th  of  April  1697.  when  the  earldom 
became  extinct,  the  barony  passing  by  special  remainder  to  his 
cousin  William,  2nd  Baron  Craven;  the  present  earl  of  Craven 
(the  earldom  being  revived  in  1801)  is  descended  from  John,  a 
younger  brother  of  the  latter.  The  first  Lord  Craven's  brother 
John,  who  was  created  Baron  Craven  of  Ryton  in  Shropshire  and 
who  died  in  1648,  was  the  founder  of  the  Craven  scholarships 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities,  of  which  the  first  was 
awarded  in  1649. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See  the  article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biography 
(and  Errata) ;  Lives  of  the  Princesses  of  England  (Elizabeth,  eldest 
daughter  of  James  I.),  vol.  vi.,  by  M.  A.  E.  Green  (1854);  Memoirs 
of  Elizabeth  Stuart,  by  Miss  Benger  (1825);  Memiffren  der  Herzogin 
Sophie,  ed.  by  A.  Kocher  in  Publ.  aus  den  k.  prewssischen  Staats- 
archiven,  Bd.  iv.  (1879) ;  "  Briefe  der  Elisabeth  Stuart  "  in  Bibliothek 
des  litterarischen  Vereins  (Stuttgart,  1903),  155,  157;  G.  E.  G.'s 
Complete  Peerage  (1889),  ii.  404;  Lives  and  Characters  of  the  Most 
Illustrious  Persons  (1713),  p.  546;  Macaulay's  Hist,  of  England,  ii. 
584  (1858);  Verney  Papers  (Camden  Soc.,  1853);  Cal.  of  St.  Pap. 
Dom. ;  Tracts  relating  to  the  confiscation  of  his  estate  in  Cat.  of  the 
British  Museum.  Much  information  also  doubtless  exists  in  the 
Craven  MSS.  at  Combe  Abbey.  (P.  C.  Y.) 

Verney  Papers,  189  note.  *  Evelyn's  Diary,  June  8th,  1654. 

3  Hist.  MSS.  Corn.:  Various  Collections,  ii'.  394. 
*  Diary,  Oct.  i8th  and  Nov.  i8th,  1664,  and  March  loth,  1665. 


CRAWFORD,  EARLS  OF.  The  house  of  Lindsay,  of  which  the 
earl  of  Crawford  is  the  head,  traces  its  descent  back  to  the  barons 
of  Crawford  who  flourished  in  the  izth  century,  and  has  included 
a  number  of  men  who  have  played  leading  parts  in  the  history  of 
Scotland.  It  is  said  that  "  though  other  families  in  Scotland  may 
have  been  of  more  historic,  none  can  in  genealogical  importance 
equal  that  of  Lindsay,"  and  the  Lindsays  claim  that  "  the  pre- 
decessors of  the  ist  earl  of  Crawford  were  barons  at  the  period  af 
the  earliest  parliamentary  records,  and  that,  in  fact,  they  were 
never  enrolled  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term,  but  were  among 
the  pares,  of  which  kings  are  primi,  from  the  commencement  of 
recorded  history."  Again  we  are  told,  "  the  earldom  of  Crawford, 
therefore,  like  those  of  Douglas,  of  Moray,  Ross,  March  and  others 
of  the  earlier  times  of  feudalism,  formed  a  petty  principality,  an 
imperium  in  imperio."  Moreover,  the  earls  "  had  also  a  concilium, 
or  petty  parliament,  consisting  of  the  great  vassals  of  the  earldom, 
with  whose  advice  they  acted  on  great  and  important  occasions." 

Sir  James  Lindsay  (d.  1396),  9th  lord  of  Crawford  in  Lanark- 
shire, was  the  only  son  of  Sir  James  Lindsay,  the  8th  lord  (d.  c. 
I3S7)>  and  was  related  to  King  Robert  II.;  he  was  descended 
from  Sir  Alexander  Lindsay  of  Luffness  (d.  1309),  who  obtained 
Crawford  and  other  estates  in  1 297  and  who  was  high  chamberlain 
of  Scotland.  The  gth  lord  fought  at  Otterburn,  and  Froissart 
tells  of  his  wanderings  after  the  fight.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
cousin,  Sir  David  Lindsay  (c.  1360-1407),  son  of  Sir  Alexander 
Lindsay  of  Glenesk  (d.  1382),  and  in  1398  Sir  David,  who  married 
a  daughter  of  Robert  II.,  was  made  earl  of  Crawford. 

The  most  important  of  the  early  earls  of  Crawford  are  the  4th 
and  the  sth  earls.  Alexander  Lindsay,  the  4th  earl  (d.  1454), 
called  the  "  tiger-earl,"  was,  like  his  father  David  the  3rd  earl, 
who  was  killed  in  1446,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Scottish 
nobles;  for  some  time  he  was  in  arms  against  King  James  II.,  but 
he  submitted  in  1452.  His  son  David,  the  sth  earl  (c.  1440- 
1495),  was  lord  high  admiral  and  lord  chamberlain;  he  went 
frequently  as  an  ambassador  to  England  and  was  created  duke  of 
Montrose  in  1488,  but  the  title  did  not  descend  to  his  son. 
Montrose  fought  for  James  III.  at  the  battle  of  Sauchieburn,  and 
his  son  John,  the  6th  earl  (d.  1513),  was  slain  at  Flodden. 

David  Lindsay,  Sth  earl  of  Crawford  (d.  1542),  son  of 
Alexander,  the  yth  earl  (d.  1517),  had  a  son  Alexander,  master  of 
Crawford  (d.  1542),  called  the  "  wicked  master,"  who  quarrelled 
with  his  father  and  tried  to  kill  him.  Consequently  he  was 
sentenced  to  death,  and  the  Sth  earl  conveyed  the  earldom  to  his 
kinsman,  David  Lindsay  of  Edzell  (d.  1558),  a  descendant  of  the 
3rd  earl  of  Crawford,  thus  excluding  Alexander  and  his  descend- 
ants, and  in  1542  David  became  9th  earl  of  Crawford.  But  the 
gth  earl,  although  he  had  at  least  two  sons,  named  the  wicked 
master's  son  David  as  his  heir,  and  consequently  in  1558  the 
earldom  came  back  to  the  elder  line  of  the  Lindsays,  the  gth  earl 
being  called  the  "  interpolated  earl." 

David  Lindsay,  loth  earl  of  Crawford  (d.  1574),  was  a  supporter 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David 
(c.  1547-1607)  as  i  ith  earl.  This  David,  a  grandson  of  Cardinal 
Beaton,  was  concerned  in  some  of  the  risings  under  James  VI.; 
he  was  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism  and  was  in  communica- 
tion with  the  Spaniards  about  an  invasion  of  England.  After  his 
death  the  earldom  passed  to  his  son  David  (d.  1621),  a  lawless 
ruffian,  and  then  to  his  brother,  Sir  Henry  Lindsay  or  Charteris 
(d.  1623),  who  became  I3th  earl  of  Crawford.  Sir  Henry's  three 
sons  became  in  turn  earls  of  Crawford,  the  youngest,  Ludovic, 
succeeding  in  1639. 

Ludovic  Lindsay,  i6th  earl  of  Crawford  (1600-1652),  took  part 
in  the  strange  plot  of  1641  called  the  "  incident."  Having 
joined  Charles  I.  at  Nottingham  in  1642,  he  fought  at  Edgehill,  at 
Newbury  and  elsewhere  during  the  Civil  War;  in  1644,  just  after 
Marston  Moor,  the  Scottish  parliament  declared  he  had  forfeited 
his  earldom,  and,  following  the  lines  laid  down  when  this  was 
regranted  in  1642,  it  was  given  to  John  Lindsay,  ist  earl  of 
Lindsay.  Ludovic  was  taken  prisoner  at  Newcastle  in  1644  and 
was  condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentence  was  not  carried  out, 
and  in  1645  he  was  released  by  Montrose,  under  whom  he  served 
until  the  surrender  of  the  king  at  Newark.  Later  he  was  in 


CRAWFORD,  EARLS  OF 


385 


Ireland  and  in  Spain  and  he  died  probably  in  France  in  1652. 
He  left  no  issue. 

The  earl  of  Lindsay,  who  thus  supplanted  his  kinsman, 
belonged  to  the  family  of  Lindsay  of  the  Byres,  a  branch  of  the 
Lindsays  descended  from  Sir  David  Lindsay  of  Crawford  (d.  c. 
1355),  the  grandfather  of  the  ist  earl  of  Crawford.  Sir  David's 
descendant,  Sir  John  Lindsay  of  the  Byres  (d.  1482),  was  created 
a  lord,  of  parliament  as  Lord  Lindsay  of  the  Byres  in  1445,  and 
his  son  David,  the  2nd  lord  (d.  1490),  fought  for  James  III.  at  the 
battle  of  Sauchieburn.  The  most  prominent  member  of  this  line 
was  Patrick,  6th  Lord  Lindsay  of  the  Byres  (d.  1589),  a  son  of 
John  the  5th  lord  (d.  1563),  who  was  a  temperate  member  of  the 
reforming  party.  Patrick  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  Scottish 
nobles  to  join  the  reformers,  and  he  was  also  one  of  the  most 
violent.  He  fought  against  the  regent,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  and  the 
French;  then  during  a  temporary  reconciliation  he  assisted 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  to  crush  the  northern  rebels  at  Corrichie  in 
1562,  but  again  among  the  enemies  of  the  queen  he  took  part  in 
the  murder  of  David  Rizzio  and  signed  the  bond  against  Bothwell, 
whom  he  wished  to  meet  in  single  combat  after  the  affair  at 
Carberry  Hill  in  1 565.  Lindsay,  who  was  a  brother-in-law  and 
ally  of  the  regent  Murray,  carried  Mary  to  Lochleven  castle  and 
obtained  her  signature  to  the  deed  of  abdication;  he  fought 
against  her  at  Langside,  and  after  Murray's  murder  he  was  one 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  party  which  supported  the  throne  of  James 
VI.  In  1578,  however,  he  was  among  those  who  tried  to  drive 
Morton  from  power,  and  in  1582  he  helped  to  seize  the  person  of 
the  king  in  the  plot  called  the  "  raid  of  Ruthven,"  afterwards 
escaping  to  England.  Lindsay  had  returned  to  Scotland  when 
he  died  on  the  nth  of  December  1589.  His  successor  was  his  son, 
James  the  7th  lord  (d.  1601). 

Patrick's  great-grandson,  John  Lindsay,  I7th  earl  of  Crawford 
and  ist  earl  of  Lindsay  (c.  1598-1678),  was  the  son  of  Robert 
Lindsay,  gth  Lord  Lindsay  of  the  Byres,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
loth  lord  in  1616.  In  1633  he  was  created  earl  of  Lindsay,  and 
having  become  a  leader  of  the  Covenanters  he  marched  with  the 
Scottish  army  into  England  in  1644  and  was  present  at  Marston 
Moor;  in  1644  also  he  obtained  the  earldom  of  Crawford  in  the 
manner  already  mentioned.  In  the  same  year  he  became  lord 
high  treasurer  of  Scotland,  and  in  1645  president  of  the  parlia- 
ment. Having  fought  against  Montrose  at  Kilsyth,  the  earl  of 
Crawford-Lindsay,  as  he  was  called,  changed  sides,  and  in  1647 
he  signed  the  "  engagement  "  for  the  release  of  Charles  I., 
losing  all  his  offices  by  the  act  of  classes  when  his  enemy,  the 
marquess  of  Argyll,  obtained  the  upper  hand.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Scots  at  Dunbar,  however,  Crawford  regained  his  influence 
in  Scottish  politics,  but  from  1651  to  1660  he  was  a  prisoner  in 
England.  In  1661  he  was  restored  to  his  former  dignities,  but  his 
refusal  to  abjure  the  covenant  compelled  him  to  resign  them  two 
years  later.  His  son,  William,  i8th  earl  of  Crawford  and  2nd 
earl  of  Lindsay  (1644-1698),  was,  like  his  father,  an  ardent 
covenanter;  in  1690  he  was  president  of  the  Convention  parlia- 
ment. Mr  Andrew  Lang  says  this  earl  was  "  very  poor,  very 
presbyterian,  and  his  letters,  almost  alone  among  those  of  the 
statesmen  of  the  period,  are  rich  in  the  texts  and  unctuous  style 
of  an  older  generation." 

William's  grandson,  John  Lindsay,  2oth  earl  of  Crawford  and 
4th  earl  of  Lindsay  (1702-1749),  won  a  high  reputation  as  a 
soldier.  He  held  a  command  in  the  Russian  army,  seeing  service 
against  the  Turk,  and  he  also  served  against  the  same  foe  under 
Prince  Eugene.  Having  returned  to  the  English  army  he  led  the 
life-guards  at  Dettingen  and  distinguished  himself  at  Fontenoy; 
later  he  served  against  France  in  the  Netherlands.  He  left  no 
sons  when  he  died  in  December  1749,  and  his  kinsman,  George 
Crawford-Lindsay,  4th  Viscount  Garnock  (c.  1723-1781),  a 
descendant  of  the  i7th  earl,  became  zist  earl  of  Crawford  and 
$th  earl  of  Lindsay.  When  George's  son,  George,  the  22nd  earl 
(1758-1808),  died  unmarried  in  January  1808,  the  earldoms  of 
Crawford  and  Lindsay  were  separated,  George's  kinsman,  David 
Lindsay  (d.  1809),  a  descendant  of  the  4th  Lord  Lindsay  of 
the  Byres,  becoming  7th  earl  of  Lindsay.  Both  David  and  his 
successor  Patrick  (d.  1839)  died  without  sons,  and  in  1878  the 
vn.  13 


House  of  Lords  decided  that  Sir  John  Trotter  Bethune,  Bart. 
(1827-1894),  also  a  descendant  of  the  4th  Lord  Lindsay  of  the 
Byres,  was  entitled  to  the  earldom.  In  1894  John's  cousin, 
David  Clark  Bethune  (b.  1832),  became  nth  earl  of  Lindsay. 

The  earldom  of  Crawford  remained  dormant  from  1808,  when 
this  separation  took  place,  until  1848,  when  the  House  of  Lords 
adjudged  it  to  James  Lindsay,  7th  earl  of  Balcarres. 

The  earls  of  Balcarres  are  descended  from  John  Lindsay,  Lord 
Menmuir  (1552-1598),  a  younger  son  of  David  Lindsay,  gth 
earl  of  Crawford.  John,  who  bought  the  estate  of  Balcarres  in 
Fifeshire,  became  a  lord  of  session  as  Lord  Menmuir  in  1581 ;  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Scottish  privy  council  and  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  treasury  called  the  Octavians.  He  had  great 
influence  with  James  VI.,  helping  the  king  to  restore  episcopacy 
after  he  had  become,  in  1595,  keeper  of  the  privy  seal  and  a 
secretary  of  state.  Menmuir,  a  man  of  great  intellectual  attain- 
ments, left  two  sons,  the  younger,  David,  succeeding  to  the 
family  estates  on  his  brother's  death  in  1601.  David  (c.  1586- 
1641),  a  notable  alchemist,  was  created  Lord  Lindsay  of  Balcarres 
in  1633,  and  in  1651  his  son  Alexander  was  made  earl  of  Balcarres. 

Alexander  Lindsay,  ist  earl  of  Balcarres  (1618-1659),  the 
"  Rupert  of  the  Covenant,"  fought  against  Charles  I.  at  Marston 
Moor,  at  Alford  and  at  Kilsyth,  but  later  he  joined  the  royalists, 
signing  the  "  engagement  "  for  the  release  of  the  king  in  1647, 
and  having  been  created  earl  of  Balcarres  took  part  in  Glencairn's 
rising  in  1653.  Richard  Baxter  speaks  very  highly  of  the  earl, 
who  died  at  Breda  in  August  1659.  His  son  Charles  (d.  1662) 
became  2nd  earl  of  Balcarres,  and  another  son,  Colin  (c.  1654- 
1722),  became  3rd  earl.  Colin,  who  was  perhaps  the  most 
trusted  of  the  advisers  of  James  II.,  wrote  some  valuable  Memoirs 
touching  the  Revolution  in  Scotland,  1688-1690;  these  were  first 
published  in  1714,  and  were  edited  for  the  Bannatyne  Club  by  the 
25th  earl  of  Crawford  in  1841.  Having  been  allowed  to  return  to 
Scotland  after  an  exile  in  France,  the  earl  joined  the  Jacobite 
rising  in  1715.  His  successor  was  his  son  Alexander,  the  4th 
earl  (d.  1736),  who  was  followed  by  another  son,  James,  the  5th 
earl  (1691-1768),  who  fought  for  the  Stuarts  at  Sheriffmuir. 
Afterwards  James  was  pardoned  and  entered  the  English  army, 
serving  under  George  II.  at  Dettingen.  This  earl  wrote  some 
Memoirs  of  the  Lindsays,  which  were  completed  by  his  son 
Alexander,  the  6th  earl  (1752-1825).  Alexander  was  with  the 
English  troops  in  America  during  the  struggle  for  independence, 
and  was  governor  of  Jamaica  from  1794  to  1801,  filling  a  difficult 
position  with  great  credit  to  himself.  He  became  a  general  in 
1803,  and  died  at  Haigh  Hall,  near  Wigan,  which  he  had  received 
through  his  wife,  Elizabeth  Dalrymple  (1759-1816),  on  the  27th 
of  May  1825.  This  earl  did  not  claim  the  earldom  of  Crawford, 
although  he  became  earl  dejure  in  1808,  but  in  1843  his  son  James 
Lindsay  ( 1 783-1 869)  did  so,  and  in  1 848  the  claim  was  allowed  by 
the  House  of  Lords.  James  was  thus  24th  earl  of  Crawford  and 
7th  earl  of  Balcarres;  in  1826  he  had  been  created  a  peer  of  the 
United  Kingdom  as  Baron  Wigan  of  Haigh  Hall. 

His  son,  Alexander  William  Crawford  Lindsay,  25th  earl  of 
Crawford  (1812-1880),  was  born  at  Muncaster  Castle,  Cumber- 
land ,  on  the  1 6th  of  October  1 8 1 2 ,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge. He  travelled  much  in  Europe  and  the  East,  and  was 
most  learned  in  genealogy  and  history.  His  more  important 
works  include  Lives  of  the  Lindsays  (3  vols.,  1849),  Letters  on 
Egypt,  Edom  and  the  Holy  Land  (1838),  Sketches  of  the  History  of 
Christian  Art  (1847  and '1882),  Etruscan  Inscriptions  Analysed 
(1872),  and  The  Earldom  of  Mar  during  500  years  (1882).  He 
succeeded  to  the  title  in  September  1869,  and  died  at  Florence 
on  the  I3th  of  December  1880.  A  year  later  it  was  discovered 
that  the  family  vault  at  Dunecht  had  been  broken  into  and  the 
body  stolen.  It  was  not  until  the  i8th  of  July  1882  that  the 
police,  acting  on  the  confession  of  an  eye-witness  of  the  desecra- 
tion, found  the  remains,  which  were  then  reinterred  at  Haigh 
Hall,  Wigan. 

His  only  son,  James  Ludovic  Lindsay,  a6th  earl  of  Crawford 
(1847-  ),  British  astronomer  and  orientalist,  was  born  at  St 
Germain-en-Laye,  France,  on  the  28th  of  July  1847.  Educated 
at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  he  devoted  himself  to 


386 


CRAWFORD,  F.  MARION— CRAWFORD,  W.  H. 


astronomy,  in  which  he  early  achieved  distinction.  In  1870  he 
went  to  Cadiz  to  observe  the  eclipse  of  the  sun,  and,  in  1874,  to 
Mauritius  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  In  the  interval, 
with  the  assistance  of  his  father,  he  had  built  an  observatory 
at  Dunecht,  Aberdeenshire,  which  in  1888  he  presented, 
together  with  his  unique  library  of  astronomical  and  mathe- 
matical works,  to  the  New  Royal  Observatory  on  Blackford  Hill, 
Edinburgh,  where  they  were  installed  in  1895.  His  services  to 
science  were  recognized  by  his  election  to  the  presidentship  of 
the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  1878  and  1879  in  succession 
to  Sir  William  Huggins,  and  to  the  fellowship  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1878.  He  also  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
Edinburgh  University  in  1882,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
nominated  honorary  associate  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Academy  of 
Sciences.  An  enthusiastic  bibliophile,  he  became  a  trustee  of  the 
British  Museum,  and  acted  for  a  term  as  president  of  the  Library 
Association.  To  the  free  library  of  Wigan,  Lancashire,  he  gave  a 
series  of  oriental  and  English  MSS.  of  the  gth  to  the  igth  centuries 
in  illustration  of  the  progress  of  handwriting,  while  for  the  use  of 
specialists  and  students  he  issued  the  invaluable  Bibliotheca 
Lindesiana.  He  represented  Wigan  in  the  House  of  Commons 
from  1874  till  his  succession  to  the  title  in  1880. 

Another  title  held  by  the  Lindsays  was  that  of  Spynie,  Sir 
Alexander  Lindsay  (c.  1555-1607),  created  Baron  Spynie  in 
1 590,  being  a  younger  son  of  the  loth  earl  of  Crawford.  The  2nd 
Lord  Spynie  was  Alexander's  son,  Alexander  (d.  1646),  who 
served  in  Germany  under  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  assisted 
Charles  I.  in  Scotland  during  the  Civil  War;  and  the  3rd  lord 
was  the  latter's  son,  George.  When  George,  a  royalist  who  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Worcester,  died  in  1671  this  title 
became  extinct. 

The  dukedom  of  Montrose,  which  had  lapsed  on  the  death  of 
the  sth  earl  of  Crawford  in  1495  and  had  been  revived  in  1707  in 
the  Graham  family,  was  claimed  in  1848  by  the  24th  earl  of 
Crawford,  but  in  1853  the  House  of  Lords  gave  judgment 
against  the  earl. 

The  Lindsays  have  furnished  the  Scottish  church  with  several 
prelates.  John  Lindsay  (d.  1335)  was  bishop  of  Glasgow; 
Alexander  Lindsay  (d.  1639)  was  bishop  of  Dunkeld  until  he 
was  deposed  in  1638;  David  Lindsay  (d.  c.  1641)  was  bishop 
of  Brechin  and  then  of  Edinburgh  until  he,  too,  was  deposed  in 
1638;  and  a  similar  fate  attended  Patrick  Lindsay  (1566-1644), 
bishop  of  Ross  from  1613  to  1633  and  archbishop  of  Glasgow 
from  1633  to  1638.  Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  the  Lindsay 
prelates  was  David  Lindsay  (c.  1531-1613),  a  nephew  of  the 
9th  earl  of  Crawford.  David,  who  married  James  VI.  to  Anne  of 
Denmark  at  Upsala,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Kirk  party;  he 
became  bishop  of  Ross  under  the  new  scheme  for  establishing 
episcopacy  in  1600. 

See  Lord  Lindsay  (25th  earl  of  Crawford),  Lives  of  the  Lindsays 
(1849) ;  A.  Jervise,  History  and  Traditions  of  the  Land  of  the  Lindsays 
(1882);  G.  E.  C(okayne),  Complete  Peerage  (1887-1898);  H.  T. 
Folkard,  A  Lindsay  Record  (1899);  and  Sir  J.  B.  Paul's  edition  of 
the  Scots  Peerage  of  Sir  R.  Douglas,  vol.  iii.  (1906). 

CRAWFORD,  FRANCIS  MARION  (1854-1909),  American 
author,  was  born  at  Bagni  di  Lucca,  Italy,  on  the  2nd  of  August 
1854,  being  the  son  of  the  American  sculptor  Thomas  Crawford 
(q.v.),  and  the  nephew  of  Julia  Ward  Howe,  the  American  poet. 
He  studied  successively  at  St  Paul's  school,  Concord,  New 
Hampshire;  Cambridge  University;  Heidelberg;  and  Rome. 
In  1879  he  went  to  India,  where  he  studied  Sanskrit  and  edited 
the  Allahabad  Indian  Herald.  Returning  to  America  he  con- 
tinued to  study  Sanskrit  at  Harvard  University  for  a  year, 
contributed  to  various  periodicals,  and  in  1882  produced  his  first 
novel,  Mr  Isaacs,  a  brilliant  sketch  of  modern  Anglo-Indian  life 
mingled  with  a  touch  of  Oriental  mystery.  This  book  had  an 
immediate  success,  and  its  author's  promise  was  confirmed  by  the 
publication  of  Dr  Claudius  (1883).  After  a  brief  residence  in 
New  York  and  Boston,  in  1883  he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he 
made  his  permanent  home.  This  accounts  perhaps  for  the  fact 
that,  in  spite  of  his  nationality,  Marion  Crawford's  books  stand 
apart  from  any  distinctively  American  current  in  literature. 
Year  by  year  he  published  a  number  of  successful  novels:  A 


Roman  Singer  (1884),  An  American  Politician  (1884),  To  Leeward 
(1884),  Zoroaster  (1885),  A  Tale  of  a  Lonely  Parish  (1886), 
Marzio's  Crucifix  (1887),  Saracinesca  (1887),  Paul  Patojf  (1887), 
Wilhthe  Immortals  (1888),  Greifenstein  (1889),  Sanf  Ilario  (1889), 
A  Cigarette-maker's  Romance  (1890),  Khaled  (1891),  The  Witch  of 
Prague  (1891),  The  Three  Fates  (1892),  The  Children  of  the  King 
(1892),  Don  Orsino  (1892),  Marion  Darche  (1893),  Pietro  Ghisleri 
(1893),  Katharine  Lauderdale  (1894),  Love  in  Idleness  (1894),  The 
Ralstons,  (1894),  Casa  Braccio  (1895),  Adam  Johnston's  Son 
(1895),  Taquisara  (1896),  A  Rose  of  Yesterday  (1897),  Corleone 
(1897),  Via  Crucis  (1899),  In  the  Palace  of  the  King  (1900), 
Marietta  (1901),  Cecilia  (1902),  Whosoever  Shall  Offend  (1904), 
Soprano  (1905),  A  Lady  of  Rome  (1906).  He  also  published  the 
historical  works,  Ave  Roma  Immortalis  (1898),  Rulers  of  the 
South  (1900) — renamed  Sicily,  Calabria  and  Malta  in  1904, — and 
Gleanings  from  Venetian  History  (1905).  In  these  his  intimate 
knowledge  of  local  Italian  history  combines  with  the  romancist's 
imaginative  faculty  to  excellent  effect.  But  his  place  in  con- 
temporary literature  depends  on  his  novels.  He  was  a  gifted 
narrator,  and  his  books  of  fiction,  full  of  historic  vitality  and 
dramatic  characterization,  became  widely  popular  among 
readers  to  whom  the  realism  of  "  problems  "•  or  the  eccentricities 
of  subjective  analysis  were  repellent,  for  he  could  unfold  a 
romantic  story  in  an  attractive  way,  setting  his  plot  amid 
picturesque  surroundings,  and  gratifying  the  reader's  intelligence 
by  a  style  at  once  straightforward  and  accomplished.  The 
Saracinesca  series  shows  him  perhaps  at  his  best.  A  Cigarette- 
maker's  Romance  was  dramatized,  and  had  considerable  popu- 
larity on  the  stage  as  well  as  in  its  novel  form;  and  in  1902  an 
original  play  from  his  pen,  Francesca  da  Rimini,  was  produced  in 
Paris  by  Sarah  Bernhardt.  He  died  at  Sorrento  on  the  gth  of 
April  1909. 

CRAWFORD,  THOMAS  (1814-1857),  American  sculptor,  was 
born  of  Irish  parents  in  New  York  on  the  22nd  of  March  1814. 
He  showed  at  an  early  age  great  taste  for  art,  and  learnt  to  draw 
and  to  carve  in  wood.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he  entered  the 
studio  of  a  firm  of  monumental  sculptors  in  his  native  city;  and 
in  the  summer  of  1835  he  went  to  Rome  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Thorwaldsen.  The  first  work  which  made  him  generally  known 
as  a  man  of  genius  was  his  group  of  "  Orpheus  entering  Hades 
in  Search  of  Eurydice,"  executed  in  1839.  This  was  followed  by 
other  poetical  sculptures,  among  which  were  the  "  Babes  in  the 
Wood,"  "  Flora,"  "  Hebe  and  Ganymede,"  "  Sappho,"  "  Vesta," 
the  "  Dancers,"  and  the  "  Hunter."  Among  his  statues  and  busts 
are  especially  noteworthy  the  bust  of  Josiah  Quincy,  executed 
for  Harvard  University  (now  in  the  Boston  Athenaeum),  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Washington  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  the 
statue  of  Beethoven  in  the  Boston  music  hall,  statues  of  Channing 
and  Henry  Clay,  and  the  colossal  figure  of  "  Armed  Liberty  "  for 
the  Capitol  at  Washington.  For  this  building  he  executed  also 
the  figures  for  the  pediment  and  began  the  bas-reliefs  for  the 
bronze  doors,  which  were  afterwards  completed  by  W.  H. 
Rinehart.  The  groups  of  the  pediment  symbolize  the  progress 
of  civilization  in  America.  Crawford's  works  include  a  large 
number  of  bas-reliefs  of  Scriptural  subjects  taken  from  both  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testaments.  He  made  Rome  his  home,  but  he 
visited  several  times  his  native  land — first  in  1844  (in  which  year 
he  married  Louisa  Ward),  next  in  1849,  and  lastly  in  1856.  He 
died  in  London  on  the  loth  of  October  1857. 

See  Das  Lincoln  Monument,  eine  Rede  des  Senator  Charles  Sumner, 
to  which  are  appended  the  biographies  of  several  sculptors,  in- 
cluding that  of  Thomas  Crawford  (Frankfort  a.  M.,  1868) ;  Thomas 
Hicks,  Eulogy  on  Thomas  Crawford  (New  York,  1865). 

CRAWFORD,  WILLIAM  HARRIS  (1772-1834),  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Amherst  county,  Virginia,  on  the  24th  of 
February  1772.  When  he  was  seven  his  parents  moved  into 
Edgefield  district,  South  Carolina,  and  four  years  later  into 
Columbus  county,  Georgia.  The  death  of  his  father  in  1788  left 
the  family  in  reduced  circumstances,  and  William  made  what  he 
could  by  teaching  school  for  six  years.  He  then  studied  at 
Carmel  Academy  for  two  years,  was  principal,  for  a  time,  of  one 
of  the  largest  schools  in  Augusta,  and  in  1 798  was  admitted  to  the 


CRAWFORDSVILLE— CRAYFISH 


387 


bar.  From  1800  to  1802,  with  Horatio  Marbury,  he  prepared  a 
digest  of  the  laws  of  Georgia  from  1755  to  1800.  From  1803  to 
1807  he  was  a  member  of  the  State  House  of  Representatives, 
becoming  during  this  period  the  leader  of  one  of  two  personal- 
political  factions  in  the  state  that  long  continued  in  bitter 
strife,  occasioning  his  fighting  two  duels,  in  one  of  which  he 
killed  his  antagonist,  and  in  the  other  was  wounded  in  his  wrist. 
From  1807  to  1813  he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
of  which  he  was  president  pro  tempore  from  March  181 2  to  March 
1813.  In  1813  he  declined  the  offer  of  the  post  of  secretary  of 
war,  but  from  that  year  until  1815  was  minister  to  the  court 
of  France.  He  was  then  secretary  of  war  in  1815-1816,  and 
secretary  of  the  treasury  from  1816  to  1825.  In  1816  in  the 
congressional  caucus  which  nominated  James  Monroe  for  the 
presidency  Crawford  was  a  strong  opposing  candidate,  a 
majority  being  at  first  in  his  favour,  but  when  the  vote  was 
finally  cast  65  were  for  Monroe  and  54  for  Crawford.  In  1824, 
when  the  congressional  caucus  was  fast  becoming  extinct, 
Crawford,  being  prepared  to  control  it,  insisted  that  it  should 
be  held,  but  of  216  Republicans  only  66  attended;  of  these,  64 
voted  for  Crawford.  Three  other  candidates,  however,  Andrew 
Jackson,  John  Quincy  Adams,  and  Henry  Clay,  were  otherwise 
put  in  the  field.  During  the  campaign  Crawford  was  stricken 
with  paralysis,  and  when  the  electoral  vote  was  cast  Jackson 
received  99,  Adams  84,  Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37.  It  remained 
for  the  house  of  representatives  to  choose  from  Jackson,  Adams 
and  Crawford,  and  through  Clay's  influence  Adams  became 
president.  Crawford  was  invited  by  Adams  to  continue  as 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  but  declined.  He  recovered  his  health 
sufficiently  to  become  (in  1827)  a  circuit  judge  in  his  own  state, 
but  died  while  on  circuit,  in  Elberton,  Georgia,  on  the  isth  of 
September  1834.  In  his  day  he  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
foremost  political  leaders  of  the  country,  but  his  reputation  has 
not  stood  the  test  of  time.  He  was  of  imposing  presence  and  had 
great  conversational  powers;  but  his  inflexible  integrity  was  not 
sufficiently  tempered  by  tact  and  civility  to  admit  of  his  winning 
general  popularity.  Consequently,  although  a  skilful  political 
organizer,  he  incurred  the  bitter  enmity  of  other  leaders  of  his 
time— Jackson,  Adams  and  Calhoun.  He  won  the  admiration  of 
Albert  Gallatin  and  others  by  his  powerful  support  of  the  move- 
ment in  1811  to  recharter  the  Bank  of  the  United  States;  he 
earned  the  condemnation  of  posterity  by  his  authorship  in  1820  of 
the  four-years-term  law,  which  limited  the  term  of  service  of 
thousands  of  public  officials  to  four  years,  and  did  much  to 
develop  the  "  spoils  system."  He  was  a  Liberal  Democrat,  and 
advised  the  calling  of  a  constitutional  convention  as  preferable  to 
nullification  or  secession. 

CRAWFORDSVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Mont- 
gomery county,  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  situated  about  40  m.  N.W.  of 
Indianapolis.  Pop.  (1890)  6080;  (1900)  6649,  including  230 
negroes  and  221  foreign-born;  (1910)  9371.  It  is  served  by  the 
Chicago,  Indianapolis  &  Louisville,  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  &  St  Louis,  and  the  Vandalia  railways,  and  by  interurban 
electric  lines.  Wabash  College,  founded  here  in  1832  by  Presby- 
terian missionaries  but  now  non-sectarian,  had  in  1908  27 
instructors,  345  students,  and  a  library  of  43,000  volumes. 
Among  manufactures  are  flour,  iron,  wagons  and  carriages, 
acetylene  lights,  wire  and  nails,  matches,  brick  paving  blocks,  and 
electrical  machinery.  North-east  of  the  city  there  are  valuable 
mineral  springs,  from  which  the  city  obtains  its  water-supply. 
Crawfordsville,  named  in  honour  of  W.  H.  Crawford,  was  first 
settled  about  1820,  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1823,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1863.  It  was  f°r  many  years  the  home  of 
Gen.  Lew  Wallace. 

CRAWFURD,  JOHN  (1783-1868),  Scottish  orientalist,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Islay,  Scotland,  on  the  i3th  of  August  1783. 
After  studying  at  Edinburgh  he  became  surgeon  in  the  East  India 
Company's  service.  He  afterwards  resided  for  some  time  at 
Penang,  and  during  the  British  occupation  of  Java  from  1811  to 
1817  his  local  knowledge  made  him  invaluable  to  the  government. 
In  1821  he  served  as  envoy  to  Siam  and  Cochin-China,  and  in 
1823  became  governor  of  Singapore.  His  last  political  service  in 


the  East  was  a  difficult  mission  to  Burma  in  1827.  In  1 86 1  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Ethnological  Society.  He  died  at  South 
Kensington  on  the  nth  of  May  1868. 

Crawfurd  wrote  a  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  (1820),  De- 
scriptive Dictionary  of  the  Indian  Islands  and  Adjacent  Countries 
(1856),  Journal  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Court  of  Ava  in  1827  (1829), 
Journal  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Courts  of  Siam  and  Cochin-China,  exhibit- 
ing a  view  of  the  actual  State  of  these  Kingdoms  (1830),  Inquiry  into 
the  System  of  Taxation  in  India,  Letters  on  the  Interior  of  India,  an 
attack  on  the  newspaper  stamp-tax  and  the  duty  on  paper  entitled 
Taxes  on  Knowledge  (1836),  and  a  valuable  Malay  grammar  and 
dictionary  (1852). 

CRAYER,  GASPARD  DE  (1582-1669),  Flemish  painter,  was 
born  at  Antwerp,  and  learnt  the  art  of  painting  from  Raphael 
Coxcie.  He  matriculated  in  the  guild  of  St  Luke  at  Brussels  in 
1607,  resided  in  the  capital  of  Brabant  till  after  1660,  and  finally 
settled  at  Ghent.  Amongst  the  numerous  pictures  which  he 
painted  in  Ghent,  one  in  the  town  museum  represents  the 
martyrdom  of  St  Blaise,  and  bears  the  inscription  A°  1668  act. 
86.  Grayer  was  one  of  the  most  productive  yet  one  of  the  most 
conscientious  artists  of  the  later  Flemish  school,  second  to 
Rubens  in  vigour  and  below  Vandyck  in  refinement,  but  nearly 
equalling  both  in  most  of  the  essentials  of  painting.  He  was  well 
known  and  always  well  treated  by  Albert  and  Isabella,  governors 
of  the  Netherlands.  The  cardinal-infant  Ferdinand  made  him  a 
court-painter.  His  pictures  abound  in  the  churches  and  museums 
of  Brussels  and  Ghent;  and  there  is  scarcely  a  country  chapel  in 
Flanders  or  Brabant  that  cannot  boast  of  one  or  more  of  his 
canvases.  But  he  was  equally  respected  beyond  his  native 
country;  and  some  important  pictures  of  his  composition  are  to 
be  found  as  far  south  as  Aix  in  Provence  and  as  far  east  as 
Amberg  in  the  Upper  Palatinate.  His  skill  as  a  decorative  artist 
is  shown  in  the  panels  executed  for  a  triumphal  arch  at  the  entry 
of  Cardinal  Ferdinand  into  the  Flemish  capital,  some  of  which 
are  publicly  exhibited  in  the  museum  of  Ghent.  Crayer  died  at 
Ghent.  His  best  works  are  the  "  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes  " 
in  the  gallery  of  Brussels,  the  "  Judgment  of  Solomon  "  in  the 
gallery  of  Ghent,  and  "  Madonnas  with  Saints  "  in  the  Louvre, 
the  Munich  Pinakothek,  and  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna.  His 
portrait  by  Vandyck  was  engraved  by  P.  Pontius. 

CRAYFISH  (Fr.  icrevisse),  the  name  of  freshwater  crustaceans 
closely  allied  to  and  resembling  the  lobsters,  and,  like  them, 
belonging  to  the  order  Macrura.  They  are  divided  into  two 
families,  the  Astacidae  and  Paraslacidae,  inhabiting  respectively 
the  northern  and  the  southern  hemispheres. 

The  crayfishes  of  England  and  Ireland  (Astacus,  or  Polamobius, 
pallipes)  are  generally  about  3  or  4  in.  long,  of  a  dull  green  or 
brownish  colour  above  and  paler  brown  or  yellowish  below.  They 


Crayfish  (Cambarus  sp.)  from  the  Mississippi  River.     (After  Morse.) 


are  abundant  in  some  rivers,  especially  where  the  rocks  are  of  a 
calcareous  nature,  sheltering  under  stones  or  in  burrows  which 
they  dig  for  themselves  in  the  banks  and  coming  out  at  night  in 
search  of  food.  They  are  omnivorous  feeders,  killing  and  eating 
insects,  snails,  frogs  and  other  animals,  and  devouring  any  carrion 
that  comes  in  their  way.  It  is  stated  that  they  sometimes  come 
on  land  in  search  of  Vegetable  food. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  Aslacus  pallipes  occurs  chiefly  in 
the  west  and  south,  being  found  in  France,  Spain,  Italy  and  the 


388 


CRAYON— CREBILLON 


Balkan  Peninsula.  It  is  known  in  France  as  ecrevisse  a  pattes 
blanches  and  in  Germany  as  Steinkrebs,  and  is  little  used  as  food. 
The  larger  Astacus  fluviatilis  (ecrevisse  a  pattes  rouges,  Edelkrebs) 
is  not  found  in  Britain,  but  occurs  in  France  and  Germany, 
southern  Sweden,  Russia,  &c.  It  is  distinguished,  among  other 
characters,  by  the  red  colour  of  the  under  side  of  the  large  claws. 
It  is  the  species  most  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  Other 
species  of  the  genus  are  found  in  central  and  eastern  Europe  and 
as  far  east  as  Turkestan.  Farther  east  a  gap  occurs  in  the 
distribution  and  no  crayfishes  are  met  with  till  the  basin  of  the 
Amur  is  reached,  where  a  group  of  species  occurs,  extending 
into  northern  Japan.  In  North  America,  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  genus  Astacus  again  appears,  but  east  of  the 
watershed  it  is  replaced  by  the  genus  Cambarus,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  very  numerous  species,  ranging  from  the  Great  Lakes 
to  Mexico.  Several  blind  species  inhabit  the  subterranean 
waters  of  caves.  The  best  known  is  Cambarus  pellucidus, 
found  in  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 

The  area  of  distribution  occupied  by  the  southern  crayfishes  or 
Parastacidae  is  separated  by  a  broad  equatorial  zone  from  that  of 
the  northern  group,  unless,  as  has  been  asserted,  the  two  come 
into  contact  or  overlap  in  Central  America.  None  is  found  in  any 
part  of  Africa,  though  a  species  occurs  in  Madagascar.  They  are 
absent  also  from  the  oriental  region  of  zoologists,  but  reappear 
in  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Some  of  the  Australian  species, 
such  as  the  "  Murray  River  lobster  "  (Astacopsis  spinifer),  are  of 
large  size  and  are  used  for  food.  In  South  America  crayfishes 
are  found  in  southern  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Chile.  (W.T.  CA.) 

CRAYON  (Fr.  craie,  chalk,  from  Lat.  creta),  a  coloured  material 
for  drawing,  employed  generally  in  the  form  of  pencils,  but 
sometimes  also  as  a  powder,  and  consisting  of  native  earthy  and 
stony  friable  substances,  or  of  artificially  prepared  mixtures  of  a 
base  of  pipe  or  china  clay  with  Prussian  blue,  orpiment,  vermilion, 
umber  and  other  pigments.  Calcined  gypsum,  talc  and  com- 
pounds of  magnesium,  bismuth  and  lead  are  occasionally  used  as 
bases.  The  required  shades  of  tints  are  obtained  by  adding 
varying  amounts  of  colouring  matter  to  equal  quantities  of  the 
base.  Crayons  are  used  by  the  artist  to  make  groupings  of 
colours  and  to  secure  landscape  and  other  effects  with  ease  and 
rapidity.  The  outline  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  picture  is  drawn  in 
crayon.  The  colours  are  softened  off  and  blended  by  the  finger, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  stump  of  leather  or  paper;  and  shading  is 
produced  by  cross-hatching  and  stippling.  The  art  of  painting  in 
crayon  or  pastel  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Germany  in  the 
tyth  century.  Byjohann  Alexander  Thiele  (1685-1752)11  was 
carried  to  great  perfection,  and  in  France  it  was  early  practised 
with  much  success.  Amongst  the  earlier  pastellists  may  be 
mentioned  Rosalba  Camera  (1675-1757),  W.  Hoare  (1707-1792), 
F.  Cotes  (1726-1770),  and  J.  Russell  (1744-1806);  and  in  recent 
years  the  art  has  been  successfully  revived.  (See  PASTEL.) 

CREASY, 'SIR  EDWARD  SHEPHERD  (1812-1878),  English 
historian,  was  born  at  Bexley  in  Kent,  and  educated  at  Eton 
and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  He  became  a  fellow  of  King's 
College  in  1834,  and  having  been  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  three  years  later,  was  made  assistant  judge  at  the  West- 
minster sessions  court.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
modern  and  ancient  history  in  the  university  of  London,  and  in 
1860  became  chief  justice  of  Ceylon  and  a  knight.  Broken  down 
in  health  he  returned  to  England  in  1870,  and  after  a  further  but 
short  stay  in  Ceylon  died  in  London  on  the  27th  of  January  1878. 
Creasy's  most  popular  work  is  his  Fifteen  decisive  Battles  of  the 
World,  which,  first  published  in  1851,  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  also  wrote  The  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks 
(London,  1854-1856);  History  of  England  (London,  1860-1870); 
Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Constitution  (London,  1853,  and 
other  editions);  Historical  and  Critical  Account  of  the  several 
Invasions  of  England  (London,  1852);  a  novel  entitled  Old  Love 
and  the  New  (London,  1870) ;  and  various  other  works. 

CREATIANISM  AND  TRADUCIANISM.  Traducianism  is  the 
doctrine  about  the  origin  of  the  soul  which  was  taught  by 
Tertullian  in  his  De  anima — that  souls  are  generated  from  souls 
in  the  same  way  and  at  the  same  time  as  bodies  from  bodies: 


creatianism  is  the  doctrine  that  God  creates  a  soul  for  each 
body  that  is  generated.  The  Pelagians  taunted  the  upholders  of 
original  sin  with  holding  Tertullian's  opinion,  and  called  them 
Traduciani  (from  tradux:  vid.  Du  Cange  s.  w.),  a  name  which  was 
perhaps  suggested  by  a  metaphor  in  De  an.  19,  where  the  soul  is 
described  "  velutsurculusquidam  exmatriceAdaminpropaginem 
deducta."  Hence  we  have  formed  "  traducianist,"  "  traducian- 
ism,"  and  by  analogy  "  creatianist,"  "  creatianism."  Augustine 
denied  that  traducianism  was  necessarily  connected  with  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  to  the  end  of  his  life  was  unable  to 
decide  for  or  against  it.  His  letter  to  Jerome  (Epist.  Clas.  iii. 
1 66)  is  a  most  valuable  statement  of  his  difficulties.  Jerome 
condemned  it,  and  said  that  creatianism  was  the  opinion  of  the 
Church,  though  he  admitted  that  most  of  the  Western  Christians 
held  traducianism.  The  question  has  never  been  authoritatively 
determined,  but  creatianism,  which  had  always  prevailed  in  the 
East,  became  the  general  opinion  of  the  medieval  theologians, 
and  Peter  Lombard's  creando  infundit  animas  Deus  et  infundendo 
creat  was  an  accepted  formula.  Luther,  like  Augustine,  was 
undecided,  but  Lutherans  have  as  a  rule  been  traducianists. 
Calvin  favoured  creatianism. 

Peter  Lombard's  phrase  perhaps  shows  that  even  in  his  time  it 
was  felt  that  some  union  of  the  two  opinions  was  needed,  and 
Augustine's  toleration  pointed  in  the  same  direction,  for  the  tradu- 
cianism he  thought  possible  was  one  in  which  God  operatur  institutas 
administrando  non  novas  instituendo  naturas  (Ep.  166.  5.  n). 
Modern  psychologists  teach  that  while  "  personality  "  can  be  dis- 
cerned in  its  "  becoming,"  nothing  is  known  of  its  origin.  Lotze, 
however,  who  may  be  taken  as  representing  the  believers  in  the 
immanence  of  the  divine  Being,  puts  forth — but  as  a  "  dim  con- 
jecture " — something  very  like  creatianism  (Microcosmus,  bk.  iii. 
chap.  v.  ad  fin.).  It  is  still,  as  in  the  days  of  Augustine,  a  question 
whether  a  more  exact  division  of  man  into  body,  soul  and  spirit  may 
help  to  throw  light  on  this  subject. 

See  indices  to  Augustine,  vol.  xi.,  and  Jerome,  vol.  xi.  in  Migne's 
Patrologia,  s.v.  "Anima";  Franz  Delitzsch,  Biblical  Psychology, 
ii.  §  7;  G.  P.  Fisher,  History  of  Chr.  Doct.  pp.  187  ff. ;  A.  Harnack, 
History  of  Dogma  (passim;  see  Index);  Liddon,  Elements  ojf 
Religion,  Lect.  iii.;  Mason,  Faith  of  the  Gospel,  iv.  §§  3,  4,  9,  10. 

(A.  N.*) 

CREBILLON,  PROSPER  JOLYOT  DE  (1674-1762),  French 
tragic  poet,  was  born  on  the  i3th  of  January  1674  at  Dijon, 
where  his  father,  Melchior  Jolyot,  was  notary-royal.  Having 
been  educated  at  the  Jesuits'  school  of  the  town,  and  at  the 
College  Mazarin,  he  became  an  advocate,  and  was  placed  in  the 
office  of  a  lawyer  named  Prieur  at  Paris.  With  the  encourage- 
ment of  his  master,  son  of  an  old  friend  of  Scarron's,  he  produced 
a  Mart  des  enfants  de  Brutus,  which,  however,  he  failed  to  bring 
upon  the  stage.  But  in  1705  he  succeeded  with  Idomenee;  in 
1707  his  A  tree  el  Thyeste  was  repeatedly  acted  at  court;  Electre 
appeared  in  1709;  and  in  1711  he  produced  his  finest  play,  the 
Rhadamiste  et  Zenobie,  which  is  his  masterpiece  and  held  the 
stage  for  a  long  period,  although  the  plot  is  so  complicated  as 
to  be  almost  incomprehensible.  But  his  Xerxes  (1714)  was  only 
once  played,  and  his  Semiramis  (1717)  was  an  absolute  failure. 
In  1707  Crebillon  had  married  a  girl  without  fortune,  who  had 
since  died,  leaving  him  two  young  children.  His  father  also  had 
died,  insolvent.  His  three  years'  attendance  at  court  had  been 
fruitless.  Envy  had  circulated  innumerable  slanders  against  him. 
Oppressed  with  melancholy,  he  removed  to  a  garret,  where  he 
surrounded  himself  with  a  number  of  dogs,  cats  and  ravens, 
which  he  had  befriended;  he  became  utterly  careless  of  cleanli- 
ness or  food,  and  solaced  himself  with  constant  smoking.  But  in 
1731,  in  spite  of  his  long  seclusion,  he  was  elected  member  of  the 
French  Academy;  in  1735  he  was  appointed  royal  censor;  and  in 
1745  Mme  de  Pompadour  presented  him  with  a  pension  of  1000 
francs  and  a  post  in  the  royal  library.  He  returned  to  the  stage 
in  1726  with  a  successful  play,  Pyrrhus;  in  1748  his  Catilina  was 
played  with  great  success  before  the  court;  and  in  1754,  when  he 
was  eighty  years  old,  appeared  his  last  tragedy,  Le  Triumvirat. 
Crebillon  died  on  the  1 7th  of  June  1 7  54.  The  enemies  of  Voltaire 
maintained  that  Cr6billon  was  his  superior  as  a  tragic  poet. 
The  spirit  of  rivalry  thus  provoked  induced  Voltaire  to  take  the 
subjects  of  no  less  than  five  of  Cr6billon's  tragedies — Stmiramis, 
Electre,  Catilina,  Le  Triumvirat,  Atrfe — as  subjects  for  tragedies 


CRECHE^CRECY 


389 


of  his  own.  The  so-called  £loge  de  Crebillon  (1762),  really  a 
depreciation,  which  appeared  in  the  year  of  the  poet's  death,  is 
generally  attributed  to  Voltaire,  though  he  strenuously  denied 
the  authorship.  Crebillon's  drama  is  marked  by  a  force  too  often 
gained  at  the  expense  of  scenes  of  unnatural  horror;  his  pieces 
show  lack  of  culture  and  a  want  of  care  which  displays  itself  even 
in  the  mechanism  of  his  verse,  though  fine  isolated  passages  are 
not  infrequent. 

There  are  numerous  editions  of  his  works,  among  which  may  be 
noticed:  CEuvres  (1772),  with  preface  and  "  61oge,"  by  Joseph  de  la 
Porte;  CEuvres  (1828),  containing  D'Alembert's  Eloge  de  Crebillon 
('775);  and  Theatre  complet  (1885)  with  a  notice  by  Auguste  Vitu. 
A  complete  bibliography  is  given  by  Maurice  Dutrait,  in  his  Etude 
sur  la  vie  et  le  theatre  de  Crebillon  (1895). 

His  only  son,  CLAUDE  PROSPER  JOLYOT  CREBILLON  (1707- 
1777),  French  novelist,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  i4th  of  February 
1707.  His  life  was  spent  almost  entirely  in  Paris,  but  the 
publication  of  L'£cumoire,  ou  Tanzdi  et  Neadarne,  histoire 
japonaise  (1734),  which  contained  veiled  attacks  on  the  bull 
Unigenitus,  the  cardinal  de  Rohan  and  the  duchesse  du  Maine, 
brought  Crebillon  into  disgrace.  He  was  first  imprisoned  and 
afterwards  forced  to  live  in  exile  for  five  years  at  Sens  and 
elsewhere.  With  Alexis  Piron  and  Charles  Colle  he  founded  in 
1752  the  gay  society  which  met  regularly  to  dine  at  the  famous 
"  Caveau,"  where  many  good  stories  were  elaborated.  From 
1759  onwards  he  was  to  be  found  at  the  Wednesday  dinners  of  the 
Pelletier,  at  which  Garrick,  Sterne  and  Wilkes  were  sometimes 
guests.  He  married  in  1748  an  English  lady  of  noble  family, 
Lady  Henrietta  Maria  Stafford,  who  had  been  his  mistress  from 
1744.  Their  life  is  said  to  have  been  passed  in  much  affection 
and  mutual  fidelity;  and  there  could  be  no  greater  contrast  than 
that  between  Crebillon's  private  life  and  the  tone  of  his  novels, 
the  immorality  of  which  lent  irony  to  the  author's  tenure  of  the 
office  of  censor,  bestowed  on  him  in  1759  through  the  favour  of 
Mme  de  Pompadour.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  I2th  of  April  1777. 
The  most  famous  of  his  numerous  novels  are:  Les  Amours  de 
Zeokinizul,  roi  des  Kofirans  (1740),  in  which  "  Zeokinizul  "  and 
"  Kofirans  "  may  be  translated  Louis  XIV.  and  the  French 
respectively;  and  Le  Sopha,  conte  moral  (1740),  where  the  moral 
is  supplied  in  the  title  only.  This  last  novel  is  given  by  some 
authorities  as  the  reason  for  his  imprisonment. 

His  CEuvres  were  collected  and  printed  in  1772.  See  a  notice  of 
Cre'billon  prefixed  to  O.  Uzanne's  edition  of  his  Conies  dialogues  in 
the  series  of  Conteurs  du  XVIII*  siecle.  Crebillon's  novels  might 
be  pronounced  immoral  to  the  last  degree  if  it  were  not  that  two 
writers  slightly  later  in  date  surpassed  even  his  achievements  in  this 
particular.  Andre1  Robert  de  Nerciat  (1739-1800)  produced  under 
a  false  name  a  number  of  licentious  tales,  and  was  followed  by 
Donatien,  marquis  de  Sade. 

CRECHE  (Fr.  for  a  "  crib  "  or  cradle),  the  name  given  to  a 
day-nursery,  a  public  institution  for  the  feeding  and  care  of 
infants  while  the  mothers  are  engaged  in  work  outside  their 
homes,  or  are  otherwise  prevented  from  giving  them  proper 
attention.  Infants  are  usually  admitted  when  over  a  month  old, 
and  are  kept  till  they  are  capable  of  looking  after  themselves. 
The  advantages  of  such  institutions  are  that  the  attention  of 
skilled  and  trained  nurses  is  given  to  the  children,  the  food  is 
better  and  more  adapted  to  their  needs  than  that  given  in  their 
homes,  the  surroundings  are  cleaner  and  healthier,  and  habits  of 
discipline  and  cleanliness  are  instilled,  which,  in  many  cases, 
react  on  the  mothers.  The  nurseries  are  usually  under  medical 
supervision,  and  the  small  fees  charged,  which  average  in  London 
from  3d.  to  4d.  a  day,  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  about  zd., 
are  much  less  than  the  cost  to  the  mother  who  places  her  young 
children  under  the  care  of  neighbours  when  at  work  or  away  from 
home.  Institutions  of  this  kind  were  started  in  France  in  1844, 
and  have  been  established  in  the  majority  of  the  large  towns  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  In  the  industrial  centres  of  France  and 
Germany  they  have  helped  to  check  infantile  mortality.  The 
state  or  municipality  in  nearly  every  case  grants  subsidies,  but 
few  are  maintained  entirely  by  public  authorities;  voluntary 
contributions  are  depended  upon  for  the  main  support,  and  the 
organization  and  management  are  left  in  the  hands  of  private 
societies  and  charitable  institutions,  although  some  outside 


official  supervision  with  regard  to  the  number  of  infants 
admitted  to  each  institution,  air-space,  and  ventilation  and 
general  hygienic  conditions  is  considered  useful.  In  Great 
Britain  the  establishment  of  such  institutions  has  been  left 
almost  entirely  to  private  initiative;  and  in  comparison  with  the 
continent  the  provision  is  inadequate  and  unsatisfactory,  Paris 
having  nearly  double  the  proportion  of  accommodation  for 
infants  to  the  population  that  is  provided  in  London.  The 
National  Society  of  Day  Nurseries  was  founded  in  1901  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  a  bureau  where  information  may  be  found  of 
good  methods  of  founding  and  managing  a  creche. 

See  the  Report  of  the  Consultative  Committee  upon  the  School 
Attendance  of  Children  below  the  Age  of  Five,  issued  by  the  Board  of 
Education  (1908). 

CRlSCY  (Cressy),  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department 
of  Somme,  on  the  Maye,  12  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Abbeville  by  road. 
It  is  famous  in  history  for  the  great  victory  gained  here  on  the 
26th  of  August  1346  by  the  English  under  Edward  III.  over  the 
French  of  King  Philip  of  Valois.  After  its  campaign  in  northern 
France,  the  English  army  retired  into  Ponthieu,  and  encamped 
on  the  25th  of  August  at  Crecy,  the  French  king  in  the  meantime 
marching  from  Abbeville  on  Braye.  Early  on  the  26th  Edward's 
army  took  up  its  position  for  battle,  and  Philip's,  hearing  of  this, 
moved  to  attack  him,  though  the  French  army  marched  in  much 
disorder,  and  on  arrival  formed  only  an  imperfect  line  of  battle. 
The  English  lay  on  the  forward  slope  of  a  hillside,  with  their 
right  in  front  of  the  village  of  Crecy,  their  left  resting  on 
Wadicourt.  Two  of  the  three  divisions  or  "  battles  "  were  in  first 
line,  that  of  the  young  prince  of  Wales  (the  Black  Prince)  on  the 
right,  that  of  the  earls  of  Northampton  and  Arundel  on  the  left; 


the  third,  under  the  king's  own  command,  in  reserve,  and  the 
baggage  was  packed  to  the  rear.  Each  battle  consisted  of  a 
centre  of  dismounted  knights  and  men-at-arms,  and  two  wings  of 
archers.  The  total  force  was  3900  men-at-arms,  11,000  English 
archers,  and  5000  Welsh  light  troops  (Froissart,  first  edition,  the 
second  gives  a  different  estimate).  The  French  were  far  stronger, 
having  at  least  1 2,000  men-at-arms,  6000  mercenary  crossbowmen 
(Genoese),  perhaps  20,000  of  the  milice  des  communes,  besides  a 
certain  number  of  foot  of  the  feudal  levy.  Along  with  these 
served  a  Luxemburg  contingent  of  horse  under  John,  king  of 
Bohemia,  and  other  feudatories  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  and 
the  whole  force  was  probably  about  60,000  strong. 

The  day  was  far  advanced  when  the  French  came  upon  the 
English  position.  Philip,  near  Estrfies,  decided  to  halt  and 
bivouac,  deferring  the  battle  until  the  army  was  better  closed  up, 
but  the  indiscipline  of  his  army  committed  him  to  an  immediate 
action,  and  he  ordered  forward  the  Genoese  crossbowmen,  while  a 
line  of  men-at-arms  deployed  for  battle  behind  them ;  the  rest  of 
the  army  was  still  marching  in  an  irregular  column  of  route  along 
the  road  from  Abbeville.  A  sudden  thunderstorm  caused  a  short 
delay,  then  the  archers  and  the  crossbowmen  opened  the  battle. 
Here,  for  the  first  time  in  continental  warfare,  the  English 


390 


CREDENCE— CREDIT  FONCIER 


long-bow  proved  its  worth.  After  a  brief  contest  the  crossbow- 
men,  completely  outmatched,  were  driven  back  with  enormous 
loss.  Thereupon  the  first  line  of  French  knights  behind  them 
charged  down  upon  the  "  faint-hearted  rabble  "  of  their  own 
fugitives,  and  soon  the  first  two  lines  of  the  French  were  a  mere 
mob  of  horse  and  foot  struggling  with  each  other.  The  archers 
did  not  neglect  the  opportunity,  and  shot  coolly  and  rapidly  into 
the  helpless  target  in  front  of  them.  The  second  attack  was 
made  by  another  large  body  of  knights  which  had  arrived,  and 
served  but  to  increase  the  number  of  the  casualties,  though  here 
and  there  a  few  charged  up  to  the  English  line  and  fell  near  it, 
among  them  the  blind  king  of  Bohemia,  who  with  a  party  of 
devoted  knights  penetrated,  and  was  killed  amongst,  the  ranks  of 
the  prince  of  Wales's  men-at-arms.  The  battle  was  now  one  long 
series  of  desperate  but  ill-conducted  charges,  a  fresh  onslaught 
being  made  as  each  new  corps  of  troops  appeared  on  the  scene. 
The  English  archers  on  the  flanks  of  the  two  first  line  battles  had 
been  wheeled  up,  the  centres  of  dismounted  men-at-arms  held 
back,  so  that  the  whole  line  resembled  a  "  herse  "  or  harrow  with 
three  points  formed  by  the  archers  (see  sketch).  Each  successive 
body  of  the  French  sought  to  come  to  close  quarters  with  the  men- 
at-arms,  and  exposed  themselves  therefore  at  short  range  to  the 
arrows  on  either  flank.  Under  these  circumstances  there  could 
be  but  one  issue  of  the  battle.  Though  sixteen  distinct  attacks 
were  made,  and  the  fighting  lasted  until  long  after  dark,  no 
impression  was  made  on  the  English  line.  At  one  moment  the 
prince  was  so  far  in  danger  that  his  barons  sent  to  the  king  for 
aid.  Even  then  Edward  was  not  disquieted  and  he  sent  a  mere 
handful  of  knights  to  the  prince's  battle,  saying,  "  Let  the  boy 
win  his  spurs."  The  left  battle  of  the  English,  hitherto  somewhat 
to  the  rear,  moved  up  into  line  with  the  prince,  and  the  French 
attack  slackened.  By  midnight  the  army  of  France  was  practic- 
ally annihilated;  1542  men  of  gentle  blood  were  left  dead  on 
the  field  and  counted  by  Edward's  heralds,  the  losses  of  the 
remainder  are  unknown.  Some  fifty  of  the  victors  fell  in  the 
battle.  The  story  that  the  Black  Prince  adopted  from  the  fallen 
king  of  Bohemia  the  crest  and  motto  now  borne  by  the  princes 
of  Wales  lacks  foundation  (see  JOHN,  King  of  Bohemia).  A 
memorial  to  the  French  and  their  allies  was  erected,  by  public 
subscription  in  France,  Luxemburg  and  Bohemia,  in  1905. 

See  H.  B.  George,  Battles  of  English  History  (London,  1895),  and 
C.  W.  C.  Oman,  A  History  of  the  Art  of  War;  The  Middle  Ages 
(London,  1898). 

CREDENCE,  or  CREDENCE  TABLE,  a  small  side-table,  originally 
an  article  of  furniture  placed  near  the  high  table  in  royal  or  noble 
houses,  at  which  the  ceremony  of  the  praegustatio,  Italian 
credenziare,  the  "  assay  "  or  tasting  of  food  and  drink  for  poisons 
was  performed  by  an  official  of  the  household,  the  praegustator 
or  credenliarius  as  he  was  called  in  Medieval  Latin.  Both  the 
ceremony  and  the  table  were  known  as  credentia  (Lat.  credere,  to 
believe,  trust),  Ital.  credenza,  Fr.  credence.  After  the  need  for  the 
ceremony  had  disappeared  the  name  still  survived,  and  the  table 
developed  a  back  and  several  shelves  for  the  display  of  plate,  and 
gradually  merged  into  the  buffet  (<?.».).  It  is,  however,  as  an 
article  of  ecclesiastical  furniture  that  the  credence  table  is  most 
familiar.  It  takes  the  form  of  a  small  table  of  wood  or  stone, 
sometimes  fixed  and  sometimes  merely  a  shelf  above  or  near  the 
piscina.  It  usually  stands  on  the  south  or  Epistle  side  of  the 
altar,  and  on  it  are  placed,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
cruets  containing  the  wine  and  water,  the  chalice,  the  candlesticks 
to  be  carried  by  the  acolytes,  and  other  objects  to  be  used  in  the 
ceremony  of  the  Mass.  The  use  of  such  a  table,  to  which  earlier 
the  name  of  paratorium  or  oblationarium  was  given,  appears  to 
have  come  into  use  when  the  personal  presentation  of  the  obla- 
tions at  the  Mass  became  obsolete.  When  the  pope  celebrates 
Mass  a  special  credence  table  on  the  Gospel  side  of  the  altar  is 
used,  and  the  ceremony  of  tasting  for  poison  in  the  unconsecrated 
elements  is  still  observed.  In  some  churches  in  England  the  old 
credence  tables  still  exist,  as  at  the  church  of  St  Cross  near 
Winchester,  where  there  is  a  fine  stone  isth-century  example; 
more  frequent  are  examples  of  the  stone  shelf  near  the  piscina. 
There  are  some  carved  wooden  ones  surviving,  one  type  being 


with  a  semicircular  top  and  three  legs  placed  in  a  triangle  with  a 
lower  shelf.  The  formal  use  of  the  credence  table  for  the  un- 
consecrated elements  and  the  holy  vessels  before  the  celebiation 
has  been  revived  in  the  English  Church. 

CREDENTIALS  (lettres  de  creance),  a  document  which 
ambassadors,  ministers  plenipotentiary,  and  charges  d'affaires 
hand  to  the  government  to  which  they  are  accredited,  for  the 
purpose,  chiefly,  of  communicating  to  the  latter  the  envoy's 
diplomatic  rank.  It  also  contains  a  request  that  full  credence  be 
accorded  to  his  official  statements.  Until  his  credentials  have 
been  presented  and  found  in  proper  order,  an  envoy  receives 
no  official  recognition.  The  credentials  of  an  ambassador  or 
minister  plenipotentiary  are  signed  by  the  chief  of  the  state,  those 
of  a  charge  d'affaires  by  the  foreign  minister. 

CREDI,  LORENZO  DI  (1450-1537),  Italian  artist,  whose 
surname  was  Barducci,  was  born  at  Florence.  He  was  the  least 
gifted  of  three  artists  who  began  life  as  journeymen  with  Andrea 
del  Verrocchio.  Though  he  was  the  companion  and  friend  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Perugino,  and  closely  allied  in  style  to 
both,  he  had  neither  the  genius  of  the  one  nor  the  facility  of  the 
other.  We  admire  in  Da  Vinci's  heads  a  heavenly  contentment 
and  smile,  in  his  technical  execution  great  gloss  and  smoothness  of 
finish.  Credi's  faces  disclose  a  smiling  beatitude;  his  pigments 
have  the  polish  of  enamel.  But  Da  Vinci  imparted  life  to  his 
creations  and  modulation  to  his  colours,  and  these  are  qualities 
which  hardly  existed  in  Credi.  Perugino  displayed  a  well- 
known  form  of  tenderness  in  heads,  moulded  on  the  models  of 
the  old  Umbrian  school.  Peculiarities  of  movement  and  attitude 
become  stereotyped  in  his  compositions;  but  when  put  on  his 
mettle,  he  could  still  exhibit  power,  passion,  pathos.  Credi  often 
repeated  himself  in  Perugino's  way;  but  being  of  a  pious  and 
resigned  spirit,  he  generally  embodied  in  his  pictures  a  feeling 
which  is  yielding  and  gentle  to  the  verge  of  coldness.  Credi  had  a 
respectable  local  practice  at  Florence.  He  was  consulted  on  most 
occasions  when  the  opinion  of  his  profession  was  required  on 
public  grounds,  e.g.  in  1491  as  to  the  fronting,  and  in  1498  as  to 
the  lantern  of  the  Florentine  cathedral,  in  1 504  as  to  the  place 
due  to  Michelangelo's  "  David."  He  never  painted  frescoes;  at 
rare  intervals  only  he  produced  large  ecclesiastical  pictures.  The 
greater  part  of  his  time  was  spent  on  easel  pieces,  upon  which  he 
expended  minute  and  patient  labour.  But  he  worked  with  such 
industry  that  numbers  of  his  Madonnas  exist  in  European 
galleries.  The  best  of  his  altar-pieces  is  that  which  represents  the 
Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints  in  the  cathedral  of  Pistoia.  A  fine 
example  of  his  easel  rounds  is  in  the  gallery  of  Mainz.  Credi 
rivalled  Fra  Bartolommeo  in  his  attachment  to  Savonarola;  but 
he  felt  no  inclination  for  the  retirement  of  a  monastery.  Still,  in 
his  old  age,  and  after  he  had  outlived  the  perils  of  the  siege  of 
Florence  (1527),  he  withdrew  on  an  annuity  into  the  hospital 
of  Santa  Maria  Nuova,  where  he  died.  The  National  Gallery, 
London,  has  two  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  by  him. 

CREDIT  (Lat.  credere,  to  believe),  in  a  general  sense,  belief  or 
trust.  The  word  is  used  also  to  express  the  repute  which  a  person 
has,  or  the  estimation  in  which  he  is  held.  In  a  commercial  sense 
credit  is  the  promise  to  pay  at  a  future  time  for  valuable  con- 
sideration in  the  present:  hence,  a  reputation  of  solvency  and 
ability  to  make  such  payments  is  also  termed  credit.  In  book- 
keeping credit  is  the  side  of  the  account  on  which  payments  are 
entered;  hence,  sometimes,  the  payments  themselves. 

The  part  which  credit  plays  in  the  production  and  exchange  of 
wealth  is  discussed  in  all  economic  text-books,  but  special  reference 
may  be  made  to  K.  Knies,  Geld  und  Kredit  (1873-1879),  and  H.  D. 
Macleod,  Theory  of  Credit  (1889-1891).  See  also  Hartley  Withers, 
The  Meaning  of  Money  (1909). 

CREDIT  FONCIER,  in  France,  an  institution  for  advancing 
money  on  mortgage  of  real  securities.  Due  to  a  great  extent  to 
the  initiative  of  the  economist  L.  Wolowski,  it  was  created  by 
virtue  of  a  governmental  decree  of  the  z8th  of  February  1852. 
This  decree  empowered  the  issue  of  loans  at  a  low  rate  of  interest, 
secured  by  mortgage  bonds,  extending  over  a  long  period,  and 
repayable  by  annuities,  including  instalments  of  capital.  On  its 
inception  it  had  a  capital  of  25,000,000  francs  and  took  the  title 


CREDIT  MOBILIER  OF  AMERICA— CREDITON 


391 


of  Banque  Fonciere  de  Paris.  The  parent  institution  in  Paris 
was  followed  by  similar  institutions  in  Nevers  and  Marseilles. 
These  two  were  afterwards  amalgamated  with  the  first  under  the 
title  of  Credit  Foncier  de  France.  The  capital  was  increased 
to  60,000,000  francs,  the  government  giving  a  subvention  of 
10,000,000  francs,  and  exercising  control  over  the  bank  by 
directly  appointing  the  governor  and  two  deputy-governors.  The 
administration  was  vested  in  a  council  chosen  by  the  shareholders, 
but  its  decisions  have  no  validity  without  the  approval  of  the 
governor.  The  Credit  Foncier  has  the  right  to  issue  bonds, 
repayable  in  fifty  or  sixty  years,  and  bearing  a  fixed  rate  of 
interest.  A  certain  number  of  the  bonds  carry  prizes.  The 
loans  must  not  exceed  half  the  estimated  value  of  the  property 
mortgaged,  upon  which  the  bank  has  the  first  mortgage.  The 
bank  also  makes  advances  to  local  bodies,  departmental  and 
communal,  for  short  or  long  periods,  and  with  or  without 
mortgage.  Its  capital  amounts  to  £13,500,000.  Its  charter  was 
renewed  in  1881  for  a  period  of  ninety- nine  years. 

In  1860  the  Credit  Foncier  lent  its  support  to  the  foundation  of 
an  organization  for  supplying  capital  and  credit  for  agricultural 
and  allied  industries.  This  Credit  Agricole  rendered  but  trifling 
services  to  agriculture,  however,  and  soon  threw  itself  into 
speculation.  Between  1873  and  1876  it  lent  enormous  sums  to 
the  Egyptian  government,  obtaining  the  money  by  opening 
credit  with  the  Credit  Foncier  and  depositing  with  it  the  securities 
of  the  Egyptian  government.  On  the  failure  of  the  Egyptian 
government  to  meet  its  payments  the  Credit  Agricole  went  into 
liquidation,  and  the  Credit  Foncier  suffered  severely  in  conse- 
quence. The  impracticability  of  the  credit  system  to  aid  agri- 
culture as  worked  by  the  Credit  Agricole  was  very  marked,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  the  financing  of  agricultural  associations  is 
now  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Banque  de  France. 

The  Credit  Mobilier  is  an  institution  for  advancing  loans  on 
personal  or  movable  estate.  It  was  constituted  in  1871,  on  the 
liquidation  of  the  Societe  Generale  de  Credit  Mobilier,  founded  in 
1852,  which  it  absorbed. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  OF  AMERICA,  a  construction  company 
whose  operations  in  connexion  with  the  building  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad  gave  rise  to  the  most  serious  political  scandal  in 
the  history  of  the  United  States  Congress.  The  company  was 
originally  chartered  as  the  Pennsylvania  Fiscal  Agency  in  1859. 
In  March  1864  a  controlling  interest  in  the  stock  was  secured  by 
Thomas  Durant,  vice-president  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
Company,  and  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  authorized  the 
adoption  of  the  name  Credit  Mobilier  of  America.  Durant 
proposed  to  utilize  it  as  a  construction  company,  pay  it  an 
extravagant  sum  for  the  work,  and  thus  secure  for  the  stock- 
holders of  the  Union  Pacific,  who  now  controlled  the  Credit 
Mobilier,  the  bonds  loaned  by  the  United  States  government. 
The  net  proceeds  from  the  government  and  the  first  mortgage 
bonds  issued  to  the  construction  company  were  $50,863,172.05, 
slightly  more  than  enough  to  pay  the  entire  cost  of  construction. 
According  to  the  report  of  the  Wilson  Congressional  Committee, 
the  Credit  Mobilier  received  in  addition,  in  the  form  of  stock, 
income  bonds,  and  land  grant  bonds,  $23,000,000 — a  profit  of 
about  48%.  The  defenders  of  the  company  assert  that  several 
items  of  expense  were  not  included  in  this  report,  and  that  the 
real  net  profit  was  considerably  smaller,  although  they  admit 
that  it  was  still  unusually  large.  The  work  extended  over  the 
years  1865-1867.  During  the  winter  of  1867-1868,  when  adverse 
legislation  by  Congress  was  feared,  it  is  alleged  that  Oakes  Ames 
(q.v.),a.  representative  from  Massachusetts  and  principal  promoter 
of  the  Credit  Mobilier,  distributed  a  number  of  snares  among 
congressmen  and  senators  to  influence  their  attitude.  Shares 
were  sold  at  par  when  a  few  dividends  repaid  a  purchaser  at  this 
price.  Some  in  fact  received  dividends  without  any  initial  outlay 
at  all.  As  the  result  of  a  lawsuit  between  Ames  and  H.  S. 
McComb,  some  private  letters  were  brought  out  in  September 

11872  which  gave  publicity  to  the  entire  proceedings.  The  House 
ippointed  two  investigating  committees,  the  Poland  and  the 
Wilson  committees,  and  on  the  report  of  the  former  (1873)  Ames 
ind  James  Brooks  of  New  York  were  formally  censured  by  the 


House,  the  former  for  disposing  of  the  stock  and  the  latter  for 
improperly  using  his  official  position  to  secure  part  of  it.  Charges 
were  also  made  against  Schuyler  Coif  ax,  then  vice-president  but 
Speaker  of  the  House  at  the  time  of  the  transaction,  James  A. 
Garfield,  William  D.  Kelley  (1814-1880),  John  A.  Logan,  and 
several  other  members  either  of  the  House  or  of  the  Senate.  The 
Senate  later  appointed  a  special  committee  to  investigate  the 
charges  against  its  members.  This  committee,  on  the  27th  of 
February  1873,  recommended  the  expulsion  from  the  Senate  of 
James  W.  Patterson,  of  New  Hampshire;  but  as  his  term  expired 
within  five  days  no  action  was  taken.  The  evidence  was  exagger- 
ated by  the  Democrats  for  partisan  purposes,  but  the  investiga- 
tion showed  clearly  that  many  of  those  accused  were  at  least 
indiscreet  if  not  dishonest.  The  company  itself  was  merely  a 
type  of  the  construction  companies  by  which  it  was  the  custom 
to  build  railways  between  1860  and  about  1880. 

See  J.  B.  Crawford,  The  Credit  Mobilier  of  America  (Boston,  1880), 
and  R.  Hazard,  The  Credit  Mobilier  of  America  (Providence,  1881), 
both  of  which  defend  Ames;  also  the  histories  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  Company  by  J.  P.  Davis  (Chicago,  1894)  and  H.  K.  White 
(Chicago,  1895);  and  for  a  succinct  and  impartial  account,  James 
Ford  Rhodes,  History  of  the  United  Stales,  vol.  vii.  (New  York,  1906). 
The  Poland  and  Wilson  reports  are  to  be  found  in  House  of  Represent- 
atives Reports,  42nd  Congress,  3rd  session,  Nos.  77  and  78,  and  the 
report  of  the  Senate  Committee  in  Senate  Reports,  42nd  Congress, 
3rd  session,  No.  519. 

CREDITON,  a  market  town  in  the  South  Molton  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Devonshire,  England,  8  m.  N.W.  of  Exeter 
by  the  London  &  South-Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1901)  3974.  It  is  situated  in  the  narrow  vale  of  the  river 
Greedy  near  its  junction  with  the  Exe,  between  two  steep  hills, 
and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  east  or  old  town  and  the  west 
or  new  town.  The  church  of  Holy  Cross,  formerly  collegiate,  is 
a  noble  Perpendicular  building  with  Early  English  and  other 
early  portions,  and  a  fine  central  tower.  The  grammar  school, 
founded  by  Edward  VI.  and  refounded  by  Elizabeth,  has 
exhibitions  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities.  Shoe-making, 
tanning,  agricultural  trade,  tin-plating,  and  the  manufacture 
of  confectionery  and  cider  have  superseded  the  former  large 
woollen  and  serge  industries.  In  1897  Crediton  was  made  the 
seat  of  a  suffragan  bishopric  in  the  diocese  of  Exeter. 

The  first  indication  of  settlement  at  Crediton  (Credington, 
Cryditon,  Kirlon)  is  the  tradition  that  Winfrith  or  Boniface  was 
born  there  in  680.  Perhaps  in  his  memory  (for  the  great  extent 
of  the  parish  shows  that  it  was  thinly  populated)  it  became  in  909 
the  seat  of  the  first  bishopric  in  Devonshire.  It  was  probably 
only  a  village  in  1049,  when  Leofric,  bishop  of  Crediton,  requested 
Leo  IX.  to  transfer  the  see  to  Exeter,  as  Crediton  was  "  an  open 
town  and  much  exposed  to  the  incursions  of  pirates."  At  the 
Domesday  Survey  much  of  the  land  was  still  uncultivated,  but 
its  prosperity  increased,  and  in  1269  each  of  the  twelve  prebends 
of  the  collegiate  church  had  a  house  and  farmland  within  the 
parish.  The  bishops,  to  whom  the  manor  belonged  until  the 
Reformation,  had  difficulty  in  enforcing  their  warren  and  other 
rights;  in  1351  Bishop  Grandison  obtained  an  exemplification  of 
judgments  of  1282  declaring  that  he  had  pleas  of  withernam, 
view  of  frank  pledge,  the  gallows  and  assize  of  bread  and  ale. 
Two  years  later  there  was  a  serious  riot  against  the  increase  of 
copyhold.  Perhaps  it  was  at  this  time  that  the  prescriptive 
borough  of  Crediton  arose.  The  jury  of  the  borough  are 
mentioned  in  1275,  and  Credi ton  _  returned  two  members  to 
parliament  in  1306-1307,  though  never  afterwards  represented. 
A  borough  seal  dated  1469  is  extant,  but  the  corporation  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  grant  made  by  Edward  VI.  of  the  church  to 
twelve  principal  inhabitants.  The  borough  and  manor  were 
granted  by  Elizabeth  to  William  Killigrew  in  1595,  but  there  is  no 
indication  of  town  organization  then  or  in  1630,  and  in  the  i8th 
century  Crediton  was  governed  by  commissioners.  In  1 23 1  the 
bishop  obtained  a  fair,  still  held,  on  the  vigil,  feast  and  morrow 
of  St  Lawrence.  This  was  important  as  the  wool  trade  was 
established  by  1249  and  certainly  continued  until  1630,  when  the 
market  for  kersies  is  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  a  saying  "  as 
fine  as  Kirton  spinning." 


392 


CREDNER— CREEDS 


See  Rev.  Preb.  Smith,  "  Early  History  of  Credition,"  in  Devonshir 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Literature  and  Art 
Transactions,  vol.  xiv.  (Plymouth,  1882);  Richard  J.  King,  "  Th 
Church  of  St  Mary  and  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Credition,"  in  Exete 
Diocesan  Architectural  Society,  Transactions,  vol.  iv.  (Exeter,  1878) 

CREDNER,  CARL  FRIEDRICH  HEINRICH  (1800-1876) 
German  geologist,  was  born  at  Waltershausen  near  Gotha,  on 
the  i3th  of  March  1809.  He  investigated  the  geology  of  th 
Thuringer  Waldes,  of  which  he  published  a  map  in  1846.  HA 
was  author  of  a  work  entitled  Uber  die  Gliederung  der  oberer 
Juraformation  und  der  Wealden-BUdung  im  nordwestlichen 
Deutschland  (Prague,  1863),  also  of  a  geological  map  of  Hanover 
(1865).  He  died  at  Halle  on  the  28th  of  September  1876. 

His  son,  CARL  HERMANN  CREDNER  (1841-  ),  was  born  at 
Gotha  on  the  ist  of  October  1841,  educated  at  Breslau  anc 
Gottingen,  and  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at  Breslau  in  1864.  In 
1870  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology  in  the  university  o: 
Leipzig,  and  in  1872  director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Saxony 
He  is  author  of  numerous  publications  on  the  geology  of  Saxony 
and  of  an  important  work,  Elemente  der  Geologic  (2  vols.,  1872 
7th  ed.,  1891),  regarded  as  the  standard  manual  in  Germany 
He  has  also  written  memoirs  on  Saurians  and  Labyrinthodonts 
CREE,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Algonquian  stock. 
They  are  still  a  considerable  tribe,  numbering  some  15,000,  and 
living  chiefly  in  Manitoba  and  Assiniboia,  about  Lake  Winnipeg 
and  the  Saskatchewan  river.  They  gave  trouble  by  their 
constant  attacks  upon  the  Sioux  and  Blackfeet,  but  are  now 
peaceable  and  orderly. 

See  Handbook  of  American  Indians  (Washington,  1907). 
CREECH,  THOMAS  (1659-1700),  English  classical  scholar, 
was  born  at  Blandford,  Dorsetshire,  in  1659.  He  received  his 
early  education  from  Thomas  Curgenven,  master  of  Sherborne 
school.  In  1675  he  entered  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  and 
obtained  a  fellowship  in  1683  at  All  Souls'.  He  was  headmaster 
of  Sherborne  school  from  1694  to  1696,  and  in  1699  he  received 
a  college  living,  but  in  June  1700  he  hanged  himself.  The 
immediate  cause  of  the  act  was  said  to  be  a  money  difficulty, 
though  according  to  some  it  was  a  love  disappointment;  both 
of  these  circumstances  no  doubt  had  their  share  in  a  catastrophe 
primarily  due  to  an  already  pronounced  melancholia.  Creech's 
fame  rests  on  his  translation  of  Lucretius  (1682)  in  rhymed 
heroic  couplets,  in  which,  according  to  Otway,  the  pure  ore  of  the 
original  "  somewhat  seems  refined."  He  also  published  a  version 
of  Horace  (1684),  and  translated  the  Idylls  of  Theocritus  (1684), 
the  Thirteenth  Satire  of  Juvenal  (1693),  the  Astronomicon  of 
Manilius  (1697),  and  parts  of  Plutarch,  Virgil  and  Ovid. 

CREEDS  (Lat.  credo,  I  believe) ,  or  CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITH.  We 
are  accustomed  to  regard  the  whole  conception  of  creeds,  i.e. 
reasoned  statements  of  religious  belief,  as  inseparably  connected 
with  the  history  of  Christianity.  But  the  new  study  of  com- 
parative religion  has  something  to  teach  us  even  here.  The 
saying  lex  orandi  lex  credendi  is  true  of  all  times  and  of  all  peoples. 
And  since  we  must  reckon  praise  as  the  highest  form  of  prayer, 
such  an  early  Christian  hymn  as  is  found  in  i  Tim.  iii.  16  must  be 
acknowledged  to  be  of  the  nature  of  a  creed:  "  He  who  was 
manifested  in  the  flesh,  justified  in  the  spirit,  seen  of  angels, 
preached  among  the  nations,  believed  on  in  the  world,  received  up 
in  glory."  It  justifies  the  expansion  of  the  second  article  of  the 
developed  Christian  creed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  earliest 
Christian  tradition.  It  also  supplies  a  reason  for  including  in  our 
survey  of  creeds  some  reference  to  pre-Christian  hymns  and 
beliefs.  The  pendulum  has  swung  back.  Rather  than  despise 
the  faulty  presentation  of  truth  which  we  find  in  heathen  re- 
ligions and  their  more  or  less  degraded  rites,  we  follow  the  apostle 
Paul  in  his  endeavour  to  trace  in  them  attempts  "  to  feel  after 
God  "  (Acts  vii.  27).  Augustine,  the  great  teacher  of  the  West, 
was  true  to  the  spirit  of  the  great  Alexandrians,  when  he  wrote 
(Ep.  166) :  "  Let  every  good  and  true  Christian  understand  that 
truth,  wherever  he  finds  it,  belongs  to  his  Lord." 

We  are  not  concerned  with  the  question  whether  the  earliest 
forms  of  recorded  religious  consciousness  such  as  animism,  or 
totemism,  or  fetishism,  were  themselves  degradations  of  a 


primitive  revelation  or  not. l  We  are  only  concerned  with  th< 
fact  of  experience  that  the  human  soul  yearns  to  express  its 
belief.  The  hymn  to  the  rising-and  setting  sun  in  the  Book  of  tin 
Dead  (ch.  15),  which  is  said  by  Egyptologists  to  be  the  oldesl 
poem  in  the  world,  carries  us  back  at  once  to  the  dawn  oi 
history. 

"  Hail  to  thee,  Ra,  the  self-existent .  .  .  Glorious  is 
thine  uprising  from  the  horizon.     Both  worlds  are 
illumined  by  thy  rays  .  .  .  Hail  to  thee,  Ra,  when  thou 
returnest  home  in  renewed  beauty,  crowned  and  almighty." 
In  a  later  hymn  Amen-Ra  is  confessed  as  "the  good  god 
beloved,  maker  of  men,  creator  of  beasts,  maker  of  things  below 
and  above,  lord  of  mercy  most  loving."     A  similar  note  is  struck 
in  the  Indian  Vedas.     In  the  more  ethical  religion  of  the  Avesta 
the  creator  is  more  clearly  distinguished  from  the  creature:     "  I 
desire  to  approach  Ahura  and  Mithra  with  my  praise,  the  lofty 
eternal,  and  the  holy  two." 2    The  Persian  poet  is  not  far  from 
the  kingdom  into  which  Hebrew  psalmists  and  prophets  entered. 
The  whole  history  of  the  Jewish  religion  is  centred  in  the 
gradual  purification  of  the  idea  of  God.     The  morality  of  the  Jews 
did  not  outgrow  their  religion,  but  their  interest  was  always 
ethical  and  not  speculative.     The  highest  strains  of  the  psalmists 
and  the  most  fervent  appeals  of  the  prophets  were  progressively 
directed  to  the  great  end  of  praising  and  preaching  the  One  true 
God,  everlasting,  with  sincere  and  pure  devotion.     The  creed  of 
the  Jew,  to  this  day,  is  summed  up  in  the  well-remembered  words, 
which  have  been  ever  on  his  lips,  living  or  dying:     "  Hear,  6 
Israel,  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord  "  (Deut.  vi.  4). 

The  definiteness  and  persistence  of  this  creed,  which  of  course 
is  the  strength  also  of  Mahommedanism,  presents  a  contrast  to 
the  fluid  character  of  the  statements  in  the  Vedas,  and  to  the 
chaos  of  conflicting  opinions  of  philosophers  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  As  Dr  J.  R.  Illingworth  has  said  very  concisely: 
"  The  physical  speculations  of  the  lonians  and  Atomists  rendered 
a  God  superfluous,  and  the  metaphysical  and  logical  reasoning  of 
the  Eleatics  declared  Him  to  be  unknowable."  3  Plato  regarding 
the  world  as  an  embodiment  of  eternal,  archetypal  ideas,  which  he 
groups  under  the  central  idea  of  Good,  identified  with  the  divine 
reason,  at  the  same  time  uses  the  ordinary  language  of  the  day, 
and  speaks  of  God  and  the  gods,  feeling  his  way  towards  the 
conception  of  a  personal  God,  which,  to  quote  Dr  Illingworth 
again,  neither  he  nor  Aristotle  could  reach  because  they  had  not 
"  a  clear  conception  of  human  personality."  They  were  followed 
Dy  an  age  of  philosophizing  which  did  little  to  advance  specula- 
tion. The  Stoics,  for  example,  were  more  successful  in  criticizing 
the  current  creed  than  in  explaining  the  underlying  truth  which 
they  recognized  in  polytheism.  The  final  goal  of  Greek  philosophy 
was  only  reached  when  the  great  thinkers  of  the  early  Christian 
Church,  who  had  been  trained  in  the  schools  of  Alexandria  and 
Athens,  used  its  modes  of  thought  in  theiranalysis  of  the  Christian 
dea  of  God.  "  In  this  sense  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  the 
synthesis,  and  summary,  of  all  that  was  highest  in  the  Hebrew 
and  Hellenic  conceptions  of  God,  fused  into  union  by  the  electric 
touch  of  the  Incarnation."  4 

Space  does  not  permit  enlargement  on  this  theme,  but  enough 
has  been  said  to  introduce  the  direct  study  of  the  ancient  creeds 
of  Christendom. 

I.  THE  ANCIENT  CREEDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM. — The  three  creeds 

which  may  be  called  oecumenical,  although  the  measure  of 

heir  acceptance  by  the  universal  church  has  not  been  uniform, 

epresent  three  distinct  types  provided  for  the  use  of  the  cate- 

:humen,  the  communicant,  and  the  church  teacher  respectively. 

The  Apostles'  Creed  is  the  ancient  baptismal  creed,  held  in 

common  both  by  East  and  West,  in  its  final  western  form. 

The  Nicene  Creed  is  the  baptismal  creed  of  an  eastern  church 

nlarged  in  order  to  combine  theological  interpretation  with 

he  facts  of  the  historic  faith.     Its  use  in  the  Eucharist  of  the 

undivided  Church  has  been  continued  since  the  great  schism, 

although  the  Eastern  Church  protests  against  the  interpolation 

1  Jevons,  Introd.  to  the  History  of  Religion,  p.  394. 

2  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  xxxi. 

3  Personality,  Human  and  Divine  (cheap  edition),  p.  36. 
1  Ib.  p.  38. 


CREEDS 


393 


of  the  words  "  And  the  Son  "  in  clause  9.  The  Athanasian  Creed 
is  an  instruction  designed  to  confute  heresies  which  were  current 
in  the  sth  century. 

i.  The  Apostles'  Creed. — The  increased  interest  which  has  been 
shown  in  the  history  of  all  creed-forms  since  the  latter  part  of  the 
i  pth  century  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  work  of 
Creed'"5'  tne  veteran  pioneer,  Professor  P.  Caspari  of  Christiania, 
who  began  the  herculean  task  of  classifying  the 
enormous  number  of  creed-forms  which  have  been  recovered 
from  obscure  pages  of  early  Christian  literature.  In  England 
we  owe  much  to  Professors  C.  A.  Heurtley  and  Swainson.  In 
Germany  the  monumental  work  of  Professor  Kattenbusch  has 
overshadowed  all  other  books  on  the  subject,  providing  even  his 
most  ardent  critics  with  an  indispensable  record  of  the  literature 
of  the  subject. 

The  majority  of  critics  agree  that  the  only  trace  of  a  formal 
creed  in  the  New  Testament  is  the  simple  confession  of  Jesus  as 
the  Lord,  or  the  Son  of  God  (Rom.  x.  9;  i  Cor.  xii.  3).  While  the 
apostles  were  agreed  on  an  outline  of  teaching  (Rom.  vi.  17) 
which  included  the  doctrine  of  God,  the  person  and  work  of 
Christ,  and  the  person  and  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  provided  any  summary,  which  would  cover 
this  ground,  as  an  authoritative  statement  of  their  belief.  The 
tradition  which  St  Paul  received  included,  so  to  speak,  the 
germ  of  the  central  prayer  in  the  Eucharist  (i  Cor.  xi.  23  ff.),  and 
no  doubt  included  also  teaching  on  conduct,  "  the  way  of  a 
Christian  life  "  (i  Thess.  iv.  i;  Gal.  v.  21).  The  creed  in  all  its 
forms  lies  behind  worship,  which  it  preserves  from  idolatry,  and 
behind  ethics,  to  which  it  supplies  a  motive  power  which  the 
pre-Christian  system  so  manifestly  lacked.  Whether  the  first 
creed  of  the  primitive  Church  was  of  the  simple  Christological 
character  which  confession  of  Jesus  as  the  Lord  expresses,  or  of 
an  enlarged  type  based  on  the  baptismal  formula  (Matt,  xxviii. 
19),  makes  no  difference  to  the  statement  that  the  faith  which 
overcame  the  world  derived  its  energy  from  convictions  which 
strove  for  utterance.  "  With  the  heart  man  believeth  unto 
righteousness,  and  with  the  mouth  confession  is  made  unto 
salvation  "  (Rom.  x.  10). 

When  St  Paul  reminds  Timothy  (i  Tim.  vi.  13)  of  his  confession 
before  many  witnesses  he  does  not  seem  to  imply  more  than 
confession  of  Christ  as  king.  He  calls  it  "  the  beautiful  con- 
fession "  to  which  Christ  Jesus  had  borne  witness  before  Pontius 
Pilate,  and  charges  Timothy  before  God,  who  quickeneth  all 
things,  to  keep  this  commandment.  Some  writers,  notably 
Professor  Zahn,1  piecing  together  this  text  with  2  Tim.  i.  13,  ii.  8, 
iv.  i,  2,  reconstructs  a  primitive  Apostles'  Creed  of  Antioch,  the 
city  from  which  St  Paul  started  on  his  missionary  journeys.  But 
there  is  no  mention  of  a  third  article  in  the  creed,  beyond  a 
reference  to  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  context  of  2  Tim.  i.  14,  which 
would  prove  the  apostolic  use  of  a  Trinitarian  confession  imagin- 
able as  the  parent  of  the  later  Eastern  and  Western  forms.  The 
eunuch's  creed  interpolated  in  Acts  viii.  57,  "  I  believe  that 
Jesus  is  the  Son  of  God,"  since  the  reading  was  known  to 
Irenaeus,  probably  represents  the  form  of  baptismal  confession 
used  in  some  church  of  Asia  Minor,  and  supplies  us  with  the  type 
of  a  primitive  creed.  This  theory  is  confirmed  by  the  evidence 
of  the  Johannine  epistles  (i  John  iv.  15,  v.  5;  cf.  Heb.  iv.  14). 

From  this  point  of  view  it  is  easy  to  explain  the  occurrence  of 
creed-like  phrases  in  the  New  Testament  as  fragments  of  early 
hymns  (i  Tim.  iii.  16)  or  reminiscences  of  oral  teaching  (i  Cor.  xv. 
i  ff.).  The  following  form  which  Seeberg  gives  as  the  creed  of  St 
Paul  is  an  artificial  combination  of  fragments  of  oral  teaching, 
which  naturally  reappear  in  the  teaching  of  St  Peter,  but  finds  no 
attestation  in  the  later  creeds  of  particular  churches  which 
would  prove  its  claim  to  be  their  parent  form : 

"  The  living  God  who  created  all  things  sent  His  Son  Jesus  Christ, 
born  of  the  seed  of  David,  who  died  for  our  sins  according  to  the 
scriptures,  and  was  buried,  who  was  raised  on  the  third  day  according 
to  the  scriptures,  and  appeared  to  Cephas  and  the  XII.,  who  sat  at  the 

1  Der  Katechismus  der  Urchristenheit,  p.  85.  Zahn's  reasoned  argu- 
ment stands  in  contrast  to  the  blind  reliance  on  tradition  shown  by 
Macdonald,  The  Symbol  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  fanciful  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  primitive  creed  by  Baeumer,  Harnack  or  Seeberg. 


right  hand  of  God  in  the  heavens,  all  rule  and  authority  and  power 
being  made  subject  unto  Him,  and  is  coming  on  the  clouds  of  heaven 
with  power  and  great  glory." 

The  evidence  of  the  apostolic  fathers  is  disappointing.  Clement 
(Cor.  Iviii.  2)  supplies  only  parallels  to  the  baptismal  formula 
(Matt,  xxviii.  19).  Polycarp  (Ep.  7)  echoes  St  John.  But 
Ignatius  might  seem  to  offer  in  the  following  passage  some 
confirmation  of  Zahn's  theory  of  a  primitive  creed  of  Antioch 
( Trail.  9) :  "Be  ye  deaf,  therefore,  when  any  man  speaketh  to  you 
apart  from  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  of  the  race  of  David,  who  was 
the  Son  of  Mary,  who  was  truly  born  and  ate  and  drank,  was 
truly  persecuted  under  Pontius  Pilate,  was  truly  crucified  and 
died  in  the  sight  of  those  in  heaven  and  those  on  earth  and  those 
under  the  earth;  who,  moreover,  was  truly  raised  from  the  dead, 
His  Father  having  raised  Him,  who  in  the  like  fashion  will  so 
raise  us  also  who  believe  on  Him — His  Father,  I  say,  will  raise  us 
— in  Christ  Jesus,  apart  from  whom  we  have  not  true  life." 

The  differences,  however,  which  divide  this  from  the  later 
creed  forms  are  scarcely  less  noticeable  than  their  agreement, 
and  the  evidence  of  the  Ignatian  epistles  generally  (Eph.  xviii.; 
Smyrn.  i.),  while  it  confirms  the  conclusion  that  instruction  was 
given  in  Antioch  on  all  points  characteristic  of  the  developed 
creed,  e.g.  the  Miraculous  Birth,  Crucifixion,  Resurrection,  the 
Catholic  Church,  forgiveness  of  sins,  the  hope  of  resurrection, 
does  not  prove  that  this  teaching  was  as  yet  combined  in  a 
Trinitarian  form  which  classified  the  latter  clauses  under  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

At  this  point  a  word  must  be  said  on  the  important  question  of 
interpretation.  While  we  may  hope  for  eventual  agreement  on 
the  history  of  the  different  types  of  creed  forms,  there  can  be  no 
hope  of  agreement  on  the  interpretation  of  the  words  Holy  Spirit 
between  Unitarian  and  Trinitarian  critics.  Writers  who  follow 
Harnack  explain  "  holy  spirit "  as  the  gift  of  impersonal  influence, 
and  between  wide  limits  of  difference  agree  in  regarding  Christ  as 
Son  of  God  by  adoption  and  not  by  nature.  Amid  the  chaos  of 
conflicting  opinions  as  to  the  original  teaching  of  Jesus,  the 
Gospel  within  the  Gospel,  the  central  question  "  What  think  ye 
of  Christ  ?  "  emerges  as  the  test  of  all  theories.  "  No  man  can 
say  that  Jesus  is  the  Lord  save  in  the  Holy  Ghost  "  (i  Cor.  xii.  3). 
Belief  in  the  fact  of  the  Incarnation  of  the  eternal  Word,  as  it  is 
stated  in  the  words  of  Ignatius  quoted  above,  or  in  any  of  the 
later  creeds,  stands  or  falls  with  belief  in  the  Holy  Ghost  as  the 
guide  alike  of  their  convictions  and  destinies,  no  mere  impersonal 
influence,  but  a  living  voice. 

If  the  essence  of  Christianity  is  winnowed  down  to  a  bare 
imitation  of  the  Man  Jesus,  and  his  religion  is  accepted  as 
Buddhists  accept  the  religion  of  Buddha,  still  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  early  Christians  put  their  trust  in  Christ  rather 
than  his  religion.  "  I  am  the  life,"  not  "  I  teach  the  life,"  "  I  am 
the  truth,"  not  merely  "  I  teach  the  truth,"  are  not  additions  of 
Johannine  theology  but  the  central  aspect  of  the  presentation  of 
Christ  as  the  good  physician,  healer  of  souls  and  bodies,  which  the 
most  rigid  scrutiny  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  leaves  as  the  residuum 
of  accepted  fact  about  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  To  say  more  would  be 
out  of  place  in  this  article,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  introduce 
the  exhaustive  discussion  by  Kattenbusch  (ii.  471-728)  of  the 
meaning  of  the  theological  teaching  both  of  the  New  Testament 
and  of  the  earliest  creeds. 

To  return  within  our  proper  limits.  Kattenbusch,  with  whom 
Harnack  is  in  general  agreement,  regards  the  Old  Roman  Creed, 
which  comes  to  light  in  the  4th  century,  as  the  parent  of  all 
developed  forms,  whether  Eastern  or  Western.  Marcellus,  the 
exiled  bishop  of  Ancyra,  is  quoted  by  Epiphanius  as  presenting 
it  to  Bishop  Julius  of  Rome  c.  A.D.  340.  Ussher's  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  this  profession  of  faith  by  Marcellus  was  the  creed  of 
Rome,  not  of  Ancyra,  is  the  starting-point  of  modern  discussions 
of  the  history  of  the  creeds.  Some  sixty  years  later  Rufinus,  a 
priest  of  Aquileia,  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  creed  of  his  native 
city  and  compared  it  with  the  Roman  Creed.  His  Latin  text  is 
probably  as  ancient  as  the  Greek  text  of  Marcellus,  because  the 
Roman  Church  must  always  have  been  bilingual  in  its  early  days. 
It  was  as  follows: 


394 


CREEDS 


I.  i.  I  believe  in  God  (the)  Father  almighty; 
II.  2.  And  in  Christ  Jesus  His  only  Son  our  Lord, 

3.  who  was  born  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  the  Virgin  Mary, 

4.  crucified  under  Pontius  Pilate  and  buried 

5.  the  third  day  He  rose  from  the  dead, 

6.  He  ascended  into  heaven, 

7.  sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father, 

8.  thence  He  shall  come  to  judge  living  and  dead. 
III.  9.  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 

10.  (the)  holy  Church, 

11.  (the)  remission  of  sins, 

12.  (the)  resurrection  of  the  flesh. 

This  Old  Roman  Creed  may  be  traced  back  in  the  writings  of 
Bishops  Felix  and  Dionysus  (3rd  century),  and  in  the  writings  of 
Tertullian  in  the  2nd  century. 

Tertullian  calls  the  creed  the  "  token  "  which  the  African 
Church  shares  with  the  Roman  (de  Praescr.  36) :  "  The  Roman 
Church  has  made  a  common  token  with  the  African  Churches,  has 
recognized  one  God,  creator  of  the  universe,  and  Christ  Jesus,  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  Son  of  God  the  Creator,  and  the  resurrection  of 
the  flesh."  The  reference  is  to  the  earthenware  token  which  two 
friends  broke  in  order  that  they  might  commend  a  stranger  for 
hospitality  by  sending  with  him  the  broken  half.  Their  creed 
became  the  passport  by  which  Christians  in  strange  cities  could 
obtain  admission  to  assemblies  for  worship  and  to  common  meals. 
The  passage  quoted  is  obviously  a  condensed  quotation  of  the 
Roman  Creed,  which  reappears  also  in  the  following  (de  Virg. 
vel.i.): 

"  The  rule  of  faith  is  one  altogether  ...  of  believing  in  one  God 
Almighty,  maker  of  the  world,  and  in  His  Son  Jesus  Christ,  born  of 
Mary  the  Virgin,  crucified  under  Pontius  Pilate;  the  third  day 
raised  from  the  dead,  received  in  the  heavens,  sitting  now  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  Father,  about  to  come  and  judge  quick  and  dead 
through  the  resurrection  also  of  the  flesh." 

There  are  many  references  in  Tertullian  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Gnostic  Marcion,  whose  breach  with  the  Roman  Church  may  be 
dated  A.D.  145.  He  seems  to  have  still  held  to  the  Roman 
creed  interpreted  in  his  own  way.  An  ingenious  conjecture  by 
Zahn  enables  us  to  add  the  words  "  holy  Church  "  to  our  recon- 
struction of  the  creed  from  the  writings  of  Tertullian.  In  his 
revised  New  Testament  Marcion  speaks  of  "  the  covenant  which 
is  the  mother  of  us  all,  which  begets  us  in  the  holy  Church,  to 
which  we  have  vowed  allegiance."  He  uses  a  word  used  by 
Ignatius  of  the  oath  taken  on  confession  of  the  Christian  faith. 
It  follows  that  the  words  "  holy  Church  "  were  contained  in  the 
Roman  Creed.1 

While  all  critics  agree  in  tracing  back  this  form  to  the  earliest 
years  of  the  2nd  century,  and  regard  it  as  the  archetype  of  all 
similar  Western  creeds,  there  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  on  its 
relation  to  Eastern  forms.  Kattenbusch  maintains  that  the 
Roman  Creed  reached  Gaul  and  Africa  in  the  course  of  the  2nd 
century,  and  perhaps  all  districts  of  the  West  that  possessed 
Christian  congregations,  also  the  western  end  of  Asia  Minor 
possibly  in  connexion  with  Polycarp's  visit  to  Rome  A.D.  154. 
He  finds  that  materials  fail  for  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia, 
Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt.  Further,  he  holds  that  all  the  Eastern 
creeds  which  are  known  to  us  as  existing  in  the  4th  century,  or 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  3rd,  lead  to  Antioch  as  their  starting- 
point.  He  concludes  that  the  Roman  Creed  was  accepted  at 
Antioch  after  the  fall  of  Paul  of  Samosata  in  A.D.  272,  and  was 
adapted  to  the  dogmatic  requirements  of  the  time,  all  the  later 
creeds  of  Palestine,  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  being  dependent  on  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  Kunze,  Loofs,  Sanday,  and  Zahn  find 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  an  Eastern  type  of  creed  of  equal 
or  greater  antiquity  and  distinguished  from  the  Roman  by  such 
phrases  as  "  One  "  (God),  "  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth," 
"  suffered,"  "  shah1  come  again  in  glory."  Thus  Kunze  recon- 
structs a  creed  of  Antioch  for  the  3rd  century,  and  argues  that  it 
is  independent  of  the  Roman  Creed. 

Creed  of  Antioch. 

I.  I.  I  believe  in  one  and  one  only  true  God,  Father  Almighty, 
maker  of  all  things,  visible  and  invisible. 

1  McGiffert,  on  the  other  hand,  argues  that  the  Roman  Creed  was 
composed  to  meet  theerrors  of  Marcion,  p.  58  ff.  He  omits,  however, 
to  mention  this,  which  is  Zahn's  strongest  argument 


II.  2.  And  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  His  Son,  the  only-begotten 
and  first  born  of  all  creation,  begotten  of  Him  before  all 
the  ages,  through  whom  also  the  ages,  were  established, 
and  all  things  came  into  existence; 

3.  Who  for  our  sakes,  came  down,  and  was  born  of  Mary  the 

Virgin. 

4.  And  crucified  under  Pontius  Pilate,  and  buried, 

5.  And  the  third  day  rose  according  to  the  scriptures, 

6.  and  ascended  into  heaven. 

7- 

8.  And  is  coming  again  to  judge  quick  and  dead. 

9.  [The  beginning  of  the  third  article  has  not  been  recorded.] 
10. 

11.  Remission  of  sins. 

12.  Resurrection  of  the  dead,  life  everlasting. 

Along  similar  lines  Loofs  selects  phrases  as  typical  of  creeds 
which  go  back  to  a  date  preceding  the  Nicene  Council. 

A.  Creed  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  presented  to  the  Nicene 

Council. 

B.  Revised  Creed  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem. 

C.  Creed  of  Antioch  quoted  by  Cassian. 

D.  Creed  of  Antioch  quoted  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

E.  Creed  of  Lucian  the  Martyr  (Antioch). 

F.  Creed  of  Arius  (Alexandria). 

1.  One  (God),  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F. 

Maker  of  heaven  and  earth  and  of  all  things  visible  and 
invisible  (or  a  like  phrase),  A,  B,  C,  D,  E. 

2.  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  His  Son,  the  only  begotten  (or  a  like 

phrase),  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F. 

3.  Crucified  under  Pontius  Pilate,   B,  C,  D   (A,  E,  F  omit 

because  they  are  theological  creeds.  Loofs  thinks  that 
the  baptismal  creeds  on  which  they  are  based  may  have 
contained  the  words). 

5.  Rose  the  third  day,  A,  B,  D,  E  (F  omits  "  the  third  day  " 

being  a  theological  creed;  the  translation  of  C  is  un- 
certain). 

6.  Went  up,  A,  B,  D,  E,  F. 

+and  . . .  and  . . .  and,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F. 
8.  And  is  coming,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F;  and  is  about  to  come,  A; 
+again,  A,  C,  D,  E,  F(B?);  +in  glory,  A,  B;  with  glory, 


10.  -(-Catholic,  B,  D,  F  (A,  C,  E?) 

12.  -(-life  eternal,  B,  C;   +life  of  the  age  to  come,  D,  F. 

Sanday  (Journal  Theol.  Studies,  iii.  i)  does  not  attempt  a  recon- 
struction on  this  elaborate  scale,  but  contents  himself  with 
pointing  out  evidence,  which  Kattenbusch  seems  to  him  to  have 
missed,  for  the  existence  of  creeds  of  Egypt,  Cappadocia  and 
Palestine  before  the  time  of  Aurelian.  He  criticizes  Harnack's 
theory  that  there  existed  in  the  East,  that  is,  in  Asia  Minor,  or  in 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria  as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the  2nd 
century,  a  Christological  instruction  (fiadyna.)  organically  related 
to  the  second  article  of  the  Roman  Creed,  and  formulas  which 
taught  that  the  "  One  God  "  was  "  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth," 
and  referred  to  the  holy  prophetic  spirit,  and  lasted  on  till  they 
influenced  the  course  of  creed-development  in  the  4th  century. 
He  asks,  is  it  not  simpler  to  believe  that  there  was  a  definite  type 
in  the  background? 

Another  English  student,  the  Rev.  T.  Barns,  engaged  specially 
in  work  upon  the  history  of  the  creed  of  Cappadocia,  points  out 
the  importance  of  the  extraordinary  influence  of  Firmilian  of 
Caesarea  in  the  affairs  of  the  church  of  Antioch  in  the  early  part 
of  the  3rd  century.  He  is  led  to  argue  that  the  creed  of  Antioch 
came  rather  from  Cappadocia  than  Rome.  Whether  his  con- 
clusion is  justified  or  not,  it  helps  to  show  how  strongly  the  trend 
of  contemporary  research  is  setting  against  the  theory  of  Katten- 
busch that  the  Roman  Creed  when  adopted  at  Antioch  became 
the  parent  of  all  Eastern  forms.  It  does  not,  however,  militate 
against  the  possibility  that  the  Roman  Creed  was  carried  from 
Rome  to  Asia  Minor  and  to  Palestine  in  the  2nd  century.  It  is 
evidently  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  final  decision  until  much  more 
spade  work  has  been  done  in  the  investigation  of  early  Eastern 
creeds.  Connolly's  study  of  the  early  Syrian  creed  (Zeitschrift 
fiir  die  neulestamenlliche  Wissenschaft,  1906,  p.  202)  deserves 
careful  consideration.  His  reconstruction  of  the  creed  of 
Aphraates  is  interesting  in  relation  to  the  other  traces  of  a 
Syriac  creed  form  existing  prior  to  the  4th  century. 

[I  believe]  in  God  the  Lord  of  all,  that  made  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  and  the  seas  and  all  that  in  them  is;  [And  in  our  Lord  Jesus 


CREEDS 


395 


Christ]  [the  Son  of  God,]  God,  Son  of  God,  King,  Son  of  the  King, 
Light  from  Light,  (Son  and  Counsellor,  and  Guide,  and  Way,  and 
Saviour,  and  Shepherd,  and  Gatherer,  and  Door,  and  Pearl,  and 
Lamp,)  and  first-born  of  all  creatures,  who  came  and  put  on  a  body 
from  Mary  the  Virgin  (of  the  seed  of  the  house  of  David,  from  the 
Holy  Spirit),  and  put  on  our  manhood,  and  suffered,  or  and  was 
crucified,  went  down  to  the  place  of  the  dead,  or  to  Sheol,  and  lived 
again,  and  rose  the  third  day,  and  ascended  to  the  height,  or  to 
heaven,  and  sat  on  the  right  hand  of  His  Father,  and  He  is  the  Judge 
of  the  dead  and  of  the  living,  who  sitteth  on  the  throne;  [And  in  the 
Holy  Spirit ;]  [And  I  believe] .  in  the  coming  to  life  of  the  dead ; 
[and]  in  the  mystery  of  Baptism  (of  the  remission  of  sins). 

The  probable  battle-ground  of  the  future  between  the  oppos- 
ing theories  lies  in  the  writings  of  Irenaeus.  He  has  most  of 
the  characteristic  expressions  of  the  Eastern  creeds.  He  inserts 
"  one  "  in  clause  i  and  2.  He  has  the  phrases  "  Maker  of  heaven 
and  earth,"  "  suffered,"  and  "  crucified,"  with  "  under  Pontius 
Pilate  "  after  instead  of  before  it.  Probably  also  he  had  "  in 
glory  "  in  clause  8.  But  there  is  always  the  possibility  to  be  faced 
that  Irenaeus  drew  his  creed  from  Rome  rather  than  Asia  Minor. 
Kattenbusch  does  not  shrink  from  suggesting  that  he  shows 
acquaintance  with  the  Roman  Creed,  and  that  Justin  Martyr 
also  knew  it,  in  which  case  all  the  so-called  Eastern  characteristics 
have  been  imprinted  on  the  original  Roman  form,  and  are  not 
derived  from  an  Eastern  archetype.  But  the  ordinary  reader  need 
not  feel  concern  about  th£  future  victory  of  either  theory.  The 
plain  fact  is  that  the  same  facts  were  taught  in  Palestine,  Asia 
Minor  and  Gaul,  whether  gathered  up  in  a  parallel  creed  form 
or  not.  The  contrast  which  Rufinus  draws  between  the  Roman 
Creed  and  others,  both  of  the  East  and  the  West,  is  justified. 
In  comparison  with  them  it  was  guarded  more  carefully  from 
change.1  We  have  yet  to  inquire  how  it  received  the  additions 
which  distinguish  the  derived  form  now  in  use  as  the  baptismal 
creed  of  all  Western  Christendom.  Some  had  already  found  an 
entrance  into  Western  creeds.  We  find  "  suffered  "  in  the  creed 
of  Milan,  "  descended  into  hell  "  in  the  creed  of  Aquileia,  the 
Danubian  lands  and  Syria;  the  words  "  God  "  and  "  almighty  " 
were  shortly  added  to  clause  7  in  the  Spanish  creed;  "life 
everlasting  "  had  stood  from  an  early  date  in  the  African  creed. 
The  creed  of  Caesarius  of  Aries  (d.  543)  proves  that  these  varia- 
tions had  all  been  united  in  one  Gallican  creed  together  with 
"  catholic  "  and  "  communion  of  saints,"  but  this  Gallican  form 
still  lacked  "  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth  "  and  the  additions  in 
clause  7. 

Two  newly-discovered  creeds  help  us  greatly  to  narrow  down 
the  limits  of  the  problem.  The  creed  of  Niceta  of  Remesiana  in 
Dacia  proves  that  c.  A.D.  400  the  Dacian  church  had  added  to  the 
Roman  Creed  "  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,"  "  suffered,"  "  dead," 
"  Catholic,"  "  communion  of  saints  "  and  "  life  everlasting." 
Parallel  to  it  is  the  Faith  of  St  Jerome  discovered  in  1903  by 
Dom.  Morin.2 

The  Faith  of  St  Jerome. 
"  I  believe  in  one  God  the  Father  almighty,  maker  of  things 
visible  and  invisible.  I  believe  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son 
of  God,  born  of  God,  God  of  God,  Light  of  Light,  almighty  of 
almighty,  true  God  of  true  God,  born  before  the  ages,  not  made, 
by  whom  all  things  were  made  in  heaven  and  in  earth.  Who 
for  our  salvation  descended  from  heaven,  was  conceived  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  suffered  by  suffering  under 
Pontius  Pilate,  under  Herod  the  King,  crucified,  buried,  descended 
into  hell,  trod  down  the  sting  of  death,  rose  again  the  third  day, 
appeared  to  the  apostles.  After  this  He  ascended  into  heaven, 
sitteth  at  the  right  of  God  the  Father,  thence  shall  come  to  judge 
the  quick  and  the  dead.  And  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  God  not 
unbegotten  nor  begotten,  not  created  nor  made,  but  co-eternal  with 
the  Father  and  the  Son.  I  believe  (that  there  is)  remission  of  sins 
in  the  holy  catholic  church,  communion  of  saints,  resurrection  ol 
the  flesh  unto  eternal  life.  Amen." 

This  creed  may  be  the  form  which  Jerome  mentions  in  one  of  his 
letters  (Ep.  1 7,  n.  4)as  sent  to  Cyril  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  important 
as  connecting  the  creeds  of  East  and  West.  Since  Jerome  was 
born  in  Pannonia  we  may  conjecture  that  he  is  inserting  Nicene 
phrases  from  the  Jerusalem  creed  intg  his  baptismal  creed,  and 
1  It  is  probable  that  "  one  "  has  dropped  out  of  the  first  clause 
Zahn  acutely  suggests  that  it  was  omitted  in  the  time  of  Zephyrinus 
to  counteract  Monarchian  teaching  such  as  the  formula:  '  believe 
in  one  God,  Jesus  Christ." 

*  Anecdote,  Maredsolana,  iii.  iii.  p.  199. 


hat  this  form  added  to  Niceta's  creed  proves  that  the  creed  of 
he  Danube  lands  possessed  the  clauses  "  maker  of  heaven  and 
earth  "  and  "  communion  of  saints." 

The  first  occurrence  of  the  completed  form  is  in  a  treatise 

Scarapsus)  of  the  Benedictine  missionary  Pirminius,  abbot  of 

Reichenau  (c.  A.D.  730).     The  difficulty  hitherto  has  been  to 

race  the  source  from  which  the  clause  "  maker  of  heaven  and 

earth  "  has  come  into  it.     It  has  been  known  that  the  forms  in  use 

n  the  south  of  France  approximated  to  it  but  without  those 

words.     In  the  6th  century  we  find  creed  forms  in  use  in  Gaul 

which  include  them,  but  include  also  other  variations  distinguish- 

ng  them  from  the  form  which  we  seek.     The  missing  link  which 

las  hitherto  been  lacking  in  the  evidence  has  been  found  by 

Barns  in  the  influence  of  Celtic  missionaries  who  streamed 

across  from  Europe  until  they  came  in  touch  with  the  remnants 

of  the  Old  Latin  Christianity  of  the  Danube.    The  chief  documents 

of  the  date  A.D.  700,  which  contain  forms  almost  identical  with 

the  received  text,  are  connected  with  monasteries  founded  by 

olumban  and  his  friends:  Bobbio,  Luxeuil,  S.  Gallen,  Reichenau. 
From  one  of  these  monasteries  the  received  text  seems  to  have 
been  taken  to  Rome.  Certainly  it  was  from  Rome  that  it  was 
spread.  We  can  trace  the  use  of  the  received  text  along  the  line 
of  the  journeys  both  of  Pirminius  and  Boniface,  and  there  is 
little  doubt  that  they  received  it  from  the  Roman  Church,  with 
which  Boniface  was  in  frequent  communication.  Pope  Gregory 
II.  sent  him  instructions  to  use  what  seems  to  have  been  an 
official  Roman  order  of  Baptism,  which  would  doubtless  include  a 
Roman  form  of  creed.  Pirminius,  who  was  far  from  being  an 
original  writer,  made  great  use  of  a  treatise  by  Martin  of  Braga, 
but  substituted  a  Roman  form  of  Renunciation,  and  refers  to  the 
Roman  rite  of  Unction  in  a  way  which  leads  us  to  suppose  that  the 
form  of  creed  which  he  substituted  for  Martin's  form  was  also 
Roman.  It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  the  received  text  was 
either  made  or  accepted  in  Rome,  c.  A.D.  700,  and  disseminated 
through  the  Benedictine  missionaries.  At  the  end  of  the  8th 
century  Charlemagne  inquired  of  the  bishops  of  his  empire  as  to 
current  forms.  The  reply  of  Amalarius  of  Trier  is  important 
because  it  shows  that  he  not  only  used  the  received  text,  but  also 
connected  it  with  the  Roman  order  of  Baptism.  The  emperor's 
wish  for  uniformity  doubtless  led  in  a  measure  to  its  eventual 
triumph  over  all  other  forms. 

2.  The  Nicene  Creed  of  the  liturgies,  often  called  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  creed,  is  the  old  baptismal  creed  of  Jerusalem  revised 
by  the  insertion  of  Nicene  terms.  The  idea  that  the  Ntceae 
council  merely  added  to  the  last  section  has  been  creed 
disproved  by  Hort's  famous  dissertation  in  1876.' 
The  text  of  the  creed  of  the  Nicene  Council  was  based  on  the 
creed  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  and  a  comparison  of  the  four 
creeds  side  by  side  proves  to  demonstration  their  distinctness,  in 
spite  of  the  tendency  of  copyists  to  confuse  and  assimilate  the 
forms.4 


Creed  of  Eusebius,  A.D.  325 

Revision  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea, 

(Caesarea). 

A.D.  325. 

We  believe 

We  believe 

I.  i.  In  one  God  the  Father 

I.   I.  In  one  God  the  Father 

Almighty,  the  maker  of 
all  things  visible  and  in- 

Almighty, the  maker  of 
all    things   visible   and 

visible. 

invisible. 

II.  2.  And  in  one  Lord  Jesus 

II.  2.  And  in  one  Lord  Jesus 

Christ,  the  Word  of  God. 

Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 

begotten  of  the  Father, 

only   begotten,  that   is 

of  the  substance  of  the 

God   of   God,    Light   of 

Father,    God    of    God, 

Light,  (Life  of  Life,)only 
begotten  Son  (first-born 
of  all  creation,  before  all 

Light    of    Light,    very 
God  of  very  God,  be- 
gotten not  made,  of  one 

worlds  begotten  of  God 
the  Father),  by  whom 

substance      with      the 
Father,    by    whom    all 

all  things  were  made  ; 

things  were  made,  both 

those    in    heaven    and 

those  on  earth. 

3  Dorholt  has  shown  that  Petavius  (d.  1652)  was  the  first  to  remark 
that  the  so-called  Constantinopolitan  form  was  quoted  by  Epi- 
phanius  before  the  Council  met,  but  was  not  able  to  explain  the  fact. 

4  Burn,  "  Note  on  the  Old  Latin  text,"  Journal  of  Theol.  Studies. 


396 


CREEDS 


3.  Who   for   our   salvation 

was  incarnate  (and  lived 
as  a  citizen  amongst 
men), 

4.  And  suffered, 

5.  And  rose  the  third  day, 

6.  And    ascended    (to    the 

Father), 

7.  And    shall    come    again 
.      (in  glory)  to  judge  quick 

and  dead. 

III.   8.  And  (we  believe)  in  (one) 
Holy  Ghost. 

Creed  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  34^- 

I  (or  We)  believe 
I.  i.  In  one  God  the  Father, 
Almighty,  maker  of 
heaven  and  earth,  and 
of  all  things  visibla  and 
invisible. 

II.  2.  And  in  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  only  be- 
gotten Son  of  God,  be- 
gotten of  His  Father, 


very    God    before    all 
worlds, 


by  whom  all  things  were 
made; 


was  incarnate, 

and  was  made  Man, 
4.  Crucified  and  buried. 


5.  Rose  again  the  third  day, 

6.  And    ascended     into 

heaven  and  sat  on  the 
right  hand  of  the 
Father, 

7.  And  shall  come  in  glory 

to  judge  the  quick  and 
the  dead,  whose  king- 
dom shall  have  no  end. 
III.  8.  And  in  One  Holy  Ghost, 
the  Paraclete, 


who     spake    in    the 
Prophets, 
9.  And  in  one  baptism  ol 
repentance    for    re- 
mission of  sins, 

10.  And  in  one  holy  Catholic 

Church, 

11.  And    in    resurrection    o. 

the  flesh, 

12.  And  in  life  eternal. 


Who  for  us  men  and  for 
our  salvation  came 
down  and  was  incarnate, 
was  made  man, 

And  suffered, 

And  rose  the  third  day, 


6.  Ascended  into  Heaven, 

7.  Is  coming  to  judge  quick 

and  dead. 

II.  8.  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Revision    by     Cyril,     AD.    362. 

Council  of   Constantinople, A.D. 
381.     Council     of     Chalcedon, 

A.D.  451- 

We  believe 

I.  I.  In  one  God  the  Father 
Almighty,  maker  of 
heaven  and  earth,  and 
of  all  things  visible  and 
invisible. 

II.  2.  And  in  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  only  be- 
gotten Son  of  God,  be- 
gotten of  His  Father 
before  all  worlds,  [God  of 
God,]  Light  of  Light, 
very  God  of  very  God, 
begotten,  not  made, 
being  of  one  substance 
with  the  Father,  by 
whom  all  things  were 
made; 

Who  for  us  men  and  for 
our  salvation  came 
down  from  heaven  and 
was  incarnate  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  was 
made  Man. 

4.  And   was  crucified   also 

for  us  under  Pontius 
Pilate,  and  suffered  and 
was  buried,  and 

5.  He  rose  again  the  third 

day,  according  to  the 
Scriptures, 

6.  And       ascended       into 

heaven  and  sitteth  on 
the  right  hand  of  the 
Father, 

7.  And  He  shall  come  again 

to  judge  the  quick  and 
the  dead,  whose  king- 
dom shall  have  no  end. 

III.  8.  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost, 

the  Lord  and  Giver  of 
Life,  who  proceedeth 
from  the  Father  [and 
the  Son],  who  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son 
together  is  worshipped 
and  glorified, 
who  spake  by  the 
Prophets, 

9.  In     the     Catholic     and 
Apostolic  Church. 

10.  We     acknowledge     one 

baptism  for  remission 
of  sins. 

11.  We  look  for  the   resur- 

rection of  the  dead, 

12.  And  the  life  of  the  world 

to  come. 


The  revised  Jerusalem  Creed  was  quoted  by  Epiphanius  in  hii 
treatise  The  Anchored  One,  c.  A.D.  374,  some  years  before  the 
council  of  Constantinople  (A.D.  381).  We  gather  that  it  had 
already  been  introduced  into  Cyprus  as  a  baptismal  creed.  Hort's 
identification  of  it  as  the  work  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  is  now 
generally  accepted.  On  his  return  from  exile  in  A.D.  362  Cyri 
would  find  "  a  natural  occasion  for  the  revision  of  the  public 
creed  by  the  skilful  insertion  of  some  of  the  conciliar  language 
including  the  term  which  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  ful 


communion  with  the  champions  of  Nicaea,  and  other  phrases  and 
clauses  adapted  for  impressing  on  the  people  positive  truth." 
Some  of  Cyril's  personal  preferences  expressed  in  his  catechetical 
ectures  find  expression,  e.g.  "  resurrection  of  the  dead  "  for 
flesh." 

The  weak  point  in  Hort's  theory  was  the  suggestion  that  the 
creed  was  brought  before  the  council  by  Cyril  in  self  justification. 
The  election  of  Meletius  of  Antioch  as  the  first  president  of  the 
council  carried  with  it  the  vindication  of  his  old  ally  Cyril. 
iunze's  suggestion  is  far  more  probable  that  it  was  used  at  the 
)aptism  of  Nektarius,  praetor  of  the  city,  who  was  elected  third 
sresident  of  the  council  while  yet  unbaptized.  Unfortunately 
he  acts  of  the  council  have  been  lost,  but  they  were  quoted  at 
the  council  of  Chalcedon  in  A.D.  451,  and  the  revised  Jerusalem 
reed  was  quoted  as  "  the  faith  of  the  150  Fathers,"  that  is,  as 
confirmed  in  some  way  by  the  council  of  Constantinople,  while  at 
the  time  it  was  distinguished  from  ' '  the  faith  of  the  318  Fathers  " 
of  Nicaea.  One  of  the  signatories  of  the  Definition  of  Faith  made 
at  Chalcedon,  in  which  both  creeds  were  quoted  in  full, 
Kalemikus,  bishop  of  Apamea  in  Bithynia,  refers  to  the  council  of 
Constantinople  as  having  been  held  at  the  ordination  of  the  most 
)ious  Nektarius  the  bishop.  Obviously  there  was  some  connexion 
n  his  mind  between  the  creed  and  the  ordination. 

The  reasons  which  brought  the  revised  creed  into  prominence 
at  Chalcedon  are  still  obscure.  It  is  possible  that  Leo's  letter 
to  Flavian  gave  the  impulse  to  put  it  forward  because  it  contained 
a  parallel  to  words  which  Leo  quoted  from  the  Old  Roman  Creed, 
'  born  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Virgin  Mary,'.'  "  crucified  and 
Duried,"  which  do  not  occur  in  the  first  Nicene  Creed.  If,  as 
is  probable,  it  was  from  the  election  of  Nektarius  the  baptismal 
creed  of  Constantinople,  we  may  even  ask  whether  the  pope  did 
not  refer  to  it  when  he  wrote  emphatically  of  the  "  common  and 
indistinguishable  confession  "  of  all  the  faithful.  Kattenbusch 
supposes  that  Anatolius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  or  his  arch- 
deacon Aetius,  who  read  the  creed  at  the  and  session  of  the 
council,  took  up  the  idea  that  through  its  likeness  to  the  Roman 
Creed  it  would  be  a  useful  weapon  against  Eutyches  and  others 
who  were  held  to  interpret  the  Nicene  Creed  in  an  Apollinarian 
sense.  But  Kunze  thinks  that  it  was  not  used  as  a  base  of  opera- 
tions against  Eutyches  because  there  is  some  evidence  that 
Monophysites  were  willing  to  accept  it.  Certainly  it  won  its 
way  to  general  acceptance  in  the  East  as  the  creed  of  the  church 
of  the  imperial  city;  regarded  as  an  improved  recension  of  the 
Nicene  Faith.  The  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  creed  into 
liturgies  is  still  obscure.  Peter  Fullo,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was  the 
first  to  use  it  in  the  East,  and  in  the  West  a  council  held  by  King 
Reccared  at  Toledo  in  589.  The  theory  of  Probst  that  it  had  been 
used  in  Rome  before  this  time  has  not  been  confirmed.  King 
Reccared's  council  is  usually  credited  with  the  introduction  of 
the  words  "  And  the  Son  "  into  clause  9  of  the  creed.  But  some 
MSS.1  omit  them  in  the  creed-text  while  inserting  them  in  a  canon 
of  the  faith  drawn  up  at  the  time.  Probably  they  were  inter- 
polated in  the  creed  by  mistake  of  copyists.  When  attention 
was  called  to  the  interpolation  in  the  gth  century  it  became  one 
cause  of  the  schism  between  East  and  West.  Charlemagne  was 
unable  to  persuade  Pope  Leo  III.  to  alter  the  text  used  in  Rome 
by  including  the  words.  But  it  was  so  altered  by  the  pope's 
successor. 

The  interpolation  really  witnessed  to  a  deep-lying  difference 
between  Eastern  and  Western  theology.  Eastern  theologians 
expressed  the  mysterious  relationship  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the 
Father  and  the  Son  in  such  phrases  as  "  Who  proceedeth  from 
the  Father  and  receiveth  from  the  Son,"  rightly  making  the 
Godhead  of  the  Father  the  foundation  and  primary  source  of 
the  eternally  derived  Godhead  of  the  Sonand  the  Spirit.  Western 
theologians  approached  the  problem  from  another  point  of  view. 
Hilary,  starting  from  the  thought  of  Divine  self-consciousness 
1  e.t.  Cod.  Escurial  I.e.  ig,  saec.  x.  xi.  In  Cod.  Matritensis,  p.  21 
(1872),  saec.  x.  xi.,  and  Cod.  Matritensis  10041  (begun  in  the  year  A.D 
948),  the  words  are  omitted  under  the  heading  council  of  Constan- 
tinople but  inserted  under  the  heading  council  of  Toledo,  in  the 
former  MS.,  above  the  line  and  in  a  later  hand,  which  shows  con- 
clusively how  the  interpolation  crept  in. 


CREEDS 


397 


as  the  explanation  of  the  coinherence  of  the  Father  in  the  Son 
and  the  Son  in  the  Father,  says  that  the  Spirit  receives  of  both. 
Augustine  teaches  that  the  Father  and  the  Son  are  the  one 
principle  of  the  Being  of  the  Spirit.  From  this  it  is  a  short  step 
to  say  with  the  Quicumque  vult  that  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the 
Son,  while  guarding  the  idea  that  the  Father  is  the  one  fountain  of 
Deity.  Since  Eastern  theologians  would  be  willing  to  say  "  pro- 
ceeds from  the  Father  through  the  Son,"  it  is  clear  that  the  two 
views  are  not  irreconcilable. 

3.  The  Athanasian  Creed,  so  called  because  in  many  MSS. 

it  bears  the  title  "  The  Faith  of  S.  Athanasius,"  is  more  accurately 

designated  by  its  first  words  Quicumque  vult.1    Its 

history  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy  for 

Creed          years  past,  but  no  longer  presents  an  insoluble  problem. 

Critics  indeed  agree  on  the  main  outline.     Until  1870 

the  standard  work  on  the  subject  was  Waterland's  Critical 

History  of  the  A  thanasian  Creed,  first  published  in  1723.     Having 

traced  "  the  opinions  of  the  learned  moderns  "  from  Gerard 

Vossius,  A.D.  1642,"  who  led  the  way  to  a  more  strict  and  critical 

inquiry,"  Waterland  passed  in  review  all  the  known  MSS.  and 

commentaries,  and  after  a  searching  investigation  concluded  that 

the  creed  was  written  in  Gaul  between  420  and  430,  probably 

by  Hilary  of  Aries. 

In  1870  the  controversy  on  the  use  of  the  creed  in  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  led  to  fresh  investigation  of  the  MSS.,  and  a 
theory  known  as  the  "  Two-portion  theory  "  was  started  by 
C.  A.  Swainson,  developed  by  J.  R.  Lumby,  and  adopted  by 
Harnack.  Swainson  thought  that  the  Quicumque  was  brought 
into  its  present  shape  in  the  9th  century.  The  so-called  profession 
of  Denebert,  bishop-elect  of  Worcester,  in  A.D.  798  presented  to 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (which  includes  clauses  i,  3-6, 
20-22,  24,  25),  and  the  Treves  fragment  (a  portion  of  a  sermon 
in  Paris  bibl.  nat.  Lat.  3836,  saec.  viii.,  which  quoted  clauses 
2  7-34>  36-40),  seemed  to  him  to  represent  the  component  parts 
of  the  creed  as  they  existed  separately.  He  conjectured  that  they 
were  brought  together  in  the  province  of  Rheims  c.  860. 

This  theory,  however,  depended  upon  unverified  assumptions, 
such  as  the  supposed  silence  of  theologians  about  the  creed  at 
the  beginning  of  the  pth  century;  the  suggestion  that  the 
completed  creed  would  have  been  useful  to  them  if  they  had 
known  it  as  a  weapon  against  the  heresy  of  Adoptianism; 
the  assertion  that  no  MS.  containing  the  complete  text  was  of 
earlier  date  than  c.  813.  This  was  Lumby's  revised  date,  but 
the  progress  of  palaeographical  studies  has  made  it  possible 
to  demonstrate  that  MSS.  of  the  8th  century  do  exist  which 
contain  the  complete  creed. 

The  two-portion  theory  was  vigorously  attacked  by  G.  D.  W. 
Ommanney,  who  was  successful  in  the  discovery  of  new  docu- 
ments, notably  early  commentaries,  which  contained  the  text 
of  the  creed  embedded  in  them,  and  thus  supplied  independent 
testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  creed  was  becoming  fairly  widely 
known  at  the  end  of  the  8th  century.  Other  new  MSS.  and 
commentaries  were  found  and  collated  by  the  Rev.  A.  E.  Burn 
and  Dom  Morin.  In  1897  Loofs,  summing  up  the  researches  of 
25  years  in  his  article  Athanasianum  (Realencyclopadie  f.  prot. 
Theol.  u.  Kirche,  3rd  ed.  ii.  p.  177),  declared  that  the  two-portion 
theory  was  dead. 

This  conclusion  has  never  been  seriously  challenged.  It  has 
been  greatly  strengthened  by  the  discovery  of  a  MS.  which  was 
presented  by  Bishop  Leidrad  of  Lyons  with  an  autograph  in- 
scription to  the  altar  of  St  Stephen  in  that  town/some  time  before 
814.  As  M.  Delisle  at  once  pointed  out  (Notices  et  extraits  des 
manuscrits,  1898),  this  MS.  supplies  a  fixed  date  from  which 
palaeographers  can  work  in  dating  MSS.  The  Quicumque  occurs 
in  a  collection  of  materials  forming  an  introduction  to  the  psalter. 
The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  Leidrad  intended  to  use  the 
Quicumque  in  his  campaign  against  the  Adoptianists  in  798. 
But  the  phrases  of  the  creed  seem  to  have  needed  sharpening 

1  The  first  person  who  doubted  the  authorship  seems  to  have 
been  Joachim  Camerarius,  1551,  who  was  so  fiercely  attacked  in 
consequence  that  he  omitted  the  passage  from  his  Latin  edition. 
Zeitsckrift  fur  K.G.  x.  (1889),  p.  497. 


against  the  Nestorian  tendency  of  the  Adoptianists.  It  is  more 
probable  that  Leidrad  was  interested  in  the  growing  use  of  the 
creed  as  a  canticle,  and  was  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
famous  Golden  Psalter,  now  at  Vienna,  which  contains  the  same 
collection  of  documents  as  an  introduction.  This  MS.  may  now 
without  hesitation  be  assigned  to  the  date  772-788.  The  earliest 
known  MS.  is  at  Milan  (Cod.  Ambros.O,  212,  s«p.),and  is  dated 
by  Traube  as  early  as  c.  700. 

There  is  a  reference  to  the  Quicumque  in  the  first  canon  of  the 
fourth  council  of  Toledo  of  the  year  633,  which  quotes  part  or 
the  whole  of  clauses  4,  20-22,  28  f.,  31,  33,  35  f.,  40.  The  council 
also  quoted  phrases  from  the  so-called  Creed  of  Damasus,  a  docu- 
ment of  the  4th  century,  which  in  some  cases  they  preferred  to 
the  phrases  of  the  Quicumque.  Their  quotations  form  a  connect- 
ing link  in  the  chain  of  evidence- by  which  the  use  of  the  creed 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  writings  of  Caesarius,  bishop  of  Aries 
(503-543).  Dom  Morin  has  now  demonstrated  ("  Le  Symbole 
d'Athanase  et  son  premier  temoin  S.  Cesaire  d'Arles,"  Rev. 
Benedictine,  Oct.  1901)  that  Caesarius  used  the  creed  continually 
as  a  sort  of  elementary  catechism.  The  fact  that  it  exactly 
reproduces  both  the  qualities  and  the  literary  defects  of  Caesarius 
is  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  Morin's  suggestion  that  he  may 
have  been  the  author.  Further,  Caesarius  was  in  the  habit  of 
putting  some  words  of  a  distinguished  writer  at  the  head  of  his 
compositions,  which  would  account  for  the  fact  that  the  name 
of  Athanas;us  was  subsequently  attached  to  the  creed. 

The  use,  however,  of  the  Quicumque  by  Caesarius  as  a  catechism 
may  be  explained  by  the  suggestion  that  it  had  been  taught  him 
in  his  youth,  so  that  his  style  had  been  moulded  by  it.  He  was 
not  an  original  thinker.  Moreover,  the  creed  is  quoted  by  his 
rival  Avitus,  bishop  of  Vienne  490-523,  who  quotes  clause  22, 
as  from  the  Rule  of  Catholic  Faith,  but  was  not  likely  to  value 
a  composition  of  Caesarius  so  highly.  Morin  does  not  deal  fully 
with  the  arguments  from  internal  evidence  which  point  back 
to  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  as  the  date  of  the  creed.  If 
the  creed-phrases  needed  sharpening  against  the  revived 
Nestorian  error  of  the  Adoptianists,  it  is  scarcely  likely  to  have 
been  written  during  the  generation  following  the  condemnation 
of  Nestorius  in  431.  Burn  suggests  that  it  was  written  to  meet 
the  Sabellian  and  Apollinarian  errors  of  the  Spanish  heretic 
Priscillian,  possibly  by  Honoratus,  bishop  of  Aries  (d.  429). 
He  suggests  further  that  the  Creed  of  Damasus  was  the  reply 
of  that  pope  to  Priscillian's  appeal.  This  would  explain  the 
quotation  of  the  two  documents  together  by  the  council  of  Toledo, 
since  the  heresy  lasted  on  for  a  long  time  in  Spain.  But  the 
theory  has  been  carried  to  extravagant  lengths  by  Kiinstle,  who 
thinks  that  the  creed  was  written  in  Spain  in  the  5th  century, 
and  soon  taken  to  the  monastery  of  Lerins.  There  are  phrases  in 
the  writings  of  Vincentius  of  Lerins  and  of  Faustus,  bishop  of 
Riez,  which  are  parallel  to  the  teaching  of  the  creed,  though  they 
cannot  with  any  confidence  be  called  quotations.  They  tend  in 
any  case  to  prove  that  the  Quicumque  comes  to  us  from  the  school 
of  Lerins,  of  which  Honoratus  was  the  first  abbot,  and  to  which 
Caesarius  also  belonged. 

The  earliest  use  of  the  Quicumque  was  in  sermons,  in  which 
the  clauses  were  quoted,  as  by  the  council  of  Toledo  without 
reference  to  the  creed  as  a  whole.  From  the  8th  century,  if 
not  from  earlier  times,  commentaries  were  written  on  it.  The 
writer  of  the  Oratorian  Commentary  (Theodulf  of  Orleans?) 
addressing  a  synod  which  instructed  him  to  provide  an  ex- 
position of  this  work  on  the  faith,  writes  of  it,  as  "  here  and 
there  recited  in  our  churches,  and  continually  made  the  subject 
of  meditation  by  our  priests."  It  was  soon  used  as  a  canticle. 
Angilbert,  abbot  of  St  Riquier  (c.  814),  records  that  it  was  sung 
by  his  school  in  procession  on  rogation  days.  It  passed  into  the 
office  of  Prime,  apparently  first  at  Fleury.  In  the  first  Prayer 
Book  of  Edward  VI.  it  was  "  sung  or  said  "  after  the  Benedictus 
on  the  greater  feasts,  and  this  use  was  extended  in  the  second 
Prayer  Book.  In  1662  the  rubric  was  altered  and  it  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  Apostles'  Creed.  It  has  no  place  in  the  offices  of 
the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church,  but  is  found,  without  the  words 
"  And  the  Son  "  of  clause  22,  in  the  appendix  of  many  modern 


398 


CREEDS 


editions.  In  the  Russian  service  books  it  appears  at  the  beginning 
of  the  psalter. 

The  controversy  on  its  use  in  modern  times  has  turned  mainly 
on  the  interpretation  of  the  warning  clauses.  No  new  translation 
can  put  an  end  to  the  difficulty.  While  it  is  true  that  the  Church 
has  never  condemned  individuals,  and  that  the  warnings  refer 
only  to  those  who  have  received  the  faith,  and  do  not  touch 
the  question  of  the  unbaptized,  there  is  a  growing  feeling  that 
they  go  beyond  the  teaching  of  Holy  Scripture  on  the  responsi- 
bility of  intellect  in  matters  of  faith.1 

On  the  other  hand  the  creed  is  a  valuable  statement  of  Catholic 
faith  on  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  and  its  use  for  students 
and  teachers  at  least  is  by  no  means  obsolete.  The  special 
characteristic  of  its  theology  is  in  the  first  part  where  it  owes 
most  to  the  teaching  of  Augustine,  who  in  his  striving  after 
self-knowledge  analysed  the  mystery  of  his  own  triune  person- 
ality and  illustrated  it  with  psychological  images,  "  I  exist 
and  I  am  conscious  that  I  exist,  and  I  love  the  existence  and 
the  consciousness;  and  all  this  independently  of  any  external 
influence."  Such  a  riper  analysis  of  the  mystery  of  his  own 
personality  enabled  him  to  arrive  at  a  clearer  conception  of 
the  idea  of  divine  personality,  "  whose  triunity  has  nothing 
potential  or  unrealized  about  it;  whose  triune  elements  are 
eternally  actualized,  by  no  outward  influence,  but  from  within; 
a  Trinity  in  Unity."2 

II.  MODERN  CONFESSIONS  OF  FAITH. — The  second  great 
creed-making  epoch  of  Church  history  opens  in  the  i6th  century 
with  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  The  famous  theses  which 
Luther  nailed  to  the  door  of  the  church  at  Wittenberg  in  1517 
cannot  be  called  a  confession,  but  they  expressed  a  protest  which 
could  not  rest  there.  Some  reconstruction  of  popular  beliefs 
was  needed  by  many  consciences.  There  is  a  striking  contrast 
between  the  crudeness  of  much  and  widely  accepted  medieval 
theology  and  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent.  Even  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  standpoint  such  a  need  was  felt.  Luther  himself 
had  a  gift  of  words  which  through  his  catechisms  made  the  re- 
formed theology  popular  in  Germany.  Ini53oitbecamenecessary 
to  define  his  position  against  both  Romanists  and  Zwinglians. 

i.  The  Confession  of  Augsburg  was  drawn  up  by  Melanchthon, 
revised  by  Luther,  and  presented  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  at 
ba  the  diet  of  Augsburg.  Some  21  of  its  articles  dealt 
confession.  with  doctrine,  7  with  ecclesiastical  abuses.  It  ex- 
pounded in  terse  and  significant  teaching  the  doctrine 
(i)  of  God,  (2)  of  original  sin,  (3)  of  the  Son  of  God,  (4)  of  justi- 
fication .  .  .  ,  (21)  of  the  worship  of  saints.  The  abuses  which 
it  was  maintained  had  been  corrected  by  Lutheranism  were 
discussed  in  articles  (i)  on  Communion  in  both  kinds,  (2)  on 
the  marriage  of  clergy,  (3)  on  the  Mass,  &c.  (see  AUGSBURG, 
CONFESSION  OF). 

The  main  difference  between  these,  the  first  of  a  long  series 
of  articles  of  religion  and  the  ancient  creeds,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
they  are  manifestoes  embodying  creeds  and  answering  more 
than  one  purpose.  This  is  the  reason  of  their  frequent  failure 
to  convey  any  sense  of  proportion  in  the  expression  of  truth. 
The  disciplinary  question  of  clerical  marriage  is  not  of  the  same 
primary  importance  as  the  doctrinal  questions  involved  in  the 
restoration  of  the  cup  to  the  laity,  or  discussed  in  the  subsequent 
article  on  the  mass.  As  has  been  well  said  by  a  learned  Baptist 
theologian,  Dr  Green:  "  It  was  by  a  true  divine  instinct  that  the 
early  theologians  made  Christ  Himself,  in  His  divine-human  per- 
sonality, their  centre  of  the  creeds." 3  The  fundamental  questions 
of  Christianity,  exhibited  in  theApostles'  Creed,  should  be  marked 

1  In  response  to  an  invitation  issued  by  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, acting  on  a  resolution  of  the  Lambeth  Conference  of  1908,  a 
committee  of  eminent  scholars  met  in  April  and  May  1909  for  the 
purpose  of  preparing  a  new  translation.     Their  report,  issued  on  the 
1 8th  of  October,  stated  that  they  had  "  endeavoured  to  represent  the 
Latin  original  more  exactly  in  a  large  number  of  cases."     The  general 
effect  of  the  new  version  is  to  make  the  creed  more  comprehensible, 
e.g.  by  the  substitution  of  "  infinite  "  and  "  reasoning  "  for  such 
archaisms  as  "  incomprehensible  "  and  "  reasonable."     The  sense  of 
the  damnatory  clauses  has,  however,  not  been  weakened.     [Ed.] 

2  Illingworth,  Personality,  Human  and  Divine,  p.  40. 

8  The  Christian  Creed  and  the  Creeds  of  Christendom,  p.  181. 


off  as  standing  on  a  higher  plane  than  others.  In  this  respect 
catechisms  of  modern  times,  from  Luther's  down  to  the  recent 
Evangelical  catechism  of  the  Free  Churches,  and  including 
from  their  respective  points  of  view  both  the  catechism  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  catechism  of  the  council  of  Trent,  are 
markedly  superior  to  articles  and  synodical  decrees.  The  failure 
of  the  latter  was  really  inevitable.  In  the  i6th  century  a  spirit 
of  universal  questioning  was  rife,  and  it  is  this  utter  unsettlement 
of  opinion  which  is  reflected  in  the  discussions  of  doubts  on 
matters  only  remotely  connected  with  "  the  faith  once  for  all 
delivered  unto  the  saints  "  (Jude  3).  Moreover,  fresh  complica- 
tions arose  from  the  confusion  in  which  the  question  of  the  duties 
and  rights  of  the  civil  power  was  entangled.  In  an  age  when  the 
foundations  of  the  system  on  which  society  had  rested  for  cen- 
turies were  seriously  shaken,  such  subjects  as  the  right  of  the 
magistrate  to  interfere  with  the  belief  of  the  individual,  and  the 
limits  of  his  authority  over  conscience,  naturally  assumed  a 
prominence  hitherto  unknown.4 

2.  Other  Lutheran  Formularies. — For  the  purpose  of  classifica- 
tion it  will  be  convenient  to  discuss  Lutheran,  Zwinglian  and 
Calvinistic  confessions  separately. 

An  elaborate  A  pology  for  the  confession  of  Augsburg  was  drawn 
up  by  Melanchthon  in  reply  to  Roman  Catholic  criticisms. 
This,  together  with  the  confession,  the  articles  of  L^craa. 
Schmalkalden,  drawn  up  by  Luther  in  1536,  Luther's 
catechisms,  and  the  Formula  of  Concord  which  was  an  attempt 
to  settle  doctrinal  divisions  promulgated  in  1580,  sum  up  what 
is  called  "  the  confessional  theology  of  Lutheranism."  Of  less 
influence  in  the  subsequent  history  of  Lutheranism,  but  of 
interest  as  used  by  Archbishop  Parker  in  the  preparation  of  the 
Elizabethan  articles  of  1563,  is  the  confession  of  Wiirttemberg. 
It  was  presented  to  the  council  of  Trent  by  the  ambassador  of  the 
state  of  Wiirttemberg  in  1552.  Its  thirty-five  articles  contain  a 
moderate  statement  of  Lutheran  teaching. 

3.  Zwinglian  and  Cahinislic  Confessions. — The  confession  of 
the  Four  Cities,  Strassburg,  Constance,  Memmingen  and  London, 
was  drawn  up  by  M.  Bucer  and  was  presented  to  Charles 

V.  at  Ausburg  in  1530.  These  cities  were  inclined  to 
follow  Zwingli  in  his  sacramental  teaching  which  was 
more  fully  expressed  in  the  Confession  of  Basel  (1534) 
and  the  First  Helvetic  Confession  (1536).  Calvin's  views  were 
expressed  in  the  Galilean  Confession,  containing  forty  articles, 
which  was  drawn  up  in  1559,  and  was  presented  both  to  Francis  II. 
of  France  and  to  Charles  IX.  On  the  same  lines  the  Belgian 
Confession  of  1561,  written  by  Guido  de  Bres  in  French,  and 
translated  into  Dutch  was  widely  accepted  in  the  Netherlands 
and  confirmed  by  the  synod  of  Dort  (1619).  The  second  Helvetic 
Confession  was  the  work  of  Bullinger,  published  at  the  request 
of  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  III.  in  1566,  and  was  held  in 
repute  in  Switzerland,  Poland  and  France  as  well  as  the  Pala- 
tinate. It  was  sanctioned  in  Scotland  and  was  well  received 
in  England. 

These  confessions  teach  the  root  idea  of  Calvin's  theology, 
the  immeasurable  awfulness  of  God,  His  eternity,  and  the 
immutability  of  His  decrees.  Such  strict  Calvinism  was  the 
strength  also  of  the  Westminster  Confession  (see  below),  but  was 
soon  weakened  in  Germany.  This  same  Elector  Frederick  invited 
two  young  divines,  Zacharias  Ursinus  and  Caspar  Olevianus, 
to  prepare  the  afterwards  celebrated  Heidelberg  catechism, 
which  in  1563  superseded  Calvin's  catechism  in  the  Palatinate. 
While  Calvin  began  sternly  with  the  question ;  "  What  is  the 
chief  end  of  human  life?  "  Ans. :  "  That  men  may  know  God 
by  whom  they  were  created," — the  Heidelberg  catechism  has: 
"  What  is  thy  only  comfort  in  life  and  death  ?"  Ans.:  "  That  I 
with  body  and  soul,  both  in  life  and  death,  am  not  my  own,  but 
belong  to  my  faithful  Saviour  Jesus  Christ."  This  catechism 
has  been  called  the  charter  of  the  German  Reformed  Church. 
It  contains  three  divisions  dealing  with  (i)  man's  sin,  misery, 
redemption,  (2)  the  Trinity,  (3)  thankfulness,  under  which  is 
included  all  practical  Christian  life  lived  in  gratitude  for  mercies 
received. 

4  Gibson,  The  Thirty-nine  Articles,  p.  2. 


CREEDS 


399 


4.  English  Articles  of  Religion. — The  ten  articles  of  1536 
were  drawn  up  by  Convocation  at  the  bidding  of  Henry  VIII. 
"  to  stablysh  Christian  Quietnes  and  Unitie."  They 
re/Won  °'  exn'bit  a  traditional  character,  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new  learning.  Thus  the 
doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence  is  asserted,  but  no  mention  is 
made  of  Transubstantiation.  Medieval  ceremonies  are  described 
as  useful  but  without  power  to  remit  sins.  Two  years  later,  after 
negotiations  with  the  Lutheran  princes,  a  conference  on  theological 
matters  was  held  at  Lambeth  with  Lutheran  envoys.  Thirteen 
articles  were  drawn  up,  which,  though  never  published  (they  were 
found  among  Cranmer's  papers  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth 
century),  had  some  influence  on  the  forty-two  articles.  Some 
of  them  were  taken  from  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  but  the 
sections  on  Baptism,  the  Eucharist  and  penance,  show  that  the 
English  theologians  desired  to  lay  more  emphasis  on  the  character 
of  sacraments  as  channels  of  grace.  The  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles 
( r  S30)  >  "  the  whip  with  six  strings,"  was  the  outcome  of  the  retro- 
grade policy  which  distinguished  the  latter  years  of  Henry  VIII. 

With  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  liturgical  reforms  were 
set  on  foot  before  an  attempt  was  made  to  systematize  doctrinal 
teaching.  But  as  early  as  1549  Cranmer  had  in  hand  "  Articles 
of  Religion  "  to  which  he  required  all  preachers  and  lecturers 
to  subscribe.  In  1552  they  were  revised  by  other  bishops  and 
were  laid  before  the  council  and  the  royal  chaplains.  They  were 
then  published  as  "  Articles  agreed  on  by  the  bishops  and  other 
learned  men  in  the  Synod  of  London."  But  there  is  considerable 
doubt  whether  they  really  received  the  sanction  of  Convocation 
(Gibson,  p.  15).  They  were  not  devised  as  a  complete  scheme 
of  doctrine,  but  only  as  a  guide  in  dealing  with  current  errors  of 
(i.)  the  Medievalists  and  (ii.)  the  Anabaptists.  Under  (i.)  they 
condemned  the  doctrine  of  the  school  authors  on  congruous 
merit  (Art.  xii.),  the  doctrine  of  grace  ex  opere  operato  (xxvi.). 
Transubstantiation  (xxix.).  Under  (ii.)  they  laid  stress  on  the 
fundamental  articles  of  the  faith  (Art.  i.-iv.),  affirmed  the  Three 
Creeds  (vii.),  since  many  Anabaptists  held  Arian  and  Socinian 
•opinions  which  were  rife  in  Switzerland,  Italy  and  Poland, 
condemning  also  their  views  on  original  sin  (viii.),  community 
of  goods  (xxxvii.),  and  on  other  subjects  in  articles  which  do  not 
mention  them  by  name. 

The  revision  undertaken  in  1563  by  Archbishop  Parker, 
aided  by  Edm.  Guest,  bishop  of  Rochester,  shows  "  an  attempt  to 
give  greater  completeness  to  the  formulary,"  and  to  make 
clearer  the  Catholic  position  of  the  Church  of  England.  For 
the  clause '  (Art.  xxviii.)  which  denied  the  Real  Presence  was 
substituted  one  by  Guest  with  the  desire  "  not  to  deny  the 
reality  of  the  presence  of  the  Body  of  Christ  in  the  Supper,  but 
only  the  grossness  and  sensibleness  in  the  receiving  thereof." 
At  the  same  time  the  substitution  of  "  Romish  doctrine  "  for 
"  doctrine  of  School  authors  "  (Art.  xxii.)  marks  an  effort  to  define 
the  line  of  the  Church  of  England  sharply  against  current  Roman 
teaching.  The  revision  was  passed  by  Convocation  and  again 
revised  in  1571,  when  the  queen  had  been  excommunicated  by 
papal  bull,  and  an  act  was  passed  ordering  all  clergy  to  subscribe 
to  them.  They  have  remained  unchanged  ever  since,  though 
the  terms  of  subscription  have  been  modified. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  add  nine  articles  of  a  strong  Calvin- 
istic  tone,  which  were  drawn  up  by  Dr  Whitaker,  regius  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  and  submitted  to  Archbishop  Whitgift. 
They  were  rejected  both  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and,after  the  Hamp- 
ton Court  Conference  petitioned  about  them,  by  King  James  I. 

The  first  Scottish  confession  dates  from  1 560.  It  is  a  memorial 
of  the  intellectual  power  and  enthusiasm  of  John  Knox.  It 
exhibits  the  leading  features  of  the  Reformed  theology,  but 
"  disclaims  Divine  authority  for  any  fixed  form  of  church  govern- 
ment or  worship."  It  also  asks  that  "  if  anyone  shall  note  in 
this  our  confession  any  articles  or  sentence  repugnant  of  God's 
Holy  Word,  that  it  would  please  him  of  his  gentleness  and  for 
Christian  charity's  sake,  to  admonish  of  the  same  in  writing," 
promising  that  if  the  teaching  cannot  be  proved,  to  reform  it. 
Between  this  and  the  Westminster  Confession  must  be  noted 
the  first  Baptist  confession,  published  in  Amsterdam  in  1611. 


It  shows  the  influence  of  Arminian  theology  against  Calvinism, 
which  was  vigorously  upheld  in  the  Quin- particular  formula,  put 
forward  by  the  synod  of  Dort  in  1619  to  uphold  the  five  points  of 
Calvinism,  after  heated  discussion,  in  which  English  delegates  took 
part,  of  the  problems  of  divine  omniscience  and  human  free-will. 

5.  The  Westminster  Confession  (1648),  with  its  two  catechisms, 
is  perhaps  the  ablest  of  the  reformed  confessions  from  the  stand- 
point   of    Calvinism.     Its    keynote    is    sovereignty.        west- 
"The  Decrees  of  God  are  His  eternal  Purpose  according        minster 
to  the  Counsel  of  His  Will,  whereby  for  His  Own  Glory        Coafe*- 
He  hath  foreordained  whatsoever  comes  to  pass."        sloa' 
Man's  part  is  to  accept  them  with  submission.     As  the  Anglican 
divines  soon  ceased  to  attend  the  assembly,  and  the  Independents 
were  few  in  number,  it  was  the  work  of  Presbyterians  only,  the 
Scottish  members  carrying  their  proposal  to  make  it  an  independ- 
ent document  and  not  a  mere  revision  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 
After  discussions  lasting  for  two  years  it  was  debated  in  parlia- 
ment, finished  on  the  22nd  of  March  1648,  and  was  adopted  by 
the  Scottish  parliament  in  the  following  year.     It  is  the  only 
confession  which  has  been  imposed  by  authority  of  parliament 
on  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom.     This  lasted  in  England  for 
ten  years.     In  Scotland  its  influence  has  continued  to  the  present 
day,  contributing  not  a  little  to  mould  the  high  qualities  of 
religious  insight  and  courage  and  perseverance  which  have  honour- 
ably distinguished  Scottish  Presbyterians  all  the  world  over. 
This  was  the  last  great  effort  in  constructive  theology  of  the 
Reformation  period.     When  Cromwell  before  his  death  in  1658 
allowed  a  conference  to  prepare  a  new  confession  of  faith  for  the 
whole  commonwealth,  the  Westminster  Confession  was  accepted 
as  a  whole  with  an  added  statement  on  church  order  and  disci- 
pline.    We  must  note,  however,  that  the  Baptist  divines  who 
were  excluded  from  the  Westminster  Assembly  issued  a  declara- 
tion of  their  principles  under  the  title,  "  A  Confession  of  Faith  of 
seven  Congregations  or  Churches  in  London  which  are  commonly 
but  unjustly  called  Anabaptists,  for  the  Vindication  of  the  Truth 
and  Information  of  the  Ignorant." 

Two  other  declarations  may  be  quoted  to  show  how  necessary 
such  confessions  are  even  to  religious  societies  which  refuse  to  be 
bound  by  them.  In  1675  Robert  Barclay  published  an  "  Apology 
for  the  Society  of  Friends,"  in  which  he  declared  what  they  held 
concerning  revelation,  scripture,  the  fall,  redemption,  the  inward 
light,  freedom  of  conscience. 

In  1833  the  Congregational  Union  published  a  Declaration  or 
Confession  of  Faith,  Church  Order  and  Discipline.  It  was  prepared 
by  Dr  George  Redford  or  Worcester,  and  was  presented,  not  as  a 
scholastic  or  critical  confession  of  faith,  but  merely  such  a  state- 
ment as  any  intelligent  member  of  the  body  might  offer  as  con- 
taining its  leading  principles.  It  deals  with  the  Bible  as  the  final 
appeal  in  controversy,  the  doctrines  of  God,  man,  sin,  the  Incar- 
nation, the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  "  both  the 
Son  of  man  and  the  Son  of  God,"  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  justi- 
fication by  faith,  the  perpetual  obligation  of  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  final  judgment,  the  law  of  Christian  fellowship. 
The  same  principles  have  been  lucidly  stated  in  the  Evangelical 
Free  Church  catechism. 

6.  Confessions  in  the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church. — The  Eastern 
Church  has  no  general  doctrinal  tests  beyond  the  Nicene  Creed, 
but  from  time  to  time  synods  have  approved  exposi- 
tions of   the  faith   such  as   the  Athanasian   Creed        church 
(without    the    words    "  And    the    Son "),    and    the 
Orthodox   Confession  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Eastern 
Church.     This    was    the    work    of    Petrus    Mogilas,    metro- 
politan of  Kiev,  and  other  theologians.     It  was  written  in  1640 
in  Russian,  was  translated  into  Greek,  and  approved  by  the 
council  of  Jassy  and  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Alexan- 
dria, Antioch  and  Jerusalem.     It  was  affirmed  by  the  council 
of  Jerusalem  in   1672,  which  also  affirmed  the  Confession  of 
Dositheus,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem.     Both  of  these  confessions 
were  drawn  up  to  confute  the  teaching  of  a  remarkable  man  who 
had  been  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Cyril  Lucar.     He  was  a 
student  of  Western  theology,  a  correspondent  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  and  had  travelled  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  In  1629  he 


400 


CREEK 


published  a  confession  in  which  he  attempted  to  incorporate  ideas 
of  the  reformers  while  preserving  the  leading  ideas  of  Eastern 
traditional  theology.  The  controversy  chiefly  turned  on  the 
question  of  the  necessity  of  episcopacy.  Dositheus  taught  that 
the  existence  of  bishops  is  as  necessary  to  the  Church  as  "  breath 
to  a  man  and  the  sun  to  the  world."  Christ  is  the  universal 
and  perpetual  Head  of  the  Church,  but  he  exercises  his  rule  by 
means  of  "  the  holy  Fathers,"  that  is,  the  bishops  whom  the 
Holy  Ghost  has  appointed  to  be  in  charge  of  local  churches. 

Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  longer  catechism  of  the 
Orthodox  Catholic  Church  compiled  by  Philaret,  metropolitan 
of  Moscow,  revised  and  adopted  by  the  Russian  Holy  Synod  in 
1839.  The  Church  is  denned  as  "a  divinely -instituted  community 
of  men,  united  by  the  orthodox  faith,  the  law  of  God,  the  hier- 
archy and  the  sacraments." 

7.  Roman  Catholic  Formularies. — For  our  present  purpose  the 
distinctive  features  of  Roman  Catholicism  may  be  said  to  be 
summed  up  in  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent  and 
Roman  tne  creed  of  pope  pjus  jy.  The  council  sat  at  intervals 
Catholic.  ^^  1545-1563,  but  there  was  a  marked  divergence 
between  the  opinions  advocated  by  prominent  members  of  the 
council  and  its  final  decrees.  Cardinal  Pole  had  to  leave  the 
council  because  he  advocated  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith.  Even  at  the  later  sessions  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine  with 
the  French  prelates  supported  the  German  representatives  in 
requests  for  the  cup  for  the  laity,the  permission  of  the  marriage  of 
priests,  and  the  revision  of  the  breviary.  Finally  the  decisions 
of  the  council  were  promulgated  in  a  declaration  of  XII.  articles, 
usually  called  the  Creed  of  Pius  IV.,  which  reaffirmed  the  Nicene 
Creed,  and  dealt  with  the  preservation  of  the  apostolic  and 
ecclesiastical  traditions,  the  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
"  according  to  the  sense  which  our  Holy  Mother  Church  has  held," 
the  seven  sacraments,  the  offering  of  the  mass,  transubstantiation, 
purgatory,  the  veneration  of  saints,  relics,  images,  the  efficacy 
of  indulgences,  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Church  and  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome  as  vicar  of  Christ.  To  this  summary  of  doctrine 
should  be  added  the  dogmas  of  the  immaculate  conception  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  declared  in  1854,  and  of  papal  infallibility 
decreed  by  the  Vatican  council  of  1870. 

Conclusion. — In  this  survey  of  Christian  confessions  it  has 
been  impossible  to  do  more  than  barely  name  many  which 
deserve  discussion.  This  is  a  subject  which  has  grown  in  import- 
ance and  is  likely  to  grow  further.  The  very  intensity  of  that 
phase  of  modern  thought  which  declaims  fervently  against  all 
creeds,  and  would  maintain  what  George  Eliot  called  "  the  right 
of  the  individual  to  general  haziness,"  is  likely  to  draw  all 
Christian  thinkers  nearer  to  one  another  in  sympathy  through 
acceptanceof  the  Apostles' Creed  as  the  common  basis  of  Christian 
thought.  In  the  words  of  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  "  Faith  gathers 
strength  through  opposition." 

The  question  at  once  arises,  Can  the  simple  historic  faith  be 
maintained  without  adding  theological  interpretations,  those 
arid  wastes  of  dogma  in  which  the  springs  of  faith  and  reverence 
run  dry?  The  answer  is  No.  We  cannot  ask  to  be  as  if  through 
nineteen  centuries  no  one  had  ever  asked  a  question  about  the 
relation  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  to  the  Father  and  the  Holy 
Spirit.  If  we  could  come  back  to  the  Bible  and  use  biblical  terms 
only,  as  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  wished  in  his  early  days,  we  know 
from  experience  that  the  old  errors  would  reappear  in  the  form 
of  new  questions,  and  that  we  should  have  to  pass  through  the 
dreary  wilderness  of  controversy  from  implicit  to  explicit  dogma, 
from  "  I  believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Lord  "  to  the  confession  that 
the  Only  Begotten  Son  is  "  of  one  substance  with  the  Father." 
In  the  words  of  Hilary  again: 

"  Faithful  souls  would  be  contented  with  the  word  of  God  which 
bids  us:  'Go  teach  all  nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.'  But  also  we  are 
drawn  by  the  faults  of  our  heretical  opponents  to  do  things  unlawful, 
to  scale  heights  inaccessible,  to  speak  out  what  is  unspeakable,  to 
presume  where  we  ought  not.  And  whereas  it  is  by  faith  alone 
that  we  should  worship  the  Father  and  reverence  the  Son,  and  be 
filled  with  the  Spirit,  we  are  now  obliged  to  strain  our  weak  human 
language  in  the  utterance  of  things  beyond  its  scope;  forced  into 


this  evil  procedure  by  the  evil  procedure  of  our  foes.  Hence  what 
should  be  matter  of  silent  religious  meditation  must  now  needs  be 
imperilled  by  exposition  in  words." 

The  province  of  reverent  theology  is  to  aid  accurate  thinking 
by  the  use  of  metaphysical  or  psychological  terms.  Its  definitions 
are  no  more  an  end  in  themselves  than  an  analysis  of  good 
drinking  water,  which  by  itself  leaves  us  thirsty  but  encourages 
us  to  drink.  So  the  Nicene  Creed  is  the  analysis  of  the  river  of 
the  water  of  life  of  which  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  a  descrip- 
tion, flowing  on  from  age  to  age,  freely  offered  to  the  thirsty  souls 
of  men. 

This  justification  of  the  ancient  creeds  carries  with  it  the 
justification  of  later  confessions  so  far  as  they  answered  questions 
which  would  be  fatal  to  religion  if  they  were  not  answered. 
As  Principal  Stewart  puts  it  very  clearly:  "  The  answer  given  is 
based  on  the  philosophy  or  science  of  the  period.  It  does  not 
necessarily  form  part  of  the  religion  itself,  but  is  the  best  which 
with  the  materials  at  its  command,  in  its  own  defence  and  in 
its  love  for  truth,  the  religion  (and  its  advocates)  can  give.  But 
the  answers  may  be  superseded  by  better  answers,  or  they  may 
be  rendered  unnecessary  because  the  questions  are  no  longer 
asked.  Thus  the  Calvinism  of  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries 
elaborated  answers  to  questions,  which  if  no  attempt  had  been 
made  to  answer  them,  would  have  perplexed  earnest  souls  and 
condemned  the  system;  but  many  parts  of  the  system  are  now 
obsolete,  because  the  conditions  which  suggested  the  questions 
which  they  sought  to  answer  no  longer  exist  or  have  no  longer 
any  interest  or  importance." 

LITERATURE. — See  J.  Pearson,  Exposition  of  the  Creed  (new  ed., 
1849)'  A.  E.  Burn,  Introduction  to  the  Creeds  (1899),  and  The 
Athdnasian  Creed  in  vol.  iv.  of  Texts  and  Studies  (1896) ;  H.  B.  Swete, 
The  Apostles'  Creed  (1899);  F.  Kattenbusch,  Das  apostolische 
Symbol  (1894-1900);  C.  A.  Heurtley,  Harmoma  Symbohca  (1858): 
C  P  Caspar!,  Quellenzur  Geschichte des  Tauf symbols  and  der  Glaubens- 
rege/'(Christiama,  1866) ;  and  Alte  und  neue  Quellen  (1879) ;  T.  Zahn, 
Das  apostolische  Symbolum  (1893);  C.  A.  Swainson,  The  Nicene  and 
Apostles'  Creed  (1875);  G.  D.  W.  Ommanney,  The  Athanasmn  Creed 
(1897);  B.  F.  Westcott,  The  Historic  Faith  (1882);  J.  Jayne, The 

...  •  /-*..__  j     / „  — \.      T        A         I">  ,  ,1  ,;.,,,  ,,i        ITlia      A  fit /i  tin  fifivi     trppn. 


Alhanasian  Creed  (1905);  J-  A.  Robinson,  The  Athanasmn  Creed 
(1905);  E.  C.  S.  Gibson,  The  Three  Creeds  (1908);  F.  I.  A.  Hort, 
Two  Dissertations  (1876);  D.  Waterland,  Crit.  Hist,  edited  by  E. 
King  (Oxford,  1870);  F.  Loofs  and  A.  Harnack  articles  in  Herzog- 
Hauck's  Realencyklopddie  ("  Athanasianum  "  and  "  Konstantino- 
politanisches  Symbol")  (1896),  &c.;  K.  Kiinstle,  Antipriscilliana, 
(Freiburg  i.  B.,  1905);  A.  Stewart,  Croall  Lectures  (in  the  press); 
S.  G.  Green,  The  Christian  Creed  (1898);  P.  Hall,  Harmony  of 
Protestant  Confessions  (London,  1842);  F.  Kattenbusch,  Con- 
fessionskunde  (Freiburg  i.  B.,  1890);  Winex's  Confessions  of 
Christendom  (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1865);  A.  ,Seeberg,  Der 
Katechismus  der  Urchristenheit  (Leipzig,  1903):  F.  Wiegand,  Die 
Stellune  des  apostolischen  Symbols  (Leipzig,  1899);  H.  Goodwin,  Ihe 
Foundations  of  the  Creed  (London,  1889);  T.  H.  Bindley,  The 
Oecumenical  Documents  of  the  Faith  (London,  1906);  J.  Kunze, 
Das  nicdnisch-konstantinopolitanische  Symbol;  S.  Baeumer,  Das 
apostolische  Glaubensbekenntnis  (Mainz,  1893);  B.  Doxholt,  Das 
Tauf symbol,  der  alien  Kirche  (Paderborn,  1898);  L.  Hann, 
Bibliothek  der  Symbole  u.  Glaubensregeln  (Breslau,  1897);  A.  C- 
McGiffert,  The  A  pasties' Creed  (Edinburgh,  1902);  and  F.  Loofs, 
Symbolik  (Leipzig,  1902).  (A.  E.  B.) 

CREEK  (Mid.  Eng.  crike  or  creke,  common  to  many  N. 
European  languages),  a  small  inlet  on  a  low  coast,  an  inlet  in 
a  river  formed  by  the  mouth  of  a  small  stream,  a  shallow  narrow 
harbour  for  small  vessles.  In  America  and  Australia  especially 
there  are  many  long  streams  which  can  be  everywhere  forded  and 
sometimes  dry  up,  and  are  navigable  only  at  their  tidal  estuaries, 
mere  brooks  in  width  which  are  of  great  economic  importance. 
They  form  complete  river-systems,  and  are  the  only  supply  of 
surface  water  over  many  thousand  square  miles.  They  are  at 
some  seasons  a  mere  chain  of  "  water-holes,"  but  occasionally 
they  are  strongly  flooded.  Since  exploration  began  at  the  coast 
and  advanced  inland,  it  is  probable  that  the  explorers,  advancing 
up  the  narrow  inlets  or  "  creeks,"  used  the  same  word  for  the 
streams  which  flowed  into  these  as  they  followed  their  courses 
upward  into  the  country.  The  early  settlers  would  use  the  same 
word  for  that  portion  of  the  stream  which  flowed  through  their 
own  land,  and  in  Australia  particularly  the  word  has  the  same 
local  meaning  as  brook  in  England.  On  a  map  the  whole  system 
is  called  a  river,  e.g.  the  river  Wakefield  in  South  Australia  gives 


CREEK  INDIANS— CREIGHTON 


401 


its  name  to  Port  Wakefield,  but  the  stream  is  always  locally 
called  "  the  creek." 

CREEK  or  MUSKOGEE  (MUSCOGEE)  INDIANS  (Algonquin 
maskoki,  "  creeks,"  in  reference  to  the  many  creeks  and  rivulets 
running  through  their  country),  a  confederacy  of  North  American 
Indians,  who  formerly  occupied  most  of  Alabama  and  Georgia. 
The  confederacy  seems  to  have  been  in  existence  in  1 540,  and  then 
included  the  Muskogee,  the  ruling  tribe,  whose  language  was 
generally  spoken,  the  Alabama,  the  Hichiti,  Koasati  and  others 
of  the  Muskogean  stock,  with  the  Yuchi  and  the  Natchez, 
a  large  number  of  Shawano  and  the  Seminoles  of  Florida  as  a 
branch.  The  Creeks  were  agriculturists  living  in  villages  of  log 
houses.  They  were  brave  fighters,  but  during  the  i8th  century 
only  had  one  struggle,  of  little  importance,  with  the  settlers. 
The  Creek  War  of  1813-14  was,  however,  serious.  The  con- 
federacy was  completely  defeated  in  three  hard-fought  battles, 
and  the  peace  treaty  which  followed  involved  the  cession  to  the 
United  States  government  of  most  of  the  Creek  country.  In  the 
Civil  War  the  Creeks  were  divided  in  their  allegiance  and  suffered 
heavily  in  the  campaigns.  The  so-called  Creek  nation  is  now 
settled  in  Oklahoma,  but  independent  government  virtually 
ceased  in  1906.  In  1904  they  numbered  some  16,000,  some 
two-thirds  being  of  pure  or  mixed  Creek  blood. 

CREETOWN,  a  seaport  of  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  991.  It  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Wigtown  Bay, 
1 8  m.  W.  of  Castle  Douglas,  but  235  m.  by  the  Portpatrick  and 
Wigtownshire  Railway.  The  granite  quarries  in  the  vicinity 
constitute  the  leading  industry,  the  stone  for  the  Liverpool  docks 
and  other  public  works  having  been  obtained  from  them.  The 
village  dates  from  1785,  and  it  became  a  burgh  of  barony  in 
1792.  Sir  Walter  Scott  laid  part  of  the  scene  of  Guy  Mannering 
in  this  neighbourhood.  Dr  Thomas  Brown,  the  metaphysician 
(1778-1820),  was  a  native  of  the  parish  (Kirkmabreck)  in  which 
Creetown  lies. 

CREEVEY,  THOpJAS  (1768-1838),  English  politician,  son  of 
William  Creevey,  a  Liverpool  merchant,  was  born  in  that  city 
in  March  1768.  He  went  to  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
graduated  as  seventh  wrangler  in  1789.  The  same  year  he  be- 
came a  student  at  the  Inner  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1794.  In  1802  he  entered  parliament  through  the  duke  of 
Norfolk's  nomination  as  member  for  Thetford,  and  married 
a  widow  with  six  children,  Mrs  Ord,  who  had  a  life  jnterest  in  a 
cgmfortable  income.  Creevey  was  a  Whig  and  a  follower  of  Fox, 
and  his  active  intellect  and  social  qualities  procured  him  a  con- 
siderable intimacy  with  the  leaders  of  this  political  circle.  In 
1806,  when  the  brief  "  All  the  Talents  "  ministry  was  formed,  he» 
was  given  the  office  of  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Control;  in 
1830,  when  next  his  party  came  into  power,  Creevey,  who  had 
lost  his  seat  in  parliament,  was  appointed  by  Lord  Grey  treasurer 
of  the  ordnance;  and  subsequently  Lord  Melbourne  made  him 
treasurer  of  Greenwich  hospital. .  After  1818,  when  his  wife  died, 
he  had  very  slender  means  of  his  own,  but  he  was  popular  with 
his  friends  and  was  well  looked  after  by  them;  Greville,  writing 
of  him  in  1829,  remarks  that  "  old  Creevey  is  a  living  proof  that 
a  man  may  be  perfectly  happy  and  exceedingly  poor.  I  think 
he  is  the  only  man  I  know  in  society  who  possesses  nothing." 
He  died  in  February  1838.  He  is  remembered  through  the 
Creevey  Papers,  published  in  1903  under  the  editorship  of  Sir 
Herbert  Maxwell,  which,  consisting  partly  of  Creevey's  own 
journals  and  partly  of  correspondence,  give  a  lively  and  valuable 
picture  of  the  political  and  social  life  of  the  late  Georgian  era, 
and  are  characterized  by  an  almost  Pepy^sian  outspokenness. 
They  are  a  useful  addition  and  correction  to  the  Croker  Papers, 
written  from  a  Tory  point  of  view.  For  thirty-six  years  Creevey 
had  kept  a  "  copious  diary,"  and  had  preserved  a  vast  miscellane- 
ous correspondence  with  such  people  as  Lord  Brougham,  and 
his  step-daughter,  Elizabeth  Ord,  had  assisted  him,  by  keeping 
his  letters  to  her,  in  compiling  material  avowedly  for  a  collection 
of  Creevey  Papers  in  the  future.  At  his  death  it  was  found  that 
he  had  left  his  mistress,  with  whom  he  had  lived  for  four  years, 
his  sole  executrix  and  legatee,  and  Greville  notes  in  his  Memoirs 
the  anxiety  of  Brougham  and  others  to  get  the  papers  into  their 


hands  and  suppress  them.  The  diary,  mentioned  above,  did  not 
survive,  perhaps  through  Brougham's  success,  and  the  papers 
from  which  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell  made  his  selection  came  into 
his  hands  from  Mrs  Blackett  Ord,  whose  husband  was  the  grand- 
son of  Creevey's  eldest  step-daughter. 

CREFELD,  or  KREFELD,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
Rhine  province,  on  the  left  side  of  and  3  m.  distant  from  the 
Rhine, 32  m.  N.W.  from  Cologne, and  ism.  N.W.  fromDiisseldorf, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  light  electric  railway.  Pop.  (1875) 
62,905;  (1905)  110,410.  The  town  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
Rhine  provinces,  being  well  and  regularly  built,  and  possessing 
several  handsome  squares  and  attractive  public  gardens.  A 
striking  point  about  the  inner  town  is  that  it  forms  a  large  rect- 
angle, enclosed  by  four  wide  boulevards  or  "  walls."  This  feature, 
rare  in  German  towns,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Crefeld  was  always 
an  "  open  place,"  and  that  therefore  the  circular  form  of  a 
fortress  town  could  be  dispensed  with.  It  has  six  Roman  Catholic 
and  four  Evangelical  churches  (of  which  the  Gothic  Friedens- 
kirche  with  a  lofty  spire,  and  the  modern  church  of  St  Joseph,  in 
the  Romanesque  style,  are  alone  worth  special  mention) ;  there 
are  also  a  Mennonite  and  an  Old  Catholic  church.  The  town  hall, 
decorated  with  frescoes  by  P.  Janssen  (b.i844),  and  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  Museum  are  the  most  noteworthy  secular  buildings. 
In  the  promenades  are  monuments  to  Moltke,  Bismarck  and 
Karl  Wilhelm,  the  composer  of  the  Wacht  am  Rhein.  Among  the 
schools  and  scientific  institutions  of  the  town  the  most  important 
is  the  higher  grade  technical  school  for  the  study  of  the  textile 
industries,  which  is  attended  by  students  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Connected  with  this  are  subsidiary  schools,  notably  one 
for  dyeing  and  finishing. 

Crefeld  is  the  most  important  seat  of  the  silk  and  velvet 
manufactures  in  Germany,  and  in  this  industry  the  larger  part 
of  the  population  of  town  and  neighbourhood  is  employed. 
There  are  upwards  of  12,000  silk  power-looms  in  operation,  and 
the  value  of  the  annual  output  in  this  branch  alone  is  estimated 
at  £3,000,000.  A  special  feature  is  the  manufacture  of  silk  for 
covering  umbrellas;  while  of  its  velvet  manufacture  that  of  velvet 
ribbon  is  the  chief.  The  other  industries  of  the  town,  notably 
dyeing,  stuff-printing  and  stamping,  are  very  considerable, 
and  there  are  also  engineering  and  machine  shops,  chemical, 
cellulose,  soap,  and  other  factories,  breweries,  distilleries  and 
tanneries.  The  surrounding  fertile  district  is  almost  entirely 
laid  out  in  market  gardens.  Crefeld  is  an  important  railway 
centre,  and  has  direct  communication  with  Cologne,  Rheydt, 
Miinchen-Gladbach  and  Holland  (via  Zevenaar). 

Crefeld  is  first  mentioned  in  records  of  the  I2th  century. 
From  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  it  received  market  rights  in  1361 
and  the  status  of  a  town  in  1373.  It  belonged  to  the  counts  of 
Mors,  and  was  annexed  to  Prussia,  with  the  countship,  in  1702. 
It  remained  a  place  of  little  importance  until  the  I7th  century, 
when  religious  persecution  drove  to  it  a  number  of  Calvinists  and 
Separatists  from  Jiilich  and  Berg  (followed  later  by  Mennonites), 
who  introduced  the  manufacture  of  linen.  The  number  of  such 
immigrants  still  further  increased  in  the  i8th  century,  when, 
the  silk  industry  having  been  introduced  from  Holland,  the  town 
rapidly  developed.  The  French  occupation  in  1795  and  the 
resulting  restriction  of  trade  weighed  for  a  while  heavily  upon 
the  new  industry;  but  with  the  termination  of  the  war  and  the 
re-establishment  of  Prussian  rule  the  old  prosperity  returned. 

CREIGHTON,  MANDELL  (1843-1901),  English  historian  and 
bishop  of  London,  was  born  at  Carlisle  on  the  sth  of  July  1843, 
being  the  eldest  son  of  Robert  Creighton,  a  well-to-do  upholsterer 
of  that  city.  He  was  educated  at  Durham  grammar  school  and 
at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  elected  to  a  postmaster- 
ship  in  1862.  He  obtained  a  first-class  in  literae  humaniores,  and 
a  second  in  law  and  modern  history  in  1866.  In  the  same  year  he 
became  tutor  and  fellow  of  Merton.  He  was  ordained  deacon,  on 
his  fellowship,  in  1870,  and  priest  in  1873;  in  1872  he  had 
married  Louise,  daughter  of  Robert  von  Glehn,  a  London 
merchant  (herself  a  writer  o4 several  successful  books  of  history). 
Meanwhile  he  had  published  several  small  historical  works; 
but  his  college  and  university  duties  left  little  time  for  writing, 


402 


CREIL— CRELL 


and  in  1875  he  accepted  the  vicarage  of  Embleton,  a  parish  on 
the  coast  of  Northumberland,  near  Dunstanburgh,  with  an 
ancient  and  beautiful  church  and  a  fortified  parsonage  house, 
and  within  reach  of  the  fine  library  in  Bamburgh  Keep.  Here 
he  remained  for  nearly  ten  years,  acquiring  that  experience  of 
parochial  work  which  afterwards  stood  him  in  good  stead,  taking 
private  pupils,  studying  and  writing,  as  well  as  taking 
an  active  part  in  diocesan  business.  Here  too  he  planned  and 
wrote  the  first  two  volumes  of  his  chief  historical  work,  the 
History  of  the  Papacy;  and  it  was  in  part  this  which  led  to  his 
being  elected  in  1884  to  the  newly-founded  Dixie  professor- 
ship of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Cambridge,  where  he  went  into 
residence  early  in  1885.  At  Cambridge  his  influence  at  once 
made  itself  felt,  especially  in  the  reorganization  of  the  historical 
school.  His  lectures  and  conversation  classes  were  extra- 
ordinarily good,  possessing  as  he  did  the  rare  gift  of  kindling  the 
enthusiasm  without  curbing  the  individuality  of  his  pupils. 
In  1886  he  combined  with  other  leading  historians  to  found  the 
English  Historical  Review,  of  which  he  was  editor  for  five  years. 
Meanwhile  the  vacations  were  spent  at  Worcester,  where  he  had 
been  nominated  a  canon  residentiary  in  1885.  In  1891  he  was 
made  canon  of  Windsor;  but  he  never  went  into  residence, 
being  appointed  in  the  same  year  to  the  see  of  Peterborough. 
He  threw  himself  with  characteristic  energy  into  his  new  work, 
visiting,  preaching  and  lecturing  in  every  part  of  his  diocese. 
He  also  found  time  to  preach  and  lecture  elsewhere,  and  to  deliver 
remarkable  speeches  at  social  functions;  he  worked  hard  with 
Archbishop  Benson  on  the  Parish  Councils  Bill  (1894) ;  he  became 
the  first  president  of  the  Church  Historical  Society  (1894^  and 
continued  in  that  office  till  his  death;  he  took  part  in  the  Laud 
Commemoration  (1895);  he  represented  the  English  Church  at 
the  coronation  of  the  tsar  (1896).  He  even  found  time  for 
academical  work,  delivering  the  Hulsean  lectures  (1893-1894) 
and  the  Rede  lecture  (1894)  at  Cambridge,  and  the  Romanes 
lecture  at  Oxford  (1896). 

In  1897,  on  the  translation  of  Dr  Temple  to  Canterbury,  Bishop 
Creighton  was  transferred  to  London.  During  Dr  Temple's 
episcopate  ritual  irregularities  of  all  kinds  had  grown  up,  which 
left  a  very  difficult  task  to  his  successor,  more  especially  in  view 
of  the  growing  public  agitation  on  the  subject,  of  which  he  had 
to  bear  the  brunt.  As  was  only  natural,  his  studied  fairness 
did  not  satisfy  partisans  on  either  side;  and  his  efforts  towards 
conciliation  laid  him  open  to  much  misunderstanding.  His 
administration,  none  the  less,  did  much  to  preserve  peace.  He 
strained  every  nerve  to  induce  his  clergy  to  accept  his  ruling 
on  the  questions  of  the  reservation  of  the  Sacrament  and  of  the 
ceremonial  use  of  incense  in  accordance  with  the  archbishop's 
judgment  in  the  Lincoln  case;  but  when,  during  his  last  illness, 
a  prosecutor  brought  proceedings  against  the  clergy  of  five 
recalcitrant  churches,  the  bishop,  on  the  advice  of  his  arch- 
deacons, interposed  his  veto.  One  other  effort  on  behalf  of 
peace  may  be  mentioned.  In  accordance  with  a  vote  of  the 
diocesan  conference,  the  bishop  arranged  the  "  Round  Table 
Conference "  between  representative  members  of  various 
parties,  held  at  Fulham  in  October  1900,  on  "  the  doctrine  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist  and  its  expression  in  ritual,"  and  a  report  of 
its  proceedings  was  published  with  a  preface  by  him.  The  true 
work  of  his  episcopate  was,  however,  positive,  not  negative. 
He  was  an  excellent  administrator;  and  his  wide  knowledge, 
broad  sympathies,  and  sound  common  sense,  though  they  placed 
him  outside  the  point  of  view  common  to  most  of  his  clergy, 
made  him  an  invaluable  guide  in  correcting  their  too  often  in- 
discreet zeal.  He  fully  realized  the  special  position  of  the 
English  Church  in  Christendom,  and  firmly  maintained  its 
essential  teaching.  Yet  he  was  no  narrow  Anglican.  His  love 
for  the  English  Church  never  blinded  him  to  its  faults,  and  no 
man  was  less  insular  than  he.  As  he  was  a  historian  before  he 
became  a  bishop,  so  it  was  his  historical  sense  which  determined 
his  general  attitude  as  a  bishop.  It  was  this,  together  with  a 
certain  native  taste  for  ecclesiastical  pomp,  which  made  him — 
while  condemning  the  unhistorical  extravagances  of  the  ultra- 
ritualists — himself  a  ritualist.  He  was  the  first  bishop  of  London, 


since  the  Reformation,  to  "  pontificate  "  in  a  mitre  as  well  as  the 
cope,  and  though  no  man  could  have  been  less  essentially 
"  sacerdotal "  he  was  always  careful  of  correct  ceremonial 
usage.  His  interests  and  his  sympathies,  however,  extended 
far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  church.  He  took  a  foremost  part 
in  almost  every  good  work  in  his  diocese,  social  or  educational, 
political  or  religious;  while  he  found  time  also  to  cultivate 
friendly  relations  with  thinking  men  and  women  of  all  schools, 
and  to  help  all  and  sundry  who  came  to  him  for  advice  and 
assistance.  It  was  this  multiplicity  of  activities  and  interests 
that  proved  fatal  to  him.  By  degrees  the  work,  and  especially 
the  routine  work,  began  to  tell  on  him.  He  fell  seriously  ill 
in  the  late  summer  of  1900,  and  died  on  the  i4th  of  January  1901 . 
He  was  buried  in  St  Paul's  cathedral,  where  a  statue  surmounts 
his  tomb. 

He  was  a  man  of  striking  presence  and  distinguished  by  a  fine 
courtesy  of  manner.  His  irrespressible  and  often  daring  humour, 
together  with  his  frank  distaste  for  much  conventional  religious 
phraseology,  was  a  stumbling-block  to  some  pious  people.  But 
beneath  it  all  lay  a  deep  seriousness  of  purpose  and  a  firm  faith 
in  what  to  him  were  the  fundamental  truths  of  religion. 

Bishop  Creighton's  principal  published  works  are:  History  oj 
the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the  Reformation  (5  vols.,  1882- 
1897,  new  ed.);  History  of  the  Papacy  from  the  Great  Schism 
to  the  Sack  of  Rome  (6  vols.,  1897);  The  Early  Renaissance  in 
England  (1895);  Cardinal  Wolsey  (1895);  Life  of  Simon  de 
Montfort  (1876,  new  ed.  1895);  Queen  Elizabeth  (1896).  He  also 
edited  the  series  of  Epochs  of  English  History,  for  which  he. 
wrote  "The  Age  of  Elizabeth"  (i3th  ed.,  1897);  Historical 
Lectures  and  Addresses  by  Mandell  Creighton,  &c.,  edited  by 
Mrs  Creighton,  were  published  in  1903. 

See  Life  and  Letters  of  Mandell  Creighton,  &c.,  by  his  wife  (2  vols., 
1904) ;  and  the  article  "  Creighton  and  Stubbs  "  in  Church  Quarterly 
Review  for  Oct.  1905. 

CREIL,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department  of  Oise, 
32  m.  N.  of  Paris  on  the  Northern  railway,  on  which  it  is  an 
important  junction.  Pop.  (1906)  9234.  The  town  is  situated  on 
the  Oise,  on  which  it  has  a  busy  port.  The  manufacture  of 
machinery,  heavy  iron  goods  and  nails,  and  copper  and  iron 
founding,  are  important  industries,  and  there  are  important 
metallurgical  and  engineering  works  at  Montataire,  about  2  m. 
distant;  bricks  and  tiles  and  glass  are  also  manufactured,  and 
the  Northern  railway  has  workshops  here.  The  church  (izth 
to  1 5th  centuries)  is  in  the  Gothic  style.  There  are  some  traces 
of  a  castle  in  which  Charles  VI.  resided  during  the  period  of  his 
madness.  Creil  played  a  part  of  some  importance  in  the  wars  of 
the  i4th,  I5th  and  i6th  centuries. 

CRELL  (or  KRELL),  NICHOLAS  (c.  1551-1601),  chancellor  of 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  was  born  at  Leipzig,  and  educated  at  the 
university  of  his  native  town.  About  1 580  he  entered  the  service 
of  Christian,  the  eldest  son  of  Augustus  I.,  elector  of  Saxony, 
and  when  Christian  succeeded  his  father  as  elector  in  1586,  be- 
came his  most  influential  counsellor.  Crell's  religious  views  were 
Calvinistic  or  Crypto-Calvinistic,  and  both  before  and  after  his 
appointment  as  chancellor  in  1589  he  sought  to  substitute  his 
own  form  of  faith  for  the  Lutheranism  which  was  the  accepted 
religion  of  electoral  Saxony.  Calvinists  were  appointed  to  many 
important  ecclesiastical  and  educational  offices;  a  translation  of 
the  Bible  with  Calvinistic  annotations  was  brought  out;  and 
other  measures  were  taken  by  Crell  to  attain  his  end.  In  foreign 
politics,  also,  he  sought  to  change  the  traditional  policy  of 
Saxony,  acting  in  unison  with  John  Casimir,  administrator 
of  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  and  promising  assistance  to  Henry  IV. 
of  France.  These  proceedings,  coupled  with  the  jealousy  felt 
at  Crell's  high  position  and  autocratic  conduct,  made  the  chan- 
cellor very  unpopular,  and  when  the  elector  died  in  October 
1591  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices  and  thrown  into  prison  by 
order  of  Frederick  William,  duke  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  the  regent 
for  the  young  elector  Christian  II.  His  trial  was  delayed  until 
1595,  and  then,  owing  partly  to  the  interference  of  the  imperial 
court  of  justice  (Reichskammergericht),  dragged  on  for  six  years. 
At  length  it  was  referred  by  the  emperor  Rudolph  II.  to  a  court 


CREMA— CREMATION 


403 


of  appeal  at  Prague,  and  sentence  of  death  was  passed.     This 
was  carried  out  at  Dresden  on  the  9th  of  October  1601. 

See  A.  V.  Richard,  Der  kurfiirstliche  sachsische  Kanzler  Dr 
Nicolaus  Krell  (Frankfort,  1860);  B.  Bohnenstadt,  Das  Prozessver- 
fahren  gegen  den  kursachsischen  Kanzler  Dr  Nikolaus  Krell  (Halle, 
IQOI);  F.  Brandes,  Der  Kanzler  Krell,  ein  Opfer  des  Orthodoxismus 
(Leipzig,  1873);  and  E.  L.  T.  Henke,  Caspar  Peucer  und  Nicolaus 
Krell  (Marburg,  1865). 

CREMA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Lombardy,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Cremona,  26  m.  N.E.  by  rail  from  the  town  of 
Cremona.  Pop.  (1901)  town,  8027;  commune,  9609.  It  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Serio,  240  ft.  above  sea-level, 
in  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  district.  The  cathedral  has  a 
fine  Lombard  Gothic  facade  of  the  second  half  of  the  I4th  century ; 
the  campanile  belongs  to  the  same  period ;  the  rest  of  the  church 
has  been  restored  in  the  baroque  style.  The  clock  tower  opposite 
dates  from  the  period  of  Venetian  dominion  in  the  i6th  and  I7th 
centuries.  The  castle,  which  was  one  of  the  strongest  in  Italy, 
was  demolished  in  1809.  The  church  of  S^Maria,  J  m.  E.  of  the 
town,  was  begun  in  1490  by  Giov.  Batt.  Battaggio;  it  is  in  the 
form  of  a  Greek  cross,  with  a  central  dome,  and  the  exterior  is 
a  fine  specimen  of  polychrome  Lombard  work  (E.  Gussalli  in 
Rassegna  d'  arte,  1905,  p.  17). 

The  date  of  the  foundation  of  Crema  is  uncertain.  In  the 
loth  century  it  appears  to  have  been  the  principal  place  of  the 
territory  known  as  Isola  Fulcheria.  In  the  i2th  century  it 
was  allied  with  Milan  and  attacked  by  Cremona,  but  was  taken 
and  sacked  by  Barbarossa  in  1160.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1185. 
It  fell  under  the  Visconti  in  1338,  and  joined  the  Lombard 
republic  in  1447;  but  was  taken  by  the  Venetians  in  1449,  and, 
except  from  1509  to  1529,  remained  under  their  dominion 
until  1797. 

CREMATION  (Lat.  cremare,  to  burn),  the  burning  of  human 
corpses.  This  method  of  disposal  of  the  dead  may  be  said  to  have 
been  the  general  practice  of  the  ancient  world,  with  the  important 
exceptions  of  Egypt,  where  bodies  were  embalmed,  Judaea, 
where  they  were  buried  in  sepulchres,  and  China,  where  they  were 
buried  in  the  earth.  In  Greece,  for  instance,  so  well  ascertained 
was  the  law  that  only  suicides,  unteethed  children,  and  persons 
struck  by  lightning  were  denied  the  right  to  be  burned.  At 
'Rome,  one  of  the  XII.  Tables  said,  "  Hominem  mortuum  in  urbe 
ne  sepelito,  neve  urito  ";  and  in  fact,  from  the  close  of  the 
republic  to  the  end  of  the  4th  Christian  century,  burning  on  the 
pyre  or  rogus  was  the  general  rule.1  Whether  in  any  of  these 
cases  cremation  was  adopted  or  rejected  for  sanitary  or  for 
superstitious  reasons,  it  is  difficult  to  say.  Embalming  would 
probably  not  succeed  in  climates  less  warm  and  dry  than  the 
Egyptian.  The  scarcity  of  fuel  might  also  be  a  consideration. 
The  Chinese  are  influenced  by  the  doctrine  of  Feng-Shui,  or 
incomprehensible  wind  water;  they  must  have  a  properly  placed 
grave  in  their  own  land,  and  with  this  view  their  corpses  are  sent 
home  from  long  distances  abroad.  Even  the  Jews  used  cremation 
in  the  vale  of  Tophet  when  a  plague  came;  and  the  modern 
Jews  of  Berlin  and  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews  at  Mile 
End  cemetery  were  among  the  first  to  welcome  the  lately  revived 
process.  Probably  also,  some  nations  had  religious  objections 
to  the  pollution  of  the  sacred  principle  of  fire,  and  therefore 
practised  exposure,  suspension,  throwing  into  the  sea,  cave- 
burial,  desiccation  or  envelopment.2  Some  at  least  of  these 
methods  must  obviously  have  been  suggested  simply  by  the 
readiest  means  at  hand.  Cremation  is  still  practised  over  a  great 
part  of  Asia  and  America,  but  not  always  in  the  same  form. 
Thus,  the  ashes  may  be  stored  in  urns,  or  buried  in  the  earth, 
or  thrown  to  the  wind,  or  (as  among  the  Digger  Indians)  smeared 
with  gum  on  the  heads  of  the  mourners.  In  one  case  the  three 
processes  of  embalming,  burning  and  burying  are  gone  through; 
and  in  another,  if  a  member  of  the  tribe  die  at  a  great  distance 
from  home,  some  of  his  money  and  clothes  are  nevertheless 
burned  by  the  family.  As  food,  weapons,  &c.,  are  sometimes 

1  Macrobius  says  it  was  disused  in  the  reign  of  the  younger  Theo- 
dosius  (Gibbon  v.  411). 

2  The  Colchians,  says  Sir  Thos.  Browne,  made  their  graves  in  the 
air,  i.e.  on  trees. 


buried  with  the  body,  so  they  are  sometimes  burned  with  the 
body,  the  whole  ashes  being  collected.3  The  Siamese  have  a 
singular  institution,  according  to  which,  before  burning,  the 
embalmed  body  lies  in  a  temple  for  a  period  determined  by  the 
rank  of  the  dead  man, — the  king  for  six  months,  and  so  down- 
wards. If  the  poor  relatives  cannot  afford  fuel  and  the  other 
necessary  preparations,  they  bury  the  body,  but  exhume  it  for 
burning  when  an  opportunity  occurs. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  practice  of  cremation  in 
modern  Europe  was  at  first  stopped,  and  has  since  been  prevented 
in  great  measure,  by  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  body;  partly  also  by  the  notion  that  the  Christian's  body 
was  redeemed  and  purified.4  Some  clergymen,  however,  as  the 
late  Mr  Haweis  in  his  Ashes  to  Ashes,  a  Cremation  Prelude 
(London,  1874),  have  been  prominent  in  favour  of  cremation. 
The  objection  of  the'clergy  was  disposed  of  by  the  philanthropist 
Lord  Shaftesbury  when  he  asked,  "  What  would  in  such  a  case 
become  of  the  blessed  martyrs?  "  The  very  general  practice  of 
burying  bodies  in  the  precincts  of  a  church  in  order  that  the 
dead  might  take  benefit  from  the  prayers  of  persons  resorting  to 
the  church,  and  the  religious  ceremony  which  precedes  both  Euro- 
pean burials  and  Asiatic  cremations,  have  given  the  question  a 
religious  aspect.  It  is,  however,  in  the  ultimate  resort,  really  a 
sanitary  one.  The  disgusting  results  of  pit-burial  made  ceme- 
teries necessary.  But  cemeteries  are  equally  liable  to  over- 
crowding, and  are  often  nearer  to  inhabited  houses  than  the  old 
churchyards.  It  is  possible,  no  doubt,  to  make  a  cemetery  safe 
approximately  by  selecting  a  soil  which  is  dry,  close  and  porous, 
by  careful  drainage,  and  by  rigid  enforcement  of  the  rules 
prescribing  a  certain  depth  (8  to  10  ft.)  and  a  certain  superficies 
(4  yds.)  for  graves.  But  a  great  mass  of  sanitary  objections  may 
be  brought  against  even  recent  cemeteries  in  various  countries. 
A  dense  clay,  the  best  soil  for  preventing  the  levitation  of  gas, 
is  the  worst  for  the  process  of  decomposition.  The  danger  is 
strikingly  illustrated  in  the  careful  planting  of  trees  and  shrubs 
to  absorb  the  carbonic  acid.  Vault-burial  in  metallic  coffins, 
even  when  sawdust  charcoal  is  used,  is  still  more  dangerous 
than  ordinary  burial.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the 
cemetery  system  can  only  be  temporary.  The  soil  is  gradually 
filled  with  bones;  houses  crowd  round;  the  law  itself  permits 
the  reopening  of  graves  at  the  expiry  of  fourteen  years.  We 
shall  not,  indeed,  as  Browne  says,  "  be  knaved  out  of  our  graves 
to  have  our  skulls  made  drinking  bowls  and  our  bones  turned 
into  pipes!"  But  on  this  ground  of  sentiment  cremation  would 
certainly  prevent  any  interruption  of  that  "  sweet  sleep  and 
calm  rest  "  which  the  old  prayer  that  the  earth  might  lie'lightly 
has  associated  with  the  grave.  And  in  the  meantime  we  should 
escape  the  horror  of  putrefaction  and  of  the  "  small  cold  worm 
that  fretteth  the  enshrouded  form." 

In  Europe  Christian  burial  was  long  associated  entirely  with  the 
ordinary  practice  of  committing  the  corpse  to  the  grave.  But 
in  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  many  distinguished  physicians 
and  chemists,  especially  in  Italy,  began  prominently  to  advocate 
cremation.  In  1874,  a  congress  called  to  consider  the  matter  at 
Milan  resolved  to  petition  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  a  clause 
in  the  new  sanitary  code,  permitting  cremation  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  syndics  of  the  commune.  In  Switzerland  Dr 
Vegmann  Ercolani  was  the  champion  of  the  cause  (see  his 
Crewation  the  most  Rational  Method  of  Disposing  of  the  Dead, 
4th  ed.,  Zurich,  1874).  So  long  ago  as  1797  cremation  was 
seriously  discussed  by  the  French  Assembly  under  the  Directory, 
and  the  events  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War  again  brought  the 
subject  under  the  notice  of  the  medical  press  and  the  sanitary 
authorities.  The  military  experiments  at  Sedan,  Chalons  and 
Metz,  of  burying  large  numbers  of  bodies  with  quicklime,  or 
pitch  and  straw,  were  not  successful,  but  very  dangerous.  The 
matter  was  considered  by  the  municipal  council  of  Paris  in  con- 
nexion with  the  new  cemetery  at  Mery-sur-Oise;  and  the  prefect 

8  In  the  case  of  a  great  man  there  was  often  a  burnt  offering  of 
animals  and  even  of  slaves  (see  Caesar,  De  bell.  Gall.  iv.). 

4  A  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (see  Tertullian,  De  anima,  c.  51,  cited 
in  Muller,  Lex.  des  Kirchenrechts,  s.v.  "  Begrabniss  ")• 


4°4 


CREMATION 


of  the  Seine  in  1874  sent  a  circular  asking  information  to  all  the 
cremation  societies  in  Europe.  In  Britain  the  subject  had 
slumbered  for  two  centuries,  since  in  1658  Sir  Thomas  Browne 
published  his  quaint  Hydriotaphia,  or  Urn-burial,  which  was 
mainly  founded  on  the  De  funere  Romanorum  of  the  learned 
Kirchmannus.  In  1817  Dr  J.  Jamieson  gave  a  sketch  of  the 
"  Origin  of  Cremation  "  (Proc.  Royal  Soc.  Edin.,  1817),  and  for 
many  years  prior  to  1874  Dr  Lord,  medical  officer  of  health  for 
Hampstead,  continued  to  urge  the  practical  necessity  for  the 
introduction  of  the  system. 

It  was  Sir  Henry  Thompson,  however,  who  first  brought  the 
question  prominently  before  the  public.  Thompson's  problem 
was — "  Given  a  dead  body,  to  resolve  it  into  carbonic  acid,  water 
and  ammonia,  rapidly,  safely  and  not  unpleasantly."  To  solve 
this  problem,  experiments  were  made  by  Dr  Polli  at  the  Milan 
gas  works,  fully  described  in  Dr  Pietra  Santa's  book,  La  Crema- 
tion  des  marts  en  France  et  a  I'etranger,  and  by  Professor  Brunetti, 
who  exhibited  an  apparatus  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  of  1873, 
and  who  stated  his  results  in  La  Cremazione  dei  cadaiieri  (Padua, 
1873).  Polli  obtained  complete  incineration  or  calcination  of 
dogs  by  the  use  of  coal-gas  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  applied 
to  a  cylindrical  retort  of  refracting  clay,  so  as  to  consume  the 
gaseous  products  of  combustion.  The  process  was  complete 
in  two  hours,  and  the  ashes  weighed  about  5%  of  the  weight 
before  cremation.  Brunetti  used  an  oblong  furnace  of  refracting 
brick  with  side-doors  to  regulate  the  draught,  and  above  a  cast- 
iron  dome  with  movable  shutters.  The  body  was  placed  on 
a  metallic  plate  suspended  on  iron  wire.  The  gas  generated 
escaped  by  the  shutters,  and  in  two  hours  carbonization  was 
complete.  The  heat  was  then  raised  and  concentrated,  and  at  the 
end  of  four  hours  the  operation  was  over;  180  lb  of  wood  costing 
2S.  4d.  sterling  was  burned.  In  a  reverberating  furnace  used  by 
Sir  Henry  Thompson  a  body,  weighing  144  lb,  was  reduced  in 
fifty  minutes  to  about  4  lb  of  lime  dust.  The  noxious  gases, 
which  were  undoubtedly  produced  during  the  first  five  minutes 
of  combustion,  passed  through  a  flue  into  a  second  furnace  arid 
were  entirely  consumed.  In  the  ordinary  Siemens  regenerative 
furnace  (which  was  adapted  by  Reclam  in  Germany  for  crema- 
tion, and  also  by  Sir  Henry  Thompson)  only  the  hot-blast  was 
used,  the  body  supplying  hydrogen  and  carbon;  or  a  stream 
of  heated  hydrocarbon  mixed  with  heated  air  was  sent  from  a 
gasometer  supplied  with  coal,  charcoal,  peat  or  wood, — the  brick 
or  iron-cased  chamber  being  thus  heated  to  a  high  degree  before 
cremation  begins. 

Steps  were  at  once  taken  to  form  an  English  society  to  pro- 
mote the  practice  of  cremation.  A  declaration  of  its  objects  was 
drawn  up  and  signed  on  the  i3th  January  1874  by  the  follow- 
ing persons — Shirley  Brooks,  William  Eassie,  Ernest  Hart,  the 
Rev.  H.  R.  Haweis,  G.  H.  Hawkins,  John  Cordy  Jeaffreson,  F. 
Lehmann,  C.  F.  Lord,  W.  Shaen,  A.  Strahan,  (Sir)  Henry  Thomp- 
son, Major  Vaughan,  Rev.  C.  Voysey  and  (Sir)  T.  Spencer  Wells; 
and  they  frequently  met  to  consider  the  necessary  steps  in  order 
to  attain  their  object.  The  laws  and  regulations  having  been 
thoroughly  discussed,  the  membership  of  the  society  was  con- 
stituted by  an  annual  contribution  for  expenses,  and  a  sub- 
scription to  the  following  declaration: — 

"We  disapprove  the  present  custom  of  burying  the  dead,  and 
desire  to  substitute  some  mode  which  shall  rapidly  resolve  the 
body  into  its  component  elements  by  a  process  which  cannot  offend 
the  living,  and  shall  render  the  remains  absolutely  innocuous. 
Until  some  better  method  is  devised,  we  desire  to  adopt  that  usually 
known  as  cremation." 

Finally,  on  2pth  April  a  meeting  was  held,  a  council  was 
formed,  and  Sir  H.  Thompson  was  elected  president  and  chair- 
man. Mr  Eassie  (who  in  1875  published  a  valuable  work  on 
Cremation  of  the  Dead)  was  at  the  same  time  appointed  honorary 
secretary.1  In  1875  the  following  were  added: — Mrs  Rose  Mary 
Crawshay,  Mr  Higford  Burr,  Rev.  J.  Long,  Mr  W.  Robinson 
and  the  Rev.  Brooke  Lambert.  Subsequently  followed  Lord 
Bramwell,  Sir  Chas.  Cameron,  Dr  Farquharson,  Sir  Douglas 
Gallon,  Lord  Playfair,  Mr  Martin  Ridley  Smith,  Mr  James  A. 

1  This  was  the  first  society  formed  in  Europe  for  the  promotion  of 
cremation. 


Budgett,  Mr  Edmund  Yates,  Mr  J.  S.  Fletcher,  Mr  J.  C.  Swin- 
burne-Hanham,  the  duke  of  Westminster  (on  Lord  Bramwell's 
death),  and  Sir  Arthur  Arnold.  These  may  be  considered  the 
pioneers  of  the  movement  for  reform. 

On  account  of  difficulties  and  prejudices2  the  council  was  unable 
to  purchase  a  freehold  until  1878,  when  an  acre  was  obtained 
at  Woking,  not  far  distant  from  the  cemetery.  At  this  time  the 
furnace  employed  by  Professor  Gorini  of  Lodi,  Italy,  appeared 
to  be  the  best  for  working  with  on  a  small  scale;  and  he  was 
invited  to  visit  England  to  superintend  its  erection.  This  was 
completed  in  1879,  and  the  body  of  a  horse  was  cremated 
rapidly  and  completely  without  any  smoke  or  effluvia  from  the 
chimney.  No  sooner  was  this  successful  step  taken  than  the 
president  received  a  communication  from  the  Home  Office, 
which  resulted  in  a  personal  interview  with  the  home  secretary; 
the  issue  of  which  was  that  if  the  society  desired  to  avoid  direct 
hostile  action,  an  assurance  must  be  given  that  no  'cremation 
should  be  attempted  without  leave  first  obtained  from  the 
minister.  This  of  course  was  given,  no  further  building  took 
place,  and  the  society's  labours  were  confined  to  employing 
means  to  diffuse  information  on  the  subject.  Sir  Spencer  Wells 
brought  it  before  the  annual  meeting  of  the  British  Medical 
Association  in  1880,  when  a  petition  to  the  home  secretary  for 
permission  to  adopt  cremation  was  largely  signed  by  the  leading 
men  in  town  and  country,  but  without  any  immediate  result. 
The  next  important  development  was  an  application  to  the 
council  in  1882,  by  Captain  Hanham  in  Dorsetshire,  to  undertake 
the  cremation  of  two  deceased  relatives  who  had  left  express  in- 
structions to  that  effect.  The  home  secretary  was  applied  to,  and 
refused.  The  bodies  were  preserved,  and  Captain  Hanhamerected 
a  crematorium  on  his  estate,  and  the  cremation  took  place  there. 
He  himself,  dying  a  year  later,  was  cremated  also;  in  both  cases 
the  result  was  attained  under  the  supervision  of  Mr  J.  C.  Swin- 
burne-Hanham,  who  succeeded  Mr  Eassie  in  1888  as  honorary 
secretary  to  the  society.  The  government  took  no  notice.  But 
in  1 883  a  cremation  was  performed  in  Wales  by  a  man  on  the  body 
of  his  child,  and  legal  proceedings  were  taken  against  him.  Mr 
Justice  Stephen,  in  February  1884,  delivered  his  well-known 
judgment  at  the  Assizes  there,  declaring  cremation  to  be  a 
legal  procedure,  provided  no  nuisance  were  caused  thereby  to 
others.  The  council  of  the  society  at  once  declared  themselves 
absolved  from  their  promise  to  the  Home  Office,  and  publicly 
offered  to  perform  cremation,  laying  down  strict  rules  for  careful 
inquiry  into  the  cause  of  death  in  every  case.  They  stated  that 
they  were  fully  aware  that  the  chief  practical  objection  to  cre- 
mation was  that  it  removed  traces  of  poison  or  violence  which 
might  have  caused  death.  Declining  to  trust  the  very  imperfect 
statement  generally  made  respecting  the  cause  of  death  in  the 
ordinary  death  certificate  (unless  a  coroner's  inquest  had  been 
held),  they  adopted  a  system  of  very  stringent  inquiry,  the  result 
of  which  in  each  case  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  president,  to 
be  investigated  and  approved  by  him  before  cremation  could  take 
place,  with  the  right  to  decline  or  require  an  inquest  if  he  thought 
proper;  and  this  course  has  been  followed  ever  since  the  first 
cremation. 

It  was  on  26th  March  1885  that  the  first  cremation  at 
Woking  took  place,  the  subject  being  a  lady.3  In  1888  it  became 
necessary,  nearly  100  bodies  having  been  by  this  date  cremated, 
to  build  a  large  hall  for  religious  service,  as  well  as  waiting-rooms, 
in  connexion  with  the  crematorium  there.  The  dukes  of  Bedford 
and  Westminster  headed  the  appeal  for  funds,  each  with  £105. 
The  former  (the  pth  duke  of  Bedford)  especially  took  great 
interest  in  the  progress  of  the  society,  and  offered  to  furnish 
Further  donations  to  any  extent  necessary.  During  the  next 
two  years  he  generously  defrayed  costs  to  the  amount  of  £3500, 
and  built  a  smaller  crematorium  adjacent  for  himself  and  family. 
The  latter  building  was  first  used  on  the  i8th  of  January  1891, 
a  few  days  after  the  duke's  own  death.  The  number  of  cremations 

1  For  a  full  account  of  these,  see  Modern  Cremation:  Its  History 
and  Practice  to  the  Present  Date,  by  Sir  H.  Thompson,  Bart.,  F.R.C.S. 
&c.  Uth  ed.,  Smith,  Elder,  Waterloo  Place,  1901). 

'  The  Times,  27th  March  1885. 


CREMATION 


405 


certifies 

lion. 


slowly  increased  year  by  year,  and  the  total  at  the  end  of 
1900  was  1824.  Many  of  these  were  persons  of  distinction — by 
rank,  or  by  attainments  in  art,  literature  and  science,  or  in 
public  life. 

The  council  next  turned  their  attention  to  the  need  for  a 
national  system  of  death  certification,  to  be  enforced  by  law 
as  an  essential  and  much-needed  reform  in  connexion 
Death  with  cremation.  On  the  6th  of  January  1893  the  duke 
of  Westminster  introduced  a  deputation  to  the  secretary 
of  state  for  the  home  department,  Mr  Asquith,  and  the 
president  of  the  Cremation  Society  opened  the  case,  showing  that 
no  less  than  7  %  of  the  burials  in  England  took  place  without  any 
certificate,  while  in  some  districts  it  was  far  greater.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  the  home  secretary  appointed  a  select  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  was  presided  over  by  Sir  Walter 
Foster,  of  the  Local  Government  Board,  to  "  inquire  into  the 
sufficiency  of  the  existing  law  as  to  the  disposal  of  the  dead  .  . . 
and  especially  for  detecting-  the  causes  of  death  due  to  poison, 
violence,  and  criminal  neglect."  After  a  prolonged  inquiry 
and  careful  consideration  of  the  evidence,  a  full  report  and 
conclusions  drawn  therefrom  were  unanimously  agreed  to,  and 
published  as  a  blue-book  in  the  autumn  of  1893.* 

The  following  conclusions  are  quoted  from  this  volume: — Page  iii. 
"  So  far  as  affording  a  record  of  the  true  cause  of  death  and  the 
detection  of  it  in  cases  where  death  may  have  been  due  to  violence, 
poison,  or  where  criminal  neglect  is  concerned,  the  class  of  certified 
deaths  leaves  much  to  be  desired."  Page  iv.  Certification  is  ex- 
tremely important  as  a  deterrent  of  crime,  and  numerous  proofs  are 
given  at  length  in  support  of  the  statement.  ..."  Contrast  this 

.  class  with  that  of  uncertified  deaths,  when  the  result  is  such  as  to 
force  upon  your  Committee  the  conviction  that  vastly  more  deaths 
occur  annually  from  foul  play  and  criminal  neglect  than  the  law 
recognizes."  Page  viii.  Great  uncertainty  in  resorting  to  the  coroner's 
court,  and  want  of  system  in  connexion  with  the  practice  of  it,  are 
affirmed  to  exist.  Page  x.  It  is  stated  that  the  opportunity  for 
perpetrating  crime  is  great  in  the  considerable  class  of  uncertified 
cases  ..."  in  short,  the  existing  procedure  plays  into  the  hands  of 
the  criminal  classes."  "  Your  Committee  are  much  impressed  with 
the  serious  possibilities  implied  in  a  system  which  permits  death 
and  burial  to  take  place  without  the  production  of  satisfactory 
medical  evidence  of  the  cause  of  death."  Pagexii.  "  Your  Committee 
have  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  appointment  of  medical 
officials,  who  should  investigate  all  cases  of  death  which  are  not 
certified  by  a  medical  practitioner  in  attendance,  is  a  proposal  which 
deserves  their  support." 

In  considering  cremation,  the  committee  reported  as  follows: — 
Page  xxii.  "  Your  Committee  are  of  opinion  that  there  is  only  one 
question  in  connexion  with  this  method  of  disposing  of  a  dead  body 
to  which  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  refer.  That  question  is  the  sup- 
posed danger  to  the  community  arising  from  the  fact  that  with  the 
destruction  of  the  body  the  possibility  of  obtaining  evidence  of  the 

•t  cause  of  death  by  post-mortem  examination  also  disappears."  The 
mode  of  proceeding  adopted  by  the  Cremation  Society  of  England 
having  been  described,  "  your  Committee  are  of  opinion  that  with  the 
precautions  adopted  in  connexion  with  cremation,  as  carried  out  by 
the  Cremation  Society,  there  is  little  probability  that  cases  of  crime 
would  escape  detection,  but  inasmuch  as  these  precautions  are 
purely  voluntary,  your  Committee  consider  that  in  the  interests  of 
public  safety  such  regulations  should  be  enforced  by  law." 

The  Cremation  Society  felt  that  this  report  much  strengthened 
the  case  for  legislation  amending  the  law  of  death  certification. 
In  August  1894  the  president  of  the  society  laid  the  results  of  the 
select  committee  before  the  British  Medical  Association  at 
Bristol,  and  a  unanimous  vote  was  obtained  in  favour  of  the 
suggestions  made  by  it.  In  November  a  second  deputation 
waited  on  Mr  Asquith,  in  which  the  president  of  the  society 
begged  him  to  carry  out  the  system  recommended.  The  home 
secretary  replied  that  the  business  belonged  to  the  department 
of  the  Local  Government  Board,  and  that  it  was  already  dealing 
with  the  question  and  bringing  it  to  a  satisfactory  solution.  Soon 
afterwards,  however,  the  government  changed,  other  questions 
became  pressing  and  further  consideration  of  the  subject  was 
postponed. 

With  reference  to  the  recommendations  of  the  select  committee 
before  mentioned,  the  regulations  necessary  for  registration  of 
death  and  the  disposal  of  the  dead  may  be  outlined  as  follows: — 


1  Reports  on  Death   Certification   (1893),   Eyre  &  Spottiswoode, 
London  (373,472). 


(i)  That  no  body  should  be  buried,  cremated,  or  otherwise  disposed 
of  without  a  medical  certificate  of  death  signed,  after  personal 
knowledge  and  observation,  or  by  information  obtained  after  in- 
vestigation made  by  a  qualified  medical  officer  appointed  for  the 
purpose.  (2)  A  qualified  medical  man  should  be  appointed  as  official 
certifier  in  every  parish,  or  district  of  neighbouring  parishes,  his  duty 
being  to  inquire  into  all  cases  of  death  and  report  the  cause  in 
writing,  together  with  such  other  details  as  may  be  deemed  neces- 
sary. This  would  naturally  fall  within  the  duties  of  the  medical 
officer  of  health  for  the  district,  and  registration  should  be  made 
at  his  office.  (3)  If  the  circumstances  of  death  obviously  demand 
a  coroner's  inquest,  the  case  should  be  transferred  to  his  court  and 
the  cause  determined,  .with  or  without  autopsy.  If  there  appears 
to  be  no  ground  for  holding  an  inquest,  and  autopsy  be  necessary 
to  the  furnishing  of  a  certificate,  tht  official  certifier  should  make  it, 
and  state  the  result  in  his  report.  (4)  No  person  or  company  should 
be  henceforth  permitted  to  construct  or  use  an  apparatus  for  cremat- 
ing human  bodies  without  license  from  the  Local  Government  Board 
or  other  authority.  .  (5)  No  crematory  should  be  so  employed  unless 
the  site,  construction,  and  system  of  management  have  been  ap- 
proved after  survey  by  an  officer  appointed  by  government  for  the 
purpose.  But  the  licence  to  construct  or  use  a  crematory  should 
not  be  withheld  if  guarantees  are  given  that  the  conditions  required 
are  or  will  be  complied  with.  All  such  crematories  to  be  subject  at 
all  times  to  inspection  by  an  officer  appointed  by  the  government. 

(6)  The  burning  of  a  human  body,  otherwise  than  in  an  officially 
recognized  crematory,  should  be  illegal,  and  punishable  by  penalty. 

(7)  No  human  body  should  be  cremated  unless  the  official  examiner 
added  the  words  "  Cremation  permitted."    This  he  should  be  bound 
to  do  if,  after  due  inquiry,  he  can  certify  that  the  deceased  has  died 
from  natural  causes,  and  not  from  ill-treatment,  poison  or  violence. 

The  Cremation  Act  1902  (2  Ed.  VII.  ch.  8),  and  the  regula- 
tions2 made  thereunder  by  the  home  secretary,  have  since 
given  legislative  effect  to  some  of  the  foregoing  recommendations 
and  have  laid  down  a  code  of  laws  applicable  and  binding  where 
cremation  is  resorted  to.  But  the  amendments  in  the  law  of 
death  certification  generally,  so  long  pressed  for  by  the  Cremation 
Society  of  England  and  recommended  by  the  select  committee, 
are  none  the  less  necessary. 

Undoubtedly  in  populous  communities  and  in  crowded 
districts  the  burial  of  dead  bodies  is  liable  to  be  a  source  of 
danger  to  the  living.  As  early  as  1840  a  commission  had  been 
appointed,  including  some  of  the  earliest  authorities  on  sanitary 
science, — namely,  Drs  Southwood  Smith,  Chadwick,  Milroy, 
Sutherland,  Waller  Lewis  and  others, — to  conduct  a  searching 
inquiry  into  the  state  of  the  burial-grounds  of  London  and  large 
provincial  towns.  By  the  report 3  the  existence  of  such  a  danger 
was  strikingly  demonstrated,  and  intramural  interments  were  in 
consequence  made  illegal.  The  advocates  of  burial  then  declared 
that  interment  in  certain  light  soils  would  safely  and  efficiently 
decompose  the  putrefying  elements  which  begin  to  be  developed 
the  moment  death  takes  place,  and  which  rapidly  become 
dangerous  to  the  living,  still  more  so  in  the  case  of  deaths  from 
contagious  disease.  But  these  light  dry  soils  and  elevated  spots 
are  precisely  those  best  adapted  for  human  habitation;  to  say 
nothing  of  their  value  for  food-production.  Granted  the 
efficiency  of  such  burial,  it  only  effects  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  what  exposure  to  a  high  temperature  accomplishes  with 
absolute  safety  in  an  hour.  In  a  densely  populated  country 
the  struggle  between  the  claims  of  the  dead  and  the  living  to 
occupy  the  choicest  sites  becomes  a  serious  matter.  All  decaying 
animal  remains  give  off  effluvia — gases — which  are  transferred 
through  the  medium  of  the  atmosphere  to  become  converted  into 
vegetable  growth  of  some  kind — trees,  crops,  garden  produce, 
grass,  &c.  Every  plant  absorbs  these  gases  by  its  leaves,  each 
one  of  which  is  provided  with  hundreds  of  stomata — open  mouths 
— by  which  they  fix  or  utilize  the  carbon  to  form  woody  fibre, 
and  give  off  free  oxygen  to  the  atmosphere.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
air  we  breathe  is  kept  pure  by  the  constant  interaction  between 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  It  may  be  taken  as  certain 
that  the  gaseous  products  arising  from  a  cremated  body — 
amounting,  although  invisible,  to  no  less  than  97  %  of  its  weight, 
3  %  only  remaining  as  solids,  in  the  form  of  a  pure  white  ash — 

1  Statutory  Rules  and  Orders,  1903,  No.  286,  Eyre  &  Spottiswoode. 

*  A  Special  Inquiry  into  the  Practice  of  Interment  in  Towns,  by 
Edwin  Chadwick  (London,  1843),  is  replete  with  evidence.and  should 
be  read  by  those  who  desire  to  pursue  the  inquiry  further. 


406 


CREMATION 


become  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  integral  and  active  elements 
in  some  form  of  vegetable  life.  The  result  of  this  reasoning  has 
been  that,  by  slow  degrees,  crematoria  have  been  constructed 
at  many  of  the  populous  cities  in  Great  Britain  and  abroad 
(see  Statistics  below). 

The  subject  of  employing  cremation  for  the  bodies  of  those 
who  die  of  contagious  disease  is  a  most  important  one.  Sir  H. 
Thompson  advocated  this  course  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
International  Congress  of  Hygiene  held  in  London  in  1891;  and 
a  resolution  strongly  approving  the  practice  was  carried  unan- 
imously at  a  large  meeting  of  experts  and  medical  officers  of  health. 
Such  deseases  are  small-pox,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  consump- 
tion, malignant  cholera,  enteric,  relapsing  and  puerperal  fevers, 
the  annual  number  of  deaths  from  which  in  the  United  Kingdom 
is  upwards  of  80,000.  Complete  disinfection  takes  place  by 
means  of  the  high  temperature  to  which  the  body  is  exposed. 
At  the  present  day  it  is  compulsory  to  report  any  case  in  the 
foregoing  list,  whenever  it  occurs,  to  the  medical  officer  of  health 
for  the  district;  and  it  is  customary  to  disinfect  the  rooms 
themselves,  as  well  as  the  clothes  and  furniture  used  by  the 
patient  if  the  case  be  fatal;  but  the  body,  which  is  the  source 
and  origin  of  the  evil,  and  is  itself  loaded  with  the  germs  of  a 
specific  poison,  is  left  to  the  chances  which  attach  to  its  preserva- 
tion in  that  condition,  when  buried  in  a  fit  or  unfit  soil  or 
situation. 

The  process  of  preparing  a  body  for  cremation  requires  a  brief 
notice.  The  plan  generally  adopted  is  to  place  it  (in  the  usual 
shroud)  in  a  light  pine  shell,  discarding  all  heavy  oak  or  other 
coffin,  and  to  introduce  it  into  the  furnace  in  that  manner. 
Thus  there  is  no  handling  or  exposure  of  the  body  after  it  reaches 
the  crematorium.  The  type  of  furnace  in  general  use  is  on  the 
reverberate ry  principle,  the  body  being  consumed  in  a  separate 
chamber  heated  to  over  2000°  Fahr.  by  a  coke  fire.  In  a  few 
instances  a  furnace  burning  ordinary  illuminating  gas  instead  of 
coke  is  in  use.  (H.  TH.) 

Statistics. — The  following  statistics  show  the  history  of  modern 
cremation  and  its  progress  at  home  and  abroad: — 

Foreign  Countries. — The  first  experiment  in  Italy  was  made  by 
Brunetti  in  1869,  his  second  and  third  in  1870.  Gorini  and  Polli 
published  their  first  cases  in  1872.  Brunetti  exhibited  his  at  Vienna 
in  1873.  All  were  performed  in  the  open  air.  The  next  in  Europe 
was  a  single  case  at  Breslau  in  1874.  Soon  after,  an  English  lady 
was  cremated  in  a  closed  apparatus  (Siemens)  at  Dresden.  The  next 
cremation  in  a  closed  receptacle  took  place  at  Milan  in  1876.  In 
the  same  year  a  Cremation  Society  was  formed,  a  handsome  building 
was  erected,  and  two  Gorini  furnaces  were  at  work  in  1880.  In 
1899  the  total  number  of  cremations  was  1355.  In  Italy  28  crema- 
toria exist,  viz.  at  Alessandria,  Asti,  Bologna,  Bra,  Brescia,  Como, 
Cremona,  Florence,  Genoa,  Leghorn,  Lodi,  Mantua,  Milan,  Modena, 
Novara,  Padua,  Perugia,  Pisa,  Pistoia,  Rome,  San  Remo,  Siena, 
Spezia,  Turin,  Udine,  Verona  and  Venice.  The  total  number  of 
cremations  in  Italy  in  1906  was  440. 

In  Germany  the  first  crematorium  was  erected  at  Gotha;  it  was 
opened  in  1878,  and  the  total  cremations  down  to  September  1st,  1907, 
numbered  4584.  At  Ohlsdorf,  Hamburg,  the  crematorium  was 
opened  in  November  1892,  and  the  total  cremations  down  to 
September  1st,  1907,  numbered  2521.  At  Heidelberg  the  crema- 
torium was  opened  in  1891,  and  the  total  cremations  down  to 
September  1st,  1907,  numbered  1741.  Throughout  the  German 
empire  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  above,  crematoria  at  Bremen, 
Eisenach,  Jena,  Karlsruhe,  Mannheim,  Mainz,  Offenbach,  Heilbronn, 
Ulm,  Chemnitz  and  Stuttgart,  besides  over  eighty  societies  for  pro- 
moting cremation.  The  total  number  of  cremations  which  took 
place  in  Germany  in  1906  was  2057,  making  a  total  of  13,614  down 
to  September  1st,  1907. 

Other  societies  exist  in  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  Sweden, 
Norway  and  Switzerland.  At  the  crematorium  at  Copenhagen 
77  bodies  were  cremated  in  1906,  the  total  being  500.  The  Stock- 
holm crematorium  was  opened  in  October  1887,  and  the  cremations 
in  1906  numbered  56.  The  Gothenburg  crematorium  (also  in 
Sweden)  was  opened  in  January  1890,  and  the  cremations  there 
in  1906  were  14.  Switzerland  has  four  crematoria,  viz.  at  Basel, 
Geneva,  Zurich  and  St  Gallen — 524  cremations  took  place  in  that 
country  in  1906. 

In  Paris  a  cremation  society  was  founded  in  1880,  and  in  1886- 
1887  a  large  crematorium  was  constructed  by  the  municipal  council 
at  Pere  Lachaise,  containing  three  Gorini  furnaces.  It  was  first 
used  in  October  1887  for  two  men  who  died  of  small-pox.  The 
demand  became  large;  an  improved  furnace  was  soon  devised,  the 
unclaimed  bodies  at  the  hospitals  and  the  remains  at  the  dissecting 


rooms  being  cremated  there,  besides  a  large  number  of  embryos. 
In  1906  the  number,  including  the  last-named  class,  was  6906. 
The  total  number  of  incinerations  at  Pere  Lachaise  down  to 
December  3ist,  1906  (including  both  classes)  was  86,962;  but  the 
employment  of  cremation  for  the  purposes  named  has  deterred  a 
resort  to  it  by  many.  Had  a  separate  establishment  been  organized 
for  the  public,  its  success  would  have  been  greater.  A  magnificent 
edifice  has  been  constructed  by  the  municipality  of  Paris  for  the 
conservation  of  the  ashes  of  persons  who  have  been  cremated. 
Crematoria  have  been  established  also  at  Rouen,  Rheims  and 
Marseilles,  and  the  construction  of  crematoria  in  other  of  the  great 
provincial  centres  of  France  was  in  contemplation. 

In  Buenos  Aires,  since  1844,  the  bodies  of  all  persons  dying  of 
contagious  disease  are  cremated,  and  there  is  also  a  separate  estab- 
lishment for  the  use  of  the  public. 

At  Tokio  in  Japan  no  fewer  than  22  crematoria  exist,  and  about 
an  equal  number  of  cremations  and  burials  in  earth  take  place. 
At  Calcutta  a  crematorium  was  opened  in  1906. 
At  Montreal,  Canada,  there  is  a  crematorium  which  began  opera- 
tions in   1902,  and  completed  44  cremations  up  to  the  3ist  of 
December  1905. 

United  States. — There  were  33  crematoria  in  the  United  States  on 
September  ist,  1907.  At  Fresh  Pond,  New  York,  erected  in  1885, 
the  total  number  of  cremations  to  December  3lst,  1906,  being  8514. 
At  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  the  first  cremation  taking  place  in  1885,  and  the 
total  number  down  to  December  3ist,  1905,  being  787.  At  Troy 
(Earl  Crematorium), N.Y.,  the  first  cremation  takingplace  in  1 890, and 
the  total  number  down  to  December  3lst,  1905,  249.  At  Swinburne 
Island,  N.Y.,  cremations  beginning  in  1890,  total  to  December  3ist, 
1905,  123.  At  Waterville,  N.Y.,  cremations  beginning  in  1893,  total 
to  December  3  ist,  1906,  62.  At  St  Louis,  Missouri,  cremations  begin- 
ning in  1888,  total  to  September  1st,  1907,  2151.  At  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  cremations  beginning  in  1888,  total  to  September  1st,  1907, 
1685.  At  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  "  Odd  Fellows,"  opened  in  1895, 
total  to  December  3ist,  1906,  6151.  Also  at  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
"  Cypress  Lawn,"  opened  in  1893,  total  to  December  3ist,  1905, 
1492.  At  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  No.  I,  Rosedale,  opened  in  1887,  total 
to  December  3ist,  1905,  866;  No.  2,  Evergreen,  opened  in  1902, 
total  to  December  3ist,  1905,  413;  No.  3,  Gower  Street,  opened  in 
1907  with  54  down  to  September  1st.  At  Boston,  Mass.,  opened  in 
1893,  total  to  September  1st,  1907,  2493.  At  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
opened  in  1887,  total  to  September  1st,  1907,  1245.  At  Chicago, 
opened  in  1893,  total  to  September  1st,  1907,  2188.  At  Detroit, 
Michigan,  opened  in  1887,  total  to  December  3lst,  1905,  689.  At 
Pittsburg,  Penn.,  opened  in  1886,  total  to  September  ist,  1907,  377. 
At  Baltimore,  opened  in  1889,  total  to  December  3lst,  1905,  263. 
At  Lancaster,  Penn.,  opened  in  1884,  total  to  December  3ist,  1906, 
106.  At  Davenport,  Iowa,  opened  in  1891,  total  to  September  ist, 
1907,331.  At  Milwaukee,  opened  in  1896,  total  to  October  1905,442. 
At  Washington,  opened  in  1897,  total  to  December  3lst,  1905,  275. 
The  Le  Moyne  (Washington,  Pa.)  crematory,  the  first  in  the  United 
States,  was  erected  by  Dr  F.  Julius  le  Moyne  in  1876,  for  private 
use.  The  first  cremation  was  that  of  the  baron  de  Palin,  of  New  York, 
December  6th,  1876.  Dr  F.  Julius  le  Moyne  died  October  1879,  and 
his  remains  were  cremated  in  his  own  crematory.  Total  number 
of  cremations  (to  1907)  41.  At  Pasadena,  Cal.,  opened  in  1895,  total 
to  September  1st,  1907,  491.  At  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  opened  in  1897, 
total  to  December  3lst,  1905,  145.  At  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  opened  in 
1897,  total  to  September  ist,  1907,  41.  At  Cambridge,  Mass., 
opened  in  1900,  total  to  September  ist,  1907,  1090.  At  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  opened  in  1901 ,  total  to  December  3ist,  1905, 283.  At  Denver, 
Col.,  opened  in  1904,  total  to  December  3ist,  1905,  109.  At  Indiana- 
polis, opened  in  1904,  total  to  December  3ist,  1905, 32.  At  Oakland, 
Cal.,  opened  in  1902,  total  to  September  1st,  1907,  2196.  At  Port- 
land, Ore.,  opened  in  1901,  total  to  December  3ist,  1905,  327.  At 
Seattle,  Washington,  opened  in  1905,  with  21  to  the  end  of  that 
year. 

United  Kingdom. — There  were  13  crematoria  in  operation  in  the 
United  Kingdom  on  September  1st,  1907.  The  oldest  is  that  at 
Woking,  Surrey,  which  was  first  used  for  the  cremation  of  human 
remains  in  1885.  In  that  year  three  cremations  took  place  there, 
the  number  gradually  increasing  each  year  until  in  1901  301  bodies 
were  cremated.  Up  to  September  1st,  1907,  the  total  number  of 
cremations  at  Woking  was  2939.  Then  followed  the  crematorium 
at  Manchester,  opened  in  1892  with  90  in  1906  and  a  total  of  1085; 
at  Glasgow,  opened  in  1895  with  45  in  1906  and  a  total  of  252;  at 
Liverpool,  opened  in  1896,  with  46  in  1906  and  a  total  of  374;  at 
Hull,  openea  in  1901  (the  first  municipal  crematorium),  with  17  in 
1906  and  a  total  of  116;  at  Darlington,  also  opened  in  1901,  with  13 
in  1906  and  a  total  of  33.  The  Leicester  Corporation  crematorium 
was  opened  in  1902,  with  12  in  1906  and  a  total  of  50.  Next  in  order 
came  the  Colder' s  Green  crematorium,  Hampstead,  London,  which 
was  opened  in  December  1902.  In  1906  298  cremations  took  place 
there,  making  a  total  of  1091.  After  this  followed  the  Birmingham 
crematorium,  opened  in  1903,  with  21  in  1906  and  a  total  of  84;  the 
City  of  London  crematorium  at  Little  Ilford,  opened  in  1905,  with 
23  for  1906  and  a  total  of  46;  the  Leeds  crematorium,  opened  in 
1905,  with  15  in  1906  and  a  total  of  42;  the  Bradford  Corporation 
crematorium,  opened  in  1905,  with  13  in  1906,  and  a  total  of  20; 
and  the  Sheffield  Corporation  crematorium,  opened  in  1905,  with 


CREMER— CREMONA 


407 


6  in  1906  and  a  total  of  26.  Thus  there  were  739  cremations  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1906,  making  a  total  at  the  above  crematoria 
down  to  September  1st,  1907,  of  6158.  The  Golder's  Green  crema- 
torium, situated  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Hampstead  Heath, 
stands  in  its  own  grounds  of  12  acres,  and  is  but  35  minutes'  drive 
from  Oxford  Circus.  London  thus  has  two  crematoria  within 
driving  distance  of  its  centre,  and  the  Woking  crematorium  within 
easy  reach  of  the  south-west  suburbs.  (J.  C.  S.-H.) 

CREMER,  JAKOBUS  JAN  (1837-1880),  Dutch  novelist,  born 
at  Arnhem  in  September  1837,  started  life  as  a  painter,  but  soon 
exchanged  the  brush  for  the  pen.  The  great  success  of  his  first 
novelettes  (Beluwsche  Novellen  and  Overbetuwsche  Novellen), 
published  about  1855 — reprinted  many  times  since,  and  trans- 
lated into  German  and  French — showed  Cremer  the  wisdom  of 
his  new  departure.  These  short  stories  of  Dutch  provincial  life 
are  written  in  the  quaint  dialect  of  the  Betuwe,  the  large  flat 
Gelderland  island,  formed  by  the  Rhine,  the  name  recalling  the 
presumed  earliest  inhabitants,  the  Batavi.  Cremer  is  strongest 
in  his  delineation  of  character.  His  picturesque  humour,  coming 
out,  perhaps,  most  forcibly  in  his  numerous  readings  of  the 
Betuwe  novelettes,  soon  procured  him  the  name  of  the  "  Dutch 
Fritz  Reuter."  In  his  later  novels  Cremer  abandons  both  the 
language  and  the  slight  love-stories  of  the  Betuwe,  depicting 
the  Dutch  life  of  other  centres  in  the  national  tongue.  The 
principal  are:  Anna  Rooze  (1867),  Dokter  Helmond  enzijn  Vrouw 
(1870),  Hanna  de  Freule  (1873),  Daniel  Sils,  &c.  Cremer  was 
less  successful  as  a  playwright,  and  his  two  comedies,  Peasant 
and  Nobleman  and  Emma  Bertholt,  did  not  enhance  his  fame; 
nor  did  a  volume  of  poems,  published  in  1873.  He  died  at  the 
Hague  in  June  1880.  His  collected  novels  have  appeared  at 
Leiden.  An  English  novel,  founded  by  Albert  Vandam  upon 
Anna  Rooze,  considered  by  many  his  best  work,  was  published 
in  London  (1877,  3  vols.)  under  the  title  of  An  Everyday  Heroine. 

CREMERA  (mod.  Fosso  della  Valchetta),  a  small  stream  in 
Etruria  which  falls  into  the  Tiber  about  6  m.  N.  of  Rome.  The 
identification  with  the  Fosso  della  Valchetta  is  fixed  as  correct 
by  the  account  in  Livy  ii.  49,  which  shows  that  the  Saxa  Rubra 
were  not  far  off,  and  this  we  know  to  be  the  Roman  name  of  the 
post  station  of  Prima  Porta,  about  7  m.  from  Rome  on  the  Via 
Flaminia.  It  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  three  hundred  Fabii, 
who  had  established  a  fortified  post  on  its  banks. 

CREMIEUX,  ISAAC  MOlSE  [known  as  ADOLPHE]  (1796-1880), 
French  statesman,  was  born  at  Nimes,  of  a  rich  Jewish  family. 
He  began  life  as  an  advocate  in  his  native  town.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  he  came  to  Paris,  formed  connexions  with  numerous 
political  personages,  even  with  King  Louis  Philippe,  and  became 
a  brilliant  defender  of  Liberal  ideas  in  the  law  courts  and  in  the 
press, — witness  his  Eloge  funebre  of  the  bishop  Gregoire  (1830), 
his  Memoir e,  for  the  political  rehabilitation  of  Marshal  Ney  (1833), 
and  his  plea  for  the  accused  of  April  (1835).  Elected  deputy  in 
1842,  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  campaign  against  the 
Guizot  ministry,  and  his  eloquence  contributed  greatly  to  the 
success  of  his  party.  On  the  24th  of  February  1 848  he  was  chosen 
by  the  Republicans  as  a  member  of  the  provisional  government, 
and  as  minister  of  justice  he  secured  the  decrees  abolishing 
the  death  penalty  for  political  offences,  and  making  the  office 
of  judge  immovable.  When  the  conflict  between  the  Republicans 
and  Socialists  broke  out  he  resigned  office,  but  continued  to  sit 
in  the  constituent  assembly.  At  first  he  supported  Louis 
Napoleon,  but  when  he  discovered  the  prince's  imperial  ambitions 
he  broke  with  him.  Arrested  and  imprisoned  on  the  2nd  of 
December  1851,  he  remained  in  private  life  until  November  1869, 
when  he  was  elected  as  a  Republican  deputy  by  Paris.  On  the  4th 
of  September  1870  he  was  again  chosen  member  of  the  govern- 
ment of  national  defence,  and  resumed  the  ministry  of  justice. 
He  then  formed  part  of  the  Delegation  of  Tours,  but  took  no 
part  in  the  completion  of  the  organization  of  defence.  He 
resigned  with  his  colleagues  on  the  I4th  of  February  1871. 
Eight  months  later  he  was  elected  deputy,  then  life  senator  in 
1875.  He  died  on  the  loth  of  February  1880.  Cremieux  did 
much  to  better  the  condition  of  the  Jews.  He  was  president  of 
the  Universal  Israelite  Alliance,  and  while  in  the  government 
of  the  national  defence  he  secured  the  franchise  for  the  Jews  in 


Algeria.  This  famous  Dtcrel  Crimieux  was  the  origin  of  the  anti- 
Semitic  movement  in  Algiers.  Cremieux  published  a  Recueil 
of  his  political  cases  (1869),  and  the  Actesdeladilfgalionde  Tours 
et  de  Bordeaux  (2  vols.,  1871). 

CREMONA,  LUI6I  (1830-1903),  Italian  mathematician,  was 
born  at  Pavia  on  the  7th  of  December  1830.  In  1848,  when 
Milan  and  Venice  rose  against  Austria,  Cremona,  then  only  a 
lad  of  seventeen,  joined  the  ranks  of  the  Italian  volunteers,  and 
remained  with  them,  fighting  on  behalf  of  his  country's  freedom, 
till,  in  1849,  the  capitulation  of  Venice  put  an  end  to  the  hopeless 
campaign.  He  then  returned  to  Pavia,  where  he  pursued  his 
studies  at  the  university  under  Francesco  Brioschi,  and  deter- 
mined to  seek  a  career  as  teacher  of  mathematics.  His  first 
appointment  was  as  elementary  mathematical  master  at  the 
gymnasium  and  lyceum  of  Cremona,  and  he  afterwards  obtained 
a  similar  post  at  Milan.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  higher  geometry  at  the  university  of  Bologna,  and  in 
1866  to  that  of  higher  geometry  and  graphical  statics  at  the 
higher  technical  college  of  Milan.  In  this  same  year  he  competed 
for  the  Steiner  prize  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  with  a  treatise 
entitled  "  Memoria  sulle  superficie  de  terzo  ordine,"  and  shared 
the  award  with  J.  C.  F.  Sturm.  Two  years  later  the  same  prize 
was  conferred  on  him  without  competition.  In  1873  he  was 
called  to  Rome  to  organize  the  college  of  engineering,  and  was 
also  appointed  professor  of  higher  mathematics  at  the  university. 
Cremona's  reputation  had  now  become  European,  and  in  1879  he 
was  elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  made  a  senator  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
He  died  on  the  loth  of  June  1903. 

As  early  as  1856  Cremona  had  begun  to  contribute  to  the 
Annali  di  scienze  matematiche  e  fisiche,  and  to  the  Annali  di 
matemalica,  of  which  he  became  afterwards  joint  editor.  Papers 
by  him  have  appeared  in  the  mathematical  journals  of  Italy, 
France,  Germany  and  England,  and  he  has  published  several 
important  works,  many  of  which  have  been  translated  into  other 
languages.  His  manual  on  Graphical  Statics  and  his  Elements 
of  Protective  Geometry  (translated  by  C.  Leudesdorf),  have  been 
published  in  English  by  the  Clarendon  Press.  His  life  was 
devoted  to  the  study  of  higher  geometry  and  reforming  the  more 
advanced  mathematical  teaching  of  Italy.  His  reputation  mainly 
rests  on  his  Introduzione  ad  una  teoria  geometrica  delle  curve  piane, 
which  proclaims  him  as  a  follower  of  the  Steinerian  or  synthetical 
school  of  geometricians.  He  notably  enriched  our  knowledge  of 
curves  and  surfaces. 

CREMONA,  a  city  and  episcopal  see  of  Lombardy,  Italy, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Cremona,  situated  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Po,  155  ft.  above  sea-level,  60  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of  Milan. 
Pop.  (1901)  town,  31,655;  commune,  39,344.  It  is  oval  in  shape, 
and  retains  its  medieval  fortifications.  The  line  of  the  streets 
is  as  a  rule  irregular,  but  the  town  as  a  whole  is  not  very 
picturesque. 

The  finest  building  is  the  cathedral,  in  the  Lombard  Roman- 
esque style,  begun  in  1107  and  consecrated  in  1190.  The  wheel 
window  of  the  main  facade  dates  from  1274.  The  transepts, 
added  in  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries  (before  1370),  have  pictur- 
esque brick  facades,  with  fine  terra-cotta  ornamentation.  The 
great  Torrazzo,  a  tower  397  ft.  high, which  stands  by  the  cathedral, 
and  is  connected  with  it  by  a  series  of  galleries,  dates  from  1 267- 
1291.  It  is  square  below,  with  an  octagonal  summit  of  a  slightly 
later  period.  The  main  facade  of  the  cathedral  was  largely 
altered  in  1491,  to  which  date  the  statues  upon  it  belong;  the 
portico  in  front  was  added  in  1497.  The  building  would  be 
much  improved  by  isolation,  which  it  is  hoped  may  be  effected. 
The  interior  is  fine,  and  is  covered  with  frescoes  by  Cremonese 
masters  of  the  i6th  century  (Boccaccio  Boccaccino,  Romanino, 
Pordenone,  the  Campi,  &c.),  which  are  not  of  first-rate  import- 
ance. The  choir  has  fine  stalls  of  1489-1490,  upon  one  of  which 
there  is  a  view  of  the  facade  of  the  cathedral  before  its  alteration 
in  1491.  The  treasury  contains  a  richly  worked  silver  crucifix 
9  ft.  high,  of  1478,  the  base  of  which  was  added  in  1774-1775. 
It  contains  408  statues  and  busts  altogether,  the  central  three 
of  which  belong  to  an  earlier  cross  of  1231.  Adjacent  to  the 


4o8 


CREMORNE  GARDENS— CREODONTA 


cathedral  is  the  octagonal  baptistery  of  1167,  92  ft.  in  height 
and  75  ft.  in  external  diameter,  also  in  the  Lombard  Romanesque 
style.  The  so-called  Campo  Santo,  close  to  the  baptistery, 
contains  a  mosaic  pavement  with  emblematic  figures  belonging 
probably  to  the  8th  and  gih  centuries,  and  running  under  the 
cathedral.  Of  the  other  churches,  S.  Michele  has  a  simple  and 
good  Lombard  Romanesque  13th-century  facade,  and  a  plain 
interior  of  the  loth  century;  and  S.  Agata  a  good  campanile  in 
the  former  style.  Many  of  them  contain  paintings  by  the  later 
Cremonese  masters,  especially  Galeazzo  Campi  (d.  1536)  and  his 
sons  Giulio  and  Antonio.  The  latter  are  especially  well  repre- 
sented in  S.  Sigismondo,  1 1  m.  outside  the  town  to  the  E.  On  the 
side  of  the  Piazza  del  Comune  opposite  to  the  cathedral  are  two 
13th-century  Gothic  palaces  in  brick,  the  Palazzo  Comunale  and 
the  former  Palazzo  dei  Giureconsulti,  now  the  seat  of  the  com- 
missioners for  the  water  regulation  of  the  district.  Another 
palace  of  the  same  period  is  now  occupied  by  the  Archivio 
Notarile.  The  modern  Palazzo  Ponzoni  contains  a  museum 
and  a  technical  institute.  In  front  of  it  is  a  statue  of  the  com- 
poser Amilcare  Ponchielli,  who  was  a  native  of  Cremona.  The 
Palazzo  Fodri,  now  the  Monte  di  Pieta,  has  a  beautiful  15th- 
century  frieze  of  terra-cotta  bas-reliefs,  as  have  some  other 
palaces  in  private  hands. 

Cremona  was  founded  by  the  Romans  in  218  B.C.  (the  same 
year  as  Placentia)  as  an  outpost  against  the  Gallic  tribes.  It 
was  strengthened  in  190  B.C.  by  the  sending  of  6oo£  new  settlers 
and  soon  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of  upper 
Italy.  It  probably  acquired  municipal  rights  in  90  B.C.,  but 
Augustus,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  did  not  support  him,  assigned 
a  part  of  its  territory  to  his  veterans  in  41  B.C.,  and  henceforth  it 
is  once  more  called  colonia.  It  remained  prosperous  (we  may  note 
that  Virgil  came  here  to  school  from  Mantua)  until  it  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  troops  of  Vespasian  after  the  second  battle 
of  Betriacum  (Bedriacum)  in  A.D.  69;  the  temple  of  Mefitis 
alone  being  left  standing  (see  Tacitus,  Hist.  iii.  15  seq.).  One  of 
the  bronze  plates  which  decorated  the  exterior  of  the  war-chest 
of  the  legio  III.  Macedonica,  one  of  the  legions  which  had  been 
defeated  at  Betriacum,  has  been  found  near  Cremona  itself 
(F.  Barnabei  in  Notiz.  scam,  1887,  p.  210).  Vespasian  ordered 
its  immediate  reconstruction,  but  it  never  recovered  its  former 
prosperity,  though  its  position  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Po,  at  the 
meeting-point  of  roads  from  Placentia,  Mantua  (the  Via  Postumia 
in  both  cases),  Brixellum  (where  the  roads  from  Cremona  and 
Mantua  to  Parma  met  and  crossed  the  river),  Laus  Pompeia 
and  Brixia,  still  gave  it  considerable,  importance.  It  was 
destroyed  once  more  by  the  Lombards  under  Agilulf  in  A.D.  605, 
and  rebuilt  in  615,  and  was  ruled  by  dukes;  but  in  the  9th 
century  the  bishops  of  Cremona  began  to  acquire  considerable 
temporal  power.  Landulf,  a  German  to  whom  the  see  was 
granted  by  Henry  II.,  was  driven  out  in  1022,  and  his  palace 
destroyed,  but  other  Germans  were  invested  with  the  see  after- 
wards. The  commune  of  Cremona  is  first  mentioned  in  a  docu- 
ment of  1098,  recording  its  investiture  by  the  countess  Matilda 
with  the  territory  known  as  Isola  Fulcheria.  It  had  to  sustain 
many  wars  with  its  neighbours  in  order  to  maintain  itself  in  its 
new  possessions.  In  the  war  of  the  Lombard  League  against 
Barbarossa,  Cremona,  after  having  shared  in  the  destruction  of 
Crema  in  1160  and  Milan  in  1162,  finally  joined  the  league,  but 
took  no  part  in  the  battle  of  Legnano,  and  thus  procured  itself 
the  odium  of  both  sides.  In  the  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  struggles 
Cremona  took  the  latter  side,  and  defeated  Parma  decisively  in 
1250.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Cremona  erected  its  finest 
buildings.  There  was,  however,  a  Guelph  reaction  in  1264;  the 
city  was  taken  and  sacked  by  Henry  VII.  in  1311,  and  was  a  prey 
to  struggles  between  the  two  parties,  until  Galeazzo  Visconti 
took  possession  of  it  in  1322.  In  1406  it  fell  under  the  sway 
of  Cabrino  Fondulo,  who  received  with  great  festivities  both  the 
emperor  Sigismund  and  Pope  John  XXIII.,  the  latter  on  his  way 
to  the  council  at  Constance;  he,  however,  handed  it  over  to 
Filippo  Maria  Visconti  in  1419.  In  1499  it  was  occupied  by 
Venetians,  but  in  1512  it  came  under  Massimiliano  Sforza. 
In  1535,  like  the  rest  of  Lombardy,  it  fell  under  Spanish  domina- 


tion, and  was  compelled  to  furnish  large  money  contributions. 
The  population  fell  to  10,000  in  1668.  The  surprise  of  the 
French  garrison  on  the  2nd  of  February  1702,  by  the  Imperialists, 
under  Prince  Eugene,  was  a  celebrated  incident  of  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  The  Imperialists  werejdriven  from  Cremona 
after  a  sharp  struggle,  but  captured  Marshal  Villeroi,  the  French, 
commander.  Hence  the  celebrated  verse: 

"  Francais,  rendons  grace  i  Bellone; 

Notre  bonheur  est  sans  egal ; 

Nous  avons  conserve  Cremonee, 

Et  perdu  notre  general." 

In  the  1 8th  century  the  prosperity  of  Cremona  revived.     In  the 
Italian  republic  it  was  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  upper 
Po.     Like  the  rest  of  Lombardy  it  fell  under  Austria  in  1814, 
and  became  Italian  in  1859. 
See  Guida  di  Cremona  (Cremona,  1904).  (T.  As.) 

CREMORNE  GARDENS,  formerly  a  popular  resort  by  the 
side  of  the  Thames  in  Chelsea,  London,  England.  Originally  the 
property  of  the  earl  of  Huntingdon  (c.  1750),  father  of  Steele's. 
"  Aspasia,"  who  built  a  mansion  here,  the  property  passed 
through  various  hands  into  those  of  Thomas  Dawson,  Baron 
Dartrey  and  Viscount  Cremorne  (1725-1813),  who  greatly 
beautified  it.  It  was  subsequently  sold  and  converted  into  a 
proprietary  place  of  entertainment,  being  popular  as  such  from 
1845  to  1877.  It  never,  however,  acquired  the  fashionable  fame 
of  Vauxhall,  and  finally  became  so  great  an  annoyance  to 
residents  in  the  neighbourhood  that  a  renewal  of  its  licence  was 
refused;  and  the  site  of  the  gardens  was  soon  built  over.  The 
name  survives  in  Cremorne  Road. 

CRENELLE  (an  O.  Fr.  word  for  "  notch,"  mod.  creneau;  the 
origin  is  obscure;  cf.  "cranny"),  a  term  generally  considered 
to  mean  an  embrasure  of  a  battlement,  but  really  applying  to 
the  whole  system  of  defence  by  battlements.  In  medieval  times 
no  one  could  "  crenellate  "  a  building  without  special  licence 
from  his  supreme  lord. 

CREODONTA,  a  group  of  primitive  early  Tertiary  Carnivora, 
characterized  by  their  small  brains,  the  non-union  in  most  cases 
of  the  scaphoid  and  lunar  bones  of  the  carpus,  and  the  general 
absence  of  a  distinct  pair  of  "  sectorial  "  teeth  (see  CARNIVORA). 
In  many  respects  the  Lower  Eocene  creodonts  come  very  close 
to  the  primitive  ungulates,  or  Condylarthra  (see  PHENACODUS), 
from  which,  however,  they  are  distinguished  by  the  approxima- 
tion in  the  form  of  the  skull  to  the  carnivorous  type,  the  more 
trenchant  teeth  (at  least  in  most  cases)  and  the  more  claw-like 
character  of  the  terminal  joints  of  the  toes.  The  general  char- 
acter of  the  dentition  in  the  more  typical  forms,such  as  Hyaenodon 
(see  fig.),  recalls  that  of  the  carnivorous  marsupials,  this  being 
especially  the  case  with  the  Patagonian  species,  which  have  been 


Dentition  of  Hyaenodon  leptorhynchus,  from  the  Lower  Oligocene 
of  France.  The  last  upper  molar  is  concealed  by  the  penultimate 
tooth. 

separated  as  a  distinct  group  under  the  name  of  Sparassodonta 
(q.v.).  The  skull,  however,  is  not  of  the  marsupial  type,  and  in 
the  European  forms  at  any  rate  there  is  a  complete  replacement 
of  the  milk-molars  by  pre-molars,  while  the  minute  structure  of 


CREOLE— CREOPHYLUS 


409 


the  enamel  of  the  teeth  is  of  the  carnivorous  as  distinct  from 
the  marsupial  type.  The  head  is  large  in  proportion  to  the  body, 
the  lumbar  region  is  unusually  rigid,  owing  to  the  complexity  of 
the  articulations,  and  the  tail  and  hind-limbs  are  relatively  long 
and  powerful.  In  life  the  tail  probably  passed  almost  impercept- 
ibly into  the  body,  as  in  the  Tasmanian  thylacine. 

That  the  Creodonta  are  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Carnivora 
is  now  generally  admitted.  They  are  apparently  the  most 
generalized  and  primitive  of  all  (placental?)  mammals,  and 
probably  the  direct  descendants  of  the  mammal-like  anomodont 
or  theromorphous  reptiles  of  the  Triassic  epoch;  the  evolution 
from  that  group  having  perhaps  taken  place  in  Africa  or  in  the 
lost  area  connecting  that  continent  with  India.  The  relationship 
of  the  creodonts  to  the  carnivorous  marsupials  is  not  yet  deter- 
mined, but  it  seems  scarcely  probable  that  the  remarkable 
resemblance  existing  between  the  teeth  of  the  two  groups  can  be 
solely  due  to  parallelism;  and  it  has  been  suggested  by  Dr  L. 
Wortman  that  both  creodonts  and  marsupials  are  descended 
from  a  common  non-placental  stock.  In  other  words,  the  latter 
are  a  side-branch  from  the  anomodont-creodont  line  of  descent. 
Dr  C.  W.  Andrews  has  pointed  out  that  certain  of  the  Egyptian 
creodonts  appear  to  have  been  aquatic  or  subaquatic  in  their 
habits;  and  it  is  possible  that  from  such  types  are  derived  the 
true  seals,  or  Phocidae. 

With  the  exception  of  Australasia,  and  perhaps  South  Africa, 
creodonts  (on  the  supposition  that  the  Patagonian  forms  are 
rightly  included)  appear  to  have  had  a  nearly  world-wide  dis- 
tribution. In  Europe  and  North  America  they  date  from  the 
Lowest  Eocene  and  lived  till  the  early  Oligocene,  while  in  India 
they  apparently  survived  till  a  much  later  epoch.  Some  of  the 
Oligocene  forms,  alike  as  regards  dentition,  the  union  of  the 
scaphoid  and  lunar  of  the  carpus,  and  the  complexity  of  the 
brain,  approximated  to  modern  Carnivora. 

As  regards  classification  Mr  W.  D.  Matthew  includes  in  the 
typical  family  Hyaenodontidae  not  only  the  widely  spread  genera 
Hyaenodon  and  Pterodon,  but  likewise  Sinopa  (Stypolophus) , 
Cynohyaenodon  and  Proviverra;  but  Viverravus  (Didymictis) 
and  Vulpavus  (Miacis)  are  assigned  to  a  separate  family  ( Viver- 
ravidae).  It  is  these  latter  forms  which  come  nearest  to  modern 
Carnivora,  most  of  them  being  of  Oligocene  age.  The  American 
and  European  Oxyaena  apparently  represents  a  family  by  itself, 
as  does  the  American  Oxydaena;  and  Palaeoniclis  and  Patriofelis 
are  assigned  to  yet  another  family;  while  the  North  American 
Lower  Eocene  and  Eocene  Arctocyon  typifies  a  family  character- 
ized by  the  somewhat  bear-like  type  of  dentition.  Mesonyx 
is  also  a  very  distinct  type,  from  the  North  American  Eocene 
and  Oligocene.  Some  of  the  species  of  Patriofelis  and  Hyaenodon 
attained  the  size  of  a  tiger,  although  with  long  civet-like  skulls. 
In  the  earlier  forms  the  claws  often  retained  somewhat  of  a  hoof- 
like  character. 

The  South  American  Borhyaenidae  include  Borhyaena,  Prothy- 
lacinus,  Amphiproinverra,  and  allied  forms  from  the  Santa  Cruz 
beds  of  Patagonia,  and  have  been  referred  to  a  distinct  group, 
the  Sparassodonta,  mainly  on  account  of  the  alleged  replacement 
of  some  only  of  the  milk-molars  by  premolars.  By  their  first 
describer,  Dr  F.  Ameghino,  they  were  regarded  as  nearly  related 
to  the  marsupials,  to  which  group  they  were  definitely  referred 
in  1905  by  Mr  W.  J.  Sinclair,  by  whom  they  are  considered 
near  akin  to  Thylacinus,  but  this  view  seems  to  be  disproved  by 
the  investigations  of  Mr  C.  S.  Tomes  into  the  structure  of  the 
dental  enamel. 

It  should  be  added  that  Dr  J.  L.  Wortman  transfers  Viverravus 
and  its  allies,  together  with  Palaeonictis,  to  the  true  Carnivora, 
the  latter  genus  being  regarded  as  the  ancestral  type  of  the  sabre- 
toothed  cats  (see  MACHAERODUS). 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  L.  Wortman,  "  Eocene  Mammalia  in  the  Pea- 
body  Museum,  pt.  i.  Carnivora,"  Amer.  J.  Sci.  vols.  xi.-xiv.  (1901- 
1902);  W.  D.  Matthew,  "Additional  Observations  on  the  Creo- 
donta," Bull.  Amer.  Mus.  vol.  xiv.  p.  i.  (1901);  C.  W.  Andrews, 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Tertiary  Vertebrata  of  the  Fayum,  British 
Museum  (1906);  W.  J.  Sinclair,  "The  Marsupial  Fauna  of  the 
Santa  Cruz  Beds,"  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  vol.  xlix.  p.  73  (190^). 

(R.  L.*) 


CREOLE  (the  Fr.  form  of  criollo,  a  West  Indian,  probably  a 
negro  corruption  of  the  Span,  criadillo,  the  dim.  of  criado,  one 
bred  or  reared,  from  criar,  to  breed,  a  derivative  of  the  Lat. 
creare,  to  create),  a  word  used  originally  (i6th  century)  to  denote 
persons  born  in  the  West  Indies  of  Spanish  parents,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  immigrants  direct  from  Spain,  aboriginals, 
negroes  or  mulattos.  It  is  now  used  of  the  descendants  of  non- 
aboriginal  races  born  and  settled  in  the  West  Indies,  in  various 
parts  of  the  American  mainland  and  in  Mauritius,  Reunion  and 
some  other  places  colonized  by  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  or  (in 
the  case  of  the  West  Indies)  by  England.  In  a  similar  sense  the 
name  is  used  of  animals  and  plants.  The  use  of  the  word  by 
some  writers  as  necessarily  implying  a  person  of  mixed  blood  is 
totally  erroneous;  in  itself  "  Creole  "  has  no  distinction  of  colour; 
a  Creole  may  be  a  person  of  European,  negro,  or  mixed  extraction 
— or  even  a  horse. 

Local  variations  occur  in  the  use'of  the  word  as  applied  to 
people.  In  the  West  Indies  it  designates  the  descendants  of  any 
European  race;  in  the  United  States  the  French-speaking  native 
portion  of  the  white  race  in  Louisiana,  whether  of  French  or 
Spanish  origin.  The  French  Canadians  are  never  termed  Creoles, 
nor  is  the  word  now  used  of  the  South  Americans  of  Spanish  or 
Portuguese  descent,  but  in  Mexico  whites  of  pure  Spanish  ex- 
traction are  still  called  Creoles.  In  all  the  countries  named, 
when  a  non-white  Creole  is  indicated  the  word  negro  is  added. 
In  Mauritius,  Reunion,  &c.,  on  the  other  hand,  Creole  is  commonly 
used  to  designate  the  black  population,  but  is  also  occasionally 
used  of  the  inhabitants  of  European  descent.  The  difference  in 
type  between  the  white  Creoles  and  the  European  races  from 
whom  they  have  sprung,  a  difference  often  considerable,  is  due 
principally  to  changed  environment — especially  to  the  tropical 
or  semi-tropical  climate  of  the  lands  they  inhabit.  The  many 
patois  founded  on  French  and  Spanish,  and  used  chiefly  by  Creole 
negroes,  are  spoken  of  as  Creole  languages,  a  term  extended  by 
some  writers  to  include  similar  dialects  spoken  in  countries 
where  the  word  Creole  is  rarely  used. 

See  G.  W.  Cable,  The  Creoles  of  Louisiana  (1884) ;  A.  Coelho,  "  Os 
Dialetos  romanicos  on  neo  latinos  na  Africa,  Asia  e  America,"  Bol. 
Soc.  Geo.  Lisboa  (1884-1886),  with  bibliography.  For  the  Creole 
French  of  Haiti  see  an  article  by  Sir  H.  H.  Johnston  in  The  Times, 
April  loth,  1909. 

CREON,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Lycaethus,  king  of  Corinth 
and  father  of  Glauce  or  Creusa,  the  second  wife  of  Jason. 

CREON,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Menoeceus,  king  of  Thebes 
after  the  death  of  Laius,  the  husband  of  his  sister  Jocasta. 
Thebes  was  then  suffering  from  the  visitation  of  the  Sphinx,  and 
Creon  offered  his  crown  and  the  hand  of  the  widowed  queen  to 
whoever  should  solve  the  fatal  riddle.  Oedipus,  the  son  of  Laius, 
ignorant  of  his  parentage,  successfully  accomplished  the  task 
and  married  Jocasta,  his  mother.  By  her  he  had  two  sons, 
Eteocles  and  Polyneices,  who  agreed  after  their  father's  death 
to  reign  in  alternative  years.  Eteocles  first  ascended  the  throne, 
being  the  elder,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  refused  to  resign, 
whereupon  his  brother  attacked  him  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  Argives.  The  war  was  to  be  decided  by  a  single  combat 
between  the  brothers,  but  both  fell.  Creon,  who  had  resumed 
the  government  during  the  minority  of  Leodamas,  the  son  of 
Eteocles,  commanded  that  the  Argives,  and  above  all  Polyneices, 
the  cause  of  all  the  bloodshed,  should  not  receive  the  rites  of 
sepulture,  and  that  any  one  who  infringed  this  decree  should  be 
buried  alive.  Antigone,  the  sister  of  Polyneices,  refused  to  obey, 
and  sprinkled  dust  upon  her  brother's  corpse.  The  threatened 
penalty  was  inflicted;  but  Creon's  crime  did  not  escape  un- 
punished. His  son,  Haemon,  the  lover  of  Antigone,  killed 
himself  on  her  grave;  and  he  himself  was  slain  by  Theseus. 
According  to  another  account  he  was  put  to  death  by  Lycus, 
the  son  or  descendant  of  a  former  ruler  of  Thebes  (Euripides, 
Here.  Fur.  31;  Apollodorus  iii.  5,  7;  Pausanias  ix.  5). 

CREOPHYLUS  of  Samos,  one  of  the  earliest  Greek  epic 
poets.  According  to  an  epigram  of  Callimachus  (quoted  in 
Strabo  xiv.  p.  638)  he  was  the  author  of  a  poem  called  Ol\o\^ 
iXoww,  which  told  the  story  of  the  conquest  of  Oechalia  by 
Heracles.  Creophylus  was  said  to  have  been  a  friend  or  relative 


410 


CREOSOTE— CREQUY  FAMILY 


of  Homer,  who,  according  to  another  tradition,  was  himself  the 
author  of  the"AXcoow,  and  presented  it  to  Creophylus  in  return 
for  the  latter's  hospitality. 

See  F.  G.  Welcker,  Der  epische  Cyclus  (1865-1882). 

CREOSOTE,  CREASOTE  or  KREASOTE  (from  Gr.  xpeas,  flesh, 
and  cru^tiv,  to  preserve),  a  product  of  the  distillation  of  coal, 
bone  oil,  shale  oil,  and  wood-tar  (more  especially  that  made 
from  beech- wood).  The  creosote  is  extracted  from  the  distillate 
by  means  of  alkali,  separated  from  the  filtered  alkaline  solution 
by  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  distilled  with  dilute  alkali;  the 
distillate  is  again  treated  with  alkali  and  acid,  till  its  purification 
is  effected;  it  is  then  redistilled  at  200°  C.,  and  dried  by  means 
of  calcium  chloride.  It  is  a  highly  refractive,  colourless,  oily 
liquid,  and  was  first  obtained  in  1832  by  K.  Reichenbach  from 
beech-wood  tar.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  mixture  of  phenol, 
cresol,  guaiacol,  creosol,  xylenol,  dimethyl  guaiacol,  ethyl 
guaiacol,  and  various  methyl  ethers  of  pyrogallol.  Creosote  has 
a  strong  odour  and  hot  taste,  and  burns  with  a  smoky  flame. 
It  dissolves  sulphur,  phosphorus,  resins,  and  many  acids  and 
colouring  matters;  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  carbon 
disulphide,  and  in  80  parts  by  volume  of  water.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  carbolic  acid  by  the  following  properties: — 
it  rotates  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  right,  forms  with 
collodion  a  transparent  fluid,  and  is  nearly  insoluble  in  glycerin; 
whereas  carbolic  acid  has  no  effect  on  polarized  light,  gives  with 
about  two-thirds  of  its  volume  of  collodion  a  gelatinous  mass, 
and  is  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  glycerin;  further,  alcohol  and 
ferric  chloride  produce  with  creosote  a  green  solution,  turned 
brown  by  water,  with  carbolic  acid  a  brown,  and  on  the  addition 
of  water  a  blue  solution.  Creosote,  like  carbolic  acid,  is  a 
powerful  antiseptic,  and  readily  coagulates  albuminous  matter; 
wood-smoke  and  pyroligneous  acid  or  wood-vinegar  owe  to  its 
presence  their  efficacy  in  preserving  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances from  putrefaction. 

Creosote  oil  is  the  name  generally  applied  to  the  fraction  of  the 
coal  tar  distillate  which  boils  between  200°  and  300°  C.  (see 
COAL  TAR).  It  is  a  greenish-yellow  fluorescent  liquid,  usually 
containing  phenol,  cresol,  naphthalene,  anthracene,  pyridine, 
quinoline,  acridine  and  other  substances.  Its  chief  use  is  for  the 
preservation  of  timber. 

Pharmacology  and  Therapeutics. — Creosote  derived  from  wood- 
tar  is  given  medicinally  in  doses  of  from  one  to  five  minims,  either 
suspended  in  mucilage,  or  in  capsules.  It  should  always  be 
administered  after  a  meal,  when  the  gastric  contents  dilute  it 
and  prevent  irritation.  Creosote  and  carbolic  acid  (q.v.)  have  a 
very  similar  pharmacology;  but  there  is  one  conspicuous  excep- 
tion. Beech-wood  creosote  alone  should  be  used  in  medicine, 
as  its  composition  renders  it  much  more  valuable  than  other 
creosotes.  Its  constituents  circulate  unchanged  in  the  blood 
and  are  excreted  by  the  lungs.  Although  carbolic  acid  has  no 
value  in  phthisis  (pulmonary  tuberculosis)  or  in  any  other 
bacterial  condition  of  the  lungs,  creosote,  having  volatile  con- 
stituents which  are  excreted  in  the  expired  air  and  which  are 
powerfully  antiseptic,  may  well  be  of  much  value  in  these  con- 
ditions. In  phthisis  creosote  is  now  superseded  by  both  its 
carbonate  (creosotal) — given  in  the  same  doses — which  causes 
less  gastric  disturbance,  and  by  guaiacol  itself,  which  may  be 
given  in  doses  up  to  thirty  minims  in  capsules.  The  phosphate 
(phosote  or  phosphote),  phosphite  (phosphotal) ,  and  valerianate 
(eosote)  also  find  application.  Similarly  the  carbonate  of  guaiacol 
may  be  given  in  doses  even  as  large  as  a  drachm.  Creosote  may 
also  be  used  as  an  inhalation  with  a  steam  atomizer.  It  is  applic- 
able not  only  in  phthisis  but  in  bronchiectasis,  bronchitis, 
broncho-pneumonia,  lobar  pneumonia  and  all  other  bacterial 
lung  diseases.  Like  carbolic  acid,  creosote  may  be  used  in 
toothache,  and  the  local  antiseptic  and  anaesthetic  action  which 
it  shares  with  that  substance  is  often  of  value  in  relieving  gastric 
pain  due  to  simple  ulcer  or  cancer,  and  in  those  forms  of  vomiting 
which  are  due  to  gastric  irritation. 

For  the  determination  and  separation  of  the  various  constituents 
of  creosote  see  F.  Tiemann,  Ber.  (1881),  14,  p.  2005;  A.  Behal  and  C. 
Choay,  Complex  rendus  (1893),  116,  p.  197;  and  L.  F.  Kebler,  Amer. 
Jour.  Pharm.  (1899),  p.  409. 


CREPUSCULAR  (from  Lat.  crepusculum,  twilight),  of  or 
belonging  to  the  twilight,  hence  indistinct  or  glimmering;  in 
zoology  the  word  is  used  of  animals  that  appear  before  sunrise 
or  nightfall. 

CREQUY,  a  French  family  which  originated  in  Picardy,  and 
took  its  name  from  a  small  lordship  in  the  present  Pas-de-Calais. 
Its  genealogy  goes  back  to  the  loth  century,  and  from  it  origin- 
ated the  noble  houses  of  Blecourt,  Canaples,  Heilly  and  Royon. 
Henri  de  Crequy  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Damietta  in  1240; 
Jacques  de  Crequy,  marshal  of  Guienne,  was  killed  at  Agincourt 
with  his  brothers  Jean  and  Raoul;  Jean  de  Crequy,  lord  of 
Canaples,  was  in  the  Burgundian  service,  and  took  part  in  the 
defence  of  Paris  against  Joan  of  Arc  in  1429,  received  the  order 
of  the  Golden  Fleece  in  1431,  and  was  ambassador  to  Aragon 
and  France;  Antoine  de  Crequy  was  one  of  the  boldest  captains 
of  Francis  I.,  and  died  in  consequence  of  an  accident  at  the  siege 
of  Hesdin  in  1523.  Jean  VIII.,  sire  de  Crequy,  prince  de  Poix, 
seigneur  de  Canaples  (d.  1555),  left  three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom, 
Antoine  de  Crequy  (1535-1574),  inherited  the  family  estates  on 
the  death  of  his  brothers  at  St  Quentin  in  1557.  He  was  raised 
to  the  cardinalate,  and  his  nephew  and  heir,  Antoine  de  Blanche- 
fort,  assumed  the  name  and  arms  of  Crequy. 

Charles  I.  de  Blanchefort,  marquis  de  Crequy,  prince  de  Poix, 
due  de  Lesdiguieres  (1578-1638),  marshal  of  France,  son  of  the 
last-named,  saw  his  first  fighting  before  Laon  in  1594,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  capture  of  Saint  Jean  d'Angely  in  1621.  In 
the  next  year  he  became  a  marshal  of  France.  He  served  through 
the  Piedmontese  campaign  in  aid  of  Savoy  in  1624  as  second  in 
command  to  the  constable,  Francois  de  Bonne,  due  de  Lesdi- 
guieres, whose  daughter  Madeleine  he  had  married  in  1595.  He 
inherited  in  1626  the  estates  and  title  of  his  father-in-law,  who 
had  induced  him,  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  to  marry 
her  half-sister  Francoise.  He  was  also  lieutenant-general  of 
Dauphine.  In  1633  he  was  ambassador  to  Rome,  and  in  1636 
to  Venice.  He  fought  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  1630,  1635, 
1636  and  1637,  when  he  helped  to  defeat  the  Spaniards  at 
Monte  Baldo.  He  was  killed  on  the  I7th  of  March  1638  in  an 
attempt  to  raise  the  siege  of  Crema,  a  fortress  in  the  Milanese. 
He  had  a  quarrel  extending  over  years  with  Philip,  the  bastard  of 
Savoy,  which  ended  in  a  duel  fatal  to  Philip  in  1599;  and  in  1620 
he  defended  Saint-Aignan,  who  was  his  prisoner  of  war,  against 
a  prosecution  threatened  by  Louis  XIII.  Some  of  his  letters 
are  preserved  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Paris,  and  his 
life  was  written  by  N.  Chorier  (Grenoble,  1683). 

His  eldest  son,  Francois,  comte  de  Sault,  due  de  Lesdiguieres 
(1600-1677),  governor  and  lieutenant-general  of  Dauphine, 
took  the  name  and  arms  of  Bonne.  The  younger,  Charles  II. 
de  Crequy,  seigneur  de  Canaples,  was  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Chambery  in  1630,  leaving  three  sons — Charles  III.,  sieur  de 
Blanchefort,  prince  de  Poix,  due  de  Crequy  (i623?-i687); 
Alphonse  de  Crequy,  comte  de  Canaples  (d.  1711),  who  became 
on  the  extinction  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  family  in  1702 
due  de  Lesdiguieres,  and  eventually  succeeded  also  to  his  younger 
brother's  honours;  and  Francois,  chevalier  de  Crequy  and 
marquis  de  Marines,  marshal  of  France  (1625-1687). 

The  last-named  was  born  in  1625,  and  as  a  boy  took  part  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  distinguishing  himself  so  greatly  that 
at  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  made  a  marichal  de  camp,  and 
a  lieutenant-general  before  he  was  thirty.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  most  brilliant  of  the  younger  officers,  and  won  the  favour 
of  Louis  XIV.  by  his  fidelity  to  the  court  during  the  second 
Fronde.  In  1667  he  served  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  1668  he  com- 
manded the  covering  army  during  Louis  XIV.'s  siege  of  Lille, 
after  the  surrender  of  which  the  king  rewarded  him  with  the 
marshalate.  In  1 670  he  overran  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  Shortly 
after  this  Turenne,  his  old  commander,  was  made  marshal-general, 
and  all  the  marshals  were  placed  under  his  orders.  Many  re- 
sented this,  and  Crequy,  in  particular,  whose  career  of  uninter- 
rupted success  had  made  him  over-confident,  went  into  exile 
rather  than  serve  under  Turenne.  After  the  death  of  Turenne 
and  the  retirement  of  Conde,  he  became  the  most  important 
general  officer  in  the  army,  but  his  over-confidence  was  punished 


CREQUY,  MARQUISE  DE— CRESCIMBENI 


411 


by  the  severe  defeat  of  Conzer  Briick  (1675)  and  the  surrender  of 
Trier  and  his  own  captivity  which  followed.  But  in  the  later 
campaigns  of  this  war  (see  DUTCH  WARS)  he  showed  himself 
again  a  cool,  daring  and  successful  commander,  and,  carrying  on 
the  tradition  of  Turenne  and  Conde,  he  was  in  his  turn  the 
pattern  of  the  younger  generals,  of  the  stamp  of  Luxembourg 
and  Villars.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  3rd  of  February  1687. 

Alphonse  de  Crequy  had  not  the  talent  of  his  brothers,  and 
lost  his  various  appointments  in  France.  He  went  to  London  in 
1672,  where  he  became  closely  allied  with  Saint  Evremond, 
and  was  one  of  the  intimates  of  King  Charles  II. 

Charles  III.  de  Crequy  served  in  the  campaigns  of  1642  and 
1645  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  in  Catalonia  in  1649.  In  1646, 
after  the  siege  of  Orbitello,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  by 
Louis.  By  faithful  service  during  the  king's  minority  he  had  won 
the  gratitude  of  Anne  of  Austria  and  of  Mazarin,  and  in  1652  he 
became  due  de  Crequy  and  a  peer  of  France.  The  latter  half  of 
his  life  was  spent  at  court,  where  he  held  the  office  of  first  gentle- 
man of  the  royal  chamber,  which  had  been  bought  for  him  by 
his  grandfather.  In  1659  he  was  sent  to  Spain  with  gifts  for  the 
infanta  Maria  Theresa,  and  on  a  similar  errand  to  Bavaria  in 
1680  before  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Rome  from  1662  to  1665,  and  to  England  in  1677;  and  became 
governor  of  Paris  in  1675.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  i3th  of 
February  1687.  His  only  daughter,  Madeleine,  married  Charles 
de  la  Tremoille  (1655-1709). 

The  marshal  Francois  de  Crequy  had  two  sons,  whose  brilliant 
military  abilities  bade  fair  to  rival  his  own.  The  elder,  Francois 
Joseph,  marquis  de  Crequy  (1662-1702),  already  held  the  grade 
of  lieutenant-general  when  he  was  killed  at  Luzzara  on  the 
I3th  of  August  1702;  and  Nicolas  Charles,  sire  de  Crequy,  was 
killed  before  Tournai  in  1696  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven. 

A  younger  branch  of  the  Crequy  family,  that  of  Hemont,  was 
represented  by  Louis  Marie,  marquis  de  Crequy  (1705-1741), 
author  of  the  Principes  philosophiques  des  saints  solitaires 
d'Egypte  (1779),  and  husband  of  the  marquise  separately  noticed 
below,  and  became  extinct  with  the  death  in  1801  of  his  son, 
Charles  Marie,  who  had  some  military  reputation. 

For  a  detailed  genealogy  of  the  family  and  its  alliances  see  Moreri, 
Dictionnaire  historique;  Annuaire  de  la  noblesse  franf aise  (1856  and 
1867).  There  is  much  information  about  the  Crequys  in  the  Memoires 
of  Saint-Simon. 

CREQUY,  RENEE  CAROLINE  DE  FROULLAY,  MARQUISE  DE 
(1714-1803),  was  born  on  the  igth  of  October  1714,  at  the  chateau 
of  Monfleaux  (Mayenne),  thfe  daughter  of  Lieutenant-General 
Charles  Francois  de  Froullay.  She  was  educated  by  her  maternal 
grandmother,  and  married  in  1737  Louis  Marie,  marquis  de 
Crequy  (see  above),  who  died  four  years  after  the  marriage. 
Madame  de  Crequy  devoted  herself  to  the  care  of  her  only  son, 
who  rewarded  her  with  an  ingratitude  which  was  the  chief 
sorrow  of  her  life.  In  1755  she  began  to  receive  in  Paris,  among 
her  intimates  being  D'Alembert  and  J.  J.  Rousseau.  She  had 
none  of  the  frivolity  generally  associated  with  the  women  of  her 
time  and  class,  and  presently  became  extremely  religious  with 
inclinations  to  Jansenism.  D'Alembert's  visits  ceased  when  she 
adopted  religion,  and  she  was  nearly  seventy  when  she  formed 
the  great  friendship  of  her  life  with  Senac  de  Meilhan,  whom  she 
met  in  1781,  and  with  whom  she  carried  on  a  correspondence 
(edited  by  Edouard  Fournier,  with  a  preface  by  Sainte-Beuve 
in  1856).  She  commented  on  and  criticized  Meilhan's  works  and 
helped  his  reputation.  She  was  arrested  in  1793  and  imprisoned 
in  the  convent  of  Les  Oiseaux  until  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
(July  1794).  The  well-known  Souvenirs  de  la  marquise  de 
Crequy  (1710-1803),  printed  in  7  volumes,  1834-1835,  and 
purporting  to  be  addressed  to  her  grandson,  Tancredede  Crequy, 
was  the  production  of  a  Breton  adventurer,  Cousin  de  Cour- 
champs.  The  first  two  volumes  appeared  in  English  in  1834  and 
were  severely  criticized  in  the  Quarterly  Review. 

See  the  notice  "prefixed  by  Sainte-Beuve  to  the  Lettres;  P.  L. 
Jacob,  Enigmes  el  decouvertes  bibliographiques  (Paris,  1866) ;  Querard, 
Supercheries  litteraires,  s.v.  "  Crequy  ";  L'Ombre  de  la  marquise  de 
Crequy  aux  lecteurs  des  souvenirs  (1836)  exposes  the  forgery  of  the 
Memoires. 


CRESCAS,  HASDAI  BEN  ABRAHAM  (1340-1410),  Spanish 
philosopher.  His  work,  The  Light  of  the  Lord  ('Or  'Adonai), 
deeply  affected  Spinoza,  and  thus  his  philosophy  became  of 
wide  importance.  Maimonides  (q.v.)  had  brought  Jewish  thought 
entirely  under  the  domination  of  Aristotle.  The  work  of  Crescas, 
though  it  had  no  immediate  success,  ended  in  effecting  its  libera- 
tion. He  refused  to  base  Judaism  on  speculative  philosophy 
alone;  there  was  a  deep  emotional  side  to  his  thought.  Thus  he 
based  Judaism  on  love,  not  on  knowledge;  love  was  the  bond 
between  God  and  man,  and  man's  fundamental  duty  was  love  as 
expressed  in  obedience  to  God's  will.  Spinoza  derived  from 
Crescas  his  distinction  between  attributes  and  properties;  he 
shared  Crescas's  views  on  creation  and  free  will,  and  in  the  whole 
trend  of  his  thought  the  influence  of  Crescas  is  strongly  marked. 

See  E.  G.  Hirsch,  Jewish  Encyclopaedia,  iv.  350.  (I.  A.) 

CRESCENT  (Lat.  crescens,  growing),  originally  the  waxing 
moon,  hence  a  name  applied  to  the  shape  of  the  moon  in  its  first 
quarter.  The  crescent  is  employed  as  a  charge  in  heraldry,  with 
its  horns  vertical;  when  they  are  turned  to  the  dexter  side  of  the 
shield,  it  is  called  increscent,  when  to  the  sinister,  decrescent. 
A  crescent  is  used  as  a  difference  to  denote  the  second  son  of  a 
house;  thus  the  earls  of  Harrington  place  a  crescent  upon  a 
crescent,  as  descending  from  the  second  son  of  a  second  son. 
An  order  of  the  crescent  was  instituted  by  Charles  I.  of  Naples 
and  Sicily  in  1268,  and  revived  by  Rene  of  Anjou  in  1464.  A 
Turkish  order  or  decoration  of  the  crescent  was  instituted  by 
Sultan  Selim  III.  in  1799,  in  memory  of  the  diamond  crescent 
.which  he  had  presented  to  Nelson  after  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  and 
which  Nelson  wore  on  his  coat  as  if  it  were  an  order. 

The  crescent  is  the  military  and  religious  symbol  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks.  According  to  the  story  told  by  Hesychius 
of  Miletus,  during  the  siege  of  Byzantium  by  Philip  of  Macedon 
the  moon  suddenly  appeared,  the  dogs  began  to  bark  and 
aroused  the  inhabitants,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  frustrate 
the  enemy's  scheme  of  undermining  the  walls.  The  grateful 
Byzantines  erected  a  statue  to  "  torch-bearing  "  Hecate,  and 
adopted  the  lunar  crescent  as  the  badge  of  the  city.  It  is  gener- 
ally supposed  that  it  was  in  turn  adopted  by  the  Turks  after  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  either  as  a  badge  of  triumph, 
or  to  commemorate  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  moon  on  the  night  of 
the  final  attack.  In  reality,  it  seems  to  have  been  used  by  them 
long  before  that  event.  Ala  ud-din,  the  Seljuk  sultan  of  Iconium 
(1245-1254),  and  Ertoghrul,  his  lieutenant  and  the  founder  of 
the  Ottoman  branch  of  the  Turkish  race,  assumed  it  as  a  device, 
and  it  appeared  on  the  standard  of  the  janissaries  of  Sultan 
Orkhan  (1326-1360).  Since  the  new  moon  is  associated  with 
special  acts  of  devotion  in  Turkey — where,  as  in  England,  there 
is  a  popular  superstition  that  it  is  unlucky  to  see  it  through  glass 
— it  may  originally  have  been  adopted  in  consequence  of  its  re- 
ligious significance.  According  to  Professor  Ridgeway,  however, 
the  Turkish  crescent,  like  that  seen  on  modern  horse-trappings, 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  new  moon,  but  is  the  result  of  the  base- 
to-base  conjunction  of  two  claw  or  tusk  amulets,  an  example  of 
which  has  been  brought  to  light  during  the  excavations  of  the 
site  of  the  temple  of  Artemis  Orthia  at  Sparta  (see  Athenaeum, 
March  21,  1908).  There  is  nothing  distinctively  Turkish  in 
the  combination  of  crescent  and  star  which  appears  on  the 
Turkish  national  standard;  the  latter  is  shown  by  coins  and 
inscriptions  to  have  been  an  ancient  Illyrian  symbol,  and  is  of 
course  common  in  knightly  and  decorative  orders.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  any  opposition  between  crescent  and  cross,  as  symbols 
of  Islam  and  Christianity,  was  ever  intended  by  the  Turks;  and 
it  is  an  historical  error  to  attribute  the  crescent  to  the  Saracens 
of  crusading  times  or  the  Moors  in  Spain. 

Crescent  is  also  the  name  of  a  Turkish  musical  instrument. 
In  architecture,  a  crescent  is  a  street  following  the  arc  of  a  circle; 
the  name  in  this  sense  was  first  used  in  the  Royal  Crescent  at 
Bath. 

CRESCIMBENI,  GIOVANNI  MARIO  (1663-1728),  Italian 
critic  and  poet,  was  born  at  Macerata  in  1663.  Having  been 
educated  by  a  French  priest  at  Rome,  he  entered  the  Jesuits' 
college  of  his  native  town,  where  he  produced  a  tragedy  on  the 


412 


CRESILAS — CRESS 


story  of  Darius,  and  versified  the  Pharsalia.  In  1679  he  received 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws,  and  in  1680  he  removed  again  to 
Rome.  The  study  of  Filicaja  and  Leonico  having  convinced 
him  that  he  and  all  his  contemporaries  were  working  in  a  wrong 
direction,  he  resolved  to  attempt  a  general  reform.  In  1690, 
in  conjunction  with  fourteen  others,  he  founded  the  celebrated 
academy  of  the  Arcadians,  and  began  the  contest  against  false 
taste  and  its  adherents.  The  academy  was  most  successful; 
branch  societies  were  opened  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  Italy; 
and  the  influence  of  Marini,  opposed  by  the  simplicity  and  ele- 
gance of  such  models  as  Costanzo,  soon  died  away.  Crescimbeni 
officiated  as  secretary  to  the  Arcadians  for  thirty-eight  years. 
In  1705  he  was  made  canon  of  Santa  Maria;  in  1715  he  obtained 
the  chief  curacy  attached  to  the  same  church;  and  about  two 
months  before  he  died  (1728)  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
order  of  Jesus. 

His  principal  work  is  the  Istoria  della  volgar  poesia  (Rome,  1698), 
an  estimate  of  all  the  poets  of  Italy,  past  and  contemporary,  which 
may  yet  be  consulted  with  advantage.  The  most  important  of  his 
numerous  other  publications  are  the  Commentary  (5  vols.,  Rome, 
1702-1711),  and  La  Bellezza  della  volgar  poezia  (Rome,  1700). 

CRESILAS,  a  Cretan  sculptor  of  Cydonia.  He  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Pheidias,  and  one  of  the  sculptors  who  vied  in 
producing  statues  of  amazons  at  Ephesus  (see  GREEK  ART) 
about  450  B.C.  As  his  amazon  was  wounded  (wlnerata;  Pliny, 
Nat.  Hist,  xxxiv.  75),  we  may  safely  identify  it  with  the  figure, 
of  which  several  copies  are  extant,  who  is  carefully  removing 
her  blood-stained  garment  from  a  wound  under  the  right  breast. 
Another  work  of  Cresilas  of  which  copies  survive  is  the  portrait 
of  Pericles,  the  earliest  Greek  portrait  which  has  been  with 
certainty  identified,  and  which  fully  confirms  the  statement 
of  ancient  critics  that  Cresilas  was  an  artist  who  idealized  and 
added  nobility  to  men  of  noble  type.  An  extant  portrait  of 
Anacreon  is  also  derived  from  Cresilas. 

CRESOLS  or  METHYL  PHENOLS,  C7H8O  or  C6H4-CH3-OH. 
The  three  isomeric  cresols  are  found  in  the  tar  obtained  in  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal,  beech- wood  and  pine.  The  crude 
cresol  obtained  from  tar  cannot  be  separated  into  its  different 
constituents  by  fractional  distillation,  since  the  boiling  points  of 
the  three  isomers  are  very  close  together.  The  pure  substances 
are  best  obtained  by  fusion  of  the  corresponding  toluene  sul- 
phonic  acids  with  potash. 

Ortho-cresol,  CH3(i)-C6H4-OH(2),  occurs  as  sulphate  in  the 
urine  of  the  horse.  It  may  be  prepared  by  fusion  of  ortho-toluene 
sulphonic  acid  with  potash;  by  the  action  of  phosphorus  pent- 
oxide  on  carvacrol;  or  by  the  action  of  zinc  chloride  on  camphor. 
It  is  a  crystalline  solid,  which  melts  at  30°  C.  and  boils  at  190-8° 
C.  Fusion  with  alkalis  converts  it  into  salicylic  acid. 

Meta-cresol,CH3(i)-C6H4-OH(3),isiormed  when  thymol  (para- 
isopropyl-meta-cresol)  is  heated  with  phosphorus  pentoxide. 
Propylene  is  liberated  during  the  reaction,  and  the  phosphoric 
acid  ester  of  meta-cresol  which  is  formed  is  then  fused  with 
potash.  It  can  also  be  prepared  by  distilling  meta-oxyuvitic  acid 
with  lime,  or  by  the  action  of  air  on  boiling  toluene  in  the  presence 
of  aluminium  chloride  (C.  Friedel  and  J.  M.  Crafts,  Ann.  Chim. 
Phys.,  1888  [6],  14,  p.  436).  It  solidifies  in  a  freezing  mixture,  on 
the  addition  of  a  crystal  of  phenol,  and  then  melts  at  3°-4°  C. 
It  boils  at  202°-8  C.  Its  aqueous  solution  is  coloured  bluish-violet 
by  ferric  chloride. 

Para-cresol,  CH3(i)-C6H4-OH(4),  occurs  as  sulphate  in  the 
urine  of  the  horse.  It  is  also  found  in  horse's  liver,  being  one  of 
the  putrefaction  products  of  tyrosine.  It  may  be  prepared  by  the 
fusion  of  para-toluene  sulphonic  acid  with  potash;  by  the  action 
of  nitrous  acid  on  para-toluidine;  or  by  heating  para-oxyphenyl 
acetic  acid  with  lime.  It  crystallizes  in  prisms  which  melt  at 
36°  C.  and  boil  at  2oi°-8  C.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  the  aqueous 
solution  gives  a  blue  coloration  with  ferric  chloride.  When 
treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  potassium  chlorate,  no 
chlorinated  quinones  are  obtained  (M.  S.  Southworth,  Ann. 
(1873),  168,  p.  271),  a  behaviour  which  distinguishes  it  from 
ortho-  and  meta-cresol. 

On  the  composition  of  commercial  cresylic  acid  see  A.  H.  Allen, 
Jour.  Soc.  Ghent.  Industry  (1890),  9,  p.  141.  See  also  CREOSOTE. 


CRESPI,  DANIELE  (1590-1630),  Italian  historical  painter, 
was  born  near  Milan,  and  studied  under  Giovanni  Battista  Crespi 
and  Giulio  Procaccini.  He  was  an  excellent  colourist;  his 
drawing  was  correct  and  vigorous,  and  he  grouped  his  composi- 
tions with  much  ability.  His  best  work,  a  series  of  pictures  from 
the  life  of  Saint  Bruno,  is  in  the  monastery  of  the  Carthusians 
at  Milan.  Among  the  most  famous  of  his  paintings  is  a  "  Stoning 
of  St  Stephen  "  at  Brera,  and  there  are  several  excellent  examples 
of  his  work  in  the  city  of  his  birth  and  at  Pa  via. 

CRESPI,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  (1557-1663),  called  II  Cerano, 
Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  was  born  at  Cerano  in 
the  Milanese.  He  was  a  scholar  of  considerable  attainments, 
and  held  a  position  of  dignity  in  his  native  city.  He  was  head  of 
'the  Milanese  Academy  founded  by  Cardinal  Frederigo  Borromeo, 
and  he  was  the  teacher  of  Guercino.  He  is  most  famous  as  a 
painter;  and,  though  his  figures  are  neither  natural  nor  graceful, 
his  colouring  is  good,  and  his  designs  full  of  ideal  beauty. 

CRESPI,  GIUSEPPE  MARIA  (1665-1747),  Italian  painter, 
called  "  Lo  Spagnuolo  "  from  his  fondness  for  rich  apparel, 
was  born  at  Bologna,  and  was  trained  under  Angelo  Toni, 
Domenico  Canuti  and  Carlo  Cignani.  He  then  went  through 
a  course  of  copying  from  Correggio  and  Barocci;  this  he  followed 
up  with  a  journey  to  Venice  for  the  sake  of  Titian  and  Paul 
Veronese;  and  late  in  life  he  proclaimed  himself  a  follower  of 
Guercino  and  Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  was  a  good  colourist  and 
a  facile  executant,  and  was  wont  to  employ  the  camera  obscura 
with  great  success  in  the  treatment  of  light  and  shadow;  but 
he  was  careless  and  unconscientious.  He  was  a  clever  portrait- 
painter  and  a  brilliant  caricaturist;  and  his  etchings  after 
Rembrandt  and  Salvator  are  in  some  demand.  His  greatest 
work,  a  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,"  is  at  Bologna;  but  the 
Dresden  gallery  possesses  twelve  examples  of  him,  among  which 
is  his  celebrated  series  of  the  Seven  Sacraments. 

CRESS,  in  botany.  "  Garden  Cress  "  (Lepidium  salivum)  is 
an  annual  plant  (nat.  ord.  Cruciferae),  known  as  a  cultivated 
plant  at  the  present  day  in  Europe,  North  Africa,  western  Asia 
and  India,  but  its  origin  is  obscure.  Alphonse  de  Candolle 
(L'Origine  des  plantes  cultivees)  says  its  cultivation  must  date  from 
ancient  times  and  be  widely  diffused,  for  very  different  names 
for  it  exist  in  the  Arab,  Persian,  Albanian,  Hindustani  and 
Bengali  tongues.  He  considered  the  plant  to  be  of  Persian 
origin,  whence  it  may  have  spread  after  the  Sanskrit  epoch 
(there  is  no  Sanskrit  name  for  it)  into  the  gardens  of  India, 
Syria,  Greece  and  North  Africa.  It  is  used  in  salads,  the  young 
plants  being  cut  and  eaten  while  still  in  the  seed-leaf,  forming, 
along  with  plants  of  the  white  mustard  in  the  same  stage  of 
growth,  what  is  commonly  called  "  small  salad."  The  seeds 
should  be  sown  thickly  broadcast  or  in  rows  in  succession  every 
ten  or  fourteen  days,  according  to  the  demand.  The  sowings 
may  be  made  in  the  open  ground  from  March  till  October,  the 
earliest  under  hand-glasses,  and  the  summer  ones  in  a  cool 
moist  situation,  where  water  from  trees,  shrubs,  walls,  &c., 
cannot  fall  on  or  near  them.  The  grit  thrown  up  by  falling 
water  pierces  the  tender  tissues  of  the  cress,  and  cannot  be 
thoroughly  removed  by  washing.  During  winter  they  must  be 
raised  on  a  slight  hotbed,  or  in  shallow  boxes  or  pans  placed 
in  any  of  the  glass-houses  where  there  is  a  temperature  of  60° 
or  65°.  Cress  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  a  fungus  (Pythium  de- 
Baryanum)  if  kept  too  close  and  moist.  The  pest  very  quickly 
infects  a  whole  sowing.  There  is  no  cure  for  it;  preventive 
measures  should  therefore  be  taken  by  keeping  the  sowings 
fairly  dry  and  well  ventilated.  The  seed  should  be  sown  on  new 
soil,  and  should  not  be  covered. 

The  "  Golden  "  or  "  Australian  "  cress  is  a  dwarf,  yellowish- 
green,  mild-flavoured  sort,  which  is  cut  and  eaten  when  a  little 
more  advanced  in  growth  but  while  still  young  and  tender.  It 
should  be  sown  at  intervals  of  a  month  from  March  onwards,  the 
autumn  sowing,  for  winter  and  spring  use,  being  made  in  a 
sheltered  situation. 

The  "  curled  "  or  "  Normandy  "  cress  is  a  very  hardy  sort, 
of  good  flavour.  In  this,  which  is  allowed  to  grow  like  parsley, 
the  leaves  are  picked  for  use  while  young;  and,  being  finely  cut 


CRESSENT— CRESSY 


and  curled,  they  are  well  adapted  for  garnishing.  It  should  be 
sown  thinly,  in  drills,  in  good  soil  in  the  open  borders,  in  March, 
April  and  May,  and  for  winter  and  spring  use  at  the  foot  of  a  south 
wall  early  in  September,  and  about  the  middle  of  October. 

Water  -  cress. —  "Water-cress"  (Nasturtium  officinale)  is  a 
member  of  the  same  natural  order,  and  a  native  of  Great  Britain. 
Although  now  so  largely  used,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
cultivated  in  England  prior  to  the  igth  century,  though  in 
Germany,  especially  near  Erfurt,  it  had  been  grown  long  pre- 
viously. Its  flavour  is  due  to  an  essential  oil  containing  sulphur. 
Water-cress  is  largely  cultivated  in  shallow  ditches,  prepared 
in  wet,  low-lying  meadows,  means  being  provided  for  flooding 
the  ditches  at  will.  Where  the  amount  of  water  available  is 
limited,  the  ditches  are  arranged  at  successively  higher  levels, 
so  as  to  allow  of  the  volume  admitted  to  the  upper  ditch  being 
passed  successively  to  the  others.  The  ditches  are  usually 
puddled  with  clay,  which  is  covered  to  the  depth  of  9  to  12  in. 
with  well-manured  soil. 

A  stock  of  plants  may  be  raised  in  two  ways — by  cuttings,  and 
by  seeds.  If  a  stock  is  to  be  raised  from  cuttings,  the  desired 
quantity  of  young  shoots  is  gathered — those  sold  in  bunches  for 
salad  serve  the  purpose  well — and  reduced  where  necessary  to 
about  3  in.  in  length,  the  basal  and  frequently  rooted  portion 
being  rejected.  They  are  dibbled  thickly  into  one  of  the  ditches, 
and  only  enough  water  admitted  to  just  cover  the  soil.  If  the 
start  is  made  in  late  spring,  the  cuttings  will  be  rooted  in  a  week. 
They  are  allowed  to  remain  for  another  week  or  two,  and  are  then 
taken  up  and  dropped  about  9  in.  apart  into  {he  other  ditches, 
which  have  been  slightly  flooded  to  receive  them.  There  is  no 
need  to  plant  them — the  young  roots  will  very  soon  be  securely 
anchored.  The  volume  of  water  is  increased  as  the  plants  grow. 
If  raised  from  seed,  the  seed-bed  is  prepared  as  for  cuttings,  and 
seed  sown  either  in  drills  or  broadcast.  No  flooding  is  done  until 
the  seedlings  are  up.  Water  is  then  admitted,  the  level  being 
raised  as  the  plants  grow.  When  5  or  6  in.  high,  they  are  taken 
up  and  dropped  into  their  permanent  quarters  precisely  like 
those  raised  from  cuttings. 

Cultivated  as  above  described,  the  plants  afford  frequent 
cuttings  of  large  clean  cress  of  excellent  flavour  for  market 
purposes.  Sooner  or  later  growth  will  become  less  vigorous  and 
flowering  shoots  will  be  produced.  This  will  be  accompanied  by 
a  pronounced  deterioration  of  the  remaining  vegetative  shoots. 
These  signs  will  be  interpreted  by  the  grower  to  mean  that  his 
plants,  as  a  market  crop,  are  worn  out.  He  will  therefore  take 
steps  to  repeat  the  routine  of  culture  above  described.  In  the 
winter  the  ditches  are  flooded  to  protect  the  cress  from  frost. 

The  best-flavoured  water-cress  is  produced  in  the  pure  water  of 
running  streams  over  chalk  or  gravel  soil.  Should  the  water  be 
contaminated  by  sewage  or  other  undesirable  matter,  the  plants 
not  only  absorb  some  of  the  impurities  but  also  serve  to  anchor 
much  of  the  solid  particles  washed  as  scum  among  them.  This  is 
extremely  difficult  to  dislodge  by  washing,  and  renders  the  cress  a 
source  of  danger  as  food. 

Water-cress  for  domestic  use  may  be  raised  as  a  kitchen-garden 
crop  if  frequently  watered  overhead.  Beds  to  afford  cress  during 
the  summer  should  be  made  in  broad  trenches  on  a  border  facing 
north.  It  may  also  be  raised  in  pots  or  pans  stood  in  saucers  of 
water  and  frequently  watered  overhead. 

In  recent  years  in  America  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
injury  done  to  water-cress  beds  by  the  "  water-cress  sow-bug  " 
(Mancasellus  brachyurus) ,  and  the  "  water-cress  leaf-beetle  " 
(Phaedon  aeruginosa).  Another  species  of  Phaedon  is  known  in 
England  as  "  blue  beetle  "  or  "  mustard  beetle,"  and  is  a  pest 
also  of  mustard,  cabbage  and  kohlrabi  (see  F.  H.  Chittenden,  in 
Bulletin  66,  part  ii.  of  Bureau  of  Entomology,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1907). 

The  name  "nasturtium"  is  applied  in  gardens,  but  incorrectly, 
to  species  of  Tropaeolum. 

CRESSENT,  CHARLES  (1685-1768),  French  furniture-maker, 
sculptor  and  fondeur-ciseleur.  As  the  second  son  of  Francois 
Cressent,  sculpleur  du  roi,  and  grandson  of  Charles  Cressent,  a 
furniture-maker  of  Amiens,  who  also  became  a  sculptor,  he 


inherited  the  tastes  and  aptitudes  which  were  likely  to  make  a 
finished  designer  and  craftsman.  Even  more  important  perhaps 
was  the  fact  that  he  was  a  pupil  of  Andre  Charles  Boulle. 
Trained  in  such  surroundings,  it  is  not  surprising  that  he  should 
have  reached  a  degree  of  achievement  which  has  to  a  great 
extent  justified  the  claim  that  he  was  the  best  decorative  artist 
of  the  i8th  century.  Cressent's  distinction  is  closely  connected 
with  the  regency,  but  his  earlier  work  had  affinities  with  the 
school  of  Boulle,  while  his  later  pieces  were  full  of  originality. 
He  was  an  artist  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word.  He  not 
only  designed  and  made  furniture,  but  created  the  magnificent 
gilded  enrichments  which  are  so  characteristic  of  his  work.  He 
was  likewise  a  sculptor,  and  among  his  plastic  work  is  known 
to  have  been  a  bronze  bust  of  Louis,  due  d'Orleans,  the  son 
of  the  regent,  for  whom  Cressent  had  made  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  French  furniture  of  the  i8th  century — the  famous 
medaillier  now  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  Cressent's  bronze 
mounts  were  executed  with  a  sharpness  of  finish  and  a  grace  and 
vigour  of  outline  which  were  hardly  excelled  by  his  great  con- 
temporary Jacques  Caffieri.  His  female  figures  placed  at  the 
corners  of  tables  are  indeed  among  the  most  delicious  achieve- 
ments of  the  great  days  of  the  French  metal  worker.  Much  of 
Cressent's  work  survives,  and  can  be  identified;  the  Louvre  and 
the  Wallace  collection  are  especially  rich  in  it,  and  his  commode 
at  Hertford  House  with  gilt  handles  representing  Chinese  dragons 
is  perhaps  the  most  elaborate  piece  he  ever  produced.  The  work 
of  identification  is  rendered  comparatively  easy  in  his  case  by  the 
fact  that  he  published  catalogues  of  three  sales  of  his  work.  These 
catalogues  are  highly  characteristic  of  the  man,  who  shared  in  no 
small  degree  the  personal  bravoura  of  Cellini,  and  could  sometimes 
execute  almost  as  well.  He  did  not  hesitate  to  describe  himself 
as  the  author  of  "  a  clock  worthy  to  be  placed  in  the  very  finest 
cabinets,"  "  the  most  distinguished  bronzes,"  or  pieces  of  "  the 
most  elegant  form  adorned  with  bronzes  of  extra  richness."  He 
worked  much  in  marqueterie,  both  in  tortoiseshell  and  in  brilliant 
coloured  woods.  He  was  indeed  an  artist  to  whom  colour 
appealed  with  especial  force.  The  very  type  and  exemplar  of 
the  "  feeling  "  of  the  regency,  he  is  worthy  to  have  given  his  own 
name  to  some  of  the  fashions  which  he  deduced  from  it. 

CRESSWELL,  SIR  CRESSWELL  (1794-1863),  English  judge, 
was  a  descendant  of  an  old  Northumberland  family,  and  was  born 
at  Newcastle  in  1794.  He  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  and 
at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  1814, 
and  M.A.  four  years  later.  Having  chosen  the  profession  of  the 
law  he  studied  at  the  Middle  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1819.  He  joined  the  northern  circuit,  and  was  not  long  in  earning 
a  distinguished  position  among  his  professional  brethren.  In  1 83  7 
he  entered  parliament  as  Conservative  member  for  Liverpool, 
and  he  soon  gained  a  reputation  as  an  acute  and  learned  debater 
on  all  constitutional  questions.  In  January  1842  he  was  made  a 
judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  being  knighted  at  the  same 
time;  and  this  post  he  occupied  for  sixteen  years.  When  the 
new  court  for  probate,  divorce  and  matrimonial  causes  was 
established  (1858),  Sir  Cresswell  Cresswell  was  requested  by  the 
Liberal  government  to  become  its  first  judge  and  undertake  the 
arduous  task  of  its  organization.  Although  he  had  already 
earned  a  right  to  retire,  and  possessed  large  private  wealth, 
he  accepted  this  new  task,  and  during  the  rest  of  his  life  devoted 
himself  to  it  most  assiduously  and  conscientiously,  with  complete 
satisfaction  to  the  public.  In  one  case  only,  out  of  the  very  large 
number  on  which  he  pronounced  judgment,  was  his  decision 
reversed.  His  death  was  sudden.  By  a  fall  from  his  horse  on  the 
nth  of  July  1863  his  knee-cap  was  injured.  He  was  recovering 
from  this  when  on  the  zgth  of  the  same  month  he  died  of  disease 
of  the  heart. 

See  Foss's  Lives  of  the  Judges;  E.  Manson,  Builders  of  our  Lav 
(1904). 

CRESSY,  HUGH  PAULINUS  DE  (c.  1605-1674),  English  Bene- 
dictine monk,  whose  religious  name  was  Serenus,  was  born  at 
Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  about  1605.  He  went  to  Oxford  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  and  in  1626  became  a  fellow  of  Merton  College. 
Having  taken  orders,  he  rose  to  the  dignity  of  dean  of  Leighlin, 


CREST— CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 


Ireland,  and  canon  of  Windsor.  He  also  acted  as  chaplain  to  Lord 
Wentworth,  afterwards  the  celebrated  earl  of  Strafford.  For  some 
time  he  travelled  abroad  as  tutor  to  Lord  Falmouth,  and  in  1646, 
during  a  visit  to  Rome,  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In 
the  following  year  he  published  his  Exomologesis  (Paris,  1647),  or 
account  of  his  conversion,  which  was  highly  valued  by  Roman 
Catholics  as  an  answer  to  William  Chillingworth's  attacks. 
Cressy  entered  the  Benedictine  Order  in  1649,  and  for  four  years 
resided  at  Somerset  House  as  chaplain  to  Catherine  of  Braganza, 
wife  of  Charles  II.  He  died  at  West  Grinstead  on  the  loth 
of  August  1674.  Cressy's  chief  work,  The  Church  History  of 
Brittanny  or  England,  from  the  beginning  of  Christianity  to  the 
Norman  Conquest  (ist  vol.  only  published,  Rouen,  1668),  gives  an 
exhaustive  account  of  the  foundation  of  monasteries  during  the 
Saxon  heptarchy,  and  asserts  that  they  followed  the  Benedictine 
rule,  differing  in  this  respect  from  many  historians.  The  work 
was  much  criticized  by  Lord  Clarendon,  but  defended  by  Antony 
a  Wood  in  his  Athenae  Oxoniensis,  who  supports  Cressy's  state- 
ment that  it  was  compiled  from  original  MSS.  and  from  the 
Annales  Ecclesiae  Britannicae  of  Michael  Alford,  Dugdale's 
Monasticon,  and  the  Decem  Scriptores  Historiae  Anglicanae.  The 
second  part  of  the  history,  which  has  never  been  printed,  was 
discovered  at  Douai  in  1856.  To  Roman  Catholics  Cressy's  name 
is  familiar  as  the  editor  of  Walter  Hilton's  Scale  of  Perfection 
(London,  1659);  of  Father  A.  Baker's  Sancta  Sophia  (2  vols., 
Douai,  1657);  and  of  Juliana  of  Norwich's  Sixteen  Revelations 
on  the  Love  of  God  (1670).  These  books,  which  would  have  been 
lost  but  for  Cressy's  zeal,  have  been  frequently  reprinted,  and 
have  been  favourably  regarded  by  a  section  of  the  Anglican 
Church. 

For  a  complete  list  of  Cressy's  works  see  J.  Gillow's  Bibl.  Diet, 
of  Eng.  Catholics,  vol.  i. 

CREST,  a  town  of  south-eastern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Dr6me,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Drome,  20  m.  S.S.E.  of  Valence 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  3971;  commune,  5660.  It  carries 
on  silk-worm  breeding,  silk-spinning,  and  the  manufacture  of 
woollens,  paper,  leather  and  cement.  There  is  trade  in  truffles. 
On  the  rock  which  commands  the  town  stands  a  huge  keep,  the 
sole  survival  of  a  castle  (i2th  century)  to  which  Crest  was  in- 
debted for  its  importance  in  the  middle  ages  and  the  Religious 
Wars.  The  rest  of  the  castle  was  destroyed  in  the  first  half  of 
the  1 7th  century,  after  which  the  keep  was  used  as  a  state  prison. 
Crest  ranked  for  a  time  as  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Valentinois, 
and  in  that  capacity  belonged  before  the  Revolution  to  the 
prince  of  Monaco.  The  communal  charter,  graven  on  stone  and 
dating  from  the  1 2th  century,  is  preserved  in  the  public  archives. 
Ten  miles  south-cast  of  Crest  lies  the  picturesque  Forest  of 
Saon. 

CREST  (Lat.  crista,  a  plume  or  tuft),  the  "  comb  "  on  an 
animal's  head,  and  so  any  feathery  tuft  or  excrescence,  the 
"  cone  "  of  a  helmet  (by  transference,  the  helmet  itself),  and  the 
top  or  summit  of  anything.  In  heraldry  (q.v.)  a  crest  is  a  device, 
originally  borne  as  a  cognizance  on  a  knight's  helmet,  placed  on 
a  wreath  above  helmet  and  shield  in  armorial  bearings,  and  used 
separately  on  a  seal  or  on  articles  of  property. 

Cresting,  in  architecture,  is  an  ornamental  finish  in  the  wall 
or  ridge  of  a  building,  which  is  common  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  An  example  occurs  at  Exeter  cathedral,  the  ridge  of 
which  is  ornamented  with  a  range  of  small  fleurs-de-lis  in  lead. 

CRESTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Union  county,  Iowa, 
U.S.A.,  about  60  m.  S.W.  of  Des  Moines,  at  the  crossing  of  the 
main  line  and  two  branches  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
railway.  Pop.  (1890)  7200;  (1900)  7752;  (1905,  state  census) 
8382  (753  foreign-born);  (1910)  6924.  The  city  is  on  the  crest 
of  the  divide  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  basins 
at  an  altitude  of  about  1310  ft. — whence  its  name.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fine  farming  and  stock-raising  region,  for  which  it  is  a 
shipping  point.  The  site  was  chosen  in  1869  by  the  Burlington 
&  Missouri  River  Railroad  Company  (subsequently  merged  in 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad  Company)  for  the 
location  of  its  shops.  Creston  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1869,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1871. 


CRESWICK,  THOMAS  (1811-1869),  English  landscape-painter, 
was  born  at  Sheffield,  and  educated  at  Hazelwood,  near  Birming- 
ham. At  Birmingham  he  first  began  to  paint.  His  earliest 
appearance  as  an  exhibitor  was  in  1827,  at  the  Society  of  British 
Artists  in  London;  in  the  ensuing  year  he  sent  to  the  Royal 
Academy  the  two  pictures  named  "  Llyn  Gwynant,  Morning," 
and  "  Carnarvon  Castle."  About  the  same  time  he  settled  in 
London;  and  in  1836  he  took  a  house  in  Bayswater.  He  soon 
attracted  some  attention  as  a  larMscape-painter,  and  had  a 
career  of  uniform  and  encouraging,  though  not  signal  success. 
In  1842  he  was  elected  an  associate,  and  in  1850  a  full  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  which,  for  several  years  before  his  death, 
numbered  hardly  any  other  full  members  representing  this  branch 
of  art.  In  his  early  practice  he  set  an  example,  then  too  much 
needed,  of  diligent  study  of  nature  out  of  doors,  painting  on  the 
spot  all  the  substantial  part  of  several  of  his  pictures.  English 
and  Welsh  streams  may  be  said  to  have  formed  his  favourite 
subjects,  and  generally  British  rural  scenery,  mostly  under  its 
cheerful,  calm  and  pleasurable  aspects,  in  open  daylight.  This 
he  rendered  with  elegant  and  equable  skill,  colour  rather  grey  in 
tint,  especially  in  his  later  years,  and  more  than  average  technical 
accomplishment;  his  works  have  little  to  excite,  but  would,  in 
most  conditions  of  public  taste,  retain  their  power  to  attract. 
Creswick  was  industrious  and  extremely  prolific;  he  produced, 
besides  a  steady  outpouring  of  paintings,  numerous  illustrations 
for  books.  He  was  personally  genial — a  dark,  bulky  man, 
somewhat  heavy  and  graceless  in  aspect  in  his  later  years.  He 
died  at  his  house  in  Bayswater,  Linden  Grove,  on  the  28th  of 
December  1869,  after  a  few  years  of  declining  health.  Among 
his  principal  works  may  be  named  "  England  "  (1847);  "  Home 
by  the  Sands,  and  a  Squally  Day"  (1848);  "Passing 
Showers  "  (1849);  "  The  Wind  on  Shore,  a  First  Glimpse  of  the 
Sea,  and  Old  Trees  "  (1850);  "  A  Mountain  Lake,  Moonrise  " 
(1852);  "Changeable  Weather"  (1865);  also  the  "London 
Road,  a  Hundred  Years  ago";  "The  Weald  of  Kent";  the 
"Valley  Mill"  (a  Cornish  subject);  a  "Shady  Glen";  the 
"Windings  of  a  River";  the  "  Shade  of  the  Beech  Trees"; 
the  "  Course  of  the  Greta  "  ;  the  "  Wharfe  ";  "  Glendalough," 
and  other  Irish  subjects,  1836  to  1840;  the  "  Forest  Farm." 
Frith  for  figures,  and  Ansdell  for  animals,  occasionally  worked  in . 
collaboration  with  Creswick. 

In  1873  T.  O.  Barlow,  the  engraver,  published  a  catalogue  of 
Creswick's  works. 

CRESWICK,  a  borough  of  Talbot  county,  Victoria,  Australia, 
855  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Melbourne.  Pop.  (1901)  3060.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  mining,  pastoral  and  agricultural  district.  Gold  is 
found  both  in  alluvial  and  quartz  formations,  the  quartz  being 
especially  rich.  The  surrounding  country  is  fertile  and  well- 
timbered,  and  there  is  a  government  plantation  and  nursery  in 
connexion  with  the  forests  department. 

CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM,  in  geology,  the  group  of  stratified 
rocks  which  normally  occupy  a  position  above  the  Jurassic 
system  and  below  the  oldest  Tertiary  deposits;  therefore  it  is 
in  this  system  that  the  closing  records  of  the  great  Mesozoic  era 
are  to  be  found.  The  name  furnishes  an  excellent  illustration  of 
the  inconvenience  of  employing  a  local  lithological  feature  in 
the  descriptive  title  of  a  wide-ranging  rock-system.  The  white 
chalk  (Lat.  creta),  which  gives  its  name  to  the  system,  was  first 
studied  in  the  Anglo-Parisian  basin,  where  it  takes  a  prominent 
place;  but  even  in  this  limited  area  there  is  a  considerable 
thickness  and  variety  of  rocks  which  are  not  chalky,  and  the 
Cretaceous  system  as  a  whole  contains  a  remarkable  diversity 
of  types  of  sediment. 

Classification.- — The  earlier  subdivisions  of  the  Cretaceous  rocks 
were  founded  upon  the  uncertain  ground  of  similarity  in  litho- 
logical characters,  assisted  by  observed  stratigraphical  sequence. 
This  method  yielded  poor  results  even  in  a  circumscribed  area  like 
Great  Britain,  and  it  breaks  down  utterly  when  applied  to  the 
correlation  of  rocks  of  similar  age  in  Europe  and  elsewhere. 
Study  of  the  fossils,  however,  "has  elicited  the  fact  that  certain 
forms  characterize  certain  "  zones,"  which  are  preceded  and 
succeeded  by  other  zones  each  bearing  a  peculiar  species  or 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 


distinctive  assemblage  of  species.  By  these  means  the  Cretaceous 
rocks  of  the  world  have  now  been  correlated  zone  with  zone, 
with  a  degree  of  exactitude  proportional  to  the  palaeontological 
information  gained  in  the  several  areas  of  occurrence. 

The  Cretaceous  system  falls  naturally  into  two  divisions, 
an  upper  and  a  lower,  in  all  but  a  few  limited  regions.  In  the 
table  on  page  288  the  names  of  the  principal  stages  are 
enumerated;  these  are  capable  of  world-wide  application. 
The  sub-stages  are  of  more  local  value,  and  too  much  importance 
must  not  be  attached  to  them  for  the  correlation  of  distant 
deposits.  The  general  table  is  designed  to  show  the  relative 
position  in  the  system  of  some  of  the  more  important  and  better- 
known  formations;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Cretace- 
ous rocks  of  Europe  can  now  be  classified  in  considerable  detail 


Distribution  of 
Cretaceous  Rocks 


1  <r«s  if  uf-ch  C'8«'  O*loe»wi<'**oW"«''J*M*i  a't  i"own. 

I         n-vt-gfr     .,          (LOIt  Stwa") 

'  C 'tlOCfQaS   »Oi:»i  vfl*"Diii"  or  O&Wnf 

>  Oi;/"6Ml'O"  O/  Id"?  A  S*«.     O'Ot'.   .   -  .  ,r"uifftr 

KVK 


by  their  fossils,  the  most  accurate  group  for  this  purpose  being 
the  cephalopods.  The  smaller  table  was  compiled  by  T.  C. 
Chamberlin  and  R.  D.  Salisbury  to  show  the  main  subdivisions 
of  the  North  American  Cretaceous  rocks.  The  correlation  of  the 
minor  subdivisions  of  Europe  and  America  are  only  approximate. 

Relation  of  the  Cretaceous  Strata  to  the  Systems  above  and  below. 
— In  central  and  northern  Europe  the  boundary  between  the 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  strata  is  sharply  defined  by  a  fairly 
general  unconformity,  except  in  the  Danian  and  Montian  beds, 
where  there  is  a  certain  commingling  of  Tertiary  with  Cretaceous 
fossils.  The  relations  with  the  underlying  Jurassic  rocks  are  not 
so  clearly  defined,  partly  because  the  earliest  Cretaceous  rocks  are 
obscured  by  too  great  a  thickness  of  younger  strata,  and  partly 
because  the  lowest  observable  rocks  of  the  system  are  not  the 
oldest,  but  are  higher  members  of  the  system  that  have  overlapped 
on  to  much  older  rocks.  However,  in  the  south  of  England, 
in  the  Alpine  area,  and  in  part  of  N.W.  Germany  the  passage  from 
Jurassic  to  Cretaceous  is  so  gradual  that  there  is  some  divergence 
of  opinion  as  to  the  best  position  for  the  line  of  separation. 
In  the  Alpine  region  this  passage  is  formed  by  marine  beds,  in 
the  other  two  by  brackish-water  deposits.  In  a  like  manner 
the  Potomac  beds  of  N.  America  grade  downwards  into  the 
Jurassic;  while  in  the  Laramie  formation  an  upward  passage  is 
observed  into  the  Eocene  deposits.  There  is  a  very  general 
unconformity  and  break  between  the  Lower  and  Upper  Cretace- 
ous; this  has  led  Chamberlin  and  Salisbury  to  suggest  that  the 
Lower  Cretaceous  should  be  regarded  as  a  separate  period  with 
the  title  "  Comanchean." 

Physiographical  Conditions  and  Types  of  Deposit, — With  the 
opening  of  the  Cretaceous  in  Europe  there  commenced  a  period 
of  marine  transgression;  in  the  central  and  western  European 
region  this  took  place  from  the  S.  towards  the  N.,  slow  at  first  and 
local  in  effect,  but  becoming  more  decided  at  the  beginning  of 
the  upper  division.  During  the  earlier  portion  of  the  period,  S. 
England,  Belgium  and  Hanover  were  covered  by  a  great  series  of 
estuarine  sands  and  clays,  termed  the  Wealden  formation  (q.v.), 
the  delta  of  a  large  river  or  rivers  flowing  probably  from  the  N.W. 


Meanwhile,  in  the  rest  of  Europe  alternations  of  marine  and 
estuarine  deposits  were  being  laid  down;  but  over  the  Alpine 
region  lay  the  open  sea, -where  there  flourished  coral  reefs  and 
great  banks  of  clam-like  molluscs.  The  sea  gradually  encroached 
upon  the  estuarine  Wealden  area,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Aptian 
deposits  uniform  marine  conditions  prevailed  from  western 
Europe  through  Russia  into  Asia.  This  extension  of  the  sea  is 
illustrated  in  England  by  the  overlap  of  the  Gault  over  the 
Lower  Greensand  on  to  the  older  rocks,  and  by  similar  occurrences 
in  N.  France  and  Germany. 

Almost  throughout  the  Upper  Cretaceous  period  the  marine 
invasion  continued,  varied  here  and  there  by  slight  movements 
in  the  opposite  sense  which  did  not,  however,  interfere  with  the 
quiet  general  advance  of  the  sea.  This  marine  extension  made 
itself  felt  over  the  old  central  plateau  of  France,  the  N.  of  Great 
Britain,  the  Spanish  peninsula,  the  Armorican  peninsula,  and 
also  in  the  Bavarian  Jura  and  Bohemia;  it  affected  the  northern 
part  of  Africa  and  East  Africa;  in  N.  America  the  sea  spread 
over  the  entire  length  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region;  and  in 
Brazil,  eastern  Asia  and  western  Australia,  Upper  Cretaceous 
deposits  are  found  resting  directly  upon  much  older  rocks. 
Indeed,  at  this  time  there  happened  one  of  the  greatest  changes 
in  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  that  have  been  recorded 
in  geological  history. 

We  have  seen  that  in  early  Cretaceous  times  marine  limestones 
were  being  formed  in  southern  Europe,  while  estuarine  sands  and 
muds  were  being  laid  down  in  the  Anglo-German  delta,  and  that 
beds  of  intermediate  character  were  being  made  in  parts  of  N. 
France  and  Germany.  During  later  Cretaceous  times  this  striking 
difference  between  the  northern  and  southern  facies  was  main- 
tained, notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  later  deposits  were  of 
marine  origin  in  both  regions.  In  the  northern  region  the  gradual 
deepening  and  accompanying  extension  of  the  sea  caused  the 
sandy  deposits  to  become  finer  grained  in  N.W.  Europe.  The 
sandy  beds  and  clays  then  gave  way  to  marly  deposits,  and  in 
these  early  stages  glauconitic  grains  are  very  characteristically 
present  both  in  the  sand  and  in  the  marls.  In  their  turn  these 
marly  deposits  in  the  Anglo-Parisian  basin  were  succeeded 
gradually  and  somewhat  intermittently  by  the  purer,  soft  lime- 
stone of  the  chalk  sea,  and  by  limestones,  similar  in  character,  in 
N.  France,  extra-Alpine  Germany,  S.  Scandinavia,  Denmark  and 
Russia.  Meanwhile,  the  S.  European  deposits  maintained  the 
characters  already  indicated;  limestones  (not  chalk)  prevailed, 
except  in  certain  Alpine  and  Carpathian  tracts  where  detrital 
sandstones  were  being  laid  down. 

The  great  difference  between  the  lithological  characters  of  the 
northern  and  southern  deposits  is  accompanied  by  an  equally 
striking  difference  between  their  respective  organic  contents.  In 
the  north,  the  genera  Inoceramus  and  Belemnitella  are  particu- 
larly abundant.  In  the  south,  the  remarkable,  large,  clam-like, 
aberrant  pelecypods,  the  Hippuritidae,  Rudistes,  Caprotina,  &c., 
attained  an  extraordinary  development;  they  form  great 
lenticular  banks,  like  the  clam  banks  of  warm  seas,  or  like  our 
modern  oyster-beds;  they  appear  in  successive  species  in  the 
different  stages  of  the  Cretaceous  system  of  the  south,  and  can  be 
used  for  marking  palaeontological  horizons  as  the  cephalopods 
are  used  elsewhere.  Certain  genera  of  ammonites,  Haploceras, 
Lytoceras,  Phylloceras,  rare  in  the  north,  are  common  in  the 
south;  and  the  southern  facies  is  further  characterized  by  the 
peculiar  group  of  swollen  belemnites  (Dumontia),  by  the  gastero- 
pods  Actionella,  Nerinea,  &c.,  and  by  reef-building  corals.  The 
southern  facies  is  far  more  widespread  and  typical  of  the  period 
than  is  the  chalk;  it  not  only  covers  all  southern  Europe,  but 
spreads  eastwards  far  into  Asia  and  round  the  Mediterranean 
basin  into  Africa.  It  is  found  again  in  Texas,  Alabama,  Mexico, 
the  West  Indies  and  Colombia;  though  limestones  of  the  chalk 
type  are  found  in  Texas,  New  Zealand,  and  locally  in  one  or  two 
other  places.  The  marine  deposits  are  organically  formed 
limestones,  in  which  foraminifera  and  large  bivalve  mollusca 
play  a  leading  part,  marls  and  sandstones;  dolomite  and  oolitic 
and  pisolitic  limestones  are  also  known. 

The  Cretaceous  seas  were  probably  comparatively  shallow; 


416 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 


c 

o 

•^ 

European  Classification. 

•ft 

c 

S* 

Britain. 

Germany,  &c.,  several 
other  parts  of  Europe. 

n 

a* 

V 

ri 

^- 

re 

2 

"3 

c^ 

I 

c 

c 

CB 

B 

Stages. 

Sub-stages. 

jl 

'C 

•3 

i 

6 

1 

£ 

< 

< 

- 

< 

^ 

c/5 

^ 

O 

Montian. 

(placed  by  some  in 

Marls  and  pisolitic  Lime-   . 

3 

•j 

^A 

d 

B 

the  Tertiary). 

stone  of  Meudon. 

1 

.- 

c 

o 

> 

Danian. 

Chalk     of      Trim- 

Limestone    of  Saltholm'Sj 

O 

_^ 

ingham. 

and  Faxo  (Denmark).  £1 

- 

"s 

^ 

0 

^^ 

Maestrichtian  (Dor- 

c 

<tl 

t/i 

s 

J3 

jS 

5 

t 

*  s  f 

3  .2 

Aturian. 

donian). 
Campanian. 

Upper    Chalk  with 
Flints. 

rt 

OJ 

Upper     Quader     Sand-  g 
stone. 

e 
o 
1 

•o 

c 

en 
•c 
o 
CQ 
"O 

L! 
p 

t 
^ 

U 

o  c 
c  a 

y; 

_o 

J 

a 

a 

3 

o  c  J 

D    Jt    1 

i 

J 

c 

•c 

^ 

B  c 

i 

.a 

S 

i    11 

Santonian. 

Quader    Marls    and'c 

C/j 
*    _,      •    OT 

"Q 

K 

e/)  aj 

<u  Si 

0 

0 

-T- 

o 

«<8   I 

Emscherian. 

Planer  Marls.                £ 

:!-£•- 

-o 

V- 

.§o 

^ 

— 

u 

Coniacian. 

* 

»C   QJ  ^  ^^ 

.   C 

CD  0 

J 

J 

5 

" 

^J 

Middle  Chalk  with- 

c 

•CO- 

^n 

"c  S 

3 

rt 

? 

s. 

Angoumian. 

out  Flints. 

Upper  Planer. 

^•a^J-S" 

J? 

'C 

S  n 

°  en 

<U 

c 

X 

a 

Turonian. 

£ 

JJ 

«  s"!  s^ 

•B 

I/)  "-« 

"°  rt 

c 

c 
— 

X 

Ligerian. 

1 

C 

n 

(Si 

J! 

•8 

c 

0 

Carentonian. 

Grey  Chalk. 

Mi 

Lr.    Planer  and   Lr.  g 

"•£  *e  ° 

.3 

2^2 

. 

r; 

(/-, 

kfl 

o 

Cenomanian. 

Chalk  marl. 

Quader. 

S  S.^  i"? 

•5 

Q.-S 

.i 

'S 

'£ 

Rothomagian. 

Cambridge     Green- 

f 

4- 

^  Jjv2  jj  g 

. 

'3E 

£ 

3 

sand. 

C 

•  O     cy)  c/} 

Z 

? 

.„ 

<£ 

1  ourtia  01  Ivlons,  ore.      ,_^_ 
c 

d 

en 

.2 
'g   Gault  and  Upper 

I 
C 

^ 

^ 

o 

Greensand. 

u 

LT! 

o 

c 

Albian. 

Gault. 

B 

Flammen  mergel.    Clay  g 
of  N.  Germany.            s 

CU 

X 

E 

c 
•o 
i 

_K 

£ 

Aptian. 

Gargasian. 
Bedoulian. 

Lower  Greensand. 

Urgonian 
Requienia                            o. 
(caprotina)  Kalk          .9- 

3 
O 

d 

OJ 

c 
cd 

e 

en 

3 

o 

or  Schrattenkalk.         >£ 

C 

(J 

!£ 

C 

. 

3 

Barremian. 

Weald  Clay 

3 

Z 

1 

1 

o 

Hauterivian. 

and 

c 

m 

1 

1 

Neocomian. 

— 

£ 

a 
u 

Valangian. 

Hastings  sands. 

1 

X 

u 

u 

Berriasian. 

If, 

• 

Q. 

_S 

OS 

I 

c 

B 

a. 

(3 

3 

Q 

*u 

-c 

o 

0 

c 

J 

1 

•^ 

"1  J- 

< 

u 

U 

rt 
g 

^o 

0 

en 

i 

W< 

t/j 

a 

E 

c 

2 

•j. 

c 

o 

(^ 

.Ec^ 

to 

-^ 

Ex, 

tu 

.« 

•^ 

o 

1 
1 

9 

1 

Is 

11 

PI 

"O 
0) 

oa 

4= 
c 
S 

S 
i 

s 

's 

c 

0 

Q 

c 

E 

"ci 
c 
o 
u 

1 

c 

_c 

1 

'5 

o 
c 

a 

2 

O 

i 

* 

< 

s 

c° 

"o 

Ic 

£ 

1 

o 

Table. 

Montian  from  Mons  in  Belgium. 

Danian  „  Denmark  =  Garumnien  of  Leymerie. 

Aturian  „  Adour. 

Maestrichtian  „  Maestricht. 

Campanian  ,  Champagne. 

Emscherian  ,  Emscher  river  in  Westphalia. 

Santonian  ,  Saintonge. 

Coniacian  ,  Cognac. 

Senonian  ,  Sens  in  department  of  Yonne. 

Turonian  ,  Touraine. 

Angoumian  „  Angoumois. 

Ligerian  ,,  the  Loire. 

Cenomanian  ,.,  Le  Mans  (Cenomanum). 

Carentonian  ,,  Charente. 

Rothomagian  „  Rouen  (Rothomagus). 

Albian  ,,  dept.  of  Aube. 

Selbornian  „  Selborne  in  Hampshire. 

Aptian  „  Apt  in  Vaucluse. 

Gargasian  ,,  Gargas  near  Apt. 

Bedoulian  „  la  Bedoule  (Var)  =  Rhodanien  of  Renevier. 

Barremian  .    „  Barrfime  in  Basses  Alpes. 

Hauterivian  „  Hauterive  on  Lake  of  Neuchatel. 

Valengian  „  Chateau  de  Valengin  near  Neuchatel. 

Neocomian  „  Neuchatel  (Neocomum). 

Berriasian  „  Berrias  (Ardeche)  near  Besseges. 

Urgonian  „  Orgon  near  Aries. 


this  was  certainly  the  case  where  the  deposits  are  sandy,  and  in 
the  regions  occupied  by  the  hippuritic  fauna.  Much  discussion 
has  taken  place  as  to  the  depth  of  the  chalk  sea.  Stress  has  been 
laid  upon  the  resemblance  of  this  deposit  to  the  modern  deep-sea 
globigerina-ooze;  but  on  the  whole  the  evidence  is  in  favour  of 
moderate  depth,  perhaps  not  more  than  1000  fathoms;  the 
freedom  of  the  deposit  from  detrital  matter  being  regarded  as  due 
to  the  low  elevation  of  the  surrounding  land,  and  the  main  lines  of 
drainage  being  in  other  directions.  Sandy  and  shore  deposits  are 
common  throughout  the  system  in  every  region.  Besides  the 
Weald,  there  were  great  lacustrine  and  terrestrial  deposits  in 
N.  America  (the  Potomac,  Kootenay,  Morrison,  Dakota  and 
Laramie  formations)  as  well  as  in  N.  Spain,  and  in  parts  of 
Germany,  &c.  The  general  distribution  of  land  and  sea  is  indi- 
cated in  the  map. 

Earth  Movements  and  Vulcanicily. — During  the  greater  part  of 
the  Cretaceous  period  crustal  movements  had  been  small  and 
local  in  effect,  but  towards  the  close  a  series  of  great  deformative 
movements  was  inaugurated  and  continued  into  the  next  period. 
These  movements  make  it  possible  to  discriminate  between  the 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks,  because  the  conditions  of  sedi- 
mentation were  profoundly  modified  by  them,  and  in  most 


CRETACEOUS  SYSTEM 


Atlantic  Coast. 

Eastern  Gulf  Region. 

Western  Gulf  Region. 

Western  Interior. 

Pacific  Coast. 

European. 

Denver,  Livingstone,  &c. 

Manasquan. 

(possibly  Eocene). 

Not       differ- 

entiated or 

wanting. 

Danian. 

0} 

Rancocas. 

La  ramie. 

3 

in  O 

Ripley. 

Montana  Series. 

- 

3  S 

Monmouth. 

Montana  Series. 

2.  Fox  Hills. 

Senonian. 

<  £"  • 

Selma. 

Navarro. 

i.  Fort  Pierre  and 

a  v. 

Belly  River. 

"I 

Matawan. 

Eutaw. 

Colorado  Series. 

Colorado  Series. 

2.  Austin. 

2.  Niobrara. 

Chico. 

Turonian. 

i.  Eagle  Ford. 

I.  Benton. 

Dakota. 

Dakota. 

Cenomanian. 

Woodbine. 

Albian. 

Unconformity    in 

Un 

conformity. 

• 

places. 

Horsetown~|  c 

Aptian. 

Washita. 

|| 

to 

3 

>  ui 

Urgonian. 

Tuscaloosa  Series. 

Fredericksburg. 

Kootenay  and  Morrison 

_c 

Knoxville  J  £ 

I'rt 

(or  Como). 

S  i2 

(_>   Op) 

Potomac  Series. 

Neocomian. 

Z(J  " 

4.   Raritan. 

Wealden. 

S  j« 

3.  Patapsco. 

Trinity. 

0  1 

2.  Arundel  ~|  .0 

I.  Patuxentj  .£, 

- 

parts  of  the  world  there  resulted  a  distinct  break  in  the  sequence 
of  fossil  remains.  Great  tracts  of  our  modern  continental  land 
areas  gradually  emerged,  and  several  mountainous  tracts  began 
to  be  elevated,  such  as  the  Appalachians,  parts  of  the  Cordilleras, 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  their  northern  continuation,  and 
indeed  the  greater  part  of  the  western  N.  American  continent  was 
intensely  affected;  the  uplifting  was  associated  with  extensive 
faulting.  Volcanic  activity  was  in  abeyance  in  Europe  and  in 
much  of  Asia,  but  in  America  there  were  many  eruptions  and 
intrusions  of  igneous  rock  towards  the  close  of  the  period. 
Diabases  an'd  peridotites  had  been  formed  during  the  Lower 
Cretaceous  in  the  San  Luis  Obispo  region.  Great  masses  of  ash 
and  conglomerate  occur  in  the  Crow's  Nest  Pass  in  Canada; 
porphyries  and  porphyritic  tuffs  of  later  Cretaceous  age  are 
important  in  the  Andes;  while  similar  rocks  are  found  in  the 
Lower  Cretaceous  of  New  Zealand.  It  is,  however,  in  the  Deccan 
lava  flows  of  India  that  we  find  eruptions  on  a  scale  more  vast 
than  any  that  have  been  recorded  either  before  or  since.  These 
outpourings  of  lava  cover  200,000  sq.  m.  and  are  from- 4000  to 
6000  ft.  thick.  They  lie  upon  an  eroded  Cenomanian  surface  and 
are  to  some  extent  interbedded  with  Upper  Cretaceous  sediments. 
Economic  Products  of  Cretaceous  Rocks. — Coal  is  one  of  the 
most  important  products  of  the  rocks  of  this  system.  The 
principal  Cretaceous  coal-bearing  area  is  in  the  western  interior 
of  N.  America,  where  an  enormous  amount  of  coal — mostly 
lignitic,  but  in  places  converted  into  anthracite — lies  in  the  rocks 
at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  most  of  this  is  of  Laramie 
age.  Similar  beds  occur  locally  in  Montana.  Coal  seams  of  Lower 
Cretaceous  age  are  found  in  the  Black  Hills  (S.  Dakota),  Alaska, 
Greenland,  and  in  New  Zealand;  and  the  "  Upper  Quader  "  of 
Lowenberg  in  Silesia  also  contains  coal  seams.  Coals  also  occur 
in  the  brackish  and  fresh-water  deposits  of  Carinthia,  Dalmatia 
and  Istria,  while  unimportant  lignitic  beds  are  known  in  many 
other  regions.  The  Fort  Pierre  beds  are  oil-bearing  at  Boulder, 
Colorado;  and  the  Trinity  formation  bears  asphalt  and  bitumen. 
Important  clay  deposits  are  worked  in  the  Raritan  formation  of 
New  Jersey,  &c.,  and  pottery  clays  are  found  in  the  Lowenberg 
district  in  Germany.  The  Washita  beds  yield  the  well-known 
hone  stone.  Great  beds  of  gypsum  exist  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks 
of  S.  America.  Near  Salzburg  a  variety  of  the  hippuritic  lime- 


stone is  quarried  for  marble.  Lithographic  stone  occurs  in  the 
Pyrenees.  The  economic  products  peculiar  to  the  chalk  are 
mentioned  in  the  article  CHALK.  Beds  of  iron  ore  are  found  in  the 
Lower  Cretaceous  of  Germany  and  England. 

The  Life  of  the  Cretaceous  Period. — The  fossils  from  the 
Cretaceous  series  comprise  marine,  fresh-water  and  terrestrial 
animals  and  plants.  Foremost  in  interest  and  importance  is  the 
appearance  in  the  Lower  Potomac  (Lower  Cretaceous)  of  eastern 
and  central  N.  America  of  the  earliest  representatives  of  angio- 
spermous  dicotyledons,  and  undoubted  monocotyledons,  the 
progenitors  of  our  modern  flowering  plants.  The  angiosperms 
spread  outward  from  the  Atlantic  coast  region  of  N.  America,  and 
first  appeared  in  Europe  in  the  Aptian  of  Portugal;  towards  the 
close  of  the  Lower  Cretaceous  period  they  occupied  parts  of 
Greenland,  the  remaining  land  areas  of  N.  America,  and  were 
steadily  advancing  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  At  first  the 
Jurassic  plants,  the  Cycads,  ferns  and  conifers,  lived  on  and 
were  the  dominant  plant  forms.  Gradually,  however,  they  took  a 
subordinate  place,  and  by  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous  period  the 
angiosperms  had  gained  the  upper  hand.  The  earliest  of  these 
fossil  angiosperms  is  not  in  a  true  sense  a  primitive  form,  and  no 
records  of  such  types  have  yet  been  discovered.  Some  of  the 
early  forms  of  the  Lower  Cretaceous  are  distinctly  similar  to 
modern  genera,  such  as  Ficus,  Sassafras  and  Aralia;  others 
bore  leaves  closely  resembling  our  elm,  maple,  willow,  oak, 
eucalyptus,  &c.  Before  the  close  of  the  period  many  other 
representatives  of  living  genera  had  appeared,  beech,  walnut, 
tamarisk,  plane,  laurel  (Laurus),  cinnamon,  ivy,  ilex,  viburnum, 
buckthorn,  breadfruit,  oleander  and  others;  there  were  also 
junipers,  thujas,  pines  and  sequoias  and  monocotyledons  such 
as  Potamogeton  and  Arundo.  This  flora  was  widely  spread  and 
uniform;  there  was  great  similarity  between  that  of  Europe  and 
N.  America,  and  in  parts  of  the  United  States  (Virginia  and 
Maryland)  the  plants  were  very  like  those  in  Greenland.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  flora  was  sub-tropical;  the  eucalyptus  and 
other  plants  then  common  in  Europe  and  N.  America  are  now 
confined  to  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  marine  fauna  comprised  foraminifera  which  must  have 
swarmed  in  the  Chalk  and  some  of  the  limestone  seas;  their 
shells  have  formed  great  thickness  of  rock.  Common  forms  are 


vu.  14 


CRETE 


the  genera  Aheolina,  Cristellaria,  Rotalia,  Textularia,  Orbito- 
lina  Globigerina.  Radiolarians  were  doubtless  abundant,  but 
their  remains  are  rare.  Sponges  with  calcareous  (Peronidilla, 
Barroisia)  and  siliceous  skeletons  (Siphonia,  Coeloptychium, 
Ventriculites)  were  very  numerous  in  certain  of  the  Cretaceous 
waters.  Corals  were  comparatively  rare,  Trochosmilia,  Para- 
smilia,  Holocystis  being  typical  genera;  reefs  were  formed  in  the 
Maestricht  beds  of  Denmark  and  Faxoe,  in  the  Neocomian  and 
Turonian  of  France,  in  the  Turonian  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees, 
and  also  in  the  Gosau  beds  and  in  the  Utatur  group  of  India. 
Sea-urchins  were  a  conspicuous  feature,  and  many  nearly  allied 
forms  are  still  living;  Cidaris,  Micraster,  Discoidea  are  examples. 
Crinoids  were  represented  by  Marsupites,  Uintacrinus  and 
Bourgueticrinus;  starfish  (Calliderma  and  Pentagonaster)  were 
not  uncommon.  Polyzoa  were  abundant;  brachiopods  were 
fairly  common,  though  subordinate  to  the  pelecypods;  they  were 
mostly  rhynchonellids  and  terebratulids,  which  lived  side  by 
side  with  the  ancient  forms,  like  Crania  and  Discina.  The 
bivalve  mollusca  were  very  important  during  this  period, 
Inoceramus,  Oslrea,  Spondylus,  Gervillia,  Exogyra,  Pecten, 
Trigonia  being  particularly  abundant  in  the  northern  seas, 
while  in  the  southern  waters  the  remarkable  Hippurites,  Radio- 
lites,  Caprotina,  Caprina,  Monopleura  and  Requienia  prevailed. 
Gasteropods  were  well  represented  and  included  many  modern 
genera.  Cephalopods  were  important  as  a  group,  but  the 
ammonites,  so  vigorous  in  the  foregoing  period,  were  declining 
and  were  assuming  curious  degenerate  forms,  often  with  a 
tendency  to  uncoil  the  shell;  Baculites,  Hoplites,  Turrilites, 
Ptychoceras,  Hamites  are  some  of  the  typical  genera,  while 
Belemnites  and  Belemnitella  were  abundant  in  the  northern  seas. 

The  vertebrate  fauna  of  the  Cretaceous  period  differed  in  many 
features  from  that  of  the  present  day;  mammals  appear  to  have 
been  only  poorly  represented  by  puny  forms,  related  to  Triassic 
and  Jurassic  types;  they  were  mainly  marsupials  (Batodon, 
Cimolestes)  with  a  few  monotreme-like  forms;  carnivores, 
rodents  and  ungulates  were  still  unknown.  As  in  Jurassic  times, 
reptiles  were  the  dominant  forms,  and  not  a  few  genera  lived 
on  from  the  former  period  into  the  Cretaceous;  but,  on  the  whole, 
the  reptilian  assemblage  was  no  longer  so  varied,  and  most  of  the 
distinctive  mesozoic  types  had  passed  away 
before  the  close  of  this  period.  Dinosaurs 
were  represented  by  herbivorous  and  carniv- 
orous genera  as  in  the  Jurassic  period,  but  the 
latter  were  less  abundant  than  before.  The 
Iguanodon  of  the  Sussex- Weald  and  Bernissart 
in  Belgium  is  perhaps  the  best-known  genus; 
but  there  were  many  others,  their  remains 
being  particularly  abundant  and  well-preserved 
in  the  Cretaceous  deposits  of  N.  America. 
Titanosaurus,  Acanthopholis,  Megalosaurus 
and  Hypsilophodon  may  be  mentioned,  some 
of  these  being  of  great  size,  while  Diclonius 
was  a  curious  duck-billed  creature;  but  most 
remarkable  in  appearance  must  have  been  the 
horned  Dinosaurs,  Ceratops  and  Triceratops, 
gross,  unwieldy  creatures,  25  to  30  ft.  long, 
whose  huge  heads  were  grotesquely  armed 
with  horns  and  bony  frills. 

Coincident,  perhaps,  with  the  widespread  extension  of  the 
sea  was  the  development  of  aquatic  habits  and  structures  suitable 
thereto  amongst  all  the  reptilian  groups  including  also  the  birds. 
The  foremost  place  was  undoubtedly  taken  by  the  pythono- 
morphs  or  sea-serpents,  including  Mosasaurus  and  many  others; 
these  were  enormously  elongated  creatures,  reaching  up  to  75  ft., 
with  swimming  flappers  and  powerful  swimming  tails,  and  they 
lived  a  predatory  life  in  the  open  sea.  Ichthyosaurians  soon 
disappeared  from  Cretaceous  waters;  but  the  plesiosaurians 
{Cimoliosaurus  and  others)  reached  their  maximum  develop- 
ment in  this  period.  The  remarkable  flying  lizards,  pterosaurs, 
likewise  attained  their  great  development  and  then  passed  away; 
they  ranged  in  size  from  that  of  a  pigeon  to  creatures  with  a 
wing-spread  of  25  ft.;  notable  genera  are  Pteranodon,  Ornitho- 


cheirus,  Nyctiosaurus.  Ordinary  lizard-like  forms  were  repre- 
sented by  Coniosaurus,  Dolichosaurus,  &c.;  and  true  crocodiles, 
Goniopholis,  Suchosaurus,  appeared  in  this  period,  and  continued 
to  approximate  to  modern  genera.  The  earliest  known  river 
turtles  are  found  in  the  Belly  River  deposits  of  Canada;  marine 
turtles  also  made  their  first  appearance  and  were  widely  repre- 
sented, some  of  them,  Archelon  and  Protostega,  being  of  great 
size.  True  snakes  appeared  later  in  the  period. 

The  birds,  as  far  as  existing  evidence  goes,  were  aquatic; 
some,  like  Ichthyornis,  were  built  for  powerful  flight;  others,  like 
Hesperornis,  were  flightless.  Enaliornis  is  a  form  well  known 
from  the  Cambridge  Greensand.  They  were  toothed  birds  having 
structural  affinities  with  the  Dinosaurs  and  Pterodactyles. 

Fish  remains  of  this  period  show  that  a  marked  change  was 
taking  place;  teleosteans  (with  bony  internal  skeleton)  were 
taking  a  more  prominent  place,  and  although  ganoids  were  still 
represented  (Macropoma,  Lepidotus,  Amiopris,  &c.)  they  had 
quite  ceased  to  be  the  dominant  types  before  the  close  of  Creta- 
ceous times.  Sharks  and  rays  were  of  the  modern  types,  though 
distinct  in  species.  Amongst  the  early  forms  of  Cretaceous 
teleosteans  may  be  mentioned  Elopopsis,  Ichlhyodectes,  Diplo- 
mystus  (herring),  Haplopteryx  and  Urenchelys  (eel). 

For  further  information  see  the  articles  CHALK;  GREENSAND; 
WEALDEN.  Sir  A.  Geikie's  Text-book  of  Geology,  vol.  ii.  (4th  ed., 
I9°3)»  contains  in  addition  to  a  full  general  account  of  the  system 
very  full  references  to  the  literature. 

CRETE  (Gr.  KPITTTJ;  Turk.  Kirid,'lta.\.  Candio),  after  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia and  Cyprus  the  largest  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  situated 
between  34°so'and  3S°4o'  N.  lat.  and  between  23°3o' and  26° 20'  E. 
long.  Its  north-eastern  extremity,  Cape  Sidero,  is  distant  about 
1 10  m.  from  Cape  Krio  in  Asia  Minor,  the  interval  being  partly 
filled  by  the  islands  of  Carpathos  and  Rhodes;  its  north-western, 
Cape  Grabusa,  is  within  60  m.  of  Cape  Malea  in  the  Morea. 
Crete  thus  forms  the  natural  limit  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Archipelago.  The  island  is  of  elongated  form;  its  length 
from  E.  to  W.  is  160  m.,  its  breadth  from  N.  to  S.  varies  from 
35  to  75  m.,  its  area  is  3330  sq.  m.  The  northern  coast-line  is 
much  indented.  On  the  W.  two  narrow  mountainous  pro- 
montories, the  western  terminating  in  Cape  Grabusa  or  Busa 


CRETE 

Scale,  1:2.700.000 


(ancient  Corycus),  the  eastern  in  Cape  Spada,  shut  in  the  Bay 
of  Kisamos;  beyond  the  Bay  of  Canea,  to  the  E.,  the  rocky 
peninsula  of  Akrotiri  shelters  the  magnificent  natural  harbour 
of  Suda  (85  sq.  m.),  the  only  completely  protected  anchorage 
for  large  vessels  which  the  island  affords.  Farther  E.  are  the  bays 
of  Candia  and  Malea,  the  deep  Mirabello  Bay  and  the  Bay  of 
Sitia.  The  south  coast  is  less  broken,  and  possesses  no  natural 
harbours,  the  mountains  in  many  parts  rising  almost  like  a  wall 
from  the  sea;  in  the  centre  is  Cape  Lithinos,  the  southernmost 
point  of  the  island,  partly  sheltering  the  Bay  of  Messara  on  the 
W.  Immediately  to  the  E.  of 'Cape  Lithinos  is  the  small  bay  of 
Kali  Limenes  or  Fair  Havens,  where  the  ship  conveying  St  Paul 
took  refuge  (Acts  xxvii.  8).  Of  the  islands  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Cretan  coast  the  largest  is  Gavdo  (ancient  Clauda,  Acts 


CRETE 


419 


xxvii.  16),  about  25  m.  from  the  south  coast  at  Sphakia,  in  the 
middle  ages  the  see  of  a  bishop.  On  the  N.  side  the  small  island 
of  Dia,  or  Standia,  about  8  m.  from  Candia,  offers  a  convenient 
shelter  against  northerly  gales.  Three  small  islands  on  the 
northern  coast— Grabusa  at  the  N.W.  extremity,  Suda,  at  the 
entrance  to  Suda  harbour,  and  Spinalonga,  in  Mirabello  Bay — 
remained  for  some  time  in  the  possession  of  Venice  after  the 
conquest  of  Crete  by  the  Turks.  Grabusa,  long  regarded  as  an 
impregnable  fortress,  was  surrendered  in  1692,  Suda  (where  the 
flags  of  Turkey  and  the  four  protecting  powers  are  now  hoisted) 
and  Spinalonga  in  1715. 

Natural  Features. — The  greater  part  of  the  island  is  occupied 
by  ranges  of  mountains  which  form  four  principal  groups.  In 
the  western  portion  rises  the  massive  range  of  the  White 
Mountains  (Aspra  Vouna),  directly  overhanging  the  southern 
coast  with  spurs  projecting  towards  the  W.  and  N.W.  (highest 
summit,  Hagios  Theodoros,  7882  ft.).  In  the  centre  is  the  smaller, 
almost  detached  mass  of  Psiloriti  ('T^-iXopemoi',  ancient  Ida), 
culminating  in  Stavros  (8193  ft-))  the  highest  summit  in  the 
island.  To  theE.are  theLassithi  mountains  with  Aphenti  Christos 
(7165  ft.),  and  farther  E.  the  mountains  of  Sitia  with  Aphenti 
Kavousi  (4850  ft.).  The  Kophino  mountains  (3888  ft.)  separate 
the  central  plain  of  Messara.  from  the  southern  coast.  The 
isolated  peak  of  luktas  (about  2700  ft.),  nearly  due  S.  of  Candia, 
was  regarded  with  veneration  in  antiquity  as  the  burial-place  of 
Zeus.  The  principal  groups  are  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
covered  with  snow,  which  remains  in  the  deeper  clefts  throughout 
the  summer;  the  intervals  between  them  are  filled  by  connecting 
chains  which  sometimes  reach  the  height  of  3000  ft.  The  largest 
plain  is  that  of  Monofatsi  and  Messara,  a  fertile  tract  extending 
between  Mt.  Psiloriti  and  the  Kophino  range,  about  37  m.  in 
length  and  10  m.  in  breadth.  The  smaller  plain,  or  rather  slope, 
adjoining  Canea  and  the  valley  of  Alikianu,  through  which  the 
Platanos  (ancient  lardanos)  flows,  are  of  great  beauty  and 
fertility.  A  peculiar  feature  is  presented  by  the  level  upland 
basins  which  furnish  abundant  pasturage  during  the  summer 
months;  the  more  remarkable  are  the  Omalo  in  the  White 
Mountains  (about  4000  ft.)  drained  by  subterranean  outlets 
(/oara/3o<?pa),  Nida  (tis  rriv*15a.v)  in  Psiloriti  (between  5000  and 
6000  ft.),  and  the  Lassithi  plain  (about  3000 ft.),  a  more  extensive 
area,  on  which  are  several  villages.  Another  remarkable 
characteristic  is  found  in  the  deep  narrow  ra vines  (<f>a.pa-Yyi.a.) , 
bordered  by  precipitous  cliffs,  which  traverse  the  mountainous 
districts;  into  some  of  these  the  daylight  scarcely  penetrates. 
Numerous  large  caves  exist  in  the  mountains;  among  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  famous  Idaean  cave  in  Psiloriti,  the  caves  of 
Melidoni.in  Mylopo tamo,  and  Sarchu,  in  Malevisi,  which  sheltered 
hundreds  of  refugees  after  the  insurrection  of  1866,  and  the 
Dictaean  cave  in  Lassithi,  the  birth-place  of  Zeus.  The  so-called 
Labyrinth,  near  the  ruins  of  Gortyna,  was  a  subterranean  quarry 
from  which  the  city  was  built.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Metropoli  Potamos  and  the  Anapothiari,  which  drain  the  plain  of 
Monofatsi  and  enter  the  southern  sea  E.  and  W.  respectively 
of  the  Kophino  range;  the  Platanos,  which  flows  northwards 
from  the  White  Mountains  into  the  Bay  of  Canea;  and  the 
Mylopotamo  (ancient  Oaxes)  flowing  northwards  from  Psiloriti 
to  the  sea  E.  of  Retimo. 

Geology.1 — The  metamorphic  rocks  of  western  Crete  form  a  series 
some  9000  to  10,000  ft.  in  thickness,  of  very  varied  composition. 
They  include  gypsum,  dolomite,  conglomerates,  phyllites,  and  a 
basic  series  of  eruptive  rocks  (gabbros,  peridotites,  serpentines). 
Glaucophane  rocks  are  widely  spread.  In  the  centre  of  the  folds 
fossiliferous  beds  with  crinoids  have  been  found,  and  the  black  slates 
at  the  top  of  the  series  contain  Myophoria  and  other  fossils,  indicat- 
ing that  the  rocks  are  of  Triassic  age.  It  is,  however,  not  impossible 
that  the  metamorphic  series  includes  also  some  of  the  Lias.  The  later 
beds  of  the  island  belong  to  the  Jurassic,  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
systems.  At  the  western  foot  of  the  Ida  massif  calcareous  beds  with 
corals,  brachiopods  (Rhynchonella  inconstans,  &c.)  have  been  found, 
the  fossils  indicating  the  horizon  of  the  Kimmeridge  clay.  Lower 
Cretaceous  limestones  and  schists,  with  radiolarian  cherts,  are  ex- 
tensively developed;  and  in  many  parts  of  the  island  Upper  Creta- 

P  k;,  Cayeux,  "  Les  Lignes  directrices  des  plissements  de  1'ile 
de  Crete,  '  C.R.  IX.  Cong.geol.  internal.  Vienna,  pp.  383-392  (1904). 


ceous  limestones  with  Rudistes  and  Eocene  beds  with  nummulites 
have  been  found.  All  these  are  involved  in  the  sarth  movements 
to  which  the  mountains  of  the  island  owe  their  formation,  but  the 
Miocene  beds  (with  Clypeaster)  and  later  deposits  lie  almost  un- 
disturbed upon  the  coasts  and  the  low-lying  ground.  With  the 
Jurassic  beds  is  associated  an  extensive  series  of  eruptive  rocks 
(gabbro,  peridotite,  serpentine,  diorite,  granite,  &c.);  they  are 
chiefly  of  Jurassic  age,  but  the  eruptions  may  have  continued  into 
the  Lower  Cretaceous. 

The  structure  of  the  island  is  complex.  In  the  west  the  folds  run 
from  north  to  south,  curving  gradually  westward  towards  the 
southern  and  western  coasts;  but  in  the  east  the  folds  appear  to 
run  from  west  to  east,  and  to  be  the  continuation  of  the  Dinaric 
folds  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  The  structure  is  further  complicated 
by  a  great  thrust-plane  which  has  brought  the  Jurassic  and  Lower 
Cretaceous  beds  upon  the  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  beds. 

Vegetation. — The  forests  which  once  covered  the  mountains 
have  for  the  most  part  disappeared  and  the  slopes  are  now 
desolate  wastes.  The  cypress  still  grows  wild  in  the  higher 
regions;  the  lower  hills  and  the  valleys,  which  are  extremely 
fertile,  are  covered  with  olive  woods.  Oranges  and  lemons  also 
abound,  and  are  of  excellent  quality,  furnishing  almost  the  whole 
supply  of  continental  Greece  and  Constantinople.  Chestnut 
woods  are  found  in  the  Selino  district,  and  forests  of  the  valonia 
oak  in  that  of  Retimo;  in  some  parts  the  carob  tree  is  abundant 
and  supplies  an  important  article  of  consumption.  Pears,  apples, 
quinces,  mulberries  and  other  fruit-trees  flourish,  as  well  as  vines; 
the  Cretan  wines,  however,  no  longer  enjoy  the  reputation  which 
they  possessed  in  the  time  of  the  Venetians.  Tobacco  and  cotton 
succeed  well  in  the  plains  and  low  grounds,  though  not  at  present 
cultivated  to  any  great  extent. 

Animals. — Of  the  wild  animals  of  Crete,  the  wild  goat  or 
agrimi  (Capra  aegagrus)  alone  need  be  mentioned;  it  is  still  found 
in  considerable  numbers  on  the  higher  summits  of  Psiloriti  and 
the  White  Mountains.  The  same  species  is  found  in  the  Caucasus 
and  Mount  Taurus,  and  is  distinct  from  the  ibex  or  bouquetin  of 
the  Alps.  Crete,  like  several  other  large  islands,  enjoys  immunity 
from  dangerous  serpents — a  privilege  ascribed  by  popular  belief 
to  the  intercession  of  Titus,  the  companion  of  St  Paul,  who  accord- 
ing to  tradition  was  the  first  bishop  of  the  island,  and  became  in 
consequence  its  patron  saint.  Wolves  also  are  not  found  in  the 
island,  though  common  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The  native 
breed  of  mules  is  remarkably  fine. 

Population. — The  population  of  Crete  under  the  Venetians  was 
estimated  at  about  250,000.  After  the  Turkish  conquest  it 
greatly  diminished,  but  afterwards  gradually  rose,  till  it  was 
supposed  to  have  attained  to  about  260,000,  of  whom  about  half 
were  Mahommedans,  at  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek 
revolution  in  1821.  The  ravages  of  the  war  from  1821  to  1830, 
and  the  emigration  that  followed,  caused  a  great  diminution,  and 
the  population  was  estimated  by  Pashley  in  1836  at  only  about 
130,000.  In  the  next  generation  it  again  materially  increased; 
it  was  calculated  by  Spratt  in  1865  as  amounting  to  210,000. 
According  to  the  census  taken  in  1881,  the  complete  publication 
of  which  was  interdicted  by  the  Turkish  authorities,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  island  was  279,165,  or  35-78  to  the  square  kilometre. 
Of  this  total,  141,602  were  males,  137,563  females;  33,173  were 
literate,  242,114  illiterate;  205,010  were  orthodox  Christians, 
73.234  Moslems,  and  921  of  other  religious  persuasions.  The 
Moslem  element  predominated  in  the  principal  towns,  of  which 
the  population  was — Candia,  21,368;  Canea,  13,812;  Retimo, 
9274.  According  to  the  census  taken  in  June  1900,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  island  was  301,273,  the  Christians  having  increased 
to  267,266,  while  the  Moslems  had  diminished  to  33,281.  The 
Moslems,  as  well  as  the  Christians,  are  of  Greek  origin  and  speak 
Greek. 

Towns. — The  three  principal  towns  are  on  the  northern  coast 
and  possess  small  harbours  suitable  for  vessels  of  light  draught. 
Candia,  the  former  capital  and  the  see  of  the  archbishop  of  Crete 
(pop.  in  1900,  22,501),  is  officially  styled  Herakleion;  it  is 
surrounded  by  remarkable  Venetian  fortifications  and  possesses 
a  museum  with  a  valuable  collection  of  objects  found  at  Cnossus, 
Phaestus,  the  Idaean  cave  and  elsewhere.  It  has  been  occupied 
since  1897  by  British  troops.  Canea  (Xavia),  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment since  1840  (pop.  20,972),  is  built  in  the  Italian  style;  its 


420 


CRETE 


walls  and  interesting  galley-slips  recall  the  Venetian  period. 
The  residence  of  the  high  commissioner  and  the  consulates  of 
the  powers  are  in  the  suburb  of  Halepa.  Retimo  (Pidv^vos)  is, 
like  Canea,  the  see  of  a  bishop  (pop.  9311).  The  other  towns, 
Hierapetra,  Sitia,  Kisamos,  Selino  and  Sphakia,  are  unimportant. 

Production  and  Industries. — Owing  to  the  volcanic  nature  of 
its  soil,  Crete  is  probably  rich  in  minerals.  Recent  experiments 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  iron,  lead,  manganese,  lignite  and 
sulphur  exist  in  considerable  abundance.  Copper  and  zinc  have 
also  been  found.  A  large  number  of  applications  for  mining  con- 
cessions have  been  received  since  the  establishment  of  the  autonomous 
government.  The  principal  wealth  of  the  island  is  derived  from 
its  olive  groves;  notwithstanding  the  destruction  of  many  thou- 
sands of  trees  during  each  successive  insurrection,  the  production 
is  apparently  undiminished,  and  will  probably  increase  very  con- 
siderably owing  to  the  planting  of  young  trees  and  the  improved 
methods  of  cultivation  which  the  Government  is  endeavouring  to 
promote.  The  orange  and  lemon  groves  have  also  suffered  con- 
siderably, but  new  varieties  of  the  orange  tree  are  now  being  intro- 
duced, and  an  impulse  will  be  given  to  the  export  trade  in  this  fruit 
by  the  removal  of  the  restriction  on  its  importation  into  Greece. 
Agriculture  is  still  in  a  primitive  condition;  notwithstanding  the 
fertility  of  the  arable  land  the  supply  of  cereals  is  far  below  the 
requirements  of  the  population.  A  great  portion  of  the  central  plain 
of  Monofatsi,  the  principal  grain-producing  district,  is  lying  fallow 
owing  to  the  exodus  of  the  Moslem  peasantry.  The  cultivation  of 
silk  cocoons,  formerly  a  flourishing  industry,  has  greatly  declined  in 
recent  years,  but  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  revive  it.  There 
are  few  manufactures.  Soap  is  produced  at  fifteen  factories  in  the 
principal  towns,  and  there  are  two  distilleries  of  cognac  at  Candia. 

Commerce. — -The  expansion  of  Cretan  commerce  has  been  retarded 
by  many  drawbacks,  such  as  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the 
harbours,  the  want  of  direct  steamship  lines  to  England  and  other 
countries,  and  the  deficiency  of  internal  communications.  The  total 
value  of  imports  in  the  four  years  1901-1904  was  £1,756,888,  of 
exports  £1,386,777;  excess  of  imports  over  exports,  £370,111. 
Exports  in  1904  were  valued  at  £419,642,  the  principal  items  being 
agricultural  products  (oranges,  lemons,  carobs,  almonds,  grapes, 
valonia,  &c.),  value  £153,858,  olives  and  products  of  olives  (oil,  soap, 
&c.),  £134,788,  and  wines  and  liquors,  £48,544.  The  countries  which 
accept  the  largest  share  of  Cretan  produce  are  Turkey,  England, 
Egypt,  Austria  and  Russia.  Imports  in  1904  were  valued  at 
£549,665,  including  agricultural  products  (mainly  flour  and  corn), 
value  £162,535,  and  textiles,  £129,349.  Cereals  are  imported  from 
the  Black  Sea  and  Danube  ports,  ready-made  clothing  from  Austria 
and  Germany,  articles  of  luxury  from  Austria  anoT  France,  and 
cotton  textiles  from  England.  Imports  are  charged  8%,  exports 
I  %  ad  valorem  duty.  According  to  a  law  published  in  1899,  Turkish 
merchandise  became  subjected  to  the  same  rates  as  that  of  foreign 
nations. 

Constitution  and  Government. — During  the  past  half-century 
the  affairs  of  Crete  have  repeatedly  occupied  the  attention  of 
Europe.  Owing  to  the  existence  of  a  strong  Mussulman  minority 
among  its  inhabitants,  the  warlike  character  of  the  natives,  and 
the  mountainous  configuration  of  the  country,  which  enabled  a 
portion  of  the  Christian  population  to  maintain  itself  in  a  state 
of  partial  independence,  the  island  has  constantly  been  the  scene 
of  prolonged  and  sanguinary  struggles  in  which  the  numerical 
superiority  of  the  Christians  was  counterbalanced  by  the  aid 
rendered  to  the  Moslems  by  the  Ottoman  troops.  This  unhappy 
state  of  affairs  was  aggravated  and  perpetuated  by  the  intrigues 
set  on  foot  at  Constantinople  against  successive  governors  of  the 
island,  the  conflicts  between  the  Palace  and  the  Porte,  the 
duplicity  of  the  Turkish  authorities,  the  dissensions  of  the 
representatives  of  the  great  powers,  the  machinations  of  Greek 
agitators,  the  rivalry  of  Cretan  politicians,  and  prolonged  financial 
mismanagement.  A  long  series  of  insurrections — those  of  1821, 
1833,  1841,  1858,  1866-1868,  1878,  1889  and  1896  may  be 
especially  mentioned — culminated  in  the  general  rebellion  of 
1897,  which  led  to  the  interference  of  Greece,  the  intervention  of 
the  great  powers,  the  expulsion  of  the  Turkish  authorities,  and 
the  establishment  of  an  autonomous  Cretan  government  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  sultan.  According  to  the  autonomous 
constitution  of  1899  the  supreme  power  was  vested  in  Prince 
George  of  Greece,  acting  as  high  commissioner  of  the  protecting 
powers.  The  authority  thus  conferred  was  confided  exclusively 
to  the  prince,  and  was  declared  liable  to  modification  by  law  in  the 
case  of  his  successor.  The  modified  constitution  of  February  1 907 
curtailed  the  large  exceptional  legislative  and  administrative 
powers  then  accorded.  The  high  commissioner  is  irresponsible, 


but  his  decrees,  except  in  certain  specified  cases,  must  be  counter- 
signed by  a  member  of  his  council.  He  convokes,  prorogues  and 
dissolves  the  chamber,  sanctions  laws,  exercises  the  right  of 
pardon  in  case  of  political  offences,  represents  the  island  in  its 
foreign  relations  and  is  chief  of  its  military  forces.  The  chamber 
(/ScwXTj),  which  is  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one  deputy  to  every 
5000  inhabitants,  meets  annually  for  a  session  of  two  months. 
New  elections  are  held  every  two  years.  The  chamber  exercises 
a  complete  financial  control,  and  no  taxes  can  be  imposed  without 
its  consent.  The  high  commissioner  is  aided  in  the  administra- 
tion by  a  cabinet  of  three  members,  styled  "  councillors " 
(crfyu/SouXoi),  who  superintend  the  departments  of  justice, 
finance,  education,  public  security  and  the  interior.  The 
councillors,  who  are  nominated  and  dismissed  by  the  high  com- 
missioner, are  responsible  to  the  chamber,  which  may  impeach 
them  before  a  special  tribunal  for  any  illegal  act  or  neglect  of  duty. 

In  general  the  Cretan  constitution  is  characterized  by  a  con- 
servative spirit,  and  contrasts  with  the  ultra-democratic  systems 
established  in  Greece  and  the  Balkan  States.  A  further  point  of 
difference  is  the  more  liberal  payment  of  public  functionaries  in 
Crete.  For  administrative  purposes  the  departmental  divisions 
existing  under  the  Turkish  government  have  been  retained. 
There  are  5  nomoi  or  prefectures  (formerly  sanjaks)  each  under  a 
prefect  (pojuapxos) ,  and  23  eparchies  (formerly  kazas)  each  under 
a  sub-prefect  (eTrapxos).  All  these  functionaries  are  nominated 
by  the  high  commissioner.  The  prefects  are  assisted  by  depart- 
mental councils.  The  system  of  municipal  and  communal 
government  remains  practically  unchanged.  The  island  is 
divided  into  86  communes,  each  with  a  mayor,  an  assistant- 
mayor,  and  a  communal  council  elected  by  the  people.  The 
councils  assess  within  certain  limits  the  communal  taxes, 
maintain  roads,  bridges,  &c.,  and  generally  superintend  local 
affairs.  Public  order  is  maintained  by  a  force  of  gendarmerie 
(x<opo<#>i'XaKi7)  organized  and  at  first  commanded  by  Italian 
officers,  who  were  replaced  by  Greek  officers  in  December 
1906.  The  constitution  authorizes  the  formation  of  a  militia 
(TroXiTo^uXcuoj)  to  be  enrolled  by  conscription,  but  in  existing 
circumstances  the  embodiment  of  this  force  seems  unnecessary. 

Justice. — The  administration  of  justice  is  on  the  French  model. 
A  supreme  court  of  appeal,  which  also  discharges  the  functions  of 
a  court  of  cassation,  sits  at  Canea.  There  are  two  assize  courts  at 
Canea  and  Candia  respectively  with  jurisdiction  in  regard  to 
serious  offences  (KOKOV pyrttia.ro.).  Minor  offences  (irXTj/^eX^iara) 
and  civil  causes  are  tried  by  courts  of  first  instance  in  each  of  the 
five  departments.  There  are  26  justices  of  peace,  to  whose 
decision  are  referred  slight  contraventions  of  the  law  (irTO.iaiia.Ta) 
and  civil  causes  in  which  the  amount  claimed  is  below  600  francs. 
These  functionaries  also  hold  monthly  sessions  in  the  various 
communes.  The  judges  are  chosen  without  regard  to  religious 
belief,  and  precautions  have  been  taken  to  render  them 
independent  of  political  parties.  They  are  appointed,  promoted, 
transferred  or  removed  by  order  of  the  council  of  justice,  a  body 
composed  of  the  five  highest  judicial  dignitaries,  sitting  at  Canea. 
An  order  for  the  removal  of  a  judge  must  be  based  upon  a  con- 
viction for  some  specified  offence  before  a  court  of  law.  The 
jury  system  has  not  been  introduced.  The  Greek  penal  code 
has  been  adopted  with  some  modifications.  The  Ottoman  civil 
code  is  maintained  for  the  present,  but  it  is  proposed  to  establish 
a  code  recently  drawn  up  by  Greek  jurists  which  is  mainly  based 
on  Italian  and  Saxon  law.  The  Mussulman  cadis  retain  their 
jurisdiction  in  regard  to  religious  affairs,  marriage,  divorce, 
the  wardship  of  minors  and  inheritance. 

Religion  and  Education. — The  vast  majority  of  the  Christian 
population  belongs  to  the  Orthodox  (Greek)  Church,  which  is 
governed  by  a  synod  of  seven  bishops  under  the  presidency  of 
the  metropolitan  of  Candia.  The  Cretan  Church  is  not,  strictly 
speaking,  autocephalous,  being  dependent  on  the  patriarchate 
of  Constantinople.  There  were  in  1907  3500  Greek  churches 
in  the  island  with  53  monasteries  and  3  nunneries;  55  mosques, 
4  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  4  synagogues.  Education  is 
nominally  compulsory.  In  1907  there  were  547  primary  schools 
(527  Christian  and  20  Mahommedan),  and  31  secondary  schools 


CRETE 


421 


(all  Christian).     About  £20,000  is  granted  annually  by  the  state 
for  the  purposes  of  education. 

Finance. — Owing  to  the  havoc  wrought  during  repeated  insur- 
rections, the  impoverishment  of  the  peasants,  the  desolation  of  the 
districts  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Moslem  agricultural  population, 
and  the  drain  of  gold  resulting  from  the  sale  of  Moslem  lands  and 
emigration  of  the  former  proprietors,  together  with  other  causes, 
the  financial  situation  has  been  unsatisfactory.  Notwithstanding 
the  advance  of  £160,000  made  by  the  four  protecting  powers  after 
the  institution  of  autonomous  government  and  the  profits  (£61,937) 
derived  from  the  issue  of  a  new  currency  in  1900,  there  was  at  the 
beginning  of  1906  an  accumulated  deficit  of  £23,470,  which  represents 
the  floating  debt.  In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  debt  to  the 
powers,  the  state  contracted  a  loan  of  £60,000  in  1901  to  acquire 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Ottoman  Debt,  to  which  the  salt 
monopoly  has  been  conceded  for  20  years.  In  the  budgets  for  1905 
and  1906  considerable  economies  were  effected  by  the  curtailment 
of  salaries,  the  abolition  of  various  posts,  and  the  reduction  of  the 
estimates  for  education  and  public  works.  The  estimated  revenue 
and  expenditure  for  1906  were  as  follows: — 

Revenue.  Expenditure. 

Drachmae  (gold).  Drachmae  (gold). 

Direct  taxes        .     1,494,000     High  Commissioner  .       200,000 

Indirect  taxes      .      1,715,000     Financial      adminis- 
tration.     .      .      .       694,670 

Stamp  dues   .      .        351,700     Interior       (including 

gendarmerie)  .      .     1,678,566 

Other  sources      .        780,967     Educationand  Justice  1,453,500 


4,341,667 


4,026,736 


The  salary  of  the  high  commissioner  was  reduced  in  1907  to  100,000 
drachmae. 

Improved  communications  are  much  needed  for  the  transport  of 
agricultural  produce,  but  the  state  of  the  treasury  does  not  admit  of 
more  than  a  nominal  expenditure  on  road-making  and  other  public 
works.  On  these  the  average  yearly  expenditure  between  1898  and 
1905  was  £13,404.  The  prosperity  of  the  island  depends  on  the 
development  of  agriculture,  the  acquirement  of  industrious  habits 
by  the  people,  and  the  abandonment  of  political  agitation.  The 
Cretans  were  in  1906  more  lightly  taxed  than  any  other  people  in 
Europe.  The  tithe  had  been  replaced  by  an  export  tax  on  exported 
agricultural  produce  levied  at  the  custom-houses,  and  the  smaller 
peasant  proprietors  and  shepherds  of  the  mountainous  districts 
were  practically  exempt  from  any  contribution  to  the  state.  The 
communal  tax  did  not  exceed  on  the  average  two  francs  annu- 
ally for  each  family.  The  poorer  communes  are  aided  by  a  state 
subvention.  (J.  D.  B.) 

Archaeology. 

The  recent  exploration  and  excavation  of  early  sites 
in  Crete  have  entirely  revolutionized  our  knowledge  of  its 
E-r  remote  past,  and  afforded  the  most  astonishing 
Middle  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  highly  advanced 
and  Late  civilization  going  far  back  behind  the  historic  period. 
"  Great  "  Minoan "  palaces  have  been  brought  to 
light  at  Cnossus  and  Phaestus,  together  with  a  minor 
but  highly  interesting  royal  abode  at  Hagia  Triada  near 
Phaestus.  "  Minoan "  towns,  some  of  considerable  extent, 
have  been  discovered  at  Cnossus  itself,  at  Gournia,  Palaikastro, 
and  at  Zakro.  The  cave  sanctuary  of  the  Dictaean  Zeus 
has  been  explored,  and  throughout  the  whole  length  and 
breadth  of  the  island  a  mass  of  early  materials  has  now 
been  collected.  The  comparative  evidence  afforded  by  the  dis- 
covery of  Egyptian  relics  shows  that  the  Great  Age  of  the  Cretan 
palaces  covers  the  close  of  the  third  and  the  first  half  of  the 
second  millennium  before  our  era.  But  the  contents  of  early  tombs 
and  dwellings  and  indications  supplied  by  such  objects  as  stone 
vases  and  seal-stones  show  that  the  Cretans  had  already  attained 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  culture,  and  had  opened  out  com- 
munication with  the  Nile  valley  in  the  time  of  the  earliest 
I  Egyptian  dynasties.  This  more  primitive  phase  of  the  indigenous 
culture,  of  which  several  distinct  stages  are  traceable,  is  known 
as  the  Early  Minoan,  and  roughly  corresponds  with  the  first 
half  of  the  third  millennium  B.C.  The  succeeding  period,  to 
which  the  first  palaces  are  due  and  to  which  the  name  of 
Middle  Minoan  is  appropriately  given,  roughly  coincides  with  the 
Middle  Empire  of  Egypt.  An  extraordinary  perfection  was  at 
this  time  attained  in  many  branches  of  art,  notably  in  the  painted 
pottery,  often  with  polychrome  decoration,  of  a  class  known  as 
"  Kamares  "  from  its  first  discovery  in  a  cave  of  that  name  on 


Mount  Ida.  Imported  specimens  of  this  ware  were  found  by 
Flinders  Petrie  among  Xllth  Dynasty  remains  at  Kahun. 
The  beginnings  of  a  school  of  wall  painting  also  go  back  to  the 
Middle  Minoan  period,  and  metal  technique  and  such  arts  as 
gem  engraving  show  great  advance.  By  the  close  of  this  period 
a  manufactory  of  fine  faience  was  attached  to  the  palace  of 
Cnossus.  The  succeeding  Late  Minoan  period,  best  illustrated 
by  the  later  palace  at  Cnossus  and  that  at  Hagia  Triada,  corre- 
sponds in  Egypt  with  the  Hyksos  period  and  the  earlier  part  of 
the  New  Empire.  In  the  first  phase  of  this  the  Minoan  civiliza- 
tion attains  its  acme,  and  the  succeeding  style  already  shows 
much  that  may  be  described  as  rococo.  The  later  phase,  which 
follows  on  the  destruction  of  the  Cnossian  palace,  and  corresponds 
with  the  diffused  Mycenaean  style  of  mainland  Greece  and  else- 
where, is  already  partly  decadent.  Late  Minoan  art  in  its  finest 
aspect  is  best  illustrated  by  the  animated  ivory  figures,  wall 
paintings,  and  gesso  duro  reliefs  at  Cnossus,  by  the  painted  stucco 
designs  at  Hagia  Triada,  and  the  steatite  vases  found  on  the  same 
site  with  zones  in  reliefs  exhibiting  life-like  scenes  of  warriors, 
toreadors,  gladiators,  wrestlers  and  pugilists,  and  of  a  festal 
throng  perhaps  representing  a  kind  of  "  harvest  home."  Of 
the  more  conventional  side  of  Late  Minoan  life  a  graphic  illustra- 
tion is  supplied  by  the  remains  of  miniature  wall  paintings  found 
in  the  palace  of  Cnossus,  showing  groups  of  court  ladies  in 
curiously  modern  costumes,  seated  on  the  terraces  and  balustrades 
of  a  sanctuary.  A  grand  "  palace  style  "  of  vase  painting  was 
at  the  same  time  evolved,  in  harmony  with  the  general  decoration 
of  the  royal  halls. 

It  had  been  held  till  lately  that  the  great  civilization  of  pre- 
historic Greece,  as  first  revealed  to  us  by  Schliemann's  discoveries 
at  Mycenae,  was  not  possessed  of  the  art  of  writing. 
In  1 893 ,  however,  Arthur  Evans  observed  some  signs  on  scrip*" 
seal-stones  from  Crete  which  led  him  to  believe  that  a 
hieroglyphic  system  of  writing  had  existed  in  Minoan  times. 
Explorations  carried  out  by  him  in  Crete  from  1894  onwards,  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  the  prehistoric  civilization  of  the 
island,  fully  corroborated  this  belief,  and  showed  that  a  linear 
as  well  as  a  semi-pictorial  form  of  writing  was  diffused  in  the 
island  at  a  very  early  period  ("  Cretan  Pictographs  and  Prae- 
Phoenician  Script,"  Journ.  of  Hellenic  Studies,  xiv.  pt.  u). 
In  1895  he  obtained  a  libation-table  from  the  Dictaean  cave  with 
a  linear  dedication  in  the  prehistoric  writing  ("  Further  Dis- 
coveries," &c.,  J.H.S.  xvii.).  Finally  in  1900  all  scepticism  in 
the  learned  world  was  set  at  rest  by  his  discovery  in  the  palace  of 
Cnossus  of  whole  archives  consisting  of  clay  tablets  inscribed  both 
in  the  pictographic  (hieroglyphic)  and  linear  forms  of  the  Minoan 
script  (Evans,  "  Palace  of  Knossos,"  Reports  of  Excavation, 
/poo-/po5;  Scripta  Minoa,  vol.  i.,  1909).  Supplementary 
finds  of  inscribed  tablets  have  since  been  found  at  Hagia  Triada 
(F.  Halbherr,  Rapporto,  fire.,  Monumenti  antichi,  1903)  and 
elsewhere  (Palaikastro,  Zakro  and  Gournia).  It  thus  appears 
that  a  highly  developed  system  of  writing  existed  in  Minoan 
Crete  some  two  thousand  years  earlier  than  the  first  introduction 
under  Phoenician  influence  of  Greek  letters.  In  this,  as  in  so 
many  other  respects,  the  old  Cretan  tradition  receives  striking 
confirmation.  According  to  the  Cretan  version  preserved  by 
Diodorus  (v.  74),  the  Phoenicians  did  not  invent  letters  but 
simply  altered  their  forms. 

There  is  evidence  that  the  use  in  Crete  of  both  linear  and 
pictorial  signs  existed  in  the  Early  Minoan  period,  contemporary 
with  the  first  Egyptian  dynasties.  It  is,  however,  Earlier 
during  the  Middle  Minoan  age,  the  centre  point  of  which  picto- 
corresponds  with  the  Xllth  Egyptian  dynasty,  accord-  graphic 
ing  to  the  Sothic  system  of  dating,  c.  2000-18503.0., 
that  a  systematized  pictographic  or  hieroglyphic  script  makes 
its  appearance  which  is  common  both  to  signets  and  clay  tablets. 
During  the  Third  Middle  Minoan  period,  the  lower  limits  of 
which  approach  1600  B.C.,  this  pictographic  script  finally  gives 
way  to  a  still  more  developed  linear  system — which  is  itself 
divided  into  an  earlier  and  a  later  class.  The  earlier  class  (A) 
is  already  found  in  the  temple  repositories  of  Cnossus  belong- 
ing to  the  age  immediately  preceding  the  great  remodelling  of  the 


422 


CRETE 


palace,  and  this  class  is  specially  well  represented  in  the 
tablets  of  Hagia  Triada  (M.M.  iii.  and  L.M.  i.).  The  later  class 
(B)  of  the  linear  script  is  that  used  on  the  great  bulk  of  the 
clay  tablets  of  the  Cnossian  palace,  amounting  in  number  to 
nearly  2000. 

These  clay  archives  are  almost  exclusively  inventories  and 
business  documents.  Their  general  purport  is  shown  in  many 
cases  by  pictorial  figures  relating  to  various  objects  which  appear 
on  them — such  as  chariots  and  horses,  ingots  and  metal  vases, 
arms  and  implements,  stores  of  corn,  &c.,  flocks  and  herds.  Many 
showing  human  figures  apparently  contain  lists  of  personal  names. 
A  decimal  system  of  numeration  was  used,  with  numbers  going 
up  to  10,000.  But  the  script  itself  is  as  yet  undeciphered ,  though 
it  is  clear  that  certain  words  have  changing  suffixes,  and  that 
there  were  many  compound  words.  The  script  also  recurs  on 
walls  in  the  shape  of  graffiti,  and  on  vases,  sometimes  ink- written ; 
and  from  the  number  of  seals  originally  attached  to  perishable 
documents  it  is  probable  that  parchment  or  some  similar  material 
was  also  used.  In  the  easternmost  district  of  Crete,  where  the 
aboriginal  "  Eteocretan  "  element  survived  to  historic  times 
(Praesus,  Palaikastro),  later  inscriptions  have  been  discovered 
belonging  to  the  sth  and  succeeding  centuries  B.C.,  written  in 
Greek  letters  but  in  the  indigenous  language  (Comparetti,  Man. 
Ant.  iii.  451  sqq.;  R.  S.  Con  way,  British  School  Annual,  viii. 
125  sqq.  and  ib.  xl.).  In  1908  a  remarkable  discovery  was  made 
by  the  Italian  Mission  at  Phaestus  of  a  clay  disk  with  imprinted 
hieroglyphic  characters  belonging  to  a  non-Cretan  system  and 
probably  from  W.  Anatolia. 

The  remains  of  several  shrines  within  the  building,  and  the 
religious  element  perceptible  in  the  frescoes,  show  that  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  Palace  of  Cnossus  was  devoted 
to  PurPoses  °f  cu^-  ^  ^  dear  that  the  rulers,  as  so 
religion.  commonly  in  ancient  states,  fulfilled  priestly  as  well  as 
royal  functions.  The  evidence  supplied  by  this  and 
other  Cretan  sites  shows  that  the  principal  Minoan  divinity  was  a 
kind  of  Magna  Mater,  a  Great  Mother  or  nature  goddess,  with 
whom  was  associated  a  male  satellite.  The  cult  in  fact  corre- 
sponds in  its  main  outlines  with  the  early  religious  conceptions  of 
Syria  and  a  large  part  of  Anatolia — a  correspondence  probably 
explained  by  a  considerable  amount  of  ethnic  affinity  existing 
between  a  large  section  of  the  primitive  Cretan  population  and 
that  of  southern  Asia  Minor.  The  Minoan  goddess  is  sometimes 
seen  in  her  chthonic  form  with  serpents,  sometimes  in  a  more 
celestial  aspect  with  doves,  at  times  with  lions.  One  part  of  her 
religious  being  survives  in  that  of  the  later  Rhea,  another  in  that 
of  Aphrodite,  one  of  whose  epithets,  Ariadne  (=the  exceeding 
holy) ,  takes  us  back  to  the  earliest  Cnossian  tradition.  Under  her 
native  name,  Britomartis  (=the  sweet  maiden)  or  Dictynna,  she 
approaches  Artemis  and  Leto,  again  associated  with  an  infant 
god,  and  this  Cretan  virgin  goddess  was  worshipped  in  Aegina 
under  the  name  of  Aphaea.  It  is  noteworthy  that  whereas,  in 
Greece  proper,  Zeus  attains  a  supreme  position,  the  old  superi- 
ority of  the  Mother  Goddess  is  still  visible  in  the  Cretan  traditions 
of  Rhea  and  Dictynna  and  the  infant  Zeus. 

Although  images  of  the  divinities  were  certainly  known,  the 
principal  objects  of  cult  in  the  Minoan  age  were  of  the  aniconic 
class;  in  many  cases  these  were  natural  objects,  such  as  rocks  and 
mountain  peaks,  with  their  cave  sanctuaries,  like  those  of  Ida 
or  of  Dicte.  Trees  and  curiously  shaped  stones  were  also 
worshipped,  and  artificial  pillars  of  wood  or  stone.  These  latter, 
as  in  the  well-known  case  of  the  Lion's  Gate  at  Mycenae,  often 
appear  with  guardian  animals  as  their  supporters.  The  essential 
feature  of  this -cult  is  the  bringing  down  of  the  celestial  spirit  by 
proper  incantations  and  ritual  into  these  fetish  objects,  the  dove 
perched  on  a  column  sometimes  indicating  its  descent.  It  is  a 
primitive  cult  similar  to  that  of  Early  Canaan,  illustrated  by  the 
pillow  stone  set  up  by  Jacob,  which  was  literally  "  Bethel  "  or  the 
"  House  of  God."  The  story  of  the  baetylus,  or  stone  swallowed 
by  Saturn  under  the  belief  that  it  was  his  son,  the  Cretan  Zeus, 
seems  to  cover  the  same  idea  and  has  been  derived  from  the  same 
Semitic  word. 

A  special  form  of  this  "  baetylic  "  cult  in  Minoan  Crete  was  the 


representation  of  the  two  principal  divinities  in  their  fetish  form 
by  double  axes.  Shrines  of  the  Double  Axes  have  been  found  in 
the  palace  of  Cnossus  itself,  at  Hagia  Triada,  and  in  a  small 
palace  at  Gournia,  and  many  specimens  of  the  sacred  emblem 
occurred  in  the  Cave  Sanctuary  of  Dicte,  the  mythical  birthplace 
of  the  Cretan  Zeus.  Complete  scenes  of  worship  in  which  libations 
are  poured  before  the  Sacred  Axes  are,  moreover,  given  on  a  fine 
painted  sarcophagus  found  at  Hagia  Triada. 

The  same  cult  survived  to  later  times  in  Caria  in  the  case  of 
Zeus  Labrandeus,  whose  name  is  derived  from  labrys,  the  native 
name  for  the  double  axe,  and  it  had  already  been 
suggested  on  philological  grounds  that  the  Cretan  a*ay  nt 
"  labyrinthos  "  was  formed  from  a  kindred  form  of  Minotaur. 
the  same  word.  The  discovery  that  the  great  Minoan 
foundation  at  Cnossus  was  at  once  a  palace  and  a  sanctuary  of 
the  Double  Axe  and  its  associated  divinities  has  now  supplied  a 
striking  and  it  may  well  be  thought  an  overwhelming  confirma- 
tion of  this  view.  We  can  hardly  any  longer  hesitate  to  recognize 
in  this  vast  building,  with  its  winding  corridors  and  subterranean 
ducts,  the  Labyrinth  of  later  tradition;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  a 
maze  pattern  recalling  the  conventional  representation  of  the 
Labyrinth  in  Greek  art  actually  formed  the  decoration  of  one  of 
the  corridors  of  the  palace.  It  is  difficult,  moreover,  not  to 
connect  the  repeated  wall-paintings  and  reliefs  of  the  palace 
illustrating  the  cruel  bull  sports  of  the  Minoan  arena,  in  which 
girls  as  well  as  youths  took  part,  with  the  legend  of  the  Minotaur, 
or  bull  of  Minos,  for  whose  grisly  meals  Athens  was  forced  to  pay 
annual  tribute  of  her  sons  and  daughters.  It  appears  certain 
from  the  associations  in  which  they  are  found  at  Cnossus,  that 
these  Minoan  bull  sports  formed  part  of  a  religious  ceremony. 
Actual  figures  of  a  monster  with  a  bull's  head  and  man's  body 
occurred  on  seals  of  Minoan  fabric  found  on  this  and  other 
Cretan  sites. 

It  is  abundantly  evident  that  whatever  mythic  element  may 
have  been  interwoven  with  the  old  traditions  of  the  spot,  they 
have  a  solid  substratum  of  reality.  With  such  remains  H/s<or^. 
before  us  it  is  no  longer  sufficient  to  relegate  Minos  to  Sub- 
the  regions  of  sun-myths.  His  legendary  presentation  stratum  of 
as  the  "  Friend  of  God,"  like  Abraham,  to  whom  as  to  Cretan 
Moses  the  law  was  revealed  on  the  holy  mountain,  calls  wyi"s- 
up  indeed  just  such  a  priest-king  of  antiquity  as  the  palace-sanctu- 
ary of  Cnossus  itself  presupposes.  It  seems  possible  even  that 
the  ancient  tradition  which  recorded  an  earlier  or  later  king  of  the 
name  of  Minos  may,  as  suggested  above,  cover  a  dynastic  title. 
The  earlier  and  later  palaces  at  Cnossus  and  Phaestus,  and  the 
interrupted  phases  of  each,  seem  to  point  to  a  succession  of 
dynasties,  to  which,  as  to  its  civilization  as  a  whole,  it  is  certainly 
convenient  to  apply  the  name  "  Minoan."  It  is  interesting,  as 
bringing  out  the  personal  element  in  the  traditional  royal  seat, 
that  an  inscribed  sealing  belonging  to  the  earliest  period  of  the 
later  palace  of  Cnossus  bears  on  it  the  impression  of  two  official 
signets  with  portrait  heads  of  a  man  and  of  a  boy,  recalling  the 
"  associations  "  on  the  coinage  of  imperial  Rome.  It  is  clear  that 
the  later  traditions  in  many  respects  accurately  summed  up  the 
performances  of  the  "  Minoan  "  dynast  who  carried  out  the  great 
buildings  now  brought  to  light.  The  palace,  with  its  wonderful 
works  of  art,  executed  for  Minos  by  the  craftsman  Daedalus, 
has  ceased  to  belong  to  the  realms  of  fancy.  The  extraordinary 
architectural  skill,  the  sanitary  and  hydraulic  science  revealed  in 
details  of  the  building,  bring  us  at  the  same  time  face  to  face 
with  the  power  of  mechanical  invention  with  which  Daedalus 
was  credited.  The  elaborate  method  and  bureaucratic  control 
visible  in  the  clay  documents  of  the  palace  point  to  a  highly 
developed  legal  organization.  The  powerful  fleet  and  maritime 
empire  which  Minos  was  said  to  have  established  will  no  doubt 
receive  fuller  illustration  when  the  sea-town  of  Cnossus  comes  to 
be  explored.  The  appearance  of  ships  on  some  of  the  most 
important  seal-impressions  is  not  needed,  however,  to  show  how 
widely  Minoan  influence  made  itself  felt  in  the  neighbouring 
Mediterranean  regions. 

The  Nilotic  influence  visible  in  the  vases,  seals  and  other 
fabrics  of  the  Early  Minoan  age,  seems  to  imply  a  maritime 


CRETE 


423 


and 

N.  Aegean, 


Greece. 


activity  on  the  part  of  the  islanders  going  back  to  the  days  of  the 
first  Egyptian  dynasties.  In  a  deposit  at  Kahun,  belonging  to 
Barl  the  Xllth  Dynasty,  c.  2000  B.C.,  were  already  found 

relations  imported  polychrome  vases  of  "  Middle  Minoan  " 
with  fabric.  In  the  same  way  the  important  part  played  by 

Egypt.  Cretan  enterprise  in  the  days  of  the  New  Egyptian 
empire  is  illustrated  by  repeated  finds  of  Late  Minoan  pottery 
on  Egyptian  sites.  A  series  of  monuments,  moreover,  belonging 
to  the  early  part  of  the  XVTIIth  Dynasty  show  the  representa- 
The  Ketts  t'ves  °^  ^ne  Kefts  or  peoples  of  "  The  Ring  "  and  of  the 
and  "  Lands  to  the  West  "  in  the  fashionable  costume  of 

Philis-  the  Cnossian  court,  bearing  precious  vessels  and  other 
tines.  objects  of  typical  Minoan  forms.  Farther  to  the  east 
the  recent  excavations  on  the  old  Philistine  sites  like  Gezer  have 
brought  to  light  swords  and  vases  of  Cretan  manufacture  in  the 
later  palace  style.  The  principal  Philistine  tribe  is  indeed  known 
in  the  biblical  records  as  the  Cherethims  or  Cretans,  and  the 
Minoan  name  and  the  cult  of  the  Cretan  Zeus  were  preserved  at 

Gaza  to  the  latest  classical  days.  Similar  evidence 
Aviations  °t  Minoan  contact,  and  indeed  of  wholesale  colonization 
with  from  the  Aegean  side,  recurs  in  Cyprus.  The  culture  of 

Cyprus        the  more  northerly  Aegean  islands,  best  revealed  to  us 

by  the  excavations  of  the  British  School  at  Phylakopi 
'"  in  Melos,  also  attest  a  growing  influence  from  the 
Cretan  side,  which,  about  the  time  of  the  later  palace  at 
Cnossus,  becomes  finally  predominant. 

Turning  to  the  mainland  of  Greece  we  see  that  the  astonishing 
remains  of  a  highly  developed  prehistoric  civilization,  which 
nla  Schliemann  first  brought  to  light  in  1876  at  Mycenae, 

influence  and  which  from  those  discoveries  received  the  general 
on  mala-  name  of"  Mycenaean,"  in  the  main  represent  a  trans- 
of  marine  offshoot  from  the  Minoan  stock.  The  earlier 

remains  both  at  Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  still  imperfectly 
investigated,  show  that  this  Cretan  influence  goes  back  to  the 
Middle  Minoan  age,  with  its  characteristic  style  of  polychrome 
vase  decoration.  The  contents  of  the  royal  tombs,  on  the  other 
hand,  reveal  a  wholesale  correspondence  with  the  fabrics  of  the 
first,  and,  to  a  less  degree,  the  second  Late  Minoan  age,  as 
illustrated  by  the  relics  belonging  to  the  Middle  Period  of  the  later 
palace  at  Cnossus  and  by  those  of  the  royal  villa  at  Hagia  Triada. 
The  chronological  centre  of  the  great  beehive  tombs  seems  to 
be  slightly  lower.  The  ceiling  of  that  of  Orchomenos,  and  the 
painted  vases  and  gold  cups  from  the  Vaphio  tomb  by  Sparta, 
with  their  marvellous  reliefs  showing  scenes  of  bull-hunting, 
represent  the  late  palace  style  at  Cnossus  in  its  final  development. 
The  leading  characteristics  of  this  mainland  civilization  are 
thus  indistinguishable  from  the  Minoan.  The  funeral  rites  are 
similar,  and  the  religious  representations  show  an  identical  form 
of  worship.  At  the  same  time  the  local  traditions  and  conditions 
differentiate  the  continental  from  the  insular  branch.  In  Crete, 
in  the  later  period,  when  the  rulers  could  trust  to  the  "  wooden 
walls  "  of  the  Minoan  navy,  there  is  no  parallel  for  the  massive 
fortifications  that  we  see  at  Tiryns  or  Mycenae.  The  colder  winter 
climate  of  mainland  Greece  dictated  the  use  of  fixed  hearths, 
whereas  in  the  Cretan  palaces  these  seem  to  have  been  of  a  port- 
able kind,  and  the  different  usage  in  this  respect  again  reacted 
on  the  respective  forms  of  the  principal  hall  or  "  Megaron." 

Minoan  culture  under  its  mainland  aspect  left  its  traces  on  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens, — a  corroboration  of  the  tradition  which 
iHinoaa  ma-de  the  Athenians  send  their  tribute  children  to 
influences  Minos.  Similar  traces  extend  through  a  large  part  of 

northern  Greece  from  Cephallenia  and  Leucadia  to 

Thessaly,  and  are  specially  well  marked  at  lolcus  (near 
mod.  Volo),  the  legendary  embarking  place  of  the  Argonauts. 
This  circumstance  deserves  attention  owing  to  the  special  con- 
nexion traditionally  existing  between  the  Minyans  of  lolcus  and 
those  of  Orchomenus,  the  point  of  all  others  on  this  side  where 
the  early  Cretan  influence  seems  most  to  have  taken  root.  The 
Minoan  remains  at  Orchomenus  which  are  traceable  to  the  latest 
period  go  far  to  substantiate  the  philological  comparison  between 
the  name  of  Minyas,  the  traditional  ancestor  of  this  ancient  race, 
and  that  of  Minos. 


Still  farther  to  the  north-west  a  distinct  Minoan  influence  is 
perceptible  in  the  old  Illyrian  lands  east  of  the  Adriatic,  and  its 
traces  reappear  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Venice.  It  is  Aarlaac 
well  marked  throughout  southern  Italy  from  Taranto  ana 
to  Naples.  It  was  with  Sicily,  however,  that  the  later  Italian 
history  of  Minos  and  his  great  craftsman  Daedalus  was  extenslon- 
in  a  special  way  connected  by  ancient  tradition.  Here,  as  in 
Crete,  Daedalus  executed  great  works  like  the  temple  of  Eryx, 
and  it  was  on  Sicilian  soil  that  Minos,  engaged  in  a  western 
campaign,  was  said  to  have  met  with  a  violent  death  at  the 
hands  of  the  native  king  Kokalos  (Cocalus)  and  his  daughters. 
His  name  is  preserved  in  the  Sicilian  Minoa,  and  his  tomb  was 
pointed  out  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Agrigentum,  with  a  shrine 
above  dedicated  to  his  native  Aphrodite,  the  lady  of  the  dove; 
and  in  this  connexion  it  must  be  observed  that  the  cult  of  Eryx 
perpetuates  to  much  later  times  the  characteristic  features  of 
the  worship  of  the  Cretan  Nature  goddess,  as  now  revealed 
to  us  in  the  palace  of  Cnossus  and  elsewhere.  These  ancient 
indications  of  a  Minoan  connexion  with  SicDy  have  now  received 
interesting  confirmation  in  the  numerous  discoveries,  principally 
due  to  the  recent  excavations  of  P.  Orsi,  of  arms  and  painted  vases 
of  Late  Minoan  fabric  in  Bronze  Age  tombs  of  the  provinces  of 
Syracuse  and  Girgenti  (Agrigentum)  belonging  to  the  late  Bronze 
Age.  Some  of  these  objects,  such  as  certain  forms  of  swords  and 
vases,  seem  to  be  of  local  fabric,  but  derived  from  originals  going 
back  to  the  beginning  of  the  Late  Minoan  age. 

The  abiding  tradition  of  the  Cretan  aborigines,  as  preserved 
by  Herodotus  (vii.  171),  ascribes  the  eventual  settlement  of  the 
Greeks  in  Crete  to  a  widespread  desolation  that  had  Minoan 
fallen  on  the  central  regions.  It  is  certain  that  by  crisis: 
the  beginning  of  the  i4th  century  B.C.,  when  the  signs  "•  I40° 
of  already  decadent  Minoan  art  are  perceptible  in  the 
imported  pottery  found  in  the  palace  of  Akhenaton  at  Tell  el- 
Amarna,  some  heavy  blows  had  fallen  on  the  island  power. 
Shortly  before  this  date  the  palaces  both  of  Cnossus  and  Phaestus 
had  undergone  a  great  destruction,  and  though  during  the  ensu- 
ing period  both  these  royal  residences  were  partially  reoccupied 
it  was  for  the  most  part  at  any  rate  by  poorer  denizens,  and  their 
great  days  as  palaces  were  over  for  ever.  Elsewhere  at  Cnossus, 
in  the  smaller  palace  to  the  west,  the  royal  villa  and  the  town 
houses,  we  find  the  evidence  of  a  similar  catastrophe  followed 
by  an  imperfect  recovery,  and  the  phenomenon  meets  us  again 
at  Palaikastro  and  other  early  settlements  in  the  east  of  Crete. 
At  the  same  time,  to  whatever  cause  this  serious  setback  of 
Minoan  civilization  was  owing,  it  would  be  very  unsafe  to  infer 
as  yet  any  large  displacement  of  the  original  inhabitants  by  the 
invading  swarms  from  the  mainland  or  elsewhere.  The  evidence 
of  a  partial  restoration  of  the  domestic  quarter  of  the  palace  of 
Cnossus  tends  to  show  a  certain  measure  of  dynastic  continuity. 
There  is  evidence,  moreover,  that  the  script  and  with  it  the 
indigenous  language  did  not  die  out  during  this  period,  and  that 
therefore  the  days  of  Hellenic  settlement  at  Cnossus  were  not 
yet.  The  recent  exploration  of  a  cemetery  belonging  to  the 
close  of  the  great  palace  period,  and  in  a  greater  degree  to  the 
age  succeeding  the  catastrophe,  has  now  conclusively  shown 
that  there  was  no  real  break  in  the  continuity  of  Minoan  culture. 
This  third  Late  Minoan  period — the  beginning  of  which  may  be 
fixed  about  1400 — is  an  age  of  stagnation  and  decline,  but  the 
point  of  departure  continued  to  be  the  models  supplied  by  the 
age  that  had  preceded  it.  Art  was  still  by  no  means  extinct,  and 
its  forms  and  decorative  elements  are  simply  later  derivatives 
of  the  great  palace  style.  Not  only  the  native  form  of  writing, 
but  the  household  arrangements,  sepulchral  usages,  and  religious 
rites  remain  substantially  the  same.  The  third  Late  Minoan  age 
corresponds  generally  with  the  Late  Mycenaean  stage  in  the 
Aegean  world  (see  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION).  It  is  an  age  indeed 
in  which  the  culture  as  a  whole,  though  following  a  lower  level, 
attains  the  greatest  amount  of  uniformity.  From  Sicily  and  even 
the  Spanish  coast  to  the  Troad,  southern  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus  and 
Palestine, — from  the  Nile  valley  to  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  very 
similar  forms  were  now  diffused.  Here  and  there,  as  in  Cyprus, 
we  watch  the  development  of  some  local  schools.  How  far  Crete 


424 


CRETE 


itself  continued  to  preserve  the  hegemony  which  may  reasonably 
be  ascribed  to  it  at  an  earlier  age  must  remain  doubtful.  It  is 
certain  that  towards  the  close  of  this  third  and  concluding 
Late  Minoan  period  in  the  island  certain  mainland  types  of  swords 
and  safety-pins  make  their  appearance,  which  are  symptomatic 
of  the  great  invasion  from  that  side  that  was  now  impending  or 
had  already  begun. 

Principal  Minoan  Sites. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  to  give  a  general  view  of  the  more 
important  Minoan  remains  recently  excavated  on  various  Cretan 
sites. 

Cnossus. — The  palace  of  Cnossus  is  on  the  hill  of  Kephala  about 
4  m.  inland  from  Candia.  As  a  scene  of  human  settlement  this  site 
is  of  immense  antiquity.  The  successive  "  Minoan  "  strata,  which 
go  well  back  into  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.,  reach  down  to  a  depth 
of  about  17  ft.  But  below  this  again  is  a  human  deposit,  from 
20  to  26  ft.  in  thickness,  representing  a  long  and  gradual  course  of 
Neolithic  or  Later  Stone- Age  development.  Assuming  that  the  lower 
strata  were  formed  at  approximately  the  same  rate  as  the  upper, 
we  have  an  antiquity  of  from  12,000  to  14,000  years  indicated  for  the 
first  Neolithic  settlement  on  this  spot.  The  hill  itself,  like  a  Tell  of 
Babylonia,  is  mainly  formed  of  the  debris  of  human  settlements. 
The  palace  was  approached  from  the  west  by  a  paved  Minoan  Way 
communicating  with  a  considerable  building  on  the  opposite  hill. 
This  road  was  flanked  by  magazines,  some  belonging  to  the  royal 
armoury,  and  abutted  on  a  paved  area  with  stepped  seats  on  two 
sides  (theatral  area).  The  palace  itself  approximately  formed  a 
square  with  a  large  paved  court  in  the  centre.  It  had  a  N.S.  orienta- 
tion. The  principal  entrance  was  to  the  north,  but  what  appears  to 
have  been  the  royal  entrance  opened  on  a  paved  court  on  the  west 
side.  This  entrance  communicated  with  a  corridor  showing  frescoes 
of  a  processional  character.  The  west  side  of  the  palace  contained 
a  series  of  1 8  magazines  with  great  store  jars  and  cists  and  large 
hoards  of  clay  documents.  A  remarkable  feature  of  this  quarter  is 
a  small  council  chamber  with  a  gypsum  throne  of  curiously  Gothic 
aspect  and  lower  stone  benches  round.  The  walls  of  the  throne  room 
show  frescoes  with  sacred  griffins  confronting  each  other  in  a  Nile 
landscape,  and  a  small  bath  chamber — perhaps  of  ritual  use- — is 
attached.  This  quarter  of  the  palace  shows  the  double  axe  sign 
constantly  repeated  on  its  walls  and  pillars,  and  remains  of  miniature 
wall-paintings  showing  pillar  shrines,  in  some  cases  with  double  axes 
stuck  into  the  wooden  columns.  Here  too  were  found  the  repositories 
of  an  early  shrine  containing  exquisite  faience  figures  and  reliefs, 
including  a  snake  goddess — another  aspect  of  the  native  divinity 
— and  her  votaries.  The  central  object  of  cult  in  this  shrine  was 
apparently  a  marble  cross.  Near  the  north-west  angle  of  the  palace 
was  a  larger  bath  chamber,  and  by  the  N.  entrance  were  remains  of 
great  reliefs  of  bull-hunting  scenes  in  painted  gesso  duro.  South  of 
the  central  court  were  found  parts  of  a  relief  in  the  same  material, 
showing  a  personage  with  a  fleur-de-lis  crown  and  collar.  The  east 
wing  of  the  palace  was  the  really  residential  part.  Here  was  what 
seems  to  have  been  the  basement  of  a  very  large  hall  or  "  Megaron," 
approached  directly  from  the  central  court,  and  near  this  were  found 
further  reliefs,  fresco  representations  of  scenes  of  the  bull-ring  with 
female  as  well  as  male  toreadors,  and  remains  of  a  magnificent 
gaming-board  of  gold-plated  ivory  with  intarsia  work  of  crystal 
plaques  set  on  silver  plates  and  blue  enamel  (cyanus).  The  true 
domestic  quarter  lay  to  the  south  of  the  great  hall,  and  was  approached 
from  the  central  court  by  a  descending  staircase,  of  which  three 
flights  and  traces  of  a  fourth  are  preserved.  This  gives  access  to 
a  whole  series  of  halls  and  private  rooms  (halls  "  of  the  Colonnades," 
"  of  the  Double  Axes,"  "  Queen's  Megaron"  with  bath-room  attached 
and  remains  of  the  fish  fresco,  "  Treasury  "  with  ivory  figures  and 
other  objects  of  art),  together  with  extensive  remains  of  an  upper 
storey.  The  drainage  system  here,  including  a  water-closet,  is  of  the 
most  complete  and  modern  kind.  Near  this  domestic  quarter  was 
found  a  small  shrine  of  the  Double  Axes,  with  cult  objects  and 
offertory  vessels  in  their  places.  The  traces  of  an  earlier  "  Middle 
Minoan  "  palace  beneath  the  later  floor-levels  are  most  visible  on 
the  east  side,  with  splendid  ceramic  remains.  Here  also  are  early 
magazines  with  huge  store  jars.  At  the  foot  of  the  slope  on  this  side, 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  palace,  are  massive  supporting 
walls  and  a  bastion  with  descending  flights  of  steps,  and  a  water- 
channel  devised  with  extraordinary  hydraulic  science  (Evans, 
"  Palace  of  Knossos,"  "  Reports  of  Excavations  1900—1905,"  in 
Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  vi.  sqq.;  Journ.  R.I.B.A. 
(1902),  pt.  iv.  For  the  palace  pottery  see  D.  Mackenzie,  Journ.  of 
Hellenic  Studies^,  xxiii.).  The  palace  site  occupies  nearly  six  acres. 
To  the  N.E.  of  it  came  to  light  a  "  royal  villa  "  with  staircase,  and  a 
basilica-like  hall  (Evans,  B.S.  Annual,  ix.  130  seq.).  To  the  N.W. 
was  a  dependency  containing  an  important  hoard  of  bronze  vessels 
(ib.  p.  112  sqq.).  The  building  on  the  hill  to  the  W.  approached 
by  the  Minoan  paved  way  has  the  appearance  of  a  smaller  palace 
(B.S.  Annual,  xii.,  1906).  Many  remains  of  private  houses  belonging 
to  the  prehistoric  town  have  also  come  to  light  (Hogarth,  B.S. A.  vi. 
[1900],  p.  70  sqq.).  A  little  N.  of  the  town,  at  a  spot  called  Zafer 


Papoura,  an  extensive  Late  Minoan  cemetery  was  excavated  in 
1904  (Evans,  The  Prehistoric  Tombs  of  Knossus,  1906),  and  on  a  height 
about  2  m.  N.  of  this,  a  royal  tomb  consisting  of  a  square  chamber, 
which  originally  had  a  pointed  vault  of  "  Cyclopaean  "  structure 
approached  by  a  forehall  or  rock-cut  passage.  This  monumental 
work  seems  to  date  from  the  close  of  the  Middle  Minoan  age,  but  has 
been  re-used  for  interments  at  successive  periods  (Evans,  Archaeo- 
logia,  1906,  p.  136  sqq.).  It  is  possibly  the  traditional  tomb  of 
Idomeneus.  (For  later  discoveries  see  further  CNOSSUS.) 

Phaestus. — The  acropolis  of  this  historic  city  looks  on  the  Libyan 
Sea  and  commands  the  extensive  plain  of  Messara.  On  the  eastern 
hill  of  the  acropolis,  excavations  initiated  by  F.  Halbherr  on  behalf 
of  the  Italian  Archaeological  Mission  and  subsequently  carried  out 
by  L.  Pernier  have  brought  to  light  another  Minoan  palace,  much 
resembling  on  a  somewhat  smaller  scale  that  of  Cnossus.  The  plan 
here  too  was  roughly  quadrangular  with  a  central  court,  but  owing 
to  the  erosion  of  the  hillside  a  good  deal  of  the  eastern  quarter  has 
disappeared.  The  Phaestian  palace  belongs  to  two  distinct  periods, 
and  the  earlier  or  "  Middle  Minoan  "  part  is  better  preserved  than 
at  Cnossus.  The  west  court  and  entrance  belonging  to  the  earlier 
building  show  many  analogies  with  those  of  Cnossus,  and  the  court 
was  commanded  to  the  north  by  tiers  of  stone  benches  like  those  of 
the  "  theatral  area  "  at  Cnossus  on  a  larger  scale.  Magazines  with 
fine  painted  store  jars  came  to  light  beneath  the  floor  of  the  later 
"  propylaeum."  The  most  imposing  block  of  the  later  building  is 
formed  by  a  group  of  structures  rising  from  the  terrace  formed  by 
the  old  west  wall.  A  fine  paved  corridor  running  east  from  this  gives 
access  to  a  line  of  the  later  magazines,  and  through  a  columnar  hall 
to  the  central  court  beyond,  while  to  the  left  of  this  a  broad  and 
stately  flight  of  steps  leads  up  to  a  kind  of  entrance  hall  on  an  upper 
terrace.  North  of  the  central  court  is  a  domestic  quarter  presenting 
analogies  with  that  of  Cnossus,  but  throughout  the  later  building 
there  was  a  great  dearth  of  the  frescoes  and  other  remains  such  as 
invest  the  Cnossian  palace  with  so  much  interest.  There  are  also 
few  remaining  traces  here  of  upper  storeys.  It  is  evident  that  in  this 
case  also  the  palace  was  overtaken  by  a  great  catastrophe,  followed 
by  a  partial  reoccupation  towards  the  close  of  the  Late  Minoan  age 
(L.  Pernier,  Scam  delta  missione  italiana  a  Phaestos;  Monumenli 
antichi,  xii.  and  xiv.). 

About  a  kilometre  distant  from  the  palace  of  Phaestus  near 
the  village  of  Kalyvia  a  Late  Minoan  cemetery  was  brought  to  light 
in  1901,  belonging  to  the  same  period  as  that  of  Cnossus  (Savignoni, 
Necropoli  di  Phaestos,  1905). 

Hagia  Triada. — On  a  low  hill  crowned  by  a  small  church  of  the 
above  name,  about  3  m.  nearer  the  Libyan  Sea  than  Phaestus,  a 
small  palace  or  royal  villa  was  discovered  by  Halbherr  and  excavated 
by  the  Italian  Mission.  In  its  structure  and  general  arrangements 
it  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  palace  of  Phaestus  and  Cnossus 
on  a  smaller  scale.  The  buildings  themselves,  with  the  usual  halls, 
bath-rooms  and  magazines,  together  with  a  shrine  of  the  Mother 
Goddess,  occupy  two  sides  of  a  rectangle,  enclosing  a  court  at  a 
higher  level  approached  by  flights  of  stairs.  Repositories  also  came 
to  light  containing  treasure  in  the  shape  of  bronze  ingots.  In  con- 
trast to  the  palace  of  Phaestus,  the  contents  of  the  royal  villa  proved 
exceptionally  rich,  and  derive  a  special  interest  from  the  fact  that 
the  catastrophe  which  overwhelmed  the  building  belongs  to  a 
somewhat  earlier  part  of  the  Late  Minoan  age  than  that  which 
overwhelmed  Cnossus  and  Phaestus.  Clay  tablets  were  here  found 
belonging  to  the  earlier  type  of  the  linear  script  (Class  A),  together 
with  a  great  number  of  clay  sealings  with  religious  and  other  devices 
and  incised  countermarks.  Both  the  signet  types  and  the  other 
objects  of  art  here  discovered  display  the  fresh  naturaliem  that 
characterizes  in  a  special  way  the  first  Late  Minoan  period.  A 
remarkable  wall-painting  depicts  a  cat  creeping  over  ivy-covered 
rocks  and  about  to  spring  on  a  pheasant.  The  steatite  vases  with 
reliefs  are  of  great  importance.  One  of  these  shows  a  ritual  pro- 
cession, apparently  of  reapers  singing  and  dancing  to  the  sound  of 
a  sistrum.  On  another  a  Minoan  warrior  prince  appears  before  his 
retainers.  A  tall  funnel-shaped  vase  of  this  class,  of  which  a  con- 
siderable part  has  been  preserved,  is  divided  into  zones  showing 
bull-hunting  scenes,  wrestlers  and  pugilists  in  gladiatorial  costume, 
the  whole  executed  in  a  most  masterly  manner.  The  small  palace 
was  reconstructed  at  a  later  period,  and  at  a  somewhat  higher  level. 
To  a  period  contemporary  with  the  concluding  age  of  the  Cnossian 
palace  must  be  referred  a  remarkable  sarcophagus  belonging  to  a 
neighbouring  cemetery.  The  chest  is  of  limestone  coated  with  stucco, 
adorned  with  life-like  paintings  of  offertory  scenes  in  connexion  with 
the  sacred  Double  Axes  of  Minoan  cult.  There  have  also  come  to 
light  remains  of  a  great  domed  mortuary  chamber  of  primitive  con- 
struction containing  relics  of  the  Early  Minoan  period  (Halbherr, 
Monumenti  Antichi,  xiii.  (1903),  p.  6  sqq.,  and  Memotie  del 
institute  lombardo,  1905;  Paribeni,  Lavori  eseguiti  detta  missione 
italiana  nel  Palazzo  e  nella  necropoli  di  Haghia  Triada;  Rendiconti, 
&c.,  xi.  and  xii.;  Savignoni,  //  Vaso  di  Haghia  Triada). 

Palaikastro.—NeaT  this  village,  lying  on  the  easternmost  coast  of 
Crete,  the  British  School  at  Athens  has  excavated  a  section  of  a 
considerable  Minoan  town.  The  buildings  here  show  a  stratification 
analogous  to  that  of  the  palace  of  Cnossus.  The  town  was  traversed 
by  a  well-paved  street  with  a  stone  sewer,  and  contained  several 
important  private  houses  and  a  larger  one  which  seems  to  have  been 


CRETE 


PLATE  I. 


FIG.  i.— PALACE   OF   CNOSSUS.     GENERAL   VIEW  OF   THE   SITE   FROM    THE   EAST. 


VII.  434. 


FIG.  2.— VIEW  OF   PART  OF  GRAND  STAIRCASE  AND   HALL  OF  COLONNADES 
(WOODEN  COLUMNS   RESTORED)     (CNOSSUS). 
(By  permission  of  Dr  A.  J.  Evans.) 


PLATE  II. 


CRETE 


FIG.  3—  LARGE  OIL-JARS  IN  EAST  MAGAZINES   (CNOSSUS). 


FIG.  4.— GYPSUM   THRONE    (FRESCO  PAINTING  VISIBLE  FIG.  5.— BASE   OF   WEST   WALL   NEAR   ROYAL 

ON  WALL)  (CNOSSUS).  ENTRANCE   (CNOSSUS). 

(By  permission  of  Dr  A.  J.  Evans.) 


CRETE 


425 


a  small  palace.  Among  the  more  interesting  relics  found  were  ivory 
figures  of  Egyptian  or  strongly  Egyptianizing  fabric.  On  an  ad- 
jacent hill  were  the  remains  of  what  seems  to  have  been  in  later  times 
a  temple  of  the  Dictaean  Zeus,  and  from  the  occurrence  of  rich 
deposits  of  Minoan  vases  and  sacrificial  remains  at  a  lower  level,  the 
religious  tradition  represented  by  the  later  temple  seems  to  go  back 
to  prehistoric  times.  On  the  neighbouring  height  of  Petsofa,  by  a 
rock-shelter,  remains  of  another  interesting  shrine  were  brought  to 
light  dating  from  the  Middle  Minoan  period,  and  containing  interest- 
ing votive  offerings  of  terra-cotta,  many  of  them  apparently  relating 
to  cures  or  to  the  warding  off  of  diseases  (R.  C.  Bosanquet,  British 
School  Annual,  viii.  286  sqq.,  ix.  274  sqq.;  R.  M.  Dawkins,  ibid. 
ix.  290  sqq.,  x. ;  J.  L.  Myres,  ibid.  ix.  356  sqq.). 

Gournia. — Near  this  hamlet  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mirabello  in 
eastCrete.theAmericanarchaeologistMissHarrietBoydhasexcavated 
a  great  part  of  another  Minoan  town.  It  covers  the  sides  of  a  long 
hill,  its  main  avenue  being  a  winding  roadway  leading  to  a  small 
palace.  It  contained  a  shrine  of  the  Cretan  snake  goddess,  and  was 
rich  in  minor  relics,  chiefly  in  the  shape  of  bronze  implements  and 
pottery  for  household  use.  The  bulk  of  the  remains  belong  here,  as 
at  Hagia  Triada,  to  the  beginning  of  the  Late  Minoan  period,  but 
there  are  signs  of  reoccupation  in  the  decadent  Minoan  age.  The 
remains  supply  detailed  information  as  to  the  everyday  life  of  a 
Cretan  country  town  about  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  B.C. 
(H.  Boyd,  Excavations  at  Gournia). 

Zakro. — Near  the  lower  hamlet  of  that  name  on  the  S.E.  coast 
important  remains  of  a  settlement  contemporary  with  that  of  Gournia 
were  explored  by  D.  G.  Hogarth,  consisting  of  houses  and  pits 
containing  painted  pottery  of  exceptional  beauty  and  a  great  variety 
of  seal  impressions.  The  deep  bay  in  which  Zakro  lies  is  a  well-known 
port  of  call  for  the  fishing  fleets  on  their  way  to  the  sponge  grounds 
of  the  Libyan  coast,  and  doubtless  stood  in  the  same  stead  to  the 
Minoan  shipping  (D.G.Hogarth,  Annual  of  the  British  School,  vii.  121 
sqq.,  and  Journ.  of  Hellenic  Studies,  xxii.  76  sqq.  and  333  sqq.). 

Dictaean  Cave. — Near  the  village  of  Psychro  on  the  Lassithi  range, 
answering  to  the  western  Dicte,  opens  a  large  cave,  identified  with 
the  legendary  birthplace  of  the  Cretan  Zeus.  This  cavern  also  shared 
with  that  of  Ida  the  claim  to  have  been  that  in  which  Minos,  Moses- 
like,  received  the  law  from  Zeus.  The  exploration  begun  by  the 
Italian  Mission  under  Halbherr  and  continued  by  Evans,  who  found 
here  the  inscribed  libation  table  (see  above),  was  completed  by 
Hogarth  in  1900.  Besides  the  great  entrance  hall  of  the  cavern, 
which  served  as  the  upper  shrine,  were  descending  vaults  forming  a 
lower  sanctuary  going  down  deep  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Great 
quantities  of  votive  figures  and  objects  of  cult,  such  as  the  fetish 
double  axes  and  stone  tables  of  offering,  were  found  both  above  and 
below.  In  the  lower  sanctuary  the  natural  pillars  of  stalagmite 
had  been  used  as  objects  of  worship,  and  bronze  votive  objects 
thrust  into  their  crevices  (Halbherr,  Museo  di  antichita  classica,  ii. 
pp.  906-910;  Evans,  Further  Discoveries,  &c.,  p.  350  sqq.,  Myc.  Tree 
and  Pillar  Cult,  p.  14  sqq.;  Hogarth,  "The  Dictaean  Cave," 
Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  vi.  94  sqq.). 

Pseira  and  Mochlos. — On  these  two  islets  on  the  northern  coast 
of  E.  Crete,  R.  Seager,  an  American  explorer,  has  found  striking 
remains  of  flourishing  Minoan  settlements.  The  contents  of  a  series 
of  tombs  at  Mochlos  throw  an  entirely  new  light  on  the  civilization  of 
the  Early  Minoan  age. 

The  above  summary  gives,  indeed,  a  very  imperfect  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  remains  of  the  great  Minoan  civiliza- 
tion are  spread  throughout  the  island.  The  "hundred 
cities"  ascribed  to  Crete  by  Homer  are  in  a  fair  way 
period.  of  becoming  an  ascertained  reality.  The  great  days 
of  Crete  lie  thus  beyond  the  historic  period.  The 
period  of  decline  referred  to  above  (Late  Minoan  III.),  which 
begins  about  the  beginning  of  the  i4th  century  before  our  era, 
must,  from  the  abundance  of  its  remains,  have  been  of  consider- 
able duration.  As  to  the  character  of  the  invading  elements  that 
hastened  its  close,  and  the  date  of  their  incursions,  contemporary 
Egyptian  monuments  afford  the  best  clue.  The  Keftiu  who 
represented  Minoan  culture  in  Egypt  in  the  concluding  period 
of  the  Cnossian  palace  (Late  Minoan  II.)  cease  to  appear  on 
Egyptian  monuments  towards  the  end  of  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty 
(c.  1350  B.C.),  and  their  place  is  taken  by  the  "Peoples  of  the 
Sea."  The  Achaeans,  under  the  name  Akaiusha,  already  appear 
among  the  piratical'Invaders  of  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Rameses 
III.  (c.  1200  B.C.)  of  the  XXth  Dynasty  (see  H.  R.  Hall, 
"  Keftiu  and  the  Peoples  of  the  Sea,"  Annual  of  British  School 
at  Athens,  viii.  157  sqq.). 
Greet  About  the  same  time  the  evidences  of  imports  of 

*ettie-  Late  Minoan  or  "  Mycenaean "  fabrics  in  Egypt 
™re"/S/n  definitely  cease.  In  the  Odyssey  we  already  find  the 
Achaeans  together  with  Dorians  settled  in  central 
Crete.  In  the  extreme  east  and  west  of  the  island  the  aboriginal 


"  Eteocretan "  element,  however,  as  represented  respectively 
by  the  Praesiansor  Cydonians,  still  held  its  own,  and  inscriptions 
written  in  Greek  characters  show  that  the  old  language  survived 
to  the  centuries  immediately  preceding  the  Christian  era. 

The  mainland  invasions  which  produced  these  great  ethnic 
changes  in  Crete  are  marked  archaeologically  by  signs  of  wide- 
spread destruction  and  by  a  considerable  break  in 
the  continuity  of  the  insular  civilization.  New  burial  ages.  * 
customs,  notably  the  rite  of  cremation  in  place  of  the 
older  corpse-burial,  are  introduced,  and  in  many  cases  the  earlier 
tombs  were  pillaged  and  re-used  by  new  comers.  The  use  of 
iron  for  arms  and  implements  now  finally  triumphed  over 
bronze.  Northern  forms  of  swords  and  safety-pins  are  now 
found  in  general  use.  A  new  geometrical  style  of  decoration 
like  that  of  contemporary  Greece  largely  supplarts  the  Minoan 
models.  The  civic  foundations  which  belong  to  this  period, 
and  which  include  the  greater  part  of  the  massive  ruins  of 
Goulas  and  Anavlachos  in  the  province  of  Mirabello  and  of 
Hyrtakina  in  the  west,  affect  more  or  less  precipitous  sites  and 
show  a  greater  tendency  to  fortification.  The  old  system  of 
writing  now  dies  out,  and  it  is  not  till  some  three  centuries 
later  that  the  new  alphabetic  forms  are  introduced  from  a 
Semitic  source.  The  whole  course  of  the  older  Cretan  civilization 
is  awhile  interrupted,  and  is  separated  from  the  new  by  the  true 
dark  ages  of  Greece. 

It  is  nevertheless  certain  that  some  of  the  old  traditions  were 
preserved  by  the  remnants  of  the  old  population  now  reduced 
to  a  subject  condition,  and  that  these  finally  leavened  the  whole 
lump,  so  that  once  more — this  time  under  a  Hellenic  guise — 
Crete  was  enabled  to  anticipate  mainland  Greece  in  nascent 
civilization.  Already  in  1883  A.  Milchhofer  (Anjiinge  der 
Kunst)  had  called  attention  to  certain  remarkable  examples 
of  archaic  Greek  bronze-work,  and  the  subsequent  discovery 
of  the  votive  bronzes  in  the  cave  of  Zeus  on  Mount  Ida,  and 
notably  the  shields  with  their  fine  embossed  designs,  shows  that 
by  the  8th  century  B.C.  Cretan  technique  in  metal  not  only  held 
its  own  beside  imported  Cypro-Phoenician  work,  but  was  dis- 
tinctly ahead  of  that  of  the  rest  of  Greece  (Halbherr,  Bronzi 
del  antro  di  Zeus  Idea).  The  recent  excavations  by  the  British 
School  on  the  site  of  the  Dictaean  temple  at  Palaikastro  bear 
out  this  conclusion,  and  an  archaic  marble  head  of  Apollo  found 
at  Eleutherna  shows  that  classical  tradition  was  not  at  fault  in 
recording  the  existence  of  a  very  early  school  of  Greek  sculpture 
in  the  island,  illustrated  by  the  names  of  Dipoenos  and  Scyllis. 

The  Dorian  dynasts  in  Crete  seem  in  some  sort  to  have  claimed 
descent  from  Minos,  and  the  Dorian  legislators  sought  their 
sanction  in  the  laws  which  Minos  was  said  to  have  received 
from  the  hands  of  the  Cretan  Zeus.  The  great  monument 
of  Gortyna  discovered  by  Halbherr  and  Fabricius  (Monumenti 
antichi,  iii.)  is  the  most  important  monument  of  early  law 
hitherto  brought  to  light  in  any  part  of  the  Greek  world. 

Among  other  Greek  remains  in  the  island  may  be  mentioned, 
besides  the  great  inscription,  the  archaic  temple  of  the  Pythian 
Apollo  at  Gortyna,  a  plain  square  building  with  a 
pronaos  added  in  later  times,  excavated  by  Halbherr,  r 
1885  and  1887  (Mon.  Ant.  iii.  2  seqq.),  the  Hellenic 
bridge  and  the  vast  rock-cut  reservoirs  of  Eleutherna,  the  city 
walls  of  Itanos,  Aptera  and  Polyrrhenia,  and  at  Phalasarna,  the 
rock-cut  throne  of  a  divinity,  the  port,  and  the  remains  of  a 
temple.  The  most  interesting  record,  however,  that  has  been 
preserved  of  later  Hellenic  civilization  in  the  island  is  the 
coinage  of  the  Cretan  cities  (J.  N.  Svoronos,  Numismutique  de 
la  Crete  ancienne;  W.  Wroth,  B.  M.  Coin  Catalogue,  Crete,  Sfc.; 
P.  Gardner,  The  Types  of  Greek  Coins) ,  which  during  the  good 
period  display  a  peculiarly  picturesque  artistic  style  distinct 
from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Greek  world,  and  sometimes  indicative 
of  a  revival  of  Minoan  types.  But  in  every  case  these  artistic 
efforts  were  followed  at  short  intervals  by  gross  relapses  into 
barbarism  which  reflect  the  anarchy  of  the  political  conditions. 

Under  the  Pax  Romana  the  Cretan  cities  again  enjoyed  a 
large  measure  of  prosperity,  illustrated  by  numerous  edifices 
still  existing  at  the  time  of  the  Venetian  occupation.  A  good 


426 


CRETE 


account  of  these  is  preserved  in  a  MS.  description  of  the  island 
drawn  up  under  the  Venetians  about  1538,  and  existing  in  the 

library  of  St  Mark  (published  by  Falkener,  Museum 
remains  °f  Classical  Antiquities,  ii.  pp.  263-303).  Very  little 

of'all  this,  however,  has  escaped  the  Turkish  conquest 
and  the  ravages  caused  by  the  incessant  insurrections  of  the  last 
two  centuries.  The  ruin-field  of  Gortyna  still  evokes  something 
of  the  importance  that  it  possessed  in  Imperial  days,  and  at 
Lebena  on  the  south  coast  are  remains  of  a  temple  of  Aesculapius 
and  its  dependencies  which  stood  in  connexion  with  this  city. 
At  Cnossus,  save  some  blocks  of  the  amphitheatre,  the  Roman 
monuments  visible  in  Venetian  times  have  almost  wholly 
disappeared.  Among  the  early  Christian  remains  of  the  island 
far  and  away  the  most  important  is  the  church  of  St  Titus  at 
Gortyna,  which  perhaps  dates  from  the  Constantinian  age. 

LITERATURE. —  See  the  authorities  already  quoted,  for  further 
details.  Previous  to  the  extensive  excavations  referred  to  above, 
Crete  had  been  carefully  examined  and  explored  by  Tournefort, 
Pococke,  Olivier  and  other  travellers,  e.g.  Pashley  (Travels  in  Crete, 
2  vols.,  London,  1837)  and  Captain  Spratt  (Travels  and  Researches 
in  Crete,  2  vols.,  London,  1865).  A  survey  sufficiently  accurate  as 
regards  the  maritime  parts  was  also  executed,  under  the  orders  of 
the  British  admiralty,  by  Captain  Graves  and  Captain  (afterwards 
Admiral)  Spratt.  Most  that  can  be  gathered  from  ancient  authors 
concerning  the  mythology  and  early  history  of  the  island  is  brought 
together  by  Meursius  (Creta,  &c.,  in  the  3rd  vol.  of  his  works)  and 
Hoeck  (Kreta,  3  vols.,  Gottingen,  1823-1829),  but  the  latter  work 
was  published  before  the  researches  which  have  thrown  so  much 
light  on  the  topography  and  antiquities  of  the  island.  Much  new 
material,  especially  as  to  the  western  provinces  of  Crete,  has  been 
recently  collected  by  members  of  the  Italian  Archaeological  Mission 
(Monumenti  Antichi,  vol.  vi.  154  seqq.,  ix.  286,  1899;  xi.  286  seqq.). 

(A.  J.  E.) 

History. 

Ancient. — Lying  midway  between  three  continents,  Crete 
was  from  the  earliest  period  a  natural  stepping-stone  for  the 
passage  of  early  culture  from  Egypt  and  the  East  to  mainland 
Greece.  On  all  this  the  recent  archaeological  discoveries  (see 
the  section  on  Archaeology)  have  thrown  great  light,  but  the 
earliest  written  history  of  Crete,  like  that  of  most  parts  of 
continental  Greece,  is  mixed  up  with  mythology  and  fable  to 
so  great  an  extent  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  clear 
conclusions  concerning  it.  The  Cretans  themselves  claimed 
for  their  island  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Zeus,  as  well  as  the  parent 
of  all  the  other  divinities  usually  worshipped  in  Greece  as  the 
Olympian  deities.  But  passing  from  this  region  of  pure  mythology 
to  the  semi-mythic  or  heroic  age,  we  find  almost  all  the  early 
legends  and  traditions  of  the  island  grouped  around  the  name 
of  Minos.  According  to  the  received  tradition,  Minos  was  a 
king  of  Cnossus  in  Crete;  he  was  a  son  of  Zeus,  and  enjoyed 
through  life  the  privilege  of  habitual  intercourse  with  his  divine 
father.  It  was  from  this  source  that  he  derived  the  wisdom 
which  enabled  him  to  give  to  the  Cretans  the  excellent  system 
of  laws  and  governments  that  earned  for  him  the  reputation 
of  being  the  greatest  legislator  of  antiquity.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  reported  to  have  been  the  first  monarch  who  established 
a  naval  power,  and  acquired  what  was  termed  by  the  Greeks 
the  Thalassocracy,  or  dominion  of  the  sea. 

This  last  tradition,  which  was  received  as  an  undoubted  fact 
both  by  Thucydides  and  Aristotle,  has  during  the  last  few  years 
received  striking  confirmation.  The  remarkable  remains  recently 
brought  to  light  on  Cretan  soil  tend  to  show  that  already  some 
2000  years  before  the  Dorian  conquest  the  island  was  exercising  a 
dominant  influence  in  the  Aegean  world.  The  great  palaces  now 
excavated  at  Cnossus  and  Phaestus,  as  well  as  the  royal  villa 
of  Hagia  Triada,  exhibit  the  successive  phases  of  a  brilliant  primi- 
tive civilization  which  had  already  attained  mature  development 
by  the  date  of  the  Xllth  Egyptian  dynasty.  To  this  civilization 
as  a  whole  it  is  convenient  to  give  the  name  "Minoan,"  and 
the  name  of  Minos  itself  may  be  reasonably  thought  to  cover 
a  dynastic  even  more  than  a  personal  significance  in  much  the 
same  way  as  such  historic  terms  as  "Pharaoh"  or  "Caesar." 

The  archaeological  evidence  outside  Crete  points  to  the  actual 
existence  of  Minoan  plantations  as  far  afield  on  one  side  as 
Sicily  and  on  the  other  as  the  coast  of  Canaan.  The  historic 


tradition  which  identifies  with  the  Cretans  the  principal  element 
of  the  Philistine  confederation,  and  places  the  tomb  of  Minos 
himself  in  western  Sicily,  thus  receives  remarkable  confirmation. 
Industrial  relations  with  Egypt  are  also  marked  by  the  occurrence 
of  a  series  of  finds  of  pottery  and  other  objects  of  Minoan  fabric 
among  the  remains  of  the  XVIIIth,  Xllth  and  even  earlier 
dynasties,  while  the  same  seafaring  enterprise  brought  Egyptian 
fabrics  to  Crete  from  the  times  of  the  first  Pharaohs.  Even  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  which  belong  to  an  age  when  the  great  Minoan 
civilization  was  already  decadent,  the  Cretans  appear  as  the  only 
Greek  people  who  attempted  to  compete  with  the  Phoenicians 
as  bold  and  adventurous  navigators.  In  the  Homeric  age  the 
population  of  Crete  was  of  a  very  mixed  character,  and  we  are 
told  in  the  Odyssey  (xix.  175)  that  besides  the  Eteocretes,  who, 
as  their  name  imports,  must  have  been  the  original  inhabitants, 
the  island  contained  Achaeans,  Pelasgians  and  Dorians.  Subse- 
quently the  Dorian  element  became  greatly  strengthened  by 
fresh  immigrations  from  the  Peloponnesus,  and  during  the 
historical  period  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  island  were  either 
Dorian  colonies,  or  had  adopted  the  Dorian  dialect  and 
institutions.  It  is  certain  that  at  a  very  early  period  the  Cretan 
cities  were  celebrated  for  their  laws  and  system  of  government, 
and  the  most  extensive  monument  of  early  Greek  law  is  the 
great  Gortyna  inscription,  discovered  in  1884.  The  origin  of  the 
Cretan  laws  was  of  course  attributed  to  Minos,  but  they 
had  much  in  common  with  those  of  the  other  Dorian  states,  as 
well  as  with  those  of  Lycurgus  at  Sparta,  which  were,  indeed, 
according  to  one  tradition,  copied  in  great  measure  from  those 
already  existing  in  Crete.1 

It  is  certain  that  whatever  merits  the  Cretan  laws  may  have 
possessed  for  the  internal  regulation  of  the  different  cities,  they 
had  the  one  glaring  defect,  that  they  made  no  provision  for  any 
federal  bond  or  union  among  them,  or  for  the  government  of  the 
island  as  a  whole.  It  was  owing  to  the  want  of  this  that  the 
Cretans  scarcely  figure  in  Greek  history  as  a  people,  though  the 
island,  as  observed  by  Aristotle,  would  seem  from  its  natural 
position  calculated  to  exercise  a  preponderating  influence  over 
Greek  affairs.  Thus  they  took  no  part  either  in  the  Persian  or  in 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  or  in  any  of  the  subsequent  civil  contests 
in  which  so  many  of  the  cities  and  islands  of  Greece  were  engaged. 
At  the  same  time  they  were  so  far  from  enjoying  tranquillity  on 
this  account  that  the  few  notices  we  find  of  them  in  history  always 
represent  them  as  engaged  in  local  wars  among  one  another;  and 
Polybius  tells  us  that  the  history  of  Crete  was  one  continued 
series  of  civil  wars,  which  were  carried  on  with  a  bitter  animosity 
exceeding  all  that  was  known  in  the  rest  of  Greece. 

In  these  domestic  contests  the  three  cities  that  generally  took 
the  lead,  and  claimed  to  exercise  a  kind  of  hegemony  or  supremacy 
over  the  whole  island,  were  Cnossus,  Gortyna  and  Cydonia. 
But  besides  these  three,  there  were  many  other  independent 
cities,  which,  though  they  generally  followed  the  lead  of  one  or 
other  of  these  more  powerful  rivals,  enjoyed  complete  autonomy, 
and  were  able  to  shift  at  will  from  one  alliance  to  another.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  were— Lyttus  or  Lyctus,  in  the 
interior,  south-east  of  Cnossus;  Rhaucus,  between  Cnossus  and 
Gortyna;  Phaestus,  in  the  plain  of  Messara,  between  Gortyna 
and  the  sea;  Polyrrhenia,  near  the  north-west  angle  of  the 
island;  Aptera,  a  few  miles  inland  from  the  Bay  of  Suda; 
Eleutherna  and  Axus,  on  the  northern  slopes  of  Mount  Ida;  and 
Lappa,  between  the  White  Mountains  and  the  sea.  Phalasarna 
on  the  west  coast,  and  Chersonesus  on  the  north,  seem  to  have 
been  dependencies,  and  served  as  the  ports  of  Polyrrhenia  and 
Lyttus.  Elyrus  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  White  Mountains,  just 

1  Among  the  features  common  to  the  two  were  the  syssitia,  or 
public  tables,  at  which  all  the  citizens  dined  in  common.  Indeed, 
the  Cretan  system,  like  that  of  Sparta,  appears  to  have  aimed  at 
training  up  the  young,  and  controlling  them,  as  well  as  the  citizens 
of  more  mature  age,  in  all  their  habits  and  relations  of  life.  The 
supreme  governing  authority  was  vested  in  magistrates  called  Cosmi, 
answering  in  some  measure  to  the  Spartan  Ephori,  but  there  was 
nothing  corresponding  to  the  two  kings  at  Sparta.  These  Cretan 
institutions  were  much  extolled  by  some  writers  of  antiquity,  but 
receive  only  qualified  praise  from  the  judicious  criticisms  of  Aristotle 
(Polit.  ii.  10). 


CRETE 


427 


above  the  south  coast.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  were 
Praesus  in  the  interior,  and  Itanus  on  the  coast,  facing  the  east, 
while  Hierapytna  on  the  south  coast  was  the  only  place  of 
importance  on  the  side  facing  Africa,  and  on  this  account 
rose  under  the  Romans  to  be  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
island.  (A.  J.  E.) 

Medieval  to  igth  Century. — Though  it  was  continually  torn  by 
civil  dissensions,  the  island  maintained  its  independence  of  the 
various  Macedonian  monarchs  by  whom  it  was  surrounded ;  but 
having  incurred  the  enmity  of  Rome,  first  by  an  alliance  with  the 
great  Mithradates,  and  afterwards  by  taking  active  part  with 
their  neighbours,  the  pirates  of  Cilicia,  the  Cretans  were  at  length 
attacked  by  the  Roman  arms,  and,  after  a  resistance  protracted 
for  more  than  three  years,  were  finally  subdued  by  Q.  Metellus, 
who  earned  by  this  success  the  surname  of  Creticus  (673.0.).  The 
island  was  now  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  and  subsequently 
united  for  administrative  purposes  with  the  district  of  Cyrenaica 
or  the  Pentapolis,  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa.  This  arrange- 
ment lasted  till  the  time  of  Constantine,  by  whom  Crete  was 
incorporated  in  the  prefecture  of  Illyria.  It  continued  to  form 
part  of  the  Byzantine  empire  till  the  gth  century,  when  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  (823).  It  then  became  a  formidable 
nest  of  pirates  and  a  great  slave  mart;  it  defied  all  the  efforts  of 
the  Byzantine  sovereigns  to  recover  it  till  the  year  960,  when  it 
was  reconquered  by  Nicephorus  Phocas.  In  the  partition  of  the 
Greek  empire  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins 
in  1 204,  Crete  fell  to  the  lot  of  Boniface,  marquis  of  Montferrat, 
but  was  sold  by  him  to  the  Venetians,  and  thus  passed  under  the 
dominion  of  that  great  republic,  to  which  it  continued  subject  for 
more  than  four  centuries. 

Under  the  Venetian  government  Candia,  a  fortress  originally 
built  by  the  Saracens,  and  called  by  them  "  Khandax,"  became 
the  seat  of  government,  and  not  only  rose  to  be  the  capital  and 
chief  city  of  the  island,  but  actually  gave  name  to  it,  so  that  it 
was  called  in  the  official  language  of  Venice  "  the  island  of 
Candia,"  a  designation  which  from  thence  passed  into  modern 
maps.  The  ancient  name  of  Krete  or  Kriti  was,  however,  always 
retained  in  use  among  the  Greeks,  and  is  gradually  resuming  its 
place  in  the  usage  of  literary  Europe.  The  government  of  Crete 
by  the  Venetian  aristocracy  was,  like  that  of  their  other  de- 
pendencies, very  arbitrary  and  oppressive,  and  numerous 
insurrections  were  the  consequence.  Daru,  in  his  history  of 
Venice,  mentions  fourteen  between  the  years  1207  and  1365,  the 
most  important  being  that  of  1361-1364, — a  revolt  not  of  the 
natives  against  the  rule  of  their  Venetian  masters,  but  of  the 
Venetian  colonists  against  the  republic.  But  with  all  its  defects 
their  administration  did  much  to  promote  the  material  prosperity 
of  the  country,  and  to  encourage  commerce  and  industry;  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  island  was  more  prosperous  than  at  any 
subsequent  time.  Their  Venetian  masters  at  least  secured  to  the 
islanders  external  tranquillity,  and  it  is  singular  that  the  Turks 
were  content  to  leave  them  in  undisturbed  possession  of  this 
opulent  and  important  island  for  nearly  two  centuries  after  the 
fall  of  Constantinople.  The  Cretans  themselves,  however,  were 
eager  for  a  change,  and,  disappointed  in  the  hope  of  a  Genoese 
occupation,  were  ready,  as  is  stated  in  the  report  of  a  Venetian 
commissioner,  to  exchange  the  rule  of  the  Venetians  for  that  of 
the  Turks,  whom  they  fondly  expected  to  find  more  lenient,  or  at 
any  rate  less  energetic,  masters.  It  was  not  till  1645  that  the 
Turks  made  any  serious  attempt  to  effect  the  conquest  of  the 
island;  but  in  that  year  they  landed  with  an  army  of  50,000  men, 
and  speedily  reduced  the  important  city  of  Canea.  Retimo  fell  the 
following  year,  and  in  1648  they  laid  siege  to  the  capital  city  of 
Candia.  This  was  the  longest  siege  on  record,  having  been 
protracted  for  more  than  twenty  years;  but  in  1667  it  was 
pressed  with  renewed  vigour  by  the  Turks  under  the  grand 
vizier  Ahmed  Kuprili,  and  the  city  was  at  length  compelled 
to  surrender  (September  1669).  Its  fall  was  followed  by  the 
submission  of  the  whole  island.  Venice  was  allowed  to  retain 
possession  of  Grabusa,  Suda  and  Spinalonga  on  the  north,  but  in 
1718  these  three  strongholds  reverted  to  the  Turks,  and  the 
island  was  finally  lost  to  Venice. 


From  this  time  Crete  continued  subject  to  Ottoman  rule 
without  interruption  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek  revolution. 
After  the  conquest  a  large  part  of  the  inhabitants  embraced 
Mahommedanism,  and  thus  secured  to  themselves  the  chief  share 
in  the  administration  of  the  island.  But  far  from  this  having  a 
favourable  effect  upon  the  condition  of  the  population,  the  result 
was  just  the  contrary,  and  according  to  R.  Pashley  (Travels  in 
Crete,  1837)  Crete  was  the  worst  governed  province  of  the  Turkish 
empire.  In  1770  an  abortive  attempt  at  revolt,  the  hero  of 
which  was  "  Master  "  John,  a  Sphakiot  chief,  was  repressed  with 
great  cruelty.  The  regular  authorities  sent  from  Constantinople 
were  wholly  unable  to  control  the  excesses  of  the  janissaries,  who 
exercised  without  restraint  every  kind  of  violence  and  oppression. 
In  1813  the  ruthless  severity  of  the  governor-general,  Haji 
Osman,  who  obtained  the  co-operation  of  the  Christians,  broke 
the  power  of  the  janissaries;  but  after  Osman  had  fallen  a  victim 
to  the  suspicions  of  the  sultan,  Crete  again  came  under  their 
control.  When  in  1821  the  revolution  broke  out  in  continental 
Greece,  the  Cretans,  headed  by  the  Sphakiots,  after  a  massacre  at 
Canea  at  once  raised  the  standard  of  insurrection.  They  carried 
on  hostilities  with  such  success  that  they  soon  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  whole  of  the  open  country,  and  drove  the  Turks 
and  Mussulman  population  to  take  refuge  in  the  fortified  cities. 
The  sultan  then  invoked  the  assistance  of  Mehemet  Ah',  pasha  of 
Egypt,  who  despatched  7000  Albanians  to  the  island.  Hostilities 
continued  with  no  decisive  result  till  1824,  when  the  arrival  of 
further  reinforcements  enabled  the  Turkish  commander  to 
reduce  the  island  to  submission.  In  1827  the  battle  of  Navarino 
took  place,  and  in  1830  (3rd  of  February)  Greece  was  declared 
independent.  The  allied  powers  (France,  England  and  Russia) 
decided,  however,  that  Crete  should  not  be  included  amongst  the 
islands  annexed  to  the  newly-formed  kingdom  of  Greece;  b 
recognizing  that  some  change  was  necessary,  they  obtained  fro'i 
the  sultan  Mahmud  II.  its  cession  to  Egypt,  which  was  con- 
firmed by  a  firman  of  the  2oth  of  December  1832.  This  change 
of  masters  brought  some  relief  to  the  unfortunate  Cretans,  who 
at  least  exchanged  the  licence  of  local  misrule  for  the  oppression 
of  an  organized  despotism;  and  the  government  of  Mustafa 
Pasha,  an  Albanian  like  Mehemet  All,  the  ruler  of  the  island  for 
a  considerable  period  (1832-1852),  was  more  enlightened  and 
intelligent  than  that  of  most  Turkish  governors.  He  encouraged 
agriculture,  improved  the  roads,  introduced  an  Albanian  police, 
and  put  down  brigandage.  The  period  of  his  administration 
has  been  called  the  "  golden  age  "  of  Crete. 

In  1840  Crete  was  again  taken  from  Mehemet  Ali,  and  replaced 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  but  fortunately  Mustafa  still 
retained  his  governorship  until  he  left  for  Constantinople  to 
become  grand  vizier  in  1852.  Four  years  later  an  insurrection 
broke  out,  owing  to  the  violation  of  the  provisions  of  an  imperial 
decree  (February  1856),  whereby  liberty  of  conscience  and 
equal  rights  and  privileges  with  Mussulmans  had  been  conferred 
upon  Christians.  The  latter  refused  to  lay  down  their  arms  until 
a  firman  was  issued  (July  1858),  confirming  the  promised  con- 
cessions. These  promises  being  again  repudiated,  in  1864  the 
inhabitants  held  an  assembly  and  a  petition  was  drawn  up  for 
presentation  at  Constantinople  by  the  governor.  The  sultan's 
reply  was  couched  in  the  vaguest  terms,  and  the  Cretans  were 
ordered  to  render  unquestioning  obedience  to  the  authorities. 
After  a  period  of  great  distress  and  cruel  oppression,  in  1866, 
on  the  demand  for  reforms  being  again  refused,  a  general  insurrec- 
tion took  place,  which  was  only  put  down  by  great  exertions 
on  the  part  of  the  Porte.  It  was  followed  by  the  concession  of 
additional  privileges  to  the  Christians  of  the  island  and  of  a  kind 
of  constitutional  government  and  other  reforms  embodied  in 
what  is  known  as  the  "  Organic  Statute  "  of  1868.  (J.  H.  F.) 

Modern  Constitutional. — Cretan  constitutional  history  may  be 
said  to  date  from  1868,  when,  after  the  suppression  of  an  insurrec- 
tion which  had  extended  over  three  years,  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment consented  to  grant  a  certain  measure  of  autonomy  to  the 
island.  The  privileges  now  accorded  were  embodied  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Organic  Statute,  an  instrument  which  eventually 
obtained  a  somewhat  wider  importance,  being  proposed  by 


428 


CRETE 


Article  XXIII.  of  the  Berlin  Treaty  as  a  basis  of  reforms  to  be 
introduced  in  other  parts  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Various 
privileges  already  acquired  by  the  Christian  population  were 
confirmed;  a  general  council,  or  representative  body,  was 
brought  into  existence,  composed  of  deputies  from  every  district 
in  the  island;  mixed  tribunals  were  introduced,  together  with 
a  highly  elaborate  administrative  system,  under  which  all  the 
more  important  functionaries,  Christian  and  Mussulman,  were 
provided  with  an  assessor  of  the  opposite  creed.  The  new 
constitution,  however,  proved  costly  and  unworkable,  and  failed 
to  satisfy  either  section  of  the  population.  The  Christians  were 
ready  for  another  outbreak,  when,  in  1878,  the  Greek  government, 
finding  Hellenic  aspirations  ignored  by  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano, 
gave  the  signal  for  agitation  in  the  island.  During  the  insurrec- 
tion which  followed,  the  usual  barbarities  were  committed  on  both 
sides;  the  Christians  betook  themselves  to  the  mountains,  and 
the  Mussulman  peasants  crowded  into  the  fortified  towns. 
Eventually  the  Cretan  chiefs  invoked  the  mediation  of  England, 
which  Turkey,  exhausted  by  her  struggle  with  Russia,  was 

ready  to  accept,  and  the  convention  known  as  the 
tfaiepa.  Pact  o*  Halepa  was  drawn  up  in  1878  under  the  auspices 

of  Mr  Sandwith,  the  British  consul,  and  Adossides 
Pasha,  both  of  whom  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  Cretan 
population.  The  privileges  conferred  by  the  Organic  Statute 
were  confirmed;  the  cumbersome  and  extravagant  judicial  and 
administrative  systems  were  maintained;  the  judges  were 
declared  independent  of  the  executive,  and  an  Assembly  com- 
posed of  forty-nine  Christian  and  thirty-one  Mussulman  deputies 
took  the  place  of  the  former  general  council.  A  parliamentary 
regime  was  thus  inaugurated,  and  party  warfare  for  a  time  took 
the  place  of  the  old  religious  antagonism,  the  Moslems  attaching 
themselves  to  one  or  other  of  the  political  factions  which  now 
made  their  appearance  among  the  Christians.  The  material 
interests  of  the  island  were  neglected  in  the  scramble  for  place  and 
power;  the  finances  fell  into  disorder,  and  the  party  which  came 
off  worst  in  the  struggle  systematically  intrigued  against  the 
governor-general  of  the  day  and  conspired  with  his  enemies  at 
Constantinople.  A  crisis  came  about  in  1889,  when  the  "Con- 
servative "  leaders,  finding  themselves  in  a  minority  in  the 
chamber,  took  up  arms  and  withdrew  to  the  mountains.  Though 
the  outbreak  was  unconnected  with  the  religious  feud,  the  latent 
fanaticism  of  both  creeds  was  soon  aroused,  and  the  island  once 
more  became  a  scene  of  pillage  and  devastation.  Unlike  the  two 
preceding  movements,  the  insurrection  of  1889  resulted  unfavour- 
ably for  the  Christians.  The  Porte,  having  induced  the  Greek 
government  to  persuade  the  insurgents  not  to  oppose  the  occupa- 
tion of  several  strategic  posts,  despatched  a  military  governor 
to  the  island,  proclaimed  martial  law,  and  issued  a  firman 
abrogating  many  important  provisions  of  the  Halepa  Pact. 
The  mode  of  election  to  the  assembly  was  altered,  the  number 
of  its  members  reduced,  and  the  customs  revenue,  which  had 
hitherto  been  shared  with  the  island,  was  appropriated  by  the 
Turkish  treasury.  The  firman  was  undoubtedly  illegal,  as  it 
violated  a  convention  possessing  a  quasi-international  sanction, 
but  the  Christians  were  unable  to  resist,  and  the  powers  abstained 
from  intervention.  The  elections  held  under  the  new  system 
proved  a  failure,  the  Christians  refusing  to  go  to  the  polls,  and 
for  the  next  five  years  Crete  was  governed  absolutely  by  a  succes- 
sion of  Mahommedan  Valis.  The  situation  went  from  bad  to 
worse,  the  deficit  in  the  budget  increased,  the  gendarmery,  which 
received  no  pay,  became  insubordinate,  and  crime  multiplied. 
In  1894  the  Porte,  at  the  instance  of  the  powers,  nominated  a 
Christian,  Karatheodory  Pasha,  to  the  governorship,  and  the 
Christians,  mollified  by  the  concession,  agreed  to  take  part  in 
the  assembly  which  soon  afterwards  was  convoked;  no  steps, 
however,  were  taken  to  remedy  the  financial  situation,  which 
became  the  immediate  cause  of  the  disorders  that  followed.  •  The 
refusal  of  the  Porte  to  refund  considerable  sums  which  had  been 
illegally  diverted  from  the  Cretan  treasury  or  even  to  sanction 
a  loan  to  meet  immediate  requirements  caused  no  little  exaspera- 
tion in  the  island,  which  was  increased  by  the  recall  of  Kara- 
theodory (March  1895).  Before  that  event  an  Epitrope,  or 


"  Committee  of  Reform,"  had  appeared  in  the  mountains — the 
harbinger  of  the  prolonged  struggle  which  ended  in  the  emanci- 
pation of  Crete.  The  Epitrope  was  at  first  nothing 
more  than  a  handful  of  discontented  politicians  who  had  '°™  ™~ 
failed  to  find  places  in  the  administration,  but  some  1396-97. 
slight  reverses  which  it  succeeded  in  inflicting  on  the 
Turkish  troops  brought  thousands  of  armed  Christians  to  its 
side,  and  in  April  1896  it  found  itself  strong  enough  to  invest 
the  important  garrison  town  of  Vamos.  The  Moslem  peasantry 
now  flocked  to  the  fortified  towns  and  civil  war  began.  Serious 
disturbances  broke  out  at  Canea  on  the  24th  of  May,  and  were 
only  quelled  by  the  arrival  of  foreign  warships.  The  foreign 
consuls  intervened  in  the  hope  of  bringing  about  a  peaceful 
settlement,  but  the  Sultan  resolved  on  the  employment  of  force, 
and  an  expedition  despatched  to  Vamos  effected  the  relief  of  that 
town  with  a  loss  of  200  men.  The  advance  of  a  Turkish  detach- 
ment through  the  western  districts,  where  other  garrisons  were 
besieged,  was  marked  by  pillage  and  devastation,  and  5000 
Christian  peasants  took  refuge  on  the  desolate  promontory  of 
Spada,  where  they  suffered  extreme  privations.  These  events, 
which  produced  much  excitement  in  Greece,  quickened  the 
energies  of  the  powers.  An  international  blockade  of  the  island 
was  proposed  by  Austria  but  rejected  by  England.  The 
ambassadors  at  Constantinople  urged  peaceful  counsels  on  the 
Porte,  and  the  Sultan,  alarmed  at  this  juncture  by  an  Armenian 
outbreak,  began  to  display  a  conciliatory  disposition.  The  Pact 
of  Halepa  was  restored,  the  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the 
interior,  financial  aid  was  promised  to  the  island,  a  Christian 
governor-general  was  appointed,  the  assembly  was  summoned, 
and  an  imperial  commissioner  was  despatched  to  negotiate  an 
arrangement.  The  Christian  leaders  prepared  a  moderate 
scheme  of  reforms,  based  on  the  Halepa  Pact,  which,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  were  approved  by  the  powers  and  eventually 
sanctioned  by  the  sultan. 

On  the  4th  of  September  1896  the  assembly  formally  accepted 
the  new  constitution  and  declared  its  gratitude  to  the  powers 
for  their  intervention.  The  Moslem  leaders  acquiesced  in  the 
arrangement,  which  the  powers  undertook  to  guarantee,  and, 
notwithstanding  some  symptoms  of  discontent  at  Candia, 
there  was  every  reason  to  hope  that  the  island  was  now  entering 
upon  a  period  of  tranquillity.  It  soon  became  evident,  however, 
that  the  Porte  was  endeavouring  to  obstruct  the  execution  of  the 
new  reforms.  Several  months  passed  without  any  step  being 
taken  towards  this  realization;  difficulties  were  raised  with 
regard  to  the  composition  of  the  international  commissions 
charged  with  the  reorganization  of  the  gendarmery  and  judicial 
system;  intrigues  were  set  on  foot  against  the  Christian  governor- 
general;  and  the  presence  of  a  special  imperial  commissioner, 
who  had  no  place  under  the  constitution,  proved  so  injurious 
to  the  restoration  of  tranquillity  that  the  powers  demanded  his 
immediate  recall.  The  indignation  of  the  Christians  increased, 
a  state  of  insecurity  prevailed,  and  the  Moslem  peasants  refused 
to  return  to  their  homes.  A  new  factor  now  became  apparent 
in  Cretan  politics.  Since  the  outbreak  in  May  1896  the  Greek 
government  had  loyally  co-operated  with  the  powers  in  their 
efforts  for  the  pacification  of  the  island,  but  towards  the  close  of 
the  year  a  secret  society  known  as  the  Ethnike  Hetaeria  began  to 
arrogate  to  itself  the  direction  of  Greek  foreign  policy.  The  aim 
of  the  society  was  a  war  with  Turkey  with  a  view  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Macedonia,  and  it  found  a  ready  instrument  for  its 
designs  in  the  growing  discontent  of  the  Cretan  Christians. 
Emissaries  of  the  society  now  appeared  in  Crete,  large  consign- 
ments of  arms  were  landed,  and  at  the  beginning  of  1897  the 
island  was  practically  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  On 
the  2ist  of  January  the  Greek  fleet  was  mobilized.  ^jf 
Affairs  were  brought  to  a  climax  by  a  series  of  conflicts  ventioa. 
which  took  place  at  Canea  on  the  4th  of  February; 
the  Turkish  troops  fired  on  the  Christians,  a  conflagration  broke 
out  in  the  town,  and  many  thousands  of  Christians  took  refuge 
on  the  foreign  warships  in  the  bay.  The  Greek  government  now 
despatched  an  ironclad  and  a  cruiser  to  Canea,  which  were 
followed  a  few  days  later  by  a  torpedo  flotilla  commanded  by 


CRETE 


429 


Prince  George.  The  prince  soon  retired  to  Melos,  but  on  the  night 
of  the  1 4th  of  February  a  Greek  expeditionary  force  under 
Colonel  Vassos  landed  at  Kolymbari,  near  Canea,  and  its  com- 
mander issued  a  proclamation  announcing  the  occupation  of  the 
island  in  the  name  of  King  George.  On  the  same  day  Georgi 
Pasha,  the  Christian  governor-general,  took  refuge  on  board  a 
Russian  ironclad,  and,  on  the  next,  naval  detachments  from 
the  warships  of  the  powers  occupied  Canea.  This  step  paralysed 
the  movements  of  Colonel  Vassos,  who  after  a  few  slight  engage- 
ments with  the  Turks  remained  practically  inactive  in  the  interior. 
The  insurgents,  however,  continued  to  threaten  the  town,  and 
their  position  was  bombarded  by  the  international  fleet  (2ist 
February).  The  intervention  of  Greece  caused  immense  excite- 
ment among  the  Christian  population,  and  terrible  massacres  of 
Moslem  peasants  took  place  in  the  eastern  and  western  districts. 
The  forces  of  the  powers  shortly  afterwards  occupied  Candia 
and  the  other  maritime  towns,  while  the  international  fleet 
blockaded  the  Cretan  coast.  These  measures  were  followed  by 
the  presentation  of  collective  notes  to  the  Greek  and 
Turkish  governments  (and  March),  announcing  the 
powers.  decision  of  the  powers  that  (i)  Crete  could  in  no  case 
in  present  circumstances  be  annexed  to  Greece;  (2) 
in  view  of  the  delays  caused  by  Turkey  in  the  application  of  the 
reforms  Crete  should  now  be  endowed  with  an  effective  auto- 
nomous administration,  intended  to  secure  to  it  a  separate 
government,  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  sultan.  Greece  was  at 
the  same  time  summoned  to  remove  its  army  and  fleet  from  the 
island,  while  the  Turkish  troops  were  to  be  concentrated  in  the 
fortresses  and  eventually  withdrawn.  The  cabinet  of  Athens, 
however,  declined  to  recall  the  expeditionary  force,  which 
remained  in  the  interior  till  the  gth  of  May,  when,  after  the  Greek 
reverses  in  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  an  order  was  given  for  its  return. 
Meantime  Cretan  autonomy  had  been  proclaimed  (zoth  March). 
After  the  departure  of  the  Greek  troops  the  Cretan  leaders,  who 
had  hitherto  demanded  annexation  to  Greece,  readily  acquiesced 
in  the  decision  of  the  powers,  and  the  insurgent  Assembly,  under 
its  president  Dr  Sphakianakis,  a  man  of  good  sense  and  modera- 
tion, co-operated  with  the  international  commanders  in  the 
maintenance  of  order.  The  pacification  of  the  island,  however, 
was  delayed  by  the  presence  of  the  Turkish  troops  and  the  in- 
ability of  the  powers  to  agree  in  the  choice  of  a  new  governor- 
general.  The  prospect  of  a  final  settlement  was  improved  by  the 
withdrawal  of  Germany  and  Austria,  which  had  favoured  Turkish 
pretensions,  from  the  European  concert  (April  1898);  the  re- 
maining powers  divided  the  island  into  four  departments,  which 
they  severally  undertook  to  administer.  An  attack  made  by  the 
Moslems  of  Candia  on  the  British  garrison  of  that  town,  with 
the  connivance  of  the  Turkish  authorities,  brought  home  to  the 
powers  the  necessity  of  removing  the  Ottoman  troops,  and  the 
last  Turkish  soldiers  quitted  the  island  on  the  I4th  of  November 
1898. 

On  the  26th  of  that  month  the  nomination  of  Prince  George 
of  Greece  as  high  commissioner  of  the  powers  in  Crete  for  a 
Prince  period  of  three  years  (renewed  in  1901)  was  formally 
aeorge's  announced,  and  on  the  2ist  of  December  the  prince 
landed  at  Suda  and  made  his  public  entry  into  Canea 
amid  enthusiastic  demonstrations.  For  some  time 
after  his  arrival  complete  tranquillity  prevailed  in  the  island, 
but  the  Moslem  population,  reduced  to  great  distress  by  the 
prolonged  insurrection,  emigrated  in  large  numbers.  On  the 
27th  of  April  1899  a  new  autonomous  constitution  was  voted 
by  a  constituent  assembly,  and  in  the  following  June  the  local 
administration  was  handed  over  to  Cretan  officials  by  the  inter- 
national authorities.  The  extensive  powers  conferred  by  the 
constitution  upon  Prince  George  were  increased  by  subsequent 
enactments.  In  1901  M.  Venezelo,  who  had  played  a  noteworthy 
part  in  the  last  insurrection,  was  dismissed  from  the  post  of 
councillor  by  the  prince,  and  soon  afterwards  became  leader  of  a 
strong  opposition  party,  which  denounced  the  arbitrary  methods 
of  the  government.  During  the  next  four  years  party  spirit  ran 
high;  in  the  spring  of  1904  a  deputation  of  chiefs  and  politicians 
addressed  a  protest  to  the  prince,  and  early  in  the  following 


adminis- 
tration. 


year  a  band  of  armed  malcontents  under  M.  Venezelo  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  at  Theriso  in  the  White  Mountains.  The 
insurgents,  who  received  moral  support  from  Dr  Sphakianakis, 
proclaimed  the  union  of  the  island  with  Greece  (March  1905), 
and  their  example  was  speedily  followed  by  the  assembly  at 
Canea.  The  powers,  however,  reiterated  their  decision  to  main- 
tain the  status  quo,  and  increased  their  military  and  naval 
forces;  the  Greek  flag  was  hauled  down  at  Canea  and  Candia, 
and  some  desultory  engagements  with  the  insurgents  took  place, 
the  international  troops  co-operating  with  the  native  gendarmerie. 
In  the  autumn  M.  Venezelo  and  his  followers,  having  obtained 
an  amnesty,  laid  down  their  arms.  A  commission  appointed 
by  the  powers  to  report  on  the  administrative  and  financial 
situation  drew  up  a  series  of  recommendations  in  January  1906, 
and  a  constituent  assembly  for  the  revision  of  the  constitution 
met  at  Canea  in  the  following  June.  On  the  25th  of  July  the 
powers  announced  a  series  of  reforms,  including  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  gendarmerie  and  militia  under  Greek  officers,  as  a 
preliminary  to  the  eventual  withdrawal  of  the  international 
troops,  and  the  extension  to  Crete  of  the  system  of  financial 
control  established  in  Greece.  On  the  i4th  of  September,  under 
an  agreement  dated  the  i4th  of  August,  they  invited  King 
George  of  Greece,  in  the  event  of  the  high  commissionership 
becoming  vacant,  to  propose  a  candidate  for  that  post,  to  be 
nominated  by  the  powers  for  a  period  of  five  years,  and  en  the 
25th  of  September  Prince  George  left  the  island.  He  had  done 
much  for  the  welfare  of  Crete,  but  his  participation  in  party 
struggles  and  his  attitude  towards  the  representatives  of  the 
powers  had  rendered  his  position  untenable.  His  successor, 
M.  Alexander  Zaimis,  a  former  prime  minister  of  Greece,  arrived 
in  Crete  on  the  ist  of  October.  (J.  D.  B.) 

On  the  22nd  of  February  1907  M.  Zaimis,  as  high  commissioner, 
took  the  oath  to  the  new  constitution  elaborated  after  much 
debate  by  the  Cretan  national  assembly.  His  position  was  one 
of  singular  difficulty.  Apart  from  the  rivalry  of  the  factions 
within  the  Assembly,  there  was  the  question  of  the  Mussulman 
minority,  dwindling  it  is  true,1  but  still  a  force  to  be  reckoned 
with.  The  high  commissioner,  true  to  his  reputation  as  a  prudent 
statesman  and  astute  politician,  showed  great  skill  in  dealing 
with  the  situation.  From  the  first  he  had  taken  up  an  attitude 
of  great  reserve,  appearing  little  in  public  and  careful  not  to 
identify  himself  with  any  faction.  In  such  matters  as  appoint- 
ments to  the  judicial  bench,  indeed,  his  studied  impartiality 
offended  both  parties;  but  on  the  whole  his  administration  was 
a  marked  success,  and  the  cessation  of  the  chronic  state  of  dis- 
turbance in  the  island  justified  the  powers  in  preparing  for  the 
withdrawal  of  their  troops.  In  spite  of  the  admission  of  their 
'co-religionists  to  high  office  in  the  government,  the  Mussulmans, 
it  is  true,  still  complained  of  continuous  ill-treatment  having 
for  its  object  their  expatriation;  but  these  complaints  were 
declared  by  Sir  Edward  Grey,  in  answer  to  a  question  in  parlia- 
ment, to  be  exaggerated.  The  protecting  powers  had  fixed  the 
conditions  preliminary  to  evacuation — (i)  the  organization  of  a 
native  gendarmerie,  (2)  the  maintenance  of  the  tranquillity 
of  the  island,  (3)  the  complete  security  of  the  Mussulman  popula- 
tion. On  the  2oth  of  March  1908  M.  Zaimis  called  the  attention 
of  the  powers  to  the  fact  that  these  conditions  had  been  fulfilled, 
and  on  the  nth  of  May  the  powers  announced  to  the  high 
commissioner  their  intention  of  beginning  the  evacuation  at  once 
and  completing  it  within  a  year.  The  first  withdrawal  of  the 
troops  (July  27),  hailed  with  enthusiasm  by  the  Cretan  Christians, 
led  to  rioting  by  the  Mussulmans,  who  believed  themselves 
abandoned  to  their  fate. 

Meanwhile  M.  Zaimis  had  made  a  further  advance  towards  the 
annexation  of  the  island  to  Greece  by  a  visit  to  Athens,  where 
he  arranged  for  a  loan  with  the  Greek  National  Bank  and  engaged 
Greek  officers  for  the  new  gendarmerie.  The  issue  was  pre- 
cipitated by  the  news  of  the  revolution  in  Turkey.  On  the  1 2th 

1  The  Mussulman  population,  88,000  in  1895,  had  sunk  to  40,000 
in  1907,  and  the  emigration  was  still  continuing.  The  loss  to  the 
country  in  wealth  exported  and  land  going  out  of  cultivation  has 
been  very  serious. 


43° 


CRETINISM 


of  October  the  Cretan  Assembly  once  more  voted  the  union  with 
Greece,  and  in  the  absence  of  M.  Zaimis — who  had  gone  for  a 
holiday  to  Santa  Maura — elected  a  committee  of  six  to  govern 
the  island  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Greece. 

Against  this  the  Mussulman  deputies  protested,  in  a  memor- 
andum addressed  to  the  British  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs.  His  reply,  while  stating  that  his  government  would 
safeguard  the  interests  of  the  Mussulmans,  left  open  the  question 
of  the  attitude  of  the  powers,  complicated  now  by  sympathy 
with  reformed  Turkey.  The  efforts  of  diplomacy  were  directed 
to  allaying  the  resentment  of  the  "  Young  Turks  "  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  ardour  of  the  Greek  unionists  on  the  other;  and 
meanwhile  the  Cretan  administration  was  carried  on  peaceably 
in  the  name  of  King  George.  At  last  (July  13,  1909)  the  powers 
announced  to  the  Porte,  in  answer  to  a  formal  remonstrance, 
their  decision  to  withdraw  their  remaining  troops  from  Crete 
by  July  26  and  to  station  four  war-ships  off  the  island  to  protect 
the  Moslems  and  to  safeguard  "the  supreme  rights"  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire.  This  arrangement,  which  was  duly  carried 
out,  was  avowedly  "  provisional  "  and  satisfied  neither  party, 
leading  in  Greece  especially  to  the  military  and  constitutional 
crises  of  1909  and  1910.  (W.  A.  P.) 

AUTHORITIES. — Pashley,  Travels  in  Crete  (2  vols.,  Cambridge  and 
London,  1837);  Spratt,  Travels  and  Researches  in  Crete  (2  vols., 
London,  1867) ;  Raulin,  Description  physique  del' He de  Crete  (3  vols. 
and  Atlas,  Paris,  1869);  W.  J.  Stillman,  The  Cretan  Insurrection  of 
1866-68  (New  York,  1874);  Edwardes,  Letters  from  Crete  (London, 
1887) ;  Stavrakis,  STaT-iorno)  TOU  irKiflvaijav  TTJS  KpijxTjj  (Athens,  1890) ; 
J.  H.  Freese,  A  Short  Popular  History  of  Crete  (London,  1897); 
Bickford-Smith,  Cretan  Sketches  (London,  1897);  Laroche,  La  Crete 
ancienne  et  moderne  (Paris,  1898);  Victor  Berard,  Les  Affaires  de 
Crete  (Paris,  1898) ;  Monumenti  Veneti  dell'  isola  de  Creta  (published 
by  the  Venetian  Institute),  vol.  i.  (1906),  vol.  ii.  (1908).  See  also 
M  rs  Walker,  Eastern  Life  and  Scenery  (London,  1 886) ,  and  Old  Tracks 
and  New  Landmarks  (London,  1897);  H.  F.  Tozer,  The  Islands  of 
the  Aegean  (Oxford,  1890) ;  J.  D.  Bourchier,  "  The  Stronghold  of  the 
Sphakiotes,"  Fortnightly  Review  (August  1890) ;  E.  J.  Dillon,  "  Crete 
and  the  Cretans,"  Fortnightly  Review  (May  1897). 

CRETINISM,  the  term  given  to  a  chronic  disease,  either 
sporadic  or  endemic,  arising  in  early  childhood,  and  due  to 
absence  or  deficiency  of  the  normal  secretion  of  the  thyroid 
gland.  It  is  characterized  by  imperfect  development  both  of 
mind  and  body.  The  thyroid  gland  is  either  congenitally  absent, 
imperfectly  developed,  or  there  is  definite  goitre.  The  origin 
of  the  word  is  doubtful.  Its  southern  French  form  Chresliaa 
suggested  to  Michel  a  derivation  from  cresta  (crHe),  the  goose  foot 
of  red  cloth  worn  by  the  Cagots  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  Cagots, 
however,  were  not  cretins.  The  word  is  usually  explained  as 
derived  from  chretien  (Christian)  in  the  sense  of  "  innocent." 
But  Christianas  (which  appears  in  the  Lombard  cristanei; 
compare  the  Savoyard  innocents  and  gens  du  bon  dieu)  is  probably 
a  translation  of  the  older  cretin,  and  the  latter  is  probably 
connected  with  creta  (craie) — a  sallow  or  yellow-earthy  complexion 
being  a  common  mark  of  cretinism. 

The  endemic  form  of  cretinism  prevails  in  certain  districts, 
as  in  the  valleys  of  central  Switzerland,  Tirol  and  the  Pyrenees. 
In  the  United  Kingdom  cretins  have  been  found  in  England  at 
Oldham,  Sholver  Moor,  Crompton,  Duffield,  Cromford  (near 
Matlock),  and  other  points  in  Derbyshire;  endemic  goitre  has 
been  seen  near  Nottingham,  Chesterfield,  Pontefract,  Ripon,  and 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Staffordshire  and  Yorkshire,  the  east 
of  Cumberland,  certain  parts  of  Worcester,  Warwick,  Cheshire, 
Monmouth,  and  Leicester,  near  Horsham  in  Hampshire,  near 
Haslemere  in  Surrey,  and  near  Beaconsfield  in  Buckingham. 
There  are  cretins  at  Chiselborough  in  Somerset.  In  Scotland 
cretins  and  cases  of  goitre  have  been  seen  in  Perthshire,  on  the 
east  coast  of  Fife,  in  Roxburgh,  the  upper  portions  of  Peebles 
and  Selkirk,  near  Lanark  and  Dumfries,  in  the  east  of  Ayrshire, 
in  the  west  of  Berwick,  the  east  of  Wigtown,  and  in  Kirkcudbright. 
The  disease  is  not  confined  to  Europe,  but  occurs  in  North  and 
South  America,  Australia,  Africa  and  Asia.  Wherever  endemic 
goitre  is  present,  endemic  cretinism  is  present  also,  and  it  has 
been  constantly  observed  that  when  a  new  family  moves  into  a 
goitrous  district,  goitre  appears  in  the  first  generation,  cretinism 
in  the  second.  The  causation  of  goitre  has  now  been  shown  to 


be  due  to  drinking  certain  waters,  though  the  particular  impurity 
in  the  water  which  gives  rise  to  this  condition  has  not  been 
determined  (see  GOITRE).  The  causation  of  the  sporadic  form 
of  cretinism  is,  however,  obscure. 

Cretinism  usually  remains  unrecognized  until  the  child  reaches 
some  eighteen  months  or  two  years,  when  its  lack  of  mental 
development  and  uncouth  bodily  form  begin  to  attract  attention. 
Occasionally  the  child  appears  to  be  normal  in  infancy,  but  the 
cretinoid  condition  develops  later,  any  time  up  to  puberty.  The 
essential  point  in  the  morbid  anatomy  of  these  cases  is  the  absence 
or  abnormal  condition  of  the  thyroid  gland  (see  METABOLIC 
DISEASES).  It  may  be  congenitally  absent,  atrophied,  or  the 
seat  of  a  goitre,  though  this  last  condition  is  very  rare  in  cases 
of  sporadic  cretinism.  The  skeleton  shows  arrested  growth, 
most  marked  in  the  case  of  the  long  bones.  The  skull  in  the 
endemic  form  of  cretinism  is  usually  brachycephalic,  but  in 
the  sporadic  cases  it  is  more  commonly  dolichocephalic.  The 
pathology  of  cretinism  and  its  alUed  condition  myxoedema  (q.v.) 
has  now  been  conclusively  worked  out,  and  its  essential  cause 
has  been  shown  to  be  loss  of  function  of  the  thyroid  gland. 

The  condition  has  existed  and  been  described  in  far  back 
ages,  but  mingled  with  so  many  other  entirely  different  de- 
formities and  degenerations  that  it  is  now  often  almost  impossible 
to  classify  them  satisfactorily.  The  following  is  a  vivid  picture 
by  Beaupre  (Dissertation  sur  les  cretins,  translated  in  Blackie 
on  Cretinism,  Edin.,  1855) : — 

"  I  see  a  head  of  unusual  form  and  size,  a  squat  and  bloated 
figure,  a  stupid  look,  bleared  hollow  and  heavy  eyes,  thick  projecting 
eyelids,  and  a  flat  nose.  His  face  is  of  a  leaden  hue,  his  skin  dirty, 
flabby,  covered  with  tetters,  and  his  thick  tongue  hangs  down  over 
his  moist  livid  lips.  His  mouth,  always  open  and  full  of  saliva, 
shows  teeth  going  to  decay.  His  chest  is  narrow,  his  back  curved, 
his  breath  asthmatic,  his  limbs  short,  misshapen,  without  power. 
The  knees  are  thick  and  inclined  inward,  the  feet  flat.  The  large 
head  drops  listlessly  on  the  breast;  the  abdomen  is  like  a  bag." 

When  fully  grown  the  height  rarely  exceeds  4  ft.,  and  is  often 
less  than  3  ft.  The  skin  feels  doughy  from  thickening  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues,  and  it  hangs  in  folds  over  the  abdomen  and 
the  bends  of  the  joints.  Very  frequently  there  is  an  umbilical 
hernia.  The  hair  has  a  far  greater  resemblance  to  horse-hair 
than  to  that  of  a  human  being,  and  is  usually  absent  on  the  body 
of  an  adult  cretin.  The  temperature  is  subnormal,  and  the 
exposed  parts  tend  to  become  blue  in  cold  weather.  The  blood 
is  usually  deficient  in  haemoglobin,  which  is  often  only  40-50  % 
of  the  normal.  The  mental  capacity  varies  within  narrow  limits; 
an  intelligent  adult  cretin  may  reach  the  intellectual  development 
of  a  child  3-4  years  of  age,  though  more  often  the  standard 
attained  is  even  below  this.  The  child  cretin  learns  neither 
to  walk  nor  talk  at  the  usual  time.  Often  it  is  unable  even  to 
sit  without  support.  Some  years  later  a  certain  power  of  move- 
ment is  acquired,  but  the  gait  is  waddling  and  clumsy.  Speech 
is  long  delayed,  or  in  bad  cases  may  be  almost  entirely  lacking. 
The  voice  is  usually  harsh  and  unpleasant.  Of  the  senses  smell 
and  taste  are  but  slightly  developed,  more  or  less  deafness  is 
generally  present,  and  only  the  sight  is  fairly  normal.  In  the 
adult  the  genital  organs  remain  undeveloped.  If  the  cretin 
is  untreated  he  rarely  has  a  long  life,  thirty  years  being  an 
exceptional  age.  Death  results  from  some  intercurrent  disease. 

Cretinism  has  to  be  distinguished  from  the  state  of  a  Mongolian 
idiot,  in  whom  there  is  no  thickening  of  the  subcutaneous  tissues, 
and  much  greater  alertness  of  mind;  from  achondroplasia,  in 
which  condition  there  is  usually  no  mental  impairment;  and 
from  infantilism,  which  covers  a  group  of  symptoms  whose  only 
common  point  is  that  the  primary  and'  secondary  sexual 
characteristics  fail  to  appear  at  the  proper  time. 

Before  1891  there  was  no  treatment  for  this  disease.  The 
patients  lived  in  hopeless  imbecility  until  their  death.  But  in 
that  year  Dr  George  Murray  published  his  discovery  of  the 
effect  of  hypodermic  injections  of  thyroid  gland  extract  in 
cases  of  myxoedema.  In  the  following  year  Drs  Hector  Mac- 
kenzie, E.  L.  Fox  of  Plymouth,  and  Howitz  of  Copenhagen, 
each  working  independently,  showed  the  equally  potent  effect 
of  the  gland  administered  by  the  mouth.  The  remedy  was  soon 


CRETONNE— CREUZER 


after  applied  to  cretinism  and  its  effects  were  found  to  be  even 
more  wonderful.  It  has  to  be  used,  however,  with  the  greatest 
care  and  discrimination,  since  personal  idiosyncrasy  seems  to 
be  a  very  variable  factor.  Even  small  doses,  if  beyond  the 
patient's  power,  may  produce  fever,  excitement,  headache, 
insomnia  and  vomiting.  The  administration  must  be  persisted 
in  throughout  life,  otherwise  myxoedematous  symptoms  appear. 
The  first  most  apparent  results  are  those  of  growth,  and  this 
may  supervene  even  in  patients  up  to  25-30  years  of  age.  Once 
started,  4  to  6  in.  may  be  gained  in  stature  in  the  first  year's 
treatment,  though  this  is  usually  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  age  of 
the  patient,  and  also  diminishes  in  later  stages  of  treatment. 
In  young  adolescents  it  may  be  so  rapid  that  the  patient  has  to 
be  kept  lying  down  to  prevent  permanent  bending  of  the  long 
bones  of  the  leg,  softened  by  their  rapid  growth.  A  very  typical 
case  under  Dr  Hector  Mackenzie,  showing  what  can  be  expected 
from  early  treatment,  is  that  of  a  cretin  aged  n  years  in  1893, 
when  thyroid  treatment  was  started.  He  grew  very  rapidly 
and  became  a  normal  child,  passed  through  school,  and  in  1908 
was  at  one  of  the  universities. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sardinian  Commission,  "  Relazione  della  com- 
missione  di  Sardegna  per  studiare  il  cretinismo  "  (Torino,  1848); 
C.  Hilton  Fagge,  "  On  Sporadic  Cretinism  occurring  in  England," 
Med.  Chir.  Trans.  (London,  1870);  Vincenzo  Allara,  "  Sulla  causa 
del  cretinesimo,"  studio  (Milano,  1892);  Victor  Horsley,  "  Remarks 
on  the  Function  of  the  Thyroid  Gland,"  Brit.  Med.  Journ.  (1892); 
"  The  Treatment  of  Myxoedema  and  Cretinism,  being  a  Review  of 
the  Treatment  of  those  Diseases  by  Thyroid  Gland,"  Journ.  Ment.  Sc. 
(London,  1893);  W.  Osier,  "  On  Sporadic  Cretinism  in  America," 
Am.  Journ.  of  Med.  Sc.  (1893);  C.  A.  Ewald,  Die  Erkrankungen  der 
Schilddruse,  Myxodeme  und  Cretinismus  (Wien,  1896) ;  G.  R. 
Murray,  Diseases  of  the  Thyroid  Gland,  part  i.  (1900);  R.  Virchow, 
"  t)ber  Cretinismus,"  Wiirzburger  Verhand.;  Hector  Mackenzie, 
"  Organotherapy,  "Textbook  of  Pharmacology  and  Therapeutics  (1901) ; 
Weygandt,  Der  heutige  Stand  der  Lehre  vom  Kretinismus  (Halle, 
1903) ;  Hector  Mackenzie,  "  Cretinism,"  Allbutt&  Rolleston's  System 
of  Medicine,  part  iv.  (1908). 

CRETONNE,  originally  a  strong,  white  fabric  with  a  hempen 
warp  and  linen  weft.  The  word  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Creton, 
a  village  in  Normandy  where  the  manufacture  of  linen  was 
carried  on.  It  is  now  applied  to  a  strong,  printed  cotton  cloth, 
stouter  than  chintz  but  used  for  very  much  the  same  purposes.  It 
is  usually  unglazed  and  may  be  printed  on  both  sides  and  even 
with  different  patterns.  Frequently  the  cretonne  has  a  woven 
fancy  pattern  of  some  kind  which  is  modified  by  the  printed 
design.  It  is  sometimes  made  with  a  weft  of  cotton  waste. 

CREUSE,  a  department  of  central  France,  comprising  the 
greater  portion  of  the  old  province  of  Marche,  together  with 
portions  of  Berry,  Bourbonnais,  Auvergne,  Limousin  and 
Poitou.  Area,  2164  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1906)  274,094.  It  lies  on  the 
north-western  border  of  the  central  plateau  and  is  bounded  N. 
by  the  departments  of  Indre  and  Cher,  E.  by  Allier  and  Puy-de- 
D6me,  S.  by  Correze  and  W.  by  Haute-Vienne.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  with  a  general  inclination  north-westward  in  the  direction 
of  the  valley  of  the  Creuse,  sloping  from  the  mountains  of 
Auvergne  and  Limousin,  branches  of  which  project  into  the 
south  of  the  department.  The  chief  of  these  starts  from  the 
Plateau  de  Gentioux,  and  under  the  name  of  the  Mountains  of 
Marche  extends  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Creuse.  The  highest 
point  is  in  the  forest  of  Chateauvert  (3050  ft.)  in  the  extreme 
south-east  of  the  department.  Rivers,  streams  and  lakes  are 
numerous,  but  none  are  navigable;  the  principal  is  the  Creuse, 
which  rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  mass  of  Mount  Odouze  on 
the  border  of  the  department  of  Correze,  and  passes  through 
the  department,  dividing  it  into  two  nearly  equal  portions, 
receiving  the  Petite  Creuse  from  the  right,  and  afterwards 
flowing  on  to  join  the  Vienne.  The  valleys  of  the  head-streams 
of  the  Cher  and  of  its  tributary  the  Tardes,  which  near  Evaux 
passes  under  a  fine  viaduct  300  ft.  in  height,  occupy  the  eastern 
side;  those  of  the  heads  of  the  Vienne  and  its  tributary  the 
Thaurion,  and  of  the  Gartempe  joining  the  Creuse,  are  in  the 
west  of  the  department.  The  climate  is  in  general  cold,  moist 
and  variable;  the  rigorous  winter  covers  the  higher  cantons 
with  snow;  rain  is  abundant  in  spring,  and  storms  are  frequent 
in  summer,  but  the  autumn  is  fine.  Except  in  the  valleys  the 


soil  is  poor  and  infertile,  and  agriculture  is  also  handicapped  by 
the  dearness  of  labour,  due  to  the  annual  emigration  of  from 
15,000  to  20,000  of  the  inhabitants  to  other  parts  of  France, 
where  they  serve  as  stonemasons,  &c.  The  produce  of  cereals, 
chiefly  rye,  wheat,  oats  and  buckwheat,  is  not  sufficient  for  home 
consumption.  The  chestnut  abounds  in  the  north  and  west; 
hemp  and  potatoes  are  also  grown.  Cattle-rearing  and  sheep- 
breeding  are  the  chief  industries  of  the  department,  which 
supplies  Poitou  and  Vendee  with  draught  oxen.  Coal  is  mined 
to  some  extent,  chiefly  in  the  basin  of  Ahun.  There  are  thermal 
springs  at  Evaux  in  the  east  of  the  department,  where  remains 
of  Roman  baths  are  preserved.  The  chief  industrial  establish- 
ments are  the  manufactories  of  carpets  and  hangings  and 
the  dyeworks  of  Aubusson  and  Felletin.  Saw-mills  and  the 
manufacture  of  wooden  shoes  and  hats  have  some  importance. 
Exports  include  carpets,  coal,  live-stock  and  hats;  imports 
comprise  raw  materials  for  the  manufactures  and  food-supplies. 
The  department  is  served  by  the  Orleans  railway  company, 
whose  line  from  Montlucon  to  Perigueux  traverses  it  from  east 
to  west.  It  is  divided  into  the  four  arrondissements  of  Gu6ret, 
the  capital  Aubusson,  Bourganeuf,  and  Boussac,  and  further 
into  25  cantons  and  266  communes.  With  Haute-Vienne, 
Creuse  forms  the  diocese  of  Limoges,  where  also  is  its  court  of 
appeal.  It  forms  part  of  the  academic  (educational  division) 
of  Clermont  and  of  the  region  of  the  XII.  army  corps.  The 
principal  towns  are  Gueret  and  Aubusson.  La  Souterraine, 
Chambon-sur-Voueize  and  Benevent-l'Abbaye  possess  fine 
churches  of  the  i2th  century.  At  Moutier-d'Ahun  there  is  a 
church,  which  has  survived  from  a  Benedictine  abbey.  The 
nave  of  the  i5th  century  with  a  fine  portal,  and  the  choir  with 
its  carved  stalls  of  the  I7th  century,  are  of  considerable  interest. 
The  small  industrial  town  of  Bourganeuf  has  remains  of  a  priory, 
including  a  tower  (i$th  century)  in  which  Zizim,  brother  of  the 
sultan  Bajazet  II.,  is  said  to  have  been  imprisoned. 

CREUTZ,  GUSTAF  FILIP,  COUNT  (1720-1785),  Swedish  poet, 
was  born  in  Finland  in  1729.  After  concluding  his  studies  in 
Abo  he  received  a  post  in  the  court  of  chancery  at  Stockholm 
in  1751.  Here  he  met  Count  Gyllenborg,  with  whom  his  name 
is  indissolubly  connected.  They  were  closely  allied  with  Fru 
Nordenflycht,  and  their  works  were  published  in  common; 
to  their  own  generation  they  seemed  equal  in  fame,  but  posterity 
has  given  the  palm  of  genius  to  Creutz.  His  greatest  work  is 
contained  in  the  1762  volume,  the  idyll  of  Alis  och  Camilla; 
the  exquisite  little  pastoral  entitled  "Daphne"  was  published 
at  the  same  time,  and  Gyllenborg  was  the  first  to  proclaim  the 
supremacy  of  his  friend.  In  1763  Creutz  practically  closed  his 
poetical  career;  he  went  to  Spain  as  ambassador,  and  after 
three  years  to  Paris  in  the  same  capacity.  In  1783  Gustavus 
III.  recalled  him  and  heaped  honours  upon  him,  but  he  died 
soon  after,  on  the  3oth  of  October  1785.  Atis  och  Camilla 
was  long  the  most  admired  poem  in  the  Swedish  language; 
it  is  written  in  a  spirit  of  pastoral  which  is  now  to  some  degree 
faded,  but  in  comparison  with  most  of  the  other  productions 
of  the  time  it  is  freshness  itself.  Creutz  introduced  a  melody 
and  grace  into  the  Swedish  tongue  which  it  lacked  before,  and 
he  has  been  styled  "  the  last  artificer  of  the  language." 

See  Creutz  och  Gyllenborgs  Vilterhetsarbeten  (Stockholm,  1795). 

CREUZER,  GEORG  FRIEDRICH  (1771-1858),  German  philo- 
logist and  archaeologist,  was  born  on  the  loth  of  March  1771, 
at  Marburg,  the  son  of  a  bookbinder.  Having  studied  at  Marburg 
and  Jena,  he  for  some  time  lived  at  Leipzig  as  a  private  tutor; 
but  in  1802  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Marburg,  and  two 
years  later  professor  of  philology  and  ancient  history  at  Heidel- 
berg. The  latter  position  he  held  for  nearly  forty-five  years, 
with  the  exception  of  a  short  time  spent  at  the  university  of 
Leiden,  where  his  health  was  affected  by  the  Dutch  climate. 
He  was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  Philological  Seminary 
established  at  Heidelberg  in  1807.  The  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
of  Paris  appointed  him  one  of  its  members,  and  from  the  grand- 
duke  of  Baden  he  received  the  dignity  of  privy  councillor.  He 
died  on  the  i6th  of  February  1858.  Creuzer's  first  and  most 
famous  work  was  his  Symbolik  und  Mythologie  der  alien  Volker, 


432 


CREVASSE— CREWE 


besonders  der  Griechen  (1810-1812),  in  which  he  maintained 
that  the  mythology  of  Homer  and  Hesiod  came  from  an  Eastern 
source  through  the  Pelasgians,  and  was  the  remains  of  the  sym- 
bolism of  an  ancient  revelation.  This  work  was  vigorously 
attacked  by  Hermann  in  his  Briefen  iiber  Homer  und  Hesiod, 
and  in  his  letter,  addressed  to  Creuzer,  Uber  das  Wesen  und  die 
Behandlung  der  Mythologie',  by  J.  H.  Voss  in  his  Antisymbolik; 
and  by  Lobek  in  his  Aglaophamos.  Of  Creuzer's  other  works 
the  principal  are  an  edition  of  Plotinus;  a  partial  edition  of 
Cicero,  in  preparing  which  he  was  assisted  by  Moser;  Die 
historische  Kunst  der  Griechen  (1803);  Epochen  der  griech. 
Literaturgeschichte  (1802);  Abriss  der  romischen  Antiquitiiten 
(1824);  Zur  Geschichte  altromischer  Cultur  am  Oberrhein  und 
Neckar  (1833);  Zur  Gemmenkunde  (1834);  Das  Mithreum  von 
Neuenheim  (1838);  Zur  Galerie  der  alien  Dramatiker  (1839);  Zur 
Geschichte  der  classischen  Philologie  (1854). 

See  the  autobiographical  Aus  dent  Leben  eines  alien  Professors 
(Leipzig  and  Darmstadt,  1848),  to  which  was  added  in  the  year  of  his 
death  Paralipomena  der  Lebenskizze  eines  alien  Professors  (Frankfort, 
1858);  also  Starck,  Friederich  Kreuzer,  sein  Bildungsgang  und  seine 
bleibende  Bedeutung  (Heidelberg,  1875). 

CREVASSE,  a  French  word  used  in  two  senses,  (i)  In  French 
Switzerland,  and  thence  universally  in  high  mountain  regions,  it 
designates  a  fissure  in  a  glacier  caused  by  gigantic  cracks  in  the 
ice-mass,  sometimes  of  great  depth,  into  which  climbers  fre- 
quently fall  through  a  light  bridge  of  snow  which  conceals  the 
crevasse.  (2)  Adopted  from  the  French  of  Louisiana,  it  signifies 
locally  a  wide  crack  or  breach  in  the  bank  of  a  canal  or  river, 
and  particularly  of  the  "  levee  "  of  the  Mississippi. 

CREVIER,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  LOUIS  (1693-1765),  French 
author,  was  born  at  Paris,  where  his  father  was  a  printer.  He 
studied  under  Rollin  and  held  the  professorship  of  rhetoric  in 
the  college  of  Beauvais  for  twenty  years.  He  completed  Rollin's 
Histoire  romaine  by  the  addition  of  six  volumes  (1750-1756); 
he  also  published  two  editions  of  Livy,  with  notes;  L' Histoire 
des  empereurs  des  Remains,  jusqu'a  Constantin  (1749);  Histoire 
de  I'UniversM  de  Paris,  and  a  Rhetorique  franc,oise,  which 
enjoyed  much  popularity. 

CREVILLENTE,  a  town  of  eastern  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Alicante,  and  on  the  Murcia- Alicante  railway.  Pop.  (1900) 
10,726.  Crevillente  is  a  picturesque  old  town  built  among  the 
eastern  foothills  of  the  Sierra  de  Crevillente.  Its  flat-roofed 
Moorish  houses  are  enclosed  by  gardens  of  cactus,  dwarf  palm, 
orange  and  other  subtropical  plants,  interspersed  with  masses 
of  rock.  The  surrounding  country,  though  naturally  sterile,  is 
irrigated  from  two  adjacent  springs,  which  differ  in  temperature 
by  no  less  than  25°  F.  The  district  is  famous  for  its  melons, 
and  also  produces  wine,  olives,  wheat  and  esparto  grass.  Local 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of  coarse  cloth,  esparto 
fabrics,  oil  and  flour. 

CREW,  NATHANIEL  CREW,  3RD  BARON  (1633-1721),  bishop 
of  Durham,  was  a  son  of  John  Crew  (1598-1679),  who  was  created 
Baron  Crew  of  Stene  in  i66i,and  a  grandson  of  Sir  Thomas  Crew 
(1565-1634),  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Born  on  the 
3istof  January  1633,  Nathaniel  was  educated  at  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  appointed  rector  of  the  college  in  1668.  He 
became  dean  and  precentor  of  Chichester  in  1669,  clerk  of  the 
closet  to  Charles  II.  shortly  afterwards,  bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1671,  and  bishop  of  Durham  in  1674.  He  owed  his  rapid  prefer- 
ment to  James,  then  duke  of  York,  whose  favour  he  had  gained 
by  conniving  at  the  duke's  leanings  to  the  Roman  Church.  After 
the  accession  of  James  II.  Crew  received  the  deanery  of  the  Chapel 
Royal.  He  served  in  1686  on  the  revived  ecclesiastical  commis- 
sion which  suspended  Compton,  bishop  of  London,  and  then 
shared  the  administration  of  the  see  of  London  with  Sprat, 
bishop  of  Rochester.  In  1687  he  was  a  member  of  another 
ecclesiastical  commission,  which  suspended  the  vice-chancellor 
of  the  university  of  Cambridge  for  refusing  the  degree  of  M.A. 
to  a  monk  who  would  not  take  the  customary  oath.  On  the  de- 
cline of  James's  power  Crew  dissociated  himself  from  the  court, 
and  made  a  bid  for  the  favour  of  the  new  government  by  voting 
for  the  motion  that  James  had  abdicated.  He  was  excepted 


from  the  general  pardon  of  1690,  but  afterwards  was  allowed  to 
retain  his  see.  He  left  large  estates  to  be  devoted  to  charitable 
ends,  and  his  benefaction  to  Lincoln  College  and  to  Oxford 
University  is  commemorated  in  the  annual  Crewian  oration. 
In  1697  Crew  succeeded  his  brother  Thomas  as  3rd  Baron  Crew. 
He  died  on  the  i8th  of  September  1721,  when  the  barony  became 
extinct. 

CREW  (sometimes  explained  as  a  sea  term  of  Scandinavian 
origin,  cf.  O.  Icel.  kru,  a  swarm  or  crowd,  but  now  regarded  as 
a  shortened  form  of  accrue,  accrewe,  used  in  the  i6th  century 
in  the  sense  of  a  reinforcement,  O.  Fr.  acreue,  from  accroitre, 
to  grow,  increase),  a  band  or  body  of  men  associated  for  a 
definite  purpose,  a  gang  who  jointly  carry  out  a  particular  piece 
of  work,  and  especially  those  who  man  a  ship,  exclusive  of  the 
captain,  and  sometimes  also  of  the  officers. 

CREWE,  ROBERT  OFFLEY  ASHBURTON  CREWE-MILNES, 
IST  EARL  or  (1858-  ),  English  statesman  and  writer,  was 
born  on  the  1 2th  of  January  1858,  being  the  son  of  Lord  Hough  ton 
(q.v.),  and  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity,  Cambridge. 
In  1880  he  married  Sibyl  Marcia  Graham,  who  died  in  1887, 
leaving  him  with  two  daughters.  He  inherited  his  father's 
literary  tastes,  and  published  Stray  Verses  in  1890,  besides  other 
miscellaneous  literary  work.  A  Liberal  in  politics,  he  became 
private  secretary  to  Lord  Granville  when  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs  (1883-1884),  and  in  1886  was  made  a  lord-in- 
waiting.  In  the  Liberal  administration  of  1892-1895  he  was 
lord-lieutenant  for  Ireland,  having  Mr  John  Morley  as  chief 
secretary.  In  1895  he  was  created  ist  earl  of  Crewe,  his  maternal 
grandfather,  the  2nd  Baron  Crewe,  having  left  him  his  heir. 
In  1899  he  married  Lady  Margaret  Primrose,  daughter  of  the 
5th  earl  of  Rosebery.  In  1905  he  became  lord  president  of  the 
council  in  the  Liberal  government;  and  in  1908,  in  Mr  Asquith's 
cabinet,  he  became  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  and  Liberal 
leader  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

CREWE,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  Crewe  parliamentary 
division  of  Cheshire,  England,  158  m.  N.W.  of  London,  on  the 
main  line  of  the  London  &  North-Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901) 
42,074.  The  town  was  built  on  an  estate  called  Oak  Farm  in 
the  parish  of  Monk's  Coppenhall,  and  takes  its  name  from  the 
original  stations  having  been  placed  in  the  township  of  Crewe,  in 
which  the  seat  of  Lord  Crewe  is  situated.  It  is  a  railway  junction 
where  lines  converge  from  London,  Manchester,  North  Wales 
and  Holyhead,  North  Stafford  and  Hereford.  It  is  inhabited 
principally  by  persons  in  the  employment  of  the  London  & 
North-Western  railway  company,  and  was  practically  created 
by  that  corporation,  at  a  point  where  in  1841  only  a  farmhouse 
stood  in  open  country.  Crewe  is  not  only  one  of  the  busiest 
railway  stations  in  the  world,  but  is  the  locomotive  metropolis  of 
the  London  &  North-Western  company,  which  has  centred  here 
enormous  workshops  for  the  manufacture  of  the  material  and 
plant  used  in  railways.  In  1901  the  4oooth  locomotive  was  turned 
out  of  the  works.  A  series  of  subterranean  ways  extending  many 
miles  have  been  constructed  to  enable  merchandise  traffic  to  pass 
through  without  interfering  with  passenger  trains  on  the  surface 
railways.  The  company  possesses  one  of  the  finest  electric 
stations  in  the  world,  and  electrical  apparatus  for  the  working  of 
train  signals  is  in  operation.  The  station  is  fitted  with  an 
extensive  suite  of  offices  for  the  interchange  of  postal  traffic, 
the  chief  mails  to  and  from  Ireland  and  Scotland  being  stopped 
here  and  arranged  for  various  distributing  centres.  Its  enormous 
railway  facilities  and  its  geographical  situation  as  the  junction 
of  the  great  trunk  lines  running  north  and  south,  tapping  also 
the  Staffordshire  potteries  on  the  one  side  and  the  great  mineral 
districts  of  Wales  on  the  other,  constitute  Crewe  station  one  of 
the  most  important  links  of  railway  and  postal  communication 
in  the  kingdom.  The  railway  company  built  its  principal  schools, 
provided  it  with  a  mechanics'  institute,  containing  library, 
science  and  art  classes,  reading  rooms,  assembly  rooms,  &c. 
Victoria  Park,  also  the  gift  of  the  company,  was  opened  in  1888. 
The  municipal  corporation  built  the  technical.school  and  school 
of  art.  The  borough  incorporated  in  1877,  is  under  a  mayor,. 
7  aldermen  and  21  councillors.  Area,  2185  acres. 


CREWKERNE— CRIBBAGE 


433 


CREWKERNE,  a  market  town  in  the  southern  parliamentary 
division  of  Somersetshire,  England,  132  m.  W.S.W.  of  London 
by  the  London  &  South-Western  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district 
(1901)  4226.  Jt  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  wooded  hollow, 
in  the  upper  valley  of  the  river  Parret.  The  church  of  St 
Bartholomew,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  county,  is  in  the  Perpen- 
dicular style  characteristic  of  the  district.  The  ornamentation 
throughout  is  beautiful,  and  the  west  front  especially  notable. 
The  grammar  school  dates  from  1499,  but  occupies  modern  build- 
ings. Sail-cloth,  horsehair,  cloth  and  webbing  are  manufactured. 

CRIB  (a  word  common  to  some  Teutonic  languages,  cf. 
Dutch  krib  and  Ger.  Krippe;  it  has  a  common  origin  with 
the  O.  Eng.  "  cratch,"  a  manger  or  crib,  cf.  Fr.  crfche), 
a  manger  or  framework  receptacle  for  holding  fodder  for  cattle 
and  horses,  and  so,  from  early  times  in  English,  particularly  the 
manger  in  which  Jesus  was  laid.  It  is  thus  used  of  a  "  cradle," 
from  which  in  form  it  should  be  distinguished  as  being  a  small 
bed  with  high  closed-in  sides.  The  word  has  many  transferred 
meanings,  as  a  rough,  small  hut  or  dwelling,  from  which  comes 
the  slang  use  of  "  crib  "  as  a  berth  or  situation,  or,  as  a  burglar's 
term  for  a  house  to  be  broken  into;  also,  technically,  in  engineer- 
ing for  a  timber  framework  for  masonry  constructed  with  a 
caisson  in  laying  foundations  below  water,  or  in  mining  for  a 
timber  lining  to  a  shaft.  "  Crib-biting  "  is  a  vicious  habit  in 
horses,  probably  due  in  the  first  instance  to  indigestion;  the 
horse  seizes  the  manger  or  other  object  in  its  teeth,  and  draws 
in  the  breath,  known  as  "  wind-sucking  ";  the  habit  may  be 
checked  by  the  use  of  a  throat-strap.  The  slang  meaning  of  the 
verb  "  crib,"  to  steal,  especially  used  of  petty  thefts,  is  probably 
derived  from  an  obsolete  use  of  the  substantive  for  a  small 
wicker  basket;  this  meaning  occurs  in  the  expression  "  time- 
cribbing,"  used  of  an  illicit  increase  of  the  hours  of  labour  in 
a  factory  or  workshop,  especially  by  the  running  of  machinery 
each  day  slightly  beyond  the  time  of  ceasing  work.  "  Crib  " 
and  "  cribbing  "  in  this  sense  are  also  applied  to  any  unacknow- 
ledged appropriation  or  plagiarism  from  an  author,  and  particu- 
larly to  the  secret  copying  by  a  schoolboy  of  another's  work  or 
from  a  book,  and  also  to  the  secret  use  of  a  translation  and  to 
such  translation  itself.  "  Crib,"  in  the  game  of  cribbage,  of 
which  it  is  a  shortened  form,  is  the  term  for  the  cards  thrown 
away  by  each  player  and  scored  by  the  dealer. 

CRIBBAGE,  a  game  of  cards.  A  very  similar  game  called 
"  Noddy  "  was  formerly  played,  the  game  being  fifteen  or  twenty- 
one  up,  marked  with  counters,  occasionally  by  means  of  a  noddy 
board.  Cribbage  seems  to  be  an  improved  form  of  Noddy. 
According  to  John  Aubrey  (Brief  Lives)  it  was  invented  by  Sir 
John  Suckling  (1609-1642). 

A  complete  pack  of  fifty-two  cards  is  required,  and  a  cribbage 
board  for  scoring,  drilled  with  sixty  holes  for  each  player  and 
one  hole  (called  "  the  game  hole  ")  at  each  end,  the  players  usually 
scoring  from  opposite  ends.  Each  player  has  two  scoring  pegs. 
The  game  is  marked  by  inserting  the  pegs  in  the  holes,  one  after 
the  other,  as  the  player  makes  a  fresh  score,  commencing  with  the 
outer  row  at  the  game-hole  end  and  going  up  the  board.  When 
the  thirtieth  hole  is  reached  the  player  comes  down  the  board, 
using  the  inner  row  of  holes,  until  he  places  his  foremost  peg  in  the 
game-hole.  If  the  losing  player  fails  to  obtain  half  the  holes, 
his  adversary  wins  a  "lurch,"  or  double  game. 

The  game  may  be  played  by  two  players,  five  or  six  cards 
being  dealt  to  each,  and  each  putting  out  two  for  what  is  called 
"  crib  ";  or  by  three  players  (with  a  triangular  scoring  board), 
five  cards  being  dealt  to  each,  each  putting  out  one  for  crib, 
and  a  card  from  the  top  of  the  pack  being  dealt  to  complete  the 
crib;  or  by  four  players  (two  being  partners  against  the  other 
two,  sitting  and  playing  as  at  whist,  and  one  partner  scoring  for 
both) ,  five  cards  being  dealt  to  each,  and  each  putting  out  one  card 
for  crib. 

Two-handed  five-card  cribbage  was  formerly  considered  the 
most  scientific  game,  but  this  verdict  has  now  been  reversed  in 
favour  of  the  six-card  game.  In  six-card  cribbage  both  hands 
and  crib  contain  four  cards,  and  121  holes  are  scored. 

The  players  cut  for  deal,  the  lowest  dealing.     If  more  than  one 


game  is  played,  the  winner  of  the  last  game  deals.  The  cards 
rank  from  king  (highest)  to  the  ace  (lowest) .  At  the  two-handed 
five-card  game,  the  non-dealer  scores  three  holes  (called  "  three 
for  last  ")  at  any  time  during  the  game,  but  usually  while  the 
dealer  is  dealing  the  first  hand.  This  is  not  part  of  the  six-card 
game,  which  we  take  as  our  example. 

The  dealer  deals  six  cards  to  each,  singly.  The  undealt  cards 
are  placed  face  downwards  on  the  table.  The  players  then 
look  at  their  hands  a'nd  "  lay  out,"  each  putting  two  cards  face 
downwards  on  the  table,  on  the  side  of  the  board  nearest  to  the 
dealer,  for  the  "  crib."  A  player  must  not  take  back  into  his  hand 
a  card  he  has  laid  out  if  the  cards  have  been  covered,  nor  must 
the  crib  be  touched  during  the  play  of  his  hand. 

After  laying  out,  the  non-dealer  (when  more  than  two  play, 
the  player  to  the  dealer's  left)  cuts  the  pack,  and  the  dealer  turns 
up  the  top  card  of  the  lower  packet,  called  the  "  start,"  or  "  turn- 
up." If  this  is  a  knave,  the  dealer  marks  two  "  for  his  heels." 
This  score  is  forfeited  if  not  marked  before  the  dealer  plays  a 
card. 

The  non-dealer  plays  first  by  laying  face  upwards  on  the  table 
on  his  side  of  the  board  any  card  from  his  hand;  the  dealer  then 
does  the  same,  and  so  on  alternately.  When  more  than  two  play, 
the  player  to  the  leader's  left  plays  the  second  card,  and  so  on. 
As  soon  as  the  first  card  is  laid  down  the  player  calls  out  the 
number  of  pips  on  it;  if  a  picture  card,  ten.  When  the  second 
card  is  laid  down,  the  player  calls  out  the  sum  of  the  pips  on  the 
two  cards  played,  and  so  on  until  all  the  cards  are  played,  or 
until  neither  player  can  play  without  passing  the  number  thirty- 
one.  If  one  player  has  a  card  or  cards  that  will  come  in  and  the 
other  has  not,  he  is  at  liberty  to  play  them;  at  the  six-card  game 
he  must  play  as  long  as  they  can  come  in,  and  he  can  score 
runs  or  make  pairs,  &c.,  with  them.  If  one  player's  cards  are 
exhausted,  the  adversary  plays  out  his  own,  and  can  score  with 
them.  When  more  than  two  play,  the  player  next  in  rotation 
is  bound  to  play,  and  so  on  until  no  one  can  come  in.  At  the  two- 
handed  five-card  game,  when  neither  can  come  in  the  play  stops; 
at  the  other  games  the  cards  are  played  turned  down,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  cards  are  played  in  rotation,  and  so  on  until 
all  are  played  out. 

The  object  of  the  play  is  to  make  pairs,  fifteens,  sequences, 
and  the  "  go,"  and  to  prevent  the  adversary  from  scoring. 

Pairs. — If  a  card  is  put  down  of  the  same  denomination  as  the  one 
last  played,  the  player  pairing  scores  two  holes.  If  a  third  card  of 
the  same  denomination  is  next  played,  a  "  pair  royal  "  (abbreviated 
to  "  prial  ")  is  made,  and  the  maker  scores  six  holes.  If  a.  fourth 
card  of  the  same  denomination  is  next  played,  twelve  holes  are  scored 
for  the  "  double  pair  royal."  Kings  pair  only  with  kings,  queens 
with  queens,  and  so  with  knaves  and  tens,  notwithstanding  that  they 
all  count  ten  in  play. 

Fifteens. — If  either  player  during  the  play  reaches  fifteen  exactly, 
by  reckoning  the  values  of  all  the  played  cards,  he  marks  two. 

Sequences. — If  during  the  play  of  the  hand  three  or  more  cards  are 
consecutively  played  which  make  an  ascending  or  descending; 
sequence,  the  maker  of  the  sequence  marks  one  hole  for  each  card 
forming  the  sequence  or  run.  King,  queen,  knave  and  ten  reckon 
in  sequence  in  this  order,  notwithstanding  that  they  are  all  tenth 
cards  in  play;  the  other  cards  according  to  the  number  of  their 
pips.  The  ace  is  not  in  sequence  with  king,  queen.  If  one  player 
obtains  a  run  of  three,  his  adversary  can  put  down  a  card  in  sequence 
and  mark  four,  and  so  on.  And,  it  there  is  a  break  in  the  sequence, 
and  the  break  is  filled  -p  during  the  play,  without  the  intervention 
of  a  card  not  in  sequence,  the  player  of  the  card  that  fills  the  break 
scores  a  run.  Thus  the  cards  are  played  in  this  order:  A-4,  6-3, 
A-2,  B-ace,  A  gets  a  run  of  three,  B  a  run  of  four.  Had  B's  last 
card  been  a  five,  he  would  similarly  have  scored  a  run  of  four,  as 
there  is  no  break.  Had  B's  last  card  been  a  four,  he  would  have 
scored  a  run  of  three.  The  cards  need  not  be  played  in  order.  Thus 
the  cards  being  played  in  this  order,  A-4,  B-2,  A-s,  6-3,  A-6,  A-4, 
B-2,  A-5,  B-3,  A-J,  B-6,  B  takes  a  run  of  four  for  the  fourth  card 
played,  but  there  is  no  run  for  any  one  else,  as  the  second  five  inter- 
venes. Again,  if  the  cards  at  six-card  cribbage  are  thus  played,  A-4, 
B-2,  A-3,  B-ace,  A-5,  B-2,  A-4,  B-ace,  A  takes  a  run  of  three,  B  a 
run  of  four,  A  a  run  of  five.  B  then  playing  the  deuce  has  no  run, 
as  the  deuce  previously  played  intervenes. 

The  "  go,'  end  hole  or  last  card  is  scored  by  the  player  who 
approaches  most  nearly  to  thirty-one  during  the  play,  and  entitles 
to  a  score  of  one.  If  thirty-one  is  reached  exactly,  it  is  a  go  of  two 
instead  of  one.  After  a  go  no  card  already  played  can  be  counted 
for  pairs  or  sequences. 


434 


CRICCIETH— CRICHTON 


Compound  Scores. — More  than  one  of  the  above  scores  can  be  made 
at  the  same  time.  Thus  a  player  pairing  with  the  last  card  that  will 
come  in  scores  both  pair  and  go.  Similarly  a  pair  and  a  fifteen,  or  a 
sequence  and  a  fifteen,  can  be  reckoned  together. 

When  the  play  is  over,  the  hands  are  shown  and  counted  aloud. 
The  non-dealer  has  first  show  and  scores  and  marks  first ;  the  dealer 
afterwards  counts,  scores  and  marks  what  he  has  in  hand,  and  then 
takes  what  is  in  crib.  In  counting  both  hands  and  crib  the  "  start  " 
is  included,  so  that  five  cards  are  involved. 

The  combinations  in  hand  or  crib  which  entitle  to  a  score  are 
fifteen,  pairs  or  pairs  royal,  sequences,  flushes  and  "  his  nob." 

Fifteens. — All  the  combinations  of  cards  that,  taken  together, 
make  fifteen  exactly,  count  two.  For  example,  a  ten  (King,  Queen, 
Knave  or  Ten)  card  and  a  five  reckon  two,  called  as  "  fifteen  two." 
Another  five  in  the  hand  or  turned  up  would  again  combine  with  the 
ten  card,  and  entitle  to  another  fifteen  ("  fifteen  four  ") ;  if  the  other 
cards  were  a  two  and  a  three,  two  other  fifteens  would  be  counted 
("  fifteen  six,"  "  fifteen  eight  ") — one  for  the  combination  of  the 
three  and  two  with  the  ten  card,  and  one  for  the  combination  of  the 
two  fives  with  the  three  and  two.  Similarly  two  ten  cards  and  two 
fives  reckon  eight;  a  nine  and  three  threes  count  six;  and  so  on  for 
other  cards. 

Pairs. — Pairs  are  reckoned  as  in  play. 

Sequences. — Three  or  more  cards  in  sequence  count  one  for  each 
card.  If  one  sequence  card  can  be  substituted  for  another  of  the 
same  denomination,  the  sequence  reckons  again.  For  example,  3,4,5 
and  a  3  turned  up  reckon  two  sequences  of  three;  with  another  3 
there  would  be  three  sequences  of  three,  and  so  on. 

Flushes. — If  all  the  cards  in  hand  are  of  the  same  suit,  one  is 
reckoned  for  each  card.  If  the  start  is  also  of  the  same  suit,  one 
is  reckoned  for  that  also.  In  crib,  no  flush  is  reckoned  unless  the 
start  is  of  the  same  suit  as  the  cards  in  crib. 

His  Nob. — If  a  player  holds  the  knave  of  the  suit  turned  up  for  the 
start  he  counts  one  "  for  his  nob." 

A  dialogue  will  illustrate  the  technical  conversation  of  the  game, 
in  a  game  at  six-card  cribbage.  The  cards  for  crib  having  been  dis- 
carded, A  holds  knave  of  hearts,  a  four  and  a  pair  of  twos:  B  holds 
a  pair  of  nines,  a  six  and  a  four.  Two  of  hearts  is  turned  up  by  B. 
.  The  hand  might  be  played  thus.  A  lays  down  a  two  and  says 
"  Two  ":  B  plays  a  nine  and  says  "  Eleven  ":  A  follows  with  a 
four,  saying  Fifteen  two  ";  pegging  two  holes  at  once:  B  plays 
his  four  and  says  "  Nineteen;  two  for  a  pair,"  and  pegs:  A  putting 
on  his  knave,  "  Twenty-nine  " :  B  says  "  Go."  A  lays  down  his 
two,  his  last  card,  and  says  "  Thirty-one;  good  for  two."  B  plays 
his  nine  and  six,  saying  "  Fifteen  two,  and  one  for  my  last — three." 
The  points  are  marked  as  they  are  made.  A  then  counts  his  hand 
aloud.  "  Six  for  a  pair-royal  "  or  "  Three  twos — good  for  six," 
and  "  One  for  his  nob — seven,"  and  throws  down  his  hand  for  B's 
inspection.  B,  "  Fifteen  two,  fifteen  four,  fifteen  six,  fifteen  eight, 
and  a  pair  are  ten."  B  then  looks  at  his  crib  and  counts  it.  It 
contains,  say,  king,  eight,  three,  ace  and  the  "  start  "  is  also  reckoned. 
B  counts  "  Fifteen  two  and  a  run  of  three — five." 

After  the  points  in  hand  and  crib  are  reckoned,  the  cards  are 
shuffled  and  dealt  again,  and  so  on  alternately  until  the  game  is  won. 

The  highest  possible  score  in  hand  is  29 — three  fives  and  a  knave, 
with  a  five,  of  the  same  suit  as  the  knave,  turned  up. 

CRICCIETH,  a  watering-place  and  contributory  parliamentary 
borough  of  Carnarvonshire,  Wales,  on  Cardigan  Bay,  served  by 
the  Cambrian  railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901)  1406.  It  is 
interesting  for  its  high  antiquity  and  the  ruined  castle,  a  fortress 
on  an  eminence  where  a  neck  of  land  ends,  projecting  into  the  sea. 
Portions  of  two  towers  are  on  the  very  verge  of  the  rock.  A  double 
fosse  and  vallum,  with  the  outer  and  inner  court  lines,  can 
be  traced.  Apparently  British,  the  castle  was  repaired  later, 
probably  in  the  time  of  Edward  I.  Across  the  bay  is  seen 
Harlech  castle,  backed  by  the  Merionethshire  hills.  An  old 
county-family  mansion  near  Criccieth  is  Gwynfryn  (happy  hill), 
the  seat  of  the  Nanneys,  situated  near  the  stream  Dwyfawr  and 
within  some  7  m.  of  Pwllheli.  Not  far  is  a  tumulus,  Tomen 
fawr.  At  a  distance  of  5  m.  is  Tremadoc  (which  owes  its  name, 
Town  of  Madocks — as  does  Portmadoc — to  Mr  W.  Madocks, 
of  Morfa  Lodge,  who  made  the  embankment  here).  Criccieth 
has  become  a  favourite  watering-place,  as  well  as  a  centre  of 
excursions.  The  neighbourhood  is  agreeable,  and  the  Cardigan 
Bay  shore  is  shelving  and  suitable  for  safe  bathing.  Cantref  y 
Gwaelod  (the  hundred  of  the  bottom)  is  the  Welsh  literary 
name  of  this  bay,  on  the  shores  of  which  geological  depression 
has  certainly  taken  place.  Mythical  history  relates  how 
Seithennin's  drunkenness  inundated  the  land  now  covered  by  the 
bay,  and  how  King  Arthur's  ship  was  wrecked  upon-  Meisdiroedd 
Enlli  near  Bardsey.  The  Mabinogion  tell  how  Harlech  was  a 
port.  Similarly,  in  Carnarvon  Bay,  about  2  m.  seaward,  at 


low  water,  are  visible  the  ruins  of  Caerarianrhod  (fortified  town  ' 
of  the  silver  wheel),  a  submerged  town — due  to  another  geological 
depression. 

CRICHTON,  JAMES  (1560-?  1582),  commonly  called  the 
"  Admirable  Crichton,"  was  the  son  of  Robert  Crichton,  lord 
advocate  of  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Mary  and  James  VI.,  and  of 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  James  Stewart  of  Beath,  through 
whom  he  claimed  royal  descent.  He  was  born  probably  at 
Eliock  in  Dumfriesshire  in  1560,  and  when  ten  years  old  was  sent 
to  St  Salvator's  College,  St  Andrews,  where  he  took  his  B.A.  in 
!574andhisM.A.iniS75.  In  1577  Crichton  was  undoubtedly  in 
Paris,  but  his  career  on  the  continent  is  difficult  to  follow.  That 
he  displayed  considerable  classical  knowledge,  was  a  good 
linguist,  a  ready  and  versatile  writer  of  verse,  and  above  all  that 
he  possessed  an  astounding  memory,  seems  certain,  not  only 
from  the  evidence  of  men  of  his  own  time,  but  from  the  fact  that 
even  Joseph  Scaliger  (Prima  Scaligerana,  p.  58,  1669)  speaks  of 
his  attainments  with  the  highest  praise.  But  those  works  of  his 
which  have  come  down  to  us  show  few  traces  of  unusual  ability ; 
and  the  laudation  of  him  as  a  universal  genius  by  Sir  Thomas 
Urquhart  and  Aldus  Manutius  requires  to  be  discounted. 
Urquhart  (in  his  Discovery  of  a  most  exquisite  jewel)  states  that 
while  in  Paris  Crichton  successfully  held  a  dispute  in  the  college  of 
Navarre,  on  any  subject  and  in  twelve  languages,  and  that  the 
next  day  he  won  a  tilting  match  at  the  Louvre.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  contemporary  evidence  for  this,  the  only  certain  facts 
being  that  for  two  years  Crichton  served  in  the  French  army,  and 
that  in  1 579  he  arrived  in  Genoa.  The  latter  event  is  proved  by  a 
Latin  address  (of  no  particular  merit)  to  the  Doge  and  Senate 
entitled  Oratio  J.  Critonii  Scoti  pro  Moderatorum  Genuensis 
Reipubl.  clectione  coram  Senatu  habita  .  .  .  (Genoa,  1579).  The 
next  year  Crichton  was  in  Venice,  and  won  the  friendship  of  Aldus 
Manutius  by  his  Latin  ode  In  appulsu  ad  urbem  Venetam  de 
PropriostatuJ.  Critonii  Scoti  Carmen  adAldumManuccium  .  .  . 
(Venice,  1580).  The  best  contemporary  evidence  for  Crich ton's 
stay  in  Venice  is  a  handbill  printed  by  the  Guerra  press  in  1580 
(and  now  in  the  British  Museum) ,  giving  a  short  biography  and  an 
extravagant  eulogy  of  his  powers;  he  speaks  ten  languages,  has  a 
command  of  philosophy,  theology,  mathematics;  he  improvises 
Latin  verses  in  all  metres  and  on  all  subjects,  has  all  Aristotle 
and  his  commentators  at  his  fingers'  ends;  is  of  most  beautiful 
appearance,  a  soldier  from  top  to  toe,  &c.  This  work  is  un- 
doubtedly by  Manutius,  as  it  was  reprinted  with  his  name  in 

1581  as  Relatione   della   qualit&di  .  .  .  Crettone,  and  again  in 

1582  (reprinted  Venice,  1831). 

In  Venice  Crichton  met  and  vanquished  all  disputants  except 
Giacomo  Mazzoni,  was  followed  from  place  to  place  by  crowds  of 
admirers,  and  won  the  affection  of  the  humanists  Lorenzo  Massa 
and  Giovanni  Donati.  In  March  1581  he  went  to  Padua,  where 
he '  held  two  great  disputations.  In  the  first  he  extemporized 
in  succession  a  Latin  poem,  a  daring  onslaught  on  Aristotelian 
ignorance,  and  an  oration  in  praise  of  ignorance.  In  the  second, 
which  took  place  in  the  Church  of  St  John  and  St  Paul,  and  lasted 
three  days,  he  undertook  to  refute  innumerable  errors  in  Aristo- 
telians, mathematicians  and  schoolmen,  to  conduct  his  dispute 
either  logically  or  by  the  secret  doctrine  of  numbers,  &c.  Accord- 
ing to  Aldus,  who  attended  the  debate  and  published  an  account  of 
it  in  his  dedication  to  Crichton  prefixed  to  Cicero's  "  Paradoxa  " 
(1581),  the  young  Scotsman  was  completely  successful.  In  June 
Crichton  was  once  more  in  Venice,  and  while  there  wrote  two 
Latin  odes  to  his  friends  Lorenzo  Massa  and  Giovanni  Donati,  but 
after  this  date  the  details  of  his  life  are  obscure.  Urquhart 
states  that  he  went  to  Mantua,  became  the  tutor  of  the  young 
prince  of  Mantua,  Vincenzo  di  Gonzaga,  and  was  killed  by  the 
latter  in  a  street  quarrel  in  1 582.  Aldus  in  his  edition  of  Cicero's 
De  universitate  (1583),  dedicated  to  Crichton,  laments  the  3rd 
of  July  as  the  fatal  day;  and  this  account  is  apparently  con- 
firmed by  the  Mantuan  state  papers  recently  unearthed  by  Mr 
Douglas  Crichton  (Proc.  Soc.  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  1909). 
Mr  Sidney  Lee  (Diet.  Nat.  Biog.)  argued  against  this  date,  on  the 
ground  that  in  1384  and  1585  Crichton  was  ah've  and  in  Milan, 
as  certain  works  of  his  published  in  that  year  testified,  and 


CRICKET 


435 


regarded  it  as  probable  that  he  died  in  Mantua  c.  1585/6.  But 
these  later  works  seem  to  have  been  by  another  man  of  the  same 
name.  The  epithet  "  admirable  "  (admirabilis)  for  Crichton 
first  occurs  in  John  Johnston's  Heroes  Scoti  (1603).  It  is  probably 
impossible  to  recover  the  whole  truth  either  as  to  Crichton's 
death  or  as  to  the  extent  of  his  attainments,  which  were  so 
quickly  elevated  into  legendary  magnitude. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sir  Thomas  Urquhart's  Discovery  of  a  most 
excellent  jewel  (1652;  reprinted  in  the  Maitland  Club's  edition  of 
Urquhart's  Works  in  1834)  is  written  with  the  express  purpose  of 
glorifying  Scotland.  The  panegyrics  of  Aldus  Manutius  require  to 
be  received  with  some  caution,  since  he  was  given  to  exaggerating 
the  merits  of  his  friend,  and  uses  almost  the  same  language  about  a 
young  Pole  named  Stanilaus  Niegosevski;  see  John  Black's  Life  of 
Torquato  Tasso,  ii.  413-451  (1810),  for  a  criticism.  The  Life  of 
Crichton,  by  P.  Fraser  Tytler  (2nd  ed.,  1823),  contains  many  extracts 
from  earlier  writers;  see  also  "  Notices  of  Sir  Robert  Crichton  of 
Cluny  and  of  his  son  James,"  by  John  Stuart,  in  Proceedings  Soc.  of 
Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii.  pp.  103-118  (1855);  and  the  article 
by  Andrew  Lang,  "  The  death  of  the  Admirable  Crichton,"  in  the 
Morning  Post  (London),  Feb.  25,  1910.  W.  Harrison-Ainsworth  in 
his  novel  Crichton  (new  ed.,  1892)  reprints  and  translates  some 
documents  relating  to  Crichton,  as  well  as  some  of  his  poems. 

CRICKET    (Gryllidae),   a   family   of  saltatory   Orthopterous 

Insects,  closely  related  to  the  Locustidae.     The  wings  when 

folded  form  long  slender  filaments,  which  often  reach  beyond  the 

extremity  of  the  body,  and  give  the  appearance  of  a  bifid  tail, 

while  in  the  male  they  are  provided  with  a  stridulating  apparatus 

by  which  the  well-known  chirping  sound,  to  which  the  insect 

owes  its  name,  is  produced.     The  abdomen  of  the  female  ends  in  a 

long  slender  ovipositor,  which,  however,  is  not  exserted  in  the 

mole  cricket.     The  house  cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus)  is  of  a 

greyish-yellow  colour  marked  with  brown.     It  frequents  houses, 

especially  in  rural    districts,   where    its    lively,   if  somewhat 

monotonous,  chirp  may  be  heard  nightly  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

the  fireplace.     It  is  particularly  fond  of  warmth,  and  is  thus 

frequently  found  in  bakeries,  where  its  burrows  are  often  sunk  to 

within  a  few  inches  of  the  oven.     In  the  hot  summer  it  goes  out  of 

doors,  and  frequents  the  walls  of  gardens,  but  returns  again  to  its 

place  by  the  hearth  on  the  first  approach  of  cold,  where,  should 

the  heat  of  the  fire  be  withdrawn,  it  becomes  dormant.     It  is 

nocturnal,  coming  forth  at  the  evening  twilight  in  search  of  food, 

which  consists  of  bread  crumbs  and  other  refuse  of  the  kitchen. 

The  field  cricket  (Gryllus  campestris)  is  a  larger  insect  than  the 

former,  and  of  a  darker  colour.     It  burrows  in  the  ground  to  a 

depth  of  from  6  to  12  in.,  and  in  the  evening  the  male  may  be 

observed  sitting  at  the  mouth  of  its  hole  noisily  stridulating  until 

a  female  approaches,  "  when,"  says  Bates,  "  the  louder  notes  are 

succeeded  by  a  more  subdued  tone,  whilst  the  successful  musician 

caresses  with  his  antennae  the  mate  he  has  won."     The  musical 

apparatus  in  this  species  consists  of  upwards  of  130  transverse 

ridges  on  the  under  side  of  one  of  the  nervures  of  the  wing  cover, 

which  are  rapidly  scraped  over  a  smooth,  projecting  nervure  on 

the  opposite  wing.     The  female  deposits  her  eggs — about  200  in 

number — on  the  ground,  and  when  hatched  the  larvae,  which 

resemble  the  perfect  insect  except  in  the  absence  of  wings,  form 

burrows  for  themselves  in  which  they  pass  the  winter.     The 

mole  cricket  (Gryllotalpa  vulgaris)  owes  its  name  to  the  striking 

analogy  in  its  habits  and  structure  to  those  of  the  common 

mole.     Its  body  is  thick  and  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  it  burrows 

by  means  of  its  front  legs,  which  are  short  and  greatly  flattened 

out  and  thickened,  with  the  outer  edge  partly  notched  so  as 

somewhat  to  resemble  a  hand.     It  prefers  loose  and  sandy 

ground  in  which  to  dig,  its  burrow  consisting  of  a  vertical  shaft 

from  which  long  horizontal  galleries  are  given  off;  and  in  making 

those  excavations  it  does  immense  injury  to  gardens  and  vineyards 

by  destroying  the  tender  roots  of  plants,  which  form  its  principal 

food.     It  also  feeds  upon  other  insects,  and  even  upon  the  weak 

of  its  own  species  in  the  absence  of  other  food.     It  is  exceedingly 

fierce  and  voracious,  and  is  usually  caught  by  inserting  a  stem  of 

grass  into  its  hole,  which  being  seized,  is  retained  till  the  insect  is 

brought  to  the  surface.     The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  a  neatly 

constructed  subterranean  chamber,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg, 

and  sufficiently  near  the  surface  to  allow  of  the  eggs  being  hatched 

by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 


CRICKET.  The  game  of  cricket  may  be  called  the  national 
summer  pastime  of  the  English  race.  The  etymology  of  the  word 
itself  is  the  subject  of  much  dispute.  The  Century  Dictionary 
connects  with  O.  Fr.  criquet,  "  a  stick  used  as  a  mark  in  the  game  of 
bowls,"  and  denies  the  connexion  with  A.S.  crice  or  cryce,  a  staff. 
A  claim  has  also  been  made  for  cricket,  meaning  a  stool,  from  the 
stool  at  which  the  ball  was  bowled,  while  in  the  wardrobe  account 
of  King  Edward  I.  for  the  year  1300  (p.  126)  is  found  an  allusion 
to  a  game  called  creag.  Skeat,  in  his  Etymological  Dictionary, 
states  that  the  word  is  probably  derived  from  A.S.  crice  (repudi- 
ated by  the  first  authority  quoted),  the  meaning  of  which  is  a 
staff,  and  suggests  that  the  "  et  "  is  a  diminutive  suffix;  the  word 
is  of  the  same  origin  as  "  crutch."  Finally  the  New  English 
Dictionary  traces  the  O.  Fr.  criquet,  defined  by  Littre'  as  "  jeu 
d'addresse,"  to  M.  Flem.  Krick,  Kriike,  baston  a  s'appuyer, 
quinelte,  potence. 

History. — In  a  MS.  of  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century,  in  the 
King's  library,  14  Bv,  entitled  Chronique  d'Angleterre,  depuis 
Ethelberdjusqu'd  Hen.  III.,  there  is  found  a  grotesque  delineation 
of  two  male  figures  playing  a  game  with  a  bat  and  ball.  This  is 
undoubtedly  the  first  known  drawing  of  what  was  destined  to 
develop  into  the  scientific  cricket  of  modern  times.  The  left- 
hand  figure  is  that  of  the  batsman,  who  holds  his  weapon  upright 
in  the  right  hand  with  the  handle  downwards.  The  right-hand 
figure  shows  the  catcher,  whose  duty  is  at  once  apparent  by  the 
extension  of  his  hands.  In  another  portion  of  the  same  MS., 
however,  there  is  a  male  figure  pointing  a  bat  towards  a  female 
figure  in  the  attitude  of  catching,  but  the  ball  is  absent.  In  a 
Bodleian  Library  MS.,  No.  264,  dated  the  iSthof  April  1344,  and 
entitled  Romance  of  the  Good  King  Alexander,  fielders  for  the 
first  time  appear  in  addition  to  the  batsman  and  bowler.  All  the 
players  are  monks  (not  female  figures,  as  Strutt  misinterprets 
their  dress  in  his  Sports  and  Pastimes),  and  on  the  extreme  left 
of  the  picture,  the  bowler,  with  his  cowl  up,  poises  the  ball  in  the 
right  hand  with  the  arm  nearly  horizontal.  The  batsman  comes 
next  with  his  cowl  down,  a  little  way  only  to  the  right,  standing 
sideways  to  the  bowler  with  a  long  roughly-hewn  and  slightly- 
curved  bat,  held  upright,  handle  downwards  in  the  left  hand. 
On  the  extreme  right  come  four  figures — with  cowls  alternately 
down  and  up,  and  all  having  their  hands  raised  in  an  attitude  to 
catch  the  ball.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  bat  was  always 
held  in  the  left  hand  at  this  date,  since  on  the  opposite  page  of 
the  same  MS.  a  solitary  monk  is  figured  with  his  cowl  down,  and 
also  holding  a  somewhat  elongated  oval-shaped  implement  in 
his  left  hand;  but  it  is  unsafe  to  assume  that  the  accuracy  of 
the  artist  can  be  trusted. 

The  close  rolf  of  39  Edw.  III.  (1365),  Men.  23,  disparages 
certain  games  on  account  of  their  interfering  with  the  practice  of 
archery,  where  the  game  of  cricket  is  probably  included  among  the 
pastimes  denounced  as  "  ludos  inhonestos,  et  minus  utiles  aut 
valentes."  In  this  instance  cricket  was  clearly  considered  fit  for 
the  lower  orders  only,  though  it  is  evident  from  the  entry  in 
King  Edward's  wardrobe  account,  already  mentioned,  that  in 
1300  the  game  of  creag  was  patronized  by  the  nobility.  Judging 
from  the  drawings,  it  can  only  be  conjectured  that  the  game 
consisted  of  bowling,  batting  and  fielding,  though  it  is  known 
that  there  was  an  in-side  and  an  out-side,  for  sometime  during  the 
iSth  century  the  game  was  called  "  Hondyn  or  Hondoute,"  or 
"  Hand  in  and  Hand  out."  Under  this  title  it  was  interdicted 
by  17  Edw.  IV.  c.  3  (1477-1478),  as  one  of  those  illegal  games 
which  still  continued  to  be  so  detrimental  to  the  practice  of 
archery.  By  this  statute,  any  one  allowing  the  game  to  be  played 
on  his  premises  was  liable  to  three  years'  imprisonment  and  £20 
fine,  any  player  to  two  years'  imprisonment  and  £10  fine,  and 
the  implements  to  be  burnt.  The  inference  that  hand  in  and 
hand  out  was  analogous  to  cricket  is  made  from  a  passage  in  the 
Hon.  Daines  Barrington's  Observations  on  the  more  Ancient  Statutes 
from  Magna  Charta  to  21  James  I.  cap.  27.  Writing  in  1766,  he 
comments  thus  on  the  above  statute,  viz.:  "This  is,  perhaps, 
the  most  severe  law  ever  made  against  gaming,  and  some 
of  these  forbidden  sports  seem  to  have  been  manly  exercises, 
particularly  the  handyn  and  handoute,  which  I  should  suppose 


436 


CRICKET 


to  be  a  kind  of  cricket,  as  the  term  hands  is  still  retained  in 
that  game." 

The  word  "  cricket  "  occurs  about  the  year  1550.  In  Russell's 
History  of  Guildford  it  appears  there  was  a  piece  of  waste  land  in 
the  parish  of  Holy  Trinity  in  that  city,  which  was  enclosed  by 
one  John  Parish,  an  innholder,  some  five  years  before  Queen 
Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne.  In  35  Elizabeth  (1593)  evidence 
was  taken  before  a  jury  and  a  verdict  returned,  ordering'  the 
garden  to  be  laid  waste  again  and  disinclosed.  Amongst  other 
witnesses  John  Derrick,  gent.,  and  one  of  H.M.'s  coroners  for 
Surrey,  aetat.  fifty-nine,  deposed  he  had  known  the  ground  for 
fifty  years  or  more,  and  "  when  he  was  a  scholler  in  the  free 
school  of  Guildford,  he  and  several  of  his  fellowes  did  runne 
and  play  there  at  crickett  and  other  plaies."  In  the  original 
edition  of  Stow's  Survey  of  London  (1598)  the  word  does  not 
occur,  though  he  says,  "  The  ball  is  used  by  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  in  tennis  courts,  and  by  people  of  the  meaner  sort  in 
the  open  fields  and  streets." 

Some  noteworthy  references  to  the  game  may  be  cited.  In 
Giovanni  Florio's  dictionary  A  Worlde  of  Wordes  most  Copious 
and  Exact,  published  in  Italy  in  1595  and  in  London  three  years 
later,  squillare  is  defined  as  "  to  make  a  noise  as  a  cricket,  to 
play  cricket-a- wicket  and  be  merry."  Sir  William  Dugdale 
states  that  in  his  youth  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  was  born  in  1599, 
threw  "  himself  into  a  dissolute  and  disorderly  course,"  became 
"  famous  for  football,  cricket,  cudgelling  and  wrestling,"  and 
acquired  "  the  name  of  royster."  In  Randle  Cotgrave's  Diction- 
ary of  French  and  English,  dated  1611,  Crosse  is  translated 
"  crosier  or  bishop's  staffe  wherewith  boys  play  at  cricket,"  and 
Crasser  "  to  play  at  cricket." 

Among  the  earliest  traces  of  cricket  at  public  schools  is  an 
allusion  to  be  found  in  the  Life  of  Bishop  Ken  by  William  Lisle 
Bowles  (1830).  Concerning  the  subject  of  this  biography,  who 
was  admitted  to  Winchester  on  the  I3th  of  January  1650/1, 
it  is  said  "  on  the  fifth  or  sixth  day,  our  junior  ...  is  found 
for  the  first  time  attempting  to  wield  a  cricket  bat."  In  1688  a 
"ram  and  bat "  is  charged  in  an  Etonian's  school  bill,  but  it  is 
possible  this  may  only  refer  to  a  cudgel  used  for  ram-baiting. 
In  The  Life  of  Thomas  Wilson,  Minister  of  Maidstone,  published 
anonymously  in  1672,  Wilson  having  been  born  in  1601  and 
dying  in  or  about  1653,  occurs  the  following  passage  (p.  40): 
"  Maidstone  was  formerly  a  very  profane  town,  in  as  much  as  I 
have  seen  morrice-dancing,  cudgel-playing,  stool-ball,  crickets, 
and  many  other  sports  openly  and  publicly  indulged  in  on  the 
Lord's  Day."  Cricket  is  found  enumerated  as  one  of  the  games 
of  Gargantua  in  The  Works  of  Rabelais,  translated  in  1653  by 
Sir  Thomas  Urchard  (Urquhart),  vol.  i.  ch.  xxii.  p.  97.  In  a 
poem  entitled  The  Mysteries  of  Low  and  Eloquence  or  the  Arts  of 
Wooing  and  Complimenting  (1658),  by  Edward  Phillips,  John 
Milton's  nephew,  the  mistress  of  a  country  bumpkin  when  she 
goes  to  a  fair  with  him  says  "  Would  my  eyes  had  been  beaten  out 
of  my  head  with  a  cricket  ball."  The  St  Alban's  Cricket  Club 
was  founded  in  1661,  one  of  its  earliest  presidents  being  James 
Cecil,  4th  earl  of  Salisbury  (1666-1694). 

In  1662  John  Davies  of  Kidwelly  issued  his  translation  of 
Adam  Olearius'  work  entitled  The  Voyages  and  Travels  of  the 
Ambassadors  from  the  Duke  of  Holstein  to  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Muscovy,  and  the  King  of  Persia.  Begun  in  the  year  1633  and 
finished  in  1639.  On  page  297  is  a  description  of  the  exercises 
indulged  in  by  the  Persian  grandees  in  1637,  and  the  state- 
ment is  made  that  "  They  play  there  also  at  a  certain  game, 
which  the  Persians  call  Kuitskaukan,  which  is  a  kind  of  Mall, 
or  Cricket."  In  the  Clerkenwell  parish  book  of  1668  the 
proprietor  of  the  Rum  Inn,  Smithfield,  is  found  rated  for  a 
cricket  field. 

The  chaplain  of  H.M.S.,  "Assistance,"  Rev.  Henry  Teonge, 
states  in  his  diary  that  during  a  visit  to  Antioch  on  the  6th  of 
May  1676,  several  of  the  ship's  company,  accompanied  by  the 
consul,  rode  out  of  the  city  early  and  amongst  other  pastimes 
indulged  in  "  krickett."  During  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  century 
the  popularity  of  the  game  increased  and  is  frequently  mentioned 
by  writers  of  the  time,  such  as  Swift,  who  alludes  sneeringly  to 


"  footmen  at  cricket,"  D'Urfey,  Pope,  Soame  Jenyns,  Strype 
in  his  edition  of  Stow's  Survey  of  London,  and  Arbuthnot  in 
John  Bull,  iv.  4,  "  when  he  happened  to  meet  with  a  football  or 
a  match  at  cricket." 

In  1748  it  was  decided  that  cricket  was  not  an  illegal  game 
under  the  statute  9  Anne,  cap.  19,  the  court  of  king's  bench 
holding  "  that  it  was  a  very  manly  game,  not  bad  in  itself, 
but  only  in  the  ill  use  made  of  it  by  betting  more  than  ten 
pounds  on  it;  but  that  was  bad  and  against  the  law."  Frederick 
Louis,  prince  of  Wales,  died  in  1751  from  internal  injuries  caused 
by  a  blow  from  a  cricket  ball  whilst  playing  at  Cliefden  House. 
Games  at  this  period  were  being  played  for  large  stakes,  ground 
proprietors  and  tavern-keepers  farming  and  advertising  matches, 
the  results  of  which  were  not  always  above  suspicion.  The  old 
Artillery  Ground  at  Finsbury  was  one  of  the  earliest  sites  of  this 
type  of  fixture.  Here  it  was  that  the  London  Club — formed 
about  1700 — played  its  matches.  The  president  was  the  prince 
of  Wales,  and  many  noblemen  were  among  its  supporters.  It 
flourished  for  more  than  half  a  century.  One  of  the  very  earliest 
full-scores  kept  in  the  modern  fashion  is  that  of  the  match 
between  Kent  and  All  England,  played  on  the  Artillery  Ground 
on  the  1 8th  of  June  1744. 

Cricket,  however,  underwent  its  most  material  development 
in  the  southern  counties,  more  especially  in  the  hop-growing 
districts.  It  was  at  the  large  hop-fairs,  notably  that  of  Weyhill, 
to  which  people  from  all  the  neighbouring  shires  congregated, 
that  county  matches  were  principally  arranged. 

The  famous  Hambledon  Club  lasted  approximately  from  1750 
to  1791.  Its  matches  were  played  on  Broad  Half-Penny  and 
Windmill  Downs,  and  in  its  zenith  the  club  frequently  contended 
with  success  against  All  England.  The  chief  players  were  more 
or  less  retainers  of  the  noblemen  and  other  wealthy  patrons  of 
cricket.  The  original  society  was  broken  up  in  1791  owing  to 
Richard  Nyren,  their  "  general,"  abandoning  the  game,  of  which 
in  consequence  "  the  head  and  right  arm  were  gone."  The 
dispersion  of  the  players  over  the  neighbouring  counties  caused 
a  diffusion  of  the  best  spirit  of  the  game,  which  gradually  ex- 
tended northward  and  westward  until,  at  the  close  of  the  i8th 
century,  cricket  became  established  as  the  national  game,  and 
the  custom  became  general  to  play  the  first  game  of  each  year  on 
Good  Friday. 

The  M.C.C.  (or  Marylebone  Cricket  Club),  which  ranks  as 
the  leading  club  devoted  to  the  game  in  any  part  of  the  globe, 
sprang  from  the  old  Artillery  Ground  Club,  which  played  at 
Finsbury  until  about  1780,  when  the  members  migrating  to 
White  Conduit  Fields  became  the  White  Conduit  Cricket  Club. 
In  1787  they  were  remodelled  under  their  present  title,  and 
moved  to  Lord's  ground,  then  on  the  site  of  what  is  now  Dorset 
Square;  thence  in  1811  to  Lord's  second  ground  nearer  what 
is  now  the  Regent's  Canal;  and  in  1814,  when  the  canal  was  cut, 
to  what  is  now  Lord's  ground  in  St  John's  Wood.  Thomas 
Lord,  whose  family  were  obliged  to  leave  their  native  Scotland 
on  account  of  their  participation  in  the  rebellion  of  1745,  was 
born  in  Thirsk,  Yorkshire,  in  1757,  and  is  first  heard  of  as  an 
attendant  at  the  White  Conduit  Club,  London,  in  1780.  Soon 
afterwards  he  selected  and  superintended  a  cricket  ground  for 
the  earl  of  Winchilsea  and  other  gentlemen,  which  was  called 
after  his  name.  He  died  in  1832  on  a  farm  at  West  Meon, 
Hampshire,  of  which  he  took  the  management  two  years  before. 
Lord  took  away  the  original  turf  of  his  cricket-ground  at  each 
migration  and  relaid  it.  In  1825  the  pavilion  was  burnt  down, 
invaluable  early  records  of  the  game  being  destroyed;  and  in 
the  same  year  the  ground  would  have  been  broken  up  into 
building  plots  had  not  William  Ward  purchased  Lord's  interest. 
Dark  bought  him  out  in  1836,  selling  the  remainder  of  his  lease 
to  the  club  in  1864.  Meanwhile,  in  1860,  the  freehold  had  been 
purchased  at  public  auction  by  a  Mr  Marsden — ne  Moses — for 
£7000,  and  he  sold  it  to  the  club  six  years  later  for  nearly  £18,500, 
a  similar  sum  being  paid  in  1887  for  additional  ground.  In  1897 
the  Great  Central  railway  company  conveyed  a  further  portion 
to  the  club,  making  the  ground  complete  as  k  now  is;  the  total 
area  is  about  20  acres,  including  the  site  of  various  villas  adjoining 


CRICKET 


437 


the  ground  which  are  part  of  the  property.  The  number  of 
members  now  considerably  exceeds  five  thousand. 

Laws. — The  oldest  laws  of  cricket  extant  are  those  drawn  up  by 
the  London  Club  in  1744.  These  were  amended  at  the  "  Star 
and  Garter  "  in  Pall  Mall,  London,  in  1755,  and  again  in  1774, 
and  were  also  revised  by  the  M.C.C.  in  1788.  From  this  time 
the  latter  club  has  been  regarded  as  the  supreme  authority, 
even  though  some  local  modifications  have  in  recent  years  been 
effected  in  Australia.  Alterations  and  additions  have  been 
frequently  made,  and  according  to  the  present  procedure  they 
have  to  be  approved  by  a  majority  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present  at  the  annual  general  meeting  of  the  whole  club;  the 
administration  being  in  the  hands  of  a  president,  annually 
nominated  by  his  outgoing  predecessor,  a  treasurer  and  a 
committee  composed  of  sixteen  members,  four  annually  retiring, 
in  conjunction  with  a  secretary  and  a  large  subordinate  staff. 

Implements. — Concerning  the  implements  of  the  game,  in  the 
1744  rules  it  was  declared  that  the  weight  of  the  ball  must  be 
"  between  five  and  six  ounces,"  and  it  was  not  until  1774  that  it 
was  decided  that  it  "  shall  weigh  not  less  than  five  ounces  and 
a  half  nor  more  than  five  ounces  and  three-quarters,"  as  it  is 
to  the  present  day.  Not  until  1838  however  came  the  addition, 
"  it  shall  measure  not  less  than  nine  inches  nor  more  than  nine 
inches  and  a  quarter  in  circumference."  The  materials  out  of 
which  the  old  balls  were  made  are  not  on  record.  At  present 
a  cube  of  cork  forms  the  foundation,  round  which  layers  of  fine 
twine  and  thin  shavings  of  cork  are  accumulated  till  the  proper 
size  and  shape  are  attained,  when  a  covering  of  red  leather  is 
sewn  on  with  six  parallel  seams.  Various  "  compositions " 
have  been  tried  as  a  substitute  for  cork  and  leather,  but  without 
taking  their  place. 

For  the  bat,  English  willow  has  been  proverbially  found  the 
best  wood.  The  oldest  extant  bats  resemble  a  broad  and  curved 
hockey  stick,  and  it  has  been  claimed  to  be  an  evolution  of  the 
club  employed  in  the  Irish  game  of  "  hurley."  The  straight 
blade  was  adopted  as  soon  as  the  bowler  began  to  pitch  the  ball 
up,  an  alteration  which  took  place  about  1750,  but  pictures 
show  slightly  curved  bats  almost  to  the  time  of  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.  The  oldest  were  all  made  in  one  piece  and  were 
so  used  until  the  middle  of  the  igth  century,  when  handles 
of  ash  were  spliced  into  the  blade,  and  the  whole  cane-handle 
was  introduced  about  1860.  No  limit  was  set  to  the  length 
of  the  bat  until  1840,  though  the  width  was  restricted  to  41  in. 
"  in  the  widest  part  "  by  the  laws  of  1788,  and  a  gauge  was  made 
for  the  use  of  the  Hambledon  Club.  The  length  of  the  bat  is 
now  restricted  to  38  in.,  36  being  more  generally  used,  as  a  rule  the 
handle  being  14  in.  long  and  the  blade  22  in.  As  to  weight, 
though  there  is  no  restriction,  2  Ib  3  oz.  is  considered  light,  2  Ib 
6  oz.  fairly  heavy;  but  W.  Ward  (1787-1849)  used  a  bat  weighing 
4  Ib. 

At  present  the  wicket  consists  of  three  stumps  (round  straight 
pieces  of  wood)  of  equal  thickness,  standing  27  in.  upright  out 
of  the  ground.  On  the  top  are  two  "  bails,"  short  pieces  of 
wood  which  fit  into  grooves  made  in  the  top  of  the  stumps  so 
as  not  to  project  more  than  half  an  inch  above  them.  But  the 
evolution  of  the  wicket  has  been  very  gradual,  and  the  history 
of  it  is  very  obscure,  since  different  types  of  wickets  seem  to 
have  existed  simultaneously.  If  early  pictures  are  to  be  trusted, 
no  wicket  was  required  in  primitive  times:  the  striker  was 
either  caught  out,  or  run  out,  the  fieldsman  having  to  put  the 
ball  into  a  hole  scooped  in  the  ground,  before  the  batsman  could 
put  his  bat  into  it.  A  single  stump,  it  is  supposed,  was  sometimes 
substituted  for  the  hole  to  save  collision  between  the  bat  and 
the  fieldsman's  fingers.  In  due  course,  but  at  an  unknown 
date,  a  wicket — a  "  skeleton  gate  " — was  raised  over  the  hole; 
it  consisted  of  two  stumps  each  12  in.  high,  set  24  in.  apart, 
with  a  third  laid  on  the  top  of  them.  John  Nyren,  however, 
writing  in  1833,  and  discussing  some  memoranda  given  him  by 
Mr  W.  Ward,  says  apropos  of  these  dimensions,  "  There  must 
be  a  mistake  in  this  account  of  the  width  of  the  wicket."  Un- 
doubtedly such  wickets  were  all  against  the  bowler,  who  must 
have  bowled  over  or  through  the  wicket  twenty  times  for  every 


occasion  when  he  succeeded  in  hitting  either  the  uprights  or  the 
cross  stump.  In  pictures  of  cricket  played  about  1743  we  find 
only  two  stumps  and  a  cross  stump,  or  bail,  the  wicket  varying 
apparently  both  in  height  and  width.  In  a  picture,  the  property 
of  H.M.  the  King,  entitled  "A  Village  Match  in  1768,"  three 
stumps  and  a  bail  are  distinctly  shown.  Two  stumps  are  shown 
as  used  in  1779,  afterwards  three  always  with  one  exception. 
Two  prints,  advertisements,  representing  matches  played 
between  women  on  consecutive  days  in  1811,  show,  one  of  them 
a  wicket  of  three  stumps,  the  other  a  wicket  of  two.  The  addition 
of  the  third  stump,  as  is  universally  agreed,  was  due  to  an 
incident  which  occurred  in  a  match  of  the  Hambledon  Club  in 
1775.  "  It  was  observed  at  a  critical  point  in  the  game,  that 
the  ball  passed  three  times  between  Mr  Small's  two  stumps 
without  knocking  off  the  bail;  and  then,  first  a  third  stump 
was  added,  and  seeing  that  the  new  style  of  balls  which  rise 
over  the  bat  also  rise  over  the  wicket,  then  but  i  ft.  high, 
the  wicket  was  altered  to  the  dimensions  of  22  in.  by  8,  and  to 
its  present  dimensions  of  27in.by8in  1817."  So  writes  the  Rev. 
J.  Pycroft  (1813-1895),  quoting  fairly  closely  from  Nyren,  who 
wrote  many  years  after  the  event;  but  Pycroft  is  wrong  in 
writing  22  by  8,  which  should  really  be  22  by  6.  It  is  hard  to 
believe  that  the  12  by  24  wicket  lasted  as  long  as  1775,  for  in  the 
laws  issued  after  the  meeting  held  at  the  "  Star  and  Garter," 
Pall  Mall,  where  many  "  noblemen  and  gentlemen  "  attended 
"  finally  to  settle  "  the  laws  of  the  game,  we  read  that  the 
stumps  are  to  be  22  in.  and  the  bail  6.  "  N.B. — It  is  lately  settled 
to  use  three  stumps  instead  of  two  to  each  wicket,  the  bail  the 
same  length  as  before."  Regarding  all  the  circumstances  one 
is  tempted  to  believe  that  Small  defended  a  wicket  of  two  stumps, 
22  in.  high  and  6  in.  apart,  strange  as  is  the  circumstance 
that  the  ball  should  thrice  in  a  short  innings — for  Small  only 
made  14  runs — pass  through  them  without  dislodging  the  bail, 
even  though  the  diameter  of  the  ball  is  a  trifle  less  than  3  in. 
Allusion  is  also  found  to  a  wicket  12  in.  by  6,  but  it  is  hard  to 
believe  in  its  existence,  unless  it  was  used  as  a  form  of  handicap. 
It  should  be  recorded  that  in  advertisements  of  matches  about 
this  time  (1787)  the  fact  that  three  stumps  will  be  used  "  to 
shorten  the  game  "  is  especially  mentioned,  and  that  the  Hamp- 
shire Chronicle  of  the  I5th  of  July  1797  records  that  "  The  earl 
of  Winchilsea  has  made  an  improvement  in  the  game  of  cricket, 
by  having  four  stumps  instead  of  three,  and  the  wickets  2  in. 
higher.  The  game  is  thus  rendered  shorter  by  easier  bowling 
out."  In  1788,  however,  when  the  M.C.C.  revised  the  laws, 
reference  is  made  to  stumps  (no  number  given,  but  probably 
three)  22  in.  high  and  a  bail  of  6  in.  Big  scoring  in  1796  caused 
the  addition  next  year  of  2  in.  to  the  height  and  of  i  to  the 
breadth,  making  the  wicket  24  in.  by  7.  That  three  stumps 
were  employed  is  shown  by  a  print  of  the  medallion  of  the 
Oxfordshire  County  C.C.  1797,  forming  the  frontispiece  to 
Taylor's  Annals  of  Lord's  (1903).  In  1817  the  dimensions 
now  in  use  were  finally  settled,  three  stumps  27  in.  high,  and  a 
wicket  8  in.  wide.  Larger  wickets  have  occasionally  been  used 
by  way  of  handicap  or  experiment.  The  distance  between  the 
wickets  seems  always,  or  at  least  as  far  back  as  1 700,  to  have 
been  22  yds. — one  chain. 

The  Game. — Cricket  is  defined  in  the  New  English  Dictionary  as 
"  an  open-air  game  played  with  bats,  ball  and  wickets  by  two 
sides  of  eleven  players  each;  the  batsman  defends  his  wicket 
against  the  ball  which  is  bowled  by  a  player  of  the  opposing  side, 
the  other  players  of  this  side  being  stationed  about  the  field  in 
order  to  catch  or  stop  the  ball."  The  laws  define  that  the  score 
shall  be  reckoned  by  runs.  The  side  which  scores  the  greatest 
number  of  runs  wins  the  match.  Each  side  has  two  innings 
taken  alternately,  except  that  the  side  which  leads  by  150  runs 
in  a  three  days'  match  or  by  100  runs  in  a  two  days'  match  or 
by  75  runs  in  a  one  day  match  shall  have  the  option  of  requiring 
the  other  side  to  "  follow  their  innings."  In  England  cricket 
is  invariably  played  on  turf  wickets,  but  in  the  Colonies  matting 
wickets  are  often  employed,  and  sometimes  matches  have  taken 
place  on  sand,  earth  and  other  substances.  The  oldest  form 
of  the  game  is  probably  single  wicket,  which  consists  of  one 


CRICKET 


batsman  defending  one  wicket,  but  this  has  become  obsolete, 
though  it  was  very  popular  in  the  time  when  matches  were 
played  for  money  with  only  one  or  two,  or  perhaps  four  or  five, 
players  on  a  side.  Matches  between  an  unequal  number  of 
players  are  still  sometimes  arranged,  but  mainly  in  the  case  of 
local  sides  against  touring  teams,  or  "  colts  "  playing  against 
eleven  experienced  cricketers.  In  any  case  two  umpires  are 
always  appointed,  and  for  English  first-class  county  cricket 
these  are  now  annually  chosen  beforehand  by  the  county  captains. 
Two  scorers  are  officially  recognized.  All  the  arrangements  as 
to  scoreboards,  and  accommodation  for  players,  members  of  the 
club  and  general  spectators,  vary  considerably  according  to 
local  requirements.  Between  six  and  seven  acres  forms  the  most 
suitable  area  for  a  match,  but  the  size  of  a  cricket  ground  has 
never  been  defined  by  law. 

The  wickets  are  pitched  opposite  and  parallel  to  one  another 
at  a  distance  of  22  yds.;  the  "bowling  crease"  being 
marked  with  whitewash  on  the  turf  on  a  line  with  the  stumps 
8  ft.  8  in.  in  length,  with  short  "  return  creases  "  at  right 
angles  to  it  at  each  end;  but  the  "popping  crease,"  marked 
parallel  to  the  wicket  and  4  ft.  in  front  of  it,  is  deemed 
of  unlimited  length.  The  captains  of  the  opposing  sides  toss  for 
choice  of  innings,  and  the  winner  of  the  toss,  though  occasionally, 
owing  to  the  condition  of  the  ground  or  the  weather  prospects, 
electing  to  put  his  adversaries  in  first,  as  a  general  rule  elects  for 
his  own  side  to  bat  first.  The  captain  of  the  batting  side  sends 
his  eleven  (or  whatever  the  number  of  his  team  may  be)  in  to 
bat  in  any  order  he  thinks  best,  and  much  judgment  is  used  in 
deciding  what  this  order  shall  be.  Two  batsmen  with  strong 
defensive  powers  and  good  nerve  are  usually  selected  to  open 
the  innings,  the  most  brilliant  run-getters  immediately  following 
them,  and  the  weakest  batsmen  going  in  last.  As  there  must 
always,  except  in  the  obsolete  single-wicket  cricket,  be  two 
batsmen  in  together,  it  follows  that  when  ten  of  the  side  (in  a 
side  of  eleven)  have  been  put  out,  one  of  the  final  pair  must  be 
"  not  out  ";  that  is  to  say,  his  innings  is  terminated  without 
his  getting  out  because  there  is  none  of  his  side  left  to  become 
his  partner.  The  batsman  who  is  thus  "  not  out  "  is  said  to 
"  carry  his  bat,"  a  phrase  that  recalls  a  period  when  two  bats 
sufficed  for  the  whole  side,  each  retiring  batsman  leaving  the 
implement  on  the  ground  for  the  use  of  his  successor,  till  at  the 
close  of  the  innings  the  "  not  out  "  man  carried  it  back  to  the 
tent  or  pavilion.  As  the  phrase  is  not  also  applied  to  the  last 
batsman  to  get  out,  who  would  of  course  have  carried  the  second 
bat  off  the  ground,  it  was  possibly  at  one  time  restricted  to  a 
player  who  going  in  first  survived  through  the  whole  innings. 
It  should  be  observed  that  the  term  "  wicket  "  is  used  by 
cricketers  in  a  number  of  different  senses.  Besides  being  the 
name  given  to  the  set  of  three  stumps  with  their  two  bails  when 
pitched  for  a  match,  it  is  in  an  extended  sense  applied  to  that 
portion  of  the  ground,  also  called  the  "  pitch,"  on  which  the 
stumps  are  pitched,  as  when  it  is  described  as  being  "  a  fast 
wicket,"  a  "  sticky  wicket  "  and  so  forth.  It  also  in  several 
idiomatic  expressions  signifies  the  getting  out  of  a  batsman 
and  even  the  batsman  himself,  as  in  the  phrases:  "  Grace  lost 
his  wicket  without  scoring,"  "  Grace  went  in  first  wicket  down," 
"  when  Grace  got  out  England  lost  their  best  wicket,"  "  England 
beat  Australia  by  two  wickets." 

The  umpires  are  required  to  decide  questions  arising  in  the 
course  of  play  and  to  call  the  "  overs,"  the  "  over  "  being  a  series 
of  successive  deliveries  of  the  ball  (usually  six)  by  the  bowler 
from  one  end  of  the  pitch,  the  rest  of  the  "  out  "  side,  or  fielders, 
being  stationed  in  various  positions  in  the  field  according  to 
well-defined  principles.  When  an  "  over  "  has  been  bowled 
from  one  end  a  different  bowler  then  bowls  an  "  over  "  from  the 
opposite  end,  the  alternation  being  continued  without  interrup- 
tion throughout  the  innings,  and  the  bowlers  being  selected  and 
changed  from  time  to  time  by  the  captain  of  their  side  at  his 
discretion.  At  the  end  of  every  over  the  fielders  "  change  over  " 
or  otherwise  rearrange  their  places  to  meet  the  batting  from 
the  other  end.  An  over  from  which  no  runs  are  made  off  the 
bat  is  called  a  "  maiden."  A  "  run  "  is  made  when  the  two 


batsmen  change  places,  each  running  from  his  own  to  the  opposite 
wicket  without  being  "  run  out."  The  aim  of  the  batting  side 
is  to  make  as  many  runs  as  possible,  while  the  object  of  the 
fielding  side  is  to  get  their  opponents  out,  and  to  prevent  their 
making  runs  while  in. 

There  are  nine  ways  in  which  the  batsman,  or  "  striker,"  can 
be  put  out.  Of  these  the  following  five  are  the  most  important, 
(i)  The  striker  is  "  bowled  "  out  if  the  bowler  hits  the  wicket 
with  the  ball,  when  bowling,  and  dislodges  the  bail;  (2)  he  is 
"  caught  "  out  if  the  ball  after  touching  his  bat  or  hand  be  held 
by  any  member  of  the  fielding  side  before  it  touches  the  ground; 
(3)  he  is  "  stumped  "  out  if  the  wicket-keeper  dislodges  the  bail 
with  the  ball,  or  with  his  hand  holding  the  ball,  at  a  moment 
when  the  striker  in  playing  at  the  ball  has  no  part  of  his  person 
or  bat  in  contact  with  the  ground  behind  the  popping  crease, 
i.e.  when  the  batsman  is  "  out  of  his  ground  ";  (4)  he  is  out 
"  l.b.w."  (leg  before  wicket)  if  he  stops  with  any  part  of  his 
person  other  than  his  hand,  or  arm  below  the  elbow,  a  ball 
which  in  the  umpire's  judgment  pitched  straight  between  the 
wickets  and  would  have  bowled  the  striker's  wicket;  (5)  if 
when  the  batsmen  are  attempting  to  make  a  run  a  wicket 
is  put  down  (i.e.  the  bail  dislodged)  by  the  ball,  or  by  the  hand 
of  any  fieldsman  holding  the  ball,  at  a  moment  when  neither 
batsman  has  any  part  of  his  person  or  bat  on  the  ground  behind 
the  popping  crease,  the  nearer  of  the  two  batsmen  to  the  wicket 
so  put  down  is  "  run  out."  The  remaining  four  ways  in  which 
a  batsman  may  be  dismissed  are  (6)  hit  wicket,  (7)  handling  the 
ball,  (8)  hitting  the  ball  more  than  once  "  with  intent  to  score," 
and  (9)  obstructing  the  field. 

The  positions  of  the  fieldsmen  are  those  which  experience  proves 
to  be  best  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  saving  runs  and  getting 
the  batsmen  caught  out.  During  the  middle  of  the  igth  century 
these  positions  became  almost  stereotyped  according  to  the  pace 
of  the  bowler's  delivery  and  whether  the  batsmen  were  right 
or  left  handed.  A  certain  number  of  fielders  stood  on  the  "  on  " 
side,  i.e.  the  side  of  the  wicket  on  which  the  batsman  stands,  and 
a  certain  number  on  the  opposite  or  "  off  "  side,  towards  which 
the  batsman  faces.  "  Point  "  almost  invariably  was  placed 
square  with  the  striker's  wicket  some  ten  or  a  dozen  yards 
distant  on  the  "  off  "  side;  "  cover  point  "  to  the  right  of 
"  point  "  (as  he  is  looking  towards  the  batsman)  and  several 
yards  deeper;  "  mid  on  "  a  few  yards  to  the  right  of  the  bowler, 
and  "  mid  off  "  in  a  corresponding  position  on  his  left,  and  so 
forth.  Good  captains  at  all  times  exercised  judgment  in  modify- 
ing to  some  extent  the  arrangement  of  the  field  according  to 
circumstances,  but  in  this  respect  much  was  learnt  from  the 
Australians,  who  on  their  first  visit  to  England  in  1878  varied 
the  positions  of  the  field  according  to  the  idiosyncrasies  of  the 
batsmen  and  other  exigencies  to  a  degree  not  previously  practised 
in  England.  The  perfection  of  wicket-keeping  displayed  by 
the  Australian,  McCarthy  Blackham  (b.  1855),  taught  English 
cricketers  that  on  modern  grounds  the  "  long  stop "  could 
be  altogether  dispensed  with;  and  this  position,  which  in 
former  days  was  considered  a  necessary  and  important  one, 
has  since  been  practically  abolished.  In  many  matches  at  the 
present  day,  owing  to  the  character  of  modern  bowling,  no  more 
than  a  single  fieldsman  is  placed  on  the  "  on  "  side,  while  the 
number  and  positions  of  those  "  in  the  slips,"  i.e.  behind  the 
wicket  on  the  "  off  "  side,  are  subject  to  no  sort  of  rule,  but  vary 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  bowling,  the  state  of  the  ground, 
or  any  other  circumstances  that  may  influence  the  judgment 
of  the  captain  of  the  fielding  side.  Charts  such  as  were  once 
common,  showing  the  positions  of  the  fielders  for  fast,  slow  and 
medium  bowling  respectively,  would  therefore  to-day  give  no 
true  idea  of  the  actual  practice;  and  much  of  the  skill  of  modern 
captaincy  is  shown  in  placing  the  field. 

The  score  is  compiled  by  runs  made  by  the  batsman  and  by  the 
addition  of  "  extras,"  the  latter  consisting  of  "  byes,"  "  leg- 
byes,"  "  wides  "  and  "  no-balls."  All  these  are  included  in  the 
designation  "  runs,"  of  which  the  total  score  is  composed,  though 
neither  "  wides  "  nor  "  no-balls  "  involve  any  actual  run  on  the 
part  of  the  batsmen.  They  are  called  by  the  umpire  on  his  own 


CRICKET 


439 


initiative,  in  the  one  case  if  the  bowler's  delivery  passes  the 
batsman  beyond  the  reach  of  his  bat  ("  wide  "),  and  in  the  other 
if  he  delivers  the  ball  without  having  either  foot  touching  the 
ground  behind  the  "  bowling  crease  "  and  within  the  "  return 
crease,"  or  if  the  ball  be  jerked  or  thrown  instead  of  being  bona 
fide  "  bowled."  "  Wides  "  and  "  no-balls  "  count  as  one  "  run  " 
each,  and  all  "  extras  "  are  added  to  the  score  of  the  side  without 
being  credited  to  any  individual  batsman.  The  batsman  may, 
however,  hit  a  "  no-ball  "  and  make  runs  off  it,  the  runs  so  made 
being  scored  to  the  striker's  credit  instead  of  the  "  no-ball " 
being  entered  among  the  "  extras."  The  batsman  may  be  "  run 
out  "  in  attempting  a  run  off  a  "  no-ball,"  but  cannot  be  put  out 

1  off  it  in  any  other  way.  "  Byes  "  are  runs  made  off  a  ball  which 
touches  neither  the  bat  nor  the  person  of  the  batsman,  "  leg-byes  " 
off  a  ball  which,  without  touching  the  bat  or  hand,  touches  any 
other  part  of  his  person.  With  the  exception  of  these  "  extras  " 
the  score  consists  entirely  of  runs  made  off  the  bat. 

Batting  is  the  most  scientific  feature  of  the  game.  Proficiency 
in  it,  as  in  golf  and  tennis,  depends  in  the  first  instance  to  a  great 
Batting  extent  on  the  player  assuming  a  correct  attitude  for 
making  his  stroke,  the  position  of  leg,  shoulder  and 
elbow  being  a  matter  of  importance;  and  although  a  quick  and 
accurate  eye  may  occasionally  be  sufficient  by  itself  to  make  a 
tolerably  successful  run-getter,  good  style  can  never  be  acquired, 
and  a  consistently  high  level  of  achievement  can  seldom  be 
gained,  by  a  batsman  who  has  neglected  these  rudiments.  Good 
batting  consists  in  a  defence  that  is  proof  against  all  the  bowler's 
craft,  combined  with  the  skill  to  seize  every  opportunity  for 
making  runs  that  the  latter  may  inadvertently  offer.  If  the 
batsman's  whole  task  consisted  in  keeping  the  ball  out  of  his 
wicket,  the  accomplishment  of  his  art  would  be  comparatively 
simple;  it  is  the  necessity  for  doing  this  while  at  the  same  time  he 

•  must  prevent  the  ball  from  rising  off  his  bat  into  the  air  in  the 
direction  of  any  one  of  eleven  skilfully-placed  fielders,  each  eager 
to  catch  him  out,  that  offers  scope  for  the  science  of  a  Grace,  a 
MacLaren  or  a  Trumper.  In  early  days  when  the  wickets  were 
low  and  the  ball  was  trundled  along  the  ground,  the  curved  bats  of 
the  old  pictures  were  probably  well  adapted  for  hitting,  defence 
being  neglected;  but  when  the  height  of  the  wickets  was  raised, 
and  bowlers  began  to  pitch  the  ball  closer  to  the  batsman  so  that 
it  would  reach  the  wicket  on  the  first  bound,  defence  of  the  wicket 
became  more  necessary  and  more  difficult.  Hence  the  modern 
straight-bladed  bat  was  produced,  and  a  more  scientific  method  of 
batting  became  possible.  Batting  and  bowling  have  in  fact 
developed  together,  a  new  form  of  attack  requiring  a  new  form  of 
defence.  One  of  the  first  principles  a  young  batsman  has  to 
learn  is  to  play  with  a  "  a  straight  bat  "  when  defending  his  wicket 
against  straight  balls.  This  means  that  the  whole  blade  of  the 
bat  should  be  equally  opposite  to  the  line  on  which  the  ball  is 
travelling  towards  him,  in  order  that  the  ball,  to  whatever  height 
it  may  bound  from  the  ground,  may  meet  the  bat  unless  it 
rises  altogether  over  the  batsman's  hands;  the  tendency  of  the 
untutored  cricketer  being  on  the  contrary  to  hold  the  bat  sloping 
outwards  from  the  handle  to  the  point,  as  the  golf-player  holds  his 
"  driver,"  so  that  the  rise  of  the  ball  is  apt  to  carry  it  clear  of  the 
blade.  Standing  then  in  a  correct  position  and  playing  with  a 
straight  bat,  the  batsman's  chief  concern  is  to  calculate  accurately 
the  "  length  "  of  the  ball  as  soon  as  he  sees  it  leave  the  bowler's 
hand.  The  "  length  "  of  the  ball  means  the  distance  from  the 
batsman  at  which  it  pitches,  and  "  good  length  "  is  the  first 
essential  of  the  bowler's  art.  The  distance  that  consitutes 
"  good  length  "  is  not,  however,  to  be  defined  by  precise  measure- 
ment; it  depends  on  the  condition  of  the  ground,  and  on  the 
reach  of  the  batsman.  A  "  good-length  ball  "  is  one  that  pitches 
too  far  from  the  batsman  for  him  to  reach  out  to  meet  it  with  the 
bat  at  the  moment  it  touches  the  ground  or  immediately  it  begins 
to  rise,  in  the  manner  known  as  "  playing  forward  ";  and  at  the 
same  time  not  far  enough  from  him  to  enable  him  to  wait  till  after 
it  has  reached  the  highest  point  in  its  bound  before  playing  it 
with  the  bat,  i.e.  "  playing  back."  When,  owing  to  the  good 
length  of  the  ball,  the  batsman  is  unable  to  play  it  in  either  of 
these  two  ways,  but  is  compelled  to  play  at  it  in  the  middle  of  its 


rise  from  the  ground,  he  is  almost  certain,  if  he  does  not  miss  it 
altogether,  to  send  it  up  in  the  air  with  the  danger  of  being  caught 
out.  If  through  miscalculation  the  batsman  plays  forward  to  a 
short-pitched  ball,  he  will  probably  give  a  catch  to  the  bowler  or 
"  mid  off,"  if  he  plays  back  to  a  well-pitched-up  ball,  he  will 
probably  miss  it  and  be  bowled  out.  The  bowler  is  therefore 
continually  trying  to  pitch  balls  just  too  short  for  safe  forward 
play,  while  the  batsman  defends  his  wicket  by  playing  forward 
or  back  as  his  judgment  directs  so  long  as  the  bowling  is  straight 
and  of  approximately  good  length,  and  is  ready  the  instant  he 
receives  a  bad-length  ball,  or  one  safely  wide  of  the  wicket,  to  hit  it 
along  the  ground  clear  of  the  fieldsmen  so  as  to  make  as  many 
runs  as  he  and  his  partner  can  accomplish  before  the  ball  is 
returned  to  the  wicket-keeper  or  the  bowler.  But  even  those 
balls  off  which  runs  are  scored  are  not  to  be  hit  recklessly  or 
without  scientific  method.  A  different  stroke  is  brought  into 
requisition  according  to  the  length  of  the  ball  and  its  distance 
wide  of  the  wicket  to  the  "  off  "  or  "  on  "  as  the  case  may  be;  and 
the  greatest  batsmen  are  those  who  with  an  almost  impregnable 
defence  combine  the  greatest  variety  of  strokes,  which  as  occasion 
demands  they  can  make  with  confidence  and  certainty.  There 
are,  however,  comparatively  few  cricketers  who  do  not  excel  in 
some  particular  strokes  more  than  in  others.  One  will  make  most 
of  his  runs  by  "  cuts  "  past  "  point,"  or  by  wrist  strokes  behind 
the  wicket,  while  others,  like  the  famous  Middlesex  Etonian 
C.  I.  Thornton,  and  the  Australian  C.  J.  Bonnor,  depend  mainly 
on  powerful  "  drives  "  into  the  deep  field  behind  the  bowler's 
wicket.  Some  again,  though  proficient  in  all-round  play,  develop 
exceptional  skill  in  some  one  stroke  which  other  first-class  players 
seldom  attempt.  A  good  illustration  is  the  "  glance  stroke  "  off 
the  legs  which  K.  S.  Ranjitsinhji  made  with  such  ease  and  grace. 
All  great  cricketers  in  fact,  while  observing  certain  general 
principles,  display  some  individuality  of  style,  and  a  bowler  who 
is  familiar  with  a  batsman's  play  is  often  aware  of  some  idiosyn- 
crasy of  which  he  can  take  advantage  in  his  attack. 

Bowling  is,  indeed,  scarcely  less  scientific  than  batting.  It  is 
not,  however,  so  systematically  taught  to  young  amateurs,  and 
it  may  be  partly  in  consequence  of  this  neglect  that  Bowling. 
amateur  bowling  is  exceedingly  weak  in  England  as 
compared  with  that  of  professionals.  The  evolution  of  the  art 
of  bowling,  for  it  has  been  an  evolution,  is  an  interesting  chapter 
in  the  history  of  cricket  which  can  only  be  briefly  outlined  here. 
The  fundamental  law  as  to  the  proper  mode  of  the  bowler's 
delivering  the  ball  is  that  the  ball  must  be  bowled,  not  thrown 
or  jerked.  When  bowling  underhand  along  the  ground  was 
superseded  by  "  length  bowling,"  it  was  found  that  the  ball 
might  be  caused,  by  jerking,  to  travel  at  a  pace  which  on  the 
rough  grounds  was  considered  dangerous;  hence  the  law  against 
jerking,  which  was  administered  practically  by  chalking  the  inside 
of  the  bowler's  elbow;  if  a  chalk  mark  was  found  on  his  side, 
the  ball  was  not  allowed  as  fair.  The  necessity  of  keeping  the 
elbow  away  from  the  side  led  gradually  to  the  extension  of  the 
arm  horizontally  and  to  round-arm  bowling,  the  invention  of 
which  is  usually  attributed  to  John  Wills  (or  Willes;  b.  1777) 
of  Kent  and  Sussex.  Nyren,  however,  says  "  Tom  Walker 
(about  1790)  began  the  system  of  throwing  instead  of  bowling 
now  so  much  the  fashion";  and,  "The  first  I  recollect  seeing 
revive  this  fashion  was  Wills,  a  Sussex  man,"  the  date  of  the 
revival  being  1807.  Walker  was  no-balled.  Beldham  (1766- 
1862)  says,  "  The  law  against  jerking  was  owing  to  the  frightful 
pace  Tom  Walker  put  on,  and  I  believe  that  he  afterwards 
tried  something  more  like  the  modern  throwing-bowling.  Willes 
was  not  the  inventor  of  that  kind,  or  round-arm  bowling.  He 
only  revived  what  was  forgotten  or  new  to  the  young  folk." 
Curiously  enough,  Beldham  also  writes  of  the  same  Tom  Walker 
that  he  was  "  the  first  lobbing  slow  bowler  "  he  ever  saw, 
and  that  he  "  did  feel  so  ashamed  of  such  baby  bowling,  but 
after  all  he  did  more  than  even  David  Harris  himself."  Round- 
arm  bowling  was  long  and  vigorously  opposed,  especially  in  1826 
when  three  matches  were  arranged  between  England  and  Sussex, 
the  Sussex  bowlers  being  round-arm  bowlers.  When  England 
had  lost  the  first  two  matches,  nine  of  the  professionals  refused 


440 


CRICKET 


to  take  part  in  the  third,  "  unless  the  Sussex  bowlers  bowl  fair, 
that  is,  abstain  from  throwing."  Five  of  them  did  play  and 
Sussex  lost,  but  the  new  style  of  bowling  had  indicated  its 
existence.  In  1844  the  M.C.C.'s  revised  law  reads,  "  The  ball 
must  be  bowled,  not  thrown  or  jerked,  and  the  hand  must  not 
be  above  the  shoulder  in  delivery."  Round-arm  bowling  was 
thenceforth  legal.  In  1862  Willsher  (1828-1885),  the  Kent 
bowler,  was  no-balled  by  the  umpire  (Lillywhite)  for  raising  his 
hand  too  high,  amid  a  scene  of  excitement  that  almost  equalled 
a  tumult.  Overhand  bowling  was  legalized  on  the  loth  of  June 
1864  after  strenuous  opposition.  In  early  days  much  importance 
was  attached  to  great  pace,  but  the  success  of  the  slow  lobbing 
bowling  (pitched  up  underhand)  led  to  its  cultivation;  in  both 
styles  some  of  the  best  performers  delivered  the  ball  with  a 
curious  high  action,  thrusting  the  ball,  as  it  were,  from  close  under 
the  arm-pit.  When  the  advantages  of  bias  (or  twist,  or  break) 
were  first  known  is  not  closely  recorded,  but  we  read  of  one 
Lamborn  who  (about  1800)  could  make  the  ball  break  from  leg 
so  that  "  the  Keht  and  Surrey  men  could  not  tell  what  to  make 
of  that  cursed  twist  of  his."  Whatever  the  pace  of  bowling, 
accuracy  is  the  essential  point,  or,  more  correctly,  the  power  of 
accurately  varying  pace,  pitch  and  direction,  so  that  the  batsman 
is  never  at  peace.  If  the  bow'ler  is  a  mere  machine,  the  batsman 
soon  becomes  his  master;  but  the  question  as  to  which  of  the 
two  is  supreme  depends  very  largely  on  the  condition  of  the 
turf,  whether  it  be  hard  and  true,  soft  and  wet,  hard  and  rough 
or  soft  and  drying:  the  first  pair  of  conditions  favour  the  bats- 
men, the  second  pair  the  bowler. 

The  immense  amount  of  labour  and  expense  devoted  to  the 
preparation  and  care  of  cricket  grounds  has  produced  during 
the  past  quarter  of  a  century  a  perfection  of  smoothness  in  the 
turf  which  has  materially  altered  the  character  of  the  game.  On 
the  rough  and  fiery  pitches  of  earlier  days,  on  which  a  "  long 
stop  "  was  indispensable,  the  behaviour  of  the  ball  could  not  be 
reckoned  upon  by  the  batsman  with  any  degree  of  confidence. 
The  first  ball  of  an  "  over  "  might  be  a  "  shooter,"  never  rising 
as  much  as  an  inch  off  the  ground,  the  next  might  bound  over 
his  head,  and  the  third  pursue  some  equally  eccentric  course. 
But  on  the  best  grounds  of  to-day,  subject  to  the  well-understood 
changes  due  to  weather,  the  bound  of  the  ball  is  so  regular  as 
to  be  calculable  with  reasonable  certainty  by  the  batsman. 
The  result  has  been  that  in  fine  weather,  when  wickets  are  true 
and  fast,  bowlers  have  become  increasingly  powerless  to  defeat 
the  batsmen.  In  other  words  the  defence  has  been  strengthened 
out  of  proportion  to  the  attack.  Bowlers  have  consequently  to 
a  great  extent  abandoned  all  attempt  to  bowl  the  wicket  down, 
aiming  instead  at  effecting  their  purpose  by  bowling  close  to  but 
clear  of  the  wicket,  with  the  design  of  getting  the  batsman  to 
give  catches.  Many  batsmen  of  the  stubbornly  defensive  type, 
known  in  cricket  slang  as  "  stone  wallers,"  retaliated  by  leaving 
such  balls  alone  together,  or  stopping  them  deliberately  with  the 
legs  instead  of  the  bat. 

These  tactics  caused  the  game  to  become  very  slow ;  over  after 
over  was  bowled  without  an  attempt  being  made  to  score  a  run 
and  without  apparent  prospect  of  getting  a  wicket.  This  not 
only  injured  the  popularity  of  the  game  from  the  spectator's 
point  of  view,  but,  in  conjunction  with  the  enormous  scores  that 
became  common  in  dry  seasons,  made  it  so  difficult  to  finish  a 
match  within  the  three  days  to  which  first-class  matches  in 
England  are  invariably  limited,  that  nearly  70%  of  the  total 
number  of  fixtures  in  some  seasons  were  drawn.  Cricketers  of 
an  older  generation  have  complained  that  the  cause  of  this  is 
partly  to  be  found  in  the  amount  of  time  wasted  by  contemporary 
cricketers.  These  critics  see  no  reason  why  half  of  a  summer's 
day  should  be  allowed  to  elapse  before  cricket  begins,  and  they 
comment  with  some  scorn  on  the  interval  for  tea,  and  the 
fastidiousness  with  which  play  is  frequently  interrupted  on 
account  of  imperfect  light  or  for  other  unimperative  reasons. 
Various  suggestions  have  been  made,  including  proposals  for 
enlarging  the  wicket,  for  enabling  the  attack  to  hold  its  own 
against  the  increasing  strength  of  the  defence.  But  the  M.C.C., 
the  only  recognized  source  of  cricket  legislation,  has  displayed 


a  cautious  but  wise  conservatism,  due  to  the  fact  that  its  authority- 
rests  on  no  sanction  more  formal  than  that  of  prestige  tacitly 
admitted  by  the  cricketing  world;  and  consequently  no  drastic 
changes  have  been  made  in  the  laws  of  the  game,  the  only  im- 
portant amendments  of  recent  years  being  that  which  now 
permits  a  side  to  close  its  innings  voluntarily  under  certain 
conditions,  and  that  which,  in  substitution  for  the  former  hard 
and  fast  rule  for  the  "  follow  on,"  has  given  an  option  in  the 
matter  to  the  side  possessing  the  requisite  lead  on  the  first 
innings. 

Early  Players. — If  the  era  of  the  present  form  of  cricket  can- 
very  properly  be  dated  from  the  visit  of  the  first  Australian  team 
to  England  in  1878,  some  enumeration  must  be  made  of  a  few  of 
the  cricketers  who  took  part  in  first-class  matches  in  the  earlier 
portion  of  the  igth  century.  Among  amateurs  should  be  noted 
the  two  fast  bowlers,  Sir  F.  H.  Bathurst  (1807-1881;  Eton, 
Hampshire),  and  Harvey  Fellowes  (b.  1826;  Eton);  the 
batsman  N.  Felix  (1804-1876;  Surrey  and  Kent),  who  was 
a  master  of  "  cutting  "  and  one  of  the  earliest  to  adopt  batting 
gloves;  the  cricketing  champion  of  his  time  Alfred  Mynn  (1807— 
1861;  Kent);  and  the  keen  player  F.  P.  Miller  (1828-1875; 
Surrey).  The  three  Marshams,  Rev.  C.  D.  Marsham  (b.  1835), 
R.  H.  B.  Marsham  (b.  1833)  and  G.  Marsham  (b.  1849),  all  of 
Eton  and  Oxford,  were  as  famous  as  the  Studds  in  the  'eighties; 
and  R.  Hankey  (1832-1886;  Harrow  and  Oxford)  was  a  great 
scorer.  In  the  next  generation  one  of  the  greatest  bats  of  his 
own  or  any  time  was  R.  A.  H.  Mitchell  (1843-1905;  Eton,  Oxford, 
Hants).  A  very  attractive  run-getter  was  C.  F.  Buller  (b. 
1846;  Harrow,  Middlesex);  an  all  too  brief  career  was  that 
of  C.  J.  Ottaway  (1850-1878;  Eton,  Oxford,  Kent  and  Middle- 
sex); whilst  A.  Lubbock  (b.  1845;  Eton,  Kent)  was  a  sound  bat, 
and  D.  Buchanan  (1830-1900;  Rugby  and  Cambridge)  a  destruc- 
tive bowler,  as  was  also  A.  Appleby  (1843-1902;  Lancashire). 

Of  the  professionals,  Fuller  Pilch  (1803-1870)  and  E.  G. 
Wenman  (1803-1897)  were  great  bats;  T.  Box  (1808-1876)  the 
most  skilled  wicket-keeper  of  his  time;  W.  Lillywhite  (1792- 
1854),  one  of  the  first  round-arm  bowlers,  renowned  for  the 
accuracy  of  his  pitch,  and  W.  Clark  (1798-1856)  possessed 
wonderful  variety  of  pace  and  pitch.  It  was  the  last-named  who 
organized  the  All  England  Eleven,  and  he  was  not  chosen  to- 
represent  the  players  until  he  had  reached  the  age  of  forty-seven. 
George  Parr  (1826-1891),  the  greatest  leg-hitter  in  England,  had 
no  professional  rival  until  the  advent  of  Richard  Daft  (1835- 
1900).  J.  Dean  (1816-1891)  was  the  finest  long-stop,  Julius 
Caesar  (1830-1878)  a  hard  clean  hitter,  as  was  G.Anderson  (1826- 
1902),  and  T.  Lockyer  (1826-1869)  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
prominent  wicket-keeper  who  took  balls  wide  on  the  leg-side. 
Of  bowlers,  E.  Willsher  (1828-1885)  would  seem  to  have  been  the 
most  difficult,  W.  Martingell  (1818-1897)  being  a  very  good 
medium-paced  bowler,  and  J.  Wisden  (1826-1884)  a  very  fast 
bowler  but  short  in  his  length.  Four  famous  bowlers  of  a  later 
date  are  George  Freeman  (1844-1895),  J.  Jackson  (1833-1901), 
G.  Tarrant  (1838-1870)  and  G.  Wootton  (b.  1834).  With  them 
must  be  mentioned  the  great  batsmen,  T.  Hayward  (1835-1876) 
and  R.  Carpenter  (1830-1901),  as  well  as  two  other  keen  cricketers, 
H.  H.  Stephenson  (1833-1896)  andT.  Hearne  (1826-1900). 

Since  the  first  half  of  the-  igth  century  the  sort  of  cricket  to 
engage  public  attention  has  very  greatly  changed,  and  the  change 
has  become  emphasized  since  the  exchange  of  visits  between 
Australian  and  English  teams  has  become  an  established  feature 
of  first-class  cricket.  First-class  cricket  has  become  more  formal, 
more  serious  and  more  spectacular.  The  contest  for  the  co-nnty 
championship  has  introduced  an  annual  competition,  closely 
followed  by  the  public,  between  standing  rivals  familiar  with  each 
other's  play  and  record;  an  increased  importance  has  become 
attached  to  "  averages  "  and  "  records,"  and  it  is  felt  by  some 
that  the  purely  sporting  side  of  the  game  has  been  damaged  by 
the  change.  Professionalism  has  increased,  and  it  is  an  open 
secret  that  not  a  few  players  who  appear  before  the  public  as 
amateurs  derive  an  income  under  some  pretext  or  other  from 
the  game.  Cricket  on  the  village  green  has  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  almost  ceased  to  exist,  while  immense  crowds  congregate 


CRICKET 


441 


to  watch  county  matches  in  the  great  towns;  but  this  must  no 
doubt  be  in  part  attributed  to  the  movement  of  population  from 
the  country  districts;  and  some  compensation  is  to  be  found  in 
league  cricket  (see  below),  and  in  the  numerous  clubs  for  the 
employees  of  business  firms  and  large  shops,  and  for  the  members 
of  social  institutes  of  all  kinds,  which  play  matches  in  the  suburbs 
of  London  and  other  cities.  At  an  earlier  period  two  great  pro- 
fessional organizations,  "  The  All  England,"  formed  in  1846,  and 
"  The  United  All  England,"  toured  the  country,  mainly  for  profit, 
playing  local  sides  in  which  "  given  men,"  generally  good  pro- 
fessional players,  figured.  They  did  much  good  work  in  popu- 
larizing the  game,  and  an  annual  match  between  the  two  at 
Lord's  on  Whit-Monday  was  once  a  great  feature  of  the  season; 
but  the  increase  of  county  cricket  led  eventually  to  their 
disbandment. 

At  this  period,  and  much  later,  the  first-class  matches  of 
"  M.C.C.  and  ground  "  (i.e.  ground-staff,  or  professionals  attached 
to  the  club)  occupied  a  far  greater  amount  of  importance  than  is 
at  present  the  case.  In  recent  years  over  150  minor  matches  of 
the  utmost  value  in  propagating  the  best  interests  of  cricket  are 
annually  played  by  the  leading  club.  League  cricket  has  of  late 
become  exceedingly  popular,  especially  in  the  North  of  England, 
a  number  of  clubs — about  twelve  to  sixteen — combining  to  form 
a  "  League"  and  playing  home-and-home  matches,  each  one 
with  each  of  the  others  in  turn;  points  are  scored  according  as 
each  club  wins,  loses,  or  draws  matches,  the  championship  of  the 
"  League  "  being  thus  decided. 

English  County  Cricket. — The  first  English  inter-county 
match  which  is  recorded  was  played  on  Richmond  Green  in 
1730  between  Surrey  and  Middlesex;  but  for  very  many  years, 
though  counties  played  counties,  there  was  no  systematic  organiza- 
tion, matches  often  being  played  at  odds  or  with  "  given " 
players,  who  had  no  county  connexion  with  the  side  they  repre- 
sented. This  was  the  natural  outcome  of  the  custom  of  playing 
for  stakes.  It  was  not  till  1872  that  any  real  effort  was  made 
to  organize  county  cricket.  In  that  year  the  M.C.C.  took  the 
initiative  by  offering  a  cup  for  competition  between  the  counties, 
six  of  which  were  to  be  selected  by  the  M.C.C.,  the  matches  to 
be  played  at  Lord's,  but  the  scheme  fell  through  owing  to  the 
coolness  of  the  counties  themselves.  It  was  only  in  1890  that  the 
counties  were  formally  and  officially  classified,  Notts  (the  county 
club  dating  from  1859),  Lancashire  (1864),  Surrey  (1845),  Kent 
(1842),  Middlesex  (1864),  Gloucestershire  (1869),  Yorkshire 
(1862),  and  Sussex  (1839),  being  regarded  as  "  first-class,"  as 
indeed  had  been  the  case  from  the  time  of  their  existence;  and 
by  degrees  other  counties  were  promoted  to  this  class;  Somerset 
in  1893;  Derbyshire,  Essex,  Leicestershire,  Warwickshire  in 
1894;  Hampshire  in  1895;  Worcestershire  in  1899;  North- 
amptonshire in  1905. 

In  1887  the  County  Cricket  Council  had  been  formed,  working 
with  and  not  against  the  Marylebone  Club,  for  the  management 
of  county  cricket,  but  the  council  dissolved  itself  in  1890,  and 
it  was  then  arranged  that  the  county  secretaries  and  delegates 
should  meet  and  discuss  such  matters,  and  request  the  M.C.C.  to 
consider  the  result  of  their  deliberations,  and  practically  to  act 
as  patron  and  arbitrator.  In  1905  an  Advisory  Cricket  Com- 
mittee was  formed  "  with  the  co-operation  of  the  counties,  with 
a  view  to  improve  the  procedure  in  dealing  with  important 
matters  arising  out  of  the  development  of  cricket,  the  effect  of 
which  will  be  "  (the  quotation  is  from  the  annual  report  of  M.C.C. 
in  1905)  "  to  bring  the  counties  into  closer  touch  with  the 
M.C.C."  Various  methods  have  been  tried  as  to  the  assignment 
of  points  or  marks,  the  following  being  the  list  of  champion 
counties  up  to  1909: — 


1  882 

Lancashire 
Notts 

•  equal 

1883 

Yorkshire 

1884 

Notts 

1885 

Notts 

1886 

Notts 

1887 

Surrey 

1888 

Surrey  /  eql 

lal 

1889 

LaTashire 

-equal 

1890 

Surrey 

1891 

Surrey 

1892 

Surrey 

1893 

Yorkshire 

1894 

Surrey 

1864 

Surrey 

J873 

Surrey 

1865 

Notts 

1874 

Gloucestershire 

1866 

Middlesex 

1875 

Notts 

1867 

Yorkshire 

1876 

Gloucestershire 

1868 

Yorkshire 

1877 

Gloucestershire 

1869 

Notts 

1878 

Notts 

1870 
1871 

Yorkshire 
Notts 

1879 

Lancashire  I          , 
Notts           \  e(lual 

1872 

Gloucestershire  |  e('ual 

1880 
1881 

Notts 
Lancashire 

1895 

Surrey 

1896 

Yorkshire 

1897 

Lancashire 

1898 

Yorkshire 

1899 

Surrey 

1900 

Yorkshire 

1901 

Yorkshire 

1902 

Yorkshire 

1903 

Middlesex 

1904 

Lancashire 

1905 

Yorkshire 

1906 

Kent 

1907 

Notts 

1908 

Yorkshire 

1909 

Kent 

English  county  cricket  is  now  the  most  firmly  established  cricketing 
institution  in  the  world,  but  in  its  earlier  stages  it  owed  much  in 
different  counties  to  enthusiastic  individuals  and  famous  Th  Qnce. 
cricketing  families  whose  energies  were  devoted  to  its  . 
encouragement  and  support.  To  Gloucestershire  belongs  cesler. 
the  honour  of  the  greatest  name  in  the  history  of  the  game.  shlre 
Dr  W.  G.  Grace  (q.v.)  was  not  only  the  most  brilliant  all- 
round  cricketer  in  the  world,  but  he  remained  supreme  after  reaching 
an  age  when  most  cricketers  have  long  abandoned  the  game.  He 
and  his  two  famous  brothers,  E.  M.  Grace  (b.  1841)  and  G.  F.  Grace 
(1850-1880),  rendered  invaluable  service  to  their  county  for  many 
years;  and  not  to  their  county  alone,  for  the  great  part  they  played 
for  a  generation  in  first-class  cricket  did  much  to  increase  the  growing 
popularity  of  the  county  fixtures.  A  separate  article  is  devoted  to 
Dr  W.  G.  Grace,  whose  name  as  the  champion  of  the  game  will 
always  be  associated  with  its  history.  And  of  Dr  E.  M.  Grace  it 
may  be  mentioned  that,  besides  being  the  most  daring  field  at 
"  point  "  ever  seen,  he  altogether  took  11,092  wickets  and  scored 
75,625  runs.  In  more  recent  years  some  excellent  cricketers 
have  been  associated  with  Gloucestershire,  such  as  F.  Townsend, 
and  the  professional  Board;  but  foremost  stands  G.  L.  Jessop, 
a  somewhat  "  unorthodox  "  batsman  famous  for  his  powers  of 
hitting. 

What  W.  G.  Grace  did  for  Gloucestershire,  Lord  Harris  (b.  1851) 
did  for  Kent,  and  his  services  are  not  to  be  estimated  by  his  perform- 
ances in  the  field  alone,  great  as  they  were.  His  influence  Kent. 
was  always  exerted  to  impart  a  spirit  of  sportsmanship 
and  honourable  distinction  to  the  national  game.  Kent  had  been  a 
home  of  cricket  since  the  first  half  of  the  l8th  century,  but  it  was 
Lord  Harris  more  than  any  other  individual  who  made  it  a  first-class 
county,  celebrated  for  the  number  of  distinguished  amateurs  who 
have  taken  part  in  its  matches.  The  Hon.  Ivo  Bligh,  afterwards 
Lord  Darnley  (b.  1859),  and  F.  Marchant  (b.  1864),  both  Etonians 
like  Lord  Harris  himself;  the  two  Harrovians,  W.  H.  Patterson 
(b.  1859)  and  M.  C.  Kemp  (b.  1862),  and  the  Wykehamist  J.  R. 
Mason  (b.  1874)  are  names  that  show  the  place  taken  by  public 
school  men  in  the  annals  of  Kent  cricket,  while  the  family  of  Hearnes 
supplied  the  county  with  some  famous  professionals.  Amateur 
batsmen  like  W.  Rashleigh,  C.  J.  Burnup,  E.  W.  Dillon  and  A.  P. 
Day  have  been  prominent  in  the  Kent  eleven;  and  in  Fielder  and 
Blythe  they  have  had  two  first-class  professional  bowlers.  The 
"  Kent  nursery  "  at  Tonbridge  has  proved  a  valuable  institution  for 
training  young  professional  players,  and  contributed  not  a  little  to 
the  rising  reputation  of  Kent,  which  justified  itself  when  the  county 
won  the  championship  in  1906,  largely  owing  to  the  admirable 
batting  of  the  amateur  K.  L.  Hutchings. 

Middlesex  and  Lancashire,  not  less  than  Kent,  have  been  indebted 
to  the  great  public  schools,  and  especially  to  Harrow,  which  provided 
both  counties  with  famous  captains  who  directed  their  /Hi 
fortunes  for  an  uninterrupted  period  of  over  twenty  years.  aa 
I.  D.  Walker,  the  most  celebrated  of  seven  cricketing 
brothers,  all  Harrovians,  who  founded  the  Middlesex 
County  Club,  handed  on  the  captaincy,  after  a  personal  record  of 
astonishing  brilliancy,  to  a  younger  Harrow  and  Oxford  cricketer, 
A.  J.  Webbe,  who  was  one  of  the  finest  leg-hitters  and  one  of  the 
safest  out-fielders  of  his  day,  and  a  captain  of  consummate  judgment 
and  knowledge  of  the  game.  A.  N.  Hornby,  a  contemporary  at 
Harrow  of  I.  D.  Walker,  was  for  many  years  the  soul  of  Lancashire 
cricket,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  captaincy  of  the  county  by  the 
still  more  famous  Harrovian,  A.  C.  MacLaren,  one  of  the  greatest 
batsmen  in  the  history  of  cricket,  whose  record  for  England  in  test 
matches  against  Australia  was  almost  unrivalled.  In  1895,  when  he 
headed  the  batting  averages,  MacLaren  made  the  highest  individual 
score  in  a  first-class  match,  viz.  424  against  Somersetshire.  Middlesex 
has  also  the  distinction  of  having  produced  the  two  greatest  amateur 
wicket-keepers  in  the  history  of  English  cricket,  namely,  the  Hon. 
Alfred  Lyttelton  (b.  1857)  and  Gregor  MacGregor,  both  of  whom, 
after  playing  for  Cambridge  University,  gave  their  services  to  the 
Metropolitan  county;  while  Lancashire  can  boast  'of  the  greatest 
professional  wicket-keeper  in  Richard  Pilling  (1855-1891),  whose 
reputation  has  not  been  eclipsed  by  that  of  the  most  proficient  of 
more  recent  years.  Another  famous  Cambridge  University  cricketer, 
a  contemporary  of  Lyttelton,  who  was  invaluable  to  Lancashire  for 


442 


CRICKET 


some  years  when  he  was  one  of  the  very  finest  all-round  cricketers 
in  the  country,  was  A.  G.  Steel  (b.  1858),  equally  brilliant  as  a  bats- 
man and  as  a  slow  bowler;  and  other  names  memorable  in  Lanca- 
shire cricket  were  R.  G.  Barlow  (b.  1859),  whose  stubborn  batting 
was  a  striking  contrast  to  the  rapid  run-getting  of  Hornby  and  the 
perfect  style  of  Steel;  John  Briggs  (1862-1902),  whose  slow  left- 
hand  bowling  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  bowling  averages  in 
1890;  John  Grassland  (1853-1903)  and  A.  Mold  (b.  1865),  both  of 
whom  were  destructive  fast  bowlers;  J.  T.  Tyldesley  and  R.  H. 
Spooner,  both  among  the  most  brilliant  batsmen  of  a  later  genera- 
tion ;  and  W.  Brearley,  the  amateur  fast  bowler. 

Middlesex,  like  Kent,  has  been  better  served  by  amateurs  than 
professionals.  Indeed,  with  the  notable  exceptions  of  J.  T.  Hearne, 
who  headed  the  bowling  averages  in  1891,  1896  and  1898,  and  of  the 
imported  Australian  A.  E.  Trott,  few  professionals  of  high  merit  are 
conspicuously  associated  with  the  history  of  the  county  cricket. 
Trott,  in  1899  and  again  in  1900,  performed  the  previously  unprece- 
dented feat  of  taking  over  two  hundred  wickets  and  scoring  over 
one  thousand  runs  in  the  same  season.  And  in  his  "  benefit  match  " 
in  May  1907  at  Lord's  he  achieved  the  "  hat  trick  "  twice  in  one 
innings,  taking  first  four  and  then  three  wickets  with  successive 
balls.  But  if  there  has  been  a  dearth  of  professionals  in  Middlesex 
cricket,  the  county  has  produced  an  abundance  of  celebrated 
amateurs.  In  addition  to  the  Walkers  and  A.  J.  Webbe,  the  metro- 
politan county  was  the  home  of  the  celebrated  hitter,  C.  I.  Thornton, 
and  of  the  Studd  family,  who  learnt  their  cricket  at  Eton  and 
Cambridge  University.  C.  T.  Studd,  one  of  the  most  polished 
batsmen  who  ever  played  cricket,  was  at  the  same  time  an  excellent 
medium-paced  bowler,  and  his  brother  G.  B.  Studd  is  remembered 
especially  for  his  fielding,  though  like  his  elder  brother,  J.  E.  K. 
Studd,  he  was  an  all-round  cricketer  of  the  greatest  value  to  a 
county  team.  Sir  T.  C.  O'Brien,  who  made  his  reputation  by  a  fine 
innings  for  Oxford  University  against  the  Australian  team  of  1882, 
sustained  it  in  the  following  years  by  many  brilliant  performances 
for  Middlesex.  A.  E.  Stoddart  for  several  years  was  the  best  run- 
getter  in  the  Middlesex  eleven;  and  W.  J.  Ford  and  his  younger 
brother,  F.  G.  J.  Ford,  were  conspicuous  among  many  prominent 
Middlesex  batsmen.  In  more  recent  times  the  Oxonian  P.  F.  Warner 
(b.  1873),  both  as  captain  and  as  batsman,  did  splendid  work;  and 
B.  J.  T.  Bosanquet,  besides  assisting  powerfully  with  the  bat, 
became  famous  for  inaugurating  a  new  style  of  curly  bowling 
("  googlies  ")  of  a  very  effective  type. 

A  glance  at  the  table  given  above  shows  the  high  place  occupied 
by  Surrey  in  the  past.  Surrey  county  cricket  can  be  traced  as  far 
back  as  1730.  Pycroft  observes  that  "  the  name  of  Surrey 
as  one  united  county  club  is  quite  lost  in  the  annals  of 
cricket  from  1817  to  1845."  But  before  that  date  two  of  the  most 
celebrated  cricketers,  William  Lillywhite  and  Fuller  Pilch,  had 
occasionally  played  for  the  county,  and  so  also  had  James  Broad- 
bridge  (1796-1843)  and  W.  Lambert  (1779-1851).  Kennington  Oval 
became  the  Surrey  county  ground  in  1845,  the  property  being  leased 
from  the  duchy  of  Cornwall ;  and  in  the  years  immediately  following 
the  county  team  included  H.  H.  Stephenson  (1833-1896),  Caffyn 
(b.  1828),  N.  Felix,  and  Lockyer  (1826-1869) ;  among  a  later  genera- 
tion appeared  such  well-remembered  names  as  Jupp,  Southerton, 
Pooley  and  R.  Humphrey.  After  being  champion  county  in  1873, 
Surrey  did  not  again  attain  the  same  position  for  fourteen  years, 
but  for  the  next  ten  years  maintained  an  almost  uninterrupted 
supremacy.  The  greatest  credit  was  due  to  the  energetic  direction 
of  J.  Shuter  (b.  1855),  who  kept  together  a  remarkable  combination 
of  cricketers,  such  as  W.  W.  Read  (1855-1906),  Maurice  Read  (b. 
1859),  George  Lohmann  (1865-1901),  and  Robert  Abel  (b.  1859), 
all  of  whom  were  among  the  greatest  players  of  their  period.  Loh- 
mann in  1885—1890  would  alone  have  made  any  side  famous;  and 
in  the  same  years  when  he  was  heading  the  bowling  averages  and 
proving  himself  the  most  deadly  bowler  in  the  country,  W.  W.  Read 
was  performing  prodigies  of  batting.  No  sooner  did  the  latter  begin 
to  decline  in  power  than  Abel  took  his  place  at  the  head  of  the 
batting  averages,  scoring  with  astonishing  consistency  in  1897-1900. 
In  1899  he  made  357  not  out  in  an  innings  against  Somersetshire, 
and  in  1901  his  aggregate  of  3309  was  the  largest  then  compijed. 
The  Oxonian  K.  J.  Key  was  another  famous  batsman  whose  services 
as  captain  were  also  exceedingly  valuable  to  the  county.  An  almost 
inexhaustible  supply  of  professionals  of  the  very  highest  class  has 
been  at  Surrey's  service.  W.  Lockwood  (b.  1868)  became  almost  as 
deadly  a  bowler  as  Lohmann,  and  Tom  Richardson  (b.  1870)  was  the 
terror  of  all  Surrey's  opponents  for  several  seasons  after  1893. 
Richardson  took  in  all  no  less  than  1340  wickets  at  the  cost  of  20,000 
runs.  Tom  Hayward  (b.  1867),  nephew  of  the  renowned  Cambridge 
professional  of  the  same  name,  succeeded  Abel  as  the  leading  Surrey 
batsman,  his  play  in  the  test  matches  of  1899,  when  he  averaged  65, 
being  superb.  During  the  following  years  his  reputation  was  fully 
maintained,  and  in  1906  he  had  a  particularly  successful  season. 
Key  was  followed  in  the  captaincy  by  D.  L.  A.  Jephson,  but  the 
county  did  not  in  the  opening  years  of  the  2Oth  century  maintain 
the  high  place  it  occupied  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth.  It 
possessed  some  excellent  professionals,  however,  in  Hayes,  Hobbs 
and  Lees,  and  the  season  of  1906,  under  the  captaincy  of  Lord 
Dalmeny,  showed  a  revival,  a  new  fast  bowler  being  found  in  N.  A. 
Knox,  and  a  fine  batsman  and  bowler  in  J.  N.  Crawford. 


Several  of  the  celebrated  cricketers  of  early  times  already  men- 
tioned as  having  played  for  the  Surrey  club  were  more  closely 
associated  with  the  adjoining  county  of  Sussex,  whose  _ 
records  go  back  as  far  as  1 734,  in  which  year  a  match  was 
played  against  Kent,  the  chief  promoters  of  which  were  the  duke 
of  Richmond  and  Sir  William  Gage.  One  of  the  earliest  famous 
cricketers,  Richard  Newland  (d.  1791),  was  a  Sussex  man;  and  James 
Broadbridge,  W.  Lambert,  Tom  Box,  and  the  great  Lillywhite 
family  were  all  members  of  the  Sussex  county  team.  Lambert,  in 
a  match  against  Epsom,  played  at  Lord's  in  1817,  made  a  "  century  " 
(one  hundred  runs)  in  each  innings,  a  feat  not  repeated  in  first-class 
cricket  for  fifty  years;  and  the  occasion  was  the  first  when  the 
aggregate  of  a  thousand  runs  was  scored  in  a  match.  Broadbridge 
played  for  Sussex  in  five  reigns,  while  Box  (1808—1876)  kept  wicket 
for  the  county  for  twenty-four  years  without  missing  a  match. 
Notwithstanding  this  distinguished  history,  Sussex  never  attained 
the  highest  place  in  the  county  rivalry,  and  for  a  number  of  years 
towards  the  end  of  the  I9th  century  the  left-handed  batting  of  F.  M. 
Lucas  (1860-1887)  alone  saved  the  county  from  complete  insignific- 
ance. A  revival  came  when  W.  L.  Murdoch  (b.  1855),  of  Australian 
celebrity,  qualified  for  Sussex;  and  at  a  still  later  date  the  fortunes 
of  the  county  were  raised  by  the  inclusion  in  its  eleven  of  Kumar 
Shri  Ranjitsinhji,  afterwards  H.H.  the  Jam  of  Nawanagar  (b.  1872), 
the  Indian  prince,  who  had  played  for  Cambridge  University. 
Ranjitsinhji's  dexterity,  grace  and  style  were  unrivalled.  He 
scored  2780  runs  in  1896,  averaging  57,  while  in  county  matches  in 
1899  his  aggregate  was  2555,  with  an  average  of  75.  Even  this 
performance  was  beaten  in  1900  when  he  scored  a  total  of  2563  runs, 
giving  an  average  for  the  season  of  83.  In  all  matches  his  aggregates 
were  3159  in  1899,  and  3065  in  1900.  Not  less  remarkable  was  the 
cricket  of  C.  B.  Fry  (b.  1872),  who  came  from  Oxford  University  to 
become  a  mainstay  of  Sussex  cricket,  and  who  in  1901  performed 
the  unparalleled  feat  of  scoring  in  successive  innings  106,  209,  149, 
105,  140  and  105,  his  aggregate  for  the  season  being  3147  with  an 
average  of  78.  In  1905  his  average  for  Sussex  was  86,  but  in  the 
following  year  an  accident  kept  him  out  of  the  cricket  field  throughout 
the  season;  and  in  1909  he  transferred  his  services  to  Hampshire. 

If  Kent  and  Middlesex  may  be  described  as  the  counties  of 
amateurs,  Yorkshire  and  Nottinghamshire  should  be  called  the 
counties  of  famous  professionals.  Between  1864  and  .„ 

1889  Nottinghamshire  was  champion  county  twelve  times 
and  the  county  eleven  was  as  a  rule  composed  almost  entirely  of 
professional  players,  among  whom  have  been  many  of  the  greatest 
names  in  the  history  of  the  game.  Richard  Daft  (1835-1900),  after 
playing  as  an  amateur,  became  a  professional  in  preference  to 
abandoning  the  game,  scorning  to  resort  to  any  of  the  pretexts  by 
which  cricketers  have  been  known  to  accept  payment  for  their 
services  while  continuing  to  cling  to  the  status  of  the  amateur. 
William  Oscroft  (1843-1905)  was  one  of  Nottinghamshire's  early 
batting  heroes,  and  in  Alfred  Shaw  (b.  1842)  and  F.  Morley  (1850- 
1884)  the  county  possessed  an  invaluable  pair  of  bowlers.  William 
Gunn  (b.  1858),  besides  being  a  magnificent  fielder  "  in  the  country," 
was  an  exceptionally  able  batsman;  but  his  performances  did  not 
equal  those  of  his  greater  contemporary,  Arthur  Shrewsbury,  who  in 
six  years  between  1885  and  1892  headed  the  English  batting  averages. 
Shrewsbury's  perfect  style  combined  with  inexhaustible  patience 
placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  the  "  classical  "  batsmen  of  English 
cricket.  Of  the  batsmen  nicknamed  "  stonewallers,"  who  at  one  time 
endangered  the  popularity  of  first-class  cricket,  was  W.  Scotton 
(1856-1893);  and  among  the  other  numerous  professionals  whose 
cricket  contributed  to  the  renown  of  Nottinghamshire  were  Barnes 
(1852-1899),  at  times  a  most  formidable  bat;  Flowers  (b.  1856), 
always  useful  both  with  the  bat  and  the  ball;  W.  Attewell  (b.  1861), 
a  remarkably  steady  bowler  who  bowled  an  abnormal  number  of 
maiden  overs;  Mordecai  Sherwin  (b.  1851),  an  excellent  successor 
to  T.  Plumb  (b.  1833)  and  F.  Wild  (1847-1893)  as  wicket-keeper 
for  the  county;  and  among  more  recent  players,  J.  Iremonger  (b. 
1877)  and  John  Gunn,  both  of  whom  proved!  themselves  cricketers 
worthy  of  the  Notts  traditions.  J.  A.  Dixon  (b.  1861),  one  of  the 
few  amateurs  of  the  Nottinghamshire  records,  was  for  some  time 
captain  of  the  county  team;  and  he  was  succeeded  by  A.  O.  Jones 
(b.  1873),  a  dashing  batsman,  who  in  1899  was  partner  with  Shrews- 
bury when  the  pair  scored  391  for  the  first  wicket  in  a  match  against 
Gloucestershire. 

The  history  of  Yorkshire  cricket  is  modern  in  comparison  with 
that  of  Surrey,  Sussex  or  Kent.  The  county  club  only  dates  from 
1861,  and  for  some  years  the  team  was  composed  entirely  „  .  .  . 
of  professionals.  But  though  Yorkshire  attained  the 
championship  three  times  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the  county 
club's  existence,  thirteen  years  elapsed  after  1870  before  it  again 
occupied  the  place  of  honour.  In  the  ten  years  1896-1906  Yorkshire 
was  no  less  than  six  times  at  the  head  of  the  list,  this  position  of 
supremacy  being  in  no  small  measure  due  to  the  captaincy  of  Lord 
Hawke  (b.  1860),  who  played  continuously  for  the  county  from  his 
university  days  for  more  than  twenty  years,  and  whose  influence  on 
Yorkshire  cricket  was  unique.  But  before  his  time  Yorkshire  had 
already  produced  some  notable  cricketers,  such  as  George  Ulyetf 
(1857-1898),  who  headed  the  batting  averages  in  1878,  and  who 
was  also  a  fine  fast  bowler;  Louis  Hall  (b.  1852),  a  patient  bat; 
and  another  excellent  scorer,  Ephraim  Lockwood  (0.1845).  William 


CRICKET 


443 


Bates  (1855-1900),  too,  was  effective  both  as  batsman  and  bowler; 
and  Tom  Emmett  (1841-1904),  long  proverbial  for  bowling  "  a 
wide  and  a  wicket,"  was  deservedly  popular.  To  the  earlier  period 
belonged  two  fast  bowlers,  George  Freeman  (1844-1895)  and  Allan 
Hill  (b.  1845),  and  the  eminent  wicket-keeper  Pincher  (1841-1903), 
who  was  succeeded  by  J.  Hunter  (1857-1891),  and  later  by  his 
brother  Daniel  Hunter  (b.  1862).  The  full  effect  of  Lord  Hawke's 
energetic  captaincy  was  seen  in  1900,  when  Yorkshire  played  through 
a  programme  of  twenty-eight  fixtures  without  sustaining  a  defeat; 
and  the  county's  record  was  but  little  inferior  in  both  the  following 
years  and  again  in  1905,  in  each  of  which  years  it  retained  the 
championship.  It  was  during  this  period  that  as  notable  a  group  of 
cricketers  wore  the  Yorkshire  colours  as  ever  appeared  in  county 
matches.  Edmund  Peate  (1856-1900),  one  of  the  finest  bowlers 
in  his  day,  did  not  survive  to  take  part  in  the  later  triumphs  of  his 
county;  but  the  period  beginning  in  1890  saw  J.  T.  Brown,  J.  Tunni- 
cliffe,  R.  Peel,  W.  Rhodes,  George  Hirst  and  the  Hon.  F.  S.  Jackson 
in  the  field.  The  two  first  named  became  famous  for  their  first 
wicket  partnerships.  In  1896  in  a  match  against  Middlesex  at  Lord's 
these  two  batsmen  scored  139  before  being  separated  in.  the  first 
innings,  and  in  the  second  knocked  off  the  147  required  to  win  the 
match.  In  the  following  year  they  made  378  for  the  first  wicket 
against  Surrey,  and  during  their  careers  they  scored  over  a  hundred 
for  the  first  wicket  on  no  less  than  fifteen  occasions,  the  greatest  feat 
of  all  being  in  1898,  when  they  beat  the  world's  record  by  staying 
together  till  554  runs  had  been  compiled.  Peel  was  for  many  years 
an  untiring  bowler,  and  Yorkshire  was  fortunate  in  discovering  a 
successor  of  even  superior  skill  in  Wilfrid  Rhodes,  who  in  1900  took 
over  200  wickets  at  a  cost  of  12  runs  each  in  county  matches  alone, 
and  was  also  an  excellent  bat.  Hirst  and  Jackson  were  the  two 
finest  all-round  cricketers  in  England  about  1905.  The  Hon.  F.  S. 
Jackson  (b.  1870),  like  his  fellow-Harrovian  A.  C.  MacLaren,  had  a 
wonderful  record  in  test  matches  against  Australia ;  he  captained  the 
England  eleven  in  1905,  and  his  wonderful  nerve  enabled  him  to 
extricate  his  side  when  in  a  difficulty,  and  to  render  his  best  service 
at  an  emergency.  Hirst  (b.  1871)  in  1904  and  in  1905  scored  over 
2000  runs  and  took  more  than  100  wickets;  and  in  1906  he  surpassed 
all  previous  records  by  scoring  over  2000  runs  and  taking  over  200 
wickets  during  the  season.  A  concourse  of  78,000  people  watched 
his  "  benefit  "  match  (Yorkshire  against  Lancashire)  in  August  1904. 
Besides  cricketers  like  these,  such  fine  players  were  included  in  the 
team  as  Wainwright  (b.  1865),  Haigh  (b.  1871),  Denton  (b.  1874), 
and  E.  Smith  (b.  1869);  with  such  material  the  Yorkshire  eleven 
had  no  "  tail,"  and  was  able  to  win  the  championship  six  times  in 
a  decade. 

Somersetshire  hardly  fulfilled  the  promise  held  out  by  the  success 
achieved  in  the  closing  decade  of  the  igth  century;  this  had  been 
Somerset-  'arge'y  owing  to  the  captaincy  and  brilliant  batting  of 
shire.  '  H.  T.  Hewett  (b.  1864),  who  in  partnership  with  L.  C.  H. 
Palairet  (b.  1870),  famous  for  his  polished  style,  scored 
346  for  the  first  wicket  in  a  match  against  Yorkshire  in  1892.  Hewett 
was  succeeded  in  the  command  of  the  county  eleven  by  the  Cambridge 
fast  bowler,  S.  M.  J.  Woods  (b.  1868) ;  and  among  other  members 
of  the  eleven  the  most  valuable  was  L.  C.  Braund  (b.  1876),  a  pro- 
fessional who  excelled  as  an  all-round  cricketer. 

The  counties  above  referred  to  are  those  which  have  figured  most 
prominently  in  the  history  of  county  cricket.  Individual  players  of 
Minor  tne  highest  excellence  are,  however,  to  be  found  from  time 
counties.  to  time  in  a"  parts  of  the  country.  Warwickshire,  for 
example,  can  boast  of  having  had  in  A.  A.  Lilley  (b.  1867) 
the  best  wicket-keeper  of  his  day,  who  represented  England 
against  Australia  in  the  test  matches;  while  Worcestershire  pro- 
duced one  of  the  best  all-round  professionals  in  the  country  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Arnold  (b.  1877),  and  a  batsman  of  extreme 
brilliancy  in  R.  E.  Foster,  a  member  of  a  cricketing  family  to  whom 
belongs  the  credit  of  raising  Worcestershire  into  a  cricketing  county 
of  the  first  class.  Derbyshire,  similarly,  can  claim  some  well-known 
cricket  names,  the  bowler  W.  Mycroft  (1841-1894),  W.  Chatterton 
(b.  1863),  and  W.  Storer  (b.  1868),  a  first-class  wicket-keeper.  Essex 
possesses  at  Leyton  one  of  the  best  county  grounds  in  the  country, 
and  the  club  was  helped  over  financial  difficulties  by  the  munificent 
support  of  an  old  Uppingham  and  Cambridge  cricketer,  C.  E.  Green. 
It  has  produced  a  fair  number  of  excellent  players,  notably  the  bats- 
men P.  Perrin,  C.  MacGahey,  and  the  fast  bowler  C.  J.  Kortright; 
and  A.  P.  Lucas,  afterwards  a  member  of  the  county  club,  was  a 
famous  cricketer  who  played  for  England  in  1 880  in  the  first  Australian 
test  match.  Hampshire  had  a  fine  batsman  in  Captain  E.  G.  Wyn- 
yard,  and  its  annals  are  conspicuous  for  the  phenomenal  scores  made 
during  the  single  season  of  1899  by  Major  R.  M.  Poore;  these  two 
put  together  411  against  Somersetshire  in  that  year  before  being 
separated.  Among  the  later  Hants  professionals,  Llewellyn  was  most 
prominent. 

The  distribution  of  cricketing  ability  in  England  might  be  the 
subject  of  some  interesting  speculation.  In  the  first  forty  years 
of  the  annual  competition  for  the  championship  six  counties  alone 
gained  the  coveted  distinction,  and  three  of  these,  Surrey,  Notts  and 
Yorkshire,  won  it  thirty-four  times  between  them.  Why,  it  may  be 
asked,  is  it  that  one  county  excels  in  the  game  while  another  has  no 
place  whatever  in  the  history  of  cricket?  How  comes  it  that  great 
names  recur  continually  in  the  annals  of  Surrey  and  Yorkshire,  for 


example,  while  those  of  Berkshire  and  Lincolnshire  are  entirely 
barren?  No  doubt  proximity  to  great  centres  of  population  favours 
the  cultivation  of  the  game,  but  in  this  respect  Kent  and  Sussex  are 
no  better  situated  than  Hertfordshire,  nor  does  it  account  for  Notting- 
hamshire having  so  illustrious  a  record  while  Staffordshire  has  none 
at  all,  nor  for  Somersetshire  having  outclassed  Devon.  It  is  strange, 
moreover,  that  while  the  universities  are  the  chief  training-grounds 
for  amateur  cricketers,  neither  Oxfordshire  nor  Cambridgeshire  has 
made  any  mark  among  the  counties.  The  influence  of  individuals 
and  families,  such  as  the  Graces  in  Gloucestershire,  the  Walkers  in 
Middlesex,  and  in  recent  times  the  Fosters  in  Worcestershire,  has 
of  course  been  of  inestimable  benefit  to  cricket  in  those  counties; 
but  Buckinghamshire  and  Norfolk  and  Cheshire  send  their  sons  to 
the  public  schools  and  universities  no  less  than  Lancashire  or  Kent. 
It  is  difficult,  therefore,  to  understand  why  county  cricket  should 
so  persistently  confine  itself  to  a  small  number  of  counties;  but 
such  is  the  fact. 

Cricket  has  never  flourished  vigorously  in  Scotland,  Ireland  or 
Wales,  a  fact  that  may  partly  be  accounted  for  by  the  comparative 
difficulty  of  obtaining  good  grounds  in  those  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
and  by  the  inferiority,  for  the  purpose  of  cricket,  of  their  climate. 
In  the  south  of  Scotland,  and  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Edinburgh,  there  are  clubs  which  keep  the  game  alive;  and  Scotland, 
though  it  has  produced  no  great  cricketers,  either  amateur  or  pro- 
fessional, has  sent  a  few  players  to  the  English  university  elevens 
who  have  found  places  in  English  county  teams.  In  Ireland  cricket 
is  fairly  popular,  especially  in  those  parts  of  the  island  where  local 
sides  can  obtain  assistance  from  soldiers  quartered  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. One  or  two  counties  play  annual  matches,  that  between 
Kildare  and  Cork  in  particular  exciting  keen  rivalry.  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  has  turned  out  some  excellent  players;  and  the 
Phoenix  and  Leinster  clubs  in  Dublin,  and  the  North  of  Ireland  club 
in  Belfast,  play  a  full  programme  of  matches  every  season.  D.  N. 
Trotter,  who  played  for  county  Meath  for  many  years  towards  the 
close  of  the  igth  century,  was  a  batsman  who  would  have  found  a 
place  in  any  English  county  eleven;  so  also  would  William  Hone, 
one  of  several  brothers  all  of  whom  were  keen  and  skilful  cricketers. 
About  the  same  period  Lieutenant  Dunn  scored  so  many  centuries 
in  Irish  cricket  that  he  was  played,  though  without  any  great  success, 
for  his  native  county  of  Surrey.  More  recently  L.  H.  Gwynn  (1873- 
1902)  batted  in  a  style  and  with  a  success  that  proved  him  capable 
of  great  things.  Sir  T.  C.  O'Brien,  though  an  Irishman,  belongs  as  a 
cricketer  to  Middlesex;  but  T.  C.  Ross,  who  was  chosen  to  play  for 
Gentlemen  v.  Players  at  Lord's  in  1902,  was  a  bowler  who  played 
regularly  for  county  Kildare. 

Gentlemen  v.  Players. — The  most  important  match  of  the  year  as 
far  as  purely  English  cricket  is  concerned  is  the  match  between  the 
gentlemen  and  players  (amateurs  and  professionals)  played  at  Lord's. 
For  many  years  a  match  played  between  sides  similarly  composed 
at  the  Oval  excited  equal  interest,  but  latterly  county  cricket  has 
rather  starved  this  particular  game,  though  it  still  continues  as  a 
popular  fixture.  Other  matches  with  the  same  title  have  been  played 
in  London  on  Prince's  Ground  (now  built  over),  and  at  Brighton, 
Hastings  and  Scarborough  and  elsewhere,  but  those  games  in  no 
way  rank  with  the  London  matches. 

The  Lord's  fixture  was  first  established  in  1806,  in  which  year  two 
matches  were  played;  it  became  annual  in  1819,  but  in  those  days 
the  amateurs,  being  no  match  for  their  opponents,  generally  received 
odds,  while  in  1832  they  defended  wickets  22  in.  by  6,  and  in  1837 
the  professionals  stood  in  front  of  wickets  of  four  stumps,  measuring 
in  all  36  in.  by  12  in.  This  match  was  known  as  "  The  Barndoor 
Match  "  or  "  Ward's  Folly,"  and  the  professionals  won  by  an  innings 
and  10  runs.  Odds  were  not  given  after  1838,  the  gentlemen  having 
then  won  eight  matches  and  lost  thirteen.  From  1839  to  1866  the 
gentlemen  only  won  7  matches  as  compared  with  21  losses.  In  1867 
the  tide  turned,  for  the  brothers  Grace,  especially  Dr  W.  G.  Grace, 
became  a  power  in  the  cricket-field,  and  from  1867  to  1884  the 
gentlemen,  winning  fifteen  matches,  only  lost  one.  From  1885  the 
balance  swung  round,  and  by  1903  the  professionals  had  won  eleven 
matches  and  lost  but  four.  The  gentlemen  won  on  nine  successive 
occasions  between  1874  and  1884,  a  draw  intervening;  while  begin- 
ning with  1854  the  professionals  won  eleven  matches  "  off  the  reel." 
The  professionals  won  in  1860  by  an  innings  and  no  less  than  181 
runs;  in  1900  they  only  won  by  two  wickets,  but  to  do  so  had  to 
make,  and  did  make,  501  runs  in  the  last  innings  of  the  match.  In 
1903  the  gentlemen,  heavily  in  arrears  after  each  side  had  played  an 
innings,  actually  scored  500  in  their  second  innings  with  only  two 
men  out.  In  1904  the  gentlemen  won  by  two  wickets  after  being 
156  runs  behind  on  the  first  innings,  thanks  to  fine  play  by  K.  S. 
Ranjitsinhji  and  A.  O.  Jones.  J.  H.  King  had  scored  a  century  in 
each  innings,  a  feat  previously  only  performed  by  R.  E.  Foster  in 
1900.  C.  B.  Fry's  232  not  out  in  1903  was  the  largest  innings  scored 
in  the  match.  Dr  W.  G.  Grace,  who  is  credited  with  eight  centuries, 
is  the  only  cricketer  who  exceeded  the  hundred  more  than  twice  at 
Lord's  in  the  fixture,  164  by  J.  T.  Brown  being  the  highest  innings 
by  a  professional.  There  were  seven  instances  before  1864  of  two 
bowlers  being  unchanged  in  the  match,  and  the  Hon.  F.  S.  Jackson 
and  S.  M.  J.  Woods  repeated  this  in  1894.  The  Oval  match  was  first 
played  in  1857.  The  amateurs  effected  their  first  win  in  1866,  and 
though  several  games  were  drawn  the  professionals  did  not  win  again 


444 


CRICKET 


till  1880.  As  at  Lord's,  it  was  the  era  of  Grace,  but  from  this  point 
the  amateurs  could  only  win  two  matches,  and  by  the  narrowest  oi 
margins,  till  1903,  this  making  their  sum  of  victories  up  to  then 
thirteen,  as  opposed  to  twenty-three.  In  1879  the  gentlemen  won 
in  one  innings  by  126  runs,  the  heaviest  beating  that  one  side  had 
inflicted  on  the  other.  The  highest  individual  score  was  Robert 
Abel's  247,  and  the  next  Dr  W.  G.  Grace's  215.  Hayward  scored 
203  in  1904;  A.  G.  Steel  and  A.  H.  Evans  bowled  unchanged  in 
1879. 

School  and  Club  Cricket. — Cricket  is  the  standing  summer  game 
at  every  English  private  and  public  school,  where  it  is  taught  as 
carefully  and  systematically  as  either  classics  or  mathematics.  There 
are  also  numbers  of  amateur  clubs  which  possess  no  grounds  of  their 
own  and  are  connected  with  no  particular  locality,  but  which  are  in 
fact  mere  associations  of  cricketers  who  play  matches  against  the 
universities,  schools  or  local  teams,  or  against  each  other.  Of  these 
the  best  known,  perhaps,  is  I  Zingari  (The  Wanderers),  popularly 
known  as  I.Z.,  whose  well-known  colours,  red,  yellow  and  black 
stripes,  are  prized  rather  as  a  social  than  as  a  cricketing  distinction. 
This  club  was  founded  in  1845  by  Lorraine  Baldwin  and  Sir  Spencer 
Ponsonby-Fane.  The  first  rule  of  the  club  humorously  declares  that 
"  the  entrance  fee  shall  be  nothing,  and  the  annual  subscription 
shall  not  exceed  the  entrance  fee."  It  is  a  rule  of  the  club  that  no 
member  shall  play  on  the  opposing  side.  I.Z.  has  long  been  con- 
nected with  the  social  festivities  forming  a  feature  of  the  "  Canter- 
bury Week,"  a  cricket  festival  held  at  Canterbury  during  the  first 
week  in  August,  of  the  Scarborough  week,  and  of  the  Dublin  horse- 
show.  Dr  W.  G.  Grace,  who  almost  invariably  appeared  in  the 
cricket  field  wearing  the  red  and  yellow  stripes  of  the  M.C.C.,  and 
some  other  notable  amateurs,  never  belonged  to  I.Z.  or  any  similar 
club ;  but  Dr  Grace  was  instrumental  in  the  formation  of  the  London 
county  club,  whose  ground  was  at  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 
Other  amateur  clubs,  similar  to  I  Zingari,  are  the  Free  Foresters, 
Incogniti,  Etceteras,  and  in  Ireland  Na  Shuler;  while  the  Eton 
Ramblers,  Harrow  Wanderers,  Old  Wykehamists,  and  others  are 
clubs  whose  membership  is  restricted  to  "  old  boys." 

The  Oxford  and  Cambridge  universities  match  was  first  played  in 
1827,  but  was  not  an  annual  fixture  till  1838.  Five  matches,  those 
of  1829,^  1843,  1846,  1848  and  1850,  were  played  at  Oxford,  the  rest 
at  Lord's.  The  '  'Varsity  match,"  and  that  between  the  two  great 
public  schools,  Eton  and  Harrow,  are  great  "  society  "  events  at 
Lord's  every  summer.  Up  to  1909  Eton  won  thirty  times,  and 
Harrow  on  thirty-five  occasions.  D.  C.  Boles  by  scoring  183  in 
1904  set  up  a  new  record  for  this  match,  beating  the  152  obtained 
in  1841  by  Emilius  Bayley  (afterwards  the  Rev.  Sir  John  Robert 
Laurie) ;  and  in  1907  the  Harrow  captain,  M.  C.  Bird,  established  a 
further  record  by  scoring  over  a  hundred  runs  in  each  innings.  Of 
the  contests  between  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  the  latter  (up  to  1909) 
had  lost  thirty-one  and  won  thirty-five.  Oxford's  503  in  1900  and 
Cambridge's  392  in  the  same  match  furnished  the  highest  aggregates. 
The  largest  individual  innings  was  172  not  out  by  J.  F.  Marsh  in 
1904;  but  as  a  feat  of  batting  it  was  intrinsically  inferior  to  the  171 
by  R.  E.  Foster  in  1900.  Of  the  thirty  centuries  scored  up  to  1909, 
Oxford  was  credited  with  sixteen.  Eustace  Crawley  (b.  1868)  made 
a  hundred  both  in  the  Eton  v.  Harrow  and  Oxford  v.  Cambridge 
matches.  In  the  match  of  1870  F.  C.  Cobden  (b.  1849)  took  the  last 
three  Oxford  wickets  with  consecutive  balls,  winning  the  match  for 
Cambridge  by  2  runs. 

Australian  Cricket. — Naturaljy  popular  in  a  British  colony, 
cricket  made  but  little  progress  in  Australia  before  the  arrival  of  an 
English  professional  eleven  in  1861-1862,  which  carried  all  before  it. 
Subsequent  visits,  and  the  coaching  of  imported  professionals,  so 
promoted  the  game  that  in  1878  a  representative  eleven  of  Aus- 
tralians visited  England.  The  visits  were  repeated  biennially  till 
1890,  and  then  triennially.  The  visits  of  the  Australian  teams  to 
England  aroused  unparalleled  interest  and  acted  as  an  immense 
incentive  to  the  game.  A  great  sensation  was  caused  when  the  first 
team,  captained  by  D.  W.  Gregory,  on  the  27th  of  May  1878,  defeated 
a  powerful  M.C.C.  eleven  in  a  single  day,  disposing  of  them  for  33 
and  19,  the  fast  bowler  F.  R.  Spofforth  (b.  1853)  taking  6  wickets 
for  4  runs,  and  H.  F.  Boyle  (b.  1847)  5  for  3.  Their  prowess  was  well 
maintained  when  in  September  1880  Australia  for  the  first  time  met 
the  whole  strength  of  England,  such  matches  between  representatives 
of  Australia  and  England  being  known  as  "  test  matches,"  a  term 
that  was  applied  later  to  matches  between  England  and  South 
Africans  also.  Although  in  1880  the  old  country  won  by  5  wickets, 
the  honours  were  fairly  divided,  especially  as  Spofforth  could  not 
play.  Dr  W.  G.  Grace  with  a  score  of  152  headed  the  total  of  420, 
but  even  finer  was  the  Australian  captain  W.  L.  Murdoch's  imperturb- 
able display,  when  he  carried  his  bat  for  153.  From  1882  onwards 
the  Colonials,  with  two  exceptions,  at  Blackpool  and  Skegness,  only 
played  eleven-a-side  matches.  Such  bowlers  as  Spofforth,  Boyle, 
G.  E.  Palmer  (b.  1861),  T.  W.  Garrett  (b.  1858),  and  G.  Giffen  (1859) 
became  household  names.  Nor  was  the  batting  less  admirable, 
for  Murdoch  was  supported  by  H.  H.  Massie  (b.  1854),  P.  S. 
McDonnell  (1860-1896),  A.  C.  Bannerman  (b.  1859),  T.  Horan 
(b.  1855),  C.  J.  Bonnor  (b.  1855),  and  S.  P.  Tones  (b.  1861),  whilst 
the  wicket-keeper  was  McCarthy  Blackham  (b.  1855).  This  visiting 
side  in  1882  was  the  greatest  team  of  all;  23  matches  were  won, 
only  4  lost,  and  England  was  defeated  at  the  Oval  by  7  runs.  In 


1884  English  cricket  had  improved,  and  the  visiting  record  was 
hardly  so  good.  The  match  against  England  at  the  Oval  will  not 
soon  be  forgotten.  The  Colonials  scored  55 1  (Murdoch2ll, McDonnell 
103,  Scott  102),  and  England  responded  with  346,  Scotton  and 
W.  W.  Read  adding  151  for  the  ninth  wicket. 

The  team  of  H.  J.  H.  Scott  (b.  1858)  in  1886  proved  less  successful, 
for  all  three  test  matches  were  lost,  and  eight  defeats  had  to  be  set 
against  nine  victories,  but  Giffen  covered  himself  with  distinction. 
This  was  the  first  tour  under  the  auspices  of  the  Melbourne  Club. 
McDonnell's  team  in  1888  marked  the  appearance  of  the  bowlers 
C.  T.  B.  Turner  (b.  1862)  and  J.  J.  Ferris  (1867-1900).  The  former 
took  314  wickets  for  II  runs  each,  and  the  latter  220  for  14  apiece. 
To  all  appearance  they  redeemed  a  poor  tour,  19  matches  being 
won  and  14  lost.  The  1890  tour,  though  Murdoch  reappeared  as 
captain,  proved  disappointing,  both  the  test  matches  being  lost  and 
defeats  for  the  first  time  exceeding  victories,  though  the  two  bowlers 
again  performed  marvellously  well.  After  an  interval  of  three  years, 
M.  Blackham  captained  the  seventh  team,  which  was  moderately 
fortunate.  H.  Graham  (b.  1870)  and  S.  E.  Gregory  (b.  1870)  batted 
admirably,  and  the  149  of  J.  J.  Lyons  (b.  1863)  in  the  match  against 
M.C.C.  was  an  extraordinary  display  of  punishing  cricket.  In 
1896,  though  they  did  not  win  the  rubber  of  test  matches,  the 
colonials  were  most  successful,  19  matches  being  victories  and  only 
6  lost.  S.  E.  Gregory,  J.  Darling  (b.  1870),  F.  A.  Iredale  (b.  1867), 
G.  Giffen,  C.  Hill  (b.  1877),  and  G.  H.  S.  Trott  (1866-1905)  were 
the  best  bats,  and  the  last-named  made  an  admirable  captain. 
H.  Trumble  (1867)  kept  an  excellent  length,  and  E.  Jones  (1869)  was 
deadly  with  his  fast  bowling. 

The  Australian  representatives  in  1899  demonstrated  that  they 
were  the  best  since  1882,  16  successes  and  only  3  defeats  (v.  Essex, 
Surrey  and  Kent)  being  emphasized  by  a  victory  over  England  at 
Lord's  by  10  wickets,  the  only  one  of  the  five  test  matches  brought  to 
aconclusion.  M.A.NobIe(b.i873)and Victor Trumper(b. 1877), both 
newcomers,  batted  superbly.  The  latter,  v.  Sussex,  made  300,  the 
largest  individual  score  hitherto  made  by  an  Australian  in  England, 
the  previous  best  having  been  286  by  Murdoch  in  the  corresponding 
match  in  1882.  H.  Trumble  scored  1183  runs  and  took  142  wickets 
for  18  runs  apiece,  and  Darling  not  only  made  a  judicious  captain, 
but  scored  the  biggest  aggregate,  1941,  up  to  then  obtained  by  any 
batsman  touring  with  a  colonial  eleven  in  England.  On  the  home  side, 
Hayward  did  sound  service  with  the  bat,  and  his  stand  with  F.  S. 
Jackson  in  the  fifth  test  match  yielded  185  runs  for  the  first  wicket. 

In  1902  another  fine  Australian  eleven,  captained  by  Darling, 
won  23  and  lost  only  2  matches.  They  won  the  rubber  of  test 
matches  at  Manchester  by  3  runs,  but  lost  the  final  at  the  Oval  by 
one  wicket  after  an  even  more  remarkable  struggle,  G.  L.  Jessop 
having  scored  104  in  an  hour  and  a  quarter.  The  other  defeat 
was  by  Yorkshire  by  5  wickets,  when  they  were  dismissed  for  23 
by  Hirst  and  Jackson.  The  rest  of  the  tour  was  characterized 
by  brilliant  batting.  The  performance  of  Trumper  in  making  2570 
runs  (with  an  average  of  48)  surpassed  anything  previously  seen; 
R.  A.  Duff  (b.  1878)  also  proved  a  brilliant  run-getter.  W.  W. 
Armstrong  (b.  1879)  was  useful  in  all  departments,  and  J.  V.  Saunders 
(b.  1876)  proved  a  successful  left-handed  bowler. 

In  1905  there  was  a  marked  falling-off,  as  England  won  two  and 
drew  the  other  three  test  matches;  but  only  one  other  defeat,  by 
Essex  by  19  runs,  had  to  be  set  against  16  Australian  victories.  The 
persistent  bowling  off  the  wicket  by  Armstrong,  and  the  inability 
to  finish  games  within  three  days,  were  the  chief  drawbacks.  Arm- 
strong eclipsed  all  previous  colonial  records  in  England  by  heading 
both  tables  of  averages,  scoring  2002  (average  48)  and  taking  130 
wickets  at  a  cost  of  17  runs  each.  He  also  compiled  the  largest 
individual  score  (303  not  out  v.  Somerset)  ever  made  on  an  Australian 
tour.  M.  A.  Noble  also  exceeded  2000  runs.  For  a  long  time  the 
fast  bowler,  A.  Cotter  (b.  1882,  N.S.W.),  failed,  but  eventually 
"  came  off,"  just  as  F.  Laver  (b.  1869),  who  had  taken  many  wickets 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  tour,  was  becoming  less  formidable.  Duff 
saved  the  colonials  by  a  great  innings  in  the  fifth  test  match; 
Trumper  was  less  certain  than  formerly,  and  Clement  Hill  more 
reckless;  whilst  J.  J.  Kelly  (b.  1867)  on  his  fifth  tour  was  better 
than  ever  before  with  the  gloves. 

The  Australians  who  visited  England  under  the  leadership  of 
M.  A.  Noble  in  1909  were  generally  held  to  be  a  weaker  team  than 
most  of  their  predecessors,  but  they  greatly  improved  as  the  season 
advanced,  proving  that  the  side  included  several  cricketers  of  the 
highest  merit,  and  as  a  captain  Noble  has  seldom  been  surpassed  in 
consummate  generalship.  Their  record  of  thirteen  wins  to  four 
defeats  offered  little  evidence  of  inferiority,  while  the  large  number 
of  twenty-one  drawn  matches  was  accounted  for  by  the  cold  wet 
weather  that  largely  prevailed  throughout  the  summer.  Two  out  of 
the  five  test  matches  were  unfinished,  and  Australia  won  the  rubber 
by  two  matches  to  one.  In  all  the  test  matches  England  was  under 
the  command  of  A.  C.  MacLaren,  but  the  great  Harrovian  was  no 
longer  the  batsman  he  had  been  some  years  earlier;  Jackson  had 
abandoned  first-class  cricket;  Hirst  and  Hayward  were  becoming 
veterans;  and,  speaking  generally,  the  English  batting  was  decidedly 
Inferior,  and  it  collapsed  feebly  in  three  of"  the  test  matches. 
England's  failure,  for  which  poor  fielding  and  missed  catches  were 
also  responsible,  was  the  more  disappointing  since  they  began  well 
by  winning  the  first  test  match  at  Birmingham  by  ten  wickets, 


CRICKET 


445 


C.  B.  Fry  and  Hobbs  knocking  off  the  105  runs  required  to  win  in  the 
second  innings  without  the  loss  of  a  wicket.  In  the  third  test  match, 
at  Leeds,  England  was  deprived  of  the  services  of  Hayward  and 
Blythe  through  illness,  and  an  accident  to  Jessop  during  the  match 
compelled  the  side  to  play  a  man  short.  It  was  in  bowling  that  the 
Australians  were  thought  to  be  least  strong;  but  Laver's  analysis 
in  the  Manchester  test  match,  when  he  took  8  wickets  for  31  runs  in 
England's  first  innings,  was  the  most  notable  feature  of  the  match ; 
and  although  his  record  at  the  head  of  the  bowling  averages  for  the 
tour,  70  wickets  at  an  average  cost  of  14-9  runs,  had  frequently  been 
beaten  in  earlier  Australian  tours  in  England,  it  proved  him  a  worthy 
successor  of  Spofforth,  Boyle  and  Turner.  Armstrong,  although  he 
did  not  equal  his  record  of  1905,  again  scored  over  1000  runs  and  took 
over  100  wickets,  his  exact  figures  being  1439  runs  and  120  wickets. 
The  most  remarkable  Australian  batting  was  that  of  two  young 
left-handed  players  who  on  this  occasion  visited  England  for  the 
first  time,  W.  Bardsley  (b.  1884)  and  Vernon  Ransford  (b.  1885),  the 
latter  of  whom  headed  the  averages  both  for  test  matches  (58-8) 
and  for  the  whole  tour  (45-5),  his  principal  achievement  being  an 
innings  of  14.3  not  out  in  the  test  match  at  Lord's.  Bardsley,  who 
was  second  in  the  test  matches  averages  (39-6),  fell  into  the  third 
place  slightly  below  Armstrong  in  the  averages  for  the  tour;  but  he 
alone  scored  over  200  in  an  innings,  which  he  accomplished  twice, 
and  over  2000  in  aggregate  for  the  tour,  and  he  established  a  test 
match  "  record  "  by  scoring  136  and  130  in  the  match  at  the  Oval. 
Of  the  twenty-two  "  centuries  "  scored  by  Australians  during  the 
season  Bardsley  and  Ransford  each  made  six.  Trumper  and  Noble 
each  scored  over  a  thousand  runs,  and  Macartney  was  an  invaluable 
member  of  the  side  both  in  batting  and  bowling.  As  a  wicket- 
keeper  Carter  worthily  filled  the  place  of  Kelly,  and  the  fielding  of 
the  Colonials  fully  maintained  the  brilliant  Australian  standard  of 
former  years. 

The  following  "  records  "  of  Australian  cricket  in  England  up  to 
1909  are  of  interest: — Highest  total  by  an  Australian  team:  843 
v.  Past  and  Present  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Universities  in  1893. 
Highest  total  against  an  Australian  team:  576  by  England  at  the 
Oval  in  1899.  Lowest  total  by  an  Australian  team:  18  v.  M.C.C.  in 
1896.  Lowest  total  against  an  Australian  team:  17  by  Gloucester- 
shire in  1896.  Highest  individual  Australian  score  in  one  innings: 
303  not  out  by  W.  W.  Armstrong  v.  Somersetshire  in  1905.  Highest 
individual  Australian  aggregate  in  a  tour:  2570  by  V.  T.  Trumper  in 
1902.  Two  centuries  in  a  match:  V.  T.  Trumper  109  and  119  v. 
Essex  in  1902;  W.  Bardsley  136  and  130  t>.  England  in  1909  (test 
match  record). 

The  following  table  shows  the  Australians  who  headed  the  batting 
and  bowling  averages  respectively  in  tours  in  England  up  to  1909. 

Batting. 


Year. 

Inn. 

Not 
out. 

Runs. 

Most. 

Aver. 

1878 
1880 

1882 

C.  Bannerman,    N.S.W.    . 
W.  L.  Murdoch,  N.S.W.    . 
W.  L.  Murdoch,  N.S.W.    . 

31 
19 

6T 

I 

I 
5 

723 
465 
1711 

133 
*I53 
*286 

24-10 
25-80 
30-50 

1884 
1886 
1888 
1890 

W.  L.  Murdoch,  N.S.W.    . 
G.  Giffen,  S.A.      .      . 
P.  M'Donnell,  V. 
W.  L.  Murdoch,  N.S.W.    . 

50 

^ 
62 

61 

5 
9 
I 

2 

1378 
1453 
1393 
1459 

211 
119 

I°5 
*I58 

30-60 
26-90 
22-50 
23-33 

1893 
1896 
1899 

H.  Graham,  V. 
S.  E.  Gregory,  N.S.W.       . 
J.  Darling,  S.A. 

55 
48 
56 

3 

2 

9 

1492 
1464 
1941 

219 

'54 
167 

28-36 
3I-38 
41-29 

1902 

1905 
1909 

V.  T.  Trumper,  N.S.W.    . 
W.  W.  Armstrong,  V.     .    . 
V.  S.  Ransford      .      . 

53 
48 

43 

o 

7 
4 

2570 

2OO2 
1778 

128 

*3°3 
190 

48-49 
48-82 
45-58 

Not  out. 
Bowling. 


Year. 

O. 

M. 

R. 

W. 

Aver. 

1878 

T.  W.  Garrett,     N.S.W. 

296-2 

144 

394 

38 

10-30 

1880 

F.  R.  Spofforth,   N.S.W. 

240-8 

82 

396 

46 

8-60 

1882 

H.F.  Boyle,  V..      . 

1200-14 

525 

1680 

144 

1  1  -60 

1884 

F.  R.  Spofforth,   N.S.W. 

I544-32 

649 

2642 

216 

12-20 

1886 

G.  Giffen,  S.A.  .      . 

1693-26 

722 

2711 

'59 

I7-05 

1888 

C.  T.  B.  Turner,  N.S.W. 

2589-3 

1222 

3492 

3'4 

n-38 

1890 

C.  T.  B.  Turner,  N.S.W. 

1651-1 

724 

2725 

215 

12-45 

1893 

C.  T.  B.  Turner,  N.S.W. 

1148 

450 

22O2 

160 

13-12 

1896 

T.  R.  M'Kibbin,  N.S.W. 

647-1 

198 

1441 

toi 

14-27 

1899 

H.  Trumble,  V. 

1249-1 

431 

26l8 

142 

18-43 

1902 

H.  Trumble,  V.       . 

948 

305 

1998 

140 

14-27 

1905 

W.  W.  Armstrong,  V.     . 

1027 

308 

2288 

130 

17-60 

1909 

F.  Laver       ... 

495-5 

161 

1048 

70 

14-97 

The  first  English  team  to  visit  Australia  was  organized  in  1862, 
and  was  captained  by  H.  H.  Stephenson.  George  Parr  (1826-1891) 
took  out  the  next  in  1864,  Dr  E.  M.  Grace  being  the  only  amateur. 
In  1873  the  Melbourne  Club  invited  Dr  W.  G.  Grace  to  take  out  an 


eleven,  and  three  years  later  James  Lillywhite  conducted  a  team  of 
professionals.  On  this  tour  for  the  first  time  colonials  contended  on 
equal  terms,  one  match  v.  Australia  being  won  by  4  wickets  and  the 
other  lost  by  45  runs.  Lord  Harris  in  the  autumn  of  1878  took  a 
team  of  amateurs  assisted  by  Ulyett  and  Emmett,  winning  2  and 
losing  3  eleven-a-side  encounters,  Emmett's  137  wickets  averaging 
8  runs  each.  Shaw,  Shrewsbury  and  Lillywhite  jointly  organized 
the  expedition  of  1881,  when  Australia  won  the  second  test  match 
by  5  wickets.  The  Hon.  Ivo  Bligh  (afterwards  Lord  Darnley)  in 
1882  took  a  fine  team,  which  was  crippled  owing  to  an  injury  sus- 
tained by  the  bowler  F.  Morley.  Four  victories  could  be  set  against 
three  defeats;  Australia  winning  the  only  test  match,  owing  to  the 
batting  of  Blackham.  Shaw's  second  tour  in  1884  snowed  Barnes 
heading  both  batting  and  bowling  averages,  while  six  victories 
counterbalanced  two  defeats.  In  the  third  tour  Shrewsbury  became 
captain,  but  the  English  for  the  first  time  encountered  the  bowling 
of  C.  T.  B.  Turner,  who  took  27  wickets  for  1 13  runs  in  two  matches. 
Australia  was  twice  defeated,  the  English  captain  batting  in  fine 
form.  On  this  tour  was  played  the  Smokers  v.  Non-Smokers,  when 
the  latter  scored  803  for  9  wickets  (Shrewsbury  236,  W.  Bruce  131, 
Gunn  150),  against  the  bowling  of  Briggs,  Boyle,  Lohmann,  Palmer 
and  Flowers.  The  winter  of  1887  saw  two  English  teams  in  Australia, 
one  under  Lord  Hawke  and  G.  F.  Vernon,  the  other  under  Shrews- 
bury and  Lillywhite.  Both  teams  played  well,  the  batting  being 
headed  by  W.  W.  Read  with  an  average  of  65,  and  Shrewsbury  with 
58.  The  ill-success  of  Lord  Sheffield's  team  in  two  out  of  three  test 
matches  did  not  disprove  the  great  merits  of  his  eleven.  Dr  W.  G. 
Grace  headed  the  averages  with  44,  and  received  the  best  .support 
from  Abel  and  A.  E.  Stoddart,  whilst  Attewell,  Briggs  and  Lohmann 
all  possessed  fine  bowling  figures.  A.  E.  Stoddart  s  first  team  (in 
1894)  achieved  immense  success  and  was  the  best  of  all.  In  the  first 
test  match  they  went  in  against  586  runs  and  ultimately  won  by 
10  runs,  Ward  making  75  and  117.  Stoddart  himself  averaged  51, 
scoring  173  in  the  second  test  match,  and  A.  C.  MacLaren  (who 
made  228  v.  Victoria),  Brown  and  Ward  all  averaged  over  40.  The 
last  tour  conducted  by  Stoddart  proved  less  satisfactory,  four  of 
the  five  test  matches  being  lost,  and  some  friction  being  caused  by 
various  incidents.  K.  S.  Ranjitsinhji,  who  averaged  60  and  made 
175  in  a  test  match  and  189  v.  South  Australia,  and  A.  C.  MacLaren, 
who  scored  five  hundreds  and  averaged  54,  were  prominent,  Hayward 
also  doing  good  work;  but  the  bowling  broke  down.  Weakness 
in  bowling  was  the  cause  of  the  ill  success  of  A.  C.  MacLaren's 
side  in  1901.  After  a  brilliant  victory  by  an  innings  and  124  runs 
at  Sydney,  the  other  four  test  matches  were  all  lost.  MacLaren 
himself  batted  magnificently,  and  so  did  Hayward  and  Tyldesley. 
Braund  stood  alone  as  an  all-round  man.  The  M.C.C.  in  1903 
officially  despatched  a  powerful  side  led  by  P.  F.  Warner,  and  in 
every  sense  except  the  financial  the  success  was  complete.  Three 
test  matches  were  won  and  two  lost,  while  two  new  records  were 
set  up,  one  by  Rhodes  obtaining  15  wickets  at  Melbourne,  the  other 
by  R.  E.  Foster,  who  in  seven  hours  of  brilliant  batting  compiled 
287.  Tyldesley  and  Hayward  both  did  good  work  as  batsmen; 
Rhodes  and  Braund  both  bowled  consistently.  The  catch-phrase 
about  "  bringing  back  the  ashes  "  became  almost  proverbial;  its 
origin  is  to  be  found  in  the  Sporting  Times  in  1882  after  Australia 
had  defeated  England  at  the  Oval. 

New  Zealand. — Although  cricket  has  not  attained  a  degree  of 
perfection  in  New  Zealand  commensurate  with  that  in  Australia,  it 
is  keenly  played.  Lord  Hawke  sent  out  from  England  a  team  in 
1902—1903  which  won  all  the  eighteen  matches  arranged. 

Cricket  in  India. — Not  only  the  English  who  live  in  India,  but 
the  natives  also — Parsees,  Hindus  and  Mahommedans  alike — play 
cricket.  A  Parsee  eleven  visited  England  in  1884  and  1888. 

South  Africa. — South  African  cricketers  visiting  England  are 
handicapped  by  playing  on  turf  instead  of  on  the  matting  wickets 
used  in  South  Africa.  The  side  which  came  over  during  the  Boer 
War  in  1901  won  13,  lost  9,  and  drew  2  matches,  playing  a  tie  with 
Worcestershire,  and  showing  marked  improvement  on  the  team  which 
had  visited  England  in  1894.  E.  A.  Halliwell  (b.  1864)  proved  a 
fine  wicket-keeper,  J.  H.  Sinclair  (b.  1876)  a  good  all-round  cricketer, 
J.  J.  Kotze  (b.  1879)  a  very  fast  bowler,  and  G.  A.  Rowe  (b.  1872) 
clever  with  the  ball.  In  1904  more  decided  success  was  achieved, 
for  on  a  more  ambitious  programme  ten  victories  could  be  set  against 
two  defeats  by  Worcestershire  and  Kent,  with  a  tie  with  Middlesex. 
The  most  important  success  was  a  victory  by  189  runs  over  a 
powerful  England  eleven  at  Lord's,  when  R.  O.  Schwarz  (b.  1875) 
scored  102  and  26,  and  took  8  wickets  for  106,  dismissing  Ranjit- 
sinhji twice.  Kotze  and  Sinclair  again  bore  the  brunt  of  the  attack. 
Of  the  English  teams  visiting  South  Africa,  that  taken  by  Lord 
Hawke  in  1894  did  not  meet  with  such  important  opposition  as  the 
one  he  led  in  1900,  yet  the  side  came  back  undefeated,  having  won 
allthreetest  matches.  P.  F.Warner  and  F.  Mitchell,  with  Tyldesley, 
were  the  chief  run-getters,  Haigh,  Trott  and  Cuttell  bowling  finely. 
In  the  winter  of  1905  the  M.C.C.  sent  out  a  side  under  P.  F.  Warner, 
but  it  lost  four  out  of  the  five  test  matches,  F.  L.  Fane  and  I.  N. 
Crawford  beingthe  most  successful  of  the  Englishmen,  and  G.  C.  White 
(1882)  and  A.  D.  Nourse  proving  themselves  great  colonial  batsmen. 
In  1907  a  representative  South  African  team  came  to  England,  and 
their  improved  status  in  the  cricketing  world  was  shown  by  the 
arrangement  of  test  matches.  In  the  winter  of  1909-1910  an  English 


CRICKET 


team  under  Mr  Leveson  Gower  went  to  South  Africa,  and  played 
test  matches. 

West  Indies. — West  Indian  cricketers  toured  in  England  in  1900, 
winning  5  matches  and  losing  8.  The  best  batsman  was  C.  A. 
Olivierre  (b.  1876),  who  subsequently  qualified  for  Derbyshire.  The 
brunt  of  the  bowling  devolved  on  S.  Woods  and  T.  Burton  (b.  1878). 
In  1897  teams  under  Lord  Hawke  and  A.  Priestly  (b.  1865)  both 
visited  West  Indies,  Trinidad  defeating  both  powerful  combinations. 
R.  S.  Lucas  (b.  1867)  had  in  1895  taken  out  a  successful  side.  A 
much  weaker  combination  in  1902  suffered  five  defeats  but  won 
13  matches.  B.  J.  T.  Bosanquet,  E.  R.  Wilson  (b.  1879)  and  E.  M. 
Dowson  (b.  1880)  were  the  chief  performers.  In  1906  another  West 
Indian  side  visited  England,  but  were  not  particularly  successful. 

America. — In  the  United  States  cricket  has  always  had  to  contend 
with  the  popularity  of  baseball,  and  in  Canada  with  the  rival  at- 
tractions of  lacrosse.  Nevertheless  it  has  grown  in  popularity, 
Philadelphia  being  the  headquarters  of  the  game  in  the  New  World. 

The  Germantown,  Belmont,  Merion  and  Philadelphia  Clubs  play 
annually  for  the  Halifax  Cup,  and  the  game  is  controlled  by  the 
Associated  Cricket  clubs  of  Philadelphia.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  New  York  matches  are  arranged  by  the  Metropolitan  District 
Cricket  League  and  the  New  York  Cricket  Association;  similar 
organizations  are  the  Northwestern,  the  California  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts associations,  while  the  Intercollegiate  Cricket  League 
consists  of  college  teams  representing  Harvard,  Pennsylvania  and 
Haverford.  R.  S.  Newhall  (b.  1852)  and  D.  S.  Newhall  (b.  1849) 
may  almost  claim  to  be  the  fathers  of  cricket  in  the  United  States; 
while  D.  W.  Saunders  (b.  1862)  did  much  for  the  game  in  Canada. 
Other  eminent  names  in  American  cricket  are  A.  M.  Wood;  H. 
Livingston,  of  the  Pittsburg  Club,  who  scored  three  centuries  in 
one  week  in  1907;  H.  V.  Hordern,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  a 
very  successful  bowler;  J.  B.  King,  who  in  1906  made  344  not  out 
for  Belmont  v.  Merion,  and  who  as  a  fast  bowler  proved  most  effective 
during  two  tours  in  England.  At  San  Francisco  in  1894  W. 
Robertson  and  A.  G.  Sheath  compiled  a  total  of  340  without  the  loss 
of  a  wicket,  the  former  scoring  206  not  out,  and  the  latter  1 18  not  out. 
A  large  number  of  English  cricket  teams  have  visited  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  first  county  to  do  so  was  Kent  in  1904,  in 
which  year  the  Philadelphians  also  made  a  tour  in  England,  in  the 
course  of  which  J.  B.  King  (b.  1873)  took  93  wickets  at  an  average 
cost  of  14  runs,  and  proved  himself  the  best  all-round  man  on  the 
side.  P.  H.  Clark  (b.  1873),  a  clever  fast  bowler,  and  J.  A.  Lester 
(b.  1872),  the  captain  of  the  team,  also  showed  themselves  to  be 
cricketers  of  merit,  while  N.  Z.  Graves  (b.  1880)  and  F.  H.  Bohlen 
(b.  1868)  were  quite  up  to  English  county  form.  The  team  did  not, 
however,  include  G.  S.  Patterson  (b.  1868),  one  of  the  best  batsmen 
in  America.  The  Philadelphians  again  visited  Great  Britain  in  1908, 
when  they  won  7  out  of  14  matches,  one  being  drawn.  On  this  tour 
King  surpassed  his  former  English  record  by  taking  115  wickets,  and 
Wood,  who  played  one  fine  innings  of  132,  was  the  most  successful 
of  the  American  batsmen. 

Other  Countries. — The  English  residents  of  Portugal  support 
the  game,  but  were  no  match  for  a  moderate  English  team  that 
visited  them  in  1898.  In  Holland,  chiefly  at  the  Hagueand  Haarlem, 
cricket  is  played  to  a  limited  extent  on  matting  wickets.  Dutch 
elevens  have  visited  England,  and  English  elevens  have  crossed  to 
Holland,  the  most  important  visit  being  that  of  the  gentlemen  of 
the  M.C.C  in  1902,  the  Englishmen  winning  all  the  matches. 

Professionalism. — The  remuneration  of  the  first-class  English 
professionals  is  £6  per  match,  out  of  which  expenses  have  to  be  paid ; 
a  man  engaged  on  a  ground  to  bowl  receives  from  £2,  los.  to  £3,  IDS. 
a  week  when  not  away  playing  matches.  A  professional  player 
generally  receives  extra  reward  for  good  batting  or  bowling,  the 
amount  being  sometimes  a  fixed  sum  of  £l  for  every  fifty  runs,  more 
frequently  a  sum  awarded  by  the  committee  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  captain.  Some  counties  give  their  men  winter  pay,  others  try 
to  provide  them  with  suitable  work  when  cricket  is  over.  A  few  get 
cricket  in  other  countries  during  the  English  winter.  For  inter- 
national matches  professional  players  and  "  reserves  "  receive 
£20  each,  though  before  1896  the  fee  was  only  £10;  players  (and 
reserves)  in  Gentlemen  ».  Players  at  Lord's  are  paid  £10.  A  good 
county  professional  generally  receives  a  "  benefit  "  after  about  ten 
years'  service;  but  the  amount  of  the  proceeds  varies  capriciously 
with  the  weather,  the  duration  of  the  match,  and  the  attendance. 
In  the  populous  northern  counties  of  England  benefits  are  far  more 
lucrative  than  in  the  south,  but  £800  to  £1000  may  be  regarded 
as  a  good  average  result.  County  clubs  generally  exercise  some 
control  over  the  sums  received.  Umpires  are  paid  £6  a  match ;  in 
minor  games  they  receive  about  £l  a  day. 

Records. — Records  other  than  those  already  cited  may  be  added  for 
reference.  A  schoolboy  named  A.  E.  J.  Collins,  at  Clifton  College  in 
1899,  excited  some  interest  by  scoring  628  not  out  in  a  boy's  match, 
being  about  seven  hours  at  the  wicket.  C.  J.  Eady  (b.  1870)  scored  566 
for  Break  o'  Day  ».  Wellington  in  eight  hours  in  1902,  the  total  being 

?n.  A.  E.  Stoddart  made  485  for  Hampstead  v.  Stoics  in  1886. 
n  first-class  cricket  the  highest  individual  score  for  a  batsman  is 
A.  C.  MacLaren's  424  for  Lancashire  v.  Somerset  at  Taunton  in 
1895.  Melbourne  University  scored  1094  against  Essendon  in  March 
1898,  this  being  the  highest  authenticated  total  on  record.  M.C.C. 
and  Ground  made  735  v.  Wiltshire  in  1888,  the  highest  total  at  Lord's. 


In  the  match  between  A.  E.  Stoddart's  team  and  New  South  Wales 
at  Sydney  in  1898,  1739  runs  were  scored,  an  aggregate  unparalleled 
in  first-class  cricket.  The  highest  total  for  an  innings  in  a  first-class 
match  is  918  for  N.S.W.  v.  South  Australia  in  January  1901.  York- 
shire scored  887  v.  Warwickshire  at  Birmingham  in  May  1896.  The 
lowest  total  in  a  first-class  match  is  12  by  Northamptonshire  v. 
Gloucestershire  in  June  1907.  The  record  for  first  wicket  is  472  by 
S.  Colman  and  P.  Coles  at  Eastbourne  in  1892.  The  longest  partner- 
ship on  record  is  623  by  Captain  Gates  and  Fitzgerald  at  the  Curragh 
in  1895.  The  best  stand  that  has  been  made  for  the  last  wicket  in 
a  first-class  match  is  230  runs,  which  was  run  up  by  R.  W.  Nicholls 
and  Roche  playing  for  Middlesex  v.  Kent  at  Lord's  in  1899. 

The  "  averages  "  of  individual  players  for  batting  and  bowling 
annually  excite  a  good  deal  of  interest,  and  there  is  a  danger  that 
some  players  may  think  too  much  of  their  averages  and  too  little  of 
the  sporting  side  of  the  game.  Any  comparison  of  the  highest  averages 
during  a  scries  of  years  would  be  misleading,  owing  to  improvements 
in  grounds,  difference  of  weather,  and  the  variations  in  the  number 
of  innings. 

The  following  table  of  aggregates,  compiled  from  the  figures  to 
the  end  of  1905,  affords  a  summary  of  the  records  of  a  select  list  of 
historic  cricketers ;  it  will  serve  to  supplement  some  details  already 
given  above  about  them  and  others. 

Batting. 


Innings. 

Not  Out. 

Runs. 

Most. 

Aver. 

K.  S.  Ranjitsinhji     . 

448 

57 

22,277 

285 

56-3 

C.  B.  Fry       ... 

481 

29 

22,865 

244 

50-4 

T.  Hayward  .      .      . 

667 

61 

25,225 

315 

4i-3 

J.  T.  Tyldesley   .      . 
Dr  W.  G.  Grace 

491 
1463 

38 
i°3 

18,683 
54.073 

250 
344 

41-1 

39'  i 

A.  Shrewsbury     . 

784 

88 

25.819 

267 

37-6 

R.Abel     .... 

964 

69 

32,810 

357 

36-5 

A.  C.  MacLaren  . 

526 

37 

17.364 

424 

35-2 

G.  H.  Hirst    .      .      . 

626 

92 

18,615 

341 

34-4 

Hon.  F.  S.  Jackson  . 

490 

35 

15.498 

160 

34-2 

W.  Gunn 

821 

66 

25,286 

273 

33-3 

W.  W.  Read  .      .      . 

739 

53 

22,919 

328 

33-2 

A.  E.  Stodtiart    .      . 

513 

16 

1  6,08  1 

221 

32-2 

Bowling. 

Overs. 

Maid. 

Runs. 

Wkts. 

Aver. 

A.  Shaw   .... 

22,830 

12,803 

21,887 

1916 

n-8 

F.  R.  Spofforth   .      . 

5-342 

2,168 

8,773 

682 

12-5 

C.  T.  B.  Turner 

5-388 

2,396 

8,419 

649 

12-6 

T.  Emmett    .      .      . 

14,672 

6,870 

20,811 

1523 

I3-I 

G.  Lohmann 

15-196 

6,508 

23,958 

1734 

13-1 

F.  Morley 

12,610 

6,239 

15,938 

1213 

I3-I 

E.  Peate  .           .      . 

11,669 

5,593 

14,299 

1061 

13-5 

W.  Rhodes          .      . 

11,014 

3.476 

23,336 

1564 

14-1 

W.  Attewell 

22,461 

i  i  ,408 

28,671 

1874 

15-5 

J.  Briggs  . 
R.  Peef    .            .      . 

20,300 
18,255 

8,275 
7,856 

34,411 
27,795 

2161 
1733 

15-2 
16-6 

S.  Haigh              .      . 

7,749 

2,279 

18,516 

IIO2 

16-8 

J.  T.  Hearne        .      . 

19-895 

7,395 

40,532 

2350 

17-5 

W.  H.  Lock  wood 

8,733 

2,241 

22,981 

1273 

18-6 

T.  Richardson  (1904) 

14.474 

3.835 

38,126 

2081 

18-6 

DrW.  G.Grace  (1904) 

28,502 

10,892 

50,441 

2730 

18-1 

G.  H.  Hirst    .      .      . 

11,586 

3.525 

27,028 

"377 

19-8 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  chief  works  on  cricket  are,  apart  from  well- 
known  annuals: — H.  Bentley's  Scores  from  1786  to  1822  (published 
in  1823);  John  Nyren's  Young  Cricketer's  Tutor  (1833);  N.  Wano- 
strocht's  Felix  on  the  Bat  (various  editions,  1845-1855);  F.  Lilly- 
white's  Cricket  Scores  and  Biographies,  1746  to  1840  (1862);  Rev.  J. 
Pycroft's  Cricket  Field  (various  editions,  1862-1873);  C.  Box's 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Cricket  (1868);  F.  Gale's  Echoes  from  Old 
Cricket  Fields  (1871,  new  ed.  1896);  Marylebone  Cricket  Club 
Scores  and  Biographies  (1876),  a  continuation  of  Lillywhite's 
Scores  and  Biographies;  C.  Box's  English  Game  of  Cricket  (1877); 
History  of  a  Hundred  Centuries,  by  W.  G.  Grace  (1895);  History 
of  the  Middlesex  County  Cricket  Club,  by  W.  I.  Ford  (1900) ;  History 
of  the  Cambridge  University  Cricket  Club,  by  W.  I.  Ford  (1902) ; 
History  of  Yorkshire  County  Cricket,  by  R.  S.  Holmes  (1904) ; 
History  of  Kent  County  Cricket,  ed.  by  Lord  Harris,  (1907);  Annals 
of  Lord's,  by  A.  D.  Taylor  (1903) ;  Curiosities  of  Cricket,  by  F.  S. 
Ashley  Cooper  (1901) ;  "  Cricket,"  by  Lord  Hawke,  in  English  Sport, 
by  A.  E.  T.  Watson  (1903) ;  Cricket,  edited  by  H.  G.  Hutchinson 
(1903)  ;  Cricket  Form  at  a  Glance,  by  Home  Gordon  (1903) ;  Cricket 
(Badminton  Library),  by  A.  G.  Steel  and  Hon.  R.  H.  Lyttleton  (1904) ; 
Old  English  Cricketers,  by  Old  Ebor  (1900) ;  Cricket  in  Many  Climes, 
by  P.  F.  Warner  (1903) ;  How  We  Recovered  the  Ashes,by  P.F.Warner 
(1904) ;  England  v.  Australia,  by  J.  N.  Pentelow  (records  from  1877 
to  1904)  (1904) ;  The  Jubilee  Book  of  Cricket,  by  K.  S.  Ranjitsinhji 
(1897). 


CRICKHOWELL— CRIME 


447 


CRICKHOWELL,  a  market  town  of  Brecknockshire,  Wales, 
14  m.  E.  of  Brecon,  beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Usk,  which  divides  it  from  Llangattock.  Pop.  (1901)  1150.  The 
nearest  railway  stations  are  Govilon  (5  m.)  and  Gilwern  (4  m.) 
on  the  London  &  North-Western  railway,  but  a  mail  and 
passenger  motor  service  running  between  Abergavenny  and 
Brecon  passes  through  'the  town.  It  is  also  served  by  the 
Brecon  &  Newport  Canal,  which  passes  through  Llangattock 
about  a  mile  distant.  Agriculture  is  almost  the  sole  industry 
of  the  district.  The  town  derives  its  name  from  a  British  fortress, 
Crug  Hywel,  commonly  called  Table  Mountain,  about  2  m. 
N.N.E.  of  the  town.  Crickhowell  Castle,  of  which  only  a  tower 
remains,  probably  dated  from  the  Norman  conquest  of  the 
country.  The  manor  of  Crickhowell  used  to  be  regarded  as  a 
borough  by  prescription,  but  there  is  no  record  of  its  ever  having 
possessed  any  municipal  institutions.  The  church  is  in  transi- 
tional Decorated  style. 

CRICKLADE,  a  market  town  in  the  Cricklade  parliamentary 
division  of  Wiltshire,  England,  9  m.  N.W.  of  Swindon,  on  the 
Midland  &  South-Western  Junction  railway.  Pop.  (1901) 
1517.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  plain  which  borders  the 
south  bank  of  the  Thames,  not  far  from  the  Thames  &  Severn 
Canal.  The  cruciform  church  of  St  Sampson  is  mainly  Per- 
pendicular, with  a  fine  ornate  tower,  and  an  old  rood-stone  in 
its  churchyard.  The  small  church  of  St  Mary  has  an  Early 
English  tower,  Perpendicular  aisles  and  a  Norman  chancel-arch. 
There  is  some  agricultural  trade. 

Legend  makes  Cricklade  the  abode  of  a  school  of  Greek 
philosophers  before  the  Roman  conquest,  and  the  name  is  given 
as  "  Greeklade  "  in  Drayton's  Polyolbion.  It  owed  its  importance 
in  Saxon  times  to  its  position  at  the  passage  of  the  Thames. 
During  the  revolt  of  yEthelwald  the  ^Etheling  in  905  he  and 
his  army  "  harried  all  the  Mercian's  land  until  they  came  to 
Cricklade  and  there  they  went  over  the  Thames  "  (Anglo-Sax. 
Chron.  sub  anno),  and  in  1016  Canute  came  with  his  army  over 
the  Thames  into  Mercia  at  Cricklade  (ibid.).  There  was  a  mint  at 
Cricklade  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and  William  I., 
and  William  of  Dover  fortified  a  castle  here  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  a  hospital  dedicated  to 
St  John  the  Baptist  was  founded  at  Cricklade,  and  placed  under 
the  government  of  a  warden  or  prior.  Cricklade  was  a  borough 
by  prescription  at  least  as  early  as  the  Domesday  Survey,  and 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  from  1295  until  dis- 
franchised by  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885.  The  borough 
was  never  incorporated,  but  certain  liberties,  including  exemption 
from  toll  and  passage,  were  granted  to  the  townsmen  by  Henry 
III.  and  confirmed  by  successive  sovereigns.  In  1257  Baldwin 
de  Insula  obtained  a  grant  of  a  Thursday  market,  and  an  annual 
three  days'  fair  at  the  feast  of  St  Peter  ad  Vincula.  The  market 
was  subsequently  changed  to  Saturday,  and  was  much  frequented 
by  dealers  in  corn  and  cattle,  but  is  now  inconsiderable.  During 
the  I4th  century  Cricklade  formed  part  of  the  dowry  of  the 
queens  of  England.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  the  lordship  was 
acquired  by  the  Hungerford  family,  and  in  1427  Sir  Walter 
Hungerford  granted  the  reversion  of  the  manor  to  the  dean  and 
chapter  of  Salisbury  cathedral  to  aid  towards  the  repair  of  their 
belfry. 

CRIEFF,  a  police  burgh  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  capital  of 
Strathearn,  17!  m.  W.  of  Perth  by  the  Caledonian  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  5208.  Occupying  the  southern  slopes  of  a  hill  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Earn,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge,  it  practically 
consists  of  a  main  street,  with  narrower  streets  branching  off 
at  right  angles.  Its  climate  is  the  healthiest  in  mid-Scotland, 
the  air  being  pure  and  dry.  Its  charter  is  said  to  date  from  1218, 
and  it  was  the  seat  of  the  courts  of  the  earls  of  Strathearn  till 
1747,  when  heritable  jurisdictions  were  abolished.  A  Runic 
sculptured  stone,  believed  to  be  of  the  8th  century,  and  the  old 
town  cross  stand  in  High  Street,  but  the  great  cattle  fair,  for 
which  Crieff  was  once  famous,  was  removed  to  Falkirk  in  1770. 
It  was  probably  in  connexion  with  this  market  that  the  "  kind 
gallows  of  Crieff  "  acquired  their  notoriety,  for  they  were  mostly 
used  for  the  execution  of  Highland  cattle-stealers.  The  principal 


buildings  are  the  town  hall,  tolbooth,  public  library,  assembly 
rooms,  mechanics'  institute,  Morison's  academy  (founded  in 
1859),  and  Strathearn  House,  a  hydropathic  establishment 
built  on  an  eminence  at  the  back  of  the  town,  and  itself  sheltered 
by  the  Knock  of  Crieff  (911  ft.  high).  The  industries  consist 
of  manufactures  of  cotton,  linen,  woollens  and  worsteds,  and 
leather.  Drummond  Castle,  about  3  m.  S.,  is  celebrated  for 
its  gardens.  They  cover  an  area  of  10  acres,  are  laid  out  in 
terraces,  and  illustrate  Italian,  Dutch  and  French  styles.  They 
were  planned  by  the  2nd  earl  of  Perth  (d.  1662),  and  take  rank 
with  the  most  magnificent  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  keep 
of  the  castle  dates  from  1490,  and  much  of  the  original  building 
was  demolished  in  1689,  a  few  years  after  its  siege  by  Cromwell. 
The  present  structure  was  erected  subsequent  to  the  extinction 
of  the  Jacobite  rebellion. 

CRIME  (Lat.  crimen,  accusation),  the  general  term  for  offences 
against  the  CRIMINAL  LAW  (q.v.).  Crime  has  been  defined  as 
"  a  failure  or  refusal  to  live  up  to  the  standard  of  conduct 
deemed  binding  by  the  rest  of  the  community."  Sir  James 
Stephen  describes  it  as  "  some  act  or  omission  in  respect  of 
which  legal  punishment  may  be  inflicted  on  the  person  who  is 
in  default  whether  by  acting  or  omitting  to  act."  Such  action 
or  neglect  of  action  may  be  injurious  or  hurtful  to  society.  It 
is  a  wrong  or  tort,  to  be  prevented  and  corrected  by  the  strong 
arm  of  the  law. 

Crimes  vary  in  character  with  times  and  countries.  Under 
different  circumstances  of  place  and  custom,  that  which  at  one 
time  is  denounced  as  a  crime,  at  another  passes  as  a  meritorious 
act.  It  was  once  an  imperative  duty  for  the  family  to  avenge 
the  death  of  a  kinsman,  and  the  blood  feud  had  a  sanction  that 
made  killing  no  murder.  Again,  among  primitive  tribes  to  make 
away  with  parents  at  an  advanced  age  or  suffering  from  an 
incurable  disease  was  a  filial  duty.  Polyandry  was  sometimes 
encouraged,  and  cannibalism  practised  with  general  approval; 
religious  sentiment  elevated  into  heinous  crimes,  blasphemy, 
heresy,  sacrilege,  sorcery  and  even  science  when  it  ran  counter 
to  accepted  dogmas  of  the  church.  Offences  multiplied  when 
people  gathered  into  communities  and  the  rights  of  property 
and  of  personal  security  were  understood  and  established.  The 
law  of  the  strongest  might  still  interfere  with  individual  owner- 
ship; the  weakest  went  to  the  wall;  authority,  whether  exercised 
by  one  master  or  by  the  combined  government  of  the  many, 
was  resisted,  and  this  resistance  constituted  crime.  As  civilization 
spread  and  the  bulk  of  the  population  settled  into  orderliness, 
society,  for  its  own  comfort,  convenience  and  protection,  would 
not  tolerate  the  infraction  of  its  rules,  and  rising  against  all  law- 
breakers decreed  reprisals  against  them  as  the  common  enemy. 
Then  began  that  constant  warfare  between  criminals  and  the 
forces  of  law  and  order  which  has  been  continuously  waged 
through  the  centuries  with  varying  degrees  of  bitterness. 

The  combat  with  crime  was  long  waged  with  great  cruelty. 
Extreme  penalties  were  thought  to  constitute  the  best  deterrent, 
and  the  principle  of  vengeance  chiefly  inspired  the  penal  law. 
The  harshness  of  ancient  codes  makes  a  more  humane  age 
shudder.  It  was  the  custom  to  hang  or  decapitate,  or  otherwise 
take  life  in  some  more  or  less  barbarous  fashion,  on  the  smallest 
excuse.  The  final  act  was  preceded  by  hideous  torture.  It  was 
performed  with  the  utmost  barbarity.  Victims  were  put  to 
death  by  breaking  on  the  wheel,  burning  at  the  stake,  by  dis- 
memberment and  flaying  or  boiling  alive.  These  were  the 
aggravations  of  the  original  idea  of  riddance,  of  checking  crime 
by  the  absolute  removal  of  the  offender.  Only  slowly  and 
gradually  milder  methods  came  into  force.  Revenge  and 
retaliation  were  no  longer  the  chief  aims,  the  law  had  a  larger 
mission  than  to  coerce  the  criminal  and  force  him  by  severity 
to  mend  his  ways.  To  withdraw  him  for  a  lengthened  period 
from  the  sphere  of  his  baneful  activity  was  something;  to  subject 
him  to  more  or  less  irksome  processes,  to  solitary  confinement 
upon  short  diet,  deprived  of  all  the  solaces  of  life,  with  severe 
labour,  were  sharp  lessons  limited  in  effect  to  those  actually 
subjected  to  them,  but  too  remote  to  deter  the  outside  crowd 
of  potential  wrongdoers.  The  higher  duty  Of  the  administrator 


CRIME 


is  to  utilize  the  period  of  detention  by  labouring  to  reform  the 
criminal  subjects  and  send  them  out  from  gaol  reformed 
characters.  If  no  very  remarkable  success  has  been  achieved 
in  this  direction,  it  is  obviously  the  right  aim,  and  it  is  being  more 
And  more  steadfastly  pursued.  But  it  is  generally  accepted  in 
principle  that  to  eradicate  criminal  proclivities  and  cut  off 
recruits  from  the  permanent  army  of  crime  the  work  must  be 
undertaken  when  the  subject  is  of  an  age  susceptible  of 
reform;  hence  the  extreme  value  attaching  to  the  more 
enlightened  treatment  of  crime  in  embryo,  a  principle  becom- 
ing more  and  more  largely  accepted  in  practice  among  civilized 
nations. 

It  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  germ  of  crime  is  universally 
present  in  mankind,  ever  ready  to  show  under  conditions  favour- 
able to  its  growth.  Children  show  criminal  tendencies  in  their 
earliest  years.  They  exhibit  evil  traits,  anger,  resentment, 
mendacity;  they  are  often  intensely  selfish,  are  strongly  acquisi- 
tive, greedy  of  gain,  ready  to  steal  and  secrete  things  at  the  first 
opportunity.  Happily  the  fatal  consequences  that  would  other- 
wise be  inevitable  are  checked  by  the  gradual  growth  of  inhibitory 
processes,  such  as  prudence,  reflection,  a  sense  of  moral  duty,  and 
in  many  cases  the  absence  of  temptation.  From  this  Dr 
Nicholson  deduces  that  "  in  proportion  as  this  development  is 
prevented  or  stifled,  either  owing  to  an  original  brain  defect  or 
by  lack  of  proper  education  or  training,  so  there  is  the  risk  of 
the  individual  lapsing  into  criminal-mindedness  or  into  actual 
•crime."  In  the  lowest  strata  of  society  this  risk  is  largely 
increased  from  the  conditions  of  life.  The  growth  of  criminals 
is  greatly  stimulated  where  people  are  badly  fed,  morally  and 
physically  unhealthy,  infected  with  any  forms  of  disease  and 
vice.  In  such  circumstances,  moreover,  there  is  too  often  the 
evil  influence  of  heredity  and  example.  The  offspring  of  criminals 
are  constantly  impelled  to  follow  in  their  parents'  footsteps  by 
the  secret  springs  of  nature  and  pressure  of  childish  imitativeness. 
The  seed  is  thrown,  so  to  speak,  into  a  hot-bed  where  it  finds 
congenial  soil  in  which  to  take  root  and  flourish. 

Wherever  crime  shows  itself  it  follows  certain  well-defined  lines 
and  has  its  genesis  in  three  dominant  mental  processes,  the  result 
of  marked  propensities.  These  are  malice,  acquisitiveness  and 
lust.  Malicious  crimes  may  be  amplified  into  offences  against 
the  person  originating  in  hatred,  resentment,  violent  temper, 
and  rising  from  mere  assaults  into  manslaughter  and  murder. 
Crimes  of  greed  and  acquisitiveness  cover  the  whole  range  of 
thefts,  frauds  and  misappropriation;  of  larcenies  of  all  sorts; 
obtaining  by  false  pretences;  receiving  stolen  goods;  robberies; 
house-breaking,  burglary,  forgery  and  coining.  Crimes  of  lust 
embrace  the  whole  range  of  illicit  sexual  relations,  the  result  of 
ungovernable  passion  and  criminal  depravity.  The  proportions 
in  which  these  three  categories  are  manifested  have  been 
•worked  out  in  England  and  Wales  to  give  the  following  figures. 
The  percentage  in  any  100,000  of  the  population  is: — 

Crimes  of  malice '5% 

Crimes  of  greed 75  % 

Crimes  of  lust 10  % 

The  members  of  these  categories  do  not  form  distinct  classes; 
their  crimes  are  interdependent  and  constantly  overlap.  Crime 
in  many  is  progressive  and  passes  through  all  the  stages  from 
minor  offences  to  the  worst  crimes.  Murder — the  culminating 
point  of  malice — is  constantly  preceded  by  petty  larceny;  theft 
by  forcible  entry;  and  robbery  is  associated  with  violence  and 
armed  resistance  to  capture.  Criminality  rising  into  its  highest 
development  shows  itself  under  many  forms.  It  is  instinctive, 
passionate,  accidental,  deliberate  and  habitual,  the  outcome 
of  abnormal  appetite,  of  weak  and  disordered  moral  sense. 
The  causation  of  crime  varies,  but  a  predominating  motive 
is  idleness,  leading  to  the  predatory  instincts  of  gain  easily 
acquired  without  the  labour  of  continuous  effort.  To  deprive 
the  more  industrious  or  more  happily  placed  of  their  hard-won 
earnings  or  possessions,  inspires  the  bulk  of  modern  serious 
crime.  It  no  doubt  has  produced  one  peculiar  feature  in  modern 
crime:  the  extensive  scale  on  which  it  is  carried  out.  The 
greatest  frauds  are  now  commonly  perpetrated;  great  robberies 


are  planned  in  one  capital  and  executed  in  another.  The  whole 
is  worked  by  wide  associations  of  cosmopolitan  criminals. 

Other  features  of  modern  crime  are  especially  interesting. 
It  is  extraordinarily  precocious.  Children  of  quite  tender  years 
commit  murders,  and  boys  and  girls  are  frequently  to  be  met 
with  as  professional  thieves.  Again,  the  comparative  propor- 
tions of  crime  in  the  two  sexes  may  be  considered.  Everywhere 
women  are  less  criminal  than  men.  Naturally  they  have  fewer 
facilities  for  committing  crimes  of  violence,  although  they  have 
offences  peculiar  to  their  sex,  such  as  infanticide,  and  are  more 
frequently  guilty  of  poisoning  than  men  by  70  %  against  30  %. 
Statistics  presented  to  the  Prison  Congress  at  Stockholm  fix  the 
percentage  of  female  criminals  at  3  %  in  Japan,  the  East  gener- 
ally, South  America  and  some  parts  of  North  America.  In 
some  states  of  the  American  Union  it  is  10%;  in  China,  20  %; 
in  Europe  generally  it  varies  between  10  %  and  2 1  %.  In  France 
the  proportion  of  accused  women  is  fifteen  to  eighty-five  men. 
In  Great  Britain  it  is  now  one  in  four,  but  has  been  less.  The  total 
sentenced  in  1905-1906  to  penal  servitude  and  imprisonment 
was  139,389  men  and  44,294  women,  the  balance  being  made  up 
by  summary  convictions.  The  curious  fact  in  female  crime  is 
that  one-seventh  of  the  women  committed  to  prison  had  already 
been  convicted  from  eleven  to  twenty  times.  It  has  been  well 
said  from  the  above  proportions  that  women  are  less  criminal 
according  to  the  figures,  because  when  a  woman  wants  a  crime 
committed  she  can  generally  find  a  man  to  do  it  for  her. 

It  has  often  been  debated  whether  or  not  prison  methods  react 
upon  the  criminality  of  the  country;  whether,  in  other  words, 
severity  of  treatment  deters,  while  milder  methods  encourage  the 
wrongdoers  to  despise  the  penalties  imposed  by  the  law. 
Evidence  for  and  against  the  verdict  may, be  drawn  from  the 
whole  civilized  world.  In  England,  as  judged  by  the  increase 
or  decrease  of  the  prison  population,  it  might  be  supposed  that 
the  prison  system  was  at  one  time  effective  in  diminishing  crime. 
Between  1878  and  1891  there  was  a  steady  decrease  in  numbers 
because  of  it.  More  recently  there  has  been  an  appreciable 
increase  in  the  number  of  crimes  and  proportionately  of  those 
imprisoned.  The  figures  for  1906  showed  a  distinct  increase  in 
criminality  for  that  year  as  compared  with  the  years  immediately 
preceding.  The  proportion  of  indictable  offences  had  increased 
in  1906  from  59,079  as  against  50,494  in  1899,  or  in  the  proportion 
of  171-01  per  100,000  of  the  population  as  against  158-97,  a  very 
marked  increase  over  earlier  years.  Nevertheless  the  figures  for 
1906,  although  high,  are  by  no  means  the  highest,  as  on  eight 
occasions  during  the  fifty  odd  years  for  which  statistics  were 
available  in  1909  the  total  crimes  exceeded  60,000,  and  in  the 
quinquennial  period  1860-1864  the  annual  average  was  280  per 
100,000  as  compared  with  171-01  for  1906  and  175  for  the  quin- 
quennial period  1902-1906.  The  quality  of  the  crime  varied,  and 
while  offences  against  property  have  increased,  those  against  the 
person  have  constantly  fallen.  Quite  half  the  whole  number 
of  crimes  were  committed  by  old  offenders  (see  RECIDIVISM). 

Statistics  have  not  been  kept  with  the  same  care  in  all  other 
countries,  but  some  authentic  figures  may  be  quoted  for  France, 
where  the  number  of  thefts  increased  while  offences  against  the 
person  diminished.  In  Belgium  there  has  been  a  satisfactory 
decrease  in  recent  years.  In  Prussia  the  prison  population  has 
on  the  whole  increased,  but  there  has  been  a  slight  diminution 
in  more  serious  crime.  Some  very  noticeable  figures  are  forth- 
coming from  the  United  States,  and  comparison  is  possible  of 
the  relative  amount  of  crime  in  the  two  countries,  America  and 
England.  Here  the  want  of  statistics  covering  a  large  period  is 
much  to  be  regretted.  On  the  general  question  serious  crime 
in  the  ten  years  between  1880  and  1890  slightly  increased,  while 
petty  crime  was  very  considerably  less  during  the  period. 
Charges  for  homicide  have  been  much  more  numerous.  There 
were  in  1880,  4608,  or  a  ratio  of  9-1  to  100,000  of  the  population; 
but  in  1890  these  offences  rose  10*7351,  or  a  ratio  of  11-7.  Com- 
paring America  with  England,  it  has  been  calculated  in  round 
numbers  that  the  proportion  of  prisoners  to  the  general  popula- 
tion was  in  the  United  States  as  i  to  every  759,  and  in  England 
i  to  every  1764  persons.  As  regards  the  more  serious  crimes 


CRIMEA 


449 


the  number  in  English  convict  prisons  was  as  i  to  10,000,  and 
in  the  American  state  prisons  (the  corresponding  institutions) 
the  ratio  was  i  to  every  1358.  In  the  lesser  prisons,  i.e.  the 
English  local  prisons  and  the  American  city  or  county  gaols, 
the  numbers  more  nearly  approximate,  being  in  England  i 
to  2143  and  in  America  i  to  1721.  It  has  been  argued  that 
much  of  the  crime  in  America  is  attributable  to  the  preponderance 
of  foreign  immigrants,  but  the  ratio  of  native  born  prisoners  is 
that  of  1237  to  the  million,  of  foreign  born  prisoners  1777  to  the 
million. 

AUTHORITIES.— A.  MacDonald,  Criminology  (New  York,  1893) ; 
A.  Drahms,  The  Criminal  (New  York,  1900) ;  E.  Ferri,  La  Sociologie 
criminelle,  trans.  Ferrier  (Paris,  1905) ;  all  these  contain  extensive 
bibliographies.  See  also  under  CRIMINOLOGY.  (A.  G.) 

CRIMEA  (ancient  Tauris  or  Tauric  Chersonese,  called  by  the 
Russians  by  the  Tatar  name  Krym  or  Crim),  a  peninsula  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Black  Sea,  forming  part  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment of  Taurida,  with  the  mainland  of  which  it  is  connected 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Perekop  (3-4  m.  across) .  It  is  rudely  rhomboid 
in  shape,  the  angles  being  directed  towards  the  cardinal  points, 
and  measures  200  m.  between  44°  23'  and  46°  10'  N.,  and  no  m. 
between  32°  30'  and  36°  40'  E.  Its  area  is  9700  sq.  m. 

Its  coasts  are  washed  by  the  Black  Sea,  except  on  the  north-east, 
where  is  the  Sivash  or  Putrid  Sea,  a  shallow  lagoon  separated 
from  the  Sea  of  Azov  by  the  Arabat  spit  of  sand.  The  shores  are 
broken  by  several  bays  and  harbours — on  the  west  side  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Perekop  by  the  Bay  of  Karkinit;  on  the  south-west 
by  the  open  Bay  of  Kalamita,  on  the  shores  of  which  the  allies 
landed  in  1854,  with  the  ports  of  Eupatoria,  Sevastopol  and 
Balaklava;  by  the  Bay  of  Arabat  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Yenikale  or  Kerch;  and  by  the  Bay  of  Kaffa  or 
Feodosiya  (Theodosia),  with  the  port  of  that  name,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  same.  The  south-east  coast  is  flanked  at  a  distance 
of  5  to  8  m.  from  the  sea  by  a  parallel  range  of  mountains,  the 
Yaila-dagh,  or  Alpine  Meadow  mountains,  and  these  are  backed, 
inland,  by  secondary  parallel  ranges;  but  75%  of  the  remaining 
area  consists  of  high  arid  prairie  lands,  a  southward  continuation 
of  the  Pontic  steppes,  which  slope  gently  north-westwards  from 
the  foot  of  the  Yaila-dagh.  The  main  range  of  these  mountains 
shoots  up  with  extraordinary  abruptness  from  the  deep  floor  of 
the  Black  Sea  to  an  altitude  of  2000  to  2500  ft.,  beginning  at 
the  south-west  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  Cape  Fiolente  (anc. 
Parthenium),  supposed  to  have  been  crowned  by  the  temple 
of  Artemis  in  which  Iphigeneia  officiated  as  priestess.  On 
the  higher  parts  of  this  range  are  numerous  flat  mountain  pastures 
(Turk,  yailas),  which,  except  for  their  scantier  vegetation,  are 
analogous  to  the  almen  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  and  are  crossed  by 
various  passes  (bogaz),  of  which  only  six  are  available  as  carriage 
roads.  The  most  conspicuous  summits  in  this  range  are  the 
1  Demir-kapu  or  Kemal-egherek  (5040  ft.),  Roman-kosh  (5060  ft.), 
Chatyr-dagh  (5000  ft.),  and  Karabi-yaila  (3975  ft.).  The  second 
parallel  range,  which  reaches  altitudes  of  1500  to  1900  ft., 
likewise  presents  steep  crags  to  the  south-east  and  a  gentle 
slope  towards  the  north-west.  In  the  former  slope  are  thousands 
of  small  caverns,  probably  inhabited  in  prehistoric  times;  and 
several  rivers  pierce  the  range  in  picturesque  gorges.  A  valley, 
10  to  12  m.  wide,  separates  this  range  from  the  main  range, 
while  another  valley  2  to  3  m.  across  separates  it  from  the  third 
parallel  range,  which  reaches  altitudes  of  only  500  to  850  ft. 
Evidences  of  a  fourth  and  still  lower  ridge  can  be  traced  towards 
the  south-west. 

A  number  of  short  streams,  none  of  them  anywhere  navigable, 
leap  down  the  flanks  of  the  mountains  by  cascades  in  spring, 
e.g.  the  Chernaya,  Belbek,  Kacha  and  Alma,  to  the  Black  Sea, 
and  the  Salghir,  with  its  affluent,  the  Kara-su,  to  the  Sivash 
lagoon. 

In  point  of  climate  and  vegetation  there  exist  marked  differ- 
ences between  the  open  steppes  and  the  south-eastern  littoral, 
with  the  slopes  of  the  Yaila-dagh  behind  it.  The  former, 
although  grasses  and  Liliaceae  grow  on  them  in  great  variety 
and  luxuriance  in  the  early  spring,  become  completely  parched 
up  by  July  and  August,  while  the  air  is  then  filled  with  clouds 
vii.  15 


of  dust.  There  also  high  winds  prevail,  and  snowstorms,  hail- 
storms and  frost  are  of  common  occurrence.  Nevertheless  this 
region  produces  wheat  and  barley,  rye  and  oats,  and  supports 
numbers  of  cattle,  sheep  and  horses.  Parts  of  the  steppes  are, 
however,  impregnated  with  salt,  or  studded  with  saline  lakes; 
there  nothing  grows  except  the  usual  species  of  Artemisia  and 
Salsola.  As  a  rule  water  can  only  be  obtained  from  wells  sunk 
200  to  300  ft.  deep,  and  artesian  wells  are  now  being  bored 
in  considerable  numbers.  All  over  the  steppes  are  scattered 
numerous  kurgans  or  burial-mounds  of  the  ancient  Scythians. 
The  picture  which  lies  behind  the  sheltering  screen  of  the  Yaila- 
dagh  is  of  an  altogether  different  character.  Here  the  narrow 
strip  of  coast  and  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  smothered 
with  greenery.  This  Russian  Riviera  stretches  all  along  the 
south-east  coast  from  Cape  Sarych  (extreme  S.)  to  Feodosiya 
(Theodosia),  and  is  studded  with  summer  sea-bathing  resorts — 
Alupka,  Yalta,  Gursuv,  Alushta,  Sudak,  Theodosia.  Numerous 
Tatar  villages,  mosques,  monasteries,  palaces  of  the  Russian 
imperial  family  and  Russian  nobles,  and  picturesque  ruins  of 
ancient  Greek  and  medieval  fortresses  and  other  buildings  cling 
to  the  acclivities  and  nestle  amongst  the  underwoods  of  hazel 
and  other  nuts,  the  groves  of  bays,  cypresses,  mulberries,  figs, 
olives  and  pomegranates,  amongst  the  vineyards,  the  tobacco 
plantations,  and  gardens  gay  with  all  sorts  of  flowers;  while 
the  higher  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  thickly  clothed  with 
forests  of  oak,  beech,  elm,  pines,  firs  and  other  Coniferae.  Here 
have  become  acclimatized,  and  grow  in  the  open  air,  such  plants 
as  magnolias,  oleanders,  tulip  trees,  bignonias,  myrtles,  camellias, 
mimosas  and  many  tender  fruit-trees.  Vineyards  cover  over 
19,000  acres,  and  the  wine  they  yield  (35  million  gallons  annually) 
enjoys  a  high  reputation.  Fruits  of  all  kinds  are  produced  in 
abundance.  In  some  winters  the  tops  of  the  mountains  are 
covered  with  snow,  but  snow  seldom  falls  to  the  south  of  them, 
and  ice,  too,  is  rarely  seen  in  the  same  districts.  The  heat  of 
summer  is  moderated  by  breezes  off  the  sea,  and  the  nights 
are  cool  and  serene;  the  winters  are  mild  and  healthy.  Fever 
and  ague  prevail  in  the  lower-lying  districts  for  a  few  weeks  in 
autumn.  Dense  fogs  occur  sometimes  in  March,  April  and  May, 
but  seldom  penetrate  inland.  The  difference  of  climate  between 
the  different  parts  of  the  Crimea  is  illustrated  by  the  following 
data:  annual  mean,  at  Melitopol,  on  the  steppe  N.  of  Perekop, 
48°  Fahr.;  at  Simferopol,  just  within  the  mountains,  50°;  at 
Yalta,  on  the  south-east  coast,  56-5°;  the  respective  January 
means  being  20°,  31°  and  39-5°,  and  the  July  means  74°,  70° 
and  75-5°.  The  rainfall  is  small  all  over  the  peninsula,  the 
annual  average  on  the  steppes  being  13-8  in.,  at  Simferopol  17-5, 
and  at  Yalta  18  in.  It  varies  greatly,  however,  from  year  to 
year;  thus  at  Simferopol  it  ranges  between  the  extremes  of 
7-5  and  26-4  in. 

Other  products  of  the  Crimea,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
are  salt,  porphyry  and  limestone,  and  ironstone  has  recently 
been  brought  to  light  at  Kerch.  Fish  abound  all  round  the 
coast,  such  as  red  and  grey  mullet,  herring,  mackerel,  turbot, 
soles,  plaice,  whiting,  bream,  haddock,  pilchard,  a  species  of 
pike,  whitebait,  eels,  salmon  and  sturgeon.  Manufacturing 
industries  are  represented  by  shipbuilding,  flour-mills,  ironworks, 
jam  and  pickle  factories,  soap-works  and  tanneries.  The 
Tatars  excel  in  a  great  variety  of  domestic  industries,  especially 
in  the  working  of  leather,  wool  and  metal.  A  railway,  coming 
from  Kharkov,  crosses  the  peninsula  from  north  to  south, 
terminating  at  Sevastopol  and  sending  off  branch  lines  to 
Theodosia  and  Kerch.  . 

The  bulk  of  the  population  consist  of  Tatars,  who,  however,  are 
racially  modified  by  intermarriage  with  Greeks  and  other  ethnic 
elements.  The  remainder  of  the  population  is  made  up  of 
Russians,  Germans,  Karaite  Jews,  Greeks  and  a  few  Albanians. 
The  total  in  1897  was  853,900,  of  whom  only  150,000  lived  in 
the  towns.  Simferopol  is  the  chief  town;  others  of  note,  in 
addition  to  those  already  named,  are  Eupatoria  and  Bakhchi- 
sarai, the  old  Tatar  capital. 

History. — The  earliest  inhabitants  of  whom  we  have  any 
authentic  traces  were  the  Celtic  Cimmerians,  who  were  expelled 


45° 


CRIMEAN  WAR 


by  the  Scythians  during  the  7th  century  B.C.  A  remnant,  who 
took  refuge  in  the  mountains,  became  known  subsequently  as 
the  Tauri.  In  that  same  century  Greek  colonists  began  to  settle 
on  the  coasts,  e.g.  Dorians  from  Heraclea  at  Chersonesus,  and 
lonians  from  Miletus  at  Theodosia  and  Panticapaeum  (also 
called  Bosporus).  Two  centuries  later  (438  B.C.)  the  archon 
or  ruler  of  the  last-named  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Bosporus, 
a  state  which  maintained  close  relations  with  Athens,  supplying 
that  city  with  wheat  and  other  commodities.  The  last  of  these 
kings,  Paerisades  V.,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Scythians,  put 
himself  under  the  protection  of  Mithradates  VI.,  king  of  Pontus, 
in  114  B.C.  After  the  death  of  this  latter  sovereign  his  son 
Pharnaces,  as  a  reward  for  assistance  rendered  to  the  Romans 
in  their  war  against  his  father,  was  (63  B.C.)  invested  by  Pompey 
with  the  kingdom  of  Bosporus.  In  15  B.C.  it  was  once  more 
restored  to  the  king  of  Pontus,  but  henceforward  ranked  as  a 
tributary  state  of  Rome.  During  the  succeeding  centuries 
the  Crimea  was  overrun  or  occupied  successively  by  the  Goths 
(A.D.  250),  the  Huns  (376),  the  Khazars  (8th  century),  the 
Byzantine  Greeks  (1016),  the  Kipchaks  (1050),  and  the  Mongols 
(1237).  In  the  I3th  century  the  Genoese  destroyed  or  seized 
the  settlements  which  their  rivals  the  Venetians  had  made  on 
the  Crimean  coasts,  and  established  themselves  at  Eupatoria, 
Cembalo  (Balaklava),  Soldaia  (Sudak),  and  Kaffa  (Theodosia), 
flourishing  trading  towns,  which  existed  down  to  the  conquest 
of  the  peninsula  by  the  Ottoman  Turks  in  1475.  Meanwhile 
the  Tatars  had  got  a  firm  footing  in  the  northern  and  central 
parts  of  the  peninsula  as  early  as  the  i3th  century,  and  after 
the  destruction  of  the  Golden  Horde  by  Tamerlane  they  founded 
an  independent  khanate  under  a  descendant  of  Jenghiz  Khan, 
who  is  known  as  Hadji  Ghirai.  He  and  his  successors  reigned 
first  at  Solkhat  (Eski-krym),  and  from  the  beginning  of  the  isth 
century  at  Bakhchi-sarai.  But  from  1478  they  ruled  as  tributary 
princes  of  the  Ottoman  empire  down  to  1777,  when  having  been 
defeated  by  Suvarov  they  became  dependent  upon  Russia,  and 
finally  in  1783  the  whole  of  the  Crimea  was  annexed  to  the 
Russian  empire.  Since  that  date  the  only  important  phase  of  its 
history  has  been  the  Crimean  War  of  1854-56,  which  is  treated 
of  under  a  separate  article.  At  various  times,  e.g.  after  the 
acquisition  by  Russia,  after  the  Crimean  War  of  1854-56,  and 
in  the  first  years  of  the  2oth  century,  the  Tatars  emigrated  in 
large  numbers  to  the  Ottoman  empire. 

See  Antiquites  du  Bosphore  cimmerien  (3  vols.,  St  Petersburg, 
1854);  C.  Bossoll,  The  Beautiful  Scenery  of  the  Crimea  (52  large 
drawings,  London,  1855-1856);  P.  Brunn,  Notices  hist,  et  topogr. 
concernant  les  colonies  italiennes  en  Gazarie  (St  Petersburg,  1866); 
J.  B.  Telfer,  The  Crimea  and  Transcaucasia  (2  vols.,  London,  2nd  ed,, 
1877);  F.  Remy,  Die  Krim  in  ethnographischer,  landschaftlicher  und 
hygienischer  Beziehung  (Leipzig,  1872) ;  Joseph,  Baron  von  Hammer- 
Purgstall,  Geschichte  der  Chane  der  Krim  unter  osmanischer  Herrschaft 
(Vienna,  1856);  M.  G.  Canale,  Delia  Crimea  e  dei  suoi  dominatori 
dalle  sue  origini  fino  al  trattato  di  Parigi  (3  vols.,  Genoa,  1855- 
1856) ;  and  Sir  Evelyn  Wood,  The  Crimea  in  1854  and  1894  (London, 
1895).  (See  also  BOSPORUS  CIMMERIUS.)  (P.  A.  K. ;  J.  T.  BE.) 

CRIMEAN  WAR.  The  war  of  1853-56,  usually  known  by 
this  name,  arose  from  causes  the  discussion  of  which  will  be 
found  under  the  heading  TURKEY:  History.  When  Turkey, 
after  a  period  of  irregular  fighting,  declared  war  on  Russia  in 
October  1853,  Great  Britain  and  France  (subsequently  assisted 
by  Sardinia)  intervened  in  the  quarrel.  At  first  this  intervention 
was  represented  merely  by  the  presence  of  an  allied  squadron 
in  the  Bosporus,  but  the  storm  of  indignation  aroused  in  Great 
Britain  and  France  by  the  destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at 
Sinope  (3oth  November)  soon  impelled  these  powers  to  more 
active  measures.  On  the  27th  of  January  1854  they  declared 
war  on  the  tsar,  and  prepared  to  carry  their  armaments  to  the 
Danube.  In  this,  the  main,  theatre  of  war,  the  Turks  had 
hitherto  proved  quite  capable  of  holding  their  own.  The 
Russian  commander,  Prince  Michael  Gorchakov,  had  crossed 
the  Pruth  with  two  corps  early  in  July  1853,  and  had  overrun 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  without  difficulty.  Omar  Pasha, 
however,  disposing  of  superior  forces,  was  able  to  check  any 
further  advance.  During  October,  November  and  December 
the  Turks  won  a  succession  of  actions,  of  which  that  at  Oltenitza 


(Nov.  4th)  may  be  particularly  mentioned,  and  a  little  later 
Gorchakov  found  himself  compelled  to  fight  at  Cetatea  (Tchetat i) 
before  reinforcements  could  come  up.  The  defeat  he  sustained 
was  for  the  time  being  decisive  (6th  Jan.  1854).  Three  months 
later,  the  Russians,  now  under  command  of  the  veteran  Prince 
Paskievich,  took  the  offensive  in  great  force.  Crossing  the 
Danube  near  its  mouth  at  Galatz  and  Braila,  they  advanced 
through  the  Dobrudja  and  closed  upon  the  fortress  of  Silistria, 
which  offered  a  strong  and  steady  resistance,  with  an  effect  all 
the  greater  as  the  Turks  from  the  side  of  Shumla,  now  supported 
by  the  leading  British  and  French  brigades  at  Varna,  prevented 
a  close  investment.  The  Turks,  however,  avoided  a  decisive 
encounter,  and  the  stormers  stood  ready  in  the  trenches  before 
Silistria,  when  the  siege  was  suddenly  raised.  The  decision  had 
passed  into  other  hands.  The  tsar  had  learned  that  the  Austrian 
army  of  observation  in  Transylvania,  50,000  strong  under 
Feldzeugmeister  Hess,  was  about  to  enforce  the  wishes  of  the 
"  Four  Powers."  The  Russian  offensive  was  at  an  end,  the 


Seat  of 
CRIMEAN  WAR 

Scale,  1:700.000 
English  Miles 


army  hastily  fell  back,  and  on  the  2nd  of  August  1854  the  last 
man  recrossed  the  Pruth.  The  principalities  were  at  once 
occupied  by  Hess. 

The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea. — The  primary  object  of  the  war 
had  thus  easily  been  obtained.  But  Great  Britain  and  France 
were  by  no  means  content  with  a  triumph  that  left  untouched 
the  vast  resources  of  an  enemy  who  was  certain  to  employ  them 
at  the  next  opportunity.  The  two  nations  felt  that  Sevastopol, 
the  home  of  the  Black  Sea  fleet,  the  port  whence  Admiral 
Nachimov  had  sailed  for  Sinope,  must  be  crippled  for  some  years 
at  least,  and  as  early  as  June  29th  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal 
Saint  Arnaud,  the  allied  commanders  of  England  and  France, 
had  received  instructions  to  "  concert  measures  for  the  siege 
of  Sevastopol."  Dynastic  considerations  reinforced  the  argu- 
ments of  policy  and  popular  opinion  in  the  case  of  France;  in 
Great  Britain  soldier  and  civilian  alike  saw  the  menace  of  a 
Russian  Mediterranean  fleet  in  the  unfinished  forts  and  busy 
dockyards.  The  popular  strategy  for  once  coincided  with  the 
views  of  the  responsible  leaders.  Yet  there  is  no  sign  that 
either  the  commanders  on  the  spot  or  their  governments  realized 
the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking.  Few  but  fhe  most  urgently 
necessary  preparations  were  made,  and  cholera,  breaking  out 
virulently  amongst  the  French  at  this  time,  reduced  the  army 


CRIMEAN  WAR 


at  Varna,  and  even  the  fleet  at  sea,  to  impotence.  The  troops 
were  so  weakened  that,  even  in  September,  the  five-mile  march 
from  camp  to  transport  exhausted  most  of  the  men.  Heavy 
weather  still  further  delayed  the  start,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  7th  of  September  that  the  expedition  began  to  cross  the 
Black  Sea.  One  hundred  and  fifty  war-vessels  and  transports 
conveyed  the  army,  which,  guarded  on  all  sides  by  the  fighting 
fleet,  crossed  without  incident  and  drew  up  on  the  Crimean  coast 
on  September  I3th.  Tactical  considerations  prevailed  in  the 
choice  of  place.  The  landlocked  harbours  south  of  Sevastopol 
were  for  the  time  being  neglected,  and  a  spot  known  as  Old 
Fort  preferred,  because  the  long  beach,  the  heavy  metal  of  the 
ships'  broadsides,  and  a  line  of  lagoons  covering  the  front 
offered  singularly  favourable  conditions  for  the  delicate  operation 
of  disembarkation.  Still,  on  this  side  of  Sevastopol  there  was 
no  good  harbour,  and  it  is  quite  open  to  question  whether  in 
this  case  the  strategic  necessities  of  the  situation  were  not 
neglected  in  favour  of  purely  tactical  and  temporary  advantages. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  no  opposition  was  offered  to  the  landing, 
but  the  weather  prevented  the  disembarkation  being  completed 
until  the  i8th.  St  Arnaud  and  Raglan  had  at  this  time  under 
their  orders  51,000  British,  French  and  Turkish  infantry,  1000 
British  cavalry,  and  128  guns,  and  on  the  ipth  this  force  (less 
some  detachments)  began  the  southward  march  in  order  of 
battle,  the  British  (who  alone  had  their  cavalry  present)  on  the 
exposed  left  flank,  the  French  next  the  sea,  the  fleet  moving 
in  the  same  direction  parallel  to  the  troops. 

The  Alma. — Old  Fort  was  beyond  the  reach  of  Menshikov, 
the  Russian  commander,  but,  as  the  fortress  communicated  with 
the  interior  of  Russia  via  Kerch  and  Simferopol,  it  was  to  be 
expected  that  he  would  either  accept  battle  on  the  Sevastopol 
road,  or  cover  Simferopol  by  a  flank  attack  on  Lord  Raglan. 
Both  these  contingencies  were  provided  for  by  the  order  of 
march,  and  in  due  course  it  was  ascertained  that  the  Russians 
adopted  the  former  alternative,  and  barred  the  Sevastopol  road 
on  the  heights  of  the  river  Alma.  Menaced  by  the  guns  of  the 
fleet,  Menshikov  had  wheeled  back  his  left,  and  at  the  same  time 
he  strengthened  his  right  in  order  to  cover  the  Simferopol  road. 
From  this  it  followed  naturally  that  the  brunt  of  the  attack  fell 
upon  the  British  divisions,  whilst  the  French,  nearer  the  sea, 
struck  to  some  extent  dans  le  vide.  The  two  commanders,  after 
a  reconnaissance,  decided  upon  their  plan.  The  French  divisions 
in  echelon  from  the  right  were  to  cross  the  river  and  force  Men- 
shikov inwards,  whilst  the  British  were  to  move  straight  to  their 
front  against  the  strongest  part  of  the  Russian  line.  Substantially 
this  plan  was  carried  out  on  the  zoth  of  September.  Owing  to 
want  of  men  (he  had  but  36,400  against  over  50,000)  Menshikov 
was  unable  to  hold  his  left  wing  very  strongly,  and  the  French 
were  scarcely  checked  save  by  physical  obstacles;  but  opposite 
the  British  force  the  ground  sloped  glacis-wise  up  to  the  Russian 
line,  and  nothing  but  their  iron  discipline,  the  best  heritage  of 
the  Peninsular  War,  brought  them  victorious  to  the  crest  of 
Kurghane  hill.  The  Russians  had  no  option  but  to  retreat, 
which  they  did  without  molestation.  The  allies  lost  about  3000 
men,  mostly  British  (though  Prince  Napoleon's  men  also  suffered 
heavily);  the  Russians  reported  5709  casualties. 

The  March  on  Sevastopol. — On  the  23rd  of  September  the 
advance  was  resumed,  and  by  the  25th  Sevastopol  was  in  full 
view  of  the  allied  outposts.  It  was  now  that  the  necessary 
consequences  of  the  choice  of  Old  Fort  as  the  landing-place 
presented  themselves  as  a  problem  for  instant  solution.  What- 
ever chance  there  had  been  of  assaulting  the  north  side  of 
Sevastopol  was  now  gone.  Menshikov  had  sacrificed  some  ships 
in  order  to  seal  up  the  harbour  mouth,  and  naval  co-operation 
in  attack  was  now  impossible,  while  the  other  Russian  ships 
could  in  safety  aid  the  defenders  with  their  heavy  guns.  A 
siege,  based  on  the  beach  of  Old  Fort  or  the  open  roads  of 
Kacha,  was  out  of  the  question,  as  was  re-embarkation  for  a 
fresh  landing.  There  remained  only-a  flank  march  by  Mackenzie's 
farm  and  the  river  Chernaya.  Once  established  on  the  south 
side,  the  allies  could  use  the  excellent  harbours  of  Kamiesh 
and  Balaklava;  this  could  almost  certainly  be  effected  without 


fighting,  while  in  besieging  Sevastopol  itself  and  not  merely 
the  north  side,  the  allies  would  be  striking  at  the  heart.  But 
a  flank  march  is  almost  always  in  itself  a  hazardous  undertaking, 
and  in  this  case  the  invaders  were  required  further  to  abandon 
their  line  of  retreat  on  Old  Fort.  In  point  of  fact,  the  army, 
covered  by  a  division  opposite  the  Russian  works,  successfully 
accomplished  the  task.  At  the  same  moment  Menshikov,  after 
providing  for  the  defence  of  Sevastopol,  had  marched  out  with 
a  field  army  towards  Bakhchiserai,  and  on  the  25th  of  September 
each  army,  without  knowing  it,  actually  crossed  the  other's 
front.  On  arrival  at  Balaklava  the  allies  regained  contact  with 
the  fleet,  and  the  detachment  left  on  the  north  side,  its  mission 
being  at  an  end,  followed  the  same  route  and  rejoined  the  main 
body.  The  French  now  took  possession  of  Kamiesh,  the  British 
of  Balaklava. 

Beginning  of  the  Siege. — Thus  secured,  the  allies  closed  upon 
the  south  side  of  the  fortress.  A  siege  corps  was  formed,  and  the 
British  army  and  General  Bosquet's  French  corps  covered  its 
operations  against  interruption  from  the  Russian  field  army. 
The  harbour  of  Sevastopol,  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the  Chernaya, 
was  protected  against  attack  by  sea  not  only  by  the  Russian 
war-vessels,  afloat  and  sunken,  but  also  by  heavy  granite  forts 
on  the  south  side  and  by  the  works  which  had  defied  the  allies  on 


Russian  Works 

Wlu'tt  Works  f .  n*  ».-tfo*> 

Hatakoff  6.  Flagstaff 

AM  7.  Ctrttro.1  8a:t  ._ 
Ktdan 


SEVASTOPOL 
1854-1856 

Scale,  1 1250.000 

English  Mites 


the  north.  For  the  town  itself  and  the  Karabelnaya  suburb 
the  trace  of  the  works  had  been  laid  down  for  years.  The 
Malakoff,  a  great  tower  of  stone,  covered  the  suburb,  flanked 
on  either  side  by  the  Redan  and  the  Little  Redan.  The  town 
was  covered  by  a  line  of  works  marked  by  the  Flagstaff  and 
central  bastions,  and  separated  from  the  Redan  by  the  inner 
harbour.  Lieut.-Col.  Todleben,  the  Russian  chief  engineer, 
had  very  early  begun  work  on  these  sites,  and  daily  re-creating, 
rearming  and  improving  the  fortifications,  finally  connected 
them  by  a  continuous  enceinte.  Yet  Sevastopol  was  not,  early 
in  October  1854,  the  towering  fortress  it  afterwards  became, 
and  Todleben  himself  maintained  that,  had  the  allies  immediately 
assaulted,  they  would  have  succeeded  in  taking  the  place. 
There  were,  however,  many  reasons  against  so  decided  a  course, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  I7th  of  October  that  the  first  attack 
took  place.  All  that  day  a  tremendous  artillery  duel  raged. 
The  French  siege  corps  lost  heavily  and  its  guns  were  overpowered. 
The  fleet  engaged  the  harbour  batteries  dose  inshore,  and 
suffered  a  loss  of  500  men,  besides  severe  damage  to  the  ships. 
On  the  other  hand  the  British  siege  batteries  silenced  the  Malakoff 
and  its  annexes,  and,  if  failure  had  not  occurred  at  the  other 
points  of  attack,  an  assault  might  have  succeeded.  As  it  was, 
Todleben,  by  daybreak,  had  repaired  and  improved  the  damaged 
works.  Meanwhile  General  Canrobert  had  succeeded  St  Arnaud 
(who  died  on  the  zgth  of  September)  in  the  joint  leadership  of 


452 


CRIMEAN  WAR 


the  allies.  It  was  not  long  before  Menshikov  and  the  now 
augmented  field  army  from  Bakhchiserai  appeared  on  the 
Chernaya  and  moved  towards  the  Balaklava  lines  and  the  British 
base. 

Balaklava. — A  long  line  of  works  on  the  upland  secured  the 
siege  corps  from  interference,  and  the  Balaklava  lines  themselves 
were  strong,  but  the  low  Vorontsov  ridge  between  the  two  was 
weakly  held,  and  here  the  Russian  commander  hoped  to  sever 
the  line  of  communications.  On  the  25th  of  October  Liprandi's 
corps  carried  its  slight  redoubts  at  the  first  rush.  But  the  British 
cavalry  stationed  at  the  foot  of  the  upland  was  situated  on  their 
flank,  and  as  the  Russian  cavalry  moved  towards  Kadikol,  the 
"  Heavy  Brigade  "  under  General  Scarlett  charged  home  with 
such  effect  that  Menshikov's  troopers  only  rallied  behind  their 
field  batteries  near  Traktir  bridge.  At  the  same  time  some  of  the 
Russian  squadrons,  coming  upon  the  British  93rd  regiment 
outside  the  Balaklava  lines,  were  completely  broken  by  the  steady 
volleys  of  the  "  thin  red  line."  The  "  Light  Brigade  "  of  British 
cavalry,  farther  north,  had  hitherto  remained  inactive,  even 
when  the  Russians,  broken  by  the  "  Heavies,"  fled  across  their 
front.  The  cavalry  commander,  Lord  Lucan,  now  received 
orders  to  prevent  the  withdrawal  of  the  guns  taken  by  Liprandi. 
The  aide-de-camp  who  carried  the  order  was  killed  by  the  first 
shell,  and  the  whole  question  of  responsibility  for  what  followed 
is  wrapped  in  obscurity.  Lord  Cardigan  led  the  Light  Brigade 
straight  at  the  Russian  field  batteries,  behind  which  the  enemy's 
squadrons  had  re-formed.  From  the  guns  in  front,  on  the 
Fedukhin  heights,  and  on  the  captured  ridge  to  their  right, 
the  advancing  squadrons  at  once  met  a  deadly  converging  fire, 
but  the  gallant  troopers  nevertheless  reached  the  guns  and  cut 
down  the  artillerymen.  Small  parties  even  charged  the  cavalry 
behind,  and  at  least  two  unbroken  squadrons  struck  out  right  and 
left  with  success,  but  the  combat  could  only  end  in  one  way. 
The  4th  Chasseurs  d'Afrique  relieved  the  British  left  by  a  dashing 
charge.  The  "  Heavies  "  made  as  if  to  advance,  but  came  under 
such  a  storm  of  fire  that  they  were  withdrawn.  By  twos  and 
threes  the  gallant  survivors  of  the  "  Light  Brigade  "  made  their 
way  back.  Two-thirds  of  its  numbers  were  left  on  the  field,  and 
the  day  closed  with  the  Russians  still  in  possession  of  the 
Vorontsov  ridge. 

Inkerman. — If  the  heights  lost  in  this  action  were  not  absolutely 
essential  to  the  safety  of  the  allies,  the  point  selected  for  the 
next  attempt  at  relief  was  of  vital  importance.  The  junction 
of  the  covering  army  and  the  siege  corps  near  Inkerman  was  the 
scene  of  a  slight  action  on  the  day  following  Balaklava,  and 
the  battle  of  Inkerman  followed  on  the  sth  of  November.  By 
that  time  the  French  had  made  good  the  losses  of  the  I7th  of 
October,  their  approaches  were  closing  upon  Flagstaff  bastion, 
and  the  British  batteries  daily  maintained  their  superiority 
over  the  Malakoff.  On  the  sth  there  was  to  have  been  a  meeting 
of  generals  to  fix  the  details  of  an  assault,  but  at  dawn  the 
Russian  army,  now  heavily  reinforced  from  Odessa,  was  attacking 
with  the  utmost  fury  the  British  divisions  guarding  the  angle 
between  Bosquet  and  the  siege  corps.  The  battle  of  Inkerman 
defies  description;  every  regiment,  every  group  of  men  bore  its 
own  separate  part  in  the  confused  and  doubtful  struggle,  save 
when  leaders  on  either  side  obtained  a  momentary  control  over 
its  course  by  means  of  reserves  which,  carrying  all  before  them 
with  their  original  impetus,  soon  served  but  to  swell  the  melee. 
It  was  a  "  soldiers'  battle  "  pure  and  simple.  After  many 
hours  of  the  most  desperate  fighting  the  arrival  of  Bosquet 
(hitherto  contained  by  a  force  on  the  Balaklava  ground)  con- 
firmed a  success  won  by  supreme  tenacity  against  overwhelming 
odds,  and  Menshikov  sullenly  drew  off  his  men,  leaving  over 
12,000  on  the  field.  The  allies  had  lost  about  3300  men,  of 
whom  more  than  two-thirds  belonged  to  the  small  British  force 
on  which  the  strain  of  the  battle  fell  heaviest.  Their  losses 
included  several  generals  who  could  ill  be  spared,  but  they  had 
held  their  ground,  which  was  all  that  was  required  of  them,  with 
almost  unrivalled  tenacity.  Lord  Raglan  was  promoted  to  be 
field  marshal  after  the  battle. 

The  Winter  of  1854-1855. — It  was  now  obvious  that  the  army 


must  winter  in  the  Crimea,  and  preparations  in  view  of  this 
were  begun  betimes.  But  on  the  night  of  November  i4th  a 
violent  storm  arose  which  wrecked  nearly  thirty  vessels  with 
their  precious  cargoes  of  treasure,  medical  comforts,  forage, 
clothing  and  other  necessaries.  After  so  grave  a  calamity  it 
was  to  be  expected  that  the  troops  would  be  called  upon  to 
undergo  great  hardships.  But  the  direct  cause  of  sufferings 
that  have  become  a  byword  for  the  utmost  depths  of  misery 
was  the  loss  of  twenty  days'  forage  in  the  great  storm.  Of  food 
and  clothing  enough  was  in  store  to  tide  over  temporary  diffi- 
culties, but  the  only  paved  road  from  Balaklava  to  the  British 
camps  was  now  in  Russian  hands,  and  the  few  starving  transport 
animals  were  utterly  inadequate  for  the  work  of  drawing  wagons 
over  the  miry  plain;  things  went  from  bad  to  worse  with  Raglan's 
troops,  until  from  the  outposts  before  the  Redan  to  the  hospitals 
at  Scutari  a  state  of  the  utmost  misery  prevailed,  relieved  only 
by  the  example  of  devotion  and  self-sacrifice  set  by  officers  and 
men.  The  British  hospital  returns  showed  eight  thousand  sick 
at  the  end  of  November.  Even  the  French,  whose  base  of 
Kamiesh  had  escaped  the  storm,  were  not  unhurt  by  the  severity 
of  the  winter,  but  Napoleon  III.  sent  freely  all  the  men  his 
general  asked,  while  the  Russians  in  Sevastopol,  who  had  made 
long  painful  marches  from  the  interior,  were  the  survivors  of 
the  fittest.  Canrobert  took  over  the  lines  before  the  Malakoff 
to  relieve  the  British.  He  had  at  the  end  of  January  1855 
78,000  men  for  duty;  Raglan  could  barely  muster  12,000.  But, 
with  the  advent  of  spring,  paved  roads  and  a  railway  were 
promptly  taken  in  hand,  and  during  the  remainder  of  the  war 
the  British  troops  were  so  well  cared  for  that  their  death-rate 
was  lower  than  at  home,  while  the  hospitals  in  rear,  thanks  to 
the  energy  and  devotion  of  Florence  Nightingale  and  her  nurses, 
became  models  of  good  management. 

Course  of  the  Siege. — Meanwhile  the  siege  works  were  making 
but  slow  progress,  and  the  fortress  grew  day  by  day  under  the 
skilful  direction  of  Todleben.  Rifle-pits  pushed  out  in  front  of 
the  defenders'  lines  were  connected  so  as  to  form  a  veritable 
envelope.  Beyond  the  left  wing  a  new  line,  the  "  White  Works," 
sprang  up  in  a  single  night,  and  the  hill  of  the  Mamelon  was 
suddenly  crowned  with  a  lunette  to  cover  the  still  defiant 
Malakoff.  But  the  absence  of  bomb-proof  cover  exposed  the 
huge  working  parties  necessary  for  these  defences  to  an  almost 
incessant  feu  d'enfer,  by  which  the  Russians  every  week  suffered 
the  losses  of-  a  pitched  battle.  Meanwhile  the  field  army  was 
idle,  Menshikov  had  been  replaced  by  Prince  Michael  Gorchakov, 
Liprandi's  corps  had  withdrawn  from  the  Vorontsov  ridge,  and 
Omar  Pasha,  with  a  detachment  of  the  troops  he  had  led  at 
Oltenitza  and  Cetatea,  repulsed  a  Russian  attack  on  Eupatoria 
(Feb.  1 7th).  The  besiegers  steadily  approached  the  White 
Works,  Mamelon,  Redan  and  Flagstaff  bastion,  and  as  spring 
arrived  the  logistic  and  material  advantages  of  the  allies  returned. 
On  Easter  Sunday  (April  Sth,  1855)  another  terrific  bombardment 
began,  which  lasted  almost  uninterruptedly  for  ten  days.  The 
White  Works  and  the  Mamelon  were  practically  destroyed, 
and  the  Russians,  drawn  up  in  momentary  expectation  of 
assault,  lost  between  six  and  seven  thousand  men. 

But  the  bombardment  ceased,  and  assault  did  not  follow. 
For,  at  the  allied  headquarters  and  at  Paris,  grave  differences 
of  opinion  on  the  conduct  of  the  war  had  developed.  Napoleon 
III.  wished  active  operations  to  be  undertaken  against  the 
Simferopol  field  army,  whereas  the  leaders  on  the  spot,  while 
admitting  the  theoretical  soundness  of  the  French  emperor's 
views,  considered  that  they  were  wholly  beyond  the  means  of 
the  two  armies.  The  discussions  culminated  in  Canrobert's 
resignation  of  the  chief  command,  though  he  would  not  leave 
the  army,  and  took  a  subordinate  post,  which  he  filled  with  great 
distinction  to  the  end  of  the  war.  His  successor,  General 
Pelissier,  was  a  soldier  trained  in  the  hard  school  of  Algerian 
warfare,  and  endowed,  as  was  soon  evident,  with  the  most 
inflexible  resolution  of  character.  He  did  not  hesitate  to  take  up 
and  maintain  a  position  of  decided  opposition  to  his  sovereign's 
views;  and  the  capture  of  Kerch  (24th  May  1855),  carried  out 
by  a  joint  expedition,  was  the  first  earnest  of  new  vigour  in  the 


CRIMEAN  WAR 


453 


operations.  This  success  served  all  the  purposes  of  a  complete 
investment  of  Sevastopol,  the  want  of  which  had  greatly  troubled 
the  allied  generals.  The  line  of  communication  and  supply 
between  Sevastopol  and  the  interior  was  cut,  vast  stores  intended 
for  the  fortress  were  destroyed,  and  the  sea  of  Azov  was  cleared 
of  shipping.  On  the  2$th  Canrobert  established  himself  on  the 
Fedukhin  heights,  his  right  continued  along  the  Chernaya  by 
General  la  Marmora's  newly  arrived  Sardinians,  15,000  strong, 
while  masses  of  Turks  occupied  the  Vorontsov  ridge  and  the 
old  Balaklava  battlefield. 

As  June  approached,  Raglan  and  Pelissier,  who,  unlike  most 
allied  commanders,  were  in  complete  accord  and  sympathy, 
initiated  very  vigorous  methods  of  attack.  They  decided  that 
the  works  west  of  Flagstaff  could  be  comparatively  neglected, 
and  the  full  weight  of  the  bombardment  once  more  fell  upon 
the  Mamelon  and  the  Malakoff.  Once  more  these  works  were 
reduced  to  ruins,  but  the  rest  of  the  defences  still  held  out. 

The  Assault  of  the  Redan. — On  the  7th  of  June  1855  the  French 
stormed  the  Mamelon  and  the  White  Works,  the  British  captured 
and  maintained  some  quarries  close  to  the  Redan,  and  next 
morning  the  whole  of  Todleben's  envelope  had  become  a  siege- 
parallel.  The  losses  were,  as  usual,  heavy,  8500  to  the  Russians. 
6883  to  the  allies.  This  was  merely  a  preliminary  to  the  great 
assault  filed  for  the  i8th,  the  fortieth  anniversary  of  Waterloo. 
But  meanwhile  Pelissier's  temper  and  Raglan's  health  had  been 
strained  to  breaking-point  by  continued  dissensions  with  Paris 
and  London.  The  telegraph,  a  new  strategic  factor,  daily 
tormented  the  unfortunate  commanders  with  the  latest  ideas 
of  the  Paris  strategists,  and  on  the  fateful  day  the  two  armies 
rushed  on  to  failure.  The  French  attack  on  the  Malakoff 
dwindled  away  into  a  meaningless  fire-fight:  the  British, 
attacking  the  Redan  in  face  of  a  cross-fire  of  one  hundred  heavy 
guns,  at  first  succeeded  in  entering  the  work,  but  in  the  end 
sustained  a  bloody  and  disastrous  repulse.  Of  the  six  generals 
who  led  the  two  attacks,  four  were  killed  and  one  wounded,  and 
on  the  i/th  and  i8th  the  losses  to  the  Russians  were  5400,  to  the 
allies  4000.  But  the  defenders'  resources  were  almost  at  an  end, 
and  the  bombardment  reopened  at  once  with  increased  fury. 
On  the  zoth  Todleben  was  wounded,  and  soon  afterwards 
Nakhimov,  the  victor  of  Sinope,  found  a  grave  by  the  side  of 
three  other  admirals  who  had  fallen  in  the  defence.  Pelissier 
resolutely  clung  to  his  plans,  in  spite  of  the  failure  of  the  i8th, 
against  ever-increasing  opposition  at  home.  Raglan,  worn  out 
by  his  troubles  and  heartbroken  at  the  Redan  failure,  died  on 
the  28th,  mourned  by  none  more  deeply  than  by  his  stern 
colleague. 

The  Storming  of  the  Malakoff. — During  July  the  Russians  lost 
on  an  average  250  men  a  day,  and  at  last  it  was  decided  that 
Gorchakov  and  the  field  army  must  make  another  attack  at  the 
Chernaya — the  first  since  Inkerman.  On  the  i6th  of  August 
the  corps  of  Generals  Liprandi  and  Read  furiously  attacked  the 
37,000  French  and  Sardinian  troops  on  the  heights  above  Traktir 
Bridge.  The  assailants  came  on  with  the  greatest  determination, 
but  the  result  was  never  for  one  moment  doubtful.  At  the  end 
of  the  day  the  Russians  drew  off  baffled,  leaving  260  officers  and 
Sooo  men  on  the  field.  The  allies  only  lost  1700.  With  this 
defeat  vanished  the  last  chance  of  saving  Sevastopol.  On  the 
same  day  (Aug.  i6th)  the  bombardment  once  more  reduced  the 
Malakoff  and  its  dependencies  to  impotence,  and  it  was  with 
absolute  confidence  in  the  result  that  Pelissier  planned  the  final 
assault.  On  the  8th  of  September  1855  at  noon,  the  whole  of 
Bosquet's  corps  suddenly  swarmed  up  to  the  Malakoff.  The 
fighting  was  of  the  most  desperate  kind.  Every  casemate,  every 
traverse,  was  taken  and  retaken  time  after  time,  but  the  French 
maintained  the  prize,  and  though  the  British  attack  on  the 
Redan  once  more  failed,  the  Russians  crowded  in  that  work 
became  at  once  the  helpless  target  of  the  siege  guns.  Even  on 
the  far  left,  opposite  Flagstaff  and  Central  bastions,  there  was 
severe  hand-to-hand  fighting,  and  throughout  the  day  the  bom- 
bardment mowed  down  the  Russian  masses  along  the  whole  line. 
The  fall  of  the  Malakoff  was  the  end  of  the  siege.  All  night  the 
Russians  were  filing  over  the  bridges  to  the  north  side,  and  on 


the  pth  the  victors  took  possession  of  the  empty  and  burning 
prize.  The  losses  in  the  last  assault  had  been  very  heavy,  to 
the  allies  over  10,000  men,  to  the  Russians  13,000.  No  less  than 
nineteen  generals  had  fallen  on  that  day.  But  the  crisis  was 
surmounted.  With  the  capture  of  Sevastopol  the  war  loses  its 
absorbing  interest.  No  serious  operations  were  undertaken 
against  Gorchakov,  who  with  the  field  army  and  the  remnant  of 
the  garrison  held  the  heights  at  Mackenzie's  Farm.  But  Kinburn 
was  attacked  by  sea,  and  from  the  naval  point  of  view  the  attack 
is  interesting  as  being  the  first  instance  of  the  employment  of 
ironclads.  An  armistice  was  agreed  upon  on  the  26th  of  February 
and  the  definitive  peace  of  Paris  was  signed  on  the  3oth  of  March 
1856. 

Decisive  Importance  of  the  Victory. — The  importance  of  the 
siege  of  Sevastopol,  from  the  strategical  point  of  view,  lies 
beneath  the  surface.  It  may  well  be  asked,  why  did  the  fall  of  a 
place,  at  first  almost  unfortified,  bring  the  master  of  the  Russian 
empire  to  his  knees?  At  first  sight  Russia  would  seem  to  be 
almost  invulnerable  to  a  sea  power,  and  no  first  success,  however 
crushing,  could  have  humbled  Nicholas  I.  Indeed  the  capture 
of  Sevastopol  in  October  1854  would  have  been  far  from  decisive 
of  the  war,  but  once  the  tsar  had  decided  to  defend  to  the  last 
this  arsenal,  the  necessity  for  which  he  was  in  the  best  position 
to  appreciate,  the  factor  of  unlimited  resources  operated  in  the 
allies'  favour.  The  sea  brought  to  the  invaders  whatever  they 
needed,  whilst  the  desert  tracks  of  southern  Russia  were  marked 
at  every  step  with  the  corpses  of  men  and  horses  who  had  fallen 
on  the  way  to  Sevastopol.  The  hasty  nature,  too,  of  the  fortifica- 
tions, which,  daily  crushed  by  the  fire  of  a  thousand  guns,  had 
to  be  re-created  every  night,  made  huge  and  therefore  unprotected 
working  parties  necessary,  and  the  losses  were  correspondingly 
heavy.  The  double  cause  of  loss  completely  exhausted  even 
Russia's  resources,  and,  when  large  bodies  of  militia  appeared 
in  line  of  battle  at  Traktir  Bridge,  it  was  obvious  that  the  end 
was  at  hand.  The  novels  of  Tolstoy  give  a  graphic  picture  of  the 
war  from  the  Russian  point  of  view;  the  miseries  of  the  desert 
march,  the  still  greater  miseries  of  life  in  the  casemates,  and  the 
almost  daily  ordeal  of  manning  the  lines  under  shell-fire  to  meet  an 
assault  that  might  or  might  not  come;  and  no  student  of  the 
siege  can  leave  it  without  feeling  the  profoundest  respect  for  the 
courage,  discipline  and  stubborn  loyalty  of  the  defenders. 

Minor  Operations. — A  few  words  may  be  added  on  the  minor 
operations  of  the  war.  The  Asiatic  frontier  was  the  scene  of 
severe  fighting  between  the  Turks  and  the  Russians.  Hindered 
at  first  by  Shamyl  and  his  Caucasian  mountaineers,  the  Russians 
stood  on  the  defensive  during  1853,  but  next  year  they  took  the 
offensive,  and,  while  their  coast  column  won  an  action  on  the  i6th 
of  June  at  the  river  Churuk,  another  force  from  Erivan  gained  an 
important  success  on  the  Araxes  and  took  Bayazid,  and  General 
Bebutov  completely  defeated  a  Turkish  column  from  Kars  at 
Kuruk  Dere  (July  3ist,  1854).  Next  year  Count  Muraviev 
completely  isolated  the  garrison  of  Kars,  which  made  a  magnifi- 
cent defence,  inspired  by  Fenwick  Williams  Pasha  and  other 
British  officers.  In  one  assault  alone  7000  Russians  were  killed 
and  wounded,  and  it  was  not  until  the  26th  of  November  1855 
that  the  fortress  was  forced  to  surrender.  The  naval  operations 
in  the  Baltic  furnish  many  interesting  examples  for  the  study 
of  naval  war.  The  allied  fleet  in  1854,  after  a  first  repulse, 
succeeded  in  landing  a  French  force  under  Baraguay  d'Hilliers 
before  Bomarsund,  and  the  place  fell  after  an  eight  days'  siege. 
In  1855  seventy  allied  warships  appeared  before  Kronstadt. 
which  defied  them.  Reinforced  they  attacked  Sveiborg,  but 
after  two  days'  fighting  had  to  draw  off  baffled. 

The  numbers  engaged  in  the  Crimean  War  and  the  cost  in  men 
and  money  is  stated  in  round  numbers  below.  In  May  1855  the 
Crimean  theatre  of  war  occupied  174,500  allies  (of  whom  32,000 
were  British)  and  170,000  Russians.  The  losses  in  battle  were: 
allies  70,000  men,  Russians  128,700;  and  the  total  losses,  from 
all  causes  and  in  all  theatres  of  the  war:  allies  252,600  (including 
45,000  English),  Russians  256,000  men  (Berndt,  Die  Zahl  im 
Kriege,  p.  3  5) .  In  the  siege  of  Sevastopol  the  Russians  are  stated 
by  Berndt  to  have  lost  102,670  men  dead,  wounded  and  missing. 


454 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


Mulhall  (Diet,  of  Statistics,  1903  ed.,  pp.  586-587)  gives  much 
greater  losses  to  each  of  the  four  powers  principally  engaged. 
The  cost,  of  the  war  in  money  is  stated  by  Mulhall  to  have  been 
£69,000,000  to  Great  Britain,  £93,000,000  to  France,  £142,000,000 
to  Russia. 

AUTHORITIES. — Of  the  many  works  on  the  Crimean  War  those  of 
the  greatest  value  are  the  following.  English :  the  official  work  on 
the  Siege  of  Sebastopol ;  A.  W.  Kinglake,  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea 
(London,  1863;  "  Student's  edition  "  by  Sir  G.  S.  Clarke) ;  Sir  E.  B. 
Hamley,  The  War  in  the  Crimea  (London,  1891) ;  (Sir)  W.  H.  Russell, 
The  War  in  the  Crimea  (London,  1855-1856);  Sir  Evelyn  Wood, 
The  Crimea  in  1854  and  in  1894  (London,  1895) ;  Sir  D.  Lysons, 


Sebastopol  (official  account  of  engineer  operations,  Paris,  1858),  and 
Atlas  historique  el  topographique  de  la  guerre  de  Crimee  (see  also  the 
map  of  Russia  by  the  French  staff,  sheets  56  and  57) ;  Baron  C.  de 
Bazancourt,  L' 'Expedition  de  Crimee  (Paris,  1856);  C.  Rousset, 
Histoire  de  la  guerre  de  Crimee  (Paris,  1877).  Russian:  the  work  of 
Todleben,  Die  Vertheidigung  von  Sebastopol  (St  Petersburg,  1864) ; 
Defense  de  Sebastopol  (St  Petersburg,  1863) ;  Anitschkoff,  Feldzug  in 
der  Krim  (German  trans.,  Berlin,  1857);  Bogdanovitch,  Der  Orient- 
krieg  (St  Petersburg,  1876) ;  Petroff,  Der  Donaufeldzug  Russlands 
gegen  Tiirkei  (German  trans.,  Berlin,  1891).  Of  German  works  the 
most  useful  are:  Kunz,  Die  Schlachten  und  Treffen  des  Krimkrieges 
(Berlin,  1889) ;  Der  Feldzug  in  der  Krim;  Sammlung  der  Berichte 
beider  Parteien  (Leipzig,  1855-1856).  (C.  F.  A.) 

CRIMINAL  LAW.  By  criminal,  or  penal,  law  is  now  understood 
the  law  as  to  the  definition,  trial  and  punishment  of  crimes, 
i.e.  of  acts  or  omissions  forbidden  by  law  which  affect  injuriously 
public  rights,  or  constitute  a  breach  of  duties  due  to  the  whole 
community.  The  sovereign  is  taken  to  be  the  person  injured  by 
the  crime,  as  he  represents  the  whole  community,  and  prosecu- 
tions are  in  his  name.  Criminal  law  includes  the  rules  as  to  the 
prevention,  the  investigation,  prosecution  and  punishment  of 
crime  (<?.».).  It  lays  down  what  constitutes  a  criminal  offence, 
what  proof  is  necessary  to  establish  the  fact  of  a  criminal  offence 
and  the  culpability  of  the  offender,  what  excuse  or  justification 
for  the  act  or  omission  can  be  legally  admitted,  what  procedure 
should  be  followed  in  a  criminal  court,  what  degrees  and  kinds 
of  punishment  should  be  imposed  for  the  various  offences  which 
come  up  for  trial.  Finally,  it  regulates  the  constitution  of  the 
tribunals  established  for  the  trial  of  offences  according  to  the 
gravity  of  the  infraction  of  law,  and  deals  with  the  organization 
of  the  police  and  the  proper  management  of  prisons,  and  the 
maintenance  of  prison  discipline.  (See  EVIDENCE;  PRISON; 
POLICE.) 

Many  acts  or  omissions,  which  are  technically  criminal  and 
classified  as  offences  and  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment, 
cannot  be  said  to  have  a  strictly  criminal  character,  since  they 
do  not  fall  within  the  popular  conception  of  crime.  To  this  class 
belong  such  matters  as  stopping  up  a  highway  under  claim  of 
right,  or  failing  to  repair  it,  or  allowing  a  chimney  to  emit 
black  smoke  in  excessive  quantities,  or  to  catch  fire  from  being 
unswept,  or  breach  of  building  by-laws,  or  driving  a  motor  car 
on  a  highway  at  a  speed  in  excess  of  the  legal  limit.  Such  breaches 
of  law  are  under  the  French  law  described  as  contraventions. 
In  England  most  of  them  are  described  as  petty  misdemeanours 
or  offences  punishable  on  summary  conviction,  or  less  happily 
as  "  summary  offences,"  and  some  writers  speak  of  them  as 
mala  prohibita  as  distinguished  from  mala  in  se,  i.e.  as  not  in- 
volving any  breach  of  ordinary  morality  other  than  a  breach  of 
positive  regulations.  Continental  jurists  at  times  speak  oi 
crimes  de  droit  commun  (i.e.  offences  common  to  all  systems 
of  law  as  distinguished  from  offences  which  are  crimes  only  by  a 
particular  municipal  law) .  To  this  class  of  crimes  de  droit  commun 
belong  most  of  the  offences  included  in  extradition  treaties. 

Criminal  and  civil  law  overlap,  and  many  acts  or  omissions 
are  not  only  "  wrongs  "  for  which  the  person  injured  is  entitlec 
to  recover  compensation  for  his  own  personal  injury  or  damage 
but  also  "  offences  "  for  which  the  offender  may  be  prosecutec 
and  punished  in  the  interest  of  the  state.  In  non-English 
European  systems  care  is  taken  to  prevent  civil  remedies  from 
being  extinguished  by  punishment:  it  is  quite  usual  for  the 
civil  and  criminal  remedies  to  be  pursued  concurrently,  the 


ndividual  appearing  as  parlie  civile  and  receiving  an  award  of 
compensation  by  the  judgment  which  determines  the  punishment 
to  be  inflicted  for  the  offence  against  the  state.  Under  English 
aw  it  is  now  exceptional  to  allow  civil  and  criminal  remedies 
to  be  pursued  concurrently  or  in  the  same  proceeding,  or  to 
award  compensation  to  the  injured  party  in  criminal  proceedings, 
and  he  is  usually  left  to  seek  his  remedy  by  action.  Among  the 
exceptions  are  the  restitution  of  stolen  goods  on  conviction 
of  the  thief  if  the  prosecution  has  been  at  the  instance  or  with 
the  aid  of  the  owner  of  the  goods  (Larceny  Act  1861,  §  too), 
and  the  award  of  compensation  to  persons  who  have  suffered 
injury  to  property  by  felony  (Forfeiture  Act  1870). 

As  Sir  Henry  Maine  says  (Ancient  Law,  ed.  1906,  p.  381),  "  All 
civilized  systems  of  law  agree  in  drawing  a  distinction  between 
offences  against  the  state  or  community  (crimes  or  Develop- 
crimina)  and  offences  against  the  individual  (wrongs,  meat  of 
torts  or  delicta) ."  But  the  process  of  historical  develop-  modern 
ment  by  which  this  distinction  has  been  ultimately  c£™laal 
established  has  given  great  occasion  for  study  of 
early  laws  and  institutions  by  eminent  men,  whose  researches 
have  disclosed  the  extremely  gradual  evolution  of  the  modern 
notion  of  criminal  law  enforced  by  the  state  from  the  primitive 
conceptions  and  customs  of  barbarous  or  semi-civilized  com- 
munities. Of  the  oldest  codes  or  digests  of  customs  which 
are  available  to  the  student  it  has  been  said  the  more  archaic 
a  code  the  fuller  and  minuter  is  its  penal  legislation:  but  this 
penal  legislation  is  not  true  criminal  law;  it  is  the  law,  not  of 
crimes,  but  of  wrongs.  The  intervention  of  the  community 
or  tribe  is  in  the  first  instance  to  persuade  or  compel  the  wronged 
person  or  his  family  or  tribe  to  abandon  private  vengeance  or  a 
blood  feud  and  to  accept  compensation  for  the  wrong  collectively 
or  individually  sustained;  and  in  the  tariffs  of  compensation 
preserved  in  early  laws  the  importance  of  the  injured  person 
was  the  measure  of  the  compensation  or  vengeance  which  he 
was  recognized  to  be  entitled  to  exact,  and  the  scales  of  punish- 
ment or  compensation  are  fixed  from  this  point  of  view. 

The  laws  of  Khammurabi  (2285-2242),  the  oldest  extant  code, 
contain  definite  schemes  and  scales  of  offences  and  punishments, 
and  indicate  the  existence  of  tribunals  to  try  the 
offences  and  to  award  the  appropriate  remedy.  The 
punishments  are  very  severe.  It  is  not  distinctly  indicated 
whether  the  proceedings  were  at  the  instance  of  the  state  or 
the  person  wronged,  but  compensation  and  penalty  could  be 
awarded  in  the  same  proceeding,  and  the  provisions  as  to  the 
lex  talionis  and  scale  of  compensation  for  injuries  tend  to  show 
that  the  procedure  was  on  private  complaint  and  not  on  behalf 
of  the  state  (see  further  BABYLONIAN  LAW). 

Of  the  early  criminal  laws  of  Greece  only  fragments  survive, 
e.g.  those  of  Solon  and  Draco.  In  Athens  in  early  times  crime 
was  dealt  with  in  the  Areopagus  from  the  point  of  view  Greece. 
of  religion  and  by  the  archons  from  the  point  of  view  of 
compensation:  and  it  was  only  when  the  state  interests  were 
directly  affected  that  proceedings  by  way  of  eiaa77«Xta  or 
impeachment  were  taken.  In  classical  times  crimes  fell  to  be 
tried  by  panels  of  jurors  or  judges  drawn  from  the  assembly  and 
described  as  Sutturrqpia. 

The  earliest  materials  for  ascertaining  the  criminal  law  of 
Rome  are  to  be  found  in  the  Twelve  Tables,  Table  VIII.  The 
criminal  law  of  imperial  Rome  is  collected  in  books  47  florae. 
and  48  of  the  Digest.  The  classification  of  crimes 
therein  is  capricious  and  anomalous.  "  In  the  early  Roman 
law  the  idea  of  legislative  power  was  so  fully  grasped  and  that 
of  judicial  power  so  little  understood  that  the  criminal  juris- 
diction arose  in  the  form  of  a  legislative  enactment  applicable 
to  particular  cases."  Crimes  were  classified  according  to  the 
mode  of  prosecution  into: 

i.  Publica  judicia,  dealing  with  crimes  specifically  forbidden 
by  definite  laws,  which  took  the  place  of  the  standing  com- 
missions (quaesliones  perpetuae)  of  the  time  of  the  republic. 
In  the  earlier  stages  of  Roman  law  the  stale  only  interfered  to 
punish  offences  which  gravely  affected  it,  and  did  so  by  privilegia, 
which  correspond  to  impeachment  or  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties. 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


455 


Ctltlclaw. 


a.  Extraordinaria  crimina,  crimes  for  which  no  special  pro- 
cedure or  punishment  was  provided:  the  punishment  being, 
within  limits,  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judge  and  the 
prosecution  to  the  injured  party. 

3.  Privata  delicla,  offences  for  which  a  special  form  of  action 
was  open  to  the  injured  party,  e.g.  actio  furti. 

The  multiplicity  of  tribunals  under  the  republic  was  replaced 
under  the  empire  by  a  complete  organization  of  the  judiciary 
throughout  the  districts  (dioceses)  under  the  supervision  of  the 
emperor  in  his  privy  council  (see  Maine,  Ancient  Law,  ed.  1906, 
P-  393)-  Public  prosecution  under  the  empire  began  by  arrest  of 
the  accused,  who  was  taken  before  an  eirenarcha,  who  examined 
him  (by  torture  in  the  case  of  a  slave  or  parricide)  and  sent  him 
on  for  trial  before  the  praeses  of  the  diocese  (Btoiiajais).  Private 
prosecution  followed,  a  procedure  closely  resembling  that  of 
civil  actions,  beginning  with  citatio  (summons),  followed  by 
libellus  or  accusation,  and  appointment  of  a  day  for  hearing. 
The  right  of  either  party  to  call  witnesses  was  very  imperfectly 
established. 

The  early  laws  of  the  Celtic  races  are  preserved  as  to  Wales 
in  the  laws  of  Hywel  Dda,  and  as  to  Ireland  in  the  Book  of 
Aicill  and  other  Brehon  law  tracts,  which  are  pro- 
fessional collections  of  precedents  and  formulae  made 
by  the  hereditary  law  caste  (Brehons),  whose  business  it  was 
"  to  pass  sentence  from  precedents  and  commentaries."  (See 
BREHON  LAWS.)  The  development  of  Celtic  law  was  arrested 
by  the  Saxon  and  Anglo-Norman  conquest:  but  the  materials 
preserved  indicate  an  origin  common  with  that  of  Germanic  law. 

The  special  characteristics  of  Irish  criminal  law,  if  it  can  be 
so  called,  were: — 

1.  The  law  was  customary  and  theoretically  unchangeable, 
and  no  legislative  or  judicial  authority  existed  to'  alter  or 
enforce  it. 

2.  All  crimes  were  treated  as  wrongs,  for  which  compensation 
was  made  by  assessment  of  damages  by  a  consensual  tribunal 
whose  power  to  make  awards  depended  on  submission  of  the 
parties  and  the  ultimate  sanction  of  public  opinion  or  custom. 
A  customary  tariff  for  compensation  existed  for  all  offences 
from  wilful  murder  downwards.     No  crime  was  unamendable. 
The  Irish  law  recognized  a  body  price  or  compensation  (S.  hot) 
and  an  honour  price  or  eric  (S.  wer),  for  which  the  family  or  tribe 
of  the  offender  was  collectively  liable;  but  there  is  no  clearly 
ascertained  equivalent  to  the  Saxon  wite,  or  fine  to  the  chief. 

The  Idws  of  the  Germanic  tribes,  so  far  as  preserved  in  the 
Germania  of  Tacitus,  and  in  the  compilations  of  customs  known 
as  the  Salic  and  Ripuarian  laws,  the  Leges  Barbarorum, 
the  Dooms  of  ^Ethelberht  and  the  collections  of 
Anglo-Saxon  law  and  custom  (to  be  found  in  Thorpe's 
Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  England),  do  not  indicate  any 
adequate  or  definite  division  between  crimes  and  causes  of  civil 
action,  but,  like  the  laws  of  Babylon,  recognize  the  system  and 
contain  the  tariffs  of  compensation  for  wrongs.  The  idea  of 
the  compensation  was  originally  to  put  an  end  (finis)  to  blood 
feuds  and  private  war  or  vengeance. 

These  laws  formed  the  foundation  of  the  criminal  law  of 
Germany,  including  the  Netherlands,  of  England  and  of  Scandi- 
navia. But  in  each  country  the  development  of  criminal  law 
has  been  affected  by  influences  other  than  Germanic,  mainly 
consisting  in  an  infusion  more  or  less  great  of  ideas  derived  from 
Roman  law.  In  England  under  Alfred  some  part  of  the  Levitical 
law  (Exod.  xxi.  12-15)  was  incorporated,  just  as  in  1567  the 
criminal  law  as  to  incest  in  Scotland  was  taken  bodily  from 
Leviticus  xviii. 

The  stage  which  the  development  of  criminal  law  had  reached 

in  England  by  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  is  thus  described 

by  Pollock  and  Maitland  (Hist.  Eng.  Law,  ii.  447): 

s^'o^         "  ^n  tne  eve  of  the  Norman  Conquest  what  we  may  call 

iaw.  the  criminal  law  of  England  (but  it  was  also  the  law 

of  torts  or  civil  wrongs)  contained  four  elements  which 

deserve  attention:  Its  past  history  had  in  the  main  consisted 

of  the  varying  relations  between  them.     We  have  to  speak  of 

outlawry,  of  the  blood  feud  (faidus),  of  the  tariffs  of  wer  and  wite 


Germanic 
law. 


(fredus  or  friede),  and  hot,  of  punishment  in  life  and  limb.  As 
regards  the  malefactor  the  community  may  assume  one  of  four 
attitudes:  it  may  make  war  on  him;  it  may  have  him  exposed 
to  the  vengeance  of  those  whom  he  has  wronged;  it  may  suffer 
him  to  make  atonement;  it  may  inflict  on  him  a  determinate 
punishment,  death,  mutilation  or  the  like."  The  wite  or  sum 
paid  to  the  king  or  lord  is  now  thought  to  have  been  originally 
not  a  penalty  but  a  fee  for  time  and  trouble  taken  in  hearing  and 
determining  a  controversy.  But  at  an  early  stage  fines  for 
breach  of  peace  were  imposed.  An  evil  result  from  the  public 
point  of  view  followed  from  the  system  of  atoning  for  crime  by 
pecuniary  mulct.  "  Criminal  jurisdiction  became  a  source  of 
revenue."  So  early  as  Canute's  time  certain  crimes  were  pleas  of 
the  crown;  but  grants  of  criminal  jurisdiction,- with  the  attendant 
forfeitures,  were  freely  made  to  prelates,  towns  and  lords  of 
manors,  and  some  traces  of  this  jurisdiction  still  survive  (e.g. 
the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  justices  of  the  soke  (soc)  of 
Peterborough,  and  the  rights  of  some  boroughs,  e.g.  Nottingham, 
to  forfeitures).  Outlawry  soon  ceased  to  be  a  mode  of  punish- 
ment, and  became,  as  it  still  is,  a  process  to  compel  submission  to 
justice  (Crown  Office  Rules,  1906,  rules  88-1 10).  Certain  crimes, 
such  as  murder,  rape,  arson  and  burglary,  became  unamendable 
or  bootless,  i.e.  placed  the  offender's  life,  limb,  lands  and  goods 
at  the  king's  mercy.  These  crimes  came  to  be  generally  described 
by  the  name  felony  (q.i>.).  Other  crimes  became  punishable  by 
fines  which  took  the  place  of  wites.  These  were  styled  trespasses 
and  correspond  to  what  is  now  called  misdemeanour  (q.v~). 

Minor  acts  of  violence,  dishonesty  or  nuisance,  were  dealt  with 
in  seigniorial  and  borough  courts  by  presentment  of  the  jurors 
of  courts  baron  and  courts,  leet,  and  punished  by  fine 
or  in  some  cases  by  pillory,  tumbril  or  stocks.  Grave 
acts  were  dealt  with  by  the  sheriff  as  breaches  of  the  period. 
peace.  He  sat  with  the  freeholders  in  the  county 
court,  which  sat  twice  a  year,  or  in  the  hundred  court,  which  sat 
every  four  weeks.  So  far  as  this  involved  dealing  with  pleas 
of  the  crown  the  sheriff's  jurisdiction  was  abolished  and  was 
ultimately  replaced  by  that  of  the  justices  or  conservators  of 
the  peace.  The  sheriff  then  ceased  to  be  a  judge  in  criminal  cases, 
but  remained  and  still  is  in  law  responsible  for  the  peace  of  his 
county,  and  is  the  officer  for  the  execution  of  the  law.  The  royal 
control  over  crime  was  effectually  established  by  the  itinerant 
justices  sent  regularly  throughout  the  realm,  who  not  only  dealt 
with  the  ordinary  proprietary  and  fiscal  rights  of  the  crown 
but  also  with  the  graver  crimes  (treason  and  felony),  and  ulti- 
mately were  commissioned  to  deal  with  the  less  grave  offences 
now  classed  as  indictable  misdemeanours.  The  change  resulted 
from  the  strengthening  of  royal  authority  throughout  England, 
which  enabled  the  crown  gradually  to  enlarge  the  pleas  of  the 
crown  and  to  weaken  and  finally  to  supersede  the  criminal 
jurisdiction,  notably  of  the  sheriff,  but  also  of  prelates  and  lords 
in  ecclesiastical  and  other  manors  and  franchises.  "  In  the  early 
English  laws  and  constitution  there  existed  a  national  sovereignty 
and  original  criminal  jurisdiction,  but  the  ideas  of  legislative 
power  and  crime  were  very  slowly  developed."  During  the  1 2th 
century  the  criminal  law  was  affected  by  the  influence  of  the 
church,  which  introduced  into  it  elements  from  the  Canon  and 
Mosaic  laws,  and  also  by  the  memory  of  the  Roman  empire  and 
the  renewed  study  of  the  Roman  law,  which  enabled  lawyers 
to  draw  a  clearer  distinction  than  had  before  been  recognized 
between  the  criminal  (dolus)  and  civil  (cttlpa)  aspect  of  wrongful 
acts.  The  Statute  of  Treasons  (1351)  is  to  a  large  extent  an 
admixture  of  Roman  with  feudal  law;  and  to  the  same  source 
is  probably  due  the  more  careful  analysis  of  the  mental  elements 
necessary  to  create  criminal  responsibility,  summed  up  in 
the  somewhat  misleading  expression  nemo  reus  est  nisi  mens 
sit  rea. 

In  the  i4th  century  justices  of  the  peace  and  quarter  sessions 
were  established  to  deal  with  offences  not  sufficiently  important 
for  the  king's  judges,  and  from  that  time  the  course  of  criminal 
justice  in  England  has  run  substantially  on  the  same  lines,  with 
the  single  and  temporary  interruption  caused  by  the  court  of 
star  chamber. 


456 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


The  penal  laws  of  modern  states  classify  crimes  somewhat 
differently,  but  in  the  main  on  the  same  general  principles, 

dividing  them  into: — 

Classifies-       j_    Offences    against    the    external    and     internal 
rimes.        order  and  security  of  the  state. 

2.  Offences  against  the  administration  of  police  and 
against  public  authority. 

3.  Acts  injuripus  to  the  public  in  general. 

4.  Offences   against    the   person    (life,  (health,    liberty   and 
reputation),  and  conjugal  and  parental  rights  and  duties. 

5.  Offences  relating   to  property  and   contracts   (including 
theft,  fraud,  forgery  and  malicious  damage). 

The  terminology  by  which  crimes  are  described  by  reference 
to  their  comparative  gravity  varies  considerably.  In  many 
continental  codes  distinctions  are  drawn  between  crimes  (Ger. 
Verbrechen;  Norse  vorbrydelser;  Span.  crimenes;  Ital. 
reato),  delicts  (Ger.  Vergehen;  Ital.  delitti;  Span,  delitos),  and 
contraventions  (Ital.  contravenzioni;  Span,  faltas). 

The  classification  adopted  by  English  law  is  peculiar  to  itself, 
"  treason,"  "  felony  "  and  "  misdemeanour,"  with  a  tentative 
fourth  class  described  as  "  summary  offences."  The  particular 
distinctions  between  these  three  classes  are  dealt  with  under  the 
titles  TREASON;  FELONY;  MISDEMEANOUR,  &c.  Here  it  is 
enough  to  say  that  the  distinction  is  a  result  of  history  and  is 
marked  for  abolition  and  reclassification.  Treason  and  most 
felonies  and  some  misdemeanours  would  under  foreign  codes 
fall  under  the  head  of  crime.  Misdemeanour,  roughly  but  not 
exactly,  corresponds  to  the  French  delit,  and  summary  offence 
to  contravention. 

Elements  ^n  a^  systems  of  criminal  law  it  is  found  necessary 
otcriminaJ  to  determine  the  criterion  of  criminal  responsibility, 
respoasi-  the  mental  elements  of  crime,  the  degrees  of  crimin- 
ality and  the  point  at  which  the  line  is  to  be  drawn 
between  intention  and  commission. 

The  full  definition  of  every  crime  contains  expressly  or  by 
implication  a  proposition  as  to  a  state  of  mind,  and  in  all  systems 
of  criminal  law,  competent  age,  sanity  and  some  degree  of 
freedom  from  coercion,  are  assumed  to  be  essential  to  criminality; 
and  it  is  also  generally  recognized  that  an  act  does  not  fall  within 
the  sanction  of  the  criminal  law  if  done  by  pure  accident  or  in  an 
honest  and  reasonable  belief  in  circumstances  which  if  true 
would  make  it  innocent;  e.g.  when  a  married  person  marries 
again  in  the  honest  and  reasonable  but  mistaken  belief  that  the 
former  spouse  is  dead.  Honest  and  reasonable  mistake  of  fact 
stands  on  the  same  footing  as  absence  of  the  reasoning  faculty, 
as  in  infants,  or  perversion  of  that  faculty,  as  in  lunatics. 

Besides  the  elements  essential  to  constitute  crime  generally, 
particular  mental  elements,  which  may  differ  widely,  are  involved 
in  the  definition  of  particular  crimes;  and  in  the  case  of  statutory 
offences  adequately  and  carefully  defined,  the  mental  elements 
necessary  to  constitute  the  crime  may  be  limited  by  the  definition 
so  as  to  make  the  prohibition  of  the  law  against  a  particular  act 
absolute  for  all  persons  who  are  not  infants  or  lunatics.  As  a 
general  rule  of  English  law,  it  is  enough  to  prove  that  the  acts 
alleged  to  constitute  a  crime  were  done  by  the  accused,  and  to 
leave  him  to  rebut  the  presumption  that  he  intended  the  natural 
consequences  of  the  'acts  by  showing  facts  justifying  or  excusing 
him  or  otherwise  making  him  not  liable.  Children  are  con- 
clusively presumed  to  be  incapable  of  crime  up  to  seven  years  of 
age;  and  from  seven  to  fourteen  the  presumption  is  against  the 
capacity,  but  is  not  absolute. 

Under  the  common  law,  insanity  was  an  absolute  answer  to 
an  accusation  of  crime.  Since  1883,  where  insanity  is  proved 
to  have  existed  at  the  date  of  the  commission  of  the  incriminated 
acts,  the  accused  is  found  guilty  of  the  acts  but  insane  when  he 
did  them,  and  is  relegated  to  a  criminal  lunatic  asylum.  There 
was  also  at  common  law  a  presumption  that  a  married  woman 
committing  certain  crimes  in  the  presence  of  her  husband  did 
so  under  his  coercion.  But  under  modern  decisions  and  practice 
the  presumption  has  become  feeble  almost  to  inanition  (R.  v. 
Mary  Baines,  1900,  69  L.J.  Q.B.  681).  Distinctions  are  also 
drawn  between  degrees  of  guilt  or  complicity. 


English  criminal  law  punishes  attempts  to  commit  crime  if 
the  attempt  passes  from  the  stage  of  resolution  or  intention 
to  the  stage  of  action,  when  the  completion  of  the  full  offence 
is  frustrated  by  something  other  than  the  will  of  the  accused. 
Except  in  the  case  of  attempt  to  commit  murder,  which  is 
a  felony,  attempts  to  commit  a  crime  are  punished  as  mis- 
demeanours. It  also  punishes  the  solicitation  or  incitement  of 
others  to  commit  crime,  as  a  separate  offence  if  the  incitement 
fails,  as  the  offence  of  being  accessory  before  the  fact  or  abettor 
if  the  offence  is  committed  as  a  result  of  the  incitement;  and 
it  punishes  persons  who,  after  a  more  serious  crime — felony — 
has  been  committed,  do  any  act  to  shield  the  offender  from 
justice.  In  the  case  of  the  crimes  described  as  felonies  the  law 
distinguishes  between  principals  in  the  first  or  second  degree 
and  accessories  before  or  after  the  fact.  In  the  case  of  mis- 
demeanours the  same  punishment  is  incurred  by  the  principal 
offenders,  and  by  persons  who  are  present  aiding  and  abetting  the 
commission  of  the  offence,  or  who,  though  not  present,  counselled 
or  procured  the  commission  of  the  offence  (see  ACCESSORY).  Be- 
sides these  degrees  of  crime  there  is  one  almost  peculiar  to  English 
law  known  as  conspiracy,  i.e.  an  agreement  to  commit  crime  or  to 
do  illegal  acts  (including  interference  with  the  due  course  of 
justice),  which  is  punishable  even  if  the  conspiracy  does  not  get 
beyond  the  stage  of  agreement.  The  exact  nature  of  this  form 
of  crime  and  the  propriety  of  abolishing  it  or  limiting  its  scope 
have  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy,  especially  with 
reference  to  combinations  by  trade  unions. 

The  English  law  does  not,  but  most  European  laws  do,  allow 
the  jury  to  reduce  the  penalty  of  an  offence  by  finding  in  their 
verdict  that  the  commission  of  the  offence  was  attended  by 
extenuating  circumstances;  but  when  the  jury  recommend 
to  mercy  a  person  whom  they  find  guilty  the  judge  may  give 
effect  to  the  recommendation  or  report  it  to  the  Home  Office. 

In  systems  of  criminal  law  derived  from  England  the  forms  of 
crime  or  degrees  of  complicity  above  stated  reappear  with  or 
without  modification,  but  as  to  conspiracy  with  a  good  deal  of 
alteration.  In  the  Indian  penal  code,  for  instance,  conspiracy 
is  limited  to  cases  of  treason  (§  121  A),  and  when  it  goes  beyond 
agreement  in  the  case  of  other  offences  it  is  merely  a  form  of 
abetment  or  participation  (§  107). 

The  criminal  law  of  England '  is  not  codified,  but  is  composed 
of  a  large  number  of  enactments  resting  on  a  basis  of  common 
law.  A  very  large  part  is  reduced  to  writing  in  penal- 
statutes.  The  unwritten  portion  of  the  law  includes  tioasof 
(i)  principles  relating  to  the  excuse  or  justification  of  parUcuiai 
acts  or  omissions  which  are  prima  facie  criminal,  (2)  crlmes- 
the  definitions  of  many  offences,  e.g.  murder,  assault,  theft, 
forgery,  perjury,  libel,  riot,  (3)  parts  of  the  law  relating  to 
procedure.  The  law  is  very  rich  in  principles  and  rules  embodied 
in  judicial  decisions  and  is  extremely  detailed  and  explicit, 
leaving  to  the  judges  very  little  latitude  of  interpretation  or 
expression.  So  far  as  the  legislature  is  concerned  there  is  an 
absence  of  systematic  arrangement.  The  definitions  of  particular 
crimes  are  still  to  be  sought  in  the  common  law  and  the  decisions 
of  the  judges.  The  Consolidation  Acts  of  1861  for  the  most  part 
leave  definitions  as  they  stood,  e.g.  the  Larceny  Act  1861  does 
not  define  the  crime  of  larceny.  The  consequence  is  that  exact 
definitions  are  very  difficult  to  frame,  and  the  technical  view  of 
a  crime  sometimes  includes  more,  sometimes  less,  than  it  ought. 
Thus  the  crime  of  murder,  as  settled  by  the  existing  law,  would 
include  offences  of  such  very  different  moral  gravity  as  killing 

1  "  It  is  founded,"  said  Sir  J.  Fitziames  Stephen,  writing  in  1863, 
"  on  a  set  of  loose  definitions  and  descriptions  of  crimes,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  as  ojd  as  Bracton.  Upon  this  foundation 
there  was  built,  principally  in  the  course  of  the  i8th  century,  an 
entire  and  irregular  superstructure  of  acts  of  parliament,  the  enact- 
ments of  which  were  for  the  most  part  intended  to  supply  the 
deficiencies  of  the  original  system.  These  acts  have  been  re-enacted 
twice  over  in  the  present  generation — once  between  1826  and  1832 
and  once  in  1861;  besides  which  they  were  p\\  amended  in  1837. 
Finally,  every  part  of  the  whole  system  has  been  made  the  subject 
of  judicial  comments  and  constructions  occasioned  by  particular 
cases,  the  great  mass  of  which  have  arisen  within  the  last  fifty  years." 
( View  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England,  by  J.  Fitzjames  Stephen.) 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


457 


a  man  deliberately  for  the  sake  of  robbing  him,  and  killing  a  man 
accidentally  in  an  attempt  to  rob  him.  On  the  other  hand, 
offences  which  ought  to  have  been  criminal  were  constantly 
declared  by  the  judges  not  to  fall  within  the  definition  of  the 
particular  crimes  alleged,  and  the  legislature  has  constantly 
had  to  fill  up  the  lacunae  in  the  law  as  interpreted  by  the  judges. 

The  jurisdiction  to  deal  with  crime  is  primarily  territorial, 
and  can  be  exercised  only  as  to  acts  done  within  the  territory 
or  territorial  waters,  or  on  the  ships  of  the  law-giver. 
diction.  Extra  territorium  jus  dicenti  impune  non  paretur.  No 
state  will  enforce  the  penal  laws  of  another  nor  permit 
the  officer  of  another  state  to  execute  its  laws  outside  its  own 
territory.  But  international  law  recognizes  the  competence  of 
a  state  to  make  its  criminal  law  binding  on  its  own  subjects 
wherever  they  are,  and  perhaps  even  to  punish  foreigners  who 
outside  its  territory  do  acts  which  menace  its  internal  or  external 
security,  e.g.  by  dynamite  plots  or  falsification  of  coin.  Apart 
from  extradition  arrangements  the  national  law  cannot  reach 
such  persons,  be  they  citizens  or  aliens,  until  they  come  within 
the  territory  of  the  state  whose  law  has  been  broken. 

The  codes  of  France,  Germany  and  Italy  make  the  penal  law 
national  or  personal  and  not  territorial.  In  some  British  colonies 
whose  legislatures  have  a  derived  and  limited  legislative 
authority,  indirect  methods  have  been  taken  to  deal  within 
the  colony  with  persons  who  commit  offences  outside  its 
territory. 

Throughout  the  development  of  the  English  criminal  law  it 
showed  and  retains  one  particular  characteristic  that  crime 
was  treated  as  local,  which  means  not  merely  that  the  common 
law  of  England  was  limited  to  English  soil,  but  that  an  offence 
on  English  soil  could  be  "  inquired  of,  dealt  with,  tried,  deter- 
mined and  punished  "  only  in  the  particular  territorial  division 
of  England  in  which  it  was  committed,  which  was  and  is  known 
as  the  venue  (q.v.).  Each  township  was  responsible  for  crimes 
within  its  boundaries,  a  responsibility  made  effective  by  the 
"  view  of  frankpledge,"  now  obsolete,  and  the  guilt  or  innocence 
of  every  man  had  to  be  determined  by  his  neighbours.  This 
rule  excluded  from  trial  by  the  courts  of  common  law,  treasons, 
&c.  committed  by  Englishmen  abroad  and  piracy;  and  it  was 
not  till  Henry  VIII. 's  reign  (1536,  1544)  that  the  common-law 
mode  of  trial  was  extended  to  these  offences.  The  legislature 
has  altered  the  common  law  as  to  numerous  offences,  but  on  no 
settled  plan,  and  except  for  a  bill  introduced  about  1888,  at  the 
instance  of  the  3rd  marquess  of  Salisbury,  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  make  the  English  criminal  law  apply  generally  to 
subjects  when  outside  the  realm ;  and  in  view  of  the  complicated 
nature  of  the  British  empire  and  the  absence  of  a  common 
criminal  code  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  remain  content 
with  extradition  in  the  case  of  crimes  abroad,  and  with  the 
provisions  of  the  Fugitive  Offenders  Act  1881  in  the  case  of 
criminals  who  flee  from  one  part  to  another  of  the  empire. 

The  localization  in  England  of  crime,  and  the  procedure  for 
punishing  it,  differ  largely  from  the  view  taken  in  France  and 
most  European  countries.  The  French  theory  is  that  a  French- 
man owes  allegiance  to  the  French  state,  and  commits  a  breach 
of  that  allegiance  whenever  he  commits  a  crime  against  French 
law,  even  although  he  is  not  at  the  time  within  French  territory. 
In  modern  days  this  theory  has  been  extended  so  as  to  allow 
French  and  German  courts  to  punish  their  subjects  for  crimes 
committed  in  foreign  countries,  and  by  reason  of  this  power 
certain  countries  refuse  to  extradite  their  subjects  who  have 
committed  crimes  in  other  states. 

The  principle  of  the  French  law,  though  not  expressly  re- 
cognized in  England,  must  be  invoked  to  justify  two  departures 
from  the  English  principle — (i)  as  regards  offences 
on'fte"*  on  tne  n'8h  seas,  and  (2)  as  regards  certain  offences 
high  teas,  committed  outside  the  United  Kingdom.  In  early 
days  offences  committed  by  Englishmen  on  the  high 
seas  were  punished  by  the  lord  high  admiral,  and  he  encroached 
so  much  on  the  ordinary  courts  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  pass 
an  act  in  Richard  II. 's  reign  (15  Rich.  II.  st.  2,  c.  3)  to  restrain 
him. 


In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  (1536,  28  Hen.  VIII.  c.  15)  an  act 
was  passed  stating  that,  as  the  admiral  tried  persons  according 
to  the  course  of  civil  law,  they  could  not  be  convicted  unless 
either  they  confessed  or  they  or  the  witnesses  were  submitted 
to  torture,  and  that  therefore  it  was  expedient  to  try  the  offences 
according  to  the  course  of  the  common  law.  Under  that  act 
a  special  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer  was  issued  to  try  these 
offences  at  the  Old  Bailey,  and  English  law  was  satisfied  by  per- 
mitting the  indictment  to  state  that  the  offence  was  committed 
on  board  a  ship  on  the  high  seas,  to  wit  in  the  county  of  Middlesex. 
Since  1861  these  special  commissions  have  been  rendered  un- 
necessary by  the  provision  (contained  in  each  of  the  Criminal  Law 
Consolidation  Acts  of  that  year)  that  all  offences  committed  on 
the  high  seas  may  be  tried  as  if  they  had  been  committed  in 
England.  As  regards  offences  on  land,  it  was  found  necessary 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1544)  to  provide  for  the  trial 
in  England  of  treasons  and  murders  committed  on  land  outside 
England.  This  was  largely  due  to  the  constant  presence  in 
France  of  the  king  and  many  of  his  nobles  and  knights,  offeaces 
but  the  aid  of  this  statute  had  to  be  invoked  in  1903  committed 
in  the  case  of  Lynch,  tried  for  treason  in  South  Africa,  on  land 
The  latest  legislation  on  the  subject  was  in  1861 
(Offences  against  the  Person  Act,  §  9),  and  any  murder 
or  manslaughter  committed  on  land  out  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
whether  within  the  king's  dominions  or  without,  and  whether 
the  person  killed  were  a  subject  of  His  Majesty  or  not,  may  be 
dealt  with  in  all  respects  as  if  it  were  committed  in  England. 
The  jurisdiction  has  been  extended  to  a  few  other  cases  such  as 
slave  trade,  bigamy,  perjury,  committed  with  reference  to 
proceedings  in  an  English  court,  and  offences  connected  with 
explosives.  But  these  offences  must  be  committed  on  land  and 
not  on  board  a  foreign  ship,  because  if  a  man  takes  service  on 
board  a  foreign  ship  he  is  treated  for  the  time  as  being  a  member 
of  the  foreign  state  to  which  that  ship  belongs.  The  principle 
has  been  also  extended  to  misdemeanours  (but  not  to  MM 
felonies)  committed  by  public  officers  out  of  Great  meaaours 
Britain,  whether  within  or  without  the  British  committed 
dominions.  Thus  a  governor  or  an  inferior  officer  of  a  by  fubllc 
colony,  if  appointed  by  the  British  government,  may  be  "^ 
prosecutedforanymisdemeanour committed  by  him  by 
virtue  of  his  office  in  the  colony;  and  cases  have  occurred  where 
governors  have  been  so  prosecuted,  such  as  that  of  General 
Picton  at  the  beginning  of  the  I9th  century,  and  of  Governor 
Eyre  of  Jamaica  in  1865,  and  the  attempt  to  prosecute  Governor 
MacCallum  of  Natal  in  1906.  As  a  corollary  to  the  system  of 
"  capitulations  "  applied  to  certain  non-Christian  states  in  Asia 
and  Africa,  it  has  been  necessary  to  take  powers  for  punishing 
under  English  law  offences  by  British  subjects  in  those  states, 
which  would  otherwise  go  unpunished  either  by  the  law  of  the 
land  where  the  offence  was  committed  or  by  the  law  of  the  state 
to  which  the  offender  belonged  (Jenkyns,  Foreign  Jurisdiction 
of  the  Crown). 

An  essential  part  of  the  criminal  law  is  the  punishment  or 
sanction  by  which  the.  state  seeks  to  prevent  or  avenge  offences. 
See  also  under   CRIMINOLOGY.    Here   it   is  enough 
to  say  that  during  the  I9th  century  great  changes      Punish- 
have  been  made  throughout  the  world  in  the  modes      menf, 
of  punishing  crime. 

In  England  until  early  in  the  igth  century,  punishments  for 
crime  were  ferocious.  The  severity  of  the  law  was  tempered 
by  the  rule  as  to  benefit  of  clergy  and  by  the  rigid  adherence  of 
the  judges  (in  favorem  vitae)  to  the  rules  of  correct  pleading  and 
proof,  whereby  the  slightest  error  on  the  part  of  the  prosecution 
led  to  an  acquittal.  Bentham  pointed  out  that  certainty  of 
punishment  was  more  effective  than  severity,  that  severe 
punishments  induced  juries  to  acquit  criminals,  and  that  thus 
the  certainty  of  punishment  was  diminished.  But  his  arguments 
and  the  eloquence  of  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  produced  no  effect 
until  after  the  reform  of  parliament  in  1832,  shortly  after  which 
statutes  were  passed  abolishing  the  death  sentence  for  all  felonies 
where  benefit  of  clergy  existed.  The  severity  of  capital  sentences 
had  already  been  modified  by  the  pardoning  power  of  the  crown, 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


which  pardoned  convicts  under  sentence  of  death  on  their 
consenting  to  be  transported  to  convict  settlements  in  the  colonies. 
(See  DEPORTATION.)  For  some  years  this  was  only  done  by  the 
consent  of  the  convict,  who  agreed  to  be  transported  if  his  death 
sentence  was  remitted,  but  in  1824,  when  a  convict  refused  to 
give  this  consent,  parliament  authorized  the  crown  to  substitute 
transportation  for  a  death  sentence,  and  the  same  course  was 
adopted  in  Ireland  in  1851  when  some  treason-felony  prisoners 
refused  commutation  of  their  sentence  to  transportation. 

The  punishments  now  in  use  under  the  English  law  for  indict- 
able offences  are: — 

1.  Death,  inflicted  by  hanging,  with  a  provision  that  other 
modes  of  execution  may  be  authorized  by  royal  warrant  in  cases 
of  high  treason. 

2.  Penal  servitude,  which  in  1853  was  substituted  for  trans- 
portation to  penal  settlements  outside  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  minimum  term  of  penal  servitude  is  three  years  (Penal 
Servitude  Act  1891),  and  the  sentence  is  carried  out  in  a  convict 
prison,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  there  is  still  power  to  send 
the  convicts  out  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

3.  Imprisonment  in  a  local  prison,  which  must  be  without  hard 
labour  unless  a  statute  specially  authorizes  a  sentence  of  hard 
labour.     At  common  law  there  is  no  limit  to  a  term  of  imprison- 
ment for  misdemeanour;  but  for  many  offences  (both  felonies 
and  misdemeanours)  the  term  is  limited  by  statute  to  two  years, 
and  in  practice  this  limit  is  not  exceeded  for  any  offence.     The 
treatment  of  prisoners  is  regulated  by  the  prison  acts  and  rules. 

4.  Police  supervision,  on  conviction  or  indictment  of  felony 
and  certain  misdemeanours  after  a  previous  conviction  of  such 
offences.     Prevention  of  Crimes  Act,  c.  112,  §§  8,  20. 

5.  Pecuniary  fine,  a  punishment  appropriate  only  to  mis- 
demeanours  and   never   imposed   for   a   felony   except   under 
statutory  authority,  e.g.  manslaughter  (Offences  against  the 
Person  Act,  §  5).     The  amount  of  the  fine  is  in  the  discretion  of 
the  judge,  subject  to  the  directions  of  Magna  Carta  and  the 
Bill  of  Rights  and  of  any  statute  limiting  the  maximum  for  a 
particular  offence. 

6.  Whipping  was  a  common  law  punishment  for  misdemean- 
ants of  either  sex.     Under  the  present  law  the  whipping  of  females 
is  prohibited,  and  the  punishment  is  not  inflicted  on  males  except 
under  statutory  authority,  which  is  given  in  the  case  of  certain 
assaults  on  the  sovereign,  of  certain  forms  of  robbery  with 
violence  or  assaults  with  intent  to  commit  felony  (Garrotters 
Act  1863),  of  incorrigible  rogues,  larceny  and  malicious  damage, 
and  certain  other  offences  by  youthful  offenders. 

7.  Recognizances  (caution)   to  keep  peace  and  be  of  good 
behaviour,  i.e.  a.  bond  with  or  without  sureties  creating  a  debt 
to  the  crown  not  enforceable  unless  the  conditions  as  to  conduct 
therein  made  are  broken.     This  bond  may  be  taken  from  any 
misdemeanant,  and,  under  statutory  authority,  from  persons 
convicted  of  any  felony  (except  murder)   falling  within    the 
Criminal  Law  Consolidation  Acts  of  1861. 

8.  In  the  case  of  any  offence  which  is  not  capital  the  court, 
if  it  is  a  first  offence  or  if  any  other  grounds  for  mercy  appear, 
may  simply  bind  the  offender  over  to  come  up  for  judgment 
when  required,  intimating  to  him  that  if  his  conduct  is  good  no 
further  steps  will  be  taken  to  punish  him. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  death  penalty,  the  court  of  trial 
has  a  discretion  as  to  the  quantum  of  a  particular  punishment, 
no  minimum  being  fixed.  In  the  case  of  offences  punishable 
on  summary  conviction  the  maximum  punishment  is  always 
fixed  by  statute.  It  consists  of  imprisonment  with  or  without 
.hard  labour,  or  a  fine  of  a  limited  amount,  or  both.  The  imprison- 
ment in  very  few  cases  may  exceed  six  months.  If  the  maximum 
exceeds  three  months  the  accused  must  be  informed  that  he  has  a 
right,  if  he  so  elects,  to  be  tried  by  a  jury. 

Where  power  is  given  to  deal  summarily  with  offences  which 
under  ordinary  circumstances  would  be  tried  on  indictment, 
the  punishments  are  as  follows  (Summary  Jurisdiction  Act 

1879):— 

(a)  In  the  case  of  adults  pleading  guilty,  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  six  months  without  the  option  of  a  fine. 


(6)  In  the  case  of  adults  (consenting  to  be  summarily  tried), 
where  the  offence  affects  property  not  worth  over  forty  shillings, 
imprisonment  not  over  three  months,  or  fine  not  exceeding  £20. 

(c)  In  the  case  of  young  persons,  between  twelve  and  sixteen 
years,  imprisonment  not  over  three  months,  or  fine  not  exceeding 

£10. 

(d)  In  the  case  of  children  under  twelve,  imprisonment  not 
over  one  month,  or  fine  not  exceeding  forty  shillings. 

If  the  offence  is  trifling,  the  accused  may  be  discharged 
without  punishment,  and  under  the  First  Offenders  Act  (1887) 
the  justices  have  a  discretionary  power  to  forgo  punishment. 
The  justices  have  also  the  power,  under  the  Prevention  of  Crime 
Act  1908,  in  lieu  of  passing  a  sentence  of  penal  servitude  or 
imprisonment,  to  commit  persons  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and 
twenty-one  to  a  Borstal  institution,  for  a  period  of  detention 
ranging  from  one  to  three  years  (see  JUVENILE  OFFENDERS). 

In  the  criminal  law  of  Europe  the  scale  of  punishments  is 
on  similar  lines  in  most  states,  and  is  more  elaborate  than  that 
of  England,  and  less  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  court  of  trial. 
The  following  examples  will  indicate  the  kind  of  punishments 
awarded  under  the  French  penal  code.  Punishments  are 
classified  as  (i)  afflictives  et  infamantes,  including  death,  travaux 
fords  a  perpetulte  ou  d  temps,  deportation,  detention,  reclusion; 
(2)  infamantes,  viz.  banishment  and  civil  degradation;  (3) 
peines  en  matiere  correctionnelle,  viz.  imprisonment  in  a  house 
of  correction  (six  days  to  five  years),  interdiction  from  certain 
civic  rights,  and  fine.  The  punishments  in  no  case  have  any 
effect  to  extinguish  the  civil  claims  of  individuals  who  have 
suffered  by  the  offence  (arts.  6  and  55).  Special  provisions  are 
made  for  recidimstes,  police  supervision  and  first  offenders  (Lot 
Btrenger). 

In  the  German  code  of  1872  the  legal  punishments  are:  (i) 
death;  (2)  penal  servitude  for  life  or  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
fifteen  years  nor  less  than  one  year;  (3)  imprisonment  with 
labour  for  a  term  not  exceeding  five  years  nor  less  than  one  day; 
(4)  confinement  in  a  fortress  (terms  same  as  for  penal  servitude 
but  involving  only  withdrawal  of  freedom  and  supervision);  (5) 
arrest  for  not  more  than  six  weeks  nor  less  than  one  day;  (6) 
fine  (not  less  than  three  marks  in  the  case  of  crimes  or  delicts 
nor  one  mark  in  case  of  petty  offences).  Sentence  of  imprison- 
ment is  in  certain  cases  followed  by  liability  to  be  placed  under 
police  supervision  for  a  term  after  release.  In  the  case  of  a 
sentence  of  death  or  of  penal  servitude,  the  court  may  order 
forfeiture  of  civil  privileges,  and  a  condemnation  to  penal 
servitude  permanently  disqualifies  for  service  in  the  army  and 
public  office  (Code  pt.  i,  chap,  i,  arts.  13-40). 

Under  the  Italian  code  of  1889  (arts.  11-30)  the  punishments 
are  (i)  ergastolo  (for  life);  (2)  reclusione  (from  three  days  to 
twenty-four  years),  which  involves  hard  labour  and  cellular 
confinement;  (3)  detenzione  (like  term),  which  involves  labour 
and  at  night  separate  confinement;  (4)  confino  (one  month  to 
three  years),  a  form  of  banishment  from  the  commune  of  origin 
or  residence  of  the  offender;  (50)  fine  (multa),  from  ten  to  ten 
thousand  lire;  (56)  amende,  from  one  to  two  thousand  lire;  (6) 
arrest  (one  day  to  two  years);  (7)  interdiction  from  public 
office;  (8)  suspension  from  professional  calling.  Punishments 
(56),  (6)  and  (8)  are  applied  only  to  contraventions,  the  others 
to  crimes  (delitti). 

The  Spanish  law  (Codigo  Penal,  title  3,  chaps.  2  and  3)  contains 
a  general  scale  of  punishments  classified  as  afflictive,  correctional, 
light  and  accessory.  The  first  class  begins  with  death  and  runs 
down  through  many  forms  of  imprisonment  to  disqualification 
(inhabilitacion) .  The  second  includes  forms  of  imprisonment, 
(presidio  and  prisidn),  and  arrest,  public  censure  and  suspension 
from  the  exercise  of  certain  offices  or  callings.  The  slight 
punishments  are  minor  arrest  and  private  censure.  Offenders 
in  any  of  the  three  classes  may  also  be  fined  or  put  under  recog- 
nizance (caucion).  The  accessory  punishments  include  payment 
of  costs,  degradation,  civil  interdiction. 

In  England  indictable  offences  (i.e.  offences  which  must  be 
tried  by  a  judge  and  jufy)  are  thus  dealt  with: — 

i.  Courts  of  assize  (sitting  under  old  commissions  known  as 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


459 


commissions  of  assize,  oyer  and  terminer,  and  general  gaol 
delivery)  are  held  twice  or  oftener  in  every  year  in  each  county 
Tribunals.  an<^  a'so  m  some  large  cities  and  boroughs.  They  are 
the  lineal  successors  of  the  justices  in  eyre1  of  the 
middle  ages;  but  they  are  now  integral  parts  of  the  High  Court 
of  Justice.  These  courts  can  try  any  indictable  offence  presented 
by  a  grand  jury  for  the  district  in  which  they  sit. 

2.  For  the  counties  of  London  and  Middlesex  and  certain 
adjoining  districts,  a  special  court  of  assize  known  as  the  central 
criminal  court  sits  monthly. 

3.  In  all  counties  and  many  boroughs  the  justices  of  the 
peace  sit  quarterly  or  oftener  under  the  commission  of  the  peace 
to  try  the  minor  indictable  offences.     (See  QUARTER  SESSIONS, 
COURT  or.) 

4.  The  High  Court  of  Justice  in  the  king's  bench  division 
tries  a  few  special  offences  in  its  original  jurisdiction,  and  where 
justice  requires  may  transfer  indictments  from  other  courts 
for  trial  before  itself. 

5.  The  court  of  criminal  appeal  has  been  instituted  by  the 
Criminal  Appeal  Act   1907;    to  it  all    persons    convicted  on 
indictment  have  a  right  of  appeal.     (See  APPEAL.) 

The  substantive  law  as  to  crime  applies  in  England  to  all 
persons  except  the  reigning  sovereign,  and  criminal  procedure 
is  the  same  for  all  subjects  alike,  except  in  the  case  of  peers  or 
peeresses  charged  with  felony,  who  have  the  right  of  trial  by 
their  peers  in  the  House  of  Lords  if  it  be  sitting,  or  in  the  court 
of  the  lord  high  steward. 

There  are  in  England  no  courts  of  a  special  character,  such 
as  exist  in  some  foreign  countries,  for  the  determination  of 
disputes  between  the  governing  classes  themselves 
tribunals.  or  witn  tne  governed  classes,  whether  of  a  civil  or 
criminal  character.  There  are  a  few  exceptional 
courts  with  criminal  jurisdiction.  The  court  of  chivalry,  which 
used  to  punish  offences  committed  within  military  lines  outside 
the  kingdom,  is  obsolete.  Special  tribunals  exist  for  trying 
naval  or  military  offences  committed  by  members  of  the  navy 
and  army,  but  those  members  are  not  exempt  from  being  tried 
by  the  ordinary  tribunals  for  offences  against  the  ordinary  law, 
as  though  they  were  civilians.  The  naval  courts  can  be  held 
only  on  board  a  ship,  and  can  as  a  general  rule  try  only  persons 
entered  on  the  books  of  a  king's  ship.  The  military  courts  can 
only  try  persons  who  are  actually  members  of  the  army  at  the 
time,  and  their  authority  is  annually  renewed  by  parliament, 
in  consequence  of  the  jealousy  still  felt  against  the  trial  of  any 
man  except  by  the  ordinary  courts  of  law.  Military  and  naval 
courts  can  try  in  any  part  of  the  world,  and  whenever  the  forces  are 
in  active  service  can  try  followers  of  the  camp  as  if  they  were 
actual  members  of  the  forces.  (See  MILITARY  LAW;  MARTIAL 
LAW.) 

The  ecclesiastical  courts,  which  were  formerly  very  powerful 
in  England,  and  punished  persons  for  various  offences,  such  as 
perjury,  swearing,  and  sexual  offences,  have  now 
almost  fallen  into  disuse.  Their  authority  over 
Protestant  dissenters  from  the  established  church 
was  taken  away  by  statute;  their  authority  over  lay 
members  of  the  Church  of  England  has  disappeared  by  disuse. 
Occasionally  suits  are  instituted  in  them  against  the  clergy  for 
offences  either  against  morality  or  against  doctrine  or  ritual. 
In  these  cases  their  sentences  are  enforced  by  penalties,  such  as 
suspension,  or  deprivation  of  benefice,  or  by  imprisonment, 
which  has  replaced  the  old  punishment  of  excommunication. 

A  system  of  procedure,  with  the  judicial  machinery  required 
to  work  it,  may  be  created  either  by  the  direct  legislative  action 
of  the  supreme  power  or  by  custom  and  the  action 
of  the  courts.  Both  at  Rome  and  in  England  it  was 
through  usage  and  by  the  courts  themselves  that 
the  earlier  system  was  slowly  moulded:  both  at  Rome  and  in 
England  it  was  direct  legislation  that  established  the  later 
system.  (See  Bryce,  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence,  1901 , 
ii.  334-) 

The  characteristics  of  English  criminal  procedure  which  most 
1  i.e.  Itinerant  justices.     From  the  Latin  in  itinere,  on  a  journey. 


Pro- 
cedure. 


distinguish  it  from  the  procedure  of  other  countries  are  as 
follows: — 

1.  It  is  litigious  or  accusatory  and  not  inquisitorial  (Stephen, 
Prel.  View  Cr.  Law) .    It  is  for  the  prosecutor  to  prove  by  evidence 
the  commission  of  the  alleged  offence.     No  power  exists  to 
interrogate  the  accused  unless  he  consents  to  be  sworn  as  a 
witness  in  his  own  defence,  which  since  1898  he  may  do.     The 
right  to  cross-examine  him  even  when  he  is  so  sworn  is  limited 
by  law,  with  the  object  of  excluding  inquiry    into  his   past 
character  or  into  past  offences  not  relevant  to  the  particular 
charge  on  which  he  is  being  tried. 

2.  The  forms  of  criminal  pleading  still  in  use  are  in  substance 
framed  on  the  lines  of  the  old  system  of  pleading  at  common 
law  in  civil  cases,  which  was  swept  away  by  the  judicature  acts. 
Criminal  pleadings  have,  however,  one  peculiarity.    Indictments, 
being  in  form  the  presentment  of  a  grand  jury,  could  not  be 
amended  until  provision  for  that  purpose  was  made  in  1851. 
(See  INDICTMENT.) 

3.  Criminal  prosecutions  are  ordinarily  undertaken  by  the 
individuals  who  have  suffered  by  a  crime.     There  is  not  in 
England,  as  in  Scotland  and  all  European  countries,  a  public 
department  concerned  to  deal  with  all  prosecutions  for  crime. 
The  result  is  that  the  prosecution  of  most  ordinary  crime  is  left 
to  individual  enterprise  or  the  action  of  the  local  police  force  or 
the  justices'  clerk. 

The  attorney-general  has  always  represented  the  crown  in 
criminal  matters,  and  in  state  prosecutions  appears  in  person 
on  behalf  of  the  crown,  and  when  he  so  appears  has  certain 
privileges  as  respects  the  reply  to  the  prisoner's  defence  and 
the  mode  of  trial.  In  the  Prosecution  of  Offences  Acts  of  1879, 
1884  and  1908  there  is  to  be  found  the  nucleus  of  a  system  of 
public  prosecution  such  as  obtains  in  other  countries  in  case  of 
crime.  Under  these  acts  the  director  of  public  prosecutions  (up 
to  1908  an  office  conjoint  with  that  of  solicitor  to  the  Treasury) 
acts  under  the  attorney-general,  but  unless  specially  directed  he 
only  undertakes  a  limited  number  of  prosecutions,  e.g.  for  murder, 
coining  and  serious  crimes  affecting  the  government. 

4.  Where  an  indictable  offence  is  supposed  to  have  been 
committed  the  accused  is  arrested,  with  or  without  the  warrant 
of  a  justice,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  offence,  or  is  sum- 
moned by  a  justice  before  him.     On  his  appearance  a  preliminary 
inquiry  is  held  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  there  is 
a  prima  facie  case  against  him.     The  procedure  is  regulated  by 
the  Indictable  Offences  Act  1848,  and  is  entirely  different  from 
the  procedure  for  summary  offences.     It  may  be,  though  usually 
it  is  not,  held  in  private;  it  is  an  inquiry  and  not  a  trial;  the 
justices  have  to  consider  not  whether  the  man  is  guilty,  but 
whether  there  is  such  a  prima  facie  case  against  him  that  he 
ought  to  be  tried.     If  they  think  that  there  is,  they  commit  him 
to  prison  to  wait  his  trial,  or  require  him  to  give  security,  with 
or  without  sureties,  to  the  amount  named  by  them,  for  appearing 
to  take  his  trial.     If  they  think  the  charge  unsubstantial  they 
discharge  the  accused  at  once.    The  prosecutor  in  cases  of  felony 
may  if  he  likes  go  before  the  grand  jury  whether  the  case  has 
or  has  not  been  the  subject  of  a  preliminary  inquiry,  but  in  the 
case  of  many  misdemeanours  it  is  obligatory  first  to  have  a 
preliminary  inquiry,  as  a  protection  against  vexatious  indict- 
ments. 

Whether  there  has  or  has  not  been  a  preliminary  inquiry 
before  a  magistrate,  no  person  can  be  tried  for  any  of  the  graver 
crimes,  treason  or  felony,  except  upon  indictment 
found  by  a  grand  jury  of  the  county  or  place  where 
the  offence  is  said  to  have  been  committed  or  is  by 
statute  made  cognizable.  In  olden  days,  and  even  now  in  theory, 
the  grand  jury  inquire  of  their  own  knowledge,  by  the  oath  of 
good  and  lawful  men  of  the  neighbourhood,  into  the  crime  of 
the  county,  but  in  practice  the  charges  against  the  accused 
persons  are  always  first  submitted  to  the  proper  officer  of  the 
court.  The  grand  jurors  are  instructed  as  to  their  inquisition 
by  a  charge  from  the  judge,  as  regards  the  indictments  concern- 
ing which  they  are  called  upon  to  enquire  whether  there  is  a 
prima  facie  case  to  send  them  for  trial  to  the  petty  jury.  The 


460 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


grand  jury  must  consist  of  not  less  than  twelve,  nor  more  than 
twenty-three,  good  and  lawful  men  of  the  county.  But  any 
person  who  prefers  an  indictment  is  entitled  to  have  it  presented 
to  the  grand  jury.  Officers  of  the  court  lay  the  indictments  before 
the  grand  jury.  The  charges  are  then  called  bills,  and  if  the 
grand  jury  considers  that  there  is  no  prima  facie  case  the  foreman 
endorses  the  bill  with  the  words  "  no  true  bill,"  and  it  is  then 
presented  to  the  judge.  The  jury  are  then  said  to  have  ignored 
the  bill,  and  if  the  person  charged  is  in  custody  he  is  released, 
but  is  liable  to  be  indicted  again  on  better  evidence. 

As  a  means  of  constitutional  protection  in  times  of  monarchical 
aggression  this  practice  had  no  doubt  a  great  value,  but  in  the 
present  day,  when  few  offenders  are  tried  without  a  preliminary 
inquiry  by  justices,  the  functions  of  a  grand  jury  are  of  secondary 
importance,  and  the  jurors'  time  is  perhaps  needlessly  occupied. 
The  institution  of  the  grand  jury  prevented  the  crown  in  the 
days  of  its  great  power  from  removing  a  person  whom  it  wished 
to  get  rid  of  from  among  his  neighbours,  and  placing  him  on  trial 
in  a  strange  place  where  the  influence  of  the  crown  was  greater. 
This  is  still  true  to  a  certain  extent,  as  great  injustice  may  be 
caused  to  a  man  by  removing  him  from  his  neighbours  and 
trying  him  at  a  distance  from  his  friends,  and  from  the  witnesses 
whom  he  might  call  for  his  defence.  In  Ireland,  for  instance, 
the  greatest  injustice  might  be  done  by  removing  an  Orangeman 
from  Belfast  and  trying  him  in  a  Roman  Catholic  county  or 
vice  versa.  But  it  has  its  evils  where  the  area  from  which  the 
jurors  are  drawn  is  small,  such  as  a  town  of  a  few  thousand 
inhabitants.  In  that  case  a  man  charged,  say,  with  fraud,  may 
be  protected  by  his  friends  from  being  properly  punished  for 
that  fraud.  But  where  justice  requires,  an  order  may  be  made 
for  the  trial  of  the  offence  in  another  county  or  at  the  central 
criminal  court. 

In  many  colonies  the  Scottish  system  has  been  adopted, 
by  which  the  ordinary  form  of  accusation  is  by  indictment 
framed  by  the  public  prosecutor,  and  a  grand  jury  is  only  im- 
pannelled  in  cases  where  an  individual  claims  to  prosecute  an 
offence  as  to  which  the  public  officials  decline  to  proceed.  In 
England  criminal  informations  by  the  attorney-general,  or  by 
leave  of  the  court  without  the  intervention  of  a  grand  jury,  are 
permitted  in  cases  of  misdemeanour,  but  are  now  rarely  pre- 
ferred. 

If  a  coroner's  jury,  on  inquiring  into  any  sudden  death,  finds 
that  murder  or  manslaughter  has  been  committed,  that  finding 
has  the  same  effect  as  an  indictment  by  a  grand  jury, 
and  the  man  charged  may  be  tried  by  the  petty  jury 
accordingly.  The  law  and  procedure  of  the  coroner's 
courts  are  now  regulated  by  the  Coroners  Act  1887.  When 
there  is  a  dead  body  of  a  person  lying  within  the  area  of  his 
jurisdiction,  and  there  is  reasonable  cause  to  suspect  that  such 
person  died  a  violent  or  unnatural  death,  or  a  sudden  death  of 
which  the  cause  is  unknown,  or  has  died  in  prison,  the  coroner 
is  entitled  to  hold  an  inquest,  and  if  the  verdict  or  inquisition 
finds  murder  or  manslaughter,  it  is  followed  by  trial  in  the  same 
way  as  if  the  person  accused  had  been  indicted. 

When  an  indictment  is  found  by  the  grand  jury  (twelve  at 
least  must  concur)  the  person  charged  is  brought  before  the 
court,  the  indictment  is  read  to  him,  he  is  asked 
jury.  y  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not  guilty.  If  he  pleads  guilty 
he  is  then  sentenced  by  the  court;  if  he  pleads  not 
guilty,  a  petty  jury  of  twelve  is  formed  from  the  panel  or  list  of 
jurors  who  have  been  summoned  by  the  sheriff  to  attend  the 
court.  He  is  tried  by  these  jurors  in  open  court.  The  common 
law  method  of  trial  of  crimes  by  a  jury  of  twelve,  native  to 
English  law,  has  been  in  modern  times  transplanted  to  European 
countries.  It  was  not  the  original  form  of  trial,  for  it  was  pre- 
ceded by  wager  of  battle  (which  was  not  finally  abolished 
till  1819);  and  by  ordeal,  which  was  suppressed  as  to  criminal 
trials  in  1219  in  consequence  of  the  decree  of  the  Lateran  Council 
(1216).  The  first  was  allowed  only  on  an  appeal  by  an  individual 
accuser;  the  second  was  resorted  to  on  an  accusation  by  public 
fame,  which  the  accused  was  allowed  to  meet  by  submitting  to  the 
ordeal.  It  was  after  1219  that  trial  by  the  jury  of  twelve  (known 


'^  ' 


as  trial  in  pais)  began  to  develop.  At  the  outset  the  accused 
used  to  be  asked  how  he  would  be  tried,  and  could  not  be  directly 
compelled  to  plead  to  the  charge  or  to  accept  trial  by  a  jury; 
which  led  to  the  indirect  pressure  known  as  the  peine  forte  et  dure, 
which  fell  into  disuse  after  the  Revolution  and  was  formally 
abolished  in  1772.  But  it  was  not  until  1827  that  refusal  to 
plead  was  treated  as  a  plea  of  not  guilty,  entailing  a  trial  by  a 
jury,  and  some  old-fashioned  officials  still  ask  the  old  question 
"How  will  you  be  tried?"  to  which  the  old  answer  was  "By 
God  and  my  country." 

The  original  trial  jury  or  inquest  certainly  acted  on  its  own 
knowledge  or  inquiries  without  necessarily  having  evidence  laid 
before  it  in  court.  The  impartiality  of  the  jurors  was  to  some 
extent  secured  by  the  power  of  challenge.  The  exact  time  when 
the  jury  came  into  its  present  position  is  difficult  accurately  to 
define.  On  the  trial  before  the  petty  jury  the  procedure  and  the 
rules  of  evidence  differ  in  very  few  points  from  an  ordinary  civil 
case.  The  proceedings  as  already  stated  are  accusatory.  The 
prosecutor  must  begin  to  prove  his  case.  Confessions  (which  are 
the  object  sought  by  French  procedure)  are  regarded  with  some 
suspicion,  and  admissions  alleged  to  have  been  made  by  the 
accused  are  not  admitted  unless  it  is  clear  that  they  were  not 
extracted  by  inducements  of  a  temporal  nature  held  out  by  persons 
in  authority  over  him.  During  the  spring  assizes  of  1877  a 
prisoner  was  charged  with  having  committed  a  murder  twenty 
years  before,  and  the  counsel  for  the  prosecution,  with  the  consent 
of  the  judge,  withdrew  from  the  case  because  the  only  evidence, 
besides  the  prisoner's  own  confession,  was  that  of  persons  who 
either  had  never  known  him  personally  or  could  not  identify 
him.  The  accused  may  not  be  interrogated  by  the  judge  or  the 
prosecuting  counsel  unless  he  consents  to  be  sworn  as  a  witness. 
In  this  respect  the  contrast  between  a  criminal  trial  in  England 
and  a  criminal  trial  in  France  is  very  striking.  The  interrogation 
and  browbeating  of  the  prisoner  by  the  judge,  consistent  as  it 
may  be  with  the  inquisitorial  theory  of  their  procedure,  is  strange 
to  English  lawyers,  accustomed  to  see  in  every  criminal  trial  a 
fair  fight  between  the  prisoner  and  the  prosecution,  and  not  a 
contest  between  the  judge  and  the  prisoner.  The  accused  may, 
if  he  choose,  be  defended  by  counsel,  and  if  poor  may  get  legal 
aid  at  the  public  expense  if  the  court  certify  for  it.  He  is  entitled 
to  cross-examine  the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution  and  to  call 
witnesses  in  his  defence.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  evidence 
and  speeches  the  judge  sums  up  to  the  jury  both  as  to  the  facts 
and  the  law,  and  the  jury  by  their  verdict  acquit  or  convict. 
Immediate  discharge  follows  on  acquittal;  sentence  by  the 
judge  on  conviction. 

Justices  of  the  peace  may  under  many  statutes  convict  in 
a  summary  manner  (without  the  intervention  of  a  jury)  for 
offences  of  minor  importance.  The  procedure  for 
punishing  summary  offences  is  before  two  justices, 
or  a  stipendiary  magistrate.  This  proceeding  must  not 
be  confused  with  the  preliminary  inquiry  already  mentioned 
before  justices  for  an  indictable  offence,  nor  with  the  procedure 
before  justices  in  relation  to  civil  matters,  such  as  the  recovery 
of  small  sums  of  money.  The  proceeding  begins  either  by  the 
issue  of  a  warrant  for  the  arrest  of  the  person  charged,  in  which 
case  a  sworn  information  must  be  filed,  or  by  a  summons  directing 
the  person  charged  to  appear  on  a  certain  day  to  answer  the 
complaint  made  by  the  prosecutor.  The  justices  hear  the  case 
in  open  court;  the  person  charged  can  make  his  defence  either  in 
person  or  by  his  solicitor  or  counsel,  he  can  cross-examine 
the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution,  call  his  own  wit-  procedure 
nesses,  and  address  the  justices  in  his  defence.  The  tor 
justices,  after  hearing  the  case,  either  acquit  or  convict  *a'*"a™y 

{_.  offences. 

him,  and  in  case  of  conviction  award  the  sentence. 
If  the  sentence  is  a  fine,  and  the  fine  is  not  paid,  the  person  con- 
victed is  liable  to  be  imprisoned  for  the  term  fixed  by  the  justices, 
not  exceeding  a  scale  fixed  by  an  act  of  1879,  the  maximum  of 
which  is  one  month.  The  imprisonment  may  be  with  or  without 
hard  labour. 

Of  late  years  this  summary  jurisdiction  of  the  justices  has 
received  very  large  extensions,  and  many  offences  which  were 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


461 


Appeal. 


Costs. 


formerly  prosecuted  as  serious  offences  by  an  indictment  before 
the  court  of  assize  or  quarter  sessions  have,  where  the  offence  was 
a  trivial  one,  been  made  punishable,  on  summary  proceedings 
before  justices,  by  a  small  fine  or  a  short  term  of  imprisonment. 

The  extension  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  justices  is  open  to  the 
observation  that  it  deprives  a  person  charged  of  the  protection 
of  a  jury,  and  also  that  it  throws  upon  him,  if  convicted,  and  upon 
the  prosecution  if  there  is  no  conviction,  the  cost  of  the  proceed- 
ings. The  former  objection  is  much  mitigated  by  the  enactment 
made  in  1879,  that  a  person  if  liable  on  conviction  to  be  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  more  than  three  months,  or  to  a  fine  exceed- 
ing £100,  can  claim  to  be  tried  by  a  jury.  But  the  objection  as 
to  the  costs  remains,  and  the  payment  of  costs  is  often  a  very 
serious  addition  to  the  trivial  fine;  and  it  is  anomalous  that  a 
person  convicted  of  a  trifling  offence  should  bear  the  cost  of  the 
prosecution,  while  if  he  is  convicted  before  a  superior  tribunal  of 
the  most  serious  offence  he  does  not  pay  the  costs. 

In  English  law  until  1907,  where  a  criminal  case  had  been  tried 
by  a  jury  the  verdict  of  the  jury  of  guilt  or  innocence  was  final 
and  there  was  no  appeal  on  the  facts.  Any  considerable 
defect  or  informality  in  the  procedure  might  be  the 
subject  of  a  writ  of  error.  And  if  any  question  of  law  arose  at 
the  trial,  the  judge  might,  if  he  chose,  reserve  it  for  the  opinion 
of  the  court  for  the  consideration  of  crown  cases  reserved,  by 
whom  the  conviction  might  be  either  quashed  or  confirmed. 

By  the  Criminal  Appeal  Act  1907,  a  new  court  was  established, 
to  which  any  person  convicted  on  indictment  might  appeal. 
(See  APPEAL.) 

The  expenses  of  prosecution  for  crime  in  England  are  dealt 
with  in  the  following  manner.  Prosecutions  for  high  treason 
and  the  cognate  offence  known  as  treason-felony 
are  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  which  alone  undertakes 
such  prosecutions.  In  the  case  of  all  other  felonies  and  of  many 
misdemeanours  the  expense  of  the  prosecution  falls  on  the  local 
rate.  In  the  case  of  other  misdemeanours  the  expense  falls  on 
the  prosecutor.  Where  an  offence  is  summarily  prosecuted  the 
costs  are  in  the  discretion  of  the  court,  which  may  order  the 
accused  to  pay  them,  if  convicted,  or  the  prosecutor  to  pay  on 
acquittal,  or  may  leave  the  parties  to  pay  their  own  expenses. 
On  charges  of  felony  and  a  few  misdemeanours  the  court  may 
order  the  accused  person  to  pay  the  expenses  of  his  prosecution 
in  relief  of  the  local  rate.  In  a  few  cases,  chiefly  where  the 
prosecution  is  vexatious,  the  court  may  order  the  prosecution 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  defence.  The  expenses  of  witnesses 
for  the  defence  in  any  indictable  offence  may  be  paid  out  of  the 
local  rate  when  they  have  been  called  at  the  preliminary  inquiry; 
and  where  the  court  in  the  case  of  a  poor  prisoner  has  certified 
that  he  should  have  legal  aid,  the  expenses  of  the  defence  may 
be  charged  to  the  local  rate.  The  local  rate  upon  which  the 
expenses  fall  is  usually  that  of  the  county  or  borough  in  which 
the  offence  was  committed;  but  sometimes  is  that  of  the  place 
where  the  offence  is  tried. 

Between  1852  and  1888  parliament  reimbursed  to  the  local 
authorities  the  expense  imposed  on  the  local  rate.  In  1888  the 
proceeds  of  certain  taxes  were  set  aside  and  handed  over  to  the 
local  authorities  as  a  set-off  to  the  expense  incurred  in  prosecu- 
tions. In  one  class  of  case,  offences  committed  in  the  admiralty 
jurisdiction,  i.e.  outside  England,  the  treasury  directly  reimburses 
to  the  local  authorities  the  expense  incurred. 

Under  most,  if  not  all,  European  codes,  the  state  pays  for 
the  prosecution,  subject  to  reimbursement  by  the  accused,  if 
the  court  so  orders. 

The  English  system  of  criminal  procedure  is  the  basis  of  that 
of  most  of  the  states  which  form  the  United  States  of  America, 
Noa.  and,  with  few  exceptions,  of  the  procedure  throughout 
British  the  British  empire. 

criminal  -phe  French  penal  code  and  code  of  criminal 
procedure.  proce(jure  are  substantially  the  model  of  all  systems 
of  continental  criminal  law.  They  were  promulgated  in  1811 
by  Napoleon  I.,  and  although  he  called  in  the  aid  of  the  greatest 
French  jurists,  he  guided,  and  occasionally  even  revised,  their 
labours.  The  French  codes  have  been  improved  upon  by  later 


European  codes,  and  more  especially  by  the  Italian  penal  code. 
All  European  codes  have  an  opening  chapter  where  the  general 
principles  of  criminal  law  in  its  practical  application  are  enunci- 
ated, such  as,  for  instance,  the  rules  that — (i)  no  person  is  liable 
to  punishment  for  any  act  not  expressly  declared  to  be  an 
offence;  (2)  no  person  can  be  punished  for  an  act  which  by 
virtue  of  a  subsequent  law  is  declared  not  to  be  an  offence; 
(3)  whoever  commits  an  offence  within  the  kingdom  is  tried  and 
punished  according  to  the  criminal  law  of  the  kingdom,  and  by 
the  tribunals  created  for  the  administration  of  justice,  to  the 
exclusion  of  special  tribunals  created  for  temporary  purposes. 
This  rule  really  lays  down  that  no  citizen  can  be  deprived  of 
his  own  judges  when  he  is  accused  of  a  criminal  offence.  (4) 
A  citizen,  although  he  may  have  been  tried  in  a  foreign  country 
for  an  offence  committed  within  the  kingdom,  can  be  retried 
according  to  the  law  of  the  kingdom.  (5)  Extradition  only 
applies  to  foreigners,  not  to  citizens.  The  preliminary  chapter 
is  followed  by  the  classification  of  offences  according  to  the 
importance  of  the  punishments  the  law  assigns  to  them.  The 
lowest  degree  of  offence  is  denominated  "  contravention."  It 
applies  mainly  to  the  pettiest  offences,  or  to  infractions  of  police 
regulations,  and  can  be  punished  by  fine  or  by  imprisonment 
under  a  week,  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment,  limited  to  a 
week.  Next  comes  the  "  dtlit,"  which  includes  all  offences 
punished  by  imprisonment  over  a  week  and  under  five  years. 
Then,  finally,  we  arrive  at  the  "  crime,"  the  highest  form  of 
offence  in  French  criminal  law.  It  includes  all  offences  subject 
to  a  more  severe  sentence  than  the  punishment  assigned  to  a 
dtlit.  All  cases  are  held  to  be  crimes  where  death,  life-imprison- 
ment with  or  without  hard  labour,  deportation  out  of  the  king- 
dom, detention  or  seclusion  in  a  fortress  or  other  expressly 
assigned  place,  are  the  punishments  mentioned  by  the  law.  A 
certain  number  of  explanatory  definitions  follow,  of  which  the 
most  important  concern  attempts  to  commit  offences,  and  in 
"  crimes  "  they  are  punishable  if  the  execution  of  the  attempt 
was  only  prevented  by  circumstances  beyond  the  will  of  the 
offender,  whilst  in  "  delits  "  an  attempt  is  not  punishable  as  an 
offence  unless  the  law  specially  provides  that  it  should  be 
punished.  As  regards  "  contraventions,"  attempts  not  carried 
out  are  not  held  to  be  offences  at  all.  Accomplices  are  generally 
subject  to  the  same  punishment  as  the  principal.  Old  offenders 
(rtcidivistes)  are  subject  to  severer  punishments.  The  usual 
exceptions  as  regards  responsibility  for  crime,  such  as  madness 
and  extreme  youth  and  force  majeure,  are  to  be  found  in  all 
codes.  The  excuse  of  youth  extends  to  all  offenders  under  the 
age  of  sixteen,  when  the  tribunal  decides  whether  the  offender 
has  acted  without  "  discernment,"  and  acquits  where  the  discern- 
ment is  not  found,  whilst  one-half  of  the  usual  punishment 
is  inflicted  where  discernment  is  found.  Foreign  codes  differ 
from  the  English  law  in  allowing  the  injured  party  to  claim 
damages  in  the  criminal  suit,  appearing  as  partie  civile.  On 
another  question  there  is  a  wide  divergence  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  from  English  law.  According  to  the  law  of  England 
there  is  no  prescription  in  criminal  law  (with  a  few  exceptions 
created  by  statute).  An  offender  is  always  liable  to  punishment 
whatever  time  may  have  elapsed  since  the  committal  of  the 
offence.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  limitation  of  a  judg- 
ment and  sentence  for  a  crime  is  twenty  years;  five  years  for 
a  dtlit,  and  for  a  contravention  two  years.  No  proceedings  can 
be  taken  as  regards  a  crime  after  a  lapse  of  ten  years,  whilst  as 
regards  a  dtlit  the  limit  is  three  years,  and  two  years  for  a 
contravention. 

There  are  three  main  differences  between  English  criminal 
procedure  and  European  criminal  procedure. 

i.  A  criminal  prosecution  directed  on  European  criminal 
procedure  at  once  passes  into  the  hands  of  the  state  as  an  infringe- 
ment of  law  which  must  be  repressed,  on  the  ground  that  the 
whole  community  bases  its  security  on  obedience  to  law.  In 
England  the  repression  of  all  minor  crime  is  left  to  the  injured 
party. 

a.  In  England  every  criminal  trial  from  beginning  to  end  is, 
and  has  always  been,  public.  Preliminary  inquiries  into  an 


462 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


indictable  offence  may  be,  but  rarely  if  ever  are,  conducted 
in  private.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  with  rare  exceptions, 
all  preliminary  proceedings  in  a  criminal  charge  are  secret. 
Outside  English-speaking  countries  this  secret  investigation 
continues  more  or  less.  But  of  the  two  systems,  accusatory 
or  inquisitorial — the  first  meaning  the  right  of  the  accused  to 
defend  himself,  the  second  meaning  the  right  of  the  state  to 
examine  any  legal  offence  in  private  in  order  to  ensure  the  safety 
of  society, — the  accusatory  is  gaining  ground  in  every  country. 
In  English-speaking  countries  it  is  an  established  law  that  an 
accused  person  should  have  the  right  of  publicity  of  the  pro- 
ceedings and  the  right  to  defend  himself  by  counsel  and  by 
witnesses.  In  Europe  the  inquisitorial  system  is  gradually  being 
abandoned.  Perhaps  the  best  code  of  criminal  procedure  in 
Europe  is  that  promulgated  in  Austria  in  1873,  It  followed  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  Empire  which  laid  down  inter  alia  that 
all  legal  proceedings,  civil  or  criminal,  should  be  oral  and  public, 
and  that  the  accusatory  system  in  criminal  cases  should  be 
adopted.  Germany  followed  this  example.  Italy,  Holland, 
Switzerland  and  Spain  have  followed  Austria  and  Germany  as 
regards  the  preliminary  investigation;  Italy  and  Belgium  have 
surrounded  the  accused  with  guarantees  against  arbitrary 
confinement  before  trial;  Holland  has  conferred  upon  the  accused 
the  right  of  seeing  the  adverse  testimony  and  of  being  confronted 
with  the  witnesses,  and,  further,  has  formally  insisted  that  no 
insidious  questions,  such  as  questions  assuming  a  fact  as  true 
which  is  not  known  to  be  true,  should  be  allowed.  Other 
countries  still  remain  on  the  old  lines.  But  everywhere,  whether 
reform  has  actually  been  accomplished  or  not,  there  is  a  demand 
for  even-handed  justice,  and  a  growing  conviction  that  the 
accused  should  have  all  his  rights,  now  that  society  is  no  longer 
in  danger  from  undiscovered  criminals  and  unpunished  crime. 
Even  in  France,  the  champion  of  the  inquisitorial  system,  a 
change  is  being  made.  Up  to  1897  secrecy  was  imposed  invari- 
ably in  the  preliminary  investigation  of  crime,  and  was  held 
necessary  for  the  discovery  and  punishment  of  the  offender. 
The  Loi  de  I 'instruction  contradictoire,  December  8,  1897, 
however,  was  a  long  step  towards  complete  justice  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  accused  in  the  preliminary  inquiry.  The  main 
reform  is  that  the  accused,  after  he  has  once  appeared  before 
the  judge  and  a  formal  charge  has  been  made  against  him,  is 
entitled  to  the  assistance  of  counsel,  either  chosen  by  himself  or 
assigned  to  him  if  he  is  poor.  If  he  is  in  prison  he  is  allowed 
to  communicate  freely  with  his  counsel,  who  is  entitled  to  see  all 
the  proceedings,  and  in  every  appearance  before  the  judge  his 
counsel  accompanies  him.  There  are,  however,  certain  limita- 
tions. The  counsel  cannot  address  the  judge  without  leave, 
which  may  be  refused,  nor  can  he  insist  on  any  proceeding  he 
thinks  necessary  in  his  client's  interest.  He  can  only  solicit. 
He  has  no  right  to  be  present  at  the  examination  of  witnesses, 
who  continue  to  be  interrogated  by  the  judge  alone  and  not  in 
the  presence  of  the  accused;  but  he  must  receive  twenty-four 
hours'  notice  of  every  appearance  of  the  accused,  and  he  is 
entitled  to  be  present  whenever  his  client,  after  the  first  formal 
appearance,  comes  before  the  judge.  In  England,  as  already 
pointed  out,  although  the  prosecution  is  in  the  name  of  the  crown, 
and  although  a  public  prosecutor  has  been  appointed,  still  as 
a  rule  it  is  conducted  by  the  person  injured  as  the  person  injured, 
or  by  the  police. 

3.  In  England  the  single-judge  system  is  universal,  save  in 
appeal;  on  the  continent  of  Europe  plurality  of  judges  is  insisted 
upon,  save  in  the  most  trivial  cases,  where  the  punishment  is 
insignificant.  In  most  countries  of  the  continent  of  Europe 
the  whole  machinery  for  the  prevention,  investigation  and 
punishment  of  crime,  is  conducted  by  what  is  called  the  parquet, 
which  represents  society  as  a  collective  unit  and  not  the  individual 
injured.  The  head  of  the  whole  parquet  in  France  is  the  procureur- 
g&neral,  who  holds  equal  rank  with  the  members  of  the  supreme 
court.  Under  him  there  are  procureurs-generaux  attached  to 
each  of  the1  courts  of  appeal,  of  which  in  France  there  are  twenty- 
six,  and  under  each  of  these  subordinate  procureurs  there  are 
procureurs  (prosecutors)  of  a  lesser  degree.  The  next  stage 


Ireland. 


to  the  parquet  is  the  juge  d'  instruction,  who  corresponds  to  the 
English  magistrate,  and  is  the  most  formidable  personage  in  the 
whole  system  of  French  criminal  law.  He  can  detain  and 
accuse  a  person  in  prison,  can  send  for  him  at  any  time  and  ask 
him  such  questions  as  he  pleases. 

After  the  first  examination  the  prisoner  is  entitled,  in  most 
European  countries,  to  the  assistance  of  counsel,  but  the  powers 
of  counsel  are  so  limited  that  the  juge  d  'instruction  has  a  com- 
plete discretionary  power  regarding  the  investigation  of  the  case. 
The  natural  consequence  of  this  procedure  is  that  the  preliminary 
investigation  really  decides  the  ultimate  result,  and  the  final 
trial  becomes  more  or  less  a  solemn  form. 

The  criminal  law  of  Ireland  is  to  a  great  extent  the  same  as 
that  of  England,  resting  on  the  same  common  law  and  on  statutes 
which  extend  to  both  countries  or  are  in  almost  the 
same  terms,  and  is  administered  by  courts  of  assize 
and  quarter  sessions,  and  by  justices,  as  in  England.  In  a  few 
instances  statutes  passed  for  England  or  Great  Britain  before 
the  Union  have  not  been  extended  to  Ireland,  or  statutes  passed 
by  the  Irish  parliament  before  the  Union  or  by  the  British  parlia- 
ment since  the  Union  create  offences  not  known  to  English  law. 
In  Ireland  the  system  of  prosecution  is  nominally  the  same  as 
in  England,  but  in  practice  almost  all  prosecutions  are  instituted 
and  conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  attorney-general  for 
Ireland,  who  is  a  member  of  the  government  of  the  day,  and  so 
responsible  to  parliament,  as  in  the  case  of  the  lord  advocate. 
In  Ireland,  owing  to  the  police  being  a  centralized  force,  under  the 
management  of  commissioners  residing  in  Dublin,  any  prosecu- 
tion which  in  England  might  be  conducted  by  the  local  police, 
would  in  Ireland  be  conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  chief 
of  the  police  in  Dublin,  who  is  necessarily  in  close  communication 
with  and  under  the  control  of  the  attorney-general. 

In  Scotland  hardly  any  crimes  are  constituted  by  statute 
law,  the  common  law  being  to  the  effect  that  if  a  judge  will 
direct  any  act  to  be  a  crime,  and  a  jury  will  convict,  Scotland 
that  act  is  a  crime.  This  great  elasticity  of  the  common 
law  to  include  every  sort  of  new  crime  which  might  arise  was 
in  times  past  very  dangerous  to  political  liberty,  as  it  greatly 
enlarged  the  power  of  the  crown  to  oppress  political  opponents, 
but  in  modern  days  it  has  its  convenience  in  facilitating  the 
punishment  of  persons  committing  crimes  for  the  punishment 
of  which  in  England  a  new  act  of  parliament  may  be  necessary. 
Criminal  procedure  in  Scotland  is  regulated  by  an  act  of  1887 
which  greatly  simplified  indictments  and  proceedings.  The 
prosecution  of  crime  is  in  the  hands  of  public  officers,  procurators 
fiscal,  under  the  control  of  the  lord  advocate.  Private  pro- 
secutions are  possible,  but  rare.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  law 
of  treason,  imported  from  England  at  the  Union,  no  grand  jury 
is  required,  and  the  indictments  are  filed  by  the  public  officer. 

The  criminal  law  of  England  forms  the  basis  of  the  criminal 
law  of  all  British  possessions  abroad,  with  a  few  exceptions,  e.g. 
the  Channel  Islands  (still  subject  to  the  custom  of      other 
Normandy)  and  the  anomalous  case  of  Cyprus,  where      British 
Mahommedan  law  is  to  some  extent  in  force.    As  to 

T     ,.  .    , 

India,  see  infra. 

In  many  British  colonies  the  criminal  law  has  been  codified 
or  at  the  least  consolidated.  Criminal  codes  have  been  passed 
in  Canada,  New  Zealand  (1893),  Queensland  (1899)  and  W. 
Australia  (1901).  Many  crown  colonies  have  codes  framed  on 
the  model  prepared  by  the  late  Sir  R.  S.  Wright  for  Jamaica 
and  revised  in  1901,  and  in  British  Guiana  opportunity  was  taken 
(in  1893)  to  abolish  the  remnants  of  Roman-Dutch  criminal 
law. 

The  criminal  law  of  South  Africa,  which  is  based  on  the  Roman- 
Dutch  law,  including  the  Constitutio  Criminalis  Carolina  (1532), 
is  not  codified.  In  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  River  colonies 
codes  of  criminal  procedure  are  in  force,  drawn  mainly  from  the 
common  and  statute  law  of  the  Cape  Colony  with  the  addition 
of  provisions  borrowed  from  English  and  colonial  legislation. 

In  Mauritius  the  criminal  law  is  comprised  in  a  penal  code  of 
1838  and  a  procedure  code  of  1853,  which,  with  the  incorporated 
amendments,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Revised  Laws  of  Mauritius 


sions. 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


463 


(1903-1904),  ii.  466  et  seq.  The  penal  code  is  based  on  the  Code 
Napoleon. 

"  Criminal  law  has  everywhere  grown  out  of  custom,  and  has 

in  all  civilized  states  been  largely  dealt  with  by  direct  legislation. 

In  most  civilized  states  (including  Japan)  it  has  been 

aon'"^'     codified  by  statute,  to  the  general  satisfaction  of  tfie 

people;  and  the  conspicuous  success  of  the  Indian 

penal  code  shows  that  English  criminal  law  is  susceptible  of 

being  so  treated  "  (Bryce,  Studies,  ii.  34). 

The  expediency,  if  not  the  necessity,  of  codifying  the  criminal 
law  of  England  has  long  been  apparent.  The  writings  of  Bentham 
drew  attention  to  many  of  its  substantial  defects,  and  the  efforts 
of  Romilly  and  Mackintosh  ledtocertainimprovementsembodied 
in  what  are  known  as  Peel's  Acts  (1826  to  1832).  In  1833,  at 
the  instance  of  Lord  Chancellor  Brougham,  a  royal  commission 
was  appointed  to  deal  with  the  criminal  law.  The  nature  of 
the  instructions  indicate  the  crudity  of  the  ideas  then  ruling  as  to 
codification.  The  commissioners  were  directed  to  digest  into 
one  statute  all  enactments  touching  crimes  and  the  punishment 
thereof,  and  into  another  statute  the  provisions  of  the  common 
unwritten  law  touching  the  same.  The  commission  was  renewed 
in  1836  and  1837,  and  in  1843  a  second  commission  was  appointed. 
Numerous  and  voluminous  reports  were  published,  including 
(1848)  a  bill  for  consolidating  and  amending  the  law  as  to  crimes 
and  punishments,  and  (1849)  a  like  bill  for  criminal  procedure, 
indicating  that  the  commissioners  had  in  the  meantime  learned 
the  distinction  between  substantive  and  adjective  law.  Lord 
Brougham  in  1848  unsuccessfully  introduced  the  first  bill,  and  in 
the  end  the  only  fruit  of  the  reports  has  been  certain  amendments 
of  procedure  in  1851  and  the  passing  of  the  seven  Criminal 
Law  Consolidation  Acts  of  1861,  which  deal  with  the  statute  law 
as  to  theft,  forgery,  malicious  injuries  to  property,  coinage 
offences  and  offences  against  the  person.  The  reports,  however, 
proved  of  value  in  the  revision  of  Macaulay's  draft  of  the  Indian 
penal  code,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Statute  Law  Com- 
mittee, which  has  relieved  the  statute  book  of  much  dead  matter. 
On  his  return  from  India,  impressed  by  the  success  of  the  Indian 
penal  code,  Sir  J.  Stephen  made  a  strong  effort  to  obtain  codifica- 
tion. In  1878,  at  the  instance  of  Lord  Cairns,  he  prepared  a 
draft  code  (based  on  his  well-known  Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law), 
which  was  laid  before  parliament  and  then  submitted  to  judicial 
criticism  and  revision.  As  a  result  of  this  revision  a  code  bill 
was  introduced  in  1880;  but  a  dissolution  intervened  and  no 
serious  effort  was  then  made.  The  obstacle  in  the  way  is  not 
lack  of  reports  or  digests  on  which  to  frame  a  code,  but  the  in- 
capacity of  parliament  to  do  the  work  itself,  and  its  unwillingness 
to  trust  the  work  to  other  hands. 

The  Indian  penal  code  and  criminal  procedure  code,  by  their 
history,  their  form,  and  the  extent  and  diversity  of  the  races 
India.  and  peoples -to  which  they  apply,  are  perhaps  the 
most  important  codes  in  the  whole  world.  While  the 
East  India  Company  was  merely  a  trading  company  holding 
certain  forts  and  trading  ports  in  India  and  elsewhere,  such 
criminal  justice  as  was  administered  under  its  auspices  was  in 
the  main  based  on  the  English  criminal  law,  said  to  have  been 
introduced  to  some  extent  by  the  company's  charter  of  1661, 
but  reintroduced  into  the  presidency  laws  by  later  charters  of 
1726,  1753  and  1774.  (See  Nuncomar  and  Impey,  by  Sir  J. 
Stephen.)  From  1771  until  1860  the  criminal  law  administered 
was  the  Mahommedan  law.  When  in  1771  the  East  Indian 
Company  determined  to  stand  forth  as  diwan,  Warren  Hastings 
required  the  courts  of  the  mofussil  (provinces),  as  distinct  from 
those  of  the  presidency  town  of  Fort  William,  to  be  guided  in 
the  administration  of  criminal  justice  by  Mahommedan  law, 
which  under  the  Moguls  had  been  used  in  criminal  cases  to  the 
exclusion  of  Hindu  law.  Difficulties  arose  in  administration, 
from  the  definition  of  crime,  the  nature  of  punishments,  and  in 
matters  of  procedure,  which  were  removed  by  regulations  and 
by  enactments  on  English  lines,  especially  in  Bombay  (1827); 
and  great  delays  and  considerable  injustice  were  caused  by  the 
want  of  unity  in  judicial  organization. 

Between   1834  and   1837   Macaulay  with  three  other  com- 


missioners, Macleod,  Anderson  and  Millet,  prepared  a  draft 
penal  code  for  India,  for  which  they  drew  not  only  upon  English 
and  Indian  laws  and  regulations  but  also  upon  Livingstone's 
Louisiana  code  and  the  Code  Napoleon.  Little  or  nothing  was 
taken  from  the  Mahommedan  law.  A  revised  draft  of  the  penal 
code  by  Sir  B.  Peacock,  Sir  J.  W.  Colville  and  others  was  com- 
pleted in  1856.  In  framing  it  the  reports  of  the  English  criminal 
law  commissioners  (published  after  Macaulay's  draft  code) 
were  considered.  The  draft  was  presented  to  the  legislative 
council  in  1856,  but  owing  to  the  mutiny  and  to  objections  from 
missionaries,  &c.,  its  passing  was  delayed  till  the  6th  of  October 
1860.  A  draft  scheme  of  criminal  procedure  was  prepared  in 
India  in  1847-1848,  which,  after  submission  to  a  commission 
in  England  in  1853  (Government  of  India  Act  1853),  was  moulded 
into  a  draft  code  which  passed  the  India  legislative  council 
in  1861  (Act  No.  XXV.)  and  came  into  force  in  1862.  It  has 
been  re-enacted  with  amendments  in  1872  (Act  X.),  1882 
(Act  X.)  and  1898  (Act  V.). 

The  result  is  that  in  India  the  criminal  law  is  the  law  of  the 
conqueror,  though  for  many  civil  purposes  the  law  of  race, 
religion  and  caste  governs.  Under  the  codes,  one  set  of  courts 
has  been  established  throughout  the  country,  composed  of 
well-paid,  well-educated  judges,  most  of  the  higher  judicial 
appointments  being  held  by  Englishmen;  all  those  who  hold 
subordinate  judicial  posts  at  the  same  time  are  subjected  to 
a  combined  system  of  appeal  and  revision.  The  arrangement 
of  the  Indian  penal  code  is  natural  as  well  as  logical;  its  basis 
is  the  law  of  England  stripped  of  technicality  and  local  peculi- 
arities, whilst  certain  modifications  are  introduced  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  a  country  such  as  British  India.  It  opens  with  a 
chapter  of  general  explanations,  and  interpretations  of  the  terms 
used  throughout  the  code.  It  then  describes  the  various  punish- 
ments to  which  offenders  are  liable;  follows  with  a  list  of  the 
exceptions  regarding  criminal  responsibility  under  which  a 
person  who  otherwise  would  be  liable  to  punishment  is  exempted 
from  the  penal  consequences  of  his  act,  such  as  offences  com- 
mitted by  children,  by  accident  or  misfortune  without  any 
criminal  intention,  offences  committed  by  lunatics,  offences 
committed  in  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  private  defence.  It 
may  be  worth  while  to  add,  as  an  innovation  on  English  law, 
that  an  act  which  results  in  harm  so  slight  that  no  person  of 
ordinary  sense  and  temper  would  complain  of  such  harm  is  not 
considered  an  offence  under  the  code.  Then  follows  a  chapter 
on  abetment,  in  other  words,  the  instigation  of  a  person  to 
do  a  wrongful  act.  The  next  chapters  deal  with  offences  against 
the  public,  including  the  state,  the  army  and  navy,  public 
tranquillity,  public  servants,  contempts  of  the  lawful  authority 
of  public  servants,  perjury;  offences  relating  to  coin  and 
government  stamps,  to  weights  and  measures;  offences  affect- 
ing the  public  health,  safety,  convenience,  decency  and  morals; 
offences  relating  to  religion;  and  offences  relating  to  the  human 
body,  from  murder  down  to  the  infliction  of  any  hurt.  The  code 
then  passes  on  to  offences  against  property;  offences  relating 
to  forgery,  including  trade  marks,  criminal  breach  of  contracts 
for  service;  offences  relating  to  marriage,  defamation,  criminal 
intimidation,  insult  and  annoyance.  Under  this  last  head  is 
included  an  attempt  to  cause  a  person  to  do  anything  which 
that  person  is  not  legally  bound  to  do,  by  inducing  him  to 
believe  that  he  would  otherwise  become  subject  to  Divine 
displeasure.  The  last  chapter  deals  with  attempts  to  commit 
offences  punishable  by  the  code  with  transportation  or  imprison- 
ment, and  the  punishment  is  limited  to  one-half  of  the  longest 
term  provided  for  the  offence  had  it  been  carried  out. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  Penal  Code  which  has  proved  eminently 
successful  lies  in  the  system  of  illustration  of  the  offence  declared  in 
every  section  by  a  brief  statement  of  some  concrete  case.  For 
instance,  as  illustration  of  the  offence  of  an  attempt  to  commit  an 
offence  the  following  examples  are  given: — 

I.  "  A.  makes  an  attempt  to  steal  some  jewels  by  breaking  open 
a  box,  and  finds  on  opening  the  box  there  is  no  jewel  in  it.     He  has 
done  an  act  towards  the  commission  of  theft,  and  therefore  is  guilty 
under  this  section. 

II.  "  A.  makes  an  attempt  to  pick  the  pocket  of  Z.  by  thrusting 


464 


CRIMINOLOGY 


his  hand  into  Z.'s  pocket.     A.  fails  in  the  attempt  in  consequence 
of  Z.  having  nothing  in  his  pocket.    A.  is  guilty  under  this  section." 

Passing  on  to  the  system  of  criminal  procedure  which  is  set 
forth  in  detail  in  the  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure  as  amended 
Indian  ™  1898,  it  is  no  doubt  modelled  on  the  English  system, 
code  of  but  with  considerable  modifications.  The  principal 
criminal  steps  are — (i)  arrest  by  the  police  and  inquiries  by 
the  police;  (2)  the  issue  of  summons  or  warrant  by 
the  magistrate;  (3)  the  mode  of  procedure  before  the  magistrate, 
who  may  either  try  the  accused  himself  or  commit  him  to  the 
sessions  or  the  High  Court,  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
case;  (4)  procedure  before  the  court  of  session;  (5)  appeals, 
reference  and  revision  by  the  High  Court. 

Elaborate  provision  is  made  for  the  prevention  of  offences, 
as  regards  security  for  keeping  the  peace  and  for  good  behaviour, 
the  dispersion  of  unlawful  assemblies,  the  suppression  of  nuis- 
ances, disputes  as  to  immovable  property,  which  in  all  Oriental 
countries  constitute  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  a  breach 
of  the  peace. 

Ample  provision  is  thus  made  for  the  prevention  of  offences, 
and  the  code  next  deals  with  the  mode  of  prosecution  of  offences 
actually  committed. 

As  a  general  rule,  every  offence  is  inquired  into  and  tried  by 
the  court  within  the  local  limits  of  whose  jurisdiction  it  was 
committed.  Differing  from  the  practice  of  continental  countries, 
all  offences,  even  attempts,  may  be  prosecuted  after  any  lapse  of 
time.  As  in  England,  there  is  no  statutory  limitation  to  a 
criminal  offence. 

A  simple  procedure  is  provided  for  what  are  called  summons 
cases,  as  distinguished  from  warrant  cases — the  first  being 
offences  for  which  a  police  officer  may  arrest  without  warrant, 
the  second  being  offences  where  he  must  have  a  warrant,  or, 
in  other  words,  minor  offences  and  important  offences.  In 
summons  cases  no  formal  charge  need  be  framed.  The  magistrate 
tells  the  accused  the  particulars  of  the  offence  charged;  if  he 
admits  his  guilt,  he  is  convicted;  if  he  does  not,  evidence  is 
taken,  and  a  finding  is  given  in  accordance  with  the  facts  as 
proved.  When  the  complaint  is  frivolous  or  vexatious,  the 
magistrate  has  the  power  to  fine  the  complainant.  The  code 
gives  power  of  criminal  appeal  which  goes  much  further  than 
the  system  in  England. 

In  cases  tried  by  a  jury,  no  appeal  lies  as  to  matters  of  fact, 
but  it  is  allowed  as  to  matters  of  law;  in  other  cases,  criminal 
appeal  is  admitted  on  matters  of  law  and  fact. 

In  addition  to  the  system  of  appeal,  the  superior  courts  are 
entrusted  with  a  power  of  revision,  which  is  maintained  auto- 
matically by  the  periodical  transmission  to  the  High  Courts  of 
calendars  and  statements  of  all  cases  tried  by  the  inferior  courts; 
and  at  the  same  time,  whenever  the  High  Court  thinks  fit,  it 
can  call  for  the  record  of  any  trial  and  pass  such  orders  as  it 
deems  right.  All  sentences  of  death  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
High  Court.  No  appeal  lies  against  an  acquittal  in  any  criminal 
case.  This  system  of  appeal,  superintendence  and  revision 
would  be  totally  inapplicable  to  England,  but  it  has  proved 
eminently  successful  as  applied  to  the  present  social  condition 
of  the  inhabitants  of  India.  The  appeals  keep  the  judges  up  to 
their  work,  revision  corrects  all  grave  mistakes,  superintendence 
is  necessary  as  a  kind  of  discipline  over  the  conduct  of  judges, 
who  are  not  subjected,  as  in  England,  to  the  criticism  of 
enlightened  public  opinion. 

These  Indian  codes  form  the  basis  of  the  penal,  &c.,  codes  in 
force  in  Ceylon  (superseding  there  the  Roman-Dutch  law),  the 
Straits  Settlements,  the  Sudan  and  the  East  Africa  protectorates. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  most  European  states  have 
codified  their  criminal  law.  The  earliest  of  continental  codes 
Poni  n  's  *^at  °^  Charles  V.,  promulgated  in  1532,  and  known 
codes."  as  Constitutio  Criminolis  Carolina.  Austria  made 
further  codes  in  1768  (Constitutio  Criminalis 
Theresiana)  and  1787  (Emperor  Joseph's  code).  A  new  code 
was  framed  in  1803,  and  amended  in  1852  by  reference  to  the  Code 
Napoleon;  and  in  1906  a  completely  new  code  existed  in  draft. 
The  Hungarian  penal  code  dates  from  1880.  The  Bavarian  code 


of  1768  of  Maximilian,  revised  in  1861,  and  the  Prussian  code 
of  1780,  have  been  superseded  by  the  German  penal  code 
of  1872. 

The  most  important  of  the  continental  criminal  codes  are  those 
of  France,  the  Code  Final  (1810)  and  the  Code  d' Instruction 
Criminelle  (1808) — the  work  of  Napoleon  the  Great  and  his 
advisers,  which  professedly  incorporate  much  of  the  Roman  law. 

The  Belgian  codes  (1867),  and  the  Dutch  penal  code  (1880). 
closely  follow  the  French  model.  In  Spain  the  penal  code  dates 
from  1870,  the  procedure  code  from  1886.  The  Spanish  American 
republics  for  the  most  part  also  have  codes.  Portugal  has  a 
penal  code  (1852).  In  Italy  the  procedure  code  and  the  penal 
code,  perhaps  the  completest  yet  framed,  are  of  1890.  The 
Swedish  code  dates  from  1864.  The  Norwegian  code  was  passed 
in  May  1902,  and  came  into  force  in  1905.  Japan  has  a  code 
based  on  a  study  of  European  and  American  models;  and 
Switzerland  is  framing  a  federal  criminal  code. 

In  the  United  States  no  federal  criminal  code  is  possible;  but 
most  states,  following  the  lead  of  Louisiana,  have  digested  their 
criminal  law  and  procedure  more  or  less  effectually  into  penal 
codes.  (W.  F.  C.) 

CRIMINOLOGY,  the  name  given  to  a  new  branch  of  social 
science,  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  genesis  of  crime  (?.».), 
which  has  received  much  attention  in  recent  years.  The  expres- 
sion is  one  of  modern  coinage,  and  originated  with  the  speculative 
theories  first  advanced  by  the  school  of  sociologists  which  had 
the  Italian  savant,  Professor  Lombroso,  at  its  head.  He  dis- 
covered or  was  supposed  to  have  discovered  a  criminal  type, 
the  "  instinctive  "  or  "  born  "  criminal,  a  creature  who  had 
come  into  the  world  predestined  to  evil  deeds,  and  who  could 
be  surely  recognized  by  certain  stigmata,  certain  facial,  physical, 
even  moral  birthmarks,  the  possession  of  which,  presumably 
ineradicable,  foredoomed  him  to  the  commission  of  crime.  Dr 
Lombroso,  in  his  ingenious  work  L'  Uomo  delinquente,  found  many 
attentive  and  appreciative,  not  to  say  bigoted  followers.  Large 
numbers  of  dissentients  exist,  however,  and  the  conclusions  of  the 
Italian  school  have  been  warmly  contested  and  on  very  plausible 
grounds.  If  the  doctrines  be  fully  accepted  the  whole  theory  of 
free-will  breaks  down,  and  we  are  faced  with  the  paradox  that 
we  have  no  right  to  punish  an  irresponsible  being  who  is  impelled 
to  crime  by  congenital  causes,  entirely  beyond  his  control. 
The  "  instinctive  "  criminal,  under  this  reasoning,  must  be 
classed  with  the  lunatic  whom  we  cannot  justly,  and  practically 
never  do,  punish.  There  are  other  points  on  which  proof  of  the 
existence  of  the  criminal  type  fails  absolutely.  The  whole 
theory  illustrates  a  modern  phase  of  psychological  doctrine, 
and  the  subject  has  exercised  such  a  potent  effect  on  modern 
thought  that  the  claims  and  pretensions  of  the  Lombroso  school 
must  be  examined  and  disposed  of. 

The  alleged  discovery  of  the  "  born-criminal  "  as  a  separate 
and  distinct  genus  of  the  human  species  was  first  published  by 
Dr  Lombroso  in  1876  as  the  result  of  long  continued  investigation 
and  examination  of  a  number  of  imprisoned  criminals.  The 
personality  of  this  human  monster  was  to  be  recognized  by 
certain  inherent  moral  and  physical  traits,  not  all  displayed 
by  the  same  individual  but  generally  appearing  in  conjunction 
and  then  constituting  the  type.  These  traits  have  been  defined 
as  follows: — various  brain  and  cerebral  anomalies;  receding 
foreheads;  massive  jaws,  prognathous  chins;  skulls  without 
symmetry;  ears  long,  large  and  projecting  (the  ear  ad  ansa)', 
noses  rectilinear,  wrinkles  strongly  marked,  even  in  the  young 
and  in  both  sexes,  hair  abundant  on  the  head,  scanty  on  the  cheeks 
and  chin;  eyes  feline,  fixed,  cold,  glassy,  ferocious;  bad  repellent 
faces.  Much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  physiognomy,  and  it  is  said 
that  it  is  independent  of  nationality;  two  natives  of  the  same 
country  do  not  so  nearly  resemble  each  other  as  two  criminals  of 
different  countries.  Other  peculiarities  are: — great  width  of 
the  extended  arms  (I'envergure  of  the  French),  extraordinary 
ape-like  agility;  left-handedness  as  well  as  ambi-dexterism ; 
obtuse  sense  of  smell,  taste  and  sometimes  of  hearing,  although 
the  eyesight  is  superior  to  that  of  normal  people.  "  In  general," 
to  quote  Lombroso,  "  the  born  criminal  has  projecting  ears,  thick 


CRIMMITZSCHAU— CRIMP 


4-65 


hair  and  thin  beard,  projecting  frontal  eminences,  enormous  jaws, 
a  square  and  protruding  chin,  large  cheek  bones  and  frequent 
gesticulation."  So  much  for  the  anatomical  and  physiological 
peculiarities  of  the  criminal.  There  remain  the  psychological 
or  mental  characteristics,  so  far  as  they  have  been  observed. 
Moral  insensibility  is  attributed  to  him,  a  dull  conscience  that 
never  pricks  and  a  general  freedom  from  remorse.  He  is  said  to 
be  generally  lacking  in  intelligence,  hence  his  stupidity,  the  want 
of  proper  precautions,  both  before  and  after  an  offence,which  leads 
so  often  to  his  detection  and  capture.  His  vanity  is  strongly 
marked  and  shown  in  the  pride  taken  in  infamous  achievements 
rather  than  personal  appearance. 

No  sooner  was  this  new  theory  made  public  than  the  very 
existence  of  the  supposed  type  was  questioned  and  more  evidence 
demanded.  A  French  savant  declared  that  Lombroso's  portraits 
were  very  similar  to  the  photographs  of  his  friends.  Save  for  the 
dirt,  the  recklessness,  the  weariness  and  the  misery  so  often  seen 
on  it.the  face  of  the  criminal  does  not  differ  from  that  of  an  honest 
man's.  It  was  pointed  out  that  if  certain  traits  denoted  the 
criminal,  the  converse,  should  be  seen  in  the  honest  man.  A 
pertinent  objection  was  that  the  deductions  had  been  made 
from  insufficient  premises.  The  criminologists  had  worked  upon 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  criminals,  and  yet  made  their 
discoveries  applicable  to  the  whole  class.  The  facts  were  collected 
from  too  small  an  area  and  no  definite  conclusions  could  be  based 
upon  them.  Moreover,  the  criminologists  were  by  no  means 
unanimous.  They  differed  amongst  themselves  and  often  con- 
tradicted one  another  as  to  the  characteristics  exhibited. 

The  controversy  was  long  maintained.  Many  eminent 
persons  have  been  arrayed  on  either  side.  In  Italy  Lombroso 
was  supported  by  Colajanni,  Ferri,  Garofalo;  in  France  by 
J.  A.  Lacassagne.  In  Germany  Lombroso  has  found  few 
followers;  Dr  Naecke  of  Hubertusburg  near  Leipzig,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  German  alienists,  declined  to  admit  there  was 
any  special  animal  type.  Van  Hamel  of  Amsterdam  gives  only 
a  qualified  approval.  In  England  it  stands  generally  condemned, 
because  it  gives  no  importance  to  circumstance  and  passing 
temptation,  or  to  domestic  or  social  environment,  as  affecting 
the  causation  of  crime.  Dr  Nicholson  of  Broadmoor  has  said  that 
"  if  the  criminal  is  such  by  predestination,  heredity  or  accidental 
flaws  or  anomalies  in  brain  or  physical  structure,  he  is  such  for 
good  and  all;  no  cure  is  possible,  all  the  plans  and  processes 
for  his  betterment,  education,  moral  training  and  disciplinary 
treatment  are  nugatory  and  vain."  No  weight  can  then  be 
attached  to  evil  example,  or  unfavourable  social  surroundings, 
in  moulding  and  forming  character,  particularly  during  the  more 
plastic  periods  of  childhood  and  youth. 

The  pertinent  question  remains,  has  the  study  and  development 
of  criminology  served  any  useful  purpose?  Little  perhaps  can 
come  of  it  in  its  restricted  sense,  but  it  has  taken  a  wider  meaning 
and  embraces  larger  researches.  It  has  inquired  into  the  sources 
and  causes  of  crime,  it  has  collected  criminal  statistics  and 
deduced  valuable  lessons  from  them,  it  has  sought  and  obtained 
guidance  in  the  best  methods  of  prevention,  repression,  and 
forms  of  procedure.  The  champions  of  law  and  order  have  been 
greatly  aided  by  the  criminologist  in  carrying  on  the  continual 
combat  with  crime,  and  in  dealing  with  the  most  complicated 
of  social  phenomena.  The  new  science  has,  in  fact,  by  accumulat- 
ing a  number  of  curious  details,  in  recording  the  psychology, 
the  secret  desires,  the  springs  of  the  criminal's  nefarious  actions, 
his  corrigibility  or  the  reverse,  "  prepared  the  way  to  his  socio- 
logical explanation"  (Tarde).  Thanks  to  the  labours  of  the 
criminologist  we  are  moving  steadily  forward  to  a  future  im- 
proved treatment  of  the  criminal,  and  may  thus  arrive  at  the 
increased  morality  and  greater  safety  of  society.  Very  appreci- 
able advance  has  been  made  in  the  increased  attention  paid  to 
juvenile  and  adult  crime,  the  acceptance  of  the  theory,  now 
well  established,  that  there  is  an  especially  criminal  age,  a  period 
when  the  moral  fibre  is  weaker  and  more  yielding  to  temptation 
to  crime,  when  happily  human  nature  is  more  malleable  and 
susceptible  to  improvement  and  reform. 

The  study  of  criminology  has,  however,  gone  far  to  satisfy 


us  that  the  true  genesis  of  crime  is  not  to  be  sought  in  the  anatomi- 
cal anomalies  of  individuals,  or  in  the  fact  that  there  are  people 
who  under  "  any  social  conditions  whatever  and  of  any  nation- 
ality at  no  matter  what  epoch,  would  have  undoubtedly  become 
murderers  and  thieves."  On  the  contrary  it  may  be  safely 
assumed  that  many  such  would  have  done  no  wrong  if  they  had, 
e.g.,  been  born  rich,  had  been  free  from  the  pressing  needs  that 
drove  them  into  crime,  and  had  escaped  the  evil  influences  of 
their  surroundings.  The  criminologists  have  strengthened  the 
hands  of  administrators,  have  emphasized  the  paramount  import- 
ance of  child-rescue  and  judicious  direction  of  adults,  have 
held  the  balance  between  penal  methods,  advocating  the  moraliz- 
ing effect  of  open-air  labour  as  opposed  to  prolonged  isolation, 
and  have  insisted  upon  the  desirability  of  indefinite  detention 
for  all  who  have  obstinately  determined  to  wage  perpetual  war 
against  society  by  the  persistent  perpetration  of  crime. 

AUTHORITIES. — See  A.  Weingart,  Kriminaltaktik,  ein  Handbuch 
fur  das  Untersuchen  von  Verbrechen  (Leipzig,  1904);  F.  H.  Wines, 
Punishment  and  Reformation  (New  York,  1895);  C.  Perrier,  Let 
Criminels  (Paris,  1905)  ;  G.  Mace,  Femmes  criminelles  (Paris,  1904) ; 

E.  Carpenter,  Prisons,  Police  and  Punishment  (1905) ;  R.  R.  Rentoul, 
Proposed  Sterilization  of  certain  Mental  and  Physical  Degenerates 
(1904);    R.  Sommer,  Kr iminalpsychologie  und  strafrechtliche  Psycho- 
pathologie   auf  naturwissenschaftlicher   Grundlage    (Leipzig,    1904) ; 

F.  Kitzinger,  Die  Internationale  kriminalistische  Vereinigung  (1905) ; 
Reports  of  Committee  on  the  best  mode  of  giving  efficiency  to 
Secondary   Punishments   (1831-1832);     Reports  of  the   House  of 
Commons  Committee  of  1853,  of  the  royal  commission  of  1884,  of 
the  departmental  committee  of  1895,  and  the  annual  reports  of  H.  M. 
inspectors  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  (A.  G.) 

CRIMMITZSCHAU,  or  KRIMMITSCHAU,  a  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the  Pleisse  and  the  main  Leipzig- 
Hof  railway,  7  m.  N.W.  from  Zwickau.  Pop.  (1900)  22,845. 
The  most  important  industries  of  the  town  are  the  manufacture 
of  buckskin,  the  spinning  of  carded  yarn  and  vicuna-wool, 
and  the  processes  of  dyeing,  finishing  and  wool-spinning  con- 
nected with  these.  Among  other  manufactures  are  brushes, 
boilers  and  the  like,  machinery,  metal  ware  generally,  the 
cases  and  other  parts  of  watches.  The  town  has  a  modern 
school  (Realschule),  a  commercial  school,  and  technical  schools 
for  weaving  and  finishing. 

CRIMP  (possibly  connected  with  "  crimp,"  to  draw  together, 
or  fold  in  parallel  lines,  in  the  sense  of  "  confine  ";  the  primary 
meaning,  however,  seems  to  be  that  of  "  agent,"  and  the  word 
may  be  a  distinct  one,  of  which  the  origin  is  lost),  an  agent  for 
the  supplying  of  soldiers  and  sailors,  by  kidnapping,  drugging, 
decoying  or  other  illegal  means.  Crimps  were  formerly  regularly 
employed  in  the  days  of  impressment  (q.v.).  Now  the  term  is 
used,  first  of  any  one  who  engages  to  supply  merchant  seamen 
without  a  licence  from  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  is  not  either  the 
owner,  master  or  mate  of  the  ship,  or  is  not  bona  fide  the  servant, 
and  in  the  constant  employment  of  the  owner,  or  is  not  a  super- 
intendent (Merchant  Shipping  Act  1894,  §  in);  and,  with  a 
wide  application,  of  the  extortionate  lodging  or  boarding-house 
keepers,  who  are  generally  in  league  with  the  "  crimp  "  proper. 

Sections  212  to  219  inclusive  of  the  above  act  provide  for  the 
protection  of  merchant  seamen  in  the  United  Kingdom  from 
imposition.  Local  authorities  at  seaports  have  power  to  make 
by-laws  for  the  licensing  and  regulating  of  lodging-houses  for 
sailors,  and  to  inflict  penalties  for  the  infringement  thereof. 
If  this  power  be  not  exercised,  the  Board  of  Trade  may  do  so. 
Penalties  are  also  imposed  by  the  act  for  overcharging  by 
lodging-house  keepers,  for  detaining  of  seamen's  effects,  and  for 
soliciting.  Unauthorized  persons  are  prohibited  from  boarding 
a  ship  in  port  without  leave.  The  Board  of  Trade  officer  at  a  port 
may  provide  money  for  sending  a  seaman  to  his  home  on  dis- 
charge, and  may  forward  his  wages  after  deducting  the  expenses. 
Facilities  are  also  given  for  having  wages  sent  home  from  foreign 
ports  at  a  small  charge.  These  provisions  have  practically 
killed  "crimping"  in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  ports  of  the 
United  States  of  America  crimping  was  long  prevalent,  especially 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  its  prevention  was  very  difficult,  but 
state  regulations  as  to  the  licensing  of  boarding-houses,  and 
the  limitation  of  the  amount  of  so-called  "  blood-money  "  paid 


466 


CRIMSON— CRISA 


by  masters  of  vessels  to  the  suppliers  of  crews  to  ships  denuded 
by  desertions,  have  reduced  the  abuse  materially. 

The  term  "  to  shanghai  "  is  used  of  a  more  serious  offence. 
Literally  meaning  "  to  ship  to  Shanghai,"  in  China,  it  is  applied 
to  the  drugging  or  rendering  unconscious  by  violence  or  other 
means  of  persons,  whether  sailors  or  not,  and  shipping  them 
to  distant  ports,  in  order  fraudulently  to  obtain  money  in  advance 
of  wages,  or  for  the  sake  of  the  premium  paid  for  supplying  crews. 

CRIMSON,  the  name  of  a  strong,  bright  red  colour  tinged  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree  with  purple.  It  is  the  colour  of  the  dye 
produced  from  the  dried  bodies  of  the  cochineal  insect  (Coccus 
cacti).  The  word,  in  its  earlier  forms  cremesin,  crymysyn,  also 
cramoysin,  cf.  "  cramoisy,"  the  name  of  a  red  cloth,  is  adapted 
from  the  Med.  Lat.  cremesinus  for  kermesinus  or  carmesinus, 
the  dye  produced  from  the  insect  Kermes  (Coccus  ilicis),  Arab. 
quirmiz,  which  Skeat  (Etym.  Diet.,  1898)  connects  with  the 
Sanskrit  krimi,  cognate  with  Lat.  vermis  and  Eng.  "worm." 
From  the  Lat.  carminus,  a  shortened  form  of  carmesinus, 
comes  "carmine"  (<?.».). 

CRINAGORAS,  of  Mytilene,  Greek  epigrammatist,  flourished 
during  the  reign  of  Augustus  (Strabo  xiii.  p.  617).  A  number 
of  epigrams  appear  under  his  name  in  the  Greek  Anthology. 
From  inscriptions  discovered  at  Mytilene,  he  appears  to  have 
been  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  from  that  city  to  Rome  in 
45  and  26  B.C. 

The  epigrams  have  been  edited  by  M.  Rubensohn  (1888). 

CRINOLINE  (a  Fr.  word  formed  of  the  Lat.  crinis,  hair,  and 
linum,  thread),  a  stiffening  material  made  of  horse-hair  and 
cotton  or  linen  thread.  Substitutes  for  this,  such  as  the  straw- 
like  material  used  in  making  hat  shapes,  are  also  known  by  the 
same  name.  From  the  use  of  the  material  to  expand  ladies'  skirts 
the  term  was  applied,  during  the  third  quarter  of  the  ipth 
century,  when  the  fashion  of  wearing  greatly  expanded  skirts 
was  at  its  height,  to  the  whalebone  and  steel  hoops  employed 
to  support  the  skirts  thus  worn  (see  COSTUME).  The  term  is  also 
used  of  structures  resembling  these  articles,  especially  of  the 
framework  of  booms,  spars  and  netting  forming  a  protection 
for  a  warship  against  torpedo  attack. 

CRINUM,  a  genus  (nat.  ord.  Amaryllidaceae)  of  bulbous 
plants  with  rather  broad  leaves  and  a  solid  leafless  stem,  bearing 
a  cluster  of  handsome  white  or  red  funnel-shaped  regular  flowers. 
They  are  well  known  in  cultivation,  and  owing  to  the  wide 
distribution  of  the  genus  different  methods  are  adopted  with 
different  species.  Some  require  the  hot,  moist  temperature  of 
a  stove;  such  are  C.  amabile,  a  native  of  Sumatra,  C.  amoenum 
(India),  C.  Balfourii  (Socotra),  C.  giganteum  (West  tropical 
Africa),  C.  Kirkil  (Zanzibar),  C.  latifolium  (India),  C.  zeylanicum 
(tropical  Asia  and  Africa),  and  others.  Others  thrive  in  a  green- 
house; such  are  C.  asiaticum,  a  widely  distributed  plant  on  the 
sea-coast  of  tropical  Asia,  C.  capense  and  C.  longiflorum,  from 
the  Cape,  and  C.  Macowani  and  C.  Moorei  from  Natal.  C. 
asiaticum,  C.  capense  and  C.  Macowani  will  also  thrive  in  sheltered 
positions  in  the  garden. 

CRIOBOLIUM,  the  sacrifice  of  a  ram  in  the  cult  of  Attis  and 
the  Great  Mother.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  special  ceremony 
instituted  after  the  rise,  and  on  the  analogy  of  the  taurobolium 
(<?.».),  which  was  performed  in  honour  of  the  Great  Mother,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  fuller  recognition  to  Attis  in  the  duality 
which  he  formed  with  the  Mother.  There  is  no  evidence  of  its 
existence  either  in  Asia  or  in  Italy  before  the  taurobolium  came 
into  prominence  (after  A.D.  134).  When  the  criobolium  was 
performed  in  conjunction  with  the  taurobolium,  the  altar  was 
almost  invariably  inscribed  to  both  the  Mother  and  Attis,  while 
the  inscription  was  to  the  Mother  alone  when  the  taurobolium 
only  was  performed.  The  celebration  of  the  criobolium  was 
widespread,  and  its  importance  such  that  it  was  sometimes 
performed  in  place  of  the  taurobolium  (Corp.  Inscr.  Lat.  vi. 
505,  506).  The  details  and  effect  of  the  ceremony  were  no  doubt 
similar  to  those  of  the  taurobolium.  (G.  SN.) 

CRIPPLE  CREEK,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Teller  county, 
almost  at  the  geographical  centre  of  Colorado,  U.S.A.,  one  of 
the  phenomenal  mining  camps  of  the  West.  Pop.  (1900) 


10,147  (1408  foreign-born);  (1910)  6206.  The  city  is  served 
by  three  railways — the  Colorado  Springs  &  Cripple  Creek 
District  (a  branch  of  the  Colorado  &  Southern),  the  Midland 
Terminal  (which  connects  at  Divide,  30  m.  distant  by  rail,  with 
the  Colorado  Midland),  and  the  Florence  &  Cripple  Creek. 
Cripple  Creek  is  situated  on  a  mountain  slope  in  a  pocket  amid 
the  ranges,  about  9600  ft.  above  the  sea  at  the  head  of  the  stream 
after  which  it  is  named.  The  municipal  water-supply  is  drawn 
from  Pike's  Peak,  10  m.  distant.  The  interest  of  the  city  is  in 
its  extraordinary  mines  and  their  history.  Cripple  Creek's  site 
was  frequently  prospected  after  1860,  and  "  colours  "  and  gold 
"  float  "  were  always  found,  but  not  until  February  1891  was 
the  source  discovered.  Cripple  Creek  was  at  that  time  a  cattle 
range.  In  1891  the  output  of  gold  in  the  district  was  valued 
at  $449,  in  1892  at  $583,010,  and  in  the  next  three  years  at 
$2,010,367,  $2,908,702  and  $6,879,137  respectively.  From 
1891  to  1906  the  total  production  of  gold  was  valued  at 
$168,584,331;  in  1905'  the  product  of  gold  was  valued  at 
$15,411,724,  the  total  for  the  whole  state  being  valued  at 
$25,023,973;  in  1906  the  output  for  the  district  was  valued 
at  $14,253,245,  out  of  $23,210,629  for  the  entire  state.  The 
development  of  the  camp  into  a  yellow-pine  town  and  then  into 
something  more  like  a  substantial  city  was  marvellously  rapid. 
The  first  railway  was  completed  in  1894.  In  the  same  year  a 
great  strike — one  of  the  most  famous  in  American  industrial 
history — threatening  civil  war,  temporarily  closed  the  mines; 
in  1896  fire  almost  destroyed  the  city;  in  1903-1904  a  second 
strike,  lasting  more  than  a  year  and  greater  than  the  first, 
occurred.  The  first  strike,  which  was  for  an  eight-hour  day 
and  $3.00  wage,  was  won  by  the  miners.  The  second,  for  the 
recognition  outright  of  the  union  organization  of  the  miners, 
secured  only  a  reaffirmation  of  the  former  conditions.  The  ores 
are  almost  exclusively  gold,  tellurides  being  the  most  character- 
istic form,  and  occur  in  fissure  veins.  Outcroppings  were  very 
rare,  as  the  veins  were  covered  with  loose  wash,  and  this 
accounted  for  the  late  opening  of  the  field.  The  field  covers  a 
district  about  8X10  m.  Some  peculiarities  of  the  ores  have 
required  the  use  of  new  methods  in  their  treatment,  and  in 
general  the  development  of  mining  methods  and  machinery  is 
of  a  wonderful  character.  The  whole  surrounding  country  is 
seamed  with  miles  of  tunnels  in  granite,  and  the  hillsides  are 
dotted  everywhere  with  enormous  dumps.  The  most  famous 
mines  have  been  the  "  Independence  "  (1891)  and  the  "  Port- 
land "  (1892).  The  latter  had  in  1904  more  than  25  m.  of 
workings  above  the  noo-ft.  level.  In  1903  the  El  Paso  drain 
was  completed,  to  unwater  the  western  half  of  the  field  to  the 
88o-ft.  level,  greatly  increasing  many  mine  values  and  outputs; 
in  1906  the  work  of  drainage  was  again  taken  up,  and  work  on 
a  long  bore  was  begun  in  May  1907.  There  are  smelters  and 
cyanide  extracters  in  the  district,  but  the  bulk  of  the  ore  product 
is  shipped  to  other  places  for  treatment.  Among  the  towns 
around  Cripple  Creek  in  the  same  mining  district  is  Victor, 
pop.  (1910)  3162,  incorporated  in  1894,  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1898. 

See  W.  Lindgren  and  F.  L.  Ransome,  Geology  and  Cold  Deposits  oj 
the  Cripple  Creek  District,  Colorado,  with  maps  (Washington,  1906), 
being  Professional  Paper  No.  54  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey;  and  Benjamin  McKie  Rastall,  The  Labor  History  of  the 
Cripple  Creek  District;  A  Study  in  Industrial  Evolution  (Madison, 
Wis.,  1908),  a  full -account  of  the  strikes  of  1894  and  of  1903-1904. 

CRISA,  or  CRISSA,  in  ancient  geography,  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  of  Greece,  situated  in  Phocis,  on  one  of  the  spurs  of 
Parnassus.  Its  name  occurs  both  in  the  Iliad  and  in  the  Homeric 
Hymns,  where  it  is  described  as  a  powerful  place,  with  a  rich 
and  fertile  territory,  reaching  to  the  sea,  and  including  within 
its  limits  the  sanctuary  of  Pytho.  As  the  town  of  Delphi  grew 
up  around  the  shrine,  and  the  seaport  of  Cirrha  arose  on  the 
Crisean  Gulf,  Crisa  gradually  lost  much  of  its  importance.  By 
the  ancients  themselves  the  name  of  Cirrha  was  so  often  sub- 
stituted for  that  of  Crisa,  that  it  soon  became  doubtful  whether 

'The  value  of  gold  mined  in  1899-1902  was  greater,  annually, 
than  the  product  of  1905  or  1906;  up  to  1905  the  greatest  annual 
value  was  in  1900,  $18,073,539. 


CRISPI 


467 


these  names  indicated  the  same  city  or  not.  The  question  was 
practically  settled  by  the  investigations  of  H.  N.  Ulrichs.  From 
its  position  Cirrha  commanded  the  approach  to  Delphi,  and  its 
inhabitants  became  obnoxious  to  the  Greeks  from  the  heavy 
tolls  which  they  exacted  from  the  devotees  who  thronged  to 
the  shrine.  The  Amphictyonic  Council  declared  war  (the  first 
Sacred  War)  against  the  Criseans  in  595  B.C.,  and  having  taken 
the  town,  razed  it  to  the  ground,  and  consecrated  its  territory 
to  the  temple  at  Delphi.  The  plunder  of  the  town  was  sold  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  Pythian  games.  In  339  the  people 
of  Amphissa  began  to  rebuild  the  town  of  Cirrha  and  to  cultivate 
the  plain.  This  act  brought  on  the  second  Sacred  War,  the 
conduct  of  which  was  entrusted  by  the  Amphictyons  to  Philip 
of  Macedon,  who  took  Amphissa  (mod.  Salona)  in  the  following 
year.  The  ruins  of  Crisa  may  be  still  seen  where  the  ravine  of 
the  Pleistus  joins  the  plain  ;  its  name  is  probably  preserved  by 
the  modern  Chryso. 

See  J   G.  Frazer's  Pausanias,  v.  459  (note  on  x.  37.5). 

(E.  GR.) 

CRISPI,  FRANCESCO  (1810-1901),  Italian  statesman,  was 
born  at  Ribera  in  Sicily  on  the  4th  of  October  1819.  In  1846 
he  established  himself  as  advocate  at  Naples.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Sicilian  revolution  at  Palermo  (January  12,  1848)  he 
hastened  to  the  island  and  took  an  active  part  in  guiding  the 
insurrection.  Upon  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon  government 
(May  15, 1849)  he  was  excluded  from  the  amnesty  and  compelled 
to  flee  to  Piedmont.  Here  he  unsuccessfully  applied  for  a 
situation  as  communal  secretary  of  Verolengo,  and  eked  out  a 
penurious  existence  by  journalism.  Implicated  in  the  Mazzinian 
conspiracy  at  Milan  (February  6,  1853),  he  was  expelled  from 
Piedmont,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  at  Malta,  whence  he  fled 
to  Paris.  Expelled  from  France,  he  joined  Mazzini  in  London, 
and  continued  to  conspire  for  the  redemption  of  Italy.  On  the 
1 5th  of  June  1859  he  returned  to  Italy  after  publishing  a  letter 
repudiating  the  aggrandizement  of  Piedmont,  and  proclaim- 
ing himself  a  republican  and  a  partisan  of  national  unity. 
Twice  in  that  year  he  went  the  round  of  the  Sicilian  cities 
in  disguise,  and  prepared  the  insurrectionary  movement  of 
1860. 

Upon  his  return  to  Gen5a  he  organized,  with  Bertani,  Bixio, 
Medici  and  Garibaldi,  the  expedition  of  the  Thousand,  and 
overcoming  by  a  stratagem  the  hesitation  of  Garibaldi,  secured 
the  departure  of  the  expedition  on  the  5th  of  May  1860.  Dis- 
embarking at  Marsala  on  the  nth,  Crispi  on  the  i3th,  at  Salemi, 
drew  up  the  proclamation  whereby  Garibaldi  assumed  the 
dictatorship  of  Sicily,  with  the  programme:  "  Italy  and  Victor 
Emmanuel."  After  the  fall  of  Palermo,  Crispi  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  interior  and  of  finance  in  the  Sicilian  provisional 
government,  but  was  shortly  afterwards  obliged  to  resign  on 
account  of  the  struggle  between  Garibaldi  and  the  emissaries  of 
Cavour  with  regard  to  the  question  of  immediate  annexation. 
Appointed  secretary  to  Garibaldi,  Crispi  secured  the  resignation 
of  Depretis,  whom  Garibaldi  had  appointed  pro-dictator,  and 
would  have  continued  his  fierce  opposition  to  Cavour  at  Naples, 
where  he  had  been  placed  by  Garibaldi  in  the  foreign  office,  had 
not  the  advent  of  the  Italian  regular  troops  and  the  annexation 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Italy  brought  about  Garibaldi's  withdrawal 
to  Caprera  and  Crispi's  own  resignation.  Entering  parliament 
in  1861  as  deputy  of  the  extreme  Left  for  Castelvetrano,  Crispi 
acquired  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  aggressive  and  most 
impetuous  member  of  the  republican  party.  In  1864,  however, 
he  made  at  the  chamber  a  monarchical  profession  of  faith,  in 
the  famous  phrase  afterwards  repeated  in  his  letter  to  Mazzini: 
"  The  monarchy  unites  us;  the  republic  would  divide  us." 
In  1866  he  refused  to  enter  the  Ricasoli  cabinet;  in  1867  he 
worked  to  impede  the  Garibaldian  invasion  of  the  papal  states, 
foreseeing  the  French  occupation  of  Rome  and  the  disaster  of 
Mentana.  By  methods  of  the  same  character  as  those  subse- 
quently employed  against  himself  by  Cavallotti,  he  carried  on 
the  violent  agitation  known  as  the  Lobbia  affair,  in  which  sundry 
conservative  deputies  were,  on  insufficient  grounds,  accused 
of  corruption.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  War  he 


worked  energetically  to  impede  the  projected  alliance  with 
France,  and  to  drive  the  Lanza  cabinet  to  Rome.  The  death  of 
Ratazzi  in  1873  induced  Crispi's  friends  to  put  forward  his 
candidature  to  the  leadership  of  the  Left;  but  Crispi,  anxious 
to  reassure  the  crown,  secured  the  election  of  Depretis.  After 
the  advent  of  the  Left  he  was  elected  (November  1876)  president 
of  the  chamber.  During  the  autumn  of  1877  he  went  to  London, 
Paris  and  Berlin  on  a  confidential  mission,  establishing  cordial 
personal  relationships  with  Gladstone,  Granville  and  other 
English  statesmen,  and  with  Bismarck. 

In  December  1877  he  replaced  Nicotera  as  minister  of  the 
interior  in  the  Depretis  cabinet,  his  short  term  of  office  (70  days) 
being  signalized  by  a  series  of  important  events.  On  January  9, 
1878,  the  death  of  Victor  Emmanuel  and  the  accession  of  Xing 
Humbert  enabled  Crispi  to  secure  the  formal  establishment  of  a 
unitary  monarchy,  the  new  monarch  taking  the  title  of  Humbert 
I.  of  Italy  instead  of  Humbert  IV.  of  Savoy.  The  remains  of 
Victor  Emmanuel  were  interred  in  the  Pantheon  instead  of  being 
transported  to  the  Savoy  Mausoleum  at  Superga.  On  the  9th 
of  February,  1879,  the  death  of  Pius  IX.  necessitated  a  conclave, 
the  first  to  be  held  after  the  unification  of  Italy.  Crispi,  helped 
by  Mancini  and  Cardinal  Pecci  (afterwards  Leo  XIII.),  persuaded 
the  Sacred  College  to  hold  the  conclave  in  Rome,  and  prorogued 
the  chamber  lest  any  untoward  manifestation  should  mar  the 
solemnity  of  the  event.  The  statesmanlike  qualities  displayed 
on  this  occasion  were  unavailing  to  avert  the  storm  of  indignation 
conjured  up  by  Crispi's  opponents  in  connexion  with  a  charge 
of  bigamy  not  susceptible  of  legal  proof.  Crispi  was  compelled 
to  resign  office,  although  the  judicial  authorities  upheld  the 
invalidity  of  his  early  marriage,  contracted  at  Malta  in  1853, 
and  ratified  his  subsequent  union  with  Signora  Barbagallo. 
For  nine  years  Crispi  remained  politically  under  a  cloud,  but  in 
1887  returned  to  office  as  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  Depretis 
cabinet,  succeeding  to  the  premiership  upon  the  death  of  Depretis 
(July  29,  1887). 

One  of  his  first  acts  as  premier  was  a  visit  to  Bismarck,  whom 
he  desired  to  consult  upon  the  working  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Basing  his  foreign  policy  upon  the  alliance,  as  supplemented  by 
the  naval  entente  with  Great  Britain  negotiated  by  his  predecessor, 
Count  Robilant,  Crispi  assumed  a  resolute  attitude  towards 
France,  breaking  off  the  prolonged  and  unfruitful  negotiations 
for  a  new  Franco-Italian  commercial  treaty,  and  refusing  the 
French  invitation  to  organize  an  Italian  section  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1889.  At  home  Crispi  secured  the  adoption  of  the 
Sanitary  and  Commercial  Codes,  and  reformed  the  administration 
of  justice.  Forsaken  by  his  Radical  friends,  Crispi  governed  with 
the  help  of  the  Right  until,  on  the  3ist  of  January  1891,  an 
intemperate  allusion  to  the  sante  memorie  of  the  conservative 
party  led  to  his  overthrow.  In  December  1893  the  impotence 
of  the  Giolitti  cabinet  to  restore  public  order,  then  menaced  by 
disturbances  in  Sicily  and  in  Lunigiana,  gave  rise  to  a  general 
demand  that  Crispi  should  return  to  power.  Upon  resuming 
office  he  vigorously  suppressed  the  disorders,  and  steadily 
supported  the  energetic  remedies  adopted  by  Sonnino,  minister 
of  finance,  to  save  Italian  credit,  which  had  been  severely  shaken 
by  the  bank  and  financial  crises  of  1892-1893.  Crispi's  uncom- 
promising suppression  of  disorder,  and  his  refusal  to  abandon 
either  the  Triple  Alliance  or  the  Eritrean  colony,  or  to  forsake 
his  colleague  Sonnino,  caused  a  breach  between  him  and  the 
radical  leader  Cavallotti.  Cavallotti  then  began  against  him  a 
pitiless  campaign  of  defamation.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  upon 
Crispi's  life  by  the  anarchist  Lega  brought  a  momentary  truce, 
but  Cavallotti's  attacks  were  soon  renewed  more  fiercely  than 
ever.  They  produced  so  little  effect  that  the  general  election  of 
1895  gave  Crispi  a  huge  majority,  but,  a  year  later,  the  defeat 
of  the  Italian  army  at  Adowa  in  Abyssinia  brought  about  his 
resignation.  The  ensuing  Rudini  cabinet  lent  itself  to  Cavallotti's 
campaign,  and  at  the  end  of  1897  the  judicial  authorities  applied 
to  the  chamber  for  permission  to  prosecute  Crispi  for  embezzle- 
ment. A  parliamentary  commission,  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  charges  against  him,  discovered  only  that  Crispi,  on  assuming 
office  in  1893,  had  found  the  secret  service  coffers  empty,  and 


4.68 


CRISPIN— CRITICISM 


had  borrowed  from  a  state  bank  the  sum  of  £12,000  for  secret 
service,  repaying  it  with  the  ^onthly  instalments  granted  in 
regular  course  by  the  treasury.  The  commission,  considering 
this  proceeding  irregular,  proposed,  and  the  chamber  adopted, 
a  vote  of  censure,  but  refused  to  authorize  a  prosecution.  Crispi 
resigned  his  seat  in  parliament,  but  was  re-elected  by  an  over- 
whelming majority  in  April  1898  by  his  Palermo  constituents. 
For  some  time  he  took  little  part  in  active  politics,  chiefly  on 
account  of  his  growing  blindness.  A  successful  operation  for 
cataract  restored  his  eyesight  in  June  1900,  and  notwithstand- 
ing his  8 1  years  he  resumed  to  some  extent  his  former  political 
activity.  Soon  afterwards,  however,  his  health  began  to  give 
way  permanently,  and  he  died  at  Naples  on  the  I2th  of  August 
1901. 

The  importance  of  Crispi  in  Italian  public  life  depended  less 
upon  the  many  reforms  accomplished  under  his  administrations 
than  upon  his  intense  patriotism,  remarkable  fibre,  and  capacity 
for  administering  to  his  fellow-countrymen  the  political  tonic  of 
which  they  stood  in  constant  need.  In  regard  to  foreign  politics 
he  greatly  contributed  to  raise  Italian  prestige  and  to  dispel 
the  .reputation  for  untrustworthiness  and  vacillation  acquired 
by  many  of  his  predecessors.  If  in  regard  to  France  his  policy 
appeared  to  lack  suavity  and  circumspection,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  French  republic  was  then  engaged  in  active 
anti-Italian  schemes  and  was  working,  both  at  the  Vatican  and 
.  in  the  sphere  of  colonial  politics,  to  create  a  situation  that  should 
compel  Itajy  to  bow  to  French  exigencies  and  to  abandon  the 
Triple  Alliance.  Crispi  was  prepared  to  cultivate  good  relations 
with  France,  but  refused  to  yield  to  pressure  or  to  submit  to  dicta  - 
tion;  and  in  this  attitude  he  was  firmly  supported  by  the  bulk 
of  his  fellow-countrymen.  The  criticism  freely  directed  against 
him  was  based  rather  upon  the  circumstances  of  his  unfortunate 
private  life  and  the  misdeeds  of  an  unscrupulous  entourage  which 
traded  upon  his  name  than  upon  his  personal  or  political  short- 
comings. 

See  Scritti  e  discorsi  politici  di  F.  Crispi,  1847-18(10  (Rome,  1890) ; 
Francesco  Crispi,  by  W.  J.  Stillman  (London,  1899). 

CRISPIN  and  CRISPINIAN,  the  patron  saints  of  shoemakers, 
whose  festival  is  celebrated  on  the  25th  of  October.  Their 
history  is  largely  legendary,  and  there  exists  no  trace  of  it  earlier 
than  the  8th  century.  It  is  said  that  they  were  brothers  and 
members  of  a  noble  family  in  Rome.  They  gave  up  their  property 
and  travelled  to  Soissons  (Noviodunum,  Augusta  Suessionum), 
where  they  supported  themselves  by  shoemaking  and  made  many 
converts  to  Christianity.  The  emperor  Maximianus  (Herculius) 
condemned  them  to  death.  His  prefect  Rictiovarus  endeavoured 
to  carry  out  the  sentence,  but  they  emerged  unharmed  from  all 
the  ordeals  to  which  he  subjected  them,  and  the  weapons  he  used 
recoiled  against  the  executioners.  Rictiovarus  in  disgust  cast 
himself  into  the  fire,  or  the  caldron  of  boiling  tar,  from  which 
they  had  emerged  refreshed.  At  last  Maximian  had  their  heads 
cut  off  (c.  287-300).  Their  remains  were  buried  at  Soissons, 
but  were  afterwards  removed,  partly  by  Charlemagne  to  Osna- 
briick  (where  a  festival  is  observed  annually  on  the  2oth  of  June) 
and  partly  to  the  chapel  of  St  Lawrence  in  Rome.  The  abbeys 
of  St  Crepin-en-Chaye  (the  remains  of  which  still  form  part  of  a 
farmhouse  on  the  river  Aisne,  N.N.W.  of  Soissons),  of  St  Crepin- 
le-Petit,  and  St  Crepin-le-Grand  (the  site  of  which  is  occupied 
by  a  house  belonging  to  the  Sisters  of  Mercy),  in  or  near  Soissons, 
commemorated  the  places  sanctified  by  their  imprisonment  and 
burial.  There  are  also  relics  at  Fulda,  and  a  Kentish  tradition 
claims  that  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs  were  cast  into  the  sea  and 
cast  on  shore  on  Romney  Marsh  (see  Acta  SS.  Bolland,  xi.  495; 
A.  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  October  25th). 

Especially  in  France,  but  also  in  England  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe,  the  festival  of  St  Crispin  was  for  centuries  the  occasion 
of  solemn  processions  and  merry-making,  in  which  gilds  of  shoe- 
makers took  the  chief  part.  At  Troyes,  where  the  gild  of  St 
Crispin  was  reconstituted  as  late  as  1820,  an  annual  festival  is 
celebrated  in  the  church  of  St  Urban.  In  England  and  Scotland 
the  day  acquired  additional  importance  as  the  anniversary  of 
the  battle  of  Agincourt  (cf.  Shakespeare,  Henry  V.  iv.  3) ;  the 


symbolical  processions  in  honour  of  "  King  Crispin  "  at  Stirling 
and  Edinburgh  were  particularly  famous. 

For  other  examples  see  Notes  and  Queries,  1st  series,  v.  30,  vi.  243; 
W.  S.  Walsh,  Curiosities  of  Popular  Customs  (London,  1898;. 

CRITIAS,  Athenian  orator  and  poet,  and  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  pupil  of  Gorgias  and  Socrates, 
but  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  political  intrigues.  In 
415  B.C.  he  was  implicated  in  the  mutilation  of  the  Hermae  and 
imprisoned.  In  411  he  helped  to  put  down  the  Four  Hundred, 
and  was  instrumental  in  procuring  the  recall  of  Alcibiades. 
He  was  banished  (probably  in  the  democratic  reaction  of  407) 
and  fled  to  Thessaly,  where  he  stirred  up  the  Penestae  (the  helots 
of  Thessaly)  against  their  masters,  and  endeavoured  to  establish 
a  democracy.  Returning  to  Athens  he  was  made  ephor  by  the 
oligarchical  party;  and  he  was  the  most  cruel  and  unscrupulous 
of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  who  in  404  were  appointed  by  the  Lacedae- 
monians. He  was  slain  in  battle  against  Thrasybulus  and  the 
returning  democrats.  Critias  was  a  man  of  varied  talents — 
poet,  orator,  historian  and  philosopher.  Some  fragments  of  his 
elegies  will  be  found  in  Bergk,  Poetae  Lyrici  Graeci.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  several  tragedies  and  of  biographies  of  dis- 
tinguished poets  (possibly  in  verse). 

See  Xenophon,  Hellenica,  ii.  3.  4.  19,  Memorabilia,  i.  2;  Cornelius 
Nepos,  Thrasybulus,  2;  R.  Lallier,  De  Critiae  tyranni  vita  ac 
scriptis  (1875) ;  Nestle,  Neue  Jahrb.  f.  d.  kl.  Altert.  (1903). 

CRITICISM  (from  the  Gr.  Kplnjs,  a  judge,  Kpivtiv,  to  decide, 
to  give  an  authoritative  opinion),  the  art  of  judging  the  qualities 
and  values  of  an  aesthetic  object,  whether  in  literature  or  the 
fine  arts.1  It  involves,  in  the  first  instance,  the  formation 
and  expression  of  a  judgment  on  the  qualities  of  anything,  and 
Matthew  Arnold  denned  it  in  this  general  sense  as  "  a  disinterested 
endeavour  to  learn  and  propagate  the  best  that  is  known  and 
thought  in  the  world."  It  has  come,  however,  to  possess  a 
secondary  and  specialized  meaning  as  a  published  analysis 
of  the  qualities  and  characteristics  of  a  work  in  literature  or  fine 
art,  itself  taking  the  form  of  independent  literature.  The  sense 
in  which  criticism  is  taken  as  implying  censure,  the  "  picking 
holes  "  in  any  statement  or  production,  is  frequent,  but  it  is 
entirely  unjustifiable.  There  is  nothing  in  the  proper  scope  of 
criticism  which  presupposes  blame.  "  On  the  contrary,  a  work 
of  perfect  beauty  and  fitness,  in  which  no  fault  could  possibly 
be  found  with  justice,  is  as  proper  a  subject  for  criticism  to  deal 
with  as  a  work  of  the  greatest  imperfection.  It  may  be  perfectly 
just  to  state  that  a  book  or  a  picture  is  "  beneath  criticism," 
i.e.  is  so  wanting  in  all  qualities  of  originality  and  technical 
excellence  that  time  would  merely  be  wasted  in  analysing  it. 
But  it  can  never  be  properly  said  that  a  work  is  "  above  criti- 
cism," although  it  may  be  "  above  censure,"  for  the  very  com- 
plexity of  its  merits  and  the  fulness  of  its  beauties  tempt  the 
skill  of  the  analyser  and  reward  it. 

It  is  necessary  at  the  threshold  of  an  examination  of  the 
history  of  criticism  to  expose  this  laxity  of  speech,  since  nothing 
is  more  confusing  to  a  clear  conception  of  this  art  than  to  suppose 
that  it  consists  in  an  effort  to  detect  what  is  blameworthy. 
Candid  criticism  should  be  neither  benevolent  nor  adverse; 
its  function  is  to  give  a  just  judgment,  without  partiality  or  bias. 
A  critic  (KPITIKOS)  is  one  who  exercises  the  art  of  criticism, 
who  sets  himself  up,  or  is  set  up,  as  a  judge  of  literary  and 
artistic  merit.  The  irritability  of  mankind,  which  easily  forgets 
and  neglects  praise,  but  cannot  forgive  the  rankling  poison  of 
blame,  has  set  upon  the  word  critic  a  seal  which  is  even  more 
unamiable  than  that  of  criticism.  It  takes  its  most  savage  form 
in  Benjamin  Disraeli's  celebrated  and  deplorable  dictum,  "  the 
critics  are  the  men  who  have  failed  in  literature  and  art."  It 
is  plain  that  such  names  as  those  of  Aristotle,  Dante,  Dryden, 
Joshua  Reynolds,  Sainte-Beuve  and  Matthew  Arnold  are  not 
to  be  thus  swept  by  a  reckless  fulmination.  There  have  been 

1  It  is  in  this  general  sense  that  the  subject  is  considered  in  this 
article.  The  term  is,  however,  used  in  more  restricted  senses, 
generally  with  some  word  of  qualification,  e.g.  ""textual  criticism  " 
or  "  higher  criticism  ";  see  the  article  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM  and  the 
article  BIBLE  for  an  outstanding  example  of  both  "  textual  "  and 
"  higher." 


CRITICISM 


469 


many  critics  who  brought  from  failure  in  imaginative  composition 
a  cavilling,  jealous  and  ignoble  temper,  who  have  mainly 
exercised  their  function  in  indulging  the  evil  passion  of  envy. 
But,  so  far  as  they  have  done  this,  they  have  proved  themselves 
bad  critics,  and  neither  minute  care,  nor  a  basis  of  learning,  nor 
wide  experience  of  literature,  salutary  as  all  these  must  be, 
can  avail  to  make  that  criticism  valuable  which  is  founded  on 
the  desire  to  exaggerate  fault.finding  and  to  emphasize  censure 
unfairly.  The  examination  of  what  has  been  produced  by  other 
ages  of  human  thought  is  much  less  liable  to  this  dangerous  error 
than  the  attempt  to  estimate  contemporary  works  of  art  and 
literature.  There  are  few  indeed  whom  personal  passion  can 
blind  to  the  merits  of  a  picture  of  the  i5th  or  a  poem  of  the 
i  yth  century.  In  the  higher  branches  of  historical  criticism, 
prejudice  of  this  ignoble  sort  is  hardly  possible,  and  therefore, 
in  considering  criticism  in  its  ideal  forms,  it  is  best  to  leave  out 
of  consideration  that  invidious  and  fugitive  species  which  bears 
the  general  name  of  "  reviewing."  This  pedestrian  criticism, 
indeed,  is  useful  and  even  indispensable,  but  it  is,  by  its  very 
nature,  ephemeral,  and  it  is  liable  to  a  multitude  of  drawbacks. 
Even  when  the  reviewer  is,  or  desires  to  be,  strictly  just,  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  him  to  stand  far  enough  back  from  the 
object  under  review  to  see  it  in  its  proper  perspective.  He  is 
dazzled,  or  scandalized,  by  its  novelty;  he  has  formed  a  pre- 
conceived notion  of  the  degree  to  which  its  author  should  be 
encouraged  or  depressed;  he  is  himself,  in  all  cases,  an  element 
in  the  mental  condition  which  he  attempts  to  judge,  and  if 
not  positively  a  defendant  is  at  least  a  juryman  in  the  court  over 
which  he  ought  to  preside  with  remote  impartiality. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  the  definition  of  criticism  in  its  pure 
sense,  that  it  should  consist  in  the  application,  in  the  most  com- 
petent form,  of  the  principles  of  literary  composition.  Those 
principles  are  the  general  aesthetics  upon  which  taste  is  founded; 
they  take  the  character  of  rules  of  writing.  From  the  days  of 
Aristotle  the  existence  of  such  rules  has  not  been  doubted,  but 
different  orders  of  mind  in  various  ages  have  given  them  diverse 
application,  and  upon  this  diversity  the  fluctuations  of  taste 
are  founded.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  in  past  ages 
critics  have  too  often  succumbed  to  the  temptation  to  regulate 
taste  rigidly,  and  to  lay  down  rules  that  shall  match  every  case 
with  a  formula.  Over-legislation  has  been  the  bane  of  official 
criticism,  and  originality,  especially  in  works  of  creative  imagina- 
tion, has  been  condemned  because  it  did  not  conform  to  existing 
rules.  Such  instances  of  want  of  contemporary  appreciation 
as  the  reception  given  to  William  Blake  or  Keats,  or  even  Milton, 
are  quoted  to  prove  the  futility  of  criticism.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  they  do  nothing  of  the  kind.  They  merely  prove  the 
immutable  principles  which  underlie  all  judgment  of  artistic 
products  to  have  been  misunderstood  or  imperfectly  obeyed 
during  the  life-times  of  those  illustrious  men.  False  critics  have 
built  domes  of  glass,  as  Voltaire  put  it,  between  the  heavens  and 
themselves,  domes  which  genius  has  to  shatter  in  pieces  before 
it  can  make  itself  comprehended.  In  critical  application  formulas 
are  often  useful,  but  they  should  be  held  lightly;  when  the 
formula  becomes  the  tyrant  where  it  should  be  the  servant  of 
thought,  fatal  error  is  imminent.  What  is  required  above  all 
else  by  a  critic  is  knowledge,  tempered  with  good  sense,  and 
combined  with  an  exquisite  delicacy  of  taste.  He  who  possesses 
these  qualities  may  go  wrong  in  certain  instances,  but  his  error 
cannot  become  radical,  and  he  is  always  open  to  correction.  It 
is  not  his  business  crudely  to  pronounce  a  composition  "good  " 
or  "  bad  ";  he  must  be  able  to  show  why  it  is  "  good  "  and 
wherein  it  is  "  bad  ";  he  must  admire  with  independence  and 
blame  with  careful  candour.  He  must  above  all  be  assiduous 
to  escape  from  pompous  generalizations,  which  conceal  lack  of 
thought  under  a  flow  of  words.  The  finest  criticism  should  take 
every  circumstance  of  the  case  into  consideration,  and  hold  it 
necessary,  if  possible,  to  know  the  author  as  well  as  the  book. 
A  large  part  of  the  reason  why  the  criticism  of  productions  of 
the  past  is  so  much  more  fruitful  than  mere  contemporary 
reviewing,  is  that  by  remoteness  from  the  scene  of  action  the 
critic  is  able  to  make  himself  familiar  with  all  the  elements  of 


age,  place  and  medium  which  affected  the  writer  at  the  moment 
of  his  composition.  In  short,  knowledge  and  even  taste  are  not 
sufficient  for  perfect  criticism  without  the  infusion  of  a  still 
rarer  quality,  breadth  of  sympathy. 

Criticism  has  been  one  of  the  latest  branches  of  literature  to 
reach  maturity,  but  from  very  early  times  the  instinct  which 
induces  mankind  to  review  what  it  has  produced  led  to  the 
composition  of  imperfect  but  often  extremely  valuable  bodies 
of  opinion.  What  mak«s  these  early  criticisms  tantalizing  is 
that  the  moral  or  political  aspects  of  literature  had  not  disengaged 
themselves  from  the  purely  intellectual  or  aesthetic. 

To  pass  to  an  historical  examination  of  the  subject,  we  find 
that  in  antiquity  Aristotle  was  regarded  as  the  father  and  almost 
as  the  founder  of  literary  criticism.  Yet  before  his  day,  three 
Greek  writers  of  eminence  had  examined,  in  more  or  less  fulness, 
the  principles  of  composition;  these  were  Plato,  Isocrates  and 
Aristophanes.  The  comedy  of  The  Frogs,  by  the  latter,  is  the 
earliest  specimen  we  possess  of  hostile  literary  criticism,  being 
devoted  to  ridicule  of  the  plays  of  Euripides.  In  the  cases  of 
Plato  and  Isocrates,  criticism  takes  the  form  mainly  of  an 
examination  of  the  rules  of  rhetoric.  We  reach,  however,  much 
firmer  ground  when  we  arrive  at  Aristotle,  whose  Poetics  and 
Rhetoric  are  among  the  most  valuable  treatises  which  antiquity 
has  handed  down  to  us.  Of  what  existed  in  the  literature  of  his 
age,  extremely  rich  in  some  branches,  entirely  empty  in  others, 
Aristotle  speaks  with  extraordinary  authority;  but  Mr  G. 
Saintsbury  has  justly  remarked  that  as  his  criticism  of  poetry 
was  injuriously  affected  by  the  non-existence  of  the  novelist,  so 
his  criticism  of  prose  was  injuriously  affected  by  the  omnipresence 
of  the  orator.  This  continues  true  of  all  ancient  criticism.  A 
work  by  Aristotle  on  the  problems  raised  by  a  study  of  Homer 
is  lost,  and  there  may  have  been  others  of  a  similar  nature;  in 
the  two  famous  treatises  which  remain  we  have  nothing  less 
important  than  the  foundation  on  which  all  subsequent  European 
criticism  has  been  raised.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  of  the 
numerous  disciples  of  Aristotle  understood  his  attitude  to  litera- 
ture, nor  do  the  later  philosophical  schools  offer  much  of  interest. 
The  Neoplatonists,  however,  were  occupied  with  analysis  of  the 
Beautiful,  on  which  both  Proclus  and  Plotinus  expatiated; 
still  more  purely  literary  were  some  of  the  treatises  of  Porphyry. 
There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  Alexandria  possessed,  in  the 
third  century,  a  vivid  school  of  critic-grammarians;  the  names 
of  Zenodotus,  of  Crates  and  of  Aristarchus  were  eminent  in  this 
connexion,  but  of  their  writings  nothing  substantial  has  survived. 
They  were  followed  by  the  scholiasts,  and  they  by  the  mere 
rhetoricians  of  the  last  Greek  schools,  such  as  Hermogenes  and 
Aphthonius.  In  the  and  century  of  our  era,  Dio  Chrysostom, 
Aristides  of  Smyrna,  and  Maximus  of  Tyre  were  the  main 
representatives  of  criticism,  and  they  were  succeeded  by  Philo- 
stratus  and  Libanius.  The  most  modern  of  post-Christian  Greek 
critics,  however,  is  unquestionably  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus, 
who  leads  up  to  Lucian  and  Cassius  Longinus.  The  last- 
mentioned  name  calls  for  special  notice;  in  "  the  lovely  and 
magnificent  personality  of  Longinus  "  we  find  the  most  in- 
telligent judge  of  literature  who  wrote  between  Aristotle  and  the 
moderns.  His  book  On  the  Sublime  (Htpl  v\f/ovs),  probably 
written  about  A.D.  260,  and  first  printed  in  1554,  is  of  extreme 
importance,  while  his  intuitions  and  the  splendour  of  his  style 
combine  to  lift  Longinus  to  the  highest  rank  among  the  critics 
of  the  world. 

In  Roman  literature  criticism  never  took  a  very  prominent 
position.  In  early  days  the  rhetorical  works  of  Cicero  and  the 
famous  A  rl  of  Poetry  of  Horace  exhaust  the  category.  During  the 
later  Augustan  period  the  only  literary  critic  of  importance  was 
the  elder  Seneca.  Passing  over  the  valuable  allusions  to  the  art 
of  writing  in  the  poets,  especially  in  Juvenal  and  Martial,  we 
reach,  in  the  Silver  Age,  Quintilian,  the  most  accomplished 
of  all  the  Roman  critics.  His  Institutes  of  Oratory  has  been 
described  as  the  fullest  and  most  intelligent  application  of 
criticism  to  literature  which  the  Latin  world  produced,  and  one 
which  places  the  name  of  Quintilian  not  far  below  those  of 
Aristotle  and  Longinus.  He  was  followed  by  Aulus  Gellius. 


470 


CRITIUS— CRITOLAUS 


by  Macrobius  (whose  reputation  was  great  in  the  middle  ages), 
by  Servius  (the  great  commentator  on  Virgil),  and,  after  a  long 
interval,  by  Martianus  Capella.  Latin  criticism  sank  into  mere 
pedantry  about  rhetoric  and  grammar.  This  continued  throughout 
the  Dark  Ages,  until  the  i3th  century,  when  rhythmical  treatises, 
of  which  the  Labyrinthus  of  Eberhard  (1212?)  and  the  Ars 
rhythmica  of  John  of  Garlandia  (John  Garland)  are  the  most 
famous,  came  into  fashion.  These  writings  testified  to  a  growing 
revival  of  a  taste  for  poetry. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  masterly  technical  treatise  De  vulgari 
eloquio,  generally  attributed  to  Dante,  the  first  printed  (in 
Italian)  in  1 529,  that  modern  poetical  criticism  takes  its  first  step. 
The  example  of  this  admirable  book  was  not  adequately  followed; 
throughout  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries,  criticism  is  mainly 
indirect  and  accidental.  Boccaccio,  indeed,  is  the  only  figure 
worthy  of  mention,  between  Dante  and  Erasmus.  With  the 
Renaissance  came  a  blossoming  of  Humanist  criticism  in  Italy, 
producing  such  excellent  specimens  as  the  Sylvae  of  Poliziano, 
the  Poetics  (1527)  of  Vida,  and  the  Poetica  of  Trissino,  the  best 
of  a  whole  crop  of  critical  works  produced,  often  by  famous 
names,  between  1525  and  1560.  These  were  followed  by  sounder 
scholars  and  acuter  theorists:  by  Scaliger  with  his  epoch- 
making  Poetices  (1561);  by  L.  Castelvetro,  whose  Poetica  (1570) 
started  the  modern  cultivation  of  the  Unities  and  asserted  the 
value  of  the  Epic;  by  Tasso  with  his  Discorsi  (1587);  and  by 
Francesco  Patrizzi  in  his  Poetica  (1586). 

In  France,  the  earliest  and  for  a  long  time  the  most  important 
specimen  of  literary  criticism  was  the  Defense  et  illustration  de 
la  tongue  franc.aise,  published  in  1549  by  Joachim  du  Bellay. 
Ronsard,  also,  wrote  frequently  and  ably  on  the  art  of  poetry. 
The  theories  of  the  Pleiade  were  summed  up  in  the  Art  poitique 
of  Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye,  which  belongs  to  1574  (though  not 
printed  until  1605). 

In  England,  the  earliest  literary  critic  of  importance  was 
Thomas  Wilson,  whose  Art  of  Rhetoric  was  printed  in  1553, 
and  the  earliest  student  of  poetry,  George  Gascoigne,  whose 
Instruction  appeared  in  1575.  Gascoigne  is  the  first  writer 
who  deals  intelligently  with  the  subject  of  English  prosody. 
He  was  followed  by  Thomas  Drant,  Harvey,  Gosson,  Lodge 
and  Sidney,  whose  controversial  pamphlets  belong  to  the  period 
between  1575  and  1580.  Among  Elizabethan  "  arts  "  or  "  de- 
fences "  of  English  poetry  are  to  be  mentioned  those  of  William 
Webbe  (1586),  George  Puttenham  (1589),  Thomas  Campion 
(1602),  and  Samuel  Daniel  (1603).  With  the  tractates  of  Ben 
Jonson,  several  of  them  lost,  the  criticism  of  the  Renaissance  may 
be  said  to  close. 

A  new  era  began  throughout  Europe  when  Malherbe  started, 
about  1600,  a  taste  for  the  neo-classic  or  anti-romantic  school 
of  poetry,  taking  up  the  line  which  had  been  foreshadowed  by 
Castelvetro.  Enfin  Malherbe  vint,  and  he  was  supported  in  his 
revolution  by  Regnier,  Vaugelas,  Balzac,  and  finally  by  Corneille 
himself,  in  his  famous  prefatory  discourses.  It  was  Boileau, 
however,  who  more  than  any  other  man  stood  out  at  the  close  of 
the  1 7th  century  as  the  law-giver  of  Parnassus.  The  rules  of  the 
neo-classics  were  drawn  together  and  arranged  in  a  system  by 
Rene  Rapin,  whose  authoritative  treatises  mainly  appeared 
between  1668  and  1674.  It  is  in  writings  of  this  man,  and  of 
the  Jesuits,  Le  Bossu  and  Bouhours,  that  the  preposterous 
rigidity  of  the  formal  classic  criticism  is  most  plainly  seen.  The 
influence  of  these  three  critics  was,  however,  very  great  through- 
out Europe,  and  we  trace  it  in  the  writings  of  Dryden,  Addison 
and  Rymer.  In  the  course  of  the  i8th  century,  when  the  neo- 
classic  creed  was  universally  accepted,  Pope,  Blair,  Kames, 
Harris,  Goldsmith  and  Samuel  Johnson  were  its  most  dis- 
tinguished exponents  in  England,  while  Voltaire,  Buffon  (to 
whom  we  owe  the  phrase  "  the  style  is  the  man  "),  Marmontel, 
La  Harpe  and  Suard  were  the  types  of  academic  opinion  in 
France. 

Modern,  or  more  properly  Romantic,  criticism  came  in  when 
the  neo-classic  tradition  became  bankrupt  throughout  Europe 
at  the  very  close  of  the  i8th  century.  It  has  been  heralded  in 
Germany  by  the  writings  of  Lessing,  and  in  France  by  those  of 


Diderot.  Of  the  reconstruction  of  critical  opinion  in  the  io.th 
century  it  is  impossible  to  speak  here  with  any  fulness,  it  is 
contained  in  the  record  of  the  recent  literature  of  each  European 
language.  It  is  noticeable,  in  England,  that  the  predominant 
place  in  it  was  occupied,  in  violent  contrast  with  Disraeli's 
dictum,  by  those  who  had  obviously  not  failed  in  imaginative 
composition,  by  Wordsworth,  by  Shelley,  by  Keats,  by  Landor, 
and  pre-eminently  by  S.  T.  Coleridge,  who  was  one  of  the  most 
penetrative,  original  and  imaginative  critics  who  have  ever  lived. 
In  France,  the  importance  of  Sainte-Beuve  is  not  to  be  ignored 
or  even  qualified;  after  manifold  changes  of  taste,  he  remains 
as  much  a  master  as  he  was  a  precursor.  He  was  followed  by 
Theophile  Gautier,  Saint-Marc,  Girardin,  Paul  de  Saint  Victor, 
and  a  crowd  of  others,  down  to  Taine  and  the  latest  school  of 
individualistic  critics,  comparable  with  Matthew  Arnold,  Pater, 
and  their  followers  in  England. 

See  G.  Saintsbury,  A  History  of  Criticism  (3  yols.,  1902-1904) ; 
J.  E.  Spingarn,  A  History  of  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance 
(2nd  ed.  1908) ;  Thery,  Histoire  des  opinions  litteraires  (1840) ;  J.  A. 
Symonds,  The  Revival  of  Learning  (1877) ;  Matthew  Arnold^  Essays 
in  Criticism,  i.  (1865),  ii.  (1868) ;  Bourgoin,  Les  Afaitres  de  la  critique 
au  XVII'  siecle  (1889) ;  Paul  Hamelius,  Die  Kritik  in  der  englischen 
Literatur  (1897);  S.  H.  Butcher,  The  Poetics  of  Artistotle  (1898); 
H.  L.  Havell  and  Andrew  Lang,  Longinus  on  the  Sublime  (1890). 
See  also  the  writings  of  Sainte-Beuve,  Matthew  Arnold,  F.  Brunetiere, 
Anatole  France,  Walter  Pater,  passim.  (E.  G.) 

CRITIUS  and  NESIOTES,  two  Greek  sculptors  of  uncertain 
school,  of  the  time  of  the  Persian  Wars.  When  Xerxes  carried 
away  to  Persia  the  statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  made 
by  Antenor,  Critius  and  Nesiotes  were  commissioned  to  replace 
them.  By  the  help  of  coins  and  reliefs,  two  statues  at  Naples, 
wrongly  restored  as  gladiators,  have  been  identified  as  copies  of 
the  tyrannicides  of  Critius;  and  to  them  well  apply  the  words 
in  which  Lucian  (Rhetor,  praecepta,  9)  describes  the  works  of 
Critius  and  Nesiotes,  "  closely  knit  and  sinewy,  and  hard  and 
severe  in  outline."  Critius  also  made  a  statue  of  the  armed 
runner  Epicharinus. 

CRITOLAUS,  Greek  philosopher,  was  born  at  Phaselis  in 
the  2nd  century  B.C.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty-two  and  died 
probably  before  in  B.C.  He  studied  philosophy  under  Aristo 
of  Ceos  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Peripatetic  school 
by  his  eminence  as  an  orator,  a  scholar  and  a  moralist.  There 
has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  whether  he  was  the 
immediate  successor  of  Aristo,  but  the  evidence  is  confused  and 
unprofitable.  In  general  he  was  a  loyal  adherent  to  the  Peri- 
patetic succession  (cf.  Cicero,  De  fin.  v.  5  "  C.  imitari  antiques 
voluit ") ,  though  in  some  respects  he  went  beyond  his  predecessors. 
For  example,  he  held  that  pleasure  is  an  evil  (Gellius,  Nodes 
Atticae,  ix.  5.  6),  and  definitely  maintained  that  the  soul  consists 
of  aether.  The  end  of  existence  was  to  him  the  general  perfection 
of  the  natural  life,  including  the  goods  of  the  soul  and  the  body, 
and  also  external  goods.  Cicero  says  in  the  Tusculans  that  the 
goods  of  the  soul  entirely  outweighed  for  him  the  other  goods 
("  tantum propendere illam  bonorum  animi lancem  ").  Further, 
he  defended  against  the  Stoics  the  Peripatetic  doctrine  of  the 
eternity  of  the  world  and  the  indestructibility  of  the  human  race. 
There  is  no  observed  change  in  the  natural  order  of  things; 
mankind  re-creates  itself  in  the  same  manner  according  to  the 
capacity  given  by  Nature,  and  the  various  ills  to  which  it  is 
heir,  though  fatal  to  individuals,  do  not  avail  to  modify  the 
whole.  Just  as  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  man  is  merely 
earth-born,  so  the  possibility  of  his  ultimate  destruction  is 
inconceivable.  The  world,  as  the  manifestation  of  eternal  order, 
must  itself  be  immortal.  The  life  of  Critolaus  is  not  recorded. 
One  incident  alone  is  preserved.  From  Cicero  (Acad.  ii.  45)  it 
appears  that  he  was  sent  with  Carneades  and  Diogenes  to  Rome 
in  156-155  B.C.  to  protest  against  the  fine  of  500  talents  imposed 
on  Athens  in  punishment  for  the  sack  of  Oropus.  The  three 
ambassadors  lectured  on  philosophy  in  Rome  with  so  much 
success  that  Cato  was  alarmed  and  had  them  dismissed  the 
city.  Gellius  describes  his  arguments  as  scila  el  teretia. 

Consult  the  article  PERIPATETICS,  and  histories  of  ancient  philo- 
sophy, e.g.  Zeller. 


CRITTENDEN— CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


47 


CRITTENDEN,  JOHN  JORDAN  (1787-1863),  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Versailles,  Kentucky,  on  the  loth  of 
September  1787.  After  graduating  at  the  College  of  William 
and  Mary  in  1807,  he  began  the  practice  of  law  in  his  native 
state.  He  served  for  three  months,  in  1810,  as  attorney-general 
of  Illinois  Territory,  but  soon  returned  to  Kentucky,  and  during 
the  War  of  1812  he  was  for  a  time  on  the  staff  of  General  Isaac 
Shelby.  In  1811-1817  he  served  in  the  state  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, being  speaker  in  1815-1816,  and  in  1817-1819  was  a 
United  States  senator.  Settling  in  Frankfort,  he  soon  took  high 
rank  as  a  criminal  lawyer,  was  in  the  Kentucky  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1825  and  1820-1832,  acting  as  speaker  in  the  latter 
period,  and  from  1827  to  1829  was  United  States  district-attorney. 
He  was  removed  by  President  Jackson,  to  whom  he  was  radically 
opposed.  In  1835,  as  a  Whig,  he  was  again  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  was  re-elected  in  1841,  but  resigned  to  enter 
the  cabinet  of  President  W.  H.  Harrison  as  attorney-general, 
continuing  after  President  Tyler's  accession  and  serving  from 
March  until  September.  He  was  again  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Senate  from  1842  to  1848,  and  in  1848-1830  was  governor 
of  Kentucky.  He  was  an  ardent  and  outspoken  supporter  of 
Clay's  compromise  measures,  and  in  1850  he  entered  President 
Fillmore's  cabinet  as  attorney-general,  serving  throughout  the 
administration.  From  1855  to  1861  he  was  once  more  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Senate.  During  these  years  he  was  perhaps 
the  foremost  champion  of  Union  in  the  South,  and  strenuously 
opposed  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  which  he  declared  pro- 
phetically would  unite  the  various  elements  of  opposition  in  the 
North,  and  render  the  breach  between  the  sections  irreparable. 
Nevertheless  he  laboured  unceasingly  in  the  cause  of  com- 
promise, gave  his  strong  support  to  the  Bell  and  Everett  ticket 
in  1860,  and  in  1860-1861  proposed  and  vainly  contended  for 
the  adoption  by  congress  of  the  compromise  measures  which  bear 
his  name.  When  war  became  inevitable  he  threw  himself 
zealously  into  the  Union  cause,  and  lent  his  great  influence  to 
keep  Kentucky  in  the  Union.  In  1861-1863  ne  was  a  member 
of  the  national  House  of  Representatives,  where,  while  advocating 
the  prosecution  of  the  war,  he  opposed  such  radical  measures 
as  the  division  of  Virginia,  the  enlistment  of  slaves  and  the 
Conscription  Acts.  He  died  at  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  on  the 
26th  of  July  1863. 

See  the  Life  of  J.  J.  Crittenden,  by  his  daughter  Mrs  Chapman 
Coleman  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1871). 

His  son,  GEORGE  BIBB  CRITTENDEN  (1812-1880),  soldier,  was 
born  in  Russellville,  Kentucky,  on  the  2oth  of  March  1812,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832,  but  resigned  his  commission 
in  1833.  He  re-entered  the  army  as  a  captain  of  mounted  rifles 
in  the  Mexican  War,  served  with  distinction,  and  was  breveted 
major  for  bravery  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  After  the 
war  he  remained  in  the  army,  and  in  1856  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  June  1861  he  resigned,  and  entered 
the  service  of  the  Confederacy.  He  was  commissioned  major- 
general  and  given  a  command  in  south-east  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  but  after  the  defeat  of  his  forces  by  General  George  H. 
Thomas  at  Mill  Springs  (January  9,  1862),  he  was  censured  and 
gave  up  his  command.  He  served  subsequently  as  a  volunteer 
aide  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  John  S.  Williams.  From  1867  to  1871 
he  was  state  librarian  of  Kentucky.  He  died  at  Danville, 
Kentucky,  on  the  27th  of  November  1880. 

Another  son,  THOMAS  LEONIDAS  CRITTENDEN  (1815-1893), 
soldier,  was  also  born  at  Russellville,  Kentucky.  He  studied 
law,  and  practised  with  his  father,  and  in  1842  became  common- 
wealth's attorney.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  War  as  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  Kentucky  volunteers,  and  was  an  aide  on  Gen.  Zachary 
Taylor's  staff  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista.  From  1849  to 
1853  he  was  United  States  consul  at  Liverpool,  England.  Like 
his  father,  he  was  a  strong  Union  man,  and  in  September  1861 
he  was  commissioned  by  President  Lincoln  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Shiloh,  for  gallantry 
in  which  battle  he  was  promoted  major-general  in  July  1862. 
He  was  in  command  of  a  corps  in  the  army  of  the  Ohio  under 
Gen.  D.  C.  Buell,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Stone  River 


and  Chickamauga.  Subsequently  he  served  in  the  Virginia 
campaign  of  1864.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  December 
1864,  but  in  July  1866  entered  the  regular  army  with  the  rank 
of  colonel  of  infantry,  receiving  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general 
in  1867,  served  on  the  frontier  and  in  several  Indian  wars,  and 
retired  in  1881.  He  died  on  the  23rd  of  October  1893. 

CRIVELLI,  CARLO,  Venetian  painter,  was  born  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  1 5th  century.  The  only  dates  that  can  with  certainty 
be  given  are  1468  and  1493;  these  are  respectively  the  earliest 
and  the  latest  years  signed  on  his  pictures — the  former  on  an 
altar-piece  in  the  church  of  San  Silvestro  at  Massa  near  Fermo, 
and  the  latter  on  a  picture  in  the  Oggioni  collection  in  Milan. 
Though  born  in  Venice,  Crivelli  seems  to  have  worked  chiefly 
in  the  March  of  Ancona,  and  especially  in  and  near  Ascoli; 
there  are  only  two  pictures  of  his  proper  to  a  Venetian  building, 
both  of  these  being  in  the  church  of  San  Sebastiano.  He  is  said 
to  have  studied  under  Jacobello  del  Fiore,  who  was  painting  as 
late  at  any  rate  as  1436;  at  that  time  Crivelli  was  probably  only 
a  boy.  The  latter  always  signed  as  "  Carolus  CriveUus  Venetus  " ; 
from  1490  he  added  "  Miles,"  having  been  then  knighted 
("  Cavaliere")  by  Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples.  He  painted  in 
tempera  only,  and  is  seen  to  most  advantage  in  subject  pictures 
of  moderate  size.  He  introduced  agreeable  landscape  back- 
grounds; and  was  particularly  partial  to  giving  fruits  and 
flowers  (the  peach  is  one  of  his  favourite  fruits)  as  accessories, 
often  in  pendent  festoons.  The  National  Gallery  in  London  is 
well  supplied  with  examples  of  Crivelli;  the  "  Annunciation," 
and  the  "  Beato  Ferretti  "  (of  the  same  family  as  Pope  Pius  IX.) 
in  religious  ecstasy,  may  be  specified.  Another  of  his  principal 
pictures  is  in  San  Francesco  di  Matelica;  in  Berlin  is  a 
"  Madonna  and  Saints  "  (1491) ;  in  the  Vatican  Gallery  a  "  Dead 
Christ,"  and  in  the  Brera  of  Milan  the  painter's  own  portrait, 
with  other  examples.  Crivelli  is  a  painter  of  marked  individu- 
ality,— hard  in  form,  crudely  definite  in  contour;  stern,  forced, 
energetic,  almost  grotesque  and  repellent,  in  feature  and  expres- 
sion, and  yet  well  capable  of  a  prim  sort  of  prettiness;  simply 
vigorous  in  his  effect  of  detachment  and  relief,  and  sometimes 
admitting  into  his  pictures  objects  actually  raised  in  surface; 
distinct  and  warm  in  colour,  with  an  effect  at  once  harsh  and 
harmonious.  His  pictures  gain  by  being  seen  in  half-light,  and 
at  some  little  distance;  under  favouring  conditions  they  grip 
the  spectator  with  uncommon  power.  Few  artists  seem  to  have 
worked  with  more  uniformity  of  purpose,  or  more  forthright 
command  of  his  materials,  so  far  as  they  go.  It  is  surmised  that 
Carlo  was  of  the  same  family  as  the  painters  Donate  Crivelli 
(who  was  working  in  1459,  and  was  also  a  scholar  of  Jacobello) 
and  Vittorio  Crivelli.  Pietro  Alamanni  was  his  pupil. 

See,  along  with  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Berenson,  Venetian 
Painters  of  the  Renaissance  (1899);  Morelli,  Italian  Painters  (1892- 
1893);  Rushforth,  Carlo  Crivelli  (1900).  (W.  M.  R.) 

CROATIA-SLAVONIA  (Serbo-Croatian  Hnatska  i  Slavonija; 
Hung.  Horvat-Szlavonorszdg',  Ger.  Kroalien  und  Slawonien) ,  a 
kingdom  of  the  Hungarian  monarchy;  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Carniola,  Styria  and  Hungary  proper;  E.  by  Hungary  and 
Servia;  S.  by  Servia,  Bosnia  and  Dalmatia;  and  W.  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  Istria  and  Carniola.  Until  1881  Croatia,  in  the 
N.W.  of  this  region,  was  divided  from  Slavonia,  in  the  N.E.,  by 
a  section  of  the  Austrian  Military  Frontier.  This  section  is  now 
the  county  of  Bjelovar,  and  forms  part  of  the  united  kingdom 
of  Croatia-Slavonia.  The  river  Kulpa,  which  bisects  the  county 
of  Agram,  is  usually  regarded  as  the  north-eastern  limit  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula;  and  thus  the  greater  part  of  Croatia,  lying 
south  of  this  river,  falls  within  the  peninsular  boundary,  while 
the  remainder,  with  all  Slavonia,  belongs  to  the  continental 
mainland.  According  to  the  official  survey  of  1900,  the  total 
area  of  the  country  is  16,423  sq.  m.  The  Croatian  littoral  extends 
for  about  90  m.  from  Fiume  to  the  Dalmatian  frontier.  A 
narrow  strait,  the  Canale  della  Morlacca  (or  della  Montagna), 
separates  it  from  Veglia,  Arbe,  Pago  and  other  Istrian  or  Dal- 
matian islands.  The  city  and  territories  of  Fiume,  the  sole 
important  harbour  on  this  coast,  are  included  in  Hungary  proper, 
and  controlled  by  the  Budapest  government.  Westward  from 


472 


CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


Warasdin,  and  along  the  borders  of  Styria,  Carniola,  Istria, 
Dalmatia  and  north-western  Bosnia,  the  frontier  is  generally 
mountainous  and  follows  an  irregular  course.  The  central  and 
eastern  region,  situated  between  the  Drave  and  Danube  on  the 
north,  and  the  Save  on  the  south,  forms  one  long  wedge,  with  its 
point  at  Semlin. 

Physical  Features. — Croatia-Slavonia  is  naturally  divided 
into  two  great  sections,  the  highlands  of  the  west  and  the  low- 
lands of  the  east. 

The  plateau  of  the  Istrian  Karst  is  prolonged  in  several  of 
the  bare  and  desolate  mountain  chains  between  the  Save  and 
the  Adriatic,  notably  the  Great  and  Little  Kapella  (or  Kapela), 
which  link  together  the  Karst  and  the  Dinaric  Alps,  culminating 
in  Biela  LaSica  (5029  ft.);  the  Pljesevica  or  Plisevica  Planina 
(5410  ft.),  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  river  Una;  and  the 
Velebit  Planina,  which  follows  the  westward  curve  of  the  coast, 
and  rises  above  the  sea  in  an  abrupt  wall,  unbroken  by  any 
considerable  bay  or  inlet.  As  it  skirts  the  Dalmatian  border, 
this  range  attains  its  greatest  altitude  in  the  adjacent  peaks  of 
Sveto  Brdo  (5751  ft.),  and  Vakanski  Vrh  (5768  ft.).  Large 
tracts  of  the  Croatian  highlands  are  well-nigh  waterless,  and  it 
is  only  in  the  more  sheltered  hollows  that  sufficient  soil  collects 
for  large  trees  to  flourish.  In  northern  Croatia  and  Slavonia 
the  mountains  are  far  more  fertile,  being  often  densely  wooded 
with  oaks,  beeches  and  pines.  They  comprise  the  Uskoken 
Gebirge,  or  Uskoks  Mountains,  named  after  the  piratical  Uskoks 
(q.v.)  of  Zengg,  who  were  deported  hither  after  the  fall  of  their 
stronghold  in  1617;  the  Warasdin  Mountains,  with  the  peak 
of  Ivanscifa  (3478  ft.);  the  Agram  Mountains,  culminating  in 
Sljeme  or  Slema  (3396  ft.),  and  including  the  beautiful  stretches 
of  Alpine  pasture  known  as  the  Zagorje,  or  "  land  beyond  the 
hills  ";  the  Bilo  Gebirge,  or  White  Mountains,  a  low  range  of 
chalk,  and,  farther  to  the  south,  several  groups  of  mountains, 
among  which  Psunj  (3228  ft.),  Papuk  (3217  ft.)  Crni  Vrh  (2833 
ft.),  and  the  Ravna  Gora  (2808  ft.)  are  the  chief  summits.  All 
these  ranges,  except  the  Uskoken  Gebirge,  constitute  the  central 
watershed  of  the  kingdom,  between  the  Drave  and  Save.  In 
the  east  Slavonian  county  of  Syrmia1  the  Fruska  Gora  or 
Vrdnik  Mountains  rise  to  a  height  of  1768  ft.  along  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Danube,  their  picturesque  vineyards  and  pine  or 
oak  woods  contrasting  strongly  with  the  plains  that  surround 
them. 

The  lowlands,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Drave,  Danube,  Save  and 
Kulpa,  belong  partly  to  the  great  Hungarian  Plains,  or  Alfold. 
Besides  the  sterile  and  monotonous  steppes,  valuable  only  as 
pasture,  and  so  sparsely  populated  that  it  is  possible  to  travel 
for  many  hours  without  encountering  any  sign  of  human  life 
except  a  primitive  artesian  well  or  a  shepherd's  hut,  there  are 
wide  expanses  of  fen-country,  regularly  flooded  in  spring  and 
autumn.  The  marshes  which  line  the  Save  below  Sissek  are 
often  impassable  except  at  Brod  and  Mitrovica,  and  the  river 
is  constantly  scooping  out  fresh  channels  in  the  soft  soil,  only  to 
abandon  each  in  turn.  The  total  area  liable  to  yearly  inundation 
exceeds  200  sq.  m.  But  along  the  Drave  and  Danube  the  plains 
are  sometimes  strikingly  fertile,  and  yield  an  abundance  of  grain, 
fruit  and  wine. 

The  main  rivers  of  Croatia-Slavonia,  the  Danube,  Drave 
and  Save,  are  fully  described  under  separate  headings.  After 
reaching  Croatian  territory  13  m.  N.W.  of  Warasdin,  the  Drave 
flows  along  the  northern  frontier  for  155  m.,  receiving  the 
Bednja  and  Karasnica  on  the  right,  and  falling,  near  Esseg, 
into  the  Danube,  which  serves  as  the  Hungaro-Slavonian 
boundary  for  an  additional  1 16  m.  The  Save  enters  the  country 
16  m.  W.  of  Agram,  and,  after  winding  for  106  m.  S.E.  to  Jase- 
novac,  constitutes  the  southern  frontier  for  253  m.,  and  meets 
the  Danube  at  Belgrade.  It  is  joined  by  the  Sotla,  Krapina, 
Lonja,  Ilova,  Pakra  and  Oljana,  which  drain  the  central  water- 
shed; but  its  only  large  tributaries  are  the  Una,  a  Bosnian 
stream,  which  springs  in  the  Dinaric  Alps,  and  skirts  the  Croatian 
border  for  40  m.  before  entering  the  Save  at  Jasenovac ;  and 

"Also  written  Sirmia  and  Sirmium;  Serbo-Croatian  Sriem; 
Hungarian  Szertm. 


the  Kulpa,  which  follows  a  tortuous  course  of  60  m.  from  its 
headwaters  north  of  Fiume,  to  its  confluence  with  the  Save  at 
Sissek.  The  Mreznica,  Dobra,  Glina  and  Korana  are  right-hand 
tributaries  of  the  Kulpa.  In  the  Croatian  Karst  the  seven 
streams  of  the  Lika  unite  and  plunge  into  a  rocky  chasm  near 
Gospi6,  and  the  few  small  brooks  of  this  region  usually  vanish 
underground  in  a  similar  manner.  Near  Fiume,  the  Recina, 
Rjeka  or  Fiumara  falls  into  the  Adriatic  after  a  brief  course. 
There  is  no  large  lake  in  Croatia-Slavonia,  but  the  upland  pools 
and  waterfalls  of  Plitvica,  near  Ogulin,  are  celebrated  for  their 
beauty.  After  a  thaw  or  heavy  rain,  the  subterranean  rivers 
flood  the  mountain  hollows  of  the  Karst ;  and  a  lake  thus  formed 
by  the  river  Gajka,  near  Otocac,  has  occasionally  filled  its  basin 
to  a  depth  of  i6oft. 

Minerals. — The  mineral  resources  of  the  kingdom,  though  capable 
of  further  development,  are  not  rich.  They  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  mountains,  where  iron,  coal,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  silver  and 
sulphur  are  mined  in  small  quantities.  Warm  mineral  springs  rise 
at  Krapina,  at  Toplice  near  Warasdin,  at  Stubica  near  Agram,  and 
elsewhere. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Croatia-Slavonia  varies  greatly  in 
different  regions.  In  the  Karst  it  is  liable  to  sudden  and  violent 
changes,  and  especially  to  the  bora,  a  fierce  N.N.E.  wind,  which 
renders  navigation  perilous  among  the  islands  off  the  coast,  and,  in 
winter,  blocks  the  roads  and  railway-cuttings  with  deep  snowdrifts. 
The  sheltered  bays  near  Fiume  enjoy  an  equable  climate;  but  in  all 
other  districts  the  temperature  in  mid-winter  falls  regularly  below 
zero,  and  the  summer  heats  are  excessive.  Earthquakes  are  common 
among  the  mountains,  and  the  eastern  lowlands  are  exposed  to  the 
great  winds  and  sandstorms  which  sweep  down  the  Alfold.  At 
Agram,  during  the  years  1896-1900,  the  mean  annual  temperature 
was  52°  F.,  with  34-6  in.  of  rain  and  snow,  at  Fiume,  the  figures 
for  the  same  period  were  57°  and  71  in. 

Agriculture. — The  agricultural  inquiry  of  1895  showed  that  94.5  % 
of  the  country  consisted  of  arable  land,  gardens,  vineyards,  meadows, 
pastures  and  forests;  but  much  of  this  area  must  be  set  down  as 
mountainous  and  swampy  pasture  of  poor  quality.  The  richest  land 
occurs  in  the  Zagorje  and  its  neighbourhood,  in  the  hills  near  Waras- 
din and  in  the  northern  half  of  Syrmia.  The  Karst  and  the  fens  are 
of  least  agricultural  value.  Indian  corn  heads  the  list  of  cereals, 
but  wheat,  oats,  rye  and  barley  are  also  cultivated,  besides  hemp, 
flax,  tobacco  and  large  quantities  of  potatoes.  The  extensive  vine- 
yards were  much  injured  by  phylloxera  towards  the  close  of  the 
igth  century.  The  Slavonian  plum  orchards  furnish  dried  prunes, 
besides  a  kind  of  brandy  largely  exported  under  the  name  of  sliwowilz 
or  shliyovitsa.  Near  Fiume  the  orange,  lemon,  pomegranate,  fig 
and  olive  bear  well;  mulberries  are  planted  on  many  estates  for 
silkworms;  and  the  heather-clad  uplands  of  the  central  region 
favour  the  keeping  of  bees.  Large  herds  of  swine  fatten  in  the  oak 
and  beech  forests;  and  dairy-farming  is  a  thriving  industry  in  the 
highlands  between  Agram  and  Warasdin,  where,  during  the  last 
years  of  the  igth  century,  systematic  attempts  were  made  to  replace 
the  mountain  pastures  by  clover  and  sown  grass.  The  proportion 
of  sheep  to  other  live-stock  is  lower  than  in  most  of  the  South  Slavonic 
jands,  and  the  scarcity  of  goats  is  also  noteworthy.  Horsebreeding 
is  a  favourite  pursuit  in  Slavonia;  and  between  jgpo  and  1902 
many  thousands  of  remounts  were  shipped  to  the  British  army  in 
South  Africa.  The  local  administration  endeavours  to  better  the 
quality  of  live-stock  by  importing  purer  breeds,  distributing  prizes, 
and  other  measures;  but  the  native  farmers  are  slow  to  accept 
improvements. 

Forests. — Forests,  principally  of  oak,  pine  and  beech,  covered 
3,734,000  acres  in  1895,  about  one-fifth  being  state  property.  Especi- 
aljy  valuable  are  the  Croatian  oak-forests,  near  Agram  and  Sissek. 
Timber  is  exported  from  Fiume  and  down  the  Danube. 

Industries. — Apart  from  the  distilleries  and  breweries  scattered 
throughout  the  country,  the  rude  flour-mills  which  lie  moored  in  the 
rivers,  and  a  few  glass-works,  saw-mills,  silk-mills  and  tobacco 
factories,  the  chief  industrial  establishments  of  Croatia-Slavonia 
are  at  Agram,  Fiume,  Semlin,  Buccari  and  Porto  R£.  Only  8-3  of 
the  population  was,  in  1900,  engaged  in  industries  other  _than 
farming,  which  occupied  85-2  %.  The  exports  mainly  consist  of 
foodstuffs,  especially  grain,  of  live-stock,  especially  pigs  and  horses, 
and  of  timber.  The  imports  include  textiles,  iron,  coal,  wine  and 
colonial  products;  with  machinery  and  other  finished  articles. 
Goods  in  transit  to  and  from  Hungary  figure  largely  in  the  official 
returns  for  Fiume2  and  Semlin,  which  are  the  centres  of  the 
foreign  trade.  In  1900  Croatia-Slavonia  possessed  253  banking 
establishments. 

Communications. — The  commerce  of  the  country  is  furthered  by 
upwards  of  2000  m.  of  carriage-roads,  the  most  remarkable  of  these 


1  It  is  impossible  to  exclude  Fiume  from  any  survey  of  Croatian 
trade,  although  Fiume  belongs  politically  to  Hungary  proper,  and 
is  the  main  outlet  for  Hungarian  emigration  and  maritime  commerce. 


CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


473 


being  the  Maria  Louisa,  which  connects  Karlstadt  with  Fiume,  and 
the  Josephina,  which  passes  inland  from  Zengg.  Many  excellent 
highways  were  built  for  strategic  purposes  belore  the  abolition  ot 
the  Military  Frontier  in  1881.  The  railways,  which  are  all  owned 
and  managed  by  the  Hungarian  state,  intersect  most  parts  of  the 
country  except  the  mountains  south  of  Ogulin,  where  there  is, 
nevertheless,  a  considerable  traffic  over  the  passes  into  Dalmatia 
and  Bosnia.  Agram  is  the  principal  railway  centre,  from  which 
lines  radiate  S.  W.  to  Fiume,  W.  into  Austria,  N.N.E.  to  Warasdin 
and  into  Hungary,  and  S.E.  into  Bosnia  by  way  of  Kostajnica. 
The  main  line  eastward  from  Agram  passes  through  Brod,  where  it 
meets  the  Bosnian  system,  and  oh  to  Belgrade ;  throwing  out  two 
branch  lines  to  Brcka  and  Samac  in  Bosnia,  and  several  branches 
on  the  north,  which  traverse  the  central  watershed,  and  cross  the 
Hungarian  frontier  at  Zakany,  Bares,  Esseg,  Erdarand  Peterwardein. 
Above  Agram  the  Save  is  used  chiefly  for  floating  rafts  of  timber; 
east  of  Sissek  it  is  navigable  by  small  steamboats,  but,  despite  its 
great  volume,  the  multitude  of  its  perpetually  shifting  sandbanks 
interferes  greatly  with  traffic.  Steamers  also  ply  on  the  Una,  the 
Draye  below  Bares,  and  the  Danube.  The  marshes  of  Syrmia  are 
partially  drained  by  the  so-called  "  Canal  of  Probus,"  the  one  large 
artificial  waterway  in  the  country,  said  to  have  been  cut  by  the 
Romans  in  the  3rd  century. 

Chief  Towns. — The  principal  towns  are  Agram,  the  capital, 
with  61,002  inhabitants  in  1900;  Esseg,  the  capital  of  Slavonia 
(24,930);  Semlin  (15,079);  Mitrovica  (11,518) ;  Warasdin  (12,930) ; 
Karlstadt  (7396);  Brod  (7310);  Sissek  (7047);  Djakovo  (6824); 
Karlowitz  (5643);  Peterwardein  (5019);  Zengg  (3182);  and 
Buccari  (1870).  These  are  described  in  separate  articles.  The 
centre  of  the  coasting  trade  is  Novi,  and  other  small  seaports  are 
San  Giorgio  (Svelo  Juraj),  Porto  Re  (Kraljevica)  and  Carlopago. 
Agram,  Gospic  (10,799),  Ogulin  (8699),  Warasdin  and  Bjelovar 
(6056)  are  respectively  the  capitals  of  the  five  counties  which  belong 
to  Croatia  proper, — Agram  (Hung.  Zdgrdb),  Modrus-Fiume,  Lika- 
Krbava,  Warasdin  ( Varasd)  and  Bjelovar  (Belovdr-Koros) ;  while 
the  capitals  of  the  three  Slavonian  counties,  Virovitica  (Verocze), 
Pozega  (Pozsega)  and  Syrmia  (Szerem),  are  Esseg,  Pozega  (5000) 
and  Semlin. 

Population  and  National  Characteristics. — The  population  rose 
from  1,892,499  in  1881  to  2,416,304  in  1900,  an  increase  of 
little  less  than  one-third,  resulting  from  a  uniformly  low  death 
rate,  with  a  high  marriage  and  birth  rate,  and  characterized 
by  that  preponderance  of  male  over  female  children  which  is 
common  to  all  the  South  Slavonic  lands.  More  than  75%  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Croats,  the  bulk  of  the  remainder  being  Serbs, 
who  predominate  in  eastern  Slavonia.  Outside  Croatia-Slavonia, 
the  Croats  occupy  the  greater  part  of  Dalmatia  and  northern 
Bosnia.  There  are  large  Croatian  settlements  in  the  south  of 
Hungary,  and  smaller  colonies  in  Austria.  The  numbers  of  the 
whole  nation  may  be  estimated  at  3,500,000  or  4,000,000.  The 
distinction  between  Croats  and  Serbs  is  religious,  and,  to  a  less 
extent,  linguistic.  Croats  and  Serbs  together  constitute  a  single 
branch  of  the  Slavonic  race,  frequently  called  the  Serbo-Croatian 
branch.  The  literary  language  of  the  two  nations  is  identical, 
but  the  Croats  use  the  Latin  alphabet,1  while  the  Serbs  prefer 
a  modified  form  of  the  Cyrillic.  The  two  nations  have  also  been 
politically  separated  since  the  7th  century,  if  not  for  a  longer 
period;  but  this  division  has  produced  little  difference  of 
character  or  physical  type.  Even  the  costume  of  the  Croatian 
peasantry,  to  whom  brilliant  colours  and  intricate  embroideries 
are  always  dear,  proclaims  their  racial  identity  with  the  Serbs; 
their  songs,  dances  and  musical  instruments,  the  chief  part  of 
their  customs  and  folk-lore,  their  whole  manner  of  life,  so  little 
changed  by  its  closer  contact  with  Western  civilization,  may 
be  studied  in  Servia  (q.v.)  itself.  In  both  countries  rural  society 
was  based  on  the  old-fashioned  household  community,  orzadruga, 
which  still  survives  in  the  territories  that  formed  the  Military 
Frontier,  though  everywhere  tending  to  disappear  and  be 
replaced  by  individual  ownership.  The  Croatian  peasantry 
are  least  prosperous  in  the  riverside  districts,  where  marsh- 
fevers  prevail,  and  especially  beside  the  Save.  Even  in  many 
of  the  towns  the  houses  are  mere  cabins  of  wood  and  thatch. 
As  in  Servia,  there  is  practically  no  middle  class  between  the 
peasants  and  the  educated  minority;  and  the  commercial 
element  consists  to  a  great  extent  of  foreigners,  especially 
Germans,  Hungarians,  Italians  and  Jews.  Numerically  this 

1  It  is  important  to  notice  the  value  of  the  following  letters  and 
signs,  which  recur  frequently: — c  =  ts;  £  =  cA(hard);  t  =  ch  (soft); 
j  =  y,  orj  in  German  ;  i=sh;  z  =  zh,  or  j  in  French. 


alien  population  is  insignificant.  The  Italians  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  coast;  the  Germans  congregate  at  Semlin  and 
Warasdin;  the  Slovenes  are  settled  along  the  north-western 
frontier,  where  they  have  introduced  their  language,  and  so 
greatly  modified  the  local  dialect;  the  gipsies  wander  from  city 
to  city,  as  horse-dealers,  metal  workers  or  musicians;  there  are 
numerous  Moravian  and  Bohemian  settlements;  and  near 
Mitrovica  there  is  a  colony  of  Albanians.  It  is  impossible  to 
give  accurate  statistics  of  the  alien  population;  for,  in  the 
compilation  of  the  official  figures,  language  is  taken  as  a  test 
of  nationality,  an  utterly  untrustworthy  method  in  a  country 
where  every  educated  person  speaks  two  or  three  languages. 
Croatian  nationalists  also  maintain  that  official  figures  are 
systematically  altered  in  the  Hungarian  interest. 

Constitution  and  Government. — By  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
2ist  of  December  1867  Austria-Hungary  was  divided,  for  pur- 
poses of  internal  government,  into  Cisleithania,  or  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  Transleithania,  or  the  kingdoms  of  Hungary  and 
Croatia-Slavonia.  In  theory  the  viceroy,  or  ban  of  Croatia- 
Slavonia  is  nominated  by  the  crown,  and  enjoys  almost  unlimited 
authority  over  local  affairs;  in  practice  the  consent  of  the  crown 
is  purely  formal,  and  the  ban  is  appointed  by  the  Hungarian 
premier,  who  can  dismiss  him  at  any  moment.  The  provincial 
government  is  subject  to  the  ban,  and  comprises  three  ministries 
— the  interior,  justice,  and  religion  and  education, — for  whose 
working  the  ban  is  responsible  to  the  Hungarian  premier,  and  to 
the  national  assembly  of  Croatia-Slavonia  (Narodna  SktipStina). 
This  body  consists  of  a  single  chamber,  composed  partly  of 
elected  deputies,  partly  of  privileged  members,  whose  numbers 
cannot  exceed  half  those  of  the  deputies.  There  are  69  con- 
stituencies, besides  the  21  royal  free  cities  which  also  return 
deputies.  Electors  must  belong  to  certain  professions  or  pay  a 
small  tax.  The  privileged  members  are  the  heads  of  the  nobility, 
with  the  highest  ecclesiastics  and  officials.  As  a  rule,  they 
represent  the  "  Magyarist  "  section  of  society,  which  sympathizes 
with  Hungarian  policy.  The  chamber  deals  with  religion, 
education,  justice  and  certain  strictly  provincial  affairs,  but 
even  within  this  limited  sphere  all  its  important  enactments 
must  be  countersigned  by  the  minister  for  Croatia-Slavonia, 
a  member,  without  portfolio,  of  the  Hungarian  cabinet.  At 
the  polls,  all  votes  are  given  orally,  a  system  which  facilitates 
corruption;  the  officials  who  control  the  elections  depend  for 
their  livelihood  on  the  ban,  usually  a  Magyarist;  and  thus, 
even  apart  from  the  privileged  members,  a  majority  favourable 
to  Hungary  can  usually  be  secured.  The  constitutional  relations 
between  Hungary  and  Croatia-Slavonia  are  regulated  by  the 
agreement,  or  nagoda,  of  1868.  This  instrument  determines  the 
functions  of  the  ban;  the  control  of  common  interests,  such  as 
railways,  posts,  telegraphs,  telephones,  commerce,  industry, 
agriculture  or  forests;  and  the  choice  of  delegates  by  the 
chamber,  to  sit  in  the  Hungarian  parliament.  See  also  below, 
under  History. 

For  administrative  purposes  Croatia-Slavonia  is  divided   into  8 
rural  counties,  already  enumerated ;   besides  the  4  urban  counties, 
or  municipalities  of  Agram,  Semlin,  Warasdin  and  Esseg.     Local 
These  are  subdivided  into  rural  and  urban  communes,     admlals- 
each  with  its  representative  council.     The  affairs  of  each     traUoa. 
rural  county  are  managed  by  an  assembly  chosen  for  6 
years,  which  comprises  not  only  elected  members,  but  delegates 
from  all  the  cities  except  Agram  and  Esseg,  with  certain  high 
ecclesiastics  and  officials. 

The  highest  judicial  authority  is  the  supreme  court  or  Septemviral 
Table,  which  sits  at  Agram,  and  ranks  above  the  royal        jatOcc. 
courts  of  appeal,  the  county  courts  of  first  instance, 
and  the  district  courts  or  magistracies. 

Fully  four-fifths  of  the  population  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  which  has  an  archbishop  at  Agram  and  bishops  at  Zengg 
and  Djakovo.  There  are  about  12,000  Greek  Catholics,  Kellgtoa. 
with  a  bishop  at  Kreuz  (Krizevac).  The  Serb  congrega- 
tions, who  had  previously*  been  classed  as  Orthodox  Greek,  were 
officially  recognized  as  members  of  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Servia 
after  1883.  Their  episcopal  sees  of  Karlowitz  and  Pakrac  depend 
upon  the  metropolitanate  of  Belgrade;  but  from  1830  to  1838 
Karlowitz  was  itself  the  headquarters  of-the  Servian  Church. 

During  the  igth  century  strenuous  efforts  to  better  the  state  of 
education  were  made  by  Bishop  Strossmayer  (1815-1905)  and  other 


474 


CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


reformers;  but,  although  some  success  was  achieved,  only  one-third 
of  the  population  could  read  and  write  in  1900.  Foremost  among  the 
educational  institutions  is  the  South  Slavonic  Academy 
Educa-  of  Sciences  and  Arts  (Jugoslavenska  Akademija  Znanosti 
a°"'  i  Umjetnosti),  founded  by  Strossmayer  and  others  in 

1867,  as  an  improvement  on  a  learned  society  which  had  existed 
since  1836.  The  academy  is  the  headquarters  of  the  nationalist 
propaganda.  Its  numerous  publications,  though  sometimes  biased 
by  political  passion,  throw  much  light  on  Serbo-Croatian  history, 
law,  philology  and  kindred  topics.  Agram  University,  founded  in 
1874,  possesses  three  faculties — theology,  philosophy  and  law; 
but,  unlike  other  Hungarian  universities,  it  lacks  a  faculty  of  medi- 
cine. Its  average  number  of  students  varies  from  300  to  350.  In 
1900  there  were  also  19  real-gymnasia,  teaching  science,  art  and 
modern  languages,  as  well  as  classics  and  mathematics;  1400 
elementary  schools;  and  a  few  special  institutions,  such  as  the  naval 
and  military  academies  of  Fiume,  ecclesiastical  seminaries  and 
commercial  colleges.  In  almost  every  case  the  language  of  instruc- 
tion is  Serbo-Croatian.  The  development  of  higher  education, 
without  a  corresponding  advance  of  technical  education,  has  created 
an  intellectual  class,  comprising  many  men  of  letters,  and  several 
painters,  musicians  and  sculptors,  though  none  of  great  eminence; 
it  also  tends  to  produce  many  aspirants  to  official  or  professional 
careers,  who  find  employment  difficult  to  obtain.  The  want  of  a 
strong  native  middle  class  may  partly  be  traced  to  this  tendency. 

History. 

Medieval  historians  did  not  use  the  terms  Croatia  and  Slavonia 
in  their  present  sense.  The  Croatia  of  the  middle  ages  comprised 
north-western  Bosnia,  Turkish  Croatia,  and  the  region  now 
known  as  Upper  Croatia.  The  whole  country  between  the  Drave 
and  Save,  thus  including  a  large  part  of  modern  Croatia,  was 
called  in  Latin  Slavonia,  in  German  Windisches  Land,  and  in 
Hungarian  Tdtorszag,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  territories  in 
which  the  Croats  were  racially  supreme  (Horvdlorszdg).  At  the 
time  of  their  conquest  by  the  Romans  (35  B.C.)  both  these 
divisions  were  occupied  by  the  Pannonians,  who  in  Slavonia  had 
displaced  an  older  population,  the  Scordisci;  and  both  were 
included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Pannonia  Inferior,  although 
Slavonia  had  the  distinctive  name  of  Pannonia  Savia  (see 
PANNONIA).  When  the  Roman  dominions  were  broken  up  in 
A.D.  395,  Croatia-Slavonia  remained  part  of  the  Western  empire. 
The  Ostrogoths  overran  it  in  489;  in  535  it  was  annexed  by 
Justinian;  in  568  it  was  conquered  by  the  Avars.  These  were 
in  turn  expelled  from  Croatia  by  the  Croats,  a  Slavonic  people 
from  the  western  Carpathians,  who,  according  to  some  authorities, 
had  occupied  the  territories  of  the  Marcomanni  in  Bohemia, 
and  been  driven  thence  in  the  6th  century  by  the  Czechs.  The 
main  body  of  the  Croats,  whose  tribal  and  racial  names  respec- 
tively are  perpetuated  in  the  names  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia, 
entered  Croatia  between  634  and  638,  and  were  encouraged  by 
the  emperor  Heraclius  to  attack  the  Avars.  Smaller  bodies  had 
led  the  way  southwards  since  548.  The  Croats  formed  the 
western  division  of  the  great  migratory  horde  of  Serbo-Croats 
which  colonized  the  lands  between  Bulgaria  and  the  Adriatic. 
Contemporary  chroniclers  called  them  Chrobali,  Bdochrobati 
("White  Croats"),  Chrovati,  Horvali,  or  by  some  similar  Latin 
or  Byzantine  variant  of  the  Slavonic  Khrvaty.  The  Croats 
occupied  most  of  the  region  now  known  as  Croatia-Slavonia, 
Dalmatia,  and  north-western  Bosnia,  displacing  or  absorbing 
the  earlier  inhabitants  everywhere  except  along  the  Dalmatian 
littoral,  where  the  Italian  city-states  usually  maintained  their 
independence,  and  in  certain  districts  of  Slavonia,  where,  out 
of  a  mixed  population  of  Slavonic  immigrants,  Avars  and 
Pannonians,  the  Slavs,  and  especially  the  Serbo-Croats,  gradually 
became  predominant.  The  Croats  brought  with  them  their 
primitive  tribal  institutions,  organized  on  a  basis  partly  military, 
partly  patriarchal,  and  identical  with  the  Zhupanates  of  the 
Serbs  (see  SERVIA);  agriculture,  war  and  hunting  were  their 
chief  pursuits.  Although  they  at  first  acknowledged  no  alien 
sovereign,  they  passed  gradually  under  Italian  influence  in  the 
extreme  west,  and  under  Byzantine  influence  in  the  south  and 
south-east.  In  806  the  northern  and  north-eastern  districts 
were  added  to  the  empire  of  the  Franks,  and  thus  won  for  the 
Western  Church.  Prankish  predominance  was  long  commem- 
orated by  the  name  Francochorion,  given  by  the  Byzantines 


to  Syrmia;  it  is  still  commemorated  by  the  name  Fruska  Gora, 
"  Mountains  of  the  Franks,"  in  that  province. 

The  Croatian  Kingdom:  c.  gio-iogi. — In  877  the  Croats 
were  temporarily  subdued  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  but  after 
successive  insurrections  which  tended  to  centralize  their  loosely 
knit  tribal  organization,  and  to  place  all  power  in  the  hands  of 
a  military  chief,  they  regained  their  independence  and  founded 
a  national  kingdom  about  910.  It  is  probable  that  Tomislav  or 
Timislav,  who  had  led  their  armies  to  victory,  assumed  the  title 
of  king  in  that  year.  Some  authorities,  however,  state  that 
Tomislav  only  bore  the  title  of  iieliki  Zupan  or  "paramount  chief," 
and  was  only  one  in  a  long  line  of  princes  which  can  be  traced 
without  interruption  back  to  818.  On  this  view,  Drzislav 
(c.  978-1000)  was  the  first  king  properly  so  called.  But  Tomislav, 
whatever  his  official  style,  was  certainly  the  first  of  a  series  of 
independent  national  rulers  which  lasted  for  nearly  two  centuries. 
The  records  of  this  period,  regarded  by  many  Croats  as  the  golden 
age  of  their  country,  are  often  scanty,  and  its  chronology  is  still 
unsettled.  Little  is  known  of  Trpimir,  who  preceded  Drzislav, 
or  of  Stephen  I.  (1035-1058),  but  a  few  of  the  kings  gained  a  more 
lasting  fame  by  their  success  in  war  and  diplomacy.  Among 
these  were  Kresimir  I.  (c.  940-946),  his  successor  Miroslav,  and 
especially  Kresimir  II.,  surnamed  the  Great  (c.  1000-1035), 
who  harried  the  Bulgarians,  at  that  time  a  powerful  nation,  and 
conquered  a  large  part  of  Dalmatia,  including  some  of  the 
Italian  cities.  Already,  under  his  predecessors,  the  Croats  had 
built  a  fleet,  which  they  used  first  for  piracy  and  afterwards  for 
trade.  Their  skill  in  maritime  affairs,  exemplified  first  in  the 
9th  century  by  the  pagan  corsairs  of  the  Narenta  (see  DALMATIA: 
History),  and  later  by  the  numerous  Dalmatian  and  Croatian 
sailors  who  served  in  the  navies  of  Venice  and  Austria,  is  remark- 
able in  a  Slavonic  people,  and  one  which  had  so  recently  migrated 
from  central  Europe.  At  the  end  of  the  loth  century  they  even 
for  a  short  period  exacted  tribute  from  Venice,  but  their  power 
was  temporarily  destroyed  in  1000,  when  the  Venetians  captured 
and  sacked  Biograd  or  Belgrade,  the  Italian  Zaravecchia.  This 
Dalmatian  port  was  not  only  the  Croatian  arsenal,  but  the  seat 
of  the  kings,  who  here  sought  to  enhance  their  dignity  by  borrow- 
ing the  grandiose  titles  and  elaborate  procedure  of  the  Byzantine 
court.  Kresimir  II.  and  Kresimir  Peter  (c.  1058-1073),  the  hero 
of  many  national  legends  and  lays,  restored  the  naval  power  of 
the  Croats.  After  the  death  of  Kresimir  Peter,  Slavic  or  Slaviza 
reigned  until  1076,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Zvonimir  (Svinimir 
or  Zvoinimir)  Demetrius.  Zvonimir  was  crowned  by  the  legate 
of  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  and  appears  to  have  been  regarded  as  a 
vassal  of  the  papacy.  Both  he  and  Stephen  II.,  a  nephew  of 
Kresimir  II.,  died  in  1089. 

Hungarian  Supremacy:  logi-c.  1526. — Amid  the  strife  of 
rival  claimants  to  the  throne,  Helena,  the  widow  of  Stephen, 
appealed  for  aid  to  her  brother  Ladislaus  I.,  king  of  Hungary. 
Ladislaus  took  possession  of  the  country  in  1091.  He  founded 
the  bishopric  of  Agram  and  introduced  Hungarian  law.  His 
death  in  1095  was  the  signal  for  a  nationalist  insurrection,  but 
after  two  years  the  rebels  were  crushed  by  his  successor  Coloman. 
This  monarch  reorganized  the  administration  on  a  system  which 
has  been  maintained,  with  modifications  in  detail,  by  almost 
all  subsequent  rulers.  He  respected  the  existing  institutions  of 
the  conquered  territory  so  far  as  to  leave  its  autonomy  in  domestic 
affairs  intact;  but  delegated  his  own  sovereignty,  and  especially 
the  control  of  foreign  affairs  and  war,  to  a  governor  known  as 
the  ban  (<?.».).  This  office  was  sometimes  held  by  princes  of 
the  royal  house,  often  by  Croatian  nobles.  Coloman  also 
extended  his  authority  over  Dalmatia  and  the  islands  of  the 
Quarnero,  but  the  best  modern  authorities  reject  the  tradition 
that  in  1102  he  was  crowned  king  of  Croatia,  Slavonia  and 
Dalmatia.  In  1127  Syrmia,  which  had  been  annexed  to  Bulgaria 
from  about  700  to  1018,  and  to  the  Eastern  empire  from  1019, 
was  united  to  Slavonia.  The  Hungarian  government  left  much 
liberty  to  the  Croatian  nobles,  a  turbulent  and  fanatical  class, 
ever  ready  for  civil  war,  rebellion  or  a  campaign  against  the 
Bosnian  heretics.  Their  most  powerful  leaders  were  the  counts 
of  Zrin  and  Bribir  (or  Brebir),  whose  surname  was  Subid.  This 


CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


475 


family  played  an  important  part  in  local  politics  from  the 
century  to  1670,  when  Peter  Subid  was  its  last  member  to  hold 
theofficeof  ban.  Paul  Subid  (d.  1312)  and  Mladen  Subid  (d.  1322) 
even  for  a  short  period  united  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Bosnia  and  part 
of  Dalmatia  under  their  own  rule.  From  1322  to  1326  the 
Croatian  nobles  successfully  withstood  the  armies  of  Hungary 
and  Bosnia;  from  1337  to  1340,  instigated  by  the  Vatican,  they 
carried  on  a  crusade  against  the  Bosnian  Bogomils;  and  in  the 
Krajina  (Turkish  Croatia)  hostilities  were  resumed  at  intervals 
until  the  Turkish  conquest. 

The  Turkish  Occupation:  c.  1526-1718. — Here,  as  elsewhere, 
the  Ottoman  invasion  was  facilitated  by  the  feuds  of  the  Christian 
sects.  When  King  Matthias  Corvinus  undertook  to  defend 
Slavonia  in  1490  it  was  too  late;  Matthias  lost  Syrmia  and  died 
in  the  same  year.  His  successor  Ladislaus  of  Poland  (1490-1516) 
added  Slavonia  to  the  kingdoms  named  in  the  royal  title,  which 
now  included  the  words  "  King  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia  and 
Slavonia"  (Rex  Dalmatian  et  Croaliae  et  Slavoniae).  But  he 
failed  to  repel  the  Turks,  who  in  1526  destroyed  the  power  of 
Hungary  at  the  battle  of  Mollies.  In  1527  the  Croats  were 
compelled  to  swear  allegiance  to  Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria,  who 
had  been  elected  king  of  Hungary.  Ferdinand  founded  the 
generalcy  of  Karlstadt  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
military  frontier.  The  provinces  of  Agram,  Warasdin  and 
Kreutz,  previously  included  in  Slavonia,  were  added  to  Croatia, 
to  counterbalance  the  loss  of  territory  in  the  Krajina.  Through- 
out the  century  the  Turks  continued  to  extend  their  conquests 
until,  in  1606,  the  emperor  retained  only  western  Croatia,  with 
the  cities  of  Agram,  Karlstadt,  Warasdin  and  Zengg.  During 
the  same  period  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  had  spread 
among  the  Croats;  but  they  were  forcibly  suppressed  in  1607- 
1610.  The  military  occupation  by  the  Turks  left  little  perma- 
nent impression;  colonization  was  never  attempted;  and  the 
continuous  wars  by  which  the  victors  strove  to  secure  or  enlarge 
their  dominions  north  of  the  Save  left  no  time  for  the  introduction 
of  Moslem  religion  or  civilization  among  the  vanquished.  Thus 
in  the  reconquest  of  Croatia-Slavonia  there  was  none  of  the 
local  opposition  which  afterwards  hindered  the  Austrian  occupa- 
tion of  Bosnia.  The  successes  of  Prince  Eugene  in  1697  led 
two  years  later  to  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  by  which  the  Turks 
ceded  the  greater  part  of  Slavonia  and  Hungary  to  Austria; 
and  the  remainder  was  surrendered  in  1718  by  the  treaty  of 
Passarowitz.  Only  Turkish  Croatia  henceforth  remained  part  of 
the  Ottoman  empire. 

Austrian  and  French  Supremacy:  1718-1814. — Austrian 
influence  predominated  throughout  Croatia-Slavonia  during 
most  of  the  i8th  century,  although  Slavonia  was  constitutionally 
regarded  as  belonging  to  Hungary.  Despite  Magyar  protests 
the  misleading  name  "  Croatia "  was  popularly  and  even  in 
official  documents  applied  to  the  whole  country,  including  the 
purely  Slavonian  provinces  of  Virovitica,  Pozega  and  Syrmia. 
From  1767  to  1777  Croatia,  Slavonia  and  Dalmatia  were  col- 
lectively named  Illyria,  and  governed  from  Vienna,  but  each  of 
these  divisions  was  subsequently  declared  a  separate  kingdom, 
with  a  separate  administration,  while  the  military  frontier 
remained  under  military  rule.  In  1776  the  Croatian  seaboard, 
which  had  previously  been  under  the  same  administration  as 
the  rest  of  the  Austrian  coast,  was  annexed  to  Croatia,  but  three 
years  later  Fiume  was  declared  an  integral  part  of  Hungary. 
These  administrative  changes,  and  especially  the  brief  existence 
of  united  "  Illyria,"  stimulated  the  dormant  nationalism  of  the 
Croats  and  their  jealousy  of  the  Magyars.  In  1809  Austria 
was  forced  to  surrender  to  Napoleon  a  large  part  of  Croatia, 
with  Dalmatia,  Istria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  Gorz  and  Gradisca. 
These  territories  received  the  name  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces, 
and  remained  under  French  rule  until  1813.  All  the  Croats 
capable  of  service  were  enrolled  under  the  French  flag;  their 
country  was  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  Croatie 
civile  and  Croatie  militaire.  In  1814  Dalmatia  was  incorporated 
in  Austria,  while  Istria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  Gorz  and  Gradisca 
became  the  Illyrian  kingdom  of  Austria,  and  retained  their 
united  government  until  1849.  Croatia  and  Slavonia  were 


declared  appanages  of  the  Hungarian  crown — paries  adnexae, 
or  subject  provinces,  according  to  the  Magyars;  regna  soda, 
or  allied  kingdoms,  according  to  their  own  view.  Each  phrase 
afterwards  became  the  watchword  of  a  political  party:  neither 
is  accurate.  The  Croats  preserved  their  local  autonomy,  the 
use  of  their  language  for  official  purposes,  their  elected  diet  and 
other  ancient  institutions,  but  Hungarian  control  was  represented 
by  the  ban. 

The  National  Revival. — The  Croats  acquiesced  in  their  position 
of  inferiority  until  1840,  when  the  Magyars  endeavoured  to 
introduce  Hungarian  as  the  official  language.  A  nationalist 
or  "  Illyrist "  party  was  formed  under  Count  Draskovic  and 
Bishop  J.  Strossmayer  (q.v.)  to  combat  Hungarian  influence 
and  promote  the  union  of  the  "  Illyrian  "  Slavs,  i.e.  the  Slovenes, 
Croats  and  Serbs.  Ljudevit  Gaj,  the  leading  Croatian  publicist, 
strongly  supported  the  movement.  The  elections  of  1842  were 
marked  by  a  series  of  sanguinary  conflicts  between  Illyrists 
and  Magyarists,  but  not  until  1848  were  the  Illyrists  returned  to 
office.  One  of  their  leaders,  Baron  Josef  Jellachich,  was  appointed 
ban  in  1848.  He  strongly  advocated  the  union  of  Croatia  with 
Carinthia,  Carniola  and  Styria,  but  found  his  policy  thwarted 
as  much  by  the  apathy  of  the  Slovenes  as  by  the  hostility  of  the 
Magyars.  A  Croatian  deputation  was  received  at  Innsbruck 
by  Ferdinand  V.,  but  before  its  arrival  the  Hungarians  had 
obtained  a  royal  manifesto  hostile  to  Illyrism.  But  failure  only 
increased  the  agitation  among  the  southern  Slavs;  all  attempts 
at  mediation  proved  unsuccessful,  and  on  the  3ist  of  August 
the  Croats  claimed  to  have  convinced  the  king  that  justice  was 
on  their  side.  On  the  nth  of  September  the  advance-guard  of 
their  army  crossed  the  Drave  under  the  command  of  Jellachich. 
On  the  29th  they  were  driven  back  from  Pakozd  by  the 
Hungarians,  and  retired  towards  Vienna;  they  subsequently 
aided  the  Austrian  army  against  the  Hungarian  revolutionaries 
(see  JELLACHICH,  JOSEF,  and  HUNGARY:  History).  The  consti- 
tution of  1849  proclaimed  Croatia  and  Slavonia  separated  from 
Hungary  and  united  as  a  single  Austrian  crownland,  to  which 
was  annexed  the  Croatian  littoral,  including  Fiume.  Austrian 
supremacy  lasted  until  1867;  no  ban  was  appointed,  and  owing 
to  the  suspension  of  local  autonomy  from  1850  to  1860  this 
period  is  known  as  "  the  ten  years  of  reaction."  It  was  ended 
by  the  celebrated  "  October  Diploma  "  of  the  2oth  of  October 
1860,  which  promised  the  restoration  of  constitutional  liberty. 
But  the  so-called  "  Constitution  of  February  "  (2ist  February 
1861)  placed  all  practical  power  in  the  hands  of  an  executive 
controlled  by  the  government  at  Vienna.  The  newly  elected 
diet  was  soon  dissolved  for  its  advocacy  of  a  great  South  Slavonic 
confederation  under  imperial  rule,  and  no  other  was  elected 
until  1865. 

From  1865  to  1867  Strossmayer  and  the  nationalists  en- 
deavoured to  secure  the  formation  of  a  subordinate  Austrian 
kingdom  comprising  Dalmatia,  Croatia-Slavonia  and  the 
islands  of  the  Quarnero.  The  Magyars  had,  however,  resolved 
to  subject  Croatia-Slavonia  to  the  crown  of  St  Stephen,  and  in 
1 867  had  secured  control  of  the  finances  and  electoral  machinery 
The  office  of  ban  was  revived,  and  its  holder,  Baron  Levin  Rauch, 
was  an  ardent  Magyarist.  At  the  elections  of  December  1867 
a  majority  of  Hungarian  partisans  was  easily  obtained,  and 
on  the  29th  of  January  the  diet  passed  a  resolution  in  favour 
of  reunion  with  Hungary.  The  whole  Opposition  refused  to 
take  any  part  in  the  proceedings,  as  a  protest  against  the  alleged 
illegality  of  the  elections;  but  by  the  25th  of  June  the  Croatian 
commissioners  and  the  Hungarian  government  had  framed  a 
new  constitution,  which  was  ratified  in  September.  Besides 
substituting  Hungarian  for  Austrian  sovereignty,  it  provided 
that  the  diet  and  the  ban  should  control  local  affairs,  subject 
to  the  Croatian  minister  in  the  Hungarian  cabinet,  and  that 
Croatia-Slavonia  should  pay  55%  of  its  revenue  to  Hungary  for 
mutual  and  imperial  expenses,  but  should  be  represented  in 
the  Hungarian  parliament  by  thirty-six  delegates,  and  should 
continue  to  use  Serbo-Croatian  as  the  official  language.  Hungary 
guaranteed  that  the  45%  retained  by  the  territorial  government 
should  be  not  less  than  two  and  a  half  million  gulden  (£250,000). 


476 


CROATIA-SLAVONIA 


In  May  1870  Fiume  was  annexed  to  Hungary,  but  in  1873  the 
Croats  received  as  compensation  an  increase  of  their  guaranteed 
revenue  to  £350,000,  an  addition  of  seven  to  the  number  of  their 
representatives  at  Budapest,  and  a  promise  that  the  military 
frontier  should  be  incorporated  in  the  existing  civil  provinces. 
In  1877  a  convention  with  Hungary  regulated  the  control  of 
public  estates  in  the  military  frontier,  and  on  the  I5th  of  July 
1881  the  frontier,  including  the  district  of  Sichelburg  claimed 
by  Carniola,  was  handed  over  to  the  local  administration. 

Meanwhile  the  events  of  187  5-1878  in  the  Balkans,  culminating 
in  the  Austrian  occupation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  revived 
the  agitation  for  a  "Great  Croatia."  A  party  separate  from 
the  regular  Opposition,  and  known  as  the  "Party  of  the  Right," 
was  formed  to  oppose  the  Magyarists.  Its  activity  resulted 
in  the  riots  of  1883,  which  were  with  difficulty  quelled;  in  1885 
its  leader,  N.  StarCevic,  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for 
the  violence  of  his  speeches  against  the  ban,  Count  Khuen- 
Hedervary.  In  1888  the  moderate  Opposition  also  lost  its 
leader,  Bishop  Strossmayer,  who  was  censured  by  the  king  on 
account  of  his  famous  Panslavist  telegram  to  the  Russian  Church 
(see  STROSSMAYER).  In  1889  the  financial  agreement  with 
Hungary  was  revised  and  the  contribution  of  Croatia-Slavonia 
to  the  expenses  shared  with  Hungary  or  common  to  the  whole 
of  the  Dual  Monarchy  was  raised  by  i  %.  This  added 
burden  combined  with  bad  harvests,  a  fall  in  the  revenue  and  a 
deficit  in  the  budget  to  heighten  popular  discontent.  Count 
Khuen-H6dervary  was  responsible  for  several  administrative 
improvements,  but  the  prosperity  of  the  country  declined  from 
year  to  year.  The  government  was  accused  of  illegal  inter- 
ference with  the  elections,  with  the  use  of  the  Hungarian  arms 
and  language  in  official  documents,  and  with  undue  harshness 
in  the  censorship  of  the  press.  In  May  1903  there  were  outbreaks 
of  rioting  in  Agram,  Sissek  and  other  towns,  besides  serious 
agrarian  disturbances  .directed  against  the  Magyarist  land- 
owners; in  a  debate  in  the  Reichsrath  (i8th  May)  an  Austrian 
deputy  named  Bianchini  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  induce  the 
imperial  government  to  intervene.  At  the  end  of  June  Count 
Khuen-Hedervary  was  made  Hungarian  prime  minister;  Count 
T.  Pejadevid  succeeded  him  as  ban,  and  restored  quiet  by 
promising  freedom  of  assembly  and  greater  liberty  of  the  press. 
Since  1898  the  financial  agreement  had  only  been  renewed  from 
year  to  year.  But  the  estimates  for  1904  revealed  another 
heavy  deficit;  and  this  was  only  paid  by  Hungary  on  condition 
that  the  agreement  should  be  renewed  until  the  3ist  of  December 
1913,  and  the  contribution  of  56%  maintained. 

The  constitutional  crisis  of  1905  in  Hungary  stimulated  the 
nationalist  agitation.  A  congress  of  Croatian  and  Dalmatian 
deputies  met  at  Spalato  to  advocate  Serbo-Croatian  unity,  and 
in  1906  the  municipality  of  Agram  endeavoured  to  petition  the 
king  in  favour  of  union  with  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  This 
propaganda  was  severely  discouraged.  Baron  Rauch,  appointed 
ban  in  1908,  refused  to  summon  the  diet,  in  which  he  could  not 
command  a  single  vote,  and  much  excitement  was  caused  in  1909 
by  the  trial  of  57  nationalist  leaders  for  high  treason.  The  policy 
of  the  nationalists,  who  now  aimed  at  the  political  union,  under 
the  king-emperor,  of  all  Serbo-Croats  in  Austria-Hungary — 
upwards  of  4,500,000 — was  less  visionary  than  the  older  Illyrism, 
and  less  aggressively  Panslavist.  It  no  longer  sought  to 
include  Carinthia,  Carniola  and  Styria  in  the  proposed 
"  Great  Croatia."  It  was  opposed  by  Austria  as  tending  to 
create  a  new  and  formidable  Slavonic  nation  within  the  Dual 
Monarchy,  and  by  Hungary  as  a  menace  to  Magyar  predominance 
in  Transleithania. 

Language  and  Literature. 

For  the  place  of  the  Croatian  dialects  among  Slavonic 
languages  generally,  see  SLAVS.  The  Croatian  dialects,  like 
the  Servian,  have  gradually  developed  from  the  Old  Slavonic, 
which  survives  in  medieval  liturgies  and  biblical  or  apocryphal 
writings.  The  course  of  this  development  was  similar  in  both 
cases,  except  that  the  Croats,  owing  to  their  dependence  on 
Austria-Hungary,  were  not  so  deeply  influenced  as  the  Serbs  by 


Byzantine  culture  in  the  middle  ages,  and  by  Russian  linguistic 
forms  and  Russian  ideas  in  modern  times.  The  Orthodox  Serbs, 
moreover,  use  a  modified  form  of  the  Cyrillic  alphabet,  while 
the  Roman  Catholic  Croats  use  Latin  characters,  except  in  a 
few  liturgical  books  which  are  written  in  the  ancient  Glagolitic 
script.  As  the  literary  language  of  both  nations  is  now  practi- 
cally the  same,  and  is,  indeed,  commonly  known  as  "  Serbo- 
Croatian,"  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  article  SERVIA: 
Language  and  Literature,  for  an  account  of  its  history,  of  its 
chief  literary  monuments  up  to  the  loth  century  and  inclusive 
of  Dalmatian  literature,  and  of  the  principal  differences  between 
the  dialects  spoken  in  Servia  and  Croatia-Slavonia. 

The  three  most  important  Croatian  dialects  are  known  as 
the  Cakavci,  CakavHina  or,  in  Servian,  Chakavski,  spoken  along 
the  Adriatic  littoral;  the  Stokavci  (Stokavstina,  Shtokavski), 
spoken  in  Servia  and  elsewhere  in  the  north-west  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula;  and  the  Kajkavci  (KajkavUina,  Kaykavski),  spoken 
by.  the  partly  Slovene  population  of  the  districts  of  Agram, 
Warasdin  and  Kreuz.  This  classification  is  based  on  the  form, 
varying  in  different  localities,  of  the  pronoun  ca,  sto,  or  kaj, 
meaning  "  what." 

The  Cakavci  literature  includes  most  of  the  works  of  the 
Dalmatian  writers  of  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries — the  golden 
age  of  Serbo-Croatian  literature.  Its  history  is  indissolubly 
interwoven  with  that  of  the  Stokavci,  which  ultimately  super- 
seded it,  and  became  the  literary  language  of  all  the  Serbo- 
Croats,  as  it  had  long  been  the  language  of  the  best  national 
ballads  and  legends : 

Kajkavci  had  from  about  1550  to  1830  a  distinctive  literature, 
consisting  of  chronicles  and  histories,  poems  of  a  religious  or 
educational  character,  fables  and  moral  tales.  These  writings 
possess  more  philological  interest  than  literary  merit,  and  are 
hardly  known  outside  Croatia-Slavonia  and  the  Slovene  districts 
of  Austria. 

Apart  from  the 'Kajkavci  dialect,  the  whole  body  of  Serbo- 
Croatian  literature  up  to  the  igth  century  may  justly  be  regarded 
as  the  common  heritage  of  Serbs  and  Croats.  The  linguistic 
and  literary  reforms  which  Dossitey  Obradovich  and  Vuk 
Stefanovich  Karajich  carried  out  in  Servia  about  the  close  of 
this  period  helped  to  stimulate  among  the  Croats  a  new  interest 
in  their  national  history,  their  traditions,  folk-songs  and  folk- 
tales. One  result  of  this  nationalist  revival  was  the  unsuccessful 
attempt  made  between  1814  and  1830  to  raise  the  Cakavci 
dialect  to  the  rank  of  a  distinctive  literary  language  for  Croatia- 
Slavonia;  but  the  Illyrist  movement  of  1840  led  to  the  adoption 
of  the  Stokavci,  which  was  already  the  vernacular  of  the  majority 
of  Serbo-Croats.  Ljudevit  Gaj  (1809-1872),  though  he  failed 
to  create  an  artificial  literary  language  by  the  fusion  of  the 
principal  dialects  spoken  by  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes,  was 
by  his  championship  of  Illyrism  instrumental  in  securing  the 
triumph  of  the  Stokavci.  Gaj  was  a  poet  of  considerable  talent, 
and  one  of  the  founders  of  Croatian  journalism.  Among  other 
writers  of  the  first  half  of  the  igth  century  may  be  mentioned 
Ivan  Mazuranic  (1813-1890),  whose  first  poems  were  published 
in  the  Danica  ilirska  ("Illyrian  Dawnstar"),  a  journal  founded 
and  for  a  time  edited  by  Gaj.  In  1846  MazuraniC  published  his 
Smrt  Small  Ago.  Cengita  ("Death  of  Ismail  Aga  Cengic"), 
called  by  Serbo-Croats  the  "  Epos  of  Hate."  This  remarkable 
poem,  written  in  the  metre  of  the  old  Servian  ballads,  gives  a 
vivid  description  of  life  in  Bosnia  under  Turkish  rule,  and  of  the 
hereditary  border  feuds  between  Christians  and  Moslems.  In 
later  life  Mazuranid  distinguished  himself  as  a  statesman,  and 
became  ban  of  Croatia  from  1873  to  1880.  Other  writers  repre- 
sentative of  Croatian  literature  before  1867  were  the  lyric  poet 
Stanko  Vraz  (1810-1851)  and  Dragutin  Rakovac  (1813-1854), 
the  author  of  many  patriotic  songs. 

With  the  foundation  of  the  South  Slavonic  Academy  at  Agram, 
in  1867,  the  study  of  science  and  history  received  a  new  impetus. 
Under  the  presidency  of  Franko  RaCki  (1825-1894)  the  academy, 
with  its  journal  the  Rod  jugoskovenske  Akademije,  became  the 
headquarters  of  an  active  group  of  savants,  among  whom  may 
be  mentioned  Vastroslav  Jagifi  (b.  1838),  sometime  editor  of  the 


CROCIDOLITE— CROCKFORD 


477 


Archw  fiir  slavische  Pltilologie;  the  historians  Sime  Ljubic 
(1822-1896)  and  Vjekoslav  Klai6,  author  of  several  standard 
works  on  Croatia  and  the  Croats;  the  lexicographer  Bogoslav 
Sulek  (1816-1895);  the  ethnographer  and  philologist  Franko 
Karelac  (1811-1874).  In  Dalmatia,  where  the  Ragusan  journal 
Slovinac  has  served,  like  the  Agram  Rod,  as  a  focus  of  literary 
activity,  there  have  been  numerous  poets  and  prose  writers, 
associated,  in  many  cases,  with  the  Illyrist  or  the  nationalist 
propaganda.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Count  Medo 
Pu£i6  (1821-1882),  and  the  dramatist  Matija  Ban  (1818-1903), 
whose  tragedy  Meyrimah  is  considered  by  many  the  finest 
dramatic  poem  in  the  Serbo-Croatian  language. 

AUTHORITIES. — For  the  topography,  products,  inhabitants  and 
modern  condition  of  Croatia-Slavonia,  sfee  Bau  und  Bild  Osterreichs, 
by  C.  Diener,  F.  E.  Suess,  R.  Hoernes  and  V.  Uhlig  (Leipzig,  1903) ; 
Die  osterreich-ungarische  Monarchic  in  Wort  und  Bild,  vol.  xxiv., 
edited  by  J.  von  Weilen  (Vienna,  1902) ;  Fiihrer  durch  Ungarn, 
Kroatien  und  Slawonien,  by  B.  Alfoldi  (Vienna,  1900) ;  Reiseftihrer 
durch  Kroatien  und  Slawonien,  by  A.  Luksic  (Agram,  1893) ;  Vegeta- 
tionsverhdltnisse  von  Kroatien,  by  A.  Neilreich  (Vienna,  1868); 
"  Die  Slowenen,"  by  J.  Suman,  and  "  Die  Kroaten,"  by  F.  Stare, 
in  vol.  x.  of  Die  Volker  Osterreich-  Ungarns  (Vienna,  1881-1882); 
Die  Serbokroaten  der  adriatischen  Kustenlander,  by  A.  Weisbach 
(Berlin,  1884) ;  and  the  map  Zemljovid  Hrvatske  i  Slavonije,  by 
M.  Katzenschlager  (Vienna,  1895).  The  only  detailed  history  is  one 
in  Serbo-Croatian,  written  by  a  succession  of  the  highest  native 
authorities,  and  published  by  the  South  Slavonic  Academy  (Agram, 
from  1861).  It  is  largely  based  on  the  following  works:  Velera 
monumenta  historica  Hungariam  sacrum  illustrantia,  containing 
documents  from  the  Vatican  library  edited  by  A.  Theiner  (Rome, 
1 860) ;  Vetera  monumenta  historiam  Slavorum  meridionalium 
illustrantia,  published  by  the  South  Slavonic  Academy  (Agram, 
1863,  &c.) ;  Jura  regni  Croaliae,  Dalmatiae,  et  Slavoniae  cum  privi- 
legiis,  by  J.  Kukuljeyid  (Agram,  1861-1862);  Monumenta  historica 
Slavorum  meridionalium,  by  V.  Makushev,  in  Latin  and  Italian, 
with  notes  in  Slavonic  (Belgrade,  1885);  De  regno  Dalmatiae  et 
Croaliae,  by  G.  Lucio  (Amsterdam,  1666;  see  DALMATIA,  under 
bibliography);  Regno  degli  Slavi,  by  M.  Orbini  (Pesaro,  1601); 
and,  for  ecclesiastical  history,  Illyricum  sacrum,  by  D.  Farlatus  and 
others  (Venice,  1751-1819).  See  also  Hrvatska  i  Hrvati,  by  V.  Klaic 
(Agram,  1890,  &c.) ;  and  Slawonien  vom  10.  bis  zum  ij.  Jahrhundert, 
translated  from  the  Serbo-Croatian  of  Klaic  by  J.  von  Vojnicic 
(Agram,  1882).  (K.  G.  J.) 

CROCIDOLITE,  a  mineral  described  in  1815  by  M.  H.  Klaproth 
under  the  name  Blaueisenstein  (blue  ironstone),  and  in  1831 
by  J.  F.  Hausmann,  who  gave  it  its  present  name  on  account  of 
its  nap-like  appearance  (Gr.  KOOKVS,  nap  of  cloth).  It  is  a  blue 
fibrous  mineral  belonging  to  the  amphibole  group  and  closely 
related  to  riebeckite;  chemically  it  is  an  iron  sodium  silicate. 
Its  resemblance  to  asbestos  has  gained  for  it  the  name  Cape 
Asbestos,  the  chief  occurrence  being  in  Cape  Colony.  The 
mineral  suffers  alteration  by  removal  of  alkali  and  peroxidation 
of  the  ferrous  iron,  and  further  by  deposition  of  silica  between 
the  fibres,  or  by  their  replacement  by  silica;  a  hard  siliceous 
mineral  is  thus  formed  which  when  polished  shows,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  fibrous  structure,  a  beautiful  chatoyance  or  silky 
lustre.  This  is  the  ornamental  stone  which  is  known  when  blue 
as  "  hawk's-eye,"  and  when  of  rich  golden  brown  colour  as 
"  tiger-eye."  The  latter,  which  represents  the  final  alteration 
of  the  crocidolite,  has  become  very  fashionable  as  "  South 
African  cat's  eye,"  and  is  often  termed  "crocidolite,"  though 
practically  only  a  mixture  of  quartz  with  brown  oxide  of  iron. 
The  following  are  analyses  by  A.  Renard  and  C.  Klement  of  the 
unaltered  crocidolite  and  of  the  blue  and  brown  products  of 
alteration: — 


Crocidolite. 

Hawk's-eye. 

Tiger-eye. 

Silica     
Ferric  oxide 
Alumina     .... 
Ferrous  oxide  . 
Magnesia   .... 
Lime     
Soda      
Potash 

51-89 
19-22 

17-53 
2-43 
0-40 

7-71 

O-I5 

93-45 
2-41 
0-23 
1-43 

0-22 
0-13 

93-05 
4-94 
0-66 

0-26 
0-44 

Water   

2-36 

0-82 

0-76 

Total     .      . 

101-69 

98-69 

IOO-II 

Another  alteration  product  of  the  crocidolite,  consisting  of 
silica  and  ferric  hydrate,  has  been  called  griqualandite.  Croci- 
dolite and  the  minerals  resulting  from  its  alteration  occur  in 
seams,  associated  with  magnetite  and  other  iron-ores,  in  the 
jasper-slates  of  the  Asbestos  Mountains  in  Griqualand  West, 
Cape  Colony.  It  is  known  also  from  a  few  other  localities,  but 
.only  in  subordinate  quantity.  (See  CAT'S-EVE.) 

CROCKET  (Ital.  uncinetti,  Fr.  crochet,  crosse,  Ger.  Haklein, 
Knollen),  in  architecture,  an  ornament  running  up  the  sides  of 
gablets,  hood-moulds,  pinnacles,  spires;  generally  a  winding 
stem  like  a  creeping  plant,  with  flowers  or  leaves  projecting  at 
intervals,  and  terminating  in  a  finial. 

CROCKETT,  DAVID  (1786-1836),  American  frontiersman, 
was  born  in  Greene  county,  Tennessee,  on  the  i7th  of  August 
1786.  His  education  was  obtained  chiefly  in  the  rough  school 
of  experience  in  the  Tennessee  backwoods,  where  he  acquired 
a  wide  reputation  as  a  hunter,  trapper  and  marksman.  In  1813- 
1814  he  served  in  the  Creek  War  under  Andrew  Jackson,  and 
subsequently  became  a  colonel  in  the  Tennessee  militia.  In 
1821-1824  he  was  a  member  of  the  state  legislature,  having  won 
his  election  not  by  political  speeches  but  by  telling  stories.  In 
1827  he' was  elected  to  the  national  House  of  Representatives  as 
a  Jackson  Democrat,  and  was  re-elected  in  1829.  At  Washington 
his  shrewdness,  eccentric  manners  and  peculiar  wit  made  him 
a  conspicuous  figure,  but  he  was  too  independent  to  be  a  sup- 
porter of  all  Jackson's  measures,  and  his  opposition  to  the 
president's  Indian  policy  led  to  administration  influences  being 
turned  against  him  with  the  result  that  he  was  defeated  for 
re-election  in  1831.  He  was  again  elected  in  1833,  but  in  1835 
lost  his  seat  a  second  time,  being  then  a  vigorous  opponent 
of  many  distinctively  Jacksonian  measures.  Discouraged  and 
disgusted,  he  left  his  native  state,  and  emigrated  to  Texas,  then 
engaged  in  its  struggle  for  independence.  There  he  lost  his  life 
as  one  of  the  defenders  of  the  Alamo  at  San  Antonio  on  the  6th 
of  March  1836. 

A  so-called  "  autobiography,"  which  he  very  probably  dictated 
or  at  least  authorized,  was  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1834;  a 
work  purporting  to  be  a  continuation  of  this  autobiography  and 
entitled  Colonel  Crockett's  Exploits  and  Adventures  in  Texas  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1836)  is  undoubtedly  spurious.  These  two  works  were 
subsequently  combined  in  a  single  volume,  of  which  there  have  been 
several  editions.  Numerous  popular  biographies  have  been  written, 
the  best  by  E.  S.  Ellis  (Philadelphia,  1884). 

CROCKETT,  SAMUEL  RUTHERFORD  0860-  ),  Scottish 
novelist,  was  born  at  Duchrae,  Galloway,  on  the  24th  of 
September  1860,  the  son  of  a  Galloway  farmer.  He  was  brought 
up  on  a  Galloway  farm,  and  graduated  from  Edinburgh  University 
in  1879.  After  some  years  of  travel  he  became  in  1886  minister 
of  Penicuik,  but  eventually  abandoned  the  Free  Church  ministry 
for  novel-writing.  The  success  of  Mr  J.  M.  Barrie  had  created 
a  demand  for  stories  in  the  Scottish  dialect  when  Mr  Crockett 
published  his  successful  story  of  The  Stickil  Minister  in  1893. 
It  was  followed  by  a  rapidly  produced  series  of  popular  novels 
dealing  often  with  the  past  history  of  Scotland,  or  with  his  native 
Galloway.  Such  are  The  Raiders,  The  Lilac  Sun-bonnet  and 
Mad  Sir  Uchtred  in  1894;  The  Men  of  the  Moss  Hags  in  1895; 
Cleg  Kelly  and  The  Grey  Man  in  1896;  The  Surprising  Adven- 
tures of  Sir  Toady  Lion  (1897);  The  Red  Axe  (1898);  Kit 
Kennedy  (1899);  Joan  of  the  Sword  Hand  and  Little  Anna  Mark 
in  1900;  Flower  o'  the  Corn  (1002);  Red  Cap  Tales  (1904),  &c. 

CROCKFORD,  WILLIAM  (1775-1844),  proprietor  of  Crock- 
ford's  Club,  was  born  in  London  in  1775,  the  son  of  a  fishmonger, 
and  for  some  time  himself  carried  on  that  business.  After 
winning  a  large  sum  of  money — according  to  one  story  £100,000 
— either  at  cards  or  by  running  a  gambling  establishment,  he 
built,  in  1827,  a  luxurious  gambling  house  at  50  St  James's  • 
Street,  which,  to  ensure  exclusiveness,  he  organized  as  a  club. 
Crockford's  quickly  became  the  rage;  every  English  social 
celebrity  and  every  distinguished  foreigner  visiting  London 
hastened  to  become  a  member.  Even  the  duke  of  Wellington 
joined,  though,  it  is  averred,  only  in  order  to  be  able  to  blackball 
his  son,  Lord  Douro,  should  he  seek  election.  Hazard  was  the 
favourite  game,  and  very  large  sums  changed  hands.  Crockford 


CROCODILE 


retired  in  1840,  when,  in  the  expressive  language  of  Captain  R.  H. 
Gronow,  he  had  "won  the  whole  of  the  ready  money  of  the 
then  existing  generation."  He  took,  indeed,  about  £1,200,000 
out  of  the  club,  but  subsequently  lost  most  of  it  in  unlucky 
speculations.  Crockford  died  on  the  24th  of  May  1844. 

See  John  Timbs,  Club  Life  of  London  (London,  1866) ;  Gronow, 
Celebrities  of  London  and  Paris,  3rd  series  (London,  1865). 

CROCODILE,  a  name  for  certain  reptiles,  taken  from  ancient 
Gr.  Kop5ii\os,  signifying  lizard  and  newt;  with  reduplication 
Kop/copSuXos,  and  by  metathesis  ultimately  /cpc«63etXos.  Hero- 
dotus makes  mention  of  them,  and  tells  us  that  the  Egyptian 
name  was  champsa.  The  Arabic  term  is  ledschun.  The  same 
root  kar  leads  through  something  like  kar-kar-ta,  glakarta 
(glazard  in  Breton),  to  lacerta  and  to  "lizard."  Lacerta  in  turn 
has  become,  in  Spanish,  lagarto,  which,  with  the  article,  el  lagarto, 
is  the  origin  of  the  term  "alligator."  This  word  is,  however, 
artificial,  although  now  widely  used;  Spanish  and  Portuguese- 
speaking  people  in  America  universally  call  the  crocodile  and  the 
alligator  simply  lagarto,  which  is  never  intended  for  lizard. 

The  Crocodilia  form  a  separate  order  of  reptiles  with  many 
peculiarities.  The  premaxillae  are  short  and  always  enclose  the 
nostrils.  The  posterior  nares  or  choanae  open  far  behind  in  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  in  recent  forms  within  the  pterygoids.  The 
under  jaws  are  hinged  on  to  the  quadrate  bones,  which  extend 
obliquely  backwards,  and  are  immovably  wedged  in  between  the 
squamosal  and  the  lateral  occipital  wings.  The  teeth  form  a 
complete  series  in  the  under  jaw,  and  in  the  upper  jaw  on  the 
premaxillary  and  maxillary  bones.  They  are  conical  and  deeply 
implanted  in  separate  sockets.  They  are  often  shed  throughout 
life,  the  successors  lying  on  the  inner  side,  and  with  their  caps 
partly  fitting  into  the  wide  open  roots  of  the  older  teeth.  Especi- 
ally in  alligators  the  upper  teeth  overlap  laterally  those  of  the 
lower  jaw,  whilst  in  most  crocodiles  the  overlapping  is  less 
marked  and  the  teeth  mostly  interlock,  a  feature  which  increases 
with  the  slenderness  of  the  snout.  In  old  specimens  some 
of  the  longer,  lower  teeth  work  their  tips  into  deep  pits,  and 
ultimately  even  perforate  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  upper 
jaw.  The  first  and  second  vertebrae  each  have  a  pair  of  long, 
movable  ribs.  There  is  a  compound  abdominal  sternum.  The 
so-called  pubic  bones  are  large  and  movable.  There  are  five 
fingers  and  four  toes,  provided  with  claws,  excepting  the  outer 
digits. 

The  tongue  is  flat  and  thick,  attached  by  its  whole  under 
surface;  its  hinder  margin  is  raised  into  a  transverse  fold, 
which,  by  meeting  a  similar  fold  from  the  palate,  can  shut  off  the 
mouth  completely  from  the  wide  cavity  of  the  throat.  Dorsally 
the  posterior  nares  open  into  this  cavity.  Consequently  the 
beast  can  lie  submerged  in  the  water,  with  only  the  nostrils 
exposed,  and  with  the  mouth  open,  and  breathe  without  water 
entering  the  windpipe.  Within  the  glottis  is  a  pair  of  membranous 
folds  which  serve  as  vocal  cords;  all  the  Crocodilia  are  possessed 
of  a  loud,  bellowing  voice. 

The  stomach  is  globular,  rather  muscular,  with  a  pair  of 
tendinous  centres  like  those  of  birds;  its  size  is  comparatively 
small,  but  the  digestion  is  so  rapid  and  powerful  that  every 
bone  of  the  creature's  prey  is  dissolved  whilst  still  being  stowed 
away  in  the  wide  and  long  gullet.  The  anal  opening  forms  a 
longitudinal  slit;  within  it,  arising  from  its  anterior  corner, 
is  the  unpaired  copulatory  organ.  The  vascular  system  has 
attained  the  highest  state  of  development  of  all  reptiles.  The 
heart  is  practically  quadrilocular,  the  right  and  left  halves  being 
completely  partitioned,  except  for  a  small  communication,  the 
foramen  Panizzae,  between  the  right  and  left  aortae  where  these 
cross  each  other  on  leaving  their  respective  ventricles.  The  outer 
ear  lies  in  a  recess  which  can  be  closed  tightly  by  a  dorsal  flap  of 
skin.  The  power  of  hearing  is  acute,  and  so  is  the  sight,  the 
eyes  being  protected  by  upper  and  lower  Jids  and  by  a  nictitating 
membrane.  The  skin  of  the  whole  body  is  scaly,  with  a  hard, 
horny,  waterproof  covering  of  the  epidermis,  but  between  these 
mostly  flat  scales  the  skin  is  soft.  The  scutes  or  dermal  portions 
of  the  scales  are  more  or  less  ossified,  especially  on  the  back, 
and  form  the  characteristic  dermal  armour.  The  skins  or 


"  hides  "  of  commerce  consist  entirely  of  the  tanned  cutis  minus, 
the  epidermis  and  the  horny  coverings  of  the  scutes.  All  the 
Crocodilia  possess  two  pairs  of  musk-glands  in  the  skin;  one  is 
situated  on  the  inner  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  opening  of  the 
glands  is  slit-like  and  leads  into  a  pocket,  which  is  filled  with  a 
smeary,  strongly  scented  matter.  The  other  pair  lies  just  within 
the  lips  of  the  cloacal  opening. 

Propagation  takes  place  by  eggs,  which  are  oval,  quite  white, 
with  a  very  hard  and  strong  shell.  Their  size  varies  from  2  to 
4  in.  in  length,  according  to  the  size  of  the  species  and  the  age 
of  the  female.  She  lays  several  dozen  eggs  in  a  carefully  prepared 
nest.  The  Nile  crocodile  makes  a  hole  in  white  sand,  which  is  then 
filled  up  and  smoothed  over;  the  mother  sleeps  upon  the  nest, 
and  keeps  watch  over  her  eggs,  and  when  these  are  near  hatching 
— after  about  twelve  weeks-r-she  removes  the  1 8  in.  or  2  ft.  of 
sand.  Other  species,  especially  the  alligators,  make  a  very  large 
nest  of  leaves,  twigs  and  humus,  scraping  together  a  mound 
about  a  yard  high  and  two  or  more  yards  in  diameter.  The 
eggs,  in  several  layers,  are  laid  near  the  top.  The  adults  fre- 
quently dig  long  subterranean  passages  into  the  banks  of  streams, 
and,  during  dry  seasons,  they  have  been  found  deep  in  the 
hardened  mud,  whence  they  emerge  with  the  beginning  of  the 
rains.  They  spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  water,  but  are  also 
very  fond  of  basking  in  the  hot  sun  on  the  banks  of  rivers  or  in 
marshes,  usually  with  the  head  turned  towards  the  water,  to 
which  they  take  on  the  slightest  alarm.  They  can  walk  perfectly 
well,  and  they  do  so  deliberately  with  the  whole  body  raised  a 
little  above  the  ground.  When  their  pools  dry  up,  or  when  in 
search  of  new  hunting-grounds,  they  sometimes  undertake  long 
wanderings  over  land.  But  the  water  is  their  true  element. 
They  swim  rapidly,  propelled  by  the  powerful  tail  and  by  the 
mostly  webbed  limbs,  or  they  submerge  themselves,  with  only  the 
tip  of  the  nose  and  the  eyes  showing,  or  sometimes  also  the  back. 
They  then  look  like  floating  logs;  and  thus  they  float  or  gently 
approach  their  prey,  which  consists  of  anything  they  can  over- 
power. Many  a  large  mammal  coming  to  drink  at  its  accustomed 
place  is  dragged  into  the  water  by  the  lurking  monster.  Certainly 
there  are  occasional  man-eaters  amongst  them,  and  in  some 
countries  they  are  much  feared.  As  a  rule,  however,  they  are 
so  wary  and  suspicious  that  they  are  very  difficult  to  approach, 
and  their  haunts  are  so  well  stocked  with  fish  and  other  game  that 
they  make  off  and  hide  rather  than  attack  a  man  swimming 
in  their  waters.  But  if  a  dog  is  sent  in  there  will  be  a  sudden  yelp, 
the  splash  from  a  big  tail,  and  a  widening  eddy. 

Crocodile  stories,  not  all  fabulous,  are  plentiful,  and  begin 
with  one  of  the  oldest  writings  in  the  world,  the  book  of  Job. 
"Canst  thou  draw  leviathan  with  a  hook?  or  his  tongue  with 
a  cord  which  thou  lettest  down?  .  .  .  Lay  thine  hand  upon  him, 
remember  the  battle,  do  no  more."  This  is  a  very  interesting 
passage,  since  it  can  apply  only  to  a  large-sized  crocodile.  Now 
nothing  is  known  of  the  occurrence  of  such  in  Arabia,  but  a  few 
specimens  of  rather  small  size  seem  still  to  exist  in  Syria,  in  the 
Wadi  Zerka,  an  eastern  tributary  of  the  Jordan. 

Crocodiles  are  caught  in  various  ways,- — for  instance,  with 
two  pointed  sticks,  which  are  fastened  crosswise  within  the  bait, 
an  animal's  entrails,  to  which  is  attached  a  rope.  When  the 
creature  has  swallowed  the  spiked  bait  it  keeps  its  jaws  so  firmly 
closed  that  it  can  be  dragged  out  of  the  water.  A  kind  of  plover, 
Pluvianus  aegyplius,  often  sits  upon  basking  crocodiles,  and, 
since  the  latter  often  rest  with  gaping  mouth,  it  is  possible  that 
these  agile  birds  do  pick  the  reptiles'  teeth  in  search  of  parasites. 
Being  a  very  watchful  bird,  its  cry  of  warning,  when  it  flies  off 
on  the  approach  of  danger,  is  probably  appreciated  by  the 
crocodile.  But  the  story  of  the  ichneumon  or  mongoose  is  a 
fable.  Although  an  inveterate  destroyer  of  eggs,  this  little 
creature  prefers  those  of  birds  and  the  soft-shelled  eggs  of  lizards 
to  the  very  hard  and  strong-shelled  eggs  which  are  deeply  buried 
in  the  crocodile's  nest. 

Considering  the  interest  which  is  taken  in  crocodiles  and  their 
allies,  on  account  of  their  size,  their  dangerous  nature  and  the  sporting 
trophies  which  they  yield,  the  following  "  key,"  based  upon  easily 
ascertained  characters  of  the  skull,  is  given. 


CROCOITE— CROESUS 


479 


I.  Snout   very   long  and   slender.     The   mandibular  symphysis 
extends  backwards  at  least  to  the  fifteenth  tooth. 

(a)  Nasal  bones  very  small,  and  widely  separated  from  the 

premaxilla  (which  encloses  the  nostrils)  by  the  maxillaries 
which  join  each  other  for  a  long  distance  along  the  dorsal 
mid-line. .  .  .  Gavialis  gangeticus  of  India,  the  "  gharial  " 
or  fish-eater. 

(b)  Nasal  bones  long,  so  as  to  be  in  contact  with  the  premaxilla 

at  the  hinder  corner  of  the  nostril  groove.  .  .  .Tomisloma 
schlegeli  of  Borneo,  Malacca  and  Sumatra. 

II.  Snout  mostly  triangular  or  rounded  off.     The  mandibular 
symphysis  does  not  reach  beyond  the  eighth  tooth. 

(a)  The  fourth  mandibular  tooth  fits  into  a  notch  in  the  upper 

jaw.     Crocodiles. 

1.  Without  a  bony  nasal  septum  between  the  nostrils. 

.  .  .   Crocodiles. 

2.  The  nasal  bones  project  through  the  nasal  groove, 

forming  a  bony  septum.     Osteolaemus  frontatus  s. 
letraspis  of  West  Africa. 

(b)  Fourth  mandibular  tooth  fitting  into  a  pit  in  the  upper  jaw. 

Alligators. 

1.  Without  a  bony'  nasal  septum. .  .  .  Caiman,  Central 

and  South  America. 

2.  Nasal  bones  dividing   the  nasal  groove. .  .  .  Alli- 

gator, America  and  China. 

The  genus  Crocodilus  contains  seven  species.  C.  vulgaris  or 
niloticus  of  most  of  Africa,  is  found  from  the  Senegal  to  Egypt 
and  to  Madagascar,  reaching  a  length  of  15  ft.  It  has  eighteen 
or  nineteen  upper  and  fifteen  lower  teeth  on  each  side.  C. 
palustris,  the  "mugger"  or  "marsh  crocodile"  of  India  and 
Ceylon,  extends  westwards  into  Baluchistan,  eastwards  into  the 
Malay  islands.  It  has  nineteen  upper  and  lower  teeth  on  either 
side.  The  scutes  on  the  neck,  six  in  number,  are  packed  closely 
together,  the  four  biggest  forming  a  square.  The  length  of 
1 2  ft.  is  a  fair  size  for  a  large  specimen.  C.  porosus  or  biporcatus 
is  easily  recognised  by  the  prominent  longitudinal  ridge  which 
extends  in  front  of  each  eye.  Specimens  of  more  than  20  ft. 
in  length  are  not  uncommon,  and  a  monster  of  33  ft.  is  on  record. 
It  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  tidal  waters  and  estuaries, 
and  often  goes  out  to  sea;  hence  its  wide  distribution,  from 
the  whole  coast  of  Bengal  to  southern  China,  to  the  northern 
coasts  of  Australia  and  even  to  the  Fiji  islands.  Australians 
are  in  the  habit  of  calling  their  crocodiles  alligators.  C.  cata- 
/>Arac/HS  is  the  common  crocodile  of  West  Africa,  easily  recognised 
by  the  slender  snout  which  resembles  that  of  the  gavial,  but  the 
mandibular  symphysis  does  not  reach  beyond  the  eighth  tooth. 
C.  johnstoni  of  northern  Australia  and  Queensland  is  allied  to 
the  last  species  mentioned,  with  which  it  agrees  by  the  slender 
snout.  Lastly  there  are  two  species  of  true  crocodiles  in  America, 
C.  inlermedius  of  the  Orinoco,  allied  to  the  former,  and  C. 
americanus  or  aculus  ot  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central  America 
to  Venezuela  and  Ecuador;  its  characteristic  feature  is  a  median 
ridge  or  swelling  on  the  snout,  which  is  rather  slender. 

The  above  list  shows  that  the  usual  statement  that  crocodiles 
inhabit  the  Old  World  and  alligators  the  New  World  is  not 
strictly  true.  In  the  Tertiary  epoch  alligators,  crocodiles  and 
long-snouted  ga vials  existed  in  Europe.  (H.  F.  G.) 

CROCOITE,  a  mineral  consisting  of  lead  chromate,  PbCrO*, 
and  crystallizing  in  the  monoclinic  system.  It  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  paint,  being  identical  in  composition  with  the  artificial 
product  chrome-yellow;  it  is  the  only  chromate  of  any  import- 
ance found  in  nature.  It  was  discovered  at  Berezovsk  near 
Ekaterinburg  in  the  Urals  in  1766;  and  named  crocoise  by 
F.  S.  Beudantin  1832,  from  the  Greek  /c/xkoj,  saffron,  in  allusion 
to  its  colour,  a  name  first  altered  to  crocoisite  and  afterwards 
to  crocoite.  It  is  found  as  well-developed  crystals  of  a  bright 
hyacinth-red  colour,  which  are  translucent  and  have  an  ada- 
mantine to  vitreous  lustre.  On  exposure  to  light  much  of  the 
translucency  and  brilliancy  is  lost.  The  streak  is  orange- yellow; 
hardness  2^-3;  specific  gravity  6-0.  In  the  Urals  the  crystals 
are  found  in  quartz-veins  traversing  granite  or  gneiss:  other 
localities  which  have  yielded  good  crystallized  specimens  are 
Congonhas  do  Campo  near  Ouro  Preto  in  Brazil,  Luzon  in  the 
Philippines,  and  Umtali  in  Mashonaland.  Gold  is  often  found 
associated  with  this  mineral.  Crystals  far  surpassing  in  beauty 
any  previously  known  have  been  found  in  the  Adelaide  Mine  at 


Dundas,  Tasmania;  they  are  long  slender  prisms,  3  or  4  in.  in 
length,  with  a  brilliant  lustre  and  colour. 

Associated  with  crocoite  at  Berezovsk  are  the  closely  allied 
minerals  phoenicochroite  and  vauquelinite.  The  former  is  a 
basic  lead  chromate,  Pb3Cr2O»,  and  the  latter  a  lead  and 
copper  phosphate-chromate,  2(Pb,Cu)CrO4.  (Pb,Cu)j(PO4)2. 
Vauquelinite  forms  brown  or  green  monoclinic  crystals,  and 
was  named  after  L.  N.  Vauquelin,  who  in  1797  discovered 
(simultaneously  with  and  independently  of  M.  H.  Klaproth) 
the  element  chromium  in  crocoite.  (L.  J.  S.) 

CROCUS,  a  botanical  genus  of  the  natural  order  Iridaceae, 
containing  about  70  species,  natives  of  Europe,  North  Africa, 
and  temperate  Asia,  and  especially  developed  in  the  dry  country 
of  south-eastern  Europe  and  western  and  central  Asia.  The 
plants  are  admirably  adapted  for  climates  in  which  a  season 
favourable  to  growth  alternates  with  a  hot  or  dry  season; 
during  the  latter  they  remain  dormant  beneath  the  ground  in 
the  form  of  a  short  thickened  stem  protected  by  the  scaly  remains 
of  the  bases  of  last  season's  leaves  (known  botanically  as  a 
"corm").  At  the  beginning  of  the  new  season  of  growth,  new 
flower-  and  leaf-bearing  shoots  are  developed  from  the  corm  at 
the  expense  of  the  food-stuff  stored  within  it.  New  corms  are 
produced  at  the  end  of  the  season,  and  by  these  the  plant  is 
multiplied. 

These  crocuses  of  the  flower  garden  are  mostly  horticultural 
varieties  of  C.  vernus,  C.  versicolor  and  C.aureus  (Dutch  crocus), 
the  two  former  yielding  the  white,  purple  and  striped,  and  the 
latter  the  yellow  varieties.  The  crocus  succeeds  in  any  fairly 
good  garden  soil,  and  is  usually  planted  near  the  edges  of  beds 
or  borders  in  the  flower  garden,  of  in  broadish  patches  at  intervals 
along  the  mixed  borders.  The  corms  should  be  planted  3  in. 
below  the  surface,  and  as  they  become  crowded  they  should  be 
taken  up  and  replanted  with  a  refreshment  of  the  soil,  at  least 
every  five  or  six  years.  Crocuses  have  also  a  pleasing  effect 
when  dotted  about  on  the  lawns  and  grassy  banks  of  the  pleasure 
ground. 

Some  of  the  best  of  the  varieties  are: — Purple:  David  Rizzio, 
Sir  J.  Franklin,  purpureus  grandiflorus.  Striped:  Albion,  La 
Majestueuse,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Cloth  of  Silver,  Mme  Mina. 
White:  Caroline  Chisholm,  Mont  Blanc.  Yellow:  Large  Dutch. 

The  species  of  crocus  are  not  very  readily  obtainable,  but 
those  who  make  a  specialty  of  hardy  bulbs  ought  certainly  to 
search  them  out  and  grow  them.  They  require  the  same  culture 
as  the  more  familiar  garden  varieties;  but,  as  some  of  them  are 
apt  to  suffer  from  excess  of  moisture,  it  is  advisable  to  plant  them 
in  prepared  soil  in  a  raised  pit,  where  they  are  brought  nearer 
to  the  eye,  and  where  they  can  be  sheltered  when  necessary  by 
glazed  sashes,  which,  however,  should  not  be  closed  except 
when  the  plants  are  at  rest,  or  during  inclement  weather  in  order 
to  protect  the  blossoms,  especially  in  the  case  of  winter  flowering 
species.  The  autumn  blooming  kinds  include  many  plants  of 
very  great  beauty.  The  following  species  are  recommended: — 

Spring  flowering: — Yellow:  C.  aureus,  aureus  var.  sulphureus, 
chrysanthus,  Olivieri,  Korolkowi,  Balansae,  ancyrensis,  Susianus, 
stellaris.  Lilac:  C.  Imperati,  Sieberi,  etruscus,  vernus,  Toma- 
sinianus,  banaticus.  White:  C.  biflorus  and  vars.,  candidus, 
vernus  vars.  Striped:  C.  versicolor,  reticulatus. 

Autumn  flowering: — Yellow:  C.  Scharojani.  Lilac:  C. 
asturicus,  cancellatus  var.,  cilicicus,  byzantinus  (iridiflorus) , 
longiflorus,  medius,  nudiflorus,  pulchellus,  Salzmanni,  sativus 
vars.  speciosus,  zonatus.  White:  caspius,  cancellatus,  hadriaticus, 
marathonisius. 

Winter  flowering: — C.  hyemaeis,  laevigatus,  vitellinus. 

CROESUS,  last  king  of  Lydia,  of  the  Mermnad  dynasty, 
(560-346  B.C.),  succeeded  his  father  Alyattes  after  a  war  with  his 
half-brother.  He  completed  the  conquest  of  Ionia  by  capturing 
Ephesus,  Miletus  and  other  places,  and  extended  the  Lydian 
empire  as  far  as  the  Halys.  His  wealth,  due  to  trade,  was 
proverbial,  and  he  used  part  of  it  in  securing  alliances  with  the 
Greek  states  whose  fleets  might  supplement  his  own  army. 
Various  legends  were  told  about  him  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the 
most  famous  being  that  of  Solon's  visit  to  him  with  the  lesson 


480 


CROFT,  SIR  H.— CROFT,  W. 


it  conveyed  of  the  divine  nemesis  which  waits  upon  overmuch 
prosperity  (Hdt.  i.  29  seq.;  but  see  SOLON).  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Median  empire  (549  B.C.)  Croesus  found  himself 
confronted  by  the  rising  power  of  Cyrus,  and  along  with 
Nabonidos  of  Babylon  took  measures  to  resist  it.  A  coalition 
was  formed  between  the  Lydian  and  Babylonian  kings,  Egypt 
promised  troops  and  Sparta  its  fleet.  But  the  coalition  was 
defeated  by  the  rapid  movements  of  Cyrus  and  the  treachery  of 
Eurybatus  of  Ephesus,  who  fled  to  Persia  with  the  gold  that  had 
been  entrusted  to  him,  and  betrayed  the  plans  of  the  con- 
federates. Fortified  with  the  Delphic  oracles  Croesus  marched 
to  the  frontier  of  his  empire,  but  after  some  initial  successes 
fortune  turned  against  him  and  he  was  forced  to  retreat  to 
Sardis.  Here  he  was  followed  by  Cyrus  who  took  the  city  by 
storm.  We  may  gather  from  the  recently  discovered  poem  of 
Bacchylides  (iii.  23-62)  that  he  hoped  to  escape  his  conqueror 
by  burning  himself  with  his  wealth  on  a  funeral  pyre,  like 
Saracus,  the  last  king  of  Assyria,  but  that  he  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Cyrus  before  he  could  effect  his  purpose.1  A  different  version 
of  the  story  is  given  (from  Lydian  sources)  by  Herodotus  (followed 
by  Xenophon),  who  makes  Cyrus  condemn  his  prisoner  to  be 
burnt  alive,  a  mode  of  death  hardly  consistent  with  the  Persian 
reverence  for  fire.  Apollo,  however,  came  to  the  rescue  of  his 
pious  worshipper,  and  the  name  of  Solon  uttered  by  Croesus 
resulted  in  his  deliverance.  According  to  Ctesias,  who  uses 
Persian  sources,  and  says  nothing  of  the  attempt  to  burn  Croesus, 
he  subsequently  became  attached  to  the  court  of  Cyrus  and 
received  the  governorship  of  Barene  in  Media.  Fragments  of 
columns  from  the  temple  of  Artemis  now  in  the  British  Museum 
have  upon  them  a  dedication  by  Croesus  in  Greek. 

See  R.  Schubert,  De  Croeso  et  Solone  fabula  (1868);  M.  G.  Radet, 
La  Lydie  et  le  monde  grec  au  temps  des  Mermnades  (1892-1893); 
A.  S.  Murray,  Journ.  Hell.  Studies,  x.  pp.  l-io  (1889) ;  for  the 
supposition  that  Croesus  did  actually  perish  on  his  own  pyre  see 
G.  B.  Grundy,  Great  Persian  War,  p.  28;  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece 
(ed.  1907),  p.  104.  Cf.  CYRUS;  LYDIA. 

CROFT,  SIR  HERBERT,  Bart.  (1751-1816),  English  author, 
was  born  at  Dunster  Park,  Berkshire,  on  the  ist  of  November 
1751,  son  of  Herbert  Croft  (see  below)  of  Stifford,  Essex.  He 
matriculated  at  University  College,  Oxford,  in  March  1771, 
and  was  subsequently  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar,  but  in  1782  returned  to  Oxford  with  a  view  to  prepar- 
ing for  holy  orders.  In  1786  he  received  the  vicarage  of  Prittle- 
well,  Essex,  but  he  remained  at  Oxford  for  some  years 
accumulating  materials  for  a  proposed  English  dictionary. 
He  was  twice  married,  and  on  the  day  after  his  second  wedding 
day  he  was  imprisoned  at  Exeter  for  debt.  He  then  retired  to 
Hamburg,  and  two  years  later  his  library  was  sold.  He  had 
succeeded  in  1797  to  the  title,  but  not  to  the  estates,  of  a  distant 
cousin,  Sir  John  Croft,  the  fourth  baronet.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1800,  but  went  abroad  once  more  in  1802.  He  lived 
near  Amiens  at  a  house  owned  by  Lady  Mary  Hamilton,  said 
to  have  been  a  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Leven  and  Melville.  Later 
he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  died  on  the  26th  of  April  1816. 
In  some  of  his  numerous  literary  enterprises  he  had  the  help  of 
Charles  Nodier.  Croft  wrote  the  Life  of  Edward  Young  inserted 
in  Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets.  In  1780  he  published  Love 
and  Madness,  a  Story  too  true,  in  a  series  of  letters  between  Parties 
whose  names  could  perhaps  be  mentioned  were  they  less  known  or 
less  lamented.  This  book,  which  passed  through  seven  editions, 
narrates  the  passion  of  a  clergyman  named  James  Hackman  for 
Martha  Ray,  mistress  of  the  earl  of  Sandwich,  who  was  shot  by 
her  lover  as  she  was  leaving  Covent  Garden  in  1779  (see  the 
Case  and  Memoirs  of  the  late  Rev.  Mr  James  Hackman,  1779). 
Love  and  Madness  has  permanent  interest  because  Croft  inserted, 
among  other  miscellaneous  matter,  information  about  Thomas 
Chatterton  gained  from  letters  which  he  obtained  from  the  poet's 
sister,  Mrs  Newton,  under  false  pretences,  and  used  without 
payment.  Robert  Southey,  when  about  to  publish  an  edition 
of  Chatterton's  works  for  the  benefit  of  his  family,  published 
(November  1799)  details  of  Croft's  proceedings  in  the  Monthly 

1  This  is  probably  a  Greek  legend  (cf.  the  Attic  vase  of  about 
500  B.C.  in  Journ.  of  Hell.  Stud.,  1898,  p.  268). 


Review.  To  this  attack  Croft  wrote  a  reply  addressed  to  John 
Nichols  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  and  afterwards  printed 
separately  as  Chatter  ton  and  Love  and  Madness  .  .  .  (1800). 
This  tract  evades  the  main  accusation,  and  contains  much  abuse 
of  Southey.  Croft,  however,  supplied  the  material  for  the 
exhaustive  account  of  Chatterton  in  A.  Kippis's  Biographia 
Britannica  (vol.  iv.,  1789).  In  1788  he  addressed  a  letter  to 
William  Pitt  on  the  subject  of  a  new  dictionary.  He  criticized 
Samuel  Johnson's  efforts,  and  in  1 7  90  he  claimed  to  have  collected 
11,000  words  used  by  excellent  authorities  but  omitted  by 
Johnson.  Two  years  later  he  issued  proposals  for  a  revised 
edition  of  Johnson's  Dictionary,  but  subscribers  were  lacking  and 
his  200  vols.  of  MS.  remained  unused.  Croft  was  a  good  scholar 
and  linguist,  and  the  author  of  some  curious  books  in  French. 

The  Love  Letters  of  Mr  H.  and  Miss  R.  1775-1779  were  edited 
from  Croft's  book  by  Mr  Gilbert  Burgess  (1895).  See  also  John 
Nichols's  Illustrations  .  .  .  (1828),  v.  202-218. 

CROFT,  SIR  JAMES  (d.  1590),  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  belonged 
to  an  old  family  of  Herefordshire,  which  county  he  represented 
in  parliament  in  1541.  He  was  made  governor  of  Haddington 
in  1549,  and  became  lord  deputy  of  Ireland  in  1551.  There  he 
effected  little  beyond  gaining  for  himself  the  reputation  of  a 
conciliatory  disposition.  Croft  was  all  his  life  a  double-dealer. 
He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for  treason  in  the  reign  of  Mary, 
but  was  released  and  treated  with  consideration  by  Elizabeth 
after  her  accession.  He  was  made  governor  of  Berwick,  where 
he  was  visited  by  John  Knox  in  1559,  and  where  he  busied 
himself  actively  on  behalf  of  the  Scottish  Protestants,  though 
in  1560  he  was  suspected,  probably  with  good  reason,  of  treason- 
able correspondence  with  Mary  of  Guise,  the  Catholic  regent  of 
Scotland;  and  for  ten  years  he  was  out  of  public  employment. 
But  in  1570  Elizabeth,  who  showed  the  greatest  forbearance 
and  favour  to  Sir  James  Croft,  made  him  a  privy  councillor 
and  controller  of  her  household.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  the  trial  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  and  in  1588  was 
sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  arrange  peace  with  the  duke 
of  Parma.  Croft  established  private  relations  with  Parma,  for 
which  on  his  return  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower.  He  was  released 
before  the  end  of  1589,  and  died  on  the  4th  of  September  1590. 

Croft's  eldest  son,  Edward,  was  put  on  his  trial  in  1389  on 
the  curious  charge  of  having  contrived  the  death  of  the  earl 
of  Leicester  by  witchcraft,  in  revenge  for  the  earl's  supposed 
hostility  to  Sir  James  Croft.  Edward  Croft  was  father  of  Sir 
Herbert  Croft  (d.  1622),  who  became  a  Roman  Catholic  and 
wrote  several  controversial  pieces  in  defence  of  that  faith.  His 
son  Herbert  Croft  (1603-1691),  bishop  of  Hereford,  after  being 
for  some  time,  like  his  father,  a  member  of  the  Roman  church, 
returned  to  the  church  of  England  about  1630,  and  about  ten 
years  later  was  chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  and  obtained  within  a 
few  years  a  prebend's  stall  at  Worcester,  a  canonry  of  Windsor, 
and  the  deanery  of  Hereford,  all  of  which  preferments  he  lost 
during  the  Civil  War  and  Commonwealth.  By  Charles  II.  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Hereford  in  1661.  Bishop  Croft  was  the 
author  of  many  books  and  pamphlets,  several  of  them  against 
the  Roman  Catholics;  and  one  of  his  works,  entitled  The  Naked 
Truth,  or  the  True  State  of  the  Primitive  Church  (London,  1675), 
was  very  celebrated  in  its  day,  and  gave  rise  to  prolonged 
controversy.  The  bishop  died  in  1691.  His  son  Herbert  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1671,  and  was  the  ancestor  of  Sir  Herbert 
Croft  (q.v.),  the  i8th  century  writer. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See  Richard  Bagwell,  Ireland  under  the  Tudors, 
vol.  i.  (3  vols.,  London,  1885) ;  David  Lloyd,  State  Worthies  from 
the  Reformation  to  the  Revolution  (2  vols.,  London,  1766) ;  John  Strype, 
Annals  of  the  Reformation  (Oxford,  1824),  which  contains  an  account 
of  the  trial  of  Edward  Croft;  S.  L.  Lee's  art.  "  Croft,  Sir  James,"  in 
Diet,  of  National  Biography,  voj.  xiii.;  and  for  Bishop  Croft  see 
Anthony  a  Wood,  Athenae  Oxonienses  (ed.  Bliss,  1813-1820);  John 
Le  Neve,  Fasti  Ecclesiae  Anglicanae  (ed.  by  T.  D.  Hardy,  Oxford, 
1854). 

CROFT  (or  CROFTS),  WILLIAM  (1678-1727),  English  composer, 
was  born  in  1678,  at  Nether  Ettington  in  Warwickshire.  He 
received  his  musical  education  in  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr  Blow. 
He  early  obtained  the  place  of  organist  of  St  Anne's,  Soho,  and 
in  1700  was  admitted  a  gentleman  extraordinary  of  the  Chapel 


CROFTER— CROKER,  R. 


481 


Royal.  In  1707  he  was  appointed  joint-organist  with  Blow; 
and  upon  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1708  he  became  solo  organist, 
and  also  master  of  the  children  and  composer  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  besides  being  made  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
In  1712  he  wrote  a  brief  introduction  on  the  history  of  English 
church  music  to  a  collection  of  the  words  of  anthems  which  he 
had  edited  under  the  title  of  Divine  Harmony.  In  1713  he 
obtained  his  degree  of  doctor  of  music  in  the  university  of  Oxford. 
In  1724  he  published  an  edition  of  his  choral  music  in  2  vols. 
folio,  under  the  name  of  Musica  Sacra,  or  Select  Anthems  in 
score,  for  two,  three,  Jour,  five,  six,  seven  and  eight  voices,  to  which 
is  added  the  Burial  Service,  as  it  is  occasionally  performed  in 
Westminster  A  bbey.  This  handsome  work  included  a  portrait  of 
the  composer  and  was  the  first  of  the  kind  executed  on  pewter 
plates  and  in  score.  John  Page,  in  his  Harmonia  Sacra,  published 
in  1800  in  3  vols.  folio,  gives  seven  of  Croft's  anthems.  Of 
instrumental  music,  Croft  published  six  sets  of  airs  for  two  violins 
and  a  bass,  six  sonatas  for  two  flutes,  six  solos  for  a  flute  and  bass. 
He  died  at  Bath  on  the  I4th  of  August  1727,  and  was  buried  in 
the  north  aisle  of  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  by  his  friend  and  admirer  Humphrey 
Wyrley  Birch.  Burney  in  his  History  of  Music  devotes  several 
pages  of  his  third  volume  (pp.  603-612)  to  Dr  Croft's  life,  and 
criticisms  of  some  of  his  anthems.  During  the  earlier  period  of 
his  life  Croft  wrote  much  for  the  theatre,  including  overtures 
and  incidental  music  for  Courtship  a  la  mode  (170x3),  The  Funeral 
(1702)  and  The  Lying  Lover  (1703). 

CROFTER,  a  term  used,  more  particularly  in  the  Highlands 
and  islands  of  Scotland,  to  designate  a  tenant  who  rents  and 
cultivates  a  small  holding  of  land  or  "  croft."  This  Old  English 
word,  meaning  originally  an  enclosed  field,  seems  to  correspond 
to  the  Dutch  kroft,  a  field  on  high  ground  or  downs.  The  ultimate 
origin  is  unknown.  By  the  Crofters'  Holdings  (Scotland)  Act  1886, 
a  crofter  is  defined  as  the  tenant  of  a  holding  who  resides  on 
his  holding,the  annual  rent  of  which  does  not  exceed  £30  in  money, 
and  which  is  situated  in  a  crofting  parish.  The  wholesale  clear- 
ances of  tenants  from  their  crofts  during  the  ipth  century, 
in  violation  of,  as  the  tenants  claimed,  an  implied  security  of 
tenure,  has  led  in  the  past  to  much  agitation  on  the  part  of  the 
crofters  to  secure  consideration  of  their  grievances.  They  have 
been  the  subject  of  royal  commissions  and  of  considerable  legisla- 
tion, but  the  effect  of  the  Crofters  Act  of  1886,  with  subsequent 
amending  acts,  has  been  to  improve  their  condition  markedly, 
and  much  of  the  agitation  has  now  died  out.  A  history  of  the 
legislation  dealing  with  the  crofters  is  given  in  the  article 
SCOTLAND. 

CROKER,  JOHN  WILSON  (1780-1857),  British  statesman  and 
author,  was  born  at  Galway  on  the  2oth  of  December  1780, 
being  the  only  son  of  John  Croker,the  surveyor-general  of  customs 
and  excise  in  Ireland.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  graduated  in  1800.  Immediately  afterwards 
he  was  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  1802  he  was  called  to  the 
Irish  bar.  His  interest  in  the  French  Revolution  led  him  to 
collect  a  large  number  of  valuable  documents  on  the  subject, 
which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  In  1804  he  published 
anonymously  Familiar  Epistles  to  J.  F.  Jones,  Esquire,  on  the 
State  of  the  Irish  Stage,  a  series  of  caustic  criticisms  in  verse  on 
the  management  of  the  Dublin  theatres.  The  book  ran  through 
five  editions  in  one  year.  Equally  successful  was  the  Intercepted 
Letter  from  Canton  (1805),  also  anonymous,  a  satire  on  Dublin 
society.  In  1807  he  published  a  pamphlet  on  The  State  of 
Ireland,  Past  and  Present,  in  which  he  advocated  Catholic 
emancipation. 

In  the  following  year  he  entered  parliament  as  member  for 
Downpatrick,  obtaining  the  seat  on  petition,  though  he  had 
been  unsuccessful  at  the  poll.  The  acumen  displayed  in  his 
Irish  pamphlet  led  Spencer  Perceval  to  recommend  him  in  1808 
to  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  who  had  just  been  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  British  forces  in  the  Peninsula,  as  his  deputy 
in  the  office  of  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  This  connexion  led 
to  a  friendship  which  remained  unbroken  till  Wellington's  death. 
The  notorious  case  of  the  duke  of  York  in  connexion  with  his 

vn.  16 


abuse  of  military  patronage  furnished  him  with  an  opportunity 
for  distinguishing  himself.  The  speech  which  he  delivered  on 
the  i4th  of  March  1809,  in  answer  to  the  charges  of  Colonel 
Wardle,  was  regarded  as  the  most  able  and  ingenious  defence 
of  the  duke  that  was  made  in  the  debate;  and  Croker  was 
appointed  to  the  office  of  secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  which  he 
held  without  interruption  under  various  administrations  for 
more  than  twenty  years.  He  proved  an  excellent  public  servant, 
and  made  many  improvements  which  have  been  of  permanent 
value  in  the  organization  of  his  office.  Among  the  first  acts  of 
his  official  career  was  the  exposure  of  a  fellow-official  who  had 
misappropriated  the  public  funds  to  the  extent  of  £200,000. 

In  1827  he  became  the  representative  of  the  university  of 
Dublin,  having  previously  sat  successively  for  the  boroughs  of 
Athlone,  Yarmouth  (Isle  of  Wight),  Bodmin  and  Aldeburgh. 
He  was  a  determined  opponent  of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  vowed 
that  he  would  never  sit  in  a  reformed  parliament;  his  parlia- 
mentary career  accordingly  terminated  in  1832.  Two  years 
earlier  he  had  retired  from  his  post  at  the  admiralty  on  a  pension 
of  £1500  a  year.  Many  of  his  political  speeches  were  published 
in  pamphlet  form,  and  they  show  him  to  have  been  a  vigorous 
and  effective,  though  somewhat  unscrupulous  and  often  viru- 
lently personal,  party  debater.  Croker  had  been  an  ardent 
supporter  of  Peel,  but  finally  broke  with  him  when  he  began  to 
advocate  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  use  (Jan.  1830)  the  term  "  conservatives."  He  was 
for  many  years  one  of  the  leading  contributors  on  literary  and 
historical  subjects  to  the  Quarterly  Review,  with  which  he  had 
been  associated  from  its  foundation.  The  rancorous  spirit  in 
which  many  of  his  articles  were  written  did  much  to  embitter 
party  feeling.  It  also  reacted  unfavourably  on  Croker's  reputa- 
tion as  a  worker  in  the  department  of  pure  literature  by  bringing 
political  animosities  into  literary  criticism.  He  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  younger  school  of  poets  who  were  in  revolt  against  the 
artificial  methods  of  the  i8th  century,  and  he  was  responsible 
for  the  famous  Quarterly  article  on  Keats.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
unjust  to  judge  Croker  by  the  criticisms  which  Macaulay  brought 
against  his  magnum  opus,  his  edition  of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson 
(1831).  With  all  its  defects  the  work  had  merits  which  Macaulay 
was  of  course  not  concerned  to  point  out,  and  Croker's  researches 
have  been  of  the  greatest  value  to  subsequent  editors.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  Macaulay  had  personal  reasons  for  his  attack 
on  Croker,  who  had  more  than  once  exposed  in  the  House  the 
fallacies  that  lay  hidden  under  the  orator's  brilliant  rhetoric. 
Croker  made  no  immediate  reply  to  Macaulay's  attack,  but  when 
the  first  two  volumes  of  the  History  appeared  he  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  pointing  out  the  inaccuracies  that  abounded  in  the 
work.  Croker  was  occupied 'for  several  years  on  an  annotated 
edition  of  Pope's  works.  It  was  left  unfinished  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  but  it  was  afterwa'rds  completed  by  the  Rev.  Whitwell 
Elwin  and  Mr  W.  J.  C<jurthope.  He  died  at  St  Albans  Bank, 
Hampton,  on  the  loth  oT  August  1857. 

Croker  was  generally  supposed  to  be  the  original  from  which 
Disraeli  drew  the  character  of  "  Rigby  "  in  Coningsby,  because 
he  had  for  many  years  had  the  sole  management  of  the  estates  of 
the  marquess  of  Hertford,  the  "  Lord  Monmouth  "  of  the  story; 
but  the  comparison  is  a  great  injustice  to  the  sterling  worth  of 
Croker's  character. 

The  chief  works  of  Croker  not  already  mentioned  were  his  Stories 
for  Children  from  the  History  of  England  (1817),  which  provided  the 
model  for  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Grandfather;  Letters  on  the  Naval  War 
with  America;  A  Reply  to  the  Letters  of  Malachi  Malagrowther  (1826) ; 
Military  Events  of  the  French  Revolution  of  i8jo  (1831);  a  translation 
of  Bassompierre  s  Embassy  to  England  (1819);  and  several  lyrical 
pieces  of  some  merit,  such  as  the  Songs  of  Trafalgar  (1806)  and  The 
Battles  of  Talavera  (1809).  He  also  edited  the  Suffolk  Papers  (1823), 
Hervey's  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  George  II.  (1817),  the  Letters  of  Mary 
Lepel,  LadyHeruey  (1821-1822),  and  Walpole' s  Letters  to  Lord  Hertford 
(1824).  His  memoirs,  diaries  and  correspondence  were  edited  by 
Louis  J.Jennings  in  1884  under  the  title  of  The  Croker  Papers  (3  vols.). 

CROKER,  RICHARD  (1843-  ),  American  politician,  was 
born  at  Blackrock,  Ireland,  on  the  24th  of  November  1843. 
He  was  taken  to  the  United  States  by  his  parents  when  two 
years  old,  and  was  educated  in  the  Dublic  schools  of  New  York 


482 


CROKER,  T.  C.— CROMAGNON  RACE 


City,  where  he  eventually  became  a  member  of  Tammany  Hall 
and  active  in  its  politics.  He  was  an  alderman  from  1868  to  1870, 
a  coroner  from  1873  to  1876,  a  fire  commissioner  in  1883  and 
1887,  and  city  chamberlain  from  1889  to  1890.  After  the  fall 
of  John  Kelly  he  became  the  leader  of  Tammany  Hall  (q.v.), 
and  for  some  time  almost  completely  controlled  the  organization. 
His  greatest  political  success  was  his  bringing  about  the  election 
of  Robert  A.  van  Wyck  as  first  mayor  of  greater  New  York  in 
1897,  and  during  van  Wyck's  administration  Croker  is  popularly 
supposed  to  have  dominated  completely  the  government  of  the 
city.  After  Croker's  failure  to  "  carry  "  the  city  in  the  pre- 
sidential election  of  1900  and  the  defeat  of  his  mayoralty 
candidate,  Edward  M.  Shepard,  in  1901,  he  Designed  from  his 
position  of  leadership  in  Tammany,  and  retired  to  a  country  life 
in  England  and  Ireland.  In  1907  he  won  the  Derby  with  his 
race-horse  Orby. 

CROKER,  THOMAS  CROFTON  (1798-1854),  Irish  antiquary 
and  humorist,  was  born  in  Cork  on  the  I5th  of  January  1798. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  merchant,  but  in  1819,  through  the 
interest  of  John  Wilson  Croker,  who  was,  however,  no  relation 
of  his,  he  became  a  clerk  in  the  Admiralty.  Moore  was  indebted 
to  him  in  the  production  of  his  Irish  Melodies  for  "  many  curious 
fragments  of  ancient  poetry."  In  1825  he  produced  his  most 
popular  book,  the  Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions  of  the  South 
of  Ireland,  which  he  followed  up  by  the  publication  of  his  Legends 
of  the  Lakes  (1829),  his  Adventures  of  Barney  Mahoney  (1852), 
and  an  edition  of  the  Popular  Songs  of  Ireland  (1839).  In  1827 
he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Irish  Academy;  in  1839  and  1840 
he  helped  to  found  the  Camden  and  Percy  Societies,  and  in  1843 
the  British  Archaeological  Association.  He  wrote  Narratives 
Illustrative  of  the  Contests  in  Ireland  in  164.1  and  1688  (1841),  for 
the  Camden  Society,  Historical  Songs  of  Ireland,  &c.  ( 1 84 1 ) ,  for  the 
Percy  Society,  and  several  other  works.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Hakluyt  and  the  Antiquarian  Society.  He  died  in  London 
on  the  8th  of  August  1854. 

CROLL,  JAMES  (1821-1890),  Scottish  man  of  science,  was 
born  of  a  peasant  family  at  Little  Whitcfield,  in  the  parish  of 
Cargill,  in  Perthshire,  on  the  2nd  of  January  1821.  He  was 
regarded  as  an  unpromising  boy,  but  a  trifling  circumstance 
aroused  a  passion  for  reading,  and  he  made  great  progress  in 
self-education.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  wheelwright  at  Collace 
in  Perthshire,  but  being  debarred  by  ill-health  from  manual 
labour,  he  became  successively  a  shop-keeper  and  an  insurance 
agent.  In  1859  he  was  made  keeper  of  the  Andersonian  Museum 
in  Glasgow,  a  humble  appointment,  which,  however,  gave  him 
congenial  occupation.  In  1857,  being  deeply  impressed  by  the 
metaphysics  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  he  had  published  an  anony- 
mous volume  entitled  The  Philosophy  of  Theism;  but  his 
connexion  with  the  Museum  induced  him  to  take  up  physical 
science,  and  from  1861  onwards  he  studied  with  such  perseverance 
that  he  was  enabled  to  contribute  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Magazine  and  other  journals.  For  that  magazine  in  1864  he 
wrote  his  celebrated  essay  "  On  the  Physical  Cause  of  the 
Changes  of  Climate  during  Geological  Epochs."  This  led  to 
his  receiving  an  appointment  on  the  Scottish  Geological  Survey 
in  1867,  and  for  thirteen  years  he  took  charge  of  the  Edinburgh 
Office.  In  1875  he  summed  up  his  researches  upon  the  ancient 
condition  of  the  earth  in  his  Climate  and  Time,  in  their  Geological 
Relations,  in  which  he  contends  that  terrestrial  revolutions  are 
due  in  a  measure  to  cosmical  causes.  This  theory  excited  warm 
controversy.  CrolPs  replies  to  his  opponents  are  collected  in  his 
Climate  and  Cosmology  (1885).  He  had  been  compelled  by 
ill-health  to  withdraw  from  the  public  service  in  1880;  yet, 
working  under  the  greatest  difficulties,  and  harassed  by  the 
inadequacy  of  his  retiring  pension,  he  managed  to  produce 
Stellar  Evolution,  discussing,  among  other  things,  the  age  of  the 
sun,  in  1889;  and  The  Philosophical  Basis  of  Evolution,  partly 
a  critique  of  Herbert  Spencer's  philosophy,  in  1890.  He  died 
on  the  isth  of  December  1890.  The  soundness  of  Croll's  astro- 
nomical theory  regarding  the  glacial  period  has  since  been 
criticized  by  E.  P.  Culverwell  in  the  Geological  Magazine  for 
1895,  and  by  others;  and  it  is  now  generally  abandoned.  Never- 


theless it  must  be  admitted  that  his  character  as  a  scientific 
worker  under  great  discouragements  was  nothing  less  than 
heroic.  The  hon.  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  in  1876 
by  the  university  of  St  Andrews;  and  he  was  elected  F.R.S. 
in  the  same  year. 

An  A  utobiographical  Sketch  of  James  Croll,  with  Memoir  of  his  Life 
and  Work,  was  prepared  by  J.  C.  Irons,  and  published  in  1896. 

CROLY,  GEORGE  (1780-1860),  British  divine  and  auihor, 
son  of  a  Dublin  physician,  was  born  on  the  I7th  of  August  1780. 
He  was  educated'  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  after  ordination 
was  appointed  to  a  small  curacy  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  About 
1810  he  came  to  London,  and  occupied  himself  with  literary' 
work.  A  man  of  restless  energy,  he  claims  attention  by  his 
extraordinary  versatility.  He  wrote  dramatic  criticisms  for 
a  short-lived  periodical  called  the  New  Times  ;  he  was  one  of 
the  earliest  contributors  to  Black-wood's  Magazine;  and  to  the 
Literary  Gazette  he  contributed  poems,  reviews  and  essays  on 
all  kinds  of  subjects.  In  1819  he  married  Margaret  Helen 
Begbie.  Efforts  to  secure  an  English  living  for  Croly  were 
frustrated,  according  to  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  (Jan.  1861), 
because  Lord  Eldon  confounded  him  with  a  Roman  Catholic 
of  the  same  name.  Excluding  his  contributions  to  the  daily 
and  weekly  press  his  chief  works  were:—  Paris  in  1815  (1817), 
a  poem  in  imitation  of  Childe  Harold;  Catiline  (1822),  a 
tragedy  lacking  in  dramatic  force;  Salathiel:  A  Story  of  the 
Past,  the  Present  and  the  Future  (1829),  a  successful  romance 
of  the  "  Wandering  Jew  "  type;  The  Life  and  Times  of  his  late 
Majesty  George  the  Fourth  (1830);  Marston;  or,  The  Soldier  and 
Statesman  (1846),  a  novel  of  modern  life;  The  Modern  Orlando 
(1846),  a  satire  which  owes  something  to  Don  Juan;  and  some 
biographies,  sermons  and  theological  works. 

Croly  was  an  effective  preacher,  and  continued  to  hope  for 
preferment  from  the  Tory  leaders,  to  whom  he  had  rendered 
considerable  services  by  his  pen;  but  he  eventually  received, 
in  1835,  the  living  of  St  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  London,  from  a 
Whig  patron,  Lord  Brougham,  with  whose  family  he  was 
connected.  In  1847  he  was  made  afternoon  lecturer  at  the 
Foundling  hospital,  but  this  appointment  proved  unfortunate. 
He  died  suddenly  on  the  24th  of  November  1860,  in  London. 

His  Poetical  Works  (2  vols.)  were  collected  in  1830.  For  a  list  of 
his  works  see  Allibone's  Critical  Dictionary  of  English  Literature 


CROMAGNON  RACE,  the  name  given  by  Paul  Broca  to  a 
type  of  mankind  supposed  to  be  represented  by  remains  found 
by  Lartet,  Christy  and  others,  in  France  in  the  Cromagnon  cave 
at  Les  Eyzies,  Tayac  district,  Dordogne.  At  the  foot  of  a  steep 
rock  near  the  village  this  small  cave,  nearly  filled  with  debris. 
was  found  by  workmen  in  1868.  Towards  the  top  of  the  loose 
strata  three  human  skeletons  were  unearthed.  They  were  those 
of  an  old  man,  a  young  man  and  a  woman,  the  latter's  skull 
bearing  the  mark  of  a  severe  wound.  The  skulls  presented  such 
special  characteristics  that  Broca  took  them  as  types  of  a  race. 
Palaeolithic  man  is  exclusively  long-headed,  and  the  dolicho- 
cephalic appearance  of  the  crania  (they  had  a  mean  cephalic  index 
°f  73'34)  supported  the  view  that  the  "  find  "  at  Les  Eyzies 
was  palaeolithic.  It  is,  however,  inaccurate  to  state  that 
brachycephaly  appears  at  once  with  the  neolithic  age,  dolicho- 
cephaly  even  of  a  pronounced  type  persisting  far  into  neolithic 
times.  The  Cromagnon  race  may  thus  be,  as  many  anthro- 
pologists believe  it,  early  neolithic,  a  type  of  man  who  spread  over 
and  inhabited  a  large  portion  of  Europe  at  the  close  of  the 
Pleistocene  period.  Some  have  sought  to  find  in  it  the  sub- 
stratum of  the  present  populations  of  western  Europe. 
Quatrefages  identifies  Cromagnon  man  with  the  tall,  long-headed, 
fair  Kabyles  (Berbers)  who  still  survive  in  various  parts  of 
Mauritania.  He  suggests  the  introduction  of  the  Cromagnon 
from  Siberia,  "  arriving  in  Europe  simultaneously  with  the  great 
mammals  (which  were  driven  by  the  cold  from  Siberia),  and  no 
doubt  following  their  route." 

See  A.  H.  Keane's  Ethnology  (1896)  ;  Mortillet,  Le  Prehistorique 
(1900);  Sergi,  The  Mediterranean  Race  (1901);  Lord  Avebury, 
Prehistoric  Times,  p.  317  of  1900  edition. 


CROMARTY,  EARL  OF— CROME 


483 


CROMARTY,  GEORGE  MACKENZIE,  IST  EARL  OF  (1630- 
1714),  Scottish  statesman,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John 
Mackenzie,  Bart.,  of  Tarbat  (d.  1654),  and  belonged  to  the 
same  family  as  the  earls  of  Seaforth.  In  1654  he  joined  the  rising 
in  Scotland  on  behalf  of  Charles  II.  and  after  an  exile  of  six  years 
he  returned  to  his  own  country  and  took  some  part  in  public 
affairs  after  the  Restoration.  In  1661  he  became  a  lord  of  session 
as  Lord  Tarbat,  but  having  been  concerned  in  a  vain  attempt  to 
overthrow  Charles  II. 's  secretary,  the  earl  of  Landerdale,  he  was 
dismissed  from  office  in  1664.  A  period  of  retirement  followed 
until  1678  when  Mackenzie  was  appointed  lord  justice  general 
of  Scotland;  in  1681  he  became  lord  clerk  register  and  a  lord  of 
session  for  the  second  time,  and  from  1682  to  1688  he  was  the 
chief  minister  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  in  Scotland,  being 
created  viscount  of  Tarbat  in  1685.  In  1688,  however,  he  deserted 
James  and  soon  afterwards  made  his  peace  with  William  III., 
his  experience  being  very  serviceable  to  the  new  government 
in  settling  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  From  1692  to  1695  Tarbat 
was  again  lord  clerk  register,  and  having  served  for  a  short  time 
as  a  secretary  of  state  under  Queen  Anne  he  was  created  earl  of 
Cromarty  in  1703.  He  was  again  lord  justice  general  from  1704 
to  1710.  He  warmly  supported  the  union  between  England  and 
Scotland,  writing  some  pamphlets  in  favour  of  this  step,  and  he 
died  on  the  i7th  of  August  1714.  Cromarty  was  a  man  of  much 
learning,  and  among  his  numerous  writings  may  be  mentioned  his 
Account  of  the  conspiracies  by  the  earls  of  Cowry  and  R.  Logan 
(Edinburgh,  1713). 

The  earl's  grandson  George,  3rd  earl  of  Cromarty  (c.  1703- 
1766),  succeeded  his  father  John,  the  2nd  earl,  in  February  1731. 
In  1745  he  joined  Charles  Edward,  the  young  pretender,  and  he 
served  with  the  Jacobites  until  April  1746  when  he  was  taken 
prisoner  in  Sutherlandshire.  He  was  tried  and  sentenced  to 
death,  but  he  obtained  a  conditional  pardon  although  his  peerage 
was  forfeited.  He  died  on  the  28th  of  September  1766. 

This  earl's  eldest  son  was  John  Mackenzie,  Lord  Macleod 
(1727-1789),  who  shared  his  father's  fortunes  in  1745  and  his  fate 
in  1 746.  Having  pleaded  guilty  at  his  trial  Macleod  was  pardoned 
on  condition  that  he  gave  up  all  his  rights  in  the  estates  of  the 
earldom,  and  he  left  England  and  entered  the  Swedish  army. 
In  this  servicehe  rose  to  high  rank  and  was  made  Count  Cromarty. 
The  count  returned  to  England  in  1777  and  was  successful  in 
raising,  mainly  among  the  Mackenzies,  two  splendid  battalions 
of  Highlanders,  the  first  of  which,  now  the  Highland  Light 
Infantry,  served  under  him  in  India.  In  1784  he  regained  the 
family  estates  and  he  died  on  the  2nd  of  April  1789.  Macleod 
wrote  an  account  of  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1745,  and  also  one  of  a 
campaign  in  Bohemia  in  which  he  took  part  in  1757;  both  are 
printed  in  Sir  W.  Eraser's  Earls  of  Cromarlie  (Edinburgh,  1876). 

Macleod  left  no  children,  and  his  heir  was  his  cousin,  Kenneth 
Mackenzie  (d.  1796),  a  grandson  of  the  2nd  earl,  who  also  died 
childless.  The  estates  then  passed  to  Macleod 's  sister,  Isabel 
(1725-1801),  wife  of  George  Murray,  6th  Lord  Elibank.  In 
1861  Isabel's  descendant,  Anne  (1820-1888),  wife  of  George, 
3rd  duke  of  Sutherland,  was  created  countess  of  Cromartie  with 
remainder  to  her  second  son  Francis  (1852-1893),  who  became 
earl  of  Cromartie  in  1888.  In  1895,  two  years  after  the  death  of 
Francis,  his  daughter  Sibell  Lilian  (b.  1878)  was  granted  by 
letters  patent  the  title  of  countess  of  Cromartie. 

CROMARTY,  a  police  burgh  and  seaport  of  the  county  of  Ross 
and  Cromarty,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1901)  1242.  It  is  situated  on 
the  southern  shore  of  the  mouth  of  Cromarty  Firth,  5  m.  E.  by 
S.  of  Invergordon  on  the  opposite  coast,  with  which  there  is 
daily  communication  by  steamer,  and  9  m.  N.E.  of  Fortrose, 
the  most  convenient  railway  station.  Before  the  union  of  the 
shires  of  Ross  and  Cromarty,  it  was  the  county  town  of  Cromarty- 
shire,  and  is  one  of  the  Wick  district  group  of  parliamentary 
burghs.  Its  name  is  variously  derived  from  the  Gaelic  crom, 
crooked,  and  bath,  bay,  or  ard,  height,  meaning  either  the 
"  crooked  bay,"  or  the  "  bend  between  the  heights  "  (the  high 
rocks,  or  Sutors,  which  guard  the  entrance  to  the  Firth),  and  gave 
the  title  to  the  earldom  of  Cromarty.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  town  hall  and  the  Hugh  Miller  Institute.  The  harbour, 


enclosed  by  two  piers,  accommodates  the  herring  fleet,  but  the 
fisheries,  the  staple  industry,  have  declined.  The  town,  however, 
is  in  growing  repute  as  a  midsummer  resort.  The  thatched  house 
with  crow-stepped  gables  in  Church  Street,  in  which  Hugh 
Miller  the  geologist  was  born,  still  stands,  and  a  statue  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory.  To  the  east  of  the  burgh  is  Cromarty 
House,  occupying  the  site  of  the  old  castle  of  the  earls  of  Ross. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart,  the  translator 
of  Rabelais. 

Cromarty,  formerly  a  county  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  was 
incorporated  with  Ross-shire  in  1889  under  the  designation  of  the 
county  of  Ross  and  Cromarty.  The  nucleus  of  the  count}'  con- 
sisted of  the  lands  of  Cromarty  in  the  north  of  the  peninsula  of 
the  Black  Isle.  To  this  were  added  from  time  to  time  the  various 
estates  scattered  throughout  Ross-shire — the  most  considerable 
of  which  were  the  districts  around  Ullapool  and  Little  Loch 
Broom  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  area  in  which  Ben  Wyvis  is 
situated,  and  a  tract  to  the  north  of  Loch  Fannich — which  had 
been  acquired  by  the  ancestors  of  Sir  George  Mackenzie  (1630- 
1714), afterwards  Viscount  Tarbat  (i685)and  ist  earl  of  Cromarty 
( 1 703).  Desirous  of  combining  these  sporadic  properties  into  one 
shire,  Viscount  Tarbat  was  enabled  to  procure  their  annexation 
to  his  sheriffdom  of  Cromarty  in  1685  and  1698,  the  area  of  the 
enlarged  county  amounting  to  nearly  370  sq.  m.  (See  Ross  AND 
CROMARTY.) 

CROMARTY  FIRTH,  an  arm  of  the  North  Sea,  belonging  to  the 
county  of  Ross  and  Cromarty,  Scotland.  From  the  Moray  Firth 
it  extends  inland  in  a  westerly  and  then  south-westerly  direction 
for  a  distance  of  19  m.  Excepting  at  the  Bay  of  Nigg,  on  the 
northern  shore,  and  Cromarty  Bay,  on  the  southern,  where  it  is 
about  5  m.  wide  (due  N.  and  S.),  and  at  Alness  Bay,  where  it  is 
2  m.  wide,  it  has  an  average  width  of  i  m.  and  a  depth  varying 
from  5  to  10  fathoms,  forming  one  of  the  safest  and  most  com- 
modious anchorages  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  Besides  other 
streams  it  receives  the  Conon,  Peffery,  Skiack  and  Alness,  and 
the  principal  places  on  its  shores  are  Dingwall  near  the  head, 
Cromarty  near  the  mouth,  Kiltearn,  Invergordon  and  Kilmuir  on 
the  north.  The  entrance  is  guarded  by  two  precipitous  rocks — 
the  one  on  the  north  400  ft.,  that  on  the  south  463  ft.  high — 
called  the  Sutors  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to  a  couple  of  shoe- 
makers (Scotice,  souter) ,  bending  over  their  lasts.  There  areferries 
at  Cromarty,  Invergordon  and  Dingwall. 

CROME,  JOHN  (1760-1821),  English  landscape  painter, 
founder  and  chief  representative  of  the  "  Norwich  School," 
often  called  Old  Crome,  to  distinguish  him  from  his  son,  was 
born  at  Norwich,  on  the  2ist  of  December  1769.  His  father 
was  a  weaver,  and  could  give  him  only  the  scantiest  education. 
His  early  years  were  spent  in  work  of  the  humblest  kind;  and 
at  a  fit  age  he  became  apprentice  to  a  house-painter.  To  this  step 
he  appears  to  have  been  led  by  an  inborn  love  of  art  and  the 
desire  to  acquaint  himself  by  any  means  with  its  materials  and 
processes.  During  his  apprenticeship  he  sometimes  painted 
signboards,  and  devoted  what  leisure  time  he  had  to  sketching 
from  nature.  Through  the  influence  of  a  rich  art-loving  friend 
he  was  enabled  to  exchange  his  occupation  of  house-painter  for 
that  of  drawing-master;  and  in  this  he  was  engaged  throughout 
his  life.  He  took  great  delight  in  a  collection  of  Dutch  pictures 
to  which  he  had  access,  and  these  he  carefully  studied.  About 
1 790  he  was  introduced  to  Sir  William  Beechey,  whose  house  in 
London  he  frequently  visited,  and  from  whom  he  gathered 
additional  knowledge  and  help  in  his  art.  In  1805  the  Norwich 
Society  of  Artists  took  definite  shape,  its  origin  being  traceable 
a  year  or  two  further  back.  Crome  was  its  president  and  the 
largest  contributor  to  its  annual  exhibitions.  Among  his 
pupils  were  James  Stark,  Vincent,  Thirtle  and  John  Bernay 
(Barney)  Crome  (1794-1842),  his  son.  J.  S.  Cotman,  too.  a 
greater  artist  than  any  of  these,  was  associated  with  him. 
Crome  continued  to  reside  at  Norwich,  and  with  the  exception 
of  his  short  visits  to  London  had  little  or  no  communication 
with  the  great  artists  of  his  own  time.  He  first  exhibited  at 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1806;  but  in  this  and  the  following  twelve 
years  he  exhibited  there  only  fourteen  of  his  works.  With  very 


CROMER,  LORD 


few  exceptions  Crome's  subjects  are  taken  from  the  familiar 
scenery  of  his  native  county.  Fidelity  to  nature  was  his  dominant 
aim.  "  The  bit  of  heath,  the  boat,  and  the  slow  water  of  the 
flattish  land,  trees  most  of  all — the  single  tree  in  elaborate  study, 
the  group  of  trees,  and  how  the  growth  of  one  affects  that  of 
another,  and  the  characteristics  of  each," — these,  says  Frederick 
Wedmore  (Studies  in  English  Art),  are  the  things  to  which  he  is 
most  constant.  He  still  remains,  says  the  same  critic,  of  many 
trees  the  greatest  draughtsman,  and  is  especially  the  master 
of  the  oak.  His  most  important  works  are — "  Mousehold  Heath, 
near  Norwich,"  now  in  the  National  Gallery;  "  Clump  of  Trees, 
Hautbois  Common";  "Oak  at  Poringland  ";  the  "Willow"; 
"  Coast  Scene  near  Yarmouth ";  "  Bruges,  on  the  Ostend 
River";  "Slate  Quarries";  the  "Italian  Boulevards";  and 
the  "  Fishmarket  at  Boulogne."  He  executed  a  good  many 
etchings,  and  the  great  charm  of  these  is  in  the  beautiful  and 
faithful  representation  of  trees.  Crome  enjoyed  a  very  limited 
reputation  during  his  life,  and  his  pictures  were  sold  at  low 
prices;  but  since  his  death  they  have  been  more  and  more 
appreciated,  and  have  given  him  a  high  place  among  English 
painters  of  landscape.  He  died  at  Norwich  on  the  22nd  of 
April  1821.  His  son,  J.  B.  Crome,  was  his  assistant  in  teaching, 
and  his  best  pictures  were  in  the  same  style,  his  moonlight  effects 
being  much  admired. 

A  collection  of  "  Old  "  Crome's  etchings,  entitled  Norfolk  Pictur- 
esque Scenery,  was  published  in  1834,  and  was  re-issued  with  a  memoir 
by  Dawson  Turner  in  1838,  but  in  this  issue  the  prints  were  retouched 
by  other  hands. 

CROMER,  EVELYN  BARING,  IST  EARL  (1841-  ),  British 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  was  born  on  the  26th  of  February 
1841,  the  ninth  son  of  Henry  Baring,  M.P.,  by  Cecilia  Anne, 
eldest  daughter  of  Admiral  Windham  of  Felbrigge  Hall,  Norfolk. 
Having  joined  the  Royal  Artillery  in  1858,  he  was  appointed 
in  1861  A.D.C.  to  Sir  Henry  Storks,  high  commissioner  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  and  acted  as  secretary  to  the  same  chief  during 
the  inquiry  into  the  Jamaica  outbreak  in  1865.  Gazetted 
captain  in  1870,  he  went  in  1872  as  private  secretary  to  his  cousin 
Lord  Northbrook,  Viceroy  of  India,  where  he  remained  until 
1876,  when  he  became  major,  received  the  C.S.I.,  and  was 
appointed  British  commissioner  of  the  Egyptian  public  debt 
office.  Up  to  this  period  Major  Baring  had  given  no  unusual 
signs  of  promise,  and  the  appointment  of  a  comparatively 
untried  major  of  artillery  as  the  British  representative  on  a 
Financial  Board  composed  of  representatives  of  all  the  great 
powers  was  considered  a  bold  one.  Within  a  very  short  time 
it  was  recognized  that  the  Englishman,  though  keeping  himself 
carefully  in  the  background,  was  unmistakably  the  predominant 
factor  on  the  board.  He  was  mainly  responsible  for  the  searching 
report,  issued  in  1878,  of  the  commission  of  inquiry  that  had 
been  instituted  into  the  financial  methods  of  the  Khedive  Ismail; 
and  when  that  able  and  unscrupulous  Oriental  had  to  submit  to 
an  enforced  abdication  in  1879,  it  was  Major  Baring  who  became 
the  British  controller-general  and  practical  director  of  the  Dual 
Control.  Had  he  remained  in  Egypt,  the  whole  course  of 
Egyptian  history  might  have  been  altered,  but  his  services  were 
deemed  more  necessary  in  India,  and  under  Lord  Ripon  he 
became  financial  member  of  council  in  June  1880.  He  remained 
there  till  1883,  leaving  an  unmistakable  mark  on  the  Indian 
financial  system,  and  then,  having  been  rewarded  by  the  K. C.S.I., 
he  was  appointed  British  agent  and  consul-general  in  Egypt 
and  a  minister  plenipotentiary  in  the  diplomatic  service. 

Sir  Evelyn  Baring  was  at  that  time  only  a  man  of  forty-two, 
who  had  gained  a  reputation  for  considerable  financial  ability, 
combined  with  an  abruptness  of  manner  and  a  certain  autocracy 
of  demeanour  which,  it  was  feared,  would  impede  his  success 
in  a  position  which  required  considerable  tact  and  diplomacy. 
It  was  a  friendly  colleague  who  wrote — 

"  The  virtues  of  Patience  are  known, 

But  I  think  that,  when  put  to  the  touch, 
The  people  of  Egypt  will  own,  with  a  groan, 
There  s  an  Evil  in  Baring  too  much.  ' 

When  he  arrived  in  Cairo  in  1883  he  found  the  administration 
of  the  country  almost  non-existent.  Ismail  had  ruled  with  all 


the  vices,  but  also  with  all  the  advantages,  of  autocracy.  Dis- 
order in  the  finances,  brutality  towards  the  people,  had  been 
combined  with  public  tranquillity  and  the  outer  semblance  of 
civilization.  Order,  at  least,  reigned  from  the  Sudan  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  such  trivial  military  disturbances  as  had 
occurred  had  been  of  Ismail's  own  devising  and  for  his  own 
purposes.  Tewfik,  who  had  succeeded  him,  had  neither  the 
inclination  nor  character  to  be  a  despot.  Within  three  years 
his  government  had  been  all  but  overthrown,  and  he  was  only 
khedive  by  the  grace  of  British  bayonets.  Government  by 
bayonets  was  not  in  accord  with  the  views  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  yet  Ismail's  government  by  the  kourbash  could  not  be 
restored.  The  British  government,  under  Mr  Gladstone,  desired 
to  establish  in  Egypt  a  sort  of  constitutional  government;  and 
as  there  existed  no  single  element  of  a  constitution,  they  bad 
sent  out  Lord  Dufferin  (the  first  marquess  of  Dufferin)  to  frame 
one.  That  gifted  nobleman,  in  the  delightful  lucidity  of  his 
picturesque  report,  left  nothing  to  be  desired  except  the  material 
necessary  to  convert  the  flowing  periods  into  political  entities.1 
In  the  absence  of  that,  the  constitution  was  still-born,  and  Sir 
Evelyn  Baring  arrived  to  find,  not  indeed  a  clean  slate,  but  a 
worn-out  papyrus,  disfigured  by  the  efforts  of  centuries  to 
describe  in  hieroglyph  a  method  of  rule  for  a  docile  people. 

From  that  date  the  history  of  Sir  Evelyn  Baring,  who  became 
Baron  Cromer  in  1892,  G.C.B.  in  1895,  viscount  in  1897,  and 
earl  in  1901,  is  the  history  of  Egypt,  and  requires  the  barest 
mention  of  its  salient  points  here.  From  the  outset  he  realized 
that  the  task  he  had  to  perform  could  only  be  effected  piecemeal 
and  in  detail,  and  his  very  first  measure  was  one  which,  though 
severely  criticized  at  the  time,  has  been  justified  by  events,  and 
which  in  any  case  showed  that  he  shirked  no  responsibility,  and 
was  capable  of  adopting  heroic  methods.  He  counselled  the 
abandonment,  at  least  temporarily,  by  Egypt  of  its  authority 
in  the  Sudan  provinces,  already  challenged  by  the  mahdi.  His 
views  were  shared  by  the  British  ministry  of  the  day  and  the 
policy  of  abandonment  enforced  upon  the  Egyptian  government. 
At  the  same  time  it  was  decided  that  efforts  should  be  made  to 
relieve  the  Egyptian  garrisons  in  the  Sudan  and  this  resolve 
led  to  the  mission  of  General  C.  G.  Gordon  (q.v.)  to  Khartum. 
Lord  Cromer  subsequently  told  the  story  of  Gordon's  mission 
at  length,  making  clear  the  measure  of  responsibility  resting  upon 
him  as  British  agent.  The  proposal  to  employ  Gordon  came 
from  the  British  government  and  twice  Sir  Evelyn  rejected  the 
suggestion.  Finally,  mistrusting  his  own  judgment,  for  he  did 
not  consider  Gordon  the  proper  person  for  the  mission,  Baring 
yielded  to  pressure  from  Lord  Granville.  Thereafter  he  gave 
Gordon  all  the  support  possible,  and  in  the  critical  matter  of 
the  proposed  despatch  of  Zobeir  to  Khartum,  Baring — after  a 
few  days'  hesitation — cordially  endorsed  Gordon's  request.  The 
request  was  refused  by  the  British  government — and  the  catas- 
trophe which  followed  at  Khartum  rendered  inevitable. 

The  Sudan  crisis  being  over,  for  the  time,  Sir  Evelyn  Baring 
set  to  work  to  reorganize  Egypt  itself.  This  work  he  attacked 
in  detail.  The  very  first  essential  was  to  regulate  the  financial 
situation;  and  in  Egypt,  where  the  entire  revenue  is  based  on 
the  production  of  the  soil,  irrigation  was  of  the  first  importance. 
With  the  assistance  of  Sir  Colin  Scott  Moncrieff,  in  the  public 
works  department,  and  Sir  Edgar  Vincent,  as  financial  adviser, 
these  two  great  departments  were  practically  put  in  order  before 
he  gave  more  than  superficial  attention  to  the  rest.  The  ministry 
of  justice  was  the  next  department  seriously  taken  in  hand,  with 
the  assistance  of  Sir  John  Scott,  while  the  army  had  been  re- 
formed under  Sir  Evelyn  Wood,  who  was  succeeded  by  Sir 
Francis  (afterwards  Lord)  Grenfell.  Education,  the  ministry 

1  In  1892  Lord  Dufferin  wrote  to'Lord  Cromer :  "  These  institutions 
were  a  good  deal  ridiculed  at  the  time,  but  as  it  was  then  uncertain 
how  long  we  were  going  to  remain,  or  rather  how  soon  the  Turks 
might  not  be  reinvested^  with  their  ancient  supremacy,  I  desired  to 
erect  some  sort  of  barrier,  however  feeble,  against  their  intolerable 
tyranny."  In  1906  Lord  Cromer  bore  public  testimony  to  the  good 
results  of  the  measures  adopted  on  Lord  Dufferin's  "  statesmanlike 
initiative."  Such  results  were,  however,  only  possible  in  consequence 
of  the  continuance  of  the  British  occupation. 


CROMER— CROMORNE 


485 


of  the  interior,  and  gradually  every  other  department,  came  to 
be  reorganized,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  formed,  under  Lord 
Cromer's  carefully  persistent  direction,  until  it  may  be  said  to-day 
that  the  Egyptian  administration  can  safely  challenge  comparison 
with  that  of  any  other  state.  In  the  meantime  the  rule  of 
the  mahdi  and  his  successor,  the  khalifa,  in  the  temporarily 
abandoned  provinces  of  the  Sudan,  had  been  weakened  by 
internal  dissensions;  the  Italians  from  Massawa,  the  Belgians 
from  the  Congo  State,  and  the  French  from  their  West  African 
possessions,  had  gradually  approached  nearer  to  the  valley 
of  the  Nile;  and  the  moment  had  arrived  at  which  Egypt  must 
decide  either  to  recover  her  position  in  the  Sudan  or  allow  the 
Upper  Nile  to  fall  into  hands  hostile  to  Great  Britain  and  her 
position  in  Egypt.  Lord  Cromer  was  as  quick  to  recognize  the 
moment  for  action  and  to  act  as  he  had  fifteen  years  earlier  been 
prompt  to  recognize  the  necessity  of  abstention.  In  March- 
September  1896  the  first  advance  was  made  to  Dongola  under 
the  Sirdar,  Sir  Herbert  (afterwards  Lord)  Kitchener;  between 
July  1897  and  April  1898  the  advance  was  pushed  forward  to 
the  Atbara;  and  on  the  2nd  of  September  1898,  the  battle  of 
Omdurman  finally  crushed  the  power  of  the  khalifa  and  restored 
the  Sudan  to  the  rule  of  Egypt  and  Great  Britain.  In  the 
negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  Anglo-French  Declaration  of 
the  8th  of  April  1904,  whereby  France  bound  herself  not  to 
obstruct  in  any  manner  the  action  of  Great  Britain  in  Egypt 
and  the  Egyptian  government  acquired  financial  freedom,  Lord 
Cromer  took  an  active  part.  He  also  successfully  guarded  the 
interests  of  Egypt  and  Great  Britain  in  1906  when  Turkey 
attempted  by  encroachments  in  the  Sinai  Peninsula  to  obtain 
a  strategic  position  on  the  Suez  Canal.  To  have  effected  all  this 
in  the  face  of  the  greatest  difficulties — political,  national  and 
international — and  at  the  same  time  to  have  raised  the  credit 
of  the  country  from  a  condition  of  bankruptcy  to  an  equality 
with  that  of  the  first  European  powers,  entitles  Lord  Cromer 
to  a  very  high  place  among  the  greatest  administrators  and 
statesmen  that  the  British  empire  has  produced.  In  April  1907, 
in  consequence  of  'the  state  of  his  health,  he  resigned  office, 
having  held  the  post  of  British  agent  in  Egypt  for  twenty-four 
years.  In  July  of  the  same  year  parliament  granted  £50,000  out 
of  the  public  funds  to  Lord  Cromer  in  recognition  of  his  "  eminent 
services  "  in  Egypt.  In  1908  he  published,  in  two  volumes, 
Modern  Egypt,  in  which  he  gave  an  impartial  narrative  of  events 
in  Egypt  and  the  Sudan  since  1876,  and  dealt  with  the  results  to 
Egypt  of  the  British  occupation  of  the  country.  Lord  Cromer 
also  took  part  in  the  political  controversies  at  home,  joining 
himself  to  the  free-trade  wing  of  the  Unionist  party. 

Lord  Cromer  married  in  1876  Ethel  Stanley,  daughter  of  Sir 
Rowland  Stanley  Errington,  eleventh  baronet,  but  was  left  a 
widower  with  two  sons  in  1898;  and  in  1901  he  married  Lady 
Katherine  Thynne,  daughter  of  the  4th  marquess  of  Bath. 

CROMER,  a  watering-place  in  the  northern  parliamentary 
division  of  Norfolk,  England,  139  m.  N.E.  by  N.  from  London 
by  the  Great  Eastern  railway;  served  also  by  the  Midland  and 
Great  Northern  joint  line.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901)  3781. 
Standing  on  cliffs  of  considerable  elevation,  the  town  has  re- 
peatedly suffered  from  ravages  of  the  sea.  A  wall  and  esplanade 
extend  along  the  bottom  of  the  cliffs,  and  there  is  a  fine  stretch  of 
sandy  beach.  There  is  also  a  short  pier.  The  church  of  St 
Peter  and  St  Paul  is  Perpendicular  (largely  restored)  with  a  lofty 
tower.  On  a  site  of  three  acres  stands  the  convalescent  home  of 
the  Norfolk  and  Norwich  hospital.  There  is  an  excellent  golf 
course.  The  herring,  cod,  lobster  and  crab  fisheries  are  prosecuted. 
The  village  of  Sheringham  (pop.  of  urban  district,  2359),  lying  to 
the  west,  is  also  frequented  by  visitors.  A  so-called  Roman  camp, 
on  an  elevation  overlooking  the  sea,  is  actually  a  modern  beacon. 

CROMORNE,  also  CRUMHORNE1  (Ger.  Krummhorn;  Fr. 
tournebout),  a  wind  instrument  of  wood  in  which  a  cylindrical 

1  Crumhorne  need  not  be  regarded  as  a  corruption  of  the  German, 
since  the  two  words  of  which  it  is  composed  were  both  in  use  in 
medieval  England.  Crumb  =  curved;  crumbe  =  hook,  bend;  crome  — 
a  staff  with  a  hook  at  the  end  of  it.  See  Stratmann's  Middle  English 
Dictionary  (1891),  and  Halliwell,  Dictionary  of  Archaic  and  Provincial 
Words  (London,  1881). 


column  of  air  is  set  in  vibration  by  a  reed.  The  lower  extremity 
is  turned  up  in  a  half -circle,  and  from  this  peculiarity  it  has  gained 
the  French  name  tournebout.  The  reed  of  the  cromorne,  like  that 
of  the  bassoon,  is  formed  by  a  double  tongue  of  cane  adapted 
to  the  small  end  of  a  conical  brass  tube  or  crook,  the  large  end 
fitting  into  the  main  bore  of  the  instrument.  It  presents,  how- 
ever, this  difference,  that  it  is  not,  like  that  of  the  bassoon,  in 
contact  with  the  player's  lips,  but  is  covered  by  a  cap  pierced 
in  the  upper  part  with  a  raised  slit  against  which  the  performer's 
lips  rest,  the  air  being  forced  through  the  opening  into  the  cap 
and  setting  the  reed  in  vibration.  The  reed  itself  is 
therefore  not  subject  to  the  pressure  of  the  lips.  The 
compass  of  the  instrument  is  in  consequence  limited 
to  the  simple  fundamental  sounds  produced  by  the 
successive  opening  of  the  lateral  holes.  The  length 
of  the  cromornes  is  inconsiderable  in  proportion  to 
the  deep  sounds  produced  by  them,  which  arises 
from  the  fact  that  these  instruments,  like  all  tubes  of 
cylindrical  bore  provided  with  reeds,  have  the  acoustic 
properties  of  the  stopped  pipes  of  an  organ.  That  is 
to  say,  theoretically  they  require  only  half  the  length 
necessary  for  the  open  pipes  of  an  organ  or  for  conical 
tubes  provided  with  reeds,  to  produce  notes  of  the 
same  pitch.  Moreover,  when,  to  obtain  an  harmonic, 
the  column  of  air  is  divided,  the  cromorne  will  not 
give  the  octave,  like  the  oboe  and  bassoon,  but  the 
twelfth,  corresponding  in  this  peculiarity  with  the 
clarinet  and  all  stopped  pipes  or  bourdons.  In  order, 
however,  to  obtain  an  harmonic  on  the  cromorne,  the 
cap  would  have  to  be  discarded,  for  a  reed  only 
overblows  to  give  the  harmonic  overtones  when 
pressed  by  the  lips.  With  the  ordinary  boring  of  eight 
lateral  holes  the  cromorne  possesses  a  limited  com- 
pass of  a  ninth.  Sometimes,  however,  deeper  sounds 
are  obtained  by  the  addition  of  one  or  more  keys. 
By  its  construction  the  cromorne  is  one 
of  the  oldest  wind  instruments;  it  is 
evidently  derived  from  the  Gr.  aulos2 
and  the  Roman  tibia,  which  likewise 
consisted  of  a  simple  cylindrical  pipe  of 
which  the  air  column  was  set  in  vibration,  Bass  Tournebout. 
at  first  by  a  double  reed,  and,  we  have 

reason  to  believe,  later  by  a  single  reed  (see  AULOS  and 
CLARINET).  The  Phrygian  aulos  was  sometimes  curved  (see 
Tib.  ii.  i.  85  Phrygio  tibia  curva  sono;  Virgil,  Aen.  xi.  737 
curva  chores  indixit  tibia  Bacchi)? 

Notwithstanding  the  successive  improvements  that  were  intro- 
duced in  the  manufacture  of  wind  instruments,  the  cromorne  scarcely 
ever  varied  in  the  details  of  its  construction.  Such  as  we  see  it 
represented  in  the  treatise  by  Virdung 4  we  find  it  again  about  the 
epoch  of  its  disappearance.6  The  cromornes  existed  as  a  complete 
family  from  the  I5th  century,  consisting,  according  to  Virdung,  of 
four  instruments;  Praetorius*  cites  five — the  deep  bass,  the  bass, 
the  tenor  or  alto,  the  cantus  or  soprano  and  the  high  soprano,  with 
compass  as  shown.  A  band,  or,  to  use  the  expression  of  Praetorius, 


Tenor. 


Soprano,         High  Soprano. 


an  "  accort  "  of  cromornes  comprised  I  deep  bass,  2  bass,  3  tenor, 
2  cantus,  I  high  soprano  =9. 

Mersenne 7  explains  the  construction  of  the  cromorne,  giving  careful 
illustrations  of  the  instrument  with  and  without  the  cap.  From  him 
we  learn  that  these  instruments  were  made  in  England,  where  they 
were  played  in  concert  in  sets  of  four,  five  and  six.  Their  scheme  of 
construction  and  especially  the  reed  and  cap  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  chalumeau  of  the  musette  (see  BAG-PIPE),  but  its  timbre  is  by 


2  See  A.  Howard,  "  Aulos  or  Tibia,"  Harvard  Studies,  iv.  (Boston, 
1893). 

*  See  also  A.  A.  Howard,  op.  at,,  "  Phrygian  Aulos,"  pp.  35-38. 
4  Musica  getutscht  und  auszgezogen  (Basel,  1511). 

'See  Diderot  and  d'Alembert's  Encydoptdie  (Paris,  1751-1780), 
t.  5,  "  Lutherie,"  pi.  ix. 

•  Organographia  (WolfenbOttel,  1618). 

7  L'Harmonie  universette  (Paris,  1636-1637),  book  v.  pp.  289  and 
290.    Cf.  "  Musette,"  pp.  282-287  and  305. 


CROMPTON— CROMWELL,  HENRY 


no  means  so  pleasant.  Mersenne's  cromornes  have  ten  fingerholes, 
Nos.  7  and  8  being  duplicates  for  right  and  left-handed  players. 
They  were  probably  sometimes  used,  as  was  the  case  with  the 
hautbois  de  Poitou(see  BAG-PiPE),without  the  cap,  when  an  extended 
compass  was  required. 

The  cromornes  were  in  very  general  use  in  Europe  from  the  I4th 
to  the  1 7th  century,  and  are  to  be  found  in  illustrations  of  pageants, 
as  for  instance  in  the  magnificent  collection  of  woodcuts  designed  by 
Hans  Burgmair,  a  pupil,  of  Albrecht  Diirer,  representing  the  triumph 
of  the  emperor  Maximilian,1  where  a  bass  and  a  tenor  Krumbhorn 
player  figure  in  the  procession  among  countless  other  musicians. 
In  the  inventory  of  the  wardrobe,  &c.,  belonging  to  Henry  VIII.  at 
Westminster,  made  during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  we  find  eighteen 
crumhornes  (see  British  Museum,  Harleian  MS.  1419,  ff.  2O2b  and 
205).  The  cromornes  did  not  always  form  an  orchestra  by  them- 
selves, but  were  also  used  in  concert  with  other  instruments  and 
notably  with  flutes  and  oboes,  as  in  municipal  bands  and  in  the 
private  bands  of  princes.  In  1685  the  orchestra  of  the  Neue  Kirche 
at  Strassburg  comprised  two  tournebouts  or  cromornes,  and  until 
the  middle  of  the  l8th  century  these  instruments  formed  part  of  the 
court  band  known  as  "  Musique  de  la  Grande  Ecurie  "  in  the  service 
of  the  French  kings.  They  are  first  mentioned  in  the  accounts  for 
the  year  1662,  together  with  the  tromba-marina,.  although  the 
instrument  was  already  highly  esteemed  in  the  i6th  century.  In 
that  year  five  players  of  the  cromorne  were  enrolled  among  the 
musicians  of  the  Grande  Ecurie  du  Roi;2  they  received  a  yearly 
salary  of  120  livres,  which  various  supplementary  allowances  brought 
up  to  about  330  livres.  In  1729  one  of  the  cromorne  players  sold 
his  appointment  for  4000  francs.  This  was  a  sign  of  the  failing 
popularity  of  the  instrument.  The  duties  of  the  cromorne  and 
tromba-marina  players  consisted  in  playing  in  the  great  divertisse- 
mentsand  at  court  functionsand  festivals  in  honour  of  royal  marriages, 
births  and  thanksgivings. 

Cromornes  have  become  of  extreme  rarity  and  are  not  to  be 
found  in  all  collections.  The  Paris  Conservatoire  possesses  one  large 
bass  cromorne  of  the  i6th  century,  the  Kgl.  Hochschule  fiir  Musik,3 
Berlin,  a  set  of  seven,  and  the  Ambroser  Sammlung,  Vienna,  a 
cromorne  in  Et>.4  The  museum  of  the  Conservatoire  Royal  de 
Musique  at  Brussels  has  the  good  fortune  to  possess  a  complete 
family  which  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  the  duke  of  Ferrara,  Alphonso 
II.  d'Este,  a  prince  who  reigned  from  1559  to  1597.  The  soprano 
(cantus  or  discant)  has  the  same  compass  as  above,  while  those  of 
the  alto,  the  tenor  (furnished  with  a  key)  and  the  bass  are  as  shown. 


Alto. 


Tenor. 


The  bass  (see  figure),  besides  having  two  keys,  is  distinguished  from 
the  others  by  two  contrivances  like  small  bolts,  which  slide  in  grooves 
and  close  the  two  holes  that  give  the  lowest  notes  of  the  instrument. 
The  use  of  these  bolts,  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  tournebout 
and  out  of  reach  of  the  fingers  of  the  instrumentalist,  renders  neces- 
sary the  assistance  of  a  person  whose  sole  mission  is  to  attend  to 
them  during  the  performance.  E.  van  der  Straeten  8  mentions  a 
key  belonging  to  a  large  cromorne  bearing  the  date  1537,  of  which 
he  gives  a  large  drawing.  A  cromorne  appears  in  a  musical  scene 
with  a  trumpet  in  Hermann  Finck's  Practica  Musica* 

The  "  Platerspil,"  of  which  Virdung  gives  a  drawing,  is  only 
a  kind  of  cromorne.  It  is  characterized  by  having,  instead  of  a 
cap  to  cover  the  reed,  a  spherical  receiver  surrounding  the  reed, 
to  which  the  tube  for  insufflation  is  adapted.  The  Platerspiel  is 
also  frequently  classified  among  bagpipes.  In  the  Cantigas  di  Sante 
Maria,1  a  MS.  of  the  I3th  century  preserved  in  the  Escorial,  Madrid, 
two  instruments  of  this  type  are  represented.  One  of  these  has  two 
straight,  parallel  pipes,  slightly  conical ;  the  other  is  frankly  conical 
with  wide  bore  turned  up  at  the  end. 


'See  "  Triumphzug  des  Kaisers  Maximilian  I."  Beilage  zum  II. 
Band  des  Jahrb.  der  Sammlungen  des  Allerhochsten  Kaiserhauses 
(Vienna,  1884-1885),  pi.  20.  Explanatory  text  and  part  i.  in  Band  \. 
of  the  same  publication,  1883-1884.  A  French  edition  with  135 
plates  was  also  published  in  Vienna  by  A.  Schmidt,  and  in  London 
by  J.  Edwards  (1796).  See  also  Dr  August  Reissmann,  Illustrierte 
Geschichte  der  deutschen  Musik  (Leipzig,  1881),  where  a  few  of 
the  plates  are  reproduced. 

2  See   J.    Ecorcheville,    "  Quelques    documents    sur    la    musique 
de  la  grande  ecurie  du  roi,'    Sammelband  d.  Intern.  Musik.  Ges. 
Jahrg.  ii.,  Heft  4  (1901,  Leipzig,  London,  &c.),  pp.  630-632. 

3  Oskar  Fleischer,  Fiihrer  (Berlin,  1892),  p.  29,  Nos.  400  to  406. 

4  For  an  illustration  see  Captain  C.  R.  Day,  Descriptive  Catalogue 
(London,  1891),  pi.  iv.  E.  and  p.  99. 

6  Histoire  de  la  musique  aux  Pays-Bas  avant  le  XIX'  siecle 
(Brussels,  1867-1888),  vol.  vii.  p.  336,  and  description,  p.  333  et  seq. 

6  Wittenberg,  1556;     reproduced   by  A.  Reissmann,  op.  cit.,  pp. 
233  and  226. 

7  Reproduced  in  Riano's  Notes  on  Early  Spanish  Music  (London, 
1887),  pp.  119-127. 


Other  instruments  belonging  by  their  most  important  character- 
istics of  cylindrical  bore  and  double.  Teed  to  the  same  family  as  the 
cromorne,  although  the  bore  was  somewhat  differently  disposed, 
are  the  racket  bassoon  and  the  sourdine  or  sordelline.  The  latter  • 
was  introduced  into  the  orchestra  by  Cavaliere  in  his  opera  Rap- 
presentazione  di  anima  e  di  corpo,  and  is  described  by  Giudotto*  in 
his  edition  of  the  score  as  "  Flauti  overo  due  tibie  all'  antica  che 
noi  chiamiamo  sordelline,"  a  description  which  tallies  with  what  has 
been  said  above  concerning  the  aulos  and  tibia.  (V.  M.  and  K.  S.) 

CROMPTON,  SAMUEL  (1753-1827),  English  inventor,  was 
born  on  the  3rd  of  December  1753  at  Firwood  near  Bolton-le- 
Moors,  Lancashire.  While  yet  a  boy  he  lost  his  father,  and  had 
to  contribute  to  the  family  resources  by  spinning  yarn.  The 
defects  of  the  spinning  jenny  imbued  him  with  the  idea  of 
devising  something  better,  and  for  five  or  six  years  the  effort 
absorbed  all  his  spare  time  and  money,  including  what  he  earned 
by  playing  the  violin  at  the  Bolton  theatre.  About  1779  he 
succeeded  in  producing  a  machine  which  span  yarn  suitable 
for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  muslin,  and  which  was  known 
as  the  muslin  wheel  or  the  Hall-in-the-Wood  wheel  (from  the 
name  of  the  house  in  which  he  and  his  family  resided),  and  later 
as  the  spinning  mule.  After  his  marriage  in  1780  a  good  demand 
arose  for  the  yarn  which  he  himself  made  at  Hall-in-the-Wood, 
but  the  prying  to  which  his  methods  were  subjected  drove  him, 
in  the  absence  of  means  to  take  out  a  patent,  to  the  choice  of 
destroying  his  machine  or  making  it  public.  He  adopted  the 
latter  alternative  on  the  promise  of  a  number  of  manufacturers 
to  pay  him  for  the  use  of  the  mule,  but  all  he  received  was  about 
£60.  He  then  resumed  spinning  on  his  own  account,  but  with 
indifferent  success.  In  1800  a  sum  of  £500  was  raised  for  his 
benefit  by  subscription,  and  when  in  1809  Edmund  Cartwright, 
the  inventor  of  the  power-loom  obtained  £10,000  from  parlia- 
ment, he  determined  also  to  apply  for  a  grant.  In  1811  he  made 
a  tour  in  the  manufacturing  districts  of  Lancashire  and  Scotland 
to  collect  evidence  showing  how  extensively  his  mule  was  used, 
and  in  1812  parliament  allowed  him  £5000.  With  the  aid  of  this 
money  he  embarked  in  business,  first  as  a  bleacher  and  then  as 
a  cotton  merchant  and  spinner,  but  again  without  success.  In 
1824  some  friends,  without  his  knowledge,  bought  him  an 
annuity  of  £63.  He  died  at  Bolton  on  the  26th  of  June  1827. 

CROMPTON,  an  urban  district  of  Lancashire,  England, 
2 1  m.  N.  of  Oldham,  within  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Oldham.  Pop.  (1901)  13,427.  At  Shaw,  a  populous  village 
included  within  it,  is  a  station  on  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire 
railway.  Cotton  mills  and  the  collieries  of  the  neighbourhood 
employ  the  large  industrial  population. 

CROMWELL,  HENRY  (1628-1674),  fourth  son  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  was  born  at  Huntingdon  on  the  2oth  of  January 
1628,  and  served  under  his  father  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
Civil  War.  His  active  life,  however,  was  mainly  spent  in  Ireland, 
whither  he  took  some  troops  to  assist  Oliver  early  in  1650,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  Irish  representatives  in  the  Little,  or  Nominated, 
Parliament  of  1653.  In  1654  he  was  again  in  Ireland,  and  after 
making  certain  recommendations  to  his  father,  now  lord  pro- 
tector, with  regard  to  the  government  of  that  country,  he 
became  major-general  of  the  forces  in  Ireland  and  a  member 
of  the  Irish  council  of  state,  taking  up  his  new  duties  in  July  1655. 
Nominally  Henry  was  subordinate  to  the  lord-deputy,  Charles 
Fleetwood,  but  Fleetwood's  departure  for  England  in  September 
1655  left  him  for  all  practical  purposes  the  ruler  of  Ireland.  He 
moderated  the  lord-deputy's  policy  of  deporting  the  Irish,  and 
unlike  him  he  paid  some  attention  to  the  interests  of  the  English 
settlers;  moreover,  again  unlike  Fleetwood,  he  appears  to  have 
held  the  scales  evenly  between  the  different  Protestant  sects, 
and  his  undoubted  popularity  in  Ireland  is  attested  by  Clarendon. 
In  November  1657  Henry  himself  was  made  lord-deputy;  but 
before  this  time  he  had  refused  a  gift  of  property  worth  £i  500  a 
year,  basing  his  refusal  on  the  grounds  of  the  poverty  of  the 
country,  a  poverty  which  was  not  the  least  of  his  troubles. 
In  1657  he  advised  his  father  not  to  accept  the  office  of  king, 
although  in  1654  he  had  supported  a  motion  to  this  effect; 

8  See  Hugo  Goldschmidt,  "  Das  Orchester  der  italienischen  Oper 
im  17.  Jahrh."  Sammelband  der  Intern.  Musikgesellschaft,  Jahrg.  ii., 
Heft  I  (Leipzig,  1900),  p.  24. 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


487 


and  after  the  dissolution  of  Cromwell's  second  parliament  in 
February  1658  he  showed  his  anxiety  that  the  protector  should 
act  in  a  moderate  and  constitutional  manner.  After  Oliver's 
death  Henry  hailed  with  delight  the  succession  of  his  brother 
Richard  to  the  office  of  protector,  but  although  he  was  now 
appointed  lieutenant  and  governor  general  of  Ireland,  it  was 
only  with  great  reluctance  that  he  remained  in  that  country. 
Having  rejected  proposals  to  assist  in  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  Henry  was  recalled  to  England  in  June  1659  just  after  his 
brother's  fall;  quietly  obeying  this  order  he  resigned  his  office 
at  once.  Although  he  lost  some  property  at  the  Restoration, 
he  was  allowed  after  some  solicitation  to  keep  the  estate  he  had 
bought  in  Ireland.  His  concluding  years  were  passed  at  Spinney 
Abbey  in  Cambridgeshire;  he  was  unmolested  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  he  died  on  the  23rd  of  March  1674.  In  1653  Henry 
married  Elizabeth  (d.  1687),  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Russell,  and 
he  left  five  sons  and  two  daughters. 

CROMWELL,  OLIVER  (1599-1658),  lord  protector  of  England, 
was  the  5th  and  only  surviving  son  of  Robert  Cromwell  of 
Huntingdon  and  of  Elizabeth  Steward,  widow  of  William  Lynn. 
His  paternal  grandfather  was  Sir  Henry  Cromwell  of  Hinchin- 
brook,  a  leading  personage  in  Huntingdonshire,  and  grandson 
of  Richard  Williams,  knighted  by  Henry  VIII.,  nephew  of 
Thomas  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  Henry  VIII. 's  minister,  whose 
name  he  adopted.  His  mother  was  descended  from  a  family 
named  Styward  in  Norfolk,  which  was  not,  however,  connected 
in  any  way,  as  has  been  ofterpasserted,  with  the  royal  house  of 
Stuart.  Oliver  was  born  on  fhe  25th  of  April  1 599,  was  educated 
under  Dr  Thomas  Beard,  a  fervent  puritan,  at  the  free  school 
at  Huntingdon,  and  gb  the  23rd  of  April  1616  matriculated  as 
a  fellow-commoner  at  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge, 
then  a  hotbed  of  puritanism,  subsequently  studying  law  in 
London.  The  royalist  anecdotes  relating  to  his  youth,  including 
charges  of  ill-conduct,  do  not  deserve  credit,  the  entries  in  the 
register  of  St  John's,  Huntingdon,  .noting  Oliver's  submission 
on  two  occasions  to  church  censure  being  forgeries;  but  it  is 
not  improbable  that  his  youth  was  wild  and  possibly  dissolute.1 
According  to  Edmund  Waller  he  was  "*very  well  read  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  story."  Burnet  declares  he  had  little  Latin, 
but  he  was  able  to  converse  with  the  Dutch  ambassador  in  that 
language.  According  to  James  Heath  in  his  Flagellum,  "  he 
was  more  famous  for  his  exercises  in  the  fields  than  in  the  schools, 
being  one  of  the  chief  match-makers  and  players  at  football, 
cudgels,  or  any  other  boisterous  game  or  sport."  On  the  22nd 
of  August  1620  he  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  James 
Bourchier,  a  city  merchant  of  Tower  Hill,  and  of  Felstead  in 
Essex;  and  his  father  having  died  in  1617  he  settled  at  Hunting- 
don and  occupied  himself  in  the  management  of  his  small  estate. 
In  1628  he  was  returned  to  parliament  as  member  for  the 
borough,  and  on  the  nth  of  February  1629  he  spoke  in 
support  of  puritan  doctrine,  complaining  of  the  attempt  by  the 
king  to  silence  Dr  Beard,  who  had  raised  his  voice  against  the 
"  flat  popery  "  inculcated  by  Dr  Alabaster  at  Paul's  Cross.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  members  who  refused  to  adjourn  at  the  king's 
command  till  Sir  John  Eliot's  resolutions  had  been  passed. 

During  the  eleven  years  of  government  without  parliament 
very  little  is  recorded  of  Cromwell.  His  name  is  not  connected 
with  the  resistance  to  the  levy  of  ship-money  or  to  the  action  of 
the  ecclesiastical  courts,  but  in  1630  he  was  one  of  those  fined 
for  refusing  to  take  up  knighthood.  The  same  year  he  was  named 
one  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  for  his  borough;  and  on  the  grant 
of  a  new  charter  showed  great  zeal  in  defending  the  rights  of  the 
commoners,  and  succeeded  in  procuring  an  alteration  in  the 
charter  in  their  favour,  exhibiting  much  warmth  of  temper 
during  the  dispute  and  being  committed  to  custody  by  the 
privy  council  for  angry  words  spoken  against  the  mayor,  for 
which  he  afterwards  apologized.  He  also  defended  the  rights  of 
the  commoners  of  Ely  threatened  by  the  "  adventurers  "  who  had 
drained  the  Great  Level,  and  he  was  nicknamed  afterwards  by 
a  royalist  newspaper  "  Lord  of  the  Fens."  He  was  again  later 
the  champion  of  the  commoners  of  St  Ives  in  the  Long  Parliament 
1  Life  of  Sir  H.  Vane,  by  W.  W.  Ireland,  222. 


against  enclosures  by  the  earl  of  Manchester,  obtaining  a  com- 
mission of  the  House  of  Commons  to  inquire  into  the  case,  and 
drawing  upon  himself  the  severe  censure  of  the  chairman,  the 
future  Lord  Clarendon,  by  his  "  impetuous  carriage "  and 
"  insolent  behaviour,"  and  by  the  passionate  vehemence  he 
imparted  into  the  business.  Bishop  Williams,  a  kinsman  of 
Cromwell's,  relates  at  this  time  that  he  was  "  a  common  spokes- 
man for  sectaries,  and  maintained  their  part  with  great  stubborn- 
ness ";  and  his  earliest  extant  letter  (in  1635)  is  an  appeal  for 
subscriptions  for  a  puritan  lecturer.  There  appears  to  be  no 
foundation  for  the  statement  that  he  was  stopped  by  an  order  of 
council  when  on  the  point  of  abandoning  England  for  America, 
though  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  thoughts  of  emigra- 
tion suggested  themselves  to  his  mind  at  this  period.  He  viewed 
the  "  innovations  in  religion  "  with  abhorrence.  According  to 
Clarendon  he  told  the  latter  in  1641  that  if  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance had  not  passed  "  he  would  have  sold  all  he  had  the  next 
morning  and  never  have  seen  England  more."  In  1631  he  con- 
verted his  landed  property  into  money,  and  John  Hampden, 
his  cousin,  a  patentee  of  Connecticut  in  1632,  was  on  the  point 
of  emigrating.  Cromwell  was  perhaps  arrested  in  his  project 
by  his  succession  in  1636  to  the  estate  of  his  uncle  Sir  Thomas 
Steward,  and  to  his  office  of  farmer  of  the  cathedral  tithes  at  Ely, 
whither  he  now  removed.  Meanwhile,  like  Bunyan  and  many 
other  puritans,  Cromwell  had  been  passing  through  a  trying 
period  of  mental  and  religious  change  and  struggle,  beginning 
with  deep  melancholy  and  religious  doubt  and  depression,  and 
ending  with  "  seeing  light  "  and  with  enthusiastic  and  convinced 
faith,  which  remained  henceforth  the  chief  characteristic  and 
impulse  in  his  career. 

He  represented  Cambridge  in  the  Short  and  Long  Parliaments 
of  1640,  and  at  once  showed  extraordinary  zeal  and  audacity 
in  his  opposition  to  the  government,  taking  a  large  c 
share  in  business  and  serving  on  numerous  and  im-  weirs 
portant  committees.  As  the  cousin  of  Hampden  and  first 
St.  John  he  was  intimately  associated  with  the  leaders 
of  the  parliamentary  party.  His  sphere  of  action, 
however,  was  not  in  parliament.  He  was  not  an 
orator,  and  though  he  could  express  himself  forcibly  on  occasion, 
his  speech  was  incoherent  and  devoid  of  any  of  the  arts  of 
rhetoric.  Clarendon  notes  on  his  first  appearance  in  parliament 
that  "  he  seemed  to  have  a  person  in  no  degree  gracious,  no 
ornament  of  discourse,  none  of  those  talents  which  use  to  recon- 
cile the  affections  of  the  slanders  by;  yet  as  he  grew  into  place 
and  authority  his  parts  seemed  to  be  renewed."  He  supported 
stoutly  the  extreme  party  of  opposition  to  the  king,  but  did  not 
take  the  lead  except  on  a  few  less  important  occasions,  and  was 
apparently  silent  in  the  debates  on  the  Petition  of  Right,  the 
Grand  Remonstrance  and  the  Militia.  His  first  recorded  in- 
tervention in  debate  in  the  Long  Parliament  was  on  the  9th  of 
November  1640,  a  few  days  after  the  meeting  of  the  House,  when 
he  delivered  a  petition  from  the  imprisoned  John  Lilburne. 
He  was  described  by  Sir  Philip  Warwick  on  this  occasion: — 
"  I  came  into  the  House  one  morning  well  clad  and  perceived  a 
gentleman  speaking  whom  I  knew  not,  very  ordinarily  apparelled; 
for  it  was  a  plain  cloth  suit  which  seemed  to  have  been  made 
by  an  ill  country  tailor;  his  linen  was  plain  and  not  very  clean; 
.  .  .  his  stature  was  of  a  good  size;  his  sword  stuck  close  to 
his  side;  his  countenance  swollen  and  reddish;  his  voice  sharp 
and  untunable  and  his  eloquence  full  of  fervour  ...  I  sincerely 
profess  it  much  lessened  my  reverence  as  to  that  great  council 
for  he  was  very  much  hearkened  unto."  On  the  3oth  of  December 
he  moved  to  the  second  reading  of  Strode's  bill  for  annual  parlia- 
ments. His  chief  interest  from  the  first,  however,  lay  in  the  re- 
ligious question.  He  belonged  to  the  Root  and  Branch  party, 
and  spoke  in  favour  of  the  petition  of  the  London  citizens  for  the 
abolition  of  episcopacy  on  the  gth  of  February  1641,  and  pressed 
upon  the  House  the  Root  and  Branch  Bill  in  May.  On  the  6th 
of  November  he  carried  a  motion  entrusting  the  train-bands 
south  of  the  Trent  to  the  command  of  the  earl  of  Essex.  On  the 
I4th  of  January  1642,  after  the  king's  attempt  to  seize  the  five 
members,  he  moved  for  a  committee  to  put  the  kingdom  in  a 


488 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


posture  of  defence.  He  contributed  £600  to  the  proposed  Irish 
campaign  and  £500  for  raising  forces  in  England — large  sums 
from  his  small  estate — and  on  his  own  initiative  in  July  1642  sent 
arms  of  the  value  of  £100  down  to  Cambridge,  seized  the  magazine 
there  in  August,  and  prevented  the  king's  commission  of  array 
from  being  executed  in  the  county,  taking  these  important  steps 
on  his  own  authority  and  receiving  subsequently  indemnity  by 
vote  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Shortly  afterwards  he  joined 
Essex  with  sixty  horse,  and  was  present  at  Edgehill,  where  his 
troop  was  one  of  the  few  not  routed  by  Rupert's  charge,  Cromwell 
himself  being  mentioned  among  those  officers  who  "  never  stirred 
from  their  troops  but  fought  till  the  last  minute." 

During  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  1643  the  military  position 
of  Charles  was  greatly  superior  to  that  of  the  parh'ament.     Essex 

was  inactive  near  Oxford;  in  the  west  Sir  Ralph 
n//f'*o/  Hopton  had  won  a  series  of  victories,  and  in  the  north 
civil  war.  Newcastle  defeated  the  Fairfaxes  at  Adwalton  Moor, 

and  all  Yorkshire  except  Hull  was  in  his  hands.  It 
seemed  likely  that  the  whole  of  the  north  would  be  laid  open  and 
the  royalists  be  able  to  march  upon  London  and  join  Charles 
and  Hopton  there.  This  stroke,  which  would  most  probably  have 
given  the  victory  to  the  king,  was  prevented  by  the  "  Eastern 
Association,"  a  union  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Cambridgeshire 
and  Hertfordshire,  constituted  in  December  1642  and  augmented 
in  1643  by  Huntingdonshire  and  Lincolnshire,  of  which  Crom- 
well was  the  leading  spirit.  His  zeal  and  energy  met  everywhere 
with  conspicuous  success.  In  January  1643  he  seized  the  royalist 
high  sheriff  of  Hertfordshire  in  the  act  of  proclaiming  the  king's 
commission  of  array  at  St  Albans;  in  February  he  was  at 
Cambridge  taking  measures  for  the  defence  of  the  town;  in 
March  suppressing  royalist  risings  at  Lowestoft  and  Lynn;  in 
April  those  of  Huntingdon,  when  he  also  recaptured  Crowland 
from  the  king's  party.  In  May  he  defeated  a  greatly  superior 
royalist  force  at  Grantham,  proceeding  afterwards  to  Nottingham 
in  accordance  with  Essex's  plan  of  penetrating  into  Yorkshire  to 
relieve  the  Fairfaxes;  where,  however,  difficulties,  arising  from 
jealousies  between  the  officers,  and  the  treachery  of  John  Hotham, 
whose  arrest  Cromwell  was  instrumental  in  effecting,  obliged 
him  to  retire  again  to  the  association,  leaving  the  Fairfaxes  to 
be  defeated  at  Adwalton  Moor.  He  showed  extraordinary 
energy,  resource  and  military  talent  in  stemming  the  advance  of 
the  royalists,  who  now  followed  up  their  victories  by  advancing 
into  the  association;  he  defeated  them  at  Gainsborough  on  the 
28th  of  July,  and  managed  a  masterly  retreat  before  over- 
whelming numbers  to  Lincoln,  while  the  victory  on  the  nth  of 
October  at  Winceby  finally  secured  the  association,  and  main- 
tained the  wedge  which  prevented  the  junction  of  the  royalists 
in  the  north  with  the  king  in  the  south. 

One  great  source  of  Cromwell's  strength  was  the  military 
reforms  he  had  initiated.     At  Edgehill  he  had  observed  the 

inferiority  of  the  parliamentary  to  the  royalist  horse, 
'weirs  composed  as  it  was  of  soldiers  of  fortune  and  the  dregs 
soldiers.  °f  the  populace.  "  Do  you  think,"  he  had  said,  "  that 

the  spirits  of  such  base,  mean  fellows  will  ever  be  able 
to  encounter  gentlemen  that  have  honour  and  courage  and 
resolution  in  them?  You  must  get  men  of  a  spirit  that  is  likely 
to  go  as  far  as  gentlemen  will  go  or  you  will  be  beaten  still." 
The  royalists  were  fighting  for  a  great  cause.  To  succeed  the 
parliamentary  soldiers  must  also  be  inspired  by  some  great 
principle,  and  this  was  now  found  in  religion.  Cromwell  chose 
his  own  troops,  both  officers  and  privates,  from  the  "  religious 
men,"  who  fought  not  for  pay  or  for  adventure,  but  for  their 
faith.  He  declared,  when  answering  a  complaint  that  a  certain 
captain  in  his  regiment  was  a  better  preacher  than  fighter,  that 
he  who  prayed  best  would  fight  best,  and  that  he  knew  nothing 
could  "  give  the  like  courage  and  confidence  as  the  knowledge 
of  God  in  Christ  will."  The  superiority  of  these  men — more 
intelligent  than  the  common  soldiers,  better  disciplined,  better 
trained,  better  armed,  excellent  horsemen  and  fighting  for  a 
great  cause — not  only  over  the  other  parliamentary  troops  but 
over  the  royalists,  was  soon  observed  in  battle.  According  to 
Clarendon  the  latter,  though  frequently  victorious  in  a  charge, 


could  not  rally  afterwards,  "whereas  Cromwell's  troops  if  they 
prevailed,  or  though  they  were  beaten  and  routed,  presently 
rallied  again  and  stood  in  good  order  till  they  received  new 
orders  ";  and  the  king's  military  successes  dwindled  in  pro- 
portion to  the  gradual  preponderance  of  Cromwell's  troops  in 
the  parliamentary  army.  At  first  these  picked  men  only  existed 
in  Cromwell's  own  troop,  which,  however,  by  frequent  additions 
became  the  nucleus  of  a  regiment,  and  by  the  time  of  the  New 
Model  included  about  n,ooo  men. 

In  July  1643  Cromwell  had  been  appointed  governor  of  the 
Isle  of  Ely;  on  the  22nd  of  January  1644  he  became  second  in 
command  under  the  earl  of  Manchester  as  lieutenant-general 
of  the  Eastern  Association,  and  on  the  i6th  of  February  1644 
a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms  with  greatly 
increased  influence.  In  March  he  took  Hillesden  House  in 
Buckinghamshire;  in  May  was  at  the  siege  of  Lincoln,  when  he 
repulsed  Goring's  attempt  to  relieve  the  town,  and  subsequently 
took  part  in  Manchester's  campaign  in  the  north.  At  Marston 
Moor  (q.i>.)  on  the  2nd  of  July  he  commanded  all  the  horse 
of  the  Eastern  Association,  with  some  Scottish  troops;  and 
though  for  a  time  disabled  by  a  wound  in  the  neck,  he  charged 
and  routed  Rupert's  troops  opposed  to  him,  and  subsequently 
went  to  the  support  of  the  Scots,  who  were  hard  pressed  by  the 
enemy,  and  converted  what  appeared  at  one  time  a  defeat  into 
a  decisive  victory.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  earned  the 
nickname  of  "  Ironsides,"  applied  to  him  now  by  Prince  Rupert, 
and  afterwards  to  his  soldiers,  "  from  the  impenetrable  strength 
of  his  troops  which  could  by  no  means  be  broken  or  divided." 

The  movements  of  Manchester  after  Marston  Moor  were 
marked  by  great  apathy.  He  was  one  of  the  moderate  party 
who  desired  an  accommodation  with  the  king,  and  was  opposed 
to  Cromwell's  sectaries.  He  remained  at  Lincoln,  did  nothing 
to  prevent  the  defeat  of  Essex's  army  in  the  west,  and  when 
he  at  last  advanced  south  to  join  Essex's  and  Waller's  troops 
his  management  of  the  army  led  to  the  failure  of  the  attack 
upon  the  king  at  Newbury  on  the  27th  of  October  1644.  He 
delayed  supporting  the  infantry  till  too  late,  and  was  repulsed; 
he  allowed  the  royal  army  to  march  past  his  outposts;  and  a 
fortnight  afterwards,  without  any  attempt  to  prevent  it,  and 
greatly  to  Cromwell's  vexation,  permitted  the  moving  of  the 
king's  artillery  and  the  relief  of  Donnington  Castle  by  Prince 
Rupert.  "  If  you  beat  the  king  ninety-nine  times,"  Manchester 
urged  at  Newbury,  "  yet  he  is  king  still  and  so  will  his  posterity 
be  after  him;  but  if  the  king  beat  us  once  we  shall  all  be  hanged 
and  our  posterity  be  made  slaves."  "  My  lord,"  answered 
Cromwell,  "  if  this  be  so,  why  did  we  take  up  arms  at  first? 
This  is  against  fighting  ever  hereafter.  If  so  let  us  make  peace, 
be  it  ever  so  base."  The  contention  brought  to  a  crisis  the 
struggle  between  the  moderate  Presbyterians  and  the  Scots  on 
the  one  side,  who  decided  to  maintain  the  monarchy  and  fought 
for  an  accommodation  and  to  establish  Presbyterianism  in 
England,  and  on  the  other  the  republicans  who  would  be  satisfied 
with  nothing  less  than  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  king, 
and  the  Independents  who  regarded  the  establishment  of 
Presbyterianism  as  an  evil  almost  as  great  as  that  of  the  Church 
of  England.  On  the  25th  of  November  Cromwell  charged 
Manchester  with  "  unwillingness  to  have  the  war  prosecuted 
to  a  full  victory";  which  Manchester  answered  by  accusing 
Cromwell  of  having  used  expressions  against  the  nobility,  the 
Scots  and  Presbyterianism;  of  desiring  to  fill  the  army  of  the 
Eastern  Association  with  Independents  to  prevent  any  accom- 
modation; and  of  having  vowed  if  he  met  the  king  in  battle 
he  would  as  lief  fire  his  pistol  at  him  as  at  anybody  else.  The 
lords  and  the  Scots  vehemently  took  Manchester's  part;  but 
the  Commons  eventually  sided  with  Cromwell,  appointed  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax  general  of  the  New  Model  Army,  and  passed 
two  self-denying  ordinances,  the  second  of  which,  ordering  all 
members  of  both  houses  to  lay  down  their  commissions  within 
forty  days,  was  accepted  by  the  lords  on  the '3rd  of  April  1645. 

Meanwhile  Cromwell  had  been  ordered  on  the  3rd  of  March 
by  the  House  to  take  his  regiment  to  the  assistance  of  Waller, 
under  whom  he  served  as  an  admirable  subordinate.  "  Although 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


489 


he  was  blunt,"  says  Waller,  "  he  did  not  bear  himself  with  pride 
or  disdain.  As  an  officer  he  was  obedient  and  did  never  dispute 
my  orders  or  argue  upon  them."  He  returned  on  the  igth  of 
April,  and  on  the  23rd  was  sent  to  Oxfordshire  to  prevent  a 
junction  between  Charles  and  Prince  Rupert,  in  which  he 
succeeded  after  some  small  engagements  and  the  storming  of 
Blechingdon  House.  His  services  were  felt  to  be  too  valuable 
to  be  lost,  and  on  the  loth  of  May  his  command  was  prolonged 
for  forty  days.  On  the  28th  he  was  sent  to  Ely  for  the  defence 
of  the  eastern  counties  against  the  king's  advance;  and  on  the 
loth  of  June,  upon  Fairfax's  petition,  he  wa&  named  by  the 
Commons  lieutenant-general,  joining  Fairfax  on  the  I3th  with 
six  hundred  horse.  At  the  decisive  battle  of  Naseby  (the  i4th 
of  June  1645)  he  commanded  the  parliamentary  right 
wing  and  routed  the  cavalry  of  Sir  Marmaduke  Lang- 

battleof  ,  ...      * 

Naseby.  dale,  subsequently  falling  upon  and  defeating  the 
royalist  centre,  and  pursuing  the  fugitives  as  far  as 
the  outskirts  of  Leicester.  At  Langport  again,  on  the  loth  of 
July  1645,  his  management  of  the  troops  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  gaining  the  victory.  As  the  king  had  no  longer  a 
field  army,  the  war  after  Naseby  resolved  itself  into  a  series  of 
sieges  which  Charles  had  no  means  of  raising.  Cromwell  was 
present  at  the  sieges  of  Bridgwater,  Bath,  Sherborne  and  Bristol; 
and  later,  in  command  of  four  regiments  of  foot  and  three  of 
horse,  he  was  employed  in  clearing  Wiltshire  and  Hampshire 
of  the  royalist  garrisons.  He  took  Devizes  and  Laycock  House, 
Winchester  and  Basing  House,  and  rejoined  Fairfax  in  October 
at  Exeter,  and  accompanied  him  to  Cornwall,  where  he  assisted 
in  the  defeat  of  Hopton's  forces  and  in  the  suppression  of  the 
royalists  in  the  west.  On  the  9th  of  January  1646  he  surprised 
Lord  Wentworth's  brigade  at  Bovey  Tracey,  and  was  present 
with  Fairfax  at  the  fall  of  Exeter  on  the  gth  of  April.  He  then 
went  to  London  to  give  an  account  of  proceedings  to  the  parlia- 
ment, was  thanked  for  his  services  and  rewarded  with  the  estate 
of  the  marquess  of  Worcester.  He  was  present  again  with 
Fairfax  at  the  capitulation  of  Oxford  on  the  24th  of  June,  which 
practically  terminated  the  Civil  War,  when  he  used  his  influence 
in  favour  of  granting  lenient  terms.  He  then  removed  with  his 
family  from  Ely  to  Drury  Lane,  London,  and  about  a  year  later 
to  King  Street,  Westminster. 

The  war  being  now  over,  the  great  question  of  the  establish- 
ment of  Presbyterianism  or  Independency  had  to  be  decided. 
Cromwell,  without  naming  himself  an  adherent  of  any  denomina- 
tion, fought  vigorously  for  Independency  as  a  policy.  In  1644 
he  had  remonstrated  at  the  removal  by  Crawford  of  an  ana- 
baptist lieutenant-colonel.  "  The  state,"  he  said,  "  in  choosing 
men  to  serve  it,  takes  no  notice  of  their  opinions.  If  they  be 
willing  faithfully  to  serve  it,  that  satisfies.  Take  heed  of  being 
sharp  .  .  .  against  those  to  whom  you  can  object  little  but  that 
they  square  not  with  you  in  every  opinion  concerning  matters  of 
religion."  He  had  patronized  Lilburne  and  welcomed  all  into 
his  regiment,  and  the  Independents  had  spread  from  his  troops 
throughout  the  whole  army.  But  while  the  sectarians  were 
in  a  vast  majority  in  the  army,  the  parliament  was  equally 
strong  in  Presbyterianism  and  opposed  to  toleration.  The 
proposed  disbandment  of  the  army  in  February  1647  would  have 
placed  the  soldiers  entirely  in  the  power  of  the  parliament;  while 
the  negotiations  of  the  king,  first  with  the  Scots  and  then  with  the 
parliament,  appeared  to  hazard  all  the  fruits  of  victory.  The 
petition  from  the  army  to  the  parliament  for  arrears  of  pay  was 
suppressed  and  the  petitioners  declared  enemies  of  the  state. 
In  consequence  the  army  organized  a  systematic  opposition, 
and  elected  representatives  styled  Agitators  or  Agents  to  urge 
their  claims. 

Cromwell,  though  greatly  disliking  the  policy  of  the  Presby- 
terians, yet  gave  little  support  at  first  to  the  army  in  resisting 
parliament.     In  May  1647  m  company  with  Skippon, 
"en'and    ireton  an^  Fleetwood,  he  visited  the  army,  inquired 
the  army.    mt°  and  reported  on  the  grievances,  and  endeavoured 
to  persuade  them  to  submit  to  the  parliament.     "  If 
that  authority  falls  to  nothing,"  he  said,  "  nothing  can  follow 
but  confusion."     The  Presbyterians,  however,  now  engaged  in 


a  plan  for  restoring  the  king  under  their  own  control,  and  by  the 
means  of  a  Scottish  army,  forced  on  their  policy,  and  on  the  27th 
of  May  ordered  the  immediate  disbandment  of  the  army,  without 
any  guarantee  for  the  payment  of  arrears.  A  mutiny  was  the 
consequence.  The  soldiers  refused  to  disband,  and  on  the  3rd  of 
June  Cromwell,  whom,  it  was  believed,  the  parliament  intended 
to  arrest,  joined  the  army.  "  If  he  would  not  forthwith  come 
and  lead  them,"  they  had  told  him,  "  they  would  go  their  own 
way  without  him."  The  supremacy  of  the  army  without  a 
guiding  hand  meant  anarchy,  that  of  the  Presbyterians  the 
outbreak  of  another  civil  war. 

Possession  of  the  king's  person  now  became  an  important 
consideration.  On  the  3ist  of  May  1647  Cromwell  had  ordered 
Cornet  Joyce  to  prevent  the  king's  removal  by  the  parliament 
or  the  Scots  from  Holmby,  and  Joyce  by  his  own  authority 
and  with  the  king's  consent  brought  him  to  Newmarket  to  the 
headquarters  of  the  army.  Cromwell  soon  restored  order,  and 
the  representative  council,  including  privates  as  well  as  officers 
chosen  to  negotiate  with  the  parliament,  was  subordinated 
to  the  council  of  war.  The  army  with  Cromwell  then  advanced 
towards  London.  In  a  letter  to  the  city,  possibly  written  by 
Cromwell  himself,  the  officers  repudiated  any  wish  to  alter  the 
civil  government  or  upset  the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism, 
but  demanded  religious  toleration.  Subsequently,  in  the 
declaration  of  the  I4th  of  June,  arbitrary  power  either  in  the 
parliament  or  in  the  king  was  denounced,  and  demand  was  made 
for  a  representative  parliament,  the  speedy  termination  of  the 
actual  assembly,  and  the  recognition  of  the  right  to  petition. 
Cromwell  used  his  influence  in  restraining  the  more  eager  who 
wished  to  march  on  London  immediately,  and  in  avoiding  the 
use  of  force  by  which  nothing  permanent  could  be  effected, 
urging  that  "  whatsoever  we  get  by  treaty  will  be  firm  and  dur- 
able. It  will  be  conveyed  over  to  posterity."  The  army  faction 
gradually  gathered  strength  in  the  parliament.  Eleven  Presby- 
terian leaders  impeached  by  the  army  withdrew  of  their  own 
accord  on  the  26th  of  June,  and  the  parliament  finally  yielded. 
Fairfax  was  appointed  sole  commander-in-chief  on  the  igth  of 
July,  the  soldiers  levied  to  oppose  the  army  were  dismissed, 
and  the  command  of  the  city  militia  was  again  restored  to  the 
committee  approved  by  the  army.  These  votes,  however,  were 
cancelled  later,  on  the  26th  of  July,  under  the  pressure  of  the 
royalist  city  mob  which  invaded  the  two  Houses;  but  the  two 
speakers,  with  eight  peers  and  fifty-seven  members  of  the 
Commons,  themselves  joined  the  army,  which  now  advanced  to 
London,  overawing  all  resistance,  escorting  the  fugitive  members 
in  triumph  to  Westminster  on  the  6th  of  August,  and  obliging 
the  parliament  on  the  2oth  to  cancel  the  last  votes,  with  the 
threat  of  a  regiment  of  cavalry  drawn  up  by  Cromwell  in  Hyde 
Park. 

Cromwell  and  the  army  now  turned  with  hopes  of  a  settlement 
to  Charles.  On  the  4th  of  July  Cromwell  had  had  an  interview 
with  the  king  at  Caversham.  He  was  not  insensible  to  Charles's 
good  qualities,  was  touched  by  the  paternal  affection  he  showed 
for  his  children,  and  is  said  to  have  declared  that  Charles  "  was  the 
uprightest  and  most  conscientious  man  of  his  three  kingdoms." 
The  Heads  of  the  Proposals,  which,  on  Charles  raising  objections, 
had  been  modified  by  the  influence  of  Cromwell  and  Ireton, 
demanded  the  control  of  the  militia  and  the  choice  of  ministers 
by  parliament  for  ten  years,  a  religious  toleration,  and  a  council 
of  state  to  which  much  of  the  royal  control  over  the  army  and 
foreign  policy  would  be  delegated.  These  proposals  without 
doubt  largely  diminished  the  royal  power,  and  were  rejected  by 
Charles  with  the  hope  of  maintaining  his  sovereign  rights  by 
"  playing  a  game,"  to  use  his  own  words,  i.e.  by  negotiating 
simultaneously  with  army  and  parliament,  by  inflaming  their 
jealousies  and  differences,  and  finally  by  these  means  securing 
his  restoration  with  his  full  prerogatives  unimpaired.  On  the 
9th  of  September  Charles  refused  once  more  the  Newcastle 
Propositions  offered  him  by  the  parliament,  and  Cromwell, 
together  with  Ireton  and  Vane,  obtained  the  passing  of  a  motion 
for  a  new  application;  but  the  terms  asked  by  the  parliament 
were  higher  than  before  and  included  a  harsh  condition — the 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


exclusion  from  pardon  of  all  the  king's  leading  adherents,  besides 
the  indefinite  establishment  of  Presbyterianism  and  the  refusal  of 
toleration  to  the  Roman  Catholics  and  members  of  the  Church 
of  England. 

Meanwhile  the  failure  to  come  to  terms  with  Charles  and 
provide  a  settlement  appeared  to  threaten  a  general  anarchy. 
Cromwell's  moderate  counsels  created  distrust  in  his  good  faith 
amongst  the  soldiers,  who  accused  him  of  "  prostituting  the 
liberties  and  persons  of  all  the  people  at  the  foot  of  the  king's 
interest."  The  agitators  demanded  immediate  settlement 
by  force  by  the  army.  The  extreme  republicans,  anticipating 
Rousseau,  put  forward  the  Agreement  of  the  People.  This  was 
strongly  opposed  by  Cromwell,  who  declared  the  very  considera- 
tion of  it  had  dangers,  that  it  would  bring  upon  the  country 
"  utter  confusion "  and  "  make  England  like  Switzerland." 
Universal  suffrage  he  rejected  as  tending  "  very  much  to 
anarchy,"  spoke  against  the  hasty  abolition  of  either  the 
monarchy  or  the  Lords,  and  refused  entirely  to  consider  the 
abstract  principles  brought  into  the  debate.  Political  problems 
were  not  to  be  so  resolved,  but  practically.  With  Cromwell  as 
with  Burke  the  question  was  "  whether  the  spirit  of  the  people 
of  this  nation  is  prepared  to  go  along  with  it."  The  special 
form  of  government  was  not  the  important  point,  but  its  possi- 
bility and  its  acceptability.  The  great  problem  was  to  found 
a  stable  government,  an  authority  to  keep  order.  If  every  man 
should  fight  for  the  best  form  of  government  the  state  would 
come  to  desolation.  He  reproached  the  soldiers  for  their  in- 
subordination against  their  officers,  and  the  army  for  its  rebellion 
against  the  parliament.  He  would  lay  hold  of  anything  "  if 
it  had  but  the  force  of  authority,"  rather  than  have  none. 
Cromwell's  influence  prevailed  and  these  extreme  proposals 
were  laid  aside. 

Meanwhile  all  hopes  of  an  accommodation  with  Charles  were 
dispelled  by  his  flight  on  the  nth  of  November  from  Hampton 
Court  to  Carisbroke  Castle  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  his 
object   being   to  negotiate  independently  with   the 
king.  Scots,  the  parliament  and  the  army.     His  action, 

however,  in  the  event,  diminished  rather  than  increased 
his  chances  of  success,  owing  to  the  distrust  of  his  intentions 
which  it  inspired.  Both  the  army  and  the  parliament  gave 
cold  replies  to  his  offers  to  negotiate;  and  Charles,  on  the  2 7th 
of  December  1647,  entered  into  the  Engagement  with  the  Scots 
by  which  he  promised  the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism  for 
three  years,  the  suppression  of  the  Independents  and  their  sects, 
together  with  privileges  for  the  Scottish  nobles,  while  the  Scots 
undertook  to  invade  England  and  restore  him  to  his  throne. 
This  alliance,  though  the  exact  terms  were  not  known  to  Cromwell 
— "  the  attempt  to  vassalize  us  to  a  foreign  nation,"  to  use  his 
own  words — convinced  him  of  the  uselessness  of  any  plan  for 
maintaining  Charles  on  the  throne;  though  he  still  appears  to 
have  clung  to  monarchy,  proposing  in  January  1648  the  trans- 
ference of  the  crown  to  the  prince  of  Wales.  A  week  after  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  he  supported  a  proposal  for  the  king's 
deposition,  and  the  vote  of  No  Addresses  was  carried.  Meanwhile 
the  position  of  Charles's  opponents  had  been  considerably 
strengthened  by  the  suppression  of  a  dangerous  rebellion  in 
November  1647  by  Cromwell's  intervention,  and  by  the  return 
of  troops  to  obedience.  Cromwell's  difficulties,  however,  were 
immense.  His  moderate  and  trimming  attitude  was  understood 
neither  by  the  extreme  Independents  nor  by  the  Presbyterians. 
He  made  one  attempt  to  reconcile  the  disputes  between  the  army 
and  the  politicians  by  a  conference,  but  ended  the  barren  dis- 
cussion on  the  relative  merits  of  aristocracies,  monarchies  and 
democracies,  interspersed  with  Bible  texts,  by  throwing  a 
cushion  at  the  speaker's  head  and  running  downstairs.  On  the 
igth  of  January  1648  Cromwell  was  accused  of  high  treason  by 
Lilburne.  Plots  were  formed  for  his  assassination.  He  was 
overtaken  by  a  dangerous  illness,  and  on  the  2nd  of  March  civil 
war  in  support  of  the  king  broke  out. 

Cromwell  left  London  in  May  to  suppress  the  royalists  in  Wales, 
and  took  Pembroke  Castle  on  the  nth  of  July.  Meanwhile 
behind  his  back  the  royalists  had  risen  all  over  England,  the 


fleet  in  the  Downs  had  declared  for  Charles,  and  the  Scottish 
army  under  Hamilton  had  invaded  the  north.  Immediately 
on  the  fall  of  Pembroke  Cromwell  set  out  to  relieve  Lambert, 
who  was  slowly  retreating  before  Hamilton's  superior  forces; 
he  joined  him  near  Knaresborough  on  the  i2th  of  August,  and 
started  next  day  in  pursuit  of  Hamilton  in  Lancashire,  placing 
himself  at  Stonyhurst  near  Preston,  cutting  off  Hamilton  from 
the  north  and  his  allies,  and  defeating  him  in  detail  on  the 
I7th,  i8th  and  ipth  at  Preston  and  at  Warrington.  He  then 
marched  north  into  Scotland,  following  the  forces  of  Monro, 
and  established  a  new  government  of  the  Argyle  faction  at 
Edinburgh;  replying  to  the  Independents  who  disapproved 
of  his  mild  treatment  of  the  Presbyterians,  that  he  desired 
"  union  and  right  understanding  between  the  godly  people, 
Scots,  English,  Jews,  Gentiles,  Presbyterians,  Anabaptists  and 
all;  ...  a  more  glorious  work  in  our  eyes  than  if  we  had  gotten 
the  sacking  and  plunder  of  Edinburgh  .  .  .  and  made  a  con- 
quest from  the  Tweed  to  the  Orcades." 

The  incident  of  the  Second  Civil  War  and  the  treaty  with  the 
Scots  exasperated  Cromwell  against  the  king.  On  his  return 
to  London  he  found  the  parliament  again  negotiating  cmmw  a 
with  Charles,  and  on  the  eve  of  making  a  treaty  which  supports 
Charles  himself  hadt  no  intention  of  keeping  and 
regarded  merely  as  a  means  of  regaining  his  power, 
and  which  would  have  thrown  away  in  one  moment 
all  the  advantages  gained  during  years  of  bloodshed  and  struggle. 
Cromwell  therefore  did  not  hesitate  to  join  the  army  in  its 
opposition  to  the  parliament,  and  supported  the  Remonstrance 
of  the  troops  (2oth  of  November  1648),  which  included  the 
demand  for  the  king's  punishment  as  "  the  grand  author  of  all 
our  troubles,"  and  justified  the  use  of  force  by  the  army  if  other 
means  failed.  The  parliament,  however,  continued  to  negotiate, 
and  accordingly  Charles  was  removed  by  the  army  to  Hurst 
Castle  on  the  ist  of  December,  the  troops  occupied  London  on 
the  2nd;  while  on  the  6th  and  7th  Colonel  Pride  "  purged  " 
the  House  of  Commons  of  the  Presbyterians.  Cromwell  was 
not  the  originator  of  this  act,  but  showed  his  approval  of  it  by 
taking  his  seat  among  the  fifty  or  sixty  Independent  members 
who  remained. 

The  disposal  of  the  king  was  now  the  great  question  to  be 
decided.  During  the  next  few  weeks  Cromwell  appears  to  have 
made  once  more  attempts  to  come  to  terms  with  Charles;  but 
the  king  was  inflexible  in  his  refusal  to  part  with  the  essential 
powers  of  the  monarchy,  or  with  the  Church;  and  at  the  end 
of  December  it  was  resolved  to  bring  him  to  trial.  The  exact 
share  which  Cromwell  had  in  this  decision  and  its  sequel  is 
obscure,  and  the  later  accounts  of  the  regicides  when  on  their 
trial  at  the  Restoration,  ascribing  the  whole  transaction  to  his 
initiation  and  agency,  cannot  be  altogether  accepted.  But  it 
is  plain  that,  once  convinced  of  the  necessity  for  the  king's 
execution,  he  was  the  chief  instrument  in  overcoming  all  scruples 
among  his  judges,  and  in  resisting  the  protests  and  appeals  of 
the  Scots.  To  Algernon  Sidney,  who  refused  to  take  part  in 
proceedings  on  the  plea  that  neither  the  king  nor  any  man  could 
be  tried  by  such  a  court,  Cromwell  replied,  "  I  tell  you,  we  will 
cutoff  his  head  with  the  crown  upon  it." 

The  execution  of  the  king  took  place  on  the  3oth  of  January 
1649.  This  event,  the  turning-point  in  Cromwell's  career,  casts 
a  shadow,  from  one  point  of  view,  over  the  whole  of  The 
his  future  statesmanship.  He  himself  never  repented  execution 
of  the  act,  regarding  it,  on  the  contrary,  as  "one  which  *£barlesl 
Christians  in  after  times  will  mention  with  honour  and 
all  tyrants  in  the  world  look  at  with  fear,"  and  as  one  directly 
ordained  by  God.  Opinions,  no  doubt,  will  always  differ  as  to 
the  wisdom  or  authority  of  the  policy  which  brought  Charles 
to  the  scaffold.  On  the  one  hand,  there'was  no  law  except  that 
of  force  by  which  an  offence  could  be  attributed  to  the  sovereign, 
the  anointed  king,  the  source  of  justice.  The  ordinance  estab- 
lishing the  special  tribunal  for  the  trial  was  passed  by  a  remnant 
of  the  House  of  Commons  alone,  from  which  all  dissentients 
were  excluded  by  the  army.  The  tribunal  was  composed,  not 
of  judges — for  all  unanimously  refused  to  sit  on  it — but  of 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


491 


fifty-two  men  drawn  from  among  the  king's  enemies.  The 
execution  was  a  military  and  not  a  national  act,  and  at  the  last 
scene  on  the  scaffold  the  triumphant  shouts  of  the  soldiery  could 
not  overwhelm  the  groans  and  sobs  raised  by  the  populace. 
Whatever  crimes  might  be  charged  against  Charles,  his  past 
conduct  might  appear  to  be  condoned  by  the  act  of  negotiating 
with  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  execution  seemed  to  Cromwell 
the  only  alternative  to  anarchy,  or  to  a  return  to  despotism  and 
the  abandonment  of  all  they  had  fought  for.  Cromwell  had 
exhausted  every  expedient  for  arriving  at  an  arrangement  with 
the  king  by  which  the  royal  authority  might  be  preserved,  and 
the  repeated  perfidy  and  inexhaustible  shiftiness  of  Charles  had 
proved  the  hopelessness  of  such  attempts.  The  results  produced 
by  the  king's  execution  were  far-reaching  and  permanent.  It 
is  true  that  Puritan  austerity  and  the  lack  of  any  strong  central 
authority  after  Oliver's  death  produced  a  reaction  which 
temporarily  restored  Charles's  dynasty  to  the  throne;  but  it  is 
not  less  true  that  the  execution  of  the  king,  at  a  later  time  when 
all  over  Europe  absolute  monarchies  "  by  divine  right"  were 
being  established  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  popular  constitu- 
tions, was  an  object  lesson  to  all  the  world;  and  it  produced  a 
profound  effect,  not  only  in  establishing  constitutional  monarchy 
in  Great  Britain  after  James  II.,  with  the  dread  of  his  father's 
fate  before  him,  had  abdicated  by  flight,  but  in  giving  the 
impulse  to  that  revolt  against  the  idea  of  "  the  divinity  that  doth 
hedge  a  king  "  which  culminated  in  the  Revolution  of  1789,  and 
of  which  the  mighty  effects  are  still  evident  in  Europe  and 
beyond. 

The  king  and  the  monarchy  being  now  destroyed  in  England, 
Cromwell  had  next  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  suppression  of 
Cromwell  royalism  in  Ireland  and  in  Scotland.  In  Ireland 
la  Ormonde  had  succeeded  in  uniting  the  English  and  the 

Ireland.  Irish  in  a  league  against  the  supporters  of  the  parlia- 
ment, and  only  a  few  scattered  forts  held  out  for  the 
Commonwealth,  while  the  young  king  was  every  day  expected 
to  land  and  complete  the  conquest  of  the  island.  Accordingly 
in  March  1649  Cromwell  was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  and  com- 
mander-in-chief  for  its  reduction.  But  before  starting  he  was 
called  upon  to  suppress  disorder  at  home.  He  treated  the 
Levellers  with  some  severity  and  showed  his  instinctive  dislike 
to  revolutionary  proposals.  "  Did  not  that  levelling  principle," 
he  said,  "  tend  to  the  reducing  of  all  to  an  equality?  What  was 
the  purport  of  it  but  to  make  the  tenant  as  liberal  a  fortune  as 
the  landlord,  which  I  think  if  obtained  would  not  have  lasted 
long."  Equally  characteristic  was  his  treatment  of  the  mutinous 
army,  in  which  he  suppressed  a  rebellion  in  May.  He  landed  at 
Dublin  on  the  I3th  of  August.  Before  his  arrival  the  Dublin 
garrison  had  defeated  Ormonde  with  a  loss  of  5000  men,  and 
Cromwell's  work  was  limited  to  the  capture  of  detached  fortresses. 
On  the  loth  of  September  he  stormed  Drogheda,  and  by  his  order 
the  whole  of  its  2800  defenders  were  put  to  the  sword  without 
quarter.  Cromwell,  who  was  as  a  rule  especially  scrupulous 
in  protecting  non-combatants  from  violence,  justified  his  severity 
in  this  case  by  the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  Irish  in  the 
rebellion  of  1641,  and  as  being  necessary  on  military  and  political 
grounds  in  that  it  "  would  tend  to  prevent  the  effusion  of  blood 
for  the  future,  which  were  the  satisfactory  grounds  of  such  actions 
which  otherwise  cannot  but  work  remorse  and  regret."  After 
the  fall  of  Drogheda  Cromwell  sent  a  few  troops  to  relieve 
Londonderry,  and  marched  himself  to  Wexford,  which  he  took 
on  the  nth  of  October,  and  where  similar  scenes  of  cruelty  were 
repeated;  every  captured  priest,  to  use  Cromwell's  own  words, 
being  immediately  "  knocked  on  the  head,"  though  the  story  of 
the  three  hundred  women  slaughtered  in  the  market-place  has 
no  foundation. 

The  surrender  of  Trim,  Dundalk  and  Ross  followed,  but  at 
Waterford  Cromwell  met  with  a  stubborn  resistance  and  the 
advent  of  winter  obliged  him  to  raise  the  siege.  Next  year 
Cromwell  penetrated  into  Munster.  Cashel,  Cahir  and  several 
castles  fell  in  February,  and  Kilkenny  in  March;  Clonmel 
repulsing  the  assault  with  great  loss,  but  surrendering  on  the 
loth  of  May  1650.  Cromwell  himself  sailed  a  fortnight  later, 


leaving  the  reduction  of  the  island,  which  was  completed  in 
1652,  to  his  generals.  The  re-settlement  of  the  conquered  and 
devastated  country  was  now  organized  on  the  Tudor  and  Straf- 
fordian  basis  of  colonization  from  England,  conversion  to  Pro- 
testantism, and  establishment  of  law  and  order.  Cromwell 
thoroughly  approved  of  the  enormous  scheme  of  confiscation 
and  colonization,  causing  great  privations  and  sufferings,  which 
was  carried  out.  The  Roman  Catholic  landowners  lost  their 
estates,  all  or  part  according  to  their  degree  of  guilt,  and  these 
were  distributed  among  Cromwell's  soldiers  and  the  creditors 
of  the  government;  Cromwell  also  invited  new  settlers  from 
home  and  from  New  England,  two-thirds  of  the  whole  land  of 
Ireland  being  thus  transferred  to  new  proprietors.  The  sup- 
pression of  Roman  Catholicism  was  zealously  pursued  by 
Cromwell;  the  priests  were  hunted  down  and  imprisoned  or 
exiled  to  Spain  or  Barbados,  the  mass  was  everywhere  forbidden, 
and  the  only  liberty  allowed  was  that  of  conscience,  the  Romanist 
not  being  obliged  to  attend  Protestant  services. 

These  methods,  together  with  education,  "  assiduous  preaching 
.  .  .  humanity,  good  life,  equal  and  honest  dealing  with  men  of 
different  opinion,"  Cromwell  thought,  would  convert  the  whole 
island  to  Protestantism.  The  law  was  ably  and  justly  ad- 
ministered, and  Irish  trade  was  admitted  to  the  same  privileges 
as  English,  enjoying  the  same  rights  in  foreign  and  colonial  trade; 
and  no  attempt  was  made  to  subordinate  the  interests  of  the 
former  to  the  latter,  which  was  the  policy  adopted  both  before 
and  after  Cromwell's  time,  while  the  union  of  Irish  and  English 
interests  was  further  recognized  by  the  Irish  representation  at 
Westminster  in  the  parliaments  of  1654,  1656  and  1659.  These 
advantages,  however,  scarcely  benefited  at  all  the  Irish  Roman 
Catholics,  who  were  excluded  from  political  life  and  from  the 
corporate  towns;  and  Cromwell's  union  meant  little  more  than 
the  union  of  the  English  colony  in  Ireland  with  England.  A 
just  administration,  too,  did  not  compensate  for  unjust  laws 
or  produce  contentment;  the  policy  of  conversion  and  coloniza- 
tion was  unsuccessful,  the  descendants  of  many  of  Cromwell's 
soldiers  becoming  merged  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Irish,  and  the 
union  with  England,  political  and  commercial,  being  extinguished 
at  the  Restoration.  Cromwell's  land  settlement — modified  by  the 
restoration  under  Charles  II.  of  about  one-third  of  the  estates 
to  the  royalists — survived,  and  added  to  the  difficulties  with 
which  the  English  government  was  afterwards  confronted  in 
Ireland. 

Meanwhile  Cromwell  had  hurried  home  to  deal  with  the 
royalists  in  Scotland.  He  urged  Fairfax  to  attack  the  Scots 
at  once  in  their  own  country  and  to  forestall  their  Th 
invasion;  but  Fairfax  -refused  and  resigned,  and  battles ot 
Cromwell  was  appointed  by  parliament,  on  the  26th  Dunbar 
of  June  1650,  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  "rf 
of  the  Commonwealth.  He  entered  Scotland  in  July, 
and  after  a  campaign  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh  which 
proved  unsuccessful  in  drawing  out  the  Scots  from  their  fortresses, 
he  retreated  to  Dunbar  to  await  reinforcements  from  Berwick. 
The  Scots  under  Leslie  followed  him,  occupied  Doon  Hill  com- 
manding the  town,  and  seized  the  passes  between  Dunbar  and 
Berwick  which  Cromwell  had  omitted  to  secure.  Cromwell  was 
outmanoeuvred  and  in  a  perilous  situation,  completely  cut  off 
from  England  and  from  his  supplies  except  from  the  sea.  But 
Leslie  descended  the  hill  to  complete  his  triumph,  and  Cromwell 
immediately  observed  the  disadvantages  of  his  antagonist's 
new  position,  cramped  by  the  hill  behind  and  separated  from 
his  left  wing.  A  stubborn  struggle  on  the  next  day,  the  3rd  of 
September,  gave  Cromwell  a  decisive  victory.  Advancing,  he 
occupied  Edinburgh  and  Leith.  At  first  it  seemed  likely  that  his 
victories  and  subsequent  remonstrances  would  effect  a  peace 
with  the  Scots;  but  by  1651  Charles  II.  had  succeeded  in  forming 
a  new  union  of  royalists  and  presbyterians,  and  another  campaign 
became  inevitable.  Some  delay  was  caused  in  beginning  opera- 
tions by  Cromwell's  dangerous  illness,  during  which  his  life  was 
despaired  of;  but  in  June  he  was  confronting  Leslie  entrenched 
in  the  hills  near  Stirling,  impregnable  to  attack  and  refusing 
an  engagement.  Cromwell  determined  to  turn  his  antagonist's 


492 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


position.  He  sent  14,000  men  into  Fifeshire  and  marched  to 
Perth,  which  he  captured  on  the  2nd  of  August,  thus  cutting  off 
Leslie  from  the  north  and  his  supplies.  This  movement,  however, 
left  open  the  way  to  England,  and  Charles  immediately  marched 
south,  in  reality  thus  giving  Cromwell  the  wished-for  opportunity 
of  crushing  the  royalists  finally  and  decisively.  Cromwell 
followed  through  Yorkshire,  and  uniting  with  Lambert  and 
Harrison  at  Evesham  proceeded  to  attack  the  royalists  at 
Worcester;  where  on  the  3rd  of  September  after  a  fierce  struggle 
the  great  victory,  "  the  crowning  mercy  "  which  terminated  the 
Civil  War,  was  obtained  over  Charles. 

Monk  completed  the  subjugation  of  Scotland  by  1654.  The 
settlement  here  was  made  on  more  moderate  lines  than  in  Ireland. 
The  estates  of  only  twenty-four  leaders  of  the  defeated  cause 
were  forfeited  by  Cromwell,  and  the  national  church  was  left 
untouched  though  deprived  of  all  powers  of  interference  with  the 
civil  government,  the  general  assembly  being  dissolved  in  1653. 
Large  steps  were  made  towards  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms 
by  the  representation  of  Scotland  in  the  parliament  at  West- 
minster; free  trade  between  the  two  countries  was  established, 
the  administration  of  justice  greatly  improved,  vassalage  and 
heritable  jurisdictions  abolished,  and  security  and  good  order 
maintained  by  the  council  of  nine  appointed  by  the  Protector. 
In  1658  the  improved  condition  of  Scotland  was  the  subject  of 
Cromwell's  special  congratulation  in  addressing  parliament. 
But  as  in  Ireland  so  Cromwell's  policy  in  Scotland  was  unpopular 
and  was  only  upheld  by  the  maintenance  of  a  large  army, 
necessitating  heavy  taxation  and  implying  the  loss  of  the  national 
independence.  It  also  vanished  at  the  Restoration. 

On  the  1 2th  of  September  1651  Cromwell  made  his  triumphal 
entry  into  London  at  the  conclusion  of  his  victorious  campaigns; 
and  parliament  granted  him  Hampton  Court  as  a  residence 
with  £4000  a  year.  These  triumphs,  however,  had  all  been 
obtained  by  force  of  arms;  the  more  difficult  task  now  awaited 
Cromwell  of  governing  England  by  parliament  and  by  law. 
As  Milton  wrote: — 

"  Cromwell!  our  chief  of  men,  who  through  a  cloud 
Not  of  war  only,  but  detractions  rude, 
Guided  by  faith  and  matchless  fortitude, 
To  peace  and  truth  thy  glorious  way  hast  ploughed, 

.    .    .   Peace  hath  her  victories 
No  less  renowned  than  war." 

Cromwell's  moderation  and  freedom  from  imperiousness  were 
acknowledged  even  by  those  least  friendly  to  his  principles. 
Although  the  idol  of  his  victorious  army,  and  in  a  position 
enabling  him  to  exercise  autocratic  power,  he  laboured  un- 
ostentatiously for  more  than  a  year  and  a  half  as  a  member 
of  the  parliament,  whose  authority  he  supported  to  the  best  of 
his  ability.  While  occupied  with  work  on  committees  and  in 
administration  he  pressed  forward  several  schemes  of  reform, 
including  a  large  measure  of  law  reform  prepared  by  a  com- 
mission presided  over  by  Matthew  Hale,  and  the  settlement  of 
the  church;  but  very  little  was  accomplished  by  the  parliament, 
which  seemed  to  be  almost  exclusively  taken  up  with  the 
maintenance  and  increase  of  its  own  powers;  and  Cromwell's 
dissatisfaction,  and  that  of  the  army  which  increased  every 
day,  was  intensified  by  the  knowledge  that  the  parliament, 
instead  of  dissolving  for  a  new  election,  was  seeking  to  perpetuate 
its  tenure  of  power.  At  length,  in  April  1653,  a  "  bill  for  a  new 
representation  "  was  discussed,  which  provided  for  the  retention 
of  their  seats  by  the  existing  members  without  re-election,  so 
that  they  would  also  be  the  sole  judges  of  the  eligibility  of  the 
rest.  This  measure,  which  placed  the  whole  powers  of  the  state — 
executive,  legislative,  military  and  judicial — in  the  hands  of 
one  irresponsible  and  permanent  chamber,  "  the  horridest 
arbitrariness  that  ever  was  exercised  in  the  world,"  Cromwell 
and  the  army  determined  to  resist  at  all  costs.  On  the  isth  of 
April  they  proposed  that  the  parliament  should  appoint  a 
provisional  government  and  dissolve  itself.  This  compromise 
was  refused  by  the  parliament,  which  proceeded  on  the  2Oth  to 
press  through  its  last  stages  the  "  bill  for  a  new  representation." 
Cromwell  hastened  to  the  House,  and  at  the  last  moment,  on 


the  bill  being  put  to  the  vote,  whispering  to  Harrison,  "  This  is 
the  time;  I  must  do  it,"  he  rose,  and  after  alluding  to  the 
former  good  services  of  the  parliament,  proceeded  to  cromweU 
overwhelm  the  members  with  reproaches.  Striding  up  expels 
and  down  the  House  in  a  passion,  he  made  no  attempt  the  Long 
to  control  himself,  and  turning  towards  individuals  Parila- 
as  he  hurled  significant  epithets  at  each,  he  called 
some  "  whoremasters,"  others  "  drunkards,  corrupt,  unjust, 
scandalous  to  the  profession  of  the  Gospel."  "  Perhaps  you 
think,"  he  exclaimed,  "  that  this  is  not  parliamentary  language; 
I  confess  it  is  not,  neither  are  you  to  expect  any  such  from  me." 
In  reply  to  a  complaint  of  his  violence  he  cried,  "  Come,  come, 
I  will  put  an  end  to  your  prating.  You  are  no  parliament,  I 
say  you  are  no  parliament.  I  will  put  an  end  to  your  sitting." 
By  his  directions  Harrison  then  fetched  in  a  small  band  of 
Cromwell's  musketeers  and  compelled  the  speaker  Lenthall  to 
vacate  the  chair.  Looking  at  the  mace  he  said,  "  What  shall 
we  do  with  this  bauble?"  and  ordered  a  soldier  to  take  it  away. 
The  members  then  trooped  out,  Cromwell  crying  after  them, 
"  It  is  you  that  have  forced  me  to  this;  for  I  have  sought  the 
Lord  night  and  day  that  He  would  rather  slay  me  than  put  me 
upon  the  doing  this  work."  He  then  snatched  the  obnoxious 
bill  from  the  clerk,  put  it  under  his  cloak,  and  commanding  the 
doors  to  be  locked  went  back  to  Whitehall.  In  the  afternoon 
he  dissolved  the  council  in  spite  of  John  Bradshaw's  re- 
monstrances, who  said,  "  Sir,  we  have  heard  what  you  did  at 
the  House  this  morning  .  .  .  ;  but  you  are  mistaken  to  think 
that  the  parliament  is  dissolved,  for  no  power  under  heaven  can 
dissolve  them  but  themselves;  therefore  take  you  notice  of 
that."  Cromwell  had  no  patience  with  formal  pedantry  of  this, 
sort;  and  in  point  of  strict  legality  "  The  Rump  "  of  the  Long 
Parliament  had  little  better  title  to  authority  than  the  officers 
who  expelled  it  from  the  House.  After  this  Cromwell  had 
nothing  left  but  the  army  with  which  to  govern,  and  "henceforth 
his  life  was  a  vain  attempt  to  clothe  that  force  in  constitutional 
forms,  and  make  it  seem  something  else  so  that  it  might  become 
something  else."  * 

By  the  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament  Cromwell  as 
commander-in-chief  was  left  the  sole  authority  in  the  state. 
He  determined  immediately  to  summon  another  parliament. 
This  was  the"  Little  "or"  Barebones  Parliament,"  consisting  of 
one  hundred  and  forty  persons  selected  by  the  council  of  officers 
from  among  those  nominated  by  the  congregations  in  each 
county,  which  met  on  the  4th  of  July  1653.  This  assembly, 
however,  soon  showed  itself  impracticable  and  incapable,  and 
on  the  1 2th  of  December  the  speaker,  followed  by  the  more 
moderate  members,  marched  to  Whitehall  and  returned  their 
powers  to  Cromwell,  while  the  rest  were  expelled  by  the 
army. 

Cromwell,  who  had  no  desire  to  exercise  arbitrary  power 
and  whose  main  object  therefore  was  to  devise  some  constitu- 
tional limit  to  the  authority  which  circumstances  had  placed  in 
his  hands,  now  accepted  the  written  constitution  drawn  up  by 
some  of  the  officers,  called  the  Instrument  of  Government,  the 
earliest  example  of  a  "  fixed  government  "  based  on  "  funda- 
mentals," or  constitutional  guarantees,  and  the  only  example 
of  it  in  English  history.  Its  authors  had  wished  Oliver  to  assume 
the  title  of  king,  but  this  he  repeatedly  refused;  and  in  the 
instrument  he  was  named  Protector,  a  parliament  was  estab- 
lished, limited  in  powers  but  whose  measures  were  not  restricted 
by  the  Protector's  veto  unless  they  contravened  the  constitution, 
the  Protector's  executive"f>ower  being  also  limited  by  the  council. 
The  Protector  and  the  council  together  were  given  a  life  tenure  of 
office,  with  a  large  army  and  a  settled  revenue  sufficient  for  public 
needs  in  time  of  peace;  while  the  clauses  relating  to  religion 
"  are  remarkable  as  laying  down  for  the  first  time  with  authority 
a  principle  of  toleration," 1  though  this  toleration  did  not  apply 
to  Roman  Catholics  and  Anglicans.  On  the  i6th  of  December 
1653  Cromwell  was  installed  in  his  new  office,  dressed  as  a  civilian 
in  a  plain  black  coat  instead  of  in  scarlet  as  a  general,  in  order 

1  C.  H.  Firth,  Cromwell,  p.  324. 
*  John  Morley,  Oliver  Cromwell,  p.  393. 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


493 


the 
Protector. 


to  demonstrate  that  military  government  had  given  place  to 
civil;  for  he  approached  his  task  in  the  same  spirit  that  had 
prompted  his  declaration  to  the  Little  Parliament  of  his 
wish  "  to  divest  the  sword  of  all  power  in  the  Civil  ad- 
ministration." < 

In  the  interval  between  his  nomination  as  Protector  and  the 
summoning  of  his  first  parliament  in  September  1654,  Cromwell 
Thg  was  empowered  together  with  his  council  to  legislate  by 

govern-  ordinances;  and  eighty-two  were  issued  in  all,  dealing 
meat  of  with  numerous  and  various  reforms  and  including 
the  reorganization  of  the  treasury,  the  settlement 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland  and  the  union  of  the  three 
kingdoms,  the  relief  of  poor  prisoners,  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  highways.  These  ordinances  in  many  instances  showed  the 
hand  of  the  true  statesman.  Cromwell  was  essentially  a  con- 
servative reformer;  in  his  attempts  to  purge  the  court  of 
chancery  of  its  most  flagrant  abuses,  and  to  settle  the  ecclesiastical 
affairs  of  the  nation,  he  showed  himself  anxious  to  retain  as 
much  of  the  existing  system  as  could  be  left  untouched  without 
doing  positive  evil.  He  was  out-voted  by  his  council  on  the 
question  of  commutation  of  tithes,  and  his  enlightened  zeal  for 
reforming  the  "  wicked  and  abominable "  sentences  of  the 
criminal  law  met  with  complete  failure.  Most  of  these  ordinances 
were  subsequently  confirmed  by  parliament,  and,  "  on  the  whole, 
this  body  of  dictatorial  legislation,  abnormal  in  form  as  it  is, 
in  substance  was  a  real,  wise  and  moderate  set  of  reforms."1 
His  ordinances  for  the  "  Reformation  of  Manners,"  the  product 
of  the  puritan  spirit,  had  but  a  transitory  effect.  The  Long 
Parliament  had  ordered  a  strict  observance  of  Sunday,  punished 
swearing  severely,  and  made  adultery  a  capital  crime;  Cromwell 
issued  further  ordinances  against  duelling,  swearing,  race- 
meetings  and  cock-fights — the  last  as  tending  to  the  disturbance 
of  the  public  peace  and  the  encouragement  of  "  dissolute 
practices  to  the  dishonour  of  God."  Cromwell  himself  was 
no  ascetic  and  saw  no  harm  in  honest  sport.  He  was  exceedingly 
fond  of  horses  and  hunting,  leaping  ditches  prudently  avoided 
by  the  foreign  ambassadors.  Baxter  describes  him  as  full  of 
animal  spirits,  "  naturally  of  such  a  vivacity,  hilarity  and 
alacrity  as  another  man  is  when  he  hath  drunken  a  cup  of  wine 
too  much,"  and  notes  his  "  familiar  rustic  carriage  with  his 
soldiers  in  sporting."  He  was  fond  of  music  and  of  art,  and  kept 
statues  in  Hampton  Court  Gardens  which  scandalized  good 
puritans.  He  preferred  that  Englishmen  should  be  free  rather 
than  sober  by  compulsion.  Writing  to  the  Scottish  clergy,  and 
rejecting  their  claim  to  suppress  dissent  in  order  to  extirpate 
error,  he  said,  "  Your  pretended  fear  lest  error  should  step  in 
is  like  the  man  who  would  keep  all  wine  out  of  the  country  lest 
men  should  be  drunk.  It  will  be  found  an  unjust  and  unwise 
jealousy  to  deprive  a  man  of  his  natural  liberty  upon  a  sup- 
position he  may  abuse  it.  When  he  doth  abuse  it,  judge."  It 
is  probable  that  very  little  of  this  moral  legislation  was  enforced 
in  practice,  though  special  efforts  were  made  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  major-generals.  Cromwell  expected  more  results 
from  the  effects  of  education  and  culture.  A  part  of  the  revenue 
of  confiscated  church  lands  was  allotted  to  the  maintenance  of 
schools,  and  the  question  of  national  education  was  seriously 
taken  in  hand  by  the  Commonwealth.  Cromwell  was  especially 
interested  in  the  universities.  In  1649  he  had  been  elected 
D.C.L.  at  Oxford,  and  in  1651  chancellor  of  the  University,  an 
office  which  he  held  till  1657,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Richard.  He  founded  a  new  readership  in  Divinity,  and  pre- 
sented Greek  MSS.  to  the  Bodleian.  He  appointed  visitors 
for  the  universities  and  great  public  schools,  and  defended  the 
universities  from  the  attacks  of  the  extreme  sectaries  who 
clamoured  for  their  abolition,  even  Clarendon  allowing  that 
Oxford  "  yielded  a  harvest  of  extraordinary  good  and  sound 
knowledge  in  all  parts  of  learning."  In  1657  he  founded  a  new 
university  at  Durham,  which  was  suppressed  at  the  Restoration. 
He  patronized  learning.  Milton  and  Marvell  were  his  secretaries. 
He  allowed  the  royalists  Hobbes  and  Cowley  to  return  to  England, 
and  lived  in  friendship  with  the  poet  Waller. 

'Frederic  Harrison,  Oliver  Cromwell,  p.  214. 


Cromwell's  religious  policy  included  the  maintenance  of  a 
national  church,  a  policy  acceptable  to  the  army  but  much 
disliked  by  the  Scots,  who  wanted  the  church  to  Cnm- 
control  the  state,  not  the  state  the  church.  He  weir* 
improved  the  incomes  of  poor  livings  by  revenues  church 
derived  from  episcopal  estates  and  the  fines  of  delin-  P°ucy- 
quents.  An  important  feature  of  his  church  government  was 
the  appointment  on  the  zoth  of  March  1654  of  the  "  Triers," 
thirty-eight  clerical  and  lay  commissioners,  who  decided  upon 
the  qualifications  of  candidates  for  livings,  and  without  whose 
recommendation  none  could  be  appointed;  while  an  ordinance 
of  August  1654  provided  for  the  removal  of  the  unfit,  the  latter 
class  including  besides  immoral  persons  those  holding  "  popish  " 
or  blasphemous  opinions,  those  publicly  using  the  English 
Prayer  Book,  and  the  disaffected  to  the  government.  Religious 
toleration  was  granted,  but  with  the  important  exception  that 
some  harsh  measures  were  enacted  against  Anglicans  and 
Roman  Catholics,  to  neither  of  whom  was  liberty  of  worship 
accorded.  The  acts  imposing  fines  for  recusancy,  repealed  in 
1650,  were  later  executed  with  great  severity.  In  1655  a  Pro- 
clamation was  issued  for  administering  the  laws  against  the 
priests  and  Jesuits,  and  some  executions  were  carried  out. 
Complete  toleration  in  fact  was  only  extended  to  Protestant 
nonconformists,  who  composed  the  Cromwellian  established 
church,  and  who  now  meted  out  to  their  antagonists  the  same 
treatment  which  they  themselves  were  later  to  receive  under  the 
Clarendon  Code  of  Charles  II. 

Cromwell  himself,  however,  remained  throughout  a  staunch 
and  constant  upholder  of  religious  toleration.  "  I  had  rather 
that  Mahommedanism  were  permitted  amongst  us,"  Hts 
he  avowed,  "  than  that  one  of  God's  children  should  religion* 
be  persecuted."  Far  in  advance  of  his  contemporaries  toiera- 
on  this  question,  whenever  his  personal  action  is 
disclosed  it  is  invariably  on  the  side  of  forbearance  and  of 
moderation.  It  is  probable,  from  the  absence  of  evidence  to 
the  contrary,  that  much  of  this  severe  legislation  was  never 
executed,  and  it  was  without  doubt  Cromwell's  restraining 
hand  which  moderated  the  narrow  persecuting  spirit  of  the 
executive.  In  practice  Anglican  private  worship  appears  to  have 
been  little  interfered  with;  and  although  the  recusant  fines  were 
rigorously  exacted,  the  same  seems  to  have  been  the  case  with 
the  private  celebration  of  the  mass.  Bordeaux,  the  French 
envoy  in  England,  wrote  that,  in  spite  of  the  severe  laws,  the 
Romanists  received  better  treatment  under  the  Protectorate 
than  under  any  other  government.  Cromwell's  strong  personal 
inclination  towards  toleration  is  clearly  seen  in  his  treatment  of 
the  Jews  and  Quakers.  He  was  unable,  owing  to  the  opposition 
of  the  divines  and  of  the  merchants,  to  secure  the  full  recognition 
of  the  right  to  reside  in  England  of  the  former  who  had  for 
some  time  lived  in  small  numbers  and  traded  unnoticed  and 
untroubled  in  the  country;  but  he  obtained  an  opinion  from 
two  judges  that  there  was  no  law  which  forbade  their  return,  and 
he  gave  them  a  private  assurance  of  his  protection,  with  leave 
to  celebrate  their  private  worship  and  to  possess  a  cemetery. 

Cromwell's  policy  in  this  instance  was  not  overturned  at 
the  Restoration,  and  the  great  Jewish  immigration  into  England 
with  all  its  important  consequences  may  be  held  to  date  practi- 
cally from  these  first  concessions  made  by  Cromwell.  His 
personal  intervention  also  alleviated  the  condition  of  the  Quakers, 
much  persecuted  at  this  time.  In  an  interview  in  1654  the 
sincerity  and  enthusiasm  of  George  Fox  had  greatly  moved 
Cromwell  and  had  convinced  him  of  their  freedom  from  dangerous 
political  schemes.  He  ordered  Fox's  liberation,  and  in  November 
1657  issued  a  general  order  directing  that  Quakers  should  be 
treated  with  leniency,  and  be  discharged  from  confinement. 
Doctrines  directly  attacking  Christianity  Cromwell  regarded, 
indeed,  as  outside  toleration  and  to  be  punished  by  the  civil 
power,  but  at  the  same  time  he  mitigated  the  severity  of  the 
penalty  ordained  by  the  law.  In  general  the  toleration  enjoyed 
under  Cromwell  was  probably  far  larger  than  at  any  period 
since  religion  became  the  contending  ground  of  political  parties, 
and  certainly  greater  than  under  his  immediate  successors. 


494 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


Lilburne  and  the  anabaptists,  and  John  Rogers  and  the  Fifth 
Monarchy  men,  were  prosecuted  only  on  account  of  their  direct 
attacks  upon  the  government,  and  Cromwell  in  his  broad- 
minded  and  tolerant  statesmanship  was  himself  in  advance  of 
his  age  and  his  administration.  He  believed  in  the  spiritual  and 
unseen  rather  than  in  the  outward  and  visible  unity  of 
Christendom. 

In  foreign  policy  Cromwell's  chief  aims  appear  to  have  been 
to  support  and  extend  the  Protestant  faith,  to  promote  English 
trade,  and  to  prevent  a  Stuart  restoration  by  foreign 
a'd  —  tne  religious  mission  of  England  in  the  world, 
her  commercial  interests,  and  her  political  independence 
being  indissolubly  connected  in  his  mind.  The  beginning  of  his 
rule  inherited  a  war  with  France  and  Holland;  the  former  con- 
sequent on  Cromwell's  failure  to  obtain  terms  for  the  Huguenots 
or  the  cession  of  Dunkirk,  and  the  latter  —  for  which  he  was  not 
responsible  —  the  result  of  commercial  rivalry,  of  disputes  concern- 
ing the  rights  of  neutrals,  of  bitter  memories  of  Dutch  misdeeds 
in  the  East  Indies,  and  of  dynastic  causes  arising  from  the  stadt- 
holder,  William  II.  of  Orange,  having  married  Mary,  daughter 
of  Charles  I.  In  1631  the  Dutch  completed  a  treaty  with  Den- 
mark to  injure  English  trade  in  the  Baltic;  to  which  England 
replied  the  same  year  by  the  Navigation  Act,  which  suppressed 
the  Dutch  trade  with  the  English  colonies  and  the  Dutch  fish 
trade  with  England,  and  struck  at  the  Dutch  carrying  trade. 
War  was  declared  in  May  1652  after  a  fight  between  Blake  and 
Tromp  off  Dover,  and  was  continued  with  signal  victories  and 
defeats  on  both  sides  till  1654.  The  religious  element,  however, 
which  predominated  in  Cromwell's  foreign  policy  inclined  him 
to  peace,  and  in  April  of  that  year  terms  were  arranged  by  which 
England  on  the  whole  was  decidedly  the  gainer.  The  Dutch 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  English  flag  in  the  British  seas, 
which  Tromp  had  before  refused;  they  accepted  the  Navigation 
Act,  and  undertook  privately  to  exclude  the  princes  of  Orange 
from  the  command  of  their  forces.  The  Protestant  policy  was 
further  followed  up  by  treaties  with  Sweden  and  Denmark  which 
secured  the  passage  of  the  Sound  for  English  ships  on  the  same 
conditions  as  the  Dutch,  and  a  treaty  with  Portugal  which  liber- 
ated English  subjects  from  the  Inquisition  and  allowed  com- 
merce with  the  Portuguese  colonies.  The  two  great  Roman  Catholic 
powers  now  both  bid  for  Cromwell's  alliance.  Cromwell  wisely 
inclined  towards  France,  for  Spain  was  then  a  greater  menace 
than  France  alike  to  the  Protestant  cause  and  to  the  growth 
of  British  trade  in  the  western  hemisphere;  but  as  no  concessions 
could  be  gained  from  either  France  or  Spain,  the  year  1654 
closed  without  a  treaty  being  made  with  either.  In  December 
1654  Penn  and  Venables  sailed  for  the  West  Indies  with  orders 
to  attack  the  Spanish  colonies  and  the  French  shipping;  and 
for  the  first  time  since  the  Plantagenets  an  English  fleet  appeared 
in  the  Mediterranean,  where  Blake  upheld  the  supremacy  of 
the  English  flag,  made  a  treaty  with  the  dey  of  Algiers,  destroyed 
the  castles  and  ships  of  the  dey  of  Tunis  at  Porto  Farina  on  the 
4th  of  April  1655,  and  liberated  the  English  prisoners  captured 
by  the  pirates. 

The  incident  of  the  massacre  of  the  Protestant  Vaudois  at 
this  time  decided  Cromwell's  policy  in  favour  of  France.  In 
response  to  Cromwell's  splendid  championship  of  the  persecuted 
people  —  which  has  been  well  described  as  "  one  of  the  noblest 
memories  of  England  "  —  France  undertook  to  put  pressure  upon 
Savoy,  -in  consequence  of  which  the  persecution  ceased  for  a 
time;  but  Cromwell's  intervention  had  less  practical  effect  than 
has  generally  been  supposed,  though  "  never  was  the  great 
conception  of  a  powerful  state  having  duties  along  with  interests 
more  magnanimously  realized."1  The  treaty  of  Pinerolo  with- 
drew the  edict  ordering  the  persecutions,  but  they  were  soon 
afterwards  renewed,  and  ip  1658  formed  the  subject  of  another 
remonstrance  by  Cromwell  to  Louis  XIV.  in  his  last  extant  public 
letter  before  his  death.  The  treaty  of  Westminster  (24th  of 
October  1655)  dealt  chiefly  with  commercial  subjects,  and  con- 
tained a  clause  promising  the  expulsion  from  France  of  political 
exiles.  Meanwhile  the  West  Indian  expedition  had  been  defeated 
1  John  Morley,  Oliver  Cromwell,  p.  483. 


at  Hispaniola,  and  war  was  declared  by  Spain,  who  now  pro- 
mised help  to  Charles  II.  for  regaining  his  throne.  Cromwell 
sent  powerful  English  fleets  to  watch  the  coast  of  Spain  and  to 
prevent  communications  with  the  West  Indies  and  America; 
on  the  8th  of  September  1656  a  fleet  of  treasure  ships  was  de- 
stroyed off  Cadiz  by  Stayner,  and  on  the  2oth  of  April  1657 
Blake  performed  his  last  exploit  in  the  destruction  of  the  whole 
Spanish  fleet  of  sixteen  treasure  ships  in  the  harbour  of  Santa 
Cruz  in  Teneriffe.  These  naval  victories  were  followed  by  a 
further  military  alliance  with  France  against  Spain,  termed 
the  treaty  of  Paris  (the  23rd  of  March  1657).  Cromwell  furnished 
6000  men  with  a  fleet  to  join  in  the  attack  upon  Spain  in  Flanders, 
and  obtained  as  reward  Mardyke  and  Dunkirk,  the  former  being 
captured  and  handed  over  on  the  3rd  of  October  1657,  and  the 
latter  after  the  battle  of  the  Dunes  on  the  4th  of  June  1658, 
when  Cromwell's  Ironsides  were  once  more  pitted  against  English 
royalists  fighting  for  the  Spaniards. 

Such  was  the  character  of  Cromwell's  policy  abroad.  The 
inspiring  principle  had  been  the  defence  and  support  of  Pro- 
testantism, the  question  with  Cromwell  being  "  whether  the 
Christian  world  should  be  all  popery."  He  desired  England  to 
be  everywhere  the  protector  of  the  oppressed  and  the  upholder  of 
"  true  religion."  His  policy  was  in  principle  the  policy  of 
Elizabeth,  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and — in  the  following  genera- 
tion— of  William  of  Orange.  He  appreciated,  without  over- 
estimating, the  value  of  England's  insular  position.  "  You  have 
accounted  yourselves  happy,"  he  said  in  January  1658,  "  in 
being  environed  by  a  great  ditch  from  all  the  world  beside. 
Truly  you  will  not  be  able  to  keep  your  ditch  nor  your  shipping 
unless  you  turn  your  ships  and  shipping  into  troops  of  horse 
and  companies  of  foot,  and  fight  to  defend  yourselves  on  terra 
firma."  He  did  not  regard  himself  merely  as  the  trustee  of  the 
national  resources.  These  were  not,  to  be  employed  for  the 
advancement  of  English  interests  alone.  "  God's  interest  in 
the  world,"  he  declared,  "  is  more  extensive  than  all  the  people 
of  these  three  nations.  God  has  brought  us  hither  to  consider 
the  work  we  may  do  in  the  world  as  well  as  at  home."  In  1653 
he  had  made  the  astonishing  proposal  to  the  Dutch  that  England 
and  Holland  should  divide  the  habitable  globe  outside  Europe 
between  them,  that  all  states  maintaining  the  Inquisition  should 
be  treated  as  enemies  by  both  the  proposed  allies,  and  that  the 
latter  "  should  send  missionaries  to  all  peoples  willing  to  receive 
them,  to  inculcate  the  truth  of  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Holy  Gospel." 
Great  writers  like  Milton  and  Harrington  supported  Cromwell's 
view  of  the  duty  of  a  statesman;  the  poet  Waller  acclaimed 
Cromwell  as  "  the  world's  protector  ";  but  the  London  trades- 
men complained  of  the  loss  of  their  Spanish  trade  and  regarded 
Holland  and  not  Spain  as  the  national  enemy.  But  Cromwell's 
dream  of  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  European  Protestantism 
never  even  approached  realization.  War  broke  out  between  the 
Protestant  states  of  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland  and  Branden- 
burg, with  whom  religion  was  entirely  subordinated  to  individual 
aims  and  interests,  and  who  were  far  from  rising  to  Cromwell's 
great  conceptions;  while  the  Vaudois  were  soon  subjected  to 
fresh  persecutions.  On  the  other  hand,  Cromwell  could  justly 
boast  "  there  is  not  a  nation  in  Europe  but  is  very  willing  to  ask 
a  good  understanding  with  you."  He  raised  England  to  a 
predominant  position  among  the  Powers  of  Europe,  and  antici- 
pated the  triumphs  of  the  elder  Pitt.  "  It  was  hard  to  discover," 
wrote  Clarendon,  "  which  feared  him  most,  France,  Spain  or  the 
Low  Countries."  The  vigour  and  success  with  which  he  organized 
the  national  resources  and  upheld  the  national  honour,  asserted 
the  British  sovereignty  of  the  seas,  defended  the  oppressed,  and 
caused  his  name  to  be  feared  and  respected  in  foreign  courts 
where  that  of  Stuart  was  despised  and  neglected,  command  praise 
and  admiration  equally  from  contemporaries  and  from  modern 
critics,  from  his  friends  and  from  his  opponents.  "  He  once  more 
joined  us  to  the  continent,"  wrote  Marvell,  while  Dryden  describes 
him  as  teaching  the  British  lion  to  roar.  "  Cromwell's  greatness 
at  home,"  said  Clarendon,  "  was  a  mere  shadow  of  his  greatness 
abroad."  "  It  is  strange,"  wrote  Pepys  in  1667  under  a  different 
regime,  "  how  everybody  nowadays  reflect  upon  Oliver  and 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


495 


commend  him,  what  brave  things  he  did,  and  made  all  the  neigh- 
bour princes- fear  him."  To  Cromwell  more  than  to  any  other 
British  ruler  belongs  the  credit  of  having  laid  the  foundation  of 
England's  maritime  supremacy  and  of  her  over-sea  empire. 

Cromwell's  colonial  policy  aimed  definitely  at  the  recognition 
and  extension  of  the  British  empire.     By  March  1652  the  whole 

of  the  territory  governed  by  the  Stuarts  had  submitted 
a'ad'the  to  tne  authority  of  the  Commonwealth, and  the  Naviga- 
empire.  tion  Act  of  the  gth  of  October  1651,  by  which  colonial 

goods  could  only  be  imported  to  England  in  British 
ships  and  all  foreign  trade  to  the  colonies  was  restricted  to 
products  of  the  exporting  country,  sought  to  bind  the  colonies 
to  England  and  to  support  the  interests  of  the  shipowners  and 
merchants,  and  therefore  of  the  English  maritime  supremacy, 
the  act  being,  moreover,  memorable  as  the  first  public  measure 
which  treated  the  colonies  as  a  whole  and  as  an  integral  part  of 
Great  Britain.  The  hindrance,  however,  to  the  general  develop- 
ment of  trade  which  the  act  involved  aroused  at  once  loud 
complaints,  to  which  Cromwell  turned  a  deaf  ear,  continuing 
to  seize  Dutch  ships  trading  in  forbidden  goods.  In  the  internal 
administration  of  the  colonies  Cromwell  interfered  very  little, 
maintaining  specially  friendly  relations  with  the  New  Englanders, 
and  showing  no  jealousy  of  their  desire  for  self-government. 
The  war  with  France,  Holland  and  Spain  offered  opportunities  of 
gaining  additional  territory.  A  small  expedition  sent  by  Cromwell 
in  February  1654  to  capture  New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  from 
the  Dutch  was  abandoned  on  the  conclusion  of  peace,  and  the 
fleet  turned  to  attack  the  French  colonies;  Major  Robert  Sedg- 
wick  taking  with  a  handful  of  men  the  fort  of  St  John's,  Port 
Royal  or  Annapolis,  and  the  French  fort  on  the  river  Penobscot, 
the  whole  territory  from  this  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  St  Lawrence 
remaining  British  territory  till  its  cession  in  1667.  '  In  December 
1654  Cromwell  despatched  Penn  and  Venables  with  a  fleet  of 
thirty-eight  ships  and  2500  soldiers  to  the  West  Indies,  their 
numbers  being  raised  by  recruits  at  the  islands  to  7000  men. 
The  attack  on  Hispaniola,  however,  was  a  disastrous  failure, 
and  though  a  landing  at  Jamaica  and  the  capture  of  the  capital, 
Santiago  de  la  Vega,  was  effected,  the  expedition  was  almost 
annihilated  by  disease;  and  Penn  and  Venables  returned  to 
England,  when  Cromwell  threw  them  into  the  Tower.  Cromwell, 
however,  persevered,  reminding  Fortescue,  who  was  left  in  com- 
mand, that  the  war  was  one  against  the  "  Roman  Babylon," 
that  they  were  "  fighting  the  Lord's  battles  ";  and  he  sent  out 
reinforcements  under  Sedgwick,  offering  inducements  to  the 
New  Englanders  to  migrate  to  Jamaica.  In  spite  of  almost 
insuperable  difficulties  the  colony  took  root,  trade  began,  the 
fleet  lay  in  wait  for  the  Spanish  treasure  ships,  the  settlements 
of  the  Spaniards  were  raided,  and  their  repeated  attempts  to 
retake  the  island  were  successfully  resisted.  In  1658  Colonel 
Edward  Doyley,  the  governor,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
thirty  companies  of  Spanish  foot,  and  sent  ten  of  their  flags  to 
Cromwell.  The  Protector,  however,  did  not  live  to  witness  the 
final  triumph  of  his  undertaking,  which  gave  to  England,  as  he 
had  wished,  "  the  mastery  of  those  seas,"  ensuring  the  English 
colonies  against  Spanish  attacks,  and  being  maintained  and 
followed  up  at  the  Restoration. 

Meanwhile,  the  first  parliament  of  the  Protectorate  had  met 
in  September  1654.  A  scheme  of  electoral  reform  had  been 
Parlia-  carried  by  which  members  were  taken  from  the  small 
leotary  and  corrupt  boroughs  and  given  to  the  large  hitherto 

unrepresented  towns,  and  which  provided  for  thirty 

representatives  from  Scotland  and  from  Ireland. 
Instead,  however,  of  proceeding  with  the  work  of  practical 
legislation,  accepting  the  Instrument  of  Government  without 
challenge  as  the  basis  of  its  authority,  the  parliament  immedi- 
ately began  to  discuss  and  find  fault  with  the  constitution 
and  to  debate  about  "  Fundamentals."  About  a  hundred 
members  who  refused  to  engage  not  to  attempt  to  change  the 
form  of  government  were  excluded  on  the  i2th  of  September. 
The  rest  sat  on,  discussing  the  constitution,  drawing  up  lists  of 
damnable  heresies  and  of  incontrovertible  articles  of  faith, 
producing  plans  for  the  reduction  of  the  army  and  demanding 


diffi- 
culties. 


for  themselves  its  control.  Incensed  by  the  dilatory  and  factious 
proceedings  of  the  House,  Cromwell  dismissed  the  parliament 
on  the  22nd  of  January  1655.  Various  dangerous  plots  against 
his  government  and  person  were  at  this  time  rife.  Vane,  Ludlow, 
Robert  Overton,  Harrison  and  Major  Wildman,  the  head  of  the 
Levellers,  were  all  arrested,  while  the  royalist  rising  under 
Penruddock  was  crushed  in  Devonshire.  Other  attacks  upon  his 
authority  were  met  with  the  same  resort  to  force.  The  judges 
and  lawyers  began  to  question  the  legality  of  his  ordinances, 
and  to  doubt  their  competency  to  convict  royalist  prisoners  of 
treason.  A  merchant  named  Cony  refused  to  pay  customs  not 
imposed  by  parliament,  his  counsel  declaring  their  levy  by 
ordinance  to  be  contrary  to  Magna  Carta,  and  Chief  Justice 
Rolle  resigning  in  order  to  avoid  giving  judgment.  Cromwell  was 
thus  inevitably  drawn  farther  along  the  path  of  arbitrary 
government.  He  arrested  the  persons  who  refused  to  pay  taxes, 
and  sent  Cony's  lawyers  to  the  Tower.  Hitherto  he  had  been 
scrupulously  impartial  in  raising  the  best  men  to  the  judicial 
bench,  including  the  illustrious  Matthew  Hale,  but  he  now 
appointed  compliant  judges,  and,  alluding  to  Magna  Carta  in 
terms  impossible  to  transcribe  for  modern  readers,  declared  that 
"  it  should  not  control  his  actions  which  he  knew  were  for  the 
safety  of  the  Commonwealth."  The  country  was  now  divided 
into  twelve  districts  each  governed  by  a  major-general, 
to  whom  was  entrusted  the  duty  of  maintaining  order,  major, 
stamping  out  disaffection  and  plots,  and  executing  generals. 
the  laws  relating  to  public  morals.  They  had  power 
to  transport  royalists  and  those  who  could  not  produce  good 
characters,  and  supported  themselves  by  a  special  tax  of  10% 
on  the  incomes  of  the  royalist  gentry.  Enormous  numbers  of 
ale-houses  were  closed — a  proceeding  which  excited  intense  re- 
sentment and  was  probably  no  slight  cause  of  the  royalist 
reaction.  Still  more  serious  an  encroachment  upon  the  constitu- 
tion perhaps  even  than  the  institution  of  the  major-generals 
was  Cromwell's  tampering  with  the  municipal  franchise  by 
confiscating  the  charters,  depriving  the  burgesses,  now  hostile 
to  his  government,  of  their  parliamentary  votes,  and  limiting 
the  franchise  to  the  corporation;  thereby  corrupting  the  national 
liberties  at  their  very  source,  and  introducing  an  evil  precedent 
only  too  readily  followed  by  Charles  II.  and  James  II. 

It  was  in  these  embarrassed  and  perilous  circumstances  that 
Cromwell  summoned  a  new  parliament  in  the  summer  of  1656. 
In  spite  of  the  influence  and  interference  of  the  major- 
generals  a  large  number  of  members  hostile  to  the 
government  were  returned,  of  whom  Cromwell 's 
council  immediately  excluded  nearly  a  hundred. 
The  major-generals  were  the  object  of  general  attack,  while  the 
special  tax  on  the  royalists  was  declared  unjust,  and  the  bill 
for  its  continuation  rejected  by  a  large  majority.  An  attempt 
at  the  assassination  of  Cromwell  by  Miles  Sindercombe  added 
to  the  general  feeling  of  anxiety  and  unrest.  The  military  rule 
excited  universal  hostility;  there  was  an  earnest  desire  for  a 
settled  and  constitutional  government,  and  the  revival  of  the 
monarchy  in  the  person  of  Cromwell  appeared  the  only  way 
of  obtaining  it.  On  the  23rd  of  February  1657  the  Remonstrance 
offering  Cromwell  the  crown  was  moved  by  Sir  Christopher 
Packe  in  the  parliament  and  violently  resisted  by  the  officers 
and  the  army  party,  one  hundred  officers  waiting  upon  Cromwell 
on  the  27th  to  petition  against  his  acceptance  of  it.  On  the  25th 
of  March  the  Remonstrance,  now  termed  the  Petition  and  Advice, 
and  including  a  new  scheme  of  government,  was  passed  by  a 
majority  of  123  to  62  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  officers; 
and  on  the  3ist  it  was  presented  to  Cromwell  in  the  Banqueting 
House  at  Whitehall  whence  Charles  I.  had  stepped  out  on  to 
the  scaffold.  Cromwell  replied  by  requesting  a  brief  delay  to  ask 
counsel  of  God  and  his  own  heart.  On  the  8th  of  May  about 
thirty  officers  presented  a  petition  to  parliament  against  the 
revival  of  the  monarchy,  and  Fleetwood,  Desborough  and 
Lambert  threatened  to  lay  down  their  commissions.  Accordingly 
Cromwell  the  same  day  refused  the  crown  definitely,  greatly  to 
the  astonishment  both  of  his  followers  and  his  enemies,  who 
considered  his  decision  a  fatal  neglect  of  an  opportunity  of 


496 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


consolidating  his  rule  and  power.  In  particular,  his  acceptance 
of  the  crown  would  have  guaranteed  his  followers,  under  the  act 
of  Henry  VII.,  from  liability  in  the  future  to  the  charge  of  high 
treason  for  having  given  allegiance  to  himself  as  a  de  facto  king. 
Cromwell  himself,  however,  seems  to  have  regarded  the  question 
of  title  as  of  secondary  importance,  as  merely  (to  use  his  own 
words)  "  a  feather  in  the  hat,"  "  a  shining  bauble  for  crowds 
to  gaze  at  or  kneel  to."  "  Your  father,"  wrote  Sir  Francis 
Russell  to  Henry  Cromwell,  "  hath  of  late  made  more  wise 
men  fools  than  ever;  he  laughs  and  is  merry,  but  they  hang 
down  their  heads  and  are  pitifully  out  of  countenance." 

On  the  25th  of  May  the  petition  was  presented  to  Cromwell 
again,  with  the  title  of  Protector  substituted  for  that  of  King, 
and  he  now  accepted  it.  On  the  26th  of  June  1657  he  was  once 
more  installed  as  Protector,  this  time,  however,  with  regal 
ceremony  in  contrast  with  the  simple  formalities  observed  on 
the  first  occasion,  the  heralds  proclaiming  his  accession  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  kings.  Cromwell's  government 
seemed  now  established  on  the  firmer  footing  of  law  and  national 
approval,  he  himself  obtaining  the  powers  though  not  the  title 
of  a  constitutional  monarch,  with  a  permanent  revenue  of 
£1,300,000  for  the  ordinary  expenses  of  the  administration,  the 
command  of  the  forces,  the  right  to  nominate  his  successor  and, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  parliament,  the  members  of  the  council 
and  of  the  new  second  chamber  now  established,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  freedom  of  parliament  was  guaranteed  in  its 
elections.  Difficulties,  however,  appeared  immediately  the 
parliament  got  to  work.  The  republicans  hostile  to  the  Pro- 
tectorate, excluded  before,  now  returned,  took  the  places  vacated 
by  strong  supporters  of  Cromwell  who  had  been  removed  to  the 
Lords,  and  attacked  the  authority  of  the  new  chambsr,  opened 
communications  with  the  disaffected  in  the  city  and  army, 
protested  against  unparliamentary  taxation  and  arbitrary  im- 
prisonment, and  demanded  again  the  supremacy  of  parliament. 
In  consequence  Cromwell  summoned  both  Houses  to  his  presence 
on  the  4th  of  February  1658,  and  having  pointed  out  the  perils 
to  which  they  were  once  more  exposing  the  state,  dissolved 
parliament,  dismissing  the  members  with  the  words,  "  let  God 
be  judge  between  me  and  you.  " 

During  the  period  following  the  dissolution  Cromwell's  power 
appeared  outwardly  at  least  to  be  at  its  height.  The  revolts 
of  royalists  and  sectaries  against  his  government  had  been  easily 
suppressed,  and  the  various  attempts  to  assassinate  him,  con- 
temptuously referred  to  by  Cromwell  as  "  little  fiddling  things," 
were  anticipated  and  prevented  by  an  excellent  system  of  police 
and  spies,  and  by  his  bodyguard  of  160  men.  The  victory  at 
Dunkirk  increased  his  reputation,  while  Louis  XIV.  showed  his 
respect  for  the  ruler  of  England  by  the  splendid  reception  given 
to  the  Protector's  envoy,  Lord  Fauconberg,  and  by  a  com- 
plimentary mission  despatched  to  England. 

The  great  career,  the  incidents  of  which  we  have  been  following, 
was  now,  however,  drawing  to  a  close.  Cromwell's  health  had 
long  been  impaired  by  the  hardships  of  campaigning.  Now  at 
the  age  of  58  he  was  already  old,  and  his  firm,  strong  signature 
had  become  feeble  and  trembling.  The  responsibilities  and 
anxieties  of  government  unassisted  by  parliament,  and  the 
continued  struggle  against  the  force  of  anarchy,  weighed  upon 
him  and  exhausted  his  physical  powers.  "  It  has  been  hitherto," 
Cromwell  said,  "  a  matter  of,  I  think,  but  philosophical  discourse, 
that  a  great  place,  a  great  authority,  is  a  great  burthen.  I  know 
it  is."  "I  can  say  in  the  presence  of  God,  in  comparison  of 
whom  we  are  but  like  poor  creeping  ants  upon  the  earth,  I 
would  have  lived  under  my  woodside  to  have  kept  a  flock  of 
sheep  rather  than  undertook  such  a  government  as  this."  "  I 
doubt  not  to  say,"  declared  his  steward  Maidston,  "  it  drank 
up  his  spirits,  of  which  his  natural  constitution  afforded  a  vast 
stock,  and  brought  him  to  his  grave." 

Domestic  bereavements  added  further  causes  of  grief  and  of 
weakened  vitality.  On  the  6th  of  February  1658  he  lost  his 
favourite  daughter,  Elizabeth  Claypole,  and  he  was  much  cast 
down  by  the  shock  of  his  bereavement  and  of  her  long  sufferings. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  fell  ill  of  an  intermittent  fever,  but  seemed 


to  recover.  On  the  2oth  of  August  George  Fox  met  him  riding 
at  the  head  of  his  guards  in  the  park  at  Hampton  Court,  but 
declared  "  he  looked  like  a  dead  man."  The  next  day  he  again 
fell  ill  and  was  removed  from  Hampton  Court  to  Whitehall, 
where  his  condition  became  worse.  The  anecdotes  believed  and 
circulated  by  the  royalists  that  Cromwell  died  in  all  the  agonies 
of  remorse  and  fear  are  entirely  false.  On  the  3ist  of  August 
he  seemed  to  rally,  and  one  who  slept  in  his  bedchamber  Death 
and  who  heard  him  praying,  declared,  "  a  public  spirit 
to  God's  cause  did  breathe  in  him  to  the  very  last."  During  the 
next  few  days  he  grew  weaker  and  resigned  himself  to  death. 
"  I  would,"  he  said,  "  be  willing  to  be  further  serviceable  to  God 
and  his  people,  but  my*  work  is  done."  For  the  first  time  doubts 
as  to  his  spiritual  state  seemed  to  have  troubled  him.  "  Tell 
me  is  it  possible  to  fall  from  grace  ?  "  he  asked  the  attendant 
minister.  "  No,  it  is  not  possible,"  the  latter  replied.  "  Then," 
said  Cromwell,  "  I  am  safe,  for  I  know  that  I  was  once  in  grace." 
He  refused  medicine  to  induce  sleep,  declaring  "it  is  not  my 
design  to  drink  or  to  sleep,  but  my  design  is  to  make  what  haste 
I  can  to  be  gone."  Towards  the  morning  of  the  3rd  of  September 
he  again  spoke,  "  using  divers  holy  expressions,  implying  much 
inward  consolation  and  peace,"  together  with  "  some  exceeding 
self-debasing  words,  annihilating  and  judging  himself."  He 
died  on  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  his  day  of  triumph,  the 
anniversary  both  of  Dunbar  and  of  Worcester.  His  body  was 
privately  buried  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  the  public  funeral  taking  place  on  the  23rd  of  November, 
with  great  ceremony  and  on  the  same  scale  as  that  of  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  and  costing  the  enormous  sum  of  £60,000.  At  the 
Restoration  his  body  was  exhumed,  and  on  the  3oth  of  January 
1661,  the  anniversary  of  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  it  was 
drawn  on  a  sledge  from  Holborn  to  Tyburn,  together  with  the 
bodies  of  Ireton  and  Bradshaw,  accompanied  by  "  the  universal 
outcry  and  curses  of  the  people."  There  it  was  hanged  on  a 
gallows,  and  in  the  evening  taken  down,  when  the  head  was  cut 
off  and  set  up  upon  Westminster  Hall,  where  it  remained  till  as 
late  as  1684,  the  trunk  being  thrown  into  a  pit  underneath  the 
gallows.  According  to  various  legends  Cromwell's  last  burial 
place  is  stated  to  be  Westminster  Abbey,  Naseby  Field  or  New- 
burgh  Abbey;  but  there  appears  to  be  no  evidence  to  support 
them,  or  to  create  any  reasonable  doubt  that  the  great  Protector's 
dust  lies  now  where  it  was  buried,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
present  Connaught  Square. 

As  a  military  commander  Cromwell  was  as  prompt  as  Gustavus, 
as  ardent  as  Conde,  as  exact  as  Turenne.  These,  moreover, 
were  soldiers  from  their  earliest  years.  Conde's  fame  cnm- 
was  established  in  his  twenty-second  year,  Gustavus  weir* 
was  twenty-seven  and  Turenne  thirty-three  at  the  military 
beginning  of  their  careers  as  commanders-in-chief.  **"'<"• 
Cromwell,  on  the  other  hand,  was  forty-three  when  he  fought 
in  his  first  battle.  In  less  than  two  years  he  had  taken  his  rank 
as  one  of  the  great  cavalry  leaders  of  history.  His  campaigns 
of  1648  and  1651  placed  him  still  higher  as  a  great  commander. 
Worcester,  his  crowning  victory,  has  been  indicated  by  a  German 
critic  as  the  prototype  of  Sedan.  Yet  his  early  military  education 
could  have  consisted  at  most  of  the  perusal  of  the  Swedish 
Intelligencer  and  the  practice  of  riding.  It  is  not,  therefore,  strange 
that  Cromwell's  first  essays  in  war  were  characterised  more  by 
energy  than  technical  skill.  It  was  some  time  before  he  realized 
the  spirit  of  cavalry  tactics,  of  which  he  was  later  so  complete  a 
master.  At  first  he  speaks  with  complacence  of  a  milfe,  and 
reports  that  he  and  his  men  "  agreed  to  charge  "  the  enemy. 
But  before  long  he  came  to  understand,  as  no  other  commander 
of  the  age  save  Gustavus  understood  it,  the  value  of  true 
"  shock-action."  Of  Marston  Moor  he  writes, "  we  never  charged 
but  we  routed  them  ";  and  thereafter  his  battles  were  decided 
by  the  shock  of  closed  squadrons,  the  fresh  impulse  of  a  second 
and  even  a  third  line,  and  above  all  by  the  unquestioning  dis- 
cipline and  complete  control  over  their  horses  to  which  he 
trained  his  men.  This  gave  them  not  merely  greater  steadi- 
ness, but,  what  was  far  more  important,  the  power  of  rallying 
and  reforming  for  a  second  effort.  The  Royalist  cavalry  was 


CROMWELL,  OLIVER 


497 


disorganized  by  victory  as  often  as  by  defeat,  and  illustrated  on 
numerous  fields  the  now  discredited  maxim  that  cavalry  cannot 
charge  twice  in  one  day.  Cromwell  shares  with  Frederick  the 
Great  the  credit  of  founding  the  modern  cavalry  spirit.  As  a 
horsemaster  he  was  far  superior  to  Murat.  His  marches  in  the 
eastern  campaign  of  1643  show  a  daily  average  at  one  time  of 
28  m.  as  against  the  21  of  Murat's  cavalry  in  the  celebrated 
pursuit  after  Jena.  And  this  result  he  achieved  with  men  of 
less  than  two  years'  service,  men,  too,  more  heavily  equipped 
and  worse  mounted  than  the  veterans  of  the  Grande  Armie. 
It  has  been  said  that  his  battles  were  decided  by  shock  action; 
the  real  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  the  word  "  decided." 
The  swift,  unhesitating  charge  was  more  than  unusual  in  the 
wars  of  the  time,  and  was  possible  only  because  of  the  peculiar 
earnestness  of  the  men  who  fought  the  English  war.  The. 
professional  soldiers  of  the  Continent  could  rarely  be  brought 
to  force  a  decision;  but  the  English,  contending  for  a  cause, 
were  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  modern  "  nation  in  arms  "; 
and  having  taken  up  arms  wished  to  decide  the  quarrel  by  arms. 
This  feeling  was  not  less  conspicuous  in  the  far-ranging  rides, 
or  raids,  of  the  Cromwellian  cavalry.  At  one  time,  as  in  the 
case  of  Blechingdon,  they  would  perform  strange  exploits  worthy 
of  the  most  daring  hussars;  at  another  their  speed  and  tenacity 
paralyses  armies.  Not  even  Sheridan's  horsemen  in  1864-65 
did  their  work  more  effectively  than  did  the  English  squadrons 
in  the  Preston  campaign.  Cromwell  appreciated  this  feeling  at 
its  exact  worth,  and  his  pre-eminence  in  the  Civil  War  was  due 
to  this  highest  gift  of  a  general,  the  power  of  feeling  the  pulse 
of  his  army.  Resolution,  vigour  and  clear  sight  marked  his 
conduct  as  a  commander-in-chief .  He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than 
the  annihilation  of  the  enemy's  forces,  which  Clausewitz  was 
the  first  to  define,  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  later,  as  the  true 
objective  of  military  operations.  Not  merely  as  exemplifying 
the  tactical  envelopment,  but  also  as  embodying  the  central 
idea  of  grand  strategy,  was  Worcester  the  prototype  of  Sedan. 
The  contrast  between  a  campaign  of  Cromwell's  and  one  of 
Turenne's  is  far  more  than  remarkable,  and  the  observation  of 
a  military  critic  who  maintains  that  Cromwell's  art  of  war  was 
two  centuries  in  advance  of  its  time,  finds  universal  acceptance. 

At  a  time  when  throughout  the  rest  of  Europe  armies  were 
manceuvring  against  one  another  with  no  more  than  a  formal 
result,  the  English  and  Scots  were  fighting  decisive  battles; 
and  Cromwell's  battles  were  more  decisive  than  those  of  any 
other  leader.  Until  his  fiery  energy  made  itself  felt,  hardly  any 
army  on  either  side  actually  suffered  rout;  but  at  Marston  Moor 
and  Naseby  the  troops  of  the  defeated  party  were  completely  dis- 
solved, while  at  Worcester  the  royalist  army  was  annihilated. 
Dunbar  attested  his  constancy  and  gave  proof  that  Cromwell 
was  a  master  of  the  tactics  of  all  arms.  Preston  was  an  example 
like  Austerlitz  of  the  two  stages  of  a  battle  as  defined  by 
Napoleon,  the  first  floltante,  the  second  foudroyante. 

Cromwell's  strategic  manoeuvres,  if  less  adroit  than  those  of 
Turenne  or  Montecucculi,  were,  in  accordance  with  his  own 
genius  and  the  temper  of  his  army,  directed  always  to  forcing  a 
decisive  battle.  That  he  was  also  capable  of  strategy  of  the  other 
type  was  clear  from  his  conduct  of  the  Irish  War.  But  his 
chief  work  was  of  a  different  kind  and  done  on  a  different  scale. 
The  greatest  feat  of  Turenne  was  the  rescue  of  one  province  in 
1674-1675;  Cromwell,  in  1648  and  again  in  1651,  had  two-thirds 
of  England  and  half  of  Scotland  for  his  theatre  of  war.  Turenne 
levelled  down  his  methods  to  suit  the  ends  which  he  had  in  view. 
The  task  of  Cromwell  was  far  greater.  Any  comparison  between 
the  generalship  of  these  two  great  commanders  would  therefore 
be  misleading,  for  want  of  a  common  basis.  It  is  when  he  is 
contrasted  with  other  commanders,  not  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV., 
but  of  the  Civil  War,  that  Cromwell's  greatness  is  most  con- 
spicuous. Whilst  others  busied  themselves  with  the  application 
of  the  accepted  rules  of  the  Dutch,  the  German,  and  other  formal 
schools  of  tactical  thought,  Cromwell  almost  alone  saw  clearly 
into  the  heart  of  the  questions  at  issue,  and  evolved  the  strategy, 
the  tactics,  and  the  training  suited  to  the  work  to  which  he  had 
set  his  hand. 


, 


Cromwell's  career  as  a  statesman  has  been  already  traced  in 
its  different  spheres,  and  an  endeavour  has  been  made  to  show  the 
breadth  and  wisdom  of  his  conceptions  and  at  the  crom- 
same  time  the  cause  of  the  immediate  failure  of  his  weir* 
constructive  policy.  Whether  if  Cromwell  had  sur- 
vived  he  would  have  succeeded  in  gradually  establishing 
legal  government  is  a  question  which  can  never  be  answered. 
His  administration  as  it  stands  in  history  is  undoubtedly  open 
to  the  charge  that  after  abolishing  the  absolutism  of  the  ancient 
monarchy  he  substituted  for  it,  not  law  and  liberty,  but  a  military 
tyranny  far  more  despotic  than  the  most  arbitrary  administration 
of  Charles  I.  The  statement  of  Vane  and  Ludlow,  when  they 
refused  to  acknowledge  Cromwell's  government,  that  it  was 
"  in  substance  a  re-establishment  of  that  which  we  all  engaged 
against,"  was  true.  The  levy  of  ship  money  and  customs  by 
Charles  sinks  into  insignificance  beside  Cromwell's  wholesale 
taxation  by  ordinances;  the  inquisitional  methods  of  the 
major-generals  and  the  unjust  and  exceptional  taxation  of 
royalists  outdid  the  scandals  of  the  extra-legal  courts  of  the 
Stuarts;  the  shipment  of  British  subjects  by  Cromwell  as  slaves 
to  Barbados  has  no  parallel  in  the  Stuart  administration;  while 
the  prying  into  morals,  the  encouragement  of  informers,  the 
attempt  to  make  the  people  religious  by  force,  were  the  counter- 
part of  the  Laudian  system,  and  Cromwell's  drastic  treatment 
of  the  Irish  exceeded  anything  dreamed  of  by  Strafford.  He 
discovered  that  parliamentary  government  after  all  was  not 
the  easy  and  plain  task  that  Pym  and  Vane,  had  imagined,  and 
Cromwell  had  in  the  end  no  better  justification  of  his  rule  than 
that  which  Strafford  had  suggested  to  Charles  I.,  —  "  parliament 
refusing  (to  give  support  and  co-operation  in  carrying  on  the 
government)  you  are  acquitted  before  God  and  man."  The 
fault  was  no  doubt  partly  Cromwell's  own.  He  had  neither  the 
patience  nor  the  tact  for  managing  loquacious  parliamentary 
pedants.  But  the  chief  responsibility  was  not  his  but  theirs. 
John  Morley  (Oliver  Cromwell,  p.  297)  has  truly  observed  of  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.,  that  it  was  "  an  act  of  war,  and  was 
just  as  defensible  or  just  as  assailable,  and  on  the  same  grounds, 
as  the  war  itself."  The  parliamentary  party  took  leave  of 
legality  when  they  took  up  arms  against  the  sovereign,  and  it 
was  therefore  idle  to  dream  of  a  formally  legal  sanction  for  any 
of  their  subsequent  revolutionary  proceedings.  An  entirely 
fresh  start  had  to  be  made.  A  new  foundation  had  to  be  laid 
on  which  a  new  system  of  legality  might  be  reared.  It  was  for 
this  that  Cromwell  strove.  If  the  Rump  or  the  Little  Parliament 
had  in  a  business-like  spirit  assumed  and  discharged  the  functions 
of  a  constituent  assembly,  such  a  foundation  might  have  been 
provided.  It  was  only  when  five  years  had  passed  since  the 
death  of  the  king  without  any  "  settlement  of  the  nation  "  being 
arrived  at,  that  Cromwell  at  last  accepted  a  constitution  drafted 
by  his  military  officers,  and  attempted  to  impose  it  on  the 
parliament.  And  it  was  not  until  the  parliament  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  Instrument  as  the  required  starting  point  for 
the  new  legality,  that  Cromwell  in  the  last  resort  took  arbitrary 
power  into  his  hands  as  the  only  method  remaining  for  carrying 
on  the  government.  For  much  as  he  hated  arbitrariness,  he 
hated  anarchy  still  more.  While  therefore  Cromwell's  adminis- 
tration became  in  practice  little  different  from  that  of  Strafford, 
the  aims  and  ideals  of  the  two  statesmen  had  nothing  in  common. 
It  is  therefore  profoundly  true,  as  observed  by  S.  R.  Gardiner 
(Cromwell,  p.  315),  that  "  what  makes  Cromwell's  biography 
so  interesting  in  his  perpetual  effort  to  walk  in  the  paths  of 
legality  —  an  effort  always  frustrated  by  the  necessities  of  the 
situation.  The  man  —  it  is  ever  so  with  the  noblest  —  was  greater 
than  his  work."  The  nature  of  Cromwell's  statesmanship  is  to 
be  -seen  rather  in  his  struggles  against  the  retrograde  influences 
and  opinions  of  his  time,  in  the  many  political  reforms  anticipated 
though  not  originated  or  established  by  himself,  and  in  his 
religious,  perhaps  fanatical,  enthusiasm,  than  in  the  outward 
character  of  his  administration,  which,  however,  in  spite  of  its 
despotism  shows  itself  in  its  inner  spirit  of  justice,  patriotism 
and  self-sacrifice,  so  immeasurably  superior  to  that  of  the 
Stuarts. 


498 


CROMWELL,  RICHARD 


Cromwell's  personal  character  has  been  inevitably  the  subject 
of   unceasing   controversy.     According   to    Clarendon   he   was 
Personal     "  &  brave  l)ad  man>"  with  "  a11  the  wickedness  against 
character,    which  damnation  is  pronounced  and  for  which  hell  fire 
is  prepared."     Yet  he  cannot  deny  that  "  he  had  some 
virtues  which  have  caused  the  memory  of  some  men  in  all  ages 
to  be  celebrated";    and  admits  that  "he  was  not  a  man  of 
blood,"  and  that  he  possessed  "  a  wonderful  understanding 
in  the  natures  and  humour  of  men,"  and  "  a  great  spirit,  an 
admirable  circumspection  and  sagacity  and  a  most  magnanimous 
resolution."    According  to  contemporary  republicans  he  was 
a  mere  selfish  adventurer,  sacrificing  the  national  cause  "  to 
the  idol  of  his  own  ambition."     Richard  Baxter  thought  him  a 
good  man  who  fell  before  a  great  temptation.     The  writers  of 
the  next  century  generally  condemned  him  as  a  mixture   of 
knave,  fanatic  and  hypocrite,  and  in  1839  John  Forster  endorsed 
Lander's  verdict  that  Cromwell  lived  a  hypocrite  and  died  a 
traitor.     These  crude  ideas  of  Cromwell's  character  were  extin- 
guished by  Macaulay's  irresistible  logic,  by  the  publication  of 
Cromwell's  letters  by  Carlyle  in  1845,  which  showed  Cromwell 
clearly  to  be  "  not  a  man  of  falsehoods,  but  a  man  of  truth  "; 
and  by  Gardiner,  whom,  however,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
follow  when  he  represents  Cromwell  as  "  a  typical  Englishman." 
In   particular   that   conception   which   regarded   "  ambition " 
as  the  guiding  motive  in  his  career  has  been  dispelled  by  a  more 
intimate  and  accurate  knowledge  of  his  life;  this  shows  him  to 
have  been  very  little  the  creator  of  his  own  career,  which  was 
largely  the  result  of  circumstances  outside  his  control,   the 
influence  of  past  events  and  of  the  actions  of  others,  the  pressure 
of  the  national  will,  the  natural  superiority  of  his  own  genius. 
"  A  man  never  mounts  so  high,"  Cromwell  said  to  the  French 
ambassador  in  1647,  "  as  when  he  does  not  know  where  he  is 
going."     "  These  issues  and  events,"  he  said  in  1656,  "  have  not 
been  forecast,  but  were  providences  in  things."     His  "  hypocrisy  " 
consists   principally   in   the    Biblical   language   he   employed, 
which  with  Cromwell,  as  with  many  of  his  contemporaries, 
was  the  most  natural  way  of  expressing  his  feelings,  and  in  the 
ascription  of  every  incident  to  the  direct  intervention  of  God's 
providence,   which   was  really   Cromwell's  sincere  belief  and 
conviction.     In  later  times  Cromwell's  character  and  adminis- 
tration have  been  the  subject  of  almost   too  indiscriminate 
eulogy,  which  has  found  tangible  shape  in  the  statue  erected 
to  his  memory  at  Westminster  in  1899.     Here  Cromwell's  effigy 
stands  in  the  midst  of  the  sanctuaries  of  the  law,  the  church, 
and  the  parliament,  the  three  foundations  of  the  state  which  he 
subverted,  and  in  sight  of  Whitehall  where  he  destroyed  the 
monarchy  in  blood.    Yet  Cromwell's  monument  is  not  altogether 
misplaced  in  such  surroundings,  for  in  him  are  found  the  true 
principles  of  piety,  of  justice,  of  liberty  and  of  governance. 

John  Maidston,  Cromwell's  steward,  gives  the  "  character 
of  his  person."  ''  His  body  was  compact  and  strong,  his  stature 
under  six  foot  (I  believe  about  two  inches),  his  head  so  shaped 
as  you  might  see  it  a  storehouse  and  a  shop  both  of  a  vast  treasury 
of  natural  parts."  "  His  temper  exceeding  fiery,  as  I  have  known, 
but  the  flame  of  it,  ...  kept  down  for  the  most  part,  was  soon 
allayed  with  those  moral  endowments  he  had.  He  was  naturally 
compassionate  towards  objects  in  distress  even  to  an  effeminate 
measure;  though  God  had  made  him  a  heart  wherein  was  left 
little  room  for  fear, .  .  .  yet  did  he  exceed  in  tenderness  towards 
sufferers.  A  larger  soul  I  think  hath  seldom  dwelt  in  a  house  of 
clay  than  his  was.  I  believe  if  his  story  were  impartially  trans- 
mitted and  the  unprejudiced  world  well  possessed  with  it,  she 
would  add  him  to  her  nine  worthies."  By  his  wife  Elizabeth 
Bourchier,  Cromwell  had  four  sons,  Robert  (who  died  in  1639), 
Oliver  (who  died  in  1644  while  serving  in  his  father's  regiment), 
Richard,  who  succeeded  him  as  Protector,  and  Henry.  He  also 
had  four  daughters.  Of  these  Bridget  was  the  wife  successively 
of  Ireton  and  Fleetwood,  Elizabeth  married  John  Claypole, 
Mary  was  wife  of  Thomas  Belasyse,  Lord  Fauconberg;  and 
Frances  was  the  wife  of  Sir  Robert  Rich,  and  secondly  of  Sir 
John  Russell.  The  last  male  descendant  of  the  Protector  was 
his  great-great-grandson,  Oliver  Cromwell  of  Cheshunt,  who  died 


in  1821.  By  the  female  line,  through  his  children  Henry, 
Bridget  and  Frances,  the  Protector  has  had  numerous 
descendants,  and  is  the  ancestor  of  many  well-known  families.1 

BIBLIOGRA  PHY. — A  detailed  bibliography,  with  the  chief  authorities 
for  particular  periods,  will  be  found  in  the  article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat 
Biography,  by  C.  H.  Firth  (1888).  The  following  works  may  be 
mentioned:  S.  R.  Gardiner's  Hist,  of  England  (1883-1884)  and  of 
the  Great  Civil  War  (1886),  Cromwell's  Place  in  History  (1897),  Oliver 
Cromwell  (1901),  and  History  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate 
(1894-1903);  Cromwell,  by  C.  H.  Firth  (1900);  Oliver  Cromwell  by 
J.  Morley  (1904);  The  Last  Years  of  the  Protectorate,  1616-1658, 
2  vols.,  by  C.  H.  Firth  (1909) ;  Oliver  Cromwell,  by  Fred.  Harrison 
(1903) ;  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  by  T.  Carlyle,  ed.  by 
S.  C.  Lomas,  with  an  introd.  by  C.  H.  Firth  (the  best  edition,  rejecting 
the  spurious  Squire  papers,  1904) ;  Oliver  Cromwell,  by  F.  Hoenig 
(1887) ;  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  Protector,  by  R.  F.  D.  Palgrave  (1890) ; 
Oliver  Cromwell  .  .  .  and  the  Royalist  Insurrection  ...of  March 
•1655,  by  the  same  author  (1903);  Oliver  Cromwell,  by  Theodore 
Roosevelt  (1900) ;  Oliver  Cromwell,  by  R.  Pauli  (tr.  1888) ;  Cromwell, 
a  Speech  delivered  at  the  Cromwell  Tercentenary  Celebration  1809,  by 
Lord  Rosebery  (1900);  The  Two  Protectors,  by  Sir  Richard  Tangye 
(valuable  for  its  illustrations,  1899);  Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane,  by 
W.  W.  Ireland  (1905) ;  Die  Politik  des  Protectors  Oliver  Cromwell  in 
der  Auffassung  und  Tdtigkeit  ...  des  Staatssekretars  John  Thurloe, 
by  Freiherr  v.  Bischofshausen  (1899) ;  Cromwell  as  a  Soldier,  by  T.  S. 
Baldock  (1899) ;  Cromwell's  Army,  by  C.  H.  Firth  (1902) ;  The  Diplo- 
matic Relations  between  Cromwell  and  Charles  X.  of  Sweden,  by  G.  Jones 
(!897) ;  The  Interregnum,  by  F.  A.  Inderwick  (dealing  with  the  legal 
aspect  of  Cromwell's  rule,  1891);  Administration  of  the  Royal  Navy, 
by  M.  Oppenheim  (1896);  History  of  the  English  Church  during  the 
Civil  Wars,  by  W.  Shaw  (.1900) ;  The  Protestant  Interest  in  Cromwell's 
Foreign  Relations,  by  J.  N.  Bowman  (1900);  Cromwell's  Jewish 
Intelligences  (1891),  Crypto- Jews  under  the  Commonwealth  (1894), 
Menasseh  Ben  Israel's  Mission  to  Oliver  Cromwell  (1901),  by  L.  Wolf 

(P.  C.  Y.;    C.  F.  A.;   R.  J.  M.) 

CROMWELL,  RICHARD  (1626-1712),  lord  protector  of 
England,  eldest  surviving  son  of  Oliver  Cromwell  and  of  Elizabeth 
Bourchier,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  October  1626.  He  served 
in  the  parliamentary  army,  and  in  1647  was  admitted  a  member 
of  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1649  he  married  Dorothy,  daughter  of 
Richard  Mayor,  or  Major,  of  Hursley  in  Hampshire.  He 
represented  Hampshire  in  the  parliament  of  1654,  and  Cambridge 
University  in  that  of  1656,  and  in  November  1655  was  appointed 
one  of  the  council  of  trade.  But  he  was  not  brought  forward 
by  his  father  or  prepared  in  any  way  for  his  future  greatness, 
and  lived  in  the  country  occupied  with  field  sports,  till  after  the 
institution  of  the  second  protectorate  in  1657  and  the  recognition 
of  Oliver's  right  to  name  his  successor.  On  the  i8th  of  July  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford, 
on  the  3ist  of  December  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state,  and  about  the  same  time  obtained  a  regiment  and  a 
seat  in  Cromwell's  House  of  Lords.  He  was  received  generally 
as  his  father's  successor,  and  was  nominated  by  him  as  such  on 
his  death-bed.  He  was  proclaimed  on  the  3rd  of  September  1658, 
and  at  first  his  accession  was  acclaimed  with  general  favour  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  Dissensions,  however,  soon  broke  out 
between  the  military  faction  and  the  civilians.  Richard's 
elevation,  not  being  "  general  of  the  army  as  his  father  was," 
was  distasteful  to  the  officers,  who  desired  the  appointment  of 
a  commander-in-chief  from  among  themselves,  a  request  refused 
by  Richard.  The  officers  in  the  council,  moreover,  showed 
jealousy  of  the  civil  members,  and  to  settle  these  difficulties 
and  to  provide  money  a  parliament  was  summoned  on  the  27th 
of  January  1659,  which  declared  Richard  protector,  and  incurred 
the  hostility  of  the  army  by  criticizing  severely  the  arbitrary 
military  government  of  Oliver's  last  two  years,  and  by  impeaching 
one  of  the  major-generals.  A  council  of  the  army  accordingly 
established  itself  in  opposition  to  the  parliament,  and  demanded 
on  the  6th  of  April  a  justification  and  confirmation  of  former 
sroceedings,  to  which  the  parliament  replied  by  forbidding 
meetings  of  the  army  council  without  the  permission  of  the 
Drotector,  and  insisting  that  all  officers  should  take  an  oath  not 
:o  disturb  the  proceedings  in  parliament.  The  army  now  broke 
nto  open  rebellion  and  assembled  at  St  James's.  Richard  was 
completely  in  their  power;  he  identified  himself  with  their 
cause,  and  the  same  night  dissolved  the  parliament.  The  Long 
1  Frederic  Harrison,  Cromwell,  p.  34. 


CROMWELL,  THOMAS 


499 


Parliament  (which  re-assembled  on  the  7th  of  May)  and  the 
heads  of  the  army  came  to  an  agreement  to  effect  his  dismissal; 
and  in  the  subsequent  events  Richard  appears  to  have  played  a 
purely  passive  part,  refusing  to  make  any  attempt  to  keep  his 
power  or  to  forward  a  restoration  of  the  monarchy.  On  the  25th 
of  May  his  submission  was  communicated  to  the  House.  He 
retired  into  private  life,  heavily  burdened  with  debts  incurred 
during  his  tenure  of  office  and  narrowly  escaping  arrest  even 
before  he  quitted  Whitehall.  In  the  summer  of  1660  he  left 
England  for  France,  where  he  lived  in  seclusion  under  the  name 
of  John  Clarke,  subsequently  removing  elsewhere,  either  (for 
the  accounts  differ)  to  Spain,  to  Italy,  or  to  Geneva.  He  was 
long  regarded  by  the  government  as  a  dangerous  person,  and  in 
1671  a  strict  search  was  made  for  him  but  without  avail.  He 
returned  to  England  about  1680  and  lived  at  Cheshunt,  in  the 
house  of  Sergeant  Pengelly,  where  he  died  on  the  I2th  of  July 
1712,  being  buried  in  Hursley  church  in  Hampshire.  Richard 
Cromwell  was  treated  with  general  contempt  by  his  contempor- 
aries, and  invidiously  compared  with  his  great  father.  According 
to  Mrs  Hutchinson  he  was  "  gentle  and  virtuous  but  a  peasant  in 
his  nature  and  became  not  greatness."  He  was  nevertheless 
a  man  of  respectable  abilities,  of  an  irreproachable  private 
character,  and  a  good  speaker. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See  the  article  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biography, 
and  authorities  there  cited ;  Noble's  Memoirs  of  the  Protectoral  House 
of  Cromwell  (1787);  Memoirs  of  the  Protector  .  . .  and  of  his  Sons, 
by  O.  Cromwell  (1820);  The  Two  Protectors,  by  Sir  R.  Tan^ye  (1899); 
Kebleland  and  a  Short  Life  of  Richard  Cromwell,  by  W.  T.  Warren 
(1900);  Letters  and  Speeches  of  O.  Cromwell,  by  T.  Carlyle  (1904); 
Eng.  Hist.  Review,  xiii.  93  (letters)  and  xviii.  79 ;  Col.  of  State  Papers, 
Domestic,  Lansdowne  MSS.  in  British  Museum.  (P.  C.  V.) 

CROMWELL,  THOMAS,  EARL  OF  ESSEX  (i48s?-iS4o),  born 
probably  not  later  than  1485  and  possibly  a  year  or  two  earlier, 
was  the  only  son  of  Walter  Cromwell,  alias  Smyth,  a  brewer, 
smith  and  fuller  of  Putney.  His  grandfather,  John  Cromwell, 
seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  Nottinghamshire  family,  of  whom 
the  most  distinguished  member  was  Ralph,  Lord  Cromwell 
(i394?-i4S6),  lord  treasurer;  and  he  migrated  from  Norwell, 
Co.  Notts,  to  Wimbledon  some  time  before  1461.  John's  son, 
Walter,  seems  to  have  acquired  the  alias  Smyth  from  being 
apprenticed  to  his  uncle,  William  Smyth,  "  armourer,"  of  Wimble- 
don. He  was  of  a  turbulent,  vicious  disposition,  perpetually 
being  fined  in  the  manor-court  for  drunkenness,  for  evading  the 
assize  of  beer,  and  for  turning  more  than  his  proper  number  of 
beasts  on  to  Putney  Common.  Once  he  was  punished  for  a 
sanguinary  assault,  and  his  connexion  with  Wimbledon  ceased  in 
1514  when  he  "  falsely  and  fraudulently  erased  the  evidences  and 
terrures  of  the  lord."  Till  that  time  he  had  flourished  like  the 
bay-tree. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  absence  of  Thomas  Cromwell's 
name  from  the  Wimbledon  manor  rolls  is  almost  a  presumption 
of  respectability.  Perhaps  it  would  be  safer  to  attribute  it  to 
Cromwell's  absence  from  the  manor.  He  is  said  to  have 
quarrelled  with  his  father — no  great  crime  considering  the  father's 
character — and  fled  to  Italy,  where  he  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
French  army  at  the  battle  of  the  Garigliano  (Dec.  1503).  He 
escaped  from  the  battle-field  to  Florence,  where  he  was  befriended 
by  the  banker  Frescobaldi,  a  debt  which  he  appears  to  have 
repaid  with  superabundant  interest  later  on.  He  is  next  heard 
of  at  Antwerp  as  a  trader,  and  about  1510  he  was  induced  to 
accompany  a  Bostonian  to  Rome  in  quest  of  some  papal  in- 
dulgences for  a  Boston  gild;  Cromwell  secured  the  boon  by  the 
timely  present  of  some  choice  sweetmeats  to  Julius  II.  In  1512 
there  is  some  slight  evidence  that  he  was  at  Middelburg,  and  also 
in  London,  engaged  in  business  as  a  merchant  and  solicitor. 
His  marriage  must  have  taken  place  about  the  same  time, 
judging  from  the  age  of  his  son  Gregory.  His  wife  was  Elizabeth 
Wykes,  daughter  of  a  well-to-do  shearman  of  Putney,  whose 
business  Cromwell  carried  on  in  combination  with  his  own. 

For  about  eight  years  after  1512  we  hear  nothing  of  Cromwell. 
A  letter  to  him  from  Cicely,  marchioness  of  Dorset,  in  which  he 
is  seen  in  confidential  business  relations  with  her  ladyship,  is 
probably  earlier  than  1520,  and  it  is  possible  that  Cromwell  owed 


his  introduction  to  Wolsey  to  the  Dorset  family.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  stated  that  his  cousin,  Robert  Cromwell,  vicar  of 
Battersea  under  the  cardinal,  gave  Thomas  the  stewardship  of 
the  archiepiscopal  estate  of  York  House.  At  any  rate  he  was 
advising  Wolsey  on  legal  points  in  1520,  and  from  that  date  he 
occurs  frequently  not  only  as  mentor  to  the  cardinal,  but  to 
noblemen  and  others  when  in  difficulties,  especially  of  a  financial 
character;  he  made  large  sums  as  a  money-lender. 

In  1523  Cromwell  emerges  into  public  life  as  a  member  of 
parliament.  The  official  returns  for  this  election  are  lost  and 
it  is  not  known  for  what  constituency  he  sat,  but  we  have  a 
humorous  letter  from  Cromwell  describing  its  proceedings,  and 
a  remarkable  speech  which  he  wrote  and  perhaps  delivered, 
opposing  the  reckless  war  with  France  and  indicating  a  sounder 
policy  which  was  pursued  after  Wolsey's  fall.  If,  he  said,  war 
was  to  be  waged,  it  would  be  better  to  secure  Boulogne  than 
advance  on  Paris;  if  the  king  went  in  person  and  were  killed 
without  leaving  a  male  heir,  he  hinted  there  would  be  civil  war; 
it  would  be  wiser  to  attempt  a  union  with  Scotland,  and  in  any 
case  the  proposed  subsidy  would  be  a  fatal  drain  on  the  resources 
of  the  realm.  Neither  Henry  nor  Wolsey  was  so  foolish  as  to 
resent  this  criticism,  and  Cromwell  lost  nothing  by  it.  He  was 
made  a  collector  of  the  subsidy  he  had  opposed — a  doubtful 
favour  perhaps — and  in  1524  was  admitted  at  Gray's  Inn;  but 
he  now  became  the  most  confidential  servant  of  the  cardinal. 
In  1525  he  was  Wolsey's  agent  in  the  dissolution  of  the  smaller 
monasteries  which  were  designed  to  provide  the  endowments 
for  Wolsey's  foundations  at  Oxford  and  Ipswich,  a  task  which 
gave  Cromwell  a  taste  and  a  facility  for  similar  enterprises  on 
a  greater  scale  later  on.  For  these  foundations  Cromwell  drew 
up  the  necessary  deeds,  and  he  was  receiver-general  of  cardinal's 
college,  constantly  supervising  the  workmen  there  and  at  Ipswich. 
His  ruthless  vigour  and  his  accessibility  to  bribes  earned  him 
such  unpopularity  that  there  were  rumours  of  his  projected 
assassination  or  imprisonment.  All  this  constituted  a  further 
bond  of  sympathy  between  him  and  his  master,  and  Cromwell 
grew  in  Wolsey's  favour  until  his  fall.  His  wife  had  died  in  1527 
or  1528,  and  in  July  1529  he  made  his  will,  in  which  one  of  the 
chief  beneficiaries  was  his  nephew,  Richard  Williams,  alias 
Cromwell,  the  great-grandfather  of  the  protector. 

Wolsey's  disgrace  reduced  Cromwell  to  such  despair  that 
Cavendish  once  found  him  in  tears  and  at  his  prayers  "  which 
had  been  a  strange  sight  in  him  afore."  ,  Many  of  the  cardinal's 
servants  had  been  taken  over  by  the  king,  but  Cromwell  had 
made  himself  particularly  obnoxious.  However,  he  rode  to 
court  from  Esher  to  "  make  or  mar,"  as  he  himself  expressed 
it,*and  offered  his  services  to  Norfolk.  Possibly  he  had  already 
paved  the  way  by  the  pensions  and  grants  which  he  induced 
Wolsey  to  make  through  him,  out  of  the  lands  and  revenues  of 
his  bishoprics  and  abbeys,  to  nobles  and  courtiers  who  were 
hard  pressed  to  keep  up  the  lavish  style  of  Henry's  court. 
Cromwell  could  be  most  useful  to  the  government  in  parliament, 
and  the  government,  represented  by  Norfolk,  undertook  to  use 
its  influence  in  procuring  him  a  seat,  on  the  natural  understanding 
that  Cromwell  should  do  his  best  to  further  government  business 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  This  was  on  the  2nd  of  November 
1529;  the  elections  had  been  made,  and  parliament  was  to  meet 
on  the  morrow.  A  seat  was,  however,  found  or  made  for  Crom- 
well at  Taunton.  He  signalized  himself  by  a  powerful  speech 
in  opposition  to  the  bill  of  attainder  against  Wolsey  which  had 
already  passed  the  Lords.  The  bill  was  thrown  out,  possibly 
with  Henry's  connivance,  though  no  theory  has  yet  explained 
its  curious  history  so  completely  as  the  statement  of  Cavendish 
and  other  contemporaries,  that  its  rejection  was  due  to  the 
arguments  of  Cromwell.  Doubtless  he  championed  his  fallen 
chief  not  so  much  for  virtue's  sake  as  for  the  impression  it  would 
make  on  others.  He  did  not  feel  called  upon  to  accompany 
Wolsey  on  his  exile  from  the  court. 

Cromwell  had  now,  according  to  Cardinal  Pole,  whose  story 
has  been  too  readily  accepted,  been  converted  into  an  "  emissary 
of  Satan  "  by  the  study  of  Machiavelli's  Prince.  In  the  one 
interview  which  Pole  had  with  Cromwell,  the  latter,  so  Pole 


500 


CROMWELL,  THOMAS 


wrote  ten  years  later  in  1539,  recommended  him  to  read  a  new 
Italian  book  on  politics,  which  Pole  says  he  afterwards  dis- 
covered was  Machiavelli's  Prince.  But  this  discovery  was  not 
made  for  some  years:  the  Prince  was  not  published  until  1532, 
three  years  after  the  conversation;  there  is  evidence  that 
Cromwell  was  not  acquainted  with  it  until  1537  or  1539,  and 
there  is  nothing  in  the  Prince  bearing  on  the  precise  point  under 
discussion  by  Pole  and  Cromwell.  On  the  other  hand,  the  point 
is  discussed  in  Castiglione's  //  Cortegiano  which  had  just  been 
published  in  1528,  and  of  which  Cromwell  promised  to  lend 
Bonner  a  copy  in  1530.  The  Cortegiano  is  the  antithesis  of  the 
Prince;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  Pole's  account  is  the 
offspring  of  an  imagination  heated  by  his  own  perusal  of  the 
Prince  in  1538,  and  by  Cromwell's  ruin  of  the  Pole  family  at 
the  same  time;  until  then  he  had  failed  to  see  in  Cromwell 
the  Machiavellian  "  emissary  of  Satan." 

Equally  fanciful  is  Pole's  ascription  of  the  whole  responsibility 
for  the  Reformation  to  Cromwell's  suggestion.  It  was  impossible 
for  Pole  to  realize  the  substantial  causes  of  that  perfectly  natural 
development,  and  it  was  his  cue  to  represent  Henry  as  having 
acted  at  the  diabolic  suggestion  of  Satan's  emissary.  In  reality 
the  whole  programme,  the  destruction  of  the  liberties  and 
confiscation  of  the  wealth  of  the  church  by  parliamentary  agency, 
had  been  indicated  before  Cromwell  had  spoken  to  Henry.  The 
use  of  Praemunire  had  been  applied  to  Wolsey;  laymen  had 
supplanted  ecclesiastics  in  the  chief  offices  of  state;  the  plan 
of  getting  a  divorce  without  papal  intervention  had  been  the 
original  idea,  which  Wolsey  had  induced  the  king  to  abandon, 
and  it  had  been  revived  by  Cranmer's  suggestion  about  the 
universities.  The  root  idea  of  the  supreme  authority  of  the  king 
had  been  asserted  in  Tyndale's  Obedience  of  a  Christian  Man 
published  in  1528,  which  Anne  Boleyn  herself  had  brought  to 
Henry's  notice:  "  this,"  he  said,  "  is  a  book  for  me  and  all  kings 
to  read,"  and  Campeggio  had  felt  compelled  to  warn  him  against 
these  notions,  of  which  Pole  imagines  that  he  had  never  heard 
until  they  were  put  into  his  head  by  Cromwell  late  in  1530. 
In  the  same  way  Cromwell's  influence  over  the  government 
from  1529-1533  has  been  grossly  exaggerated.  It  was  not  till 
1531  that  he  was  admitted  to  the  privy  council  nor  till  1534 
that  he  was  made  secretary,  though  he  had  been  made  master 
of  the  Jewel-House,  clerk  of  the  Hanaper  and  master  of  the  Wards 
in  1532,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (then  a  minor  office) 
in  1 533.  It  is  not  till  1 533  that  his  name  is  as  much  as  mentioned 
in  the  correspondence  of  any  foreign  ambassador  resident  in 
London.  This  obscurity  has  been  attributed  to  deliberate 
suppression:  but  no  secrecy  was  made  about  Cranmer's  sugges- 
tion, and  it  was  not  Henry's  habit  to  assume  a  responsibility 
which  he  could  devolve  upon  others.  It  is  said  that  Cromwell's 
life  would  not  have  been  safe,  had  he  been  known  as  the  author 
of  this  policy;  but  that  is  not  a  consideration  which  would  have 
appealed  to  Henry,  and  he  was  just  as  able  to  protect  his  minister 
in  1530  as  he  was  in  1536.  Cromwell,  in  fact,  was  not  the  author 
of  that  policy,  but  he  was  the  most  efficient  instrument  in  its 
execution. 

He  was  Henry's  parliamentary  agent,  but  even  in  this  capacity 
his  power  has  been  overrated,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  invented 
those  parliamentary  complaints  against  the  clergy,  which  were 
transmuted  into  the  legislation  of  1 53 2.  But  the  complaints  were 
old  enough;  many  of  them  had  been  heard  in  parliament  nearly 
twenty  years  before,  and  there  is  ample  evidence  to  show  that 
the  petition  against  the  clergy  represents  the  "  infinite  clamours  " 
of  the  Commons  against  the  Church,  which  the  House  itself 
resolved  should  be  "  put  in  writing  and  delivered  to  the  king." 
The  actual  drafting  of  the  statute,  as  of  all  the  Reformation  Acts 
between  1532  and  1539,  was  largely  Cromwell's  work;  and  the 
success  with  which  parliament  was  managed  during  this  period 
was  also  due  to  him.  It  was  not  an  easy  task,  for  the  House  of 
Commons  more  than  once  rejected  government  measures,  and 
members  were  heard  to  threaten  Henry  VIII.  with  the  fate  of 
Richard  III.;  they  even  complained  of  Cromwell's  reporting 
their  proceedings  to  the  king.  That  was  his  business  rather  than 
conveying  imaginary  royal  orders  to  the  House.  "  They  be 


contented,"  he  wrote  in  one  of  these  reports,  "  that  deed  and 
writing  shall  be  treason,"  but  words  were  only  to  be  misprision: 
they  refused  to  include  an  heir's  rebellion  or  disobedience  in 
the  bill  "  as  rebellion  is  already  treason,  and  disobedience  is  no 
cause  of  forfeiture  of  inheritance."  There  was,  of  course,  room 
for  manipulation,  which  Cromwell  extended  to  parliamentary 
elections;  but  parliamentary  opinion  was  a  force  of  which  he 
had  to  take  account,  and  not  a  negligible  quantity. 

From  the  date  of  his  appointment  as  secretary  in  1534, 
Cromwell's  biography  belongs  to  the  history  of  England,  but 
it  is  necessary  to  define  his  personal  attitude  to  the  revolution 
in  which  he  was  the  king's  most  conspicuous  agent.  He  was 
included  by  Foxe  in  his  Book  of  Martyrs  to  the  Protestant  faith : 
more  recent  historians  regard  him  as  a  sacrilegious  ruffian. 
Now,  there  were  two  cardinal  principles  in  the  Protestantism 
of  the  i6th  century — the  supremacy  of  the  temporal  sovereign 
over  the  church  in  matters  of  government,  and  the  supremacy 
of  the  Scriptures  over  the  Church  in  matters  of  faith.  There 
is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  sincerity  of  Cromwell's  belief  in 
the  first  of  these  two  articles:  he  paid  at  his  own  expense  for 
an  English  translation  of  Marsiglio  of  Padua's  Defensor  Pads, 
the  classic  medieval  advocate  of  that  doctrine;  he  had  a  scheme 
for  governing  England  by  means  of  administrative  councils 
nominated  by  the  king  to  the  detriment  of  parliament;  and  he 
urged  upon  Henry  the  adoption  of  the  maxim  of  the  Roman  civil 
law — quod  principi  placuit  legis  kabet  mgorem.  He  wanted,  in 
his  own  words,  "  one  body  politic  "  and  no  rival  to  the  king's 
authority;  and  he  set  the  divine  right  of  kings  against  the 
divine  right  of  the  papacy.  There  is  more  doubt  about  the 
sincerity  of  Cromwell's  attachment  to  the  second  article;  it  is 
true  that  he  set  up  a  Bible  in  every  parish  church,  and  regarded 
them  as  invaluable;  and  the  correspondents  who  unbosom 
themselves  to  him  are  all  of  a  Protestant  way  of  thinking. 
But  Protestantism  was  the  greatest  support  of  absolute 
monarchy.  Hence  its  value  in  Cromwell's  eyes.  Of  religious 
conviction  there  is  in  him  little  trace,  and  still  less  of  the  religious 
temperament.  He  was  a  polished  representative  of  the  callous, 
secular  middle  class  of  that  most  irreligious  age.  Sentiment 
found  no  place,  and  feeling  little,  in  his  composition;  he  used 
the  axe  with  as  little  passion  as  the  surgeon  does  the  knife,  and 
he  operated  on  some  of  the  best  and  noblest  in  the  land.  He 
saw  that  it  was  wiser  to  proscribe  a  few  great  opponents  than  to 
fall  on  humbler  prey;  but  he  set  law  above  justice,  and  law  to 
him  was  simply. the  will  of  the  state. 

In  1534  Cromwell  was  appointed  master  of  the  Rolls,  and  in 
1535  chancellor  of  Cambridge  University  and  visitor-general 
of  the  monasteries.  The  policy  of  the  Dissolution  has  been 
theoretically  denounced,  but  practically  approved  in  every 
civilized  state,  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant.  Every  one  has 
found*  it  necessary,  sooner  or  later,  to  curtail  or  to  destroy  its 
monastic  foundations;  only  those  which  delayed  the  task  longest 
have  generally  lagged  farthest  behind  in  national  progress.  The 
need  for  reform  was  admitted  by  a  committee  of  cardinals 
appointed  by  Paul  III.  in  1535,  and  it  had  been  begun  by  Wolsey. 
Cromwell  was  not  affected  by  the  iniquities  of  the  monks  except 
as  arguments  for  the  confiscation  of  their  property.  He  had 
boasted  that  he  would  make  Henry  VIII.  the  richest  prince  in 
Christendom;  and  the  monasteries,  with  their  direct  dependence 
on  the  pope  and  their  cosmopolitan  organization,  were  obstacles 
to  that  absolute  authority  of  the  national  state  which  was 
Cromwell's  ideal.  He  had  learnt  how  to  visit  monasteries  under 
Wolsey,  and  the  visitation  of  1535  was  carried  out  with  ruthless 
efficiency.  During  the  storm  which  followed,  Henry  took  the 
management  of  affairs  into  his  own  hands,  but  Cromwell  was 
rewarded  in  July  1536  by  being  knighted,  created  lord  privy 
seal,  Baron  Cromwell,  and  vicar-general  and  viceregent  of  the 
king  in  "  Spirituals." 

In  this  last  offensive  capacity  he  sent  a  lay  deputy  to  preside 
in  Convocation,  taking  precedence  of  the  bishops  and  archbishops, 
and  issued  his  famous  Injunctions  of  1536  and  1538;  a  Bible 
was  to  be  provided  in  every  church;  the  Paternoster,  Creed  and 
Ten  Commandments  were  to  be  recited  by  the  incumbent  in 


CRONJE— CROOKES 


English;  he  was  to  preach  at  least  once  a  quarter,  and  to  start 
a  register  of  births,  marriages  and  deaths.  During  these  'years 
the  outlook  abroad  grew  threatening  because  of  the  alliance, 
under  papal  guarantee,  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.; 
and  Cromwell  sought  to  counterbalance  it  by  a  political  and 
theological  union  between  England  and  the  Lutheran  princes  of 
Germany.  The  theological  part  of  the  scheme  broke  down  in 
1538  when  Henry  categorically  refused  to  concede  the  three 
reforms  demanded  by  the  Lutheran  envoys.  This  was  ominous, 
and  the  parliament  of  1539,  into  which  Cromwell  tried  to  intro- 
duce a  number  of  personal  adherents,  proved  thoroughly  re- 
actionary. The  temporal  peers  were  unanimous  in  favour  of 
the  Six  Articles,  the  bishops  were  divided,  and  the  Commons 
for  the  most  part  agreed  with  the  Lords.  Cromwell,  however, 
succeeded  in  suspending  the  execution'of  the'act,  and  was  allowed 
to  proceed  with  his  one  independent  essay  in  foreign  policy. 
The  friendship  between  Francis  and  Charles  was  apparently 
getting  closer;  Pole  was  exhorting  them  to  a  crusade  against 
a  king  who  was  worse  than  the  Turk;  and  anxious  eyes  searched 
the  Channel  in  1539  for  signs  of  the  coming  Armada.  Under 
these  circumstances  Henry  acquiesced  in  Cromwell's  negotiations 
for  a  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves.  Anne,  of  course,  was  not 
a  Lutheran,  and  the  state  religion  in  Cleves  was  at  least  as 
Catholic  as  Henry's  own.  But  her  sister  was  married  to  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  her  brother  had  claims  on  Guelders, 
which  Charles  V.  refused  to  recognize.  Guelders  was  to  the 
emperor's  dominions  in  the  Netherlands  what  Scotland  was  to 
England,  and  had  often  been  used  by  France  in  the  same  way, 
and  an  alliance  between  England,  Guelders,  Cleves  and  the 
Schmalkaldic  League  would,  Cromwell  thought,  make  Charles's 
position  in  the  Netherlands  almost  untenable.  Anne  herself 
was  the  weak  point  in  the  argument;  Henry  conceived  an 
invincible  repugnance  to  her  from  the  first;  he  was  restrained 
from  an  immediate  breach  with  his  new  allies  only  by  fear  of 
Francis  and  Charles.  In  the  spring  of  1 540  he  was  reassured  on 
that  score;  no  attack  on  him  from  that  quarter  was  impending; 
there  was  a  rift  between  the  two  Catholic  sovereigns,  and  there 
was  no  real  need  for  Anne  and  her  German  friends. 

From  that  moment  Cromwell's  fate  was  sealed;  the  Lords 
loathed  him  as  an  upstart  even  more  than  they  had  loathed 
Wolsey;  he  had  no  church  to  support  him;  Norfolk  and 
Gardiner  detested  him  from  pique  as  well  as  on  principle,  and 
he  had  no  friend  in  the  council  save  Cranmer.  As  lay  viceregent 
he  had  given  umbrage  to  nearly  every  churchman,  and  he  had  put 
all  his  eggs  in  the  one  basket  of  royal  favour,  which  had  now 
failed  him.  Cromwell  did  not  succumb  without  an  effort,  and  a 
desperate  struggle  ensued  in  the  council.  In  April  the  French 
ambassador  wrote  that  he  was  tottering  to  his  fall;  a  few  days 
later  he  was  created  earl  of  Essex  and  lord  great  chamberlain, 
and  two  of  his  satellites  were  made  secretaries  to  the  king; 
he  then  despatched  one  bishop  to  the  Tower,  and  threatened 
to  send  five  others  to  join  him.  At  last  Henry  struck  as  suddenly 
and  remorselessly  as  a  beast  of  prey;  on  the  loth  of  June 
Norfolk  accused  him  of  treason;  the  whole  council  joined  in 
the  attack,  and  Cromwell  was  sent  to  the  Tower.  A  vast  number 
of  crimes  was  laid  to  his  charge,  but  not  submitted  for  trial. 
An  act  of  attainder  was  passed  against  him  without  a  dissentient 
voice,  and  after  contributing  his  mite  towards  the  divorce  of 
Anne,  he  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill  on  the  28th  of  July, 
repudiating  all  heresy  and  declaring  that  he  died  in  the  Catholic 
faith. 

In  estimating  Cromwell's  character  it  must  be  remembered 
that  his  father  was  a  blackguard,  and  that  he  himself  spent  the 
formative  years  of  his  life  in  a  vile  school  of  morals.  A  ruffian 
he  doubtless  was,  as  he  says,  in  his  youth,  and  he  was  the  last 
man  to  need  the  tuition  of  MachiavelH.  Nevertheless  he  civilized 
himself  to  a  certain  extent;  he  was  not  a  drunkard  nor  a  forger 
like  his  father;  from  personal  immorality  he  seems  to  have  been 
singularly  free;  he  was  a  kind  master,  and  a  stanch  friend ;  and 
he  possessed  all  the  outward  graces  of  the  Renaissance  period. 
He  was  not  vindictive,  and  his  atrocious  acts  were  done  in  no 
private  quarrel,  but  in  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  interests 


of  his  master  and  the  state.  Where  those  interests  were 
concerned  he  had  no  heart  and  no  conscience  and  no  religious 
faith;  no  man  was  more  completely  blighted  by  the  i6th  century 
worship  of  the  state. 

The  authorities  for  the  early  life  of  Cromwell  are  the  Wimbledon 
manor  rolls,  used  by  Mr  John  Phillips  of  Putney  in  The  Antiquary 
(1880),  vol.  ii.,  and  the  Antiquarian  Mag.  (1882),  vol.  ii. ;  Pole's 
Apologia,  i.  126;  Bandello's  Novella,  xxxiv. ;  Chapuys'  letter  to 
Granvelle,  21  Nov.  1535;  and  Foxe's  Acts  and  Man.  From  1522 
see  Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIII.,  vols.  iii.  -  xvi. ;  Cavendish's 
Life  of  Wolsey;  Hall's  Chron. ;  Wriothesley's  Chron.  These  and 
practically  all  other  available  sources  have  been  utilized  in  R.  B. 
Merriman's  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Cromwell  (2  vols.,  1902). 
For  Cromwell  and  MachiavelH  see  Paul  van  Dyke's  Renascence 
Portraits  (1906),  App.  (A.  F.  P.) 

CRONJE,  PIET  ARNOLDUS  (c.  1840-  ),  Boer  general, 
was  born  about  1840  in  the  Transvaal  and  in  1881  took  part  in 
the  first  Boer  War  in  the  rank  of  commandant.  He  commanded 
in  the  siege  of  the  British  garrison  at  Potchefstroom,  though  he 
was  unable  to  force  their  surrender  until  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  general  armistice.  The  Boer  leader  was  at  this  time  accused 
of  withholding  knowledge  of  this  armistice  from  the  garrison 
(see  POTCHEFSTROOM).  He  held  various  official  positions  in  the 
years  1881-1899,  and  commanded  the  Boer  force  which  compelled 
the  surrender  of  the  Jameson  raiders  at  Doornkop  (Jan.  2, 
1896).  In  the  war  of  1899  Cronje  was  general  commanding  in 
the  western  theatre  of  war,  and  began  the  siege  of  Kimberley. 
He  opposed  the  advance  of  the  British  division  under  Lord 
Methuen,  and  fought,  though  without  success,  three  general 
actions  at  Belmont,  Graspan  and  Modder  River.  At  Magers- 
fontein,  early  in  December  1899,  he  completely  repulsed  a  general 
attack  made  upon  his  position,  and  thereby  checked  for  two 
months  the  northward  advance  of  the  British  column.  In  the 
campaign  of  February  1900,  Cronje  opposed  Lord  Roberts's 
army  on  the  Magersfontein  battleground,  but  he  was  unable 
to  prevent  the  relief  of  Kimberley;  retreating  westward,  he 
was  surrounded  near  Paardeberg,  and,  after  a  most  obstinate 
resistance,  was  forced  to  surrender  with  the  remnant  of  his  army 
(Feb.  27,  1900).  As  a  prisoner  of  war  Cronje  was  sent  to  St 
Helena,  where  he  remained  until  released  after  the  conclusion 
of  peace  (see  TRANSVAAL:  History). 

CROOKES,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1832-  ),  English  chemist  and 
physicist,  was  born  in  London  on  the  zyth  of  June  1832,  and 
studied  chemistry  at  the  Royal  College  of  Chemistry  under 
A.  W.  von  Hofmann,  whose  assistant  he  became  in  1851.  Three 
years  later  he  was  appointed  an  assistant  in  the  meteorological 
department  of  the  Radcliffe  observatory,  Oxford,  and  in  1855 
he  obtained  a  chemical  post  at  Chester.  In  1861,  while  conduct- 
ing a  spectroscopic  examination  of  the  residue  left  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid,  he  observed  a  bright  green  line  which 
had  not  been  noticed  previously,  and  by  following  up  the 
indication  thus  given  he  succeeded  in  isolating  a  new  element, 
thallium,  a  specimen  of  which  was  shown  in  public  for  the  first 
time  at  the  exhibition  of  1862.  During  the  next  eight  years  he 
carried  out  a  minute  investigation  of  this  metal  and  its  properties. 
While  determining  its  atomic  weight,  he  thought  it  desirable, 
for  the  sake  of  accuracy,  to  weigh  it  in  a  vacuum,  and  even  in 
these  circumstances  he  found  that  the  balance  behaved  in  an 
anomalous  manner,  the  metal  appearing  to  be  heavier  when 
cold  than  when  hot.  This  phenomenon  he  explained  as  a 
"  repulsion  from  radiation,"  and  he  expressed  his  discovery  in 
the  statement  that  in  a  vessel  exhausted  of  air  a  body  tends  to 
move  away  from  another  body  hotter  than  itself.  Utilizing  this 
principle  he  constructed  the  radiometer  (q.v.),  which  he  was  at 
first  disposed  to  regard  as  a  machine  that  directly  transformed 
light  into  motion,  but  which  was  afterwards  perceived  to  depend 
on  thermal  action.  Thence  he  was  led  to  his  famous  researches 
on  the  phenomena  produced  by  the  discharge  of  electricity 
through  highly  exhausted  tubes  (sometimes  known  as  "  Crookes' 
tubes  "  in  consequence),  and  to  the  development  of  his  theory 
of  "  radiant  matter  "  or  matter  in  a  "  fourth  state,"  which  led 
up  to  the  modern  electronic  theory.  In  1883  he  began  an  inquiry 
into  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the  rare  earths.  By  repeated 


502 


CROOKSTON— CROQUET 


fractionations  he  was  able  to  divide  yttrium  into  distinct  portions 
which  gave  different  spectra  when  exposed  in  a  high  vacuum 
to  the  spark  from  an  induction  coil.  This  result  he  considered 
to  be  due,  not  to  any  removal  of  impurities,  but  to  an  actual 
splitting-up  of  the  yttrium  molecule  into  its  constituents,  and 
he  ventured  to  draw  the  provisional  conclusion  that  the  so-called 
simple  bodies  are  in  reality  compound  molecules,  at  the  same 
time  suggesting  that  all  the  elements  have  been  produced  by  a 
process  of  evolution  from  one  primordial  stuff  or  "  protyle." 
A  later  result  of  this  method  of  investigation  was  the  discovery 
of  a  new  member  of  the  rare  earths,  monium  or  victorium,  the 
spectrum  of  which  is  characterized  by  an  isolated  group  of  lines, 
only  to  be  detected  photographically,  high  up  in  the  ultra-violet; 
the  exis'tence  of  this  body  was  announced  in  his  presidential 
address  to  the  British  Association  at  Bristol  in  1898.  In  the 
same  address  he  called  attention  to  the  conditions  of  the  world's 
food  supply,  urging  that  with  the  low  yield  at  present  realized 
per  acre  the  supply  of  wheat  would  within  a  comparatively 
short  time  cease  to  be  equal  to  the  demand  caused  by  increasing 
population,  and  that  since  nitrogenous  manures  are  essential 
for  an  increase  in  the  yield,  the  hope  of  averting  starvation,  as 
regards  those  races  for  whom  wheat  is  a  staple  food,  depended 
on  the  ability  of  the  chemist  to  find  an  artificial  method  for 
fixing  the  nitrogen  of  the  air.  An  authority  on  precious  stones, 
and  especially  the  diamond,  he  succeeded  in  artificially  making 
some  minute  specimens  of  the  latter  gem;  and  on  the  discovery 
of  radium  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  take  up  the  study  of  its 
properties,  in  particular  inventing  the  spinthariscope,  an  instru- 
ment in  which  the  effects  of  a  trace  of  radium  salt  are  manifested 
by  the  phosphorescence  produced  on  a  zinc  sulphide  screen. 
In  addition  to  many  other  researches  besides  those  here  men- 
tioned, he  wrote  or  edited  various  books  on  chemistry  and 
chemical  technology,  including  Select  Methods  of  Chemical 
Analysis,  which  went  through  a  number  of  editions;  and  he 
also  gave  a  certain  amount  of  time  to  the  investigation  of  psychic 
phenomena,  endeavouring  to  effect  some  measure  of  correlation 
between  them  and  ordinary  physical  laws.  He  was  knighted 
in  1897,  and  received  the  Royal  (1875),  Davy  (1888),  and  Copley 
(1904)  medals  of  the  Royal  Society,  besides  filling  the  offices 
of  president  of  the  Chemical  Society  and  of  the  Institution 
of  Electrical  Engineers.  He  married  Ellen,  daughter  of  W. 
Humphrey,  of  Darlington,  and  their  golden  wedding  was  cele- 
brated in  1906. 

CROOKSTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Polk  county, 
Minnesota,U.S.A.,  on  the  Red  Lake  river  in  the  Red  River 
valley,  about  300  m.  N.W.  of  Minneapolis,  and  about  25  m.  E. 
of  Grand  Forks,  North  Dakota.  Pop.  (1890)  3457;  (1900) 
5359;  (I9°5.  state  census)  6794,  2049  being  foreign-born,  includ- 
ing 656  from  Norway  (2  Norwegian  weeklies  are  published), 
613  from  Canada,  292  from  Sweden;  (1910  U.S.  census)  7559. 
Crookston  is  served  by  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Northern 
Pacific  railways.  It  has  a  Carnegie  library,  and  the  St  Vincent 
and  Bethesda  hospitals,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Federal  Land  Office 
and  of  a  state  agricultural  high  school  (with  an  experimental 
farm).  Dams  on  the  Red  Lake  river  provide  a  fine  water-power, 
and  among  the  city's  manufactures  are  lumber,  leather,  flour, 
farm  implements,  wagons  and  bricks.  The  city  is  situated  in 
a  fertile  farming  region,  and  is  a  market  for  grain,  potatoes  and 
other  agricultural  products,  and  lumber.  Crookston  was  settled 
about  1872,  was  incorporated  in  1879,  received  its  first  city 
charter  in  1883,  and  adopted  a  new  one  in  1906.  It  was  named 
in  honour  of  William  Crooks,  an  early  settler. 

CROP  (a  word  common  in  various  forms,  such  as  Germ. 
Kropf,  to  many  Teutonic  languages  for  a  swelling,  excrescence, 
round  head  or  top  of  anything;  it  appears  also  in  Romanic 
languages'  derived  from  Teutonic,  in  Fr.  as  croupe,  whence  the 
English  "  crupper ";  and  in  Ital.  groppo,  whence  English 
"  group "),  the  inglumes,  or  pouched  expansion  of  a  bird's 
oesophagus,  in  which  the  food  remains  to  undergo  a  preparatory 
process  of  digestion  before  being  passed  into  the  true  stomach. 
From  the  meaning  of  "  top  "  or  "  head,"  as  applied  to  a  plant, 
herb  or  flower,  comes  the  common  use  of  the  word  for  the 


produce  of  cereals  or  other  cultivated  plants,  the  wheat-crop, 
the  cotton-crop  and  the  like,  and  generally,  "  the  crops  "; 
more  particular  expressions  are  the  "  white-crop,"  for  such 
grain  crops  as  barley  or  wheat,  which  whiten  as  they  grow  ripe, 
and  "  green-crop  "  for  such  as  roots  or  potatoes  which  do  not, 
and  also  for  those  which  are  cut  in  a  green  state,  like  clover 
(see  AGRICULTURE).  Other  uses,  more  or  less  technical,  of  the 
word  are,  in  leather-dressing,  for  the  whole  untrimmed  hide;  in 
mining  and  geology,  for  the  "  outcrop  "  or  appearance  at  the 
surface  of  a  vein  or  stratum  and,  particularly  in  tin  mining,  of 
the  best  part  of  the  ore  produced  after  dressing.  A  "  hunting- 
crop  "  is  a  short  thick  stock  for  a  whip,  with  a  small  leather  loop 
at  one  end,  to  which  a  thong  may  be  attached.  From  the  verb 
"  to' crop,"  i.e.  to  take  off  the  top  of  anything,  comes  "crop" 
meaning  a  closely  cut  head  of  hair,  found  in  the  name  "  croppy  " 
given  to  the  Roundheads  at  the  time  of  the  Great  Rebellion, 
to  the  Catholics  in  Ireland  in  1688  by  the  Orangemen,  probably 
with  reference  to  the  priests'  tonsures,  and  to  the  Irish  rebels 
of  1798,  who  cut  their  hair  short  in  imitation  of  the  French 
revolutionaries. 

CROPSEY,  JASPER  FRANCIS  (1823-1900),  American  land- 
scape painter,  was  born  at  Rossville,  Staten  Island,  New  York, 
on  the  i8th  of  February  1823.  After  practising  architecture  for 
several  years,  he  turned  his  attention  to  painting,  studying  in 
Italy  from  1847  to  1850.  In  1851  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design.  From  1857  to  1863  he  had  a 
studio  in  London,  and  after  his  return  to  America  enjoyed  a 
considerable  vogue,  particularly  as  a  painter  of  vivid  autumnal 
effects,  along  the  lines  of  the  Hudson  River  school.  He  was  one 
of  the  original  members  of  the  American  Water  Color  Society. 
He  continued  actively  in  this  profession  until  within  a  few  days 
of  his  death,  at  Hastings-on-Hudson,  New  York,  on  the  22nd  of 
June  1900.  HeTnade  the  architectural  designs  for  the  stations  of 
the  elevated  railways  in  New  York  City. 

CROQUET  (from  Fr.  croc,  a  crook,  or  crooked  stick),  a  lawn 
game  played  with  balls,  mallets,  hoops  and  two  pegs.  The  game 
has  been  evolved,  according  to  some  writers,  from  the  paille- 
maille  which  was  played  in  Languedoc  at  least  as  early  as  the 
i3th  century.  Under  the  name  of  lejeu  de  la  crosse,  or  la  crosserie, 
a.  similar  game  was  at  the  same  period  immensely  popular  in 
Normandy,  and  especially  at  Avranches,  but  the  object  appears 
to  have  been  to  send  the  ball  as  far  as  possible  by  driving  it 
with  the  mallet  (see  Sports  et  jeux  d'adresse,  1904,  p.  203).  Pall 
Mall,  a  fashionable  game  in  England  in  the  time  of  the  Stuarts, 
was  played  with  a  ball  and  a  mallet,  and  with  two  hoops  or  a 
hoop  and  a  peg,  the  game  being  won  by  the  player  who  ran  the 
hoop  or  hoops  and  touched  the  peg  under  certain  conditions 
in  the  fewest  strokes.  Croquet  certainly  has  some  resemblance 
to  paille-maille,  played  with  more  hoops  and  more  balls.  It  is 
said  that  the  game  was  brought  to  Ireland  from  the  south  of 
France,  and  was  first  played  on  Lord  Lonsdale's  lawn  in  1852, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  eldest  daughter  of  Sir  Edmund 
Macnaghten.  It  came  to  England  in  1856, -or  perhaps  a  few 
years  earlier,  and  soon  became  popular. 

In  1868  the  first  all-comers'  meeting  was  held  at  Moreton-in- 
the-Marsh.  In  the  same  year  the  All  England  Croquet  Club 
was  formed,  the  annual  contest  for  the  championship  taking 
place  en  the  grounds  of  this  club  at  Wimbledon.1  But  after 
being  for  ten  years  or  so  the  most  popular  game  for  the  country 
house  and  garden  party,  croquet  was  in  its  turn  practically 
ousted  by  lawn  tennis,  until,  with  improved  implements  and  a 
more  scientific  form  of  play,  it  was  revived  about  1894-1895. 
In  1896-1897  was  formed  the  United  All  England  Croquet 
Association,  on  the  initiative  of  Mr  Walter  H.  Peel.  Under  the 
name  of  the  Croquet  Association,  with  more  than  2000  members 
and  nearly  a  hundred  affiliated  clubs  (1909),  this  body  is  the 
recognized  ruling  authority  on  croquet  in  the  British  Islands. 
Its  headquarters  are  at  the  Roehampton  Club,  where  the 

1  This  was  largely  the  work  of  W.  T.  Whitmore-Jones  (1831-1872), 
generally  known  as  W.  Jones  Whitmore,  who  subsequently  formed 
the  short-lived  National  Croquet  Club,  and  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  first  codification  of  the  laws. 


CROQUET 


503 


championship  and  champion  cup  competitions  are  held  each 
year. 

The  Game  and  its  Implements. — The  requisites  for  croquet  are 
a  level  grass  lawn,  six  hoops,  two  posts  or  pegs,  balls,  mallets,  and 
hoop-clips  to  mark  the  progress  of  the  players.  The  usual  game 
is  played  between  two  sides,  each  having  two  balls,  the  side 
consisting  of  two  players  in  partnership,  each  playing  one  ball, 
or  of  one  player  playing  both  balls.  The  essential  characteristic 
of  croquet  is  the  scientific  combination  between  two  balls  in 
partnership  against  the  other  two.  The  balls  are  distinguished 
by  being  coloured  blue,  red,  black  and  yellow,  and  are  played 
in  that  order,  blue  and  black  always  opposing  the  other  two. 

The  ground  for  match  play  measures  35  yds.  by  28  yds.,  and 
should  be  carefully  marked  out  with  white  lines.  In  each  corner 
a  white  spot  is  marked  i  yd.  from  each  boundary.  The  hoops 
are  made  of  round  iron,  not  less  than  %  in.  and  not  more  than 
J  in.  in  diameter,  and  standing  12  in.  out  of  the  ground.  For 
match  play  they  are  3!  or  4  in.  across,  inside  measurement. 
They  are  set  up  as  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  the  numbers 
and  arrows  indicating  the  order  and  direction  in  which  they  must 

29  yds, 


-m»  J — >- • 1 


t -7  »</».-' 


i 


I.VJT 

if 


*  5 f|/?ousr  Hoop 
i     'K 


"  ^Winning 

•*•  i  >  • 


Bdylk 


FlG.  I. — Diagram  of  croquet  ground,  showing  setting  of  hoops  and 
pegs,  and  order  of  play  in  accordance  with  the  official  Laws  (1909)  of 
the  Croquet  Association. 

be  passed.  Each  hoop  is  run  twice,  and  each  peg  struck  once. 
The  pegs  may  be  struck  from  any  direction. 

The  pegs  are  ij  in.  in  diameter  and  when  fixed  stand  18  in. 
above  the  ground.  The  balls  were  formerly  made  of  boxwood 
(earlier  still  of  beechwood) ;  composition  balls  are  now  in  general 
use  for  tournaments.  They  must  be  3!  in.  in  diameter  and 
15  oz.  to  i6£  oz.  in  weight.  It  will  be  seen  that  for  match  play 
the  hoops  are  only  f  or  at  the  most  f  in.  wider  than  the  diameter 
of  the  ball.  The  mallets  may  be  of  any  size  and  weight,  but  the 
head  must  be  made  of  wood  (metal  may  be  used  only  for  weight- 
ing or  strengthening  purposes),  and  the  ends  must  be  parallel  and 
similar.  Only  one  mallet  may  be  used  in  the  course  of  a  game, 
except  in  the  case  of  bona  fide  damage. 

The  object  of  the  player  is  to  score  the  points  of  the  game  by 
striking  his  ball  through  each  of  the  hoops  and  against  each  of 
the  pegs  in  a  fixed  order;  and  the  side  wins  which  first  succeeds 
in  scoring  all  the  points  with  both  the  balls  of  the  side.  A  metal 
clip  corresponding  in  colour  with  the  player's  ball  is  attached  to 
the  hoop  or  peg  which  that  ball  has  next  to  make  in  the  proper 
order,  as  a  record  of  its  progress  in  the  game.  No  point  is  scored 
by  passing  through  a  hoop  or  hitting  a  peg  except  in  the  proper 
order.  Thus,  if  a  player  has  in  any  turn  or  turns  driven  his  ball 
successively  through  hoops  i,  2,  and  3,  his  clip  is  attached  to 


hoop  4,  and  the  next  point  to  be  made  by  him  will  be  that  hoop; 
and  so  on  till  all  the  points  (hoops  and  pegs)  have  been  scored. 
Each  player  starts  in  turn  from  any  point  in  a  "  baulk  "  or  area 
3  ft.  wide  along  the  left-hand  half  of  the  "  southern  "  boundary, 
marked  A  on  the  diagram,  of  the  lawn — till  1906,  from  a  point 
i  ft.  in  front  of  the  middle  of  hoop  i.  If  he  fails  either  to  make 
a  point  or  to  "  roquet "  *  (i.e.  drive  his  ball  against)  another  ball 
in  play,  his  turn  is  at  an  end  and  the  next  player  in  order  takes 
his  turn  in  like  manner.  If  he  succeeds  in  scoring  a  point,  he 
is  entitled  (as  in  billiards)  to  another  stroke;  he  may  then  either 
attempt  to  score  another  point,  or  he  may  roquet  a  ball.  Having 
roqueted 'a  ball — provided  he  has  not  already  roqueted  the  same 
ball  in  the  same  turn  without  having  scored  a  point  in  the 
interval — he  is  entitled  to  two  further  strokes:  first  he  must 
"  take  croquet,"  i.e.  he  places  his  own  ball  (which  from  the 
moment  of  the  roquet  is  "  dead  "  or  "  in  hand  ")  in  contact  with 
the  roqueted  ball  on  any  side  of  it,  and  then  strikes  his  own  ball 
with  his  mallet,  being  bound  to  move  or  shake  both  balls  per- 
ceptibly. If  at  the  beginning  of  a  turn  the  striker's  ball  is  in 
contact  with  another  ball,  a  "  roquet  "  is  held  to  have  been  made 
and  "  croquet  "  must  be  taken  at  once.  After  taking  croquet 
the  striker  is  entitled  to  another  stroke,  with  which  he  may 
score  another  point,  or  roquet  another  ball  not  previously 
roqueted  in  the  same  turn  since  a  point  was  scored,  or  he  may 
play  for  safety.  Thus,  by  skilful  alternation  of  making  points 
and  roqueting  balls,  a  "  break  "  may  be  made  in  which  point 
after  point,  and  even  all  the  points  in  the  game  (for  the  ball  in 
play),  may  be  scored  in  a  single  turn,  in  addition  to 3 or 4 points 
for  the  partner  ball.  The  chief  skill  in  the  game  perhaps  consists 
in  playing  the  stroke  called  "  taking  croquet  "  (but  see  below 
on  the  "  rush  ").  Expert  players  can  drive  both  balls  together 
from  one  end  of  the  ground  to  the  other,  or  send  one  to  a  distance 
while  retaining  the  other,  or  place  each  with  accuracy  in  different 
directions  as  desired,  the  player  obtaining  position  for  scoring 
a  point  or  roqueting  another  ball  according  to  the  strategical- 
requirements  of  his  position.  Care  has,  however,  to  be  taken  in 
playing  the  croquet-stroke  that  both  balls  are  absolutely  moved 
or  perceptibly  shaken,  and  that  neither  of  them  be  driven  over 
the  boundary  line,  for  in  either  event  the  player's  next 
stroke  is  forfeited  and  his  turn  brought  summarily  to  an 
end. 

There  are  three  distinct  methods  of  holding  the  mallet  among 
good  players.  A  comparatively  small  number  still  adhere  to  the 
once  universal  "  side  stroke,"  in  which  the  player  faces  more 
or  less  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  aim,  and  strikes  the  ball  very 
much  like  a  golfer,  with  his  hands  close  together  on  the  mallet 
shaft.  The  majority  use  "  front  play,"  in  which  the  player  faces 
in  the  direction  in  which  he  proposes  to  send  the  ball.  The 
essential  characteristic  of  this  stroke  is  that  eye,  hand  and  ball 
should  be  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  and  the  stroke  is  rather  a 
swing — the  "  pendulum  stroke  " — than  a  hit.  There  are  two 
ways  of  playing  it.  The  majority  of  right-handed  front  players 
swing  the  mallet  outside  the  right  foot,  holding  it  with  the  left 
hand  as  a  pivot  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  while  the  right  hand 
(about  1 2  in.  lower  down)  applies  the  necessary  force,  though  it 
must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  heavy  mallet-head, 
weighing  from  3  to  35  Ib  or  even  more,  does  the  work  by  itself, 
and  the  nearer  the  stroke  is  to  a  simple  swing,  like  that  of  a 
pendulum,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  be  accurate.  Either  the  right 
or  the  left  foot  may  be  in  advance,  and  should  be  roughly 
parallel  to  the  line  of  aim,  the  player's  weight  being  mainly  on 
the  rear  foot.  Most  of  the  best  Irish  and  some  English  players 
swing  the  mallet  between  their  feet,  using  a  grip  like  that  of  the 
side  player  or  golfer,  with  the  hands  close  together,  and  often 
interlocking.  It  is  claimed  that  the  loss  of  power  caused  by  the 
hampered  swing — usually  compensated  by  an  extra  heavy 
mallet — is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  greater  accuracy 
in  aim.  The  beginner  is  well  advised  to  try  all  these  methods, 
and  adopt  that  which  comes  most  natural  to  him.  Skirted 
players,  of  course,  are  unable  to  use  the  Irish  stroke;  and,  as 

1  The  words  "  roquet  "  and  "  croquet  "  are  pronounced  as  in 
French,  with  the  t  mute. 


504 


CROQUET 


one  of  the  most  meritorious  features  of  croquet  is  that  it  is  the 
only  out-of-door  game  in  which  men  and  women  can  compete 
on  terms  of  real  equality,  this  has  been  put  forward  as  a  reason 
for  barring  it,  if  it  is  actually  an  advantage. 

When  a  croquet  ground  is  thoroughly  smooth  and  level,  the 
game  gives  scope  for  considerable  skill;  a  great  variety  of  strokes 
may  be  played  with  the  mallet,  each  having  its  own  well-defined 
effect  on  the  behaviour  of  the  balls,  while  a  knowledge  of  angles 
is  essential.  Skilful  tactics  are  at  least  as  necessary  as  skilful 
execution  to  enable  the  player  so  to  dispose  the  balls  on  the 
ground  while  making  a  break  that  they  may  most  effectively 
assist  him  in  scoring  his  points.  The  tactics  of  croquet  are  in 
this  respect  similar  to  those  of  billiards,  that  the  player  tries 
to  make  what  progress  he  can  during  his  own  break,  and  to  leave 
the  balls  "  safe  "  at  the  end  of  it;  he  must  also  keep  in  mind 
the  needs  of  the  other  ball  of  his  side  by  leaving  his  own  ball, 
or  the  last  player's  ball,  or  both,  within  easy  roqueting  distance 
or  in  useful  positions,  and  that  of  the  next  player  isolated. 
Good  judgment  is  really  more  valuable  than  mechanical  skill. 
Croquet  is  a  game  of  combination,  partners  endeavouring  to 
keep  together  for  mutual  help,  and  to  keep  their  opponents 
apart.  It  is  important  always  to  leave  the  next  player  in  such 
a  position  that  he  will  be  unable  to  score  a  point  or  roquet  a 
ball;  a  break,  however  profitable,  which  does  not  end  by  doing 
this  is  often  fatal.  Formerly  this  might  be  done  by  leaving  the 
next  player's  ball  in  such  a  position  that  either  a  hoop  or  a  peg 
lay  between  it  and  all  the  other  balls  ("  wiring  "),  or  so  near  to 
a  hoop  or  peg  that  there  was  no  room  for  a  proper  stroke  to  be 
taken  in  the  required  direction.  Under  rule  36  of  the  Laws  of 
Croquet  for  1906,  a  ball  left  in  such  a  position,  provided  it  were 
within  a  yard  of  the  obstacle  ("  close-wired  "),  might  at  the 
striker's  option  be  moved  one  yard  in  any  direction.  This 
rule  left  to  the  striker  whose  ball  was  "  wired  "  more  than  a  yard 
from  the  hoop  or  peg  ("  distance-wired  ")  the  possibility  of  hitting 
his  ball  in  such  a  way  as  to  jump  the  obstacle.  The  jump-shot 
is,  however,  very  bad  for  the  lawn,  and  in  1907  a  further  provision 
was  made  by  which  the  player  whose  ball  is  left  "  wired  "  from 
all  the  other  balls  by  the  stroke  of  an  opponent  may  lift  it 
and  play  from  the  "  baulk  "  area.  This  practically  means  that 
"  wiring  "  is  impossible.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  "close- 
wire  "  the  next  player  from  two  balls  and  leave  him  with  a 
difficult  shot  at  the  third.  If,  however,  the  next  player's  ball 
has  not  been  moved  by  the  adversary,  the  adversary  is  entitled 
to  wire  the  balls  as  best  he  can. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  elementary  croquet  tactics. 
If  a  player  is  going  up  to  hoop  5  (diagram  i)  in  the  course  of  a 
break,  he  should  have  contrived,  if  possible,  to  have  a  ball 
waiting  for  him  at  that  hoop  and  another  at  hoop  6.  With  the 
aid  of  the  first  he  runs  hoop  5  and  sends  it  on  to  the  turning  peg, 
stopping  his  ball  in  taking  croquet  close  to  the  ball  at  6.  The 
corner  hoops  are  the  difficult  ones,  and  after  running  hoop  6 
the  assisting  ball  is  croqueted  to  i  back,  the  peg  being  struck 
with  the  aid  of  the  ball  already  there,  which  is  again  struck  and 
driven  to  2  back.  If  the  player  has  been  able  to  leave  the  fourth 
ball  in  the  centre  of  the  ground  (known  as  a  centre  ball),  he  hits 
this  after  taking  croquet,  takes  croquet,  going  off  it  to  the  ball 
at  i  back,  and  continues  the  break,  leaving  the  centre  ball  where 
it  will  be  useful  for  3  back  and  4  back.  A  first-class  player 
should,  however,  be  able  to  make  a  break  with  3  balls  almost  as 
easily  as  with  4.  A  useful  device,  especially  in  a  losing  game, 
is  to  get  rid  of  the  opponent's  advanced  ball  if  a  "  rover  "  (i.e. 
one  which  has  run  all  the  hoops  and  is  for  the  winning  peg)  by 
croqueting  it  in  such  a  way  that  it  hits  the  peg  and  is  thus  out 
of  the  game.  This  can  be  done  only  by  a  ball  which  is  itself  also 
a  rover.  The  opponent  has  then  only  one  turn  out  of  every  three, 
and  may  be  rendered  practically  helpless  by  leaving  him  always 
in  a  "  safe  "  position.  Inasmuch  as  a  skilful  player  can  cause 
an  opponent's  ball  to  pass  through  the  last  two  or  even  three 
hoops  in  the  course  of  his  turn  and  then  peg  it  out,  it  is  considered 
prudent  to  leave  unrun  the  last  three  hoops  until  the  partner's 
ball  is  well  advanced.  There  is  a  perennial  agitation  in  the 
croquet  world  for  a  law  prohibiting  the  player  from  pegging  out 


his  opponent's  ball.  Many  good  players  also  think  it  desirable 
that  the  four-ball  break  should  be  restricted  or  wholly  forbidden, 
e.g.  by  barring  the  dead  ball. 

To  "  rush  "  a  ball  is  to  roquet  it  hard  so  that  it  proceeds  for  a 
considerable  distance  in  a  desired  direction.  This  stroke  requires 
absolute  accuracy  and  often  considerable  force,  which  must 
be  applied  in  such  a  way  as  to  drive  the  player's  ball  evenly; 
otherwise  it  is  very  liable,  especially  if  the  ground  be  not  perfectly 
smooth,  to  jump  the  object  ball.  The  rush  stroke  is  absolutely 
essential  to  good  play,  as  it  enables  croquet  to  be  taken  (e.g.) 
close  to  the  required  hoop,  whereas  to  croquet  into  position 
from  a  great  distance  and  also  provide  a  ball  for  use  after  run- 
ning the  hoop  is  extremely  difficult,  often  impossible.  To  "  rush  " 
successfully,  the  striker's  ball  must  lie  near  the  object  ball, 
preferably,  though  not  necessarily,  in  the  line  of  the  rush. 
By  means  of  the  rush  it  is  possible  to  accomplish  the  complete 
round  with  the  assistance  of  one  ball  only.  To  "  cut  "  a  ball 
is  to  hit  it  on  the  edge  and  cause  it  to  move  at  some  desired  angle. 
"  Rolling  croquet  "  is  made  either  by  hitting  near  the  top  of 
the  player's  ball  which  gives  it  "  follow,"  or  by  making  the  mallet 
so  hit  the  ball  as  to  keep  up  a  sustained  pressure.  The  first 
impact  must,  however,  result  in  a  distinctly  audible  single  tap; 
if  a  prolonged  rattle  or  a  second  tap  is  heard  the  stroke  is  foul. 
The  passing  stroke  is  merely  an  extension  of  this.  Here  the 
player's  ball  proceeds  a  greater  distance  than  the  croqueted 
ball,  but  in  somewhat  the  same  direction.  The  "  stop  stroke  "  is 
made  by  a  short,  sharp  tap,  the  mallet  being  withdrawn  immedi- 
ately after  contact;  the  player's  ball  only  rolls  a  short  distance, 
the  other  going  much  farther.  The  "  jump  stroke  "  is  made  by 
striking  downwards  on  to  the  ball,  which  can  thus  be  made  to 
jump  over  another  ball,  or  even  a  hoop.  "  Peeling  "  (a  term 
derived  from  Walter  H.  Peel,  a  famous  advocate  of  the  policy) 
is  the  term  applied  to  the  device  of  putting  a  partner's  or  an 
opponent's  ball  through  the  hoops  with  a  view  to  ultimately 
pegging  it  out. 

The  laws  of  croquet,  and  even  the  arrangement  of  the  hoops, 
have  not  attained  complete  uniformity  wherever  the  game  is 
played.  Croquet  grounds  are  not  always  of  full  size,  and  some 
degree  of  elasticity  in  the  rules  is  perhaps  necessary  to  meet 
local  conditions.  The  laws  by  which  matches  for  the  champion- 
ship and  all  tournaments  are  governed  are  issued  annually  by 
the  Croquet  Association;  and  though  from  fime  to  time  trifling 
amendments  may  be  made,  they  have  probably  reached 
permanence  in  essentials. 

See  The  Encyclopaedia  of  Sport;  The  Complete  Croquet  Player 
(London,  1896) ;  the  latest  Laws  of  Croquet,  published  annually  by 
the  Croquet  Association,  and  its  official  organ  The  Croquet  Gazette. 
For  the  principles  of  the  game  and  its  history  in  England,  see  C.  D. 
Locock,  Modern  Croquet  Tactics  (London,  1907) ;  A.  Lillie,  Croquet 
up  to  Date  (London,  1900). 

Croquet  in  the  United  States :  Roque. — Croquet  was  brought 
to  America  from  England  soon  after  its  introduction  into  that 
country,  and  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity  as  a  game  for  boys 
and  girls  before  the  Civil  War  (see  Miss  Alcott's  Little  Women, 
cap.  12).  American  croquet  is  quite  distinct  from  the  modern 
English  game.  It  is  played  on  a  lawn  60  ft.  by  30,  and  preserves 
the  old-fashioned  English  arrangement  of  ten  hoops,  including 
a  central  "  cage  "  of  two  hoops.  The  balls,  coloured  red,  white, 
blue  and  black,  are  3j  in.  in  diameter,  and  the  hoops  are  from 
35  to  4  in.  wide,  according  to  the  skill  of  the  players.  This  game, 
however,  is  not  taken  seriously  in  the  United  States;  the 
Official  Croquet  Guide  of  Mr  Charles  Jacobus  emphasizes  "  the 
ease  with  which  the  game  can  be  established,"  since  almost  every 
country  home  has  a  grass  plot,  and  "  no  elaboration  is  needed." 
The  scientific  game  of  croquet  in  the  United  States  is  known  as 
"  roque."  Under  this  title  a  still  greater  departure  from  the 
English  game  has  been  elaborated  on  quite  independent  lines 
from  those  of  the  English  Croquet  Association  since  1882,  in 
which  year  the  National  Roque  Association  was  formed.  Roque 
also  suffered  from  the  popularity  of  lawn  tennis,  but  since  1897 
it  has  developed  almost  as  fast  as  croquet  in  England.  A  great 
national  championship  tournament  is  held  in  Norwich,  Conn., 


CRORE— CROSS 


505 


every  August,  and  the  game — which  is  fully  as  scientific  as 
modern  English  croquet — has  numerous  devotees,  especially 
in  New  England. 

Roque  is  played,  not  on  grass,  but  on  a  prepared  surface 
something  like  a  cinder  tennis-court.  The  standard  ground, 
as  adopted  by  the  National  Association  in  1903,  is  hexagonal 
in  shape,  with  ten  arches  (hoops)  and  two  stakes  (pegs)  as 
shown  in  diagram  2.  The  length  is  60  ft.,  width  30,  and  the 
"  corner  pieces  "  are  6  ft.  long.  An  essential  feature  of  the 
ground  is  that  it  is  surrounded  by  a  raised  wooden  border,  often 
lined  with  india-rubber  to  facilitate  the  rebound  of  the  ball, 
and  it  is  permissible  to  play  a  "  carom  "  (or  rebounding  shot) 
off  this  border;  a  skilful  player  can  often  thus  hit  a  ball  which 
is  wired  to  a  direct  shot.  A  boundary  line  is  marked  28  in. 
inside  the  border,  on  which  a  ball  coming  to  rest  outside  it  must 
be  replaced.  The  hoops  are  run  in  the  order  marked  on  the 
diagram,  so  that  the  game  consists  of  36  points.  Red  and  white 
are  always  partners  against  blue  and  black,  and  the  essential 
features  and  tactics  of  the  game  are,  mutatis  mutandis,  the  same 
as  in  modern  English  croquet — i.e.  the  skilful  player  goes  always 
for  a  break  and  utilizes  one  or  both  of  the  opponent's  balls  in 
making  it.  The  balls  are  35  in.  in  diameter,  of  hard  rubber  or 
composition,  and  the  arches  are  3!  or  35  in.  wide  for  first-  and 


the  next  player  or  "danger  ball"  being  wired  at  the  earliest 
opportunity. 

See  Spalding's  Official  Roque  Guide,  edited  by  Mr  Charles  Jacobus 
(New  York,  1906). 

CRORE  (Hindustani  karor),  an  Anglo-Indian  term  for  a  hundred 
lakhs  or  ten  million.  It  is  in  common  use  for  statistics  of  trade 
and  especially  coinage.  In  the  days  when  the  rupee  was  worth  its 
face  value  of  as.  a  crbre  of  rupees  was  exactly  worth  a  million 
sterling,  but  now  that  the  rupee  is  fixed  at  15  to  the  £i,  a  crore 
is  only  worth  £666,666. 

CROSBY,   HOWARD    (1826-1891),    American   preacher   and 
teacher,   great-grandson  of  Judge  Joseph   Crosby  of   Massa- 
chusetts and  of  Gen.  William  Floyd  of  New  York,  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  New  York  City 
on  the  27th  of  February  1826.     He  graduated  in  1844  from 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  (now  New  York  Univer- 
sity); became  professor  of  Greek  there  in  1851,  and  in  1859 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick, 
New  Jersey,  where  two  years  later  he  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  first   Presbyterian  church.     From   1870  to   1881   he  was 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York;  from 
1872    to    1881    was    one    of    the    American    revisers    of    the 
English   version   of   the   New   Testament;   and   in    1873    was 
moderator  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.     He  took  a  prominent  part  in  politics,  urged 
excise  reform,  opposed  "  total  abstinence,"  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  was  the  first  president  of  the  New  York 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Crime,  and  pleaded  for 
better    management    of    Indian    affairs    and    for    inter- 
national   copyright.     Among    his    publications    are    The 
Lands  of  the  Moslem   (1851),   Bible  Companion   (1870), 
Jesus:   His   Life   and   Works   (1871),    True    Temperance 
Reform   (1879),    True  Humanity  of  Christ   (1880),   and 
commentaries  on  the  book  of  Joshua  (1875),  Nehemiah 
(i877)and  the  New  Testament  (1885). 

His  son,  ERNEST  HOWARD  CROSBY  (1856-1907),  was  a 
social  reformer,  and  was  born  in  New  York  City  on  the 
4th  of  November  1856.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1876  and  at  Columbia 

^      '  .. , — " —  '    ,          '  Law  School  in  1878;  served  in  the  New  York  Assembly 

— Diagram  of  roque  ground,  showing  setting  of  arches  and  stakes  •     Too__ Toon    .„_     :       tv  f      v,- 

r  of  play,  in  accordance, with  the  official  laws  (1906)  of  the  National   .  ,   9>  sl 

in  1889-1894  was  a  judge  of  the  Mixed  Tribunal  at  Alex- 
andria, Egypt,  resigning  upon  coming  under  the  influence 
of  Tolstoy;  and  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  3rd  of  January 
1907.     He  was  the  first  president  (1894)  of  the  Social  Reform 


FIG.  2. 

and  order  of  play 
Roque  Association. 

second-class  players  respectively;  they  are  made  of  steel  2  in. 
in  diameter  and  stand  about  8  in.  out  of  the  ground.     The  stakes 


are  i  in.  in  diameter  and  only  ij  in.  above  the  ground.  The 
mallets  are  much  shorter  than  those  commonly  employed  in 
England,  the  majority  of  players  using  only  one  hand,  though 
the  two-handed  "  pendulum  stroke,"  played  between  the  legs, 
finds  an  increasingly  large  number  of  adherents,  on  account  of 
the  greater  accuracy  which  it  gives.  The  "  jump  shot  "  is  a 
necessary  part  of  the  player's  equipment,  as. dead  wiring  is 
allowed;  it  is  supplemented  by  the  carom  off  the  border  or 
off  a  stake  or  arch,  and  roque  players  justly  claim  that  their 
game  is  more  like  billiards  than  any  other  out-of-door 
game. 

The  game  of  roque  is  opened  by  scoring  (stringing)  for  lead 
from  an  imaginary  line  through  the  middle  wicket  (cage),  the 
player  whose  ball  rests  nearest  the  southern  boundary  line 
having  the  choice  of  lead  and  balls.  The  balls  are  then  placed 
on  the  four  corner  spots  marked  A  in  diagram,  partner  balls 
being  diagonally  opposite  one  another,  and  the  starting  ball 
having  the  choice  of  either  of  the  upper  corners.  The  leader, 
say  red,  usually  begins  by  shooting  at  white;  if  he  misses,  a 
carom  off  the  border  will  leave  him  somewhere  near  his  partner, 
blue.  White  then  shoots  at  red  or  blue,  with  probably  a  similar 
result.  Blue  is  then  "  in,"  with  a  certain  roquet  and  the  choice 
of  laying  for  red  or  going  for  an  immediate  break  himself.  The 
general  strategy  of  the  game  corresponds  to  that  of  croquet, 
the  most  important  differences  being  that  "  pegging  out "  is 
not  allowed,  and  that  on  the  small  ground  with  its  ten  arches 
and  two  stakes  the  three-ball  break  is  usually  adopted, 


Club  of  New  York  City,  and  was  president  .in  1900-1905  of  the 
New  York  Anti-Imperialist  League;  was  a  leader  in  settlement 
work  and  in  opposition  to  child  labour,  and  was  a  disciple  of 
Tolstoy  as  to  universal  peace  and  non-resistance,  and  of  Henry 
George  in  his  belief  in  the  "  single  tax  "  principle.  His  writings, 
many  of  which  are  in  the  manner  of  Walt  Whitman,  comprise 
Plain  Talk  in  Psalm  and  Parable  (1899),  Swords  and  Plough- 
shares (1902),  and  Broadcast  (1905),  all  in  verse;  an  anti- 
military  novel,  Captain  Jinks,  Hero  (1902);  and  essays  on 
Tolstoy  (1904  and  1905)  and  on  Garrison  (1905). 

CROSS,  and  CRUCIFIXION  (Lat.  crux,  crucis1).  The  meaning 
ordinarily  attached  to  the  word  "  cross  "  is  that  of  a  figure 
composed  of  two  or  more  lines  which  intersect,  or  touch  each 
other  transversely.  Thus,  two  pieces  of  wood,  or  other  material, 
so  placed  in  juxtaposition  to  one  another,  are  understood  to 
form  a  cross.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  Lipsius  and 
other  writers  speak  of  the  single  upright  stake  to  which  criminals 
were  bound  as  a  cross,  and  to  such  a  stake  the  name  of  crux 
simplex  has  been  applied.  The  usual  conception,  however,  of  a 
cross  is  that  of  a  compound  figure. 

Punishment  by  crucifixion  was  widely  employed  in  ancient 
times.  It  is  known  to  have  been  used  by  nations  such  as 
those  of  Assyria,  Egypt,  Persia,  by  the  Greeks,  Carthaginians, 

1  Derivatives  of  the  Latin  crux  appear  in  many  forms  in  European 
languages,  cf.  Ger.  Kreuz,  Fr.  croix.  It.  croce,  &c. ;  the  English  form 
seems  Norse  in  origin  (O.N.  Krone,  mod.  Kors).  The  O.E.  name 
was  rod,  rood  (q.v.). 


506 


CROSS 


Macedonians,  and  from  very  early  times  by  the  Romans.  It  has 
been  thought,  too,  that  crucifixion  was  also  used  by  the  Jews 
themselves,  and  that  there  is  an  allusion  to  it  (Deut.  xxi.  22, 
23)  as  a  punishment  to  be  inflicted. 

Two  methods  were  followed  in  the  infliction  of  the  punishment 
of  crucifixion.  In  both  of  these  the  criminal  was  first  of  all 
usually  stripped  naked,  and  bound  to  an  upright  stake,  where 
he  was  so  cruelly  scourged  with  an  implement,  formed  of  strips 
of  leather  having  pieces  of  iron,  or  some  other  hard  material, 
at  their  ends,  that  not  merely  was  the  flesh  often  stripped  from 
the  bones,  but  even  the  entrails  partly  protruded,  and  the 
anatomy  of  the  body  was  disclosed.  In  this  pitiable  state  he 
was  reclothed,  and,  if  able  to  do  so,  was  made  to  drag  the  stake 
to  the  place  of  execution,  where  he  was  either  fastened  to  it, 
or  impaled  upon  it,  and  left  to  die.  In  this  method,  where  a 
single  stake  was  employed,  we  have  the  crux  simplex  of  Lipsius. 
The  other  method  is  that  with  which  we  are  more  familiar,  and 
which  is  described  in  the  New  Testament  account  of  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Jesus  Christ.  In  such  a  case,  after  the  scourging  at  the 
stake,  the  criminal  was  made  to  carry  a  gibbet,  formed  of  two 
transverse  bars  of  wood,  to  the  place  of  execution,  and  he  was 
then  fastened  to  it  by  iron  nails  driven  through  the  outstretched 
arms  and  through  the  ankles.  Sometimes  this  was  done  as  the 
cross  lay  on  the  ground,  and  it  was  then  lifted  into  position. 
In  other  cases  the  criminal  was  made  to  ascend  by  a  ladder, 
and  was  then  fastened  to  the  cross.  Probably  the  feebleness, 
or  state  of  collapse,  from  which  the  criminal  must  often  have 
suffered,  had  much  to  do  in  deciding  this.  It  is  not  quite  clear 
which  of  these  two  plans  was  followed  in  the  case  of  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Christ,  but  the  more  general  opinion  has  been  that  He 
was  nailed  to  the  cross  on  the  ground,  and  that  it  was  then  lifted 
into  position.  The  contrary  opinion,  has,  however,  prevailed 
to  some  extent,  and  there  are  representations  of  the  crucifixion 
which  depict  Him  as  mounting  a  ladder  placed  against  the  cross. 
Such  representations  may,  however,  have  been  due  to  a  pious 
desire,  on  the  part  of  their  authors,  to  emphasize  the  voluntary 
offering  of  Himself  as  the  Saviour  of  the  World,  rather  than  as 
being  intended  for  actual  pictures  of  the  scene  itself.  It  may 
be  noted,  however,  that  among  the  "  Emblems  of  the  Passion," 
as  they  are  called,  and  which  were  very  favourite  devices  in 
the  middle  ages,  the  ladder  is  not  infrequently  found  in  con- 
junction with  the  crown  of  thorns,  nails,  spear,  &c. 

From  its  simplicity  of  form,  the  cross  has  been  used  both 
as  a  religious  symbol  and  as  an  ornament,  from  the  dawn  of 
man's  civilization.  Various  objects,  dating  from  periods  long 
anterior  to  the  Christian  era,  have  been  found,  marked  with 
crosses  of  different  designs,  in  almost  every  part  of  the  old 
world.  India,  Syria,  Persia  and  Egypt  have  all  yielded  number- 
less examples,  while  numerous  instances,  dating  from  the  later 
Stone  Age  to  Christian  times,  have  been  found  in  nearly  every 
part  of  Europe.  The  use  of  the  cross  as  a  religious  symbol  in 
pre-Christian  times,  and  among  non- 
Christian  peoples,  may  probably  be 
regarded  as  almost  universal,  and  in 
very  many  cases  it  was  connected 
with  some  form  of  nature  worship. 
Two  of  the  forms  of  the  pre-Christian 
cross  which  are  perhaps  most  fre- 
quently met  with  are  the  tau  cross,  so  named  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  Greek  capital  letter  "f,  and  the  svastika  or  fylfot l  y~j , 
also  called  "  Gammadion  "  owing  to  its  form  being  that  of  four 
Greek  capital  letters  gamma  \~  placed  together.  The  tau  cross 

1  The  acceptance  of  this  word  as  the  English  equivalent  for  this 
peculiar  form  of  the  cross  rests  only,  according  to  the  New  English 
Dictionary,  on  a  MS.  of  about  1500  in  the  Lansdpwne  collection, 
which  gives  details  for  the  erection  of  a  memorial  stained-glass 
window,  "...  the  fylfot  in  the  nedermost  pane  under  ther  I 
knele  _ .  .  .  " ;  in  the  sketch  given  with  the  instructions  a  cross 
occupies  the  space  indicated.  It  is  a  question,  therefore,  whether 
"  fylfot  "  is  a  name  for  any  device  suitable  to"  fill  the  foot  "  of  any 
design,  or  the  name  peculiar  to  this  particular  form  of  cross.  The 
word  is  not,  as  was  formerly  accepted,  a  corruption  of"  the  O.  Eng. 
feowerfete,  four-footed. 


FIG.  i. 


FIG.  2. 


is  a  common  Egyptian  device,  and  is  indeed  often  called  the 
Egyptian  cross.  The  svastika  has  a  very  wide  range  of  dis- 
tribution, and  is  found  on  all  kinds  of  objects.  It  was  used  as 
a  religious  emblem  in  India  and  China  at  least  ten  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  is  met  with  on  Buddhist  coins 
and  inscriptions  from  various  parts  of  India.  A  fine  sepulchral 
urn  found  at  Shropham  in  Norfolk,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  has  three  bands  of  cruciform  ornaments  round  it. 
The  two  uppermost  of  these  are  plain  circles,  each  of  which 
contains  a  plain  cross;  the  lowest  band  is  formed  of  a  series  of 
squares,  in  each  of  which  is  a  svastika.  In  the  Vatican  Museum 
there  is  an  Etruscan  fibula  of  gold  which  is  marked  with  the 
svastika,  but  it  is  a  device  of  such  common  occurrence  on  objects 
of  pre-Christian  origin,  that  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  specify 
individual  instances.  The  cross,  as  a  device  in  different  forms, 
and  often  enclosed  in  a  circle,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  on  coins 
and  medals  of  pre-Christian  date  in  France  and  elsewhere. 
Indeed,  objects  marked  with  pre-Christian  crosses  are  to  be  seen 
in  every  important  museum. 

The  death  of  Christ  on  a  cross  necessarily  conferred  a  new 
significance  on  the  figure,  which  had  hitherto  been  associated 
with  a  conception  of  religion  not  merely  non-Christian,  but  in 
its  essence  often  directly  opposed  to  it.  The  Christians  of  early 
times  were  wont  to  trace,  in  things  around  them,  hidden  pro- 
phetical allusions  to  the  truth  of  their  faith,  and  such  a  testimony 
they  seem  to  have  readily  recognized  in  the  use  of  the  cross  as 
a  religious  emblem  by  those  whose  employment  of  it  betokened 
a  belief  most  repugnant  to  their  own.  The  adoption  by  them  of 
such  forms,  for  example,  as  the  tau  cross  and  the  svastika  or 
fylfot  was  no  doubt  influenced  by  the  idea  of  the  occult  Christian 
significance  which  they  thought  they  recognized  in  those  forms, 
and  which  they  could  use  with  a  special  meaning  among  them- 
selves, without  at  the  same  time  arousing  the  ill-feeling  or 
shocking  the  sentiment  of  those  among  whom  they  lived. 

It  was  not  till  the  time  of  Constantine  that  the  cross  was 
publicly  used  as  the  symbol  of  the  Christian  religion.  Till  then 
its  employment  had  been  restricted,  and  private  among  the 
Christians  themselves.  Under  Constantine  it  became  the 
acknowledged  symbol  of  Christianity,  in  the  same  way  in  which, 
long  afterwards,  the  crescent  was  adopted  as  the  symbol  of 
the  Mahommedan  religion.  Constantine's  action  was  no  doubt 
influenced  by  the  vision  which  he  believed  he  saw  of  the  cross  in 
the  sky  with  the  accompanying  words  kv  TOVT(?  V'LKO.,  as  well  ab 
by  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  the  true  cross  by  his  mother 
St  Helena  in  the  year  326.  The  legend  is  that,  when  visiting 
the  holy  places  in  Palestine,  St  Helena  was  guided  to  the  site 
of  the  crucifixion  by  an  aged  Jew  who  had  inherited  traditional 
knowledge  as  to  its  position.  After  the  ground  had  been  dug 
to  a  considerable  depth,  three  crosses  were  found,  as  well  as 
the  superscription  placed  over  the  Saviour's  head  on  the  cross,  and 
the  nails  with  which  he  had  been  crucified.  The  cross  of  the 
Lord  was  distinguished  from  the  other  two  by  the  working 
of  a  miracle  on  a  crippled  woman  who  was  stretched  upon  it. 
This  finding,  or  "  invention,"  of  the  holy  cross  by  St  Helena  is 
commemorated  by  a  festival  on  the  3rd  of  May,  called  the 
"  Invention  of  the  Holy  Cross."  The  legend  was  widely  accepted 
as  true,  and  is  related  by  writers  such  as  St  Ambrose,  Rufinus, 
Sulpicius  Severus  and  others,  but  it  is  discounted  by  the 
existence  of  an  older  legend,  according  to  which  the  true  cross 
was  found  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  while  St  James  the 
Great  was  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  by  Protonice,  the  wife  of  Claudius. 

In  recent  times  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  reconcile  the 
two  accounts,  by  attributing  to  St  Helena  the  rediscovery  of 
the  true  cross,  originally  found  by  Protonice,  and  which  had 
been  buried  again  on  the  spot.  A  change  was  made  in  1895 
in  the  Diario  Romano,  when  the  word  Ritrovamento  was  sub- 
stituted for  that  of  Invenzione,  in  the  name  of  the  festival  of  the 
3rd  of  May.  After  St  Helena's  discovery  a  church  was  built 
upon  the  site,  and  in  it  she  placed  the  greatef  portion  of  the 
cross.  The  remaining  portion  she  conveyed  to  Byzantium, 
and  thence  Constantine  sent  a  piece  to  Rome,  where  it  is  said  to 
be  still  preserved  in  the  church  of  S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme, 


CROSS 


507 


•which  was  built  to  receive  so  precious  a  relic.  It  is  exposed  for 
the  veneration  of  the  faithful  on  Good  Friday,  3rd  of  May,  and 
the  third  Sunday  in  Lent,  each  year. 

Another  festival  of  the  holy  cross  is  kept  on  the  I4th  of 
September,  and  is  known  as  the  "  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross." 
It  seems  to  have  originated  with  the  dedication,  in  the  year  335, 
of  the  churches  built  on  the  sites  of  the  crucifixion  and  the  holy 
sepulchre.  The  observance  of  this  festival  passed  from  Jerusalem 
to  Constantinople,  and  thence  to  Rome,  where  it  appears  to 
have  been  introduced  in  the  7th  century.  By  some  it  is  thought 
that  the  feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross  had  its  origin  in 
Constantine's  vision  of  the  cross  in  the  sky  in  the  year  317,  but 
whether  it  originated  then,  or,  as  is  more  generally  supposed, 
at  the  dedication  of  the  churches  at  Jerusalem,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  was  afterwards  kept  with  much  greater  solemnity 
in  consequence  of  the  recovery  of  the  portion  of  the  cross  St 
Helena  had  left  at  Jerusalem,  which  had  been  taken  away  in  the 
Persian  victory,  and  was  restored  to  Jerusalem  by  Heraclitus 
in  627.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  (1592-1604)  raised  the  festival 
of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross  to  the  dignity,  liturgically 
known  as  that  of  a  Greater  Double. 

Before  leaving  the  story  of  St  Helena  and  the  cross,  it 
may  be  convenient  to  allude  briefly  to  the  superscription  placed 
over  the  Saviour's  head,  and  the  nails,  which  it  is  said  that  she 
found  with  the  cross.  The  earlier  tradition  as  to  the  super- 
scription is  obscure,  but  it  would  seem  that  it  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered part  of  the  relic  which  Constantine  sent  to  Rome.  By 
some  means  it  was  entirely  lost  sight  of  until  the  year  1492, 
when  it  is  said  that  it  was  accidentally  found  in  a  vault  in  the 
church  of  S.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  at  Rome.  Pope  Alexander 
III.  published  a  bull  certifying  to  the  truth  of  this  re-discovery 
of  the  relic,  and  authenticated  its  character. 

As  regards  the  nails,  a  question  has  arisen  whether  there  were 
three  or  four.  In  the  earliest  pictures  of  the  Crucifixion  the  feet 
are  shown  as  separately  nailed  to  the  cross,  but  at  a  later  period 
they  are  crossed,  and  a  single  nail  fixes  them.  In  the  former 
case  there  would  be  four  nails,  and  in  the  latter  only  three. 
Four  is  the  number  generally  accepted,  and  it  is  said  that  one 
was  cast  by  St  Helena  into  the  sea,  during  a  storm,  in  order 
to  subdue  the  waves,  another  is  said  (but  the  legend  cannot  be 
traced  far  back)  to  have  been  beaten  out  into  the  iron  circlet 
of  the  crown  of  Lombardy,  while  the  remaining  two  are 
reputed  to  be  preserved  among  the  relics  at  Milan  and  Trier 
respectively. 

The  employment  of  the  cross  as  the  Christian  symbol  has 
been  so  manifold  in  its  variety  and  application,  and  the  different 
forms  to  which  the  figure  has  been  adapted  and  elaborated  are 
so  complex,  that  it  is  only  possible  to  deal  with  the  outline  of 
the  subject. 

We  learn  from  Tertullian  and  other  early  Christian  writers 
of  the  constant  use  which  the  Christians  of  those  days  made  oi 
the  sign  of  the  cross.  Tertullian  (De  Cor.  Mil.  cap.  iii.)  says: 
"  At  each  journey  and  progress,  at  each  coming  in  and  going  out, 
at  the  putting  on  of  shoes,  at  the  bath,  at  meals,  at  the  kindling 
of  lights,  at  bedtime,  at  sitting  down,  whatsoever  occupation 
engages  us,  we  mark  the  brow  with  the  sign  of  the  cross."  With 
so  frequent  an  employment  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  their 
domestic  life,  it  would  be  strange  if  we  did  not  find  that  it  was 
very  frequently  used  in  the  public  worship  of  the  church.  The 
earliest  liturgical  forms  are  comparatively  late,  and  are  without 
rubrics,  but  the  allusions  by  different  writers  in  early  times 
to  the  ceremonial  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  the  public  services 
are  so  numerous,  and  so  much  importance  was  attached  to  it, 
that  we  are  left  in  no  manner  of  doubt  on  the  point.  St 
Augustine,  indeed,  speaks  of  the  sacraments  as  not  duly 
ministered  if  the  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  were  absent  from 
their  ministration  (Horn,  cxviii.  in  S.  Joan.).  Of  the  later 
liturgical  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  there  is  little  need  to  speak, 
as  a  reference  to  the  service  books  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  will  plainly  indicate  the  frequency  of,  and  the  import- 
ance attached  to,  its  employment.  Its  occasional  use  is  retained 
by  the  Lutherans,  and  in  the  Church  of  England  it  is  authori- 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


tatively  used  at  baptism,  and  at  the  "  sacring  "  or  anointing  of 
the  sovereign  at  the  coronation. 

Passing  from  the  sign  to  the  material  figures  of  the  cross, 
a  very  usual  classification  distinguishes  three  main  forms: 
(i^  the  crux  immissa,  or  capitata  "j"  (fig.  3)  known  also  as  the 
Latin  cross,  or  if  each  limb  is  of  the  same  length,  +  (fig.  4)  as 
the  Greek  cross;  (2)  the  crux  decussata,  formed  like  the  letter  X, 
and  (3)  the  crux  commissa  or  tau  cross, 
already  mentioned.  It  was  on  a  crux  immissa 
that  Christ  is  believed  to  have  been  crucified. 
The  crux  decusscta  is  known  as  St  Andrew's 
cross,  from  the  traditio-i  that  St  Andrew  was  p 

put  to  death  on  a  cross  of  that  form.     The  3' 

crux  commissa  is  often  called  St  Anthony's  cross,  probably 
only  because  it  resembles  the  crutch  with  which  the  great  hermit 
is  generally  depicted. 

The  cross  in  one  form  or  other  appears,  appropriately,  on  the 
flags  and  ensigns  of  many  Christian  countries.  The  English 
cross  of  St  George  is  a  plain  red  cross  on  a  white  ground,  the 
Scottish  cross  of  St  Andrew  is  a  plain  diagonal  white  cross  on  a 
blue  ground,  and  the  Irish  cross  of  St  Patrick  is  a  plain  diagonal 
red  cross  on  a  white  ground.  These  three  crosses  are  combined 
in  the  Union  Jack  (see  FLAG). 

The  cross  has  also  been  adopted  by  many  orders  of  knighthood. 
Perhaps  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  cross  of  the  knights  of 
Malta.  It  is  a  white  cross  of  eight  points  on  a  black  ground 
(fig.  '5)  and  is  the  proper  Maltese  cross, 
a  name  which  is  often  wrongly  applied 
to  the  cross  patee  (fig.  6).  The  knights 
of  the  Garter  use  the  cross  of  St 
George,  as  do  those  of  the  order  of  St 
Michael  and  St  George,  the  knights  of 
the  Thistle  use  St  Andrew's  cross,  and 
those  of  St  Patrick  the  cross  of  St 
Patrick  charged  with  a  shamrock  leaf.  The  cross  of  the  Danish 
order  of  the  Dannebrog  (fig.  7)  affords  a  good  example  of  this  use 
of  the  cross.  It  is  in  form  a  white  cross  patee,  superimposed 
upon  a  red  one  of  the  same  form,  and  is  surmounted  by  the 
royal  cipher  and  crown,  and  has  upon  its  surface  the  royal 
cipher  repeated,  and  the  legend,  or  motto,  "  Cud  og  Kongen  " 
=  "  God  and  the  King."  (For  crosses  of  monastic  orders  see 
COSTUME.) 

Akin  to  the  crosses  of  knightly  orders  are  those  which  figure 
as  charges  on  coats  of  arms.  The  science  of  heraldry  evolved  a 
wonderful  variety  of  cross-forms  during  the  period  it  held  sway 
in  the  middle  ages.  The  different  forms  of  cross  used  in  heraldry 
are,  in  fact,  so  numerous  that  it  is  only  the  larger  works  on  that 
subject  which  attempt  to  record  them  all. 
For  such  crosses  see  HERALDRY. 

In  the  middle  ages  the  cross  form,  in 
one  way  or  another,  was  predominant 
everywhere,  and  was  introduced  whenever 
opportunity  offered  itself  for  doing  so.  The 
larger  churches  were  planned  on  its  outline, 
so  that  the  ridge  line  of  their  roofs  pro- 
claimed it  far  and  wide.  This  was  more 
particularly  followed  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
but  when  it  was  first  introduced  is  not 
quite  certain.  All  the  ancient  cathedral 
churches  of  England  and  Wales  are  cruci- 
form in  plan,  except  Llandaff. 

The  artistic  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the 
medieval     designer     has     produced     cross 
designs  of  endless  variety,  and  of  singular FlG'  r^an^bro5 
elegance  and  beauty.     Some  of  the   most 
beautiful  of  these   designs   are   the   gable   crosses  of   the   old 
churches.      Fig.    8   shows   the   west   gable  cross  of  Washburn 
church,  Worcestershire;  fig.  9  that  of  the  nave  of  Castle  Acre 
church,  Norfolk;  and  fig.  10  the  east  gable  cross  of  Hethersett 
church  in  that  county.    They  may  be  taken  as  good  examples 
of  a  type  of  cross  which  is  often  of  great  beauty,  but  it  is  over- 
looked, owing  to  its  bad  position  for  observation. 


5o8 


CROSS 


Other  architectural  crosses,  of  great  beauty  of  design,  are 
those  which  occur  on  the  grave  slabs  of  the  middle  ages. 
Instances  of  a  plainer  type  occur  in  Saxon  times,  but  it  was  not 
till  after  the  nth  century  that  they  were  fashioned  after  the 
intricate  and  beautiful  designs  with  which  our  ancient  churches 
are,  as  a  rule,  so  plentifully  supplied.  Sometimes  these  crosses 
are  incised  in  the  slab,  and  almost  as  often  they  are  executed 
in  low  relief.  The  long  shaft  of  the  cross  is  most  commonly  plain, 
but  there  are  a  very  large  number  of  instances  in  which  this 
is  not  so,  and  in  which  branches,  with  leaf  designs,  are  thrown 


FIG.  8. 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


out  at  intervals  the  entire  length  of  the  shaft.  In  some  cases 
the  shaft  rises  from  a  series  of  steps  at  its  base,  and  in  such  a  case 
the  name  of  a  Calvary  cross  is  applied  to  it.  Fig.  1 1,  from  Strad- 
sett  church,  Norfolk,  and  fig.  12  from  Bosbury  church,  Hereford- 
shire, are  good  examples  of  the  designs  at  the  head  of  sepulchral 
crosses.  Often,  by  the  side  of  the  cross,  an  emblem  or  symbol 
is  placed,  denoting  the  calling  in  life  of  the  person  commemorated. 
Thus  a  sword  is  placed  to  indicate  a  knight  or  soldier,  a  chalice 
for  a  priest,  and  so  forth;  but  it  would  be  travelling  beyond  the 
scope  of  this  article  to  enter  into  a  discussion  as  to  such  symbols. 
Of  upright  standing  crosses,  the  Irish  and  lona  types  are  well 
known,  and  their  great  artistic  beauty  and  elaboration  and 
excellence  of  sculpture  are  universally  recognized.  These  crosses 
are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  Runic  Crosses  "  ;  and  the  inter- 
lacing knotwork  design  with  which  many  of  them  are  ornamented 


FIG.  ii. 


FIG.  12. 


is  also  at  times  spoken  of  as  "  Runic."  This  is  an  erroneous 
application  of  the  word,  and  has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  some 
of  these  crosses  bear  inscriptions  in  Runic  characters.  Standing 
crosses,  of  different  kinds,  were  commonly  set  up  in  every 
suitable  place  during  the  middle  ages,  as  the  mutilated  bases  and 
shafts  stili  remaining  readily  testify.  Such  crosses  were  erected 
in  the  centre  of  the  market  place,  in  the  churchyard,  on  the  village 
green,  or  as  boundary  stones,  or  marks  to  guide  the  traveller. 
Some,  like  the  Black  Friars  cross  at  Hereford,  were  preaching 
stations,  others,  like  the  beautiful  Eleanor  crosses  at  North- 
ampton, Geddington  and  Waltham,  were  commemorative 
in  character.  Of  these  latter  crosses,  which  marked  the  places 


where  the  funeral  procession  of  Queen  Eleanor  halted,  there 
were  originally  ten  or  more,  erected  between  1 241  and  1 294. 
They  were  placed  at  Lincoln,  Northampton,  Stony  Stratford, 
Woburn,  Dunstable,  St  Albans,  Waltham  and  London  (Cheapside 
and  Charing  Cross).  The  cross  at  Geddington  differs  in  outline 
from  those  at  Northampton  and  Waltham,  and  it  is  not  recorded 
on  the  roll  of  accounts  for  the  nine  others,  all  of  which  are  men- 
tioned, but  there  is  no  real  doubt  that  it  commemorates  the 
resting  of  the  coffin  of  the  queen  in  Geddington  church  on  its 
way  from  Harby.  These  crosses,  like  the  Black  Friars  cross 
at  Hereford,  are  elaborate  architectural  erections,  and  very 
similar  to  them  in  this  respect  are  the  beautiful  market  crosses 
at  Winchester,  Chichester,  Salisbury,  Devizes,  Shepton  Mallet, 
Leighton  Buzzard,  &c.  Of  churchyard  crosses,  as  distinguished 
from  memorial  crosses  in  churchyards,  one  only  is  believed  to 
have  escaped  in  a  perfect  condition  the  ravages  of  time,  and  the 
fanaticism  of  the  past.  It  stands  in  the  churchyard  of  Somerby, 
in  Lincolnshire  (Tennyson's  birthplace),  and  is  a  tall  shaft 
surmounted  by  a  pedimented  tabernacle,  on  one  side  of  which 
is  the  crucifixion,  and  on  the  other  the  figure  of  the  Virgin  and 
Child.  Churchyard  crosses  may  have  been  used  as  occasional 
preaching  stations,  for  reading  the  Gospel  in  the  Palm  Sunday 
procession,  and  generally  for  public  proclamations,  made  usually 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  chief  Sunday  morning  service,  much 
in  the  same  way  that  market  crosses  were  used  on  market  days 
as  places  for  proclamations  in  the  towns. 

Of  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  mention  has 
already  been  made,  and  it  is  desirable  to  mention  briefly  one 
or  two  instances  of  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  the  cross  itself.  From 
a  fairly  early  period  it  has  been  the  prerogative  of  an  archbishop 
or  metropolitan,  to  have  a  cross  borne  before  him  within  the 
limits  of  his  province.  The  question  urged  between  the  arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury  and  York  about  the  carrying  of  their 
crosses  before  them,  in  each  other's  province,  was  a  fruitful 
source  of  controversy  in  the  middle  ages.  The  archiepiscopal 
cross  must  not  be  confused  with  the  crozier  or  pastoral  staff 
The  latter,  which  is  formed  with  a  crook  at  the  end,  is  quite 
distinct,  and  is  used  by  archbishops  and  bishops  alike,  who  bear 
it  with  the  left  hand  in  processions,  and  when  blessing  the  people. 
The  archiepiscopal  cross,  on  the  contrary,  is  always  borne  before 
the  archbishop,  or  during  the  vacancy  of  the  archiepiscopal  see 
before  the  guardian  of  the  spiritualities  sede  vacante.  The 
bishop  of  Dol  in  Brittany,  of  ordinary  diocesan  bishops,  alone 
possessed  the  privilege  of  having  a  cross  borne  before  him  in 
his  diocese.  Good  illustrations  of  the  archiepiscopal  cross  occur 
on  the  monumental  brasses  of  Archbishop  Waldeby,  of  York 
(1397),  at  Westminster  Abbey,  and  of  Archbishop  Cranley, 
of  Dublin  (1417)  in  New  College  chapel,  Oxford. 

The  custom  of  carrying  a  cross  at  the  head  of  an  ecclesiastical 
procession  can  be  traced  back  to  the  end  of  the  4th  century. 
The  cross  was  originally  taken  from  the  altar,  and  raised  on  a 
pole,  and  so  borne  before  the  procession.  Afterwards  a  separate 
cross  was  provided  for  processions,  but  in  poor  churches,  where 
this  was  not  the  case,  the  altar  cross  continued  to  be  used  till  quite 
a  late  period.  A  direction  to  this  effect  occurs  as  late  as  1829, 
in  the  Rituel  published  for  the  diocese  of  La  Rochelle  in  that  year. 
In  England  altar  crosses  were  not  very  usual  in  the  middle  ages. 

As  a  personal  ornament  the  cross  came  into  common  use,  and 
was  usually  worn  suspended  by  a  chain  from  the  neck.  A  cross 
of  this  kind,  of  very  great  interest  and  beauty,  was  found  about 
1690,  on  the  breast  of  Queen  Dagmar,  the  wife  of  Waldemar  II., 
king  of  Denmark  (d.  1213).  It  is  of  Byzantine  design  and 
workmanship,  and  is  of  enamelled  gold  (fig.  13  shows  both  sides 
of  it)  ;  on  one  side  is  the  Crucifixion,  and  on  the  other  side  the 
half  figure  of  our  Lord  in  the  centre,  with  the  Virgin  and  St  John 
the  Evangelist  on  either  side,  and  St  Chrysostom  and  St  Basil 
above  and  below.  From  the  way  in  which  such  crosses  were 
worn,  hanging  over  the  chest,  they  are  called  pectoral  crosses. 
At  the  present  day  a  pectoral  cross  forms  part  "of  the  recognized 
insignia  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and  is  worn  by  him  over 
his  robes,  but  this  official  use  of  the  pectoral  cross  is  not  ancient, 
and  no  instance  is  known  of  it  in  England  before  the  Reformation. 


CROSSBILL— CROSSEN 


509 


The  custom  appears  to  have  taken  rise  in  the  i6th  century  on  the 
continent.  It  was  not  unusual  to  wear  cruciform  reliquaries, 
as  objects  of  personal  adornment,  and  such  a  reliquary  was 
found  on  the  body  of  St  Cuthbert,  when  his  tomb  was  opened  in 
1827,  but  it  was  placed  under,  and  not  over  his  episcopal  vest- 
ments, and  formed  no  part  of  his  bishop's  attire.  The  custom 


FIG.  13. — Dagmar  Cross. 

of  wearing  a  pectoral  cross  over  ecclesiastical  robes  has,  curiously 
enough,  been  copied  from  the  comparatively  modern  Roman 
Catholic  usage  by  the  Lutheran  bishops  and  superintendents 
in  Scandinavia  and  Prussia;  and  in  Sweden  the  cross  is  now 
delivered  to  the  new  bishop,  on  his  installation  in  office,  by  the 
archbishop  of  Upsala,  together  with  the  mitre  and  crozier. 
Within  the  last  generation  the  use  of  a  pectoral  cross,  worn  over 
their  robes  as  part  of  the  insignia  of  the  episcopal  office,  has  been 
adopted  by  some  bishops  of  the  Church  of  England,  but  it  has  no 
ancient  sanction  or  authority. 

AUTHORITIES. — Mortillet,  Le  Signe  de  la  croixavant  le  Christianisme 
(Paris,  1866);  Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church; 
Lipsius,  De  Cruce  Christi;  Lady  Eastlake,  History  of  our  Lord,  vol. 
ii. ;  Cutts,  Manual  of  Sepulchral  Slabs  and  Crosses;  (Anon.)  Hand- 
book to  Christian  and  Ecclesiastical  Rome,  part  ii.  (London,  1897); 
Veldeuer,  History  of  the  Holy  Cross  (reprint,  1863).  (T.  M.  F.) 

CROSSBILL  (Fr.  Bec-croise,  Ger.  Kreuzschna bel) ,  the  name 
given  to  a  genus  of  birds,  belonging  to  the  family  Fringillidae, 
or  finches,  from  the  unique  peculiarity  they  possess  among  the 
whole  class  of  having  the  horny  sheaths  of  the  bill  crossing  one 
another  obliquely,1  whence  the  appellation  Loxia  (Xo£6s, 
obliquus),  conferred  by  Gesner  on  the  group  and  continued  by 
Linnaeus.  At  first  sight  this  singular  structure  appears  so  like 
a  deformity  that  writers  have  not  been  wanting  to  account  it 
such,2  ignorant  of  its  being  a  piece  of  mechanism  most  beautifully 
adapted  to  the  habits  of  the  bird,  enabling  it  to  extract  with  the 
greatest  ease,  from  fir-cones  or  fleshy  fruits,  the  seeds  which 
form  its  usual  and  almost  invariable  food.  Its  mode  of  using 
this  unique  instrument  seems  to  have  been  first  described  by 
Townson  (Tracts  on  Nat.  Hist.,  p.  116,  London,  1799),  but  only 
partially,  and  it  was  Yarrell  who,  in  1829  (Zool.  Journ.,  iv. 
pp.  457-465,  pi.  xiv.  figs.  1-7),  explained  fully  the  means  whereby 
the  jaws  and  the  muscles  which  direct  their  movements  become 
so  effective  in  riving  asunder  cones  or  apples,  while  at  the  proper 
moment  the  scoop-like  tongue  is  instantaneously  thrust  out  and 
withdrawn,  conveying  the  hitherto  protected  seed  to  the  bird's 
mouth.  The  articulation  of  the  mandible  to  the  quadrate-bone 
is  such  as  to  allow  of  a  very  considerable  amount  of  lateral  play, 
and,  by  a  particular  arrangement  of  the  muscles  which  move 
the  former,  it  comes  to  pass  that  so  soon  as  the  bird  opens  its 
mouth  the  point  of  the  mandible  is  brought  immediately  opposite 
to  that  of  the  maxilla  (which  itself  is  movable  vertically), 
instead  of  crossing  or  overlapping  it — the  usual  position  when 
the  mouth  is  closed.  The  two  points  thus  meeting,  the  bill  is 

1  This  peculiarity  is  found  as  an  accidental  malformation  in  the 
crows  (Corvidae)  and  other  groups;  it  is  comparable  to  the  mon- 
strosities seen  in  rabbits  and  other  members  of  the  order  Clires,  in 
which  the  incisor  teeth  grow  to  an  inordinate  length. 

*  A  medieval  legend  ascribes  the  conformation  of  bill  and  colora- 
tion of  plumage  to  a  divine  recognition  of  the  bird's  pity,  bestowed 
on  Christ  at  the  crucifixion. 


nserted  between  the  scales  or  into  the  pome,  but  on  opening 
the  mouth  still  more  widely,  the  lateral  motion  of  the  mandible 
is  once  more  brought  to  bear  with  great  force  to  wrench  aside 
the  portion  of  the  fruit  attacked,  and  then  the  action  of  the  tongue 
completes  the  operation,  which  is  so  rapidly  performed  as  to 
defy  scrutiny,  except  on  very  close  inspection.  Fortunately 
;he  birds  soon  become  tame  in  confinement,  and  a  little  patience 
will  enable  an  attentive  observer  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the 
process,  the  result  of  which  at  first  seems  almost  as  unaccountable 
as  that  of  a  clever  conjuring  trick. 

The  common  crossbill  of  the  Palaearctic  region  (Loxia  curvi- 
roslra)  is  about  the  size  of  a  skylark,  but  more  stoutly  built. 
The  young  (which  on  leaving  the  nest  have  not  the  tips  of  the  bill 
crossed)  are  of  a  dull  olive  colour  with  indistinct  dark  stripes 
on  the  lower  parts,  and  the  quills  of  the  wings  and  tail  dusky. 
After  the  first  moult  the  difference  between  the  sexes  is  shown 
by  the  hens  inclining  to  yellowish-green,  while  the  cocks  become 
diversified  by  orange-yellow  and  red,  their  plumage  finally 
deepening  into  a  rich  crimson-red,  varied  in  places  by  a  flame- 
colour.  Their  glowing  hues,  are,  however,  speedily  lost  by 
examples  which  may  be  kept  in  confinement,  and  are  replaced  by 
a  dull  orange,  or  in  some  cases  by  a  bright  golden-yellow,  and 
specimens  have,  though  rarely,  occurred  in  a  wild  state  exhibiting 
the  same  tints.  The  cause  of  these  changes  is  at  present  obscure, 
if  not  unknown,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  their  sequence 
has  been  disputed  by  some  excellent  authorities,  but  the  balance 
of  evidence  is  certainly  in  favour  of  the  above  statement.  De- 
pending mainly  for  food  on  the  seeds  of  conifers,  the  movements 
of  crossbills  are  irregular  beyond  those  of  most  birds,  and  they 
would  seem  to  rove  in  any  direction  and  at  any  season  in  quest 
of  their  staple  sustenance.  But  the  pips  of  apples  are  also  a 
favourite  dainty,  and  it  is  recorded  by  the  old  chronicler  Matthew 
Paris  (Hist.  Angl.  MS.  fol.  252),  that  in  1251  the  orchards  of 
England  were  ravaged  by  birds,  "  pomorum  grana,  &  non  aliud 
de  eisdem  pomis  comedentes,"  which,  from  his  description, 
"  Habebant  autem  partes  rostri  cancellatas,  per  quas  poma 
quasi  forcipi  vel  cultello  dividebant,"  could  be  none  other  but 
crossbills.  Notice  of  a  like  visitation  in  1593  is  recorded,  but 
of  late  it  has  become  evident  that  not  a  year  passes  without 
crossbills  being  observed  in  some  part  or  other  of  England,  while 
in  certain  localities  in  Scotland  they  seem  to  breed  annually. 
The  nest  is  rather  rudely  constructed,  and  the  eggs,  generally 
four  in  number,  resemble  those  of  the  greenfinch,  but  are  larger 
in  size.  This  species  ranges  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,' 
and_  occurs  in  'the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  fir- 
woods  of  the  Atlas.  In  Asia  it  would  seem  to  extend  to  Kam- 
tschatka  and  Japan,  keeping  mainly  to  the  forest-tracts. 

Three  other  forms  of  the  genus  also  inhabit  the  Old  World — 
two  of  them  so  closely  resembling  the  common  bird  that  their 
specific  validity  has  been  often  questioned.  The  first  of  these, 
of  large  stature,  the  parrot-crossbill  (L.  pityopsitlacus) ,  comes 
occasionally  to  Great  Britain,  presumably  from  Scandinavia, 
where  it  is  known  to  breed.  The  second  (L.  himalayana) ,  which 
is  a  good  deal  smaller,  is  only  known  from  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains. The  third,  the  two-barred  crossbill  (L.  taenioptera),  is 
very  distinct,  and  its  proper  home  seems  to  be  the  most  northern 
forests  of  the  Russian  empire,  but  it  has  occasionally  occurred 
in  western  Europe  and  even  in  England. 

The  New  World  has  two  birds  of  the  genus.  The  first  (L. 
americana),  representing  the  common  British  species,  but  with 
a  smaller  bill,  and  the  males  easily  recognizable  by  their  more 
scarlet  plumage,  ranges  from  the  northern  limit  of  coniferous 
trees  to  the  highlands  of  Mexico,  or  even  farther.  The  other 
(L.  leucoptera)  is  the  equivalent  of  the  two-barred  crossbill,  but 
smaller.  It  has  twice  occurred  in  England.  (A.  N.) 

CROSSEN,  or  KROSSEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Prussia,  on  the  Oder,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge,  at  the  influx 
of  the  Bober,  31  m.  S.E.  of  Frankfort-on-Oder  by  rail.  Pop. 
(1900)  7369.  Of  the  churches  in  the  town  three  are  Protestant 

*  Dr  Malmgren  found  a  small  flock  on  Bear  Island  (lat.  74$°  N.), 
but  to  this  barren  spot  they  must  have  been  driven  by  stress  of 
weather. 


CROSSING— CROTONA 


and  one  Roman  Catholic.  Besides  the  modern  school  (Real- 
progymnasium),  there  are  a  technical  school  for  viniculture 
and  fruit-growing  and  a  dairy  school.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  copper  and  brass  ware,  -cloth,  &c.,  while  in  the 
surrounding  country  the  chief  industries  are  fruit  and  grape 
growing.  There  is  a  brisk  shipping  trade,  mainly  in  wine,  fruit 
and  fish.  Crossen  was  founded  in  1005  and  was  important  during 
the  middle  ages  as  a  point  of  passage  across  the  Oder.  It  attained 
civic  rights  in  1232,  was  for  a  time  the  capital  of  a  Silesian  duchy, 
which,  on  the  death  of  Barbara  of  Brandenburg,  widow  of  the 
last  duke,  passed  to  Brandenburg  (1482).  In  May  1886  the  town 
was  devastated  by  a  whirlwind. 

CROSSING,  in  architecture,  the  term  given  to  the  intersection 
of  the  nave  and  transept,  frequently  surmounted  by  a  tower  or 
by  a  dome  on  pendentives. 

CROSSKEY,  HENRY  WILLIAM  (1826-1893),  Englioh  geologist 
and  Unitarian  minister,  was  born  at  Lewes  in  Sussex,  on  the 
7th  of  December  1826.  After  being  trained  for  the  ministry  at 
Manchester  New  College  (1843-1848),  he  became  pastor  of 
Friargate  chapel,  Derby,  until  1852,  when  he  accepted  charge 
of  a  Unitarian  congregation  in  Glasgow.  In  1869  he  removed 
to  Birmingham,  where  until  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  pastor 
of  the  Church  of  the  Messiah.  While  in  Glasgow  his  interest 
was  awakened  in  geology  by  the  perusal  of  A.  C.  Ramsay's 
Geology  of  the  Isle  of  Arran,  and  from  1855  onwards  he  devoted 
his  leisure  to  the  pursuit  of  this  science.  He  became  an  authority 
on  glacial  geology,  and  wrote  much,  especially  in  conjunction 
with  David  Robertson,  on  the  post-tertiary  fossiliferous  beds 
of  Scotland  (Trans.  Geol.  Soc.  Glasgow).  He  also  prepared  for 
the  British  Association  a  valuable  series  of  Reports  (1873-1892) 
on  the  erratic  Blocks  of  England,  Wales  and  Ireland.  In  con- 
junction with  David  Robertson  and  G.  S.  Brady  he  wrote  the 
Monograph  of  the  Post  Tertiary  Entomostraca  of  Scotland,  &c. 
for  the  Palaeontographical  Society  (1874);  and  he  edited  H. 
Carvill  Lewis'  Papers  and  Notes  on  Hie  Glacial  Geology  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  issued  posthumously  (1894).  He  died  at 
Edgbaston,  Birmingham,  on  the  ist  of  October  1893. 

See  H.  W.  Crosskey:  his  Life  and  Work,  by  R.  A.  Armstrong  (with 
chapter  on  his  geological  work  by  Prof.  C.  Lapworth,  1895). 

CROSS  RIVER,  a  river  of  West  Africa,  over  500  m.  long. 
It  rises  in  6°  N  ,  10°  30'  E.  in  the  mountains  of  Cameroon,  and 
flows  at  first  N.W.  In  8°  48'  E.,  5°  50'  N.  are  a  series  of  rapids; 
below  this  point  the  river  is  navigable  for  shallow-draught  boats. 
At  8°  20'  E.,  6°  10'  N.,  its  most  northern  point,  the  river  turns 
S.W.  and  then  S.,  entering  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  through  the  Calabar 
estuary.  The  Calabar  river,  which  rises  about  5°  30'  N.,  8°  30'  E., 
has  a  course  parallel  to,  and  10  to  20  m.  east  of,  the  Cross  river. 
Near  its  mouth,  on  its  east  bank,  is  the  town  of  Calabar  (q.v.). 
It  enters  the  estuary  in  4°  45'  N.  The  Cross,  Calabar,  Kwa  and 
other  streams  farther  east,  which  rise  on  the  flanks  of  the 
Cameroon  Mountains,  form  a  large  delta.  The  Calabar  and 
Kwa  rivers  are  wholly  within  the  British  protectorate  of  Southern 
Nigeria,  as  is  the  Cross  river  from  its  mouth  to  the  rapids 
mentioned.  The  upper  course  of  the  river  is  in  German 
territory. 

CROSS-ROADS,  BURIAL  AT,  in  former  times  the  method  of 
disposing  of  executed  criminals  and  suicides.  At  the  cross-roads 
a  rude  cross  usually  stood,  and  this  gave  rise  to  the  belief  that 
these  spots  were  selected  as  the  next  best  burying-places  to 
consecrated  ground.  The  real  explanation  is  that  the  ancient 
Teutonic  peoples  often  built  their  altars  at  the  cross-roads,  and 
as  human  sacrifices,  especially  of  criminals,  formed  part  of  the 
ritual,  these  spots  came  to  be  regarded  as  execution  grounds. 
Hence  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  criminals  and 
suicides  were  buried  at  the  cross-roads  during  the  night,  in  order 
to  assimilate  as  far  as  possible  their  funeral  to  that  of  the  pagans. 
An  example  of  a  cross-road  execution-ground  was  the  famous 
Tyburn  in  London,  which  stood  on  the  spot  where  the  Oxford, 
Edgware  and  London  roads  met. 

CROSS  SPRINGER,  in  architecture,  the  block  from  which  the 
diagonal  ribs  of  a  vault  spring  or  start:  the  top  of  the  springer 
is  known  as  the  skewback  (see  ARCH). 


CROTCH,  WILLIAM  (1775-1847),  English  musician,  was  born 
in  Green's  Lane,  Norwich,  on  the  5th  of  July  1775.  His  father 
was  a  master  carpenter.  The  child  was  extraordinarily  pre- 
cocious, and  when  scarcely  more  than  two  years  of  age  he  played 
upon  an  organ  of  his  parent's  construction  something  like  the 
tune  of  "  God  save  the  King."  At  the  age  of  four  he  came  to 
London  and  gave  daily  recitals  on  the  organ  in  the  rooms  of  a 
milliner  in  Piccadilly.  The  precocity  of  his  musical  intuition 
was  almost  equalled  by  a  singularly  early  aptitude  for  drawing. 
In  1786  he  went  to  Cambridge  as  assistant  to  LV  Randall  the 
organist.  His  oratorio  The  Captivity  of  Judah  was  played  at 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  on  the  4th  of  June  1789.  He  was 
then  only  fourteen  years  of  age.  His  intention  of  entering  the 
church  carried  him  to  Oxford  in  1788,  but -the  superior  attrac- 
tions of  a  musical  career  acquired  an  increasing  influence  over 
him,  and  in  1790  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Christ  Church. 
At  the  early  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
music  in  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  there  in  1799  he  took  his 
degree  of  doctor  in  that  art.  In  1800  and  the  four  following 
years  he  read  lectures  on  music  at  Oxford.  Next  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  music  to  the  Royal  Institution,  and 
subsequently,  in  1822,  principal  of  the  London  Royal  Academy 
of  Music.  His  last  years  were  passed  at  Taunton  in  the  house  of 
his  son,  the  Rev.  W.  R.  Crotch,  where  he  died  suddenly  on  the 
29th  of  December  1847.  He  published  a  number  of  vocal  and 
instrumental  compositions,  of  which  the  best  is  his  oratorio 
Palestine,  produced  in  1812.  In  1831  appeared  an  8vo  volume 
containing  the  substance  of  his  lectures  on  music,  delivered  at 
Oxford  and  in  London.  Previously,  he  had  published  three 
volumes  of  Specimens  of  Various  Styles  of  Music.  Among  his 
didactic  works  is  Elements  of  Musical  Composition  and  Thorough- 
Bass  (London,  1812).  The  oratorio  bearing  the  title  The 
Captivity  of  Judah,  and  produced  on  the  occasion  of  the  installa- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Wellington  as  chancellor  of  the  university 
of  Oxford  in  1834,  is  a  totally  different  work  from  that  which 
he  wrote  upon  the  same  subject  as  a  boy  of  fourteen.  He 
arranged  for  the  pianoforte  a  number  of  Handel's  oratorios  and 
operas,  besides  symphonies  and  quartetts  of  Haydn,  Mozart 
and  Beethoven.  The  great  expectations  excited  by  his  infant 
precocity  were  not  fulfilled;  for  he  manifested  no  extraordinary 
genius  for  musical  composition.  But  he  was  an  industrious 
student  and  a  sound  artist,  and  his  name  remains  familiar  in 
English  musical  history. 

CROTCHET  (from  the  Fr.  croche,  a  hook;  whence  also  the 
Anglicized  "  crochet,"  pronounced  as  in  French,  for  the  knitting- 
work  done  with  a  hook  instead  of  on  pins),  properly  a  small 
hook,  and  so  used  of  the  hook-like  setae  or  bristles  found  in 
certain  worms  which  burrow  in  sand.  In  music,  a  "  crotchet  " 
is  a  note  of  half  the  value  of  a  minim  and  double  that  of  a  quaver; 
it  is  marked  by  a  round  black  head  and  a  line  without  a  tail  or 
hook;  the  French  croche  is  used  of  a  "  quaver  "  which  has  a  tail, 
but  in  ancient  music  the  semiminima,  the  modern  crotchet, 
is  marked  by  an  open  note  with  a  hook.  Derived  either  from 
an  old  French  proverbial  phrase,  il  a  des  crochues  en  teste,  or  from 
a  meaning  of  twist  or  turn,  as  in  the  similar  expression  "  crank," 
comes  the  sense  of  a  whim,  fancy  or  perverse  idea,  seen  also  in 
the  adjective  "  crotchety  "  of  a  fussy  unreasonable  person. 

CROTONA,  CROTO  or  CROTON  (Gr.  Kporwv,  mod.  Cotrone) 
a  Greek  town  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  territory  of  the  Bruttii 
(mod.  Calabria),  on  a  promontory  7  m.  N.W.  of  the  Lacinian 
promontory.  It  was  founded  by  a  colony  of  Achaeans  led  by 
Myscellus  in  710  B.C.  Its  name  was,  according  to  the  legend, 
that  of  a  local  prince  who  afforded  hospitality  to  Heracles,  but 
was  accidentally  killed  by  him  and  buried  on  the  spot.  Like 
Sybaris,  it  soon  became  a  city  of  power  and  wealth.  It  was 
especially  celebrated  for  its  successes  in  the  Olympic  games  from 
588  B.C.  onwards,  Milo  being  the  most  famous  of  its  athletes. 
Pythagoras  established  himself  here  between  540  and  530  B.C. 
and  formed  a  society  of  300  disciples  (among  whom  was  Milo), 
who  acquired  considerable  influence  with  the  supreme  council 
of  1000  by  which  the  city  was  ruled.  In  510  B.C.  Crotona 
was  strong  enough  to  defeat  the  Sybarites,  with  whom  it  had 


CROTONIC  ACID— CROUP 


previously  been  on  friendly  terms,  and  raze  their  city  to  the  ground. 
Shortly  afterwards,  however,  an  insurrection  took  place,  by 
which  the  disciples  of  Pythagoras  were  driven  out,  and  a  demo- 
cracy established.  The  victory  of  the  Locrians  and  Phlegians 
over  Crotona  in  480  B.C.  marked  the  beginning  of  its  decline. 
It  suffered  after  this  from  the  attacks  of  Dionysius  I.,  who 
became  its  master  for  twelve  years,  of  the  Bruttii,  and  of 
Agathocles,  and  even  more  from  the  invasion  of  Pyrrhus,  after 
which  in  277  the  Romans  obtained  possession  of  it.  Livy  states 
that  the  walls  had  a  length  of  12  m.  and  that  about  half  the  area 
within  them  had  at  that  time  ceased  to  be  inhabited.  After  the 
battle  of  Cannae  Crotona  revolted  from  Rome,  and  Hannibal 
made  it  his  winter  quarters  for  three  years.  It  was  made  a 
colony  by  the  Romans  at  the  end  of  the  war  (194  B.C.).  After 
that  time  but  little  is  heard  of  it,  though  Petronius  mentions 
the  corrupt  morals  of  its  inhabitants;  but  it  continues  to  be 
mentioned  down  to  the  Gothic  wars.  The  importance  of  the 
city  was  mainly  due  to  its  harbour,  which,  though  not  a  good 
one,  was  the  only  port  between  Tarentum  and  Rhegium.  The 
original  settlement  occupied  the  hill  above  it  (143  ft.)  and  later 
became  the  acropolis.  Its  healthy  situation  was  famous  in 
antiquity,  and  to  this  was  ascribed  its  superiority  in  athletics; 
it  was  the  seat  also  of  a  medical  school  which  in  the  days  of 
Herodotus  was  considered  the  first  in  Greece.  Of  the  exact -stye 
of  the  ancient  city  and  its  remains  practically  nothing  is  known: 
a  few  fragments  of  the  productions  of  its  art  preserved  in  private 
hands  at  Cotrone  are  described  by  F.  von  Duhn  in  Notisie 
degli  scavi,  1897,  343  seq.  (T.  As.) 

CROTONIC  ACID  (C4H602).  Three  acids  of  this  empirical 
formula  are  known,  viz.  crotonic  acid,  isocrotonic  acid  and 
methacrylic  acid;  the  constitutional  formulae  are — 

HC-CO2H  HC-COiH 

HC-CH,   '  CH,-CH    ' 

Crotonic  Acid.      Isocrotonic  Acid.         Methacrylic  Acid. 

The  isomerism  of  crotonic  and  isocrotonic  acids  is  to  be  explained 
on  the  assumption  of  a  different  spatial  arrangement  of  the 
atoms  in  the  molecule  (see  STEREOCHEMISTRY). 

Crotonic  acid,  so  named  from  the  fact  that  it  was  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  a  saponification  product  of  croton  oil,  may  be 
prepared  by  the  oxidation  of  croton-aldehyde,  CHs-  CH  :CH-CHO, 
obtained  by  dehydrating  aldol,  or  by  treating  acetylene  suc- 
cessively with  sulphuric  acid  and  water:  by  boiling  allyl  cyanide 
with  caustic  potash;  by  the  distillation  of  /3-oxybutyric  acid; 
by  heating  paraldehyde  with  malonic  acid  and  acetic  acid  to 
100°  C.  (T.  Komnenos,  Ann.,  1883,  218,  p.  149). 

CH2(COOH)2+CH3CHO->CH3-CH:C(COOH)2-}CHj-CH:CH-COOH; 

or  by  heating  pyruvic  acid  with  an  excess  of  acetic  anhydride 
and  sodium  acetate  to  160-180°  C.  (B.  Homolka,  Ber.,  1885,  18, 
p.  087).  It  crystallizes  in  needles  (from  hot  water)  which  melt 
at  72°  C.  and  boil  at  180-181°  C.  It  is  moderately  soluble  in 
cold  water.  It  combines  directly  with  bromine,  and,  with 
fuming  hydrobromic  acid  at  100°  C.,  it  gives  chiefly  a-brom- 
butyric  acid.  With  hydriodic  acid  it  gives  only  |3-iodobutyric 
acid.  Potash  fusion  converts  it  into  acetic  acid;  nitric  acid 
oxidizes  it  to  acetic  and  oxaiic  acids;  chromic  acid  mixture 
to  acetaldehyde  and  acetic  acid,  and  potassium  permanganate 
to  oj3-dioxybutyric  acid. 

Isocrotonic  acid  (Quartenylic  acid)  is  obtained  from  (3-chloriso- 
crotonic  acid,  formed  when  acetoacetic  ester  is  treated  with 
phosphorus  pentachloride  and  the  product  poured  into  water, 
by  the  action  of  sodium  amalgam  (A.  Geuther).  It  is  an  oil, 
possessing  a  smell  like  that  of  butyric  acid.  It  boils  at  171-0°  C.,' 
with  partial  conversion  into  crotonic  acid;  the  transformation 
is  complete  when  the  acid  is  heated  to  170-180°  C.  in  a  sealed 
tube.  Potassium  permanganate  oxidizes  it  to  /S^y-dioxy  butyric 
acid. 

Methacrylic  acid  was  first  obtained  in  the  form  of  its  ethyl 
ester  by  E.  Frankland  and  B.  F.  Duppa  (Annalen,  1865,  136, 
p.  12)  by  acting  with  phosphorus  pentachloride  on  oxyisobutyric 
ester  (CH3)2-C(OH)-COOC2H6.  It  is,  however,  more  readily  ob- 


tained by  boiling  citra-  or  meso-brompyrotartaric  acids  with 
alkalis.  It  crystallizes  in  prisms,  which  are  soluble  in  water, 
melt  at  16°  C.,  and  boil  at  160-5°  C.  When  fused  with  an  alkali, 
it  forms  propionic  acid;  with  bromine  it  yields  a/3-dibromiso- 
outyric  acid.  Sodium  amalgam  reduces  it  to  isobutyric  acid. 
A  polymeric  form  of  methacrylic  acid  has  been  described  by 
F.  Engelhorn  (Ann.,  1880,  200,  p.  70). 

CROTON  OIL  (Crotonis  Oleum),  an  oil  prepared  from  the  seeds 
of  Croton  Tiglium,  a  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Euphor- 
biaceae,  and  native  or  cultivated  in  India  and  the  Malay  Islands. 
The  tree  is  from  15  to  20  ft.  in  height,  and  has  few  and  spreading 
branches,  alternate,  oval-oblong  leaves,  acuminate  at  the  point, 
and  covered  when  young  with  stellate  hairs,  and  terminal 
racemes  of  small,  downy,  greenish-yellow,  monoecious  flowers. 
The  male  blossoms  have  five  petals  and  fifteen  stamens;  the 
females  have  no  petals  but  a  large  oblong  ovary  bearing  three 
bifid  styles.  The  fruit  or  capsule  is  obtusely  three-cornered, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut;  it  contains  three  cells  each 
enclosing  a  seed.  The  seeds  resemble  those  of  the  castor-oil 
plant;  they  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  two-fifths  of  an  inch 
broad,  and  have  a  cinnamon-brown,  brittle  integument;  between 
the  two  halves  of  the  kernel  lie  the  large  cotyledons  and  radicle. 
The  ocular  distinction  between  the  two  kinds  of  seeds  may  be  of 
great  practical  importance.  The  most  obvious  distinction  is  that 
the  castor-oil  seeds  have  a  polished  and  mottled  surface.  The 
kernels  contain  from  50  to  60  %  of  oil,  which  is  obtained  by 
pressing  them,  when  bruised  to  a  pulp,  between  hot  plates. 
Croton  oil  is  a  transparent  and  viscid  liquid  of  a  brownish  or 
pale-yellow  tinge,  and  acrid,  peculiar  and  persistent  taste,  a 
disagreeable  odour  and  acid  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  volatile 
oils,  carbon  disulphide,  and  ether,  and  to  some  extent  in  alcohol. 
It  contains  acetic,  butyric  and  valeric  acids,  with  glycerides  of 
acids  of  the  same  series,  and  a  volatile  body,  C6H8O2,  tiglic 
acid,  metameric  with  angelic  acid,  and  identical  with  methyl- 
crotonicacid,  CH3-CH:C(CH3)(CO2H).  The  odour  is  due  to  various 
volatile  acids,  which  are  present  to  the  extent  of  about  i  %. 
A  substance  called  crotonal  appears  to  be  responsible  for  its 
external,  but  not  its  internal,  action.  The  latter  is  probably  due 
to  crotolinic  acid,  C9H14O2,  which  has  active  purgative  properties. 
The  maximum  dose  of  croton  oil  is  two  minims,  one-fourth  of  that 
quantity  being  usually  ample. 

Applied  to  the  skin,  croton  oil  acts  as  a  powerful  irritant, 
inducing  so  much  inflammation  that  definite  pustules  are  formed. 
The  destruction  of  the  true  skin  gives  rise  to  ugly  scars  which 
constitute,  together  with  the  pain  caused  by  this  application, 
abundant  reason  why  croton  oil  should  never  be  employed 
externally.  Despite  the  pharmacopoeial  liniment  and  the 
practice  of  a  few,  it  may  be  said  that  this  employment  of 
croton  oil  is  now  entirely  without  justification  or  excuse. 

Taken  internally,  even  in  the  minute  doses  already  detailed, 
croton  oil  very  soon  causes  much  colic  and  the  occurrence  of  a 
fluid  diarrhoea  which  usually  recurs  several  times.  It  is  char- 
acteristic of  this  purgative  that  it  is  a  hydragogue  even  in  minimal 
dose,  the  fluid  secretions  of  the  bowel  being  most  markedly 
increased.  The  drug  appears  to  act  only  upon  the  small  intestine. 
In  somewhat  larger  doses  it  produces  severe  gastro-enteritis. 
The  flow  of  bile  is  somewhat  increased.  Such  effects  may  all 
be  produced",  even  up  to  the  discharge  of  blood,  by  the  absorption 
of  croton  oil  from  the  skin. 

The  minuteness  of  the  dose,  the  certainty  of  the  action,  and 
the  large  amount  of  fluid  drained  away  constitute  this  the  best 
drug  for  administration  to  an  unconscious  patient  (especially 
in  cases  of  apoplexy,  when  it  is  desirable  to  remove  fluid  from 
the  body),  or  to  insane  patients  who  refuse  to  take  any  drug. 
One  drop  of  the  oil,  placed  on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  must 
inevitably  be  swallowed  by  reflex  action.  A  dose  should  never 
be  repeated.  The  characters  of  this  drug  obviously  centra- 
indicate  its  use  in  all  cases  of  organic  disease  or  obstruction  of 
the  bowel,  in  pregnancy,  or  in  cases  of  constipation  in  children 
or  the  aged. 

CROUP,  a  name  formerly  given  to  diseases  characterized  by 
distress  in  breathing  accompanied  by  a  metallic  cough  and  some 


CROUSAZ— CROW 


hoarseness  of  speech.  It  is  now  known  that  these  symptoms 
are  often  associated  with  diphtheria  (q.v.),  spasmodic  laryngitis 
(q.v.),  and  a  third  disease,  spasmodic  croup,  to  which  the  term 
is  now  alone  applied.  This  occurs  most  frequently  in  children 
above,  two  years  of  age;  the  child  goes  to  bed  quite  well,  and  a 
few  hours  later  suddenly  awakes  with  great  difficulty  in  inspira- 
tion, the  chest  wall  becomes  markedly  retracted,  and  there  is 
a  metallic  cough.  The  child  becomes  cyanosed,  and,  to  the 
inexperienced  nurse,  seems  in  an  almost  moribund  condition. 
In  the  course  of  four  or  five  minutes,  normal  respiration  starts 
again,  and  the  attack  is  over  for  the  time  being;  but  it  may 
recur  several  times  a  day.  The  seizure  may  be  accompanied 
by  convulsions,  and  death  has  occurred  from  dyspnoea.  The 
best  treatment  is  to  plunge  the  child  into  a  warm  bath,  and 
sponge  the  back  and  chest  with  cold  water.  Subsequently 
this  can  be  done  two  or  three  times  a  day.  Should  the  cyanosis 
become  very  severe,  respiration  can  be  restarted  by  making  the 
child  sick,  either  with  a  dose  of  ipecacuanha  wine,  or  by  forcing 
one's  finger  down  the  throat.  Generally  the  bowels  should  be 
attended  to;  and  the  throat  carefully  examined  for  enlarged 
tonsils  or  adenoids,  which  if  present  should  be  treated. 

CROUSAZ,  JEAN  PIERRE  DE  (1663-1750),  Swiss  writer, 
•was  born  at  Lausanne.  He  was  a  many-sided  man,  whose 
numerous  works  on  many  subjects  had  a  great  vogue  in  their 
day,  but  are  now  forgotten.  He  has  been  described  as  an 
initiateur  plutot  qu'un  createur,  chiefly  because  he  introduced  at 
Lausanne  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  in  opposition  to  the 
reigning  Aristotelianism,  and  also  as  a  Calvinist  pendant  (for 
he  was  a  pastor)  of  the  French  abb£s  of  the  i8th  century.  He 
studied  at  Geneva,  Ley  den  and  Paris,  before  becoming  (1700) 
professor  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  the  academy  of 
Lausanne,  of  which  he  was  four  times  rector  before  1724,  when 
the  theological  disputes  connected  with  the  Consensus l  led  him 
to  accept  a  chair  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Groningen. 
In  1726  he  was  appointed  governor  to  the  young  prince  Frederick 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  in  1735  returned  to  Lausanne  with  a  good 
pension.  In  1737  he  was  reinstated  in  his  old  chair,  which  he 
retained  to  his  death.  Gibbon,  describing  his  first  stay  at 
Lausanne  (1752-1755),  writes  in  his  Autobiography,  "the  logic 
of  de  Crousaz  had  prepared  me  to  engage  with  his  master  Locke 
and  his  antagonist  Bayle." 

The  most  important  of  his  works  are:  Nouvel  Essai  de  logique 
(1712),  Geometric  des  lignes  et  des  surfaces  rectilignes  et  circulates 
(1712),  Traite  du  beau  (1714),  Examen  du  traite  de  la  liberte  de 
penser  d'Antoine  Collins  (1718),  De  Veducation  des  enfants  (1722, 
dedicated  to  the  then  Princess  of  Wales),  Examen  du  pyrrhonisme 
ancien  et  moderne  (1733,  an  attack  chiefly  on  Bayle),  Examen  de 
fessai  de  M.  Pope  sur  I'homme  (1737,  an  attack  on  the  Leibnitzian 
theory  of  that  poem),  Logique  (6  vols.,  1741),  De  I'esprit  humain 
(1741),  and  Reflexions  sur  I'owrage  intitule:  La  Belle  Wolfienne 
(1743)-  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

CROW  (Dutch,  kraai,  Ger.  Krdhe,  Fr.  corbeau,  Lat.  corvus), 
a  name  most  commonly  applied  in  Britain  to  the  bird  properly 
called  a  rook  (Corvus  frugilegus),  but  perhaps  originally  peculiar 
to  its  congener,  nowadays  usually  distinguished  as  the  black 
or  carrion-crow  (C.  corone).  By  ornithologists  it  is  also  used  in 
a  far  wider  sense,  as  under  the  title  crows,  or  Coruidae,  is  included 
a  vast  number  of  birds  from  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
this  family  is  probably  the  most  highly  developed  of  the  whole 
class  Aves.  Leaving  out  of  account  the  best  known  of  these,  as 
the  raven,  rook,  daw,  pie  and  jay,  with  their  immediate  allies, 
our  attention  will  here  be  confined  to  the  crows  in  general; 
and  then  the  species  of  the  family  to  which  the  appellation  is 
more  strictly  applicable  may  be  briefly  considered.  All 
authorities  admit  that  the  family  is  very  extensive,  and  is  capable 
of  being  parted  into  several  groups,  but  scarcely  any  two  agree. 
Especially  must  reserve  be  exercised  as  regards  the  group 
Streperinae,  or  piping  crows,  belonging  to  the  Australian  Region, 
and  referred  by  some  writers  to  the  shrikes  (Laniidae) :  and  the 
jays  too  have  been  erected  into  a  distinct  family  (Garrulidae) , 

1  The  "  Consensus  ecclesiarum  Helveticarum  reformatarum  " 
was  a  document  drawn  up  in  1675  and  imposed  in  1722 — as  a  test  of 
strict  Protestant  orthodoxy  as  to  the  doctrine  of  grace — by  Bern  on 
its  subjects  in  Lausanne  and  Vaux. 


though  it  seems  hardly  possible  to  separate  them  even  as  a 
subfamily  from  the  pies  (Pica  and  its  neighbours),  which  lead 
almost  insensibly  to  the  typical  crows  (Corvinae).  Dismissing 
these  subjects  for  the  present,  it  will  perhaps  be  most  convenient 
to  treat  of  the  two  groups  which  are  represented  by  the  genera 
Pyrrhocorax  or  choughs,  and  Corvus  or  true  crows  in  the  most 
limited  sense. 

Pyrrhocorax  comprehends  at  least  two  very  good  species, 
which  have  been  needlessly  divided  generically.  The  best 
known  of  them  is  the  Cornish  chough  (P.  graculus),  formerly 
a  denizen  of  the  precipitous  cliffs  of  the  south  coast  of  England, 
of  Wales,  of  the  west  and  north  coasts  of  Ireland,  and  some  of 
the  Hebrides,  but  now  greatly  reduced  in  numbers,  and  only 
found  in  such  places  as  are  most  free  from  the  intrusion  of  man 
or  of  daws  (Corvus  monedula),  which  last  seem  to  be  gradually 
dispossessing  it  of  its  sea-girt  strongholds,  and  its  present  scarcity 
is  probably  in  the  main  due  to  its  persecution  by  its  kindred. 
In  Britain,  indeed,  it  would  appear  to  be  only  one  of  the  survivors 
of  a  more  ancient  fauna,  for  in  other  countries  where  it  is  found 
it  has  been  driven  inland,  and  inhabits  the  higher  mountains  of 
Europe  and  North  Africa.  In  the  Himalayas  a  larger  form 
occurs,  which  has  been  specifically  distinguished  (P.  himalay- 
anus) ,  but  whether  justifiably  so  may  be  doubted.  The  general 
colour  is  a  glossy  black,  and  it  has  the  bill  and  legs  bright  red. 
The  remaining  species  (P.  alpinus)  is  altogether  a  mountaineer, 
and  does  not  affect  a  sea-shore  life.  Otherwise  it  frequents  much 
the  same  kind  of  localities,  but  it  does  not  occur  in  Britain.  The 
alpine  chough  is  somewhat  smaller  than  its  congener,  and  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  shorter  and  bright  yellow  bill.  Remains 
of  both  have  been  found  in  French  caverns  the  deposits  in  which 
were  formed  during  the  "  Reindeer  Age."  Commonly  placed 
by  systematists  next  to  Pyrrhocorax  is  the  Australian  genus 
Cor  cor  ax,  represented  by  a  single  species  (C.  melanorhamphus) , 
but  this  assignment  of  the  bird,  which  is  chiefly  a  frequenter  of 
woodlands,  cannot  be  admitted  without  hesitation. 

Coming  now  to  what  may  be  literally  considered  crows,  our 
attention  is  mainly  directed  to  the  black  or  carrion-crow  (Corvus 
corone)  and  the  grey,  hooded  or  Royston  crow  (C.  cornix). 
Both  these  inhabit  Europe,  but  their  range  and  the  time  of  their 
appearance  are  very  different.  The  former  is,  speaking  generally, 
a  summer  visitant  to  the  south-western  part  of  Europe,  and 
the  latter  occupies  the  north-eastern  portion — an  irregular  line 
drawn  diagonally  from  about  the  Firth  of  Clyde  to  the  head  of 
the  Adriatic  roughly  marking  their  respective  distribution. 
But  both  are  essentially  migrants,  and  hence  it  follows  that 
when  the  black  crow,  as  summer  comes  to  an  end,  retires  south- 
ward, the  grey  crow  moves  downward,  and  in  many  districts 
replaces  it  during  winter.  Further  than  this,  it  has  been  incon- 
testably  proved  that  along  or  near  the  boundary  where  these 
two  birds  march  they  not  infrequently  interbreed,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  hybrids,  which  sometimes  wholly  resemble  one 
or  other  of  the  parents  and  at  other  times  assume  an  inter- 
mediate plumage,  pair  indiscriminately  among  themselves  or 
with  the  pure  stock.  Hence  it  has  seemed  to  many  ornithologists 
who  have  studied  the  subject,  that  these  two  birds,  so  long 
unhesitatingly  regarded  as  distinct  species,  are  only  local  races 
of  one  and  the  same  dimorphic  species.  No  structural  difference 
— or  indeed  any  difference  except  that  of  range  (already  spoken 
of)  and  colour — can  be  detected,  and  the  problem  they  offer 
is  one  of  which  the  solution  is  exceedingly  interesting  if  not 
important  to  zoologists  in  general.2  Almost  omnivorous  in  their 
diet,  there  is  little  edible  that  comes  amiss  to  them,  and,  except 
in  South  America,  they  are  mostly  omnipresent.  The  fish-crow 
of  North  America  (C.  ossifragus)  demands  a  few  words,  since  it 
betrays  a  taste  for  maritime  habits  beyond  that  of  other  species, 
but  the  crows  of  Europe  are  not  averse  on  occasion  to  prey  cast 
up  by  the  waters.  The  house-crow  of  India  (C.  splendens)  is 
not  very  nearly  allied  to  its  European  namesakes,  from  which 

8  As  bearing  upon  this  question  may  be  mentioned'the  fact  that  the 
crow  of  Australia  (C.  australis)  is  divisible  into  two  forms  or  races, 
one  having  the  irides  white,  the  other  of  a  dark  colour.  It  is  stated 
that  they  keep  apart  and  do  not  intermix. 


CROWBERRY— CROWD 


it  can  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size  and  the  lustrous 
tints  of  its  darkest  feathers,  while  its  confidence  in  the  human 
race  has  been  so  long  encouraged  by  its  intercourse  with  an 
unarmed  and  inoffensive  population  that  it  becomes  a  plague 
to  the  European  abiding  or  travelling  where  it  is  abundant. 
Hardly  a  station  or  camp  in  British  India  is  free  from  a  crowd 
of  feathered  followers  of  this  species,  ready  to  dispute  with  the 
kites  and  the  cooks  the  very  meat  at  the  fire.  (A.  N.) 

CROWBERRY,  or  CRAKEBERRY,  the  English  name  for  a  low- 
growing  heath-like  shrub,  found  on  heaths  and  rocks  in  Scotland, 
Ireland  and  mountainous  parts  of  England.  It  is  known  botanic- 
ally  as  Empelrum  nigrum,  and  has  slender,  wiry,  spreading 
branches  covered  with  short,  narrow,  stiff  leaves,  the  margins 
of  which  are  recurved  so  as  to  form  a  hollow  cylinder  concealing 
the  hairy  under  face  of  the  leaf — a  device  to  avoid  excessive 
loss  of  water  from  the  leaf  under  the  exposed  conditions  in  which 
the  plant  grows.  The  minute  flowers  are  succeeded  by  black, 
edible,  berry-like  fruits,  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  plant  has  a  wide  distribution,  occurring  in 
suitable  localities  throughout  the  north  temperate  zone,  and  on 
the  Andes  of  South  America. 

CROWD,  CROUTH,  GROWTH  (Welsh  crwth;  Fr.  crout;  Ger. 
Chrotla,  Hrotla),  a  medieval  stringed  instrument  derived  from 
the  lyre,  characterized  by  a  sound-chest  having  a  vaulted  back 
and  an  open  space  left  at  each  side  of  the  strings  to  allow  the 
hand  to  pass  through  in  order  to  stop  the  strings  on  the  finger- 
board. The  Welsh  crwth,  which  survived  until  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century,  is  best  represented  by  a 
specimen  of  that  date  preserved  in  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  M  useum ,  and  described 
and  illustrated  by  Carl  Engel.1  The 
instrument  consists  of  a  rectangular 
sound-chest  22  in.  long,  95  in.  wide  and 
2  in.  deep;  the  body  is  scooped  out  of  a 
single  block,  the  flat  belly  being  glued  on. 
Right  through  the  sound-chest  on  each 
side  of  the  finger-board  is  the  character- 
istic open  space  left  for  the  hand  to  pass 
through.  There  are  two  circular  sound- 

FlG-Io7LWellhCrwth' holes;   the  left  foot   of  the  flat   bridge, 
1 8th  century.  ...  ,        ,,, 

which    lies    obliquely    across    the    belly, 

passes  through  the  left  sound-hole  and  rests  inside  on  the  back 
of  the  instrument.  Six  catgut  strings  fastened  to  a  tail-piece 
are  wound  round  pegs  at  the  top  of  the  crwth;  four  of  these 
strings  lie  over  the  sound-board  and  bridge,  and  are  set  in 
vibration  by  means  of  a  bow,  while  the  two  others,  used  as  drones 
and  stretched  across  the  left-hand  aperture,  are  twanged  by 
the  thumb  of  the  left  hand.  The  shape  and  shallowness  of  the 
bridge  make  it  impossible  to  sound  a  single  string  with 
the  bow;  the  arrangement  of  the  strings  suggests  that  they 
were  intended  to  be  sounded  in  pairs.  The  instrument  is 


tuned  thus: 


--  T 


At  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century,  William  Bingley'  heard  a 
Welsh    peasant    playing    national    airs    on    a    crwth    strung    as 


follows : — 


Sir  John  Hawkins  *  relates 


that  in  his  time  there  was  still  a  Welshman  living  in  Anglesea 
who  understood  how  to  play  the  crwth  according  to  traditional 
usage.  Edward  Jones*  and  Daines  Harrington*  both  give  an 
account  of  the  Welsh  crwth  of  the  l8th  century  which  agrees 
substantially  with  Engcl's;  the  illustration  communicated  by 
Daines  Barrington  shows  the  strings  of  the  crwth  drawn  through 
holes  at  the  top,  and  fastened  on  the  back,  as  on  the  Persian  rebab 
and  other  Oriental  stringed  instruments.  On  these  somewhat  scanty 
authentic  records  of  the  instrument,  several  historians  of  music 

1  See  Early  History  of  the  Violin  Family  (London,  1883),  pp.  24-36. 

"See  A  Tour  round  North  Wales  (London,  1804),  vol.  ii.  p.  532. 

*  History  of  Music  (London,  1766),  vol.  ii.  bk.  iii.  ch.  iii.,  description 
and  illustration. 

4  Musical  and  Poetical  Relicks  of  Welsh  Bards  (London,  1794), 
illustration  of  crwth,  also  reproduced  by  Carl  Engel ;  see  note  above. 

'  Archaeologia,  vol.  iii.  (London,  1775). 

vn.  17 


have  based  an  illogical  claim  that  the  crwth,  or  rather  chrotta  or 
rotta,  mentioned  by  Venantius  Fortunatus  as  a  British  instrument, 
was  the  Welsh  crwth  as  it  was  known  in  the  l8th  century,  and  was 
the  earliest  bowed  instrument,  and  therefore  the  ancestor  of  the 
violin.  The  lines  of  Fortunatus,  who  was  bishop  of  Poictiers  during 
the  second  half  of  the  6th  century,  ran  thus: — * 

"  Romanusque  lyra,  plaudat  tibi  Barbarus  harpa, 
Graecus  Achilliaca,  chrotta  Britanna  canat." 

The  bow  is  not  mentioned  by  Fortunatus,  and  there  is  no  ground 
whatever  for  believing  that  the  Welsh  crwth  was  played  with  a  bow 
in  the  6th  century,  or  indeed  for  several  centuries  after.  The  string- 
ing of  the  Welsh  crwth  with  the  two  drone  strings  still  twanged, 
the  form  of  the  body  without  incurvations,  the  flat  bridge  which 
rendered  bowing,  even  in  the  most  highly  developed  specimens  of 
the  l8th  century,  a  difficult  task,  together  with  what  is  known  of  the 
early  history  of  the  chrotta  and  rotta  derived  from  the  lyre  and 
cithara  and  like  them  twanged  by  fingers  or  plectrum,  all  make  the 
claim  untenable.  Carl  Engel  was  probably  the  first  to  expose  the 
fallacy  in  his  work  on  the  violin.7 

British  lexicographers  all  agree  in  deriving  the  words  crwth, 
crowd  and  other  forms  of  the  name,  from  some  word  meaning  a 
bulging  protuberant  bellying  form,  while  in  German  the  etymology 
of  the  word  Chrotta  is  given  as  Chrota  or  Chreta,  the  O.H.G.  for 
Kriiie=toad,  Schildkrote  =  tortoise.  This  word  Chrotta  was  un- 
doubtedly the  German  equivalent  term  for  the  lyre  of  Hermes, 
having  as  back  a  tortoise-shell,  \i\rn  in  Greek  and  testudo  in  Latin. 
Chrotta  was  also  spelt  hrotta,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  this  became 
rotta.  A  thoughtful  and  suggestive  treatment  of  the  whole  subject 
will  be  found  in  Engel's  work,  to  which  reference  has  been  made. 
Just  as  the  lyre  and  cithara,  which  appeared  to  be  similar  to  the 
casual  observer,  and  are  indeed  still  confused  at  the  present  day, 
were  instruments  differing  essentially  in  construction8;  so  there 
were,  during  the  early  middle  ages,  while  lyre  and  cithara  were  still 
in  transition,  two  types  of  chrotta  or  rotta.  (i)  The  rotta  or  im- 
proved cithara  had  a  body  either  rectangular  with  the  corners 
rounded,  or  guitar-shaped  with  incurvations,  back  and  sound-board 
being  nearly  or  quite  flat,  joined  as  in  the  cithara  by  ribs  or  sides. 
This  rotta  must  be  reckoned  among  the  early  ancestors  of  the  violin 
before  the  advent  of  the  bow;  it  was  known  both  as  rotta  and 
cithara,  and  with  a  neck  added  it  became  the  guitar-fiddle.  (2)  The 
tortoise  or  lyre  chrotta  consisted  of  a  protuberant,  very  convex 
back  cut  out  of  a  block  of  wood,  to  which  was  glued  a  flat  sound- 
board, at  first  like  the  lyre,  with- 
out intermediary  ribs.  This  in- 
strument became  the  crwth,  and 
there  was  no  further  develop- 
ment. The  first  step  in  the 
transition  of  both  lyre  and 
cithara  was  the  incorporation 
of  arms  and  cross-bar  into  the 
body,  the  same  outline  being 
preserved ;  the  second  step  was 
the  addition  of  a  finger-board 
against  which  the  strings  wore 
stopped,  thus  increasing  the 
compass  while  restricting  the 
number  of  strings  to  three  or 
four;  the  third  step,  observed 
only  in  the  rotta-cithara,  con- 
sisted in  the  addition  of  a  neck,9 
as  in  the  guitar.  The  crwth, 
crowd,  crouth  did  not  undergo  c"arte"lc"cha 

this  third  transition  even  when  p  _       

the   bow   was   used   to   set   the 
strings  in  vibration. 

The  earliest  representation  of  the  crwth  yet  discovered  dates  from 
the  Carplingian  period.  In  the  miniatures  of  the  Bible  of  Charles  the 
Bald,10  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris,  pne  of  the  musicians  of 
King  David  is  seen  stopping  strings  on  the  finger-board  with  his  left 
hand  and  plucking  them  with  the  right  (fig.  2);  this  crwth  has  only 
three  strings,  and  may  be  the  crwth  trtthant  of  Wales.  A  second 
example  occurs  in  the  Bible  of  St  Paul,"  another  of  the  magnificent 
MSS.  prepared  for  Charles  the  Bald,  and  preserved  during  the  middle 
ages  in  the  monastery  of  St  Paul  extra  muros  in  Rome  (now  deposited 

•Venantius  Fortunatus,  Poemata,  lib.  vii.  cap.  8,  p.  245;  see 
Migne's  Patrologia  Sacra,  vol.  88. 

7  Op.  cit.  chapters  "  Crwth,"  "  Chrotta,"  "  Rotta." 

8  See  Kathleen  Schlesinger,  Orchestral  Instruments,  part  ii.,  "  The 
Precursors  of  the  Violin  Family  "  (London,  1909),  pp.  14  to  23,  with 
illustrations. 

•  See  also  Kathleen  Schlesinger,  op.  cit.  ch.  vii.,  "  The  Cithara  in 
Transition,"  pp.  111-135  with  illustrations. 

10  See  Auguste  de  Bastard,  Peintures  et  ornements  des  MSS.  de 
France,  and  Peintures,  ornements,  &c.,  de  la  bible  de  Charles  le  Chauve, 
in  facsimile  (Paris,  1883). 

11  See  J.  O.  West  wood,  Photographic  Facsimile  of  the  Bible  of  Si 
Paul  (London,  1876). 


Drawn  from  a  plate  in  Augustede  Bastard's 
Pcintures    ft     ornaments   dc    la     bibic     de 


' 


CROWE— CROWLAND 


in  that  of  St  Callxtus  in  Rome).  Other  representations  are  in  the 
miniatures  of  the  nth,  I2th  and  I3th  centuries.  To  Edward  Heron- 
Allen  (De  fidiculis  opuscula,  viii.,  1895)  is  due  the  discovery  of  a 
representation  of  the  Welsh  crwth,  showing  the  form  still  retained  in 
the  l8th  cent.  On  the  seal  of  Roger  Wade  (1316)  is  a  crwth 
differing  but  little  from  the  specimen  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 

Museum.  The  14th-century  in- 
strument had  four  strings  instead 
of  six,  and  the  foot  of  the  bridge 
does  not  appear  to  pass  through 
the  sound-hole — a  detail  which 
may  have  escaped  the  notice  of 
the  artist  who  cut  the  seal.  The 
original  seal  lies  in  the  muniment 
room  at  Berkeley  Castle  in 
Gloucestershire  attached  to  a 
defeasance  of  a  bond  between 
the  crowder  and  his  debtor  Warren 
de  1'Isle,  and  a  cast  (see  fig.  3)  is 
preserved  at  the  British  Museum. 
TheBritish  Museumalso  possesses 
two  interesting  MSS.  which  con- 
cern the  crwth:  one  of  these 
(Add.  MS.  14939  ff-  4  ar>d  27) 
contains  an  extract  made  by 
Lewis  Morris  in  1742  from  an 
ancient  Welsh  MS.  of  "  Instructions  supposed  to  be  wrote  for  the 
Crowd  ";  the  other  (Add.  MS.  15036  ff.  656  and  66)  consists  of 
tracings  from  a  16th-century  Welsh  MS.  copied  in  1610  of  a 
bagpipe,  a  harp  and  a  krythe,  together  with  the  names  of  those  who 
played  the  last  at  the  Eisteddfod.  The  drawing  is  crude,  and  shows 
an  instrument  similar  to  Roger  Wade's  crowd,  but  having  three 
strings  instead  of  four. 

The  genealogical  tree  of  the  violin  given  below  shows  the  relative 
positions  of  both  kinds  of  rotta  and  chrotta. 


FIG.  3. — Crowd  on  a  14th- 
century  Seal. 


Egyptian  \yre-kissar 

\ 
Greek  lyre  or  chelys 

Roman  testudo 

I 


Assyrian  ketharah 


Greek  cithara 
Roman  fidicula 


I 
Persian  cithara 

Arab  cuitra,  guitra 
or  cuitara 


Latin  chrotta,    Old  High  Germ.  Anglo-Saxon       Welsh    Cithara  in  transition,  | 

rotta,  rote  Chrota  or  crowd  •  crwth  or  rotta  Moorish  guitarra 

Chreta 


Spanish  ' 
vihuela 

/iguela  or                                                    Guitarr. 
de  arco                                                    or  vihuel; 

Spanish 

i  Latina 
i  de  mano 

guitar 

Fidel, 
fyella, 
& 

Fid 

fidula, 
ythele, 
c. 

die 

Italian  viola                     French  vielle  or  viole              Guitar-fiddle 

in 

The  Welsh  crwth  was  therefore  obviously  not  an  exclusively 
Welsh  instrument,  but  only  a  late  18th-century  survival  in  Wales  of 
an  archaic  instrument  once  generally  popular  in  Europe  but  long 
obsolete.  An  interesting  article  on  the  subject  in  German  by 
J.  F.  W.  Wewertem  will  be  found  in  M onatshefte  fur  Mus-ik  (Berlin, 
1881),  Nos.  7-12,  p.  151,  &c.  (K.  S.) 

CROWE,  EYRE  EVANS  (1799-1868),  English  journalist  and 
historian,  was  born  about  the  year  1799.  He  commenced  his 
work  as  a  writer  for  the  London  newspaper  press  in  connexion 
with  the  Morning  Chronicle,  and  he  afterwards  became  a  leading 
contributor  to  the  Examiner  and  the  Daily  News.  Of  the  latter 
journal  he  was  principal  editor  for  some  time  previous  to  his 
death.  The  department  he  specially  cultivated  was  that  of 
continental  history  and  foreign  politics.  He  published  Lives 
of  Foreign  Statesmen  (1830),  The  Greek  and  the  Turk  (1853), 
and  Reigns  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  (1854).  These  were 
followed  by  his  most  important  work,  the  History  of  France 
(5  vols.,  1858-1868).  It  was  founded  upon  original  sources,  in 
order  to  consult  which  the  author  resided  for  a  considerable 
time  in  Paris.  He  died  in  London  on  the  2sth  of  February  1868. 

CROWE,  SIR  JOSEPH  ARCHER  (1828-1896),  English  consular 
official  and  art  critic,  son  of  Eyre  Crowe,  was  born  in  London  on 
the  25th  of  October  1828.  At  an  early  age  he  showed  consider- 
able aptitude  for  painting  and  entered  the  studio  of  Delaroche 
in  Paris,  where  his  father  was  correspondent  of  the  Morning 
Chronicle.  During  the  Crimean  War  he  was  the  correspondent  of 


the  Illustrated  London  News,  and  during  the  Austro-Italian  War 
represented  The  Times  in  Vienna.  He  was  British  consul- 
general  in  Leipzig  from  1860  to  1872,  and  in  Dusseldorf  from 
1872  to  1880,  when  he  was  appointed  commercial  attache  in 
Berlin,  being  transferred  in  a  like  capacity  to  Paris  in  1882. 
In  1883  he  was  secretary  to  the  Danube  Conference  in  London; 
in  1889  plenipotentiary  at  the  Samoa  Conference  in  Berlin; 
and  in  1890  British  envoy  at  the  Telegraph  Congress  in  Paris, 
in  which  year  he  was  made  K.C.M.G.  During  a  sojourn  in  Italy, 
1846-1847,  he  cemented  a  lifelong  friendship  with  the  Italian 
critic  Giovanni  Battista  Cavalcaselle  (1820-1897),  and  together 
they  produced  several  historical  works  on  art  of  classic  import- 
ance, notably  Early  Flemish  Painters  (London,  1857);  A  New 
History  of  Painting  in  Italy  from  the  Second  to  the  Sixteenth  Century 
(London,  1864-1871,  5  vols.).  In  1895  Crowe  published  Remin- 
iscences of  Thirty-Five  Years  of  My  Life.  He  died  at  Schloss 
Gamburg  in  Bavaria  on  the  6th  of  September  1896. 

Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle's  great  History  of  Painting  was  under 
revision  by  Crowe  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  and  then  by  S.  A. 
Strong  (d.  1904)  and  Langton  Douglas,  who  in  1903  brought  out 
vols.  i.  and  ii.  of  Murray  s  new  six-volume  edition,  the  3rd  vol., 
edited  by  Langton  Douglas,  appearing  in  1909.  A  reprint  of  the 
original  edition,  brought  up  to  date  by  annotations  by  Edward 
Huttons,  was  published  by  Dent  in  3  vols.  in  1909. 

CROW  INDIANS,  or  ABSAROKAS  (the  name  for  a  species  of 
hawk),  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Siouan  stock. 
They  are  now  settled  to  the  number  of  some  1800  on  a  reservation 
in  southern  Montana  to  the  south  of  the  Yellowstone  river. 

Their  original  range  included  this 
reservation  and  extended  eastward 
and  southward,  and  no  part  of  the 
country  for  hundreds  of  miles  around 
was  safe  from  their  raids.  They 
have  ever  been  known  as  marauders 
and  horse-stealers,  and,  though 
they  have  generally  been  cunning 
enough  to  avoid  open  war  with  the 
whites,  they  have  robbed  them  when- 
ever opportunity  served.  Physically 
they  are  tall  and  athletic,  with  very 
dark  complexions. 

CROWLAND,  or  CROYLAND,  a 
market-town  in  the  S.  Kesteven 
or  Stamford  parliamentary  division 
of  Lincolnshire,  England;  in  a 
low  fen  district  on  the  river 
Welland,  8  m.  N.E.  of  Peter- 
borough, and  4  m.  from  Postland  station  on  the  March-Spalding 
line  of  the  Great  Northern  and  Great  Eastern  railways,  and 
Peakirk  on  the  Great  Northern .  Pop.  (i  90 1)2747.  A  monastery 
was  founded  here  in  716  by  King  ^Ethelbald,  in  honour  of  St 
Guthlac  of  Mercia  (d.  714),  a  young  nobleman  who  became  a 
hermit  and  lived  here,  and,  it  was  said,  had  foretold  /Ethelbald's 
accession  to  the  throne.  The  site  of  St  Guthlac's  cell,  not  far 
from  the  abbey,  is  known  as  Anchor  (anchorite's)  Church  Hill. 
After  the  abbey  had  suffered  from  the  Danish  incursions  in  870, 
and  had  been  burnt  in  that  year  and  in  1091,  a  fine  Norman 
abbey  was  raised  in  1113.  Remains  of  this  building  appear  in 
the  ruined  nave  and  tower  arch,  but  the  most  splendid  fragment 
is  the  west  front,  of  Early  English  date,  with  Perpendicular 
restoration.  The  west  tower  is  principally  in  this  style.  The 
north  aisle  is  restored  and  used  as  the  parish  church.  Among 
the  abbots  was  Ingulphus  (1085-1109),  to  whom  was  formerly 
attributed  the  Historia  Monaslerii  Croylandensis.  A  curious 
triangular  bridge  remains,  apparently  of  the  I4th  century, 
but  referred  originally  to  the  middle  of  the  9th  century,  which 
spanned  three  streams  now  covered,  and  affords  three  footways 
which  meet  at  an  apex  in  the  middle. 

The  town  of  Crowland  grew  up  round  the  abbey.  By  a 
charter  dated  716,  iEthelbald  granted  the  isle  of  Crowland, 
free  from  all  secular  services,  to  the  abbey  with  a  gift  of  money, 
and  leave  to  build  and  enclose  the  town.  The  privileges  thus 


CROWLEY— CROWN 


obtained  were  confirmed  by  numerous  royal  charters  extending 
over  a  period  of  nearly  800  years.  Under  Abbot  ^Egelric  the 
fens  were  tilled,  the  monastery  grew  rich,  and  the  town  increased 
in  size,  enormous  tracts  of  land  being  held  by  the  abbey  at  the 
Domesday  Survey.  The  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire 
(1460-1476),  but  the  abbey  tenants  were  given  money  to  rebuild 
it.  By  virtue  of  his  office  the  abbot  had  a  seat  in  parliament, 
but  the  town  was  never  a  parliamentary  borough.  Abbot  Ralph 
Mershe  in  1257  obtained  a  grant  of  a  market  every  Wednesday, 
confirmed  by  Henry  IV.  in  1421,  but  it  was  afterwards  moved 
to  Thorney.  The  annual  fair  of  St  Bartholomew,  which  originally 
lasted  twelve  days,  was  first  mentioned  in  Henry  III.'s  con- 
firmatory charter  of  1227.  The  dissolution  of  the  monastery  in 
1539  was  fatal  to  the  progress  of  the  town,  which  had  prospered 
under  the  thrifty  rule  of  the  monks,  and  it  rapidly  sank  into  the 
position  of  an  umimportant  village.  The  abbey  lands  were 
granted  by  Edward  VI.  to  Lord  Clinton,  from  whose  family  they 
passed  in  1671  to  the  Orby  family.  The  inhabitants  formerly 
carried  on  considerable  trade  in  fish  and  wild  fowl. 

See  R.  Gough,  History  and  Antiquities  of  Croyland  (Bibl.  Top.  Brit, 
iii.  No.  11)  (London,  1783);  W.  G.  Searle,  Ingulf  and  the  Histpria 
Croylandensis  (Camb.  Antiq.  Soc.,  No.  27) ;  Dugdale,  Monasticon, 
ii.  91  (London,  1846;  Cambridge,  1894). 

CROWLEY,  ROBERT  (isi8?-is88),  English  religious  and 
social  reformer,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire,  and  educated  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  successively  demy 
and  fellow.  Coming  to  London,  he  set  up  a  printing-office  in 
Ely  Rents,  Holborn,  where  he  printed  many  of  his  own  writings. 
As  a  typographer,  his  most  notable  production  was  an  edition 
of  Pierce  Plowman  in  1550,  and  some  of  the  earliest  Welsh 
printed  books  came  from  his  press.  As  an  author,  his  first 
venture  seems  to  have  been  his  "  Information  and  Petition 
against  the  Oppressors  of  the  poor  Commons  of  this  realm," 
which  internal  evidence  shows  to  have  been  addressed  to  the 
parliament  of  1547.  It  contains  a  vigorous  plea  for  a  further 
religious  reformation,  but  is  more  remarkable  for  its  attack  on 
the  "  more  than  Turkish  tyranny "  of  the  landlords  and 
capitalists  of  that  day.  While  repudiating  communism,  Crowley 
was  a  Christian  Socialist,  and  warmly  approved  the  efforts  of 
Protector  Somerset  to  stop  enclosures.  In  his  Way  to  Wealth, 
published  in  1550,  he  laments  the  failure  of  the  Protector's 
policy,  and  attributes  it  to  the  organized  resistance  of  the  richer 
classes.  In  the  same  year  he  published  (in  verse)  The  Voice  of 
the  last  Trumpet  blown  by  the  seventh  Angel;  it  is  a  rebuke  in 
twelve  "  lessons  "  to  twelve  different  classes  of  people;  and 
a  similar  production  was  his  One-atid-Thirty  Epigrams  (1550). 
These,  with  Pleasure  and  Pain  (1551),  were  edited  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society  in  1872  (Extra  Ser.  xv.).  The  dozen  or 
more  other  works  which  Crowley  published  are  more  distinctly 
theological:  indeed,  the  failure  of  the  temporal  policy  he 
advocated  seems  to  have  led  Crowley  to  take  orders,  and  he 
was  ordained  deacon  by  Ridley  on  the  2gth  of  September 
1551.  During  Mary's  reign  he  was  among  the  exiles  at  Frankfort. 
At  Elizabeth's  accession  he  became  a  popular  preacher,  was 
made  archdeacon  of  Hereford  in  1559,  and  prebendary  of  St 
Paul's  in  1563,  and  was  incumbent  first  of  St  Peter's  the  Poor 
in  London,  and  then  of  St  Giles"  without  Cripplegate.  He 
refused  to  minister  in  the  "  conjuring  garments  of  popery,"  and 
in  1566  was  deprived  and  imprisoned  for  resisting  the  use  of  the 
surplice  by  his  choir.  He  stated  his  case  in  "  A  brief  Discourse 
against  the  Outward  Apparel  and  Ministering  Garments  of 
the  Popish  Church,"  a  tract  "  memorable,"  says  Canon  Dixon, 
"  as  the  first  c'istinct  utterance  of  Nonconformity."  He  con- 
tinued to  preach  occasionally,  and  in  1576  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  St  Lawrence  Jewry.  Nor  had  he  abandoned  his  con- 
nexion with  the  book  trade,  and  in  1578  he  was  admitted  a 
freeman  of  the  Stationers'  Company.  He  died  on  the  i8th  of 
June  1588,  and  was  buried  in  St  Giles'.  The  most  important  of 
his  works  not  hitherto  mentioned  is  his  continuation  of  Languet 
and  Cooper's  Epitome  of  Chronicles  (1559). 

See  J.  M.  Cowper's  Pref.  to  the  Select  Works  of  Crowley  (1872) ; 
Strypc's  Works;  Cough's  General  Index  to  Parker  Soc.  Pub!.; 


Machyn's  Diary;  Macray's  Reg.  Magdalen  College;  Newcourt's 
Rep.  Eccles.  Land.;  Hennessy's  Nov.  Rep.  Eccl.  (1898);  Le  Neve's 
Fasti  Eccl.  Angl.;  Pocock  s  Burnet;  Pollard's  England  under 
Somerset;  R.  W.  Dixon's  Church  History.  (A.  F.  P.) 

CROWN,  an  English  silver  coin  of  the  value  of  five  shillings, 
hence  often  used  to  express  the  sum  of  five  shillings.  It  was 
originally  of  gold  and  was  first  coined  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
Edward  VI.  introduced  silver  crowns  and  half-crowns,  and  down 
to  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  crowns  and  half-crowns  and  some- 
times double  crowns  were  struck  both  in  gold  and  silver.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  also  was  introduced  the  practice  of 
dating  coins  and  marking  them  with  their  current  value.  The 
"  Oxford  crown  "  struck  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  was  designed 
by  Rawlins  (see  NUMISMATICS:  Medieval).  Since  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  the  crown  has  been  struck  in  silver  only.  At  one 
time  during  the  i9th  century  it  was  proposed  to  abandon  the 
issue  of  the  crown,  and  from  1861  until  1887  none  was  struck, 
but  since  the  second  issue  in  1887  it  has  been  freely  in  circulation 
again. 

CROWN  and  CORONET,  an  official  or  symbolical  ornament 
worn  on  or  round  the  head.  The  crown  (Lat.  corona)  at  first 
had  no  regal  significance.  It  was  a  garland,  or  wreath,  of  leaves 
or  flowers,  conferred  on  the  winners  in  the  athletic  games.  After- 
wards it  was  often  made  of  gold,  and  among  the  Romans  was 
bestowed  as  a  recognition  of  honourable  service  performed 
or  distinction  won,  and  on  occasion  it  took  such  a  form  as  to 
correspond  with,  or  indicate  the  character  of,  the  service 
rendered.  The  corona  obsidionalis  was  formed  of  grass  and 
flowers  plucked  on  the  spot  and  given  to  the  general  who 
conquered  a  city.  The  corona  civica,  made  of  oak  leaves  with 
acorns,  was  bestowed  on  the  soldier  who  in  battle  saved  the 
life  of  a  Roman  citizen.  The  mural  crown  (corona  muralis)  was 
the  decoration  of  the  soldier  who  was  the  first  to  scale  the  walls 
of  a  besieged  city,  and  was  usually  a  circlet  of  gold  adorned  with 
a  series  of  turrets.  The  naval  crown  (corona  navalis),  decorated 
in  like  manner  with  a  series  of  miniature  prows  of  ships,  was  the 
reward  of  him  who  gained  a  notable  victory  at  sea.  These  latter 
crowns  form  charges  in  English  heraldry  (see  HERALDRY). 

Many  other  forms  of  crown  were  used  by  the  Romans,  as  the 
conqueror's  triumphal  crown  of  laurel,  the  myrtle  crown,  and 
the  convivial,  bridal,  funeral  and  other  crowns.  Some  of  the 
emperors  wore  crowns  on  occasion,  as  Caligula  and  Domitian, 
at  the  games,  and  stellate  or  spike  crowns  are  depicted  on  the 
heads  of  several  of  the  emperors  on  their  coins,  but  no  idea  of 
imperial  sovereignty  was  indicated  thereby.  The  Roman  people, 
who  had  accepted  imperial  rule  as  a  fact,  were  very  jealous  of  the 
employment  of  its  emblem  on  the  part  of  their  rulers.  That 
emblem  was  the  diadem,  and  although  the  diadem  and  crown  are 
frequently  confused  with  each  other  they  were  quite  distinct, 
and  it  is  well  to  bear  this  in  mind.  The  diadem,  which  was  of 
eastern  origin,  was  a  fillet  or  band  of  linen  or  silk,  richly  em- 
broidered, and  was  worn  tied  round  the  forehead.  Selden 
(Titles  of  Honour,  chap.  viii.  sect.  8)  says  that  the  diadem  and 
crown  "  have  been  from  ancient  times  confounded,  yet  the 
diadem  strictly  was  a  very  different  thing  from  what  a  crown 
now  is  or  was,  and  it  was  no  other  then  than  only  a  fillet  of  silk, 
linen,  or  some  such  thing."  It  is  desirable  to  remember  the 
distinction,  for,  although  diadem  and  crown  are  now  used  as 
synonymous  terms,  the  two  were  originally  quite  distinct.  The 
confusion  between  them  has,  perhaps,  come  about  from  the  fact 
that  the  modern  crown  seems  to  be  rather  an  evolution  from 
the  diadem  than  the  lineal  descendant  of  the  older  crowns. 
The  linen  or  silk  diadem  was  eventually  exchanged  for  a  flexible 
band  of  gold,  which  was  worn  in  its  place  round  the  forehead. 
The  further  development  of  the  crown  from  this  was  readily 
effected  by  the  addition  of  an  upper  row  of  ornament.  Thus 
the  medieval  and  modern  crowns  may  be  considered  as  radiated 
diadems,  and  so  the  diadem  and  crown  have  become,  as  it  were, 
merged  in  one  another. 

Among  the  historical  crowns  of  Europe,  the  Iron  Crown  of 
Lombardy,  now  preserved  at  Monza,  claims  notice.  It  is  a 
band  of  iron,  enclosed  in  a  circlet  formed  of  six  plates  of  gold, 


5.6 


CROWN 


hinged  one  to  the  other,  and  richly  jewelled  and  enamelled. 
It  is  regarded  with  great  reverence,  owing  to  a  legend  that  the 
inner  band  of  iron  has  been  hammered  out  of  one  of  the  nails 
of  the  true  cross.  The  crown  is  so  small,  the  diameter  being 
only  6  in.,  and  the  circlet  only  i\  in.  in  width,  that  doubts  have 
been  felt  as  to  whether  it  was  originally  intended  to  be  worn 
on  the  head  or  was  merely  meant  to  be  a  votive  crown.  The 
legend  as  to  the  iron  being  that  of  one  of  the  nails  of  the  cross 
is  rejected  by  Muratori  and  others,  and  cannot  be  traced  far 
back.  How  it  arose  or  how  any  credence  came  to  be  reposed 
in  the  legend,  it  is  difficult  to  surmise.  Another  historical-crown 
is  that  of  Charlemagne,  preserved  at  Vienna.  It  is  composed  of 
a  series  of  four  larger  and  four  smaller  plaques  of  gold,  rounded 
at  the  tops  and  set  together  alternately.  The  larger  plaques 
are  richly  ornamented  with  emeralds  and  sapphires,  and  the 
smaller  plaques  have  each  an  enamelled  figure  of  Our  Lord, 
David,  Solomon,  and  Hezekiah  respectively.  A  jewelled  cross 
rises  from  the  large  front  plaque,  and  an  arch  bearing  the  name 
of  the  emperor  Conrad  springs  across  from  the  back  of  this  cross 
to  the  back  of  the  crown. 

At  Madrid  there  is  preserved  the  crown  of  Svintilla,  king  of 
the  Visigoths,  621-631.  It  is  a  circlet  of  thick  gold  set  with 
pearls,  sapphires  and  other  stones.  It  has  been  given  as  a 
votive  offering  at  some  period  to  a  church,  as  was  often  the 
custom.  Attached  to  its  upper  rim  are  the  chains  whereby  to 
suspend  it,  and  from  the  lower  rim  hang  letters  of  red-coloured 
glass  or  paste  which  read  +SVINTILANVS  REX  OFFERET.  Two 
other  Visigothic  crowns  are  also  preserved  with  it  in  the 
Armeria  Real. 

In  1858  a  most  remarkable  discovery  was  made  near  Toledo, 
of  eight  gold  crowns  of  the  7th  century,  fashioned  lavishly  with 
barbaric  splendour.  They  are  now  in  the  Cluny  Museum  at 
Paris,  having  been  purchased  for  £4000,  the  intrinsic  value  of 
the  gold,  without  reckoning  that  of  the  jewels  and  precious 
stones,  being  not  less  than  £600.  The  largest  and  most  magnifi- 
cent is  the  crown  of  Reccesvinto,  king  of  the  Visigoths  from 
653  to  675.  It  is  composed  of  a  circlet  of  pure  gold  set  with 
pearls  and  precious  stones  in  great  profusion,  which  gives  it  a 
most  sumptuous  appearance.  It  is  9  in.  in  diameter  and  more 
than  \  in.  in  thickness,  the  width  of  the  circlet  being  4  in.  It 
has  also  been  given  as  a  votive  offering  to  a  church,  and  has 


soon  afterwards  followed  they  were  buried  out  of  sight  for 
safety,  where  they  were  eventually  discovered  absolutely 
unharmed  centuries  afterwards.  For  a  detailed  description  of 
these  most  remarkable  crowns  the  reader  must  be  referred  to 
a  paper  by  the  late  Mr  Albert  Way  (Archaeological  Journal, 
xvi.  253).  Mr  Way,  in  the  article  alluded  to,  says  of  the  custom 
of  offering  crowns  to  churches  that  frequent  notices  of  the  usage 
may  be  found  in  the  lives  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  by  Anastasius. 
"  They  are  usually  described  as  having 
been  placed  over  the  altar,  and  in  many 
instances  mention  is  made  of  jewelled 
crosses  of  gold  appended  within  such 
crowns  as  an  accessory  ornament. 
.  .  .  The  crowns  suspended  in  churches 
suggested  doubtless  the  sumptuous 
pensile  luminaries,  frequently  desig- 
nated from  a  very  early  period  as 
coronae,  in  which  the  form  of  the 
royal  circlet  was  preserved  in  much 
larger  proportions,  as  exemplified  by 
the  remarkable  corona  still  to  be  seen 
suspended  in  the  cathedral  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  over  the  crypt  in  which  the 
body  of  Charlemagne  was  deposited." 

Of  modern  continental  crowns  the  imperial  crown  of  Austria 
(fig.  4)  may  be  mentioned.  It  is  composed  of  a  circlet  of  gold, 
adorned  with  precious  stones  and  pearls,  heightened  with 
fleurs-de-lys,  and  is  raised  above  the  circlet  in  the  form  of  a  cap 
which  is  opened  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  lower  part  is  crescent- 
shaped;  across  this  opening  from  front  to  back  rises  an  arched 
fillet,  enriched  with  pearls  and  surmounted  by  an  orb,  on  which 
is  a  cross  of  pearls. 

The  papal  tiara  (a  Greek  word,  of  Persian  origin,  for  a  form 
of  ancient  Persian  popular  head-dress,  standing  high  erect,  and 
worn  encircled  by  a  diadem  by  the  kings),  the  triple  crown  worn 
by  the  popes,  has  taken  various  forms  since  the  pth  century. 
It  is  important  to  remember  that  the  tiaras  in  old  Italian  pictures 
are  inventions  of  the  artists  and  not  copied  from  actual  examples. 
In  its  present  shape,  dating  substantially  from  the  Renaissance, 
it  is  a  peaked  head-covering  not  unlike  a  closed  mitre  (?.».),  round 
which  are  placed  one  above  the  other  three  circlets  or  open 


FIG.  i.— The  Papal  Tiara 
(without   the  injulae). 


Figs.  2-4  from  Meyer's  Konvcrsations  Lexikon. 

FIG.  2. — Crown  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 


FIG.  3. — Crown  of  the  German  Empire. 


FIG.  4. — Crown  of  the  Austrian  Empire. 


the  chains  to  hang  it  by  attached  to  the  upper  rim,  while  from 
the  lower  rim  depend  pearls,  sapphires  and  a  series  of  richly 
jewelled  letters  2  in.  each  in  depth,  which  read  + RECCES- 
VINTHVS  REX  OFFERET.  The  second  of  these  crowns  in  size 
is  generally  thought  to  be  that  of  the  queen  of  Reccesvinto. 
It  has  no  legend,  but  merely  a  cross  hanging  from  it.  The  six 
others  are  smaller,  and  are  all  most  richly  ornamented.  They 
are  believed  to  have  been  the  crowns  of  Reccesvinto's  children. 
From  one  of  them  hangs  a  legend  which  relates  that  they  were 
an  offering  to  a  church,  which  has  been  identified  with  much 
probability  as  that  of  Sorbas,  a  small  town  in  the  province  of 
Almeria.  It  has  been  surmised  that  in  the  disturbances  which 


crowns.1  Two  bands,  or  infulae,  as  they  are  called,  hang  from 
it  as  in  the  case  of  a  mitre.  The  tiara  is  the  crown  of  the  pope 
as  a  temporal  sovereign  (see  TIARA). 

1  A  coloured  drawing,  done  in  the  first  half  of  the  1 8th  century, 
of  the  magnificent  tiara  made  by  the  celebrated  goldsmith,  Cara- 
dosso,  for  Julius  II.,  is  in  the  Print-Room,  British  Museum.  It  was 
re-fashioned  by  Pius  VI.,  but  went  with  other  treasure  as  part  of  the 
indemnity  to  Napoleon.  The  splendid  emerald  at  the  summit, 
which  was  engraved  with  the  arms  of  Gregory  XIII.,  was  restored 
by  Napoleon  and  now  adorns  another  papal  tiara  at  Rome.  In  this 
drawing  the  three  crowns  (a  feature  introduced  at  the  beginning  of 
the  I4th  century)  are  represented  by  three  bands  of  X-shaped 
ornament  in  enamelled  gold. 


CROWN 


Pictorial  representations  in  early  manuscripts,  and  the  rude 
effigies  on  their  coins,  are  not  very  helpful  in  deciding  as  to  the 
form  of  crown  worn  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Danish  kings  of 
England  before  the  Norman  Conquest.  In  some  cases  it  would 
appear  as  if  the  diadem  studded  with  pearls  had  been  worn,  and 
in  others  something  more  of  the  character  of  a  crown.  We  reach 
surer  ground  after  the  Conquest,  for  then  the  great  seals,  monu- 
mental effigies,  and  coins  become  more  and  more  serviceable 
in  determining  the  forms  the  crown  took. 

The  crown  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  immediate 
successors  seems  to  have  been  a  plain  circlet  with  four  uprights, 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8.  FIG.  9.  FIG.  10. 

Royal  Crowns.     William  I.  to  Henry  IV. 

which  terminated  in  trefoils  (fig.  5),  but  Henry  I.  enriched  the 
circlet  with  pearls  or  gems  (fig.  6),  and  on  his  great  seal  the 
trefoils  have  something  of  the  character  of  fleurs-de-lys.  The 
effigy  of  Richard  I.  at  Fontevrault  shows  a  development  of  the 
crown;  the  trefoil  heads  are  expanded,  and  are  chased  and 
jewelled.  The  crown  of  John  is  shown  on  his  effigy  at  Worcester, 
though  unfortunately  it  is  rather  badly  mutilated.  It  shows, 
however,  that  the  upper  ornament  was  of  fleurons  set  with 
jewels.  Fig.  7  shows  generally  this  development  of  the  crown 
in  a  restored  form.  The  crown  on  the  effigy  of  Henry  III. 
at  Westminster  had  a  beaded  row  below  the  circlet,  which  is 
narrow  and  plain,  and  from  it  rises  a  series  of  plain  trefoils  with 
slightly  raised  points  between  them.  The  tomb  was  opened  in 
1774,  and  on  the  king's  head  was  found  an  imitation  crown  of 
tin  or  latten  gilt,  with  trefoils  rising  from  its  upper  edge.  This, 
although  only  made  of  base  metal  for  the  king's  burial,  may 
nevertheless  be  taken  as  exhibiting  the  form  of  the  royal  crown 
at  the  time,  and  it  may  be  usefully  compared  with  that  on  the 
effigy  of  the  king,  which  was  made  in  Edward  I.'s  reign  (fig.  8). 
Edward  I.  used  a  crown  of  very  similar  design.  In  the  crown  of 
Edward  II.  we  have  perhaps  the  most  graceful  and  elegant 
of  all  the  forms  which  the  English  medieval  crown  assumed 
(fig.  9),  and  it  seems  to  have  continued  without  any  marked 
alteration  during  the  reigns  of  Edward  III.  and  Richard  II. 
The  crown  on  the  head  of  the  effigy  of  Henry  IV.  at  Canterbury 
evidently  represents  one  of  great  magnificence,  both  of  design 
and  ornament.  What  is  perhaps  lost  of  the  grace  of  form  of 
the  crown  of  Edward  II.  is  made  up  for  by  a  profusion  of  adorn- 
ment and  ornamentation  unsurpassed  at  any  later  period  (fig.  10). 
The  circlet  is  much  wider  and  is  richly  chased  and  jewelled,  and 
from  it  rise  eight  large  leaves,  the  intervening  spaces  being  filled 
with  fleurs-de-lys  of  definite  outline.  It  will  be  noted  that  this 
crown  is,  like  its  predecessors,  what  is  known  as  an  open  crown, 
without  any  arches  rising  from  the  circlet,  but  in  the  accounts 
of  the  coronation  of  Henry  IV.  by  Froissart  and  Waurin  it  is 
distinctly  stated  that  the  crown  was  arched  in  the  form  of  a 
cross.  This  is  the  earliest  mention  of  an  arched  crown,  which 
is  not  represented  on  the  great  seal  till  that  of  Edward  IV.  in 
1461.  The  crown,  as  shown  on  Henry  IV. 's  effigy,  very  probably 
represents  the  celebrated  "  Harry  crown  "  which  was  afterwards 
broken  up  and  employed  as  surety  for  the  loan  required  by 
Henry  V.  when  he  was  about  to  embark  on  his  expedition  to 
France.  Fig.  n  shows  the  crown  of  Henry  V.  The  crown  of 


Henry  VI.  seems  to  have  had  three  arches,  and  there  is  the  same 
number  shown  on  the  crown  of  Henry  VII.,  which  ensigns  the 
hawthorn  bush  badge  of  that  king.  The  crown  of  Edward  IV. 
(fig.  12)  shows  two  arches,  and  a  crown  similarly  arched  appears 
on  the  great  seal  of  Richard  III.  Crowns,  both  open  and  arched, 
are  represented  in  sculpture  and  paintings  until  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the  royal  arms  are  occasionally  ensigned 
by  an  open  crown  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The 
crown  of  Henry  VII.  on  his  effigy  in  Westminster  Abbey  shows 
a  circlet  surmounted  by  four  crosses  and  four  fleurs-de-lys 
alternately,  and  has  two  arches  rising  from  it.  A  similar  crown 
appears  on  the  great  seal  of  Henry  VIII.  The  crown  of  Henry 
VII.  (fig.  13),  which  ensigns  the  royal  arms  above  the  south  door 
of  King's  College  chapel,  Cambridge,  has  the  motto  of  the  order 
of  the  Garter  round  the  circlet.  Fig.  14  shows  the  form  of  crown 
used  by  Edward  VI.,  but  a  tendency  (not  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion) began  of  flattening  the  arches  of  the  crown,  and  on  some 
of  the  coins  of  Elizabeth  the  arches  are  not  merely  flattened, 
but  are  depressed  in  the  centre,  much  after  the  character  of 
the  arches  of  the  crown  on  many  of  the  silver  coins  of  the  igth 
century  prior  to  1887.  The  crowns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
had  four  arches,  springing  from  the  alternate  crosses  and  fleurs- 
de-lys  of  the  circlet  (fig.  1 5).  The  crown  which  strangely  enough 
surmounts  the  shield  with  the  arms  of  the  Commonwealth  on 
the  coins  of  Oliver  Cromwell  (as  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  Commonwealth  itself,  which  have  no  crown)  is  a  royal  crown 
with  alternate  crosses  and  fleurs-de-lys  round  the  circlet,  and 
is  surmounted  by  three  arches,  which,  though  somewhat  flattened, 
are  not  bent.  On  them  rests  the  orb  and  cross.  The  crown 
used  by  Charles  II.  (fig.  16)  shows  the  arches  depressed  in  the 
centre,  a  feature  of  the  royal  crown  which  seems  to  have  been 
continued  henceforward  till  1887,  when  the  pointed  form  of  the 
arches  was  resumed,  in  consonance  with  an  idea  that  such  a 
form  indicated  an  imperial  rather  than  a  regal  crown,  Queen 
Victoria  having  been  proclaimed  empress  of  India  in  1877.  In 
the  foregoing  account  the  changes  of  the  form  of  the  crowns  of 
the  kings  have  been  briefly  noticed.  Those  crowns  were  the 
personal  crowns,  worn  by  the  different  kings  on  various  state 
occasions,  but  they  were  all  crowned  before  the  Commonwealth 
with  the  ancient  crown  of  St  Edward,  and  the  queens  consort 
with  that  of  Queen  Edith.  There  were,  in  fact,  two  sets  of 
regalia,  the  one  used  for  the  coronations  and  kept  at  Westminster, 


FIG.  u. 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  14. 
Royal  Crowns. 


FIG.  15. 
Henry  V.  to  Charles  I. 


and  the  other  that  used  on  other  occasions  by  the  kings  and  kept 
in  the  Tower.  The  crowns  of  this  latter  set  were  the  personal 
crowns  made  to  fit  the  different  wearers,  and  are  those  which 
have  been  briefly  described.  The  crown  of  St  Edward,  with 
which  the  sovereigns  were  crowned,  had  a  narrow  circlet  from 
which  rose  alternately  four  crosses  and  four  fleurs-de-lys,  and 
from  the  crosses  sprang  two  arches,  which  at  their  crossing 
supported  an  orb  and  cross.  These  arches  must  have  been  a 
later  addition,  and  possibly  were  first  added  for  the  coronation 
of  Henry  IV.  (vide  supra).  Queen  Edith's  crown  had  a  plain 


5i8 


CROWN— CROWN  DEBT 


circlet  with,  so  far  as  can  be  determined,  four  crosses  of  pearls 
or  gems  on  it,  and  a  large  cross  patee  rising  from  it  in  front, 
and  arches  of  jewels  or  pearls  terminating  in  a  large  pearl  at 
the  top.  A  valuation  of  these  ancient  crowns  was  made  at  the 
time  of  the  Commonwealth  prior  to  their  destruction.  From  this 
valuation  we  learn  that  St  Edward's  crown  was  of  gold  filigree 
or  "  wirework  "  as  it  is  called,  and  was  set  with  stones,  and  was 
valued  at  £248.  Queen  Edith's  crown  was  found  to  be  only  of 
silver-gilt,  with  counterfeit  pearls,  sapphires  and  other  stones, 


FIG.  16.  FIG.  17.  FIG.  19. 

Recent  Forms  of  the  English  Crown. 

and  was  only  valued  at  £16.  At  the  Restoration  an  endeavour 
was  made  to  reproduce  as  well  as  possible  the  old  crowns  and 
regalia  according  to  their  ancient  form,  and  a  new  crown  of 
St  Edward  was  made  on  the  lines  of  the  old  one  for  the  coronation 
of  Charles  II.  The  framework  of  this  crown,  bereft  of  its  jewels, 
is  in  the  possession  of  Lady  Amherst  of  Hackney.  The  crowns 
of  James  II.,  William  III.  and  Anne  generally  resembled  it 
in  form  (fig.  16).  The  later  crowns  of  the  Georges  and  William 
IV.  are  represented  in  general  form  in  fig.  17.  Although  the 
marginal  note  in  the  coronation  order  of  Queen  Victoria  indicates 
"  K.  Edward's  crown  "  as  that  with  which  the  late  queen  was 
to  be  crowned,  it  was  actually  the  state  or  imperial  crown  worn 
by  the  sovereign  when  leaving  the  church  after  the  ceremony 
that  was  used.  It  had  been  altered  for  the  coronation,  and  the 
arches  were  formed  of  oak  leaves  (fig.  18).  Fig.  19  shows  Queen 
Victoria's  crown  with  raised  arches  and  without  the  inner  cap 
of  estate,  which  since  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  has  been  degraded 
into  forming  a  lining  to  the  crowns  of  the  sovereigns  and  the 
coronets  of  the  peers.  Fig.  20  shows  the  coronation  crown  of 
King  Edward  VII.  The  crown  of  Scotland,  preserved  with  the 
Scottish  regalia  at  Edinburgh,  is  believed  to  be  composed  of  the 
original  circlet  worn  by  King  Robert  the  Bruce.  James  V. 


FIG.  1 8.  FIG.  20. 

Coronation  Crowns  of  Queen  Victoria  and  King  Edward  VII. 

made  additions  to  it  in  1535,  and  in  general  characteristics  it 
much  resembles  an  English  crown  of  that  date. 

The  kings  of  arms  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  wear 
crowns,  the  ornamentation  of  which  round  the  upper  rim  of 
the  circlet  is  composed  of  a  row  of  acanthus  or  oak  leaves. 
Round  the  circlet  is  the  singularly  inappropriate  text  from 
Psalm  li.,  "  Miserere  mei  Deus  secundum  magnam  misericordiam 
tuam."  The  form  of  these  crowns  seems  to  have  been  settled 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Before  that  period  they  varied  at 
different  times,  according  to  representations  given  of  them  in 
grants  .of  arms,  &c. 


This  brings  us  to  the  crowns  of  lesser  dignity,  known  for  that 
reason  as  coronets,  and  worn  by  the  five  orders  of  peers. 

The  use  of  crowns  by  dukes  originated  in  1362,  when  Edward 
III.  created  his  sons  Lionel  and  John  dukes  of  Clarence  and 
Lancaster  respectively.  This  was  done  by  investing  them  with 
a  sword,  a  cap  of  maintenance  or  estate,  and  with  a  circlet  of 
gold  set  with  precious  stones,  which  was  imposed  on  the  head. 
Previous  to  this  dukes  had  been  invested  at  their  creation  by 
the  girding  on  of  a  sword  only.  In  1387  Richard  II.  created 
Richard  de  Vere  marquess  of  Dublin,  and  invested  him  by 
girding  on  a  sword,  and  by  placing  a  golden  circlet  on  his  head. 
The  golden  circlet  was  confined  to  dukes  and  marquesses  till 
1444,  when  Henry  VI.  created  Henry  Beauchamp,  earl  of 
Warwick,  premier  earl,  and  the  letters  patent  effecting  this 
concede  that  the  earl  and  his  heirs  shall  wear  a  golden  circlet 
on  the  head  on  feast  days,  even  in  the  royal  presence.  As  to 
the  form  of  these  circlets  we  have  no  clear  knowledge.  The 
dignity  of  a  viscount  was  first  created  by  Henry  VI.  in  1439, 
but  nothing  is  said  of  any  insignia  pertaining  to  that  dignity. 


FIG.  21. 


FIG.  22. 


FIG.  23. 
Coronets  of  Dukes,  Marquesses  and  Earls. 

It  is  believed  that  a  circlet  of  gold  with  an  upper  rim  of  pearls 
was  first  conferred  on  a  viscount  by  James  I.,  who  conceded  it 
to  Robert  Cecil,  Viscount  Cranborne.  However,  in  1625-1626 
it  is  definitely  recorded  that  the  viscounts  carried  their  coronets 
in  their  hands  in  the  coronation  procession  from  Westminster 
Hall  to  the  Abbey  church.  The  use  of  a  coronet  by  the  barons 
dates  from  the  coronation  of  Charles  II..  and  by  letters  patent 
of  the  7th  of  August 
1 66 1  their  coronet  is  de- 
scribed as  a  circle  of  gold 
with  six  pearls  on  it. 

At  the  present  day 
the  coronet  of  a  duke 
(fig.  21)  is  formed  of 


FIG.  24.  FIG.  25. 

Coronets  of  Viscounts  and  Barons. 


a  circlet  of  gold,  from  which  rise  eight  strawberry  leaves.  The 
coronet  of  a  marquess  (fig.  22)  differs  from  that  of  a  duke  in 
having  only  four  strawberry  leaves,  the  intervening  spaces  being 
occupied  by  four  low  points  which  are  surmounted  by  pearls. 
The  coronet  of  an  earl  (fig.  23)  differs  again  by  having  eight  tall 
rays  on  each  of  which  is  set  a  pearl,  the  intervening  spaces  being 
occupied  by  strawberry  leaves  one-fourth  of  the  Height  of  the 
rays.  The  coronet  of  a  viscount  (fig.  24)  has  sixteen  small 
pearls  fixed  to  the  golden  circlet,  and  the  coronet  of  a  baron 
(fig.  25)  has  six  large  pearls  similarly  arranged. 

AUTHORITIES. — L.  G.  Wickham  Legg,  English  Coronation  Records 
(London,  1901);  The  Ancestor,  Nos.  i.  and  ii.  (London,  1902); 
Stothard,  The  Monumental  Effigies  of  Great  Britain  (London,  1817). 

(T.  M.  F.) 

CROWN  DEBT,  in  English  law,  a  debt  due  to  the  crown.  By 
various  statutes — the  first  dating  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1541) — the  crown  has  priority  for  its  debts  before  all  other 
creditors.  At  common  law  the  crown  always  had  a  lien  on  the 
lands  and  goods  of  debtors  by  record,  which  could  be  enforced 
even  when  they  had  passed  into  the  hands-  of  other  persons. 
The  difficulty  of  ascertaining  whether  lands  were  subject  to  a 
crown  lien  or  not  was  often  very  great,  and  a  remedy  was  pro- 
vided by  the  Judgments  Act  1830,  and  the  Crown  Suits  Act 


CROWNE— CROWTHER 


1865.  Now  by  the  Land  Charges  Act  1900,  no  debt  due  to  the 
crown  operates  as  a  charge  on  land  until  a  writ  of  execution 
for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  it  has  been  registered  under  the 
Land  Charges  Registration  and  Searches  Act  1888.  By  the 
Act  of  1541  specialty  debts  were  put  practically  on  the  same 
footing  as  debts  by  record.  Simple  contract  debts  due  to  the 
crown  also  become  specialty  debts,  and  the  rights  of  the  crown 
are  enforced  by  a  summary  process  called  an  extent  (see  WRIT). 

CROWNE,  JOHN  (d.  c.  1703),  British  dramatist,  was  a  native 
of  Nova  Scotia.  His  father  "  Colonel  "  William  Crowne,  accom- 
panied the  earl  of  Arundel  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Vienna 
in  1637,  and  wr.ote  an  account  of  his  journey.  He  emigrated 
to  Nova  Scotia  where  he  received  a  grant  of  land  from  Cromwell, 
'  but  the  French  took  possession  of  his  property,  and  the  home 
government  did  nothing  to  uphold  his  rights.  When  the  son 
came  to  England  his  poverty  compelled  him  to  act  as  gentleman 
usher  to  an  Independent  lady  of  quality,  and  his  enemies  asserted 
that  his  father  had  been  an  Independent  minister.  He  began 
his  literary  career  with  a  romance,  Pandion  and  Amphigenia, 
or  the  History  of  the  coy  Lady  of  Thessalia  (1665).  In  1671  he 
produced  a  romantic  play,  Juliana,  or  the  Princess  of  Poland, 
which  has,  in  spite  of  its  title,  no  pretensions  to  rank  as  an 
historical  drama.  The  earl  of  Rochester  procured  for  him, 
apparently  with  the  sole  object  of  annoying  Dryden  by  infringing 
on  his  rights  as  poet-laureate,  a  commission  to  supply  a  masque 
for  performance  at  court.  Calislo  gained  him  the  favour  of 
Charles  II.,  but  Rochester  proved  a  fickle  patron,  and  his  favour 
was  completely  alienated  by  the  success  of  Crowne's  heroic  play 
in  two  parts,  The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  Vespasian 
(1677).  This  piece  contained  a  thinly  disguised  satire  on  the 
Puritan  party  in  the  description  of  the  Pharisees,  and  about 
1683  he  produced  a  distinctly  political  play,  The  City  Poliliques, 
satirizing  the  Whig  party  and  containing  characters  which  were 
readily  recognized  as  portraits  of  Titus  Gates  and  others.  This 
made  him  many  enemies,  and  he  petitioned  the  king  for  a  small 
place  that  would  release  him  from  the  necessity  of  writing  for 
the  stage.  The  king  exacted  one  more  comedy,  which  should, 
he  suggested,  he  based  on  the  No  pued  esser  of  Moreto.  This 
had  already  been  unsuccessfully  adapted,  as  Crowne  discovered 
later,  by  Sir  Thomas  St  Serfe,  but  in  Crowne's  hands  it  developed 
into  Sir  Courtly  Nice,  It  Cannot  Be  (1685),  a  comedy  which  kept 
its  place  as  a  stock  piece  for  nearly  a  century.  Unfortunately 
Charles  II.  died  before  the  play  was  completed,  and  Crowne  was 
disappointed  of  his  reward.  He  continued  to  write  plays,  and 
it  is  stated  that  he  was  still  living  in  1703,  but  nothing  is  known 
of  his  later  life. 

Crowne  was  a  fertile  writer  of  plays  with  an  historical  setting, 
in  which  heroic  love  was,  in  the  fashion  of  the  French  romances, 
made  the  leading  motive.  The  prosaic  level  of  his  style  saved  him 
as  a  rule  from  the  rant  to  be  found  in  so  many  contemporary  heroic 
plays,  but  these  pieces  are  of  no  particular  interest.  He  was  much 
more  successful  in  comedy  of  the  kind  that  depicts  "  humours." 

The  History  of  Charles  the  Eighth  of  France,  or  The  Invasionof  Naples 
by  the  French  (1672)  was  dedicated  to  Rochester.  In  Timon,  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  the  earl,  a  line  from  this  piece — 
"  whilst  sporting  waves  smil'd  on  the  rising  sun  " — was  held  up  to 
ridicule.  The  Ambitious  Statesman,  or  The  Loyal  Favourite  (1679), 
one  of  the  most  extravagant  of  his  heroic  efforts,  deals  with  the 
history  of  Bernard  d'Armagnac,  Constable  of  France,  after  the  battle 
of  Agincourt;  Thyestes,  A  Tragedy  (1681),  spares  none  of  the 
horrors  of  the  Senecan  tragedy,  although  an  incongruous  love  story 
is  interpolated;  Darius,  King  of  Persia  (1688),  Regulus  (acted  1692, 
pr.  1694)  and  Caligula  (1698)  complete  the  list  of  his  tragedies.  The 
Country  Wit:  A  Comedy  (acted  1675,  pr.  1693),  derived  in  part  from 
Moliere's  Le  Sicilien,  ou  I'amour  peintre,  is  remembered  for  the 
leading  character,  Sir  Mannerly  Shallow;  The  English  Frier;  or 
The  Town  Sparks  (acted  1689,  pr.  1690),  perhaps  suggested  by 
Moliere's  Tartu/e,  ridicules  the  court  Catholics,  and  in  Father 
Finical  caricatures  Father  Petre;  and  The  Married  Beau;  or  The 
Curious  Impertinent  (1694),  is  based  on  the  Curioso  Impertinente  in 
Don  Quixote.  He  also  produced  a  version  of  Racine's  Andromaque, 
an  adaptation  from  Shakespeare's  Henry  VI.,  and  an  unsuccessful 
comedy,  Justice  Busy. 

See  The  Dramatic  Works  of  John  Crowne  (4  vols.,  1873),  edited  by 
James  Maidment  and  W.  H.  Logan  for  the  Dramatists  of  the 
Restoration. 


CROWN  LAND,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  land  belonging  to  the 
crown,  the  hereditary  revenues  of  which  were  surrendered  to 
parliament  in  the  reign  of  George  III. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  times  the  property  of  the  king  consisted  of 
(a)  his  private  estate,  (6)  the  demesne  of  the  crown,  comprising 
palaces,  &c.,  and  (c)  rights  over  the  folkland  of  the  kingdom. 
By  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest  the  three  became  merged 
into  the  estate  of  the  crown,  that  is,  land  annexed  to  the  crown, 
held  by  the  king  as  king.  The  king,  also,  ceased  to  hold  as  a 
private  owner,1  but  he  had  full  power  of  disposal  by  grant  of 
the  crown  lands,  which  were  increased  from  time  to  time  by 
confiscation,  escheat,  forfeiture,  &c.  The  history  of  the  crown 
lands  to  the  reign  of  William  III.  was  one  of  continuous  alienation 
to  favourites.  Their  wholesale  distribution  by  William  III. 
necessitated  the  intervention  of  parliament,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne  an  act  was  passed  limiting  the  right  of  alienation 
of  crown  lands  to  a  period  of  not  more  than  thirty-one  years  or 
three  lives.  The  revenue  from  the  crown  lands  was  also  made 
to  constitute  part  of  the  civil  list.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
George  III.  surrendered  his  interest  in  the  crown  lands  in  return 
for  a  fixed  "  civil  list  "  (q.v.).  The  control  and  management 
of  the  crown  lands  is  now  regulated  by  the  Crown  Lands  Act  1829 
and  various  amending  acts.  Under  these  acts  their  management 
is  entrusted  to  the  commissioners  of  Woods,  Forests  and  Land 
Revenues,  who  have  certain  statutory  powers  as  to  leasing, 
selling,  exchanging,  &c. 

In  theory,  also,  state  lands  in  the  British  colonies  are  supposed 
to  be  vested  in  the  crown,  and  they  are  called  crown  lands; 
actually,  however,  the  various  colonial  legislatures  have  full 
control  over  them  and  power  of  disposal.  The  term  "  crown- 
lands,"  in  Austria,  is  applied  to  the  various  provinces  into  which 
that  country  is  divided.  (See  AUSTRIA.) 

CROWN  POINT,  a  village  of  Essex  county,  New  York,  U.S.A., 
in  a  township  of  the  same  name,  about  oo  m.  N.E.  of  Albany 
and  about  10  m.  N.  of  Ticonderoga,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain.  Pop.  of  the  township  (1800)  3135;  (1900)  2112; 
(1905)  1890;  (1910)  1690;  of  the  village,  about  1000.  The 
village  is  served  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  Railway  and  by  the 
Champlain  Canal.  Among  the  manufactures  are  lumber  and 
woodenware.  Graphite  has  been  found  in  the  western  part  of 
the  township,  and  spar  is  mined.  In  1609  Champlain  fought 
near  here  the  engagement  with  the  Iroquois  Indians  which 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  long  enmity  between  the  Five  (later 
Six)  Nations  and  the  French.  Subsequently  Dutch  and  English 
traders  trafficked  in  the  vicinity,  the  latter  maintaining  here 
for  many  years  a  regular  trading-post.  In  1731  the  French  built 
here  Fort  Frederic,  the  first  military  post  at  Crown  Point, 
and  the  place  was  subsequently  for  many  years  of  considerable 
strategic  importance,  owing  to  its  situation  on  Lake  Champlain, 
which  with  Lake  George  furnished  a  comparatively  easy  route 
from  Canada  to  New  York.  Twice  during  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  in  1755  and  again  in  1756,  English  and  colonial  expeditions 
were  sent  against  it  in  vain;  it  remained  in  French  hands  until 
1759,  when,  after  Lord  Jeffrey  Amherst's  occupation  of  Ticon- 
deroga, the  garrison  joined  that  of  the  latter  place  and  retreated 
to  Canada.  Crown  Point  was  then  occupied  by  Amherst,  who 
during  the  winter  of  1759-1760  began  the  construction,  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  old  Fort  Fr6d6ric,  of  a  large  fort, 
which  was  garrisoned  but  was  never  completed;  the  ruins  of  this 
fort  (not  of  Fort  Frederic)  still  remain.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
War  of  Independence,  on  the  nth  of  May  1775,  the  fort,  whose 
garrison  then  consisted  of  only  a  dozen  men,  was  captured  by 
Colonel  Seth  Warner  and  a  force  of  "  Green  Mountain  Boys," 
sent  from  Ticonderoga  by  Ethan  Allen;  and  it  remained  in 
American  hands  save  for  a  brief  period  in  1777,  when  it  was 
occupied  by  a  detachment  of  Burgoyne's  invading  army. 

CROWTHER,  SAMUEL  ADJAI  (iSogP-tSgi),  African  mis- 
sionary-bishop, was  born  at  Ochugu  in  the  Yoruba  country, 

1  The  duchy  of  Lancaster,  whicfi  was  the  private  property  of 
Henry  IV.  before  he  ascended  the  throne,  was  assured  to  him  and 
his  heirs  by  a  special  act  of  parliament.  In  the  first  year  of  Henry 
VII.  it  was  united  to  the  crown,  but  as  a  separate  property. 


52° 


CROYDON— CROZIER 


West  Africa,  and  was  sold  into  slavery  in  1821.  Next  year 
he  was  rescued,  with  many  other  captives,  by  H.M.  ship 
"  Myrmidon,"  and  was  landed  at  Sierra  Leone.  Educated 
there  in  a  missionary  school,  he  was  baptized  on  the  nth  of 
December  1825.  In  time  he  became  a  teacher  at  Furah  Bay, 
and  afterwards  an  energetic  missionary  on  the  Niger.  He  came 
to  England  in  1842,  entered  the  Church  Missionary  College  at 
Islington,  and  in  June  1843  was  ordained  by  Bishop  Blomfield. 
Returning  to  Africa,  he  laboured  with  great  success  amongst 
his  own  people  and  afterwards  at  Abeokuta.  Here  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  preparation  of  school-books,  and  the  translation 
of  the  Bible  and  Prayer-Book  into  Yoruba  and  other  dialects. 
He  also  established  a  trade  in  cotton,  and  improved  the  native 
agriculture.  In  1857  he  commenced  the  third  expedition  up 
the  Niger,  and  after  labouring  with  varied  success,  returned 
to  England  and  was  consecrated,  on  St  Peter's  Day  1864,  first 
bishop  of  the  Niger  territories.  Before  long  a  commencement 
was  made  of  the  missions  to  the  delta  of  the  Niger,  and  between 
1 866  and  1884  congregations  of  Christians  were  formed  at 
Bonny,  Brass  and  New  Calabar,  but  the  progress  made  was  slow 
and  subject  to  many  impediments.  In  1888  the  tide  of  persecu- 
tion turned,  and  several  chiefs  embraced  Christianity,  and  on 
Crowther's  return  from  another  visit  to  England,  the  large 
iron  church  known  as  "  St  Stephen's  cathedral  "  was  opened. 
Crowther  died  of  paralysis  on  the  3ist  of  December  1891,  having 
displayed  as  a  missionary  for  many  years  untiring  industry, 
great  practical  wisdom,  and  deep  piety. 

CROYDON,  a  municipal,  county  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  Surrey,  England,  suburban  to  London,  10  m.  S.  of  London 
Bridge.  Pop.  (1891)  102,695;  (1901)  133,895.  The  borough 
embraces  a  great  residential  district.  Several  railway  stations 
give  it  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  metropolis,  the 
principal  railways  serving  it  being  the  London,  Brighton  & 
South  Coast  and  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham.  It  stands  near 
the  sources  of  the  river  Wandle,  under  Banstead  Downs,  and 
is  a  place  of  great  antiquity.  The  original  site,  farther  west 
than  the  present  town,  is  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book.  The 
derivation  indicated  is  from  the  O.  Fr.  croie  dune,  chalk  hill. 
The  supposition  that  here  was  the  Roman  station  of  Nomomagus 
is  rejected.  The  site  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  springs 
which  issue  from  the  soil.  One  of  these,  called  the  "  Bourne," 
bursts  forth  a  short  way  above  the  town  at  irregular  intervals 
of  one  to  ten  years  or  more;  and  after  running  a  torrent  for 
two  or  three  months,  as  quickly  vanishes.  Until  its  course  was 
diverted  it  caused  destructive  floods.  This  phenomenon  seems 
to  arise  from  rains  which,  falling  on  the  chalk  hills,  sink  into  the 
porous  soil  and  reappear  after  a  time  from  crevices  at  lower 
levels.  The  manor  of  Croydon  was  presented  by  William  the 
Conqueror  to  Archbishop  Lanfranc,  who  is  believed  to  have 
founded  the  archiepiscopal  palace  there,  which  was  the  occasional 
residence  of  his  successors  till  about  1750,  and  of  which  the 
chapel  and  hall  remain.  Addington  Park,  35  m.  from  Croydon, 
was  purchased  for  the  residence,  in  1807,  of  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  but  was  sold  in  consequence  of  Archbishop  Temple's 
decision  to  reside  at  the  palace,  Canterbury.  The  neighbouring 
church,  which  is  Norman  and  Early  English,  contains  several 
memorials  of  archbishops.  Near  the  park  a  group  of  tumuli 
and  a  circular  encampment  are  seen.  Croydon  is  a  suffragan 
bishopric  in  the  diocese  of  Canterbury.  The  parish  church  of 
St  John  the  Baptist  appears  to  have  been  built  in  the  i4th  and 
1 5th  centuries,  but  to  have  contained  remains  of  an  older 
building.  The  church  was  restored  or  rebuilt  in  the  i6th  century, 
and  again  restored  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  in  1857-1859.  It  was 
destroyed  by  fire,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower,  on  the  sth 
of  January  1867,  and  was  at  once  rebuilt  by  Scott  on  the  old 
lines.  In  1596  Archbishop  Whitgift  founded  the  hospital  or 
almshouse  which  bears  his  name,  and  remains  in  its  picturesque 
brick  buildings  surrounding  two  quadrangles.  His  grammar 
school  was  housed  in  new  buildings  in  1871,  and  is  a  flourishing 
day  school.  The  principal  public  building  of  Croydon  is  that 
erected  by  the  corporation  for  municipal  business;  it  included 
court-rooms  and  the  public  library.  At  Addiscombe  in  the 


neighbourhood  was  fdrmerly  a  mansion  dating  from  1702,  and 
acquired  by  the  East  India  Company  in  1809  for  a  Military 
College,  which  on  the  abolition  of  the  Company  became  the 
Royal  Military  College  for  the  East  Indian  Army,  and  was  closed 
in  1862.  Croydon  was  formed  into  a  municipal  borough  in 
1883,  a  parliamentary  borough,  returning  one  member,  in  1885, 
and  a  county  borough  in  1888.  The  corporation  consists  of  a 
mayor,  1 2  aldermen  and  36  councillors.  Area,  901 2  acres. 

CROZAT,  PIERRE  (1661-1740),  French  art  collector,  was 
born  at  Toulouse,  one  of  a  family  who  were  prominent  French 
financiers  and  collectors.  He  became  treasurer  to  the  king  in 
Paris,  and  gradually  acquired  a  magnificent  collection  of  pictures 
and  objels  d'art.  Between  1729  and  1742  a  finely  illustrated  work 
was  published  in  two  volumes,  known  as  the  Cabinet  Crozat, 
including  the  finest  pictures  in  French  collections.  Most  of 
his  own  treasures  descended  to  his  nephews,  Louis  Francois 
(d.  1750),  Joseph  Antoine  (d.  1750),  and  Louis  Antoine  (d.  1770), 
and  were  augmented  by  them,  being  dispersed  after  their  deaths; 
the  collection  of  Louis  Antoine  Crozat  went  to  St  Petersburg. 

CROZET  ISLANDS,  an  uninhabited  group  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  in  46°-47°  S.  and  51°  E.  They  are  mountainous,  with 
summits  from  4000  to  5000  ft.  high,  and  are  disposed  in  two 
divisions — Penguin  or  Inaccessible,  Hog,  Possession  and  East 
Islands;  and  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Like  Kerguelen,  and  other 
clusters  in  these  southern  waters,  they  appear  to  be  of  igneous 
formation;  but  owing  to  the  bleak  climate  and  their  inaccessible 
character  they  are  seldom  visited,  and  have  never  been  explored 
since  their  discovery  in  1772  by  Marion-Dufresne,  after  one  of 
whose  officers  they  are  named.  Possession,  the  highest,  has  a 
snowy  peak  said  to  exceed  5000  ft.  Hog  Island  takes  its  name 
from  the  animals  which  were  here  let  loose  by  an  English  captain 
many  years  ago,  but  have  since  disappeared.  Rabbits  burrow  in 
the  heaps  of  scoria  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

CROZIER,  WILLIAM  (1855-  ),  American  artillerist  and 
inventor,  born  at  Carrollton,  Carroll  county,  Ohio,  on  the  igth 
of  February  1855,  was  the  son  of  Robert  Crozier  (1827-1895), 
chief  justice  of  Kansas  in  1863-1866,  and  a  United  States  senator 
from  that  state  from  December  1873  to  February  1874.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1876,  was  appointed  a  2nd  lieutenant 
in  the  4th  Artillery,  and  served  on  the  Western  frontier  for  three 
years  against  the  Sioux  and  Bannock  Indians.  From  1879  to 
1884  he  was  instructor  in  mathematics  at  West  Point,  and  was 
superintendent  of  the  Watertown  (Massachusetts)  Arsenal  from 
1884  to  1887.  In  1888  he  was  sent  by  the  war  department  to 
study  recent  developments  in  artillery  in  Europe,  and  upon  his 
return  he  was  placed  in  full  charge  of  the  construction  of  gun 
carriages  for  the  army,  and  with  General  Adelbert  R.  Burnngton 
(1837-  ),  the  chief  of  ordnance,  he  invented  the  Bumngton- 
Crozier  disappearing  gun  carriage  (1896)*  He  also  invented  a 
wire-wound  gun,  and  perfected  many  appliances  connected  with 
heavy  and  field  ordnance.  In  1890  he  attained  the  rank  of 
captain.  During  the  Spanish-American  War  he  was  inspector- 
general  for  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  defences.  In  1899  he 
was  one  of  the  American  delegates  to  the  Peace  Conference 
at  the  Hague.  He  later  served  in  the  Philippine  Islands  on  the 
staffs  of  Generals  John  C.  Bates  and  Theodore  Schwan,  and  in 
1 900  was  chief  of  ordnance  on  the  staff  of  General  A.  R.  Chaff ee 
during  the  Pekin  Relief  Expedition.  In  November  1901  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  and  succeeded  General  Buffing- 
ton  as  chief  of  ordnance  of  the  United  States  army.  His  Notes 
on  the  Construction  of  Ordnance,  published  by  the  war  depart- 
ment, are  used  as  text-books  in  the  schools  for  officers,  and  he 
is  also  the  author  of  other  important  publications  on  military 
subjects. 

CROZIER,  or  pastoral  staff,  one  of  the  insignia  of  a  bishop, 
and  probably  derived  from  the  lituus  of  the  Roman  augurs.  It 
is  crook-headed,  and  borne  by  bishops  and  archbishops  alike 
(see  PASTORAL  STAFF).  The  word  "crozier"  or  "crosier"  re- 
presents the  O.  Fr.  crocier,  Med.  Lat.  crociarius,  the  bearer  of  the 
episcopal  crook  (Med.  Lat.  crocea,  croccia,  &c.,  Fr.  croc).  The 
English  representative  of  crocea  was  erase,  later  crosse,  which, 
becoming  confused  with  "  cross  "  (q.v.),  was  replaced  by  "  crozier- 


CRUCIAL— CRUCIFERAE 


staff  "  or  '  crozier's  staff,"  and  then,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
i6th  century,  by  "  crozier  "  (see  J.  T.  Taylor,  Archaeologia,  Hi., 
"  On  the  Use  of  the  Terms  Crosier,  Pastoral  Staff  and  Cross  "). 

CRUCIAL  (from  Lat.  crux,  a  cross),  that  which  has  the  form  of 
a  cross,  as  the  "  crucial  ligaments  "  of  the  knee-joint,  which 
cross  each  other,  connecting  the  femur  and  the  tibia.  From 
Francis  Bacon's  expression  instanlia  crucis  (taken,  as  he  says, 
from  the  finger-post  or  crux  at  cross-roads)  for  a  phenomenon 
which  decides  between  two  causes  which  have  each  similar 
analogies  in  its  favour,  comes  the  use  of  "  crucial  "  for  that  which 
decides  between  two  alternatives,  hence,  generally,  as  a  synonym 
for  "  critical."  The  word  is  also  used,  with  a  reference  to  the  use 
of  a  "  crucible,"  of  something  which  tests  and  tries. 

CRUCIFERAE,  or  Crucifer  family,  a  natural  order  of  flowering 
plants,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  cruciform  arrangement 
of  the  four  petals  of  the  flower.  It  is  an  order  of  herbaceous 


FIG.  i. — Wallflower  (Cheiranthus  Cheiri),  reduced.  I,  Flower  in 
vertical  section.  2,  Horizontal  plan  of  arrangement  of  flower  in 
Barbarea. 

plants,  many  of  which,  such  as  wallflower,  stock,  mustard, 
cabbage,  radish  and  others,  are  well-known  garden  or  field-plants. 
Many  of  the  plants  are  annuals;  among  these  are  some  of  the 
commonest  weeds  of  cultivation,  shepherd's  purse  (Capsella 
Bursa-pastoris),  charlock  (Brassica  Sinapis),  and  such  common 


FIG.  2. — Cruciferae.      Floral 
Diagram  (Brassica). 


FIG.  3. — Cardamine  pratensis. 
Flower  with  Perianth  removed. 
X4.  (After  Baillon.) 


plants  as  hedge  mustard  (Sisymbrium  officinale),  Jack-by-the- 
hedge  (S.  Alliaria  or  Alliaria  officinalis).  Others  are  biennials 
producing  a  number  of  leaves  on  a  very  short  stem  in  the  first 
year,  and  in  the  second  sending  up  a  flowering  shoot  at  the 
expense  of  the  nourishment  stored  in  the  thick  tap-root  during 


the  previous  season.  Under  cultivation  this  root  becomes  much 
enlarged,  as  in  turnip,  swede  and  others.  Wallflower  (Cheiranthus 
Cheiri)  (fig.  i)  is  a  perennial.  The  leaves  when  borne  on  an 
elongated  stem  are  arranged  alternately  and  have  no  stipules. 
The  flowers  are  arranged  in  racemes  without  bracts;  during  the 
life  of  the  flower  its  stalk  continues  to  grow  so  that  the  open 
flowers  of  an  inflorescence  stand  on  a  level  (that  is,  arc 
corymbose).  The  flowers  are  regular,  with  four  free  sepals 
arranged  in  two  pairs  at  right  angles,  four  petals  arranged  cross- 
wise in  one  series,  and  two  sets  of  stamens,  an  outer  with  two 
members  and  an  inner  with  four,  in  two  pairs  placed  in  the 
middle  line  of  the  flower  and  at  right  angles  to  the  outer  series. 
The  four  inner  stamens  are  longer  than  the  two  outer;  and  the 
stamens  are  hence  collectively  described  as  tetradynamous. 
The  pistil,  which  is  above  the  rest  of  the  members  of  the  flower, 
consists  of  two  carpels  joined  at  their  edges  to  form  the  ovary, 
which  becomes  two-celled  by  subsequent  ingrowth  of  a  septum 
from  these  united  edges;  a  row  of  ovules  springs  from  each 
edge.  The  fruif  is  a  pod  or  siliqua  splitting  by  two  valves  from 


A  "  C  J> 

FIG.  4. — Cruciferous  Fruits.    (After  Baillon.) 

A,  Cheiranthus  Cheiri.  D,  Lunariabiennis,  showing  the  septum 

B,  Lepidium  sativum.  after  the  carpels  have  fallen  away. 

C,  Capsella  Bursa-pastoris.    E,  Crambe  maritima. 

below  upwards  and  leaving  the  placentas  with  the  seeds  attached 
to  the  replum  or  framework  of  the  septum.  The  seeds  are  filled 
with  the  large  embryo,  the  two  cotyledons  of  which  are  variously 
folded.  In  germination  the  cotyledons  come  above  ground  and 
form  the  first  green  leaves  of  the  plant. 

Pollination  is  effected  by  aid  of  insects.  The  petals  are  generally 
white  or  yellow,  more  rarely  lilac  or  some  other  colour,  and 
between  the  bases  of  the  stamens  are  honey-glands.  Some  or 
all  of  the  anthers  become  twisted  so  that  insects  in  probing  for 
honey  will  touch  the  anthers  with  one  side  of  their  head  and 
the  capitate  stigma  with  the 
other.  Owing,  however,  to 
the  close  proximity  of  stigma 
and  anthers,  very  slight  ir- 
regularity in  the  movements 
of  the  visiting  insect  will 
cause  self-pollination,  which 
may  also  occur  by  the  drop- 
ping of  pollen  from  the  _ 

,  * ,     ,  FIG.  5. — Seeds  of  Cruciferae  cut 

anthers  of  the  larger  stamens  across  °to    show    the    „&[,,   and 

on  to  the  stigma.  cotyledons.     (After  Baillon.) 

Cruciferae  is  a  large  order  A,  Cheiranthus  Cheiri  (X8). 
containing  nearly  200  genera 
and  about  1200  species.  It 
has  a  world-wide  distribution, 
but  finds  its  chief  development  in  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones, 
especially  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  as  Alpine  plants.  In 
the  subdivision  of  the  order  into  tribes  use  is  made  of  differences 
in  the  form  of  the  fruit,  and  the  manner  of  folding  of  the  embryo. 
When  the  fruit  is  several  times  longer  than  broad  it  is  known  as  a 
siliqua,  as  in  stock  or  wallflower;  when  about  as  long  as  broad, 
a  silicula,  as  in  shepherd's  purse. 


B,  Sisymbrium  Alliaria  (Xy). 

Figures  2-5  are  from  Strasburgcr*s  Lehrbuck 
da  Balanik,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 


522 


CRUDEN,  A. 


The  order  is  well  represented  in  Britain — among  others 
by  Nasturtium  (N.  officinale,  water-cress),  Arabis  (rock-cress), 
Cardamine  (bitter-cress),  Sisymbrium  (hedge  mustard,  &c.; 

5.  Irio  is  London  rocket, 
so-called  because  it  sprang 
up  after  the  fire  of  1666), 
Brassica  (cabbage  and  mus- 
tard), Diplotaxis  (rocket), 
Cochlearia  (scurvy-grass) , 
Ca/wWa  (shepherd'spurse) , 
Lepidium  (cress),  Thlaspi 
(penny-cress),  Cakile  (sea 
rocket),  Raphanus  (radish), 
and  others.  Of  economic 
importance  are  species  of 
Brassica,  including  mus- 
tard (B.  nigra),  white 
mustard,  used  when  young 
in  salads  (B.alba),  cabbage 
(q.v.)  and  its  numerous 
forms  derived  from  B.  oler- 
acea,  turnip  (B.  campeslris), 
and  swede  (B.  Napus), 
Raphanus  sativus  (radish), 
Cochlearia  Armor  acia 
(horse-radish),  Nasturtium 

FIG.  6.— Honesty  (Lunaria  biennis),  officinale  (water  -  cress) , 
showing  Flower  and  Fruit.  Reduced.  Lepidium  sativum  (garden 

cress).    I  satis  affords  a  blue 

dye,  woad.  Many  of  the  genera  are  known  as  ornamental  garden 
plants;  such  are  Cheiranthus  (wallflower),  Malthiola  (stock), 
Iberis  ( candy- tuf t) ,  Alyssum  (Alison),  Hesperis  (dame's  violet), 
Lunaria  (honesty)  (fig.  6),  Aubrietia  and  others. 

CRUDEN,  ALEXANDER  (1701-1770),  author  of  the  well-known 
concordance  (q.v.)  to  the  English  Bible,  was  born  at  Aberdeen 
on  the  3ist  of  May  1701.  He  was  educated  at  the  grammar 
school,  Aberdeen,  and  studied  at  Marischal  College,  intending 
to  enter  the  ministry.  He  took  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  but 
soon  after  began  to  show  signs  of  insanity  owing  to  a  disappoint- 
ment in  love.  After  a  term  of  confinement  he  recovered  and 
removed  to  London.  In  1722  he  had  an  engagement  as  private 
tutor  to  the  son  of  a  country  squire  living  at  Eton  Hall,  South- 
gate,  and  also  held  a  similar  post  at  Ware.  Years  afterwards, 
in  an  application  for  the  title  of  bookseller  to  the  queen,  he 
stated  that  he  had  been  for  some  years  corrector  for  the  press  in 
Wild  Court.  This  probably  refers  to  this  time.  In  1729  he  was 
employed  by  the  loth  earl  of  Derby  as  a  reader  and  secretary, 
but  was  discharged  on  the  7th  of  July  for  his  ignorance  of  French 
pronunciation.  He  then  lodged  in  a  house  in  Soho  frequented 
exclusively  by  Frenchmen,  and  took  lessons  in  the  language 
in  the  hope  of  getting  back  his  post  with  the  earl,  but  when  he 
went  to  Knowsley  in  Lancashire,  the  earl  would  not  see  him. 
He  returned  to  London  and  opened  a  bookseller's  shop  in  the 
Royal  Exchange.  In  April  1735  he  obtained  the  title  of  book- 
seller to  the  queen  by  recommendation  of  the  lord  mayor  and 
most  of  the  Whig  aldermen.  The  post  was  an  unremunerative 
sinecure.  In  1737  he  finished  his  concordance,  which,  he  says, 
was  the  work  of  several  years.  It  was  presented  to  the  queen 
on  the  3rd  of  November  1 73  7,  a  fortnight  before  her  death. 

Although  Cruden's  biblical  labours  have  made  his  name  a 
household  word  among  English-speaking  people,  he  was  dis- 
appointed in  his  hopes  of  immediate  profit,  and  his  mind  again 
became  unhinged.  In  spite  of  his  earnest  and  self-denying  piety, 
and  his  exceptional  intellectual  powers,  he  developed  idiosyn- 
crasies, and  his  life  was  marred  by  a  harmless  but  ridiculous 
egotism,  which  so  nearly  bordered  on  insanity  that  his  friends 
sometimes  thought  it  necessary  to  have  him  confined.  He  paid 
unwelcome  addresses  to  a  widow,  and  was  confined  in  a  madhouse 
in  Bethnal  Green.  On  his  release  he  published  a  pamphlet 
dedicated  to  Lord  H.  (probably  Harrington,  secretary  of 
state)  entitled  The  London  Citizen  exceedingly  injured,  or  a 
British  Inquisition  Displayed.  He  also  published  an  account  of 


his  trial,  dedicated  to  the  king.  In  December  1740  he  writes  to 
Sir  H.  Sloane  saying  he  has  been  employed  since  July  as  Latin 
usher  in  a  boarding-school  at  Enfield.  He  then  found  work  as 
a  proof-reader,  and  several  editions  of  Greek  and  Latin  classics 
are  said  to  have  owed  their  accuracy  to  his  care.  He  super- 
intended the  printing  of  one  of  Matthew  Henry's  commentaries, 
and  in  1750  printed  a  small  Compendium  of  the  Holy  Bible  (an 
abstract  of  the  contents  of  each  chapter),  and  also  reprinted  a 
larger  edition  of  the  Concordance. 

About  this  time  he  adopted  the  title  of  "  Alexander  the 
Corrector,"  and  assumed  the  office  of  correcting  the  morals  of 
the  nation,  especially  with  regard  to  swearing  and  Sunday 
observance.  For  this  office  he  believed  himself  divinely  com- 
missioned, but  he  petitioned  parliament  for  a  formal  appoint- 
ment in  this  capacity.  In  April  1755  he  printed  a  letter  to  the 
speaker  and  other  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  about 
the  same  time  an  "  Address  to  the  King  and  Parliament."  He 
was  in  the  habit  of  carrying  a  sponge,  with  which  he  effaced  all 
inscriptions  which  he  thought  contrary  to  good  morals.  In 
September  1753,  through  being  involved  in  a  street  brawl,  he 
was  confined  in  an  asylum  in  Chelsea  for  seventeen  days  at  the 
instance  of  his  sister,  Mrs  Wild.  He  brought  an  unsuccessful 
action  against  his  friends,  and  seriously  proposed  that  they 
should  go  into  confinement  as  an  atonement.  He  published 
an  account  of  this  second  restraint  in  "  The  Adventures  of 
Alexander  the  Corrector."  He  made  attempts  to  present  to 
the  king  in  person  an  account  of  his  trial,  and  to  obtain  the  honour 
of  knighthood,  one  of  his  predicted  honours.  In  1754  he  was 
nominated  as  parliamentary  candidate  for  the  city  of  London, 
but  did  not  go  to  the  poll.  In  1 755  he  paid  unwelcome  addresses 
to  the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Abney,  of  Newington  (1640-1 722), 
and  then  published  his  letters  and  the  history  of  his  repulse 
in  the  third  part  of  his  "  Adventures."  In  June  and  July  1755 
he  visited  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  He  was  treated  with  the 
respect  due  to  his  learning  by  officials  and  residents  in  both 
universities,  but  experienced  some  boisterous  fooling  at  the 
hands  of  the  undergraduates.  At  Cambridge  he  was  knighted 
with  mock  ceremonies.  There  he  appointed  "  deputy  cor- 
rectors "  to  represent  him  in  the  university.  He  also  visited 
Eton,  Windsor,  Tonbridge  and  Westminster  schools,  where  he 
appointed  four  boys  to  be  his  deputies.  (An  Admonition  to 
Cambridge  is  preserved  among  letters  from  J.  Neville  of 
Emmanuel  to  Dr  Cox  Macro,  in  the  British  Museum.)  The 
Corrector's  Earnest  Address  to  the  Inhabitants  of  Great  Britain, 
published  in  1756,  was  occasioned  by  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon. 
In  1762  he  saved  an  ignorant  seaman,  Richard  Potter,  from  the 
gallows,  and  in  1763  published  a  pamphlet  recording  the  history 
of  the  case.  Against  John  Wilkes,  whom  he  hated,  he  wrote  a 
small  pamphlet,  and  used  to  delete  with  his  sponge  the  number 
45  wherever  he  found  it,  this  being  the  offensive  number  of  the 
North  Briton.  In  1769  he  lectured  in  Aberdeen  as  "  Corrector," 
and  distributed  copies  of  the  fourth  commandment  and  various 
religious  tracts.  The  wit  that  made  his  eccentricities  palatable 
is  illustrated  by  the  story  of  how  he  gave  to  a  conceited  young 
minister  whose  appearance  displeased  him  A  Mother's  Catechism 
dedicated  to  the  young  and  ignorant.  The  Scripture  Dictionary,  com- 
piled about  this  time,  was  printed  in  Aberdeen  in  two  volumes 
shortly  after  his  death.  Alexander  Chalmers,  who  in  his  boyhood 
heard  Cruden  lecture  in  Aberdeen  and  wrote  his  biography,  says 
that  a  verbal  index  to  Milton,  which  accompanied  the  edition  of 
Thomas  Newton,  bishop  of  Bristol,  in  1769,  was  Cruden's. 

The  second  edition  of  the  Bible  Concordance  was  published  in 
1 761 ,  and  presented  to  the  king  in  person  on  the  2  ist  of  December. 
The  third  appeared  in  1769.  Both  contain  a  pleasing  portrait 
of  the  author.  He  is  said  to  have  gained  £800  by  these  two 
editions.  He  returned  to  London  from  Aberdeen,  and  died 
suddenly  while  praying  in  his  lodgings  in  Camden  Passage, 
Islington,  on  the  ist  of  November  1770.  He  was  buried  in  the 
ground  of  a  Protestant  dissenting  congregation  in  Dead  Man's 
Place,  Southwark.  He  bequeathed  a  portion  of  his  savings  for 
a  £5  bursary  at  Aberdeen,  which  preserves  his  name  on  the  list 
of  benefactors  of  the  university.  (D.  MN.) 


CRUDEN— CRUIKSHANK 


523 


CRUDEN,  a  village  and  parish  on  the  E.  coast  of  Aberdeen- 
shire,  Scotland.  Pop.  of  parish  (1901)  3444.  It  is  situated  at 
the  head  of  Cruden  Bay,  29$  m.  N.N.E.  of  Aberdeen  by  the 
Great  North  of  Scotland  railway  company's  branch  line  from 
Ellon  to  Boddam.  The  golf-course  of  18  holes  is  one  of  the  best 
in  Scotland,  and  there  is  a  sandy  beach,  with  good  bathing. 
There  is  some  good  fishing  at  Port  Erroll,  also  called  Ward  of 
Cruden.  Prehistoric  remains  have  been  found  in  the  parish, 
and  near  Ardendraught,  not  far  from  the  shore,  Malcolm  II. 
is  said  to  have  defeated  Canute  in  1014.  The  Water  of  Cruden, 
which  rises  a  few  miles  to  the  west,  flows  through  the  village  into 
the  North  Sea.  Slains  Castle,  a  seat  of  the  earl  of  Erroll,  lies 
to  the  north  of  Cruden,  but  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
old  castle  of  Slains,  about  5  m.  to  the  south-west,  near  the  point 
where,  according  to  tradition,  the  "  St  Catherine  "  of  the  Spanish 
Armada  foundered  in  1 588.  The  Bullers  of  Buchan  are  within 
2  m.  walk  of  Cruden. 

CRUELTY  (through  the  O.  Fr.  crualte,  mod.  cruaute,  from 
the  Lat.  crudelilas),  the  intentional  infliction  of  pain  or  suffering. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  deal  here  with  the  legal  relations  involved. 
Statutory  provision  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  those  who 
are  unable  to  protect  themselves  has  been  particularly  marked 
in  the  igth  century.  The  increase  of  legislation  for  the  protection 
of  children,  lunatics  and  animals  is  a  proof  of  the  growing 
humanitarianism  of  the  age.  There  was  at  one  time  a  tendency 
among  jurists  to  question  whether,  for  instance,  the  prevention 
of  cruelty  to  animals  was  not  a  recognition  of  a  certain  quasi- 
right  in  animals,  or  whether  it  was  merely  that  such  exhibitions 
as  bull-  and  bear-baiting,  cock-fights,  &c.,  were  demoralizing  to 
the  public  generally.  The  true  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  first 
introduction  of  such  legislation  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
desire  for  the  promotion  of  humanity,  but  that  the  principle, 
for  the  recognition  of  whick  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe,  had  to 
be  excused  in  the  eyes  of  the  public  by  the  plea  that  cruelty  had 
a  demoralizing  effect  upon  spectators  (see  A.  V.  Dicey,  Law 
and  Opinion  in  England,  p.  188;  T.  E.  Holland,  Jurisprudence, 
loth  ed.,  p.  372). 

Cruelty  to  Animals. — The  English  common  law  has  never 
taken  cognizance  of  the  commission  of  acts  of  cruelty  upon 
animals,  and  direct  legislation  upon  the  subject,  dating  from 
the  igth  century,  was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  public  agitation, 
supported  by  the  Royal  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals  (founded  in  1824).  Various  acts  were  passed  in  1822 
(known  as  Martin's  Act),  1835  and  183 7,  and  these  were  amended 
and  consolidated  by  the  Cruelty  to  Animals  Acts  1849  and  1854, 
which,  with  the  Wild  Animals  in  Captivity  Protection  Act  1900, 
are  the  main  acts  upon  the  subject.  There  are  also,  in  addition, 
many  other  acts  that  impose  certain  liabilities  in  respect  of 
animals  and  indirectly  prevent  cruelty.  The  Cruelty  to  Animals 
Acts  1849  and  1854  render  liable  to  prosecution  and  fine  prac- 
tically any  act  of  cruelty  to  an  animal;  such  acts  as  dubbing  a 
cock,  cropping  the  ears  of  a  dog  or  dishorning  cattle,  are  offences. 
The  latter  practice,  hdwever,  is  allowed  both  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  the  courts  having  held  that  the  advantages  to  be 
obtained  from  dishorning  outweigh  the  pain  caused  by  the 
operation.  The  word  "  animal  "  is  defined  as  meaning  "  any 
domestic  animal  "  of  whatever  kind  or  species,  and  whether 
a  quadruped  or  not.  The  act  of  1849  als°  forbids  bull-  and  bear- 
baiting,  or  fighting  between  any  kinds  of  animals;  requires 
the  provision  of  food  and  water  to  animals  impounded;  lays 
down  regulations  as  to  the  treatment  of  animals  sent  for 
slaughter,  and  imposes  a  penalty  for  improperly  conveying 
animals.  The  Wild  Animals  in  Captivity  Protection  Act  1900 
extends  to  wild  animals  in  captivity  that  protection  which  the 
acts  of  1849  and  1854  conferred  on  domestic  animals,  making 
exception  of  any  act  done  or  any  omission  in  the  preparation 
of  animals  for  the  food  of  man  or  for  sport.  The  word  "animal" 
in  the  act  includes  bird,  beast,  fish  or  reptile.  The  Dogs  Act 
1865  rendered  owners  of  dogs  liable  for  injuries  to  cattle  and 
sheep;  the  Dogs  Act  1906  extended  the  owner's  liability  for 
injury  done  to  any  cattle  by  a  dog,  and  further,  where  a  dog 
is  proved  to  have  injured  cattle  or  chased  sheep  it  may  be  treated 


as  a  dangerous  dog  and  must  be  kept  under  proper  control  or  be 
destroyed.  The  Drugging  of  Animals  Act  1876  imposes  a  penalty 
on  giving  poisonous  drugs  to  any  domestic  animal  unlawfully. 
The  Cruelty  to  Animals  Act  1876  was  passed  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  the  practice  of  vivisection  (?.».).  The  Ground  Game 
Act  1880,  prohibits  night  shooting,  or  the  use  of  spring  traps 
above  ground  or  poison.  The  Injured  Animals  Act  1907 
enables  police  constables  to  cause  any  animal  when  mortally  or 
seriously  injured  to  be  slaughtered.  The  Diseases  of  Animals 
Act  1894  and  orders  under  it  are  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
animals  from  unnecessary  suffering,  as  well  as  from  disease. 
Finally,  the  Wild  Birds  Protection  Acts  1880  to  1904,  with  various 
game  acts  (see  GAME  LAWS),  extend  the  protection  of  the  law 
to  wild  birds.  The  acts  establish  a  close  time  for  wild  birds 
and  impose  penalties  for  shooting  or  taking  them  within  that 
time;  prohibit  the  exposing  or  offering  for  sale  within  certain 
dates  any  wild  bird  recently  killed  or  taken  unless  bought  or 
received  from  some  person  residing  out  of  the  United  Kingdom; 
the  taking  or  destroying  of  wild  birds'  eggs,  the  setting  of  pole 
traps,  and  the  taking  of  a  wild  bird  by  means  of  a  hook  or  other 
similar  instrument. 

For  the  law  relating  to  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  children  see 
CHILDREN,  LAW  RELATING  TO;  for  cruelty  in  the  sense  of  such 
conduct  as  entitles  a  husband  or  wife  to  judicial  separation 
see  DIVORCE.  (T.  A.  I.) 

CRUIKSHANK,  GEORGE  (1792-1878),  English  artist, 
caricaturist  and  illustrator,  was  born  in  London  on  the  27th  of 
September  1792.  By  natural  disposition  and  collateral  circum- 
stances he  may  be  accepted  as  the  type  of  the  born  humoristic 
artist  predestined  for  this  special  form  of  art.  His  grandfather 
had  taken  up  the  arts,  and  his  father,  Isaac  Cruikshank,  followed 
the  painter's  profession.  Amidst  these  surroundings  the  children 
were  born  and  brought  up,  their  first  playthings  the  materials 
of  the  arts  their  father  practised.  George  followed  the  family 
traditions  with  amazing  facility,  easily  surpassing  his  compeers 
as  an  etcher.  When  the  father  died,  about  1811,  George,  still 
in  his  teens,  was  already  a  successful  and  popular  artist.  All 
his  acquisitions  were  native  gifts,  and  of  home-growth;  outside 
training,  or  the  serious  apprenticeship  to  art,  were  dispensed 
with,  under  the  necessity  of  working  for  immediate  profit.  This 
lack  of  academic  training  the  artist  at  times  found  cause  to 
regret,  and  at  some  intervals  he  made  exertions  to  cultivate 
the  knowledge  obtainable  by  studying  from  the  antique  and 
drawing  from  life  at  the  schools.  From  boyhood  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  turn  his  artistic  talents  to  ready  account,  disposing 
of  designs  and  etchings  to  the  printsellers,  and  helping  his  father 
in  forwarding  his  plates.  Before  he  was  twenty  his  spirited  style 
and  talent  had  secured  popular  recognition;  the  contemporary 
of  Gillray,  Rowlandson,  Alken,  Heath,  Dighton,  and  the  estab- 
lished caricaturists  of  that  generation,  he  developed  great  pro- 
ficiency as  an  etcher.  Gillray's  matured  and  trained  skill  had 
some  influence  upon  his  executive  powers,  and  when  the  older 
caricaturist  passed  away  in  1815,  George  Cruikshank  had  already 
taken  his  place  as  a  satirist.  Prolific  and  dexterous  beyond  his 
competitors,  for  a  generation  he  delineated  Tories,  Whigs  and 
Radicals  with  fine  impartiality.  Satirical  capital  came  to  him 
from  every  public  event, — wars  abroad,  the  enemies  of  England 
(for  he  was  always  fervidly  patriotic),  the  camp,  the  court,  the 
senate,  the  Church;  low  life,  high  life;  the  humours  of  the 
people,  the  follies  of  the  great.  In  this  wonderful  gallery  the 
student  may  grasp  the  popular  side  of  most  questions  which  for 
the  time  being  engaged  public  attention.  George  Cruikshank's 
technical  and  manipulative  skill  as  an  etcher  was  such  that 
Ruskin  and  the  best  judges  have  placed  his  productions  in  the 
foremost  rank;  in  this  respect  his  works  have  been  compared 
favourably  with  the  masterpieces  of  etching.  He  died  at  263 
Hampstead  Road  on  the  ist  of  February  1878.  His  remains 
rest  in  St  Paul's  cathedra). 

A  vast  number  of  Cruikshank's  spirited  cartoons  were  pub- 
lished as  separate  caricatures,  all  coloured  by  hand;  others 
formed  series,  or  were  contributed  to  satirical  magazines,  the 
Satirist,  Town  Talk,  The  Scourge  (1811-1816)  and  the  like 


524 


CRUNDEN— CRUSADES 


ephemeral  publications.  In  conjunction  with  William  Hone's 
scathing  tracts,  G.  Cruikshank  produced  political  satires  to 
illustrate  the  series  of  facetiae  and  miscellanies,  like  The  Political 
House  that  Jack  Built  (1819). 

Of  a  more  genially  humoristic  order  are  his  well-known  book 
illustrations,  now  so  deservedly  esteemed  for  their  inimitable  fun 
and  frolic,  among  other  qualities,  such  as  the  weird  and  terrible, 
in  which  he  excelled.  Early  in  this  series  came  The  Humorist 
(1819-1821)  and  Life  in  Paris  (1822).  The  well-known  series  of 
Life  in  London,  conjointly  produced  by  the  brothers  I.  R.  and 
G.  Cruikshank,  has  enjoyed  a  prolonged  reputation,  and  is  still 
sought  after  by  collectors.  Grimm's  Collection  of  German  Popular 
Stories  (1824-1826),  in  two  series,  with  22  inimitable  etchings, 
are  in  themselves  sufficient  to  account  for  G.  Cruikshank's 
reputation.  To  the  first  fourteen  volumes  (1837-1843)  of 
Bentley's  Miscellany  Cruikshank  contributed  126  of  his  best 
plates,  etched  on  steel,  including  the  famous  illustrations  to 
Oliver  Twist,  Jack  Sheppard,  Guy  Fawkes  and  The  Ingoldsby 
Legends.  For  W.  Harrison  Ainsworth,  Cruikshank  illustrated 
Rookwood  (1836)  and  The  Tower  of  London  (1840);  the  first  six 
volumes  of  Ainsworth's  Magazine  (1842-1844)  were  illustrated 
by  him  with  several  of  his  finest  suites  of  etchings.  For  C. 
Lever's  Arthur  O'Leary  he  supplied  10  full-page  etchings 
(1844),  and  20  spirited  graphic  etchings  for  Maxwell's  lurid 
History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  in  1798  (1845).  Of  his  own 
speculations,  mention  must  be  made  of  George  Cruikshank's 
Omnibus  (1841)  and  George  Cruikshank's  Table  Book  (1845), 
as  well  as  his  Comic  Almanack  (1835-1853).  The  Life  of  Sir 
John  Falslaff  contained  20  full-page  etchings  (1857-1858). 
These  are  a  few  leading  items  amongst  the  thousands  of  illus- 
trations emanating  from  that  fertile  imagination.  As  an  enthusi- 
astic teetotal  advocate,  G.  Cruikshank  produced  a  long  series  of 
pictures  and  illustrations,  pictorial  pamphlets  and  tracts;  the 
best  known  of  these  are  The  Bottle,  8  plates  (1847),  w'trj  its 
sequel,  The  Drunkard's  Children,  8  plates  (1848),  with  the 
ambitious  work,  The  Worship  of  Bacchus,  published  by  sub- 
scription after  the  artist's  oil  painting,  now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  to  which  it  was  presented  by  his  numerous 
admirers. 

See  Cruikshank's  Water-Colours,  with  introduction  by  Joseph 
Grego  (London,  1903).  (J.  Go.*) 

CRUNDEN,  JOHN  (d.  1828),  English  architectural  and 
mobiliary  designer.  Most  of  his  early  inspiration  was  drawn 
from  Chippendale  and  his  school,  but  he  fell  later  under  the 
influence  of  a  bastard  classicism.  He  produced  a  very  large 
number  of  designs  which  were  published  in  numerous  volumes; 
among  the  most  ambitious  were  ornamental  centres  for  ceilings 
in  which  he  introduced  cupids  with  bows  and  arrows,  Fame 
sounding  her  trumpet,  and  such  like  motives.  Sport  and  natural 
history  supplied  him  with  many  other  themes,  and  one  of  his 
ceilings  is  a  hunting  scene  representing  a  "  kill."  His  principal 
works  were  Designs  for  Ceilings;  Convenient  and  Ornamental 
Architecture;  The  Carpenter's  Companion  for  Chinese  Railings, 
Gates,  &c.  (1770);  The  Joiner  and  Cabinet-maker's  Darling,  or 
Sixty  Designs  for  Gothic,  Chinese,  Mosaic  and  Ornamental  Frets^ 
(1765);  and  The  Chimney  Piece  Maker's  Daily  Assistant  (1776). 
Much  of  his  work  was  either  absurd  or  valueless. 

CRUSADES,  the  name  given  to  the  series  of  wars  for  delivering 
the  Holy  Land  from  the  Mahommedans,  so-called  from  the 
cross  worn  as  a  badge  by  the  crusaders.  By  analogy  the  term 
"  crusade  "  is  also  given  to  any  campaign  undertaken  in  the 
same  spirit. 

i.  The  Meaning  of  the  Crusades. — The  Crusades  may  be 
regarded  partly  as  the  decumanus  fluctus  in  the  surge  of  religious 
revival,  which  had  begun  in  western  Europe  during  the  loth, 
and  had  mounted  high  during  the  nth  century;  partly  as  a 
chapter,  and  a  most  important  chapter,  in  the  history  of  the 
interaction  of  East  and  West.  Contemporaries  regarded  them 
in  the  former  of  these  two  aspects,  as  "  holy  wars  "  and  "  pil- 
grims' progresses  "  towards  Christ's  Sepulchre;  the  reflective 
eye  of  history  must  perhaps  regard  them  more  exclusively  from 
the  latter  point  of  view.  Considered  as  holy  wars  the  Crusades 


must  be  interpreted  by  the  ideas  of  an  age  which  was  dominated 
by  the  spirit  of  otherworldliness,  and  accordingly  ruled  by  the 
clerical  power  which  represented  the  other  world.  They  are  a 
novum  salutis  genus — a  new  path  to  Heaven,  to  tread  which 
counted  "  for  full  and  complete  satisfaction  "  pro  omni  poenitentia 
and  gave  "forgiveness  of  sins"  (peccaminum  remissio)1;  they 
are,  again,  the  "foreign  policy  "  of  the  papacy,  directing  its 
faithful  subjects  -to  the  great  war  of  Christianity  against  the 
infidel.  As  such  a  novum  salutis  genus,  the  Crusades  connect 
themselves  with  the  history  of  the  penitentiary  system;  as  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  Church  they  belong  to  that  clerical  purifica- 
tion and  direction  of  feudal  society  and  its  instincts,  which 
appears  in  the  institution  of  "  God's  Truce  "  and  in  chivalry 
itself.  The  penitentiary  system,  according  to  which  the  priest 
enforced  a  code  of  moral  law  in  the  confessional  by  the  sanction 
of  penance — penance  which  must  be  performed  as  a  condition 
of  admission  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist — had  been 
from  early  times  a  great  instrument  in  the  civilization  of  the 
raw  Germanic  races.  Penance  might  consist  in  fasting;  it 
might  consist  in  flagellation;  it  might  consist  in  pilgrimage. 
The  penitentiary  pilgrimage,  which  seems  to  have  been  practised 
as  early  as  A.D.  700,  was  twice  blessed;  not  only  was  it  an  acv 
of  atonement  iii  itself,  like  fasting  and  flagellation;  it  also  gained 
for  the  pilgrim  the  merit  of  having  stood  on  holy  ground.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  Cluniac  revival,  which  began  in  the  icth 
century,  pilgrimages  became  increasingly  frequent;  and  the 
goal  of  pilgrimage  was  often  Jerusalem.  Pilgrims  who  were 
travelling  to  Jerusalem  joined  themselves  in  companies  for 
security,  and  marched  under  arms;  the  pilgrims  of  1064,  who 
were  headed  by  the  archbishop  of  Mainz,  numbered  some 
7000  men.  When  the  First  Crusade  finally  came,  what  was 
it  but  a  penitentiary  pilgrimage  under  arms — with  the  one 
additional  object  of  conquering  the  goal  of  pilgrimage?  That 
the  Pilgrims'  Progress  should  thus  have  turned  into  a  Holy  War 
is  a  fact  readily  explicable,  when  we  turn  to  consider  the  attempts 
made  by  the  Church,  during  the  nth  century,  to  purify,  or  at 
any  rate  to  direct,  the  feudal  instinct  for  private  war  (Fehde). 
Since  the  close  of  the  icth  century  diocesan  councils  in  France 
had  been  busily  acting  as  legislatures,  and  enacting  "  forms  of 
peace  "  for  the  maintenance  of  God's  Peace  or  Truce  (Pax  Dei 
or  Treuga  Dei).  In  each  diocese  there  had  arisen  a  judicature 
(judices  pads)  to  decide  when  the  form  had  been  broken;  and 
an  executive,  or  communitas  pads,  had  been  formed  to  enforce 
the  decisions  of  the  judicature.  But  it  was  an  easier  thing  to 
consecrate  the  fighting  instinct  than  to  curb  it;  and  the  institu- 
tion of  chivalry  represents  such  a  clerical  consecration,  for  ideal 
ends  and  noble  purposes,  of  the  martial  impulses  which  the 
Church  had  hitherto  endeavoured  to  check.  In  the  same  way 
the  Crusades  themselves  may  be  regarded  as  a  stage  in  the 
clerical  reformation  of  the  fighting  laymen.  As  chivalry  directed 
the  layman  to  defend  what  was  right,  so  the  preaching  of  the 
Crusades  directed  him  to  attack  what  was  wrong — the  possession 
by  "  infidels  "  of  the  Sepulchre  of  Christ.*  The  Crusades  are  the 
offensive  side  of  chivalry:  chivalry  is  their  parent — as  it  is  also 
their  child.  The  knight  who  joined  the  Crusades  might  thus 
still  indulge  the  bellicose  side  of  his  genius — under  the  aegis  and 
at  the  bidding  of  the  Church;  and  in  so  doing  he  would  also 
attain  what  the  spiritual  side  of  his  nature  ardently  sought — 
a  perfect  salvation  and  remission  of  sins.  He  might  butcher  all 
day,  till  he  waded  ankle-deep  in  blood,  and  then  at  nightfall 
kneel,  sobbing  for  very  joy,  at  the  altar  of  the  Sepulchre — for 
was  he  not  red  from  the  winepress  of  the  Lord?  One  can 
readily  understand  the  popularity  of  the  Crusades,  when  one 
reflects  that  they  permitted  men  to  get  to  the  other  world  by 
fighting  hard  on  earth,  and  allowed  them  to  gain  the  fruits  of 
asceticism  by  the  ways  of  hedonism.  Nor  was  the  Church  merely 
able,  through  the  Crusades,  to  direct  the  martial  instincts  of 

'Fulcher  of  Chartres,  I,  i.  For  what  follows,  with  regard  to  the 
Church's  conversion  of  guerra  into  the  Holy  War,  cf.  especially  the 
passage — "  Procedant  contra  infideles  ad  pugnam  jam  incipi  dignara 
.  .  .  qui  abusive  privatum  certamen  contra  fideles  consuescebant 
distendere  quondam." 


CRUSADES 


525 


a  feudal  society;  it  was  also  able  to  pursue  the  object  of  its 
own  immediate  policy,  and  to  attempt  the  universal  diffusion  of 
Christianity,  even  at  the  edge  of  the  sword,  over  the  whole  of 
the  known  world. 

Thus  was  renewed,  on  a  greater  scale,  that  ancient  feud  of 
East  and  West,  which  has  never  died.  For  a  thousand  years, 
from  the  Hegira  in  622  to  the  siege  of  Vienna  in  1683,  the  peril 
of  a  Mahommedan  conquest  of  Europe  was  almost  continually 
present.  From  this  point  of  view,  the  Crusades  appear  as  a 
reaction  of  the  West  against  the  pressure  of  the  East — a  reaction 
which  carried  the  West  into  the  East,  and  founded  a  Latin  and 
Christian  kingdom  on  the  shores  of  Asia.  They  protected  Europe 
from  the  new  revival  of  Mahommedanism  under  the  Turks; 
they  gave  it  a  time  of  rest  in  which  the  Western  civilization  of 
the  middle  ages  developed.  But  the  relation  of  East  and  West 
during  the  Crusades  was  not  merely  hostile  or  negative.  The 
Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  the  meeting-place  of  two 
civilizations:  on  its  soil  the  East  learned  from  the  West,  and — 
perhaps  still  more — the  West  learned  from  the  East.  The 
culture  developed  in  the  West  during  the  i3th  century  was  not 
only  permitted  to  develop  by  the  protection  of  the  Crusades, 
it  grew  upon  materials  which  the  Crusades  enabled  it  to  import 
from  the  East.  Yet  the  debt  of  Europe  to  the  Crusades  in  this 
last  respect  has  perhaps  been  unduly  emphasized.  Sicily  was 
still  more  the  meeting-place  of  East  and  West  than  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem;  and  the  Arabs  of  Spain  gave  more  to  the  culture 
of  Europe  than  the  Arabs  of  Syria. 

2.  Historical  Causes  of  the  Crusades. — Within  fifteen  years 
of  the  Hegira  Jerusalem  fell  before  the  arms  of  Omar  (637), 
and  it  continued^  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  Mahommedan 
rulers  till  the  end  of  the  First  Crusade.  For  centuries,  however,  a 
lively  intercourse  was  maintained  between  the  Latin  Church  in 
Jerusalem,  which  the  clemency  of  the  Arab  conquerors  tolerated, 
and  the  Christians  of  the  West.  Charlemagne  in  particular  was 
closely  connected  with  Jerusalem:  the  patriarch  sent  him  the 
keys  of  the  city  and  a  standard  in  800;  and  in  807  Harun 
al-Rashid  recognized  this  symbolical  cession,  and  acknowledged 
Charlemagne  as  protector  of  Jerusalem  and  owner  of  the  church 
of  the  Sepulchre.  Charlemagne  founded  a  hospital  and  a  library 
in  the  Holy  City;  and  later  legend,  when  it  made  him  the  first 
of  crusaders  and  the  conqueror  of  the  Holy  Land,  was  not 
without  some  basis  of  fact.  The  connexion  lasted  during  the 
9th  century;  kings  like  Alfred  of  England  and  Louis  of  Germany 
sent  contributions  to  Jerusalem,  while  the  Church  of  Jerusalem 
acquired  estates  in  the  West.  During  the  loth  century  this 
intercourse  still  continued;  but  in  the  nth  century  interruptions 
began  to  come.  The  fanaticism  of  the  caliph  Hakim  destroyed 
the  church  of  the  Sepulchre  and  ended  the  Prankish  protectorate 
(1010);  and  the  patronage  of  the  Holy  Places,  a  source  of  strife 
between  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  Churches  as  late  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Crimean  War,  passed  to  the  Byzantine  empire  in 
1021.  This  latter  change  in  itself  made  pilgrimages  from  the 
West  increasingly  difficult:  the  Byzantines,  especially  after 
the  schism  of  1054,  did  not  seek  to  smooth  the  way  of  the 
pilgrim,  and  Victor  II.  had  to  complain  to  the  empress  Theodora 
of  the  exactions  practised  by  her  officials.  But  still  worse  for 
the  Latins  was  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Seljukian  Turks 
in  1071.  Without  being  intolerant,  the  Turks  were  a  rougher 
and  ruder  race  than  the  Arabs  of  Egypt  whom  they  displaced; 
while  the  wars  between  the  Fatimites  of  Egypt  and  the  Abbasids 
of  Bagdad,  whose  cause  was  represented  by  the  Seljuks,  made 
Syria  (one  of  the  natural  battle-grounds  of  history)  into  a 
troubled  and  unquiet  region.  The  native  Christians  suffered; 
the  pilgrims  of  the  West  found  their  way  made  still  more  difficult, 
and  that  at  a  time  when  greater  numbers  than  ever  were  throng- 
ing to  the  East.  Western  Christians  could  not  but  feel  hampered 
and  checked  in  their  natural  movement  towards  the  fountain- 
head  of  their  religion,  and  it  was  natural  that  they  should 
ultimately  endeavour  to  clear  the  way.  In  much  the  same  way, 
at  a  later  date  and  in  a  lesser  sphere,  the  closing  of  the  trade- 
routes  by  the  advance  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  led  traders  to 
endeavour  to  find  new  channels,  and  issued  in  the  rounding  of 


the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  discovery  of  America.  Nor, 
indeed,  must  it  be  forgotten  that  the  search  for  new  and  more 
direct  connexions  with  the  routes  of  Oriental  trade  is  one  of  the 
motives  underlying  the  Crusades  themselves,  and  leading  to 
what  may  be  called  the  13th-century  discovery  of  Asia. 

It  was  thus  natural,  for  these  reasons,  that  the  conquest  of 
the  Holy  Land  should  gradually  become  an  object  for  the 
ambition  of  Western  Christianity — an  object  which  the  papacy, 
eager  to  realize  its  dream  of  a  universal  Church  subject  to  its 
sway,  would  naturally  cherish  and  attempt  to  advance.  Two 
causes  combined  to  make  this  object  still  more  natural  and 
more  definite.  On  the  one  hand,  the  reconquest  of  lost  territories 
from  the  Mahommedans  by  Christian  powers  had  been  proceeding 
steadily  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  before  the  First  Crusade; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  position  of  the  Eastern  empire  after  1071 
was  a  clear  and  definite  summons  to  the  Christian  West,  and 
proved,  in  the  event,  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  holy  war. 
As  early  as  970  the  recovery  of  the  territories  lost  to  Mahom- 
medanism in  the  East  had  been  begun  by  emperors  like  Nice- 
phoras  Phocas  and  John  Zimisces:  they  had  pushed  their 
conquests,  if  only  for  a  time,  as  far  as  Antioch  and  Edessa,  and 
the  temporary  occupation  of  Jerusalem  is  attributed  to  the  East 
Roman  arms.  At  the  opposite'  end  of  the  Mediterranean,  in 
Spain,  the  Omayyad  caliphate  was  verging  to  its  fall:  the  long 
Spanish  crusade  against  the  Moor  had  begun;  and  in  1018 
Roger  de  Toeni  was  already  leading  Normans  into  Catalonia  to 
the  aid  of  the  native  Spaniard.  In  the  centre  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean the  fight  between  Christian  and  Mahommedan  had  been 
long,  but  was  finally  inclining  in  favour  of  the  Christian.  The 
Arabs  had  begun  the  conquest  of  Sicily  from  the  East  Roman 
empire  in  827,  and  they  had  attacked  the  mainland  of  Italy  as 
early  as  840.  The  popes  had  put  themselves  at  the  head  of 
Italian  resistance:  in  848  Leo  IV.  is  already  promising  a  sure 
and  certain  hope  of  salvation  to  those  who  die  in  defence  of  the 
cross;  and  by  916,  with  the  capture  of  the  Arab  fortress  on  the 
Garigliano,  Italy  was  safe.  Then  came  the  reconquest  of  the 
Mediterranean  islands  near  Italy.  The  Pisans  conquered 
Sardinia  at  the  instigation  of  Benedict  VIII.  about  1016; 
and,  in  a  thirty  years'  war  which  lasted  from  1060  to  1090,  the 
Normans,  under  a  banner  blessed  by  Pope  Alexander  II., 
wrested  Sicily  from  the  Arabs.  The  Norman  conquest  of  Sicily 
may  with  justice  be  called  a  crusade  before  the  Crusades; 
and  it  cannot  but  have  given  some  impulse  to  that  later 
attempt  to  wrest  Syria  from  the  Mahommedans,  in  which  the 
virtual  leader  was  Bohemund,  a  scion  of  the  same  house  which 
had  conquered  Sicily.  But  while  the  Christians  of  the  West 
were  thus  winning  fresh  ground  from  the  Mahommedans,  in 
the  course  of  the  nth  century,  the  East  Roman  empire  had  now 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  a  Mahommedan  revival  under  the  Seljuks — 
a  revival  which,  while  it  crushed  for  a  time  the  Greeks,  only 
acted  as  a  new  incentive  to  the  Latins  to  carry  their  arms  to 
the  East.  The  Seljukian  Turks,  first  the  mercenaries  and  then 
the  masters  of  the  caliph,  had  given  new  life  to  the  decadent 
caliphate  of  Bagdad.  Under  the  rule  of  their  sultans,  who 
assumed  the  role  of  mayors  of  the  palace  in  Bagdad  about  the 
middle  of  the  nth  contury,  they  pushed  westwards  towards 
the  caliphate  of  Egypt  and  the  East  Roman  empire.  While 
they  wrested  Jerusalem  from  the  former  (1071),  in  the  same  year 
they  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Eastern  emperor  at 
Manzikert.  The  result  of  the  defeat  was  the  loss  of  almost  the 
whole  of  Asia  Minor;  the  dominions  of  the  Turks  extended  to 
the  sea  of  Marmora.  An  appeal  for  assistance,  such  as  was  often 
to  be  heard  again  in  succeeding  centuries,  was  sent  by  Michael 
VII.  of  Constantinople  to  Gregory  VII.  in  1073.  Gregory 
listened  to  the  appeal ;  he  projected—  not,  indeed,  as  has  often 
been  said,  a  crusade,1  but  a  great  expedition,  which  should  recover 

1  Tradition  credits  a  pope  still  earlier  than  Gregory  VII.  with 
the  idea  of  a  crusade.  Silvester  1 1 .  is  said  to  have  preached  a  general 
expedition  for  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem ;  and  the  same  preaching  is 
attributed  to  Sergius  IV.  in  ion.  But  the  supposed  letter  of 
Silvester  is  a  later  forgery;  and  in  1000  the  way  of  the  Christian  to 
Jerusalem  was  still  free  and  open. 


526 


CRUSADES 


Asia  Minor  for  the  Eastern  empire,  in  return  for  a  union  of  the 
Eastern  with  the  Western  Church.  In  1074  Gregory  actually 
assembled  a  considerable  army;  but  his  disagreement  with 
Robert  Guiscard,  followed  by  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  in- 
vestitures, hindered  the  realization  of  his  plans,  and  the  only 
result  was  a  precedent  and  a  suggestion  for  the  events  of  1095. 
The  appeal  of  Michael  VII.  was  re-echoed  by  Alexius  Comnenus 
himself.  Brave  and  sage  as  he  was,  he  could  hardly  cope  at  one 
and  the  same  time  with  the  hostility  of  the  Normans  on  the  west, 
of  the  Petchenegs  (Patzinaks)  on  the  north,  and  of  the  Seljuks 
on  the  east  and  south.  Already  in  1087  and  1088  he  had  appealed 
to  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  verbally  and  by  letter,1  for  troops; 
and  Baldwin  had  answered  the  appeal.  The  same  appeal  was 
made,  more  than  once,  to  Urban  II.;  and  the  answer  was  the 
First  Crusade.  The  First  Crusade  was  not,  indeed,  what  Alexius 
had  asked  or  expected  to  receive.  He  had  appealed  for  rein- 
forcements to  recover  Asia  Minor;  he  received  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  troops,  independent  of  him,  and  intending  to 
conquer  Jerusalem  for  themselves,  though  they  might  incident- 
ally recover  Asia  Minor  for  the  Eastern  empire  on  their  way. 
Alexius  may  almost  be  compared  to  a  magician,  who  has  uttered 
a  charm  to  summon  a  ministering  spirit,  and  is  surrounded  on  the 
instant  by  legions  of  demons.  In  truth  the  appeal  of  Alexius 
had  set  free  forces  in  the  West  which  were  independent  of,  and 
even  ultimately  hostile  to,  the  interests  of  the  Eastern  empire. 

The  primary  force,  which  thus  transmuted  an  appeal  for 
reinforcements  into  a  holy  war  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine, 
was  the  Church.  The  creative  thought  of  the  middle  ages  is 
clerical  thought.  It  is  the  Church  which  creates  the  Carolingian 
empire,  because  the  clergy  thinks  in  terms  of  empire.  It  is 
the  Church  which  creates  the  First  Crusade,  because  the  clergy 
believes  in  penitentiary  pilgrimages,  and  the  war  against  the 
Seljuks  can  be  turned  into  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Sepulchre; 
because,  again,  it  wishes  to  direct  the  fighting  instinct  of  the 
laity,  and  the  consecrating  name  of  Jerusalem  provides  an 
unimpeachable  channel;  above  all,  because  the  papacy  desires 
a  perfect  and  universal  Church,  and  a  perfect  and  universal 
Church  must  rule  in  the  Holy  Land.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake 
to  regard  the  Crusades  (as  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  regard  the 
Carolingian  empire)  as  a.  pure  creation  of  the  Church,  or  as  merely 
due  to  the  policy  of  a  theocracy  directing  men  to  the  holy  war 
which  is  the  only  war  possible  for  a  theocracy.  It  would  be 
almost  truer,  though  only  half  the  truth,  to  say  that  the  clergy 
gave  the  name  of  Crusade  to  sanctify  interests  and  ambitions 
which,  while  set  on  other  ends  than  those  of  the  Church,  happened 
to  coincide  in  their  choice  of  means.  There  was,  for  instance,  the 
ambition  of  the  adventurer  prince,  the  younger  son,  eager  to 
carve  a  principality  in  the  far  East,  of  whom  Bohemund  is  the 
type;  there  was  the  interest  of  Italian  towns,  anxious  to  acquire 
the  products  of  the  East  more  directly  and  cheaply,  by  erecting 
their  own  emporia  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  The  former 
was  the  driving  force  which  made  the  First  Crusade  successful, 
where  later  Crusades,  without  its  stimulus,  for  the  most  part 
failed;  the  latter  was  the  one  staunch  ally  which  alone  enabled 
Baldwin  I.  and  Baldwin  II.  to  create  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
So  far  as  the  Crusades  led  to  permanent  material  results  in  the 
East,  they  did  so  in  virtue  of  these  two  forces.  Unregulated 
enthusiasm  might  of  itself  have  achieved  little  or  nothing; 
enthusiasm  caught  and  guided  by  the  astute  Norman,  and  the 
no  less  astute  Venetian  or  Genoese,  could  not  but  achieve 
tangible  results.  The  principality  or  the  emporium,  it  is  true, 
would  supply  motives  to  the  prince  and  the  merchant  only; 
and  it  may  be  urged  that  to  the  mass  of  the  crusaders  the  religious 
motive  was  all  in  all.  In  this  way  we  may  return  to  the  view 
that  the  First  Crusade,  at  any  rate,  was  un  fait  ecclesiastique. 

1  The  comte  de  Riant  impugned  the  authenticity  of  Alexius'  letter 
to  the  count  of  Flanders.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  versions  of 
this  letter  which  we  possess,  and  which  are  to  be  found  only  in  later 
writings  like  Guibert  de  Nogent,  are  apocryphal;  Alexius  can  hardly 
have  held  out  the  bait  of  the  beauty  of  Greek  women,  or  have  written 
that  he  preferred  to  fall  under  the  yoke  of  the  Latins  rather  than 
that  of  the  Turks.  But  it  is  also  probable  that  these  apocryphal 
versions  are  based  on  a  genuine  original. 


It  is  indeed  true  that  to  thousands  the  hope  of  acquiring  spiritual 
merit  must  have  been  a  great  motive;  it  is  also  true,  as  the 
records  of  crusading  sermons  show,  that  there  was  a  strong 
element  of  "  revivalism  "  in  the  Crusades,  and  that  thousands  were 
hurried  into  taking  the  cross  by  a  gust  of  that  uncontrollable 
enthusiasm  which  is  excited  by  revivalist  meetings  to-day. 
But  it  must  also  be  admitted  that  there  were  motives  of  this 
world  to  attract  the  masses  to  the  Crusades.  Famine  and  pesti- 
lence at  home  drove  men  to  emigrate  hopefully  to  the  golden 
East.  In  1094  there  was  pestilence  from  Flanders  to  Bohemia: 
in  1095  there  was  famine  in  Lorraine.  Francigenis  occidentalibus 
facile  persuaderi  poterat  sua  rura  relinquere;  nam  Gallias  per 
annos  aliquot  nunc  seditio  civilis,  nunc  fames,  nunc  mortalitas 
nimis  afflixerat*  No  wonder  that  a  stream  of  emigration  set 
towards  the  East,  such  as  would  in  modern  times  flow  towards 
a  newly  discovered  gold-field — a  stream  carrying  in  its  turbid 
waters  much  refuse,  tramps  and  bankrupts,  camp-followers 
and  hucksters,  fugitive  monks  and  escaped  villeins,  and  marked 
by  the  same  motley  grouping,  the  same  fever  of  life,  the  same 
alternations  of  affluence  and  beggary,  which  mark  the  rush  for 
a  gold-field  to-day. 

Such  were  the  forces  set  in  movement  by  Urban  II.,  when, 
after  holding  a  synod  at  Piacenza  (March,  1095),  and  receiving 
there  fresh  appeals  from  Alexius,  he  moved  to  Clermont,  in  the 
S.E.  of  France,  and  there  on  the  z6th  of  November  delivered 
the  great  speech  which  was  followed  by  the  First  Crusade.  In 
this  speech  he  appealed,  indeed,  for  help  for  the  Greeks,  auxilio 
.  .  .  saepe  acclamato  indigis  (Fulcher  i.  c.  i.);  but  the  gist 
of  his  speech  was  the  need  of  Jerusalem.  Let  the  truce  of  God 
be  observed  at  home;  and  let  the  arms  of  Christians  be  directed 
to  the  winning  of  Jerusalem  in  an  expedition  which  should 
count  for  full  and  complete  penance.  Like  Gregory,  Urban  had 
thus  sought  for  aid  for  the  Eastern  empire;  unlike  Gregory, 
who  had  only  mentioned  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  a  single  letter, 
and  then  casually,  he  had  struck  the  note  of  Jerusalem.  The 
instant  cries  of  Dens  vult  which  answered  the  note  showed  that 
Urban  had  struck  aright.  Thousands  at  once  took  the  cross; 
the  first  was  Bishop  Adhemar  of  Puy,  whom  Urban  named  his 
legate  and  made  leader  of  the  First  Crusade  (for  the  holy  war, 
according  to  Urban's  original  conception,  must  needs  be  led 
by  a  clerk).  Fixing  the  i5th  of  August  1096  as  the  time  for 
the  departure  of  the  crusaders,  and  Constantinople  as  the  general 
rendezvous,  Urban  returned  from  France  to  Italy.  It  is  notice- 
able that  it  was  on  French  soil  that  the  seed  had  been  sown.3 
Preached  on  French  soil  by  a  pope  of  French  descent,  the 
Crusades  began — and  they  continued — as  essentially  a  French 
(or  perhaps  better  Norman-French)  enterprise;  and  the  kingdom 
which  they  established  in  the  East  was  essentially  a  French 
kingdom,  in  its  speech  and  its  customs,  its  virtues  and  its  vices. 
It  was  natural  that  France  should  be  the  home  of  the  Crusades. 
She  was  already  the  home  of  the  Cluniac  movement,  the  centre 
from  which  radiated  the  truce  of  God,  the  chosen  place  of 
chivalry;  she  could  supply  a  host  of  feudal  nobles,  somewhat 
loosely  tied  to  their  place  in  society,  and  ready  to  break  loose 
for  a  great  enterprise;  she  had  suffered  from  battle  and  murder, 
pestilence  and  famine,  from  which  any  escape  was  welcome. 
To  the  Normans  particularly  the  Crusades  had  an  intimate 
appeal.  They  appealed  to  the  old  Norse  instinct  for  wandering — 
an  instinct  which,  as  it  had  long  before  sent  the  Norseman 
eastward  to  find  his  El  Dorado  of  Micklegarth,  could  now  find 
a  natural  outlet  in  the  expedition  to  Jerusalem:  they  appealed 
to  the  Norman  religiosity,  which  had  made  them  a  people  of 
pilgrims,  the  allies  of  the  papacy,  and,  in  England  and  Sicily, 
crusaders  before  the  Crusades:  finally,  they  appealed  to  that 
desire  to  gain  fresh  territory,  upon  which  Malaterra  remarks 
as  characteristic  of  Norman  princes.4  No  wonder,  then,  that 

1  Ekkehard,  Chronica,  p.  213. 

3  The  Chanson  de  Roland,  which  cannot  be  posterior  to  the  First 
Crusade — for  the  poem  never  alludes  to  it — already  contains  the 
idea  of  the  Holy  War  against  Islam.  The  idea  of  the  crusade  had 
thus  already  ripened  in  French  poetry,  before  Urban  preached  his 
sermon. 

*  Book  i.  c.  iii.  (in  Muratori,  S.R.I.,  v.  550). 


CRUSADES 


527 


the  crusading  armies  were  recruited  in  France,  or  that  they 
were  led  by  men  of  the  stock  of  the  d'Hautevilles.  Meanwhile 
newly-conquered  England  had  its  own  problems  to  solve;  and 
Germany,  torn  by  civil  war,  and  not  naturally  quick  to  kindle, 
could  only  deride  the  "  delirium  "  of  the  crusader.1 

3.  Course  of  the  First  Crusade. — The  First  Crusade  falls  natur- 
ally into  two  parts.  One  of  these  may  be  called  the  Crusade  of 
the  people:  the  other  may  be  termed  the  Crusade  of  the  princes. 
Of  these  the  people's  Crusade — prior  in  order  of  time,  if  only 
secondary  in  point  of  importance — may  naturally  be  studied 
first.  The  sermon  of  Urban  II.  at  Clermont  became  the  staple 
for  wandering  preachers,  among  whom  Peter  the  Hermit  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  fiery  zeal.2  Riding  on  an  ass  from 
place  to  place  through  France  and  along  the  Rhine,  he  carried 
away  by  his  eloquence  thousands  of  the  poor.  Some  three  or 
four  months  before  the  term  fixed  by  Urban  II.,  in  April  and 
May  1096,  five  divisions  of  pauperes  had  already  collected. 
Three  of  these,  led  by  Fulcher  of  Orleans,  Gottschalk  and 
William  the  Carpenter  respectively,  failed  to  reach  even  Con- 
stantinople. The  armies  of  Fulcher  and  Gottschalk  were 
destroyed  by  the  Hungarians  in  just  revenge  for  their  excesses 
(June) ;  the  third,  after  joining  in  a  wild  Judenketze  in  the  towns 
of  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  during  which  some  10,000  Jews 
perished  as  the  first-fruits  of  crusading  zeal,  was  scattered  to 
the  winds  in  Hungary  (August).  Two  other  divisions,  however, 
reached  Constantinople  in  safety.  The  first  of  these,  under 
Walter  the  Penniless,  passed  through  Hungary  in  May,  and 
reached  Constantinople,  where  it  halted  to  wait  for  the  Hermit, 
in  the  middle  of  July.  The  second,  led  by  Peter  himself,  passed 
safely  through  Hungary,  but  suffered  severely  in  Bulgaria,  and 
only  attained  Constantinople  with  sadly  diminished  numbers 
at  the  end  of  July.  These  two  divisions  (which  in  spite  of  good 
treatment  by  Alexius  began  to  commit  excesses  against  the 
Greeks)  united  and  crossed  the  Bosporus  in  August,  Peter 
himself  remaining  in  Constantinople.  By  the  end  of  October 
they  had  perished  utterly  at  the  hands  of  the  Seljuks;  a  heap 
of  whitening  bones  also  remained  to  testify  to  the  later  crusaders, 
when  they  passed  in  the  spring  of  1097,  of  the  fate  of  the  people's 
Crusade. 

Meanwhile  the  knights  had  already  begun  to  assemble  in 
March  1096.  In  small  bands,  and  by  divers  ways,  they  streamed 
gradually  southward  and  eastward,  in  a  steady  flow,  through- 
out 1096.  But  three  large  divisions,  under  three  considerable 
leaders,  were  pre-eminent  among  the  rest.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
with  his  brother  Baldwin,  led  the  crusaders  of  Lorraine  along 
"  the  road  of  Charles  the  Great,"  through  Hungary,  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  arrived  on  the  23rd  of  December. 
Raymund  of  Toulouse  (the  first  prince  to  join  the  crusading 
movement)  along  with  Bishop  Adhemar,  the  papal  commissary, 
led  the  Provencals  down  the  coast  of  Illyria,  and  then  due  east 
to  Constantinople,  arriving  towards  the  end  of  April  1097. 
Bohemund  of  Otranto,  the  destined  leader  of  the  Crusade,  with 
his  nephew  Tancred,  led  a  fine  force  of  Normans  by  sea  to 
Durazzo,  and  thence  by  land  to  Constantinople,  which  he  reached 
about  the  same  time  as  Raymund.  To  the  same  great  rendezvous 
other  leaders  also  gathered,  some  of  higher  rank  than  Godfrey 
or  Raymund  or  Bohemund,  but  none  destined  to  exercise  an 
equal  influence  on  the  fate  of  the  Crusade.  Hugh  of  Vermandois, 
younger  brother  of  Philip  I.  of  France,  had  reached  Constanti- 
nople in  November  1096,  in  a  species  of  honourable  captivity, 
and  had  done  Alexius  homage;  Robert  of  Normandy  and 
Stephen  of  Blois,  to  whom  Urban  II.  had  given  St  Peter's  banner 
at  Lucca,  only  arrived — the  last  of  the  crusaders — in  May  1097 
(their  original  companion  in  arms,  Count  Robert  of  Flanders, 
having  left  them  to  winter  at  Bari,  and  crossed  to  Constantinople 
before  the  end  of  1096). 

Thus   was  gathered   at     Constantinople,    in   the   spring   of 

1  Ekkehard,  Chronica,  214. 

8  Later  legend  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  First  Crusade  to  the 
preaching  of  Peter  the  Hermit.  The  legend  has  been  followed  by 
modern  historians;  but  in  point  of  fact  Peter  is  a  figure  of  secondary 
importance.  (See  PETER  THE  HERMIT.) 


1097,  a  great  host,  which  Fulcher  computes  at  600,000  men 
(I.  c.  iv.),  Urban  II.  at  300,000,  and  which  was  probably  some 
150,000  strong.3  Before  we  follow  this  host  into  Asia,  we  may 
pause  to  inquire  into  the  various  factors  which  would  deter- 
mine its  course,  or  condition  its  activity.  On  the  Western  side, 
and  among  the  crusaders  themselves,  there  were  two  factors 
of  importance,  already  mentioned  above — the  aims  of  the 
adventurer  prince,  and  the  interests  of  the  Italian  merchant; 
while  on  the  Eastern  side  there  are  again  two — the  policy  of 
the  Greeks,  and  the  condition  of  the  Mahommedan  East.  We 
have  already  seen  that  among  the  princes  who  joined  the  First 
Crusade  there  were  some  who  were  rather  poliliques  than  divots, 
and  who  aimed  at  the  acquisition  of  temporal  profit  as  well  as 
of  spiritual  merit.  Of  these  the  type — and,  it  may  almost  be 
said,  the  inspirer  of  the  rest — was  Bohemund.  From  the  first 
he  had  an  Eastern  principality  in  his  mind's  eye;  and  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  follower  of  Bohemund  who  wrote  the  Cesta 
Francorum,  there  had  already  been  some  talk  at  Constantinople 
of  Antioch  as  the  seat  of  this  principality.  Bohemund's  policy 
seems  to  have  inspired  Baldwin,  the  brother  of  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon  to  emulation;  on  the  one  hand  he  strove  to  thwart 
the  endeavours  of  Tancred,  the  nephew  of  Bohemund,  to  begin 
the  foundation  of  the  Eastern  principality  for  his  uncle  by 
conquering  Cilicia,  and,  on  the  other,  he  founded  a  principality 
for  himself  in  Edessa.  Raymond  of  Provence,  the  third  and 
last  of  the  great  politiques  of  the  First  Crusade,  was,  like  Baldwin, 
envious  of  Bohemund;  and  jealousy  drove  him  first  to  attempt 
to  wrest  Antioch  from  Bohemund,  and  then  to  found  a  prin- 
cipality of  Tripoli  to  the  south  of  Antioch,  which  would  check 
the  growth  of  his  power.  The  political  motives  of  these  three 
princes,  and  the  interaction  of  their  different  policies,  was  thus 
a  great  factor  in  determining  the  course  and  the  results  of  the 
First  Crusade.  The  influence  of  the  Italian  towns  did  not  make 
itself  greatly  felt  till  after  the  end  of  the  First  Crusade,  when  it 
made  possible  the  foundation  of  a  kingdom  in  Jerusalem,  in 
addition  to  the  three  principalities  established  by  Bohemund, 
Baldwin  and  Raymond;  but  during  the  course  of  the  Crusade 
itself  the  Italian  ships  which  hugged  the  shores  of  Syria  were  able 
to  supply  the  crusaders  with  provisions  and  munition  of  war, 
and  to  render  help  in  the  sieges  of  Antioch  and  Jerusalem.4 
Sea-power  had  thus  some  influence  in  determining  the  victory 
of  the  crusaders. 

In  the  East  the  conditions  were,  on  the  whole,  favourable 
to  the  crusaders.  The  one  difficulty — and  it  was  serious— was 
the  attitude  adopted  by  Alexius.  Confronted  by  crusaders 
where  he  had  asked  for  auxiliaries,  Alexius  had  two  alternative 
policies  presented  to  his  choice.  He  might,  in  the  first  place, 
have  frankly  admitted  that  the  crusaders  were  independent 
allies,  and  treating  them  as  equals,  he  might  have  waged  war 
in  concert  with  them,  and  divided  the  conquests  achieved  in  the 
war.  A  boundary  line  might  have  been  drawn  somewhere  to 
the  N.W.  of  Antioch;  and  the  crusaders  might  have  been  left 
to  acquire  what  they  could  to  the  south  and  east  of  that  line. 
Unhappily,  clinging  to  the  conviction  that  all  the  lands  which 
the  crusaders  would  traverse  were  the  "  lost  provinces  "  of  his 
empire,  he  induced  the  crusaders  to  do  him  homage,  so  that, 
whatever  they  conquered,  they  would  conquer  in  his  name, 
and  whatever  they  held,  they  would  hold  by  his  grant  and  as  his 
vassals.  Thus  Hugh  of  Vermandois  became  the  man  of  Alexius 
in  November  1096;  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  induced,  not  with- 
out difficulty,  to  do  homage  in  January  i°97 ;  and  in  April  and 
May  the  other  leaders,  including  Bohemund  and  the  obstinate 
Raymond  himself,  followed  his  example.  The  policy  of  Alexius 
was  destined  to  produce  evil  results,  both  for  the  Eastern  empire 
and  for  the  crusading  movement.  The  West  had  already  its 
grievances  against  the  East:  the  Greek  emperors  had  taken 
advantage  of  their  protectorate  of  the  Holy  Places  to  lay  charges 

1  Godfrey's  army  numbered  some  30,000  infantry  and  10,000 
cavalry  (Rohricht,  Erst.  Kreuzz.  61):  Urban  II.  reckons  Bohemund's 
knights  as  7000  in  number  (ibid.  71,  n.  7). 

4  The  Genoese  had  been  invited  by  Urban  II.  in  September  1096 
"  to  go  with  their  gallies  to  Eastern  parts  in  order  to  set  free  the  path 
to  the  Lord's  Sepulchre." 


CRUSADES 


on  the  pilgrims,  against  which  the  Papacy  had  already  been 
forced  to  remonstrate;  nor  were  the  Italian  towns,  with  the 
exception  of  favoured  Venice,  disposed  to  be  friendly  to  the 
great  monopolist  city  of  Constantinople.  The  old  dissension 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  had  blazed  out  afresh  in 
1054;  and  the  policy  of  Alexius  only  added  new  rancours  to 
an  old  grudge,  which  culminated  in  the  Latin  conquest  of 
Constantinople  in  1204.  On  the  other  hand,  the  success  of  the 
crusading  movement  was  imperilled,  both  now  and  afterwards, 
by  the  jealousy  of  the  Comneni.  Always  hostile  to  the  princi- 
pality, which  Bohemund  established  in  spite  of  his  oath,  they 
helped  by  their  hostility  to  cause  the  loss  of  Edessa  in  1144,  and 
thus  to  hasten  the  disintegration  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.  Yet  one  must  remember,  in  justice  to  Alexius, 
the  gravity  of  the  problem  by  which  he  was  confronted;  nor 
was  the  conduct  of  the  crusaders  themselves  such  that  he  could 
readily  make  them  his  brethren  in  arms. 

The  condition  of  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  in  1097  was  almost 
altogether  such  as  to  favour  the  success  of  the  crusaders.  The 
Seljukian  sultans  had  only  achieved  a  military  occupation  of 
the  country  which  they  had  conquered.  There  were  Seljukian 
garrisons  in  towns  like  Nicaea  and  Antioch,  ready  to  offer  an 
obstinate  resistance  to  the  crusaders;  and  here  and  therj  in  the 
country  ther;  were  Seljukian  armies,  either  cantoned  or  nomadic. 
But  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  were  often  hostile  to  the 
garrisons,  and  over  wide  tracts  of  country  there  were  no  forces 
at  all.  Accordingly,  when  the  crusaders  had  captured  the  town 
at  Nicaea,  and  defeated  the  Seljukian  field-army  at  Dorylaeum 
their  way  lay  clear  before  them  through  Asia  Minor.  Not  only 
so,  but  they  could  count,  at  the  very  least,  on  a  benevolent 
neutrality  from  the  native  population;  while  from  the  Armenian 
principalities  in  the  S.E.  of  Asia  Minor,  which  survived  unsubdued 
in  the  general  deluge  of  Seljukian  conquest,  they  could  expect 
active  assistance  (the  hope  of  which  will  explain  the  north-easterly 
line  of  march  which  they  followed  after  leaving  Heraclea). 
But  the  purely  military  character  of  the  Seljukian  occupation 
helped  the  crusaders  in  yet  another  way.  Strong  generals  were 
needed  in  the  separate  divisions  of  the  empire,  and  these,  as 
has  always  been  the  case  in  Eastern  empires,  made  themselves 
independent  in  their  spheres  of  command,  because  there  was 
no  organization  to  keep  them  together  under  a  single  control. 
On  the  death  of  Malik  Shah,  the  last  of  the  great  Seljukian 
emperors  (1092),  the  empire  dissolved.  A  new  sultan,  Barki- 
yaroq  or  Barkiarok,  ruled  in  Bagdad  (1094-1104);  but  in  Asia 
Minor  Kilij  Arslan  held  sway  as  the  independent  sultan  of  Konia 
(Iconium),  while  the  whole  of  Syria  was  also  practically  inde- 
pendent. Not  only  was  Syria  thus  weakened  by  being  detached 
from  the  body  of  the  Seljukian  empire;  it  was  divided  by 
dissensions  within,  and  assailed  by  the  Fatimite  caliph  of  Egypt 
from  without.  In  1095  two  brothers,  Ridwan  and  Dekak,  ruled 
in  Aleppo  and  Damascus  respectively;  but  they  were  at  war 
with  one  another,  and  Yagi-sian,  the  ruler  of  Antioch,  was  a 
party  to  their  dissensions.  Ridwan  and  Yagi-sian  were  only 
stopped  in  an  attack  on  Damascus  by  news  of  the  approach 
of  the  crusaders,  which  led  the  latter  to  throw  himself  hastily 
into  Antioch,  in  the  autumn  of  1097.  Meanwhile  the  Fatimites 
were  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  these  dissensions.  A  great 
religious  difference  divided  the  Fatimite  caliph  of  Cairo,  the 
head  of  the  Shiite  sect,  from  the  Abbasid  caliph  of  Bagdad, 
who  was  the  head  of  the  Sunnites.  The  difference  may  be 
zompared  to  the  dissension  between  the  Greek  and  the  Latin 
Churches;  but  it  had  perhaps  more  of  the  nature  of  a  political 
difference.  In  any  case,  it  hampered  the  Mahommedans  as 
much  as  the  jealousy  between  Alexius  and  the  Latins  hampered 
the  progress  of  the  Crusade.  The  crusading  princes  were  well 
enough  aware  of  the  gulf  which  divided  the  caliph  of  Cairo  from 
the  Sunnite  princes  of  Syria;  and  they  sought  by  envoys  to 
put  themselves  into  connexion  with  him,  hoping  by  his  aid  to 
gain  Jerusalem  (which  was  then  ruled  for  the  Turks  by  Sokman, 
the  son  of  the  amir  Ortok).1  But  the  caliph  preferred  to  act  for 

1  Thus  already  on  the  First  Crusade  the  path  of  negotiation 
is  attempted  simultaneously  with  the  Holy  War.     On  the  Third 


himself,  and  took  advantage  of  the  wars  of  the  Syrian  princes, 
and  of  the  terror  inspired  by  the  advance  of  the  crusaders  to 
conquer  Jerusalem  (August  1098).  But  though  the  leaders  of 
the  First  Crusade  did  not  succeed  in  utilizing  the  dissensions 
of  the  Mahommedans  as  fully  as  they  desired,  it  still  remains 
true  that  these  dissensions  very  largely  explain  their  success. 
It  was  the  disunion  of  the  Syrian  amirs,  and  the  division  between 
the  Abbasids  and  the  Fatimites,  that  made  possible  the  conquest 
of  the  Holy  City  and  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
When  a  power  arose  in  Mosul,  about  1130,  which  was  able  to 
unify  Syria — when,  again,  in  the  hands  of  Saladin,  unified  Syria 
was  in  turn  united  to  Egypt- — the  cause  of  Latin  Christianity 
in  the  East  was  doomed. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  follow  the  history  of  the  First 
Crusade.  By  the  beginning  of  May  1097  the  crusaders  were 
crossing  the  Bosporus,  and  entering  the  dominions  of  Kilij 
Arslan.  Their  first  operation  was  the  siege  of  Nicaea,  defended 
by  a  Seljuk  garrison,  but  eventually  captured,  with  the  aid  of 
Alexius,  after  a  month's  siege  (June  18).  Alexius  took  possession 
of  the  town;  and  though  he  rewarded  the  crusading  princes 
richly,  some  discontent  was  excited  by  his  action.  After  the 
capture  of  Nicaea,  the  field-army  of  Kilij  Arslan  had  to  be  met. 
In  a  long  and  obstinate  encounter,  it  was  defeated  at  Dorylaeum 
(July  i);  and  the  crusaders  marched  unmolested  in  a  south- 
easterly direction  to  Heraclea.  Here  Tancred,  followed  by 
Baldwin,  turned  into  Cilicia,  and  began  to  take  possession  of  the 
Cilician  towns,  and  especially  of  Tarsus — thus  beginning,  it 
would  seem,  the  creation  of  the  Norman  principality  of  Antioch. 
The  main  army  turned  to  the  N.E.,  in  the  direction  of  Caesarea 
(in  order  to  bring  itself  into  touch  with  the  Armenian  princes 
of  this  district),  and  then  marched  southward  again  to  Antioch. 
At  Marash,  half  way  between  Caesarea  and  Antioch,  Baldwin, 
who  had  meanwhile  wrested  Tarsus  from  Tancred,  rejoined  the 
ranks;  but  he  soon  left  the  main  body  again,  and  struck  east- 
ward towards  Edessa,  to  found  a  principality  there.  At  the  end 
of  October  the  crusaders  came  into  position  before  Antioch, 
which  was  held  by  Yagi-sian,  and  began  the  siege  of  the  city, 
which  lasted  from  October  21,  1097,  to  June  3,  1098.  The 
great  figure  in  the  siege  was  naturally  Bohemund  (who  had  also 
been  the  hero  of  Dorylaeum).  He  repelled  attempts  at  relief 
made  by  Dekak  (Dec.  31,  1097)  and  Ridwan  (Feb.  9,  1098); 
he  put  the  besiegers  in  touch  with  the  Genoese  ships  lying  in  the 
harbour  of  St  Simeon,  the  port  of  Antioch  (March  1098) — a 
move  which  at  once  served  to  remedy  the  want  of  provisions 
from  which  the  crusaders  suffered,  and  secured  materials  for 
the  building  of  castles,  with  which  Bohemund  sought— in  the 
Norman  fashion — to  overawe  the  besieged  city.  But  it  was 
finally  by  the  treachery  of  one  of  Yagi-sian's  commanders, 
the  amir  Firuz,  that  Bohemund  was  able  to  effect  its  capture. 
The  other  leaders  had,  however,  to  promise  him  possession  of  the 
city,  before  he  would  bring  his  negotiations  with  Firuz  to  a 
conclusion;  and  the  matter  was  so  long  protracted  that  an  army 
of  relief  under  Kerbogha  of  Mosul  was  only  at  a  distance  of  three 
days'  march,  when  the  city  was  taken  (June  3,  1098).  The 
besiegers  were  no  sooner  in  the  city,  than  they  were  besieged 
in  their  turn  by  Kerbogha;  and  the  twenty-five  days  which 
followed  were  the  worst  period  of  stress  and  strain  which  the 
crusaders  had  to  encounter.  Under  the  pressure  of  this  strain 
"  spiritualistic  "  phenomena  began  to  appear.  It  was  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Provencals,  where  the  religiosity  of  Count  Raymund 
seems  to  have  extended  to  his  followers,  that  these  phenomena 
appeared;  and  they  culminated  in  the  discovery  of  the  Holy 
Lance,  which  had  pierced  the  side  of  the  Saviour.  The  excite- 
ment communicated  itself  to  the  whole  army;  and  the  nervous 
strength  which  it  gave  enabled  the  crusaders  to  meet  and  defeat 

Crusade,  and  above  all  on  the  Sixth,  this  path  was  still  more  seriously 
attempted.  It  is  interesting,  too,  to  notice  the  part  which  the  laity 
already  plays  in  directing  the  course  ot  the  Crusade.  From  the  first 
the  Crusade,  however  clerical  in  its  conception,  was  largely  secular 
in  its  conduct;  and  thus,  somewhat  paradoxically,  a  religious 
enterprise  aided  the  growth  of  the  secular  motive,  and  contributed 
to  the  escape  of  the  laity  from  that  tendency  towards  a  papal 
theocracy,  which  was  evident  in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  VII. 


CRUSADES 


529 


Kerbogha  in  the  open  (June  28),  but  not  before  many  of  their 
number,  including  even  Count  Stephen  of  Blois,  had  deserted 
and  fled. 

With  the  discovery  of  the  Lance,  which  became  as  it  were  a 
Provencal  asset,  Count  Raymund  assumes  a  new  importance. 
Mingled  with  the  religiosity  of  his  nature  there  was  much 
obstinacy  and  self-seeking;  and  when  Kerbogha  was  finally 
repelled,  he  began  to  dispute  the  possession  of  Antioch  with 
Bohemund,  pleading  in  excuse  his  oath  to  Alexius.  The  struggle 
lasted  for  some  months,  and  helped  to  delay  the  further  progress 
of  the  crusaders.  Raymund,  indeed,  left  Antioch  in  November, 
and  moved  S.E.  to  Marra;  but  his  men  still  held  two  positions 
in  Antioch,  from  which  they  were  not  dislodged  by  Bohemund 
till  January  1099.  Expelled  from  Antioch,  the  obstinate 
Raymund  endeavoured  to  recompense  himself  in  the  south 
(where  indeed  he  subsequently  created  the  county  of  Tripoli); 
and  from  February  to  May  1099  he  occupied  himself  with  the 
siege  of  Area,  to  the  N.E.  of  Tripoli.  It  was  during  the  siege  of 
Area  that  Peter  Bartholomew,  to  whom  the  vision  of  the  Holy 
Lance  had  first  appeared,  was  subjected,  with  no  definite  result, 
to  the  ordeal  of  fire — the  hard-headed  Normans  doubting  the 
genuine  character  of  any  Provencal  vision,  the  more  when,  as 
in  this  case,  it  turned  to  the  political  advantage  of  the  Provencals. 
The  siege  was  long  protracted;  the  mass  of  the  pilgrims  were 
anxious  to  proceed  to  Jerusalem,  and,  as  the  altered  tone  of  the 
author  of  the  Gesta  sufficiently  indicates,  thoroughly  weary  of 
the  obstinate  political  bickerings  of  Raymund  and  Bohemund. 
Here  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  finally  came  to  the  front,  and  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  discontented  pilgrims,  he  forced 
Raymund  to  accept  the  offers  of  the  amir  of  Tripoli,  to  desist 
from  the  siege,  and  to  march  to  Jerusalem  (in  the  middle 
of  May  1099).  Bohemund  remained  in  Antioch:  the  other 
leaders  pressed  forward,  and  following  the  coast  route, 
arrived  before  Jerusalem  in  the  beginning  of  June.  After  a 
little  more  than  a  month's  siege,  the  city  was  finally  captured 
(July  15).  The  slaughter  was  terrible;  the  blood  of  the 
conquered  ran  down  the  streets,  until  men  splashed  in  blood 
as  they  rode.  At  nightfall,  "  sobbing  for  excess  of  joy,"  the 
crusaders  came  to  the  Sepulchre  from  their  treading  of  the 
winepress,  and  put  their  blood-stained  hands  together  in 
prayer.  So,  on  that  day  of  July,  the  First  Crusade  came 
to  an  end. 

It  remained  to  determine  the  future  government  of  Jerusalem ; 
and  here  the  eternal  problem  of  the  relations  of  Church  and 
State  emerged.  It  might  seem  natural  that  the  Holy  City, 
conquered  in  a  holy  war  by  an  army  of  which  the  pope  had 
made  a  churchman,  Bishop  Adhemar,  the  leader,  should  be  left 
to  the  government  of  the  Church.  But  Adhemar  had  died  in 
August  1098  (whence,  in  large  part,  the  confusion  and  bickerings 
which  followed  in  the  end  of  1098  and  the  beginning  of  1099); 
nor  were  there  any  churchmen  left  of  sufficient  dignity  or  weight 
to  secure  the  triumph  of  the  ecclesiastical  cause.  In  the  meeting 
of  the  crusaders  on  the  22nd  of  July,  some  few  voices  were  raised 
in  support  of  the  view  that  a  "  spiritual  vicar  "  should  first  be 
chosen  in  the  place  of  the  late  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (who  had 
just  died  in  Cyprus),  before  the  election  of  any  lay  ruler  was 
taken  in  hand.  But  the  voices  were  not  heard;  and  the  princes 
proceeded  at  once  to  elect  a  lay  ruler.  Raymund  of  Provence 
refused  to  accept  their  nomination,  nominally  on  the  pious 
ground  that  he  did  not  wish  to  reign  where  Christ  had  suffered 
on  the  cross;  though  one  may  suspect  that  the  establishment 
of  a  principality  in  Tripoli — in  which  he  had  been  interrupted 
by  the  pressure  of  the  pilgrims — was  still  the  first  object  of  his 
ambition.  The  refusal  of  Raymund  meant  the  choice  of  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon,  who  had,  as  we  have  seen,  become  prominent  since 
the  siege  of  Area;  and  Godfrey  accordingly  became — not  king, 
but  "  advocate  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,"  while  a  few  days  after- 
wards Arnulf,  the  chaplain  of  Robert  of  Normandy,  and  one  of 
the  sceptics  in  the  matter  of  the  Holy  Lance,  became  "  vicar  " 
of  the  vacant  patriarchate.  Godfrey's  first  business  was  to  repel 
an  Egyptian  attack,  which  he  accomplished  successfully  at 
Ascalon,  with  the  aid  of  the  other  crusaders  (August  12).  At 


the  end  of  August  the  other  crusaders  returned,'  and  Godfrey 
was  left  with  a  small  army  of  2000  men,  and  the  support  of 
Tancred,  now  prince  of  Galilee,  to  rule  in  some  four  isolated 
districts — Jaffa,  Jerusalem,  Ramlah  and  Haifa.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  came  Bohemund  and  Godfrey's  brother  Baldwin  (now 
count  of  Edessa)  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  The  result  of 
Bohemund's  visit  was  new  trouble  for  Godfrey.  Bohemund 
procured  the  election  of  Dagobert,  the  archbishop  of  Pisa,  to 
the  vacant  patriarchate,  disliking  Arnulf,  and  perhaps  hoping 
to  find  in  the  new  patriarch  a  political  supporter.  Bohemund 
and  Godfrey  together  became  Dagobert's  vassals;  and  in  the 
spring  Godfrey  even  seems  to  have  entered  into  an  agreement 
with  the  patriarch  to  cede  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa  into  his  hands, 
in  the  event  of  acquiring  other  lands  or  towns,  especially  Cairo, 
or  dying  without  direct  heirs.  When  Godfrey  died  in  July  noo 
(after  successful  forays  against  the  Mahommedans  which  took 
him  as  far  as  Damascus),  it  might  seem  as  if  a  theocracy  were 
after  all  to  be  established  in  Jerusalem,  in  spite  of  the  events 
of  1099. 

4.  The  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  under  the  First  Three 
Kings,2  1100-1143. — The  theocracy,  however,  was  not  destined 
to  be  established.  Godfrey  had  died  without  direct  heirs; 
but  in  far  Edessa  there  was  his  brother  Baldwin,  ready  to  take 
his  place.  Dagobert  had  at  first  consented  to  the  dying  Godfrey's 
wish  that  Baldwin  should  be  his  successor;  but  when  Godfrey 
died  he  saw  an  opportunity  too  precious  to  be  missed,  and 
opposed  Baldwin,  counting  on  the  support  of  Bohemund,  to 
whom  he  sent  an  appeal  for  assistance.3  But  a  party  in 
Jerusalem,  headed  by  the  late  "  vicar  "  Arnulf,  opposed  itself 
to  the  hierarchical  pretensions  of  Dagobert  and  the  Norman 
influence  by  which  they  were  backed;  and  this  party,  represent- 
ing the  Lotharingian  laity,  carried  the  day.  Baldwin  was 
summoned  from  Edessa;  and  when  he  arrived,  towards  the  end 
of  the  year,  he  was  crowned  king  by  Dagobert  himself.  Thus 
was  founded,  on  Christmas  day  noo,  the  Latin  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem;  and  thus  was  the  possibility  of  a  theocracy  finally 
annihilated.  A  feudal  kingdom  of  Prankish  seigneurs  was  to  be 
planted  on  the  soil  of  Palestine,  instead  of  a  dominium  temporale 
of  the  patriarch  like  that  of  the  pope  in  central  Italy.  Nor  were 
any  great  difficulties  with  the  Church  to  hamper  the  growth  of 
this  kingdom.  For  two  years,  indeed,  a  struggle  raged  between 
Baldwin  I.  and  Dagobert:  Baldwin  accused  the  patriarch  of 
treachery,  and  attempted  to  force  him  to  contribute  to  the  defence 
of  the  kingdom.  But  in  1102  the  struggle  ceased  with  the 
deposition  of  the  patriarch  and  the  victory  of  the  king;  and 
though  it  was  renewed  for  a  time  by  the  patriarch  Stephen  in 
the  reign  of  Baldwin  II.  (1128-1130),  the  new  struggle  was  of 
short  duration,  and  was  soon  ended  by  Stephen's  death. 

The  establishment  of  a  kingdom  in  Jerusalem  in  noo  was 
a  blow,  not  only  to  the  Church  but  to  the  Normans  of  Antioch. 
At  the  end  of  1099'  any  contemporary  observer  must  have 
believed  that  the  capital  of  Latin  Christianity  in  the  East  was 
destined  to  be  Antioch.  Antioch  lay  in  one  of  the  most  fertile 
regions  of  the  East;  Bohemund  was  almost,  if  not  quite,  the 
greatest  genius  of  his  generation;  and  when  he  visited  Jerusalem 
at  the  end  of  1099,  he  led  an  army  of  25,000  men — and  those 
men,  at  any  rate  in  large  part,  Normans.  What  could  Godfrey 
avail  against  such  a  force?  Yet  the  principality  of  Godfrey 
was  destined  to  higher  things  than  that  of  Bohemund. 
Jerusalem,  like  Rome,  had  the  shadow  of  a  mighty  name  to 
lend  prestige  to  its  ruler;  and  as  residence  in  Rome  was  one 
great  reason  of  the  strength  of  the  medieval  papacy,  so  was 

1  Before  he  left,  Raymund  had  played  in  Jerusalem  the  same  part 
of  dog  in  the  manger  which  he  had  also  played  at  Antioch,  and  had 
given  Godfrey  considerable  trouble.  See  the  articles,  GODFREY  OF 
BOUILLON  and  RAYMOND  OF  TOULOUSE. 

1  For  an  account  of  the  kings  of  Jerusalem  see  the  articles  on  the 
five  B  ALD  wiNs.on  the  two  AM  AL  Rics.on  FULK  and  JOHN  OF  B  RIENNE 
and  on  the  LUSIGNAN  (family). 

*  The  genuineness  of  the  letter  (on  which,  by  the  way,  depends  the 
story  of  Godfrey's  agreement  with  Dagobert)  has  been  impeached 
by  Prutz  and  Kugler,  and  doubted  by  Rohricht.  It  is  accepted  by 
von  Sybel  and  Hagenmeyer. 


530 


CRUSADES 


residence  in  Jerusalem  a  reason  for  the  ultimate  supremacy  of 
the  Lotharingian  kings.  Jerusalem  attracted  the  How  of  pilgrims 
from  the  West  as  Antioch  never  could;  and  though  the  great 
majority  of  the  pilgrims  were  only  birds  of  passage,  there  were 
always  many  who  stayed  in  the  East.  There  was  thus  a  steady 
immigration  into  the  kingdom,  to  strengthen  its  armies  and 
recruit  with  new  blood  the  vigour  of  its  inhabitants.  Still  more 
important  perhaps  was  the  fact  that  the  ports  of  the  kingdom 
attracted  the  Italian  towns;  and  it  was  therefore  to  the  kingdom 
that  they  lent  the  strength  of  their  armies  and  the  skill  of  their 
siege-artillery — in  return,  it  is  true,  for  concessions  of  privileges 
so  considerable  as  to  weaken  the  resources  of  the  kingdom 
they  helped  to  create.  While  Jerusalem  possessed  these  advan- 
tages, Antioch  was  not  without  its  defects.  It  had  to  meet — or 
perhaps  it  would  be  more  true  to  say,  it  brought  upon  itself — 
the  hostility  of  strong  Mahommcdan  powers  in  the  vicinity. 
As  early  as  noo  Bohcmund  was  captured  in  battle  by  Danish- 
mend  of  Sivas;  and.it  was  his  captivity,  flepriving  the  patriarch 
as  it  did  of  Norman  assistance,  which  allowed  the  uncontcsted 
accession  of  Baldwin  I.  Again,  in  1104,  the  Normans,  while 
.iiii-mpting  to  capture  Harran,  were  badly  defeated  on  the  river 
Ualikh,  near  Rakka;  and  this  defeat  may  be  said  to  have  been 
fatal  to  the  chance  of  a  great  Norman  principality.1  But  the 
hostility  of  Alexius,  aided  and  abetted  by  the  jealousy  of  Ray- 
mund  of  Toulouse,  was  almost  equally  fatal.  Alexius  claimed 
Antioch;  was  it  not  the  old  possession  of  his  empire,  and  had 
not  Bohcmund  done  him  homage?  Raymund  was  ready  to 
defend  the  claims  of  Alexius;  was  not  Bohemund  a  successful 
rival?  Thus  it  came  about  that  Alexius  and  Raymund  became 
allies;  and  by  the  aid  of  Alexius  Raymund  established,  from 
uoa  onwards,  the  principality  which,  with  the  capture  of 
Tripoli  in  1109,  became  the  principality  of  Tripoli,  and  barred 
the  advance  of  Antioch  to  the  south.  Meanwhile  the  armies  of 
Alexius  not  only  prevented  any  farther  advance  to  the  N.W.,  but 
conquered  the  Cilician  towns  (i  104).  No  wonder  thai  Bohemund 
tlung  himself  in  revenge  on  the  Eastern  empire  in  1 108 — only, 
however,  to  meet  with  a  humiliating  defeat  at  Durazzo. 

Thus  it  was  that  Baldwin  waxed  while  Bohcmund  waned.  The 
growth  of  Baldwin's  kingdom,  as  it  was  suggested  above,  owed 
more  to  the  interests  of  Italian  traders  than  it  did  to  crusading 
zeal.  In  noo,  indeed,  it  might  appear  that  a  new  Crusade  from 
the  West,  which  the  capture  of  Antioch  in  1098  had  begun,  and 
the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  in  1099  had  finally  set  in  motion,  was 
destined  to  achieve  great  things  for  the  nascent  kingdom. 
Thousands  had  joined  this  new  Crusade,  which  should  deal  the 
final  blow  to  Mahommedanism:  among  the  rest  came  the  first 
of  the  troubadours,  William  IX.,  Count  of  Poitiers,  to  gather 
copy  for  his  muse,  and  even  some,  like  Stephen  of  Blois  and 
Hugh  of  Vcrmandois,  who  had  joined  the  First  Crusade,  but 
had  failed  to  reach  Jerusalem.  The  new  crusaders  cherished 
high  plans;  they  would  free  Bohemund  and  capture  Bagdad. 
But  each  of  the  three  sections  of  their  army  was  routed  in  turn 
in  Asia  Minor  by  the  princes  of  Sivas,  Aleppo  and  Harran,  in  the 
middle  of  1101;  and  only  a  few  escaped  to  report  the  crushing 
disaster.  Baldwin  I.  had  thus  no  assistance  to  expect  from 
the  West,  save  that  of  the  Italian  towns.  From  an  early 
date  Italian  ships  had  followed  the  crusaders.  There  were 
Genoese  ships  in  St  Simeon's  harbour  in  the  spring  of  1098 
and  at  Jaffa  in  1099;  in  1099  Dagobcrt,  the  archbishop  of  Pisa, 
led  a  fleet  from  his  city  to  the  Holy  Land;  and  in  noo  there 
came  to  Jaffa  a  Venetian  fleet  of  200  sail,  whose  leaders  promised 
Venetian  assistance  in  return  for  freedom  from  tolls  and  a  third  of 
each  town  they  helped  to  conquer.  But  it  was  the  Genoese  who 
helped  Baldwin  I.  most.  The  Venetians  already  enjoyed,  since 
1080,  a  favoured  position  in  Constantinople,  and  had  the  less 
reason  to  find  a  new  emporium  in  the  East;  while  Pisa  connected 

1  Yet  the  north  always  continued  to  be  more  populous  than  the 
smith;  and  the  Latins  maintained  themselves  in  Antioch  and 
Tripoli  a  century  after  the  loss  of  Jerusalem.  The  land  was  richer 
in  the_north:  it  was  protected  by  its  connexion  with  Cyprus  and 
Armenia:  it  was  more  remote  from  Egypt — the  basis  of  Mahom- 
rm-dun  power  from  tin-  ri-ign  of  Salaclin  onwards. 


itself,  through  Dagobert,  with  Antioch1  rather  than  with 
Jerusalem,  and  was  further,  in  mi,  invested  by  Alexius  with 
privileges,  which  made  an  outlet  in  the  Holy  Land  no  longer 
necessary.  But  the  Genoese,  who  had  helped  with  provisions 
and  siege-tackle  in  the  capture  of  Antioch  and  of  Jerusalem, 
had  both  a  stronger  claim  on  the  crusaders,  and  a  greater  interest 
in  acquiring  an  eastern  emporium.  An  alliance  was  accordingly 
struck  in  noi  (Fulcher  II.  c.  vii.),  by  which  the  Genoese 
promised  their  assistance,  in  return  for  a  third  of  all  booty, 
a  quarter  in  each  town  captured,  and  a  grant  of  freedom  from 
tolls.  In  this  way  Baldwin  I.  was  able  to  take  Arsuf  and  Cacsarea 
in  1 101  and  Acre  in  1104.  But  Genoese  aid  was  given  to  others 
beside  Baldwin  (it  enabled  Raymund  to  capture  Byblus  in  1104, 
and  his  successor,  William,  to  win  Tripoli  in  1109);  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  Baldwin  enjoyed  other  aid  besides  that  of  the 
Genoese.  In  mo,  for  example,  he  was  enabled  to  capture 
Sidon  by  the  aid  of  Sigurd  of  Norway,  the  Jorsalafari,  who  came 
to  the  Holy  Land  with  a  fleet  of  55  ships,  starting  in  1107,  and 
in  a  three  years'  "  wandering,"  after  the  old  Norse  fashion, 
fighting  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  fraternizing  with  the  Normans 
in  Sicily.  At  a  later  date,  in  the  reign  of  Baldwin  II.,  Venice  also 
gave  her  aid  to  the  kings  of  Jerusalem.  Irritated  by  the  con- 
cessions made  by  Alexius  to  the  Pisans  in  mi,  and  furious  at 
the  revocation  of  her  own  privileges  by  John  Comnenus  in  1118, 
the  republic  naturally  sought  a  new  outlet  in  the  Holy  Land. 
A  Venetian  fleet  of  120  sail  came  in  1123,  and  after  aiding  in  the 
repulse  of  an  attack,  which  the  Egyptians  had  taken  advantage 
of  Baldwin  II. 's  captivity  to  deliver,  they  helped  the  regent 
Eustace  to  capture  Tyre  (1124),  in  return  for  considerable 
privileges — freedom  from  toils  throughout  the  kingdom,  a 
quarter  in  Jerusalem,  baths  and  ovens  in  Acre,  and  in  Tyre  one- 
third  of  the  city  and  its  suburbs,  with  their  own  court  of  justice 
and  their  own  church.  After  thus  gaining  a  new  footing  in  Tyre, 
the  Venetians  could  afford  to  attack  the  islands  of  the  Aegean 
as  they  returned,  in  revenge  for  the  loss  of  their  privileges  in 
Constantinople;  but  the  hostility  between  Venice  and  the 
Eastern  empire  was  soon  afterwards  appeased,  when  John 
Comnenus  restored  the  old  privileges  of  the  Venetians.  The 
Venetians,  however,  maintained  their  position  in  Palestine; 
and  their  quarters  remained,  along  with  those  of  the  Genoese, 
as  privileged  commercial  franchises  in  an  otherwise  feudal  state. 
In  this  way  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  expanded  until  it  came 
to  embrace  a  territory  stretching  along  the  coast  from  Beirut 
(captured  in  1 1 10  *)  to  cl-Arish  on  the  confines  of  Egypt — a 
territory  whose  strength  lay  not  in  Judaea,  like  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  David,  but,  somewhat  paradoxically  (though 
commercial  motives  explain  the  paradox),  in  Phoenicia  and  the 
land  of  the  Philistines.  With  all  its  length,  the  territory  had 
but  little  breadth:  towards  the  north  it  was  bounded  by  the 
amirate  of  Damascus;  in  the  centre,  it  spread  little,  if  at  all, 
beyond  the  Jordan;  and  it  was  only  in  the  south  that  it  had 
any  real  extension.  Here  there  were  two  considerable  annexes. 
To  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  stretched  a  tongue  of  land,  reaching 
to  Aila,  at  the  head  of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea.  This  had 
been  won  by  Baldwin  I.,  by  way  of  revenge  for  the  attacks  of 
the  Egyptians  on  his  kingdom;  and  here,  as  early  as  1116,  he 
had  built  the  fort  of  Monreal,  half  way  between  Aila  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  To  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  again,  lay  a  second 
strip  of  territory,  in  which  the  great  fortress  was  Krak  (Kerak) 
of  the  Desert,  planted  somewhere  about  1 140  by  the  royal  butler, 
Paganus,  in  the  reign  of  Fulk  of  Jerusalem.  These  extensions 
in  the  south  and  east  had  also,  it  is  easy  to  see,  a  commercial 
motive.  They  gave  the  kingdom  a  connexion  of  its  own  with 
the  Red  Sea  and  its  shipping;  and  they  enabled  the  Franks  to 

1  Pisa  naturally  connected  itself  with  Antioch,  because  Antioch 
was  hostile  to  Constantinople,  and  Pisa  cherished  the  same  hostility , 
since  Alexius  I.  had  in  1080  given  preferential  treatment  to  Venice, 
the  enemy  of  Pisa. 

'  This  is  the  year  in  which  the  kingdom  may  be  regarded  as 
definitely  founded.  The  period  of  conquest  practically  ends  at  this 
date,  though  isolated  gains  were  afterwards  made_.  The  year  I  no 
is  additionally  important  by  reason  of  the  accession  of  Maudud  al 
Mosul,  which  marks  the  beginning  of  a  Moslem  reaction. 


CRUSADES 


control  the  routes  of  the  caravans,  especially  the  route  from 
Damascus  to  Egypt  and  the  Red  Sea.  Thus,  it  would  appear, 
the  whole  of  the  expansion  of  the  Latin  kingdom  (which  may  be 
said  to  have  attained  its  height  in  1131,  at  the  death  of 
Baldwin  II.)  may  be  shown  to  have  been  dictated,  at  any  rate 
in  large  part,  by  economic  motives;  and  thus,  too,  it  would 
seem  that  two  of  the  most  powerful  motives  which  sway  the 
mind  of  man — the  religious  motive  and  the  desire  for  gain — 
conspired  to  elevate  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  (at  once  the 
country  of  Christ,  and  a  natural  centre  of  trade)  to  a  position  of 
supremacy  in  Latin  Syria.  '  During  this  process  of  growth  the 
kingdom  stood  in  relation  to  two  sects  of  powers — the  three 
Frankish  principalities  in  northern  Syria,  and  the  Mahommedan 
powers  both  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile — whose  action 
affected  its  growth  and  character. 

Of  the  three  Frankish  principalities,  Edessa,  founded  in  1008 
by  Baldwin  I.  himself,  was  a  natural  lief  of  Jerusalem.  Baldwin 
dc  Burgh,  the  future  Baldwin  II.,  ruled  in.  Edessa  as  the  vassal 
of  Baldwin  I.  from  noo  to  1118;  and  thereafter  the  county 
was  held  in  succession  by  the  two  Joscelins  of  Tcll-bashir  until 
the  conquest  of  Edessa  by  Zengi  in  1144.  Lying  to  the  cast  of 
the  Euphrates,  at  once  in  close  contact  with  the  Armenians,  and 
in  near  proximity  to  the  great  route  of  trade  which  came  up  the 
Euphrates  to  Rakka,  and  thence  diverged  to  Antioch  and 
Damascus,  the  county  of  Edessa  had  an  eventful  if  brief  life. 
The  county  of  Tripoli,  the  second  of  these  principalities,  had 
also  come  under  the  aegis  of  Jerusalem  at  an  early  dale. 
Founded  by  Raymund  of  Toulouse,  between  1 102  and  1 105,  with 
the  favour  of  Alexius  and  the  alliance  of  the  Genoese,  it  did  not 
acquire  its  capital  of  Tripoli  till  1 109.  Even  before  the  conquest 
of  Tripoli,  there  had  been  dissensions  between  William,  the 
nephew  and  successor  of  Raymund,  and  Bcrtrand,  Raymund's 
eldest  son,  which  it  had  needed  the  interference  of  Baldwin  I. 
to  compose;  and  it  was  only  by  the  aid  of  the  king  that  the 
town  of  Tripoli  had  been  taken.  At  an  early  date  therefore 
the  county  of  Tripoli  had  already  come  under  the  influence  of 
the  kingdom.  Meanwhile  the  principality  of  Antioch,  ruled  by 
Tancred,  after  the  departure  of  Bohemund  (1104-1112),  and 
then  by  Roger  his  kinsman  (1112-1119),  was,  during  the  reign 
of  Baldwin  I.,  busily  engaged  in  disputes  both  with  its  Christian 
neighbours  at  Edessa  and  Tripoli,  and  with  the  Mahommedan 
princes  of  Mardin  and  Mosul.  On  the  death  of  Roger  in  1119, 
the  principality  came  under  the  regency  of  Baldwin  II.  of 
Jerusalem,  until  1126,  when  Bohemund  II.  came  of  age.  Bohe- 
mund had  married  a  daughter  of  Baldwin;  and  on  his  death  in 
1 130  Baldwin  II.  had  once  more  become  the  guardian  of  Antioch. 
From  his  reign  therefore  Antioch  may  be  regarded  as  a  depend- 
ency of  Jerusalem;  and  thus  the  end  of  Bald  win's  reign  (1131)  may 
be  said  to  mark  the  time  when  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
stands  complete,  with  its  own  boundaries  stretching  from  Beirut 
in  the  north  to  el-Arish  and  Aila  in  the  south,  and  with  the 
three  Frankish  powers  of  the  north  admitting  its  suzerainty. 

The  Latin  power  thus  established  and  organized  in  the  East 
had  to  face  in  the  north  a  number  of  Mahommedan  amirs,  in  the 
south  the  caliph  of  Egypt.  The  disunion  bet  ween 'the  Mahom- 
medans  of  northern  Syria  and  the  Fatimites  of  Egypt,  and  the 
political  disintegration  of  the  former,  were  both  favourable 
to  the  success  of  the  Franks;  but  they  had  nevertheless  to 
maintain  their  ground  vigorously  both  in  the  north  and  the  south 
against  almost  incessant  attacks.  The  hostility  of  the  decadent 
caliphate  of  Cairo  was  the  less  dangerous;  and  though  Baldwin  I. 
had  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  to  meet  annual  attacks  from 
Egypt,  by  the  end  he  had  pushed  his  power  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
in  the  very  year  of  his  death  (1118)  he  had  penetrated  along  the 
north  coast  of  Egypt  as  far  as  Farama  (Pelusium).  The  plan  of 
conquering  Egypt  had  indeed  presented  itself  to  the  Franks 
from  the  first,  as  it  continued  to  attract  them  to  the  end;  and 
it  is  significant  that  Godfrey  himself,  in  i  too,  promised  Jerusalem 
to  the  patriarch,  "  as  soon  as  he  should  have  conquered  some 
other  great  city,  and  especially  Cairo."  But  the  real  menace  to 
the  Latin  kingdom  lay  in  northern  Syria;  and  here  a  power 
was  eventually  destined  to  rise,  which  outstripped  the  kings  of 


Jerusalem  in  the  race  for  Cairo,  and  then — with  the  northern  and 
southern  boundaries  of  Jerusalem  in  its  control — was  able  to 
crush  the  kingdom  as  it  were  between  the  two  arms  of  a  vice. 
I 'mil  1127,  however,  the  Mahommedans  of  northern  Syria  were 
disunited  among  themselves.  The  beginning  of  the  1 2th  century 
was  the  age  of  the  atabcgs  (regents  or  stadtholdcrs).  The 
atabcgs  formed  a  number  of  dynasties,  which  displaced  the 
descendants  of  the  Scljukian  amirs  in  their  various  principalities. 
These  dynasties  were  founded  by  emancipated  mamclukes, 
who  had  held  high  office  at  court  and  in  camp  under  powerful 
amirs,  and  who,  on  their  death,  first  became  stadtholdcrs  for 
their  descendants,  and  then  usurped  the  throne  of  their  masters. 
There  was  an  atabcg  dynasty  in  Damascus  founded  by  Tughtigin 
(1103-1128):  there  was  another  to  the  N.E.,  that  of  thcOrtokids, 
represented  by  Sokman,  who  established  himself  at  Kaifa  in 
Diarbckr  about  1101,  and  by  his  brother  Ilghazi,  who  received 
Mardin  from  Sokman  about  1 108,  and  added  to  it  Aleppo  in  1117.' 
But  the  greatest  of  the  atabcgs  were  those  of  Mosul  on  the  Tigris 
— Maudud,  who  died  in  1113;  Aksunkur,  his  successor;  and 
finally,  greatest  of  all,  Zengi  himself,  who  ruled  in  Mosul  from 
1127  onwards. 

Before  the  accession  of  Zengi,  there  had  been  constant  fighting, 
which  had  led,  however,  to  no  definite  result,  between  the 
various  Mahommedan  princes  and  the  Franks  of  northern  Syria. 
The  constant  pressure  of  Tancred  of  Antioch  and  Baldwin  dc 
Burgh  of  Edessa  led  to  a  series  of  retaliations  between  1 1 10  and 
1115;  Edessa  was  attacked  in  mo,  mi,  1112  and  1114;  and 
in  1113  Maudud  of  Mosul  had  even  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
vicinity  of  Acre  and  Jerusalem.'  But  the  dissensions  of  the 
Mahommedans  made  their  attacks  unavailing;  in  1115,  for 
instance,  we  find  Antioch  actually  aided  by  Ilghazi  and  Tughtigin 
against  Aksunkur  of  Mosul.  Again,  in  the  reign  of  Baldwin  II., 
there  was  steady  fighting  in  the  north;  Roger  of  Antioch  was 
defeated  by  Ilghazi  at  Balat  in  1119,  and  Baldwin  II.  himself 
was  captured  by  Bahik,  the  successor  of  Ilghazi,  in  1123,  but 
on  the  whole  the  Franks  held  the  upper  hand.  Baldwin  con- 
quered part  of  the  territory  of  Aleppo  (in  1121  and  the  following 
years),  and  extorted  a  tribute  from  Damascus  (1126).  But 
when  Zengi  established  himself  in  Mosul  in  1127,  the  tide 
gradually  began  to  turn.  He  created  for  himself  a  great  and 
united  principality,  comprising  not  only  Mosul,  but  also  Aleppo,' 
Harran,  Nisibin  and  other  districts;  and  in  1130,  Alice,  the 
widow  of  Bohemund  II.,  sought  his  alliance  in  order  to  maintain 
herself  in  power  at  Antioch.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Fulk  of  Jerusalem  (1131-1143)  the  progress  of  Zengi  was  steady. 
He  conquered  in  1135  several  fortresses  in  the  cast  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Antioch,  and  in  this  year  and  the  next  pressed  the 
count  of  Tripoli  hard;  while  in  11.37  he  defeated  Fulk  at  Barin, 
and  forced  the  king  to  capitulate  and  surrender  the  town.  If 
Fulk  had  been  left  alone-  to  wage  I  he  si  niggle  against  Zengi,  and 
if  Zengi  had  enjoyed  a  clear  field  against  the  Franks,  the  fall 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  might  have  come  far  sooner  than 
it  did.4  But  there  were  two  powers  which  aided  Fulk,  and 
impeded  the  progress  of  Zengi — the  amirate  of  Damascus  and 
the  emperors  of  Constantinople.  The  position  of  Damascus 
is  a  position  of  crucial  importance  from  1130  to  1154.  Lying 
between  Mosul  and  Jerusalem,  and  important  both  strategically 

1  Ilghazi  died  in  1123.  His  successor  was  Balalc,  who  ruled  from 
1 1 22  to  1124,  and  succeeded  in  capturing  in  1123  Baldwin  II.  of 
Jerusalem.  The  union  of  Mardin  and  Aleppo  under  the  sway  of 
these  two  amirs,  connecting  as  it  did  Mesopotamia  with  Syria, 
marks  an  important  state  in  the  revival  of  Mahommcdan  pm\i  i 
(Stevenson,  Crusades  in  the  East,  p.  100). 

1  Maudud  (the  brother  of  the  sultan  Mahommcd)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  first  to  begin  the  jihad,  or  counter-crusade,  and  his  attack 
ex|x-dition  of  1113,  which  carried  him  so  far  into  the  heart  of 
Palestine,  may  be  considered  as  the  first  act  of  t  lie  /;7iu</  (Stevenson, 
op.  cit.  pp.  87,  06). 

1  Aleppo  had  passed  from  the  rule  of  Timurtash  (son  of  Ilghazi 
and  successor  of  Halak)  into  the  possession  of  Aksunkur,  1125. 

4  Stevenson,  however,  l>elieves  that  Xengi  was  not  animated  by 
the  id_ea  of  recovering  Jerusalem.  He  thinks  that  his  prineipal  aim 
was  simply  the  formation  of  a  compact  Mahommedan  i.iir.  which 
was,  indeed,  in  the  issue  destined  ic>  IK-  the  instrument  of  the  jihad, 
but  was  not  so  intended  by  Zengi  (op.  cit.  pp.  123-124). 


532 


CRUSADES 


and  from  its  position  on  the  great  route  of  commerce  from  the 
Euphrates  to  Egypt,  Damascus  became  the  arbiter  of  Syrian 
politics.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  period  between  1130 
and  1154  the  policy  of  Damascus  was  guided  by  the  vizier  Muin 
eddin  Anar,  who  ruled  on  behalf  of  the  descendants  of  the  atabeg 
Tughtigin.  He  saw  the  importance  of  finding  an  ally  against 
the  ambition  of  Zengi,  who  had  already  attacked  Damascus 
in  1 130.  The  natural  ally  was  Jerusalem.  As  early  as  1 133  the 
alliance  of  the  two  powers  had  been  concluded;  and  in  1140 
the  alliance  was  solemnly  renewed  between  Fulk  and  the  vizier. 
Henceforth  this  alliance  was  a  dominant  factor  in  politics. 
One  of  the  great  mistakes  made  by  the  Franks  was  the  breach 
of  the  alliance  in  1147 — a  breach  which  was  widened  by  the 
attack  directed  against  Damascus  during  the  Second  Crusade; 
and  the  conquest  of  Damascus  by  Nureddin  in  1154  was  ulti- 
mately fatal  to  the  Latin  kingdom,  removing  as  it  did  the  one 
possible  ally  of  the  Franks,  and  opening  the  way  to  Egypt 
for  the  atabegs  of  Mosul. 

The  alliance  of  the  emperors  of  Constantinople  was  of  far  more 
dubious  value  to  the  kings  of  Jerusalem.  We  have  already  seen 
that  it  was  the  theory  of  the  Eastern  emperors — a  theory  which 
logically  followed  from  the  homage  of  the  crusaders  to  Alexius — 
that  the  conquests  of  the  crusaders  belonged  to  their  empire, 
and  were  held  by  the  crusading  princes  as  fiefs.  We  have  seen 
that  the  action  of  Bohemund  at  Antioch  was  the  negation  of 
this  theory,  and  that  Alexius  in  consequence  helped  Raymund 
to  establish  himself  in  Tripoli  as  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Bohemund, 
and  sent  an  army  and  a  fleet  which  wrested  from  the  Normans 
the  towns  of  Cilicia  ( 1 1 04) .  The  defeat  of  Bohemund  at  Durazzo 
in  1 1 08  had  resulted  in  a  treaty,  which  made  Antioch  a  fief  of 
Alexius;  but  Tancred  (who  in  1107  had  recovered  Cilicia  from 
the  Greeks)  refused  to  fulfil  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  and  Alexius 
(who  attempted — but  in  vain — to  induce  Baldwin  I.  to  join  an 
alliance  against  Tancred  in  1112)  was  forced  to  leave  Antioch 
independent.  Thus,  although  Alexius  had  been  able,  in  the 
wake  of  the  crusading  armies,  to  recover  a.  large  belt  of  land 
round  the  whole  coast  of  Asia  Minor, — the  interior  remaining 
subject  to  the  sultans  of  Konia  (Iconium)  and  the  princes  of 
Sivas, — he  left  the  territories  to  the  east  of  the  western  boundary 
of  Cilicia  in  the  hands  of  the  Latins  when  he  died  in  1118.  Not 
for  20  years  after  his  death  did  the  Eastern  empire  make  any 
attempt  to  gain  Cilicia  or  wrest  homage  from  Antioch.  But  in 
1137  John  Comnenus  appeared,  instigated  by  the  opportunity 
of  dissensions  in  Antioch,  and  received  its  long-denied  homage, 
as  well  as  that  of  Tripoli;  while  in  the  following  year  he  entered 
into  hostilities  with  Zengi,  without,  however,  achieving  any 
considerable  result.  In  1142  he  returned  again,  anxious  to 
create  a  principality  in  Cilicia  and  Antioch  for  his  younger  son 
Manuel.  The  people  of  Antioch  refused  to  submit;  a  projected 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  during  which  John  was  to  unite  with  Fulk  in 
a  great  alliance  against  the  Moslem,  fell  through;  and  in  the 
spring  of  1143  the  emperor  died  hi  Cilicia,  with  nothing  accom- 
plished. On  the  whole,  the  interference  of  the  Comneni,  if  it 
checked  Zengi  for  the  moment  in  1138,  may  be  said  to  have 
ultimately  weakened  and  distracted  the  Franks,  and  to  have 
helped  to  cause  the  loss  of  Edessa  (1144),  which  marks  the 
turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

5.  Organization  of  the  Kingdom. — Before  we  turn  to  describe 
the  Second  Crusade,  which  the  loss  of  Edessa  provoked,  and  to 
trace  the  fall  of  the  kingdom,  which  the  Second  Crusade  rather 
hastened  than  hindered,  we  may  pause  at  this  point  to  consider 
the  organization  of  the  Prankish  colonies  in  Syria.  The  first 
question  which  arises  is  that  of  the  relation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem  to  the  three  counties  or  principalities  of  Antioch, 
Tripoli  and  Edessa,  which  acknowledged  their  dependence  upon 
it.  The  degree  of  this  dependence  was  always  a  matter  of 
dispute.  The  rights  of  the  king  of  Jerusalem  chiefly  appear  when 
there  is  a  vacancy  or  a  minority  in  one  of  the  principalities,  or 
when  there  is  dissension  either  inside  one  of  the  principalities 
or  between  two  of  the  princes.  On  the  death  of  one  of  the  princes 
without  heirs  of  full  age,  the  kings  of  Jerusalem  were  entitled 
to  act  as  regents,  as  Baldwin  II.  did  twice  at  Antioch,  in  1119 


and  1130;  but  the  kings  regarded  this  right  of  regency  as  a 
burden  rather  than  a  privilege,  and  it  is  indeed  characteristic 
of  the  relation  ofthe  king  to  the  three  princes,  that  it  imposes 
upon  him  duties  without  any  corresponding  rights.  It  is  his 
duty  to  act  as  regent;  it  is  his  duty  to  compose  the  dissensions 
in  the  principality  of  Antioch,  and  to  repress  the  violences  of 
the  prince  towards  his  patriarch  (i  1 54) ;  it  is  his  duty  to  reconcile 
Antioch  with  Edessa,  when  the  two  fall  to  fighting.  The  princes 
on  their  side  acted  independently:  if  they  joined  the  king  with 
their  armies,  it  was  as  equals  doing  a  favour;  and  they  some- 
times refused  to  join  until  they  were  coerced.  They  made  their 
own  treaties  with  the  Mahommedans,  or  attacked  them  in  spite  of 
the  king's  treaties;  they  dated  their  documents  by  the  year  of 
their  own  reign,  and  they  had  each  their  separate  laws  or  assizes. 
There  was,  in  a  word,  co-ordination  rather  than  subordination;  nor 
did  the  kings  ever  attempt  to  embark  on  a  policy  of  centralization. 

The  relation  of  the  king  to  his  own  barons  within  his  immediate 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  is  not  unlike  the  relation  of  the  king  to 
the  three  princes.  In  Norman  England  the  king  insisted  on  his 
rights;  in  Prankish  Jerusalem  the  barons  insisted  on  his  duties. 
The  circumstances  of  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  explain 
its  characteristics.  As  the  crusaders  advanced  to  Jerusalem, 
says  Raymund  of  Agiles  (c.  xxxiii.),  it  was  their  rule  that  the 
first-comer  had  the  right  to  each  castle  or  town,  provided  that 
he  hoisted  his  standard  and  planted  a  garrison  there.  The  feudal 
nobility  was  thus  the  first  to  establish  itself,  and  the  king  only 
came  after  its  institution — the  reverse  of  Norman  England, 
where  the  king  first  conquered  the  country,  and  then  plotted 
it  out  among  his  nobles.  The  predominance  of  the  nobility  in 
this  way  became  as  characteristic  of  feudalism  in  the  Latin 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  as  the  supremacy  of  the  crown  was  of 
contemporary  feudalism  in  England;  and  that  predominance 
expressed  itself  in  the  position  and  powers  of  the  high  court,  in 
which  the  ultimate  sovereignty  resided.  The  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem  consisted  of  a  society  of  peers,  in  which  the  king  might 
be  primus,  but  in  which  he  was  none  the  less  subject  to  a  punc- 
tilious law,  regulating  his  position  equally  with  that  of  every 
member  of  the  society.  In  such  a  society  the  election  of  the 
head  by  the  members  may  seem  natural;  and  in  the  case  of 
Godfrey  and  the  first  two  Baldwins  this  was  the  case.  But  the 
conception  of  the  equality  of  the  king  and  his  peers  in  the  long 
run  led  to  hereditary  monarchy;  for  if  the  king  held  his  kingdom 
as  a  fief,  like  other  nobles,  the  laws  of  descent  which  applied  to  a 
fief  applied  to  the  kingdom,  and  those  laws  demanded  heredity. 
Yet  the  high  court,  which  decided  all  problems  of  descent, 
would  naturally  intervene  if  a  problem  of  descent  arose, 
as  it  frequently  did,  in  the  kingdom;  and  thus  the  barons  had 
the  right  of  deciding  between  different  claimants,  and  also  of 
formally  "  approving  "  each  new  successor  to  the  throne.  The 
conception  of  the  kingdom  as  a  fief  not  only  subjected  it  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  high  court;  it  involved  the  more  disastrous 
result  that  the  kingdom,  h'ke  other  fiefs,  might  be  carried  by  an 
heiress  to  her  husband;  and  the  proximate  causes  of  the  collapse 
of  the  kingdom  in  1187  depend  on  this  fact  and  the  dissensions 
which  it  occasioned. 

Thus  conceived  as  the  holder  of  a  great  fief,  the  king  had  only 
the  rights  of  suzerain  over  the  four  great  baronies  and  the  twelve 
minor  fiefs  of  his  kingdom.  He  had  not  those  rights  of  sovereign 
which  the  Norman  kings  of  England  inherited  from  their  Anglo- 
Saxon  predecessors,  or  the  Capetian  kings  of  France  from  the 
Carolings;  nor  was  he  able  therefore  to  come  into  direct  touch 
with  each  of  his  subjects,  which  William  I.,  in  virtue  of  his 
sovereign  rights,  was  able  to  attain  by  the  Salisbury  oath  of  1086. 
Amalric  I.  indeed,  by  his  assise  sur  la  ligece,  attempted  to  reach 
the  vassals  of  his  vassals;  he  admitted  arriere-vassaux  to  the 
haute  cour,  and  encouraged  them  to  carry  their  cases  to  it  in  the 
first  instance.  But  this  is  the  only  attempt  at  that  policy  of 
immediatisation  which  in  contemporary  England  was  carried  to 
far  greater  lengths;  and  even  this  attempt  -was  unsuccessful. 
No  alliance  was  actually  formed  between  the  king  and  the  mesne 
nobility  against  the  immediate  baronage.  The  body  of  the 
tenants-in-chief  continued  to  limit  the  power  of  the  crown: 


CRUSADES 


533 


their  consent  was  necessary  to  legislation,  and  grants  of  fiefs 
could  not  be  made  without  their  permission.  Nor  was  the  crown 
only  limited  in  this  way.  The  duties  of  the  king  towards  his 
tenants  are  prominent  in  the  assises.  The  king's  oath  to  his  men 
binds  him  to  respect  and  maintain  their  rights,  which  are  as 
prominent  as  are  his  duties;  and  if  the  men  feel  that  the  royal 
oath  has  not  been  kept,  they  may  lawfully  refuse  military  service 
(gager  le  roi),  and  may  even  rise  in  authorized  and  legal  rebellion. 
The  system  of  military  service  and  the  organization  of  justice 
corresponded  to  the  part  which  the  monarchy  was  thus  con- 
strained to  play.  The  vassal  was  bound  to  pay  military  service, 
not,  as  in  western  Europe,  for  a  limited  period  of  forty  days, 
but  for  the  whole  year — the  Holy  Land  being,  as  it  were,  in  a 
perpetual  state  of  siege.  On  the  other  hand,  the  vassal  was  not 
bound  to  render  service,  unless  he  were  paid  for  his  service; 
and  it  was  only  famine,  or  Saracen  devastation,  which  freed  the 
king  from  the  obligation  of  paying  his  men.  The  king  was  also 
bound  to  insure  the  horses  of  his  men  by  a  system  called  the 
restor:  if  a  vassal  lost  his  horse  otherwise  than  by  his  own 
fault,  it  must  be  replaced  by  the  treasury  (which  was  termed, 
as  it  also  was  in  Norman  Sicily,  the  secretum).1  But  the  king 
had  another  force  in  addition  to  the  feudal  levy — a  paid  force  of 
soudoyers?  holding  fiefs,  not  of  land,  but  of  pay  (fiefs  de  soudte). 
Along  with  this  paid  cavalry  went  another  branch  of  the  army, 
the  Turcopuli,  a  body  of  light  cavalry,  recruited  from  the  Syrians 
and  Mahommedans,  and  using  the  tactics  of  the  Arabs;  while 
an  infantry  was  found  among  the  Armenians,  the  best  soldiers 
of  the  East,  and  the  Maronites,  who  furnished  the  kingdom  with 
archers.  To  all  these  various  forces  must  be  added  the  knights 
and  native  levies  of  the  great  orders,  whose  masters  were  practi- 
cally independent  sovereigns  like  the  princes  of  Antioch  and 
Tripoli;3  and  with  these  the  total  levy  of  the  kingdom  may  be 
reckoned  at  some  25,000  men.  But  the  strength  of  the  kingdom 
lay  less  perhaps  in  the  army  than  in  the  magnificent  fortresses 
which  the  nobility,  and  especially  the  two  orders,  had  built; 
and  the  most  visible  relic  of  the  crusades  to-day  is  the  towering 
ruins  of  a  fortress  like  Krak  (Kerak)  des  Chevaliers,  the  fortress 
of  the  Knights  of  St  John  in  the  principality  of  Tripoli.  These 
fortresses,  garrisoned  not  by  the  king,  as  in  Norman  England, 
but  by  their  possessors,  would  only  strengthen  the  power  of  the 
feudatories,  and  help  to  dissipate  the  kingdom  into  a  number 
of  local  units. 

In  the  organization  of  its  system  of  justice  the  kingdom  showed 
its  most  characteristic  features.  Two  great  central  courts  sat 
in  Jerusalem  to  do  justice — the  high  court  of  the  nobles,  and 
the  court  of  burgesses  for  the  rest  of  the  Franks,  (i)  The  high 
court  was  the  supreme  source  of  justice  for  the  military  class; 
and  in  its  composition  and  procedure  the  same  limitation  of  the 
crown,  which  appears  in  regard  to  military  service,  is  again 
evident.  The  high  court  is  not  a  curia  regis,  but  a  curia  baronum, 
in  which  the  theory  of  judicium  pariumisfutty  realized.  If  the 
king  presides  in  the  court,  the  motive  of  its  action  is  none  the 
less  the  preservation  of  the  rights  of  the  nobles,  and  not,  as  in 
England,  the  extension  of  the  rights  of  the  crown.  It  is  a  court  of 
the  king's  peers:  it  tries  cases  of  dispute  between  the  king  and 
his  peers — with  regard,  for  instance,  to  military  service — and 
it  settles  the  descent  of  the  title  of  king.  (2)  The  court  of 

1  There  are  certain  connexions  and  analogies  between  the  kingdom 
of  Sicily  and  that  of  Jerusalem  during  the  twelfth  century.  In  cither 
case  there  is  an  importation  of  Western  feudalism  into  a  country 
originally  possessed  of  Byzantine  institutions,  but  affected  by  an 
Arabic  occupation.  The  subject  deserves  investigation. 

1  The  holders  of  fiefs  (sodeers)  both  held  fiefs  of  land  and  received 
pay;  the  paid  force  of  soudoyers  only  received  pay.  An  instance 
of  the  latter  is  furnished  by  John  of  Margat,  a  vassal  of  the  seignory 
of  Arsuf.  He  has  200  bezants,  along  with  a  quantity  of  wheat, 
barley,  lentils  and  oil ;  and  in  return  he  must  march  with  four  horses 
(Rev,  Les  Colonies  franques  en  Syrie,  p.  24). 

'  For  the  history  of  the  orders  see  the  articles  on  the  TEMPLARS; 
ST  JOHN  OF  JERUSALEM,  KNIGHTS  OF  ;  KNIGHTS,  and  the  TEUTONIC 
ORDER.  The  Templars  were  founded  about  the  year  1118  by  a 
Burgundian  knight,  Hugh  de  Paganis;  the  Hospitallers  sprang 
from  a  foundation  in  Jerusalem  erected  by  merchants  of  Amain 
before  the  First  Crusade,  and  were  reorganized  under  Gerard  le  Puy, 
master  until  1 1 20.  The  Teutonic  knights  date  from  the  Third  Crusade. 


burgesses  was  almost  equally  sovereign  within  its  sphere.  While 
the  body  of  the  noblesse  formed  the  high  court,  the  court  of  the 
burgesses  was  composed  of  twelve  legists  (probably  named  by. 
the  king)  under  the  presidency  of  the  mcomte — a  knight  also 
named  by  the  king,  who  was  a  great  financial  as  well  as  a  judicial 
officer.  The  province  of  the  court  included  all  acts  and  contracts 
between  burgesses,  and  extended  to  criminal  cases  in  which 
burgesses  were  involved.  Like  the  high  court,  the  court  of 
burgesses  had  also  its  assizes4 — a  body  of  unwritten  legal 

4  As  was  noticed  above,  there  were  apparently  separate  assizes 
for  the  three  principalities,  in  addition  to  the  assizes  of  the  kingdom. 
The  assizes  of  Antioch  have  been  discovered  and  published.  The 
assizes  of  the  kingdom  itself  are  twofold — the  assizes  of  the  high 
court  and  the  assizes  of  the  court  of  burgesses.  (l)  The  assizes  of  the 
high  court  are  preserved  for  us  in  works  by  legists — John  of  Ibelin, 
Philip  of  Novara  and  Geoffrey  of  Tort — composed  in  the  I3th 
century.  We  possess,  in  other  words,  law-books  (like  Bracton's 
treatise  De  legibus),  but  not  laws — and  law-books  made  after 
the  loss  of  the  kingdom  to  which  the  laws  belonged.  There  are  two 
vexed  questions  with  regard  to  these  law-books,  (a)  The  first  con- 
cerns the  origin  and  character  of  the  laws  which  the  law-books  profess 
to  expound.  According  to  the  story  of  the  legists  who  wrote  these 
books — e.g.  John  of  Ibelin — the  laws  of  the  kingdom  were  laid  down 
by  Godfrey,  who  is  thus  regarded  as  the  great  voiutiiTip  of  the 
kingdom.  These  laws  (progressively  modified,  it  is  admitted)  were 
kept  in  Jerusalem,  under  the  name  of  "  Letters  of  the  Sepulchre," 
until  1187.  In  that  year  they  were  lost;  and  the  legists  tell  us 
that  they  are  attempting  to  reconstruct  par  oir  dire  the  gist  of  the 
lost  archetype.  The  story  of  the  legists  is  now  generally  rejected. 
Godfrey  never  legislated:  the  customs  of  the  kingdom  gradually 

frew,  and  were  gradually  defined,  especially  under  kings  like  Baldwin 
II.  and  Amalric  I.  If  there  was  thus  only  a  customary  and  un- 
written law  (and  William  of  Tyre  definitely  speaks  of  a  jus  consue- 
•tudinarium  under  Baldwin  III.,  quo  retnum  regebatur),  then  the 
"  Letters  of  the  Sepulchre  "  are  a  myth — or  rather,  if  they  ever 
existed,  they  existed  not  as  a  code  of  written  law,  but,  perhaps,  as  a 
register  of  fiefs,  like  the  Sicilian  Defelarii.  Thus  the  story  of  the 
legists  shrinks  down  to  the  regular  myth  of  the  primitive  legislator, 
used  to  give  an  air  of  respectability  to  law-books,  which  really  record 
an  unwritten  custom.  The  fact  is  that  until  the  I3th  century  the 
Franks  lived  consuetudinibus  antiquis  el  jure  non  scripto.  They 
preferred  an  unwritten  law,  as  Prutz  suggests,  partly  because  it 
suited  the  barristers  (who  often  belonged  to  the  baronage,  for  the 
Prankish  nobles  were  "  great  pleaders  m  court  and  out  of  court  "), 
and  partly  because  the  high  court  was  left  unbound  so  long  as  there 
was  no  written  code.  In  the  I3th  century  it  became  necessary  for 
the  legists  to  codify,  as  it  were,  the  unwritten  law,  because  the 
upheavals  of  the  times  necessitated  the  fixing  of  some  rules  in  writing, 
and  especially  because  it  was  necessary  to  oppose  a  definite  custom 
of  the  kingdom  to  Frederick  II.,  who  sought,  as  king  of  Jerusalem, 
to  take  advantage  of  the  want  of  a  written  law,  to  substitute  his  own 
conceptions  of  law  in  the  teeth  of  the  high  court,  (b)  The  second 
difficulty  concerns  the  text  of  the  law-books  themselves.  The  text 
of  Ibelin  became  a  textus  receptus — but  it  also  became  overlaid  by 
glosses,  for  it  was  used  as  authoritative  in  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus 
after  the  loss  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  and  it  needed  expounding. 
Recensions  and  revisions  were  twice  made,  in  1368  and  1531;  but 
how  far  the  true  Ibelin  was  recovered,  and  what  additions  or  altera- 
tions were  made  at  these  two  dates,  we  cannot  tell.  We  can  only  say 
that  we  have  the  text  of  Ibelin  which  was  used  in  Cyprus  in  the  later 
middle  ages.  At  the  same  time,  if  our  text  is  thus  late,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  its  content  gives  us  the  earliest  and  purest  ex- 
position of  French  feudalism,  and  describes  for  us  the  organization 
of  a  kingdom,  where  all  rights  and  duties  were  connected  with  the 
fief,  and  the  monarch  was  only  a  suzerain  of  feudatories.  (2)  The 
assizes  of  the  court  of  burgesses  became  the  basis  of  a  treatise  at 
an  earlier  date  than  the  assizes  of  the  high  court.  The  date  of  the 
redaction  (which  was  probably  made  by  some  learned  burgess)  may 
well  have  been  the  reign  of  Baldwin  III.,  as  Kugler  suggests:  he 
was  the  first  native  king,  and  a  king  learned  in  the  law;  but  Beugnot 
would  refer  the  assizes  to  the  years  immediately  preceding  Saladin's 
capture  of  Jerusalem.  These  assizes  do  not,  of  course,  appear  in 
Ibelin,  who  was  only  concerned  with  the  feudal  law  of  the  high  court. 
They  were  used,  like  the  assizes  of  the  high  court,  in  Cyprus;  and, 
like  the  other  assizes,  they  were  made  the  subject  of  investigation 
in  1531,  with  the  object  of  discovering  a  good  text.  The  law  which 
is  expounded  in  these  assizes  is  a  mixture  of  Prankish  law  with  the 
Graeco- Roman  law  of  the  Eastern  empire  which  prevailed  among  the 
native  population  of  Syria. 

In  regard  to  both  assizes,  it  is  most  important  to  bear  in  mind 
that  we  possess  not  laws,  but  law-books  or  custumals — records  made 
by  lawyers  for  their  fellows  of  what  they  conceived  to  be  the  law, 
and  supported  by  legal  arguments  and  citations  of  cases.  But,  as 
Prutz  remarks,  Philip  of  Novara  lehrt  nicht  die  Wissenschaft  des 
Rechts,  sondern  die  des  Unrechts:  he  does  not  explain  the  law  so 
much  as  the  ways  of  getting  round  it. 


534 


CRUSADES 


custom.  The  independent  position  of  the  burgesses,  who  thus 
assumed  a  position  of  equality  by  the  side  of  the  feudal  class,  is 
one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  It  may 
be  explained  by  reference  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the 
kingdom.  Burgesses  and  nobles,  however  different  in  status, 
were  both  of  the  same  Prankish  stock,  and  both  occupied  the 
same  superior  position  with  regard  to  the  native  Syrians.  The 
commercial  motive,  again,  had  been  one  of  the  great  motives 
of  the  crusade;  and  the  class  which  was  impelled  by  that  motive 
would  be  both  large  and,  in  view  of  the  quality  of  the  Eastern 
goods  in  which  it  dealt,  exceptionally  prosperous.  Finally, 
when  one  remembers  how,  during  the  First  Crusade,  the  pedites 
had  marched  side  by  side  with  the  prindpes,  and  how,  from  the 
beginning  of  1099,  they  had  practically  risen  in  revolt  against 
the  selfish  ambitions  of  princes  like  Count  Raymund,  it  becomes 
easy  to  understand  the  independent  position  which  the  burgesses 
assumed  in  the  organization  of  the  kingdom.  Burgesses  could 
buy  and  possess  property  in  towns,  which  knights  were  forbidden 
to  acquire;  and  though  they  could  not  intermarry  with  the 
feudal  classes,  it  was  easy  and  regular  for  a  burgess  to  thrive 
to  knighthood.  Like  the  nobles,  again,  the  burgesses  had  the 
right  of  confirming  royal  grants  and  of  taking  part  in  legislation; 
and  they  may  be  said  to  have  formed — socially,  politically  and 
judicially — an  independent  and  powerful  estate.  Yet  (with  the 
exception  of  Antioch,  Tripoli  and  Acre  in  the  course  of  the  i3th 
century)  the  Prankish  towns  never  developed  a  communal 
government:  the  domain  of  their  development  was  private  law 
an4  commercial  life. 

Locally,  the  consideration  of  the  system  of  justice  administered 
in  the  kingdom  involves  some  account  of  three  things — the 
organization  of  the  fiefs,  the  position  of  the  Italian  traders  in 
their  quarters,  and  the  privileges  of  the  Church.  Each  fief  was 
organized  like  the  kingdom.  In  each  there  was  a  court  for  the 
noblesse,  and  a  court  (or  courts)  for  the  bourgeoisie.  There  were 
some  thirty-seven  cours  de  bourgeoisie  (several  of  the  fiefs  having 
more  than  one),  each  of  which  was  under  the  presidency  of  a 
•cicomte,  while  all  were  independent  of  the  court  of  burgesses  at 
Jerusalem.  Of  the  feudal  courts  there  were  some  twenty-two. 
Each  of  these  followed  the  procedure  and  the  law  of  the  high 
court;  but  each  was  independent  of  the  high  court,  and  formed 
a  sovereign  court  without  any  appeal.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
revolution  wrought  by  Amalric  I.  in  the  status  of  the  arriere- 
vassaux,  which  made  them  members  of  the  high  court,  allowed 
them  to  carry  their  cases  to  Jerusalem  in  the  first  instance,  if 
they  desired.  Apart  from  this,  the  characteristic  of  seignorial 
justice  is  its  independence  and  its  freedom  from  the  central 
court;  though,  when  we  reflect  that  the  central  court  is  a  court 
of  seigneurs,  this  characteristic  is  seen  to  be  the  logical  result 
of  the  whole  system.  Midway  between  the  seignorial  cours  de 
bourgeoisie  and  the  privileged  jurisdictions  of  the  Italian  quarter, 
there  were  two  kinds  of  courts  of  a  commercial  character — the 
cours  de  la  fonde  in  towns  where  trade  was  busy,  and  the  cours 
de  la  chaine  in  the  sea-ports.  The  former  courts,  under  their 
bailiffs,  gradually  absorbed  the  separate  courts  which  the  Syrians 
had  at  first  been  permitted  to  enjoy  under  their  own  rets;  and 
the  bailiff  with  his  6  assessors  (4  Syrians  and  2  Franks)  thus 
came  to  judge  both  commercial  cases  and  cases  in  which  Syrians 
were  involved.  The  cours  de  la  chaine,  whose  institution  is 
assigned  to  Amalric  I.  (1162-1174),  had  a  civil  jurisdiction  in 
admiralty  cases,  and,  like  the  cours  de  la  fonde,  they  were  com- 
posed of  a  bailiff  and  his  assessors.  Distinct  from  all  these 
courts,  if  similar  in  its  sphere,  is  the  court  which  the  Italian 
quarter  generally  enjoyed  in  each  town  under  its  own  consuls — • 
a  court  privileged  to  try  all  but  the  graver  cases,  like  murder, 
theft  and  forgery.  The  court  was  part  of  the  general  immunity 
which  made  these  quarters  imperia  in  imperio :  their  exemptions 
from  tolls  and  from  financial  contributions  is  parallel  to  their 
judicial  privileges.  Regulated  by  their  mother-town,  both 
in  their  trade  and  their  government,  these  Italian  quarters 
outlasted  the  collapse  of  the  kingdom,  and  continued  to  exist 
under  Mahommedan  rulers.  The  Church  had  its  separate  courts, 
as  in  the  West;  but  their  province  was  perhaps  greater  than 


elsewhere.  The  church  courts  could  not  indeed  decide  cases  of 
perjury;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  tried  all  matters  in  which 
clerical  property  was  concerned,  and  all  cases  of  dispute  between 
husband  and  wife.  In  other  spheres  the  immunities  and  exemp- 
tions of  the  Church  offered  a  far  more  serious  problem,  and 
especially  in  the  sphere  of  finance.  Perhaps  the  supreme  defect 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  its  want  of  any  financial  basis. 
It  is  true  that  the  king  had  a  revenue,  collected  by  the  vicomte 
and  paid  into  the  secretum  or  treasury — a  revenue  composed  of 
tolls  on  the  caravans  and  customs  from  the  ports,  of  the  profits 
of  monopolies  and  the  proceeds  of  justice,  of  poll-taxes  on  Jews 
and  Mahommedans,  and  of  the  tributes  paid  by  Mahommedan 
powers.  But  his  expenditure  was  large:  he  had  to  pay  his 
feudatories;  and  he  had  to  provide  fiefs  in  money  and  kind  to 
those  who  had  not  fiefs  of  land.  The  contributions  sent  to  the 
Holy  Land  by  the  monarchs  of  western  Europe,  as  commutations 
in  lieu  of  personal  participation  in  crusades,  might  help;  the 
fatal  policy  of  razzias  against  the  neighbouring  Mahommedan 
powers  might  procure  temporary  resources;  but  what  was  really 
necessary  was  a  wide  measure  of  native  taxation,  such  as  was 
once,  and  once  only,  attempted  in  1183.  To  any  such  measure 
the  privileges  of  the  Italian  quarters,  and  still  more  those  of  the 
Church,  were  inimical.  In  spite  of  provisions  somewhat  parallel 
to  those  of  the  English  statute  of  mortmain,  the  clergy  continued 
to  acquire  fresh  lands  at  the  same  time  that  they  refused  to 
contribute  to  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  rigorously  exacted 
the  full  quota  of  tithe  from  every  source  which  they  could  tap, 
and  even  from  booty  captured  in  war.  The  richest  proprietor 
in  the  Holy  Land,1  but  practically  immune  from  any  charges 
on  its  property,  the  Church  helped,  unconsciously,  to  ruin  the 
kingdom  which  it  should  have  supported  above  all  others.  It 
refused  to  throw  its  weight  into  the  scale,  and  to  strengthen 
the  hands  of  the  king  against  an  over-mighty  nobility.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  Church  did  not,  after 
the  first  struggle  between  Dagobert  and  Baldwin  I.,  actively 
oppose  by  any  hierarchical  pretensions  the  authority  of  the 
crown.  The  assizes  may  speak  of  patriarch  and  king  as  conjoint 
seigneurs  in  Jerusalem;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  king  could 
secure  the  nomination  of  his  own  patriarch,  and  after  Dagobert 
the  patriarchs  are,  with  the  temporary  exception  of  Stephen 
in  1128,  the  confidants  and  supporters  of  the  kings.  It  was  the 
two  great  orders  of  the  Templars  and  the  Hospitallers  which 
were,  in  reality,  most  dangerous  to  the  kingdom.  Honeycombed 
as  it  was  by  immunities — of  seigneurs,  of  Italian  quarters,  of 
the  clergy — the  kingdom  was  most  seriously  impaired  by  these 
overweening  immunists,  who,  half-lay  and  half-clerical,  took 
advantage  of  their  ambiguous  position  to  escape  from  the  duties 
of  either  character.  They  built  up  great  estates,  especially  in  the 
principality  of  Tripoli;  they  quarrelled  with  one  another,  until 
their  dissensions  prevented  any  vigorous  action;  they  struggled 
against  the  claims  of  the  clergy  to  tithes  and  to  rights  of  juris- 
diction; they  negotiated  with  the  Mahommedans  as  separate 
powers;  they  conducted  themselves  towards  the  kings  as 
independent  sovereigns.  Yet  their  aid  was  as  necessary  as  their 
influence  was  noxious.  Continually  recruited  from  the  West, 
they  retained  the  vigour  which  the  native  Franks  of  Palestine 
gradually  lost;  and  their  corporate  strength  gave  a  weight  to 
their  arms  which  made  them  indispensable. 

In  describing  the  organization  of  the  kingdom,  we  have  also 
been  describing  the  causes  of  its  fall.  It  fell  because  it  had 
not  the  financial  or  political  strength  to  survive.  "  Les  vices  du 
gouvernement  avaient  6te  plus  puissants  que  les  vertus  des 
gouvernants."  But  the  vices  were  not  only  vices  of  the  govern- 
ment: they  were  also  vices,  partly  inevitable,  partly  moral, 
in  the  governing  race  itself.  The  climate  was  no  doubt 
responsible  for  much.  The  Franks  of  northern  Europe  attempted 
to  live  a  life  that  suited  a  northern  climate  under  a  southern  sun. 
They  rode  incessantly  to  battle  over  burning  sands,  in  full  armour 

1  For  instance,  the  abbey  of  Mount  Sion  had  -large  possessions, 
not  only  in  the  Holy  Land  (at  Ascalon,  Jaffa,  Acre,  Tyre,  Caesarea 
and  Tarsus),  but  also  in  Sicily,  Calabria,  Lombardy,  Spain  and 
France  (at  Orleans,  Bourges  and  Poitiers). 


CRUSADES 


535 


— chain  mail,  long  shield  and  heavy  casque — as  if  they  were  on 
their  native  French  soil.  The  ruling  population  was  already 
spread  too  thin  for  the  work  which  it  had  to  do;  and  exhausted 
by  its  efforts,  it  gradually  became  extinct.  A  constant  immigra- 
tion from  the  West,  bringing  new  blood  and  recruiting  the  stock, 
could  alone  have  maintained  its  vigour;  and  such  immigration 
never  came.  Little  driblets  of  men  might  indeed  be  added  to 
the  numbers  of  the  Franks;  but  the  great  bodies  of  crusaders 
either  perished  in  Asia  Minor,  as  in  noi  and  1147,  or  found 
themselves  thwarted  and  distrusted  by  the  native  Franks.  It 
was  indeed  one  of  the  misfortunes  of  the  kingdom  that  its 
inhabitants  could  never  welcome  the  reinforcements  which 
came  to  their  aid.1  The  barons  suspected  the  crusaders  of 
ulterior  motives,  and  of  designing  to  get  new  principalities  for 
themselves.  In  any  case  the  native  Frank,  accustomed  to 
commercial  intercourse  and  diplomatic  negotiations  with  the 
Mahommedans,  could  hardly  share  the  unreasoning  passion  to 
make  a  dash  for  the  "  infidel."  As  with  the  barons,  so  with  the 
burgesses:  they  profited  too  much  by  their  intercourse  with 
the  Mahommedans  to  abandon  readily  the  way  of  peaceful 
commerce,  and  they  were  far  more  ready  to  hinder  than  to  help 
any  martial  enterprise.  Left  to  itself,  the  native  population 
lost  physical  and  moral  vigour.  The  barons  alternated  between 
the  extravagances  of  Western  chivalry  and  the  attractions  of 
Eastern  luxury:  they  returned  from  the  field  to  divans  with 
frescoed  walls  and  floors  of  mosaic,  Persian  rugs  and  embroidered 
silk  hangings.  Their  houses,  at  any  rate  those  in  the  towns, 
had  thus  the  characteristics  of  Moorish  villas;  and  in  them  they 
lived  a  Moorish  life.  Their  sideboards  were  covered  with  the 
copper  and  silver  work  of  Eastern  smiths  and  the  confectioneries 
of  Damascus.  They  dressed  in  flowing  robes  of  silk,  and  their 
women  wore  oriental  gauzes  covered  with  sequins.  Into  these 
divans  where  figures  of  this  kind  moved  to  the  music  of  Saracen 
instruments,  there  entered  an  inevitable  voluptuousness  and 
corruption  of  manners.  The  hardships  of  war  and  the  excesses 
of  peace  shortened  the  lives  of  the  men;  the  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem had  eleven  kings  within  a  century.  While  the  men 
died,  the  women,  living  in  comparative  indolence,  lived  longer 
lives.  They  became  regents  to  their  young  children;  and  the 
experience  of  all  medieval  minorities  reiterates  the  lesson — woe 
to  the  land  where  the  king  is  a  child  and  the  regent  a  woman. 
Still  worse  was  the  frequent  remarriage  of  widowed  princesses 
and  heiresses.  By  the  assizes  of  the  high  court,  the  widow,  on 
the  death  of  her  husband,  took  half  of  the  estate  for  herself,  and 
half  in  guardianship  for  her  children.  Liberae  ire  cum  terra, 
widows  carried  their  estates  or  titles  to  three  or  four  husbands; 
and  as  in  i  sth-century  England,  the  influence  of  the  heiress  was 
fatal  to  the  peace  of  the  country.  At  Antioch,  for  instance,  after 
the  death  of  Bohemund  II.  in  1130,  his  widow  Alice  headed  a 
party  in  favour  of  the  marriage  of  the  heiress  Constance  to 
Manuel  of  Constantinople,  and  did  not  scruple  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with  Zengi  of  Mosul.  Her  policy  failed;  and 
Constance  successively  married  Raymund  of  Antioch  and 
Raynald  of  Chatillon.  The  result  was  the  renewed  enmity  of 
the  Greek  empire,  while  the  French  adventurers  who  won  the 
prize  ruined  the  prospects  of  the  Franks  by  their  conduct.  In 
the  kingdom  matters  were  almost  worse.  There  was  hardly  any 
regular  succession  to  the  throne;  and  Jerusalem,  as  Stubbs 
writes,  "  suffered  from  the  weakness  of  hereditary  right  and 
the  jealousies  of  the  elective  system  "  at  one  and  the  same  time. 
With  the  frequent  remarriages  of  the  heiresses  of  the  kingdom, 
relationships  grew  confused  and  family  quarrels  frequent; 
and  when  Sibylla  carried  the  crown  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  a  new- 
comer disliked  by  all  the  relatives  of  the  crown,  she  sealed  the 
fate  of  the  kingdom. 

It  may  be  doubted — though  it  seems  a  harsh  verdict  to  pass 
1  One  must  remember  that  these  reinforcements  would  often 
consist  of  desperate  characters.  It  was  one  of  the  misfortunes  of 
Palestine  that  it  served  as  a  Botany  Bay,  to  which  the  criminals 
of  the  West  were  transported  for  penance.  The  natives,  already 
prone  to  the  immorality  which  must  infect  a  mixed  population 
living  under  a  hot  sun,  the  immorality  which  still  infects  a  place  like 
Aden,  were  not  improved  by  the  addition  of  convicts. 


on  a  kingdom  founded  by  religious  zeal  on  holy  soil — whether 
the  kingdom  possessed  that  moral  basis  which  alone  can  give  a 
right  of  survival  to  any  institution  or  organization.  The  crusad- 
ing states  had  been  founded  by  adventurers  who  thirsted  for 
gain;  and  the  primitive  appetite  did  not  lose  its  edge  with  the 
progress  of  time.  We  cannot  be  certain,  indeed,  how  far  the 
Prankish  lords  oppressed  their  Syrian  tenants:  the  stories  of 
such  oppression  have  been  discredited;  while  if  we  may  trust 
the  evidence  of  a  Mahommedan  traveller,  Ibn  Jubair,  the  lot 
of  the  Mahommedan  who  lived  on  Prankish  manors  was  better 
than  it  had  been  under  their  native  lords.2  But  the  habits  of 
the  Franks  were  none  the  less  habits  of  lawless  greed:  they 
swooped  down  from  their  castles,  as  Raynald  of  Chatillon  did 
from  Krak  of  the  Desert,  to  capture  Saracens  and  hold  them  to 
ransom  or  to  plunder  caravans.  The  lust  of  unlawful  gain  had 
infected  the  Prankish  blood,  as  it  seems  to  have  infected  England 
during  the  Hundred  Years'  War;  and  in  either  case  nemesis 
infallibly  came.  The  Moslems  might  have  endured  a  state  of 
"  infidels  ";  they  could  not  endure  a  state  of  brigands. 

6.  The  History  of  the  Kingdom  and  the  Crusades  from  the 
Loss  of  Edessa  in  1144  to  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  in  1187. — The 
years  1143-1144  are  in  many  ways  the  turning  point  in  the 
history  of  the  Latin  East.  In  1 143  began  the  reign  of  the  first 
native  king;3  and  about  this  date  may  be  placed  the  final 
organization  of  the  kingdom,  witnessed  by  the  completion  of  its 
body  of  customary  law.  At  the  same  date,  however,  the  decline 
of  the  kingdom  also  begins;  the  fall  of  Edessa  is  the  beginning 
of  the  end.  In  1143  John  Comnenus  and  Fulk  had  just  died, 
and  Zengi,  seeing  his  way  clear,  threw  himself  on  the  great 
Christian  outpost,  against  which  the  tides  of  Mahommedan 
attack  had  so  often  vainly  surged,  and  finally  entered  on  Christ- 
mas Day  1144.  Two  years  later  Zengi  died;  but  he  left  an  able 
successor  in  his  son,  Nureddin,  and  an  attempt  to  recover 
Edessa  was  successfully  repelled  in  November  1146.  Not  only 
so,  but  in  the  spring  of  1147  the  Franks  were  unwise  enough  to 
allow  the  hope  of  gaining  two  small  towns  to  induce  them  to 
break  the  vital  alliance  with  Damascus.  Thus,  in  itself,  the 
position  of  affairs  in  the  Holy  Land  in  1147  was  certainly 
ominous;  and  the  kingdom  might  well  seem  dependent  for  its 
safety  on  such  aid  as  it  might  receive  from  the  West. 

Early  in  1145  news  had  come  from  Antioch  to  Eugenius  III. 
of  the  fall  of  Edessa,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  he  had  sent 
an  encyclical  to  France — the  natural  soil,  as  we  have  seen,  of 
crusading  zeal.  The  response  was  instantaneous:  the  king  of 
France  himself,  who  bore  on  his  conscience  the  burden  of  an 
unpunished  massacre  by  his  troops  at  Vitry  in  1142,*  took 
the  crusading  vow  on  the  Christmas  day  of  1145.  But  the 
greatest  success  was  attained  when  St  Bernard — no  great 
believer  in  pilgrimages,  and  naturally  disposed  to  doubt  the 
policy  of  a  second  Crusade — was  induced  by  the  pope  to  become 
the  preacher  of  the  new  movement.  To  the  crusading  king  of 

2  The  manorial  system  in  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was 
a  continuation  of  the  village  system  as  it  had  existed  under  the  Arabs. 
In  each  village  (casale)  the  rustici  were  grouped  in  families  (foci) : 
the  tenants  paid  from  J  to  J  of  the  crop,    besides  a  'poll-tax  and 
labour-dues.     The  villages  were  mostly  inhabited  by   Syrians:  it 
was  rarely  that  Franks  settled  down  as  tillers  of  the  soil.     Prutz 
regards  the  manorial  system  as  oppressive.     Absentee  landlords,  he 
thinks,  rack-rented  the  soil  (p.  167),  while  the  "  inhuman  severity  " 
of  their  treatment  of  villeins  led  to  a  progressive  decay  of  agriculture, 
destroyed  the  economic  basis  of  the  Latin  kingdom,  and  led  the 
natives  to  welcome  the  invasion  of  Saladin  (pp.  327-331). 

The  French  writers  Rey  and  Dodu  are  more  kind  to  the  Franks; 
and  the  testimony  of  contemporary  Arabic  writers,  who  seem 
favourably  impressed  by  the  treatment  of  their  subjects  by  the 
Franks,  bears  out  their  view,  while  the  tone  of  the  assizes  is  ad- 
mittedly favourable  to  the  Syrians.  One  must  not  forget  that  there 
was  a  brisk  native  manufacture  of  carpets,  pottery,  ironwork, 
gold-work  and  soap;  or  that  the  Syrians  of  the  towns  had  a  definite 
legal  position. 

3  After  1 143  one  may  therefore  speak  of  the  period  of  the  Epigoni — 
the  native  Franks,  ready  to  view  the  Moslems  as  joint  occupants  of 
Syria,  and  to  imitate  the  dress  and  habits  of  their  neighbours. 

4  Doubt  has  been  cast  on  the  view  that  a  troubled  conscience  drove 
Louis  to  take  the  cross;  and  his  action  has  been  ascribed  to  simple 
religious  zeal  (cf.  Lavisse,  Histoire  de  France,  iii.  12). 


536 


CRUSADES 


France  St  Bernard  added  the  king  of  Germany,  when,  in  Christ- 
mas week  of  1146,  he  induced  Conrad  III.  to  take  the  vow  by 
his  sermon  in  the  cathedral  of  Spires.  Thus  was  begun  the 
Second  Crusade,1  under  auspices  still  more  favourable  than 
those  which  attended  the  beginning  of  the  First,  seeing  that 
kings  now  took  the  place  of  knights,  while  the  new  crusaders 
would  no  longer  be  penetrating  into  the  wilds,  but  would  find 
a  friendly  basis  of  operations  ready  to  their  hands  in  Prankish 
Syria.  But  the  more  favourable  the  auspices,  the  greater  proved 
the  failure.  Already  at  the  final  meeting  at  Etampes,  in  1147, 
difficulties  arose.  Manuel  Comnenus  demanded  that  all  con- 
quests made  by  the  crusaders  should  be  his  fiefs;  and  the 
question  was  debated  whether  the  crusaders  should  follow  the 
land  route  through  Hungary,  along  the  old  road  of  Charlemagne, 
or  should  go  by  sea  to  the  Holy  Land.  In  this  question  the 
envoys  of  Manuel  and  of  Roger  of  Sicily,  who  were  engaged  in 
hostilities  with  one  another,  took  opposite  sides.  Conrad,  related 
by  marriage  to  Manuel,  decided  in  favour  of  the  land  route,  which 
Manuel  desired  because  it  brought  the  Crusade  more  under  his 
direction,  and  because,  if  the  route  by  sea  were  followed,  Roger 
of  Sicily  might  be  able  to  divert  the  crusading  ships  against 
Constantinople.  As  it  was,  a  struggle  raged  between  Roger 
and  Manuel  "during  the  whole  progress  of  the  Crusade,  which 
greatly  contributed  towards  its  failure,  preventing,  as  it  did, 
any  assistance  from  the  Eastern  empire.  Nor  was  there  any 
real  unity  among  the  crusaders  themselves.  The  crusaders  of 
northern  Germany  never  went  to  the  Holy  Land  at  all;  they 
were  allowed  the  crusaders'  privileges  for  attacking  the  Wends 
to  the  east  of  the  Elbe — a  fact  which  at  once  attests  the  cleavage 
between  northern  and  southern  Germany  (intensified  of  late 
years  by  the  war  of  investitures) ,  and  anticipates  the  age  of  the 
Teutonic  knights  and  their  long  Crusade  on  the  Baltic.  The 
crusaders  of  the  Low  Countries  and  of  England  took  the  sea 
route,  and  attacked  and  captured  Lisbon  on  their  way,  thus 
helping  to  found  the  kingdom  of  Portugal,  and  achieving  the  one 
real  success  which  was  gained  by  the  Second  Crusade.2  Among 
the  great  army  of  crusaders  who  actually  marched  to  Jerusalem 
there  was  little  real  unity.  Conrad  and  Louis  VII.  started 
separately,  and  at  different  times,  in  order  to  avoid  dissensions 
between  their  armies;  and  when  they  reached  Asia  Minor  (after 
encountering  some  difficulties  in  Greek  territory)  they  still 
acted  separately.  Eager  to  win  the  first  spoils,  the  German 
crusaders,  who  were  in  advance  of  the  French,  attempted  a  raid 
into  the  sultanate  of  Iconium;  but  after  a  stern  fight  at  Dory- 
laeum  they  were  forced  to  retreat  (October  1147),  and  for  the 
most  part  perished  by  the  way.  Louis  VII.,  who  now  appeared, 
was  induced  by  this  failure  to  take  the  long  and  circuitous  route 
by  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor;  but  even  so  he  had  lost  the 
majority  of  his  troops  when  he  reached  the  Holy  Land  in  1148. 
Here  he  joined  Conrad  (who  had  come  by  sea  from  Constanti- 
nople) and  Baldwin  III.,  and  after  some  deliberation  the  three 

1  We  speak  of  First,  Second  and  Third   Crusades,  but,   more 
exactly,  the  Crusades  were  one  continuous  process.     Scarcely  a  year 
passed  in  which  new  bands  did  not  come  to  the  Holy  Land.     We 
have  already  noticed  the  great  if  disastrous  Crusade  of  noo-noi, 
and  the  Venetian  Crusade  of  1123-1124;   and  we  may  also  refer  to 
the  Crusade  of  Henry  the  Lion  in  1172,  and  to  that  of  Edward  I.  in 
1271—1272 — all  famous  Crusades,  which  are  not  reckoned  in  the 
usual   numbering.     Crusades  appear  to   have  been   dignified   by 
numbers   when  they  followed  some  crushing  disaster — the  loss  of 
Edessa  in  1144,  or  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  1187 — and  were  led  by 
kings  and  emperors;   or  when,  like  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Crusades, 
they  achieved  some  conspicuous  success  or  failure.     But  it  is  im- 
portant to  bear  in  mind  the  continuity  of  the  Crusades — the  constant 
flow  of  new   forces   eastward  and  back  again  westward ;    for  this 
alone  explains  why  the  Crusades  formed  a  great  epoch  in  civilization, 
familiarizing,  as  they  did,  the  West  with  the  East. 

2  This  body   of  crusaders   ultimately   reached   the   Holy   Land, 
where  it  joined  Conrad  (who  had  lost  his  own  original  forces),  and 
helped  in  the  fruitless  siege  of  Damascus.     The  services  which  it 
rendered  to  Portugal  were  repeated  by  later  crusaders.     Crusaders 
from  the  Low  Countries,  England  and  the  Scandinavian  north  took 
the  coast  route  round  western  Europe;    and  it  was  natural  that, 
landing  for  provisions  and  water,  they  should  be  asked,  and  should 
consent,  to  lend  their  aid  to  the  natives  against  the  Moors.     Such  aid 
is  recorded  to  have  been  given  on  the  Third  and  the  Fifth  Crusades. 


sovereigns  resolved  to  attack  Damascus.  The  attack  was 
impolitic:  Damascus  was  the  one  ally  which  could  help  the 
Franks  to  stem  the  advance  of  Nureddin.  It  proved  as  futile 
as  it  was  impolitic;  for  the  vizier  of  Damascus,  Muin-eddin- 
Anar,  was  able  to  sow  dissension  between  the  native  Franks 
and  the  crusaders;  and  by  bribes  and  promises  of  tribute  he 
succeeded  in  inducing  the  former  to  make  the  siege  an  absolute 
failure,  at  the  end  of  only  four  days  (July  28th,  1148).  The 
Second  Crusade  now  collapsed.  Conrad  returned  to  Constanti- 
nople in  the  autumn  of  1148,  and  Louis  VII.  returned  by  sea 
to  France  in  the  spring  of  1149.  The  only  effects  of  this  great 
movement  were  effects  prejudicial  to  the  ends  towards  which 
it  was  directed.  The  position  of  the  Franks  in  the  Holy  Land 
was  not  improved  by  the  attack  on  Damascus;  while  the 
ignominious  failure  of  a  Crusade  led  by  two  kings  brought  the 
whole  crusading  movement  into  discredit  in  western-  Europe, 
and  it  was  utterly  in  vain  that  Suger  and  St  Bernard  attempted 
to  gather  a  fresh  Crusade  in  1150. 

The  result  of  the  failure  of  the  Second  Crusade  was  the  renewal 
of  Nureddin's  attacks.  The  rest  of  the  county  of  Edessa, 
including  Tell-bashir  on  the  west,  was  now  conquered  (1150); 
while  Raymund  of  Antioch  was  defeated  and  killed  (in  1149), 
and  several  towns  in  the  east  of  his  principality  were  captured. 
Baldwin  III.  attempted  to  make  head  against  these  troubles, 
partly  by  renewing  the  old  alliance  with  Damascus,  partly  by 
drawing  closer  to  Manuel  of  Constantinople.  For  the  next 
twenty  years,  during  the  reigns  of  Baldwin  and  his  brother 
Amalric  I.,  there  is  indeed  a  close  connexion  between  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  East  Roman  empire.  Baldwin  and  Amalric 
both  married  into  the  Comncnian  house,  while  Manuel  married 
Mary  of  Antioch,  the  daughter  of  Raymund.  In  the  north 
Manuel  enjoyed  the  homage  of  Antioch,  which  his  father  had 
gained  in  1137,  and  the  nominal  possession  of  Tell-bashir,  which 
had  been  ceded  to  him  by  Baldwin  III.:  in  the  south  he  joined 
with  Amalric  I.  in  the  attempt  to  acquire  Egypt  (i  168-1 17 1).  In 
this  way  he  acquired  a  certain  ascendancy  over  the  Latin  kings: 
Baldwin  III.  rode  behind  him  at  Antioch  in  1159  without  any 
of  the  insignia  of  royalty,  and  in  an  inscription  at  Bethlehem  of 
1172  Amalric  I.  had  the  name  of  the  emperor  written  above  his 
own.3  The  patronage  of  Constantinople,  to  which  Jerusalem 
was  thus  practically  surrendered,  contributed  to  some  slight 
extent  in  maintaining  the  kingdom  against  Nureddin.  But 
there  were  dissensions  within,  both  between  Baldwin  and  his 
mother,  Melisinda,  who  sought  to  protract  her  regency  unduly, 
and  between  contending  parties  in  Antioch,  where  the  hand  of 
Constance,  Raymund's  widow,  was  a  desirable  prize4;  while 
from  without  the  horns  of  the  crescent  were  slowly  closing  in  on 
the  kingdom.  Nureddin  pursued  in  his  policy  the  tactics  which 
the  Mahommedans  used  against  the  Franks  in  battle:  he  sought 
to  envelop  their  territories  on  every  side.  In  1 1 54  fell  Damascus, 
and  the  crescent  closed  perceptibly  in  the  north:  the  most 
valuable  ally  of  the  kingdom  was  lost,  and  the  way  seemed  clear 
from  Aleppo  (the  peculiar  seat  of  Nureddin's  power)  into  Egypt. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  1153  Baldwin  III.  had  taken  Ascalon, 
which  for  fifty  years  had  mocked  the  efforts  of  successive  kings, 
and  by  this  stroke  he  might  appear  jx)  have  closed  for  Nureddin 
the  route  to  Egypt,  and  to  have  opened  a  path  for  its  conquest 
by  the  Franks.  For  the  future,  events  hinged  on  the  situation 
of  affairs  in  Egypt,  and  in  Egypt  the  fate  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem  was  finally  decided  (see  EGYPT:  History,  "  Mahom- 
medan  Period  ").  There  was  a  race  for  the  possession  of  the 
country  between  Nureddin's  lieutenant  Shirguh  or  Shirkuh  and 
Amalric  I.,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Baldwin  III.;  and  in 
the  race  Shirkuh  proved  the  winner. 

Since  the  days  of  Godfrey  and  Baldwin  I.,  Egypt  had  been  a 

'Manuel  was  an  ambitious  sovereign,  apparently  aiming  at  a 
world-monarchy,  such  as  was  afterwards  attempted  from  the  other 
side  by  Henry  VI.  As  Henry  VI.  had  designs  on  Constantinople 
and  the  Eastern  empire,  so  Manuel  cherished  the  ambition  of  acquir- 
ing Italy  and  the  Western  empire,  and  he  negotiated  with  Alexander 
III.  to  that  end  in  1167  and  1169:  cf.  the  life  of  Alexander  III.  in 
Muratori,  S.  R.  I.  iii.  460. 

4  The  prize  was  won  by  Raynald  of  Chatillon  (5.0.) 


CRUSADES 


537 


goal  of  Latin  ambition,  and  the  capture  of  Ascalon  must  obviously 
have  given  form  and  strength  to  the  projects  for  its  conquest. 
Plans  of  attack  were  sketched:  routes  were  traced:  distances 
were  measured;  and  finally  in  1163  there  came  the  impulse 
from  within  which  turned  these  plans  into  action.  The  Shiite 
caliphs  of  Egypt  were  by  this  time  the  playthings  of  contending 
viziers,  as  the  Sunnite  caliphs  of  Bagdad  had  long  been  the 
puppets  of  Turkish  sultans  or  amirs;  and  in  1164  Amalric  I. 
and  Nureddin  were  fighting  in  Egypt  in  support  of  two  rival 
viziers,  Dirgham  and  Shawar.  For  Nureddin  the  fight  meant 
the  acquisition  of  an  heretical  country  for  the  true  faith  of  the 
Sunnite,  and  the  final  enveloping  of  the  Latin  kingdom:1  for 
Amalric  it  meant  the  escape  from  Nureddin's  net,  and  a  more 
direct  and  lucrative  contact  with  Eastern  trade.  Into  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  fight  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  enter;  but  in 
the  issue  Nureddin  won,  in  spite  of  the  support  which  Manuel 
gave  to  Amalric.  Nureddin's  Kurdish  lieutenant,  Shlrguh, 
succeeded  in  establishing  in  power  the  vizier  whom  he  favoured, 
and  finally  in  becoming  vizier  himself  (January  1169) ;  and  when 
he  died,  his  nephew  Saladin  (Sala-ed-din)  succeeded  to  his 
position  (March  1169),  and  made  himself,  on  the  death  of  the 
caliph  in  1171,  sole  ruler  in  Egypt.  Thus  the  Shiite  caliphate 
became  extinct:  in  the  mosques  of  Cairo  the  name  of  the  caliph 
of  Bagdad  was  now  used;  and  the  long-disunited  Mahommedans 
at  last  faced  the  Christians  as  a  solid  body.  But  nevertheless 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  continued  almost  unmenaced,  and 
practically  undiminished,  for  the  next  sixteen  years.  If  a 
religious  union  had  been  effected  between  Egypt  and  northern 
Syria,  political  disunion  still  remained;  and  the  Franks  were 
safe  as  long  as  it  lasted.  Saladin  acted  as  the  peer  of  Nureddin 
rather  than  as  his  subject;  and  the  jealousy  between  the  two 
kept  both  inactive  till  the  death  of  Nureddin  in  1174.  -  Nureddin 
only  left  a  minor  in  his  place:  Amalric,  who  died  in  the  same 
year,  left  a  son  (Baldwin  IV.)  who  was  not  only  a  minor  but  also 
a  leper;  and  thus  the  stage  seemed  cleared  for  Saladin.  He 
was  confronted,  however,  by  Raymund,  count  of  Tripoli,  the 
one  man  of  ability  among  the  decadent  Franks,  who  acted  as 
guardian  of  the  kingdom;  while  he  was  also  occupied  in  trying 
to  win  for  himself  the  Syrian  possessions  of  Nureddin.  The  task 
engaged  his  attention  for  nine  years.  Damascus  he  acquired  as 
early  as  1174;  but  Raymund  supported  the  heir  of  Nureddin 
in  his  capital  at  Aleppo,  and  it  was  not  until  1183  that  Saladin 
entered  the  city,  and  finally  brought  Egypt  and  northern  Syria 
under  a  single  rule. 

The  hour  of  peril  for  the  Latin  kingdom  had  now  at  last  struck. 
It  had  done  little  to  prepare  itself  for  that  hour.  Repeated 
appeals  had  been  sent  to  the  West  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Egyptian  affair  (1163)  onwards;  while  in  1184-1185  a  great 
mission,  on  which  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  the  masters 
of  the  Templars  and  the  Hospitallers  were  all  present,  came  to 
France  and  England,  and  offered  the  crown  of  Jerusalem  to 
Philip  Augustus  and  Henry  II.  in  turn,  in  order  to  secure  their 
presence  in  the  Holy  Land.2  The  only  result  of  these  appeals 
was  the  rise  of  a  regular  system  of  taxation  in  France  and 
England,  ad  sustentationem  Jerosolimitanae  lerrae,  which  starts 
about  1185  (though  there  had  already  been  isolated  taxes  in 
1147  and  1166),  and  which  has  been  described  as  the  beginning 
of  modern  taxation.  In  the  East  itself,  with  the  exception  of 
the  tax  of  1183,"  nothing  was  done  that  was  good,  and  two 
things  were  done  which  were  evil.  Sibylla  married  her  second 
husband  ,  Guy  de  Lusignan,  in  1180 — a  marriage  destined  to  be 
the  cause  of  many  dissensions;. for  Sibylla,  the  eldest  daughter 

1  Nureddin,  unlike  his  father,  was  definitely  animated  by  a  religious 
motive :   he  fought  first  and  foremost  against  the  Latins  (and  not, 
like  his  father,  against  Moslem  states),  and  he  did  so  as  a  matter  of 
religious  duty. 

2  Henry  II.,  as  an  Angevin,  was  the  natural  heir  of  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem  on  the  extinction  of  the  line  descended  from  Fulk  of 
Anjou.     This  explains  the  part  played  by  Richard  I.  in  deciding 
the  question  of  the  succession  during  the  Third  Crusade. 

*  The  taxation  levied  in  the  West  was  also  attempted  in  the  East, 
and  in  1183  a  universal  tax  was  levied  in  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
at  the  rate  of  I  %  on  movables  and  2  %  on  rents  and  revenues. 
Cf.  Dr  A.  Cartellieri,  Philipp  II.  August,  ii.  pp.  3-18  and  p.  85. 


of  Amalric  I.,  carried  to  her  husband — a  French  adventurer — 
a  presumptive  title  to  the  crown,  which  would  never  be  admitted 
without  dispute.  In  1186  Guy  eventually  became  king,  after 
the  death  of  Baldwin  V.  (Sibylla's  son  by  her  first  marriage); 
but  his  coronation  was  in  violation  of  the  promise  given  to 
Raymund  of  Tripoli  (that  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  Baldwin  V. 
without  issue  the  succession  should  be  determined  by  the  pope, 
the  emperor  and  the  kings  of  France  and  England),  and  Guy, 
with  a  weak  title,  was  unable  to  exercise  any  real  control  over 
the  kingdom.  At  this  point  another  French  adventurer,  who 
had  already  made  himself  somewhat  of  a  name  in  Antioch,  gave 
the  final  blow  to  the  kingdom.  Raynald  of  Chatillon,  the 
second  husband  of  Constance  of  Antioch,  after  languishing  in 
captivity  from  1159  to  1176,  had  been  granted  the  seignory  of 
Krak,  to  the  east  and  south  of  the  Dead  Sea.  From  this  point 
of  vantage  he  began  depredations  on  the  Red  Sea  (i  182),  building 
a  fleet,  and  seeking  to  attack  Medina  and  Mecca — a  policy  which 
may  be  interpreted  either  as  mere  buccaneering,  or  as  a  calculated 
attempt  to  deal  a  blow  at  Mahommedanism  in  its  very  cent»e. 
Driven  from  the  Red  Sea  by  Saladin,  he  turned  from  buccaneering 
to  brigandage,  and  infested  the  great  trade-route  from  Damascus 
to  Egypt,  which  passed  close  by  his  seignory.  In  1186  he 
attacked  a  caravan  in  which  the  sister  of  Saladin  was  travelling, 
thus  violating  a  four  years'  truce,  which,  after  some  two  years' 
skirmishing,  Saladin  and  Raymund  of  Tripoli  had  made  in  the 
previous  year  owing  to  the  general  prevalence  of  famine.4  The 
coronation  of  one  French  adventurer  and  the  conduct  of  another, 
whom  the  first  was  unable  to  control,  meant  the  ruin  of  the 
kingdom;  and  Saladin  at  last  delivered  in  full  force  his  long- 
deferred  attack.  The  Crusade  was  now  at  last  answered  by  the 
counter-Crusade — the  jihad;  for  though  for  many  years  past 
Saladin  had,  in  his  attempt  to  acquire  all  the  inheritance  of 
Nureddin,  left  Palestine  unmenaced  and  intact,  his  ultimate  aim 
was  always  the  holy  war  and  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem.  The 
acquisition  of  Aleppo  could  only  make  that  supreme  object  more 
readily  attainable;  and  so  Saladin  had  spent  his  time  in  acquiring 
Aleppo,  but  only  in  order  that  he  might  ultimately  "  attain  the 
goal  of  his  desires,  and  set  the  mosque  of  Asha  free,  to  which  Allah 
once  led  in  the  night  his  servant  Mahomet.  "  Thus  it  was  on  a 
kingdom  of  crusaders  who  had  lost  the  crusading  spirit  that  a 
new  Crusade  swept  down;  and  Saladin's  army  in  1187  had  the 
spirit  and  the  fire  of  the  Latin  crusaders  of  1099.  The  tables 
were  turned;  and  fighting  on  their  own  soil  for  the  recovery  of 
what  was  to  them  too  a  holy  place,  the  Mahommedans  easily 
carried  the  day.  At  Tiberias  a  little  squadron  of  the  brethren 
of  the  two  Orders  went  down  before  Saladin's  cavalry  in  May; 
at  Hattin  the  levy  en  masse  of  the  kingdom,  some  20,000  strong, 
foolishly  marching  over  a  sandy  plain  under  the  heat  of  a  July 
sun,  was  utterly  defeated;  and  after  a  fortnight's  siege  Jerusalem 
capitulated  (October  2nd,  1187).  In  the  kingdom  itself  nothing 
was  left  to  the  Latins  by  the  end  of  1 189  except  the  city  of  Tyre; 
and  to  the  north  of  the  kingdom  they  only  held  Antioch  and 
Tripoli,  with  the  Hospitallers'  fortress  at  Margat.  The  fingers 
of  the  clock  had  been  pushed  back;  once  more  things  were  as 
they  had  been  at  the  time  of  the  First  Crusade;  once  more  the 
West  must  arm  itself  for  the  holy  war  and  the  recovery  of 
Jerusalem — but  now  it  must  face  a  united  Mahommedan  world, 
where  in  1096  it  had  found  political  and  religious  dissension, 
and  it  must  attempt  its  vastly  heavier  task  without  the  morning 
freshness  of  a  new  religious  impulse,  and  with  something  of  the 
weariness  of  a  hundred  years  of  struggle  upon  its  shoulders. 

7.  The  Forty  Years'  Crusade  for  l/te  Recovery  of  Jerusalem, 
n8g-i2zg. — The  forty  years  from  1189  to  1229  form  a  period 
of  incessant  crusading,  occupied  by  Crusades  of  every  kind. 
There  are  the  Third,  Fifth  and  Sixth  Crusades  against  the 
"  infidel  "  Mahommedans  encamped  in  the  Holy  Land;  there 
is  the  Albigensian  Crusade  against  the  heretic  Cathars;  there 
is  the  Fourth  Crusade,  directed  in  the  issue  against  the  schismatic 

'Stevenson  argues  (op.  cit.  p.  240)  that  this  truce  was  already 
practically  dissolved  before  Raynald  struck,  and  that  Raynald  s 

action  may  reasonably  be  viewed  as  the  practical  outcome  of  the 
feeling  of  a  party." 


538 


CRUSADES 


Greeks;  lastly,  there  are  the  Crusades  waged  by  the  papacy 
against  revolted  Christians — John  of  England  and  Frederick  II. 
Our  concern  lies  with  the  first  kind  of  Crusade,  and  with  the 
other  three  only  so  far  as  they  bear  on  the  first,  and  as  they 
illustrate  the  immense  widening  which  the  term  "  Crusade  " 
now  underwent — a  widening  accompanied  by  its  inevitable 
corollary  of  shallowness  of  motive  and  degradation  of  impulse. 

The  Third  Crusade,  1189-1192. — Conrad  of  Montferrat  was, 
as  much  as  any  one  man,  responsible  for  the  Third  Crusade. 
Compelled  to  leave  the  court  of  Constantinople,  which  he  had 
been  serving,  he  had  sailed  for  the  Holy  Land  and  reached  Tyre 
about  three  weeks  after  the  battle  of  Hattin.  He  had  saved 
Tyre;  and  from  it  he  sent  his  appeals  to  the  West.  Not  the  least 
effective  of  these  appeals  was  a  great  poster  which  he  had 
circulated  in  Europe,  and  which  represented  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
defiled  by  the  horses  of  the  Mahommedans.  Meanwhile  the 
papacy,  as  soon  as  the  news  reached  Rome,  despatched  encyclicals 
throughout  Europe;  and  soon  a  new  Crusade  was  in  full  swing. 
But  the  Third  Crusade,  unlike  the  First,  does  not  spring  from 
the  papacy,  which  was  passing  through  one  of  its  epochs  of 
depression;  it  springs  from  the  lay  power,  which,  represented 
by  the  three  strong  monarchies  of  Germany,  England  and 
France,  was  at  this  time  dominant  in  Europe.  In  Germany  it 
was  the  solemn  national  diet  of  Mainz  (Easter  1188)  which 
"  swore  the  expedition  "  to  the  Holy  Land;  in  France  and 
England  the  agreement  of  the  two  kings  decided  upon  a  joint 
Crusade.  The  very  means  which  Philip  Augustus  and  Henry  II. 
took,  in  order  to  further  the  Crusade,  show  its  lay  aspect.  A 
scheme  of  taxation — the  Saladin  tithe — was  imposed  on  all  who 
did  not  take  the  cross;  and  this  taxation,  while  on  the  one  hand 
it  drove  many  to  take  the  cross  in  order  to  escape  its  incidence, 
on  the  other  hand  provided  a  necessary  financial  basis  for  military 
operations.1  The  lay  basis  of  the  Third  Crusade  made  it,  in  one 
sense,  the  greatest  of  all  Crusades,  in  which  all  the  three  great 
monarchs  of  western  Europe  participated;  but  it  also  made  it 
a  failure,  for  the  kings  of  France  and  England,  changing  caelum, 
non  animum,  carried  their  political  rivalries  into  the  movement, 
in  which  it  had  been  agreed  that  they  should  be  sunk.  Spiritu- 
ally, therefore,  the  Third  Crusade  is  inferior  to  the  First,  however 
imposing  it  may  be  in  its  material  aspects.  Yet  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  idea  of  a  spiritual  regeneration  accompanied 
the  crusading  movement  of  1188.  Europe  had  sinned  in  the 
face  of  God;  otherwise  Jerusalem  would  never  have  fallen; 
and  the  idea  of  a  spiritual  reform  from  within,  as  the  necessary 
corollary  and  accompaniment  of  the  expedition  of  Christianity 
without,  breathes  in  some  of  the  papal  letters,  just  as,  during 
the  conciliar  movement,  the  causa  rcformationis  was  blended 
with  the  causa  unionis. 

We  may  conceive  of  the  Third  Crusade  under  the  figure  of 
a  number  of  converging  lines,  all  seeking  to  reach  a  common 
centre.  That  centre  is  Acre.  The  siege  of  Acre,  as  arduous  and 
heroic  in  many  of  its  episodes  as  the  siege  of  Troy,  had  been 
begun  in  the  summer  of  1189  by  Guy  de  Lusignan,  who,  captured 
by  Saladin  at  the  battle  of  Hattin,  and  released  on  parole,  had 
at  once  broken  his  word  and  returned  to  the  attack.  The  army 
which  was  besieging  Acre  was  soon  joined  by  various  contingents ; 
for  Acre,  after  all,  was  the  vital  point,  and  its  capture  would 
open  the  way  to  Jerusalem.  Two  of  these  contingents  alone 
concern  us  here — the  German  and  the  Anglo-French.  Frederick 
I.  of  Germany,  using  a  diplomacy  which  corresponds  to  the 
lay  character  of  the  Third  Crusade,  had  sought  to  prepare  his 
way  by  embassies  to  the  king  of  Hungary,  the  Eastern  emperor 
and  the  sultan  of  Iconium.  Starting  from  Regensburg  in  May 
1189,  the  German  army  marched  quietly  through  Hungary;  but 
difficulties  arose,  as  they  had  arisen  in  1147,  as  soon  as  the 
frontiers  of  the  Eastern  empire  were  reached.  The  emperor 
Isaac  Angelus  had  not  only  the  old  grudge  of  all  Eastern 

1  Th.e  "  economic  "  motive  for  taking  the  cross  was  strengthened 
by  the  papal  regulations  in  favour  of  debtors  who  joined  the  Crusade. 
Thousands  must  have  joined  the  Third  Crusade  in  order  to  escape 
paying  either  their  taxes  or  the  interest  on  their  debts;  and  the 
atmosphere  of  the  gold-digger's  camp  (or  of  the  cave  of  Adullam) 
must  have  begun  more  than  ever  to  characterize  the  crusading  armies. 


emperors  against  the  "  upstart  "  emperor  of  the  West;  he  had 
also  allied  himself  with  Saladin,  in  order  to  acquire  for  his 
empire  the  patronage  of  the  Holy  Places  and  religious  supremacy 
in  the  Levant.  The  difficulties  between  Frederick  and  Isaac 
Angelus  became  acute:  in  November  1189  Frederick  wrote 
to  his  son  Henry,  asking  him  to  induce  the  pope  to  preach  a 
Crusade  against  the  schismatic  Greeks.  But  terms  were  at  last 
arranged,  and  by  the  end  of  March  1190  the  Germans  had  all 
crossed  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor.  Taking  a  route  midway 
between  the  eastern  route  of  the  crusaders  of  1097  and  the 
westerh  route  of  Louis  VII.  in  1148,  Frederick  marched  by 
Philadelphia  and  Iconium,  not  without  dust  and  heat,  until  he 
reached  the  river  Salof,  in  Armenian  territory.  Here,  with  the 
burden  of  the  day  now  past,  the  fine  old  crusader — he  had  joined 
before  in  the  Second  Crusade,  forty  years  ago — perished  by 
accident  in  the  river;  and  of  all  his  fine  army  only  a  thousand 
men  won  their  way  through,  under  his  son,  Frederick  of  Swabia, 
to  join  the  ranks  before  Acre  (October  1 190).  The  Anglo-French 
detachment  achieved  a  far  greater  immediate  success.  War  had 
indeed  disturbed  the  original  agreement  of  Gisors  between 
Philip  Augustus  and  Henry  II.,  but  a  new  agreement  was  made 
between  Henry's  successor,  Richard  I.,  and  the  French  king  at 
Nonancourt  (December  1189),  by  which  the  two  monarchs  were 
to  meet  at  Vezelay  next  year,  and  then  follow  the  sea  route  to  the 
Holy  Land  together.  They  met,  and  by  different  routes  they 
both  reached  Sicily,  where  they  wintered  together  (1190-1191). 
The  enforced  inactivity  of  a  whole  winter  was  the  mother  of 
disputes  and  bad  blood;  and  when  Philip  sailed  for  the  Holy 
Land,  at  the  end  of  March  1191,  the  failure  of  the  Crusade  was 
already  decided.  Richard  soon  followed;  but  while  Philip 
sailed  straight  for  Acre,  Richard  occupied  himself  by  the  way 
in  conquering  Cyprus — partly  out  of  knight-errantry,  and  in 
order  to  avenge  an  insult  offered  to  his  betrothed  wife  Berengaria 
by  the  despot  of  the  island,  partly  perhaps  out  of  policy,  and 
in  order  to  provide  a  basis  of  supplies  and  of  operations  for  the 
armies  attempting  to  recover  Palestine.  In  any  case,  he  is  the 
founder  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Cyprus  (for  he  afterwards  sold 
his  new  acquisition  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  who  established  a 
dynasty  in  the  island);  and  thereby  he  made  possible  the 
survival  of  the  institutions  and  assizes  of  Jerusalem,  which 
were  continued  in  Cyprus  until  it  was  conquered  by  the  Ottoman 
Turks.  From  Cyprus  Richard  sailed  to  Acre,  arriving  on  the 
8th  of  June,  and  in  little  more  than  a  month  he  was  able,  in 
virtue  of  the  large  reinforcements  he  brought,  and  in  spite  of 
dissensions  in  the  Christian  camp  which  he  helped  to  foment, 
to  bring  the  two  years'  siege  to  a  successful  issue  (July  i2th, 
1191).  It  was  indeed  time;  the  privations  of  the  besiegers 
during  the  previous  winter  had  been  terrible;  and  the  position 
of  affairs  had  only  been  made  worse  by  the  dissensions  between 
Guy  de  Lusignan  and  Conrad  of  Montferrat,  who  had  begun  to 
claim  the  crown  in  return  for  his  services,  and  had,  on  the  death 
of  Sibylla,  the  wife  of  Guy,  reinforced  his  claim  by  a  marriage 
with  her  younger  sister,  Isabella.  In  these  dissensions  it  was 
inevitable  that  Philip  Augustus  and  Richard  I.,  already  dis- 
cordant, should  take  contrary  sides;  and  while  Richard  naturally 
sided  with  Guy  de  Lusignan,  who  came  from  his  own  county 
of  Poitou,  Philip  as  naturally  sided  with  Conrad.  At  the  end 
of  July  it  was  decided  that  Guy  should  remain  king  for  his  life, 
and  Conrad  should  be  his  successor;  but  as  three  days  after- 
wards Philip  Augustus  began  his  return  to  France  (pleading 
ill-health,  but  in  reality  eager  to  gain  possession  of  Flanders), 
the  settlement  availed  little  for  the  success  of  the  Crusade. 
Richard  stayed  in  the  Holy  Land  for  another  year,  during  which 
he  won  a  battle  at  Arsuf  and  refortified  Jaffa.  But  far  more 
important  than  any  hostilities  are  the  negotiations  which,  for 
the  whole  year,  Richard  conducted  with  Saladin.  They  show 
the  lay  aspect  of  the  Third  Crusade;  they  anticipate  the  Crusade 
of  Frederick  II. — for  Richard  was  attempting  to  secure 
the  same  concessions  which  Frederick  secured  by  the  same 
means  which  he  used.  They  show  again  the  closer  approxi- 
mation and  better  understanding  with  the  Mahommedans, 
which  marks  this  Crusade.  Nothing  is  more  striking  in  these 


CRUSADES 


539 


respects  than  Richard's  proposal  that  Saladin's  brother  shouk 
marry  his  own  sister  Johanna  and  receive  Jerusalem  and  the 
contiguous  towns  on  the  coast.  In  the  event,  a  peace  was  made 
for  three  years  (September  2nd,  1192),  by  which  Lydda  anc 
Ramlah  were  to  be  equally  divided,  Ascalon  was  to  be  destroyed 
and  small  bodies  of  crusaders  were  to  be  allowed  to  visit  the 
Holy  Sepulchre.  Meanwhile  Conrad  of  Montferrat,  at  the  very 
instant  when  his  superior  ability  had  finally  forced  Richard  to 
recognize  him  as  king,  had  been  assassinated  (April  1192) 
Guy  de  Lusignan  had  bought  Cyprus  from  Richard,  and  hac 
sailed  away  to  establish  himself  there ; *  and  Henry  oi 
Champagne,  Richard's  nephew,  had  been  called  to  the  throne  ol 
Jerusalem,  and  had  given  himself  a  title  by  marrying  Conrad's 
widow,  Isabella.  In  this  condition  Richard  left  the  Holy  Land 
when  he  began  his  eventful  return,  in  October  1192.  The 
Crusade  hart  failed — failed  because  a  leaderless  army,  torn  by 
political  dissensions  and  fighting  on  a  foreign  soil,  could  not 
succeed  against  forces  united  by  religious  zeal  under  the  banner 
of  a  leader  like  Saladin.  Yet  it  had  at  any  rate  saved  for  the 
Christians  the  principality  of  Antioch,  the  county  of  Tripoli, 
and  some  of  the  coast  towns  of  the  kingdom;2  and  if  it  had 
failed  to  accomplish  its  object,  it  had  left  behind,  none  the  less, 
many  important  results.  The  difficulties  which  had  arisen 
between  Isaac  Angelus  and  Frederick  Barbarossa  contain  the 
germs  of  the  Fourth  Crusade;  the  negotiations  between  Richard 
and  Saladin  contain  the  germs  of  the  Sixth.  National  rivalries 
had  been  accentuated  and  national  differences  brought  into 
prominence  by  the  meeting  of  the  nations  in  a  common  enter- 
prise; while,  on  the  other  hand,  Mahommedans  and  Christians 
had  fraternized  as  they  had  never  done  before  during  the  progress 
of  a  Crusade.  But  what  the  Third  Crusade  showed  most  clearly 
was  that  the  crusading  movement  was  being  lost  to  the  papacy, 
and  becoming  part  of  the  demesne  of  the  secular  state — organized 
by  the  state  on  its  own  basis  of  taxation,  and  conducted  by  the 
state  according  to  its  own  method  of  negotiation.  This  after  all 
is  the  great  change ;  and  even  the  genius  of  an  Innocent  III. 
"  could  not  make  undone  what  had  once  been  done."  On  the 

1  The  Crusades  in  their  course  established  a  number  of  new  states 
or  kingdoms.  The  First  Crusade  established  the  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem (lioo);  the  Third,  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  (1195);  the 
Fourth,  the  Latin  empire  of  Constantinople  (1204) ;  while  the  long 
Crusade  of  the  Teutonic  knights  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  led  to  the 
rise  of  a  new  state  east  of  the  Vistula.  The  kingdom  of  Lesser 
Armenia,  established  in  1195,  may  also  be  regarded  as  a  result  of 
the  Crusades.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  is  part  of 
the  history  of  the  Crusades:  the  history  of  the  other  kingdoms  or 
states  touches  the  history  of  the  Crusades  less  vitally.  But  the 
history  of  Cyprus  is  particularly  important — and  for  two  reasons. 
In  the  first  place,  Cyprus  was  a  natural  and  excellent  basis  of  opera- 
tions; it  sent  provisions  to  the  crusaders  in  1191,  and  again  at  the 
siege  of  Damietta  in  1219,  while  its  advantages  as  a  strategic  basis 
were  proved  by  the  exploits  of  Peter  of  Cyprus  in  the  I4th  century. 
In  the  second  place,  as  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  fell,  its 
institutions  and  assizes  were  transplanted  bodily  to  Cyprus,  where 
they  survived  until  the  island  was  conquered  by  the  Ottoman  Turks. 
But  the  monarchy  was  stronger  in  Cyprus  than  in  Jerusalem :  the 
fiefs  were  distributed  by  the  monarch,  and  were  smaller  in  extent; 
while  the  feudatories  had  neither  the  collective  powers  of  the  haute 
cour  of  Jerusalem,  nor  the  individual  privileges  (such  as  jurisdiction 
over  the  bourgeoisie),  which  had  been  enjoyed  by  the  feudatories 
of  the  old  kingdom.  Till  1489  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  survived  as  an 
independent  monarchy,  and  its  capital,  Famagusta,  was  an  important 
centre  of  trade  after  the  loss  of  the  coast-towns  in  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.  In  1489  it  was  acquired  by  Venice,  which  claimed  the 
island  on  the  death  of  the  last  king,  having  adopted  his  widow  (a 
Venetian  lady  named  Catarina  Cornaro)  as  a  daughter  of  the  republic. 
On  the  history  of  Cyprus,  see  Stubbs,  Lectures  on  Medieval  and 
Modern  History,  156-208.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  is 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Cyprus.  The  Armenians  in  the 
south-east  of  Asia  Minor  borrowed  feudal  institutions  from  the  Franks 
and  the  feudal  vocabulary  itself.  The  kingdom  was  involved  in  a 
struggle  with  Antioch  in  the  early  part  of  the  I3th  century.  Later, 
it  allied  itself  with  the  Mongols  and  fought  against  the  Mamelukes, 
to  whom,  however,  it  finally  succumbed  in  1375. 

2  The  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  is  thus  from  1192.  to  its  final  fall  a 
strip  of  coast,  to  which  it  is  the  object  of  kings  and  crusaders  to 
annex  Jerusalem  and  a  line  of  communication  connecting  it  with 
the  coast.  This  was  practically  the  aim  of  Richard  I.'s  negotiations ; 
and  this  was  what  Frederick  II.  for  a  time  secured. 


contrary,  the  thing  once  done  would  go  further;  and  the  state 
would  take  up  the  name  of  Crusade  in  order  to  cover,  and  under 
such  cover  to  achieve,  its  own  objects  and  ambitions,  as  in  the 
future  it  was  destined  again  and  again  to  do. 

The  Fourth  Crusade,  1202-1204.— The  history  of  the  Fourth 
Crusade  is  a  history  of  the  predominance  of  the  lay  motive,  of 
the  attempt  of  the  papacy  to  escape  from  that  predominance, 
and  to  establish  its  old  direction  of  the  Crusade,  and  of  the 
complete  failure  of  its  attempt.     Until  the  accession  of  Innocent 
III.  in  1198  the  lay  motive  was  supreme;  and  its  representative 
was  Henry  VI. — the  greatest  politician  of  his  day,  and  in  many 
ways  the  greatest  emperor  since  Charlemagne.     In  1 195  Amalric, 
the  brother  of  Guy  de  Lusignan,  and  his  successor  in  Cyprus, 
sought  the  title  of  king  from  Henry  and  did  homage;  and  at 
the  same  time  Leo  of  Lesser  Armenia,  in  order  to  escape  from 
dependence  on  the  Eastern  empire,  took  the  same  course.     Henry 
thus  gained  a  basis  in  the  Levant;  while  the  death  of  Saladin 
in  1193,  followed  by  a  civil  war  between  his  brother,  Malik-al- 
Adil,  and  his  sons  for  the  possession  of  his  dominions,  weakened 
the  position  of  the  Mahommedans.     As  emperor,  Henry  was 
eager  to  resume  the  imperial  Crusade  which  had  been  stopped 
by  his  father's  death;  while  both  as  Frederick's  successor  and 
as  heir  to  the  Norman  kings  of  Sicily,  who  had  again  and  again 
waged  war  against  the  Eastern  empire,  he  had  an  account  to 
settle  with   the  rulers  of  Constantinople.     The  project  of  a 
Crusade  and  of  an  attack  on  Constantinople  wove  themselves 
into  a  single  thread,  in  a  way  which  very  definitely  anticipates 
the  Fourth  Crusade  of  1202-1204.     In  H95  Henry  took  the 
cross;  some  time  before,  he  had  already  sent  to  Isaac  Angelus 
to  demand  compensation  for  the  injuries  done  to  Frederick  I., 
along  with  the  cession  of  all  territories  ever  conquered  by  the 
Norman  kings  of  Sicily,  and  a  fleet  to  co-operate  with  the  new 
Crusade.     In  the  same  year,  however,  Isaac  was  dethroned  by 
his  brother,  Alexius  III.;  but  Henry  married  Isaac's  daughter 
Irene  to  his  brother,  Philip  of  Swabia,  and  thus  attempted  to 
give  the  Hohenstaufen  a  new  title  and  a  valid  claim  against  the 
usurper  Alexius.     Thus  armed  he  pushed  forward  the  prepara- 
tions for  the  Crusade  in  Germany — a  Crusade  whose  first  object 
would  have  been  an  attack  on  Alexius  III.;  but  in  the  middle 
of  his  preparations  he  died  in  Sicily  in  the  autumn  of  1197,  and 
the  Crusade  collapsed.     Some  results  were,  however,  achieved 
by  a  body  of  German  crusaders  which  had  sailed  in  advance  of 
Henry;  by  its  influence  Amalric  of  Cyprus  succeeded  Henry  of 
Champagne,  who  died  in  1197,  as  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  vassal 
of  the  emperor  thus  became  ruler  in  the  Holy  Land;  while 
the  Teutonic  order,  which  had  begun  as  a  hospital  during  the 
siege  of  Acre  (1190-1191),  now  received  its  organization.     Some 
of  the  coast  towns,  too,  were  recovered  by  the  German  crusaders, 
especially  Beirut;  and  in  1198  the  new  king  Amalric  II.  was 
able  to  make  a  truce  with  Malik-al-Adil  for  the  next  five  years. 

"  The  true  heir  of  Henry  VI.,"  Ranke  has  said,  "  is  Innocent 
III.,"  and  nowhere  is  this  more  true  than  in  respect  of  the 
crusading  movement.  Throughout  the  course  of  his  crowded 
and  magnificent  pontificate,  Innocent  III.  made  the  Crusade  his 
ultimate  object,  and  attempted  to  bring  it  back  to  its  old  religious 
basis  and  under  its  old  papal  direction.  By  the  spring  of  1 200, 
owing  to  Innocent's  exertions,  a  new  Crusade  was  in  full  progress, 
especially  in  France,  where  Fulk  of  Neuilly  played  the  part  once 
played  by  Peter  the  Hermit.  Like  the  First  Crusade,  the  Fourth 
Crusade  also — in  its  personnel,  but  not  its  direction — was  a 
French  enterprise;  and  its  leading  members  were  French 
eudatories  like  Theobald  of  Champagne  (who  was  chosen  leader 
of  the  Crusade),  Baldwin  of  Flanders  (the  future  emperor  of 
Constantinople),  and  the  count  of  Blois.  The  objective,  which 
;hese  three  original  chiefs  of  the  Fourth  Crusade  proposed  to 
hemselves,  was  Egypt.3  Since  1 163  the  importance  of  acquiring 
Sgypt  had,  as  we  have  seen,  been  definitely  understood,  and 

3  M.  Luchaire,  in  the  volume  of  his  biography  of  Innocent  III. 

:alled  La  Question  d'Orient,  shows  how,  in  spite  of  the  pope,  the 

•"ourth  Crusade  was  in  its  very  beginnings  a  lay  enterprise.     The 

crusading  barons  of  France  chose  their  own  leader,  and  determined 

heir  own  route,  without  consulting  Innocent. 


540 


CRUSADES 


in  the  summer  of  1192  Richard  I.  had  been  advised  by  his 
counsellors  that  Cairo  and  not  Jerusalem  was  the  true  point  of 
attack;  while  in  1200  there  was  the  additional  reason  for 
preferring  an  attack  on  Egypt,  that  the  truce  in  the  Holy  Land 
between  Amalric  II.  and  Malik-al-Adil  had  still  three  years  to 
run.  It  is  Egypt  therefore — to  which,  it  must  be  remembered, 
the  centre  of  Mahommedan  power  had  now  been  virtually 
shifted,  and  to  which  motives  of  trade  impelled  the  Italian 
towns  (since  from  it  they  could  easily  reach  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  commerce  of  the  Indian  Ocean) — it  is  Egypt  which  is  hence- 
forth the  normal  goal  of  the  Crusades.  This  is  one  of  the 
many  facts  which  differentiate  the  Crusades  of  the  I3th  from 
those  of  the  preceding  century.  But,  with  Syria  in  the  hands 
of  the  Mahommedans,  the  attack  on  Egypt  must  necessarily 
be  directed  by  sea;  and  thus  the  Crusade  henceforth  becomes — 
what  the  Third  Crusade,  here  as  elsewhere  the  turning-point  in 
crusading  history,  had  already  in  part  been — a  maritime  enter- 
prise. Accordingly,  early  in  1201,  envoys  from  each  of  the  three 
chiefs  of  the  Fourth  Crusade  (among  whom  was  Villehardouin, 
the  historian  of  the  Crusade)  came  to  Venice  to  negotiate  for 
a  passage  to  Egypt.  An  agreement  was  made  between  the  doge 
and  the  envoys,  by  which  transport  and  active  help  were  to  be 
given  by  Venice  in  return  for  85,000  marks  and  the  cession  of 
half  of  the  conquests  made  by  the  crusaders.  But  the  Fourth 
Crusade  was  not  to  be  plain  sailing  to  Egypt.  It  became  involved 
in  a  maelstrom  of  conflicting  political  motives,  by  which  it  was 
swept  to  Constantinople.  Here  we  must  distinguish  between 
cause  and  occasion.  There  were  three  great  causes  which  made 
for  an  attack  on  Constantinople  by  the  West.  There  was  first 
of  all  the  old  crusading  grudge  against  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
its  fatal  policy  of  regarding  the  whole  of  the  Levant  as  its  lost 
provinces,  to  be  restored  as  soon  as  conquered,  or  at  any  rate  held 
in  fee,  by  the  Western  crusaders — a  policy  which  led  the  Eastern 
emperors  either  to  give  niggardly  aid  or  to  pursue  obstructive 
tactics,  and  caused  them  to  be  blamed  for  the  failure  of  the 
Crusades  in  1101,  and  1149,  and  in  1190.  It  is  significant  of  the 
final  result  of  these  things  that  already  in  1147  Roger  of  Sicily, 
engaged  in  war  with  Manuel,  had  proposed  the  sea-route  for 
the  Second  Crusade,  perhaps  with  some  intention  of  diverting 
it  against  Constantinople;  and  in  the  winter  of  1189-1190 
Barbarossa,  as  we  have  seen,  had  actually  thought  and  spoken 
of  an  attack  on  Constantinople.  In  the  second  place,  there  was 
the  commercial  grudge  of  Venice,  which  had  only  been  given 
large  privileges  by  the  Eastern  empire  to  desire  still  larger, 
and  had,  moreover,  been  annoyed  not  only  by  alterations 
or  revocations  of  those  privileges,  such  as  the  usurper 
Alexius  III.  had  but  recently  attempted,  but  also  by  the 
temporary  destruction  of  their  colony  in  Constantinople  in  1171. 
Lastly,  and  perhaps  most  of  all,  there  is  the  old  Norman  blood- 
feud  with  Constantinople,  as  old  as  the  old  Norse  seeking  for 
Micklegarth,  and  keen  and  deadly  ever  since  the  Norman 
conquest  of  the  Greek  themes  in  South  Italy  (1041  onwards). 
The  heirs  of  the  Norman  kings  were  the  Hohenstaufen;  and 
we  have  already  seen  Henry  VI.  planning  a  Crusade  which 
would  primarily  have  been  directed  against  Constantinople. 
It  is  this  Hohenstaufen  policy  which  becomes  the  primary 
occasion  of  the  diversion  of  the  Fourth  Crusade.  Philip  of 
Swabia,  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the  papacy,  found  Innocent 
III.  planning  a  Guelph  Crusade,  which  should  be  under  the 
direction  of  the  church;  and  to  this  Guelph  project  he  opposed 
the  Ghibelline  plan  of  Henry  VI.,  with  such  success  that  he 
transmuted  the  Fourth  Crusade  into  a  political  expedition  against 
Constantinople.  To  such  a  policy  of  transmutation  he  was 
urged  by  two  things.  On  the  one  hand,  the  death  of  the  count 
of  Champagne  (May  1201)  had  induced  the  crusaders  to  elect 
as  their  leader  Boniface  of  Montferrat,  the  brother  of  Conrad; 
and  Boniface  was  the  cousin  of  Philip,  and  interested  in  Con- 
stantinople, where  not  only  Conrad,  but  another  brother  as  well, 
had  served,  and  suffered  for  their  service  at  the  hands  of  their 
masters.  On  the  other  hand  Alexius,  the  son  of  the  dethroned 
Isaac  Angelus,  was  related  to  Philip  through  his  marriage  with 
Irene;  and  Alexius  had  escaped  to  the  German  court  to  urge 


the  restoration  of  his  father.  On  Christmas  day  1201,  Philip, 
Alexius  and  Boniface  all  met  at  Hagenau1  and  formulated 
(one  may  suppose)  a  plan  for  the  diversion  of  the  Crusade. 
Events  played  into  their  hands.  When  the  crusaders  gathered 
at  Venice  in  the  autumn  of  1 202,  it  was  found  impossible  to  get 
together  the  85,000  marks  promised  to  Venice.  The  Venetians — 
already,  perhaps,  indoctrinated  in  the  Hohenstaufen  plan — 
indicated  to  the  leaders  a  way  of  meeting  the  difficulty:  they 
had  only  to  lend  their  services  to  the  republic  for  certain  ends 
which  it  desired  to  compass,  and  the  debt  was  settled.  The 
conquest  of  Zara,  a  port  on  the  Adriatic  claimed  by  the  Venetians 
from  the  king  of  Hungary,  was  the  only  object  overtly  mentioned; 
but  the  idea  of  the  expedition  to  Constantinople  was  in  the 
air,  and  the  crusaders  knew  what  was  ultimately  expected. 
It  took  time  and  effort  to  bring  them  round  to  the  diversion: 
the  pope — naturally  enough — set  his  face  sternly  against  the 
project,  the  more  as  the  usurper,  Alexius  III.,  was  in  negotiation 
with  him  in  order  to  win  his  support  against  the  Hohenstaufen, 
and  Innocent  hoped  to  find,  as  Alexius  promised,  a  support  and 
a  reinforcement  for  the  Crusade  in  an  alliance  with  the  Greek 
empire.  But  they  came  round  none  the  less,  in  spite  of  Innocent's 
renewed  prohibitions.  In  November  1202  Zara  was  taken; 
and  at  Zara  the  fatal- decision  was  made.  The  young  Alexius 
joined  the  army;  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  stern  crusaders 
like  Simon  de  Montfort,  who  sailed  away  ultimately  to  Palestine, 
he  succeeded  by  large  promises  in  inducing  the  army  to  follow 
in  his  train  to  Constantinople.  By  the  middle  of  July  1203 
Constantinople  was  reached,  the  usurper  was  in  flight,  and  Isaac 
Angelus  was  restored  to  his  throne.  But  when  the  time  came 
for  Alexius  to  fulfil  his  promises,  the  difficulty  which  had  arisen 
at  Venice  in  the  autumn  of  1202  repeated  itself.  Alexius's 
resources  were  insufficient,  and  he  had  to  beg  the  crusaders  to 
wait  at  Constantinople  for  a  year  in  order  that  he  might  have 
time.  They  waited;  but  the  closer  contact  of  a  prolonged 
stay  only  brought  into  fuller  play  the  essential  antipathy  of  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin.  Continual  friction  developed  at  last  into 
the  open  fire  of  war;  and  in  March  1204  the  crusaders  resolved 
to  storm  Constantinople,  and  to  divide  among  themselves  the 
Eastern  empire.  In  April  Constantinople  was  captured;  in 
May  Baldwin  of  Flanders  became  the  first  Latin  emperor  of 
Constantinople.  Venice  had  her  own  reward;  a  Venetian, 
Thomas  Morosini,  became  patriarch;  and  the  doge  of  Venice 
added  "  a  quarter  and  a  half  "  of  the  Eastern  empire — chiefly 
the  coasts  and  the  islands — to  the  sphere  of  his  sway.  If 
Venetian  cupidity  had  not  originally  deflected  the  Crusade  (and 
it  was  the  view  of  contemporary  writers  that  Venice  had  com- 
mitted her  first  treason  against  Christianity  by  diverting  the 
Crusade  from  Egypt  in  order  to  get  commercial  concessions 
from  Malik-al-Adil,2  yet  it  had  at  any  rate  profited  exceedingly 
from  that  deflection;  and  the  Hohenstaufen  and  their  prot£g6 
Alexius  only  reaped  dust  and  ashes.  For,  however  Ghibelline 
might  be  the  original  intention,  the  result  was  not  commensurate 
with  the  subtlety  of  the  design,  and  the  power  of  the  pope  was 
rather  increased  than  diminished  by  the  event  of  the  Crusade. 
The  crusaders  appealed  to  Innocent  to  ratify  the  subjugation  of 
a  schismatic  people,  and  the  union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches;  and  Innocent,  dazzled  by  the  magic  of  the  fait 
accompli,  not  unwillingly  acquiesced.  He  might  soothe  himself 
by  reflecting  that  the  basis  for  the  Crusade,  which  he  had  hoped 
to  find  in  Alexius  III.,  was  still  more  securely  offered  by  Baldwin; 
he  could  not  but  feel  with  pride  that  he  had  become  "  as  it  were 
pope  and  apostolicus  of  a  second  world."  Yet  the  result  of  the 
Fourth  Crusade  was  en  the  whole  disastrous  both  for  the  papacy 
and  for  the  crusading  movement.  The  pope  had  been  forced  to 

1  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  some  doubt  whether  Alexius  arrived 
in  Germany  before  the  spring  of  1202.  But  there  seems  to  be  little 
doubt  of  Philip's  complicity  in  the  diversion  of  the  Fourth  Crusade 
to  Constantinople  (cf.  M.  Luchaire,  La  Question  d'Orient,  pp.  84-86). 

1  It  is  true  that  in  1208  Venice  received  commercial  concessions 
from  the  court  of  Cairo.  But  this  ex  post  facto  argument  is  the  sole 
proof  of  this  view ;  and  it  is  quite  insufficient  to  prove  the  accusation. 
Venice  is  not  the  primary  agent  in  the  deflection  of  the  Fourth 
Crusade. 


CRUSADES 


see  the  helm  of  the  Crusades  wrenched  from  his  grasp;  and  the 
Albigensiasi  Crusade  against  the  heretics  of  southern  France 
was  soon  afterwards  to  show  that  the  example  could  be  followed, 
and  that  the  land-hunger  of  the  north  French  baronage  could 
exploit  a  Crusade  as  successfully  as  ever  did  Hohenstaufen 
policy  leagued  with  Venetian  cupidity.  The  Crusade  lost  its 
flan  when  it  became  a  move  in  a  political  game.  If  the  Third 
Crusade  had  been  directed  by  the  lay  power  towards  the  true 
spiritual  end  of  all  Crusades,  the  Fourth  was  directed  by  the  lay 
power  to  its  own  lay  ends;  and  the  political  and  commercial 
motives,  which  were  deeply  implicit  even  in  the  First  Crusade, 
had  now  become  dominantly  explicit.  In  a  simpler  and  more 
immediate  sense,  the  capture  of  Constantinople  was  detrimental 
to  the  movement  from  which  it  sprang.  The  precarious  empire 
which  had  been  founded  in  1204  drained  away  all  the  vigorous 
adventurers  of  the  West  for  its  support  for  many  years  to  come, 
and  the  Holy  Land  was  starved  to  feed  a  land  less  holy,  but 
equally  greedy  of  men.1  No  basis  for  the  Crusades  was  ever  to 
be  found  in  the  Latin  empire  of  the  East;  and  Innocent,  after 
vainly  hoping  for  the  new  Crusade  which  was  to  emerge  from 
Constantinople,  was  by  1 208  compelled  to  return  to  the  old  idea 
of  a  Crusade  proceeding  simply  and  immediately  from  the  West 
to  the  East. 

The  Fifth  Crusade,  1218-1221. — The  glow  and  the  glamour  of 
the  Crusades  disappear  save  for  the  pathetic  sunset  splendours 
of  St  Louis,  as  Dandolo  dies,  and  gallant  Villehardouin  drops 
his  pen.  But  before  St  Louis  sailed  for  Damietta  there  inter- 
vened the  miserable  failure  of  one  Crusade,  and  the  secular  and 
diplomatic  success  of  another.  The  Fifth  Crusade  is  the  last 
which  is  started  in  that  pontificate  of  Crusades — the  pontificate 
of  Innocent  III.  It  owed  its  origin  to  his  feverish  zeal  for  the 
recovery  of  Jerusalem,  rather  than  to  any  pressing  need  in  the 
Holy  Land.  Here  there  reigned,  during  the  forty  years  of  the 
loss  of  Jerusalem,  an  almost  unbroken  peace.  Malik-al-Adil, 
the  brother  of  Saladin,  had  by  1200  succeeded  to  his  brother's 
possessions  not  only  in  Egypt  but  also  in  Syria,  and  he  granted 
the  Christians  a  series  of  truces  (1198-1203,  1204-1210,  1211— 
1217).  While  the  Holy  Land  was  thus  at  peace,  crusaders  were 
also  being  drawn  elsewhere  by  the  needs  of  the  Latin  empire  of 
Constantinople,  or  the  attractions  of  the  Albigensian  Crusade.2 
But  Innocent  could  never  consent  to  forget  Jerusalem,  as  long 
as  his  right  hand  retained  its  cunning.  The  pathos  of  the 
Children's  Crusade  of  1212  only  nerved  him  to  fresh  efforts. 
A  shepherd  boy  named  Stephen  had  appeared  in  France,  and 
had  induced  thousands  to  follow  his  guidance:  with  his 
boyish  army  he  rode  on  a  wagon  southward  to  Marseilles, 
promising  to  lead  his  followers  dry-shod  through  the  seas.  In 
Germany  a  child  from  Cologne,  named  Nicolas,  gathered  some 
20,000  young  crusaders  by  the  like  promises,  and  led  them  into 
Italy.  Stephen's  army  was  kidnapped  by  slave-dealers  and 
sold  into  Egypt;  while  Nicolas's  expedition  left  nothing  behind 
it  but  an  after-echo  in  the  legend  of  the  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin. 
But  for  Innocent  these  outbursts  of  the  revivalist  element, 
which  always  accompanied  the  Crusades,  had  their  moral: 
"  the  very  children  put  us  to  shame,"  he  wrote;  "  while  we  sleep 

'Already  under  Innocent  III.  the  benefits  of  the  Crusade  were 
promised  to  those  who  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Latin  empire 
of  the  East. 

2  In  1208  Innocent  excommunicated  Raymund  VI.  of  Toulouse  on 
account  of  the  murder  of  a  papal  legate  who  was  attempting  to 
suppress  Manichaeism,  and  offered  all  Catholics  the  right  to  occupy 
and  guard  his  territories.  Thus  was  begun  the  First  Crusade  against 
heresy.  Raymund  at  once  submitted  to  the  pope,  but  the  Crusade 
continued  none  the  less,  because,  as  Luchaire  says,  "  the  baronage 
of  the  north  and  centre  of  France  had  finished  their  preparations," 
and  were  resolved  to  annex  the  rich  lands  of  the  south.  In  this  way 
land-hunger  exploited  the  Albigensian,  as  political  and  commercial 
motives  had  helped  to  exploit  the  Fourth  Crusade;  and  in  the 
former,  as  in  the  latter,  Innocent  had  reluctantly  to  consent  to  the 
results  of  the  secular  motives  which  had  infected  a  spiritual  enter- 
prise. The  Albigensian  Crusades,  however,  belong  to  French  history ; 
and  it  can  only  be  noted  here  that  their  ultimate  result  was  the 
absorption  of  the  fertile  lands,  and  the  extinction  of  the  peculiar 
civilization,  of  southern  France  by  the  northern  monarchy.  (See  the 
article  ALBIGENSES.) 


they  go  forth  gladly  to  conquer  the  Holy  Land."  In  the  fourth 
Lateran  council  of  1215  Innocent  found  his  opportunity  to 
rekindle  the  flickering  fires.  Before  this  great  gathering  of  all 
Christian  Europe  he  proclaimed  a  Crusade  for  the  year  1217, 
and  in  common  deliberation  it  was  resolved  that  a  truce  of  God 
should  reign  for  the  next  four  years,  while  for  the  same  time  all 
trade  with  the  Levant  should  cease.  Here  were  two  things 
attempted — neither,  indeed,  for  the  first  time3 — which  I4th 
century  pamphleteers  on  the  subject  of  the  Crusades  unanimously 
advocate  as  the  necessary  conditions  of  success;  there  was  to  be 
peace  in  Europe  and  a  commercial  war  with  Egypt.  This 
statesmanlike  beginning  of  a  Crusade,  preached,  as  no  Crusade 
had  ever  been  preached  before,  in  a  general  council  of  all  Europe, 
presaged  well  for  its  success.  In  Germany  (where  Frederick  II. 
himself  took  the  cross  in  this  same  year)  a  large  body  of  crusaders 
gathered  together:  in  1217  the  south-east  sent  the  duke  of 
Austria  and  the  king  of  Hungary  to  the  Holy  Land;  while  in 
1218  an  army  from  the  north-west  joined  at  Acre  the  forces  of 
the  previous  year.  Egypt  had  already  been  indicated  by  Innocent 
III.  in  1215  as  the  goal  of  attack,  and  it  was  accordingly  resolved 
to  begin  the  Crusade  by  the  siege  of  Damietta,  on  the  eastern 
delta  of  the  Nile.  The  original  leader  of  the  Crusade  was  John 
of  Brienne,  king  of  Jerusalem  (who  had  succeeded  Amalric  II., 
marrying  Maria,  the  daughter  of  Amalric's  wife  Isabella  by  her 
former  husband,  Conrad  of  Montferrat) ;  but  after  the  end  of 
1218  the  cardinal  legate  Pelagius,  fortified  by  papal  letters, 
claimed  the  command.  In  spite  of  dissensions  between  the 
cardinal  and  the  king,  and  in  spite  of  the  offers  of  Malik-al-Kamil 
(who  succeeded  Malik-al-Adil  at  the  end  of  1218),  the  crusaders 
finally  carried  the  siege  to  a  successful  conclusion  by  the  end  of 
1219.  The  capture  of  Damietta  was  a  considerable  feat  of  arms, 
but  nothing  was  done  to  clinch  the  advantage  which  had  been 
won,  and  the  whole  of  the  year  1220  was  spent  by  the  crusaders 
in  Damietta,  partly  in  consolidating  their  immediate  position, 
and  partly  in  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  Frederick  II.,  who  had 
promised  to  appear  in  1221.  In  1221  Hermann  of  Salza,  the 
master  of  the  Teutonic  order,  along  with  the  duke  of  Bavaria, 
appeared  in  the  camp  before  Damietta;  and  as  it  seemed  useless 
to  wait  any  longer  for  Frederick  II.,4  the  cardinal,  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  King  John,  gave  the  signal  for  the  march  on 
Cairo.  The  army  reached  a  fortress  (erected  by  the  sultan  in 
I2i9(afterwards,  from  1221,  the  town  of  Mansura),and  encamped 
there  at  the  end  of  July.  Here  the  sultan  reiterated  terms  which 
he  had  already  offered  several  times  before — the  cession  of  most 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  the  surrender  of  the  cross  (captured 
by  Saladin  in  1187),  and  the  restoration  of  all  prisoners.  King 
John  urged  the  acceptance  of  these  terms.  The  legate  insisted 
on  a  large  indemnity  in  addition:  the  negotiations  failed,  and 
the  sultan  prepared  for  war.  The  crusaders  were  driven  back 
towards  Damietta;  and  at  the  end  of  August  1221  Pelagius 
had  to  make  a  treaty  with  Malik-al-Kamil,  by  which  he  gained 
a  free  retreat  and  the  surrender  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  the  price 
of  the  restoration  of  Damietta.  The  treaty  was  to  last  for  eight 
years,  and  could  only  be  broken  on  the  coming  of  a  king  or 
emperor  to  the  East.  In  pursuance  of  its  terms  the  crusaders 
evacuated  Egypt,  and  the  Fifth  Crusade  was  at  an  end.  It  is 
difficult  to  decide  whether  to  blame  the  legate  or  the  emperor 
more  for  its  failure.  If  Frederick  had  only  come  in  person,  a 
single  month  of  his  presence  might  have  meant  everything: 
if  Pelagius  had  only  listened  to  King  John,  the  sultan  was  ready 
to  concede  practically  everything  which  was  at  issue.  Unhappily 
Frederick  preferred  to  put  his  Sicilian  house  in  order,  and  the 
legate  preferred  to  listen  to  the  Italians,  who  had  their  own 

*  A  canon  of  the  third  Lateran  council  (1179)  forbade  traffic  with 
the  Saracens  in  munitions  of  war;  and  this  canon  had  been  renewed 
by  Innocent  in  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate. 

4  He  had  promised  the  pope,  at  his  coronation  in  1220,  to  begin 
his  Crusade  in  August  1221.  But  he  declared  himself  exhausted  by 
the  expenses  of  his  coronation;  and  Honorius  III.  consented  to 
defer  his  Crusade  until  March  1 222.  The  letter  of  the  pope  informing 
Pelagius  of  this  delay  is  dated  the  aoth  of  June :  it  would  probably 
reach  his  hands  after  his  departure  from  Damietta ;  and  thus  the 
Cardinal  gave  the  signal  for  the  march,  when,  as  he  thought,  the 
emperor's  coming  was  imminent. 


542 


CRUSADES 


commercial  reasons  for  wishing  to  establish  a  strong  position 
in  Egypt,  and  to  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers,  who  did  not 
feel  satisfied  by  the  terms  offered  by  the  sultan,  because  he  wished 
to  retain  in  his  hands  the  two  fortresses  of  Krak  and  Monreal. 

The  Sixth  Crusade  (1228-1229)  succeeded  as  signally  as  the 
Fifth  Crusade  had  failed;  but  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
took  place  and  the  means  by  which  it  was  conducted  made  its 
success,  still  more  disastrous  than  the  failure  of  1221.  The  last 
Crusade  had,  after  all,  been  under  papal  control:  if  Richard  I. 
had  directed  the  Third  Crusade,  and  the  policy  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen  and  the  Venetians  had  directed  the  Fourth,  it  was  a  papal 
legate  who  had  steered  the  Fifth  to  its  ultimate  fate.  The 
Crusade  of  Frederick  II.  in  1228-1229  finds  its  analogy  in  the 
projected  Crusade  of  Henry  VI.;  it  is  essentially  lay.  It  is 
unique  in  the  annals  of  the  Crusades.  Alone  of  all  Crusades 
(though  the  Fourth  Crusade  offers  some  analogy)  it  was  not 
blessed  but  cursed  by  the  papacy:  alone  of  all  the  Crusades 
it  was  conducted  without  a  single  act  of  hostility  against  the 
Mahommedan.  St  Louis,  the  true  type  of  the  religious  crusader, 
once  said  that  a  layman  ought  only  to  argue  with  a  blasphemer 
against  Christian  law  by  running  his  sword  into  the  bowels  of 
the  blasphemer  as  far  as  it  would  go:1  Frederick  II.  talked 
amicably  with  all  unbelievers,  if  one  may  trust  Arabic  accounts, 
and  he  achieved  by  mere  negotiation  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem, 
for  which  men  had  vainly  striven  with  the  sword  for  the  forty 
years  since  1187.  It  was  in  1215  that  the  leader  of  this  strange 
Crusade  had  first  taken  the  vow ;  it  was  twelve  years  afterwards 
when  he  finally  attempted  to  carry  the  vow  into  effective  execu- 
tion. Again  and  again  he  had  excused  himself  to  the  pope,  and 
been  excused  by  the  pope,  because  the  exigencies  of  his  policy 
in  Germany  or  Sicily  tied  his  hands.  After  the  failure  of  the 
Fifth  Crusade — for  which  these  delays  were  in  part  responsible — 
HonoriusIII.  had  attempted  to  bind  him  more  intimately  to 
the  Holy  Land  by  arranging  a  marriage  with  Isabella,  the 
daughter  of  John  of  Brienne,  and  the  heiress  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.  In  1225  Frederick  married  Isabella,  and  immediately 
after  the  marriage  he  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  right  of  his 
wife,  and  exacted  homage  from  the  vassals  of  the  kingdom.2 
It  was  thus  as  king  of  Jerusalem  that  Frederick  began  his 
Crusade  in  the  autumn  of  1 227.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he  sailed 
from  Brindisi  when  he  fell  sick  of  a  fever  which  had  been  raging 
for  some  time  among  the  ranks  of  his  army,  while  they  waited 
for  the  crossing.  He  sailed  back  to  Otranto  in  order  to  recover 
his  health,  but  the  new  pope,  Gregory  IX.,  launched  in  hot  anger 
the  bolt  of  excommunication,  in  the  belief  that  Frederick  was 
malingering  once  more.  None  the  less  the  emperor  sailed  on 
his  Crusade  in  the  summer  of  1228,  affording  to  astonished 
Europe  the  spectacle  of  an  excommunicated  crusader,  and 
leaving  his  territories  to  be  invaded  by  papal  soldiers,  whom 
Gregory  IX.  professed  to  regard  as  crusaders  against  a  non- 
Christian  king,  and  for  whom  he  accordingly  levied  a  tithe  from 
the  churches  of  Europe.  The  paradox  of  Frederick's  Crusade 
is  indeed  astonishing.  Here  was  a  crusader  against  whom  a 
Crusade  was  proclaimed  in  his  own  territories;  and  when  he 
arrived  in  the  Holy  Land  he  found  little  obedience  and  many 
insults  from  all  but  his  own  immediate  followers.  Yet  by 
adroit  use  of  his  powers  of  diplomacy,  and  by  playing  upon  the 
dissensions  which  raged  between  the  descendants  of  Saladin's 
brother  (Malik-al-Adil),  he  was  able,  without  striking  a  blow, 
to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Egypt  which  gave  him  all 
that  Richard  I.  had  vainly  attempted  to  secure  by  arduous 
fighting  and  patient  negotiations.  By  the  treaty  of  the  i8th  of 
February  1229,  which  was  to  last  for  ten  years,  the  sultan 
conceded  to  Frederick,  in  addition  to  the  coast  towns  already 
in  the  possession  of  the  Christians,  Nazareth,  Bethlehem  and 
Jerusalem,  with  a  strip  of  territory  connecting  Jerusalem  with 
the  port  of  Acre.  As  king  of  Jerusalem  Frederick  was  now  able 

1  Joinville,  ch.  x. 

*  John  of  Brienne  had  only  ruled  in  right  of  his  wife  Mary.  On 
her  death  (1212)  John  might  be  regarded  as  only  ruling  "  by  the 
courtesy  of  the  kingdom  "  until  her  daughter  Isabella  was  married, 
when  the  husband  would  succeed.  That,  at  any  rate,  was  the  view 
Frederick  II.  took. 


to  enter  his  capital:  as  one  under  excommunication,  he  had  to 
see  an  interdict  immediately  fall  on  the  city,  and  it  was  with  his 
own  hands— for  no  churchman  could  perform  the  office — that 
he  had  to  take  his  crown  from  the  altar  of  the  church  of  the 
Sepulchre,  and  crown  himself  king  of  his  new  kingdom.  He 
stayed  in  the  Holy  Land  little  more  than  a  month  after  his 
coronation;  and  leaving  in  May  he  soon  overcame  the  papal 
armies  in  Italy,  and  secured  absolution  from  Gregory  IX. 
(August  1229).  By  his  treaty  with  the  sultan  he  had  secured 
for  Christianity  the  last  fifteen  years  of  its  possession  of  Jerusalem 
(1220-1244):  no  man  since  Frederick  II.  has  ever  recovered 
the  holy  places  for  the  religion  which  holds  them  most  holy. 
Yet  the  church  might  ask,  with  some  justice,  whether  the  means 
he  had  used  were  excused  by  the  end  which  he  had  attained.  After 
all,  there  was  nothing  of  the  holy  war  about  the  Sixth  Crusade: 
there  was  simply  huckstering,  as  in  an  Eastern  bazaar,  between 
a  free-thinking,  semi-oriental  king  of  Sicily  and  an  Egyptian 
sultan.  It  was  indeed  in  the  spirit  of  a  king  of  Sicily,  and  not 
in  the  spirit — though  it  was  in  the  role — of  a  king  of  Jerusalem, 
that  Frederick  had  acted.  It  was  from  his  Sicilian  predecessors, 
who  had  made  trade  treaties  with  Egypt,  that  he  had  learned 
to  make  even  the  Crusade  a  matter  of  treaty.  The  Norman  line 
of  Sicilian  kings  might  be  extinct;  their  policy  lived  after  them 
in  their  Hohenstaufen  successors,  and  that  policy,  as  it  had 
helped  to  divert  the  Fourth  Crusade  to  the  old  Norman  objective 
of  Constantinople,  helped  still  more  to  give  the  Sixth  Crusade 
its  secular,  diplomatic,  non-religious  aspect. 

Forty  years  of  struggle  ended  in  fifteen  years'  possession  of 
Jerusalem.  During  those  fifteen  years  the  kingdom  of  Jerusa- 
lem was  agitated  by  a  struggle  between  the  native  barons, 
championing  the  principle  that  sovereignty  resided  in  the 
collective  baronage,  and  taking  their  stand  on  the  assizes,  and 
Frederick  II.,  claiming  sovereignty  for  himself,  and  opposing 
to  the  assizes  the  feudal  law  of  Sicily.  It  is  a  struggle  between 
the  king  and  the  haute  cour:  it  is  a  struggle  between  the  aristo- 
cratic feudalism  of  the  Franks  and  the  monarchical  feudalism 
of  the  Normans.  Already  in  Cyprus,  in  the  summer  of  1228, 
Frederick  II.  had  insisted  on  the  right  of  wardship  which  he 
enjoyed  as  overlord  of  the  island,3  and  he  had  appointed  a 
commission  of  five  barons  to  exercise  his  rights.  In  1229  this 
commission  was  overthrown  by  John  of  Ibelin,  lord  of  Beirut, 
against  whom  it  had  taken  proceedings.  John  of  Beirut,  like 
many  of  the  Cypriot  barons,  was  also  a  baron  of  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem;  and  resistance  in  the  one  kingdom  could  only 
produce  difficulties  in  the  other.  Difficulties  quickly  arose  when 
Frederick,  in  1231,  sent  Marshal  Richard  to  Sytia  as  his  legate. 
This  in  itself  was  a  serious  matter;  according  to  the  assizes, 
the  barons  maintained,  the  king  must  either  personally  reside 
in  the  kingdom,  or,  in  the  event  of  his  absence,  be  replaced  by  a 
regency.  The  position  became  more  difficult,  when  the  legate 
took  steps  against  John  of  Beirut  without  any  authorization 
from  the  high  court.  A  gild  was  formed  at  Acre — the  gild  of 
St  Adrian — which,  if  nominally  religious  in  its  origin,  soon  came 
to  represent  the  political  opposition  to  Frederick,  as  was 
significantly  proved  by  its  reception  of  the  rebellious  John  of 
Beirut  as  a  member  (1232).  The  opposition  was  successful:  by 
1233  Frederick  had  lost  all  hold  on  Cyprus,  and  only  retained 
Tyre  in  his  own  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  In  1236  he  had  to 
promise  to  recognize  fully  the  laws  of  the  kingdom:  and  when, 
in  1239,  he  was  again  excommunicated  by  Gregory  IX.,  and  a 
new  quarrel  of  papacy  and  empire  began,  he  soon  lost  the  last 
vestiges  of  his  power.  Till  1 243  the  party  of  Frederick  had  been 
successful  in  retaining  Tyre,  and  .the  baronial  demand  for  a 
regency  had  remained  without  effect;  but  in  that  year  the 
opposition,  headed  by  the  great  family  of  Ibelin,  succeeded, 
under  cover  of  asserting  the  rights  of  Alice  of  Cyprus  to  the 
regency,  in  securing  possession  of  Tyre,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem  thus  fell  back  into  the  power  of  the  baronage.  The 
very  next  year  (1244)  Jerusalem  was  finally  and  for  ever  lost. 
Its  loss  was  the  natural  corollary  of  these  dissensions.  The 

*  Amalric  I.  of  Cyprus  had  done  homage  to  Henry  VI.,  from 
whom  he  had  received  the  title  of  king  (l  195). 


CRUSADES 


543 


treaty  of  Frederick  with  Malik-al-Kamil  (d.  1238)  had  now 
expired,  and  new  succours  and  new  measures  were  needed  for 
the  Holy  Land.  Theobald  of  Champagne  had  taken  the  cross 
as  early  as  1230,  and  1239  he  sailed  to  Acre  in  spite  of  the 
express  prohibition  of  the  pope,  who,  having  quarrelled  with 
Frederick  II.,  was  eager  to  divert  any  succour  from  Jerusalem 
itself,  so  long  as  Jerusalem  belonged  to  his  enemy.  Theobald 
was  followed  (1240-1241)  by  Richard  of  Cornwall,  the  brother 
of  Henry  III.,  who,  like  his  predecessor,  had  to  sail  in  the  teeth 
of  papal  prohibitions;  but  neither  of  the  two  achieved  any 
permanent  result,  except  the  fortification  of  Ascalon.  It  was, 
however,  by  their  own  folly  that  the  Franks  lost  Jerusalem  in 
1244.  They  consented  to  ally  themselves  with  the  ruler  of 
Damascus  against  the  sultan  of  Egypt;  but  in  the  battle  of 
Gaza  they  were  deserted  by  their  allies  and  heavily  defeated 
by  Bibars,  the  Egyptian  general  and  future  Mameluke  sultan 
of  Egypt.  Jerusalem,  which  had  already  been  plundered  and 
destroyed  earlier  in  the  year  by  Chorasmians  (Khwarizmians), 
was  the  prize  of  victory,  and  Ascalon  also  fell  in  1 247. 

8.  The  Crusades  of  St  Louis. — As  the  loss  of  Jerusalem  in 
1187  produced  the  Third  Crusade,  so  its  loss  in  1244  produced 
the  Seventh:  as  the  preaching  of  the  Fifth  Crusade  had  taken 
place  in  the  Lateran  council  of  1215,  so  that  of  the  Seventh 
Crusade  began  in  the  council  of  Lyons  of  1 245.  But  the  preaching 
of  the  Crusade  by  Innocent  IV.  at  Lyons  was  a  curious  thing. 
On  the  one  hand  he  repeated  the  provisions  of  the  Fourth  Lateran 
council  on  behalf  of  the  Crusade  to  the  Holy  Land ;  on  the  other 
hand  he  preached  a  Crusade  against  Frederick  II.,  and  promised 
to  all  who  would  join  the  full  benefits  of  absolution  and  remission 
of  sins.  While  the  papacy  thus  bent  its  energies  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Crusades  in  their  genuine  sense,  and  preferred  to  use 
for  its  own  political  objects  what  was  meant  for  Jerusalem,  a 
layman  took  up  the  derelict  cause  with  all  the  religious  zeal 
which  any  pope  had  ever  displayed.  Paradoxically  enough,  it 
was  now  the  turn  for  the  papacy  to  exploit  the  name  of  Crusade 
for  political  ends,  as  the  laity  had  done  before;  and  it  was  left 
to  the  laity  to  champion  the  spiritual  meaning  of  the  Crusade 
even  against  the  papacy.1  It  was  at  the  end  of  the  year  in  which 
Jerusalem  had  fallen  that  St  Louis  had  taken  the  cross,  and  by 
all  the  means  in  his  power  he  attempted  to  ensure  the  success 
of  his  projected  Crusade.  He  sought  to  mediate,  though  with 
no  success,  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor;  he  descended 
to  a  whimsical  piety,  and  took  his  courtiers  by  guile  in  distribut- 
ing to  them,  at  Christmas,  clothing  on  which  a  cross  had  been 
secretly  stitched.  He  started  in  1 248  with  a  gallant  company, 
which  contained  his  three  brothers  and  the  sieur  de  Joinville, 
his  biographer;  and  after  wintering  in  Cyprus  he  directed  his 
army  in  the  spring  of  1249  against  Egypt.  The  objective  was 
unexpected:  it  may  have  been  chosen  by  St  Louis,  because  he 
knew  how  seriously  the  power  of  the  sultan  was  undermined 
by  the  Mamelukes,  who  were  in 
the  very  next  year  to  depose  the 
Ayyubite  dynasty,  which  had 
reigned  since  1171,  and  to  sub- 
stitute one  of  their  number  as 
sultan.  Damietta  was  taken  with- 
out a  blow,  and  the  march  for  Cairo 
was  begun,  as  it  had  been  begun 
by  the  legate  Pelagius  in  1221. 
Again  the  invading  army  halted 
before  Mansura  (December  1249); 
again  it  had  to  retreat.  The 

1  It  may  be  argued  that  the  Crusade 
against  a  revolted  Christian  like 
Frederick  II.  was  not  misplaced,  and 
that  the  pope  had  a  true  sense  of 
religious  values  when  he  attacked 
Frederick.  The  answer  is  partly  that 
men  like  St  Louis  did  think  that  the 
Crusade  was  misplaced,  and  partly 
that  Frederick  was  really  attacked  not 
as  a  revolted  Christian,  but  as  the 


retreat  became  a  rout.  St  Louis  was  captured,  and  a  treaty 
was  made  by  which  he  had  to  consent  to  evacuate  Damietta 
and  pay  a  ransom  of  800,000  pieces  of  gold.  Eventually 
St  Louis  was  released  on  surrendering  Damietta  and  paying 
one-half  of  his  ransom,  and  by  the  middle  of  May  1250  he 
reached  Acre,  having  abandoned  the  Egyptian  expedition. 
For  the  next  four  years  he  stayed  in  the  Holy  Land,  seeking  to 
do  what  he  could  for  the  establishing  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
He  was  able  to  do  but  little.  The  struggle  of  papacy  and  empire 
paralysed  Europe,  and  even  in  France  itself  there  were  few  ready 
to  answer  the  calls  for  help  which  St  Louis  sent  home  from  Acre. 
The  one  answer  was  the  Shepherds'  Crusade,  or  Crusade  of  the 
Pastoureaux — "  a  religious  Jacquerie,"  as  it  has  been  called  by 
Dean  Milman.  It  had  some  of  the  features  of  the  Children's 
Crusade  of  1212.  That,  too,  had  begun  with  a  shepherd  boy: 
the  leader  of  the  Pastoureaux,  like  the  leader  of  the  children, 
promised  to  lead  his  followers  dry-shod  through  the  seas;  and 
tradition  even  said  that  this  leader,  "  the  master  of  Hungary," 
as  he  was  called,  was  the  Stephen  of  the  Children's  Crusade. 
But  the  anti-clerical  feeling  and  action  of  the  Shepherds  was 
new  and  ominous;  and  moved  by  its  enormities  the  government 
suppressed  the  new  movement  ruthlessly.  None  came  to  the  aid 
of  St  Louis;  and  in  1254,  on  the  death  of  his  mother  Blanche, 
the  regent,  he  had  to  return  to  France. 

The  final  collapse  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  had  been 
really  determined  by  the  battle  of  Gaza  in  1244,  and  by  the 
deposition  of  the  Ayyubite  dynasty  by  the  Mamelukes.  The 
Ayyubites  had  always  been,  on  the  whole,  chivalrous  and 
tolerant:  Saladin  and  his  successors,  Malik-al-Adil  and  Malik-al- 
Kamil,  had  none  of  them  shown  an  implacable  enmity  to  the 
Christians.  The  Mamelukes,  who  are  analogous  to  the  janissaries 
of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  were  made  of  sterner  and  more  fanatical 
stuff;  and  Bibars,  the  greatest  of  these  Mamelukes,  who  had 
commanded  at  Gaza  in  1244,  had  been  one  of  the  leaders  in  1250, 
and  was  destined  to  become  sultan  in  1260,  was  the  sternest 
and  most  fanatical  of  them  all.  The  Christians  were,  however, 
able  to  maintain  a  footing  in  Syria  for  forty  years  after  St  Louis' 
departure,  not  by  reason  of  their  own  strength,  but  owing  to  two 
powers  which  checked  the  advance  of  the  Mamelukes.  The  first 
of  these  was  Damascus.  The  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  as  we  have 
seen,  had  profited  by  the  alliance  of  Damascus  as  early  as  1130, 
when  the  fear  of  the  atabegs  of  Mosul  had  first  drawn  the  two 
together;  and  when  Damascus  had  been  acquired  by  the  rule 
of  Mosul,  the  hostility  between  the  house  of  Nureddin  in 
Damascus  and  Saladin  in  Egypt  had  still  for  a  time  preserved 
the  kingdom  (from  1171  onwards).  Saladin  had  united  Egypt 
and  Damascus;  but  after  his  death  dissensions  broke  out  among 
the  members  of  his  family,2  which  more  than  once  led  to  wars 
between  Damascus  and  Cairo.  It  has  already  been  noticed  that 
such  a  war  between  the  sons  of  Malik-al-Adil  accounts  in  large 


2  The  following  table  of  the  Ayyubite  rulers  serves  to  illustrate  the  text: — 
Shadhy. 


Shirguh. 


Ayyub  (both  generals  in  the  army  of  the  Atabegs  of  Mosul). 


Saladin                          Malik-al-Adil  I 
t  U93-                                 f  1218. 
1 

Malik-al-Kamil,             Malik-al-Muazzam, 
Sultan  of  Egypt             Sultan  of  Damascus, 
'      t  1238-                                 t  1227. 
1                                              1 

Malik-al-Ashraf, 
ruler  of  Khcl.it, 
and   after  1227 
of      Damascus, 
t  1237- 

i 

Malik-al-Salih  isma'il, 
sultan  of  Damascus, 
1237-1244.        From 
him       Damascus 
passed  to  Malik-al- 
Salih       Ayyub     of 
Egypt  at  the  battle 
of  Gaza. 

I                                                     Malik-al-Nasir 
-Adil  II.     Malik-al-SalihNajm     of  Kerak. 
:d  1240.         al-din  Ayyub,  sul- 
tan of  Egypt,  and 
after  1  244  of  Dam- 
ascus, f  1249. 

would-be  unifier  of  Italy,  the  enemy 
of  the  states  of  the  church. 


Turanshah,  deposed  1250,  and 
succeeded  by  the  Mameluke  Aibek. 


544 


CRUSADES 


measure  for  the  success  of  the  Sixth  Crusade;  and  it  has  been 
seen  that  the  battle  of  Gaza  was  an  act  in  the  long  drama  of 
strife  between  Egypt  and  northern  Syria.  The  revolution  in 
Egypt  in  1250  separated  Damascus  from  Cairo  more  trenchantly 
than  they  had  ever  been  separated  since  1171 :  while  a  Mameluke 
ruled  in  Cairo,  Malik-al-Nasir  of  Aleppo  was  elected  as  sultan 
by  the  emirs  of  Damascus.  But  an  entirely  new  and  far  more 
important  factor  in  the  affairs  of  the  Levant  was  the  extension 
of  the  empire  of  the  Mongols  during  the  i3th  century.  That 
empire  had  been  founded  by  Jenghiz  Khan  in  the  first  quarter 
of  the  century;  it  stretched  from  Peking  on  the  east  to  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Dnieper  on  the  west.  Two  things  gave  the 
Mongols  an  influence  on  the  history  of  the  Holy  Land  and  the 
fate  of  the  Crusades.  In  the  first  place,  the  south-western 
division  of  the  empire,  comprising  Persia  and  Armenia,  and 
governed  about  1250  by  the  Khan  Hulaku  or  Hulagu,  was 
inevitably  brought  into  relations,  which  were  naturally  hostile, 
with  the  Mahommedan  powers  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  In  the 
second  place,  the  Mongols  of  the  I3th  century  were  not  as  yet, 
in  any  great  numbers,  Mahommedans;  the  official  religion  was 
"  Shamanism,"  but  in  the  Mongol  army  there  were  many 
Christians,  the  results  of  early  Nestorian  missions  to  the  far  East. 
This  last  fact  in  particular  caused  western  Europe  to  dream  of 
an  alliance  with  the  great  khan  "  Prester  John,"  who  should 
aid  in  the  reconquest  of  Jerusalem  and  the  final  conversion  to 
Christianity  of  the  whole  continent  of  Asia.  The  Crusades  thus 
widen  out,  towards  their  close,  into  a  general  scheme  for  the 
christianization  of  all  the  known  world.1  About  1220  James  of 
Vitry  was  already  hoping  that  4000  knights  would,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Mongols,  recover  Jerusalem;  but  it  is  in  1245 
that  the  first  definite  sign  of  an  alliance  with  the  Mongols  appears. 
In  that  year  Innocent  IV.  sent  a  Franciscan  friar,  Joannes  de 
Piano  Carpini,  to  the  Mongols  of  southern  Russia,  and  despatched 
a  Dominican  mission  to  Persia.  Nothing  came  of  either  of  these 
missions;  but  through  them  Europe  first  began  to  know  the 
interior  of  Asia,  for  Carpini  was  conducted  by  the  Mongols  as  far 
as  Karakorum,  the  capital  of  the  great  khan,  on  the  borders 
of  China.  Again  in  1252  St  Louis  (who  had  already  begun  to 
negotiate  with  the  Mongols  in  the  winter  of  1248-1249)  sent  the 
friar  William  of  Rubruquis  to  the  court  of  the  great  khan;  but 
again  nothing  came  of  the  mission  save  an  increase  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge.  It  was  in  the  year  1260  when  it  first 
seemed  likely  that  any  results  definitely  affecting  the  course  of 
the  Crusades  would  flow  from  the  action  of  the  Mongols.  In 
that  year  Hulagu,  the  khan  of  Persia,  invaded  Syria  and  captured 
Damascus.  His  general,  a  Christian  named  Kitboga,  marched 
southwards  to  attack  the  Mamelukes  of  Egypt,  but  he  was 
beaten  by  Bibars  (who  in  the  same  year  became  sultan  of  Egypt), 
and  Damascus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mamelukes.  Once  more, 
in  spite  of  Mongol  intervention,  Damascus  and  Cairo  were  united, 
as  they  had  been  united  in  the  hands  of  Saladin;  once  more 
they  were  united  in  the  hands  of  a  devout  Mahommedan,  who 
was  resolved  to  extirpate  the  Christians  from  Syria. 

While  these  things  were  taking  place  around  them,  the 
Christians  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  only  hastened  their 
own  fall  by  internal  dissensions  which  repeated  the  history  of 
the  period  preceding  1187.  In  part  the  war  of  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline  fought  itself  out  in  the  East;  and  while  one  party 
demanded  a  regency,  as  in  1243,  another  argued  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  Conrad,  the  son  of  Frederick  II.,  as  king.  In  part,  again, 
a  commercial  war  raged  between  Venice  and  Genoa,  which 
attracted  into  its  orbit  all  the  various  feuds  and  animosities  of 
the  Levant  (1257).  Beaten  in  the  war,  the  Genoese  avenged 
themselves  for  their  defeat  by  an  alliance  with  the  Palaeologi, 
which  led  to  the  loss  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins  (1261), 
and  to  the  collapse  of  the  Latin  empire  after  sixty  years  of 
infirm  and  precarious  existence.  On  a  kingdom  thus  divided 

1  Though  Europe  indulged  in  dreams  of  Mongol  aid,  the  eventual 
results  of  the  extension  of  the  Mongol  Empire  were  prejudicial  to 
the  Latin  East.  The  sultans  of  Egypt  were  stirred  to  fresh  activity 
by  the  attacks  of  the  Mongols;  and  as  Syria  became  the  battle- 
ground of  the  two,  the  Latin  principalities  of  Syria  were  fated  to  fall 
as  the  prize  of  victory  to  one  or  other  of  the  combatants. 


against  itself,  and  deprived  of  allies,  the  arm  of  Bibars  soon  fell 
with  crushing  weight.  The  sultan,  who  had  risen  from  a  Mon- 
golian slave  to  become  a  second  Saladin,  and  who  combined  the 
physique  and  audacity  of  a  Danton  with  the  tenacity  and 
religiosity  of  a  Philip  II.,  dealt  blow  after  blow  to  the  Franks  of 
the  East.  In  1265  fell  Caesarea  and  Arsuf;  in  1268  Antioch 
was  taken,  and  the  principality  of  Bohemund  and  Tancred  ceased 
to  exist.2  In  the  years  which  followed  on  the  loss  of  Antioch 
several  attempts  were  made  in  the  West  to  meet  the  progress  of 
the  new  conqueror.  In  1269  James  the  Conqueror  of  Aragon, 
at  the  bidding  of  the  pope,  turned  from  the  long  Spanish  Crusade 
to  a  Crusade  in  the  East  in  order  to  atone  for  his  offences  against 
the  law  matrimonial.  An  opportune  storm,  however,  gave  the 
king  an  excuse  for  returning  home,  as  Frederick  II.  had  done 
in  1227;  and  though  his  followers  reached  Acre,  they  hardly 
dared  venture  outside  its  walls,  and  returned  home  promptly 
in  the  beginning  of  1270.  More  serious  were  the  plans  and  the 
attempts  of  Charles  of  Anjou  and  Louis  IX.,  in  which  the 
Crusades  may  be  said  to  have  finally  ended,  save  for  sundry 
disjointed  epilogues  in  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries. 

Charles  of  Anjou  had  succeeded,  as  a  result  of  the  long 
"  crusade  "  waged  by  the  papacy  against  the  Hohenstaufen  from 
the  council  of  Lyons  to  the  battle  of  Tagliacozzo  (1245-1268), 
in  establishing  himself  in  the  kingdom  of  Sicily.  With  the 
kingdom  of  Frederick  II.  and  Henry  VI.  he  also  took  over  their 
policy — the  "  forward  "  policy  in  .the  East  which  had  also  been 
followed  by  the  old  Norman  kings.  On  the  one  hand  he  aimed 
at  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  as  Henry  VI.  had  done  before; 
and  by  the  treaty  of  Viterbo  of  1267  he  secured  from  the  last 
Latin  emperor  of  the  East,  Baldwin  II.,  a  right  of  eventual 
succession.  On  the  other  hand,  like  Frederick  II.,  he  aimed  at 
uniting  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  with  that  of  Sicily;  and 
here,  too,  he  was  able  to  provide  himself  with  a  title.  On  the 
death  of  Conradin,  Hugh  of  Cyprus  had  been  recognized  in  the 
East  as  king  of  Jerusalem  (1269);  but  his  pretensions  .were 
opposed  by  Mary  of  Antioch,  a  granddaughter  of  Amalric  II., 
who  was  prepared  to  bequeath  her  claims  to  Charles  of  Anjou, 
and  was  therefore  naturally  supported  by  him.  But  the  policy 
of  Charles,  which  thus  prepared  the  way  for  a  Crusade  similar 
to  those  of  1197  and  1202,  was  crossed  by  that  of  his  brother 
Louis  IX.  Already  in  1267  St  Louis  had  taken  the  cross  a 
second  time,  moved  by  the  news  of  Bibars'  conquests;  and 
though  the  French  baronage,  including  even  Joinville  himself, 
refused  to  follow  the  lead  of  their  king,  Prince  Edward  of  England 
imitated  his  example.  Louis  had  been  led  to  think  that  the 
bey  of  Tunis  might  be  converted,  and  in  that  hope  he  resolved 
to  begin  this  eighth  and  last  of  the  Crusades  by  an  expedition 
to  Tunis.  Charles,  as  anxious  to  attack  Constantinople  as  he 
was  reluctant  to  attack  Tunis,  with  which  Sicily  had  long  had 
commercial  relations,  was  forced  to  abandon  his  own  plans 
and  to  join  in  those  of  his  brother.3  St  Louis  had  barely  landed 
in  Tunis  when  he  sickened  and  died,  murmuring  "  Jerusalem, 
Jerusalem  "  (August  1270);  but  Charles,  who  appeared  immedi- 
ately after  his  brother's  death,  was  able  to  conduct  the  Crusade 
to  a  successful  conclusion.  Negotiating  in  the  spirit  of  a 
Frederick  II.,  and  acting  not  as  a  Crusader  but  as  a  king  of 
Sicily,  he  not  only  wrested  a  large  indemnity  from  the  bey  for 
himself  and  the  new  king  of  France,  but  also  secured  a  large 
annual  tribute  for  his  Sicilian  exchequer.  So  ended  the  Eighth 
Crusade — much  as  the  Sixth  had  done — to  the  profound  disgust 
of  many  of  the  crusaders,  including  Prince  Edward  of  England, 
who  only  arrived  on  the  eve  of  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty. 
Baulked  of  any  opportunity  of  joining  in  the  main  Crusade, 
Edward,  after"  wintering  in  Sicily,  conducted  a  Crusade  of  his 
own  to  Acre  in  the  spring  of  1271.  For  over  a  year  he  stayed  in 
the  Holy  Land,  making  little  sallies  from  Acre,  and  negotiating 

3  Of  the  four  Latin  principalities  of  the  East,  Edessa  was  the  first 
to  fall,  being  extinguished  between  1144  and  1150.  Antioch  fell 
in  1268;  Tripoli  in  1289;  and  the  kingdom  itseu  may  be  said  to 
end  with  the  capture  of  Acre,  1291. 

1  Michael  Palaeologus  had  actually  appealed  to  Louis  IX.  against 
Charles  of  Anjou,  who  in  1270  had  actively  begun  preparations  for 
the  attack  on  Constantinople. 


CRUSADES 


545 


with  the  Mongols,  but  achieving  no  permanent  results.  He 
returned  home  at  the  end  of  1272,  the  last  of  the  western 
crusaders;  and  thus  all  the  attempts  of  St  Louis  and  Charles 
of  Anjou,  of  James  of  Aragon  and  Edward  of  England  left  Bibars 
still  in  possession  of  all  his  conquests. 

Two  projects  of  Crusades  were  started  before  the  final  expulsion 
of  the  Latins  from  Syria.  In  1274,  at  the  council  of  Lyons, 
Gregory  X.,  who  had  been  the  companion  of  Edward  in  the 
Holy  Land,  preached  the  Crusade  to  an  assembly  which  con- 
tained envoys  from  the  Mongol  khan  and  Michael  Palaeologus 
as  well  as  from  many  western  princes.  All  the  princes  of  western 
Europe  took  the  cross;  not  only  so,  but  Gregory  was  successful 
in  uniting  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches  for  the  moment, 
and  in  securing  for  the  new  Crusade  the  aid  of  the  Palaeologi, 
now  thoroughly  alarmed  by  the  plans  of  Charles  of  Anjou.  Thus 
was  a  papal  Crusade  begun,  backed  by  an  alliance  with  Con- 
stantinople, and  thus  were  the  plans  of  Charles  of  Anjou  tem- 
porarily thwarted.  But  in  1276  Gregory  X.  died,  and  all  his 
plans  died  with  him;  there  was  to  be  no  union  of  the  monarchs 
of  the  West  with  the  emperor  of  the  East  in  a  common  Crusade. 
Charles  was  able  to  resume  his  plans.  In  1277  Mary  of  Antioch 
ceded  to  him  her  claims,  and  he  was  able  to  establish  himself 
in  Acre;  in  1278  he  took  possession  of  the  principality  of  Achaea. 
With  these  bases  at  his  disposal  he  began  to  prepare  a  new 
Crusade,  to  be  directed  primarily  (like  that  of  Henry  VI.  in 
1197,  and  like  his  own  projected  Crusade  of  1270)  against 
Constantinople.  Once  more  his  plans  were  crossed  finally  and 
fatally:  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  and  the  coronation  of  Peter  of 
Aragon  as  Sicilian  king  (1282),  gave  him  troubles  at  home  which 
occupied  him  for  the  rest  of  his  days.  This  was  the  last  serious 
attempt  at  a  Crusade  on  behalf  of  the  dying  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
which  was  made  in  the  West;  and  its  collapse  was  quickly 
followed  by  the  final  extinction  of  the  kingdom.  A  precarious 
peace  had  reigned  in  the  Holy  Land  since  1272,  when  Bibars 
had  granted  a  truce  of  ten  years;  but  the  fall  of  the  great  power 
of  Charles  of  Anjou  set  free  Kala'un  the  successor  of  Bibars'  son 
(who  reigned  little  more  than  two  years),  to  complete  the  work 
of  the  great  sultan.  In  1289  Kala'un  took  Tripoli,  and  the 
county  of  Tripoli  was  extinguished;  in  1290  he  died  while 
preparing  to  besiege  Acre,  which  was  captured  after  a  brave 
defence  by  his  son  and  successor  Khalil  in  1291.  Thus  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem  came  to  an  end.  The  Franks  evacuated 
Syria  altogether,  leaving  behind  them  only  the  ruins  of  their 
castles  to  bear  witness,  to  this  very  day,  of  the  Crusades  they  had 
waged  and  the  kingdom  they  had  founded  and  lost. 

9.  The  Ghost  of  the  Crusades. — The  loss  of  Acre  failed  to 
stimulate  the  powers  of  Europe  to  any  new  effort.  France, 
always  the  natural  home  of  the  Crusades,  was  too  fully  occupied, 
first  by  war  with  England  and  then  by  a  struggle  with  the 
papacy,  to  turn  her  energies  towards  the  East.  But  it  is  often 
the  case  that  theory  develops  as  practice  fails;  and  as  the 
theory  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  was  never  more  vigorous  than 
in  the  days  of  its  decrepitude,  so  it  was  with  the  Crusades. 
Particularly  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  i4th  century,  writers 
were  busy  in  explaining  the  causes  of  the  failures  of  past  Crusades, 
and  in  laying  down  the  lines  along  which  a  new  Crusade  must 
proceed.  Several  causes  are  recognized  by  these  writers  as 
accounting  for  the  failure  of  the  Crusades.  Some  of  them  lay 
the  blame  on  the  papacy;  and  it  is  true  that  the  papacy  had 
contributed  towards  the  decay  of  the  Crusades  when  it  had 
allowed  its  own  particular  interests  to  overbear  the  general 
welfare  of  Christianity,  and  had  dignified  with  the  name  and  the 
benefits  of  a  Crusade  its  own  political  war  against  the  Hohen- 
staufen.  Others  again  find  in  the  princes  of  Europe  the  authors 
of  the  ruin  of  the  Crusades;  they  too  had  preferred  their  own 
national  or  dynastic  interests  to  the  cause  of  a  common  Chris- 
tianity. They  had  indeed,  as  has  been  already  noticed,  done 
even  more;  they  had  used  the  name  of  Crusade,  from  the  days 
of  Henry  VI.  onwards,  as  a  cover  and  an  excuse  for  secular 
ambitions  of  their  own;  and  in  this  way  they  had  certainly 
helped,  in  very  large  measure,  to  discourage  the  old  religious 
zeal  for  the  Holy  War.  Other  writers,  again,  blame  the  com- 
vii.  18 


mercial  cupidity  of  the  Italian  towns;  of  what  avail,  they  asked 
with  no  little  justice,  was  the  Crusade,  when  Venice  and  Genoa 
destroyed  the  naval  bases  necessary  for  its  success  by  their 
internecine  quarrels  in  the  Levant  (as  in  1257),  or — still  worse — 
entered  into  commercial  treaties  with  the  common  enemy 
against  whom  the  Crusades  were  directed?  On  the  very  eve 
of  the  Fifth  Crusade,  Venice  had  concluded  a  commercial  treaty 
with  Malik-al-Kamil  of  Egypt;  just  before  the  fall  of  Acre  the 
Genoese,  the  king  of  Aragon  and  the  king  of  Sicily  had  all 
concluded  advantageous  treaties  with  the  sultan  Kala'un.  A 
fourth  cause,  on  which  many  writers  dwelt,  particularly  at  the 
time  when  the  suppression  of  the  Templars  was  in  question, 
was  the  dissensions  between  the  two  orders  of  Templars  and 
Hospitallers,  and  the  selfish  policy  of  merely  pursuing  their  own 
interest  which  was  followed  by  both  in  common.  But  one  might 
enumerate  ad  infinitum  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  the  Crusades. 
It  is  simplest,  as  it  is  truest,  to  say  that  the  Crusades  did  not  fail 
— they  simply  ceased;  and  they  ceased  because  they  were  no 
longer  in  joint  with  the  times.  The  moral  character  of  Europe 
in  1300  was  no  longer  the  moral  character  of  Europe  in  uoo; 
and  the  Crusades,  which  had  been  the  active  and  objective 
embodiment  of  the  other  worldly  Europe  of  i  too,  were  alien  to  the 
secular,  legal,  scholastic  Europe  of  1300.  While  Edward  I.  was 
seeking  to  found  a  united  kingdom  in  Great  Britain;  while  the 
Habsburgs  were  entrenching  themselves  in  Austria;  above  all, 
while  Philippe  le  Bel  and  his  legists  were  consolidating  the  French 
monarchy  on  an  absolutist  basis,  there  could  be  little  thought 
of  the  holy  war.  These  were  hard-headed  men  of  affairs — men 
who  would  not  lightly  embark  on  joyous  ventures,  or  seek  for 
an  ideal  San  Grail;  nor  were  the  popes,  doomed  to  the 
Babylonian  captivity  for  seventy  long  years  at  Avignon,  able 
to  call  down  the  spark  from  on  high  which  should  consume  all 
earthly  ambitions  in  one  great  act  of  sacrifice. 

But  it  is  long  before  the  death  of  any  institution  is  recognized; 
and  it  was  inevitable  that  men  should  busy  themselves  in  trying 
to  rekindle  the  dead  embers  into  new  life.  Pierre  Dubois,  in  a 
pamphlet  "  De  recuperations  Sanctae  Terrae,"  addressed  to 
Edward  I.  in  1307,  advocates  a  general  council  of  Europe  to 
maintain  peace  and  prevent  the  dissensions  which — as,  for 
instance,  in  1192 — had  helped  to  cause  the  failure  of  past 
Crusades.  Along  with  this  advocacy  of  internationalism  goes 
a  plea  for  the  disendowment  of  the  Church,  in  order  to  provide 
an  adequate  financial  basis  for  the  future  Crusade.  Other 
proposals,  made  by  men  well  acquainted  with  the  East,  are  more 
definitely  practical  and  less  political  in  their  intention.  A 
blockade  of  Egypt  by  an  international  fleet,  an  alliance  with 
the  Mongols,  the  union  of  the  two  great  orders — these  are  the 
three  staple  heads  of  these  proposals.  Something,  indeed,  was 
attempted,  if  little  was  actually  done,  under  each  of  these  three 
heads.  The  plan  of  an  international  fleet  to  coerce  the  Mahom- 
medan  is  even  to  this  day  ineffective;  but  the  Hospitallers, 
who  acquired  a  new  basis  by  the  conquest  of  Rhodes  in  1310, 
used  their  fleet  to  enforce  a  partial  and,  on  the  whole,  ineffective 
blockade  of  the  coast  of  the  Levant.  The  union  of  the  two 
orders,  already  suggested  at  the  council  of  Lyons  in  1245,  was 
nominally  achieved  by  the  council  of  Vienne  in  1311;  but 
the  so-called  "  union  "  was  in  reality  the  suppression  of  the 
Templars,  and  the  confiscation  of  all  their  resources  by  the 
cupidity  of  Philippe  le  Bel.  The  alliance  with  the  Mongols 
remained,  from  the  first  to  the  last,  something  of  a  chimera; 
and  the  last  visionary  hope  vanished  when  the  Mongols  finally 
embraced  Mahommedanism,  as,  by  the  end  of  the  I4th  century, 
they  had  almost  universally  done. 

Isolated  enterprises  somewhat  of  the  character  of  a  Crusade, 
but  hardly  serious  enough  to  be  dignified  by  that  name,  recur 
during  the  I4th  century.  The  French  kings  are  all  crusaders — 
in  name — until  the  beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War; 
but  the  only  crusader  who  ever  carried  war  in  Palestine  and 
sought  to  shake  the  hold  of  the  Mamelukes  on  the  Holy  Land 
was  Peter  I.,  king  of  Cyprus  from  1359  to  1369.  Peter  founded 
the  order  of  the  Sword  for  the  delivery  of  Jerusalem;  and 
instigated  by  his  chancellor,  P.  de  M6zieres  (one  of  the  last  of 


54-6 


CRUSADES 


the  theorists  who  speculated  and  wrote  on  the  Crusades),  he 
attempted  to  revive  the  old  crusading  spirit  throughout  the  west 
of  Europe.  The  mission  which  he  undertook  with  his  chancellor 
for  this  purpose  (1362-1365)  only  produced  a  crop  of  promises 
or  excuses  from  sovereigns  like  Edward  III.  or  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.;  and  Peter  was  forced  to  begin  the  Crusade  with 
such  volunteers  as  he  could  collect  for  himself.  In  the  autumn 
of  1365  he  sacked  Alexandria;  in  1367  he  ravaged  the  coast  of 
Syria,  and  inflicted  serious  damages  on  the  sultan  of  Egypt. 
But  in  1369  he  was  assassinated,  and  the  last  romantic  figure  of 
the  Crusades  died,  leaving  only  the  legacy  of  his  memory  to  his 
chancellor  de  Mezieres,  who  for  nearly  forty  years  longer  con- 
tinued to  be  the  preacher  of  the  Crusades  to  Europe,  advocating 
— what  always  continued  to  be  the  "  dream  of  the  old  pilgrim  "- 
a  new  order  of  knights  of  the  Passion  of  Christ  for  the  recovery 
and  defence  of  Jerusalem.  De  Mezieres  was  the  last  to  advocate 
seriously,  as  Peter  I.  was  the  last  to  attempt,  a  Crusade  after 
the  old  fashion — an  offensive  war  against  Egypt  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.1  From  1350  onwards  the  Crusade 
assumes  a  new  aspect;  it  becomes  defensive,  and  it  is  directed 
against  the  Ottoman  Turks,  a  tribe  of  Turcomans  who  had 
established  themselves  in  the  sultanate  of  Iconium  at  the  end 
of  the  1 3th  century,  during  the  confusion  and  displacement  of 
peoples  which  attended  the  Mongol  invasions.  As  early  as  1308 
the  Ottoman  Turks  had  begun  to  settle  in  Europe;  by  1350  they 
had  organized  their  terrible  army  of  janissaries.  They  threatened 
at  once  the  debris  of  the  old  Latin  empire  in  Greece  and  the 
archipelago,  and  the  relics  of  the  Byzantine  empire  round 
Constantinople;  they  menaced  the  Hospitallers  in  Rhodes  and 
the  Lusignans  in  Cyprus.  It  was  natural  that  the  popes  should 
endeavour  to  form  a  coalition  between  the  various  Christian 
powers  which  were  threatened  by  the  Turks;  and  Venice, 
anxious  to  preserve  her  possessions  in  the  Aegean,  zealously 
seconded  their  efforts.  In  1344  a  Crusade,  in  which  Venice, 
the  Cypriots,  and  the  Hospitallers  all  joined,  ended  in  the 
conquest  of  Smyrna;  in  1345  another  Crusade,  led  by  Humbert, 
dauphin  of  Vienne,  ended  in  failure.  The  Turks  continued 
their  progress;  in  1363  they  captured  Philippopolis,  and  in  1365 
they  entered  Adrianople;  the  whole  Balkan  peninsula  was 
threatened,  and  even  Hungary  itself  seemed  doomed.  Already 
in  1365  Urban  VI.  sought  to  unite  the  king  of  Hungary  and  the 
king  of  Cyprus  in  a  common  Crusade  against  the  Turks;  but 
it  was  not  till  1396  that  an  attempt  was  at  last  made  to  supple- 
ment by  a  land  Crusade  the  naval  Crusades  of  1344  and  1345. 
Master  of  Servia  and  of  Bulgaria,  as  well  as  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
sultan  Bayezid  was  now  threatening  Constantinople  itself.  To 
arrest  his  progress,  a  Crusade,  preached  by  Boniface  IX., 
led  by  John  the  Fearless  of  Burgundy,  and  joined  chiefly  by 
French  knights,  was  directed  down  the  valley  of  the  Danube 
into  the  Balkans;  but  the  old  faults  stigmatized  by  de  Mezieres, 
divisio  and  propria  volunlas,  were  the  ruin  of  the  crusading  army, 
and  at  the  battle  of  Nicopolis  it  was  signally  defeated.  Not  the 
Western  Crusades  but  an  Eastern  rival,  Timur  (Tamerlane), 
king  of  Transoxiana  and  conqueror  of  southern  Russia  and  India, 
was  destined  to  arrest  the  progress  of  Bayezid;  and  from  the 
battle  of  Angora  (1402)  till  the  days  of  Murad  II.  (1422)  the 
Ottoman  power  was  paralysed.  Under  Murad,  however,  it 
rose  to  its  old  height.  To  meet  the  new  danger  a  new  union  of 
the  churches  of  the  East  and  the  West  was  attempted.  As  in 
1074  Gregory  VII.  had  dreamed  of  such  a  union,  to  be  followed 
by  a  joint  attack  of  East  and  West  on  the  Seljuks,  so  in  1439, 
at  the  council  of  Florence,  a  new  union  of  the  two  churches  was 
again  attempted  and  temporarily  secured,  in  order  that  a  united 
Christendom  might  face  the  new  Turkish  danger.2  The  logical 
result  of  the  union  was  the  Crusade  of  1443.  An  army  of  cosmo- 
politan adventurers,  led  by  the  Cardinal  Caesarini,  joined  the 

'The  dream  of  a  Crusade  to  Jerusalem  survived  de  M£zieres;  a 
society  which  read  "  romaunts  "  of  the  Crusades,  could  not  but 
dream  the  dream.  Henry  V.,  whose  father  had  fought  with  the 
Teutonic  knights  on  the  Baltic,  dreamed  of  a  voyage  to  Jerusalem. 

1  The  union  of  1274,  conceded  by  the  Palaeologi  at  the  council  of 
Lyons  in  order  to  defeat  the  plans  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  had  only  been 
temporary. 


forces  of  Wladislaus  of  Poland  and  John  Hunyadi  of  Transyl- 
vania, and  succeeded  in  forcing  on  Murad  II.  a  truce  of  ten  years 
at  Szegedin  in  1444.  But  the  crusaders  broke  the  truce,  to 
which  Caesarini  had  never  consented;  and,  attempting  to  better 
what  was  already  good  enough,  they  were  defeated  at  Varna. 
Here  the  last  Crusade  ended;  and  nine  years  afterwards,  in 
1453,  Mahommed  II.,  the  successor  of  Murad,  captured  Con- 
stantinople. It  was  in  vain  that  the  popes  sought  to  gather 
a  new  Crusade  for  its  recovery;  Pius  II.,  who  had  vowed  to 
join  the  crusade  in  person,  only  reached  Ancona  in  1464  to  find 
the  crusaders  deserting  and  to  die.  Yet  the  ghost  of  the  Crusades 
still  lingered.  It  became  a  convention  of  diplomacy,  designed 
to  cover  any  particularly  sharp  piece  of  policy  which  needed 
some  excuse;  and  the  treaty  of  Granada,  formed  between 
Louis  XII.  and  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  for  the  partition  of  Naples 
in  1500,  was  excused  as  a  thing  necessary  in  the  interests  of 
the  Crusades.  In  a  more  noble  fashion  the  Crusade  survived  in 
the  minds  of  the  navigators;  "  Vasco  da  Gama,  Christopher 
Columbus,  Albuquerque,  and  many  others  dreamed,  and  not 
insincerely,  that  they  were  labouring  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
Holy  Land,  and  they  bore  the  Cross  on  their  breasts."  3  "  Don 
Henrique's  scheme,"  it  has  been  said,  "  represents  the  final 
effort  of  the  crusading  spirit;  and  the  naval  campaigns  against 
the  Moslem  in  the  Indian  seas,  in  which  it  culminated,  forty 
years  after  Don  Henrique's  death,  may  be  described  as  the  last 
Crusade."  < 

10.  Results  of  the  Crusades. — In  one  vital  respect  the  result 
of  the  Crusades  may  be  written  down  as  failure.  They  ended, 
not  in  the  occupation  of  the  East  by  the  Christian  West,  but 
in  the  conquest  of  the  West  by  the  Mahommedan  East.  The 
Crusades  began  with  the  Seljukian  Turk  planted  at  Nicaea; 
they  ended  with  the  Ottoman  Turk  entrenched  by  the  Danube. 
Nothing  is  more  striking  in  history  than  the  recession  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  East  after  the  i3th  century.  In  the  i3th  century 
the  whole  of  Europe  was  Christian;  part  of  Asia  Minor  still 
belonged  to  Greek  Christianity,  and  there  was  a  Christian 
kingdom  in  Palestine.  Nor  was  this  all.  A  wide  missionary 
activity  had  begun  in  the  i3th  century — an  activity  which  was 
the  product  of  the  Crusades  and  the  contact  with  the  Moslem 
which  they  brought,  but  which  yet  helped  to  check  the  Crusades, 
substituting  as  it  did  peaceful  and  spiritual  conquests  of  souls 
for  the  violence  and  materialism  of  even  a  Holy  War.  The 
Eastern  mission  had  been  begun  by  St  Francis,  who  had  visited 
and  attempted  to  convert  the  sultan  of  Egypt  during  the  Fifth 
Crusade  (i  220) ;  within  a  hundred  years  the  little  seed  had  grown 
into  a  great  tree.  A  great  field  for  missionary  enterprise  opened 
itself  in  the  Mongol  empire,  in  which,  as  has  already  been  men- 
tioned, there  were  many  Christians  to  be  found;  and  by  1350 
this  field  had  been  so  well  worked  that  Christian  missions  and 
Christian  bishops  were  established  from  Persia  to  Peking,  and 
from  the  Dnieper  to  Tibet  itself.  But  a  Mahommedan  reaction 
came,  thanks  in  large  measure  to  the  zeal  of  Timur;  and  central 
Asia  was  lost  to  Christianity.  Everywhere  in  the  isth  century, 
in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  the  crescent  was  victorious  over  the 
cross;  and  Crusade  and  mission,  whether  one  regards  them  as 
complementary  or  inimical,  perished  together.5 

But  the  history  of  the  Crusades  must  be  viewed  rather  as  a 
chapter  in  the  history  of  civilization  in  the  West  itself,  than  as 
an  extension  of  Western  dominion  or  religion  to  the  East.  It 
is  a  chapter  very  difficult  to  write,  for  while  on  the  one  hand  an 
ingenious  and  speculative  historian  may  refer  to  the  influence 
of  the  Crusades  almost  everything  which  was  thought  or  done 
between  noo  and  1300,  a  cautious  writer  who  seeks  to  find 

3  Brehier,  L'£glise  et  VOrient,  p.  347. 

4  Cambridge  Modern  History,  i.  II.     It  is  perhaps  worth  remark- 
ing that  something  of  the  old  crusading  spirit  seems  still  to  linger 
in  the  movement  of  Russia  towards  Constantinople. 

6  While  from  this  point  of  view  the  Crusades  appear  as  a  failure, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  elsewhere  than  in  the  East  Crusades 
did  attain  some  success.  A  Crusade  won  for  Christianity  the  coast 
of  the  eastern  Baltic  (see  TEUTONIC  ORDER);  and  the  centuries 
of  the  Spanish  Crusade  ended  in  the  conquest  of  the  whole  of  Spain 
for  Christianity. 


CRUSADES 


547 


documentary  evidence  for  every  assertion  may  be  rather  inclined 
to  attribute  to  that  influence  little  or  nothing.1  The  dissolution  of 
feudalism,  the  development  of  towns,  the  growth  of  scholasticism, 
all  these  and  much  more  have  been  ascribed  to  the  Crusades, 
when  in  truth  they  were  concomitants  rather  than  results,  or 
at  any  rate,  if  in  part  the  results  of  the  Crusades,  were  in  far 
larger  part  the  results  of  other  things.  At  most,  therefore,  it 
may  be  admitted  that  the  Crusades  contributed  to  the  dissolution 
of  feudalism  by  putting  property  on  the  market  and  disturbing 
the  validity  of  titles;  that  they  aided  the  development  of  towns 
by  vastly  increasing  the  volume  of  trade;  and  that  they 
furthered  the  growth  of  scholasticism  by  bringing  the  West 
into  contact  with  the  mind  of  the  East.  If  we  seek  the  peculiar 
and  definite  results  of  the  Crusades,  we  must  turn  to  narrower 
issues.  In  the  first  place,  the  Crusades  represent  the  attempt 
of  a  feudal  system,  bound  under  the  law  of  primogeniture  to 
dispose  of  its  younger  sons.  They  are  attempts  at  feudal 
colonization;  and  as  such  they  resulted  in  a  number  of  colonies 
— the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus,  the  Latin 
empire  of  Constantinople.  They  resulted  too  in  a  number  of 
"  chartered  companies  " — that  is  to  say,  the  three  military 
orders,  which,  beginning  as  charitable  socities,  developed  into 
military  clubs,  and  developed  again  from  military  clubs  into 
chartered  companies,  possessed  of  banks,  navies  and  considerable 
territories.  In  the  second  place,  as  has  already  been  noticed, 
the  Crusades  represent  the  attempt  of  Western  commerce  to  find 
new  and  more  easy  routes  to  the  wealth  of  the  East;  and  in  this 
respect  they  led  to  various  results.  On  the  one  hand  they  led 
to  the  establishment  of  emporia  in  the  East — for  instance,  Acre, 
and  after  the  fall  of  Acre  Famagusta,  both  in  their  day  great 
centres  of  Levantine  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  the  commodities 
which  poured  into  Venice  and  Genoa  from  the  East  had  to  find 
a  route  for  their  diffusion  through  Europe.  The  great  route 
was  that  which  led  from  Venice  over  the  Brenner  and  up  the 
Rhine  to  Bruges;  and  this  route  became  the  long  red  line  of 
municipal  development,  along  which — in  Lombardy,  Germany 
and  Flanders — the  great  towns  of  the  middle  ages  sprang  to  life. 
Partly  as  a  result  of  this  trade,  ever  pushing  its  way  farther  east, 
and  partly  as  a  result  of  the  Asiatic  missions,  which  were  them- 
selves an  accompaniment  and  effect  of  the  Crusades,  a  third 
great  result  of  the  Crusades  came  to  light  in  the  I3th  century — 
the  discovery  of  the  interior  of  Asia,  and  an  immense  accession 
to  the  sphere  of  geography.  When  one  remembers  that  mis- 
sionaries like  Piano  Carpini,  and  traders  like  the  Venetian  Polos, 
either  penetrated  by  land  from  Acre  to  Peking,  or  circum- 
navigated southern  Asia  from  Basra  to  Canton,  one  realizes  that 
there  was,  about  1300,  a  discovery  of  Asia  as  new  and  tremendous 
as  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  two  centuries  later. 
At  the  same  time  the  old  knowledge  of  nearer  Asia  was  immensely 
deepened.  It  has  already  been  noticed  how  military  reconnais- 
sances of  the  routes  to  Egypt  came  to  be  made;  but  more 
important  were  the  guide-books,  of  which  a  great  number  were 
written  to  guide  the  pilgrims  from  one  sacred  spot  of  Bible 
history  to  another.  There  were  medieval  Baedekers  in  abundance 
for  the  use  of  the  annual  flow  of  tourists,  who  were  carried  every 
Easter  by  the  vessels  of  the  Italian  towns  or  of  the  Orders  to 
visit  the  Holy  Land  and  to  bathe  in  Jordan,  to  gather  palms, 
and  to  see  the  miracle  of  fire  at  the  Sepulchre. 

Colonization,  trade,  geography — these  then  are  three  things 
closely  connected  with  the  history  of  the  Crusades.  The 
development  of  the  art  of  war,  and  the  growth  of  a  systematic 
taxation,  are  two  debts  which  medieval  Europe  also  owed  to  the 
Crusades.  Partly  by  contact  with  the  Byzantines,  partly  by 
conflict  with  the  Mahommedans,  the  Franks  learned  new  methods 

1  Authors  like  Heeren  (Versuch  einer  Entwickelung  der  Folgender 
Kreuzzuge)  and  Michaud  (in  the  last  volume  of  his  Histoire  des 
croisades)  fall  into  the  error  of  assigning  all  things  to  the  Crusades. 
Even  Prutz,  in  his  Kulturgeschichte  der  Kreuzzuge,  over-estimates 
the  influence  of  the  Crusades  as  a  chapter  in  the  history  of  civilization. 
He  depreciates  unduly  the  Western  civilization  of  the  early  middle 
ages,  and  exalts  the  civilization  of  the  Arabs;  and  starting  from 
these  two  premises,  he  concludes  that  modern  civilization  is  the 
offspring  of  the  Crusades,  which  first  brought  East  and  West  together. 


both  of  building  and  of  attacking  fortifications.  The  concentric 
castle,  with  its  rings  of  walls,  began  to  displace  the  old  keep  and 
bailey  with  their  single  wall,  as  the  crusaders  brought  back 
news  from  the  East.2  The  art  of  the  sapper  and  miner,  the  use 
of  siege  instruments  like  the  mangonel,  and  the  employment  of 
various  "  fires  "  as  missiles,  were  all  known  among  the  Mahom- 
medans; and  in  all  these  respects  the  Franks  learned  from  their 
enemies.  The  common  use  of  armorial  bearings,  and  the  practice 
of  the  tournament,  may  be  Oriental  in  their  origin;  the  latter 
has  its  affinities  with  the  equestrian  exercises  of  the  Jerid,  and 
the  former,  though  of  prehistoric  antiquity,  may  have  received 
a  new  impulse  from  contact  with  the  Arabs.  The  military 
development  which  sprang  from  the  Crusades  is  thus  largely 
a  matter  of  borrowing;  the  financial  development  is  independent 
and  indigenous  in  the  West.  As  early  as  1147  Louis  VII.  had 
imposed  a  tax  in  the  interests  of  the  Crusades;  and  that  tax 
had  been  repeated  by  Louis,  and  imitated  by  Henry  II.  in  1166, 
while  it  had  been  still  further  extended  in  the  Saladin  tithe  of 
1 1 88.  The  taxation  of  1166  is  important  as  the  first  to  fall  on 
"  moveables  ";  the  whole  scheme  of  taxation  may  be  regarded 
as  the  beginning  of  a  modern  system  of  taxation.  But  it  was  not 
only  to  the  lay  power  that  the  Crusades  gave  an  excuse  for 
taxation;  the  papacy  also  profited.  Tithes  for  the  Crusades 
were  first  imposed  on  the  clergy  by  Innocent  III.  at  the  Lateran 
council  of  1215;  and  clerical  taxation  was  thus  part  of  the  whole 
statesmanlike  project  of  the  Fifth  Crusade  as  it  was  sketched  by 
the  great  pope.  Henceforth  tithes  for  the  Crusades  are  regular; 
under  Gregory  IX.  they  become  a  great  part  of  the  papal  resources 
in  the  Crusade  against  the  Hohenstaufen;  and  in  the  i6th 
century  they  are  still  a  normal  part  of  the  government  of  the 
Church. 

In  many  other  ways  the  Europe  over  which  the  Crusades  had 
passed  was  different  from  the  Europe  of  the  nth  century.  In 
the  first  place,  many  political  changes  had  been  wrought,  largely 
under  its  influence.  Always  in  large  part  French,  the  Crusades 
had  on  the  whole  contributed  to  exalt  the  prestige  of  France, 
until  it  stood  at  the  end  of  the  i3th  century  the  most  considerable 
power  in  Europe.  It  was  France  which  had  colonized  the  Levant ; 
it  was  the  French  tongue  which  was  used  in  the  Levant;  and 
the  results  of  the  ancient  and  continuous  connexion  with  the 
East  are  still  to  be  traced  to-day.  Of  the  other  great  powers  of 
Europe,  England  and  Germany  had  been  little  changed  by  the 
Crusades,  save  that  Germany  had  been  extended  towards  the 
East  by  the  conquests  of  the  Teutonic  Order;  but  the  Eastern 
empire  had  been  profoundly  modified,  and  the  papacy  had 
suffered  a  great  change.  The  Eastern  empire  had  been  for  a 
time  annihilated  by  the  movement  which  in  1095  it  had  helped  to 
evoke;  and  if  it  rose  from  its  ashes  in  1261  for  two  centuries 
of  renewed  life,  it  was  never  more  than  the  shadow  of  its  old  self, 
with  little  hold  on  Asia  Minor  and  less  on  Greece  and  the  Archi- 
pelago, which  the  Latins  still  continued  to  occupy  until  they  were 
finally  conquered  by  the  Ottoman  Turks.  The  papacy,  on  the 
other  hand,  had  grown  as  a  result  of  the  Crusades.  Popes  had 
preached  them;  popes  had  financed  them;  popes  had  sent  their 
legates  to  lead  them.  Through  them  the  popes  had  deposed 
the  emperors  of  the  West  from  their  headship  of  the  world, 
partly  because  through  the  Crusades  the  popes  were  able  to 
direct  the  common  Christianity  of  Europe  in  a  foreign  policy 
of  their  own  without  consultation  with  the  emperor,  partly 
because  in  the  I3th  century  they  were  ultimately  able  to  direct 
the  Crusade  itself  against  the  empire.  Yet  while  they  had 
magnified,  the  Crusades  had  also  corrupted  the  papacy.  They 
became  an  instrument  in  its  hands  which  it  used  to  its  own 
undoing.  It  cried  Crusade  when  there  was  no  Crusade;  and 
the  long  Crusade  against  the  Hohenstaufen,  if  it  gave  the  papacy 
an  apparent  victory,  only  served  in  the  long  run  to  lower  its 

1  It  is  difficult  to  decide  how  far  Arabic  models  influenced  ecclesi- 
astical architecture  in  the  West  as  a  result  of  the  Crusades.  Greater 
freedom  of  moulding  and  the  use  of  trefoil  and  cinquel'oil  may  be, 
but  need  not  be,  explained  in  this  way.  The  pointed  arch  owes 
nothing  to  the  Arabs;  it  is  already  used  in  England  in  early  Norman 
work.  Generally,  one  may  say  that  Western  architecture  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  East. 


CRUSADES 


f       CAIRO 
/       D        S 


SYRIA 

in  the  I2th. Century, before  the  conquests  of  Saladin 


prestige  in  the  eyes  of  Europe.  When  we  turn  from  the  sphere 
of  politics  to  the  history  of  civilization  and  culture,  we  find  the 
effects  of  the  Crusades  as  deeply  impressed,  if  not  so  definitely 
marked.  The  Crusades  had  sprung  from  the  policy  of  a  theo- 
cratic government  counting  on  the  motive  of  otherworldliness; 
they  had  helped  in  their  course  to  overthrow  that  motive,  and 
with  it  the  government  which  it  had  made  possible.  In  part 
they  had  provided  a  field  in  which  the  layman  could  prove  that 
he  too  was  a  priest;  in  part  they  had  brought  the  West  into  a 
living  and  continuous  contact  with  a  new  faith  and  a  new 
civilization.  They  had  torn  men  loose  from  the  ancestral 
custom  of  home  to  walk  in  new  ways  and  see  new  things  and  hear 
new  thoughts;  and  some  broadening  of  view,  some  lessening 
in  the  intensity  of  the  old  one-sidedness,  was  the  inevitable 
result.  It  is  not  so  much  that  the  West  came  into  contact  with 
a  particular  civilization  in  the  East,  or  borrowed  from  that 
civilization;  it  is  simply  that  the  West  came  into  contact  with 
something  unlike  itself,  yet  in  many  ways  as  high  as,  if  not  higher 
than,  itself.  The  spirit  of  Nathan  der  Weise  may  not  have  been 
exactly  the  spirit  engendered  by  the  Crusades;  and  yet  it  is 
not  without  reason  that  Lessing  stages  the  fable  which  teaches 
toleration  in  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  In  any  case  the 
accusations  made  against  the  Templars  at  the  time  of  their 
suppression  prove  that  there  was,  at  any  rate  in  the  ranks  of 
those  who  knew  the  East,  too  little  of  absolute  orthodoxy. 
While  a  new  spirit  which  compares  and  tolerates  thus  sprang 
from  the  Crusades,  the  large  sphere  of  new  knowledge  and 
experience  which  they  gave  brought  new  material  at  once 


for  scientific  thought  and  poetic  imagination.  Not  only  was 
geography  more  studied;  the  Crusades  gave  a  great  impulse 
to  the  writing  of  history,  and  produced,  besides  innumerable 
other  works,  the  greatest  historical  work  of  the  middle  ages — 
the  Historia  transmarine,  of  William  of  Tyre.  Mathematics 
received  an  impulse,  largely,  it  is  true,  from  the  Arabs  of  Spain, 
but  also  from  the  East;  Leonardo  Fibonacci,  the  first  Christian 
algebraist,  had  travelled  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  The  study  of 
Oriental  languages  began  in  connexion  with  the  Christian 
missions  of  the  East;  Raymond  Lull,  the  indefatigable 
missionary,  induced  the  council  of  Vienne  to  decide  on  the 
creation  of  six  schools  of  Oriental  languages  in  Europe  (1311). 
But  the  new  field  of  poetic  literature  afforded  by  the  Crusades 
is  still  more  striking  than  this  development  of  science.  New 
poems  in  abundance  dealt  with  the  history  of  the  Crusades, 
either  in  a  faithful  narrative,  like  that  of  the  Chanson  of  Am- 
broise,  which  narrates  the  Third  Crusade,  or  in  a  free  and  poetical 
spirit,  such  as  breathes  in  the  Chanson  d'Anlioche.  Nor  was  this 
all.  The  Crusades  afforded  new  details  which  might  be  inserted 
into  old  matters,  and  a  new  spirit  which  might  be  infused  into 
old  subjects;  and  a  crusading  complexion  thus  came  to  be  put 
upon  old  tales  like  those  of  Arthur  and  Charlemagne.  By  the 
side  of  these  greater  things  it  may  seem  little,  and  yet,  just 
because  it  is  little,  it  is  all  the  more  significant  that  the  Crusades 
should  have  familiarized  Europe  with  new  plants,  new  fruits, 
new  manufactures,  new  colours,  and  new  fashions  in  dress. 
Sugar  and  maize;  lemons,  apricots  and  melons;  cotton,  muslin 
and  damask;  lilac  and  purple  (azure  and  gules  are  words  derived 


CRUSADES 


549 


ijij'fLf 

*—  t,  <u  .  ~  "is  ^ 

;g.a-o.*.5u 

& 

•a  V                          o«o 
B^                     1- 

l|jj                    g^ 

r             o  o                         "g  i- 

1-1          a                      ^M 

c                                             |?6 

•5          "                      S3 

2  • 

4j                                             ^                            ^uS 

^                  3          1? 

o  ^  ' 
o'S  " 
o,     N 

•  ^5     1 

JL 

E  6 

"  rt  ^2 

**•              W  2 

«  n  g 

ffrS- 

2J    g> 

"J     ^^/^                           ».  i    fu 

$f!l     °^4 

11 

°1      ^ 
s-       II 

ii*A  ^:     « 

£0-32     ^xl            * 

I 

T-S  w""5 

fa                     I-H  5  -S             C  ~ 

• 

J3 

>;  c  c  S 

||                            'S   .^    3  «       "S  .^ 

rt 

a 

l_,'  3   (U  ^H 

2  o  }n  Ji?  —  S  o 

g 

• 

rt  c  be        . 

B 

s 

u 

O  ^  "*             ^*   J'   C>  P  O 

o             "  3  u  o  j; 
^                crrti:  « 

>-i  N- 

-i             ^ 

HH 

<       &§               1 

M       "^X-          "^ 

T3    •gur-       ^        « 
|    ^5S|5                  Ig 

0  7                So 

g 

rlf-l 

II 

J    U'o       -£>       S| 

>—  > 

IM 

*•  c 

I'D 

«    |«|       1  —  -si 

o 

Ifl 

,JJ 

1    |-£J   pi       S-8 

i 

M 

a 
•o 

B 

II 

«| 

~1    '"I- 

*." 

I 

•*•             X    .            Jg 

•2 

•^"'                   (4 

g     Mr|?          ||  

r 

H  -6»i      -« 

fe      5^2          2? 
O     3°~        -2." 

S. 
r* 

(0     I 

§                     I| 

, 

•z, 

\A 
O 

-CI 

ti'S 

&-.S 

5s 

P 

*fl 

B 

_|S 

S 

a« 

V 

*O  ^ 

CJ  u 

•a  to 

rt 

>_'u  «5 

E         § 

«.E 

| 

°!1s 

'3      x 

§ 

"C        ,g 

"•§  « 

E    ^ 

- 

o     >- 

"I'o-c 

II—  "o 

fo 

•8-II1 

X 

tfl       1—  1 
3       — 

IB 

•I  «.i 

H 
y 

(  J 
C-       •" 

S 

^ 

< 

_o 

b    •  0  w 

Ml 

ffi 


X 
U  10 

*5  « 
boT 


1 


-,£? 


14 


B.S 

9 


550 


CRUSADES 


from  the  Arabic);  the  use  of  powder  and  of  glass  mirrors,  and 
also  of  the  rosary  itself — all  these  things  came  to  Europe  from 
the  East  and  as  a  result  of  the  Crusades.  To  tm's  day  there  are 
many  Arabic  words  in  the  vocabulary  of  the  languages  of  western 
Europe  which  are  a  standing  witness  of  the  Crusades — words 
relating  to  trade  and  seafaring,  like  tariff  and  corvette,  or  words 
for  musical  instruments,  like  lute  or  the  Elizabethan  word 
"  naker." 

When  all  is  said,  the  Crusades  remain  a  wonderful  and  per- 
petually astonishing  act  in  the  great  drama  of  human  life.  They 
touched  the  summits  of  daring  and  devotion,  if  they  also  sank 
into  the  deep  abysms  of  shame.  Motives  of  self-interest  may 
have  lurked  in  them — otherworldly  motives  of  buying  salvation 
for  a  little  price,  or  worldly  motives  of  achieving  riches  and 
acquiring  lands.  Yet  it  would  be  treason  to  the  majesty  of 
man's  incessant  struggle  towards  an  ideal  good,  if  one  were  to 
deny  that  in  and  through  the  Crusades  men  strove  for  righteous- 
ness' sake  to  extend  the  kingdom  of  God  upon  earth.  Therefore 
the  tears  and  the  blood  that  were  shed  were  not  unavailing; 
the  heroism  and  the  chivalry  were  not  wasted.  Humanity  is 
the  richer  for  the  memory  of  those  millions  of  men,  who  followed 
the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire  in  the  sure  and  certain  hope  of  an 
eternal  reward.  The  ages  were  not  dark  in  which  Christianity 
could  gather  itself  together  in  a  common  cause,  and  carry  the 
flag  of  its  faith  to  the  grave  of  its  Redeemer;  nor  can  we  but 
give  thanks  for  their  memory,  even  if  for  us  religion  is  of  the 
spirit,  and  Jerusalem  in  the  heart  of  every  man  who  believes  in 
Christ. 

LITERATURE. — In  dealing  with  the  literature  of  the  Crusades,  it  is 
perhaps  better,  though  ideally  less  scientific,  to  begin  with  chronicles 
and  narratives  rather  than  with  documents.  One  of  the  results  of 
the  Crusades,  as  has  just  been  suggested  above,  was  a  great  increase 
in  the  writing  of  history.  Crusaders  themselves  kept  diaries  or 
itineraria;  while  home-keeping  ecclesiastics  in  the  West — monks 
like  Robert  of  Reims,  abbots  Tike  Guibert  of  Nogent,  archbishops 
like  Balderich  of  Dol — found  a  fertile  subject  for  their  pens  in  the 
history  of  the  Crusades.  The  history  of  a  series  of  actions  like  the 
Crusades  must  primarily  be  based  on  these  accounts,  and  more 
particularly  on  the  former:  narratives  must  precede  documents 
where  one  is  dealing,  not  with  the  continuous  life  of  an  organized 
kingdom,  but  with  a  number  of  enterprises — especially  when  those 
enterprises  have  been,  as  in  this  case,  excellently  narrated  by 
contemporary  writers. 

I.  Chronicles  and  Narratives  of  the  Crusades— (i)  Collections. 
The  authorities  for  the  Crusades  have  been  collected  in  Bongars, 
Gesta  Dei  per  Francos  (Hanover,  1611)  (incomplete);  Michaud, 
Bibliotheque  des  croisades  (Paris,  1829)  (containing  translations  of 
select  passages  in  the  authorities) ;  the  Recueil  des  historiens  des 
croisades,  published  by  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  (Paris,  1841 
onwards)  (the  best  general  collection,  containing  many  of  the 
Latin,  Greek,  Arabic  and  Armenian  authorities,  and  also  the  text  of 
the  assizes;  but  sometimes  poorly  edited  and  still  incomplete);  and 
the  publications  of  the  Societe  de  1'Orient  Latin  (founded  in  1875), 
especially  the  Archives,  of  which  two  volumes  were  published  in 
1881  and  1884,  and  the  volumes  of  the  Revue,  published  yearly  from 
1893  to  1902,  and  containing  not  only  new  texts,  but  articles  and 
reviews  of  books  which  are  of  great  service.  (2)  Particular  authorities. 
The  Crusades — a  movement  which  engaged  all  Europe  and  brought 
the  East  into  contact  with  the  West — must  necessarily  be  studied 
not  only  in  the  Latin  authorities  of  Europe  and  of  Palestine,  but  also 
in  Byzantine,  Armenian  and  Arabic  writers.  There  are  thus  some 
four  or  five  different  points  of  view  to  be  considered. 

The  First  Crusade,  far  more  than  any  other,  became  the  theme  of 
a  multitude  of  writings,  whose  different  degrees  of  value  it  is  all- 
important  to  distinguish.  Until  about  1840  the  authority  followed 
for  its  history  was  naturally  the  great  work  of  William  of  Tyre. 
For  the  First  Crusade  William  had  followed  Albert  of  Aix;  and  he 
had  consequently  depicted  Peter  the  Hermit  as  the  prime  mover 
in  the  Crusade.  But  about  1840  Ranke  suggested,  and  von  Sybel 
in  his  Geschichte  des  ersten  Kreuzzuges  proved,  that  Albert  of  Aix  was 
not  a  good  authority,  and  that  consequently  William  of  Tyre  must 
be  set  aside  for  the  history  of  the  First  Crusade,  and  other  and  more 
contemporary  authorities  used.  In  writing  his  account  of  the  First 
Crusade,  von  Sybel  accordingly  based  himself  on  the  three  con- 
temporary Western  authorities — the  Gesta  Francorum,  Raymond  of 
Agiles,  and  Fulcher.  His  view  of  the  value  of  Albert  of  Aix,  and  his 
account  of  the  First  Crusade,  have  been  generally  followed  (Kugler 
alone  having  attempted,  to  some  extent,  to  rehabilitate  Albert  of 
Aix);  and  thus  von  Sybel's  work  may  be  said  to  mark  a  revolution 
in  the  history  of  the  First  Crusade,  when  its  legendary  features  were 
stripped  away,  and  its  real  progress  was  first  properly  discovered. 

Taking  the  Western  authorities  for  the  First  Crusade  separately, 


one  may  divide  them,  in  the  light  of  von  Sybel's  work,  into  four 
kinds — the  accounts  of  eye-witnesses;  later  compilations  based  on 
these  accounts;  semi-legendary  and  legendary  narratives;  and 
lastly,  in  a  class  by  itself,  the  History  of  William  of  Tyre,  who 
is  rather  a  scientific  historian  than  a  chronicler. 

(a)  The  three  chief  eye-witnesses  are  the  anonymous  author  of  the 
Gesta  Francorum,  Raymund  of  Agiles,  and  Fulcher.    The  anonymous 
author  of  the  Gesta  (see  Hagenmeyer's  edition,  Heidelberg,  1890) 
was  a  Norman  of  South  Italy,  who  followed  Bohemund,  and  accord- 
ingly depicts  the  progress  of  the  First  Crusade  from  a  Norman  point 
of  view.     He  was  a  layman,  marching  and  fighting  in  the  ranks; 
and  thus  he  is  additionally  valuable  as  representing  the  opinion  of 
the  ordinary  crusader.     Finally  he  was  an  eye-witness  throughout, 
and  absolutely  contemporary,  in  the  sense  that  he  wrote  his  account 
of  each  great  event  practically  at  the  time  of  the  event.     He  is 
the  primary  authority  for  the  First  Crusade.    Raymund  of  Agiles,  a 
Provencal  clerk  and  a  follower  of  Raymund  of  Toulouse,  writes  his 
Historia   Francorum   qui  ceperunt   Jerusalem   from    the   Provencal 
point  of  view.    He  gives  an  ecclesiastic's  account  of  the  First  Crusade, 
and  is  specially  full  on  the  spiritualistic  phenomena  which  accom- 
panied and  followed  the  finding  of  the  Holy  Lance.    His  book  might 
almost  be  called  the  "  Visions  of  Peter  Bartholomew  and  others," 
and  it  is  written  in  the  plain  matter-of-fact  manner  of  Defoe's 
narratives.    He  too  was  an  eye-witness  throughout,  and  thoroughly- 
honest;  and  his  account  ranks  second  to  the  Gesta.     Fulcher  of 
Chartres  originally  followed  Robert  of  Normandy,  but  in  October 
1097  he  joined  Baldwin  of  Lorraine  in  his  expedition  to  Edessa, 
and  afterwards  followed  his  fortunes.    His  Historia  Hierosolymitana, 
which  extends  to  1 127,  and  embraces  not  only  the  history  of  the  First 
Crusade,  but  also  that  of  the  foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
is  written  on  the  whole  from  a  Lotharingian  point  of  view,  and  is 
thus  a  natural  complement  to  the  accounts  of  the  Anonymus  and 
Raymund.    His  account  of  the  First  Crusade  itself  is  poor  (he  was 
absent  at  Edessa  during  its  course),  but  otherwise  he  is  an  excellent 
authority.    A  kindly  old  pedant,  Fulcher  interlards  his  history  with 
much  discourse  on  geography,  zoology  and  sacred  history.    Besides 
these  three  chief  eye-witnesses  we  may  also  mention  the  Annales 
Genuenses  by  the  Genoese  consul  Caffarus,1  and  the  Annales  Pisani 
of  Bernardus  Marago,  useful  as  giving  the  mercantile  and  Italian 
side  of  the  Crusade;  the  Hierosolymita  of  Ekkehard,  the  German 
abbot  of  Aura,  who  first  came  to  Jerusalem  about  1 101  (partly  based 
on  the  Gesta,  but  also  of  independent  value:  see  Hagenmeyer's 
edition,   Tubingen,    1877);  and   Raoul   of  Caen's  Gesta    Tancredi, 
composed  on  the  basis  of  information  supplied  by  Tancred  himself. 
The  last  two  works,  if  not  actually  the  works  of  eye-witnesses,  are 
at  any  rate  first-hand,  and  belong  to  the  category  of  primary  writers 
rather  than  td  that  of  later  compilations.    Finally,  to  contemporary 
writers  we  may  add  contemporary  letters,  especially  those  written 
by  Stephen  of  Blois  and  Anselm  of  Ribemont,  and  the  three  letters 
sent  to  the  West  by  the  crusading  princes  during  the  First  Crusade 
(see  Hagenmeyer,  Epistulae  et  Chartae,  &c.,  Innsbruck,  1901).* 

(b)  The  later  compilations  are  chiefly  based  on  the  Gesta,  whose 
uncouth  style  many  writers  set  themselves  to  mend.     In  the  first 
place,  there  is  the  Historia  de  Hierosolymitano  itinere  of  Tudebod, 
which  according  to  Besly,  writing  in   1641,  is  the  original  from 
which  the  Gesta  was  a  mere  plagiarism — an  absolute  inversion  of  the 
truth,  as  von  Sybel  first  proved  two  centuries  later.     Secondly, 
besides  the  plagiarist  Tudebod,  there  are  the  artistic  redacteurs  of 
the  Gesta,  who  confess  their  indebtedness,  but  plead  the  bad  style  of 
their  original — Guibert  of  Nogent,  Balderich  of  Dol,  Robert  of  Reims 
(all  c.  1 120-1 130),  and  Fulco,  the  author  of  a  Virgilian  poem  on  the 
Crusades,  continued  by  Gilo  (oft.  c.  1 142).    Of  these,  the  monk  Robert 
was  more  popular  in  the  middle  ages  than  either  the  pompous  abbot 
Guibert  or  the  quiet  garden-loving  archbishop  of  Dol. 

(c)  The  growth  of  a  legend,  or  perhaps  better,  a  saga  of  the  First 
Crusade  began,  according  to  von  Sybel,  even  during  the  Crusade 
itself.     The  basis  of  this  growth  is  partly  the  story-telling  instinct 
innate  in  all  men,  which  loves  to  heighten  an  effect,  sharpen  a  point 
or  increase  a  contrast — the  instinct  which  breathes  in   Icelandic 
sagas  like  that  of  Burnt  Njal;  partly  the  instinct  of  idolization, 
if  it  may  be  so  called,  which  leads  to  the  perversion  into  impossible 
greatness  of  an  approved  character,  and  has  created,  in  this  instance, 
the  legendary  figures  of  Peter  the  Hermit  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
(qq.y.) ;  partly  the  religious  impulse,  which  counted  nothing  wonder- 
ful in  a  holy  war,  and  imported  miraculous  elements  even  into  the 
sober  pages  of  the  Gesta.    These  instincts  and  impulses  would  be  at 
work  already  among  the  soldiers  during  the  Crusade,  producing  a 
saga  all  the  more  readily,  as  there  were  poets  in  the  camp;  for  we 
know  that  a  certain  Richard,  who  joined  the  First  Crusade,  sang 
its  exploits  in  verse,  while  still  more  famous  is  the  princely  troubadour, 
William  of  Aquitaine,  who  joined  the  Crusade  of  noo.     If  we  are 
to  follow  von  Sybel  rather  than   Kugler,   this  saga  of  the  First 
Crusade  found  one  of  its  earliest  expressions  (c.  1120)  in  the  prose 
work  of  Albert  of  Aix  (Historia  Hierosolymitana') — genuine  saga  in  its 


1  His    somewhat    legendary    treatise,    De    liberatione    civitatum 
Orientis,  was  only  composed  about  1155. 

2  There  is  also  an  Inventaire  critique  of  these  letters  by  the  comte 
de  Riant  (Paris,  1880). 


CRUSADES 


inconsistencies,  its  errors  of  chronology  and  topography,  its  poet- 
ical colour,  and  its  living  descriptions  of  battles.  Kugler,  however, 
regards  Albert  as  a  copyist,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  Tudebod, 
of  an  unknown  writer  of  value,  who  belonged  to  the  Lotharingian 
ranks  during  the  Crusade,  and  settled  in  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
afterwards  (see  Kugler,  Albert  von  Aachen,  Stuttgart,  1885).'  In 
the  Chanson  des  chetifs  and  the  Chanson  d'Antioche  the  legend  of  the 
Crusades  more  certainly  finds  its  expression.  The  former,  composed 
at  Antioch  about  1130,  contained  an  idolization  of  the  Hermit: 
the  latter  is  a  poem  written  about  1180  by  Graindor  of  Douai,  who 
used  as  his  basis  the  verses  of  the  crusader  Richard  (see  the  edition 
of  P.  Paris,  184.8).  It  shows  the  growth  of  the  legend  that  Graindor 
regards  the  vision  of  the  Hermit  as  responsible  for  the  Crusade, 
and  makes  the  Crusade  led  by  him  precede,  and  indeed  occasion  by 
its  failure,  the  meeting  at  Clermont  (which  is  dated  in  May  instead 
of  November).  Into  the  legendary  overgrowth  of  the  First  Crusade 
we  cannot  here  enter  any  further2;  but  it  is  perhaps  worth  while 
to  mention  that  the  French  legend  of  the  Third  Crusade  equally 
perverted  the  truth,  making  Richard  I.  return  home  in  disgrace, 
while  Philip  Augustus  stays,  captures  Damascus  and  mortally 
wounds  Saladin  (cf.  G.  Paris,  L'Estoire  de  la  guerre  sainte,  Paris, 
1897;  Introduction). 

(d)  William  of  Tyre  is  the  scientific  historian  and  rationalizer, 
weaving  into  a  harmonious  account,  which  was  followed  by  his- 
torians for  centuries,  the  sober  accounts  of 'eye-witnesses  and  the 
picturesque  details  of  the  saga — with  somewhat  of  a  bias  towards 
the  latter  in  regard  to  the  First  Crusade.  He  was  a  native  of  Pales- 
tine, born  about  1130,  and  educated  in  the  West.  On  his  return  he 
was  happy  in  winning  the  good  opinion  of  Amalric  I. ;  he  was  made 
first  canon  and  then  archdeacon  of  Tyre,  and  tutor  of  the  future 
Baldwin  IV.  (1170);  while  on  Baldwin's  accession  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom  and  archbishop  of  Tyre  (1174-1175). 
He  was  a  man  often  employed  on  missions  and  negotiations,  and  as 
chancellor  he  had  in  his  care  the  archives  of  the  kingdom.  His 
temper  was  naturally  that  of  a  trimmer;  and  he  had  thus  many 
qualifications  for  the  writing  of  well-informed  and  unbiassed  history. 
He  knew  Greek  and  Arabic;  and  he  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
affairs  of  Constantinople,  to  which  he  went  at  least  twice  on  political 
business,  and  with  the  history  of  the  Mahommedan  powers,  on  which 
he  had  written  a  work  (now  lost)  at  the  command  of  Amalric.  It  was 
Amalric  also  who  set  him  to  write  the  history  of  the  Crusades  which 
we  still  possess  (in  twenty-two  books,  with  a  fragment  of  a  twenty- 
third) — the  Historia  rerum  in  partibus  transmarinis  gestarum.  He 
wrote  the  book  at  different  times  between  1170  and  1183,  when  it 
abruptly  ends,  and  its  author  as  abruptly  disappears  from  sight. 
The  book  falls  into  two  parts,  the  first  (books  i.-xv.)  derivative,  the 
second  (books  xvi.-xxiii.)  original.  In  the  second  part  he  had  his 
own  knowledge  of  events  and  the  information  of  his  contemporaries 
as  his  source:  in  the  first  he  used  the  same  authorities  which  we 
still  possess — the  Gesta,  Fulcher,  and  Albert  of  Aix — in  somewhat 
of  an  eclectic  spirit,  choosing  now  here,  now  there,  according  as  he 
could  best  weave  a  pleasant  narrative,  but  not  according  to  any  real 
critical  principle.  His  book  thus  begins  to  be  a  real  authority  only 
from  the  date  of  the  Second  Crusade  onwards;  but  the  perfection 
of  his  form  (for  he  is  one  of  the  greatest  stylists,  of  the  middle  ages) 
and  the  prestige  of  his  position  conspired  to  make  his  book  the  one 
authority  for  the  whole  history  of  the  first  century  of  the  Crusades. 
Nor  was  he  (apart  from  his  reception  of  legendary  elements  into  his 
narrative)  unworthy  of  the  honour  in  which  he  was  held;  for  he  is 
really  a  great  historian,  in  the  form  of  his  matter  and  in  hisconception 
of  his  subject — diligent,  impartial,  well-informed  and  interesting,  if 
somewhat  rhetorical  in  style  and  vague  in  chronology. 

[During  the  middle  ages  his  work  was  current  in  a  French  trans- 
lation, known  as  the  Chronique  d'outremer,  or  the  Liiire  or  Roman 
d'Eracles  (so  called  from  the  reference  at  the  beginning  to  the 
emperor  Heraclius).  This  translation  also  contained  a  continuation 
by  various  hands  down  to  1277;  while  besides  the  continuation 
embedded  in  the  Livre  d'Eracles,  there  are  separate  continuations, 
of  the  nature  of  independent  works,  by  Ernoul  and  Bernard  the 
Treasurer.  Theset  latter  cover  the  period  from  1183  to  1228;  and 
of  the  two  Ernoul's  account  seems  primary,  while  that  of  Bernard 
is  in  large  part  a  mere  copy  of  Ernoul.  But  the  whole  subject  of 
the  contmuators  of  William  of  Tyre  is  dubious.] 

To  the  Western  authorities  for  the  First  Crusade  must  be  added 
the  Eastern — Byzantine,  Arabic  and  Armenian.  Of  these  the 
Byzantine  authority,  the  Alexiad  of  Anna  Comnena,  is  most  im- 
portant, partly  from  the  position  of  the  authoress,  partly  from  the 
many  points  of  contact  between  the  Byzantine  empire  and  the 
crusaders.  Anna's  narrative  both  furnishes  a  useful  corrective  of 

1  Von  Sybel's  view  must  be  modified  by  that  of  Kugler,  to  which  a 
scholar  like  Hagenmeyer  has  to  some  extent  given  his  adhesion  (cf. 
his  edition  of  the  Gesta,  pp.  62-68).    Hagenmeyer  inclines  to  believe 
in  an  original  author,  distinct  from  Albert  the  copyist;  and  he 
thinks  that  this  original  author  (whether  or  no  he  was  present  during 
the  Crusade)  used  the  Gesta  and  also  Fulcher,  though  he  had  probably 
also  "  eigene  Notizen  und  Aufzeichnungen." 

2  See  Pigonneau,  Le  Cycle  de  la  croisade,  &c.  (Paris,  1877);  and 
Hagenmeyer,  Peter  der  Eremite  (Leipzig,  1879). 


the  prejudiced  Western  accounts  of  Alexius,  and  serves  to  bring 
Bohetnund  forward  into  his  proper  prominence.  The  Armenian 
view  of  the  First  Crusade  and  of  Baldwin's  principality  of  Edessa  is 
presented  in  the  Armenian  Chronicle  of  Matthew  of  Edessa.  There 
is  little  in  Arabic  bearing  on  the  First  Crusade :  the  Arabic  authorities 
only  begin  to  be  of  value  with  the  rise  of  the  atabegs  of  Mosul  (c. 
1127).  But  Kemal-ud-din's  History  of  Aleppo  (composed  in  the 
I3th  century)  contains  some  details  on  the  history  of  the  First 
Crusade ;  and  the  Vie  d'Ousdma  (the  autobiography  of  a  sheik  at 
Caesarea  in  northern  Syria,  edited  and  paraphrased  by  Derenbourg 
in  the  Publications  de  I'Ecole  des  langues  orientales  mvantes)  presents 
the  point  of  view  of  an  Arab  whose  life  covered  the  first  century  of 
the  Crusades  (1095-1188). 

For  the  Second  Crusade  the  primary  authority  in  the  West  is  the 
work  of  Odo  de  Deuil,  De  profectione  Ludovici  VII  regis  Francorum 
in  Orientem.  Odo  was  a  monk  attached  by  Suger  to  Louis  VII. 
during  the  Second  Crusade;  and  he  wrote  home  to  Suger  during 
the  Crusade  seven  short  letters,  afterwards  pieced  together  in  a  single 
work.  The  Gesta  Friderici  Primi  of  Otto  of  Freising  (who  joined  in 
the  Second  Crusade)  gives  some  details  from  the  German  point  of 
view  (i.  c.  44  sqq.).  The  former  is  supplemented  by  the  letters  of 
Louis  VII.  to  Suger;  the  latter  by  the  letters  of  Conrad  III.  to 
Wibald,  abbot  of  Stablo  and  Corvey.  The  Byzantine  point  of  view 
is  presented  in  the  'Ejriro^  of  Cinnamus,  the  private  secretary  of 
Manuel,  who  continued  the  Alexiad  of  Anna  Comnena  in  a  work 
describing  the  reigns  of  John  and  Manuel.  It  is  from  the  Second 
Crusade  that  William  of  Tyre,  representing  the  attitude  of  the 
Franks  of  Jerusalem,  begins  to  be  a  primary  authority;  while  on  the 
Mahommedan  side  a  considerable  authority  emerges  in  Ibn  Athir. 
His  history  of  the  Atabegs  was  written  about  1200,  and  it  presents 
in  a  light  favourable  to  Zengi  and  Nureddin,  but  unfavourable  to 
Saladin  (who  thrust  Nureddin's  descendants  aside),  the  history  of 
the  great  Mahommedan  power  which  finally  crushed  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem.3 

Side  by  side  with  Beha-ud-din's  life  of  Saladin,  Ibn  Athir's  work 
is  the  most  considerable  historical  record  written  by  the  Arabs. 
Generally  speaking  the  Arabic  writings  are  late  in  point  of  date, 
and  cold  and  jejune  in  style;  while  it  must  also  be  remembered 
that  they  are  set  religious  works  written  to  defend  Islam.  On  the 
other  hand  they  are  generally  written  by  men  of  affairs — governdrs, 
secretaries  or  ambassadors;  and  a  fatalistic  temper  leads  their 
authors  to  a  certain  impartial  recording  of  everything,  good  or  evil, 
which  seems  of  moment. 

The  Third  Crusade  was  narrated  in  the  West  from  very  different 
points  of  view  by  Anglo-Norman,  French  and  German  authorities. 
The  primary  Anglo-Norman  authority  is  the  Carmen  Ambrosii,  or, 
as  it  is  called  by  M.  Gaston  Paris,  L'Estoire  de  la  guerre  sainte.  This 
is  an  octosyllabic  poem  in  French  verse,  i  written  by  Ambroise,  a 
Norman  trouvere  who  followed  Richard  I.  kp  the  Holy  Land.  The 
poem  first  came  to  be  known  by  scholars  about  1873,  ar"d  has  been 
edited  by  M.  Gaston  Paris  (Paris,  1897).  The  Itinerarium  Peregri- 
norum,  a  work  in  ornate  Latin  prose,  is  (except  for  the  first  book)  a 
translation  of  the  Carmen  masquerading  under  the  guise  of  an  inde- 
pendent work.  There  seems  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  piece  of  plagiary, 
and  that  its  writer,  Richard,  "  canon  of  the  Holy  Trinity  "  in 
London,  stands  to  the  Carmen  as  Tudebod  to  the  Gesta,  or  Albert  of 
Aix  to  his  supposed  original.  The  Third  Crusade  is  also  described 
from  the  English  point  of  view  by  all  contemporary  writers  of 
history  in  England,  e.g.  Ralph  of  Coggeshall,  who  used  information 
gained  from  crusaders,  and  William  of  Newburgh,  who  had  access 
to  a  work  by  Richard  I.'s  chaplain  Anselm,  which  is  now  lost.4 
The  French  side  is  presented  in  Rigord's  Gesta  Philippi  Augusti 
and  in  the  Gesta  (an  abridgment  and  continuation  of  Rigord)  and  the 
Philippeis  of  William  the  Breton.  The  two  French  writers  represent 
Richard  as  a  faithless  vassal :  in  the  German  writers — Tagino,  dean 
of  Passau,  who  wrote  a  Descriptio  of  Barbarossa's  Crusade  (1189- 
1 190) ;  and  Ansbert,  an  Austrian  clerk,  who  wrote  De  expeditions 
Friderici  Imperatoris  (1187-1196) — Richard  appears  rather  as  a 
monster  of  pride  and  arrogance.  From  the  Arabic  point  of  view  the 
life  of  Richard's  rival,  Saladin,  is  described  by  Beha-ud-din,  a  high 
official  under  Saladin,  who  writes  a  panegyric  on  his  master,  some- 
what confused  in  chronology  and  partial  in  its  sympathies,  but 
nevertheless  of  great  value.  The  various  continuations  of  William 
of  Tyre  above  mentioned  represent  the  opinion  of  the  native  Franks 
(which  is  hostile  to  Richard  I.) ;  while  in  Nicetas,  who  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Eastern  empire  from  1118  to  1206,  we  have  a  Byzantine 
authority  who,  as  Professor  Bury  remarks,  "  differs  from  Anna  and 
Cinnamus  in  his  tone  towards  the  crusaders,  to  whom  he  is  surprisingly 
fair." 

For  the  Fourth  Crusade  the  primary  authority  is  Villehardouin's 
La  Conqutte  de  Constantinople,  an  official  apology  for  the  diversion 
of  the  Crusade  written  by  one  of  its  leaders,  and  concealing  the 
arcana  under  an  appearance  of  frank  naivete.  His  work  is  usefully 
supplemented  by  the  narrative  (La  Prise  de  Constantinople)  of 

1  On  the  bibliography  of  the  Second  Crusade  see  Kugler,  Studien 
zur  Geschichte  des  zweiten  Kreuzzuges  (Stuttgart,  1866). 

4  Of  these  writers  see  Archer's  Crusade  of  Richard  I.,  Appendix 
(in  Nutt's  series  of  Histories  from  Contemporary  Writers). 


552 


CRUSENSTOLPE— CRUSTACEA 


Robert  de  Clary,  a  knight  from  Picardy,  who  presents  the  non- 
official  view  of  the  Crusade,  as  it  appeared  to  an  ordinary  soldier. 
The  XpoKucbv  ran  iv  'Pupavig.  (composed  in  Greek  verse  some  time 
after  1300,  apparently  by  an  author  of  mixed  Prankish  and  Greek 
parentage,  and  translated  into  French  at  an  early  date  under  the 
title  "  The  Book  of  the  Conquest  of  Constantinople  and  the  Empire 
of  Rumania  ")  narrates  in  a  prologue  the  events  of  the  Fourth  (as 
indeed  also  of  the  First)  Crusade.  The  Chronicle  of  the  Morea  (as 
this  work  is  generally  called)  is  written  from  the  Prankish  point  of 
view,  in  spite  of  its  Greek  verse;  and  the  Byzantine  point  of  view 
must  be  sought  in  Nicetas.1 

The  history  of  the  later  Crusades,  from  the  Fifth  to  the  Eighth, 
enters  into  the  continuations  of  William  of  Tyre  above  mentioned ; 
while  the  Historia  orientalis  of  Jacques  de  Vitry,  who  had  taken  part 
in  the  Fifth  Crusade,  and  died  in  1240,  embraces  the  history  of 
events  till  1218  (the  third  book  being  a  later  addition).  The  Secreta 
fidelium  Crucis  of  Marino  Sanudo,  a  history  of  the  Crusades  written 
by  a  Venetian  noble  between  1306  and  1321,  is  also  of  value,  particu- 
larly for  the  Crusade  of  Frederick  II.  The  minor  authorities  for  the 
Fifth  Crusade  have  been  collected  by  Rohricht,  in  the  publications 
of  the  Societe  de  1'Orient  Latin  for  1879  and  1882;  the  ten  valuable 
letters  of  Oliver,  bishop  of  Paderborn,  and  the  Historia  Damiettina, 
based  on  these  letters,  have  also  been  edited  by  Rohricht  in  the 
Westdeutsche  Zeitschrift  fur  Geschichte  und  Kunst  (1891).  The  Sixth 
Crusade,  that  of  Frederick  II.,  is  described  in  the  chronicle  of 
Richard  of  San  Germano,  a  notary  of  the  emperor,  and  in  other 
Western  authorities,  e.g.  Roger  of  Wendover.  For  the  Crusades  of 
St  Louis  the  chief  authorities  are  Joinville's  life  of  his  master  (whom 
he  accompanied  to  Egypt  on  the  Seventh  Crusade),  and  de  Nangis' 
Gesta  Ludovici  regis.  Several  works  were  written  on  the  capture  of 
Acre  in  1291,  especially  the  Excidium  urbis  Acconensis,  a  treatise 
which  emerges  to  throw  light,  after  many  years  of  darkness,  on  the 
last  hours  of  the  kingdom.  The  Oriental  point  of  view  for  the  I3th 
century  appears  in  Jelaleddin's  history  of  the  Ayyubite  sultans  of 
Egypt,  written  towards  the  end  of  the  I3th  century;  in  Maqrizi's 
history  of  Egypt,  written  in  the  middle  of  the  I5th  century;  and 
in  the  compendium  of  the  history  of  the  human  race  by  Abulfeda 
(•(•1332) ;  while  the  omniscient  Abulfaragius  (whom  Rey  calls  the 
Eastern  St  Thomas)  wrote,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  I3th  century,  a 
chronicle  of  universal  history  in  Syriac,  which  he  also  issued,  in  an 
Arabic  recension,  as  a  Compendious  History  of  the  Dynasties. 

II.  The  documents  bearing  on  the  history  of  the  Crusades  and  the 
Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  are  various.  Under  the  head  of  charters 
come  the  Regesta  regni  Hierosolymitani,  published  by  Rohricht, 
Innsbruck,  1893  (with  an  Additamentum  in  1904) ;  the  Cartulaire 
generate  des  Hospitaliers,  by  Delaville  Leroulx  (Paris,  1894  onwards) ; 
and  the  Cartulaire  de  I'eglise  du  St  Sepulcre,  by  de  Roziere  (Paris, 
1849).  Under  the  head  of  laws  come  the  assizes  of  the  Kingdom, 
edited  by  Beugnot  in  the  Recueil  des  historiens  des  croisades;  and 
the  assizes  of  Antioch,  printed  at  Venice  in  1876.  G.  Schlumberger 
has  written  on  the  coins  and  seals  of  the  Latin  East  in  various 
publications;  while  Rey  has  written  an  Etude  sur  les  monuments 
de  I' architecture  militaire  (Paris,  1871).  The  genealogy  of  the  Levant 
is  given  in  Le  Livre  des  lignages  d'outre-mer  (published  along  with 
the  assizes). 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES. — The  best  modern  account  of  the  original 
authorities  for  the  Crusades  is  that  of  A.  Molinier,  Les  Sources  de 
I'histoire  de  France,  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  W.  Wattenbach's  Deutschlands 
Geschichtsquellen  gives  an  account  of  Albert  of  Aix  (vol.  ii.,  ed.  1894, 
pp.  170-180)  and  of  Ekkehard  of  Aura  (ibid.  pp.  189-198).  Von 
Sybel  s  Geschichte  des  ersten  Kreuzzuges  contains  a  full  study  of  the 
authorities  for  the  First  Crusade;  while  the  prefaces  to  Hagenmeyer's 
editions  of  the  Gesta  and  of  Ekkehard  are  also  valuable.  Gaston 
Dodu,  in  the  work  mentioned  below,  begins  by  a  brief  account  of 
the  original  authorities,  which  is  chiefly  of  value  so  far  as  it  deals 
with  William  of  Tyre  and  the  history  of  the  assizes;  and  H.  Prutz 
has  also  a  short  account  of  some  of  the  historians  of  the  Crusades 
(Kulturgeschichte,  pp.  453-469).  Finally  reference  may  be  made  to 
the  works  of  Kugler  and  Klimke  above  mentioned,  and  to  J.  F. 
Michaud's  Bibliographie  des  croisades  (Paris,  1822). 

Modern  Writers. — The  various  works  of  R.  Rohricht  present  the 
soundest,  if  not  the  brightest,  account  of  the  Crusades.  There  is  a 
Geschichte  des  ersten  Kreuzzugs  (Innsbruck,  1901),  a  Geschichte  des 
Konigreichs  Jerusalem  (ibid.  1898)  and  a  Geschichte  der  Kreuzziige  in 
Umris  (ibid.  1898).  For  the  First  Crusade  von  Sybel's  work  and 
Chalandon's  Alexis  I"  Comnene  may  also  be  mentioned;  for  the 
Fourth  A.  Luchaire's  volume  on  Innocent  III:  La  Question  d' Orient; 


L'Eglise  et  I'orient  au  moyen  age  (Paris,  1907)  contains  not  only  an 
up-to-date  account  of  the  Crusades,  but  also  a  full  and  useful  biblio- 
graphy, which  should  be  consulted  for  fuller  information.  On 
points  of  chronology,  and  on  the  relations  between  the  crusaders  and 
their  Mahommedan  neighbours,  W.  B.  Stevenson's  The  Crusaders  in 
theEast  (Cambridge,  1907)13  very  valuable.  On  the  constitutional  and 

1  The  bibliography  of  the  Fourth  Crusade  is  discussed  in  Klimke, 
Die  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  vierten  Kreuzzuges  (Breslau,  1875). 


social  history  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  Dodu's  Histoire  des 
institutions  du  royaume  latin  de  Jerusalem  is  very  useful ;  E.  G.  Rey's 
Les  Colonies  franques  en  Syrie  contains  many  interesting  details; 
and  Prutz's  Kulturgeschichte  der  Kreuzziige  contains  both  an  account 
of  the  Latin  East  and  an  attempt  to  sketch  the  effects  of  the  Crusades 
on  the  progress  of  civilization.  The  works  of  Gmelin  and  J.  Dela- 
ville-Leroulx  on  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers  respectively  are 
worth  consulting;  while  for  Eastern  affairs  the  English  reader 
may  be  referred  to  G.  Lestrange's  Palestine  under  the  Moslem,  and  to 
Stanley  Lane-Poole's  Life  of  Saladin  and  his  Mahommedan  Dynasties 
(the  latter  a  valuable  work  of  reference).  (E.  BR.) 

CRUSENSTOLPE,  MAGNUS  JAKOB  (1795-1865),  Swedish 
historian,  early  became  famous  both  as  a  political  and  a 
historical  writer.  His  first  important  work  was  a  History  of 
the  Early  Years  of  the  Life  of  King  Gustavus  IV.  Adolphus, 
which  was  followed  by  a  series  of  monographs  and  by  some 
politico-historical  novels,  of  which  The  House  of  Holstein-Gottorp 
in  Sweden  is  considered  the  best.  He  obtained  a  great  influence 
over  King  Charles  XIV.  (Bernadotte),  who  during  the  years  1830- 
1833  gave  him  his  fullest  confidence,  and  sanctioned  the  official 
character  of  Crusenstolpe's  newspaper  Faderneslandet.  In  the 
last-mentioned  year,  however,  the  historian  suddenly  became 
the  king's  bitterest  enemy,  and  used  his  acrid  pen  on  all  occasions 
in  attacking  him.  In  1838  he  was  condemned,  for  one  of  these 
angry  utterances,  to  be  imprisoned  three  years  in  the  castle  of 
Waxholm.  He  continued  his  literary  labours  until  his  death 
in  1865.  Few  Swedish  writers  have  wielded  so  pure  and  so 
incisive  a  style  as  Crusenstolpe,  but  his  historical  work  is  vitiated 
by  political  and  personal  bias. 

CRUSIUS,  CHRISTIAN  AUGUST  (1715-1775),  German  philo- 
sopher and  theologian,  was  born  on  the  loth  of  January  1715 
at  Lenau  near  Merseburg  in  Saxony.  He  was  educated  at 
Leipzig,  and  became1  professor  of  theology  there  in  1750,  and 
principal  of  the  university  in  1773.  He  died  on  the  i8th  of 
October  1775.  Crusius  first  came  into  notice  as  an  opponent 
of  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  and  Wolff  from  the  standpoint  of 
religious  orthodoxy.  He  attacked  it  mainly  on  the  score  of  the 
moral  evils  that  must  flow  from  any  system  of  determinism,  and 
exerted  himself  in  particular  to  vindicate  the  freedom  of  the  will. 
The  most  important  works  of  this  period  of  his  life  are  Entwurf 
der  nothwendigen  Vernunftwahrheiten  (1745),  and  Weg  zur 
Gewissheil  und  Zuvcrlassigkeil  der  menschlichen  Erkenntniss 
(1747).  Though  diffusely  written,  and  neither  brilliant  nor 
profound,  Crusius'  philosophical  books  had  a  great  but  short- 
lived popularity.  His  criticism  of  Wolff,  which  is  generally 
based  on  sound  sense,  had  much  influence  upon  Kant  at  the 
time  when  his  system  was  forming;  and  his  ethical  doctrines 
are  mentioned  with  respect  in  the  Kritik  of  Practical  Reason. 
Crusius's  later  life  was  devoted  to  theology.  In  this  capacity  his 
sincere  piety  and  amiable  character  gained  him  great  influence, 
and  he  led  the  party  in  the  university  which  became  known  as 
the  "  Crusianer  "  as  opposed  to  the  "  Ernestianer,"  the  followers 
of  J.  A.  Ernesti.  The  two  professors  adopted  opposite  methods 
of  exegesis.  Ernesti  wished  to  subject  the  Scripture  to  the  same 
laws  of  exposition  as  are  applied  to  other  ancient  books; 
Crusius  held  firmly  to  orthodox  ecclesiastical  tradition.  Crusius's 
chief  theological  works  are  Hypomnemata  ad  theologiam  pro- 
pheticam  (1764-1778),  and  Kurzer  Entwurf  der  Moraltheologie 
(1772-1773).  He  sets  his  face  against  innovation  in  such  matters 
as  the  accepted  authorship  of  canonical  writings,  verbal  inspira- 
tion, and  the  treatment  of  persons  and  events  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  types  of  the  New.  His  views,  unscholarly  and 
uncritical  as  they  seem  to  us  now,  have  had  influence  on  later 
evangelical  students  of  the  Old  Testament,  such  as  E.  W. 
Hengstenberg  and  F.  Deh'tzsch. 

There  is  a  full  notice  of  Crusius  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine 
Encyclopddie.  Consult  also  J.  E.  Erdmann's  History  of  Philosophy; 
A.  Marquardt,  Kant  und  Crusius;  and  art.  in  Herzog-Hauck, 
Realencyklopadie  (1898).  (H.  ST.) 

CRUSTACEA,  a  very  large  division  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
comprising  the  familiar  crabs,  lobsters,  crayfish,  shrimps  and 
prawns,  the  sandhoppers  and  woodlice,  the  strangely  modified 
barnacles  and  the  minute  water-fleas.  Besides  these  the  group 
also  includes  a  multitude  of  related  forms  which,  from  their 


CRUSTACEA 


553 


aquatic  habits  and  generally  inconspicuous  size,  and  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  commonly  neither  edible  nor  noxious,  are 
little  known  except  to  naturalists  and  are  undistinguished  by 
any  popular  names.  Collectively,  they  are  ranked  as  one  of  the 
classes  forming  the  sub-phylum  ARTHROPODA,  and  their  distin- 
guishing characters  are  discussed  under  that  heading.  It  will 
be  sufficient  here  to  define  them  as  Arthropoda  for  the  most  part 
of  aquatic  habits,  having  typically  two  pairs  of  antenniform 
appendages  in  front  of  the  mouth  and  at  least  three  pairs  of 
post-oral  limbs  acting  as  jaws. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  range  of  structural  variation 
within  the  group  is  so  wide,  and  the  modifications  due  to  parasit- 
ism and  other  causes  are  so  profound,  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  frame  a  definition  which  shall  be  applicable  to  all  the  members 
of  the  class.  In  certain  parasites,  for  instance,  the  adults  have 
lost  every  trace  not  only  of  Crustacean  but  even  of  Arthropodous 
structure,  and  the  only  clue  to  their  zoological  position  is  that 
afforded  by  the  study  of  their  development.  In  point  of  size 
also  the  Crustacea  vary  within  very  wide  limits.  Certain  water- 
fleas  (Cladocera)  fall  short  of  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  total 
length;  the  giant  Japanese  crab  (Macrocheira)  can  span  over 
10  ft.  between  its  outstretched  claws. 

The  habits  of  the  Crustacea  are  no  less  diversified  than  their 
structure.  Most  of  them  inhabit  the  sea,  but  representatives 
of  all  the  chief  groups  are  found  in  fresh  water  (though  the 
Cirripedia  have  hardly  gained  a  footing  there),  and  this  is  the 
chief  home  of  the  primitive  Phyllopoda.  A  terrestrial  habitat 
is  less  common,  but  the  widely-distributed  land  Isopoda  or 
woodlice  and  the  land-crabs  of  tropical  regions  have  solved  the 
problem  of  adaptation  to  a  subaerial  life. 

Swimming  is  perhaps  the  commonest-  mode  of  locomotion, 
but  numerous  forms  have  taken  to  creeping  or  walking,  and 
the  robber-crab  (Birgus  lalro)  of  the  Indo-Pacific  islands  even 
climbs  palm-trees.  None  has  the  power  of  flight,  though  certain 
pelagic  Copepoda  are  said  to  leap  from  the  surface  of  the  sea 
like  flying-fish.  Apart  from  the  numerous  parasitic  forms,  the 
only  Crustacea  which  have  adopted  a  strictly  sedentary  habit 
of  life  are  the  Cirripedia,  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  profound 
modifications  of  structure  have  resulted,  leading  ultimately  to 
a  partial  assumption  of  the  radial  type  of  symmetry  which  is  so 
often  associated  with  a  sedentary  life. 

Many,  perhaps  the  majority,  of  the  Crustacea  are  omnivorous  or 
carrion-feeders,  but  many  are  actively  predatory  in  their  habits, 
and  are  provided  with  more  or  less  complex  and  efficient  instru- 
ments for  capturing  their  prey,  and  there  are  also  many  plant- 
eaters.  Besides  the  sedentary  Cirripedia,  numbers  of  the 
smaller  forms,  especially  among  the  Entomostraca,  subsist  on 
floating  particles  of  organic  matter  swept  within  reach  of  the 
jaws  by  the  movements  of  the  other  limbs. 

Symbiotic  association  with  other  animals,  in  varying  degrees 
of  interdependence,  is  frequent.  Sometimes  the  one  partner 
affords  the  other  merely  a  convenient  means  of  transport,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  barnacles  which  grow  on,  or  of  the  gulf-weed 
crab  which  clings  to,  the  carapace  of  marine  turtles.  From  this 
we  may  pass  through  various  grades  of  "  commensalism,"  like 
that  of  the  hermit-crab  with  its  protective  anemones,  to  the 
cases  of  actual  parasitism.  The  parasitic  habit  is  most  common 
among  the  Copepoda  and  Isopoda,  where  it  leads  to  complex 
modifications  of  structure  and  life-history.  Perhaps  the  most 
complete  degeneration  is  found  in  the  Rhizocephala,  which  arc 
parasitic  on  other  Crustacea.  In  these  the  adult  consists  of  a 
simple  saccular  body  containing  the  reproductive  organs  and 
attached  by  root-like  filaments  which  ramify  throughout  the 
body  of  the  host  and  serve  for  the  absorption  of  nourishment 
(fig.  i). 

Many  of  the  larger  species  of  Crustacea  are  used  as  food  by 
man,  the  most  valuable  being  the  lobster,  which  is  caught  in 
large  quantities  on  both  sides  of  the  North  Altantic.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  of  all  Crustacea,  however,  with  respect  to 
the  part  which  they  play  in  the  economy  of  nature,  are  the 
minute  pelagic  Copepoda,  of  which  incalculable  myriads  form 
an  important  constituent  of  the  "  plankton  "  in  all  the  seas  of 


the  globe.  It  is  on  the  plankton  that  a  great  part  of  the  higher 
animal  life  of  the  sea  ultimately  depends  for  food.  The  Copepoda 
live  upon  the  diatoms  and  other  important  microscopic  vegetable 
life  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  in  their  turn  serve  as  food  for 
fishes  and  other  larger  forms  and  thus,  indirectly,  for  man 
himself. 

Historical  Sketch. — In  common  with  most  branches  of  natural 
history,  the  science  of  Carcinology  may  be  traced  back  to  its 
beginnings  in  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  It  received  additions 


FIG.  i. 

A,  Group  of  Pettogaster  socialis  on  the  abdomen  of  a  small  hermit- 
crab  ;  in  one  of  them  the  fasciculately  ramified  roots,  r,  in  the  liver 
of  the  crab  are  shown  (Fritz  Muller). 

B,  Young  of  Sacculina  purpurea  with  its  roots.     Magn.  5  diam. 
(Fritz  Muller). 

of  varying  importance  at  the  hands  of  medieval  and  later 
naturalists,  and  first  began  to  assume  systematic  form  under  the 
influence  of  Linnaeus.  The  application  of  the  morphological 
method  to  the  Crustacea  may  perhaps  be  dated  from  the  work 
of  J.  C.  Fabricius  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  the  igth  century  important  advances 
in  classification  were  made  by  P.  A.  Latreille,  W.  E.  Leach  and 
others,  and  J.  Vaughan  Thompson  demonstrated  the  existence 
of  metamorphosis  in  the  development  of  the  higher  Crustacea. 
A  new  epoch  may  be  said  to  begin  with  H.  Milne-Edwards' 
classical  Histoire  naturelle  des  cruslacfs  (1834-1840).  It  is 
noteworthy  that  even  at  this  late  date  the  Cirripedia  (Thyro- 
straca)  were  still  excluded  from  the  Crustacea,  though  Darwin's 
Monograph  (1851-1854)  was  soon  to  make  them  known  with  a 
wealth  of  anatomical  and  systematic  detail  such  as  was  available, 
at  that  time,  for  few  other  groups  of  Crustacea.  About  the 
same  period  three  authors  call  for  special  mention,  W.  de  Haan, 
J.  D.  Dana  and  H.  Kroyer.  The  new  impulse  given  to  biological 
research  by  the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species  bore  fruit 
in  Fritz  Miiller's  Fur  Darwin,  in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to 
reconstruct  the  phylogenetic  history  of  the  class.  The  same  line 
of  work  was  followed  in  the  long  series  of  important  memoirs 
from  the  pen  of  K.  F.  W.  Claus,  and  noteworthy  contributions 
were  made,  among  many  others,  by  A.  Dohrn,  Ray  Lankester 
and  Huxley.  In  more  recent  years  the  long  and  constantly 
increasing  list  of  writers  on  Crustacea  contains  no  name  more 
honoured  than  that  of  the  veteran  G.  0.  Sars  of  Christiania. 
Morphology. 

External  Structure:  Body. — As  in  all  Arthropoda  the  body  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  segments  or  somites  which  may  be  free  or  more  or 
less  coalesced  together.  In  its  simplest  form  the  exoskeleton  of  a 
typical  somite  is  a  ring  of  chitin  denned  from  the  rings  in  front  and 
behind  by  areas  of  thinner  integument  forming  moveable  joints, 
and  having  a  pair  of  appendages  articu- 
lated to  its  ventral  surface  on  either  side 
of  the  middle  line.  Frequently,  however, 
this  exoskeletal  somite  may  be  differ- 
entiated into  various  regions.  A  dorsal 
and  a  ventral  plate  are  of  ten  distinguished, 
known  respectively  as  the  tergum  and  the 
sternum,  and  the  tergum  may  overhang 
the  insertion  of  the  limb  on  each  side  as 
a  free  plate  called  the  pleuron.  The  name  *  '.G-  f.  —  Abdominal 
epimeron  is  sometimes  applied  to  what  is  somite  of  a  Lobster,  sep- 
herc  called  the  pleuron,  but  the  word  has  arated  and  viewed  from 
been  used  in  widely  different  senses  '"  front.  /,  tergum;  s, 
and  it  seems  better  to  abandon  it.  The  sternum;  pi,  pleuron. 
tvpical  form  of  a  somite  is  well  seen, 

for  example,  in  the  segments  which  make  up  the  abdomen  or 
"  tail  "  of  a  lobster  or  crayfish  (fig.  2).  The  posterior  terminal 
segment  of  the  bodv,  on  which  the  opening  of  the  anus  is  situated, 
never  bears  appendages.  The  nature  of  this  segment,  which  is 


554 


CRUSTACEA 


known  as  the  "  anal  segment  "  or  telson  (fig.  3,  T),  has  been  much 
discussed,  some  authorities  holding  that  it  is  a  true  somite,  homo- 
logous with  those  which  precede  it.  Others  have  regarded  it  as  repre- 
senting the  fusion  of  a  number  of  somites,  and  others  again  as 
a  "  median  appendage  "  or  as  a  pair  of  appendages  fused.  Its 
morphological  nature,  however,  is  clearly  shown  by  its  development. 
In  the  larval  development  of  the  more  primitive  Crustacea,  the 
number  of  somites,  at  first  small,  increases  by  the  successive  appear- 
ance of  new  somites  between  the  last-formed  somite  and  the  terminal 
region  which  bears  the  anus.  The  "  growing  point  "  of  the  trunk  is, 
in  fact,  situated  in  front  of  this  region,  and,  when  the  full  number 
of  somites  has  been  reached,  the  unsegmented  part  remaining  forms 
the  telson  of  the  adult. 

In  no  Crustacean,  however,  do  all  the  somites  of  the  body  remain 
distinct.  Coalescence,  or  suppression  of  segmentation  ("  lipo- 
merism  "),  may  involve  more  or  less  extensive  regions.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  where,  in  corre- 
lation with  the  "  adaptational  shifting  of  the  oral  aperture  "  (see 
ARTHROPODA),  a  varying  number  of  somites  unite  to  form  the 
"  cephalon  "  or  head.  Apart  from  the  possible  existence  of  an  ocular 


Th 


FIG. 3. — The  Separated  Somites  and  Appendages  of  the  Common 
Lobster  (Homarus  gammarus). 


C,  carapace  covering  the  ce- 
phalothorax. 

Ab,  abdominal  somites. 

T,  telson,  having  the  uropods  or 
appendages  of  the  last  ab- 
dominal somite  spread  out 
on  either  side  of  it,  forming 
the  "  tail-fan." 

/,      labrum,  or  upper  lip. 

m,    metastoma,  or  lower  lip. 

1 ,  eyes. 

2,  antennule  (the  arrow  points 

to  the  opening  of  the  so- 
called  auditory  organ). 

3,  antenna. 

4,  mandible. 

5,  maxillula  (or  first  maxilla). 


6,     maxilla  (second  maxilla). 

7-9,  first,  second  and  third  maxil- 
lipeds. 

ex,   exopodite. 

ep,  epipodite. 

g,     gill. 

10,  sixth  thoracic  limb  (second 
walking-leg)  of  female, 
last  thoracic  limb  of  male. 
In  10  and  n  the  arrows 
indicate  the  genital  aper- 
tures. 

sterna      of      the      thoracic 
somites,  from  within, 
third  abdominal  somite,  with 
appendages      or      "  swim- 
merets." 


ii 


somite  corresponding  to  the  eyes  (the  morphological  nature  of  which 
is  discussed  below),  the  smallest  number  of  head-somites  so  united 
in  any  Crustacean  is  five.  Even  where  a  large  number  of  the  somites 
have  fused,  there  is  generally  a  marked  change  in  the  character  of 
the  appendages  after  the  fifth  pair,  and  since  the  integumental  fold 
which  forms  the  carapace  seems  to  originate  from  this  point,  it  is 
usual  to  take  the  fifth  somite  as  the  morphological  limit  of  the 
cephalon  throughout  the  class.  It  is  quite  probable,  however,  that 
in  the  primitive  ancestors  of  existing  Crustacea  a  still  smaller 
number  of  somites  formed  the  head.  The  three  pairs  of  appendages 
present  in  the  "  nauplius "  larva  show  certain  peculiarities  of 


structure  and  development  which  seem  to  place  them  in  a  different 
category  from  the  other  limbs,  and  there  is  some  ground  for  regard- 
ing the  three  corresponding  somites  as  constituting  a  "  primary 
cephalon."  For  practical  purposes,  however,  it  is  convenient  to 
include  the  two  following  somites  also  as  cephalic. 

A  remarkable  feature  found  only  in  the  Stomatopoda  is  the 
reappearance  of  segmentation  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cephalic 
region.  Whether  the  movably  articulated  segments  which  bear  the 


FIG.  4. — Diagram  of  an  Amphipod. 
West  wood.) 


(After  Spence  Bate  and 


C,    cephalon. 

Th,  thorax.  (Only  seven  of  the 
eight  thoracic  somites  are 
visible,  the  first  being  fused 
with  the  cephalon.) 


Ab,  abdomen. 

The  numbers  appended  to  the 
somites  do  not  correspond  to  the 
enumeration  adopted  in  the  text. 
21  is  the  telson. 


eyestalks  and  the  antennules  in  this  aberrant  group  correspond  to 
the  primitive  head  somites  or  not,  their  distinctness  is  certainly  a 
secondarily  acquired  character,  for  it  is  not  found  in  the  larvae, 
nor  in  any  of  the  more  primitive  groups  of  Malacostraca. 

The  body  proper  is  usually  divisible  into  two  regions  to  which 
the  names  thorax  and  abdomen  are  applied.  Throughout  the  whole 
of  the  Malacostraca  the  thorax  consists  of  eight  and  the  abdomen  of 
six  somites  (fig.  4),  and  the  two  regions  are  sharply  distinguished  by 
the  character  of  their  appendages.  In  the  various  groups  of  the 
Entomostraca,  on  the  other  hand,  the  terms  thorax  and  abdomen, 
though  conveniently  employed  for  purposes  of  systematic  description, 
do  not  imply  any  homology  with  the  regions  so  named  in  the  Malaco- 
straca. Sometimes  they  are  applied,  as  in  the  Copepoda,  to  the 
limb-bearing  and  limbless  regions  of  the  trunk,  while  in  other  cases, 
as  in  the  Phyllopoda,  they  denote,  respectively,  the  regions  in  front 
of  and  behind  the  genital  apertures. 

A  character  which  recurs  in  the  most  diverse  groups  of  the  Crus- 
tacea, and  which  is  probably  to  be  regarded  as  a  primitive  attribute 


FIG.  5. — Phyllopoda  and  Phyllocarida. 


1 ,  Ceratiocaris papilio, U. Silurian, 

Lanark. 

2,  Nebalia    bipes    (one    side    of 

carapace  removed). 

3,  Lepidurus  Angassi:    a,  dorsal 


head  showing  the  labrum  and 

mouth-parts. 
4,  larva   of   A  pus   cancriformis. 
.5,  Branchipus  stagnalis:  a,  adult 

female;    b,  first  larval  stage 

(Nauplius) ;  c,  second  larval 

stage. 


aspect;    b,  ventral  aspect  of  6,  Nauplius  of  Artemia  salina. 

of  the  class,  is  the  possession  of  a  carapace  or  shell,  arising  as  a  dorsal 
fold  of  the  integument  from  the  posterior  margin  of  the  head-region. 
In  its  most  primitive  form,  as  seen  in  the  Apodtdae  (fig.  5,  3)  and  in 
Nebalia  (fig.  5,  2),  this  shell-fold  remains  free  from  the  trunk,  which 
it  envelops  more  or  less  completely.  It  may  assume  the  form  of  a 
bivalve  shell  entirely  enclosing  the  body  and  limbs,  as  in  many 


CRUSTACEA 


555 


Phyllopoda  (fig.  6)  and  in  the  Ostracoda.  In  the  Cirripedia  it  forms 
a  fleshy  "  mantle  "  strengthened  by  shelly  plates  or  valves  which 
may  assume  a  very  complex  structure.  In  many  cases,  however, 
the  shell-fold  coalesces  with  some  of  the  succeeding  somites.  In 
the  Decapoda  (fig.  3),  this  coalescence  affects  only  the  dorsal  region 
of  the  thoracic  somites,  and  the  lateral  portions  of  the  carapace 
overhang  on  each  side,  enclosing  a  pair  of  chambers  within  which 
lie  the  gills.  The  arrangement  is  similar  in  Schizopoda  and  Stomato- 


From  Morse's  Zoology. 
FIG.  6. — Estheria,  sp. ;  D  from  Dubuque,  Iowa;  (e)  the  eye. 
L  from  Lynn,  Massachusetts  (nat.  size).  5  presents  a  highly 
magnified  section  of  one  of  the  valves  to  show  the  successive  moults. 
B  an  enlarged  portion  of  the  edge  of  the  shell  along  the  back, 
showing  the  overlap  of  each  growth. 

poda  (fig.  7),  except  that  the  coalescence  does  not  usually  involve 
the  posterior  thoracic  somites,  several  of  which  remain  free,  though 
they  may  be  overlapped  by  the  carapace. 

In  the  Isopoda  and  Amphipoda,  where,  as  a  rule,  all  the  thoracic 
somites  except  the  first  are  distinct  (fig.  4),  there  seems  at  first  sight 
to  be  no  shell-fold.  A  comparison  with  the  related  Tanaidacea 
(fig.  8)  and  Cumacea  (or  Sympoda),  however,  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  coalescence  of  the  first  thoracic  somite  with  the  cephalon 
really  involves  a  vestigial  shell-fold,  and,  indeed,  traces  of  this  are 
said  to  be  observed  in  the  embryonic  development  of  some  Isopoda. 
It  seems  likely  that  a  similar  explanation  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
coalescence  of  one  or  two  trunk-somites  with  the  head  in  the  Cope- 
poda,  and,  if  this  be  so,  the  only  Crustacea  remaining  in  which  no 
trace  of  a  shell-fold  is  found  in  the  adult  are  the  Anostracous  Phyllo- 
poda such  as  Branchipus  (fig.  5,  ?). 

General  Morphology  of  Appendages. — Amid  the  great  variety  of 
forms  assumed  by  the  appendages  of  the  Crustacea,  it  is  possible  to 
trace,  more  or  less  plainly,  the  modifications  of  a  fundamental  type 
consisting  of  a  peduncle,  the  protopodite,  bearing  two  branches,  the 
endopodite  and  exopodite.  This  simple  biramous  form  is  shown 

in  the  swimming-feet  of  the  Copepoda 
and  Branchiura,  the  "  cirri  "  of  the 
Cirripedia,  and  the  abdominal  appen- 
dages of  the  Malacostraca  (fig.  3,  14). 
It  is  also  found  in  the  earliest  and 
most  primitive  form  of  larva,  known 
as  the  Nauplius.  As  a  rule  the  pro- 
topodite is  composed  of  two  segments, 
though  one  may  be  reduced  or  sup- 
pressed and  occasionally  three  may 
be  present.  In  many  cases,  one  of 
the  branches,  generally  the  endopodite, 
is  more  strongly  developed  than  the 
other.  Thus,  in  the  thoracic  limbs  of 
the  Malacostraca,  the  endopodite 
generally  forms  a  walking-leg  while 
the  exopodite  becomes  a  swimming- 
branch  or  may  disappear  altogether. 
Very  often  the  basal  segment  of  the 
protopodite  bears,  on  the  outer  side, 
a  lamellar  appendage  (more  rarely, 
two),  theepipodite,  which  may  function 
as  a  gill.  In  the  appendages  near  the 
mouth  one  or  both  of  the  protopodal 
segments  may  bear  inwardly-turned 
processes,  assisting  in  mastication  and 
known  as  gnalhobases.  The  frequent 
occurrence  of  epipodites  and  gnalho- 
FIG.  j.—Squilla  mantis  bases  tends  to  show  that  the  primitive 
(Stomatopoda),  showing  the  type  of  appendage  was  more  complex 
last  four  thoracic  (leg-bear-  than  the  simple  biramous  limb,  and 
ing)  somites  free  from  the  some  authorities  have  regarded  the 
carapace.  leaf-like  appendages  of  the  Phyllo- 

poda as  nearer  the  original  form  from 

which  the  various  modifications  found  in  other  groups  have  been 
derived.  In  a  Phyllopod  such  as  Apus  the  limbs  of  the  trunk 
consist  of  a  flattened,  unsegmented  or  obscurely  segmented  axis  or 
corm  having  a  series  of  lobes  or  processes  known  as  endites  and 
exiles  on  its  inner  and  outer  margins  respectively.  In  all  the 
Phyllopoda  the  number  of  endites  is  six,  and  the  proximal  one  is 


more  or  less  distinctly  specialized  as  a  gnathobase,  working  against 
its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side  in  seizing  food  and  transferring  it  to 
the  mouth.  The  Phyllopoda  are  the  only  Crustacea  in  which  distinct 
and  functional  gnathobasic  processes  are  found  on  appendages  far 
removed  from  the  mouth.  The  two  distal  endites  are  regarded  as 
corresponding  to  the  endopodite  and  exopodite  of  the  higher  Crus- 
tacea, the  axis  or  corm  of  the  Phyllopod  limb  representing  the 
protopodite.  The  number  of  exiles  is  less  constant,  but,  in  Apus, 
two  are  present,  the  proximal  branchial  in  function  and  ihe  distal 
forming  a  sliffer  plate  which  probably  aids  in  swimming.  It  is  not 
altogether  easy  to  recognize  the  homologies  of  the  endites  and  exiles 
even  within  the  order  Phyllopoda,  and  the  identification  of  the  two 
distal  endites  as  corresponding  to  the  endopodite  and  exopodite 
of  higher  Crustacea  is  not  free  from  difficulty.  It  is  highly  probable, 
however,  that  the  biramous  limb  is  a  simplification  of  a  more  com- 
plex primilive  lypc,  lo  which  the  Phyllopod  limb  is  a  more  or  less 
close  approximation. 

The  modifications  which  ihis  original  lype  undergoes  are  usually 
more  or  less  plainly  correlated  with  the  functions  which  the  append- 
ages have  to  discharge.  Thus,  when  acting  as  swimming  organs,  the 
appendages,  or  their  rami,  are  more  or  less  flattened,  or  oar-like, 
and  oflen  have  the  margins  fringed  with  long  plumose  hairs.  When 
used  for  walking,  one  of  the  rami,  usually  the  inner,  is  stoul  and 
cylindrical,  lerminating  in  a  claw,  and  having  the  segments  united 
by  definile  hinge-joints.  The  jaws  have  the  gnathobasic  endites 
developed  at  the  expense  of  the  rest  of  the  limb,  the  endopodite 


FIG.  8. — Tanais  dubius  (?)  Kr.  9  .  magnified  25  times,  showing  the 
orifice  of  enlrance  (x)  into  the  cavity  overarched  by  the  carapace  in 
which  an  appendage  of  the  maxilliped  (/)  plays.  On  four  feet 
(»',  k,  I,  m)  are  the  rudiments  of  the  lamellae  which  subsequently  form 
the  brood-cavity.  (Fritz  Miiller.) 

and  exopodite  persisting  only  as  sensory  "  palps  "  or  disappearing 
altogelher.  When  specialized  as  bearers  of  sensory  (olfaclory 
or  tactile)  organs,  the  rami  are  generally  elongated,  many-joinled  and 
flagelliform.  This  modification  is  usually  .only  found  in  the  an- 
lennules  and  antennae,  but  it  may  exceptionally  be  found  in  the 
appendages  of  the  Irunk,  as,  for  mslance,  in  Ihe  Ihoracic  legs  of 
some  Decapods  (e.g.  Mastigocheirus).  Very  oflen  one  or  olher  of  the 
appendages  may  be  modified  for  prehension,  ihe  seizing  of  prey  or 
the  holding  of  a  mate.  In  this  case,  the  claw-like  terminal  segment 
may  be  simply  flexed  against  the  preceding  in  the  same  way  as  the 
blade  of  a  penknife  shuts  up  against  the  handle.  The  penultimate 
segment  is  often  broadened,  so  lhat  the  terminal  claw  shuts  against 
a  transverse  edge  (fig.  4),  or,  finally,  ihe  penullimale  segmenl  may  be 
produced  inlo  a  thumb-like  process  opposed  to  the  movable  terminal 
segment  or  finger,  forming  a  perfect  chela  or  forceps,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  large  claws  of  a  crab 
or  lobster.  This  chelale 
condition  may  be  assumed 
by  almost  any  of  the  appen- 
dages, and  sometimes  it 
appears  in  different  appen- 
dages in  closely  related 
forms,  so  lhal  no  very 
great  phylogenetic  import- 
ance can  in  most  cases  be 
attached  to  it.  A  peculiar 
modification  is  found  in  the 
trunk-limbs  of  the  Cirri- 
pedia (fig.  9),  in  which  both  FIG.  9. — A,  Balanus  (young),  side 
rami  are  multiarticulate  view  with  cirri  protruded.  B,  Upper 
and  filiform  and  fringed  surface  of  same;  valves  closed.  C, 
with  long  bristles.  When  Highly  magnified  view  of  one  of  the 
protruded  from  the  opening  cirri.  (Morse.) 
of  ihe  shell  ihese  "  cirri 

are  spread  out  to  form  a  casting-net  for  the  capture  of  minute 
floaling  prey. 

Gills  or  branchiae  may  be  developed  by  parts  of  an  appendage 
becoming  thin-walled  and  vascular  and  either  expanded  into  a  thin 
lamella  or  ramified.  Some  of  the  special  modifications  of  branchiae 
are  referred  to  below. 

Special  Morphology  of  Appendages. — In  many  Cruslacea  the  eyes 
are  borne  on  stalks  which  are  movably  articulated  with  the  head 
and  which  may  be  divided  into  two  or  three  segmenls.  The  view  is 
commonly  held  that  these  eye-stalks  are  really  limbs,  homologous 
with  the  olher  appendages.  In  spile  of  much  discussion,  however, 
it  cannot  be  said  thai  ihis  poinl  has  been  finally  sellled.  The  evi- 
dence of  embryology  is  decidedly  againsl  ihe  view  thai  ihe  eye-stalks 
are  limbs.  They  are  absent  in  the  earliest  and  most  primitive 


556 


CRUSTACEA 


larval  forms  (nauplius),  and  appear  only  late  in  the  course  of  develop- 
ment, after  many  of  the  trunk-limbs  are  fully  formed.  In  the 
development  of  the  Phyllopod  Branchipus,  the  eyes  are  at  first 
sessile,  and  the  lateral  lobes  of  the  head  on  which  they  are  set  grow 
out  and  become  mpvably  articulated,  forming  the  peduncles.  The 
most  important  evidence  in  favour  of  their  appendicular  nature  is 
afforded  by  the  phenomena  of  regeneration.  When  the  eye-stalk  is 
removed  from  a  living  lobster  or  prawn,  it  is  found  that  under  certain 
conditions  a  many-jointed  appendage  like  the  flagellum  of  an 
antennule  or  antenna  may  grow  in  its  place.  It  is  open  to  question, 
however,  how  far  the  evidence  from  such  "  heteromorphic  re- 
generation "  can  be  regarded  as  conclusive  on  the  points  of  homology. 
The  fact  that  in  certain  rare  cases  among  insects  a  leg  may  appar- 
ently be  replaced  by  a  wing  tends  to  show  that  under  exceptional 
conditions  similar  forms  may  be  assumed  by  non-homologous 
parts. 

The  antennules  (or  first  antennae)  are  almost  universally  regarded 
as  true  appendages,  though  they  differ  from  all  the  other  appendages 
in  the  fact  that  they  are  always  innervated  from  the  "  brain  "  (or 
preoral  ganglia),  and  that  they  are  uniramous  in  the  nauplius  larva 
and  in  all  the  Entomostracan  orders.  As  regards  their  innervation 
an  apparent  exception  is  found  in  the  case  of  Apus,  where  the  nerves 
to  the  antennules  arise,  behind  the  brain,  from  the  oesophageal 
commissures,  but  this  is,  no  doubt,  a  secondary  condition,  and  the 
nerve-fibres  have  been  traced  forwards  to  centres  within  the  brain. 
In  the  Malacostraca,  the  antennules  are  often  biramous,  but  there  is 
considerable  doubt  as  to  whether  the  two  branches  represent  the 
endopodite  and  exopodite  of  the  other  limbs,  and  three  branches 
are  found  in  the  Stomatopoda  and  in  some  Caridea.  In  the  great 
majority  of  Crustacea  the  antennules  are  purely  sensory  in  function 
and  carry  numerous  "  olfactory  "  hairs.  They  may,  however,  be 
natatory  as  in  many  Ostracoda  and  Copepoda,  or  prehensile,  as  in 
some  Copepoda.  The  most  peculiar  modification,  perhaps,  is  that 
found  in  the  Cirripedia  (Thyrostraca),  in  the  larvae  of  which  the 
antennules  develop  into  organs  of  attachment,  bearing  the  openings 
of  the  cement-glands,  and  becoming,  in  the  adult,  involved  in  the 
attachment  of  the  animal  to  its  support. 

The  antennae  (second  antennae)  are  of  special  interest  on  account 
of  the  clear  evidence  that,  although  preoral  in  position  in  all  adult 
Crustacea,  they  were  originally  postoral  appendages.  In  the  nauplius 
larva  they  lie  rather  at  the  sides  than  in  front  of  the  mouth,  and 
their  basal  portion  carries  a  hook-like  masticatory  process  which 
assists  the  similar  processes  of  the  mandibles  in  seizing  food.  In  the 
primitive  Phyllopoda,  and  less  distinctly  in  some  other  orders,  the 
nerves  supplying  the  antennae  arise,  not  from  the  brain,  but  from 
the  circum-oesophageal  commissures,  and  even  in  those  cases  where 
the  nerves  and  the  ganglia  in  which  they  are  rooted  have  been  moved 
forwards  to  the  brain,  the  transverse  commissure  of  the  ganglia 
can  still  be  traced,  running  behind  the  oesophagus. 

The  functions  of  the  antennae  are  more  varied  than  is  the  case 
with  the  antennules.  In  many  Entomostraca  (Phyllopoda,  Clado- 
cera,  Ostracoda,  Copepoda)  they  are  important,  and  sometimes  the 
only,  organs  of  locomotion.  In  some  male  Phyllopoda  they  form 
complex  "  claspers  "  for  holding  the  female.  They  are  frequently 
organs  of  attachment  in  parasitic  Copepoda,  and  they  may  be 
completely  pediform  in  the  Ostracoda.  In  the  Malacostraca  they  are 
chiefly  sensory,  the  endopodite  forming  a  long  flagellum,  while  the 
exopodite  may  form  a  lamellar  "  scale,"  probably  useful  as  a  balancer 
in  swimming,  or  may  disappear  altogether.  A  very  curious  function 
sometimes  discharged  by  the  antennules  or  antennae  of  Decapods 
is  that  of  forming  a  respiratory  siphon  in  sand-burrowing  species. 

The  mandibles,  like  the  antennae,  have,  in  the  nauplius,  the  form 
of  biramous  swimming  limbs,  with  a  masticatory  process  originating 
from  the  proximal  part  of  the  protopodite.  This  form  is  retained, 
with  little  alteration  in  some  adult  Copepoda,  where  the  biramous 
"  palp  "  still  aids  in  locomotion.  A  somewhat  similar  structure  is 
found  also  in  some  Ostracoda.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  palp 
loses  its  exopodite  and  it  often  disappears  altogether,  while  the  coxal 
segment  forms  the  body  of  the  mandible,  with  a  masticatory  edge 
variously  armed  with  teeth  and  spines.  In  a  few  Ostracoda,  by  a 
rare  exception,  the  masticatory  process  is  reduced  or  suppressed, 
and  the  palp  alone  remains,  forming  a  pediform  appendage  used  in 
locomotion  as  well  as  in  the  prehension  of  food.  In  parasitic  blood- 
sucking forms  the  mandibles  often  have  the  shape  of  piercing 
stylets,  and  are  enclosed  in  a  tubular  proboscis  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  upper  lip  (labrum)  with  the  lower  lip  (hypostome  or  para- 
gnatha). 

The  maxillulae  and  maxillae  (or,  as  they  are  often  termed,  first 
and  second  maxillae)  are  nearly  always  flattened  leaf-like  appendages, 
having  gnathobasic  lobes  or  endites  borne  by  the  segments  of  the 
protopodite.  The  endopodite,  when  present,  is  unsegmented  or 
composed  of  few  segments  and  forms  the  "  palp,"  and  outwardly- 
directed  lobes  representing  the  exopodite  and  epipodites  may  also  be 
present.  These  limbs  undergo  great  modification  in  the  different 
groups.  The  maxillulae  are  sometimes  closely  connected  with  the 
"  paragnatha  ''  or  lobes  of  the  lower  lip,  when  these  are  present, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  paragnatha  are  really  the  basal 
endites  which  have  become  partly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
appendage. 

The  limbs  of  the  post-cephalic  series  show  little  differentiation 


among  themselves  in  many  Entomostraca.  In  the  Phyllopoda  they 
are  for  the  most  part  all  alike,  though  one  or  two  of  the  anterior 
pairs  may  be  specialized  as  sensory  (Apus)  or  grasping  (Estheriidae) 
organs.  In  the  Cirripedia  (Thyrostraca)  the  six  pairs  of  biramous 
cirriform  limbs  differ  only  slightly  from  each  other,  and  in  many 
Copepoda  this  is  also  the  case.  In  other  Entomostraca  considerable 
differentiation  may  take  place,  but  the  series  is  never  divided  into 
definite  "  tagmata  "  or  groups  of  similarly  modified  appendages. 
It  is  highly  characteristic  of  the  Malacostraca,  however,  that  the 
trunk-limbs  are  divided  into  two  sharply  defined  tagmata  corre- 
sponding to  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  regions  respectively,  the  limit 
between  the  two  being  marked  by  the  position  of  the  male  genital 
openings.  The  thoracic  limbs  have  the  endopodites  converted,  as  a 
rule,  into  more  or  less  efficient  walking-legs,  and  the  exopodites  are 
often  lost,  while  the  abdominal  limbs  more  generally  preserve  the 
biramous  form  and  are,  in  the  more  primitive  types,  natatory. 
These  tagmata  may  again  be  subdivided  into  groups  preserving  a 
more  or  less  marked  individuality.  For  example,  in  the  Amphipoda 
(fig.  4)  the  abdominal  appendages  are  constantly  divided  into  an 
anterior  group  of  three  natatory  "  swimmerets  '  and  a  posterior 
group  of  three  limbs  used  chiefly  in  jumping  or  in  burrowing.  In 
nearly  all  Malacostraca  the  last  pair  of  abdominal  appendages 
(uropods)  differ  from  the  others,  and  in  the  more  primitive  groups 
they  form,  with  the  telson,  a  lamellar  "  tail-fan  "  (fig.  3,  T),  used  in 
springing  backwards  through  the  water.  In  the  thoracic  series  it  is 
usual  for  one  or  more  of  the  anterior  pairs  to  be  pressed  into  the 
service  of  the  mouth,  forming  "  foot-jaws  "  or  maxillipeds.  In  the 
Decapoda  three  pairs  are  thus  modified,  and  in  the  Tanaidacea, 
Isopoda  and  Amphipoda  only  one.  In  the  Schizopoda  and  Cumacea 
the  line  of  division  is  less  sharp,  and  the  varying  number  of  so-called 
maxillipeds  recognized  by  different  authors  gives  rise  to  some 
confusion  of  terminology  in  systematic  literature. 

Gills. — In  many  of  the  smaller  Entomostraca  (Copepoda  and  most 
Ostracoda)  no  special  gills  are  present,  and  respiration  is  carried  on 
by  the  general  surface  of  the  body  and  limbs.  When  present,  the 
branchiae  are  generally  differentiations  of  parts  of  the  appendages, 
most  often  the  epipodites,  as  in  the  Phyllopoda.  In  the  Cirripedia, 
however,  they  are  vascular  processes  from  the  inner  surface  of  the 
mantle  or  shell-fold,  and  in  some  Ostracoda  they  are  outgrowths 
from  the  sides  of  the  body.  In  the  primitive  Malacostraca  the 
gills  were  probably,  as  in  the  Phyllopoda  and  in  Nebalia,  the  modified 
epipodites  of  the  thoracic  limbs,  and  this  is  the  condition  found  in 
some  Schizopoda.  In  the  Cumacea  and  Tanaidacea  only  the  first 
thoracic  limb  has  a  branchial  epipodite.  In  the  Amphipoda,  the 
gills  though  arising  from  the  inner  side  of  the  bases  of  the  thoracic 
legs  are  probably  also  epipodial  in  nature.  In  the  Isopoda  the 
respiratory  function  has  been  taken  over  by  the  abdominal  append- 
ages, both  rami  or  only  the  inner  becoming  thin  or  flattened.  In  the 
Decapoda  the  branchial  system  is  more  complex.  The  gills  are 
inserted  at  the  base  of  the  thoracic  limbs,  and  lie  within  a  pair  of 
branchial  chambers  covered  by  the  carapace.  Three  series  are 
distinguished,  podobranchiae,  attached  to  the  proximal  segments  of 
the  appendages,  pleurobranchiae,  springing  from  the  body-wall, 
and  an  intermediate  series,  arthrobranchiae,  inserted  on  the  articular 
membrane  of  the  joint  between  the  limb  and  the  body.  The  podo- 
branchiae are  clearly  epipodites,  or,  more  correctly,  parts  of  the 
epipodites,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  arthro-  and  pleuro-branchiae 
are  also  epipodial  in  origin  and  have  migrated  from  the  proximal 
segment  of  the  limbs  on  to  the  adjacent  body-wall. 

Adaptations  for  aerial  respiration  are  found  in  some  of  the  land- 
crabs,  where  the  lining  membrane  of  the  gill-chamber  is  beset  with 
vascular  papillae  and  acts  as  a  lung.  In  some  of  the  terrestrial 
Isopoda  or  woodlice  (Oniscoidea)  the  abdominal  appendages  have 
ramified  tubular  invaginations  of  the  integument,  filled  with  air  and 
resembling  the  tracheae  of  insects. 

Internal  Structure:  Alimentary  System. — In  almost  all  Crustacea 
the  food-canal  runs  straight  through  the  body,  except  at  its  anterior 
end,  where  it  curves  downwards  to  the  ventrally-placed  mouth. 
In  a  few  cases  its  course  is  slightly  sinuous  or  twisted,  but  the  only 
cases  in  which  it  is  actually  coiled  upon  itself  are  found  in  the 
Cladocera  of  the  family  Lynceidae  (Alonidae)  and  in  a  single  recently- 
discovered  genus  of  Cumacea  (Sympoda).  As  in  all  Arthropoda, 
it  is  composed  of  three  divisions,  a  fore-gut  or  stomodaeum,  ecto- 
dermal  in  origin  and  lined  by  an  inturning  of  the  chitinous  cuticle, 
a  mid-gut  formed  by  endoderm  and  without  a  cuticular  lining, 
and  a  hind-gut  or  proctodaeum,  which,  like  the  fore-gut,  is  ecto- 
dermal  and  is  lined  by  cuticle.  The  relative  proportions  of  these 
three  divisions  vary  considerably,  and  the  extreme  abbreviation  of 
the  mid-gut  found  in  the  common  crayfish  (Astacus)  is  by  no  means 
typical  of  the  class.  Even  in  the  closely-related  lobster  (Homarus) 
the  mid-gut  may  be  2  or  3  in.  long. 

In  a  few  Entomostraca  (some  Phyllopoda  and  Ostracoda)  the 
chitinous  lining  of  the  fore-gut  develops  spines  and  hairs  which  help 
to  triturate  and  strain  the  food,  and  among  the  Ostracods  there  is 
occasionally  (Bairdia)  a  more  elaborate  armature  of  toothed  plates 
moved  by  muscles.  It  is  among  the  Malacostraca,  however,  and 
especially  in  the  Decapoda,  that  the  "  gastric  mill  "  reaches  its 
greatest  perfection.  In  most  Decapods  the  "  stomach  "  or  dilated 
portion  of  the  fore-gut  is  divided  into  two  chambers,  a  large  anterior 
"  cardiac  "  and  a  smaller  posterior  "  pyloric."  In  the  narrow 


CRUSTACEA 


557 


3n 


FIG.  10. — Gastric  Teeth  of 
Crab  and  Lobster. 


opening  between  these,  three  teeth  (fig.  10)  are  set,  one  dorsally 
and  one  on  each  side.  These  teeth  are  connected  with  a  framework 
of  movably  articulated  ossicles  developed  as  thickened  and  calcined 
portions  of  the  lining  cuticle  of  the  stomach  and  moved  by  special 
muscles  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the  three  teeth  together  in  the 
middle  line.  The  walls  of  the  pyloric  chamber  bear  a  series  of  pads 
and  ridges  beset  with  hairs  and  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  straining 
apparatus. 

The  mid-gut  is  essentially  the  digestive  and  absorptive  region  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  its  surface  is,  in  most  cases,  increased  by 
pouch-like  or  tubular  outgrowths  which  not  only  serve  as  glands 
for  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices,  but  may  also  become  filled 
by  the  more  fluid  portion  of  the  partially  digested  food  and  facilitate 
jts  absorption.  These  outgrowths  vary  much  in  thgir  arrangement 
in  the  different  groups.  Most  commonly  there  is  a  pair  of  lateral 
caeca,  which  may  be  more  or  less  ramified  and  may  form  a  massive 
"  hepato-pancreas  "  or  "  liver." 

The  whole  length  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  provided,  as  a  rule, 
with  muscular  fibres,  both  circular  and  longitudinal,  running  in  its 
walls,  and,  in  addition,  there  may  be  muscle-bands  running  between 
the  gut  and  the  body-wall.  In  the  region  of  the  oesophagus  these 
muscles  are  more  strongly  developed  to  perform  the  movements  of 
deglutition,  and,  where  a  gastric  mill  is  present,  both  intrinsic  and 

extrinsic  muscles  co-operate  in 
producing  the  movements  of  its 
various  parts.  The  hind-gut  is 
also  provided  with  sphincter  and 
dilator  muscles,  and  these  may 
produce  rhythmic  expansion  and 
contraction,  causing  an  inflow 
and  outflow  of  water  through  the 
anus,  which  has  been  supposed  to 
aid  in  respiration. 

In  the  parasitic  Rhizocephala 
and  in  a  few  Cppepoda  (Monstril- 
lidae)  the  alimentary  canal  is 
absent  or  vestigial  throughout 
life. 

Circulatory  System. — As  in  the 
other  Arthropoda,  the  circulatory 
system  in  Crustacea  is  largely 
lacunar,  the  blood  flowing  in 
spaces  or  channels  without 
definite  walls.  These  spaces  make 
up  the  apparent  body-cavity,  the 

Stomach  of  common  crab,  true  body-cavity  or  coclom  having 
Cancer  pagurus,  laid  open,  been,  for  the  most  part,  obliter- 
showing  b,  b,  b,  some  of  the  ated  by  the  great  expansion  of 
calcareous  plates  inserted  in  the  blood-containing  spaces.  The 
its  muscular  coat ;  g,  g,  the  heart  is  of  the  usual  Arthro- 
lateral  teeth,  which  when  podous  type,  lying  in  a  more  or 
in  use  are  brought  in  con-  less  well-defined  pericardial  blood- 
tact  with  the  sides  of  the  sinus,  with  which  it  communi- 
median  tooth  m\  c,  c,  the  cates  by  valvular  openings  or 
muscular  coat.  ostia.  In  the  details  of  the  system, 

and  16",  The  gastric  teeth  however,  great  differences  exist 
enlarged  to  show  their  within  the  limits  of  the  class, 
grinding  surfaces.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe 

Gastric     teeth  of    common  that,  in  the  primitive  Arthropoda, 
lobster,  Homarus  vulgaris.      the  heart   was  tubular  in  form, 
33  and  36,  Two  crustacean  teeth   extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
(of    Dithyrocaris)  from  the   body,  and  having  a  pair  of  ostia 
Carboniferous      series     of   in  each  somite.  This  arrangement 
Renfrewshire   (these,  how-   is  retained  in  some  of  the  Phyllo- 
ever,  may  be  the  toothed   poda,    but   even   in   that    group 
edges  of  the  mandibles).        a  progressive  abbreviation  of  the 
heart,  with  a  diminution  in  the 

number  of  the  ostia,  can  be  traced,  leading  to  the  condition  found 
in  the  closely  related  Cladocera,  where  the  heart  is  a  sub- 
globular  sac,  with  only  a  single  pair  of  ostia.  In  the  Malacostraca, 
an  elongated  heart  with  numerous  segmentally  arranged  ostia  is 
found  only  in  the  aberrant  group  of  Stomatopoda  and  in  the  transi- 
tional Phyllocarida.  In  the  other  Malacostraca  the  heart  is  generally 
abbreviated,  and  even  where,  as  in  the  Amphipoda,  it  is  elongated 
and  tubular,  the  ostia  are  restricted  in  number,  three  pairs  only 
being  usually  present.  In  many  Entomostraca  the  heart  is  absent, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  a  "  circulation  "  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  term,  the  blood  being  merely  driven  hither  and  thither  by 
the  movements  of  the  body  and  limbs  and  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

A  very  remarkable  condition  of  the  blood-system,  unique,  as  far 
as  is  yet  known  among  the  Arthropoda,  is  found  in  a  few  genera  of 
parasitic  Copepoda  (Lernanthropus,  MytUicola).  In  these  there  is 
a  closed  system  of  vessels,  not  communicating  with  the  body-cavity, 
and  containing  a  coloured  fluid.  There  is  no  heart.  The  morpho- 
logical nature  of  this  system  is  unknown. 

Excretory  System. — The  most  important  excretory  or  renal  organs 
of  the  Crustacea  are  two  pairs  of  glands  lying  at  the  base  of  the 
antennae  and  of  the  second  maxillae  respectively.  The  two  are 
probably  never  functional  together  in  the  same  animal,  though  one 
may  replace  the  other  in  the  course  of  development.  Thus,  in  the 


It 


2, 


Phyllopoda,  the  antennal  gland  develops  early  and  is  functional 
during  a  great  part  of  the  larval  life,  but  it  ultimately  atrophies, 
and  in  the  adult  (as  in  most  Entomostraca)  the  maxillary  gland 
is  the  functional  excretory  organ.  In  the  Decapoda,  where  the  an- 
tennal gland  alone  is  well-developed  in  the  adult,  the  maxillary 
gland  sometimes  precedes  it  in  the  larva.  The  structure  of  both 
glands  is  essentially  the  same.  There  is  a  more  or  less  convoluted 
tube  with  glandular  walls  connected  internally  with  a  closed  "  end- 
sac  "  and  opening  to  the  exterior  by  means  of  a  thin-walled  duct. 
Development  shows  that  the  glandular  tube  is  mesoblastic  in  origin 
and  is  of  the  nature  of  a  coelomoduct,  while  the  end-sac  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  vestigial  portion  of  the  coelom.  In  the  Branchiopoda 
the  maxillary  gland  is  lodged  in  the  thickness  of  the  shell-fold  (when 
this  is  present),  and,  from  this  circumstance,  it  often  receives  the 
somewhat  misleading  name  of  "  shell-gland."  In  the  Decapoda 
the  antennal  gland  is  largely  developed  and  is  known  as  the  "  green 
gland."  The  external  duct  of  this  gland  is  often  dilated  into  a 
bladder,  and  may  sometimes  send  but  diverticula,  forming  a  complex 
system  of  sinuses  ramifying  through  the  body.  The  green  gland  and 
the  structures  associated  with  it  in  Decapods  were  at  one  time 
regarded  as  constituting  an  auditory  apparatus. 

In  addition  to  these  two  pairs  of  glands,  which  are  in  all  probability 
the  survivors  of  a  series  of  segmentally  arranged  coelomoducts 
present  in  the  primitive  Arthropoda,  other  excretory  organs  have 
been  described  in  various  Crustacea.  Although  the  excretory 
function  of  these  has  been  demonstrated  by  physiological  methods, 
however,  their  morphological  relations  are  not  clear.  In  some  cases 
they  consist  of  masses  of  mesodermal  cells,  within  which  the  excretory 
products  appear  to  be  stored  up  instead  of  being  expelled  from  the 
body. 

Nervous  System. — The  central  nervous  system  is  constructed  on 
the  same  general  plan  as  in  the  other  Arthropoda,  consisting  of  a 
supra-oesophageal  ganglionic  mass  or  brain,  united  by  circum- 
oesophageal  connectives  with  a  double  ventral  chain  of  segmentaljy 
arranged  ganglia.  In  the  primitive  Phyllopoda  the  ventral  chain 
retains  the  ladder-like  arrangement  found  in  some  Annelids  and 
lower  worms,  the  two  halves  being  widely  separated  and  the  pairs  of 
ganglia  connected  together  across  the  middle  line  by  double  trans- 
verse commissures.  In  the  higher  groups  the  two  halves  of  the  chain 
are  more  or  less  closely  approximated  and  coalesced,  and,  in  addition, 
a  concentration  of  the  ganglia  in  a  longitudinal  direction  takes  place, 
leading  ultimately,  in  many  cases,  to  the  formation  of  an  unsegmented 
ganglionic  mass  representing  the  whole  of  the  ventral  chain.  This 
is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  Brachyura  among  the  Decapoda.  The 
brain,  or  supra-oesophageal  ganglion,  shows  various  degrees  of 
complexity.  In  the  Phyllopoda  it  consists  mainly  of  two  pairs  of 
ganglionic  centres,  giving  origin  respectively  to  the  optic  and 
antennular  nerves.  The  centres  for  the  antennal  nerves  form  gangli- 
onic swellings  on  the  oesophageal  connectives.  In  the  higher  forms, 
as  already  mentioned,  the  antennal  ganglia  have  become  shifted 
forwards  and  coalesced  with  the  brain.  In  the  higher  Decapoda, 
numerous  additional  centres  are  developed  in  the  brain  and  its 
structure  becomes  extremely  complex. 

Eyes. — The  eyes  of  Crustacea  are  of  two  kinds,  the  unpaired, 
median  or  "  nauplius  "  eye,  and  the  paired  compound  eyes.  The 
former  is  generally  present  in  the  earliest  larval  stages  (nauplius), 
and  in  some  Entomostraca  (e.g.  Copepoda)  it  forms  the  sole  organ 
of  vision  in  the  adult.  In  the  Malacostraca  it  is  absent  in  the  adult, 
or  persists  only  in  a  vestigial  condition,  as  in  some  Decapoda  and 
Schizopoda.  It  is  typically  tripartite,  consisting  of  three  cup-shaped 
masses  of  pigment,  the  cavity  of  each  cup  being  filled  with  columnar 
retinal  cells.  At  their  inner  ends  (towards  the  pigment)  these  cells 
contain  rod-like  structures,  while  their  outer  ends  are  connected 
with  the  nerve-fibres.  In  some  cases  three  separate  nerves  arise 
from  the  front  of  the  brain,  one  going  to  each  of  the  three  divisions 
of  the  eye.  In  the  Copepoda  the  median  eye  may  undergo  con- 
siderable elaboration,  and  refracting  lenses  and  other  accessory 
structures  may  be  developed  in  connexion  with  it. 

The  compound  eyes  are  very  similar  in  the  details  of  their  structure 
(see  ARTHROPODA)  to  those  of  insects  (Hexapoda).  They  consist  of 
a  varying  number  of  ommatidia  or  visual  elements,  covered  by  a 
transparent  region  of  the  external  cuticle  forming  the  cornea. 
In  most  cases  this  cornea  is  divided  into  lenticular  facets  correspond- 
ing to  the  underlying  ommatidia. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  the  compound  eyes  are  often  set  on 
movable  peduncles.  It  is  probable  that  this  is  the  primitive  con- 
dition from  which  the  sessile  eyes  of  other  forms  have  been  derived. 
I  n  the  Malacostraca  the  sessile  eyed  groups  are  certainly  less  primitive 
than  some  of  those  with  stalked  eyes,  and  among  the  Entomostraca 
also  there  is  some  evidence  pointing  in  the  same  direction. 

Although  typically  paired,  the  compound  eyes  may  occasionally 
coalesce  in  the  middle  line  into  a  single  organ.  This  is  the  case  in  the 
Cladocera,  the  Cumacea  and  a  few  Amphipoda. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  partial  or  complete  atrophy 
of  the  eyes  in  many  Crustacea  which  live  in  darkness,  either  in  the 
deep  sea  or  in  subterranean  habitats.  In  these  cases  the  peduncles 
may  persist  and  may  even  be  modified  into  spinous  organs  of  defence. 

Other  Sense-Organs. — As  in  Arthropoda,  the  hairs  or  setae  on  the 
surface  of  the  body  are  important  organs  of  sense  and  are  variously 
modified  for  special  sensory  functions.  Many,  perhaps  all,  of  them 


558 


CRUSTACEA 


are  tactile.  They  are  movably  articulated  at  the  base  where  they 
are  inserted  in  pits  formed  by  a  thinning  away  of  the  cuticle,  and 
each  is  supplied  by  a  nerve-fibril.  When  feathered  or  provided 
with  secondary  barbs  the  setae  will  respond  to  movements  or 
vibrations  in  the  surrounding  water,  and  have  been  supposed  to 
have  an  auditory  function.  In  certain  divisions  of  the  Malacostraca 
more  specialized  organs  are  found  which  have  been  regarded  as 
auditory.  In  the  majority  of  the  Decapoda  there  is  a  saccular 
invagination  of  the  integument  in  the  basal  segment  of  the  an- 
tennular  peduncle  having  on  its  inner  surface  "  auditory  "  setae 
of  the  type  just  described.  The  sac  is  open  to  the  exterior  in  most 
of  the  Macrura,  but  completely  closed  in  the  Brachyura.  In  the 
former  case  it  contains  numerous  grains  of  sand  which  are  introduced 
by  the  animal  itself  after  each  moult  and  which  are  supposed  to 
act  as  otoliths.  Where  the  sac  is  completely  closed  it  generally 
contains  no  solid  particles,  but  in  a  few  Macrura  a  single  otolith 
secreted  by  the  walls  of  the  sac  is  present.  In  the  Mysidae  among  the 
Schizopoda  a  pair  of  similar  otocysts  are  found  in  the  endopodites 
of  the  last  pair  of  appendages  (uropods).  These  contain  each  a 
single  concretionary  otolith. 

Recent  observations,  however,  make  it  very  doubtful  whether 
aquatic  Crustacea  can  hear  at  all,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term, 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  one  function,  at  least,  of  the  so-called 
otocysts  is  connected  with  the  equilibration  of  the  body.  They  are 
more  properly  termed  statocysts. 

Another  modification  of  sensory  setae  is  supposed  to  be  associated 
with  the  sense  of  smell.  In  nearly  all  Crustacea  the  antennules 
and  often  also  the  antennae  bear  groups  of  hair-like  filaments  in 
which  the  chitinous  cuticle  is  extremely  delicate  and  which  do  not 
taper  to  a  point  but  end  bluntly.  These  are  known  as  olfactory 
filaments  or  aesthetascs.  They  are  very  often  more  strongly  developed 
in  the  male  sex,  and  are  supposed  to  guide  the  males  in  pursuit  of 
the  females. 

Glands. — In  addition  to  the  digestive  and  excretory  glands  already 
mentioned,  various  glandular  structures  occur  in  the  different 
groups  of  Crustacea.  The  most  important  of  these  belong  to  the 
category  of  dermal  glands,  and  may  be  scattered  over  the  surface 
of  the  body  and  limbs,  or  grouped  at  certain  points  for  the  discharge 
of  special  functions.  Such  glands  occurring  on  the  upper  and  lower 
lips  or  on  the  walls  of  the  oesophagus  have  been  regarded  as  salivary. 
In  some  Amphipoda  the  secretion  of  glands  on  the  body  and  limbs 
is  used  in  the  construction  of  tubular  cases  in  which  the  animals  live. 
In  some  freshwater  Copepoda  the  secretion  of  the  dermal  glands 
forms  a  gelatinous  envelope,  by  means  of  which  the  animals  are  able 
to  survive  desiccation.  In  certain  Copepoda  and  Ostracoda  glands 
of  the  same  type  produce  a  phosphorescent  substance,  and  others, 
in  certain  Amphipoda  and  Branchiura,  are  believed  to  have  a 
poisonous  function.  Possibly  related  to  the  same  group  of  structures 
are  the  greatly-developed  cement-glands  of  the  Cirripedia,  which 
serve  to  attach  the  animals  to  their  support. 

Phosphorescent  Organs. — Many  Crustacea  belonging  to  very 
different  groups  (Ostracoda,  Copepoda,  Schizopoda,  Decapoda) 
possess  the  power  of  emitting  light.  In  the  Ostracoda  and  Copepoda 
the  phosphorescence,  as  already  mentioned,  is  due  to  glands  which 
produce  a  luminous  secretion,  and  this  is  the  case  also  in  certain 
members  of  the  Schizopoda  and  Decapoda.  In  other  cases  in  the 
last  two  groups,  however,  the  light-producing  organs  found  on 
the  body  and  limbs  have  a  complex  and  remarkable  structure, 
and  were  formerly  described  as  accessory  eyes.  Each  consists  of  a 
globular  capsule  pierced  at  one  or  two  points  for  the  entrance  of 
nerves  which  end  in  a  central  cup-shaped  "  striated  body."  This 
body  appears  to  be  the  source  of  light,  and  has  behind  it  a  reflector 
formed  of  concentric  lamellae,  while,  in  front,  in  some  cases,  there  is  a 
refracting  lens.  The  whole  organ  can  be  rotated  by  special  muscles. 
Organs  of  this  type  are  best  known  in  the  Euphausiidae  among  the 
Schizopoda,  but  a  modified  form  is  found  in  some  of  the  lower 
Decapods. 

Reproductive  System. — In  the  great  majority  of  Crustacea  the  sexes 
are  saparate.  Apart  from  certain  doubtful  and  possibly  abnormal 
instances  among  Phyllopoda  and  Amphipoda,  the  only  exceptions 
are  the  sessile  Cirripedia  and  some  parasitic  Isopoda  (Cymothoidae), 
where  hermaphroditism  is  the  rule.  Parthenogenesis  is  prevalent 
in  the  Branchiopoda  and  Ostracoda,  often  in  more  or  less  definite 
seasonal  alternation  with  sexual  reproduction.  Where  the  sexes 
are  distinct,  a  more  or  less  marked  dimorphism  often  exists.  The 
male  is  very  often  provided  with  clasping  organs  for  seizing  the 
female.  These  may  be  formed  by  the  modification  of  almost  any 
of  the  appendages,  often  the  antennules  or  antennae  or  some  of  the 
thoracic  limbs,  or  even  the  mandibular  palps  (some  Ostracoda). 
In  addition,  some  of  the  appendages  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
genital  apertures  may  be  modified  for  the  purpose  of  transferring 
the  genital  products  to  the  female,  as,  for  instance,  the  first  and 
second  abdominal  limbs  in  the  Decapoda.  In  the  higher  Decapoda 
the  male  is  generally  larger  than  the  female  and  has  stronger  chelae. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  other  groups  the  male  is  often  smaller  than  the 
female.  In  the  parasitic  Copepoda  and  Isopoda  the  disparity  in 
size  is  carried  to  an  extreme  degree,  and  the  minute  male  is  attached, 
like  a  parasite,  to  the  enormously  larger  female. 

The  Cirripedia  present  some  examples  of  sexual  relationships 
which  are  only  paralleled,  in  the  animal  kingdom,  among  the  para- 


sitic Myzostomida.  While  the  great  majority  are  simple  herma- 
phrodites, capable  of  cross  and  self  fertilization,  it  was  discovered 
by  Darwin  that,  in  certain  species,  minute  degraded  males  exist, 
attached  within  the  mantle-cavity  of  the  ordinary  individuals. 
Since  these  dwarf  males  pair,  not  with  females,  but  with  herma- 
phrodites, Darwin  termed  them  "  complemental  "  males.  In  other 
species  the  large  individuals  have  become  purely  female  by  atrophy 
of  the  male  organs,  and  are  entirely  dependent  on  the  dwarf  males 
for  fertilization.  In  spite  of  the  opinion  of  some  distinguished 
zoologists  to  the  contrary,  it  seems  most  probable  that  the  separation 
of  the  sexes  is  in  this  case  a  secondary  condition,  derived  from 
hermaphroditism  through  the  intermediate  stage  represented  by 
the  species  having  complemental  males. 

The  gpnads,  as  in  other  Arthropoda,  are  hollow  saccular  organs, 
the  cavity  communicating  with  the  efferent  ducts.  They  are 
primitively  paired,  but  often  coalesce  with  each  other  more  or  less 
completely.  The  ducts  are  present  only  as  a  single  pair,  except  in 
one  genus  of  parasitic  Isopoda  (Hemioniscus) ,  where  two  pairs  of 
oviducts  are  found.  Various  accessory  structures  may  be  connected 
with  the  efferent  ducts  in  both  sexes.  The  oviducts  may  have 
diverticula  serving  as  receptacles  for  the  spermatozoa  (;n  cases  where 
internal  impregnation  takes  place),  and  may  be  provided  with  glands 
secreting  envelopes  or  shells  around  the  eggs.  The  male  ducts  often 
have  glandular  walls,  secreting  capsules  or  spermatophores  within 
which  the  spermatozoa  are  packed  for  transference  to  the  female. 
The  terminal  part  of  the  male  ducts  may  be  protrusible  and  act  as 
an  intromittent  organ,  or  this  function  may  be  discharged  by  some 
of  the  appendages,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Brachyura. 

The  position  of  the  genital  apertures  varies  very  greatly  in  the 
different  groups  of  the  class.  They  are  farthest  forward  in  the  case 
of  the  female  organs  of  the  Cirripedia,  where  the  openings  are  on 
the  first  thoracic  (fourth  postoral)  somite.  The  most  posterior 


FlG.  1 1 . — Side  view  of  Crab,  the  abdomen  extended  and  carrying  a 
mass  of  eggs  beneath  it ;  e,  eggs.     (After  Morse.) 

position  is  occupied  by  the  genital  apertures  of  certain  Phyllopoda 
(Polyartemia),  which  lie  behind  the  nineteenth  trunk-somite.  It  is 
characteristic  of  the  Malacostraca  that  the  position  of  the  genital 
apertures  is  constantly  different  in  the  two  sexes,  the  female  openings 
being  on  the  sixth,  and  those  of  the  male  on  the  eighth  thoracic 
somite. 

Very  few  Crustacea  are  viviparous  in  the  sense  that  the  eggs  are 
retained  within  the  body  until  hatching  takes  place  (some  Phyllo- 
poda), but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  great  majority  carry  the  eggs  in 
some  way  or  other  after  their  extrusion.  In  some  Phyllopoda  (Apus) 
egg-sacs  are  formed  by  modification  of  certain  of  the  thoracic  feet. 
The  eggs  are  retained  between  the  valves  of  the  shell  in  some  Phyllo- 
poda and  in  the  Cladocera  and  Ostracoda,  and  they  lie  in  the  mantle 
cavity  in  the  Cirripedia.  In  the  Copepoda  they  are  agglutinated 
together  into  masses  attached  to  the  body  of  the  female.  Among  the 
Malacostraca  some  Schizopoda,  the  Cumacea,  Tanaidacea,  Isopoda 
and  Amphipoda  (sometimes  grouped  all  together  as  Peracarida) 
have  a  marsupium  or  brood-pouch  formed  by  overlapping  plates 
attached  to  the  bases  of  some  of  the  thoracic  legs.  In  most  of  the 
Decapoda  the  eggs  are  carried  by  the  female,  attached  to  the  ab- 
dominal appendages  (fig.  n).  A  few  cases  are  known  in  which  the 
developing  embryos  are  nourished  by  a  special  secretion  while  in  the 
brood-chamber  of  the  mother  (Cladocera,  terrestrial  Isopoda). 

Embryology. 

The  majority  of  the  Crustacea  are  hatched  from  the  egg  in  a  form 
differing  more  or  less  from  that  of  the  adult,  and  pass  through  a 
series  of  free-swimming  larval  stages.  There  are  many  cases, 
however,  in  which  the  metamorphosis  is  suppressed,  and  the  newly- 
hatched  young  resemble  the  parent  in  general  structure.  The 
relative  size  of  the  eggs  and  the  amount  of  nutritive  yolk  which  they 
contain  are  generally  much  greater  in  those  forms  which  have  a 
direct  development. 

The  details  of  the  early  embryonic  stages  vary  considerably 
within  the  limits  of  the  class.  They  are  of  interest,  however,  rather 
from  the  point  of  view  of  general  embryology  than  from  that  of 


CRUSTACEA 


559 


the  special  student  of  the  Crustacea,  and  cannot  be  fully  dealt  with 
here. 

Segmentation  is  usually  of  the  superficial  or  centrolecithal  type. 
The  hypoblast  is  formed  either  by  a  definite  invagination  or  by  the 
immigration  of  isolated  cells,  known  as  yitellophags,  which  wander 
through  the  yolk  and  later  become  associated  into  a  definite  mesen- 
teron,  or  by  some  combination  of  these  two  methods.  The  blastopore 
generally  occupies  a  position  corresponding  to  the  posterior  end  of 
the  body.  The  mesoblast  of  the  cephalic  (naupliar)  region  probably 
arises  in  connexion  with  the  lips  of  the  blastopore  and  consists  of 
loosely-connected  cells  or  mesenchyme.  In  the  region  of  the  trunk, 
in  many  cases,  paired  mesoblastic  bands  are  formed,  growing  in 
length  by  the  division  of  teloblastic  cells  at  the  posterior  end,  and 
becoming  segmented  into  somites.  The  existence  of  true  coelom- 
sacs  is  somewhat  doubtful.  The  rudiments  of  the  first  three  pairs 
of  appendages  commonly  appear  simultaneously,  and,  even  in  forms 
with  embryonic  development,  they  show  differences  in  their  mode 
of  appearance  from  the  succeeding  somites.  Further,  a  definite 
cuticular  membrane  is  frequently  formed  and  shed  at  this  stage, 
which  corresponds  to  the  nauplius-stage  of  larval  development. 

The  larval  metamorphoses  of  the  Crustacea  have  attracted  much 
attention,  and  have  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion  in  view  of 
their  bearing  on  the  phyiogenetic  history  of  the  group.  In  those 
Crustacea  in  which  the  series  of  larval  stages  is  most  complete,  the 
starting-point  is  the  form  already  mentioned  under  the  name  of 
nauplius.  The  typical  nauplius  (fig.  12)  has  an  oval  unsegmented 
body  and  three  pairs  of  limbs  corresponding  to  the  antennules, 
antennae  and  mandibles  of  the  adult.  The  antennules  are  uniramous, 
the  others  biramous,  and  all  three  pairs  are  used  in  swimming. 


FIG.  12. — Nauplius  of  a  Prawn  (Penaeus).    Magn.  45  diam. 
(Fritz  Muller.) 

The  antennae  have  a  spiniform  or  hooked  masticatory  process  at  the 
base,  and  share  with  the  mandibles,  which  have  a  similar  process, 
the  function  of  seizing  and  masticating  the  food.  The  mouth  is  over- 
hung by  a  large  labrum  or  upper  lip,  and  the  integument  of  the 
dorsal  surface  of  the  body  forms  a  more  or  less  definite  dorsal  shield. 
The  paired  eyes  are,  as  yet,  wanting,  but  the  unpaired  eye  is  large 
and  conspicuous.  A  pair  of  frontal  papillae  or  filaments,  probably 
sensory,  are  commonly  present. 

A  nauplius  larva  differing  only  in  details  from  the  typical  form 
just  described  is  found  in  the  majority  of  the  Phyllopoda,  Copepoda 
and  Cirripedia,  and  in  a  more  modified  form,  in  some  Ostracoda. 
Among  the  Malacostraca  the  nauplius  is  less  commonly  found,  but 
it  occurs  in  the  Euphausiidae  among  the  Schizopoda  and  in  a  few 
of  the  more  primitive  Decapoda  (Penaeidea)  (fig.  12).  In  most 
of  the  Crustacea  which  hatch  at  a  later  stage  there  is,  as  already 
mentioned,  more  or  less  clear  evidence  of  an  embryonic  nauplius 
stage.  It  seems  certain,  therefore,  that  the  possession  of  a  nauplius 
larva  must  be  regarded  as  a  very  primitive  character  of  the  Crus- 
tacean stock. 

As  development  proceeds,  the  body  of  the  nauplius  elongates, 
and  indications  of  segmentation  begin  to  appear  in  its  posterior  part. 
At  successive  moults  the  somites  increase  in  number,  new  somites 
being  added  behind  those  already  differentiated,  from  a  formative 
zone  in  front  of  the  telsonic  region.  Very  commonly  the  posterior 
end  of  the  body  becomes  forked,  two  processes  growing  out  at  the 
sides  of  the  anus  and  often  persisting  in  the  adult  as  the  "  caudal 
furca."  The  appendages  posterior  to  the  mandibles  appear  as  buds 
on  the  ventral  surface  of  the  somites,  and  in  the  most  primitive 
cases  they  become  differentiated,  like  the  somites  which  bear  them, 
in  regular  order  from  before  backwards.  The  limb-buds  early 
become  bilobed  and  grow  out  into  typical  biramous  appendages 
which  gradually  assume  the  characters  found  in  the  adult.  With 
thf  elongation  of  the  body,  the  dorsal  shield  begins  to  project 
posteriorly  as  a  shell-fold,  which  may  increase  in  size  to  envelop 


more  or  less  of  the  body  or  may  disappear  altogether.  The  rudiments 
of  the  paired  eyes  appear  under  the  integument  at  the  sides  of  the 
head,  but  only  become  pedunculated  at  a  comparatively  late  stage. 

The  course  of  development  here  outlined,  in  which  the  nauplius 
gradually  passes  into  the  adult  form  by  the  successive  addition  of 
somites  and  appendages  in  regular  order,  agrees  so  well  with  the 
process  observed  in  the  development  of  the  typical  Annelida  that 
we  must  regard  it  as  being  the  most  primitive  method.  It  is  most 
closely  followed  by  the  Phyllopods  such  as  Apus  or  Branchipus, 
and  by  some  Copepoda. 

In  most  Crustacea,  however,  this  primitive  scheme  is  more  or  less 
modified.  The  earlier  stages  may  be  suppressed  or  passed  through 


FIG.  13. — Early  Stages  of  Balanus.    (After  Spence  Bate.) 


A,  Nauplius.    e,  Eye.  C, 

B,  Cypris-\a.rva  with  a  bivalve 

shell  and  just  before  becom-    D, 
ing    attached    (represented 
feet  upwards  for  comparison     E, 
with  E,  where  it  is  attached). 


After  becoming  attached,  side 

views. 
Later  stage,  viewed  from 

above. 
Side  view,  later  stage  and 

with  cirri  extended. 


The  dots  indicate  the  actual  size. 

within  the  egg  (or  within  the  maternal  brood-chamber),  so  that  the 
larva,  on  hatching,  has  reached  a  stage  more  advanced  than  the 
nauplius.  Further,  the  gradual  appearance  and  differentiation  of 
the  successive  somites  and  appendages  may  be  accelerated,  so  that 
comparatively  great  advances  take  place  at  a  single  moult.  In  the 
Cirripedia,  for  example,  the  latest  nauplius  stage  (fig.  13,  A)  gives 
rise  directly  to  the  so-called  Cypris-larva.  (fig.  13,  B),  differing  widely 
from  the  nauplius  in  form,  and  possessing  all  the  appendages  of  the 
adult.  Another  very  common  modification  of  the  primitive  method 
of  development  is  found  in  the  accelerated  appearance  of  certain 
somites  or  appendages, 
disturbing  the  regular 
order  of  development. 
This  modification  is 
especially  found  in  the 
Malacostraca.  Even  in 
those  which  have  most 
fully  retained  the  primi- 
tive order  of  develop- 
ment, as  in  the  Penae- 
idea and  Euphausiidae, 
the  last  pair  of  abdom- 
inal appendages  make 
their  appearance  in 
advance  of  those  im- 
mediately in  front  of 
them.  The  same  pro- 
cess, carried  further, 
leads  to  the  very  peculiar 
larva  known  as  the 
Zoea,  in  the  typical  form 
of  which,  found  in  the 
Brachyura  (fig.  14),  the 
posterior  five  or  six 
thoracic  somites  have 
their  development 
greatly  retarded,  and  FIG.  14.— Zoca  of  Common  Shore-Crab  in 
are  still  represented  by  ;ts  second  stage.  (Spence  Bate.) 

a     short     unsegmented  R         ,      .          ,    Buds      f      h        ; 

region  of  the  body  at  a  Dorsa,      »*  f 

time  when  the  abdom-  Maxillipeds.        a,  Abdomen, 

inal    somites    are    fully 
formed  and  even  carry 

appendages.  The  Zoea  was  formerly  regarded  as  a  recapitulation 
of  an  ancestral  form,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  peculi- 
arities are  the  result  of  secondary  modification.  It  is  most  typically 
developed  in  the  most  specialized  Decapoda,  the  Brachyura,  while 
the  more  primitive  groups  of  Malacostraca,  the  Euphausiidae, 
Penaeidea  and  Stomatopoda,  retain  the  primitive  order  of  appearance 


56o 


CRUSTACEA 


of  the  somites,  and,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  limbs.  At  the  same  time, 
the  tendency  to  a  retardation  in  the  development  of  the  posterior 
thoracic  somites  is  very  general  in  Malacostracan  larvae,  and  may 
perhaps  be  correlated  with  the  fr.ct  that  in  the  primitive  Phyllocarida 
the  whole  thoracic  region  is  very  short  and  the  limbs  closely  crowded 
together. 

Besides  the  nauplius  and  the  zoea  there  are  many  other  types  of 
Crustacean  larvae,  distinguished  by  special  names,  though,  as  their 

occurrence  is  restricted 
within  the  limits  of  the 
smaller  systematic  groups, 
they  are  of  less  general 
interest.  We  need  only 
mention  the  Mysis-stage 
(better  termed  Schizopod- 
stage)  found  in  many 
Macrura  (as,  for  example, 
the  lobster),  which  differs 
from  the  adult  in  having 
large  natatory  exopodites 
on  the  thoracic  legs. 

Most  of  the  larval  forms 
swim  freely  at  the  surface 
of  the  sea,  and  many  show 
special  adaptations  to  this 
habit  of  life.     As  in  many 
other  "  pelagic  "  organisms, 
spines   and    processes   from 
the  surface  of  the  body  are 
often  developed,  which  are 
probably  less  important  as 
defensive    organs    than    as 
FIG.    15—  Nauphus    of    Tetrachta  aids   to   flotation.     This   is 
porosa  after  the  first  moult.     Magn.  wen  seen  in  the  nauplius  of 
9odiam.     (Fritz  Muller.)  many  Cirripedia  (fig.  I5)and 

in  nearly  all  zoeae.     Perhaps 

the  most  striking  example  is  the  zoea-like  larva  of  the  Sergestidae, 
known  as  Elaphocaris,  which  has  an  extraordinary  armature  of 
ramified  spines.  The  same  purpose  is  probably  served  by  the 
extreme  flattening  of  the  body  in  the  membranous  Phyllosoma-laTva 
of  the  rock-lobsters  and  their  allies  (Loricata). 

Past  History. 

Although  fossil  remains  of  Crustacea  are  abundant,  from  the 
most  ancient  fossiliferous  rocks  down  to  the  most  recent,  their 
study  has  hitherto  contributed  little  to  a  precise  knowledge  of  the 
phylogenetic  history  of  the  class.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 
that  many  important  forms  must  have  escaped  fossilization 
altogether  owing  to  their  small  size  and  delicate  structure,  while 
very  many  of  those  actually  preserved  are  known  only  from  the 
carapace  or  shell,  the  limbs  being  absent  or  represented  only 
by  indecipherable  fragments.  Further,  many  important  groups 
were  already  differentiated  when  the  geological  record  began. 
The  Phyllopoda,  Ostracoda  and  Cirripedia  (Thyrostraca)  are 
represented  in  Cambrian  or  Silurian  rocks  by  forms  which  seem 
to  have  resembled  closely  those  now  existing,  so  that  palaeon- 
tology can  have  little  light  to  throw  on  the  mode  of  origin  of  these 
groups.  With  the  Malacostraca  the  case  is  little  better.  There 
is  considerable  reason  for  believing  that  the  Ceratiocaridae,  which 
are  found  from  the  Cambrian  onwards,  were  allied  to  the  existing 
Neballa,  and  may  possibly  include  the  forerunners  of  the  true 
Malacostraca,  but  nothing  is  definitely  known  of  their  appendages. 
In  Palaeozoic  formations,  from  the  Upper  Devonian  onwards, 
numbers  of  shrimp-like  forms  are  found  which  have  been  referred 
to  the  Schizopoda  and  the  Decapoda,  but  here  again  the  scanty 
information  which  may  be  gleaned  as  to  the  structure  of  the 
limbs  rarely  permits  of  definite  conclusions  as  to  their  affinities. 
The  recent  discovery  in  the  Tasmanian  "  schizopod  "  Anaspides, 
of  what  is  believed  to  be  a  living  representative  of  the  Carboni- 
ferous and  Permian  Syncarida,  has,  however,  afforded  a  clue 
to  the  affinities  of  some  of  these  problematical  forms. 

True  Decapods  are  first  met  with  in  Mesozoic  rocks,  the  first 
to  appear  being  the  Penaeidea,  a  primitive  group  comprising 
the  Penaeidae  and  Sergestidae,  which  occur  in  the  Jurassic  and 
perhaps  in  the  Trias.  Some  of  the  earliest  are  referred  to  the 
existing  genus  Penaeus.  The  Stenopidea,  another  primitive 
group,  differing  from  the  Penaeidea  in  the  character  of  the  gills, 
appear  in  the  Trias  and  Jurassic.  The  Caridea  or  true  prawns 
and  shrimps  appear  later,  in  the  Upper  Jurassic,  some  of  them 
presenting  primitive  characteristics  in  the  retention  of  swimming 


exopodites  on  the  walking-legs.  The  Eryonidea  (fig.  16,  3),  a 
group  related  to  the  Loricata  but  of  a  more  generalized  type, 
are  specially  interesting  since  the  few  existing  deep-sea  forms 
appear  to  be  only  surviving  remnants  of  what  was,  in  the  Mesozoic 
period,  a  dominant  group.  The  Mesozoic  Glyphaeidae  have 
been  supposed  to  stand  in  the  direct  line  of  descent  of  the  modern 
rock-lobsters  and  their  allies  (Loricata).  Some  of  the  Loricata 
have  persisted  with  little  change  from  the  Cretaceous  period 
to  the  present  day. 

The  Anomura  are  hardly  known  as  fossils.  The  Brachyura, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  well  represented  (fig.  16,  i,  2).  The 
earliest  forms,  from  the  Lower  Oolite  and  later,  belonging 
chiefly  to  the  extinct  family  Prosoponidae,  have  been  shown  to 
have  close  relations  with  the  most  generalized  of  existing 
Brachyura,  the  deep-sea  Homolodromiidae,  and  to  link  the 
Brachyura  to  the  Homarine  (lobster-like)  Macrura. 

A  few  Isopoda  are  known  from  Secondary  rocks,  but  their 
systematic  position  is  doubtful  and  they  throw  no  light  on  the 
evolution  of  the  group.  The  Amphipoda  are  not  definitely 
known  to  occur  till  Tertiary  times.  Stomatopoda  of  a  very 
modern-looking  type,  and  even  their  larvae,  occur  in  Jurassic 
rocks. 

In  the  dearth  of  trustworthy  evidence  as  to  the  actual  fore- 
runners of  existing  Crustacea,  we  are  compelled  to  rely  wholly 


FIG.  16. 

1 ,  Dromilites  Lamarckii,  Desm. ;  4,  Mecocheirus  longimanus,  Schl. ; 

London  Clay,  Sheppey.  Lithographic    stone,    Solen- 

2,  Palaeocorystes  Stokesii,  Gault ;  hofen. 

Folkestone.  5,  Cypridea     tuberculala,     Sby. ; 

3,  Eryon       arctiformis,       Schl.;  (Ostracoda);  Weald,  Sussex. 

Lithographic    stone,    Solen-  6,  Loricula  pulchella,  Sby.  (Cirri- 

hofen.  pedia) ;  L.  Chalk,  Sussex. 

on  the  data  afforded  by  comparative  anatomy  and  embryology 
in  attempting  to  reconstruct  the  probable  phylogeny  of  the  class. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  insist  on  the  purely  speculative  character 
of  the  conclusions  to  be  reached  in  this  way,  so  long  as  they 
cannot  be  checked  by  the  results  of  palaeontology,  but,  when 
this  is  recognized,  such  speculation  is  not  only  legitimate  but 
necessary  as  a  basis  on  which  to  build  a  natural  classification. 

The  first  attempts  to  reconstruct  the  genealogical  history  of 
the  Crustacea  started  from  the  assumption  that  the  "  theory 
of  recapitulation  "  could  be  applied  to  their  larval  history.  The 
various  larval  forms,  especially  the  nauplius  and  zoea,  were 
supposed  to  reproduce,  more  or  less  closely,  the  actual  structure 
of  ancestral  types.  So  far  as  the  zoea  was  concerned,  this 
assumption  was  soon  shown  to  be  erroneous,  and  the  secondary 
nature  of  this  type  of  larva  is  now  generally  admitted.  As 
regards  the  nauplius,  however,  the  constancy  of  its  general 
character  in  the  most  widely  diverse  groups  of  Crustacea  strongly 
suggests  that  it  is  a  very  ancient  type,  and  the  view  has  been 
advocated  that  the  Crustacea  must  have  arisen  from  an  unseg- 
mented  nauplius-like  ancestor. 

The  objections  to  this  view,  however,  are  considerable.  The 
resemblances  between  the  Crustacea  and  the  Annelid  worms, 
in  such  characters  as  the  structure  of  the  nervous  system  and 
the  mode  of  growth  of  the  somites,  can  hardly  be  ignored. 
Several  structures  which  must  be  attributed  to  the  common 


CRUSTUMERIUM— CRUZ  E  SILVA 


561 


stock  of  the  Crustacea,  such  as  the  paired  eyes  and  the  shell-fold, 
are  not  present  in  the  nauplius.  The  opinion  now  most  generally 
held  is  that  the  primitive  Crustacean  type  is  most  nearly  ap- 
proached by  certain  Phyllopods  such  as  A  pus.  The  large 
number  and  the  uniformity  of  the  trunk  somites  and  their 
appendages,  and  the  structure  of  the  nervous  system  and  of  the 
heart  in  A  pus,  are  Annelidan  characters  which  can  hardly  be 
without  significance.  It  is  probable  also,  as  already  mentioned, 
that  the  leaf-like  appendages  of  the  Phyllopoda  are  of  a  primitive 
type,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  refer  their  structure  to 
that  of  the  Annelid  parapodium.  In  many  respects,  however, 
the  Phyllopoda,  and  especially  A  pus,  have  diverged  considerably 
from  the  primitive  Crustacean  type.  All  the  cephalic  appendages 
are  much  reduced,  the  mandibles  have  no  palps,  and  the  maxil- 
lulae  are  vestigial.  In  these  respects  some  of  the  Copepoda  have 
retained  characters  which  we  must  regard  as  much  more 
primitive.  In  those  Copepods  in  which  the  palps  of  the  mandibles 
as  well  as  the  antennae  are  biramous  and  natatory,  the  first 
three  pairs  ot  appendages  retain  throughout  life,  with  little 
modification,  the  shape  and  function  which  they  have  in  the 
nauplius  stage,  and  must,  in  all  likelihood,  be  regarded  as 
approximating  to  those  of  the  primitive  Crustacea.  In  other 
respects,  however,  such  as  the  absence  of  paired  eyes  and  of  a 
shell-fold,  as  well  as  in  the  characters  of  the  post-oral  limbs,  the 
Copepoda  are  undoubtedly  specialized. 

In  order  to  reconstruct  the  hypothetical  ancestral  Crustacean, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  combine  the  characters  of  several 
of  the  existing  groups.  It  may  be  supposed  to  have  approxi- 
mated, in  general  form,  to  Apus,  with  an  elongated  body  com- 
posed of  numerous  similar  somites  and  terminating  in  a  caudal 
furca;  with  the  post-oral  appendages  all  similar  and  all  bearing 
gnathobasic  processes;  and  with  a  carapace  originating  as  a 
shell-fold  from  the  maxillary  somite.  The  eyes  were  probably 
stalked,  the  antennae  and  mandibles  biramous  and  natatory, 
and  botn  armed  with  masticatory  processes.  It  is  likely  that 
the  trunk-limbs  were  also  biramous,  with  additional  endites  and 
exites.  Whether  any  of  the  obscure  fossils  generally  referred  to 
the  Phyllopoda  or  Phyllocarida  may  have  approximated  to 
this  hypothetical  form  it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  Trilobita,  which,  according  to  the  classification 
here  adopted,  are  dealt  with  under  Arachnida,  are  not  very  far 
removed,  except  in  such  characters  as  the  absence  of  a  shell- 
fold  and  of  eye-stalks,  from  the  primitive  Crustacean  here 
sketched. 

On  this  view,  the  nauplius,  while  no  longer  regarded  as 
reproducing  an  ancestral  type,  does  not  altogether  lose  its 
phylogenetic  significance.  It  is  an  ancestral  larval  form,  corre- 
sponding perhaps  to  the  stages  immediately  succeeding  the 
trochophore  in  the  development  of  Annelids,  but  with  some  of 
the  later-acquired  Crustacean  characters  superposed  upon  it. 
While  little  importance  is  to  be  given  to  such  characters  as  the 
unsegmented  body,  the  small  number  of  limbs  and  the  absence  of 
a  shell-fold  and  of  paired  eyes,  it  has,  on  the  other  hand,  preserved 
archaic  features  in  the  form  of  the  limbs  and  the  masticatory 
function  of  the  antenna. 

The  probable  course  of  evolution  of  the  different  groups  of 
Crustacea  from  this  hypothetical  ancestral  form  can  only  be 
touched  on  here.  The  Phyllopoda  must  have  branched  off  very 
early  and  from  them  to  the  Cladocera  the  way  is  clear.  The 
Ostracoda  might  have  been  derived  from  the  same  stock  were 
it  not  that  they  retain  the  mandibular  palp  which  all  the  Phyllo- 
pods have  lost.  The  Copepoda  must  have  separated  themselves 
very  early,  though  perhaps  some  of  their  characters  may  be 
persistently  larval  rather  than  phylogenetically  primitive. 
The  Cirripedia  are  so  specialized  both  as  larvae  and  as  adults 
that  it  is  hard  to  say  in  what  direction  their  origin  is  to  be 
sought. 

For  the  Malacostraca,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  Lepto- 
straca  (Nebalia,  &c.)  provide  a  connecting-link  with  the  base  of 
the  Phyllopod  stem.  Nearest  to  them  come  the  Schizopoda, 
a  primitive  group  from  which  two  lines  of  descent  can  be  traced, 
the  one  leading  from  the  Mysidacea  (Mysidae  +  Lophogastridae] 


to  the  Cumacea  and  the  sessile-eyed  groups  Isopoda  and  Amphi- 
x>da,  the  other  from  the  Euphausiacea  (Euphausiidae)  to  the 
Decapoda 

Classification. 

The  modern  classification  of  Crustacea  may  be  said  to  have 
seen  founded  by  P.  A.  Latreille,  who,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
igth  century,  divided  the  class  into  Entomostraca  and  Malaco- 
straca. The  latter  division,  characterized  by  the  possession  of 
19  somites  and  pairs  of  appendages  (apart  from  the  eyes),  by 
the  division  of  the  appendages  into  two  tagmata  corresponding 
to  cephalothorax  and  abdomen,  and  by  the  constancy  in  position 
of  the  generative  apertures,  differing  in  the  two  sexes,  is  unques- 
tionably a  natural  group.  The  Entomostraca,  however,  are 
certainly  a  heterogeneous  assemblage,  defined  only  by  negative 
characters,  and  the  name  is  retained  only  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, just  as  it  is  often  useful  to  speak  of  a  still  more  hetero- 
geneous and  unnatural  assemblage  of  animals  as  Invertebrata. 
The  barnacles  and  their  allies,  forming  the  group  Cirripedia  or 
Thyrostraca,  sometimes  treated  as  a  separate  sub-class,  are  . 
distinguished  by  being  sessile  in  the  adult  state,  the  larval 
antennules  serving  as  organs  of  attachment,  and  the  antennae 
being  lost.  An  account  of  them  will  be  found  in  the  article 
THYROSTRACA.  The  remaining  groups  are  dealt  with  under  the 
headings  ENTOMOSTRACA  and  MALACOSTRACA,  the  annectent 
group  Leptostraca  being  included  in  the  former. 

It  may  be  useful  to  give  here  a  synopsis  of  the  classification 
adopted  in  this  encyclopaedia,  noting  that,  for  convenience  of 
treatment,  it  has  been  thought  .necessary  to  adopt  a  grouping 
not  always  expressive  of  the  most  recent  views  of  affinity. 
Class  Crustacea. 

Sub-class  Entomostraca. 
Order  Branchiopoda. 

Sub-orders  Phyllopoda. 
Cladocera, 
Branchiura. 
Orders  Ostracoda. 
Copepoda. 

Sub-classes  Thyrostraca  (Cirripedia). 
Leptostraca. 
Malacostraca. 
Order  Decapoda. 

Sub-orders  Brachyura. 

Macrura. 

Orders  Schizopoda  (including  Anaspides). 
Stomatopoda. 
Sympoda  (Cumacea'). 
Isopoda  (including  Tanaidacea) . 
Amphipoda.  (W.  T.  CA.) 

CRUSTUMERIUM,  an  ancient  town  of  Latium,  on  the  edge 
of  the  Sabine  territory,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Allia,  not  far 
from  the  Tiber.  It  appears  several  times  in  the  early  history 
of  Rome,  but  was  conquered  in  500  B.C.  according  to  Livy  ii.  19, 
the  Iribus  Crustumina  [or  Clustumina]  being  formed  in  471  B.C. 
Pliny  mentions  it  among  the  lost  cities  of  Latium,  but  the  name 
clung  to  the  district,  the  fertility  of  which  remained  famous. 
No  remains  of  it  exist,  and  its  exact  site  is  uncertain. 

See  T.  Ashby  in  Papers  of  the  British  School  at  Rome,  iii.  50. 

CRUVEILHIER,  JEAN  (1791-1874),  French  anatomist,  was 
born  at  Limoges  in  1791,  and  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Paris,  where  in  1825  he  became  professor  of  anatomy.  In  1836 
he  became  the  first  occupant  of  the  recently  founded  chair  of 
pathological  anatomy.  He  died  at  Jussac  in  1874.  His  chief 
works  are  Analomie  descriptive  (1834-1836);  Anatomic  palho- 
logique  du  corps  humain  (1829-1842),  with  many  coloured  plates; 
Trail6  d'anatomie  pathologique  generals  (1849-1864);  Anatomic 
du  systeme  neroeux  de  I'komme  (1845);  Trailt  d'anatomie 
descriptive  (1851). 

CRUZ  E  SILVA,  ANTONIO  DINIZ  DA  (1731-1799),  Portuguese 
heroic-comic  poet,  was  the  son  of  a  Lisbon  carpenter  who 
emigrated  to  Brazil  shortly  before  the  poet's  birth,  leaving  his 
wife  to  support  and  educate  her  young  family  by  the  earnings  of 
her  needle.  Diniz  studied  Latin  and  philosophy  with  the 
Oratorians,  and  in  1747  matriculated  at  Coimbra  University, 
where  he  wrote  his  first  verses  about  1750.  In  1753  he  took  his 
degree  in  law,  and  returning  to  the  capital,  devoted  much  of  the 


CRYOLITE— CRYPT 


next  six  years  to  literary  work.  In  1756  he  became  one  of  the 
founders  and  drew  up  the  statutes  of  the  Arcadia  Lusitana,  a 
literary  society  whose  aims  were  the  instruction  of  its  members, 
the  cultivation  of  the  art  of  poetry,  and  the  restoration  of  good 
taste.  The  fault  was  not  his  if  these  ends  were  not  attained, 
for,  taking  contemporary  French  authors  as  his  models,  he 
contributed  much,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  to  its  proceedings, 
until  he  left  in  February  1760  to  take  up  the  position  oijuiz  de 
fora  at  Castello  de  Vide.  On  returning  to  Lisbon  for  a  short  visit, 
he  found  the  Arcadia  a  prey  to  the  internal  dissensions  that 
caused  its  dissolution  in  1774,  but  succeeded  in  composing  them, 
and  in  1764  he  went  to  Elvas  to  act  as  auditor  of  one  of  the 
regiments  stationed  there.  During  a  ten  years'  residence,  his 
wide  reading  and  witty  conversation  gained  him  the  friendship 
of  the  governor  of  that  fortress  and  the  admiration  of  a  circle 
comprising  all  that  was  cultivated  in  Elvas.  As  in  most  cathedral 
and  garrison  towns,  the  clerical  and  military  elements  dominated 
society,  and  here  were  mutually  antagonistic,  because  of  the 
enmity  between  their  respective  leaders,  the  bishop  and  the 
governor.  Moreover,  Elvas,  being  a  remote  provincial  centre, 
abounded  in  curious  and  grotesque  types.  Diniz,  who  was  a 
keen  observer,  noted  these,  and,  treasuring  them  in  his  memory, 
reproduced  them,  with  their  vanities,  intrigues  and  ignorance, 
in  his  masterpiece,  Hyssope.  In  1768  a  quarrel  arose  between 
the  bishop,  a  proud,  pretentious  prelate,  and  the  dean,  as  to  the 
right  of  the  former  to  receive  holy  water  from  the  latter  at  a 
private  side  door  of  the  cathedral,  instead  of  at  the  principal 
entrance.  The  matter  being  one  of  principle,  neither  party 
would  yield  what  he  considered  his  rights,  and  it  led  to  a  lawsuit, 
and  divided  the  town  into  two  sections,  which  eagerly  debated  the 
arguments  on  both  sides  and  enjoyed  the  ridiculous  incidents 
which'  accompanied  the  dispute.  Ultimately  the  dean  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  who  appealed  to  the  crown 
with  success  and  the  bishop  lost  his  pretension.  The  Hyssope 
arose  out  of  and  deals  with  this  affair.  It  was  dictated  in 
seventeen  days,  in  the  years  1770-1772,  and,  in  its  final  redaction, 
consists  of  eight  cantos  of  blank  verse.  The  pressure  of  absolut- 
ism left  open  only  one  form  of  expression,  satire,  and  in  this  poem 
Diniz  produced  an  original  work  which  ridicules  the  clergy  and 
the  prevailing  Gallomania,  and  contains  episodes  full  of  humour. 
It  has  been  compared  with  Boileau's  Lutrin,  because  both  are 
founded  on  a  petty  ecclesiastical  quarrel,  but  here  the  resemblance 
ends,  and  the  poem  of  Diniz  is  the  superior  in  everything  except 
metrification. 

Returning  to  Lisbon  in  1774,  Diniz  endeavoured  once  more 
to  resuscitate  the  Arcadia,  but  his  long  absence  had  withdrawn 
its  chief  support,  its  most  talented  members  Garcao  (g.v.)  and 
Quita  were  no  more,  and  he  only  assisted  at  its  demise.  In 
April  1776  he  was  appointed  disembargador  of  the  court  of 
Relacao  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  given  the  habit  of  Aviz.  He  lived 
in  Brazil,  devoting  his  leisure  to  a  study  of  its  natural  history 
and  mineralogy,  until  1789,  when  he  went  back  to  Lisbon  to 
take  up  the  post  of  disembargador  of  the  Relacao  of  Oporto; 
in  July  1790  he  was  promoted,  and  became  disembargador  of 
the  Casa  da  Supplicacao.  In  this  year  he  was  sent  again  to 
Brazil  to  assist  in  trying  the  leaders  of  the  Republican  conspiracy 
in  Minas,  in  which  Gonzaga  (q.v.)  and  other  men  of  letters  were 
involved,  and  in  December  1792  he  became  chancellor  of  the 
Relagao  in  Rio.  Six  years  later  he  was  named  councillor  of  the 
Conselho  Ultramarine,  but  did  not  live  to  return  home,  dying 
in  Rio  on  the  $th  of  October  1 799. 

Diniz  possessed  a  poetic  temperament,  but  his  love  of  imitating 
the  classics,  whose  spirit  he  failed  to  understand,  fettered  his 
muse,  and  he  seems  never  to  have  perceived  that  mythological 
comparisons  and  pastoral  allegories  were  poor  substitutes  for 
the  expression  of  natural  feeling.  The  conventionalism  of  his 
art  prejudiced  its  sincerity,  and,  inwardly  cherishing  the  belief 
that  poetry  was  unworthy  of  the  dignity  of  a  judge,  he  never  gave 
his  real  talents  a  chance  to  display  themselves.  His  Anacreontic 
odes,  dithyrambs  and  idylls  earned  the  admiration  of  contem- 
poraries, but  his  Pindaric  odes  lack  fire,  his  sonnets  are  weak, 
and  his  idylls  have  neither  the  truth  nor  the  simplicity  of  Quita's 


work.     As  a  rule  Diniz's  versification  is  weak  and  his  verses  lack 
harmony,  though  the  diction  is  beyond  cavil. 

His  poems  were  published  in  6  vols.  (Lisbon,  1807-1817).  The 
best  edition  of  Hyssope,  to  which  Diniz  owes  his  lasting  fame,  is 
that  of  J.  R.  Coelho  (Lisbon,  1879),  with  an  exhaustive  introductory 
study  on  his  life  and  writings.  A  French  prose  version  of  the  poem 
by  Boissonade  has  gone  through  two  editions  (Paris,  1828  and  1867), 
and  English  translations  of  selections  have  been  printed  in  the 
Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  and  in  the  Manchester  Quarterly  (April 
1896). 

See  also  Dr  Theophilo  Braga,  A.  Arcadia  Lusitana  (Oporto,  1899). 

'  (E.  PR.) 

CRYOLITE,  a  mineral  discovered  in  Greenland  by  the  Danes 
in  1794,  and  found  to  be  a  compound  of  fluorine,  sodium  and 
aluminium.  From  its  general  appearance,  and  from  the  fact  that 
it  melts  readily,  even  in  a  candle-flame,  it  was  regarded  by  the 
Eskimos  as  a  peculiar  kind  of  ice;  from  this  fact  it  acquired  the 
name  of  cryolite  (from  Gr. /epics,  frost,  and Xtflos,  stone).  Cryolite 
occurs  in  colourless  or  snow-white  cleavable  masses,  often  tinted 
brown  or  red  with  iron  oxide,  and  occasionally  passing  into  a 
black  variety.  It  is  usually  translucent,  becoming  nearly 
transparent  on  immersion  in  water.  The  mineral  cleaves  in 
three  rectangular  directions,  and  the  crystals  occasionally  found 
in  the  crevices  have  a  cubic  habit,  but  it  has  been  proved,  after 
much  discussion,  that  they  belong  to  the  anorthic  system.  The 
hardness  is  2-5,  and  the  specific  gravity  3.  Cryolite  has  the 
formula  Na3AlF6,  or  3NaF-AlF3,  corresponding  to  fluorine  54-4, 
sodium  32-8,  and  aluminium  12-8%.  It  colours  a  flame  yellow, 
through  the  presence  of  sodium,  and  when  heated  with  sulphuric 
acid  it  evolves  hydrofluoric  ac;d. 

Cryolite  occurs  almost  exclusively  at  Ivigtut  (sometimes 
written  Evigtok)  on  the  Arksut  Fjord  in  S.W.  Greenland. 
There  it  forms  a  large  deposit,  in  a  granitic  vein  running  through 
gneiss,  and  is  accompanied  by  quartz,  siderite,  galena,  blende, 
chalcopyrite,  &c.  It  is  also  associated  with  a  group  of  kindred 
minerals,  some  of  which  are  evidently  products  of  alteration  of 
the  cryolite,  known  as  pachnolite,  thomsenolite,  ralstonite, 
gearksutite,  arksutite,  &c.  Cryolite  likewise  occurs,  though 
only  to  a  limited  extent,  at  Miyask,  in  the  Ilmen  Mountains; 
at  Pike's  Peak,  Colorado,  and  in  the  Yellowstone  Park. 

Cryolite  is  a  mineral  of  much  economic  importance.  It 
has  been  extensively  used  as  a  source  of  metallic  aluminium, 
and  as  a  flux  in  smelting  the  metal.  It  is  largely  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  certain  sodium  salts,  as  suggested  by  Julius 
Thomsen,  of  Copenhagen,  in  1840;  and  it  has  been  used  for  the 
production  of  certain  kinds  of  porcelain  and  glass,  remarkable 
for  its  toughness,  and  for  enamelled  ware. 

Although  cryolite  is  known  as  "  ice-stone "  (Eisstein). 
it  is  not  to  be  confused  with  "  ice-spar  "  (Eisspath),  which 
is  a  vitreous  kind  of  felspar  termed  "  glassy  felspar "  or 
rhyacolite.  (F.  W.  R.*) 

CRYPT  (Lat.  crypto,  from  the  Gr.  Kpinrrtiv,  to  hide),  a  vault  or 
subterranean  chamber,  especially  under  churches.  In  classical 
phraseology  "  crypta  "  was  employed  for  any  vaulted  building, 
either  partially  or  entirely  below  the  level  of  the  ground.  It  is 
used  for  a  sewer  (crypta  Suburae,  Juvenal,  Sal.  v.  106) ;  for  the 
"  carceres,"  or  vaulted  stalls  for  the  horses  and  chariots  in  a 
circus  (Sidon.  Apoll.  Carm.  xxiii.  319);  for  the  close  porticoes 
or  arcades,  more  fully  known  as  "  cryptoporticus,"  attached  by 
the  Romans  to  their  suburban  villas  for  the  sake  of  coolness, 
and  to  the  theatres  as  places  of  exercise  or  rehearsal  for  the 
performers  (Plin.  Epist.  ii.  15,  v.  6,  vii.  21;  Sueton.  Calig.  58; 
Sidon.  Apoll.  lib.  ii.  epist.  2);  and  for  underground  receptacles 
for  agricultural  produce  (Vitruv.  vi.  8,  Varro,  De  re  rust.  i.  57). 
Tunnels,  or  galleries  excavated  in  the  living  rock,  were  also 
called  cryplae.  Thus  the  tunnel  to  the  north  of  Naples,  through 
which  the  road  passes  to  Puteoli,  familiar  to  tourists  as  the 
"  Grotto  of  Posilipo,"  was  originally  designated  crypla  Nea- 
polilana  (Seneca,  Epist.  57).  In  early  Christian  times  crypta 
was  appropriately  employed  for  the  galleries  of  a  catacomb,  or 
for  the  catacomb  itself.  Jerome  calls  them  by  this  name  when 
describing  his  visits  to  them  as  a  schoolboy,  and  the  term  is  used 
by  Prudentius  (see  CATACOMBS). 


CRYPT 


A  crypt,  as  a  portion  of  a  church,  had  its  origin  in  the  subter- 
ranean chapels  known  as  "  confessiones,"  erected  around  the 
tomb  of  a  martyr,  or  the  place  of  his  martyrdom.  This  is  the 
origin  of  the  spacious  crypts,  some  of  which  may  be  called 
subterranean  churches,  of  the  Roman  churches  of  S.  Prisca, 
S.  Prassede,  S.  Martino  ai  Monti,  S.  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  and 
above  all  of  St  Peter's — the  crypt  being  thus  the  germ  of  the 
church  or  basilica  subsequently  erected  above  the  hallowed  spot. 
When  the  martyr's  tomb  was  sunk  in  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  not  placed  in  a  catacomb  chapel,  the  original  memorial- 
shrine  would  bs  only  partially  below  the  surface,  and  conse- 
quently the  part  of  the  church  erected  over  it,  which  was  always 
that  containing  the  altar,  would  be  elevated  some  height  above 
the  ground,  and  be  approached  by  flights  of  steps.  This  fashion 
of  raising  the  chancel  or  altar  end  of  a  church  on  a  crypt  was 
widely  imitated  long  after  the  reason  for  adopting  it  ceased, 
and  even  where  it  never  existed.  The  crypt  under  the  altar 
at  the  basilica  of  St  Maria  Maggiore  in  Rome  is  merely  imita- 
tive, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  many  of  the  crypts  of  the 
early  churches  in  England.  The  original  Saxon  cathedral  of 
Canterbury  had  a  crypt  beneath  the  eastern  apse,  containing 
the  so-called  body  of  St  Dunstan,  and  other  relics,  "  fabricated," 
according  to  Eadmer,  "  in  the  likeness  of  the  confessionary  of  St 
Peter  at  Rome  "  (see  BASILICA).  St  Wilfrid  constructed  crypts 
still  existing  beneath  the  churches  erected  by  him  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  7th  century  at  Hexham  and  Ripon.  These  are 
peculiarly  interesting  from  their  similarity  in  form  and  arrange- 
ment to  the  catacomb  chapels  with  which  Wilfrid  must  have 
become  familiar  during  his  residence  in  Rome.  The  cathedral, 
begun  by  ^Ethelwold  and  finished  by  Alphege  at  Winchester,  at 
the  end  of  the  loth  century,  had  spacious  crypts  "  supporting 
the  holy  altar  and  the  venerable  relics  of  the  saints  "  (Wulstan, 
Life  of  St  AZthelwold) ,  and  they  appear  to  have  been  common  in 
the  earlier  churches  in  England.  The  arrangement  was  adopted 
by  the  Norman  builders  of  the  nth  and  izth  centuries,  and 
though  far  from  universal  is  found  in  many  of  the  cathedrals  of 
that  date.  The  object  of  the  construction  of  these  crypts  was 
twofold, — to  give  the  altar  sufficient  elevation  to  enable  those 
below  to  witness  the  sacred  mysteries,  and  to  provide  a  place  of 
burial  for  those  holy  men  whose  relics  were  the  church's  most 
precious  possession.  But  the  crypt  was  "  a  foreign  fashion," 
derived,  as  has  been  said,  from  Rome,  "  which  failed  to 
take  root  in  England,  and  indeed  elsewhere  barely  outlasted 
the  Romanesque  period  "  (Essays  on  Cathedrals,  ed.  Howson, 

P-  33i). 

Of  the  crypts  beneath  English  Norman  cathedrals,  that  under 
the  choir  of  Canterbury  (q.v.)  is  by  far  the  largest  and  most 
elaborate  in  its  arrangements.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  subterranean 
church  of  vast  size  and  considerable  altitude.  The  whole  crypt 
was  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  contained  two  chapels 
especially  dedicated  to  her, — the  central  one  beneath  the  high 
altar,  enclosed  with  rich  Gothic  screen-work,  and  one  under  the 
south  transept.  This  latter  chapel  was  appropriated  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  to  the  use  of  the  French  Huguenot  refugees  who  had 
settled  at  Canterbury  in  the  time  of  Edward  VI.  There  were 
also  in  this  crypt  a  large  number  of  altars  and  chapels  of  other 
saints,  some  of  whose  hallowed  bodies  were  buried  here.  At  the 
extreme  east  end,  beneath  the  Trinity  chapel,  the  body  of  St 
Thomas  (Becket)  was  buried  the  day  after  his  martyrdom, 
and  lay  there  till  his  translation,  July  7, 1220. 

The  cathedrals  of  Winchester,  Worcester  and  Gloucester  have 
crypts  of  slightly  earlier  date  (they  may  all  be  placed  between 
1080  and  noo),  but  of  similar  character,  though  less  elaborate. 
They  all  contain  piscinas  and  other  evidences  of  the  existence  of 
altars  in  considerable  numbers.  They  are  all  apsidal.  The  most 
picturesque  is  that  of  Worcester,  the  work  of  Bishop  Wulfstan 
(1084),  which  is  remarkable  for  the  multiplicity  of  small  pillars 
supporting  its  radiating  vaults.  Instead  of  having  the  air  of  a 
sepulchral  vault  like  those  of  Winchester  and  Gloucester,  this 
crypt  is,  in  Professor  Willis's  words,  "  a  complex  and  beautiful 
temple."  Archbishop  Roger's  crypt  at  York,  belonging  to  the 
next  century  (1154-1181),  was  filled  up  with  earth  when  the 


present  choir  was  built  at  the  end  of  the  i4th  century,  and  its 
existence  forgotten  till  its  disinterment  after  the  fire  of  1829. 
The  choir  and  presbytery  at  Rochester  are  supported  by  an 
extensive  crypt,  of  which  the  western  portion  is  Gundulf's  work 
(1076-1107),  but  the  eastern  part,  which  displays  slender 
cylindrical  and  octagonal  shafts,  with  light  vaulting  springing 
from  them,  is  of  the  same  period  as  the  superstructure,  the  first 
years  of  the  i3th  century.  This  crypt,  and  that  beneath  the 
Early  English  Lady  chapel  at  Hereford,  are  the  latest  English 
existing  cathedral  crypts.  That  at  Hereford  was  rendered 
necessary  by  the  fall  of  the  ground,  and  is  an  exceptional  case. 
Later  than  any  of  these  crypts  was  that  of  St  Paul's,  London. 
This  was  a  really  large  and  magnificent  church  of  Decorated 
date,  with  a  vaulted  roof  of  rich  and  intricate  character  resting 
on  a  forest  of  clustered  columns.  Part  of  it  served  as  the  parish 
church  of  St  Faith.  A  still  more  exquisite  work  of  the  Decorated 
period  is  the  crypt  of  St  Stephen's  chapel  at  Westminster,  than 
which  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  anything  more  perfect  in  design 
or  more  elaborate  in  ornamentation.  Having  happily  escaped 
the  conflagration  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1834 — before 
which  it  was  degraded  to  the  purpose  of  the  speaker's  state 
dining-room — it  has  been  restored  to  its  former  sumptuousness 
of  decoration,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  beautiful  architectural 
gems  in  England. 

Of  Scottish  cathedrals  the  only  one  that  possesses  a  crypt  is 
the  cathedral  of  Glasgow,  rendered  celebrated  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  in  his  novel  of  Rob  Roy  (ch.  xx.).  At  the  supposed  date 
of  the  tale,  and  indeed  till  a  comparatively  recent  period,  this 
crypt  was  used  as  a  place  of  worship  by  one  of  the  three  con- 
gregations among  which  the  cathedral  was  partitioned,  and  was 
known  as  "  the  Laigh  or  Barony  Kirk."  It  extends  beneath 
the  choir  transepts  and  chapter-house;  in  consequence  of  the 
steep  declivity  on  which  the  cathedral  stands  it  is  of  unusual 
height  and  lightsomeness.  It  belongs  to  the  i3th  century,  its 
style  corresponding  to  Early  English,  and  is  sirr.plyconstructional, 
the  building  being  adapted  to  the  locality.  In  architectural 
beauty  it  is  quite  unequalled  by  any  crypt  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  can  hardly  anywhere  be  surpassed.  It  is  an 
unusually  rich  example  of  the  style,  the  clustered  piers  and 
groining  being  exquisite  in  design  and  admirable  in  execution. 
The  bosses  of  the  roof  and  capitals  of  the  piers  are  very  elaborate, 
and  the  doors  are  much  enriched  with  foliage.  "  There  is  a 
solidity  in  its  architecture,  a  richness  in  its  vaulting,  and  a 
variety  of  perspective  in  the  spacing  of  its  pillars,  which  make 
it  one  of  the  most  perfect  pieces  of  architecture  in  these 
kingdoms  "  (Fergusson). 

In  the  centre  of  the  main  alley  stands  the  mutilated  effigy 
of  St  Mungo,  the  patron  saint  of  Glasgow,  and  at  the  south-east 
corner  is  a  well  called  after  the  same  saint. 

Crypts  under  parish  churches  are  not  very  uncommon  in 
England,  but  they  are  usually  small  and  not  characterized  by 
any  architectural  beauty.  A  few  of  the  earlier  crypts,  however, 
deserve  notice.  One  of  the  earliest  and  most  remarkable  is  that 
of  the  church  of  Lastingham  near  Pickering  in  Yorkshire,  on 
the  site  of  the  monastery  founded  in  648  by  Cedd,  bishop  of  the 
East  Saxons.  The  existing  crypt,  though  exceedingly  rude 
in  structure,  is  of  considerably  later  date  than  Bishop  Cedd, 
forming  part  of  the  church  erected  by  Abbot  Stephen  of  Whitby 
in  1080,  when  he  had  been  driven  inland  by  the  incursions  of  the 
northern  pirates.  This  crypt  is  remarkable  from  its  extending 
under  the  nave  as  well  as  the  chancel  of  the  upper  church,  the 
plan  of  which  it  accurately  reproduces,  with  the  exception  of  the 
westernmost  bay.  It  forms  a  nave  with  side  aisles  of  three  bays, 
and  an  apsidal  chancel,  lighted  by  narrow  deeply  splayed  slits. 
The  roof  of  quadripartite  vaulting  is  supported  by  four  very 
dwarf  thick  cylindrical  columns,  the  capitals  of  which  and  of 
the  responds  are  clumsy  imitations  of  classical  work  with  rude 
volutes.  Still  more  curious  is  the  crypt  beneath  the  chancel 
of  the  church  of  Repton  in  Derbyshire.  This  also  consists  of  a 
centre  and  side  aisles,  divided  by  three  arches  on  either  side. 
The  architectural  character,  however,  is  very  different  from 
that  at  Lastingham,  and  is  in  some  respects  almost  unique,  the 


564 


CRYPTEIA— CRYPTOBRANCHUS 


piers  being  slender,  and  some  of  them  of  a  singular  spiral  form, 
with  a  bead  running  in  the  sunken  part  of  the  spiral.  Another 
very  extensive  and  curious  Norman  crypt  is  that  beneath  the 
chancel  of  St  Peter's-in-the-East  at  Oxford.  This  is  five 
bays  in  length,  the  quadripartite  vaulting  being  supported 
by  eight  low,  somewhat  slender,  cylindrical  columns  with 
capitals  bearing  grotesque  animal  and  human  subjects.  Its 
dimensions  are  36  by  20  ft.  and  10  ft.  in  height.  This  crypt  has 
been  commonly  attributed  to  Grymboldt  in  the  gih  century; 
but  it  is  really  not  very  early  Norman.  Under  the  church  of 
St  Mary-le-Bow  in  London  there  is  an  interesting  Norman  crypt 
not  very  dissimilar  in  character  to  that  last  described.  Of  a  later 
date  is  the  remarkably  fine  Early  English  crypt  groined  in  stone, 
beneath  the  chancel  of  Hythe  in  Kent,  containing  a  remarkable 
collection  of  skulls  and  bones,  the  history  of  which  is  quite 
uncertain.  There  is  also  a  Decorated  crypt  beneath  the  chancel 
at  Wimborne  minster,  and  one  of  the  same  date  beneath  the 
southern  chancel  aisle  at  Grantham. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  French  crypts  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  the  cathedrals  of  Auxerre,  said  to  date  from  the  original 
foundation  in  1085 ;  of  Bayeux,  attributed  to  Odo,  bishop  of  that 
see,  uterine  brother  of  William  the  Conqueror,  where  twelve 
columns  with  rude  capitals  support  a  vaulted  roof;  of  Chartres, 
running  under  the  choir  and  its  aisles,  frequently  assigned  to 
Bishop  Fulbert  in  1029,  but  more  probably  coeval  with  the 
superstructure;  and  of  Bourges,  where  the  crypt  is  in  the  Pointed 
style,  extending  beneath  the  choir.  The  church  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  attached  to  Queen  Matilda's  foundation — the  "  Abbaye 
aux  Dames  "  at  Caen — has  a  Norman  crypt  where  the  thirty-four 
pillars  are  as  closely  set  as  those  at  Worcester.  The  church  of 
St  Eutropius  at  Saintes  has  also  a  crypt  of  the  i  ith  century,  of 
very  large  dimensions,  which  deserves  special  notice;  the  capitals 
of  the  columns  exhibit  very  curious  carvings.  Earlier  than  any 
already  mentioned  is  that  of  St  Gervase  of  Rouen,  considered 
by  E.  A.  Freeman  "  the  oldest  ecclesiastical  work  to  be  seen  north 
of  the  Alps."  It  is  apsidal,  and  in  its  walls  are  layers  of  Roman 
brick.  It  is  said  to  contain  the  remains  of  two  of  the  earliest 
apostles  of  Gaul — St  Mello  and  St  Avitian.  There  are  numerous 
crypts  in  Germany.  One  at  Gottingen  may  be  mentioned,  where 
cylindrical  shafts  with  capitals  of  singular  design  support 
"vaulting  of  great  elegance  and  lightness"  (Fergusson),  the 
curves  being  those  of  a  horseshoe  arch.  The  crypts  of  the 
cathedrals  or  churches  at  Halberstadt,  Hildesheim  and  Naum- 
burg  also  deserve  to  be  noticed;  that  of  Liibeck  may  be  rather 
called  a  lower  choir.  It  is  20  ft.  high  and  vaulted. 

The  Italian  crypts,  when  found,  as  a  rule  reproduce  the 
"  confessio  "  of  the  primitive  churches.  That  beneath  the 
chancel  of  S.  Michele  at  Pavia  is  an  excellent  typical  example, 
probably  dating  from  the  loth  century.  It  is  apsidal  and  vaulted, 
and  is  seven  bays  in  length.  That  at  S.  Zeno  at  Verona  (c.  1 138) 
is  still  more  remarkable;  its  vaulted  roof  is  upborne  by  forty 
columns,  with  curiously  carved  capitals.  It  is  approached  from 
the  west  by  a  double  flight  of  steps  and  contains  many  ancient 
monuments.  S.  Miniato  at  Florence,  begun  in  1013,  has  a  very 
spacious  crypt  at  the  east  end,  forming  virtually  a  second  choir. 
It  is  seven  bays  in  length  and  vaulted.  The  most  remarkable 
crypt  in  Italy,  however,  is  perhaps  that  of  St  Mark's,  Venice. 
The  plan  of  this  is  almost  a  Greek  cross.  Four  rows  of  nine 
columns  each  run  from  end  to  end,  and  two  rows  of  three  each 
occupy  the  arms  of  the  cross,  supporting  low  stunted  arches 
on  which  rests  the  pavement  of  the  church  above.  This  also 
constitutes  a  lower  church,  containing  a  chorus  cantorum  formed 
by  a  low  stone  screen,  not  unlike  that  of  S.  Clemente  at  Rome 
(see  BASILICA),  enclosing  a  massive  stone  altar  with  four  low 
columns.  This  crypt  is  reasonably  supposed  to  belong  to  the 
church  founded  by  the  doge  P.  Orseolo  in  977.  There  are  also 
crypts  deserving  notice  at  the  cathedrals  of  Brescia,  Fiesole 
and  Modena,  and  the  churches  of  S.  Ambrogio  and  S.  Eustorgio 
at  Milan.  The  former  was  unfortunately  modernized  by  St 
Charles  Borromeo.  The  crypt  at  Assisi  is  really  a  second  church 
at  a  lower  level,  and  being  built  on  the  steep  side  of  a  hill  is  well 
lighted.  The  whole  fabric  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  Italian 


Gothic,  and  both  the  lower  and  upper  churches  are  covered  with 
rich  frescoes. 

Domestic  crypts  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Medieval  houses 
had  as  a  rule  their  chief  rooms  raised  above  the  level  of  the 
ground  upon  vaulted  substructures,  which  were  used  as  cellars 
and  storerooms.  These  were  sometimes  partially  underground, 
sometimes  entirely  above  it.  The  underground  vaults  often 
remain  when  all  the  superstructure  has  been  swept  away,  and 
from  their  Gothic  character  are  frequently  mistaken  for  ecclesi- 
astical buildings.  The  older  English  towns  are  full  of  crypts  of 
this  character,  now  used  as  cellars.  They  occur  in  Oxford  and 
Rochester,  are  very  abundant  in  the  older  parts  of  Bristol,  and, 
according  to  J.  H.  Parker,  "  nearly  the  whole  city  of  Chester 
is  built  upon  a  series  of  them  with  the  Rows  or  passages  made 
on  the  top  of  the  vaults  "  (Domestic  Architecture,  iii.  91).  The 
crypt  of  Gerard's  Hall  in  London,  destroyed  in  the  construction 
of  New  Cannon  Street,  figured  by  Parker  (Dom.  Arch.  ii.  185), 
was  a  beautiful  example  of  the  lower  storey  of  the  residence  of 
a  wealthy  merchant  of  the  time  of  Edward  I.  It  was  divided 
down  the  middle  by  a  row  of  four  slender  cylindrical  columns 
supporting  a  very  graceful  vault.  The  finest  example  of  a 
secular  crypt  now  remaining  in  England  is  that  beneath  the 
Guildhall  of  London.  The  date  of  this  is  early  in  the  isth 
century — 1411.  It  is  a  large  and  lofty  apartment,  divided  into 
four  alleys  by  two  rows  of  clustered  shafts  supporting  a  rich 
lierne  vault  with  ribs  of  considerable  intricacy.  There  is  a  fine 
vaulted  crypt  of  the  same  date  and  of  similar  character  beneath 
St  Mary's  Hall,  the  Guildhall  of  the  city  of  Coventry.  (E.  V:) 

CRYPTEIA  (Gr.  npimTtiv,  to  hide),  a  kind  of  secret  police 
in  ancient  Sparta,  founded,  according  to  Aristotle,  by  Lycurgus; 
there  is,  however,  no  real  evidence  as  to  the  date  of  its  origin. 
The  institution  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  ephors,  who, 
on  entering  office,  annually  proclaimed  war  against  the  helots 
(serf-class)  and  thus  absolved  from  the  guilt  of  murder  any 
Spartan  who  should  slay  a  helot.  It  was  instituted  primarily 
as  a  precaution  against  the  ever-present  danger  of  a  helot  revolt, 
and  secondarily  perhaps  as  a  training  for  young  Spartans,  who 
were  sent  out  by  the  ephors  to  keep  watch  on  the  helots  and 
assassinate  any  who  might  appear  dangerous.  Plato  (Laws,  i. 
p.  633)  emphasizes  the  former  aspect,  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that,  at  all  events  after  the  revolt  of  464  (see  CIMON), 
its  more  sinister  purpose  was  predominant,  as  we  may  gather 
from  the  secret  massacre  of  2000  helots  who,  on  the  invitation 
of  the  ephors,  claimed  to  have  rendered  distinguished  service 
(Thuc.  iv.  80). 

See  HELOTS;  EPHOR;  also  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Handbook  of  Gk. 
Const.  Hist.  (London,  1896) ;  G.  Gilbert,  Gk.  Const.  Antiq.  (Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1895). 

CRYPTOBRANCHUS,  a  genus  of  thoroughly  aquatic,  but 
lung-breathing  tailed  Batrachia,  of  the  family  Amphiumidae, 
characterized  by  a  heavy,  flattened  build,  a  very  porous  tuber- 
cular skin,  with  a  frilled  fold  along  each  side,  short  stout  limbs 
with  four  very  short  fingers  and  five  very  short  toes,  and  minute 
eyes  without  lids.  The  vertebrae  are  biconcave,  and  although 
the  gills  are  lost  in  the  adult,  ossified  gill-arches,  two  to  four  in 
number,  persist.'  A  strong  series  of  vomerine  teeth  extends 
across  the  palate.  Three  species  of  this  genus  are  known.  One 
is  the  well-known  fossil  of  Oeningen  first  described  as  Homo 
dilumi  testis  and  shown  by  Cuvier  to  be  nearly  related  to  the 
gigantic  salamander  of  Japan,  Cryptobranchus  maximus,  which 
has  since  been  found  to  inhabit  China  also;  the  third  is  the 
hellbender,  mud-puppy  or  water-dog  of  North  America,  C. 
alleghaniensis ,  also  known  under  the  name  of  Menopoma.  Both 
the  fossil  C.  scheuchzeri  and  C.  maximus  grow  to  a  length  of 
over  5  ft.  and  are  by  far  the  largest  Urodeles  known,  whilst 
C.  alleghaniensis  reaches  the  respectable  length  of  18  in. 

The 'eggs  are  laid  in  rosary-like  strings.  They  have  been 
found,  in  Japan,  deposited  in  deep  holes  in  the  water,  where 
they  form  large  clumps  (70  to  80  eggs)  round  which  the  female 
coils  herself.  The  gigantic  salamander  has  also  bred  in  the 
Amsterdam  zoological  gardens,  the  eggs  numbering  upwards  of 
500;  the  male,  it  is  stated,  took  charge  of  the  eggs,  and  for  the 


CRYPTOGRAPHY 


565 


ten  weeks  which  elapsed  before  the  release  of  the  last  larva,  he 
kept  close  to  them,  at  times  crawling  among  the  coiled  mass  of 
egg-strings  or  lifting  them  up,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of 
aeration.  The  larva  on  leaving  the  egg  is  about  an  inch  long, 
provided  with  three  branched  external  gills  on  each  side,  and 
showing  mere  rudiments  of  the  four  limbs. 

CRYPTOGRAPHY  (from  Gr.  Kpwrros,  hidden,  and  ypa^tiv, 
to  write),  or  writing  in  cipher,  called  also  steganography  (from 
Gr.  aTeyavr],  a  covering),  the  art  of  writing  in  such  a  way  as  to 
be  incomprehensible  except  to  those  who  possess  the  key  to  the 
system  employed.  The  unravelling  of  the  writing  is  called 
deciphering.  Cryptography  having  become  a  distinct  art, 
Bacon  ^Lord  Verulam)  classed  it  (under  the  name  ciphers)  as 
a  part  of  grammar.  Secret  modes  of  communication  have  been  in 
use  from  the  earliest  times.  The  Lacedemonians  had  a  method 
called  the  scytale,  from  the  staff  (<rKVT&\r))  employed  in  construct- 
ing and  deciphering  the  message.  When  the  Spartan  ephors 
wished  to  forward  their  orders  to  their  commanders  abroad,  they 
wound  slantwise  a  narrow  strip  of  parchment  upon  the  aKVTa.\i] 
so  that  the  edges  met  close  together,  and  the  message  was  then 
added  in  such  a  way  that  the  centre  of  the  line  of  writing  was 
on  the  edges  of  the  parchment.  When  unwound  the  scroll 
consisted  of  broken  letters;  and  in  that  condition  it  was 
despatched  to  its  destination,  the  general  to  whose  hands  it 
came  deciphering  it  by  means  of  a  OKVTO)*}  exactly  corresponding 
to  that  used  by  the  ephors.  Polybius  has  enumerated  other 
methods  of  cryptography. 

The  art  was  in  use  also  amongst  the  Romans.  Upon  the 
revival  of  letters  methods  of  secret  correspondence  were  intro- 
duced into  private  business,  diplomacy,  plots,  &c.;  and  as  the 
study  of  this  art  has  always  presented  attractions  to  the 
ingenious,  a  curious  body  of  literature  has  been  the  result. 

John  Trithemius  (d.  1516),  the  abbot  of  Spanheim,  was  the 
first  important  writer  on  cryptography.  His  Polygraphia, 
published  in  1518,  has  passed  through  many  editions,  and  has 
supplied  the  basis  upon  which  subsequent  writers  have  worked. 
It  was  begun  at  the  desire  of  the  duke  of  Bavaria;  but 
Trithemius  did  not  at  first  intend  to  publish  it,  on  the  ground 
that  it  would  be  injurious  to  public  interests.  A  Steganographia 
published  at  Lyons  (Pissi)  and  later  at  Frankfort  (1606),  is 
also  attributed  to  him.  The  next  treatises  of  importance  were 
those  of  Giovanni  Battista  della  Porta,  the  Neapolitan  mathe- 
matician, who  wrote  De  furtivis  litter  arum  nolis,  1563;  and  of 
Blaise  de  Vigenere,  whose  Traite  des  chiffres  appeared  in  Paris, 
1587.  Bacon  proposed  an  ingenious  system  of  cryptography 
on  the  plan  of  what  is  called  the  double  cipher;  but  while  thus 
lending  to  the  art  the  influence  of  his  great  name,  he  gave  an 
intimation  as  to  the  general  opinion  formed  of  it  and  as  to  the 
classes  of  men  who  used  it.  For  when  prosecuting  the  earl  of 
Somerset  in  the  matter  of  the  poisoning  of  Overbury,  he  urged 
it  as  an  aggravation  of  the  crime  that  the  earl  and  Overbury 
"  had  cyphers  and  jargons  for  the  king  and  queen  and  all  the 
great  men, — things  seldom  used  but  either  by  princes  and  their 
ambassadors  and  ministers,  or  by  such  as  work  or  practise  against 
or,  at  least,  upon  princes." 

Other  eminent  Englishmen  were  afterwards  connected  with 
the  art.  John  Wilkins,  subsequently  bishop  of  Chester,  published 
in  1641  an  anonymous  treatise  entitled  Mercury,  or  The  Secret 
and  Swift  Messenger, — a  small  but  comprehensive  work  on  the 
subject,  and  a  timely  gift  to  the  diplomatists  and  leaders  of 
the  Civil  War.  The  deciphering  of  many  of  the  royalist  papers 
of  that  period,  such  as  the  letters  that  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
parliament  at  the  battle  of  Naseby,  has  by  Henry  Stubbe  been 
charged  on  the  celebrated  mathematician  Dr  John  Wallis 
(Athen.  Oxon.  iii.  1072),  whose  connexion  with  the  subject  of 
cipher-writing  is  referred  to  by  himself  in  the  Oxford  edition  of 
his  mathematical  works,  1689,  p.  659;  as  also  by  John  Davys. 
Dr  Wallis  elsewhere  states  that  this  art,  formerly  scarcely  known 
to  any  but  the  secretaries  of  princes,  &c.,  had  grown  very  common 
and  familiar  during  the  civil  commotions,  "  so  that  now  there  is 
scarce  a  person  of  quality  but  is  more  or  less  acquainted  with  it, 
and  doth,  as  there  is  occasion,  make  use  of  it."  Subsequent 


writers  on  the  subject  are  John  Falconer  (Cryplomenysis  pale- 
facia),  1685;  John  Davys  (An  Essay  on  the  Art  of  Decyphcring: 
in  which  is  inserted  a  Discourse  of  Dr  Wallis),  1737;  Philip 
Thicknesse  (A  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Decypheringandof  Writing 
in  Cypher),  1772;  William  Blair  (the  writer  of  the  comprehensive 
article  "  Cipher  "  in  Rees's  Cyclopaedia),  1819;  and  G.  von 
Marten  (Cours  diplomatique),  1801  (a  fourth  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  1851).  Perhaps  the  best  modern  work  on  this 
subject  is  the  Kryptographik  of  J.  L.  Kliiber  (Tubingen,  1809), 
who  was  drawn  into  the  investigation  by  inclination  and  official 
circumstances.  In  this  work  the  different  methods  of  crypto- 
graphy are  classified.  Amongst  others  of  lesser  merit  who 
have  treated  of  this  art  may  be  named  Gustavus  Selenus  (i.e. 
Augustus,  duke  of  Brunswick),  1624;  Cospi,  translated  by 
Niceron  in  1641;  the  marquis  of  Worchester,  1659;  Kircher, 
1663;  Schott,  1665;  Ludwig  Heinrich  Hiller,  1682;  Comiers, 
1690;  Baring,  1737;  Conrad,  1739,  &c.  See  also  a  paper  on 
Elizabethan  Cipher-books  by  A.  J.  Butler  in  the  Bibliographical 
Society's  Transactions,  London,  1901. 

Schemes  of  cryptography  are  endless  in  their  variety.  Bacon 
lays  down  the  following  as  the  "  virtues  "  to  be  looked  for  in 
them: — "  that  they  be  not  laborious  to  write  and  read;  that 
they  be  impossible  to  decipher;  and,  in  some  cases,  that  they 
be  without  suspicion."  These  principles  are  more  or  less  disre- 
garded by  all  the  modes  that  have  been  advanced,  including 
that  of  Bacon  himself,  which  has  been  unduly  extolled  by  his 
admirers  as  "  one  of  the  most  ingenious  methods  of  writing  in 
cypher,  and  the  most  difficult  to  be  decyphered,  of  any  yet 
contrived  "  (Thicknesse,  p.  13). 

The  simplest  and  commonest  of  all  the  ciphers  is  that  in  which 
the  writer  selects  in  place  of  the  proper  letters  certain  other 
letters  in  regular  advance.  This  method  of  transposition  was 
used  by  Julius  Caesar.  He,  "  per  quartam  elementorum  literam," 
wrote  d  for  a,  e  for  b,  and  so  on.  There  are  instances  of  this 
arrangement  in  the  Jewish  rabbis,  and  even  in  the  sacred  writers. 
An  illustration  of  it  occurs  in  Jeremiah  (xxv.  26),  where  the 
prophet,  to  conceal  the  meaning  of  his  prediction  from  all  but 
the  initiated,  writes  Sheshak  instead  of  Babel  (Babylon),  the 
place  meant;  i.e.  in  place  of  using  the  second  and  twelfth  letters 
of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  (b,  b,  I)  from  the  beginning,  he  wrote 
the  second  and  twelfth  (sh,  sh,  k)  from  the  end.  To  this  kind  of 
cipher- writing  Buxtorf  gives  the  name  Athbash  (from  a  the  first 
letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  and  th  the  last;  b  the  second  from 
the  beginning,  and  h  the  second  from  the  end).  Another  Jewish 
cabalism  of  like  nature  was  called  Albam ;  of  which  an  example 
is  in  Isaiah  vii.  6,  where  Tabeal  is  written  for  Remaliah.  In  its 
adaptation  to  English  this  method  of  transposition,  of  which 
there  are  many  modifications,  is  comparatively  easy  to  decipher. 
A  rough  key  may  be  derived  from  an  examination  of  the  respec- 
tive quantities  of  letters  in  a  type-founder's  bill,  or  a  printer's 
"  case."  The  decipherer's  first  business  is  to  classify  the  letters 
of  the  secret  message  in  the  order  of  their  frequency.  The  letter 
that  occurs  oftenest  is  e;  and  the  next  in  order  of  frequency  is  /. 
The  following  groups  come  after  these,  separated  from  each  other 
by  degrees  of  decreasing  recurrence: — a,  o,  n,  i;  r,  s,  h;  d,  /; 
c,  w,  u,  m;  f,  y, g,  p,  b;  v,  k;  x,  q,  j,  z.  All  the  single  letters  must 
be  a,  I  or  0.  Letters  occurring  together  are  ee,  oo,  fj,  II,  ss,  &c. 
The  commonest  words  of  two  letters  are  (roughly  arranged  in 
the  order  of  their  frequency)  of,  to,  in,  it,  is,  be,  he,  by,  or,  as, 
at,  an,  so,  &c.  The  commonest  words  of  three  letters  are  the 
and  and  (in  great  excess),  for,  are,  but,  all,  not,  &c.;  and  of  four 
letters — thai,  with,  from,  haw,  this,  they,  &c.  Familiarity  with 
the  composition  of  the  language  will  suggest  numerous  other 
points  that  are  of  value  to  the  decipherer.  He  may  obtain  other 
hints  from  Poc's  tale  called  The  Gold  Bug.  As  to  messages  in  the 
continental  languages  constructed  upon  this  system  of  trans- 
position, rules  for  deciphering  may  be  derived  from  Brcithaupt's 
Ars  decifratoria  (1737),  and  other  treatises. 

Bacon  remarks  that  though  ciphers  were  commonly  in  letters 
and  alphabets  yet  they  might  be  in  words.  Upon  this  basis 
codes  have  been  constructed,  classified  words  taken  from 
dictionaries  being  made  to  represent  complete  ideas.  In  recent 


566 


CRYPTOMERIA— CRYSTAL-GAZING 


years  such  codes  have  been  adapted  by  merchants  and  others  to 
communications  by  telegraph,  and  have  served  the  purpose  not 
only  of  keeping  business  affairs  private,  but  also  of  reducing 
the  excessive  cost  of  telegraphic  messages  to  distant  markets. 
Obviously  this  class  of  ciphers  presents  greater  difficulties  to 
the  skill  of  the  decipherer. 

Figures  and  other  characters  have  been  also  used  as  letters; 
and  with  them  ranges  of  numerals  have  been  combined  as  the 
representatives  of  syllables,  parts  of  words,  words  themselves, 
and  complete  phrases.  Under  this  head  must  be  placed  the 
despatches  of  Giovanni  Michael,  the  Venetian  ambassador  to 
England  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  documents  which  have  only 
of  late  years  been  deciphered.  Many  of  the  private  letters 
and  papers  from  the  pen  of  Charles  I.  and  his  queen,  who  were 
adepts  in  the  use  of  ciphers,  are  of  the  same  description.  One  of 
that  monarch's  letters,  a  document  of  considerable  interest,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  numerals  purposely  complicated,  was  in  1858 
deciphered  by  Professor  Wheatstone,  the  inventor  of  the  ingeni- 
ous crypto  -  machine,  and  printed  by  the  Philobiblon  Society. 
Other  letters  of  the  like  character  have  been  published  in  the 
First  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Historical  Manuscripts 
(1870).  In  the  second  and  subsequent  reports  of  the  same  com- 
mission several  keys  to  ciphers  have  been  catalogued,  which 
seem  to  refer  themselves  to  the  methods  of  cryptography  under 
notice.  In  this  connexion  also  should  be  mentioned  the ."  char- 
acters," which  the  diarist  Pepys  drew  up  when  clerk  to  Sir 
George  Downing  and  secretary  to  the  earl  of  Sandwich  and  to 
the  admiralty,  and  which  are  frequently  mentioned  in  his  journal. 
Pepys  describes  one  of  them  as  "  a  great  large  character,"  over 
which  he  spent  much  time,  .but  which  was  at  length  finished, 
25th  April  1660;  "it  being,"  says  he,  "  very  handsomely  done 
and  a  very  good  one  in  itself,  but  that  not  truly  alphabetical." 

Shorthand  marks  and  other  arbitrary  characters  have  also 
been  largely  imported  into  cryptographic  systems  to  represent 
both  letters  and  words,  but  more  commonly  the  latter.  This 
plan  is  said  to  have  been  first  put  into  use  by  the  old  Roman  poet 
Ennius.  It  formed  the  basis  of  the  method  of  Cicero's  freedman, 
Tiro,  who  seems  to  have  systematized  the  labours  of  his  pre- 
decessors. A  large  quantity  of  these  characters  have  been 
engraved  in  Gruter's  Inscriptiones.  The  correspondence  of 
Charlemagne  was  in  part  made  up  of  marks  of  this  nature.  In 
Rees's  Cyclopaedia  specimens  were  engraved  of  the  cipher  used 
by  Cardinal  Wolsey  at  the  court  of  Vienna  in  1524,  of  that  used 
by  Sir  Thomas  Smith  at  Paris  in  1563,  and  of  that  of  Sir  Edward 
Stafford  in  1586;  in  all  of  which  arbitrary  marks  are  introduced. 
The  first  English  system  of  shorthand — Bright's  Characterie, 
1588 — almost  belongs  to  the  same  category  of  ciphers.  A 
favourite  system  of  Charles  I.,  used  by  him  during  the  year  1646, 
was  one  made  up  of  an  alphabet  of  twenty-four  letters,  which 
were  represented  by  four  simple  strokes  varied  in  length,  slope 
and  position.  This  alphabet  is  engraved  in  Clive's  Linear  System 
of  Shorthand  (1830),  having  been  found  amongst  the  royal  manu- 
scripts in  the  British  Museum.  An  interest  attaches  to  this 
cipher  from  the  fact  that  it  was  employed  in  the  well-known 
letter  addressed  by  the  king  to  the  earl  of  Glamorgan,  in  which 
the  former  made  concessions  to  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland. 

Complications  have  been  introduced  into  ciphers  by  the  em- 
ployment of  "  dummy  "  letters, — "  nulls  and  insignificants," 
as  Bacon  terms  them.  Other  devices  have  been  introduced  to 
perplex  the  decipherer,  such  as  spelling  words  backwards,  making 
false  divisions  between  words,  &c.  The  greatest  security  against 
the  decipherer  has  been  found  in  the  use  of  elaborate  tables  of 
letters,  arranged  in  the  form  of  the  multiplication  table,  the 
message  being  constructed  by  the  aid  of  preconcerted  key- words. 
Details  of  the  working  of  these  ciphers  may  be  found  in  the 
treatises  named  in  this  article.  The  deciphering  of  them  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  of  tasks.  A  method  of  this  kind  is  explained 
in  the  Latin  and  English  lives  of  Dr  John  Barwick,  whose 
correspondence  with  Hyde,  afterwards  earl  of  Clarendon,  was 
carried  on  in  cryptography.  In  a  letter  dated  2oth  February 
1659/60,  Hyde,  alluding  to  the  skill  of  his  political  opponents 
in  deciphering,  says  that  "  nobody  needs  to  fear  them,  if  they 


write  carefully  in  good  cyphers."  In  his  next  he  allays  his 
correspondent's  apprehensiveness  as  to  the  deciphering  of  their 
letters. 

"  I  confess  to  you,  as  I  am  sure  no  copy  could  be  gotten  of  any 
of  my  cyphers  from  hence,  so  I  did  not  think  it  probable  that  they 
could  be  got  on  your  side  the  water.  But  I  was  as  confident,  till 
you  tell  me  you  believe  it,  that  the  devil  himself  cannot  decypher 
a  letter  that  is  well  written,  or  find  that  100  stands  for  Sir  H.  Vane. 
I  have  heard  of  many  of  the  pretenders  to  that  skill,  and  have 
spoken  with  some  of  yiem,  but  have  found  them  all  to  be  mounte- 
banks; nor  did  I  ever  hear  that  more  of  the  King's  letters  that 
were  found  at  Naseby,  than  those  which  they  found  decyphered, 
or  found  the  cyphers  in  which  they  were  writ,  were  decyphered. 
And  I  very  well  remember  that  in  the  volume  they  published  there 
was  much  left  in  cypher  which  could  not  be  understood,  and  which 
I  believe  they  would  have  explained  if  it  had  been  in  their  power." 

An  excellent  modification  of  the  key-word  principle  was  con- 
structed by  Admiral  Sir  Francis  Beaufort. 

Ciphers  have  been  constructed  on  the  principle  of  altering 
the  places  of  the  letters  without  changing  their  powers.  The 
message  is  first  written  Chinese- wise,  upward  and  downward,  and 
the  letters  are  then  combined  in  given  rows  from  left  to  right. 
In  the  celebrated  cipher  used  by  the  earl  of  Argyll  when  plot- 
ting against  James  II.,  he  altered  the  positions  of  the  words. 
Sentences  of  an  indifferent  nature  were  constructed,  but  the 
real  meaning  of  the  message  was  to  be  gathered  from  words, 
placed  at  certain  intervals.  This  method,  which  is  connected 
with  the  name  of  Cardan,  is  sometimes  called  the  trellis  or  card- 
board cipher. 

The  wheel-cipher,  which  is  an  Italian  invention,  the  string- 
cipher,  the  circle-cipher  and  many  others  are  fully  explained, 
with  the  necessary  diagrams,  in  the  authorities  named  above — 
more  particularly  by  Kliiber  in  his  Kryptographik.  (J.  E.  B.) 

CRYPTOMERIA,  or  JAPANESE  CEDAR,  a  genus  of  conifers, 
containing  a  single  species,  C.  japonica,  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  which  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  by  the  Royal 
Horticultural  Society  in  1844.  It  is  described  as  one  of  the 
finest  trees  in  Japan,  reaching  a  height  of  too  or  more  feet, 
usually  divested  of  branches  along  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk 
and  crowned  with  a  conical  head.  The  narrow,  pointed  leaves  are 
spirally  arranged  and  persist  for  four  or  five  years;  the  cones 
are  small,  globose  and  borne  at  the  ends  of  the  branchlets,  the 
scales  are  thickened  at  the  extremity  and  divided  into  sharply 
pointed  lobes,  three  to  five  seeds  are  borne  on  each  scale.  Crypto- 
meria  is  extensively  used  in  Japan  for  reafforesting  denuded 
lands,  as  it  is  a  valuable  timber  tree;  it  is  also  planted  to  form 
avenues  along  the  public  roads.  In  Veitch's  Manual  of  Conifer ae 
(ed.  2,  1900,  p.  265)  reference  is  made  to  "  an  avenue  of  Crypto- 
merias  7  m.  in  extent  near  Lake  Hakone  "  in  which  "  the  trees 
are  more  than  100  ft.  high,  with  perfectly  straight  trunks  crowned 
with  conical  heads  of  foliage."  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent,  in  his 
Forest  Flora  of  Japan,  says,  "  Japan  owes  much  of  the  beauty 
of  its  groves  and  gardens  to  the  Cryptomeria.  Nowhere  is  there 
a  more  solemn  and  impressive  group  of  trees  than  that  which 
surrounds  the  temples  and  tombs  at  Nikko  where  they  rise  to  a 
height  of  100  to  125  ft.;  it  is  a  stately  tree  with  no  rival  except 
in  the  sequoias  of  California."  Many  curious  varieties  have 
been  obtained  by  Japanese  horticulturists,  including  some 
dwarf  shrubby  forms  not  exceeding  a  few  feet  in  height.  When 
grown  in  Great  Britain  Cryptomeria  requires  a  deep,  well-drained 
soil  with  plenty  of  moisture,  and  protection  from  cold  winds. 

CRYPTO-PORTICUS  (Gr.  KPUTTTOS,  concealed,  and  Lat. 
porticus),  an  architectural  term  for  a  concealed  or  covered 
passage,  generally  underground,  though  lighted  and  ventilated 
from  the  open  air.  One  of  the  best-known  examples  is  the 
crypto-porticus  under  the  palaces  of  the  Caesars  in  Rome.  In 
Hadrian's  villa  in  Rome  they  formed  the  principal  private 
intercommunication  between  the  several  buildings. 

CRYSTAL-GAZING,  or  SCRYING,  the  term  commonly  applied 
to  the  induction  of  visual  hallucinations  by  concentrating  the 
gaze  on  any  clear  deep,  such  as  a  crystal  or  a.  ball  of  polished 
rock  crystal.  Some  persons  do  not  even  find  a  clear  deep 
necessary,  and  are  content  to  gaze  at  the  palm  of  the  hand,  for 
example,  when  hajlucinatory  pictures,  as  they  declare,  emerge. 


CRYSTAL-GAZING 


567 


Among  objects  used  are  a  pool  of  ink  in  the  hand  (Egypt),  the 
liver  of  an  animal  (tribes  of  the  North- West  Indian  frontier), 
a  hole  filled  with  water  (Polynesia),  quartz  crystals  (the  Apaches 
and  the  Euahlayi  tribe  of  New  South  Wales),  a  smooth  slab  of 
polished  black  stone  (the  Huille-che  of  South  America),  water 
in  a  vessel  (Zulus  and  Siberians),  a  crystal  (the  Incas),  a  mirror 
(classical  Greece  and  the  middle  ages),  the  finger-nail,  a  sword- 
blade,  a  ring-stone,  a  glass  of  sherry,  in  fact  almost  anything. 
Much  depends  on  what  the  "  seer  "  is  accustomed  to  use,  and 
some  persons  who  can  "  scry  "  in  a  glass  ball  or  a  glass  water- 
bottle  cannot  "  scry  "  in  ink. 

The  practice  of  inducing  pictorial  hallucinations  by  such 
methods  as  these  has  been  traced  among  the  natives  of  North 
and  South  America,  Asia,  Australia,  Africa,  among  the  Maoris, 
who  sometimes  use  a  drop  of  blood,  and  in  Polynesia,  and  is  thus 
practically  of  world-wide  diffusion.  This  fact  was  not  observed 
(that  is,  the  collections  of  examples  were  not  made)  till  recently, 
when  experiments  •  in  private  non-spiritualist  circles  drew 
attention  to  crystal-gazing,  a  practice  always  popular  among 
peasants,  and  known  historically  to  have  survived  through 
classical  and  medieval  times,  and,  as  in  the  famous  case  of  Dr 
Dee,  after  the  Reformation. 

The  early  church  condemned  specular ii  (mirror-gazers),  and 
Aubrey  and  the  Memoirs  of  Saint-Simon  contain  "  scrying  " 
anecdotes  of  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries,  while  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  story,  My  Aunt  Margaret's  Mirror,  is  based  on  a  tradition 
of  about  1750  in  a  noble  Scottish  family.  The  practice,  in  all 
times  and  countries,  was  used  for  purposes  of  divination.  The 
gazer  detected  unknown  criminals,  or  described  remote  events, 
or  even  professed  to  foretell  things  future.  Sometimes  the 
supposed  magician  or  medicine  man  himself  did  the  scrying; 
occasionally  he  enabled  his  client  to  see  for  himself;  often  a 
child  was  selected  as  the  scryer.  The  process  was  usually 
explained  as  the  result  of  the  action  of  a  spirit,  angel  or  devil, 
and  many  unessential  formulae,  invocations,  "  calls,"  written 
charms  with  cabbalistic  signs,  and  fumigations,  were  employed. 
These  things  may  have  had  some  effect  by  way  of  suggestion; 
the  scryer  may  have  been  brought  by  them  into  an  appropriate 
frame  of  mind;  but,  as  a  whole,  they  are  tedious  and  superfluous. 

A  person  can  either  induce  the  pictorial  hallucinations  (he 
may  discover  his  capacity  by  accident,  like  George  Sand,  as  she 
tells  in  her  Memoirs — and  other  cases  are  known),  or  he  cannot 
induce  them,  though  he  stare  till  his  eyes  water.  It  is  almost 
universally  found,  in  cases  of  successful  experiment,  that  the 
glass  ball,  for  example,  takes  a  milky  or  misty  aspect,  that  it  then 
grows  black,  reflections  disappearing,  and  that  then  the  pictures 
emerge.  Some  people  arrive  at  seeing  the  glass  ball  milky  or 
misty,  and  can  go  no  further.  Others  see  pictures  of  persons  or 
landscapes,  only  in  black  and  white,  and  motionless.  Others 
see  in  the  glass  coloured  figures  of  men,  women  and  animals  in 
motion;  while  in  rarer  cases  the  ball  disappears  from  view,  and 
the  scryer  finds  himself  apparently  looking  at  an  actual  scene. 
In  a  few  attested  cases  two  persons  have  shared  the  same  vision. 
In  experiments  with  magnifying  glasses,  and  through  spars, 
the  ordinary  effects  of  magnifying  and  of  alteration  of  view  are 
sometimes  produced;  sometimes  they  are  not.  The  evidence, 
of  course,  is  necessarily  only  that  of  the  scryers  themselves, 
but  repeated  experiments  by  persons  of  probity,  and  unfamiliar 
with  the  topic,  combined  with  the  world-wide  existence  of  the 
practice,  prove  that  hallucinatory  pictures  are  really  induced. 

It  has  not  been  found  possible  to  determine,  before  experiment, 
whether  any  given  man  or  woman  will  prove  capable  of  the 
hallucinatory  experiences.  Many  subjects  with  strong  powers 
of  "  visualization,"  or  seeing  things  "  in  the  mind's  eye,"  cannot 
scry;  others  are  successful  in  various  degrees.  We  might  expect 
persons  who  have  experienced  spontaneous  visual  hallucinations, 
of  the  kind  vulgarly  styled  "  ghosts  "  or  "  wraiths,"  to  succeed 
in  inducing  pictures  in  a  glass  ball.  As  a  matter  of  fact  such 
persons  sometimes  can  and  sometimes  cannot  see  pictures  in 
the  way  of  crystal-gazing;  while  many  who  can  see  in  the  crystal 
have  had  no  spontaneous  hallucinations.  It  is  useless  to  make 
experiments  with  hysterical  and  visionary  people,  "  whose  word 


no  man  relies  on  ";  they  may  have  the  hallucinatory  experi- 
ences, but  they  would  say  that  they  had  in  any  case. 

The  nearest  analogy  to  crystal  visions,  as  described,  is  the 
common  experience  of  "  hypnagogic  illusions  "  (cf.  Alfred  Maury, 
Les  Revesetlesommeil).  With  closed  eyes,  between  sleeping  and 
waking,  many  people  see  faces,  landscapes  and  other  things 
flash  upon  their  view,  pictures  often  brilliant,  but  of  very  brief 
duration  and  rapid  mutation.  Sometimes  the  subject  opens 
his  eyes  to  get  rid  of  an  unpleasant  vision  of  this  kind.  People 
who  cannot  scry  may  have  these  hypnagogic  illusions,  and,  so 
far,  may  partly  understand  the  experience  of  the  scryer  who  is 
wide  awake.  But  the  visions  of  the  scryer  often  endure  for  a 
considerable  time.  He  or  she  may  put  the  glass  down  and  con- 
verse, and  may  find  the  picture  still  there  when  the  ball  is  taken 
up  again.  New  figures  may  join  the  figure  first  seen,  as  when 
one  enters  a  room.  In  these  respects,  and  in  the  awakeness 
of  the  scryer,  crystal  pictures  differ  from  hypnagogic  illusions. 
In  other  ways  the  experiences  coincide,  the  pictures  are  either 
fanciful,  like  illustrations  of  some  unread  history  or  romance,  or 
are  revivals  of  remembered  places  and  faces. 

Occasionally,  in  hypnagogic  illusions,  the  observer  can  see 
the  picture  develop  rapidly  out  of  a  blot  of  light  or  colour, 
beheld  by  the  closed  eyes.  One  or  two  scryers  think  that  they, 
too,  can  trace  the  picture  as  it  develops  on  the  suggestion  of  some 
passage  of  light,  colour  or  shadow  in  the  glass  or  crystal.  But, 
as  a  rule,  the  scryer  cannot  detect  any  process  of  development 
from  such  points  de  mire;  though  this  may  be  the  actual  process. 

On  the  whole  there  seems  little  doubt  that  successful  crystal- 
gazing  is  the  exertion  of  a  not  uncommon  though  far  from 
universal  faculty,  like  those  of  "  chromatic  audition  "  — the  vivid 
association  of  certain  sounds  with  certain  colours — and  the 
mental  seeing  of  figures  arranged  in  coloured  diagrams  (Gallon, 
Inquiry  into  Human  Faculty,  pp.  114-154).  The  experience 
of  hypnagogic  illusions  also  seems  far  more  rare  than  ordinary 
dreaming  in  sleep.  Unfortunately,  while  these  phenomena  have 
been  carefully  studied  by  officially  scientific  characters,  in 
England  orthodox  savants  have  disdained  to  observe  crystal- 
gazing,  while  in  France  psychologists  have  too  commonly 
experimented  with  subjects  professionally  hysterical  and  quite 
untrustworthy.  Our  remarks  are  therefore  based  mainly  on 
considerable  personal  study  of  "  scrying "  among  normal 
British  subjects  of  both  sexes,  to  whom  the  topic  was  previously 
unknown. 

The  superstitious  associations  of  crystal-gazing,  as  of  hypnot- 
ism, appear  to  bar  the  way  to  official  scientific  investigation, 
and  the  fluctuating  proficiency  of  the  seers,  who  cannot  command 
success,  or  determine  the  causes  and  conditions  of  success  and 
failure,  tends  in  the  same  direction.  The  existence,  too,  of  paid 
professionals  who  lead  astray  silly  women,  encourages  the 
natural  scientific  contempt  for  the  study  of  the  faculty. 

The  seeing  of  the  pictures,  as  far  as  we  have  spoken  of  it. 
appears  to  be  a  thing  unusual,  but  in  no  way  abnormal,  any 
more  than  dreams  or  hypnagogic  illusions  are  abnormal.  Crystal 
pictures,  however,  are  commonly  dismissed  as  mere  results  of 
"  imagination,"  a  theory  which,  of  course,  is  of  no  real  assistance 
to  psychology.  Persons  of  recognized  "  imaginativeness,"  such 
as  novelists  and  artists,  do  not  seem  more  or  less  capable  of  the 
hallucinatory  experiences  than  their  sober  neighbours;  while 
persons  not  otherwise  recognizably  "  imaginative  "  (we  could 
quote  a  singularly  accurate  historian)  are  capable  of  the  experi- 
ences. It  is  unfortunate,  as  it  awakens  prejudice,  but  in  the 
present  writer's  opinion  it  is  true,  that  crystal-gazing  sometimes 
is  rewarded  with  results  which  may  be  styled  "  supra-normal." 
In  addition  to  the  presentation  of  revived  memories,  and  of 
"  object! vation  of  ideas  or  images  consciously  or  unconsciously 
in  the  mind  of  the  percipient;"  there  occur  "  visions,  possibly 
telepathic  or  clairvoyant,  implying  acquirement  of  knowledge 
by  supra-normal  means."  * 

A  number  of  examples  occurring  during  experiments  made 
by  the  present  writer  and  by  his  acquaintances  in  1897  were 
carefully  recorded  and  attested  by  the  signatures  of  all  concerned. 
1  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  v.  486. 


568 


CRYSTALLITE 


The  cases,  or  rather  a  selection  of  the  cases,  are  printed  in  A. 
Lang's  book,  The  Making  of  Religion  (and  ed.,  London,  1902, 
pp.  87-104).  Others  are  chronicled  in  A.  Lang's  Introduction 
to  Mr  N.  W.  Thomas's  work,  Crystal  Gazing  (1905).  The  experi- 
ments took  this  form:  any  person  might  ask  the  scryer  (a  lady 
who  had  never  previously  heard  of  crystal-gazing)  "  to  see  what 
he  was  thinking  of."  The  scryer,  who  was  a  stranger  in  a  place 
which  she  had  not  visited  before,  gave,  in  a  long  series  of  cases, 
a  description  of  the  person  or  place  on  which  the  inquirer's 
thoughts  were  fixed.  The  descriptions,  though  three  or  four 
entire  failures  occurred,  were  of  remarkable  accuracy  as  a  rule, 
and  contained  facts  and  incidents  unknown  to  the  inquirers, 
but  confirmed  as  accurate.  In  fact,  some  Oriental  scenes  and 
descriptions  of  incidents  were  corroborated  by  a  letter  from  India 
which  arrived  just  after  the  experiment;  and  the  same  thing 
happened  when  the  events  described  were  occurring  in  places  less 
remote.  On  one  occasion  a  curious  set  of  incidents  were 
described,  which  happened  to  be  vividly  present  to  the  mind  of 
a  sceptical  stranger  who  chanced  to  be  in  the  room  during  the 
experiment;  events  unknown  to  the  inquirer  in  this  instance. 
As  an  example  of  the  minuteness  of  description,  an  inquirer, 
thinking  of  a  brother  in  India,  an  officer  in  the  army,  whose  hair 
had  suffered  in  an  encounter  with  a  tiger,  had  described  to  her 
an  officer  in  undress  uniform,  with  bald  scars  through  the  hair 
on  his  temples,  such  as  he  really  bore.  The  number  and  proportion 
of  successes  was  too  high  to  admit  of  explanation  by  chance 
coincidence,  but  success  was  not  invariable.  On  one  occasion 
the  scryer  could  see  nothing,  "  the  crystal  preserved  its  natural 
diaphaneity,"  as  Dr  Dee  says;  and  there  were  failures  with  two 
or  three  inquirers.  On  the  other  hand  no  record  was  kept  in 
several  cases  of  success. 

Whoever  can  believe  that  the  successes  were  numerous  and 
that  descriptions  were  given  correctly — not  only  of  facts  present 
to  the  minds  of  inquirers,  and  of  other  persons  present  who  were 
not  consciously  taking  a  share  in  the  experiments,  but  also  of 
facts  necessarily  unknown  to  all  concerned — must  of  course 
be  most  impressed  by  the  latter  kind  of  success.  If  the  process 
commonly  styled  "  telepathy  "  exists  (see  TELEPATHY),  that 
may  account  for  the  scryer's  power  of  seeing  facts  which  are  in 
the  mind  of  the  inquirer.  But  when  the  scryers  see  details  of 
various  sorts,  which  are  unknown  to  the  inquirer,  but  are  verified 
on  inquiry,  then  telepathy  perhaps  fails  to  provide  an  explana- 
tion. We  seem  to  be  confronted  with  actual  clairvoyance  (?.».), 
or  vue  a  distance.  It  would  be  vain  to  form  hypotheses  as  to 
the  conditions  or  faculties  which  make  vue  a  distance  possible. 
This  way  lie  metaphysics,  with  Hegel's  theory  of  the  Sensitive 
Soul,  or  Myers'  theory  of  the  Subliminal  Self.  "  The  intuitive 
soul,"  says  Hegel,  "  oversteps  the  conditions  of  time  and  space; 
it  beholds  things  remote,  things  long  past,  and  things  to  come."1 

What  we  need,  if  any  progress  is  to  be  made  in  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  is  not  a  metaphysical  hypothesis,  but  a  large, 
carefully  tested,  and  well-recorded  collection  of  examples,  made 
by  savants  of  recognized  standing.  At  present  we  are  where 
we  were  in  electrical  science,  when  Newton  produced  curious 
sparks  while  rubbing  glass  with  paper.  By  way  of  facts,  we 
have  only  a  large  body  of  unattested  anecdotes  of  supra-normal 
successes  in  crystal-gazing,  in  many  lands  and  ages;  and  the 
scanty  records  of  modern  amateur  investigators,  like  the  present 
writer.  Even  from  these,  if  the  honesty  of  all  concerned  be 
granted  (and  even  clever  dishonesty  could  not  have  produced 
many  of  the  results) ,  it  would  appear  that  we  are  investigating 
a  strange  and  important  human  faculty.  The  writer  is  acquainted 
with  no  experiments  in  which  it  was  attempted  to  discern  the 
future  (except  in  trivial  cases  as  to  events  on  the  turf,  when 
chance  coincidence  might  explain  the  successes),  and  only  with 
two  or  three  cases  in  which  there  was  an  attempt  to  help  historical 
science  and  discern  the  past  by  aid  of  psychical  methods.  The 
results  were  interesting  and  difficult  to  explain,  but  the  experi- 
ments were  few.  Ordinary  scryers  of  fancy  pictures  are  common 
enough,  but  scryers  capable  of  apparently  supra-normal  successes 

1  "  Philosophic  der  Geistes,"  Hegel's  Werke,  vii.  179,  406,  408 
(Berlin,  1845).  Cf.  Wallace's  translation  (Oxford,  1894). 


are  apparently  rare.     Perhaps  something  depends  on  the  inquirer 
as  well  as  the  scryer. 

The  method  of  scrying,  as  generally  practised,  is  simple. 
It  is  usual  to  place  a  glass  ball  on  a  dark  ground,  to  sit  with  the 
back  to  the  light,  to  focus  the  gaze  on  the  ball  (disregarding 
reflections,  if  these  cannot  be  excluded),  and  to  await  results. 
Perhaps  from  five  to  ten  minutes  is  a  long  enough  time  for  the 
experiment.  The  scryer  may  let  his  consciousness  play  freely, 
but  should  not  be  disturbed  by  lookers-on.  As  a  rule,  if  a  person 
has  the  faculty  he  "  sees  "  at  the  first  attempt;  if  he  fails  in 
the  first  three  or  four  efforts  he  need  not  persevere.  Solitude  is 
advisable  at  first,  but  few  people  can  find  time  amounting  to  ten 
minutes  for  solitary  studies  of  this  sort,  so  busy  and  so  gregarious 
is  mankind.  The  writer  has  no  experience  of  trance,  sleep  or 
auto-hypnotization  produced  in  such  experiments;  scryers 
have  always  seemed  to  retain  their  full  normal  consciousness. 
As  regards  scepticism  concerning  the  faculty  we  may  quote 
what  Mr  Gallon  says  about  the  faculty  of  visualization:  "  Scien- 
tific men  as  a  class  have  feeble  power  of  visual  reproduction. 
.  .  .  They  had  a  mental  deficiency  of  which  they  were 
unconscious,  and,  naturally  enough,  supposed  that  those  who 
affirmed  they  were  possessed  of  it  were  romancing." 

AUTHORITIES. — A  useful  essay  is  that  of  "Miss  X"  (Miss  Goodrich 
Freer)  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  v. 
The  history  of  crystal-gazing  is  here  traced,  and  many  examples  of 
the  author's  own  experiments  are  recorded.  A.  Lang's  The  Making 
of  Religion,  ch.  v.,  contains  anthropological  examples  and  a  series 
of  experiments.  In  N.  W.  Thomas's  Crystal  Gazing  the  history 
and  anthropology  ot  the  subject  are  investigated,  with  modern  in- 
stances. For  Egypt,  see  Lane's  Modern  Egyptians,  and  the  Journal 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  xi.  419-421,  with  Quarterly  Review,  No.  117, 

Ep.  196-208.  These  Egyptian  experiments  of  1830  were  vitiated 
y  their  method,  the  scryer  being  asked  to  see  and  describe  a  given 
person,  named.  He  ought  not,  of  course,  to  be  told  more  than  that 
he  is  to  descry  the  inquirer's  thoughts,  and  there  ought  never  to  be 
physical  contact,  as  in  holding  hands,  between  the  inquirer  and  the 
scryer  during  the  experiment.  There  is  a  chapter  on  crystal-gazing 
in  Les  Nevroses  et  les  idees  fixes  of  Dr  Janet  (1898).  His  statements 
are  sometimes  dempnstrably  inaccurate  (see  Making  of  Religion,  Ap- 
pendix C).  A  curious  passage  on  the  subject,  by  Ibn  Khaldun,  an 
Arabian  medieval  savant,  is  quoted  by  Mr  Thomas  from  the  printed 
Extracts  of  MSS.  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  There  is  also  a 
chapter  on  crystal-gazing  in  Myers'  Human  Personality.  (A.  L.) 

CRYSTALLITE.  In  media  which,  on  account  of  their  viscosity, 
offer  considerable  resistance  to  those  molecular  movements 
which  are  necessary  for  the  building  and  growth  of  crystals, 
rudimentary  or  imperfect  forms  of  crystallization  very  fre- 
quently occur.  Such  media  are  the  volcanic  rocks  when  they 
are  rapidly  cooled,  producing  various  kinds  of  pitchstone, 
obsidian,  &c.  When  examined  under  the  microscope  these 
rocks  consist  largely  of  a  perfectly  amorphous  or  glassy  base, 
through  which  are  scattered  great  numbers  of  very  minute 
crystals  (microliths),  and  other  bodies,  termed  crystallites,  which 
seem  to  be  stages  in  the  formation  of  crystals.  Crystallites 
may  also  be  produced  by  allowing  a  solution  of  sulphur  in  carbon 
disulphide  mixed  with  Canada  balsam  to  evaporate  slowly,  and 
their  development  may  be  watched  on  a  microscopic  slide. 
Small  globules  appear  (globulites),  spherical  and  non-crystalline 
(so  far  as  can  be  ascertained).  They  may  coalesce  or  may 
arrange  themselves  into  rows  like  strings  of  beads — margarites — 
(Gr.  /iap7apin7S,  a  pearl)  or  into  groups  with  a  somewhat 
radiate  arrangement — globospherites.  Occasionally  they  take 
elongated  shapes — longulites  and  baculites  (Lat.  baculus,  a  staff). 
The  largest  may  become  crystalline,  changing  suddenly  into 
polyhedral  bodies  with  evident  double  refraction  and  the  optical 
properties  belonging  to  crystals.  Others  become  long  and 
thread-like — trichites  (Gr.  dpi!;,  rptxos,  hair) — and  these  are 
often  curved,  and  a  group  of  them  may  be  implanted  on  the 
surface  of  a  small  crystal.  All  these  forms  are  found  in  vitreous 
igneous  rocks.  H.  P.  J.  Vogelsang,  who  was  the  first  to  direct 
much  attention  to  them,  believes  that  the  globulites  are  pre- 
liminary stages  in  the  formation  of  crystals. 

Microliths,  as  distinguished  from  crystallites,  have  crystalline 
properties,  and  evidently  belong  to  definite  minerals  or  salts. 
When  sufficiently  large  they  are  often  recognizable,  but  usually 


CRYSTALLIZATION— CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


569 


they  are  so  small,  so  opaque,  or  so  densely  crowded  together 
that  this  is  impossible.  In  igneous  rocks  they  are  usually  felspar, 
augite,  enstatite,  and  iron  oxides,  and  are  found  in  abundance 
only  where  there  is  much  uncrystallized  glassy  base;  in  contact- 
altered  sediments,  slags,  &c.,  microlithic  forms  of  garnet,  spinel, 
sillimanite,  cordierite,  various  lime  silicates,  and  many  other 
substances  have  been  observed.  Their  form  varies  greatly,  e.g. 
thin  fibres  (sillimanite,  augite),  short  prisms  or  rods  (felspar, 
enstatite,  cordierite),  or  equidimensional  grains  (augite,  spinel, 
magnetite).  Occasionally  they  are  perfectly  shaped  though 
minute  crystals;  more  frequently  they  appear  rounded  (magnet- 
ite, &c.),  or  have  brush-like  terminations  (augite,  felspar,  &c.). 
The  larger  microliths  may  contain  enclosures  of  glass,  and  it  is 
very  common  to  find  that  the  prisms  have  hollow,  funnel-shaped 
ends,  which  are  filled  with  vitreous  material.  These  microliths, 
under  the  influence  of  crystalline  forces,  may  rank  themselves 
side  by  side  to  make  up  skeleton  crystals  and  networks,  or 
feathery  and  arborescent  forms,  which  obey  more  or  less  closely 
the  laws  of  crystallization  of  the  substance  to  which  they  belong. 
They  bear  a  very  close  resemblance  to  the  arborescent  frost 
flowers  seen  on  window  panes  in  winter,  and  to  the  stellate  snow 
crystals.  In  magnetite  the  growths  follow  three  axes  at  right 
angles  to  one  another;  in  augite  this  is  nearly,  though  not 
exactly,  the  case;  in  hornblende  an  angle  of  57°  may  frequently 
be  observed,  corresponding  to  the  prism  angle  of  the  fully- 
developed  crystal.  The  interstices  of  the  network  may  be 
partly  filled  up  by  a  later  growth.  In  other  cases  the  crystalline 
arrangement  of  the  microliths  is  less  perfect,  and  branching, 
arborescent  or  feathery  groupings  are  produced  (e.g.  felspar, 
augite,  hornblende).  Spherulites  may  be  regarded  as  radiate 
aggregates  of  such  microliths  (mostly  felspar  mixed  with  quartz 
or  tridymite).  If  larger  porphyritic  crystals  occur  in  the  rock, 
the  microliths  of  the  vitreous  base  frequently  grow  outwards 
from  their  faces;  in  some  cases  a  definite  parallelism  exists 
between  the  two,  but  more  frequently  the  early  crystal  has  served 
merely  as  a  centre,  or  nucleus,  from  which  the  microliths  and 
spherulites  have  spread  in  all  directions.  0-  S.  F.) 

CRYSTALLIZATION,  the  art  of  obtaining  a  substance  in  the 
form  of  crystals;  it  is  an  important  process  in  chemistry  since 
it  permits  the  purification  of  a  substance,  or  the  separation  of 
the  constituents  of  a  mixture.  Generally  a  substance  is  more 
soluble  in  a  solvent  at  a  high  temperature  than  at  a  low,  and 
consequently,  if  a  boiling  concentrated  solution  be  allowed  to 
cool,  the  substance  will  separate  in  virtue  of  the  diminished 
solubility,  and  the  slower  the  cooling  the  larger  and  more  perfect 
will  be  the  crystals  formed.  If,  as  sometimes  appears,  such  a 
solution  refuses  to  crystallize,  the  expedient  of  inoculating  the 
solution  with  a  minute  crystal  of  the  same  substance,  or  with  a 
similar  substance,  may  be  adopted;  shaking  the  solution,  or 
the  addition  of  a  drop  of  another  solvent,  may  also  occasion 
the  desired  result.  "  Fractional  crystallization  "  consists  in  re- 
peatedly crystallizing  a  salt  so  as  to  separate  the  substances  of 
different  solubilities.  Examples  are  especially  presented  in  the 
study  of  the  rare-earths.  Other  conditions  under  which  crystals 
are  formed  are  given  in  the  article  CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY  (from  the  Gr.  KpforraXAos,  ice,  and 
yp&.<f>fu>,  to  write),  the  science  of  the  forms,  properties  and 
structure  of  crystals.  Homogeneous  solid  matter,  the  physical 
and  chemical  properties  of  which  are  the  same  about  every  point, 
may  be  either  amorphous  or  crystalline.  In  amorphous  matter 
all  the  properties  are  the  same  in  every  direction  in  the  mass; 
but  in  crystalline  matter  certain  of  the  physical  properties  vary 
with  the  direction.  The  essential  properties  of  crystalline  matter 
are  of  two  kinds,  viz.  the  general  properties,  such  as  density, 
specific  heat,  melting-point  and  chemical  composition,  which 
do  not  vary  with  the  direction;  and  the  directional  properties, 
such  as  cohesion  and  elasticity,  various  optical,  thermal  and 
electrical  properties,  as  well  as  external  form.  By  reason  of  the 
homogeneity  of  crystalline  matter  the  directional  properties 
are  the  same  in  all  parallel  directions  in  the  mass,  and  there  may 
be  a  certain  symmetrical  repetition  of  the  directions  along  which 
the  properties  are  the  same. 


When  the  crystallization  of  matter  takes  place  under  conditions 
iree  from  outside  influences  the  peculiarities  of  internal  structure 
are  expressed  in  the  external  form  of  the  mass,  and  there  results 
a  solid  body  bounded  by  plane  surfaces  intersecting  in  straight 
edges,  the  directions  of  which  bear  an  intimate  relation  to  the 
internal  structure.  Such  a  polyhedron  (TroXw,  many,  I5pa,  base 
or  face)  is  known  as  a  crystal.  An  example  of  this  is  sugar-candy, 
of  which  a  single  isolated  crystal  may  have  grown  freely  in  a 
solution  of  sugar.  Matter  presenting  well-defined  and  regular 
crystal  forms,  either  as  a  single  crystal  or  as  a  group  of  individual 
crystals,  is  said  to  be  crystallized.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  crystal- 
lization has  taken  place  about  several  centres  in  a  confined  space, 
the  development  of  plane  surfaces  may  be  prevented,  and  a 
crystalline  aggregate  of  differently  orientated  crystal-individuals 
results.  Examples  of  this  are  afforded  by  loaf  sugar  and  statuary 
marble. 

After  a  brief  historical  sketch,  the  more  salient  principles  of 
the  subject  will  be  discussed  under  the  following  sections: — 

1.  CRYSTALLINE  FORM. 

(a)  Symmetry  of  Crystals. 

(ft)  Simple  Forms  and  Combinations  of  Forms. 

(c)  Law  of  Rational  Indices. 

(d)  Zones. 

(e)  Projection  and  Drawing  of  Crystals. 
(/)  Crystal  Systems  and  Classes. 

1.  Cubic  System. 

2.  Tetragonal  System. 

3.  Orthorhombic  System. 

4.  Monoclinic  System. 

5.  Anorthic  System. 

6.  Hexagonal  System 

(g)  Regular  Grouping  of  Crystals  (Twinning,  &c.). 

(h)  Irregularities  of  Growth  ot  Crystals:     Characters  of 

Faces. 

(t)  Theories  of  Crystal  Structure. 
II.  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CRYSTALS. 

(a)  Elasticity  and  Cohesion  (Cleavage,  Etching,  &c.). 

(b)  Optical  Properties  (Interference  figures,  Pleochroism, 

&c.). 

(c)  Thermal  Properties. 

(d)  Magnetic  and  Electrical  Properties. 

III.  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  CRYSTALLINE  FORM  AND  CHEMICAL 
COMPOSITION. 

Most  chemical  elements  and  compounds  are  capable  of  assum- 
ing the  crystalline  condition.  Crystallization  may  take  place 
when  solid  matter  separates  from  solution  (e.g.  sugar,  salt, 
alum),  from  a  fused  mass  (e.g.  sulphur,  bismuth,  felspar),  or 
from  a  vapour  (e.g.  iodine,  camphor,  haematite;  in  the  last  case 
by  the  interaction  of  ferric  chloride  and  steam).  Crystalline 
growth  may  also  take  place  in  solid  amorphous  matter,  for 
example,  in  the  devitrification  of  glass,  and  the  slow  change 
in  metals  when  subjected  to  alternating  stresses.  Beautiful 
crystals  of  many  substances  may  be  obtained  in  the  laboratory  by 
one  or  other  of  these  methods,  but  the  most  perfectly  developed 
and  largest  crystals  are  those  of  mineral  substances  found  in 
nature,  where  crystallization  has  continued  during  long  periods 
of  time.  For  this  reason  the  physical  science  of  crystallography 
has  developed  side  by  side  with  that  of  mineralogy.  Really, 
however,  there  is  just  the  same  connexion  between  crystallo- 
graphy and  chemistry  as  between  crystallography  and  minera- 
logy, but  only  in  recent  years  has  the  importance  of  determining 
the  crystallographic  properties  of  artificially  prepared  compounds 
been  recognized.  t 

History. — The  word  "  crystal  "  is  from  the  Gr.  KpforraXXos, 
meaning  clear  ice  (Lat.  crystallum),  a  name  which  was  also 
applied  to  the  clear  transparent  quartz  ("  rock-crystal  ")  from 
the  Alps,  under  the  belief  that  it  had  been  formed  from  water 
by  intense  cold.  It  was  not  until  about  the  i?th  century  that 
the  word  was  extended  to  other  bodies,  either  those  found  in 
nature  or  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  a  saline  solution, 
which  resembled  rock-crystal  in  being  bounded  by  plane  surfaces, 
and  often  also  in  their  clearness  and  transparency. 

The  first  important  step  in  the  study  of  crystals  was  made  by 
Nicolaus  Steno,  the  famous  Danish  physician,  afterwards  bishop 
of  Titiopolis,  who  in  his  treatise  De  solido  intra  solidum  naluraliter 
contento  (Florence,  1669;  English  translation,  1671)  gave  the 


57° 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


results  of  his  observations  on  crystals  of  quartz.  He  found  that 
although  the  faces  of  different  crystals  vary  considerably  in 
shape  and  relative  size,  yet  the  angles  between  similar  pairs  of 
faces  are  always  the  same.  He  further  pointed  out  that  the 
crystals  must  have  grown  in  a  liquid  by  the  addition  of  layers  of 
material  upon  the  faces  of  a  nucleus,  this  nucleus  having  the 
form  of  a  regular  six-sided  prism  terminated  at  each  end  by  a 
six-sided  pyramid.  The  thickness  of  the  layers,  though  the 
same  over  each  face,  was  not  necessarily  the  same  on  different 
faces,  but  depended  on  the  position  of  the  faces  with  respect  to 
the  surrounding  liquid;  hence  the  faces  of  the  crystal,  though 
variable  in  shape  and  size,  remained  parallel  to  those  of  the 
nucleus,  and  the  angles  between  them  constant.  Robert  Hooke 
in  his  Micrographia  (London,  1665)  had  previously  noticed  the 
regularity  of  the  minute  quartz  crystals  found  lining  the  cavities 
of  •flints,  and  had  suggested  that  they  were  built  up  of  spheroids. 
About  the  same  time  the  double  refraction  and  perfect 
rhomboidal  cleavage  of  crystals  of  calcite  or  Iceland-spar  were 
studied  by  Erasmus  Bartholinus  (Experimenta  crystalli  Islandici 
disdiadastici,  Copenhagen,  1669)  and  Christiaan  Huygens 
(Traite  de  la  lumiere,  Leiden,  1690);  the  latter  supposed,  as  did 
Hooke,  that  the  crystals  were  built  up  of  spheroids.  In  1695 
Anton  van  Leeuwenhoek  observed  under  the  microscope  that 
different  forms  of  crystals  grow  from  the  solutions  of  different 
salts.  Andreas  Libavius  had  indeed  much  earlier,  in  1597, 
pointed  out  that  the  salts  present  in  mineral  waters  could  be 
ascertained  by  an  examination  of  the  shapes  of  the  crystals 
left  on  evaporation  of  the  water;  and  Domenico  Guglielmini 
(Riflessioni  filosofiche  dedotte  dalle  figure  de'  sali,  Padova,  1706) 
asserted  that  the  crystals  of  each  salt  had  a  shape  of  their  own 
with  the  plane  angles  of  the  faces  always  the  same. 

The  earliest  treatise  on  crystallography  is  the  Prodromus 
Crystallographiae  of  M.  A.  Cappeller,  published  at  Lucerne  in 
1723.  Crystals  were  mentioned  in  works  on  mineralogy  and 
chemistry;  for  instance,  C.  Linnaeus  in  his  Systema  Naturae 
(i735)  described  some  forty  common  forms  of  crystals  amongst 
minerals.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  end  of  the  i8th  century 
that  any  real  advances  were  made,  and  the  French  crystallo- 
graphers  Rome  de  ITsle  and  the  abbe  Haiiy  are  rightly  considered 
as  trie  founders  of  the  science.  J.  B.  L.  de  Rome  de  1'Isle  (Essai 
de  cristallographie,  Paris,  1772;  Cristallographie,  ou  description 
des  formes  propres  a  tous  les  corps  du  regne  mineral,  Paris,  1783) 
made  the  important  discovery  that  the  various  shapes  of  crystals 
of  the  same  natural  or  artificial  substance  are  all  intimately 
related  to  each  other;  and  further,  by  measuring  the  angles 
between  the  faces  of  crystals  with  the  goniometer  (q.v.),  he 
established  the  fundamental  principle  that  these  angles  are 
always  the  same  for  the  same  kind  of  substance  and  are  char- 
acteristic of  it.  Replacing  by  single  planes  or  groups  of  planes 
all  the  similar  edges  or  solid  angles  of  a  figure  called  the 
"  primitive  form  "  he  derived  other  related  forms.  Six  kinds 
of  primitive  forms  were  distinguished,  namely,  the  -  cube,  the 
regular  octahedron,  the  regular  tetrahedron,  a  rhombohedron, 
an  octahedron  with  a  rhombic  base,  and  a  double  six-sided 
pyramid.  Only  in  the  last  three  can  there  be  any  variation  in 
the  angles:  for  example,  the  primitive  octahedron  of  alum, 
nitre  and  sugar  were  determined  by  Rome  de  1'Isle  to  have 
angles  of  110°,  120°  and  100°  respectively.  Rene  Just  Haiiy  in 
his  Essai  d'une  theorie  sur  la  structure  des  crystaux  (Paris,  1784; 
see  also  his  Treatises  on  Mineralogy  and  Crystallography,  1801, 
1822)  supported  and  extended  these  views,  but  took  for  his 
primitive  forms  the  figures  obtained  by  splitting  crystals  in 
their  directions  of  easy  fracture  of  "  cleavage,  "  which  are  aways 
the  same  in  the  same  kind  of  substance.  Thus  he  found  that  all 
crystals  of  calcite,  whatever  their  external  form  (see,  for  example, 
figs.  1-6  in  the  article  CALCITE),  could  be  reduced  by  cleavage 
to  a  rhombohedron  with  interfacial  angles  of  75°.  Further,  by 
stacking  together  a  number  of  small  rhombohedra  of  uniform 
size  he  was  able,  as  had  been  previously  done  by  J.  G.  Gahn  in 
1773,  to  reconstruct  the  various  forms  of  calcite  crystals.  Fig.  i 
shows  a  scalenohedron  {((TKa.\rivfa,  uneven)  built  up  in  this 
manner  of  rhombohedra;  and  fig.  2  a  regular  octahedron  built 


up  of  cubic  elements,  such  as  are  given  by  the  cleavage  of  galena 
and  rock-salt. 

The  external  surfaces  of  such  a  structure,  with  their  step-like 
arrangement,  correspond  to  the  plane  faces  of  the  crystal,  and 
the  bricks  may  be  considered  so  small  as  not  to  be  separately 
visible.  By  making  the  steps  one,  two  or  three  bricks  in  width 
and  one,  two  or  three  bricks  in  height  the  various  secondary 


FIG.  I. — Scalenohedron  built 
up  of  Rhombohedra. 


FIG.  2. — Octahedron  built  up 
of  Cubes. 


faces  on  the  crystal  are  related  to  the  primitive  form  or  "  cleavage 
nucleus  "  by  a  law  of  whole  numbers,  and  the  angles  between 
them  can  be  arrived  at  by  mathematical  calculation.  By 
measuring  with  the  goniometer  the  inclinations  of  the  secondary 
faces  to  those  of  the  primitive  form  Haiiy  found  that  the 
secondary  forms  are  always  related  to  the  primitive  form 
on  crystals  of  numerous  substances  in  the  manner  indicated,  and 
that  the  width  and  the  height  of  a  step  are  always  in  a  simple 
ratio,  rarely  exceeding  that  of  i  :  6.  This  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  important  "  law  of  rational  indices"  of  the  faces  of  crystals. 

The  German  crystallographer  C.  S.  Weiss  (De  indagando 
formarum  crystallinarum  ckaractere  geomelrico  principali  dis- 
sertalio,  Leipzig,  1809;  Ubersichtlichc  Darstellung  der  ver- 
schiedenen  natiirlichen  AUheilungen  dcr  Krystallisations-Sysleme, 
Denkschrift  der  Berliner  Akad.  der  Wissensch.,  1814-1815) 
attacked  the  problem  of  crystalline  form  from  a  purely  geo- 
metrical point  of  view,  without  reference  to  primitive  forms  or 
any  theory  of  structure.  The  faces  of  crystals  were  considered 
by  their  intercepts  on  co-ordinate  axes,  which  were  drawn 
joining  the  opposite  corners  of  certain  forms;  and  in  this  way 
the  various  primitive  forms  of  Haiiy  were  grouped  into  four 
classes,  corresponding  to  the  four  systems  described  below  under 
the  names  cubic,  tetragonal,  hexagonal  and  orthorhombic.  The 
same  result  was  arrived  at  independently  by  F.  Mohs,  who 
further,  in  1822,  asserted  the  existence  of  two  additional  systems 
with  oblique  axes.  These  two  systems  (the  monoclinic  and 
anorthic)  were,  however,  considered  by  Weiss  to  be  only  hemi- 
hedral  or  tetartohedral  modifications  of  the  orthorhombic 
system,  and  they  were  not  definitely  established  until  1835, 
when  the  optical  characters  of  the  crystals  were  found  to  be 
distinct.  A  system  of  notation  to  express  the  relation  of  each 
face  of  a  crystal  to  the  co-ordinate  axes  of  reference  was  devised 
by  Weiss,  and  other  notations  were  proposed  by  F.  Mohs,  A.  Levy 
(1825),  C.  F.  Naumann  (1826),  and  W.  H.  Miller  (Treatise  on 
Crystallography,  Cambridge,  1839).  For  simplicity  and  utility 
in  calculation  the  Millerian  notation,  which  was  first  suggested 
by  W.  Whewell  in  1825,  surpasses  all  others  and  is  now  generally 
adopted,  though  those  of  Levy  and  Naumann  are  still  in  use. 

Although  the  peculiar  optical  properties  of  Iceland-spar  had 
been  much  studied  ever  since  1669,  it  was  not  until  much  later 
that  any  connexion  was  traced  between  the  optical  characters 
of  crystals  and  their  external  form.  In  1818  Sir  David  Brewster 
found  that  crystals  could  be  divided  optically  into  three  classes, 
viz.  isotropic,  uniaxial  and  biaxial,  and  that  these  classes  corre- 
sponded with  Weiss's  four  systems  (crystals  belonging  to  the 
cubic  system  being  isotropic,  those  of  the  tetragonal  and  hexa- 
gonal being  uniaxial,  and  the  orthorhombic-  being  biaxial). 
Optically  biaxial  crystals  were  afterwards  shown  by  J.  F.  W. 
Herschel  and  F.  E.  Neumann  in  1822  and  1835  to  be  of  three 
kinds,  corresponding  with  the  orthorhombic,  monoclinic  and 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


anorthic  systems.  It  was,  however,  noticed  by  Brewster  him- 
self that  there  are  many  apparent  exceptions,  and  the  "  optical 
anomalies  "  of  crystals  have  been  the  subject  of  much  study. 
The  intimate  relations  existing  between  various  other  physical 
properties  of  crystals  and  their  external  form  have  subsequently 
been  gradually  traced. 

The  symmetry  of  crystals,  though  recognized  by  Rome  de 
1'Isle  and  Haiiy,  in  that  they  replaced  all  similar  edges  and 
corners  of  their  primitive  forms  by  similar  secondary  planes, 
was  not  made  use  of  in  defining  the  six  systems  of  crystallization, 
which  depended  solely  on  the  lengths  and  inclinations  of  the 
axes  of  reference.  It  was,  however,  necessary  to  recognize  that 
in  each  system  there  are  certain  forms  which  arc  only  partially 
symmetrical,  and  these  were  described  as  hemihedral  and  tetarto- 
hedral  forms  (i.e.  r]fu-,  half-faced,  and  T«T(X/DTOS,  quarter-faced 
forms). 

As  a  consequence  of  Haiiy's  law  of  rational  intercepts,  or, 
as  it  is  more  often  called,  the  law  of  rational  indices,  it  was 
proved  by  J.  F.  C.  Hessel  in  1830  that  thirty-two  types  of 
symmetry  are  possible  in  crystals.  Hessel's  work  remained 
overlooked  for  sixty  years,  but  the  same  important  result  was 
independently  arrived  at  by  the  same  method  by  A.  Gadolin  in 
1867.  At  the  present  day,  crystals  are  considered  as  belonging 
to  one  or  other  of  thirty-two  classes,  corresponding  with  these 
thirty-two  types  of  symmetry,  and  are  grouped  in  six  systems. 
More  recently,  theories  of  crystal  structure  have  attracted 
attention,  and  have  been  studied  as  purely  geometrical  problems 
of  the  homogeneous  partitioning  of  space. 

The  historical  development  of  the  subject  is  treated  more  fully  in 
the  article  CRYSTALLOGRAPHY  in  the  9th  edition  of  this  work. 
Reference  may  also  be  made  to  C.  M.  Marx,  Geschichte  der  Crystall- 
kunde  (Karlsruhe  and  Baden,  1825);  W.  Whewell,  History  of  the 
Inductive  Sciences,  vol.  iii.  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1857);  F.  von  Kobell, 
Geschichte  der  Mineralogie  von  1650-1860  (Miinchen,  1864);  L. 
Fletcher,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Minerals  (British  Museum 
Guide-Book) ;  L.  Fletcher,  Recent  Progress  in  Mineralogy  and 
Crystallography  [1832-1894]  (Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.,  1894). 

I.  CRYSTALLINE  FORM 

The  fundamental  laws  governing  the  form  of  crystals  are: — 

1.  Law  of  the  Constancy  of  Angle. 

2.  Law  of  Symmetry. 

3.  Law  of  Rational  Intercepts  or  Indices. 

According  to  the  first  law,  the  angles  between  corresponding 
faces  of  all  crystals  of  the  same  chemical  substance  are  always 
the  same  and  are  characteristic  of  the  substance. 

(a)  Symmetry  of  Crystals. 

Crystals  may,  or  may  not,  be  symmetrical  with  respect  to 
a  point,  a  line  or  axis,  and  a  plane;  these  "  elements  of 
symmetry  "  are  spoken  of  as  a  centre  of  symmetry,  an  axis  of 
symmetry,  and  a  plane  of  symmetry  respectively. 

Centre  of  Symmetry. — Crystals  which  are  centro-symmetrical 
have  their  faces  arranged  in  parallel  pairs;  and  the  two  parallel 
faces,  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  centre  (O  in  fig.  3)  are 
alike  in  surface  characters,  such  as  lustre,  striations,  and  figures 
of  corrosion.  An  octahedron  (fig.  3)  is  bounded  by  four  pairs  of 
parallel  faces.  Crystals  belonging  to  many  of  the  hemihedral 
and  tetartohedral  classes  of  the  six  systems  of  crystallization 
are  devoid  of  a  centre  of  symmetry. 

Axes  of  Symmetry. — Consider  the  vertical  axis  joining  the 
opposite  corners  03  and  d3  of  an  octahedron  (fig.  3)  and  passing 
through  its  centre  0:  by  rotating  the  crystal  about  this  axis 
through  a  right  angle  (90°)  it  reaches  a  position  such  that  the 
orientation  of  its  faces  is  the  same  as  before  the  rotation;  the 
face  didjas,  for  example,  coming  into  the  position  of  010203. 
During  a  complete  rotation  of  360°  (  =  9O°X4),  the  crystal 
occupies  four  such  interchangeable  positions.  Such  an  axis 
of  symmetry  is  known  as  a  tetrad  axis  of  symmetry.  Other 
tetrad  axes  of  the  octahedron  are  O2o2  and  a\a\. 

An  axis  of  symmetry  of  another  kind  is  that  which  passing 
through  the  centre  O  is  normal  to  a  face  of  the  octahedron. 
By  rotating  the  crystal  about  such  an  axis  Op  (fig.  3)  through 
an  angle  of  1 20°  those  faces  which  are  not  perpendicular  to  the 


axis  occupy  interchangeable  positions;  for  example,  the  face 
010302  comes  into  the  position  of  020103,  and  djOids  to  osdzdi. 
During  a  complete  rotation  of  360°  (=I2O°X3)  the  crystal 
occupies  similar  positions  three  times.  This  is  a  triad  axis  of 
symmetry;  and  there  being  four  pairs  of  parallel  faces  on  an 
octahedron,  there  are  four  triad  axes  (only  one  of  which  is 
drawn  in  the  figure). 

An  axis  passing  through  the  centre  O  and  the  middle  points 
d  of  two  opposite  edges  of  the  octahedron  (fig.  4),  i.e.  parallel 


FIG.  3.  FIG.  4. 

Axes  and  Planes  of  Symmetry  of  an  Octahedron. 

to  the  edges  of  the  octahedron,  is  a  dyad  axis  of  symmetry. 
About  this  axis  there  may  be  rotation  of  180°,  and  only  twice 
in  a  complete  revolution  of  360°  (  =  i8o°X2)  is  the  crystal 
brought  into  interchangeable  positions.  There  being  six  pairs 
of  parallel  edges  on  an  octahedron,  there  are  consequently  six 
dyad  axes  of  symmetry. 

A  regular  octahedron  thus  possesses  thirteen  axes  of  symmetry 
(of  three  kinds),  and  there  are  the  same  number  in  the  cube. 
Fig.  5  shows  the  three  tetrad  (or  tetragonal)  axes  (oo),  four 
triad  (or  trigonal)  axes  (pp),  and  six  dyad  (diad  or  diagonal)  axes 
(dd). 

Although  not  represented  in  the  cubic  system,  there  is  still 
another  kind  of  axis  of  symmetry  possible  in  crystals.  This  is 
the  hexad  axis  or  hexagonal  axis,  for  which  the  angle  of  rotation 
is  60°,  or  one-sixth  of  360°.  There  can  be  only  one  hexad  axis 
of  symmetry  in  any  crystal  (see  figs.  77-80). 

Planes  of  Symmetry. — A  regular  octahedron  can  be  divided 
into  two  equal  and  similar  halves  by  a  plane  passing  through 
the  corners  01030163  and  the 

centre   O    (fig.   3).     One-half  £- d 

is  the  mirror  reflection  of 
the  other  in  this  plane,  which 
is  called  a  plane  of  sym- 
metry. Corresponding  planes 
on  either  side  of  a  plane  of 
symmetry  are  inclined  to  it 
at  equal  angles.  The  octa- 
hedron can  also  be  divided 
by  similar  planes  of  sym- 
metry passing  through  the 
corners  01020102  and  03030203. 


*c~irr 

<~  '•  '^  '  '  f 

JP 

a  *  ^  /,/ 

-;#  /  a! 

t*  '  * 

d 
—."•^> 

FIG.  5. — Axes   of    Symmetry   of 
a  Cube. 


These  three  similar  planes  of 

symmetry  are  called  the  cubic 

planes    of    symmetry,    since 

they  are  parallel  to  the  faces 

of  the  cube  (compare  figs.  6-8,  showing  combinations  of  the 

octahedron  and  the  cube). 

A  regular  octahedron  can  also  be  divided  symmetrically  into 
two  equal  and  similar  portions  by  a  plane  passing  through  the 
corners  03  and  63,  the  middle  points  d  of  the  edges  oidj  and  diOs, 
and  the  centre  0  (fig.  4).  This  is  called  a  dodecahedral  plane 
of  symmetry,  being  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  rhombic  dodeca- 
hedron which  truncates  the  edge  oiOj  (compare  fig.  14,  chowing 
a  combination  of  the  octahedron  and  rhombic  dodecahedron). 
Another  similar  plane  of  symmetry  is  that  passing  through  the 
corners  osdj  and  the  middle  points  of  the  edges  OiO»  and  diOi, 
and  altogether  there  are  six  dodecahedral  planes  of  symmetry, 
two  through  each  of  the  corners  <j|,  Oj,  03  of  the  octahedron. 


572 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


A  regular  octahedron  and  a  cube  are  thus  each  symmetrical 
with  respect  to  the  following  elements  of  symmetry:  a  centre 
of  symmetry,  thirteen  axes  of  symmetry  (of  three  kinds),  and 
nine  planes  of  symmetry  (of  two  kinds).  This  degree  of  sym- 
metry, which  is  the  type  corresponding  to  one  of  the  classes  of 
the  cubic  system,  is  the  highest  possible  in  crystals.  As  will  be 
pointed  out  below,  it  is  possible,  however,  for  both  the  octahedron 
and  the  cube  to  be  associated  with  fewer  elements  of  symmetry 
than  those  just  enumerated. 

(b)  Simple  Forms  and  Combinations  of  Forms. 
A  single  face  a^atdz  (figs.  3  and  4)  may  be  repeated  by  certain 


of  the  elements  of  symmetry  to  give  the  whole  eight  faces  of 
the  octahedron.  Thus,  by  rotation  about  the  vertical  tetrad 
axis  a3a3  the  four  upper  faces  are  obtained;  and  by  rotation  of 
these  about  one  or  other  of  the  horizontal  tetrad  axes  the  eight 
faces  are  derived.  Or  again,  the  same  repetition  of  the  faces 
may  be  arrived  at  by  reflection  across  the  three  cubic  planes  of 
symmetry.  (By  reflection  across  the  six  dodecahedral  planes 


v 


FIG.  6. — Cube  in  combination 
with  Octahedron. 


FIG.  7. — Cubo-octahedron. 


of  symmetry  a  tetrahedron  only  would  result,  but  if  this  is 
associated  with  a  centre  of  symmetry  we  obtain  the  octahedron.) 
Such  a  set  of  similar  faces,  obtained  by  symmetrical  repetition, 
constitutes  a  "  simple  form."  An  octahedron  thus  consists  of 
eight  similar  faces,  and  a  cube  is  bounded  by  six  faces  all  of 
which  have  the  same  surface  characters,  and  parallel  to  each  of 
which  all  the  properties  of  the  crystal  are  identical. 

Examples  of  simple  forms  amongst  crystallized  substances 
are  octahedra  of  alum  and  spinel  and  cubes  of  salt  and  fluorspar. 
More  usually,  however,  two  or  more  forms  are  present  on  a 
crystal,  and  we  then  have  a  combination  of  forms,  or  simply  a 
"  combination."  Figs.  6,  7  and  8  represent  combinations  of  the 
octahedron  and  the  cube;  in  the  first  the  faces  of  the  cube 
predominate,  and  in  the  third  those  of  the  octahedron;  fig.  7 
with  the  two  forms  equally  developed  is  called  a  cubo-octahedron. 
Each  of  these  combined  forms  has  all 
the  elements  of  symmetry  proper  to  the 
simple  forms. 

The  simple  forms,  though  referable 
to  the  same  type  of  symmetry  and 
axes  of  reference,  are  quite  independent, 
and  cannot  be  derived  one  from  the 
other  by  symmetrical  repetition,  but, 
after  the  manner  of  Rome  de  1'Isle, 
they  may  be  derived  by  replacing 
edges  or  corners  by  a  face  equally 
inclined  to  the  faces  forming  the  edges 
or  corners;  this  is  known  as  "  trunca- 
tion "  (Lat.  truncare,  to  cut  off).  Thus  in  fig.  6  the  corners  of 
the  cube  are  symmetrically  replaced  or  truncated  by  the  faces  of 
the  octahedron,  and  in  fig.  8  those  of  the  octahedron  are 
truncated  by  the  cube. 

(c)  Law  of  Rational  Intercepts. 

For  axes  of  reference,  OX,  OY,  OZ  (fig.  9),  take  any  three 
edges  formed  by  the  intersection  of  three  faces  of  a  crystal. 
These  axes  are  called  the  crystallographic  axes,  and  the  planes  in 
which  they  lie  the  axial  planes.  A  fourth  face  on  the  crystal 
intersecting  these  three  axes  in  the  points  A,  B,  C  is  taken  as 
the  parametral  plane,  and  the  lengths  OA  :  OB  :  OC  are  the 
parameters  of  the  crystal.  Any  other  face  on  the  crystal  may  be 


FIG.  8. — Octahedron  in 
combination  with  Cube. 


referred  to  these  axes  and  parameters  by  the  ratio  of  the  inter- 
cepts 

OA.OB.OC 

T  T  T" 

Thus  for  a  face  parallel  to  the  plane  A  Be  the  intercepts  are  in 
the  ratio  OA  :  OB:  Oe,  or 

OA.OB.OC 

1  '     I     '    2 

and  for  a  plane /gC  they  are  Of:  Og:  OC  or 
OA.  OB.  OC 

2  '   3   '    i 

Now  the  important  relation  existing  between  the  faces  of  a 
crystal  is  that  the  denominators  h,  k  and  /  are  always  rational 
whole  numbers,  rarely  exceeding  6,  and  usually  o,  i,  2  or  3. 
Written  in  the  form  (hkl),  h  referring  to  the  axis  OX,  k  to  OY, 
and  /  to  OZ,  they  are  spoken  of  as  the  indices  (Millerian  indices) 
of  the  face.  Thus  of  a  face  parallel  to  the  pjane  A  BC  the  indices 
are  (in),  of  ABe  they  are  (112),  and  of  fgC  (231).  The  indices 
are  thus  inversely  proportional  to  the  intercepts,  and  the  law 
of  rational  intercepts  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  "law  of  rational 
indices." 

The  angular  position  of  a  face  is  thus  completely  fixed  by  its 
indices;  and  knowing  the  angles  between  the  axial  planes  and 
the  parametral  plane  all  the  angles  of  a  crystal  can  be  calculated 
when  the  indices  of  the  faces 
are  known. 

Although  any  set  of  edges 
formed  by  the  intersection  of 
three  planes  may  be  chosen 
for  the  crystallographic  axes, 
it,  is  in  practice  usual  to  select 
certain  edges  related  to  the 
symmetry  of  the  crystal,  and 
usually  coincident  with  axes 
of  symmetry;  for  then  the 
indices  will  be  simpler  and  all 
faces  of  the  same  simple  form 
will  have  a  similar  set  of 
indices.  The  angles  between  FJG.  9  —Crystallographic  axes  of 
the  axes  and  the  ratio  of  the  reference.  _ 

lengths     of     the     parameters 

OA:  OB:  OC  (usually  given  as  a:  b:  c)  are  spoken  of  as  the 
"  elements  "  of  a  crystal,  and  are  constant  for  and  characteristic 
of  all  crystals  of  the  same  substance. 

The  six  systems  of  crystal  forms,  to  be  enumerated  below, 
are  defined  by  the  relative  inclinations  of  the  crystallographic 
axes  and  the  lengths  of  the  parameters.  In  the  cubic  system,  for 
example,  the  three  crystallographic  axes  are  taken  parallel  to  the 
three  tetrad  axes  of  symmetry,  i.e.  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the 
cube  (fig.  5)  or  joining  the  opposite  corners  of  the  octahedron 
(fig.  3),  and  they  are  therefore  all  at  right  angles;  the  parametral 
plane  (in)  is  a  face  of  the  octahedron,  and  the  parameters 
are  all  of  equal  length.  The  indices  of  the  eight  faces  of  the 
octahedron  will  then  be  (in),  (III),  (Hi),  (Hi),  (ni),  (Hi), 
(in),  (III).  The  symbol  (in)  indicates  all  the  faces  belonging 
to  this  simple  form.  The  indices  of  the  six  faces  of  the  cube  are 
(100),  (oio),  (ooi),  (loo),  (oio),  (ool);  here  each  face  is  parallel 
to  two  axes,  i.e.  intercepts  them  at  infinity,  so  that  the  corre- 
sponding indices  are  zero. 

(d)  Zones. 

An  important  consequence  of  the  law  of  rational  intercepts 
is  the  arrangement  of  the  faces  of  a  crystal  in  zones.  All  faces, 
whether  they  belong  to  one  or  more  simple  forms,  which  intersect 
in  parallel  edges  are  said  to  lie  in  the  same  zone.  A  line  drawn 
through  the  centre  0  of  the  crystal  parallel  to  these  edges  is 
called  a  zone-axis,  and  a  plane  perpendicular  to  this  axis  is 
called  a  zone-plane.  On  a  cube,  for  example,  there  are  three 
zones  each  containing  four  faces,  the  zone-axes  being  coincident 
with  the  three  tetrad  axes  of  symmetry.  In  the  crystal  of  zircon 
(fig.  88)  the  eight  prism-faces  a,  m,  &c.  constitute  a  zone,  denoted 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


573 


by  [a,  m,  a',  &c.],  with  the  vertical  tetrad  axis  of  symmetry  as 
zone-axis.  Again  the  faces  [a,  x,  p,  e',  p',  x'",  a"]  lie  in  another 
zone,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  parallel  edges  of  intersection  of  the 
faces  in  figs.  87  and  88;  three  other  similar  zones  may  be  traced 
on  the  same  crystal. 

The  direction  of  the  line  of  intersection  (i.e.  zone-axis)  of  any 
two  planes  (hkl)  and  (h\k-Ji)  is  given  by  the  zone-indices  [uvwj, 
where  VL  =  kh—  Iki,  V=lhl—hll,  and  W=kki—kfti,  these  being 
obtained  from  the  face-indices  by  cross  multiplication  as 
follows:  — 

h  k  I  h   k  I 

XXX 

hi  ki  li  hi  ki  li. 

Any  other  face  (h^kJ2)  lying  in  this  zone  must  satisfy  the 
equation 

AjU  +  k;v  +  kw  =  o. 


This  important  relation  connecting  the  indices  of  a  face  lying 
in  a  zone  with  the  zone-indices  is  known  as  Weiss's  zone-law, 
having  been  first  enunciated  by  C.  S.  Weiss.  It  may  be  pointed 
out  that  the  indices  of  a  face  may  be  arrived  at  by  adding 
together  the  indices  of  faces  on  either  side  of  it  and  in  the  same 
zone;  thus,  (311)  in  fig.  12  lies  at  the  intersections  of  the  three 
zones  [210,  101],  [201,  no]  and  [211,  100],  and  is  obtained  by 
adding  together  each  set  of  indices. 

(e)  Projection  and  Drawing  of  Crystals. 

The  shapes  and  relative  sizes  of  the  faces  of  a  crystal  being 
as  a  rule  accidental,  depending  only  on  the  distance  of  the  faces 


FIG.  10. — Stcreographic  Projection  of  a  Cubic  Crystal. 

from  the  centre  of  the  crystal  and  not  on  their  angular  relations, 
it  is  often  more  convenient  to  consider  only  the  directions  of  the 
normals  to  the  faces.  For  this  purpose  projections  are  drawn, 
with  the  aid  of  which  the  zonal  relations  of  a  crystal  are  more 
readily  studied  and  calculations  are  simplified. 

The  kind  of  projection  most  extensively  used  is  the  "  stereo- 
graphic  projection."  The  crystal  is  considered  to  be  placed 
inside  a  sphere  from  the  centre  of  which  normals  are  drawn  to 
all  the  faces  of  the  crystal.  The  points  at  which  these  normals 
intersect  the  surface  of  the  sphere  are  called  the  poles  of  the 
faces,  and  by  these  poles  the  positions  of  the  faces  are  fixed. 
The  poles  of  all  faces  in  the  same  zone  on  the  crystal  will  lie  on 
a  great  circle  of  the  sphere,  which  are  therefore  called  zone-circles. 
The  calculation  of  the  angles  between  the  normals  of  faces  and 
between  zone-circles  is  then  performed  by  the  ordinary  methods 
of  spherical  trigonometry.  The  stereographic  projection,  however, 
represents  the  poles  and  zone-circles  on  a  plane  surface  and  not 
on  a  spherical  surface.  This  is  achieved  by  drawing  lines 
joining  all  the  poles  of  the  faces  with  the  north  or  south  pole 
of  the  sphere  and  finding  their  points  of  intersection  with  the 
plane  of  the  equatorial  great  circle,  or  primitive  circle,  of  the 
sphere,  the  projection  being  represented  on  this  plane.  In  fig. 
10  is  shown  the  stereographic  projection,  or  stereogram,  of  a 


cubic  crystal;  a1,  a1,  &c.  are  the  poles  of  the  faces  of  the  cube. 
o1,  o*,  &c.  those  of  the  octahedron,  and  d1,  d1,  &c.  those  of  the 
rhombic  dodecahedron.  The  straight  lines  and  circular  arcs 
are  the  projections  on  the  equatorial  plane  of  the  great  circles  in 
which  the  nine  planes  of  symmetry  intersect  the  sphere.  A 
drawing  of  a  crystal  showing  a  combination  of  the  cube,  octa- 
hedron and  rhombic  dodecahedron  is  shown  in  fig.  n,  in  which 
the  faces  are  lettered  the  same  as  the  corresponding  poles  in  the 
projection.  From  the  zone-circles  in  the  projection  and  the 
parallel  edges  in  the  drawing  the  zonal 
relations  of  the  faces  are  readily  seen: 
thus  [oW],  [oWa6],  [aWd*],  &c.  are 
zones.  A  stereographic  projection  of  a  | 
rhombohedral  crystal  is  given  in  fig.  72. 

Another  kind  of  projection  in  common ! 
use  is  the  "  gnomonic  projection  "  (fig.  12). 
Here  the  plane  of  projection  is  tangent  to 

the  sphere,  and  normals  to  all  the  faces  are      ,,  ~.. 

,    '  ,   i,  FIG.    ii. — Chno- 

drawn   from   the   centre  of   the  sphere   to  graphic  Drawing  of  a 
intersect  the  plane  of  projection.     In  this  Cubic  Crystal, 
case  all  zones  are   represented  by  straight 
lines.     Fig.  12  is  the  gnomonic  projection  of  a  cubic  crystal, 
the  plane  of  projection  being  tangent   to   the   sphere  at  the 
pole  of  an  octahedral  face   (in),    which    is  therefore  in  the 
centre  of  the  projection.     The  indices  9f  the  several  poles  are 
given  in  the  figure. 

In  drawing  crystals  the  simple  plans  and  elevations  of  descrip- 
tive geometry  (e.g.  the  plans  in  the  lower  part  of  figs.  87 
and  88)  have  sometimes  the  advantage  of  showing  the  symmetry 
of  a  crystal,  but  they  give  no  idea  of  solidity.  For  instance,  a 
cube  would  be  represented  merely  by  a  square,  and  an  octahedron 
by  a  square  with  lines  joining  the  opposite  corners.  True  per- 
spective drawings  are  never  used  in  the  representation  of  crystals, 
since  for  showing  the  zonal  relations  it  is  important  to  preserve 
the  parallelism  of  the  edges.  If,  however,  the  eye,  or  point  of 
vision,  is  regarded  as  being  at  an  infinite  distance  from  the  object 
all  the  rays  will  be  parallel,  and  edges  which  are  parallel  on  the 
crystal  will  be  represented  by  parallel  lines  in  the  drawing. 
The  plane  of  the  drawing,  in  which  the  parallel  rays  joining  the 
corners  of  the  crystals  and  the  eye  intersect,  may  be  either 
perpendicular  or  oblique  to  the  rays;  in  the  former  case  we 
have  an  "orthographic"  (6p06s,  straight;  ypiufeiv,  to  draw) 
drawing,  and  in  the  latter  a  "  clinographic  "  (KXiww.  to  incline) 


FIG.  12. — Gnomonic  Projection  of  a  Cubic  Crystal. 

drawing.  Clinographic  drawings  are  most  frequently  used  for 
representing  crystals.  In  representing,  for  example,  a  cubic 
crystal  (fig.  n)  a  cube  face  o*  is  first  placed  parallel  to  the  plane 
on  which  the  crystal  is  to  be  projected  and  with  one  set  of  edges 
vertical;  the  crystal  is  then  turned  through  a  small  angle  about 
a  vertical  axis  until  a  second  cube  face  a1  comes  into  view, 


574 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


and  the  eye  is  then  raised  so   that   a  third  cube  face  o1  may 
be  seen. 

(/)  Crystal  Systems  and  Classes. 

According  to  the  mutual  inclinations  of  the  crystallographic 
axes  of  reference  and  the  lengths  intercepted  on  them  by  the 
parametral  plane,  all  crystals  fall  into  one  or  other  of  six  groups 
or  systems,  in  each  of  which  there  are  several  classes  depending 
on  the  degree  of  symmetry.  In  the  brief  description  which  follows 
of  these  six  systems  and  thirty-two  classes  of  crystals  we  shall 
proceed  from  those  in  which  the  symmetry  is  most  complex  to 
those  in  which  it  is  simplest. 

1.  CUBIC   SYSTEM 

(Isometric;  Regular;  Octahedral;  Tcsseral). 

In  this  system  the  three  crystallographic  axes  of  reference  are  all 
at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  are  equal  in  length.  They  are 
parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  cube,  and  in  the  different  classes  coincide 
either  with  tetrad  or  dyad  axes  of  symmetry.  Five  classes  are  in- 
cluded in  this  system,  in  all  of  which  there  are,  besides  other  elements 
of  symmetry,  four  triad  axes. 

In  crystals  of  this  system  the  angle  between  any  two  faces  P  and 
Q  with  the  indices  (hkl)  and  (pqr)  is  given  by  the  equation 

„      Dn     _  hp+kq+lr 
Cos  PQ  =  -  — 

* 


The  angles  between  faces  with  the  same  indices  are  thus  the  same 
in  all  substances  which  crystallize  in  the  cubic  system:  in  other 
systems  the  angles  vary  with  the  substance  and  are  characteristic  of 
it. 

HOLOSYMMETRIC  CLASS 

(Holohedral  (<5Xos,  whole)  ;  Hexakis-octahedral). 

Crystals  of  this  class  possess  the  full  number  of  elements  of  sym- 
metry already  mentioned  above  for  the  octahedron  and  the  cube, 
viz.  three  cubic  planes  of  symmetry,  six  dodecahedral  planes,  three 
tetrad  axes  of  symmetry,  four  triad  axes,  six  dyad  axes,  and  a  centre 
of  symmetry. 


FIG.  13. — Rhombic  Dodecahedron. 


FIG.  14. — Combination  of 
Rhombic  Dodecahedron  and 
Octahedron. 


There  are  seven  kinds  of  simple  forms,  viz. : — 

Cube  (fig.  5).  This  is  bounded  by  six  square  faces  parallel  to  the 
cubic  planes  of  symmetry;  it  is  known  also  as  the  hexahedron. 
The  angles  between  the  faces  are  90°,  and  the  indices  of  the  form 
are  jioo).  Salt,  fluorspar  and  galena  crystallize  in  simple  cubes. 


FIG.  15. — Triakis-octahedron. 


FIG.  1 6. — Combination  of  Triakis- 
octahedron  and  Cube. 


Octahedron  (fig.  3).  Bounded  by  eight  equilateral  triangular  faces 
perpendicular  to  the  triad  axes  of  symmetry.  The  angles  between 
the  faces  are  70°  32' and  109°  28',  and  the  indices  are  |in).  Spinel, 
magnetite  and  gold  crystallize  in  simple  octahedra.  Combinations 
of  the  cube  and  octahedron  are  shown  in  figs.  6-8. 

Rhombic  dodecahedron  (fig.  13).  Bounded  by  twelve  rhomb- 
shaped  faijes  parallel  to  the  six  dodecahedral  planes  of  symmetry. 
The  angles  between  the  normals  to  adjacent  faces  are  60°,  and 


between  other  pairs  of  faces  90°;  the  indices  are  |uo|.  Garnet 
frequently  crystallizes  in  this  form.  Fig.  14  shows  the  rhombic 
dodecahedron  in  combination  with  the  octahedron. 

In  these  three  simple  forms  of  the  cubic  system  (which  are  shown 
in  combination  in  fig.  1 1 )  the  angles  between  the  faces  and  the  indices 


FIG.  17. — Icositetrahedron. 


FIG.  18. — Combination  of  Icosi- 
tetrahedron and  Cube. 


are  fixed  and  are  the  same  in  all  crystals;  in  the  four  remaining 
simple  forms  they  are  variable. 

Triakis-octahedron  (three-faced  octahedron)  (fig.  15).  This  solid 
is  bounded  by  twenty-four  isosceles  triangles,  and  may  be  considered 
as  an  octahedron  with  a  low  triangular  pyramid  on  each  of  its  faces. 
As  the  inclinations  of  the  faces  may  vary  there  is  a  series  of  these 
forms  with  the  indices  \22i\,  {331 1,  [332],  &c.  or  in  general  \hhk\. 


FlG.  19. — Combination  of 
Icositetrahedron  and  Octa- 
hedron. 


FIG.  20. — Combination  of 
Icositetrahedron  |2ii|  and 
Rhombic  Dodecahedron. 


Icositetrahedron  (fig.  17).  Bounded  by  twenty-four  trapezoidal 
faces,  and  hence  sometimes  called  a  "  trapezohedron."  The  indices 
are  (211),  (311),  (322!,  &c.,  or  in  general  \hkk\.  Analcite,  leucite  and 
garnet  often  crystallize  in  the  simple  form  (21 1 ) .  Combinations  are 
shown  in  figs.  18-20.  The  plane  ABe  in  fig.  9  is  one  face  (112)  of  an 
Icositetrahedron;  the  indices  of  the  remaining  faces  in  this  octant 
being  (211)  and  (121). 


FIG.  21. — Tetrakis-hexahedron.       FIG.   22.— Tetrakis-hexahedron. 


Tetrakis-hexahedron  (four-faced  cube)  (figs.  21  and  22). 
triakis-octahedron  this  solid  is  also 
bounded  by  twenty-four  isosceles 
triangles,  but  here  grouped  in  fours 
over  the  cubic  faces.  The  two  figures 
show  how,  with  different  inclinations 
of  the  faces,  the  form  may  vary, 
approximating  in  fig.  21  to  the  cube 
and  in  fig.  22  to  the  rhombic  dodeca- 
hedron. The  angles  over  the  edges 
lettered  A  are  different  from  the 
angles  over  the  edges  lettered  C.  Each 
face  is  parallel  to  one  of  the  crystallo- 
graphic axes  and  intercepts  the  two 
others  in  different  lengths;  the 
dices  are  therefore  (210: 
&c.,  in  general  \hko}.  Fluorspar  some- 


Like  the 


FIG.  23. — Combination  of 
in-   Tetrakis-hexahedron      and 
l3io!,   1320),   Cube. 


times  crystallizes  in  the  simple  form  (310)  ;  more  usually,  however, 
in  combination  with  the  cube  (fig.  23). 

Hexakis-octahedron  (fig.  24).     Here  each  face  of  the  octahedron 
is  replaced  by  six  scalene  triangles-  so  that  altogether  there  are 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


575 


forty-eight  faces.  This  is  the  greatest  number  of  faces  possible  for 
any  simple  form  in  crystals.  The  faces  are  all  oblique  to  the  planes 
and  axes  of  symmetry,  and  they  intercept  the  three  crystallographic 
axes  in  different  lengths,  hence  the  indices  are  all  unequal,  being  in 
general  JAW),  or  in  particular  cases  (321),  (421!,  J432J,  &c.  Such 
a  form  is  known  as  the  "  general  form  of  the  class.  The  interfacial 
angles  over  the  three  edges  of  each  triangle  are  all  different.  These 
forms  usually  exist  only  in  combination  with  other  cubic  forms 
(for  example,  fig.  25),  but  (421 1  has  been  observed  as  a  simple  form 
on  fluorspar. 


FIG.  24. — Hexakis-octahedron. 


FIG.  25. — Combination  of 
Hexakis  -  octahedron  and 
Cube. 


Several  examples  of  substances  which  crystallize  in  this  class 
have  been  mentioned  above  under  the  different  forms;  many  others 
might  be  cited — for  instance,  the  metals  iron,  copper,  silver,  gold, 
platinum,  lead,  mercury,  and  the  non-metallic  elements  silicon  and 
phosphorus. 

TETRAHEDRAL  CLASS 

(Tetrahedral-hemihedral ;  Hexakis-tetrahedral). 

In  this  class  there  is  no  centre  of  symmetry  nor  cubic  planes  of 
symmetry;  the  three  tetrad  axes  become  dyad  axes  of  symmetry, 
and  the  four  triad  axes  are  polar,  i.e.  they  are  associated  with  different 
faces  at  their  two  ends.  The  other  elements  of  symmetry  (s-x  dode- 
cahedral  planes  and  six  dyad  axes)  are  the  same  as  in  the  last  class. 

Of  the  seven  simple  forms,  the  cube,  rhombic  dodecahedron  and 
tetrakis-hexahedron  are  geometrically  the  same  as  before,  though 
on  actual  crystals  the  faces  will  have  different  surface  characters. 


FIG.  26. — Tetrahedron.         FIG.  27. — Deltoid  Dodecahedron. 

For  instance,  the  cube  faces  will  be  striated  parallel  to  only  one  of 
the  diagonals  (fig.  90),  and  etched  figures  on  this  face  will  be  sym- 
metrical with  respect  to  two  lines,  instead  of  four  as  in  the  last  class. 
The  remaining  simple  forms  have,  however,  only  half  the  number 
of  faces  as  the  corresponding  form  in  the  last  class,  and  are  spoken 
of  as  "  hemihedral  with  inclined  faces." 

Tetrahedron  (fig.  26).  This  is  bounded  by  four  equilateral  triangles 
and  is  identical  with  the  regular  tetrahedron  of  geometry.  The  angles 
between  the  normals  to  the  faces  are  109°  28  .  It  may  be  derived 
from  the  octahedron  by  suppressing  the  alternate  faces. 


FIG.  28. — Triakis-tetrahedron.  Fig.  29.— Hexakis-tetrahedron. 

Deltoid  *  dodecahedron  (fig.  27).  This  is  the  hemihedral  form  of 
the  triakis-octahedron ;  it  has  the  indices  \hhk\  and  is  bounded  by 
twelve  trapezoidal  faces. 

1  From  the  Greek  letter  WXro,  A ;  in  general,  a  triangular-shaped 
object ;  also  an  alternative  name  for  a  trapezoid. 


Triakis-tetrahedron  (fig.  28).  The  hemihedral  form  \hkk\of  the 
icositetrahedron;  it  is  bounded  by  twelve  isosceles  triangles  ar- 
ranged in  threes  over  the  tetrahedron  faces. 

Hexakis-tetrahedron  (fig.  29).  The  hemihedral  form  \hkl\  of  the 
hexakis-octahedron;  it  is  bounded  by  twenty-four  scalene  triangles 
and  is  the  general  form  of  the  class. 


FIG.  30. — Combination  of  two 
Tetrahedra. 


FIG.  31. — Combination  of  Tetra- 
hedron and  Cube. 


Corresponding  to  each  of  these  hemihedral  forms  there  is  another 
geometrically  similar  form,  differing,  however,  not  only  in  orient- 
ation, but  also  in  actual  crystals  in  the  characters  of  the  faces. 
Thus  from  the  octahedron  there  may  be  derived  two  tetrahedra 
with  the  indices  lm|  and|Tli|,  which  may  be  distinguished  as 
positive  and  negative  respectively.  Fig.  30  shows  a  combination  of 


/^        _r 

\ 

Pi 

"1      \ 

—  - 

|! 

1            <j 
\X'vy/--— 

J 

FIG.  32. — Combination  of 
Tetrahedron,  Cube  and  Rhombic 
Dodecahedron. 


FIG.  33. — Combination  of 
Tetrahedron  and  Rhombic 
Dodecahedron. 


these  two  tetrahedra,  and  represents  a  crystal  of  blende,  in  which  the 
four  larger  faces  are  dull  and  striated,  whilst  the  four  smaller  are 
bright  and  smooth.  Figs.  31-33  illustrate  other  tetrahedral  com- 
binations. 

Tetrahedrite,  blende,  diamond,  bpracite  and  pharmacosiderite 
are  substances  which  crystallize  in  this  class. 

PYRITOHEDRAL'  CLASS 
(Parallel-faced  hemihedral ;   Dyakis-dodecahedral). 

Crystals  of  this  class  possess  three  cubic  planes  of  symmetry  but 
no  dodecahedral  planes.  There  are  only  three  dyad  axes  of  sym- 
metry, which  coincide  with  the  crystallographic  axes;  in  addition 
there  are  three  triad  axes  and  a  centre  of  symmetry. 

Here  the  cube,  octahedron,  rhombic  dodecahedron,  triakis-octa- 
hcdron  and  icositetrahedron  are  geometrically  the  same  as  in  the 
first  class.  The  characters  of  the  faces  will,  however,  be  different; 
thus  the  cube  faces  will  be  striated  parallel  to  one  edge  only  (fig.  89), 


FIG.  34- 
Pentagonal  Dodecahedron. 


FIG.  35. 
Dyakis-dodecahedron. 


and  triangular  markings  on  the  octahedron  faces  will  be  placed 
obliquely  to  the  edges.  The  remaining  simple  forms  are  "  hemi- 
hedral with  parallel  faces,"  and  from  the  corresponding  holohedral 
forms  two  hemihedral  forms,  a  positive  and  a  negative,  may  be 
derived. 

Pentagonal  dodecahedron  (fig.  34).  This  is  bounded  by  twelve 
pentagonal  faces,  but  these  are  not  regular  pentagons,  and  the  angles 
over  the  three  sets  of  different  edges  are  different.  The  regular 
dodecahedron  of  geometry,  contained  by  twelve  regular  pentagons, 
is  not  a  possible  form  in  crystals.  The  indices  are  \hko\  :  as  a  simple 
form  (210)  is  of  very  common  occurrence  in  pyrites. 

Dyakis-dodecahedron  (fig.  35).     This  is  the  hemihedral  form  of 


1  Named  after  pyrites,  which  crystallizes  in  a  typical  form  of  this 
class. 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


the  hexakis-octahedron  and  has  the  indices  \hkl\ ;    it  is  bounded  by 
twenty-four  faces.  As  a  simple  form  (32 1 1  is  met  with  in  pyrites. 

Combinations  (figs.  36-39)  of  these  forms  with  the  cube  and  the 
octahedron  are  common  in  pyrites.     Fig.  37  resembles  in  general 


FIG.  36. — Combination  of 
Pentagonal  Dodecahedron 
and  Cube. 


FIG.  37. — Combination  of 
Pentagonal  Dodecahedron 
and  Octahedron. 


appearance  the  regular  icosahedron  of  geometry,  but  only  eight  of 
the  faces  are  equilateral  triangles.  Cobaltite,  smaltite  and  other 
sulphides  and  sulpharsenides  of  the  pyrites  group  of  minerals 
crystallize  in  these  forms.  The  alums  also  belong  to  this  class; 
from  an  aqueous  solution  they  crystallize  as  simple  octahedra, 


FIG.  38. — C ombination  of 
PentagonalDodecahedron.Cube 
and  Octahedron. 


FIG.    39. — Combination     of 
Pentagonal     Dodecahedron    e 
Dyakis-dodecahedron  / 


1321 


,  and  Octahedron  d  {in). 


sometimes  with  subordinate  faces  of  the  cube  and  rhombic  dode- 
cahedron, but  from  an  acid  solution  as  octahedra  combined  with 
the  pentagonal  dodecahedron  (210). 

PLAGIHEDRAL'  CLASS 

(Plagihedral-hemihedral ;    Pentagonal  icositetrahedral ; 
Gyroidal1). 

In  this  class  there  are  the  full  number  of  axes  of  symmetry  (three 
tetrad,  four  triad  and  six  dyad),  but  no  planes  of  symmetry  and  no 
centre  of  symmetry. 

Pentagonal  icositetrahedron  (fig.  40).  This  is  the  only  simple  form  in 
this  class  which  differs  geometrically  from  those  of  the  holosymmetric 
class.  By  suppressing  either  one  or  other  set  of  alternate  faces  of  the 
hexakis-octahedron  two  pentagonal  icositetrahedra  \hkl\  and  \khl\ 
are  derived.  These  are  each  bounded  by  twenty-four  irregular 


FIG.  40. — Pentagonal 
Icositetrahedron. 


FIG.  41. — Tetrahedral  Pentagonal 
Dodecahedron. 


pentagons,  and  although  similar  to  each  other  they  are  respectively 
right-  and  left-handed,  one  being  the  mirror  image  of  the  other;  such 
similar  but  nonsuperposable  forms  are  said  to  be  enantiomorphous 
(ivatrios,  opposite,  and  iiop<j>ii,  form),  and  crystals  showing  such  forms 
sometimes  rotate  the  plane  of  polarization  of  plane-polarized  light. 
Faces  of  a  pentagonal  icositetrahedron  with  high  indices  have  been 
very  rarely  observed  on  crystals  of  cuprite,  potassium  chloride  and 
ammonium  chloride,  but  none  of  these  are  circular  polarizing. 

TETARTOHEDRAL  CLASS 
(Tetrahedral  pentagonal  dodecahedral). 

Here,  in  addition  to  four  polar  triad  axes,  the  only  other  elements 
of  symmetry  are  three  dyad  axes,  which  coincide  with  the  crystallo- 

1  From  1X07105,  placed  sideways,  referring  to  the  absence  of  planes 
and  centre  of  symmetry. 

1  From  7Dpoj,  a  ring  or  spiral,  and  tlSos,  form. 


graphic  axes.  Six  of  the  simple  forms,  the  cube,  tetrahedron, 
rhombic  dodecahedron,  deltoid  dodecahedron,  triakis-tetrahedron 
and  pentagonal  dodecahedron,  are  geometrically  the  same  in  this 
class  as  in  either  the  tetrahedral  or  pyritohedral  classes.  The 
general  form  is  the 

Tetrahedral  pentagonal  dodecahedron  (fig.  41).  This  is  bounded 
by  twelve  irregular  pentagons,  and  is  a  tetartohedral  or  quarter-faced 
form  of  the  hexakis-octahedron.  Four  such  forms  may  be  derived, 
the  indices  of  which  are  \hU\,  \khl\,  \hkl\  and  \khl\ ;  the  first  pair 
are  enantiomorphous  with  respect  to  one  another,  and  so  are  the  last 
pair.  Barium  nitrate,  lead  nitrate,  sodium  chlorate  and  sodium 
bromate  crystallize  in  this  class,  as  also-do  the  minerals  ullmannite 
(NiSbS)  and  langbeinite  (KjMg2(SO4)j). 

2.  TETRAGONAL  SYSTEJl 

(Pyramidal;  Quadratic;   Dimetric). 

In  this  system  the  three  crystallographic  axes  are  all  at  right 
angles,  but  while  two  are  equal  in  length  and  interchangeable  the 
third  is  of  a  different  length.  The  unequal  axis  is  spoken  of  as  the 
principal  axis  or  morphological  axis 
of  the  crystal,  and  it  is  always 
placed  in  a  vertical  position;  in 
five  of  the  seven  classes  of  this 
system  it  coincides  with  the  single 
tetrad  axis  of  symmetry. 

The  parameters  are  a:  a:  c,  where 
a    refers    to    the    two    equal    hori- 


FIG.  42. 


Tetragonal  Bipyramids. 


FIG.  43. 


zontal  axes,  and  c  to  the  vertical  axis;  c  may  be  either  shorter  (as 
in  fig.  42)  or  longer  (fig.  43)  than  o.  The  ratio  o:  c  is  spoken  of  as 
the  axial  ratio  of  a  crystal,  and  it  is  dependent  on  the  angles  between 
the  faces.  In  all  crystals  of  the  same  substance  this  ratio  is  constant, 
and  is  characteristic  of  the  substance;  for  other  substances  crystal- 
lizing in  the  tetragonal  system  it  will  be  different.  For  example, 
in  cassiterite  it  is  given  as  o:c  =  I :  0-67232  or  simply  as  £  =  0-67232, 
a  being  unity;  and  in  anatase  as  £  =  1-7771. 

HOLOSYMMETRIC  CLASS 
(Holohedral;    Ditetragonal  bipyramidal). 

Crystals  of  this  class  are  symmetrical  with  respect  to  five  planes, 
which  are  of  three  kinds;  one  is  perpendicular  to  the  principal  axis, 
and  the  other  four  intersect  in  it ;  of  the  latter,  two  are  perpendicular 
to  the  equal  crystallographic  axes,  while  the  two  others  bisect  the 
angles  be'tween  them.  There  are  five  axes  of  symmetry,  one  tetrad 
and  two  pairs  of  dyad,  each  perpendicular  to  a  plane  of  symmetry. 
Finally,  there  is  a  centre  of  symmetry. 

There  are  seven  kinds  of  simple  forms,  viz. : — 

Tetragonal  bipyramid  of  the  first  order  (figs.  42  and  43).  This  is 
bounded  by  eight  equal  isosceles  triangles.  Equal  lengths  are  inter- 
cepted on  the  two  horizontal  axes,  and  the  indices  are  |in|,  |22l), 
JII2J,  &c.,  or  in  general  \hhl\.  The  parametral  plane  with  the  inter- 
cepts a  :  a  :  c  is  a  face  of  the  bipyramid  (in). 

Tetragonal  bipyramid  of  the  second  order.  This  is  also  bounded 
by  eight  equal  isosceles  triangles,  but  differs  from  the  last  form  in 


FIG.  44.  FIG.  45. 

Tetragonal  Bipyramids  of  the  first  and  second  orders. 

its  position,  four  of  the  faces  being  parallel  to  each  of  the  horizontal 
axes;  the  indices  are  therefore  |ioi|,  |2Olj,  {iO2J,&c.,  or  |Ao/|. 

Fig.  44  shows  the  relation  between  the  tetragonal  bipyramids 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


577 


of  the  first  and  second  orders  when  the  indices  are  jni|  and  |ioi| 
respectively:  ABB  is  the  face  (in),  and  ACC  is  (101).  A  com- 
bination of  these  two  forms  is  shown  in  fig.  45. 

Ditetragonal  bipyramid  (fig.  46).  This  is  the  general  form;  it  is 
bounded  by  sixteen  scalene  triangles,  and  all  the  indices  are  unequal, 
being  |32i),  &c.,  or  \hkl\. 

Tetragonal  prism  of  the  first  order.  The  four  faces  intersect  the 
horizontal  axes  in  equal  lengths  and  are  parallel  to  the  principal 
axis;  the  indices  are  therefore  |no|. 
This  form  does  not  enclose  space,  and 
is  therefore  called  an  "  open  form  " 
to  distinguish  it  from  a  "  closed  form  " 
like  the  tetragonal  bipyramids  and  all 
the  forms  of  the  cubic  system.  An 
open  form  can  exist  only  in  com- 
bination with  other  forms;  thus  fig.  47 
is  a  combination  of  the  tetragonal 
prism  (no)  with  the  basal  pinacoid 
(ooi|.  If  the  faces  (no)  and  (ooi) 
are  of  equal  size  such  a  figure  will  be 
geometrically  a  cube,  since  all  the 
angles  are  right  angles;  the  variety  of 
apophyllite  known  as  tesselite  crystal- 
lizes in  this  form. 

Tetragonal  prism  of  the  second  order. 
This  has  the  same  number  of  faces  as_ 
the  last  prism,  but  differs  in  position;' 
each  face  being  parallel  to  the  vertical 
axis  and  one  of  the  horizontal  axes;   the  indices  are  (loo). 

Ditetragonal  prism.  This  consists  of  eight  faces  all  parallel  to 
the  principal  axis  and  intercepting  the  horizontal  axes  in  different 
lengths;  the  indices  are  {210),  (320),  &c.,  or  \hko\. 

Basal  pinacoid  (from  -nival;,  a  tablet).  This  consists  of  a  single 
pair  of  parallel  faces  perpendicular  to  the  principal  axis.  It  is  there- 
fore an  open  form  and  can  exist  only  in  combination  (fig.  47). 

Combinations  of  holohedral  tetragonal  forms  are  shown  in  figs. 
47-49 ;  fig.  48  is  a  combination  of  a  bipyramid  of  the  first  order  with 
one  of  the  second  order  and  the  prism  of  the  first  order;  fig.  49  a 


FIG.   46. — Ditetragonal 
Bipyramid. 


FIG.  47. 

Combination  of 
Tetragonal  Prism 
and  Basal  Pinacoid. 


FIG.  48.  FIG.  49. 

Combinations  of  Tetragonal  Prisms  and  Pyramids. 

combination  of  a  bipyramid  of  the  first  order  with  a  ditetragonal 
bipyramid  and  the  prism  of  the  second  order.  Compare  also  figs. 
87  and  88. 

Examples  of  substances  which  crystallize  inthisclassarecassiterite, 
rutile,  anatase,  zircon,  thorite,  vesuvianite,  apophyllite,  phosgenite, 
also  boron,  tin,  mercuric  iodide. 

SCALENOHEDRAL   CLASS 

(Bisphenoidal-hemihedral). 

Here  there  are  only  three  dyad  axes  and  two  planes  of  symmetry, 
the  former  coinciding  with  the  crystallographic  axes  and  the  latter 
bisecting  the  angles  between  the  horizontal  pair.  The  dyad  axis 
of  symmetry,  which  in  this  class  coincides  with  the  principal  axis 
of  the  crystal,  has  certain  of  the  characters  of  a  tetrad  axis,  and  is 
sometimes  called  a  tetrad  axis  of  "  alternating  symmetry  ";  a  face 
on  the  upper  half  of  the  crystal  if  rotated  through  90°  about  this  axis 
and  reflected  across  the  equatorial  plane  falls  into  the  position  of  a 
face  on  the  lower  half  of  the  crystal.  This  kind  of  symmetry,  with 
simultaneous  rotation  about  an  axis  and  reflection  across  a  plane, 
is  also  called  "  composite  symmetry." 

In  this  class  all  except  two  of  the  simple  forms  are  geometrically 
the  same  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class. 

Bisphenoid  (<r<t>jv,  a  wedge)  (fig.  50).  This  is  a  double  wedge- 
shaped  solid  bounded  by  four  equal  isosceles  triangles;  it  has  the 
indices  (in),  |2it),  (112),  &c.,  or  in  general  \hhl\.  By  suppressing 
either  one  or  other  set  of  alternate  faces  of  the  tetragonal  bipyramid 
of  the  first  order  (fig.  42)  two  bisphenoids  are  derived,  in  the 

vn.  19 


same   way    that    two   tetrahedra   are   derived   from   the   regular 
octahedron. 

Tetragonal  scalenohedron  or  ditetragonal  bisphenoid  (fig.  51). 
This  is  bounded  by  eight  scalene  triangles  and  has  the  indices  \hkl\. 
It  may  be  considered  as  the  hemihedral  form  of  the  ditetragonal 
bipyramid. 


FIG.  50. — Tetragonal  Bisphenoids. 


FIG.  51. — Tetragonal 
Scalenohedron. 


The  crystal  of  chalcopyrite  (CuFeSj)  represented  in  fig.  52  is  a 
combination  of  two  bisphenoids  (P  and  P'),  two  bipyramids  of  the 
second  order  (6  and  c),  and  the  basal  pinacoid  (a).  Stannite 
(CujFeSnSO,  acid  potassium  phosphate  (HjKPC^),  mercuric  cyanide, 
and  urea  (CO(NHj)2)  also  crystallize  in  this  class. 

BlPYRAMIDAL    CLASS 

(Parallel-faced  hemihedral). 

The  elements  of  symmetry  are  a  tetrad  axis  with  a  plane  per- 
pendicular to  it,  and  a  centre  of  symmetry.  The  simple  forms  are 
the  same  here  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class,  except  the  prism  \hko\ , 
which  has  only  four  faces,  and  the  bipyramid  {hkl} ,  which  has  eight 
faces  and  is  distinguished  as  a  "  tetragonal  pyramid  of  the  third 
order." 


FIG.  52.  —  Crystal  of  Chalcopyrite.   FIG.  53.  —  Crystal  of  Fergusonite. 

Fig.  53  shows  a  combination  of  a  tetragonal  prism  of  the  first  order 
with  a  tetragonal  bipyramid  of  the  third  order  and  the  basal  pinacoid, 
and  represents  a  crystal  of  fergusonite.  Scheelite  (<?.».),  scapolite 
(g.v.),  and  erythrite  (CiHjoCM  also  crystallize  in  this  class. 


PYRAMIDAL  CLASS 
(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral)  . 

Here  the  only  element  of  symmetry  is  the  tetrad  axis.  The  pyra- 
mids of  the  first  \hhl\,  second  {hot}  and  third  \hkl\  orders  have  each 
only  four  faces  at  one  or  other  end  of  the  crystal,  andare  hemimorphic. 
All  the  simple  forms  are  thus  open  forms. 

Examples  are  wulfenite  (PbMoO.)  and  barium  antimony!  dextro- 
tartrate  ( 


DITETRAGONAL  PYRAMIDAL  CLASS 
(Hemimorphic-hemihedral). 

Here  there  are  two  pairs  of  vertical  planes  of  symmetry  inter- 
secting in  the  tetrad  axis.  The  pyramids  \hhl]  and  {hoi}  and  the 
bipyramid  \hkl\  are  all  hemimorphic. 

Examplesareiodosuccimide(C4H4OjNI),silver  fluoride  (AgF-HjO), 
and  penta-erythrite  (CsHuOj).  No  examples  are  known  amongst 
minerals. 

TRAPEZOHEDRAL  CLASS 
(Trapezohedral-hemihedral). 

Here  there  are  the  full  number  of  axes  of  symmetry,  but  no  planes 
or  centre  of  symmetry.  The  general  form  \hkl\  is  bounded  by  eight 
trapezoidal  faces  and  is  the  tetragonal  trapezohedron. 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


Examples  are  nidtel  sulphate  (NiSO4-6H2O),  guanidine  carbonate 
((CH6N,)2H2CO3),  strychnine  sulphate((C2iH22N2O2),-H2SO4-6H2O). 

BlSPHENOIDAL    CLASS 

(Bisphenoidal-tetartohedral). 

•  Here  there  is  only  a  single  dyad  axis  of  symmetry,  which  coincides 
with  the  principal  axis.  All  the  forms,  except  the  prisms  and  basal 
pinacoid,  are  sphenoids.  Crystals  possessing  this  type  of  symmetry 
have  not  yet  been  observed. 

3.  ORTHORHOMBIC  SYSTEM 

(Rhombic;  Prismatic;  Trimetric). 

In  this  system  the  three  crystallographic  axes  are  all  at  right 
angles,  but  they  are  of  different  lengths  and  not  interchangeable. 
The  parameters,  or  axial  ratios,  are  a:  b:  c,  these  referring  to  the 
axes  OX,  O  Y  and  OZ  respectively.  The  choice  of  a  vertical  axis, 
OZ=c,  is  arbitrary,  and  it  is  customary  to  place  the  longer  of  the  two 
horizontal  axes  from  left  to  right  (OY  =  6)  and  take  it  as  unity: 
this  is  called  the  "  macro-axis  "  or  "  macro-diagonal  "  (from  juanpos, 
long),  whilst  the  shorter  horizontal  axis  (OX  =  a)  is  called  the 
"  brachy-axis  "  or  "  brachy-diagonal  "  (from  /Jpaxfa,  short).  The 
axial  ratios  are  constant  for  crystals  of  any  one  substance  and  are 
characteristic  of  it;  for  example,  in  barytes  (BaSO4),  a:  b:  c  = 
0-8152:  i:  1-3136;  inanglesite  (PbSO4),  a:b:c  =  o^&$2:  i:  1-2894; 
in  cerussite  (PbCOa),  a:6:c  =  o-6ioo:  1:0-7230. 

There  are  three  symmetry-classes  in  this  system : — 

HOLOHEDRAL    CLASS 

(Holohedral;   Bipyramidal). 

Here  there  are  three  dissimilar  dyad  axes  of  symmetry,  each 
coinciding  with  a  crystallographic  axis;  perpendicular  to  them  are 
three  dissimilar  planes  of  symmetry;  there  is  also  a  centre  of 
symmetry.  There  are  seven  kinds  of  simple  forms: — 

Bipyramid  (figs.  54  and  55).  This  is  the  general  form  and  is 
bounded  by  eight  scalene  triangles;  the  indices  are  [ill},  [211], 


FIG.  54.  FIG-  55- 

Orthorhombic  Bipyramids. 

|22i),  |ii2),  |32i),  (123),  &c.,  or  in  general  (hkl\.  The  crystallo- 
graphic axes  join  opposite  corners  of  these  pyramids  and  in 
the  fundamental  bipyramid  |iu|  the  parametral  plane  has  the 
intercepts  a:  b:  c.  This  is  the  only  closed  form  in  this  class;  the 
others  are  open  forms  and  can  exist  only  in  combination.  Sulphur 
often  crystallizes  in  simple  bipyramids. 

Prism.  This  consists  of  four  faces  parallel  to  the  vertical  axis  and 
intercepting  the  horizontal  axes  in  the  lengths  a  and  b  or  in  any 
multiples  of  these;  the  indices  are  therefore  jiioj,  |2io|,  (120)  or 

Macro-prism.    This  consists  ol  four  faces  parallel  to  the  macro- 


FIG.  56. — Macro-prism  and 
Brachy-pinacoid. 


FIG.  57. — Brachy-prism  and 
Macro-pinacoid. 


axis,  and  has  the  indices  (loij,  {201]  ...  or  (hoi}. 

Brachy-prism.  This  consists  of  four  faces  parallel  to  the  brachy- 
axis,  and  has  the  indices  Jon),  JO2IJ  .  .  .  {okl}.  The  macro-  and 
brachy-prisms  are  often  called  "  domes." 

Basal  pinacoid,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  parallel  faces  perpendicular 
to  the  vertical  axis;  the  indices  are  Jooij.  The  macro-pinacoid 


1 100}  and  the  brachy-pinacoid  (oio)  each  consist  of  a  pair  of  paralle 
faces  respectively  parallel  to  the  macro-  and  the  brachy-axis. 

Figs.  56-58  show  combinations  of  these  six  open  forms,  and  fig.  51 
a  combination  of  the  macro-pinacoid  (a),  brachy-pinacoid  (b),  < 
prism  (m),  a  macro-prism  (d),  a  brachy-prism  (&\and  a  bipyramid  (u) 


FIG.  58. — Prism  and  Basal 
Pinacoid. 


FIG.  59. — Crystal  of 

Hypersthene. 
Holohedral  Orthorhombic  Combinations. 


Examples  of  substances  crystallizing  in  this  class  are  extreme! 
numerous;  amongst  minerals  are  sulphur,  stibnite,  cerussiti 
chrysoberyl,  topaz,  olivine,  nitre,  barytes,  columbite  and  man 
others;  and  amongst  artificial  products  iodine,  potassium  pe; 
manganate,  potassium  sulphate,  benzene,  barium  formate,  &c. 

PYRAMIDAL  CLASS 
(Hemfmorphic). 

Here  there  is  only  one  dyad  axis  in  which  two  planes  of  symmeti 
intersect.  The  crystals  are  usually  so  placed  that  the  dyad  ax 
coincides  with  the  vertical  crystallographic  axis,  and  the  plan< 
of  symmetry  are  also  vertical. 

The  pyramid  \hkl\  has  only  four  faces  at  one  end  or  other  of  tl 
crystal.  The  macro-prism  and  the  brachy-prism  of  the  last  class  a: 
here  represented  by  the  macro-dome  and  brachy-dome  respectivel; 
so  called  because  of  the  resemblance  of  the  pair  of  equally  slope 
faces  to  the  roof  of  a  house.  The  form  {ooij  is  a  single  plane  at  tl 
top  of  the  crystal,  and  is  called  a  "  pedion  ";  the  parallel  pedic 
jooij ,  if  present  at  the  lower  end  of  the  crystal,  constitutes  a  differei 
form.  The  prisms  \hko\  and  the  macro-  and  brachy-pinacoids  ai 
geometrically  the  same  in  this  class  as  in  the  last.  Crystals  of  th 
class  are  therefore  differently  developed  at  the  two  ends  and  are  sai 
to  be  "  hemimorphic." 

Fig.  60  shows  a  crystal  of  the  mineral  hemimorphite  (HjZn2SiO 
which  is  a  combination  of  the  brachy-pinacoid  {oio|  and  a  prisn 


FIG.  60. — Crystal  of 
Hemimorphite. 


FIG.  61. — Orthorhombic 
Bisphenoid. 


with  the  pedion  (ooi),  two  brachy-domes  and  two  macro-domi 
at  the  upper  end,  and  a  pyramid  at  the  lower  end.  Exampl 
of  other  substances  belonging  to  this  class  are  struvi 
(NH4MgPO4-6H2O),  bertrandite  (H2Be<Si2O>),  resorcin,  and  pier 
acid. 

BlSPHENOIDAL    CLASS 

(Hemihedral). 

Here  there  are  three  dyad  axes,  but  no  planes  of  symmetry  ar 
no  centre  of  symmetry.  The  general  form  [hkl\  is  a  bispheno 
(fig.  61)  bounded  by  four  scalene  triangles.  The  other  simple  fora 
are  geometrically  the  same  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class. 

Examples:  epsomite  (Epsom  salts,  MgSO4-7H2O),  gosferi 
(ZnSO4-7H2O),  silver  nitrate,  sodium  potassium  dextro-tartra 
(seignette  salt,  NaKC4H4O6-4H2O),  potassium  antimonyl  dextr 
tartrate  (tartar-emetic,  K(SbO)C4H4O«),  and  asparagii 
(C.HgNjO.-HjO). 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


579 


4.  MONOCLINIC  l  SYSTEM 

(Oblique;  Monosymmetric). 

In  this  system  two  of  the  angles  between  the  crystallographic 
ixes  are  right  angles,  but  the  third  angle  is  oblique,  and  the  axes 
ire  of  unequal  lengths.  The  axis  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  other 
:wo  is  taken  as  OY  =  b  (fig.  62)  and  is  called  the  ortho-axis  or  ortho- 
liagonal.  The  choice  of  the  other  two  axes  is  arbitrary ;  the  vertical 
ixis  (OZ  =  c)  is  usually  taken  parallel  to  the  edges  of  a  prominently 
ieveloped  prismatic  zone,  and  the  clino-axis  or  chno-diagonal 
OX=a)  parallel  to  the  zone-axis  of  some  other  prominent  zone  on 
:he  crystal.  The  acute  angle  between  the  axes  OX  and  OZ  is  usually 
lenoted  as  ft,  and  it  is  necessary  to  know  its  magnitude,  in  addition 
:o  the  axial  ratios  a:  b:  c,  before  the  crystal  is  completely  deter- 
nined.  As  in  other  systems,  except  the  cubic,  these  elements, 
i  :  6  :  c  and  (3,  are  characteristic  of  the  substance.  Thus  for  gypsum 
i  :  b  :  £  =  0-6899  :  1:0-4124;  /3  =  8o°  42';  for  orthoclase  a  :  b  :  c  = 
)-6s8s  :  i  :  0-5554;  £  =  63°  57';  and  for  cane-sugar  a  :  b  :c- 
1-2595  :  i  :  0-8782;  ft  =  76°  30'. 

HOLOSYMMETRIC    CLASS 

(Holohedral;    Prismatic). 

Here  there  is  a  single  plane  of  symmetry  perpendicular  to  which 
s  a  dyad  axis ;  there  is  also  a  centre  of  symmetry.  The  dyad  axis 
:oincides  with  the  ortho-axis  0  Y,  and  the  vertical  axis  OZ  and  the 
:lino-axis  OX  lie  in  the  plane  of  symmetry. 

All  the  forms  are  open,  being  either  pinacoids  or  prisms;  the 
brmer  consisting  of  a  pair  of  parallel  faces,  and  the  latter  of  four 
'aces  intersecting  in  parallel  edges  and  with  a  rhombic  cross-section. 
Fhe  pair  of  faces  parallel  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  is  distinguished 
is  the  "  clino-pinacoid  "  and  has  the  indices  |oio[.  The  other 
jinacoids  are  all  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  (and 
parallel  to  the  ortho-axis) ;  the  one  parallel  to  the  vertical  axis  is 
•ailed  the  "  ortho-pinacoid  "  |loo|,  whilst  that  parallel  to  the  clino- 
ixis  is  the  "  basal  pinacoid  "  |ooij ;  pinacoids  not  parallel  to  the 
irbitrarily  chosen  clino-  and  vertical  axes  may  have  the  indices 

[I0l|,     {20l|,     |I02|    .    .    .    (hoi)    Or     {I0l|,     (201),     JI02|     .    .    .     |M, 

iccording  to  whether  they  lie  in  the  obtuse  or  the  acute  axial  angle. 
3f  the  prisms,  those  with  edges  (zone-axis)  parallel  to  the  clino-axis, 
ind  having  indices  (oil!,  |O2i|,  |oi2)  .  .  .  (okl\ ,  are  called  "  clino- 
prisms  ";  those  with  edges  parallel  to  the  vertical  axis,  and  with  the 
Indices  |no),  (210),  (120)  .  .  .  \hko\,  are  called  simply  "prisms." 
Prisms  with  edges  parallel  to  neither  of  the  axes  OX  and  OY  have 
the  indices  ini),  |22i),  |2ii|,  (321!  .  .  .  [hkl\  or  {Hl|  .  .  .  [hkl]. 


X 


FIG.  62. — Monoclinic  Axes  and         FIG.  63. — Crystal  of  Augite. 
Hemi-pyramid. 

and  are  usually  called  "  hemi-pyramids  "  (fig.  62) ;  they  are  dis- 
tinguished as  negative1  or  positive  according  to  whether  they  lie 
in  the  obtuse  or  the  acute  axial  angle  ft. 

Fig.  63  represents  a  crystal  of  augite  bounded  by  the  clinp- 
pinacoid  (/),  the  ortho-pinacoid  (r),  a  prism  (M),  and  a  hemi-pyramid 

The  substances  which  crystallize  in  this  class  are  extremely 
numerous:  amongst  minerals  are  gypsum,  orthoclase,  the  amphi- 
boles,  pyroxenes  and  micas,  epidote,  monazite,  realgar,  borax, 
mirabilfte  (Na2SO4-10H2O),  melanterite  (FeSO4-7H2O)  and  many 
others;  amongst  artificial  products  are  monoclinic  sulphur,  barium 
chloride  (BaCl2-2H2O),  potassium  chlorate,  potassium  ferrocyanide 
(K4Fe(CN)e-3H,O),  oxalic  acid  (C2O4H2-2H2O),  sodium  acetate 
(NaCiH,O2-3H2O)  and  naphthalene. 

HEMIMORPHIC  CLASS 
(Sphenoidal). 

In  this  class  the  only  element  of  symmetry  is  a  single  dyad  axis, 
which  is  polar  in  character,  being  dissimilar  at  the  two  ends. 

The  form  |oioj  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  symmetry  consists  of 
a  single  plane  or  pedion;  the  parallel  face  is  dissimilar  in  character 
and  belongs  to  the  pedion  |olo|.  The  pinacoids  jioo),  jooi),  |Ao/| 
and  [Hol\  parallel  to  the  axis  of  symmetry  are  geometrically  the 


1  From/i&'oj,  single,  and  xXtveiv,  to  incline,  since  one  axis  is  inclined 
to  the  plane  of  the  other  two  axes,  which  are  at  right  angles. 


same  in  this  class  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class.  The  remaining 
forms  consist  each  of  only  two  planes  on  the  same  side  of  the  axial 
plane  XOZ  and  equallyjnclined  to  the  dyad  axis  (e.g.  in  fig.  62  the 
two  planes  XYZ  and  XYZ);  such  a  wedge-shaped  form  is  some- 
times called  a  sphenoid. 


FIG.  64. — Enantiomorphous  Crystals  of  Tartaric  Acid. 

Fig.  64  shows  two  crystals  of  tartaric  acid,  a  a  right-handed 
crystal  of  dextro-tartaric  acid,  and  b  a  left-handed  crystal  of  laevo- 
tartaric  acid.  The  two  crystals  are  enantiomorphous,  i.e.  although 
they  have  the  same  interfacial  angles  they  are  not  superposabTe, 
one  being  the  mirror  image  of  the  other.  Other  examples  are 
potassium  dextro-tartrate,  cane-sugar,  milk-sugar,  quercite,  lithium 
sulphate  (LisSO^HjO) ;  amongst  minerals  the  only  example  is  the 
hydrocarbon  fichtelite  (CiH8). 

CLINOHEDRAL  CLASS 
(Hemihedral;    Domatic). 

Crystals  of  this  class  are  symmetrical  only  with  respect  to  a  single 
plane.  The  only  form  which  is  here  geometrically  the  same  as  in  the 
holosymmetric  class  is  the  clino-pinacoid  joiof.  The  forms  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  symmetry  are  all  pedions,  consisting  of 
single  planes  with  the  indices  (100),  (loo),  (ooi),  (ooi),  (hoi),  &c. 
The  remaining  forms,  \hko\  ,(okl)  and  (hkl),  are  domes  or  "  gonioids  " 
(ywvia,  an  angle,  and  «I8os,  form),  consisting  of  two  planes  equally 
inclined  to  the  plane  of  symmetry. 

Examples  are  potassium  tetrathionate  (KjSiOtJi  hydrogen  tri- 
sodium  hypophosphate  (HNa>P2O6-9H2O);  and  amongst  minerals, 
clinohednte  (H2ZnCaSiO4)  and  scolectite. 

5.  ANORTHIC  SYSTEM 

(Triclinic). 

In  the  anorthic  (from  iv,  privative,  and  dpffos,  right)  or  triclinic 
system  none  of  the  three  crystallographic  axes  are  at  right  angles, 
and  they  are  all  of  unequal  lengths.  In  addition  to  the  parameters 
a  :b  :c,itis  necessary  to  know  the  angles,  a,  /3,  and  y,  between  the 
axes.  In  anorthite,  for  example,  these  elements  are  a  :  b  ;  c=* 
0-6347:1  :o-550i;  0  =  93°  13', /S=ii5°  55',  7=91°  12'. 

HOLOSYMMETRIC  CLASS 

(Holohedral ;   Pinacoidal). 

Here  there  is  only  a  centre  of  symmetry.  All  the  forms  are  pina- 
coids, each  consisting  of  only  two  parallel  faces.  The  indices  of  the 
three  pinacoids  parallel  to  the  axial  planes  are  |ioo|,  joio)  and 
I  ooi  I;  those  of  pinacoids  parallel  to  only  one  axis  are  [hko\,\hol\ 
and  \okl\ ;  and  the  general  form  is  [hkl\ . 

Several  minerals  crystallize  in  this  class;  for  example,  the  plagio- 
clastic  felspars,  microcline,  axinite  (fig.  65),  cyanite,  amblygonite, 
chalcanthite(CuSO4-5H2O),sassolite(H3BO3); 
among  artificial  substances  are  potassium 
bichromate,  racemic  acid  (C4H«O«-2H2O), 
dibrom-para-nitrophenol,  &c. 

ASYMMETRIC  CLASS 


(Hemihedral,  Pediad). 

Crystals  of  this  class  are  devoid  of  any 
elements  of  symmetry.  All  the  forms  are 
pedions,  each  consisting  of  a  single  plane;  p.  r 

they  are  thus  hemihedral   with   respect   to     Fl°'  ^5-— Crystal  of 
crystals  of  the  last  class.    Although  there  is 

a  total  absence  of  symmetry,  yet  the  faces  are  arranged  in  zones 
on  the  crystals. 

Examples  are  calcium  thiosulphate  (CaS2O»-6HjO)  and  hydrogen 
strontium  dextro-tartrate  ((C4H4O«H)2Sr'5HsO) ;  there  is  no  example 
amongst  minerals. 

6.  HEXAGONAL  SYSTEM 

Crystals  of  this  system  are  characterized  by  the  presence  of  a  single 
axis  of  either  triad  or  hexad  symmetry,  which  is  spoken  of  as  the 
"  principal  "  or  "  morphological  "  axis.  Those  with  a  triad  axis 
are  grouped  together  in  the  rhombohedral  or  trigonal  division,  and 
those  with  a  hexad  axis  in  the  hexagonal  division.  By  some  authors 
these  two  divisions  are  treated  as  separate  systems;  or  again  the 
rhombohedral  forms  may  be  considered  as  hemihedral  developments 


58° 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


of  the  hexagonal.  On  the  other  hand,  hexagonal  forms  may  be 
considered  as  a  combination  of  two  rhomboheoral  forms. 

Owing  to  the  peculiarities  of  symmetry  associated  with  a  single 
triad  or  hexad  axis,  the  crystallographic  axes  of  reference  are  different 
in  this  system  from  those  used  in  the  five  other  systems  of  crystals. 
Two  methods  of  axial  representation  are  in  common  use;  rhombo- 
hedral axes  being  usually  used  for  crystals  of  the  rhombohedral 
division,  and  hexagonal  axes  for  those  of  the  hexagonal  division; 
though  sometimes  either  one  or  the  other  set  is  employed  in  both 
divisions. 

Rhombohedral  axes  are  taken  parallel  to  the  three  sets  of  edges 
of  a  rhombohedron  (fig.  66).  They  are  inclined  to  one  another  at 
equal  oblique  angles,  and  they  are  all  equally  inclined  to  the  principal 
axis;  further,  they  are  all  of  equal  length  and  are  interchangeable. 
With  such  a  set  of  axes  there  can  be  no  statement  of  an  axial  ratio, 
but  the  angle  between  the  axes  (or  some  other  angle  which  may  be 
calculated  from  this)  may  be  given  as  a  constant  of  the  substance. 
Thus  in  calcite  the  rhombohedral  angle  (the  angle  between  two  faces 
of  the  fundamental  rhombohedron)  is  74°  55',  or  the  angle  between 
the  normal  to  a  face  of  this  rhombohedron  and  the  principal  axis  is 

44°  365'- 

Hexagonal  axes  are  four  in  number,  viz.  a  vertical  axis  coinciding 
with  the  principal  axis  of  the  crystal,  and  three  horizontal  axes 
inclined  to  one  another  at  60°  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  princi- 
pal axis.  The  three  horizontal  axes,  which  are  taken  either  parallel 
or  perpendicular  to  the  faces  of  a  hexagonal  prism  (fig.  71)  or  the 
edge  of  a  hexagonal  bipyramid  (fig.  70),  are  equal  in  length  (a)  but 
the  vertical  axis  is  of  a  different  length  (c).  The  indices  of  planes 
referred  to  such  a  set  of  axes  are  four  in  number;  they  are  written 
as  \hikl\,  the  first  three  (h+i+k  =  o)  referring  to  the  horizontal 
axes  and  the  last  to  the  vertical  axis.  The  ratio  a  :  c  of  the  para- 
meters, or  the  axial  ratio,  is  characteristic  of  all  the  crystals  of  the 
same  substance.  Thus  for  beryl  (including  emerald)  a  :  c  =  l: 
0-4989  (often  written  c  =  0-4989) ;  for  zinc  c  =  1-3564. 

Rhombohedral  Division. 

In  the  rhombohedral  or  trigonal  division  of  the  hexagonal  system 
there  are  seven  symmetry-classes,  all  of  which  possess  a  single 
triad  axis  of  symmetry. 

HOLOSYMMETRIC    CLASS 

(Holohedral;   Ditrigonal  scalenohedral). 

In  this  class,  which  presents  the  commonest  type  of  symmetry 
of  the  hexagonal  system,  the  triad  axis  is  associated  with  three 
similar  planes  of  symmetry  inclined  to  one  another  at  60°  and  inter- 


FIG.  66.  FIG.  67. 

Direct  and  Inverse  Rhombohedra. 

secting  in  the  triad  axis;  there  are  also  three  similar  dyad  axes, 
each  perpendicular  to  a  plane  of  symmetry,  and  a  centre  of  sym- 
metry. The  seven  simple  forms  are : — 

Rhombohedron  (figs.  66  and  67),  consisting  of  six  rhomb-shaped 
faces  with  the  edges  all  of  equal  lengths :  the  faces  are  perpendicular 
to  the  planes  of  symmetry.  There  are 
two  sets  of  rhombohedra,  distinguished 
respectively  as  direct  and  inverse ;  those 
of  one  set  (fig.  66)  are  brought  into  the 
orientation  of  the  other  set  (fig.  67)  by 
a  rotation  of  60°  or  180°  about  the  prin- 
cipal axis.  For  the  fundamental  rhombo- 
hedron, parallel  to  the  edges  of  which 
are  the  crystallographic  axes  of  reference, 
the  indices  are  (icoj.  Other  rhombo- 
hedra may_have  the  indices  (21  ij,  |4TT), 
jno  ,  |22i|,  (HI!,  &c.,  or  in  general 
(hkk  .  (Compare  fig.  72 ;  for  figures  of 
other  rhombohedra  see  CALCITE.) 

Scalenohedron  (fig.  68),  bounded  by 
twelve  scalene  triangles,  and  with  the 
general  indices  {hkl} .   The  zig-zag  lateral 
edges  coincide  with  the  similar  edges  of  a 
rhombohedron,    as    shown    in    fig.    69; 
if  the  indices  of  the  inscribed  rhombo- 
hedron   be    jioo),    the    indices    of    the 
scalenohedron  represented  in  the  figure  are  (20!) .  The  scalenohedron 
|2oi  |  is  a  characteristic  form  of  calcite,  which  for  this  reason  is  some- 
t,rnn,=  ™\\*A  "  dog-tooth-spar."     The  angles  over  the  three  edges  of 


FIG.  68. — Scalenohedron. 


times  called 


a  face  of  a  scalenohedron  are  all  different;  the  angles  over  three 
alternate  polar  edges  are  more  obtuse  than  over  the  other  three 
polar  edges.  Like  the  two  sets  of  rhombohedra,  there  are  also 
direct  and  inverse  scalenohedra,  which  may  be  similar  in  form  and 
angles,  but  different  in  orientation  and  indices. 

Hexagonal  bipyramid  (fig.  70),  bounded  by  twelve  isosceles 
triangles  each  of  which  are  equally  inclined  to  two  planes  of  sym- 
metry. The  indices  are  (210),  {412"),  &c.,  or  in  general  (hkl),  where 
h-2k+l 


FIG.  70. — Hexagonal 
Bipyramid. 


FIG.  69. — Scalenohedron  with 
inscribed  Rhombohedron. 


FIG.  71. — Hexagonal  Prism 
and  Basal  Pinacoid. 


Hexagonal  prism  of  the  first  order  (2YT),  consisting  of  six  faces 
parallel  to  the  principal  axis  and  perpendicular  to  the  planes  of 
symmetry ;  the  angles  between  (the  normals  to)  the  faces  are  60°. 

Hexagonal  prism  of  the  second  order  (101),  consisting  of  six  faces 
parallel  to  the  principal  axis  and  parallel  to  the  planes  of  symmetry. 
The  faces  of  this  prism  are  inclined  to  30°  to  those  of  the  last  prism. 

Dihexagonal  prism,  consisting  of  twelve  faces  parallel  to  the 
principal  axis  and  inclined  to  the  planes  of  symmetry.  There  are 
two  sets  of  angles  between  the  faces.  The  indices  are  {321) ,  (532) 
.  .  .  {hkl},  where  h+k+l  =  O. 

Basal  pinacoid  |m),  consisting  of  a  pair  of  parallel  faces  per- 
pendicular to  the  principal  axis. 

Fig.  71  shows  a  combination  of  a  hexagonal  prism  (m)  with  the 
basal  pinacoid  (c).  For  figures  of  other  combinations  see  CALCITE 


01 


FIG.  72. — Stereographic  Projection  of  a  Holosymmetric 
Rhombohedral  Crystal. 

and  CORUNDUM.  The  relation  between  rhombohedral  forms  and 
their  indices  are  best  studied  with  the  aid  of  a  Stereographic  pro- 
jection (fig.  72) ;  in  this  figure  the  thicker  lines  are  the  projections 
of  the  three  planes  of  symmetry,  and  on  these  lie  the  poles  of  the 
rhombohedra  (six  of  which  are  indicated). 

Numerous   substances,   both    natural   and   artificial,   crystalline 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


581 


in  this  class;  for  example,  calcite,  chalybite,  calamine,  corundum 
(ruby  and  sapphire),  haematite,  chabazite;  the  elements  arsenic, 
antimony,  bismuth,  selenium,  tellurium  and  perhaps  graphite; 
also  ice,  sodium  nitrate,  thymol,  &c. 

DITRICONAL  PYRAMIDAL  CL'ASS 
(Hemimorphic-hemihedral). 

Here  there  are  three  similar  planes  of  symmetry  intersecting  in 
the  triad  axis;  there  are  no  dyad  axes  and  no  centre  of  symmetry. 
The  triad  axis  is  uniterminal  and  polar,  and  the  crystals  are  differ- 
ently developed  at  the  two  ends ;  crystals  of  this  class  are  therefore 
pyro-electric.  The  forms  are  all  open  forms: — 

Trigonal  pyramid  \hkk] ,  consisting  of  three  faces  which  correspond 
to  the  three  upper  or  the  three  lower  faces  of  a 
rhombohedron  of  the  holosymmetric  class. 

Ditrigonal  pyramid  [hkl\,  of  six  faces, 
corresponding  to  the  six  upper  or  lower  faces 
of  the  scalenohedron. 

Hexagonal  pyramid  (hkl)  (where  h-2k  + 
l=o),  of  six  faces,  corresponding  to  the  six 
upper  or  lower  faces  of  the  hexagonal  bi- 
pyramid. 

Trigonal  prism  J2TT]  or  (211),  two  forms 
each  consisting  of  three  faces  parallel  to  prin- 
cipal axis  and  perpendicular  to  the  planes  of 
symmetry. 

Hexagonal    prism     (ioT),    which     is    geo- 

K,r   ,, rrvst^l  nf  metrically  the  same  as_m  the  last  class. 

Tourmah^e  Ditrigonal  prism    {hkl)  (where  h +k+l  =  o), 

of  six  faces  parallel  to  the  principal  axis,  and 
with  two  sets  of  angles  between  them. 

Basal  pedion  (in)  or  (TIT),  each  consisting  of  a  single  plane 
perpendicular  to  the  principal  axis. 

Fig.  73  represents  a  crystal  of  tourmaline  with  the  trigonal  prism 
(2Tl),  hexagonal  prism  (loT),  and  a  trigonal  pyramid  at  each  end. 
Other  substances  crystallizing  in  this  class  are  pyrargyrite,  proustite, 
iodyrite  (Agl),  greenockite,  zincite,  spangolite,  sodium  lithium 
sulphate,  tolylphenylketone. 

TRAPEZOHEDRAL  CLASS 
(Trapezohedral-hemihedral). 

Here  there  are  three  similar  dyad  axes  inclined  to  one  another  at 
60°  and  perpendicular  to  the  triad  axis.  There  are  no  planes  or 
centre  of  symmetry.  The  dyad  axes  are  uniterminal,  and  are  pyro- 
electric  axes.  Crystals  of  most  substances  of  this  class  rebate  the 

plane  of  polariz.  ticn  of 
a  beam  of  light. 

In  this  class  the 
rhombohedra  \hkk\,the 
hexagonal  prism  |2lTj, 
and  the  basal  pinacoid 
jmj  are  geometrically 
the  same  as  in  the 
holosymmetric  class; 
the  trigonal  prism  |loT) 
and  the  ditrigonal 
prisms  are  as  in  the 
ditrigonal  pyramidal 
class.  The  remaining 
simple  forms  are: — 
Trigonal  trapezohedron  (fig.  74),  bounded  by  six  trapezoidal 
faces.  There  are  two  complementary  and  enantiomorphous  trapezo- 
hedra,  \hkl\  and  \hlk\ ,  derivable  from  the  scalenohedron. 

Trigonal  bipyramid  (fig.  75),  bounded  by  six  isosceles  triangles; 
the  indices  are  \hkl\,  where  h-2k-\-l  =  o,  as  in  the  hexagonal 
bipyramid. 

The  only  minerals  crystallizing  in  this  class  are  quartz  (y.i>.) 
and  cinnabar,  both  of  which  rotate  the  plane  of  a  beam  of 'polarized 
light  transmitted  along  the  triad  axis.  Other  examples  are  dithio- 
nates  of  lead  (PbSjOe^HjO),  calcium  and  strontium,  and  of  potas- 
sium (I^SjOj),  benzil,  matico-stearoptene. 

RHOMBOHEDRAL  CLASS 
(Parallel-faced  hemihedral). 

The  only  elements  of  symmetry  are  the  triad  axis  and  a  centre  of 
symmetry.  The  general  form  \hkl\  is  a  rhombohedron,  and  is  a 
hemihedral  form,  with  parallel  faces,  of  the  scalenohedron.  The 
form  \hkl\,  where  /t-2Jfe-j-/  =  o,  is  also  a  rhombohedron,  being  the 
hemihedral  form  of  the  hexagonal  bipyramid.  The  dihexagonal 
prism  |AJZ)  of  the  holosymmetric  class  becomes  here  a  hexagonal 
prism.  The  rhombohedra  (hkk),  hexagonal  prisms  |2fT)  and  (lolj, 
and  the  basal  pinacoid  (in)  are  geometrically  the  same  in  this 
class  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class. 

Fig.  76  represents  a  crystal  of  dioptase  with  the  fundamental 
rhombohedron  rjiooj  and  the  hexagonal  prism  of  the  second  order 
m  |lol|  combined  with  the  rhombonedron  j  (O3l|. 

Examples  of  minerals  which  crystallize  in  this  class  are  phenacite, 


FlG.  74. — Trigonal 
Trapezohedron. 


FIG.  75. — Trigonal 
Bipyramid. 


dioptase,  willemite,  dolomite,  ilmenite  and  pyrophanite:    amongst 
artificial  substances  is  ammonium  periodate  ((NH«)«IjO»-3HjO). 

TRIGONAL  PYRAMIDAL  CLASS 
(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral). 

Here  there  is  only  the  triad  axis  of  symmetry,  which  is  uniterminal. 
The  general  form  (hkl\  is  a  trigonal  pyramid  consisting  of  three  faces 
at  one  end  of  the  crystal.    All  other  forms,  in 
which    the    faces    are    neither    parallel    nor 
perpendicular  to  the  triad  axis,  are  trigonal 
pyramids.    All  the  prisms  are  trigonal  prisms; 
and  perpendicular  to  these  are  two  pedions. 

The  only  substance  known  to  crystallize  in 
this  class  is  sodium  periodate  (NalOvSHzO), 
the  crystals  of  which  are  circularly  polarizing. 

TRIGONAL  BIPYRAMIDAL  CLASS 

Here   there   is  a   plane   of   symmetry   per- 
pendicular  to   the   triad   axis.     The   trigonal 
Cyramids  of  the  last  class  are  here  trigonal 
ipyramids  (fig.  75) ;  the  prisms  are  all  trigonal 
prisms,  and  parallel  to  the  plane  of  symmetry 
is  the  basal  pinacoid.     No  example  is  known 
for  this  class. 


DITRIGONAL  BIPYRAMIDAL  CLASS 


FIG.  76. — Crystal  -of 
Dioptase. 

Here  there  are  three  similar  planes  of  sym- 
metry intersecting  in  the  triad  axis,  and  perpendicular  to  them  is 
a   fourth    plane  of  symmetry;     at   the   intersection  of  the  three 
vertical  planes  with  the  horizontal  plane  are  three  similar  dyad 
axes ;    there  is  no  centre  of  symmetry. 

The  general  form  is  bounded  by  twelve  scalene  triangles  and  is 
a  ditrigonal  bipyramid.  Like  the  general  form  of  the  last  class,  this 
has  two  sets  of  indices  {hkl,  pqf},  (hkl)  for 
faces  above  the  equatorial  plane  of  symmetry 
and  (pqf)  for  faces  below:  with  hexagonal 
axes  there  would  be  only  one  set  of  indices. 
The  hexagonal  bipyramids,  the  hexagonal 
prism  jioT)  and  the  basal  pinacoid  lui) 
are  geometrically  the  same  in  this  class  as 
in  the  holosymmetric  class.  The  trigonal 
prism  |2lT)  and  ditrigonal  prisms  {hkT\  are 
the  same  as  in  the  ditrigonal  pyramidal 
class. 

The  only  representative  of  this  type  of 
symmetry  is  the  mineral  benitoite  (g.rf). 

Hexagonal  Division. 

In  crystals  of  this  division  of  the  hexa-   FIG. 77. — Dihexagonal 
gonal  system  the  principal  axis  is  a  hexad    .         Bipyramid. 
axis  'of    symmetry.        Hexagonal    axes    of 

reference  are  used:     if  rhombohedral  axes  be  used  many  of  the 
simple  forms  will  have  two  sets  of  indices. 

HOLOSYMMETRIC  CLASS 
(Holohedral ;    Dihexagonal  bipyramidal). 

Intersecting  in  the  hexad  axis  are  six  planes  of  symmetry  of  two 
kinds,  and  perpendicular  to  them  is  an  equatorial  plane  of  symmetry. 
Perpendicular  to  the  hexad  axis  are  six  dyad  axes  of  two  kinds  and 
each  perpendicular  to  a  vertical  plane  of  symmetry.  The  seven 
simple  forms  are: — 

Dihexagonal  bipyramid,  bounded  by  twenty-four  scalene  triangles 
(fig.  77;  v  in  fig.  80).  The  indices  are  (2131),  &c.,  or  in  general 
|  hikl].  This  form  may  be  considered  as  a  combination  of  two 
scalenohedra,  a  direct  and  an  inverse. 

Hexagonal   bipyramid   of   the   first  order,   bounded   by   twelve 


FIG.  78.  FIG.  79.  FIG.  80. 

Combinations  of  Hexagonal  forms. 

isosceles  triangles  (fig.  70;  p  and  M  in  fig.  80);  indices  (loll], 
J2o2i|  .  .  .  (hdhl).  The  hexagonal  bipyramid  so  common  in  quartz 
is  geometrically  similar  to  this  form,  but  it  really  is  a  combination 
of  two  rhombohedra,  a  direct  and  an  inverse,  the  faces  of  which 
differ  in  surface  characters  and  often  also  in  size. 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


Hexagonal  bipyramid  of  the  second  order,  bounded  by  twelve 
faces  (j  in  figs.  79  and  80);  indices  {i i5i |,  1 1 152|  .  .  .  \h.h.2h.l\. 

Dihexagonal  prism,  consisting  of  twelve  faces  parallel  to  the  hexad 
axis  and  inclined  to  the  vertical  planes  of  symmetry;  indices  \kiko]. 

Hexagonal  prism  of  the  first  order  [lOTO),  consisting  of  six  faces 
parallel  to  the  hexad  axis  and  perpendicular  to  one  set  of  three 
vertical  planes  of  symmetry  (m  in  figs.  71,  78-80). 

Hexagonal  prism  of  the  second  order  |n3o|,  consisting  of  six 
faces  also  parallel  to  the  hexad  axis,  but  perpendicular  to  the  other 
set  of  three  vertical  planes  of  symmetry  (a  in  fig.  78). 

Basal  pinacoid  joooij,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  parallel  planes  per- 
pendicular to  the  hexad  axis  (c  in  figs.  71,  78-80). 

Beryl  (emerald),  connellite,  zinc,  magnesium  and  beryllium 
crystallize  in  this  class. 

BlFYRAMIDAL  CLASS 

(Parallel-faced  hemihedral). 

Here  there  is  a  plane  of  symmetry  perpendicular  to  the  hexad 
axis;  there  is  also  a  centre  of  symmetry.  All  the  closed  forms  are 
hexagonal  bipyramids;  the  open  forms  are  hexagonal  prisms  or 
the  basal  pinacoid.  The  general  form  \hikl\  is  hemihedral  with 
parallel  faces  with  respect  to  the  general  form  of  the  holosymmetric 
class. 

Apatite  (?.».),  pyromorphite,  mimetite  and  vanadinite  possess 
this  degree  of  symmetry. 

DIHEXAGONAL  PYRAMIDAL  CLASS 
(Hemimorphic-hemihedral) . 

Six  planes  of  symmetry  of  two  kinds  intersect  in  the  hexad  axis. 
The  hexad  axis  is  uniterminal  and  all  the  forms  are  open  forms.  The 
general  form  \hikl]  consists  of  twelve  faces  at  one  end  of  the  crystal, 
and  is  a  dihexagonal  pyramid.  The  hexagonal  pyramids  \hoTil}  and 
(h.h.iJi.l)  each  consist  of  six  faces  at  one  end  of  the  crystal.  The 
prisms  are  geometrically  the  same  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class. 
Perpendicular  to  the  hexad  axis  are  the  pedions  (oooi)  and  (oooT). 

lodyrite  (Agl),  greenockite  (CdS),  wurtzite  (ZnS)  and  zincite 
(ZnO)  are  often  placed  in  this  class,  but  they  more  probably  belong 
to  the  hemimorphic-hemihedral  class  of  the  rhombohedral  division 
of  this  system. 

TRAPEZOHEDRAL  CLASS 
(Trapezohedral-hemihedral). 

Six  dyad  axes  of  two  kinds  are  perpendicular  to  the  hexad  axis. 
The  general  form  [hikl\  is  the  hexagonal  trapezohedron  bounded 
by  twelve  trapezoidal  faces.  The  other  simple  forms  are  geo- 
metrically the  same  as  in  the  holosymmetric  class.  Barium-anti- 
monyldextro-tartrate+potassiumnitrate(Ba(Sbp)2(C4H<O«)j-KNOj) 
and  the  corresponding  lead  salt  crystallize  in  this  class.  • 

i 

HEXAGONAL  PYRAMIDAL  CLASS 
(Hemimorphic-tetartohedral). 

No  other  element  is  here  associated  with  the  hexad  axis,  which  is 
uniterminal.  The  pyramids  all  consist  of  six  faces  at  one  end  of  the 
crystal,  and  prisms  are  all  hexagonal  prisms;  perpendicular  to  the 
hexad  axis  are  the  pedions. 

Lithium  potassium  sulphate,  strontium-antimonyl  dextrp-tartrate, 
and  lead-antimonyl  dextro-tartrate  are  examples  of  this  type  of 
symmetry.  The  mineral  nepheline  is  placed  in  this  class  because  of  the 
absence  of  symmetry  in  the  etched  figures  on  the  prism  faces  (fig.  92). 

(g)  Regular  Grouping  of  Crystals. 

Crystals  of  the  same  kind  when  occurring  together  may  some- 
times be  grouped  in  parallel  position  and  so  give  rise  to  special 
structures,  of  which  the  dendritic  (from  otvbpov,  a  tree)  or 
branch-like  aggregations  of  native  copper  or  of  magnetite 
and  the  fibrous  structures  of  many  minerals  furnish  examples. 
Sometimes,  owing  to  changes  in  the  surrounding  conditions,  the 
crystal  may  continue  its  growth  with  a  different  external  form 
or  colour,  e.g.  sceptre-quartz. 

Regular  intergrowths  of  crystals  of  totally  different  substances 
such  as  staurolite  with  cyanite,  rutile  with  haematite,  blende 
with  chalcopyrite,calcite  with  sodium  nitrate,  are  not  uncommon. 
In  these  cases  certain  planes  and  edges  of  the  two  crystals  are 
parallel.  (See  O.  Mtigge,  "  Die  regelmassigen  Verwachsungen 
von  Mineralien  verschiedener  Art,"  Neues  Jahrbuchfur  Minero 
logic,  1903,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  335-475-) 

But  by  far  the  most  important  kind  of  regular  conjunction 
of  crystals  is  that  known  as  "  twinning."  Here  two  crystals 
or  individuals  of  the  same  kind  have  grown  together  in  a  certain 
symmetrical  manner,  such  that  one  portion  of  the  twin  may  be 
brought  into  the  position  of  the  other  by  reflection  across  a 


plane  or  by  rotation  about  an  axis.  The  plane  of  reflection  is 
called  the  twin-plane,  and  is  parallel  to  one  of  the  faces,  or  to  a 
possible  face,  of  the  crystal:  the  axis  of  rotation,  called  the 
twin-axis,  is  parallel  to  one  of  the  edges  or  perpendicular  to  a 
face  of  the  crystal. 

In  the  twinned  crystal  of  gypsum  represented  in  fig.  81  the 
two  portions  are  symmetrical  with  respect  to  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  ortho-pinacoid 
(100),  i.e.  a  vertical 
plane  perpendicular  to 
the  face  b.  Or  we  may 
consider  the  simple 
crystal  (fig.  82)  to  be  cut 
in  half  by  this  plane  and 
one  portion  to  be  rotated 
through  1 80°  about  the 
normal  to  the  same  plane. 
Such  a  crystal  (fig.  81)  is 
therefore  described  as 


on 


FIG.  81  .—Twinned     FIG.  82. — Simple 
the  Crystal  of  Gypsum.  Crystal  of  Gypsum. 


being    twinned 
plane  (100). 

An  octahedron  (fig.  83)  twinned  on  an  octahedral  face  (in) 
has  the  two  portions  symmetrical  with  respect  to  a  plane  parallel 
to  this  face  (the  large  triangular  face  in  the  figure);  and  either 
portion  may  be  brought  into  the  position  of  the  other  by  a  rota- 
tion through  1 80°  about  the  triad  axis  of  symmetry  which  is 
perpendicular  to  this  face.  This  kind  of  twinning  is  especially 
frequent  in  crystals  of  spinel,  and  is  consequently  often  referred 
to  as  the  "  spinel  twin-law." 

In  these  two  examples  the  surface  of  the  union,  or  composition- 
plane,  of  the  two  portions  is  a  regular  surface  coinciding  with  the 
twin-plane;  such  twins  are  called  "  juxtaposition-twins."  In 
other  juxtaposed  twins  the  plane  of  composition  is,  however,  not 
necessarily  the  twin-plane.  Another  type  of  twin  is  the  "  inter- 
penetration  twin,"  an  example  of  which  is  shown  in  fig.  84. 
Here  one  cube  may  be  brought  into  the  position  of  the  other  by 
a  rotation  of  180°  about  a  triad  axis,  or  by  reflection  across  the 
octahedral  plane  which  is  perpendicular  to  this  axis;  the  twin- 
plane  is  therefore  (in). 

Since  in  many  cases  twinned  crystals  may  be  explained  by 
the  rotation  of  one  portion  through  two  right  angles,  R.  ].  Haiiy 
introduced  the  term  "  hemitrope  "  (from  the  Gr.  4/ut-,  half,  and 
Tporros,  a  turn);  the  word  "made"  had  been  earlier  used  by 
Rome  d'Isle.  There  are,  however,  some  rare  types  of  twins 
which  cannot  be  explained  by  rotation  about  an  axis,  but  only 


FIG.  83. — Spinel-twin. 


FIG.  84. — Interpenetrating 
Twinned  Cubes. 


by  reflection  across  a  plane;  these  are  known  as  "  symmetric 
twins,"  a  good  example  of  which  is  furnished  by  one  of  the  twin- 
laws  of  chalcopyrite. 

Twinned  crystals  may  often  be  recognized  by  the  presence  of 
re-entrant  angles  between  the  faces  of  the  two  portions,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  above  figures.  In  some  twinned  crystals  (e.g. 
quartz)  there  are,  however,  no  re-entrant  angles.  On  the  other 
hand,  two  crystals  accidentally  grown  together  without  any 
symmetrical  relation  between  them  will  usually  show  some 
re-entrant  angles,  but  this  must  not  be  taken  to  indicate  the 
presence  of  twinning.  • 

Twinning  may  be  several  times  repeated  on  the  same  plane 
or  on  other  similar  planes  of  the  crystal,  giving  rise  to  triplets, 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


5»3 


quartets  and  other  complex  groupings.  When  often  repeated 
on  the  same  plane,  the  twinning  is  said  to  be  "  polysynthetic," 
and  gives  rise  to  a  laminated  structure  in  the  crystal.  Sometimes 
such  a  crystal  (e.g.  of  corundum  or  pyroxene)  may  be  readily 
broken  in  this  direction,  which  is  thus  a  "  plane  of  parting," 
often  closely  resembling  a  true  cleavage  in  character.  In  calcite 
and  some  other  substances  this  lamellar  twinning  may  be  pro- 
duced artificially  by  pressure  (see  below,  Sect.  II.  (a),  Glide- 
plane). 

Another  curious  result  of  twinning  is  the  production  of  forms 
which  apparently  display  a  higher  degree  of  symmetry  than  that 
actually  possessed  by  the  substance.  Twins  of  this  kind  are 
known  as  "  mimetic-twins  or  pseudo-symmetric  twins."  Two 
hemihedral  or  hemimorphic  crystals  (e.g.  of  diamond  or  of 
hemimorphite)  are  often  united  in  twinned  position  to  produce  a 
group  with  apparently  the  same  degree  of  symmetry  as  the 
holosymmetric  class  of  the  same  system.  Or  again,  a  substance 
crystallizing  in,  say,  the  orthorhombic  system  (e.g.  aragonite) 
may,  by  twinning,  give  rise  to  pseudo-hexagonal  forms:  and 
pseudo-cubic  forms  often  result  by  the  complex  twinning  of 
crystals  (e.g.  stannite,  phillipsite,  &c.)  belonging  to  other  systems. 
Many  of  the  so-called  "  optical  anomalies  "  of  crystals  may  be 
explained  by  this  pseudo-symmetric  twinning. 

(h)  Irregularities  of  Growth  of  Crystals;  Character  of  Faces. 

Only  rarely  do  actual  crystals  present  the  symmetrical  appear- 
ance shown  in  the  figures  given  above,  in  which  similar  faces 
are  all  represented  as  of  equal  size.  It  frequently  happens  that 
the  crystal  is  so  placed  with  respect  to  the  liquid  in  which  it 
grows  that  there  will  be  a  more  rapid  deposition  of  material  on 
one  part  than  on  another;  for  instance,  if  the  crystal  be  attached 
to  some  other  solid  it  cannot  grow  in  that  direction.  Only  when 
a  crystal  is  freely  suspended  in  the  mother-liquid  and  material 
for  growth  is  supplied  at  the  same  rate  on  all  sides  does  an  equably 
developed  form  result. 

Two  misshapen  or  distorted  octahedra  are  represented  in  figs. 
85  and  86;  the  former  is  elongated  in  the  direction  of  one  of  the 
edges  of  the  octahedron,  and  the  latter  is  flattened  parallel  to  one 
pair  of  faces.  It  will  be  noticed  in  these  figures  that  the  edges  in 
which  the  faces  intersect  have  the  same  directions  as  before, 
though  here  there  are  additional  edges  not  present  in  fig.  3. 
The  angles  (70°  32'  or  109°  28')  between  the  faces  also  remain 
the  same;  and  the  faces  have  the  same  inclinations  to  the  axes 
and  planes  of  symmetry  as  in  the  equably  developed  form.  Al- 
though from  a  geometrical  point  of  view  these  figures  are  no 


FIG.  85. 


FIG.  86. 


Misshapen  Octahedra. 


longer  symmetrical  with  respect  to  the  axes  and  planes  of  sym- 
metry, yet  crystallographically  they  are  just  as  symmetrical 
as  the  ideally  developed  form,  and,  however  much  their 
irregularity  of  development,  they  still  are  regular  (cubic)  octa- 
hedra of  crystallography.  A  remarkable  case  of  irregular 
development  is  presented  by  the  mineral  cuprite,  which  is  often 
found  as  well-developed  octahedra;  but  in  the  variety  known 
as  chalcotrichite  it  occurs  as  a  matted  aggregate  of  delicate  hairs, 
each  of  which  is  an  individual  crystal  enormously  elongated 
in  the  direction  of  an  edge  or  diagonal  of  the  cube. 

The  symmetry  of  actual  crystals  is  sometimes  so  obscured  by 
irregularities  of  growth  that  it  can  only  be  determined  by  measure- 
ment of  the  angles.  An  extreme  case,  where  several  of  the  planes 
have  not  been  developed  at  all,  is  illustrated  in  fig.  87,  which 
shows  the  actual  shape  of  a  crystal  of  zircon  from  Ceylon;  the 
ideally  developed  form  (fig.  88)  is  placed  at  the  side  for  com- 


parison, and  the  parallelism  of  the  edges  between  corresponding 
faces  will  be  noticed.  This  crystal  is  a  combination  of  five  simple 
forms,  viz.  two  tetragonal  prisms  (a  and  m,)  two  tetragonal 
bipyramids  (e  and  p),  and  one  <li tetragonal  bipyramid  (x,  with 
1 6  faces). 

The  actual  form,  or  "  habit,"  of  crystals  may  vary  widely 
in  different  crystals  of  the  same  substance,  these  differences 
depending  largely  on  the  conditions  under  which  the  growth  has 
taken  place.  The  material  may  have  crystallized  from  a  fused 


FIG.  87.— Actual  Crystal.  FIG.  88.— Ideal  Development. 

Crystal  of  Zircon  (clinographic  drawings  and  plans). 

mass  or  from  a  solution;  and  in  the  latter  case  the  solvent  may 
be  of  different  kinds  and  contain  other  substances  in  solution, 
or  the  temperature  may  vary.  Calcite  (q.v.)  affords  a  good 
example  of  a  substance  crystallizing  in  widely  different  habits, 
but  all  crystals  are  referable  to  the  same  type  of  symmetry  and 
may  be  reduced  to  the  same  fundamental  form. 

When  crystals  are  aggregated  together,  and  so  interfere  with 
each  other's  growth,  special  structures  and  external  shapes  often 
result,  which  are  sometimes  characteristic  of  certain  substances, 
especially  amongst  minerals. 

Incipient  crystals,  the  development  of  which  has  been  arrested 
owing  to  unfavourable  conditions  of  growth,  are  known  as 
crystallites  (q.v.).  They  are  met  with  in  imperfectly  crystallized 
substances  and  in  glassy  rocks  (obsidian  and  pitchstone),  or  may 
be  obtained  artificially  from  a  solution  of  sulphur  in  carbon 
disulphide  rendered  viscous  by  the  addition  of  Canada-balsam. 
To  the  various  forms  H.  Vogelsang  gave,  in  1875,  the  names 
"globulites,"  "margarites"  (from  napyaplrrp,  a  pearl),  "longu- 
lites,"  &c.  At  a  more  advanced  stage  of  growth  these  bodies  react 
on  polarized  light,  thus  possessing  the  internal  structure  of  true 
crystals;  they  are  then  called  "  microlites."  These  have  the 
form  of  minute  rods,  needles  or  hairs,  and  are  aggregated  into 
feathery  and  spherulitic  forms  or  skeletal  crystals.  They  are 
common  constituents  of  microcrystalline  igneous  rocks,  and 
often  occur  as  inclusions  in  larger  crystals  of  other  substances. 

Inclusions  of  foreign  matter,  accidentally  caught  up  during 
growth,  are  frequently  present  in  crystals.  Inclusions  of  other 
minerals  are  specially  frequent  and  conspicuous  in  crystals 
of  quartz,  and  crystals  of  calcite  may  contain  as  much  as  60  % 
of  included  sand.  Cavities,  either  with  rounded  boundaries 
or  with  the  same  shape  ("  negative  crystals  ")  as  the  surrounding 
crystal,  are  often  to  be  seen;  they  may  be  empty  or  enclose  a 
liquid  with  a  movable  bubble  of  gas. 

The  faces  of  crystals  are  rarely  perfectly  plane  and  smooth, 
but  are  usually  striated,  studded  with  small  angular  elevations, 
pitted  or  cavernous,  and  sometimes  curved  or  twisted.  These 
irregularities,  however,  conform  with  the  symmetry  of  the 
crystal,  and  much  may  be  learnt  by  their  study.  The  parallel 
grooves  or  furrows,  called  "  striae,"  are  the  result  of  oscillator)' 
combination  between  adjacent  faces,  narrow  strips  of  first  one 
face  and  then  another  being  alternately  developed.  Sometimes 


584 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


the  striae  on  crystal-faces  are  due  to  repeated  lamellar  twinning, 
as  in  the  plagioclase  felspars.  The  directions  of  the  striations 
are  very  characteristic  features  of  many  crystals:  e.g.  the  faces 
of  the  hexagonal  prism  of  quartz  are  always  striated  horizontally, 
whilst  in  beryl  they  are  striated  vertically.  Cubes  of  pyrites 
(fig.  89)  are  striated  parallel  to  one  edge,  the  striae  on  adjacent 
faces  being  at  right  angles,  and  due  to  oscillatory  combination 
of  the  cube  and  the  pentagonal  dodecahedron  (compare  fig.  36) ; 
whilst  cubes  of  blende  (fig.  90)  are  striated  parallel  to  one  diagonal 
of  each  face,  i.e.  parallel  to  the  tetrahedron  faces  (compare 


FIG.  89.— Striated  Cube  of 
Pyrites. 


FIG.  90. — Striated  Cube  of 
Blende. 


fig.  31).  These  striated  cubes  thus  possess  different  degrees  of 
symmetry  and  belong  to  different  symmetry-classes.  Oscillatory 
combination  of  faces  gives  rise  also  to  curved  surfaces.  Crystals 
with  twisted  surfaces,  (see  DOLOMITE)  are,  however,  built  up  of 
smaller  crystals  arranged  in  nearly  parallel  position.  Sometimes 
a  face  is  entirely  replaced  by  small  faces  of  other  forms,  giving 
rise  to  a  drusy  surface;  an  example  of  this  is  shown  by  some 
octahedral  crystals  of  fluorspar  (fig.  2)  which  are  built  up  of 
minute  cubes. 

The  faces  of  crystals  are  sometimes  partly  or  completely 
replaced  by  smooth  bright  surfaces  inclined  at  only  a  few 
minutes  of  arc  from  the  true  position  of  the  face;  such  surfaces 
are  called  "  vicinal  faces,"  and  their  indices  can  be  expressed 
only  by  very  high  numbers.  In  apparently  perfectly  developed 
crystals  of  alum  the  octahedral  face,  with  the  simple  indices 
(111),  is  usually  replaced  by  faces  of  very  low  triakis-octahedra, 
with  indices  such  as  (251-251-250);  the  angles  measured  on 
such  crystals  will  therefore  deviate  slightly  from  the  true  octa- 
hedral angle.  Vicinal  faces  of  this  character  are  formed  during 
the  growth  of  crystals,  and  have  been  studied  by  H.  A.  Miers 
(Phil.  Trans.,  1903,  Ser.  A.  vol.  202).  Other  faces  with  high 
indices,  viz.  "  prerosion  faces  "  and  the  minute  faces  forming  the 
sides  of  etched  figures  (see  below),  as  well  as  rounded  edges  and 
other  surface  irregularities,  may,  however,  result  from  the 
corrosion  of  a  crystal  subsequent  to  its  growth.  The  pitted  and 
cavernous  faces  of  artificially  grown  crystals  of  sodium  chloride 
and  of  bismuth  are,  on  the  other  hand,  a  result  of  rapid  growth, 
more  material  being  supplied  at  the  edges  and  corners  of  the 
crystal  than  at  the  centres  of  the  faces. 

(t)  Theories  of  Crystal  Structure. 

The  ultimate  aim  of  crystallographic  research  is  to  determine 
the  internal  structure  of  crystals  from  both  physical  and  chemical 
data.  The  problem  is  essentially  twofold:  in  the  first  place 
it  is  necessary  to  formulate  a  theory  as  to  the  disposition  of  the 
molecules,  which  conforms  with  the  observed  types  of  symmetry 
— this  is  really  a  mathematical  problem;  in  the  second  place, 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  orientation  of  the  atoms  (or 
groups  of  atoms)  composing  the  molecules  with  regard  to  the 
crystal  axes — this  involves  a  knowledge  of  the  atomic  structure 
of  the  molecule.  As  appendages  to  the  second  part  of  our 
problem,  there  have  to  be  considered:  (i)  the  possibility  of  the 
existence  of  the  same  substance  in  two  or  more  distinct  crystal- 
line forms — polymorphism,  and  (2)  the  relations  between  the 
chemical  structure  of  compounds  which  affect  nearly  identical 
or  related  crystal  habits — isomorphism  and  morphotropy.  Here 
we  shall  discuss  the  modern  theory  of  crystal  structure;  the 
relations  between  chemical  composition  and  crystallographical 
form  are  discussed  in  Part  III.  of  this  article;  reference  should 
also  be  made  to  the  article  CHEMISTRY:  Physical. 


The  earliest  theory  of  crystal  structure  of  any  moment  is  that 
of  Haiiy,  in  which,  as  explained  above,  he  conceived  a  crystal 
as  composed  of  elements  bounded  by  the  cleavage  .. 

planes  of  the  crystal,  the  elements  being  arranged 
contiguously  and  along  parallel  lines.  There  is,  however,  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  matter  is  continuous  throughout  a 
crystalline  body;  in  fact,  it  has  been  shown  that  space  does 
separate  the  molecules,  and  we  may  therefore  replace  the 
contiguous  elements  of  Haiiy  by  particles  equidistantly  dis- 
tributed along  parallel  lines;  by  this  artifice  we  retain  the 
reticulated  or  net-like  structure,  but  avoid  the  continuity  of 
matter  which  characterizes  Haiiy's  theory;  the  permanence 
of  crystal  form  being  due  to  equilibrium  between  the  inter- 
molecular  (and  interatomic)  forces.  The  crystal  is  thus  con- 
jectured as  a  "  space-lattice,"  composed  of  three  sets  of  parallel 
planes  which  enclose  parallelopipeda,  at  the  corners  of  which  are 
placed  the  constituent  molecules  (or  groups  of  molecules)  of 
the  crystal. 

The  geometrical  theory  of  crystal  structure  (i.e.  the  determina- 
tion of  the  varieties  of  crystal  symmetry)  is  thus  reduced  to  the 
mathematical  problem:  "  in  how  many  ways  can 
space  be  partitioned  ?"  M.  L.  Frankenheim,in  1835,  Fraaken- 
determined  this  number  as  fifteen,  but  A.  Bravais, 
in  1850,  proved  the  identity  of  two  of  Frankenheim's 
forms,  and  showed  how  the  remaining  fourteen  coalesced  by 
pairs,  so  that  really  these  forms  only  corresponded  to  seven 
distinct  systems  and  fourteen  classes  of  crystal  symmetry. 
These  systems,  however,  only  represented  holohedral  forms, 
leaving  the  hemihedral  and  tetartohedral  classes  to  be  explained. 
Bravais  attempted  an  explanation  by  attributing  differences 
in  the  symmetry  of  the  crystal  elements,  or,  what  comes  to  the 
same  thing,  he  assumed  the  crystals  to  exhibit  polar  differences 
along  any  member  of  the  lattice;  for  instance,  assume  the 
particles  to  be  (say)  pear-shaped,  then  the  sharp  ends  point  in 
one  direction,  the  blunt  ends  in  the  opposite  direction. 

A  different  view  was  adopted  by  L.  Sohncke  in  1879,  wh°> 
by  developing  certain  considerations  published  by  Camille 
Jordan  in  1869  on  the  possible  types  of  regular  repeti- 
tion  in  space  of  identical  parts,  showed  that  the 
lattice-structure  of  Bravais  was  unnecessary,  it  being  sufficient 
that  each  molecule  of  an  indefinitely  extended  crystal,  repre- 
sented by  its  "  point  "  (or  centre  of  gravity),  was  identically 
situated  with  respect  to  the  molecules  surrounding  it.  The 
problem  then  resolves  itself  into  the  determination  of  the  number 
of  "  point-systems  "  possible;  Sohncke  derived  sixty-five  such 
arrangements,  which  may  also  be  obtained  from  the  fourteen 
space-lattices  of  Bravais,  by  interpenetrating  any  one  space- 
lattice  with  one  or  more  identical  lattices,  with  the  condition 
that  the  resulting  structure  should  conform  with  the  homo- 
geneity characteristic  of  crystals.  But  the  sixty-five  arrange- 
ments derived  by  Sohncke,  of  which  Bravais'  lattices  are 
particular  cases,  did  not  complete  the  solution,  for  certain  of  the 
known  types  of  crystal  symmetry  still  remained  unrepresented. 
These  missing  forms  are  characterized  as  being  enantiomorphs; 
consequently,  with  the  introduction  of  this  principle  of  repetition 
over  a  plane,  i.e.  mirror  images.  E.  S.  Fedorov  (1890),  A. 
Schoenflies  (1891),  and  W.  Barlow  (1894),  independently  and 
by  different  methods,  showed  how  Sohncke's  theory  of  regular 
point-systems  explained  the  whole  thirty-two  classes  of  crystal 
symmetry,  230  distinct  types  of  crystal  structure  falling  into 
these  classes. 

By  considering  the  atoms  instead  of  the  centres  of  gravity 
of  the  molecules,  Sohncke  (Zeits.  Kryst.  Min.,  1888,  14,  p.  431) 
has  generalized  his  theory,  and  propounded  the  structure  of  a 
crystal  in  the  following  terms:  "  A  crystal  consists  of  a  finite 
number  of  interpenetrating  regular  point-systems,  which  all 
possess  like  and  like-directed  coincidence  movements.  Each 
separate  point-system  is  occupied  by  similar  material  particles, 
but  these  may  be  different  for  the  different  interpenetrating 
partial  systems  which  form  the  complex  system."  Or  we  may 
quote  the  words  of  P.  von  Groth  (British  Assoc.  Rep.,  1904): 
"  A  crystal  —  considered  as  indefinitely  extended  —  consists  of  n 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


585 


interpenetrating  regular  point-systems,  each  of  which  is  formed 
of  similar  atoms;  each  of  these  point-systems  is  built  up  from 
a  number  of  interpenetrating  space-lattices,  each  of  the  latter 
being  formed  from  similar  atoms  occupying  parallel  positions. 
All  the  space-lattices  of  the  combined  system  are  geometrically 
identical,  or  are  characterized  by  the  same  elementary  parallel- 
opipedon." 

A  complete  r6sum6,  with  references  to  the  literature,  will  be  found 
in  "  Report  on  the  Development  of  the  Geometrical  Theories  of 
Crystal  Structure,  1666-1901  "  (British  Assoc.  Rep.,  1901). 

II.  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  CRYSTALS. 

Many  of  the  physical  properties  of  crystals  vary  with  the 
direction  in  the  material,  but  are  the  same  in  certain  directions; 
these  directions  obeying  the  same  laws  of  symmetry  as  do  the 
faces  on  the  exterior  of  the  crystal.  The  symmetry  of  the  internal 
structure  of  crystals  is  thus  the  same  as  the  symmetry  of  their 
external  form. 

(a)  Elasticity  and  Cohesion. 

The  elastic  constants  of  crystals  are  determined  by  similar 
methods  to  those  employed  with  amorphous  substances,  only 
the  bars  and  plates  experimented  upon  must  be  cut  from  the 
crystal  with  known  orientations.  The  "  elasticity  surface " 
expressing  the  coefficients  in  various  directions  within  the  crystal 
has  a  configuration  symmetrical  with  respect  to  the  same  planes 
and  axes  of  symmetry  as  the  crystal  itself.  In  calcite,  for  in- 
stance, the  figure  has  roughly  the  shape  of  a  rounded  rhombo- 
hedron  with  depressed  faces  and  is  symmetrical  about  three 
vertical  planes.  In  the  case  of  homogeneous  elastic  deformation, 
produced  by  pressure  on  all  sides,  the  effect  on  the  crystal  is  the 
same  as  that  due  to  changes  of  temperature;  and  the  surfaces 
expressing  the  compression  coefficients  in  different  directions  have 
the  same  higher  degree  of  symmetry,  being  either  a  sphere, 
spheroid  or  ellipsoid.  When  strained  beyond  the  limits  of 
elasticity,  crystalline  matter  may  suffer  permanent  deformation 
in  one  or  other  of  two  ways,  or  may  be  broken  along  cleavage 
surfaces  or  with  an  irregular  fracture.  In  the  case  of  plastic 
deformation,  e.g.  in  a  crystal  of  ice,  the  crystalline  particles 
are  displaced  but  without  any  change  in  their  orientation. 
Crystals  of  some  substances  (e.g.  para-azoxyanisol)  have  such 
a  high  degree  of  plasticity  that  they  are  deformed  even  by 
their  surface  tension,  and  the  crystals  take  the  form  of  drops 
of  doubly  refracting  liquid  which  are  known  as  "  liquid  crystals." 
(See  O.  Lehmann,  Fliissige  Kristalle, Leipzig,  1904;  F.  R.  Schenck, 
Kristallinische  Flilssigkeiten  und  fliissige  Krystalle,  Leipzig, 

1905-) 

In  the  second,  and  more  usual  kind  of  permanent  deformation 

without  fracture,  the  particles  glide  along  certain  planes  into  a 

new  (twinned)  position  of  equilibrium.     If  a  knife  blade  be 

pressed  into  the  edge  of  a  cleavage  rhombohedron  of  calcite 

(at  b,  fig.  91)  the  portion  abode  of  the  crystal  will  take  up  the 

,  position    a'b'cde.    The    obtuse    solid 

,  a/*,  angle  at  a  becomes  acute  (a'),  whilst 

.'/xjte—-^          the  acute  angle  at  b  becomes  obtuse  (b') ; 

/\\V''x''^N\      and  the  new  surface  a'ce  is  as  bright 

f       ji  // -^  and   smooth   as   before.    This    result 

<^..          .•'/          /  has  been  effected  by  the  particles  in 

N.  ""''yS          /      successive  layers  gliding  or    rotating 

\^_"-..     ./  over  each  other,  without    separation, 

along    planes    parallel    to    cde.    This 

IG'  9oV  Cakite6"  Plane'    which   truncates   the    edge   of 

the  rhombohedron  and  has  the  indices 

(no),  is  called  a  "glide-plane."  The  new  portion  is  in 
twinned  position  with  respect  to  the  rest  of  the  crystal, 
being  a  reflection  of  it  across  the  plane  cde,  which  is  there- 
fore a  plane  of  twinning.  This  secondary  twinning  is  often 
to  be  observed  as  a  repeated  lamination  in  the  grains  of  calcite 
composing  a  crystalline  limestone,  or  marble,  which  has  been 
subjected  to  earth  movements.  Planes  of  gliding  have  been 
observed  in  many  minerals  (pyroxene,  corundum,  &c.)  and  their 
crystals  may  often  be  readily  broken  along  these  directions, 
which  are  thus  "  planes  of  parting  "  or  "  pseudo-cleavage." 


The  characteristic  transverse  striae,  invariably  present  on  the 
cleavage  surfaces  of  stibnite  and  cyanite  are  due  to  secondary 
twinning  along  glide-planes,  and  have  resulted  from  the  bending 
of  the  crystals. 

One  of  the  most  important  characters  of  crystals  is  that  of 
"  cleavage  ";  there  being  certain  plane  directions  across  which 
the  cohesion  is  a  minimum,  and  along  which  the  crystal  may  be 
readily  split  or  cleaved.  These  directions  are  always  parallel  to 
a  possible  face  on  the  crystal  and  usually  one  prominently 
developed  and  with  simple  indices,  it  being  a  face  in  which  the 
crystal  molecules  are  most  closely  packed.  The  directions  of 
cleavage  are  symmetrically  repeated  according  to  the  degree 
of  symmetry  possessed  by  the  crystal.  Thus  in  the  cubic 
system,  crystals  of  salt  and  galena  cleave  in  three  directions 
parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  cube  ( 100  ( ,  diamond  and  fluorspar 
cleave  in  four  directions  parallel  to  the  octahedral  faces  {in}, 
and  blende  in  six  directions  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  rhombic 
dodecahedron  ( 1 10 ) .  In  crystals  of  other  systems  there  will  be 
only  a  single  direction  of  cleavage  if  this  is  parallel  to  the  faces  of 
a  pinacoid ;  e.g.  the  basal  pinacoid  in  tetragonal  (as  in  apophyllite) 
and  hexagonal  crystals;  or  parallel  (as  in  gypsum)  or  perpendicu- 
lar (as  in  mica  and  cane-sugar)  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  in 
monoclinic  crystals.  Calcite  cleaves  in  three  directions  parallel 
to  the  faces  of  the  primitive  rhombohedron.  Barytes,  which 
crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  system,  has  two  sets  of 
cleavages,  viz.  a  single  cleavage  parallel  to  the  basal 
pinacoid  (ooi)  and  also  two  directions  parallel  to  the  faces 
of  the  prism  )no}.  In  all  of  the  examples  just  quoted  the 
cleavage  is  described  as  perfect,  since  cleavage  flakes  with  very 
smooth  and  bright  surfaces  may  be  readily  detached  from  the 
crystals.  Different  substances,  however,  vary  widely  in  their 
character  of  cleavage;  in  some  it  can  only  be  described  as 
good  or  distinct,  whilst  in  others,  e.g.  quartz  and  alum,  there 
is  little  or  no  tendency  to  split  .along  certain  directions  and  the 
surfaces  of  fracture  are  very  uneven.  Cleavage  is  therefore  a 
character  of  considerable  determinative  value,  especially  for  the 
purpose  of  distinguishing  different  minerals. 

Another  result  of  the  presence  in  crystals  of  directions  of  mini- 
mum cohesion  are  the  "  percussion  figures,"  which  are  produced 
on  a  crystal-face  when  this  is  struck  with  a  sharp  point.  A 
percussion  figure  consists  of  linear  cracks  radiating  from  the 
point  of  impact,  which  in  their  number  and  orientation  agree 
with  the  symmetry  of  the  face.  Thus  on  a  cube  face  of  a  crystal 
of  salt  the  rays  of  the  percussion  figure  are  parallel  to  the 
diagonals  of  the  face,  whilst  on  an  octahedral  face  a  three-rayed 
star  is  developed.  By  pressing  a  blunt  point  into  a  crystal  face 
a  somewhat  similar  figure,  known  as  a  "  pressure  figure,"  is 
produced.  Percussion  and  pressure  figures  are  readily  developed 
in  cleavage  sheets  of  mica  (q.v.). 

Closely  allied  to  cohesion  is  the  character  of  "  hardness," 
which  is  often  defined,  and  measured  by,  the  resistance  which 
a  crystal  face  offers  to  scratching.  That  hardness  is  a  character 
depending  largely  on  crystalline  structure  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  two  crystalline  modifications  of  carbon:  graphite  is  one 
of  the  softest  of  minerals,  whilst  diamond  is  the  hardest  of  all. 
The  hardness  of  crystals  of  different  substances  thus  varies 
widely,  and  with  minerals  it  is  a  character  of  considerable 
determinative  value;  for  this  purpose  a  scale  of  hardness  is 
employed  (see  MINERALOGY).  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  accurate  determinations  of  degrees 
of  hardness,  but  with  varying  results;  an  instrument  used  for  this 
purpose  is  called  a  sclerometer  (from  <rKX7)p6s,  hard).  It  may, 
however,  be  readily  demonstrated  that  the  degree  of  hardness  on 
a  crystal  face  varies  with  the  direction,  and  that  a  curve  ex- 
pressing these  relations  possesses  the  same  geometrical  symmetry 
as  the  face  itself.  The  mineral  cyanite  is  remarkable  in  having 
widely  different  degrees  of  hardness  on  different  faces  of  its 
crystals  and  in  different  directions  on  the  same  face. 

Another  result  of  the  differences  of  cohesion  in  different 
directions  is  that  crystals  are  corroded,  or  acted  upon  by  chemical 
solvents,  at  different  rates  in  different  directions.  This  is 
strikingly  shown  when  a  sphere  cut  from  a  crystal,  say  of  calcite 


586 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


or  quartz,  is  immersed  in  acid ;  after  some  time  the  resulting  form 
is  bounded  by  surfaces  approximating  to  crystal  faces,  and  has 
the  same  symmetry  as  that  of  the  crystal  from  which  the  sphere 
was  cut.  When  a  crystal  bounded  by  faces  is  immersed  in  a 
solvent  the  edges  and  corners  become  rounded  and  "  prerosion 
faces "  developed  in  their  place;  the  faces  become  marked 
all  over  with  minute  pits  or  shallow  depressions,  and  as  these 
are  extended  by  further  solution  they  give  place  to  small  eleva- 
tions on  the  corroded  face.  The  sides  of  the  pits  and  elevations 
are  bounded  by  small  faces  which  have  the  character  of  vicinal 
faces.  These  markings  are  known  as  "  etched  figures "  or 
"  corrosion  figures,"  and  they  are  extremely  important  aids  in 
determining  the  symmetry  of  crystals.  Etched  figures  are  some- 
times beautifully  developed  on  the  faces  of  natural  crystals, 
e.g.  of  diamond,  and  they  may  be  readily  produced  artificially 
with  suitable  solvents. 

As  an  example,  the  etched  figures  on  the  faces  of  a  hexagonal 
prism  and  the  basal  plane  are  illustrated  in  figs.  92-94  for  three 
of  the  several  symmetry-classes  of  the  hexagonal  system.  The 
classes  chosen  are  those  in  which  nepheline,  calcite  and  beryl 
.  (emerald)  crystallize,  and  these  minerals  often  have  the  simple 
form  of  crystal  represented  in  the  figures.  In  nepheline  (fig.  92) 
the  only  element  of  symmetry  is  a  hexad  axis;  the  etched 
figures  on  the  prism  are  therefore  unsymmetrical,  though  similar 
on  all  the  faces;  the  hexagonal  markings  on  the  basal  plane 
have  none  of  their  edges  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  face; 
further  the  crystals  being  hemimorphic,  the  etched  figures  on 
the  basal  planes  at  the  two  ends  will  be  different  in  character. 


I 

, ' 


FIG.  92. — Nepheline.  FIG.  93. — Calcite.  FIG.  94, — Beryl. 

Etched  Figures  on  Hexagonal  Prisms. 

The  facial  development  of  crystals  of  nepheline  give  no  indication 
of  this  type  of  symmetry,  and  the  mineral  has  been  referred  to 
this  class  solely  on  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  etched  figures. 
In  calcite  there  is  a  triad  axis  of  symmetry  parallel  to  the  prism 
edges,  three  dyad  axes  each  perpendicular  to  a  pair  of  prism  edges 
and  three  planes  of  symmetry  perpendicular  to  the  prism  faces; 
the  etched  figures  shown  in  fig.  93  will  be  seen  to  conform  to  all 
these  elements  of  symmetry.  There  being  in  calcite  also  a  centre 
of  symmetry,  the  equilateral  triangles  on  the  basal  plane  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  crystal  will  be  the  same  in  form  as  those  at  the 
top,  but  they  will  occupy  a  reversed  position.  In  beryl,  which 
crystallizes  in  the  holosymmetric  class  of  the  hexagonal  system, 
the  etched  figures  (fig.  94)  display  the  fullest  possible  degree  of 
symmetry;  those  on  the  prism  faces  are  all  similar  and  are  each 
symmetrical  with  respect  to  two  lines,  and  the  hexagonal 
markings  on  the  basal  planes  at  both  ends  of  the  crystal  are 
symmetrically  placed  with  respect  to  six  lines.  A  detailed 
account  of  the  etched  figures  of  crystals  is  given  by  H.  Baum- 
hauer,  Die  Resultate  der  Atzmethode  in  der  krystallographischen 
Porschung  (Leipzig,  1894). 

(b)  Optical  Properties. 

The  complex  optical  characters  of  crystals  are  not  only  of 
considerable  interest  theoretically,  but  are  of  the  greatest 
practical  importance.  In  the  absence  of  external  crystalline 
form,  as  with  a  faceted  gem-stone,  or  with  the  minerals  con- 
stituting a  rock  (thin,  transparent  sections  of  which  are  examined 
in  the  polarizing  microscope),  the  mineral  species  may  often 
be  readily  identified  by  the  determination  of  some  of  the  optical 
characters. 

According  to  their  action  on  transmitted  plane-polarized  light 
(see  POLARIZATION  OF  LIGHT)  all  crystals  may  be  referred  to  one 
or  other  of  the  five  groups  enumerated  below.  These  groups 


correspond  with  the  six  systems  of  crystallization  (in  the 
second  group  two  systems  being  included  together).  The  several 
symmetry-classes  of  each  system  are  optically  the  same,  except 
in  the  rare  cases  of  substances  which  are  circularly  polarizing. 

(1)  Optically  isotropic  crystals — corresponding  with  the  cubic 
system. 

(2)  Optically    uniaxial    crystals — corresponding    with    the 
tetragonal  and  hexagonal  systems. 

(3)  Optically  biaxial  crystals  in  which  the  three  principal 
optical  directions  coincide  with  the  three  crystallographic  axes — 
corresponding  with  the  orthorhombic  system. 

(4)  Optically  biaxial  crystals  in  which  only  one  of  the  three 
principal  optical  directions  coincides  with  a  crystallographic  axis 
— corresponding  with  the  monoclinic  system. 

(5)  Optically  biaxial  crystals  in  which  there  is  no  fixed  and 
definite    relation    between    the    optical    and    crystallographic 
directions — corresponding  with  the  anorthic  system. 

Optically  Isotropic  Crystals. — These  belong  to  the  cubic 
system,  and  like  all  other  optically  isotropic  (from  WTOJ,  like, 
and  Tpirros,  character)  bodies  have  only  one  index  of  refraction 
for  light  of  each  colour.  They  have  no  action  on  polarized  light 
(except  in  crystals  which  are  circularly  polarizing);  and  when 
examined  in  the  polariscope  or  polarizing  microscope  they 
remain  dark  between  crossed  nicols,  and  cannot  therefore  be 
distinguished  optically  from  amorphous  substances,  such  as 
glass  and  opal. 

Optically  Uniaxial  Crystals. — These  belong  to  the  tetragonal 
and  hexagonal  (including  rhombohedral)  systems,  and  between 
crystals  of  these  systems  there  (s  no  optical  distinction.  Such 
crystals  are  anisotropic  or  doubly  refracting  (see  REFRACTION: 
Double) ;  but  for  light  travelling  through  them  in  a  certain,  single 
direction  they  are  singly  refracting.  This  direction,  which  is 
called  the  optic  axis,  is  the  same  for  light  of  all  colours  and  at 
all  temperatures;  it  coincides  in  direction  with  the  principal 
crystallographic  axis,  which  in  tetragonal  crystals  is  a  tetrad 
(or  dyad)  axis  of  symmetry,  and  in  the  hexagonal  system  a  triad 
or  hexad  axis. 

For  light  of  each  colour  there  are  two  indices  of  refraction; 
namely,  the  ordinary  index  (w)  corresponding  with  the  ordinary 
ray,  which  vibrates  perpendicular  to  the  optic  axis;  and  the 
extraordinary  index  (t)  corresponding  with  the  extraordinary 
ray,  which  vibrates  parallel  to  the  optic  axis.  If  the  ordinary 
index  of  refraction  be  greater  than  the  extraordinary  index, 
the  crystal  is  said  to  be  optically  negative,  whilst  if  less  the 
crystal  is  optically  positive.  The  difference  between  the  two 
indices  is  a  measure  of  the  strength  of  the  double  refraction  or 
birefringence.  Thus  in  calcite,  for  sodium  (D)  light, co=  1-6585 
and  e  =  i  -4863 ;  hence  this  substance  is  optically  negative 
with  a  relatively  high  double  refraction  of  a—  €  =  0-1722.  In 
quartz  co=i-5442,  «  =  i-5533  and  6—40=0-0091;  this  mineral 
is  therefore  optically  positive  with  low  double  refraction.  The 
indices  of  refraction  vary,  not  only  for  light  of  different  colours, 
but  also  slightly  with  the  temperature. 

The  optical  characters  of  uniaxial  crystals  are  symmetrical 
not  only  with  respect  to  the  full  number  of  planes  and  axes  of 
symmetry  of  tetragonal  and  hexagonal  crystals,  but  also  with 
respect  to  all  vertical  planes,  i.e.  all  planes  containing  the  optic 
axis.  A  surface  expressing  the  optical  relations  of  such  crystals 
is  thus  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution  about  the  optic  axis.  (In  cubic 
crystals  the  corresponding  surface  is  a  sphere.)  In  the  "  optical 
indicatrix  "  (L.  Fletcher,  The  Optical  Indicatrix  and  the  Trans- 
mission of  Light  in  Crystals,  London,  1892),  the  length  of  the 
principal  axis,  or  axis  of  rotation,  is  proportional  to  the  index 
of  refraction,  (i.e.  inversely  proportional  to  the  velocity)  of  the 
extraordinary  rays,  which  vibrate  along  this  axis  and  are  trans- 
mitted in  directions  perpendicular  thereto;  the  equatorial 
diameters  are  proportional  to  the  index  of  refraction  of  the 
ordinary  rays,  which  vibrate  perpendicular  to  the  optic  axis. 
For  positive  uniaxial  crystals  the  indicatrix  is  thus  a  prolate 
spheroid  (egg-shaped),  and  for  negative  crystals  an  oblate 
spheroid  (orange-shaped). 

In  "  Fresnel's  ellipsoid  "  the  axis  of  rotation  is  proportional  to 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


587 


the  velocity  of  the  extraordinary  ray,  and  the  equatorial  dia- 
meters proportional  to  the  velocity  of  the  ordinary  ray;  it  is 
therefore  an  oblate  spheroid  for  positive  crystals,  and  a  prolate 
spheroid  for  negative  crystals.  The  "  ray-surface,"  or  "  wave- 
surface,"  which  represents  the  distances  traversed  by  the  rays 
during  a  given  interval  of  time  in  various  directions  from  a 
point  of  origin  within  the  crystal,  consists  in  uniaxial  crystals 
of  two  sheets;  namely,  a  sphere,  corresponding  to  the  ordinary 
rays,  and  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution,  corresponding  to  the  extra- 
ordinary rays.  The  difference  in  form  of  the  ray-surface  for 
positive  and  negative  crystals  is  shown  in  figs.  95  and  96. 

When  a  uniaxial  crystal  is  examined  in  a  polariscope  or 
polarizing  microscope  between  crossed  nicols  (i.e. '  with  the 
principal  planes  of  the  polarizer  or  analyser  at  right  angles,  and 


FIG.  95. — Section  of  the 
Ray-Surface  of  a  Positive 
Uniaxial  Crystal. 


FIG.  96. — Section  of  the 
Ray-Surface  of  a  Negative 
Uniaxial  Crystal. 


so  producing  a  dark  field  of  view)  its  behaviour  differs  according 
to  the  direction  in  which  the  light  travels  through  the  crystal, 
to  the  position  of  the  crystal  with  respect  to  the  principal  planes 
of  the  nicols,  and  further,  whether  convergent  or.parallel  polarized 
light  be  employed.  A  tetragonal  or  hexagonal  crystal  viewed, 
in  parallel  light,  through  the  basal  plane,  i.e.  along  the  principal 
axjs,  will  remain  dark  as  it  is  rotated  between  crossed  nicols,  and 
will  thus  not  differ  in  its  behaviour  from  a  cubic  crystal  or  other 
isotropic  body.  If,  however,  the  crystal  be  viewed  in  any  other 
direction,  for  example,  through  a  prism  face,  it  will,  except  in 
certain  positions,  have  an  action  on  the  polarized  light.  A 
plane-polarized  ray  entering  the  crystal  will  be  resolved  into  two 
polarized  rays  with  the  directions  of  vibration  parallel  to  the 
vibration-directions  in  the  crystal.  These  two  rays  on  leaving 
the  crystal  will  be  combined  again  in  the  analyser,  and  a  portion 
of  the  light  transmitted  through  the  instrument;  the  crystal 
will  then  show  up  brightly  against  the  dark  field.  Further, 
owing  to  interference  of  these  two  rays  in  the  analyser,  the 
light  will  be  brilliantly  coloured,  especially  if  the  crystal  be  thin, 
or  if  a  thin  section  of  a  crystal  be  examined.  The  particular 
colour  seen  will  depend  on  the  strength  of  the  double  refraction, 
the  orientation  of  the  crystal  or  section,  and  upon  its  thickness. 
If  now,  the  crystal  be  rotated  with  the  stage  of  the  microscope, 
the  nicols  remaining  fixed  in  position,  the  light  transmitted 
through  the  instrument  will  vary  in  intensity,  and  in  certain 
positions  will  be  cut  out  altogether.  The  latter  happens  when 
the  vibration-directions  of  the  crystal  are  parallel  to  the  vibration- 
directions  of  the  nicols  (these  being  indicated  by  cross-wires  in 
the  microscope).  The  crystal,  now  being  dark,  is  said  to  be  in 
position  of  extinction;  and  as  it  is  turned  through  a  complete 
rotation  of  360°  it  will  extinguish  four  times.  If  a  prism  face 
be  viewed  through,  it  will  be  seen  that,  when  the  crystal  is  in  a 
position  of  extinction,  the  cross- wires  of  the  microscope  are 
parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  prism:  the  crystal  is  then  said  to 
give  "  straight  extinction." 

In  convergent  light,  between  crossed  nicols,  a  very  different 
phenomenon  is  to  be  observed  when  a  uniaxial  crystal,  or  section 
of  such  a  crystal,  is  placed  with  its  optic  axis  coincident  with  the 
axis  of  the  microscope.  The  rays  of  light,  being  convergent,  do 
not  travel  in  the  direction  of  the  optic  axis  and  are  therefore 
doubly  refracted  in  the  crystal;  in  the  analyser  the  vibrations 
will  be  reduced  to  the  same  plane  and  there  will  be  interference 
of  the  two  sets  of  rays.  The  result  is  an  "  interference  figure  " 
(fig.  97),  which  consists  of  a  number  of  brilliantly  coloured  con- 
centric rings,  each  showing  the  colours  of  the  spectrum  of  white 


light;  intersecting  the  rings  is  a  black  cross,  the  arms  of  which 
are  parallel  to  the  principal  planes  of  the  nicols.     If  mono- 
chromatic light  be  used  instead  of  white  light,  the  rings  will 
be   alternately   light   and   dark.    The 
number    and    distance    apart    of   the 
rings  depend  on  the  strength  of  the 
double    refraction    and    on  the    thick- 
ness of  the  crystal.     By  observing  the 
effect    produced    on    such   a   uniaxial 
interference    figure   when   a   ''quarter 
undulation    (or    wave  -  length)    mica- 
plate  "  is  superposed  on   the  crystal,      FiG.  97 .—interference 
it    may  be    at    once  decided   whether  Figure  of  a  Uniaxial 
the    crystal    is    optically    positive    or  Crystal, 
negative.     Such  a  simple  test  may,  for 

example,  be  applied  for  distinguishing  certain  faceted  gem- 
stones:  thus  zircon  and  phenacite  are  optically  positive,  whilst 
corundum  (ruby  and  sapphire)  and  beryl  (emerald)  are  optically 
negative. 

Optically  Biaxial  Crystals. — In  these  crystals  there  are  three 
principal  indices  of  refraction,  denoted  by  a,  /3  and  7;  of  these 
7  is  the  greatest  and  a  the  least  (7  >/3>a).  The  three  principal 
vibration-directions,  corresponding  to  these  indices,  are  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  and  are  the  directions  of  the  three  rect- 
angular axes  of  the  optical  indicatrix.  The  indicatrix  (fig.  98) 
is  an  ellipsoid  with  the  lengths  of  its  axes  proportional  to  the 
refractive  indices;  OC=y,OB=ft,OA  =a,  where  OC>OB>OA. 
The  figure  is  symmetrical  with  respect  to  the  principal  planes 
OAB,OAC,OBC. 

In  Fresnel's  ellipsoid  the  three  rectangular  axes  are  proportional 
to  i/o,  i//3,  and  1/7,  and  are  usually  denoted  by  a,  b  and  t 
respectively,  where  a>b>c :  these  have  often  been  called 
"  axes  of  optical  elasticity,"  a  term  now  generally  discarded. 

The  ray-surface  (represented  in  fig.  99  by  its  sections  in  the 
three  principal  planes)  is  derived  from  the  indicatrix  in  the 
following  manner.  A  ray  of  light  entering  the  crystal  and  travel- 
ling in  the  direction  OA  is  resolved  into  polarized  rays  vibrating 
parallel  to  OB  and  OC,  and  therefore  propagated  with  the 
velocities  i//3  and  1/7  respectively:  distances  Ob  and  Oc  (fig.  99) 
proportional  to  these  velocities  are  marked  off  in  the  direction 
OA.  Similarly,  rays  travelling  along  OC  have  the  velocities 


FiG.  98. — Optical  Indicatrix  of  a 
Biaxial  Crystal. 


FIG.  99. — Ray-Surface  of  a 
Biaxial  Crystal. 


i/a  and  i//3,  and  those  alongOS  the  velocities  i/a  and  1/7.  In  the 
two  directions  Op\  and  0/»2  (fig.  98),  perpendicular  to  the  two 
circular  sections  P\P\  and  PtPi  of  the  indicatrix,  the  two  rays 
will  be  transmitted  with  the  same  velocity  i//3.  These  two  direc- 
tions are  called  the  optic  axes  ("  primary  optic  axis  "),  though 
they  have  not  all  the  properties  which  are  associated  with  the 
optic  axis  of  a  uniaxial  crystal.  They  have  very  nearly  the  same 
direction  as  the  lines  Osi  and  Osi  in  fig.  99,  which  are  distinguished 
as  the  "  secondary  optic  axes."  In  most  crystals  the  primary 
and  secondary  optic  axes  are  inclined  to  each  other  at  not  more 
than  a  few  minutes,  so  that  for  practical  purposes  there  is  no 
distinction  between  them. 

The  angle  between  Op\  and  O/>2  is  called  the  "  optic  axial 
angle  ";  and  the  plane  OA  C  in  which  they  lie  is  called  the 
"  optic  axial  plane."  The  angles  between  the  optic  axes  are 
bisected  by  the  vibration-directions  OA  and  OC;  the  one  which 


588 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


bisects  the  acute  angle  being  called  the  "  acute  bisectrix  "  or 
"first  mean  line,"  and  the  other  the  "  obtuse  bisectrix"  or 
"  second  mean  line."  When  the  acute  bisectrix  coincides  with 
the  greatest  axis  OC  of  the  indicatrix,  i.e.  the  vibration-direction 
corresponding  with  the  refractive  index  7  (as  in  figs.  98  and  99), 
the  crystal  is  described  as  being  optically  positive;  and  when  the 
acute  bisectrix  coincides  with  OA,  the  vibration-direction  for 
the  index  a,  the  crystal  is  negative.  The  distinction  between 
positive  and  negative  biaxial  crystals  thus  depends  on  the 
relative  magnitude  of  the  three  principal  indices  of  refraction; 
in  positive  crystals  /3  is  nearer  to  a  than  to  7,  whilst  in  negative 
crystals  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Thus  in  topaz,  which  is  optically 
positive,  the  refractive  indices  for  sodium  light  are  a=  1-6120, 
/3=  1-6150,  7  =  1-6224;  and  for  orthoclase  which  is  optically 
negative,  0=1-5190,  /3  =  i-5237,  7  =  1-5260.  The  difference 
7— a  represents  the  strength  of  the  double  refraction. 

Since  the  refractive  indices  vary  both  with  the  colour  of  the 
light  and  with  the  temperature,  there  will  be  for  each  colour  and 
temperature  slight  differences  in  the  form  of  both  the  indicatrix 
and  the  ray-surface:  consequently  there  will  be  variations  in 
the  positions  of  the  optic  axes  and  in  the  size  of  the  optic  axial 
angle.  This  phenomenon  is  known  as  the  "  dispersion  of  the 
optic  axes."  When  the  axial  angle  is  greater  for  red  light  than 
for  blue  the  character  of  the  dispersion  is  expressed  by  p>v, 
and  when  less  by  p  <v.  In  some  crystals,  e.g.  brookite,  the  optic 
axes  for  red  light  and  for  blue  light  may  be,  at  certain  tempera- 
tures, in  planes  at  right  angles. 

The  type  of  interference  figure  exhibited  by  a  biaxial  crystal 
in  convergent  polarized  light  between  crossed  nicols  is  repre- 
sented in  figs.  I  ob  arid  161.  The  crystal  must  be  viewed  along 


FIG.  100.  FIG.  101. 

Interference  Figures  of  a  Biaxial  Crystal. 

the  acute  bisectrix,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  often  necessary 
to  cut  a  plate  from  the  crystal  perpendicular  to  this  direction : 
sometimes,  however,  as  in  mica  and  topaz,  a  cleavage  flake  will 
be  perpendicular  to  the  acute  bisectrix.  When  seen  in  white 
light,  there  are  around  each  optic  axis  a  series  of  brilliantly 
coloured  ovals,  which  at  the  centre  join  to  form  an  8-shaped  loop, 
whilst  further  from  the  centre  the  curvature  of  the  rings  is 
approximately  that  of  lemniscates.  In  the  position  shown  in 
fig.  100  the  vibration-directions  in  the  crystal  are  parallel  to 
those  of  the  nicols,  and  the  figure  is  intersected  by  two  black 
bands  or  "  brushes  "  forming  a  cross.  When,  however,  the  crystal 
is  rotated  with  the  stage  of  the  microscope  the  cross  breaks  up 
into  the  two  branches  of  a  hyperbola,  and  when  the  vibration- 
directions  of  the  crystal  are  inclined  at  45°  to  those  of  the  nicols 
the  figure  is  that  shown  in  fig.  101.  The  points  of  emergence  of 
the  optic  axes  are  at  the  middle  of  the  hyperbolic  brushes  when 
the  crystal  is  in  the  diagonal  position:  the  size  of  the  optic  axial 
angle  can  therefore  be  directly  measured  with  considerable 
accuracy. 

In  orthorhombic  crystals  the  three  principal  vibration-direc- 
tions coincide  with  the  three  crystallographic  axes,  and  have 
therefore  fixed  positions  in  the  crystal,  which  are  the  same  for 
light  of  all  colours  and  at  all  temperatures.  The  optical  orienta- 
tion of  an  orthorhombic  crystal  is  completely  defined  by  stating 
to  which  crystallographic  planes  the  optic  axial  plane  and  the 
acute  bisectrix  are  respectively  parallel  and  perpendicular. 
Examined  in  parallel  light  between  crossed  nicols,  such  a  crystal 
extinguishes  parallel  to  the  crystallographic  axes,  which  are 
often  parallel  to  the  edges  of  a  face  or  section;  there  is  thus 


usually  "  straight  extinction."  The  interference  figure  seen  in 
convergent  polarized  light  is  symmetrical  about  two  lines  at  right 
angles. 

In  monoclinic  crystals  only  one  vibration-direction  has  a 
fixed  position  within  the  crystal,  being  parallel  to  the  ortho-axis 
(i.e.  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  or  the  plane  (oio)). 
The  other  two  vibration-directions  lie  in  the  plane  (oio),  but  they 
may  vary  in  position  for  light  of  different  colours  and  at  different 
temperatures.  In  addition  to  dispersion  of  the  optic  axes  there 
may  thus,  in  crystals  of  this  system,  be  also  "dispersion  of  the 
bisectrices."  The  latter  may  be  of  one  or  other  of  three  kinds, 
according  to  which  of  the  three  vibration-directions  coincides 
with  the  ortho-axis  of  the  crystal.  When  the  acute  bisectrix 
is  fixed  in  position,  the  optic  axial  planes  for  different  colours 
may  be  crossed,  and  the  interference  figure  will  then  be  sym- 
metrical with  respect  to  a  point  only  ("  crossed  dispersion.")- 
When  the  obtuse  bisectrix  is  fixed,  the  axial  planes  may  be  in- 
clined to  one  another,  and  the  interference  figure  is  symmetrical 
only  about  a  line  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  axial  planes 
("  horizontal  dispersion  ").  Finally,  when  the  vibration-direc- 
tion corresponding  to  the  refractive  index  /3,  or  the  "third  mean 
line,"  has  a  fixed  position,  the  optic  axial  plane  lies  in  the  plane 
(oio),  but  the  acute  bisectrix  may  vary  in  position  in  this  plane; 
the  interference  figure  will  then  be  symmetrical  only  about  a 
line  joining  the  optic  axes  ("  inclined  dispersion  ").  Examples 
of  substances  exhibiting  these  three  kinds  of  dispersion  are 
borax,  orthoclase  and  gypsum  respectively.  In  orthoclase  and 
gypsum,  however,  the  optic  axial  angle  gradually  diminishes 
as  the  crystals  are  heated,  and  after  passing  through  a  uniaxial 
position  they  open  out  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  one 
they  previously  occupied;  the  character  of  the  dispersion  thus 
becomes  reversed  in  the  two  examples  quoted.  When  examined 
in  parallel  light  between  crossed  nicols  monoclinic  crystals  will 
give  straight  extinction  only  in  faces  and  sections  which  are 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  (or  the  plane  (oio)); 
in  all  other  faces  and  sections  the  extinction-directions  will  be 
inclined  to  the  edges  of  the  crystal.  The  angles  between  these 
directions  and  edges  are  readily  measured,  and,  being  dependent 
on  the  optical  orientation  of  the  crystal,  they  are  often  character- 
istic constants  of  the  substance  (see,  e.g.,  PLAGIOCLASE). 

In  anorthic  crystals  there  is  no  relation  between  the  optical 
and  crystallographic  directions,  and  the  exact  determination 
of  the  optical  orientation  is  often  a  matter  .of  considerable 
difficulty.  The  character  of  the  dispersion  of  the  bisectrices 
and  optic  axes  is  still  more  complex  than  in  monoclinic  crystals, 
and  the  interference  figures  are  devoid  of  symmetry. 

Absorption  of  Light  in  Crystals:  Pleochroism. — In  crystals 
other  than  those  of  the  cubic  system,  rays  of  light  with  different 
vibration-directions  will,  as  a  rule,  be  differently  absorbed; 
and  the  polarized  rays  on  emerging  from  the  crystal  may  be  of 
different  intensities  and  (if  the  observation  be  made  in  white 
light  and  the  crystal  is  coloured)  differently  coloured.  Thus, 
in  tourmaline  the  ordinary  ray,  which  vibrates  perpendicular 
to  the  principal  axis,  is  almost  completely  absorbed,  whilst  the 
extraordinary  ray  is  allowed  to  pass  through  the  crystal.  A 
plate  of  tourmaline  cut  parallel  to  the  principal  axis  may  there- 
fore be  used  for  producing  a  beam  of  polarized  light,  and  two  such 
plates  placed  in  crossed  position  form  the  polarizer  or  analyser 
of  "  tourmaline  tongs,"  with  the  aid  of  which  the  interference 
figures  of  crystals  may  be  simply  shown.  Uniaxial  (tetragonal 
and  hexagonal)  crystals  when  showing  perceptible  differences  in 
colour  for  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary  rays  are  said  to  be 
"  dichroic."  In  biaxial  (orthorhombic,  monoclinic  and  anorthic) 
crystals,  rays  vibrating  along  each  of  the  three  principal  vibration- 
directions  may  be  differently  absorbed,  and,  in  coloured  crystals, 
differently  coloured;  such  crystals  are  therefore  said  to  be 
"  trichroic  "  or  in  general  "  pleochroic  "  (from  irX&ov,  more, 
and  Ttpdo.,  colour).  The  directions  of  maximum  absorption  in 
biaxial  crystals  have,  however,  no  necessary  relation  with  the  axes 
of  the  indicatrix,  unless  these  have  fixed  crystallographic  direc- 
tions, as  in  the  orthorhombic  system  and  the  ortho-axis  in  the 
monoclinic.  In  epidote  it  has  been  shown  that  the  two  directions 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


589 


of  maximum  absorption  which  lie  in  the  plane  of  symmetry 
are  not  even  at  right  angles. 

The  pleochroism  of  some  crystals  is  so  strong  that  when  they 
are  viewed  through  in  different  directions  they  exhibit  marked 
differences  in  colour.  Thus  a  crystal  of  the  mineral  iolite  (called 
also  dichroite  because  of  its  strong  pleochroism)  will  be  seen  to 
be  dark  blue,  pale  blue  or  pale  yellow  according  to  which  of 
three  perpendicular  directions  it  is  viewed.  The  "  face  colours  " 
seen  directly  in  this  way  result,  however,  from  the  mixture  of  two 
"  axial  colours  "  belonging  to  rays  vibrating  in  two  directions. 
In  order  to  see  the  axial  colours  separately  the  crystal  must 
be  examined  with  a  dichroscope,  or  in  a  polarizing  microscope 
from  which  the  analyser  has  been  removed.  The  dichroscope, 
or  dichroiscope  (fig.  102),  consists  of  a  cleavage  rhombohedron 

of  calcite  (Iceland-spar) 
p,  on  the  ends  of  which 
glass  prisms  w  are  ce- 
mented:  the  lens  I  is 
focused  on  a  small  square 
aperture  o  in  the  tube  of 
the  instrument.  The  eye 
FIG.  102— Dichroscope.  of  the  observer  placed  at 

e  will  see  two  images  of  the  square  aperture,  and  if  a  pleochroic 
crystal  be  placed  in  front  of  this  aperture  the  two  images  will 
be  differently  coloured.  On  rotating  this  crystal  with  respect 
to  the  instrument  the  maximum  difference  in  the  colours  will  be 
obtained  when  the  vibration-directions  in  the  crystal  coincide 
with  those  in  the  calcite.  Such  a  simple  instrument  is  especially 
useful  for  the  examination  of  faceted  gem-stones,  even  when  they 
are  mounted  in  their  settings.  A  single  glance  suffices  to  dis- 
tinguish between  a  ruby  and  a  "  spinel-ruby,"  since  the  former 
is  dichroic  and  the  latter  isotropic  and  therefore  not  dichroic. 

The  characteristic  absorption  bands  in  the  spectrum  of  white 
light  which  has  been  transmitted  through  certain  crystals, 
particularly  those  of  salts  of  the  cerium  metals,  will,  of  course, 
be  different  according  to  the  direction  of  vibration  of  the  rays. 

Circular  Polarization  in  Crystals. — Like  the  solutions  of  certain 
optically  active  organic  substances,  such  as  sugar  and  tartaric 
acid,  some  optically  isotropic  and  uniaxial  crystals  possess  the 
property  of  rotating  the  plane  of  polarization  of  a  beam  of  light. 
In  uniaxial  (tetragonal  and  hexagonal)  crystals  it  is  only  for 
light  transmitted  in  the  direction  of  the  optic  axis  that  there  is 
rotatory  action,  but  in  isotropic  (cubic)  crystals  all  directions 
are  the  same  in  this  respect.  Examples  of  circularly  polarizing 
cubic  crystals  are  sodium  chlorate,  sodium  bromate,  and  sodium 
uranyl  acetate;  amongst  tetragonal  crystals  are  strychnine 
sulphate  and  guanidine  carbonate;  amongst  rhombohedral 
are  quartz  (q.v.)  and  cinnabar  (q.v.)  (these  being  the  only  two 
mineral  substances  in  which  the  phenomenon  has  been  observed) , 
dithionates  of  potassium,  lead,  calcium  and  strontium,  and 
sodium  periodate;  and  amongst  hexagonal  crystals  is  potassium 
lithium  sulphate.  Crystals  of  all  these  substances  belong  to  one 
or  other  of  the  several  symmetry-classes  in  which  there  are 
neither  planes  nor  centre  of  symmetry,  but  only  axes  of  sym- 
metry. They  crystallize  in  two  complementary  hemihedral 
forms,  which  are  respectively  right-handed  and  left-handed,  i.e. 
enantiomorphous  forms.  Some  other  substances  which  crystal- 
lize in  enantiomorphous  forms  are,  however,  only  "  optically 
active  "  when  in  solution  (e.g.  sugar  and  tartaric  acid) ;  and  there 
are  many  other  substances  presenting  this  peculiarity  of  crystal- 
line form  which  are  not  circularly  polarizing  either  when  crystal- 
lized or  when  in  solution.  Further,  in  the  examples  quoted  above, 
the  rotatory  power  is  lost  when  the  crystals  are  dissolved  (except 
in  the  case  of  strychnine  sulphate,  which  is  only  feebly  active 
in  solution).  The  rotatory  power  is  thus  due  to  different  causes 
in  the  two  cases,  in  the  one  depending  on  a  spiral  arrangement  of 
the  crystal  particles,  and  in  the  other  on  the  structure  of  the 
molecules  themselves. 

The  circular  polarization  of  crystals  may  be  imitated  by  a  pile 
of  mica  plates,  each  plate  being  turned  through  a  small  angle  on 
the  one  below,  thus  giving  a  spiral  arrangement  to  the  pile. 
"  Optical  Anomalies  "  of  Crystals.— "When,  in  1818,  Sir  David 


Brewster  established  the  important  relations  existing  between 
the  optical  properties  of  crystals  and  their  external  form,  he  at 
the  same  time  noticed  many  apparent  exceptions.  For  example, 
he  observed  that  crystals  of  leucite  and  boracite,  which  are  cubic 
in  external  form,  are  always  doubly  refracting  and  optically 
biaxial,  but  with  a  complex  internal  structure;  and  that  cubic 
crystals  of  garnet  and  analcite  sometimes  exhibit  the  same 
phenomena.  Also  some  tetragonal  and  hexagonal  crystals,  e.g. 
apophyllite,  vesuvianite,  beryl,  &c.,  which  should  normally  be 
optically  uniaxial,  sometimes  consist  of  several  biaxial  portions 
arranged  in  sectors  or  in  a  quite  irregular  manner.  Such  excep- 
tions to  the  general  rule  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion. 
They  have  often  been  considered  to  be  due  to  internal  strains  in 
the  crystals,  set  up  as  a  result  of  cooling  or  by  earth  pressures, 
since  similar  phenomena  are  observed  in  chilled  and  compressed 
glasses  and  in  dried  gelatine.  In  many  cases,  however,  as  shown 
by  E.  Mallard,  in  1876,  the  higher  degree  of  symmetry  exhibited 
by  the  external  form  of  the  crystals  is  the  result  of  mimetic 
twinning,  as  in  the  pseudo-cubic  crystals  of  leucite  (q.v.)  and 
boracite  (q.v.).  In  other  instances,  substances  not  usually 
regarded  as  cubic,  e.g.  the  monoclinic  phillipsite  (q.v.),  may  by 
repeated  twinning  give  rise  to  pseudo-cubic  forms.  In  some 
cases  it  is  probable  that  the  substance  originally  crystallized 
in  one  modification  at  a  higher  temperature,  and  when  the 
temperature  fell  it  became  transformed  into  a  dimorphous 
modification,  though  still  preserving  the  external  form  of  the 
original  crystal  (see  BORACITE).  A  summary  of  the  literature 
is  given  by  R.  Brauns,  Die  optischen  Anomalien  der  Krystalte 
(Leipzig,  1891). 

(c)  Thermal  Properties. 

The  thermal  properties  of  crystals  present  certain  points  in 
common  with  the  optical  properties.  Heat  rays  are  transmitted 
and  doubly  refracted  like  light  rays;  and  surfaces  expressing 
the  conductivity  and  dilatation  in  different  directions  possess  the 
same  degree  of  symmetry  and  are  related  in  the  same  way  to 
the  crystallographic  axes  as  the  ellipsoids  expressing  the  optical 
relations.  That  crystals  conduct  heat  at  different  rates  in 
different  directions  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  experiment. 
Two  plates  (fig.  103)  cut  from  a  crystal 
of  quartz,  one  parallel  to  the  principal 
axis  and  the  other  perpendicular  to  it, 
are  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  wax, 
and  a  hot  wire  is  applied  to  a  point 
on  the  surface.  On  the  transverse 
section  the  wax  will  be  melted  in  a 
circle,  and  on  the  longitudinal  section 
(or  on  the  natural  prism  faces)  in  an 
ellipse.  The  isothermal  surface  in  a 
uniaxial  crystal  is  therefore  a  spheroid; 
in  cubic  crystals  it  is  a  sphere;  and  in 
biaxial  crystals  an  ellipsoid,  the  three 
axes  of  which  coincide,  in  orthorhombic 
crystals,  with  the  crystallographic  axes. 

With  change  of  temperature  cubic 
crystals  expand  equally  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  the  angles  between  the  faces 
are  the  same  at  all  temperatures.  In 
uniaxial  crystals  there  are  two  principal  FIG.  103. — Conductivity 
coefficients  of  expansion;  the  one  of  Heat  in  Quartz, 
measured  in.  the  direction  of  the  prin- 
cipal axis  may  be  either  greater  or  less  than  that  measured 
in  directions  perpendicular  to  this  axis.  A  sphere  cut  from  a 
uniaxial  crystal  at  one  temperature  will  be  a  spheroid  at  another 
temperature.  In  biaxial  crystals  there  are  different  coefficients 
of  expansion  along  three  rectangular  axes,  and  a  sphere  at  one 
temperature  will  be  an  ellipsoid  at  another.  A  result  of  this  is 
that  for  all  crystals,  except  those  belonging  to  the  cubic  system, 
the  angles  between  the  faces  will  vary,  though  only  slightly,  with 
changes  of  temperature.  E.  Mitscherlich  found  that  the  rhombo- 
hedral angle  of  calcite  decreases  8'  37*  as  the  crystal  is  raised 
in  temperature  from  o°  to  100°  C. 


59° 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


As  already  mentioned,  the  optical  properties  of  crystals  vary 
considerably  with  the  temperature.  Such  characters  as  specific 
heat  and  melting-point,  which  do  not  vary  with  the  direction, 
are  the  same  in  crystals  as  in  amorphous  substances. 

(d)  Magnetic  and  Electrical  Properties. 

Crystals,  like  other  bodies,  are  either  paramagnetic  or  dia- 
magnetic,  i.e.  they  are  either  attracted  or  repelled  by  the  pole 
of  a  magnet.  In  crystals  other  than  those  belonging  to  the  cubic 
system,  however,  the  relative  strength  of  the  induced  magnetiza- 
tion is  different  in  different  directions  within  the  mass.  A 
sphere  cut  from  a  tetragonal  or  hexagonal  (uniaxial)  crystal  will 
if  freely  suspended  in  a  magnetic  field  (between  the  poles  of  a 
strong  electro-magnet)  take  up  a  position  such  that  the  principal 
axis  of  the  crystal  is  either  parallel  or  perpendicular  to  the  lines 
of  force,  or  to  a  line  joining  the  two  poles  of  the  magnet.  Which 
of  these  two  directions  is  taken  by  the  axis  depends  on  whether 
the  crystal  is  paramagnetic  or  diamagnetic,  and  on  whether 
the  principal  axis  is  the  direction  of  maximum  or  minimum 
magnetization.  The  surface  expressing  the  magnetic  character 
in  different  directions  is  in  uniaxial  crystals  a  spheroid;  in 
cubic  crystals  it  is  a  sphere.  In  orthorhombic,  monoclinic  and 
anorthic  crystals  there  are  three  principal  axes  of  magnetic 
induction,  and  the  surface  is  an  ellipsoid,  which  is  related  to  the 
symmetry  of  the  crystal  in  the  same  way  as  the  ellipsoids  express- 
ing the  thermal  and  optical  properties. 

Similarly,  the  dielectric  constants  of  a  non-conducting  crystal 
may  be  expressed  by  a  sphere,  spheroid  or  ellipsoid.  A  sphere 
cut  from  a  crystal  will  when  suspended  in  an  electro-magnetic 
field  set  itself  so  that  the  axis  of  maximum  induction  is  parallel 
to  the  lines  of  force. 

The  electrical  conductivity  of  crystals  also  varies  with  the 
direction,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  symmetry  as  the 
thermal  conductivity.  In  a  rhombohedral  crystal  of  haematite 
the  electrical  conductivity  along  the  principal  axis  is  only  half 
as  great  as  in  directions  perpendicular  to  this  axis;  whilst  in  a 
crystal  of  bismuth,  which  is  also  rhombohedral,  the  conductivities 
along  and  perpendicular  to  the  axis  are  as  1-6:1. 

Conducting  crystals  are  thermo-electric:  when  placed  against 
another  conducting  substance  and  the  contact  heated  there  will 
be  a  flow  of  electricity  from  one  body  to  the  other  if  the  circuit 
be  closed.  The  thermo-electric  force  depends  not  only  on  the 
nature  of  the  substance,  but  also  on  the  direction  within  the 
crystal,  and  may  in  general  be  expressed  by  an  ellipsoid.  A 
remarkable  case  is,  however,  presented  by  minerals  of  the 
pyrites  group:  some  crystals  of  pyrites  are  more  strongly 
thermo-electrically  positive  than  antimony,  and  others  more 
negative  than  bismuth,  so  that  the  two  when  placed  together 
give  a  stronger  thermo-electric  couple  than  do  antimony  and 
bismuth.  In  the  thermo-electrically  positive  crystals  of  pyrites 
the  faces  of  the  pentagonal  dodecahedron  are  striated  parallel 
to  the  cubic  edges,  whilst  in  the  rarer  negative  crystals  the  faces 
are  striated  perpendicular  to  these  edges.  Sometimes  both  sets 
of  striae  are  present  on  the  same  face,  and  the  corresponding 
areas  are  then  thermo-electrically  positive  and  negative. 

The  most  interesting  relation  between  the  symmetry  of 
crystals  and  their  electrical  properties  is  that  presented  by 
the  pyro-electrical  phenomena  of  certain  crystals.  This  is  a 
phenomenon  which  may  be  readily  observed,  and  one  which  often 
aids  in  the  determination  of  the  symmetry  of  crystals.  It  is 
exhibited  by  crystals  in  which  there  is  no  centre  of  symmetry, 
and  the  axes  of  symmetry  are  uniterminal  or  polar  in  character, 
being  associated  with  different  faces  on  the  crystal  at  their  two 
ends.  When  a  non-conducting  crystal  possessing  this  hemi- 
morphic  £ype  of  symmetry  is  subjected  to  changes  of  temperature 
a  charge  of  positive  electricity  will  be  developed  on  the  faces  in 
the  region  of  one  end  of  the  uniterminal  axis,  whilst  the  faces 
at  the  opposite  end  will  be  negatively  charged.  With  rising 
temperature  the  pole  which  becomes  positively  charged  is  called 
the  "  analogous  pole,"  and  that  negatively  charged  the  "  anti- 
logous pole  " :  with  falling  temperature  the  charges  are  reversed. 
The  phenomenon  was  first  observed  in  crystals  of  tourmaline, 


the  principal  axis  of  which  is  a  uniterminal  triad  axis  of  sym- 
metry. In  crystals  of  quartz  there  are  three  uniterminal  dyad 
axes  of  symmetry  perpendicular  to  the  principal  triad  axis  (which 
is  here  similar  at  its  two  ends):  the  dyad  axes  emerge  at  the 
edges  of  the  hexagonal  prism,  alternate  edges  of  which  become 
positively  and  negatively  charged  on  change  of  temperature. 
In  boracite  there  are  four  uniterminal  triad  axes,  and  the  faces, 
of  the  two  tetrahedra  perpendicular  to  them  will  bear  opposite 
charges.  Other  examples  of  pyro-electric  crystals  are  the 
orthorhombic  mineral  hemimorphite  (called  also,  for  this  reason, 
"  electric  calamine ")  and  the  monoclinic  tartaric  acid  and 
cane-sugar,  each  of  which  possesses  a  uniterminal  dyad  axis  of 
symmetry.  In  some  exceptional  cases,  e.g.  axinite,  prehnite, 
&c.,  there  is  no  apparent  relation  between  the  distribution  of  the 
pyro-electric  charges  and  the  symmetry  of  the  crystals. 

The  distribution  of  the  electric  charges  may  be  made  visible 
by  the  following  simple  method,  which  may  be  applied  even 
with  minute  crystals  observed  under  the  microscope.  A  finely 
powdered  mixture  of  red-lead  and  sulphur  is  dusted  through  a 
sieve  over  the  cooling  crystal.  In  passing  through  the  sieve 
the  particles  of  red-lead  and  sulphur  become  electrified  by 
mutual  friction,  the  former  positively  and  the  latter  negatively. 
The  red-lead  is  there/ore  attracted  to  the  negatively  charged 
parts  of  the  crystal  and  the  sulphur  to  those  positively  charged, 
and  the  distribution  of  the  charges  over  the  whole  crystal 
becomes  mapped  out  in  the  two  colours  red  and  yellow. 

Since,  when  a  crystal  changes  in  temperature,  it  also  expands 
or  contracts,  a  similar  distribution  of  "  piezo-electric  "  (from 
Trief  tu>,  to  press)  charges  are  developed  when  a  crystal  is  sub- 
jected to  changes  of  pressure  in  the  direction  of  a  uniterminal 
axis  of  symmetry.  Thus  increasing  pressure  along  the  principal 
axis  of  a  tourmaline  crystal  produces  the  same  electric  charges 
as  decreasing  temperature. 

III.   RELATIONS   BETWEEN  CRYSTALLINE   FORM 
AND   CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 

That  the  generaland  physical  characters  of  a  chemical  substance 
are  profoundly  modified  by  crystalline  structure  is  strikingly 
illustrated  by  the  two  crystalline  modifications  of  the  element 
carbon — namely,  diamond  and  graphite.  The  former  crystallizes, 
in  the  cubic  system,  possesses  four  directions  of  perfect  cleavage, 
is  extremely  hard  and  transparent,  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat 
and  electricity,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  3-5;  whilst  graphite 
crystallizes  in  the  hexagonal  system,  cleaves  in  a  single  direction, 
is  very  soft  and  opaque,  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity, 
and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2-2.  Such  substances,  which  are 
identical  in  chemical  composition,  but  different  in  crystalline 
form  and  consequently  in  their  physical  properties,  are  said  to 
be  "  dimorphous."  Numerous  examples  of  dimorphous  sub- 
stances are  known;  for  instance,  calcium  carbonate  occurs  in 
nature  either  as  calcite  or  as  aragonite,  the  former  being  rhombo- 
hedral and  the  latter  orthorhombic;  mercuric  iodide  crystallizes 
from  solution  as  red  tetragonal  crystals,  and  by  sublimation 
as  yellow  orthorhombic  crystals.  Some  substances  crystallize 
in  three  different  modifications,  and  these  are  said  to  be  "  tri- 
morphous  ";  for  example,  titanium  dioxide  is  met  with  as  the 
minerals  rutile,  anatase  and  brookite  (q.v.).  In  general,  or  in 
cases  where  more  than  three  crystalline  modifications  are  known 
(e.g.  in  sulphur  no  less  than  six  have  been  described),  the  term 
"  polymorphism  "  is  applied. 

On  the  other  hand,  substances  which  are  chemically  quite 
distinct  may  exhibit  similarity  of  crystalline  form.  For  example, 
the  minerals  iodyrite  (Agl),  greenockite  (CdS),  and  zincite 
(ZnO)  are  practically  identical  in  crystalline  form;  calcite 
(CaC03)  and  sodium  nitrate  (NaNO3);  celestite  (SrSO),  and 
marcasite  (FeS2);  epidote  and  azurite;  and  many  others, 
some  of  which  are  no  doubt  only  accidental  coincidences.  Such 
substances  are  said  to  be  "  homoeomorphous  "  (Gr.  o/ioios,  like, 
and  juop<^7,  form). 

Similarity  of  crystalline  form  in  substances  which  are  chemically 
related  is  frequently  met  with  and  is  a  relation  of  much 


CRYSTAL  PALACE— CSENGERY 


591 


importance:  such  substances  are  described  as  being  "  isomorph- 
ous."  Amongst  minerals  there  are  many  examples  of  isomorphous 
groups,  e.g.  the  rhombohedral  carbonates,  garnet  (q.v.),  plagio- 
clase  (q.v.)',  and  amongst  crystals  of  artificially  prepared  salts 
isomorphism  is  equally  common,  e.g.  the  sulphates  and  selenates 
of  potassium,  rubidium  and  caesium.  The  rhombohedral  car- 
bonates have  the  general  formula  R"COs,  where  R"  represents 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  manganese,  zinc,  cobalt  or  lead,  and 
the  different  minerals  (calcite,  ankerite,  magnesite,  chalybite, 
rhodochrosite  and  calamine  (q.v.))  of  the  group  are  not  only 
similar  in  crystalline  form,  cleavage,  optical  and  other  characters, 
but  the  angles  between  corresponding  faces  do  not  differ  by  more 
than  i°  or  2°.  Further,  equivalent  amounts  of  the  different 
chemical  elements  represented  by  R"  are  mutually  replaceable, 
and  two  or  more  of  these  elements  may  be  present  together  in 
the  same  crystal,  which  is  then  spoken  of  as  a  "  mixed  crystal  " 
or  isomorphous  mixture. 

In  another  isomorphous  series  of  carbonates  with  the  same 
general  formula  R"  CO3,  where  R"  represents  calcium,  strontium, 
barium,  lead  or  zinc,  the  crystals  are  orthorhombic  in  form,  and 
are  thus  dimorphous  with  those  of  the  previous  group  (e.g. 
calcite  and  aragonite,  the  other  members  being  only  represented 
by  isomorphous  replacements).  Such  a  relation  is  known  as 
"  isodimorphism."  An  even  better  example  of  this  is  presented 
by  the  arsenic  and  antimony  trioxides,  each  of  which  occurs  as 
two  distinct  minerals: — 

AsjOs,  Arsenolite  (cubic) ;  Claudetite  (monoclinic). 

SbjOa,  Senarmontite  (cubic) ;  Valentinite  (orthorhombic). 

Claudetite  and  valentinite  though  crystallizing  in  different 
systems  have  the  same  cleavages  and  very  nearly  the  same 
angles,  and  are  strictly  isomorphous. 

Substances  which  form  isodimorphous  groups  also  frequently 
crystallize  as  double  salts.  For  instance,  amongst  the  carbonates 
quoted  above  are  the  minerals  dolomite  (CaMg(CO3)2)  and 
barytocalcite  (CaBa(CO3)2).  Crystals  of  barytocalcite  (q.v.)  are 
monoclinic;  and  those  of  dolomite  (q.v.),  though  closely  related 
to  calcite  in  angles  and  cleavage,  possess  a  different  degree  of 
symmetry,  and  the  specific  gravity  is  not  such  as  would  result 
by  a  simple  isomorphous  mixture  of  the  two  carbonates.  A 
similar  case  is  presented  by  artificial  crystals  of  silver  nitrate 
and  potassium  nitrate.  Somewhat  analogous  to  double  salts 
are  the  molecular  compounds  formed  by  the  introduction  of 
"  water  of  crystallization,"  "  alcohol  of  crystallization,"  &c. 
Thus  sodium  sulphate  may  crystallize  alone  or  with  either  seven 
or  ten  molecules  of  water,  giving  rise  to  three  crystallographically 
distinct  substances. 

A  relation  of  another  kind  is  the  alteration  in  crystalline  form 
resulting  from  the  replacement  in  the  chemical  molecule  of  one 
or  more  atoms  by  atoms  or  radicles  of  a  different  kind.  This  is 
known  as  a  "  morphotropic  "  relation  (Gr.  noptfnj,  form,  rpoiros, 
habit).  Thus  when  some  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of  benzene  are 
replaced  by  (OH)  and  (NOa)  groups  the  orthorhombic  system 
of  crystallization  remains  the  same  as  before,  and  the  crystallo- 
graphic  axis  a  is  not  much  affected,  but  the  axis  c  varies 
considerably: — 


Benzene,  C6H«    . 
Resorcin,  C6H<(OH)2 
Picric  acid,C,Hj(OH)(NO2), 


a 

0-891 
0-910 
0-937 


b  :       c 
i  :  0-799 
i  :  0-540 
i  :  0-974 


A  striking  example  of  morphotropy  is  shown  by  the  humite 
(q.v.)  group  of  minerals:  successive  additions  of  the  group 
Mg2SiO4  to  the  molecule  produce  successive  increases  in  the 
length  of  the  vertical  crystallographic  axis. 

In  some  instances  the  replacement  of  one  atom  by  another 
produces  little  or  no  influence  on  the  crystalline  form;  this 
happens  in  complex  molecules  of  high  molecular  weight,  the 
"  mass  effect  "  of  which  has  a  controlling  influence  on  the 
isomorphism.  An  example  of  this  is  seen  in  the  replacement  of 
sodium  or  potassium  by  lead  in  the  alunite  (q.v.)  group  of  minerals, 
or  again  in  such  a  complex  mineral  as  tourmaline,  which,  though 
varying  widely  in  chemical  composition,  exhibits  no  variation 
in  crystalline  form. 


For  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  crystalline  forms  of  iso- 
morphous and  morphotropic  substances  it  is  usual  to  quote  the 
angles  or  the  axial  ratios  of  the  crystal,  as  in  the  table  of  benzene 
derivatives  quoted  above.  A  more  accurate  comparison  is,  how- 
ever, given  by  the  "  topic  axes,"  which  are  calculated  from 
the  axial  ratios  and  the  molecular  volume;  they  express  the 
relative  distances  apart  of  the  crystal  molecules  in  the  axial 
directions. 

The  two  isomerides  of  substances,  such  as  tartaric  acid,  which 
in  solution  rotate  the  plane  of  polarized  light  either  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left,  crystallize  in  related  but  enantiomorphous  forms. 

REFERENCES. — An  introduction  to  crystallography  is  given  in 
most  text-books  of  mineralogy,  e.g.  those  of  H.  A.  Miers  ana  of  E.  S. 
Dana  (see  MINERALOGY).  The  standard  work  treating  of  the  subject 
generally  is  that  of  P.  Groth,  Physikalische  Krystallographie  (.4th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1905).  A  condensed  summary  is  given  by  A.  J.  Moses, 
The  Characters  of  Crystals  (New  York,  1899). 

For  geometrical  crystallography,  dealing  exclusively  with  the 
external  form  of  crystals,  reference  may  be  made  to  N.  Story- 
Maskelyne,  Crystallography,  a  Treatise  on  the  Morphology  of  Crystals 
(Oxford,  1895)  and  W.  J.  Lewis,  A  Treatise  on  Crystallography 
(Cambridge,  1899).  Theories  of  crystal  structure  are  discussed 
by  L.  Sohncke,  Entwickelung  einer  Theorie  der  Krystallstruktur 
(Leipzig,  1879);  A.  Schoenflies,  Krystallsysteme  und  Krystallstructur 
(Leipzig,  1891) ;  and  H.  Hilton,  Mathematical  Crystallography  and  the 
Theory  of  Groups  of  Movements  (Oxford,  1903). 

The  physical  properties  of  crystals  are  treated  by  T.  Liebisch, 
Physikalische  Krystallographie  (Leipzig,  1891),  and  in  a  more  elemen- 
tary form  in  his  Grundriss  der  physikalischen  Krystallographie 
(Leipzig,  1896) ;  E.  Mallard,  Traite  de  cristallographie,  Cristallographie 
physique  (Paris,  1884) ;  C.  Soret,  Elements  de  cristallographie  physique 
(Geneva  and  Paris,  1893). 

For  an  account  of  the  relations  between  crystalline  form  and 
chemical  composition,  see  A.  Arzruni,  Physikalische  Chemie  der 
Krystalle  (Braunschweig,  1893);  A.  Fock,  An  Introduction  to 
Chemical  Crystallography,  translated  by  W.  J.  Pope  (Oxford,  1895); 
P.  Groth,  An  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography,  translated 
by  H.  Marshall  (London,  1906);  A.  E.  H.  Tutton,  Crystalline  Struc- 
ture and  Chemical  Constitution,  1910.  Descriptive  works  giving 
the  crystallographic  constants  of  different  substances  are  C.  F. 
Rammelsberg,  Handbuch  der  krystallographisch-physikalischen  Chemie 
(Leipzig,  1881-1882) ;  P.  Groth,  Chemische  Krystallographie  (Leipzig, 
1906) ;  and  of  minerals  the  treatises  of  J.  D.  Dana  and  C.  Hintze. 

(L.  J.  S.) 

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  THE,  a  well-known  English  resort, 
standing  high  up  in  grounds  just  outside  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  county  of  London,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sydenham. 
The  building,  chiefly  of  iron  and  glass,  is  flanked  by  two  towers 
and  is  visible  from  far  over  the  metropolis.  It  measures  1608 
ft.  in  length  by  384  ft.  across  the  transepts,  and  was  opened  in 
its  present  site  in  1854.  The  materials,  however,  were  mainly 
those  of  the  hall  set  up  in  Hyde  Park  for  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1851.  The  designer  was  Sir  Joseph  Paxton.  In  the  palace 
there  are  various  permanent  exhibitions,  while  special  exhibitions 
are  held  from  time  to  time,  also  concerts,  winter  pantomimes 
and  other  entertainments.  In  the  extensive  grounds  there  is 
accommodation  for  all  kinds  of  games:  the  final  tie  of  the 
Association  Football  Cup  and  other  important  football  matches 
are  played  here,  and  there  are  also  displays  of  fireworks  and 
other  attractions. 

CSENGERY,  ANTON  (1822-1880),  Hungarian  publicist,  and  a 
historical  writer  of  great  influence  on  his  time,  was  born  at 
Nagyvarad  on  the  2nd  of  June  1822.  He  took,  at  an  early  date, 
a  very  active  part  in  the  literary  and  political  movements 
immediately  preceding  the  Hungarian  Revolution  of  1848.  He 
and  Baron  Sigismund  Kemeny  may  be  considered  as  the  two 
founders  of  high-class  Magyar  journalism.  After  1867  the  greatest 
of  modern  Hungarian  statesmen,  Francis  Deak,  attached 
Csengery  to  his  personal  service,  and  many  of  the  momentous 
state  documents  inspired  or  suggested  by  Deak  were  drawn  up 
by  Csengery.  In  that  manner  his  influence,  as  represented  by 
the  text  of  many  a  statute  regulating  the  relations  between 
Austria  and  Hungary,  is  one  of  an  abiding  character.  As  a 
historical  writer  he  excelled  chiefly  in  brilliant  and  thoughtful 
essays  on  the  leading  political  personalities  of  his  time,  such  as 
Paul  Nagy,  Bertalan,  Szemere  and  others.  He  also  commenced 
a  translation  of  Macaulay's  History.  He  died  at  Budapest  on 
the  1 3th  of  July  1880. 


592 


CSIKY— CTENOPHORA 


CSIKY,  6RE60R  (1842-1891),  Hungarian  dramatist,  was  born 
on  the  8th  of  December  1842  at  Pankota,  in  the  county  of  Arad. 
He  studied  Roman  Catholic  theology  at  Pest  and  Vienna,  and  was 
professor  in  the  Priests'  College  at  Temesvar  from  1870  to  1878. 
In  the  latter  year,  however,  he  joined  the  Evangelical  Church, 
and  took  up  literature.  Beginning  with  novels  and  works  on 
ecclesiastical  history,  which  met  with  some  recognition,  he 
ultimately  devoted  himself  to  writing  for  the  stage.  Here  his 
success  was  immediate.  In  his  Az  ettendllhatatlan  ("  L'lrresis- 
tible  "),  which  obtained  a  prize  from  the  Hungarian  Academy, 
he  showed  the  distinctive  features  of  his  talent — directness, 
freshness,  realistic  vigour,  and  highly  individual  style.  In  rapid 
succession  he  enriched  Magyar  "literature  with  realistic  genre- 
pictures,  such  as  A  Proletdrok  ("  Proletariate "),  Buborckok 
("  Bubbles  "),  Kit  szerelem  ("  Two  Loves  "),  A  szegyenlos  ("  The 
Bashful  "),  Athalia,  &c.,  in  all  of  which  he  seized  on  one  or 
another  feature  or  type  of  modern  life,  dramatizing  it  with 
unusual  intensity,  qualified  by  chaste  and  well-balanced  diction. 
Of  the  latter,  his  classical  studies  may,  no  doubt,  be  taken  as 
the  inspiration,  and  his  translation  of  Sophocles  and  Plautus 
will  long  rank  with  the  most  successful  of  Magyar  translations  of 
the  ancient  classics.  Among  the  best  known  of  his  novels  are 
Arnold,  Az  Atlasz  csaldd  ("The  Atlas  Family").  He  died  at 
Budapest  on  the  ipth  of  November  1891. 

CSOKONAI,  MIHALY  VITEZ  (1773-1805),  Hungarian  poet, 
was  born  at  Debreczen  in  1773.  Having  been  educated  in  his 
native  town,  he  was  appointed  while  still  very  young  to  the 
professorship  of  poetry  there;  but  soon  after  he  was  deprived 
of  the  post  on  account  of  the  immorality  of  his  conduct.  The 
remaining  twelve  years  of  his  short  life  were  passed  in  almost 
constant  wretchedness,  and  he  died  in  his  native  town,  and  in 
his  mother's  house,  when  only  thirty-one  years  of  age.  Csokonai 
was  a  genial  and  original  poet  with  something  of  the  lyrical  fire 
of  Petofi,  and  wrote  a  mock-heroic  poem  called  Dorottya  or  the 
Triumph  of  the  Ladies  at  the  Carnival,  two  or  three  comedies 
or  farces,  and  a  number  of  love-poems.  Most  of  his  works  have 
been  published,  with  a  life,  by  Schedel  (1844-1847). 

CSOMA  DE  KOROS,  ALEXANDER  (c.  1790-1842),  or,  as  the 
name  is  written  in  Hungarian,  KOROSI  CSOMA  SANDOR,  Hungarian 
traveller  and  philologist,  born  about  1790  at  Koros  in  Tran- 
sylvania, belonged  to  a  noble  family  which  had  sunk  into  poverty. 
He  was  educated  at  Nagy-Enyed  and  at  Gottingen;  and,  in 
order  to  carry  out  the  dream  of  his  youth  and  discover  the 
origin  of  his  countrymen,  he  divided  his  attention  between 
medicine  and  the  Oriental  languages.  In  1820,  having  received 
from  a  friend  the  promise  of  an  annuity  of  100  florins  (about  £10) 
to  support  him  during  his  travels,  he  set  out  for  the  East.  He 
visited  Egypt,  and  made  his  way  to  Tibet,  where  he  spent  four 
years  in  a  Buddhist  monastery  studying  the  language  and  the 
Buddhist  literature.  To  his  intense  disappointment  he  soon 
discovered  that  he  could  not  thus  obtain  any  assistance  in  his 
great  object;  but,  having  visited  Bengal,  his  knowledge  of 
Tibetan  obtained  him  employment  in  the  library  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  there,  which  possessed  more  than  1000  volumes  in  that 
language;  and  he  was  afterwards  supported  by  the  government 
while  he  published  a  Tibetan-English  dictionary  and  grammar 
(both  of  which  appeared  at  Calcutta  in  1834).  He  also  contri- 
buted several  articles  on  the  Tibetan  language  and  literature  to 
the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  and  he  published 
an  analysis  of  the  Kah-Gyur,  the  most  important  of  the  Buddhis't 
sacred  books.  Meanwhile  his  fame  had  reached  his  native 
country,  and  procured  him  a  pension  from  the  government, 
which,  with  characteristic  devotion  to  learning,  he  devoted  to 
the  purchase  of  books  for  Indian  libraries.  He  spent  some  time 
in  Calcutta,  studying  Sanskrit  and  several  other  languages; 
but,  early  in  1842,  he  commenced  his  second  attempt  to  discover 
the  origin  of  the  Hungarians,  but  he  died  at  Darjiling  on  the  nth 
of  April  1842.  An  oration  was  delivered  in  his  honour  before 
the  Hungarian  Academy  by  Eotvos,  the  novelist. 

CTENOPHORA,  in  zoology,  a  class  of  jelly-fish  which  were 
briefly  described  by  Professor  T.  H.  Huxley  in  1875  (see 
ACTINOZOA,  Ency.  Brit.  9th  ed.  vol.  i.)  as  united  with  what  we 


now  term  Anthozoa  to  form  the  group  Actinozoa;  but  little  was 
known  of  the  intimate  structure  of  those  remarkable  and  beauti- 
ful forms  till  the  appearance  in  1880  of  C.  Chun's  Monograph  of 
the  Ctenophora  occurring  in  the  Bay  of  Naples.  They  may  be 
defined  as  Coelentera  which  exhibit  both  a  radial  and  bilateral 
symmetry  of  organs;  with  a  stomodaeum;  with  a  mesenchyma 
which  is  partly  gelatinous  but  partly  cellular;  with  eight  meri- 
dianal  rows  of  vibratile  paddles  formed  of  long  fused  or  matted 
cilia;  lacking  nematocysts  (except  in  one  genus).  An  example 
common  on  the  British  coasts  is  furnished  by  Hormiphora 
(Cydippe).  In  outward  form  this  is  an  egg-shaped  ball  of  clear 
jelly,  having  a  mouth  at  the  pointed  (oral)  pole,  and  a  sense- 


organ  at  the  broader  (ab- 
oral)  pole.  It  possesses 
eight  meridians  (costae)  of 
iridescent  paddles  in  con- 
stant vibration,  which  run 
from  near  one  pole  towards 
the  other;  it  has  also  two 
pendent  feathery  tentacles 
of  considerable  length, 
which  can  be  retracted  into 
pouches.  The  mouth  leads 
into  an  ectodermal  stomo- 
daeum ("  stomach  "),  and 
the  latter  into  an  endo- 
dermal  funnel  (infundi- 
bulum);  these  two  are 
compressed  in  planes  at 
right  angles  to  one  another, 
the  sectional  long  axis  of 
the  stomodaeum  lying  in  the 
so-called  sagittal  (stomo- 
daeal  or  gastric)  plane,  that 
of  the  funnel  in  the  trans- 
verse (tentacular  or  funnel) 
plane.  From  the  funnel, 
canals  are  given  off  in  three 
directions;  (a)  a  pair  of 
paragastric  (stomachal,  or 
stomodaeal)  canals  run 
orally,  parallel  to  the  stomo- 
daeum, and  end  blindly  near 
the  mouth;  (b)  a  pair  of 
perradial  canals  run  in  the 
transverse  plane  towards  the 
equator  of  the  animal;  each 
of  these  becomes  divided 
into  two  short  canals  at  the 
base  of  the  tentacle  sheath 
which  they  supply,  but  has 


Oral  pelt 


FIG.  I. — Schematic  drawing  of  a 


previously  given  off  a  pair  Cydippid  from  the  side.  (After 
of  short  interradial  canals, 
which  again  bifurcate  into 
two  adradial  canals;  all 
these  branches  lie  in  the 
equatorial  plane  of  the 
animal,  but  the  eight  adra- 
dial canals  then  open  into 
eight  meridianal  canals 
which  run  orally  and  abor- 
ally  under  the  costae;  (c)  a 
pair  of  aboral  vessels  which 
run  towards  the  sense-organ, 


Chun.) 

A,  Adradial  canals. 

F,    Infundibulum. 

/,     Interradial  canal. 

M,  Meridianal  canal  lying  under  a 

costa. 
N,  Ciliated  furrow  from  sense  pole 

to  costa. 

Pg,  Paragastric  canal. 
SO,  Sense-organ. 
St,  Stomodaeum. 
Subs,  Subsagittal  costa. 
Subt,  Subtentacular  costa. 
T,   Tentacle. 
Ts,  Boundaries  of  tentacle-sheath. 


each    of    which    bifurcates; 

of  the  four  vessels  thus  formed,  two  only  open  at  the  sides 
of  the  sense-organ,  forming  the  so-called  excretory  apertures. 
These  three  sets  of  structures,  with  the  funnel  from  which  they 
rise,  make  up  the  endodermal  coelenteron,  or  gastro-vascular 
system.  The  generative  organs  are  endodermal  by  origin, 
borne  at  the  sides  of  the  meridianal  canals  as  indicated  by  the 
signs  c?  ? .  There  exists  a  subepithelial  plexus  with  nerve  cells 


CTENOPHORA 


593 


and  fibres,  similar  to  that  of  jelly-fishes.  The  sense-organ  of  the 
aboral  pole  is  complex,  and  lies  under  a  dome  of  fused  cilia 
shaped  like  an  inverted  bell-jar;  it  consists  of  an  otolith,  formed 
of  numerous  calcareous  spheroids,  which  is  supported  on  four 
plates  of  fused  cilia  termed  balancers,  but  is  otherwise  free. 
The  ciliated  ectoderm  below  the  organ  is  markedly  thickened,  and 
perhaps  functionally  represents  a  nerve-ganglion:  from  it  eight 
ciliated  furrows  radiate  outwards,  two  passing  under  each 
balancer  as  through  an  archway,  and  diverge  each  to  the  head 

of  a  meridianal  costa. 
These  ciliated  furrows 
stain  deeply  with  osmic 
acid,  and  nervous  im- 
pulses are  certainly 
transmitted  along 
them.  Locomotion  is 
effected  by  strokes  of 
the  paddles  in  an  aboral 
direction,  driving  the 
animal  mouth  forwards 
through  the  water:  each 
paddle  or  comb  (Gr. 
mis;  hence  Cteno- 
phora)  consists  of  a 
plate  of  fused  or  matted 
cilia  set  transversely  to 


SuJa 


FIG.  2. — Schematic  drawing  of  a  Cy- 

dippid    from    the   aboral    pole.     (After 

Chun.) 

T  (centrally),  Tentacular  canal,  and  (dis- 
tally)  tentacle. 

<f ,   Position  of  testes. 

9 ,  Position  of  ovaries ;  other  letters  as 
in  fig.  I .  The  stomodaeum  lies  in  the 
sagittal  plane,  the  funnel  and  tentacles 
in  the  transverse  or  tentacular  plane. 


the  costa.  The  myoepi- 
thelial  cells  ( formerly 
termed  neuro-muscular 
cells),  characteristic  of 
other  Coelentera,  are 
not  to  be  found  in  this 
group.  On  the  other 
hand  there  are  well- 


marked  muscle  fibres 
in  definite  layers,  derived  from  special  mesoblastic  cells 
in  the  embryo,  which  are  embedded  in  a  jelly;  these  in  their 
origin  and  arrangement  are  quite  comparable  to  the  meso- 
derm  of  Triploblastica,  and,  although  the  muscle-cells  of  some 
jelly-fish  exhibit  a  somewhat  similar  condition,  nothing  so 
highly  specialized  as  the  mesenchyme  of  Ctenophora  occurs  in  any 
other  Coelenterate.  The  nematocysts  being  nearly  absent  from 
their  group,  their  chief  function  is  carried  out  by  adhesive 
lasso-cells. 

The  Ctenophora  are  classified  as  follows: — 

Subclass  i.  Tentaculata,  Order  I.  CYDIPPIDEA,  Hormiphora. 
„      2.  LOBATA,         Deiopea. 
„     3.  CESTOIDEA,    Cestus. 
„     ii.  Nuda,  „  Beroe. 

The  Tentaculata,  as  the  name  implies,  may  be  recognized  by  the 
presence  of  tentacles  of  spme.sort.  The  CYDIPPIDEA  are  generally 
spherical  or  ovoid,  with  two  long  retrusible  pinnate  tentacles:  the 
meridianal  and  paragastric  canals  end  blindly.  An  example  of 
these  has  already  been  briefly  described.  The  LOBATA  are  of  the 
same  general  type  as  the  first  Order,  except  for  the  presence  of  four 
circumoral  auricles  (processes  of  the  subtransverse  costae)  and  of 
a  pair  of  sagittal  outgrowths  or  lobes,  on  to  which  the  subsagittal 
costae  are  continued.  Small  accessory  tentacles  lie  in  grooves,  but 
there  is  no  tentacular  pouch;  the  meridianal  vessels  anastomose  in 
the  lobes.  In  the  CESTOIDEA  the  body  is  compressed  in  the  trans- 
verse plane,  elongated  in  the  sagittal  plane,  so  as  to  become  riband- 
like:  the  subtransverse  costae  are  greatly  reduced,  the  subsagittal 
costae  extend  along  the  aboral  edge  of  the  riband.  The  subsagittal 
canals  lie  immediately  below  their  costae  aborally,  but  continuations 
of  the  subtransverse  canals  round  down  the  middle  of  the  riband, 
and  at  its  end  unite,  not  only  with  the  subsagittal  but  also  with  the 
paragastric  canals  which  run  along  the  oral  edge  of  the  riband. 
The  tentacular  bases  and  pouches  are  present,  but  there  is  no  main 
tentacle  as  in  Cydippidea ;  fine  accessory  tentacles  lie  in  four  grooves 
along  the  oral  edge.  The  subclass  Nuda  have  no  tentacles  of  any 
kind;  they  are  conical  or  ovoid,  with  a  capacious  stomodaeum  like 
the  cavity  of  a  thimble.  There  is  a  coelenteric  network  formed  by 
anastomoses  of  the  meridianal  and  paragastric  canals  all  over  the 
body. 

The  embryology  of  Callianira  has  been  worked  out  by  E.  Mechni- 
kov.  Segmentation  is  complete  and  unequal,  producing  macromeres 
and  micromeres  marked  by  differences  in  the  size  and  in  yolk- 


contents.  The  micromeres  give  rise  to  the  ectoderm;  each  of  the 
sixteen  macromeres,  after  budding  off  a  small  mesoblast  cell,  passes 
on  as  endoderm.  A  gastrula  is  established  by  a  mixed  process  of 
embole  and  epibole.  The  mesoblast  cells  travel  to  the  aboral  pole 
of  the  embryo,  and  there  form  a  cross-shaped  mass,  the  arms  of  which 
lie  in  the  sagittal  and  transverse  planes  (perradii). 

There  can  be  but  little  question  of  the  propriety  of  including 
Ctenophora  among  the  Coelentera.  The  undivided  coelenteron 
(gastro-vascular  system)  which  constitutes  the  sole  cavity  of 
the  body,  the  largely  radial  symmetry,  the  presence  of  endo- 


fy.... 


FIG.  3. — Schematic  Drawing  of  Cestus.     (After  Chun.) 
Subs,  Subsagittal  costae.  Pg,  Continuation  of   the    para- 


Subt,  Much    reduced    subtenta- 

cular  costae. 
Subt,  Branch     of     the     subten- 

tacular  canal  which  runs 

along  the  centre  of  the 

riband. 


gastric  canal  at  right 
angles  to' its  original  direc- 
tion along  the  lower  edge 
of  the  riband.  At  the 
right-hand  end  the  last 
two  are  seen  to  unite  with 
the  subsagittal  canal. 

dermal  generative  organs  on  the  coelenteric  canals,  the  sub- 
epithelial  nerve-plexus,  the  mesogloea-like  matrix  of  the  body — 
all  these  features  indicate  affinity  to  other  Coelentera,  but,  as 
has  been  stated  in  the  article  under  that  title,  the  relation  is  by 
no  means  close.  At  what  period  the  Ctenophora  branched  off 
from  the  line  of  descent,  which  culminated  in  the  Hydromedusae 
and  Scyphozoa  of  to-day,  is  not  clear,  but  it  is  practically  certain 
that  they  did  so  before  the  point  of  divergence  of  these  two  groups 
from  one  another.  The  peculiar  sense-organ,  the  specialization 
of  the  cilia  into  paddles  with  the  corresponding  modifications  of 
the  coelenteron,  the  anatomy  and  position  of  the  tentacles,  and, 
above  all,  the  character  and  mode  of  formation  of  the  mesen- 
chyme, separate  them  widely  from  other  Coelentera. 

The  last-named  character,  however,  combined  with  the 
discovery  of  two  remarkable  organisms,  Coeloplana  and  Cteno- 
plana,  has  suggested  affinity  to  the  flat- 
worms  termed  Turbellaria.  Clenoplana, 
the  best  known  of  these,  has  recently  been 
redescribed  by  A.  Willey  (Quart.  Journ, 
Micr.  Sci.  xxxix.,  1896).  It  is  flattened 
along  the  axis  which  unites  sense-organ 
and  mouth,  so  as  to  give  it  a  dorsal 
(aboral)  surface,  and  a  ventral  (oral) 
surface  on  which  it  frequently  creeps.  Its 
costae  are  very  short,  and  retrusible; 
its  two  tentacles  are  pinnate  and  are  also 
retrusible.  Two  crescentic  rows  of  ciliated 

papillae  lie  in  the  transverse  plane  on  each      pJG     Schematic 

side  of  the  sense-organ.  The  coelenteron  Drawing  of  Beroe. 
exhibits  six  lobes,  two  of  which  Willey  (After  Chun.) 
identifies  with  the  stomodaeum  of  other 
Ctenophora;  the  other  four  give  rise  to  a  system  of  anas- 
tomosing canals  such  as  are  found  in  Beroe  and  Polyclad 
Turbellaria.  An  aboral  vessel  embraces  the  sense-organ,  but 
has  no  external  opening.  Clenoplana  is  obviously  a  Cteno- 
phoran  flattened,  and  of  a  creeping  habit.  Coeloplana  is  of 
similar  form  and  habit,  with  two  Ctenophoran  tentacles:  it 
has  no  costae,  but  is  uniformly  ciliated.  These  two  forms  at 
least  indicate  a  possible  stepping-stone  from  Ctenophora  to 


594 


CTESIAS— CUBA 


Turbellaria,  that  is  to  say,  from  diploblastic  to  triploblastic 
Metazoa.  By  themselves  they  would  present  no  very  w.eighty 
argument  for  this  line  of  descent  from  two-layered  to  three- 
layered  forms,  but  the  coincidences  which  occur  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Ctenophora  and  Turbellaria, — the  methods  of  segmenta- 
tion and  gastrulation,  of  the  separation  of  the  mesoblast  cells, 
and  of  mesenchyme  formation, — together  with  the  marked 
similarity  of  the  adult  mesenchyme  in  the  two  groups,  have  led 
many  to  accept  this  pedigree.  In  his  Monograph  on  the  Polyclad 
Turbellaria  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  A.  Lang  regards  a  Turbellarian, 
so  to  say,  as  a  Ctenophora,  in  which  the  sensory  pole  has  rotated 
forwards  in  the  sagittal  plane  through  90°  as  regards  the  original 
oral-aboral  axis,  a  rotation  which  actually  occurs  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Thysanozoon  (Miiller's  larva) ;  and  he  sees,  in  the  eight 
lappets  of  the  preoral  ciliated  ring  of  such  a  larva,  the  rudiments 
of  the  costal  plates.  According  to  his  view,  a  simple  early 
Turbellarian  larva,  such  as  that  of  Slylochus,  most  nearly 
represents  for  us  to-day  that  ancestor  from  which  Ctenophora 
and  Turbellaria  are  alike  derived.  For  details  of  this  brilliant 
theory,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  original  monograph. 

LITERATURE. — G.  C.  Bourne,  "  The  Ctenophora,"  in  Ray  Lan- 
kester's  Treatise  on  Zoology  (1900),  where  a  bibliography  is  given; 
G.  Curreri,  "  Osservazioni  sui  ctenofori,"  Boll.  Soc.  Zool.  /to/.  (2),  i. 
pp.  190-193  et  ii.  pp.  58-76;  A.  Garbe,  "  Untersuchungen  iiber  die 
Entstehung  der  Geschlechtsorgane  bei  den  Ctenophoren.,"  Zeitschr. 
Wiss.  Zool.  Ixix.  pp.  472-491;  K.  C.  Schneider,  Lehrbuch  der 
•vergleich.  Histologie  (1902).  (G.  H.  Fo.) 

CTESIAS,  of  Cnidus  in  Caria,  Greek  physician  and  historian, 
flourished  in  the  sth  century  B.C.  In  early  life  he  was  physician 
to  Artaxerxes  Mnemonji  whom  he  accompanied  (401)  on  his 
expedition  against  his  brother  Cyrus  the  Younger.  Ctesias  was 
the  author  of  treatises  on  rivers,  and  on  the  Persian  revenues, 
of  an  account  of  India  (which  is  of  value  as  recording  the  beliefs 
of  the  Persians  about  India),  and  of  a  history  of  Assyria  and 
Persia  in  23  books,  called  Persica,  written  in  opposition  to 
Herodotus  in  the  Ionic  dialect,  and  professedly  founded  on  the 
Persian  royal  archives.  The  first  six  books  treated  of  the  history 
of  Assyria  and  Babylon  to  the  foundation  of  the  Persian  empire; 
the  remaining  seventeen  went  down  to  the  year  398.  Of  the 
two  histories  we  possess  abridgments  by  Photius,  and  fragments 
are  preserved  in  Athenaeus,  Plutarch  and  especially  Diodorus 
Siculus,  whose  second  book  is  mainly  from  Ctesias.  As  to  the 
worth  of  the  Persica  there  has  been  much  controversy,  both  in 
ancient  and  modern  times.  Being  based  upon  Persian  authorities, 
it  was  naturally  looked  upon  with  suspicion  by  the  Greeks  and 
censured  as  untrustworthy. 

For  an  estimate  of  Ctesias  as  a  historian  see  G.  Rawlinson's 
Herodotus,  i.  71-74;  also  the  edition  of  the  fragments  of  the  Persica 
by  J.  Gilmore  (1888,  with  introduction  and  notes  and  list  of 
authorities). 

CTESIPHON,  a  large  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
opposite  to  Seleucia,  of  which  it  formed  a  suburb,  about  25  m. 
below  Bagdad.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  year  220  by  Polybius 
v.  45.  4.  When  the  Parthian  Arsacids  had  conquered  the  lands 
east  of  the  Euphrates  in  129  B.C.,  they  established  their  winter 
residence  in  Ctesiphon.  They  dared  not  stay  in  Seleucia,  as 
this  city,  the  most  populous  town  of  western  Asia,  always 
maintained  her  Greek  self-government  and  a  strong  feeling  of 
independence,  which  made  her  incline  to  the  west  whenever  a 
Roman  army  attacked  the  Parthians.  The  Arsacids  also  were 
afraid  of  destroying  the  wealth  and  commerce  of  Seleucia,  if  they 
entered  it  with  their  large  retinue  of  barbarian  officials  and 
soldiers  (Strabo  xvi.  743,  Plin.  vi.  122,  cf.  Joseph.  Ant.  xviii. 
9,  2).  From  this  time  Ctesiphon  increased  in  size,  and  many 
splendid  buildings  rose;  it  had  the  outward  appearance  of  a 
large  town,  although  it  was  by  its  constitution  only  a  village. 
From  A.D.  36-43  Seleucia  was  in  rebellion  against  the  Parthians 
till  at  last  it  was  forced  by  King  Vardanes  to  yield.  It  is 
very  probable  that  Vardanes  now  tried  to  put  Ctesiphon  in  its 
place;  therefore  he  is  called  founder  of  Ctesiphon  by  Ammianus 
Marcellinus  (xxiii.  6.  23),  where  King  Pacorus  (78-110)  is  said 
to  have  increased  its  inhabitants  and  built  its  walls.  Seleucia 
was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in  A.D.  164.  When  Ardashir  I. 


founded  the  Sassanian  empire  (226),  and  fixed  his  residence  at 
Ctesiphon,  he  built  up  Seleucia  again  under  the  name  of  Veh- 
Ardashir.  Later  kings  added  other  suburbs;  Chosroes  I.  in  540 
established  the  inhabitants  of  Antiochia  in  Syria,  whom  he  had 
led  into  captivity,  in  a  new  city,  "  Chosrau-Antioch  "  (or  "  the 
Roman  city  ")  near  his  residence.  Therefore  the  Arabs  designate 
the  whole  complex  of  towns  which  lay  together  around  Seleucia 
and  Ctesiphon  and  formed  the  residence  of  the  Sassanids  by 
the  name  Madam,  "  the  cities," — their  number  is  often  given 
as  seven.  In  the  wars  between  the  Roman  and  Persian  empires, 
Ctesiphon  was  more  than  once  besieged  and  plundered,  thus  by 
Odaenathusin  261,  and  by  Carus  in  283;  Julian  in  363  advanced 
to  Ctesiphon,  but  was  not  able  to  take  it  (Ammianus  xxiv.  7). 
After  the  battle  of  Kadisiya  (Qadisiya)  Ctesiphon  and  the 
neighbouring  towns  were  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Arabs 
in  637,  who  brought  home  an  immense  amount  of  booty  (see 
CALIPHATE).  From  then,  these  towns  decayed  before  the  in- 
creasing prosperity  of  the  new  Arab  capitals  Basra  and  Bagdad. 
The  site  is  marked  only  by  the  ruins  of  one  gigantic  building  of 
brick-work,  called  Takhti  Khesra,  "  throne  of  Khosrau  "  (i.e. 
Chosroes).  It  is  a  great  vaulted  hall  ornamented  with  pilasters, 
the  remainder  of  the  palace  and  the  most  splendid  example  of 
Sassanian  architecture  (see  ARCHITECTURE,  vol.  ii.  p.  558,  for 
further  details  and  illustration).  (Eo.  M.) 

CUBA  (the  aboriginal  name),  a  republic,  the  largest  and  most 
populous  of  the  West  India  Islands,  included  between  the 
meridians  of  74°  7'  and  84°  57'  W.  longitude  and  (roughly)  the 
parallels  of  19°  48'  and  23°  13'  N.  latitude.  It  divides  the  en- 
trance to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  into  two  passages  of  nearly  equal 
width, — the  Strait  of  Florida,  about  no  m.  wide  between  Capes 
Hicacos  in  Cuba  and  Arenas  in  Florida  (Key  West  being  a  little 
over  100  m.  from  Havana);  and  the  Yucatan  Channel,  about 
130  m.  wide  between  Capes  San  Antonio  and  Catoche.  On  the 
N.E.,  E.  and  S.E.,  narrower  channels  separate  it  from  the 
Bahamas,  Haiti  (50  m.)  and  Jamaica  (85  m.).  In  1908,  by  the 
opening  of  a  railway  along  the  Florida  Keys,  the  time  of  passage 
by  water  between  Cuba  and  the  United  States  was  reduced  to  a 
few  hours. 

The  island  is  long  and  narrow,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  an 
irregular  crescent,  convex  toward  the  N.  It  has  a  decided  pitch 
to  the  S.  Its  length  from  Cape  Maisf  to  Cape  San  Antonio  along 
a  medial  line  is  about  730  m.;  its  breadth,  which  averages  about 
50  m.,  ranges  from  a  maximum  of  160  m.  to  a  minimum  of  about 
22m.  The  total  area  is  estimated  at  41,634  sq.  m.  .without  the 
surrounding  keys  and  the  Isle  of  Pines  (area  about  1180  sq.  m.), 
and  including  these  is  approximately  44,164.  The  geography 
of  the  island  is  still  very  imperfectly  known,  and  all  figures  are 
approximate  only.  The  coast  line,  including  larger  bays,  but 
excluding  reefs,  islets,  keys  and  all  minute  sinuosities,  is  about 
2500  m.  in  length.  The  N.  littoral  is  characterized  by  bluffs, 
which  grow  higher  and  higher  toward  the  east,  rising  to  600  ft. 
at  Cape  Maisi.  They  are  marked  by  distinct  terraces.  The 
southern  coast  near  Cape  Maisi  is  low  and  sandy.  From  Guanta- 
namo  to  Santiago  it  rises  in  high  escarpments,  and  W.  of  Santiago, 
where  the  Sierra  Maestra  runs  close  to  the  sea,  there  is  a  very 
high  abrupt  shore.  To  the  W.  of  Manzanillo  it  sinks  again,  and 
throughout  most  of  the  remaining  distance  to  Cape  San  Antonio 
is  low,  with  a  sandy  or  marshy  littoral;  at  places  sand  hills 
fringe  the  shore;  near  Trinidad  there  are  hills  of  considerable 
height;  and  the  coast  becomes  high  and  rugged  W.  of  Point 
Fisga,  in  the  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio.  On  both  the  N.  and  the  S. 
side  of  the  island  there  are  long  chains  of  islets  and  reefs  and 
coral  keys  (of  which  it  is  estimated  there  are  1300),  which  limit 
access  to  probably  half  of  the  coast,  and  on  the  N.  render  naviga- 
tion difficult  and  dangerous.  On  the  S.  they  are  covered  with 
mangroves.  A  large  part  of  the  southern  littoral  is  subject  to 
overflow,  and  much  more  of  it  is  permanently  marshy.  The 
Zapata  Swamp  near  Cienfuegos  is  600  sq.  m.  in  area;  other  large 
swamps  are  the  Majaguillar,  E.  of  Cardenas,  and  the  Cienaga 
del  Buey,  S.  of  the  Cauto  river.  The  Isle  of  Pines  in  its  northern 
part  is  hilly  and  wooded;  in  its  southern  part,  very  low,  level  and 
rather  barren;  a  tidal  swamp  almost  cuts  the  island  in  two. 


CUBA 


595 


State  Capital.. ..Havana     Capitals  of  Provinces • 

Railways 


Longitude  West   80  of  Greenwich 


A  remarkable  feature  of  the  Cuban  coast  is  the  number  of 
excellent  anchorages,  roadsteads  and  harbours.  On  the  N.  shore, 
beginning  at  the  W.,  Bahfa  Honda,  Havana,  Matanzas,  Cardenas, 
Nuevitas  and  Nipe;  and  on  the  S.  shore  running  westward 
Guantanamo,  Santiago  and  Cienfuegos,  are  harbours  of  the  first 
class,  several  of  them  among  the  best  of  the  world.  Mariel, 
Cabanas,  Banes,  Sagua  la  Grande  and  Baracoa  on  the  N.,  and 
Manzanillo,  Santa  Cruz,  Batabano  and  Trinidad  on  the  S.  are 
also  excellent  ports  or  anchorages.  The  peculiar  pouch-shape 
of  almost  all  the  harbours  named  (Matanzas  being  a  marked 
exception)  greatly  increases  their  security  and  defensibility. 
These  pouch  harbours  are  probably  "  drowned  "  drainage  basins. 
The  number  of  small  bays  that  can  be  utilized  for  coast  trade 
traffic  is  extraordinary. 

In  popular  language  the  different  portions  of  the  island  are 
distinguished  as  the  Vuelta  Abajo  (' '  lower  turn  ") ,  W.  of  Havana; 
the  Vuelta  Arriba  ("  upper  turn  "),  E.  of  Havana  to  Cienfuegos — 
Vuelta  Abajo  and  Vuelta  Arriba  are  also  used  colloquially  at 
any  point  in  the  island  to  mean  "  east  "  and  "  west  " — Las  Cinco 
Villas — i.e.  Villa  Clara,  Trinidad,  Remedios,  Cienfuegos  and 
Sancti  Spiritus — between  Cienfuegos  and  Sancti  Spiritus;  and 
Tierra  Aden'tro,  referring  to  the  region  between  Cienfuegos  and 
Bayamo.  These  names  are  extremely  common.  The  province 
and  city  of  Puerto  Principe  are  officially  known  as  Camaguey, 
their  original  Indian  name,  which  has  practically  supplanted 
the  Spanish  name  in  local  usage. 

Five  topographic  divisions  of  the  island  are  fairly  marked. 
Santiago  (now  Oriente)  province  is  high  and  mountainous. 
Camaguey  is  characterized  by  rolling,  open  plains,  slightly  broken, 
especially  in  the  W.,  by  low  mountains.  The  E.  part  of  Santa 
Clara  province  is  decidedly  rough  and  broken.  The  W.  part, 
with  the  provinces  of  Matanzas  and  Havana,  is  flat  and  rolling, 
with  occasional  hills  a  few  hundred  feet  high.  Finally,  Pinar  del 
Rio  is  dominated  by  a  prominent  mountain  range  and  by  outlying 
piedmont  hills  and  mesas.  There  are  mountains  in  Cuba  from 
one  end  of  the  island  to  the  other,  but  they  are  not  derived  from 
any  central  mass  and  are  not  continuous.  As  just  indicated 
there  are  three  distinctively  mountainous  districts,  various 
minor  groups  lying  outside  these.  The  three  main  systems  are 
known  in  Cuba  as  the  occidental,  central  and  oriental.  The 
first,  the  Organ  mountains,  in  Pinar  del  Rio,  rises  in  a  sandy, 
marshy  region  near  Cape  San  Antonio.  The  crest  runs  near 
the  N.  shore,  leaving  various  flanking  spurs  and  foothills,  and  a 
coastal  plain  which  at  its  greatest  breadth  on  the  S.  is  some  20  m. 
wide.  The  plain  on  the  N.  is  narrower  and  higher.  The  southern 


slope  is  smooth,  and  abounds  in  creeks  and  rivers.  The  portion 
of  the  southern  plain  between  the  bays  of  Cort6s  and  Majana 
is  the  most  famous  portion  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco  region. 
The  mountain  range  is  capriciously  broken  at  points,  especially 
near  Bejucal.  The  highest  part  is  the  Pan  de  Guajaib6n,  near 
Bahia  Honda,  at  the  W.  end  of  the  chain;  its  altitude  has- 
been  variously  estimated  from  2500  to  1950  ft.  The  central 
system  has  two  wings,  one  approaching  the  N.  coast,  the 
other  covering  the  island  between  Sancti  Spiritus  and  Santa 
Clara.  It  comprehends  a  number  of  independent  groups.  The 
highest  point,  the  Pico  Potrerillo,  is  about  2900  ft.  in  altitude. 
The  summits  are  generally  well  rounded,  while  the  lower  slopes 
are  often  steep.  Frequent  broad  intervals  of  low  upland  or  low 
level  plain  extend  from  sea  to  sea  between  and  around  the  moun- 
tains. Near  the  coast  runs  a  continuous  belt  of  plantations,  whfle 
grazing,  tobacco  and  general  farm  lands  cover  the  lower  slopes 
of  the  hills,  and  virgin  forests  much  of  the  uplands  and  mountains. 
The  oriental  mountain  region  includes  the  province  of  Oriente 
and  a  portion  of  Camaguey.  In  extent,  in  altitude,  in  mass, 
in  complexity  and  in  geological  interest,  it  is  much  the  most 
important  of  the  three  systems.  Almost  all  the  mountains  are 
very  bold.  They  are  imperfectly  known.  There  are  two  main 
ranges,  the  Sierra  Maestra,  and  a  line  of  various  groups  along 
the  N.  shore.  The  former  runs  from  Cape  Santa  Cruz  eastward 
along  the  coast  some  125  m.  to  beyond  the  river  Baconao.  The 
Sierra  de  Cobre,  a  part  of  the  system  in  the  vicinity  of  Santiago, 
has  a  general  elevation  of  about  3000  ft.  Monte  Turquino, 
7700-8320  ft.  in  altitude,  is  the  highest  peak  of  the  island. 
Gran  Piedra  rises  more  than  5200  ft.,  the  Ojo  del  Toro  more  than 
3300,  the  Anvil  de  Baracoa  is  somewhat  lower,  and  Pan  de 
Matanzas  is  about  1267  ft.  The  western  portions  of  the  range 
rise  abruptly  from  the  ocean,  forming  a  bold  and  beautiful 
coast.  A  multitude  of  ravines  and  gullies,  filled  with  torrential 
streams  or  dry,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  character- 
ized by  many  beautiful  cascades,  seam  the  narrow  coastal  plain 
and  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.  The  spurs  of  the  central  range 
are  a  highly  intricate  complex,  covered  with  dense  forests  of 
superb  woods.  Many  points  are  inaccessible,  and  the  scenery 
is  wild  in  the  extreme.  The  mountains  beyond  Guantanamo  are 
locally  known  by  a  variety  of  names,  though  topographically 
a  continuation  of  the  Sierra  Maestra.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
chains  that  coalesce  with  these  near  Cape  MaisJ  and  diverge 
northwesterly  along  the  N.  coast  of  the  island.  The  general 
character  of  this  northern  marginal  system  is  much  the  same 
as  that  of  the  southern,  save  that  the  range  is  much  less 


596 


CUBA 


continuous.  A  dozen  or  more  groups  from  Nipe  in  the  E.  to  the 
coast  N.  of  Camagiiey  in  the  W.  are  known  only  by  individual 
names.  The  range  near  Baracoa  is  entremely  wild  and  broken. 
The  region  between  the  lines  of  the  two  coastal  systems  is  a 
much  dissected  plateau,  imperfectly  explored.  The  Cauto  river, 
the  only  one  flowing  E.  or  W.  and  the  largest  of  Cuba,  flows 
through  it  westward  to  the  southern  coast  near  Manzanillo. 
The  scenery  in  the  oriental  portion  of  the  island  is  very  beautiful, 
with  wild  mountains  and  tropical  forests.  In  the  central 
part  there  are  extensive  prairies.  In  the  west  there  are 
swelling  hills  and  gentle  valleys,  with  the  royal  palm  the 
dominating  tree.  The  valley  of  the  Yumuri,  near  Matanzas, 
a  small  circular  basin  crossed  by  a  river  that  issues  through  a 
glen  to  the  sea,  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  in  Cuba. 

A  very  peculiar  feature  of  Cuba  is  the  abundance  of  caverns 
in  the  limestone  deposits  that  underlie  much  of  the  island's 
surface.  The  caves  of  Cotilla  near  Havana,  of  Bellamar  near 
Matanzas,  of  Monte  Libano  near  Guantanamo,  and  those  of  San 
Juan  de  los  Remedies,  are  the  best  known,  but  there  are  scores 
of  others.  Many  streams  are  "  disappearing,"  part  of  their 
course  being  through  underground  tunnels.  Thus  the  Rio  San 
Antonio  suddenly  disappears  near  San  Antonio  de  los  Banos; 
the  cascades  of  the  Jatib6nico  del  Norte  disappear  and  reappear 
in  a  surprising  manner;  the  Moa  cascade  (near  Guantanamo) 
drops  300  ft.  into  a  cavern  and  its  waters  later  reissue  from  the 
earth;  the  Jojo  river  disappears  in  a  great  "sink"  and  later 
issues  with  violent  current  at  the  edge  of  the  sea.  The  springs 
of  fresh  water  that  bubble  up  among  the  keys  of  the  S.  coast 
are  also  supposedly  the  outlets  of  underground  streams. 

The  number  of  rivers  is  very  great,  but  almost  without  excep- 
tion their  courses  are  normal  to  the  coast,  and  they  are  so  short 
as  to  be  of  but  slight  importance.  The  Cauto  river  in  Oriente 
province  is  exceptional;  it  is  250  m.  long,  and  navigable  by 
small  vessels  for  about  75  m.  Inside  the  bar  at  its  mouth  (formed 
by  a  storm  in  1616)  ships  of  200  tons  can  still  ascend  to  Cauto. 
In  Camagiiey  province  the  Jatibonico  del  Sur;  in  Oriente  the 
Salado,  a  branch  of  the  Cauto;  in  Santa  Clara  the  Sagua  la 
Grande  (which  is  navigable  for  some  20  m.  and  has  an  important 
traffic),  and  the  Damuji;  in  Matanzas,  the  Canimar;  and  in 
Pinar  del  Rio  the  Cuyaguateje,  are  important  streams.  The 
water-parting  in  the  four  central  provinces  is  very  indefinite. 
There  are  few  river  valleys  that  are  noteworthy — those  of  the 
Yumuri,  the  Trinidad  and  the  Giiines.  At  Guantanamo  and 
Trinidad  are  other  valleys,  and  between  Mariel  and  Havana 
is  the  fine  valley  of  Ariguanabo.  Of  lakes,  there  are  a  few  on  the 
coast,  and  a  very  few  in  the  mountains.  The  finest  is  Lake 
Ariguanabo,  near  Havana,  6  sq.  m.  in  area.  Of  the  almost 
innumerable  river  cascades,  those  of  the  Sierra  Maestra 
Mountains,  and  in'particular  the  Moa  cascade,  have  already  been 
mentioned.  The  Guama  cascade  in  Oriente  province  and  the 
Hanabanilla  Fall  near  Cienfuegos  (each  more  than  300  ft.  high), 
the  Rosario  Fall  in  Pinar  del  Rio,  and  the  Almendares  cascade 
near  Havana,  may  also  be  mentioned. 

Geology. — The  foundation  of  the  island  is  formed  of  metamorphic 
and  igneous  rocks,  which  appear  in  the  Sierra  Maestra  and  are  ex- 
posed in  other  parts  of  the  island  wherever  the  comparatively  thin 
covering  of  later  beds  has  been  worn  away.  A  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous band  of  serpentine  belonging  to  this  series  forms  the  principal 
watershed,  although  it  nowhere  rises  to  any  great  height.  It  is  in 
this  band  that  the  greater  part  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Cuba  is 
situated.  These  ancient  rocks  have  hitherto  yielded  no  fossils  and 
their  age  is  therefore  uncertain,  but  they  are  probably  pre-Cretaceous 
at  least.  Fossiliferous  Cretaceous  limestones  containing  Rudistes 
have  been  found  in  several  parts  of  the  island  (Santiago  de  los 
Banos,  Santa  Clara  province,  &c.).  At  the  base  there  is  often  an 
arkose,  composed  largely  of  fragments  of  serpentine  and  granite 
derived  from  the  ancient  floor.  At  Esperanza  and  other  places  in 
the  Santa  Clara  province,  bituminous  plant-bearing  beds  occur 
beneath  the  Tertiary  limestones,  and  at  Baracoa  a  Radiolarian  earth 
occupies  a  similar  position.  The  latter,  like  the  similar  deposits  in 
other  West  Indian  islands,  is  probably  of  Oligocene  age.  It  is  the 
Tertiary  limestones  which  form  the  predominant  feature  in  the  geo- 
logy of  Cuba.  Although  they  do  not  exceed  loop  ft.  in  thickness, 
they  probably  at  one  time  covered  the  whole  island  except  the 
summits  of  the  Sierra  Maestra,  where  they  have  been  observed, 
resting  upon  the  older  rocks,  up  to  a  height  of  2300  ft.  They  contain 
corals,  but  are  not  coral  reefs.  The  shells  which  have  been  found  in 


them  indicate  that  they  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  Oligocene 
period.  They  are  frequently  very  much  disturbed  and  often  strongly 
folded.  Around  the  coast  there  is  a  raised  shelf  of  limestone  which 
was  undoubtedly  a  coral  reef.  But  it  is  of  recent  date  and  does  not 
attain  an  elevation  of  more  than  40  or  50  ft. 

Minerals  are  fairly  abundant  in  number,  but  few  are  present  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  be  industrially  important.  Traditions  of  gold 
and  silver,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  still  endure, 
but  these  metals  are  in  fact  extremely  rare.  Oriente  province 
is  distinctively  the  mineral  province  of  the  island.  Large  copper 
deposits  of  peculiar  richness  occur  here  in  the  Sierra  de  Cobre, 
near  the  city  of  Santiago;  and  both  iron  and  manganese  are 
abundant.  Besides  the  deposits  in  Oriente  province,  iron  is 
known  to  exist  in  considerable  amount  in  Camagiiey  and 
Santa  Clara,  and  copper  in  Camaguey  and  Pinar  del  Rio 
provinces.  The  iron  ores  mined  at  Daiquiri  near  Santiago  are 
mainly  rich  hematites  running  above  60  %  of  iron,  with  very  little 
sulphur  or  phosphorus  admixture.  The  copper  deposits  are  mainly 
in  well-marked  fracture  planes  in  serpentine;  the  ore  is  pyrrhotite, 
with  or  without  chalcopyrite.  Manganese  occurs  especially  alone  the 
coast  between  Santiago  and  Manzanillo;  the  best  ores  run  above 
50  %.  Chromium  and  a  number  of  other  rare  minerals  are  known 
to  exist,  but  probably  not  in  commercially  available  quantities. 
Bituminous  products  of  every  grade,  from  clear  translucent  oils 
resembling  petroleum  and  refined  naphtha,  to  lignite-like  substances, 
occur  in  all  parts  of  the  island.  Much  of  the  bituminous  deposits 
is  on  the  dividing  line  between  asphalt  and  coal.  There  is  an  endless 
amount  of  stone,  very  little  of  which  is  hard  enough  to  be  good  for 
building  material,  the  greatest  part  being  a  soft  coralline  limestone. 
The  best  buildings  in  Havana  are  constructed  of  a  very  rich  white 
limestone,  soft  and  readily  worked  when  fresh,  but  hardening  and 
slightly  darkening  with  age.  There  are  extensive  and  valuable 
deposits  of  beautiful  marbles  in  the  Isle  of  Pines,  and  lesser  ones 
near  Santiago.  The  Organ  Mountains  contain  a  hard  blue  limestone ; 
and  sandstones  occur  on  the  N.  coast  of  Pinar  del  Rio  province. 
Clays  of  all  qualities  and  colours  abound.  Mineral  waters,  though 
not  yet  important  in  trade,  are  extremely  abundant,  and  a  score  of 
places  in  Cuba  and  the  Isle  of  Pines  are  already  known  as  health 
resorts.  Those  near  San  Diego,  Guanabacoa  and  Santa  Maria  del 
Rosario  (near  Havana)  and  Madruga  (near  Giiines)  are  the  best 
known. 

The  soil  of  the  island  is  almost  wholly  of  modern  formation, 
mainly  alluvial,  with  superficial  limestones  as  another  prominent 
feature.  I  n  the  original  formation  of  the  island  volcanic  disturbances 
and  coral  growth  played  some  part ;  but  there  are  only  very  slight 
superficial  evidences  in  the  island  of  former  volcanic  activity.  Note- 
worthy earthquakes  are  rare.  They  have  been  most  common  in 
Oriente  province.  Those  of  1776,  1842  and  1852  were  particularly 
destructive,  and  of  earlier  ones  those  of  1551  and  1624  at  Bayamo 
and  of  1578  and  1678  at  Santiago.  Every  year  there  are  seismic 
disturbances,  and  though  Santiago  is  the  point  of  most  frequent 
visitation,  they  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  in  1880  affecting  the 
entire  western  end.  Notable  seismic  disturbances  in  Cuba  have  coin- 
cided with  similar  activity  in  Central  America  so  often  as  to  make 
some  connexion  apparent. 

Flora. — The  tropical  heat  and  humidity  of  Cuba  make  possible 
a  flora  of  splendid  richness.  All  the  characteristic  species  of  the 
West  Indies,  the  Central  American  and  Mexican  and  southern 
Florida  seaboard,  and  nearly  all  the  large  trees  of  the  Mexican  tropic 
belt,  are  embraced  in  it.  As  many  as  3350  native  flowering  species 
were  catalogued  in  1876.  The  total  number  of  species  of  the  island 
flora  was  estimated  in  1892  by  a  writer  in  the  Revista  Cubana  (vol. 
xv.  pp.  5-16)  to  be  between  5000  and  6000,  but  hardly  one-third  of 
this  number  had  then  been  gathered  into  a  herbarium,  and  all  parts 
of  the  island  had  not  then  been  explored.  It  was  estimated  officially 
in  1904  that  the  wooded  lands  of  the  island  comprised  3,628,434acres, 
of  which  one-third  were  in  Oriente  province,  another  third  in 
Camaguey,  and  hardly  any  in  Havana  province.  Much  of  this 
area  is  of  primeval  forest ;  somewhat  more  than  a  third  of  the  total, 
belonging  to  the  government,  was  opened  to  sale  (and  speculative 
exspoliation)  in  1904.  The  woods  are  so  dense  over  large  districts 
as  to  be  impenetrable,  except  by  cutting  a  path  foot  by  foot  through 
the  close  network  of  vines  and  undergrowth.  The  jagiiey  (Ficus 
sp.),  which  stifles  in  its  giant  coils  the  greatest  trees  of  the  forest, 
and  the  copei  (Clusia  rosea)  are  remarkable  parasitic  lianas.  Of  the 
palm  there  are  more  than  thirty  species.  The  royal  palm  is  the  most 
characteristic  tree  of  Cuba.  It  attains  a  height  of  from  50  to  75  ft., 
and  sometimes  of  more  than  100  ft.  Alone,  or  in  groups,  or  in  long 
aisles,  towering  above  the  plantations  or  its  fellow  trees  of  the  forest, 
its  beautiful  crest  dominates  every  landscape.  Every  portion,  from 
its  roots  to  its  leaves,  serves  some  useful  purpose.  From  it  the  native 
draws  lumber  for  his  hut,  utensils  for  his  kitchen,  thatch  for  his  roof , 
medicines,  preserved  delicacies,  and  a  long  list  of  other  articles. 
The  corojo  palm  (Cocos  crispa)  rivals  the  royal  palm  in  beauty  and 
utility;  oil,  sugar,  drink  and  wood  are  derived  from  it.  The  coco 
palm  (Cocps  nuc-ifera)  is  also  put  to  varied  uses.  The  mango  is 
planted  with  the  royal  palm  along  the  avenues"  of  the  plantations. 
The  beautiful  ceiba  (Bombax  ceibaL.,  Ceiba  penlandra)  or  silk  cotton 
tree  is  the  giant  of  the  Cuban  forests ;  it  often  grows  to  a  height  of 
100  to  150  ft.  with  enormous  girth.  The  royal  pinon  (Erythrina 


CUBA 


597 


velatina)  is  remarkable  for  the  magnificent  purple  flowers  that  coyer 
it.  The  tamarind  and  banyan  are  also  noteworthy.  Utilitarian 
trees  and  plants  are  legion.  There  are  at  least  forty  choice  cabinet 
and  building  woods.  Of  these,  ebonies,  mahogany  (for  the  bird's-eye 
variety  such  enormous  prices  are  paid  as  $1200  to  $1800  per  thousand 
board-feet),  culla  (or  cuya,  Bumelia  retusa),  cocullo  (cocuyo,  Bumelia 
nigra),  ocuje  (Callophyllum  viticifplia,  Ornitrophis  occidentalis,  O. 
cominia),  jigiie  (jique,  Lysiloma  sabicu),  mahagua  (Hibiscus  tiliaceus), 
granadiilo  (Brya  ebenus),  icaquillo  (Licania  incania)  and  agua-barta 
(Cordia  gerascanthes)  are  perhaps  the  most  beautiful.  Other  woods, 
beautiful  and  precious,  include  guayacan  (Guaiacum  sanctum),  barla 
(varia,  Cordia  gerascanthoides) — the  fragrant,  hard-wood  Spanish 
elm — the  quiebra-hacha  (Copaifera  hymenofolia) ,  which  three 
are  of  wonderful  lasting  qualities;  the  jiqul  (Malpighia  obovata), 
acana  {Achras  disecta,  Bassia  albescens),  caigaran  (or  caguairan, 
Hymenaea  floribunda) ,  and  the  dagame  (Calicophyllum  candidissi- 
mum),  which  four,  like  the  culla,  are  all  wonderfully  resistant  to 
humidity;  the  caimatillo  (Chrysophyllum  oliviforme),  the  yaya  (or 
yayajabico,  yayabito:  Erythalis  fructicosa,  Bocagea  virgata,  Guatena 
virgata,  Asimina  Blaini),  a  magnificent  construction  wood;  the 
maboa  (Cameraria  latifolia)  and  the  jocuma  (jocum:  Sideroxylon 
mastichodendron,  Bumelia  saticifolia) ,  all  of  individual  beauties  and 
qualities.  Many  species  are  rich  in  gums  and  resins;  the  calambac, 
mastic,  copal,  cedar,  &c.  Many  others  are  oleaginous,  among  them, 
peanuts,  sun-flowers,  the  bene  seed  (sesame),  corozo,  almond  and 
palmachristi.  Others  (in  addition  to  some  already  mentioned)  are 
medicinal;  as  the  palms,  calabash,  manchineel,  pepper,  fustic  and 
a  long  list  of  cathartics,  caustics,  emetics,  astringents,  febrifuges, 
vermifuges,  diuretics  and  tonics.  Then,  too,  there  are  various 
dyewoods;  rosewood,  logwood  (or  campeachy  wood),  indigo, 
manaju  (Garcinia  Morella),  Brazil-wood  and  saffron.  Textile  plants 
are  extremely  common.  The  majagua  tree  grows  as  high  as  40  ft. ; 
from  its  bark  is  made  cordage  of  the  finest  quality,  which  is  scarcely 
affected  by  the  atmosphere.  Strong,  fine,  glossy  fibres  are  yielded 
by  the  exotic  ramie  (Boehmeria  nivea),  whose  fibre,  like  that  of  the 
majagua,  is  almost  incorruptible;  by  the  maya  or  rat-pineapple 
(Bromelia  Pinguin),  and  by  the  daquilla  (or  daiguiya — Lagelta 
lintearia,  L.  valenzuelana) ,  which  like  the  maya  yields  a  brilliant, 
flexible  product  like  silk;  stronger  cordage  by  the  corojo  palms, 
and  various  henequen  plants,  native  and  exotic  (especially  Agave 
americana,  A.  Cubensis);  and  various  plantains,  the  exotic  San- 
sevieria  guineensis,  okra,  jute,  Laporlea,  various  lianas,  and  a  great 
variety  of  reeds,  supply  varied  textile  materials  of  the  best  quality. 
The  yucca  is  a  source  of  starch.  For  building  and  miscellaneous 
purposes,  in  addition  to  the  rare  woods  above  named,  there  are 
cedars  (used  in  great  quantities  for  cigar  boxes);  the  pine,  found 
only  in  the  W.,  where  it  gives  its  name  to  the  Isle  of  Pines  and  the 
province  of  Pinar  del  Rio ;  various  palms ;  oaks  of  varying  hardness 
and  colour,  &c.  The  number  of  alimentary  plants  is  extremely  great. 
Among  economic  plants  should  be  mentioned  the  coffee,  cacao, 
citron,  cinnamon,  cocoanut  and  rubber  tree.  Wheat,  Indian  corn 
and  many  vegetables,  especially  tuberous,  are  particularly  important. 
Plantain  occurs  in  several  varieties;  it  is  in  part  a  cheap  and  health- 
ful substitute  for  bread,  which  is  also  made  from  the  bitter  cassava, 
after  the  poison  is  extracted.  The  sweet  cassava  yields  tapioca. 
Bread-trees  are  fairly  common,  but  are  little  cared  for.  White  and 
sweet  potatoes,  yams,  sweet  and  bitter  yuccas,  sago  and  okra,  may 
also  be  mentioned. 

Fruits  are  varied  and  delicious.  The  pineapple  is  the  most  favoured 
by  Cubans.  Four  or  five  annual  crops  grow  from  one  plant,  but  not 
more  than  three  can  be  marketed,  unless  locally,  as  the  product 
deteriorates.  The  better  ("  purple  ")  varieties  are  mainly  consumed 
in  the  island,  and  the  smaller  and  less  juicy  "  white  "  varieties 
exported.  The  tamarind  is  everywhere.  Bananas  are  grown  par- 
ticularly in  the  region  about  Nipe,  Gibara  and  Baracoa,  whence 
they  are  exported  in  large  quantities,  though  there  is  a  tendency 
to  lessen  their  culture  in  these  parts  in  favour  of  sugar.  Mangoes, 
though  exotic,  are  extremely  common,  and  in  the  E.  grow  wild  in  the 
forests.  They  are  the  favourite  fruit  of  the  negroes.  Oranges  are 
little  cultivated,  although  they  offer  apparently  almost  unlimited 
possibilities;  their  culture  decreased  steadily  after  1880,  but  after 
about  1900  was  again  greatly  extended.  Lemons  yield  continuously 
through  the  year,  but  like  oranges,  not  much  has  yet  been  done 
with  them  commercially.  Pomegranates  are  as  universally  used  in 
Cuba  as  apples  in  the  United  States.  Figs  and  grapes  degenerate  in 
Cuba.  Dates  grow  better,  but  nothing  has  been  done  with  them. 
The  coco-nut  palm  is  most  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  Baracoa. 
Among  the  common  fruits  are  various  anonas — the  custard  apple 
(Anona  cherimolia),  sweet-sop  (.4.  squamosa),  sour-sop  (A.  muricata), 
mamon  (.4.  reticulata),  and  others, — the  star-apple  (Chrysophyllum 
cainito,  C.  pomiferum),  rose-apple  (Eugenia  jambos),  pawpaw,  the 
sapodilla  (Sapota  achras),  the  caniste  (Sapota  Elongata),  jagua 
(Genipa  americana),  alligator  pear  (Persea  gratissima),  the  yellow 
mammee  (Mammea  americana)  and  so-called  "  red  mammee " 
(Lucuma  mammosa)  and  limes. 

Fauna. — The  fauna  of  Cuba,  like  the  flora,  is  still  imperfectly 
known.  Collectively  it  shows  long  isolation  from  the  other  Antilles. 
Only  two  land  mammals  are  known  to  be  indigenous.  One  is  the 
hutia  (agouti)  or  Cuban  rat,  of  which  three  species  are  known 
(Capromys  Fournieri,  C.  melanurus  and  C.  Poey).  It  lives  in  the 


most  solitary  woods,  especially  in  the  eastern  hills.  The  other  is 
a  peculiar  insectivore  (Solenodon  paradoxes),  the  only  other  repre- 
sentatives of  whose  family  are  found  in  Madagascar.  Various  animals, 
apparently  indigenous,  that  are  described  by  the  early  historians 
of  the  conquest,  have  disappeared.  An  Antillean  rabbit  is  very 
abundant.  Bats  in  prodigious  numbers,  and  some  of  them  of 
extraordinary  size,  inhabit  the  many  caves  of  the  island ;  more  than 
twenty  species  are  known.  Rats  and  mice,  especially  the  guayabita 
(Mus  musculus),  an  extremely  destructive  rodent,  are  very  abundant. 
The  manatee,  or  sea-cow,  frequents  the  mouths  of  rivers,  the  sargasso 
drifts,  and  the  regions  of  submarine  fresh-water  springs  off  the  coast. 
Horses,  asses,  cows,  deer,  sheep,  goats,  swine,  cats  and  dogs  were 
introduced  by  the  early  Spaniards.  The  last  three  are  common  in 
a  wild  state.  Deer  are  not  native,  and  are  very  rare;  a  few  live  in 
the  swamps. 

Of  birds  there  are  more  than  200  indigenous  species,  it  is  said, 
and  migratory  species  are  also  numerous.  Waders  are  represented 
by  more  than  fifty  species.  Vultures  are  represented  by  only  one 
species,  the  turkey  buzzard,  which  is  the  universal  scavenger  of  the 
fields,  and  until  recent  years  even  of  the  cities,  and  has  always 
been  protected  by  custom  and  the  Laws  of  the  Indies.  Falcons 
are  represented  by  a  score  of  species,  at  least,  several  of  them  noc- 
turnal. Kestrels  are  common.  The  gallinaceous  order  is  rich  in 
Columbidae.  Trumpeters  are  notably  represented,  and  climbers 
still  more  so.  Among  the  latter  are  species  of  curious  habits  and 
remarkable  colouring.  Woodpeckers  (Coloptes  auratus),  macaws, 
parrakeets  and  other  small  parrots,  and  trogons,  these  last  of  beauti- 
fully resplendent  plumage,  deserve  particular  mention.  The  Cuban 
mocking-bird  is  a  wonderful  songster.  Of  humming-birds  there 
arc  said  to  be  sixty  species,  probably  only  one  indigenous.  Of  the 
other  birds  mere  mention  may  be  made  of  the  wild  pigeon,  -raven, 
indigo-bird,  English  lady-bird  and  linnet. 

Reptiles  are  numerous.  Many  tortoises  are  notable.  The  croco- 
dile and  cayman  occur  in  the  swampy  littoral  of  the  south.  Of 
lizards  the  iguana  (Cyclura  caudata)  is  noteworthy.  Chameleons 
are  common.  Snakes  are  not  numerous,  and  it  is  said  that  none  is 
poisonous  or  vicious.  There  is  one  enormous  boa,  the  ir.aja  (Epi- 
crates  angulifer),  which  feeds  on  pigs,  goats  and  the  like,  but  does 
not  molest  man. 

Fishes  are  present  in  even  greater  variety  than  birds.  Felipa 
Poey,  in  his  Ictiologia  Cubana,  listed  782  species  of  fish  and  crus- 
taceans, of  which  105  were  doubtful;  but  more  than  one-half  of  the 
remainder  were  first  described  by  Poey.  The  fish  of  Cuban  waters  are 
remarkable  for  their  metallic  colourings.  The  largest  species  are 
found  off  the  northern  coast.  Food  fishes  are  relatively  not  abundant, 
presumably  because  the  deep  sea  escarpments  of  the  N.  are  un-  t 
favourable  to  their  life.  Shell  fish  are  unimportant.  Two  species 
of  blind  fish,  of  extreme  scientific  interest,  are  found  in  the  caves  of 
the  island.  Of  the  "  percoideos  "  there  are  many  genera.  Among 
the  most  important  are  the  robalo  (Labrax),  an  exquisite  food  fish, 
the  tunny,  eel,  Spanish  sardine  and  mangua.  Of  the  sharks  the 
genus  Squalus  is  represented  by  individuals  that  grow  to  a  length  of 
26  to  30  ft.  The  hammer-head  attains  a  weight  at  times  of  too  Ib. 
The  saw-fish  is  common.  Of  fresh-water  fish  the  lisa,  dogro,  guaya- 
c6n  and  viajocos  (Chromis  fuscomaculatus)  are  possibly  the  most 
noteworthy. 

Molluscs  are  extraordinarily  numerous;  and  many,  both  of  water 
and  land,  are  rarities  among  their  kind  for  size  and  richness  of  colour. 
Of  crustaceans,  land-crabs  are  remarkable  for  size  and  number. 
Arachnids  are  prodigiously  numerous.  Insect  life  is  abundant  and 
beautiful.  The  bite  of  the  scorpion  and  of  the  numerous  spiders 
produces  no  serious  effects.  The  nigua,  the  Cuban  jigger,  is  a  pest  of 
serious  consequence,  and  the  mal  de  nigua  (jigger  sickness)  some- 
times causes  the  death  of  lower  animals  and  men.  Sand-flies  and 
biting  gnats  are  lesser  nuisances.  Lepidoptera  are  very  brilliant  in 
colouring.  The  cucujo  or  Cuban  firefly  (Pyrophorus  noctilucus) 
gives  out  so  strong  a  light  that  a  few  of  them  serve  effectively  as 
a  lantern.  The  Stegomyia  mosquito  is  the  agent  of  yellow  fever 
inoculation.  Sponges  grow  in  great  variety. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Cuba  is  tropical  and  distinctively 
insular  in  characteristics  of  humidity,  equability  and  high  mean 
temperature.  There  are  two  distinct  seasons:  a  "  dry  "  season 
from  November  to  April,  and  a  hotter,  "  wet  "  season.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  total  precipitation  falls  in  the  latter.  Droughts, 
extensive  in  area  and  in  duration,  are  by  no  means  uncommon. 
At  Havana  the  mean  temperature  is  about  76°  F  ,  with  extreme 
monthly  oscillations  ranging  on  the  average  from  6°  to  12°  F. 
for  different  months,  and  with  a  range  between  the  means  of  the 
coldest  and  warmest  months  of  10°  (70°  to  80°);  temperatures 
below  50°  or  above  00°  being  rare.  The  mean  rainfall  at  Havana 
is  about  40-6  in.  (sometimes  over  80),  and  the  mean  absolute 
humidity  of  different  months  ranges  from  70  to  80%.  These 
figures  represent  fairly  well  the  conditions  of  much  of  the  northern 
coast.  In  the  N.E.  the  rainfall  is  much  greater.  The  equability 
of  heat  throughout  the  day  is  masked  and  relieved  by  the  after- 
noon sea  breezes.  The  trades  are  steady  through  the  year,  and 


598 


CUBA 


in  the  dry  season  the  western  part  of  the  island  enjoys  cool 
"northers."  Despite  this  the  interior  is  somewhat  cooler  than 
the  coast,  and  in  the  uplands  frost  is  not  uncommon.  The 
southern  littoral  is  also  (except  in  sheltered  points  such  as 
Santiago,  which  is  one  of  the  hottest  cities  of  the  island)  some- 
what cooler  than  the  northern. 

More  than  eight  or  ten  years  rarely  pass  without  tornadoes 
or  hurricanes  of  local  severity  at  least.  Notably  destructive 
ones  occurred  in  1768,  1774,  1842,  1844,  1846,  1865,  1870,  1876, 
1885  and  1894.  Those  of  1842  and  1844  caused  extreme  distress 
intheisland.  In  i846,3oovesselsand2ooohousesweredestroyed 
at  Havana;  in  1896  the  banana  groves  of  the  N.E.  coast  were 
ruined  and  the  banana  industry  prostrated;  and  in  1906 
Havana  suffered  damage.  The  autumn  months,  particularly 
October  and  November,  are  those  in  which  such  storms  most 
frequently  occur. 

Health. — Convincing  evidence  is  offered  by  the  qualities  of 
the  Spanish  race  in  Cuba  that  white  men  of  temperate  lands  can 
be  perfectly  acclimatized  in  this  tropical  island.  As  for  diseases, 
some  common  to  Cuba  and  Europe  are  more  frequent  or  severe 
in  the  island,  others  rarer  or  milder.  There  are  the  usual  malarial, 
bilious  and  intermittent  fevers,  and  liver,  stomach  and  intestinal 
complaints  prevalent  in  tropical  countries;  but  unhygienic 
living  is,  in  Cuba  as  elsewhere,  mainly  responsible  for  their 
existence.  Yellow  fever  (which  first  appeared  in  Cuba  in  1647) 
was  long  the  only  epidemic  disease,  Havana  being  an  endemic 
focus.  Aside  from  the  recurrent  loss  of  life,  the  pecuniary  loss 
from  such  epidemics  was  enormous,  and  the  interference  with 
commerce  and  social  intercourse  with  other  countries  extremely 
vexatious.  The  Cuban  coast  was  uninterruptedly  full  of  infec- 
tion, and  the  danger  of  an  outbreak  in  each  year  was  never 
absent,  until  the  work  of  the  United  States  army  in  1901-1902 
conclusively  proved  that  this  disease,  though  ineradicable  by 
the  most  extreme  sanitary  measures,  based  on  the  accepted 
theory  of  its  origin  as  a  filth-disease,  could  be  eradicated  entirely 
by  removing  the  possibility  of  inoculation  by  the  Stegomyia 
mosquito.  Since  then  yellow  fever  has  ceased  to  be  a  scourge 
in  Cuba.  Small-pox  was  the  cause  of  a  greater  mortality  than 
yellow  fever  even  before  the  means  of  combating  the  latter  had 
been  ascertained.  The  remarkable  sanitary  work  begun  during 
the  American  occupation  and  continued  by  the  republic  of  Cuba, 
has  shown  that  the  ravages  of  this  and  other  diseases  can  be 
greatly  diminished.  Leprosy  is  rather  common,  but  seemingly 
only  slightly  contagious.  Consumption  is  very  prevalent. 

Agriculture. — Soils  are  of  four  classes:  calcareous-ferruginous, 
alluvial,  argillous  and  silicious.  Calcareous  lands  are  pre- 
dominant, especially  in  the  uplands.  Deep  residual  clay  soils 
derived  from  underlying  limestones,  and  cdloured  red  or  black 
according  to  the  predominance  of  oxides  of  iron  or  vegetable 
detritus,  characterize  the  plains.  A  red-black  soil  known  as 
"  mulatto  "  or  tawny  is  perhaps  the  best  fitted  for  general 
cultivation.  Tobacco  is  most  generally  cultivated  on  loose  red 
soils,  which  are  rich  in  clays  and  silicates;  and  sugar-cane  pre- 
ferably on  the  black  and  mulatto  soils;  but  in  general,  contrary 
to  prevalent  suppositions,  colour  is  no  test  of  quality  and  not  a 
very  valuable  guide  in  the  setting  of  crops.  Almost  without 
exception  the  lands  throughout  the  island  are  of  extreme  fertility. 
The  lowlands  about  Cienfuegos,  Trinidad,  Mariel  and  Matanzas 
are  noted  for  their  richness.  The  census  of  1899  showed  that 
farm  lands  occupied  three-tenths  of  the  total  area;  the  cultivated 
area  being  one-tenth  of  the  farms  or  3  %  of  the  whole.  At  the 
end  of  1905  it  was  officially  estimated  that  16%  was  in  cultiva- 
tion. In  1902  it  was  officially  estimated  that  the  public  land 
available  for  permanent  agrarian  cultivation,  including  forest 
lands,  was  only  186,967  hectares  (416,995  acres),  almost  wholly 
in  the  province  of  Oriente.  The  average  size  of  a  farm  in  1899 
was  143  acres.  More  than  85%  of  all  cultivated  lands  were 
then  occupied  by  whites;  and  somewhat  more  than  one-half 
(56-6%)  of  all  occupiers  were  renters.  Holdings  of  more  than 
32  acres  constituted  only  7%  of  the  total.  As  regards  crops, 
47  %  of  the  cultivated  area  was  given  over  to  sugar,  1 1  %  to 
sweet  potatoes,  9%  to  tobacco  and  almost  9%  to  bananas. 


But  owing  to  the  disturbed  conditions  created  by  the  war  it 
is  probable  that  these  figures  by  no  means  represent  normal 
conditions.  The  actual  sugar  crop  of  1899-1900,  for  example, 
was  not  a  quarter  of  that  of  1894.  With  the  establishment  of 
peace  in  1898  and  the  influx  of  American  and  other  capital  and 
of  a  heavy  immigration,  great  changes  took  place  in  agriculture 
as  in  other  industrial  conditions. 

Sugar  has  been  the  dominant  crop  since  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century.  Before  the  Civil  War  of  1895-1898  the  capital  invested 
in  sugar  estates  was  greater  by  half  than  that  repre- 
sented  by  tobacco  and  coffee  plantations,  live-stock 
ranches  and  other  farms.  Since  that  time  fruit  and  live-stock 
interests  have  increased.  The  dependence  of  the  island  on  one 
crop  has  been  an  artificial  economic  condition  often  of  grave 
momentary  danger  to  prosperity;  but  generally  speaking,  the 
progress  of  the  industry  has  been  steady.  The  competition  of 
the  sugar-beet  has  been  felt  severely.  During  and  after  the 
war  of  1868-1878,  when  many  Cuban  estates  were  confiscated, 
many  families  emigrated,  and  many  others  were  ruined,  the 
ownership  of  plantations  largely  passed  from  the  hands  of  Cubans 
to  Spaniards.  Under  the  conditions  of  free  labour,  the  develop- 
ment of  railways  abroad,  the  improvement  of  machinery  both 
in  cane  and  beet  producing  countries,  the  general  competition 
of  the  beet,  and  the  fall  of  prices,  it  was  impossible  for  the  Cuban 
industry  to  survive  without  radical  betterment  of  methods. 
About  1885  began  an  immense  development  of  centralization 
(the  tendency  having  been  evident  many  years  before  this). 
Plantations  have  increased  greatly  in  size  (and  also  diminished 
in  number),  greater  capital  is  involved,  bagasse  furnaces  have  been 
introduced,  double  grinding  mills  have  increased  by  more  than 
a  half  the  yield  of  juice  from  a  given  weight  of  cane,  and  ex- 
tractive operations  instead  of  being  carried  on  on  all  plantations 
have  been  (since  1880)  concentrated  in  comparatively  few 
"  centrals  "  (168  in  Feb.  1908).  Three-fourths  of  all  are  in  the 
jurisdictions  of  Cienfuegos,  Cardenas,  Havana,  Matanzas  and 
Sagua  la  Grande,  which  are  the  great  sugar  centres  of  the  island 
(three-fourths  of  the  crop  coming  from  Matanzas  and  Santa 
Clara  provinces).  Caibarien,  Guantanamo  and  Manzanillo  are 
next  in  importance.  A  comparatively  low  cost  of  labour,  the 
fact  that  labour  is  not,  as  in  the  days  of  slavery,  that  of  unin- 
telligent blacks  but  of  intelligent  free  labourers,  the  centralized 
organization  and  modern  methods  that  prevail  on  the  plantations, 
the  remarkable  fertility  of  the  soil  (which  yields  5  or  6  crops  on 
good  soil  and  with  good  management,  without  replanting),  and 
the  proximity  of  the  United  States,  in  whose  markets  Cuba 
disposes  of  almost  all  her  crop,  have  long  enabled  her  to  distance 
her  smaller  West  Indian  rivals  and  to  compete  with  the  bounty-fed 
beet.  The  methods  of  cultivation,  however,  are  still  distinctly 
extensive,  and  the  returns  are  much  less  than  they  would  be 
(and  in  some  other  cane  countries  are)  under  more  intensive 
and  scientific  methods  of  cultivation.  Indeed,  conditions  were 
relatively  primitive  so  late  «s  1880,  if  compared  with  those  of 
other  sugar-producing  countries.  More  than  four-fifths  of  the 
total  area  sown  to  cane  in  the  island  is  in  the  three  provinces  of 
Santa  Clara,  Matanzas  and  Oriente  (formerly  Santiago),  the 
former  two  representing  two-thirds  of  the  area  and  three-fourths 
of  the  crop.  The  majority  of  the  sugar  estates  are  of  an  area 
less  than  3000  acres,  and  the  most  common  area  is  between 
1500  and  2000  acres;  but  the  extremes  range  from  a  very  small 
size  to  60,000  acres.  Only  a  part  of  the  great  estates  is  ever 
planted  in  any  one  season.  The  most  profitable  unit  is  calculated 
to  be  a  daily  consumption  of  1500  tons  of  cane,  or  150,000  in  a 
grinding  season  of  100  days,  which  implies  a  feeding  area  not 
above  6000  acres.  In  the  season  of  1904-1905,  which  may  be 
taken  as  typical,  179  estates,  with  a  planted  area  of  431,056 
acres,  produced  11,576,137  tons  of  cane,  and  yielded — in  addition 
to  alcohol,  brandy  and  molasses — 1,089,814  tons  of  sugar.  Of 
this  amount  416,862  tons  were  produced  by  24  estates  yielding 
more  than  1 1,000  tons  each,  including  one  (planting  28,050  acres) 
that  yielded  33,609,  and  4  others  more  than  22,000  tons  each. 
The  production  of  the  island  from  1850  to  1868  averaged  469,934 
tons  yearly,  rising  from  223,145  to  749,000;  from  1869  to  1886 


CUBA 


599 


(coutinuing  high  during  the  period  of  the  Ten  Years'  War), 
632,003  tons;  from  1887  to  1907 — omitting  the  five  years  1896- 
1900  when  the  industry  was  prostrated  by  war, — 909,827  tons 
(and  including  the  war  period,  758,066);  and  in  the  six  harvests 
of  1901-1906,  1,016,899  tons.  Prior  to  1902  the  milh'on  mark 
was  reached  only  twice — in  1894  and  1895.  Following  the 
resuscitation  of  the  industry  after  the  last  war,  the  island's  crop 
rose  steadily  from  one-sixth  to  a  full  quarter  of  the  total  cane 
sugar  output  of  the  world,  its  share  in  the  world's  product  of 
sugar  of  all  kinds  ranging  from  a  tenth  _to  an  eighth.  Of  this 
enormous  output,  from  98-3%  upward  went  to  the  United 
States;1  of  whose  total  importation  of  all  sugars  and  of  cane 
sugar  the  proportion  of  Cuban  cane — steadily  rising — was 
respectively  49-8  and  53-7%  in  the  seasons  of  1900-1901  and 
1904-1005. 

If  sugar  is  the  island's  greatest  crop,  tobacco  is  her  most 
renowned  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Three-fourths  of  the 
Tobacco  tobacco  of  Cuba  comes  from  Pinar  del  Rio  province; 
the  rest  mainly  from  the  provinces  of  Havana  and 
Santa  Clara, — the  description  de  partido  being  applied  to  the 
leaf  not  produced  in  Havana  and  Pinar  del  Rio  provinces,  and 
sometimes  to  all  produced  outside  the  vuelta  abajo.  This  district, 
including  the  finest  land,  is  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Organ 
Mountains  between  the  Honda  river  and  Mantua;  bananas  are 
cultivated  with  the  tobacco.  "  Vegas  "  (tobacco  fields)  of 
especially  good  repute  are  also  found  near  Trinidad,  Remedies, 
Yara,  Mayari  and  Vicana.  The  tobacco  industry  has  been 
uniformly  prosperous,  except  when  crippled  by  the  destruction 
of  war  in  1868-1878  and  1895-1898.  Even  in  the  time  of  slavery 
tobacco  was  generally  a  white-man's  crop;  for  it  requires 
intelligent  labour  and  intensive  care.  In  recent  years  the  growth 
of  the  leaf  under  cloth  tents  has  greatly  increased,  as  it  has  been 
abundantly  proved  that  the  product  thus  secured  is  much  more 
valuable — lighter  in  colour  and  weight,  finer  in  texture,  with  an 
increased  proportion  of  wrapper  leaves,  and  more  uniform 
qualities,  and  with  lesser  amounts  of  cellulose,  nicotine,  gums  and 
resins.  In  these  respects  the  finest  Cuban  tobacco  crops,  pro- 
duced in  the  sun,  hardly  rival  the  finest  Sumatra  product;  but 
produced  under  cheese-cloth  they  do.  "  Cuban  tobacco  "  does 
not  mean  to-day,  as  a  commercial  fact,  what  the  words  imply; 
for  the  original  Nicoliana  Tabacum,  variety  havanensis,  can 
probably  be  found  pure  to-day  only  in  out-of-the-way  corners 
of  Pinar  del  Rio.  After  the  Ten  Year's  War  seed  of  Mexican 
and  United  States  tobaccos  was  in  great  demand  to  re-seed 
the  ruined  vegas,  and  was  introduced  in  great  quantities; 
and  although  by  a  later  law  the  destruction  of  these  exotic 
species  was  ordered,  that  destruction  was  in  fact  quite  impossible. 
"  Lusty  growers  and  coarser  than  the  genuine  old-time  Cuban  .  .  . 
Mexican  tobaccos  (Nicotiana  Tabacum,  variety  macrophyllum) 
are  to-day  predominant  in  a  large  part  of  Cuban  vegas.  .  .  . 
Ordinary  commercial  Cuban  seed  of  to-day  is  largely,  and  often 
altogether,  Mexican  tobacco."  Though  improved  in  the  Cuban 
environment,  the  foreign  tobaccos  introduced  after  the  Ten 
Years'  War  did  not  lose  their  exotic  character,  but  prevailed 
over  the  indigenous  forms:  "  Tobaccos  with  exactly  the  char- 
acter of  the  introduced  types  are  now  the  prevalent  forms  " 
(quotation  from  Bulletin  of  the  Estacidn  Central  AgronSmica, 
Feb.  1908).  In  the  markets  of  the  world  Cuban  tobacco  has 
always  suffered  less  competition  than  Cuban  sugar,  and  still  less 
has  been  done  than  in  the  case  of  sugar  cane  in  the  study  of 
methods  of  cultivation,  which  in  several  respects  are  far  behind 
those  of  other  tobacco-growing  countries.  The  crop  of  1907  was 
201,512  bales  (109,562,400  ft  Sp.). 

Coffee-raising  was  once  a  flourishing  and  very  promising 
industry.  It  first  attained  prominence  with  the  settlement  in 
Coffee  eastern  Cuba,  late  in  the  i8th  century,  of  French 
refugee  immigrants  from  San  Domingo.  Some  "  cafe- 
tales  "  were  established  by  the  newcomers  near  Havana,  but 
the  industry  has  always  been  almost  exclusively  one  of  Oriente 
province;  with  Santa  Clara  as  a  much  smaller  producer.  Before 

1  Other  countries  taking  only  27,462  long  tons  out  of  a  total  of 
S.7'9.777  in  the  seven  fiscal  years  1899-1900  to  1905-1906. 


the  war  of  1868-1878  the  production  amounted  to  about 
25,000,000  Ib  yearly.  The  war  of  1895-1898  still  further 
diminished  the  vitality  of  the  industry.  In  1907  the  crop  was 
6,595,7°°  ft>-  The  berries  are  of  fine  quality,  and  despite  the 
competition  of  Brazil  there  is  no  (agricultural)  reason  why  the 
home  market  at  least  should  not  be  supplied  from  Cuban  estates. 

Of  other  agricultural  crops  those  of  fruits  are  of  greatest  import- 
ance— bananas  (which  are  planted  about  once  in  three  years), 
pine-apples  (planted  about  once  in  five  years),  coco-nuts,  oranges, 
&c._  The  coco-nut  industry  has  long  been  largely  confined  to  the 
region  about  Baracoa,  owing  to  the  ruin  of  the  trees  elsewhere  by  a 
disease  not  yet  thoroughly  understood,  which,  appearing  finally 
near  Baracoa,  threatened  by  1908  to  destroy  the  industry  there  as 
well.  Yams  and  sweet-potatoes,  yuccas,  malangas,  cacao,  rice — 
which  is  one  of  the  most  important  foods  of  the  people,  but  which 
is  not  yet  widely  cultivated  on  a  profitable  basis — and  Indian  corn, 
which  grows  everywhere  and  yields  two  crops  yearly,  may  be  men- 
tioned also.  In  very  recent  years  gardening  has  become  an  interest 
of  importance,  particularly  in  the  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio.  Save 
on  the  coffee,  tobacco  and  sugar  plantations,  where  competition  in 
large  markets  has  compelled  the  adoption  of  adequate  modern 
methods,  agriculture  in  Cuba  is  still  very  primitive.  The  wooden 
ploughstick,  for  instance — taking  the  country  as  a  whole — has  never 
been  displaced.  A  central  agricultural  experiment  station  (founded 
1904)  is  maintained  by  the  government  at  Santiago  de  las  Vegas; 
but  there  is  no  agricultural  college,  nor  any  special  school  for  the 
scientific  teaching  and  improvement  of  sugar  and  tobacco  farming  or 
manufacture. 

Stock-breeding  is  a  highly  important  interest.  It  was  the  all- 
important  one  in  the  early  history  of  the  island,  down  to  about  the 
latter  part  of  the  i8th  century.  Grasses  grow  luxuriantly,  and  the 
savannahs  of  central  Cuba  are,  in  this  respect,  excellent  cattle 
ranges.  The  droughts  to  which  the  island  is  recurrently  subject  are, 
however,  a  not  unimportant  drawback  to  the  industry;  and  though 
the  best  ranges,  under  favourable  conditions,  are  luxuriant,  never- 
theless the  pastures  of  the  island  are  in  general  mediocre.  Practically 
nothing  has  yet  been  done  in  the  study  of  native  grasses  and  the 
introduction  of  exotic  species.  The  possibilities  of  the  stock  interest 
have  as  yet  by  no  means  been  realized.  The  civil  wars  were  probably 
more  disastrous  to  it  than  to  any  other  agricultural  interest  of  the 
island.  It  has  been  authoritatively  estimated,  for  example,  that 
from  90  to  95  %  of  all  horses,  neat  cattle  and  hogs  in  the  entire 
island  were  lost  in  the  war  years  of  1895-1898.  In  the  decade  after 
1898  particularly  great  progress  was  made  in  the  raising  of  live-stock. 
The  fishing  and  sponge  industries  are  important.  Batabano  and 
Caibarien  are  centres  of  the  sponge  fisheries. 

Manufactures. — The  manufacturing  industries  of  Cuba  have 
never  been  more  than  insignificant  as  compared  with  what  they 
might  be.  In  1907  48-5%  of  all  wage-earners  were  engaged  in 
agriculture,  fishing  and  mining,  16-3  in  manufactures,  and  17-7 
in  trade  and  transportation.  Such  manufactures  as  are  of  any 
consequence  are  mostly  connected  with  the  sugar  and  tobacco 
industries.  Forest  resources  have  been  but  slightly  touched 
(more  so  since  the  end  of  Spanish  rule)  except  mahogany,  which 
goes  to  the  United  States,  and  cedar,  which  is  used  to  box  the 
tobacco  products  of  the  island,  much  going  also  to  the  United 
States.  The  value  of  forest  products  in  1901-1902  amounted 
to  $320,528.  There  are  some  tanneries,  some  preparation  of 
preserves  and  other  fruit  products,  and  some  old  handicraft 
industries  like  the  making  of  hats;  but  these  have  been  of 
comparatively  scant  importance.  Despite  natural  advantages 
for  all  meat  industries,  canned  meats  have  generally  been 
imported.  The  leading  manufactures  are  cigars  and  cigarettes, 
sugar,  rum  and  whisky.  The  tobacco  industries  are  very  largely 
concentrated  in  Havana,  and  there  are  factories  in  Santiago 
de  las  Vegas  and  Bejucal.  The  yearly  output  of  cigars  was 
locally  estimated  in  1908  at  about  500,000,000,  but  this  is  prob- 
ably too  high  an  estimate.  In  1904-1906  the  yearly  average 
sent  to  the  United  States  was  234,063,652  cigars,  29,776,429  ft 
of  leaf  and  14,203,571  packages  of  cigarettes.  The  sugar 
industry  is  not  similarly  centralized.  With  the  improvement 
of  methods  the  old  partially  refined  grades  (moscobados)  have 
disappeared. 

Mining. — Mining  is  of  very  considerable  importance.  The 
Cobre  copper  mines  near  Santiago  were  once  the  greatest  pro- 
ducers of  the  world.  They  were  worked  from  1524  until  about 
1730,  when  they  were  abandoned  for  almost  a  century,  after 
which  they  were  reopened  and  greatly  developed.  In  1828- 
1840  about  two  million  dollars'  worth  of  ore  was  shipped  yearly 


6oo 


CUBA 


to  the  United  States  alone.  After  1868  the  mines  were  again 
abandoned  and  flooded,  the  mining  property  being  ruined  during 
the  civil  war.  Finally,  after  1900  they  again  became  prosperous 
producers.  The  "  Cobre  "  mine  is  only  the  most  famous  and 
productive  of  various  copper  properties.  The  copper  output 
has  not  greatly  increased  since  1890,  and  is  of  slight  importance 
in  mineral  exports.  Iron  and  manganese  have,  on  the  contrary, 
been  greatly  developed  in  the  same  period.  Iron  is  now  the  most 
important  mineral  product.  The  iron  ores  are  even  more 
accessible  than  the  famous  ones  of  the  Lake  Superior  region 
in  the  United  States.  No  shafts  or  tunnels  are  necessary  except 
for  exploration;  the  mining  consists  entirely  in  open-cut  and 
terrace  work.  The  cost  of  exploitation  is  accordingly  slight. 
Daiquiri,  near  Santiago,  and  mines  near  Nipe,  on  the  north  coast, 
are  the  chief  centres  of  production.  Nearly  the  entire  product 
goes  to  the  United  States.  The  first  exports  from  the  Daiquiri 
district  were  made  by  an  American  company  in  1884;  the  Nipe 
(Cagimaya)  mines  became  prominent  in  promise  in  1906.  The 
shipments  from  Oriente  province  from  1884  to  1901  aggregated 
5,053,847  long  tons,  almost  all  going  to  the  United  States  (which 
is  true  of  other  mineral  products  also).  After  1900  production 
was  greatly  increased  and  by  1906  had  come  to  exceed  half  a 
million  tons  annually.  There  are  small  mines  in  Santa  Clara 
and  Camaguey  provinces.  Manganese  is  mined  mainly  near  La 
Maya  and  El  Cristo  in  Oriente.  The  traditions  as  to  gold  and  silver 
have  already  been  referred  to.  Evidences  of  ancient  workings 
remain  near  Holguin  and  Gibara,  and  it  is  possible  that  some 
of  these  workings  are  still  exploitable.  Mining  for  the  precious 
metals  ceased  at  a  very  early  date,  after  rich  discoveries  were 
made  on  the  continent.  Bituminous  products,  though,  as  already 
stated,  widely  distributed,  are  not  as  yet  much  developed. 
The  most  promising  deposits  and  the  most  important  workings 
are  in  Matanzas  and  Santa  Clara  provinces.  Petroleum  has 
been  used  to  some  extent  both  as  a  fuel  and  as  an  illuminant. 
Small  amounts  of  asphalt  have  been  sent  to  the  United  States. 
Locally,  asphalts  are  used  as  gas  enrichers.  Grahamite  and 
glance-pitch  are  common,  and  are  exported  for  use  in  varnish  and 
paint  manufactures.  The  commercial  product  of  stones,  brick 
and  cement  is  of  rapidly  increasing  importance.  The  founda- 
tion of  the  island  is  in  many  places  almost  pure  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  there  are  numerous  small  limekilns.  The  product 
is  used  to  bleach  sugar,  as  well  as  for  construction  and  disinfec- 
tion purposes.  The  number  of  small  brick  plants  is  le^on, 
almost  all  very  primitive. 

Commerce. — Commerce  (resting  largely  upon  specialized  agri- 
culture) is  vastly  more  prominent  as  yet  than  manufacturing 
and  mining  in  the  island's  economy.  The  leading  articles  of 
export  are  sugar,  tobacco  and  fruit  products;  of  import,  textiles, 
foodstuffs,  lumber  and  wood  products,  and  machinery.  Sugar 
and  tobacco  products  together  represent  seven-eighths  (in  1904- 
1907  respectively  60-3  and  27-3%)  of  the  normal  annual 
exports.  In  the  quinquennial  period  1890-1894  (immediately 
preceding  the  War  of  Independence)  the  average  yearly  commerce 
of  the  island  in  and  out  was  $86,875,663  with  the  United  States; 
and  $28,161,726  with  Spain.1  During  the  American  military 
occupation  of  the  island  in  1899-1902,  of  the  total  imports 
45 '9%  were  from  the  United  States,  14  from  other  American 
countries,  15  from  Spain,  14  from  the  United  Kingdom,  6  from 
France  and  4  from  Germany;  of  the  exports  the  corresponding 
percentages  for  the  same  countries  were  70-7,  2,  3,  10,  4  and  7. 
No  special  favours  were  enjoyed  by  the  United  States  in  this 
period,  and  about  the  same  percentages  prevailed  in  the  years 
following.  The  total  commerical  movement  of  the  island  in 
the  five  calendar  years  1902-1906  averaged  $177,882,640  (for 
the  five  fiscal  years  1902-1903  to  1906-1907,  $185,987,020) 
annually,  and  of  this  the  share  of  the  United  States  was 
$108,431,000  yearly,  representing  45-8%  of  all  imports  and 

1  In  these  same  years  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  was:  importations  from  the  islands,  $59,221,444 
annually;  exportations  to  the  islands,  $20,017,156.  The  corre- 
sponding figures  for  Spain  were  $7,265,142  and  $20,035,183;  and 
for  the  United  Kingdom,  $714,837  and  $11,971,129,  the  trade  with 
other  countries  being  of  much  less  amount. 


8 1  •  9  %  of  all  exports.  The.proportion  of  imports  taken  from  the 
United  States  is  greatest  in  foodstuffs,  metals  and  metal  manu- 
factures, timber  and  furniture,  mineral  oils  and  lard.  The  trade 
of  the  United  States  with  the  island  was  as  great  in  1900-1907 
as  with  Mexico  and  all  the  other  West  Indies  combined;  as 
great  as  its  trade  with  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy  combined; 
and  almost  as  great  as  its  trade  with  China  and  Japan. 

Communications. — Poor  means  of  communication  have  always 
been  a  great  handicap  to  the  industries  of  the  island.  The  first 
railroad  in  Cuba  (and  the  first  in  Spanish  lands)  was  opened  from 
Havana  to  Giiines  in  1837.  In  succeeding  years  a  fairly  ample 
system  was  built  up  between  the  cities  of  Pinar  del  Rio  and 
Santa  Clara,  with  a  number  of  short  spurs  from  the  chief  ports 
farther  eastward  into  the  interior.  After  the  first  American 
occupation  a  private  company  built  a  line  from  Santa  Clara  to 
Santiago,  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  island,  finally  connect- 
ing its  two  ends  ( 1 902) .  The  policy  of  the  railways  was  always  one 
rather  of  extortion  than  of  fairness  or  of  any  interest  in  the 
development  of  the  country,  but  better  conditions  have  begun. 
There  was  ostensible  government  regulation  of  rates  after  1877, 
but  the  roads  were  guaranteed  outright  against  any  loss  of 
revenue,  and  in  fact  practically  nothing  was  ever  done  in  the  way 
of  reform  in  the  Spanish  period.  In  1900  the  total  length  of  rail- 
ways was  2097  m.,  of  which  1226  were  of  17  public  roads  and 
871  m.  of  107  private  roads.  In  August  1908  the  mileage  of 
all  railways  (including  electric)  in  Cuba  was  2329-8  m.  The  tele- 
graph and  telephone  systems  are  owned  by  the  government. 
Cables  connect  the  island  with  Florida,  Jamaica,  Haiti  and  San 
Domingo,  Porto  Rico,  the  lesser  Antilles,  Panama,  Venezuela 
and  Brazil.  Havana,  Santiago  ahd  Cienfuegos  are  cable  ports. 
Wagon  roads  are  still  of  small  extent  and  primitive  character 
save  in  a  very  few  localities.  The  peculiar  two-wheeled  carts 
of  the  country,  carrying  enormous  loads  of  4  to  6  tons,  destroy 
even  the  finest  road.  Similar  carts,  slightly  lighter,  used  in  the 
cities,  quickly  destroy  any  paving  but  stone  block.  The  only 
good  highways  of  any  considerable  length  in  1908  were  in  the 
two  western  provinces  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Santiago.  During 
the  second  American  occupation  work  was  begun  on  a  network 
of  good  rural  highways. 

Population. — Various  censuses  were  taken  in  Cuba  beginning 
in  1774;  but  the  results  of  those  preceding  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  at  least,  are  probably  without  exception  extremely 
untrustworthy.  The  census  of  1887  showed  a  population  of 
1,631,687,  that  of  1899  a  population  of  1,572,792  (the  decrease  of 
3-6  %  is  explained  by  the  intervening  war);  and  by  the  census  of 
1907  there  were  2,048,980  inhabitants,  30-3  %  more  than  in  1899. 
The  average  of  settlement  per  square  mile  varied  from  169-7 
in  Havana  province  to  n-8  in  Camaguey,  and  was  46-4  for  all 
of  Cuba;  the  percentage  of  urban  population  (in  cities,  that  is, 
with  more  than  1000  inhabitants)  in  the  different  provinces 
varied  from  18-2  in  Pinar  del  Rio  to  74-7  in  Havana,  and  was 
43-9  for  the  entire  island.  There  were  five  cities  having  popu- 
lations above  25,000 — Havana,  297,159;  Santiago,  45,470; 
Matanzas,  36,009;  Cienfuegos,  30,100;  Puerto  Principe  (or 
Camaguey),  29,616;  and  fourteen  more  above  8000 — Cardenas, 
Manzanillo,  Guanabacoa,  Santa  Clara,  Sagua  la  Grande,  Sancti 
Spiritus,  Guantanamo,  Trinidad,  Pinar  del  Rio,  San  Antonio  de 
los  Banos,  Jovellanos,  Marianao,  Caibarien  and  Giiines.  The 
proportion  of  the  total  population  which  in  1907  was  in  cities 
of  8000  or  more  was  only  30-3%;  and  the  proportion  in  cities 
of  25,000  or  more  was  21-4%.  Mainly  owing  to  the  large 
element  of  transient  foreign  whites  without  families  (long 
characteristic  of  Cuba),  males  outnumber  females — in  1907  as 
21  to  19.  Native  whites,  almost  everywhere  in  the  majority, 
constituted  59-8%  of  all  inhabitants;  persons  of  negro  and 
mixed  blood,  29-7%;  foreign-born  whites,  9-9%;  Chinese  less 
than  0-6  %.  Foreigners  constituted  25-6  %  of  the  population  in 
the  city  of  Havana ;  only  7  %  in  Pinar  del  Rio  province.  Native 
blood  is  most  predominant  in  the  provinces  of  Oriente  and  Pinar 
del  Rio.  After  the  end  of  the  war  of  1895-1898  a  large  immigra- 
tion from  Spain  began;  the  inflow  from  the  United  States  was 
very  small  in  comparison.  The  Republic  strongly  encourages 


CUBA 


601 


immigration.  In  1900-1906  there  were  143,122  immigrants, 
of  whom  124,863  were  Spaniards,  4557  were  from  the  United 
States,  2561  were  Spanish  Americans,  and  a  few  were  Italian, 
Syrian,  Chinese,  French,  English,  &c.  The  Chinese  element 
is  a  remnant  of  a  former  coolie  population;  their  numbers  in 
1907  (11,217)  were  less  than  a  fourth  the  number  in  1887.  Their 
introduction  began  in  1847  and  ended  in  1871.  Conjugal  con- 
ditions in  Cuba  are  peculiar.  In  1907  only  20-7%  of  the  total 
population  were  legally  married;  an  additional  8-6%  were  living 
in  more  or  less  permanent  consensual  unions,  these  being  particu- 
larly common  among  the  negroes.  Including  all  unions  the  total 
is  below  the  European  proportion,  but  above  that  of  Porto  Rico 
or  Jamaica  in  1899. 

The  negro  element  is  strongest  in  the  province  of  Oriente  and 
weakest  in  Camagiiey;  in  the  former  it  constituted  43-1% 
of  the  population,  in  the  latter  18-3%,  and  in  Havana  City 
2S'S%-  In  Guantanamo,  in  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  in  seven 
other  towns  they  exceeded  the  whites  in  number.  Caibarien 
and  San  Antonio  de  los  Banos  had  the  largest  proportion  of 
white  population.  The  position  of  the  negroes  in  Cuba  is 
exceptional.  Despite  the  long  period  of  slavery  they  are 
decidedly  below  the  whites  in  number.  The  Spanish  slave  laws 
(although  in  practice  often  frightfully  abused)  were  always 
comparatively  generous  to  the  slave,  making  relatively  easy, 
among  other  things,  the  purchase  of  his  freedom,  the  number  of 
free  blacks  being  always  great.  Since  the  abolition  of  slavery 
the  status  of  the  black  has  been  made  more  definite,  and  his 
rights  naturally  much  greater.  The  wars  of  1868-1878  and 
1895-1898  and  the  threatened  war  of  1906  all  helped  to  give 
to  the  negro  element  its  high  position.  There  is  no  antagonism 
between  the  divisions  of  the  coloured  race.  All  hold  their  own 
with  the  white  in  industrial  usefulness  to  the  community,  and 
though  the  blacks  are  more  backward  in  education  and  various 
other  tests  of  social  advancement,  still  their  outlook  is  full  of 
promise.  There  is  practically  no  colour  caste  in  Cuba ;  politically 
the  negro  is  the  white  man's  equal;  socially  there  is  very  little 
ostensible  inequality  and  almost  perfect  toleration.  The  negro 
in  Cuba  shows  promising  though  undeveloped  traits  of  landlord- 
ship.  Women  labour  habitually  in  the  fields.  Miscegenation  of 
blacks  and  whites  was  extremely  common  before  emancipation. 
It  is  sometimes  said  that  since  then  there  has  been  a  counter- 
tendency,  but  it  is  impossible  to  prove  such  a  statement  con- 
clusively except  with  the  aid  of  future  censuses.  Few  of  the 
negroes  are  black;  some  of  the  blackest  have  the  regular  features 
of  the  Caucasian ;  and  racial  mixtures  are  everywhere  evidenced 
by  colour  of  skin  and  by  physiognomy.  Its  seems  certain  that 
the  African  element  has  been  holding  its  own  in  the  population 
totals  since  emancipation. 

Cuba  is  overwhelmingly  Roman  Catholic  in  religion,  but  under 
the  new  Republic  there  is  a  complete  separation  of  church  and 
state,  and  liberalism  and  indifference  are  increasing.  Illiteracy  is 
extremely  widespread.  In  1907  the  census  showed  56-6%  (43-3 
in  1899)  of  persons  above  ten  years  who  could  read.  Of  the 
voting  population  53-2%  of  native  white,  and  37-3%  of  coloured 
Cuban  citizens,  and  71-6%  of  Spanish  citizens  could  read. 
A  revolution  in  education  was  begun  the  first  year  of  the  United 
States  military  occupation  and  continued  under  the  Republic. 

Constitution. — The  constitution  upon  which  the  government 
of  Cuba  rests  was  framed  during  the  period  of  the  United  States 
military  government;  it  was  adopted  the  2ist  of  February 
1901,  and  certain  amendments  or  conditions  required  by  the 
United  States  were  accepted  on  the  I2th  of  June  1901.  The 
constitution  is  republican  and  modelled  on  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  with  some  marked  differences  of  greater 
centralization,  due  to  colonial  experience  under  the  rule  pf  Spain, 
notably  as  regards  federalism;  the  provinces  of  the  island  being 
less  important  than  the  states  of  the  American  Union.  The 
president  of  the  Republic,  who  is  elected  for  four  years  by  an 
electoral  college,  and  cannot  hold  office  for  more  than  two 
successive  terms,  has  a  cabinet  whose  members  he  may  appoint 
and  remove  freely,  their  number  being  determined  by  law.  He 
sanctions,  promulgates  and  executes  the  laws,  and  supplements 


them  (partly  co-ordinately  with  congress)  by  administrative 
regulations  in  harmony  with  their  ends;  holds  a  veto  power 
and  pardoning  power;  controls  with  the  senate  political  appoint- 
ments and  removals;  and  conducts  foreign  relations,  sub- 
mitting treaties  to  the  senate  for  ratification.  Congress  consists 
of  two  houses.  The  senate  contains  four  members  from  each 
province,  chosen  for  eight  years  by  a  provincial  electoral  board, 
which  consists  of  the  provincial  councilmen  plus  a  double  number 
of  electors  (half  of  them  paying  high  taxes)  who  are  selected  at  a 
special  election  by  their  fellow  citizens.  Half  of  the  senators 
retire  every  four  years.  The  senate  is  the  court  of  trial  for  the 
president,  officers  of  the  cabinet,  and  provincial  governors  when 
accused  of  political  offences.  It  also  acts  jointly  with  the 
president  in  political  appointments  and  treaty  making.  The 
house  of  representatives,  whose  members  are  chosen  directly 
by  the  citizens  for  four  years,  one-half  retiring  every  two  years, 
has  the  special  power  of  impeaching  the  president  and  cabinet 
officers.  Congress  meets  twice  annually,  in  April  and  November. 
Its  powers  are  extensive,  including,  in  addition  to  ordinary 
legislative  powers,  control  of  financial  affairs,  foreign  affairs,  the 
power  to  declare  war  and  approve  treaties  of  peace,  amnesties, 
electoral  legislation  for  the  provinces  and  municipalities,  control 
of  the  electoral  vote  for  president  and  vice-president,  and 
designation  of  an  acting  president  in  case  of  the  death  or  in- 
capacity of  these  officers.  The  subjects  of  legislative  power  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  United  States  congress;  but  con- 
trol of  railroads,  canals  and  public  roads  is  explicitly  given  to 
the  federal  government.  Justice  is  administered  by  courts  of 
various  grades,  with  a  supreme  court  at  Havana  as  the  head; 
the  members  of  this  being  appointed  by  the  president  and  senate. 
This  court  passes  on  the  constitutionality  of  all  laws,  decrees  and 
regulations. 

There  are  six  provinces — Pinar  del  Rio,  Havana,  Matanzas, 
Santa  Clara,  Camagiiey  or  Puerto  Principe,  and  Oriente.  Each  has 
a  provincial  governor  and  assembly  chosen  directly  by  the  people, 
generally  charged  with  independent  control  of  matters  affecting 
the  province;  but  the  president  may  interfere  against  an  abuse 
of  power  by  either  the  governor  or  the  assembly.  Municipalities 
are  administered  by  mayors  (alcaldes)  and  assemblies  elected  by 
the  people,  and  control  strictly  municipal  affairs.  The  "  termino 
municipal  "  is  the  chief  political  and  administrative  civil  division. 
It  is  an  urban  district  together  with  contiguous  rural  territory. 
Its  divisions  are  "  barrios."  The  president  may  interfere  if 
necessary  in  the  municipality  as  in  the  province;  and  so  may  the 
governor  of  the  province.  But  all  interference  is  subject  to 
review  of  claims  by  the  courts.  Both  provinces  and  munici- 
palities are  forbidden  by  the  constitution  to  contract  debts 
without  a  coincident  provision  of  permanent  revenue  for  their 
settlement. 

The  franchise  is  granted  to  every  male  Cuban  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  not  mentally  incapacitated,  nor  previously  a  convict  of 
crime,  nor  serving  in  the  army  or  navy  of  the  state.  Foreigners 
may  become  citizens  in  five  years  by  naturalization.  Church 
and  state  are  completely  separated,  toleration  being  guaranteed 
for  the  profession  and  practice  of  all  religious  beliefs,  and  the 
government  may  not  subsidize  any  religion. 

Primary  education  is  declared  by  the  constitution  to  be  free 
and  compulsory;  and  its  expenses  are  paid  by  the  central 
government  so  far  as  it  may  be  beyond  the  power  of  ^ 
the  province  or  municipality  to  bear  them.  Secondary 
and  advanced  education  is  controlled  by  the  state.  In  the  last 
days  of  Spanish  rule  (1894),  there  were  004  public  and  704 
private  schools,  and  not  more  than  60,000  pupils  enrolled;  in 
1000  there  were  3550  public  schools  with  an  enrolment  of 
172,273  and  an  average  attendance  of  123,362.  In  the  four 
school  years  from  1003-1904  to  1906-1907  the  figures  of 
enrolment  and  average  attendance  were:  201,824  and  110,531; 
194,657  and  105,706;  186,571  and  98,329;  and  189,289  and 
93,865.  In  1906-1907  the  percentage  (31-6)  of  attendants  to 
children  of  school  age  was  twice  as  large  as  in  1898-1899.  Private 
schools,  some  of  very  high  grade,  draw  many  pupils.  Almost 
all  schools  are  primary.  The  university  of  Havana  (founded 


602 


CUBA 


1728)  was  given  greatly  improved  facilities,  especially  of  material 
equipment,  by  the  American  military  government,  and  seems 
to  have  begun  an  ambitious  progress.  In  1907  the  number  of 
students  was  554.  Below  the  university  there  are  six  provincial 
institutes,  one  in  each  province,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a 
preparatory  department,  a  department  of  secondary  education, 
and  (this  due  to  peculiar  local  conditions)  a  school  of  surveying; 
and  in  that  of  Havana  commercial  departments  in  addition. 
In  Havana,  also,  there  is  a  school  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
a  school  of  arts  and  trades,  and  a  national  library,  all  of  which 
are  supported  or  subventioned  by  the  national  government,  as 
are  also  a  public  library  in  Matanzas,  and  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  at  Santiago  de  las  Vegas.  In  connexion 
with  the  university  is  a  botanical  garden;  with  the  national 
sanitary  service,  a  biological  laboratory,  and  special  services  for 
small-pox,  glanders  and  yellow  fever.  Independent  of  the 
government  are  various  schools  and  learned  societies  in  Havana 
(q.v.).  A  school  was  established  by  the  government  in  Key 
West,  Florida  (U.S.A.),  in  1905,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Cuban 
colony  there.  Finally,  the  government  sustains  about  two  score  of 
penal  establishments,  reform  schools,  hospitals,  dispensaries  and 
asylums,  which  are  scattered  all  over  the  island, — every  town  of 
any  considerable  size  having  one  or  more  of  these  charities. 

Under  the  colonial  rule  of  Spain  the  head  of  government  was 
a  supreme  civil-military  officer,  the  governor  and  captain- 
general.  His  control  of  the  entire  administrative  life 
govern-  °f  l^e  island  was  practically  absolute.  Originally 
meat.  residents  at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  the  captains-general 
resided  after  1 589  at  Havana.  Because  of  the  isolation 
of  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  the  dangers  from  pirates,  and 
the  important  considerations  which  had  caused  Santiago  de 
Cuba  (q.v.)  to  be  the  first  capital  of  the  island,  Cuba  was  divided 
in  1607  into  two  departments,  and  a  governor,  subordinate  in 
military  matters  to  the  captain-generalatHavana,was  appointed 
to  rule  the  territory  east  of  Puerto  Principe.  In  1801,  when  the 
audiencia — of  which  the  captain-general  was  ex  officio  president 
— began  its  functions  at  that  point,  the  governor  of  Santiago 
became  subordinated  in  political  matters  as  much  as  in  military. 
Two  chief  courts  of  justice  (audiencias)  sat  at  Havana  (after 
1832)  and  Puerto  Principe  (1800-1853);  appeals  could  go  to 
Spain;  below  the  audiencias  were  "  alcaldes  mayores "  or 
district  judges  and  ordinary  "  alcaldes  "  or  local  judges.  The 
audiencias  also  held  important  political  powers  under  the 
Laws  of  the  Indies.  The  captaincy-general  of  Cuba  was  not 
originally,  however,  by  any  means  so  broad  in  powers  as  the 
viceroyalties  of  Mexico  and  Peru;  and  by  the  creation  in  1765 
of  the  office  of  intendant — the  delegate  of  the  national  treasury — 
his  faculties  were  very  greatly  curtailed.  The  great  powers  of 
the  intendant  were,  however,  merged  in  those  of  the  governor- 
general  in  1853;  and  the  captain-general  having  been  given 
by  royal  order  in  1825  (several  times  later  explicitly  confirmed, 
and  not  revoked  until  1870)  the  absolute  powers  (to  be  assumed 
at  his  initiative  and  discretion)  of  the  governor  of  a  besieged 
city,  and  by  a  royal  order  of  1834  the  power  to  banish  at  will 
persons  supposed  to  be  inimical  to  the  public  peace;  and  being 
by  virtue  of  his  office  the  president  and  dominator  of  all  the 
important  administrative  boards  of  the  government,  held  the 
government  of  the  island,  and  in  any  emergency  the  liberty  and 
property  of  its  inhabitants,  in  his  hand.  The  royal  orders  following 
1825  developed  a  system  of  extraordinary  and  extreme  repression. 
In  1878,  as  the  result  of  the  Ten  Years'  War,  various  adminis- 
trative reforms,  of  a  decentralizing  tendency,  were  introduced. 
The  six  provinces  were  created,  and  had  governors  and  as- 
semblies ("  diputaciones  ") ;  and  a  municipal  law  was  provided 
that  in  many  ways  was  a  sound  basis  for  local  government.  But 
centralization  remained  very  great.  In  the  municipality  the 
alcalde  (mayor)  was  appointed  by  the  governor-general,  and  the 
ayuntamiento  (council)  was  controlled  by  the  veto  of  the  pro- 
vincial governor  and  by  the  assembly  of  the  province.  The 
deputation  was  subject  in  turn  to  the  same  veto  of  the  provincial 
governor,  and  he  controlled  by  the  governor-general.  There  was 
besides  a  provincial  commission  of  five  lawyers  named  by  the 


governor-general  from  the  members  of  the  deputation,  who 
settled  election  questions,  and  questions  of  eligibility  in  this 
body,  gave  advice  as  to  laws,  acted  for  the  deputation  when 
it  was  not  sitting,  and  in  general  facilitated  centralized  control 
of  the  administrative  system.  The  character  of  this  body  was 
altered  in  1890,  and  in  1898,  in  which  latter  year  its  functions 
were  reduced  to  the  essentially  judicial.  Despite  superficial 
decentralization  after  1878  any  real  growth  of  local  self-govern- 
ment was  rendered  impossible.  Moreover,  no  great  reforms 
were  made  in  the  abuses  naturally  incident  to  the  old  personal 
system.  Exile  and  imprisonment  at  the  will  of  the  government 
and  without  trial  were  common.  Personal  liberty,  liberty  of 
conscience,  speech,  assembly,  petition,  association,  press,  liberty 
of  movement  and  security  of  home,  were  without  real  guarantee 
even  within  the  extremely  small  limits  in  which  they  nominally 
existed.  Under  the  constitution  of  the  Republic  the  sphere  of 
individual  liberty  is  large  and  constitutionally  protected  against 
the  government. 

Finance. — There  has  been  a  great  change  in  the  budget  of 
Cuba  since  the  advent  of  the  Republic.  In  1891-1896  the  average 
annual  income  was  $20,738,930,  the  annual  average  expenditure 
$25,967,139.  More  than  half  of  the  revenue  was  derived  from 
customs  duties  (two-thirds  of  the  total  being  collected  at  Havana). 
Of  the  expenditure  more  than  ten  million  dollars  annually  went 
for  the  public  debt,  5-5  to  6  millions  for  the  army  and  navy,  as 
much  more  for  civil  administration  (including  more  than  two 
millions  for  purely  Peninsular  services  with  which  the  colony 
was  burdened);  and  on  an  average  probably  one  million  more 
went  for  sinecures.  Every  Cuban  paid  about  twice  as  heavy 
taxes  as  a  Spaniard  of  the  Peninsula.  Very  little  was  spent 
on  sanitation,  roads,  other  public  works  and  education.  The 
revenue  receipts  under  the  Republic  have  increased  especially 
over  those  of  the  old  regime  in  the  item  of  customs  duties;  and 
the  expenditure  is  very  differently  distributed.  Lotteries  which 
were  an  important  source  of  revenue  under  Spain  were  abolished 
under  the  Republic.  The  debt  resting  on  the  colony  in  1895 
(a  large  part  of  it  as  a  result  of  the  war  of  1868-1878,  the  entire 
cost  of  which  was  laid  upon  the  island,  but  a  part  as  the  result 
of  Spain's  war  adventures  in  Mexico  and  San  Domingo,  home 
loans,  &c.)  was  officially  stated  at  $168,500,000.  The  attain- 
ment of  independence  freed  the  island  from  this  debt,  and  from 
enormous  contemplated  additions  to  cover  the  expense  incurred 
by  Spain  during  the  last  insurrection.  The  debt  of  the  Republic 
in  April  1908  was  $48,146,585,  including  twenty-seven  millions 
which  were  assumed  in  1902  for  the  payment  of  the  army  of 
independence,  four  for  agriculture,  and  four  for  the  payment  of 
revolutionary  debts,  and  $2,196,585,  representing  obligations 
assumed  by  the  revolution's  representative  in  the  United  States 
during  the  War  of  Independence.  United  States  and  British 
investments,  always  important  in  the  agriculture  and  manu- 
factures of  the  island,  greatly  increased  following  1898,  and  by 
1908  those  of  each  nation  were  supposed  to  exceed  considerably 
$100,000,000. 

Archaeology. — Archaeological  study  in  Cuba  has  been  limited, 
and  has  not  produced  results  of  great  importance.  Almost 
nothing  is  actually  known  of  prehistoric  Cuba;  and  a  few  skulls 
and  implements  are  the  only  basis  existing  for  conjecture.  Very 
little  also  is  known  as  to  the  natives  who  inhabited  the  island 
at  the  time  of  the  discovery.  They  were  a  tall  race  of  copper 
hue;  fairly  intelligent,  mild  in  temperament,  who  lived  in  poor 
huts  and  practised  a  limited  and  primitive  agriculture.  How 
numerous  they  were  when  the  Spaniards  first  came  among 
them  cannot  be  said;  undoubtedly  tradition  has  greatly  ex- 
aggerated their  number.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
practically  extinct  by  1550.  Even  in  the  igth  century  reports 
were  spread  of  communitiesin  which  Indian  blood  was  supposedly 
still  plainly  dominant;  but  the  conclusion  of  the  competent 
scientists  who  have  investigated  such  rumours  has  been  that  at 
least  absolutely  nothing  of  the  language  and  -traditions  of  the 
aborigines  has  survived. 

History. — Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  the  course  of 
his  first  voyage,  on  the  27th  of  October  1492.  He  died  believing 


CUBA 


603 


Cuba  was  part  of  a  continent.  In  1508  Sebastian  de'  Ocampo 
circumnavigated  it.  In  1 5  n  Diego  Velazquez  began  the  conquest 
of  the  island.  Baracoa  (the  landing  point),  Bayamo,  Santiago 
de  Cuba,  Puerto  Principe,  Sancti  Spiritus,  Trinidad  and  the 
original  Havana  were  all  founded  by  1515.  Velazquez's  reputa- 
tion and  legends  of  wealth  drew  many  immigrants  to  the  island. 
From  Cuba  went  the  expeditions  that  discovered  Yucatan  (1517), 
and  explored  the  shores  of  Mexico,  Hernando  Cortes's  expedition 
for  the  invasion  of  Mexico,  and  de  Solo's  for  the  exploration  of 
Florida.  The  last  two  had  a  pernicious  effect  on  Cuba,  draining 
it  of  horses,  money  and  of  men.  At  least  as  early  as  1523  the 
African  slave  trade  was  begun.  In  1544  the  Indians,  so  far  as 
they  had  not  succumbed  to  the  labour  of  the  mines  and  fields  to 
which  they  were  put  by  the  Spaniards,  were  proclaimed  emanci- 
pated. The  administration  in  the  i6th  century  was  loose  and 
violent.  The  local  authorities  were  divided  among  themselves 
by  bitter  feuds — the  ecclesiastical  against  the  civil,  the  ayunta- 
miento  against  the  governors,  the  administrative  officers  among 
themselves;  brigandage,  mutinies  and  intestinal  struggles  dis- 
turbed the  peace.  As  a  result  of  the  transfer  of  Jamaica  to 
England,  the  population  of  Cuba  was  greatly  augmented  by 
Jamaican  immigrants  to  about  30,000  in  the  middle  of  the 
iyth  century. 

The  activity  of  English  and  French  pirates  began  in  the  ifith 
century,  and  reached  its  climax  in  the  middle  of  the  i7th  century. 
So  early  also  began  dissatisfaction  with  the  economic  regulations 
of  the  colonial  system,  even  grave  resistance  to  their  enforcement ; 
and  illicit  trade  with  privateers  and  foreign  colonies  had  begun 
long  before,  and  in  the  iyth  and  i8th  centuries  was  the  basis  of 
the  island's  wealth.  In  1762  Havana  was  captured  after  a  long 
resistance  by  a  British  force  under  Admiral  Sir  George  Pocock 
and  the  earl  of  Albemarle,  with  heavy  loss  to  the  besiegers. 
It  was  returned  to  Spain  the  next  year  in  exchange  for  the 
Floridas.  From  this  date  begins  the  modern  history  of  the  island. 
The  British  opened  the  port  to  commerce  and  the  slave  trade 
and  revealed  its  possibilities.  The  government  of  Spain,  begin- 
ning in  1764,  made  notable  breaches  in  the  old  monopolistic 
system  of  colonial  trade  throughout  America;  and  Cuba  received 
special  privileges,  also,  that  were  a  basis  for  real  prosperity. 
Spain  paid  increasing  attention  to  the  island,  and  in  harmony 
with  the  policy  of  the  Laws  of  the  Indies  many  decrees  intended 
to  stimulate  agriculture  and  commerce  were  issued  by  the 
crown,  first  in  the  form  of  monopolies,  then  with  increased 
freedom  and  with  bounties.  Various  colonial  products  and  the 
slave  trade  were  favoured  in  this  way.  After  the  cession  of  the 
Spanish  portion  of  San  Domingo  to  France  hundreds  of  Spanish 
families  emigrated  to  Cuba,  and  many  thousand  more  immi- 
grants, mainly  French,  followed  them  from  the  entire  island 
during  the  revolution  of  the  blacks.  Most  of  them  settled  in 
Oriente  province,  where  their  names  and  blood  are  still  apparent, 
and  with  their  cafetales  and  sugar  plantations  converted  that 
region  from  neglect  and  poverty  to  high  prosperity. 

Under  a  succession  of  liberal  governors  (especially  Luis  de  las 
Casas,  1790-1796,  and  the  marques  de  Someruelos,  1799-1813), 
at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  and  the  first  part  of  the  igth, 
when  the  wars  in  Europe  cut  off  Spain  almost  entirely  from 
the  colony,  Cuba  was  practically  independent.  Trade  was 
comparatively  free,  and  worked  a  revolution  in  culture  and 
material  conditions.  General  Las  Casas,  in  particular,  left 
behind  him  in  Cuba  an  undying  memory  of  good  efforts.  Free 
commerce  with  foreigners — a  fact  after  1809 — was  definitely 
legalized  in  1818  (confirmed  in  1824).  The  state  tobacco 
monopoly  was  abolished  in  1817.  The  reported  populations 
by  the  (untrustworthy)  censuses  of  1774,  1792  and  1817  were 
161,670,  273,301  and  553,033.  Something  of  political  freedom 
was  enjoyed  during  the  two  terms  of  Spanish  constitutional 
government  under  the  constitution  of  1812.  The  sharp  division 
between  Creoles  and  peninsulars  (i.e.  between  those  born  in  Cuba 
and  those  born  in  Spain),  the  question  of  annexation  to  the 
United  States  or  possibly  to  some  other  power,  the  plotting  for 
independence,  all  go  back  to  the  early  years  of  the  century. 

Partly  because  of  political  and  social  divisions  thus  revealed, 


conspiracies  being  rife  in  the  decade  1820-1830,  and  partly  as 
preparation  for  the  defence  against  Mexico  and  Colombia,  who 
throughout  these  same  years  were  threatening  the  island  with 
invasion,  the  captains-general,  in  1825,  received  the  powers  above 
referred  to;  which  became,  as  time  passed,  monstrously  in  dis- 
accord with  the  general  tendencies  of  colonial  government  and 
with  increasing  liberties  in  Spain,  but  continued  to  be  the 
spiritual  basis  of  Spanish  rule  in  the  island.  Among  the  governors 
of  the  igth  century  Miguel  Tacon,  governor  in  1834-1839, 
a  forceful  and  high-handed  soldier,  deserves  mention,  especially 
in  the  annals  of  Havana;  he  ruled  as  a  tyrant,  made  many 
reforms  as  regarded  law  and  order,  and  left  Havana,  in  particular, 
full  of  municipal  improvements.  The  good  he  did  was  limited 
to  the  spheres  of  public  works  and  police;  in  other  respects 
his  rule  was  a  pernicious  influence  for  Cuba.  Politically  his  rule 
was  marked  by  the  proclamation  at  Santiago  in  1836,  without 
his  consent,  of  the  Spanish  constitution  of  1834;  he  repressed 
the  movement,  and  in  1837  the  deputies  of  Cuba  to  the  Cortes 
of  Spain  (to  which  they  were  admitted  in  the  two  earlier  con- 
stitutional periods)  were  excluded  from  that  body,  and  it  was 
declared  in  the  national  constitution  that  Cuba  (and  Porto  Rico) 
should  be  governed  by  "  special  laws."  The  inapplicability 
of  many  laws  passed  for  the  Peninsula — all  of  which  under  a 
constitutional  system  would  apply  to  Cuba  as  to  any  other 
province,  unless  that  system  be  modified — was  indeed  notorious; 
and  Cuban  opinion  had  repeatedly,  through  official  bodies, 
protested  against  laws  thus  imposed  that  worked  injustice,  and 
had  pleaded  for  special  consideration  of  colonial  conditions. 
The  promise  of  "  special  laws  "  based  upon  such  consideration 
was  therefore  not,  in  itself,  unjust,  nor  unwelcome.  But  as  the 
colony  had  no  voice  in  the  Cortes,  while  the  "  special  laws  " 
were  never  passed  (Cuba  expected  special  fundamental  laws, 
reforming  her  government,  and  the  government  regarded  the 
old  Laws  of  the  Indies  as  satisfying  the  obligation  of  the  con- 
stitution) the  arbitrary  rule  of  the  captains-general  remained 
quite  supreme,  under  the  will  of  the  crown,  and  colonial  dis- 
content became  stronger  and  stronger.  The  rule  of  Leopoldo 
O'Donnell  was  marked  in  1844  by  a  cruel  and  bloody  persecution 
of  negroes  for  a  supposed  plot  of  servile  war;  O'Donnell 's 
actions  being  partly  due  to  the  inquietude  that  had  prevailed 
for  some  years  over  the  supposed  machinations  of  English 
abolitionists  and  even  of  English  official  residents  in  the  island, 
and  also  over  the  mutual  jealousies  and  supposed  annexation 
ambitions  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

A  Cuban  international  question  had  arisen  before  1820. 
Spain,  the  United  States,  England,  France,  Colombia  and 
Mexico  were  all  involved  in  it,  the  first  four  continually.  In 
the  eighteen-fifties  a  strong  pro-slavery  interest  in  the  United 
States  advocated  the  acquisition  of  the  island.  One  feature  of 
this  was  the  "  Ostend  Manifesto  "  (see  BUCHANAN,  JAMES), 
in  which  the  ministers  of  the  United  States  at  London,  Paris  and 
Madrid  declared  that  if  Spain  refused  a  money  offer  for  the 
colony  the  United  States  should  seize  it.  Their  government 
gave  this  document  publicity.  The  Cuban  policy  of  Presidents 
Pierce  and  Buchanan  (during  1853-1861)  was  vainly  directed 
to  acquiring  the  island.  From  1849  to  1851  there  were  three 
abortive  filibustering  expeditions  from  the  United  States,  two 
being  under  a  Spanish  general,  Narciso  Lopez  (1798-1851). 
The  domestic  problem,  the  problem  of  discontent  in  the  island, 
had  become  acute  by  1850,  and  from  this  time  on  to  1868  the 
years  were  full  of  conflict  between  liberal  and  reactionary  senti- 
ment in  the  colony,  centreing  about  the  asserted  connivance 
of  the  captains-general  in  the  illegal  slave  trade  (declared  illegal 
after  1820  by  the  treaties  of  1817  and  1835  between  Great  Britain 
and  Spain),  the  notorious  immorality  and  prodigal  wastefulness 
of  the  government,  and  the  selfish  exploitation  of  the  colony 
by  Spaniards  and  the  Spanish  government.  From  early  in  the 
19th  century  there  had  always  been  separatists,  reformists  and 
repressionists  in  the  island,  but  they  were  individuals  rather  than 
groups.  The  last  were  peninsulars,  the  others  mainly  Creoles,  and 
among  the  wealthy  classes  of  the  latter  the  separatists  gradually 
gained  increasing  support. 


604 


CUBA 


An  ineffective,  and  extremely  corrupt  administration,  a  grave 
economic  condition,  new  and  heavy  taxes,  military  repression, 
recurring  heavy  deficits  in  the  budget,  adding  to  a  debt  (about 
$150,000,000  in  1868)  already  very  large  and  burdensome,  and 
the  complete  fiasco  of  the  junta  of  inquiry  of  Cuban  and  Porto 
Rican  representatives  which  met  in  Madrid  in  1866-1867 — all 
were  important  influences  favouring  the  outbreak  of  the  Ten 
Years'  War.  Among  those  who  waged  the  war  were  men  who 
fought  to  compel  reforms,  others  who  fought  for  annexation 
to  the  United  States,  others  who  fought  for  independence. 
The  reformists  demanded,  besides  the  correction  of  the  above 
evils,  action  against  slavery,  assimilation  of  rights  between 
peninsulars  and  Creoles  and  the  practical  recognition  of  equality, 
e.g.  in  the  matter  of  office-holding,  a  grievance  centuries 
old  in  Cuba  as  in  other  Spanish  colonies,  and  guarantees  of 
personal  liberties.  The  separatists,  headed  by  Carlos  Manuel 
de  Cespedes  (1819-1874),  a  wealthy  planter  who  proclaimed 
the  revolution  at  Yara  on  the  icth  of  October,  demanded 
the  same  reforms,  including  gradual  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  with  indemnity  to  owners,  and  the  grant  of  free  and 
universal  suffrage.  War  was  confined  throughout  the  ten  years 
almost  wholly  to  the  E.  provinces.  The  policy  of  successive 
captains-general  was  alternately  uncompromisingly  repressive 
and  conciliatory.  The  Spanish  volunteers  committed  horrible 
excesses  in  Havana  and  other  places;  the  rebels  also  burned 
and  killed  indiscriminatingly,  and  the  war  became  increasingly 
cruel  and  sanguinary.  Intervention  by  the  United  States 
seemed  probable,  but  did  not  come,  and  after  alternations  in 
the  fortunes  of  war,  Martinez  Campos  in  January  1878  secured 
the  acceptance  by  the  rebels  of  the  convention  (pacto)  of  Zanjon, 
which  promised  amnesty  for  the  war,  liberty  to  slaves  in  the 
rebel  ranks,  the  abolition  of  slavery,  reforms  in  government,  and 
colonial  autonomy.  A  small  rising  after  peace  (the  "  Little 
War  "  of  1870-1880)  was  easily  repressed.  Gradual  abolition 
of  slavery  was  declared  by  a  law  of  the  i3th  of  February  1880; 
definitive  abolition  in  1886;  and  in  1893  the  equal  civil  status 
of  blacks  and  whites  in  all  respects  was  proclaimed  by  General 
Calleja.  There  is  no  more  evidence  to  warrant  the  wholly 
erroneous  statement  sometimes  made  that  emancipation  was  an 
economic  set-back  to  Cuba  than  could  be  gathered  to  support 
a  similar  statement  regarding  the  United  States.  Coolie  importa- 
tion from  China  had  been  stopped  in  1871. 

As  for  autonomy  and  political  reforms  it  has  already  been 
remarked  that  the  change  from  the  old  regime  was  only  super- 
ficial. The  Spanish  constitution  of  1876  was  proclaimed  in 
Cuba  in  1881.  In  1878-1895  political  parties  had  a  complex 
development.  The  Liberal  party  was  of  growing  radicalism, 
the  Union  Constitutional  party  of  growing  conservatism;  and 
after  1893  a  Reformist  party  was  launched  that  drew  the  com- 
promisers and  the  waverers. '  The  demands  of  the  Liberals  were 
as  in  1868;  those  for  personal  and  property  rights  were  much 
more  definitely  stated,  and  among  explicit  reforms  demanded 
were  the  separation  of  civil  and  military  power,  general  recogni- 
tion of  administrative  responsibility  under  a  colonial  autono- 
mous constitutional  regime;  also  among  economic  matters, 
customs  reforms  and  reciprocity  with  the  United  States  were 
demanded.  As  for  the  representation  accorded  Cuba  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes,  as  a  rule  about  a  quarter  of  her  deputies  were 
Cuban-born,  and  the  choice  of  only  a  few  autonomists  was 
allowed  by  those  who  controlled  the  elections.  Reciprocity 
with  the  United  States  was  in  force  from  1891  to  1894  and  was 
extremely  beneficial  to  Cuba.  Its  cessation  greatly  increased 
disaffection. 

Discontent  grew,  and  another  war  was  prepared  for.  On 
the  23rd  of  February  1895  General  Calleja  suspended  the  con- 
stitutional guarantees.  The  leading  chiefs  of  the  Ten  Years' 
War  took  the  field  again — Maximo  Gomez,  Antonio  Maceo, 
Jose  Martf,  Calixto  Garcfa  and  others.  Unlike  that  war,  this 
was  carried  to  the  western  provinces,  and  indeed  was  fiercest 
there.  Among  the  military  means  adopted  by  the  Spaniards 
to  isolate  their  foe  were  "  trochas  "  (i.e.  entrenchments,  barb- 
wire  fences,  and  lines  of  block-houses)  across  the  narrow  parts  of 


the  island,  and  "  reconcentracion  "  of  non-combatants  in  camps 
guarded  by  the  Spanish  forces.  The  latter  measure  produced 
extreme  suffering  and  much  starvation  (as  the  reconcentrados 
were  largely  thrown  upon  the  charity  of  the  beggared  com- 
munities in  which  they  were  huddled).  In  October  1897  the 
Spanish  premier,  P.  M.  Sagasta,  announced  the  policy  of 
autonomy,  and  the  new  dispensation  was  proclaimed  in  Cuba 
in  December.  But  again  all  final  authority  was  reserved  to  the 
captain-general.  The  system  was  never  to  have  a  practical 
trial,  although  a  full  government  was  quickly  organized  under 
it.  The  American  people  had  sent  food  to  the  reconcentrados; 
President  McKinley,  while  opposing  recognition  of  the  rebels, 
affirmed  the  possibility  of  intervention;  Spain  resented  this 
attitude;  and  finally,  in  February  1898,  the  United  States 
battleship  "  Maine  "  was  blown  up — by  whom  will  probably 
never  be  known — in  the  harbour  of  Havana. 

On  the  20th  of  April  the  United  States  demanded  the  with- 
drawal of  Spanish  troops  from  the  island.  War  followed  immedi- 
ately. A  fine  Spanish  squadron  seeking  to  escape  from  Santiago 
harbour  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  American  blockading 
force  on  the  3rd  of  July;  Santiago  was  invested  by  land  forces, 
and  on  the  1 5th  of  July  the  city  surrendered.  Other  operations 
in  Cuba  were  slight.  By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  signed  on  the  loth 
of  December,  Spain  "  relinquished  "  the  island  to  the  United 
States  in  trust  for  its  inhabitants;  the  temporary  character  of 
American  occupation  being  recognized  throughout  the  treaty, 
in  accord  with  the  terms  of  the  American  declaration  of  war,  in 
which  the  United  States  disclaimed  any  intention  to  control  the 
island  except  for  its  pacification,  and  expressed  the  determination 
to  leave  the  island  thereupon  to  the  control  of  its  people.  Spanish 
authority  ceased  on  the  ist  of  January  1899,  and  was  followed  by 
American  "  military  "  rule  (January  i,  iSgg-May  20,  1902). 
During  these  three  years  the  great  majority  of  offices  were  filled 
by  Cubans,  and  the  government  was  made  as  different  as  possible 
from  the  military  control  to  which  the  colony  had  been  accus- 
tomed. Very  much  was  done  for  public  works,  sanitation, 
the  reform  of  administration,  civil  service  and  education.  Most 
notable  of  all,  yellow  fever  was  eradicated  where  it  had  been 
endemic  for  centuries.  A  constitutional  convention  sat  at 
Havana  from  the  5th  of  November  1900  to  the  2ist  of  February 
1901.  The  provisions  of  the  document  thus  formed  have  already 
been  referred  to.  In  the  determination  of  the  relations  that 
should  subsist  between  the  new  republic  and  the  United  States 
certain  definite  conditions  known  as  the  Platt  Amendment  were 
finally  imposed  by  the  United  States,  and  accepted  by  Cuba 
(i2th  of  June  1901)  as  a  part  of  her  constitution.  By  these 
Cuba  was  bound  not  to  incur  debts  her  current  revenues  will 
not  bear;  to  continue  the  sanitary  administration  undertaken 
by  the  military  government  of  intervention;  to  lease  naval 
stations  (since  located  at  Bahia  Honda  and  Guantanamo)  to 
the  United  States;  and  finally,  the  right  of  the  United  States  to 
intervene,  if  necessary,  in  the  affairs  of  the  island  was  explicitly 
affirmed  in  the  provision,  "  That  the  government  of  Cuba 
consents  that  the  United  States  may  exercise  the  right  to 
intervene  for  the  protection  of  Cuban  independence,  the  main- 
tenance of  a  government  adequate  for  the  protection  of  life, 
property  and  individual  liberty,  and  for  discharging  the  obliga- 
tions with  respect  to  Cuba  imposed  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  on  the 
United  States,  now  to  be  assumed  and  undertaken  by  the 
government  of  Cuba."  The  status  thus  created  is  very  excep- 
tional in  the  history  of  international  relations.  The  status  of 
the  Isle  of  Pines  was  left  an  open  question  by  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
but  a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  has 
declared  it  (in  a  question  of  customs  duties)  to  be  a  part  of  Cuba, 
and  though  a  treaty  to  the  same  end  did  not  secure  ratification 
(1908)  by  the  United  States  Senate,  repeated  efforts  by  American 
residents  thereon  to  secure  annexation  to  the  United  States 
were  ignored  by  the  United  States  government. 

The  first  Cuban  congress  met  on  the  5th  of  May  1902,  pre- 
pared to  take  over  the  government  from  the  American  military 
authorities,  which  it  did  on  the  2oth  of  May.  Tomas  Estrada 
Palma  (1835-1908)  became  the  first  president  of  the  Republic. 


CUBA 


605 


In  material  prosperity  the  progress  of  the  island  from  1902  to  1906 
was  very  great;  but  in  its  politics,  various  social  and  economic 
elements,  and  political  habits  and  examples  of  Spanish  pro- 
venience that  ill  befit  a  democracy,  led  once  more  to  revolution. 
Congress  neglected  to  pass  certain  laws  which  were  required  by 
the  constitution,  and  which,  as  regards  municipal  autonomy, 
independence  of  the  judiciary,  and  congressional  representation 
of  minority  parties,  were  intended  to  make  impossible  the 
abuses  of  centralized  government  that  had  characterized  Spanish 
administration.  Political  parties  were  forming  without  very 
evident  basis  for  differences  outside  questions  of  political 
patronage  and  the  good  or  ill  use  of  power;  and,  in  the  absence 
of  the  laws  just  mentioned,  the  Moderates,  being  in  power,  used 
every  instrument  of  government  to  strengthen  their  hold  on 
office.  The  preliminaries  of  the  elections  of  December  1905  and 
March  1906  being  marked  by  frauds  and  injustice,  the  Liberals 
deserted  the  polls  at  those  elections,  and  instead  of  appealing 
to  judicial  tribunals  controlled  by  the  Moderates,  issued  a 
manifesto  of  revolution  on  the  28th  of  July  1906.'  This  insurrec- 
tion rapidly  assumed  large  proportions.  The  government  was 
weak  and  lacked  moral  support  in  the  whole  island.  After 
repeated  petitions  from  President  Palma  for  intervention  by 
the  United  States,  commissioners  (William  H.  Taft,  Secretary 
of  War,  and  Robert  Bacon,  Acting  Secretary  of  State)  were  sent 
from  Washington  to  act  as  peace  mediators. 

All  possible  efforts  to  secure  a  compromise  that  would  preserve 
the  Republic  failed.  The  president  resigned  (on  the  28th  of 
September),  Congress  dispersed  without  choosing  a  successor, 
and  as  an  alternative  to  anarchy  the  United  States  was  compelled 
to  proclaim  on  the  2gth  of  September  1906  a  provisional  govern- 
ment,— to  last  "  long  enough  to  restore  order  and  peace  and 
public  confidence,"  and  hold  new  elections.  The  insurrectionists 
promptly  disbanded.  Government  was  maintained  under  the 
Cuban  flag, — the  diplomatic  and  consular  relations  with  even 
the  United  States  remaining  in  outward  forms  unchanged; 
and  the  regular  forms  of  the  constitution  were  scrupulously 
maintained  so  far  as  possible.  No  use  was  made  of  American 
military  force  save  as  a  passive  background  to  the  government. 
The  government  of  intervention  at  first  directed  its  main  effort 
simply  to  holding  the  country  together,  without  undertaking 
much  that  could  divide  public  opinion  or  seem  of  unpalatably 
foreign  impulse;  and  later  to  the  establishment  of  a  few  funda- 
mental laws  which,  when  intervention  ceased,  should  give  greater 
simplicity,  strength  and  stability  to  a  new  native  government. 
These  laws  strictly  defined  the  powers  of  the  president;  more 
clearly  separated  the  executive  departments,  so  as  to  lessen 
friction  and  jealousies;  reformed  the  courts;  reformed  adminis- 
trative routine;  and  increased  the  strength  of  the  provinces 
at  the  expense  of  the  municipalities.  On  the  28th  of  January 
1909  the  American  administration  ceased,  and  the  Republic  was 
a  second  time  inaugurated,  with  General  Jose  Miguel  Gomez 
(b.  1856),  the  leader  of  the  Miguelista  faction  of  the  Liberal  party, 
as  president,  and  Alfredo  Zayas,  the  leader  of  the  Zayista  faction 
of  the  same  party,  as  vice-president.  The  last  American  troops 
were  withdrawn  from  the  island  on  the  ist  of  April  1909. 

AUTHORITIES. — General  Description. — There  is  no  trustworthy 
recent  description.  The  best  books  are  E.  Pechardo,  Geografia  de  la 
isla  de  Cuba  (4  torn.,  Havana,  1854);  M.  Rodriguez-Ferrer,  Natura- 
leza  y  civilization  de  .  .  .  Cuba,  vol.  i.  (Madrid,  1876).  See  also 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Bulletin  192  (1902),  H.  Gannett, 
"  A  Gazetteer  of  Cuba."  Of  general  descriptions  in  English,  in 
addition  to  travels  cited  below,  may  be  cited  R.  T.  Hill,  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico  with  the  other  West  Indies  (New  York,  1898). 

Fauna  and  Flora. — A.  H.  R.  Grisebach,  Catalogus  plantarum 
Cubensium  (Leipzig,  1866),  and  F.  A.  Sauvalle,  Flora  Cubana: 
revisio  catalogi  Grisebachiani  (Havana,  1868);  and  Flora  Cubana: 
enumeratio  nova  plantarum  Cubensium  (Havana,  1873);  F.  Poey  et 
al.,  Repertorio  fisico-natural  de  la  isla  de  Cuba  (2  vols.,  Havana, 
1865-1868),  and  F.  Poey,  Memorias  sobre  la  historia  natural  de  .  .  . 
Cuba  (3  torn.,  Havana,  1851-1860);  Ramon  de  la  Sagra,  with  many 
collaborators,  Historia  fisica,  politico  y  natural  de  .  .  .  Cuba  (Paris, 
1842-1851,  12  vols.;  issued  also  in  French;  vols.  3-12  being  the 

1  In  the  preliminary  registration  by  Moderate  officials  a  total 
electorate  was  registered  of  432,313, — about  30%  of  the  supposed 
population  of  the  island. 


"  Historia  Natural  ") ;  Anales  of  the  Academia  de  Ciencias  (Havana, 
1863-  ,  annual) ;  M.  Gomez  de  laMaza,  Flora  Habanera  (Havana, 
1897) ;  S.  A.  de  Morales,  Flora  arboricola  de  Cuba  aplicada  (Havana, 
1887,  only_  part  published);  D.  H.  Seguf,  Ojeado  sobre  la  flora 
medica  y  toxtca  de  Cuba  (Havana,  1900);  J.  Gundlach,  Contribution 
a  la  entomologia  Cubana(  Havana,  1881);  J.  M.  Fernandez  y  Jimenez, 
Tratado  de  la  arboricultura  Cubana  (Havana,  1867). 

Geology  and  Minerals. — M.  F.  de  Castro," Pruebas  paleontologicas 
de  que  la  isla  de  Cuba  ha  estadp  unida  al  continento  americano  y  breve 
idea  de  su  constitucion  geologica,"  Bol.  Com.  Mapa  Geol.  de  Esp.  vol. 
viii.  (1881),  pp.  357-372 ;  M.  F.  de  Castro  and  P.  Salterain  y  Legarra, 
"  Croquisgeplogico  de  la  isla  de  Cuba,"  ibid.  vol.  viii.  pi.  vi.  (published 
with  vol.  xi.,  1884).  Many  articles  in  Anales  of  the  Academy; 
also,  R.  T.  Hill  in  Harvard  College  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology, 
Bulletin,  vol.  16,  pp.  243-288  (1895);  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  22nd  Annual  Report,  1901,  C.  W.  Hayes  et  al.,  "  Geological 
Reconnaissance  of  Cuba  " ;  Civil  Report  of  General  Leonard  Wood, 
governor  of  Cuba  (1902),  vol.  v.,  H.  C.  Brown,  "  Report  on  Mineral 
Resources  of  Cuba." 

Climate.— See  the  Boletin  Oficial  de  la  Secretaria  de  Agrifultura, 
and  publications  of  the  observatory  of  Havana.  Sanitation. — For 
conditions  1899-1902,  see  Civil  Reports  of  American  military 
governors.  For  conditions  since  1902  consult  the  Informe  Mensual 
(1903-  )  of  the  Junta  Superior  de  Sanidad. 

Agriculture. — Consult  the  Boletin  above  mentioned,  publications 
of  the  Estacion  Central  Agronomica,  and  current  statistical  serial 
reports  of  the  treasury  department  (Hacienda)  on  natural  resources, 
live-stock  interests,  the  sugar  industry  (annual),  &c. 

Industries,  Commerce,  Communications. — See  the  works  of  Sagra 
and  Pezuela.  For  conditions  about  1899  consult  R.  P.  Porter 
(Special  Commissioner  of  the  United  States  government),  Industrial 
Cuba  (New  York,  1899) ;  W.  J.  Clark,  Commercial  Cuba  (New  York, 
1898) ;  reports  of  foreign  consular  agents  in  Cuba;  and  the  statistical 
annuals  of  the  Hacienda  on  foreign  commerce  and  railways. 

Population. — The  early  censuses  were  extremely  unreliable. 
Illuminating  discussions  of  them  can  be  found  in  Humboldt's  Essay, 
Saco's  Papeles  and  Pezuela's  Diccionario.  See  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  War,  Report  on  the  Census  of  Cuba  1899  (Washington,  1899) ; 
U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Cuba:  Population,  History  and  Resources, 
1907  (1909). 

Education. — See  Civil  Reports  of  the  American  military  govern- 
ment, 1899-1902;  United  States  commissioner  of  education,  Report, 
1897-1898;  current  reports  in  Informe  del  superintendente  de 
escuelas  de  Cuba  .  .  .  (Havana,  1903-  ).  On  Letters  and  Culture. 
— E.  Pechardo  y  Tapia,  Diccionario  .  .  .  de  voces  Cubanas  (Havana, 
1836,  4th  ed.,  1875;  all  editions  with  many  errors);  Antonio 
Bachiller  y  Morales,  Apuntes  para  la  historia  de  las  letras  y  de  la 
instruction  publica  de  Cuba  (3  torn.,  Havana,  1859-1861);  J.  M. 
Mestre,  De  la  filosofia  en  la  Habana  (Havana,  1862);  A.  Mitjans, 
Estudio  sobre  el  movimiento  cientifico  y  literario  de  Cuba  (Havana, 
1890);  biographies  of  Varela  and  Luz  Caballero  by  Rodriguez  (see 
below);  files  of  La  Revista  de  Cuba  (16  vols.,  Havana,  1877-1884) 
and  La  Revista  Cubana  (21  vols.,  Havana,  1885-1895).  The  litera- 
ture of  TRAVEL  is  rich.  It  suffices  to  mention  Letters  from  the 
Havannah,  by  the  English  consul  (London,  1821);  E.  M.  Masse, 
L'llede  Cuba  (Paris,  1825);  D.  Turnbull,  Travels  in  the  West  (London, 
1840),  and  R.  R.  Madden,  The  Island  of  Cuba  (London,  1853)— two 
very  important  books  regarding  slavery;  J.  B.  Rosemond  de 
Beauvallon,  L'tle  de  Cuba  (Paris,  1844);  J.  G.  Taylor,  The  United 
States  and  Cuba  (London,  1851);  F.  Bremer,  The  Homes  of  the  New 
World  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1853);  M.  M.  Ballou,  History  of  Cuba, 
or  Notes  of  a  Traveller  (Boston,  1854) ;  R.  H.  Dana,  To  Cuba  and 
Back  (Boston,  1859);  J.  von  Sivers,  Die  Perle  der  Antillen  (Leipzig, 
1861);  A.  C.  N.  Gallenga,  The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles  (London,  1873); 
S.  Hazard,  Cuba  with  Pen  and  Pencil  (Hartford,  Conn.,  1873); 
H.  Piron,  L'Jle  de  Cuba  (Paris,  1876).  Of  later  books,  F.  Matthews, 
The  New-Born  Cuba  (New  York,  1899);  R.  Davey,  Cuba  Past  and 
Present  (London,  1898).  Among  the  writers  who  have  left  short 
impressions  are  A.  Granier  de  Cassagnac  (1844),  J-  J-  A.  Ampere 
(1855),  A.  Trollope  (1860),  J.  A.  Froude  (1888). 

Administration. — Consult  the  literature  of  history  and  colonial 
reform  given  below.  Also:  Leandro  Garcia  y  Gragitena,  Guia  del 
empleado  de  hacienda  (Havana,  1860),  with  very  valuable  historical 
data;  Carlos  de  Sedano  y  Cruzat,  Cuba  desde  1850  a  1873.  Coleccion 
de  informes,  memorias,  proyectos  y  antecedents  sobre  el  gobierno  de 
la  isla  de  Cuba  (Madrid,  1875);  Vicente  Vasquez  Queipo,  Informe 
fiscal  sobre  fomento  de  lapoblacion  blanca  (Madrid,  1845);  Infor- 
mation sobre  reformas  en  Cuba  y  Puerto  Rico  celebrada  en  Madrid  en 
1866  y  67  par  los  representantes  de  ambas  -islas  (2  torn.,  New  York, 
1867;  2nd  ed.,  New  York,  1877);  and  the  Diccionario  of  Pezuela. 
These,  with  the  works  of  Saco,  Sagra,  Arango  and  Alexander  von 
Humboldt's  work,_  Essai  politique  sur  I'ile  de  Cuba  (2  vols.,  Paris 
1826;  Spanish  editions,  I  vol.,  Paris,  1827  and  1840;  English  trans- 
lation by  J.  S.  Thrasher,  with  interpolations,  New  York,  1856), 
are  indispensable.  For  conditions  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century, 
Fran,  de  Arango  y  Parreno,  Obras  (2  torn.,  Havana,  1888).  For 
later  conditions,  E.  Valdes  Dominguez,  Los  Antiguos  Diputados  de 
Cuba  (Havana,  1879);  B.  Huber,  Aperfu  statistiaue  de  Vtte  de  Cuba 
(Paris,  1826);  Humboldt;  Sagra,  vols.  1-2  of  the  book  cited  above, 


6o6 


CUBE 


being  the  Historia  fisica  y  politico,,  and  also  the  earlier  work  on  which 
they  are  based,  Historia  economica-politica  y  estadistica.  de  .  .  . 
Cuba  (Havana,  1831);  treatises  on  administrative  law  in  Cuba  by 
J.  M.  Morilla  (Havana,  1847;  2nd  ed.,  1865,  2  vols.)  and  A.  Govin 
(3  vols.,  Havana,  1882-1883);  A.  S.  Rowan  and  M.  M.  Ramsay, 
The  Island  of  Cuba  (New  York,  1896) ;  Coleccion  de  reales  ordenes, 
decretos  y  disposiciones  (Havana,  serial,  1857-1898);  Spanish  Rule 
in  Cuba.  Laws  Governing  the  Island.  Reviews  Published  by  the 
Colonial  Office  in  Madrid  .  .  .  (New  York,  for  the  Spanish  legation, 
1896);  and  compilations  of  Spanish  colonial  laws  listed  under 
article  INDIES,  LAWS  OF  THE.  On  the  new  Republican  regime: 
Gaceta  Oficial  (Havana,  1903—  );  reports  of  departments  of 
government;  M.  Romero  Palafox,  Agenda  de  la  republica  de  Cuba 
(Havana,  1905).  See  also  the  Civil  Reports  of  the  United  States 
military  governors,  I.  R.  Brooke  (2  vols.,  1899;  Havana  and 
Washington,  1900),  L.  Wood  (33  vols.,  1900-1902;  Washington, 
1901-1902). 

History. — The  works  (see  above)  of  Sagra,  Humboldt  and  Arango 
are  indispensable;  also  those  of  Francisco  Calcagno,  Diccionario 
biogrdfico  Cubano  (ostensibly,  New  York,  1878) ;  Vidal  Morales  y 
Morales,  Iniciadores  y  primeros  mdrtires  de  la  revolution  Cubana 
(Havana,  1901);  Jose  Ahumada  y  Centurion,  Memoria  historica 
politica  de  .  .  .  Cuba  (Havana,  1874) ;  Jacobo  de  la  Pezuela, 
Diccionario  geogrdfico-estadistico-historico  de  .  .  .  Cuba  (4  torn., 
Madrid,  1863-1866);  Historia  de  .  .  .  Cuba,  (4  torn.,  Madrid, 
1868—1878;  supplanting  his  Ensayo  historico  de  .  .  .  Cuba,  Madrid 
and  New  York,  1842);  and  Jose  Antonio  Saco,  Obras  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1853),  Papeles  (3  torn.,  Paris,  1858-1859),  and  Coleccion 
postuma  de  Papeles  (Havana,  1881).  Also:  Rodriguez  Ferrer, 
op.  cit.  above,  vol.  2  (Madrid,  1888) ;  P.  G.  Guiteras,  Historia  de 
.  .  .  Cuba  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1865-1866).  Of  great  value  is  J. 
Zaragoza,  Las  Insurrecciones  en  Cuba.  Apuntes  para  Id  historia 
politica  (2  torn.,  Madrid,  1872-1873);  also  J.  I.  Rodriguez,  Vida 
de  .  .  .  Felix  Varela  (New  York,  1878),  and  Vida  de  D.  Jose  de 
la  Luz  (New  York,  1874;  2nd  ed.,  1879).  On  early  history  see 
Coleccion  de  documentos  ineditos  relatives  al  descubrimienlo  .  .  .  de 
ultramar  (series  2,  vols.  I,  4,  6,  Madrid,  1885-1890).  On 
archaeology,  N.  Fort  y  Roldan,  Cuba  indigena  (Madrid,  1881); 
M.  Rodriguez  Ferrer  (see  above);  and  especially  A.  Bachiller  y 
Morales,  Cuba  primitiva  (Havana,  1883).  For  the  history  of  the 
Cuban  international  problem  consult  Jose  Ignacio  Rodriguez,  Idea 
de  la  anexionde  la  isla  de  Cuba  a  los  Estados  Unidos  de  America 
(Havana,  1900),  and  J.  M.Callahan,  Cubaand  International  Relations 
(Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  1898),  which  supplement 
«ach  other.  On  the  domestic  reform  problem  there  is  an  enormous 
literature,  from  which  may  be  selected  (see  general  histories  above 
and  works  cited  under  §  Administration  of  this  bibliography):  M. 
Torrente,  Bosquejo  economico-politico  (2  torn.,  Madrid  -  Havana, 
1852-1853);  D.  A.  Galiano,  Cuba  en  1858  (Madrid,  1859);  Jose  de 
la  Concha,  twice  Captain-General  of  Cuba,  Memorias  sobre  el  estado 
politico,  gobierno  y  administracion  de  .  .  .  Cuba  (Madrid,  1853; 
A.  Lopez  de  Letona,  Isla  de  Cuba,  reflexiones  (Madrid,  1856);  F.  A. 
Conte,  Aspiraciones  del  partido  liberal  de  Cuba  (Havana,  1892); 
P.  Valiente,  Rf formes  dans  les  iles  de  Cuba  el  de  Porto  Rico  (Paris, 
1869);  C.  de  Sedano,  Cuba:  Estudios  politicos  (Madrid,  1872); 
H.  H.  S.  Aimes,  History  of  Slavery  in  Cuba,  1511—1868  (New  York, 
1907);  F.  Armas  y  Cespedes,  De  la  esclavitud  en  Cuba  (Madrid, 
1866),  and  Regimen  politico  de  las  Antillas  Espanolas  (Palma,  1882) ; 
R.  Cabrera,  Cuba  y  sus  Jueces  (Havana,  1887 ;  gth  ed.,  Philadelphia, 
1895;  8th  ed.,  in  English,  Cuba  and  the  Cubans,  Philadelphia,  1896) ; 
P.  de  Alzolay  Minondo,  El  Problema  Cubano  (Bilbao,  1898) ;  various 
works  by  R.  M.  de  Labra,  including  La  Cuestion  social  en  las  Antillas 
Espanolas  (Madrid,  1874),  Sistemas  coloniales  (Madrid,  1874),  &c.; 
R.  Montoro,  Discursos  .  .  .  1878-1893  (Philadelphia,  1894) ;  Labra 
tt  al..  El  Problema  colonial  contempordnea  (2  vols.,  Madrid,  1894); 
articles  by  Em.  Castelar  et  al.,  in  Spanish  reviews  (1895-1898). 
On  the  period  since  1899  the  best  two  books  in  English  are  C.  M. 
Pepper,  To-morrow  in  Cuba  (New  York,  1899);  A.  G.  Robinson, 
Cuba  and  the  Intervention  (New  York,  1905).  (F.  S.  P.) 

CUBE  (Gr.  (ci>/3os,  a  cube),  in  geometry,  a  solid  bounded  by 
six  equal  squares,  so  placed  that  the  angle  between  any  pair  of 
adjacent  faces  is  a  right  angle.  This  solid  played  an  all-important 
part  in  the  geometry  and  cosmology  of  the  Greeks.  Plato 
(Timaeus)  described  the  figure  in  the  following  terms: — "  The 
isosceles  triangle  which  has  its  vertical  angle  a  right  angle  .  .  . 
combined  in  sets  of  four,  with  the  right  angles  meeting  at  the 
•centre,  form  a  single  square.  Six  of  these  squares  joined  together 
formed  eight  solid  angles,  each  produced  by  three  plane  right 
angles:  and  the  shape  of  the  body  thus  formed  was  cubical, 
having  six  square  planes  for  its  surfaces."  In  his  cosmology 
Plato  assigned  this  solid  to  "earth,"  for  "'earth'  is  the  least 
mobile  of  the  four  (elements — '  fire,' '  water,' '  air  '  and  '  earth  ') 
and  most  plastic  of  bodies:  and  that  substance  must  possess 
this  nature  in  the  highest  degree  which  has  its  bases  most  stable." 
The  mensuration  of  the  cube,  and  its  relations  to  other  geometrical 


solids  are  treated  in  the  article  POLYHEDRON;  in  the  same  article 
are  treated  the  Archimedean  solids,  the  truncated  and  snub- 
cube  ;  reference  should  be  made  to  the  article  CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 
for  its  significance  as  a  crystal  form. 

A  famous  problem  concerning  the  cube,  namely,  to  construct 
a  cube  of  twice  the  volume  of  a  given  cube,  was  attacked  with 
great  vigour  by  the  Pythagoreans,  Sophists  and  Platonists. 
It  became  known  as  the  "  Delian  problem  "  or  the  "  problem 
of  the  duplication  of  the  cube,"  and  ranks  in  historical  importance 
with  the  problems  of  "  trisecting  an  angle  "  and  "  squaring  the 
circle."  The  origin  of  the  problem  is  open  to  conjecture.  The 
Pythagorean  discovery  of  "  squaring  a  square,"  i.e.  constructing 
a  square  of  twice  the  area  of  a  given  square  (which  follows  as  a 
corollary  to  the  Pythagorean  property  of  a  right-angled  triangle, 
viz.  the  square  of  the  hypotenuse  equals  the  sum  of  the  squares 
on  the  sides),  may  have  suggested  the  strictly  analogous  problem 
of  doubling  a  cube.  Eratosthenes  (c.  200  B.C.),  however,  gives  a 
picturesque  origin  to  the  problem.  In  a  letter  to  Ptolemy 
Euergetes  he  narrates  the  history  of  the  problem.  The  Delians, 
suffering  a  dire  pestilence,  consulted  their  oracles,  and  were 
ordered  to  double  the  volume  of  the  altar  to  their  tutelary  god, 
Apollo.  An  altar  was  built  having  an  edge  double  the  length  of 
the  original;  but  the  plague  was  unabated,  the  oracles  not  having 
been  obeyed.  The  error  was  discovered,  and  the  Delians  applied 
to  Plato  for  his  advice,  and  Plato  referred  them  to  Eudoxus. 
This  story  is  mere  fable,  for  the  problem  is  far  older  than  Plato. 

Hippocrates  of  Chios  (c.  430  B.C.),  the  discoverer  of  the  square 
of  a  lune,  showed  that  the  problem  reduced  to  the  determination 
of  two  mean  proportionals  between  two  given  lines,  one  of  them 
being  twice  the  length  of  the  other.  Algebraically  expressed, 
if  x  and  y  be  the  required  mean  proportionals  and  a,  20,  the  lines, 
we  have  a  :  x :  :x  :  y  : :  y  :  20,  from  which  it  follows  that  x?=  2a3. 
Although  Hippocrates  could  not  determine  the  proportionals, 
his  statement  of  the  problem  in  this  form  was  a  great  advance, 
for  it  was  perceived  that  the  problem  of  trisecting  an  angle  was 
reducible  to  a  similar  form  which,  in  the  language  of  algebraic 
geometry,  is  to  solve  geometrically  a  cubic  equation.  According 
to  Proclus,  a  man  named  Hippias,  probably  Hippias  of  Elis 
(c.  460  B.C.),  trisected  an  angle  with  a  mechanical  curve,  named 
the  quadratrix  (q.v.).  Archytas  of  Tarentum  (c.  430  B.C.)  solved 
the  problems  by  means  of  sections  of  a  half  cylinder;  according 
to  Eutocius,  Menaechmus  solved  them  by  means  of  the  inter- 
sections of  conic  sections;  and  Eudoxus  also  gave  a  solution. 

All  these  solutions  were  condemned  by  Plato  on  the  ground 
that  they  were  mechanical  and  not  geometrical,  i.e.  they  were 
not  effected  by  means  of  circles  and  lines.  However,  no  proper 
geometrical  solution,  in  Plato's  sense,  was  obtained;  in  fact 
it  is  now  generally  agreed  that,  with  such  a  restriction,  the 
problem  is  insoluble.  The  pursuit  of  mechanical  methods 
furnished  a  stimulus  to  the  study  of  mechanical  loci,  for  example, 
the  locus  of  a  point  carried  on  a  rod  which  is  caused  to  move 
according  to  a  definite  rule.  Thus  Nicomedes  invented  the 
conchoid  (q.v.);  Diodes  the  cissoid  (q.v.);  Dinostratus  studied 
the  quadratrix  invented  by  Hippias;  all  these  curves  furnished 
solutions,  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  trisectrix,  a  special  form  of 
Pascal's  limacon  (q.v.).  These  problems  were  also  attacked  by 
the  Arabian  mathematicians;  Tobit  ben  Korra  (836-901)  is 
credited  with  a  solution,  while  Abul  Gud  solved  it  by  means  of  a 
parabola  and  an  equilateral  hyperbola. 

In  algebra,  the  "  cube  "  of  a  quantity  is  the  quantity  multiplied 
by  itself  twice,  i.e.  if  a  be  the  quantity  aXaXa(  =  fl3)  is  its  cube. 
Similarly  the  "  cube  root  "  of  a  quantity  is  another  quantity 
which  when  multiplied  by  itself  twice  gives  the  original  quantity; 
thus  a*  is  the  cube  root  of  a  (see  ARITHMETIC  and  ALGEBRA). 
A  "  cubic  equation  "  is  one  in  which  the  highest  power  of  the 
unknown  is  the  cube  (see  EQUATION)  ;  similarly,  a  "  cubic  curve  " 
has  an  equation  containing  no  term  of  a  power  higher  than  the 
third,  the  powers  of  a  compound  term  being  added  together. 

In  mensuration,  "  cubature  "  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the 
volume  of  a  solid;  the  word  is  parallel  with  "  quadrature,  "  to  de- 
termine the  area  of  a  surface  (see  MENSURATION;  INFINITESIMAL 
CALCULUS). 


CUBEBS— CUBITT,  SIR  WILLIAM 


607 


CUBEBS  (Arab,  kabdbah),  the  fruit  of  several  species  of  pepper 
(Piper),  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Piperaceae.  The  cubebs 
of  pharmacy  are  produced  by  Piper  Cubeba,  a  climbing  woody 
shrub  indigenous  to  south  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Prince  of  Wales 
Island  and  Java.  It  has  round,  ash-coloured,  smooth  branches; 
lanceolate,  or  ovate-oblong,  somewhat  leathery,  shining  leaves, 
4  to  65  in.  long  and  ij  to  2  in.  broad.  Male  and  female  flowers 
are  borne  on  distinct  plants.  The  fruits  are  small,  globose,  about 
£  in.  in  diameter,  and  not  so  large  as  white  pepper;  their  con- 
tracted stalk-like  bases  are  between  J  and  5  in.  in  length;  and 
from  forty  to  fifty  of  them  are  borne  upon  a  common  stem.  The 
cubeb  is  cultivated  in  Java  and  Sumatra,  the  fruits  are  gathered 
before  they  are  ripe,  and  carefully  dried.  Commercial  cubebs 
consist  of  the  dried  berries,  usually  with  their  stalks  attached; 
the  pericarp  is  greyish-brown,  or  blackish  and  wrinkled;  and 
the  seed,  when  present,  is  hard,  white  and  oily.  The  odour  of 
cubebs  is  agreeable  and  aromatic;  the  taste,  pungent,  acrid, 
slightly  bitter  and  persistent.  About  15%  of  a  volatile  oil  is 
obtained  by  distilling  cubebs  with  water;  after  rectification 
with  water,  or  on  keeping,  this  deposits  rhombic  crystals  of 
camphor  of  cubebs,  Ci-flxO;  cubebene,  the  liquid  portion,  has 
the  formula  Cu,HM.  Cubebin,  CH2[O]2C6H3-CH:CH-CH2OH, 
is  a  crystalline  substance  existing  in  cubebs,  discovered  by 
Eugene  Soubeiran  and  Capitaine  in  1839;  it  may  be  prepared 
from  cubebene,  or  from  the  pulp  left  after  the  distillation  of 
the  oil.  The  drug,  along  with  gum,  fatty  oils,  and  malates  of 
magnesium  and  calcium,  contains  also  about  i%  of  cubebic 
acid,  and  about  6%  of  a  resin. 

The  dose  of  the  fruit  is  30  to  60  grains,  and  the  British  Pharma- 
copoeia contains  a  tincture  with  a  dose  of  $  to  i  drachm.  The 
volatile  oil — oleum  cubebae — is  also  official,  and  is  the  form  in 
which  this  drug  is  most  commonly  used,  the  dose  being  5  to  20 
minims,  which  may  be  suspended  in  mucilage  or  given  after 
meals  in  a  cachet.  The  drug  has  the  typical  actions  of  a  volatile 
oil,  but  exerts  some  of  them  in  an  exceptional  degree.  Thus  it 
is  liable  to  cause  a  cutaneous  erythema  in  the  course  of  its 
excretion  by  the  skin;  it  has  a  marked  diuretic  action;  and  it  is 
a  fairly  efficient  disinfectant  of  the  urinary  passages.  Its  adminis- 
tration causes  the  appearance  in  the  urine  of  a  salt  of  cubebic 
acid  which  is  precipitated  by  heat  or  nitric  acid,  and  is  therefore 
liable  to  be  mistaken  for  albumin,  when  these  two  most  common 
tests  for  the  occurrence  of  albuminuria  are  applied.  Cubebs  is 
frequently  used  in  the  form  of  cigarettes  for  asthma,  chronic 
pharyngitis  and  hay-feVer.  A  small  percentage  of  cubebs  is 
also  commonly  included  in  lozenges  designed  for  use  in  bronchitis, 
in  which  the  antiseptic  and  expectoral  properties  of  the  drug 
are  useful.  But  the  most  important  therapeutic  application  of 
this  drug  is  in  gonorrhoea,  where  its  antiseptic  action  is  of  much 
value.  As  compared  with  copaiba  in  this  connexion  cubebs  has 
the  advantages  of  being  less  disagreeable  to  take  and  somewhat 
less  likely  to  disturb  the  digestive  apparatus  in  prolonged 
administration.  The  introduction  of  the  drug  into  medicine  is 
supposed  to  have  been  due  to  the  Arabian  physicians  in  the 
middle  ages.  Cubebs  were  formerly  candied  and  eaten  whole, 
or  used  ground  as  a  seasoning  for  meat.  Their  modern  employ- 
ment in  England  as  a  drug  dates  from  1815.  "  Cubebae  " 
were  purchased  in  1284  and  1285  by  Lord  Clare  at  2s.  3d.  and 
2s.  9d.  per  Ib  respectively;  and  in  1307  i  lb  for  the  king's 
wardrobe  cost  95.,  a  sum  representing  about  £3,  125.  in  present 
value  (Rogers,  Hist,  of  Agriculture  and  Prices,  i.  627-628,  ii.  544). 

A  closely  allied  species,  Piper  Clusii,  produces  the  African 
cubebs  or  West  African  black-pepper,  the  berry  of  which  is 
smoother  than  that  of  common  cubebs  and  usually  has  a  curved 
pedicel.  In  the  I4th  century  it  was  imported  into  Europe  from 
the  Grain  Coast,  under  the  name  of  pepper,  by  merchants  of 
Rouen  and  Lippe. 

CUBICLE  (Lat.  cubiculum),  a  small  chamber  containing  a 
couch  or  a  bed.  The  small  rooms  opening  into  the  atrium  of 
a  Pompeian  house  are  known  as  cubicula.  In  modern  English 
schools  "  cubicle  "  is  the  term  given  to  the  separate  small  bed- 
rooms into  which  the  dormitories  are  divided,  as  opposed  to  the 
system  of  large  open  dormitories. 


CUBITT,  THOMAS  (1788-1855),  English  builder,  was  born  at 
Buxton,  near  Norwich,  on  the  25th  of  February  1788.  Few  men 
have  exhibited  greater  self-reliance  in  early  life  in  the  pursuit 
of  a  successful  career.  In  his  nineteenth  year,  when  he  was 
working  as  a  journeyman  carpenter,  his  father  died,  and  he  tried 
to  better  his  position  by  going  on  a  voyage  to  India,  as  captain's 
joiner.  He  returned  to  London,  two  years  after,  in  the  possession 
of  a  small  capital,  and  began  business  as  a  carpenter.  The  growth 
of  his  establishment  was  steady  and  rapid.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  combine  several  trades  in  a  "  builder's  "  business;  and 
this  very  much  increased  his  success.  One  of  the  earlier  works 
which  gave  him  reputation  was  the  London  Institution  in  Fins- 
bury  Circus;  but  it  is  from  1824  that  the  vast  building  operations 
date  which  identify  his  name  with  many  splendid  ranges  of 
London  houses,  such  as  Tavistock, Gordon,  Belgrave  and  Lowndes 
Squares,  and  the  district  of  South  Belgravia.  While  these  and 
similar  extensive  operations  were  in  progress,  a  financial  panic, 
which  proved  ruinous  to  many,  was  surmounted  in  his  case 
by  a  determined  spirit  and  his  integrity  of  character.  He  took 
great  interest  in  sanitary  measures,  and  published,  for  private 
circulation,  a  pamphlet  on  the  general  drainage  of  London,  the 
substance  of  which  was  afterwards  embodied  in  a  letter  to 
The  Times;  the  plan  he  advocated  was  subsequently  adopted 
by  the  conveyance  of  the  sewage  matter  some  distance  below 
London.  He  advocated  the  provision  of  open  spaces  in  the 
environs  of  London  as  places  of  public  recreation,  and  was  one 
of  the  originators  of  Battersea  Park,  the  first  of  the  people's 
parks.  At  a  late  period  he  received  professionally  the  recognition 
of  royalty,  the  palace  at  Osborne  being  erected  after  his  designs, 
and  under  his  superintendence;  and  in  the  Life  of  the  Prince 
Consort  he  is  described  by  Queen  Victoria  as  one  "  than  whom 
a  better  and  kinder  man  did  not  exist."  In  1851,  although  he 
was  not  identified  with  the  management  of  the  Great  Exhibition, 
he  showed  the  warmest  sympathy  with  its  objects,  and  aided  its 
projectors  in  many  ways,  especially  in  the  profitable  investment 
of  their  surplus  funds.  Cubitt,  when  he  rose  to  be  a  capitalist, 
never  forgot  the  interests  and  well-being  of  his  workpeople. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  Builders'  Society  some  time 
before  his  death,  which  took  place  at  his  seat  Denbies,  near 
Dorking,  on  the  2oth  of  December  1855. 

His  son,  George  Cubitt  (1828-  ),  who  had  a  long  and 
useful  parliamentary  career,  as  Conservative  member  for  West 
Surrey  (1860-1865)  and  Mid-Surrey  (1885-1892),  was  in  1892 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Ashcombe. 

CUBITT,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1785-1861),  English  engineer,  was 
born  in  1785  at  Dilham  in  Norfolk,  where  his  father  was  a 
miller.  After  serving  an  apprenticeship  of  four  years  ( 1 800- 1 804) 
as  a  joiner  and  cabinetmaker  at  Stalham,  he  became  associated 
with  an  agricultural-machine  maker,  named  Cook,  who  resided 
at  Swanton.  In  1807  he  patented  self-regulating  sails  for  wind- 
mills, and  in  1812  he  entered  the  works  of  Messrs  Ransome 
of  Ipswich,  where  he  soon  became  chief  engineer,  and  ultimately 
a  partner.  Meanwhile,  the  subject  of  the  employment  of  criminals 
had  been  much  in  his  thoughts;  and  the  result  was  his  introduc- 
tion of  the  treadmill  about  1818.  In  1 8 26  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  gained  a  very  large  practice  as  a  civil  engineer.  Among 
his  works  were  the  Oxford  canal,  the  Birmingham  &  Liverpool 
Junction  Canal,  the  improvement  of  the  river  Severn,  the  Bute 
docks  at  Cardiff,  the  Black  Sluice  drainage  and  its  outfall  sluice 
at  Boston  harbour,  the  Middlesborough  docks  and  coal  drops 
in  the  Tees,  and  the  South-Eastern  railway,  of  which  he  was 
chief  engineer.  The  Hanoverian  government  consulted  him 
about  the  harbour  and  docks  at  Harburg;  the  water- works 
of  the  city  of  Berlin  were  constructed  under  his  immediate 
superintendence;  he  was  asked  to  report  on  the  construction 
of  the  Paris  &  Lyons  railway;  and  he  was  consulting  engineer 
for  the  line  from  Boulogne  to  Amiens.  Among  his  later  works 
were  two  floating  landing  stages  at  Liverpool,  and  the  bridge 
for  carrying  the  London  turnpike  across  the  Med  way  at  Rochester. 
In  1851,  when  he  was  president  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  he  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  connexion  with  the 
buildings  erected  in  Hyde  Park  for  the  exhibition  of  that  year. 


6o8 


CUCHULINN— CUCKOO 


He  retired  from  active  work  in  1858,  and  died  on  the  i3th  of 
October  1861  at  his  house  on  Clapham  Common,  London. 
His  son,  Joseph  Cubitt  (1811-1872),  was  trained  under  him, 
and  was  engineer  of  various  railways,  including  the  Great 
Northern,  London,  Chatham  &  Dover,  and  part  of  the  London 
&  South-Western. 

CUCHULINN  (CuchMinn;  pronounced  '.'  Coohoollin  "),  the 
chief  warrior  in  the  Conchobar-Cuchulinn  or  older  heroic  (Ulster) 
cycle  of  Ireland.  The  story  of  his  origin  is  very  obscure.  The 
god  Lug  is  represented  as  having  been  swallowed  in  a  draught 
of  wine  by  his  mother  Dechtire,  sister  of  Conchobar,  who  was 
king  of  Ulster.  But  it  is  not  unlikely  that  this  story  was  invented 
to  supersede  the  account  of  the  incestuous  union  of  Conchobar 
with  his  sister,  which  seems  to  be  hinted  at  on  various  occasions. 
Usually,  however,  he  is  styled  son  of  Sualdam,  an  Ulster  warrior 
who  plays  a  very  inferior  part  in  the  cycle.  His  earliest  name 
was  Setanta,  and  he  was  brought  up  at  Dun  Imbrith  (Louth). 
When  he  was  six  years  of  age  he  announced  his  intention  of 
going  to  Conchobar's  court  at  Emain  Macha  (Navan  Rath  near 
Armagh)  to  play  with  the  boys  there.  He  defeats  all  the  boys 
in  marvellous  fashion  and  is  received  as  one  of  their  number. 
Shortly  after  he  kills  Culann,  the  smith's  hound,  a  huge  watch-dog. 
The  smith  laments  that  all  his  property  is  of  no  value  now  that 
his  watchman  is  slain,  whereupon  the  young  hero  offers  to  guard 
his  domains  until  a  whelp  of  the  hound's  has  grown.  From  this 
the  boy  received  the  name  of  Cu  Chulinn  or  Culann's  Hound. 
The  next  year  Cuchulinn  receives  arms,  makes  his  first  foray, 
and  slays  the  three  sons  of  Necht,  redoubtable  hereditary  foes 
of  the  Ulstermen,  in  the  plain  of  Meath.  The  men  of  Ulster 
decide  that  Cuchulinn  must  marry,  as  all  the  women  of  Ireland 
are  in  love  with  him.  Chosen  envoys  fail  to  find  a  bride  worthy 
of  him  after  a  year's  search,  but  the  hero  goes  straight  to  Emer, 
the  daughter  of  Forgall  the  Wily,  at  Lusk  (county  Dublin). 
The  lady  is  promised  to  him  if  he  will  go  to  learn  chivalry  of 
Domnall  the  Soldierly  and  the  amazon  Scathach  in  Alba.  After 
enduring  great  hardships  he  goes  through  the  course  and  leaves 
a  son  Connlaech  behind  in  Scotland  by  another  amazon,  Aife. 
On  his  return  he  carries  off  and  weds  Emer.  He  is  represented 
as  living  at  Dun  Delgan  (Dundalk) .  The  greatest  of  all  the  hero's 
achievements  was  the  defence  of  the  frontier  of  Ulster  against 
the  forces  of  Medb,  queen  of  Connaught,  who  had  come  to  carry 
off  the  famous  Brown  Bull  of  Cualnge  (Cooley).  The  men  of 
Ulster  were  all  suffering  from  a  strange  debility,  and  Cuchulinn 
had  to  undertake  the  defence  single-handed  from  November 
to  February.  This  was  when  he  was  seventeen  years  of  age. 
The  cycle  contains  a  large  number  of  episodes,  such  as  the 
gaining  of  the  champion's  portion  and  the  tragical  death  by  the 
warrior's  hand  of  his  own  son  Connlaech.  When  he  was  twenty- 
seven  he  met  with  his  end  at  the  hands  of  Lugaid,  son  of  Curoi 
MacDaire,  the  famous  Munster  warrior,  and  the  children  of 
Calatln  Dana,  in  revenge  for  their  father's  death  (see  CELT: 
Irish  Literature). 

Medieval  Christian  synchronists  make  Cuchulinn's  death  take 
place  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  regard  Cuchulinn  as  a  form  of  the  solar  hero,  as  some  writers 
have  done.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  his  wonderful  attributes  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  Irish  predilection  for  the  grotesque.  It  is  true 
that  Cuchulinn  seems  to  stand  in  a  special  relation  to  the  Tuatha 
De  Danann  leader,  the  god  Lug,  but  in  primitive  societies  there 
is  always  a  tendency  to  ascribe  a  divine  parentage  to  men  who 
stand  out  pre-eminently  in  prowess  beyond  their  fellows. 

See  A.  Nutt,  Cuchulainn,  the  Irish  Achilles  (London,  1900);  E. 
Hull,  The  Cuchullin  Saga  (London,  1898).  (E.  C.  Q.) 

CUCKOO,  or  CDCKOW,  as  the  word  was  formerly  spelt,  the 
common  name  of  a  well-known  and  often-heard  bird,  the  Cuculus 
canorus  of  Linnaeus.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom 
it  is  more  frequently  called  gowk,  and  it  is  the  Gr.  KOKKV£,  the 
Ital.  cuculo  or  cucco,  the  Fr.  coucou,  the  Ger.  Kuckuk,  the 
Dutch  koekkoek,  the  Dan.  kukker  or  gjog,  and  the  Swed.  gok. 
The  oldest  English  spelling  of  the  name  seems  to  have  been 
cuccu. 

No  single  bird  has  perhaps  so  much  occupied  the  attention 


both  of  naturalists  and  of  those  who  are  not  naturalists,  or  has 
had  so  much  written  about  it,  as  the  common  cuckoo,  and  of 
no  bird  perhaps  have  more  idle  tales  been  told.  Its  strange  and, 
according  to  the  experience  of  most  people,  its  singular  habit 
of  entrusting  its  offspring  to  foster-parents  is  enough  to  account 
for  much  of  the  interest  which  has  been  so  long  felt  in  its  history; 
but  this  habit  is  shared  probably  by  many  of  its  Old  World 
relatives,  as  well  as  in  the  New  World  by  birds  which  are  not 
in  any  degree  related  to  it.  The  cuckoo  is  a  summer  visitant 
to  the  whole  of  Europe,  reaching  even  far  within  the  Arctic 
circle,  and  crossing  the  Mediterranean  from  its  winter  quarters 
in  Africa  at  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April.  Its  arrival 
is  at  once  proclaimed  by  the  peculiar  and  in  nearly  all  languages 
onomatopoeic  cry  of  the  cock — a  true  song  in  the  technical 
sense  of  the  word,  since  it  is  confined  to  the  male  sex  and  to  the 
season  of  love.  In  a  few  days  the  cock  is  followed  by  the  hen, 
and  amorous  contests  between  keen  and  loud-voiced  suitors  are 
to  be  commonly  noticed,  until  the  respective  pretensions  of 
the  rivals  are  decided.  Even  by  night  they  are  not  silent;  but 
as  the  season  advances  the  song  is  less  frequently  heard,  and  the 
cuckoo  seems  rather  to  avoid  observation  as  much  as  possible, 
the  more  so  since  whenever  it  shows  itself  it  is  a  signal  for  all 
the  small  birds  of  the  neighbourhood  to  be  up  in  its  pursuit,  just 
as  though  it  were  a  hawk,  to  which  indeed  its  mode  of  flight 
and  general  appearance  give  it  an  undoubted  resemblance — a 
resemblance  that  misleads  some  into  confounding  it  with  the 
birds  of  prey,  instead  of  recognizing  it  as  a  harmless  if  not  a 
beneficial  destroyer  of  hairy  caterpillars.  Thus  pass  away  some 
weeks.  Towards  the  middle  or  end  of  June  its  "  plain-song  " 
cry  alters;  it  becomes  rather  hoarser  in  tone,  and  its  first 
syllable  or  note  is  doubled.  Soon  after  it  is  no  longer  heard  at  all, 
and  by  the  middle  of  July  an  old  cuckoo  is  seldom  to  be  found 
in  the  British  Islands,  though  a  stray  example,  or  even,  but  very 
rarely,  two  or  three  in  company,  may  occasionally  be  seen  for 
a  month  longer.  Of  its  breeding  comparatively  few  have  any 
personal  experience.  Yet  a  diligent  search  for  and  peering  into 
the  nests  of  several  of  the  commonest  little  birds — more  especially 
the  pied  wagtail(Afoto«7/a  lugubris), the  tMaA(Anthuspratensis), 
the  reed- wren  (Acrocephalus  streperus),  and  the  hedge-sparrow 
(Accentor  modularis) — will  be  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  the 
egg  of  the  mysterious  stranger  which  has  been  surreptitiously 
introduced,  and  those  who  wait  till  this  egg  is  hatched  may  be 
witnesses  (as  was  Edward  Jenner  in  the  i8th  century)  of  the 
murderous  eviction  of  the  rightful  tenants  of  the  nest  by  the 
intruder,  who,  hoisting  them  one  after  another  on  his  broad 
back,  heaves  them  over  to  die  neglected  by  their  own  parents, 
of  whose  solicitous  care  he  thus  becomes  the  only  object.  In 
this  manner  he  thrives,  and,  so  long  as  he-remains  in  the  country 
of  his  birth  his  wants  are  anxiously  supplied  by  the  victims  of 
his  mother's  dupery.  The  actions  of  his  foster-parents  become, 
when  he  is  full  grown,  almost  ludicrous,  for  they  often  have  to 
perch  between  his  shoulders  to  place  in  his  gaping  mouth  the 
delicate  morsels  he  is  too  indolent  or  too  stupid  to  take  from 
their  bills.  Early  in  September  he  begins  to  shift  for  himself, 
and  then  follows  the  seniors  of  his  kin  to  more  southern  climes. 
So  much  caution  is  used  by  the  hen  cuckoo  in  choosing  a  nest 
in  which 'to  deposit  her  egg  that  the  act  of  insertion  has  been 
but  seldom  witnessed.  The  nest  selected  is  moreover  often  so 
situated,  or  so  built,  that  it  would  be  an  absolute  impossibility 
for  a  bird  of  her  size  to  lay  her  egg  therein  by  sitting  upon  the 
fabric  as  birds  commonly  do;  and  there  have  been  a  few 
fortunate  observers  who  have  actually  seen  the  deposition  of 
the  egg  upon  the  ground  by  the  cuckoo,  who,  then  taking  it  in 
her  bill,  introduces  it  into  the  nest.  Of  these,  the  earliest  in  Great 
Britain  seem  to  have  been  two  Scottish  lads,  sons  of  Mr  Tripeny, 
a  farmer  in  Coxmuir,  who,  as  recorded  by  Macgillivray  (Brit. 
Birds,  iii.  130,  131)  from  information  communicated  to  him 
by  Mr  Durham  Weir,  saw  most  part  of  the  operation  performed, 
June  24,  1838.  But  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  evidence  on 
the  point  is  that  of  Adolf  MUller,  a  forester  at  Gladenbach  in 
Darmstadt,  who  says  (Zoolog.  Garten,  1866,  pp.  374,  375)  that 
through  a  telescope  he  watched  a  cuckoo  as  she  laid  her  egg  on  a 


CUCKOO 


609 


bank,  and  then  conveyed  the  egg  in  her  bill  to  a  wagtail's  nest. 
Cuckoos,  too,  have  been  not  unfrequently  shot  as  they  were 
carrying  a  cuckoo's  egg,  presumably  their  own,  in  their  bill, 
and  this  has  probably  given  rise  to  the  vulgar,  but  seemingly 
groundless,  belief  that  they  suck  the  eggs  of  other  kinds  of  birds. 
More  than  this,  Mr  G.  D.  Rowley,  who  had  much  experience  of 
cuckoos,  declares  (Ibis,  1865,  p.  186)  his  opinion  to  be  that  traces 
of  violence  and  of  a  scuffle  between  the  intruder  and  the  owners 
of  the  nest  at  the  time  of  introducing  the  egg  often  appear, 
whence  we  are  led  to  suppose  that  the  cuckoo  ordinarily,  when 
inserting  her  egg,  excites  the  fury  (already  stimulated  by  her 
hawk-like  appearance)  of  the  owners  of  the  nest  by  turning  out 
one  or  more  of  the  eggs  that  may  be  already  laid  therein,  and  thus 
induces  the  dupe  to  brood  all  the  more  readily  and  more  strongly 
what  is  left  to  her.  Of  the  assertion  that  the  cuckoo  herself 
takes  any  interest  in  the  future  welfare  of  the  egg  she  has  foisted 
on  her  victim,  or  of  its  product,  there  is  no  good  evidence. 

But  a  much  more  curious  assertion  has  also  been  made,  and 
one  that  at  first  sight  appears  so  incomprehensible  as  to  cause 
little  surprise  at  the  neglect  it  long  encountered.  To  this 
currency  was  first  given  by  Salerne  (L'Hist.  not.  &c.,  Paris, 
1767,  p.  42),  who  was,  however,  hardly  a  believer  in  it,  and  it  is 
to  the  effect,  as  he  was  told  by  an  inhabitant  of  Sologne,  that 
the  egg  of  a  cuckoo  resembles  in  colour  that  of  the  eggs  normally 
laid  by  the  kind  of  bird  in  whose  nest  it  is  placed.  In  1853  the 
same  notion  was  prominently  and  independently  brought  forward 
by  Dr  A.  C.  E.  Baldamus  (Naumannia,  1853,  pp.  307-325),  and 
in  time  became  known  to  English  ornithologists,  most  of  whom 
were  naturally  sceptical  as  to  its  truth,  since  no  likeness  whatever 
is  ordinarily  apparent  in  the  very  familiar  case  of  the  blue-green 
egg  of  the  hedge-sparrow  and  that  of  the  cuckoo,  which  is  so 
often  found  beside  it.1  Dr  Baldamus  based  his  notion  on  a 
series  of  eggs  in  his  cabinet,2  a  selection  from  which  he  figured 
in  illustration  of  his  paper,  and,  however  the  thing  may  be 
accounted  for,  it  seems  impossible  to  resist,  save  on  one  supposi- 
tion, the  force  of  the  testimony  these  specimens  afford.  This  one 
supposition  is  that  the  eggs  have  been  wrongly  ascribed  to  the 
cuckoo,  and  that  they  are  only  exceptionally  large  examples 
of  the  eggs  of  the  birds  in  the  nests  of  which  they  were  found, 
for  it  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  some  such  abnormal  examples  are 
occasionally  to  be  met  with.  But  it  is  well  known  that  abnormally 
large  eggs  are  not  only  often  deficient  in  depth  of  colour,  but 
still  more  often  in  stoutness  of  shell.  Applying  these  rough 
criteria  to  Dr  Baldamus's  series,  most  of  the  specimens  stood 
the  test  very  well. 

There  are  some  other  considerations  to  be  urged.  For  instance, 
Herr  Braune,  a  forester  at  Greiz  in  the  principality  of  Reuss 
(Naumannia,  torn.  cit.  pp.  307,  313),  shot  a  hen  cuckoo  as  she 
was  leaving  the  nest  of  an  icterine  warbler  (Hypolais  icterina). 
In  the  oviduct  of  this  cuckoo  he  found  an  egg  coloured  very  like 
that  of  the  warbler,  and  on  looking  into  the  nest  he  found 
there  an  exactly  similar  egg,  which  there  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt  had  just  been  laid  by  that  very  cuckoo.  Moreover,  Herr 
Grunack  (Journ.  ftir  Orn.,  1873,  p.  454)  afterwards  found  one 
of  the  most  abnormally  coloured 'specimens,  quite  unlike  the 
ordinary  egg  of  the  cuckoo,  to  contain  an  embryo  so  fully 
formed  as  to  show  the  characteristic  zygodactyl  feet  of  the  bird, 
thus  proving  unquestionably  its  parentage. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  numerous 
instances  in  which  not  the  least  similarity  can  be  traced — as  in 
the  not  uncommon  case  of  the  hedge-sparrow  already  mentioned, 
and  if  we  attempt  any  explanatory  hypothesis  it  must  be  one 
that  will  fit  all  round.  Such  an  explanation  seems  to  be  this. 
We  know  that  certain  kinds  of  birds  resent  interference  with 
their  nests  much  less  than  others,  and  among  them  it  may  be 
asserted  that  the  hedge-sparrow  will  patiently  submit  to  various 
experiments.  She  will  brood  with  complacency  the  egg  of  a 
redbreast  (Erithacus  rubecula),  so  unlike  her  own,  and  for  aught 
we  know  to  the  contrary  may  even  be  colour-blind.  In  the  case 

1  An  instance  to  the  contrary  has  been  recorded  by  Mr  A.  C. 
Smith  (Zoologist,  1873,  p.  3516)  on  Mr  Brine's  authority. 
*  This  series  was  seen  in  1861  by  the  writer. 

VII.  2O 


of  such  a  species  there  would  be  no  need  of  anything  further  to 
ensure  success — the  terror  of  the  nest-owner  at  seeing  her  home 
invaded  by  a  hawk-like  giant,  and  some  of  her  treasures  tossed 
out,  would  be  enough  to  stir  her  motherly  feelings  so  deeply  that 
she  would  without  misgiving,  if  not  with  joy  that  something 
had  been  spared  to  her,  resume  the  duty  of  incubation  so  soon  • 
as  the  danger  was  past.  But  with  other  species  it  may  be,  and 
doubtless  is,  different.  Here  assimilation  of  the  introduced  egg 
to  those  of  the  rightful  owner  may  be  necessary,  for  there  can 
hardly  be  a  doubt  as  to  the  truth  of  Dr  Baldamus's  theory  as  to 
the  object  of  the  assimilation  being  to  render  the  cuckoo's  egg 
"less  easily  recognized  by  the  foster-parents  as  a  substituted 
one."  It  is  especially  desirable  to  point  out  that  there  is  not 
the  slightest  ground  for  imagining  that  the  cuckoo,  or  any  other 
bird,  can  voluntarily  influence  the  colour  of  the  egg  she  is  about 
to  lay.  Over  that  she  can  have  no  control,  but  its  destination 
she  can  determine.  It  would  seem  also  impossible  that  a  cuckoo, 
having  laid  an  egg,  should  look  at  it,  and  then  decide  from  its 
appearance  in  what  bird's  nest  she  should  put  it.  That  the  colour 
of  an  egg-shell  can  be  in  some  mysterious  way  affected  by  the 
action  of  external  objects  on  the  perceptive  faculties  of  the 
mother  is  a  notion  too  wild  to  be  seriously  entertained.  Con- 
sequently, only  one  explanation  of  the  facts  can  here  be  suggested. 
Every  one  who  has  sufficiently  studied  the  habits  of  animals 
will  admit  the  influence  of  heredity.  That  there  is  a  reasonable 
probability  of  each  cuckoo  most  commonly  putting  her  eggs  in 
the  nest  of  the  same  species  of  bird,  and  of  this  habit  being 
transmitted  to  her  posterity,  does  not  seem  to  be  a  very  violent 
supposition.  Without  attributing  any  wonderful  sagacity  to 
her,  it  does  not  seem  unlikely  that  the  cuckoo  which  had  once 
successfully  foisted  her  egg  on  a  reed-wren  or  a  titlark  should 
again  seek  for  another  reed-wren's  or  another  titlark's  nest  (as 
the  case  may  be),  when  she  had  another  egg  to  dispose  of,  and 
that  she  should  continue  her  practice  from  one  season  to  another. 
It  stands  on  record  (Zoologist,  1873,  p.  3648)  that  a  pair  of  wag- 
tails built  their  nest  for  eight  or  nine  years  running  in  almost 
exactly  the  same  spot,  and  that  in  each  of  those  years  they 
fostered  a  young  cuckoo,  while  many  other  cases  of  like  kind, 
though  not  perhaps  established  on  so  good  authority,  are  believed 
to  have  happened.  Such  a  habit  could  hardly  fail  to  become 
hereditary,  so  that  the  daughter  of  a  cuckoo  which  always  put 
her  egg  into  a  reed-wren's,  titlark's  or  wagtail's  nest  would  do 
as  did  her  mother.  Furthermore  it  is  unquestionable  that, 
whatever  variation  there  may  be  among  the  eggs  laid  by  different 
individuals  of  the  same  species,  there  is  a  strong  family  likeness 
between  the  eggs  laid  by  the  same  individual,  even  at  the  interval 
of  many  years,  and  it  can  hardly  be  questioned  that  the  eggs 
of  the  daughter  would  more  or  less  resemble  those  of  her  mother. 
Hence  the  supposition  may  be  fairly  credited  that  the  habit  of 
laying  a  particular  style  of  egg  is  also  likely  to  become  hereditary. 
Combining  this  supposition  with  that  as  to  the  cuckoo's  habit 
of  using  the  nest  of  the  same  species  becoming  hereditary,  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  requires  only  an  application  of  the  principle  of 
natural  selection  to  show  the  probability  of  this  principle  operat- 
ing in  the  course  of  time  to  produce  the  facts  asserted  by  the 
anonymous  Solognot  of  the  i8th  century,  and  by  Dr  Baldamus 
and  others  since.  The  particular  gens  of  cuckoo  which  inherited 
and  transmitted  the  habit  of  depositing  in  the  nest  of  any 
particular  species  of  bird  eggs  having  more  or  less  resemblance  to 
the  eggs  of  that  species  would  prosper  most  in  those  members 
of  the  gens  where  the  likeness  was  strongest,  and  the  other 
members  would  (ceteris  paribus)  in  time  be  eliminated.  As 
already  shown,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  species,  or  even 
all  individuals  of  a  species,  are  duped  with  equal  ease.  The 
operation  of  this  kind  of  natural  selection  would  be  most  needed 
in  those  cases  where  the  species  are  not  easily  duped — that  is, 
in  those  cases  which  occur  the  least  frequently.  Here  it  is  we 
find  it,  for  observation  shows  that  eggs  of  the  cuckoo  deposited 
in  nests  of  the  red-backed  shrike  (Lanius  collurio),  of  the  bunting 
(Emberiza  miliaria),  and  of  the  icterine  warbler  approximate  in 
their  colouring  to  eggs  of  those  species — species  in  whose  nests 
the  cuckoo  rarely  (in  comparison  with  others)  deposits  eggs. 


6io 


CUCKOO-SPIT—CUCUMBER 


Of  species  which  are  more  easily  duped,  such  as  the  hedge- 
sparrow,  mention  has  already  been  made. 

More  or  less  nearly  allied  to  the  British  cuckoo  are  many  other 
forms  of  the  genus  from  various  parts  of  Africa,  Asia  and  their 
islands,  while  one  even  reaches  Australia.  In  some  cases  the 
chief  difference  is  said  to  lie  in  the  diversity  of  voice— a  character 
only  to  be  appreciated  by  those  acquainted  with  the  living  birds, 
and  though  of  course  some  regard  should  be  paid  to  this  distinc- 
tion, the  possibility  of  birds  using  different  "dialects"  according 
to  the  locality  they  inhabit  must  make  it  a  slender  specific 
diagnostic.  All  these  forms  are  believed  to  have  essentially 
the  same  habits  as  the  British  cuckoo,  and,  as  regards  parasitism 
the  same  is  to  be  said  of  the  large  cuckoo  of  southern  Europe  and 
North  Africa  (Coccystes  glandarius) ,  which  victimizes  pies  (Pica 
mauritanica  and  Cyanopica  cooki)  and  crows  (Corvus  comix). 
True  it  is  that  an  instance  of  this  species,  commonly  known  as 
the  great  spotted  cuckoo,  having  built  a  nest  and  hatched  its 
young,  is  on  record,  but  the  later  observations  of  others  tend  to 
cast  doubt  on  the  credibility  of  the  ancient  report.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  the  eggs  of  this  bird  so  closely  resemble  those  of 
one  of  the  pies  in  whose  nest  they  have  been  found,  that  even 
expert  zoologists  have  been  deceived  by  them,  only  to  discover 
the  truth  when  the  cuckoo's  embryo  had  been  extracted  from 
the  supposed  pie's  egg.  This  species  of  cuckoo,  easily  distin- 
guishable by  its  large  size  and  long  crest,  has  more  than  once 
made  its  appearance  as  a  straggler  in  the  British  Isles.  Equally 
parasitic  are  many  other  cuckoos,  belonging  chiefly  to  genera 
which  have  been  more  or  less  clearly  denned  as  Cacomantis, 
Chrysococcyx,  Eudynamis,  Oxylophus,  Polyphasia  and  Surniculus, 
and  inhabiting  parts  of  the  Ethiopian,  Indian  and  Australian 
regions;1  but  there  are  certain  aberrant  forms  of  Old  World 
cuckoos  which  unquestionably  do  not  shirk  parental  responsi- 
bilities. Among  these  especially  are  the  birds  placed  in  or  allied 
to  the  genera  Centropus  and  Coua — the  former  having  a  wide 
distribution  from  Egypt  to  New  South  Wales,  living  much  on 
the  ground  and  commonly  called  lark-heeled  cuckoos;  the  latter 
bearing  no  English  name,  and  limited  to  the  island  of  Madagascar. 
These  build  a  nest,  not  perhaps  in  a  highly  finished  style  of 
architecture,  but  one  that  serves  its  end. 

Respecting  the  cuckoos  of  America,  the  evidence,  though  it 
has  been  impugned,  is  certainly  enough  to  clear  them  from  the 
charge  which  attaches  to  so  many  of  their  brethren  of  the  Old 
World.  There  are  two  species  very  well  known  in  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  some  of  the  West  Indian  Islands  (Coccyzus 
americanus  and  C.  erythrophthalmus) ,  and  each  of  them  has 
occasionally  visited  Europe.  They  both  build  nests — remarkably 
small  structures  when  compared  with  those  of  other  birds  of 
their  size — and  faithfully  incubate  their  delicate  sea-green  eggs. 
In  the  south-western  states  of  the  Union  and  thence  into  Central 
America  is  found  another  curious  form  of  cuckoo  (Geococcyx) — 
the  chaparral-cock  of  northern  and  paisano  of  southern  settlers. 
The  first  of  these  names  it  takes  from  the  low  brushwood  (chap- 
arral) in  which  it  chiefly  dwells,  and  the  second  is  said  to  be  due 
to  its  pheasant-like  (faisan  corrupted  into  paisano,  properly  a 
countryman)  appearance  as  it  runs  on  the  ground.  Indeed, 
one  of  the  two  species  of  the  genus  was  formerly  described  as  a 
Phasianus.  They  both  have  short  wings,  and  seem  never  to  fly, 
but  run  with  great  rapidity.  Returning  to  arboreal  forms,  the 
genera  Neomorphus,  Diplopterus,  Saurothera  and  Piaya  (the  last 
two  commonly  called  rain-birds,  from  the  belief  that  their  cry 
portends  rain)  may  be  noticed — all  of  them  belonging  to  the 
Neotropical  region;  but  perhaps  the  most  curious  form  of 
American  cuckoos  is  the  ani  (Crotophaga) ,  of  which  three  species 
inhabit  the  same  region.  The  best-known  species  (C.  ani)  is 
fond  throughout  the  Antilles  and  on  the  opposite  continent. 
In  most  of  the  British  colonies  it  is  known  as  the  black  witch, 
and  is  accused  of  various  malpractices — it  being,  in  truth,  a 
perfectly  harmless  if  not  a  beneficial  bird.  As  regards  its  pro- 
pagation this  aberrant  form  of  cuckoo  departs  in  one  direction 

1  Evidence  tends  to  show  that  the  same  is  to  be  said  of  the  curious 
channel-bill  (Scythrops  novae-hollandiae) ,  though  absolute  proof 
seems  to  be  wanting. 


from  the  normal  habit  of  birds,  for  several  females,  unite  to  lay 
their  eggs  in  one  nest.  It  is  evident  that  incubation  is  carried 
on  socially,  since  an  intruder  on  approaching  the  rude  nest  will 
disturb  perhaps  half  a  dozen  of  its  sable  proprietors,  who,  loudly 
complaining,  seek  safety  either  in  the  leafy  branches  of  the  tree 
that  holds  it,  or  in  the  nearest  available  covert,  with  all  the 
speed  that  their  feeble  powers  of  flight  permit.  (A.  N.) 

CUCKOO-SPIT,  a  frothy  secretion  found  upon  plants,  and 
produced  by  the  immature  nymphal  stage  of  various  plant-lice 
of  the  familiar  Cercopidae  and  Jassidae,  belonging  to  the  homo- 
pterous  division  of  the  Hemiptera,  which  in  the  adult  condition 
are  sometimes  called  frog-hoppers. 

CUCUMBER  (Cucumis  salivus,  Fr.  concombre,  O.  Fr.  cou- 
combre,  whence  the  older  English  spelling  and  pronunciation 
"  cowcumber,"  the  standard  in  England  up  to  the  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century),  a  creeping  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Cucurbitaceae.  It  is  widely  cultivated,  and  originated  prob- 
ably in  northern  India,  where  Alphonse  de  Candolle  affirms 
(Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants)  that  it  has  been  cultivated  for  at 
least  three  thousand  years.  It  spread  westward  to  Europe  and 
was  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Greeks  under  the  name  C'IKVOS; 
it  did  not  reach  China  until  two  hundred  years  before  the  Christian 
era.  It  is  an  annual  with  a  rough  succulent  trailing  stem  and 
stalked  hairy  leaves  with  three  to  five  pointed  lobes;  the  stem 
bears  branched  tendrils  by  means  of  which  the  plant  can  be 
trained  to  supports.  The  short-stalked,  bell-shaped  flowers  are 
unisexual,  but  staminate  and  pistillate  are  borne  on  the  same 
plant;  the  latter  are  recognized  by  the  swollen  warty  green  ovary 
below  the  rest  of  the  flower.  The  ovary  develops  into  the 
"  cucumber  "  without  fertilization,  and  unless  seeds  are  wanted, 
it  is  advisable  to  pinch  off  the  male  flowers. 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties  of  cucumber  in  cultivation, 
which  may  be  grouped  under  the  two  headings  (i)  forcing,  (2) 
field  varieties. 

1.  The  former  are  large-leaved  strong-growing   plants,  not 
suited  to  outdoor  culture,  with  long  smooth-rinded  fruit;  there 
are  many  excellent  varieties  such  as  Telegraph,  Sion  House, 
duke  of  Edinburgh,  &c.     The  plants  are  grown  in  a  hot-bed 
which  is  prepared  towards  the  end  of  February  from  rich  stable 
manure,  leaves,  &c.     A  rich  turfy  loam  with  a  little  well-decom- 
posed stable  manure  forms  a  good  soil.     The  seeds  are  sown 
singly  in  rich,  sandy  soil  in  small  pots  early  in  February  and 
plunged  in  a  bottom  heat.     After  they  have  made  one  or  two 
foliage-leaves  the  seedlings  are  transferred  to  larger  pots,  and 
ultimately  about  the  middle  of  March  to  the  hot-bed.     Each 
plant  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  mound  of  soil  about  a  foot  deep 
and  well  watered  with  tepid  water.     The  plants  should  be  well 
watered  during  their  growing  period,  and  the  foliage  sprinkled 
or  syringed  two  or  three  times  a  day.     In  bright  sunshine  the 
plants  are  lightly  shaded.     When  grown  in  frames  the  tops  of 
the  main  stems  are  pinched  off  when  the  stems  are  about  2  ft. 
long;  this  causes  the  development  of  side  shoots  on  which  fruits 
are  borne.     When  these  have  produced  one  or  two  fruits,  they  are 
also  stopped  at  the  joint  beyond  the  fruit.     When  grown  in  green- 
houses the  vines  may  be  allowed  to  reach  the  full  length  of 
the  house  before  they  are  stopped.     To  keep  the  fruits  straight 
they  may  be  grown  in  cylindrical  glass  tubes  about  a  foot  long, 
or  along  narrow  wooden  troughs.     If  seeds  are  required  one  or 
more  female  flowers  should  be  selected  and  pollen  from  male 
flower  placed  on  their  stigmas. 

2.  The  outdoor  varieties  are  known  as  hill  or  ridge  cucumbers. 
They  may  be  grown  in  any  good  soil.    A  warm,  sheltered  spot  with 
a  south  aspect  and  a  mound  of  rich,  sandv  loam  with  a  little  leaf- 
mould  placed  over  a  hot-bed  of  dung  and  leaves  is  recommended. 
The  mounds  or  ridges  should  be  4  to  5  ft.  apart,  and  one  plant 
is  placed  in  the  centre  of  each.     The  seeds  are  sown  in  March 
in  light,  rich  soil  in  small  pots  with  gentle  heat.     The  seedlings 
are  repotted  and  well  hardened  for  planting  out  in  June.     The 
plants  must  be  well  watered  in  and,  until  established,  shaded  by 
a  hand-light  from  bright  sunshine.     When  the  leading  shoots  are 
from  1 1  to  2  ft.  long  the  tips  are  pinched  off  to  induce  the  forma- 
tion of  fruit-bearing  side-shoots.     If  seed  is  required  a  pistillate 


CUCURBIT  ACEAE— CUDDALORE 


611 


flower  is  selected  and  pollinated.  There  are  numerous  varieties 
distinguished  by  size  and  the  smooth  or  prickly  rind.  King  of 
the  Ridge  has  smooth  fruits  a  foot  or  more  long;  gherkin,  a 
short,  prickly  form,  is  much  used  for  pickling. 

Cucumber  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  green  fly,  red  spider  and 
thrips ;  for  the  two  latter,  infected  leaves  should  be  sponged  with 
soapy  water;  for  green  fly  careful  fumigating  is  necessary. 

The  Sikkim  cucumber,  C.  sativus  var.  sikkimensis,  is  a  large 
fruited  form,  reaching  15  in.  long  by  6  in.  thick,  grown  in 
the  Himalayas  of  Sikkim  and  Nepal.  It  was  discovered  by  Sir 
Joseph  Hooker  in  the  eastern  Himalayas  in  1848.  He  says 
"  so  abundant  were  the  fruits,  that  for  days  together  I  saw 
gnawed  fruits  lying  by  the  natives'  paths  by  thousands,  and 
every  man,  woman  and  child  seemed  engaged  throughout  the 
day  in  devouring  them."  The  fruit  is  reddish-brown,  marked 
with  yellow,  and  is  eaten  both  raw  and  cooked. 

The  West  India  gherkin  is  Cucumis  Anguria,  a  plant  with 
small,  slender  vines,  and  very  abundant  small  ellipsoid  green 
fruit  covered  with  warts  and  spines.  It  is  used  for  pickling. 

Cucumbers  were  much  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  According 
to  Pliny,  the  emperor  Tiberius  was  supplied  with  them  daily, 
both  in  summer  and  winter.  The  kishuim  or  cucumbers  of  the 
scriptures  (Num.  xi.  5;  Isa.  i.  8)  were  probably  a  wild  form  of 
C.  Melo,  the  melon,  a  plant  common  in  Egypt,  where  a  drink 
is  prepared  from  the  ripe  fruit.  Peter  Forskiil,  one  of  the  early 
botanical  writers  on  the  country,  describes  its  preparation. 
The  pulp  is  broken  and  stirred  by  means  of  a  stick  thrust  through 
a  hole  cut  at  the  umbilicus  of  the  fruit;  the  hole  is  then  closed 
with  wax,  and  the  fruit,  without  removing  it  from  its  stem, 
is  buried  in  a  little  pit;  after  some  days  the  pulp  is  found  to 
be  converted  into  an  agreeable  liquor  (see  Flora  aegyptiaco- 
arabica,  p.  168,  1775).  The  squirting  cucumber,  Ecballium 
Elaterium,  the  2t/cuos  iiypios  of  Theophrastus,  furnishes  the  drug 
elaterium  (q.v.). 

See  Naudin  in  Annal.  des  set.  nat.  ser.  4  (Botany),  t.  xi.  (1859); 
G.  Nicholson,  Dictionary  of  Gardening  (1885);  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cyclo- 
paedia of  American  Horticulture  (1900). 

CUCURBITACEAE,  a  botanical  order  of  dicotyledons,  con- 
taining 87  genera  and  about  650  species,  found  in  the  temperate 
and  warmer  parts  of  the  earth  but  especially  developed  in  the 


FIG.  i. — Bryonia  dioica,  Bryony,  about  f  nat.  size.  I,  Part  of 
corolla  of  male  flower  with  attached  stamens;  2,  female  flower  after 
removal  of  calyx  and  corolla;  3,  berries;  i,  2,  3  about  nat.  size. 

tropics.  The  plants  are  generally  annual  herbs,  climbing  by 
means  of  tendrils  and  having  a  rapid  growth.  The  long-stalked 
leaves  are  arranged  alternately,  and  are  generally  palmately 


lobed  and  veined.  The  flowers  or  inflorescences  are  borne  in 
the  leaf-axils,  in  which  a  vegetative  bud  is  also  found,  and  at 
the  side  of  the  leaf-stalk  is  a  simple  or  branched  tendril.  There 
has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  member  or 
members  the  tendril  represents;  the  one  which  seems  most  in 
accordance  with  facts  regards  the  tendril  as  a  shoot,  the  lower 
portion  representing  the  stem,  the  upper  twining  portion  a  leaf. 
The  flowers  are  unisexual,  and  strikingly  epigynous,  the  perianth 
and  stamens  being  attached  to  a  bell-shaped  prolongation  of  the 
receptacle  above  the  ovary.  The  five  narrow  pointed  sepals 
are  followed  by  five  petals  which  are  generally  united  to  form 
a  more  or  less  bell-shaped  corolla.  There  are  five  stamens  in 
the  male  flowers;  the  anthers  open  towards  the  outside,  are 


FIG.  2. 


Male     flower    of     cucumber 

(Cucumis). 
Same,     in     vertical    section, 

slightly  enlarged. 
Stamens,    after    removal     of 

calyx  and  corolla. 


4,  Female  flower. 

5,  Horizontal  plan  of  male  flower. 

6,  Transverse    section  of    fruit, 

about  I  nat.  size. 

i  and  4  nat.  size. 


one-celled,  with  the  pollen-sacs  generally  curved  and  variously 
united.  The  carpels,  normally  three  in  number,  form  an  ovary 
with  three  thick,  fleshy,  bifid  placentas  bearing  a  large  number 
of  ovules  on  each  side,  and  generally  filling  the  interior  of  the 
ovary  with  a  juicy  mass.  The  short  thick  style  has  generally 
three  branches  each  bearing  a  fleshy,  usually  forked  stigma.  The 
fruit  is  a  fleshy  many-seeded  berry  with  a  tough  rind  (known  as 
a  pepo),  and  often  attains  considerable  size.  The  embryo 
completely  fills  the  seed. 

The  order  is  represented  in  Britain  by  bryony  (Bryonia  dioica), 
(fig.  i)  a  hedge-climber,  perennial  by  means  of  large  fleshy  tubers 
which  send  up  each  year  a  number  of  slender  angular  stems. 
The  leaves  are  heart-shaped  with  wavy  margined  lobes.  The 
flowers  are  greenish,  J  to  J  in.  in  diameter;  the  fruit,  a  red 
several-seeded  berry,  is  about  j  in.  in  diameter. 

Many  genera  are  of  economic  importance;  Cucumis  (fig.  2) 
affords  cucumber  (q.v.)  and  melon  (q.v.) ;  Cucurbila,  pumpkin  and 
marrow;  Cilrullus  vulgaris  is  water-melon,  and  C.  Colocynthis, 
colocynth;  Ecballium  Elaterium  (squirting  cucumber)  is 
medicinal;  Sechium  edule  (chocho),  a  tropical  American  species, 
is  largely  cultivated  for  its  edible  fruit;  it  contains  one  large 
seed  which  germinates  in  situ.  Lagenaria  is  the  gourd  (q.v.). 
The  fruits  of  Luffa  aegyptiaca  have  a  number  of  closely  netted 
vascular  bundles  in  the  pericarp,  forming  a  kind  of  loose  felt 
which  supplies  the  well-known  loofah  or  bath-sponge. 

CUDDALORE,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  South  Arcot 
district  of  Madras,  on  the  coast  125  m.  S.  of  Madras  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1901)  52,216,  showing  an  increase  of  10%  in  the  decade. 
It  lies  low,  but  is  regarded  as  exceptionally  healthy,  and  serves 
as  a  kind  of  sanatorium  for  the  surrounding  district.  The 
principal  exports  are  sugar,  oil-seeds  and  indigo.  There  are  two 
colleges  and  two  high  schools.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the 
ruins  of  Fort  St  David  situated  on  the  river  Gadilam,  which  has 


6l2 


CUDDAPAH— CUDWORTH 


as  stirring  a  history  as  any  spot  in  the  Presidency.  As  a  small 
fort  built  by  a  Hindu  merchant  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mahrattas  after  the  capture  of  Gingi  by  Sivaji  in  1677.  From 
them  it  was  purchased  by  the  English  in  1690,  the  purchase 
including  not  only  the  fort  but  the  adjacent  towns  and  villages 
"  within  ye  randome  shott  o'f  a  piece  of  ordnance."  A  great  gun 
was  fired  to  different  points  of  the  compass  and  all  the  country 
within  its  range,  including  the  town  of  Cuddalore,  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  English.  The  villages  thus  obtained  are 
still  spoken  of  as  "  cannon  ball  villages."  From  1725  onwards 
the  fortifications  were  greatly  strengthened.  In  1746  Fort 
St  David  became  the  British  headquarters  for  the  south  of  India, 
and  Dupleix'  attack  was  successfully  repulsed.  Clive  was 
appointed  its  governor  in  1756;  in  1758  the  French  captured  it, 
but  abandoned  it  two  years  later  to  Sir  Eyre  Coote.  In  1782 
they  again  took  it  and  restored  it  sufficiently  to  withstand  a 
British  attack  in  1783.  In  1785  it  finally  passed  into  British 
possession. 

CUDDAPAH,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Madras  Presidency.  The  town  is  6  m.  from  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  Pennar,  and  161  m.  by  rail  from  Madras.  Pop.  (1901) 
16,432.  It  is  now  a  poor  place,  but  has  some  trade  in  cotton  and 
indigo,  and  manufactures  of  cotton  cloth.  Hills  surround  it 
on  three  sides,  and  it  has  a  bad  reputation  for  unhealthiness. 

The  DISTRICT  or  CUDDAPAH  has  an  area  of  8723  sq.  m.  It 
is  in  shape  an  irregular  parallelogram,  divided  into  two  nearly 
equal  parts  by  the  range  of  the  Eastern  Ghats,  which  intersects 
it  throughout  its  entire  length.  The  two  tracts  thus  formed 
possess  totally  different  features.  The  first,  which  constitutes 
the  north,  east  and  south-east  of  the  district,  is  a  low-lying  plain; 
while  the  other,  which  comprises  the  southern  and  south- 
western portion,  forms  a  high  table-land  from  1500  to  2500  ft. 
above  sea-level.  The  chief  river  is  the  Pennar,  which  enters  the 
district  from  Bellary  on  the  west,  and  flows  eastwards  into 
Nellore.  Though  a  large  and  broad  river,  and  in  the  rains 
containing  a  great  volume  of  water,  in  the  hot  weather  months 
it  dwindles  down  to  an  inconsiderable  stream.  Its  principal 
tributaries  are  the  Kundaur,  Saglair,  Cheyair,  and  Papagni 
rivers.  One  of  the  most  interesting  antiquities  in  the  district 
is  the  ancient  fort  of  Gurramkonda.  The  fort  is  supposed  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Golconda  sultans;  it  stands  on  a  hill  500 
ft.  high,  three  sides  of  which  consist  of  almost  perpendicular 
precipices.  According  to  a  local  legend  the  name  Gurramkonda, 
meaning  "  horse  hill,"  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  a  horse  was 
supposed  to  be  guardian  of  the  fort  and  that  the  place  was 
impregnable  so  long  as  the  horse  remained  there.  ,The  story 
goes  that  a  Mahratta  chief  at  length  succeeded  in  scaling  the 
precipice  and  in  carrying  off  the  horse,  and  although  the  thief 
was  captured  before  reaching  the  base  of  the  hill,  the  spell  was 
broken  and  the  fort,  when  next  attacked,  fell.  The  population 
of  the  district  in  1901  was  1,291,267.  The  principal  crops  are 
millet,  rice,  other  food  grains,  pulse,  oil-seeds,  cotton  and  indigo. 
The  two  last  are  largely  exported.  There  are  several  steam 
factories  for  pressing  cotton,  and  indigo  vats.  The  district 
is  served  by  lines  of  the  Madras  and  the  South  Indian 
railways. 

CUDWORTH,  RALPH  (1617-1688),  English  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Aller,  Somersetshire,  the  son  of  Dr  Ralph  Cudworth 
(d.  1624),  rector  of  Aller,  formerly  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge.  His  father  died  in  1624,  and  his  mother  then 
married  the-Rev.  Dr  Stoughton,  who  gave  the  boy  a  good  home 
education.  Cudworth  was  sent  to  his  father's  college,  was  elected 
fellow  in  1639,  and  became  a  successful  tutor.  In  1642  he 
published  A  Discourse  concerning  the  trite  Notion  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  a  tract  entitled  The  Union  of  Christ  and  the  Church. 
In  1645  he  was  appointed  master  of  Clare  Hall  and  the  same  year 
was  elected  Regius  professor  of  Hebrew.  He  was  now  recognized 
as  a  leader  among  the  remarkable  group  known  as  the  Cambridge 
Platonists  (q.v.).  The  whole  party  were  more  or  less  in  sympathy 
with  the  Commonwealth,  and  Cudworth  was  consulted  by  John 
Thurloe,  Cromwell's  secretary  of  state,  in  regard  to  university 
and  government  appointments.  His  sermons,  such  as  that 


preached  before  the  House  of  Commons,  on  the  3ist  of  March 
1647,  advocate  principles  of  religious  toleration  and  charity. 
In  1650  he  was  presented  to  the  college  living  of  North  Cadbury, 
Somerset.  From  the  diary  of  his  friend  John  Worthington  we 
learn  that  Cudworth  was  nearly  compelled,  through  poverty, 
to  leave  the  university,  but  in  1654  he  was  elected  master  of 
Christ's  College,  whereupon  he  married.  On  the  Restoration 
he  contributed  some  Hebrew  verses  to  the  Academiae  Canta- 
brigiensis  Zuxrrpa,  a  congratulatory  volume  addressed  to  the  king. 
In  1662  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Ashwell,  Herts. 
In  1665  he  almost  quarrelled  with  his  fellow-Platonist,  Henry 
More,  because  the  latter  had  written  an  ethical  work  which 
Cudworth  feared  would  interfere  with  his  own  long-contemplated 
treatise  on  the  same  subject.  To  avoid  clashing,  More  brought 
out  his  book,  the  Enchiridion  ethicum,  in  Latin;  Cud  worth's 
never  appeared.  In  1678  he  published  The  True  Intellectual 
System  of  the  Universe:  the  first  part,  wherein  all  the  reason  and 
philosophy  of  atheism  is  confuted  and  its  impossibility  demonstrated 
(imprimatur  dated  1671).  No  more  was  published,  perhaps 
because  of  the  theological  clamour  raised  against  this  first  part. 
Cudworth  was  installed  prebendary  of  Gloucester  in  1678.  He 
died  on  the  26th  of  June  1688,  and  was  buried  in  the  chapel 
of  Christ's.  His  only  surviving  child,  Damaris,  a  devout  and 
talented  woman,  became  the  second  wife  of  Sir  Francis  Masham, 
and  was  distinguished  as  the  friend  of  John  Locke.  Much  of 
Cudworth's  work  still  remains  in  manuscript;  A  Treatise 
concerning  eternal  and  immutable  Morality  was  published  in  1731 ; 
and  A  Treatise  of  Freewill,  edited  by  John  Allen,  in  1838;  both 
are  connected  with  the  design  of  his  magnum  opus,  the  Intellectual 
System. 

The  Intellectual  System  arose,  so  its  author  tells  us,  out  of  a 
discourse  refuting  "  fatal  necessity,"  or  determinism.  Enlarging 
his  plan,  he  proposed  to  prove  three  matters:  (a)  the  existence 
of  God;  (6)  the  naturalness  of  moral  distinctions;  and  (c)  the 
reality  of  human  freedom.  These  three  together  make  up  the 
intellectual  (as  opposed  to  the  physical)  system  of  the  universe; 
and  they  are  opposed  respectively  by  three  false  principles, 
atheism,  religious  fatalism  which  refers  all  moral  distinctions  to 
the  will  of  God,  and  thirdly  the  fatalism  of  the  ancient  Stoics, 
who  recognized  God  and  yet  identified  Him  with  nature.  The 
immense  fragment  dealing  with  atheism  is  all  that  was  published 
by  its  author.  Cudworth  criticizes  two  main  forms  of  materialistic 
atheism,  the  atomic,  adopted  by  Democritus,  Epicurus  and 
Hobbes;  and  the  hylozoic,  attributed  to  Strato,  which  explains 
everything  by  the  supposition  of  an  inward  self-organizing  life 
in  matter.  Atomic  atheism  is  by  far  the  more  important,  if 
only  because  Hobbes,  the  great  antagonist  whom  Cudworth 
always  has  in  view,  is  supposed  to  have  held  it.  It  arises  out  of 
the  combination  of  two  principles,  neither  of  which  is  atheistic 
taken  separately,  i.e.  atomism  and  corporealism,  or  the  doctrine 
that  nothing  exists  but  body.  The  example  of  Stoicism,  as 
Cudworth  points  out,  shows  that  corporealism  may  be  theistic. 
Into  the  history  of  atomism  Cudworth  plunges  with  vast  erudi- 
tion. It  is,  in  its  purely  physical  application,  a  theory  that  he 
fully  accepts;  he  holds  that  it  was  taught  by  Pythagoras, 
Empedocles,  and  in  fact,  nearly  all  the  ancient  philosophers, 
and  was  only  perverted  to  atheism  by  Democritus.  It  was 
first  invented,  he  believes,  before  the  Trojan  war,  by  a  Sidonian 
thinker  named  Moschus  or  Mochus,  who  is  identical  with  the 
Moses  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  dealing  with  atheism  Cud- 
worth's  method  is  to  marshal  the  atheistic  arguments  elaborately, 
so  elaborately  that  Dryden  remarked  "  he  has  raised  such  ob- 
jections against  the  being  of  a.  God  and  Providence  that  many 
think  he  has  not  answered  them  ";  then  in  his  last  chapter, 
which  by  itself  is  as  long  as  an  ordinary  treatise,  he  confutes 
them  with  all  the  reasons  that  his  reading  could  supply.  A 
subordinate  matter  in  the  book  that  attracted  much  attention 
at  the  time  is  the  conception  of  the  "  Plastic  Medium,"  which 
is  a  mere  revival  of  Plato's  "  World-Soul,"  and  is  meant  to 
explain  the  existence  and  laws  of  nature  without  referring  all 
to  the  direct'  operation  of  God.  It  occasioned  a  long-drawn 
controversy  between  Pierre  Bayle  and  Le  Clerc,  the  former 


CUENCA— CUIRASS 


613 


maintaining,  the  latter  denying,  that  the  Plastic  Medium  is 
really  favourable  to  atheism. 

No  modern  reader  can  endure  to  toil  through  the  Intellectual 
System;  its  only  interest  is  the  light  it  throws  upon  the  state  of 
religious  thought  after  the  Restoration,  when,  as  Birch  puts  it, 
"  irreligion  began  to  lift  up  its  head."  It  is  immensely  diffuse 
and  pretentious,  loaded  with  digressions,  its  argument  buried 
under  masses  of  fantastic,  uncritical  learning,  the  work  of  a 
vigorous  but  quite  unoriginal  mind.  As  Bolingbroke  said, 
Cudworth  "  read  too  much  to  think  enough,  and  admired  too 
much  to  think  freely."  It  is  no  calamity  that  natural  pro- 
crastination, or  the  clamour  caused  by  his  candid  treatment  of 
atheism  and  by  certain  heretical  tendencies  detected  by  orthodox 
criticism  in  his  view  of  the  Trinity,  made  Cudworth  leave  the 
work  unfinished. 

A  much  more  favourable  judgment  must  be  given  upon  the 
short  Treatise  on  eternal  and  immutable  Morality,  which  deserves 
to  be  read  by  those  who  are  interested  in  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  British  moral  philosophy.  It  is  an  answer  to  Hobbes's 
famous  doctrine  that  moral  distinctions  are  created  by  the  state, 
an  answer  from  the  standpoint  of  Platonism.  Just  as  knowledge 
contains  a  permanent  intelligible  element  over  and  above  the 
flux  of  sense-impressions,  so  there  exist  eternal  and  immutable 
ideas  of  morality.  Cudworth's  ideas,  h'ke  Plato's,  have  "  a 
constant  and  never-failing  entity  of  their  own,"  such  as  we  see 
in  geometrical  figures ;  but,  unlike  Plato's,  they  exist  in  the 
mind  of  God,  whence  they  are  communicated  to  finite  under- 
standings. Hence  "  it  is  evident  that  wisdom,  knowledge  and 
understanding  are  eternal  and  self-subsistent  things,  superior 
to  matter  and  all  sensible  beings,  and  independent  upon  them  "; 
and  so  also  are  moral  good  and  evil.  At  this  point  Cudworth 
stops;  he  does  not  attempt  to  give  any  list  of  Moral  Ideas.  It 
is,  indeed,  the  cardinal  weakness  of  this  form  of  intuitionism 
that  no  satisfactory  list  can  be  given  and  that  no  moral  principles 
have  the  "  constant  and  never-failing  entity,"  or  the  definiteness, 
of  the  concepts  of  geometry.  Henry  More,  in  his  Enchiridion 
ethicum,  attempts  to  enumerate  the  "  noemata  moralia  ";  but, 
so  far  from  being  self-evident,  most  of  his  moral  axioms  are 
open  to  serious  controversy. 

The  Intellectual  System  was  translated  into  Latin  by  J.  L.  Mosheim 
and  furnished  with  notes  and  dissertations  which  were  translated 
into  English  in  J.  Harrison's  edition  (1845).  Our  chief  biographical 
authority  is  T.  Birch's  "  Account,"  which  appears  in  editions  of  the 
Works.  There  is  a  good  chapter  on  Cudworth  in  J.  Tulloch's 
Rational  Theology,  vol.  ii.  Consult  also  P.  Janet's  Essai  sur  le 
mediateur  plastique  (1860),  W.  R.  Scott's  Introduction  to  Cud-worth's 
"  Treatise,  '  and  J.  Martineau's  Types  of  Ethical  Theory,  vol.  ii. 

(H.  ST.) 

CUENCA,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Azuay, 
Ecuador,  about  190  m.  S.  of  Quito  and  70  m.  S.E.  of  Guayaquil. 
Pop.  (1908  estimate)  30,000  (largely  Indians),  including  the 
suburb  of  Ejido.  Cuenca  stands  at  the  northern  end  of  a  broad 
valley,  or  basin,  of  the  Andes,  lying  between  the  transverse 
ridges  of  Azuay  and  Loja,  and  is  about  8640  ft.  above  sea-level. 
Near  by  is  the  hill  of  Tarqui  which  the  French  astronomers  chose 
for  their  meridian  in  1742.  Communication  with  the  coast  is 
difficult.  Cuenca  is  the  third  most  important  city  of  Ecuador, 
being  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  having  a  college,  a  university 
faculty,  a  cathedral,  and  several  churches,  and  a  considerable 
industrial  and  commercial  development.  It  manufactures 
sugar,  woollen  goods  and  pottery,  and  exports  Peruvian  bark 
(cinchona) ,- hats,  cereals,  cheese,  hides,  &c.  It  was  founded  in 
1557  on  the  site  of  a  native  town  called  Tumibamba,  and  was 
made  an  episcopal  see  in  1786. 

CUENCA,  a  province  of  central  Spain  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Guadalajara,  N.E.  by  Teruel,  E.  by  Valencia,  S.  by  Albacete, 
S.W.  by  Ciudad  Real,  W.  by  Toledo  and  N.W.  by  Madrid. 
Pop.  (1900)  249,696;  area,  6636  sq.  m.  Cuenca  occupies  the 
eastern  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  New  Castile,  and  slopes 
from  the  Serrania  de  Cuenca  (highest  point  the  Cerro  de  San 
Felipe,  on  the  north-eastern  border  of  the  province,  5905  ft.), 
down  into  the  great  southern  Castilian  plain  watered  by  the  upper 
streams  of  the  Guadiana.  The  lowlands  bordering  on  Ciudad 


Real  belong  to  the  wide  plain  of  La  Mancha  (?.«.).  The  rocky 
and  bare  highland  of  Cuenca  on  the  north  and  east  includes  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Jucar  and  its  tributary  streams,  but  in  the 
north-west  the  province  is  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Tagus. 
The  forests  are  proverbial  for  their  pine  timber,  and  rival  those 
of  Soria;  considerable  quantities  of  timber  are  floated  down  the 
Tagus  to  Aranjuez  and  thence  taken  to  Madrid  for  building 
purposes.  Excessive  droughts  prevail;  the  climate  of  the  hills 
and  of  the  high  plateaus  is  harsh  and  cold,  but  the  valleys  are 
excessively  hot  in  summer.  The  soil,  where  well  watered,  is 
fertile,  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  agriculture,  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  area  is  left  under  pasture.  The  rearing  of  cattle, 
asses,  mules  and  sheep  is  the  principal  employment  of  the  people; 
olive  oil,  nuts,  wine,  wheat,  silk,  wax  and  honey  are  the  chief 
products.  Iron,  copper,  alum,  saltpetre,  jasper  and  agates  are 
found,  but  in  1903  all  the  workings  had  been  abandoned  except 
three  salt  mines ;  and  there  are  few  manufactures  except  the 
weaving  of  coarse  cloth.  The  roads  are  in  such  a  backward 
condition  that  they  cripple  not  only  the  mining  interests  but  also 
the  exports  of  timber,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  2Oth  century 
there  was  no  railway  except  a  branch  line  which  passed  westwards 
from  Aranjuez  through  Tarancon  to  Cuenca,  the  capital  (pop. 
1900,  10,756).  No  other  town  has  as  many  as  6000  inhabitants, 
and  no  other  Spanish  province  is  so  thinly  populated  as  Cuenca. 
In  1900  there  were  only  37-6  inhabitants  per  sq.  m.  Education 
is  backward,  and  extreme  poverty  almost  universal  among  the 
peasantry.  See  also  CASTILE. 

CUENCA,  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of  Cuenca; 
125  m.  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Madrid.  Pop.  (1900)  10,756.  Cuenca 
occupies  a  height  of  the  well-wooded  Serrania  de  Cuenca,  at  an 
elevation  of  2960  ft.,  overlooking  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
Jucar  and  Huecar.  A  fine  bridge,  built  in  1523,  crosses  the 
Jucar  to  the  convent  of  San  Pablo.  Among  several  interesting 
churches  in  the  city,  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  13th-century 
Gothic  cathedral,  celebrated  for  the  beautiful  carved  woodwork 
of  its  16th-century  doorway,  and  containing  some  admirable 
examples  of  Spanish  sculpture.  The  city  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  timber,  and  was  long  the  headquarters  of  the  provincial 
wool  industry;  the  loss  of  which,  in  modern  times,  has  partly 
been  compensated  by  the  development  of  soap,  paper,  chocolate, 
match  and  leather  manufactures.  Cuenca  was  captured  from 
the  Moors  by  Alphonso  VIII.  of  Castile  in  1177,  and  shortly 
afterwards  became  an  episcopal  see.  In  1874  it  offered  a  pro- 
longed and  gallant  resistance  to  the  Carlist  rebels. 

CUESTA,  a  name  of  Spanish  origin  used  in  New  Mexico  for 
low  ridges  of  steep  descent  on  one  side  and  gentle  slope  on  the 
other.  It  has  been  proposed  as  a  term  for  the  land  form  which 
consists  of  the  two  elements  of  a  steep  scarp  or  "  strike  "  face, 
and  an  inclined  plain  or  gentle  "  dip  "  slope. 

CUEVAS  DE  VERA,  a  town  of  south-eastern  Spain,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Almeria;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Almanzora, 
8m.  W.  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Pop.  (1900)  20,562.  Cuevas 
de  Vera  is  built  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Sierra  de  los 
Filabres  (6823  ft.),  which  isolate  it  from  the  railway  system  of 
Almeria.  It  is,  however,  the  chief  market  for  the  rich  agricultural 
districts  towards  the  south  and  for  the  argentiferous  lead  and 
other  mines  among  the  mountains.  In  appearance  it  is  modern, 
with  wide  streets,  two  fine  squares,  and  a  parish  church  in  Doric 
style,  dating  from  1758.  But  in  reality  the  town  is  of  considerable 
antiquity.  One  of  the  towers  in  the  Moorish  palace  owned 
by  the  marquesses  of  Villafranca  is  probably  of  Roman  origin. 

CUFF,  (i)  (Of  uncertain  origin),  the  lower  edge  of  a  sleeve 
turned  back  to  show  an  ornamental  border,  or  with  an  addition 
of  lace  or  trimming;  now  used  chiefly  of  the  stiff  bands  of  linen 
worn  under  the  coat-sleeve  either  loose  or  attached  to  the  shirt. 
(2)  Also  uncertain  in  origin,  but  with  no  connexion,  probably, 
with  (i),  a  blow  with  the  hand  either  open  or  closed,  as  opposed  to 
the  use  of  weapons. 

CUIRASS  (Fr.  cuirasse,  Lat.  coriaceus,  made  of  leather,  from 
corium,  the  original  breastplate  being  of  leather),  the  plate 
armour,  whether  formed  of  a  single  piece  of  metal  or  other  rigid 
material  or  composed  of  two  or  more  pieces,  which  covers  the 


614 


CUIRASSIERS— CUJAS 


front  of  the  wearer's  person.  In  a  suit  of  armour,  however,  since 
this  important  piece  was  generally  worn  in  connexion  with  a 
corresponding  defence  for  the  back,  the  term  cuirass  commonly 
is  understood  to  imply  the  complete  body-armour,  including 
both  the  breast  and  the  back  plates.  Thus  this  complete  bo.dy- 
armour  appears  in  the  middle  ages  frequently  to  have  been 
described  as  a  "  pair  of  plates."  The  corslet  (Fr.  corselet,  diminu- 
tive of  the  O-  Fr.  cars,  body),  a  comparatively  light  cuirass,  is 
more  strictly  a  breast-plate  only.  As  parts  of  the  military 
equipment  of  classic  antiquity,  cuirasses  and  corslets  of  bronze, 
and  at  later  periods  also  of  iron  or  some  other  rigid  substance, 
were  habitually  in  use;  but  while  some  special  kind  of  secondary 
protection  for  the  breast  had  been  worn  in  earlier  times  by  the 
men-at-arms  in  addition  to  their  mail  hauberks  and  their  "  cotes  " 
armed  with  splints  and  studs,  it  was  not  till  the  i4th  century  that 
a  regular  body-defence  of  plate  can  be  said  to  have  become  an 
established  component  of  medieval  armour.  As  this  century 
continued  to  advance,  the  cuirass  is  found  gradually  to  have 
come  into  general  use,  in  connexion  with  plate  defences  for  the 
limbs,  until,  at  the  close  of  the  century,  the  long  familiar  inter- 
linked chain-mail  is  no  longer  visible  in  knightly  figures,  except 
in  the  camail  of  the  bassinet  and  at  the  edge  of  the  hauberk. 
The  prevailing,  and  indeed  almost  the  universal,  usage  through- 
out this  century  was  that  the  cuirass  was  worn  covered.  Thus, 
the  globose  form  of  the  breast-armour  of  the  Black  Prince,  in 
his  effigy  in  Canterbury  cathedral,  1376,  intimates  that  a  cuirass 
as  well  as  a  hauberk  is  to  be  considered  to  have  been  covered 
by  the  royalty-emblazoned  jupon  of  the  prince.  The  cuirass, 
thus  worn  in  the  i4th  century,  was  always  made  of  sufficient 
length  to  rest  on  the  hips;  otherwise,  if  not  thus  supported,  it 
must  have  been  suspended  from  the  shoulders,  in  which  case  it 
would  have  effectually  interfered  with  the  free  and  vigorous 
action  of  the  wearer.  Early  in  the  isth  century,  the  entire 
panoply  of  plate,  including  the  cuirass,  began  to  be  worn  without 
any  surcoat;  but  in  the  concluding  quarter  of  the  century  the 
short  surcoat,  with  full  short  sleeves,  known  as  the  tabard,  was 
in  general  use  over  the  armour.  At  the  same  time  that  the  disuse 
of  the  surcoat  became  general,  small  plates  of  various  forms  and 
sizes  (and  not  always  made  in  pairs,  the  plate  for  the  right  or 
sword-arm  often  being  smaller  and  lighter  than  its  companion), 
were  attached  to  the  armour  in  front  of  the  shoulders,  to  defend 
the  otherwise  vulnerable  points  where  the  plate  defences  of  the 
upper-arms  and  the  cuirass  left  a  gap  on  each  side.  About  the 
middle  of  the  century,  instead  of  being  formed  of  a  single  plate, 
the  breast-plate  of  the  cuirass  was  made  in  two  parts,  the  lower 
adjusted  to  overlap  the  upper,  and  contrived  by  means  of  a  strap 
or  sliding  rivet  to  give  flexibility  to  this  defence.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  i  sth  century  the  cuirass  occasionally  was  superseded  by 
the  "  brigandine  jacket,"  a  defence  formed  of  some  textile  fabric, 
generally  of  rich  material,  lined  throughout  with  overlapping 
scales  (resembling  the  earlier  "  imbricated  "  form)  of  metal, 
which  were  attached  to  the  jacket  by  rivets,  having  their  heads, 
like  studs,  visible  on  the  outside.  In  the  i6th  century,  when 
occasionally,  and  by  personages  of  exalted  rank,  splendid 
surcoats  were  worn  over  the  armour,  the  cuirass — its  breast- 
piece  during  the  first  half  of  the  century,  globular  in  -form — 
was  constantly  reinforced  by  strong  additional  plates  attached 
to  it  by  rivets  or  screws.  About  1550  the  breast-piece  of  the 
cuirass  was  characterized  by  a  vertical  central  ridge,  called  the 
"  tapul  "  having  near  its  centre  a  projecting  point;  this  pro- 
jection, somewhat  later,  was  brought  lower  down,  and  eventually 
the  profile  of  the  plate,  the  projection  having  been  carried  to  its 
base,  assumed  the  singular  form  which  led  to  this  fashion  of  the 
cuirass  being  distinguished  as  the  "  peascod  cuirass." 

Corslets  provided  with  both  breast  and  back  pieces  were  worn 
by  foot-soldiers  in  the  i  7th  century,  while  their  mounted  com- 
rades were  equipped  in  heavier  and  stronger  cuirasses;  and  these 
defences  continued  in  use  after  the  other  pieces  of  armour,  one 
by  one,  had  gradually  been  laid  aside.  Their  use,  however, 
never  altogether  ceased,  and  in  modern  armies  mounted 
cuirassiers,  armed  as  in  earlier  days  with  breast  and  back  plates, 
have  in  some  degree  emulated  the  martial  splendour  of  the  body- 


armour  of  the  era  of  medieval  chivalry.  Some  years  after 
Waterloo  certain  historical  cuirasses  were  taken  from  their 
repose  in  the  Tower  of  London,  and  adapted  for  service  by  the 
Life  Guards  and  the  Horse  Guards.  For  parade  purposes, 
the  Prussian  Gardes  du  Corps  and  other  corps  wear  cuirasses 
of  richly  decorated  leather. 

CUIRASSIERS,  a  kind  of  heavy  cavalry,  originally  developed 
out  of  the  men-at-arms  or  gendarmerie  forming  the  heavy 
cavalry  of  feudal  armies.  Their  special  characteristic  was  the 
wearing  of  full  armour,  which  they  retained  long  after  other 
troops  had  abandoned  it.  Hence  they  became  distinguished 
as  cuirassiers.  The  first  Austrian  corps  of  kyrissers  was  formed 
in  1484  by  the  emperor  Maximilian  and  was  100  strong.  In 
1705  Austria  possessed  twenty  regiments  of  cuirassiers.  After 
the  war  of  1866,  however,  the  existing  regiments  were  converted 
into  dragoons.  Russia  has  likewise  in  modern  times  abolished 
all  but  a  few  guard  regiments  of  cuirassiers.  The  Prussian 
cuirassiers  were  first  so  called  under  P'rederick  William  I.,  and 
in  the  wars  of  his  successor  Frederick  the  Great  they  bore  a 
conspicuous  part.  After  the  Seven  Years'  War  they  ceased  to 
wear  the  cuirass  on  service,  but  after  1814  these  were  reintro- 
duced,  the  spoils  taken  from  the  French  cuirassiers  being  used 
to  equip  the  troops.  The  cuirass  is  now  worn  only  on  ceremonial 
parades.  In  France  the  cuirassiers  date  from  1666,  when  a 
regiment,  subsequently  numbered  Sth  of  the  line,  was  formed. 
During  the  first  Empire  many  regiments  were  created,  until 
in  1812  there  were  fourteen.  The  number  was  reduced  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  but  in  modern  times  it  has  been  again  increased. 
The  French  regiments  alone  in  Europe  wear  the  cuirass  on  all 
parades  and  at  manoeuvres. 

CUJAS  (or  CUJACIUS),  JACQUES  (or  as  he  called  himself, 
JACQUES  DE  CUJAS)  (1520-1590),  French  jurisconsult,  was  born 
at  Toulouse,  where  his  father,  whose  name  was  Cujaus,  was  a 
fuller.  Having  taught  himself  Latin  and  Greek,  he  studied  law 
under  Arnoul  Ferrier,  then  professor  at  Toulouse,  and  rapidly 
gained  a  great  reputation  as  a  lecturer  on  Justinian.  In  1554 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  law  at  Cahors,  and  about  a  year 
after  L'Hopital  called  him  to  Bourges.  Duaren,  however,  who 
also  held  a  professorship  at  Bourges,  stirred  up  the  students 
against  the  new  professor,  and  such  was  the  disorder  produced 
in  consequence  that  Cujas  was  glad  to  yield  to  the  storm,  and 
accept  an  invitation  he  had  received  to  the  university  of  Valence. 
Recalled  to  Bourges  at  the  death  of  Duaren  in  1559,  he  remained 
there  till  1567,  when  he  returned  to  Valence.  There  he  gained 
a  European  reputation,  and  collected  students  from  all  parts 
of  the  continent,  among  whom  were  Joseph  Scaliger  and  de 
Thou.  In  1573  Charles  IX.  appointed  Cujas  counsellor  to  the 
parlement  of  Grenoble,  and  in  the  following  year  a  pension  was 
bestowed  on  him  by  Henry  III.  Margaret  of  Savoy  induced 
him  to  remove  to  Turin;  but  after  a  few  months  (1575)  he  once 
more  took  his  old  place  at  Bourges.  But  the  religious  wars 
drove  him  thence.  He  was  called  by  the  king  to  Paris,  and 
permission  was  granted  him  by  the  parlement  to  lecture  on  civil 
law  in  the  university  of  the  capital.  A  year  after,  however, 
he  finally  took  up  his  residence  at  Bourges,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death  in  1590,  in  spite  of  a  handsome  offer  made  him  by 
Gregory  XIII.  in  1 584  to  attract  him  to  Bologna. 

The  life  of  Cujas  was  altogether  that  of  a  scholar  and  teacher. 
In  the  religious  wars  which  filled  all  the  thoughts  of  his  contem- 
poraries he  steadily  refused  to  take  any  part.  Nihil  hoc  ad 
edictum  praeioris,  "  this  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  edict  of  the 
praetor,"  was  his  usual  answer  to  those  who  spoke  to  him  on 
the  subject.  His  surpassing  merit  as  a  jurisconsult  consisted 
in  the  fact  that  he  turned  from  the  ignorant  commentators  on 
Roman  law  to  the  Roman  law  itself.  He  consulted  a  very  large 
number  of  manuscripts,  of  which  he  had  collected  more  than  500 
in  his  own  library;  but,  unfortunately,  he  left  orders  in  his  will 
that  his  library  should  be  divided  among  a  number  of  purchasers, 
and  his  collection  was  thus  scattered,  and  in  great  part  lost.  His 
emendations,  of  which  a  large  number  were  published  under  the 
title  of  Animadversiones  et  observaiiones,  were  not  confined  to  law- 
books,  but  extended  to  many  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  classical 


CULDEES— CULEBRA 


615 


authors.  In  jurisprudence  his  study  was  far  from  being  devoted 
solely  to  Justinian ;  he  recovered  and  gave  to  the  world  a  part  of 
the  Theodosian  Code,  with  explanations;  and  he  procured  the 
manuscript  of  the  Basilica,  a  Greek  abridgment  of  Justinian, 
afterwards  published  by  Fabrot  (see  BASILICA).  He  also  com- 
posed a  commentary  on  the  Consueludines  Feudorum,  and  on 
some  books  of  the  Decretals.  In  the  Paratitla,  or  summaries 
which  he  made  of  the  Digest,  and  particularly  of  the  Code  of 
Justinian,  he  condensed  into  short  axioms  the  elementary 
principles  of  law,  and  gave  definitions  remarkable  for  their 
admirable  clearness  and  precision.  His  lessons,  which  he  never 
dictated,  were  continuous  discourses,  for  which  he  made  no 
other  preparation  than  that  of  profound  meditation  on  the 
subjects  to  be  discussed.  He  was  impatient  of  interruption, 
and  upon  the  least  noise  he  would  instantly  quit  the  chair  and 
retire.  He  was  strongly  attached  to  his  pupils,  and  Scaliger 
affirms  that  he  lost  more  than  4000  livres  by  lending  money  to 
such  of  them  as  were  in  want. 

In  his  lifetime  Cujas  published  an  edition  of  his  works  (Neville, 
!577)-  It  is  beautiful  and  exact,  but  incomplete;  it  is  now  very 
scarce.  The  edition  of  Colombet  (1634)  is  also  incomplete.  Fabrot, 
however,  collected  the  whole  in  the  edition  which  he  published  at 
Paris  (1658),  in  10  vols.  folio,  and  which  was  reprinted  at  Naples 
(1722,  1727),  in  II  vols.  folio,  and  at  Naples  and  at  Venice  (1758), 
in  10  vols.  folio,  with  an  index  forming  an  eleventh  volume.  In  the 
editions  of  Naples  and  Venice  there  are  some  additions  not  to  be 
found  in  that  of  Fabrot,  particularly  a  general  table,  which  will  be 
found  very  useful,  and  interpretations  of  all  the  Greek  words  used 
by  Cujas. 

See  Papire-Masson,  Vie  de  Cujas  (Paris,  1590);  Terrasson,  His- 
toire  de  la  jurisprudence  romaine,  and  Melanges  d'histoire,  de  litte- 
rature,  et  de  jurisprudence;  Bernard!,  £loge  de  Cujas  (Lyons, 
1775);  Hugo,  Civilistisches  Magazin;  Berriat  Saint  Prix,  Memoires 
dt  Cujas,  appended  to  his  Histoire  du  droit  romain;  Biographic 
universelle;  Gravina,  De  orlu  et  progressu  juris  civilis;  Spangen- 
berg,  Cujacius  and  seine  Zeitgenossen  (Leipzig,  1882). 

CULDEES,  an  ancient  monastic  order  with  settlements  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland.  It  was  long  fondly  imagined  by  Pro- 
testant and  especially  by  Presbyterian  writers  that  they  had 
preserved  primitive  Christianity  free  from  Roman  corruptions 
in  one  remote  corner  of  western  Europe,  a  view  enshrined  in 
Thomas  Campbell's  Reullura: 

"  Peace  to  their  shades.     The  pure  Culdees 

Were  Albyn's  earliest  priests  of  God, 

Ere  yet  an  island  of  her  seas 

By  foot  of  Saxon  monk  was  trod." 

Another  view,  promulgated  like  the  above  by  Hector  Boece 
in  his  Latin  history  of  Scotland  (1516),  makes  them  the  direct 
successors  in  the  Qth  to  the  I2th  century  of  the  organized  Irish 
and  lona  monasticism  of  the  6th  to  the  8th  century.  Both  these 
views  were  disproved  by  William  Reeves  (1815-1892),  bishop  of 
Down,  Connor  and  Dromore. 

As  found  in  the  Irish  MSS.  the  name  is  Cele  Di,  i.e.  God's 
comrade  or  sworn  ally.  It  was  latinized  as  Coli  dei,  whence 
Boece's  culdei.  The  term  seems,  like  the  Latin  itir  dei,  to  have 
been  applied  generally  to  monks  and  hermits.  There  are  very 
few  trustworthy  ancient  sources  of  information,  but  it  seems 
probable  that  the  Rule  of  Chrodegang,1  archbishop  of  Metz 
(d.  766),  was  brought  by  Irish  monks  to  their  native  land 
from  the  monasteries  of  north-eastern  Gaul,  and  that  Irish 
anchorites  originally  unfettered  by  the  rules  of  the  cloister 
bound  themselves  by  it.  In  the  course  of  the  9th  century  we  find 
mention  of  nine  places  in  Ireland  (including  Armagh,  Clon- 
macnoise,  Clones,  Devenish  and  Sligo)  where  communities  of 
these  Culdees  were  established  as  a  kind  of  annexe  to  the  regular 
monastic  institutions.  They  seem  especially  to  have  had  the 
care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick,  and  were  interested  in  the  musical 
part  of  worship.  Meanwhile  in  Scotland  the  lona  monks  had 
been  expelled  by  the  Pictish  king  Nechtan  in  717,  and  the 
vacancies  thus  caused  were  by  no  means  filled  by  the  Roman 
monks  who  thronged  into  the  north  from  Northumbria.  Into 

1  Devised  originally  for  the  clergy  of  Chrodegang's  cathedral,  it 
was  largely  an  adaptation  of  St  Benedict's  rule  to  secular  clergy  living 
in  common.  In  816  it  was  confirmed,  with  certain  modifications,  by 
the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  became  the  law  for  collegiate  and 
cathedral  churches  in  the  Frankish  empire.  See  CANON. 


the  gap,  towards  the  end  of  the  8th  century,  came  the  Culdees 
from  Ireland.  The  features  of  their  life  in  Scotland,  which  is 
the  most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  order,  seem  to 
resemble  closely  those  of  the  secular  canons  of  England  and  the 
continent.  From  the  outset  they  were  more  or  less  isolated, 
and,  having  no  fixed  forms  or  common  head,  tended  to  decay. 
In  the  1 2th  century  the  Celtic  Church  was  completely  meta- 
morphosed on  the  Roman  pattern,  and  in  the  process  the  Culdees 
also  lost  any  distinctiveness  they  may  formerly  have  had,  being 
brought,  like  the  secular  clergy,  under  canonical  rule.  The 
pictures  that  we  have  of  Culdee  life  in  the  izth  century  vary 
considerably.  The  chief  houses  in  Scotland  were  at  St  Andrews, 
Dunkeld,  Lochleven,  Monymusk  in  Aberdeenshire,  Abernethy 
and  Brechin.  Each  was  an  independent  establishment  con- 
trolled entirely  by  its  own  abbot  and  apparently  divided  into 
two  sections,  one  priestly  and  the  other  lay  and'  even  married. 
At  St  Andrews  about  the  year  noo  there  were  thirteen  Culdees 
holding  office  by  hereditary  tenure  and  paying  more  regard  to 
their  own  prosperity  and  aggrandizement  than  to  the  services 
of  the  church  or  the  needs  of  the  populace.  A  much-needed 
measure  of  reform,  inaugurated  by  Queen  Margaret,  was  carried 
through  by  her  sons  Alexander  I.  and  David  I.;  gradually  the 
whole  position  passed  into  the  hands  of  Turgot  and  his  successors 
in  the  bishopric.  Canons  Regular  were  instituted  and  some  of 
the  Culdees  joined  the  new  order.  Those  who  declined  were 
allowed  a  life-rent  of  their  revenues  and  lingered  on  as  a  separate 
but  ever-dwindling  body  till  the  beginning  of  the  I4th  century, 
when,  excluded  from  voting  at  the  election  of  the  bishop,  they 
disappear  from  history.  At  Dunkeld,  Crinan,  the  grandfather  of 
Malcolm  Canmore,  was  a  lay  abbot,  and  tradition  says  that 
even  the  clerical  members  were  married,  though  like  the  priests 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  they  lived  apart  from  their  wives  during 
their  term  of  sacerdotal  service.  The  Culdees  of  Lochleven 
lived  on  St  Serf's  Inch,  which  had  been  given  them  by  a  Pictish 
prince,  Brude,  about  850.  In  1093  they  surrendered  their 
island  to  the  bishop  of  St  Andrews  in  return  for  perpetual  food 
and  clothing,  but  Robert,  who  was  bishop  in  1144,  handed  over 
all  their  vestments,  books,2  and  other  property,  with  the  island, 
to  the  newly  founded  Canons  Regular,  in  which  probably  the 
Culdees  were  incorporated.  There  is  no  trace  of  such  partial 
independence  as  was  experienced  at  St  Andrews  itself,  possibly 
because  the  bishop's  grant  was  backed  up  by  a  royal  charter. 
In  the  same  fashion  the  Culdees  of  Monymusk,  originally  perhaps 
a  colony  from  St  Andrews,  became  Canons  Regular  of  the 
Augustinian  order  early  in  the  i3th  century,  and  those  of 
Abernethy  in  1273.  At  Brechin,  famous  like  Abernethy  for  its 
round  tower,  the  Culdee  prior  and  his  monks  helped  to  form  the 
chapter  of  the  diocese  founded  by  David  I.  in  1 145,  though  the 
name  persisted  for  a  generation  or  two.  Similar  absorptions 
no  doubt  account  for  the  disappearance  of  the  Culdees  of  York, 
a  name  borne  by  the  canons  of  St  Peter's  about  925,  and  of 
Snowdon  and  Bardsey  Island  in  north  Wales  mentioned  by 
Giraldus  Cambrensis  (c.  1190)  in  his  Speculum  Ecclesiae  and 
Ilinerarium  respectively.  The  former  community  was,  he  says, 
sorely  oppressed  by  the  covetous  Cistercians.  These  seem  to  be 
the  only  cases  where  the  Culdees  are  found  in  England  and 
Wales.  In  Ireland  the  Culdees  of  Armagh  endured  until  the 
dissolution  in  1541,  and  enjoyed  a  fleeting  resurrection  in  1627, 
soon  after  which  their  ancient  property  passed  to  the  vicars 
choral  of  the  cathedral. 

See  W.  Reeves,  The  Culdees  of  the  British  Islands  (Dublin,  1864); 
W.  F.  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland  (1876-1880),  especially  vol.  ii. ;  W. 
Beveridge,  Makers  of  the  Scottish  Church  (1908).  The  older  view 
will  be  found  in  J.  Jamieson's  Historical  Account  of  the  Ancient 
Culdees  (1811). 

CULEBRA,  the  smaller  of  two  islands  lying  in  the  Virgin 
Passage  immediately  E.  of  Porto  Rico  and  known  as  the  Islas 
de  Passaje.  It  is  about  18  m.  distant  from  Cape  San  Juan  and 
rises  from  the  same  submerged  plateau  with  the  larger  islands  of 
the  Antilles.  Its  extreme  dimensions  are  3  by  6  m.,  and  its 
surface  is  low  and  comparatively  uniform,  which  gives  the 

*  The  list  of  these  in  the  deed  of  transfer  is  the  oldest  Scottish 
library  catalogue. 


6i6 


CULLEN,  P.— CULLEN,  W. 


prevailing  winds  an  unbroken  sweep  across  it.  For  this  reason 
the  rainfall  is  limited  to  a  short  season,  and  the  population  is 
compelled  to  store  rainwater  in  cisterns  for  drinking  purposes. 
Its  soil  is  fertile,  and  cattle,  poultry,  vegetables  and  small 
fruits  are  produced.  The  island  has  been  a  dependency  of 
Porto  Rico  since  1879,  when  its  colonization  was  formally  under- 
taken, and  it  is  now  described  as  a  ward  of  the  Vieques  district 
of  the  department  of  Humacao.  In  1902  the  American  naval 
authorities  selected  the  Playa  Sardinas  harbour  on  the  S.  side 
of  Culebra  as  a  rendezvous  of  the  fleet  and  marine  encampments 
were  located  on  shore.  The  strategic  position  of  the  island,  its 
healthiness  and  its  continued  use  as  a  naval  station  have  given 
it  considerable  importance.  Its  population  was  704  in  1899, 
which  had  increased  to  nearly  1200  in  1903. 

CULLEN,  PAUL  (1803-1878),  cardinal  and  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  was  born  near  Ballytore,  Co.  Kildare,  and  educated 
first  at  the  Quaker  school  at  Carlow  and  afterwards  at  Rome, 
where  he  joined  the  Urban  College  of  the  Propaganda  and,  after 
passing  a  brilliant  course,  was  ordained  in  1829.  He  then 
became  vice-rector,  and  afterwards  rector,  of  the  Irish  National 
College  in  Rome;  and  during  the  Mazzini  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  rector  of  the  Urban  College,  saving  the  property  under  the 
protection  of  the  American  flag.  In  1849,  on  the  strong  recom- 
mendation of  Archbishop  John  MacHale  of  Tuam,  Cullen  was 
nominated  as  successor  to  the  primatial  see  of  Armagh;  and, 
on  his  return  to  Ireland,  presided  as  papal  delegate  at  the 
national  council  of  Thurles  in  the  August  of  1850.  Taking  a 
strong  line  on  the  educational  question  which  was  then  agitating 
Ireland,  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the  national  movement  of 
1850-1852,  and  at  first  supported  the  Tenant  Rights  League. 
In  May  1852  he  was  translated  to  Dublin,  and  soon  a  divergence 
of  opinion  broke  out  bet  ween  him  and  the  more  ardent  National- 
ists under  Archbishop  MacHale.  When  the  Irish  university 
was  started,  with  Newman,  appointed  by  Cullen,  at  its  head, 
the  scheme  was  wrecked  by  the  personal  opposition  to  the 
archbishop  of  Dublin.  As  time  went  on,  his  distrust  of  the 
national  movement  grew  deeper;  and  in  1853  he  sternly  forbade 
his  clergy  to  take  part  publicly  in  politics,  and  for  this  he  was 
denounced  by  the  Tablet  newspaper.  His  own  political  opinion 
had  best  be  told  in  his  own  words.  "  For  thirty  years  I  have 
studied  the  revolution  on  the  continent,  and  for  nearly  thirty 
years  I  have  watched  the  Nationalist  movement  in  Ireland. 
It  is  tainted  at  its  sources  with  the  revolutionary  spirit.  If  any 
attempt  is  made  to  abridge  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Ireland,  it  will  not  be  by  the  English  government  nor 
by  a  '  No  Popery '  cry  in  England,  but  by  the  revolutionary  and 
irreligious  Nationalists  of  Ireland  "  (Purcell's  Life  of  Manning, 
ii.  610).  Cullen,  therefore,  while  an  ardent  patriot,  was  con- 
sistently an  opponent  of  Fenianism.  He  was  made  cardinal  in 
1866,  being  the  first  Irish  cardinal.  Energetic  as  an  adminis- 
trator, churches  and  schools  rose  throughout  his  diocese;  and 
the  excellent  Mater  Misericordiae  Hospital  and  the  seminary 
at  Clonlife  are  lasting  memorials  of  his  zeal.  He  took  part  in 
the  Vatican  Council  as  an  ardent  infallibilist.  In  1873  he  was 
defendant  in  a  libel  action  brought  against  him  by  the  Rev. 
R.  O'Keeffe,  parish  priest  of  Callan,  on  account  of  two  sentences 
of  ecclesiastical  censure  pronounced  by  the  cardinal  as  papal 
delegate.  The  damages  were  laid  at  £10,000.  Three  of  the  four 
judges  allowed  the  defence  of  the  cardinal  to  be  valid;  but  it 
was  held  that  the  papal  rescript  upon  which  he  relied  for  his 
extraordinary  powers  as  delegate  was  illegal  under  statute;  and 
the  lord  chief  justice  decided  that  the  plaintiff  could  not  renounce 
his  natural  and  civil  liberty.  After  several  days'  trial,  during 
which  Cullen  was  submitted  to  a  very  close  examination,  the  ver- 
dict was  given  for  the  plaintiff  with  |d.  damages.  The  cardinal 
died  in  Dublin  on  the  24th  of  October  1878.  (E.  TN.) 

CULLEN,  WILLIAM  (1710-1700),  Scottish  physician  and 
medical  teacher,  was  born  at  Hamilton,  Lanarkshire,  on  the 
15th  of  April  1710.  He  received  his  early  education  at  the 
grammar-school  of  Hamilton,  and  he  appears  to  have  sub- 
sequently attended  some  classes  at  the  university  of  Glasgow. 
He  began  his  medical  career  as  apprentice  to  John  Paisley,  a 


Glasgow  surgeon,  and  after  completing  his  apprenticeship  he 
became  surgeon  to  a  merchant  vessel  trading  between  London 
and  the  West  Indies.  On  his  return  to  Scotland  in  1732  he 
settled  as  a  practitioner  in  the  parish  of  Shotts,  Lanarkshire, 
and  in  1734-1736  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  where 
he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Medical  Society. 
In  1736  he  began  to  practise  in  Hamilton,  where  he  rapidly 
acquired  a  high  reputation.  From  1737  to  1740  William  Hunter 
was  his  resident  pupil,  and  at  one  time  they  proposed  to  enter 
into  partnership.  In  1740  Cullen  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at 
Glasgow,  whither  he  removed  in  1744.  During  his  residence  at 
Hamilton,  besides  the  arduous  duties  of  medical  practice,  he 
found  time  to  devote  to  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  and 
especially  of  chemistry.  On  coming  to  Glasgow  he  appears  to 
have  begun  to  lecture  in  connexion  with  the  university,  the 
medical  school  of  which  was  as  yet  imperfectly  organized. 
Besides  the  subjects  of  theory  and  practice  of  medicine,  he 
lectured  systematically  on  botany,  materia  medica  and  chemistry. 
His  great  abilities,  enthusiasm  and  power  of  conveying  instruction 
made  him  a  successful  and  highly  popular  teacher,  and  his 
classes  increased  largely  in  numbers.  At  the  same  time  he 
diligently  pursued  the  practice  of  his  profession.  Chemistry 
was  the  subject  which  at  this  time  seems  to  have  engaged  the 
greatest  share  of  his  attention.  He  was  himself  a  diligent 
investigator  and  experimenter,  and  he  did  much  to  encourage 
original  research  among  his  pupils,  one  of  whom  was  Dr  Joseph 
Black.  In  1751  he  was  appointed  professor  of  medicine,  but 
continued  to  lecture  on  chemistry,  and  in  1756  he  was  elected 
joint  professor  of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh  along  with  Andrew 
Plummer,  on  whose  death  in  the  following  year  the  sole  appoint- 
ment was  conferred  on  Cullen.  This  chair  he  held  for  ten  years — 
his  classes  always  increasing  in  numbers.  He  also  practised  his 
profession  as  a  physician  with  eminent  success.  From  1757  he 
delivered  lectures  on  clinical  medicine  in  the  Royal  Infirmary. 
This  was  a  work  for  which  his  experience,  habits  of  observation, 
and  scientific  training  peculiarly  fitted  him,  and  in  which  his 
popularity  as  a  teacher,  no  less  than  his  power  as  a  practical 
physician,  became  more  than  ever  conspicuous.  On  the  death 
of  Charles  Alston  in  1760,  Cullen  at  the  request  of  the  students 
undertook  to  finish  his  course  of  lectures  on  materia  medica; 
he  delivered  an  entirely  new  course,  which  were  published  in 
an  unauthorized  edition  in  1771,  but  which  he  re- wrote  and  issued 
as  A  Treatise  on  Materia  Medica  in  1789. 

On  the  death  of  Robert  Whytt  (1714-1766),  the  professor  of 
the  institutes  of  medicine,  Cullen  accepted  the  chair,  at  the  same 
time  resigning  that  of  chemistry.  In  the  same  year  he  had  been 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  professorship  of  the  practice 
of  physic,  but  subsequently  an  arrangement  was  made  between 
him  and  John  Gregory,  who  had  gained  the  appointment,  by 
which  they  agreed  to  deliver  alternate  courses  on  the  theory  and 
practice  of  physic.  This  arrangement  proved  eminently  satis- 
factory, but  it  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  sudden  death  of 
Gregory  in  1773.  Cullen  was  then  appointed  sole  professor  of 
the  practice  of  physic,  and  he  continued  in  this  office  till  a  few 
months  before  his  death,  which  took  place  on  the  5th  of  February 
1790. 

As  a  lecturer  Cullen  appears  to  have  stood  unrivalled  in  his 
day.  His  clearness  of  statement  and  power  of  imparting  interest 
to  the  most  abstruse  topics  were  the  conspicuous  features  of 
his  teaching,  and  in  his  various  capacities  as  a  scientific  lecturer, 
a  physiologist,  and  a  practical  physician,  he  was  ever  surrounded 
with  large  and  increasing  classes  of  intelligent  pupils,  to  whom 
his  eminently  suggestive  mode  of  instruction  was  specially 
attractive.  Living  at  the  time  he  did,  when  the  doctrines  of 
the  humoral  pathologists  were  carried  to  an  extreme  extent, 
and  witnessing  the  ravages  which  disease  made  on  the  solid 
structures  of  the  body,  it  was  not  surprising  that  he  should 
oppose  a  doctrine  which  appeared  to  him  to  lead  to  a  false  practice 
and  to  fatal  results,  and  adopt  one  which  attributed  more  to 
the  agency  of  the  solids  and  very  little  to  that  of  the  fluids  of 
the  body.  His  chief  works  were  First  Lines  of  the  Practice  of 
Physic  (1774);  Institutions  of  Medicine  (1770);  and  Synopsis 


CULLEN— CULM 


617 


Nosologicae  Medicae  (1785),  which  contained  his  classification 
of  diseases  into  four  great  classes — (i)  Pyrexiae,  or  febrile  diseases, 
as  typhus  fever;  (2)  Neuroses,  or  nervous  diseases,  as  epilepsy; 
(3)  Cachexiae,  or  diseases  resulting  from  bad  habit  of  body, 
as  scurvy;  and  (4)  Locales,  or  local  diseases,  as  cancer. 

Cullen's  eldest  son  Robert  became  a  Scottish  judge  in  1796 
under  the  title  of  Lord  Cullen,  and  was  known  for  his  powers  of 
mimicry. 

The  first  volume  of  an  account  of  Cullen's  Life,  Lectures  and 
Writings  was  published  by  Dr  John  Thomson  in  1832,  and  was  re- 
issued with  the  second  volume  (completing  the  work)  by  Drs  W. 
Thomson  and  D.  Craigie  in  1859. 

CULLEN,  a  royal,  municipal  and  police  burgh  of  Banffshire, 
Scotland.  Pop.  (1901)  1936.  It  is  situated  on  Cullen  Bay, 
n5  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Banff  and  66£  m.  N.W.  of  Aberdeen  by  the 
Great  North  of  Scotland  railway.  Deskford  Burn,  after  a  course 
of  75  m.,  enters  the  sea  at  Cullen,  which  it  divides  into  two  parts, 
Seatown,  the  older,  and  Newtown,  dating  only  from  1822.  St 
Mary's,  the  parish  church,  a  cruciform  structure,  was  founded 
by  Robert  Bruce,  whose  second  wife  died  at  Cullen.  The  in- 
dustries include  rope  and  sail  making,  boat-building,  brewing 
and  fishing.  The  harbour,  constructed  between  1817  and  1834, 
though  artificial,  is  one  of  the  best  on  this  coast.  About  i  m.  to 
the  S.  is  Cullen  House,  a  seat  of  the  earl  of  Seafield,  which  con- 
tains some  fine  works  of  art.  A  mile  and  a  half  to  the  W.  is 
the  picturesque  fishing  village  of  Port  Knockie  with  a  deep-sea 
harbour,  built  in  1891.  On  the  cliffs,  2  m.  to  the  E.,  stand  the 
ruins  of  Findlater  Castle,  fortified  in  1455.  From  1638  to  1811, 
when  the  title  expired,  it  gave  the  title  of  earl  to  the  Ogilvies, 
whose  name  was  adopted  in  addition  to  his  own  by  Sir  Lewis 
Alexander  Grant,  when  he  succeeded,  as  sth  earl  of  Seafield, 
to  the  surviving  dignities.  Five  miles  to  the  E.  of  Cullen  is  the 
thriving  fishing  town  of  Portsoy,  with  a  small,  safe  harbour  and 
a  station  on  the  Great  North  of  Scotland  railway.  Besides  the 
fisheries  there  is  fish-curing  and  a  distillery;  and  the  quarrying 
of  a  pink-coloured  variety  of  granite  and  of  Portsoy  marble  is 
carried  on.  Good  limestone  is  also  found  in  the  district.  Pop. 
(1901)  2061. 

CULLERA,  a  seaport  of  eastern  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Valencia;  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Jucar,  and  at  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Valencia-Silla-Cullera 
railway.  Pop.  (1900)  11,947.  Culleraisa  walled  town,  contain- 
ing a  ruined  Moorish  citadel,  large  barracks,  several  churches 
and  convents  and  a  hospital.  It  occupies  the  Jucar  valley,  south 
of  the  Sierra  de  Zorras,  a  low  range  of  hills  which  terminates 
eastward  in  Cape  Cullera,  a  conspicuous  headland  surmounted 
by  a  lighthouse.  To  the  south  and  west  extends  a  rich  agricul- 
tural district,  noted  for  its  rice.  Besides  farming  and  fishing, 
the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  coasting  trade  with  various  Mediter- 
ranean ports.  In  1903  the  harbour  was  entered  by  66  vessels 
of  about  25,000  tons,  engaged  in  the  exportation  of  grain,  rice 
and  fruit,  and  the  importation  of  guano.  The  town  of  Sueca 
(q.v .)  is  4  m.  W.N.W.  by  rail. 

CULLINAN,  a  town  of  the  Transvaal,  36  m.  by  rail  E.  by  N. 
of  Pretoria.  It  grew  up  round  the  Premier  diamond  mine  and 
dates  from  1903,  being  named  after  T.  Cullinan,  the  purchaser 
of  the  ground  on  which  the  mine  is  situated.  Here  was  discovered 
in  January  1905  a  diamond — the  largest  on  record — weighing 
3025$  carats.  This  diamond  was  in  1907  presented  by  the 
Transvaal  government  to  Edward  VII.  and  was  subsequently 
cut  into  two  stones,  one  of  5 165  carats,  the  other  of  309  carats, 
intended  to  ornament  the  sceptre  and  crown  of  England.  The 
"  chippings"  yielded  several  smaller  diamonds  (see DIAMOND). 

CULLODEN,  a  desolate  tract  of  moorland,  Inverness-shire, 
Scotland.  It  forms  part  of  the  north-east  of  Drummossie 
Muir,  and  is  situated  about  6  m.  by  road  E.  of  Inverness,  and 
$  m.  from  Culloden  Muir  station  on  the  Highland  railway  from 
Aviemore  to  Inverness  via  Daviot.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  scene 
of  the  battle  of  the  i6th  of  April  1746  (see  CUMBERLAND,  WILLIAM 
AUGUSTUS,  DUKE  OF,  and  MURRAY,  LORD  GEORGE),  by  which 
the  fate  of  the  house  of  Stuart  was  decided.  By  Highlanders  the 
battle  is  more  generally  described  as  the  battle  of  Drummossie. 


Memorial  stones  bearing  the  names  of  the  clans  engaged  in  the 
conflict  were  erected  in  1881  at  the  head  of  each  trench  where  the 
clansmen — about  1000  in  number — were  buried.  A  monumental 
cairn,  20  ft.  high,  marks  the  chief  scene  of  the  fight,  and  the 
Cumberland  Stone,  a  huge  boulder,  indicates  the  spot  where 
the  English  commander  took  up -his  position.  A  niile  to  the 
north  is  Culloden  House,  which  belonged  to  Duncan  Forbes, 
the  president  of  the  Court  of  Session.  The  Culloden  Papers,  a 
number  of  historical  documents  ranging  from  1625  to  1748, 
were  discovered  in  this  mansion  in  1812  and  published  in  1815 
by  Duncan  George  Forbes.  On  the  death  of  the  loth  laird, 
the  collection  of  Jacobite  relics  and  works  of  art  was  sold  by 
auction  in  1897.  About  i  m.  to  the  south  of  the  field,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nairn,  is  the  plain  of  Clava,  containing  several 
stone  circles,  monoliths,  cairns  and  other  prehistoric  remains. 
The  circles,  some  apparently  never  completed,  vary  in  circum- 
ference from  12  yds.  to  140  yds. 

CULM,  in  geology,  the  name  applied  to  a  peculiar  local  phase 
of  the  Carboniferous  system.  In  1837  A.  Sedgwick  and  R.  I. 
Murchison  classified  into  two  divisions  the  dark  shales,  grits 
and  impure  limestones  which  occupy  a  large  area  in  Devonshire 
and  extend  into  the  neighbouring  counties  of  Somerset  and  Corn- 
wall. These  two  divisions  were  the  Upper  and  Lower  Culm 
Measures,  so  named  from  certain  impure  coals,  locally  called 
"culm,"1  contained  within  the  shales  near  Bideford.  Sub- 
sequently, these  two  geologists,  when  prosecuting  their  researches 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  applied  the  same  name  to  similar 
rocks  which  contained,  amongst  others,  Posidonomya  Becheri, 
common  to  the  phase  of  sedimentation  in  both  areas. 

The  Culm  measures  of  the  Devonshire  district  are  folded 
into  a  broad  syncline  with  its  axis  running  east  and  west;  but 
within  this  major  fold  the  rocks  have  been  subjected  to  much 
compression  accompanied  by  minor  folding.  This  circumstance, 
together  with  the  apparent  barrenness  of  the  strata,  has  always 
made  a  correct  interpretation  of  their  position  and  relationships 
a  matter  of  difficulty;  and  for  long  they  were  regarded  as  an 
abnormal  expression  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  with  the  upper- 
most beds  as  doubtful  equivalents  of  the  Millstone  Grit  of  other 
parts  of  Britain.  The  labours  of  W.  A.  E.  Ussher  and  of  G.  J. 
Hinde  and  H.  Fox  have  resulted  in  the  differentiation  of  the 
following  subdivisions  in  the  Devonshire  Culm: — (i)  Upper 
Culm  Measures  or  Eggesford  grits;  (2)  Middle  Culm  Measures, 
comprising  the  Morchard,  Tiverton  and  Ugbrooke  lithological 
types  overlying  the  Exeter  type;  (3)  Lower  Culm,  the  Posido- 
nomya limestone  and  shale  overlying  the  Coddon  Hill  beds  with 
radiolaria.  Ussher's  subdivisions  were  introduced  to  satisfy 
the  exigencies  of  geological  mapping,  but,  as  he  pointed  out, 
while  they  are  necessary  in  some  parts  of  the  district  and  con- 
venient in  others,  the  lithological  characters  upon  which  they 
are  founded  are  variable  and  inconstant.  More  recently  E.  A.  N. 
Arber  (1904-1907)  clearly  demonstrated  that  no  palaeontological 
subdivision  of  the  Upper  Culm  (Middle  and  Upper)  is  possible, 
and  that  these  strata,  on  the  evidence  of  the  fossil  plants, 
represent  the  Middle  Coal  Measures  of  other  partsof  the  country. 
Wheelton  Hind  has  called  attention  to  the  probability  that  the 
Posidonomya  limestone  and  shale  may  represent  the  Pendleside 
group  of  Lancashire,  Derbyshire,  &c.  The  Coddon  Hill  beds 
may  belong  to  thisor  to  a  lower  horizon.  Thus  the  English  Culm 
measures  comprise  an  Upper  Carboniferous  and  a  Lower  Carboni- 
ferous group,  while  in  Germany,  Austria  and  elsewhere,  as  it  is 
important  to  bear  in  mind,  the  Culm,  or  "  Kulm,"  stage  is  shown 
by  its  contained  fossils  to  belong  to  the  lower  division  alone. 

The  typical  Carboniferous  limestone  of  the  Franco-Belgian 
area  changes  as  it  is  traced  towards  the  east  and  south  into  the 
sandy,  shaly  Culm  phase,  with  the  characteristic  "  Posidonia  " 
(Posidonomya)  schists.  This  aspect  of  the  Culm  is  found  in 
Saxony,  where  there  are  workable  coals,  in  Bohemia,  Thuringia, 
the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Harz,  where  the  beds  are  traversed  by 
mineral  veins,  and  in  Moravia  and  Silesia.  In  the  last-mentioned 
region  the  thickness  of  the  Culm  formation  has  been  estimated 

1  This  word  is  possibly  connected  with  col,  coal ;  distinguish 
"  culm,"  the  stem  of  a  plant,  Lat.  culmus. 


6i8 


CULMINATION— CUMAE 


by  D.  Stur  at  over  45,000  ft.  In  the  east  and  south  of  the 
Schiefergebirge  (a  general  term  for  the  slaty  mountains  of  the 
Hundsruck  and  Taunus  range,  the  Westerwald  and  part  of  the 
Eifel  district),  the  Culm  shales  pass  upwards  into  a  coarser 
deposit,  the  "  Culm-grauwacke,"  which  attains  a  considerable 
thickness  and  superficial  extent.  Culm  fossils  appear  in  the 
Carnic  Alps,  in  the  Balkans  and  parts  of  Spain,  also  in  Spitz- 
bergen  and  part  of  New  Guinea. 

The  most  characteristic  fossil  is  of  course  Posidonomya 
Becheri;  others  are  Glyphioceras  sphaericum,  Rhodea  patentissima, 
Aslerocalamites  scrobiculatus  (Schloth),  Lepidodendron  •udtheimia- 
num,  Gastrioceras  carbonarium. 

See  E.  A.  N.  Arber,  "  On  the  Upper  Carboniferous  Rocks  of 
West  Devon  and  North  Cornwall."  Q.J.G.S.  Ixiii.  (1907),  which  con- 
tains a  bibliography  of  the  English  Culm;  E.  Holzapfel,  Palaont. 
Abhandl.  Bd.  v.  Heft  i.  (1889);  H.  Potoni6,  Abhandl.  preuss.  geol. 
Landesanst.,  Neue  Folge,  36  (1901);  D.  Stur,  "  Die  Culm  Flora," 
Abhandl.  k.k.  geol.  Reichsanst.  viii.  (Vienna,  1875).  (J.  A.  H.) 

CULMINATION  (from  Lat.  culmen,  summit),  the  attainment 
of  the  highest  point.  In  astronomy  the  term  is  given  to  the 
passage  of  a  heavenly  body  over  the  meridian  of  a  place.  Two 
culminations  take  place  in  the  course  of  the  day,  one  above  and 
the  other  below  the  pole.  The  first  is  called  the  upper,  the  second 
the  lower.  Either  or  both  may  occur  below  the  horizon  and 
therefore  be  invisible. 

CULPRIT,  properly  the  prisoner  at  the  bar,  one  accused  of 
a  crime;  so  used,  generally,  of  one  guilty  of  an  offence.  In 
origin  the  word  is  a  combination  of  two  Anglo-French  legal 
words,  culpable,  guilty,  and  prit  or  prist,  i.e.  prest,  Old  French  for 
prU,  ready.  On  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  pleading  "  not  guilty," 
the  clerk  of  the  crown  answered  "  culpable,"  and  stated  that  he 
was  ready  (prest)  to  join  issue.  The  words  cul.  prist  (or  prit)  were 
then  entered  on  the  roll  as  showing  that  issue  had  been  joined. 
When  French  law  terms  were  discontinued  the  words  were  taken 
as  forming  one  word  addressed  to  the  prisoner.  The  formula 
"  Culprit,  how  will  you  be  tried  ?"  in  answer  to  a  plea  of  "not 
guilty,"  is  first  found  in  the  trial  for  murder  of  the  7th  earl  of 
Pembroke  in  1678. 

CULROSS  (locally  pronounced  Coo-rus),  a  royal  and  police 
burgh,  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  65  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Dunfermline  and 
2j  m.  from  East  Grange  station  on  the  North  British  railway 
company's  line  from  Dunfermline  to  Stirling.  Pop.  348.  Until 
1890  it  belonged  to  the  detached  portion  of  Perthshire.  Attrac- 
tively situated  on  a  hillside  sloping  gently  to  the  Forth,  its 
placid  old-world  aspect  is  in  keeping  with  its  great  antiquity. 
Here  St  Serf  carried  on  his  missionary  labours,  and  founded  a 
church  and  cemetery,  and  here  he  died  and  was  buried.  For 
centuries  the  townsfolk  used  to  celebrate  his  day  (July  ist)  by 
walking  in  procession  bearing  green  boughs.  Kentigern,  the 
apostle  to  Cumbria  and  first  bishop  of  Glasgow,  was  born  at 
Culross,  his  mother  having  been  driven  ashore  during  a  tempest, 
and  was  adopted  by  St  Serf  as  his  son.  These  religious  associa- 
tions, coupled  with  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  led  to  the  founding 
of  a  Cistercian  abbey  in  1 2 1 7.  Of  this  structure  the  only  remains 
are  the  western  tower  and  the  choir,  which,  greatly  altered  as 
well  as  repaired  early  in  the  igth  century,  now  forms  the  parish 
church.  It  is  supposed  that  a  chapel  of  which  some  traces  exist 
in  the  east  end  of  the  town  was  dedicated  to  Kentigern.  James 
VI.  made  Culross  a  royal  burgh  in  1588.  In  1808  there  was 
discovered  in  the  abbey  church,  embalmed  in  a  silver  casket, 
still  preserved  there,  bearing  his  name  and  arms,  the  heart  of 
Edward,  Lord  Bruce  of  Kinloss,  who  was  killed  in  August  1613 
near  Bergen-op-Zoom  in  a  duel  with  Sir  Edward  Sackville, 
afterwards  earl  of  Dorset.  Robert  Pont  (1524-1606),  the  Re- 
former, was  born  at  Shirresmiln,  or  Shiresmill,  a  hamlet  in  Culross 
parish.  Nearly  all  its  old  industries— the  coal  mines,  salt  works, 
linen  manufacture,  and  even  the  making  of  iron  girdles  for  the 
baking  of  scones — have  dwindled,  but  its  pleasant  climate  and 
picturesqueness  make  it  a  holiday  resort.  Dunimarle  Castle, 
a  handsome  structure  on  the  sea-shore,  adjoins  the  site  of  the 
castle  where,  according  to  tradition,  Macbeth  slew  the  wife 
and  children  of  Macduff.  Culross  belongs  to  the  Stirling  district 
group  of  parliamentary  burghs. 


Ransome's  Spring  Tine  Cultivator. 


CULTIVATOR,1  also  called  SCUFFLER,  SCARIFIER  or  GRUBBER, 
an  agricultural  implement  employed  in  breaking  up  land  or  in 
stirring  it  after  ploughing.  The  first  all-iron  cultivator,  known 
as  Finlayson's  grubber,  was  a  large  harrow  with  curved  teeth 
carried  on  wheels,  and  was  brought  out  about  1820.  It  was 
designed  to  meet  the  need  for  some  implement  of  intermediate 
character  between  the  plough  and  harrow,  which  should  stir 
the  soil  deeply  and  expeditiously  without  reversing  it,  and  bring 
the  weeds  unbroken 
^o  the  surface.  The 
chief  modern  im- 
provement has  been 
the  imparting  of 
vibratory  movement 
and  hence  greater 
stirring  capacity  to 
the  tines,  either  by 
making  them  of 
spring  steel  or  by 
fitting  springs  to  the 
point  of  attachment 
of  the  tine  to  the 
framework  of  the 
machine.  In  its 
modern  form  the  implement  consists  of  a  framework  fitted  with 
rows  of  curved  stems  or  tines,  which  may  be  raised  clear  of  the 
ground  or  lowered  into  work  by  means  of  a  lever,  and  differs 
from  the  harrow  in  that  it  is  provided  with  two  wheels,  which 
prevent  the  tines  from  embedding  themselves  too  deeply  in  the 
soil.  -The  stems  may  be  fitted  either  with  chisel-points  or  with 
broad  shares,  according  as  it  is  required  to  merely  stir  the  soil 
or  to  bring  up  weeds  and  clean  the  surface.  In  the  disk  cultivator 
revolving  disks  take  the  place  of  tines.  The  implement  is  usually 
provided  with  a  seat  for  the  driver  and  is  drawn  by  horses,  but 
steam  power  is  also  commonly  applied  to  it,  the  speed  of  the 
operation  in  that  case  increasing  its  effectiveness.  The  method 
is  the  same  as  that  of  steam-ploughing  (see  PLOUGH). 

CUMAE  (Gr.  Kujur;),  an  ancient  city  of  Campania,  Italy,  about 
1 2  m.  W.  of  Neapolis,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Campania,  on  a  volcanic 
eminence,  overlooking  the  plain  traversed  by  the  Volturno. 

There  are  many  legends  as  to  its  foundation,  but  even  the 
actual  period  of  its  colonization  by  the  Greeks  is  so  early  (ancient 
authorities  give  it  as  1050  B.C.)  that  there  is  some  doubt  as  to 
who  established  it,  whether  Chalcidians  from  Euboea  or  Aeolians 
from  KiiM'?(Cyme),  and  it  should  probably  be  regarded  as  a  joint 
settlement.  It  was  certainly,  as  Strabo  says,  the  oldest  of  the 
Greek  colonies  on  the  mainland  of  Italy  or  in  Sicily.  Livy  tells 
us  (viii.  22)  that  the  settlers  first  landed  on  Pithecusae  (Ischia) 
and  thence  transferred  their  position  to  the  mainland,  which 
seems  a  probable  story.  We  find  it  in  721  B.C.  founding  Zancle 
(Messina)  in  Sicily  jointly  with  Chalcis,  and  it  extended  its 
power  gradually  over  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Puteoli  and  the 
harbours  of  the  promontory  of  Misenum.  Puteoli  itself  under 
the  name  Dicaearchia  was  probably  founded  by  Cumae.  In  the 
7th  century,  according  to  the  legends,  Parthenope,  whither  the 
demos  of  Cumae  had  taken  refuge  after  an  unsuccessful  rising 
against  the  aristocracy,  was  attacked  by  the  latter  and  destroyed, 
but  soon  rebuilt  under  the  name  of  Neapolis  (New  City,  the 
present  Naples).2  The  most  fertile  portion  of  the  Campanian 
plain  was  also  under  its  dominion;  the  name  "  fossa  Graeca  " 
still  lingered  on  in  205  B.C.  to  testify  to  its  ancient  limits.  Cumae 
was  now  at  the  height  of  its  power,  and  many  fine  coins  testify 
to  its  prosperity.  In  524  B.C.  it  was  the  object  of  a  joint  attack 
by  the  Etruscans  of  Capua,  the  Daunians  of  the  district  of  Npla, 
and  the  Aurunci  of  the  Mons  Massicus.  A  brilliant  victory  was, 
however,  won  in  the  hilly  district  outside  the  town,  largely  owing 

1  From  Late  Lat.  cultivare,  through  cultivus,  from  colere,  to  till, 
cultivate;  whence  cult  its,  worship,  form  of  religion,  cult. 

2  Mommsen,  however  (Corpus  Inscrip.  Latin,  x.,   Berlin,   1883, 
p.    170),  rightly  throws  considerable  doubt  on  the  existence  of 
Parthenope  and  even  of  Palaeopolis,  of  which  there  is  some  men- 
tion in  Roman  annals;  under  both  he  is  inclined  to  trace  Cumae 
itself. 


CUM  ANA— CUMBERLAND,  DUKES  AND  EARLS  OF        619 


to  the  bravery  of  Aristodemus,  who  then  led  a  force  to  the  relief 
of  Aricia,  which  was  being  attacked  by  the  Etruscans,  and, 
returning  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  army,  overturned  the 
aristocracy  and  made  himself  tyrant,  but  was  ultimately 
murdered  by  the  aristocrats.  These  were  unable  to  repel  a 
renewed  Etruscan  attack  without  the  help  of  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
who  in  the  battle  of  Cumae  of  474  B.C.  drove  the  Etruscan  fleet 
from  the  sea,  and  broke  their  power  in  Campania. 

The  Samnites  finally  destroyed  the  Etruscan  supremacy  by 
the  capture  of  Capua  in  the  latter  half  of  the  5th  century  (see 
CAPUA;  CAMPANIA),  and  the  Greeks  of  Cumae  were  overwhelmed 
by  the  same  invasion,  either  in  420  B.C.  (Livy  iv.  44)  or  in  421 
(Diodor.  Sic.  xii.  76),  if  his  statement  is  drawn  from  Greek  sources, 
428  if  it  is  to  be  dated  by  the  Roman  consuls  to  whose  year  he 
ascribes  it.  This  catastrophe  brought  to  an  end  the  beautiful 
series  of  Greek  coins  from  the  town  (B.  V.  Head,  Historia 
Numorum,  p.  31),  and  Oscan  became  its  language,  though  in 
many  respects  the  Greek  character  of  the  town  survived  (Strabo 
v.  4.  3,  and  the  other  references  given  by  R.  S.  Con  way,  Italic 
Dialects,  p.  84).  One  or  two  inscriptions  in  Oscan  survive 
(id.  ib.  88-92),  one  of  which  is  a  lovila  or  heraldic  dedication. 
The  date  of  the  general  disuse  of  Oscan  in  the  town  appears  to  be 
fixed  about  180  B.C.  by  the  request  (Livy  xl.  44)  which  the 
Cumaeans  addressed  to  Rome  that  they  might  be  allowed  to  use 
Latin  for  public  purposes.  Cumae  now  ceased  to  have  any 
independent  history.  It  came  under  the  supremacy  of  Rome 
in  343  (or  340)  as  Capua  did,  obtained  the  civilas  sine  suffragio 
and  was  governed  after  318  by  the  praefecli  Capttam  Cumas. 

(R.  S.  C.) 

In  the  Hannibalic  wars  it  remained  faithful  to  Rome.  It 
probably  acquired  civic  rights  in  the  Social  War  and  remained 
a  municipium  until  Augustus  established  a  colony  here.  Under 
the  empire  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  quiet  country  town,  in  contrast 
to  the  gay  and  fashionable  Baiae,  which,  however,  with  the 
lacus  Avernus  and  lacus  Litcrinus,  formed  a  part  of  its  territory. 
Cicero's  villa  on  the  east  bank  of  the  latter,  for  example,  which 
he  called  the  Academia,  was  also  known  as  Cumanum.  In  the 
Gothic  wars  the  acropolis  of  Cumae  was,  except  Naples,  the  only 
fortified  town  in  Campania,  and  it  retained  its  military  import- 
ance until  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Neapolitans  in  1205,  since 
which  time  it  has  been  deserted. 

The  acropolis  hill  (269  ft.  above  sea-level),  a  mass  of  trachyte 
which  has  broken  through  the  surrounding  tufa,  lies  hardly 
loo  yds.  from  the  low  sandy  shore.  It  is  traversed  by  caves; 
which  are  at  three  different  levels  with  many  branches.  Some 
of  them  may  belong  to  a  remote  date,  while  others  may  be 
quarries,  but  they  have  not  been  thoroughly  investigated.  They 
are  famous  in  legend  as  the  seat  of  the  oracle  of  the  Cumaean 
Sibyl. 

The  acropolis  has  only  one  approach,  on  the  south-east; 
on  all  other  sides  it  falls  away  steeply.  Remains  of  fortifications 
of  all  ages  run  round  the  edge  of  the  hill;  some  of  the  original 
Greek  work,  in  finely  hewn  rectangular  tufa  blocks,  exists  on 
the  east.  The  medieval  line  follows  the  ancient,  except  on  the 
N.E.,  where  it  takes  in  a  larger  area. 

Within  the  acropolis  stood  the  temple  of  Apollo,  erected, 
according  to  tradition,  by  Daedalus  himself,  the  remains  of 
which,  restored  in  Roman  times,  were  discovered  in  1817,  on 
the  eastern  and  lower  summit.  On  the  higher  western  summit 
stood  another  temple,  excavated  in  1792,  but  now  covered  up 
again.  This  may  be  that  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  (Liv.  xxvii.  23). 

There  are  also  various  remains  of  buildings  of  the  imperial 
period,  and  these  are  far  more  frequent  on  the  site  of  the  lower 
town  (now  occupied  by  vineyards)  which  lies  below  the  acropolis 
to  the  south.  The  line  of  the  city  walls  can  be  traced  both  on 
the  E.  and  on  the  W.,  though  the  remains  on  the  E.  are  insignifi- 
cant, and  on  the  W.  (the  seaward  side)  only  the  scarping  of  the 
hill  remains.  To  the  S.  of  the  town,  just  outside  the  wall,  is 
the  amphitheatre.  To  the  N.  of  it  is  the  point  where  the  roads 
from  Liternum  (the  Via  Domitiana  running  along  the  sandy 
coast),  Capua  (a  branch  of  the  Via  Campana),  Misenum  and 
Puteoli  meet.  The  last  passes  through  the  Area  Felice,  an  arch 


of  brick-faced  concrete  63  ft.  high  which  spans  a  cutting  through 
the  Monte  Grillo,  made  by  Domitian  to  shorten  the  course  of  the 
road,  which  had  hitherto  run  farther  north.  The  Grotto  della 
Pace  leads  to  the  shores  of  Avernus.  On  the  E.  side  of  Cumae 
are  considerable  remains  of  the  Roman  period,  among  them 
those  of  the  temple  of  Demeter,  as  restored  by  the  family  of 
the  Lucceii. 

The  cemeteries  of  Cumae  extended  on  all  sides  of  the  ancient 
city,  except  towards  the  sea,  but  the  most  important  lay  on  the 
north,  between  this  temple  and  the  Lago  di  Licola.  Excavations 
during  the  igth  century  in  Greek,  Samnite  and  Roman  graves 
have  produced  many  important  objects,  now  in  the  various 
museums  of  Europe,  but  especially  at  Naples.  Recent  discoveries 
in  this  necropolis  (including  that  of  a  circular  archaic  tomb  with 
a  conical  roof)  have  led  to  considerable  discussion  as  to  the  true 
date  of  the  foundation  of  Cumae,  and  have  made  it  clear  that, 
in  any  case,  a  pre-Hellenic  indigenous  settlement  existed  here — a 
result  of  great  importance. 

See  J.  Beloch,  Campanien  (Breslau,  1890),  145  seq.;  G.  Pellegrini, 
Afonumenti  dei  Lincei,  xiii.  (1903);  G.  Patronl,  Atti  del  Congresso 
di  Scienze  Storiche  (1904),  vol.  v.  p.  215  seq.  (T.  As.) 

CUMANA,  a  city  and  port  of  Venezuela,  capital  of  the  state 
of  Bermudez,  situated  on  the  Manzanares  river  about  i  m. 
above  its  mouth,  52  ft.  above  sea-level  and  180  m.  E.  of  Caracas. 
It  is  the  oldest  existing  European  settlement  on  the  South 
American  continent,  having  been  founded  by  Diego  Castellon 
in  1523  under  the  name  of  Nueva  Toledo.  The  city  was  almost 
totally  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1766,  and  again  in  1797. 
Slight  shocks  are  very  frequent,  some  of  them  severe  enough  to 
cause  considerable  damage  to  the  buildings.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  83°  F.  and  the  climate  is  enervating.  In  colonial 
times  the  city  was  rich  and  prosperous  and  enjoyed  a  lucrative 
trade  with  the  mother  country,  its  population  at  that  time  being 
estimated  at  30,000,  but  much  of  its  prosperity  has  disappeared 
and  its  population  is  now  estimated  at  10,000.  Excellent  fruits 
are  produced  in  its  vicinity,  and  its  exports  include  cacao,  coffee, 
sugar,  hides,  tobacco  and  sundry  products  in  small  quantities. 
A.  tramway  connects  the  city  with  its  port  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Manzanares. 

CUMBERLAND,  DUKES  AND  EARLS  OF.  The  earldom  of 
Cumberland  was  held  by  the  family  of  Clifford  (q.v.)  from  1525 
to  1643,  when  it  became  extinct  by  the  death  of  Henry,  the  5th 
earl.  The  ist  earl  of  Cumberland  was  Henry,  nth  Lord  Clifford 
(1493-1542),  a  son  of  Henry,  loth  Lord  Clifford  (c.  1454-1523). 
Created  an  earl  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1525,  Henry  remained  loyal 
during  the  great  rising  in  the  north  of  England  in  1536,  and 
died  on  the  22nd  of  April  1542.  His  son  and  successor,  Henry, 
the  2nd  earl  (c.  1517-1570),  married  Eleanor  (d.  1547),  a  daughter 
of  Charles  Brandon,  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  Mary,  daughter  of 
King  Henry  VII. ;  he  had  the  tastes  of  a  scholar  rather  than  a 
soldier,  and  died  early  in  1570.  By  his  first  wife,  Eleanor,  he 
left  an  only  daughter  Margaret  (1540-1596),  who  married  Henry 
Stanley,  4th  earl  of  Derby,  and  who  in  1557  was  regarded  by 
many  as  the  rightful  heiress  to  the  English  throne.  By  his 
second  wife  he  left  two  sons  and  a  daughter;  his  elder  son  George 
succeeding  to  the  earldom  in  1570,  and  his  younger  son  FrjMicis 
succeeding  his  brother  in  1605.  George,  3rd  earl  of  Cumberland 
(1558-1605),  was  born  on  the  8th  of  August  1558,  and  marrie'd 
Margaret  (c.  1560-1616),  daughter  of  his  guardian,  Francis, 
2nd  earl  of  Bedford.  Although  interested  in  mathematics  and 
geography  he  passed  his  early  years  in  dissipation  and  extrava- 
gance; then  he  took  to  the  sea,  commanded  the  "  Bonaventure  " 
against  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  from  this  time  until  his  death 
on  the  30th  of  October  1605  was  mainly  engaged  in  fitting  out 
and  leading  plundering  expeditions,  some  of  which,  especially 
the  one  undertaken  in  1589,  gained  a  large  amount  of  booty. 
The  earl  left  no  sons,  and  his  barony  was  claimed  by  his  only 
daughter  Anne  (1590-1676),  the  wife  successively  of  Richard 
Sackville,  3rd  earl  of  Dorset,  and  of  Philip  Herbert,  4th  earl  of 
Pembroke  and  Montgomery;  while  his  earldom  was  inherited 
by  his  brother  Francis  (1550-1641).  A  long  law-suit  between 
the  new  earl  and  the  countess  Anne  over  the  possession  of  the 


620 


CUMBERLAND,  BISHOP 


family  estates  was  settled  in  1617.  The  5th  earl  was  Francis's 
only  son  Henry  (1591-1643),  who  was  born  on  the  28th  of 
February  1591,  and  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
He  was  a  supporter  of  Charles  I.  during  his  two  short  wars  with 
the  Scots,  and  also  during  the  Civil  War  until  his  death  on  the 
nth  of  December  1643.  He  left  no  sons;  his  earldom  became 
extinct;  his  new  barony  of  Clifford,  created  in  1628,  passed  to 
his  daughter  Elizabeth  (1618-1691),  wife  of  Richard  Boyle,  earl 
of  Cork  and  Burlington;  and  the  Cumberland  estates  to  his 
cousin  Anne,  countess  of  Dorset  and  Pembroke. 

In  1644  the  English  title  of  duke  of  Cumberland  was  created 
in  favour  of  Rupert,  son  of  Frederick  V.,  elector  palatine  of  the 
Rhine,  and  nephew  of  Charles  I.  Having  lapsed  on  Rupert's 
death  without  legitimate  issue  in  1682,  it  was  created  again  in 
1689  to  give  an  English  title  to  George,  prince  of  Denmark, 
who  had  married  the  lady  who  afterwards  became  Queen  Anne. 
It  again  became  extinct  when  George  died  in  1708,  but  was 
revived  in  1726  in  favour  of  William  Augustus,  third  son  of 
George  II.  As  this  duke  was  never  married  the  title  lapsed  on  his 
death  in  1765,  but  was  revived  in  the  following  year  in  favour 
of  Henry  Frederick  (1745-1790),  son  of  Frederick,  prince  of 
Wales,  and  brother  of  George  III.  Having  again  become 
extinct  on  Henry  Frederick's  death,  the  title  of  duke  of  Cumber- 
land was  created  for  the  fifth  time  in  favour  of  Ernest  Augustus, 
who  was  made  duke  of  Cumberland  and  Teviotdale  in  1799. 
In  1837  Ernest  (q.v.)  became  king  of  Hanover,  and  on  his  death 
in  1851  the  title  descended  with  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  to  his 
son  King  George  V.  (q.v.),  and  on  George's  death  in  1878  to  his 
grandson  Ernest  Augustus  (b.  1845).  In  1866  Hanover  was 
annexed  by  Prussia,  but  King  George  died  without  renouncing 
his  rights.  His  son  Ernest,  while  maintaining  his  claim  to  the 
kingdom  of  Hanover,  is  generally  known  by  his  title  of  duke  of 
Cumberland. 

CUMBERLAND,  RICHARD  (1632-1718),  English  philosopher 
and  bishop  of  Peterborough,  the  son  of  a  citizen  of  London,  was 
born  in  the  parish  of  St  Ann,  near  Aldersgate.  He  was  educated 
in  St  Paul's  school,  and  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  obtained  a  fellowship.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1653; 
and,  having  proceeded  M.A.  in  1656,  was  next  year  incorporated 
to  the  same  degree  in  the  university  of  Oxford.  For  some  time 
he  studied  medicine;  and  although  he  did  not  adhere  to  this 
profession,  he  retained  his  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  medicine. 
He  took  the  degree  of  B.D.  in  1663  and  that  of  D.D.  in  1680. 
Among  his  contemporaries  and  intimate  friends  were  Dr  Hezekiah 
Burton,  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  who  was  distinguished  as  a  mathe- 
matician, Sir  Orlando  Bridgeman,  who  became  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  and  Samuel  Pepys.  To  this  academical  connexion  he 
appears  to  have  been  in  a  great  measure  indebted  for  his  advance- 
ment in  the  Church.  When  Bridgeman  was  appointed  lord 
keeper,  he  nominated  Cumberland  and  Burton  as  his  chaplains, 
nor  did  he  afterwards  neglect  the  interest  of  either.  Cumber- 
land's first  preferment,  bestowed  upon  him  in  1658  by  Sir  John 
Norwich,  was  the  rectory  of  Brampton  in  Northamptonshire. 
In  1 66 1  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  twelve  preachers  of  the 
university.  The  lord  keeper,  who  obtained  his  office  in  1667, 
invited  him  to  London,  and  soon  afterwards  bestowed  upon  him 
the  rectory  of  Allhallows  at  Stamford,  where  he  acquired  new 
credit  by  the  fidelity  with  which  he  discharged  his  duties.  In 
addition  to  his  ordinary  work  he  undertook  the  weekly  lecture. 
This  labour  he  constantly  performed,  and  in  the  meantime  found 
leisure  to  prosecute  his  scientific  and  philological  studies. 

At  the  age  of  forty  he  published  his  earliest  work,  entitled 
De  legibus  naturae  disquisitio  philosophica,  in  qua  earum  forma, 
sitmma  capita,  ordo,  promulgalio,  et  obligatio  e  rerum  natura 
investigantur;  quin  etiam  elementa  philosophiae  Hobbianae, 
cum  moralis  turn  civilis,  considerantur  et  refutantur  (London, 
1672).  It  is  dedicated  to  Sir  Orlando  Bridgeman,  and  is  prefaced 
by  an  "  Alloquium  ad  Lectorem,"  contributed  by  Dr  Burton. 
It  appeared  during  the  same  year  as  Pufendorf's  Dejure  naturae 
et  gentium,  and  was  highly  commended  in  a  subsequent  publica- 
tion by  Pufendorf,  whose  approbation  must  have  had  the  effect 
of  making  it  known  on  the  continent.  Having  thus  established 


a  solid  reputation,  Cumberland  next  prepared  a  work  on  a  very 
different  subject — An  Essay  towards  the  Recovery  of  the  Jewish 
Measures  and  Weights,  comprehending  their  Monies;  by  help 
of  ancient  standards,  compared  with  ours  of  England:  useful  also 
to  state  many  of  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  Eastern 
Nations  (London,  1686).  This  work,  dedicated  to  Pepys, 
obtained  a  copious  notice  from  Leclerc,  and  was  translated  into 
French. 

About  this  period  he  was  depressed  by  apprehensions  respecting 
the  growth  of  Popery;  but  his  fears  were  dispelled  by  the 
Revolution,  which  brought  along  with  it  another  material  change 
in  his  circumstances.  One  day  in  1691  he  went,  according  to 
his  custom  on  a  post-day,  to  read  the  newspaper  at  a  coffee-house 
in  Stamford,  and  there,  to  his  surprise,  he  read  that  the  king  had 
nominated  him  to  the  bishopric  of  Peterborough.  The  bishop 
elect  was  scarcely  known  at  court,  and  he  had  resorted  to  none 
of  the  usual  methods  of  advancing  his  temporal  interest. 

"  Being  then  sixty  years  old,"  says  his  great-grandson,  "  he  was 
with  difficulty  persuaded  to  accept  the  offer,  when  it  came  to  him 
from  authority.  The  persuasion  of  his  friends,  particularly  Sir 
Orlando  Bridgeman,  at  length  overcame  his  repugnance;  and 
to  that  see,  though  very  moderately  endowed,  he  for  ever  after 
devoted  himself,  and  resisted  every  offer  of  translation,  though 
repeatedly  made  and  earnestly  recommended.  To  such  of  his 
friends  as  pressed  an  exchange  upon  him  he  was  accustomed  to 
reply,  that  Peterborough  was  his  first  espoused,  and  should  be  his 
only  one." 

He  discharged  his  new  duties  with  energy  and  kept  up  his 
episcopal  visitations  till  his  eightieth  year.  His  charges  to  the 
clergy  are  described  as  plain  and  unambitious,  the  earnest 
breathings  of  a  pious  mind.  When  Dr  Wilkins  (David  Wilke) 
published  the  New  Testament  in  Coptic  he  presented  a  copy  to 
the  bishop,  who  began  to  study  the  language  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
three.  "  At  this  age,"  says  his  chaplain,  "  he  mastered  the 
language,  and  went  through  great  part  of  this  version,  and  would 
often  give  me  excellent  hints  and  remarks,  as  he  proceeded  in 
reading  of  it."  He  died  in  1718,  in  the  eighty-seventh  year  of 
his  age;  he  was  found  sitting  in  his  library,  in  the  attitude  of 
one  asleep,  and  with  a  book  in  his  hand.1  His  great-grandson 
was  Richard  Cumberland,  the  dramatist. 

Bishop  Cumberland  was  distinguished  by  his  gentleness  and 
humility.  He  could  not  be  roused  to  anger,  and  spent  his  days 
in  unbroken  serenity.  The  basis  of  his  ethical  theory  is  Benevol- 
ence, and  is  the  natural  outcome  of  his  temperament.  He  was 
a  man  of  a  sound  understanding,  improved  by  extensive  learning, 
and  left  behind  him  several  monuments  of  his  talents  and 
industry.  His  favourite  motto  was  that  a  man  had  better 
"  wear  out  than  rust  out." 

The  philosophy  of  Cumberland  is  expounded  in  the  treatise 
De  legibus  naturae.  The  merits  of  the  work  are  almost  confined 
to  its  speculative  theories;  its  style  fe  destitute  of  strength  and 
grace,  and  its  reasoning  is  diffuse  and  unmethodical.  Its  main 
design  is  to  combat  the  principles  which  Hobbes  had  promulgated 
as  to  the  constitution  of  man,  the  nature  of  morality,  and  the 
origin  of  society,  and  to  prove  that  self-advantage  is  not  the  chief 
end  of  man,  that  force  is  not  the  source  of  personal  obligation 
to  moral  conduct  nor  the  foundation  of  social  rights,  and  that  the 
state  of  nature  is  not  a  state  of  war.  The  views  of  Hobbes  seem 

1  The  care  of  his  posthumous  publications  devolved  upon  his 
domestic  chaplain  and  son-in-law,  Squier  Payne,  who  soon  after  the 
pishop's  death  edited  "  Sanchoniato 's  Phoenician  History,  translated 
rom  the  first  book  of  Eusebius,  De  praeparatione  evangelica :  with 
a  continuation  of  Sanchoniato's  history  of  Eratosthenes  Cyrenaeus's 
Canon,  which  Dicaearchus  connects  with  the  first  Olympiad.  These 
authors  are  illustrated  with  many  historical  and  chronological 
remarks,  proving  them  to  contain  a  series  of  Phoenician  and  Egyptian 
chronology,  from  the  first  man  to  the  first  Olympiad,  agreeable  to 
the  Scripture  accounts  "  (London,  1720).  The  preface  contains  an 
account  of  the  life,  character  and  writings  of  the  author,  which  was 
ikewise  published  in  a  separate  form,  and  exhibits  a  pleasing 
sicture  of  his  happy  old  age.  A  German  translation  appeared  under 
:he  title  of  Cumberland!  phonizische  Historie  ~des  Sanchoniathons, 
iibersetzt  von  Joh.  Phil.  Cassel  (Magdeburg,  1755).  The  sequel  to 
the  work  was  likewise  published  by  Payne — Origines  gentium 
antiquissimae;  or  Attempts  for  discovering  the  Times  of  the  First 
Planting  of  Nations:  in  several  Tracts  (London,  1724). 


CUMBERLAND,  BISHOP 


621 


to  Cumberland  utterly  subversive  of  religion,  morality  and  civil 
society,  and  he  endeavours,  as  a  rule,  to  establish  directly 
antagonistic  propositions.  He  refrains,  however,  from  denuncia- 
tion, and  is  a  fair  opponent  up  to  the  measure  of  his  insight. 

Laws  of  nature  are  defined  by  him  as  "  immutably  true  pro- 
positions regulative  of  voluntary  actions  as  to  the  choice  of  good 
and  the  avoidance  of  evil,  and  which  carry  with  them  an  obliga- 
tion to  outward  acts  of  obedience,  even  apart  from  civil  laws  and 
from  any  considerations  of  compacts  constituting  government." 
This  definition,  he  says,  will  be  admitted  by  all  parties.  Some 
deny  that  such  laws  exist,  but  they  will  grant  that  this  is  what 
ought  to  be  understood  by  them.  There  is  thus  common  ground 
for  the  two  opposing  schools  of  moralists  to  join  issue.  The 
question  between  them  is,  Do  such  laws  exist  or  do  they  not? 
In  reasoning  thus  Cumberland  obviously  forgot  what  the  position 
maintained  by  his  principal  antagonist  really  was.  Hobbes 
must  have  refused  to  accept  the  definition  proposed.  He  did 
not  deny  that  there  were  laws  of  nature,  laws  antecedent  to 
government,  laws  even  in  a  sense  eternal  and  immutable.  The 
virtues  as  means  to  happiness  seemed  to  him  to  be  such  laws. 
They  precede  civil  constitution,  which  merely  perfects  the  obliga- 
tion to  practise  them.  He  expressly  denied,  however,  that "  they 
carry  with  them  an  obligation  to  outward  acts  of  obedience, 
even  apart  from  civil  laws  and  from  any  consideration  of  com- 
pacts constituting  governments."  And  many  besides  Hobbes 
must  have  felt  dissatisfied  with  the  definition.  It  is  ambiguous 
and  obscure.  In  what  sense  is  a  law  of  nature  a  "  proposition  "? 
Is  it  as  the  expression  of  a  constant  relation  among  facts,  or  is  it 
as  the  expression  of  a  divine  commandment?  A  proposition  is 
never  in  itself  an  ultimate  fact  although  it  may  be  the  statement 
of  such  a  fact.  And  in  what  sense  is  a  law  of  nature  an  "  immut- 
ably true  "  proposition?  Is  it  so  because  men  always  and  every- 
where accept  and  act  on  it,  or  merely  because  they  always  and 
everywhere  ought  to  accept  and  act  on  it?  The  definition,  in 
fact,  explains  nothing. 

The  existence  of  such  laws  may,  according  to  Cumberland, 
be  established  in  two  ways.  The  inquirer  may  start  either  from 
effects  or  from  causes.  The  former  method  had  been  taken  by 
Grotius,  Robert  Sharrock  (1630-1684)  and  John  Selden.  They 
had  sought  to  prove  that  there  were  universal  truths,  entitled 
to  be  called  laws  of  nature,  from  the  concurrence  of  the  testi- 
monies of  many  men,  peoples  and  ages,  and  through  generalizing 
the  operations  of  certain  active  principles.  Cumberland  admits 
this  method  to  be  valid,  but  he  prefers  the  other,  that  from 
causes  to  effects,  as  showing  more  convincingly  that  the  laws 
of  nature  carry  with  them  a  divine  obligation.  It  shows  not  only 
that  these  laws  are  universal,  but  that  they  were  intended  as 
such;  that  man  has  been  constituted  as  he  is  in  order  that  they 
might  be.  In  the  prosecution  of  this  method  he  expressly 
declines  to  have  recourse  to  what  he  calls  "  the  short  and  easy 
expedient  of  the  Platonists,"  the  assumption  of  innate  ideas  of 
the  laws  of  nature.  He  thinks  it  ill-advised  to  build  the  doctrines 
of  natural  religion  and  morality  on  a  hypothesis  which  many 
philosophers,  both  Gentile  and  Christian,  had  rejected,  and  which 
could  not  be  proved  against  Epicureans,  the  principal  impugners 
of  the  existence  of  laws  of  nature.  He  cannot  assume,  he  says, 
that  such  ideas  existed  from  eternity  in  the  divine  mind,  but  must 
start  from  the  data  of  sense  and  experience,  and  thence  by  search 
into  the  nature  of  things  discover  their  laws.  It  is  only  through 
nature  that  we  can  rise  to  nature's  God.  His  attributes  are  not 
to  be  known  by  direct  intuition.  He,  therefore,  held  that  the 
ground  taken  up  by  the  Cambridge  Platonists  could  not  be 
maintained  against  Hobbes.  His  sympathies,  however,  were  all 
on  their  side,  and  he  would  do  nothing  to  diminish  their  chances 
of  success.  He  would  not  even  oppose  the  doctrine  of  innate 
ideas,  because  it  looked  with  a  friendly  eye  upon  piety  and 
morality.  He  granted  that  it  might,  perhaps,  be  the  case  that 
ideas  were  both  born  with  us  and  afterwards  impressed  upon  us 
from  without. 

Cumberland's  ethical  theory  (see  ETHICS)  is  summed  up  in  his 
principle  of  universal  Benevolence,  the  one  source  of  moral  good. 
"  No  action  can  be  morally  good  which  does  not  in  its  own  nature 


contribute  somewhat  to  the  happiness  of  men."  The  theory 
is  important  in  comparison  (i)  with  that  of  Hobbes,  and  (2) 
with  modern  utilitarianism. 

1.  Cumberland's   Benevolence   is,   deliberately,    the   precise 
antithesis  to  the  Egoism  of  Hobbes.     To  this  fact  it  owes  its 
existence  and  also  its  extravagance.     Feeling  that  the  most 
forcible  method  of  attacking  Hobbes  was  to  assert  the  opposite 
in  the  same  form,  he  maintained  that  the  whole-hearted  pursuit 
of  the  good  of  all  contributes  to  the  good  of  each  and  brings 
personal  happiness;  that  the  opposite  process  involves  misery 
to  individuals  including  the  self.     If,  then,  Hobbes  went  to  the 
one  extreme  of  postulating  selfishness  as  the  sole  motive  of  human 
action,  Cumberland  was  equally  extravagant  as  regards  Benevo- 
lence.    The  testimony  of  history  shows,  prima  facie  at  least, 
that  both  motives  have  operated  throughout,  and  just  as  self- 
interest  has  been  increasingly  modified  by  conscious  benevolence, 
so  benevolence  alone  does  not  explain  all  personal  virtue  nbr 
love  to  God.     But  it  is  essential  to  notice  that  Cumberland  never 
appealed  to  the  evidence  of  history,  although  he  believed  that 
the  law  of  universal  benevolence  had  been  accepted  by  all  nations 
and  generations;  and  he  carefully  abstains  from  arguments 
founded  on  revelation,  feeling  that  it  was  indispensable  to  estab- 
lish the  principles  of  moral  right  on  nature  as  a  basis.  His  method 
was  the  deduction  of  the  propriety  of  certain  actions  from  the 
consideration  of  the  character  and  position  of  rational  agents 
in  the  universe.     He  argues  that  all  that  we  see  in  nature  is 
framed  so  as  to  avoid  and  reject  what  is  dangerous  to  the  in- 
tegrity of  its  constitution;  that  the  human  race  would  be  an 
anomaly  in  the  world  had  it  not  for  end  its  conservation  in  its 
best  estate;  that  benevolence  of  all  to  all  is  what  in  a  rational 
view  of  the  creation  is  alone  accordant  with  its  general  plan; 
that  various  peculiarities  of  man's  body  indicate  that  he  has 
been  made  to  co-operate  with  his  fellow  men  and  to  maintain 
society;  and  that  certain  faculties  of  his  mind  show  the  common 
good  to  be  more  essentially  connected  with  his  perfection  than 
any  pursuit  of  private  advantage.     The  whole  course  of  his 
reasoning  proceeds  on,  and  is  pervaded  by,  the  principle  of 
final  causes.  , 

2.  To  the  question,  What  is  the  foundation  of  rectitude?, 
he  replies,  the  greatest  good  of  the  universe  of  rational  beings. 
He  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  English  utilitarianism, 
but  his  utilitarianism  is  distinct  from  what  is  known  as  the 
selfish  system;  it  goes  to  the  contrary  extreme,   by  almost 
absorbing  individual  in  universal  good.     Nor  does  it  look  merely 
to  the  lower  pleasures,  the  pleasures  of  sense,  for  the  constituents 
of  good,  but  rises  above  them  to  include  especially  what  tends 
to  perfect,  strengthen  and  expand  our  true  nature.     Existence 
and  the  extension  of  our  powers  of  body  and  mind  are  held  to 
be  good  for  their  own  sakes  without  respect  to  enjoyment. 
Cumberland's  views  on  this  point  were  long  abandoned  by 
utilitarians  as  destroying  the  homogeneity  and  self-consistency 
of  their  theory  ;  but  J.  S.  Mill  and  some  recent  writers  have 
reproduced  them  as  necessary  to  its  defence  against  charges  not 
less  serious  than  even  inconsistency. 

The  answer  which  Cumberland  gives  to  the  question,  Whence 
comes  our  obligation  to  observe  the  laws  of  nature  ?,  is  that 
happiness  flows  from  obedience,  and  misery  from  disobedience 
to  them,  not  as  the  mere  results  of  a  blind  necessity,  but  as  the 
expressions  of  the  divine  will.  Reward  and  punishment,  supple- 
mented by  future  retribution,  are,  in  his  view,  the  sanctions  of 
the  laws  of  nature,  the  sources  of  our  obligation  to  obey  them. 
To  the  other  great  ethical  question.  How  are  moral  distinctions 
apprehended  ?,  he  replies  that  it  is  by  means,  of  right  reason. 
But  by  right  reason  he  means  merely  the  power  of  rising  to 
general  laws  of  nature  from  particular  facts  of  experience.  It 
is  no  peculiar  faculty  or  distinctive  function  of  mind;  it  involves 
no  original  element  of  cognition;  it  begins  with  sense  and 
experience;  it  is  gradually  generated  and  wholly  derivative. 
This  doctrine  lies  only  in  germ  in  Cumberland,  but  will  be  found 
in  full  flower  in  Hartley,  Mackintosh  and  later  associationists. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Editions  of  the  De  leeibus  naturae  (Liibeck. 
1683  and  1694;  English  versions  by  John  Maxwell,  prebendary  of 


622 


CUMBERLAND,  RICHARD 


Connor,  A  Treatise  of  the  Laws  of  Nature  (London,  1727),  and  John 
Towers  (Dublin,  1750);  French  translation  by  Jean  Barbeyrac 
(Amsterdam,  1744);  James  Tyrrell  (1642-1718),  grandson  of 
Archbishop  Ussher,  published  an  abridgment  of  Cumberland's 
views  in  A  Brief  Disquisition  of  the  Laws  of  Nature  according  to  the 
Principles  laid  down  in  the  Rev.  Dr  Cumberland's  Latin  Treatise 
(London,  1692;  ed.  1701).  For  biographical  details  see  Squier 
Payne,  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  R.  Cumberland  (London, 
1720);  Cumberland's  Memoirs  (1807),  i.  3-6;  Pepys's  Diary. 
For  his  philosophy,  see  E.  Albee,  Philosophical  Review,  iv.  3  (1895), 
pp.  264  and  371;  F.  E.  Spaulding,  R.  Cumberland  als  Begrunder 
der  englischen  Ethik  (Leipzig,  1894) ;  and  text-books  on  ethics. 

CUMBERLAND,  RICHARD  (1732-1811),  English  dramatist, 
was  born  in  the  master's  lodge  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
on  the  1 9th  of  February  1732.  He  was  the  great-grandson  of 
the  bishop  of  Peterborough;  and  his  father,  Dr  Denison  Cumber- 
land, became  successively  bishop  of  Clonfert  and  of  Kilmore. 
His  mother  was  Joanna,  the  youngest  daughter  of  the  great 
scholar  Richard  Bentley,  and  the  heroine  of  John  Byrom's  once 
popular  little  eclogue,  Colin  and  Phoebe.  Of  the  great  master 
of  Trinity  his  grandson  has  left  a  kindly  account;  he  afterwards 
collected  all  the  pamphlets  bearing  on  the  Letters  of  Phalaris 
controversy,  and  piously  defended  the  reputation  of  his  ancestor 
in  his  Letter  to  Bishop  Lowth,  who  had  called  Bentley  "  aut 
caprimulgus  aut  fossor."  Cumberland  was  in  his  seventh 
year  sent  to  the  grammar-school  at  Bury  St  Edmunds,  and  he 
relates  how,  on  the  head-master  Arthur  Kinsman  undertaking, 
in  conversation  with  Bentley,  to  make  the  grandson  as  good  a 
scholar  as  the  grandfather  himself,  the  latter  retorted:  "  Pshaw, 
Arthur,  how  can  that  be,  when  I  have  forgot  more  than  thou  ever 
knewest?"  Bentley  died  during  his  grandson's  Bury  school- 
days; and  in  1744  the  boy,  who,  while  rising  to  the  head  of  his 
school,  had  already  begun  to  "  try  his  strength  in  several  slight 
attempts  towards  the  drama,"  was  removed  to  Westminster, 
then  at  the  height  of  its  reputation  under  Dr  Nicholls.  Among 
his  schoolfellows  here  were  Warren  Hastings,  George  Colman 
(the  elder),  Lloyd,  and  (though  he  does 'not  mention  them  as 
such)  Churchill  and  Cowper.  From  Westminster  Cumberland 
passed,  hi  his  fourteenth  year,  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  in  1750  he  took  his  degree  as  tenth  wrangler.  His  account 
of  his  degree  examination,  as  well  as  that  for  a  fellowship  at  his 
college,  part  of  which  he  underwent  in  the  "  judges'  chamber," 
where  he  was  born,  is  curious;  he  was  by  virtue  of  an  alteration 
in  the  statutes  elected  to  his  fellowship  in  the  second  year  of  his 
degree. 

Meanwhile  his  projects  of  work  as  a  classical  scholar  had  been 
interspersed  with  attempts  at  imitating  Spenser — whom,  by  his 
mother's  advice,  he  "  laid  upon  the  shelf  " — and  a  dramatic 
effort  (unprinted)  on  the  model  of  Mason's  Elfrida,  called 
Caractacus.  He  had  just  begun  to  read  for  his  fellowship,  when 
he  was  offered  the  post  of  private  secretary  by  the  earl  of  Halifax, 
first  lord  of  trade  and  plantations  in  the  duke  of  Newcastle's 
ministry.  His  family  persuaded  him  to  accept  the  office,  to 
which  he  returned  after  his  election  as  fellow.  It  left  him 
abundant  leisure  for  literary  pursuits,  which  included  the  design 
of  a  poem  in  blank  verse  on  India.  He  resigned  his  Trinity 
fellowship  on  his  marriage — in  1759 — to  his  cousin  Elizabeth 
Ridge,  to  whom  he  had  paid  his  addresses  on  receiving  through 
Lord  Halifax  "  a  small  establishment  as  crown-agent  for  Nova 
Scotia."  In  1761  he  accompanied  his  patron  (who  had  been 
appointed  lord-lieutenant)  to  Ireland  as  Ulster  secretary;  and 
in  acknowledgment  of  his  services  was  afterwards  offered  a 
baronetcy.  By  declining  this  he  thinks  he  gave  offence;  at  all 
events,  when  in  1762  Halifax  became  secretary  of  state,  Cumber- 
land in  vain  applied  for  the  post  of  under-secretary,  and  could 
only  obtain  the  clerkship  of  reports  at  the  Board  of  Trade  under 
Lord  Hillsborough.  While  he  takes  some  credit  to  himself  for 
his  incorruptibility  when  in  Ireland,  he  showed  zeal  for  his 
friend  and  secured  a  bishopric  for  his  father.  On  the  accession 
to  office  of  Lord  George  Germaine  (Sackville)  in  1 7  7  5 ,  Cumberland 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations, 
which  post  he  held  till  the  abolition  of  that  board  in  1782  by 
Burke's  economical  reform.  Before  this  event  he  had,  in  1780, 
been  sent  on  a  confidential  mission  to  Spain,  to  negotiate  a 


separate  treaty  of  peace  with  that  power;  but  though  he  was 
well  received  by  King  Charles  III.  and  his  minister  Floridablanca, 
the  question  of  Gibraltar  proved  a  stumbling-block,  and  the 
Gordon  riots  at  home  a  most  untoward  occurrence.  He  was 
recalled  in  1781,  and  was  refused  repayment  of  the  expenses 
he  had  incurred,  towards  which  only  £1900  had  been  advanced 
to  him.  He  thus  found  himself  £4500  out  of  pocket:  in  vain, 
he  says,  "  I  wearied  the  door  of  Lord  North  till  his  very  servants 
drove  me  from  it  ";  his  memorial  remained  unread  or  unnoticed 
either  by  the  prime  minister  or  by  secretary  Robinson,  through 
whom  the  original  promise  had  been  made.  Soon  after  this 
experience  he  lost  his  office,  and  had  to  retire  on  a  compensation 
allowance  of  less  than  half-pay.  He  now  took  up  his  residence 
at  Tunbridge  Wells;  but  during  his  last  years  he  mostly  lived 
in  London,  where  he  died  on  the  7th  of  May  1811.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  a  short  oration  being  pronounced 
on  this  occasion  by  his  friend  Dean  Vincent. 

Cumberland's  numerous  literary  productions  are  spread  over 
the  whole  of  his  long  life;  but  it  is  only  by  his  contributions 
to  the  drama,  and  perhaps  by  his  Memoirs,  that  he  is  likely  to 
be  remembered.  The  collection  of  essays  and  other  pieces 
entitled  The  Observer  (1785),  afterwards  republished  together 
with  a  translation  of  The  Clouds,  found  a  place  among  The 
British  Essayists.  For  the  accounts  given  in  The  Observer  of 
the  Greek  writers,  especially  the  comic  poets,  Cumberland  availed 
himself  of  Bentley 's  MSS.  and  annotated  books  in  his  possession; 
his  translations  from  the  Greek  fragments,  which  are  not  in- 
elegant but  lack  closeness,  are  republished  in  James  Bailey's 
Comicorum  Graccorum  (part  i.,  1840)  and  Hermesianactis,  Archi- 
lochi,  et  Pratinae  fragmenta.  Cumberland  further  produced 
Anecdotes  of  Eminent  Painters  in  Spain  (1782  and  1787);  a 
Catalogue  of  the  King  of  Spain's  Paintings  (1787);  two  novels— 
Arundel  (1789),  a  story  in  letters,  and  Henry  (1795),  a  "  diluted 
comedy  "  on  the  construction  and  polishing  of  which  he  seems 
to  have  expended  great  care;  a  religious  epic,  Calvary,  or  the 
Death  of  Christ  (1792);  his  last  publication  was  a  poem  entitled 
Retrospection.  He  is  also  supposed  to  have  joined  Sir  James 
Bland  Surges  in  an  epic,  the  Exodiad  (1807),  and  in  John  de 
Lancaster,  a  novel.  Besides  these  he  wrote  the  Letter  to  the 
Bishop  of  0[xfor]d  in  vindication  of  Bentley  (1767);  another 
to  the  Bishop  of  Llandaff  (Richard  Watson)  on  his  proposal  for 
equalizing  the  revenues  of  the  Established  Church  (1783);  a 
Character  of  the  late  Lord  Sackville  (1785),  whom  in  his  Memoirs 
he  vindicates  from  the  stigma  of  cowardice;  and  an  anonymous 
pamphlet,  Curtius  rescued  from  the  Gulf,  against  the  redoubtable 
Dr  Parr.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  version  of  fifty  of  the 
Psalms  of  David;  of  a  tract  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity; 
and  of  other  religious  exercises  in  prose  and  verse,  the  former 
including  "  as  many  sermons  as  would  make  a  large  volume, 
some  of  which  have  been  delivered  from  the  pulpits."  Lastly, 
he  edited,  in  1809,  a  short-lived  critical  journal  called  The  London 
Review,  intended  to  be  a  rival  to  the  Quarterly,  with  signed 
articles. 

Cumberland's  Memoirs,  which  he  began  at  the  close  of  1804, 
and  concluded  in  September  1805,  were  published  in  1806,  and 
a  supplement  was  added  in  1807.  This  narrative,  which  includes 
a  long  account  of  his  Spanish  mission,  contains  some  interesting 
reminiscences  of  several  persons  of  note — more  especially  Bubb 
Dodington,  Single-Speech  Hamilton,  and  Lord  George  Sackville 
among  politicians,  and  of  Garrick,  Foote  and  Goldsmith; 
but  the  accuracy  of  some  of  the  anecdotes  concerning  the  last- 
named  is  not  beyond  suspicion.  The  book  exhibits  its  author 
as  an  amiable  egotist,  careful  of  his  own  reputation,  given  to 
prolixity  and  undistinguished  by  wit,  but  a  good  observer  of 
men  and  manners.  The  uneasy  self-absorption  which  Sheridan 
immortalized  in  the  character  of  Sir  Fretful  Plagiary  in  The 
Critic  is  apparent  enough  in  this  autobiography,  but  presents 
itself  there  in  no  offensive  form.  The  incidental  criticisms  of 
actors  have  been  justly  praised. 

Cumberland  was  hardly  warranted  in  the  conjecture  that 
no  English  author  had  yet  equalled  his  list  of  dramas  in  point  of 
number;  but  his  plays,  published  and  unpublished,  have  been 


CUMBERLAND,  DUKE  OF 


623 


computed  to  amount  to  fifty-four.  About  35  of  these  are  regular 
plays,  to  which  have  been  added  4  operas  and  a  farce;  and  about 
half  of  the  whole  list  are  comedies.  The  best  known  of  them 
belong  to  what  he  was  pleased  to  term  "  legitimate  comedy," 
and  to  that  species  of  it  known  as  "  sentimental."  The  essential 
characteristic  of  these  plays  is  the  combination  of  plots  of 
domestic  interest  with  the  rhetorical  enforcement  of  moral 
precepts,  and  with  such  small  comic  humour  as  the  author 
possesses.  These  comedies  are  primarily,  to  borrow  Cumber- 
land's own  phraseology,  designed  as  "  attempts  upon  the  heart." 
He  takes  great  credit  to  himself  for  weaving  his  plays  out  of 
"  homely  stuff,  right  British  drugget,"  and.  for  eschewing  "  the 
vile  refuse  of  the  Gallic  stage  ";  on  the  other  hand,  he  borrowed 
from  the  sentimental  fiction  of  his  own  country,  including 
Richardson,  Fielding  and  Sterne.  The  favourite  theme  of  his 
plays  is  virtue  in  distress  or  danger,  but  safe  of  its  reward  in 
the  fifth  act;  their  most  constant  characters  are  men  of  feeling 
and  young  ladies  who  are  either  prudes  or  coquettes.  Cumber- 
land's comic  power — such  as  it  was — lay  in  the  invention  of 
comic  characters  taken  from  the  "  outskirts  of  the  empire," 
and  professedly  intended  to  vindicate  from  English  prejudice 
the  good  elements  in  the  Scotch,  the  Irish  and  the  colonial 
character.  For  the  rest,  patriotic  sentiment  liberally  asserts 
itself  by  the  side  of  general  morality.  If  Cumberland's  dialogue 
lacks  brilliance  and  his  characters  reality,  the  construction  of 
the  plots  is  as  a  rule,  skilful,  and  the  situations  are  contrived 
with  what  Cumberland  indisputably  possessed — a  thorough 
insight  into  the  secrets  of  theatrical  effect.  It  should  be  added 
that,  though  Cumberland's  sentimentality  is  often  wearisome, 
his  morality  is  generally  sound;  that  if  he  was  without  the  genius 
requisite  for  elevating  the  national  drama,  he  did  his  best  to  keep 
it  pure  and  sweet;  and  that  if  he  borrowed  much,  as  he  un- 
doubtedly did,  it  was  not  the  vicious  attractions  of  other 
dramatists  of  which  he  was  the  plagiary. 

His  debut  as  a  dramatic  author  was  made  with  a  tragedy, 
The  Banishment  of  Cicero,  published  in  1761  after  its  rejection 
by  Garrick;  this  was  followed  in  1765  by  a  musical  drama, 
The  Summer's  Tale,  subsequently  compressed  into  an  afterpiece 
Amelia  (1768).  Cumberland  first  essayed  sentimental  comedy 
in  The  Brothers  (1769).  The  theme  of  this  comedy  is  inspired 
by  Fielding's  Tom  Jones;  its  comic  characters  are  the  jolly 
old  tar  Captain  Ironsides,  and  the  henpecked  husband  Sir 
Benjamin  Dove,  whose  progress  to  self-assertion  is  genuinely 
comic,  though  not  altogether  original.  Horace  Walpole  said 
that  it  acted  well,  but  read  ill,  though  he  could  distinguish  in 
it  "  strokes  of  Mr  Bentley."  The  epilogue  paid  a  compliment 
to  Garrick,  who  helped  the  production  of  Cumberland's  second 
comedy  The  West-Indian  (1771).  The  hero  of  this  comedy,  which 
probably  owes  much  to  the  suggestion  of  Garrick,  is  a  young 
scapegrace  fresh  from  the  tropics,  "  with  rum  and  sugar  enough 
belonging  to  him  to  make  all  the  water  in  the  Thames  into 
punch," — a  libertine  with  generous  instincts,  which  in  the  end 
prevail.  This  early  example  of  the  modern  drame  was  received 
with  the  utmost  favour;  it  was  afterwards  translated  into 
German  by  Boden,  and  Goethe  acted  in  it  at  the  Weimar  court. 
The  Fashionable  Lover  (1772)  is  a  sentimental  comedy  of  the 
most  pronounced  type.  The  Choleric  Man  (1774),  founded  on 
the  Adelphi  of  Terence,  is  of  a  similar  type,  the  comic  element 
rather  predominating,  but  philanthropy  being  duly  represented 
by  a  virtuous  lawyer  called  Manlove.  Among  his  later  comedies 
may  be  mentioned  The  Natural  Son  (1785),  in  which  Major 
O'Flaherty  who  had  already  figured  in  The  West-Indian,  makes 
his  reappearance;  The  Impostors  (1789),  a  comedy  of  intrigue; 
The  Box  Lobby  Challenge  (1794),  a  protracted  farce;  The  Jew 
(1794),  a  serious  play,  highly  effective  when  the  character  of 
Sheva  was  played  by  the  great  German  actor  Theodor  Boring; 
The  Wheel  of  Fortune  (1795),  in  which  John  Kemble  found  a 
celebrated  part  in  the  misanthropist  Penruddock,  who  cannot 
forget  but  learns  to  forgive  (a  character  declared  by  Kotzebue 
to  have  been  stolen  from  his  Menschenhass  und  Reue),  while 
the  lawyer  Timothy  Weasel  was  made  comic  by  Richard  Suett; 
First  Love  (1795);  The  Last  of  the  Family  (1795);  False 


Impressions  (1797);  The  Sailor's  Daughter  (1804);  and  a  Hint  to 
Husbands  (1806),  which,  unlike  the  rest,  is  in  blank  verse.  The 
other  works  printed  during  his  lifetime  include  The  Note  of 
Hand  (1774),  a  farce;  the  songs  of  his  musical  comedy,  The 
Widow  of  Delphi  (1780);  his  tragedies  of  The  Battle  of  Hastings 
(1778);  and  The  Carmelite  (1784),  a  romantic  domestic  drama 
in  blank  verse,  in  the  style  of  Home's  Douglas,  furnishing  some 
effective  scenes  for  Mrs  Siddons  and  John  Kemble  as  mother  and 
son;  and  the  domestic  drama  (in  prose)  of  The  Mysterious 
Husband  (1783).  His  posthumously  printed  plays  (published 
in  2  vols.  in  1813)  include  the  comedies  of  The  Walloons  (acted 
in  1782);  The  Passive  Husband  (acted  as  A  Word  for  Nature, 
1798);  The  Eccentric  Lover  (acted  1798);  and  Lovers'  Resolutions 
(once  acted  in  1802) ;  the  serious  quasi-historic  drama  Confession; 
the  drama  Don  Pedro  (acted  1796);  and  the  tragedies  of  Alcanor 
(acted  as  The  Arab,  1785);  Torrendal;  The  Sibyl,  or  The  Elder 
Brutus  (afterwards  amalgamated  with  other  plays  on  the  subject 
into  a  very  successful  tragedy  for  Edmund  Kean  by  Payne); 
Tiberius  in  Capreae;  and  The  False  Demetrius  (on  a  theme 
which  attracted  Schiller).  Cumberland  translated  the  Clouds 
of  Aristophanes  (1797),  and  altered  for  the  stage  Shakespeare's 
Timon  of  Athens  (1771),  Massinger's  The  Bondman  and  The 
Duke  of  Milan  (both  1779). 

In  1806-1807  appeared  Memoirs  of  R.  Cumberland,  written  by 
himself.  Cumberland's  novel,  Henry,  was  printed  in  Ballantyne's 
Novelists'  Library  (1821),  with  a  prefatory  notice  of  the  author  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  A  so-called  Critical  Examination  of  Cumberland's 
works  and  a  memoir  of  the  author  based  on  his  autobiography, 
with  the  addition  of  some  more  or  less  feeble  criticisms,  by  William 
Madford,  appeared  in  1812.  An  excellent  account  of  Cumberland 
is  included  in  "  George  Paston's  "  Little  Memoirs  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  (1901).  Hettner  well  characterizes  Cumberland's  position 
in  the  history  of  the  English  drama  in  Litteraturgesch.  d.  18.  Jahr- 
hunderts  (2nded.,  1865),  i.  520.  Cumberland's  portrait  by  Romney 
(whose  talent  he  was  one  ofthe  first  to  encourage)  is  in  the  National 
Portrait  Gallery.  (A.  W.  W.) 

CUMBERLAND,  WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS,  DUKE  OF  (1721- 
1765),  son  of  King  George  II.  and  Queen  Caroline,  was  born  on 
the  1 5th  of  April  1721,  and  when  five  years  of  age  was  created 
duke  of  Cumberland.  His  education  was  well  attended  to, 
and  his  courage  and  capacity  in  outdoor  exercises  were  notable 
from  his  early  years.  He  was  intended  by  the  king  and  queen 
for  the  office  of  lord  high  admiral,  and  in  1740  he  sailed  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  fleet  under  the  command  of  Sir  John  Norris; 
but  he  quickly  became  dissatisfied  with  the  navy,  and  early  in 
1742  he  began  a  military  career.  In  December  1742  he  was 
made  a  major-general,  and  in  the  following  year  he  first  saw 
active  service  in  Germany.  George  II.  and  the  "  martial  boy  " 
shared  in  the  glory  of  Dettingen  (June  27),  and  Cumberland, 
who  was  wounded  in  the  action,  displayed  an  energy  and  valour, 
the  report  of  which  in  England  founded  his  military  popularity. 
After  the  battle  he  was  made  lieutenant-general.  In  1745,  having 
been  made  captain-general  of  the  British  land  forces  at  home  and 
in  the  field,  the  duke  was  again  in  Flanders  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  allied  British,  Hanoverian,  Austrian  and  Dutch 
troops.  Advancing  to  the  relief  of  Tournay,  which  was  besieged 
by  Marshal  Saxe,  he  engaged  that  great  general  in  the  battle  of 
Fontenoy  (q  v.)  on  the  nth  of  May.  It  cannot  now  be  doubted 
that,  had  the  duke  been  supported  by  the  allies  in  his  marvellously 
courageous  attack  on  the  superior  positions  of  the  French  army, 
Fontenoy  would  not  have  been  recorded  as  a  defeat  to  the  British 
arms.  He  himself  was  in  the  midst  of  the  heroic  column  which 
penetrated  the  French  centre,  and  his  conduct  of  the  inevitable 
retreat  wasmnusually  cool  and  skilful. 

Notwithstanding  the  severity  of  his  discipline,  the  young  duke 
had  the  power  to  inspire  his  men  with  a  strong  attachment  to 
his  person  and  a  very  lively  esprit  de  corps.  As  a  general  his 
courage  and  resolution  were  not  sufficiently  tempered  with 
sagacity  and  tact;  but  he  displayed  an  energy  and  power  in 
military  affairs  which  pointed  him  out  to  the  British  people  as  the 
one  commander  upon  whom  they  could  rely  to  put  a  decisive  stop 
to  the  successful  career  of  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  the  rebellion 
of  1745-1746.  John  (Earl)  Ligonier  wrote  of  him  at  this  time: 
"  Ou  je  suis  fort  trompfi  ou  il  se  forme  la  un  grand  capitaine." 


624 


CUMBERLAND 


He  was  recalled  from  Flanders,  and  immediately  proceeded  with 
his  preparations  for  quelling  the  insurrection.  He  joined  the 
midland  army  under  Sir  John  Ligonier,  and  was  at  once  in  pursuit 
of  his  swift-footed  foe.  But  the  retreat  of  Charles  Edward  from 
Derby  disconcerted  his  plans;  and  it  was  not  till  they  had 
reached  Penrith,  and  the  advanced  portion  of  his  army  had  been 
repulsed  on  Clifton  Moor,  that  he  became  aware  how  hopeless 
an  attempt  to  overtake  the  retreating  Highlanders  would  then 
be.  Carlisle  having  been  retaken,  he  retired  to  London,  till 
the  news  of  the  defeat  of  Hawley  at  Falkirk  roused  again  the 
fears  of  the  English  people,  and  centred  the  hopes  of  Britain  on 
the  royal  duke.  He  was  appointed  commander  of  the  forces 
in  Scotland. 

Having  arrived  in  Edinburgh  on  the  aoth  of  January  1746,  he 
at  once  proceeded  in  search  of  the  young  Pretender.  He  diverged, 
however,  to  Aberdeen,  where  he  employed  his  time  in  training 
the  well-equipped  forces  now  under  his  command  for  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  warfare  in  which  they  were  about  to  engage. 
What  the  old  and  experienced  generals  of  his  time  had  failed  to 
accomplish  or  even  to  understand,  the  young  duke  of  Cumberland, 
as  yet  only  twenty-four  years  of  age,  effected  with  simplicity 
and  ease.  He  prepared  to  dispose  his  army  so  as  to  withstand 
with  firmness  that  onslaught  on  which  all  Highland  successes 
depended;  and -he  reorganized  the  forces  and  restored  their 
discipline  and  self-confidence  in  a  few  weeks. 

On  the  8th  of  April  1746  he  set  out  from  Aberdeen  towards 
Inverness,  and  on  the  I5th  he  fought  the  decisive  battle  of 
Culloden,  in  which,  and  in  the  pursuit  which  followed,  the  forces 
of  the  Pretender  were  completely  destroyed.  He  had  become 
convinced  that  the  sternest  measures  were  needed  to  break 
down  the  Jacobitism  of  the  Highlanders.  He  told  his  troops  to 
take  notice  that  the  enemy's  orders  were  to  give  no  quarter  to 
the  "  troops  of  the  elector,"  and  they  took  the  hint.  No  trace 
of  such  orders  remains  (see  MURRAY,  LORD  GEORGE),  and  it  is 
probable  that  Cumberland  had  merely  received  word  of  wild 
talk  in  the  enemy's  camp,  which  he  credited  the  more  easily 
as  he  thought  that  those  who  were  capable  of  rebellion  were  cap- 
able of  any  crime.  On  account  of  the  merciless  severity  with 
which  the  fugitives  were  treated,  Cumberland  received  the 
nickname  of  the  "  Butcher."  That  the  implied  taunt  was 
unjust  need  not  be  laboured.  It  was  used  for  political  purposes 
in  England,  and  his  own  brother,  the  prince  of  Wales,  encouraged, 
it  appears,  the  virulent  attacks  which  were  made  upon  the  duke. 
In  any  case  there  is  a  marked  similarity  between  Cumberland's 
conduct  in  Scotland  and  that  of  Cromwell  in  Ireland.  Both 
dared  to  do  acts  which  they  knew  would  be  cast  against  them  for 
the  rest  of  their  lives,  and  terrorized  an  obstinate  and  unyielding 
enemy  into  submission.  How  real  was  the  danger  of  a  pro- 
tracted guerrilla  warfare  in  the  Highlands  may  be  judged  from 
the  explicit  declarations  of  Jacobite  leaders  that  they  intended 
to  continue  the  struggle.  As  it  was,  the  war  came  to  an  end 
almost  at  once.  Here,  as  always,  Cumberland  preserved  the 
strictest  discipline  in  his  camp.  He  was  inflexible  in  the  execution 
of  what  he  deemed  to  be  his  duty,  without  favour  to  any  man. 
At  the  same  time  he  exercised  his  influence  in  favour  of  clemency 
in  special  cases  that  were  brought  to  his  notice.  Some  years 
later  James  Wolfe  spoke  of  the  duke  as  "  for  ever  doing  noble  and 
generous  actions." 

The  relief  occasioned  to  Britain  by  the  duke's  victorious 
efforts  was  acknowledged  by  his  being  voted  an  income  of 
£40,000  per  annum  in  addition  to  his  revenue  as  a  prince  of  the 
royal  house.  The  duke  took  no  part  in  the  Flanders  campaign 
of  1746,  but  in  1747  he  again  opposed  the  still  victorious  Marshal 
Saxe;  and  received  a  heavy  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Lauffeld, 
or  Val,  near  Maestricht  ( 2nd  of  July  1 747) .  During  the  ten  years 
of  peace  Cumberland  occupied  himself  chiefly  with  his  duties  as 
captain-general,  and  the  result  of  his  work  was  clearly  shown 
in  the  conduct  of  the  army  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  His  un- 
popularity, which  had  steadily  increased  since  Culloden,  inter- 
fered greatly  with  his  success  in  politics,  and  when  the  death  of 
the  prince  of  Wales  brought  a  minor  next  in  succession  to  the 
throne  the  duke  was  not  able  to  secure  for  himself  the  contingent 


regency,  which  was  vested  in  the  princess-dowager  of  Wales. 
In  1757,  the  Seven  Years'  War  having  broken  out,  Cumberland 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  motley  army  of  allies  to  defend 
Hanover.  At  Hastenbeck,  near  Hameln,  on  the  26th  of  July 
1757,  he  was  defeated  by  the  superior  forces  of  D'Estrees  (see 
SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR).  In  September  of  the  same  year  his  defeat 
had  almost  become  disgrace.  Driven  from  point  to  point,  and 
at  last  hemmed  in  by  the  French  under  Richelieu,  he  capitulated 
at  Klosterzeven  on  the  8th  of  the  month,  agreeing  to  disband 
his  army  and  to  evacuate  Hanover.  His  disgrace  was  completed 
on  his  return  to  England  by  the  king's  refusal  to  be  bound  by 
the  terms  of  the  duke's  agreement.  In  chagrin  and  disappoint- 
ment he  retired  into  private  life,  after  having  formally  resigned 
the  public  offices  he  held.  In  his  retirement  he  made  no  attempt 
to  justify  his  conduct,  applying  in  his  own  case  the  discipline 
he  had  enforced  in  others.  For  a  few  years  he  lived  quietly  at 
Windsor,  and  subsequently  in  London,  taking  but  little  part  in 
politics.  He  did  much,  however,  to  displace  the  Bute  ministry 
and  that  of  Grenville,  and  endeavoured  to  restore  Pitt  to  office. 
Public  opinion  had  now  set  in  his  favour,  and  he  became  almost 
as  popular  as  he  had  been  in  his  youth.  Shortly  before  his 
death  the  duke  was  requested  to  open  negotiations  with  Pitt  for 
a  return  to  power.  This  was,  however,  unsuccessful.  On  the 
3ist  of  October  1765  the  duke  died. 

A  Life  of  the  duke  of  Cumberland  by  Andrew  Henderson  was 
published  in  1766,  and  anonymous  (Richard  Rolt)  Historical  Memoirs 
appeared  in  1767.  See  especially  A.  N.  Campbell  Maclachlan, 
William  Augustus,  Duke  of  Cumberland  (1876). 

CUMBERLAND,  the  north-westernmost  county  of  England, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Scottish  counties  of  Dumfries  and  Roxburgh, 
E.  by  Northumberland,  S.  by  Westmorland  and  Lancashire, 
and  W.  by  the  Irish  Sea.  Its  area  is  1520-4  sq.  m.  In  the  south 
the  county  includes  about  one-half  of  the  celebrated  LAKE 
DISTRICT  (q.v.),  with  the  highest  mountain  in  England,  Scafell 
Pike  (3210  ft.),  and  the  majority  of  the  principal  lakes,  among 
which  are  Derwentwater  and  Bassenthwaite,  Buttermere  and 
Crummock  Water,  Ennerdale,  Wastwater,  and,  on  the  bound- 
ary with  Westmorland,  Ullswater.  From  this  district  valleys 
radiate  north,  west  and  south  to  a  flat  coastal  belt,  the  widest 
part  of  which  (about  8  m.)  is  found  in  the  north  in  the  Solway 
Plain,  bordering  Solway  Firth,  which  here  intervenes  between 
England  and  Scotland.  The  valley  of  the  Eden,  opening  upon 
this  plain  from  the  south-east,  separates  the  mountainous  Lake 
District  from  the  straight  westward  face  of  a  portion  of  the 
Pennine  Chain  (?.».),  which,  though  little  of  it  lies  within 
this  county,  reaches  its  highest  point  within  it  in  Cross  Fell 
(2930  ft.).  A  well-marked  pass,  called  the  Tyne  Gap,  at  the 
water-parting  between  the  rivers  Irthing  and  South  Tyne, 
traversed  by  the  Newcastle  &  Carlisle  railway,  intervenes  between 
these  hills  and  their  northward  continuation  in  the  hills  of  the 
Scottish  border.  Besides  the  waters  of  the  Eden,  Solway  Firth 
receives  those  of  the  Esk,  which  enter  Cumberland  from  Scotland. 
Liddel  Water,  joining  this  river  from  the  north  east  from  Liddis- 
dale,  forms  a  large  part  of  the  boundary  with  Scotland.  The 
Eden  receives  the  Irthing  from  the  east,  and  from  the  Lake 
District  the  Caldew,  rising  beneath  Skiddaw  and  joining  the  main 
river  at  Carlisle,  and  the  Eamont,  draining  Ullswater  and  forming 
part  of  the  boundary  with  Westmorland.  The  principal  streams 
flowing  east  and  south  from  the  Lake  District  are  the  Derwent, 
from  Borrowdale  and  Derwentwater,  the  Eden  from  Ennerdale, 
the  Esk  from  Eskdale,  and  the  Duddon,  forming  the  greater 
part  of  the  boundary  with  Lancashire.  There  are  valuable  salmon 
fisheries  in  the  Eden,  and  trout  are  taken  in  many  of  the  streams 
and  lakes. 

Geology. — The  mountainous  portion  of  Cumberland  is  built  up  of 
two  different  types  of  rock.  The  older,  a  sedimentary  slaty  series 
of  Ordovician  age,  the  Skiddaw  slates,  surrounds  Bassenthwaite, 
Saddleback,  Crummock  Water,  Keswick  and  Cockermouth  and  the 
western  end  of  Ennerdale  Water.  The  same  formation  is  found 
in  the  northern  flanks  of  Ullswater  also  north  and  east  of  Whitbeck. 
The  other  type  of  rock  is  volcanic;  it  gives  a  more  rugged  aspect 
to  the  scenery,  as  may  be  seen  in  comparing  the  rough  outlines  of 
Scafell  and  Honister  Crags  or  Helvellyn  with  the  smoother  form 
of  Saddleback  or  Skiddaw.  These  volcanic  rocks,  owing  to  much 


CUMBERLAND 


625 


alteration,  are  often  slaty;  they  have  been  called  the  "green  slates 
and  porphyries  "  or  the  Borrowdale  Series.  The  Skiddaw  slates  are 
usually  separated  from  the  newer  green  slates  above  them  by  a  plane 
of  differential  movement,  for  both  have  been  thrust  by  earth- 
pressures  from  south  to  north,  but  the  former  rocks  have  travelled 
farther  than  the  latter  which  have  lagged  behind;  hence  Messrs 
Marr  and  Harker  describe  the  plane  of  separation  as  a  "  lag-fault." 
M  uch  general  faulting  and  folding  have  resulted  from  the  movement ; 
the  thrusting  took  place  in  Devonian  times.  About  the  same  period 
great  masses  of  granitic  rock  were  intruded  into  the  slates  in  the 
form  of  laccolites,  which  often  lie  along  the  lag  planes.  Such  rocks 
are  the  granophyre  hills  of  Buttermere  and  Ennerdale,  the  micro- 
granite  patches  on  either  side  of  the  Vale  of  St  John,  and  the  great 
mass  of  Eskdale  granite  which  reaches  from  Wastwater  to  the  flanks 
of  Black  Combe.  At  Carrock  Fell,  N.E.  of  Skiddaw,  is  an  extremely 
interesting  complex  of  volcanic  rocks,  and  in  many  other  places  are 
diabase  and  other  forms,  e.g.  the  well-known  rock  at  Castle  Head, 
Keswick. 

From  Pooley  Bridge,  Ullswater,  on  the  east,  by  Udale  round  to 
Egremont  on  the  west,  the  mountainous  region  just  described,  is 
surrounded  by  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  series,  with  a  con- 
glomerate at  the  base.  Upon  these  rocks  the  coalfield  of  Whitehaven 
rests  and  extends  as  far  as  Maryport.  The  coal  seams  are  worked 
for  some  distance  beneath  the  sea.  The  vale  of  Eden  between 
Penrith,  Hornsby  and  Wreay  is  occupied  by  Permian  sandstone, 
usually  bright  red  in  colour.  Red  Triassic  rocks  form  a  strip  about 
4  m.  broad  east  of  the  Permian  outcrop;  a  similar  strip  forms  a 
coastal  fringe  from  St  Bees  Head  to  Duddon  Sands.  The  same 
formations  are  spread  out  round  Carlisle,  Brampton,  Longtown, 
Wigton  and  Aspatria.  East  of  Carlisle  they  are  covered  by  an 
outlier  of  Lias.  A  great  dislocation,  the  Pennine  Fault,  runs  along 
the  eastern  side  of  the  vale  of  Eden ;  it  throws  up  the  Lower  Carboni- 
ferous limestones  with  their  associated  shales  and  sandstones  to 
form  the  elevated  ground  in  the  north  and  north-east  of  the  county. 
Several  basic  intrusions  penetrate  the  limestone  series,  the  best 
known  being  the  Whin  Sill,  which  may  be  traced  for  a  number  of 
miles  northward  from  Crossfell.  Evidences  of  glacial  action  are 
abundant;  till  with  sands  and  gravel  lie  on  the  lower  ground; 
striated  rocks  and  roches  moutonnees  are  common ;  perched  blocks 
are  found  on  the  plateau  by  Sprinkling  Tarn  and  elsewhere.  Moraine 
mounds  are  quite  numerous  in  the  valleys,  and  have  frequently 
been  the  cause  of  small  lakes. 

Climate  and  Agriculture. — The  climate  is  generally  temperate, 
but  in  the  higher  parts  bleak,  snow  sometimes  lying  fully  six 
months  of  the  year  on  Cross  Fell  and  the  mountains  of  the  Lake 
District.  As  regards  rainfall,  the  physical  configuration  makes 
for  contrast.  At  Carlisle,  on  the  Sol  way  plain,  the  mean  annual 
fall  is  30.6  in.  At  Penrith,  on  the  north-eastern  flank  of  the 
Lake  District,  it  is  31.67;  on  the  western  flank  42.3  in.  are 
recorded  at  Ravenglass,  close  to  the  coast,  and  51.78  at  Cocker- 
mouth,  some  miles  inland.  In  the  heart  of  the  district,  however, 
the  fall  is  as  a  rule  much  heavier,  in  fact,  the  heaviest  recorded 
in  the  British  Isles  (see  LAKE  DISTRICT).  Somewhat  less  than 
three-fifths  of  the  total  area  of  the  county  is  under  cultivation, 
the  proportion  being  higher  than  that  of  the  neighbouring 
counties  of  Northumberland  and  Westmorland,  but  still  much 
below  the  average  of  the  English  counties.  Black  peaty  earth 
is  the  most  prevalent  soil  in  the  mountainous  districts;  but  dry 
loams  occur  in  the  lowlands,  and  are  well  adapted  to  green  crops, 
grain  and  pasture.  Wheat  and  barley  are  practically  neglected, 
but  large  crops  of  oats  are  grown.  Turnips  and  swedes  form  the 
bulk  of  the  green  crops.  Hill  pasture  amounts  to  nearly  270,000 
acres,  and  a  good  number  of  cattle  are  reared,  but  the  principal 
resource  of  the  farmer  is  sheep-breeding.  The  sheep  on  the 
lowland  farms  are  generally  of  the  Leicester  class  or  cross-bred 
between  the  Leicester  and  Herdwick,  with  a  few  Southdowns. 
Throughout  the  mountainous  districts  the  Herdwicks  have  taken 
the  place  of  the  smaller  black-faced  heath  variety  of  sheep 
once  so  commonly  met  with  on  the  sheep  farms.  They  are 
peculiar  to  this  part  of  England;  the  ewes  and  wethers  and 
many  of  the  rams  are  polled,  the  faces  and  legs  are  speckled, 
and  the  wool  is  finer  and  heavier  in  fleece  than  that  of  the 
heath  breed.  They  originally  came  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Muncaster  in  the  Duddon  and  Esk  district,  and  tradition  ascribes 
their  origin  variously  to  introduction  by  Scandinavian  settlers, 
or  to  parents  that  escaped  from  a  wrecked  ship  of  the  Spanish 
Armada.  In  general  they  belong  to  the  proprietors  of  the  sheep- 
walks,  and  have  been  farmed  out  with  them  from  time  immemorial, 
from  which  circumstance  it  is  said  they  obtained  the  name  of 
"  Herdwicks."  Long  after  the  Norman  Conquest  Cumberland 


remained  one  of  the  most  densely  forested  regions  of  England, 
and  much  of  the  low-lying  land  is  still  well  wooded,  the  Lake 
District  in  particular  displaying  beautiful  contrasts  between 
bare  mountain  and  tree-clad  valley.  The  oak,  ash  and  birch 
are  the  principal  natural  trees,  while  sycamores  have  been 
planted  for  shelter  round  many  farmsteads.  Plantations  of 
larch  are  also  numerous,  and  the  holly,  yew,  thorn  and  juniper 
flourish  locally. 

Landed  property  was  formerly  much  divided  in  this  county, 
and  the  smaller  holdings  were  generally  occupied  by  their  owners, 
who  were  known  as  "  statesmen,"  i.e.  "  estatesmen,"  a  class  of 
men  long  noted  for  their  sturdy  independence  and  attachment 
to  routine  husbandry.  Most  of  these  estates  were  held  of  the 
lords  of  manors  under  customary  tenure,  which  subjected  them 
to  the  payments  of  fines  and  heriots  on  alienation  as  well  as  on 
the  death  of  the  lord  or  tenant.  According  to  the  Agricultural 
Survey  printed  in  1794,  about  two-thirds  of  the  county  was  held 
by  this  tenure,  in  parcels  worth  from  £15  to  £30  rental.  On 
large  estates,  also,  the  farms  were  in  general  rather  small,  few 
then  reaching  £200  a  year,  held  on  verbal  contracts,  or  very 
short  leases,  and  burdened  like  the  small  estates  with  payments 
or  services  over  and  above  a  money  rent.  In  modern  times  these 
conditions  have  changed,  the  "  statesmen  "  gradually  becoming 
extinct  as  a  class,  and  many  of  the  small  holdings  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  larger  landed  proprietors. 

Other  Industries. — Carlisle  is  the  seat  of  a  variety  of  manu- 
factures; there  are  also  in  the  county  cotton  and  woollen 
industries,  pencil  mills  at  Keswick,  and  iron  shipbuilding  yards 
at  Whitehaven.  But  the  mining  industry  is  the  most  important, 
coal  being  raised  principally  in  the  district  about  Whitehaven, 
Workington  and  Maryport.  Side  by  side  with  this  industry 
much  iron  ore  is  raised,  and  there  is  a  large  output  of  pig-iron, 
and  ore  is  also  found  in  the  south,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Millom.  Gypsum,  zinc  and  some  lead  are  mined.  Copper  was 
formerly  worked  near  Keswick,  and  there  was  a  rich  deposit  of 
black  lead  at  the  head  of  Borrowdale.  Granite  and  limestone 
are  extensively  quarried.  Stone  is  very  largely  used  even  for 
housebuilding,  a  fine  green  slate  being  often  employed.  Shap 
and  other  granites  are  worked  for  building  and  roadstones. 

Communications. — The  chief  ports  of  Cumberland  are  White- 
haven,  Workington,  Maryport,  Harrington  and  Silloth.  The 
London  &  North-Western  railway  enters  the  county  near  Pen- 
rith, and  terminates  at  Carlisle,  which  is  also  served  by  the 
Midland.  The  Caledonian,  North  British  and  Glasgow  &  South- 
western lines  further  serve  this  city,  which  is  thus  an  important 
junction  in  through  communications  between  England  and 
Scotland.  The  North-Eastern  railway  connects  Carlisle  with 
Newcastle.  The  Maryport  &  Carlisle,  the  Cockermouth,  Keswick 
&  Penrith,  and  the  Cleator  &  Workington  Junction  lines  serve 
the  districts  indicated  by  their  names,  while  the  Furness  railway 
passes  along  the  west  coast  from  the  district  of  Furness  in 
Lancashire  as  far  north  as  Whitehaven,  also  serving  Cleator  and 
Egremont.  The  Ravenglass  &  Eskdale  light  railway  gives  access 
from  this  system  to  Boot  in  Eskdale.  Coaches  and  motor  cars 
maintain  passenger  communications  in  the  Lake  District  where 
the  railways  do  not  penetrate. 

Population  and  Administration. — The  area  of  the  ancient  and 
the  administrative  county  is  973,086  acres,  with  a  population 
in  1891  of  266,549  and  in  1901  of  266,933.  The  county  contains 
five  wards,  divisions  which  in  this  and  neighbouring  counties 
correspond  to  hundreds,  and  also  appear  in  Lanarkshire  and 
Renfrewshire  in  Scotland.  The  municipal  boroughs  are  Carlisle 
(pop.  45,480),  a  city  and  the  county  town,  Whitehaven  (19,324), 
and  Workington  (26,143).  The  other  urban  districts  are  Arlecdon 
and  Frizington  (5341),  Aspatria  (2885),  Cleator  Moor  (8120), 
Cockermouth  (5355),  Egremont  (5761),  Harrington  (3679), 
Holme  Cultram  (4275),  Keswick  (4451),  Maryport  (11,897), 
Millom  (10,426),  Penrith  (9182),  Wigton  (3692).  Of  these  all 
except  Keswick,  Millom  and  Penrith  are  in  the  industrial  district 
of  the  west  and  north-west.  The  urban  district  of  Holme 
Cultram  includes  the  port  of  Silloth.  Among  lesser  towns  may 
be  mentioned  St  Bees  (1236),  on  the  coast  south  of  Whitehaven, 


CUMBERLAND 


until  1897  the  seat  of  a  Church  of  England  theological  college. 
The  grammar  school  here,  founded  in  1533,  is  liberally  endowed, 
with  scholarships  and  exhibitions.  Cumberland  is  in  the 
northern  circuit,  and  assizes  are  held  at  Carlisle.  It  has  one 
court  of  quarter  sessions  and  12  petty  sessional  divisions.  The 
city  of  Carlisle  has  a  separate  commission  of  the  peace  and  court 
of  quarter  sessions.  There  are  213  civil  parishes.  Cumberland 
is  in  the  diocese  of  Carlisle,  with  a  small  portion  in  that  of 
Newcastle.  There  are  167  ecclesiastical  parishes  or  districts 
within  the  county.  There  are  four  parliamentary  divisions,  the 
Northern  or  Eskdale,  Mid  or  Penrith,  Cockermouth  and  Western 
or  Egremont,  each  returning  one  member;  while  the  parlia- 
mentary boroughs  of  Carlisle  and  Whitehaven  each  return  one 
member. 

History. — After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  (of  whose 
occupation  there  are  various  important  relics  in  the  county) 
little  is  known  of  the  region  which  is  now  Cumberland,  until 
the  great  battle  of  Ardderyd  in  573  resulted  in  its  consolidation 
with  the  kingdom  of  Strathclyde.  About  670-680  the  western 
district  between  the  Solway  and  the  Mersey  was  conquered  by 
the  Angles  of  Northumbria  and  remained  an  integral  portion 
of  that  kingdom  until  the  Danish  invasion  of  the  gth  century. 
In  875  the  kingdom  of  the  Cumbri  is  referred  to,  but  without 
any  indication  of  its  extent,  and  the  first  mention  of  Cumberland 
to  denote  a  geographical  area  occurs  in  945  when  it  was  ceded 
by  Edmund  to  Malcolm  of  Scotland.  At  this  date  it  included 
the  territory  north  and  south  of  the  Solway  from  the  Firth  of 
Forth  to  the  river  Duddon.  The  Scottish  supremacy  was  not 
uninterrupted,  for  the  district  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  by 
Ethelred  in  1000  was  once  more  a  stronghold  of  the  Danes, 
whose  influence  is  clearly  traceable  in  the  nomenclature  of  the 
Lake  District.  At  the  time  of  the  Norman  invasion  Cumberland 
was  a  dependency  of  the  earldom  of  Northumbria,  but  its  history 
at  this  period  is  very  obscure,  and  no  notice  of  it  occurs  in  the 
Domesday  Survey  of  1086;  Kirksanton,  Bootle  and  Whicham, 
however,  are  entered  under  the  possessions  of  the  earl  of  North- 
umbria in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  The  real  Norman 
conquest  of  Cumberland  took  place  in  1092,  when  William  Rufus 
captured  Carlisle,  repaired  the  city,  built  the  castle,  and  after 
sending  a  number  of  English  husbandmen  to  till  the  land,  placed 
the  district  under  the  lordship  of  Ranulf  Meschines.  The.  fief 
of  Ranulf  was  called  the  Power  or  Honour  of  Carlisle,  and  a  sheriff 
of  Carlisle  is  mentioned  in  1 106.  The  district  was  again  captured 
by  the  Scots  in  the  reign  of  Stephen,  and  on  its  recovery  in  1157 
the  boundaries  were  readjusted  to  include  the  great  barony 
of  Coupland.  At  this  date  the  district  was  described  as  the 
county  of  Carlisle,  and  the  designation  county  of  Cumberland  is 
not  adopted  in  the  sheriff's  accounts  until  1177.  The  five 
present  wards  existed  as  administrative  areas  in  1278,  when 
they  were  termed  bailiwicks,  the  designation  ward  not  appearing 
until  the  i6th  century,  though  the  bailiwicks  of  the  Forest  of 
Cumberland  are  termed  wards  in  the  I4th  century.  In  the 
1 7th  and  i8th  centuries  each  of  the  five  wards  was  under  the 
administration  of  a  chief  constable. 

Owing  to  its  position  on  the  Border  Cumberland  was  the  scene 
of  constant  warfare  from  the  time  of  its  foundation  until  the 
union  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  families  like  the  Tilliols, 
the  Lucies,  the  Greystokes,  and  the  Dacres  were  famous  for 
their  exploits  in  checking  or  avenging  the  depredations  of  the 
Scots.  During  the  War  of  Independence  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
Carlisle  was  the  headquarters  of  the  English  army.  In  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses  the  prevailing  sympathy  was  with  the  Lancastrian 
cause,  which  was  actively  supported  by  the  representatives  of 
the  families  of  Egremont,  Dacre  and  Greystoke.  In  1542  the 
Scottish  army  under  James  V.  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  at 
Solway  Moss.  After  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  England  and 
Scotland  in  1603,  the  countries  hitherto  known  as  "  the  Borders  " 
were  called  "  the  Middle  Shires,"  and  a  period  of  comparative 
peace  ensued.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  of  the  I7th 
century  the  northern  counties  associated  in  raising  forces  for 
the  king,  and  the  families  of  Howard,  Dalston,  Dacre  and 
Musgrave  rendered  valuable  service  to  the  royalist  cause.  In 


1645  Carlisle  was  captured  by  the  parliamentary  forces,  but  in 
April  1648  it  was  retaken  by  Sir  Philip  Musgrave  and  Sir  Thomas 
Glenham,  and  did  not  finally  surrender  until  the  autumn  of  1648. 
Cumberland  continued,  however,  to  support  the  Stuarts;  it  was 
one  of  the  first  counties  to  welcome  back  Charles  II.;  in  1715 
it  was  associated  with  the  rising  on  behalf  of  the  Pretender,  and 
Carlisle  was  the  chief  seat  of  operations  in  the  1745  rebellion. 

In  685  Carlisle  and  the  surrounding  district  was  annexed  by 
Ecgfrith  king  of  Northumbria  to  the  diocese  of  Lindisfarne, 
to  which  it  continued  subject,  at  least  until  the  Danish  invasion 
of  the  gth  century.  In  1133  Henry  I.  created  Carlisle  (q.v.)  a. 
bishopric.  The  diocese  included  the  whole  of  modern  Cumberland 
(except  the  barony  of  Coupland  and  the  parishes  of  Alston, 
Over-Den  ton  and  Kirkandrews) ,  and  also  the  barony  of  Appleby 
in  Westmorland.  The  archdeaconry  of  Carlisle,  co-extensive 
with  the  diocese,  comprised  four  deaneries.  Coupland  was  a 
deanery  in  the  archdeaconry  of  Richmond  and  diocese  of  York 
until  1541,  when  it  was  annexed  to  the  newly  created  diocese  of 
Chester.  In  1856  the  area  of  the  diocese  of  Carlisle  was  extended, 
so  as  to  include  the  whole  of  Cumberland  except  the  parish  of 
Alston,  the  whole  of  Westmorland,  and  the  Furness  district 
of  Lancashire.  In  1858  the  deaneries  were  made  to  number 
eighteen,  and  in  1870  were  increased  to  twenty. 

The  principal  industries  of  Cumberland  have  been  from  earliest 
times  connected  with  its  valuable  fisheries  and  abundant  mineral 
wealth.  The  mines  of  Alston  and  the  iron  mines  about  Egremont 
were  worked  in  the  I2th  century.  The  Keswick  copper  mines 
were  worked  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  but  the  black-lead  mine 
was  not  worked  to  any  purpose  until  the  i8th  century.  Coal- 
mining is  referred  to  in  the  isth  century,  and  after  the  revival 
of  the  mining  industries  in  the  i6th  century,  rose  to  great 
importance.  The  saltpans  about  the  estuaries  of  the  Esk  and 
the  Eden  were  a  source  of  revenue  in  the  i2th  century. 

Cumberland  returned  three  members  for  the  county  to  the 
parliament  of  1 290,  and  in  1 295  returned  in  addition  two  members 
for  the  city  of  Carlisle  and  two  members  each  for  the  boroughs 
of  Cockermouth  and  Egremont.  The  boroughs  did  not  again 
return  members  until  in  1640  Cockermouth  regained  represen- 
tation. Under  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  Cumberland  returned 
four  members  for  two  divisions,  and  Whitehaven  returned  one 
member.  The  county  now  returns  six  members  to  parliament; 
one  each  for  the  four  divisions  of  the  county,  Egremont,  Cocker- 
mouth,  Eskdale  and  Penrith,  one  for  the  city  of  Carlisle  and  one 
for  the  borough  of  Whitehaven. 

Antiquities. — Very  early  crosses,  having  Celtic  or  Scandinavian 
characteristics,  are  seen  at  Gosforth,  Bewcastle  and  elsewhere. 
In  ecclesiastical  architecture  Cumberland  is  not  rich  as  a  whole, 
but  it  possesses  Carlisle  cathedral,  with  its  beautiful  choir,  and 
certain  monastic  remains  of  importance.  Among  these  are  the 
fine  remnants  of  Lanercost  priory  (see  BRAMPTON).  Calder 
Abbey,  near  Egremont,  a  Cistercian  abbey  founded  in  1134, 
has  ruins  of  the  church  and  cloisters,  of  Norman  and  Early 
English  character,  and  is  very  beautifully  situated  on  the  Calder. 
The  parish  Church  of  St  Bees,  with  good  Norman  and  Early 
English  work,  belonged  to  a  Benedictine  priory  of  1120;  but 
according  to  tradition  the  first  religious  house  here  was  a  nunnery 
founded  c.  650  by  St  Bega,  who  became  its  abbess.  Among  the 
parish  churches  there  are  a  few  instances  of  towers  strongly 
fortified  for  purposes  of  defence;  that  at  Burgh-on-the-Sands, 
near  Carlisle,  being  a  good  illustration.  Castles,  in  some  cases 
ruined,  in  others  modernized,  are  fairly  numerous,  both  near  the 
Scottish  border  and  elsewhere.  Naworth  Castle  near  Brampton 
is  the  finest  example;  others  are  at  Bewcastle,  Carlisle,  Kirk- 
oswald,  Egremont,  Cockermouth  and  Millom.  Among  many 
notable  country  seats,  Rose  Castle,  the  palace  of  the  bishops 
of  Carlisle;  Greystoke  Castle  and  Armathwaite  Hall  may  be 
mentioned. 

See  J.  Nicolson  and  R.  Burn,  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Counties 
of  Westmorland  and  Cumberland  (London,  1777);  W.  Hutchinson, 
History  of  Cumberland  (Carlisle,  1794);  S.  Jefferson,  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Cumberland  (Carlisle,  1840-1842);  S.  Gilpin,  Songs 
and. Ballads  of  Cumberland  (London,  1866);  W.  Dickinson,  Glossary 
of  Words  and  Phrases  of  Cumberland  (London,  English  Dialect 


CUMBERLAND— CUMBERLAND  RIVER 


627 


Society,  1878,  with  a  supplement,  1881);  Sir  G.  F.  Duckett,  Early 
Sheriffs  of  Cumberland  (Kendal,  1870);  J.  Denton,  "  Account^  of 
Estates  and  Families  in  the  County  of  Cumberland,  1066-1603,"  in 
Antiquarian  Society's  Transactions  (1887) ;  R.  S.  Ferguson,  History  of 
Cumberland  (London,  1890) ;  "  Archaeological  Survey  of  Cumber- 
land," in  Archaeologia,  vol.  liii.  (London,  1893) ;  W.  Jackson,  Papers 
and  Pedigrees  relating  to  Cumberland  (2  vols.,  London,  1892);  T. 
Ellwood,  The  Landnama  Book  of  Iceland  as  it  illustrates  the  Dialect 
and  Antiquities  of  Cumberland  (Kendal,  1894);  Victoria  County 
History,  Cumberland;  and  Transactions  of  the  Cumberland  and 
Westmorland  Antiquarian  and  Archaeological  Society. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Allegany 
county,  Maryland,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Potomac  river,  about  178  m. 
W.  by  N.  of  Baltimore  and  about  1 53  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Pittsburg. 
Pop.  (1890)  12,729;  (190x2)  17,128,  of  whom  1113  were  foreign- 
born  and  iioo  were  of  negro  descent;  (1910)  21,839. 
Cumberland  is  served  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the  Western 
Maryland,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Cumberland  &  Pennsylvania 
(from  Cumberland  to  Piedmont,  Virginia),  and  the  George's 
Creek  &  Cumberland  railways,  the  last  a  short  line  extending  to 
Lonaconing  (19  m.);  by  an  electric  line  extending  to  Western 
Port,  Maryland  ;  and  by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal,  of  which 
it  is  a  terminus.  The  city  is  about  635  ft.  above  sea-level,  and 
from  a  distance  appears  to  be  completely  shut  in  by  lofty  ranges 
of  hills,  which  are  cut  through  to  the  westward  by  a  deep  gorge 
called  "  The  Narrows,"  making  a  natural  gateway  of  great 
beauty.  Cumberland  has  a  large  trade  in  coal,  which  is  mined  in 
the  vicinity.  As  a  manufacturing  centre  it  ranked  in  1905  second 
in  the  state,  the  chief  products  being  iron,  steel,  bricks,  flour, 
cement,  silk  and  leather;  there  is  also  a  large  dyeing  and  clean- 
ing establishment.  The  value  of  the  city's  factory  products 
increased  from  $2,900,267  in  1900  to  $4,595,023  in  1905,  or 
58-4  %.  Cumberland  is  an  important  jobbing  centre  also. 
The  municipality  owns  and  operates  its  water-works  and  electric 
lighting  plant.  The  first  settlement  of  the  place  was  made  in 
1750;  in  1754  Fort  Cumberland  was  erected  within  what  are 
now  the  city  limits,  and  in  the  year  following  this  fort  was 
occupied  by  General  Edward  Braddock.  Cumberland  was  laid 
out  in  1763,  but  there  was  little  growth  until  1787,  and  it  was  not 
incorporated  as  a  town  until  1815;  it  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1850. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  township  of  Providence  county,  Rhode 
Island,  U.S.A.,  in  the  N.E.  part  of  the  state,  about  6  m.  N. 
of  Providence  and  having  the  Blackstone  river  for  most  of  its 
W.  boundary.  Pop.  (1890)  8090;  (1900)  8925,  of  whom  3473 
were  foreign-born;  (1910)  10,107;  area,  27-5  sq.  m. 
It  is  served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway. 
Within  its  borders  are  the  villages  of  Cumberland  Hill,  Diamond 
Hill,  Arnold  Mills,  Abbott  Run,  Berkeley,  Robin  Hollow,  Happy 
Hollow,  East  Cumberland,  and  parts  of  Manville,  Ashton, 
Lonsdale  and  Valley  Falls.  The  surface  of  the  township  is  gener- 
ally hilly  and  rocky.  In  the  N.  part  is  a  valuable  granite  quarry; 
and  limestone,  and  some  coal,  iron  and  gold  are  also  found. 
Cumberland  has  been  called  the  "  mineral  pocket  of  New 
England."  The  Blackstone  and  its  tributaries  provide  consider- 
able water  power;  and  there  are  various  manufactures,  including 
cotton  goods,  silk  goods,  and  horse-shoes  and  other  iron  ware. 
The  value  of  the  township's  factory  product  in  1905  was 
$3,171,318,  an  increase  of  80-6%  since  1900.  this  ratio  of  increase 
being  greater  than  that  shown  by  any  other  "  municipality  " 
in  the  state  having  a  population  in  1900  of  8000  or  more.  At 
Lonsdale,  William  Blackstone  (£.1595-1675),  the  first  permanent 
white  settler  within  the  present  limits  of  Rhode  Island,  built 
his  residence,  "  Study  Hall,"  about  1635.  Cumberland  was 
originally  a  part  of  Rehoboth,  and  then  of  Attleborough,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  for  many  years  was  called,  like  other  sparse  settle- 
ments, the  Gore,  or  Attleborough  Gore.  In  1747,  by  the  royal 
decree  establishing  the  boundary  between  Massachusetts  and 
Rhode  Island,  Attleborough  Gore,  with  other  territory  formerly 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts,  was  annexed  to  Rhode 
Island,  and  the  township  of  Cumberland  was  incorporated, 
the  name  being  adopted  in  honour  of  William  Augustus,  duke  of 
Cumberland.  In  1867  a  part  of  Cumberland  was  set  off  to  form 
the  township  of  Woonsocket. 


CUMBERLAND  MOUNTAINS  (or  more  correctly  the  Cumber- 
land Plateau  or  Highlands),  the  westernmost  of  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  Appalachian  uplift  in  the  United  States,  com- 
posed of  many  small  ranges  of  mountains  (of  which  Cumberland 
Mountain  in  eastern  Kentucky  is  one).  It  extends  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Alabama,  attaining  its  greatest  height  (about  4000  ft.) 
in  Virginia.  The  plateau  is  rich  in  a  variety  of  mineral  products, 
of  which  special  mention  may  be  made  of  coal,  which  occurs  in 
many  places,  and  of  the  beautiful  marbles  quarried  in  that 
portion  of  the  plateau  which  lies  between  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
and  crosses  Tennessee.  The  plateau  has  an  abrupt  descent, 
almost  an  escarpment,  into  the  great  Appalachian  Valley  on  its 
E.,  while  the  W.  slope  is  deeply  and  roughly  broken.  The  whole 
mass  is  eroded  in  Virginia  into  a  maze  of  ridges.  Cumberland 
Mountain  parts  the  waters  of  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee 
rivers.  This  range  and  the  other  ranges  about  it  are  perhaps  the 
loveliest  portion  of  the  whole  plateau.  The  peaks  here  and  in  the 
Blue  Ridge  to  the  E.  are  the  highest  of  the  Appalachian  system. 
Forest-filled  valleys,  rounded  hills  and  rugged  gorges  afford  in 
every  part  scenery  of  surpassing  beauty.  The  Cumberland  Valley 
between  the  Cumberland  range  and  the  Pine  range  is  one  of 
special  fame.  In  the  former  range  there  are  immense  caverns 
and  subterranean  streams.  Cumberland  Gap,  crossing  the  ridge 
at  about  167  ft.  above  the  sea,  where  Kentucky,  Virginia  and 
Tennessee  meet,  is  a  gorge  about  500  ft.  deep,  with  steep  sides 
that  barely  give  room  in  places  for  a  roadway.  The  mountains, 
river  and  gap  were  all  discovered  by  a  party  of  Virginians  in 
1748,  and  named  in  honour  of  the  victor  of  Culloden,  William, 
duke  of  Cumberland.  Afterwards  the  gap  gained  a  place  in 
American  history  as  one  of  the  main  pathways  by  which 
emigrants  crossed  the  mountains  to  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
During  the  Civil  War  it  was  a  position  of  great  strategic  im- 
portance, as  it  afforded  an  entrance  to  eastern  and  central 
Tennessee  from  Kentucky,  which  was  held  by  the  Union  arms; 
and  it  was  repeatedly  occupied  in  alternation  by  the  opposing 
forces. 

The  mountaineers  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  are  a  strange 
stock,  who  retain  in  their  customs  and  habits  the  primitive 
conditions  of  a  life  that  has  elsewhere  long  since  disappeared. 
They  have  been  pictured  in  the  novels  of  Miss  Murfree  and  John 
Fox,  Junr.  They  are  a  tall,  straight,  angular  folk,  of  fine  physical 
development;  the  volunteers  for  the  Union  army  from  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  during  the  Civil  War — most  of  whom  came  from 
the  non-slave-holding  mountain  region — exceeded  in  physical 
development  the  volunteers  from  all  other  states.  For  the 
education  of  these  mountaineers  Major-General  Oliver  Otis 
Howard  founded  in  1895  at  Cumberland  Gap,  Tennessee,  the 
Lincoln  Memorial  University  (co-educational;  non-sectarian; 
opened  in  1897),  which  has  collegiate,  normal  training. and  in- 
dustrial courses,  and  an  affiliated  school  of  medicine,  Tennessee 
Medical  College,  at  Knoxville.  The  university  had  in  1907-1908 
14  instructors  and  570  students.  Berea  College  in  Kentucky  was 
a  pioneer  institution  for  the  education  of  mountaineers. 

CUMBERLAND  RIVER,  a  large  southern  branch  of  the  Ohio 
river,  U.S.A.,  rising  in  the  highest  part  of  the  Cumberland  plateau 
in  south-east  Kentucky,  and  emptying  into  the  Ohio  in  Kentucky 
(near  Smithland)  after  a  devious  course  of  688  m.  through  that 
state  and  Tennessee.  It  drains  a  basin  of  somewhat  more  than 
18,000  sq.  m.,  and  is  navigable  for  light-draught  steamers  through 
about  500  m.  under  favourable  conditions — Burnside,  Pulaski 
county,  518  m.  from  the  mouth,  is  the  head  of  navigation — and 
through  193  m. — to  Nashville — all  the  year  round;  for  boats 
drawing  not  more  than  3  ft.  the  river  is  navigable  to  Nashville  for 
6  to  8  months.  At  the  Great  Falls,  in  Whitley  county,  Kentucky, 
it  drops  precipitously  63  ft.  Above  the  falls  it  is  a  mountain 
stream,  of  little  volume  in  the  dry  months.  It  descends  rapidly 
at  its  head  to  the  highland  bench  below  the  mountains  and 
traverses  this  to  the  falls,  then  flows  in  rapids  (the  Great  Shoals) 
for  some  10  m.  through  a  fine  gorge  with  cliffs  300-400  ft.  high, 
and  descends  between  bluffs  of  decreasing  height  and  beauty 
into  its  lower  level.  Save  in  the  mountains  its  gradient  is  slight, 
and  below  the  falls,  except  for  a  number  of  small  rapids,  the 


CUMBRAES,  THE— GUMMING 


flow  of  the  stream  is  equable.  Timbered  ravines  lend  charm 
to  much  of  its  shores,  and  in  the  mountains  the  scenery  is  most 
beautiful.  Below  Nashville  the  stream  is  some  400  to  500  ft. 
wide,  and  its  high  banks  are  for  the  most  part  of  alluvium,  with 
rocky  bluffs  at  intervals.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  lies  Cumber- 
land Island,  in  the  Ohio.  During  low  water  of  the  latter  stream 
the  Cumberland  discharges  around  both  ends  of  the  island,  but 
in  high  water  of  the  Ohio  the  gradient  of  the  Cumberland  is  so 
slight  that  its  waters  are  held  back,  forming  a  deep  quiet  pool 
that  extends  some  20  m.  up  the  river.  A  system  of  locks  and 
dams  below  Nashville  was  planned  in  1846  by  a  private  company, 
which  accomplished  practically  nothing.  Congress  appropriated 
$155,000  in  1832-1838;  in  the  years  immediately  after  1888 
$305,000  was  expended,  notably  for  deepening  the  shoals  at  the 
junction  of  the  Cumberland  and  the  Ohio;  in  1892  a  project 
was  undertaken  for  7  locks  and  dams  52  ft.  wide  and  280  ft. 
long  below  Nashville.  Above  Nashville  $346,000  was  expended 
on  the  open  channel  project  (of  1871-1872)  from  Nashville  to 
Cumberland  Ford  (at  Pineville) ;  in  1886  a  canalization  project 
was  undertaken  and  22  locks  and  dams  below  Burnside  and  6 
above  Burnside  were  planned,  but  by  the  act  of  1907  the  project 
was  modified — $2,319,000  had  been  appropriated  up  to  1908 
for  the  work  of  canalization.  During  the  Civil  War  Fort  Donelson 
on  the  Cumberland,  and  Fort  Henry  near  by  on  the  Tennessee 
were  erected  by  the  Confederates,  and  their  capture  by  Flag- 
officer  A.  H.  Foote  and  General  Grant  (Feb.  1862)  was  one  of 
the  decisive  events  of  the  war,  opening  the  rivers  as  it  did 
for  the  advance  of  the  Union  forces  far  into  Confederate 
Territory. 

CUMBRAES,  THE,  two  islands  forming  part  of  the  county  of 
Bute,  Scotland,  lying  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  between  the  southern 
shores  of  Bute  and  the  coast  of  Ayrshire.  GREAT  CUMBRAE 
ISLAND,  about  i£  m.  W.S.W.  of  Largs,  is  3!  m.  long  and  2  m. 
broad,  and  has  a  circumference  of  10  m.  and  an  area  of  3200 
acres  or  5  sq.  m.  Its  highest  point  is  417  ft.  above  the  sea. 
There  is  some  fishing  and  a  little  farming,  but  the  mainstay  of 
the  inhabitants  is  the  custom  of  the  visitors  who  crowd  every 
summer  to  Millport,  which  is  reached  by  railway  steamer  from 
Largs.  This  town  (pop.  1901,  1663)  is  well  situated  at  the  head 
of  a  fine  bay  and  has  a  climate  that  is  both  warm  and  bracing. 
Its  chief  public  buildings  include  the  cathedral,  erected  in  Gothic 
style  on  rising  ground  behind  the  town,  the  college  connected 
with  it,  the  garrison,  a  picturesque  seat  belonging  to  the  marquess 
of  Bute,  who  owns  the  island,  the  town  hall,  a  public  hall, 
library  and  reading  room,  the  Lady  Margaret  fever  hospital, 
and  a  marine  biological  station.  The  cathedral,  originally  the 
collegiate  church,  was  founded  in  1849  by  the  earl  of  Glasgow 
and  opened  in  1851.  In  1876  it  was  constituted  the  cathedral 
of  Argyll  and  the  Isles.  Millport  enjoys  exceptional  facilities 
for  boating  and  bathing,  and  there  is  also  a  good  golf-course. 
Pop.  (1901)  1754,  of  whom  1028  were  females,  and  59  spoke  both 
English  and  Gaelic.  LITTLE  CUMBRAE  ISLAND  lies  to  the  south, 
separated  by  the  Tan,  a  strait  half  a  mile  wide.  It  is  if  m.  long, 
barely  i  m.  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  almost  a  square  mile. 
Its  highest  point  is  409  ft.  above  sea-level.  On  the  bold  cliffs 
of  the  west  coast  stands  a  lighthouse.  Robert  II.  is  said  to  have 
built  a  castle  on  the  island  which  was  demolished  by  Cromwell's 
soldiers  in  1653. 

The  strata  met  with  in  the  Great  and  Little  Cumbrae  belong  to  the 
Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  and  Carboniferous  systems.  The  former, 
consisting  of  false-bedded  sandstones  and  conglomerates,  are  con- 
fined to  the  larger  island.  The  Carboniferous  rocks  of  the  Cumbrae 
belong  to  the  lower  part  of  the  Calciferous  Sandstone  series  with  the 
accompanying  volcanic  zone.  In  the  larger  island  these  sediments, 
comprising  sandstones,  red,  purple  and  mottled  clays  with  occasional 
bands  of  nodular  limestone  or  cornstone,  occupy  a  considerable  area 
on  the  north  side  of  Millport  Bay.  In  the  Little  Cumbrae  they  appear 
on  the  east  side,  where  they  underlie  and  are  interbedded  with  the 
lavas.  The  interesting  geological  feature  of  these  islands  is  the 
development  of  Lower  Carboniferous  volcanic  rocks.  They  cover 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Little  Cumbrae,  where  they  give  rise  to 
marked  terraced  features  and  are  arranged  in  a  gentle  synclinal  fold. 
The  flows  are  often  scoriaceous  at  the  top  and  sometimes  display 
columnar  structure,  as  in  the  crags  at  the  lighthouse.  Those  rocks  ex- 
amined microscopically  consist  of  basalts  which  are  often  porphyritic. 


In  Great  Cumbrae  the  intrusive  rocks  mark  four  periods  of  erup- 
tion, three  of  which  may  be  of  Carboniferous  age.  The  oldest, 
consisting  of  trachytes,  occur  as  sheets  and  dikes  trending  generally 
E.N.E.,  and  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone. 
They  seem  to  be  of  older  date  than  the  Carboniferous  lavas  of  Little 
Cumbrae  and  south  Bute.  Next  come  dikes  of  plivine  basalt  of  the 
type  of  the  Lion's  Haunch  on  Arthur's  Seat,  which,  though  possess- 
ing the  same  general  trend  as  the  trachytes,  are  seen  to  cut  them. 
The  members  of  the  third  group  comprise  dikes  of  dolerite  or  basalt 
with  or  without  olivine,  which  have  a  general  east  and  west  trend, 
and  as  they  intersect  the  two  previous  groups  they  must  be  of  later 
date.  They  probably  belong  to  the  east  and  west  quartz  dolerite 
dikes  which  are  now  referred  to  late  Carboniferous  time.  Lastly 
there  are  representatives  of  the  basalt  dikes  of  Tertiary  age  with  a 
north-west  trend. 

CUMIN,  or  C  UMMIN  (Cuminum  Cyminum) ,  an  annual  herbaceous 
plant,  a  member  of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferae  and  probably 
a  native  of  some  part  of  western  Asia,  but  scarcely  known  at  the 
present  time  in  a  wild  state.  It  was  early  cultivated  in  Arabia, 
India  and  China,  and  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Its  stem  is  slender  and  branching,  and  about  a  foot 
in  height;  the  leaves  are  deeply  cut,  with  filiform  segments; 
the  flowers  are  small  and  white.  The  fruits,  the  so-called  seeds, 
which  constitute  the  cumin  of  pharmacy,  are  fusiform  or  ovoid 
in  shape  and  compressed  laterally;  they  are  two  lines  long,  are 
hotter  to  the  taste,  lighter  in  colour,  and  larger  than  caraway 
seeds,  and  have  on  each  half  nine  fine  ridges,  overlying  as  many 
oil-channels  or  vittae.  Their  strong  aromatic  smell  and  warm 
bitterish  taste  are  due  to  the  presence  of  about  3  %  of  an  essential 
oil.  The  tissue  of  the  seeds  contains  a  fatty  oil,  with  resin, 
mucilage  and  gum,  malates  and  albuminous  matter;  and  in  the 
pericarp  there  is  much  tannin.  The  volatile  oil  of  cumin,  which 
may  be  separated  by  distillation  of  the  seed  with  water,  is  mainly 
a  mixture  of  cymol  or  cymene,  CioHu,  and  cumic  aldehyde, 
CeHXCsI^COH.  Cumin  is  mentioned  in  -Isaiah  xxviii.  25,  27, 
and  Matthew  xxiii.  23,  and  in  the  works  of  Hippocrates  and 
Dioscorides.  From  Pliny  we  learn  that  the  ancients  took  the 
ground  seed  medicinally  with  bread,  water  or  wine,  and  that  it 
was  accounted  the  best  of  condiments  as  a  remedy  for  squeamish- 
ness.  It  was  found  to  occasion  pallor  of  the  face,  whence  the 
expression  of  Horace,  exsangue  cuminum  (Epist.  i.  19),  and  that 
of  Persius,  pallentis  gratia  cumini  (Sat.  v.  55).  Pliny  relates  the 
story  that  it  was  employed  by  the  followers  of  Porcius  Latro, 
the  celebrated  rhetorician,  in  order  to  produce  a  complexion 
such  as  bespeaks  application  to  study  (xx.  57).  In  the  middle 
ages  cumin  was  one  of  the  commonest. spices  of  European  growth. 
Its  average  price  per  pound  in  England  in  the  I3th  and  i4th 
centuries  was  2d.  or,  at  present  value,  about  is.  4d.  (Rogers,  Hist. 
of  Agric.  and  Prices,  i.  63 1).  It  is  stimulant  and  carminative,  and 
is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  curry  powder.  The  medicinal 
use  of  the  drug  is  now  confined  to  veterinary  practice.  Cumin 
is  exported  from  India,  Mogador,  Malta  and  Sicily. 

CUMMERBUND,  a  girdle  or  waistbelt  (Hindostani  kamar-band, 
a  loin-band).  In  the  East  the  principle  of  health  is  to  keep  the 
head  cool  and  the  stomach  warm;  the  turban  protects  the  one 
from  the  sun,  and  the  cummerbund  ensures  the  other  against 
changes  of  temperature.  In  India  the  cummerbund  consists  of 
many  folds  of  muslin  or  bright-coloured  cloth. 

GUMMING,  JOSEPH  GEORGE  (1812-1868),  English  geologist 
and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Matlock  in  Derbyshire  on  the 
15th  of  February  1812.  He  was  educated  at  Oakham  grammar 
school,  and  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  taking  the  degree  of 
M. A.,  and  entering  holy  orders  in  1835.  In  J84i  he  was  appointed 
vice-principal  of  King  William's  College,  Castletown,  in  the  Isle 
of  Man,  and  this  position  he  held  until  1856.  During  this  period 
his  leisure  time  was  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  geology  and 
archaeology  of  the  island.  The  results  were  published  in  a 
classic  volume  The  Isle  of  Man;  its  History,  Physical,  Ecclesi- 
astical, Civil  and  Legendary  (1848).  In  1856  he  became  master 
of  King  Edward's  grammar  school  at  Lichfield,  in  1858  warden 
and  professor  of  classical  literature  and  geology  in  Queen's 
College,  Birmingham,  in  1862  rector  of  Mellis,  in  Suffolk,  and 
in  1867  vicar  of  St  John's,  Bethnal  Green,  London.  He  died 
in  London  on  the  2ist  of  September  1868. 


CUMNOCK— CUNEIFORM 


629 


CUMNOCK  AND  HOLMHEAD,  a  police  burgh  of  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Lugar,  33!  m.  S.  of  Glasgow  by  road,  with  two 
stations  (Cumnock  and  Old  Cumnock)  on  the  Glasgow  &  South- 
western railway.  Pop.  (1901)  3088.  It  lies  in  the  parish  of 
Old  Cumnock  (pop.  5144),  and  is  a  thriving  town,  with  a  town 
hall,  cottage  hospital,  public  library  and  an  athenaeum.  Coal 
and  ironstone  are  extensively  mined  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
the  manufactures  include  woollens,  tweeds,  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  pottery.  When  Alexander  Peden  (1626-1686),  the 
persecuted  Covenanter,  died,  he  was  buried  in  the  Boswell  aisle 
of  Auchinleck  church;  but  his  corpse  was  borne  thence  with 
every  indignity  by  a  company  of  dragoons  to  the  foot  of  the 
gallows  at  Cumnock,  where  they  intended  to  hang  it  in  chains. 
This  proving  to  be  impracticable  they  buried  it  at  the  gallows- 
foot.  After  the  Revolution  the  inhabitants  out  of  respect  for 
the  "  Prophet's  "  memory  abandoned  their  then  burying-ground 
and  turned  the  old  place  of  execution  into  the  present  cemetery. 
Five  miles  S.E.  lies  the  parish  of  New  Cumnock  (pop.  5367)  at 
the  confluence  of  Afton  Water  and  the  Nith.  It  is  rich  in 
minerals,  iron,  coal,  limestone  and  freestone,  and  has  a  station 
on  the  Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway.  Two  miles  N.W.  of 
Cumnock  is  Auchinleck  (pronounced  Affleck),  with  a  station 
on  the  Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway.  Coal  and  iron  mining 
and  farming  are  important  industries.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Boswell  family,  three  generations  of  which  achieved  greatness — 
Lord  Auchinleck,  the  judge  (who  dubbed  Dr  Johnson  "  Ursa 
Major"),  his  son  James,  the  biographer,  and  his  grandson  Sir 
Alexander,  the  author  of  "  Gude  nicht  and  joy  be  wi'  you  a'," 
"  Jenny's  Bawbee,"  "  Jenny  dang  the  weaver,"  and  other  songs 
and  poems,  who  perished  miserably  in  a  duel.  Pop.  of  Auchinleck 
parish  (1901)  6605. 

CUNARD,  SIR  SAMUEL,  Bart.  (1787-1865),  British  civil 
engineer,  founder  of  the  Cunard  line  of  steam-ships,  was  born 
at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  2ist  of  November  1787.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  merchant,  and  was  himself  trained  for  the  pursuits 
of  commerce,  in  which,  by  his  abilities  and  enterprising  spirit, 
he  attained  a  conspicuous  position.  When,  in  the  early  years 
of  steam  navigation,  the  English  government  made  known  its 
desire  to  substitute  steam  vessels  for  the  sailing  ships  then 
employed  in  the  mail  service  between  England  and  America, 
Cunard  heartily  entered  into  the  scheme,  came  to  England,  and 
accepted  the  government  tender  for  carrying  it  out.  In  con- 
junction with  Messrs  Burns  of  Glasgow  and  Messrs  Maclver 
of  Liverpool,  proprietors  of  rival  lines  of  coasting  steamers 
between  Glasgow  and  Liverpool,  he  formed  a  company,  and  the 
first  voyage  of  a  Cunard  steamship  was  successfully  made  by 
the  "Britannia"  from  Liverpool  to  Boston,  U.S.A.,  between 
July  4  and  19,  1840  (see  STEAMSHIP  LINES).  In  acknowledgment 
of  his  energetic  and  successful  services  Cunard  was,  in  1859, 
created  a  baronet.  He  died  in  London  on  the  28th  of  April 
1865- 

CUNAS,  a  tribe  of  Central  American  Indians.  Their  home  is 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  from  the  Chagres  to  the  Atrato.  They 
are  sometimes  called  Darien  or  San  Bias  Indians.  They  are  a 
small  active  people,  with  remarkably  light  complexions. 

CUNDINAMARCA,  till  1909  a  department  of  the  eastern 
plateau  of  Colombia,  South  America,  having  the  departments 
of  Quesada  and  Tundama  on  the  N.,  Tolima  on  the  W.  and  S., 
and  the  Meta  territory  on  the  S.E.  and  E.  The  territorial 
redistribution  of  1905  deprived  Cundinamarca  of  its  territories 
on  the  eastern  plains,  and  a  part  of  its  territory  in  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  out  of  which  Quesada  and  the  Federal  district  were 
created — its  area  being  reduced  from  79,691  to  5060  sq.  m., 
and  its  estimated  population  from  500,000  to  225,000.  A 
considerable  part  of  its  area  consists  of  plateaus  enjoying  a 
temperate  climate  and  producing  the  fruits  and  cereals  of  the 
temperate  zone,  and  another  important  part  lies  in  the  valley 
of  the  Magdalena  and  is  tropical  in  character.  The  district  of 
Fusagasuga  in  the  southern  part  of  this  region  is  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  its  coffee.  The  capital  of  the  department 
was  Facatativa  (est.  population,  7500),  situated  on  the  western 
margin  of  the  sabana  of  Bogota,  25  m.  N.W.  from  that  capital 


by  rail.    Other  important  towns  are  Caqueza,  Sibate,  La  Meza 
and  Tocaima. 

CUNEIFORM  (from  Lat.  cuneus,  a  wedge),  a  form  of  writing, 
extensively  used  in  the  ancient  world,  especially  by  the  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians.  The  word  "  cuneiform  "  was  first 
applied  in  1700  by  Thomas  Hyde,  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
university  of  Oxford,  in  the  expression  "  dactuli  pyramidales 
seu  cuneiformes,"  and  it  has  found  general  acceptance,  though 
efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  expression  "  arrow- 
headed  "  writing.  The  name  "  cuneiform  "  is  fitting,  for  each 
character  or  sign  is  composed  of  a  wedge  (J  or  *— ),  or  a  combina- 
tion of  wedges  (.Jijf),  written  from  left  to  right.  The  wedge 
is  always  pointed  towards  the  right  (•— )  or  downwards  (J)  or 
aslant(\),  or  two  may  be  so  combined  as  to  form  an  angle  (^) 
called  by  German  Assyriologists  a  Winkelhaken,  a  word  now 
sometimes  adopted  by  English  writers  on  the  subject.  The 
word  cuneiform  has  passed  into  most  modern  languages,  but 
the  Germans  use  Keilschrifl  (i.e.  wedge-script)  and  the  Arabs 
mismdri  (i^/*—-*)  or  nail- writing. 

In  Persia,  40  m.  N.E.  of  Shiraz,  is  a  range  of  hills,  Mount 
Rachmet,  in  front  of  which,  in  a  semicircular  form,  rises  a  vast 
terrace-like  platform.  It  is  partly  natural,  but  was  Discovery 
walled  up  in  front,  levelled  off  and  used  as  the  base  and 
of  great  temples  and  palaces.  The  earliest  European,  <iecipher- 
at  present  known  to  us,  who  visited  the  site  was  a 
wandering  friar  Odoricus  (about  A.D.  1320),  who  does  not  seem 
to  have  noticed  the  inscriptions  cut  in  the  stone.  These  were 
first  observed  by  Josaphat  Barbaro,  a  Venetian  traveller,  about 
1472.  In  1621  the  ruins  were  visited  by  Pietro  della  Valle,  who 
was  the  first  to  copy  a  few  of  the  signs,  which  he  sent  in  a  letter 
to  a  friend  in  Naples.  His  copy  was  not  well  made,  but  it  served 

<T  m  Tf  \  «TT 

the  useful  purpose  of  directing  attention  to  an  unknown  script 
which  was  certain  to  attract  scholars  to  the  problem  of  its 
decipherment.  To  this  end  it  was  necessary  that  complete 
inscriptions  and  not  merely  separate  signs  should  be  made 
accessible  to  European  scholars.  The  first  man  to  attempt  to 
satisfy  this  need  was  Sir  John  Chardin,  in  whose  volumes  of 
travels  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1711  one  of  the  small  inscrip- 
tions found  at  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  was  carefully  and  accurately 
reproduced.  It  was  now  plainly  to  be  seen,  as  indeed  others  had 
surmised,  that  these  inscriptions  at  Persepolis  had  been  written 
in  three  languages,  distinguished  each  from  other  by  an  increasing 
complexity  in  the  signs  with  which  they  were  written.  The  three 
languages  have  since  been  determined  as  Persian,  Susian  and 
Babylonian.  But  before  the  decipherment  could  begin  it  was 
necessary  that  all  the  available  material  should  be  copied  and 
published.  The  honour  of  performing  this  great  task  fell  to 
Carsten  Niebuhr,  who  visited  Persepolis  in  March  1765,  and  in 
three  weeks  and  a  half  copied  all  the  texts,  so  well  that  little 
improvement  has  been  made  in  them  since.  When  Niebuhr 
returned  to  Denmark  he  studied  carefully  the  little  inscriptions 
and  convinced  himself  that  the  guesses  of  some  of  his  predecessors 
were  correct,  and  that  the  inscriptions  were  to  be  read  from  left 
to  right.  He  observed  that  three  systems  of  writing  were 
discernible,  and  that  these  were  always  kept  distinct  in  the 
inscriptions.  He  did  not,  however,  draw  the  natural  conclusion 
that  they  represented  three  languages,  but  supposed  that  the 
proud  builders  of  Persepolis  had  written  their  inscriptions  in 
threefold  form.  He  divided  the  little  inscriptions  into  three 
classes,  according  to  the  manner  of  their  writing,  calling  them 
classes  I.,  II.  and  IIL  He  then  arranged  all  those  he  had 
copied  that  belonged  to  class  I.,  and  by  careful  comparison 
decided  that  in  them  there  were  employed  altogether  but  forty- 
two  signs.  These  he  copied  out  and  set  in  order  in  one  of 
his  plates.  This  list  of  signs  was  so  nearly  complete  and  accu- 
rate that  later  study  has  made  but  slight  changes  in  it.  When 


630 


CUNEIFORM 


Niebuhr  had  made  his  list  of  signs  he  naturally  enough  decided 
that  this  language,  whatever  it  might  be,  was  written  in  alpha- 
betic characters,  a  conclusion  which  later  investigation  has  not 
overthrown.  Beyond  this  Niebuhr  was  not  able  to  go,  and  not 
even  one  sign  revealed  its  secret  to  his  inquiry.  When,  however, 
he  had  published  his  copies  (in  1777)  there  were  other  scholars 
ready  to  take  up  the  difficult  task.  Two  scholars  independently, 
Olav  Tychsen  of  Rostock  and  Friedrich  Mtinter  of  Copenhagen, 
began  work  upon  the  problem.  Tychsen  first  observed  that 
there  occurred  at  irregular  intervals  in  the  inscriptions  of  the 
first  class  a  wedge  that  pointed  neither  directly  to  the  right  nor 
downward,  but  inclined  diagonally.  This  he  suggested  was  the 
dividing  sign  used  to  separate  words.  This  very  simple  discovery 
later  became  of  great  importance  in  the  hands  of  Miinter. 
Tychsen  also  correctly  identified  the  alphabetic  signs  for  "  a," 
"  d,"  "  u  "  and  "  s,"  but  he  failed  to  decipher  an  entire  inscription, 
chiefly  perhaps  because,  through  an  error  in  history,  he  supposed 
that  they  were  written  during  the  Parthian  dynasty  (246  B.C.- 
A.D.  227).  Miinter  was  more  fortunate  than  Tychsen  in  his 
historical  researches,  and  this  made  him  also  more  successful 
in  linguistic  attempts.  He  rightly  identified  the  builders  of 
Persepolis  with  the  Achaemenian  dynasty,  and  so  located  in 
time  the  authors  of  the  inscriptions  (538-465  B.C.).  Inde- 
pendently of  Tychsen  he  identified  the  oblique  wedge  as  a 
divider  between  words,  and  found  the  meaning  of  the  sign  for 
"  b."  These  may  appear  to  be  small  matters,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  they  were  made  without  the  assistance  of  any 
bilingual  text,  and  were  indeed  taken  bodily  out  of  the  gloom 
which  had  settled  upon  these  languages  centuries  before.  They 
did  not,  however,  bring  us  much  nearer  to  the  desired  goal  of 
a  reading  of  any  portion  of  the  inscriptions.  The  whole  case 
indeed  seemed  now  perilously  near  a  stalemate.  New  methods 
must  be  found,  and  a  new  worker,  with  patience,  persistence, 
power  of  combination,  insight,  the  historical  sense  and  the 
feeling  for  archaeological  indications. 

In  1802  Georg  Friedrich  Grotefend  (q.v.)  was  persuaded  by 
the  librarian  of  Gottingen  University  to  essay  the  task.  He 
began  with  the  assumption  that  there  were  three  languages, 
and  that  of  these  the  first  was  ancient  Persian,  the  language  of 
the  Achaemenians,  who  had  erected  these  palaces  and  caused 
these  inscriptions  to  be  written.  For  his  first  attempts  at 
decipherment  he  chose  two  of  these  old  Persian  inscriptions  and 
laid  them  side  by  side.  They  were  of  moderate  length,  and  the 
frequent  recurrence  of  the  same  signs  in  them  seemed  to  indicate 
that  their  contents  were  similar.  The  method  which  he  now 
pursued  was  so  simple,  yet  so  sure,  as  he  advanced  step  by  step, 
that  there  seemed  scarcely  a  chance  of  error.  Munter  had 
observed  in  all  the  Persian  texts  a  word  which  occurred  in  two 
forms,  a  short  and  a  longer  form.  This  word  appeared  in 
Grotefend's  two  texts  in  both  long  and  short  forms.  Munter 
had  suggested  that  it  meant  "  king  "  in  the  short  form  and 
"  kings  "  in  the  longer,  and  that  when  the  two  words  occurred 
together  the  expression  meant  "  king  of  kings."  But  further, 
this  word  occurred  in  both  inscriptions  in  the  first  line,  and  in 
both  cases  was  followed  by  the  same  word.  This  second  word 
Grotefend  supposed  to  mean  "  great,"  the  combined  expression 
being  "  king  great,"  that  is,  "  great  king."  All  this  found  support 
in  the  phraseology  of  the  lately  deciphered  Sassanian  inscriptions, 
and  it  was  plausible  in  itself.  It  must,  however,  be  supported 
by  definite  facts,  and  furthermore  each  word  must  be  separated 
into  its  alphabetic  parts,  every  one  of  them  identified,  and  the 
words  themselves  be  shown  to  be  philologically  possible  by  the 
production  of  similar  words  in  related  languages.  In  other 
words,  the  archaeological  method  must  find  support  in  a  philo- 
logical method.  To  this  Grotefend  now  devoted  himself  with 
equal  energy.  His  method  was  as  simple  as  before.  He  had 
made  out  to  his  own  satisfaction  the  titles  "  great  king,  king  of 
kings."  Now,  in  the  Sassanian  inscriptions,  the  first  word  was 
always  the  king's  name,  followed  immediately  by  "  great  king, 
king  of  kings,"  and  Grotefend  reasoned  that  this  was  probably 
true  in  his  texts.  But  if  true,  then  these  two  texts  were  set  up 
by  two  different  kings,  for  the  names  were  not  the  same  at  the 


beginning.  Furthermore  the  name  with  which  his  text  No.  I. 
began  appears  in  the  third  line  of  text  No.  II.,  but  in  a  somewhat 
longer  form,  which  Grotefend  thought  was  a  genitive  and  meant 
"  of  N."  It  followed  the  word  previously  supposed  to  be  "  king  " 
and  another  which  might  mean  son  (N  king  son),  so  that  the 
whole  expression  would  be  "  son  of  N  king."  From  these  facts 
Grotefend  surmised  that  in  these  two  inscriptions  he  had  the 
names  of  three  rulers,  grandfather,  father  and  son.  It  was  now 
easy  to  search  the  list  of  the  Achaemenian  dynasty  and  to  find 
three  names  which  would  suit  the  conditions,  and  the  three 
which  he  ventured  to  select  were  Hystaspes,  Darius,  Xerxes. 
According  to  his  hypothesis  the  name  at  the  beginning  of  inscrip- 
tion I.  was  Darius,  and  he  was  ready  to  translate  his  texts  in 
part  as  follows: — 

I.  Darius,  great  king,  king  of  kings  .  .  .  son  of  Hystaspes.   .  .   . 
II.  Xerxes,  great  king,  king  of  kings  .  .  .  son  of  Darius  king. 

The  form  which  he  provisionally  adopted  for  Darius  was 
Darheush;  later  investigation  has  shown  that  it  ought  really 
to  be  read  as  Daryavush,  but  the  error  was  not  serious,  and  he 
had  safely  secured  at  least  the  letters  D,  A,  R,  SH.  It  was  a 
most  wonderful  achievement,  the  importance  of  which  he  did 
not  realize,  for  in  it  was  the  key  to  the  decipherment  of  three 
ancient  languages.  To  very  few  men  has  it  been  given  to  make 
discoveries  so  important  both  for  history  and  for  philology. 

To  Grotefend  it  was,  however,  not  given  to  translate  a  whole 
text,  or  even  to  work  out  all  the  words  whose  meaning  he  had 
surmised.  Rasmus  Christian  Rask  (1787-1832),  who  followed 
him,  found  the  plural  ending  in  Persian,  which  had  baffled  him; 
and  Eugene  Burnouf  (1801-1852),  by  the  study  of  a  list  of 
Persian  geographical  names  found  at  Naksh-i-Rustam,  dis- 
covered at  a  single  stroke  almost  all  the  characters  of  the  Persian 
alphabet,  and  incidentally  confirmed  the  values  already  deter- 
mined by  his  predecessors. 

At  the  same  time  as  Burnouf,  the  eminent  Sanskrit  scholar 
Professor  Christian  Lassen  (1800-1876),  of  Bonn,  was  studying 
the  same  list  of  names;  and  his  results  were  published  at  the 
same  time.  The  controversy  which  resulted  as  to  priority  of 
discovery  may  be  here  passed  over  while  we  sum  up  the  results 
in  general  conclusions.  Lassen  may  certainly  claim  in  the  final 
court  of  history  that  he  discovered  independently  of  Burnouf 
the  values  of  at  least  six  and  possibly  of  eight  signs.  But  in 
another  respect  he  made  very  definite  progress  over  Burnouf. 
He  discovered  that,  if  the  system  of  Grotefend  were  rigidly 
followed,  and  to  every  sign  were  given  the  value  Grotefend  had 
assigned,  some  words  would  be  left  wholly  or  almost  wholly 
without  vowels;  and  therefore  unpronounceable.  As  instances 
of  such  words  he  mentioned  CPRD,  THTGUS,  KTPTUK, 
FRAISJM.  This  situation  led  Lassen  to  a  very  important 
discovery,  towards  which  his  knowledge  of  the  Sanskrit  alphabet 
did  much  to  bring  him.  He  came,  in  short,  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  ancient  Persian  signs  were  not  entirely  alphabetic, 
but  were  at  least  partially  syllabic,  that  is,  that  certain  signs 
were  used  to  represent  not  merely  an  alphabetic  character  like 
"  b,"  but  also  a  syllable  such  as  "  ba,"  "  bi  "  or  "  bu."  He 
claimed  that  he  had  successfully  demonstrated  that  the  sign 
for  "  a  "  was  only  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  or  before 
a  consonant,  or  before  another  vowel,  and  that  in  every  other 
case  it  was  included  in  the  consonant  sign.  Thus  in  the 
inscription  No  I.  in  the  second  line  the  signs  should  be  read 
VA-ZA-RA-KA.  This  was  a  most  important  discovery,  and  may 
be  said  to  have  revolutionized  the  study  of  these  long  puzzling 
texts. 

During  the  entire  time  of  this  slow  process  of  decipherment, 
from  the  first  essays  of  Grotefend  in  1802  until  the  publication 
of  Lassen's  book  in  1836,  there  were  more  sceptics  than  believers 
in  the  results  of  the  deciphering  process.  Indeed  the  history  of 
all  forms  of  decipherment  of  unknown  languages  shows  that 
scepticism  concerning  them  is  far  more  prevalent  than  credulity 
or  even  a  too  ready  acceptance.  There  was  need  for  a  man  of 
another  people,  of  different  training  and  a  fresh  and  unbiased 
mind,  to  put  the  capstone  upon  the  decipherment,  and  he  was 
already  at  work  when  Lassen's  important  researches  appeared. 


CUNEIFORM 


631 


Major  (afterward  Sir)  Henry  Rawlinson  had  gone  out  to  India, 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  while  still  a  boy.  There 
he. had  learned  Persian  and  several  of  the  Indian  vernaculars. 
That  was  not  the  sort  of  training  that  had  prepared  Grotefend, 
Burnouf  or  Lassen,  but  it  was  the  kind  that  the  early  travellers 
and  copyists  had  enjoyed.  In  1833  young  Rawlinson  went  to 
Persia,  to  work  with  other  British  officers  in  the  reorganization 
of  the  Persian  army.  While  engaged  in  this  service  his  attention 
was  drawn  to  the  ancient  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions.  In 
1833  he  copied  with  great  care  the  texts  at  Hamadan,  and  began 
their  decipherment.  Of  all  the  eager  work  which  had  been  going 
on  in  Europe  he  knew  little.  It  is  no  longer  possible  to  ascertain 
when  he  gained  his  first  information  of  Grotefend's  work,  for 
Norris,  the  secretary  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  has  left 
us  no  record  of  when  he  began  to  send  notices  of  the  German's 
work.  Whenever  it  was,  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that 
Rawlinson  worked  independently  for  a  time.  His  method  was 
strikingly  like  Grotefend's.  He  had  copied  two  trilingual  in- 
scriptions, and  recognized  at  once  that  he  had  three  languages 
before  him.  In  1839  (Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  x. 
pp.  5,  6)  he  thus  wrote  of  his  method:  "  When  I  proceeded  .  .  . 
to  compare  and  interline  the  two  inscriptions  (or  rather  the 
Persian  columns  of  the  two  inscriptions,  for,  as  the  compartments 
exhibiting  the  inscription  in  the  Persian  language  occupied  the 
principal  place  in  the  tablets,  and  were  engraved  in  the  least 
complicated  of  the  three  classes  of  cuneiform  writing,  they  were 
naturally  first  submitted  to  examination)  I  found  that  the 
characters  coincided  throughout,  except  in  certain  particular 
groups,  and  it  was  only  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  grounds 
which  were  thus  brought  out  and  individualized  must  represent 
proper  names.  I  further  remarked  that  there  were  but  three  of 
these  distinct  groups  in  the  two  inscriptions;  for  the  group 
which  occupied  the  second  place  in  one  inscription,  and  which, 
from  its  position,  suggested  the  idea  of  its  representing  the  name 
of  the  father  of  the  king  who  was  there  commemorated,  corre- 
sponded with  the  group  which  occupied  the  first  place  in  the  other 
inscription,  and  thus  not  only  served  determinately  to  connect 
the  two  inscriptions  together,  but,  assuming  the  groups  to 
represent  proper  names,  appeared  also  to  indicate  a  genealogical 
succession.  The  natural  inference  was  that  in  these  three  groups 
of  characters  I  had  obtained  the  proper  names  belonging  to  three 
consecutive  generations  of  the  Persian  monarchy;  and  it  so 
happened  that  the  first  three  names  of  Hystaspes,  Darius  and 
Xerxes,  which  I  applied  at  hazard  to  the  three  groups,  according 
to  the  succession,  proved  to  answer  in  all  respects  satisfactorily 
and  were,  in  fact,  the  true  identification." 

Rawlinson's  next  work  was  the  copying  of  the  great  inscription 
of  Darius  on  the  rocks  at  Behistun  (q.v.).  He  had  first  seen-it  in 
1835,  and  as  it  was  high  up  on  the  rocky  face,  and  apparently 
inaccessible,  he  had  studied  it  by  means  of  a  field-glass.  He  was 
not  able  to  copy  the  whole  of  the  Persian  text,  but  in  1837,  when 
he  was  more  skilled  in  the  script,  he  secured  more  of  it.  In  the 
next  year  he  forwarded  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of  London 
his  translation  of  the  first  two  paragraphs  of  the  Persian  text, 
containing  the  name,  titles  and  genealogy  of  Darius.  This  was 
little  less  than  a  tour  de  force,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
this  had  been  accomplished  without  the  knowledge  of  other 
ancient  languages  which  his  European  competitors  had  enjoyed. 
The  translation,  received  in  London  on  the  i4th  of  March,  made  a 
sensation,  and  a  transcript  sent  in  April  to  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Paris  secured  him  an  honorary  membership  in  that  dis- 
tinguished body.  He  was  now  known,  and  many  made  haste  to 
send  him  copies  of  everything  important  which  had  been  pub- 
lished in  Europe.  The  works  of  Burnouf,  Niebuhr,  le  Brun  and 
Porter  came  to  his  hands,  and  with  such  assistance  he  made  rapid 
progress,  and  in  the  winter  of  1838-1839  his  alphabet  of  ancient 
Persian  was  almost  complete.  In  1839  he  was  in  Bagdad,  his 
work  written  out  and  almost  ready  for  publication.  But  he 
delayed,  hoping  for  more  light,  and  revising  sign  by  sign  with 
exhaustless  patience.  He  expected  to  publish  his  preliminary 
memoir  in  the  spring  of  1840,  when  he  was  suddenly  sent  to 
Afghanistan  as  political  agent  at  Kandahar.  Here  he  was  too 


busily  engaged  in  war  administration  to  attend  to  his  favourite 
studies,  which  were  not  renewed  until  1843  when  he  returned 
to  Bagdad.  There  he  received  fresh  copies  and  corrections  of 
the  Persepolis  inscriptions  which  had  been  made  by  Westergaard, 
and  later  made  a  journey  to  Behistun  to  perfect  his  own  copies 
of  the  texts  which  had  formed  the  basis  of  his  own  first  study. 
At  last,  after  many  delays  and  discouragements,  he  published, 
in  1846,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  his  memoir, 
or  series  of  memoirs,  on  the  ancient  Persian  inscriptions,  in  which 
for  the  first  time  he  gave  a  nearly  complete  translation  of  the 
Persian  text  of  Behistun.  In  this  one  publication  Rawlinson 
attained  imperishable  fame  in  Oriental  research.  His  work  had 
been  carried  on  under  greater  difficulties  than  those  in  the  path 
of  his  European  colleagues,  but  he  had  surpassed  them  all  in  the 
making  of  an  intelligible  and  connected  translation  of  a  long 
inscription.  He  had  indeed  not  done  it  without  assistance  from 
the  work  of  Burnouf,  Grotefend  and  Lassen,  but  when  all 
allowance  is  made  for  these  influences  his  fame  is  not  diminished 
nor  the  extent  of  his  services  curtailed.  His  method  was  adopted 
before  he  knew  of  Lassen's  work.  That  two  men  of  such  different 
training  and  of  such  opposite  types  of  mind  should  have  lighted 
upon  the  same  method,  and  by  it  have  attained  the  same  results, 
confirmed  in  the  eyes  of  many  the  truth  of  the  decipherment. 

The  work  of  the  decipherment  of  the  old  Persian  texts  was  now 
complete  for  all  practical  purposes.  But  in  1846  there  appeared 
a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  by  the  Rev. 
Edward  Hincks  of  Killyleagh,  County  Down,  Ireland,  whose  keen 
criticisms  of  Lassen's  work,  and  original  contributions  to  the 
definite  settlement  of  syllabic  values,  may  be  regarded  as  closing 
the  period  of  decipherment  of  Persian  cuneiform  writing. 

The  next  problem  in  the  study  of  cuneiform  was  the  decipher- 
ment of  the  second  language  in  each  of  the  trilingual  groups. 
The  first  essay  in  this  difficult  task  was  made  in  1844  by  Niels 
Louis  Westergaard.  His  method  was  very  similar  to  that  used  by 
Grotefend  in  the  decipherment  of  Persian.  He  selected  the  names 
of  Darius,  Hystaspes,  Persians  and  others,  and  compared  them 
with  their  equivalents  in  the  Persian  texts.  By  this  means  he 
learned  a  number  of  signs,  and  sought  by  their  use  in  other 
words  to  spell  out  syllables  or  words  whose  meanings  were  then 
ascertained  by  conjecture  or  by  comparison.  He  estimated  the 
number  of  characters  at  eighty-two  or  eighty-seven,  and  judged 
the  writing  to  be  partly  alphabetic  and  partly  syllabic.  The 
language  he  called  Median,  and  classified  it  in  "  the  Scythian, 
rather  than  in  the  Japhetic  family."  The  results  of  Westergaard 
were  subjected  to  incisive  criticism  by  Hincks,  who  made  a 
distinct  gain  in  the  problem.  It  next  passed  to  the  hands  of  de 
Saulcy,  who  was  able  to  see  further  than  either.  But  the  matter 
moved  with  difficulty  because  the  copied  texts  were  not  accurate. 
By  the  generosity  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  his  superb  copies 
of  the  Behistun  text,  second  column,  were  placed  in  the  hands 
of  Mr  Edwin  Norris,  who  was  able  in  1852  to  present  a  paper 
to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  deciphering  nearly  all  of  it.  Mordt- 
mann  followed  him,  naming  the  language  Susian,  which  was  met 
with  general  acceptance  and  was  not  displaced  by  the  name 
Amardian,  suggested  by  A.  H.  Sayce  in  two  papers  which  other- 
wise made  important  contributions  to  the  subject.  With  his 
contributions  the  problem  of  decipherment  of  Susian  may  be 
considered  as  closed.  The  latter  workers  could  only  be  builders 
on  foundations  already  laid. 

The  decipherment  of  the  third  of  the  three  languages  found 
at  Persepolis  and  Behistun  followed  quickly  on  the  sXiccess  with 
Susian.  The  first  worker  was  Isadore  Lowenstern,  who  made 
out  the  words  for  "  king  "  and  "  great  "  and  the  sign  for  the 
plural,  but  little  more.  The  first  really  great  advance  was  made 
by  Hincks  in  1846  and  1847.  In  these  he  determined  successfully 
the  values  of  several  signs,  settled  the  numerals,  and  was 
apparently  on  the  high-road  toward  the  translation  of  an  entire 
Assyrian  text.  He  was,  however,  too  cautious  to  proceed  so  far, 
and  the  credit  of  first  translating  a  short  Assyrian  text  belongs 
to  Longperier,  who  in  1847  published  the  following  as  the  trans- 
lation of  an  entire  text:  "Glorious  is  Sargon,  the  great  king, 
the  (.  .  .)  king,  king  of  kings,  king  of  the  land  of  Assyria." 


632 


CUNEO 


It  was  nearly  all  correct,  but  it  advanced  our  knowledge  bu 
slightly  because  it  did  not  give  the  forms  of  the  words — because 
(to  put  it  in  another  way)  he  was  not  able  to  transliterate  the 
Assyrian  words.  This  was  the  great  problem.  In  the  Persian 
texts  there  were  but  forty-four  signs,  but  in  the  third  column 
of  the  Persepolis  texts  Grotefend  had  counted  one  hundrec 
and  thirty  different  characters,  and  estimated  that  in  all  the 
Babylonian  texts  known  to  him  there  were  about  three  hundre( 
different  signs,  while  Botta  discovered  six  hundred  and  forty-two 
in  the  texts  found  by  him  at  Khorsabad.  That  was  enough  to 
make  the  stoutest  heart  quail,  for  a  meaning  must  be  found  for 
every  one  of  these  signs.  There  could  not  be  so  many  syllables 
and  it  was,  therefore,  quite  plain  that  the  Babylonian  language 
must  have  been  written  in  part  at  least  in  ideograms.  But  in 
1851  Rawlinson  published  one  hundred  and  twelve  lines  of  the 
Babylonian  column  from  Behistun,  accompanied  by  an  inter- 
linear transcription  into  Roman  characters,  and  a  translation 
into  Latin.  That  paper,  added  to  Hinck's  still  more  acute 
detail  studies,  brought  to  an  end  the  preliminary  decipherment 
of  Babylonian.  There  were  still  enormous  difficulties  to  be 
surmounted  in  the  full  appreciation  of  the  complicated  script, 
but  these  would  be  solved  by  the  combined  labours  of  many 
workers. 

The  cuneiform  script  had  its  origin  in  Babylonia  and  its 
inventors  were  a  people  whom  we  call  the  Sumerians.  Before 
Origin  l^c  Semitic  Babylonians  conquered  the  land  it  was 
inhabited  by  a  people  of  unknown  origin  variously 
classified,  by  different  scholars,  with  the  Ural-altaic  or  even 
with  the  Indo-European  family,  or  as  having  blood  relationship 
with  both.  This  people  is  known  to  us  from  thousands  of  cunei- 
form inscriptions  written  entirely  in  their  language,  though  our 
chief  knowledge  of  them  was  for  a  long  time  derived  from 
Sumerian  inscriptions  with  interlinear  translations  in  Assyrian. 
Their  language  is  called  Sumerian  (li-sa-an  Su-me-ri)  by  the 
Assyrians  (Br.  Mus.  81-7-27,  130),  and  its  characteristics  are 
being  slowly  developed  by  the  elaborate  study  of  the  immense 
literature  which  has  come  down  to  us.  In  1884  Halevy  denied 
the  existence  of  the  Sumerian  language,  and  claimed  that  it 
was  merely  a  cabalistic  script  invented  by  the  priests  of  the 
Semites.  His  early  success  has  not  been  sustained,  and  the  vast 
majority  of  scholars  have  ceased  to  doubt  the  existence  of  the 
language. 

The  Sumerians  developed  their  script  from  a  rude  picture- 
writing,  some  early  forms  of  which  have  come  down  to  us.  In 
course  of  time  they  used  the  pictures  to  represent  sounds,  apart 
from  ideas.  They  wrote  first  on  stone,  and  when  clay  was 
adopted  soon  found  that  straight  lines  in  soft  clay  when  made 
by  a  single  pressure  of  the  stylus  tend  to  become  wedges,  and  the 
pictures  therefore  lost  their  character  and  came  to  be  mere 
conventional  groups  of  wedges.  Some  of  these  wedge-shaped 
signs  are  of  such  character  that  we  are  still  able  to  recognize 
or  re-construct  the  original  picture  from  which  they  came.  The 
Assyrian  sign  •—£-,  which  means  heaven,  appears  in  early  texts 
in  the  form  •${£•  in  which  its  star-like  form  is  quite  evident 
(star  =  heaven)  and  from  which  the  linear  form  ^j£  may  be  not 
improbably  pre-supposed.  A  number  of  other  cases  were 
enumerated  by  the  Assyrians  themselves  (see  Cuneiform  Texts 
from  Bab.  Tab.  in  Brit.  Museum,  vol.  v.,  1898),  and  there  can  be 
no  reasonable  doubt  that  this  is  the  origin  of  the  script. 

The  number  of  the  original  picture-signs  cannot  have  been 
great,  but  the  development  of  new  signs  never  ceased  till  the 
Develop-  cur>eiform  script  passed  wholly  from  use.  The  simplest 
meat  and  form  of  development  was  doubling,  to  express  plurality 
'ist'te'***'  °f  intensitv-  After  th>s  came  the  working  of  two 
signs  into  one;  thus  ]}  "  water,"  when  placed  in-t^J 
"  mouth  "  gave  the  new  sign  ^g?J  "  to  drink,"  and  many  others. 
Other  signs  were  formed  by  the  addition  of  four  lines,  either 
vertically  or  horizontally,  to  intensify  the  original  meaning. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  old  linear  sign  C=CTJ  means  dwelling,  but 

• .  t.     e  »  i  • .  •  ^^          ^^ 


•    *  ^^ 

with  four  additional  signs,  thus  cXf,  it  means  "  great  house." 


This  sign  gradually  changed  in  form  until  it  came  to  be  t<. 
This  method  of  development  was  called  by  the  Sumerians  gunu, 
and  signs  thus  formed  are  now  commonly  called  by  us,  gunu 
signs.  They  number  hundreds  and  must  be  reckoned  with  in 
our  study  of. the  script  development,  though  perhaps  recent 
scholars  have  somewhat  exaggerated  their  importance.  The 
process  of  development  is  obscure  and  must  always  remain  so. 

The  script  as  finally  developed  and  used  by  the  Assyrians  is 
cumbrous  and  complicated,  and  very  ill  adapted  to  the  sounds 
of  the  Semitic  alphabet.  It  has  (i)  simple  syllables,  consisting 
of  one  vowel  and  a  consonant,  or  a  vowel  by  itself,  thus  fr  "  a," 
tt|  ab,  HJ  ib,  C£  ub,  -~j~[  ba,  £^  bi,  •*»-  bu.  In  addition  to 
these  the  Assyrian  had  also  (2)  compound  syllables,  such  as  tjil 
bit,  ^T^  bal,  and  (3)  ideograms,  or  signs  which  express  an 
entire  word,  such  as  £-pf  beltu,  lady,  tEf  abu,  father.  The 
difficulty  of  reading  this  script  is  enormously  increased  by  the 
fact  that  many  signs  are  polyphonous,  i.e.  they  may  have  more 
than  one  syllabic  value  and  also  be  used  as  an  ideogram.  Thus 
the  sign  V  has  the  ideographic  values  of  matu,  land,  shadu, 
mountain,  kashadu,  to  conquer,  napachu,  to  arise  (of  the  sun), 
and  also  the  syllabic  values  kur,  mad,  mat,  shad,  shat,  lat,  nod, 
nat,  kin  and  gin.  This  method  of  writing  must  lead  to  ambiguity, 
and  this  difficulty  is  helped  somewhat  by  (4)  determinatives] 
which  are  signs  intended  to  indicate  the  class  to  which  the  word 
belongs.  Thus,  the  f  is  placed  before  names  of  persons,  and  V 
(the  ideogram  for  matu,  country,  and  shadu,  mountain)  is 
placed  before  names  of  countries  and  mountains,  and  .-»f-  (ilu, 
god)  before  the  names  of  gods. 

The  cuneiform  writing,  begun  by  the  Sumerians  in  a  period 
so  remote  that  it  is  idle  to  speculate  concerning  it,  had  a  long 
and  very  extensive  history.  It  was  first  adopted  by 
the  Semitic  Babylonians,  and  as  we  have  seen  was  Hlstory- 
modified,  developed,  nay  almost  made  over.  Their  inscriptions 
are  written  in  it  from  circa  4500  B.C.  to  the  ist  century  B.C. 
From  their  hands  it  passed  to  the  Assyrians,  who  simplified 
some  characters  and  conventionalized  many  more,  and  used 
.he  script  during  the  entire  period  of  their  national  existence 
from  1500  B.C.  to  607  B.C.  From  the  Babylonian  by  a  slow 
process  of  evolution  the  much  simplified  Persian  script  was 
developed,  and  with  the  Babylonian  is  also  to  be  connected  the 
Susian,  less  complicated  than  the  Babylonian,  but  less  simple 
than  the  Persian.  The  Chaldians  (not  Chaldaeans),  who  lived 
about  Lake  Van,  also  adopted  the  cuneiform  script  with  values 
of  their  own,  and  expressed  a  considerable  literature  in  it.  The 
discovery  in  1887  of  the  Tell-el-Amarna  tablets  in  upper  Egypt 
showed  that  the  same  script  was  in  use  in  the  isth  century  B.C., 
rom  Elam  to  the  Mediterranean  and  from  Armenia  to  the 
Dersian  Gulf  for  purposes  of  correspondence.  There  is  good 
reason  to  expect  the  discovery  of  its  use  by  yet  other  peoples. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  widely  used  of  all  the  forms  of  ancient 
writing. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— The  history  of  the  decipherment  may  be  further 
tudied  in  R.  W.  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  and  A  ssyria,  vol.  i.  (N  Y 
and  London,  1900) ;  and  in  A.  J.  Booth,  The  Discovery  and  Decipher- 
ment of  the  Trilingual  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  (London,  1902),  which 
s  very  exhaustive  and  accurate.     The  Sumerian  question  may  best 
>e  studied  in  F.  H.  Weissbach,  Die  Sumerische  Frage  (Leipzig,  1898), 
md  Charles  Fossey,  Manuel  d'Assyriologie,  tome  i.  (Paris,  1904). 
or  development  and  characteristics,  see  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  Die 
^ntstehung  des  dltesten  Schrif [systems  (Leipzig,  1897) ;  Paul  Toscanne, 
Les  signes  sumeriens  derives  (Paris,  1905).  (R.  W.  R.) 

CUNEO  (Fr.  Coni),  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Piedmont, 
taly,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Cuneo,  55  m.  by  rail  S.'of 
"urin,  1722  ft.  above  sea-level.  Cuneo  lies  on  the  railway  from 
"urin  to  Ventimiglia,  which  farther  on  passes  under  the  Col  di 
Tenda  (tunnel  5  m.  long).  It  is  also  a  junction  for  Mondovi 
nd  Saluzzo,  and  has  steam  tramways  to  Borgo  S.  Dalmazzo, 
Joves,  Saluzzo  and  Dronero,  Pop.  (1901)  15,412  (town),  26,879 
commune).  Its  name  ("  wedge  ")  is  due  to  its  position  on  a  hill 
etween  two  streams,  the  Stura  and  the  Gesso,  with  fine  views 
f  the  mountains.  The  Franciscan  church,  now  converted  into 
military  storehouse,  belongs  to  the  1 2th  century,  but  there  are 
o  other  buildings  of  special  interest.  The  fortifications  have 


CUNEUS— CUNNINGHAM,  W. 


633 


been  converted  into  promenades.  Cuneo  was  founded  about 
1 1 20  by  refugees  from  local  baronial  tyranny,  who,  after  the 
destruction  of  Milan  by  Barbarossa,  were  joined  by  Lombards. 
In  1382  it  swore  fealty  to  Amedeus  VI.,  duke  of  Savoy.  It  was 
an  important  fortress,  and  was  ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Cherasco 
(1796),  with  Ceva  and  Tortona,  to  the  French.  In  1799  it  was 
taken  after  ten  days'  bombardment  by  the  Austrian  and  Russian 
armies,  and,  in  1800,  after  the  victory  of  Marengo,  the  French 
demolished  the  fortifications. 

CUNEUS  (Latin  for  "  wedge  ";  plural,  cunei),  the  architectural 
term  applied  to  the  wedge-shaped  divisions  of  the  Roman 
theatre  separated  by  the  scalae  or  stairways;  see  Vitruvius  v.  4. 

CUNITZ,  MARIA  (c.  1610-1664),  Silesian  astronomer,  was 
the  eldest  daughter  of  Dr  Heinrich  Cunitz  of  Schweinitz,  and  the 
wife  (1630)  of  Dr  Elias  von  Loven,  of  Pitschen  in  Silesia— both 
of  them  men  of  learning  and  distinction.  From  her  universal 
accomplishments  she  was  called  the  "  Silesian  Pallas,"  and  the 
publication  of  her  work,  Urania  propitia  (Oels,  1650),  a  simplifica- 
tion of  the  Rudolphine  Tables,  gained  her  a  European  reputation. 
It  was  composed  at  the  village  of  Lugnitz,  close  by  the  convent 
of  Olobok  (Posen),  where,  with  her  husband,  she  had  taken 
refuge  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  was  dedi- 
cated to  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  The  author  became  a  widow 
in  1661,  and  died  at  Pitschen  on  the  24th  of  August  1664. 

See  A.  G.  Kastner,  Geschichte  der  Mathematik,  iv.  430  (1800); 
N.  Henelii,  Silesiographia  renavata,  cap.  vi.  p.  684;  J.  C.  Eberti's 
ScUesiens  wohlgelehrtes  Frauenzimmer,  p.  25  (Breslau,  1727) ; 
Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic  (Schimmelpfenning) ;  &c. 

'CUNNINGHAM,  ALEXANDER  (£.1655-1730),  Scottish  classi- 
cal scholar  and  critic,  was  born  in  Ayrshire.  Very  little  is  known 
of  his  uneventful  life.  It  is  probable  that  he  completed  his 
education  at  Leiden  or  Utrecht.  He  was  tutor  to  the  son  of 
the  first  duke  of  Queensberry,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  civil  law  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
In  1710,  the  Edinburgh  magistrates,  regarding  the  university 
patronage  as  their  privilege,  appointed  another  professor,  ignoring 
the  appointment  of  Cunningham,  who  had  been  installed  in  the 
office  for  at  least  ten  years.  Cunningham  thereupon  left  England 
for  the  Hague,  where  he  resided  until  his  death.  He  is  chiefly 
known  for  his  edition  of  Horace  (1721)  with  notes,  mostly  critical, 
which  included  a  volume  of  Animadversiones  upon  Richard 
Bentley's  notes  and  emendations.  They  marked  him  as  one  of 
the  most  able  critics  of  Bentley's  (in  many  cases)  rash  and  taste- 
less conjectural  alterations  of  the  text.  Cunningham  also  edited 
the  works  of  Virgil  and  Phaedrus  (together  with  the  Sententiae 
of  Publilius  Syrus  and  others).  He  had  also  been  engaged  for 
some  years  in  the  preparation  of  an  edition  of  the  Pandects  and 
of  a  work  on  Christian  evidences. 

Life  by  D.  Irving  in  Lives  of  Scottish  Writers  (1839). 

The  above  must  not  be  confused  with  Alexander  Cunningham, 
British  minister  to  Venice  (1715-1720),  a  learned  historian  and 
author  of  The  History  of  Great  Britain  (from  1688  to  the  accession 
of  George  I.),  originally  written  in  Latin  and  published  in  an 
English  translation  after  his  death. 

CUNNINGHAM,  ALLAN  (1784-1842),  Scottish  poet  and  man 
of  letters,  was  born  at  Keir,  Dumfriesshire,  on  the  7th  of  December 
1784,  and  began  life  as  a  stone  mason's  apprentice.  His  father 
was  a  neighbour  of  Burns  at  Ellisland,  and  Allan  with  his  brother 
James  visited  James  Hogg,  the  Ettrick  shepherd,  who  became 
a  friend  to  both.  Cunningham  contributed  some  songs  to  Roche's 
Literary  Recreations  in  1807,  and  in  1809  he  collected  old  ballads 
for  Robert  Hartley  Cromek's  Remains  of  Nithsdale  and  Galloway 
Song;  he  sent  in,  however,  poems  of  his  own,  which  the  editor 
inserted,  even  though  he  may  have  suspected  their  real  author- 
ship. In  1810  Cunningham  went  to  London,  where  he  supported 
himself  chiefly  by  newspaper  reporting  till  1814,  when  he  became 
clerk  of  the  works  in  the  studio  of  Francis  Chantrey ,  retaining  this 
employment  till  the  sculptor's  death  in  1841.  He  meanwhile 
continued  to  be  busily  engaged  in  literary  work.  Cunningham's 
prose  is  often  spoiled  by  its  misplaced  and  too  ambitious  rhetoric; 
his  verse  also  is  often  over-ornate,  and  both  are  full  of  manner- 
isms. Some  of  his  songs,  however,  hold  a  high  place  among 


British  lyrics.  "  A  Wet  Sheet  and  a  Flowing  Sea  "  is  one  of  the 
best  of  our  sea-songs,  although  written  by  a  landsman ;  and  many 
other  of  Cunningham's  songs  will  bear  comparison  with  it.  He 
died  on  the  3oth  of  October  1842. 

He  was  married  to  Jean  Walker,  who  had  been  servant  in  a 
house  where  he  lived,  and  had  five  sons  -and  one  daughter. 
JOSEPH  DAVEY  CUNNINGHAM  (1812-1851)  entered  the  Bengal 
Engineers,  and  is  known  by  his  History  of  the  Sikhs  (1849). 
SIR  ALEXANDER  CUNNINGHAM  (1814-1893)  also  entered  the 
Bengal  Engineers;  attaining  the  rank  of  major-general;  he  was 
director  general  of  the  Indian  Archaeological  Survey  (1870-1885), 
and  wrote  an  Ancient  Geography  of  India  (1871)  and  Coins  of 
Medieval  India  (1894).  PETER  CUNNINGHAM  (1816-1869)  pub- 
lished several  topographical  and  biographical  studies,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  his  Handbook  of  London  (1849)  and 
The  Life  of  Drummond  of  H  aivthornden  (1833).  FRANCIS 
CUNNINGHAM  (1820-1875)  joined  the  Indian  army,  and  published 
editions  of  Ben  Jonson  (1871),  Marlowe  (1870)  and  Massinger 
(1871). 

The  works  of  Allan  Cunningham  include  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent 
British  Painters,  Sculptors  and  Architects  (1829-1833);  Sir  Marma- 
duke  Maxwell  (1820),  a  dramatic  poem;  Traditionary  Tales  of  the 
Peasantry  (1822),  several  novels  (Paul  Jones,  Sir  Michael  Scott, 
Lord  Roldan) ;  the  Maid  of  Elwar,  a  sort  of  epic  romance;  the  Songs 
of  Scotland  (1825) ;  Biographical  and  Critical  History  of  the  Literature 
of  the  Last  Fifty  Years  (1833);  an  edition  of  The  Works  of  Robert 
Burns,  with  notes  and  a  life  containing  a  good  deal  of  new  material 
(1834) ;  Biographical  and  Critical  Dissertations  affixed  to  Major's 
Cabinet  Gallery  of  Pictures;  and  Life,  Journals  and  Correspondence 
of  Sir  David  Wilkie,  published  in  1843.  An  edition  of  his  Poems  and 
Songs  was  issued  by  bis  son,  Peter  Cunningham,  in  1847. 

CUNNINGHAM,  WILLIAM  (1805-1861),  Scottish  theologian 
and  ecclesiastic,  was  born  at  Hamilton,  in  Lanarkshire,  on  the 
2nd  of  October  1805,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1828,  and  in  1830  was  ordained  to 
a  collegiate  charge  in  Greenock,  where  he  remained  for  three 
years.  In  1834  he  was  transferred  to  the  charge  of  Trinity 
College  parish,  Edinburgh.  His  removal  coincided  with  the  com- 
mencement of  the  period  known  in  Sco.ttish  ecclesiastical  history 
as  the  Ten  Years'  Conflict,  in  which  he  was  destined  to  take  a 
leading  share.  In  the  stormy  discussions  and  controversies  which 
preceded  the  Disruption  the  weight  and  force  of  his  intellect, 
the  keenness  of  his  logic,  and  his  firm  grasp  of  principle  made  him 
one  of  the  most  powerful  advocates  of  the  cause  of  spiritual 
independence;  and  he  has  been  generally  recognized  as  one  of 
three  to  whom  mainly  the  existence  of  the  Free  Church  is  due, 
the  others  being  Chalmers  and  Candlish.  On  the  formation  of 
the  Free  Church  in  1843  Cunningham  was  appointed  professor 
of  church  history  and  divinity  in  the  New  College,  Edinburgh, 
of  which  he  became  principal  in  1847  in  succession  to  Thomas 
Chalmers.  His  career  was  very  successful,  his  controversial 
sympathies  combined  with  his  evident  desire  to  be  rigidly  im- 
partial qualifying  him  to  be  an  interesting  delineator  of  the  more 
stirring  periods  of  church  history,  and  a  skilful  disentanglerof  the 
knotty  points  in  theological  polemics.  In  1859  he  was  appointed 
moderator  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  had  received  the  degree 
of  D.D.  from  the  university  of  Princeton  in  1842.  He  died  on  the 
i4th  of  December  1861.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance.  A  theological  lectureship  at  the  New 
College,  Edinburgh,  was  endowed  in  1862,  to  be  known  as  the 
Cunningham  lectureship. 

A  Life  of  Cunningham,  by  Rainy  and  Mackenzie,  appeared  in  1871. 

CUNNINGHAM,  WILLIAM  (1840-  ),  English  economist, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  29th  of  December  1849.  Educated 
at  Edinburgh  Academy  and  University  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  he  graduated  ist  class  in  the  Moral  Science  tripos  in 
1873,  and  in  the  same  year  took  holy  orders.  He  was  university 
lecturer  in  history  from  1884  to  1891,  in  which  year  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  economics  at  King's  College,  London, 
a  post  which  he  held  until  1897.  He  was  lecturer  in  economic 
history  at  Harvard  University  (1899),  and  Hulsean  lecturer  at 
Cambridge  (1885).  He  became  vicar  of  Great  St  Mary's,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1887,  and  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
In  1906  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Ely.  Dr  Cunningham's 


634 


CUP— CUPBOARD 


Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  during  the  Early  and 
Middle  Ages  (1890;  4th  ed.,  1905)  and  Growth  of  English  Industry 
and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times  (1882;  3rd  ed.,  1903)  are  the 
standard  works  of  reference  on  the  industrial  history  of  England. 
He  also  wrote  The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Money  (1891);  Alien 
Immigration  (1897)  ;•  Western  Civilization  in  its  Economic  Aspect 
in  Ancient  Times  (1898),  and  in  Modern  Times  (1900),  and 
The  Rise  and  Decline  of  Free  Trade  (1905).  Dr  Cunningham's 
eminence  as  an  economic  historian  gave  special  importance  to 
his  attitude  as  one  of  the  leading  supporters  of  Mr  Chamberlain 
from  1903  onwards  in  criticizing  the  English  free-trade  policy 
and  advocating  tariff  reform. 

CUP  (in  O.E.  cuppe;  generally  taken  to  be  from  Late  Lat. 
cuppa,  a  variant  of  Lat.  citpa,  a  cask,  cf.  Gr.  KwreXXop),  a  drink- 
ing vessel,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  half  a  sphere,  with  or  without 
a  foot  or  handles.  The  footless  type  with  a  single  handle  is 
preserved  in  the  ordinary  tea-cup.  The  cup  on  a  stem  with  a 
base  is  the  usual  form  taken  by  the  cup  as  used  in  the  celebration 
of  the  eucharist,  to  which  the  name  "  chalice  "  (Lat.  calix, 
Gr.  KuXt£,  a  goblet)  is  generally  given.  (See  DRINKING  VESSELS 
and  PLATE.) 

CUPAR,  a  royal,  municipal  and  police  burgh,  and  capital  of 
the  county  of  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  1 1  m.  W.  by  S.  of  St  Andrews 
by  the  North  British  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  4511.  It  is  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Eden,  in  the  eas't  of  the  Howe  (Hollow) 
of  Fife,  and  is  sometimes  written  Cupar-Fife  to  distinguish  it 
from  Coupar-Angus  in  Perthshire.  Among  the  chief  buildings 
are  the  town  hall,  county  buildings,  corn  exchange,  Duncan 
Institute,  cottage  hospital,  Union  Street  Hall  and  the  Bell- 
Baxter  school.  The  school,  formerly  called  the  Madras  Academy, 
was  originally  endowed  (1832)  by  Dr  Bell,  founder  of  the 
Madras  system  of  education,  but,  having  been  enriched  at  a 
later  date  by  a  bequest  of  Sir  David  Baxter  (1873),  it  was  after- 
wards called  the  Bell-Baxter  school.  The  Mercat  Cross  stands 
at  "  the  Cross  "  in  the  main  street,  where  it  was  set  up  in  1897, 
having  been  removed  from  Hilltarvit,  an  eminence  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cupar,  on  the  western  slope  of  which,  at 
Garliebank,  the  truce  was  signed  between  Mary  of  Guise  and 
the  lords  of  the  Congregation.  In  the  parish,  but  at  a  distance 
from  the  town,  are  the  Fife  and  Kinross  asylum  and  the  Adam- 
son  institute,  a  holiday  home  for  poor  children  from  Leith. 
The  town  received  its  charter  in  1336  from  David  II.,  and, 
being  situated  between  Falkland  and  St  Andrews,  was  con- 
stantly visited  by  Scottish  sovereigns,  James  VI.  holding  his 
court  there  for  some  time  in  1583.  The  site  of  the  12th-century 
castle,  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  Macduffs,  thanes  or  earls 
of  Fife,  is  occupied  by  a  public  school.  On  the  esplanade  in 
front  of  Macduff  Castle,  still  called  the  Playfield,  took  place 
in  1552  one  of  the  first  recorded  performances  of  Sir  David  Lind- 
say's Ane  Satyre  of  the  Three  Estaits  (1540);  his  Tragedy  of  the 
Cardinal  (1547),  referring  to  the  murder  of  Beaton,  being  also 
performed  there.  Sir  David  sat.  in  the  Scottish  parliament  as 
commissioner  for  Cupar,  his  place,  the  Mount,  being  within 
3  m.  north-west  of  the  town.  Lord  Chancellor  Campbell 
(1799-1861)  was  a  native  of  Cupar. 

Cupar  is  an  agricultural  and  legal  centre.  Its  chief  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  linen,  and  tanning  is  carried  on.  At 
Cupar  Muir,  i£  m.  to  the  west,  there  are  a  sandstone  quarry 
and  brick  works.  The  town  has  also  some  repute  for  the 
quality  of  its  printing,  both  in  black  and  colour.  This  was 
largely  due  to  the  Tullis  press,  which  produced  about  the 
beginning  of  the  igth  century  editions  of  Virgil,  Horace  and 
other  classical  writers,  under  the  recension  of  Professor  John 
Hunter  of  St  Andrews,  which  were  highly  esteemed  for  the 
accuracy  of  their  typography.  Cupar  belongs  to  the  St  Andrews 
district  group  of  burghs  for  returning  one  member  to  parliament, 
the  other  constituents  being  Crail,  the  two  Anstruthers,  Kil- 
renny,  Pittenweem  and  St  Andrews. 

There  are  several  interesting  places  within  a  few  miles.  To 
the  north-east  is  the  parish  of  Dairsie,  where  one  of  the  few 
parliaments  that  ever  met  in  Fife  assembled  in  1335.  The  castle 
in  which  the  senate  sat  was  also  the  residence  for  a  period  of 


Archbishop  Spottiswood,  who  founded  the  parish  church  in 
1621.  Two  miles  and  a  half  north  of  Dairsie  is  situated  Kilmany, 
which  was  the  first  charge  of  Thomas  Chalmers.  He  was  ordained 
to  it  in  May  1803  and  held  it  for  twelve  years.  David  Hackston, 
the  Covenanter,  who  was  a  passive  assister  at  the  assassination 
of  Archbishop  Sharp,  belonged  to  this  parish,  his  place  being 
named  Rathillet.  After  his  execution  at  Edinburgh  (1680)  one 
of  his  hands  was  buried  at  Cupar,  where  a  monument  inscription 
records  the  circumstances  of  his  death.  To  the  west  of  Kilmany 
lies  Creich,  where  Alexander  Henderson  (1583-1646),  the  Cove- 
nanting divine  and  diplomatist,  and  John  Sage  (1652-1711) 
the  non-juring  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  were  born.  Hendersor 
took  a  keen  interest  in  education  and  gave  the  school  at  Creich 
a  small  endowment.  Some  3  m.  to  the  south-west  of  Cupar  i: 
Cults,  where  Sir  David  Wilkie,  the  painter,  was  born.  Hi; 
father  was  minister  of  the  parish,  and  Pitlessie,  the  fair  of  which 
provided  the  artist  with  the  subject  of  the  first  picture  in  which 
he  showed  distinct  promise,  lies  within  a  mile  of  the  manse.  It 
the  sandstone  of  Dura  Den,  a  ravine  on  Ceres  Burn,  i\  m.  E 
of  Cupar,  have  been  found  great  quantities  of  fossils  of  ganoic 
fishes.  The  rocks  belong  to  the  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone. 

CUPBOARD,  a  fixed  or  movable  closet  usually  with  shelves 
As  the  name  suggests,  it  is  a  descendant  of  the  credence  01 
buffet,  the  characteristic  of  which  was  a  series  of  open  shelve: 
for  the  reception  of  drinking  vessels  and  table  requisites.  Aftei 
the  word  lost  its  original  meaning — and  down  to  the  end  of  the 
i6th  century  we  still  find  the  expression  "  on  the  cupboard  "- 
this  piece  of  furniture  was,  as  it  to  some  extent  remains,  movable 
but  it  is  now  most  frequently  a  fixture  designed  to  fill  a  cornel 
or  recess.  Throughout  the  i8th  century  the  cupboard  was  i 
distinguished  domestic  institution,  and  the  housewife  found  hei 
chief  joy  in  accumulating  cupboards  full  of  china,  glass  anc 
preserves.  With  the  exception  of  a  very  few  examples  of  fin* 
ecclesiastical  cupboards  which  partook  chiefly  of  the  natun 
of  the  armoire  in  that  they  were  intended  for  the  storage  ol 
vestments,  the  so-called  court-cupboard  is  perhaps  the  oldesl 
form  of  the  contrivance.  The  derivation  of  the  expression  is 
somewhat  obscure,  but  it  is  generally  taken  to  refer  to  the 
French  word  court,  short.  This  particular  type  was  much  usec 
from  the  Elizabethan  to  the  end  of  the  Carolinian  period.  Il 
was  really  a  sideboard  with  small  square  doors  below,  and  s 
recessed  superstructure  supported  upon  balusters.  Of  thes« 
many  examples  remain.  Less  frequent  is  the  livery  cupboard 
the  meaning  of  which  may  be  best  explained  by  the  followinf 
quotation  from  Spenser's  Account  of  the  State  of  Ireland: — 
"  What  livery  is  we  by  common  use  in  England  know  wel 
enough,  namely,  that  it  is  an  allowance  of  horse-meat,  as  tbej 
commonly  use  the  word  stabling,  as  to  keep  horses  at  livery 
the  which  word  I  guess  is  derived  of  livering  or  delivering  forth 
their  nightly  food;  so  in  great  houses  the  livery  is  said  to  hx 
served  up  for  all  night — that  is,  their  evening  allowance  foi 
drink."  The  livery  cupboard  appears  usually  to  have  beer 
placed  in  bedrooms,  so  that  a  supply  of  food  and  drink  was 
readily  available  when  a  very  long  interval  separated  the  lasl 
meal  of  the  evening  from  the  first  in  the  morning.  The  liverj 
cupboard  was  often  small  enough  to  stand  upon  a  sideboard  01 
cabinet,  and  had  an  open  front  with  a  series  of  turned  balusters 
It  was  often  used  in  churches  to  contain  the  loaves  of  bread 
doled  out  to  poor  persons  under  the  terms  of  ancient  charities. 
They  were  then  called  dole  cupboards;  there  are  two  large  and 
excellent  examples  in  St  Alban's  Abbey.  The  butter,  or  bread 
and  cheese  cupboard,  was  a  more  ordinary  form,  with  the  back 
and  sides  bored  with  holes,  sometimes  in  a  geometrical  pattern, 
for  the  admission  of  air  to  the  food  within.  The  corner  cupboard, 
which  is  in  many  ways  the  most  pleasing  and  artistic  form  of  this 
piece  of  furniture,  originated  in  the  i8th  century,  which  as  w« 
have  seen  was  the  golden  age  of  the  cupboard.  It  was  often  oi 
oak,  but  more  frequently  of  mahogany,  and  had  either  a  solid 
or  a  glass  front.  The  older  solid-fronted  pieces  are  fixed  to  the 
wall  half-way  up,  but  those  of  the  somewhat  more  modern  type, 
in  which  there  is  much  glass,  usually  have  a  wooden  base  with 
glazed  superstructure.  Most  corner  cupboards  are  attractive 


CUPID— CUPULIFERAE 


635 


in  form  and  treatment,  and  many  of  them,  inlaid  with  satinwood, 
ebony,  holly  or  box,  are  extremely  elegant. 

CUPID  (Cupido,  "  desire  "),  the  Latin  name  for  the  god  of 
love,  EROS  (q.v.).  Cupid  is  generally  identical  with  Amor.  The 
idea  of  the  god  of  love  in  Roman  poetry  is  due  to  the  influence  of 
Alexandrian  poets  and  artists,  in  whose  hands  he  degenerated 
into  a  mischievous  boy  with  essentially  human  characteristics. 
His  usual  attribute  is  the  bow.  For  the  story  of  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  see  under  PSYCHE. 

CUPOLA  (Ital.,  from  Lat.  cupula,  small  cask  or  vault,  cupa, 
tub),  a  term,  in  architecture,  for  a  spherical  or  spheroidal  covering 
to  a  building,  or  to  any  part  of  it.  In  fortification  the  word  is 
used  of  a  form  of  armoured  structure,  in  which  guns  or  howitzers 
are  mounted.  It  is  a  low  flat  turret  resembling  an  overturned 
saucer  and  showing  little  above  the  ground  except  the  muzzles 
of  the  guns.  See  for  details  and  illustrations  FORTIFICATION 
AND  SIEGECRAFT;  also  ORDNANCE. 

CUPPING.  The  operation  of  cupping  is  one  of  the  methods 
that  have  been  adopted  by  surgeons  to  draw  blood  from  an 
inflamed  part  in  order  to  relieve  the  inflammation.  The  skin 
is  washed  and  dried;  a  glass  cup  with  a  rounded  edge  is  then 
firmly  applied,  after  the  air  in  it  has  been  heated;  the  cooling 
of  the  air  causes  the  formation  of  a  partial  vacuum,  and  the  blood 
is  thus  drawn  from  the  neighbouring  parts  to  the  skin  under  the 
cup.  Either  the  blood  is  drawn  from  the  patient's  body  through 
a  number  of  small  wounds  which  are  made  in  the  skin,  with  a 
special  instrument,  before  the  cup  is  applied;  or  the  cup  is 
simply  applied  to  the  unbroken  skin  and  the  blood  drawn  into 
the  subcutaneous  tissue  within  the  circumference  of  the  cup. 
The  result  of  both  methods  is  the  same, — namely,  a  withdrawal 
of  blood  locally  from  the  inflamed  part.  The  former  is  called 
moist  cupping,  the  latter  dry  cupping.  This  operation  has  natur- 
ally declined  in  vogue  with  the  obsolescence  of  blood-letting  as 
a  remedy. 

CUPRA,  the  name  of  two  ancient  Italian  municipia  in  Picenum. 

r.  Cupra  Maritima  (Civita  di  Marano  near  the  modern  Cupra 
Marittima),  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  48  m.  S.S.E.  of  Ancona, 
erected  in  the  neighbourhood  of  an  ancient  temple  of  the  Sabine 
goddess  Cupra,  which  was  restored  by  Hadrian  in  A.D.  127,  and 
probably  (though  there  is  some  controversy  on  the  point) 
occupied  the  site  of  the  church  of  S.  Martino,  some  way  to  the 
south,  in  which  the  inscription  of  Hadrian  exists.  At  Civita  the 
remains  of  what  was  believed  to  be  the  temple  were  more  probably 
those  of  the  forum  of  the  town,  as  is  indicated  by  the  discovery 
of  fragments  of  a  calendar  and  of  a  statue  of  Hadrian.  Some 
statuettes  of  Juno  were  also  among  the  finds.  An  inscription  of 
a  water  reservoir  erected  in  7  B.C.  is  also  recorded.  But  the  more 
ancient  Picene  town  appears  to  have  been  situated  near  the  hill 
of  S.  Andrea,  a  little  way  to  the  south,  where  pre-Roman  tombs 
have  been  discovered. 

See  C.  Hulsen  in  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencydopad-ie  (Stuttgart, 
1901),  iv.  1760;  G.  Speranza,  //  Piceno  (Ascoii  Piceno,  1900), 
i.  119  seq. 

2.  Cupra  Montana,  10  m.  S.W.  of  Aesis  (mod.  Jesi)  by  road. 
The  village,  formerly  called  Massaccio,  has  resumed  the  ancient 
name.  Its  site  is  fixed  by  inscriptions — cf.  Th.  Mommsen  in 
Corp.  Inscrip.  Lat.  ix.  (Berlin,  1883),  p.  543;  and  various  ruins, 
perhaps  of  baths,  and  remains  of  subterranean  aqueducts  have 
been  discovered  near  the  church  of  S.  Eleuterio. 

See  F.  Menicucci  in  G.  Colucci,  AntichitcL  Picene,  xx.  (1793). 

CUPRITE,  a  mineral  consisting  of  cuprous  oxide,  Cu2O, 
crystallizing  in  the  cubic  system,  and  forming  an  important  ore 
of  copper,  of  which  element  cuprite  contains  88-8%.  The 
name  cuprite  (from  Lat.  cuprum,  copper)  was  given  by  W. 
Haidinger  in  1845;  earlier  names  are  red  copper  ore  and  ruby 
copper,  which  at  once  distinguish  this  mineral  from  the  other 
native  copper  oxide — cupric  oxide — known  as  black  copper  ore 
or  melaconite.  Well-developed  crystals  are  of  common  occur- 
rence; they  usually  have  the  form  of  the  regular  octahedron, 
sometimes  in  combination  with  the  cube  and  the  rhombic 
dodecahedron.  A  few  Cornish  crystals  have  been  observed  with 
faces  of  a  form  \hkl\  known  as  the  pentagonal  icositetrahedron, 


since  it  is  bounded  by  twenty-four  irregular  pentagons.  In 
this  class  of  cubic  crystals  there  are  no  planes  or  centre  of  sym- 
metry, but  the  full  number  (thirteen)  of  axes  of  symmetry;  it  is 
known  as  the  trapezohedral  hemihedral  class,  and  cuprite  affords 
the  best  example  of  this  type  of  symmetry.  The  etching  figures 
do  not,  however,  conform  to  this  lower  degree  of  symmetry,  nor 
do  crystals  of  cuprite  rotate  the  plane  of  polarization  of  plane- 
polarized  light.  The  colour  of  the 
mineral  is  cochineal-red,  and  the  lustre 
brilliant  and  adamantine  to  sub- 
metallic  in  character;  crystals  are 
,often  translucent,  and  show  a  crimson- 
red  colour  by  transmitted  light.  On 
prolonged  exposure  to  light  the  crystals 
become  dull  and  opaque.  The  streak  is 
brownish-red.  Hardness  35;  specific 
gravity  6-0;  refractive  index  2-85. 
Compact  to  granular  masses  also 
occur,  and  there  are  two  curious 
varieties  —  chalcotrichite  and  tile-ore  —  which  require  special 
mention.  Chalcotrichite  (from  Gr.  xi^"6s,  copper,  and  6pi£, 
hair)  or  "  plush  copper  ore  "  is  a  capillary  form 


with  a  rich  carmine  colour  and  silky  lustre;  the  delicate  hairs 
are  loosely  matted  together,  and  each  one  is  an  individual 
crystal  enormously  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal 
or  the  edge  of  the  cube.  Tile-ore  (Ger.  Ziegelerz)  is  a  soft  earthy 
variety  of  a  brick-red  to  brownish-red  colour;  it  contains  ad- 
mixed limonite,  and  has  been  formed  by  the  alteration  of  chalco- 
pyrite  (copper  and  iron  sulphide). 

Cuprite  occurs  in  the  upper  part  of  copper-bearing  lodes. 
and  is  of  secondary  origin,  having  been  produced  by  the  alteration 
of  copper  sulphides.  Beautifully  crystallized  specimens  were 
formerly  found  in  Wheal  Gorland  and  Wheal  Unity  at  Gwennap. 
and  in  Wheal  Phoenix  near  Liskeard  in  Cornwall;  they  also 
occur  in  the  copper  mines  of  the  Urals,  and  in  Arizona.  Isolated 
crystals  bounded  by  faces  on  all  sides,  and  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter,  are  found  embedded  in  a  soft  white  clay  at  Chessy 
near  Lyons;  they  are  usually  altered  on  the  surface,  or  through- 
out, to  malachite.  Chalcotrichite  comes  from  Wheal  Phoenix  and 
Fowey  Consols  mine  in  Cornwall,  and  from  Morenci  in  Arizona; 
tile-ore  from  Bogoslovsk  in  the  Urals,  Atacama  in  South  America. 
and  other  localities.  Small  crystals  of  cuprite,  together  with 
malachite,  azurite  and  cerussite,  are  sometimes  found  encrusting 
ancient  objects  of  copper  and  bronze,  such  as  celts  and  Roman 
coins,  which  have  for  long  periods  remained  buried  in  the  soil. 
Artificially  formed  crystals  have  been  observed  in  furnace 
products.  (L.  J.  S.) 

CUPULIFERAE,  a  botanical  order,  or,  in  recent  arrangements, 
group  of  orders,  containing  several  familiar  trees.  The  plants 
are  trees  or  shrubs  with  simple  leaves  alternately  arranged  and 
small  unisexual  flowers  generally  arranged  in  catkins  and  pollin- 
ated by  wind-agency.  The  generally  one-seeded  nut-like  fruit 
is  associated  with  the  persistent  often  hardened  or  greatly 
enlarged  bracts  forming  the  so-called  cupule  which  gives  the 
name  to  the  group.  The  group  is  subdivided  as  follows,  and 
these  subdivisions  are  now  generally  regarded  either  as  distinct 
natural  orders  or  the  first  two  as  sub-orders  of  one  natural  order. 

Betuleae  or  Belulaceae.  Female  flowers  arranged,  two  to  three 
together  on  scale-like  structures  formed  by  the  union  of  bracts, 
in  catkins;  ovary  two-celled;  fruit  small,  flattened,  protected 
between  the  ripened  scales  of  the  catkin.  Includes  Betula 
(birch)  and  Alnus  (alder). 

Coryleae  or  Corylaceae.  Female  flowers  ifi  pairs,  the  bracts 
enlarging  in  the  fruit  to  form  a  membranous  cup  (hazel),  or  a 
flat  three-lobed  structure  (hornbeam).  Ovary  two-celled.  In- 
cludes Corylus  (hazel)  and  Carpinus  (hornbeam). 

Fagaceae  (Cupuliferae  in  a  restricted  sense).  Bracts  forming 
a  fleshy  or  hard  cupule  which  envelops  the  one  to  several  fruits. 
Ovary  three-celled.  Includes  Quercus  (oak),  Fagus  (beech), 
Castanea  (sweet-chestnut). 

Detailed  accounts  of  the  trees  will  be  found  under  separate 
headings. 


CURAgAO— CURATOR 


CURASAO,  or  CURACOA,  an  island  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies. 
It  lies  40  m.  from  the  north  coast  of  Venezuela,  in  12°  N.  and 
69°  W.,  being  40  m.  long  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  with  an  average 
width  of  10  m.  and  an  area  of  2 1 2  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  generally 
flat,  but  in  the  south-west  there  are  hills  attaining  an  elevation 
of  1 200  ft.  The  shores  are  in  places  deeply  indented,  forming 
several  natural  harbours,  the  chief  of  which  is  that  of  St  Anna 
on  the  south-west  coast.  Curacao  consists  of  eruptive  rocks, 
chiefly  diorite  and  diabase,  and  is  surrounded  by  coral  reefs. 
Streams  are  few  and  the  rainfall  is  scanty,  averaging  only  16  in. 
per  annum.  Although  the  plains  are  for  the  most  part  arid 
wastes,  sugar,  aloes,  tobacco  and  divi-divi  are  produced  with 
much  toil  in  the  more  fertile  glens.  Salt,  phosphates  and  cattle 
are  exported.  The  commerce  is  mainly  with  the  'United  States, 
and  there  is  a  large  carrying  trade  with  Venezuela.  The  famous 
Curacoa  liqueur  (see  below)  was  originally  made  on  the  island 
from  a  peculiar  variety  of  orange,  the  Citrus  Aurantium  curas- 
suviensis.  Willemstad  (pop.  about  8000),  on  the  harbour  of  St. 
Anna,  is  the  principal  town.  It  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
a  Dutch  town,  for  the  houses  are  built  in  the  style  of  those  of 
Amsterdam,  and  the  narrow  channel  separating  it  from  its 
western  suburb  of  Overzijde  and  the  waters  of  the  Waigat, 
which  intersect  it,  recall  the  canals.  The  narrow  entrance  leading 
to  the  Schottegat  or  Inner  Harbour  is  protected  by  forts.  The 
negroes  of  the  island  speak  a  curious  dialect  called  Papaimento, 
composed  of  Spanish,  Dutch,  English  and  native  words.  Curagao 
gives  name  to  the  government  of  the  Dutch  West  Indies,  which 
consists  of  Aruba,  an  island  lying  W.  of  Curacao,  with  an  area 
of  69  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  9591;  Buen  Ayre,  lying  20  m. 
N.E.,  with  an  area  of  95  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  4926;  together 
with  St  Eustatius,  Saba  and  part  of  St  Martin.  The  governor  is 
assisted  by  a  council  of  four  members  and  a  colonial  council  of 
eight  members  nominated  by  the  crown.  The  island  of  Curacao 
has  a  population  of  30,119;  and  altogether  the  Dutch  West 
Indies  have  a  population  of  51,693. 

Curacao  was  discovered  by  Hojeda  about  1499  and  occupied 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1527.  In  1634  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  who  have  held  it  ever  since,  except  during  the  year  1798 
and  from  1806  to  1814  when  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  Great 
Britain. 

See  Wynmalen,  "  Les  Colonies  neerlandaises  dans  les  Antilles," 
Revue  colon,  internal.  (1887),  ii.  p.  391;  K.  Martin,  West-Indische 
Skizzen  (Leiden,  1887) ;  De  Veer,  La  Colonie  de  Curacoa  (Les  Pays 
Bas,  1898).  Also  several  articles  on  all  the  islands  in  Tijdschrift  v. 
h.  Ned.  Aardr.  Genootschap  (1883-1886). 

CURACOA,  a  liqueur,  chiefly  manufactured  in  Holland.  It 
is  relatively  simple  in  composition,  the  predominating  flavour 
being  obtained  from  the  dried  peel  of  the  Curacoa  orange. 
The  method  of  preparation  is  in  principle  as  follows.  The  peel 
is  first  softened  by  maceration ;  then  a  part  of  the  softened  peel 
is  distilled  with  spirit  and  water,  and  the  remainder  is  macerated 
in  a  portion  of  the  distillate  so  obtained.  After  two  or  three  days 
the  infusion  is  strained  and  added  to  the  remainder  of  the  original 
distillate.  This  simple  method  is  subject  to  variations  in  manu- 
facture, and  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  Jamaica  rum, 
in  particular,  is  said  to  much  improve  the  flavour.  Dry  Curacoa 
contains  about  39%,  the  sweet  variety  about  36%  of  alcohol. 
A  lighter  variety  of  Curacoa,  made  with  fine  brandy,  is  known 
as  "  Grand  Marnier." 

CURASSOW  (Cracinae),  a  group  of  gallinaceous  birds  forming 
one  of  the  subfamilies  of  Cracidae,  the  species  of  which  are 
among  the  largest  and  most  splendid  of  the  game  birds  of  South 
America,  where  they  may  be  said  to  represent  the  pheasants 
of  the  Old  World.  They  are  large,  heavy  birds,  many  of  them 
rivalling  the  turkey  in  size,  with  short  wings,  long  and  broad 
tail,  and  strong  bill-  In  common  with  the  family  to  which  they 
belong,  they  have  the  hind  toe  of  the  foot  placed  on  a  level  with 
the  others,  thus  resembling  the  pigeons,  and  unlike  the  majority 
of  gallinaceous  birds.  With  the  exception  of  a  single  species 
found  north  of  Panama,  the  curassows  are  confined  to  the 
tropical  forests  of  South  America,  east  of  the  Andes,  and  not 
extending  south  of  Paraguay.  They  live  in  small  flocks,  and 
are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  only  occasionally  descending  to  the 


ground,  while  always  roosting  and  building  their  nests  on  the 
branches  of  trees.  Their  nests  are  neat  structures,  made  oi 
slender  branches  interlaced  with  stems  of  grass,  and  lined 
internally  with  leaves.  They  feed  on  fruits,  seeds  and  insects. 
They  are  often  tamed  in  several  parts  of  South  America,  but  have 
never  been  thoroughly  domesticated  anywhere.  Large  numbers 
of  these  birds  were,  according  to  K.  J.  Temminck,  brought  to 
Holland  from  Dutch  Guiana  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century, 
and  got  so  completely  acclimatized  and  domesticated  as  to 
breed  in  confinement  like  ordinary  poultry;  but  the  establish- 
ments in  which  these  were  kept  were  broken  up  during  the 
troubles  that  followed  on  the  French  Revolution.  Their  flesh 
is  said  to  be  exceedingly  white  and  delicate,  and  this,  together 
with  their  size  and  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  would  make  the 
curassows  an  important  gain  to  the  poultry  yards  of  Europe, 
if  they  were  not  such  bad  breeders.  The  subfamily  of  curassows 
contains  four  genera  and  twelve  species,  all  confined  to  South 
America,  with  the  exception  of  Crax  globicera — a  Central 
American  species,  which  extends  northward  into  Mexico.  This 
bird  is  about  3  ft.  in  length,  of  a  glossy  black  colour  over  the 
whole  body,  excepting  the  abdomen  and  tail  coverts,  which  are 
white.  In  common  with  the  other  species  of  this  genus  its  head 
bears  a  crest  of  feathers  curled  forward  at  the  tips,  which  can 
be  raised  or  depressed  at  will.  The  female  is  of  a  reddish-brown 
colour,  although  varying  greatly  in  this  respect,  and  was  formerly 
described  as  a  separate  species— the  red  curassow.  In  another 
species,  Crax  incommoda,  the  greater  part  of  the  black  plumage 
is  beautifully  varied  with  narrow  transverse  bars  of  white.  The 
galeated  curassow  (Pauxi  galeata)  is  peculiar  in  having  a  large 
blue  tubercle,  hard  and  stony  externally,  but  cellular  within, 
and  resembling  a  hen's  egg  in  size  and  shape,  situated  at  the  base 
of  the  hill.  It  only  appears  after  the  first  moulting,  and  is  much 
larger  in  the  male  than  in  the  female. 

CURATE  (from  the  Lat.  curare,  to  take  care  of),  properly  a 
presbyter  who  has  the  cure  of  souls  within  a  parish.  The  term 
is  used  in  this  general  sense  in  certain  rubrics  of  the  English 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  in  which  it  is  applied  equally  to  rectors 
and  vicars  as  to  perpetual  curates.  So,  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  it  is  applied  in  this  sense  to  parish  priests,  as  the  Fr.  curt, 
Ital.  curato,  Span,  cura,  &c.  In  a  more  limited  sense  it  is  applied 
in  the  Church  of  England  to  the  incumbent  of  a  parish  who  has 
no  endowment  of  tithes,  as  distinguished  from  a  perpetual  vicar, 
who  has  an  endowment  of  small  tithes,  which  are  for  that  reason 
sometimes  styled  vicarial  tithes.  The  origin  of  such  unendowed 
curacies  is  traceable  to  the  fact  that  benefices  were  sometimes 
granted  to  religious  houses  plena  jure,  and  with  liberty  for  them 
to  provide  for  the  cure;  and  when  such  appropriations  were 
transferred  to  lay  persons,  being  unable  to  serve  themselves, 
the  impropriators  were  required  to  nominate  a  clerk  in  full  orders 
to  the  ordinary  for  his  licence  to  serve  the  cure.  Such  curates, 
being  not  removable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  impropriators,  but 
only  on  due  revocation  of  the  licence  of  the  ordinary,  came  to  be 
entitled  perpetual  curates.  The  term  "  curate  "  in  the  present 
day  is  almost  exclusively  used  to  signify  a  clergyman  who  is 
assistant  to  a  rector  or  vicar,  by  whom  he  is  employed  and  paid; 
and  a  clerk  in  deacon's  orders  is  competent  to  be  licensed  by  a 
bishop  to  the  office  of  such  assistant  curate.  The  consequence 
of  this  misuse  of  the  term  "  curate  "was  that  the  title  of  "  per- 
petual curate  "  fell  into  desuetude  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and 
an  act  of  parliament  (1868)  was  passed  to  authorize  perpetual 
curates  to  style  themselves  vicars  (see  VICAR).  The  term  is  in 
use  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland  to  designate  an 
assistant  clergyman,  and  also  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  American 
Episcopal  Church,  though  "  assistant  minister "  is  usually 
preferred. 

CURATOR  (Lat.  for  "  one  who  takes  care,"  curare,  to  take 
care  of),  in  Roman  law  the  "  caretaker  "  or  guardian  of  a  spend- 
thrift (prodigus)  or  of  a  person  of  unsound  mind  (furiosus),  and, 
more  particularly,  one  who  takes  charge  of  the  estate  of  an 
adolescens,  i.e.  of  a  person  sui  juris,  above  the  age  of  a  pupillus, 
fourteen  or  twelve  years,  according  to  sex,  and  below  the  full 
age  of  twenty-five.  Such  persons  were  known  as  "  minors," 


CURCI— CURETES 


637 


i.e.  minores  viginti  quinque  annis.  While  the  tutor,  the  guardian 
of  the  pupillus,  was  said  to  be  appointed  for  the  care  of  the  person, 
the  curator  took  charge  of  the  property.  The  term  survives  in 
Scots  law  for  the  guardian  of  one  in  the  second  stage  of  minority, 
i.e.  below  twenty -one,  and  above  fourteen,  if  a  male,  and  twelve, 
if  a  female.  Under  the  Roman  empire  the  title  of  curator  was 
given  to  several  officials  who  were  in  charge  of  departments  of 
public  administration,  such  as  the  curatores  annonae,  of  the  public 
supplies  of  corn  and  oil,  or  the  curatores  regionum,  who  were 
responsible  for  order  in  the  fourteen  regiones  or  districts  into 
which  the  city  of  Rome  was  divided,  and  who  protected  the 
citizen  from  exaction  in  the  collection  of  taxes;  the  curatores 
aquarum  had  the  charge  of  the  aqueducts.  Many  of  these 
curatorships  were  instituted  by  Augustus.  In  modern  usage 
"  curator  "  is  applied  chiefly  to  the  keeper  of  a  museum,  art 
collection,  public  gallery,  &c.,  but  in  many  universities  to  an 
official  or  member  of  a  board  having  a  general  control  over  the 
university,  or  with  the  power  of  electing  to  professorships.  In 
the  university  of  Oxford  "  curators  "  are  nominated  to  administer 
certain  departments,  such  as  the  University  Chest. 

CURCI,  CARLO  MARIA  (1810-1891),  Italian  theologian,  was 
born  at  Naples.  He  joined  the  Jesuits  in  1826,  and  for  some  time 
was  devoted  to  educational  work  and  the  care  of  the  poor  and 
prisoners.  He  became  one  of  the  first  editors  of  the  Jesuit  organ, 
the  CiviltA  Catlolica;  but  then  came  under  the  influence  of 
Gioberti,  Rosmini  and  other  advocates  for  reform.  He  wrote  a 
preface  to  Gioberti's  Primato  (1843),  but  dissented  from  his 
Prolegomena.  After  the  events  of  1870,  Curci,  at  Florence, 
delivered  a  course  on  Christian  philosophy;  and  in  1874  began 
to  publish  several  Scriptural  works.  In  his  edition  of  the  New 
Testament  (1870-1880)  he  makes  some  severe  remarks  on  the 
neglect  of  the  study  of  Scripture  amongst  the  Italian  clergy. 
In  the  meantime  he  began  to  attack  the  political  action  of  the 
Vatican,  and  in  his  //  Moderno  Dissidio  Ira  la  Chiesa  e  V  Italia 
1878)  he  advocated  an  understanding  between  the  church  and 
state.  This  was  followed  by  La  Nuoiia  Italia  ed  i  Vecchi  Zelanti 
(1881),  another  attack  on  the  Vatican  policy;  and  by  his 
Vaticano  Regio  (1883),  in  which  he  accuses  the  Vatican  of 
trafficking  in  holy  things  and  declares  that  the  taint  of  worldli- 
ness  came  from  the  false  principles  accepted  by  the  Curia.  His 
former  work  at  Naples  drew  him  also  in  the  direction  of  Christian 
Socialism.  He  was  condemned  at  Rome,  and  in  a  letter  to  The 
Times  (loth  of  September  1884)  declares  that  it  was  on  account 
of  his  disobedience  to  the  decrees  of  the  Roman  Congregation: 
"  I  am  a  dutiful  son  of  the  Church  who  hesitates  to  obey  an  order 
of  his  mother  because  he  does  not  see  clear  enough  the  maternal 
authority  in  it."  He  was  cast  out  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
suspended,  and  during  this  time  Cardinal  Manning  put  his  purse 
at  Curci's  disposal.  Finally  he  accepted  the  decrees  against  him 
and  retracted  "  all  that  he  said  contrary  to  the  faith,  morals  and 
discipline  of  the  Church."  He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
retirement  at  Florence,  and,  a  few  months  before  his  death,  was 
readmitted  to  the  Jesuit  Society.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  June 
1891.  (E.  TN.) 

CUREL,  FRANCOIS,  VICOMTE  DE  (1854-  ),  French 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Metz  on  the  loth  of  June  1854.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Ecole  Centrale  as  a  civil  engineer,  the  family 
wealth  being  derived  from  smelting  works.  He  began  his  literary 
career  with  two  novels,  L' Ete des  fruits  sees  (i88s)and  LeSauvetage 
du  grand  due  (1889).  In  1891  three  pieces  were  accepted  by  the 
Theatre  Libre.  The  list  of  his  plays  includes  L'Envers  d'une 
sainte  (1892);  Les  Fossiles  (1802),  a  picture  of  the  prejudices 
of  the  provincial  nobility;  L'lnvitee  (1893),  the  story  of  a  mother 
who  returns  to  her  children  after  twenty  years'  separation; 
L' Amour  brode  (1893),  which  was  withdrawn  by  the  author  from 
the  Theatre  Francais  after  the  second  representation;  La 
Figurante  (1896);  Le  Repas  du  lion  (1898),  dealing  with  the 
relations  between  capital  and  labour;  La  Fille  sauvage  (1902), 
the  history  of  the  development  of  the  religious  idea;  La  Nouvelle 
Idole  (1899),  dealing  with  the  worship  of  science;  and  Le  Coup 
d'aile  (1906). 

See  also  Contemporary  Review  for  August  1903. 


CURELY,  JEAN  NICOLAS  (1774-1827),  French  cavalry  leader, 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  peasant  of  Lorraine.  Joining,  in  1793,  a 
regiment  of  hussars,  he  served  with  great  distinction  as  private 
and  as  sous-officier  in  the  Rhine  campaigns  from  1794  to  1800. 
He  was,  however,  still  a  non-commissioned  officer  of  twelve 
years'  service,  when  at  Afflenz  (i2th  of  November  1805)  he 
attacked  and  defeated,  with  twenty-five  men,  a  whole  regiment 
of  Austrian  cavalry.  This  brilliant  feat  of  arms  won  him  the 
grade  of  sous-lieutenant,  and  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
men  of  the  future.  The  next  two  campaigns  of  the  Grande 
Armee  gained  him  two  more  promotions,  and  as  a  captain  of 
hussars  he  performed,  in  the  campaign  of  Wagram,  a  feat  of 
even  greater  daring  than  the  affair  of  Afflenz.  Entrusted  with 
despatches  for  the  viceroy  of  Italy,  Curely,  with  forty  troopers, 
made  his  way  through  the  Austrian  lines,  reconnoitred  every- 
where, even  in  the  very  headquarters-camp  of  the  archduke  John, 
and  finally  accomplished  his  mission  in  safety.  This  exploit, 
only  to  be  compared  to  the  famous  raids  of  the  American  Civil 
War,  and  almost  unparalleled  in  European  war,  gained  him 
the  grade  of  chef  d'escadrons,  in  which  for  some  years  he  served 
in  the  Peninsular  War.  Under  Gouvion  St  Cyr  he  took  part  in 
the  Russian  War  of  1812,  and  in  1813  was  promoted  colonel. 
In  the  campaign  of  France  (1814)  Curely,  now  general  of  brigade, 
commanded  a  brigade  of  "  improvised  "  cavalry,  and  succeeded 
in  infusing  into  this  unpromising  material  some  of  his  own 
daring  spirit.  His  regiments  distinguished  themselves  in  several 
combats,  especially  at  the  battle  of  Arcis-sur-Aube.  The 
Restoration  government  looked  with  suspicion  on  the  most 
dashing  cavalry  leader  of  the  younger  generation,  and  in  1815 
Curely,  who  during  the  Hundred  Days  had  rallied  to  his  old 
leader,  was  placed  on  the  retired  list.  Withdrawing  to  the  little 
estate  of  Jaulny  (near  Thiaucourt),  which  was  his  sole  property, 
he  lived  in  mournful  retirement,  which  was  saddened  still  further 
when  in  1824  he  was  suddenly  deprived  of  his  rank.  This  last 
blow  hastened  his  death.  Curely,  had  he  arrived  at  high 
command  earlier,  would  have  been  ranked  with  Lasalle  and 
Montbrun,  but  his  career,  later  than  theirs  in  beginning,  was 
ended  by  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  His  devoted  friend,  De  Brack, 
in  his  celebrated  work  Light  Cavalry  Outposts,  considers  Curely 
incomparable  as  a  leader  of  light  cavalry,  and  the  portrait  of 
Curely  to  be  found  in  its  pages  is  justly  ranked  as  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  military  literature.  The  general  himself  left 
but  a  modest  manuscript,  which  was  left  for  a  subsequent 
generation  to  publish. 

See  also  Thoumas,  Le  General  Curely:  itineraires  d'un  Cavalier 
leger,  1793-1815  (Paris,  1887). 

CURES,  a  Sabine  town  between  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber 
and  the  Via  Salaria,  about  26  m.  from  Rome.  According  to  the 
legend,  it  was  from  Cures  that  Titus  Tatius  led  to  the  Quirinal  the 
Sabine  settlers,  from  whom,  after  their  union  with  the  settlers 
on  the  Palatine,  the  whole  Roman  people  took  the  name  Quirites. 
It  was  also  renowned  as  the  birthplace  of  Numa,  and  its  import- 
ance among  the  Sabines  at  an  early  period  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  its  territory  is  often  called  simply  ager  Sabinus.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  imperial  period  it  is  spoken  of  as  an  un- 
important place,  but  seems  to  have  risen  to  greater  prosperity 
in  the  2nd  century.  It  appears  as  the  seat  of  a  bishop  in  the 
5th  century,  but  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Lombards 
in  A.D.  589.  The  site  consists  of  a  hill  with  two  summits,  round 
the  base  of  which  runs  the  Fosso  Corese:  the  western  summit 
was  occupied  by  the  necropolis,  the  eastern  by  the  citadel,  and 
the  lower  ground  between  the  two  by  the  city  itself.  A  temple, 
the  forum,  the  baths,  &c.,  were  excavated  in  1874-1877. 

See  T.  Ashby  in  Papers  of  the  British  School  at  Rome,  iii.  34.  (T.  As.) 

CURETES  (Gr.  Koiwrts  and  KovpT/Tts).  (i)  A  legendary 
people  mentioned  by  Homer  (//.  ix.  529  ff.)  as  taking  part  in 
the  quarrel  over  the  Calydonian  boar.  They  were  identified 
in  antiquity  as  either  Aetolians  or  Acarnanians  (Strabo  462, 
26),  and  were  also  represented  by  a  stock  in  Chalcis  in  Euboea. 
(2)  In  mythology  (unconnected  with  the  above),  the  attendants 
of  Rhea.  The  story  went  that  they  saved  the  infant  Zeus  from 
his  father  Cronus  in  Crete  by  surrounding  his  cradle  and  with 


638 


CURETON— CURIA 


clashing  of  sword  and  shield  preventing  his  cries  from  being 
heard,  and  thus  became  the  body-guard  of  the  god  and  the 
first  priests  of  Zeus  and  Rhea.  In  historic  times  the  cult  of  the 
Curetes  was  widely  known  in  Greece  in  connexion  with  that  of 
Rhea  (q.v.).  Its  ceremonies  consisted  principally  in  the  perform- 
ance of  the  Pyrrhic  dance  to  the  accompaniment  of  hymns  and 
flute  music,  by  the  priests,  who  represented  and  thus  com- 
memorated the  original  act  of  the  Curetes  themselves.  The 
dance  was  originally  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Corybantes 
by  its  comparative  moderation,  and  took  on  the  full  character 
of  the  latter  only  after  the  cult  of  the  Great  Mother,  Cybele,  to 
vvhich  it  belonged,  spread  to  Greek  soil.  The  origin  of  the  dance 
may  have  lain  in  the  supposed  efficacy  of  noise  in  averting  evil. 

The  Curetes  are  represented  in  art  with  shield  and  sword 
performing  the  sacred  dance  about  the  infant  Zeus,  sometimes 
in  the  presence  of  a  female  figure  which  may  be  Rhea.  Their 
number  in  art  is  usually  two  or  three,  but  in  literature  is  some- 
times as  high  as  ten.  Of  their  names  the  following  have  survived: 
Kures,  Kres,  Biennos,  Eleuther,  Itanos,  Labrandos,  Panamoros, 
Palaxos;  but  no  complete  list  of  names  is  possible  because  of 
their  confusion  with  the  names  of  the  Corybantes  and  other 
like  deities.  Their  origin  is  variously  related:  they  were  earth- 
born,  sprung  of  the  rain,  sons  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  sons  of  Apollo 
and  Danais,  sons  of  Rhea,  of  the  Dactyli,  contemporary  with 
the  Titans  (Diod.  Sic.  v.  66).  Rationalism  made  them  the 
mortal  sons  of  a  mortal  Zeus,  or  originators  of  the  Pyrrhic  dance, 
inventors  of  weapons,  fosterers  of  agriculture,  regulators  of 
social  life,  &c.  A  plausible  theory  is  that  of  Georg  Kaibel 
(Gottinger  Nachrichten,  1901,  pp.  512-514),  who  sees  in  them, 
together  with  the  Corybantes,  Cabeiri,  Dactyli,  Telchines, 
Titans,  &c.,  only  the  same  beings  under  different  names  at 
different  times  and  in  different  places.  Kaibel  holds  that  they 
all  had  a  phallic  significance,  having  once  been  great  primitive 
deities  of  procreation,  and  that  having  fallen  to  an  indistinct, 
subordinate  position  in  the  course  of  the  development  and 
formalization  of  Greek  religion,  they  survive  in  historic  times 
only  as  half  divine,  half  demonic  beings,  worshipped  in  connexion 
with  the  various  forms  of  the  great  nature  goddess.  The 
resemblances,  especially  between  Rhea  and  her  Curetes  and  the 
Great  Mother  and  her  Corybantes  (?.».),  were  so  striking  that 
their  origins  were  inextricably  confused  even  in  the  minds  of 
the  ancients:  e.g.  Demetrius  of  Scepsis  (Strabo  469,  12)  derives 
the  Curetes  and  Rhea  from  the  cult  of  the  Great  Mother  in  Asia, 
while  Virgil  (Aen.  iii.  in)  looks  upon  the  latter  and  the  Cory- 
bantes as  derivations  from  the  former.  The  worship  of  both 
was  akin  in  nature  to  that  of  the  Dactyli,  the  Cabeiri,  and  even 
of  Dionysus,  the  special  visible  bond  being  the  orgiastic  character 
of  their  rites. 

Consult  Immisch  in  Roscher's Lexicon,  s.  v.  "Kureten."   (G.  SN.) 

CURETON,  WILLIAM  (1808-1864),  English  Orientalist,  was 
born  at  Westbury,  in  Shropshire.  After  being  educated  at  the 
free  grammar  school  of  Newport,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
he  took  orders  in  1832,  became  chaplain  of  Christ  Church,  sub- 
librarian of  the  Bodleian,  and,  in  1837,  assistant  keeper  of  MSS. 
in  the  British  Museum.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  select 
preacher  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the 
queen,  rector  of  St  Margaret's,  Westminster,  and  canon  of  West- 
minster. He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  a 
trustee  of  the  British  Museum,  and  was  also  honoured  by  several 
continental  societies.  He  died  on  the  i7th  of  June  1864. 

Curetpn's  most  remarkable  work  was  the  edition  with  notes  and 
an  English  translation  of  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius  to  Polycarp,  the 
Ephesians  and  the  Romans,  from  a  Syriac  MS.  that  had  been  found 
in  the  monastery  of  St  Mary  Deipara,  in  the  desert  of  Nitria,  near 
Cairo.  He  held  that  the  MS.  he  used  gave  the  truest  text,  that  all 
other  texts  were  inaccurate,  and  that  the  epistles  contained  in  the 
MS.  were  the  only  genuine  epistles  of  Ignatius  that  we  possess — a 
view  which  received  the  support  of  F.  C.  Baur,  Bunsen,  and  many 
others,  but  which  was  opposed  by  Charles  Wordsworth  and  by  several 
German  scholars,  and  is  now  generally  abandoned  (see  IGNATIUS). 
Cureton  supported  his  view  by  his  Vindiciae  Ignatianae  and  his 
Corpus  Ignatianum, — a  Complete  Collection  of  the  Ignatian  Epistles, 
genuine,  interpolated  and  spurious.  He  also  edited  a  partial  Syriac 
text  of  the  Festal  Letters  of  St  Athanasius,  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  Henry  Burgess  (1854),  and  published  in  the  Library  oj 


Fathers  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church;  Remains  of  a  very  Ancient 
Recension  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  Syriac,  hitherto  unknown  in  Europe ; 
Spicilegium  Syriacum,  containing  Remains  of  Bardesan,  Meliton, 
Ambrose,  Mara  Bar  Serapion;  The  third  Part  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  John,  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  which  was  translated  by  Payne 
Smith ;  fragments  of  the  Iliad  of  Homer  from  a  Syriac  Palimpsest  • 
an  Arabic  work  known  as  the  Thirty-first  Chapter  of  the  Book  entitled 
The  Lamp  that  guides  to  Salvation,  written  by  a  Christian  of  Tekrit ; 
The  Book  of  Religious  and  Philosophical  Sects,  by  Muhammed  al 
Sharastani ;  a  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Lamentations,  by  Rabbi 
Tanchum ;  and  the  Pillar  of  the  Creed  of  the  Sunnites.  Cureton  also 
published  several  sermons,  among  which  was  one  entitled  The 
Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  not  Speculative  but  Practical.  After  his 
death  Dr  W.  Wright  edited  with  a  preface  the  Ancient  Syriac  Docu- 
ments relative  to  the  earliest  Establishment  of  Christianity  in  Edessa 
and  the  neighbouring  Countries,  from  the  Year  of  our  Lord's  Ascension 
to  the  beginning  of  the  Fourth  Century ;  discovered,  edited  and  annotated 
by  the  late  W.  Cureton. 

CURETUS,  a  tribe  of  South  American  Indians,  inhabiting 
the  country  between  the  rivers  of  Japura  and  Uaupes,  north- 
western Brazil.  They  are  short  but  sturdy,  wear  their  hair  long, 
and  paint  their  bodies.  Their  houses  are  circular,  with  walls 
of  thatch  and  a  high  conical  roof.  They  are  a  peaceable  people, 
living  in  small  villages,  each  of  which  is  governed  by  a  chief. 

CURFEW,  CURFEU  or  COUVRE-FEU,  a  signal,  as  by  tolling  a 
bell,  to  warn  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  to  extinguish  their  fires  or 
cover  them  up  (hence  the  name)  and  retire  to  rest.  This  was  a 
common  practice  throughout  Europe  during  the  middle  ages, 
especially  in  cities  taken  in  war.  In  the  law  Latin  of  those 
times  it  was  termed  ignitegium  or  pyritegium.  In  medieval 
Venice  it  was  a  regulation  from  which  only  the  Barbers'  Quarter 
was  exempt,  doubtless  because  they  were  also  surgeons  and  their 
services  might  be  needed  during  the  night.  The  curfew  originated 
in  the  fear  of  fire  when  most  cities  were  built  of  timber.  That 
it  was  a  most  useful  and  practical  measure  is  obvious  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  household  fire  was  usually  made  in  a  hole 
in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  under  an  opening  in  the  roof  through 
which  the  smoke  escaped.  The  custom  is  commonly  said  to  have 
been  introduced  into  England  by  William  the  Conqueror,  who 
ordained,  under  severe  penalties,  that  at  the  ringing  of  the  curfew- 
bell  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  all  lights  and  fires  should  be 
extinguished.  But  as  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
curfew-bell  was  rung  each  night  at  Carfax,  Oxford  (see  Peshall, 
Hist,  of  Oxford),  in  the  reign  of  Alfred  the  Great,  it  would  seem 
that  all  William  did  was  to  enforce  more  strictly  an  existing 
regulation.  The  absolute  prohibition  of  lights  after  the  ringing 
of  the  curfew-bell  was  abolished  by  Henry  I.  in  noo.  The 
practice  of  tolling  a  bell  at  a  fixed  hour  in  the  evening,  still  extant 
in  many  places,  isa  survival  of  the  ancient  curfew.  The  common 
hour  was  at  first  seven,  and  it  was  gradually  advanced  to  eight, 
and  in  some  places  to  nine  o'clock.  In  Scotland  ten  was  not  an 
unusual  hour.  In  early  Roman  times  curfew  may  possibly  have 
served  a  political  purpose  by  obliging  people  to  keep  within 
doors,  thus  preventing  treasonable  nocturnal  assemblies,  and 
generally  assisting  in  the  preservation  of  law  and  order.  The 
ringing  of  the  "  prayer-bell,"  as  it  is  called,  which  is  still  practised 
in  some  Protestant  countries,  originated  in  that  of  the  curfew-bell. 
In  1848  the  curfew  was  still  rung  at  Hastings,  Sussex,  from 
Michaelmas  to  Lady-Day,  and  this  was  the  custom  too  at 
Wrexham,  N.  Wales. 

CURIA,  in  ancient  Rome,  a  section  of  the  Roman  people, 
according  to  an  ancient  division  traditionally  ascribed  to 
Romulus.  He  is  said  to  have  divided  the  people  into  three  tribes, 
and  to  have  subdivided  each  of  these  into  ten  curiae,  each  of 
which  contained  a  number  of  families  (gentes).  It  is  more  prob- 
able that  the  curiae  were  not  purely  artificial  creations,  but  repre- 
sent natural  associations  of  familief,  artificially  regulated  and 
distributed  to  serve  a  political  purpose.  The  local  names  of  curiae 
which  have  come  down  to  us  suggest  a  local  origin  for  the  groups; 
but  as  membership  was  hereditary,  the  local  tie  doubtless  grew 
weak  with  successive  generations.  Each  curia  was  organized 
as  a  political  and  religious  unit.  As  a  political  corporation 
it  had  no  recognized  activities  beyond  the  command  of  a  vote 
in  the  Camilla  Curiata  (see  COMITIA),  a  vote  whose  nature  was 
determined  by  a  majority  in  the  votes  of  the  individual  members 


CURIA  REGIS— CURIA  ROMANA 


639 


(curiales).  But  as  a  religious  unit  the  curia  had  more  individual 
activity.  There  were,  it  is  true,  ceremonies  (sacra)  performed 
by  all  the  curiae  to  Juno  Curis  in  which  each  curia  offered  its 
part  in  a  collective  rite  of  the  whole  people;  but  each  curia  had 
also  its  peculiar  sacra  and  its  own  special  place  of  worship. 
The  religious  affairs  of  each  were  conducted  by  a  priest  called 
curio  assisted  by  nflamen  curialis.  The  thirty  curiae  must  always 
have  comprised  the  whole  Roman  people;  for  citizenship  de- 
pended on  membership  of  a  gens  (gentilitas)  and  every  member 
of  a  gens  was  ipso  facto  attached  to  a  curia.  They  therefore 
included  plebeians  as  well  as  patricians  (q.v.)  from  the  date  at 
which  plebeians  were  recognized  as  free  members  of  the  body 
politic.  But,  just  as  enjoyment  of  the  full  rights  of  gentilitas 
was  only  very  gradually  granted  to  plebeians,  so  it  is  probable 
that  a  plebeian  did  not,  when  admitted  through  a  gens  into  a 
curia,  immediately  exercise  all  the  rights  of  a  curialis.  It  is 
unlikely,  for  instance,  that  plebeians  voted  in  the  Comitia  Curiata 
at  the  early  date  implied  by  the  authorities;  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  acquired  the  right  early  in  the  republican  period,  and 
certain  that  they  enjoyed  it  in  Cicero's  time.  A  plebeian  was 
for  the  first  time  elected  curio  maximus  in  209  B.C.  The  curia 
ceased  to  have  any  importance  as  a  political  organization  some 
time  before  the  close  of  the  republican  period.  But  its  religious 
importance  survived  during  the  principate;  for  the  two  festivals 
of  the  Fornacalia  and  the  Fordicidia  were  celebrated  by  the 
Curiales  (Ovid,  Fasti,  ii.  527,  iv.  635). 

The  term  curia  seems  often  to  have  been  applied  to  the  common 
shrine  of  the  curiales,  and  thus  to  other  places  of  assembly. 
Hence  the  ancient  senate  house  at  Rome  was  known  as  the 
Curia  Hostilia.  The  curia  was  also  adopted  as  a  state  division 
in  a  large  number  of  municipal  towns;  and  the  term  was  often 
applied  to  the  senate  in  municipal  towns  (see  DECURIO),  probably 
from  the  name  of  the  old  senate  house  at  Rome. 

AUTHORITIES. — Mommsen,  Romisches  Staatsrecht,  iii.  p.  89  ff. 
(Leipzig,  1887);  Romische  Forschungen  i.  p.  140  ff.  (Berlin,  1864, 
&c.) ;  Clason,  "  Die  Zusammensetzung  der  Curien  und  ihrer 
Comitien  "  (Kritische  Erorterungen  i.,  Rostock,  1871);  Karlowa, 
Romische  Rechtsgeschichte,  i.  p.  382  ff.  (Leipzig,  1885);  E.  Hofmann, 
Patricische  und  plebeische  Curien  (Wien,  1879) ;  for  the  Fornacalia, 
&c.,  Marquardt,  Staatsverwaltung,  iii.  p.  197  (Leipzig,  1885);  for 
local  names  of  curiae,  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyclopadie,  iv.  p.  1822 
(new  edition,  1893,  &c.) ;  O.  Gilbert,  Geschichte  und  Topographic 
der  Stadt  Rom  (Leipzig,  1883);  for  municipal  curiae,  Mommsen,  in 
Ephemeris  epigraphica,  ii.  p.  125;  Schmidt,  in  Rheinisches  Museum, 
xlv.  (1890)  p.  599  ff.  On  the  Roman  comitia  in  general  see  also 
G.  W.  Botsford,  Roman  Assemblies  (1909).  (A.  M.  CL.) 

In  medieval  Latin  the  word  curia  was  used  in  the  general 
sense  of  "  court."  It  was  thus  used  of  "  the  court,"  meaning  the 
royal  household  (aula);  of  "courts"  in  the  sense  of  solemn 
assemblies  of  the  great  nobles  summoned  by  the  king  (curiae 
solennes,  &c.);  of  courts  of  law  generally,  whether  developed 
out  of  the  imperial  or  royal  curia  (see  CURIA  REGIS)  or  not  (e.g. 
curia  baronis,  Court  Baron,  curia  christianitatis,  Court  Christian). 
Sometimes  curia  means  jurisdiction,  or  the  territory  over  which 
jurisdiction  is  exercised;  whence  possibly  its  use,  instead  of 
cortis,  for  an  enclosed  space,  the  court-yard  of  a  house,  or  for  the 
house  itself  (cf.  the  English  "  court,"  e.g.  Hampton  Court,  and 
the  Ger.  Hof).  The  word  Curia  is  now  only  used  of  the  court  of 
Rome,  as  a  convenient  term  to  express  the  sum  of  the  organs  that 
make  up  the  papal  government  (see  CURIA  ROMANA). 
See  Du  Cange,  Gloss,  med.  el  inf.  Lai.  (1883),  s.v.  "  Curia." 
CURIA  REGIS,  or  AULA  REGIS,  a  term  used  in  England  from 
the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest  to  about  the  end  of  the  i^th 
century  to  describe  a  council  and  a  court  of  justice,  the  com- 
position and  functions  of  which  varied  considerably  from  time 
to  time.  Meaning  in  general  the  "  king's  court,"  it  is  difficult 
to  define  the  curia  regis  with  precision,  but  it  is  important  and 
interesting  because  it  is  the  germ  from  which  the  higher  courts  of 
law,  the  privy  council  and  the  cabinet,  have  sprung.  It  was, 
at  first  the  general  council  of  the  king,  or  the  commune  concilium, 
i.e.  the  feudal  assembly  of  the  tenants-in-chief ;  but  it  assumed 
a  more  definite  character  during  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  when  its 
members,  fewer  in  number,  were  the  officials  of  the  royal  house- 
hold and  other  friends  and  attendants  of  the  king.  It  was  thus 


practically  a  committee  of  the  larger  council,  and  assisted  the  king 
in  his  judicial  work,  its  authority  being  as  undefined  as  his  own. 
About  the  same  time  the  curia  undertook  financial  duties,  and 
in  this  way  was  the  parent  of  the  court  of  exchequer  (curia  regis 
ad  scaccarium).  The  members  were  called  "  justices,"  and  in 
the  king's  absence  the  chief  justiciar  presided  over  the  court.  A 
further  step  was  taken  by  Henry  II.  In  1178  he  appointed  five 
members  of  the  curia  to  form  a  special  court  of  justice,  and  these 
justices,  unlike  the  other  members  of  the  curia,  were  not  to  follow 
the  king's  court  from  place  to  place,  but  were  to  remain  in  one 
place.  Thus  the  court  of  king's  bench  (curia  regis  de  banco) 
was  founded,  and  the  foundation  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
was  provided  for  in  one  of  the  articles  of  Magna  Carta.  The  court 
of  chancery  is  also  an  offshoot  of  the  curia  regis.-  About  the  time 
of  Edward  I.  the  executive  and  advising  duties  of  the  curia  regis 
were  discharged  by  the  king's  secret  council,  the  later  privy  council, 
which  is  thus  connected  with  the  curia  regis,  and  from  the  privy 
council  has  sprung  the  cabinet. 

In  his  work  Tractatus  de  legibus  Angliae,  Ranulf  de  Glanvill  treats 
of  the  procedure  of  the  curia  regis  as  a  court  of  law.  See  W.  Stubbs, 
Constitutional  History,  vol.  i.  (Oxford,  1883) ;  R.  Gneist,  Englische 
Verfassungsgeschichte,  English  translation  by  P.  A.  Ashworth 
(London,  1891);  A.  V.  Dicey,  The  Privy  Council  (London,  1887); 
and  the  article  PRIVY  COUNCIL.  (A.  W.  H.*) 

CURIA  ROMANA,  the  name  given  to  the  whole  body  of 
administrative  and  judicial  institutions,  by  means  of  which  the 
pope  carries  on  the  general  government  of  the  Church;  the  name 
is  also  applied  by  an  extension  of  meaning  to  the  persons  who 
form  part  of  it,  and  sometimes  to  the  Holy  See  itself.  Rome  is 
almost  the  only  place  where  the  word  curia  has  preserved 
its  ancient  form;  elsewhere  it  has  been  almost  always  replaced 
by  the  word  court  (cour,  carte),  which  is  etymologically  the  same. 
Even  at  Rome,  however,  the  expression  "  papal  court  "  (corte 
romana)  has  acquired  by  usage  a  sense  different  from  that  of 
the  word  curia;  as  in  the  case  of  royal  courts  it  denotes 
the  whole  body  of  dignitaries  and  officials  who  surround  and 
attend  on  the  pope;  the  pope,  however,  has  two  establishments: 
the  civil  establishment,  in  which  he  is  surrounded  by  what  is 
termed  his  "  family  "  (Jamilia);  and  the  religious  establishment, 
the  members  of  which  form  his  "  chapel  "  (capella).  The  word 
curia  is  more  particularly  reserved  to  the  tribunals  and 
departments  which  actually  deal  with  the  general  business  of 
the  Church. 

I.  In  order  to  understand  the  organization  of  the  various 
constituent  parts  of  the  Roman  Curia,  we  must  remember  that 
the  modern  principle  of  the  separation  of  powers  is 
unknown  to  the  Church;  the  functions  of  each  depart-  remarks. 
ment  are  limited  solely  by  the  extent  of  the  powers 
delegated  to  it  and  the  nature  of  the  business  entrusted  to  it; 
but  each  of  them  may  have  a  share  at  the  same  time  in  the 
legislative,  judicial  and  administrative  power.  Similarly,  the 
necessity  for  referring  matters  to  the  pope  in  person,  for  his 
approval  or  ratification  of  the  decisions  arrived  at,  varies  greatly 
according  to  the  department  and  the  nature  of  the  business. 
But  on  the  whole,  all  sections  of  the  Curia  hold  their  powers, 
direct  from  the  pope,  and  exercise  them  in  his  name.  Each  of 
them,  then,  has  supreme  authority  within  its  own  sphere,  while  the 
official  responsibility  belongs  to  the  pope,  just  as  in  all  govern- 
ments it  is  the  government  that  is  responsible  for  the  acts  of  its 
departments.  Of  these  official  acts,  however,  it  is  possible 
to  distinguish  two  categories:  those  emanating  directly  from 
the  heads  of  departments  are  generally  called  Acts  of  the  Holy 
See  (and  in  this  sense  the  Holy  See  is  equivalent  to  the  Curia) ; 
those  which  emanate  direct  from  the  pope  are  called  Pontifical 
Acts.  The  latter  are  actually  the  Apostolic  Letters,  i.e.  those 
documents  in  which  the  pope  speaks  in  his  own  name  (bulls, 
briefs,  encyclicals,  &c.)  even  when  he  does  not  sign  them,  as  we 
shall  see.  The  Apostolic  Letters  alone  may  be  ex  cathedra 
documents,  and  may  have  the  privilege  of  infallibility,  if  the 
matter  admit  of  it.  There  are  also  certain  differences  between 
the  two  sorts  of  documents  with  regard  to  their  penal  conse- 
quences. But  in  all  cases  the  disciplinary  authority  is  evidently 
the  same;  we  need  only  note  that  acts  concerning  individuals 


640 


CURIA  ROMANA 


Division. 


do  not  claim  the  force  of  general  law;  the  legal  decisions  serve 
at  most  to  settle  matters  of  jurisprudence,  like  the  judgments  of 
all  sovereign  courts. 

The  constituent  parts  of  the  Roman  Curia  fall  essentially 
into  two  classes:  (i)  the  tribunals  and  offices,  which  for  centuries 

served   for  the  transaction   of   business  and   which 

continue  their  activity;  (2)  the  permanent  com- 
missions of  cardinals,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Roman  Con- 
gregations. These,  though  more  recent,  have  taken  precedence 
of  the  former,  the  work  of  which  they  have,  moreover,  greatly 
relieved;  they  are  indeed  composed  of  the  highest  dignitaries 
of  the  church,  the  cardinals  (q.v.),  and  are,  as  it  were,  subdivisions 
of  the  consistory  (q.v.),  a  council  in  which  the  whole  of  the 
Sacred  College  takes  part. 

II.  The  Roman  Congregations. — The  constitution  of  all  of 
these  is  the  same;  a  council  varying  in  numbers,  the  members 

of  which  are  cardinals,  who  alone  take  part  in  the 
Woman  deliberations.  One  of  the  cardinals  acts  as  president, 
gallons.  or  prefect,  as  he  is  called;  the  congregation  is  assisted 

by  a  secretary  and  a  certain  number  of  inferior  officials, 
for  secretarial  and  office  work.  They  have  also  consultors, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  study  the  subjects  for  consideration.  Their 
deliberations  are  secret  and  are  based  on  prepared  documents 
bearing  on  the  case,  written,  or  more  often  printed,  which  are 
distributed  to  all  the  cardinals  about  ten  days  in  advance.  The 
deliberations  follow  a  simplified  procedure,  which  is  founded 
more  on  equity  than  on  the  more  strictly  legal  forms,  and 
decisions  are  given  in  the  shortest  possible  form,  in  answer  to 
carefully  formulated  questions  or  dubia.  The  cardinal  prefect, 
aided  by  the  secretariate,  deals  with  the  ordinary  business,  only 
important  matters  being  submitted  for  the  consideration  of  the 
general  meeting.  To  have  the  force  of  law  the  acts  of  the  con- 
gregations must  be  signed  by  the  cardinal  prefect  and  secretary, 
and  sealed  with  his  seal.  Practically  the  only  exception  is  in 
the  cases  of  the  Holy  Office,  and  of  the  Consistorial  Congregation 
of  which  the  pope  himself  is  prefect;  the  acts  of  the  first  are 
signed  by  the  "  notary,"  and  the  acts  of  the  second  by  the 
assessor. 

We  may  pass  over  those  temporary  congregations  of  cardinals 
known  also  as  "  special,"  the  authority  and  existence  of  which 
extend  only  to  the  consideration  of  one  particular  question; 
and  also  those  which  had  as  their  object  various  aspects  of  the 
temporal  administration  of  the  papal  states,  which  have  ceased 
to  exist  since  1870.  We  deal  here  only  with  the  permanent 
ecclesiastical  congregations,  the  real  machinery  of  the  papal 
administration.  Some  of  them  go  quite  far  back  into  the  loth 
century;  but  it  was  Sixtus  V.  who  was  their  great  organizer; 
by  his  bull  Immensa  of  the  22nd  of  January  1587,  he  apportioned 
all  the  business  of  the  Church  (including  that  of  the  papal  states) 
among  fifteen  Congregations  of  cardinals,  some  of  which  were 
already  in  existence,  but  most  of  which  were  established  by  him; 
and  these  commissions,  or  those  of  them  at  least  which  are 
concerned  with  spiritual  matters,  are  still  working.  A  few  others 
have  been  added  by  his  successors.  Pius  X.,  by  the  constitution 
Sapienti  Consilio  of  the  29th  of  June  1908,  proceeded  to  a 
general  reorganization  of  the  Roman  Curia:  Congregations, 
tribunals  and  offices.  In  this  constitution  he  declared  that  the 
competency  of  these  various  organs  was  not  always  clear,  and 
that  their  functions  were  badly  arranged;  that  certain  of  them 
had  only  a  small  amount  of  business  to  deal  with,  while  others 
were  overworked;  that  strictly  judicial  affairs,  with  which 
the  Congregations  had  not  to  deal  originally,  had  developed  to  an 
excessive  extent,  while  the  tribunals,  the  Rota  and  the  Signatura, 
had  nothing  to  do.  He  consequently  withdrew  all  judicial  affairs 
from  the  Congregations,  and  handed  them  over  to  the  two 
tribunals,  now  revived,  of  the  Rota  and  the  papal  Signatura; 
all  affairs  concerning  the  discipline  of  the  sacraments  were 
entrusted  to  a  new  Congregation  of  that  name;  the  competency 
of  the  remaining  Congregations  was  modified,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  affairs  with  which  they  deal,  and  certain  of  them 
were  amalgamated  with  others;  general  rules  were  laid  down 
for  the  expedition  of  business  and  regarding  personnel;  in 


short,  the  work  of  Sixtus  V.  was  repeated  and  adapted  to  later 
conditions.  We  will  now  give  the  nomenclature  of  the  Roman 
Congregations,  as  they  were  until  1908,  and  mentioning  the 
modifications  made  by  Pius  X. 

(1)  The  Holy  Inquisition,  Roman  and  universal,  or  Holy 
Office  (Sacra  Congregatio  Romanae  et  universalis  Inquisilionis 
sen  Sancti  Officii),  the  first  of  the  Congregations,  hence 

called  the  supreme.  It  is  composed  of  twelve  cardinals, 
assisted  by  a  certain  number  of  officials:  the  assessor, 
who  practically  fulfils  the  functions  of  the  secretary,  the  com- 
missary general,  some  consultors  and  the  qualificators,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  determine  the  degree  of  theological  condemnation 
deserved  by  erroneous  doctrinal  propositions  (haeretica,  erronea, 
temeraria,  &c.).  The  presidency  is  reserved  to  the  pope,  and  the 
cardinal  of  longest  standing  takes  the  title  of  secretary.  This 
Congregation,  established  in  1542  by  Paul  III.,  constitutes  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  (q.v.),  of  which  the  origins  are  much 
older,  since  it  was  instituted  in  the  I3th  century  against  the 
Albigenses.  It  deals  with  all  questions  of  doctrine  and  with  the 
repression  of  heresy,  together  with  those  crimes  which  are  more 
or  less  of  the  character  of  heresy.  Its  procedure  is  subject  to  the 
strictest  secrecy.  Pius  X.  attached  to  it  all  matters  concerning 
indulgences  ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  transferred  to  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Council  matters  concerning  the  precepts  of  the  Church 
such  as  fasting,  abstinence  and  festivals.  The  choosing  of 
bishops,  which  had  in  recent  times  been  entrusted  to  the  Holy 
Office,  was  given  to  the  Consistorial  Congregation,  and  dis- 
pensations from  religious  vows  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Re- 
ligious Orders.  The  Holy  Office  continues,  however,  to  deal  with 
mixed  marriages  and  marriages  with  infidels. 

(2)  The  Consistorial  Congregation  (Sacra  Congregatio  Consis- 
torialis),  established  by  Sixtus  V.,  has  as  its  object  the  preparation 
of  business  to  be  dealt  with  and  decided  in  secret 
consistory  (q.v.) ;  notably  promotions  to  cathedral 
churches  and  Consistorial  benefices,  the  erection  of 
dioceses,  &c.    To  this  congregation  is  also  subject  the  administra- 
tion of  the  common  property  of  the  college  of  cardinals.    Pius  X. 
restored  this  Congregation  to  a  position  of  great  importance; 
in  the  first  place  he  gave  it  the  effective  control  of  all  matters 
concerning  the  erection  of  dioceses  and  chapters  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishops,  except  in  the  case  of  countries  subject  to  the 
Propaganda,  and  save  that  for  countries  outside  Italy  it  has  to 
act  upon  information  furnished  by  the  papal  secretary  of  state. 
He  further  entrusted  to  this  Congregation  everything  relating 
to  the  supervision  of  bishops  and  of  the  condition  of  the  dioceses, 
and  business  connected  with  the  seminaries.     It  has  also  the  duty 
of  deciding  disputes  as  to  the  competency  of  the  other  Congrega- 
tions.    The  pope  continues  to  be  its  prefect,  and  the  cardinal 
secretary  of  the  Holy  Office  and  the  secretary  of  state  are  ex 
officio  members  of  it  ;  the  cardinal  who  occupies  the  highest 
rank  in  it,  with  the  title  of  secretary,  is  chosen  by  the  pope  ; 
he  is  assisted  by  a  prelate  with  the  title  of  assessor,  who  is 
ex  officio  secretary  of  the  Sacred  College.    The  assessor  of  the 
Holy  Office  and  the  secretary  for  extraordinary  ecclesiastical 
affairs  are  ex  officio  consultors. 

(3)  The  Pontifical  Commission  for  the  reunion  of  the  dissident 
Churches,  established  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1895  after  his  constitution 
Orientalium.     The  pope  reserved   the  presidency  for  himself; 
its  activity  is  merely  nominal.     It  was  attached  by  Pius  X. 
to  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda. 

(4)  The   Congregation  of   the   Apostolic   Visitation   (Sacra 
Congregatio    Visitationis    apostolicae) .     The    Visitation    is    the 
personal  inspection  of  institutions,  churches,  religious 
establishments  and  their  personnel,  to  correct  abuses    ttt'on 
and  enforce  the  observation  of  rules.     Through  this 
Congregation  the  pope,  as  bishop  of  Rome,  made  the  inspection 
of  his  diocese;  it  is  for  this  reason   that  he  was  president  of 
this  commission,  the  most  important  member  of  which  was  the 
cardinal  vicar.     He  takes  the  place  of  the  pope  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  diocese  of  Rome;  he  has  his  own  offices  and  diocesan 
assistants  as  in  other  bishoprics.     The  Congregation  of  the 
Visitation  was  suppressed  by  Pius  X.  as  a  separate  Congregation, 


CURIA  ROMANA 


641 


and  was  reduced  to  a  mere  commission  which  is  attached,  as 
before,  to  the  Vicariate. 

(5)  The  Congregation  on  the  discipline  of  the  sacraments 
(Sacra  Congregatio  de  Disciplina  Sacramentorum),  established 
by  Pius  X.,  thus  comes  to  occupy  the  third  rank.     With  the 
reservation  of  those  questions,  especially  of  a  dogmatic  character, 
which  belong  to  the  Holy  Office,  and  of  purely  ritual  questions, 
which  come  under  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  this  Congregation 
brings  under  one  authority  all  disciplinary  questions  concerning 
the  sacraments,  which  were  formerly  distributed  among  several 
Congregations   and   offices.     It   deals   with   dispensations   for 
marriages,  ordinations,  &c.,  concessions  with  regard  to  the  mass, 
the  communion,  &c. 

(6)  The  Congregation  of  the  Bishops  and  Regulars,  of  which  the 
full  official  title  was,  Congregation  for  the  Affairs  and  Consulta- 

tions of  the  Bishops  and  Regulars  (Sacra  Congregatio 

i/shops      super  negoliis  Episcoporum  et  Regularium;  now  Sacra 

Regulars.     Congregatio  negoliis  religiosorum  sodalium  praeposita). 

It  is  the  result  of  the  fusion  of  two  previous  com- 
missions; that  for  the  affairs  of  bishops,  established  by  Gregory 
XIII.,  and  that  for  the  affairs  of  the  regular  clergy,  founded  by 
Sixtus  V.;  the  fusion  dates  from  Clement  VIII.  (1601).  This 
congregation  was  very  much  occupied,  being  empowered  to  deal 
with  all  disciplinary  matters  concerning  both  the  secular  and 
regular  clergy,  whether  in  the  form  of  consultations  or  of  con- 
tentious suits;  it  had  further  the  exclusive  right  to  regulate  the 
discipline  of  the  religious  orders  and  congregations  bound  by  the 
simple  vows,  the  statutes  of  which  it  examined,  corrected  and 
approved;  finally  it  judged  disputes  and  controversies  between 
the  secular  and  regular  clergy.  On  the  26th  of  May  1  906,  Pius  X. 
incorporated  in  this  Congregation  two  others  having  a  similar 
object:  that  on  the  discipline  of  the  regular  clergy  (Congregatio 
super  Disciplina  Regularium)  ,  founded  by  Innocent  XII.  in  1695, 
and  that  on  the  condition  of  the  regular  clergy  (Congregatio  super 
Statu  Regularium),  established  by  Pius  IX.  in  1846.  In  1908 
Pius  X.  withdrew  from  this  Congregation  all  disciplinary  matters 
affecting  the  secular  clergy,  and  limited  its  competency  to  matters 
concerning  the  religious  orders,  both  as  regards  their  internal 
affairs  and  their  relations  with  the  bishops. 

(7)  The    Congregation    of    the    Council    (Sacra    Congregatio 
Cardinalium  Concilii  Tridenlini  inter  pretum),  i.e.  a  number  of 

cardinals  whose  duty  it  is  to  interpret  the  disciplinary 
decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent,  was  instituted  by  Pius 
IV.  in  1563,  and  reorganized  by  Sixtus  V.;  its  mission  is  to 
promote  the  observation  of  these  disciplinary  decrees,  to  give 
authoritative  interpretations  of  them,  and  to  reconcile  disputes 
arising  out  of  them.  Pius  X.  in  1908  entrusted  to  this  Congrega- 
tion the  supervision  of  the  general  discipline  of  the  secular  clergy 
and  the  faithful  laity,  empowering  it  to  deal  with  matters  con- 
cerning the  precepts  of  the  Church,  festivals,  foundations, 
church  property,  benefices,  provincial  councils  and  episcopal 
assemblies.  Proceedings  for  annulling  marriages,  which  used 
to  be  reserved  to  it,  were  transferred  to  the  tribunal  of  the  Rota; 
reports  on  the  condition  of  the  dioceses  were  henceforth  to  be 
addressed  to  the  Consistorial  Congregation,  which  involved  the 
suppression  of  the  commission  which  had  hitherto  dealt  with 
them.  The  other  commission,  formerly  charged  with  the  revision 
of  the  decrees  of  provincial  councils,  was  merged  in  the  Congrega- 
tion itself.  The  Congregation  of  Immunity  (Sacra  Congregatio 
J  urisdictionis  et  Immunitatis  ecclesiasticae)  was  created  by 
Urban  VIII.  (1626)  to  watch  over  the  immunities  of  the  clergy  in 
respect  of  person  or  property,  whether  local  or  general.  This, 
having  no  longer  any  object,  was  also  attached  to  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Council,  and  is  now  amalgamated  with  it. 

(8)  The  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  (Sacra  Congregatio 
de  Propaganda  Fide)  was  established  by  Gregory  XV.  in  1622, 

and  added  to  by  Urban  VIII.,  who  founded  the 
celebrated  College  of  the  Propaganda  for  the  education 
of  missionaries,  and  his  polyglot  press  for  printing 
the  liturgical  books  of  the  East.  It  had  charge  of  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Catholic  churches  in  all  non-Catholic  countries,  for 
which  it  discharged  the  functions  of  all  the  Congregations,  except 

VII.  21 


Council 


in  doctrinal  and  strictly  legislative  matters.  Its  sphere  was  very 
wide;  it  administered  all  non-European  countries,  except  Latin 
America  and  the  old  colonies  of  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe; 
in  Europe  it  had  also  charge  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  the 
Balkan  States.  But  the  constitution  "  Sapienti  "  of  1908 
withdrew  from  the  Propaganda  and  put  under  the  common  law 
of  the  Church  most  of  those  parts  in  which  the  episcopal  hierarchy 
had  been  re-established,  i.e.  in  Europe,  the  United  Kingdom, 
Holland  and  Luxemburg;  in  America,  Canada,  Newfoundland 
and  the  United  States.  Further,  even  for  those  countries  which 
it  continues  to  administer,  the  Propaganda  has  to  submit  to  the 
various  Congregations  all  questions  affecting  the  Faith,  marriage 
and  rites.  The  missions  begin  by  establishing  apostolic  pre- 
fectures under  the  charge  of  priests;  the  prefecture  is  later 
transformed  into  an  apostolic  vicariate,  having  at  its  head  a 
bishop;  finally,  the  hierarchy,  i.e.  the  diocesan  episcopate,  is 
established  in  the  country,  with  residential  sees.  Thus  the 
hierarchy  was  re-established  in  England  in  1850  by  Pius  IX.,  in 
1878  by  Leo  XIII.  in  Scotland,  in  1886  in  India,  in  1891  in  Japan. 
It  is  also  the  work  of  the  Propaganda  to  appoint  the  bishops  for 
the  countries  it  administers.  Under  the  same  cardinal  prefect 
is  found  that  section  of  the  Propaganda  which  deals  with  matters 
concerning  oriental  rites  (Congregatio  specialis  pro  negotiis 
ritus  Orientalis),  the  object  of  which  is  indicated  by  its  name. 
To  the  former  were  attached  two  commissions,  one  for  the 
approbation  of  those  religious  congregations  which  devote 
themselves  to  missions,  which  is  now  transferred  to  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Religious  Orders;  the  other  for  the  examination 
of  the  reports  sent  in  by  the  bishops  and  vicars  apostolic  on  their 
dioceses  or  missions.  With  the  latter  is  connected  the  com- 
mission for  the  examination  of  the  liturgical  books  of  the  East 
(Commissio  pro  corrigendis  libris  ecclesiae  Orientalis).  Finally, 
the  popes  have  devoted  to  the  missions  the  income  arising  from 
the  Chamber  of  Spoils  (Camera  Spoliorum),  i.e.  that  portion  of 
the  revenue  from  church  property  which  cannot  be  bequeathed 
by  the  holders  of  benefices  as  their  own  property;  this  source 
of  income,  however,  has  decreased  greatly. 

(9)  The    Congregation    of    the    Index    (Congregatio   indicis 
librorum  prohibitorum),  founded  by  St  Pius  V.  in  1571  and 
reorganized  by  Sixtus  V.,  has  as  its  object  the  examina- 

tion and  the  condemnation  or  interdiction  of  bad  or 
dangerous  books  which  are  submitted  to  it,  or,  since  the  con- 
stitution "  Sapienti,"  of  those  which  it  thinks  fit  to  examine  on 
its  own  initiative  (see  INDEX). 

(10)  The  Congregation  of  Rites  (Congregatio  sacrorum  Rituum), 
founded  by  Sixtus  V.,  has  exclusive  charge  of  the  liturgy  and 
liturgical  books;  it  also  deals  with  the  proceedings          _ftes> 
in  the  beatification  and  canonization  of  saints.     Of 

late  years  there  have  been  added  to  it  a  Liturgical  Commission, 
a  Historico-liturgical  Commission,  and  a  Commission  for  church 
song,  the  functions  of  which  are  sufficiently  indicated  by  their 
names. 

(n)  The  Ceremonial  Congregation  (Sacra  Congregatio  caere- 
monialis),  the  prefect  of  which  is  the  cardinal  dean, 
was  instituted  by  Sixtus  V.;  its  mission  is  to  settle 
questions  of  precedence  and  etiquette,  especially  at 
the  papal  court;  it  is  nowadays  but  little  occupied. 

(12)  The   Congregation   of  Indulgences  and   Relics   (Sacra 
Congregatio  Indulgentiarum  et  Sacrarum  Reliquiarum)  ,  founded 
in  1669  by  Clement  IX.,  devoted  itself  to  eradicating 

any  abuses  which  might  creep  into  the  practice  of  fences 
indulgences  and  the  cult  of  relics.  It  had  also  the 
duty  of  considering  applications  for  the  concession  of  indulgences 
and  of  interpreting  the  rules  with  regard  to  them.  In  1004 
Pius  X.  attached  this  Congregation  to  that  of  Rites,  making  the 
personnel  of  both  the  same,  without  suppressing  it.  In  1908, 
however,  it  was  suppressed,  as  stated  above,  and  its  functions 
as  to  indulgences  were  transferred  to  the  Holy  Office,  and  those 
as  to  relics  to  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 

(13)  The  Congregation  of  the  Fabric  of  St  Peter's  (Sacra 
Congregatio  reverendae  Fabricae  S.   Pelri)  is  charged  with  the 
upkeep,  repairs  and  temporal  administration  of  the  great  basilica; 


642 


CURIA  ROMANA 


in  this  capacity  it  controls  the  famous  manufacture  of  the 
Vatican  mosaics.  It  also  formerly  enjoyed  certain  spiritual 
powers  for  the  reduction  of  the  obligations  imposed  by 
pious  legacies  and  foundations,  the  objects  of  which,  for 
Peter's.  want  of  funds  or  any  other  reason,  could  not  be  fully 
carried  out,  and  for  the  condonation  of  past  omission 
of  such  obligations,  e.g.  of  priests  to  celebrate  the  foundation 
masses  of  their  benefices.  In  1908  these  powers  were  taken  away 
from  it  by  Pius  X.,  and  transferred  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council,  which  already  exercised  some  of  them. 

(14)  The  Congregation  of  Loretto  (Congregatio  Laurelana) 
discharged  the  same  functions  for  the  sanctuary  of  that  name; 
its  temporal  administration  was  latterly  very  much  reduced,  and 
in  1908  it  was  united  by  Pius  X.  with  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council. 

(15)  The  Congregation  for  extraordinary  ecclesiastical  affairs 
(Sacra  Congregatio  super  negoliis  ecclesiasticis  extraordi nariis) , 

established  by  Pius  VI.  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  century 
Ordinary  to  study  the  difficult  questions  relative  to  France, 
affairs.  was  afterwards  definitively  continued  by  Pius  VII.; 

and  there  has  been  no  lack  of  fresh  extraordinary 
matters.  It  also  dealt  with  the  administration  of  the  churches 
of  Latin  America,  not  to  mention  certain  European  countries, 
such  as  Russia,  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  Propaganda 
in  countries  under  missions.  Since  the  constitution  Sapienli, 
its  competency  has  been  confined  to  the  examination,  at  the 
request  of  the  secretary  of  state,  of  questions  which  are  submitted 
to  it,  and  especially  those  arising  from  civil  laws  and  concordats. 

(16)  The  Congregation  of  Studies  (Congregatio  pro  Univcrsilate 
studii  Romani,  Congregazione  degli  Studi),  founded  by  Sixtus 
Studies       ^'  to  a-ct  as  a  higher  council  for  the  Roman  university 

of  La  Sapienza,  had  ceased  to  have  any  functions 
when  in  1824  it  was  re-established  by  Leo  XII.  to  supervise 
education  in  Rome  and  the  Papal  States;  since  1870  it  has  been 
exclusively  concerned  with  the  Catholic  universities,  so  far  as 
the  sacred  sciences  are  concerned.  With  this  should  be  connected 
the  commission  for  historical  studies,  instituted  in  1883  by  Leo 
XIII.,  at  the  same  time  as  he  threw  the  Vatican  archives  freely 
open  to  scholars. 

III.  The  Tribunals  and  Offices. — Though  it  has  been  relieved 
of  the  functions  allotted  to  the  Congregations  of  cardinals,  the 

old  machinery  of  the  ecclesiastical  administration  has 
rribuaais  noj.  been  abolished;  and  the  process  of  centralization 
offices.  which  has  been  accentuated  in  the  course  of  the  last 

few  centuries,  together  with  the  facility  of  communica- 
tion, ensured  for  them  a  fresh  activity,  new  offices  having  even 
been  added.  The  chief  thing  to  be  observed  is  that  the  prelates 
who  were  formerly  at  the  head  of  these  departments  have  almost 
all  been  replaced  by  cardinals.  The  following  is  the  list  of  the 
tribunals  and  offices,  including  the  changes  introduced  by  the 
reorganization  of  the  Curia  by  Pius  X.  in  1908.  The  tribunals 
are  three  in  number:  one  for  the  forum  internum,  the  Peni- 
tentiary; the  other  two  for  judicial  matters  in  foro  externo,  the 
Rota  and  the  papal  Signatura. 

(1)  The  Penitentiary  (Sacra  poenitentiaria  Apostolica)  is  the 
tribunal  having  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  matters  of  conscience 

(in  foro  interno),e.g.  dispensations  from  secret  impedi- 
teatiary  ments  and  private  vows,  the  absolution  of  reserved 

cases.  These  concessions  are  applied  for  anonymously. 
It  also  had,  previously  to  the  constitution  Sapienli,  a  certain 
jurisdiction  in  foro  externo,  such  as  over  matrimonial  dispensa- 
tions for  poor  people.  Its  concessions  are  absolutely  gratuitous. 
Since  the  i2th  century,  the  papal  court  had  already  had  officials 
known  as  penitentiaries  (poenitentiarii)  for  matters  of  conscience; 
the  organization  of  the  Penitentiary,  after  several  modifications, 
was  renewed  by  Benedict  XIV.  in  1748.  At  the  head  of  it  is  the 
cardinal  grand  penitentiary  (major  poen itentiarius) ,  assisted  by 
the  regens  (It.  regents)  and  various  other  functionaries  and 
officials. 

(2)  The  court  of  the  Rota  (Sacra  Rota  Romano)  used  to  be 
the  supreme  ecclesiastical   tribunal  for  civil   affairs,   and   its 
decisions  had  great  authority.     This  tribunal  goes  back  at  least 


as  far  as  the  I4th  century,  but  its  activity  had  been  reduced  as 
a  result  of  the  more  expeditious  and  summary,  and  less  costly, 
procedure  of  the  Congregations.  The  constitution 
Sapienti  restored  the  Rota  to  existence  and  activity: 
it  is  now  once  more  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  appeal  for  both 
civil  and  criminal  cases.  Pius  X.  also  made  special  regulations 
for  it,  by  which  its  ancient  usages  are  adapted  to  modern  circum- 
stances. The  tribunal  of  the  Rota  consists  of  ten  judges  called 
auditors  (udilori),  of  whom  the  most  senior  is  president  with  the 
title  of  dean.  Each  judge  has  an  auxiliary;  to  the  tribunal  are 
attached  a  promoter  fiscalis,  charged  with  the  duty  of  securing 
the  due  application  of  the  law,  and  an  official  charged  with  the 
defence  of  marriage  and  ordination;  there  is  also  a  clerical 
staff  (notaries,  scribes)  attached  to  the  court.  Cases  are  judged 
by  three  auditors,  who  succeed  each  other  periodically  (per 
turnum)  according  to  the  order  in  which  the  cases  are  entered, 
and  in  exceptional  cases  by  all  the  auditors  (videnlibus  omnibus). 
Under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Rota,  in  addition  to  cases  of  first 
instance  submitted  to  it  by  the  pope,  are  such  judgments  of 
episcopal  courts  as  are  strictly  speaking  subject  to  appeal;  for 
petitions  against  non-judicial  decisions  are  referred  to  the  Congre- 
gations. Appeal  is  sometimes  allowed  from  one  "  turn  "  to 
another;  if  the  second  sentence  of  the  Rota  confirms  the  first, 
it  is  definitive;  if  not,  a  third  may  be^  obtained. 

(3)  The  supreme  tribunal  of  the  papal  Signatura  (Signatura 
Apostolica).  There  were  formerly  two  sections:  the  Signatura 
Justitiae  and  the  Signatura  Gratiae;  by  the  con-  ^^ 

stitution  Sapientis  they  were  suppressed  and  amal- 
gamated into  one  body,  the  Signatura  Apostolica,  which  is  the 
exact  equivalent  of  other  modern  courts  of  cassation.  This 
tribunal  is  composed  of  six  cardinals,  one  of  whom  is  the  prefect, 
assisted  by  a  prelate  secretary,  consultors  and  the  necessary 
inferior  officials.  It  judges  cases  in  which  auditors  of  the 
Rota  are  concerned,  such  as  personal  objections,  but  especially 
objections  (querelae)  lodged  against  sentences  of  the  Rota, 
with  a  view  to  their  being  annulled  or  revised  (restitutio  in 
integrum). 

Next  come  the  offices,  now  reduced  to  six  in  number. 

(i)  The  Chancery  (Cancellaria  Apostolica),  the  department 
from  which  are  sent  out  the  papal  letters,  has  for  a  long  time 
drawn  up  only  those  letters  written  in  solemn  form    ..... 
known  as  bulls.     The  bull,  so  called  from  the  leaden 
seal  (bulla),  is  written  on  thick  parchment;  the  special  writing 
known  as  Lombard,  which  used  to  be  used  for  bulls,  was  abolished 
by  Leo  XIII.,  and  the  leaden  seal  reserved  for  the  BHJJ 

more  important  letters;  on  the  others  it  has  been 
replaced  by  a  red  ink  stamp  bearing  both  the  emblems  repre- 
sented on  the  leaden  seal:  the  two  heads,  face  to  face,  of  St 
Peter  and  St  Paul,  and  the  name  of  the  reigning  pope.  Bulls 
are  written  in  the  name  of  the  pope,  who  styles  himself  "  (Pius) 
Episcopus  serous  seniorum  Dei;  (Pius),  bishop,  servant  of 
the  servants  of  God."  They  were  formerly  dated  by  kalends 
and  from  the  era  of  the  Incarnation,  which  begins  on  the  zsth 
of  March,  but  in  1908  Pius  X.  ordered  them  to  be  dated  according 
to  the  common  era.  It  is  practically  only  bulls  of  canonization 
which  are  signed,  by  the  pope  and  all  the  cardinals  present  in 
Rome;  the  signature  of  the  pope  is  then  "  (Pius)  Episcopus 
Ecclesiae  calholicae,"  while  his  ordinary  signature  bears  only  his 
name  and  number,  "  Pius  PP.  X."  Ordinary  bulls  are  signed 
by  several  officials  of  the  chancery,  and  a  certain  number  only 
by  the  cardinal  at  its  head,  who  until  1908  was  styled  vice- 
chancellor,  because  the  chancellor  used  formerly  to  be  a  prelate, 
not  a  cardinal;  but  since  the  constitution  Sapienli  has  been 
entitled  chancellor.  He  is  assisted  by  several  officials,  beginning 
with  the  regens  of  the  chancery.  To  the  chancery  were  attached 
the  abbrematores  de  parco  majori  vel  minori  (see  ABBREVIATORS), 
formerly  charged  with  the  drawing  up  or  "  extension  "  of  bulls; 
they  were  suppressed  by  Pius  X.,  and  their  functions  trans- 
ferred to  the  Protonotarii  apostolici  participants  (i.e.  active). 
Further,  Pope  Pius  confined  the  functions  of  the  chancery 
to  the  sending  out  of  bulls  under  the  leaden  seal  (sub  plumbo), 
for  the  erection  of  dioceses,  the  provision  of  bishoprics  and 


CURICO 


643 


consistorial  benefices,  and  other  affairs  of  importance,   these 
bulls  being  sent  out  by  order  of  the  Consistorial  Congregation. 

(2)  The  Apostolic  Dataria  is  the  department  dealing  with 
matters  of  grace,  e.g.  the  concession  of  privileges,  nominations 

to  benefices  and  dispensations  in  foro  externo,  especially 
matrimonial  ones;  but  its  functions  have  been  greatly 
toiica.  reduced  by  the  reforms  of  Pius  X.;  the  matrimonial 
section  has  been  suppressed,dispensations  for  marriages 
now  belonging  to  the  Congregation  for  the  discipline  of  the 
sacraments;  the  section  dealing  with  benefices,  which  is  the  only 
one  preserved,  deals  with  ncn-consistorial  benefices  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See;  it  examines  the  claims  of  the  candidates,  draws 
up  and  sends  out  the  letters  of  collation,  gives  dispensations,  when 
necessary,  in  matters  concerning  the  benefices,  and  manages 
the  charges  (i.e.  pensions  to  incumbents  who  have  resigned,  &c.) 
imposed  on  the  benefices  by  the  pope.  It  has  at  its  head  a 
cardinal  formerly  called  the  pro-dalarius,  the  datarius  having 
formerly  been  a  prelate;  and  now  datarius,  since  the  reform, 
by  Pius  X.  The  cardinal  is  assisted  by  a  prelate  called  the 
sub-datarius,  and  other  officials. 

(3)  The  Apostolic  Chamber  (Reverenda  Camera  Apostolicd) 
was  before  the  abolition  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy 

the  ministry  of  finance,  at  once  treasury  and  exchequer, 
chamber  °^  ^ne  P°Pes  as  heads  of  the  Catholic  Church  as  well  as 

sovereigns  of  the  papal  states.  Although  it  is  neces- 
sarily diminished  in  importance,  it  has  retained  the  administra- 
tion of  the  property  of  the  Holy  See,  especially  during  a  vacancy. 
At  its  head  is  the  cardinal  camerlengo  (Sanctae  Romanae  Ecclesiae 
Cardinalis  Camerarius),  who,  as  we  know,  exercises  the  external 
authority  during  the  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See. 

(4)  Next  come  the  palatine  secretariates,  the  first  and  principal 
of  which  is  the  secretariate  of  state  (Secretaria  status).     The 

cardinal  secretary  of  state  is  as  it  were  the  pope's 
sbi  of'*"  P"me  minister,  gathering  into  one  centre  the  internal 
State.  administration  and  foreign  affairs,  by  means  of  the 

nunciatures  and  delegations  depending  on  his  depart- 
ment. The  secretary  of  state  is  the  successor  of  what  was  called 
in  the  i7th  century  the  cardinal  nephew;  his  functions  and 
importance  have  increased  more  and  more.  The  secretariate 
of  state  is  the  department  dealing  with  the  political  affairs 
of  the  Church.  To  it  belongs  the  internal  administration  of  the 
apostolic  palaces,  with  the  library,  archives,  museums,  &c. 
In  1908  Pius  X.  divided  the  departments  of  the  secretariate  of 
state  into  three  sections,  under  the  authority  of  the  cardinal 
secretary.  The  first  is  the  department  of  extraordinary  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  having  at  its  head  the  secretary  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  same  name;  the  second,  that  of  ordinary  affairs,  directed 
by  a  substitute,  is  the  department  dealing,  among  other  things, 
with  the  concession  of  honorary  distinctions,  both  for  ecclesiastics 
and  laymen;  the  third  is  that  of  the  briefs,  which  hitherto 
Briefs  formed  a  separate  secretariate.  It  is  this  department 

which  sends  out,  at  the  command  of  the  secretary  of 
state  or  the  various  Congregations  those  papal  letters  which  are 
written  in  less  solemn  form,  brevi  manu,  hence  the  word  "  brief." 
They  are  written  in  the  pope's  name,  but  he  only  takes  the  less 
solemn  style  of:  "  Pius  PP.  X."  The  brief  is  written  on  thin 
parchment,  and  dated  by  the  ordinary  era  and  the  day  of  the 
month;  they  were  formerly  signed  only  by  the  cardinal  secretary 
of  briefs  or  his  substitute,  but  now  by  the  cardinal  secretary  of 
state  or  the  head  of  the  office,  called  the  chancellor  of  Briefs 
(cancellarius  Brevium).  The  seal  is  that  of  the  fisherman's 
ring,  hence  the  formula  of  conclusion,  "  Datum  Romae,  sub  annulo 
Piscatoris."  The  "  Fisherman's  ring "  is  a  red  ink  stamp 
representing  St  Peter  on  a  boat  casting  out  his  nets,  with  the 
name  of  the  reigning  pope.  , 

The  reform  of  Pius  X.  maintained  untouched  the  two  offices 
called  the  secretariate  of  briefs  to  princes,  and  the  secretariate  of 
Qtller  Latin  Letters,  the  names  of  which  are  sufficient  indica- 
ofiices.  ilon  °f  tne'r  functions.  The  secretariate  of  memorials 

(Secretaria  Memorialium),  through  which  pass  requests 
addressed  to  the  pope  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  certain  favours, 
was  formerly  of  great  importance;  it  is  now  suppressed  and  the 


requests  are  addressed  to  the  proper  departments.  Finally, 
the  pope  has  his  special  secretary,  his  auditor,  with  his  offices, 
as  well  as  the  papal  almonry,  the  officials  of  which  administer 
the  papal  charities. 

IV.  The  pontifical  "  family  "  (Jamilia)  forms  the  pope's  civil 
court.     First  come  the  palatine  cardinals,  i.e.  those  who,  on 
account  of  their  office,  have  the  right  of  living  in  the 

papal  palaces.  These  were  formerly  four  in  number: 
the  pro-datarius  (now  datarius) ,  the  secretary  of  state,  "family." 
the  secretary  of  briefs,  and  the  secretary  of  the 
memorials;  the  two  last  of  these  were  suppressed  in  1908. 
Next  come  the  four  palatine  prelates,  the  majordomo,  the 
superintendent  of  the  household  and  its  staff,  and  successor 
of  the  ancient  vicedominus;  the  master  of  the  chamber,  who 
presides  over  the  arrangement  of  audiences;  the  auditor,  or 
private  secretary;  and  finally  the  master  of  the  sacred  palace 
(magister  sacri  palatii),  a  kind  of  theological  adviser,  always  a 
Dominican,  whose  special  duty  is  nowadays  the  revision  of  books 
published  at  Rome.  Other  prelates  rank  with  the  above,  but  in 
a  lower  degree,  notably  the  almoner  and  the  various  secretaries. 
All  ecclesiastics  admitted,  by  virtue  of  their  office  or  by  a  gracious 
concession  of  the  pope,  to  form  part  of  the  "  family,"  are  called 
domestic  prelates,  prelates  of  the  household;  this  is  an  honorary 
title  conferred  on  many  priests  not  resident  in  Rome.  The  ex- 
ternal service  of  the  palace  is  performed  by  the  Swiss  Guard  and 
the  gendarmerie;  the  service  of  the  ante-chamber  by  the  lay  and 
ecclesiastical  chamberlains;  this  service  has  also  given  rise 
to  certain  honorary  titles  both  for  ecclesiastics,  e.g.  honorary 
chamberlain,  and  for  laymen,  e.g.  secret  chamberlain  (cameriere 
segreto).  (See  CHAMBERLAIN.) 

V.  The  pontifical  "  chapel  "  (capella)  is  the  papal  court  for 
purposes  of  religious  worship.     In  it  the  pope  is  surrounded 
by  the  cardinals  according  to  their  order;  by  the 
patriarchs,  archbishops  and  bishops  attending  at  the 
throne,  and  others;   by  the  prelates  of   the   Curia, 

and  by  all  the  clergy  both  secular  and  regular.  Among  the 
prelates  we  should  mention  the  protonotaries,  the  successors  of 
the  old  notaries  or  officials  of  the  papal  chancery  in  the  earliest 
centuries;  the  seven  protonotarii  participantes  were  restored  by 
Pope  Pius  Xv  to  the  chancery,  as  noted  above,  but  they  have 
kept  important  honorary  privileges;  this  is  yet  another  source 
of  distinctions  conferred  upon  a  great  number  of  priests  outside 
of  Rome,  the  protonotaries  of  different  classes.  In  a  lower 
degree  there  are  also  the  chaplains  of  honour.  Since  1870  the 
great  pontifical  ceremonies  have  lost  much  of  their  splendour. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — La  Gerarchia  cattolica,  an  annual  directory  pub- 
lished at  Rome;  Lunadoro,  Relazione  delta  corte  di  Roma  (Rome, 
1765) ;  Moroni,  Dizionario  di  erudizione,  under  the  various  headings ; 
Card.  De  Luca,  Relatio  curiae  romanae  (Cologne,  1683) ;  Bouix, 
De  curia  romana  (Paris,  1859) ;  Ferraris,  Prompta  bibliotheca  (addit. 
Cassinenses) ,  s.v.  Congregatio;  Grimaldi,  Les  Congregations  romaines 
(Sienna,  1891) ;  Dictionnaire  de  theologie  catholique,  s.v.  Cour  romaine 
(Paris,  1907) ;  Publications  of  the  acts  of  the  Roman  Congregations : 
Bishops  and  regulars — Bizzarri,  Collectanea  in  usum  Secretariae 
(Rome,  1866,  1885).  Council:  the  Thesaurus  resolutionum  has 
published  all  business  since  1700:  a  volume  is  issued  every  year, 
and  the  contents  have  been  published  in  alphabetical  order  by 
Zamboni  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1812;  Arras,  1860)  and  by  Pallottini 
(18  vols.,  Rome,  1868,  &c.).  Immunity:  Ricci,  Synopsis,  decreta  ejt 
resolutiones  (Palestrina,  1708).  Propaganda:  De  Martinis,  Juris 
pontificii  de  Propaganda  Fide,  &c.  (Rome,  1888,  &c.);  Collectanea 
S.  C.  de  Prop.  Fide  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1907).  Index:  Index  librorum 
prohibitorum  (Rome,  1900).  Rites:  Decreta  authentica  (Rome, 
1898).  Indulgences:  Decreta  authentica  (Regensburg,  1882); 
Rescripta  authenttca  (ib.,  1885).  (A.  Bo.*) 

CURIC6,  a  province  of  central  Chile,  lying  between  the 
provinces  of  Colchagua  and  Talca  and  extending  from  the 
Pacific  to  the  Argentine  frontier;  area,  2978  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1895) 
103,242.  The  eastern  and  western  sections  are  mountainous, 
and  are  separated  by  the  fertile  valley  of  central  Chile.  The 
mineral  resources  are  undeveloped,  but  are  said  to  include 
copper,  gold  and  silver.  Cattle,  wheat  and  wine  are  the  principal 
products,  but  Indian  corn  and  fruit  also  are  produced.  On  the 
coast  are  important  salt-producing  industries.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  the  rainfall  more  abundant  than  at  the  northern  part 
of  the  valley,  and  the  effects  of  this  are  to  be  seen  in  the  better 


644 


CURIE— CURLEW 


pasturage.  Irrigation  is  used  to  a  large  extent.  The  province 
was  created  in  1865  by  a  division  of  Colchagua.  The  capital 
is  Curico,  on  the  Mataquito  river,  in  lat.  34°  58'  S.  long.  71°  19' 
W.,  114  m.  S.  of  Santiago  by  the  Chilean  Central  railway,  which 
crosses  the  province.  The  city  stands  on  the  great  central  plain, 
748  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  comparatively  well- 
cultivated  district.  It  was  founded  in  1742  by  Jose  de  Manso, 
and  is  one  of  the  more  cultured  and  progressive  provincial  towns 
of  Chile.  Pop.  (1895)  12,669.  Vichiquen,  on  a  tide-water  lake 
on  the  coast,  is  a  prosperous  town,  the  centre  of  the  salt  trade. 

CURIE,  PIERRE  (1859-1906),  French  physicist,  was  born  in 
Paris  on  the  i  sth  of  May  1859,  and  was  educated  at  the  Sorbonne, 
where  he  subsequently  became  professor  of  physics.  Although 
he  had  previously  published  meritorious  researches  on  piezo- 
electricity, the  magnetic  properties  of  bodies  at  different  tem- 
peratures, and  other  topics,  he  was  chiefly  known  for  his  work 
on  radium  carried  out  jointly  with  his  wife,  Marie  Sklodowska, 
who  was  born  at  Warsaw  on  the  7th  of  November  1867.  After 
the  discovery  of  the  radioactive  properties  of  uranium  by  Henri 
Becquerel  in  1896,  it  was  noticed  that  some  minerals  of  uranium, 
such  as  pitchblende,  were  more  active  than  the  element  itself, 
and  this  circumstance  suggested  that  such  minerals  contained 
small  quantities  of  some  unknown  substance  or  substances 
possessing  radioactive  properties  in  a  very  high  degree.  Acting 
on  this  surmise  M.  and  Mme  Curie  subjected  a  large  amount 
of  pitchblende  to  a  laborious  process  of  fractionation,  with 
the  result  that  in  1898  they  announced  the  existence  in  it  of 
two  highly  radioactive  substances,  polonium  and  radium.  In 
subsequent  years  they  did  much  to  elucidate  the  remarkable 
properties  of  these  two  substances,  one  of  which,  polonium, 
came  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  transformation-products  of  the 
other  (see  RADIOACTIVITY).  In  1903  they  were  awarded  the 
Davy  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  recognition  of  this  work, 
and  in  the  same  year  the  Nobel  prize  for  physics  was  divided 
between  them  and  Henri  Becquerel.  Professor  Curie,  who  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1905,  was  run  over  by  a 
dray  and  killed  instantly  in  Paris  on  the  igth  of  April  1906. 

His  elder  brother,  PAUL  JACQUES  CURIE,  born  at  Paris  on 
the  29th  of  October  1856,  published  an  elaborate  memoir  on  the 
specific  inductive  capacities  of  crystalline  bodies  (Ann.  Chim. 
Phys.  1889,  17  and  18). 

CURIO,  GAIUS  SCRIBONIUS,  Roman  statesman  and  orator, 
son  of  a  distinguished  orator  of  the  same  name,  flourished  during 
the  ist  century  B.C.  He  was  tribune  of  the  people  in  90  B.C., 
and  afterwards  served  in  Sulla's  army  in  Greece  against  Archelaus, 
general  of  Mithradates,  and  as  his  legate  in  Asia,  where  he  was 
commissioned  to  restore  order  in  the  kingdoms  abandoned  by 
Mithradates.  In  76  he  was  consul,  and  as  governor  of  Macedonia 
carried  on  war  successfully  against  the  Thracians  and  Dardanians, 
and  was  the  first  Roman  general  who  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Danube.  On  his  return  he  was  granted  the  honour  of  a  triumph. 
During  the  discussion  as  to  the  punishment  of  the  Catilinarian 
conspirators  he  supported  Cicero,  but  he  spoke  in  favour  of  P. 
Clodius  (q.v.)  when  the  latter  was  being  tried  for  the  Bona  Dea 
affair.  This  led  to  a  violent  attack  on  the  part  of  Cicero,  but 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  interfered  with  their  friendship.  Curio 
was  a  vehement  opponent  of  Caesar,  against  whom  he  wrote 
a  political  pamphlet  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue.  He  was  pontifex 
maximus  in  57,  and  died  in  53.  His  reputation  as  an  orator 
was  considerable,  but  according  to  Cicero  he  was  very  illiterate, 
and  his  only  qualifications  were  brilliancy  of  style  and  the  purity 
of  his  Latin.  He  was  nicknamed  Burbuleius  (after  an  actor) 
from  the  way  in  which  he  moved  his  body  while  speaking. 

Orelli,  Onomasticon  to  Cicero;  Florus  iii.  4;  Eutropius  vi.  2; 
Val.  Max.  ix.  14,  5;  Quintilian,  Instil.,  vi.  3,  76;  Dio  Cassius 
xxxviii.  1 6. 

His  son,  GAIUS  SCRIBONIUS  CURIO,  was  first  a  supporter  of 
Pompey,  but  after  his  tribuneship  (50  B.C.)  went  over  to  Caesar, 
by  whom  he  was  said  to  have  been  bribed.  But,  while  breaking 
off  relations  with  Pompey,  Curio  desired  to  keep  up  the  appear- 
ance of  impartiality.  When  it  was  demanded  that  Caesar  should 
lay  down  his  imperium  before  entering  Rome,  Curio  proposed 


that  Pompey  should  do  the  same,  adding  that,  if  the  rivals 
refused  to  do  so,  they  ought  both  to  be  declared  public  enemies. 
His  proposal  was  carried  by  a  large  majority,  but  a  report  having 
spread  that  Caesar  was  on  the  way  to  attack  Rome,  the  consuls 
called  upon  Pompey  to  undertake  the  command  of  all  the  troops 
stationed  in  Italy.  Curio's  appeal  to  the  people  to  prevent  the 
levying  of  an  army  by  Pompey  was  disregarded;  whereupon, 
feeling  himself  in  danger,  he  fled  to  Ravenna  to  Caesar.  He  was 
commissioned  by  Caesar,  who  was  still  unwilling  to  proceed  to 
extremities,  to  take  a  message  to  the  senate.  But  Curio's 
reception  was  so  hostile  that  he  hurriedly  returned  during  the 
night  to  Caesar.  It  was  now  obvious  that  civil  war  would  break 
out.  Curio  collected  troops  in  Umbria  and  Etruria  for  Caesar, 
who  sent  him  to  Sicily  as  propraetor  in  49.  After  having  fought 
with  considerable  success  there  against  the  Pompeians,  Curio 
crossed  over  to  Africa,  where  he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Juba, 
king  of  Numidia.  Curio,  although  a  man  of  profligate  character, 
possessed  conspicuous  ability,  and  was  a  distinguished  orator. 
In  spite  of  his  faults,  Cicero,  as  an  old  friend  of  his  father,  took 
a  great  interest  in  him  and  did  his  utmost  to  reform  him.  Seven 
of  Cicero's  letters  (Ad.  Fam.  ii.  1-7)  are  addressed  to  him.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Curio's  behaviour  in  regard  to  the  laying 
down  of  the  imperium  by  Caesar  and  Pompey  in  great  measure 
contributed  to  the  outbreak  of  civil  war.  The  first  amphitheatre 
in  Rome  was  erected  by  him  (50),  for  the  celebration  of  the 
funeral  games  in  honour  of  his  father. 

Orelli,  Onomasticon  to  Cicero;  Livy,  Epit.  109,  no;  Caesar, 
Bell.  Civ.,  ii.  23,  for  Curio's  African  campaign;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ., 
ii.  26-44 ;  Veil.  Pat.  ii.  48. 

CURITYBA  (also  CORITYBA  and  CURITIBA),  capital  of  the  state 
of  Parana,  Brazil,  situated  on  an  elevated  plateau  (2916  ft. 
above  sea-level)  68  m.  W.  of  its  seaport  Paranagua,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  railway  remarkable  for  the  engineering 
difficulties  overcome  and  for  the  beautiful  scenery  through  which 
it  passes.  Pop.  (1890)  22,694;  °f  the  municipality,  24,553. 
There  is  a  large  foreign  element  in  the  population,  the  Germans 
preponderating.  The  city  has  a  temperate,  healthy  climate, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  charming  campo  country,  which,  however, 
is  less  fertile  than  the  forested  river  valleys.  Mate  is  the  principal 
export. 

CURLEW  (Fr.  Courtis  or  Corlieu),  a  name  given  to  two  birds, 
of  whose  cry  it  is  an  imitation,  both  belonging  to  the  group 
Limicolae,  but  possessing  very  different  habits  and  features. 

i.  The  long-billed  curlew,  or  simply  curlew  of  most  British 
writers,  the  Numenius  arquata  of  ornithologists,  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  family  Scolopacidae,  or  snipes  and  allied  forms. 
It  is  common  on  the  shores  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  most 
parts  of  Europe,  seeking  the  heaths  and  moors  of  the  interior 
and  more  northern  countries  in  the  breeding-season,  where  it 
lays  its  four  brownish-green  eggs,  suffused  with  cinnamon 
markings,  in  an  artless  nest  on  the  ground.  In  England  it  has 
been  ascertained  to  breed  in  Cornwall  and  in  the  counties  of 
Devon,  Dorset,  Salop,  and  Derby — though  sparingly.  In  York- 
shire it  is  more  numerous,  and  thence  to  the  extreme  north  of 
Scotland,  as  well  as  throughout  Ireland,  it  is,  under  the  name  of 
whaup,  familiar  to  those  who  have  occasion  to  traverse  the  wild 
and  desolate  tracts  that  best  suit  its  habits.  So  soon  as  the  young 
are  able  to  shift  for  themselves,  both  they  and  their  parents 
resort  to  the  sea-shore  or  mouths  of  rivers,  from  the  muddy 
flats  of  which  they  at  low  tide  obtain  their  living,  and,  though 
almost  beyond  any  other  birds  wary  of  approach,  form  an  object 
of  pursuit  to  numerous  gunners.  While  leading  this  littoral  life 
the  food  of  the  curlew  seems  to  consist  of  almost  anything  edible 
that  presents  itself.  It  industriously  probes  the  mud  or  sand  in 
quest  of  the  worms  that  lurk  therein,  and  is  also  active  in  seeking 
for  such  crustaceans  and  molluscs  as  can  be  picked  up  on  the 
surface,  while  vegetable  matter  as  well  has  been  found  in  its 
stomach.  During  its  summer-sojourn  on  the  moorlands  insects 
and  berries,  when  they  are  ripe,  enter  largely  into  its  diet.  In 
bulk  the  curlew  is  not  less  than  a  crow,  but  it  looks  larger  still 
from  its  long  legs,  wings  and  neck.  Its  bill,  from  5  to  7  in.  in 
length,  and  terminating  in  the  delicate  nervous  apparatus 


CURLING,  T.  B.— CURLING 


645 


common  to  all  birds  of  its  family,  is  especially  its  most  remark- 
able feature.  Its  plumage  above  is  of  a  drab  colour,  streaked 
and  mottled  with  very  dark  brown;  beneath  it  is  white,  while 
the  flight-quills  are  of  a  brownish  black. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  curlew,  but  smaller  and  with  a  more 
northern  range,  is  the  whimbrel  (N.  phaeopus),  called  in  some 
parts  jack-curlew,  from  its  small  size;  May-fowl,  from  the 
month  in  which  it  usually  arrives;  and  titterel,  from  one  of  its 
cries.1  This  so  much  resembles  the  former  in  habit  and  appear- 
ance that  no  further  details  need  be  given  of  it.  In  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  occurs  a  third  species  (N. 
tenuirostris).  Some  fifteen  other  species,  or  more,  have  been 
described,  but  it  is  probable  that  this  number  is  too  great.  The 
genus  Numenius  is  almost  cosmopolitan.  In  North  America 
three  very  easily  recognized  species  are  found — the  first  (N. 
longirostris)  closely  agreeing  with  the  European  curlew,  but 
larger  and  with  a  longer  bill;  the  second  (N.  hudsonicus)  repre- 
senting the  British  whimbrel;  and  the  third  (N.  borealis), 
which  has  several  times  found  its  way  to  Britain,  very  much  less 
in  size — indeed  the  smallest  of  the  genus.  All  these  essentially 
agree  with  the  species  of  the  Old  World  in  habit;  but  it  is  re- 
markable that  the  American  birds  can  be  easily  distinguished  by 
the  rufous  colouring  of  their  axillary  feathers — a  feature  which 
is  also  presented  by  the  American  godwits  (Limosa). 

2.  The  curlew  of  inlanders,  or  stone-curlew — called  also,  by 
some  writers,  from  its  stronghold  in  England,  the  Norfolk  plover, 
and  sometimes  the  thick-knee — is  usually  classed  among  the 
Charadriidae,  but  it  offers  several  remarkable  differences  from 
the  more  normal  plovers.  It  is  the  Charadrius  oedicnemus  of 
Linnaeus,  the  C.  scolopax  of  Sam.  Gottl.  Gmelin,  and  the  Oedi- 
cnemus crepitans  of  K.  J.  Temminck.  With  much  the  same  cry 
as  that  of  the  Numenii,  only  uttered  in  a  far  sweeter  tone,  it  is 
as  fully  entitled  to  the  name  of  curlew  as  the  bird  most  commonly 
so  called.  In  England  it  is  almost  solely  a  summer  visitor, 
though  an  example  will  occasionally  linger  throughout  a  mild 
winter;  and  is  one  of  the  few  birds  whose  distribution  is  affected 
by  geological  formation,  since  it  is  nearly  limited  to  the  chalk- 
country — the  open  spaces  of  which  it  haunts,  and  its  numbers 
have  of  late  years  been  sensibly  diminished  by  their  inclosure. 
The  most  barren  spots  in  these  districts,  even  where  but  a  super- 
ficial coating  of  light  sand  and  a  thin  growth  of  turf  scarcely 
hide  the  chalk  below,  supply  its  needs;  though  at  night  (and  it 
chiefly  feeds  by  night)  it  resorts  to  moister  and  more  fertile 
places.  Its  food  consists  of  snails,  coleopterous  insects,  and 
earth-worms,  but  larger  prey,  as  a  mouse  or  a  frog,  is  not  rejected. 
Without  making  the  slightest  attempt  at  a  nest,  it  lays  its  two 
eggs  on  a  level  spot,  a  bare  fallow  being  often  chosen.  These  are 
not  very  large,  and  in  colour  so  closely  resemble  the  sandy,  flint- 
strewn  surface  that  their  detection  except  by  a  practised  eye 
is  difficult.  The  bird,  too,  trusts  much  to  its  own  drab  colouring 
to  elude  observation,  and,  on  being  disturbed,  will  frequently  run 
for  a  considerable  distance  and  then  squat  with  outstretched 
neck  so  as  to  become  almost  invisible.  In  such  a  case  it  may  be 
closely  approached,  and  its  large  golden  eye,  if  it  do  not  pass  for 
a  tuft  of  yellow  lichen,  is  perhaps  the  first  thing  that  strikes  the 
searcher.  As  autumn  advances  the  stone-curlew  gathers  in 
large  flocks,  and  then  is  as  wary  as  its  namesake.  Towards 
October  these  take  their  departure,  and  their  survivors  return, 
often  with  wonderful  constancy,  to  their  beloved  haunts.  In 
size  this  species  exceeds  any  other  European  plover,  and  looks 
even  still  larger  than  it  is.  The  bill  is  short,  blunt,  and  stout; 
the  head  large,  broad,  and  flat  at  the  top;  the  wings  and  legs 
long — the  latter  presenting  the  peculiarity  of  a  singular  enlarge- 
ment of  the  upper  part  of  the  tarsus,  whence  the  names  Oedi- 
cnemus and  Thick-knee  have  been  conferred.  The  toes  are  short 
and  fleshy,  and  the  hind-toe  is  wanting.  This  bird  seems  to  have 
been  an  especial  favourite  with  Gilbert  White,  in  whose  classical 
writings  mention  of  it  is  often  made.  Its  range  extends  to  North 
Africa  and  India.  Five  other  species  of  Oedicnemus  from  Africa 

1  The  name  spowe  (cf.  Icelandic  SpJi)  also  seems  to  have  been 
anciently  given  to  this  bird  (see  Stevenson's  Birds  of  Norfolk, 
ii.  201). 


have  also  .been  described  as  distinct.  Australia  possesses  a  very 
distinct  species  (O.  grallarius),  and  the  genus  has  two  members 
in  the  Neotropical  Region  (O.  bislrialus  and  O.  superciliaris) . 
An  exaggerated  form  of  Oedicnemus  is  found  in  Aesacus,  of  which 
two  species  have  been  described,  one  (A.  recurvirostris)irom  the 
Indian,  and  the  other  (A.  magnirostris)  from  the  northern  parts 
of  the  Australian  region.  (A.  N.) 

CURLING,  THOMAS  BLIZARD  (1811-1888),  British  surgeon, 
was  born  in  London  in  1811.  Through  his  uncle,  Sir  William 
Blizard,  he  became  assistant-surgeon  to  the  London  hospital  in 
1833,  becoming  full  surgeon  in  1849.  After  filling  other  im- 
portant posts  in  the  College  of  Surgeons,  he  was  appointed 
president  in  1873.  In  1843  he  won  the  Jacksonian  prize  for  his 
investigations  on  tetanus;  and  he  became  famous  for  his  skill 
in  treating  diseases  of  the  testes  and  rectum,  his  published  works 
on  which  went  through  many  editions.  He  died  on  the  4th  of 
March  1888. 

CURLING,  a  game  in  which  the  players  throw  large  rounded 
stones  upon  a  rink  or  channel  of  ice,  towards  a  mark  called  the 
tee.  Where  the  game  originated  is  not  precisely  known;  but  it 
has  been  popular  in  Scotland  for'three  centuries  at  least.  Some 
writers,  looking  to  the  name  and  technical  terms  of  the  game, 
trace  its  invention  to  the  Netherlands;  thus  "  curl  "  may  have 
been  derived  from  the  Ger.  kurzweil,  a  game;  "tee"  from  the 
Teutonic  tighen,  to  point  out;  "  bonspiel,"  a  district  curling 
competition,  from  the  Belgic  bonne,  a  district,  and  spel,  play; 
the  further  supposition  that  "  rink  '.'  is  merely  a  modification  of 
the  Saxon  hrink,  a  strong  man,  seems  scarcely  tenable.  Curling 
is  called  "  kuting  "  in  some  parts  of  Lanarkshire  and  Ayrshire, 
and  very  much  resembles  quoiting  on  the  ice,  so  that  the  name 
may  have  some  connexion  with  the  Dutch  coete,  a  quoit;  while 
Cornelis  Kiliaan  (1528-1607)  in  his  Teutonic  Dictionary  gives 
the  term  khuyten  as  meaning  a  pastime  in  which  large  globes  of 
stone  like  the  quoit  or  discus  are  thrown  upon  ice.  Possibly 
some  of  the  Flemish  merchants  who  settled  in  Scotland  towards 
the  close  of  the  i6th  century  may  have  brought  the  game  to  the 
country.  Unfortunately,  however,  for  the  theory  that  assigns 
to  it  a  far-away  origin,  we  find  no  early  mention  of  it  in  the 
literature  of  the  continent;  while  Camden,  when  describing  the 
Orkney  Islands  in  1607,  tells  us  that  one  of  them  supplies  "  plenty 
of  excellent  stones  for  the  game  called  curling  ";  and  incidental 
references  to  it  as  a  game  played  in  Scotland  are  made  by  several 
authors  during  the  first  half  of  the  same  century. 

If  the  game  be  not  indigenous  to  Scotland  it  certainly  owes 
its  development  to  that  country,  and  in  the  course  of  time  it  has 
come  to  be  the  national  sport.  It  was  played  at  first  with  very 
rude  engines — random  whin  boulders  fashioned  by  nature  alone, 
or  misshapen  granite  blocks,  bored  through  to  let  in  the 
thumb  of  the  player,  having  been  the  primitive  channel  stones. 
In  course  of  years  the  rough  block  was  superseded  by  a  sym- 
metrical object  usually  made  of  whinstone  or  granite,  beautifully 
rounded,  brilliantly  polished,  and  supplied  with  a  convenient 
handle. 

Although  curling  boasts  a  literature  of  its  own  and  songs  in- 
numerable, yet  it  has  received  but  the  scantiest  notice  from  such 
important  Scottish  writers  as  Scott  and  Burns,  or  from  con- 
temporary literature  in  general.  In  1834  an  "  Amateur  Curling 
Club  of  Scotland  "  was  formed,  but  this  "  mutual  admiration 
amateur  society  came  to  nothing,  as  might  be  expected."  Far 
more  businesslike  were  the  methods  of  the  men  whaset  afoot  the 
"  Grand  Caledonian  Curling  Club,"  which  began  its  existence 
on  the  1 5th  of  November  1838,  and  which,  under  its  present  title 
of  "  The  Royal  Caledonian  Curling  Club,"  is  regarded  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  as  the  mother-club  and  legislative  body,  even  in 
Canada,  where,  however,  curling  conditions  differ  widely  from 
those  of  Scotland;  devotion  to  the  mother-club  does  not  by  any 
means  imply  submission.  Starting  with  28  allied  clubs  the  Royal 
Club  grew  so  rapidly  that  there  were  500  such  in  1880  and  720 
in  1903.  It  was  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Caledonian  that 
a  body  of  Scottish  curlers  visited  Canada  and  the  United  States 
in  the  winter  of  1902-1903,  and,  while  a  slight  margin  of  victory 
remained  with  the  home  players  under  their  own  climatic  con- 


646 


CURLING 


ditions,  the  visit  did  much  to  bring  together  the  lovers  of  the 
game  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  The  assumption  of  the  title 
"  Royal  "  in  place  of  "  Grand  "  was  due  to  the  visit  of  Queen 
Victoria  and  the  prince  consort  to  Scotland  in  1842,  on  which 
occasion  they  were  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the  game  on 
the  polished  floor  of  the  drawing-room  in  the  Palace  of  Scone; 
and  the  prince  consort,  who  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  curling- 
stones,  consented  to  become  patron  of  the  club.  On  his  death  he 
was  succeeded  by  the  prince  of  Wales,  who,  as  Edward  VII., 
still  continued  his  patronage.  The  Club's  main  duties  are  to 
f  urther  the  interests  of'the  game,  to  revise  the  laws  and  to  arrange 
the  important  matches,  especially  the  grand  match,  played 
annually  between  the  Scottish  clubs  north  of  the  Forth  &  Clyde 
Canal  and  those  south  of  it.  In  the  first  of  these  matches  (1847) 
only  twelve  "  rinks  "  were  played;  in  1903  there  were  no  fewer 
than  286.  During  this  time  the  southern  clubs  were  usually 
victorious.  Curlers  claim  to  be  a  united  brotherhood  within 
which  peer  and  peasant  are  equal "  on  the  ice."  To  the  same  end 
the  laws  of  the  club  are  framed  with  a  due  regard  to  economy, 
not  forgetting  conviviality  in  the  matter  of  "  beef  and  greens," 
the  curler's  traditional  dish,  washed  down  with  whisky.  A 
formal  freemasonry  exists  among  curlers,  who  must  be  initiated 
into  the  mysteries  and  instructed  in  the  grip,  password  and 
ceremony,  being  liable  at  any  moment  to  be  examined  in  these 
essentials  and  fined  for  lapses  of  memory.  Betting,  excepting 
for  the  smallest  stakes,  is  discountenanced. 

Glossary. — As  curling  has  a.language  which  contains  many  curious 
terms,  puzzling  to  the  uninitiated,  the  English  equivalents  of  some 
of  them  are  here  given.  Baugh  ice,  rough  or  soft  ice.  Bias,  a  slope 
on  the  ice.  Boardhead  (also  house  or  parish),  the  large  circle  round 
the  tee.  Bonspiel,  a  match  between  two  clubs.  Break  an  egg  on  a 
stone,  touch  it  very  slightly.  Broughs,  the  small  circles  round  the 
tee.  Chipping,  striking  a  stone  of  which  a  small  part  can  be  seen. 
Core,  old  name  for  rink.  Cowe  or  kowe,  a  besom  made  of  broom- 
twigs.  Draw,  to  play  gently.  Drive,  to  play  hard.  Drug  ice,  soft 
bad  ice.  Fill  the  port,  to  block  the  interval  between  two  stones. 
Gogsee,  tee.  Guard,  a  stone  that  covers  and  protects  another. 
Hack,  a  hollow  cut  in  the  ice  for  the  player's  foot,  used  in  place  of  a 
crampit.  Hands  up!  stop  sweeping.  Hog,  a  stone  that  stops  short 
of  the  hog-score,  a  line  drawn  one-sixth  of  the  length  of  the  rink  from 
the  tee.  Head,  an  innings,  both  sides  delivering  all  their  stones  once. 
Howe,  the  middle  of  the  rink,  gradually  hollowed  by  stones.  In- 
ringing,  gaining  a  good  position  by  rebounding  off  another  stone. 
In-wick,  the  same.  Lie  shot,  the  stone  resting  nearest  the  tee. 
Mar,  to  interfere  with  a  stone  while  running.  Out-Turn,  to  make  the 
stone  twist  to  the  left.  In-Turn,  to  make  one  turn  to  the  right. 
Out-wick,  to  strike  a  stone  on  the  edge  so  as  to  drive  it  towards  the 
tee.  Pat-lid,  a  stone  that  lies  on  the  tee.  Pittycock,  the  oldest  form 
of  curling-stone.  Raise,  to  drive  a  "  friendly  "  stone  nearer  the  tee. 
Rebut,  to  deliver  the  stone  with  great  force,  so  as  to  scatter  the  stones 
on  the  boardhead.  Red  the  ice,  clear  away  the  opponents'  stones. 
Rink,  the  space  in  which  the  game  is  played ;  also  the  members  of  a 
side.  Sole,  the  under  part  of  the  stone;  also  to  deliver  the  stone. 
Soop,  to  sweep.  Souter,  to  win  without  allowing  the  opponents  to 
score  at  all ;  a  term  derived  from  a  famous  team  of  cobblers  (souters) 
of  Lochmaben,  whose  opponents  seldom  or  never  scored  a  point. 
Spiel,  a  match  between  members  of  the  same  club.  Spend  the  stone, 
to  waste  a  shot  by  playing  wide  intentionally.  Slug,  a  fluke.  Tee, 
the  mark  in  the  centre  of  the  boardhead, against  which  it  is  the  curler's 
object  to  lay  the  stone.  The  tee  may  be  any  kind  of  a  mark ;  a  small 
iron  plate  with  a  spike  in  it  is  often  used.  Tozee,  tee.  Tramp, 
crampit,  trigger  or  tricker,  an  iron  plate  fitted  with  spikes  which  the 
player  stands  upon  to  deliver  the  stone.  Wittyr,  tee. 

The  Rink  and  Implements. — The  rink  is  marked  out  in  the  ice, 
which  should  be  very  hard  and  smooth,  in  curling  language 
"  keen  and  clear."  To  keep  it  swept  every  curler  carries  a  broom, 
sometimes  a  mere  bundle  of  broom-twigs,  more  often  an  ordinary 
housemaid's  broom.  Good  "  scoping,"  or  sweeping,  is  part  of 
the  curler's  art,  and  is  performed  subject  to  strict  rules  and  under 
the  direction  of  the  skip,  or  captain;  its  importance  lying  in  the 
fact  that  the  progress  of  a  stone  is  retarded  by  the  ice-dust  caused 
by  the  play,  the  sweeping  of  which  in  front  of  a  running  stone 
consequently  prolongs  its  course.  Apart  from  the  broom  and 
the  crampit,  the  "  roarin'  game,"  as  curlers  love  to  call  it, 
requires  no  further  implement  than  the  stone,  a  flattened, 
polished  disk,  fitted  with  a  handle.  In  weight  it  must  not 
exceed  44  ft>,*35  to  40  Ib  being  usual.  It  must  not  exceed  36  in. 
in  circumference  or  be  less  in  height  than  one-eighth  of  the 
circumference.  The  two  flat  sides,  or  soles,  are  so  shaped  that 


one  is  serviceable  for  keen  ice  and  the  other  for  ice  that  is  soft, 
rough  or  "  baugh."  The  handle  can  be  fitted  to  either  side,  as 
the  case  demands.  The  cost  of  a  pair  of  stones  is  not  less  than 
£2,  generally  more.  In  the  intense  cold  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States  iron  is  found  more  serviceable  than  stone,  and  the  irons 
weigh  from  60  to  70  Ib.  Even  these  are  light  compared  with  the 
earlier  rough  boulder-stones,  some  of  which  weighed  over  1 1 5  Ib, 
although  the  very  early  ones  were  much  lighter.  The  modern 
stone  took  shape  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century.  The 
ancient  stones  had  no  handles,  but  notches  were  hewn  in 
them  for  finger  and  thumb,  and,  as  their  weight  varied  from 
5  to  25  ft,  it  is  probable  that  they  were  thrown  after  the 
manner  of  quoits.  Channel-stones,  stones  rounded  by  the 
action  of  water  in  a  river-bed,  were  the  favourites,  while  the  shape 
was  a  matter  of  individual  taste,  oblong  and  triangular  stones 
having  been  common.  The  soles  were  artificially  flattened. 
During  the  next  period  we  find  the  heavy  boulder-stones,  un- 
hewn blocks  fitted  with  handles  and  probably  used  at  shorter 
distances,  70  or  80  ft  being  no  uncommon  weight.  The  rounded 
stone,  made  on  scientific  principles,  did  not  appear  until  about 
1800.  Even  then  it  was  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  with  and  without 
handles,  and  not  uncommonly  made  of  wood.  The  stones  of 
to-day  are  named  after  the  places  in  which  they  are  quarried, 
Ailsa  Craigs,  Burnocks,  Carsphairn  Reds  and  Crawfordjohns 
being  some  of  the  best-known  varieties.  The  stones  are  quarried 
and  never  blasted,  as  the  shock  of  the  explosion  is  apt  to  strain 
or  split  the  rock. 

The  Game. — Curling  is  practically  bowls  played  on  the  ice, 
the  place  of  the  "  jack  "  being  taken  by  a  fixed  mark,  as  at 
quoits,  called  the  tee,  to  which  the  curler  aims  his  stone;  every 
stone  that  finally  lies  nearer  than  any  of  the  opposing  stones 
counting  a  point  or  "  shot."  As  each  side  has  four  players,  each 
playing  two  stones,  it  is  possible  for  one  side  to  score  eight  points 
at  a  "  head  "  or  innings;  but  in  practice  it  is  found  wiser,  when 
a  good  shot  has  been  made,  to  play  some  or  all  following  stones 
to  such  positions  as  will  prevent  opposing  stones  from  disturbing 
the  stone  lying  near  the  tee.  Stones  thus  placed  are  called 
"  guards."  Strategic  matters  like  this  are  decided  by  the  skip, 
or  captain,  of  the  rink,  who  plays  last,  and  who  is  an  autocrat 
whose  will  is  law.  The  "  lead,"  or  first  player,  is  expected  to 
play  quietly  up  the  rink,  leaving  his  stone  as  close  to  the  tee  as 
possible,  but  on  no  account  beyond  it.  He  is  followed  by  the 
"  lead  "  of  the  other  side,  who,  instructed  by  his  skip,  will  either 
try  to  drive  away  the  first  stone,  if  well  placed,  or  put  his  own 
stone  in  a  better  position.  When  the  skip's  turn  comes  he  is 
"  skipped,"  or  directed,  by  another  player,  appointed  by  himself, 
usually  the  third  player.  When  all  sixteen  stones  have  been 
delivered  the  players  cross  over,  the  scores  are  counted,  and  the 
game  proceeds  from  the  other  end  of  the  rink.  If  a  stone  fails 
to  cross  the  "hog-score"  it  is  a  "hog"  and  is  removed  from 
the  rink,  unless  it  has  struck  another  stone  in  position.  Stones 
that  pass  the  back-score  or  touch  the  swept  snow  on  either  side 
are  also  removed.  By  a  cleverly  imparted  twist  a  stone  may  be 
made  to  curve  round  a  guard  and  either  drive  away  an  opposing 
winner  or  find  a  favourable  lie  for  itself.  This,  the  equivalent 
of  "  bias  "  in  the  game  of  bowls,  is  the  height  of  scientific  play. 
If  the  situation  seems  desperate  a  very  hard  throw,  a  "  thunderin" 
cast,"  may  succeed  in  clearing  away  the  opponents'  stones  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  tee.  Different  methods  are  adopted 
in  delivering  the  stone,  but  in  all  of  them  a  firm  stand  should 
be  taken  on  the  crampit,  and  the  stone  swung,  either  quietly  ,  or, 
if  the  skip  calls  for  a  "  thunderin'  cast,"  vigorously;  but  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  striking  the  ice  with  the  stone  so  as  to 
crack  or  "  star  "  the  ice.  All  matches  are  for  a  certain  number 
of  "  heads  "  or  of  points,  or  for  all  that  can  be  made  within  a 
certain  time  limit,  as  may  be  agreed. 

Abridged  Rules. — Tees  shall  be  38  yds.  apart,  and  with  the  tee  as 
centre  a  circle  having  a  radius  of  7  ft.  shall  be  drawn.  In  alignment 
with  the  tees,  lines,  to  be  called  Central  Lines,  are  drawn  from  the  tees 
to  points  4  yds.  behind  each  tee,  and  at  these  points  Foot  Scores 
18  in.  long  shall  be  drawn  at  right  angles,  on  which,  at  6  in.  from 
Central  Line,  the  heel  of  the  Crampit  shall  be  placed.  All  matches 
shall  be  of  a  certain  number  of  heads,  or  shots,  or  by  time,  as  agreed. 


CURLL— CURRAN 


647 


Every  rink  of  players  shall  be  composed  of  four  a  side.     No  shoes 
likely  to  break  the  ice  may  be  worn. 

The  skips  opposing  each  other  shall  settle  by  lot,  or  in  any  other 
way  they  may  agree  upon,  which  party  shall  lead  at  the  first  head, 
after  which  the  winning  party  shall  do  so. 

All  curling  stones  shall  be  of  a  circular  shape.  No  stone  shall  be 
of  a  greater  weight  than  44  Ib  imperial,  or  of  greater  circumference 
than  36  in.,  or  of  less  height  thin  one-eighth  part  of  its  greatest 
circumference. 

No  stone,  or  side  of  a  stone,  shall  be  changed  after  a  match  has 
been  begun,  or  during  its  continuance,  unless  by  consent. 

Should  a  stone  happen  to  be  broken,  the  largest  fragment  shall  be 
considered  in  the  game  for  that  end — the  player  being  entitled  after- 
wards to  use  another  stone  or  another  pair. 

If  a  played  stone  rolls  over,  or  stops,  on  its  side  or  top,  it  shall 
be  put  off  the  ice.  Should  the  handle  quit  the  stone  in  delivery, 
the  player  must  keep  hold  of  it,  otherwise  he  shall  not  be  entitled  to 
replay  the  shot. 

Players,  during  the  course  of  each  end,  to  be  arranged  along  the 
sides  of  the  rink,  anywhere  skips  may  direct ;  and  no  party,  except 
when  sweeping  according  to  rule,  shall  go  upon  the  middle  of  the 
rink,  or  cross  it,  under  any  pretence  whatever.  Skips  alone  to  stand 
at  or  about  the  tee — that  of  the  playing  party  having  the  choice  of 
place,  and  not  to  be  obstructed  by  the  other. 

If  a  player  should  play  out  of  turn,  the  stone  so  played  may 
be  stopped  in  its  progress,  and  returned  to  the  player.  Should  the 
mistake  not  be  discovered  till  the  stone  be  at  rest,  or  has  struck 
another  stone,  the  opposite  skip  shall  have  the  option  of  adding 
one  to  his  score,  allowing  the  game  to  proceed,  or  declaring  the 
end  null  and  void.  But  if  a  stone  be  played  before  the  mistake  has 
been  discovered,  the  head  must  be  finished  as  if  it  had  been  properly 
played  from  the  beginning. 

The  sweeping  shall  be  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the 
skips.  The  player's  party  may  sweep  the  ice  anywhere  from  the 
centre  line  to  the  tee,  and  behind  it,- — the  adverse  party  having 
liberty  to  sweep  behind  the  tee,  and  in  front  of  any  of  their  own 
stones  when  moved  by  another,  and  till  at  rest.  Skips  to  have  full 
liberty  to  clean  and  sweep  the  ice  behind  the  tee  at  any  time,  except 
when  a  player  is  being  directed  by  his  skip. 

If  in  sweeping  or  otherwise,  a  running  stone  be  marred  by  any 
of  the  party  to  which  it  belongs,  it  may,  at  the  option  of  the  opposite 
skip,  be  put  off  the  ice;  if  by  any  of  the  adverse  party,  it  may  be 
placed  where  the  skip  of  the  party  to  which  it  belongs  shall  direct. 
If  otherwise  marred,  it  shall  be  replayed. 

Every  player  to  be  ready  to  play  when  his  turn  comes,  and  not 
to  take  more  than  a  reasonable  time  to  play.  Should  he  play  a 
wrong  stone,  any  of  the  players  may  stop  it  while  running;  but  if 
not  stopped  till  at  rest,  the  one  which  ought  to  have  been  played 
shall  be  placed  instead,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  opposing  skip. 

No  measuring  of  shots  allowable  previous  to  the  termination 
of  the  end.  Disputed  shots  to  be  determined  by  the  skips,  or,  if 
they  disagree,  by  the  umpire,  or,  when  there  is  no  umpire,  by  some 
neutral  person  chosen  by  the  skips.  All  measurements  to  be  taken 
from  the  centre  of  the  tee,  to  that  part  of  the  stone  which  is  nearest 
it.  No  stone  shall  be  considered  without  a  circle,  or  over  a  line,, 
unless  it  clear  it; — and  in  every  case,  this  is  to  be  determined  by 
placing  a  square  on  the  ice,  at  the  circle  or  line. 

Skips  shall  have  the  exclusive  regulation  and  direction  of  the 
game  for  their  respective  parties,  and  may  play  last  stone,  or  in 
what  part  of  it  they  please ;  and,  when  their  turn  to  play  comes,  they 
may  name  one  of  their  party  to  take  charge  for  them. 

If  any  player  shall  speak  to,  taunt  or  interrupt  another,  not 
being  of  his  own  party,  while  in  the  act  of  delivering  his  stone,  one 
shot  shall  be  added  to  the  score  of  the  party  so  interrupted. 

If  from  any  change  of  weather  after  a  match  has  been  begun, 
or  from  any  other  reasonable  cause,  one  party  shall  desire  to  shorten 
the  rink,  or  to  change  to  another  one,  and,  if  the  two  skips  cannot 
agree,  the  umpire  shall,  after  seeing  one  end  played,  determine 
whether  the  rink  shall  be  shortened,  and  how  much  or  whether  it 
shall  be  changed,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final. 

See  Annual  of  the  Royal  Caledonian  Curling  Club,  Edinburgh. 

CURLL,  EDMUND  (1675-1747),  English  bookseller,  was  born 
in  1675  in  the  west  of  England.  His  parents  were  in  humble 
circumstances.  After  being  apprenticed  to  an  Exeter  bookseller 
he  came  to  London  and  started  business  on  his  own  account, 
advertising  himself  by  a  system  of  newspaper  quarrels.  His 
connexion  with  the  anonymously-published  Court  Poems  in  1716 
led  to  the  long  quarrel  with  Pope,  who  took  his  revenge  by 
immortalizing  Curll  in  the  Dunciad.  Curll  became  notorious 
for  his  indecent  publications,  so  much  so  that  "  Curlicism  "  was 
regarded  as  a  synonym  for  literary  indecency.  In  1 716  and  again 
in  1721  he  had  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords  for 
publishing  matter  concerning  its  members.  In  1725  he  was  con- 
victed of  publishing  obscene  books,  and  fined  in  1 7  28  f  orpublishing 
The  Nun  in  her  Smock  and  De  Usu  Flagrorum,  while  his  Memories 


of  John  Ker  of  Kersland  cost  him  an  hour  in  the  pillory.  When 
Curll  in  1735  announced  the  forthcoming  publication  of  "  M r 
Pope's  Literary  Correspondence,"  his  stock,  at  Pope's  instigation, 
was  seized.  It  hassince  been  proved  that  the  publication  was  really 
instigated  by  Pope,  who  wanted  an  excuse  to  print  his  letters, 
as  he  actually  did  (1737-1 741).  Inhisfortyyearsof  business  Curll 
published  a  great  variety  of  books,  of  which  a  very  large  number, 
fortunately,  were  quite  free  from  "  Curlicisms."  A  list  of  his 
publications  contains,  indeed,  167  standard  wirks.  He  died 
on  the  nth  of  December  1747. 

For  Curll's  relations  with  Pope,  see  the  Life  of  Pope,  by  Sir  Leslie 
Stephen  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series. 

CURRAGH,  a  level  stretch  of  open  ground  in  Co.  Kildare, 
Ireland,  famous  for  its  race-course  and  its  military  camp.  It 
has  an  area  of  upwards  of  4800  acres;  and  its  soft  natural 
sward,  which  has  never  been  broken  by  the  plough,  affords 
excellent  pasture  for  sheep.  From  the  peculiarity  of  its  herbage, 
the  district  is  known  in  the  neighbourhood  as  "  the  short  grass  "; 
and  the  young  men  of  Kildare  are  jocularly  distinguished  as 
the  "  boys  of  the  short  grass."  The  land  is  the  property  of  the 
crown,  which  appoints  a  special  officer  as  the  ranger  of  the 
Curragh;  but  the  right  of  pasturage  is  possessed  by  the  land- 
owners of  the  vicinity.  The  oldest  mention  of  the  Curragh 
occurs  in  the  Liber  Hymnorum  (the  manuscript  of  which  probably 
dates  from  the  loth  century)  in  connexion  with  S(>  Bridget, 
who  is  said  to  have  received  a  grant  of  the  district  from  the  king 
of  Leinster,  and  is  popularly  credited  with  the  honour  of  having 
turned  it  into  a  common.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  long  before 
the  days  of  the  saint  the  downs  of  Kildare  had  afforded  a  regular 
place  of  assembly  for  the  people  of  the  south  of  Ireland.  The 
word  cuirrech,  cognate  with  the  Lat.  cursus,  signifies  a  race- 
course, and  chariot-races  are  spoken  of  as  taking  place  on  the 
Curragh  as  early  as  the  ist  century  A.D.  The  Aenach  Colmain 
(Curragh  fair),  also  called  Aenach  Life  (the  fair  on  the  plain  of 
the  Liffey),  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Irish  annals,  and  both 
racing  and  other  sports  were  carried  on  at  this,  the  principal 
meeting  of  its  kind  in  southern  Ireland,  and  the  plain  appears 
from  time  to  time  as  the  scene  of  hostile  encounters  between  the 
kings  of  Meath,  Leinster  and  Offaly.  In  1234  the  earl  of  Pem- 
broke was  defeated  here  by  the  viceroy  of  Ireland,  Lord  Geoffrey 
de  Monte  Marisco;  and  in  1406  the  Irish  under  the  prior  of 
Connell  were  routed  by  the  English.  In  1789  the  Curragh  was 
the  great  rendezvous  for  the  volunteers,  and  in  1804  it  saw  the 
gathering  of  30,000  United  Irishmen.  The  camp  was  established 
at  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War,  and  is  capable  of  accommodating 
12,000  men.  The  races  are  held  in  April,  June,  September  and 
October. 

See  W.  M.  Hennessy,  in  Proceedings  of  Royal  Irish  Acad.,  1866. 

CURRAN,  JOHN  PHILPOT  (1750-1817),  Irish  politician  and 
judge,  was  born  on  the  24th  of  July  1750,  at  Newmarket,  Cork, 
where  his  father,  a  descendant  of  one  of  Cromwell's  soldiers, 
was  seneschal  to  the  manor-court.  He  was  educated  at  Middle- 
ton,  through  the  kind  help  of  a  friend,  the  Rev.  Nathaniel  Boyse, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  and  in  1773,  having  taken  his 
M.  A.  degree,  he  entered  the  Middle  Temple.  Ini774he  married 
a  lady  who  brought  him  a  small  dowry;  but  the  marriage  proved 
unhappy,  and  Mrs  Curran  finally  eloped  from  her  husband. 

In  1775  Curran  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar,  where  he  very  soon 
obtained  a  practice.  On  his  first  rising  in  court  excessive  nervous- 
ness prevented  him  from  even  reading  distinctly  the  few  words 
of  a  legal  form,  and  when  requested  by  the  judge  to  read  more 
clearly  he  became  so  agitated  as  to  be  totally  unable  to  proceed. 
But,  his  feelings  once  roused,  all  nervousness  disappeared. 
His  effective  and  witty  attack  upon  a  judge  who  had  sneered  at 
his  poverty,  the  success  with  which  he  prosecuted  a  nobleman  for 
a  disgraceful  assault  upon  a  priest,  the  duel  which  he  fought 
with  one  of  the  witnesses  for  this  nobleman,  and  other  similar 
exploits,  gained  him  such  a  reputation  that  he  was  soon  the  most 
popular  advocate  in  Ireland. 

In  1783  Cilrran  was  appointed  king's  counsel;  and  in  the  same 
year  he  was  presented  to  a  seat  in  the  Irish  House  of  Commons. 
His  conduct  in  connexion  with  this  affair  displays  his  conduct- 


648 


CURRANT— CURRICLE 


in  a  most  honourable  light ;  finding  that  he  differed  radically  in 
politics  from  the  gentleman  from  whom  he  had  received  his  seat, 
he  expended  £1500  in  buying  another  to  replace  that  which  he 
occupied.  In  his  parliamentary  career  Curran  was  throughout 
sincere  and  consistent.  He  spoke  vigorously  on  behalf  of 
Catholic  emancipation,  and  strenuously  attacked  the  ministerial 
bribery  which  prevailed.  His  declamations  against  the  govern- 
ment party  led  him  into  two  duels — the  first  with  John  Fitz- 
gibbon,  then  attorney-general,  afterwards  Lord  Clare;  the 
second  with  tne  secretary  of  state,  Major  Hobart,  afterwards 
earl  of  Buckinghamshire.  The  Union  caused  him  the  bitterest 
disappointment;  he  even  talked  of  leaving  Ireland,  either  for 
America  or  for  England. 

Curran's  fame  rests  most  of  all  upon  his  speeches  on  behalf 
of  the  accused  in  the  state  trials  that  were  so  numerous  between 
1794  and  1803;  and  among  them  may  be  mentioned  those 
in  defence  of  Hamilton  Rowan,  the  Rev.  William  Jackson,  the 
brothers  John  and  Henry  Sheares,  Peter  Finnerty,  Lord  Edward 
Fitzgerald,  Wolfe  Tone  and  Owen  Kirwan.  Another  of  his 
most  famous  and  characteristic  speeches  is  that  against  the 
marquis  of  Headfort,  who  had  eloped  with  the  wife  of  a  clergyman 
named  Massey.  On  the  arrest  of  Robert  Emmet,  who  had  formed 
an  attachment  to  his  daughter,  Curran  was  himself  under 
suspicion;  but,  on  examination  before  the  privy  council,  nothing 
was  brought  forward  to  implicate  him  in  the  intended  rebellion. 

In  1806,  on  the  death  of  Pitt  and  the  formation  of  the  Fox 
ministry,  Curran  received  the  post  of  master  of  the  rolls,  with  a 
seat  in  the  privy  council,  much  to  his  disappointment,  for  he 
had  desired  a  position  of  greater  political  influence.  For  eight 
years,  however,  he  held  this  office.  He  then  retired  on  a  pension 
of  £3000 ;  and  the  three  remaining  years  of  his  life  were  spent 
in  London,  where  he  became  one  of  the  most  brilliant  members 
of  the  society  which  included  Sheridan,  Erskine,  Thomas  Moore, 
and  William  Godwin.  He  died  at  his  house  in  Brompton  on 
the  I4th  of  October  1817. 

Curran's  legal  erudition  was  never  profound;  and  though  he 
was  capable  of  the  most  ingenious  pleading,  his  appeal  was 
always  to  the  emotions  of  his  audience.  His  best  speeches  are 
one  fiery  torrent  of  invective,  pathos,  national  feeling  and  wit. 
His  diction  was  lofty  and  sonorous.  He  was,  too,  a  most  brilliant 
wit  and  of  wonderful  quickness  in  repartee.  To  his  personal' 
presence  he  owed  nothing;  for  he  was  short,  slim  and  boyish- 
looking,  and  his  voice  was  thin  and  shrill. 

See  Curran  and  his  Contemporaries,  a  most  entertaining  work,  by 
Charles  Phillips,  a  personal  friend. of  Curran's  (l8l8),and  the  Life 
of  Curran,  by  his  son,  W.  H.  Curran  (1819),  and  with  additions  by 
Dr  Shelton  Mackenzie,  New  York,  1855),  both  of  which  contain 
numerous  samples  of  Curran's  eloquence.  See  also  Curran's  Speeches 
(1805,  1808,  1845);  Memoirs  of  Curran,  by  Wm.  O'Regan  (1817); 
Letters  to  Rev.  H.  Weston  (1819);  T.  Moore's  Memoirs  (1853). 

CURRANT,  (i)  The  dried  seedless  fruit  of  a  variety  of  the 
grape-vine,  Vitis  mnifera,  cultivated  principally  in  Zante, 
Cephalonia  and  Ithaca,  and  near  Patras,  in  the  Morea  (see 
GREECE).  Currants  were  brought  originally  from  Corinth, 
whence  their  name;  in  the  I3th  and  i4th  centuries  they  were 
known  as  raisins  de  Corauntz.  In  the  Ionian  Islands  the  currant- 
vine  is  grown  on  the  sides  of  the  lower  hills,  or  in  the  valleys, 
the  grape-vine  occupying  the  higher  and  less  open  and  rich 
ground.  Gypseous  marls,  or  calcareous  marls  containing  a 
little  gypsum,  are  preferred  to  limestone  soils,  as  they  allow  of 
deep  penetration  of  the  roots  of  the  vines.  The  most  favourable 
situations  are  those  where  a  good  supply  of  water  can  be  obtained 
for  the  irrigation  of  the  plantations.  This  is  carried  on  from  the 
end  of  October  to  the  close  of  the  year,  after  which  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  Iceep  the  ground  moist.  The  vines  are  planted  in 
rows  3  or  4  ft.  apart.  Propagation  is  effected  by  grafting  on 
stocks  of  the  grape-vine,  or  by  planting  out  in  spring  the  young, 
vigorous  shoots  obtained  at  the  end  of  the  previous  year  from 
old  currant-vines  that  have  been  cut  away  below  the  ground. 
The  grafts  bear  fruit  in  three  years,  the  slips  in  about  double 
that  time.  The  vine  stock  for  grafting  is  cut  down  to  the  depth 
of  a  foot  below  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  two  or  three  perpendicular 
incisions  are  made  near  the  bark  with  a  chisel;  and  into  these 


are  inserted  shoots  of  the  last  year's  growth.  The  engrafted  part 
then  receives  an  application  of  moist  marls,  is  wrapped  in  leaves 
and  bound  with  rushes,  and  is  covered  with  earth,  two  or  three 
eyes  of  the  shoots  being  left  projecting  above  ground.  In 
December  the  currant  plantations  are  cleared  of  dead  and  weak 
wood.  In  February  the  branches  are  cut  back,  and  pruned 
of  median  shoots,  which  are  said  to  prevent  the  lateral  ones  pro- 
ceeding from  the  same  bud  from  bearing  fruit.  In  order  effectu- 
ally to  water  the  trees,  the  earth  round  about  them  is  in  February 
and  March  hoed  up  so  as  to  leave  them  in  a  kind  of  basin,  or  is 
piled  up  against  their  stems.  In  March,  when  the  leaves  begin 
to  show,  the  ground  is  thoroughly  turned,  and  if  requisite 
manured,  and  is  then  re-levelled.  By  the  middle  of  April  the 
leaves  are  fully  out,  and  in  June  it  is  necessary  to  break  back 
the  newly-formed  shoots.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  in  July, 
and  in  the  next  month  the  vintage  takes  place.  At  this  season 
rain  is  greatly  dreaded,  as  it  always  damages  and  may  even 
destroy  the  ripe  fruit.  The  plantations,  which  are  commonly 
much  exposed,  are  watched  by  dogs  and  armed  men.  In  Cepha- 
lonia the  currant-grape  is  said  to  ripen  at  least  a  week  earlier 
than  in  Zante.  To  destroy  the  oidium,  a  fungal  pest  that  severely 
injures  the  plantations,  the  vines  are  dusted,  at  the  time  the  fruit 
is  maturing,  with  finely-ground  brimstone.  The  currants  when 
sufficiently  ripe  are  gathered  and  placed  on  a  drying  ground, 
where  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  in  layers  half  an  inch  thick; 
from  time  to  time  they  are  turned  and  swept  into  heaps,  until  they 
become  entirely  detached  from  stalk.  They  are  then  packed 
in  large  butts  for  exportation.  The  wine  made  from  the  currant- 
grape  is  inferior  in  quality,  but  is  said  to  be  capable  of  much 
improvement.  The  fresh  fruit  is  luscious  and  highly  flavoured, 
but  soon  cloys  the  palate. 

(2)  The  currants  of  British  kitchen-gardens — so  called  from 
a  resemblance  to  the  foregoing — are  the  produce  of  Ribes  nigrum 
and  R.  rubnim,  deciduous  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Ribesiaceae, 
indigenous  to  Britain,  northern  and  central  Europe,  Siberia  and 
Canada.  The  former  species  bears  the  black,  the  latter  the  red 
currant.  White  currants  are  the  fruit  of  a  cultivated  variety 
of  R.  rubrum.  Both  red  and  black  currants  are  used  for  making 
tarts  and  pies,  jams,  jellies  and  wine;  the  latter  are  also  employed 
in  lozenges,  popularly  supposed  to  be  of  value  in  relieving  a 
sore  throat,  are  occasionally  preserved  in  spirits,  and  in  Russia 
are  fermented  with  honey  to  produce  a  strong  liquor. 

Currants  will  flourish  in  any  fairly  good  soil,  but  to  obtain 
large  crops  and  fine  fruit  a  good  rich  loam  is  desirable;  with  an 
annual  dressing  of  farmyard  manure  or  cowdung,  after  the  winter 
pruning,  for  established  trees.  The  plants  are  best  propagated 
by  cuttings,  which  should  consist  of  strong  well-ripened  young 
snoots  taken  off  close  to  the  old  wood.  These  should  be  planted 
as  soon  as  possible  after  the  wood  is  matured  in  autumn  about 
6  in.  apart.  The  plants  are  grown  with  the  best  results  as  bushes, 
but  may  also  be  trained  against  a  wall  or  trellis.  In  the  matter 
of  pruning  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  red  and  white  currants 
form  their  fruit  buds  on  wood  two  to  three  years  old,  and  the 
main  shoots  and  side  branches  may  therefore  be  cut  back.  Black 
currants  on  the  other  hand  form  fruit  buds  on  the  new  wood  of  the 
previous  year,  hence  the  old  wood  should  be  cut  away  and  the 
young  left. 

The  black  currant  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  mite, 
Phytoplus  ribis,  which  destroys  the  unopened  buds.  The  buds, 
when  attacked,  recognized  by  their  swollen  appearance,  should 
be  picked  off  and  burned.  The  attacks  of  the  caterpillars  of 
the  gooseberry  and  other  moths  may  be  met  by  dusting  the 
bushes  with  lime  and  soot  when  the  plants  are  moist  with  dew 
or  after  syringing. 

The  following  forms  are  recommended  for  cultivation: — 
Black:  Lee's  Prolific,  Baldwin's  or  Carter's  Champion  and 
Black  Naples;  Red:  Cherry,  Raby  Castle,  Red  Dutch  and 
Comet;  White:  White  Dutch.  A  kind  of  black  currant  (Ribes 
magellanicum) ,  bearing  poor  and  acid  fruit,  is  indigenous  to 
Tierra  del  Fuego. 

CURRICLE  (Lat.  curriculum,  a  small  car),  a  light  two-wheeled 
vehicle,  generally  for  driving  with  two  horses. 


CURRIE,  SIR  DONALD— CURSOR 


649 


CURRIE,  SIR  DONALD  (1825-1909),  British  shipowner, 
was  born  at  Greenock  on  the  i?th  of  September  1825.  At  a 
very  early  age  he  was  employed  in  the  office  of  a  shipowner  in 
that  port,  but  at  the  age  of  eighteen  left  Scotland  for  Liverpool, 
where  shipping  business  offered  more  scope.  By  a  fortunate 
chance  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  chief  partner  in  the  newly 
started  Cunard  steamship  line,  who  found  him  a  post  in  that 
company.  In  1849  the  Cunard  Company  started  a  service 
between  Havre  and  Liverpool  to  connect  with  their  transatlantic 
service.  Currie  was  appointed  Cunard  agent  at  Havre  and  Paris, 
and  secured  for  his  firm  a  large  share  of  the  freight  traffic  between 
France  and  the  United  States.  About  1856  he  returned  to  Liver- 
pool, where  till  1862  he  held  an  important  position  at  the  Cunard 
Company's  headquarters.  In  1862  he  determined  to  strike  out 
for  himself,  and  leaving  the  Cunard  established  the  "  Castle  " 
line  of  sailing-ships  between  Liverpool  and  Calcutta.  Business 
prospered,  but  in  1864  Currie  found  it  profitable  to  substitute 
London  for  Liverpool  as  the  home  port  of  his  vessels,  and  himself 
settled  in  London.  In  1872  he  came  to  the  conclusion,  after  a 
careful  study  of  all  the  circumstances,  that  the  development  of 
Cape  Colony  justified  the  starting  of  a  new  line  of  steamers 
between  England  and  South  Africa.  The  result  of  this  decision 
was  the  founding  of  the  successful  Castle  line  of  steamers  (see 
under  STEAMSHIP  LINES),  which  after  1876  divided  the  South 
African  mail  contract  with  the  older  Union  line,  and  was  finally 
amalgamated  with  the  latter  under  the  title  Union  Castle  line 
in  1900.  Currie's  intimate  knowledge  of  South  African  condi- 
tions and  persons  was  on  several  occasions  of  material  service  to 
the  British  government.  His  acquaintance  with  Sir  John  Brand, 
the  president  of  what  was  then  the  Orange  Free  State,  caused  him 
to  be  entrusted  by  the  home  government  with  the  negotiations 
in  the  dispute  concerning  the  ownership  of  the  Kimberley 
diamond-fields,  which  were  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion. 
He  introduced  the  two  Transvaal  deputations  which  came  to 
England  in  1877  and  1878  to  protest  against  annexation,  and 
though  his  suggestions  for  a  settlement  were  disregarded  by  the 
government  of  the  day,  the  terms  on  which  the  Transvaal  was 
subsequently  restored  to  the  Boers  agreed,  in  essentials,  with 
those  he  had  advised.  The  first  news  of  the  disaster  of  Isandhl- 
wana  in  the  Zulu  War  was  given  to  the  home  government  through 
his  agency.  At  that  time  there  was  no  cable  between  England 
and  South  Africa,  and  the  news  was  sent  by  a  Castle  liner  to 
St  Vincent,  and  telegraphed  thence  to  Currie.  At  the  same 
time  by  diverting  his  outward  mail-boat  then  at  sea  from  its 
ordinary  course  to  St  Vincent,  he  enabled  the  government  to 
telegraph  immediate  instructions  to  that  island  for  conveyance 
thence  by  the  mail,  thus  saving  serious  delay,  and  preventing  the 
annihilation  of  the  British  garrison  at  Eshowe.  The  present 
arrangement  under  which  the  British  admiralty  is  enabled  to 
utilize  certain  fast  steamers  of  the  mercantile  marine  as  armed 
cruisers  in  war-time  was  suggested  and  strongly  urged  by  Currie 
in  1880.  In  the  same  year  he  was  returned  to  parliament  as 
Liberal  member  for  Perthshire,  but,  though  a  strong  personal 
friend  of  W.E.  Gladstone,  he  was  unable  to  follow  that  statesman 
on  the  Home  Rule  question,  and  from  1885  to  1900  he  represented 
West  Perthshire  as  a  Unionist.  In  1881  his  services  in  connexion 
with  the  Zulu  War  were  rewarded  with  knighthood,  and  in  1897 
he  was  created  G.C.M.G.  He  died  at  Sidmouth  on  the  I3th  of 
April  1909. 

CURRIE,  JAMES  (1756-1805),  Scottish  physician  and  editor 
of  Burns,  son  of  the  minister  of  Kirkpatrick-Fleming,  in  Dumfries- 
shire, was  born  there  on  the  3ist  of  May  1756.  Attracted  by 
the  stories  of  prosperity  in  America  he  went  in  1771  to  Virginia, 
where  he  spent  five  hard  years,  much  of  the  time  ill  and  always 
in  unprofitable  commercial  business.  The  outbreak  of  war  be- 
tween the  Colonies  and  England  ended  any  further  chance  of 
success,  and  sailing  for  home  in  the  spring  of  1776  after  many 
delays  he  reached  England  a  year  later.  He  then  proceeded  to 
study  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  after  taking  his  degree  at 
Glasgow  he  settled  at  Liverpool  in  1 780,  where  three  years  later 
he  became  physician  to  the  infirmary.  He  died  at  Sidmouth 
on  the  3ist  of  August  1805.  Among  other  pamphlets  Currie 


was  the  author  of  Medical  Reports  on  the  Effects  of  Water,  Cold 
and  Warm,  as  a  Remedy  in  Fevers  and  Febrile  Diseases  (1797), 
which  had  some  influence  in  promoting  the  use  of  cold  water 
affusion,  and  contains  the  first  systematic  record  in  English 
of  clinical  observations  with  the  thermometer.  But  he  is 
best  known  for  his  edition  (1800),  long  regarded  as  the 
standard,  of  Robert  Burns,  which  he  undertook  in  behalf  of 
the  family  of  the  poet.  It  contained  an  introductory  criticism 
and  an  essay  on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  Scottish 
peasantry. 

See  the  Memoir  by  W.  W.  Currie,  his  son  (1831). 

CURRY,  (i)  (Through  the  O.  Fr.  cornier,  from  Late  Lat. 
conredare,  to  make  ready,  prepare;  a  later  form  of  the  French 
is  courroyer,  and  modern  French  is  corroyer),  to  dress  a  horse  by 
rubbing  down  and  grooming  with  a  comb;  to  dress  and  prepare 
leather  already  tanned.  The  currier  pares  off  roughnesses  and 
inequalities,  makes  the  leather  soft  and  pliable,  and  gives  it  the 
necessary  surface  and  colour  (see  LEATHER)  .  The  word  "  currier," 
though  early  confused  in  origin  with  "  to  curry,"  is  derived  from 
the  Late  Lat.  coriarius,  a  leather  dresser,  from  corium,  hide. 
The  phrase  "  to  curry  favour,"  to  flatter  or  cajole,  is  a  i6th 
century  corruption  of  "  to  curry  favel,"  i.e.  a  chestnut  horse. 
This  older  phrase  is  an  adaptation  of  an  Old  French  proverbial 
expression  estriller  fauvel,  and  is  paralleled  in  German  by  the 
similar  den  fahlen  Hengst  slreichen.  A  chestnut  or  fallow  horse 
seems  to  have  been  taken  as  typical  of  deceit  and  trickery,  at 
least  since  the  appearance  of  a  French  satirical  beast  romance 
the  Roman  de  fauvel  (1310),  the  hero  of  which  is  a  counterpart  of 
Reynard  the  Fox  (q.v.). 

(2)  A  name  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  seasoned  dishes, 
especially  those  of  Indian  origin.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Tamil  kari,  a  sauce  or  relish  for  rice.  In  the  East,  where  the 
staple  food  of  the  people  consists  of  a  dish  of  rice,  wheaten  cakes, 
or  some  other  cereal,  some  kind  of  relish  is  required  to  lend 
attraction  to  this  insipid  food;  and  that  is  the  special  office  of 
curry.  In  India  the  following  are  employed  as  ingredients  in 
curries:  anise,  coriander,  cumin,  mustard  and  poppy  seeds; 
allspice,  almonds,  assafoetida,  butter  or  ghee,  cardamoms, 
chillies,  cinnamon,  cloves,  cocoa-nut  and  cocoanut  milk  and 
oil,  cream  and  curds,  fenugreek,  the  tender  unripe  fruit  of 
Buchanania  lancifolia,  cheroonjie  nuts  (the  produce  of  another 
species,  B.  latifolia),  garlic  and  onions,  ginger,  lime-juice, 
vinegar,  the  leaves  of  Bergera  Koenigii  (the  curry-leaf  tree), 
mace,  mangoes,  nutmeg,  pepper,  saffron,  salt,  tamarinds  and 
turmeric. 

The  cumin  and  coriander  seeds  are  generally  used  roasted. 
The  various  materials  are  cleaned,  dried,  ground,  sifted, 
thoroughly  mixed  and  bottled.  In  the  East  the  spices  are  ground 
freshly  every  day,  which  gives  the  Indian  curry  its  superiority 
in  flavour  over  dishes  prepared  with  the  curry-powders  of  the 
European  market. 

CURSOR,  LUCIUS  PAPIRIUS,  Roman  general,  five  times 
consul  and  twice  dictator.  In  325  he  was  appointed  dictator  to 
carry  on  the  second  Samnite  War.  His  quarrel  with  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus  Rullianus,  his  magister  equilum,  is  well  known.  The 
latter  had  engaged  the  enemy  against  the  orders  of  Cursor,  by 
whom  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and  only  the  intercession  of 
his  father,  the  senate  and  the  people,  saved  his  life.  Cursor 
treated  his  soldiers  with  such  harshness  that  they  allowed 
themselves  to  be  defeated;  but  after  he  had  regained  their 
good-will  by  more  lenient  treatment  and  lavish  promises  of  booty, 
they  fought  with  enthusiasm  and  gained  a  complete  victory. 
After  the  disaster  of  the  Caudine  Forks,  Cursor  to  some  extent 
wiped  out  the  disgrace  by  compelling  Luceria  (which  had  re- 
volted) to  surrender.  He  delivered  the  Roman  hostages  who 
were  held  in  captivity  in  the  town,  recovered  the  standards 
lost  at  Caudium,  and  made  7000  of  the  enemy  pass  under  the 
yoke.  In  309,  when  the  Samnites  again  rose,  Cursor  was 
appointed  dictator  for  the  second  time,  and  gained  a  decisive 
victory  at  Longula,  in  honour  of  which  he  celebrated  a  magnifi- 
cent triumph.  Cursor's  strictness  was  proverbial;  he  was 
a  man  of  immense  bodily  strength,  while  his  bravery  was 


650 


CURSOR  MUNDI— CURTEA  DE  ARGESH 


beyond  dispute.     He  was  surnamed  Cursor  from  his  swifthess 
of  foot. 

Livy  viii.,  ix. ;  Aurelius  Victor,  De  viris  Ulustribus,  31;  Eutro- 
pius  ii.  8.  9. 

His  son  of  the  same  name,  also  a  distinguished  general,  com- 
pleted the  subjection  of  Samnium  (272).  He  set  up  a  sun-dial, 
the  first  of  its  kind  in  Rome,  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus. 

Livy  x.  39-47 ;  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.,  vii.  60. 

CURSOR  MUNDI,  an  English  poem  in  the  Northern 
dialect  dating  from  the  i$th  century.  It  is  a  religious  epic  of 
24,000  lines  "  over-running  "  the  history  of  the  world  as  related 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  "  Cursur  o  werld  man  aght 
it  call,  For  almast  it  over-rennes  all."  The  author  explains  in 
his  prologue  his  reasons  for  undertaking  the  work.  Men  desire 
to  read  old  romances  of  Alexander,  Julius  Caesar,  Greece,  Troy, 
Brut,  Arthur,  of  Tristram,  Sweet  Ysoude  and  others.  But  better 
than  tales  of  love  is  the  story  of  the  Virgin  who  is  man's  best 
lover,  therefore  in  her  honour  he  will  write  this  book,  founded  on 
the  steadfast  ground  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  He  writes  in  English 
for  the  love  of  English  people  of  merry  England,  so  that  those 
who  know  no  French  may  understand.  The  history  is  treated 
under  seven  ages.  The  first  four  include  the  period  from  the 
creation  of  the  world  to  the  successors  of  Solomon,  the  fifth  deals 
with  Mary  and  the  birth  and  childhood  of  Jesus,  the  sixth  with 
the  lives  of  Christ  and  the  chief  apostles,  and  with  the  finding 
of  the  holy  cross,  and  the  seventh  with  Doomsday.  Four  short 
poems  follow,  more  in  some  MSS.  The  bulk  of  the  poem  is 
written  in  rhyming  couplets  of  short  lines  of  four  accents,  and 
maintains  a  fair  level  throughout.  The  narrative  is  enlivened 
by  many  legends  and  much  entertaining  matter  drawn  from 
various  sources;  and  the  numerous  transcripts  of  it  prove  that 
it  was  able  to  hold  its  own  against  profane  romance. 

The  chief  sources  of  the  compilation  have  been  identified  by 
Dr  Haenisch.  For  the  Old  Testament  history  the  author  draws 
largely  from  the  Historic,  scholastica  of  Peter  Comestor;  for 
the  history  of  the  Virgin  he  often  translates  literally  from 
Wace's  Etablissement  de  la  jHe  de  la  conception  Notre  Dame; 
the  parables  of  the  king  and  four  daughters,  and  of  the  castle  of 
Love  and  Grace,  are  taken  from  "  Sent  Robert  bok  "  (1.9516), 
that  is,  from  the  Chasteau  d' Amour  of  Robert  Grosseteste,  bishop 
of  Lincoln;  other  sources  are  the  apocryphal  gospels  of  Matthew 
and  Nicoderflus,  a  southern  English  poem  on  the  Assumption 
of  Our  Lady,  attributed  by  the  writer  of  Cursor  mundi  to 
Edmund  Rich  of  Pontigny,  the  Vulgate,  the  Legenda  aurea 
of  Jacobus  de  Voragine,  and  the  De  vita  et  morte  sanctorum 
of  Isidore  of  Seville.  The  original  of  the  section  on  the  in- 
vention of  the  holy  cross  is  still  to  seek.  In  its  general  plan 
the  work  is  similar  to  the  Liwe  de  sapience  of  Herman  de 
Valenciennes. 

Of  the  author  nothing  is  known.  In  the  Cotton  MS.  Vespasian 
(A  III.)  the  name  of  the  owner  William  Cosyn  is  given  (for 
particulars  of  this  family,  which  is  mentioned  in  Lincolnshire 
records  as  early  as  1276,  see  Dr  H.  Hupe  in  the  E.E.T.S.  ed. 
of  Cursor  mundi,  vol.  i.  p.  124  *).  The  date  of  the  book  was 
placed  by  Dr  J.  A.H.  Murray  (  The  Dialect  of  the  Southern  Counties 
of  Scotland,  1873,  p.  30)  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  i3th  century, 
and  the  place  of  writing  near  Durham.  Dr  Hupe  (loc.  cit.  p.  186  *) 
gives  good  reasons  for  believing  that  the  author  was  a  Lincoln- 
shire man,  who  wrote  between  1 260  and  1 290,  although  the  Cotton 
MS.  probably  belongs  to  the  late  i4th  century.  In  the  Gottingen 
MS.  there  are  lines  (17099-17110)  desiring  the  reader  to  pray 
for  John  of  Lindbergh,  "  that  this  bock  gart  dight,"  and  cursing 
anybody  who  shall  steal  it.  Lindberg  is  probably  Limber  Magna, 
near  Ulceby,  in  north  Lincolnshire.  Dr  Hupe  hazards  an 
identification  of  the  author  with  this  John  of  Lindberg,  who  may 
have  been  a  member  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Lindberg;  but 
this  is  improbable. 

Cursor  mundi  was  edited  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society  in 
1874-1893  by  Dr  Richard  Morris  in  parallel  columns  from  four 
MSS. : — -Cotton  Vespasian  A  III.,  British  Museum ;  Fairfax  MS.  14, 
in  the  Bodleian  library,  Oxford;  MS.  theol.  107  at  Gottingen;  and 
MS.  R.  3.8  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  The  edition  includes  a 
"  Preface  "  by  the  editor,  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Sources  of  the  Cursor 


mundi  "  (1885),  by  Dr  Haenisch,  an  essay  "  On  the  Filiation  and  the 
Text  of  the  MSS.  of  Cursor  mundi  "  (1885),  by  Dr  H.  Hupe,  "  Cursor 
Studies  and  Criticisms  on  the^Dialects  of  its  MSS."  (1888),  by  Dr 
Hupe  and  a  glossary  by  Dr  Max  Kaluza. 

CURTAIN,  a  screen  of  any  textile  material,  running  by  means 
of  rings  fixed  to  a  rod  or  pole.  Curtains  are  now  used  chiefly  to 
cover  windows  and  doors,  but  for  many  centuries  every  bed  of 
importance  was  surrounded  by  them,  and  sometimes,  as  in  France, 
the  space  thus  screened  off  was  much  larger  than  the  actual  bed 
and  was  called  the  ruelle.  The  curtain  is  very  ancient — indeed  the 
absence  of  glass  and  ill-fitting  windows  long  made  it  a  necessity. 
Originally  single  curtains  were  used;  it  would  appear  that  it 
was  not  until  the  i7th  century  that  they  were  employed  hi  pairs. 
Curtains  are  made  in  an  infinite  variety  of  materials  and  styles; 
when  placed  over  a  door  they  are  usually  called  portieres.  In 
fortification  the  "  curtain  "  is  that  part  of  the  enceinte  which 
lies  between  two  bastions,  towers,  gates,  &c. 

The  word  comes  into  English  through  the  O.  Fr.  cortine  or 
courtine  from  the  Late  Lat.  cortina.  According  to  Du  Cange 
(Glossarium,  s.v.  "  'Cortis  ")  this  is  a  diminutive  of  cortis,  an 
enclosed  space,  a  court.  It  is  used  in  the  various  senses  of  the 
English  "curtain."  Classical  Latin  had.  also  a  word  cortina, 
meaning  a  caldron  or  round  kettle.  It  was  very  rarely  applied 
to  round  objects  generally.  In  the  Vulgate  cortina  is  used  of  the 
curtains  of  the  tabernacle  (Exodus  xxvi).  There  is  some 
difficulty  in  connecting  the  classical  and  the  Late  Lathi  words. 
The  earliest  use  in  English  is,  according  to  the  New  English 
Dictionary,  for  the  hangings  of  a  bed. 

CURTANA  (a  latinized  form  of  the  A.-Fr.  curtein,  from  Lat. 
curtus,  shortened),  the  pointless  sword  of  mercy,  known  also  as 
Edward  the  Confessor's  sword,  borne  at  the  coronation  of  the 
kings  of  England  between  the  two  pointed  swords  of  temporal 
and  spiritual  justice  (see  REGALIA).  — t. 

CURTEA  DE  ARGESH  (Rumanian,  Curtea  de  Arge^;  also 
written  Curtea  d'Argesh,  Curtea  d'Ardges,  Argish  and  Ardjish), 
the  capital  of  the  department  of  Argesh,  Rumania;  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Argesh,  where  it  flows  through 
a  valley  of  the  lower  Carpathians;  and  on  the  railway  from 
Pitesci  to  the  Rothenthurm  Pass.  Pop.  (1900)  4210.  The  city 
is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Rumania.  According  to  tradition  it  was 
founded  early  in  the  i4th  century  by  Prince  Radu  Negru, 
succeeding  Campulung  as  capital  of  Walachia.  Hence  its  name 
Curtea,  "  the  court."  It  contains  a  few  antique  churches,  and 
was  created  a  bishopric  at  the  close  of  the  i8th  century. 

The  cathedral  of  Curtea  de  Argesh,  by  far  the  most  famous 
building  in  Rumania,  stands  in  the  grounds  of  a  monastery, 
ij  m.  N.  of  the  city.  It  resembles  a  very  large  and  elaborate 
mausoleum,  built  hi  Byzantine  style,  with  Moorish  arabesques. 
In  shape  it  is  oblong,  with  a  many-sided  annexe  at  the  back. 
In  the  centre  rises  a  dome,  fronted  by  two  smaller  cupolas; 
while  a  secondary  dome,  broader  and  loftier  than  the  central 
one,  springs  from  the  annexe.  Each  summit  is  crowned  by  an 
inverted  pear-shaped  stone,  bearing  a  triple  cross,  emblematic 
of  the  Trinity.  The  windows  are  mere  slits;  those  of  the  tam- 
bours, or  cylinders,  on  which  the  cupolas  rest,  are  curved,  and 
slant  at  an  angle  of  70°,  as  though  the  tambours  were  leaning 
to  one  side.  Between  the  pediment  and  the  cornice  a  thick 
corded  moulding  is  carried  round  the  main  building.  Above 
this  comes  a  row  of  circular  shields,  adorned  with  intricate 
arabesques,  while  bands  and  wreaths  of  lilies  are  everywhere 
scupltured  on  the  windows,  balconies,  tambours  and  cornices, 
adding  lightness  to  the  fabric.  The  whole  is  raised  on  a  platform 
7  ft.  high,  and  encircled  by  a  stone  balustrade.  Facing  the  main 
entrance  is  a  small  open  shrine,  consisting  of  a  cornice  and 
dome  upheld  by  four  pillars.  •  The  cathedral  is  faced  with  pale 
grey  limestone,  easily  chiselled,  but  hardening  on  exposure. 
The  interior  is  of  brick,  plastered  and  decorated  with  frescoes. 
Close  by  stands  a  large  royal  palace,  Moorish  in  style.  The 
archives  of  the  cathedral  were  plundered  by  Magyars  and 
Moslems,  but  several  inscriptions,  Greek,  Slav  and  Ruman,  are 
left.  One  tablet  records  that  the  founder  was  Prince  Neagoe 
Bassarab  (1512-1521);  another  that  Prince  John  Radu 


CURTESY— CURTIS,  G.  T. 


651 


completed  the  work  in  1526.  A  third  describes  the  repairs  exe- 
cuted in  1681  by  Prince  Sherban  Cantacuzino;  a  fourth,  the 
restoration,  in  1804,  by  Joseph,  the  first  bishop.  Between  1875 
and  1885  the  cathedral  was  reconstructed;  and  in  1886  it  was  re- 
consecrated. Its  legends  have  inspired  many  Rumanian  poets, 
among  them  the  celebrated  V.  Alexandri  (1821-1890).  One 
tradition  describes  how  Neagoe  Bassarab,  while  a  hostage  in 
Constantinople,  designed  a  splendid  mosque  for  the  sultan, 
returning  to  build  the  cathedral  out  of  the  surplus  materials. 
Another  version  makes  him  employ  one  Manole  or  Manoli  as 
architect.  Manole,  being  unable  to  finish  the  walls,  the  prince 
threatened  him  and  his  assistant  with  death.  At  last  Manole 
suggested  that  they  should  follow  the  ancient  custom  of  building 
a  living  woman  into  the  foundations;  and  that  she  who  first 
appeared  on  the  following  morning  should  be  the  victim.  The 
other  masons  warned  their  families,  and  Manole  was  forced  to 
sacrifice  his  own  wife.  Thus  the  cathedral  was  built  except  the 
roof.  So  arrogant,  however,  did  the  masons  become,  that  the 
prince  bade  remove  the  scaffolding,  and  all,  save  Manole,  perished 
of  hunger.  He  fell  to  the  ground,  and  a  spring  of  clear  water, 
which  issued  from  the  spot,  is  still  called  after  him. 

CURTESY  (a  variant  of  "  courtesy,"  q.v.),  in  law,  the  life 
interest  which  a  husband  has  in  certain  events  in  the  lands  of 
which  his  wife  was  in  her  lifetime  actually  seised  for  an  estate 
of  inheritance.  As  to  the  historical  origin  of  the  custom  and  the 
meaning  of  the  word  there  is  considerable  doubt.  It  has  been 
said  to  be  an  interest  peculiar  to  England  and  to  Scotland, 
hence  called  the  "curtesy  of  England"  and  the  "curtesy  of 
Scotland  ";  but  this  is  erroneous,  for  it  is  found  also  in  Germany 
and  France.  The  Mirroir  des  Justices  ascribes  it  to  Henry  I. 
K.  E.  Digby  (Hist.  Real  Prop.  chap,  iii.)  says  that  it  is  connected 
with  curia,  and  has  reference  either  to  the  attendance  of  the 
husband  as  tenant  of  the  lands  at  the  lord's  court,  or  to  mean 
simply  that  the  husband  is  acknowledged  tenant  by  the  courts 
of  England  (tenens  per  legem  Angliae).  The  requisites  necessary 
to  make  tenancy  by  the  curtesy  are:  (i)  a  legal  marriage; 
(2)  an  estate  in  possession  of  which  the  wife  must  have  been 
actually  seised;  (3)  issue  born  alive  and  during  the  mother's 
existence,  though  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  issue  live  or  die, 
or  whether  it  is  born  before  or  after  the  wife's  seisin;  in  the 
case  of  gavelkind  lands  the  husband  has  a  right  to  curtesy, 
whether  there  is  issue  born  or  not;  but  the  curtesy  extends 
only  to  a  moiety  of  the  wife's  lands  and  ceases  if  the  husband 
marries  again.  The  issue  must  have  been  capable  of  inheriting 
as  heir  to  the  wife,  e.g.  if  a  wife  were  seised  of  lands  in  tail  male 
the  birth  of  a  daughter  would  not  entitle  the  husband  to  a 
tenancy  by  curtesy;  (4)  the  title  to  the  tenancy  vests  only  on 
the  death  of  the  wife.  The  Married  Women's  Property  Act  1882 
has  not  affected  the  right  of  curtesy  so  far  as  relates  to  the  wife's 
undisposed-of  realty  (Hopev.  Hope,  1892,  2  Ch.  336),  and  the 
Settled  Land  Act  1884,  s.  8,  provides  that  for  the  purposes  of  the 
Settled  Land  Act  1882  the  estate  of  a  tenant  by  curtesy  is  to  be 
deenfed  an  estate  arising  under  a  settlement  made  by  the  wife. 

See  Pollock  and  Maitland,  Hist.  Eng.  Law;  K.  E.  Digby,  Hist. 
Real  Prop. ;  Goodeve,  Real  Property. 

CURTILAGE  (Med.  Lat.  curtilagium,  from  curlile  or  cortile,  a 
court  or  yard,  cf.  "  court  "),  the  area  of  land  which  immediately 
surrounds  a  dwelling-house  and  its  yard  and  outbuildings. 
In  feudal  times  every  castle  with  its  dependent  buildings  was 
protected  by  a  surrounding  wall,  and  all  the  land  within  the  wall 
was  termed  the  curtilage;  but  the  modern  legal  interpretation 
of  the  word,  i.e.  what  area  is  enclosed  by  the  curtilage,  depends 
upon  the  circumstances  of  each  individual  case,.such  as  the  terms 
of  the  grant  or  deed  which  passes  the  property,  or  upon  what  is 
held  to  be  a  convenient  amount  of  land  for  the  occupation  of 
the  house,  &c.  The  importance  of  the  word  in  modern  law 
depends  on  the  fact  that  the  curtilage  marks  the  limit  of  the 
premises  in  which  housebreaking  can  be  committed. 

CURTIN,  ANDREW  GREGG  (1817-1894),  American  political 
leader,  was  born  at  Bellefonte,  Centre  county,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  22nd  of  April  1817,  the  son  of  a  native  of  Ireland  who  was 
a  pioneer  iron  manufacturer  in  Pennsylvania.  He  graduated 


from  the  law  department  of  Dickinson  College  in  1837,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839,  and  successfully  practised  his 
profession.  Entering  politics  as  a  Whig,  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Whig  state  central  committee  in  1854,  and  from  1855  to 
1858  was  secretary  of  the  commonwealth.  In  this  capacity  he 
was  also  ex  officio  the  superintendent  of  common  schools,  and 
rendered  valuable  services  to  his  state  in  perfecting  and  ex- 
panding the  free  public  school  system,  and  in  establishing  state 
normal  schools.  Upon  the  organization  of  the  Republican  party 
he  became  one  of  its  leaders  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  October 
1860  was  chosen  governor  of  the  state  on  its  ticket,  defeating 
Henry  D.  Foster,  the  candidate  upon  whom  the  Douglas  and 
Breckinridge  Democrats  and  the  Constitutional  Unionists  had 
united,  by  32,000  votes,  after  a  spirited  campaign  which  was 
watched  with  intense  interest  by  the  entire  country  as  an  index 
of  the  result  of  the  ensuing  presidential  election.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  was  one  of  the  closest  and  most  constant  advisers 
of  President  Lincoln,  and  one  of  the  most  efficient,  most  energetic 
and  most  patriotic  of  the  "  war  governors  "  of  the  North. 
Pennsylvania  troops  were  the  first  to  reach  Washington  after  the 
president's  call,  and  from  first  to  last  the  state,  under  Governor 
Curtin's  guidance,  furnished  387,284  officers  and  men  to  the 
Northern  armies.  One  of  his  wisest  and  most  praiseworthy  acts 
was  the  organization  of  the  famous  "  Pennsylvania  Reserves," 
by  means  of  which  the  state  was  always  able  to  fill  at  once  its 
required  quota  after  each  successive  call.  In  raising  funds  and 
equipping  and  supplying  troops  the  governor  showed  great 
energy  and  resourcefulness,  and  his  plans  and  organizations  for 
caring  for  the  needy  widows  and  children  of  Pennsylvania 
soldiers  killed  in  battle,  and  for  aiding  and  removing  to  their 
homes  the  sick  and  wounded  were  widely  copied  throughout  the 
North.  He  was  re-elected  governor  in  1863  and  served  until 
January  1867.  He  was  United  States  minister  to  Russia  from 
1869  until  1872,  when  he  returned  to  America  and  took  part  in 
the  Liberal  Republican  revolt  against  President  U.  S.  Grant. 
In  1872-1873  he  was  a  member  of  the  state  constitutional 
convention.  Subsequently  he  joined  the  Democratic  party  and 
was  a  representative  in  Congress  from  1881  to  1887.  He  died  at 
his  birthplace,  Bellefonte,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  7th  of  October 
1894. 

See  William  H.  Egle's  Life  and  Times  of  Andrew  Gregg  Curtin 
(Philadelphia,  1896),  which  contains  chapters  written  by  A.  K. 
McClure,  Jno.  Russell  Young,  Wayne  McVeagh,  Fitz  John  Porter 
and  others. 

CURTIS,  GEORGE  TICKNOR  (1812-1894),  American  lawyer, 
legal  writer  and  constitutional  historian,  was  born  in  Watertown, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  28th  of  November  1812.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1832,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and 
practised  in  Worcester,  Boston,  New  York  and  Washington, 
appearing  before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  many 
important  cases,  including  the  Dred  Scott  case,  in  which  he 
argued  the  constitutional  question  for  Scott,  and  the  "  legal 
tender "  cases.  In  Boston  he  was  for  many  years  the  United 
States  commissioner,  and  in  this  capacity,  despite  the  vigorous 
protests  of  the  abolitionists  and  his  own  opposition  to  slavery, 
ordered  the  return  to  his  owner  of  the  famous  fugitive  slave, 
Thcmas  Sims,  in  1852.  He  was  the  nephew  and  close  friend  of 
George  Ticknor,  the  historian  of  Spanish  literature,  and  his 
association  with  his  uncle  was  influential  in  developing  his 
scholarly  tastes;  while  his  other  personal  friendships  with  eminent 
Bostonians  during  the  period  of  conservative  Whig  ascendancy 
in  Massachusetts  politics  were  of  direct  influence  upon  his 
political  opinions  and  published  estimates.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  author  of  A  History  of  the  Origin,  Formation  and  Adoption 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  with  Notices  of  its  principal 
Framers  (1854),  republished,  with  many  additions,  as  The 
Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States  from  their  Declaration  of 
Independence  to  the  Close  of  their  Civil  War  (2  vols.,  1889-1896). 
This  history,  which  had  been  watched  in  its  earlier  progress  by 
Daniel  Webster,  may  be  said  to  present  the  old  Federalist  or 
"  Webster- Whig  "  view  of  the  formation  and  powers  of  the  Con- 
stitution; and  it  was  natural  that  Curtis  should  follow  it  with 


652 


CURTIS,  G.  W.— CURTIUS,  ERNST 


a  voluminous  Life  of  Daniel  Webster  (2  vols.,  1870),  the  most 
valuable  biography  of  that  statesman.  Both  these  works  are 
characterized  by  solidity  and  comprehensiveness  rather  than  by 
rhetorical  attractiveness  or  literary  perspective.  In  his  later 
years  Mr  Curtis,  like  so  many  of  the  followers  of  Webster, 
turned  towards  the  Democratic  party;  and  he  wrote,  among 
other  works  of  minor  importance,  an  exculpatory  life  of  President 
James  Buchanan  (2  vols.,  1883)  and  two  vindications  of  General 
George  B.  McClellan's  career  (1886  and  1887).  He  died  in  New 
York  on  the  28th  of  March  1894. 

In  addition  to  the  works  above  mentioned  he  published :  Digest  of 
the  English  and  American  Admiralty  Decisions  (1839);  Rights  and 
Duties  of  Merchant  Seamen  (1841),  which  elicited  the  hearty  praise 
of  Justice  Joseph  Story;  Law  of  Patents  (1849);  Equity  Precedents 
(1850) ;  Commentaries  on  the  Jurisprudence,  Practice  and  Peculiar 
Jurisdiction  of  the  Courts  of  the  United  States  (1854-1858) ;  Creation 
or  Evolution:  A  Philosophical  Inquiry  (1887);  and  a  novel,  John 
Chambers:  A  Tale  of  the  Civil  War  in  America  (1889). 

His  brother,  BENJAMIN  ROBBINS  CURTIS  (1800-1874),  also 
an  eminent  jurist,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  November  1809,  in 
Watertown,  Massachusetts,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1829, 
studied  law  at  Cambridge  and  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  where,  after 
his  admission  to  the  bar  in  1832,  he  practised  law  for  two  years, 
and  then  in  Boston  in  1834-1851.  IniSsi, being  thenamember 
of  the  lower  house  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  he  was  on 
the  22nd  of  September  appointed  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  where  he  gained  his  greatest  fame  in  1857  by  his 
dissenting  opinion  in  the  Dred  Scott  case,  in  which  he  argued 
that  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  constitutional,  and  that 
negroes  could  become  citizens.  His  argument  was  immediately 
published  as  an  anti-slavery  document.  On  the  ist  of  September 
1 85  7  he  resigned  from  the  Supreme  Court  and  resumed  his  private 
practice.  In  1868  he  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  President 
Andrew  Johnson  in  his  impeachment  trial,  and  opened  for  the 
defence  in  a  remarkable  two-days'  speech.  He  died  at  Newport, 
Rhode  Island,  on  the  isth  of  September  1874.  He  prepared 
Decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  (22  vols.)  and  a  Digest  of  its 
decisions  down  to  1854. 

A  Memoir  of  Benjamin  Robbins  Curtis,  with  Some  of  his  Professional 
and  Miscellaneous  Papers,  edited  by  his  son  Benjamin  R.  Curtis, 
was  published  at  Boston  in  1879,  the  Memoir  being  by  George 
Ticknor  Curtis. 

CURTIS,  GEORGE  WILLIAM  (1824-1892),  American  man  of 
letters,  was  born  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  on  the  24th  of 
February  1824,  of  old  New  England  stock.  His  mother  died 
when  he  was  two  years  old.  At  six  he  was  sent  with  his  elder 
brother  to  school  in  Jamaica  Plain,  Massachusetts,  where  he 
remained  for  five  years.  Then,  his  father  having  again  married 
happily,  the  boys  were  brought  home  to  Providence,  where  they 
stayed  till,  in  1839,  their  father  removed  to  New  York.  Three 
years  later,  Curtis,  being  allowed  to  determine  for  himself  his 
course  of  life,  and  being  in  sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  the  so- 
called  Transcendental  movement,  became  a  boarder  at  the  com- 
munity of  Brook  Farm.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  brother, 
James  Burrill  Curtis,  whose  influence  upon  him  was  strong  and 
helpful.  He  remained  there  for  two  years,  brought  into  stimulat- 
ing and  serviceable  relations  with  many  interesting  men  and 
women.  Then  came  two  years,  passed  partly  in  New  York, 
partly  in  Concord  in  order  mainly  to  be  in  the  friendly  neighbour- 
hood of  Emerson,  and  then  followed  four  years  spent  hi  Europe, 
Egypt  and  Syria. 

Curtis  returned  from  Europe  in  1850,  handsome,  attractive, 
accomplished,  ambitious  of  literary  distinction.  He  instantly 
plunged  into  the  whirl  of  life  in  New  York,  obtained  a  place  on 
the  staff  of  the  Tribune,  entered  the  field  as  a  popular  lecturer, 
set  himself  to  work  on  a  volume  published  in  the  spring  of  1851, 
under  the  title  of  Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji,  and  became  a  favourite 
in  society.  He  wrote  much  for  Putnam's  Magazine,  of  which  he 
was  associate  editor;  and  a  number  of  volumes,  composed  of 
essays  written  for  that  publication  and  for  Harper's  Monthly, 
came  in  rapid  succession  from  his  pen.  The  chief  of  these  were 
the  Potiphar  Papers  (1853),  a  satire  on  the  fashionable  society 
of  the  day;  and  Prue  and  I  (1856),  a  pleasantly  sentimental, 
fancifully  tender  and  humorous  study  of  life.  In  1 8  5  5  he  married 


Miss  Anna  Shaw.  Not  long  after  his  marriage  he  became,  through 
no  fault  of  his  own,  deeply  involved  in  debt  owing  to  the  failure 
of  Putnam's  Magazine;  and  his  high  sense  of  honour  compelled 
him  to  devote  the  greater  part  of  his  earnings  for  many  years  to 
the  discharge  of  obligations  for  which  he  had  become  only  by 
accident  responsible,  and  from  which  he  might  have  freed  himself 
by  legal  process.  In  the  period  just  preceding  the  Civil  War 
other  interests  became  subordinate  to  those  of  national  concern. 
Curtis  made  his  first  important  speech  on  the  questions  of  the 
day  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1856;  he  engaged  actively  in  the 
presidential  campaign  of  that  year,  and  was  soon  recognized  not 
only  as  an  effective  public  speaker,  but  also  as  one  of  the  ablest, 
most  high-minded,  and  most  trustworthy  leaders  of  public 
opinion.  In  1863  he  became  the  political  editor  of  Harper's 
Weekly,  and  no  other  journal  exercised  during  the  war  and  after 
it  a  more  important  part  in  shaping  public  opinion.  His  writing 
was  always  clear,  direct,  forcible;  his  fairness  of  mind  and  sweet- 
ness of  temper  were  invincible.  He  never  became  a  mere 
partisan,  and  never  failed  to  apply  the  test  of  moral  principle 
to  political  measures.  From  month  to  month  he  contributed 
to  Harper's  Monthly,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Easy  Chair," 
brief  essays  on  topics  of  social  and  literary  interest,  charming  in 
style,  touched  with  delicate  humour  and  instinct  with  generous 
spirit.  His  service  to  the  Republican  party  was  such,  that  more 
than  once  he  was  offered  nominations  to  office  of  high  distinction, 
and  might  have  been  sent  as  minister  to  England;  but  he  refused 
all  offers  of  the  kind,  feeling  that  he  could  render  more  essential 
service  to  the  country  as  editor  and  public  speaker. 

In  1871  he  was  appointed  by  President  Grant  chairman  of  the 
commission  to  report  on  the  reform  of  the  civil  service.  The 
report  which  he  wrote  was  the  foundation  of  every  effort  since 
made  for  the  purification  and  regulation  of  the  service  and  for  the 
destruction  of  political  patronage.  From  that  time  till  his  death 
Curtis  was  the  leader  in  this  reform,  and  to  his  sound  judgment, 
his  vigorous  presentation  of  the  evils  of  the  corrupt  prevailing 
system,  and  his  untiring  efforts,  the  progress  of  the  reform  is 
mainly  due.  He  was  president  of  the  National  Civil  Service 
Reform  League  and  of  the  New  York  Civil  Service  Reform 
Association.  In  1884  he  refused  to  support  the  nomination  of 
James  G.  Elaine  as  candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  thus  broke 
with  the  Republican  party,  of  which  he  had  been  one  of  the 
founders  and  leaders.  From  that  time  he  stood  as  the  typical 
independent  in  politics.  In  April  1892  he  delivered  at  Baltimore 
his  eleventh  annual  address  as  president  of  the  National  Civil 
Service  Reform  League,  and  in  May  he  appeared  for  the  last  time 
in  public,  to  repeat  in  New  York  an  admirable  address  on  James 
Russell  Lowell,  which  he  had  first  delivered  in  Brooklyn  on  the 
22nd  of  the  preceding  February,  the  anniversary  of  Lowell's 
birth.  On  the  3 1 st  of  the  following  August  he  died.  He  was  a  man 
of  consistent  virtue,  whose  face  and  figure  corresponded  with 
the  traits  and  stature  of  his  soul.  The  grace  and  charm  of  his 
manner  were  the  expression  of  his  nature.  Of  the  Americans  of 
his  time  few  were  more  widely  beloved,  and  the  respect  in  which 
he  was  held  was  universal. 

See  George  William  Curtis,  by  Edward  Cary,  in  the  "  American 
Men  of  Letters  "  series  (Boston,  1894),  an  excellent  biography;  "  An 
Epistle  to  George  William  Curtis,"  by  James  Russell  Lowell  (1874- 
1887),  in  Lowell's  Poems;  George  William  Curtis,  a  Commemorative 
Address  delivered  before  The  Century  Association,  I7th  December 
1892,  by  Parke  Godwin  (New  York,  1893);  Orations  and  Addresses 
by  George  William  Curtis,  edited  by  Charles  Eliot  Norton  (3  vols. 
New  York,  1894).  (C.  E.  N.) 

CURTIUS,  ERNST  (1814-1896),  German  archaeologist  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Liibeck  on  the  2nd  of  September  1814. 
On  completing  his  university  studies  he  was  chosen  by  C.  A. 
Brandis  to  accompany  him  on  a  journey  to  Greece  for  the 
prosecution  of  archaeological  researches.  Curtius  then  became 
Otfried  Miiller's  companion  in  his  exploration  of  the  Peloponnese, 
and  on  Miiller's  death  in  1840  returned  to  Germany.  In  1844  he 
became  an  extraordinary  professor  at  the  university  of  Berlin, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  appointed  tutor  to  Prince  Frederick 
William  (afterwards  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.) — a  post  which 
he  held  till  1850.  After  holding  a  professorship  at  Gottingen  and 


CURTIUS,  MARCUS— CURVE 


653 


undertaking  a  further  journey  to  Greece  in  1862,  Curtius  was 
appointed  (in  1863)  ordinary  professor  at  Berlin.  In  1874  he 
was  sent  to  Athens  by  the  German  government,  and  concluded 
an  agreement  by  which  the  excavations  at  Olympia  (q.v.)  were 
entrusted  exclusively  to  Germany.  Curtius  died  at  Berlin  on 
the  nth  of  July  1896.  His  best-known  work  is  his  History  of 
Greece  (1857-1867,  6th  ed.  1887-1888;  Eng.  trans,  by  A.  W. 
Ward,  1868-1873).  It  presented  in  an  attractive  style  what  were 
then  the  latest  results  of  scholarly  research,  but  was  criticized  as 
wanting  in  erudition.  It  is  now  superseded  (see  GREECE  :  History, 
Ancient,  §  Bibliography).  His  other  writings  are  chiefly  archaeo- 
logical. The  most  important  are:  Die  Akropolis  wn  A  then 
(1844);  Naxos  (1846);  Peloponnesos,  eine  hislorisch-geograpkische 
Beschreibung  der  Halbinsel  (1851);  Olympia  (1852);  Die  lonier 
vor  der  ionischen  Wanderung  (1855);  Attische  Sludien  (1862- 
1865);  Ephesos  (1874);  Die  Ausgrabungen  zu  Olympia  (1877, 
&c.);  Olympia  und  Umgegend  (edited  by  Curtius  and  F.  Adler, 
1882);  Olympia.  Die  Ergebnisse  der  von  dem  deutschen  Reich 
veranstallelen  Ausgrabung  (with  F.  Adler,  1890-1898);  Die 
Sladlgeschichte  von  A  then  (1891);  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen 
(1894).  His  collected  speeches  and  lectures  were  published 
under  the  title  of  Allertum  und  Gegenwart  (sth  ed.,  1903  foil.), 
to  which  a  third  volume  was  added  under  the  title  of  Unter  drei 
Kaisern  (2nd  ed.,  1895). 

A  full  list  of  his  writings  will  be  found  in  L.  Gurlitt,  Erinnerungen 
an  Ernst  Curtius  (Berlin,  1902) ;  see  also  article  by  O.  Kern  in 
Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie,  xlvii.  (1903),  to  which  may  be  added 
Ernst  Curtius.  Ein  Lebensbild  in  Brief  en,  by  F.  Curtius  (1903) ;  T. 
Hodgkin,  Ernest  Curtius  (1905). 

His  brother,  GEORG  CURTIUS  (1820-1885),  philologist,  was  born 
at  Liibeck  on  the  i6th  of  April  1820.  After  an  education  at 
Bonn  and  Berlin  he  was  for  three  years  a  schoolmaster  in  Dresden, 
until  (in  1845)  he  returned  to  Berlin  University  as  privat-docent. 
In  1849  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Philological  Seminary 
at  Prague,  and  two  years  later  was  appointed  professor  of 
classical  philology  in  Prague  University.  In  1854  he  removed 
from  Prague  to  a  similar  appointment  at  Kiel,  and  again  in  1862 
from  Kiel  to  Leipzig.  He  died  at  Hermsdorf  on  the  I2th  of 
August  1885.  His  philological  theories  exercised  a  widespread 
influence.  The  more  important  of  his  publications  are:  Die 
Sprachvergleichung  in  ihrem  Verhaltniss  zur  classischen  Philologie 
(1845;  Eng.  trans,  by  F.  H.  Trithen,  1851);  Sprachvergleichende 
Beitriige  zur  griechischen  und  lateinischen  Grammatik  (1846); 
Grundzuge  der  griechischen  Etymologie  (1858-1862,  sth  ed. 
1879);  Das  Verbum  der  griechischen  Sprache  (1873).  The  last 
two  works  have  been  translated  into  English  by  A.  S.  Wilkins 
and  E.  B.  England.  From  1878  till  his  death  Curtius  was  general 
editor  of  the  Leipziger  Sludien  zur  classischen  Philologie.  His 
Griechische  Schulgrammatik,  first  published  in  1852,  has  passed 
through  more  than  twenty  editions,  and  has  been  edited  in 
English.  In  his  last  work,  Zur  Kritik  der  neuesten  Sprachforschung 
(1885),  he  attacks  the  views  of  the  "  new  "  school  of  philology. 

Opuscula  of  Georg  Curtius  were  edited  after  his  death  by  E. 
Windisch  (Kleine  Schriften  von  E.  C.,  1886-1887).  For  further 
information  consult  articles  by  R.  Meister  in  Allgemeine  deutsche 
Biographie,  xlvii.  (1903),  and  by  E.  Windisch  in  C.  Bursian's  Bio- 
graphisches  Jahrbuch  fur  Alterthumskunde  (1886). 

CURTIUS,  MARCUS,  a  legendary  hero  of  ancient  Rome.  It 
is  said  that  in  362  B.C.  a  deep  gulf  opened  in  the  forum,  which 
the  seers  declared  would  never  close  until  Rome's  most  valuable 
possession  was  thrown  into  it.  Then  Curtius,  a  youth  of  noble 
family,  recognizing  that  nothing  was  more  precious  than  a  brave 
citizen,  leaped,  fully  armed  and  on  horseback,  into  the  chasm, 
which  immediately  closed  again.  The  spot  was  afterwards 
covered  by  a  marsh  called  the  Lacus  Curtius.  Two  other 
explanations  of  the  name  Lacus  Curtius  are  given:  (i)  a  Sabine 
general,  Mettius  (or  Mettus)  Curtius,  hard  pressed  by  the  Romans 
under  Romulus,  leaped  into  a  swamp  which  covered  the  valley 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  forum,  and  barely  escaped  with  his 
life;  (2)  in  445  B.C.  the  spot  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  en- 
closed as  sacred  by  the  consul,  Gaius  Curtius.  It  was  marked 
by  an  altar  which  was  removed  to  make  room  for  the  games  in 
celebration  of  Caesar's  funeral  (Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  xv.  77),  but 


restored  by  Augustus  (cf.  Ovid,  Fasti,  vi.  403),  in  whose  time 
there  was  apparently  nothing  but  a  dry  well.  The  altar  seems  to 
have  been  restored  early  in  the  4th  century  A.D.  In  April  1004, 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  Via  Sacra  and  20  ft.  N.W.  of  the  Equus 
Domitiani,  remains  of  the  buildings  were  discovered. 

See  Livy  i.  12,  vii.  6;  Dion  Halic.  ii.  42 ;  Varro,  De  lingua  Latina, 
v.  148;  Ch.  Hiilsen,  The  Roman  Forum  (Eng.  trans,  of  2nd  ed., 
J.  B.  Carter,  1906);  O.  Gilbert,  Geschichte  und  Topographic  der 
Stadt  Rom  im  Altertum,  i.  (1883),  334-338. 

CURTIUS  RUFUS,  QUINTUS,  biographer  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  Of  his  personal  history  nothing  is  known,  nor  can  his 
date  be  fixed  with  certainty.  Modern  authorities  regard  him 
as  a  rhetorician  who  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Claudius 
(A.D.  41-54).  His  work  (De  Rebus  gestis  Alexandri  Magni) 
originally  consisted  of  ten  books,  of  which  the  first  two  are 
entirely  lost,  and  the  remaining  eight  are  incomplete.  Although 
the  work  is  uncritical,  and  shows  the  author's  ignorance  of 
geography,  chronology  and  military  matters,  it  is  written  in 
a  picturesque  style. 

There  are  numerous  editions:  (text)  T.  Vogel  (1889),  P.  H.  Damste 
(1897),  E.  Hedicke  (1908);  (with  notes),  T.  Vogel  (1885  and  later), 
M.  Croiset  (1885),  H.  W.  Reich  (1895),  C.  Lebaigue  (1900),  T.  Stangl 
(1902).  There  is  an  English  translation  by  P.  Pratt  (1821).  See 
S.  Dosson,  Etude  sur  Quinte-Curce,  sa  vie,  et  ses  ceuvres  (1887)  a  valu- 
able work;  F.  von  Schwarz,  Alexander  des  Grossen  Feldzuge  in 
Turkestan  (1893),  a  commentary  on  Arrian  and  Curtius  based  upon 
the  author's  personal  knowledge  of  the  topography ;  C.  Wachsmuth, 
Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  alien  Geschichte  (1895),  p.  574,  cf. 
p.  567,  note  2 ;  Schwarz,  "  Curtius  Rufus  "  No.  31  in  Pauly-Wissowa 
(1901). 

CURULE  (Lat.  currus,  "  chariot  "),  in  Roman  antiquities, 
the  epithet  applied  to  the  chair  of  office,  sella  curulis,  used  by 
the  "  curule  "  or  highest  magistrates  and  also  by  the  emperors. 
This  chair  seems  to  have  been  originally  placed  in  the  magistrate's 
chariot  (hence  the  name).  It  was  inlaid  with  ivory  or  in  some 
cases  made  of  it,  had  curved  legs  but  no  back,  and  could  be  folded 
up  like  a  camp-stool.  In  English  the  word  is  used  in  the  general 
sense  of  "  official."  (See  CONSUL,  PRAETOR  and  AEDILE.) 

CURVE  (Lat.  curvus,  bent),  a  word  commonly  meaning  a 
shape  represented  by  a  line  bending  continuously  out  of  the 
straight  without  making  an  angle,  but  only  properly  to  be  defined 
in  its  geometrical  sense  in  the  terms  set  out  below.  This  subject 
is  treated  here  from  an  historical  point  of  view,  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  how  the  different  leading  ideas  were  successively 
arrived  at  and  developed. 

i.  A  curve  is  a  line,  or  continuous  singly  infinite  system  of 
points.  We  consider  in  the  first  instance,  and  chiefly,  a  plane 
curve  described  according  to  a  law.  Such  a  curve  may  be  re- 
garded geometrically  as  actually  described,  or  kinematically 
as  in  the  course  of  description  by  the  motion  of  a  point;  in  the 
former  point  of  view,  it  is  the  locus  of  all  the  points  which  satisfy 
a  given  condition;  in  the  latter,  it  is  the  locus  of  a  point  moving 
subject  to  a  given  condition.  Thus  the  most  simple  and  earliest 
known  curve,  the  circle,  is  the  locus  of  all  the  points  at  a  given 
distance  from  a  fixed  centre,  or  else  the  locus  of  a  point  moving 
so  as  to  be  always  at  a  given  distance  from  a  fixed  centre.  (The 
straight  line  and  the  point  are  not  for  the  moment  regarded  as 
curves.) 

Next  to  the  circle  we  have  the  conic  sections,  the  invention 
of  them  attributed  to  Plato  (who  lived  430-347  B.C.);  the 
original  definition  of  them  as  the  sections  of  a  cone  was  by  the 
Greek  geometers  who  studied  them  soon  replaced  by  a  proper 
definition  in  piano  like  that  for  the  circle,  viz.  a  conic  section 
(or  as  we  now  say  a  "  conic  ")  is  the  locus  of  a  point  such  that  its 
distance  from  a  given  point,  the  focus,  is  in  a  given  ratio  to  its 
(perpendicular)  distance  from  a  given  line,  the  directrix;  or  it  is 
the  locus  of  a  point  which  moves  so  as  always  to  satisfy  the 
foregoing  condition.  Similarly  any  other  property  might  be 
used  as  a  definition;  an  ellipse  is  the  locus  of  a  point  such  that 
the  sum  of  its  distances  from  two  fixed  points  (the  foci)  is  constant, 
&c.,  &c. 

The  Greek  geometers  invented  other  curves;  in  particular, 
the  conchoid  (q.v.),  which  is  the  locus  of  a  point  such  that  its 
distance  from  a  given  line,  measured  along  the  line  drawn  through 


CURVE 


it  to  a  fixed  point,  is  constant;  and  the  cissoid  (q.v.),  which  is 
the  locus  of  a  point  such  that  its  distance  from  a  fixed  point  is 
always  equal  to  the  intercept  (on  the  line  through  the  fixed 
point)  between  a  circle  passing  through  the  fixed  point  and  the 
tangent  to  the  circle  at  the  point  opposite  to  the  fixed  point. 
Obviously  the  number  of  such  geometrical  or  kinematical 
definitions  is  infinite.  In  a  machine  of  any  kind,  each  point 
describes  a  curve;  a  simple  but  important  instance  is  the 
"  three-bar  curve,"  or  locus  of  a  point  in  or  rigidly  connected 
with  a  bar  pivoted  on  to  two  other  bars  which  rotate  about 
fixed  centres  respectively.  Every  curve  thus  arbitrarily  defined 
has  its  own  properties;  and  there  was  not  any  principle  of 
classification. 

2.  Cartesian  Co-ordinates. — The  principle  of  classification  first 
presented  itself  in  the  Geometrie  of  Descartes  (1637).     The  idea 
was  to  represent  any  curve  whatever  by  means  of  a  relation 
between  the  co-ordinates  (*,  y)  of  a  point  of  the  curve,  or  say  to 
represent  the  curve  by  means  of  its  equation.     (See  GEOMETRY: 
Analytical.) 

Any  relation  whatever  between  (x,  y)  determines  a  curve, 
and  conversely  every  curve  whatever  is  determined  by  a  relation 
between  (x,y). 

Observe  that  the  distinctive  feature  is  in  the  exclusive  use  of 
such  determination  of  a  curve  by  means  of  its  equation.  The 
Greek  geometers  were  perfectly  familiar  with  the  property  of  an 
ellipse  which  in  the  Cartesian  notation  is  X1/a?+y2/b2=i,  the 
equation  of  the  curve;  but  it  was  as  one  of  a  number  of  properties, 
and  in  no  wise  selected  out  of  the  others  for  the  characteristic 
property  of  the  curve. 

3.  Order  of  a  Curve. — We  obtain  from  the  equation  the  notion 
of  an  algebraical  as  opposed  to  a  transcendental  curve,  viz. 
an  algebraical  curve  is  a  curve  having  an  equation  F(x,  y)=o 
where  F(x,  y)  is  a  rational  and  integral  function  of  the  co- 
ordinates (x,  y);  and  in  what  follows  we  attend  throughout 
(unless    the   contrary   is   stated)    only   to   such   curves.     The 
equation  is  sometimes  given,  and  may  conveniently  be  used, 
in  an  irrational  form,  but  we  always  imagine  it  reduced  to  the 
foregoing  rational  and  integral  form,   and  regard  this  as  the 
equation  of  the  curve.     And  we  have  hence  the  notion  of  a  curve 
of  a  given  order,  viz.  the  order  of  the  curve  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  term  or  terms  of  highest  order  in  the  co-ordinates  (x,  y) 
conjointly  in  the  equation  of  the  curve;  for  instance,  xy— 1=0 
is  a  curve  of  the  second  order. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  here  that  the  axes  of  co-ordinates  may  be 
any  two  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other  whatever;  and  that 
the  equation  of  a  curve  will  be  different  according  to  the  selection 
of  the  axes  of  co-ordinates;  but  the  order  is  independent  of  the 
axes,  and  has  a  determinate  value  for  any  given  curve. 

We  hence  divide  curves  according  to  their  order,  viz.  a  curve 
is  of  the  first  order,  second  order,  third  order,  &c.,  according  as 
it  is  represented  by  an  equation  of  the  first  order,  ax-\-by-\-c  =  o, 
or  say  (*jz,  y,  i)=o;  or  by  an  equation  of  the  second  order, 
ax*+2hxy+by*+2fy-{-2gx+c=o,  say  (*5*,  y,  i)2=o;  or  by  an 
equation  of  the  third  order,  &c.;  or  what  is  the  same  thing, 
according  as  the  equation  is  linear,  quadric,  cubic,  &c. 

A  curve  of  the  first  order  is  a  right  line;  and  conversely  every 
right  line  is  a  curve  of  the  first  order.  A  curve  of  the  second 
order  is  a  conic,  and  is  also  called  a  quadric  curve;  and  conversely 
every  conic  is  a  curve  of  the  second  order  or  quadric  curve.  A 
curve  of  the  third  order  is  called  a  cubic;  one  of  the  fourth 
order  a  quartic;  and  so  on. 

A  curve  of  the  order  m  has  for  its  equation  (*J#,  V,  i)m  =  o; 
and  when  the  coefficients  of  the  function  are  arbitrary,  the  curve 
is  said  to  be  the  general  curve  of  the  order  m.  The  number  of 
coefficients  is  %(m+i)  (m+a);  but  there  is  no  loss  of  generality 
if  the  equation  be  divided  by  one  coefficient  so  as  to  reduce  the 
coefficient  of  the  corresponding  term  to  unity,  hence  the  number 
of  coefficients  may  be  reckoned  as  %(m+i)  (m+2)  —  i,  that  is, 
$m(m+3) ;  and  a  curve  of  the  order  m  may  be  made  to  satisfy 
this  number  of  conditions;  for  example,  to  pass  through  \m(m+3) 
points. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  an  equation  may  break  up;  thus  a 


quadric  equation  may  be  (ax+by+c)  (a'x-\-b'y+c')=o,  breaking 
up  into  the  two  equations  ax+by+c  =  o,  a'x+b'y+c'  =  o,  viz. 
the  original  equation  is  satisfied  if  either  of  these  is  satisfied. 
Each  of  these  last  equations  represents  a  curve  of  the  first  order, 
or  right  line;  and  the  original  equation  represents  this  pair  of 
lines,  viz.  the  pair  of  lines  is  considered  as  a  quadric  curve. 
But  it  is  an  improper  quadric  curve;  and  in  speaking  of  curves 
of  the  second  or  any  other  given  order,  we  frequently  imply  that 
the  curve  is  a  proper  curve  represented  by  an  equation  which 
does  not  break  up. 

4.  Intersections  of  Curves. — The  intersections  of  two  curves 
are  obtained  by  combining  their  equations;  viz.  the  elimination 
from  the  two  equations  of  y  (or  x)  gives  for  x  (or  y)  an  equation 
of  a  certain  order,  say  the  resultant  equation;  and  then  to  each 
value  of  x  (or  y)  satisfying  this  equation  there  corresponds  in 
general  a  single  value  of  y  '(or  x),  and  consequently  a  single  point 
of  intersection;  the  number  of  intersections  is  thus  equal  to  the 
order  of  the  resultant  equation  in  x  (or  y). 

Supposing  that  the  two  curves  are  of  the  orders  m,  n,  respec- 
tively, then  the  order  of  the  resultant  equation  is  in  general  and 
at  most  =  #m;  in  particular,  if  the  curve  of  the  order  n  is  an 
arbitrary  line  («=i),  then  the  order  of  the  resultant  equation 
is  =  w;  and  the  curve  of  the  order  m  meets  therefore  the  line  in 
m  points.  But  the  resultant  equation  may  have  all  or  any  of  its 
roots  imaginary,  and  it  is  thus  not  always  that  there  are  m  real 
intersections. 

The  notion  of  imaginary  intersections,  thus  presenting  itself, 
through  algebra,  in  geometry,  must  be  accepted  in  geometry — 
and  it  in  fact  plays  an  all-important  part  in  modern  geometry. 
As  in  algebra  we  say  that  an  equation  of  the  wtth  order  has 
m  roots,  viz.  we  state  this  generally  without  in  the  first  instance, 
or  it  may  be  without  ever,  distinguishing  whether  these  are  real 
or  imaginary;  so  in  geometry  we  say  that  a  curve  of  the  tntb 
order  is  met  by  an  arbitrary  line  in  m  points,  or  rather  we  thus, 
through  algebra,  obtain  the  proper  geometrical  definition  of  a 
curve  of  the  mth  order,  as  a  curve  which  is  met  by  an  arbitrary 
line  in  m  points  (that  is,  of  course,  in  m,  and  not  more  than  m, 
points). 

The  theorem  of  the  m  intersections  has  been  stated  in  regard 
to  an  arbitrary  line;  in  fact,  for  particular  lines  the  resultant 
equation  may  be  or  appear  to  be  of  an  order  less  than  m;  for 
instance,  taking  m=2,  if  the  hyperbola  xy— 1=0  be  cut  by  the 
line  y=j8,  the  resultant  equation  in  x  is  fix— 1=0,  and  there  is 
apparently  only  the  intersection  (x  =  i//3,  y =/3) ;  but  the  theorem 
is,  in  fact,  true  for  every  line  whatever:  a  curve  of  the  order  m 
meets  every  line  whatever  in  precisely  m  points.  We  have,  in  the 
case  just  referred  to,  to  take  account  of  a  point  at  infinity  on  the 
line  y=j3;  the  two  intersections  are  the  point  (x=i/J3,  y=fl), 
and  the  point  at  infinity  on  the  line  y=  /3.  . 

It  is,  moreover,  to  be  noticed  that  the  points  at  infinity  may 
be  all  or  any  of  them  imaginary,  and  that  the  points  of  intersec- 
tion, whether  finite  or  at  infinity,  real  or  imaginary,  may  coincide 
two  or  more  of  them  together,  and  have  to  be  counted  accord- 
ingly; to  support  the  theorem  in  its  universality,  it  is  necessary 
to  take  account  of  these  various  circumstances. 

5.  Line  at  Infinity.— The  foregoing  notion  of  a  point  at  infinity 
is  a  very  important  one  in  modern  geometry;  and  we  have  also 
to  consider  the  paradoxical  statement  that  in  plane  geometry, 
or  say  as  regards  the  plane,  infinity  is  a  right  line.     This  admits 
of  an  easy  illustration  in  solid  geometry.     If  with  a  given  centre 
of  projection,  by  drawing  from  it  lines  to  every  point  of  a  given 
line,  we  project  the  given  line  on  a  given  plane,  the  projection  is 
a  line,  i.e.  this  projection  is  the  intersection  of  the  given  plane 
with  the  plane  through  the  centre  and  the  given  line.     Say  the 
projection  is  always  a  line,  then  if  the  figure  is  such  that  the  two 
planes  are  parallel,  the  projection  is  the  intersection  of  the  given 
plane  by  a  parallel  plane,  or  it  is  the  system  of  points  at  infinity 
on  the  given  plane,  that  is,  these  points  at  infinity  are  regarded 
as  situate  on  a  given  line,  the  line  infinity  of  the  given  plane. 1 

1  In  solid  geometry  infinity  is  a  plane^— its  intersection  with  any 
given  plane  being  the  right  line  which  is°  the  infinity  of  this  given 
plane. 


CURVE 


655 


Reverting  to  the  purely  plane  theory,  infinity  is  a  line,  related 
like  any  other  right  line  to  the  curve,  and  thus  intersecting  it 
in  w  points,  real  or  imaginary,  distinct  or  coincident. 

Descartes  in  the  Geometric  defined  and  considered  the  re- 
markable curves  called  after  him  the  ovals  of  Descartes,  or  simply 
Cartesians,  which  will  be  again  referred  to.  The  next  important 
work,  founded  on  the  Geometrie,  was  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Enume- 
ratio  linearum  tertii  ordinis  (1706),  establishing  a  classification  of 
cubic  curves  founded  chiefly  on  the  nature  of  their  infinite 
branches,  which  was  in  some  details  completed  by  James  Stirling 
(1692-1770),  Patrick  Murdoch  (d.  1774)  and  Gabriel  Cramer; 
the  work  also  contains  the  remarkable  theorem  (to  be  again  re- 
ferred to),  that  there  are  five  kinds  of  cubic  curves  giving  by  their 
projections  every  cubic  curve  whatever.  Various  properties  of 
curves  in  general,  and  of  cubic  curves,  are  established  in  Colin 
Maclaurin's  memoir,  "De  linearum  geometricarum  proprietatibus 
generalibus  Tractatus  "  (posthumous,  say  1746,  published  in 
the  6th  edition  of  his  Algebra).  We  have  in  it  a  particular  kind 
of  correspondence  of  two  points  on  a  cubic  curve,  viz.  two  points 
correspond  to  each  other  when  the  tangents  at  the  two  points 
again  meet  the  cubic  in  the  same  point. 

6.  Reciprocal  Polars.  Intersections  of  Circles.  Duality. 
Trilinear  and  Tangential  Co-ordinates. — The  Geometrie  descriptive, 
by  Gaspard  Monge,  was  written  in  the  year  1794  or  1795  (7th 
edition,  Paris,  1847),  and  in  it  we  have  stated,  in  piano  with 
regard  to  the  circle,  and  in  three  dimensions  with  regard  to 
a  surface  of  the  second  order,  the  fundamental  theorem  of 
reciprocal  polars,  viz.  "  Given  a  surface  of  the  second  order 
and  a  circumscribed  conic  surface  which  touches  it ...  then 
if  the  conic  surface  moves  so  that  its  summit  is  always  in  the  same 
plane,  the  plane  of  the  curve  of  contact  passes  always  through 
the  same  point."  The  theorem  is  here  referred  to  partly  on 
account  of  its  bearing  on  the  theory  of  imaginaries  in  geometry. 
It  is  in  Charles  Julian  Brianchon's  memoir  "  Sur  les  surfaces  du 
second  degre  "  (Jour.  Polyt.  t.  vi.  1806)  shown  how  for  any  given 
position  of  the  summit  the  plane  of  contact  is  determined, 
or  reciprocally;  say  the  plane  XY  is  determined  when  the  point 
P  is  given,  or  reciprocally;  and  it  is  noticed  that  when  P  is 
situate  in  the  interior  of  the  surface  the  plane  XY  does  not  cut 
the  surface;  that  is,  we  have  a  real  plane  XY  intersecting  the 
surface  in  the  imaginary  curve  of  contact  of  the  imaginary 
circumscribed  cone  having  for  its  summit  a  given  real  point  P 
inside  the  surface. 

Stating  the  theorem  in  regard  to  a  conic,  we  have  a  real  point 
P  (called  the  pole)  and  a  real  line  XY  (called  the  polar),  the  line 
joining  the  two  (real  or  imaginary)  points  of  contact  of  the  (real 
or  imaginary)  tangents  drawn  from  the  point  to  the  conic;  and 
the  theorem  is  that  when  the  point  describes  a  line  the  line 
passes  through  a  point,  this  line  and  point  being  polar  and  pole 
to  each  other.  The  term  "  pole "  was  first  used  by  Francois 
Joseph  Servois,  and  "  polar  "  by  Joseph  Diez  Gergonne  (Gerg. 
t.  i.  and  iii.,  1810-1813);  and  from  the  theorem  we  have  the 
method  of  reciprocal  polars  for  the  transformation  of  geometrical 
theorems,  used  already  by  Brianchon  (in  the  memoir  above 
referred  to)  for  the  demonstration  of  the  theorem  called  by  his 
name,  and  in  a  similar  manner  by  various  writers  in  the  earlier 
volumes  of  Gergonne.  We  are  here  concerned  with  the  method 
less  in  itself  than  as  leading  to  the  general  notion  of  duality. 

Bearing  in  a  some'what  similar  manner  also  on  the  theory  of 
imaginaries  in  geometry  (but  the  notion  presents  itself  in  a  more 
explicit  form),  there  is  the  memoir  by  L.  Gaultier,  on  the  graphi- 
cal construction  of  circles  and  spheres  (Jour.  Polyt.  t.  ix.,  1813). 
The  well-known  theorem  as  to  radical  axes  may  be  stated  as 
follows.  Consider  two  circles  partially  drawn  so  that  it  does  not 
appear  whether  the  circles,  if  completed,  would  or  would  not 
intersect  in  real  points,  say  two  arcs  of  circles;  then  we  can, 
by  means  of  a  third  circle  drawn  so  as  to  intersect  in  two  real 
points  each  of  the  two  arcs,  determine  a  right  line,  which,  if 
the  complete  circles  intersect  in  two  real  points,  passes  through 
the  points,  and  which  is  on  this  account  regarded  as  a  line 
passing  through  two  (real  or  imaginary)  points  of  intersection 
of  the  two  circles.  The  construction  in  fact  is,  join  the  two 


points  in  which  the  third  circle  meets  the  first  arc,  and  join  also 
the  two  points  in  which  the  third  circle  meets  the  second  arc, 
and  from  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  two  joining  lines,  let 
fall  a  perpendicular  on  the  line  joining  the  centre  of  the  two 
circles;  this  perpendicular  (considered  as  an  indefinite  line)  is 
what  Gaultier  terms  the  "  radical  axis  of  the  two  circles  "; 
it  is  a  line  determined  by  a  real  construction  and  itself  always 
real;  and  by  what  precedes  it  is  the  line  joining  two  (real  or 
imaginary,  as  the  case  may  be)  intersections  of  the  given  circles. 

The  intersections  which  lie  on  the  radical  axis  are  two  out  of  the 
four  intersections  of  the  two  circles.  The  question  as  to  the 
remaining  two  intersections  did  not  present  itself  to  Gaultier,  but 
it  is  answered  in  Jean  Victor  Poncelet's  Traite  des  propritles 
projectives  (1822),  where  we  find  (p.  49)  the  statement,  "deux 
circles  places  arbitrairement  sur  un  plan  .  .  .  ont  idealement 
deux  points  imaginaires  communs  a  1'infini  ";  that  is,  a  circle 
qua  curve  of  the  second  order  is  met  by  the  line  infinity  in  two 
points;  but,  more  than  this,  they  are  the  same  two  points  for 
any  circle  whatever.  The  points  in  question  have  since  been 
called  (it  is  believed  first  by  Dr  George  Salmon)  the  circular  points 
at  infinity,  or  they  may  be  called  the  circular  points;  these  are 
also  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  points  I,  J;  and  we  have  thus 
the  circle  characterized  as  a  conic  which  passes  through  the  two 
circular  points  at  infinity;  the  number  of  conditions  thus  im- 
posed upon  the  conic  is  =2,  and  there  remain  three  arbitrary 
constants,  which  is  the  right  number  for  the  circle.  Poncelet 
throughout  his  work  makes  continual  use  of  the  foregoing  theories 
of  imaginaries  and  infinity,  and  also  of  the  before-mentioned 
theory  of  reciprocal  polars. 

Poncelet's  two  memoirs  Sur  les  centres  des  moyennes  harmoniques 
and  Sur  la  theorie  generale  des  polaires  reciproques,  although 
presented  to  the  Paris  Academy  in  1824,  were  only  published 
(Crelle,  t.  iii.  and  iv.,  1828,  1829)  subsequent  to  the  memoir  by 
Gergonne,  Considerations  pkilosophiques  sur  les  elemens  de  la 
science  de  I'etendue  (Gerg.  t.  xvi.,  1825-1826).  In  this  memoir 
by  Gergonne,  the  theory  of  duality  is  very  clearly  and  explicitly 
stated;  for  instance,  we  find  "  dans  la  geometric  plane,  a  chaque 
theoreme  il  en  repond  necessairement  un  autre  qui  s'en  deduit  en 
echangeant  simplement  entre  eux  les  deux  mots  points  et  droites; 
tandis  que  dans  la  geometric  de  1'espace  ce  sont  les  mots  points 
et  plans  qu'il  faut  echanger  entre  eux  pour  passer  d'un  theoreme 
a  son  correlatif  ";  and  the  plan  is  introduced  of  printing  corre- 
lative theorems,  opposite  to  each  other,  in  two  columns.  There 
was  a  reclamation  as  to  priority  by  Poncelet  in  the  Bulletin 
universel  reprinted  with  remarks  by  Gergonne  (Gerg.  t.  xix., 
1827),  and  followed  by  a  short  paper  by  Gergonne,  Rectifications 
de  quelques  Ihforemes,  &c.,  which  is  important  as  first  introducing 
the  word  class.  We  find  in  it  explicitly  the  two  correlative 
definitions:  "  a  plane  curve  is  said  to  be  of  the  wzth  degree 
(order)  when  it  has  with  a  line  m  real  or  ideal  intersections,"  and 
"  a  plane  curve  is  said  to  be  of  the  mth  class  when  from  any  point 
of  its  plane  there  can  be  drawn  to  it  m  real  or  ideal  tangents." 

It  may  be  remarked  that  in  Poncelet's  memoir  on  reciprocal 
polars,  above  referred  to,  we  have  the  theorem  that  the  number 
of  tangents  from  a  point  to  a  curve  of  the  order  m,  or  say  the  class 
of  the  curve,  is  in  general  and  at  most  —m(m-i),  and  that  he 
mentions  that  this  number  is  subject  to  reduction  when  the  curve 
has  double  points  or  cusps. 

The  theorem  of  duality  as  regards  plane  figures  may  be 
thus  stated:  two  figures  may  correspond  to  each  other  in  such 
manner  that  to  each  point  and  line  in  either  figure  there  corre- 
spond in  the  other  figure  a  line  and  point  respectively.  It  is 
to  be  understood  that  the  theorem  extends  to  all  points  or  lines, 
drawn  or  not  drawn;  thus  if  in  the  first  figure  there  are  any 
number  of  points  on  a  line  drawn  or  not  drawn,  the  corresponding 
lines  in  the  second  figure,  produced  if  necessary,  must  meet  in 
a  point.  And  we  thus  see  how  the  theorem  extends  to  curves, 
their  points  and  tangents;  if  there  is  in  the  first  figure  a  curve 
of  the  order  m,  any  line  meets  it  in  m  points;  and  hence  from  the 
corresponding  point  in  the  second  figure  there  must  be  to  the 
corresponding  curve  m  tangents;  that  is,  the  corresponding 
curve  must  be  of  the  class  m. 


656 


CURVE 


Trilinear  co-ordinates  (see  GEOMETRY  :  Analytical)  were  firs 
used  by  E.  E.  Bobillier  in  the  memoir  Essai  sur  un  nouveau  mod 
de  recherche  des  proprietes  de  I'etendue  (Gerg.  t.  xviii.,  1827-1828) 
It  is  convenient  to  use  these  rather  than  Cartesian  co-ordinates 
We  represent  a  curve  of  the  order  m  by  an  equation  (* $x,  y,  z)m  =  o 
the  function  on  the  left  hand  being  a  homogeneous  rational  ant 
integral  function  of  the  order  m  of  the  three  co-ordinates  (x,  y,  z) 
clearly  the  number  of  constants  is  the  same  as  for  the  equation 
(*$x,  y,  i)m  =  o  in  Cartesian  co-ordinates. 

The  theorem  of  duality  is  considered  and  developed,  but  chiefly 
in  regard  to  its  metrical  applications,  by  Michel  Chasles  in  the 
Memoire  de  geometric  sur  deux  principes  generaux  de  la  science 
la  dualite  et  I' homo  graphic,  which  forms  a  sequel  to  the  Aperc.it 
historique  sur  I'  origine  et  le  developpement  des  methodes  en  geometrii 
(Mem.  de  Brux.  t.  xi.,  1837). 

We  now  come  to  Julius  Plucker;  his  "  six  equations  "  were 
given  in  a  short  memoir  in  Crelle  (1842)  preceding  his  great  work, 
the  Theorie  der  algebraischen  Cunien  (1844).  Plucker  first  gave 
a  scientific  dual  definition  of  a  curve,  viz.;  "A  curve  is  a 
locus  generated  by  a  point,  and  enveloped  by  a  line — the  point 
moving  continuously  along  the  line,  while  the  line  rotates 
continuously  about  the  point "  ;  the  point  is  a  point  (ineunt.) 
of  the  curve,  the  line  is  a  tangent  of  the  curve.  And,  assuming 
the  above  theory  of  geometrical  imaginaries,  a  curve  such  that 
m  of  its  points  are  situate  in  an  arbitrary  line  is  said  to  be  of  the 
order  m;  a  curve  such  that  n  of  its  tangents  pass  through  an 
arbitrary  point  is  said  to  be  of  the  class  n;  as  already  appearing, 
this  notion  of  the  order  and  class  of  a  curve  is,  however,  due  to 
Gergonne.  Thus  the  line  is  a  curve  of  the  order  i  and  class  o; 
and  corresponding  dually  thereto,  we  have  the  point  as  a  curve 
of  the  order  o  and  class  i. 

Plucker,  moreover,  imagined  a  system  of  line-co-ordinates 
(tangential  co-ordinates).  (See  GEOMETRY:  Analytical.)  The 
Cartesian  co-ordinates  (x,  y)  and  trilinear  co-ordinates  (x,  y,  z) 
are  point-co-ordinates  for  determining  the  position  of  a 
point;  the  new  co-ordinates,  say  (£,  TJ,  f)  are  line-co-ordinates 
for  determining,  the  position  of  a  line.  It  is  possible,  and 
(not  so  much  for  any  application  thereof  as  in  order  to 
more  fully  establish  the  analogy  between  the  two  kinds  of 
co-ordinates)  important,  to  give  independent  quantitative 
definitions  of  the  two  kinds  of  co-ordinates;  but  we  may  also 
derive  the  notion  of  line-co-ordinates  from  that  of  point-co- 
ordinates;  viz.  taking  £r-Hj;y-f-fz=o  to  be  the  equation  of 
a  line,  we  say  that  (£,  17,  f)  are  the  line-co-ordinates  of  this  line. 
A  linear  relation  a£+bri+c£=o  between  these  co-ordinate 
determines  a  point,  viz.  the  point  whose  point-co-ordinates  are 
(a,  b,  c);  in  fact,  the  equation  in  question  a£+bri+c£ =o  ex- 
presses that  the  equation  ^+?jy+fz=o,  where  (*,  y,  z)  are 
current  point-co-ordinates,  is  satisfied  on  writing  therein 
x,  y,  z=a,  b,  c;  or  that  the  line  in  question  passes  through  the 
point  (a,  b,  c).  Thus  (£,  17,  f)  are  the  line-co-ordinates  of  any  line 
whatever  ;  but  when  these,  instead  of  being  absolutely  arbitrary, 
are  subject  to  the  restriction  a£+br)+cf =  o,  this  obliges  the  line 
to  pass  through  a  point  (a,  b,  c) ;  and  the  last-mentioned  equation 
a%+bri+c{  =o  is  considered  as  the  line-equation  of  this  point. 

A  line  has  only  a  point-equation,  and  a  point  has  only  a  line- 
equation;  but  any  other  curve  has  a  point-equation  and  also  a 
line-equation;  the  point-equation  (*5*,  y,  z)m=o  is  the  relation 
which  is  satisfied  by  the  point-co-ordinates  (x,  y,  z)  of  each  point 
of  the  curve;  and  similarly  the  line-equation  (*J£,  77,  f)"=o  is 
the  relation  which  is  satisfied  by  the  line-co-ordinates  ({,  17,  f) 
of  each  line  (tangent)  of  the  curve. 

There  is  in  analytical  geometry  little  occasion  for  any  explicit 
use  of  line-co-ordinates;  but  the  theory  is  very  important;  it 
serves  to  show  that  in  demonstrating  by  point-co-ordinates  any 
purely  descriptive  theorem  whatever,  we  demonstrate  the  cor- 
relative theorem;  that  is,  we  do  not  demonstrate  the  one  theorem, 
and  then  (as  by  the  method  of  reciprocal  polars)  deduce  from  it 
the  other,  but  we  do  at  one  and  the  same  time  demonstrate  the 
two  theorems;  our  (x,  y,z.)  instead  of  meaning  point-co-ordinates 
may  mean  line-co-ordinates,  and  the  demonstration  is  then  in 
every  step  of  it  a  demonstration  of  the  correlative  theorem. 


Point-singu- 
larities— 

Line-singu- 
larities— 


7.  Singularities  oj  a  Curve.  Plucker'  s  Equations.—  The  above 
dual  generation  explains  the  nature  of  the  singularities  of  a  plane 
curve.  The  ordinary  singularities,  arranged  according  to  a  cross 
division,  are 

Proper.  Improper. 

i.  The  stationary  point,  2.  The  double  point 

cusp  or  spinode  ;  or  node  ; 

3.  The   stationary    tan-  4.  The  double  tan- 
(          gent  or  inflection  ;  gent  ; 

arising  as  follows:  — 

1.  The  cusp:   the  point  as  it  travels  along  the  line  may  come  to 

rest,  and  then  reverse  the  direction  of  its  motion. 

3.  The  stationary  tangent:    the  line  may  in  the  course  of  its 

rotation  come  to  rest,  and  then  reverse  the  direction  of  its 
rotation. 

2.  The  node  :  the  point  may  in  the  course  of  its  motion  come  to 

coincide  with  a  former  position  of  the  point,  the  two  positions 
of  the  line  not  in  general  coinciding. 

4.  The  double  tangent  :   the  line  may  in  the  course  of  its  motion 

come  to  coincide  with  a  former  position  of  the  line,  the  two 
positions  of  the  point  not  in  general  coinciding. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  we  cannot  with  a  real  point  and 
line  obtain  the  node  with  two  imaginary  tangents  (conjugate  or 
isolated  point  or  acnode),  nor  again  the  real  double  tangent  with 
two  imaginary  points  of  contact;  but  this  is  of  little  consequence, 
since  in  the  general  theory  the  distinction  between  real  and 
imaginary  is  not  attended  to. 

The  singularities  (i)  and  (3)  have  been  termed  proper  singu- 
larities, and  (2)  and  (4)  improper;  in  each  of  the  first-mentioned 
cases  there  is  a  real  singularity,  or  peculiarity  in  the  motion; 
in  the  other  two  cases  there  is  not;  in  (2)  there  is  not  when  the 
point  is  first  at  the  node,  or  when  it  is  secondly  at  the  node,  any 
peculiarity  in  the  motion;  the  singularity  consists  in  the  point 
coming  twice  into  the  same  position;  and  so  in  (4)  the  singularity 
is  in  the  line  coming  twice  into  the  same  position.  Moreover 
(i)  and  (2)  are,  the  former  a  proper  singularity,  and  the  latter 
an  improper  singularity,  as  regards  the  motion  of  the  point;  and 
similarly  (3)  and  (4)  are,  the  former  a  proper  singularity,  and  the 
latter  an  improper  singularity,  as  regards  the  motion  of  the  line. 

But  as  regards  the  representation  of  a  curve  by  an  equation, 
the  case  is  very  different. 

First,  if  the  equation  be  in  point-co-ordinates,  (3)  and  (4)  are 
in  a  sense  not  singularities  at  all.  The  curve  (*J  x,  y,  z)m  =  o, 
or  general  curve  of  the  order  m,  has  double  tangents  and  in- 
flections; (2)  presents  itself  as  a  singularity,  for  the  equations 
d,(*lx,  y,  z)m=o,d,(*lx,  y,  z)m=o,  </z(*{  x,y,  z)"  =  o,  implying 
(*Jj*,  y,  z)m  =  o,  are  not  in  general  satisfied  by  any  values  (a,  b,  c) 
whatever  of  (*,  y,  z),  but  if  such  values  exist,  then  the  point 
(a,  b,  c)  is  a  node  or  double  point;  and  (i)  presents  itself  as  a 
Further  singularity  or  sub-case  of  (2),  a  cusp  being  a  double  point 
For  which  the  two  tangents  becomes  coincident. 

In  line-co-ordinates  all  is  reversed:  —  (i)  and  (2)  are  not  singu- 
larities ;  (3)  presents  itself  as  a  sub-case  of  (4). 

The  theory  of  compound  singularities  will  be  referred  to  farther 
on. 

In  regard  to  the  ordinary  singularities,  we  have 
m,  the  order, 
n         class, 

number  of  double  points, 
,,      cusps, 

,,       double  tangents, 
,,       inflections; 

and  this  being  so,  Pliicker's  "  six  equations  "  are 
(i)     n  =  m  (m  —  i)—  26—  3*, 
(1)     i=T,m  (m-2)-6S-8>c, 


(3)  T  = 

(4)  m  =  w(n-i)-2r- 

(5)  x  =  3»  (n-2)-6r-8i, 

(6)  S  =  |M(n-2)(n2-9)-(n2-n-6)  (2T+30+2T(r-  l)+6rt 

+ii(«-l). 

t  is  easy  to  derive  the  further  forms  — 

(7)  »  —  «  =  3(n—m), 

(8)  2(r-«)  =  (n-m)  (rt+m-9), 

(9)  iw(nJ+3)-«-2«c  =  in(n+3)-i~-2i. 

(10)     J  (m-i)  (m-2)  -«-<t  =J(w-i)  (n_2)-T-., 
(11,  12)  m2-2«- 


CURVE 


657 


the  whole  system  being  equivalent  to  three  equations  only;  and 
it  may  be  added  that  using  a  to  denote  the  equal  quantities 
3/w+i  and  3»  +*c  everything  may  be  expressed  in  termsof  m,n,a. 
We  have 

«=o— 3», 

i  =  a— yn, 

25  =  m2  —  m+8n—  30. 

2r  =  n2  — n-\-8m— 30. 

It  is  implied  in  Pliicker's  theorem  that,  m,  n,  d,  <c,  T,  i  signifying 
as  above  in  regard  to  any  curve,  then  in  regard  to  the  reciprocal 
curve,  n,  m,  T,  i,  S,  K  will  have  the  same  significations,  viz.  for  the 
reciprocal  curve  these  letters  denote  respectively  the  order,  class, 
number  of  nodes,  cusps,  double  tangent  and  inflections. 

The  expression  ?  m(m+3)—  S  —  2n  is  that  of  the  number  of  the 
disposable  constants  in  a  curve  of  the  order  m  with  S  nodes  and  K 
cusps  (in  fact  that  there  shall  be  a  node  is  I  condition,  a  cusp  2 
conditions)  and  the  equation  (9)  thus  expresses  that  the  curve  and 
its  reciprocal  contain  each  of  them  the  same  number  of  disposable 
constants. 

For  a  curve  of  the  order  m,  the  expression  $m(m  —  i)  —  S—  K  is 
termed  the  "  deficiency  "  (as  to  this  more  hereafter) ;  the  equation 
(10)  expresses  therefore  that  the  curve  and  its  reciprocal  have  each 
of  them  the  same  deficiency. 

The  relations  OT2  — 28— 3<c  =  n2—2T—3t,=»i+n,  present  themselves 
in  the  theory  of  envelopes,  as  will  appear  farther  on. 

With  regard  to  the  demonstration  of  Pliicker's  equations  it 
is  to  be  remarked  that  we  are  not  able  to  write  down  the  equation 
in  point-co-ordinates  of  a  curve  of  the  order  m,  having  the  given 
numbers  5  and  K  of  nodes  and  cusps.  We  can  only  use  the  general 
equation  (*\x,  y,  z)m  =  o,  say  for  shortness  u=o,  of  a  curve  of  the 
mth  order,  which  equation,  so  long  as  the  coefficients  remain 
arbitrary,  represents  a  curve  without  nodes  or  cusps.  Seeking 
then,  for  this  curve,  the  values,  n,  i,  T  of  the  class,  number  of 
inflections,  and  number  of  double  tangents, — first,  as  regards 
the  class,  this  is  equal  to  the  number  of  tangents  which  can  be 
drawn  to  the  curve  from  an  arbitrary  point,  or  what  is  the  same 
thing,  it  is  equal  to  the  number  of  the  points  of  contact  of  these 
tangents.  The  points  of  contact  are  found  as  the  intersections 
of  the  curve  «  =  o  by  a  curve  depending  on  the  position  of  the 
arbitrary  point,  and  called  the  "first  polar"  of  this  point; 
the  order  of  the  first  polar  is  =m—i,  and  the  number  of  inter- 
sections is  thus  =m(m—i).  But  it  can  be  shown,  analytically 
or  geometrically,  that  if  the  given  curve  has  a  node,  the  first 
polar  passes  through  this  node,  which  therefore  counts  as  two 
intersections,  and  that  if  the  curve  has  a  cusp,  the  first  polar 
passes  through  the  cusp,  touching  the  curve  there,  and  hence 
the  cusp  counts  as  three  intersections.  But,  as  is  evident,  the 
node  or  cusp  is  not  a  point  of  contact  of  a  proper  tangent  from  the 
arbitrary  point;  we  have,  therefore,  for  a  node  a  diminution  2, 
and  for  a  cusp  a  diminution  3,  in  the  number  of  the  intersections; 
and  thus,  for  a  curve  with  5  nodes  and  /c  cusps,  there  is  a  diminu- 
tion 25+3/c,  and  the  value  of  «  is  n  =  m  (m— i)  — 26— 3/c. 

Secondly,  as  to  the  inflections,  the  process  is  a  similar  one;  it 
can  be  shown  that  the  inflections  are  the  intersections  of  the 
curve  by  a  derivative  curve  called  (after  Ludwig  Otto  Hesse 
who  first  considered  it)  the  Hessian,  defined  geometrically  as 
the  locus  of  a  point  such  that  its  conic  polar  (§  8  below)  in  regard 
to  the  curve  breaks  up  into  a  pair  of  lines,  and  which  has  an 
equation  H  =  o,  where  H  is  the  determinant  formed  with  the 
second  differential  coefficients  of  «  in  regard  to  the  variables 
(x,  y,  z);  H=o  is  thus  a  curve  of  the  order  3(m— 2),  and  the 
number  of  inflections  is  =^m(m  —  2).  But  if  the  given  curve 
has  a  node,  then  not  only  the  Hessian  passes  through  the  node, 
but  it  has  there  a  node  the  two  branches  at  which  touch  re- 
spectively the  two  branches  of  the  curve;  and  the  node  thus 
counts  as  six  intersections;  so  if  the  curve  has  a  cusp,  then  the 
Hessian  not  only  passes  through  the  cusp,  but  it  has  there  a  cusp 
through  which  it  again  passes,  that  is,  there  is  a  cuspidal  branch 
touching  the  cuspidal  branch  of  the  curve,  and  besides  a  simple 
branch  passing  through  the  cusp,  and  hence  the  cusp  counts  as 
eight  intersections.  The  node  or  cusp  is  not  an  inflection,  and  we 
have  thus  for  a  node  a  diminution  6,  and  for  a  cusp  a  diminution  8, 
in  the  number  of  the  intersections;  hence  for  a  curve  with  5  nodes 
and  K  cusps,  the  diminution  is  =66+8*,  and  the  number  of 
inflections  is  i  =  $m(m  —  2)  —  68  —  8x. 

Thirdly,  for  the  double  tangents;  the  points  of  contact   of 


these  are  obtained  as  the  intersections  of  the  curve  by  a  curve 
II  =  o,  which  has  not  as  yet  been  geometrically  defined,  but  which 
is  found  analytically  to  be  of  the  order  (m— 2)  (m2— 9);  the 
number  of  intersections  is  thus  =m(m-2)  (mf-g);  but  if  the 
given  curve  has  a  node  then  there  is  a  diminution  =4(wt2— m— 6), 
and  if  it  has  a  cusp  then  there  is  a  diminution  =6(m2— m— 6), 
where,  however,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  factor  (nf—m—6) 
is  in  the  case  of  a  curve  having  only  a  node  or  only  a  cusp  the 
number  of  the  tangents  which  can  be  drawn  from  the  node  or  cusp 
to  the  curve,  and  is  used  as  denoting  the  number  of  these  tangents, 
and  ceases  to  be  the  correct  expression  if  the  number  of  nodes 
and  cusps  is  greater  than  unity.  Hence,  in  tke  case  of  a  curve 
which  has  5  nodes  and  K  cusps,  the  apparent  diminution 
2(m2— m— 6)(25+3*c)  is  too  great,  and  it  has  in  fact  to  be 
diminished  by  2  ( (25(8—  i)+66/c+f  K(K—  i)  j ,  or  the  half  thereof  is 
4  for  each  pair  of  nodes,  6  for  each  combination  of  a  node  and 
cusp,  and  9  for  each  pair  of  cusps.  We  have  thus  finally  an  ex- 
pression for  2T,  =m  (m—2)  (m2— 9)  — &c.;  or  dividing  the  whole 
by  2,  we  have  the  expression  for  r  given  by  the  third  of  Pliicker's 
equations. 

It  is  obvious  that  we  cannot  by  consideration  of  the  equation 
u  =  o  in  point-co-ordinates  obtain  the  remaining  three  of  Pliicker's 
equations;  they  might  be  obtained  in  a  precisely  analogous 
manner  by  means  of  the  equation  v = o  in  line-co-ordinates,but  they 
follow  at  once  from  the  principle  of  duality,  viz.  they  are  obtained 
by  the  mere  interchange  of  m,  B,  K,  with  .n,  T,  i  respectively. 

To  complete  Pliicker's  theory  it  is  necessary  to  take  account 
of  compound  singularities;  it  might  be  possible,  but  it  is  at  any 
rate  difficult,  to  effect  this  by  considering  the  curve  as  in  course  of 
description  by  the  point  moving  along  the  rotating  line;  and  it 
seems  easier  to  consider  the  compound  singularity  as  arising 
from  the  variation  of  an  actually  described  curve  with  ordinary 
singularities.  The  most  simple  case  is  when  three  double  points 
come  into  coincidence,  thereby  giving  rise  to  a  triple  point; 
and  a  somewhat  more  complicated  one  is  when  we  have  a  cusp 
of  the  second  kind,  or  node-cusp  arising  from  the  coincidence 
of  a  node,  a  cusp,  an  inflection,  and  a  double  tangent,  as  shown 
in  the  annexed  figure,  which  represents  the  singularities  as  on  the 


point  of  coalescing.  The  general  conclusion  (see  Cayley,  Quart. 
Math.  Jour.  t.  vii.,  1866,  "  On  the  higher  singularities  of  plane 
curves ";  Collected  Works,  v.  520)  is  that  every  singularity 
whatever  may  be  considered  as  compounded  of  ordinary  singu- 
larities, say  we  have  a  singularity  =5'  nodes,  K7  cusps,  r'  double 
tangents  and  i'  inflections.  So  that,  in  fact,  Pliicker's  equations 
properly  understood  apply  to  a  curve  with  any  singularities 
whatever. 
By  means  of  Pliicker's  equations  we  may  form  a  table — 


m 

n 

a 

K 

T 

( 

o  . 

I 

_ 

— 

o 

O 

0 

o 

O 

— 

— 

2 

2 

0 

o 

0 

0 

3 

6 

o 

0 

o 

9 

4 

I 

o 

o 

3 

3 

o 

I 

o 

i 

4 

12 

o 

o 

28 

24 

10 

I 

o 

16 

18 

9 

o 

I 

10 

16 

8 

2 

o 

8 

12 

7 

I 

I 

4 

IO 

6 

0 

2 

I 

8 

6 

3 

O 

4 

6 

5 

2 

I 

2 

4 

4 

I 

2 

I 

2 

3 

0 

3 

I 

O 

658 


CURVE 


The  table  is  arranged  according  to  the  value  of  m;  and  we  have 
m  =  o,  »=i,  the  point;  m—i,  n  =  o,  tfie  line;  m=2,  n=2,  the 
conic;  of  m  =  3,  the  cubic,  there  are  three  cases,  the  class  being 
6,  4  or  3,  according  as  the  curve  is  without  singularities,  or  as  it 
has  i  node  or  i  cusp;  and  so  of  »»  =  4,  the  quartic,  there  are  ten 
cases,  where  observe  that  in  two  of  them  the  class  is  =6, — the 
reduction  of  class  arising  from  two  cusps  or  else  from  three  nodes. 
The  ten  cases  may  be  also  grouped  together  into  four,  according 
as  the  number  of  nodes  and  cusps  (5+x)  is  =o,  i,  2  or  3. 

The  cases  may  be  divided  into  sub-cases,  by  the  consideration 
of  compound  singularities;  thus  when  m  =  4,  n  =  6,  5  =  3,  the 
three  nodes  may  be  all  distinct,  which  is  the  general  case,  or  two 
of  them  may  unite  together  into  the  singularity  called  a  tacnode, 
or  all  three  may  unite  together  into  a  triple  point  or  else  into  an 
oscnode. 

We  may  further  consider  the  inflections  and  double  tangents, 
as  well  in  general  as  in  regard  to  cubic  and  quartic  curves. 

The  expression  for  the  number  of  inflections  ym(m  -  2)  for  a 
curve  of  the  order  m  was  obtained  analytically  by  Plucker, 
but  the  theory  was  first  given  in  a  complete  form  by  Hesse  in 
the  two  papers  "  t)ber  die  Elimination,  u.s.w.,"  and  "  tJber 
die  Wendepuncte  der  Curven  dritter  Ordnung  "  (Crelle,  t.  xxviii., 
1844);  in  the  latter  of  these  the  points  of  inflection  are  obtained 
as  the  intersections  of  the  curve  u  —  o  with  the  Hessian,  or  curve 
A  =  o,  where  A  is  the  determinant  formed  with  the  second  derived 
functions  of  u.  We  have  in  the  Hessian  the  first  instance  of  a 
covariant  of  a  ternary  form.  The  whole  theory  of  the  inflections 
of  a  cubic  curve  is  discussed  in  a  very  interesting  manner  by 
means  of  the  canonical  form  of  the  equati6n  x3+y3+z>+6lxyz=  o; 
and  in  particular  a  proof  is  given  of  Pliicker's  theorem  that  the 
nine  points  of  inflection  of  a  cubic  curve  lie  by  threes  in  twelve 
lines. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  the  nine  inflections  of  a  cubic  curve 
represented  by  an  equation  with  real  coefficients  are  three  real, 
six  imaginary;  the  three  real  inflections  lie  in  a  line,  as  was  known 
to  Newton  and  Maclaurin.  For  an  acnodal  cubic  the  six 
imaginery  inflections  disappear,  and  there  remain  three  real 
inflections  lying  in  a  line.  For  a  crunodal  cubic  the  six  inflections 
which  disappear  are  two  of  them  real,  the  other  four  imaginary, 
and  there  remain  two  imaginary  inflections  and  one  real  inflection. 
For  a  cuspidal  cubic  the  six  imaginary  inflections  and  two  of  the 
real  inflections  disappear,  and  there  remains  one  real  inflection. 

A  quartic  curve  has  24  inflections;  it  was  conjectured  by 
George  Salmon,  and  has  been  verified  by  H.  G.  Zeuthen  that  at 
most  eight  of  these  are  real. 

The  expression  %m(m-2)(m?-<))  for  the  number  of  double 
tangents  of  a  curve  of  the  order  m  was  obtained  by  Pliicker  only 
as  a  consequence  of  his  first,  second,  fourth  and  fifth  equations. 
An  investigation  by  means  of  the  curve  II  =  o,  which  by  its  inter- 
sections with  the  given  curve  determines  the  points  of  contact  of 
the  double  tangents,  is  indicated  by  Cayley,  "  Recherches  sur 
1'elimination  et  la  theorie  des  courbes  "  (Crelle,  t.  xxxiv.,  1847; 
Collected  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  337),  and  in  part  carried  out  by  Hesse 
in  the  memoir  "  Uber  Curven  dritter  Ordnung  "  (Crelle,  t. 
xxxvi.,  1848).  A  better  process  was  indicated  by  Salmon  in 
the  "  Note  on  the  Double  Tangents  to  Plane  Curves,"  Phil.  Mag., 
1858;  considering  the  m-2  points  in  which  any  tangent  to 
the  curve  again  meets  the  curve,  he  showed  how  to  form  the 
equation  of  a  curve  of  the  order  (m-2),  giving  by  its  inter- 
section with  the  tangent  the  points  in  question;  «naking  the 
tangent  touch  this  curve  of  the  order  (m-2),  it  will  be  a  double 
tangent  of  the  original  curve.  See  Cayley,  "  On  the  Double 
Tangents  of  a  Plane  Curve  "  (Phil.  Trans,  t.  cxlviii.,  1859; 
Collected  Works,  iv.  186),  and  O.  Dersch  (Math.  Ann.  t.  vii., 
1874).  The  solution  is  still  in  so  far  incomplete  that  we  have  no 
properties  of  the  curve  II  =  o,  to  distinguish  one  such  curve  from 
the  several  other  curves  which  pass  through  the  points  of  contact 
of  the  double  tangents. 

A  quartic  curve  has  28  double  tangents,  their  points  of  contact 
determined  as  the  intersections  of  the  curve  by  a  curve  II  =  o 
of  the  order  14,  the  equation  ofjwhich  in  a  very  elegant  form  was 
first  obtained  by  Hesse  (1849).  Investigations  in  regard  to  them 


are  given  by  Plucker  in  the  Theorie  der  algebraischen  Curven, 
and  in  two  memoirs  by  Hesse  and  Jacob  Steiner  (Crelle,  t.  xlv., 
1855),  in  respect  to  the  triads  of  double  tangents  which  have  their 
points  of  contact  on  a  conic  and  other  like  relations.  It  was 
assumed  by  Plucker  that  the  number  of  real  double  tangents 
might  be  28,  16,  8,  4  or  o,  but  Zeuthen  has  found  that  the  last 
case  does  not  exist. 

8.  Invariants  and  Covariants.  Polar  Curves.  —  The  Hessian  A 
has  just  been  spoken  of  as  a  covariant  of  the  form  u;  the  notion 
of  invariants  and  covariants  belongs  rather  to  the  form  u  than 
to  the  curve  u=o  represented  by  means  of  this  form;  and  the 
theory  may  be  very  briefly  referred  to.  A  curve  «  =  o  may  have 
some  invariantive  property,  viz.  a  property  independent  of 
the  particular  axes  of  co-ordinates  used  in  the  representation 
of  the  curve  by  its  equation;  for  instance,  the  curve  may  have 
a  node,  and  in  order  to  this,  a  relation,  say  A  =  o,  must  exist 
between  the  coefficients  of  the  equation;  supposing  the  axes 
of  co-ordinates  altered,  so  that  the  equation  becomes  «'=o,  and 
writing  A'  =  o  for  the  relation  between  the  new  coefficients,  then 
the  relations  A  =  o,  A'  =  o,  as  two  different  expressions  of  the 
same  geometrical  property,  must  each  of  them  imply  tiie  other; 
this  can  only  be  the  case  when  A,  A'  are  functions  differing 
only  by  a  constant  factor,  or  say,  when  A  is  an  invariant  of  u. 
If,  however,  the  geometrical  propertyLrequires  two  or  more  rela- 
tions between  the  coefficients,  say  A  =  o,  B  =  o,&c.,  then  we  must 
have  between  the  new  coefficients  the  like  relations,  A'  =  o,  B'  =  o, 
&c.,  and  the  two  systems  of  equations  must  each  of  them  imply 
the  other;  when  this  is  so,  the  system  of  equations,  A  =  o,  B  =  o, 
&c.,  is  said  to  be  invariantive,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  A,  B, 
&c.,  are  of  necessity  invariants  of  u.  Similarly,  if  we  have  a 
curve  U  =  o  derived  from  the  curve  u  =  o  in  a  manner  independent 
of  the  particular  axes  of  co-ordinates,  then  from  the  transformed 
equation  u'  =  o  deriving  in  like  manner  the  curve  U'  =  o,  the 
two  equations  U  =  o,  U'  =  o  must  each  of  them  imply  the  other; 
and  when  this  is  so,  U  will  be  a  covariant  of  u.  The  case  is  less 
frequent,  but  it  may  arise,  that  there  are  covariant  systems 
U  =  o,  V  =  o,  &c.,  and  U'  =  o,  V'  =  o,  &c.,  each  implying  the  other, 
but  where  the  functions  U,  V,  &c.,  are  not  of  necessity  covariants 
of  u. 

If  we  take  a  fixed  point  (x',y'j?)  and  a  curve  «  =  o  of  order 
m,  and  suppose  the  axes  of  reference  altered,  so  that  x',  y',  z7 
are  linearly  transformed  in  the  same  way  as  the  current  x,  y,  z, 
the  curves  *V  +/~  +z'  Tu  =  o,  (r=i,  2,  .  .  .m  —  i)have  the 


covariant  property.  They  are  the  polar  curves  of  the  point  with 
regard  to  «=o. 

The  theory  of  the  invariants  and  covariants  of  a  ternary  cubic 
function  u  has  been  studied  in  detail,  and  brought  into  connexion 
with  the  cubic  curve  w=o;  but  the  theory  of  the  invariants  and 
covariants  for  the  next  succeeding  case,  the  ternary  quartic 
function,  is  still  very  incomplete. 

9.  Envelope  of  a  Curve.  —  In  further  illustration  of  the  Pliickerian 
dual  generation  of  a  curve,  we  may  consider  the  question  of  the 
envelope  of  a  variable  curve.  The  notion  is  very  probably  older, 
but  it  is  at  any  rate  to  be  found  in  Lagrange's  Theorie  desfonctions 
cmalyliques  (1798)  ;  it  is  there  remarked  that  the  equation  obtained 
by  the  elimination  of  the  parameter  a  from  an  equation/  (x,y,a)  =  o 
and  the  derived  equation  in  respect  to  a  is  a  curve,  the  envelope 
of  the  series  of  curves  represented  by  the  equation  /  (x,y,a)  =  o 
in  question.  To  develop  the  theory,  consider  the  curve  corre- 
sponding to  any  particular  value  of  the  parameter;  this  has 
with  the  consecutive  curve  (or  curve  belonging  to  the  consecutive 
value  of  the  parameter)  a  certain  number  of  intersections  and 
of  common  tangents,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  tangents 
at  the  intersections;  and  the  so-called  envelope  is  the  curve 
which  is  at  the  same  time  generated  by  the  points  of  intersection 
and  enveloped  by  the  common  tangents;  we  have  thus  a  dual 
generation.  But  the  question  needs  to  be  further  examined. 
Suppose  that  in  general  the  variable  curve  is  of  the  order  m  with 
5  nodes  and  K  cusps,  and  therefore  of  the  class.  «  with  T  double 
tangents  and  i  inflections,  m,  n,  5,  K,  r,  i  being  connected  by  the 
Pliickerian  equations,  —  the  number  of  nodes  or  cusps  may  be 


CURVE 


659 


greater  for  particular  values  of  the  parameter,  but  this  is  a 
speciality  which  may  be  here  disregarded.  Considering  the  vari- 
able curve  corresponding  to  a  given  value  of  the  parameter, 
or  say  simply  the  variable  curve,  the  consecutive  curve  has  then 
also  5  and  K  nodes  and  cusps,  consecutive  to  those  of  the  variable 
curve;  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  among  the  intersections  of  the 
two  curves  we  have  the  nodes  each  counting  twice,  and  the  cusps 
each  counting  three  times;  the  number  of  the  remaining  inter- 
sectiousis  —rrf—  28— 3*.  Similarly  among  the  common  tangents 
of  the  two  curves  we  have  the  double  tangents  each  counting 
twice,  and  the  stationary  tangents  each  counting  three  times,  and 
*  the  number  of  the  remaining  common  tangents  is  =  «2— 27— 31 
(  =  m2— 26— 3/c,  inasmuch  as  each  of  these  numbers  is  as  was 
seen  =m-\-n).  At  any  one  of  the  m1— 28— 3*  points  the  variable 
curve  and  the  consecutive  curve  have  tangents  distinct  from  yet 
infinitesimally  near  to  each  other,  and  each  of  these  two  tangents 
is  also  infinitesimally  near  to  one  of  the  w2— 27— 31  common 
tangents  of  the  two  curves;  whence,  attending  only  to  the 
variable  curve,  and  considering  the  consecutive  curve  as  coming 
into  actual  coincidence  with  it,  the  »2—  27—31  common  tangents 
are  the  tangents  to  the  variable  curve  at  the  w2—  25— 3*  points 
respectively,  and  the  envelope  is  at  the  same  time  generated 
by  the  »t2—  25— 3*  points,  and  enveloped  by  the  «2— 27— 31 
tangents;  we  have  thus  a  dual  generation  of  the  envelope, 
which  only  differs  from  Plucker's  dual  generation,  in  that  in  place 
of  a  single  point  and  tangent  we  have  the  group  of  w2—  25— 3* 
points  and  «2— 27— 31  tangents. 

The  parameter  which  determines  the  variable  curve  may  be 
given  as  a  point  upon  a  given  curve,  or  say  as  a  parametric 
point;  that  is,  to  the  different  positions  of  the  parametric  point 
on  the  given  curve  correspond  the  different  variable  curves, 
and  the  nature  of  the  envelope  will  thus  depend  on  that  of  the 
given  curve;  we  have  thus  the  envelope  as  a  derivative  curve 
of  the  given  curve.  Many  well-known  derivative  curves  present 
themselves  in  this  manner;  thus  the  variable  curve  may  be 
the  normal  (or  line  at  right  angles  to  the  tangent)  at  any  point 
of  the  given  curve;  the  intersection  of  the  consecutive  normals 
is  the  centre  of  curvature;  and  we  have  the  evolute  as  at  once 
the  locus  of  the  centre  of  curvature  and  the  envelope  of  the 
normal.  It  may  be  added  that  the  given  curve  is  one  of  a  series 
of  curves,  each  cutting  the  several  normals  at  right  angles.  Any 
one  of  these  is  a  "  parallel  "  of  the  given  curve;  and  it  can  be 
obtained  as  the  envelope  of  a  circle  of  constant  radius  having 
its  centre  on  the  given  curve.  We  have  in  like  manner,  as 
derivatives  of  a  given  curve,  the  caustic,  catacaustic  or  diacaustic 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  the  secondary  caustic,  or  curve  cutting 
at  right  angles  the  reflected  or  refracted  rays. 

10.  Forms  of  Real  Curves. — We  have  in  much  that  precedes 
disregarded, or  at  least  been  indifferent  to,  reality;  it  is  only  thus 
that  the  conception  of  a  curve  of  the  m-th  order,  as  one  which 
is  met  by  every  right  line  in  m  points, is  arrived  at;  and  the  curve 
itself,  and  the  line  which  cuts  it,  although  both  are  tacitly 
assumed  to  be  real,  may  perfectly  well  be  imaginary.  For 
real  figures  we  have  the  general  theorem  that  imaginary  inter- 
sections, &c.,  present  themselves  in  conjugate  pairs;  hence,  in 
particular,  that  a  curve  of  an  even  order  is  met  by  a  line  in  an 
even  number  (which  may  be  =o)  of  points;  a  curve  of  an  odd 
order  in  an  odd  number  of  points,  hence  in  one  point  at  least; 
it  will  be  seen  further  on  that  the  theorem  may  be  generalized  in 
a  remarkable  manner.  Again,  when  there  is  in  question  only 
one  pair  of  points  or  lines,  these,  if  coincident,  must  be  real; 
thus,  a  line  meets  a  cubic  curve  in  three  points,  one  of  them 
real,  and  other  two  real  or  imaginary;  but  if  two  of  the  inter- 
sections coincide  they  must  be  real,  and  we  have  a  line  cutting 
a  cubic  in  one  real  point  and  touching  it  in  another  real  point. 
It  may  be  remarked  that  this  is  a  limit  separating  the  two  cases 
where  the  intersections  are  all  real,  and  where  they  are  one  real, 
two  imaginary. 

Considering  always  real  curves,  we  obtain  the  notion  of  a 
branch;  any  portion  capable  of  description  by  the  continuous 
motion  of  a  point  is  a  branch;  and  a  curve  consists  of  one  or 
more  branches.  Thus  the  curve  of  the  first  order  or  right  line 


consists  of  one  branch;  but  in  curves  of  the  second  order,  or 
conies,  the  ellipse  and  the  parabola  consist  each  of  one  branch,  the 
hyperbola  of  two  branches.  A  branch  is  either  re-entrant,  or 
it  extends  both  ways  to  infinity,  and  in  this  case,  we  may  regard 
it  as  consisting  of  two  legs  (crura,  Newton),  each  extending  one 
way  to  infinity,  but  without  any  definite  separation.  The  branch , 
whether  re-entrant  or  infinite,  may  have  a  cusp  or  cusps,  or  it  may 
cut  itself  or  another  branch,  thus  having  or  giving  rise  to  crunodes 
or  double  points  with  distinct  real  tangents;  an  acnode,  or 
double  point  with  imaginary  tangents,  is  a  branch  by  itself, — 
it  may  be  considered  as  an  indefinitely  small  re-entrant  branch. 
A  branch  may  have  inflections  and  double  tangents,  or  there 
may  be  double  tangents  which  touch  two  distinct  branches; 
there  are  also  double  tangents  with  imaginary  points  of  contact, 
which  are  thus  lines  having  no  visible  connexion  with  the  curve. 
A  re-entrant  branch  not  cutting  itself  may  be  everywhere 
convex,  and  it  is  then  properly  said  to  be  an  oval;  but  the  term 
oval  may  be  used  more  generally  for  any  re-entrant  branch  not 
cutting  itself;  and  we  may  thus  speak  of  a  once  indented,  twice 
indented  oval,  &c.,  or  even  of  a  cuspidate  oval.  Other  descriptive 
names  for  ovals  and  re-entrant  branches  cutting  themselves 
may  be  used  when  required;  thus,  in  the  last-mentioned  case 
a  simple  form  is  that  of  a  figure  of  eight;  such  a  form  may  break 
up  into  two  ovals  or  into  a  doubly  indented  oval  or  hour-glass. 
A  form  which  presents  itself  is  when  two  ovals,  one  inside  the 
other,  unite,  so  as  to  give  rise  to  a  crunode — in  default  of  a  better 
name  this  may  be  called,  after  the  curve  of  that  name,  a  limacon 
(<?.».).  Names  may  also  be  used  for  the  different  forms  of  infinite 
branches,  but  we  have  first  to  consider  the  distinction  of  hyper- 
bolic and  parabolic.  The  leg  of  an  infinite  branch  may  have  at 
the  extremity  a  tangent;  this  is  an  asymptote  of  the  curve, 
and  the  leg  is  then  hyperbolic;  or  the  leg  may  tend  to  a  fixed 
direction,  but  so  that  the  tangent  goes  further  and  further  off 
to  infinity,  and  the  leg  is  then  parabolic;  a  branch  may  thus 
be  hyperbolic  or  parabolic  as  to  its  two  legs;  or  it  may  be  hyper- 
bolic as  to  one  leg  and  parabolic  as  to  the  other.  The  epithets 
hyperbolic  and  parabolic  are  of  course  derived  from  the  conic 
hyperbola  and  parabola  respectively.  The  nature  of  the  two 
kinds  of  branches  is  best  understood  by  considering  them  as 
projections,  in  the  same  way  as  we  in  effect  consider  the  hyperbola 
and  the  parabola  as  projections  of  the  ellipse.  If  a  line  fl  cut 
a*n  arc  aa'  at  b,  so  that  the  two  segments  ab,  ba'  lie  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  line,  then  projecting  the  figure  so  that  the  line  Q  goes 
off  to  infinity,  the  tangent  at  b  is  projected  into  the  asymptote, 
and  the  arc  ab  is  projected  into  a  hyperbolic  leg  touching  the 
asymptote  at  one  extremity;  the  arc  ba'  will  at  the  same  time 
be  projected  into  a  hyperbolic  leg  touching  the  same  asymptote 
at  the  other  extremity  (and  on  the  opposite  side),  but  so  that  the 
two  hyperbolic  legs  may  or  may  not  belong  to  one  and  the  same 
branch.  And  we  thus  see  that  the  two  hyperbolic  legs  belong 
to  a  simple  intersection  of  the  curve  by  the  line  infinity.  Next, 
if  the  line  fl  touch  at  b  the  arc  aa'  so  that  the  two  portions 
ab,  ba'  lie  on  the  same  side  of  the  line  12,  then  projecting  the 
figure  as  before,  the  tangent  at  b,  that  is,  the  line  12  itself,  is 
projected  to  infinity;  the  arc  ab  is  projected  into  a  parabolic 
leg,  and  at  the  same  time  the  arc  ba'  is  projected  into  a  parabolic 
leg,  having  at  infinity  the  same  direction  as  the  other  leg,  but  so 
that  the  two  legs  may  or  may  not  belong  to  the  same  branch. 
And  we  thus  see  that  the  two  parabolic  legs  represent  a  contact 
of  the  line  infinity  with  the  curve, — the  point  of  contact  being 
of  course  the  point  at  infinity  determined  by  the  common  direc- 
tion of  the  two  legs.  It  will  readily  be  understood  how  the  like 
considerations  apply  to  other  cases, — for  instance,  if  the  line  12 
is  a  tangent  at  an  inflection,  passes  through  a  crunode,  or  touches 
one  of  the  branches  of  a  crunode,  &c.;  thus,  if  the  line  12  passes 
through  a  crunode  we  have  pairs  of  hyperbolic  legs  belonging 
to  two  parallel  asymptotes.  The  foregoing  considerations  also 
show  (what  is  very  important)  how  different  branches  are  con- 
nected together  at  infinity,  and  .lead  to  the  notion  of  a  complete 
branch  or  circuit. 

The  two  legs  of  a  hyperbolic  branch  may  belong  to  different 
asymptotes,  and  in  this  case  we  have  the  forms  which  Newton 


66o 


CURVE 


calls  inscribed,  circumscribed,  ambigene,  &c.;  or  they  may 
belong  to  the  same  asymptote,  and  in  this  case  we  have  the 
serpentine  form,  where  the  branch  cuts  the  asymptote,  so  as 
to  touch  it  at  its  two  extremities  on  opposite  sides,  or  the 
conchoidal  form,  where  it  touches  the  asymptote  on  the  same 
side.  The  two  legs  of  a  parabolic  branch  may  converge  to 
ultimate  parallelism,  as  in  the  conic  parabola,  or  diverge  to 
ultimate  parallelism,  as  in  the  semi-cubical  parabola  -f=y?,  and 
the  branch  is  said  to  be  convergent,  or  divergent,  accordingly; 
or  they  may  tend  to  parallelism  in  opposite  senses,  as  in  the 
cubical  parabola  y  =  xi.  As  mentioned  with  regard  to  a  branch 
generally,  an  infinite  branch  of  any  kind  may  have  cusps,  or, 
by  cutting  itself  or  another  branch,  may  have  or  give  rise  to  a 
crunode,  &c. 

ii.  Classification  of  Cubic  Curves. — We  may  now  consider 
the  various  forms  of  cubic  curves  as  appearing  by  Newton's 
Enumeratio,  and  by  the  figures  belonging  thereto.  The  species 
are  reckoned  as  72,  which  are  numbered  accordingly  i  to  72; 
but  to  these  should  be  added  10°,  13",  22"  and  226.  It  is  not 
intended  here  to  consider  the  division  into  species,  nor  even 
completely  that  into  genera,  but  only  to  explain  the  principle  of 
classification.  It  may  be  remarked  generally  that  there  are  at 
most  three  infinite  branches,  and  that  there  may  besides  be  a 
re-entrant  branch  or  oval. 
The  genera  may  be  arranged  as  follows: — 
1,2,3,4  redundant  hyperbolas 

5,6  defective  hyperbolas 

7,8  parabolic  hyperbolas 
9       hyperbolisms  of  hyperbola 
10          ,,         „      ellipse 
it  ,,         ,,      parabola 

12  trident  curve 

13  divergent  parabolas 

14  cubic  parabola ; 

and  thus  arranged  they  correspond  to  the  different  relations 
of  the  line  infinity  to  the  curve.  First,  if  the  three  intersections 
by  the  line  infinity  are  all  distinct,  we  have  the  hyperbolas;  if 
the  points  are  real,  the  redundant  hyperbolas,  with  three  hyper- 
bolic branches;  but  if  only  one  of  them  is  real,  the  defective 
hyperbolas,  with  one  hyperbolic  branch.  Secondly,  if  two  of 
the  intersections  coincide,  say  if  the  line  infinity  meets  the  curve 
in  a  onefold  point  and  a  twofold  point,  both  of  them  real,  then 
there  is  always  one  asymptote:  the  line  infinity  may  at  the 
twofold  point  touch  the  curve,  and  we  have  the  parabolic 
hyperbolas;  or  the  twofold  point  may  be  a  singular  point, — viz., 
a  crunode  giving  the  hyperbolisms  of  the  hyperbola;  an  acnode, 
giving  the  hyperbolisms  of  the  ellipse;  or  a  cusp,  giving  the 
hyperbolisms  of  the  parabola.  As  regards  the  so-called  hyper- 
bolisms, observe  that  (besides  the  single  asymptote)  we  have 
in, the  case  of  those  of  the  hyperbola  two  parallel  asymptotes; 
in  the  case  of  those  of  the  ellipse  the  two  parallel  asymptotes 
become  imaginary,  that  is,  they  disappear;  and  in  the  case  of 
those  of  the  parabola  they  become  coincident,  that  is,  there  is 
here  an  ordinary  asymptote,  and  a  special  asymptote  answering 
to  a  cusp  at  infinity.  Thirdly,  the  three  intersections  by  the  line 
infinity  may  be  coincident  and  real;  or  say  we  have  a  threefold 
point:  this  may  be  an  inflection,  a  crunode  or  a  cusp,  that  is, 
the  line  infinity  may  be  a  tangent  at  an  inflection,  and  we  have 
the  divergent  parabolas;  a  tangent  at  a  crunode  to  one  branch, 
and  we  have  the  trident  curve;  or  lastly,  a  tangent  at  a  cusp,  and 
we  have  the  cubical  parabola. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  classification  mixes  together 
non-singular  and  singular  curves,  in  fact,  the  five  kinds  presently 
referred  to:  thus  the  hyperbolas  and  the  divergent  parabolas  in- 
clude curves  of  every  kind,  the  separation  being  made  in  the 
species;  the  hyperbolisms  of  the  hyperbola  and  ellipse,  and  the 
trident  curve,  are  nodal;  the  hyperbolisms  of  the.  parabola,  and 
the  cubical  parabola,  are  cuspidal.  The  divergent  parabolas 
are  of  five  species  which  respectively  belong  to  and  determine  the 
five  kinds  of  cubic  curves;  Newton  gives  (in  two  short  para- 
graphs without  any  development)  the  remarkable  theorem  that 
the  five  divergent  parabolas  by  their  shadows  generate  and 
exhibit  all  the  cubic  curves. 


The  five  divergent  parabolas  are  curves  each  of  them  sym- 
metrical with  regard  to  an  axis.  There  are  two  non-singular 
kinds,  the  one  with,  the  other  without,  an  oval,  but  each  of  them 
has  an  infinite  (as  Newton  describes  it)  campaniform  branch ; 
this  cuts  the  axis  at  right  angles,  being  at  first  concave,  but 
ultimately  convex,  towards  the  axis,  the  two  legs  continually 
tending  to  become  at  right  angles  to  the  axis.  The  oval  may 
unite  itself  with  the  infinite  branch,  or  it  may  dwindle  into  a 
point,  and  we  have  the  crunodal  and  the  acnodal  forms  respec- 
tively; or  if  simultaneously  the  oval  dwindles  into  a  point  and 
unites  itself  to  the  infinite  branch,  we  have  the  cuspidal  form. 
(See  PARABOLA.)  Drawing  a  line  to  cut  any  one  of  these  curves 
and  projecting  the  line  to  infinity,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to 
show  how  the  line  should  be  drawn  in  order  to  obtain  a  curve 
of  any  given  species.  We  have  herein  a  better  principle  of  classi- 
fication; considering  cubic  curves,  in  the  first  instance,  according 
to  singularities,  the  curves  are  non-singular,  nodal  (viz.  crunodal 
or  acnodal),  or  cuspidal;  and  we  see  further  that  there  are  two 
kinds  of  non-singular  curves,  the  complex  and  the  simplex. 
There  is  thus  a  complete  division  into  the  five  kinds,  the  complex, 
simplex,  crunodal,  acnodal  and  cuspidal.  Each  singular  kind 
presents  itself  as  a  limit  separating  two  kinds  of  inferior  singu- 
larity; the  cuspidal  separates  the  crunodal  and  the  acnodal,  and 
these  last  separate  from  each  other  the  complex  and  the  simplex. 

The  whole  question  is  discussed  very  fully  and  ably  by  A.  F. 
Mobius  in  the  memoir  "  Ueber  die  Grundformen  der  Linien 
dritter  Ordnung  "  (Abh.  der  K.  Sachs.  Ges.  zu  Leipzig,  t.  i.,  1852). 
The  author  considers  not  only  plane  curves,  but  also  cones,  or, 
what  is  almost  the  same  thing,  the  spherical  curves  which  are 
their  sections  by  a  concentric  sphere.  Stated  in  regard  to  the 
cone,  we  have  there  the  fundamental  theorem  that  there  are  two 
different  kinds  of  sheets;  viz.,  the  single  sheet,  not  separated 
into  two  parts  by  the  vertex  (an  instance  is  afforded  by  the  plane 
considered  as  a  cone  of  the  first  order  generated  by  the  motion 
of  a  line  about  a  point),  and  the  double  or  twin-pair  sheet, 
separated  into  two  parts  by  the  vertex  (as  in  the  cone  of  the 
second  order).  And  it  then  appears  that  there  are  two  kinds 
of  non-singular  cubic  cones,  viz.  the  simplex,  consisting  of  a 
single  sheet,  and  the  complex,  consisting  of  a  single  sheet  and  a 
twin-pair  sheet;  and  we  thence  obtain  (as  for  cubic  curves) 
the  crunodal,  the  acnodal  and  the  cuspidal  kinds  of  cubic  cones. 
It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  single  sheet  is  a  sort  of  wavy  form, 
having  upon  it  three  lines  of  inflection,  and  which  is  met  by  any 
plane  through  the  vertex  in  one  or  in  three  lines;  the  twin -pair 
sheet  has  no  lines  of  inflection,  and  resembles  in  its  form  a  cone 
on  an  oval  base. 

In  general  a  cone  consists  of  one  or  more  single  or  twin-pair 
sheets,  and  if  we  consider  the  section  of  the  cone  by  a  plane, 
the  curve  consists  of  one  or  more  complete  branches,  or  say 
circuits,  each  of  them  the  section  of  one  sheet  of  the  cone;  thus, 
a  cone  of  the  second  order  is  one  twin-pair  sheet,  and  any  section 
of  it  is  one  circuit  composed,  it  may  be,  of  two  branches.  But 
although  we  thus  arrive  by  projection  at  the  notion  of  a  circuit, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  go  out  of  the  plane,  and  we  may  (with 
Zeuthen,  using  the  shorter  term  circuit  for  his  complete  branch) 
define  a  circuit  as  any  portion  (of  a  curve)  capable  of  description 
by  the  continuous  motion  of  a  point,  it  being  understood  that 
a  passage  through  infinity  is  permitted.  And  we  then  say  that 
a  curve  consists  of  one  or  more  circuits;  thus  the  right  line,  or 
curve  of  the  first  order,  consists  of  one  circuit;  a  curve  of  the 
second  order  consists  of  one  circuit;  a  cubic  curve  consists  of  one 
circuit  or  else  of  two  circuits. 

A  circuit  is  met  by  any  right  line  always  in  an  even  number, 
or  always  in  an  odd  number,  of  points,  and  it  is  said  to  be  an  even 
circuit  or  an  odd  circuit  accordingly;  the  right  line  is  an  odd 
circuit,  the  conic  an  even  circuit.  And  we  have  then  the  theorem, 
two  odd  circuits  intersect  in  an  odd  number  of  points;  an  odd 
and  an  even  circuit,  or  two  even  circuits,  in  an  even  number 
of  points.  An  even  circuit  not  cutting  itself  divides  the  plane 
into  two  parts,  the  one  called  the  internal  p'art,  incapable  of 
containing  any  odd  circuit,  the  other  called  the  external  part, 
capable  of  containing  an  odd  circuit. 


CURVE 


661 


We  may  now  state  in  a  more  convenient  form  the  fundamental 
distinction  of  the  kinds  of  cubic  curve.  A  non-singular  cubic  is 
simplex,  consisting  of  one  odd  circuit,  or  it  is  complex,  consisting 
of  one  odd  circuit  and  one  even  circuit.  It  may  be  added  that 
there  are  on  the  odd  circuit  three  inflections,  but  on  the  even 
circuit  no  inflection;  it  hence  also  appears  that  from  any  point 
of  the  odd  circuit  there  can  be  drawn  to  the  odd  circuit  two  tan- 
gents, and  to  the  even  circuit  (if  any)  two  tangents,  but  that 
from  a  point  of  the  even  circuit  there  cannot  be  drawn  (either  to 
the  odd  or  the  even  circuit)  any  real  tangent;  consequently, 
in  a  simplex  curve  the  number  of  tangents  from  any  point  is  two; 
but  in  a  complex  curve  the  number  is  four,  or  none, — four  if  the 
point  is  on  the  odd  circuit,  none  if  it  is  on  the  even  circuit.  It 
at  once  appears  from  inspection  of  the  figure  of  a  non-singular 
cubic  curve,  which  is  the  odd  and  which  the  even  circuit.  The 
singular  kinds  arise  as  before;  in  the  crunodal  and  the  cuspidal 
kinds  the  whole  curve  is  an  odd  circuit,  but  in  an  acnodal  kind 
the  acnode  must  be  regarded  as  an  even  circuit. 

12.  Quartic  Curves. — The  analogous  question  of  the  classifica- 
tion of  quartics  (in  particular  non-singular  quartics  and  nodal 
quartics)  is  considered  in  Zeuthen's  memoir  "  Sur  les  differentes 
formes  des  courbes  planes  du  quatrieme  ordre  "  (Math.  Ann. 
t.  vii.,  1874).     A  non-singular  quartic  has  only 'even  circuits; 
it  has  at  most  four  circuits  external  to  each  other,  or  two  circuits 
one  internal  to  the  other,  and  in  this  last  case  the  internal  circuit 
has  no  double    tangents  or  inflections.     A  very  remarkable 
theorem  is  established  as  to  the  double  tangents  of  such  a  quartic : 
distinguishing  as  a  double  tangent  of  the  first  kind  a  real  double 
tangent  which  either  twice  touches  the  same   circuit,  or  else 
touches  the  curve  in  two  imaginary  points,  the  number  of  the 
double  tangents  of  the  first  kind  of  a  non-singular  quartic  is 
=  4;  it  follows  that  the  quartic  has  at  most  8  real  inflections. 
The  forms  of  the  non-singular  quartics  are  very  numerous,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  to  go  further  into  the  question. 

We  may  consider  in  relation  to  a  curve,  not  only  the  line 
infinity,  but  also  the  circular  points  at  infinity;  assuming  the 
curve  to  be  real,  these  present  themselves  always  conjointly; 
thus  a  circle  is  a  conic  passing  through  the  two  circular  points, 
and  is  thereby  distinguished  from  other  conies.  Similarly  a 
cubic  through  the  two  circular  points  is  termed  a  circular  cubic; 
a  quartic  through  the  two  points  is  termed  a  circular  quartic, 
and  if  it  passes  twice  through  each  of  them,  that  is,  has  each  of 
them  for  a  node,  it  is  termed  a  bicircular  quartic.  Such  a  quartic 
is  of  course  binodal  (m  =  4,  5=2,  K=O);  it  has  not  in  general, 
but  it  may  have,  a  third  node  or  a  cusp.  Or  again,  we  may  have 
a  quartic  curve  having  a  cusp  at  each  of  the  circular  points: 
such  a  curve  is  a  "  Cartesian,"  it  being  a  complete  definition  of 
the  Cartesian  to  say  that  it  is  a  bicuspidal  quartic  curve  (m  =  4, 
5  =  o,  K=2),  having  a  cusp  at  each  of  the  circular  points.  The 
circular  cubic  and  the  bicircular  quartic,  together  with  the 
Cartesian  (being  in  one  point  of  view  a  particular  case  thereof), 
are  interesting  curves  which  have  been  much  studied,  generally, 
and  in  reference  to  their  focal  properties. 

13.  Foci. — The  points  called  foci  presented  themselves  in  the 
theory  of  the  conic,  and  were  well  known  to  the  Greek  geometers, 
but  the  general  notion  of  a  focus  was  first  established  by  Plucker 
(in  the  memoir  "  (Jber  solche  Puncte  die  bei   Curven  einer 
hoheren   Ordnung  den   Brennpuncten   der  Kegelschnitte  ent- 
sprechen  "  (Crelle,  t.  x.,  1833).     We  may  from  each  of  the  circular 
points  draw  tangents  to  a  given  curve;  the  intersection  of  two 
such  tangents  (belonging  of  course  to  the  two  circular  points 
respectively)  is  a  focus.     There  will  be  from  each  circular  point 
X  tangents  (X,  a  number  depending  on  the  class  of  the  curve  and 
its  relation  to  the  line  infinity  and  the  circular  points,  =  2  for 
the  general  conic,  i  for  the  parabola,  2  for  a  circular  cubic,  or 
bicircular  quartic,  &c.);  the  X  tangents  from  the  one  circular 
point  and  those  from  the  other  circular  point  intersect  in  X  real 
foci  (viz.  each  of  these  is  the  only  real  point  on  each  of  the  tangents 
through  it),  and  in  X2-X  imaginary  foci;  each  pair  of  real  foci 
determines  a  pair  of  imaginary  foci  (the  so-called  antipoints 
of  the  two  real  foci),  and  the  jX(X-i)  pairs  of  real  foci  thus 
determine  the  X2-X  imaginary  foci.     There  are  in  some  cases 


points  termed  centres,  or  singular  or  multiple  foci  (the  nomen- 
clature is  unsettled),  which  are  the  intersections  of  improper 
tangents  from  the  two  circular  points  respectively;  thus,  in  the 
circular  cubic,  the  tangents  to  the  curve  at  the  two  circular 
points  respectively  (or  two  imaginary  asymptotes  of  the  curve) 
meet  in  a  centre. 

14.  Distance  and  Angle.     Curves  described  mechanically. — The 
notions  of  distance  and  of  lines  at  right  angles  are  connected  with 
the  circular  points;  and  almost  every  construction  of  a  curve 
by  means  of  lines  of  a  determinate  length,  or  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  and  (as  such)  mechanical  constructions  by  means 
of  linkwork,  give  rise  to  curves  passing  the  same  definite  number 
of  times  through  the  two  circular  points  respectively,  or  say  to 
circular  curves,  and  in  which  the  fixed  centres  of  the  construction 
present  themselves  as  ordinary,  or  as  singular,  foci.     Thus  the 
general  curve  of  three  bar-motion  (or  locus  of  the  vertex  of  a 
triangle,  the  other  two  vertices  whereof  move  on  fixed  circles) 
is   a    tricircular   sextic,    having    besides   three   nodes    (m  =  6, 
5  =  3+3+3,  =  9),  and  having  the  centres  of  the  fixed  circles  each 
for  a  singular  focus;  there  is  a  third  singular  focus,  and  we  have 
thus  the  remarkable  theorem  (due  to  S.  Roberts)  of  the  triple 
generation  of  the  curve  by  means  of  the  three  several  pairs  of 
singular  foci. 

Again,  the  normal,  qua  line  at  right  angles  to  the  tangent, 
is  connected  with  the  circular  points,  and  these  accordingly 
present  themselves  in  the  before-mentioned  theories  of  evolutes 
and  parallel  curves. 

15.  Theories    of   Correspondence. — We   have   several    recent 
theories  which  depend  on  the  notion  of  correspondence:  two 
points  whether  in  the  same  plane  or  in  different  planes,  or  on 
the  same  curve  or  in  different  curves,  may  determine  each  other 
in  such  wise  that  to  any  given  position  of  the  first  point  there 
correspond  a'  positions  of  the  second  point,  and  to  any  given 
position  of  the  second  point  a  positions  of  the  first  point;  the 
two  points  have  then  an  (a,  a)  correspondence;  and  if  o,  a  are 
each  =  i,  then  the  two  points  have  a  (i,  i)  or  rational  correspond- 
ence.    Connecting  with  each  theory  the  author's  name,  the 
theories  in  question  are  G.  F.  B.  Riemann,  the  rational  trans- 
formation of  a  plane  curve;  Luigi  Cremona,  the  rational  trans- 
formation of  a  plane;  and  Chasles,  correspondence  of  points  on 
the  same  curve,  and  united  points.     The  theory  first  referred  to, 
with  the  resulting  notion  of  "  Geschlecht,"  or  deficiency,  is  more 
than  the  other  two  an  essential  part  of  the  theory  of  curves,  but 
they  will  all  be  considered. 

Riemann's  results  are  contained  in  the  memoirs  on  "  Abelian 
Integrals,"  &c.  (Crelle,  t.  liv.,  1857),  and  we  have  next  R.  F.  A. 
Clebsch,  "  Uber  die  Singularitaten  algebraischer  Curven  " 
(Crelle,  t.  Ixv.,  1865),  and  Cayley,  "  On  the  Transformation  of 
Plane  Curves  "  (Proc.  Land.  Math.  Soc.  t.  i.,  1865;  Collected 
Works,  vol.  vi.  p.  i).  The  fundamental  notion  of  the  rational 
transformation  is  as  follows: — 

Taking  u,  X,  Y,  Z  to  be  rational  and  integral  functions  (X,  Y,  Z 
all  of  the  same  order)  of  the  co-ordinates  (x,  y,  z),  and  u',  X',  Y',  Z' 
rational  and  integral  functions  (X',  Y',  Z',  all  of  the  same  order)  of 
the  co-ordinates  (x',  y',  z'),  we  transform  a  given  curve  «  =  o,  by  the 
equations  of  *':  y':z'  =  X:  Y:  Z,  thereby  obtaining  a  transformed 
curve  u'=o,  and  a  converse  set  of  equations  x  :  y  :  z=X':  Y':  Z'; 
viz.  assuming  that  this  is  so,  the  point  (x,  y,  z)  on  the  curve  *  =  o 
and  the  point  (*',  y',  z')  on  the  curve  «'=o  will  be  points  having  a 
(i,  i)  correspondence.  To  show  how  this  is,  observe  that  to  a  given 
point  (x,  y,  z)  on  the  curve  u  =  o  there  corresponds  a  single  point 
(x',  y',  z')  determined  by  the  equations  x':  y':  z'  =  X  :  Y  :  Z;  from 
these  equations  and  the  equation  M  =  O  eliminating  x,  y,  t,  we  obtain 
the  equation  w'=o  of  the  transformed  curve.  To  a  gjven  point 
(x',  y',  z')  not  on  the  curve  u'  =  o  there  corresponds,  not  a  single  point, 
but  the  system  of  points  (x,  y,  z)  given  by  the  equations  *' :  y  :*'  = 
X  :  Y  :  Z,  viz.,  regarding  x',  y',  z  as  constants  (and  to  fix  the  ideas, 
assuming  that  the  curves  X  =  o,  Y  =  o,  Z  =  o,  have  no  common  inter- 
sections), these  are  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  curves  X  :  Y  :  Z, 
=  *'  :  y'  :  z',  but  no  one  of  these  points  is  situate  on  the  curve  w  =  o. 
If,  however,  the  point  (x',  y',  z')  is  situate  on  the  curve  «'  =  o,  then 
one  point  of  the  system  of  points  in  question  is  situate  on  the  curve 
u  =  o,  that  is,  to  a  given  point  of  the  curve  u'  =  o  there  corresponds 
a  single  point  of  the  curve  «  =  o;  and  hence  also  this  point  must 
be  given  by  a  system  of  equations  such  asx  :  y  :  z  =  X' :  Y' :  Z'. 

It  is  an  old  and  easily  proved  theorem  that,  for  a  curve  of 


662 


CURVE 


the  order  m,  the  number  6+/c  of  nodes  and  cusps  is  at  most 
=  j(m— i)  (m  — 2);  for  a  given  curve  the  deficiency  of  the  actual 
number  of  nodes  and  cusps  below  this  maximum  number,  viz. 
J(m— i)  (m-2)-d-K,  is  the  "  Geschlecht  "  or  "deficiency," 
of  the  curve,  say  this  is  =  D.  When  D  =  o,  the  curve  is  said  to  be 
unicursal,  when  =i,  bicursal,  and  so  on. 

The  general  theorem  is  that  two  curves  corresponding  ration- 
ally to  each  other  have  the  same  deficiency.  [In  particular 
a  curve  and  its  reciprocal  have  this  rational  or  (i,  i)  correspond- 
ence, and  it  has  been  already  seen  that  a  curve  and  its  reciprocal 
have  the  same  deficiency.] 

A  curve  of  a  given  order  can  in  general  be  rationally  trans- 
formed into  a  curve  of  a  lower  order;  thus  a  curve  of  any  order 
for  which  D  =  o,  that  is,  a  unicursal  curve,  can  be  transformed 
into  a  line;  a  curve  of  any  order  having  the  deficiency  i  or  2 
can  be  rationally  transformed  into  a  curve  of  the  order  D+2, 
deficiency  D;  and  a  curve  of  any  order  deficience  =  or>3 
can  be  rationally  transformed  into  a  curve  of  the  order  D+3, 
deficiency  D. 

Taking  x',  y',  z'  as  co-ordinates  of  a  point  of  the  transformed  curve, 
and  in  its  equation  writing  x'  :  y'  :  z'  =  I  :  8:  <j>  we  have  <j>  a  certain 
irrational  function  of  8,  and  the  theorem  is  that  the  co-ordinates  x,  y,  z 
of  any  point  of  the  given  curve  can  be  expressed  as  proportional  to 
rational  and  integral  functions  of  6,  </>,  that  is,  of  6  and  a  certain 
irrational  'function  of  8. 

In  particular  if  D=o,  that  is,  if  the  given  curve  be  unicursal,  the 
transformed  curve  is  a  line,  0  is  a  mere  linear  function  of  0,  and 
the  theorem  is  that  the  co-ordinates  x,  y,  z  of  a  point  of  the  unicursal 
curve  can  be  expressed  as  proportional  to  rational  and  integral 
functions  of  6;  it  is  easy  to  see  that  for  a  given  curve  of  the  order 
m,  these  functions  of  0  must  be  of  the  same  order  m. 

If  P  =  l»  then  the  transformed  curve  is  a  cubic;  it  can  be  shown 
that  in  a  cubic,  the  axes  of  co-ordinates  being  properly  chosen,  </> 
can  be  expressed  as  the  square  root  of  a  quartic  function  of  6;  and 
the  theorem  is  that  the  co-ordinates  x,  y,  z  of  a  point  of  the  bicursal 
curve  can  be  expressed  as  proportional  to  rational  and  integral 
functions  of  9,  and  of  the  square  root  of  a  quartic  function  of  8. 

And  so  if  D—2,  then  the  transformed  curve  is  a  nodal  quartic; 
<t>  can  be  expressed  as  the  square  root  of  a  sextic  function  of  8  and 
the  theorem  is,  that  the  co-ordinates  x,  y,  z  of  a  point  of  the  tricursal 
curve  can  be  expressed  as  proportional  to  rational  and  integral 
functions  of  6,  and  of  the  square  root  of  a  sextic  function  of  8.  But 
D=3,  we  have  no  longer  the  like  law,  viz.  <t>  is  not  expressible  as 
the  square  root  of  an  octic  function  of  9. 

Observe  that  the  radical,  square  root  of  a  quartic  function, 
is  connected  with  the  theory  of  elliptic  functions,  and  the  radical, 
square  root  of  a  sextic  function,  with  that  of  the  first  kind  of 
Abelian  functions,  but  that  the  next  kind  of  Abelian  functions 
does  not  depend  on  the  radical,  square  root  of  an  octic  function. 

It  is  a  form  of  the  theorem  for  the  case  D  =  i,  that  the  co- 
ordinates x,  y,  z  of  a  point  of  the  bicursal  curve,  or  in  particular 
the  co-ordinates  of  a  point  of  the  cubic,  can  be  expressed  as 
proportional  to  rational  and  integral  functions  of  the  elliptic 
functions  snu,  cnu,  dnw;  in  fact,  taking  the  radical  to  be 
V  i—  0s.  i  —  jW,  and  writing  0=sn«,  the  radical  becomes 
=  cnu,  dnu;  and  we  have  expressions  of  the  form  in  question. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  equations  x'  :  y'  :  z'  =  X  :  Y  :  Z 
before  mentioned  do  not  of  themselves  lead  to  the  other  system 
of  equations  *  :  y  :  z=X'  :  Y'  :  Z',  and  thus  that  the  theory  does 
not  in  anywise  establish  a  (i,  i)  correspondence  between  the 
points  (x,  y,  z)  and  (x',  y',  zf)  of  two  planes  or  of  the  same 
plane;  this  is  the  correspondence  of  Cremona's  theory. 

In  this  theory,  given  in  the  memoirs  "  Sulle  trasformazioni  geo- 
metr-che  delle  figure  piani,"  Mem.  di  Bologna,  t.  ii.  (1863)  and  t.  v. 
(1865),  we  have  a  system  of  equations  x'  :  y'  :  z'=X  :  Y  :  Z  which 
does  lead  to  a  system  x  :  y  :  z  =  X'  :  Y'  :  Z',  where,  as  before,  X,  Y,  Z 
denote  rational  and  integral  functions,  all  of  the  same  order,  of  the 
co-ordinates  x,  y,  z,  and  X',  Y',  Z'  rational  and  integral  functions,  all 
of  the  same  order,  of  the  co-ordinates  x',  y,'  z',  and  there  is  thus  a 
(i,  i)  correspondence  given  by  these  equations  between  the  two 
points  (x,  y,  z)  and  (x',  V,  z').  To  explain  this,  observe  that  starting 
from  the  equations  of  x'  :  y1  :  z'  =  X  :  Y  :  Z,  to  a  given  point  (x,  y,  z) 
there  corresponds  one  point  (x',  y',  z') ,  but  that  if  n  be  the  order  of 
the  functions  X,  Y,  Z,  then  to  a  given  point  x',  /,  z'  there  would,  if 
the  curves  X  =  o,  Y  =  o,  Z  =  o  had  no  common  intersections,  corre- 
spond n2  points  (x,  y,  z).  If,  however,  the  functions  are  such  that 
the  curves  X  =  o,  Y=o,  Z  =  o  have  k  common  intersections,  then 
among  the  ri1  points  are  included  these  k  points,  which  are  fixed 
points  independent  of  the  point  (x',  /,  z');  so  that,  disregarding 


these  fixed  points,  the  number  of  points  (*,  y,  z)  corresponding  to 
the  given  point  (x',  y',  z')  is  =  n2  —  k;  and  in  particular  if  k  =  rp—  I, 
then  we  have  one  corresponding  point;  and  hence  the  original 
system  of  equations  x' :  y'  :  z'  =  X  :  Y  :  Z  must  lead  to  the  equivalent 
system  x  :  y  :  z  =  X'  :  Y'  :  Z';  and  in  this  system  by  the  like  reason- 
ing the  functions  must  be  such  that  the  curves  X'  =  o,  Y'=o,  Z'  =  o 
have  «'*  —  i  common  intersections.  The  most  simple  example  is 
in  the  two  systems  of  equations  x'  :  y  :z"=yz  :zx  :xy  and  x  :y  :z  = 
y'z'  :  z'x'  :  x'y';  where  yz=o,  zx  =  o,  xy  =  o  are  conies  (pairs  of  lines) 
having  three  common  intersections,  and  where  obviously  either 
system  of  equations  leads  to  the  other  system.  In  the  case  where 
X,  Y,  Z  are  of  an  order  exceeding  2  the  required  number  n2— I  of 
common  intersections  can  only  occur  by  reason  of  common  multiple 
points  on  the  three  curves;  and  assuming  that  the  curves  X=^o, 
Y  =  o,  Z  =  o"  have  CM +03 +03...  +  o»-i  common  intersections,  where 
the  o;  points  are  ordinary  points,  the  02  points  are  double  points,  the 
03  points  are  triple  points,  &c.,  on  each  curve,  we  have  the  condition 

01+402+903-)-  . . .  (n—  l)2o^i  =  »2  —  I ; 
but  to  this  must  be  joined  the  condition 

01+302+603...  +  £»(»- i)on_i  =  £n(n+3) -2 

(without  which  the  transformation  would  be  illusory);  and  the 
conclusion  is  that  01,  o2, . . .  o,_i  may  be  any  numbers  satisfying 
these  two  equations.  It  may  be  added  that  the  two  equations 
together  give 

02+303... +J(»-i)(w—2)o»_i  =  $(n-l)(»-2)> 
which  expresses  that  the  curves  X  =  o,  Y  =  o,  Z=o  are  unicursal. 
The  transformation  may  be  applied  to  any  curve  tt  =  o,  which  is 
thus  rationally  transformed  into  a  curve  u'  =o,  by  a  rational  trans- 
formation such  as  is  considered  in  Riemann's  theory :  hence  the  two 
curves  have  the  same  deficiency. 

Coming  next  to  Chasles,  the  principle  of  correspondence  is 
established  and  used  by  him  in  a  series  of  memoirs  relating  to  the 
conies  which  satisfy  given  conditions,  and  to  other  geometrical 
questions,  contained  in  the  Comptes  rendus,  t.  Iviii.  (1864)  et  seq. 
The  theorem  of  united  points  in  regard  to  points  in  a  right  line 
was  given  in  a  paper,  June-July  1864,  and  it  was  extended  to 
unicursal  curves  in  a  paper  of  the  same  series  (March  1866),  "  Sur 
les  courbes  planes  ou  a  double  courbure  dont  les  points  peuvent 
se  determiner  individuellement — application  du  principe  de  cor- 
respondance  dans  la  theorie  de  ces  courbes." 

The  theorem  is  as  follows:  if  in  a  unicursal  curve  two  points 
have  an  (o,  /3)  correspondence,  then  the  number  of  united  points 
(or  points  each  corresponding  to  itself)  is  =  o+  0.  In  fact  in  a 
unicursal  curve  the  co-ordinates  of  a  point  are  given  as  proportional 
to  rational  and  integral  functions  of  a  parameter,  so  that  any  point 
of  the  curve  is  determined  uniquely  by  means  of  this  parameter; 
that  is,  to  each  point  of  the  curve  corresponds  one  value  of  the 
parameter,  and  to  each  value  of  the  parameter  one  point  on  the 
curve;  and  the  (a,  /3)  correspondence  between  the  two  points  is  given 
by  an  equation  of  the  form  (*J0,  i)«(  <£,  i)0=o  between  their  para- 
meters 8  and  <f>;  at  a  united  point  <t>  =  8,  and  the  value  of  8  is  given  by 
an  equation  of  the  order  o+/3.  The  extension  to  curves  of  any  given 
deficiency  D  was  made  in  the  memoir  of  Cayley,  "  On  the  corre- 
spondence of  two  points  on  a  curve," — Pore.  Land.  Math.  Soc.  t.  i. 
(1866;  Collected  Works,  vol.  vi.  p.  9), — viz.  taking  P,  P'  as  the  corre- 
sponding points  in  an  (a,  a')  correspondence  on  a  curve  of  deficiency 
D,  and  supposing  that  when  P  is  given  the  corresponding  points  P' 
are  found  as  the  intersections  of  the  curve  by  a  curve  9  containing 
the  co-ordinates  of  P  as  parameters,  and  having  with  the  given  curve 
k  intersections  at  the  point  P,  then  the  number  of  united  points  is 
a  =  o+o'+2fcD;  and  more  generally,  if  the  curve  e  intarsect  the 
given  curve  in  a  set  of  points  P'  each  p  times,  a  set  of  points  Q'  each 
o  times,  &c.,  in  such  manner  that  the  points  (P,P')  the  points  (P,  Q') 
&c.,  are  pairs  of  points  corresponding  to  each  other  according  to 
distinct  laws;  then  if  (P,  P')  are  points  having  an  (o,  a')  correspond- 
ence with  a  number  =  a  of  united  points,  (P  ,Q')  points  having  a  (/S, /8') 
correspondence  with  a  number  =b  of  united  points,  and  so  on,  the 
theorem  is  that  we  have 

p(a-a-a')+q(b-/3-0')  +  .  .  .  =  2kD. 

The  principle  of  correspondence,  or  say  rather  the  theorem  of 
united  points,  is  a  most  powerful  instrument  of  investigation, 
which  may  be  used  in  place  of  analysis  for  the  determination  of 
:he  number  of  solutions  of  almost  every  geometrical  problem. 
We  can  by  means  of  it  investigate  the  class  of  a  curve,  number  of 
inflections,  &c. — in  fact,  Pliicker's  equations;  but  it  is  necessary 
:o  take  account  of  special  solutions:  thus,  in  one  of  the  most 
simple  instances,  in  finding  the  class  of  a  curve,  the  cusps  present 
themselves  as  special  solutions. 

Imagine  a  curve  of  order  m,  deficiency  D,  and  let  the  corresponding 
joints  P,  P'  be  such  that  the  line  joining  them  passes  through  a  given 


CURVE 


663 


point  O;  this  is  an  (m  —  I,  m  —  i)  correspondence,  and  the  value  of  k 
is  =  i,  hence  the  number  of  united  points  is  =  2m— 2+2D;  the 
united  points  are  the  points  of  contact  of  the  tangents  from  O  and 
(as  special  solutions)  the  cusps,  and  we  have  thus  the  relation 
n+K  =  2m  —  2+2D;  or,  writing  D  =  \(m  —  i)(m— 2)  —«-/<,  this  is 
n  =  m(m  —  i)  —  26— $*.,  which  is  right. 

The  principle  in  its  original  form  as  applying  to  a  right  line  was 
used  throughout  by  Chasles  in  the  investigations  on  the  number 
of  the  conies  which  satisfy  given  conditions,  and  on  the  number 
of  solutions  of  very  many  other  geometrical  problems. 

There  is  one  application  of  the  theory" of  the  (a,  a')  correspond- 
ence between  two  planes  which  it  is  proper  to  notice. 

Imagine  a  curve,  real  or  imaginary,  represented  by  an  equation 
(involving,  it  may  be,  imaginary  coefficients)  between  the  Cartesian 
co-ordinates  u,  u ' ;  then,  writing  u  =  x+iy,  u'=x'+iy',  the  equation 
determines  real  values  of  (x,  y),  and  of  (x',  y'),  corresponding  to 
any  given  real  values  of  (x',  y')  and  (x,  y)  respectively ;  that  is,  it 
establishes  a  real  correspondence  (not  of  course  a  rational  one) 
between  the  points  (x,  y)  and  (x',  y') ;  for  example  in  the  imaginary 
circle  u1+u'2  =  (a+bi)t,  the  correspondence  is  given  by  the  two 
equations  x?-y*+x'*—y*  =  a*—P,  xy+x'y'  =  ab.  We  have  thus  a 
means  of  geometrical  representation  for  the  portions,  as  well  imagin- 
ary as  real,  of  any  real  or  imaginary  curve.  Considerations  such  as 
these  have  been  used  for  determining  the  series  of  values  of  the  inde- 
pendent variable,  and  the  irrational  functions  thereof  in  the  theory 
of  Abelian  integrals,  but  the  theory  seems  to  be  worthy  of  further 
investigation. 

1 6.  Systems  of  Curves  satisfying  Conditions. — The  researches 
of  Chasles  (Comptes  Rendus,  t.  Iviii.,  1864,  et  seq.)  refer  to  the 
conies  which  satisfy  given  conditions.  There  is  an  earlier  paper 
by  J.  P.  E.  Fauque  de  Jonquieres,  "  Theoremes  generaux 
concernant  les  courbes  geometriques  planes  d'un  ordre  quel- 
conque,"  Liouv.  t.  vi.  (1861),  which  establishes  the  notion  of  a 
system  of  curves  (of  any  order)  of  the  index  N,  viz.  considering 
the  curves  of  the  order  n  which  satisfy  \n(n+^)  —  i  conditions, 
then  the  index  N  is  the  number  of  these  curves  which  pass  through 
a  given  arbitrary  point.  But  Chasles  in  the  first  of  his  papers 
(February  1864),  considering  the  conies  which  satisfy  four 
conditions,  establishes  the  notion  of  the  two  characteristics 
(p,v)oi  such  a  system  of  conies,  viz.  n  is  the  number  of  the  conies 
which  pass  through  a  given  arbitrary  point,  and  v  is  the  number 
of  the  conies  which  touch  a  given  arbitrary  lin?.  And  he  gives  the 
theorem,  a  system  of  conies  satisfying  four  conditions,  and  having 
the  characteristics  (ju,  v)  contains  2v—  p  line-pairs  (that  is,  conies, 
each  of  them  a  pair  of  lines),  and  2/j,— v  point-pairs  (that  is, 
conies,  each  of  them  a  pair  of  points, — coniques  infmiment 
aplaties),  which  is  a  fundamental  one  in  the  theory.  The  char- 
acteristics of  the  system  can  be  determined  when  it  is  known 
how  many  there  are  of  these  two  kinds  of  degenerate  conies  in 
the  system,  and  how  often  each  is  to  be  counted.  It  was  thus 
that  Zeuthen  (in  the  paper  Nyt  Bydrag,  "  Contribution  to  the 
Theory  of  Systems  of  Conies  which  satisfy  four  Conditions  " 
(Copenhagen,  1865),  translated  with  an  addition  in  the  Nouvelles 
Annalcs)  solved  the  question  of  finding  the  characteristics  of  the 
systems  of  conies  which  satisfy  four  conditions  of  contact  with 
a  given  curve  or  curves;  and  this  led  to  the  solution  of  the  further 
problem  of  finding  the  number  of  the  conies  which  satisfy  five 
conditions  of  cpntact  with  a  given  curve  or  curves  (Cayley, 
Comptes  Rendus,  t.  Ixiii.,  1866;  Collected  Works,  vol.  v.  p.  542), 
and  "  On  the  Curves  which  satisfy  given  Conditions  "  (Phil. 
Trans,  t.  clviii.,  1868;  Collected  Works,  vol.  vi.  p.  191). 

It  may  be  remarked  that  although,  as  a  process  of  investigation, 
it  is  very  convenient  to  seek  for  the  characteristics  of  a  system 
of  conies  satisfying  4  conditions,  yet  what  is  really  determined  is 
in  every  case  the  number  of  the  conies  which  satisfy  5  conditions; 
the  characteristics  of  the  system  (4/>)  of  the  conies  which  pass 
through  4/>  points  are  ($p),  (4p,  U)i  the  number  of  the  conies 
which  pass  through  5  points,  and  which  pass  through  4  points  and 
touch  i  line:  and  so  in  other  cases.  Similarly  as  regards  cubics, 
or  curves  of  any  other  order:  a  cubic  depends  on  9  constants,  and 
the  elementary  problems  are  to  find  the  number  of  the  cubics 
(9/>),  (8/>,  i/),  &c.,  which  pass  through  9  points,  pass  through  8 
points  and  touch  i  line,  &c. ;  but  it  is  in  the  investigation  con- 
venient to  seek  for  the  characteristics  of  the  systems  of  cubics 
(8p),  &c.,  which  satisfy  8  instead  of  9  conditions. 


The  elementary  problems  in  regard  to  cubics  are  solved  very 
completely  by  S.Maillard  in  his  These, Recherche des  caracttristiques 
des  systemes  elementaires  des  courbes  planes  du  troisieme  ordre 
[Paris,  1871).  Thus,  considering  the  several  cases  of  a  cubic 


1.  With  a  given  cusp 

2.  cusp  on  given  line 

3.  cusp    ,  . 

4.  a  given  node 

5.  node  on  given  line 

6.  node 


No.  of  consts. 


7.  non-singular 

be  determines  in  every  case  the  characteristics  (ju,  v)  of  the 
corresponding  systems  of  cubics  (4p),  ($p,  il),  &c.  The  same 
problems,  or  most  of  them,  and  also  the  elementary  problems 
in  regard  to  quartics  are  solved  by  Zeuthen,  who  in  the  elaborate 
memoir  "  Almindelige  Egenskaber,  &c.,"  Danish  Academy,  t.  x. 
(1873),  considers  the  problem  in  reference  to  curves  of  any  order, 
and  applies  his  results  to  cubic  and  quartic  curves. 

The  methods  of  Maillard  and  Zeuthen  are  substantially 
identical;  in  each  case  the  question  considered  is  that  of  finding 
the  characteristics  0*,  v)  of  a  system  of  curves  by  consideration  of 
the  special  or  degenerate  forms  of  the  curves  included  in  the 
system.  The  quantities  which  have  to  be  'considered  are  very 
numerous.  Zeuthen  in  the  case  of  curves  of  any  given  order 
establishes  between  the  characteristics  /t,  v,  and  18  other 
quantities,  in  all  20  quantities,  a  set  of  24  equations  (equivalent 
to  23  independent  equations),  involving(besides  the  20  quantities) 
other  quantities  relating  to  the  various  forms  of  the  degenerate 
curves,  which  supplementary  terms  he  determines,  partially  for 
curves  of  any  order,  but  completely  only  for  quartic  curves. 
It  is  the  discussion  and  complete  enumeration  of  the  special 
or  degenerate  forms  of  the  curves,  and  of  the  supplementary 
terms  to  which  they  give  rise,  that  the  great  difficulty  of  the 
question  seems  to  consist;  it  would  appear  that  the  24  equations 
are  a  complete  system,  and  that  (subject  to  a  proper  determina- 
tion of  the  supplementary  terms)  they  contain  the  solution  of 
the  general  problem. 

17.  Degeneration  of  Curves. — The  remarks  which  follow  have 
reference  to  the  analytical  theory  of  the  degenerate  curves  which 
present  themselves  in  the  foregoing  problem  of  the  curves  which 
satisfy  given  conditions. 

A  curve  represented  by  an  equation  in  point-co-ordinates  may 
break  up:  thus  if  Pi,  P2l...  be  rational  and  integral  functions  of  the 
co-ordinates  (x,y,z)  of  the  orders  m\,  mt...  respectively,  we  have  the 
curve  Pi01  Pi02. . .  =o,  of  the  order  m,  =aifn1  +  a2m2+  ....  composed 
of  the  curve  PI  =o  taken  ai  times,  the  curve  P2  =  o  taken  a2  times,  &c. 

Instead  of  the  equation  PialP2<u...  =o,  we  may  start  with  an 
equation  «  =  o,  where  u  is  a  function  of  the  order  TO  containing 
a  parameter  8,  and  for  a  -particular  value  say  6  =  0,  of  the  parameter 
reducing  itself  to  Pi°1P2a2.  .  .  .  Supposing  6  indefinitely  small,  we 
have  what  may  be  called  the  penultimate  curve,  and  when  6  —  0  the 
ultimate  curve.  Regarding  the  ultimate  curve  as  derived  from  a 
given  penultimate  curve,  we  connect  with  the  ultimate  curve.^and 
consider  as  belonging  to  it,  certain  points  called  "  summits  "  on 
the  component  curves  Pi  =  o,  P2  =  o  respectively;  a  summit  Z  is 
a  point  such  that,  drawing  from  an  arbitrary  point  O  the  tangents 
to  the  penultimate  curve,  we  have  OS  as  the  limit  of  one  of  these 
tangents.  The  ultimate  curve  together  with  its  summits  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  degenerate  form  of  the  curve  «  =  o.  Observe  that  the 
positions  of  the  summits  depend  on  the  penultimate  curve  «  =  o, 
viz.  on  the  values  of  the  coefficients  in  the  terms  multiplied  by 
0,  O2,...;  they  are  thus  in  some  measure  arbitrary  points  as  regards 
the  ultimate  curve  PialP2<u  .  .  .  =  o. 

It  may  be  added  that  we  have  summits  only  on  the  component 
curves  PI=O,  of  a  multiplicity  oi>i;  the  number  of_  summits  on 
such  a  curve  is  in  general  =  (ot1-ai)»ii1.  Thus  assuming  that  the 
penultimate  curve  is  without  nodes  or  cusps,  the  number  of  the 
tangents  to  it  is  =  w2 — m,  =  (oiWii-l-aaWa-l-...)*  —  (fliWJi -|-fliWXi -r  •  •  •  )• 
Taking  PI  =  O  to  have  81  nodes  and  K,  cusps,  and  therefore  its  class 
n,  to  be  =  Wi2  — m:  — 28;— SKI,  &c.,  the  expression  for  the  number  of 
tangents  to  the  penultimate  curve  is 

(o2J-o2)m2I+  .  .  . 


where  a  term  2oi<nmim2  indicates  tangents  which  are  in  the  limit 
the  lines  drawn  to  the  intersections  of  the  curves  Pi  =o,  P«  =  o  each 
line  2oi<u  times;  a  term  o1(ni+28i+3it1)  tangents  which  are  in  the 


CURVILINEAR— CURZOLA 


limit  the  proper  tangents  to  Pi=o  each  01  times,  the  lines  to  its 
nodes  each  2<n  times,  and  the  lines  to  its  cusps  each  301  times 
the  remaining  terms  (oi2  —  ai)mi2  +  (o22  —  aa)mi'+  . . .  indicate  tangents 
which  are  in  the  limit  the  lines  drawn  to  the  several  summits,  that  is 
we  have  (ai2  —  ai)mi2  summits  on  the  curve  Pi=O,  &c. 

There  is,  of  course,  a  precisely  similar  theory  as  regards  line 
co-ordinates;  taking  Ed,  n2,  &c.,  to  be  rational  and  integral  func- 
tions of  the  co-ordinates  (f ,  »;,  f )  we  connect  with  the  ultimate  curve 
ni^Hj02. . .  =0,  and  consider  as  belonging  to  it,  certain  lines,  which 
for  the  moment  may  be  called  "  axes  "  tangents  to  the  component 
curves  IIi  =  pi,  1X2  =  0  respectively.  Considering  an  equation  in 
ooint-co-ordinates,  we  may  have  among  the  component  curves  right 
lines,  and  if  in  order  to  put  these  in  evidence  we  take  the  equation 
to  be  LiT1 . .  Pial ...  =o,  where  Li  =o  is  a  right  line,  Pi  =o  a  curve  oi 
the  second  or  any  higher  order,  then  the  curve  will  contain  as  part 
of  itself  summits  not  exhibited  in  this  equation,  but  the  correspond- 
ing line-equation  will  be  )Asl...IIial  =o,  where  Ai=o, ...are  the 
equations  of  the  summits  in  question,  IIi=o,  &c.,  are  the  line- 
equations  corresponding  to  the  several  point-equations  Pi  =o,  &c. ; 
and  this  curve  will  contain  as  part  of  itself  axes  not  exhibited  by 
this  equation,  but  which  are  the  lines  Li  =  o,...of  the  equation  in 
point-co-ordinates. 

1 8.  Twisted  Curves. — In  conclusion  a  little  may  be  said  as  to 
curves  of  double  curvature,  otherwise  twisted  curves  or  curves  in 
space.  The  analytical  theory  by  Cartesian  co-ordinates  was  first 
considered  by  Alexis  Claude  Clairaut,  Recherches  sur  les  courbes 
a  double  courbure  (Paris,  1731).  Such  a  curve  may  be  considered 
as  described  by  a  point,  moving  in  a  line  which  at  the  same 
time  rotates  about  the  point  in  a  plane  which  at  the  same  time 
rotates  about  the  line;  the  point  is  a  point,  the  line  a  tangent, 
and  the  plane  an  osculating  plane,  of  the  curve;  moreover  the 
line  is  a  generating  line,  and  the  plane  a  tangent  plane,  of  a 
developable  surface  or  torse,  having  the  curve  for  its  edge  of 
regression.  Analogous  to  the  order  and  class  of  a  plane  curve 
we  have  the  order,  rank  and  class  of  the  system  (assumed  to  be 
a  geometrical  one),  viz.  if  an  arbitrary  plane  contains  m  points, 
an  arbitrary  line  meets  r  lines,  and  an  arbitrary  point  lies  in 
n  planes,  of  the  system,  then  m,  r,  n  are  the  order,  rank  and 
class  respectively.  The  system  has  singularities,  and  there 
exist  between  m,  r,  n  and  the  numbers  of  the  several  singu- 
larities equations  analogous  to  Pliicker's  equations  for  a  plane 
curve. 

It  is  a  leading  point  in  the  theory  that  a  curve  in  space  cannot 
in  general  be  represented  by  means  of  two  equations  U=o,  V=o; 
the  two  equations  represent  surfaces,  intersecting  in  a  curve; 
but  there  are  curves  which  are  not  the  complete  intersection  of 
any  two  surfaces;  thus  we  have  the  cubic  in  space,  or  skew 
cubic,  which  is  the  residual  intersection  of  two  quadric  surfaces 
which  have  a  line  in  common;  the  equations  U=o,  V=o  of  the 
two  quadric  surfaces  represent  the  cubic  curve,  not  by  itself,  but 
together  with  the  line. 

AUTHORITIES. — In  addition  to  the  copious  authorities  mentioned 
in  the  text  above,  see  Gabriel  Cramer,  Introduction  a  I'analyse  des 
lignes  courbes  algebriques  (Geneva,  1750).  Bibliographical  articlesare 
given  in  the  Ency.  der  math.  Wiss.  Bd.  iii.  2,  3  (Leipzig,  1902-1906) ; 
H.  C.  F.  von  Mangoldt,  "  Anwendung  der  Differential-  und  Integral- 
rechnungauf  Kuryen  und  Flachen,"  Bd.  iii.  3  (1902) ;  F.  R.  v.  Lilien- 
thal,  "  Die  auf  einer  Flache  gezogenen  Kurven,"  Bd.  iii.  3  (1902) ; 
G.  W.  Scheffers,  "  Besondere  transcendente  Kurven,"  Bd.  iii.  3 
(1903);  H.  G.  Zeuthen,  "Abzahlende  Methoden,"  Bd.  iii.  2  (1906); 
L.  Berzolari,  "  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  hoheren  ebenen  algebraischen 
Kurven,"  Bd.  iii.  2  (1906).  Also  A.  Brill  and  M.  Noether,  "  Die 
Entwickelung  der  Theorie  der  algebraischen  Funktionen  in  alterer 
und  neuerer  Zeit  "  (Jahresb.  der  deutschen  math,  ver.,  1894);  E. 
Kotter,  "  Die  Entwickelung  der  synthetischen  Geometric  "  (Jahresb. 
der  deutschen  math,  ver.,  1898-1001);  E.  Pascal,  Repertorio  di 
matematiche  superiori,  ii.  "  Geometna  "  (Milan,  1900);  H.  Wieleitner, 
Bibliographie  der  hoheren  algebraischen  Kurven  fur  den  Zeitabschnitt 
von  1890-1894  (Leipzig,  1905). 

Text-books: — G.  Salmon,  A  Treatise  on  the  Higher  Plane  Curves 
(Dublin,  1852,  3rd  ed.,  1879);  translated  into  German  by  O.  W. 
Fiedler,  Analytische  Geometrie  der  hoheren  ebenen  Kurven  (Leipzig, 
2te  Aufl.,  1882);  L.  Cremona,  Introduzione  ad  una  teoria  geometrica 
delle  curve  piane  (Bologna,  1861);  J.  H.  K.  Durege,  Die  ebenen 
Kurven  driller  Ordnung  (Leipzig,  1871);  R.  F.  A.  Clebsch  and 
C.  L.  F.  Lindemann,  Vorlesungen  uber  Geometrie,  Band  i.  and  i2 
(Leipzig,  1875-1876);  H.  Schroeter,  Die  Theorie  der  ebenen  Kurven 
driller  Ordnung  (Leipzig,  1888) ;  H.  Andoyer,  Lemons  sur  la  theorie 
des  formes  et  la  geometrie  analytique  superieure  (Paris,  1900) ;  Wie- 
leitner, Theorie  der  ebenen  algebraischen  Kurven  hoherer  Ordnung 
(Leipzig,  1905).  (A.  CA.;  E.  B.  EL.) 


CURVILINEAR,  in  architecture,  that  which  is  formed  by 
curved  or  flowing  lines;  the  roofs  over  the  domes  and  vaults 
of  the  Byzantine  churches  were  generally  curvilinear.  The  term 
is  also  given  to  the  flowing  tracery  of  the  Decorated  and  the 
Flamboyant  styles. 

CURWEN,  HUGH  (d.  1568),  English  ecclesiastic  and  statesman, 
was  a  native  of  Westmorland,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
afterwards  taking  orders  in  the  church.  In  May  1533  he  ex- 
pressed approval  of  Henry  VIII. 's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn 
in  a  sermon  preached  before  the  king.  In  1541  he  became  dean 
of  Hereford,  and  in  1555  Queen  Mary  nominated  him  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Dublin,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland.  He  acted  as  one  of  the  lords  justices 
during  the  absence  from  Ireland  of  the  lord  deputy,  the  earl  of 
Sussex,  in  1557.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  Curwen  at  once 
accommodated  himself  to  the  new  conditions  by  declaring 
himself  a  Protestant,  and  was  continued  in  the  office  of  lord 
chancellor.  He  was  accused  by  the  archbishop  of  Armagh  of 
serious  moral  delinquency,  and  his  recall  was  demanded  both 
by  the  primate  and  the  bishop  of  Meath.  In  1567  Curwen 
resigned  the  see  of  Dublin  and  the  office  of  lord  chancellor, 
and  was  appointed  bishop  of  Oxford.  He  died  on  the  ist  of 
November  1568. 

See  John  Strype,  Life  and  Acts  of  Archbishop  Parker  (3  vols., 
Oxford,  1824),  and  Memorials  of  Thomas  Cranmer  (2  vols.,  Oxford, 
1840) ;  John  D'Alton.  Memoirs  of  the  Archbishops  of  Dublin  (Dublin, 
1838). 

CURWEN,  JOHN  (xSio-iSSo),  English  Nonconformist  minister 
and  founder  of  the  Tonic  Sol-Fa  system  of  musical  teaching, 
was  born  at  Heckmondwike,  Yorkshire,  of  an  old  Cumberland 
family.  His  father  was  a  Nonconformist  minister,  and  he  himself 
adopted  this  profession,  which  he  practised  till  1864,  when  he 
gave  it  up  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  his  new  method  of 
musical  nomenclature,  designed  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  stave  with 
its  lines  and  spaces.  He  adapted  it  from  that  of  Miss  Sarah  Ann 
Glover  (1785-1867)  of  Norwich,  whose  Sol-Fa  system  was  based 
on  the  ancient  gamut;  but  she  omitted  the  constant  recital  of 
;he  alphabetical  names  of  each  note  and  the  arbitrary  syllable 
indicating  key  relationship,  and  also  the  recital  of  two  or  more 
such  syllables  when  the  same  note  was  common  to  as  many  keys 
[e.g.  "  C,  Fa,  Ut,"  meaning  that  C  is  the  subdominant  of  G  and 
the  tonic  of  C) .  The  notes  were  represented  by  the  initials  of  the 
seven  syllables,  still  in  use  in  Italy  and  France  as  their  names ; 
but  in  the  "  Tonic  Sol-Fa  "  the  seven  letters  refer  to  key  relation- 
ship and  not  to  pitch.  Curwen  was  led  to  feel  the  importance 
of  a  simple  way  of  teaching  how  to  sing  by  note  by  his  experiences 
among  Sunday-school  teachers.  Apart  from  Miss  Glover,  the 
same  idea  had  been  elaborated  in  France  since  J.  J.  Rousseau's 
time,  by  Pierre  Galin  (1786-1821),  Aime  Paris  (1798-1866) 
and  Emile  Cheve  (1804-1864),  whose  method  of  teaching  how 
to  read  at  sight  also  depended  on  the  principle  of  "  tonic  relation- 
ship "  being  inculcated  by  the  reference  of  every  sound  to  its 
onic,  by  the  use  of  a  numeral  notation.  Curwen  brought  out  his 
Grammar  of  Vocal  Music  in  1843,  and  in  1853  started  the  Tonic 
Sol-Fa  Association;  and  in  1879,  after  some  difficulties  with 
':he  education  department,  the  Tonic  Sol-Fa  College  was  opened. 
Durwen  also  took  to  publishing,  and  brought  out  a  periodical 
called  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  Reporter,  and  in  his  later  life  was  occupied 
n  directing  the  spreading  organization  of  his  system.  He  died 
at  Manchester  on  the  a6th  of  May  1880.  His  son  John  Spencer 
Turwen  (b.  1847),  who  became  principal  of  the  Tonic  Sol-Fa 
College,  published  Memorials  off.  Curwen  in  1882.  The  Sol-Fa 
ystem  has  been  widely  adopted  for  use  in  education,  as  an  easily 
eachable  method  in  the  reading  of  music  at  sight,  but  its  more 
ambitious  aims,  which  are  strenuously  pushed,  for  providing  a 
uperior  method  of  musical  notation  generally,  have  not  recom- 
mended themselves  to  musicians  at  large. 

CURZOLA  (Serbo-Croatian  Korcula  or  Karkar),  an  island 
n  the  Adriatic  Sea,  forming  part  of  Dalmatia,  Austria;  and 
ying  west  of  the  Sabioncello  promontory,  -from  which  it  is 
livided  by  a  strait  less  than  2  m.  wide.  Its  length  is  about  25  m.; 
ts  average  breadth,  4  m.  Curzola  (Korcula),  the  capital  and 


CURZON  OF  KEDLESTON— CUSANUS,  NICOLAUS          665 


principal  port,  is  a  fortified  town  on  the  east  coast,  and  occupies 
a  rocky  foreland  almost  surrounded  by  the  sea.  Besides  the 
interesting  church  (formerly  a  cathedral),  dating  from  the  I2th 
or  I3th  century,  the  loggia  or  council  chambers,  and  the  palace 
of  its  former  Venetian  governors,  it  possesses  the  noble  mansion 
of  the  Arnieri,  and  other  specimens  of  the  domestic  architecture 
of  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries,  together  with  the  massive  walls 
and  towers,  erected  in  1420,  and  the  15th-century  Franciscan 
monastery,  with  its  beautiful  Venetian  Gothic  cloister.  The 
main  resources  of  the  islanders  are  boat-building  (for  which 
they  are  celebrated  throughout  the  Adriatic),  fishing  and  sea- 
faring, the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  corn  and  olives,  and  breeding 
of  mules.  Pop.  (1900)  of  island,  17,377;  of  capital  (town  and 
commune),  6486.  Prehistoric  grave-mounds  are  common  on 
the  hills  of  the  interior,  and  in  later  times  Curzola  may  have 
been  a  Phoenician  settlement.  Its  early  history  is  very  obscure, 
but  it  was  certainly  colonized  by  Greeks  from  Cnidus.  The 
present  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Gr.  KipKi>pa  MeXcwa,  or 
Lat.  Corcyra  Nigra,  "  Black  Corcyra  ";  and  is  perhaps  due 
to  the  dark  pines  which  still  partly  cover  the  island.  In  998 
Curzola  first  came  under  Venetian  suzerainty.  During  the  1 2th 
century  it  was  ruled  by  Hungary  and  Genoa  in  turn,  and  enjoyed 
a  brief  period  of  independence;  but  after  1255  its  hereditary 
counts  again  submitted  to  Venice.  The  Roman  Catholic  see  of 
Curzola,  created  in  1301,  was  only  suppressed  in  1806.  Curzola 
surrendered  to  the  Hungarians  in  1358,  was  purchased  by  Ragusa 
(1413-1417),  and  finally  declared  itself  subject  to  Venice  in  1420. 
In  1571  it  defended  itself  so  gallantly  against  the  Turks  that 
it  obtained  the  designation  fidelissima.  From  1776  to  1797  it 
succeeded  Lesina  as  the  main  Venetian  arsenal  in  this  region. 
During  the  Napoleonic  wars  it  was  ruled  successively  by  Russians, 
French  and  British,  ultimately  passing  to  Austria  in  1815. 

CURZON  OF  KEDLESTON,  GEORGE  NATHANIEL,  IST 
BARON  (1850-  ),  English  statesman,  eldest  son  of  the  4th 
baron  Scarsdale,  rector  of  Kedleston,  Derbyshire,  was  born  on  the 
nth  of  January  1859,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  At  Oxford  he  was  president  of  the  Union,  and 
after  a  brilliant  university  career  was  elected  a  fellow  of  All  Souls 
College  in  1883.  He  became  assistant  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Salisbury  in  1885,  and  in  1886  entered  parliament  as  member 
for  the  Southport  division  of  S.  W.  Lancashire.  He  was  appointed 
under  secretary  for  India  in  1891-1892  and  for  foreign  affairs 
in  1895-1898.  In  the  meantime  he  had  travelled  in  Central  Asia, 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  the  Pamirs,  Siam,  Indo-China  and  Korea, 
and  published  several  books  describing  central  and  eastern  Asia 
and  the  political  problems  connected  with  those  regions.  In  1895 
he  married  Mary  Victoria  Leiter  (d.  1906),  daughter  of  a  Chicago 
millionaire.  In  January  1899  he  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  India,  where  his  extensive  knowledge  of  Asiatic  affairs 
showed  itself  in  the  inception  of  a  strong  foreign  policy,  while  he 
took  in  hand  the  reform  of  every  department  of  Indian  admini- 
stration. He  was  created  an  Irish  peer  on  his  appointment, 
the  creation  taking  this  form,  it  was  understood,  in  order  that 
he  might  remain  free  during  his  father's  lifetime  to  re-enter  the 
House  of  Commons.  Reaching  India  shortly  after  the  sup- 
pression of  the  frontier  risings  of  1897-98,  he  paid  special 
attention  to  the  independent  tribes  of  the  north-west  frontier, 
inaugurated  a  new  province  called  the  North  West  Frontier 
Province,  and  carried  out  a  policy  of  conciliation  mingled  with 
firmness  of  control.  The  only  trouble  on  this  frontier  during 
the  period  of  his  administration  was  the  Mahsud  Waziri  campaign 
of  1901.  Being  mistrustful  of  Russian  methods  he  exerted 
himself  to  encourage  British  trade  in  Persia,  paying  a  visit  to 
the  Persian  Gulf  in  1903;  while  on  the  north-east  frontier  he 
anticipated  a  possible  Russian  advance  by  the  Tibet  Mission  of 
1903,  which  rendered  necessary  the  employment  of  military  force 
for  the  protection  of  the  British  envoys.  The  mission,  which  had 
the  ostensible  support  of  China  as  suzerain  of  Tibet,  penetrated 
to  Lhasa,  where  a  treaty  was  signed  in  September  1904.  In 
pursuance  of  his  reforming  policy  Lord  Curzon  appointed  a 
number  of  commissions  to  inquire  into  Indian  education,  irriga- 
tion, police  and  other  branches  of  administration,  on  whose 


reports  legislation  was  based  during  his  second  term  of  office  as 
viceroy.  With  a  view  to  improving  British  relations  with  the 
native  chiefs  and  raising  the  character  of  their  rule,  he  estab- 
lished the  Imperial  Cadet  corps,  settled  the  question  of  Berar  with 
the  nizam  of  Hyderabad,  reduced  the  salt  tax,  and  gave  relief 
to  the  smaller  income-tax  payers.  Lord  Curzon  exhibited  much 
interest  in  the  art  and  antiquities  of  India,  and  during  his 
viceroyalty  took  steps  for  the  preservation  and  restoration  of 
many  important  monuments  and  buildings  of  historic  interest. 
In  January  1903  he  presided  at  the  durbar  held  at  Delhi  in  honour 
of  the  coronation  of  King  Edward  VII.  It  was  attended  by  all 
the  leading  native  princes  and  by  large  numbers  of  visitors  from 
Europe  and  America;  and  the  magnificence  of  the  spectacle 
surpassed  anything  that  had  previously  been  witnessed  even  in 
the  gorgeous  ceremonial  of  the  East.  On  the  expiration  of  his 
first  term  of  office,  Lord  Curzon  was  reappointed  governor- 
general.  His  second  term  of  office  was  marked  by  the  passing 
of  several  acts  founded  on  the  recommendations  of  his  previous 
commissions,  and  by  the  partition  of  Bengal  (1905),  which  roused 
bitter  opposition  amongst  the  natives  of  that  province.  A  differ- 
ence of  opinion  with  the  commander-in-chief,  Lord  Kitchener, 
regarding  the  position  of  the  military  member  of  council  in 
India,  led  to  a  controversy  in  which  Lord  Curzon  failed  to  obtain 
support  from  the  home  government.  He  resigned  (1904)  and 
returned  to  England.  In  1904  he  was  appointed  lord  warden 
of  the  Cinque  Ports;  in  the  same  year  he  was  given  the  honorary 
degree  of  D.C.L.  by  Oxford  University,  and  in  1908  he  was 
elected  chancellor  of  the  university.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  a  representative  peer  for  Ireland,  and  thus  relinquished 
any  idea  of  returning  to  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1909-1910 
he  took  an  active  part  in  defending  the  House  of  Lords  against 
the  Liberals.  Lord  Curzon's  publications  include  Russia  in 
Central  Asia  (1889);  Persia  and  the  Persian  Question  (1892); 
Problems  of  the  Far  East  (1894;  new  ed.,  1896). 

See  Caldwell  Lipsett,  Lord  Curzon  in  India,  /5pS-/poj  (1906) ;  and 
C.  J.  O'Donnell,  The  Failure  cf  Lord  Curzon  (1903). 

CUSANUS,  NICOLAUS  (NICHOLAS  OF  CUSA).  (1401-1464), 
cardinal,  theologian  and  scholar,  was  the  son  of  a  poor  fisherman 
named  Krypffs  or  Krebs,  and  derived  the  name  by  which  he  is 
known  from  the  place  of  his  birth,  Kues  or  Cusa,  on  the  Moselle, 
in  the  archbishopric  of  Trier  (Treves).  In  his  youth  he  was 
employed  in  the  service  of  Count  Ulrich  of  Manderscheid,  who, 
seeing  in  him  evidence  of  exceptional  ability,  sent  him  to  study 
at  the  school  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life  at  Deventer, 
and  afterwards  at  the  university  of  Padua,  where  he  took  his 
doctor's  degree  in  law  in  his  twenty-third  year.  Failing  in  his 
first  case  he  abandoned  the  legal  profession,  and  resolved  to 
take  holy  orders.  After  filling  several  subordinate  offices  he 
became  archdeacon  of  Liege.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  of 
Basel,  and  dedicated  to  the  assembled  fathers  a  work  entitled 
De  concordantia  Catholica,  in  which  he  maintained  the  superiority 
of  councils  over  popes,  and  assailed  the  genuineness  of  the  False 
Decretals  and  the  Donation  of  Constantine.  A  few  years  later, 
however,  he  had  reversed  his  position,  and  zealously  defended  the 
supremacy  of  the  pope.  He  was  entrusted  with  various  missions 
in  the  interests  of  Catholic  unity,  the  most  important  being  to 
Constantinople,  to  endeavour  to  bring  about  a  union  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches.  From  1440  to  1447  he  was 
in  Germany,  acting  as  papal  legate  at  the  diets  of  1441, 1442,  1445 
and  1446.  In  1448,  in  recognition  of  his  services,  Nicholas  V. 
raised  him  to  the  cardinalate;  and  in  1450  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Brixen  against  the  wish  of  Sigismund,  archduke  of 
Austria,  who  opposed  the  reforms  the  new  bishop  sought  to 
introduce  into  the  diocese.  In  1451  he  was  sent  to  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  to  check  ecclesiastical  abuses  and  bring 
back  the  monastic  life  to  the  original  rule  of  poverty,  chastity 
and  obedience — a  mission  which  he  discharged  with  well- 
tempered  firmness.  Soon  afterwards  his  dispute  with  the  arch- 
duke Sigismund  in  his  own  diocese  was  brought  to  a  point  by  his 
claiming  certain  dues  of  the  bishopric,  which  the  temporal  prince 
had  appropriated.  Upon  this  the  bishop  was  imprisoned  by  the 
archduke,  who,  in  his  turn,  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope. 


666 


GUSH— GUSHING,  C. 


These  extreme  measures  were  not  persisted  in;  but  the  dispute 
remained  unsettled  at  the  time  of  the  bishop's  death,  which 
occurred  at  Lodi  in  Umbria  on  the  nth  of  August  1464.  In 
1459  he  had  acted  as  governor  of  Rome  during  the  absence  of  his 
friend  Pope  Pius  II.  at  the  assembly  of  princes  at  Milan;  and 
he  wrote  his  Crebratio  Alcorani,  a  treatise  against  Mahom- 
medanism,  in  support  of  the  expedition  against  the  Turks 
proposed  at  that  assembly.  Some  time  before  his  death  he  had 
founded  a  hospital  in  his  native  place  for  thirty-three  poor 
persons,  the  number  being  that  of  the  years  of  the  earthly  life 
of  Christ.  To  this  institution  he  left  his  valuable  library. 

Although  one  of  the  great  leaders  in  the  reform  movement 
of  the  1 5th  century,  Nicholas  of  Cusa's  interest  for  later  times 
lies  in  his  philosophical  much  more  than  in  his  political  or  ecclesi- 
astical activity.  As  in  religion  he  is  entitled  to  be  called  one  of 
the  "  Reformers  before  the  Reformation,"  so  in  philosophy  he 
was  one  of  those  who  broke  with  scholasticism  while  it  was  still 
the  orthodox  system.  In  his  principal  work,  De  docta  ignorantia 
(1440),  supplemented  by  De  conjecluris  libri  duo  published  in 
the  same  year,  he  maintains  that  all  human  knowledge  is  mere 
conjecture,  and  that  man's  wisdom  is  to  recognize  his  ignorance. 
From  scepticism  he  escapes  by  accepting  the  doctrine  of  the 
mystics  that  God  can  be  apprehended  by  intuition  (intuilio, 
speculatio) ,  an  exalted  state  of  the  intellect  in  which  all  limitations 
disappear.  God  is  the  absolute  maximum  and  also  the  absolute 
minimum,  who  can  be  neither  greater  nor  less  than  He  is,  and 
who  comprehends  all  that  is  or  that  can  be  ("  deum  esse  omnia, 
ut  non  possit  esse  aliud  quam  est  ").  Cusanus  thus  laid  himself 
open  to  the  charge  of  pantheism,  which  did  not  fail  to  be  brought 
against  him  in  his  own  day.  His  chief  philosophical  doctrine 
was  taken  up  and  developed  more  than  a  hundred  years  later 
by  Giordano  Bruno,  who  calls  him  the  divine  Cusanus.  In 
mathematical  and  physical  science  Cusanus  was  much  in  advance 
of  his  age.  In  a  tract,  Reparatio  Calendarii,  presented  to  the 
council  of  Basel,  he  proposed  the  reform  of  the  calendar  after 
a  method  resembling  that  adopted  by  Gregory.  In  his  De 
Quadrature  Circuli  he  professed  to  have  solved  the  problem; 
and  in  his  Conjectura  de  novissimis  diebus  he  prophesied  that 
the  world  would  come  to  an  end  in  1734.  Most  noteworthy, 
however,  in  this  connexion  is  the  fact  that  he  anticipated 
Copernicus  by  maintaining  the  theory  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

The  works  of  Cusanus  were  published  in  a  complete  form  by 
Henri  Petrie  (i  vol.  fol.,  Basel,  1565).  See  F.  A.  Scharpff's  Der 
Kardinal  und  Bischof  Nikolaus  von  Cusa  als  Reformator  in  Kirche, 
Reich,  und  Philos.  des  75.  Jahrhund.  (Tubingen,  1871);  J.  M.  Dux, 
Der  deutsche  Kard.  Nicolaus  von  Cusa  und  die  Kirche  seiner  Zeit 
(Regensburg,  1848);  R.  Falckenberg,  Grundzuge  d.  Philos.  d.  Niko- 
laus Cusanus  (Breslau,  1880)  and  Aufgabe  und  Wesen  d.  Erkenntniss 
bei  Nikolaus  von  Kues  (Breslau,  1880);  T.  Stumpf,  Die  politischen 
Ideen  des  Nikolaus  von  Cues  (Cologne,  1865) ;  M.  Glossner,  Nikolaus 
von  Cusa  und  Marius  "Nizolius  als  Vorldufer  der  neueren  Philo- 
sophie  (Miinster,  1891);  F.  Fiorentino,  //  Risorgimento  filosofico  nel 
quattro  cento  (Naples,  1885);  Axel  Herrlin,  Studier  i  Nicolaus  af 
Cues'  Filosofi  (Lund,  1892);  H.  Hoffding,  Hist,  of  Mod.  Phil.  (Eng. 
trans.,  1900),  bk.  i.  chap.  x. ;  F.  J.  Clemens,  Giordano  Bruno  und 
Nikolaus  Cusanus  (Bonn,  1847);  R.  Zimmermann,  Der  Card. 
Nikolaus  Cusanus  als  Vorlaufer  Leibnitzens  (Vienna,  1852);  J. 
Cbinger,  Philosophie  des  Nikolaus  Cusanus  (Wiirzburg,  1881);  art. 
by  R.  Schmid  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyk.  s.v.  "Cusanus";  see 
also  MYSTICISM. 

GUSH,  the  eldest  son  of  Ham,  in  the  Bible,  from  whom  seems  to 
have  been  derived  the  name  of  the  "  Land  of  Cush,"  commonly 
rendered  "  Ethiopia  "  by  the  Septuagint  and  by  the  Vulgate. 
The  locality  of  the  land  of  Cush  has  long  been  a  much-vexed 
question.  Bochart  maintained  that  it  was  exclusively  in  Arabia ; 
Schulthess  and  Gesenius  held  that  it  should  be  sought  for  nowhere 
but  in  Africa  (see  ETHIOPIA).  Others  again,  like  Michaelis  and 
Rosenmuller,  have  supposed  that  the  name  Cush  was  applied  to 
tracts  of  country  both  in  Arabia  and  in  Africa,  but  the  defective 
condition  of  the  ancient  knowledge  of  countries  and  peoples, 
as  also  the  probability  of  early  migrations  of  "  Cushite  "  tribes 
(carrying  with  them  their  name),  will  account  for  the  main  facts. 
The  existence  of  an  African  Cush  cannot  reasonably  be  questioned, 
though  the  term  is  employed  in  the  Old  Testament  with  some 
latitude.  The  African  Cush  covers  Upper  Egypt,  and  extends 


southwards  from  the  first  cataract  (Syene,  Ezek.  xxix.  10). 
That  the  term  was  also  applied  to  parts  of  Arabia  is  evident  from 
Gen.  x.  7,  where  Cush  is  the  "  father  "  of  certain  tribal  and 
ethnical  designations,  all  of  which  point  very  clearly  to  Arabia, 
with  the  very  doubtful  exception  of  Seba,  which  Josephus  (Ant. 
ii.  10.  2)  identifies  with  Meroe.1  Even  in  the  5th  century  A.D. 
the  Himyarites,  in  the  south  of  Arabia,  were  styled  by  Syrian 
writers  Cushaeans  and  Ethiopians.  Moreover,  the  Babylonian 
inscriptions  mention  the  Kashshi,  an  Elamite  race,  whose  name 
has  been  equated  with  the  classical  Kotro-otoi,  Kto-aim,  and  it 
has  been  held  that  this  affords  a  more  appropriate  explanation 
of  Cush  (perhaps  rather  Kash),  the  ancestor  of  (the  Babylonian) 
Nimrod  in  Gen.  x.  8.  Although  decisive  evidence  is  lacking,  it 
seems  extremely  probable  that  several  references  to  Cush  in  the 
Old  Testament  cannot  refer  to  Ethiopia,  despite  the  likelihood 
that  considerable  confusion  existed  in  the  minds  of  early  writers. 
The  Cushite  invasion  in  2  Chron.  xiv.  (see  ASA)  is  intelligible  if 
the  historical  foundation  for  the  story  be  a  raid  by  Arabians, 
but  in  xvi.  8  the  inclusion  of  Libyans  shows  that  the  enemy  was 
subsequently  supposed  to  be  African.  In  several  passages  the 
interpretation  is  bound  up  with  that  of  Mizraim  (q.v.),  and 
depends  in  general  upon  the  question  whether  Ethiopia  at  a 
given  time  enjoyed  the  prominence  given  to  it. 

On  Num.  xii.  I  see  JETHRO;  and  consult  H.  Winckler,  Kett.  u. 
das  alte  Test.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  144  sq.,  and  Im  Kampfe  um  den  alien  Orient, 
ii.  pp.  36  seq.,  and  the  literature  cited  under  MIZRAIM.  (S.  A.  C.) 

GUSHING,  CALEB  (1800-1879),  American  political  leader 
and  lawyer,  was  born  in  Salisbury,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i7th 
of  January  1800.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1817,  was  tutor 
in  mathematics  there  in  1820-1821,  was  admitted  to  practice 
in  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  December  1821,  and  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  in  1824.  After  serving, 
as  a  Democratic-Republican,  in  the  state  house  of  representatives 
in  1825,  in  the  state  senate  in  1826,  and  in  the  house  again  in 
1828,  he  spent  two  years,  from  1829  to  1831,  in  Europe,  again 
served  in  the  state  house  of  representatives  in  1833  and  1834, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  elected  by  the  Whigs  a  representative 
in  Congress.  He  served  in  this  body  from  1835  until  1843,  and 
here  the  marked  inconsistency  which  characterized  his  public 
life  became  manifest;  for  when  John  Tyler  had  become  president, 
had  been  "  read  out  "  of  the  Whig  party,  and  had  vetoed  Whig 
measures  (including  a  tariff  bill),  for  which  Gushing  had  voted, 
Gushing  first  defended  the  vetoes  and  then  voted  again  for  the 
bills.  In  1843  President  Tyler  nominated  him  for  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  but  the  senate  refused  to  confirm  him  for  this  office. 
He  was,  however,  appointed  later  in  the  same  year  commissioner 
of  the  United  States  to  China,  holding  this  position  until  1845, 
and  in  1844  negotiating  the  first  treaty  between  China  and  the 
United  States.  In  1847,  while  again  a  representative  in  the 
state  legislature,  he  introduced  a  bill  appropriating  money  for 
the  equipment  of  a  regiment  to  serve  in  the  Mexican  War; 
although  the  bill  was  defeated,  he  raised  the  necessary  funds 
privately,  and  served  in  Mexico  first  as  colonel  and  afterwards 
as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  In  1847  and  again  in  1848 
the  Democrats  nominated  him  for  governor  of  Massachusetts,  but 
on  each  occasion  he  was  defeated  at  the  polls.  He  was  again  a 
representative  in  the  state  legislature  in  1851,  became  an  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  in  1852,  and  during 
the  administration  (1853-1857)  of  President  Pierce,  was  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States.  In  1858,  1859,  1862  and  1863  he 
again  served  in  the  state  house  of  representatives.  In  1860  he 
presided  over  the  National  Democratic  Convention  which  met 
first  at  Charleston  and  later  at  Baltimore,  until  he  joined  those 
who  seceded  from  the  regular  convention;  he  then  presided  also 
over  the  convention  of  the  seceding  delegates,  who  nominated 
John  C.  Breckinridge  for  the  presidency.  During  the  Civil  War, 
however,  he  supported  the  National  Administration.  At  the 
Geneva  conference  for  the  settlement  of  the  "  Alabama  "  claims 
in  1871-1872  he  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  United  States. 

1  For  Seba,  see  SABAEANS,  and  cf.  generally  the  commentaries 
on  Gen.  x.  7.  In  Hab.  iii.  7  Cushan  (obviously  a  related  form)  is 
parallel  to  Midian. 


GUSHING,  W.  B.— CUSTARD  APPLE 


667 


In  1873  President  Grant  nominated  him  for  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States,  but  in  spite  of  his  great  learning  and  eminence 
at  the  bar,  his  ante-war  record  and  the  feeling  of  distrust  ex- 
perienced by  many  members  of  the  senate  on  account  of  his 
inconsistency,  aroused  such  vigorous  opposition  that  his  nomina- 
tion was  soon  withdrawn.  From  1874  to  1877  Gushing  was 
United  States  minister  to  Spain.  He  died  at  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  on  the  and  of  January  1879.  He  published  History 
and  Present  State  of  the^  Town  of  Newburyport,  Mass.  (1826); 
Review  of  the  late  Revolution  in  France  (1833);  Reminiscences 
of  Spain  (1833);  Oration  on  the  Growth  and  Territorial  Pro- 
gress of  the  United  States  (1839);  Life  and  Public  Services  of 
William  H.  Harrison  (1840);  and  The  Treaty  of  Washington 

(1873). 

CUSHING,  WILLIAM  BARKER  (1842-1874),  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Delafield,  Wisconsin,  on  the  4th  of  November 
1842.  He  entered  the  Naval  Academy  from  New  York  in  1857, 
but  resigned  in  March  1861.  When,  however,  the  Civil  War 
began,  he  volunteered  into  the  navy,  was  rated  acting  master's 
mate,  and  became  a  midshipman  in  October  1 86 1,  and  a  lieutenant 
in  July  1862,  serving  in  the  North  Atlantic  blockading  squadron. 
The  work  of  blockade,  and  of  harassing  the  Confederates  on  the 
coast  and  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  called  for  much 
service  in  boats,  and  entailed  a  great  deal  of  exposure.  Gushing 
was  distinguished  by  his  readiness  to  volunteer,  his  indefatig- 
ability,  and  by  his  good  fortune,  the  reward  of  vigilance  and 
intelligence.  The  feat  by  which  he  will  be  remembered  was  the 
destruction  of  the  Confederate  ironclad  "  Albemarle  "  in  the 
Roanoke  river  on  the  27th  of  October  in  1864.  The  vessel  had 
done  much  damage  to  the  Federal  naval  forces,  and  her  destruc- 
tion was  greatly  desired.  She  was  at  anchor  surrounded  by 
baulks  of  timber,  and  a  cordon  of  boats  had  been  stationed  to 
row  guard  against  an  expected  Federal  attack.  Lieutenant 
Gushing  undertook  the  attack  on  her  with  a  steam  launch  carrying 
a  spar-torpedo  and  towing  an  armed  cutter.  He  eluded  the 
Confederate  lookout  and  reached  the  "  Albemarle "  unseen. 
When  close  to  he  was  detected,  but  he  had  time  to  drive  the 
steam  launch  over  the  baulks  and  to  explode  the  torpedo  against 
the  "  Albemarle  "  with  such  success  that  a  hole  was  made  in  her 
and  she  sank.  Cushing's  own  launch  was  destroyed.  He  and 
the  few  men  with  him  were  compelled  to  take  to  the  water; 
one  was  killed,  another  was  drowned,  Gushing  and  one  other 
escaped,  and  the  rest  were  captured.  Gushing  himself  swam  to 
the  swamps  on  the  river  bank,  and  after  wading  among  them 
for  hours  reached  a  Federal  picket  boat.  For  destroying  the 
"  Albemarle  "  he  was  thanked  by  Congress  and  was  promoted 
to  be  lieutenant-commander.  On  the  i5th  of  January  1865  he 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  land  attack  on  the  sea-front  wall 
of  Fort  Fisher.  After  the  war  he  commanded  the  "  Lancaster" 
(1866-1867)  and  the  "  Maumee "  (1868-1869)  in  the  Asiatic 
Squadron.  In  1872  he  was  promoted  commander  at  what  was 
an  exceptionally  early  age,  but  he  died  on  the  I7th  of  December 
1874  of  brain  fever.  He  had  suffered  extreme  pain  for  years 
before  his  death,  and  in  fact  broke  down  altogether  under  disease 
contracted  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty. 

CUSHION  (from  O.  Fr.  caisson,  coussin;  according  to  the 
New  English  Diet.,  from  Lat.  coxa,  a  hip;  others  say  from  Lat. 
culcita,  a  quilt),  a  soft  bag  of  some  ornamental  material,  stuffed 
with  wool,  hair,  feathers,  or  even  paper  torn  into  fragments.  It 
may  be  used  for  sitting  or  kneeling  upon,  or  to  soften  the  hardness 
or  angularity  of  a  chair  or  couch.  It  is  a  very  ancient  article 
of  furniture,  the  inventories  of  the  contents  of  palaces  and  great 
houses  in  the  early  middle  ages  constantly,  making  mention  of  it. 
It  was  then  often  of  great  size,  covered  with  leather,  and  firm 
enough  to  serve  as  a  seat,  but  the  steady  tendency  of  all  furniture 
has  been  to  grow  smaller.  It  was,  indeed,  used  as  a  seat,  at  all 
events  in  France  and  Spain,  at  a  very  much  later  period,  and  in 
Saint-Simon's  time  we  find  that  at  the  Spanish  court  it  was  still 
regarded  as  a  peculiarly  honourable  substitute  for  a  chair.  In 
France  the  right  to  kneel  upon  a  cushion  in  church  behind  the 
king  was  jealously  guarded  and  strictly  regulated,  as  we  may 
learn  again  from  Saint-Simon.  This  type  of  cushion  was  called 


a  carreau  or  square.  When  seats  were  rude  and  hard  the  cushion 
may  have  been  a  necessity;  it  is  now  one  of  the  minor  luxuries 
of  life. 

The  term  "  cushion  "  is  given  in  architecture  to  the  sides  of 
the  Ionic  capital.  It  is  also  applied  to  an  early  and  simple  form 
of  the  Romanesque  capitals  oif  Germany  and  England,  which 
consist  of  cubical  masses,  square  at  the  top  and  rounded  off  at 
the  four  corners,  so  as  to  reduce  the  lower  diameter  to  a  circle  of 
the  same  size  as  the  shaft. 

CUSHMAN,  CHARLOTTE  SAUNDERS  (1816-1876),  American 
actress,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the  23rd  of  July 
1816.  Her  father,  a  West  India  merchant,  left  his  family  in 
straitened  circumstances,  and  Charlotte,  who  had  a  fine  con- 
tralto voice,  went  on  the  operatic  stage.  In  1835  she  successfully 
appeared  at  the  Tremont  theatre  as  the  countess  Almaviva  in 
The  Marriage  of  Figaro.  But  her  singing  voice  failing  her  she 
entered  the  drama,  and  played  Lady  Macbeth  in  the  same  year. 
She  then  engaged  herself  as  a  stock  actress,  but  was  soon  given 
leading  parts.  In  1842  she  managed  and  played  in  the  Walnut 
Street  theatre  in  Philadelphia.  She  accompanied  Macready  on 
an  American  tour,  winning  a  great  reputation  in  tragedy,  and  in 
1845  and  in  1854-1855  she  fulfilled  successful  engagements  in 
London.  She  was  a  keen  student,  and  acquired  a  large  range  of 
classic  r61es.  Her  best  parts  were  perhaps  Lady  Macbeth  and 
Queen  Katherine,  her  most  popular  Meg  Merrilies,  in  a  dramatiza- 
tion of  Scott's  Guy  Matinering.  Her  figure  was  commanding 
and  her  face  expressive,  and  she  was  animated  by  a  temperament 
full  of  vigour  and  fire.  These  qualities  enabled  her  to  play  with 
success  such  male  parts  as  Romeo  and  Cardinal  Wolsey.  During 
her  later  years  Miss  Cushman  worked  hard  as  a  dramatic  reader, 
in  which  capacity  she  was  much  appreciated.  Her  last  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  took  place  on  the  isth  of  May  1875,  at  the 
Globe  theatre,  Boston,  in  which  city  she  died  on  the  i8th  of 
February  1876. 

See  Emma  Stebbins's  Charlotte  Cushman,  her  Letters  and  Memories 
of  her  Life  (Boston,  1878) ;  H.  A.  Clapp's  Reminiscences  of  a  Dramatic 
Critic  (Boston,  1902) ;  and  W.  T.  Price,  A  Life  of  Charlotte  Cushman 
(New  York,  1894). 

CUSP  (Lat.  cuspis,  a  spear,  point) ,  a  projecting  point,  or  pointed 
end.  In  architecture  (Fr.  feuille,  Ital.  cuspide,  Ger.  Knopf e), 
a  cusp  is  the  point  where  the  foliations  of  tracery  intersect. 
The  earliest  example  of  a  plain  cusp  is  probably  that  at  Pytha- 
goras school,  at  Cambridge, — of  an  ornamented  cusp  at  Ely 
cathedral,  where  a  small  roll,  with  a  rosette  at  the  end,  is  formed 
at  the  termination  of  a  cusp.  In  the  later  styles  the  terminations 
of  the  cusps  were  more  richly  decorated;  they  also  sometimes 
terminate  not  only  in  leaves  or  foliages,  but  in  rosettes,  heads  and 
other  fanciful  ornaments.  The  term  "  feathering  "  is  used  of 
the  junction  of  the  foliated  cusps  in  window  tracery,  but  is 
usually  restricted  to  those  cases  where  it  is  ornamented  with 
foliage,  &c. 

CUSTARD1  APPLE,  a  name  applied  to  the  fruit  of  various 
species  of  the  genus  Anona,  natural  order  Anonaceae.  The 
members  of  this  genus  are  shrubs  or  small  trees  having  alternate, 
exstipulate  leaves,  and  flowers  with  three  small  sepals,  six  petals 
arranged  in  a  double  row  and  numerous  stamens.  The  fruit 
of  A.  reticulata,  the  common  custard  apple,  or  "  bullock's  heart  " 
of  the  West  Indies,  is  dark  brown  in  colour,  and  marked  with 
depressions,  which  give  it  a  quilted  appearance;  its  pulp  is 
reddish-yellow,  sweetish  and  very  soft  (whence  the  name); 
the  kernels  of  the  seeds  are  said  to  be  poisonous.  The  sour-sop 
is  the  fruit  of  A .  muricata,  native  of  the  West  Indies.  The  plant, 
which  is  a  small  tree,  has  become  naturalized  in  some  parts  of 
India  where  it  is  extensively  cultivated,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
tropics.  It  is  covered  with  soft  prickles,is  of  a  light-greenish  hue, 
and  has  a  peculiar  but  agreeable  sour  taste,  and  a  scent  resembling 
that  of  black  currants.  The  sweet-sop  is  produced  by  A.  squa- 
mosa,  also  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  widely  cultivated 

1  The  term  "  custard,"  now  given  to  a  dish  made  with  eggs  beaten 
up  with  milk,  &c.,  and  either  served  in  liquid  form  or  baked  to  a 
stiff  consistency,  originally  denoted  a  kind  of  open  pie.  It  represents 
the  older  form  "  crustade,"  Fr.  croustade,  Ital.  crostata,  from  crostare, 
to  encrust. 


668 


CUSTER— CUSTOM 


in  the  tropics.  It  is  known  as  the  custard  apple  by  Europeans 
in  India.  It  is  an  egg-shaped  fruit,  with  a  thick  rind  and  luscious 
pulp.  An  acrid  principle,  fatal  to  insects,  is  contained  in  its 
seeds,  leaves  and  unripe  fruits,  which,  powdered  and  mixed  with 
the  flour  of  gram  (Cicer  arietinum),  are  used  to  destroy  vermin. 
A.  Cherimolia  yield  the  Peruvian  cherimoyer,  which  is  held  to 
be  a  fruit  of  very  superior  flavour,  and  is  much  esteemed  by  the 
Creoles.  A.  palustris,  alligator  apple,  or  cork- wood,  a  native 
of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  is  valued  for  its  wood, 
which  serves  the  same  purposes  as  cork;  the  fruit,  commonly 
known  as  the  alligator-apple,  is  not  eaten,  being  reputed  to  con- 
tain a  dangerous  narcotic  principle. 

CUSTER,  GEORGE  ARMSTRONG  (1839-1876),  American 
cavalry  soldier,  was  born  in  New  Rumley,  Harrison  county, 
Ohio,  on  the  sth  of  December  1839.  He  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1861,  and  was  at  once  sent  to  the  theatre  of  war  in 
Virginia,  joining  his  regiment  on  the  battlefield  of  Bull  Run. 
Afterwards  he  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Kearny,  and  on  that 
of  General  W.  F.  Smith  in  the  Peninsular  Campaign.  His  daring 
and  energy,  and  in  particular  a  spirited  reconnaissance  on  the 
Chickahominy  river,  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  General 
McClellan,  who  made  him  an  aide-de-camp  on  his  own  staff, 
with  the  rank  of  'captain.  A  few  hours  afterwards  Custer 
attacked  a  Confederate  picket  post  and  drove  back  the  enemy. 
He  continued  to  serve  with  McClellan  until  the  general  was 
relieved  of  his  command,  when  Custer  returned  to  duty  with 
his  regiment  as  a  lieutenant.  Early  in  1863  General  Pleasonton 
selected  him  as  his  aide-de-camp,  and  in  June  1863  Custer  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Michigan  cavalry  brigade 
in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  and  frequently  did  good  service  in 
the  remaining  operations  of  the  campaign  of  1863.  When  the 
cavalry  corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  reorganized 
under  Sheridan  in  1864,  Custer  retained  his  command,  and  took 
part  in  the  various  actions  of  the  cavalry  in  the  Wilderness  and 
Shenandoah  campaigns.  At  the  end  of  September  1864,  he  was 
appointed  to  command  a  division,  and  on  the  9th  of  October 
fought,  along  with  General  Merritt,  the  brilliant  cavalry  action 
called  the  battle  of  Woodstock.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  made 
brevet-major-general,  U.S.V.,  having  already  won  the  brevets 
of  major,  lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  U.S.A.,  for  his  services 
at  Gettysburg,  Yellow  Tavern  and  Winchester.  His  part  in 
the  decisive  battle  of  Cedar  Creek  (q.v.)  was  most  conspicuous. 
He  served  with  Sheridan  in  the  last  great  cavalry  raid,  won  the 
action  of  Waynesboro,  and  in  the  final  campaign  added  to  his 
laurels  by  his  conduct  at  Dinwiddie  and  Five  Forks,  and  in 
other  operations.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  received  the  brevets 
of  brigadier  and  major-general  in  the  regular  army,  and  was 
promoted  major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1866  Custer  was 
made  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  7th  U.S.  Cavalry,  and  took  part 
under  General  Hancock  in  the  expedition  against  the  Cheyenne 
Indians,  upon  whom  he  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  at  Washita 
river  on  the  27th  of  November  1868.  In  1873  he  was  sent  to 
Dakota  Territory  to  serve  against  the  Sioux. 

In  1876  an  expedition,  of  which  Custer  and  his  regiment  formed 
part,  was  made  against  the  Sioux  and  their  allies.  As  the 
advanced  guard  of  the  troops  under  General  Terry,  Custer's 
force  arrived  at  the  junction  of  Big  Horn  and  Little  Big  Horn 
rivers,  in  what  is  now  the  state  of  Montana,  on  the  night  of 
June  24;  the  main  body  was  due  to  join  him  on  the  26th. 
Unfortunately,  the  presence  of  what  was  judged  to  be  a  small 
isolated  force  of  Indians  was  reported  to  the  general.  On  the  2  sth, 
dividing  his  regiment  into  three  parties,  he  moved  forward  to 
surround  this  force.  But  instead  of  meeting  only  a  small  force  of 
Indians,  the  7th  were  promptly  attacked  by  the  full  forces  of 
the  enemy.  The  flanking  columns  maintained  themselves  with 
difficulty  until  Terry  came  up.  Custer  and  264  men  of  the  centre 
column  rode  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy  and  were  slaughtered 
to  a  man. 

The  general's  wife,  ELIZABETH  BACON  CUSTER,  who  accom- 
panied him  in  many  of  his  frontier  expeditions,  wrote  Boots  and 
Saddles,  Life  -with  General  Custer  in  Dakota  (1885),  Tenting  on  the 


Plains  (1887)  and  Following  the  Guidon  (1891).  General  Custer 
himself  wrote  My  Life  on  the  Plains  (1874). 

See  F.  Whittaker,  Life  of  General  George  A.  Custer  (1876). 

His  brother  THOMAS  WARD  CUSTER  (1845-1876),  in  spite  of 
his  youth,  fought  in  the  early  campaigns  of  the  Civil  War.  Be- 
coming aide-de-camp  to  General  Custer,  he  accompanied  him 
throughout  the  latter  part  of  the  war,  distinguishing  himself 
by  his  daring  on  all  occasions,  and  winning  successively  the 
brevets  of  captain,  major  and  lieutenant-colonel,  though  he  was 
barely  twenty  years  of  age  when  the  war  ended.  He  was  first 
lieutenant  in  the  7th  cavalry  when  he  fell  with  his  brother  at  the 
Little  Big  Horn. 

CUSTINE,  ADAM  PHILIPPE,  COMTE  DE  (1740-1793),  French 
general,  began  his  military  career  in  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
He  next  served  with  distinction  against  the  English  in  the  War 
of  American  Independence.  In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the 
states-general  by  the  bailliage  of  Metz.  In  October  1791  he 
again  joined  the  army,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  and 
became  popular  with  the  soldiers,  amongst  whom  he  was  known 
as  "  general  moustache."  General-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
Vosges,  he  took  Spires,Worms,  Mainz  and  Frankfort  in  September 
and  October  1792.  He  carried  on  the  revolutionary  propa- 
ganda by  proclamations,  and  levied  heavy  taxes  on  the  nobility 
and  clergy.  During  the  winter  a  Prussian  army  forced  him  to 
evacuate  Frankfort,  re-cross  the  Rhine  and  fall  back  upon 
Landau.  He  was  accused  of  treason,  defended  by  Robespierre, 
and  sent  back  to  the  army  of  the  north.  But  he  dared  not  take 
the  offensive,  and  did  nothing  to  save  Conde,  which  the  Austrians 
were  besieging.  Sent  to  Paris  to  justify  himself,  he  was  found 
guilty  by  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  of  having  intrigued  with 
the  enemies  of  the  republic,  and  guillotined  on  the  28th  of  August 
1793.  (See  FRENCH  REVOLUTIONARY  WARS.) 

See  A.  Rambaud,  Les  Fran^ais  sur  le  Rhin  (Paris,  1880);  A. 
Chuquet,  Les  Guerres  de  la  Revolution  (1886-1895;  vo'-  v'-  "  L'Ex- 
pedition  de  Custine  "). 

CUSTOM  (from  O.  Fr.  custume,  costume  or  coustume;  Low  Lat. 
costuma,  a  shortened  form  of  consuetude),  in  general,  a  habit  or 
practice.  Thus  a  tradesman  calls  those  who  deal  with  him  his 
"  customers,"  and  the  trade  resulting  as  their  "  custom."  The 
word  is  also  used  for  a  toll  or  tax  levied  upon  goods;  there  was 
at  one  time  a  distinction  between  the  tax  on  goods  exported  or 
imported,  termed  magna  custuma  (the  great  custom),  and  that 
on  goods  taken  to  market  within  the  realm,  termed  pari'a 
custuma  (the  little  custom),  but  the  word  is  now  used  in  this 
sense  only  in  the  plural,  to  signify  the  duties  levied  upon  imported 
goods.  It  is  also  used  as  a  name  for  that  department  of  the 
public  service  which  is  employed  in  levying  the  duty. 

In  law,  such  long-continued  usage  as  has  by  common  consent 
become  a  rule  of  conduct  is  termed  custom.  Jessd,  M.  R. 
(Hammerton  v.  Honey,  24  W.  R.  603),  has  defined  it  as  "  local 
common  law.  It  is  common  law  because  it  is  not  statute  law; 
it  is  local  law  because  it  is  the  law  of  a  particular  place,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  general  common  law.  Local  common  law  is 
the  law  of  the  country  (i.e.  particular  place)  as  it  existed  before 
the  time  of  legal  memory."  There  has  been  much  discussion 
among  jurists  as  to  whether  custom  can  properly  be  reckoned 
a  source  of  law  (see  JURISPRUDENCE);  As  to  the  distinction 
between  prescription  (which  is  a  personal  claim)  and  custom,  see 
PRESCRIPTION.  The  adoption  of  local  customs  by  the  judiciary 
has  undoubtedly  been  the  origin  of  a  great  portion  of  the  English 
common  law.  Blackstone  divides  custom  into  (i)  general, 
which  is  the  common  law  properly  so  called,  and  (2)  particular, 
which  affects  only  the  inhabitants  of  particular  districts.  The 
requisites  necessary  to  make  a  particular  custom  good  are: 
(i)  it  must  have  been  used  so  long  that  the  memory  of  man 
runneth  not  to  the  contrary;  (2)  it  must  have  been  continued, 
and  (3)  enjoyed  peaceably;  (4)  it  must  be  reasonable,  and  (5) 
certain;  (6)  it  must  be  compulsory,  and  not  left  to  the  option 
of  every  man  whether  he  will  use  it  or  no;  (7)  it  must  be  con- 
sistent with  other  customs,  for  one  custom  cannot  be  set  up  in 
opposition  to  another.  Customs  may  be  of  various  kinds,  for 
example,  customs  of  merchants,  customs  of  a  certain  district 


CUSTOMARY  FREEHOLD— CUTCH 


669 


(such  as  gavelkind  and  borough  English),  customs  of  a  particular 
manor,  &c.  The  word  custom  is  also  generally  employed  for  the 
usage  of  a  particular  trade  or  market;  for  a  trade  custom  to  be 
established  to-  the  satisfaction  of  the  law  it  must  be  a  uniform 
and  universal  practice  so  well  defined  and  recognized  that  con- 
tracting parties  must  be  assumed  to  have  had  it  in  their  minds 
when  they  contracted  (Russell,  C.  J.,  Fox-Bourne  v.  Vernon,  10 
Times  Rep.  649). 

In  the  history  of  France  the  term  "  custom  "  was  given  to 
those  special  usages  of  different  districts  which  had  grown  up 
into  a  body  of  local  law,  as  the  "  custom  of  Paris,"  the  "  custom 
of  Normandy  "  (see  FRANCE  :  Law  and  Institutions), 

CUSTOMARY  FREEHOLD,  in  English  law,  a  species  of  tenure 
which  may  be  described  as  a  variety  of  copyhold.  It  is  also 
termed  privileged  copyhold  or  copyhold  of  frank  tenure.  It  is 
a  tenure  by  copy  of  court  roll,  but  not  expressed  to  be  at  the 
will  of  the  lord.  It  is,  in  fact,  only  a  superior  kind  of  copyhold, 
and  the  freehold  is  in  the  lord.  It  is  subject  to  the  general  law 
of  copyholds,  except  where  the  law  may  be  varied  by  the  custom 
of  the  particular  manor.  (See  COPYHOLD.) 

CUSTOM-HOUSE,  the  house  or  office  appointed  by  a  govern- 
ment where  the  taxes  or  duties  (if  any)  are  collected  upon  the 
importation  and  exportation  of  commodities;  where  duties, 
bounties  or  drawbacks  payable  or  receivable  upon  exportation 
or  importation  are  paid  or  received,  and  where  vessels  are  entered 
and  cleared.  In  the  United  Kingdom  there  is  usually  a  custom- 
house established  at  every  port  or  harbour  to  which  any  consider- 
able amount  of  shipping  resorts,  the  officer  in  charge  being  called 
"  collector  of  customs  ";  in  the  minor  ports  the  officer  is  usually 
termed  "  superintendent  of  customs "  or  "  principal  coast 
officer." 

CUSTOMS  DUTIES,  the  name  given  to  taxes  on  the  import 
and  export  of  commodities.  They  rank  among  the  most  ancient, 
as  they  continue  to  prevail  as  one  of  the  most  common  modes,  in 
all  countries,  of  levying  revenue  for  public  purposes.  In  an 
insular  country  like  the  United  Kingdom  customs  duties  came 
in  process  of  time  to  be  levied  only  or  chiefly  in  the  seaports,  and 
thus  applied  only  to  the  foreign  commerce,  where  they  may  be 
brought  under  the  control  of  fair  and  reasonable  principles  of 
taxation.  But  this  simplification  of  customs  duties  was  only 
reached  by  degrees;  and  during  a  long  period  special  customs 
were  levied  on  goods  passing  between  England  and  Scotland; 
and  the  trade  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  and  with  foreign 
countries  was  subjected  to  fiscal  regulations  which  could  not 
now  stand  in  the  light  of  public  reason.  The  taxes  levied,  on 
warrant  of  some  ancient  grant  or  privilege,  upon  cattle  or  goods 
at  a  bridge  or  a  ferry  or  other  point  of  passage  from  one  county 
or  province  to  another,  of  which  there  are  some  lingering  remains 
even  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  those  levied  at  the  gates  of 
cities  on  the  produce  of  the  immediate  country — a  not  uncommon 
form  of  municipal  taxation  on  the  European  continent — are  all 
of  the  nature  of  customs  dues.  It  is  from  the  universality  of  this 
practice  that  the  English  term  "  customs  "  appears  to  have  been 
derived. 

See  TAXATION;  PROTECTION;  TARIFF. 

GUSTOS  ROTULORUM,  the  keeper  of  the  English  county 
records,  and  by  virtue  of  that  office  the  highest  civil  officer  in 
the  county.  The  appointment  until  1545  lay  with  the  lord 
chancellor,  but  is  now  exercised  by  the  crown  under  the  royal 
sign-manual,  and  is  usually  held  by  a  person  of  rank,  most 
frequently  the  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county.  He  is  one  of  the 
justices  of  the  peace.  In  practice  the  records  are  in  the  custody 
of  the  clerk  of  the  peace.  This  latter  official  was,  until  1888, 
appointed  by  the  custos  rotulorum,  but  since  the  passing  of  the 
Local  Government  Act  of  that  year,  the  appointment  is  made 
by  the  standing  joint-committee  of  the  county  council.  Lambarde 
described  the  custos  rotulorum  as  a  "  man  for  the  most  part 
especially  picked  out  either  for  wisdom,  countenance  or  credit." 

CUSTOZZA,  a  village  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Verona, 
1 1  m.  S.W.  of  Verona,  famous  as  the  scene  of  two  battles  between 
the  Austrians  and  the  Italians  in  the  struggle  for  Italian  unity. 
The  first  battle  of  Custozza  was  fought  on  the  23rd-25th  of  July 


1848,  the  Austrians  commanded  by  Field-Marshal  Radetzky 
being  victorious  over  the  Piedmontese  army  under  King  Charles 
Albert.  The  second  battle  was  fought  on  the  24th  of  June  1866, 
and  resulted  in  the  complete  victory  of  the  Austrians  under  the 
archduke  Albert,  over  the  Italian  army  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel 
I.  (See  ITALIAN  WARS,  1848-1870.) 

CUSTRIN,  or  KUSTRIN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  a  fortress  of  the  first  rank,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Oder 
and  Warthe,  18  m.  N.E.  from  Frankfort-on-Oder  and  51  m.  N.E. 
of  Berlin  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  16,473  (including  the  garrison). 
It  consists  of  the  town  proper  within  the  strong  fortifications, 
a  suburb  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder,  and  one  on  the  right  bank  > 
of  the  Warthe.  There  are  three  Evangelical  churches  and  one 
Roman  Catholic,  and  a  handsome  town  hall.  There  are  bridges 
over  both  rivers.  Custrin  has  some  manufactories  of  potato- 
meal,  machinery,  pianos,  furniture,  cigars,  &c.,  and  there  is  a 
considerable  river  trade. 

About  1250  a  town  was  erected  on  the  site  of  Custrin,  where  a 
fishing  village  originally  stood.  From  1535  till  1571  it  was  the 
residence  of  John,  margrave  of  Brandenburg-Ciistrin,  who  died 
without  male  heirs  in  1571.  Custrin  was  the  prison  of  Frederick 
the  Great  when  crown-prince,  and  the  scene  of  the  execution 
of  his  friend  Hans  Hermann  von  Katte  on  the  6th  of  November 

173°. 

CUTCH,  or  KACH,  a  native  state  of  India  within  the  Gujarat 
division  of  Bombay,  with  an  area  of  7616  sq.  m.  It  is  a  peninsular 
tract  of  land,  enclosed  towards  the  W.  by  the  eastern  branch  of 
the  Indus,  on  the  S.  by  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Cutch, 
and  on  the  N.  and  E.  towards  the  interior,  by  the  great  northern 
Runn,  a  salt  morass  or  lake.  The  interior  of  Cutch  is  studded 
with  hills  of  considerable  elevation,  and  a  range  of  mountains 
runs  through  it  from  east  to  west,  many  of  them  of  the  most 
fantastic  shapes,  with  large  isolated  masses  of  rock  scattered 
in  all  directions.  The  general  appearance  of  Cutch  is  barren  and 
uninteresting.  The  greater  part  is  a  rock  destitute  of  soil,  and 
presenting  the  wildest  aspect;  the  ground  is  cold,  poor  and 
sterile;  and  the  whole  face  of  the  country  bears  marks  of  volcanic 
action.  From  the  violence  of  tyranny,  and  the  rapine  of  a  dis- 
orderly banditti,  by  which  this  district  long  suffered,  as  well  as 
from  shocks  of  earthquakes,  the  villages  have  a  ruinous  and  dilapi- 
dated appearance;  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fields  in  their 
neighbourhood,  the  country  presents  a  rocky  and  sandy  waste, 
with  in  many  places  scarcely  a  show  of  vegetation.  Water  is 
scarce  and  brackish,  and  is  chiefly  found  at  the  bottom  of  low 
ranges  of  hills,  which  abound  in  some  parts;  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  extensive  sandy  tracts  suffer  greatly  from  the  want  of  it. 
Owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  periodical  rains  in  Cutch,  the 
country  is  liable  to  severe  famines,  and  it  has  suffered  greatly 
from  plague. 

The  temperature  of  Cutch  during  the  hot  season  is  high,  the 
thermometer  frequently  rising  to  100°  or  105°  F.;  and  in  the 
months  of  April  and  May  clouds  of  dust  and  sand,  blown  about 
by  hurricanes,  envelop  the  houses,  the  glass  windows  scarcely 
affording  any  protection.  The  influence  of  the  monsoon  is 
greatly  moderated  before  it  reaches  this  region,  and  the  rains 
sometimes  fail  altogether.  Bhuj,  the  capital  of  the  state,  is 
situated  inland,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills, 
some  of  which  approach  within  3  or  4  m.  of  the  city.  The  hill  of 
Bhuja,  on  which  the  fort  is  situated,  rises  to  the  height  of  500  ft. 
in  the  middle  of  the  plain,  and  is  detached  from  other  high  ground. 
The  residency  is  4  m.  distant  in  a  westerly  direction.  There  are 
many  mountain  streams,  but  no  navigable  rivers.  They  contain 
scarcely  any  water  except  in  the  rainy  season,  when  they  are 
very  full  and  rapid,  and  discharge  themselves  into  the  Runn, 
all  along  the  coast  of  which  the  wells  and  springs  are  more  or 
less  impregnated  with  common  salt  and  other  saline  ingredients. 

Various  causes  have  contributed  to  thin  the  population  of  this 
country.  In  1813  it  was  ravaged  by  a  famine  and  pestilence, 
which  destroyed  a  great  proportion  of  its  inhabitants, — according 
to  some  accounts,  nearly  one-half.  This,  joined  to  the  tyranny 
and  violence  of  the  government  until  the  year  1819,  and  sub- 
sequently to  a  succession  of  unfavourable  seasons,  forced  many 


670 


CUTCH,  GULF  OF— CUTCH,  RUNN  OF 


of  the  cultivators  to  remove  to  Sind  and  other  countries.  The 
inhabitants  numbered  488,022  in  1901,  being  a  decrease  of  13% 
during  the  decade,  due  to  the  famines  of  1890-1900.  One-third 
are  Mahommedans  and  the  remainder  Hindus  of  various  castes. 
The  Jareja  Rajputs  form  a  particular  class,  being  the  aristocracy 
of  the  country;  and  all  are  more  or  less  connected  with  the  family 
of  the  rao  or  prince.  There  are  in  Cutch  about  200  of  these  Jareja 
chiefs,  who  all  claim  their  descent  from  a  prince  who  reigned 
in  Sind  about  1000  years  ago.  From  him  also  the  reigning 
sovereign  is  lineally  descended,  and  he  is  the  liege  lord  of  whom 
all  the  chiefs  or  nobles  hold  their  lands  in  feu,  for  services  which 
they  or  their  ancestors  had  performed,  or  in  virtue  of  their 
relationship  to  the  family.  They  are  all  termed  the  brotherhood 
of  the  rao  or  Bhayad,  and  supposed  to  be  his  hereditary  advisers, 
and  their  possessions  are  divided  among  their  male  children. 
To  prevent  the  breaking  down  of  their  properties,  the  necessary 
consequence  of  this  law  of  inheritance,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
infanticide  was  common  among  them,  and  that  it  extended  to 
the  male  as  well  as  the  female  progeny,  but  it  has  been  put  down 
by  the  Infanticide  Rules,  which  provide  for  the  registration  of 
Jareja  children.  The  Jarejas  have  a  tradition  that  when  they 
entered  Cutch  they  were  Mahommedans,  but  that  they  after- 
ward adopted  the  customs  and  religion  of  the  Hindus.  It  is 
certain,  indeed,  that  they  still  retain  many  Mahommedan  customs. 
They  take  oaths  equally  on  the  Koran  or  on  the  Shastras;  they 
employ  Mussulman  books;  they  eat  from  their  hands;  the  rao, 
when  he  appears  in  public,  alternately  worships  God  in  a  Hindu 
pagoda  and  a  Mahommedan  mosque;  and  he  fits  out  annually 
at  Mandvi  a  ship  for  the  conveyance  of  pilgrims  to  Mecca,  who 
are  maintained  during  the  voyage  chiefly  by  the  liberality  of 
the  prince.  The  Mahommedans  in  Cutch  are  of  the  same 
degenerate  class  as  those  usually  found  in  the  western  parts  of 
India.  The  natives  are  in  general  of  a  stronger  and  stouter  make, 
and  even  handsomer,  than  those  of  western  India;  and  the 
women  of  the  higher  classes  are  also  handsome.  The  peasants  are 
described  as  intelligent,  and  the  artizans  are  justly  celebrated 
for  their  ingenuity  and  mechanical  skill.  The  palace  at  Mandvi, 
and  a  tomb  of  one  of  their  princes  at  Bhuj,  are  fair  specimens 
of  their  architectural  skill.  The  estimated  gross  revenue  is 
£  126,322.  There  are  special  manufactures  of  silver  filigree-work 
and  embroidery.  The  maritime  population  supplies  the  best 
sailors  in  India.  There  are  cotton  presses  and  ginning  factories. 
The  country  of  Cutch  was  invaded  about  the  I3th  century 
by  a  body  of  Mahommedans  of  the  Summa  tribe,  who  under 
the  guidance  of  five  brothers  emigrated  from  Sind,  and  who 
gradually  subdued  or  expelled  the  original  inhabitants,  consisting 
of  three  distinct  races.  Cutch  continued  tranquil  under  their 
sway  for  many  years,  until  some  family  quarrel  arose,  in  which 
the  chief  of  an  elder  branch  of  the  tribe  was  murdered  by  a  rival 
brother.  His  son  Khengayi  fled  to  Ahmedabad  to  seek  the  assist- 
ance of  the  viceroy,  who  reinstated  him  in  the  sovereignty  of 
Cutch,  and  Morvi  in  Kithiiw£r,  and  in  the  title  of  rao,  about  the 
year  1540.  The  succession  continued  in  the  same  line  from  the 
time  of  this  prince  until  1697,  when  a  younger  brother,  Pragji, 
murdered  his  elder  brother  and  usurped  the  sovereignty.  This 
line  of  princes  continued  till  1760  without  any  remarkable  event, 
when,  in  the  reign  of  Rao  Ghodji,  the  country  was  invaded  four 
times  by  the  Sinds,  who  wasted  it  with  fire  and  sword.  The 
reign  of  this  prince,  as  well  as  that  of  his  son  Rao  Rayadan, 
by  whom  he  was  succeeded  in  1778,  was  marked  by  cruelty  and 
blood.  The  latter  prince  was  dethroned,  and,  being  in  a  state  of 
mental  derangement,  was  during  his  lifetime  confined  by  Fateh 
Mahommed,  a  native  of  Sind,  who  continued,  with  a  short  interval 
(in  which  the  party  of  the  legal  heir,  Bhaiji  Bawa,  gained  the 
ascendancy),  to  rule  the  country  until  his  death  in  1813.  It 
was  in  the  reign  of  Fateh  Mahommed  that  a  communication  first 
took  place  with  the  British  government.  During  the  contests 
for  the  sovereignty  between  the  usurper  and  the  legal  heir, 
the  leader  of  the  royal  party,  Hansraj,  the  governor  of  Mandvi, 
sought  the  aid  of  the  British.  But  no  closer  connexion  followed 
at  that  time  than  an  agreement  for  the  suppression  of  piracy, 
or  of  inroads  of  troops  to  the  eastward  of  the  Runn  or  Gulf  of 


Cutch.  But  the  gulf  continued  notwithstanding  to  swarm  with 
pirates,  who  were  openly  encouraged  or  connived  at  by  the  son 
of  Hansraj,  who  had  succeeded  his  father,  as  well  as  by  Fateh 
Mahommed.  The  latter  left  several  sons  by  different  wives,  who 
were  competitors  for  the  vacant  throne.  Husain  Miyan  suc- 
ceeded to  a  considerable  portion  of  his  father's  property  and 
power.  Jugjevan,  a  Brahman,  the  late  minister  of  Fateh 
Mahommed,  also  received  a  considerable  share  of  influence; 
and  the  hatred  of  these  two  factions  was  embittered  by  religious 
animosities,  the  one  being  Hindu  and  the  other  Mahommedan. 
The  deceased  rao  had  declared  himself  a  Mahommedan,  and 
his  adherents  were  preparing  to  inter  his  body  in  a  magnificent 
tomb,  when  the  Jarejas  and  other  Hindus  seized  the  corpse  and 
consigned  it  to  the  flames,  according  to  Hindu  custom. 

The  administration  of  affairs  was  nominally  in  the  hands  of 
Husain  Miyan  and  his  brother  Ibrahim  Miyan.  Many  sanguinary 
broils  now  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  Jugjevan  was  murdered, 
and  the  executive  authority  was  much  weakened  by  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  Arabs  and  other  chiefs.  In  the  meantime  Ibrahim 
Miyan  was  assassinated;  and  after  various  other  scenes  of 
anarchy,  the  rao  Bharmulji,  son  of  Rao  Rayadan,  by  general 
consent,  assumed  the  chief  power.  But  his  reign  was  one 
continued  series  of  the  grossest  enormities;  his  hostility  to  the 
British  became  evident,  and  accordingly  a  force  of  10,500  men 
crossed  the  Runn  in  November  1815,  and  were  within  five  miles 
of  Bhuj,  the  capital  of  the  country,  when  a  treaty  was  concluded, 
by  which  the  rao  Bharmulji  was  confirmed  in  his  title  to  the 
throne,  on  agreeing,  among  other  stipulations,  to  cede  Anjar 
and  its  dependencies  in  perpetuity  to  the  British.  He  was, 
however,  so  far  from  fulfilling  the  terms  of  this  treaty  that  it 
was  determined  to  depose  him;  and  an  army  being  sent  against 
him,  he  surrendered  to  the  British,  who  made  a  provision  for 
his  maintenance,  and  elevated  his  infant  son  Desalji  II.  to  the 
throne  (1819). 

In  1822  the  relations  subsisting  between  the  ruler  of  Cutch 
and  the  British  were  modified  by  a  new  treaty,  under  which  the 
territorial  cessions  made  by  the  rao  in  1816  were  restored  in 
consideration  of  an  annual  payment.  The  sum  fixed  was  sub- 
sequently thought  too  large,  and  in  1832  the  arrears,  amounting 
to  a  considerable  sum,  were  remitted,  and  all  future  payments 
on  this  account  relinquished.  From  that  time  the  rao  has  paid 
a  subsidy  of  £13,000  per  annum  to  the  British  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  military  force  stationed  within  his  dominions. 

Rao  Desalji  II.  did  much  to  suppress  infanticide,  suttee  and 
the  slave  trade  in  his  state.  His  successor  Maharao  Pragmalji 
in  recognition  of  his  excellent  administration  was  in  1871  honoured 
with  the  title  of  knight  grand  commander  of  the  Star  of  India. 
During  his  rule  harbour  works  were  built  at  Mandvi,  an  immense 
reservoir  for  rain  water  in  the  Chadwa  hills  was  constructed,  and 
many  schools  and  colleges  were  endowed.  In  1876  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Maharaja  Rao  Khengarji  III.,  who  was  also  a  keen 
advocate  for  education  and  especially  the  education  of  women. 
He  founded  museums,  libraries  and  schools,  and  inaugurated 
scholarships  and  a  fund  from  which  deserving  scholars  desirous 
of  studying  in  England  and  America  could  obtain  their  expenses. 

CUTCH,  GULF  OF,  an  inlet  of  the  sea  on  the  coast  of  western 
India.  It  lies  between  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar  and  that  of 
Cutch,  leading  into  the  Runn  of  Cutch. 

CUTCH,  RUNN  OF,  or  RANN  or  KACH,  a  salt  morass  on  the 
western  coast  of  India  in  the  native  state  of  Cutch.  From  May 
to  October  it  is  flooded  with  salt  water  and  communicates,  at 
its  greatest  extent,  with  the  Gulf  of  Cutch  on  the  west  and  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay  on  the  east,  these  two  gulfs  being  united  during 
the  monsoon.  It  varies  in  breadth  from  five  to  eighty  miles 
across,  and  during  the  rains  is  nearly  impassable  for  horsemen. 
The  total  area  of  this  immense  morass  is  estimated  at  about 
8000  sq.  m.,  without  including  any  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Cutch, 
which  is  in  parts  so  shallow  as  to  resemble  a  marshy  fen  rather 
than  an  arm  of  the  sea.  The  Runn  is  said  to  be  formed  by  the 
overflow  of  the  rivers  Pharan,  Luni,  Banas  and  others,  during  the 
monsoon;  but  in  December  it  is  quite  dry,  and  in  most  places 
hard,  but  in  some  moist  and  muddy.  The  soil  is  impregnated 


CUTHBERT,  ST— CUTLERY 


671 


with  salt,  and  the  Runn  is  an  important  source  for  the  supply 
of  salt.  The  present  condition  of  the  Runn  is  probably  the 
result  of  some  natural  convulsion,  but  the  exact  method  of  its 
formation  is  disputed.  The  wild  ass  is  very  common  on  the 
borders  of  this  lake,  being  seen  in  herds  of  60  or  70  together. 

CUTHBERT,  SAINT  (d.  687),  bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  was 
probably  a  Northumbrian  by  birth.  According  to  the  extant 
Lives  he  was  led  to  take  the  monastic  vows  by  a  vision  at  the 
death  of  bishop  Aidan,  and  the  date  of  his  entry  at  Melrose 
would  be  651.  At  this  time  Eata  was  abbot  there,  and  Boisel, 
who  is  mentioned  as  his  instructor,  prior,  in  which  office  Cuthbert 
succeeded  him  about  661,  having  previously  spent  some  time 
at  the  monastery  of  Ripon  with  Eata.  Bede  gives  a  glowing 
picture  of  his  missionary  zeal  at  Melrose,  but  in  664  he  was 
transferred  to  act  as  prior  at  Lindisfarne.  In  676  he  became 
an  anchorite  on  the  island  of  Fame,  and  it  is  said  that  he  per- 
formed miracles  there.  In  684  at  the  council  of  Twyford  in 
Northumberland,  Ecgfrith,  king  of  Northumbria,  prevailed 
upon  him  to  give  up  his  solitary  life  and  become  a  bishop.  He 
was  consecrated  at  York  in  the  following  year  as  bishop  of 
Hexham,  but  afterwards  he  exchanged  his  see  with  Eata  for 
that  of  Lindisfarne.  In  687  he  retired  to  Fame,  and  died  on  the 
island  on  the  zoth  of  March  687,  the  same  day  as  his  friend 
Hereberht,  the  anchorite  of  Derwentwater.  He  was  buried  in 
the  island  of  Lindisfarne,  but  his  remains  were  afterwards 
deposited  at  Chester-le-Street,  and  then  at  Durham. 

Another  Cuthbert  was  bishop  of  Hereford  from  736  to  about 
740,  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury  from  the  latter  date  until 
his  death  in  October  758. 

There  are  several. lives  of  St  Cuthbert,  the  best  of  which  is  the 
prose  life  by  Bede,  which  is  published  in  Bede's  Opera,  edited  by 
J.  Stevenson  (1841).  See  also  C.  Eyre,  The  History  of  St  Cuthbert 
(1887);  and  J.  Raine,  St  Cuthbert  (1828). 

CUTLASS,  the  naval  side-arm,  a  short  cutting  sword  with  a 
slightly  curved  blade,  and  a  solid  basket-shaped  guard  (see 
SWORD).  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Fr.  coulelas,  or  coutelace, 
a  form  of  coutel,  modern  couleau,  a  knife,  from  Lat.  cullellus, 
diminutive  of  culler,  a  ploughshare,  or  cutting  instrument.  Two 
variations  appear  in  English:  "  curtelace,"  where  the  r  represents 
probably  the  /  of  the  original  Latin  word,  or  is  a  further  variant 
of  the  second  variation;  and  "  curtelaxe,"  often  spelled  as  two 
words,  "  curtal  axe,"  where  the  prefix  curtal  is  confused  with 
various  English  words  such  as  "  curtan,"  "  curtal  "  and  "  cur- 
tail," which  all  mean  "  shortened,"  and  are  derived  from  the 
Lat.  curtus;  the  word  thus  wrongly  derived  has  been  supposed 
to  refer  to  some  non-existent  form  of  battle-axe.  In  every 
case  the  weapon  to  which  these  various  forms  apply  is  a  broad 
cutting  or  slashing  sword. 

CUTLER,  MANASSEH  (1742-1823),  American  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Killingly,  Connecticut,  on  the  i3th  of  May  1742. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1765,  and  after  being  a  school 
teacher  and  a  merchant,  and  occasionally  appearing  in  the 
courts  as  a  lawyer,  he  decided  to  enter  the  ministry,  and  from 
1771  until  his  death  was  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
what  is  now  Hamilton,  but  until  1793  was  a  parish  of  Ipswich, 
Massachusetts.  During  the  War  of  Independence  he  was  for 
several  months  in  1776  chaplain  to  the  regiment  of  Colonel 
Ebenezer  Francis,  raised  for  the  defence  of  Boston;  and  in 
1778,  as  chaplain  to  the  brigade  of  General  Jonathan  Titcomb 
(1728-1817),  he  took  part  in  General  John  Sullivan's  expedition 
to  Rhode  Island.  Soon  after  his  return  from  this  expedition 
he  fitted  himself  for  the  practice  of  medicine,  in  order  to  supple- 
ment the  scanty  income  of  a  minister,  and  in  1782  he  established 
a  private  boarding  school,  which  he  conducted  for  about  a 
quarter  of  a  century.  In  1786  he  became  interested  in  the  settle- 
ment of  western  lands,  and  in  the  following  year,  as  agent  of  the 
Ohio  Company  (<?.».),  which  he  had  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
organizing,  he  made  a  contract  with  Congress,  whereby  his 
associates,  former  soldiers  in  the  War  of  Independence,  might 
purchase,  with  the  certificates  of  indebtedness  issued  to  them 
by  the  government  for  their  services,  1,500,000  acres  of  land  in 
the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  at  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum 


river.  He  also  took  a  leading  part  in  drafting  the  famous 
Ordinance  of  1 787  for  the  government  of  the  Northwest  Territory, 
the  instrument  as  it  was  finally  presented  to  Congress  by  Nathan 
Dane  (1752-1835),  a  Massachusetts  delegate,  probably  being 
largely  Cutler's  work.  From  1801  to  1805  he  was  a  Federalist 
representative  in  Congress.  He  died  at  Hamilton,  Massachusetts, 
on  the  28th  of  July  1823.  A  versatile  man,  Cutler  was  one  of 
the  early  members  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  and  besides  being  proficient  in  the  theology,  law  and 
medicine  of  his  day,  conducted  painstaking  astronomical  and 
meteorological  investigations,  and  was  one  of  the  first  Americans 
to  make  researches  of  a  real  scientific  value  in  botany.  In  1789 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  wa,s  conferred  upon  him  by  Yale. 

See  William  P.  and  Julia  P.  Cutler,  The  Life,  Journals,  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Manasseh  Cutler  (2  vols.,  Cincinnati,  1888);  and  an 
article,  "  The  Ordinance  of  1787  and  Dr  Manasseh  Cutler,"  by  W.  F. 
Poole,  in  vol.  122  of  the  North  American  Review. 

CUTLERY  (Fr.  coutellerie,  from  the  Lat.  cultellus,  a  little  knife), 
a  branch  of  industry  which  originally  embraced  the  manufacture 
of  all  cutting  instruments  of  whatever  form  or  material.  The 
progress  of  manufacturing  industry  has,  however,  detached 
from  it  the  fabrication  of  several  kinds  of  edge-tools,  saws  and 
similar  implements,  the  manufacture  of  which  is  now  regarded 
as  forming  distinct  branches  of  trade.  On  the  other  hand  modern 
cutlery  includes  a  great  number  of  articles  which  are  not  strictly 
cutting  instruments,  but  which,  owing  to  their  more  or  less 
intimate  relation  to  table  or  pocket  cutlery,  are  classed  with 
such  articles  for  convenience'  sake.  A  steel  table  or  carving  fork, 
for  example,  is  an  important  article  of  cutlery,  although  it  is  not 
a  cutting  tool. 

The  original  cutting  instruments  used  by  the  human  race 
consisted  of  fragments  of  flint,  obsidian,  or  similar  stones,  rudely 
flaked  or  chipped  to  a  cutting  edge;  and  of  these  tools  numerous 
remains  yet  exist.  Stone  knives  and  other  tools  must  have 
been  employed  for  a  long  period  by  the  prehistoric  races  of  man- 
kind, as  their  later  productions  show  great  perfection  of  form  and 
finish.  In  the  Bronze  period,  which  succeeded  the  Stone  Age, 
the  cutlery  of  our  ancestors  was  fabricated  of  that  alloy.  The 
use  of  iron  was  introduced  at  a  later  but  still  remote  period; 
and  it  now,  in  the  form  of  steel,  is  the  staple  article  from  which 
cutlery  is  manufactured. 

From  the  earliest  period  in  English  history  the  manufacture 
of  cutlery  has  been  peculiarly  associated  with  the  town  of 
Sheffield,  the  prominence  of  which  in  this  manufacture  in  his 
own  age  is  attested  by  Chaucer,  who  says  of  the  miller  of 
Trumpington — 

"  A  Sheffeld  thwitel  baar  he  in  his  hose." 

That  town  still  retains  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  ordinary 
cutlery  trade  of  Great  Britain,  and  remains  the  chief  centre  of 
the  industry  for  the  whole  world.  Its  influence  on  methods  of 
production  has  also  been  widely  extended;  for  instance,  many 
Sheffield  workmen  emigrated  to  the  United  States  of  America 
to  take  part  in  the  manufacture  of  pocket-knives  when  it  was 
started  in  Connecticut  towards  the  middle  of  the  igth  century. 
The  thwitel  or  whittle  of  Chaucer's  time  was  a  very  poor  rude 
implement,  consisting  of  a  blade  of  bar  steel  fastened  into  a 
wooden  or  horn  handle.  It  was  used  for  cutting  food  as  well  as 
for  the  numerous  miscellaneous  duties  which  now  fall  to  the 
pocket-knife.  To  the  whittle  succeeded  the  Jack  knife, — the 
Jacques-de-Liege,  or  Jock-te-leg  of  the  Scottish  James  VI., — 
which  formed  the  prototype  of  the  modern  clasp-knife,  inasmuch 
as  the  blade  closed  into  a  groove  in  the  handle.  About  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 7th  century,  the  pocket-knife  with  spring  back  was 
introduced,  and  no  marked  improvement  thereafter  took  place 
till  the  early  part  of  the  I9th  century.  In  1624,  two  centuries 
after  the  incorporation  of  the  Cutlers'  Company  of  London, 
the  cutlers  of  Hallamshire — the  name  of  the  district  of  which 
Sheffield  is  the  centre — were  formed  into  a  body  corporate  for 
the  protection  of  the  "  industry,  labour,  and  reputation  "  of  the 
trade,  which  was  being  disgraced  by  the  "  deceitful  and  un- 
workmanlike wares  of  various  persons."  The  act  of  incorporation 
specifies  the  manufacture  of  "  knives,  scissors,  shears,  sickles  and 


672 


CUTTACK 


other  cutlery,"  and  provides  that  all  persons  engaged  in  the 
business  shall  "  make  the  edge  of  all  steel  implements  manu- 
factured by  them  of  steel,  and  steel  only,  and  shall  strike  on  their 
wares  such  mark,  and  such  only,  as  should  be  assigned  to  them 
by  the  officers  of  the  said  company."  Notwithstanding  these 
regulations,  and  the  pains  and  penalties  attached  to  their  infringe- 
ment, the  corporation  was  not  very  successful  in  maintaining 
the  high  character  of  Sheffield  wares.  Most  manufacturers  made 
cutlery  to  the  order  of  their  customers,  on  which  the  name  of 
the  retailer  was  stamped,  and  very  inferior  malleable  or  cast 
iron  blades  went  forth  to  the  public  with  "  London  made," 
"  best  steel,"  and  other  falsehoods  stamped  on  them  to  order. 
The  corporate  mark  and  name  of  a  few  firms,  among'  which 
Joseph  Rodgers  &  Sons  stand  foremost,  are  a  guarantee  of  the 
very  highest  excellence  of  material  and  finish;  and  such  firms 
decline  to  stamp  any  name  or  mark  other  than  their  own  on  their 
manufactures.  In  foreign  markets,  however,  the  reputation 
of  such  firms  is  much  injured  by  impudent  forgeries;  and  so  far 
was  this  system  of  fraud  carried  that  inferior  foreign  work  was 
forwarded  to  London  to  be  transhipped  and  sent  abroad  osten- 
sibly as  English  cutlery.  To  protect  the  trade  against  frauds  of 
this  class  the  Trades  Mark  Act  of  1862  was  passed  chiefly  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Sheffield  chamber  of  commerce. 

The  variety  of  materials  which  go  to  complete  any  single  article 
of  cutlery  is  very  considerable;  and  as  the  stock  list  of  a  cutler 
embraces  a  vast  number  of  articles  different  in  form,  properties 
and  uses,  the  cutlery  manufacturer  must  have  a  practical 
knowledge  of  a  wide  range  of  substances.  The  leading  articles 
of  the  trade  include  carving  and  table  knives  and  forks,  pocket  or 
clasp  knives,  razors,  scissors,  daggers,  hunting  knives  and  similar 
articles,  surgical  knives  and  lancets,  butchers'  and  shoemakers' 
knives,  gardeners'  pruning-knives,  &c.  The  blades  or  cutting 
portions  of  a  certain  number  of  these  articles  are  made  of  shear 
steel,  and  for  others  crucible  cast  steel  is  employed.  Sometimes 
the  cutting  edge  alone  is  of  steel,  backed  or  strengthened  with 
iron,  to  which  it  is  welded.  The  tang,  or  part  of  the  blade  by 
which  it  is  fastened  to  the  handles,  and  other  non-cutting  portions, 
are  also  very  often  of  iron.  Brass,  German  silver,  silver,  horn, 
tortoise-shell,  ivory,  bone,  mother-of-pearl,  and  numerous  fancy 
woods  are  all  brought  into  requisition  for  handles  and  other  parts 
of  cutlery,  each  demanding  special  treatment  according  to  its 
nature.  The  essential  processes  in  making  a  piece  of  steel  cutlery 
are  (i)  forging,  (2)  hardening  and  tempering,  (3)  grinding,  (4) 
polishing,  and  (5)  putting  together  the  various  pieces  and  finishing 
the  knife,  the  workmen  who  perform  these  last  operations  being 
the  only  ones  known  in  the  trade  as  "  cutlers." 

The  following  outline  of  the  stages  in  the  manufacture  of  a 
razor  will  serve  to  indicate  the  sequence  of  operations  in  making 
an  article  which,  though  simple  in  form,  demands  the  highest  care 
and  skill.  The  first  essential  of  a  good  razor  is  that  it  be  made 
of  the  finest  quality  of  cast  steel.  The  steel  for  razors  is  obtained 
in  bars  the  thickness  of  the  back  of  the  instrument.  Taking  such 
a  bar,  the  forger  heats  one  end  of  it  to  the  proper  forging  tempera- 
ture, and  then  dexterously  fashions  it  upon  his  anvil,  giving  it 
roughly  the  required  form,  edge  and  concavity.  It  is  then 
separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  bar,  leaving  only  sufficient 
metal  to  form  the  tang,  if  that  is  to  be  made  of  steel.  The  tang 
of  the  "  mould,"  as  the  blade  in  this  condition  is  termed,  is  next 
drawn  out,  and  the  whole  "  smithed  "  or  beaten  on  the  anvil  to 
compact  the  metal  and  improve  the  form  and  edge  of  the  razor. 
At  this  stage  the  razor  is  said  to  be  "  forged  in  the  rough,"  and 
so  neatly  can  some  workmen  finish  off  this  operation  that  a 
shaving  edge  may  be  given  to  the  blade  by  simple  whetting. 
The  forged  blade  is  next  "  shaped  "  by  grinding  on  the  dry  stone; 
this  operation  considerably  reduces  its  weight,  and  removes  the 
oxidized  scale,  thereby  allowing  the  hardening  and  tempering 
to  be  done  with  certainty  and  proper  effect.  The  shaped  razor 
is  now  returned  to  the  forge,  where  the  tang  is  file-cut  and  pierced 
with  the  joint-hole,  and  into  the  blade  is  stamped  either  the  name 
and  corporate  mark  of  the  maker,  or  any  mark  and  name  ordered 
by  the  tradesman  for  whom  the  goods  are  being  manufactured. 
The  hardening  is  accomplished  by  heating  the  blade  to  a  cherry- 


red  heat  and  suddenly  quenching  it  in  cold  water,  which  leaves  the 
metal  excessively  hard  and  brittle.  To  bring  it  to  the  proper 
temper  for  a  razor,  it  is  again  heated  till  the  metallic  surface 
assumes  a  straw  colour,  and  after  being  plunged  into  water,  it 
is  ready  for  the  process  of  wet  grinding.  The  wet  grinding  is 
done  on  stones  which  vary  in  diameter  from  ij  to  12  in.  according 
to  the  concavity  of  surface  desired  ("  hollow-ground,"  "  half 
hollow-ground,"  &c.).  "  Lapping,"  which  is  the  first  stage  in 
polishing,  is  performed  on  a  wheel  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  wet- 
grinding  stone.  The  lap  is  built  up  of  segments  of  wood  having 
the  fibres  towards  the  periphery,  and  covered  with  a  metallic  alloy 
of  tin  and  lead.  The  lap  is  fed  with  a  mixture  of  emery  powder 
and  oil.  "  Glazing  "  and  "  polishing,"  which  follow,  are  for 
perfecting  the  polish  on  the  surface  of  the  razor,  leather-covered 
wheels  with  fine  emery  being  used;  and  the  work  is  finished  off 
with  crocus.  The  finished  blade  is  then  riveted  into  the  scales 
or  handle,  which  may  be  of  ivory,  bone,  horn  or  other  material; 
and  when  thereafter  the  razor  is  set  on  a  hone  it  is  ready  for  use. 

The  processes  employed  in  making  a  table-knife  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  those  required  for  a  razor.  Table-knife  blades 
are  forged  from  shear  and  other  steels,  and,  if  they  are  not  in 
one  piece,  a  bit  of  malleable  iron  sufficient  for  the  bolster  or 
shoulder  and  tang  is  welded  to  each,  often  by  machinery, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  cheaper  qualities.  The  bolster  is 
formed  with  the  aid  of  a  die  and  swage  called  "  prints,"  and  the 
tang  is  drawn  out.  The  tang  is  variously  formed,  according  to 
the  method  by  which  it  is  to  be  secured  in  the  haft,  and  the  various 
processes  of  tempering,  wet  grinding  and  polishing  are  pursued 
as  described  above.  Steel  forks  of  an  inferior  quality  are  cast 
and  subsequently  cleaned  and  polished;  but  the  best  quality 
are  forged  from  bar  steel,  and  the  prongs  are  cut  or  stamped  out 
of  an  extended  flattened  extremity  called  the  mould  or  "  mood." 
In  the  United  States  of  America  machinery  has  been  extensively 
adopted  for  performing  the  various  mechanical  operations  in 
forging  and  fitting  table  cutlery,  and  in  Sheffield  it  is  employed 
to  a  great  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  table  and  pocket  knife 
blades,  scissors  and  razors.  The  cutler  of  the  i8th  century  was 
an  artisan  who  forged  and  ground  the  blades  and  fitted  them  in 
the  hafts  ready  for  sale;  to-day  the  division  of  labour  is  carried 
to  an  extreme  degree.  In  the  making  of  a  common  pocket-knife 
with  three  blades  not  fewer  than  one  hundred  separate  operations 
are  involved,  and  these  may  be  performed  by  as  many  workmen 
composed  of  five  distinct  classes — the  scale  and  spring  makers 
(the  scale  being  the  metal  lining  which  is  covered  by  the  handle 
proper) ,  the  blade  forgers,  the  grinders,  the  cutters  of  the  coverings 
of  ivory,  horn,  &c.,  that  form  the  handles,  and  the  hafters  or 
cutlers  proper.  Grinders  are  divided  into  three  classes — dry, 
wet  and  mixed  grinders,  according  as  they  work  at  dry  or  wet 
stones.  This  branch  of  trade  is,  in  Sheffield,  conducted  in  distinct 
establishments  called  "  wheels,"  which  are  divided  up  into 
separate  apartments  or  "  hulls,"  the  dry  grinding  being  as  much 
as  possible  separated  from  the  wet  grinding.  Dry  grinding, 
such  as  is  practised  in  the  shaping  of  razors  described  above, 
the  "  humping  "  or  rounding  of  scissors,  and  other  operations, 
used  to  be  a  process  especially  dangerous  to  health,  lung  diseases 
being  induced  by  the  fine  dust  of  silica  and  steel  with  which  the 
atmosphere  was  loaded;  but  a  great  improvement  has  been 
effected  by  resorting  to  wet  grinding  as  much  as  possible,  by 
arranging  fans  to  remove  the  dust  by  suction,  and  by  general 
attention  to  sanitary  conditions. 

CUTTACK,  a  city  and  district  of  British  India  in  the  Orissa 
division  of  Bengal.  The  city  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  delta 
of  the  Mahanadi.  Pop.  (1901)  51,364.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
Orissa  canal  system,  and  an  important  station  on  the  East  Coast 
railway  from  Madras  to  Calcutta.  It  contains  the  government 
college,  named  after  Mr  Ravenshaw,  a  former  commissioner; 
a  high  school,  a  training  school,  a  survey  school,  a  medical  school 
and  a  law  school.  The  city  formed  one  of  the  five  royal  strong- 
holds of  ancient  Orissa  and  was  founded  by  a  warlike  Hindu 
prince,  Makar  Kesari,  who  reigned  from  953  to  961.  Native 
kings  protected  it  from  the  rivers  by  a  masonry  embankment 
several  miles  long,  built  of  enormous  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  and 


CUTTLE-FISH 


673 


in  some  places  25  ft.  high.  A  fortress  defended  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  town,  and  was  captured  by  the  English  from  the 
Mahrattas  in  October  1803.  It  is  now  abandoned  as  a  place  of 
defence. 

The  DISTRICT  OF  CUTTACK  lies  in  the  centre  of  Orissa,  occupying 
the  deltas  of  the  Mahanadi  and  Brahmani,  together  with  a  hilly 
tract  inland.  Its  area  is  3654  sq.  m.  It  consists  of  three  physical 
divisions:  first,  a  marshy  woodland  strip  along  the  coast,  from 
3  to  30  m.  in  breadth;  second,  an  intermediate  stretch  of  rice 
plains;  third,  a  broken  hilly  region,  which  forms  the  western 
boundary  of  the  district.  The  marshy  strip  along  the  coast  is 
covered  with  swamps  and  malaria-breeding  jungles.  Towards 
the  sea  the  solid  land  gives  place  to  a  vast  network  of  streams 
and  creeks,  whose  sluggish  waters  are  constantly  depositing  silt, 
and  forming  morasses  or  quicksands.  Cultivation  does  not 
begin  till  the  limits  of  this  dismal  region  are  passed.  The  inter- 
mediate rice  plains  stretch  inland  for  about  40  m.  and  occupy  the 
older  part  of  the  delta  between  the  sea-coast  strip  and  the  hilly 
frontier.  They  are  intersected  by  three  large  rivers,  the  Baitarani, 
Brahmani  and  Mahanadi.  These  issue  in  magnificent  streams 
through  three  gorges  in  the  frontier  hills.  The  Cuttack  delta 
is  divided  into  two  great  valleys,  one  of  them  lying  between  the 
Baitarani  and  the  Brahmani,  the  other  between  the  Brahmani 
and  the  Mahanadi.  The  rivers  having,  by  the  silt  of  ages, 
gradually  raised  their  beds,  now  run  along  high  levels.  During 
floods  they  pour  over  their  banks  upon  the  surrounding  valleys, 
by  a  thousand  channels  which  interlace  and  establish  communica- 
tion between  the  main  streams.  After  numerous  bifurcations 
they  find  their  way  into  the  sea  by  three  principal  mouths. 
Silt-banks  and  surf-washed  bars  render  the  entrance  to  these 
rivers  perilous.  The  best  harbour  in  Cuttack  district  is  at 
False  Point,  on  the  north  of  the  Mahanadi  estuary.  It  consists 
of  an  anchorage,  land-locked  by  islands  or  sand-banks,  and  with 
two  fair  channels  navigable  towards  the  land.  The  famine 
commissioners  in  1867  reported  it  to  be  the  best  harbour  on  the 
coast  of  India  from  the  Hugli  to  Bombay. 

The  intermediate  tract  is  a  region  of  rich  cultivation,  dotted 
with  great  banyan  trees,  thickets  of  bamboos,  exquisite  palm 
foliage  and  mango  groves.  The  hilly  frontier  separates  the 
delta  of  British  Orissa  from  the  semi-independent  tributary 
states.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  ranges,  10  to  15  m.  in  length, 
running  nearly  due  east  and  west,  with  densely-wooded  slopes 
and  lovely  valleys  between.  The  timber,  however,  is  small,  and 
is  of  little  value  except  as  fuel.  The  political  character  of  these 
three  tracts  is  as  distinct  as  are  their  natural  features.  The  first 
and  third  are  still  occupied  by  feudal  chiefs,  and  have  never 
been  subjected  to  a  regular  land-settlement,  by  either  the 
Mussulman  or  the  British  government.  They  pay  a  light  fixed 
tribute.  The  intermediate  rice  plains,  known  as  the  Mogholbandi, 
from  their  having  been  regularly  settled  by  the  Mahommedans, 
have  yielded  to  the  successive  dynasties  and  conquerors  of  Orissa 
almost  the  whole  of  the  revenues  derived  from  the  province.  The 
deltaic  portions  are  of  course  a  dead  level;  and  the  highest  hills 
within  the  district  in  the  western  or  frontier  tract  do  not  exceed 
2500  ft.  They  are  steep,  and  covered  with  jungle,  but  can  be 
climbed  by  men.  The  most  interesting  of  them  are  the  Assa 
range,  with  its  sandal  trees  and  Buddhist  remains;  Udayagiri 
(Sunrise-hill),  with  its  colossal  image  of  Buddha,  sacred  reservoir, 
and  ruins;  and  Assagiri,  with  its  mosque  of  1719.  The  Mahavi- 
nayaka  peak,  visible  from  Cuttack,  has  been  consecrated  for 
ages  to  Siva-worship  by  ascetics  and  pilgrims. 

The  population  of  the  district  in  1901  was  2,062,758,  showing 
an  increase  of  6%  in  the  preceding  decade.  The  aboriginal 
tribes  here,  as  elsewhere,  cling  to  their  mountains  and  jungles. 
They  chiefly  consist  of  the  Bhumij,  Tala,  Kol  and  Savara  peoples, 
the  Savaras  being  by  far  the  most  numerous,  numbering  14,775. 
They  are  regarded  by  the  orthodox  Hindus  as  little  better  than  the 
beasts  of  the  wildernesses  which  they  inhabit.  Miserably  poor, 
they  subsist  for  the  most  part  by  selling  firewood  or  other 
products  of  their  jungle;  but  a  few  of  them  have  patches  of 
cultivated  land,  and  many  earn  wages  as  day  labourers  to  the 
Hindus.  They  occupy,  in  fact,  an  intermediate  stage  of  de- 

VII.  22 


gradation  between  the  comparatively  well-to-do  tribes  in  the 
tributary  states  (the  stronghold  and  home  of  the  race),  and  the 
Pans,  Bauris,  Kandras  and  other  semi-aboriginal  peoples  on 
the  lowlands,  who  rank  as  the  basest  castes  of  the  Hindu  com- 
munity. The  great  bulk  of  the  Indo-Aryan  or  Hindu  population 
consists  of  Uriyas,  with  a  residue  of  immigrant  Bengalis,  Lala 
Kayets  from  Behar  and  northern  India,  Telingas  from  the 
Madras  coast,  Mahrattas  from  central  and  western  India,  a  few 
Sikhs  from  the  Punjab  and  Marwaris  from  Rajputana.  The 
Mahommedans  are  chiefly  the  descendants  of  the  Pathans  who 
took  refuge  in  Orissa  after  the  subversion  of  their  kingdom  in 
Bengal  by  the  Moguls  in  the  i6th  century. 

Rice  forms  the  staple  product  of  the  district;  its  three  chief 
varieties  are  Mali  or  early  rice,  sarad  or  winter  rice,  and  dalua  or 
spring  rice.  The  other  cereal  crops  consist  of  mand.ua  (a  grass-like 
plant  producing  a  coarse  grain  resembling  rice),  wheat,  barley, 
and  china,  a  rice-like  cereal.  Suan,  another  rice-l:ke  cereal,  not 
cultivated,  grows  spontaneously  in  the  paddy  fie'ds.  Pulses 
of  different  sorts,  oilseeds,  fibres,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  spices  and 
vegetables  also  form  crops  of  the  district.  The  cultivatOiS  consist 
of  two  classes — the  resident  husbandmen  (thani)  and  tLe  non- 
resident or  migratory  husbandmen  (pake). 

The  Orissa  canal  system,  which  lies  mainly  within  Cuttack 
district,  is  used  both  for  irrigation  and  transport  purposes.  The 
railway  across  the  district  towards  Calcutta,  a  branch  of  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  system,  was  opened  in  1899.  Considerable 
trade  is  carried  on  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  along  the  coast. 

CUTTLE-FISH.  The  more  familiar  and  conspicuous  types  of 
the  molluscan  class  Cephalopoda  (g.v.)  are  popularly  known  in 
English  as  cuttle-fish,  squid,  octopus  and  nautilus.  The  first 
of  these  names  (from  the  A.S.  cudele)  is  applied  more  particularly 
to  the  common  Sepia  (fig.  i),  characterized  by  its  internal  cal- 
careous shell,  sometimes  known  as  cuttle-bone,  and  its  ink-sac, 
the  contents  of  which  have  been  long  in  use  as  a  pigment  (sepia). 
The  term  squid  is  employed  among  fishermen  for  the  ten-armed 
Cephalopods  in  which  the  shell  is  represented  by  an  uncalcified 
flexible  structure  somewhat  resembling  a  pen.  Hence  in  Italian 
a  squid  is  called  calamaio,  from  calamus  a  reed  or  pen,  and  in 
English  the  similar  term  calamary  is  sometimes  used.  Like  the 
Sepia,  squids  also  possess  the  ink-sac,  whence  they  have  some- 
times been  called  pen  and  ink  fish,  and  in  German  both  Sepia 
and  squid  and  their  allies  are  known  as  Tinten-fische.  The  squids 
have  generally  softer  and  more  watery  tissues  than  the  Sepia, 
but  the  former  term  is  not  in  general  use,  and  the  distinction 
not  generally  understood.  The  term  cuttle-fishes  is  sometimes 
extended  to  include  all  the  Cephalopoda,  but  as  the  peculiarities 
of  the  remarkable  shell  of  the  true  nautilus,  and  those  of  the  shell- 
less  Octopoda  are  widely  known,  we  shall  consider  the  name  here 
as  applying  only  to  those  forms  which  have  ten  arms,  an  ink-sac, 
an  internal  shell-rudiment,  and  only  one  pair  of  gills  in  the  mantle 
cavity.  Technically  these  form  the  sub-order  Decapoda,  of  the 
order  Dibranchia. 

The  cuttle-fishes  are  characteristically  swimming  animals, 
in  contrast  with  the  octopods,  which  creep  about  by  means  of 
their  suckers  among  the  rocks,  and  lurk  in  holes.  In  Sepia  the 
integument  is  produced  laterally  into  two  muscular  fins,  rather 
narrow  and  of  uniform  breadth  running  the  whole  length  of  the 
body,  but  separated  by  a  notch  behind.  There  are  four  pairs  of 
short  non-retractile  arms  surrounding  the  mouth,  and  furnished 
with  suckers  on  their  oral  surface,  and  between  the  third  and 
fourth  of  these  arms  on  each  side  is  a  much  longer  tentacular 
arm,  which  is  usually  kept  entirely  withdrawn  into  a  pocket 
of  the  skin.  The  mantle  cavity  is  on  the  posterior  side  of  the 
body,  which  is  the  lower  side  in  the  swimming  position,  and  the 
funnel  is  a  tube  open  at  both  ends  and  connected  with  the  body 
within  the  mouth  of  the  mantle  cavity.  The  mantle  during  life 
performs  regular  respiratory  movements  by  which  water  is 
drawn  into  the  cavity,  passing  between  mantle  and  funnel,  and 
is  expelled  through  the  funnel.  In  swimming  the  short  arms 
are  directed  forwards,  the  fins  undulate,  and  the  motion  is  slow 
and  deliberate;  but  if  the  animal  is  threatened  or  alarmed  it 
'  swims  suddenly  and  rapidly  backwards  by  expelling  water 


674 


CUTTLE-FISH 


forcibly  from  the  mantle  cavity  through  the  funnel,  at  the  same 
time  expelling  a  cloud  of  ink  from  its  ink-sac. 

The  Sepia  feeds  principally  on  Crustacea,  and  in  aquaria  has 
been  observed  to  pursue  and  capture  prawns.     The  method  in 


FIG.  i. — Sepia  officinalis,  L.,  half  the  natural  size,  as  seen  when 
dead,  the  long  prehensile  arms  being  withdrawn  from  the  pouches 
at  the  side  of  the  head,  in  which  they  are  carried  during  life  when  not 
actually  in  use.  a,  Neck;  b,  lateral  fin  of  the  mantle-sac;  c,  the 
eight  shorter  arms  of  the  fore-foot ;  d,  the  two  long  prehensile  arms ; 
«,  the  eyes. 

which  it  secures  its  prey  has  been  carefully  observed  and  de- 
scribed by  the  present  writer,  who  studied  the  living  animal  in 
the  aquarium  of  the  biological  laboratory  at  Plymouth.  The 
prawns  support  themselves  on  their  long  slender  legs  on  con- 
venient points  of  the  rockwork,  and  the  Sepia  stalks  them  with 
great  caution  and  determination,  the  rapid  play  of  its  chromato- 
phores  giving  evidence  of  its  excitement.  When  it  has  arrived 
within  striking  distance,  the  two  tentacular  arms  are  shot  out 
with  great  rapidity,  and  the  prawn  is  seized  between  the  two 
expanded  ends,  drawn  within  the  circle  of  short  arms,  and 
devoured;  unless,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  prawn  springs 
away  and  the  Sepia  misses  its  aim. 

Two  species  of  Sepia  occur  in  British  and  European  waters, 
including  the  Mediterranean,  namely,  S.  elegans  and  5.  officinalis. 
The  usual  length  of  the  body  is  about  9  or  10  in.  They  live  mostly 
between  ten  and  forty  fathoms,  coming  into  shallower  water  in 
July  and  August  to  deposit  their  eggs,  which  are  about  as  large 
as  black  currants  and  of  somewhat  similar  colour,  and  are  con- 
nected by  elongated  stalks  into  a  cluster  attached  to  the  sea- 
bottom.  Other  species  occur  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  e.g. 
S.  cultrata,  which  is  common  on  the  coasts  of  Australia.  The 
Sepiidae  form  the  only  family  of  cuttle-fishes  in  which  the  shell 
is  calcified.  They  belong  to  the  tribe  Myopsida,  characterized 
by  the  complete  closure  of  the  external  corneal  covering  of  the 
eye  outside  the  iris  and  the  lens. 

Sepiola  and  Rossia  belong  to  another  family  of  the  Myopsida. 
Both  are  British  genera  living  in  shallow  water,  and  entering 
estuaries.  The  animals  of  both  genera  are  small,  not  more  than 


2  or  3  in.  in  length,  with  the  body  rounded  at  the  aboral  end, 
and  the  fins  short  and  rounded,  inserted  in  the  middle  of  the 
body  length,  instead  of  extending  from  end  to  end.  Sepiola, 
although  it  swims  by  means  of  its  fins  and  funnel  when  active, 
spends  much  of  its  time  buried  in  the  sand  for  concealment. 
Rossia  has  similar  habits.  The  shell  is  chitinous  and  shorter  than 
the  body.  In  other  genera  of  the  Sepiolidae  the  shell  is  entirely 
absent.  Idiosepius  is  the  smallest  of  the  Cephalopoda,  only  1-5 
in.  in  length.  It  inhabits  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  body 
is  elongated  and  the  fins  rudimentary.  In  the  Sepiadariidae 
also  the  shell  is  absent.  The  body  is  short  and  the  mantle  united 
with  the  head  dorsally.  The  two  genera  Sepiadarium  and 
Sepioloidea  occur  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  common  squid 
Loligo  is  the  type  of  the  only  remaining  family  of  the  Myopsida. 
In  this  species  the  shell  is  a  well-developed  chitinous  pen  or 
gladius  with  a  thickened  axis  narrowing  to  a  point  behind,  but 
bearing  posteriorly  a  wide  thin  plate  on  each  side.  The  shape 
closely  resembles  that  of  a  quill  pen  with  the  quill  in  front. 
The  fins  are  large  and  triangular,  extending  over  rather  more  than 
half  of  the  length  of  the  body  aborally.  The  tentacular  arms 
are  only  partly  retractile.  The  body  is  elongated  and  conical,  and 
reaches  about  a  foot  in  length.  The  squid  is  gregarious,  and  forms 
a  favourite  food  of  the  larger  fishes,  especially  of  conger.  All 
the  Myopsida  are  more  or  less  littoral  in  habit,  and  the  British 
forms  are  familiar  in  consequence  of  their  frequent  capture  in 
the  nets  of  fishermen.  The  shell,  or  "  bone  "  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  of  the  common  Sepia  frequently  occurs  in  abundance  on 
the  shore  among  the  sea-weed  and  other  refuse  left  by  the  tide. 

The  Oigopsida,  or  cuttle-fishes  in  which  the  corneal  covering 
of  the  eye  is  perforated,  are  on  the  whole  more  oceanic  than 
littoral,  and  many  of  the  species  are  abyssal.  Ommatostrephes 
sagittatus  is  one  of  the  forms  that  occurs  off  the  British  coasts, 


FIG.  2. — A,  Loligo  vulgaris;  a,  arms;  t,  tentacles.  B,  Pen  of  the 
same  reduced  in  size.  C,  Side-view  of  one  of  the  suckers,  showing 
the  horny  hooks  surrounding  the  margin.  D,  View  of  the  head 
from  in  front,  showing  the  arms  (a),  the  tentacles  (t),  the  mouth 
(m),  and  the  funnel  (/). 

especially  the  more  northern,  e.g.  in  the  Firth  of  Forth.  In 
general  appearance  it  resembles  the  common  squid,  but  the  fins 
are  broader  and  shorter,  not  extending  to  the  middle  of  the  body. 


CUTTS  OF  GOWRAN 


675 


The  shell  is  similar  to  that  of  Loligo,  but  ends  aborally  in  a  little 
hollow  cone.  The  suckers  bear  chitinous  rings  which  are  toothed 
along  the  outer  edge.  The  tentacular  arms  are  rather  short  and 
thick.  Two  specimens  of  allied  species  have  been  taken  on 
British  coasts,  one  of  which,  captured  off,  Salcombe  in  Devon- 
shire in  1892,  had  a  body  66  cm.  (22  in.)  long,  and  tentacular 
arms  64  cm.  long,  or  nearly  the  same  length  as  the  body.  Most 
of  the  species  of  Ommalostrephes  are  naturally  gregarious  and 
oceanic,  and  occur  in  the  open  seas  in  all  latitudes,  swimming 
near  the  surface  and  often  leaping  out  of  the  water.  They  are 
.  largely  devoured  by  albatrosses  and  other  marine  birds,  and  by 
Cetacea.  They  are  used  as  bait  in  the  Newfoundland  cod  fishery. 

Some  of  the  oceanic  cuttle-fishes  reach  a  very  large  size,  and 
the  stories  of  these  ocean  monsters  which  are  narrated  by  the 
older  writers,  though  to  some  extent  exaggerated,  are  now  known 
to  be  founded  on  fact.  The  figure  given  by  one  author  of  a 
gigantic  Cephalopod  rising  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean  and 
embracing  with  its  arms  a  full-rigged  ship  does  not  accurately 
represent  an  actual  occurrence,  but  on  the  other  hand  there  are 
authentic  instances  on  record  of  fishermen  in  small  boats  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland  being  in  great  peril  in  consequence  of 
large  squids  throwing  their  arms  across  their  boats.  In  November 
1874  a  specimen  was  brought  ashore  at  St  John's,  Newfoundland, 
which  had  been  caught  in  herring  nets.  Its  body  was  7  ft.  long, 
its  fins  22  in.  broad,  and  its  tentacular  arms  24  ft.  long.  Several 
others  have  been  recorded,  taken  in  the  same  region,  which  were 
as  large  or  larger,  the  total  length  of  the  body  and  tentacles 
together  varying  from  30  to  52  ft.,  and  the  estimated  weight  of 
one  of  them  being  1000  ft. 

In  April  i87Soneof  theselarge  squids  occurredoff  Boffin'slsland 
on  the  Irish  coast.  The  crew  of  a  curragh  rowed  out  to  it  and 
attacked  it,  cutting  off  two  of  its  arms  and  its  head.  The  shorter 
arms  measured  8  ft.  in  length  and  1 5  in .  in  circumference ;  the  ten- 
tacular arms  are  said  to  have  been  30  ft.  long.  In  the  Natural 
History  Museum  in  London  there  is  one  of  the  shorter  arms  of  a 
specimen;  this  arm  is  9  ft.  in  length  and  n  in.  in  circumference, 
and  the  total  length  of  the  specimen,  including  body  and  ten- 
tacles, is  stated  to  have  been  40  ft.  The  maximum  known  length 
of  these  giant  squids  is  stated  to  be  18  metres  or  about  585  ft. 
All  these  gigantic  specimens  belong,  so  far  as  at  present  known, 
to  one  genus  called  Architeuthis,  referred  to  the  same  family  as 
Ommalostrephes.  They  are  the  largest  known  invertebrates. 

These  huge  cuttle-fishes  as  well  as  those  of  various  other  oceanic 
species  form  the  food  of  the  cachalot  or  sperm  whale,  and 
F.  T.  Bullen,  in  his  Cruise  of  the  Cachalot  and  other  writings,  has 
graphically  described  contests  which  came  under  his  own  observa- 
tion between  the  cachalot  and  its  prey.  The  prince  of  Monaco  in 
his  yacht  the  "  Princess  Alice  "  was  fortunate  enough  to  be  able  to 
make  a  very  complete  scientific  investigation  in  the  case  of  one 
specimen  of  the  cachalot,  which  not  only  confirmed  the  most 
important  of  Mr  Bullen's  statements,  but  added  considerably 
to  our  knowledge  of  oceanic  cuttle-fishes.  Off  the  Azores  in  July 
1895  the  prince  in  his  yacht  witnessed  the  killing  of  a  cachalot 
13-70  metres  long  (about  45  ft.  8  in.)  by  the  crew  of  a  whaler. 
The  animal  in  its  death-agony  vomited  the  contentsof  its  stomach, 
most  of  which  were  carefully  collected  and  preserved,  and  after- 
wards examined  by  Professor  Joubin.  On  the  lips  of  the  whale 
were  found  impressions  several  centimetres  wide  which  corre- 
sponded exactly  to  the  toothed  suckers  of  the  largest  cuttle-fish 
arms  obtained  from  its  stomach.  The  contents  of  the  stomach 
consisted  entirely  of  cuttle-fish  or  parts  of  cuttle-fish,  including 
the  giant  Architeuthis,  and  among  them  was  the  body,  without 
the  head,  of  a  form  new  to  science,  distinguished  by  a  condition 
of  the  external  surface  which  occurs  in  no  other  species  of  the 
group.  The  surface  of  the  skin  was  divided  into  small  angular  flat 
projections  like  scales,  arranged  in  a  regular  spiral  like  the  scales 
of  a  pine  cone.  From  this  character  the  new  genus  was  called 
Lepidoteuthis.  The  body,  without  the  head,  of  the  specimen 
obtained  was  86  cm.  (nearly  3  ft.)  in  length. 

The  family  Onychoteuthidae  is  remarkable  for  the  formidable 
chitinous  hooks  borne  on  the  arms.  These  hooks  are  special 
modifications  of%  the  toothed  chitinous  ring  which  covers  the 


sucker-rim  in  the  Decapoda  generally.  The  teeth  of  the  ring  are 
often  unequal  in  size,  and  in  the  Onychoteuthidae  one  tooth  is 
enormously  developed.  The  maximum  development  occurs  in 
Veranya,  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  the  suckers  have 
lost  their  function  and  are  merely  fleshy  projections  bearing 
the  hooks  at  their  extremities.  Onychoteuthis  reaches  a  large 
size,  the  length  of  the  body  without  the  arms  being  in  one 
specimen  from  the  Pacific  coast  of  America  8  ft.  Figures  of 
this  and  several  of  the  following  genera  are  given  in  the  article 
CEPHALOPODA. 

In  the  family  Cheiroteuthidae  many  of  the  species  occur  at 
abyssal  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  exhibit  curious  modifications 
of  structure.  In  Cheiroteuthis  itself  the  tentacular  arms  are  very 
long  and  slender,  and  are  not  capable  of  retraction  into  pockets. 
In  several  species  of  this  genus  the  suckers  are  no  longer  organs  of 
adhesion,  but  are  simple  cups  containing  a  network  of  filaments 
resembling  a  fishing  net.  In  Histioteuthis  and  Histiopsis,  as  in 
some  Octopods,  the  six  dorsal  arms  are  more  or  less  completely 
united  by  a  web,  which  also  probably  serves  for  capturing  fish. 
In  these  two  genera  and  in  Calliteuthis  the  skin  bears  luminous 
organs.  Cheiroteuthis  has  been  taken  at  2600  fms.,  Calliteuthis 
at  2  200,  Histiopsis  at  nearly  2000.  Bathyteuthis,  placed  in  the 
same  family  as  Ommatoslrephes,  has  been  taken  at  1700  fms. 

The  Cranchiidae  are  remarkable  for  their  small  size,  the 
shortness  of  the  ordinary  arms,  and  the  protuberance  of  the 
eyes,  which  in  Taonius  are  actually  on  the  ends  of  stalk-like 
outgrowths  of  the  body.  Cranchia  is  a  deep-sea  form  taken  at 
1700  fms.  Its  body  is  pear-shaped,  swollen  posteriorly  and 
quite  narrow  at  the  neck. 

Spirula  is  distinguished  from  all  other  existing  Cephalopods 
by  the  structure  of  its  coiled  shell,  which  in  many  respects  re- 
sembles those  of  the  extinct  Ammonites,  and  is  not  completely 
internal.  In  the  structure  of  the  body  the  animal  is  a  true  cuttle- 
fish in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  here  used,  having  ten  arms 
and  a  perforated  cornea.  Three  species  are  distinguished,  and 
their  empty  shells  occur  abundantly  on  the  shores  of  the  tropical 
regions  of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans.  In  German 
the  shells  are  known  from  their  shape  as  Posthornchen.  They  are 
common  on  the  shores  of  the  Azores.  But  the  animal  has  very 
rarely  been  obtained;  only  a  few  specimens  occur  in  museum 
collections.  One  specimen  was  taken  by  the  "  Challenger  "  in 
a  deep-sea  trawl,  at  a  depth  between  300  and  400  fathoms 
off  Banda  Neira  in  the  Molluccas.  Dr  Willemoes  Suhm,  in 
describing  the  capture,  stated  that  the  specimen  seemed  to  have 
been  in  the  stomach  of  a  fish,  as  its  surface  was  slightly  digested, 
and  he  thought  it  must  have  habits  of  concealment  which  usually 
prevent  its  capture,  and  that  it  was  secured  on  this  occasion  only 
by  the  capture  of  the  fish  which  had  swallowed  it.  The  fact  that 
the  shells  are  washed  ashore  in  such  large  numbers  is  not  fully 
explained.  Possibly  when  freed  from  the  animal  the  air  in  the 
chambers  of  the  shell  causes  it  to  float,  and  in  that  case  it  would 
naturally  be  sooner  or  later  washed  ashore.  (J.  T.  C.) 

CUTTS  OF  GOWRAN,  JOHN  CUTTS,  BARON  (1661-1707), 
British  soldier  and  author,  came  of  an  Essex  family.  After  a 
short  university  career  at  Catherine  Hall,  Cambridge,  he  came 
into  the  enjoyment  of  the  family  estates,  but  evinced  a  decided 
preference  for  the  life  of  court  and  camp.  The  double  ambition 
for  military  and  literary  fame  inspired  his  first  work,  which 
appeared  in  1685  under  the  name  La  Muse  de  cavalier,  or  An 
Apology  for  such  Gentlemen  as  make  Poetry  their  Diversion  not 
their  Business.  The  next  year  saw  Cutts  serving  as  a  volunteer 
under  Charles  of  Lorraine  in  Hungary,  and  it  is  said  that  he  was 
the  first  to  plant  the  imperialist  standard  on  the  walls  at  the 
storm  of  Buda  (July  1686).  In  1687  he  published  a  book  of  verse 
entitled  Poetical  Exercises,  and  the  following  year  we  find  him 
serving  as  lieutenant-colonel  in  Holland.  General  Hugh  Mackay 
describes  Cutts  about  this  time  as  "  pretty  tall,  lusty  and  well 
shaped,  an  agreeable  companion  with  abundance  pf  wit,  affable 
and  familiar,  but  too  much  seized  with  vanity  and  self-conceit." 

Lieutenant-Colonel  Cutts  was  one  of  William's  companions  in 
the  English  revolution  of  1688,  and  in  1690  he  went  in  command 
of  a  regiment  of  foot  to  the  Irish  war.  He  served  with  distinction 


6y6 


CUVIER 


at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and  at  the  siege  of  Limerick  (where  he 
was  wounded),  and  King  William  created  him  Baron  Cults  of 
Gowran  in  the  kingdom  of  Ireland.  In  1691  he  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  the  brigade  of  the  prince  of  Hesse  (wounded  at 
Aughrim),  and  on  the  surrender  of  Limerick  was  appointed 
commandant  of  the  town.  Next  year  he  served  again  in  Flanders 
as  a  brigadier,  his  brigade  of  Mackay's  division  being  one  of 
those  almost  destroyed  at  Steinkirk.  At  this  battle  Cutts  himself 
was  wounded.  For  some  time  after  this,  Lord  Cutts  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but  he  returned  to  active 
service  in  1694,  holding  a  command  in  the  disastrous  Brest 
expedition.  He  was  one  of  Carmarthen's  companions  in  the 
daring  reconnaissance  of  Camaret  Bay,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
again  wounded.  He  succeeded  Talmash,  the  commander  of  the 
expedition  (who  died  of  his  wounds),  as  colonel  of  the  Coldstream 
Guards.  Next  year,  after  serving  as  a  commissioner  for  settling 
the  bank  of  Antwerp,  he  distinguished  himself  once  more  at  the 
famous  siege  of  Namur,  winning  for  himself  the  name  of  "  Sala- 
mander "  by  his  indifference  to  the  heaviest  fire.  Henceforward 
court  service  and  war  service  alternated.  He  was  deep  in  the 
confidence  of  William  III.,  and  acted  as  a  diplomatic  agent  in  the 
negotiations  which  ended  in  the  peace  of  Ryswick.  •  On  the 
occasion  of  the  great  fire  in  Whitehall  (1698)  Cutts,  at  the  head  of 
the  Coldstreams,  earned  afresh  the  honourable  nickname  of 
"  the  Salamander."  A  little  later  we  find  Captain  Richard  Steele 
acting  as  his  private  secretary.  In  1702,  now  a  major-general, 
Cutts  was  serving  under  Marlborough  in  the  opening  campaign 
of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  at  the  siege  of  Venloo, 
conspicuous  as  usual  for  romantic  bravery,  he  led  the  stormers 
at  Fort  Saint  Michael.  His  enemies,  and  even  the  survivors  of 
the  assault,  were  amazed  at  the  success  of  a  seemingly  hare- 
brained enterprise.  Probably,  however,  Cutts,  who  was  now 
a  veteran  of  great  and  varied  experience,  measured  the  factors  of 
success  and  failure  better  than  his  critics.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  Swift  lampooned  the  lieutenant-general  in  his  Ode  to  a 
Salamander.  He  made  the  campaign  of  1703  in  Flanders,  and 
in  1704,  after  a  visit  to  England,  he  rejoined  Marlborough  on 
the  banks  of  the  Danube.  At  Blenheim  he  was  third  in  command, 
and  it  was  his  division  that  bore  the  brunt  of  the  desperate  fight- 
ing at  the  village  which  gave  its  name  to  the  battle. 

Blenheim  was  Cutts's  last  battle.  His  remaining  years  were 
spent  at  home,  and,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  he  was  the  holder  of 
eight  distinct  political  and  military  offices.  He  sat  in  five  parlia- 
ments for  the  county  of  Cambridge,  and  in  Queen  Anne's  first 
Parliament  he  was  returned  for  Newport  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
for  which  he  sat  until  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  twice 
married,  but  left  no  issue. 

CUVIER,  GEORGES  LEOPOLD  CHRETIEN  FREDERIC 
DAGOBERT,  BARON  (1769-1832),  French  naturalist,  was  born 
on  the  23rd  of  August  1769  at  Montbeliard,  and  was  the  son  of 
a  retired  officer  on  half-pay  belonging  to  a  Protestant  family 
which  had  emigrated  from  the  Jura  in  consequence  of  religious 
persecution.  He  early  showed  a  bent  towards  the  investigation 
of  natural  phenomena,  and  was  noted  for  his  studious  habits  and 
marvellous  memory.  After  spending  four  years  at  the  Academy 
of  Stuttgart,  he  accepted  the  position  of  tutor  in  the  family  of  the 
Comte  d'Hericy,  who  was  in  the  habit  of  spending  the  summer 
near  Fecamp.  It  thus  came  about  that  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  agriculturist,  A.  H.  Tessier,  who  was  then  living  at  Fecamp, 
and  who  wrote  strongly  in  favour  of  his  protege  to  his  friends  in 
Paris — with  the  result  that  Cuvier,  after  corresponding  with  the 
well-known  naturalist  E.  Geoffrey  Saint-Hilaire,  was  appointed 
in  1795  assistant  to  the  professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at 
the  Museum  d'Histoire  Naturelle.  The  National  Institute  was 
founded  in  the  same  year  and  he  was  elected  a  member.  In  1796 
he  began  to  lecture  at  the  Ecole  Centrale  du  Pantheon,  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  National  Institute  in  April,  he  read  his  first 
palaeontological  paper,  which  was  subsequently  published  in 
1800  under  the  title  Memoires  sur  les  especes  d'iliphants  vivanls 
et  fossiles.  In  1798  was  published  his  first  separate  work,  the 
Tableau  elementaire  de  I'histoire  naturelle  des  animaux,  which 
was  an  abridgment  of  his  course  of  lectures  at  the  Ecole  du 


Panth6on,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  and  first  and 
general  statement  of  his  natural  classification  of  the  animal 
kingdom. 

In  1799  he  succeeded  L.  J.  M.  Daubenton  as  professor  of 
natural  history  in  the  College  de  France,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  published  the  Lefons  d'analomie  comparie,  a  classical 
work,  in  the  production  of  which  he  was  assisted  by  A.  M.  C. 
Dumeril  in  the  first  two  volumes,  and  by  G.  L.  Duvernoy  in 
three  later  ones.  In  1802  Cuvier  became  titular  professor  at 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
commissary  of  the  Institute  to  accompany  the  inspectors- 
general  of  public  instruction.  In  this  latter  capacity  he  visited 
the  south  of  France;  but  he  was  in  the  early  part  of  1803  chosen 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  National  Institute  in  the  department 
of  the  physical  and  natural  sciences,  and  he  consequently 
abandoned  the  appointment  just  mentioned  and  returned  to 
Paris. 

He  now  devoted  himself  more  especially  to  three  lines  of 
inquiry — one  dealing  with  the  structure  and  classification  of  the 
mollusca,  the  second  with  the  comparative  anatomy  and  syste- 
matic arrangement  of  the  fishes,  and  the  third  with  fossil  mammals 
and  reptiles  primarily,  and  secondarily  with  the  osteology  of 
living  forms  belonging  to  the  same  groups.  His  papers  on  the 
mollusca  began  as  early  as  1792,  but  most  of  his  memoirs  on  this 
branch  were  published  in  the  Annales  du  musium  between  1802 
and  1815;  they  were  subsequently  collected  as  M  (moires  pour 
senir  a  I'histoire  et  A  I'anatomie  des  mollusques,  published  in 
one  volume  at  Paris  in  1817.  In  the  department  of  fishes, 
Cuvier's  researches,  begun  in  1801,  finally  culminated  in  the 
publication  of  the  Histoire  naturelle  des  poissons,  which  con- 
tained descriptions  of  5000  species  of  fishes,  and  was  the  joint 
production  of  Cuvier  and  A.  Valenciennes,  its  publication  (so 
far  as  the  former  was  concerned)  extending  over  the  years 
1828-1831.  The  department  of  palaeontology  dealing  with  the 
Mammalia  may  be  said  to  have  been  essentially  created  and 
established  by  Cuvier.  In  this  region  of  investigation  he  pub- 
lished a  long  list  of  memoirs,  partly  relating  to  the  bones  of 
extinct  animals,  and  partly  detailing  the  results  of  observations 
on  the  skeletons  of  living  animals  specially  examined  with  a 
view  of  throwing  light  upon  the  structure  and  affinities  of  the 
fossil  forms.  In  the  second  category  must  be  placed  a  number 
of  papers  relating  to  the  osteology  of  the  Rhinoceros  Indicus, 
the  tapir,  Hyrax  Capensis,  the  hippopotamus,  the  sloths,  the 
manatee,  &c.  •  In  the  former  category  must  be  classed  an  even 
greater  number  of  memoirs,  dealing  with  the  extinct  mammals 
of  the  Eocene  beds  of  Montmartre,  the  fossil  species  of  hippo- 
potamus, the  Didelphys  gypsorum,  the  Megalonyx,  the  Mega- 
therium, the  cave-hyaena,  the  extinct  species  of  rhinoceros,  the 
cave-bear,  the  mastodon,  the  extinct  species  of  elephant,  fossil 
species  of  manatee  and  seals,  fossil  forms  of  crocodilians, 
chelonians,  fishes,  birds,  &c.  The  results  of  Cuvier's  principal 
palaeontological  and  geological  investigations  were  ultimately 
given  to  the  world  in  the  form  of  two  separate  works.  One  of 
these  is  the  celebrated  Recherches  sur  les  ossements  fossiles  de 
quadrupedes,  published  in  Paris  in  1812,  with  subsequent 
editions  in  1821  and  1825;  and  the  other  is  his  Discours  sur  les 
revolutions  de  la  surface  du  globe,  published  in  Paris  in  1825. 

But  none  of  his  works  attained  a  higher  reputation  than 
his  Regne  animal  distribut  d'apres  son  organisation,  the  first 
edition  of  which  appeared  in  four  octavo  volumes  in  1817,  and 
the  second  in  five  volumes  in  1829-1830.  In  this  classical 
work  Cuvier  embodied  the  results  of  the  whole  of  his  previous 
researches  on  the  structure  of  living  and  fossil  animals.  The 
whole  of  the  work  was  his  own,  with  the  exception  of  the  Insecta, 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  friend  P.  A.  Latreille. 

Apart  from  his  own  original  investigations  in  zoology  and 
palaeontology  Cuvier  carried  out  a  vast  amount  of  work  as 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  National  Institute,  and  as  an  official 
connected  with  public  education  generally;  -and  much  of  this 
work  appeared  ultimately  in  a  published  form.  Thus,  in  1808 
he  was  placed  by  Napoleon  upon  the  council  of  the  Imperial 
University,  and  in  this  capacity  he  presided  (in  the  years  1809, 


CUVILLES— CUYP 


677 


1811  and  1813)  over  commissions  charged  to  examine  the  state 
of  the  higher  educational  establishments  in  the  districts  beyond 
the  Alps  and  the  Rhine  which  had  been  annexed  to  France,  and 
to  report  upon  the  means  by  which  these  could  be  affiliated 
with  the  central  university.  Three  separate  reports  on  this 
subject  were  published  by  him.  In  his  capacity,  again,  of 
perpetual  secretary  of  the  Institute,  he  not  only  prepared  a 
number  of  ttoges  historiques  on  deceased  members  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  but  he  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  reports  on  the 
history  of  the  physical  and  natural  sciences,  the  most  important 
of  these  being  the  Rapport  hislorique  sur  le  progres  des  sciences 
physiques  depuis  1789,  published  in  1810.  Prior  to  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  (1814)  he  had  been  admitted  to  the  council  of  state, 
and  his  position  remained  unaffected  by  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons.  He  was  elected  chancellor  of  the  university,  in 
which  capacity  he  acted  as  interim  president  of  the  council  of 
public  instruction,  whilst  he  also,  as  a  Lutheran,  superintended 
the  faculty  of  Protestant  theology.  In  1819  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  committee  of  the  interior,  and  retained  the 
office  until  his  death.  In  1826  he  was  made  grand  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour;  and  in  1831  he  was  raised  by  Louis  Philippe 
to  the  rank  of  peer  of  France,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
president  of  the  council  of  state.  In  the  beginning  of  1832  he 
was  nominated  to  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  but  on  the  i3th 
of  May  he  died  in  Paris  after  a  brief  illness. 

See  P.  I.  M.  Flourens,  £loge  historique  de  G.  Cuvier,  published  as 
an  introduction  to  the  Plages  historiques  of  Cuvier;  Histoire  des 
travaux  de  Georges  Cuvier  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1858);  A.  P.  de  Candolle, 
"  Mort  de  G.  Cuvier,"  Bibliotheque  universelle  (1832,  59,  p.  442); 
C.  L.  Laurillard,  "  Cuvier,"  Biographie  universelle,  supp.  vol.  61 
(1836) ;  Sarah  Lee,  Memoirs  of  Cuvier,  translated  into  French  by 
T.  Lacordaire  (1833). 

CUVILLES,  FRANCOIS  DE  (1698-*;.  1767),  French  architect 
and  engraver.  He  helped  to  carry  the  French  rococo  taste  to 
Germany — he  was  summoned  about  1 7  20  to  Cologne  by  the  elector 
James  Clement;  in  1738  he  became  architect  to  the  elector  of 
Bavaria,  and  afterwards  occupied  the  same  position  towards  the 
emperor  Charles  VII.  His  style,  while  essentially  thin,  is  often 
painfully  elaborate  and  bizarre.  He  designed  mirrors  and 
consoles,  balustrades  for  staircases,  ceilings  and  fireplaces,  and 
in  furniture,  beds  and  commodes  especially.  He  also  laid  out 
parks  and  gardens.  He  wrote  several  treatises  on  artistic  and 
decorative  subjects,  which  were  edited  by  his  son,  Francois 
de  Cuvilles  the  younger,  who  succeeded  his  father  at  the  court 
of  Munich. 

CUXHAVEN,  or  KUXHAVEN,  a  seaport  town  of  Germany, 
belonging  to  the  state  of  Hamburg,  and  situated  at  the  extremity 
of  the  west  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  71  m.  by  rail  N.W. 
from  Hamburg.  Pop.  (1900)  6898.  The  harbour  is  good  and 
secure,  and  is  much  frequented  by  vessels  delayed  in  the  Elbe 
by  unfavourbale  weather.  A  new  harbour  was  made  in  1891- 
1896,  having  a  depth  of  265  ft.,  with  a  fore  port  1000  ft.  long  by 
800  ft.  wide;  and  it  is  now  the  place  of  departure  and  arrival 
of  the  mail  steamers  of  the  Hamburg-American  Steamship 
Company,  who  in  1901  transferred  here  a  part  of  their  permanent 
staff.  The  port  is  freCj  i.e.  outside  the  customs  union  (Zolherein) , 
the  imports  being  principally  coals,  bricks  and  timber,  and  the 
exports  fish.  There  is  a  fishing  fleet,  for  which  a  new  harbour 
was  opened  in  1892.  Though  lying  on  a  bare  strand,  the  town 
is  much  frequented  as  a  bathing  place  by  Hamburgers.  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  there  are  a  lighthouse,  and  lifeboat  and  pilot 
stations.  The  town  only  dates  from  1873,  having  been  formed 
by  uniting  the  villages  of  Ritzebiittel  and  Cuxhaven,  which  had 
belonged  to  Hamburg  since  1394. 

CUYABA,  or  CUIABA,  capital  of  the  inland  state  of  Matto 
Grosso,  Brazil,  about  972  m.  N.W.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  on  the 
Cuyaba  river  near  its  discharge  into  the  Sao  Lourenco,  the 
principal  Brazilian  tributary  of  the  Paraguay.  Pop.  (1890) 
14,507;  of  the  municipality,  17,815.  The  surrounding  country 
is  tliickly  populated.  Cuyaba  has  uninterrupted  steamer  com- 
munication with  Montevideo,  about  250x5  m.  distant,  but  has 
no  land  communication  with  the  national  capital,  except  by 
telegraph.  The  climate  is  hot  and  malaria  is  prevalent.  Cuyabi 


was  founded  in  1719  by  Paulista  gold  hunters,  and  its  gold- 
washings,  now  apparently  exhausted,  yielded  rich  results  in 
the  i8th  century.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishopric  and  headquarters 
of  an  important  military  district,  having  an  arsenal  and  military 
barracks. 

CUYAPO,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Nueva  Ecija,  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands,  28  m.  N.N.W.  of  San  Isidro,  the  capital. 
Pop.  (1903)  16,292.  Rice  is  grown  here.  In  1007  the  town  of 
Nampicuan  was  formed  from  part  of  Cuyapo. 

CUYP,  the  name'  of  a  Dutch  family  which  produced  two 
generations  of  painters.  The  Cuyps  were  long  settled  at  Dor- 
drecht, in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  they  had  a  country  house, 
where  Albert  Cuyp  (the  most  famous)  was  born  and  bred. 

The  eldest  member  of  the  family  who  acquired  fame  was 
JACOB  GERRITSZ  CUYP,  born  it  is  said  at  Dordrecht  in  1575, 
and  taught  by  Abraham  Bloemaert  of  Utrecht.  He  is  known 
to  have  been  alive  in  1649,  and  the  date  of  his  death  is  obscure. 
J.  G.  Cuyp's  pictures  are  little  known.  But  he  produced  portraits 
in  various  forms,  as  busts  and  half-lengths  thrown  upon  plain 
backgrounds,  or  groups  in  rooms,  landscapes  and  gardens. 
Solid  and  clever  as  an  imitator  of  nature  in  its  ordinary  garb,  he 
is  always  spirited,  sometimes  rough,  but  generally  plain,  and  quite 
as  unconscious  of  the  sparkle  conspicuous  in  Frans  Hals  as  in- 
capable of  the  concentrated  light-effects  peculiar  to  Rembrandt. 
In  portrait  busts,  of  which  there  are  signed  examples  dated  1624, 
1644,  1646  and  1649,  in  the  museums  of  Berlin,  Rotterdam, 
Marseilles,  Vienna  and  Metz,  his  treatment  is  honest,  homely 
and  true;  his  touch  and  tone  firm  and  natural.  In  portraying 
children  he  is  fond  of  introducing  playthings  and  pets — a  lamb, 
a  goat  or  a  roedeer;  and  he  reproduces  animal  life  with  realistic 
care.  In  a  family  scene  at  the  Amsterdam  Museum  we  have 
likenesses  of  men,  women,  boys  and  girls  with  a  cottage  and 
park.  In  the  background  is  a  coach  with  a  pair  of  horses.  These 
examples  alone  give  us  a  clue  to  the  influences  under  which 
Albert  Cuyp  grew  up,  and  explain  to  some  extent  the  direction 
which  his  art  took  as  he  rose  to  manhood. 

ALBERT  CUYP  (1620-1691),  the  son  of  Jacob  Gerritsz  by 
Grietche  Dierichsdochter  (Dierich's  daughter),  was  born  at 
Dordrecht.  He  married  in  1658  Cornelia  Bosman,  a  rich  widow, 
by  whom  he  had  an  6nly  daughter.  By  right  of  his  possessions 
at  Dordwyck,  Cuyp  was  a  vassal  of  the  county  of  Holland,  and 
privileged  to  sit  in  the  high  court  of  the  province.  As  a  citizen 
he  was  sufficiently  well  known  to  be  placed  on  the  list  of  those 
from  whom  William  III.,  stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands,  chose 
the  regency  of  Dordrecht  in  1672.  His  death,  and  his  burial  on 
the  7th  of  November  1691  in  the  church  of  the  Augustines  of 
Dordrecht,  are  historically  proved.  But  otherwise  the  known 
facts  concerning  his  life  are  few.  He  seldom  dates  his  pictures, 
but  it  appears  probable  that  he  ceased  to  paint  about  1675. 
It  has  been  said  that  Albert  was  the  pupil  of  his  father.  The 
scanty  evidence  of  Dutch  annalists  to  this  effect  seems  confirmed 
by  a  certain  coincidence  in  the  style  and  treatment  of  father  and 
son.  That  he  was  a  pupil  of  van  Goyen  has  been  surmised  on 
the  strength  of  the  style  of  his  early  works.  It  has  been  likewise 
stated  that  Albert  was  skilled,  not  only  in  the  production  of 
portraits,  landscapes  and  herds,  but  in  the  representation  of 
still  life.  His  works  are  supposed  to  be  divisible  into  such  as 
bear  the  distinctive  marks  C.  or  A.  C.  in  cursive  characters, 
the  letters  A.  C.  in  Roman  capitals,  and  the  name  "  A.  Cuyp  " 
in  full.  A  man  of  Cuyp's  acknowledged  talent  may  have  been 
versatile  enough  to  paint  in  many  different  styles.  But  whether 
he  was  as  versatile  as  some  critics  have  thought  is  a  question  not 
quite  easy  to  answer.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  pieces  assigned 
to  Cuyp  representing  game,  shell-fish  and  fruit,  and  inscribed 
A.  C.  in  Roman  capitals  (Rotterdam,  Amsterdam  and  Berlin 
museums),  though  cleverly  executed,  are  not  in  touch  or  treat- 
ment like  other  pictures  of  less  dubious  authenticity,  signed  either 
with  C.  or  A.  C.  or  "  A.  Cuyp  "  in  cursive  letters.  The  panels 
marked  C.  and  A.  C.  in  cursive  are  portraits  or  landscapes,  with 
herds,  and  interiors  of  stables  or  sheds,  in  which  there  are  cows, 
horses  and  poultry.  The  subjects  and  their  handling  are  akin 
to  those  which  strike  us  in  panels  bearing  the  master's  full 


678 


CUZA— CUZCO 


signature,  though  characterized,  as  productions  of  an  artist 
in  the  first  phase  of  his  progress  would  naturally  be,  by  tones 
more  uniform,  touch  more  flat,  and  colour  more  deep  than  we  find 
in  the  delicate  and  subtle  compositions  of  the  painter's  later 
time.  Generally  speaking,  the  finished  examples  of  Cuyp's 
middle  and  final  period  all  bear  his  full  signature.  They  are  all 
remarkable  for  harmonies  attained  by  certain  combinations  of 
shade  in  gradations  with  colours  in  contraposition. 

Albert  Cuyp,  a  true  child  of  the  Netherlands,  does  not  seem 
to  have  wandered  much  beyond  Rotterdam  on  the  one  hand  or 
Nijmwegen  on  the  other.  His  scenery  is  that  of  the  Meuse  or 
Rhine  exclusively;  and  there  is  little  variety  to  notice  in  his 
views  of  water  and  meadows  at  Dordrecht,  or  the  bolder  undula- 
tions of  the  Rhine  banks  east  of  it,  except  such  as  results  from 
diversity  of  effect  due  to  change  of  weather  or  season  or  hour. 
Cuyp  is  to  the  river  and  its  banks  what  Willem  Vandevelde  is 
to  calm  seas  and  Hobbema  to  woods.  There  is  a  poetry  of  effect, 
an  eternity  of  distance  in  his  pictures,  which  no  Dutchman  ever 
expressed  in  a  similar  way.  His  landscapes  sparkle  with  silvery 
sheen  at  early  morning,  they  are  bathed  in  warm  or  sultry  haze 
at  noon,  or  glow  with  heat  at  eventide.  Under  all  circumstances 
they  have  a  peculiar  tinge  of  auburn  which  is  Cuyp's  and  Cuyp's 
alone.  Burger  truly  says  van  Goyen  is  gray,  Ruysdael  is  brown, 
Hobbema  olive,  but  Cuyp  "  is  blond."  The  utmost  delicacy  may 
be  observed  in  Cuyp's  manner  of  defining  reflections  of  objects 
in  water,  or  of  sight  from  water  on  ship's  sides.  He  shows  great 
cleverness  in  throwing  pale-yellow  clouds  against  clear  blue  skies, 
and  merging  yellow  mists  into  olive-green  vegetation.  He  is 
also  very  artful  in  varying  light  and  shade  according  to  distance, 
cither  by  interchange  of  cloud-shadow  and  sun-gleam  or  by 
gradation  of  tints.  His  horses  and  cattle  are  admirably  drawn, 
and  they  relieve  each  other  quite  as  well  if  contrasted  in  black 
and  white  and  black  and  red,  or  varied  in  subtler  shades  of  red 
and  brown.  Rich  weed-growth  is  expressed  by  light  but  marrowy 
touch,  suggestive  of  detail  as  well  as  of  general  form.  The  human 
figure  is  given  with  homely  realism  in  most  cases,  but  frequently 
with  a  charming  elevation,  when,  as  often  occurs,  the  persons 
represented  are  meant  to  be  portraits.  Whatever  the  theme  may 
be  it  remains  impressed  with  the  character  and  individuality  of 
Cuyp.  Familiar  subjects  of  the  master's  earlier  period  are 
stables  with  cattle  and  horses  (Rotterdam,  Amsterdam,  Peters- 
burg and  Brussels  museums).  Occasionally  he  painted  portraits 
in  the  bust  form  familiar  to  his  father,  one  of  which  is  dated  1649, 
and  exhibited  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  More  frequently 
he  produced  likenesses  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  on  horseback, 
in  which  the  life  and  dress  of  the  period  and  the  forms  of  horses 
are  most  vividly  represented  (Buckingham  Palace,  Bridgewater 
Gallery,  Louvre  and  Dresden  Museum).  Later  on  we  find  him 
fondest  of  expansive  scenery  with  meadows  and  cattle  and  flocks, 
or  rivers  and  barges  in  the  foreground  and  distances  showing 
the  towers  and  steeples  of  Dordrecht.  Cuyp  was  more  partial  to 
summer  than  to  winter,  to  noon  than  to  night,  to  calm  than  to 
storm.  But  some  of  his  best  groups  ate  occasionally  relieved 
on  dark  and  gusty  cloud  (Louvre  and  Robarts's  collection).  A 
few  capital  pieces  show  us  people  sledging  and  skating  or  netting 
ice-holes  ( Yarborough,  Neeld  and  Bedford  collections) .  A  lovely 
"  Night  on  the  Banks  of  a  River,"  in  the  Grosvenor  collection, 
reminds  us  that  Cuyp's  friend  and  contemporary  was  the  painter 
of  moonlights,  Aart  van  der  Neer,  to  whom  he  was  equal  in  the 
production  of  these  peculiar  effects  and  superior  in  the  throw 
of  figures.  Sometimes  Cuyp  composed  fancy  subjects.  His 
"  Orpheus  charming  the  Beasts,"  in  the  Bute  collection,  is 
judiciously  arranged  with  the  familiar  domestic  animals  in  the 
foreground,  and  the  wild  ones,  to  which  he  is  a  comparative 
stranger,  thrown  back  into  the  distance.  One  of  his  rare  gospel 
subjects  is  "  Philip  baptizing  the  Eunuch  "  (Marchmont  House, 
Berwickshire) ,  described  as  a  fine  work  by  Waagen.  The  best  and 
most  attractive  of  Cuyp's  pieces  are  his  Meuse  and  Rhine  land- 
scapes, with  meadows,  cattle,  flocks  and  horsemen,  and  occasion- 
ally with  boats  and  barges.  In  these  he  brought  together  and 
displayed — during  his  middle  and  final  period — all  the  skill  of 
one  who  is  at  once  a  poet  and  a  finished  artist;  grouping,  tinting, 


touch,  harmony  of  light  and  shade,  and  true  chords  of  colours 
are  all  combined.  Masterpieces  of  acknowledged  beauty  are  the 
"  Riders  with  the  Boy  and  Herdsman  "  in  the  National  Gallery; 
the  Meuse,  with  Dordrecht  in  the  distance,  in  three  or  four 
varieties,  in  the  Bridgewater,  Grosvenor,  Holford  and  Brownlow 
collections;  the  "  Huntsman  "  (Ashburton);  "  Herdsmen  with 
Cattle,"  belonging  to  the  marquess  of  Bute;  and  the  "  Piper 
with  Cows,"  in  the  Louvre.  The  prices  paid  for  Cuyp's  pictures 
in  his  own  time  were  comparatively  low.  In  1 750,  30  florins  was 
considered  to  be  the  highest  sum  to  which  any  one  of  his  panels 
was  entitled.  But  in  more  recent  times  the  value  of  the  pictures 
has  naturally  risen  very  largely.  At  the  sale  of  the  Clewer 
collection  at  Christie's  in  1876  a  small  "  Hilly  Landscape  in 
Morning  Light  "  was  sold  for  £5040,  and  a  view  on  the  Rhine, 
with  cows  on  a  bank,  for  £3150.  (J.  A.  C.) 

John  Smith's  Catalogue  raisonne  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters, 
in  9  vols.  (1840),  enumerated  335  of  Albert  Cuyp's  works,  of  which  in 
1877  Sir  J.  A.  Crowe  wrote  in  this  encyclopaedia  that  "  it  would  be 
difficult  now  to  find  more  than  a  third  of  them."  In  C.  Hofstede 
de  Groot's  Catalogue  raisonne,  vol.  ii.  (1909),  revising  Smith's,  the 
number  is  extended  to  nearly  850,  but  he  accepts  too  readily  the 
attributions  of  sale  catalogues;  the  work  is,  however,  the  best  modern 
authority  on  the  painter. 

CUZA  (or  COUZA),  ALEXANDER  JOHN  [Alexandra.  Joan] 
(1820-1873),  first  prince  of  Rumania,  was  born  on  the  zoth  of 
March  1820,  at  Galatz  in  Moldavia,  and  belonged  to  an  ancient 
boiar,  or  noble,  family.  He  was  educated  at  Jassy,  Pavia, 
Bologna  and  Athens;  and,  after  a  brief  period  of  military  service, 
visited  Paris  from  1837  to  1840  for  a  further  course  of  study. 
In  1845  he  married  the  daughter  of  another  boiar,  Elena  Rosetti, 
who  in  1862  founded  the  Princess  Elena  refuge  for  orphans, 
at  Bucharest.  Cuza  was  imprisoned  by  the  Russian  authorities 
for  taking  part  in  the  Rumanian  revolution  of  1848,  but  escaped 
to  Vienna.  On  his  return,  in  1850,  he  was  appointed  prefect  of 
Galatz.  In  1857  he  rejoined  the  army,  and  within  a  few  months 
rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  became  minister  of  war  in  1858, 
and  represented  Galatz  in  the  Assembly  which  was  elected  in  the 
same  year  to  nominate  a  prince  for  Moldavia.  Cuza  was  a 
prominent  speaker  in  the  critical  debates  which  ensued  when  the 
assembly  met  at  Jassy,  and  strongly  advocated  the  union  of  the 
two  Danubian  principalities,  Moldavia  and  Walachia.  In  default 
of  a  foreign  prince,  he  was  himself  elected  prince  of  Moldavia 
by  the  assembly  at  Jassy  ( 1 7  th  Jan.  1859),  and  prince  of  Walachia 
by  the  assembly  at  Bucharest  (5th  Feb.).  He  thus  became  ruler 
of  the  united  principalities,  with  the  title  Prince  Alexander 
John  I.;  but  as  this  union  was  forbidden  by  the  congress  of  Paris 
(i8th  Oct.  1858),  his  authority  was  not  recognized  by  his  suzerain, 
the  sultan  of  Turkey,  until  the  23rd  of  December  1861,  when  the 
union  of  the  principalities  under  the  name  of  Rumania  was 
formally  proclaimed.  For  a  full  account  of  Cuza's  reign  see 
RUMANIA.  The  personal  vices  of  the  prince,  and  the  drastic 
and  unconstitutional  reforms  which  he  imposed  on  all  classes, 
alienated  his  subjects,  although  many  of  these  reforms  proved  to 
be  of  lasting  excellence.  Financial  distress  supervened,  and  the 
popular  discontent  culminated  in  revolution.  At  four  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  22nd  of  February  1866,  a  band  of  military 
conspirators  broke  into  the  palace,  and  compelled  the  prince  to 
sign  his  abdication.  On  the  following  day  they  conducted  him 
safely  across  the  frontier.  Prince  Alexander  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  chiefly  in  Paris,  Vienna  and  Wiesbaden.  He  died  at 
Heidelberg  on  the  isthof  May  1873. 

CUZCO,  an  inland  city  of  southern  Peru,  capital  of  an  Andean 
department  of  the  same  name,  about  360  m.  E.S.E.  of  Lima, 
in  lat.  13°  31'  S.,  long.  73°  03'  W.  The  population,  largely 
composed  of  Indians  and  mestizos,  was  estimated  at  30,000  in 
1896,  but  according  to  the  official  estimate  of  1906,  it  was  then 
about  25%  less.  The  city  stands  at  the  head  of  a  small  valley, 
1 1 ,380  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  is  nearly  enclosed  by  mountains  of 
considerable  elevation.  The  valley  itself  is  9  m.  in  length  and 
extends  S.E.  to  the  valley  of  Vilcamayu.  Overlooking  the  city 
from  the  N.  is  the  famous  hill  of  Sacsahuaman,  crowned  by  ruins 
of  the  cyclopean  fortress  of  the  Incas  and  their  predecessors, 
and  separated  from  adjacent  heights  by  the.  deep  ravines  of  two 


CYANAMIDE— CYANIC  ACID 


679 


streams,  called  the  Huatenay  and  Rodadero.  The  principal 
part  of  the  city  lies  between  these  two  streams,  with  its  great 
plaza  in  the  centre.  On  the  W.  side  of  the  Huatenay  are  two  more 
fine  squares,  called  the  Cabildo  and  San  Francisco.  The  houses 
of  the  city  are  built  of  stone,  their  walls  commonly  showing  the 
massive  masonry  of  the  Incas  at  the  bottom,  crowned  with  a  light 
modern  superstructure  roofed  with  red  tiles.  The  streets  cross 
each  other  at  right  angles  and  afford  fine  vistas  on  every  side. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  which  is  classed 
among  the  best  in  South  America,  the  convent  of  San  Domingo, 
which  partly  occupies  the  site  of  the  great  Temple  of  the  Sun  of 
the  Incas,  the  cabildo  or  government-house,  a  university  founded 
in  150)8,  a  college  of  science  and  arts,  a  public  library,  hospital, 
mint  and  museum  of  Incarial  antiquities.  Cuzco  was  made  the 
see  of  a  bishopric  soon  after  it  was  occupied  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  Church  has  always  exercised  a  dominating  influence  in  this 
region,  and  the  city  has  many  churches  and  religious  establish- 
ments. There  are  a  number  of  small  manufacturing  industries  in 
Cuzco,  including  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics, 
leather,  beer,  embroidery  and  articles  of  gold  and  silver.  Its 
trade  is  not  large,  however,  owing  to  the  costs  of  transportation. 
The  climate  is  cool  and  bracing,  and  the  products  of  the  vicinity 
include  many  of  the  temperate  zone.  A  railway  from  Juliaca 
(a  station  on  the  line  from  Mollendo  to  Puno)  to  Cuzco  was  virtu- 
ally completed  early  in  1908.  This  railway  gives  Cuzco  an 
outlet  to  the  coast,  and  also  direct  connexion  with  La  Paz,  the 
Bolivian  capital.  A  branch  of  the  Callao  &  Oroya  railway  is 
also  projected  southward  to  Cuzco,  and  reached  Huancayo 
in  1908.  Cuzco  was  the  capital  of  a  remarkable  empire 
ruled  by  the  Incas  previous  to  the  discovery  of  Peru,  and 
it  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  civilized  of  the  native 
cities  of  the  New  World.  It  was  captured  by  Pizarro  in  1533, 
and  it  is  said  that  its  size  and  the  magnificence  of  its  principal 
edifices  filled  the  Spaniards  with  surprise.  It  was  for  many  years 
an  object  of  contention  among  the  Spanish  factions,  but  ulti- 
mately the  greater  attractions  of  Lima  and  its  own  isolation 
diminished  its  importance. 

The  department  of  Cuzco  is  the  second  largest  in  Peru,  having 
an  area  of  156,317  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  according  to  a  re- 
duced official  estimate  of  1906,  of  only  328,980.  It  occupies 
an  extremely  mountainous  region  on  the  frontier  of  Bolivia,  E. 
of  the  departments  of  Junin,  Ayacucho  and  Apurimac,  and 
extends  from  Loreto  on  the  N.  to  Puno  and  Arequipa  on  the  S. 
Its  area,  however,  includes  a  large  district  E.  of  the  Andes  which 
is  claimed  by  Bolivia,  and  the  settlement  of  the  dispute  may 
materially  diminish  its  size.  The  elevation  of  a  large  part  of  the 
department  gives  it  a  temperate  climate  and  permits  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cereals  and  other  products  of  the  temperate  zone.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  produced  in  large  numbers  in  some  of  the  provinces, 
while  in  others  mining  forms  the  chief  industry.  On  the  eastern 
forested  slopes  and  in  the  lower  valleys  tropical  conditions  pre- 
vail. The  population  is  chiefly  composed  of  Indians  who  form 
a  sturdy,  docile  labouring  class,  but  are  in  great  part  strongly 
disinclined  to  accept  the  civilization  of  the  dominant  white  race. 

CYANAMIDE,  NC-NH2,  the  amide  of  normal  cyanic  acid, 
obtained  by  the  action  of  ammonia  on  cyanogen  chloride, 
bromide  or  iodide,  or  by  the  desulphurization  of  thio-urea 
with  mercuric  oxide;  it  is  generally  prepared  by  the  latter 
process.  It  forms  white  crystals,  which  melt  at  40°  C.,  and  are 
readily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether.  Heated  above 
its  melting  point  it  polymerizes  to  di-cyandiamide  (CNsHi)?, 
which  at  150°  C.  is  transformed  into  the  polymer  w-tri-cyantri- 
amide  or  melamine  (CN2H2)j,  the  mass  solidifying.  Nascent 
hydrogen  reduces  cyanamide  to  ammonia  and  methylamine. 
It  gives  mono-metallic  salts  of  the  type  NC-NHM  when  treated 
with  aqueous  or  alcoholic  solutions  of  alkalis.  Di-metallic 
salts  are  obtained  by  heating  cyanates  alone,  e.g.  calcium,  or 
cyanides  in  a  current  of  nitrogen,  e.g.  barium. 

Calcium  cyanamide  has  assumed  importance  in  agriculture 
since  the  discovery  of  its  economic  production  in  the  electric 
furnace,  wherein  calcium  carbide  takes  up  nitrogen  from  the 
atmosphere  to  form  the  cyanamide  with  the  simultaneous 


liberation  of  carbon.  It  may  also  be  produced  by  heating  lime 
or  chalk  with  charcoal  to  2000°  in  a  current  of  air.  The  com- 
mercial product  (which  is  known  in  Germany  as  "  Kalkstick- 
stojf  ")  contains  from  14  to  22  %  of  nitrogen,  which  is  liberated 
as  ammonia  when  the  substance  is  treated  with  water;  to  this 
decomposition  it  owes  its  agricultural  value.  It  appears  that 
with  soils  which  are  not  rich  in  humus  or  not  deficient  in  lime, 
calcium  cyanamide  is  almost  as  good,  nitrogen  for  nitrogen, 
as  ammonium  sulphate  or  sodium  nitrate;  but  it  is  of  doubtful 
value  with  peaty  soils  or  soils  containing  little  lime,  nor  is  it 
usefully  available  as  a  top-dressing  or  for  storing. 

CYANIC  ACID  AND  CYANATES.  Cyanic  acid,  CN-OH, 
was  discovered  by  F.  Wohler  in  1824,  and  may  be  obtained  by 
distilling  its  polymeride,  cyanuric  acid,  in  a  current  of  carbon 
dioxide  (F.  Wohler  and  J.  v.  Liebig,  Berzelius  Jahresberichte, 
1827,  n,  p.  84),  the  vapours  which  distil  over  being  condensed 
in  a  freezing  mixture.  It  is  a  very  volatile  liquid  of  strong  acid 
reaction,  and  is  only  stable  below  o°  C.  It  has  a  smell  resem- 
bling that  of  acetic  acid.  At  o°  C.  it  is  rapidly  converted  into 
a  mixture  of  cyanuric  acid,  CsNsOsHj,  and  another  polymer, 
cyamelide  (CNOH)*;  this  latter  substance  is  a  white  amorphous 
powder,  insoluble  in  water.  An  aqueous  solution  of  cyanic  acid 
is  rapidly  hydrolysed  (above  o°  C.)  into  a  mixture  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  ammonia.  Cyanogen  chloride,  CNCI,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  chloride  of  cyanic  acid.  It  may  be  prepared 
by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  hydrocyanic  acid  or  on  mercury 
cyanide.  It  is  a  very  poisonous  volatile  liquid,  which  boils  at 
15-5°  C.  It  polymerizes  readily  to  cyanuric  chloride,  C3N3C13. 
Caustic  alkalis  hydrolyse  it  readily  to  the  alkaline  chloride  and 
cyanate. 

The  salts  of  cyanic  acid  are  known  as  the  cyanates,  the 
two  most  important  being  potassium  cyanate  (KOCN)  and 
ammonium  cyanate  (NHiOCN).  Potassium  cyanate  may  be 
prepared  b'y  heating  potassium  cyanide  with  an  oxidizing  agent, 
or  by  heating  potassium  ferrocyanide  with  manganese  dioxide, 
potassium  carbonate  or  potassium  dichromate  (J.  v.  Liebig, 
Ann.,  1841,  38,  p.  108;  C.  Lea,  Jahresb.,  1861,  p.  789;  L.  Gatter- 
mann,  Ber.,  1890,  23,  p.  1224),  the  fused  mass  being  extracted 
with  boiling  alcohol.  It  crystallizes  in  flat  plates  and  is  readily 
soluble  in  cold  water.  It  is  a  somewhat  important  reagent, 
and  has  been  used  by  Emil  Fischer  in  various  syntheses  in 
the  uric  acid  group  (see  PURIN).  Ammonium  cyanate  possesses 
considerable  theoretical  importance  since  the  first  synthetical 
production  of  an  organic  from  inorganic  compounds  was  accom- 
plished by  warming  its  aqueous  solution  for  some  time,  urea 
being  formed  (F.  Wohler,  Berzelius  Jahresberichte,  1828,  12, 
p.  266).  J.  Walker  and  J.  K.  Wood  (Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1900,  77, 
p.  24)  prepared  pure  ammonium  cyanate  by  the  union  of  gaseous 
ammonia  and  cyanic  acid,  special  precautions  being  taken  to 
keep  the  temperature  below  the  point  at  which  the  salt  is  trans- 
formed into  urea.  It  crystallizes  in  fine  needles,  which  melt 
suddenly  at  about  80°  C.,  then  resolidify,  and  melt  again  at  about 
1 28°  to  130°  C.  (this  temperature  being  that  of  the  melting  point 
of  urea).  Substituted  ammonias  were  also  made  to  combine 
with  cyanic  acid,  and  it  was  found  that  the  substituted  am- 
monium cyanates  produced  pass  much  more  readily  into  the 
corresponding  ureas  than  ammonium  cyanate  itself.  (On  the 
constitution  of  cyanic  acid  see  F.  D.  Chattaway  and  J.  M. 
Wadmore,  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1902,  81,  p.  191.) 

Esters  of  normal  cyanic  acid  are  not  known,  but  those  of 
isocyanic  acid  (HN-CO)  may  be  prepared  by  the  action  of 
alkyl  halides  on  silver  cyanate,  or  by  oxidizing  the  isonitrilcs 
with  mercuric  oxide.  They  are  volatile  liquids  which  boil 
without  decomposition,  and  possess  a  nauseating  smell.  When 
hydrolysed  with  caustic  alkalis,  they  yield  primary  amines 
(this  reaction  determines  their  constitution) .  C2HSNCO  -f  HjO = 
C2H6NH2  +  CO2.  When  heated  with  water  they  yield  carbon 
dioxide  and  symmetrical  dialkyl  ureas;  with  ammonia  and 
amines  they  form  alkyl  ureas;  and  with  acid  anhydrides  they 
yield  tertiary  amides. 

Ethyl  isocyanate,  C2HSNCO,  was  first  prepared  by  A.  Wurtz 
(Ann.chim.,  1854  (3),  42,  p.  43)by  distilling  a  mixture  of  potassium 


68o 


CYANIDE— CYAXARES 


ethyl  sulphate  and  potassium  cyanate.    It  is  a  colourless  liquid 
which  boils  at  60°  C. 

Cyanuric  acid,  HjCjNsOs,  was  obtained  by  Wohler  and  Liebig 
by  heating  urea,  and  by  A.  Wurtz  by  passing  chlorine  into 
melting  urea.  It  forms  white  efflorescent  crystals.  Treatment 
with  phosphorus  pentachloride  gives  cyanuric  chloride,  CaNaCU, 
which  is  also  formed  by  the  combination  of  anhydrous  chlorine 
and  prussic  acid  in  the  presence  of  sunlight.  These  subs.tances 
contain  a  ring  of  three  carbon  and  three  nitrogen  atoms,  i.e. 
they  are  symmetrical  triazines. 

CYANIDE,  in  chemistry,  a  salt  of  prussic  or  hydrocyanic 
acid,  the  name  being  more  usually  restricted  to  inorganic  salts, 
i.e.  the  salts  of  the  metals,  the  organic  salts  (or  esters)  being 
termed  nitriles.  The  preparation,  properties,  &c.,  of  cyanides 
are  treated  in  the  article  PRUSSIC  ACID;  reference  should  also 
be  made  to  the  articles  on  the  particular  metals.  The  most 
important  cyanide  commercially  is  potassium  cyanide,  which 
receives  application  in  the  "  cyanide  process  "  of  gold  extraction 
(see  GOLD). 

CYANITE,  a  native  aluminium  silicate,  Al2SiO5,  crystallizing 
in  the  anorthic  system.  It  has  the  same  percentage  chemi- 
cal composition  as  andalusite  and  sillimanite,  but  differs  from 
these  in  its  crystallographic  and  physical  characters.  P.  Groth 
writes  the  formula  as  a  metasilicate  (A10)2SiO3.  The  name 
cyanite  was  given  by  A.  G.  Werner 
in  1789,  from  KVO.VOS,  blue,  in  allusion 
to  the  characteristic  colour  of  the 
mineral;  the  form  kyanite  is  also  in 
common  use,  and  the  name  disthene, 
proposed  by  R.  J.  Hatiy  in  1801,  is 
used  by  French  writers. 

Distinctly  developed  crystals  with 
terminal  planes  are  rare,  the  mineral 
being  commonly  found  as  lamellar 
cleavage  masses  or  long  blade-shaped 
crystals  embedded  in  crystalline  rocks. 
The  colour  is  usually  a  pale  sky-blue,  but  may  be  white,  greenish 
or  yellowish;  it  varies  in  intensity  in  different  bands,  so  that 
the  crystals  usually  present  a  more  or  less  striped  appearance. 
There  is  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel  to  the  broad  face  m  (100), 
and  a  less  perfect  one  parallel  to  /  (oio) :  the  basal  plane  p  (ooi), 
oblique  to  the  prism  zone,  is  a  gliding  plane  on  which  secondary 
twinning  is  produced  by  pressure,  giving  rise  to  characteristic 
horizontal  striations  on  the  cleavage  face  m.  The  accompanying 
figure  represents  a  crystal  twinned  on  the  plane  m  (100).  A 
negative  biaxial  optic  figure  is  seen  in  convergent  polarized 
light  through  the  cleavage  plane  m,  the  axial  plane  being  inclined 
at  about  30°  to  the  edge  between  m  and  t.  A  remarkable  feature 
of  cyanite  is  the  great  difference  in  hardness  on  different  faces 
of  the  same  crystal  and  in  different  directions  on  the  same 
face:  on  the  face  m  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  edge  between 
m  and  p  the  hardness  is  7,  whilst  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the 
edge  between  m  and  I  it  is  4.5.  The  name  disthene,  from  Sis, 
two,  and  adivos,  strong,  has  reference  to  these  differences  in 
hardness. 

Analyses  of  cyanite  often  show  the  presence  of  a  small  amount 
(usually  less  than  i  %)  of  ferric  oxide  and  sometimes  traces  of 
copper,  and  to  these  constituents  the  blue  or  green  colour  of 
the  mineral  is  doubtless  due.  The  mineral  is  infusible  before 
the  blowpipe,  and  is  not  decomposed  by  acids.  At  a  .high 
temperature,  about  1350°  C.,  it  becomes  transformed  into 
sillimanite,  changing  in  specific  gravity  from  3-6  to  3-2. 

Cyanite  is  a  characteristic  mineral  of  the  metamorphic  crystal- 
line rocks — gneiss,  schist,  granulite  and  eclogite — and  is  often 
associated  with  garnet  and  staurolite.  A  typical  occurrence 
is  in  the  white,  fine-scaled  paragonite-schist  of  Monte  Campione, 
near  St  Gotthard  in  Switzerland,  where  long  transparent  crystals 
of  a  fine  blue  colour  are  abundant.  In  the  gneiss  of  the  Pfitscher 
Tal  near  Sterzing  in  Tirol  a  white  variety  known  as  rhaetizite  is 
found.  It  occurs  at  several  places  in  Scotland,  for  instance,  at 
Botriphnie  in  Banffshire,  with  muscovite  in  a  quartz-vein. 
Fine  specimens  are  found  in  mica-schist  at  Chesterfield  in 


Massachusetts,  and  at  several  other  localities  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  found  in  the  gold-washings  of  the  southern  Urals 
and  in  the  diamond-washings  of  Brazil.  As  minute  crystal 
fragments  it  is  met  with  in  many  sands  and  sandstones. 

When  of  sufficient  transparency  and  depth  of  colour  (deep 
cornflower-blue)  the  mineral  has  a  limited  application  as  a 
gem-stone;  it  is  usually  cut  en  cabochon.  (L.  J.  S.) 

CYANOGEN  (Gr.  KVO.VOS,  blue  yevvav,  to  produce),  C2N2, 
in  chemistry,  a  gas  composed  of  carbon  and  nitrogen.  The 
name  was  suggested  by  Prussian  blue,  the  earliest  known  com- 
pound of  "cyanogen.  It  was  first  isolated  in  1815  by  J.  Gay- 
Lussac,  who  obtained  it  by  heating  mercury  or  silver  cyanide; 
this  discovery  is  of  considerable  historical  importance,  since  it 
recorded  the  isolation  of  a  "  compound  radical."  It  may  also 
be  prepared  by  heating  ammonium  oxalate;  by  passing  induc- 
tion sparks  between  carbon  points  in  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen 
(see  H.  von  Wartenburg,  Abs.  J.C.S.,  1907,  i.  p.  299),  or  by 
the  addition  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  potassium  cyanide 
to  one  of  copper  sulphate,  the  mixed  solutions  being  then  heated. 
It  also  occurs  in  blast-furnace  gases.  When  cyanogen  is  prepared 
by  heating  mercuric  cyanide,  a  residue  known  as  para-cyanogen, 
(CN)z,  is  left;  this  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  polymer  of  cyanogen. 
It  is  a  brownish  amorphous  solid,  which  is  insoluble  in  water. 
Cyanogen  is  a  colourless  gas,  possessing  a  peculiar  characteristic 
smell,  and  is  very  poisonous.  It  burns  with  a  purple  flame, 
forming  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen;  and  may  be  condensed 
(by  cooling  to  -25°  C.)  to  a  colourless  liquid,  and  further  to  a 
solid,  which  melts  at  -34-4°  C.  (M.  Faraday,  Ann.,  1845,  56, 
p.  158).  It  dissolves  readily  in  water  and  the  aqueous  solution 
decomposes  on  standing;  a  dark-brown  flocculent  precipitate  of 
azulmic  acid,  C^sNsO,  separating  whilst  ammonium  oxalate, 
urea  and  hydrocyanic  acid  are  found  in  the  solution.  In  many 
respects  it  resembles  chlorine  in  its  chemical  behaviour,  a  circum- 
stance noted  by  Gay-Lussac;  it  combines  directly  with  hydrogen 
(at  500°  to  550°  C.)  to  form  hydrocyanic  acid,  and  with  chlorine, 
bromine,  iodine  and  sulphur,  to  form  cyanogen  chloride,  &c.; 
it  also  combines  directly  with  zinc,  cadmium  and  iron  to  form 
cyanides  of  these  metals.  It  combines  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  in  the  presence  of  water,  to  form  the  compound 
C2N2-H2S,  and  in  the  presence  of  alcohol,  to  form  the  compound 
C2N2-2H2S.  Concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  converts  it  into 
oxamide.  Potash  solution  converts  it  into  a  mixture  of  potassium 
cyanide  and  cyanate.  When  heated  with  hydriodic  acid  (specific 
gravity  1-96)  it  forms  amino-acetic  acid,  and  with  tin  and 
hydrochloric  acid  it  yields  ethylene  diamine. 

CYAXARES  (Pers.  Uvakhshalra),  king  of  Media,  reigned 
according  to  Herodotus  (i.  107)  forty  years,  about  624-584  B.C. 
That  he  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Median  empire  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  in  Darius's  time  a  Median  usurper,  Fravartish, 
pretended  to  be  his  offspring  (Behistun  inscr.  2.  43);  but  about 
his  history  we  know  very  little.  Herodotus  narrates  (i.  103  ff.) 
that  he  renewed  the  war  against  the  Assyrians,  in  which  his 
father  Phraortes  had  perished,  but  was,  while  he  besieged 
Nineveh,  attacked  by  a  great  Scythian  army  under  Madyas, 
son  of  Protothyes,  which  had  come  from  the  northern  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea  in  pursuit  of  the  Cimmerians.  After  their 
victory  over  Cyaxares,  the  Scythians  conquered  and  wasted 
the  whole  of  western  Asia,  and  ruled  twenty-eight  years,  till 
at  last  they  were  made  drunk  and  slain  by  Cyaxares  at  a  banquet 
(cf.  another  story  about  Cyaxares  and  a  Scythian  host  in  Herod, 
i.  73).  As  we  possess  scarcely  any  contemporary  documents 
it.  is  impossible  to  find  out  the  real  facts.  But  we  know  from 
the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah  that  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine were  really  invaded  by  northern  barbarians  in  626  B.C., 
and  it  is  probable  that  this  invasion  was  the  principal  cause  of 
the  downfall  of  the  Assyrian  empire  (see  M^DIA  and  PERSIA: 
Ancient  History). 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Scythians  Cyaxares  regained  the 
supremacy,  renewed  his  attack  on  Assyria,  and  in  606  B.C. 
destroyed  Nineveh  and  the  other  capitals  of  the  empire  (Herod, 
i.  106;  Berossus  ap.  Euseb.  Chron.  i.  29,  37,  confirmed  by  a 
stele  of  Nabonidus  found  in  Babvlon:  Scheil  in  Recueil  de 


CYBELE— CYCLAMEN 


681 


travaux,  xviii. ;  Messerschmidt,  "  Die  Inschrift  der  Stele 
Nabonaids,"  in  Mitteilungen  der  vorderasiatischen  Gesellschaft, 
i. ,  1 896) .  According  to  Berossus  he  was  allied  with  Nabopolassar 
of  Babylon,  whose  son  Nebuchadrezzar  married  Amyitis,  the 
daughter  of  the  Median  king  (who  is  wrongly  called  Astyages). 
The  countries  north  and  east  of  the  Tigris  and  the  northern 
part  of  Mesopotamia  with  the  city  of  Harran  (Carrhae)  became 
subject  to  the  Medes.  Armenia  and  Cappadocia  were  likewise 
subdued;  the  attempt  to  advance  farther  into  Asia  Minor 
led  to  a  war  with  Alyattes  of  Lydia.  The  decisive  battle,  in 
the  sixth  year,  was  interrupted  by  the  famous  solar  eclipse  on 
the  z8th  of  May  585  predicted  by  Thales.  Syennesis  of  Cilicia 
and  Nebuchadrezzar  (in  Herodotus  named  Labynetus)  of 
Babylon  interceded  and  effected  a  peace,  by  which  the  Halys 
was  fixed  as  frontier  between  the  two  empires,  and  Alyattes's 
daughter  married  to  Cyaxares's  son  Astyages  (Herod,  i.  74). 
If  Herodotus's  dates  are  correct,  Cyaxares  died  shortly  after- 
wards. 

In  a  fragmentary  letter  from  an  Assyrian  governor  to  King 
Sargon  (about  715  B.C.)  about  rebellions  of  Median  chieftains, 
a  dynast  Uvakshatar  (i.e.  Cyaxares)  is  mentioned  as  attacking 
an  Assyrian  fortress  (Kharkhar,  in  the  chains  of  the  Zagros). 
Possibly  he  was  an  ancestor  of  the  Median  king.  (£D.  M.) 

CYBELE,  or  CYBEBE  (Gr.  Kuj3e\7j,  Ki>/3ij|87)) ,  a  goddess  native 
to  Asia  Minor  and  worshipped  by  most  of  the  peoples  of  the 
peninsula,  was  known  to  the  Romans  most  commonly  as  the 
GREAT  MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS  (q.v.),  or  the  Great  Idaean  Mother 
of  the  Gods — Magna  Deum  Mater,  Mater  Deum  Magna  Idaea. 
She  was  known  by  many  other  names,  such  as  Mater  Idaea, 
Dindymene,  Sipylene,  derived  from  famous  seats  of  worship, 
and  Mountain  Mother,  &c.,  in  token  of  her  character,  but  Cybele 
is  the  name  by  which  she  is  most  frequently  known  in  literature. 
Her  cult  became  centralized  in  Phrygia,  had  found  its  way  into 
Greece,  where  it  never  flourished  greatly,  as  early  as  the  latter 
6th  century  B.C.,  and  was  introduced  at  Rome  in  204  B.C.  Under 
the  Empire  it  attained  to  great  importance,  and  was  one  of  the 
last  pagan  cults  to  die.  Cybele  was  usually  worshipped  in 
connexion  with  Attis  (q.v.),  as  Aphrodite  with  Adonis,  the  two 
being  a  duality  interpreted  by  the  philosophers  as  symbolic  of 
Mother  Earth  and  her  vegetation.  (G.  SN.) 

CYCLADES,  a  compact  group  of  islands  in  the  Greek  Archi- 
pelago, forming  a  cluster  around  the  island  of  Syra  (Syros),  the 
principal  town  of  which,  now  officially  known  as  Hermoupolis, 
is  the  capital  of  a  department.  Population  of  the  group  (1907) 
130,378-  The  islands,  though  seldom  visited  by  foreigners,  are 
for  the  most  part  highly  interesting  and  picturesque,  notwith- 
standing their  somewhat  barren  appearance  when  viewed  from 
the  sea;  many  of  them  bear  traces  of  the  feudal  rule  of  Venetian 
families  in  the  middle  ages,  and  their  inhabitants  in  general 
may  be  regarded  as  presenting  the  best  type  of  the  Greek  race. 
To  the  student  of  antiquity  the  most  interesting  are :  Delos  (q.v.), 
one  of  the  greatest  centres  of  ancient  religious,  political  and 
commercial  life,  where  an  important  series  of  researches  has  been 
carried  out  by  French  archaeologists;  Melos  (q.v.),  where,  in 
addition  to  various  buildings  of  the  Hellenic  and  Roman  periods, 
the  large  prehistoric  stronghold  of  Phylakopi  has  been  excavated 
by  members  of  the  British  school  at  Athens;  and  Thera  (see 
SANTORIN),  the  ancient  capital  of  which  has  been  explored  by 
Baron  Killer  von  Gaertringen.  Thera  is  also  of  special  interest 
to  geologists  owing  to  its  remarkable  volcanic  phenomena. 
Naxos,  the  largest  and  most  fertile  island  of  the  group,  contains 
the  highest  mountain  in  the  Cyclades  (Zia,  3290  ft.);  the  island 
annually  exports  upwards  of  2000  tons  of  emery,  a  state  monopoly 
the  proceeds  of  which  are  now  hypothecated  to  the  foreign  debt. 
The  oak  woods  of  Ceos  (Zea)  and  los  furnish  considerable  supplies 
of  valonia.  Kimolos,  which  is  absolutely  treeless,  produces 
fuller's-earth.  The  famous  marble  quarries  of  Paros  have  been 
practically  abandoned  in  modern  times;  the  marble  of  Tenos 
is  now  worked  by  a  British  syndicate.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
the  Cyclades  has  hitherto  been  much  neglected;  iron  ore  is 
exported  from  Seriphos,  manganese  and  sulphur  from  Melos, 
and  volcanic  cement  (pozzolana)  from  Santorin.  Other  articles 


of  export  are  wine,  brandy,  hides  and  tobacco.  Cythnos,  Melos 
and  other  islands  possess  hot  springs  with  therapeutic  qualities. 
The  prosperity  of  Syra,  formerly  an  important  distributing 
centre  for  the  whole  Levant,  has  been  declining  for  several  years. 
Population  (1907): — Syra  31,939  (communes,  Hermoupolis 
18,132,  Mykonos  4589,  Syra  9218);  Andros  18,035  (Andros  8536, 
Arni  2166,  Gaurio  2897,  Corthion  4436) ;  Thera  19,597  (Thera  4226, 
Egiale  1513,  Amorgps  2627,  Anaphe  579,  Emporium  2172,  Therasia 
679,  los  2090,  Kalliste  3519,  Oea  2192);  Ceos  11,032  (Ceos  3817, 
Dryopis  1628,  Cythnos  1563,  Seriphos  4024) ;  Melos,  12,774  (Melos 
4864,  Adamas  529,  Siphnos  3777,  Kimolos  2015,  Pholegandros  962, 

D!l_! ,      ,~  i   .      NT -      .  '  •  -       /XT ./•  .          A_"___*t__  .        «»•__• 


2658,  Peree  2801,  Sosthenion  1660). 

CYCLAMEN,  in  botany,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Primulaceae,  containing  about  ten  species  native  in  the  mountains 
of  central  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  region.  C.  europaeum 
(Sow-bread)  is  found  as  an  introduced  plant  in  copses  in  Kent 
and  Sussex.  The  plants  are  low-growing  herbs  with  large  tuber- 
ous rootstocks,  from  the  surface  of  which  spring  a  number  of 
broad,  generally  heart-shaped  or  kidney-shaped,  long-stalked 
leaves,  which  in  cultivated  forms  are  often  beautifully  marbled, 
ribbed  or  splashed.  The  flowers  are  nodding,  and  white,  pink, 
lilac  or  crimson  in  colour.  The  corolla  has  a  short  tube  and  five 
large  reflexed  lobes.  After  flowering  the  stalk  becomes  spirally 
coiled,  drawing  the  fruit  down  to  the  soil.  Cyclamen  is  a  favourite 
winter  and  spring  flowering  plant.  C.  persicum  is  probably  the 
best  known.  It  is  a  small-growing  kind  bearing  medium-sized 
leaves  and  numerous  flowers.  C.  giganteum  is  a  large,  strong- 
growing  species;  not  quite  so  free  flowering  as  C.  persicum,  but 
in  all  other  respects  superior  to  it  when  well  grown.  C.  papilio 
differs  in  the  fringed  character  of  the  petals.  It  has  been  obtained 
by  selection  from  C.  persicum.  There  is  also  a  very  beautiful 
crested  race,  probably  derived  from  C.  giganteum. 

The  plants  are  raised  from  seed,  and,  with  good  cultivation, 
flower  in  fifteen  to  eighteen  months  from  date  of  sowing.  Seed 
should  be  sown  as  soon  as  ripe,  in  July  or  August,  in  pots  or  pans, 
filled  up  to  z\  in.  of  the  rim  with  broken  crocks  for  drainage.  The 
soil  should  consist  of  fibrous  yellow  loam,  leaf-mould  in  flakes, 
and  coarse  silver-sand,  in  equal  parts.  Sow  the  seed  thinly — 
\  in.  to  \  in.  apart — and  cover  with  a  very  thin  sprinkling  of  the 
soil.  Protect  with  a  square  of  glass  covered  with  a  piece  of  brown 
paper  for  shade,  and  place  on  a  shelf  in  a  warm  greenhouse. 
The  soil  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  dry. 

When  the  seedlings  appear,  remove  the  covering,  care  being 
taken  that  they  do  not  suffer  for  want  of  shade,  water  or  a  moist 
atmosphere.  As  soon  as  the  third  leaf  appears,  repot  singly 
into  thumb-pots  in  slightly  coarser  soil,  so  that  the  crowns  of  the 
little  plants  are  just  above  the  level  of  the  soil.  In  December 
transfer  into  a  little  richer  soil,  consisting  of  two  parts  fibrous 
loam  broken  into  small  bits  by  hand  and  the  fine  particles 
rejected,  one  part  flaked  leaf-mould,  passed  through  a  half-inch 
sieve,  half  a  part  of  plant  ash  from  the  burnt  refuse  heap  and  half 
a  part  of  coarse  silver-sand.  Keep  through  the  winter  in  a  moist 
atmosphere  at  a  temperature  not  below  50°  Fahr.,  and  as  near 
the  glass  as  possible.  In  March  they  should  be  ready  for  their 
next  shift  into  $-in.  pots.  The  potting  compost  should  be  the 
same  as  for  the  last  shift,  with  the  addition  of  half  a  part  of  well- 
sweetened  manure,  such  as  a  spent  mushroom  bed.  Keep  in  a 
warm  moist  atmosphere  and  shade  from  strong  sunlight.  In  June 
remove  to  cold  frames  and  stand  them  on  inverted  pots  well  clear 
of  one  another.  Slugs  show  a  marked  partiality  for  the  succulent 
young  leaves  and  should  be  excluded  by  dusting  round  the 
frames  occasionally  with  newly  slaked  lime.  The  inverted  pots 
serve  as  traps.  The  frames  may  thus  be  frequently  syringed 
without  keeping  the  plants  unduly  wet.  Shade  heavily  from 
direct  sunlight,  but  afford  as  much  diffused  light  as  practicable. 
Ventilate  on  all  favourable  occasions,  and  close  the  frames  early 
after  copious  syringing. 

By  the  end  of  the  month  they  will  be  ready  for  the  final  shift 
into  7-in.  pots.  Much  care  must  be  used  in  handling  them,  the 
leaves  being  large,  tender  and  numerous.  The  soil  is  as  for  the 
last  potting.  The  frames  should  be  kept  close  and  heavily  shaded 


682 


CYCLE— CYCLING 


for  a  few  days  after  potting;  then  gradually  reduce  shade  and 
increase  ventilation.  By  the  end  of  July  the  elegance  of  the 
foliage  alone  should  well  repay  the  care  bestowed  on  them. 
From  this  time  onwards  very  little  shading  will  be  needed,  the 
object  of  the  cultivator  being  to  harden  the  growth  already  made. 
With  the  advent  of  cool  weather  in  September,  remove  to  flower- 
ing quarters  in  a  warm  greenhouse.  Flowering  will  begin  in 
November  and  will  continue  through  the  winter  and  spring. 
The  damping  off  of  the  flower-buds  may  occasionally  prove 
troublesome  during  winter.  This  may  generally  be  traced  to 
checks,  such  as  sudden  changes  in  temperature,  too  low  a  tempera- 
ture, careless  watering,  &c.  During  spring  plants  that  are 
flowering  freely  will  require  weak  manure  water  about  twice 
a  week. 

Plants  selected  to  bear  seed  should  be  set  aside  for  that  purpose, 
and  as  soon  as  the  capsules  are  found  to  be  developing  properly 
they  should  be  reduced  -to  six  or  seven  per  plant,  and  all  flower- 
buds  picked  off  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  to  handle. 
The  production  of  strong  seeds  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Plants  grown  for  market  purposes,  either  for  decoration  or  for 
seed,  are  sown  later  than  the  above,  are  kept  cooler,  and  during 
summer  receive  more  ventilation  and  less  shade.  This  results  in 
the  production  of  plants  with  much  smaller  and  more  erect  leaves, 
which  travel  well.  They  are  flowered  in  spring  and  early  summer. 
The  species  grown  for  this  purpose  is  C.  persicum. 

A  few  species  are  hardy  in  dry  sheltered  positions,  such  as 
rockeries,  under  walls  and  old  trees,  provided  the  positions  are 
well  drained.  Such  are  C.  europaewn,  with  reddish-purple 
flowers  in  summer;  C.  hederifolium  in  autumn;  and  C,  nea- 
politanum,  with  large  leaves  marbled  with  silver  and  rosy-pink 
flowers. 

CYCLE  (Gr.  (ckXos,  a  circle),  in  astronomy,  a  period  of  time 
at  the  end  of  which  some  aspect  or  relation  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
recurs.  The  more  important  cycles  are  discussed  in  the  articles 
CALENDAR  and  ECLIPSE.  In  physics,  the  term  is  applied  to  a 
series  of  operations  which,  performed  upon  a  system,  brings  it 
back  to  its  original  state;  "  Carnot's  Cycle  "  is  an  example  (see 
THERMODYNAMICS).  From  the  use  of  the  word  for  any  period 
at  the  end  of  which  the  same  events  recur  in  the  same  order  or 
for  any  complete  series  of  phenomena,  it  is  used  loosely  of  any 
long  period  of  time.  The  name  d  eirtKis  KwcXos,  the  epic 
cycle,  was  given  to  the  poems  which  complete  the  Homeric 
account  of  the  Trojan  War  (see  below).  It  is  this  use  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  application  of  the  term  "  cycle  "  to  a  series  of 
prose  or  poetical  romances  which  have  for  a  centre  one  subject, 
whether  a  person,  as  in  the  Alexander,  Arthurian  or  Charlemagne 
cycles,  or  an  object,  such  as  the  ring  of  the  Nibelungenlied. 
In  music  "  Song-cycle  "  (Ger.  Liederkreis)  is  similarly  used  of 
a  series  of  songs  written  round  one  subject  or  set  to  poems  by 
the  same  author.  Beethoven's  An  die  feme  Gelieble  (Op.  98), 
published  in  1816,  is  the  earliest  instance.  Schubert's  Die  schone 
Miillerin,  Schumann's  Dichterliebe&nd  Brahms's  Magelone-Lieder 
are  well-known  instances. 

Epic  Cycle. — This  is  a  collection  or  corpus  of  lays  written  about 
776-580  B.C.  by  poets  of  the  Ionian  School,  introductory  or 
complementary  to  the  Homeric  poems,  dealing  with  the  legends 
of  the  Trojan  and  Theban  wars.  At  a  later  date  they  were 
arranged  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  narrative  (the  Iliad  and 
the  Odyssey  included),  perhaps  after  certain  alterations  had  been 
made,  to  fill  up  gaps  and  remove  inconsistencies  and  repetitions. 
By  whom,  and  when,  they  were  so  arranged,  cannot  be  decided; 
it  is  possible  that  it  was  the  work  of  Zenodotus  of  Ephesus, 
who  had  the  care  of  the  epic  section  of  the  Alexandrian  library. 
In  order  to  furnish  the  general  reader  with  a  comprehensive 
sketch  of  mythological  history,  Proclus — according  to  Welcker 
and  Valesius  (Valois),  not  the  neo-Platonist,  but  an  unknown  2nd 
or  3rd  century  grammarian,  perhaps  Eutychius  Proclus  of  Sicca1 
in  Africa,  one  of  the  tutors  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (see  PROCLUS) 
— compiled  a  prose  summary  (rpajujuaruci?  XprjoTo/iafleia) 

1  An  objection  to  this  view  is  that  according  to  the  Augustan 
historian  Capitolinus  (Antoninus,  2)  Eutychius  of  Sicca  was  a  Latin 
not  a  Greek  grammarian. 


of  the  contents  of  the  poems,  to  serve  as  a  sort  of  primer  to 
Greek  literature.  Extracts  from  this  are  preserved  in  the  Codex 
Venetus  of  Homer  and  Photius  (cod.  239),  according  to  which 
the  epic  cycle  began  with  the  union  of  Uranus  and  Ge  and  ended 
with  the  death  of  Odysseus  on  his  return  to  Ithaca  at  the  hands 
of  his  son  Telegonus.  The  cycle  was  in  existence  in  his  (Proclus's) 
time,  and  was  in  request  not  so  much  for  its  artistic  merit,  as  for 
the  "  sequence  of  the  events  described  in  it."  Further  light  is 
thrown  on  the  subject  by  pictorial  representations,  intended  for 
school  use  during  the  Roman  imperial  period,  the  most  famous 
of  which  is  the  Tabula  Iliaca  in  the  Capitoline  museum. 

The  expression  "  epic  cycle  "  in  the  sense  of  a  poetical  collec- 
tion does  not  occur  before  the  Christian  era;  the  word  KUK\OS 
("  cycle,"  "  circle  ")  is  used  of  a  special  kind  of  short  poem  and 
also  of  a  prose  abstract  of  mythological  history;  the  adjective 
has  the  general  sense  of  "  hackneyed,"  "  conventional,"  and  is 
applied  contemptuously  (by  Callimachus  and  Horace)  to  a 
particular  Alexandrian  school  of  poetry. 

The  most  important  poems  of  the  Trojan  legendary  cycle  are 
the  Cypria  of  Stasinus  (<?.».);  the  Aethiopis  and  Iliou  Persis 
(Sack  of  Troy)  of  Arctinus  (q.v.);  the  Little  Iliad  of  Lesches 
(?.».);  iheNostioi  Hagiasor  Agias;  the  Telegonia  of  Eugammon. 
To  the  Theban  cycle  belong:  the  Thebais  or  Expedition  of 
Amphiaraus  and  the  Epigoni  of  Antimachus.  The  Oechalias 
Halosis  (capture  of  Oechalia)  of  Creophylus  (q.v.) ;  the  Phocais 
(or  Minytis)  of  Prodicus;  and  the  Danais  of  Cercops,  although 
belonging  to  the  old  Homeric  epos,  cannot  with  certainty  be 
included  in  the  epic  cycle.  The  names  of  the  authors  are  in 
several  cases  exceedingly  doubtful. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  standard  work  on  the  subject  is  F.  G. 
Welcker,  Der  epische  Cyclus  (1865-1882);  see  also  T.  W.  Allen, 
"  The  Epic  Cycle,"  in  Classical  Quarterly,  Jan.  and  April  1908 
(summary  of  sources  and  authorities);  Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, 
Homerische  Untersuchungen  (1884),  who  regards  the  traditional 
names  and  personalities  of  the  poets  of  the  cycle  with  great  scepti- 
cism; D.  B.  Monro,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  iv.  (1883),  appendix 
to  his  edition  of  the  Odyssey,  xiii.-xxiv.  (1900),  and  on  the  Codex 
Venetus  fragment  of  Proclus;  J.  E.  Sandys,  Hist,  of  Class.  Schol. 
(2nd  ed.,  1906),  vol.  i.  ch.  2;  J.  B.  Bury,  Ancient  Greek  Historians 
( 1 909) ,  pp.  2-8  on  the  epics  as  history ;  articles  by  H.  Flach  in  Ersch 
and  Gruber,  Allgemeine  Encyklopadie,  and  by  E.  Schwartz  and 
others  in  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyclopadie. 

CYCLING,  the  clipped  term  now  given  comprehensively  to 
the  sport  or  exercise  of  riding  a  bicycle  (q.v.)  or  tricycle  (q.v.). 

Suggestions  of  vehicles  having  two  or  more  wheels  and  propelled 
by  the  muscular  effort  of  the  rider  or  riders  are  to  be  found  in 
very  early  times,  even  on  the  bas-reliefs  of  Egypt  and  History. 
Babylon  and  the  frescoes  of  Pompeii;  but  though 
sporadic  examples  of  such  contrivances  are  recorded  in  the  i7th 
and  1 8th  centuries,  it  was  apparently  not  till  the  beginning  of 
the  ipth  century  that  they  were  used  to  any  considerable  extent. 
A  "  velocipede  "  invented  by  Blanchard  and  Magurier,  and 
described  in  the  Journal  de  Paris  on  the  27th  of  July  1779, 
differed  little  from  the  celerifere  proposed  by  another  Frenchman, 
de  Sivrac,  in  1690;  it  consisted  of  a  wooden  bar  rigidly  connect- 
ing two  wheels  placed  one  in  front  of  the  other,  and  was  propelled 
by  the  rider,  seated  astride  the  bar,  pushing  against  the  ground 
with  his  feet.  The  next  advance  was  made  in  the  draisine  of 
Freiherr  Karl  Drais  von  Sauerbronn  (1785-1851),  described 
in  his  Abbildung  und  Beschreibung  seiner  neu  erfundenen  Lauf- 
tnaschine  (Nuremberg,  1817).  In  this  the  front  wheel  was  pivoted 
on  the  frame  so  that  it  could  be  turned  sideways  by  a  handle, 
thus  serving  to  steer  the  machine  (figs,  i  and  2).  A  similar 
machine,  the  "  celeripede,"  also  with  a  movable  front  wheel, 
is  said  to  have  been  ridden  by  J.  N.  Niepce  in  Paris  some  years 
before.  In  England  the  draisine  achieved  a  great,  though 
temporary,  vogue  under  various  names,  such  as  velocipede, 
patent  accelerator,  bivector,  bicipedes,  pedestrian  curricle 
(patented  by  Dennis  Johnson  in  1818),  dandy  horse,  hobby  horse, 
&c.,  and  for  a  time  it  was  popular  in  America  also.  The  pro- 
pulsion of  the  draisine  by  pushing  with  the  feet  being  alleged  to 
give  rise  to  diseases  of  the  legs,  arrangements  were  soon  suggested, 
as  by  Louis  Gompertz  in  England  in  1821,  by  which  the  front 
wheel  could  be  rotated  by  the  hands  with  the  aid  of  a  system 


CYCLING 


683 


FIG.  I. — Gentleman's  Hobby  Horse. 


of  gearing,  but  the  idea  of  providing  mechanical  connexions 
between  the  feet  and  the  wheels  was  apparently  not  thought 
of  till  later.  Pedals  with  connecting  rods  working  on  the  rear 
axle  are  said  to  have  been  applied  to  a  tricycle  in  1834  by  Kirk- 

patrick  McMillan,  a  Scottish 
blacksmith  of  Keir,  Dum- 
friesshire, and  to  a  draisine 
by  him  in  1840,  and  by  a 
Scottish  cooper,  Gavin  Dal- 
zell,  of  Lesmahagow,  Lan- 
arkshire, about  1845.  The 
draisine  thus  fitted  had 
wooden  wheels,  with  iron 
tires,  the  leading  one  about 
30  in.  in  diameter  and  the 
driving  one  about  40  in.,  and  thus  it  formed  the  prototype, 
though  not  the  ancestor,  of  the  modern  rear-driven  safety 
bicycle. 

For  the  next  20  years  little  was  done,  and  then  began  the 
evolution  of  the  high  "  ordinary  "  bicycle  with  a  large  driving 
wheel  in  front  and  a  small  trailing  one  behind.  About  1865 

Pierre  Lallement  in  Paris 
constructed  a  bicycle  in 
which  the  front  wheel  was 
driven  by  pedals  and 
cranks  attached  directly 
to  its  axle,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  origin  of 
this  idea  must  be  attributed 
to  him  or  to  Ernest  Mich- 
aux,the  son  of  his  employer, 
who  was  a  carriage  repairer.  Lallement  took  his  machine  to 
the  United  States,  and  in  1866  was  granted  a  patent  which  had 
an  important  influence  on  the  subsequent  course  of  the  cycle 
industry  in  that  country.  This  machine,  consisting  of  a  wooden 
frame  supported  on  two  wooden  wheels  (fig.  3),  soon  became 

popular  in  England,  as  well 
as  in  France  and  America, 
and  came  to  be  called 
bicycle  (or  bysicle)  by  those 
who  took  it  seriously  and 
"  boneshaker "  by  those 
who  did  not.  Improve- 
ments quickly  followed, 
chiefly  in  England,  for  in 
America  the  popularity  of 
the  machine  was.  short-lived, 
and  in  France  the  industry 
was  checked  by  the  Franco- 


FIG.  2. — Lady's  Hobby  Horse. 


FIG.  3.— The  Boneshaker,  1868. 


German  war.  Rubber  tires,  in  place  of  iron  ones,  appeared  in 
1868,  and  in  two  or  three  years  were  made  very  large,  2  in.  or 
more  in  width.  Suspension  wheels,  with  wire  spokes  in  tension, 
were  seen  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  London,  on  the  "  Phantom  " 
(fig.  4)  of  W.  F.  Reynolds  and  J.  A.  Mays  in  1869,  and  early  in 

the  same  year  the  manu- 
facture of  bicycles,  at 
first  for  export  to  France, 
was  begun  in  England 
by  the  Coventry  Sewing 
Machine  Company,  till 
then  makers  of  sewing 
machines.  There  was  a 
rapid  growth  in  the  size 
of  the  front  wheel,  which 
in  the  boneshaker  nor- 
mally measured  36  or  38 
in.  in  diameter,  with  a 
corresponding  shrinkage  in  the  rear  wheel  (fig.  5),  until  by 
1874,  the  date  of  the  invention  of  the  tangent  wheel  by 
J.  K.  Starley  54-in.  wheels  were  being  made.  The  high 
bicycle  was  now  fairly  established  in  form,  and  the  changes 
made  in  the  subsequent  10  or  15  years  during  which  it 


FIG.  4. — The  "  Phantom,"  1869. 


FIG.  5. — Humber's  "  Spider,"  1872. 


retained  its  supremacy  were  chiefly  in  the  details  of  construc- 
tion, such  as  the  adoption  of  steel  tubing  for  the  frames,  the  use 
of  hollow  rims  in  the  wheels  and  the  application  first  of  cone 
and  then  of  ball  bearings  to  points  of  friction.  The  weight 
of  a  54-in.  bicycle,  which  in  1874-1875  exceeded  50  or  even  60  Ib, 
was  thus  reduced  to  well  under  40  Ib  in  machines  intended  for 
use  on  ordinary  roads, 
and  to  not  much  over  20 
Ib  in  the  case  of  racers. 

The  high  "  ordinary  " 
bicycle  (fig.  6)  gave  un- 
questionable pleasure  to 
many  riders,  and  very 
fast  times  were  made 
with  it  both  on  the  road 
and  on  the  racing  path. 
In  1882  H.  L.  Cortis  rode 
20  m.  300  yds.  in  one 
hour,  and  in  April  1884 
Thomas  Stevens  started 
from  San  Francisco  to  ride  round  the  world,  a  feat  which 
he  accomplished  in  December  1886.  But  it  had  various  dis- 
advantages. The  vibration  set  up  by  the  small  back  wheel  was 
very  trying,  and  in  spite  of  the  size  of  the  front  one  the  rider  had 
to  move  his  pedals  at  an  uncomfortably  rapid  rate  if  he  wished 
to  maintain  a  good  speed.  Moreover  his  seat  was  placed  in  such 
a  position  that  he  was  liable  to  be  pitched  over  the  handle- 
bar if  his  wheel  encountered  a  comparatively  small  obstacle. 
Attempts  were  made  to  remedy  these  inconveniences  in  various 
ways.  From  the  early 
'eighties  much  attention 
was  devoted  to  tricycles, 
and  these  were  produced 
in  innumerable  designs, 
whether  for  a  single  rider, 
or  for  two  in  the  form  of 
"sociables,"  in  which  the 
riders  sat  side  by  side,  or 
of  "  tandems,"  in  which 
one  sat  behind  the  other. 
But  their  weight,  and 
consequently  the  exertion 
of  propelling  them,  was  FIG.  6.— Rudge  Racing  Ordinary,  1887. 
necessarily  greater  than 

in  the  case  of  the  bicycle,  and  by  the  end  of  the  decade,  the 
demand  for  them  had  fallen  off,  though  they  are  still  made  to  a 
certain  extent,  chiefly  for  carrying  purposes.  The  two-track 
dicycle  (fig.  7),  invented  by  E.  C.  F.  Otto  about  1879,  in  which 
the  rider  balanced  himself  between  two  equal  wheels  placed 
abreast,  also  failed  to  secure  lasting  success. 

The  improvement  of  the  high  bicycle  was  attempted  in  two 
directions.  On  the  one  hand  it  was  modified  by  placing  the 
rider  farther  back,  his  position  "  over  his  work  "  being  ensured 
by  arranging  the  pedals  immediately  below  him  and  connecting 
them  to  the  front  wheel,  which  was 
usually  reduced  in  size,  by  levers 
and  cranks  or  by  chain-gearing, 
often  with  a  multiplying  action. 
On  the  other,  the  rear  wheel  was 
enlarged  and  made  the  driving 
wheel.  The  "  '  Xtraordinary  " 
(fig.  8),  "Facile"  (fig.  9)  and 
"  Kangaroo  "  were  examples  of  the 
former  kind,  which  were  often 
spoken  of  as  "dwarf-safeties"; 
but  though  a  good  many  of  them 
were  used  about  1880  and  following 
years,  both  they  and  the  "ordinary" 
bicycle  ultimately  disappeared  be- 
fore machines  of  the  second  kind,  which  developed  into  the 
modern  rear-driven  safety.  There  are  numerous  claimants 
for  the  invention — or  rather  the  reinvention — of  this  type, 


FIG.  7. — Otto  Dicycle,  1879. 


684 


CYCLING 


but  it  appears  that  the  credit  for  its  practical  and  commercial 
introduction  in  substantially  its  present  form  is  due  to  J.  K. 
Starley  in  England.  His  "  Rover  "  (fig.  10),  brought  out  late 
in  1885,  had  two  nearly  equal  wheels,  the  driving  wheel  30  in. 
in  diameter  and  the  steering  32  in.,  and  the  rider  sat  so  far  back 
that  he  could  not  be  thrown  forward  over  the  handles.  The 

motion  imparted  by  the 
pedals  to  a  sprocket  wheel 
mounted  between  the  wheels 
was  transmitted  by  an  end- 
less chain  to  the  rear  wheel, 
and  by  sufficiently  increasing 
the  size  of  this  sprocket 
wheel  the  machine  could  be 
made  to  travel  as  far  or 
farther  than  the  "  ordinary  " 
for  each  complete  revolu-r 
tion  of  the  pedals.  From 
about  1890  the  "  safety " 


FIG.  8. — Singers'  "  'Xtraordinary," 
1879. 


monopolized  the  field.  At 
first  it  was  fitted  with  the  narrow  rubber  tires  customary  at 
the  time,  but  these  gave  way  to  pneumatic  tires,  invented 
in  1888  by  J.  B.  Dunlop,  a  veterinary  surgeon  of  Belfast,  whose 
idea,  however,  had  been  anticipated  in  the  English  patent  taken 
out  by  R.  W.  Thomson  in  1845.  The  result  was  a  great  gain 
in  comfort,  due  to  reduction  of  vibration,  and  a  remarkable 
increase  of  speed  or,  alternatively,  decrease  of  exertion.  Subse- 
quent progress  was  mainly  in  the  details  of  design  and  manu- 
facture, tending  to  secure  lightness  combined  with  adequate 
strength,  and  such  was  the  success  attained,  by  the  application 

of  scientific  principles  and  of 
improved  methods  and  materials 
to  the  construction  of  the  frames 
and  other  parts,  that  while  the 
weight  of  the  original  "  Rover  " 
was  about  50  Ib,  that  of  its 
successors  20  years  later  with 
28-in.  wheels  was  reduced  by 
35  or  45%,  or  even  60%  in  the 
case  of  racing  machines.  The 
beginning  of  the  2oth  century 
saw  the  introduction  of  two 


FIG.  9.— The  "  Facile,"  1879. 


innovations:  one  was  the  "  free-wheel,"  a  device  which  allows 
the  driving  wheel  to  rotate  independently  of  the  chain  and 
pedals,  so  that  the  rider,  controlling  his  speed  with  powerful 
brakes,  can  "  coast  "  down  a  hill  using  the  stationary  pedals  as 
foot-rests;  and  the  other  was  the  motor-cycle,  in  which  a  petrol- 
engine  relieves  him,  except  at  starting,  from  all  personal  exertion, 
though  at  the  cost  of  considerable  vibration.  A  third  contrivance, 
which,  however,  was  an  idea  of  considerably  older  date,  also 
began  to  find  favour  about  the  same  period  in  the  shape  of 
two-speed  and  three-speed  gears,  enabling  the  rider  at  will  to 

alter  the  ratio  between  the 
speed  of  revolution  of  his 
pedals  and  of  his  driving 
wheel,  and  thereby  accommo- 
date himself  to  the  varying 
|  gradients  of  the  road  he  is 
traversing  (see  also  BICYCLE, 
TRICYCLE  and  TIRE). 

The  safety  bicycle,  with 
FIG.  io.— Starley's  "  Rover,"  1885.  pneumatic  tires,  rendered 
cycling  universally  popular,  not  merely  as  a  pastime  but  as  a  con- 
venient meansof  locomotion  for  everyday  use.  Made  with  a  drop- 
frame,  it  also  enabled  women  to  cycle  without  being  confined  to  a 
heavy  tricycle  or  compelled  to  assume  "  rational  dress."  In  con- 
sequence there  was  an  enormous  expansion  in  the  cycle  industry. 
In  England  the  demand  for  machines  had  become  so  great  by 
1895  that  the  makers  were  unable  to  cope  with  it.  Numbers 
of  new  factories  were  started,  small  shops  grew  into  large  com- 
panies, and  the  capital  invested  advanced  by  millions  of  pounds. 
The  makers  who  had  devoted  their  mechanical  skill  to  perfecting 


the  methods  of  cycle-construction  were  swallowed  up  by  company 
promoters  and  adventurers,  bent  simply  upon  filling  their  own 
pockets.  The  march  of  mechanical  invention  and  improvement 
was  arrested,  and  machines,  instead  of  being  built  by  mechanics 
proud  of  their  work,  in  many  cases  were  merely  put  together 
in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  in  a  few  standard  patterns. 
For  these  the  world  clamoured,  and  for  a  year  they  could  not 
be  produced  fast  enough.  Then  the  demand  fell  off,  the  British 
market  became  over-stocked,  and  as  the  British  makers  declined 
to  consider  the  wants  of  foreign  customers,  their  store-rooms 
remained  crowded  with  machines  that  could  not  be  sold.  Specu- 
lative finance,  such  as  was  exemplified  in  1896  by  the  flotation 
for  £5,000,000  of  the  Dunlop  tire  company,  which  had  been 
started  in  1889  with  a  capital  of  £25,000,  had  its  natural  effects. 
There  ensued  widespread  and  continuing  disorganization  of  the 
trade,  which  had  to  be  met  by  extensive  reconstructions  of 
over-capitalized  companies.  English  makers  too  had  lost  the 
commanding  international  position  they  once  enjoyed,  when 
they  supplied  almost  the  entire  demand  for  bicycles  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  including  the  United  States.  In  America 
the  manufacture  of  bicycles  was  not  begun  until  about  1878, 
when  it  was  introduced  by  A.  A.  Pope  (1843-1909),  and  even  by 
1890  the  value  of  the  products  barely  exceeded  25  million  dollars, 
while  for  several  years  later  much  of  the  steel  tubing  required 
for  bicycle  manufacture  continued  to  be  imported  from  Great 
Britain.  The  industry,  however,  thanks  to  automatic  machinery 
and  perfect  organization,  grew  rapidly,  and  in  1900  the  value 
of  its  products  was  nearly  32  million  dollars.  In  the  two  years 
1897  and  1898  the  exports  of  cycles  and  cycle  parts  alone  were 
worth  nearly  14  million  dollars,  though  they  fell  off  in  subsequent 
years,  and  English  makers  had  to  contend  with  an  American 
invasion  in  addition  to  their  domestic  troubles.  B  ut  the  competi- 
tion was  short-lived.  The  American  makers  sent  over  machines 
with  single  tube  tires  and  wooden  rims  which  did  not  secure 
the  approval  of  the  British  purchaser,  and  so  they  too  lost 
their  hold.  In  the  opening  years  of  the  2oth  century  the  industry 
in  Great  Britain  gradually  recovered  itself.  More  attention 
was  paid  to  the  production  of  cheap  machines  which  were  sound 
and  trustworthy,  and  sales  were  further  stimulated  by  the 
introduction  of  systems  of  deferred  payments.  In  1905  about 
600,000  machines  were  made  in  Great  Britain,  and  47,604  were 
exported,  the  total  value  of  the  home-market  for  cycles  and  their 
parts  being  about  35  millions  sterling,  and  of  the  export  trade 
about  one  million.  In  the  same  year  the  number  of  machines 
imported  was  only  2345. 

Cycle  tours  were  taken  and  cycle  clubs  established  almost 
as  soon  as  the  cycle  appeared,  the  Pickwick  Bicycle  Club 
in  London,  founded  in  1870,  being  the  oldest  in  the 
world.  The  organization  of  these  clubs  is  chiefly  of 
a  social  character,  and  a  few  possess  well-appointed 
club-houses.  To  a  great  extent  they  have  been  superseded  by 
the  large  touring  organizations.  The  Cyclists'  Touring  Club, 
organized  in  1878  as  the  Bicycle  Touring  Club,  has  members 
scattered  through  Europe,  America  and  even  the  East.  Many 
other  countries  possess  national  clubs,  as  for  instance  the  League 
of  American  Wheelmen,  founded  in  1880,  and  the  Touring  Club 
de  France,  founded  in  1895,  of  whose  objects  cycling  is  only 
one,  though  the  chief.  The  aim  of  these  national  associations, 
which  have  formed  an  international  touring  league,  is  the 
promotion  of  cycle  touring.  To  this  end  they  publish  road- 
books, maps  and  journals;  they  recommend  hotels,  with  fixed 
tariffs,  in  their  own  and  other  countries;  they  appoint  repre- 
sentatives to  aid  their  members  when  touring;  and  they  have 
succeeded  in  inducing  most  governments  to  allow  their  members 
to  travel  freely  across  frontiers  without  paying  duty  on  their 
machines.  In  all  countries  they  have  erected  warning-boards 
at  dangerous  places;  in  France  the  best  route  is  suggested  by 
a  sign-post,  and  cyclists  who  meet  with  accidents  in  lonely 
places  find  repair  outfits  provided  for  their  free  use.  Another 
important  part  of  the  work  of  these  clubs,  "either  directly  or 
indirectly,  is  the  improvement  of  the  roads.  France  has  done 
more  for  the  cyclist  than  any  other  country,  owing  to  the  fact 


CYCLOID 


685 


Racing. 


that  she  possesses  the  best  roads,  kept  up  to  a  certain  extent 
by  the  cycle  tax,  whereby  the  cyclist  acquires  a  certain  official 
position  and  right;  moreover  cycles  accompanied  by  their 
owners  are  conveyed  without  extra  charge  on  the  railways,  and 
aid  is  given  to  the  sport  and  pastime  from  public  funds.  In 
Belgium  the  cycle  has  worked  a  veritable  revolution  in  the 
national  life.  The  surface  of  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
being  loose  and  sandy,  the  roads  have  been  paved,  and  this 
paving  is  so  bad  as  to  be  impossible  for  light  traffic.  The  cycle 
tax  has  consequently  been  devoted,  first,  to  the  construction 
of  paths  on  which  cyclists  have  equal  rights  with  pedestrians, 
and  secondly  to  the  replacing  of  the  paving  by  macadam.  In 
this  way  alone  cycling  has  proved  of  inestimable  benefit  to 
Belgium  and  Luxembourg.  In  the  United  States  measures 
for  securing  good  roads  and  side  paths  have  been  introduced  in 
various  states,  mainly  at  the  instigation  first  of  cyclists  and 
then  of  motorists,  and  in  Great  Britain  the  Roads  Improvement 
Association  has  worked  for  the  same  end. 

Each  country  also  possesses  an  organization  for  the  govern- 
ment of  cycle  racing;  and  although  these  unions,  one  object 
of  which — usually  the  main  one — is  the  encouragement 
of  cycle  racing  and  cycle  legislation,  boast  an  enormous 
membership,  their  membership  is  often  composed  of  clubs  and  not 
individuals.  Among  the  most  important  are  the  National  Cyclists' 
Union  of  England  and  the  Union  Velocipedique  of  France. 
These  bodies  are  also  bound  together  by  the  International 
Cyclists'  Association,  which  is  devoted  mainly  to  the  promotion 
of  racing  and  legislation  connected  with  it  all  over  the  world. 
The  National  Cyclists'  Union,  originally  the  Bicycle  Union,  which 
was  the  parent  body  of  all,  formed  in  February  1878,  was  the 
first  to  put  up  danger-boards,  and  also  was  early  instrumental, 
alone  and  with  the  C.T.C.,  in  framing  or  suggesting  laws  for  the 
proper  government  and  regulation  of  cycle  traffic,  notably  in 
establishing  its  position  as  a  vehicle  in  securing  universal  rights, 
in  endeavouring,  again  in  conjunction  with  the  C.T.C.,  to  increase 
facilities  for  the  carriage  of  cycles  on  the  railways,  in  securing 
the  opening  of  parks,  and  in  promoting  many  other  equally 
praiseworthy  objects.  For  a  number  of  years,  however,  it  has 
been  more  prominent  as  the  ruling  race-governing  body.  But 
cycle  racing  has  fallen  upon  evil  days.  At  one  time  cycle  racing 
attracted  a  large  number  of  spectators,  but  gradually  it  lost  the 
public  favour,  or  rather  was  ignored  by  the  public  because  it 
became  mainly  an  advertisement  for  cycle  makers.  The  presence 
of  the  man,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the  employ  of,  or  aided  by  a 
maker,  and  the  consequent  mixing  up  of  trade  and  sport,  lowered 
racing  not  only  in  the  public  estimation,  but  in  that  of  all  genuine 
amateurs.  There  have  always  been  a  few  amateurs  who  have 
raced  for  the  love  of  the  sport,  but  the  greater  number  of 
prominent  racing  men  have  raced  for  the  benefit  of  a  firm,  so 
much  so  that,  at  one  time,  an  entire  section  of  racing  men  were 
classed  as  "  makers'  amateurs."  They  did  not  confine  themselves 
to  the  race  track,  but  appropriated  the  public  roads  until  they 
became  a  danger  and  a  nuisance,  and  road-racing  finally  was 
abolished,  though  record  rides,  as  they  are  called,  are  still  indulged 
in,  being  winked  at  by  the  police  and  by  the  cycling  authorities. 
The  makers'  amateurs  at  least  rode  to  win  and  to  make  the  best 
time  possible.  But  the  scandal  was  so  great  that  a  system  of 
licensing  riders  was  adopted  by  the  N.C.U.,  and  if  this  did  not 
effectively  kill  the  sport,  the  introduction  of  waiting  races  did. 
There  probably  is  considerable  skill  in  riding  two-thirds  of  a  race  as 
slowly  as  possible,  and  only  hurrying  the  last  part  of  the  last  lap, 
but  it  does  not  amuse  the  public,  who  want  to  see  a  fast  race  as 
well  as  a  close  finish.  The  introduction  of  pacing  by  multicycles 
and  motors  next  took  from  cycle  racing  what  interest  was  left.  A 
motor  race,  in  which  the  machines  are  run  at  top  speed,  is  more 
exciting  than  the  spectacle  of  a  motor  being  driven  at  a  rate 
which  the  cyclist  can  follow  with  the  protection  of  a  wind-shield. 
In  America  this  system  of  proving  what  cyclists  can  do  with 
racing  machines  was  carried  so  far  that  in  1899  a  board  track  was 
laid  down  on  the  Long  Island  railway  for  about  2  m.  between 
the  metals,  and  a  cyclist  named  Murphy,  followed  a  train,  and 
protected  by  enormous  wind-shields,  succeeded  in  covering  a  mile 


in  less  than  a  minute  in  the  autumn  of  1900.  Other  cyclists  have 
devoted  themselves,  at  the  instigation  of  makers,  to  the  riding 
of  100  m.  a  day  every  day  for  a  year.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
say  what  advantage  there  is  in  these  trials  and  contests.  They 
are  not  convincing  records,  and  only  prove  that  some  people 
are  willing  to  take  great  personal  risks  for  the  benefit  of  their 
employers.  E.  Hale,  during  1899-1900,  covered  32,496  m.  in 
313  days.  For  many  years  also  long-distance  races,  mostly  of 
six  days'  duration,  have  been  promoted  on  covered  tracks,  and 
though  condemned  by  all  cycling  organizations,  they  find  a  great 
deal  of  pecuniary  support. 

The  cycle  has  also  been  taken  up  for  military  purposes.  For 
this  idea  the  British  army  is  indebted  to  Colonel  A.  R.  Savile,  who 
in  1887  organized  the  first  series  of  cycle  manoeuvres 
in  England.  Since  then  military  cycling  has  undergone 
a  great  development,  not  only  in  the  country  of  its  origin  but  in 
most  others. 

Cycling  has  produced  a  literature  of  its  own,  both  of  the  pastime 
and  of  the  trade.  Owing  to  the  enormous  profits  which,  for  several 
years,  were  obtained  by  cycle  makers,  a  trade  press  ,  to  ^^ 
appeared  which  simply  lived  by,  and  out  of,  its  adver-  ' 
tisers;  and  though  each  country  has  one  or  more  genuine  trade 
journals,  the  large- proportion  of  these  sheets  have  been  worth,  in  a 
business  aspect,  as  little  practically  as  from  a  literary  standpoint. 
On  the  other  hand  a  vast  mass  of  practical  and  unpractical,  scientific 
and  medical,  historical  and  touring  treatises  and  records  have 
appeared,  but  mostly  of  a  rather  ephemeral  character. 

CYCLOID  (from  Gr.  KVK\OS,  circle,  and  €?8os,  form),  in  geoinetry, 
the  curve  traced  out  by  a  point  carried  on  a  circle  which  rolls 
along  a  straight  line.  The  name  cycloid  is  now  restricted  to  the 
curve  described  when  the  tracing-point  is  on  the  circumference 
of  the  circle;  if  the  point  is  either  within  or  without  the  circle 
the  curves  are  generally  termed  trochoids,  but  they  are  also  known 
as  the  prolate  and  curtate  cycloids  respectively.  The  cycloid  is 
the  simplest  member  of  the  class  of  curves  known  as  roulettes. 

No  mention  of  the  cycloid  has  been  found  in  writings  prior 
to  the  i  sth  century.  Francis  Schooten  {Commentary  on  Descartes) 
assigns  the  invention  of  the  curve  to  Rene  Descartes  and  the  first 
publication  on  this  subject  after  Descartes  to  Marin  Mersenne. 
Evangelista  Torricelli,  in  the  first  regular  dissertation  on  the 
cycloid  (De  dimension*  cydoidis,  an  appendix  to  his  De  dimen- 
sione  parabolae,  1644),  states  that  his  friend  and  tutor  Galileo 
discovered  the  curve  about  1599.  John  Wallis  discussed  both 
the  history  and  properties  of  the  curve  in  a  tract  De  cydoide 
published  at  Oxford  in  1659.  He  there  shows  that  the  cycloid 
was  investigated  by  Carolus  Bovillus  about  1 500,  and  by  Cardinal 
Cusanus  (Nicolaus  de  Cusa)  as  early  as  1451.  Honore  Fabri 
(Synopsis  geometrica,  1669)  treated  of  the  curve  and  enumerated 
many  theorems  concerning  it.  Many  other  mathematicians  have 
written  on  the  cycloid — Blaise  Pascal,  W.  G.  Leibnitz,  the 
Bernoullis,  Roger  Cotes  and  others — and  so  assiduously  was  it 
studied  that  it  was  sometimes  named  the  "  Helen  of  Geometers." 
The  determination  of  the  area  was  the  subject  of  many  investiga- 
tions and  much  controversy.  Galileo  attempted  the  evaluation 
by  weighing  the  curve  against  the  generating  circle;  this  rough 
method  gave  only  an  approximate  value,  viz.,  a  little  less  than 
thrice  the  generating  circle'.  Torricelli,  by  employing  the 
"  method  of  indivisibles,"  deduced  that  the  area  was  exactly 
three  times  that  of  the  generating  circle;  this  result  had  been 
previously  established  in  1640  in  France  by  G.  P.  de  Roberval, 
but  his  investigation  was  unknown  in  Italy.  Blaise  Pascal 
determined  the  area  of  the  section  made  by  any  line  parallel 
to  the  base  and  the  volumes  and  centres  of  gravity  of  the  solids 
generated  by  revolving  the  curve  about  its  axis  and  base.  Before 
publishing  his  results  he  proposed  these  problems  for  public 
competition  in  1658  under  the  assumed  name  of  Amos  Detton- 
ville.  John  Wallis  in  England,  and  A.  la  Louere  in  France, 
accepted  the  challenge,  but  the  former  could  only  submit  in- 
correct solutions,  while  the  latter  failed  completely.  Having 
established  his  priority,  Pascal  published  his  investigations, 
which  occasioned  a  great  sensation  among  his  contemporaries, 
and  Wallis  was  enabled  to  correct  his  methods.  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  the  famous  architect,  determined  the  length  of  the  arc  and 


686 


CYCLOMETER— CYCLOSTOMATA 


its  centre  of  gravity,  and  Pierre  Fennat  deduced  the  surface  o 
the  spindle  generated  by  its  revolution.  A  famous  period  in  the 
history  of  the  cycloid  is  marked  by  a  bitter  controversy  which 
sprang  up  between  Descartes  and  Roberval.  The  evaluation 
of  the  area  of  the  curve  had  made  Roberval  famous  in  France 
but  Descartes  considered  that  the  value  of  his  investigation  bac 
been  grossly  exaggerated;  he  declared  the  problem  to  be  o 
an  elementary  nature  and  submitted  a  short  and  simple  solu 
tion.  At  the  same  time  he  challenged  Roberval  and  Fermat 
to  construct  the  tangent;  Roberval  failed  but  Fermat  suc- 
ceeded. This  problem  was  solved  independently  by  Vicenzo 
Viviani  in  Italy.  The  cartesian  equation  was  first  given  by 
Wilhelm  Gottfried  Leibnitz  (Ada  erudilorum,  1686)  in  the  form 
y=(2x—xt)\+j(2X—x*)\dx.  Among  other  early  writers  on  the 
cycloid  were  Phillippe  de  Lahire  (1640-1718)  and  Francois  Nicole 
(1683-1758). 

The  mechanical  properties  of  the  cycloid  were  investigatec 
by  Christiaan  Huygens,  who  proved  the  curve  to  be  tauto- 
chronous.  His  enquiries  into  evolutes  enabled  him  to  prove  thai 
the  evolute  of  a  cycloid  was  an  equal  cycloid,  and  by  utilizing 
this  property  he  constructed  the  isochronal  pendulum  generally 
known  as  the  cydoidal  pendulum.  In  1697  John  Bernoulli 
proposed  the  famous  problem  of  the  brachistochrone  (see 
MECHANICS),  and  it  was  proved  by  Leibnitz,  Newton  and  several 
others  that  the  cycloid  was  the  required  curve. 

The  method  by  which  the  cycloid  is  generated  shows  that  it 
consists  of  an  infinite  number  of  cusps  placed  along  the  fixed  line 
and  separated  by  a  constant  distance  equal  to  the  circumference 
of  the  rolling  circle.  The  name  cycloid  is  usually  restricted  to  the 
portion  between  two  consecutive  cusps  (fig.  i,  curve  a);  the  fixed 

line  LM  is  termed  the  base,  and  the 
line  PQ  which  divides  the  curve 
symmetrically  is  the  axis.  The 
co-ordinates  of  any  point  R  on  the 
cycloid  are  expressible  in  the  form 
x  =  a(9-t-sin  0);  y=a  (i— cos  0), 
M  where  the  co-ordinate  axes  are  the 
tangent  at  the  vertex  O  and  the 
axis  of  the  curve,  a  is  the  radius  of 
the  generating  circle,  and  0  the 
angle  R'CO,  where  RR'  is  parallel  to  LM  and  C  is  the  centre  of  the 
circle  in  its  symmetric  position.  Eliminating  0  between  these  two 
relations  the  equation  is  obtained  in  the  form  x  =  (2ay— y*)\+a 
vers-1  yja.  The  clumsiness  of  the  relation  renders  it  practically 
useless,  and  the  two  separate  relations  in  terms  of  a  single  parameter 
0  suffice  for  the  deduction  of  most  of  the  properties  of  the  curve. 
The  length  of  any  arc  may  be  determined  by  geometrical  considera- 
tions or  by  the  methods  of  the  integral  calculus.  When  measured 
from  the  vertex  the  results  may  be  expressed 
in  the  forms  1  =  40  sin  j0  and  i  =  V(8ay);  the 
total  length  of  the  curve  is  8a.  The  intrinsic 
equation  is  .5  =  40  sin  <l>,  and  the  equation  to  the 
evolute  is  j==4o  cos  <(/,  which  proves  the  evolute 
to  be  a  similar  cycloid  placed  as  in  fig.  2,  in 
which  the  curve  QOP  is  the  evolute  and  QPR 
the  original  cycloid.  The  radius  of  curvature 
at  any  point  is  readily  deduced  from  the 
intrinsic  equation  and  has  the  value  p  =  4  cos  £0,  and  is  equal  to 
twice  the  normal  which  is  2a  cos  J0. 

The  trochoids  were  studied  by  Torricelli  and  F.  van  Schooten, 
and  more  completely  by  John  Wallis,  who  showed  that  they  possessed 
properties  similar  to  those  of  the  common  cycloid.  The  cartesian 
equation  in  terms  similar  to  those  used  above  is  x  =  a8+b  sin  0; 
y  =  a  —  b  cos  0,  where  a  is  the  radius  of  the  generating  circle  and  b 
the  distance  of  the  carried  point  from  the  centre  of  the  circle.  If 
the  point  is  without  the  circle,  i.e.  if  a  <  b, 
then  the  curve  exhibits  a  succession  of 
nodes  or  loops  (fig.  i,  curve  b);  if  within 
the  circle,  i.e.  if  a>6,  the  curve  has  the 
form  shown  in  fig.  i,  curve  c. 

The  companion  to  the  cycloid  is  a  curve  so 
named  on  account  of  its  similarity  of  con- 
struction, form  and  equation  to  the  common 
cycloid.  It  is  generated  as  follows:  Let  ABC  be  a  circle  having  AB 
for  a  diameter.  Draw  any  line  DE  perpendicular  to  AB  and  meeting 
the  circle  in  E,  and  take  a  point  P  on  DE  such  that  the  line  DP  =  arc 
;  then  the  locus  of  P  is  the  companion  to  the  cycloid.  The  curve 
is  shown  in  fig.  3.  The  cartesian  equation,  referred  to  the  fixed 
diameter  and  the  tangent  at  B  as  axes  may  be  expressed  in  the 
forms  *  =  o0,  y  =  a(i-cos  0)  and  y-a=a  sin  (x/o-Jr);  the  latter 
form  shows  that  the  locus  is  the  harmonic  curve. 

For  epi-  and   hypo-cycloids  and  epi-  and   hypo-trochoids  see 
EPICYCLOID. 


FIG.  i. 


REFERENCES. — Geometrical  constructions  relating  to  the  curvet* 
above  described  are  to  be  found  in  T.  H.  Eagles,  Constructive  Geometry 
of  Plane  Curves.  For  the  mechanical  ana  analytical  investigation, 
reference  may  be  made  to  articles  MECHANICS  and  INFINITESIMAL 
CALCULUS.  A  historical  bibliography  of  these  curves  is  given  in 
Brocard,  Notes  de  bibliographie  des  courbes  geomttriques  (1897).  See 
also  Moritz  Cantor,  Ceschichte  der  Mathematik  (1894-1901). 

CYCLOMETER  (Gr.  (cuxXos  ,  circle,  and  fierpov,  measure),  an 
instrument  used  especially  by  cyclists  to  determine  the  distance 
they  have  traversed.  In  a  common  form  a  stud  attached  to  one 
spoke  of  the  wheel  engages  with  a  toothed  pinion  and  moves  it  on 
one  tooth  at  each  revolution.  The  pinion  is  connected  with  a 
train  of  clockwork,  the  gearing  of  which  bears  such  a  ratio  to 
the  circumference  of  the  wheel  that  the  distance  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  times  it  has  revolved  is  shown  on  a  dial  in  miles 
or  other  units. 

CYCLONE  (Gr.  KVK\UV,  whirling,  from  icwcXos,  a  circle),  an 
atmospheric  system  where  the  pressure  is  lowest  at  the  centre. 
The  winds  in  consequence  tend  to  blow  towards  the  centre,  but 
being  diverted  according  to  Ferrel's  law  they  rotate  spirally 
inwards  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
the  movement  of  the  hands  of  a  watch  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  the  reverse  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  whole  system 
has  a  motion  of  translation,  being  usually  carried  forward  with 
the  great  wind-drifts  like  eddies  upon  a  swift  stream.  Thus  their 
direction  of  movement  over  the  British  Islands  is  usually  from 
S.W.  to  N.E.,  though  they  may  remain  stationary  or  move  in 
other  directions.  The  strength  of  the  winds  depends  upon  the 
atmospheric  gradients.  (See  METEOROLOGY.) 

CYCLOPEAN  MASONRY  (from  the  Cyclopes,  the  supposed 
builders  of  the  walls  of  Mycenae),  a  term  in  architecture,  used, 
in  conjunction  with  Pelasgic,  to  define  the  rude  polygonal 
construction  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Etruscans  in  the 
walls  of  their  cities.  In  the  earliest  examples  they  consist  only 
of  huge  masses  of  rock,  of  irregular  shape,  piled  one  on  the  other 
and  trusting  to  their  great  size  and  weight  for  cohesion;  some- 
times smaller  pieces  of  rock  filled  up  the  interstices.  The  walls 
and  gates  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  were  thus  constructed.  Later, 
these  blocks  were  rudely  shaped  to  fit  one  another.  It  is  not 
always  possible  to  decide  the  period  by  the  type  of  construction, 
as  this  depended  on  the  material;  where  stratified  rocks  could 
be  obtained,  horizontal  coursing  might  be  adopted;  in  fact,  there 
are  instances  in  Greece,  where  a  later  wall  of  cyclopean  construc- 
tion has  been  built  over  one  with  horizontal  courses. 

CYCLOPES  (Ku<c>*>7r«,  the  round-eyed,  plural  of  Cyclops), 
a  type  of  beings  variously  described  in  Greek  mythology.  In 
Homer  they  are  gigantic  cave-dwellers,  cannibals  having  only 
one  eye,  living  a  pastoral  life  in  the  far  west  (Sicily),  ignorant  of 
law  and  order,  fearing  neither  gods  nor  men.  The  most  prominent 
among  them  was  Polyphemus.  In  Hesiod  ( Theogony,  264)  they  are 
the  three  sons  of  Uranus  and  Gaea — Brontes,  Steropes  and  Arges, 
— storm-gods  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Titans,  who  furnished 
Zeus  with  thunder  and  lightning  out  of  gratitude  for  his  having 
released  them  from  Tartarus.  They  were  slain  by  Apollo  for 
having  forged  the  thunderbolt  with  which  Zeus  slew  Asclepius. 
Later  legend  transferred  their  abode  to  Mt  Aetna,  the  Lipari 
islands  or  Lemnos,  where  they  assisted  Hephaestus  at  his  forge. 
A  third  class  of  Cyclopes  are  the  builders  of  the  so-called  "  Cyclo- 
jean  "  walls  of  Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  giants  with  arms  in  their 
jelly,  who  were  said  to  have  been  brought  by  Proetus  from 
Lycia  to  Argos,  his  original  home  (Pausanias  ii.  16.  5;  25.  8). 
Like  the  Curetes  and  Telchines  they  are  mythical  types  of  pre- 
listoric  workmen  and  architects,  and  as  such  the  objects  of 
worship. 

The  standard  work  on  these  and  similar  mythological  characters 
s  M.  Mayer,  Die  Giganten  und  Titanen  (1887);  see  also  A.  Boltz, 
lie  Kyklopen  (1885),  who  endeavours  to  show  that  they  were  an 
listorical  people;  W.  Mannhardt,  Wold-  und  Feldkulte  (1004);  J. 
i.  Harrison,  Myths  of  the  Odyssey  (1882);  and  article  in  Roscher's 
'*exikon  der  Mythclogie  (bibliography). 

CYCLOSTOMATA,  or  MARSFPOBRANCHII,  a  group  of  fishes  in- 
cluding the  ordinary  lampreys  and  hagfish,  and' so  called  from 
he  wide  permanently  gaping  mouth  which   is   without    the 
linged  jaws  characteristic  of  other  vertebrates  (GNATHOSTOMATA). 


CYCLOSTOMATA 


687 


The  dass  Cydostomata  consists  of  two  orders,  the  Myxinoids 
(or  Hyperotreti)  and  the  Petromyzontes  (or  Hyperoartn), 
which,  while  showing  sufficient  resemblance  in  structure  to 
warrant  their  indusion  in  the  same  dass,  are  yet  marked  off  by 
such  deep-seated  differences  as  to  iiyfiratr  that  they  commenced 
to  diverge  from  one  another  far  back  in  evolutionary  time.  The 
order  Myxinoids  mdndes  the  hagfish  (Jijtrn*),  common  off  the 
eastern,  and  occurring  abo,  though  less  commonly,  off  the  western 
coasts  of  the  north  Atlantic,  and  the  genus  BdeOosiema  (abo 
known  as  Homea,  Eptatrttms,  in  put—PaiisMrema),  indnding 
the  "  borers  "  of  the  western  American  coast,  New  Zealand  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  order  Petromyzontes  mdndes 
the  widdy  distributed  lampreys.  The  original  genus  Pttrtmyum 
(which  a  is  now  customary  to  subdivide  into  a  number  of  genera) 
mdndes  the  large  sea  lamprey  (P.  marimtu)  of  the  north  Atlantic 
coasts  and  the  two  fresh-water  lampreys  of  European  sUeams 
(P.JtaiatSis  and  P.  ptameri,  the  latter  of  which  is  possibly  only 
a  small-sized  variety  of  the  former  species).  In  North  America 
nine  or  ten  species  of  lampreys  are  known  to  occur,  descriptions  of 
which  are  given  by  Jordan  and  Evermann  (1).  In  the  southern 
k^lcph*-™  occur  the  two  genera  Mordacia  (Chile,  Tasmania) 
and  Gtttria  (Chfle,  Australia,  New  Zealand)  (*)- 

The  Cydostomes  are  rpmarfraM^  amrwig  vertebrates  in  that 
they  are  senriparasitic  in  habit.  The  lampreys— except  some  of 
the  small  fresh-water  forms — attach  tlmiiwl»c*  to  other  fishes 
by  their  suctorial  month  and  proceed  to  rasp  off  the  flesh  by 
•cans  of  the  horny  teeth  carried  by  the  highly-developed  tongue. 
The  Myxinoids  have  gone  a  step  further  and  actually  bore  then- 
way  right  into  the  body  of  their  prey,  devouring  afl  the  soft 
parts  and  leaving  the  skin  behind  as  a  mere  shefl,  empty  bat  for 
the  bones.  Where  the  hagfish  or  borers  are  abundant,  as  in 

fosi^t  of  v  a  iff  in  nia,  t-hey  may  oo  creax  nafnaff  to  osocnes  JPPPP 


fj  M<     ill  ••  •  g-t  ___        •       •          —  j_ 

OK  •!  i  aiKmsr  nsues  inucn  are  IB 

by  a  hook  or  in  a  net;  the  fish.  when  diawn  up 
"***¥g  fiftpiffitry  completely  deprived  of  their  ^^y*1 

The  Myxinoids  retain  the  ancestral  marine  habitat,  bat  the 
lampreys  have  stmglil  refuge  from  the  struggle  for  existence 
by  taking  to  fresh  water  to  a  less  or  greater  extent.  Such 
a  form  as  Pctromjzo*  marinta  or  Extmpkc***  tridcmtatms  of 
the  west  coast  of  America  is  what  is  known  as  anadromous  in 
habit,  if.  it  takes  refuge  in  fresh  water  daring  the  bleeding 
coding  riven  tike  the  salmon  for  the  purpose  of 
Certain  species  of  lampreys,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
completely  deserted  the  sea  and  spend  their  whole  fives  in  fresh- 
water  streams  or  lakes.  The  lake  lampreys  show  a 
of  their  ancestral  migratory  habits  in  leaving  lakes  and 
streams  in  order  to  deposit  then*  spawn. 

Anatomy.—  la.  structural  features,  the  Cydostomes  show 
cvrioos  nsixtnre  of  features  which  arast  be  looked  on  as  primiti 

_  *l  1       ni  1.  ...     wlM^l*    <•   «   *-   **  -     -**  -  f  •  •     «      ^      __  --IT         •  *  ___     e  -  -     -*-  -- 

wan  oinrrs  wmcn  are  mnicjint  ot  mgn  speaanzanon  tor  tneir 
pecufiar  mode  of  fife.  In  general  appearance  they  are  "  ed-fike  ": 
they  are  elongated  in  shape  and  adapted  for  swimming  in  eel 
if.  the  body  is  propefled  forward  by  the  backward 
:  along  it  of  waves  of  lateral  flexure. 


at  once  serve  to 


a  Cydostome  from  any  other  fishes  of  eel-tike 
(i)  the  circular  jtnmuumtty  apt*  mouth,  (2)  the  absence  of 
all  trace  of  paired  b'mbs,  (3)  the  absence  of  paired  external 

,  and  (4)  the  presence  on  the  roof  or  at  the  tip  of  the  head 


TQtoTgcs*.  in  length.    At  the 

wwrrany  is 

™*  *  •  • 


i  or  Dacca!  cavity,  its 

"teeth  "and  its 
On  the  donal  ode  of 


portion  of  the  body,  in  accordance  with  i 
•  *ant«r^  from  side  to  side,  while  its  surface  is  increased  by  the 
development  of  a  median  fin  fold,  divided,  except  in  early  stages 
of  development,  into  three  pi 


known  as  the  first  and 

dorsal  fins  and  the  caudal  finl    The  bst  mentioned  is  of  the] 
The  whole  surface  of  the  body— which 

dorsaDy,  on  a  fight  ground — 
is  covered  with  highly  gbadntar  epidermis.     An  important  feature 
yfc»  complete  absence  of  all  trace  of  the  **^i«'  ifc**i  placnid  ptaty* 

The  Myxinoids  differ  from  the  lampreys  in  regard  to  several  of 
the  above-mentioned  characters.    The  edges  of  the  mouth  carry 

y  opening  is  dose  to  the  anterior 

edge  of  the  month  opening 'instead  of  being  right  up  on  the  dorsal 
side  of  the  bead.    The  eyes  are  invisible,  being  great' 
:  far  below  the  surface,  and  in  Uyxime,  though  not 
the  row  of  gill  openings  is  represented  by  a  sragle  opening  on 
side  nearly  m  the  midventral  fine  and  situated  at  about  the  f 
the  first  quarter  of  the  body  length.    VentnOy  the  * 
each  tide  of  tne  body  a  row  of  remarkable 
can  produce  at  win  enormous  quantities  of 


duced  and 


end  of 


value  as  a  pco- 
tcctJOwi  f  ran  atliicif.  is  cocnpOBtd  of  very  nne  tBfcaoCf  formed  by  the 

(M  thread  crib")  into  an  eJOicinelr  fine,   tighdycofled 

|_^  ^  Kj-rjun-ri,  •u»Msssi»j1   •skjm  jfiai  luiwinul  tr>  Thf  Exterior 

PitfUary  Tnbe.—\  rraaartaHr  peculiarity  of  the  Cydostomes 
Ees  in  the  fact  that  the  pituitary  inyuwth  of  ectoderm  does  not. 
as  in  other  forms,  become  involved  m  the  inpnsliiiiK  of  ectoderm 


FIG.  i.— The  Marine  Lamprey 


the  buocal  cavity.    On  the  omUaiy,  k  ties  < 
of  the  it npndirnn.,  and  in  the  case  of  the  lampreys  a 

_       ths,  so  llksil  the  two  openings  come  to  be  widely  separated^ 
the  ntttitary  opening  being  poshed  back  on  to  the  dorsal  side  of  the 


-.jyyr.'  •_ ..  -         - ^  _r  _ 

the  case  wiu  CZrossopterygians  alone  amongst  Onatnostontata.  In 
Jsf yrnv  a  further  remarkable  pfciifianty  in  rcg«ud  to  the  hypopliynni, 
probably  adaptiwT  in  natTirey  occnrs»  tnasmoch  as  the  pftuitary 

-       ,  ._!.•- 

pnarynz. 

Nervous  Sjsttfi.    The  anterior  end  of  the  i 


as  compared  with  the  spinal  cord 

"•     • 


side 


to  be 


the  other:  the  roof  of  the 
extent  the  |MuwiffveeptfhcBjl  mmlilion     Oneach 
there  is  present  ajCDnqwatrvety  large  olfactory  lob 


eye-ike  apparatus  ($)  connected  with  the  roof  of  the 
rrrfaatnn  There  grow  ont  front  the  roof  of  the  thalanv 
a  posterior  (the  pineal  process),  and  an 

(>/*    The  pineal  process  grows  forwards  so  as  to 
process.     Each  of  these  projection*  from  the 


roof  of  tne 


. ^.        the 

present  with 
veside.    Nervefibres 
the 


dilates  to  form  a  vesicle,  and 

*  -       -    --  r*       -« ••    ,- 

4 murtf  t ISIMS.  tts  oeep  wan 
al  val  bonsr  r^*r  *^t  tm 

in  the  case  of  the  pineal 


As  regards  other  parts  of  the 

-«  •      ••       _  _    -      •_  •       -  f 

tne  cercoemn  •>  m  a  move  rooi 

ithf  tn&srcne  unciceninr  of  the 
-     In  M  rxinotds  the  brau  m 

^.t,-         -  •  -  -* .j «    ^ 

tne  fpinji  coro*  ana  i 


A 

of  the 
m  the  lampreys.    The 
for  two  special  i " 


688 


CYCLOSTOMATA 


that  the  olfactory  organ  becomes  sunk  down  beneath  the  surface 
through  becoming  involved  in  the  ectodermal  ingrowth  which  forms 
the  pituitary  tube.  As  a  further  consequence  in  the  case  of  the 
lampreys  the  olfactory  organ  becomes  transported  to  the  roof  of 
the  head  along  with  the  pituitary  opening,  which  latter  functions  as 
an  external  nostril.  That  the  unpaired  olfactory  organ  of  existing 
Cyclostomes  has  passed  through,  in  their  ancestors,  a  paired  con- 
dition such  as  exists  in  other  vertebrates,  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  it  retains  a  pair  of  olfactory  nerves. 

The  eyes  in  adult  lampreys  are  of  moderate  size,  while  in  the 
Myxinoids  they  are  greatly  reduced — sunk  beneath  the  skin  (Bdello- 
stoma)  or  even  in  amongst  the  muscles  of  the  head  (Myxine).  The 
lens  is  completely  absent,  also  the  ocular  muscles.  The  otocyst  or 
auditory  organ  is  unique  amongst  craniate  vertebrates  in  regard  to 
the  semicircular  canals.  In  the  lampreys  there  are  only  two  instead 
of  the  normal  three,  while  the  Myxinoids  have  only  one. 

Alimentary  Canal. — The  widely  gaping  buccal  funnel  is  morpho- 
logically an  inpushing  of  the  outer  skin,  i.e.  it  is  stomodaeal  in  nature. 
The  thorn-like  teeth  which  stud  its  lining  are  formed  simply  by 
cornification  of  the  epidermal  cells  (4)  like  the  provisional  horny 
teeth  of  a  tadpole,  and  are  not  homologous  with  the  true  teeth  of 
ordinary  vertebrates.  As  to  whether  they  represent  the  remnant 
of  a  once  present  system  of  epidermal  scales,  which  may  have 
preceded  the  coating  of  placoid  elements  in  the  evolution  of  the 
vertebrate,  there  is  no  evidence. 

The  pharyngeal  region,  closely  associated  with  the  respiratory 
function,  possesses,  on  each  side,  a  series  of  gill-sacs  (six  in  Myxine : 
seven  in  Petromyzon,  besides  an  anterior  one  which  is  laid  down  in 
the  embryo  but  disappears  later:  up  to  as  many  as  fourteen  in 
Bdellostoma)  opening  on  the  one  hand  to  the  pharynx  and  on  the 
other  to  the  exterior.  In  Bdellostoma  and  in  the  larva  of  Petromyzon 


o//.br. 


•p.c.v. 


I.J.I).         •'•"•     Kx. 
Modified  from  T.  J.  Parker,  Zootomy,  fig.  4,  by  permission  of  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd. 

FIG.  2. — Median  longitudinal  section  through  anterior  end  of 

Petromyzon. 

a.v.o,   Atrio-ventricular  opening,     oes,      Oesophagus. 
br,        Brain.  olf,      Olfactory  organ. 

br.o.     Internal  opening  of  gill  sac.   pc,       Pericardium. 
d.a,      Dorsal  aorta.  p-c.v,  Leftposteriorcardinalvein. 

d.c,       Ductus  cuvieri.  pit,      Pituitary  tube. 

h.v,      Hepatic  vein.  V,        Ventricle. 

i.j.v,     Inferior  jugular  vein.  v.         Velum. 

N,        Notochord. 

the  gill-sacs  open  directly  from  the  pharynx  to  the  exterior,  but  in 
the  adult  lamprey  and  in  Myxine  the  original  relations  are  modified. 
In  Myxine,  the  external  openings  of  the  gill-sacs  have  migrated 
backwards  along  the  side  of  the  body  and  become  coincident  at  a 
point  slightly  posterior  to  the  last  sac.  It  follows  from  this  that  each 
sac  is  connected  with  the  common  aperture  by  a  tube,  longest  in  the 
case  of  the  first  sac,  shortest  in  the  case  of  the  last.  In  the  adult 
lamprey  a  different  modification  is  found.  Here  the  dorsal  portion 
of  the  pharynx  has  become  nipped  off  as  a  narrow  tube  which 
functions  as  an  oesophagus  from  the  larger  ventral  portion,  which 
forms  an  elongated  saccular  structure  ending  blindly  at  its  hinder 
end  and  having  in  its  lateral  wall  the  internal  openings  of  the  gill- 
sacs. 

Breathing. — The  inspiratory  current  passes  inwards  by  the  mouth 
opening  in  the  larval  lamprey,  by  the  pituitary  tube  in  Myxine, 
while  in  the  adult  lamprey  both  expiration  and  inspiration  takes 
place  through  the  external  gill-openings.  In  the  case  of  the  lampreys 
the  elastic  skeleton  of  the  branchial  region  (see  below)  plays  an 
important  part  in  respiration.  The  branchial  region  shows  rhythmic 
contraction  through  the  agency  of  the  transverse  muscles — and 
expansion,  through  the  elasticity  of  the  branchial  skeleton — in  the 
adult  lamprey.  These  rhythmic  movements  of  the  branchial  region 
cause  successive  inflow  and  outflow  through  the  branchial  openings. 
In  the  larva,  on  the  other  hand,  the  respiratory  current  always  passes 
in  one  direction — backwards.  This  is  helped  by  the  presence  of  a 
velar  fold  at  the  front  end  of  the  pharynx,  which  acts  as  a  valve 
opening  only  backwards,  and  to  the  presence  of  membranous  flaps 
projecting  back  from  the  anterior  border  of  each  gill-opening  and 
acting  as  valves  which  open  only  outwards. 

Behind  the  pharynx  comes  the  truly  digestive  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  in  the  form  of  a  straight  tube  showing  little  differentia- 
tion into  special  regions.  The  lining  of  the  intestine  is  increased  in 
area  by  an  inwardly  projecting  fold,  which  is  compared  by  some 
morphologists  with  the  spiral  valve  of  certain  other  groups.  In  the 


mature  river  lamprey  the  digestive  tract  becomes  in  great  part 
degenerate. 

Coelomic  Organs. — The  chief  point  of  interest  about  the  splanchno- 
coele  or  perivisceral  cavity  is  that  in  the  Myxinoids  the  adult  shows 
a  persistent  embryonic  condition  in  that  the  pericardiac  portion 
never  becomes  isolated  from  the  mlain  body  cavity. 

The  renal  organs  are  of  special  interest  in  the  Myxinoids  from 
their  very  simple  character.  The  kidney  duct  is  seen  running  along 
the  roof  of  the  coelom  on  either  side.  Into  the  duct  open  short 
segmentally  arranged  tubes,  each  possessing  at  its  closed  rounded 
extremity  a  Malpighian  body.  Each  of  these  short  tubes  is  morpho- 
logically a  nephric  tubule,  which,  however,  in  correlation  with  its 
shortness,  is  without  the  turns  and  twists  so  characteristic  of  such 
tubules  generally.  A  further  consequence  of  the  short  simple 
character  of  the  tubules  is  that  they  are  quite  separate  from  one 
another,  instead  of  being  massed  together  to  form  a  compact  gland 
such  as  the  kidney  is  elsewhere.  In  Petromyzon  the  kidney  has  the 
ordinary  compact  form,  and  here  also  the  Malpighian  bodies  are 
shut  off  from  the  splanchnocoele. 

The  ovary  or  testis  is  a  large  unpaired  structure  hanging  from  the 
dorsal  wall  of  the  splanchnocoele  and  shedding  its  products  into  it ; 
from  the  coelomic  space  the  genital  products  pass  into  the  urogenital 
sinus — formed  by  the  fusion  of  the  kidney  ducts  at  their  hinder  ends 
— through  a  small  opening,  one  at  each  side.  This  opening,  which 
leads  directly  from  coelom  into  urogenital  sinus,  is  known  as  the 
genital  pore.  Its  morphological  significance  is  doubtful. 

Skeleton. — The  vertebral  column  of  the  lamprey  is  represented  by 
a  persistent  notochord  surrounded  by  a  thick  sheath,  which  shows 
no  signs  of  invasion  by  cartilage  cells  or  of  segmentation.  Resting 
on  the  sheath  are  paired  dorsal  arch  elements,  more  numerous  than 
the  neuromuscular  segments.  In  the  tail  region  these  are  united 
into  a  continuous  band  of  cartilage  on  each  side:  similar  cartilaginous 
bands  represent  the  ventral  arch  elements  of  the  tail  region.  The 
skeleton  of  the  head  region  consists  of  a  cartilaginous  cranium,  into 
the  formation  of  which  enter  typical  parachordal  and  trabecular 
elements,  together  with  olfactory  and  auditory  capsules.  In  addition 
to  these,  there  are  a  number  of  other  cartilaginous  pieces  present  in 
the  head  region,  the  homologies  of  which  are  doubtful. 

Branchial  Basket. — One  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  lamprey  is  the  remarkable  cartilaginous  "  branchial 
basket,"  which  supports  the  gill  region.  In  an  adult  river  lamprey 
the  basketwork  consists  on  each  side  of  a  series  of  eight  vertical  half- 
hoops  of  cartilage.  The  hoops  of  each  side  are  connected  together 
dorsally  by  a  pair  of  longitudinal  bars,  lying  ventral  to  the  noto- 
chord, and  ventrally  by  a  similar  pair  of  rods  which  are  fused  in  the 
middle  line.  Slender  cartilaginous  projections  arise  from  the  anterior 
and  posterior  sides  of  the  hoops,  and  certain  of  these  meeting  at  their 
ends  form  additional  longitudinal  bars  connecting  together  successive 
hoops.  Connected  with  the  basketwork  posteriorly  is  a  remarkable 
cup-shaped  cartilage,  which  supports  the  hind  wall  of  the  peri- 
cardium. The  series  of  cartilaginous  half-hoops  naturally  suggest 
the  half-hoops  of  cartilage  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the  visceral 
arches  in  the  Gnathostomata.  They  are,  however,  more  superficial 
in  position,  and  this  has  led  many  to  doubt  their  actual  homology 
with  the  cartilaginous  visceral  arches.  Taking  into  account,  how- 
ever, our  present  knowledge  of  the  development  of  the  two  sets  of 
structures,  it  seems  on  the  whole  probable  that  a  true  homology 
exists  and  that  the  branchial  basket  of  the  lamprey  represents 
merely  a  set  of  visceral  arches  modified  in  accordance  with  the 
peculiar  breathing  methods  of  the  creature.  In  the  Myxinoids  the 
branchial  basket  is  reduced  to  a  few  vestigial  masses  of  cartilage. 

Vascular  System. — The  heart  (5)  of  the  lamprey  consists  of  an 
atrium  and  a  single  ventricle,  the  atrium  on  the  left,  the  ventricle 
on  the  right.  Into  the  atrium,  on  its  right  side,  and  behind  the 
atrio-ventricular  opening,  there  opens  a  nearly  vertical  chamber 
usually  termed  the  sinus  venosus  (see  below),  the  opening  guarded 
by  a  pair  of  vertically  placed  valves.  The  ventricle  passes  anteriorly 
into  what  is  clearly  the  homologue  of  the  conus  arteriosus  of  other 
forms.  In  its  interior  are  present  a  pair  of  laterally  placed  longi- 
tudinal ridges  similar  to  the  ridges  which  occur  in  other  forms  in 
the  conus.  The  opening  from  ventricle  into  conus  is  guarded  by  a 
pair  of  laterally  placed  pocket  valves  situated  just  within  the 
boundary  of  the  ventricle. 

The  arterial  system  is  of  the  ordinary  piscine  type.  From  the 
heart  there  passes  forwards  a  ventral  aorta,  split  into  two  separate 
vessels  in  its  anterior  half,  and  giving  off  on  each  side  a  series  of 
efferent  vessels  to  the  gill-sacs,  one  passing  between  each  two  gill-sacs 
and  an  additional  one  to  the  front  wall  of  the  front  sac  and  to  the 
posterior  wall  of  the  last.  The  blood  is  collected  from  the  walls  of 
the  gill-sacs  by  a  series  of  efferent  vessels  which  open  into  the  dorsal 
aorta.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  dorsal  aorta  retains  the  probably 
primitive  unpaired  condition,  except  for  a  very  short  extent  at  its 
anterior  end,  where  it  is  split  so  as  to  form  two  short  aortic  roots. 

Venous  System. — The  main  venous  channels  are  like  those  in  other 
fishes,  though  their  connexion  with  the  heart  becomes  modified  in 
the  adult.  The  two  posterior  cardinals — with  their  continuations 
forwards,  the  anterior  cardinals — approach  the  median  plane  and 
undergo  fusion  in  the  region  of  their  opening  into  the  two  ductus 
Cuvieri.  The  left  ductus  Cuvieri  then  atrophies  so  that  all  the  blood 
from  the  cardinals  reaches  the  heart  by  way  of  the  originally  right 


CYCLOSTYLE— CYLINDER 


689 


ductusCuvieri.  It  is  this  right  ductus  Cuvieri  which  forms  the  dorsal 
part  of  what  is  usually  termed  the  sinus  venosus.  The  inferior 
jugular  veins  which  return  the  blood  from  the  ventral  side  of  the 
head  also  become  replaced  in  the  adult  by  a  median  unpaired  vein 
which  opens  posteriorly  into  the  sinus  venosus  by  what  probably 
represents  the  hinder  end  of  the  original  right  inferior  jugular.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  in  Polypterus,  one  of  the  Crossopterygian 
ganoids,  there  is  a  somewhat  similar  asymmetrical  condition  of 
inferior  jugulars  and  ductus  Cuvieri. 

Oviposition  of  Lamprey  (6). — The  lamprey  chooses  as  spawning 
ground  a  part  of  the  stream  with  fairly  rapid  current  and  where  the 
bottom  is  composed  of  sand  with  scattered  stones.  By  means  of  the 
suctorial  mouth,  stones  are  removed  from  more  or  less  circular  area 
so  as  to  form  a  shallow  excavation.  The  male  and  female  frequently 
work  together  at  the  task  of  preparing  the  nest.  When  oviposition 
is  about  to  take  place,  the  male  may  be  seen  to  suddenly  attach 
himself  to  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  head  of  the  female  which  holds 
on  to  one  of  the  stones  at  the  upper  margin  of  the  nest.  The  uro- 
genital  opening  of  the  male,  with  its  specially  prominent  papilla,  is 
approximated  to  that  of  the  female,  and  with  a  peculiar  quivering 
movement  the  eggs  and  sperms  are  emitted  synchronously  amidst 
clouds  of  sand  stirred  up  by  the  movements  of  the  tail.  The  eggs 
fertilized  thus  at  the  moment  of  exit  are  very  sticky  from  their 
coating  of  albumen,  and  become  weighted  down  by  adherent  grains 
of  sand. 

Development. — The  development  of  the  lamprey  is  of  much 
morphological  importance  from  the  archaic  nature  of  the  creature 
and  from  the  fact  that  the  egg  is  comparatively  small  (about  I  mm. 
in  diameter),  so  that  development  is  not  greatly  modified  by  a  large 
mass  of  yolk.  It  has  been  worked  out  so  far  only  in  the  river  lamprey 
(7).  Segmentation  is  complete  and  unequal.  It,  as  well  as  the 
process  of  gastrulation,  agrees  in  its  main  features  with  the  same 
phenomenon  in  Amia,  Dipnoans  and  Urodele  amphibians.  The 
blastopore  persists  as  the  anal  opening  of  the  adult.  The  mesoderm 
arises  in  a  manner  closely  comparable  with  that  which  occurs  in 
Amphioxus,  the  chief  difference  being  that  the  mesoderm  segments 
are  solid  instead  of  hollow,  except  in  the  anterior  head  region, 
where  they  are  true  hollow  enterocoelic  pouches.  The  rudiment  of 
the  central  nervous  system  has  the  form  of  a  solid  keel-like  ingrowth 
of  ectoderm  along  the  mid-dorsal  line,  which  only  secondarily  becomes 
hollowed  out — just  as  happens  in  Teleostean  fishes.  The  young 
lamprey,  after  completing  its  embryonic  development,  passes  three 
or  four  years,  in  fact  its  whole  life  up  to  the  time  of  sexual  maturity, 
in  a  prolonged  larval  condition  in  which  its  structure  shows  important 
differences  from  that  of  the  adult.  This  larval  stage  of  the  fresh- 
water lamprey  of  Europe  was  long  supposed  to  be  a  separate  genus 
of  Cyclostomes  and  was  called  Ammocoetes.  The  Ammocoetes  lives 
in  the  mud  and  breathes  and  feeds  by  means  of  a  current  of  water 
produced  by  ciliary  action,  which  carries  Flagellates  and  other 
microscopic  organisms  in  through  the  mouth  opening.  Correlated 
with  this  mode  of  feeding  the  buccal  cavity  is  without  the  teeth 
so  characteristic  of  the  adult.  A  number  of  complicated  branched 
sensory  processes  grow  into  and  nearly  occlude  the  cavity,  forming 
a  kind  of  sieve  with  only  narrow  chinks  through  which  the  ingoing 
current  passes.  The  water  passes  out  by  the  gill  openings,  which 
in  Ammocoetes  open  direct  from  pharynx  to  exterior.  Certain 
arrangements  of  the  pharyngeal  wall  of  Ammocoetes  show  a  remark- 
able resemblance  to  what  is  found  in  Amphioxus.  The  thyroid, 
which  in  the  adult  is  a  complicated  ductless  gland,  has  in  the  young 
Ammocoetes  the  form  of  a  longitudinal  groove  of  the  ventral  wall  of 
the  pharynx.  This  groove  is  lined  by  columnar  cells,  some  carrying 
cilia,  others  being  glandular  and  secreting  sticky  slime.  These  gjand 
cells  are  arranged  in  four  longitudinal  bands.  The  thyroid  is,  in 
fact,  in  this  stage  in  a  condition  corresponding  exactly  with  the 
endostyle  of  Amphioxus.  The  agreement  extends  to  function  the 
secretion,  forming  sticky  threads  which  entangle  food  particles. 
Anteriorly  a  pair  of  peripharyngeal  bands  pass  dorsalwards,  one  on 
each  side,  to  bend  back  suprapharyngeal  banus  which  are  continued 
to  the  hinder  end  of  the  pharynx.  Here  again  the  resemblance  to 
what  occurs  in  Amphioxus  is  very  close. 

The  Ammocoetes  possesses  a  functional  liver  with  bileduct,  while 
in  the  adult  river  lamprey  the  alimentary  canal  is  degenerate. 
It  has  no  arch  elements  on  its  notochord.  Its  eyes  are  sunk  beneath 
the  surface  and  nonfunctional,  and  they  retain  to  a  great  extent  an 
embryonic  character  (8) .  There  is  a  rapid  process  of  metamorphosis 
from  the  larval  to  the  adult  condition,  the  details  of  which  are  by 
no  means  sufficiently  known.  After  the  metamorphosis  the  now 
mature  lamprey  accomplishes  the  act  of  reproduction  and  then 
apparently  dies  almost  immediately.  The  development  of  the 
Myxinoids  is  much  less  well  known  than  that  of  the  lampreys.  As 
regards  the  common  hagfish  (Myxine  glutinosa),  we  are  indeed  still 
in  complete  ignorance  in  regard  to  its  developmental  history  in 
spite  of  persistent  efforts  to  obtain  embryological  material.  It  seems 
probable  that  during  the  breeding  period  the  hagfishes  retire  into 
some  particularly  inaccessible  habitat.  Within  the  last  few  years, 
however,  abundant  material  illustrating  the  developmental  history 
of  Bdellostoma  (9)  has  been  obtained  off  the  Californian  coast,  and 
this  when  fully  worked  out  will  give  us  a  good  idea  of  the  general 
lines  of  Myxinoid  development.  The  egg  differs  greatly  from  that 
of  the  lamoreys.  It  is — as  is  that  of  Myxine — of  large  size,  richly 


yolked  and  of  a  shortened-up  sausage  shape.  It  measures  about 
22  mm.  by  8  mm.  Surrounding  the  egg  is  a  protective  capsule  of  a 
yellow  horny  appearance.  At  one  end  a  cap-like  portion  of  this 
forms  a  detachable  operculum,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  minute 
opening,  the  micropyle.  Each  end  of  the  capsule  is  prolonged  into 
a  group  of  stiff  processes  with  anchor-like  expansions  at  their  tips. 
Segmentation  is,  as  in  other  richly  yolked  eggs,  incomplete,  confined 
to  the  germinal  disk  at  the  opercular  pole.  The  central  nervous 
system  in  Bdellostoma  develops  by  the  overarching  of  medullary 
folds,  not  out  of  a  solid  keel  as  is  the  case  with  the  lampreys. 

History  in  Time. — The  softness  of  the  skeletal  tissues  and  the 
absence  of  scales  in  Cyclostomata  provide  little  opportunity  for  the 
preservation  of  fossil  remains  of  this  group,  and  no  known  fossils 
can  be  referred  with  certainty  to  the  Cyclostomata.  The  Devonian 
Palaeospondylus  gunni  has  been  regarded  as  a  Cyclostome  by  some 
authors,  but  this  relationship  is  at  the  least  doubtful.  Other  authors 
have  associated  the  Ostracoderms,  the  oldest  known  vertebrates, 
with  this  group. 

REFERENCES. — 1.  D.  S.  Jordan  and  B.  W.  Evermann,  Fishes  of 
North  and  Middle  America  (Washington,  1896),  part  i.  p.  8:  2. 
L.  Plate,  SB.  Ges.  Naturf.  (Berlin,  Jg.  1897),  p.  137;  3.  F.  Studnicka 
in  Oppel's  Lehrbuch  der  vergleichenden  mikroskopischen  Anatomic  der 
Wirbeltiere  (Jena,  1905),  Teil  v.  s.  i. ;  4.  E.  Warren,  Q.  J.  Micr.  Set. 
xlv.  (1902)  p.  631 ;  5.  L.  Vialleton,  Arch,  d'anat.  micr.  T.  vi.  (1903) 
p.  283;  6.  H.  A.  Surface  in  D.  S.  Jordan's  Fishes  (1905),  vol.  i. 
p.  494;  7.  A.  E.  Shipley,  Q.  J.  Micr.  Sci.  xxvii.  (1887),  W.  B. 
Scott,  Journ.  Morphol.  i.  (1887),  C.  Kupffer,  Arch.  mikr.  Anal. 
xxxv.  (1890),  A.  Goette,  Entwick.  des  Flussneunauges  (Ham- 
burg and  Leipzig,  1890);  8.  C.  Kohl,  in  Bibliotheca  zoologica, 
Heft  13  (Cassel,  1892) ;  9.  Bashford  Dean  in  Kupffer's  Festschrift 
(Jena,  1899).  (].  G.  K.) 

CYCLOSTYLE  (Gr.  /cuxXos,  a  circle,  and  orDXos,  a  column), 
a  term  used  in  architecture.  A  structure  composed  of  a  circular 
range  of  columns  without  a  core  is  cyclostylar;  with  a  core  the 
range  would  be  peristyle.  This  is  the  species  of  edifice  called 
by  Vitruvius  monopteral. 

CYGNUS  ("  The  Swan  "),  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  mentioned  by  Eudoxus  (4th  century  B.C.) 
and  Aratus  (3rd  century  B.C.),  and  fabled  by  the  Greeks  to  be 
the  swan  in  the  form  of  which  Zeus  seduced  Leda.  Ptolemy 
catalogued  19  stars,  Tycho  Brahe  18,  and  Hevelius  47.  In  this 
constellation  /3  Cygni  is  a  fine  coloured  double  star,  consisting 
of  a  yellow  star,  magnitude  3,  and  a  blue  star,  magnitude  5$. 
The  fine  double  star,  /x  Cygni,  separated  by  Sir  William  Herschel 
in  1779,  has  magnitudes  4  and  5;  it  has  a  companion,  of  magni- 
tude i\,  which,  however,  does  not  form  part  of  the  system. 
A  double  star,  61  Cygni,  of  magnitudes  5-3  and  5-9,  was  the  first 
star  whose  distance  was  determined;  its  parallax  is  o*-3Q,  and 
it  is  therefore  the  nearest  star  in  the  northern  hemisphere  with 
the  exception  of  a  Centauri.  A  regular  variable,  x  Cygni,  has 
extreme  magnitudes  of  5  to  13-5,  and  its  period  is  406  days. 
Nova  Cygni  is  a  "  new  "  star  discovered  by  Johann  Schmidt 
in  1876.  There  is  also  an  extended  nebula  in  the  constellation. 

CYLINDER  (Gr.  Kv\u>8pos,  from  Kv\it>8fiv,  to  roll).  A 
cylindrical  surface,  or  briefly  a  cylinder,  is  the  surface  traced 
out  by  a  line,  named  the  generatrix,  which  moves  parallel  to 
itself  and  always  passes  through  the  circumference  of  a  curve, 
named  the  directrix;  the  name  cylinder  is  also  given  to  the  solid 
contained  between  such  a  surface  and  two  parallel  planes  which 
intersect  a  generatrix.  A  "  right  cylinder  "  is  the  solid  traced 
out  by  a  rectangle  which  revolves  about  one  of  its  sides,  or  the 
curved  surface  of  this  solid;  the  surface  may  also  be  defined  as 
the  locus  of  a  line  which  passes  through  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  and  is  always  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  circle.  If 
the  moving  line  be  not  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  circle, 
but  moves  parallel  to  itself,  and  always  passes  through  the 
circumference,  it  traces  an  "  oblique  cylinder."  The  "  axis  " 
of  a  circular  cylinder  is  the  line  joining  the  centres  of  two  circular 
sections;  it  is  the  line  through  the  centre  of  the  directrix  parallel 
to  the  generators.  The  characteristic  property  of  all  cylindrical 
surfaces  is  that  the  tangent  planes  are  parallel  to  the  axis.  They 
are  "  developable  "  surfaces,  i.e.  they  can  be  applied  to  a  plane 
surface  without  crinkling  or  tearing  (see  SURFACE). 

Any  section  of  a  cylinder  which  contains  the  axis  is  termed 
a  "  principal  section  ";  in  the  case  of  the  solids  this  section  is 
a  rectangle;  in  the  case  of  the  surfaces,  two  parallel  straight  lines. 
A  section  of  the  right  cylinder  parallel  to  the  base  is  obviously 
a  circle;  any  other  section,  excepting  those  limited  by  two 


CYLLENE— CYNEWULF 


generators,  is  an  ellipse.  This  last  proposition  may  be  stated  in 
the  form: — "  The  orthogonal  projection  of  a  circle  is  an  ellipse  "; 
and  it  permits  the  ready  deduction  of  many  properties  of  the 
ellipse  from  the  circle.  The  section  of  an  oblique  cylinder  by  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  principal  section,  and  inclined  to  the 
axis  at  the  same  angle  as  the  base,  is  named  the  "  subcontrary 
section,"  and  is  always  a  circle;  any  other  section  is  an  ellipse. 

The  mensuration  of  the  cylinder  was  worked  out  by  Archi- 
medes, who  showed  that  the  volume  of  any  cylinder  was  equal 
to  the  product  of  the  area  of  the  base  into  the  height  of  the  solid, 
and  that  the  area  of  the  curved  surface  was  equal  to  that  of  a 
rectangle  having  its  sides  equal  to  the  circumference  of  the  base, 
and  to  the  height  of  the  solid.  If  the  base  be  a  circle  of  radius 
r,  and  the  height  h,  the  volume  is  Trr*h  and  the  area  of  the  curved 
surface  2irrh.  Archimedes  also  deduced  relations  between  the 
sphere  (q.v.)  and  cone  (q.v.)  and  the  circumscribing  cylinder. 

The  name  "  cylindroid  "  has  been  given  to  two  different 
surfaces.  Thus  it  is  a  cylinder  having  equal  and  parallel  elliptical 
bases;  i.e.  the  surface  traced  out  by  an  ellipse  moving  parallel 
to  itself  so  that  every  point  passes  along  a  straight  line,  or  by  a 
line  moving  parallel  to  itself  and  always  passing  through  the 
circumference  of  a  fixed  ellipse.  The  name  was  also  given  by 
Arthur  Cayley  to  the  conoidal  cubic  surface  which  has  for  its 
equation  z(x2+y2)  —  2mxy;  every  point  on  this  surface  lies  on 
the  line  given  by  the  intersection  of  the  planes  y  —  x  tan  6, 
s  =  m  sin  28,  for  by  eliminating  6  we  obtain  the  equation  to  the 
surface. 

CYLLENE  (mod.  Ziria),  a  mountain  in  Greece,  in  the  N.E. 
of  Arcadia  (7789  ft.).  It  was  specially  sacred  to  Hermes,  who 
was  born  in  a  cave  on  the  mountain,  and  had  a  temple  and  an 
ancient  statue  on  its  summit.  The  name  Cyllene  belongs  also 
to  an  ancient  port  town  in  Elis,  and,  owing  to  doubtful  identifica- 
tion with  this,  to  a  modern  port  at  Glarentza,  and  also  to  some 
mineral  baths  a  little  to  the  south  of  it. 

CYMA  (Gr.  Kv^a,  wave),  in  architecture,  a  moulding  of  double 
curvature,  concave  at  one  end,  convex  at  the  other.  When  the 
concave  part  is  uppermost,  it  is  called  a  cyma  recta;  but  if  the 
convex  portion  is  at  the  top,  it  is  called  a  cyma  reversa.  When 
the  crowning  moulding  of  an  entablature  is  of  the  cyma  form, 
it  is  called  a  "  cymatium." 

CYMBALS  (Fr.  cymbales;  Ger.  Becken;  Ital.  piatti  or  cinelli), 
a  modern  instrument  of  percussion  of  indefinite  musical  pitch, 
whereas  the  small  ancient  cup-shaped  cymbals  sounded  a  definite 
note.  Cymbals  consist  of  two  thin  round  plates  of  an  alloy  con- 
taining 8  parts  of  copper  to  two  of  tin,  each  having  a  handle- 
strap  set  in  the  little  knob  surmounting  the  centre  of  the  plate. 
The  sound  is  obtained  not  by  clashing  them  against  each  other, 
but  by  rubbing  their  edges  together  by  a  sliding  movement. 
Sometimes  a  weird  effect  is  obtained  by  suspending  one  of  the 
cymbals  by  the  strap  and  letting  a  drummer  execute  a  roll  upon 
it  as  it  swings;  or  by  holding  a  cymbal  in  the  left  hand  and 
striking  it  with  the  soft  stick  of  the  bass  drum,  which  produces 
a  sound  akin  to  that  of  the  tam-tam.  All  gradations  of  piano 
and  forte  can  be  obtained  on  the  cymbals.  The  composer 
indicates  his  intention  of  letting  the  cymbals  vibrate  by  "  Let 
them  vibrate,"  and  the  contrary  effect  by  "  Damp  the  sound." 
To  stop  the  vibrations  the  performer  presses  the  cymbals  against 
his  chest,  as  soon  as  he  has  played  a  note.  The  duration  of  the 
vibration  is  indicated  by  the  value  of  the  note  placed  upon  the 
staff;  the  name  signifies  nothing,  since  the  pitch  of  the  cymbals 
is  indefinite.  The  instrument  is  played  from  the  same  part  of 
the  score  as  the  bass  drum,  unless  otherwise  indicated  by  senza 
piatti,  or  piatti  soli  if  the  bass  drum  is  to  remain  silent.  Although 
cymbals  are  not  often  required  they  form  part  of  every  orchestra; 
their  chief  use  is  for  marking  the  rhythm  and  for  producing 
weird,  fantastic  effects  or  adding  military  colour,  and  their 
shrill  notes  hold  their  own  against  a  full  orchestra  playing 
fortissimo.  Cymbals  are  specially  suited  for  suggesting  frenzy, 
fury  or  bacchanalian  revels,  as  in  the  Venus  music  in  Wagner's 
Tannhauser  and  Grieg's  Peer  Gynt  suite.  Damping  gives 
a  suggestion  of  impending  evil  or  tragedy.  The  timbre  of  the 
ancient  cymbals  is  entirely  different,  more  like  that  of  small 


hand-bells  or  of  the  notes  of  the  keyed  harmonica.  They  are 
not  struck  full  against  each  other,  but  by  one  of  their  edges, 
and  the  note  given  out  by  them  is  higher  in  proportion  as  they 
are  thicker  and  smaller.  Berlioz  in  Romeo  and  Juliet  scored 
for  two  pairs  of  cymbals,  modelled  on  some  ancient  Pompeian 
instruments  no  larger  than  the  hand  (some  are  no  larger  than 


bi=. 
a  crown  piece),  and  tuned  togc=       E  and 


The  origin  of  the  cymbals  must  be  referred  to  prehistoric  times. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  cymbals  closely  resembled  our  own.  The 
British  Museum  possesses  two  pairs,  5J  in.  in  diameter,  one  of  which 
was  found  in  the  coffin  of  the  mummy  of  Ankhhape,  a  sacred 
musician;  they  are  shown  in  the  same  case  as  the  mummy,  and 
have  been  reproduced  by  Carl  Engel.1  Those  used  by  the  Assyrians 
were  both  plate-  and  cup-shaped.  The  Greek  cymbals  were  cup- 
pr  bell-shaped,  and  are  to  be  seen  in  the  hands  of  fauns  and  satyrs 
innumerable  in  sculptures  and  on  painted  vases.  The  word  cymbal 
is  derived  from  icbiiffit  (Lat.  cymba),  a  hollow  vessel,  and  ictn/)a\a  = 
small  cymbals.  During  the  middle  ages  the  word  cymbal  was 
applied  to  the  Glockenspiel,  or  peal  of  small  bells,  and  later  to  the 
dulcimer,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  clear  bell-like  tone  produced  by 
the  hammers  striking  the  wire  strings.  After  the  introduction  or 
invention  of  the  keyed  dulcimer  or  clavichord,  and  of  the  spinet, 
the  word  clavicymbal  was  used  in  the  Romance  languages  to  denote 
the  varieties  of  spinet  and  harpsichord.  Ancient  cymbals  are  among 
the  instruments  played  by  King  David  and  his  musicians  in  the  9th- 
century  illuminated  MS.  known  as  the  Bible  of  Charles  the  Bald  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.  (K.  S.) 

CYNEGILS  (d.  643),  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  succeeded  his 
uncle  King  Ceolwulf  in  611.  With  his  son  Cwichelm  (d.  636), 
he  defeated  the  advancing  Britons  at  Bampton  in  Oxfordshire 
in  614,  and  Cwichelm  sought  to  arrest  the  growing  power  of 
the  Northumbrian  king  Eadwine  by  procuring  his  assassination; 
the  attempt,  however,  failed,  and  in  626  the  West  Saxons  were 
defeated  in  battle  and  forced  to  own  Eadwine's  supremacy. 
Cynegils'  next  struggle  was  with  Penda  of  Mercia,  and  here 
again  he  was  worsted,  the  battle  being  fought  in  628  at  Ciren- 
cester,  and  was  probably  compelled  to  surrender  part  of  his 
kingdom  to  Mercia.  Cynegils  was  converted  to  Christianity 
through  the  preaching  of  Birinus,  and  was  baptized  in  635  at 
Dorchester  in  Oxfordshire,  where  he  founded  a  bishopric.  He 
was  succeeded  as  king  by  his  son  Cenwalh. 

CYNEWULF  (d.  785),  king  of  Wessex,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  757  on  the  deposition  of  Sigeberht.  He  was  constantly  at 
war  with  the  Welsh.  In  779  Off  a  of  Mercia  defeated  him  and 
took  Bensington.  In  785  he  was  surprised  and  killed,  with  all 
his  thegns  present,  at  Marten,  Wilts  (Merantune),  by  Cyne- 
heard,  brother  of  the  deposed  Sigeberht. 

See  Earle  and  Plummer's  edition  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle, 
755.  779  (Oxford,  1892). 

CYNEWULF,  the  only  Old-English  vernacular  poet,  known 
by  name,  of  whom  any  undisputed  writings  are  extant.  He  is 
the  author  of  four  poems  preserved  in  two  MSS.,  the  Exeter 
Book  and  the  Vercelli  Book,  both  of  the  early  nth  century. 
An  epilogue  to  each  poem  contains  the  runic  characters  answering 
to  the  letters  c,  y,  n  (e),w,  u,  I,  f.  The  runes  are  to  be  read  as  the 
words  that  served  as  their  names;  these  words  enter  into  the 
metre  of  the  verse,  and  (except  in  one  poem)  are  significant  in 
their  context.  The  poems  thus  signed  are  the  following,  (i)  A 
meditation  on  The  Ascension,  which  stands  in  the  Exeter  Book 
between  two  similar  poems  on  the  Incarnation  and  the  Last 
Judgment.  The  three  are  commonly  known  as  Cynewulf's 
Christ,  but  the  runic  signature  attests  only  the  second.  (2)  A 
version  of  the  legend  of  the  martyr  St  Juliana,  also  in  the 
Exeter  Book.  (3)  Elene,  in  the  Vercelli  Book,  on  the  story  of 
the  empress  Helena  and  the  "  Invention  of  the  Cross."  (4)  A 
short  poem  on  The  Fates  of  the  Apostles,  in  the  same  MS.  The 
page  containing  the  signature  to  this  poem  was  first  discovered 
by  Professor  A.  S.Napier  in  1888,  so  that  the  piece  is  not  included 
in  earlier  enumerations  of  the  poet's  signed  works. 

In  Juliana  and  Elene  the  name  is  spelt  Cynewulf;  in  The 
Ascension  the  form  is  Cynwulf.  In  The  Fates  of  the  Apostles 
the  page  is  defaced,  but  the  spelling  Cynwulf  is  almost  certain. 
1  The  Music  of  the  Most  Ancient  Nations,  fig.  75,  p.  227. 


CYNICS 


691 


The  absence  of  the  E  in  The  Ascension  can  hardly  be  due  to  a 
scribal  omission,  for  the  name  of  this  letter  (meaning  "  horse  ") 
would  not  suit  the  context;  this  was  perhaps  the  motive  for 
the  choice  of  the  shorter  form.  The  orthography  (authenticated 
as  the  poet's  own  by  the  nature  of  his  device)  has  chronological 
significance.  If  the  poems  had  been  written  before  740,  the 
spelling  would  almost  certainly  have  been  Cyniwulf.  If  it  were 
safe  to  judge  from  the  scanty  extant  evidence,  we  should  con- 
clude that  the  form  Cynwulf  came  in  about  800;  and  presumably 
the  poet  would  not  vary  his  accustomed  signature  until  the  new 
form  had  become  common.  In  Elene  Cynewulf  speaks  of  himself 
as  an  old  man;  and  the  presence  of  the  runic  signature  in  the 
four  works  suggests  that  they  are  not  far  apart  in  date.  They 
may  therefore  be  referred  provisionally  to  the  beginning  of  the 
9th  century,  any  lower  date  being  for  linguistic  and  metrical 
reasons  improbable. 

The  MSS.  of  the  poems  are  in  the  West-Saxon  dialect,  with 
occasional  peculiarities  that  indicate  transcription  from  North- 
umbrian or  Mercian.  Professor  E.  Sievers's  arguments  for 
a  Northumbrian  original  have  considerable  weight;  for  the 
Mercian  theory  no  linguistic  arguments  have  been  adduced, 
but  it  has  been  advocated  on  grounds  of  historical  probability 
which  seem  to  be  of  little  value. 

Cynewulf's  unquestioned  poems  show  that  he  was  a  scholar, 
familiar  with  Latin  and  with  religious  literature,  and  they 
display  much  metrical  skill  and  felicity  in  the  use  of  traditional 
poetic  language;  but  of  the  higher  qualities  of  poetry  they  give 
little  evidence.  There  are  pleasing  passages  in  Elene,  but  the 
clumsy  and  tasteless  narration  of  the  Latin  original  is  faithfully 
reproduced,  and  the  added  descriptions  of  battles  and  voyages 
are  strings  of  conventional  phrases,  with  no  real  imagination. 
In  The  Ascension  the  genuine  religious  fervour  imparts  a  higher 
tone  to  the  poetry;  the  piece  has  real  but  not  extraordinary 
merit.  Of  the  other  two  poems  no  critic  has  much  to  say  in 
praise.  If  Cynewulf  is  to  be  allowed  high  poetic  rank,  it  must 
be  on  the  ground  of  his  authorship  of  other  works  than  those 
which  he  has  signed.  At  one  time  or  other  nearly  the  whole 
body  of  extant  Old  English  poetry  (including  Beowulf)  has  been 
conjecturally  assigned  to  him.  Some  of  the  attributed  works 
show  many  striking  resemblances  in  style  and  diction  to  his 
authentic  writings.  But  it  is  impossible  to  determine  with 
certainty  how  far  the  similarities  may  be  due  to  imitation  or  to 
the  following  of  a  common  tradition. 

Until  recently,  it  was  commonly  thought  that  Cynewulf's 
authorship  of  the  Riddles  (q.v.)  in  the  Exeter  Book  was  beyond 
dispute.  The  monodramatic  lyric  Wulf  and  Eadwacer,  imagined 
to  be  the  first  of  these  Riddles,  was  in  1857  interpreted  by 
Heinrich  Leo  as  a  charade  on  the  name  Cynewulf.  This  absurd 
fancy  was  for  about  thirty  years  generally  accepted  as  a  fact, 
but  is  now  abandoned.  Some  of  the  Riddles  have  been  shown 
by  Professor  E.  Sievers  to  be  older  than  Cynewulf's  time;  that 
he  may  have  written  some  of  the  rest  remains  a  bare  possibility. 

The  similarity  of  tone  in  the  three  poems  known  as  the  Christ 
affords  some  presumption  of  common  authorship,  which  the 
counter  arguments  that  have  been  urged  seem  insufficient  to 
set  aside.  Both  The  Incarnation  and  The  Last  Judgment  contain 
many  passages  of  remarkable  power  and  beauty.  It  is  unlikely 
that  the  author  regarded  the  three  as  forming  one  work.  The 
Christ  is  followed  in  the  MS.  by  two  poems  on  Saint  Guthlac, 
the  second  of  which  is  generally,  and  with  much  probability, 
assigned  to  Cynewulf.  The  first  Guthlac  poem  is  almost  univer- 
sally believed  to  be  by  another  hand.  Cynewulf's  celebration 
of  a  midland  saint  is  the  strongest  of  the  arguments  that  have 
been  urged  against  his  Northumbrian  origin;  but  this  considera- 
tion is  insufficient  to  outweigh  the  probability  derived  from  the 
linguistic  evidence. 

Cynewulf's  reputation  can  gain  little  by  the  attribution  to 
him  of  Guthlac,  which  is  far  inferior  even  to  Juliana.  Very 
different  would  be  the  effect  of  the  establishment  of  his  much 
disputed  claim  to  Andreas,  a  picturesque  version  of  the  legend 
of  the  Apostle  Andrew.  The  poem  abounds  to  an  astonishing 
extent  in  "  Cynewulfian  "  phrases,  but  it  is  contended  that  these 


are  due  to  imitation.  If  the  author  of  Andreas  imitated  Elene 
and  Juliana,  he  bettered  his  model.  The  question  whether 
Cynewulf  may  not  have  been  the  imitator  has  apparently  never 
been  discussed.  The  poem  (so  far  agreeing  with  The  Fates  of 
the  Apostles)  copies  the  style  of  the  old  heroic  poetry. 

Cynewulf's  authorship  has  been  asserted  by  some  scholars  for 
The  Dream  of  the  Rood,  the  noblest  example  of  Old  English 
religious  poetry.  But  an  extract  from  this  poem  is  carved  on  the 
Ruthwell  Cross;  and,  notwithstanding  the  arguments  of  Prof. 
A.  S.  Cook,  the  language  of  the  inscription  seems  too  early  for 
Cynewulf's  date.  The  similarities  between  the  Dream  and  Elene 
are  therefore  probably  due  to  Cynewulf's  acquaintance  with  the 
older  poem. 

The  only  remaining  attribution  that  deserves  notice  is  that 
of  the  Phoenix.  The  author  of  this  fine  poem  was,  like  Cynewulf, 
a  scholar,  and  uses  many  of  his  turns  of  expression,  but  he  was 
a  man  of  greater  genius  than  is  shown  in  Cynewulf's  signed 
compositions. 

Professor  M.  Trautmann,  following  J.  Grimm  and  F.  Dietrich, 
would  identify  the  poet  with  Cynewulf,  bishop  of  Lindisfarne, 
who  died  in  783.  This  speculation  conflicts  with  the  chronology 
suggested  in  this  article,  and  is  destitute  of  evidence.  Cynewulf 
was  indeed  probably  a  Northumbrian  churchman,  but  it  is 
unlikely  that  there  were  not  many  Northumbrian  churchmen 
bearing  this  common  name;  and  as  the  bishop  is  not  recorded 
to  have  written  anything,  the  identification  is  at  best  an  un- 
supported possibility.  Professor  A.  S.  Cook  has  suggested  that 
our  Cynewulf  may  have  been  the  "  Cynulf,"  priest  of  Dunwich, 
whose  name  is  among  those  appended  to  a  decree  of  the  council 
of  Clofesho  in  803,  and  of  whom  nothing  else  is  known.  This 
conjecture  suits  the  probable  date  of  Cynewulf,  but  otherwise 
there  is  nothing  in  its  favour. 

For  the  older  literature  relating  to  Cynewulf,  see  R.  Wiilker, 
Grundriss  der  angelsachsischen  Litteratur  (1885).  References  to  the 
most  important  later  discussions  will  be  found  in  M.  Trautmann, 
Kynewulf,  der  Bischof  und  Dichter  (1898),  and  the  introductions  and 
notes  to  the  editions  of  Cynewulf  s  Christ,  by  I.  Gollancz  (1892)  and 
A.  S.  Cook  (1900).  For  the  arguments  for  Cynewulf's  authorship  of 
Andreas,  see  F.  Ramhorst,  Andreas  und  Cynewulf  (1885).  (H.  BR.) 

CYNICS,  a  small  but  influential  school  of  ancient  philosophers. 
Their  name  is  variously  derived  from  the  building  in  Athens 
called  Cynosarges,  the  earliest  home  of  the  school,  and  from  the 
Greek  word  for  a  dog  (KVUV),  in  contemptuous  allusion  to  the 
uncouth  and  aggressive  manners  adopted  by  the  members  of 
the  school.  Whichever  of  these  explanations  is  correct,  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  Cynics  agreed  in  taking  a  dog  as  their  common 
badge  or  symbol  (see  DIOGENES).  From  a  popular  conception 
of  the  intellectual  characteristics  of  the  school  comes  the  modern 
sense  of  "  cynic,"  implying  a  sneering  disposition  to  disbelieve 
in  the  goodness  of  human  motives  and  a  contemptuous  feeling 
of  superiority. 

As  regards  the  members  of  the  school,  the  separate  articles 
on  ANTISTHENES,  CRATES,  DIOGENES  and  DEMETRIUS  contain 
all  biographical  information.  We  are  here  concerned  only  to 
examine  the  general  principles  of  the  school  in  its  internal  and 
external  relations  as  forming  a  definite  philosophic  unit.  The 
importance  of  these  principles  lies  not  only  in  their  intrinsic 
value  as  an  ethical  system,  but  also  in  the  fact  that  they  form 
the  link  between  Socrates  and  the  Stoics,  between  the  essentially 
Greek  philosophy  of  the  4th  century  B.C.  and  a  system  of  thought 
which  has  exercised  a  profound  and  far-reaching  influence  on 
medieval  and  modern  ethics.  From  the  time  of  Socrates  in 
unbroken  succession  up  to  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  the  school 
was  represented  by  men  of  strong  individuality.  The  leading 
earlier  Cynics  were  Antisthenes,  Diogenes  of  Sinope,  Crates  of 
Thebes,  and  Zeno;  in  the  later  Roman  period,  the  chief  names 
are  Demetrius  (the  friend  of  Seneca),  Oenomaus  and  Demonax. 
All  these  men  adhered  steadfastly  to  the  principles  laid  down  by 
Antisthenes. 

Antisthenes  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  from  whom  he  imbibed 
the  fundamental  ethical  precept  that  virtue,  not  pleasure,  is 
the  end  of  existence.  He  was,  therefore,  in  the  forefront  of  that 
intellectual  revolution  in  the  course  of  which  speculation  ceased 


692 


CYNOSURE— CYPERACEAE 


to  move  in  the  realms  of  the  physical1  and  focused  itself  upon 
human  reason  in  its  application  to  the  practical  conduct  of  life. 
"  Virtue,"  says  Socrates,  "  is  knowledge  ":  in  the  ultimate 
harmony  of  morality  with  reason  is  to  be  found  the  only  true 
existence  of  man.  Antisthenes  adopted  this  principle  in  its 
most  literal  sense,  and  proceeded  to  explain  "  knowledge  "  in 
the  narrowest  terms  of  practical  action  and  decision,  excluding 
from  the  conception  everything  except  the  problem  of  individual 
will  realizing  itself  in  the  sphere  of  ordinary  existence.  Just 
as  in  logic  the  inevitable  result  was  the  purest  nominalism,  so  in 
ethics  he  was  driven  to  individualism,  to  the  denial  of  social 
and  national  relations,  to  the  exclusion  of  scientific  study  and 
of  almost  all  that  the  Greeks  understood  by  education.  This 
individualism  he  and  his  followers  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion. 
The  ordinary  pleasures  of  life  were  for  them  not  merely  negligible 
but  positively  harmful  inasmuch  as  they  interrupted  the  opera- 
tion of  the  will.  Wealth,  popularity  and  power  tend  to  dethrone 
the  authority  of  reason  and  to  pervert  the  soul  from  the  natural 
to  the  artificial.  Man  exists  for  and  in  himself  alone;  his  highest 
end  is  self-knowledge  and  self-realization  in  conformity  with  the 
dictates  of  his  reason,  apart  altogether  from  the  state  and 
society.  For  this  end,  disrepute  and  poverty  are  advantageous, 
in  so  far  as  they  drive  back  the  man  upon  himself,  increasing 
his  self-control  and  purifying  his  intellect  from  the  dross  of  the 
external.  The  good  man  (i.e.  the  wise  man)  wants  nothing: 
like  the  gods,  he  is  aivap/ofc  (self-sufficing);  "let  men  gain 
wisdom — or  buy  a  rope  ";  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  world,  not  of  a 
particular  country  (cf .  Diogenes  Laertius  vi.  1 1  fuanjv  re  6p6riv 
iro\irdav  tlvat  rr)v,  iv  K6o~n<f). 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  pioneers  of  such  a  system  were 
criticized  and  ridiculed  by  their  fellows,  and  this  by  no  means 
unjustly.  We  learn  that  Diogenes  and  Crates  sought  to 
force  their  principles  upon  their  fellows  in  an  obtrusive, 
tactless  manner.  The  very  essence  of  their  philosophy  was  the 
negation  of  the  graces  of  social  courtesy;  it  was  impossible  to 
"  return  to  nature  "  in  the  midst  of  a  society  clothed  in  the 
accumulated  artificiality  of  evolved  convention  without  shocking 
the  ingrained  sensibilities  of  its  members.  Nor  is  it  unjust  to 
infer  that  the  sense  of  opposition  provoked  some  of  the  Cynics 
to  an  overweening  display  of  superiority.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  absurd  to  regard  the  eccentricities  of  a  few  as  the  character- 
istics of  the  school,  still  more  as  a  condemnation  of  the  views 
which  they  held. 

In  logic  Antisthenes  was  troubled  by  the  problem  of  the  One 
and  the  Many.  A  nominalist  to  the  core,  he  held  that  definition 
and  predication  are  either  false  or  tautological.  Ideas  do  not 
exist  save  for  the  consciousness  which  thinks  them.  "  A  horse," 
said  Antisthenes,  "  I  can  see,  but  horsehood  I  cannot  see." 
Definition  is  merely  a  circuitous  method  of  stating  an  identity: 
"  a  tree  is  a  vegetable  growth  "  is  logically  no  more  than  "  a 
tree  is  a  tree." 

Cynicism  appears  to  have  had  a  considerable  vogue  in  Rome 
in  the  ist  and  2nd  centuries  A.D.  Demetrius  (q.v.)  and  Demonax 
are  highly  eulogized  by  Seneca  and  Lucian  respectively.  It 
is  probable  that  these  later  Cynics  adapted  themselves  somewhat 
to  the  times  in  which  they  lived  and  avoided  the  crude  extrava- 
gance of  Diogenes  and  others.  But  they  undoubtedly  maintained 
the  spirit  of  Antisthenes  unimpaired  and  held  an  honourable 
place  in  Roman  thought.  This  very  popularity  had  the  effect 
of  attracting  into  their  ranks  charlatans  of  the  worst  type. 
So  that  in  Rome  also  Cynicism  was  partly  the  butt  of  the  satirist 
and  partly  the  ideal  of  the  thinker. 

Disregarding  all  the  accidental  excrescences  of  the  doctrine, 
Cynicism  must  be  regarded  as  a  most  valuable  development 
and  as  a  real  asset  in  the  sum  of  ethical  speculation.  With  all 
its  defective  psychology,  its  barren  logic,  its  immature  technique, 
it  emphasized  two  great  and  necessary  truths,  firstly,  the  absolute 
responsibility  of  the  individual  as  the  moral  unit,  and,  secondly, 
the  autocracy  of  the  will.  These  two  principles  are  sufficient 
ground  for  our  gratitude  to  these  "  athletes  of  righteousness  " 
(as  Epictetus  calls  them).  Furthermore  they  are  profoundly 
1  See  IONIAN  SCHOOL  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 


important  as  the  precursors  of  Stoicism.  The  closeness  of  the 
connexion  is  illustrated  by  Juvenal's  epigram  that  a  Cynic 
differed  from  a  Stoic  only  by  his  cloak.  Zeno  was  a  pupil  of 
Crates,  from  whom  he  learned  the  moral  worth  of  self-control 
and  indifference  to  sensual  indulgence  (see  STOICS). 

Finally  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  two  flaws  in  the  Cynic 
philosophy.  In  the  first  place,  the  content  of  the  word  "  know- 
ledge "  is  never  properly  developed.  "  Virtue  is  knowledge  "; 
knowledge  of  what?  and  how  is  that  knowledge  related  to  the 
will?  These  questions  were  never  properly  answered  by  them. 
Secondly  they  fell  into  the  natural  error  of  emphasizing  the  purely 
animal  side  of  the  "  nature,"  which  was  their  ethical  criterion. 
Avoiding  the  artificial  restraints  of  civilization,  they  were  prone 
to  fall  back  into  animalism  pure  and  simple.  Many  of  them 
upheld  the  principle  of  community  of  wives  (see  Diogenes 
Laertius  vi.  u);  some  of  them  are  said  to  have  outraged  the 
dictates  of  public  decency.  It  was  left  to  the  Stoics  to  separate 
the  wheat  from  the  chaff,  and  to  assign  to  the  words  "  knowledge  " 
and  "  nature  "  a  saner  and  more  comprehensive  meaning. 

For  relation  of  Cynicism  to  contemporary  thought,  compare 
CYRENAICS,  MEGARIAN  SCHOOL.  See  also  ASCETICISM. 

See  F.  W.  Mullach,  Fragmenta  phUosophorum  Graecorum  (Paris, 
1867),  ii.  261-4.38;  H.  Ritter  and  L.  Preller,  Hist.  phil.  Graec.  et 
Rom.  ch.  v.;  histories  of  ancient  philosophy,  and  specially  Ed. 
Zeller,  Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools,  Eng.  trans.,  0.  J.  Reichel 
(1868,  and  ed.  1877);  Th.  Gomperz,  Greek  Thinkers,  Eng.  trans., 
vol.  ii.,  G.  G.  Berry  (1905);  E.  Caird,  Evolution  of  Theology  in  the 
Greek  Philosophers  (1904),  ii.  44  seq.,  55  seq.,  62  seq.;  arts.  STOICS 
and  SOCRATES. 

CYNOSURE  (Lat.  cynoswra,  Gr.  Kvvoaovpa,  from  KVVOS, 
genitive  of  KVUV,  a  dog,  and  ovpa,  tail),  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  the  constellation  of  the  Little  Bear,  Ursa 
Minor;  the  word  is  applied  in  English  to  the  pole-star  which 
appears  in  that  constellation,  and  hence  to  something  bright 
which,  like  a  "  guiding-star,"  draws  all  attention  to  it,  as  in 
Milton's  "  cynosure  of  neighbouring  eyes." 

CYPERACEAE,  in  botany,  a  natural  order  of  the  monocotyle- 
donous  group  of  seed-bearing  plants.  They  are  grass-like  herbs, 
sometimes  annual,  but  more  often  persist  by  means  of  an  under- 
ground stem  from  which  spring  erect  solitary  or  clustered, 
generally  three-sided  aerial  stems,  with  leaves  in  three  rows. 
The  minute  flowers  are  arranged 
in  spikelets  somewhat  as  in 
grasses,  and  these  again  in  larger 
spike-like  or  panicled  inflor- 
escences. The  flower  has  in  rare 
cases  a  perianth  of  six  scale-like 
leaves  arranged  in  two  whorls, 
and  thus  conforming  to  the  com- 
mon monocotyledonous  type  of 
flower.  Generally  the  perianth  is 
represented  by  hairs,  bristles  or 
similar  developments,  often  in- 
definite in  number;  in  the  two 
largest  genera,  Cyperus,  (fig.  i) 
and  Carex  (fig.  2),  the  flowers 
are  naked.  In  a  few  cases  two 
whorls  of  stamens  are  present, 
with  three  members  in  each,  but 
generally  only  three  are  present; 
the  pistil  consists  of  three  or  two 
carpels,  united  to  form  an  ovary 
bearing  a  corresponding  number  FIG.  i.— Partial  inflorescence 
...  of  Cyperus  longus  (Gahngale), 

of    styles    and    containing    one  sHgh(fy  reduce(f.    ,,Spikeletof 

ovule.     The   flowers,    which   are   game;  2,  flower, 
often  unisexual,  are  wind-pollin- 
ated.   The  fruit  is  one-seeded,  with  a  tough,  leathery  or  hard  wall. 
There  are  nearly  70  genera  containing  about  3000  species  and 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  earth,  chiefly  as  marsh-plants. 
In  the  arctic  zone  they  form  10%  of  the  flora;  they  will  flourish  in 
soils  rich  in  humus  which  are  too  acid  to  support  grasses.  The  large 
genus  Cyperus  contains  about  400  species,  chiefly  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  earth;  C.  Papyrus  is  the  Egyptian  Papyrus.    Carex, 


CY-PRES— CYPRESS 


693 


the  largest  genus  of  the  order,  the  sedges,  is  widely  distributed  in 
the  temperate,  alpine  and  arctic  regions  of  both  hemispheres, 
and  is  represented  by  60  species  in  Britain.  Carex  arenaria, 
the  sea-bent,  grows  on  sand-dunes  and  helps  to  bind  the  sand 


FIG.  2. — Carex  riparia,  the  largest  British  sedge,  from  3  to  5  ft.  high.     I,  Male  flower 
of  Carex;  2,  female  flower  of  Carex;  3,  seed  of  Carex,  cut  lengthwise. 


with  its  long  cord-like  underground  stem  which  branches 
widely.  Scirpus  lacustris  (fig.  3,  i)  the  true  bulrush,  occurs 
in  lakes,  ditches  and  marshes;  it  has  a  spongy,  green, 
cylindrical  stem,  reaching  nearly  an  inch  in  thickness 
and  i  to  8  ft.  high,  which  is  usually  leafless  with  a  terminal 
branched  inflorescence.  Eriophorum  (fig.  3),  cotton  grass, 


testator  cannot  be  carried  into  effect,  the  court  will  apply  the 
funds  to  some  other  purpose,  as  near  the  original  as  possible 
(whence  the  name).  For  instance,  a  testator  having  left  a  fund 
to  be  divided  into  four  parts — one-fourth  to  be  used  for  "  the 
redemption  of  British  slaves  in  Turkey  and 
Barbary,"  and  the  other  three-fourths  for 
various  local  charities — it  was  found  that 
there  were  no  British  slaves  in  Turkey  or 
Barbary,  and  as  to  that  part  of  the  gift 
therefore  the  testator's  purpose  failed.  In- 
stead of  allowing  the  portion  of  the  fund 
devoted  to  this  impossible  purpose  to  lapse 
to  the  next  of  kin,  the  court  devoted  it  to 
the  purposes  specified  for  the  rest  of  the 
estate.  This  doctrine  is  only  applied  where 
"  a  general  intention  of  charity  is  manifest  " 
in  the  will,  and  not  where  one  particular 
object  only  was  present  to  the  mind  of  the 
testator.  Thus,  a  testator  having  left  money 
to  be  applied  in  building  a  church  in  a  par- 
ticular parish,  and  that  having  been  found  to 
be  impossible,  the  fund  will  not  be  applied 
cy-pres,  but  will  go  to  the  next  of  kin. 

In   the    United    States,    charitable   trusts 
have  become  more  frequent  as  the  wealth 


FIG.  3. — Inflorescence  of  Cotton-grass  (Eriophorum  polystachion), 
about  §  nat.  size,     i,  Flower  of  true  bulrush  (Scirpus  lacustris). 

is  represented  in  Britain  by  several  species  in  boggy  land;  they 
are  small  tufted  herbs  with  cottony  heads  due  to  the  numerous 
hair-like  bristles  which  take  the  place  of  the  perianth  and  become 
much  elongated  in  the  fruiting  stage. 

CY-PRES  (A.-Fr.  for  "  so  near  "),  in  English  law,  a  principle 
adopted  by  the  court  of  chancery  in  dealing  with  trusts  for 
charitable  purposes.  When  the  charitable  purpose  intended  by  a 


of  the  country  has  progressed,  and  are  regarded  with  in- 
creasing favour  by  the  courts.  The  cy-pres  doctrine  has 
been  either  expressly  or  virtually  applied  to  uphold  them 
in  several  of  the  states,  and  in  some  there  has  been  legisla- 
tion in  the  same  direction.  In  others  the  doctrine  has  been 
repudiated,  e.g.  in  Michigan,  Tennessee,  Indiana  and  Virginia. 
For  many  years  the  New  York  courts  held  that  this  doctrine 
was  not  in  force  there,  but  in  1893  the  legislature  repealed  the 
provisions  of  the  revised  statutes  on  which  these  decisions  rested 
and  restored  the  ancient  law.  Statutes  passed  in  Pennsylvania 
have  established  the  doctrine  there,  and  dissolved  any  doubt  as  to 
its  being  in  force  in  that  state. 

CYPRESS  (Cupressus),  in  botany,  a  genus  of  fifteen  species 
belonging  to  the  tribe  Cupressineae,  natural  order  Coniferae, 
represented  by  evergreen  aromatic  trees  and  shrubs  indigenous 
to  the  south  of  Europe,  western  Asia,  the  Himalayas,  China, 
Japan,  north-western  and  north-eastern  America,  California 
and  Mexico.  The  leaves  of  the  cypresses  are  scale-like,  over- 
lapping and  generally  in  four  rows;  the  female  catkins  are  round- 
ish, and  fewer  than  the  male;  the  cones  consist  of  from  six  to 
ten  peltate  woody  scales,  which  end  in  a  curved  point,  and  open 
when  the  seeds  are  ripe;  the  seeds  are  numerous  and  winged. 
All  the  species  exude  resin,  but  no  turpentine. 

C.  sempeniirens,  the  common  cypress,  has  been  well  known 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  region  since  classic  times;  it  may 
have  been  introduced  from  western  Asia  where  it  is  found  wild. 
It  is  a  tapering,  flame-shaped  tree  resembling  the  Lombardy 
poplar;  its  branches  are  thickly  covered  with  small,  imbricated, 
shining-green  leaves;  the  male  catkins  are  about  3  lines  in  length; 
the  cones  are  between  i  and  15  in.  in  diameter,  sessile,  and 
generally  in  pairs,  and  are  made  up  of  large  angular  scales,  slightly 
convex  exteriorly,  and  with  a  sharp  point  in  the  centre.  In 
Britain  the  tree  grows  to  a  height  of  40  ft.,  in  its  native  soil 
to  .70  or  90  ft.  It  thrives  best  on  a  dry,  deep,  sandy  loam,  on 
airy  sheltered  sites  at  no  great  elevation  above  the  sea.  It  was 
introduced  into  Great  Britain  before  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century.  In  the  climate  of  the  south  of  England  its  rate  of 
growth  when  young  is  between  i  and  ii  ft.  a  year.  The  seeds 
are  sown  in  April,  and  come  up  in  three  or  four  weeks;  the  plants 
require  protection  from  frost  during  their  first  winter. 

The  timber  of  the  cypress  is  hard,  close-grained,  of  a  fine 
reddish  hue,  and  very  durable.  Among  the  ancients  it  was  in 
request  for  poles,  rafters,  joists,  and  for  the  construction  of  wine- 
presses, tables  and  musical  instruments;  and  on  that  account 
was  so  valuable  that  a  plantation  of  cypresses  was  considered 
a  sufficient  dowry  for  a  daughter.  Owing  to  its  durability  the 
wood  was  employed  for  mummy  cases,  and  images  of  the  gods; 


694 


CYPRIAN 


a  statue  of  Jupiter  carved  out  of  cypress  is  stated  by  Pliny  to  have 
existed  600  years  without  showing  signs  of  decay.  The  cypress 
doors  of  the  ancient  St  Peter's  at  Rome,  when  removed  by 
Eugenius  IV.,  were  about  1 100  years  old,  but  nevertheless  in  a 
state  of  perfect  preservation.  Laws  were  engraved  on  cypress  by 
the  ancients,  and  objects  of  value  were  preserved  in  receptacles 
made  of  it;  thus  Horace  speaks  of  poems  levi  semanda  cupresso. 
The  cypress,  which  grows  no  more  when  once  cut  down,  was 
regarded  as  a  symbol  of  the  dead,  and  perhaps  for  that  reason 
was  sacred  to  Pluto;  its  branches  were  placed  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  on  the  funeral  pyres  and  in  the  houses  of  their 
departed  friends.  Its  supposed  ill-boding  nature  is  alluded  to  in 
Shakespeare's  Henry  VI.,  where  Suffolk  desires  for  his  enemies 
"  their  sweetest  shade,  a  grove  of  cypress  trees."  The  cypress 
was  the  tree  into  which  Cyparissus,  a  beautiful  youth  beloved 
by  Apollo,  was  transformed,  that  he  might  grieve  to  all  time 
(Ovid,  Met.  x.  3).  In  Turkish  cemeteries  the  cypress — 
"  Dark  tree,  still  sad  when  others'  grief  is  fled, 
The  only  constant  mourner  o'er  the  dead  " — 

is  the  most  striking  feature,  the  rule  being  to  plant  one  for  each 
interment.  The  tree  grows  straight,  or  nearly  so,  and  has  a 
gloomy  and  forbidding,  but  wonderfully  stately  aspect.  With 
advancing  age  its  foliage  becomes  of  a  dark,  almost  black  hue. 
William  Gilpin  calls  the  cypress  an  architectural  tree: "  No  Italian 
scene,"  says  he,  "  is  perfect  without  its  tall  spiral  form,  appear- 
ing as  if  it  were  but  a  part  of  the  picturesquely  disposed  edifices 
which  rise  from  the  middle  ground  against  the  distant  landscape." 
The  cypress  of  Somma,  in  Lombardy,  is  believed  to  have  been  in 
existence  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar;  it  is  about  121  ft.  in 
height,  and  23  ft.  in  circumference.  Napoleon,  in  making  the 
road  over  the  Simplon,  deviated  from  the  straight  line  in  order  to 
leave  it  standing.  The  cypress,  as  the  olive,  is  found  everywhere 
in  the  dry  hollows  and  high  eastern  slopes  of  Corfu,  of  the  scenery 
of  which  it  is  characteristic.  As  an  ornamental  tree  in  Britain 
the  cypress  is  useful  to  break  the  outline  formed  by  round- 
headed  low  shrubs  and  trees.  The  berosh,  or  beroth,  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  translated  "  fir  "  in  the  authorized  version,  in  i  Kings 
v.  8  and  vi.  15,  2  Chron.  ii.  8  and  many  other  passages,  is  supposed 
to  signify  the  cypress. 

The  common  or  tall  variety  of  C.  sempervirens  is  known  as 
C.  fastigiata;  the  other  variety,  C.  horizontalis,  which  is  little 
planted  in  England,  is  distinguished  by  its  horizontally  spreading 
branches,  and  its  likeness  to  the  cedar.  The  species  C.  torulosa 
of  North  India,  so  called  from  its  twisted  bark,  attains  an  altitude 
of  150  ft.;  its  branches  are  erect  or  ascending,  and  grow  so  as 
to  form  a  perfect  cone.  In  the  Kulu  and  Ladakh  country  the 
tree  is  sacred  to  the  deities  of  the  elements.  It  has  been  in- 
troduced into  England,  but  does  not  thrive  where  the  winter 
is  severe.  The  wood,  which  in  Indian  temples  is  burnt  as  incense, 
is  yellowish-red,  close-grained,  tough,  hard,  readily  worked, 
durable,  and  equal  in  quality  to  that  of  the  deodar.  Another 
species,  C.  lusitanica  or  glauca,  the  "  cedar  of  Goa,"  is  a  hand- 
some tree,  50  ft.  in  height  when  full-grown,  with  spreading 
branches  drooping  at  their  extremities;  it  has  been  much 
planted  in  Portugal,  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cintra. 
Its  origin  is  doubtful.  It  was  well  established  in  Portugal  before 
the  middle  of  the  i;th  century,  and  has  since  been  cultivated 
generally  in  the  south  of  Europe,  but  is  nowhere  believed  to  be 
indigenous.  The  name  "  cedar  of  Goa  "  is  misleading,  as  no 
cypress  is  found  wild  anywhere  near  Goa.  It  was  cultivated  in 
England  in  the  I7th  century,  and  the  name  C.  lusitanica  was 
given  by  Philip  Miller,  the  curator  of  the  Chelsea  Physick  garden, 
in  1768,  in  reference  to  its  supposed  Portuguese  origin.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  this  cypress  to  be  too  tender  for  British 
climate  generally,  though  good  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  the 
milder  climate  of  the  south  and  west  of  England  and  in  Ireland. 

The  species  G.  Laiasoniana,  the  Port  Orford  cedar,  a  native 
of  south  Oregon  and  north  California,  where  it  attains  a  height 
of  100  ft.,  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  1854;  it  is  much 
grown  for  ornamental  purposes  in  Britain,  a  large  number  of 
varieties  of  garden  origin  being  distinguished  by  differences  in 
habit  and  by  colour  of  foliage.  Other  Californian  cypresses 


are  C.  macrocarpa,  the  Monterey  cypress,  which  is  60  ft.  high 
when  mature,  with  a  habit  suggesting  that  of  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
and  C.  Joveniana  and  C.  Macnabiana,  smaller  trees  generally 
from  20  to  30  ft.  in  height.  C.  funebris  is  a  native  of  the  north 
of  China,  where  it  is  planted  near  pagodas.  C.  nootkaensis,  the 
Nootka  Sound  cypress  or  Alaska  cedar,  was  introduced  into  Britain 
in  1850.  It  is  a  hardy  species,  reaching  a  height  of  from  80  to  100 
ft.  Several  varieties  are  distinguished  by  habit  and  colour  of 
foliage.  C.  obtusa,  a  native  of  Japan,  is  a  tall  tree  reaching  100  ft. 
in  height,  and  widely  planted  by  the  Japanese  for  its  timber, 
which  is  one  of  the  best  for  interior  construction.  It  is  also 
cultivated  by  them  as  a  decorative  plant,  in  many  forms,  in- 
cluding dwarf  forms  not  exceeding  a  foot  in  height. 

The  "deciduous  cypress,"  "swamp  cypress"  or  "bald 
cypress,"  Taxodium  distichum,  is  another  member  of  the  order 
Coniferae  (tribe  Taxodineae),  a  native  t>f  the  southern  United 
States  and  Mexico.  It  is  a  lofty  tree  reaching  a  height  of  170  ft. 
or  more,  with  a  massive  trunk  10  to  15  ft.  or  more  in  diameter, 
growing  in  or  near  water  or  on  low-lying  land  which  is  subject 
to  periodical  flooding.  The  lower  part  of  the  trunk  bears  huge 
buttresses,  each  of  which  ends  in  a  long  branching  far-spreading 
root,  from  the  branches  of  which  spring  the  peculiar  knees  which 
rise  above  the  level  of  the  water.  The  knees  are  of  a  soft  spongy 
texture  and  act  as  breathing  organs,  supplying  the  roots  with  air, 
which  they  would  otherwise  be  unable  to  obtain  when  submerged. 
The  stout  horizontally  spreading  branches  give  a  cedar-like 
appearance;  the  foliage  is  light  and  feathery;  the  leaves  and  the 
slender  shoots  which  bear  them  fall  in  the  autumn.  The  cones, 
about  the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  bear  spirally  arranged  im- 
bricated scales  which  subtend  the  three-angled  winged  seeds. 
The  wood  is  light,  soft,  straight-grained  and  easily  worked; 
it  is  very  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and  is  used  for 
railway-ties,  posts,  fencing  and  for  construction.  The  deciduous 
cypress  was  one  of  the  first  American  trees  introduced  into 
England;  it  is  described  by  John  Parkinson  in  his  Herbal  of 
1640.  It  thrives  only  near  water  or  where  the  soil  is  permanently 
moist. 

CYPRIAN,  SAINT  [Caecilius  Cyprianus,  called  THASCTOS] 
(c.  200-258),  bishop  of  Carthage,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  in 
the  early  history  of  the  church,  and  one  of  the  most  notable  of 
its  early  martyrs,  was  born  about  the  year  200,  probably  at 
Carthage.  He  was  of  patrician  family,  wealthy,  highly  educated, 
and  for  some  time  occupied  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Carthage. 
Of  an  enthusiastic  temperament,  accomplished  in  classical  litera- 
ture, he  seems  while  a  pagan  to  have  courted  discussion  with 
the  converts  to  Christianity.  Confident  in  his  own  powers,  he 
entered  ardently  into  what  was  no  doubt  the  great  question 
of  the  time  at  Carthage  as  elsewhere.  He  sought  to  vanquish, 
but  was  himself  vanquished  by,  the  new  religious  force  which 
was  making  such  rapid  inroads  on  the  decaying  paganism  of 
the  Roman  empire.  Caecilianus  (or  Caecilius),  a  presbyter  of 
Carthage,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  instrument  of  his  con- 
version, which  seems  to  have  taken  place  about  246. 

Cyprian  carried  all  his  natural  enthusiasm  and  brilliant  powers 
into  his  new  profession.  He  devoted  his  wealth  to  the  relief  of 
the  poor  and  other  pious  uses;  and  so,  according  to  his  deacon 
Pontius,  who  wrote  a  diffuse  and  vague  account  of  his  "  life  and 
passion,"  "  realized  two  benefits:  the  contempt  of  the  world's 
ambition,  and  the  observance  of  that  mercy  which  God  has  pre- 
ferred to  sacrifice."  The  result  of  his  charity  and  activity  as  a 
Christian  convert  was  his  unanimous  call  by  the  Christian 
people  to  the  head  of  the  church  in  Carthage,  at  the  end  of  248 
or  beginning  of  249.  The  time  was  one  of  fierce  persecution 
directed  against  the  Christians,  and  the  bishop  of  Carthage 
became  a  prominent  object  of  attack.  During  the  persecution  of 
Decius  (250-251)  Cyprian  was  exposed  to  imminent  danger,  and 
was  compelled  for  a  time  to  seek  safety  in  retreat.  Under 
Gallus,  the  successor  of  Decius,  the  persecution  was  relaxed,  and 
Cyprian  returned  to  Carthage.  Here  he  held  several  councils 
for  the  discussion  of  the  affairs  of  the  church",  especially  for 
grave  questions  as  to  the  rebaptism  of  heretics,  and  the  re- 
admission  into  the  church  of  the  lapsi,  or  those  who  had  fallen 


CYPRINODONTS— CYPRUS 


695 


away  through  fear  during  the  heat  of  the  persecution.  Cyprian, 
although  inspired  by  lofty  notions  of  the  prerogatives  of  the 
church,  and  inclined  to  severity  of  opinion  towards  heretics,  and 
especially  heretical  dissentients  from  the  belief  in  the  divine 
authorship  of  the  episcopal  order  and  the  unity  of  Christendom, 
was  leniently  disposed  towards  those  who  had  temporarily  fallen 
from  the  faith.  He  set  himself  in  opposition  to  Novatian,  a 
presbyter  of  Rome,  who  advocated  their  permanent  exclusion 
from  the  church;  and  it  was  his  influence  which  guided  the 
tolerant  measures  of  the  Carthaginian  synods  on  the  subject. 
While  in  this  question  he  went  hand  in  hand  with  Cornelius, 
bishop  of  Rome,  his  strict  attitude  in  the  matter  of  baptism 
by  heretics  brought  him  into  serious  conflict  with  the  Roman 
bishop  Stephen.  It  would  almost  have  come  to  a  rupture,  since 
both  parties  held  firmly  to  their  standpoint,  had  not  a  new 
persecution  arisen  under  the  emperor  Valerian,  which  threw 
all  internal  quarrels  into  the  background  in  face  of  the  common 
danger.  Stephen  became  a  martyr  in  August  257.  Cyprian 
was  at  first  banished  to  Curubis  in  Africa  Proconsularis.  But 
soon  he  was  recalled,  taken  into  custody,  and  finally  condemned 
to  death.  He  was  beheaded  on  the  i4th  of  September  258,  the 
first  African  bishop  to  obtain  the  martyr's  crown. 

All  Cyprian's  literary  works  were  written  in  connexion  with 
his  episcopal  office;  almost  all  his  treatises  and  many  of  his 
letters  have  the  character  of  pastoral  epistles,  and  their  form 
occasionally  betrays  the  fact  that  they  were  intended  as  addresses. 
These  writings  bear  the  mark  of  a  clear  mind  and  a  moderate  and 
gentle  spirit.  Cyprian  had  none  of  that  character  which  makes 
the  reading  of  Tertullian,  whom  he  himself  called  his  magister, 
so  interesting  and  piquant,  but  he  possessed  other  qualities  which 
Tertullian  lacked,  especially  the  art  of  presenting  his  thoughts 
in  simple,  smooth  and  clear  language,  yet  in  a  style  which  is  not 
wanting  in  warmth  and  persuasive  power.  Like  Tertullian, 
and  often  in  imitation  of  him,  Cyprian  took  certain  apologetic, 
dogmatic  and  pastoral  themes  as  subjects  of  his  treatises.  By 
far  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  treatise  De  catholicae  ecclesiae 
unitate,  called  forth  in  A.D.  251  by  the  schism  at  Carthage,  but 
particularly  by  the  Novatian  schism  at  Rome.  In  this  is  pro- 
claimed the  doctrine  of  the  one  church  founded  upon  the  apostle 
Peter,  whose  "  tangible  bond  is  her  one  united  episcopate, 
an  apostleship  universal  yet  only  one— the  authority  of  every 
bishop  perfect  in  itself  and  independent,  yet  not  forming  with 
all  the  others  a  mere  agglomeration  of  powers,  but  being  a  tenure 
upon  a  totality  like  that  of  a  shareholder  in  some  joint  property." 

Attention  must  also  be  called  to  the  treatise  Ad  Donalum 
(De  gratia  dei),  in  which  the  new  life  after  regeneration  with  its 
moral  effects  is  set  forth  in  a  pure  and  clear  light,  as  contrasted 
with  the  night  of  heathendom  and  its  moral  degradation,  which 
were  known  to  the  author  from  personal  experience.  The 
numerous  Letters  of  Cyprian  are  not  only  an  important  source 
for  the  history  of  church  life  and  of  ecclesiastical  law,  on  account 
of  their  rich  and  manifold  contents,  but  in  large  part  they  are 
important  monuments  of  the  literary  activity  of  their  author, 
since,  not  infrequently,  they  are  in  the  form  of  treatises  upon  the 
topic  in  question.  Of  the  eighty-two  letters  in  the  present 
collection,  sixty-six  were  written  by  Cyprian.  In  the  great 
majority  of  cases  the  chronology  of  their  composition,  as  far  as 
the  year  is  concerned,  presents  no  difficulties;  more  precise 
assignments  are  mainly  conjectural.  In  the  editions  of  the  works 
of  Cyprian  a  number  of  treatises  are  printed  which,  certainly  or 
probably,  were  not  written  by  him,  and  have  therefore  usually 
been  described  as  pseudo-Cyprianic.  Several  of  them,  e.g.  the 
treatise  on  dice  (De  aleatoribus),  have  attracted  the  attention 
of  scholars,  who  are  never  weary  of  the  attempt  to  determine 
the  identity  of  the  author,  unfortunately  hitherto  without  much 
success. 

The  best,  though  by  no  means  faultless,  edition  of  Cyprian's  works 
is  that  of  W.  von  Hartel  in  the  Corpus  scriptorum  ecclesiasticorum 
(3  vols.,  Vienna,  1868-1871).  There  is  an  English  translation  in  the 
Library  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers.  The  most  complete  monograph 
is  that  by  Archbishop  E.  W.  Benson,  Cyprian,  his  Life,  his  Times, 
his  Work  (London,  1897).  See  also  J.  A.  Faulkner,  Cyprian  the 
Churchman  (Cincinnati  and  New  York,  1906). 


CYPRINODONTS.  In  spite  of  their  name,  the  small  fishes 
called  Cyprinodonts  are  in  no  way  related  to  the  Cyprinids, 
or  carp  family,  but  are  near  allies  of  the  pike,  characterized 
by  a  flat  head  with  protractile  mouth  beset  with  cardiform, 
villiform,  or  compressed,  bi-  or  tri-cuspid  teeth,  generally  large 
scales,  and  the  absence  of  a  well-developed  lateral  line.  About 
two  hundred  species  are  known,  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  fresh 
and  brackish  waters  of  America;  only  about  thirty  are  known 
from  the  old  world  (south  Europe,  south  Asia,  China  and  Japan, 
and  Africa).  Several  forms  occur  in  the  Oligocene  and  Miocene 
beds  of  Europe.  Many  species  are  ovo-viviparous,  and  from 
their  small  size  and  lively  behaviour  they  are  much  appreciated 
as  aquarium  fishes. 

In  many  species  the  sexes  are  dissimilar,  the  female  being 
larger  and  less  brilliantly  coloured,  with  smaller  fins;  the  anal 
fin  of  the  male  may  be  modified  into  an  intromittent  organ  by 
means  of  which  internal  fertilization  takes  place,  the  ova  develop- 
ing in  a  sort  of  uterus.  In  the  remarkable  genus  Anableps, 
from  Central  and  South  America,  the  strongly  projecting  eyes 
are  divided  by  a  horizontal  band  of  the  conjunctiva  into  an 
upper  part  adapted  for  vision  in  the  air,  and  a  lower  for  vision 
in  the  water,  and  the  pupil  is  also  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
constriction. 

The  latest  monograph  of  these  fishes  is  by  S.  Garman  in  Mem.  Mus. 
Comp.  Zool.  xix.  (1895). 

The  Amblyopsidae,  which  include  the  remarkable  blind  cave 
fishes  of  North  America  (Mammoth  cave  and  others),  are  nearly 
related  to  the  Cyprinodontidae,  and  like  many  of  them  ovo- 
viviparous.  Chologaster,  from  the  lowland  streams  and  swamps 
of  the  south  Atlantic  states,  has  the  eyes  well  developed  and 
the  body  is  coloured.  Amblyopsis  and  Typhlichthys,  which  are 
evidently  derived  from  Chologaster,  or  from  forms  closely  related 
to  it,  but  living  in  complete  darkness,  have  the  eyes  rudimentary 
and  more  or  less  concealed  under  the  skin,  and  the  body  is 
colourless. 

See  F.  W.  Putnam,  Amer.  Nat.  (1872),  p.  6,  and  P.  Boston  Soc. 
xvii.  (1875),  p.  222 ;  and  C.  H.  Eigenmann,  Archiv.fur  Entwickelungs- 
mechanik  der  Organismen,  viii.  (1899),  p.  545.  (G.  A.  B.) 

CYPRUS,  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  Mediterranean, 
nominally  in  the  dominion  of  Turkey,  but  under  British  adminis- 
tration, situated  in  the  easternmost  basin  of  that  sea,  at  roughly 
equal  distance  from  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  north  and 
of  Syria  to  the  east.  The  headland  of  Cape  Kormakiti  in  Cyprus 
is  distant  44  m.  from  Cape  Anamur  in  Asia  Minor,  and  its  north- 
east point,  Cape  St  Andrea,  is  69  m.  from  Latakieh  in  Syria. 
It  lies  between  34°  33'  and  35°  41'  N.,  and  between  32°  20'  and 
34°  35'  E.,  so  that  it  is  situated  in  almost  exactly  the  same 
latitude  as  Crete.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  141  m.,  from 
Cape  Drepano  in  the  west  to  Cape  St  Andrea  in  the  north-east, 
and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  Cape  Gata  in  the  south  to  Cape 
Kormakiti  in  the  north,  reaches  60  m.;  while  it  retains  an 
average  width  of  from  35  to  50  m.  through  the  greater  part  of 
its  extent,  but  narrows  suddenly  to  less  than  10  m.  about  34°  E., 
and  from  thence  sends  out  a  long  narrow  tongue  of  land  towards 
the  E.N.E.  for  a  distance  of  46  m.,  terminating  in  Cape  St  Andrea. 
The  coast-line  measures  486  m.  Cyprus  is  the  largest  island  in 
the  Mediterranean  after  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  In  1885  a  trigono- 
metrical survey  and  a  map  on  the  scale  of  I  in.  to  i  m.  were 
made  by  Captain  (afterwards  Lord)  Kitchener,  R.E.,  who 
worked  out  the  area  of  the  island  at  3584  sq.  m.,  or  a  little  more 
than  the  area  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk. 

Mountains. — Great  part  of  the  island  is  occupied  by  two 
mountain  ranges,  both  of  which  have  a  general  direction  from 
west  to  east.  Of  these  the  most  extensive,  as  well  as  the  most 
lofty,  is  that  which  fills  up  almost  the  whole  southern  portion 
of  the  island,  and  is  generally  designated  by  modern  geographers 
as  Mount  Olympus,  though  that  name  appears  to  have  been 
applied  by  the  ancients  only  to  one  particular  peak.  The  highest 
summit  is  known  at  the  present  day  as  Mount  Troodos,  and 
attains  an  elevation  of  6406  ft.  It  sends  down  subordinate 
ranges  or  spurs,  of  considerable  altitude,  on  all  sides,  one  of  which 
extends  to  Cape  Arnauti  (the  ancient  Acamas),  which  forms  the 


696 


CYPRUS 


north-west  extremity  of  the  island,  while  others  descend  on  both 
sides  quite  to  the  northern  and  southern  coasts.  On  the  south- 
eastern slope  are  governmental  and  military  summer  quarters. 
The  main  range  is  continued  eastward  by  the  lofty  summits 
known  as  Mount  Adelphi  (5305^.),  Papoutsa(5i24)andMachaira 


Capital  of  Island 
Capitals  of  Districts 
Minoanand Myccneanl 
tile, 
Railway.. 


1.  Famagusta 

2.  Kyrenia 

3.  Larnaca 
I.  Limasol 
5.  Nicosia 
B.  Panlio 


or  Chionia  (4674),  until  it  ends  in  the  somewhat  isolated  peak 
called  Santa  Croce  (Stavrovouni  or  Oros  Stavro),  the  Hill  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (2260  ft.).  This  mountain,  designated  by  Strabo 
Mount  Olympus,  is  a  conspicuous  object  from  Larnaca,  from 
which  it  is  only  12  m.  distant,  and  is  well  known  from  being 
frequented  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  The  northern  range  of 
mountains  begins  at  Cape  Kormakiti  (the  ancient  Crommyon) 
and  is  continued  from  thence  in  an  unbroken  ridge  to  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  island,  Cape  St  Andrea,  a  distance  of  more  than 
100  m.  It  is  not  known  by  any  collective  name;  its  western 
part  is  called  the  Kyrenia  mountains,  while  the  remainder  has 
the  name  of  Carpas.  It  is  inferior  in  elevation  to  the  southern 
range,  its  highest  summit  (Buffavento)  attaining  only  3135  ft., 
while  in  the  eastern  portion  the  elevation  rarely  exceeds  2000  ft. 
But  it  is  remarkable  for  its  continuous  and  unbroken  character — 
consisting  throughout  of  a  narrow  but  rugged  and  rocky  ridge, 
descending  abruptly  to  the  south  into  the  great  plain  of  Lefkosia, 
and  to  the  north  to  a  narrow  plain  bordering  the  coast. 

The  Mesaoria. — Between  the  two  mountain  ranges  lies  a 
.  broad  plain,  extending  across  the  island  from  the  bay  of  Fama- 
gusta  to  that  of  Morphou  on  the  west,  a  distance  of  nearly  60  m., 
with  a  breadth  varying  f  rom  i  o  to  20  m.  It  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Mesaoria  or  Messaria,  and  is  watered  by  a  number  of 
intermittent  streams  from  the  mountains  on  either  hand.  The 
chief  streams  are  the  Pedias  and  the  Yalias,  which  follow  roughly 
parallel  courses  eastward.  The  greater  part  of  the  plain  is  open 
and  uncultivated,  and  presents  nothing  but  barren  downs; 
but  corn  is  grown  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  northern 
portions  of  it,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  whole  is  readily 
susceptible  of  cultivation.  It  is  remarkable  that  Cyprus  was 
celebrated  in  antiquity  for  its  forests,  which  not  only  clothed  the 
whole  of  its  mountain  ranges,  but  covered  the  entire  central 
plain  with  a  dense  mass,  so  that  it  was  with  difficulty  that  the 
land  could  be  cleared  for  cultivation.  At  the  present  day  the 
whole  plain  of  the  Mesaoria  is  naturally  bare  and  treeless,  and 
it  is  only  the  loftiest  and  central  summits  of  Mount  Olympus 
that  still  retain  their  covering  of  pine  woods.  The  disappearance 
of  the  forests  (which  has  in  a  measure  been  artificially  remedied) 
naturally  affected  the  rivers,  which  are  mostly  mere  torrents, 
dry  in  summer.  Even  the  Pedias  (ancient  Pediaeus)  does  not 
reach  the  sea  in  summer,  and  its  stagnant  waters  form  unhealthy 
marshes.  In  the  marshy  localities  malarial  fever  occurs  but  is 
rarely  (in  modern  times)  of  a  severe  type.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  in  Cyprus  is  about  69°  F.  (mean  maximum  78°, 
and  minimum  57°).  The  mean  annual  rainfall  is  about  19  ins. 
October  to  March  is  the  cool,  wet  season.  Earthquakes  are  not 
uncommon. 


Geology.—  Cyprus  lies  in  the  continuation  of  the  folded  belt  of  the 
Anti-taurus.  1  he  northern  coast  range  is  formed  by  the  oldest  rocks 
in  the  island,  consisting  chiefly  of  limestones  and  marbles  with 
occasional  masses  of  igneous  rock.  These  are  supposed  to  be  of 
Cretaceous  age,  but  no  fossils  have  been  found  in  them.  On  both 
sides  the  range  is  flanked  by  sandstones  and  shales  (the  Kythraean 


series),  supposed  to  be  of  Upper  Eocene  age;  and  similar  rocks 
thern  mountain  mass.     The  Oligocene  consists 


, 

occur  around  the  sout  .  cene  consss 

of  grey  and  white  marls  (known  as  the  Idalian  series),  which  are 
distributed  all    v 


ries,  wc     are 

distributed  all  over  the  island  and  attain  their  greatest  development 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Troodos.  All  these  rocks  have  been  folded, 
and  take  part  in  the  formation  of  the  mountains.  The  great  igneous 
masses  of  Troodos,  &c.,  consisting  of  diabase,  basalt  and  serpentine, 
are  of  later  date.  Pliocene  and  later  beds  cover  the  central  plain 
and  occur  at  intervals  along  the  coast.  The  Pliocene  is  of  marine 
origin,  and  rests  unconformably  upon  all  the  older  beds,  including 
the  Post-oligocene  igneous  rocks,  thus  proving  that  the  final  folding 
and  the  last  volcanic  outbursts  were  approximately  of  Miocene  age. 
The  caves  of  the  Kyrenian  range  contain  a  Pleistocene  mammalian 
fauna. 

Population.  —  The  population  of  Cyprus  in  1901  was  237,022, 
an  increase  of  27,736  since  1891  and  of  51,392  since  1881.  The 
people  are  mainly  Greeks  and  Turks.  About  22%  of  the 
population  are  Moslems;  nearly  all  the  remainder  are  Christians 
of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church.  The  Moslem  religious  courts, 
presided  over  by  cadis,  are  strictly  confined  to  jurisdiction  in 
religious  cases  affecting  the  Mahommedan  population.  The 
island  is  divided  into  the  six  districts  of  Famagusta,  Kyrenia, 
Larnaca,  Limasol,  Nicosia  and  Papho.  The  chief  towns  are 
Nicosia  (pop.  14,752),  the  capital,  in  the  north  central  part  of 
the  island,  Limasol  (8298)  and  Larnaca  (7964)  on  the  south- 
eastern coast.  The  other  capitals  of  districts  are  Famagusta 
on  the  east  coast,  Kyrenia  on  the  north,  and  Ktima,  capital  of 
Papho,  on  the  south-west.  Kyrenia,  a  small  port,  has  a  castle 
built  about  the  beginning  of  the  i3th  century,  and  notable, 
through  the  troubled  history  of  the  island,  as  never  having  been 
captured. 

Agriculture,  &c.  —  The  most  important  species  of  the  few 
trees  that  remain  in  the  island  are  the  Aleppo  pine,  the  Pinus 
laricio,  cypress,  cedar,  carob,  olive  and  Quercus  alnifolia.  Recent 
additions  are  the  eucalyptus,  casuarina,  Pinus  pinea  and 
ailanthus.  Some  protection  has  been  afforded  to  existing 
plantations,  and  some  attempt  made  to  extend  their  area;  but 
the  progress  in  both  directions  is  slow.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry  in  the  island,  in  spite  of  various  disabilities.  The  soil 
is  extremely  fertile,  and,  with  a  fair  rainfall,  say  13  in.,  between 
November  and  April,  yields  magnificent  crops,  but  the  improve- 
ments in  agriculture  are  scarcely  satisfactory.  The  methods  and 
appliances  used  are  extremely  primitive,  and  inveterate  prejudice 
debars  the  average  peasant  from  the  use  of  new  implements, 
fresh  seed,  or  manure;  he  generally  cares  nothing  for  the  rotation 
of  crops,  or  for  the  cleanliness  of  his  land.  Modern  improvements 
and  the  use  of  imported  machinery  have,  however,  been  adopted 
by  some.  A  director  of  agriculture  was  appointed  in  1896,  and 
leaflets  are  issued  pointing  out  improvements  within  the  means 
of  the  villager,  and  how  to  deal  with  plant  diseases  and  insect 
pests.  The  products  of  the  soil  include  grain,  fruit,  including 
carob,  olive,  mulberry,  cotton,  vegetables  and  oil  seeds.  Vine- 
yards occupy  a  considerable  area,  and  the  native  wines  are  pure 
and  strong,  but  not  always  palatable.  The  native  practice  of 
conveying  wine  in  tarred  skins  was  deleterious  to  its  flavour,  and 
is  now  for  the  most  part  abolished.  A  company  has  exploited 
and  improved  the  industry.  Large  sums  have  been  expended  on 
the  destruction  of  locusts;  they  are  now  practically  harmless, 
but  live  locusts  are  diligently  collected  every  year,  a  reward 
being  paid  by  the  government  for  their  destruction.  Under  the 
superintendence  of  an  officer  lent  by  the  government  of  Madras, 
two  great  works  of  irrigation,  from  the  lack  of  which  agriculture 
had  seriously  suffered,  were  undertaken  in  1898  and  1899. 
The  smaller  includes  a  reservoir  at  Syncrasi  (Famagusta),  with 
a  catchment  of  27  sq.  m.  and  a  capacity  of  70,000,000  cub.  ft. 
It  reclaims  360  acres,  and  was  estimated  to  irrigate  4320.  The 
larger  scheme  includes  three  large  reservoirs  in  the  Mesaoria 
to  hold  up  and  temporarily  store  the  flood  waters  of  the  Pedias 
and  Yalias  rivers.  The  estimate  premised  a  cost  of  £50,000,  the 


CYPRUS 


697 


irrigation  of  42,000  acres,  and  the  reclamation  of  10,000.  These 
works  were  completed  respectively  in  1899  and  1901. 

The  rearing  of  live  stock  is  of  no  little  importance.  A  com- 
mittee exists  "  for  the  improvement  of  the  breeds  of  Cyprus 
stock ";  stallions  of  Arab  blood  have  been  imported,  and 
prizes  are  offered  for  the  best  donkeys.  Cattle,  sheep,  mules  and 
donkeys  are  sent  in  large  numbers  to  Egypt.  Cyprus  mules 
have  found  favour  in  war  in  the  Crimea,  India,  Uganda,  Eritrea 
and  Egypt.  The  sea  fisheries  are  not  important,  with  the 
exception  of  the  sponge  fishery,  which  is  under  the  protection 
of  the  administration.  The  manufactures  of  the  island  are 
insignificant. 

Minerals. — Next  to  its  forests,  which  long  supplied  the  Greek 
monarchs  of  Egypt  with  timber  for  their  fleets,  Cyprus  was 
celebrated  among  the  ancients  for  its  mineral  wealth,  especially 
for  its  mines  of  copper,  which  were  worked  from  a  very  early 
period,  and  continued  to  enjoy  such  reputation  among  both 
Greeks  and  Romans  that  the  modern  name  for  the  metal  is 
derived  from  the  term  of  Acs  Cyprium  or  Cuprium  by  which 
it  was  known  to  the  latter.  According  to  Strabo  the  most 
valuable  mines  were  worked  at  a  place  called  Tamasus,  in  the 
centre  of  the  island,  on  the  northern  slopes  of  Mount  Olympus, 
but  their  exact  site  has  not  been  identified.  An  attempt  to  work 
copper  towards  the  close  of  the  igth  century  was  a  failure, 
but  some  prospecting  was  subsequently  carried  on.  Besides 
copper,  according  to  Strabo,  the  island  produced  considerable 
quantities  of  silver;  and  Pliny  records  it  as  producing  various 
kinds  of  precious  stones,  among  which  he  mentions  diamonds 
and  emeralds,  but  these  were  doubtless  nothing  more  than  rock 
crystal  and  beryl.  Salt,  which  was  in  ancient  times  one  of  the 
productions  for  which  the  island  was  noted,  is  still  made  in  large 
quantities,  and  there  are  extensive  salt  works  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Larnaca  and  Limasol,  where  there  are  practically 
inexhaustible  salt  lakes.  Rock  crystal  and  asbestos  are  still 
found  in  the  district  of  Paphos.  Gypsum  is  exported  unburnt 
from  the  Carpas,  and  as  plaster  of  Paris  from  Limasol  and 
Larnaca.  Statuary  marble  has  been  found  on  the  slopes  of 
Buffavento  in  the  northern  range.  Excellent  building  stone 
exists  throughout  the  island. 

Commerce. — A  disability  against  the  trade  of  Cyprus  has 
been  the  want  of  natural  harbours,  the  ports  possessing  only 
open  roadsteads;  though  early  in  the  2oth  century  the  con- 
struction of  a  satisfactory  commercial  harbour  was  undertaken 
at  Famagusta,  and  there  is  a  small  harbour  at  Kyrenia.  Trade 
is  carried  on  principally  from  the  ports  already  indicated  among 
the  chief  towns.  The  various  agricultural  products,  cattle  and 
mules,  cheese,  wines  and  spirits,  silk  cocoons  and  gypsum  make 
up  the  bulk  of  the  exports.  Barley  and  wheat,  carobs  and  raisins 
may  be  specially  indicated  among  the  agricultural  exports.  The 
annual  value  of  exports  and  of  imports  (which  are  of  a  general 
character)  may  be  set  down  as  about  £300,000  each.  Good 
roads  are  maintained  connecting  the  more  important  towns, 
and  when  the  harbour  at  Famagusta  was  undertaken  the  con- 
struction of  a  railway  from  that  port  to  Nicosia  was  also  put 
in  hand.  The  Eastern  Telegraph  Co.  maintains  a  cable  from 
Alexandria  (Egypt)  to  Larnaca,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  lines 
on  the  island.  The  Imperial  Ottoman  Telegraph  Co.  has  also 
some  lines.  The  British  sovereign  is  the  current  gold  coin,  the 
unit  of  the  bronze  and  silver  coinage  being  the  piastre  (ij  penny). 
Turkish  weights  and  measures  are  used.  The  oke,  equalling 
2-8  Ib  avoirdupois,  and  the  donum,  about  }  of  an  acre,  are  the 
chief  units. 

Constitution  and  Government. — Under  a  convention  signed  at 
Constantinople  on  the  4th  of  June  1878,  Great  Britain  engaged 
to  join  the  sultan  of  Turkey  in  defending  his  Asiatic  possessions 
(in  certain  contingencies)  against  Russia,  and  the  sultan,  "  in 
order  to  enable  England  to  make  necessary  provision  for  execut- 
ing her  engagement,"  consented  to  assign  the  island  of  Cyprus 
to  be  occupied  and  administered  by  England.  The  British  flag 
was  hoisted  on  the  i2th  of  June,  and  the  conditions  of  the 
occupation  were  explained  in  an  annex  to  the  convention,  dated 
the  ist  of  July.  An  order  in  council  of^the  I4th  of  September, 


modified  so  far  as  related  to  legislation  by  another  of  the  3oth 
of  November,  regulated  the  government  of  the  island.  The 
administration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  high  commissioner 
with  the  usual  powers  of  a  colonial  governor.  Executive  and 
legislative  councils  were  established;  and  in  each  of  the  six 
districts  into  which,  for  administrative  and  legal  purposes,  the 
island  was  divided,  a  commissioner  was  appointed  to  represent 
the  government.  The  executive  council  consists  of  the  high 
commissioner,  the  chief  secretary,  the  king's  advocate,  the 
senior  officer  in  charge  of  the  troops,  and  the  receiver-general, 
with,  as  "  additional  "  members,  two  Christians  and  one  Mussul- 
man. The  legislative  council  consists  of  six  non-elected  members, 
being  office-holders,  and  twelve  elected  members,  three  being 
chosen  by  the  Moslems  and  nine  by  the  non-Moslem  inhabitants. 
British  subjects  and  foreigners,  who  have  resided  five  years  in 
Cyprus,  can  exercise  the  franchise  as  well  as  Ottoman  subjects. 
The  qualification  otherwise  is  the  payment  of  any  of  the  taxes 
classed  as  Vergi  Taxes  (see  below).  The  courts  in  existence 
at  the  time  of  the  occupation  were  superseded  by  the  following, 
constituted  by  an  order  in  council  dated  the  3Oth  of  November 
1882: — (i)  a  supreme  court  of  criminal  and  civil  appeal;  (2) 
six  assize  courts;  (3)  six  district  courts;  (4)  six  magistrates' 
courts;  and  (5)  village  courts.  Actions  are  divided,  according 
to  the  nationality  of  the  defendant,  into  "  Ottoman  "  and 
"Foreign";  in  the  latter,  the  president  of  the  court  alone 
exercises  jurisdiction  as  a  rule,  so  also  in  criminal  cases  against 
foreigners.  The  law  administered  is  that  contained  in  the 
Ottoman  codes,  modified  by  ordinances  passed  by  the  legislative 
council. 

Finance. — The  principal  sources  of  revenue  are : — 
(i)  Vergi  taxes,  or  taxes  on  house  and  land  property,  and  trade 
profits  and  incomes  (not  including  salaries) ;  (2)  military  exemption 
tax,  payable  by  Moslems  and  Christians  alike,  but  not  by  foreigners, 
of  2s.  6d.  a  head  on  males  between  1 8  and  60  years  of  age;  (3)  tithes. 
All  tithes  have  been  abolished,  except  those  on  cereals,  carobs,  silk 
cocoons,  and,  in  the  form  of  10%  ad  valorem  export  duties,  those 
on  cotton,  linseed,  aniseed  and  raisins  (all  other  export  duties 
and  a  fishing  tax  have  been  abolished) ;  (4)  sheep,  goat,  and  pig 
tax;  (5)  an  excise  on  wine,  spirits  and  tobacco;  (6)  import  duties; 
(7)  stamps,  court  fees,  royalties,  licenses,  &c. ;  (8)  salt  monopoly. 
Foreigners  are  liable  to  all  the  above  taxes  except  the  military 
exemption  tax.  The  annual  sum  of  £92,800,  payable  to  Turkey  as 
the  average  excess  (according  to  the  years  1873-1878)  of  revenue  over 
expenditure,  but  really  appropriated  to  the  interest  on  the  British 
guaranteed  loan  of  1855,  is  a  heavy  burden.  But  if  not  lightened, 
taxation  is  at  least  better  apportioned  than  formerly. 

Instruction. — A  general  system  of  grants  in  aid  of  elementary 
schools  was  established  in  1882.  There  are  some  300  connected  with 
the  Greek  Orthodox  Church,  and  160  elementary  Moslem  schools. 
Aid  is  also  given  to  a  few  Armenian  and  Maronite  schools.  Among 
other  schools  are  a  Moslem  high  school  (maintained  entirely  by 
government),  a  training  college  at  Nicosia  for  teachers  in  the  Orthodox 
Church  schools,  Greek  high  schools  at  Larnaca  and  Limasol,  an 
English  school  for  boys  and  a  girls'  school  at  Nicosia.  By  a  law  of 
1895  separate  boards  of  education  for  Moslem  and  Greek  Christian 
schools  were  established,  and  in  each  district  there  are  separate 
committees,  presided  over  by  the  commissioner.  An  institution 
worthy  of  special  notice  is  the  home  and  farm  for  lepers  near 
Nicosia,  accommodating  over  a  hundred  inmates. 

HISTORY  AND  ARCHAEOLOGY  DOWN  TO  THE  ROMAN 
OCCUPATION 

The  Stone  Age  has  left  but  few  traces  in  Cyprus;  no  sites 
have  been  found  and  even  single  implements  are  very  rare. 
The  "megalithic"  monuments  of  Agia  Phaneromeni1  and 
Hala  Sultan  Tek6  near  Larnaca  may  perhaps  be  early,  like 
the  Palestinian  cromlechs;  but  the  vaulted  chamber  of  Agia 
Katrfna  near  Enkomi  seems  to  be  Mycenaean  or  later;  and  the 
perforated  monoliths  at  Ktima  seem  to  belong  to  oil  presses 
of  uncertain  but  probably  not  prehistoric  date. 

The  Bronze  Age,  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  peculiar  importance 
in  an  area  which,  like  Cyprus,  was  one  of  the  chief  early  sources 
of  copper.  Its  remains  have  been  carefully  studied  both  on 

1  M.  Ohnefalsch-Richter,  Arch.  Zeitung  (1881),  p.  311,  pi.  xviii. 
The  principal  publications  respecting  this  and  all  sites  and  phases 
of  culture  mentioned  in  this  section  are  collected  in  Myres  and 
Ohnefalsch-Richter,  Cyprus  Museum  Catalogue  (Oxford,  1899),  pp. 
1-35- 


698 


CYPRUS 


settlement  sites  at  Leondiri  Vouno  and  Kalopsida,  and  in  tombs 
in  more  than  thirty  places,  notably  at  Agia  Paraskevi,  Psem- 
matismeno,  Alambra,  Episkopi  and  Enkomi.  Throughout  this 
period,  which  began  probably  before  3000  B.C.  and  ended  about 
1000  B.C.,  Cyprus  evidently  maintained  a  large  population,  and 
an  art  and  culture  distinct  from  those  of  Egypt,  Syria  and 
Cilicia.  The  Cypriote  temper,  however,  lacks  originality;  at 
all  periods  it  has  accepted  foreign  innovations  slowly,  and 
discarded  them  even  more  reluctantly.  The  island  owes  its 
importance,  therefore,  mainly  to  its  copious  supply  of  a  few 
raw  materials,  notably  copper  and  timber.  Objects  of  Cypriote 
manufacture  are  found  but  rarely  on  sites  abroad;  in  the  later 
Bronze  Age,  however,  they  occur  in  Egypt  and  South  Palestine, 
and  as  far  afield  as  Thera  (Santorin),  Athens  and  Troy  (Hissarlik). 

The  Bronze  Age  culture  of  Cyprus  falls  into  three  main  stages. 
In  the  first,  the  implements  are  rather  of  copper  than  of  bronze, 
tin  being  absent  or  in  small  quantities  (2  to  3%);  the  types 
are  common  to  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  as  far  as  the  Hellespont, 
and  resemble  also  the  earliest  forms  in  the  Aegean  and  in  central 
Europe;  the  pottery  is  all  hand-made,  with  a  red  burnished 
surface,  gourd-like  and  often  fantastic  forms,  and  simple  geo- 
metrical patterns  incised;  zoomorphic  art  is  very  rare,  and 
imported  objects  are  unknown.  In  the  second  stage,  implements 
of  true  bronze  (9  to  10%  tin)  become  common;  painted  pottery 
of  buff  clay  with  dull  black  geometrical  patterns  appears  along- 
side the  red- ware;  and  foreign  imports  occur,  such  as  Egyptian 
blue-glazed  beads  (Xllth-XIIIth  Dynasty,  2500-2000  B.C.),1 
and  cylindrical  Asiatic  seals  (one  of  Sargon  I.,  2000  B.C.).2 

In  the  third  stage,  Aegean  colonists  introduced  the  Mycenaean 
(late  Minoan)  culture  and  industries;  with  new  types  of  weapons, 
wheel-made  pottery,  and  a  naturalistic  art  which  rapidly  becomes 
conventional;  gold  and  ivory  are  abundant,  and  glass  and 
enamels  are  known.  Extended  intercourse  with  Syria,  Palestine 
and  Egypt  brought  other  types  of  pottery,  jewelry,  &c.  (especially 
scarabs  of  XVIIIth  and  XlXth  Dynasties,  1600-1200  B.C.), 
which  were  freely  copied  on  the  spot.  There  is,  however,  nothing 
in  this  period  which  can  be  ascribed  to  specifically  "  Phoenician  " 
influence;  the  only  traces  of  writing  are  in  a  variety  of  the 
Aegean  script.  The  magnificent  tombs  from  Enkomi  and 
Episkopi  illustrate  the  wealth  and  advancement  of  Cyprus  at 
this  time.3 

It  is  in  this  third  stage  that  Cyprus  first  appears  in  history, 
under  the  name  Asi,  as  a  conquest  of  Tethmosis  (Thothmes) 
III.  of  Egypt  (XVIIIth  Dynasty,  c.  1500  B.C.),4  yielding  tribute 
of  chariots,  horses,  copper,  blue-stone  and  other  products.  It 
was  still  in  Egyptian  hands  under  Seti  I.,  and  under  Rameses 
III.  a  list  of  Cypriote  towns  seems  to  include  among  others 
the  names  of  Salamis,  Citium,  Soli,  Idalium,  Cerynia  (Kyrenia), 
and  Curium.  Another  Egyptian  dependency,  Alasia,  has  by 
some  been  identified  with  Cyprus  or  a  part  of  it  (but  may  perhaps 
be  in  North  Syria).  It  sent  copper,  oil,  horses  and  cattle,  ivory 
and  timber;  under  Amenophis  (Amenhotep)  III.  it  exported 
timber  and  imported  silver;  it  included  a  town  Si^ra,  traded  with 
Byblus  in  North  Syria,  and  was  exposed  to  piratical  raids  of 
Lykki  (PLycians). 

The  decline  of  Egypt  under  the  XXth  Dynasty,  and  the 
contemporary  fall  of  the  Aegean  sea-power,  left  Cyprus  isolated 
and  defenceless,  and  the  Early  Iron  Age  which  succeeds  is  a 
period  of  obscurity  and  relapse.  Iron,  which  occurs  rarely,  and 
almost  exclusively  for  ornaments,  in  a  few  tombs  at  Enkomi, 
suddenly  superseded  bronze  for  tools  and  weapons,  and  its  intro- 
duction was  accompanied,  as  in  the  Aegean,  by  economic,  and 
probably  by  political  changes,  which  broke  up  the  high  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Mycenaean  colonies,  and  reduced  them  to  poverty, 

1  Myres,  Journ.  Hellenic  Studies,  xvii.  p.  146. 

8Sayce,  Trans.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch.  \.  pp.  441-444.  The  exact 
provenance  of  these  cylinders  is  not  known,  but  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  they  were  found  in  Cyprus. 

'  British  Museum,  Excavations  in  Cyprus  (London,  1900).  The 
official  publication  stands  alone  in  referring  these  tombs  to  the 
Hellenic  period  (800-600  B.C.). 

4  E.  Oberhummer,  Die  Insel  Cypern  (Munich,  1903),  i.  pp.  1-3 
(all  the  Egyptian  evidence). 


isolation  and  comparative  barbarism.  It  is  significant  that  the 
first  iron  swords  in  Cyprus  are  of  a  type  characteristic  of  the 
lands  bordering  the  Adriatic.  Gold  and  even  silver  become 
rare;6  foreign  imports  almost  cease;  engraved  cylinders  and 
scarabs  are  replaced  by  conical  and  pyramidal  seals  like  those 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  dress-pins  by  brooches  (fibulae)  like  those  of 
south-eastern  Europe.  Representative  art  languishes,  except 
a  few  childish  terra-cottas;  decorative  art  becomes  once  more 
purely  geometrical,  but  shows  only  slight  affinity  with  the  con- 
temporary geometrical  art  of  the  Aegean. 

Lingering  thus  in  Cyprus  (as  also  in  some  islands  of  the  Aegean) 
Mycenaean  traditions  came  into  contact  with  new  oriental 
influences  from  the  Syrian  coast;  and  these  were  felt  in  Cyprus 
somewhat  earlier  than  in  the  West.  But  there  is  at  present  no 
clear  proof  of  Phoenician  or  other  Semitic  activity  in  Cyprus 
until  the  last  years  of  the  8th  century. 

No  reference  to  Cyprus  has  been  foundin  Babylonianor  Assyrian 
records  before  the  reign  of  Sargon  II.  (end  of  8th  century  B.C.), 
and  the  occasional  discovery  of  Mesopotamian  cylinders  of  early 
date  in  Cyprus  is  no  proof  of  direct  intercourse.6  Isaiah  (xxiii.  i, 
12),  writing  about  this  time,  describes  Kittim  (a  name  derived 
from  Citium,  q.v.)  as  a  port  of  call  for  merchantmen  homeward 
bound  for  Tyre,  and  as  a  shelter  for  Tynan  refugees;  but  the 
Hebrew  geographers  of  this  and  the  next  century  classify  Kittim, 
together  with  other  coast-lands  and  islands,  under  the  heading 
Javan,  "  Ionian  "  (q.v.),  and  consequently  reckoned  it  as  pre- 
dominantly Greek. 

Sargon's  campaigns  in  north  Syria,  Cilicia  and  south-east 
Asia  Minor  (721-711)  provoked  first  attacks,  then  an  embassy 
and  submission  in  709,  from  seven  kings  of  Yatnana  (the  Assyrian 
name  for  Cyprus);  and  an  inscription  of  Sargon  himself,  found 
at  Citium,  proves  an  Assyrian  protectorate,  and  records  tribute 
of  gold,  silver  and  various  timbers.  These  kings  probably 
represent  that  "  sea-power  of  Cyprus  "  which  precedes  that  of 
Phoenicia  in  the  Greek  "  List  of  Thalassocracies  "  preserved 
by  Eusebius.  Under  Sennacherib's  rule,  Yatnana  figures  (as 
in  Isaiah)  as  the  refuge  of  a  disloyal  Sidonian  in  702;  but  in 
668  ten  kings  of  Cypriote  cities  joined  Assur-bani-paFs  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt;  most  of  them  bear  recognizable  Greek  names, 
e.g.  Pylagoras  of  Chytroi,  Eteandros  of  Paphos,  Onasagoras  of 
Ledroi.  They  are  gazetted  with  twelve  other  "  kings  of  the 
Haiti  "  (S.E.  Asia  Minor).  Citium,  the  principal  Phoenician 
state,  does  not  appear  by  name;  but  is  usually  recognized  in 
the  list  under  its  Phoenician  title  Karti-hadasli,  "new  town." 

Thus  before  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  Cyprus  reappears 
in  history  divided  among  at  least  ten  cities,  of  which  some  are 
certainly  Greek,  and  one  at  least  certainly  Phoenician:  with 
this,'  Greek  tradition  agrees.7  The  Greek  colonists  traced  their 
descent,  at  Curium,  from  Argos;  at  Lapathus,  from  Laconia; 
at  Paphos,  from  Arcadia;  at  Salamis,  from  the  Attic  island  of 
that  name;  and  at  Soli,  also  from  Attica.  The  settlements  at 
Paphos  and  Salamis,  and  probably  at  Curium,  were  believed 
to  date  from  the  period  of  the  Trojan  War,  i.e.  from  the  I3th 
century,  and  the  latter  part  of  the  Mycenaean  age;  the  name 
of  Teucer,  the  legendary  founder  of  Salamis,  probably  is  a 
reminiscence  of  the  piratical  Tikkara  who  harried  the  Egyptian 
coast  under  Rameses  III.  (c.  1200  B.C.),  and  the  discovery  of 
late  Mycenaean  settlements  on  these  sites,  and  also  at  Lapathus, 
suggests  that  these  legends  rest  upon  history.  The  Greek 
dialect  of  Cyprus  points  in  the  same  direction;  it  shows  marked 
resemblances  with  that  of  Arcadia,  and  forms  with  it  a  "  South 
Achaean  "  or  "  South  Aeolic  "  group,  related  to  the  "  Northern 
Aeolic  "  of  Thessaly  and  other  parts  of  north  Greece.8  Further 

'A.  J.  Evans,  Journ.  Anthrop.  Inst.  xxx.  p.  199  ff. ;  J.  Naue, 
Die  vorromischen  Schwerter  (Munich,  1903),  p.  25. 

'  E.  Oberhummer,  I.e.  p.  5  ff.  (all  the  Assyrian  and  biblical 
evidence). 

7  W.  H.  Engel,  Kypros  (Berlin,  1841)  (all  the  Greek  traditions). 

8  Moriz  Schmidt,  Z.  f.  vergl.  Sprachiv.  (1860),  p..  290  ff.,  361  ff. ; 
H.  W.  Smith,  Trans.  Amer.  Philol.  Assoc.  xviii.  (1887);   R.  Meister, 
Zum  eleischen,  arkadischen  u.  kyprischen  Dialekte  (Leipzig,  1890); 
O.  Hoffmann,  Die  griechischen  Dialekte,  i.  (Gottingen,  1891);    C. 
D.  Cobham,  Bibliography  of  Cyprus,  pp.  40-45. 


CYPRUS 


699 


evidence  of  continuity  comes  from  the  peculiar  Cypriote  script,  a 
syllabary  related  to  the  linear  scripts  of  Crete  and  the  south 
Aegean,  and  traceable  in  Cyprus  to  the  Mycenaean  age.1  It 
remained  in  regular  use  until  the  4th  century;  before  that 
time  the  Greek  alphabet  occurs  in  Cyprus  only  in  a  few  inscrip- 
tions erected  for  visitors.2  In  Citium  and  Idalium,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  Phoenician  dialect  and  alphabet  were  in  use  from 
the  time  of  Sargon  onward.3  Sargon's  inscription  at  Citium  is 
cuneiform.4 

The  culture  and  art  of  Cyprus  in  this  Graeco-Phoenician 
period  are  well  represented  by  remains  from  Citium,  Idalium, 
Tamassus,  Amathus  and  Curium;  the  earlier  phases  are  best 
represented  round  Lapathus,  Soli,  Paphos  and  Citium;  the 
later  Hellenization,  at  Amathus  and  Marion-Arsinoe.  Three 
distinct  foreign  influences  may  be  distinguished:  they  originate 
in  Egypt,  in  Assyria,  and  in  the  Aegean.  The  first  two  pre- 
dominate earlier,  and  gradually  recede  before  the  last-named. 
Their  effects  are  best  seen  in  sculpture  and  in  metal  work,  though 
it  remains  doubtful  whether  the  best  examples  of  the  latter  were 
made  in  Cyprus  or  on  the  mainland.  Among  a  great  series  of 
engraved  silver  bowls,5  found  mostly  in  Cyprus,  but  also  as  far 
off  as  Nineveh,  Olympia,  Caere  and  Praeneste,  some  examples 
show  almost  unmixed  imitation  of  Egyptian  scenes  and  devices; 
in  others,  Assyrian  types  are  introduced  among  the  Egyptian 
in  senseless  confusion;  in  others,  both  traditions  are  merged 
in  a  mixed  art,  which  betrays  a  return  to  naturalism  and  a  new 
sense  of  style,  like  that  of  the  Idaean  bronzes  in  Crete.6  From 
its  intermediate  position  between  the  art  of  Phoenicia  and  its 
western  colonies  (so  far  as  this  is  known)  and  the  earliest  Hellenic 
art  in  the  Aegean,  this  style  has  been  called  Graeco-Phoenician. 
The  same  sequence  of  phases  is  represented  in  sculpture  by  the 
votive  statues  from  the  sanctuaries  of  Aphrodite  at  Dali  and  of 
Apollo  at  V6ni  and  Frangissa;  and  by  examples  from  other 
sites  in-  the  Cesnola  collection;  in  painting  by  a  rare  class  of 
naively  polychromic  vases;  and  in  both  by  the  elaborately 
coloured  terra-cotta  figures  from  the  "  Toumba  "  site  at  Salamis. 
Gem-engraving  and  jewelry  follow  similar  lines;  pottery -painting 
for  the  most  part  remains  geometrical  throughout,  with  crude 
survivals  of  Mycenaean  curvilinear  forms.  Those  Aegean  in- 
fluences, however,  which  had  been  predominant  in  the  later 
Bronze  Age,  and  had  never  wholly  ceased,  revived,  as  Hellenism 
matured  and  spread,  and  slowly  repelled  the  mixed  Phoenician 
orientalism.  Imported  vases  from  the  Aegean,  of  the  "  Dipylon," 
"  proto-Corinthian  "  and  "  Rhodian  "  fabrics,  occur  rarely, 
and  were  imitated  by  the  native  potters;  and  early  in  the  6th 
century  appears  the  specific  influence  of  Ionia,  and  still  more 
of  Naucratis  in  the  Egyptian  delta.  For  the  failure  of  Assyria 
in  Egypt  in  668-664,  and  the  revival  of  Egypt  as  a  phil-Hellene 
state  under  the  XXVIth  Dynasty,  admitted  strong  Graeco- 
Egyptian  influences  in  industry  and  art,  and  led  about  560  B.C. 
to  the  political  conquest  of  Cyprus  by  Amasis  (Ahmosi)  II.;7 
once  again  Cypriote  timber  maintained  a  foreign  sea-power  in 
the  Levant. 

The  annexation  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  of  Persia  in  525  B.C. 

'G.  Smith,  Tr.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch.  i.  129  ff.;  Moritz  Schmidt, 
Monatsb.  k.  Ak.  Wiss.  (Berlin,  1874),  pp.  614-615;  Sammlungkypr. 
Inschriften  (Jena,  1876);  W.  Deecke,  Ursprungder  kypr.  Sylben- 
schrift  (Strassburg,  1877);  cf.  Deecke-Collitz.  Samml.  d.  gr.  Dialekt- 
inscHnften,  i.  (Gottingen,  1884);  cf.  C.  D.  Cobham,  I.e.  On  its 
Aegean  origin,  A.  J.  Evans,  "  Cretan  Pictographs  "  (1895),  Journ. 
Hell.  Studies,  xiv.,  cf.  xvii. ;  British  Museum,  Exc.  in  Cypr.  (London, 
1900),  p.  27. 

1  British  Museum,  Exc.  in  Cypr.  (London,  1900),  p.  95  (Ionic 
inscriptions  of  5th  century  from  Amathus). 

*  M.  de  Vogue,  Melanges  d'archeologie  orientale  (Paris,  1869); 
J.  Euting,  Sitzb.  k.  preuss.  Ak.  Wiss.  (1887),  pp.  115  ff.;  Ph.  Berger, 
C.  R.  Acad.  Inscr.  (1887),  pp.  155  ff.,  187  ff.,  203  ff.  Cf.  Corpus  Inscr. 
Semit.  (Paris,  1881),  ii.  35  ff. 

4  E.  Schrader,  Abh.  d.  k.  preuss.  Ak.  Wiss.  (1881). 

5  G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  I'art  dans  I'antiquite,  iii. 
(Paris,  1885),  interpret  these  and  most  other  Cypriote  materials 
without  reserve  as  "  Phoenician." 

«  F.  Halbherr  and  P.  Orsi,  Antichitd  dell'  antro  di  Zeus  Idea  in 
Creta  (Rome,  1888).  Cf.  H.  Brunn,  Criechische  Kunstgeschichte 
(Munich,  1893),  i.  90  ff. 

7  Herod,  ii.  182;  see  also  EGYPT:  History  (Dyn.  XXVI.). 


was  preceded  by  the  voluntary  surrender  of  Cyprus,  which 
formed  part  of  Darius's  "  fifth  satrapy."8  The  Greek  cities, 
faring  ill  under  Persia,  and  organized  by  Onesilaus  of  Salamis, 
joined  the  Ionic  revolt  in  500  B.C.  ; '  but  the  Phoenician  states, 
Citium  and  Amathus,  remained  loyal  to  Persia;  the  rising 
was  soon  put  down;  in  480  Cyprus  furnished  no  less  than  150 
ships  to  the  fleet  of  Xerxes;10  and  in  spite  of  the  repeated 
attempts  of  the  Delian  League  to  "  liberate  "  the  island,  it 
remained  subject  to  Persia  during  the  5th  century.11  The  occasion 
of  the  siege  of  Idalium  by  Persians  (which  is  commemorated 
in  an  important  Cypriote  inscription)  is  unknown.12  Throughout 
this  period,  however,  Athens  and  other  Greek  states  maintained 
a  brisk  trade  in  copper,  sending  vases  and  other  manufactures 
in  return,  and  bringing  Cyprus  at  last  into  full  contact  with 
Hellenism.  But  the  Greek  cities  retained  monarchical  govern- 
ment throughout,  and  both  the  domestic  art  and  the  principal 
religious  cults  remained  almost  unaltered.  The  coins  of  the 
Greek  dynasts  and  autonomous  towns  are  struck  on  a  variable 
standard  with  a  stater  of  170  toiSogrs."  The  principal  Greek 
cities  were  now  Salamis,  Curium,  Paphos,  Marion,  Soli,  Kyrenia 
and  Khytri.  Phoenicians  held  Citium  and  Amathus  on  the 
south  coast  between  Salamis  and  Curium,  also  Tamassus  and 
Idalium  in  the  interior;  but  the  last  named  was  little  more 
than  a  sanctuary  town,  like  Paphos.  At  the  end  of  the  5th 
century  a  fresh  Salaminian  League  was  formed  by  Evagoras 
(q.v.),  who  became  king  in  410,  aided  the  Athenian  Conon 
after  the  fall  of  Athens  in  404,  and  revolted  openly  from  Persia 
in  386,  after  the  peace  of  Antalcidas.14  Athens  again  sent  help, 
but  as  before  the  Phoenician  states  supported  Persia;  the 
Greeks  were  divided  by  feuds,  and  in  380  the  attempt  failed; 
Evagoras  was  assassinated  in  374,  and  his  son  Nicocles  died  soon 
after.  After  the  victory  of  Alexander  the  Great  at  Issus  in  333 
B.C.  all  the  states  of  Cyprus  welcomed  him,  and  sent  timber  and 
ships  for  his  siege  of  Tyre  in  332. 

After  Alexander's  death  in  323  B.C.  Cyprus,  coveted  still  for 
its  copper  and  timber,  passed,  after  several  rapid  changes,  to 
Ptolemy  I.,  king  of  Egypt.  Then  in  306  B.C.  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes  of  Macedon  overran  the  whole  island,  besieged  Salamis, 
and  utterly  defeated  there  the  Egyptian  fleet.  Ptolemy,  however, 
recovered  it  in  295  B.C.  Under  Ptolemaic  rule  Cyprus  has  little 
history.  Usually  it  was  governed  by  a  viceroy  of  the  royal  line, 
but  it  gained  a  brief  independence  under  Ptolemy  Lathyrus 
(107-89  B.C.),  and  under  a  brother  of  Ptolemy  Auletes  in  58  B.C. 
The  great  sanctuaries  of  Paphos  and  Idalium,  and  the  public 
buildings  of  Salamis,  which  were  wholly  remodelled  in  this 
period,  have  produced  but  few  works  of  art;  the  sculpture 
from  local  shrines  at  V6ni  and  Vitsada,  and  the  frescoed  tomb- 
stones from  Amathus,  only  show  how  incapable  the  Cypriotes 
still  were  of  utilizing  Hellenistic  models;  a  rare  and  beautiful 
class  of  terra-cottas  like  those  of  Myrina  may  be  of  Cypriote 
fabric,  but  their  style  is  wholly  of  the  Aegean.  It  is  in  this 
period  that  we  first  hear  of  Jewish  settlements,"  which  later 
become  very  populous. 

In  58  B.C.  Rome,  which  had  made  large  unsecured  loans  to 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  sent  M.  Porcius  Cato  to  annex  the  island, 
nominally  because  its  king  had  connived  at  piracy,  really  because 
its  revenues  and  the  treasures  of  Paphos  were  coveted  to  finance 
a  corn  law  of  P.  Clodius.1*  Under  Rome  Cyprus  was  at  first 
appended  to  the  province  of  Cilicia;  after  Actium  (31  B.C.)  it 
became  a  separate  province,  which  remained  in  the  hands  of 
Augustus  and  was  governed  by  a  legatus  Caesaris  pro  praetore 
as  long  as  danger  was  feared  from  the  East."  No  monuments 

•  Herod,  iii.  19.  91 ;  see  also  PERSIA:  History. 

'  Herod,  v.  108,  113,  115. 

10  Herod,  vii.  90.  "  Thuc.  i.  94,  112. 

11  M.  Schmidt,  Die  Inschrift  von  Idalion  (Jena,  1874). 

"G.  F.  Hill,  Brit.  Mus.  Cat.  Coins  of  Cyprus  (London,   1904) 
Earlier  literature  in  Cobham,  I.e.  p.  39. 

14  H.  F.  Talbot,  Tr.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch.  \.  447  ff.  (translation). 
For  Evagoras  and  the  place  of  Cyprus  in  later  Greek  history,  see 
G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece  (Index,  s.v.),  and  W.  H.  Engel,  Kypros 
(Berlin,  1841). 

"  i  Mace.  xv.  23.          "  Livy,  Epit.  104;   Cic.  pro  Sestio,  26,  57. 

17  Dio  Cass.  liii.  12 ;  Strabo  683.  840. 


yoo 


CYPRUS 


remain  of  this  period.  In  22  B.C.,  however,  it  was  transferred  to 
the  senate,1  so  that  Sergius  Paulus,  who  was  governor  in  A.D.  46, 
is  rightly  called  avBinraros  (proconsul).2  Of  Paulus  no  coins 
are  known,  but  an  inscription  exists. 3  Other  proconsuls  are 
Julius  Cordus  and  L.  Annius  Bassus  who  succeeded  him  in  A.D. 
52.4  The  copper  mines,  which  were  still  of  great  importance, 
were  farmed  at  one  time  by  Herod  the  Great.5  The  persecution 
of  Christians  on  the  mainland  after  the  death  of  Stephen  drove 
converts  as  far  as  Cyprus;  and  soon  after  converted  Cypriote 
Jews,  such  as  Mnason  (an  "  original  convert  " )  and  Joses  the 
Levite  (better  known  as  Barnabas),  were  preaching  in  Antioch. 
The  latter  revisited  Cyprus  twice,  first  with  Paul  on  his  "  first 
journey"  in  A.D.  46,  and  later  with  Mark.6  In  116-117  the 
Jews  of  Cyprus,  with  those  of  Egypt  and  Cyrene,  revolted, 
massacred  240,000  persons,  and  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Salamis. 
Hadrian,  afterwards  emperor,  suppressed  them,  and  expelled 
all  Jews  from  Cyprus. 

For  the  culture  of  the  Roman  period  there  is  abundant  evidence 
from  Salamis  and  Paphos,  and  from  tombs  everywhere,  for  the 
glass  vessels  which  almost  wholly  supersede  pottery  are  much 
sought  for  their  (quite  accidental)  iridescence;  not  much  else 
is  found  that  is  either  characteristic  or  noteworthy;  and  little 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  sequence  of  style. 

The  Christian  church  of  Cyprus  was  divided  into  thirteen 
bishoprics.  It  was  made  autonomous  in  the  sth  century,  in 
recognition  of  the  supposed  discovery  of  the  original  of  St 
Matthew's  Gospel  in  a  "  tomb  of  Barnabas  "  which  is  still  shown 
at  Salamis.  The  patriarch  has  therefore  the  title  pioKapiajraros 
and  the  right  to  sign  his  name  in  red  ink.  A  council  of  Cyprus, 
summoned  by  Theophilus  of  Alexandria  in  A.D.  401,  prohibited 
the  reading  of  the  works  of  Origen  (see  CYPRUS,  CHURCH  or). 

Of  the  Byzantine  period  little  remains  but  the  ruins  of  the 
castles  of  St  Hilarion,  Buffavento  and  Kantara;  and  a  magnifi- 
cent series  of  gold  ornaments  and  silver  plate,  found  near  Kyrenia 
in  1883  and  1897  respectively.  Christian  tombs  usually  contain 
nothing  of  value. 

The  Frank  conquest  is  represented  by  the  "  Crusaders'  Tower  " 
at  Kolossi,  and  the  church  of  St  Nicholas  at  Nicosia;  and, 
later,  by  masterpieces  of  a  French  Gothic  style,  such  as 
the  church  (mosque)  of  St  Sophia,  and  other  churches  at 
Nicosia;  the  cathedral  (mosque)  and  others  at  Famagusta  (q.v.), 
and  the  monastery  at  Bella  Pais;  as  well  as  by  domestic 
architecture  at  Nicosia;  and  by  forts  at  Kyrenia,  Limasol  and 
elsewhere. 

The  Turks  and  British  have  added  little,  and  destroyed  much, 
converting  churches  into  mosques  and  grain-stores,  and  quarrying 
walls  and  buildings  at  Famagusta. 

History  of  Excavation. — Practically  all  the  archaeological 
discoveries  above  detailed  have  been  made  since  1877.  A  few 
chance  finds  of  vases,  inscriptions  and  coins;  of  a  hoard  of 
silver  bowls  at  Dali  (anc.  Idalium)1  in  1851;  and  of  a  bronze 
tablet  with  Phoenician  and  Cypriote  bilingual  inscriptions,8 
also  at  Dali,  and  about  the  same  time,  had  raised  questions  of 
great  interest  as  to  the  art  and  the  language  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants.  T.  B.  Sandwith,  British  consul  1865-1869,  had 
laid  the  foundations  of  a  sound  knowledge  of  Cypriote  pottery;9 
his  successor  R.  H.  Lang  (1870-1872)  had  excavated  a  sanctuary 
of  Aphrodite  at  Dali; 10  and  at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the 
9th  ed.  of  the  Ency.  Brit.,11  General  Louis  P.  di  Cesnola  (q.v.), 
American  consul,  was  already  exploring  ancient  sites,  and 
opening  tombs,  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  though  his  results  were 
not  published  till  1877."  But  though  his  vast  collection,  now 

1  Dio  Cass.  liv.  4;  Strabo  685.  2  Acts  xiii.  7. 

'  D.  G.  Hogarth,  Devia  Cypria,  pp.  114  ff.  and  app. 
4  Corp.  Inscr.  Lat.  2631-2632. 

6  Jos.  Ant.  16.  4,  5;   19.  26,  28. 

•  Acts  iv.  36,  xi.  19,  20,  xiii.  4-13,  xv.  39,  xxi.  16. 

7  De  Longperier,  Athenaum  franfais  (1853),  pp.  413  ff. ;    Musee 
Napoleon,  pis.  x.  xi. 

8  De  Luynes,  Numismatique  et  inscriptions  chypriotes  (1852). 

9  Archaeologia,  xlv.  (1877),  pp.  127-142. 

10  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Literature,  2nd  ser.  xi.  (1878),  pp.  30  ff. 

11  Article  "  Cyprus  "  ad.  fin. 

12  Cyprus:  its  Cities,  Tombs  and  Temples  (London,  1877). 


in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York,  remains  the  largest 
series  of  Cypriote  antiquities  in  the  world,  the  accounts  which 
have  been  given  of  its  origin  are  so  inadequate,  and  have  provoked 
so  much  controversy,13  that  its  scientific  value  is  small,  and  a 
large  part  of  subsequent  excavation  has  necessarily  been  directed 
to  solving  the  problems  suggested  by  its  practically  isolated 
specimens.  From  1876  to  1878  Major  Alexander  P.  di  Cesnola 
continued  his  brother's  work,  but  the  large  collection  which  he 
exhibited  in  London  in  1880  was  dispersed  soon  afterwards.14 

On  the  British  occupation  of  Cyprus  in  1878,  the  Ottoman 
law  of  1874  in  regard  to  antiquities  was  retained  in  force.  Ex- 
cavation is  permitted  under  government  supervision,  and  the 
finds  are  apportioned  in  thirds,  between  the  excavator,  the 
landowner  (who  is  usually  bought  out  by  the  former),  and  the 
government.  The  government  thirds  lie  neglected  in  a  "  Cyprus 
Museum  "  maintained  at  Nicosia  by  voluntary  subscription. 
There  is  no  staff,  and  no  effective  supervision  of  ancient  sites  or 
monuments.  A  catalogue  of  the  collections  was  published  by 
the  Oxford  University  Press  in  1899. 16 

Since  1878  more  than  seventy  distinct  excavations  have 
been  made  in  Cyprus,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant. In  1879  the  British  government  used  the  acropolis  of 
Citium  (Larnaca)  to  fill  up  the  ancient  harbour;  and  from  the 
destruction  a  few  Phoenician  inscriptions  and  a  proto-Ionic 
capital  were  saved.  In  1882  tombs  were  opened  by  G.  Hake 
at  Salamis  and  Curium  for  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  but 
no  scientific  record  was  made.  In  1883  the  Cyprus  Museum 
was  founded  by  private  enterprise,  and  on  its  behalf  Max 
Ohnefalsch-Richter,  who  had  already  made  trial  diggings  for 
Sir  Charles  Newton  and  the  British  Museum,  excavated  sanctu- 
aries at  Voni  and  Kythrea  (Chytri),  and  opened  tombs  on  some 
other  sites. 16 

In  1885  Dr  F.  Dummler  opened  tombs  at  Dali,  Alambra 
and  elsewhere,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  knowledge  of  the 
Bronze  Age  and  Early  Iron  Age;17  and  Richter,  on  behalf  of 
officials  and  private  individuals,  excavated  parts  of  Fringissa 
(Tamassus),  Episkopi  and  Dali.18 

In  the  same  year,  1885,  and  in  1886,  a  syndicate  opened  many 
tombs  at  Poli-tis-Khrysochou  (Marium,  Arsinoe),  and  sold  the 
contents  by  auction  in  Paris.  From  Richter's  notes  of  this 
excavation,  Dr  P.  Herrmann  compiled  the  first  scientific  account 
of  Graeco- Phoenician  and  Hellenistic  Cyprus.19  In  1886  also 
M.  le  vicomte  E.  de  Castillon  de  St  Victor  opened  rich  Graeco- 
Phoenician  tombs  at  Episkopi,  the  contents  of  which  are  in  the 
Louvre. 20 

The  successes  of  1885-1886  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  Cyprus 
Exploration  Fund,  on  behalf  of  which  (i)  in  1888  the  sanctuary 
of  Aphrodite  at  Paphos  (Kouklia)  was  excavated  by  Messrs 
E.  Gardner,  M.  R.  James,  D.  G.  Hogarth  and  R.  Elsey  Smith;21 
(2)  in  1889-1890  more  tombs  were  opened  at  Poli  by  Messrs 
J.  A.  R.  Munro  and  H.  A.  Tubbs;22^)  in  1890-1891  extensive 
trials  were  made  at  Salamis,  by  the  same;23  (4)  minor  sites  were 
examined  at  Leondari  Vouno  (i888),24  Amargetti  (1888),"  and 
Limniti  (1889) ;26  (5)  in  1888  Hogarth  made  a  surface-survey 
of  the  Karpass  promontory; 27  and  finally,  (6)  in  1894  the  balance 
was  expended  by  J.  L.  Myres  in  a  series  of  trials,  to  settle  special 

13  See  Cobham,  An  Attempt  at  a  Bibliography  of  Cyprus  (4th  ed.. 
Nicosia,  1900),  Appendix,  "  Cesnola  Controversy,"  p.  54. 

"The  Lawrence-Cesnola  Collection  (London,  1881);  Salaminia, 
id.  1882. 

16  Myres  and  Ohnefalsch-Richter,  A  Catalogue  of  the  Cyprus 
Museum,  with  a  Chronicle  of  Excavations  since  the  British  Occupation, 
and  Introductory  Notes  on  Cypriote  Archaeology  (Oxford,  1899). 

16  Mitt.  d.  arch.  Inst.  ii.  (Athens,  1881). 

17  Mitt.  d.  arch.  Inst.  vi.   (Athens,   1886);    Bemerkungen  z.  alt. 
Kunsthandwerk,  &c.,   ii.   "  Der  kypr.  geometrische  Stil  "   (Halle, 
1888). 

18  Summarized  in  Cyprus,  the  Bible  and  Homer  (London  and  Berlin, 

1893). 

19  Das  Graberfeld  von  Marion  (Berlin,  1888). 

20  Archives  des  missions  scientifiques,  xvii.  (Paris,  1891). 

21  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  ix.  (London,  I888J. 
a  Id.  xi.  (1890);   xii.  (1891).          "Id.  xii.  (1891). 
24  Id.  ix.  (1888).  .«•  Id.  ix.  (1888). 

28  Id.  xi.  (1890).  "  Devia  Cypria  (Oxford,  1889). 


CYPRUS,  CHURCH  OF 


701 


points,  at  Agia  Paraskevi,  Kalopsfda  and  Larnaca.1  In  1894 
also  Dr  Richter  excavated  round  Idalium  and  Tamassus  for  the 
Prussian  government:  the  results,  unpublished  up  to  1902,  are 
in  the  Berlin  Museum.2  Finally,  a  legacy  from  Miss  Emma 
T.  Turner  enabled  the  British  Museum  to  open  numerous  tombs, 
by  contract,  of  the  Graeco-Phoenician  age,  in  1894,  at  Palaeo- 
Lemesso  (Amathus);  and  of  the  Mycenaean  age,  in  1894-1895 
at  Episkopi,  in  1895-1896  at  Enkomi  (near  Salamis),  and  in 
1897-1899  on  small  sites  between  Larnaca  and  Limasol.3 

For  ancient  Oriental  references  to  Cyprus  see  E.  Oberhummer, 
Die  Insel  Cypern,  i.  (Munich,  1903);  for  classical  references,  W.  H. 
Engel,  Kypros  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1841) ;  for  culture  and  art,  G.  Perrot 
and  C.  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  I'art  dans  Vantiquite,  vol.  iii.  "  Phenicie 
et  Cypre  "  (Paris,  1885) ;  L.  P.  di  Cesnola,  A  Descriptive  Atlas  of  the 
Cesnola  Collection  of  Cypr.  A  ntiquities  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  New  York  (3  vols.,  Boston,  U.S.A.,  1884-1886) ;  M.  Ohnefalsch- 
Richter,  Kypros,  the  Bible  and  Homer  (2  vols.,  London  and  Berlin, 
1893);  J-  L.  Myres  and  M.  Ohnefalsch-Richter,  Cyprus  Museum 
Catalogue  (Oxford,  1899).  The  principal  publications  on  special 
topics  are  given  in  the  footnotes.  For  Cypriote  coins  see  also  NUMIS- 
MATICS. See  further  the  general  bibliography  below.  (J.  L.  M.) 

MODERN  HISTORY 

After  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire  Cyprus  naturally 
passed,  with  all  the  neighbouring  countries,  into  the  hands  of 
the  Eastern  or  Byzantine  emperors,  to  whom  it  continued 
subject,  with  brief  intervals,  for  more  than  seven  centuries. 
Until  644  the  island  was  exceedingly  prosperous,  but  in  that 
year  began  the  period  of  Arab  invasions,  which  continued 
intermittently  until  975.  At  the  outset  the  Arabs  under  the 
caliph  Othman  made  themselves  masters  of  the  island,  and 
destroyed  the  city  of  Salamis,  which  until  that  time  had  con- 
tinued to  be  the  capital.  The  island  was  recovered  by  the 
Greek  emperors  and,  though  again  conquered  by  the  Arabs  in 
the  reign  of  Harun  al-Rashid  (802),  it  was  finally  restored  to 
the  Byzantine  empire  under  Nicephorus  Phocas.  Its  princes 
became  practically  independent,  and  tyrannized  the  island, 
until  in  1191  Isaac  Comnenus  provoked  the  wrath  of  Richard  L, 
king  of  England,  by  wantonly  ill-treating  his  crusaders.  He 
thereupon  wrested  the  island  from  Isaac,  whom  he  took  captive. 
He  then  sold  Cyprus  to  the  Knights  Templars,  who  presently 
resold  it  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  titular  king  of  Jerusalem. 

Guy  ruled  from  1192  till  his  death  in  1194;  his  brother 
Amaury  took  the  title  of  king,  and  from  this  time  Cyprus  was 
governed  for  nearly  three  centuries  by  a  succession  of  kings  of 
the  same  dynasty,  who  introduced  into  the  island  the  feudal 
system  and  other  institutions  of  western  Europe.  During  the 
later  part  of  this  period,  indeed,  the  Genoese  made  themselves 
masters  of  Famagusta — which  had  risen  in  place  of  Salamis 
to  be  the  chief  commercial  city  in  the  island — and  retained 
possession  of  it  for  a  considerable  time  (1376-1464);  but  it  was 
recovered  by  King  James  II.,  and  the  whole  island  was  reunited 
under  his  rule.  His  marriage  with  Caterina  Cornaro,  a  Venetian 
lady  of  rank,  was  designed  to  secure  the  support  of  the  powerful 
republic  of  Venice,  but  had  the  effect  after  a  few  years,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  own  death  and  that  of  his  son  James  III.,  of 
transferring  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  to  his  new  allies. 
Caterina,  feeling  herself  unable  to  contend  alone  with  the  increas- 
ing power  of  the  Turks,  was  induced  to  abdicate  the  sovereign 
power  in  favour  of  the  Venetian  republic,  which  at  once  entered 
into  full  possession  of  the  island  (1489). 

The  Venetians-retained  their  acquisition  for  eighty-two  years, 
notwithstanding  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Turks.  Cyprus  was 
now  harshly  governed  by  a  lieutenant,  and  the  condition  of 
the  natives,  who  had  been  much  oppressed  under  the  Lusignan 
dynasty,  became  worse.  In  1570  the  Turks,  under  Selim  II., 
made  a  serious  attempt  to  conquer  the  island,  in  which  they 
landed  an  army  of  60,000  men.  The  greater  part  of  the  island 
was  reduced  with  little  difficulty;  Nicosia,  the  capital,  was 
taken  after  a  siege  of  45  days,  and  20,000  of  its  inhabitants 
put  to  the  sword.  Famagusta  alone  made  a  gallant  and  pro- 

1  J.H.S.  xvii.  (1897). 

*  Summarized  in  Cyprus  Museum  Catalogue  (Oxford,  1899). 
3  Excavations  in  Cyprus  (London,  1900). 


tracted  resistance,  and  did  not  capitulate  till  after  a  siege  of 
nearly  a  year's  duration  (August  1571).  The  terms  of  the  capitula- 
tion were  shamefully  violated  by  the  Turks,  who  put  to  death 
the  governor  Marcantonio  Bragadino  with  cruel  torments. 
From  that  time  Cyprus  was  under  Turkish  administration  until 
the  agreement  with  Great  Britain  in  1878.  Its  history  during 
that  period  is  almost  a  blank.  A  serious  insurrection  broke  out 
in  1764,  but  was  speedily  suppressed;  and  a  few  similar  incidents 
are  the  only  evidence  of  the  Turkish  oppression  of  the  Christian 
population  of  the  island,  and  the  consequent  stagnation  of  its 
trade. 

AUTHORITIES. — An  Attempt  at  a  Bibliography  of  Cyprus,  by  C.  D. 
Cobham  Uth  ed.,  Nicosia,  1900),  registers  over  700  works  which 
deal  with  Cyprus.  A  Handbook  of  Cyprus,  by  Sir  J.  T.  Hutchinson 
and  C.  D.  Cobham  (London),  treats  the  island  briefly  from  every 
standpoint.  See  also  E.  Oberhummer,  Die  Insel  Cypern  (Munich, 
1903  et  seq.),  a  comprehensive  work.  The  most  interesting  travels 
may  be  found  under  the  names  of  Felix  Faber,  Evagatorium  (Stutt- 
gart, 1843) ;  de  Villamont,  Voyages  (Arras,  1598) ;  van  Kootwyck, 
Cotovici  itinerarium  (Antwerp,  1619) ;  R.  Pococke,  Description  of 
the  East  (London,  1743);  A.  Drummond,  Travels  (London,  1754); 
E.  D.  Clarke,  Travels  (London,  1812);  Sir  S.  Baker,  Cyprus  in  1879 
(London,  1879);  W.  H.  Mallock,  In  an  Enchanted  Island  (London, 
1879).  The  geology  of  the  island  has  been  handled  by  A.  Gaudry, 
Geologic  de  Vile  de  Chypre  (Paris,  1862) ;  C.  V.  Bellamy,  Notes  on  the 
Geology  of  Cyprus,  to  accompany  a  Geological  Map  of  Cyprus  (London. 
1905) ;  C.  V.  Bellamy  and  A.  J.  Jukes-Brown,  Geology  of  Cyprus 
(Plymouth,  1905).  Its  natural  history  by  F.  Unger  and  T.  Kotschy, 
Die  Insel  Cypern  (Wien,  1865).  Numismatics  by  the  Due  de 
Luynes,  Numismatique  et  inscriptions  Cypriotes  (Paris,  1852); 
R.  H.  Lang,  Numism.  Chronicle,  vol.  xi.  (1871) ;  J.  P.  Six,  Rev.  num. 
pp.  249-374  (Paris,  1883) ;  and  E.  Babelon,  Monnaies  grecques 
(Paris,  1893).  The  coins  of  medieval  date  have  been  described  by 
P.  Lambros,  Monnaies  inedites  (Athens,  1876) ;  and  G.  Schlumberger, 
Num.  de  I'orient  latin  (Paris,  1878).  Inscriptions  in  the  Cypriote 
character  have  been  collected  by  M.  Schmidt,  Sammlung  (Jena, 
1876);  and  W.  Deecke,  Die  griechisch-kyprischen  Inschriften 
(Gottingen,  1883);  in  Phoenician  in  the  C.I.  P.  (Paris,  1881). 
J.  Meursius,  Cyprus  (Amsterdam,  1675),  marshals  the  classical 
authorities;  and  W.  Engel,  Kypros  (Berlin,  1841),  gives  a  good 
summary  of  the  ancient  history  of  the  island.  For  the  Phoenician 
element,  see  F.  Movers,  Die  Phonizier  (Bonn  and  Berlin,  1841- 
1856).  L.  Comtede  Mas  Latrie  published  between  1852  and  1861  one 
volume  of  History  (1191-1291),  and  two  of  most  precious  documents 
in  illustration  of  the  reigns  of  the  Lusignan  kings.  Fra  Stefano 
Lusignano,  Chorograffia  di  Cipro  (Bologna,  1573),  and  Bp.  Stubbs, 
Two  Lectures  (Oxford,  1878),  are  useful  for  the  same  period;  and 
perhaps  a  score  of  contemporary  pamphlets- — the  best  of  them'  by 
N.  Martinengo,  Relatione  di  tutto  il  successo  di  Famagosta  (Venezia, 
1572),  and  A.  Calepio  (in  Lusignan's  Chorograffia) — preserve  details 
of  the  famous  sieges  of  Nicosia  and  Famagusta.  G.  Mariti,  Viaggi 
(Lucca,  1769;  Eng.  trans.  C.  D.  Cobham,  2nd  ed.,  1909),  and 
Cyprianos,  History  (Venice,  1768),  are  the  best  authorities  of  Cyprus 
under  Turkish  rule.  Medieval  tombs  and  their  inscriptions  are 
recorded  and  illustrated  in  T.  J.  Chamberlayne,  Lacrimae  nicossienses 
(Paris,  1894);  and  C.  Enlart's  volumes,  L'Art  gothique  et  la  Re- 
naissance en  Chypre  (Paris,  1899),  deal  with  medieval  architecture. 
For  Cypriote  pottery  in  Athens  and  Constantinople,  see  G.  Nicole, 
Bulletin  de  I'Institut  Genevois,  xxxvii. 

CYPRUS,  CHURCH  OF.  The  Church  of  Cyprus  is  in  com- 
munion and  in  doctrinal  agreement  with  the  other  Orthodox 
Churches  of  the  East  (see  ORTHODOX  EASTERN  CHURCH),  but  is 
independent  and  subject  to  no  patriarch.  This  position  it  has 
always  claimed  (see,  however,  W.  Bright,  Notes  on' the  Canons, 
on  Ephesus  8).  At  any  rate,  its  independence  "  by  ancient 
custom  "  was  recognized,  as  against  the  claims  of  the  patriarch 
of  Antioch,  by  the  council  of  Ephesus,  A.D.  431,  by  an  edict 
of  the  emperor  Zeno  (to  whom  the  church  had  sent  a  cogent 
argument  on  its  own  behalf,  the  alleged  body  of  its  reputed 
founder  St  Barnabas,  then  just  discovered  at  Salamis),  and  by 
the  Trullan  Council  in  692.  Attempts  have  been  made  subse- 
quently by  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch  to  claim  authority  over  it, 
the  last  as  recently  as  1600;  but  they  came  to  nothing.  And 
excepting  for  the  period  during  which  Cyprus  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  Lusignans  and  the  Venetian  Republic  (1193-1571),  the 
Church  has  never  lost  its  independence.  It  receives  the  holy 
ointment  (nvpov)  from  without,  till  1860  from  Antioch  and 
subsequently  from  Constantinople,  but  this  is  a  matter  of  courtesy 
and  not  of  right.  Of  old  there  were  some  twenty  sees  in  the 
island.  The  bishop  of  the  capital,  Salamis  or  Constantia,  was 
constituted  metropolitan  by  Zeno,  with  the  title  "  archbishop 


702 


CYPSELUS— CYRENAICA 


of  all  Cyprus,"  enlarged  subsequently  into  "  archbishop  of 
Justiniana  Nova  and  of  all  Cyprus,"  after  an  enforced  expatria- 
tion to  Justinianopolis  in  688.  Zeno  also  gave  him  the  unique 
privileges  of  wearing  and  signing  his  name  in  the  imperial  purple, 
&c.,  which  are  still  preserved.  A  Latin  hierarchy  was  set  up 
in  1196  (an  archbishop  at  Nicosia  with  suffragans  at  Limasol, 
Paphos  and  Famagusta),  and  the  Greek  bishops  were  made 
to  minister  to  their  flocks  in  subjection  to  it.  The  sees  were 
forcibly  reduced  to  four,  the  archbishopric  was  ostensibly 
abolished,  and  the  bishops  were  compelled  to  do  homage  and 
swear  fealty  to  the  Latin  Church.  This  bondage  ceased  at  the 
conquest  of  the  island  by  the  Turks  :  the  Latin  hierarchy 
disappeared  (the  cathedral  at  Nicosia  is  now  used  as  a  mosque), 
and  the  native  church  emerged  into  comparative  freedom. 
In  1821,  it  is  true,  all  the  bishops  and  many  of  their  flock  were 
put  to  death  by  way  of  discouraging  sympathies  with  the  Greeks; 
but  successors  were  soon  consecrated,  by  bishops  sent  from 
Antioch  at  the  request  of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
on  the  whole  the  Church  has  prospered.  The  bishops-elect 
required  the  berat  of  the  sultan;  but  having  received  this,  they 
enjoyed  no  little  civil  importance.  Since  1878  the  berat  has  not 
been  given,  and  the  bishops  are  less  influential.  The  suppressed 
sees  have  never  been  restored,  but  the  four  which  survive  (now 
known  as  Nicosia,  Paphos,  Kition  and  Kyrenia)  are  of  metro- 
politan rank,  so  that  the  archbishop,  whose  headquarters,  first 
at  Salamis,  then  at  Famagusta,  are  now  at  Nicosia,  is  a  primate 
amongst  metropolitans.  There  are  several  monasteries  dating 
from  the  nth  century  and  onwards;  also  an  archiepiscopal 
school  at  Nicosia,  founded  in  1812  and  raised  to  the  status  of  a 
"  gymnasion  "  in  1893;  and  a  high  school  for  girls. 


AUTHORITIES.  —  Ph.  Georgiou,  El^ffas  'laropixai  rtpl  njt  'EnK\i)<rica 
rijs  Kbirpov  (Athens,  1875);  K.  Kouriokurineos  (Archbishop  of 
Cyprus),  'InTopia  xpoi-oXofun)  rrjs  vi\ao\i  Kiiirpov  (yenice,  1788);  de 
Mas  Latrie,  Histoire  de  I'tte  de  Chypre  sous  les  princes  de  la  maison 
de  Lusignan  (Paris,  1852  f.);  H.  T.  F.  Duckworth,  The  Church  of 
Cyprus  (London,  1900)  ;  J.  Hackett,  History  of  the  Orthodox  Church  of 
Cyprus  (1901).  (W.  E.  Co.) 

CYPSELUS,  tyrant  of  Corinth  (c.  657-627  B.C.),  was  the  son 
of  Aee'tion  and  Labda,  daughter  of  Amphion,  a  member  of  the 
ruling  family,  the  Bacchiadae.  He  is  said  to  have  derived  his 
name  from  the  fact  that  when  the  Bacchiadae,  warned  that  he 
would  prove  their  ruin,  sent  emissaries  to  kill  him  in  his  cradle, 
his  mother  saved  him  by  concealing  him  in  a  chest  (Gr.Ku^eXi)). 
The  story  was,  of  course,  a  subsequent  invention.  When  he 
was  grown  up,  Cypselus,  encouraged  by  an  oracle,  drove  out  the 
Bacchiadae,  and  made  himself  master  of  Corinth.  It  is  stated 
that  he  first  ingratiated  himself  with  the  people  by  his  liberal 
conduct  when  Polemarch,  in  which  capacity  he  had  to  exact 
the  fines  imposed  by  the  law.  In  the  words  of  Aristotle  he 
made  his  way  through  demagogy  to  tyranny.  Herodotus,  in 
the  spirit  of  sth-century  Greeks,  which  conventionally  regarded 
the  tyrants  as  selfish  despots,  says  he  ruled  harshly,  but  he  is 
generally  represented  as  mild,  beneficent  and  so  popular  as  to 
be  able  to  dispense  with  a  bodyguard,  the  usual  attribute  of  a 
tyrannis.  He  pursued  an  energetic  commercial  and  colonial 
policy  (see  CORINTH),  and  thus  laid  the  foundations  of  Corinthian 
prosperity.  He  may  well  be  compared  with  the  Athenian  Peisi- 
stratus  in  these  respects.  He  laid  out  the  large  sums  thus  derived 
on  the  construction  of  buildings  and  works  of  art.  At  the  same 
time  he  wisely  strove  to  gain  the  goodwill  of  the  powerful  priest- 
hoods of  the  great  sanctuaries  of  Delphi  and  Olympia.  At 
Delphi  he  built  a  treasure-house  for  Corinthian  votive  offerings; 
at  Olympia  he  dedicated  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeus  and  the  famous 
"  chest  of  Cypselus,"  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  chest 
of  the  legend,  of  which  Pausanias  (v.  17-19)  has  given  an  elaborate 
description.  It  was  of  cedar-wood,  gold  and  ivory,  and  on  it 
were  represented  the  chief  incidents  in  Greek  (especially  Corin- 
thian) mythology  and  legend.  Cypselus  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Periander. 

See  CORINTH:  History;  histories  of  Greece;  Herodotus  v.  92; 
Aristotle,  Politics,  I3iob,  I3isb;  P.  Knapp,  Die  Kypseliden  und  die 
Kypseloslade  (Tubingen,  1888);  L.  Preller,  Ausgewahlle  Aufsatze 
(1864);  H.  Stuart  Jones,  in  Journ.  Hell.  Stud.  (1894),  30  foil. 


CYRANO  DE  BERGERAC,  SAVINIEN  (1620-1655),  French 
romance-writer  and  dramatist,  son  of  Abel  de  Cyrano,  seigneur 
de  Mauvieres  et  de  Bergerac,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of 
March  1610-1620.  He  received  his  first  education  from  a 
country  priest,  and  had  for  a  fellow  pupil  his  friend  and  future 
biographer,  Henri  Lebret.  He  then  proceeded  to  Paris  to  the 
college  de  Beauvais,  where  he  had  for  master  Jean  Grangier, 
whom  he  afterwards  ridiculed  in  his  comedy  Le  Pedant  joue 
(1654).  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  entered  a  corps  of  the  guards, 
serving  in  the  campaigns  of  1639  and  1640,  and  began  the 
series  of  exploits  that  were  to  make  of  him  a  veritable  hero  of 
romance.  The  story  of  his  adventure  single-handed  against  a 
hundred  enemies  is  vouched  for  by  Lebret  as  the  simple  truth. 
After  two  years  of  this  life  Cyrano  left  the  service  and  returned 
to  Paris  to  pursue  literature,  producing  tragedies  cast  in  the 
orthodox  classical  mode.  He  was,  however,  as  a  pupil  of  Gassendi, 
suspected  of  thinking  too  freely,  and  in  the  Mori  d'Agrippine 
(1654)  his  enemies  even  found  blasphemy.  The  most  interesting 
section  of  his  work  is  that  which  embraces  the  two  romances 
L'Histoire  comique  des  flats  du  soleil  (1662)  and  L'Histoire 
comique  des  flats  de  la  lune  (1656?).  Cyrano's  ingenious  mixture 
of  science  and  romance  has  furnished  a  model  for  many  subse- 
quent writers,  among  them  Swift  and  E.  A.  Poe.  It  is  impossible 
to  determine  whether  he  adopted  his  fanciful  style  in  the  hope 
of  safely  conveying  ideas  that  might  be  regarded  as  unorthodox, 
or  whether  he  simply  found  in  romance  writing  a  relaxation  from 
the  serious  study  of  physics.  Cyrano  spent  a  stormy  existence 
in  Paris  and  was  involved  in  many  duels,  and  in  quarrels  with  the 
comedian  Montfleury,  with  Scarron  and  others.  He  entered 
the  household  of  the  due  d'Arpajon  as  secretary  in  1653.  In 
the  next  year  he  was  injured  by  the  fall  of  a  piece  of  timber, 
as  he  entered  his  patron's  house.  Arpajon,  perhaps  alarmed 
by  his  reputation  as  a  free-thinker,  desired  him  to  leave,  and  he 
found  refuge  with  friends  in  Paris.  During  the  illness  which 
followed  his  accident,  he  is  said  to  have  been  reconciled  with 
the  Church,  and  he  died  in  September  1655. 

M.  Edmond  Rostand's  romantic  play  of  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  (1897) 
revived  interest  in  the  author  of  the  Histoires  comiques.  A  modern 
edition  of  his  (Euvres  (2  vols.),  by  P.  L.  Jacob  (Paul  Lacroix), 
appeared  in  1858,  with  the  preface  by  H.  Lebret  originally  prefixed 
to  the  Histoire  comique  des  etats  de  la  lune  (1656?).  For  an  interesting 
analysis  of  the  romances  see  Garnet  Smith  in  the  Cornhill  for  July 
1898.  See  also  P.  A.  Brun,  Savinien  de  Cyrano  Bergerac  (1894). 
Other  studies  of  Cyrano  are  those  of  Charles  Nodier  (1841),  F. 
Merilhon  (Perigueux,  1856),  Fourgeaud-Lagreze  (in  Le  Perigord 
litteraire,  1875)  and  of  Theophile  Gautier,  in  his  Grotesques. 

CYRENAICA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  district  of  the  N. 
African  coast,  lying  between  the  Syrtis  Major  and  Marmarica, 
the  western  limit  being  Arae  Philaenorum,  and  the  eastern  a 
vague  line  drawn  inland  from  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Platea 
(Bomba).  On  the  south  the  limit  was  undefined,  but  understood 
to  be  the  margin  of  the  desert,  some  distance  north  of  the  oasis 
of  Augila  (Aujila).  The  northern  half  of  this  district,  which 
alone  was  fertile,  was  known  as  Pentapolis  from  its  possession 
of  five  considerable  cities  (i)  Hesperides-Berenice  (Bengazi), 
(2)  Barca  (Merj),  (3)  Cyrene  (Ain  Shahat-Grenna),  (4)  Apollonia 
(Marsa  Susa),  (5)  Teucheira-Arsinoe  (Tocra).  In  later  times 
two  more  towns  rose  to  importance,  Ptolemais  (Tolmeita)  and 
Darnis-Zarine  (Derna).  These  all  lay  on  the  coast,  with  the 
exception  of  Barca  and  Cyrene,  which  were  situated  on  the  high- 
land now  called  Jebel  Akhdar,  a  few  miles  inland.  Cyrene  was 
the  first  city  to  arise,  being  founded  among  Libyan  barbarians 
by  Aristotle  of  Thera  (later  called  Battus)  in  the  middle  of  the 
7th  century  B.C.  (see  CYRENE).  For  about  500  years  this  district 
enjoyed  great  prosperity,  owing  partly  to  its  natural  products, 
but  more  to  its  trade  with  interior  Africa. 

Under  the  Ptolemies,  the  inland  cities  declined1  in  comparison 
with  the  maritime  ones,  and  the  Cyrenaica  began  to  feel  the 
commercial  competition  of  Egypt  and  Carthage,  whence  easier 
roads  lead  into  the  continent.  After  all  N.  Africa  had  passed 
to  Rome,  and  Cyrenaica  itself,  bequeathed  by  Apion,  the  last 
Ptolemaic  sovereign,  was  become  (in  combination  with  Crete) 
a  Roman  province  (after  96  B.C.),  this  competition  told  more 
severely  than  ever,  and  the  Greek  colonists,  grown  weaker,  found 


CYRENAICS 


703 


themselves  less  able  to  hold  their  own  against  the  Libyan  popula- 
tion. A  great  revolt  of  the  Jewish  settlers  in  the  time  of  Trajan 
settled  the  fate  of  Cyrene  and  Barca ;  the  former  is  mentioned  by 
Ammianus  Marcellinus  in  the  4th  century  A.D.  as  "  urbs  deserta," 
and  Synesius,  a  native,  describes  it  in  the  following  century 
as  a  vast  ruin  at  the  mercy  of  the  nomads.  Long  before  this 
its  most  famous  article  of  export,  the  silphium  plant,  a  repre- 
sentation of  which  was  the  chief  coin-type  of  Cyrene,  had  come 
to  an  end.  This  plant,  credited  with  wonderful  medicinal  and 
aromatic  properties,  has  not  been  certainly  identified  with  any 
existing  species.  T^he  similar  Thapsia  garganica  (Arab,  drias), 
which  now  grows  freely  in  Cyrenaica,  though  it  has  medicinal 
properties,  has  not  those  ascribed  to  silphium.  Henceforward 
till  the  Arab  invasion  (A.D.  641)  Apollonia  was  the  chief  city, 
with  Berenice  and  Ptolemais  next  in  order.  After  the  conquest 
by  Amr  ibn  el-'Asi,  inland  Cyrenaica  regained  some  importance, 
lying  as  it  did  on  the  direct  route  between  Alexandria  and 
Kairawan,  and  Barca  became  its  chief  place.  But  with  the 
substitution  of  Ottoman  for  Arab  empire,  resulting  in  the  virtual 
independence  of  both  Egypt  and  Tripoli,  the  district  lying 
between  them  relapsed  to  anarchy.  This  state  of  things  con- 
tinued even  after  Mahmud  II.  had  resumed  direct  control  over 
Tripoli  (1835),  and  in  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  Cyrenaica 
was  still  so  free  of  the  Turks  that  Sheik  Ali  bin-Senussi  chose 
it  as  the  headquarters  of  his  nascent  dervish  order.  All  over 
the  district  were  built  Senussi  convents  (zawia),  which  still 
exist  and  have  much  influence,  although  the  headquarters  of 
the  order  were  withdrawn  about  the  year  1855  to  Jarabub, 
and  in  1895  to  Kufra,  still  farther  into  the  heart  of  Africa.  In 
1875  the  district,  till  then  a  sanjak  of  the  vilayet  of  Tripoli, 
was  made  to  depend  directly  on  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  at 
Constantinople;  and  the  Senussites  soon  ceased  to  be  de  facto 
rulers  of  Cyrenaica.  Their  preserves  have  now  been  still  further 
encroached  upon  by  a  number  of  Cretan  Moslem  refugees  (1901- 
1902).  This  is  not  the  first  effort  made  by  Turkey  to  colonize 
Cyrenaica.  In  1869  Ali  Riza  Pasha  of  Tripoli  tried  to  induce 
settlers  to  go  to  Bomba  and  Tobruk;  and  in  1888  an  abortive 
effort  was  made  to  introduce  Kurds.  To  protect  the  Cretans 
the  Ottoman  government  has  extended  the  civil  administration 
and  created  several  small  garrisoned  posts.  The  district  is 
accordingly  safer  for  Europeans  than  it  was;  but  these  still 
find  themselves  ill  received.  The  Ottoman  officials  discourage 
travel  in  the  interior,  partly  from  fear  of  the  Senussites,  partly 
from  suspicions,  excited  by  the  lively  interest  manifested  by 
Italy  in  Cyrenaica. 

At  the  present  day  we  understand  by  Cyrenaica  a  somewhat 
larger  district  than  of  old,  and  include  ancient  Marmarica  up 
to  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Sollum  (Catabathmus  Magnus).  The 
whole  area  is  about  30,000  sq.  m.,  and  has  some  250,000  in- 
habitants, inclusive  of  nomads.  Projecting  like  a  bastion  into 
the  Mediterranean  at  a  very  central  point,  Cyrenaica  seems 
intended  to  play  a  commercial  part;  but  it  does  not  do  so  to 
any  extent  because  of  (i)  lack  of  natural  harbours,  Bengazi 
and  Derna  having  only  open  and  dangerous  roads  (this  is  partly 
due  to  coastal  subsidence;  ancient  ports  have  sunk);  (2)  the 
difficulty  of  the  desert  routes  behind  it,  wells  being  singularly 
deficient  in  this  part  of  the  Sahara.  The  ivory  and  feather 
caravans  from  Wadai  and  Borku  have  latterly  deserted  it 
altogether.  Consequently  Cyrenaica  is  still  in  a  very  backward 
and  barbarous  state  and  largely  given  up  to  nomad  Arabs. 
There  are  only  two  towns,  Bengazi  and  Derna,  and  not  half  a 
dozen  settlements  beside,  worthy  to  be  called  villages.  In 
many  districts  the  Senussi  convents  supply  the  only  settled 
element,  and  the  local  Bedouins  largely  belong  to  the  Order. 
There  are  no  roads  in  the  province,  and  very  little  internal  com- 
munication and  trade;  but  a  wireless  telegraphic  system  has 
been  installed  in  communication  with  Rhodes:  and  there  is  a 
landline  from  Bengazi  to  Tripoli. 

Geologically  and  structurally  Cyrenaica  is  a  mass  of  Miocene 
limestone  tilted  up  steeply  from  the  Mediterranean  and  falling 
inland  by  a  gentle  descent  to  sea-level  again  at  the  line  of  depres- 
sion, which  runs  from  the  gulf  of  Sidra  through  Aujila  to  Siwa. 


This  mass  is  divided  into  two  blocks,  the  higher  being  the 
western  Jebel  Akhdar,  on  which  Cyrene  was  built  (about  1800 
ft.):  the  lower,  the  eastern  Jebel  el-Akabah,  the  ancient  Mar- 
marie  highlands  (700  ft.).  There  is  no  continuous  littoral  plain, 
the  longest  strip  running  from  the  recess  of  the  Syrtis  round 
past  Bengazi  to  Tolmeita.  Thereafter,  except  for  deltaic  patches 
at  Marsa  Susa  and  Derna,  the  shore  is  all  precipitous.  Jebel 
Akhdar,  being  without  "  faults,"  has  no  deep  internal  valleys, 
and  presents  the  appearance  of  downs:  but  its  seaward  face  is 
very  deeply  eroded,  and  deep  circular  sinkings  (swallow-holes) 
are  common.  There  is  much  forest  on  its  northward  slopes, 
and  good  red  earth  on  the  higher  parts,  which  bears  abundant 
crops  of  barley,  much  desired  by  European  maltsters.  Plenty 
of  springs  issue  on  the  highlands,  and  wide  expanses  of  grassy 
country  dotted  with  trees  like  an  English  park  are  met  with. 
Here  the  Bedouins  (mostly  Beni  Hassa)  pasture  flocks  and 
herds,  amounting  to  several  million  head.  The  climate  is 
temperate  and  the  rainfall  usually  adequate,  but  one  year  in 
five  is  expected  to  be  droughty.  The  southward  slopes  fall 
through  ever-thinning  pasture  lands  to  sheer  desert  about  80  m. 
inland.  Jebel  el-Akabah  is  much  more  barren  than  Jebel 
Akhdar,  and  the  desert  comes  right  down  to  the  sea  in  Marmarica, 
whose  few  inhabitants  are  more  concerned  with  salt-collecting 
and  sponge  fishing  than  with  agriculture.  They  have,  however, 
the  only  good  ports  on  the  whole  coast,  Bomba  and  Tobruk. 
Much  might  be  made  of  Cyrenaica  by  judicious  colonization. 
All  kinds  of  trees  grow  well,  from  the  date  palm  to  the  oak; 
and  there  are  over  200,000  wild  olives  in  the  country.  The 
conditions  in  general  are  very  like  those  of  central  Italy,  and 
there  is  ample  room  for  new  settlers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i)  Ancient  Cyrenaica:  J.  P.  Thrige,  Historia 
Cyrenes  (1819);  C.  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  i.  (1822);  A.  F.  Gottschick, 
Gesch.  der  Grundung  und  Bliite  des  hell.  Staates  in  Kyrenaika  (1858). 

(2)  Modern  Cyrenaica:    Paul  Lucas,   Voyage  (1712);    T.  Shaw, 
Travels  and  Observations  (1738);  J.  Bruce,  Travels  (1790);   P.  della 
Cella,    Viaggio  da   Tripoli,  &c.   (1819);    G.  F.  Lyon,  Narrative  of 
Travels  (1821);   A.  Cervelli,  in  Recueil  de  voyages,  pub.  by  Soc.  de 
Geog.,  ii.  (1825);   J.  R.  Pacho,  Relation  d'un  voyage  (1827);  F.  W. 
Beechey,  Proceedings  of  Expedition  to  explore  N.  Coast  of  Africa 
(1828);    H.   Barth,   Wanderungen,  &c.   (1849);    V.  de   Bourville, 
Rapport  (1850);    J.   Hamilton,   Wanderings  in  N.  Africa  (1856); 
R.  M.  Smith  and  E.  A.  Porcher,  Hist,  of  Discoveries  (1864);    G. 
Rohlfs,    Von  Tripoli  nach  Alexandrien  (1871);    G.   Haimann,  La 
Cirenaica  (1882);    M.  Camperio,    Una  Gita  in  Cirenaica  (1881); 
H.  Duyeyrier,  "  La  Confr.  musulmane  de  Sidi  Moh.  Ben  AH  es- 
Senousi  "  (Bull.  soc.  gepg.,  1884) ;  H.  W.  Blundell  in  Geog.  Journ.  v. 
(1895)  and  Annual  Brit.  Sch.  at  Athens,  it.  (1895) ;  D.  G.  Hogarth  in 
Monthly  Review  (Jan.  1904);  G.  Hildebrand,  Cyrenaika,  &c.  (1904); 
G.  de  Martino,  Cirene  e  Cartagine  (1908). 

(3)  Maps:   The  best  are  that  by  P.  Carlo,  to  illustrate  Camperio 
and  Haimann's  Report,  in  Petermann's  Mitth.  (1881);  and  Sheet 
No.  2  of  Carte  de  I'Afrique  (Service  g£og.  de  1'armee,  1892). 

(D.  G.  H.) 

CYRENAICS,  a  Greek  school  of  philosophy,  so  called  from 
Cyrene,  the  birthplace  of  the  founder,  Aristippus  (q.v.).  It  was 
one  of  the  two  earliest  Socratic  schools,  and  emphasized  one 
side  only  of  the  Socratic  teaching  (cf.  CYNICS).  Socrates, 
although  he  held  that  virtue  was  the  only  human  good,  admitted 
to  a  certain  extent  the  importance  of  its  utilitarian  side,  making 
happiness  at  least  a  subsidiary  end  of  moral  action  (see  ETHICS). 
Aristippus  and  his  followers  seized  upon  this,  and  made  it  the 
prime  factor  in  existence,  denying  to  virtue  any  intrinsic  value. 
Logic  and  physical  science  they  held  to  be  useless,  for  all  know- 
ledge is  immediate  sensation  (see  PROTAGORAS).  These  sensations 
are  motions  (Kivriaea)  which  (i)  are  purely  subjective,  and  (2) 
are  painful,  indifferent  or  pleasant,  according  as  they  are 
violent,  tranquil  or  gentle.  Further  they  are  entirely  individual, 
and  can  in  no  way  be  described  as  constituting  absolute  objective 
knowledge.  Feeling,  therefore,  is  the  only  possible  criterion 
alike  of  knowledge  and  of  conduct.  "  Our  modes  of  being 
affected  (ir&Bri)  alone  are  knowable."  Thus  Cyrenaicism  goes 
beyond  the  critical  scepticism  of  the  Sophists  and  deduces  a 
single,  universal  aim  for  all  men,  namely  pleasure.  Furthermore, 
all  feeling  is  momentary  and  homogeneous.  It  follows  (i)  that 
past  and  future  pleasure  have  no  real  existence  for  us,  and  (2) 
that  among  present  pleasures  there  is  no  distinction  of  kind,  but 


704 


GYRENE 


only  of  intensity.  Socrates  had  spoken  of  the  higher  pleasures 
of  the  intellect;  the  Cyrenaics  denied  the  validity  of  this  distinc- 
tion and  said  that  bodily  pleasures  as  being  more  simple  and 
more  intense  are  to  be  preferred.  Momentary  pleasure  GUOVO- 
Xpows  riSovri),  preferably  of  a  carnal  kind,  is  the  only  good  for 
man.  Yet  Aristippus  was  compelled  to  admit  that  some  actions 
which  give  immediate  pleasure  entail  more  than  their  equivalent 
of  pain.  This  fact  was  to  him  the  basis  of  the  conventional 
distinction  of  right  and  wrong,  and  in  this  sense  he  held  that 
regard  should  be  paid  to  law  and  custom.  It  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  this  development  of  Cyrenaic  hedonism  should 
be  fully  realized.  To  overlook  the  Cyrenaic  recognition  of 
social  obligation  and  the  hedonistic  value  of  altruistic  emotion 
is  a  very  common  expedient  of  those  who  are  opposed  to  all 
hedonistic  theories  of  life.  Like  many  of  the  leading  modern 
utilitarians,  they  combined  with  their  psychological  distrust 
of  popular  judgments  of  right  and  wrong,  and  their  firm  convic- 
tion that  all  such  distinctions  are  based  solely  on  law  and  con- 
vention, the  equally  unwavering  principle  that  the  wise  man 
who  would  pursue  pleasure  logically  must  abstain  from  that 
which  is  usually  denominated  "  wrong  "  or  "  unjust."  This 
idea,  which  occupies  a  prominent  position  in  systems  like  those 
of  Bentham,  Volney,  and  even  Paley,  was  evidently  of  prime 
importance  at  all  events  to  the  later  Cyrenaics. 

Developing  from  this  is  a  new  point  of  practical  importance 
to  the  hedonism  of  the  Cyrenaics.  Aristippus,  both  in  theory 
and  in  practice,  insisted  that  true  pleasure  belongs  only  to  him 
who  is  self-controlled  and  master  of  himself.  The  truly  happy 
man  must  have  <f>p6vri<ns  (prudence),  which  alone  can  save 
him  from  falling  a  prey  to  mere  passion.  Thus,  in  the  end, 
Aristippus,  the  founder  of  the  purest  hedonism  in  the  history 
of  thought,  comes  very  near  not  only  to  the  Cynics,  but  to  the 
more  cultured  hedonism  of  Epicurus  and  modern  thinkers. 
Theodorus,  held  even  more  strongly  that  passing  pleasure  may 
be  a  delusion,  and  that  permanent  tranquillity  is  a  truer  end  of 
conduct.  Hegesias  denied  the  possibility  of  real  pleasure  and 
advocated  suicide  as  ensuring  at  least  the  absence  of  pain. 
Anniceris,  in  whose  thought  the  school  reached  its  highest 
perfection,  declared  that  true  pleasure  consists  sometimes  in 
self-sacrifice  and  that  sympathy  in  enjoyment  is  a  real  source 
of  happiness.  Other  members  of  the  school  were  Arete,  wife 
of  Aristippus,  Aristippus  the  younger  (her  son),  Bio  and 
Euhemerus. 

The  Cyrenaic  ideal  was,  of  course,  utterly  alien  to  Christianity, 
and,  in  general,  subsequent  thinkers  found  it  an  ideal  of  hopeless 
pessimism.  Yet  in  modern  times  it  has  found  expression  in 
many  ethical  and  literary  works,  and  it  is  common  also  in  other 
ancient  non-Hellenic  literature.  There  are  quatrains  in  the 
Rubaiyat  of  Omar  Khayyam  and  pessimistic  verses  in  Ecclesiastes 
which  might  have  been  uttered  by  Aristippus  ("  Then  I  com- 
mended mirth,  because  a  man  hath  no  better  thing  than  to  eat  and 
to  drink  and  to  be  merry;  for  that  shall  abide  with  him  of  his 
labour  the  days  of  his  life  which  God  giveth  him  under  the  sun  "). 
So  in  Byron  and  Heine,  and,  in  a  sense,  in  Walter  Pater  (Marius 
the  Epicurean),  there  is  the  same  tendency  to  seek  relief  from 
the  intellectual  cul-de-sac  in  frankly  aesthetic  satisfaction.  Thus 
Cyrenaicism  did  not  entirely  vanish  with  its  absorption  in 
Epicureanism. 

See  HEDONISM,  EPICURUS;  histories  of  philosophy  by  Zeller, 
Windelband,  Ueberweg;  H.  Sidgwick,  Methods  of  Ethics  and 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Ethics;  J.  Watson,  Hedonistic  Theories 
(1895);  James  Seth,  Ethical  Principles,  c.  i.  (A),  (1898);  A.  Wendt, 
De  philosophia  Cyrenaica  (1841);  H.  von  Stein,  De  philosophia 
Cyrenaica  (1855);  T.  Gomperz,  Greek  Thinkers  (Eng.  trans.,  vol.  ii. 
bk.  iv.,  ad  fin.,  1905) ;  Beare,  Greek  Theories  of  Elementary  Cognition ; 
G.  van  Lyng,  Om  den  Kyrenaiske  skole  (Christiania,  1868);  and 
general  ethical  text-books. 

CYRENE  [mod.  Ain  Shahat-Grenna],  the  original  capital  of 
ancient  Cyrenaica  (q.v.)  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  Greek  colonies. 
The  Theraean  story  of  its  foundation,  as  told  by  Herodotus, 
runs  thus.  Battus  (whose  true  Greek  name  seems  to  have  been 
Aristoteles),  a  native  of  Thera  (Santorin),  itself  a  Laconian 
colony,  was  bidden  by  the  Delphic  oracle,  if  he  wished  to  put 


an  end  to  domestic  dissensions,  to  lead  a  portion  of  the  citizens 
to  Libya  and  build  a  city  in  a  "  place  between  waters."  (For 
other  stories  see  BATTUS.)  By  this  he  understood  an  island, 
and  therefore  established  his  followers  on  the  barren  islet  of 
Platea  in  the  gulf  of  Bomba.  The  colony  being  unsuccessful 
made  further  application  to  the  oracle  and  was  bidden  to  transfer 
itself  to  the  mainland.  The  Libyan  barbarians  reported  that  a 
fertile  and  well-watered  district  lay  to  the  west  and  were  induced 
to  act  as  guides.  They  brought  the  Greeks  through  forests  to 
high  ground  from  various  points  of  which  issued  springs,  and 
Battus,  recognizing  "  a  place  between  waters,"  began  to  build. 
This  was  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  B.C. 

The  result  was  Cyrene,  so  called  (it  was  said)  from  a  local 
nymph,  who  has  been  shown  by  Studniczka  to  have  been  a 
Nature  goddess,  like  the  Greek  Artemis.  The  point  first  occupied 
was  probably  the  hill  above  the  "  Apollo  "  fountain  on  the  west; 
and  there  was  erected  the  fortress-palace  of  the  Battiadae, 
who  continued  to  rule  the  colony  for  eight  generations.  The 
neighbouring  Libyans  were  conciliated  and  given  a  position 
similar  to  that  of  Laconian  perioeci,  and  intermarriage  between 
them  and  Greeks  became  so  frequent  that  the  colony  rapidly 
assumed  a  somewhat  hybrid  character,  and  while  being  one  of 
the  centres  of  Hellenic  culture,  showed  barbarian  characteristics 
of  violence  and  luxury.  Battus  I.  reigned  c.  630  to  590  B.C. 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Arcesilaus  (c.  590-574)  of  whom 
nothing  is  known.  The  kings  henceforth  bore  alternately  the 
names  Battus  and  Arcesilaus,  of  which  the  first  is  said  to  be 
simply  the  native  Libyan  word  for  "king":  the  latter  is,  of 
course,  Greek.  This  fact  suggests  that  some  compromise  with 
the  natives  had  been  come  to,  resulting,  perhaps,  in  an  alternation 
of  the  supreme  office.  Under  Battus  II.  (570  B.C.?)  a  fresh 
band  of  settlers  was  invited  from  Greece,  and  the  colony  tended 
to  become  henceforth  more  maritime  and  democratic.  Its 
port,  Apollo nia  (Marsa  Susa),  now  rose  to  importance:  and  a 
second  (winter)  port  was  created  at  Naustathmos  (Marsa  Hilal) 
about  15  m.  E.  behind  a  sheltering  cape.  Fine  roads  were  cut 
through  the  rock  connecting  these  harbours  with  the  capital. 
Trouble  followed,  however,  with  the  Libyans,  who  saw  them- 
selves robbed  in  favour  of  the  new  settlers,  and  they  called  in 
Egyptian  help;  but  the  force  sent  by  Apries  was  defeated 
near  the  spring  Theste,  and  presently  Amasis  of  Egypt  made 
peace  and  took  a  Battiad  princess  to  wife.  Under  Arcesilaus  II. 
(c.  560-550)  domestic  dissensions  and  Libyan  revolt  led  to  the 
founding  of  a  rival  inland  city,  Barca,  and  a  severe  defeat  and 
massacre.  These  misfortunes,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  Battus 
III.  was  thought  to  have  disgraced  the  house  by  his  lameness, 
prompted  the  Cyrenaeans  to  send  to  Delphi  for  more  advice,  and 
as  a  result  Demonax  of  Mantinea  arrived  as  arbitrator  and 
framed  a  constitution  limiting  the  monarchy  and  dividing  the 
citizens  tribally  according  to  the  date  of  their  settlement  and 
their  place  of  origin.  Further  attempts  of  the  Battiadae  (e.g. 
of  Pheretima,  wife  of  Battus  III.,  and  Arcesilaus  his  son)  to 
annul  this  constitution,  and  bitter  family  dissensions,  brought 
about  a  Persian  invasion  and  finally  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty 
about  450  B.C.  A  republic  of  more  or  less  Spartan  type  succeeded, 
but  it  was  often  interrupted  by  tyrannies;  and  having  made 
submission  by  embassy  to  Alexander  in  331,  Cyrene  passed 
under  Ptolemaic  domination  ten  years  later.  From  this  epoch 
dates  a  decline  which  was  due  to  economic  causes  (see  CYRENAICA) 
and  to  the  Ptolemaic  policy  of  favouring  easily  controlled 
harbour-towns  rather  than  an  inland  place  like  Cyrene,  whose 
ancient  factions  still  continued  to  give  trouble  under  the  earlier 
Ptolemies.  Apollonia  and  Berenice  gradually  superseded  Cyrene 
and  Barca  respectively,  being  more  in  touch  with  Greece  and 
less  exposed  to  the  hostile  nomad  Libyans,  who  increased  in 
boldness  and  power:  but  Cyrene  continued  to  be  a  great  city 
after  it  had  passed  to  Rome  (96  B.C.),  and  up  to  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  when  a  Jewish  revolt  and  the  repressive  measures  taken 
by  the  imperial  government  dealt  it  an  irreparable  blow.  Ere 
Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  empire,"  it  was  largely 
a  ruin,  and  henceforward  to  the  epoch  of  Arab  conquest  (A.D. 
641)  its  Greek  life  gradually  deserted  it  for  /pollonia.  At  it? 


CYRIL 


70S 


acme  Cyrene  is  said  to  have  had  over  100,000  inhabitants.  It 
was  noted  among  the  ancients  for  its  intellectual  life.  Its 
medical  school  was  famous,  and  it  numbered  among  its  celebrities 
Callimachus  the  poet,  Carneades,  the  founder  of  the  New  Academy 
at  Athens,  Aristippus,  a  pupil  of  Socrates  and  the  founder  of  the 
so-called  Cyrenaics  (q.v.),  Eratosthenes  the  polyhistor,  and 
Synesius,  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  the  ancient  Christian  writers. 
The  first  account  of  the  site  in  modern  times  seems  to  be 
that  of  M.  le  Maire,  who  was  French  consul  at  Tripoli  from 
1703  to  1708,  and  twice  visited  Cyrene.  Paul  Lucas  was  there 
in  1710,  and  again  in  1723,  and  Dr  Thomas  Shaw  in  1738;  an 
Italian,  Dr  A.  Cervelli,  who  was  there  in  1812,  furnished  some 
information  to  the  Societe  de  Geographic  of  Paris;  and  P. 
Delia  Cella  published  an  account  of  his  visit,  made  in  1817. 
In  1821-1822  important  explorations  were  made  by  Lieutenant 
F.  W.  Beechey,  R.N.;  and  he  was  almost  immediately  followed 
by  a  French  artist,  M.  J.  R.  Pacho,  whose  pencil  preserved  a 
number  of  interesting  monuments  that  have  since  disappeared. 
L.  Delaporte,  French  consul  at  Tangier,  and  Vattier  de  Bourville 
come  next  in  order  of  time.  H.  Barth,  the  famous  African 
traveller,  published  an  account  of  his  investigations  in  his 
Wanderungen  durch  die  Kustenlander  des  Mittelmeers,  1849, 
and  James  Hamilton,  who  was  there  in  1851,  described  the  place 
in  his  Wanderings  in  N.  Africa.  In  1861  excavations  were  made 
on  behalf  of  the  British  Museum  by  Lieuts.  R.  Murdoch  Smith, 
R.E.,  and  E.  A.  Porcher,  R.N.,  the  results  of  which  are  detailed 
in  their  valuable  Discoveries  in  Cyrene  (London,  1864).  Since 
that  date,  owing  to  the  increase  of  Senussi  influence,  and  the 
consequent  fears  of  the  Ottoman  authorities,  the  site  has  been 
very  seldom  visited.  The  Italians,  M.  Camperio  and  G.  Haimann, 
leading  commercial  missions,  were  there  in  the  eighties,  and  Mr 
H.  W.  Blundell  succeeded  with  a  special  firman  and  a  strong 
.  escort  in  reaching  the  place  in  1895,  but  had  trouble  with  the 
local  Senussi  Arabs.  The  prohibition  of  travel  became  thereafter 
more  stringent,  and  it  has  only  been  overcome  by  a  party  from 
Mr  A.  V.  Armour's  yacht  "  Utowana,'"  which  marched  up  from 
Marsa  Susa  in  April  1904,  and  stayed  one  night.  They  found 
some  fifty  families  of  Cretan  refugees  established  at  Ain  Shahat 
and  a  mudir  with  a  small  guard  on  the  spot:  but  no  inhabited 
houses,  except  the  Senussi  convent  and  the  mudiria.  Cretans 
and  Arabs  live  in  the  ancient  rock-tombs.  An  Italian  senator, 
Chev.  G.  de  Martino,  with  two  Italian  residents  at  Derna,  passed 
through  the  place  in  1907,  and  found  it  in  Bedouin  hands. 

The  site  lies  on  the  crest  of  the  highland  of  Jebel  Akhdar 
(about  1800  ft.)  and  10  m.  from  the  sea.  The  ground  slopes 
very  gradually  south,  and  being  entirely  denuded  of  trees, 
makes  good  corn  land.  The  northward  slope  falls  more  steeply, 
in  a  succession  of  shelves,  covered  here  and  there  with  forest. 
Ravines  surround  the  site  on  three  sides,  and  there  are  at  least 
four  springs  in  its  area,  of  which  one,  having  great  volume, 
has  been  at  all  times  the  attraction  and  focus  of  the  place. 
This  is  the  so-called  "  Fount  of  Apollo,"  which  issues  from  a 
tunnel  artificially  enlarged,  and  once  faced  with  a  portico. 
The  acropolis  was  immediately  above  this  on  the  W.,  and  the 
main  entrance  of  the  city,  through  which  came  the  sacred  pro- 
cessions, passed  it.  The  remains  of  Cyrene  itself  are  enclosed 
by  a  wall  having  a  circuit  of  about  4  m.,  of  which  little  remains 
but  the  foundations  and  fragments  of  two  towers;  but  tombs 
and  isolated  structures  extend  far  outside  this  area.  The  local 
Arabs  say  it  takes  them  six  camel-hours  to  go  from  one  end  to 
the  other  of  the  ruins,  which  they  call  generally  "  Grenna  " 
(i.e.  Kyrenna).  Within  the  city  itself  not  very  much  is  now 
to  be  seen.  Below  the  Apollo  fountain  on  the  N.  lie  a  great 
theatre  and  the  substructures  of  the  main  temple  of  Apollo, 
both  included  now  in  the  Senussi  convent  garden.  Above  the 
fountain  and  by  the  main  road  is  a  smaller  theatre.  On  the 
E.,  upon  the  crown  of  the  plateau,  are  the  sites  on  which  Smith 
and  Porcher  placed  temples  of  Bacchus,  Venus  and  Augustus, 
but  they  are  marked  only  by  rubbish  heaps.  Remains  of  a 
large  Byzantine  church  and  a  much  ruined  stadium  lie  to  S.E. 
On  the  S.  are  immense  covered  tanks  of  Roman  date,  with  remains 
of  the  aqueducts  which  supplied  them.  On  the  W.  a  fine 
vii.  23 


fragment  of  a  tower,  the  fortifications  of  the  acropolis,  and  a 
pedestal  sculptured  on  four  sides  in  good  3rd  century  style,  are 
the  only  things  worth  seeing.  The  Cretan  occupation  is  fast 
obliterating  other  traces.  The  great  spectacle,  however,  which 
distinguishes  the  site  of  Cyrene,  is  provided  by  its  cemeteries, 
which  for  extent,  variety  and  preservation  are  unparalleled 
in  the  classic  lands.  There  is  one  along  each  of  the  approaches 
to  the  main  gates,  but  the  largest  and  most  splendid  lies  by  the 
Apollonian  road  which  winds  by  easy  curves  up  the  northern 
buttresses  of  the  plateau.  Here  the  sepulchres  rise  in  tiers  one 
above  the  other  along  fully  a  mile  of  the  way.  The  most  im- 
portant have  pillared  facades,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  even  a  hybrid 
mixture  of  both  orders.  Within,  they  open  out  either  into 
large  halls,  leading  one  out  of  another  with  graves  in  recesses 
and  pits  in  the  floor;  or  into  rock  corridors  lined  with  loculi, 
disposed  one  above  another  like  pigeon  holes.  Most  of  the  wall 
paintings,  seen  by  Beechey  and  Pacho,  have  perished  or  become 
black  with  the  smoke  of  troglodytes'  fires;  but  one  tomb  below 
the  road  at  about  the  middle  of  the  cemetery  still  retains  its 
decoration  comparatively  fresh,  and  seems  to  be  that  specially 
described  by  Smith  and  Porcher.  The  scenes  are  agonistic, 
i.e.  represent  funeral  games,  in  which  both  white  and  black 
persons  take  part,  the  latter  doubtless  Libyan  perioeci:  but  all 
wear  Greek  garments.  Several  tombs  are  inscribed  and  on  some 
external  paintings  are  still  faintly  visible.  The  commonest 
type  of  grave  is  a  simple  pit  covered  by  a  gabled  lid.  These 
occur  by  hundreds.  But  not  all  the  sepulchres  are  rock-cut: 
altar  tombs  and  other  forms  of  heroa  are  found  built  upon 
plinths  of  rock.  All  visible  tombs  have  long  ago  been  violated, 
but  it  is  probable  that  there  are  others  still  virgin  under  the 
talus  of  the  hill  side.  To  discover  these  and  determine  the 
topography  of  the  city,  excavation  is  urgently  needed. 

Many  historical  and  artistic  questions  concerning  Cyrene 
remain  unsettled,  but  since  the  discoveries  made  in  Laconia  in 
1908,  the  much  disputed  "  Cyrenaic  ware  "  has  been  ascribed 
to  Sparta.  A  good  deal  of  Cyrenaic  sculpture,  all  of  compara- 
tively late  date,  was  sent  to  the  British  Museum  by  Smith  and 
Porcher.  Nothing  has  yet  been  found  on  the  site  belonging  to 
the  great  age  of  the  city's  independence,  the  fine  vases  sent  to 
the  British  Museum  in  1864,  by  Mr  G.  Dennis,  having  been 
discovered  not  there,  but  near  Berenice  (Bengazi).  The  latter 
site,  with  Ptolemais  and  Apollonia,  has  supplied  most  of  the 
antiquities  found  latterly  in  Cyrenaica. 

See  authorities  for  CYRENAIC  A,  and  F.  Studniczka,  Kyrene,  eine 
alt-griechische  Gottin  (1890).  (D.  G.  H.) 

CYRIL  (c.  315-386),  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  prob- 
ably born,  was  ordained  a  presbyter  in  345,  and  had  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  catechumens  entrusted  to  him.  In  3  50  he  was  elevated 
to  the  see  of  Jerusalem,  and  became  deeply  involved  in  the 
dogmatic  controversies  of  his  time.  His  metropolitan,  Acacius 
of  Caesarea,  inclined  to  Arianism,  while  Cyril  strongly  espoused 
the  Nicene  creed  and  was,  in  consequence,  deposed  for  a  time. 
On  the  death  of  the  emperor  Constantine  he  was  restored;  but 
on  the  accession  of  Valens,  an  Arian  emperor,  he  had  once 
more  to  resign  his  post  till  the  accession  of  Theodosius  permitted 
him  to  return  finally  in  peace  in  379.  He  attended  the  second 
oecumenical  council  held  at  Constantinople  in  381,  where  he  was 
received  with  grateful  acclamations  for  his  sufferings  in  defence 
of  orthodoxy.  Cyril  was  even  more  conspicuous  as  a  pastor  than 
as  a  controversialist,  and  this  is  seen  in  his  one  important  work — 
his  twenty-three  addresses  to  catechumens  delivered  in  A.D.  348. 
The  first  eighteen  of  these  were  meant  for  candidates  for  baptism; 
they  deal  with  general  topics  like  repentance  and  faith,  and 
then  expound  in  detail  the  baptismal  creed  of  the  Jerusalem 
church.  The  remaining  five  addresses  were  spoken  to  the 
newly-baptized  in  Easter  week  and  explain  the  mysteries  and 
ritual  of  baptism,  confirmation  and  the  Eucharist.  These 
lectures  are  said  to  be  "  the  first  example  of  a  popular  compend 
of  religion,"  and  are  particularly  interesting  for  the  insight 
which  they  give  us  both  into  the  creed-forms  of  the  early  church 
and  the  various  ceremonies  of  initiation  constituting  baptism 
in  the  4th  century.  The  evidence  which  Cyril  supplies  as  to  the 


yo6 


CYRIL— CYRUS 


Jerusalem  use  is  supplemented  by  the  5.  Sihiae  peregrinatio, 
dating  from  about  a  generation  later.  Other  tracts  and  homilies 
have  been  ascribed  to  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  but  they  are  of  doubtful 
genuineness. 

EDITIONS. — A.  A.  Touttee  (Paris,  1720);  W.  C.  Reischl  and  J. 
Rupp  (Munich,  1848-1860) ;  Migne,  Patrol.  Graeca.  xxxiii.  Transla- 
tion: Catecheses  ("Oxford  Library  of  Fathers,"  vol.  ii.).  See 
Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyk.  (Forster) ;  Delacroix,  St  C.  de  Jerus., 
sa  vie  et  ses  asuvres  (Paris,  1865). 

CYRIL  (376-444),  bishop  of  Alexandria,  a  more  distinguished 
father  of  the  church  than  his  namesake  of  Jerusalem,  was  born 
in  376,  and  died  in  444.  Becoming  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
about  412,  he  soon  made  himself  known  by  the  violence  of  his 
zeal  against  Jews,  pagans  and  heretics  or  supposed  heretics 
alike.  He  had  hardly  entered  upon  his  office  when  he  closed 
all  the  churches  of  the  Novatians  and  seized  their  ecclesiastical 
effects.  He  assailed  the  Jewish  synagogues  with  an  armed 
force,  drove  the  Jews  in  thousands  from  the  city,  and  exposed 
their  houses  and  property  to  pillage.  The  prefect  of  Egypt, 
Orestes,  who  endeavoured  to  withstand  his  furious  zeal,  was  in 
turn  denounced  himself,  and  had  difficulty  in  maintaining  his 
ground  against  the  fury  of  the  Christian  multitude.  It  was 
during  one  of  the  violent  commotions  kindled  by  the  strifes 
of  these  parties  in  Alexandria  that  the  illustrious  Hypatia, 
famed  for  her  beauty  and  her  eloquent  advocacy  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  philosophy  in  opposition  to  Christianity,  was  murdered. 
Her  murder  has  been  attributed  to  the  direct  instigation  of  the 
patriarch  himself;  but  this  charge  is  held  to  be  baseless  by  others, 
although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  "  the  perpetrators  were 
officers  of  his  church,"  and  undoubtedly  drew  encouragement 
from  his  own  violent  proceedings.  Hypatia  was  a  friend  of 
Orestes,  and  the  hostility  that  existed  betwixt  the  prefect  and 
the  patriarch  overflowed  towards  her,  and  undoubtedly  led  to  her 
destruction. 

But  Cyril's  violence  was  not  merely  confined  to  those  who 
might  be  considered  enemies  of  the  church.  He  inherited  from 
Theophilus,  his  uncle  and  predecessor  in  the  see  of  Alexandria, 
a  strong  aversion  to  John  Chrysostom,  the  noble  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  and  even  after  his  death  opposed  for  a  time 
all  attempts  to  remove  the  unjust  sentence  of  condemnation 
which  had  been  passed  upon  him.  Afterwards  he  so  far  yielded 
to  remonstrances  as  to  allow  the  name  of  Chrysostom  to  appear 
in  the  list  of  distinguished  martyrs  and  bishops  mentioned  in 
the  prayers  of  his  church.  These  names  were  inserted  in  what 
were  called  "  diptychs  "  (Blimixo.  vtKpuv),  or  two-leaved  tablets 
preserved  in  the  churches — a  usage  which  the  Greek  Church 
has  continued  to  this  day. 

Cyril  thus  represents — though  he  differs  largely  from  his 
predecessors — the  tendencies  dominant  at  Alexandria  in  the 
5th  century,  and  their  antagonism  to  the  Antiochene  school. 
The  story  of  his  opposition  to  Nestorius  at  the  council  of  Ephesus 
in  431  is  told  elsewhere  (see  NESTORIUS).  He  himself  incurred 
the  charge  of  heresy  from  the  oriental  bishops.  Satisfied, 
however,  with  the  deprivation  and  exile  of  his  opponent,  he 
returned  to  Alexandria  in  triumph  as  the  great  champion  of 
the  faith,  and  thence  continued,  by  the  "  unscrupulous  use  of 
all  the  means  at  his  command,"  the  theological  strife  for  years. 
He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  great  Antiochene  expositor  and 
apologist  Theodoret. 

Altogether  Cyril  presents  a  character  not  only  unamiable, 
but  singularly  deficient  in  the  graces  of  the  Christian  life.  His 
style  of  writing  is  as  objectionable  as  his  character  and  spirit. 
Yet  he  takes  high  rank  as  a  dogmatic  theologian,  and  those  who 
seek  precise  and  rigid  definitions  of  orthodox  belief  conjoined 
with  tenacity  of  conviction  find  him  indispensable.  In  addition 
to  his  Twelve  Anathematisms  and  the  defence  of  the  same,  he 
wrote  five  other  books  against  Nestorius,  Thesaurus — a  treatise 
in  dialogue  form  on  the  Trinity,  a  book  On  the  Right  Way  and 
another  On  the  Incarnation.  In  other  fields — mystical,  exegetical 
and  apologetical — he  was  equally  prolific  and  forceful.  He  wrote 
a  tract  "  On  worshipping  in  spirit  and  in  truth  "  to  defend  a 
spiritual  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic  law,  several  commentaries, 
festival-orations,  and  a  reply  to  the  emperor  Julian's  attack 


on  the  church.     His  letters  are  valuable  sources  to  the  student 
of  the  Nestorian  controversy. 

LITERATURE. — The  collected  edition  of  J.  Aubert  (Paris,  1638) 
formed  the  basis  of  Migne's  reprint  in  vols.  68-77  of  the  Pair. 
Grace.  Many  of  the  writings  have  been  edited  separately  (see 
bibliography  in  Herzog-Hauck).  For  an  account  of  his  career  and 
position  in  the  history  of  dogma,  see  A.  Harnack,  vols.  iii.  and  iv. 
passim;  O.  Bardenhewer's  Patrologie  (Freiburg,  1894),  PP-  335-343: 
R.  L.  Ottley's  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,  ii.  80  ff. ;  A.  Largent's 
£tudes  d'hist.  eccles.;  St  Cyrille  d' Alexandria  et  le  concile  d'Ephese 
(Paris,  1892).  See  also  Charles  Kingsley's  romance  Hypatia. 

CYRIL  (827-869),  apostle  of  the  Slavs,  amongst  whom  he 
worked  in  conjunction  with  his  elder  brother  Methodius  (q.v.). 
Tradition  says  that  while  in  the  Khazar  country  (where  he 
combated  Jewish  and  Mahommedan  influence)  he  found  at 
Kherson  the  remains  of  Clement  of  Rome,  which  he  bore  with 
him  wherever  he  went,  finally  depositing  them  at  Rome  in  867. 
His  name  is  associated  with  the  invention  of  the  modified 
(Cyrillic)  form  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  which  largely  superseded 
the  ancient  Slavonic  characters. 

CYRILLIC,  the  alphabet  used  by  the  Orthodox  Slavs.  It 
is  modelled  on  the  Greek  Liturgical  Uncial  of  the  9th  century, 
and  its  invention  is  traditionally,  though  in  all  probability 
wrongly,  ascribed  to  the  Greek  missionary  Cyril  (d.  869).  For 
an  account  of  its  origin  and  development,  with  a  table  of  its 
letters,  see  SLAVS. 

CYRILLUS,  Greek  jurist  of  the  sth  century,  was  professor 
in  the  ancient  law  college  of  Berytus,  and  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  oecumenical  school  of  jurists  (TTJS  olKovnivys  StSdoxaXot) 
which  preceded  the  succession  of  Anastasius  to  the  Eastern 
empire  (A.D.  491),  and  paved  the  way  for  Justinian's  legislation. 
His  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  law  was  very  great;  and  from 
the  fragments  of  his  works  which  have  been  preserved  it  may 
be  inferred  that  his  merit  as  a  teacher  consisted  in  his  going 
direct  to  the  ancient  sources  of  law,  and  in  interpreting  the  best 
writers,  such  as  the  commentary  of  Ulpian  on  the  edict  and  the 
Responsa  Papiniani.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  definitions  (wro/wj^ia 
ruv  StfrviTuv) ,  in  which,  according  to  a  statement  of  his  con- 
temporary Patricius,  the  subject  of  contracts  was  treated  with 
superior  precision  and  great  method,  and  which  has  supplied 
the  materials  for  many  important  scholia  appended  to  the  first 
and  second  titles  of  the  eleventh  book  of  the  Basilica.  He  is 
generally  styled  "  the  great,"  to  distinguish  him  from  a  more 
modern  jurist  of  the  same  name,  who  lived  after  the  reign  of 
Justinian,  and  who  compiled  an  epitome  of  the  Digest. 

CYRTO-STYLE  (Gr.  xupros,  convex,  and  orDXos,  column), 
in  architecture,  a  circular  projecting  portico  with  columns; 
like  those  of  the  transept  entrances  of  St  Paul's  cathedral  and 
the  western  entrance  of  St  Mary-le-Strand,  London. 

CYRUS  (Gr.  KOpos;  Pers.  Kuru-sh;  Babyl.  Kurash;  Hebr. 
Koresh),  the  Latinized  form  of  a  Persian  name  borne  by  two 
prominent  members  of  the  Achaemenid  house. 

i.  CYRUS  THE  GREAT,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  empire, 
was  the  son  of  Cambyses  I.  His  family  belonged  to  the  clan  of 
the  Achaemenidae — in  the  inscription  on  the  pillars  and  columns 
of  the  palace  of  Pasargadae  (Murghab)  he  says:  "  I  am  Cyrus 
the  king,  the  Achaemenid  " — the  principal  clan  (^pijTprj)  of  the 
Persian  tribe  of  the  Pasargadae  (q.v.).  But  in  his  proclamation 
to  the  Babylonians  (V.R.  35;  Sir  H.  Rawlinson,  Journal  of  the 
R.  Asiat.  Soc.,  n.s.,  xii.,  1880;  Schrader,  Keilinschriftliche 
Bibliothek,  iii.  2,  120  ff.;  Hagen,  in  Delitzsch  and  Haupt, 
Beitrage  zur  Assyriologie,  ii.,  1894,  where  the  chronicle  of 
Nabonidus  is  also  published  anew  with  a  much  improved  transla- 
tion) he  calls  his  ancestors,  Teispes,  Cyrus  I.  and  Cambyses  I., 
"  kings  of  Anshan,"  and  the  same  title  is  given  to  him  in  the 
inscriptions  and  in  the  chronicle  of  Nabonidus  of  Babylon 
before  his  victory  over  Astyages.  Anshan  is  a  district  of  Elam 
or  Susiana,  the  exact  position  of  which  is  still  subject  to  much 
discussion.  As  we  know  from  Jeremiah  xlix.  34  ff.  (cf.  Ezekiel 
xxxii.  24  ff.)  that  the  Elamites  suffered  a  heavy  defeat  in  596  B.C., 
it  is  very  probable  that  the  Pasargadian  dynast  Teispes  con- 
quered Anshan  in  this  year.  Modern  authors  have  often  supposed 
that  Cyrus  and  his  ancestors  were  in  reality  Elamites;  but  this 


CYRUS 


707 


is  contrary  to  all  tradition,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
Cyrus  was  a  genuine  Persian  and  a  true  believer  in  the  Zoroastrian 
religion.  In  Herodotus  vii.  1 1  the  genealogy  of  Cyrus  is  given 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  in  the  proclamation  of  Cyrus  himself; 
Teispes  is  called  here  the  son  of  the  eponym  Achaemenes. 

The  Pasargadian  kings  of  Anshan  were  vassals  of  the  Median 
empire.  Their  kingdom  cannot  have  been  of  large  extent,  as 
Nabonidus  in  a  contemporary  inscription  (Cylinder  from  Abu 
Habba,  VR.  64,  Schrader,  Keilinschriftl.  Bibliothek,  iii.  2,  96), 
where  he  mentions  his  rebellion  against  Astyages,  calls  Cyrus 
"  king  of  Anshan,  his  (i.e.  Astyages')  small  servant  (vassal)." 
From  this  inscription  we  learn  that  the  rebellion  of  Cyrus  (who 
seems  to  have  become  king  in  558  B.C.,  as  Herod,  i.  214  gives 
him  a  reign  of  29  years)  began  in  553  B.C.,  and  from  the  annals 
that  in  550  Astyages  marched  against  Cyrus,  but  was  defeated; 
his  troops  revolted  against  him,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
Cyrus  occupied  and  plundered  Ecbatana.  The  relation  of 
Ctesias  (preserved  by  Nic.  Dam.  fr.  66;  Anaximenes  of  Lamp- 
sacus  in  Steph.  Byz.  s.v.  IIo<7ap7a5at,  Strabo  xv.  p.  729;  Polyaen. 
vii.  6.  1,9,  45.  2)  that  Cyrus  was  three  times  beaten  by  Astyages 
and  that  the  decisive  battle  took  place  in  the  mountains  of 
Pasargadae,  is  certainly  in  the  main  historical  although 
Herodotus  (i.  127  ff.)  only  mentions  the  treason  of  the  Median 
general  Harpagus  and  the  defeat  and  captivity  of  Astyages. 
In  the  rebellion  the  Persian  tribes  of  theMaraphiansand  Maspians 
joined  the  Pasargadae  (Herod,  i.  125),  while  the  other  tribes 
appear  not  to  have  acknowledged  Cyrus  till  after  his  victory 
(see  PERSIS).  From  then  he  calls  himself  "  king  of  the  Persians." 

The  history  of  Cyrus  very  soon  became  involved  and  quite 
overgrown  with  legends.  Herodotus  (i.  95)  tells  us  that  he 
knew  four  different  traditions  about  him.  One  makes  him  the 
son  of  Mandane,  a  daughter  of  Astyages  (originally  evidently 
by  a  god),  who  is  exposed  in  the  mountains  by  his  grandfather 
on  account  of  an  oracle,  but  suckled  by  a  dog  (a  sacred  animal 
of  the  Iranians)  and  educated  by  a  shepherd;  i.e.  the  myth 
which  we  know  from  the  stories  of  Oedipus,  Perseus,  Telephus, 
Pelias  and  Neleus,  Romulus,  Sargon  of  Agade,  Moses,  the  Indian 
hero  Krishna,  and  many  others,  has  been  transferred  to  the 
founder  of  the  Persian  empire.  At  the  same  time,  the  rule  of 
Cyrus  and  the  Persians  is  legitimated  by  his  family  connexion 
with  Astyages.  This  account  is  partly  preserved  in  Justin  i.  4. 
10  (probably  from  Charon  of  Larripsacus)  and  in  Aelian,  Var. 
Hist.  xiv.  42,  and  alluded  to  by  Herodotus  i.  95  and  122.  The 
second  account,  which  Herodotus  follows,  is  a  rationalized 
version  of  the  first,  where  the  dog  is  changed  into  a  woman  (the 
wife  of  the  shepherd)  named  Spako  (bitch).  In  the  later  part 
of  his  story  Herodotus  is  dependent  on  the  family  traditions 
of  Harpagus,  whose  treason  is  justified  by  the  cruelty  with  which 
Astyages  had  treated  him  (the  story  of  Atreus  and  Thyestes  is 
transferred  to  them).  Harpagus  afterwards  stood  in  high 
favour  with  Cyrus,  and  commanded  the  army  which  subdued 
the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor;  his  family  seems  to  have  been  settled 
in  Lycia.  In  a  third  version,  preserved  from  Ctesias  in  Nicolaus 
Damasc.  p.  66  (cf.  Dinonap.  Athen.  xiv.  633  C),  Cyrus  is  the  son 
of  a  poor  Mardian  bandit  Atradates  (the  Mardians  are  a  nomadic 
Persian  tribe,  Herod,  i.  125),  who  comes  as  a  voluntary  slave  to 
the  court  of  Astyages,  and  finds  favour  with  the  king.  A 
Chaldaean  sage  prophesies  to  him  his  future  greatness,  and 
another  Persian  slave,  Oebares,  becomes  his  associate.  He 
flies  to  Persia,  evades  the  pursuers  whom  Astyages  sends  after 
him,  and  begins  the  rebellion.  After  the  victory  Oebares  kills 
Astyages  against  the  will  of  Cyrus,  and  afterwards  kills  himself 
to  evade  the  wrath  of  Cyrus.  Parts  of  this  story  are  preserved 
also  in  Strabo  xv.  p.  729,  and  Justin  i.  6.  1-3;  7.  i;  cf.  Ctesias  ap. 
Photium  2-7;  many  traces  of  it  were  afterwards  transferred 
to  the  story  of  Ardashir  I.  (q-.v.),'ihe  founder  of  the  Sassanid 
empire.  With  this  version  Ctesias  and  Nicolaus  have  connected 
another,  in  which  Cyrus  is  the  son  of  a  Persian  shepherd  who 
lives  at  Pasargadae,  and  fights  the  decisive  battle  at  this  place. 
The  didactic  novel  of  Xenophon,  the  Cyropaedia,  is  a  free  inven- 
tion adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  author,  based  upon  the 
account  of  Herodotus  and  occasionally  influenced  by  Ctesias, 


without  any  independent  traditional  element.  The  account 
of  Aeschylus,  Pers.  765  ff.,  is  a  mixture  of  Greek  traditions  with 
a  few  oriental  elements;  here  the  first  king  is  Medos  (the  Median 
empire);  his  nameless  son  is  succeeded  by  Cyrus,  a  blessed 
ruler,  beloved  by  the  gods,  who  gave  peace  to  all  his  friends  and 
conquered  Lydia,  Phrygia,  Ionia.  Then  comes  his  nameless 
son,  then  Mardos  (i.e.  Smerdis,  to  whom  the  name  of  the  Mardians 
is  transferred)  who  is  killed  by  Artaphrenes  (i.e.  Artaphernes, 
Herod,  iii.  78,  one  of  the  associates  of  Darius),  then  Maraphis 
(eponym  of  the  Maraphian  tribe),  then  another  Artaphrenes, 
then  Darius. 

The  principal  events  of  the  later  history  of  Cyrus  are  in  the 
main  correctly  stated  by  Herodotus,  although  his  account 
contains  many  legendary  traditions.  The  short  excerpt  from 
Ctesias,  which  Photius  has  preserved,  contains  useful  information, 
although  we  must  always  mistrust  him.  Of  great  value  are  a 
short  notice  in  the  fragments  of  Berossus  and  another  in  the  Old 
Testament.  The  original  sources  are  very  scanty,  besides  the 
cylinder  containing  his  proclamation  to  the  Babylonians  we 
possess  only  a  great  many  dated  private  documents  from  Babylon. 
These  serve  to  fix  the  chronology,  which  is  here  as  every- 
where quite  in  accordance  with  the  dates  of  the  canon  of 
Ptolemy. 

Soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  Median  empire,  Cyrus  was 
attacked  by  a  coalition  of  the  other  powers  of  the  East,  Babylon, 
Egypt  and  Lydia,  joined  by  Sparta,  the  greatest  military  power 
of  Greece.  In  the  spring  of  546  Croesus  of  Lydia  began  the  attack 
and  advanced  into  Cappadocia,  while  the  other  powers  were 
still  gathering  their  troops.  But  Cyrus  anticipated  them;  he 
defeated  Croesus  and  followed  him  to  his  capital.  In  the  autumn 
of  546  Sardis  was  taken  and  the  Lydian  kingdom  became  a 
province  of  the  Persians.  The  famous  story  of  Herodotus,  that 
the  conqueror  condemned  Croesus  to  the  stake,  from  which  he 
was  saved  by  the  intervention  of  the  gods,  is  quite  inconsistent 
with  the  Persian  religion  (see  CROESUS). 

During  the  next  years  the  Persian  army  under  Harpagus 
suppressed  a  rebellion  of  the  Lydians  under  Pactyas,  and  sub- 
jugated the  Ionian  cities,  the  Carians  and  the  Lycians  (when 
the  town  Xanthus  resisted  to  the  utmost).  The  king  of  Cilicia 
(Syennesis)  voluntarily  acknowledged  the  Persian  supremacy. 
Why  the  war  with  Babylon,  which  had  become  inevitable,  was 
delayed  until  539,  we  do  not  know.  Here  too  Cyrus  in  a  single 
campaign  destroyed  a  mighty  state.  The  army  of  Nabonidus 
was  defeated;  Babylon  itself  attempted  no  resistance,  but 
surrendered  on  the  i6th  Tishri  (loth  of  October)  539,  to  the 
Persian  general  Gobryas  (Gaubarwia,  see  the  chronicle  of  the 
reign  of  Nabonidus;  the  name  Gobryas  is  preserved  also  by 
Xenophon,  Cyrop.  vii.  4.  24) ;  it  is  possible  that  the  Chaldaean 
priests,  who  were  hostile  to  Nabonidus,  betrayed  the  town. 
In  a  proclamation  issued  after  his  victory  Cyrus  guarantees 
life  and  property  to  all  the  inhabitants  and  designates  himself 
as  the  favourite  of  Marduk,  the  great  local  god  (Bel,  Bel-Merodak) 
of  Babel.  It  is  very  odd  that  modern  authors  have  con- 
sidered this  proclamation  as  inconsistent  with  the  Zoroastrian 
creed. 

From  the  beginning  of  538  Cyrus  dates  his  years  as  "  king 
of  Babylon  and  king  of  the  countries  "  (i.e.  of  the  world).  With 
the  capital,  the  Babylonian  provinces  in  Syria  fell  to  the  Persians; 
in  538  Cyrus  granted  to  the  Jews,  whom  Nebuchadrezzar  had 
transported  to  Babylonia,  the  return  to  Palestine  and  the 
rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  its  temple  (see  JEWS,  §  19).  It  is 
probable  that  Cyrus  had  fought  more  than  one  war  against  the 
peoples  of  eastern  Iran;  according  to  Ctesias  he  had,  before  the 
war  with  Croesus,  defeated  the  Bactrians  and  the  Sacae  (in 
Ferghana;  their  king  Amorges  is  the  eponym  of  the  Amyrgian 
Sacae,  Herod,  vii.  64,  called  by  Darius  Haumavar ka) ;  and  the 
historians  of  Alexander  mention  a  march  through  Gedrosia, 
where  he  lost  his  whole  army  but  seven  men  (Arrian  vi.  24.  2; 
Strabo  xv.  722),  a  tribe  Ariaspae  on  the  Etymandros  (in  Sijistan), 
who,  on  account  of  the  support  which  they  gave  him  against 
the  Scythians,  were  called  Euergetae  (Arrian  iii.  27.  4;  Diod. 
xvii.  81;  Curt.  vii.  3.  i),  and  a  town  Cyropolis,  founded  by  him 


708 


CYSTOFLAGELLATA 


on  the  Jaxartes  (Arrfan  iv.  2.  3;  Curt.  vii.  6.  16;  Strabo  xi. 
517,  called  Cyreskhata  by  Ptolem.  vi.  12.  5).  In  530,  having 
appointed  his  son  Cambyses  king  of  Babel,  he  set  out  for  a  new 
expedition  against  the  East.  In  this  war  he  was  killed  (Herod.) 
or  mortally  wounded  (Ctesias).  According  to  Herodotus  he 
attacked  the  Massagetae  beyond  the  Jaxartes;  according  to 
Ctesias,  the  Derbices,  a  very  barbarous  tribe  (cf.  Strabo  xi.  520; 
Aelian,  Var.  Hist.  iv.  i)  on  the  border  of  the  Caspian,  near  the 
Hyrcanians  (Strabo  xi.  514;  Steph.  Byz.;  Curt.  vii.  2.  7; 
Dion.  Perieg.  734  ff.;  Pomp.  Mela  iii.  5),  or  on  the  Oxus  (Plin. 
vi.  48;  Ptolem.  vi.  10.  2;  Tab.  Peuting.).  Berossus  (ap.  Euseb. 
Chron.  i.  29)  simply  says  that  he  fell  against  the'Dahae,  i.e.  the 
nomads  of  the  Turanian  desert.  His  death  occurred  in  528  B.C., 
as  we  have  a  Babylonian  tablet  from  the  Adar  of  the  tenth  year 
of  Cyrus,  i.e.  February  528;  for  in  Babylon  the  first  year  of 
Cyrus  began  in  the  spring  of  538. 

In  his  native  district  Cyrus  had  built  a  city  with  a  palace, 
called  after  his  tribe  Pasargadae  (now  Murghab),  and  here  he 
was  buried  (see  PASARGADAE).  In  a  short  time  he,  the  petty 
prince  of  an  almost  unknown  tribe,  had  founded  a  mighty 
empire,  which  extended  from  the  Indus  and  Jaxartes  to  the 
Aegaean  and  the  borders  of  Egypt.  This  result  shows  that  Cyrus 
must  have  been  a  great  warrior  and  statesman.  Nor  is  his 
character  without  nobility.  He  excels  in  the  humanity  with 
which  he  treated  the  vanquished.  He  destroyed  no  town  nor 
did  he  put  the  captive  kings  to  death;  in  Babylonia  he  behaved 
like  a  constitutional  monarch;  by  the  Persians  his  memory 
was  cherished  as  "  the  father  of  the  people  "  (Herod,  iii.  89), 
and  the  Greek  tradition  preserved  by  Aeschylus  (cf.  above) 
shows  that  his  greatness  was  acknowledged  also  by  his  enemies. 
He  therefore  deserves  the  homage  which  Xenophon  paid  to  him 
in  choosing  him  as  hero  for  his  didactic  novel. 

2.  CYRUS  THE  YOUNGER,  son  of  Darius  II.  and  Parysatis, 
was  born  after  the  accession  of  his  father  in  424.  When,  after 
the  victories  of  .Alcibiades,  Darius  II.  decided  to  continue  the 
war  against  Athens  and  give  strong  support  to  the  Spartans, 
he  sent  in  408  the  young  prince  into  Asia  Minor,  as  satrap  of 
Lydia  and  Phrygia  Major  with  Cappadocia,  and  commander 
of  the  Persian  troops,  "  which  gather  into  the  field  of  Castolos  " 
(Xen.  Hell.  i.  4.  3;  Anab.  i.  9.  7),  i.e.  of  the  army  of  the  district 
of  Asia  Minor.  He  gave  strenuous  support  to  the  Spartans; 
evidently  he  had  already  then  formed  the  design,  in  which  he 
was  supported  by  his  mother,  of  gaining  the  throne  for  himself 
after  the  death  of  his  father;  he  pretended  to  have  stronger 
claims  to  it  than  his  elder  brother  Artaxerxes,  who  was  not  born 
in  the  purple.  For  this  plan  he  hoped  to  gain  the  assistance  of 
Sparta.  In  the  Spartan  general  Lysander  he  found  a  man  who 
was  willing  to  help  him,  as  Lysander  himself  hoped  to  become 
absolute  ruler  of  Greece  by  the  aid  of  the  Persian  prince.  So 
Cyrus  put  all  his  means  at  the  disposal  of  Lysander  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  but  denied  them  to  his  successor  Callicratidas;  by 
exerting  his  influence  in  Sparta,  he  brought  it  about  that  after 
the  battle  of  Arginusae  Lysander  was  sent  out  a  second  time 
as  the  real  commander  (though  under  a  nominal  chief)  of  the 
Spartan  fleet  in  405  (Xen.  Hell.  ii.  i.  14).  At  the  same  time 
Darius  fell  ill  and  called  his  son  to  his  deathbed;  Cyrus  handed 
over  all  his  treasures  to  Lysander  and  went  to  Susa.  After  the 
accession  of  Artaxerxes  II.  in  404,  Tissaphernes  denounced  the 
plans  of  Cyrus  against  his  brother  (cf.  Plut.  Artax.  3);  but  by 
the  intercession  of  Parysatis  he  was  pardoned  and  sent  back 
to  his  satrapy.  Meanwhile  Lysander  had  gained  the  battle  of 
Aegospotami  and  Sparta  was  supreme  in  the  Greek  world. 
Cyrus  managed  very  cleverly  to  gather  a  large  army  by  beginning 
a  quarrel  with  Tissaphernes,  satrap  of  Caria,  about  the  Ionian 
towns;  he  also  pretended  to  prepare  an  expedition  against  the 
Pisidians,  a  mountainous  tribe  in  the  Taurus,  which  was  never 
obedient  to  the  Empire.  Although  the  dominant  position  of 
Lysander  had  been  broken  in  403  by  King  Pausanias,  the  Spartan 
government  gave  him  all  the  support  which  was  possible  without 
going  into  open  war  against  the  king;  it  caused  a  partisan  of 
Lysander,  Clearchus,  condemned  to  death  on  account  of  atrocious 
crimes  which  he  had  committed  as  governor  of  Byzantium, 


to  gather  an  army  of  mercenaries  on  the  Thracian  Chersonesus, 
and  in  Thessaly  Menon  of  Pharsalus,  head  of  a  party  which 
was  connected  with  Sparta,  collected  another  army. 

In  the  spring  of  401  Cyrus  united  all  his  forces  and  advanced 
from  Sardis,  without  announcing  the  object  of  his  expedition. 
By  dexterous  management  and  large  promises  he  overcame 
the  scruples  of  the  Greek  troops  against  the  length  and  danger 
of  the  war;  a  Spartan  fleet  of  thirty-five  triremes  sent  to  Cilicia 
opened  the  passes  of  the  Amanus  into  Syria  and  conveyed  to 
him  a  Spartan  detachment  of  700  men  under  Cheirisophus. 
The  king  had  only  been  warned  at  the  last  moment  by  Tissa- 
phernes and  gathered  an  army  in  all  haste;  Cyrus  advanced 
into  Babylonia,  before  he  met  with  an  enemy.  Here  ensued, 
in  October  401,  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  Cyrus  had  10,400  Greek 
hoplites  and  2500  peltasts,  and  besides  an  Asiatic  army  under 
the  command  of  Ariaeus,  for  which  Xenophon  gives  the  absurd 
number  of  100,000  men;  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  he  puts  down 
at  900,000.  These  numbers  only  show  that  he,  although  an 
eyewitness,  has  no  idea  of  large  numbers;  in  reality  the  army 
of  Cyrus  may  at  the  very  utmost  have  consisted  of  30,000,  that 
of  Artaxerxes  of  40,000  men.  Cyrus  saw  that  the  decision 
depended  on  the  fate  of  the  king;  he  therefore  wanted  Clearchus, 
the  commander  of  the  Greeks,  to  take  the  centre  against 
Artaxerxes.  But  Clearchus,  a  tactician  of  the  old  school,  dis- 
obeyed. The  left  wing  of  the  Persians  under  Tissaphernes 
avoided  a  serious  conflict  with  the  Greeks;  Cyrus  in  the  centre 
threw  himself  upon  Artaxerxes,  but  was  slain  in  a  desperate 
struggle.  Afterwards  Artaxerxes  pretended  to  have  killed  the 
rebel  himself,  with  the  result  that  Parysatis  took  cruel  vengeance 
upon  the  slayer  of  her  favourite  son.  The  Persian  troops  dared 
not  attack  the  Greeks,  but  decoyed  them  into  the  interior, 
beyond  the  Tigris,  and  tried  to  annihilate  them  by  treachery. 
But  after  their  commanders  had  been  taken  prisoners  the  Greeks 
forced  their  way  to  the  Black  Sea.  By  this  achievement  they 
had  demonstrated  the  internal  weakness  of  the  Persian  empire 
and  the  absolute  superiority  of  the  Greek  arms. 

The  history  of  Cyrus  and  of  the  retreat  of  the  Greeks  is  told  by 
Xenophon  in  his  Anabasis  (where  he  tries  to  veil  the  actual  participa- 
tion of  the  Spartans).  Another  account,  probably  from  Sophaenetus 
of  Stymphalus,  was  used  by  Ephorus,  and  is  preserved  in  Diodor. 
xiv.  19  ft.  Further  information  is  contained  in  the  excerpts  from 
Ctesias  by  Photius;  cf.  also  Plutarch's  life  of  Artaxerxes.  The 
character  of  Cyrus  is  highly  praised  by  the  ancients,  especially  by 
Xenophon  (cf.  also  his  Oeconomics,  c.  iv.);  and  certainly  he  was 
much  superior  to  his  weak  brother  in  energy  and  as  a  general  and 
statesman.  If  he  had  ascended  the  throne  he  might  have  regenerated 
the  empire  for  a  while,  whereas  it  utterly  decayed  under  the  rule  of 
Artaxerxes  II.  (See  also  PERSIA:  Ancient  History.)  (ED.  M.) 

CYSTOFLAGELLATA  (so  named  by  E.  Haeckel),  a  group 
of  Mastigophorous  Protozoa,  distinguished  from  Flagellata  by 
their  large  size  (0-15  — 1-5  mm.),  and  their  branched  endoplasm, 
recalling  that  of  Trachelius  among  Infusoria,  within  a  firm 
ectosarc  bounded  by  a  strong  cuticle.  Nutrition  is  holozoic, 
a  deep  groove  leading  down  to  a  mouth  and  pharynx.  A  long 
fine  flagellum  arises  from  the  pharynx  in  Noctiluca  (E.  Suriray) 
Leptodiscus  and  (R.  Hertwig);  and  in  the  former  genus,  a 
second  flagellum,  thick,  long  and  transversely  striated,  rises 
farther  out,  in  the  groove;  this  was  likened  by  E.  R.  Lankester 
to  a  proboscis,  whence  his  name  of  Rhynchoflagellata,  which 
we  discard  as  unnecessary  and  posterior  to  Haeckel's.  Noctiluca. 
has  thus  the  form  of  an  apple  with  a  long  stalk.  Leptodiscus 
(R.  Hertwig)  has  the  form  of  a  medusa  without  a  proboscis — 
it  is  menisciform  with  the  thin  contractile  margin  produced 
inwards  like  a  velum  on  the  concave  side,  while  the  mouth  is  on 
the  convex  surface  and  the  single  flagellum  springs  from  a  blind 
tube  on  the  same  surface.  Crdspedotella  (C.  A.  Kofoid),  the 
third  genus,  is' still  more  medusiform,  with  a  broad  velum,  and 
the  mouth  in  a  convex  central  protrusion  of  the  roof  of  the  bell; 
and  a  thick  flagellum  springs  from  a  blind  tube  on  the  convex 
surface.  All  three  genera  are  pelagic  and  phosphorescent, 
this  property  being  seated  in  the  ectoplasm  |  Noctiluca  mtiiaris 
is  indeed  the  chief  source  of  the  phosphorescence  of  our  summer 
seas.  O.  Biitschli,  like  other  writers,  regards  the  Cystoflagellates 
as  closely  allied  to  the  Dinoflagellates,  the  small  flagellum 


CYSTOLITH— CYTISINE 


709 


corresponding  to  the  longitudinal,  the  large  flagellum  to  the 
transverse  flagellum  of  that  group. 

The  reproduction  of  Noctiluca  has  been  fairly  made  out; 
in  the  adult  state  it  divides  by  fission  down  the  oral  groove; 
as  a  preliminary  the  external  differentiations  disappear,  and  the 
nucleus  divides  by  modified  mitosis;  then  the  external  organs 
are  regenerated.  Under  circumstances  not  well  made  out, 


After  E.  Ray  Lankeslcr,  Eacy.  Brit.,  gth  cd. 

Cystoflagellate  Protozoa. 


i    and    2,    Young    stages    of 
Noctiluca  miliaris. 

a,  the    big    flagellum;    the 
unlettered  filament  be- 
comes the  qral  flagellum 
of  the  adult. 
n,  nucleus. 

s,   the  so-called  spine  (super- 
ficial ridge  of  the  adult). 
3  and   4,   Two  stages  in   the 
fission     of     Noctiluca    miliaris, 
Suriray. 

n,  nucleus. 
TV,  food-particles. 
t,    muscular  flagellum. 
5.  Noctiluca    miliaris,   viewed 
from    the     aboral     side     (after 
Allman,  Quart.  Jour.  Mic.  Sci., 
1872). 

a,  entrance  to  atrium  or 
flagellar  fossa  (  =  longi- 
tudinal groove  of  Dir.o- 
flagellata). 

c,  superficial  ridge. 

d,  big    flagellum     (  =  flagel- 

lum of  transverse  groove 
of  Dinoflagellata). 
h,  nucleus. 


6.  Nocliluca     miliaris,     acted 
upon  by  iodine  solution,  showing 
the     protoplasm     shrunk    away 
from  the  structureless  pellicle. 

a  =  entrance  to  atrium. 

7.  Lateral   view   of   Noctiluca 
miliaris. 

a,  entrance  to  atrium. 

b,  .atrium. 

c,  superficial  ridge. 

d,  big  flagellum. 

e  =  mouth  and  gullet,  in 
which  is  seen  Krohn's 
oral  flagellum  (  =  the 
chief  flagellum,  or 
flagellum  of  the  longi- 
tudinal groove  of  Dino- 
flagellata). 

/,  broad  process  of  proto- 
plasm extending  from 
the  superficial  ridge  c 
to  the  central  proto- 
plasm. 

g,  duplicature  of  pellicle  in 
connexion  with  super- 
ficial ridge. 

h,  nucleus. 


conjugation  between  two  adults  takes  place  by  their  fusion 
commencing  at  the  oral  region;  flagella  and  pharynx  disappear 
and  the  nuclei  fuse,  while  the  cytoplasts  condense  into  a  sphere. 
The  nucleus  undergoes  broad  division,  the  young  nuclei  pass 
to  the  surface,  which  becomes  imperfectly  divided  by  grooves 
into  as  many  rounded  prominences  as  there  are  nuclei  (up  to 
128  or  256);  and  these  become  constricted  off  from  the  residual 
useless  cytoplasm  as  zoospores  with  two  unequal  flagella,  which 
were  at  first  regarded  as  Dinoflagellates,  of  which  they  have 


the  form  (figs.  5,  6).     The  metamorphosis  of  these  has  not  yet 
been  observed. 

LITERATURE. — E.  Suriray,  Magazin  de  zoologie,  1836;  G.  J. 
Allman,  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopic  Science,  n.s.  xii.,  1872; 
L.  Cienkowsky,  "  Zoospore  formation  in  Noctiluca,"  Archivi.  mikro- 
skopische  Anatomic,  vii.,  1871 ;  R.  Hertwig,  "  Leptodiscus,"  Jenaische 
Zeitschrift,  xi.,  1877;  C.  Ischikawa,  Journal  of  the  College  of  Science 
(Tokyo,  1894),  xii.,  1899;  F.  Doflein,  "  Conjugation  of  Noctiluca," 
Zoologische  Jahrbiicher,  Anatomie,  xiv.,  1900;  C.  A.  Kofoid,"  Craspe- 
dotella,"  in  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  Harvard,  xlvi.,  1905;  O.  Biitschli, 
"  Mastigophora,"  in  Protozoa  (Braun's  Thierreich,  vol.  5.,  Protozoa) 
(1883-1887).  (M.  HA.) 

CYSTOLITH  (Gr.  KVOTIS,  cavity,  andXlflos,  stone),  a  botanical 
term  for  the  inorganic  concretions,  usually  of  calcium  carbonate, 
formed  in  a  cellulose  matrix  in  special  cells,  generally  in  the 
leaf  of  plants  of  certain  families,  e.  g.  Ficus  elastica,  the  india- 
rubber  plant. 

CYTHERA  (mod.  Cerigo,  but  still  officially  known  as  Cythera), 
one  of  the  Ionian  islands,  situated  not  less  than  150  m.  from 
Zante,  but  only  about  8  m.  from  Cape  Malea  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Greece.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  nearly  20  m.,  and 
its  greatest  breadth  about  12;  its  area  is  114  sq.  m.  The  surface 
is  rocky  and  broken,  but  streams  abound,  and  there  are  various 
parts  of  considerable  fertility.  Two  caves,  of  imposing  dimen- 
sions, and  adorned  with  stalactites  of  great  beauty,  are  the  most 
notable  among  its  natural  peculiarities;  one  is  situated  at  the 
seaward  end  of  the  glen  of  the  Mylopotamus,  and  the  other, 
named  Santa  Sophia,  about  two  hours'  ride  from  Capsali 
(Kapsali).  Less  of  the  ground  is  cultivated  and  more  of  it  is  in 
pasture  land  than  in  any  other  of  the  seven  islands.  Some  wine 
and  corn  are  produced,  and  the  quality  of  the  olive  oil  is  good. 
The  honey  is  still  highly  prized,  as  it  was  in  remote  antiquity; 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  cheese  is  manufactured  from  the 
milk  of  the  goat.  Salt,  flax,  cotton  and  currants  are  also 
mentioned  among  the  produce.  The  people  are  industrious, 
and  many  of  them  seek  employment  as  labourers  in  the  Morea 
and  Asia  Minor.  Owing  to  emigration,  the  population  appears 
to  be  steadily  diminishing,  and  is  now  only  about  6000,  or  less 
than  half  what  it  was  in  1857.  Unfortunately  the  island  has 
hardly  a  regular  harbour  on  any  part  of  the  coast;  from  its 
situation  at  the  meeting,  as  it  were,  of  seas,  the  currents  in  the 
neighbourhood  are  strong,  and  storms  are  very  frequent.  The 
best  anchorage  is  at  San  Nicolo,  at  the  middle  of  the  eastern 
side  of  the  island.  The  principal  village  is  Capsali,  a  place  of 
about  1500  inhabitants,  at  the  southern  extremity,  with  a  bishop, 
and  several  convents  and  churches;  the  lesser .  hamlets  are 
Modari,  Potamo  and  San  Nicolo. 

There  are  comparatively  few  traces  of  antiquity,  and  the 
identification  of  the  ancient  cities  has  been  disputed.  The 
capital,  which  bore  the  same  name  as  the  island,  was  at  Paleo- 
Kastro,  about  3  m.  from  the  present  port  of  Avlemona.  In  the 
church  of  St  Kosmas  are  preserved  some  of  the  archaic  Doric 
columns  of  the  famous  temple  of  Aphrodite  of  Cythera,  whose 
worship  had  been  introduced  from  Syria,  and  ultimately  spread 
over  Greece.  According  to  the  accepted  story,  it  was  here  that 
the  goddess  first  landed  when  she  emerged  from  the  sea.  At  a 
very  early  date  Cythera  was  the  seat  of  a  Phoenician  settlement, 
established  in  connexion  with  the  purple  fishery  of  the  neighbour- 
ing coast;  it  is  said  that  it  was  therefore  called  Porphyris 
(cf.  Pliny  iv.  18, 19).  For  a  time  dependent  on  Argos,  it  became 
afterwards  an  important  possession  of  the  Spartans,  who  annually 
despatched  a  governor  named  the  Cytherodices.  In  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  Nicias  occupied  the  island,  but  in  421  it  was 
recovered  by  Sparta.  Its  modern  history  has  been  very  much 
the  same  as  that  of  the  other  Ionian  islands;  but  it  was  subject 
to  Venice  for  a  much  shorter  period — from  1717  to  1797. 

See  the  works  referred  to  under  CEPHALONIA,  and  also  Weil,  in 
Mittheil.  d.  deutsch.  Inst.  zu  Athen  (1880),  pp.  224-243. 

CYTISINE  (Ulexin,  Sophorin),  C,iHuN2O,  an  alkaloid  dis- 
covered in  1818  by  J.  B.  Chevreul  in  the  seeds  of  laburnum 
(Cytisus  Laburnum)  and  isolated  by  A.  Husemann  and  W. 
Marme  in  1865  (Zeit.f.  Chemie,  1865,  i.p.  161).  It  is  also  found 
in  the  seeds  of  furze  (Ulex  europaeus),  Sophora  tormenlosa,  and 
Euchresta  horsfieldii.  [it  is  extracted  from  the  seeds  by  an 


710 


CYTOLOGY 


alcoholic  solution  of  acetic  acid,  and  forms  large  crystals  which 
melt  at  153°  C.,  and  are  easily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and 
chloroform.  It  is  a  secondary  and  tertiary  di-acid  base,  and  is 
strongly  alkaline  in  its  reaction.  Hydrogen  peroxide  oxidizes 
it  to  oxycytisine,  CnHuNjC^,  chromic  acid  to  an  acid,  CnHaNOs, 
and  potassium  permanganate  to  oxalic  acid  and  ammonia.  It 
acts  as  a  violent  poison. 

See  further,  P.  C.  Plugge,  Arch,  der  Pharm.  (1891),  229,  p.  48  et 
seq.;  A.  Partheil,  Ber.  (1890),  23,  p.  3201,  Arch,  der  Pharm.  (1892), 
230,  p.  448;  M.  Freund  and  A.  Friedmann,  Ber.  (1901),  34,  p.  615; 
and  J.  Herzig  and  H.  Meyer,  Monals.f.  Chem.  (1897),  18,  p.  379. 

CYTOLOGY  (from  KUTOS,  a  hollow  vessel,  and  Xo7os,  science), 
the  scientific  study  of  the  "  cells  "  or  living  units  of  protoplasm 
(q.v .) ,  of  which  plants  and  animals  are  composed.  All  the  higher, 
and  the  great  majority  of  the  lower,  plants  and  animals  are 
composed  of  a  vast  number  of  these  vital  units  or  "  cells."  In 
the  case  of  many  microscopic  forms,  however,  the  entire  organism, 
plant  or  animal,  consists  throughout  life  of  a  single  cell.  Familiar 
examples  of  these  "  unicellular  "  forms  are  Bacteria  and  Diatoms 
among  the  plants,  and  Foraminifera  and  Infusoria  among  the 
animals.  In  all  cases,  however,  whether  the  cell-unit  lives  freely 
as  a  unicellular  organism  or  forms  an  integral  part  of  a  multi- 
cellular  individual,  it  exhibits  in  itself  all  the  phenomena  char- 
acteristic of  living  things.  Each  cell  assimilates  food  material, 
whether  this  is  obtained  by  its  own  activity,  as  in  the  majority 
of  the  protozoa,  or  is  brought,  as  it  were,  to  its  own  door  by  the 
blood  stream,  as  in  the  higher  Metazoa,  and  builds  this  food 
material  into  its  own  substance,  a  process  accompanied  by 
respiration  and  excretion  and  resulting  in  growth.  Each  cell 
exhibits  in  greater  or  less  degree  "  irritability,"  or  the  power  of 
responding  to  stimuli;  and  finally  each  cell,  at  some  time  in  its 
life,  is  capable  of  reproduction.  It  is  evident  therefore  that  in 
the  multicellular  forms  all  the  complex  manifestations  of  life 
are  but  the  outcome  of  the  co-ordinated  activities  of  the  con- 
stituent cells.  The  latter  are  indeed,  as  Virchow  has  termed 
them,  "  vital  units."  It  is  therefore  in  these  vital  units  that  the 
explanation  of  vital  phenomena  must  be  sought  (see  PHYSI- 
OLOGY). As  Verworn1  said,  "  It  is  to  the  cell  that  the  study  of 
every  bodily  function  sooner  or  later  drives  us.  In  the  muscle 
cell  lies  the  problem  of  the  heart  beat  and  that  of  muscular 
contraction;  in  the  gland  cell  reside  the  causes  of  secretion; 
in  the  epithelial  cell,  in  the  white  blood  corpuscle,  lies  the  problem 
of  the  absorption  of  food,  and  the  secrets  of  the  mind  are  hidden 
in  the  ganglion  cell."  So  also  the  problems  of  development  and 
inheritance  have  shown  themselves  to  be  cell  problems,  while 
the  study  of  disease  has  produced  a  "  cellular  pathology." 
The  most  important  problems  awaiting  solution  in  biology  are 
cell  problems. 

Historical. — The  cell-theory  ranks  with  the  evolution  theory 
in  the  far-reaching  influence  it  has  exerted  on  the  growth  of 
modern  biology;  and  although  almost  entirely  a  product  of 
the  igth  century,  the  history  of  its  development  gives  place,  in 
point  of  interest,  to  that  of  no  other  general  conception.  The 
cell-theory — in  a  form,  however,  very  different  from  that  in 
which  we  now  know  it — was  originally  suggested  by  the  study 
of  plant  structure;  and  the  first  steps  to  the  formulation,  many 
years  later,  of  a  definite  cell-theory,  were  made  as  early  as  the 
later  part  of  the  i7th  century  by  Robert  Hooke,  Marcello 
Malpighi  and  Nehemiah  Grew.  Hooke  ( 1 665)  noted  and  described 
the  vesicular  nature  of  cork  and  similar  vegetable  substances, 
and  designated  the  cavities  by  the  term  "  cells."  A  few  years 
later  Malpighi  (1674)  and  Grew  (1682),  still  of  course  working 
with  the  low  power  lenses  alone  available  at  that  time,  gave  a 
more  detailed  description  of  the  finer  structure  of  plant  tissue. 
They  showed  that  it  consisted  in  part  of  little  cell-like  cavities, 
provided  with  firm  cell-walls  and  filled  with  fluid,  and  in  part 
of  long  tube-like  vessels.  A  long  time  passed  before  the  next 
important  step  forward  was  made  by  C.  L.  Treviranus,2  who, 
working  on  the  growing  parts  of  young  plants,  showed  that  the 
tubes  and  vessels  of  Malpighi  and  Grew  arose  from  cells  by  the 

1  Allgemeine  Physiologic,  p.  53  (1895). 
1  Vom  inwendigen  Ban  der  Gewachse  (1806). 


latter  becoming  elongated  and  attached  end  to  end,  the  inter- 
vening walls  breaking  down;  a  conclusion  afterwards  confirmed 
by  Hugo  von  Mohl  (1830).  It  was  not,  however,  until  the 
appearance  of  Matthias  Jakob  Schleiden's  paper  Beitrage  zur 
Phylogenesis  (1838)  that  we  have  a  really  comprehensive  treat- 
ment of  the  cell,  and  the  formulation  of  a  definite  cell-theory 
for  plants.  It  is  to  the  wealth  of  correlated  observations  and 
to  the  philosophic  breadth  of  the  conclusions  in  this  paper  that 
the  subsequent  rapid  progress  in  cytology  is  undoubtedly  to  be 
attributed.  Schleiden  in  this  paper  attempted  to  solve  the 
problem  of  the  mode  of  origin  of  cells.  The  nucleus  (vide  infra) 
of  the  cell  had  already  been  discovered  by  Robert  Brown  (1831), 
who,  however,  failed  to  realize  its  importance.  Schleiden 
utilized  Brown's  discovery,  and  although  his  theory  of  phyto- 
genesis  is  based  on  erroneous  observations,  yet  the  great  import- 
ance which  he  rightly  attached  to  the  nucleus  as  a  cell-structure 
made  it  possible  to  extend  the  cell-theory  to  animal  tissues  also. 
We  may  indeed  date  the  birth  of  animal  cytology  from  Schleiden's 
short  but  epoch-making  paper.  Comparisons  between  plant 
and  animal  tissues  had  already  been  made  by  several  workers, 
among  others  by  Johannes  Miiller  (1835),  and  by  F.  G.  J.  Henle 
and  J.  E.  Purkinje  (1837).  But  the  first  real  step  to  a  com- 
prehensive cell-theory  to  include  animal  tissues  was  made  by 
Theodor  Schwann.  This  author,  stimulated  by  Schleiden's 
work,  published  in  1839  a  series  of  Mikroskopische  Untersuchungen 
iiber  die  U  bereinstimmung  in  der  Structur  und  dem  Wachstum  der 
Tiere  und  Pflanzen.  This  epoch-making  work  ranks  with 
that  of  Schleiden  in  its  stimulating  influence  on  biological 
research,  and  in  spite  of  the  greater  technical  difficulties  in  the 
way,  raised  animal  cytology  at  one  blow  to  the  position  already, 
and  so  laboriously,  acquired  by  plant  cytology.  In  the  animal 
cell  it  is  the  nucleus  and  not  the  cell-wall  that  is  most  con- 
spicuous, and  it  is  largely  to  the  importance  which  Schwann, 
following  the  example  of  Schleiden,  attached  to  this  structure 
as  a  cell  constituent,  that  the  success  and  far-reaching  influence  of 
his  work  is  due.  Another  feature  determining  the  success  of 
Schwann's  work  was  ru's  selection  of  embryonic  tissue  as  material 
for  investigation.  He  showed  that  in  the  embryo  the  cells  all 
closely  resemble  one  another,  only  becoming  later  converted 
into  the  tissue  elements — nerve  cells,  muscle  cells  and  so  forth — 
as  development  proceeded;  just  as  a  similar  mode  of  investiga- 
tion had  enabled  Treviranus  to  trace  the  origin  from  typical  cells 
of  the  vascular  tissue  in  plants  more  than  30  years  previously. 
And  just  as  Treviranus  showed  that  there  was  a  union  of  cells 
to  form  the  vessels  in  plants,  so  Schwann  now  showed  that  a  union 
of  cells  frequently  occurred  in  the  formation  of  animal  tissues. 

So  great  was  the  stimulus  given  to  cytological  research  by 
the  work  of  Schleiden  and  Schwann  that  these  authors  are  often 
referred  to  as  the  founders  of  the  cell-theory.  Their  theory, 
however,  differed  very  greatly  from  that  of  the  present  time. 
Not  only  did  they  suppose  new  cells  to  arise  by  a  sort  of  "  crystal- 
lization "  from  a  formative  "  mother  liquor  "  or  "  cytoblastema  " 
(vide  infra) ,  but  they  both  defined  the  cell  as  a  "  vesicle  "  provided 
with  a  firm  cell-wall  and  with  fluid  contents.  The  cell-wall  was 
regarded  as  the  essential  cell-structure,  which  by  its  own  peculiar 
properties  controlled  the  cell-processes.  The  work  of  Schleiden 
and  Schwann  marks  the  close  of  the  first  period  in  the  history 
of  the  cell-theory — the  period  dominated  by  the  cell-wall.  The 
subsequent  history  is  marked  by  the  gradual  recognition  of  the 
importance  of  the  cell-contents.  Schleiden  had  noticed  in  the 
plant  cell  a  finely  granular  substance  which  he  termed  "  plant 
slime  "  (Pflanzenschleim) .  In  1846  Hugo  von  Mohl  applied  to 
this  substance  the  term  "  protoplasm  ";  a  term  already  used 
by  Purkinje  six  years  previously  for  the  formative  substance  of 
young  animal  embryos.  Mohl  showed  that  the  young  plant  cell 
was  at  first  completely  filled  by  the  protoplasm,  and  that  only 
later,  by  the  gradual  accumulation  of  vacuoles  in  the  interior, 
did  this  substance  come  to  form  a  thin  layer  on  the  inner  surface 
of  the  cell-wall.  Mohl  also  described  the  spontaneous  movement 
of  the  protoplasm,  a  phenomenon  already  noted  by  Schleiden 
for  his  plant  slime,  and  originally  discovered  by  Bonaventura 
Corti  in  1772  for  the  cells  of  Chara,  and  rediscovered  in  1807 


CYTOLOGY 


711 


by  Treviranus.  Not  only  was  attention  thus  gradually  directed 
to  the  importance  of  the  cell-contents,  but  observations  were  not 
lacking,  even  in  the  plant  kingdom,  tending  to  weaken  the 
importance  hith'erto  attached  to  the  cell-wall.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  Cohn's  observation  that  in  the  reproduction  of 
Algal  forms  the  protoplasm  contracts  away  from  the  cell-wall 
and  escapes  as  a  naked  "  swarm  spore."  Similarly  in  the  animal 
kingdom  instances  began  to  be  noted  in  which  no  membrane 
appeared  to  be  present  (Kolliker,  1845;  Bischoff,  1842),  and  for 
some  time  it  was  hotly  debated  whether  these  structures  could 
be  regarded  as  true  cells.  As  a  result  of  the  resemblance  between 
the  streaming  movements  in  these  apparently  naked  cells  (e.g. 
lymphocytes)  and  those  seen  in  plant  cells,  R.  Remak  was  led 
(1852-1853)  to  apply  Mohl's  term  "  protoplasm  "  to  the  sub- 
stance of  these  animal  cells  also.  Similarly  Max  Schultze  (1863) 
and  H.  A.  de  Bary  (1859),  as  a  result  of  the  study  of  unicellular 
animals,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  substance  of  these 
organisms,  originally  termed  "  Sarcode  "  by  F.  Dujardin,  was 
identical  with  that  of  the  plant  and  animal  cell.  Numerous 
workers  now  began  to  realize  the  subordinate  position  of  the 
cell-wall  (e.g.  Nageli,  Alexander  Braun,  Leydig,  Kolliker,  Cohn, 
de  Bary,  &c.),  but  it  is  to  Max  Schultze  above  all  that  the  credit 
is  due  for  having  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  conception 
of  the  cell — a  conception  often  referred  to  as  the  proto-plasmic- 
theory  in  opposition  to  the  ce//-theory  of  Schleiden  and 
Schwann.  Max  Schultze  showed  that  one  and  the  same 
substance,  protoplasm,  occurred  in  unicellular  forms  and  in  the 
higher  plants  and  animals;  that  in  plants  this  substance, 
though  usually  enclosed  within  a  cell  membrane,  was  sometimes 
naked  (e.g.  swarm  spores),  while  in  many  animal  tissues  and 
in  many  of  the  unicellular  forms  the  cell-membrane  was  always 
absent.  He  therefore  concluded  that  in  all  cases  the  cell-mem- 
brane was  unessential,  and  he  redefined  the  "  cell  "  of  Schleiden 
and  Schwann  as  "  a  small  mass  of  protoplasm  endowed  with  the 
attributes  of  life  "  (1861).  In  the  same  year  the  physiologist 
Brticke  maintained  that  the  complexity  of  vital  phenomena 
necessitated  the  assumption  for  the  cell-protoplasm  itself  of  a 
complex  structure,  only  invisible  because  of  the  limitations  of  our 
methods  of  observation.  The  cell  in  fact  was  to  be  regarded  as 
being  itself  an  "  elementary  organism."  By  this  time  too  it  was 
realized  that  the  formation  of  cells  de  novo,  postulated  by 
Schleiden's  theory  of  "  phylogenesis,"  did  not  occur.  Cells 
only  arose  by  the  division  of  pre-existing  cells, — as  Virchow 
neatly  expressed  it  in  his  since  famous  aphorism,  omnis  celltila 
e  cellula.  It  was,  however,  many  years  before  the  details  of 
this  "  cell-division  "  were  laid  bare  (see  Cell-Division  below). 

General  Morphology  of  the  Cell. — In  its  simplest  form  the  cell 
is  a  more  or  less  spherical  mass  of  viscid, translucent  and  granular 
protoplasm.  In  addition  to  the  living  protoplasm  there  is 
present  in  the  cell  food-material  in  various  stages  of  assimila- 
tion, which  usually  presents  the  appearance  of  fine  granules  or 
spherules  suspended  in  the  more  or  less  alveolar  or  reticular 
mesh-work  of  the  living  protoplasm.  In  addition  there  may 
be  more  or  less  obvious  accumulations  of  waste  material,  pig- 
ment, oil  drops,  &c. — products  of  the  cell's  metabolic  activity. 
All  these  relatively  passive  inclusions1  are  distinguished  from 
the  living  protoplasm  by  the  term  "  metaplasm  "  (Hanstein), 
or  "  paraplasm  "  (Kupffer),  although  in  practice  no  very  sharp 
distinction  can  be  drawn  between  them.  The  cell  is  frequently, 
but  by  no  means  always,  bounded  by  a  cell-wall  of  greater  or  less 
thickness.  In  plants  this  cell-wall  consists  of  cellulose,  a  sub- 
stance closely  allied  to  starch;  in  animals  only  very  rarely  is 
this  the  case.  Usually  the  cell-wall,  when  this  is  present,  is  a 
product  of  the  cell's  secretive  activity;  sometimes,  however, 
it  appears  to  be  formed  by  an  actual  conversion  of  the  surface 
layer  of  the  protoplasm,  and  retains  the  power  of  growth  by 
"  intussusception  "  like  the  rest  of  the  protoplasm.  Even  when 
a  limiting  membrane  is  present,  however,  evidence  is  steadily 
accumulating  to  show  that  the  cell  is  not  an  isolated  physiological 
unit,  but  that,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  there  is  a  proto- 

1  The  Chromoplastids  of  the  vegetable  cell  come  under  a  different 
category  of  cell-inclusions;  see  PLANTS:  Cytology. 


plasmic  continuity  between  the  cells  of  the  organism.  This 
continuity,  which  is  effected  by  fine  protoplasmic  threads 
("  cell-bridges  ")  piercing  the  cell-wall  and  bridging  the  inter- 
cellular spaces  when  these  are  present,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
morphological  expression  of  the  physiological  interdependence 
of  the  various — often  widely  separated — tissues  of  the  body.2 
It  is  probable  that  it  is  the  specialization  of  this  primitive 
condition  which  has  produced  the  cell-elements  of  the  nervous 
system.  In  many  cases  the  cell-connexions  are  so  extensive  as 
to  obliterate  cell-boundaries.  A  good  example  of  such  a  "  syn- 
cytial  "  tissue  is  provided  by  the  heart  muscle  of  Vertebrates 
and  the  intestinal  musculature  of  Insects  (Webber).3 

In  all  multicellular,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  unicellular, 
organisms  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell-unit  is  differentiated  into 
two  very  distinct  regions, — a  more  or  less  central  region,  the 
nucleus,  and  a  peripheral  region  (usually  much  more  exten- 
sive), the  cell -body  or  cytoplasm.  This  universal  morpho- 
logical differentiation  of  the  cell-protoplasm  is  accompanied  by 
corresponding  chemical  differences,  and  is  the  expression  of  a 
physiological  division  of  labour  of  fundamental  importance. 
In  some  of  the  simpler  unicellular  organisms,  e.g.  Tetramitus, 
the  differentiated  protoplasm  is  not  segregated.  Such  forms 
are  said  to  have  a  "  distributed  "  nucleus,  and  among  the 
Protozoa  correspond  to  Haeckel's  "  Protista."  It  is  probable 
that  among  plants  the  Bacteria  and  Cyanophyceae  have  a 
similar  distributed  nucleus.  In  all  the  higher  forms,  however, 
the  segregation  is  well  marked,  and  a  "  nuclear  membrane  " 
separates  the  substance  of  the  nucleus,  or  "  karyoplasm  " 4 
from  the  surrounding  "cytoplasm."  Within  the  nuclear 
membrane  the  karyoplasm  is  differentiated  into  two  very 
distinct  portions,  a  clear  fluid  portion,  the  "  karyolymph,"  and 
a  firmer  portion  in  the  form  of  a  coarser  or  finer  "  nuclear 
reticulum."  This  latter  is  again  composed  of  two  parts,  the 
"  linin  reticulum,"6  and,  embedded  in  the  latter  and  often 
irregularly  aggregated  at  its  nodal  points,  a  granular  substance, 
the  "  chromatin,"  6  the  latter  being  the  essential  constituent 
of  the  nucleus.  In  addition  to  the  chromatin  there  may  be 
present  in  the  nucleus  one  or  more,  usually  spherical,  and  as  yet 
somewhat  enigmatical  bodies,  the  "  nucleoli."  In  addition  to 
the  nucleus  and  cytoplasm,  a  third  body,  the  "  centrosome," 
has  often  been  considered  as  a  constant  cell-structure.  It  is 
a  minute  granule,  usually  lying  in  the  cytoplasm  not  far  from 
the  nucleus,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  cell-division  and 
fertilization  (see  below). 

Cell-differentiation. — Both  among  unicellular  and  multi- 
cellular  individuals  the  cell  assumes  the  most  varied  forms  and 
performs  the  most  diverse  functions.  In  all  cases,  however, 
whether  we  examine  the  free-living  shapeless  and  slowly  creeping 
Amoeba,  or  the  striped  muscle  cell  or  spermatozoon  of  the 
Metazoa  (fig.  i,  b  and  c),  the  constant  recurrence  of  cytoplasm 
and  nucleus  show  that  we  have  to  deal  in  each  case  with  a  cell. 
The  variation  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  cell  is  an  expression 
of  that  universal  economic  law  of  nature,  "  division  of  labour," 
with  its  almost  invariable  accompanying  "  morphological 
differentiation  ";  the  earliest  and  most  fundamental  example 
being  in  the  differentiation  of  the  cell-protoplasm  into  cytoplasm 
and  nucleus.  In  multicellular  individuals  the  division  of  labour 
to  which  the  structural  complexity  of  the  organism  is  due  is 
between  the  individual  cell-units,  some  cells  developing  one 

1  Cf .  Pfeffer's  classical  experiments  on  the  physiological  significance 
of  cell-continuity  in  plant  tissues  (Vber  den  Einfluss  des  Zellkerns 
auf  die  Bildung  der  Zellhaut,  1896).  The  recent  work  in  physiology 
on  the  influence  substances  secreted  by  certain  tissues  and  circulating 
in  the  blood-stream  exert  upon  other  and  widely  different  tissues, 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  this  connexion. 

*  The  influence  this  protoplasmic  continuity  may  have  upon  our 
conception  of  the  cell  as  a  unit  of  organization  is  referred  to  below 
(Present  Position  of  the  Cell-theory). 

*  A  term  (from  ic&pvov,  kernel)  suggested  by  Flemming to  replace 
Strasburger's   hybrid   term    "  nucleoplasm       (1882).     The  earlier 
workers,  e.g.  Leydig,  Schultze,  Briicke,  de  Bary,  &c.,  restricted  the 
term  protoplasm  to  the  cell-body — the  "  Cytoplasm  "  of  Strasburger, 
an  example  still  followed  by  O.  Hertwig. 

6  From  linum,  a  thread,  Schwarz,  1887. 

*  From  xp&na,  colour,  Flemming,  1879. 


CYTOLOGY 


aspect,  some  another,  of  their  vital  attributes.  Thus  one  cell 
specializes  in,  say,  secretion,  another  in  contractility,  another 
in  receiving  and  carrying  stimuli,  and  so  forth,  so  that  we  have 
the  gland  cell,  the  muscle  cell,  and  the  nerve  cell,  each  appropri- 
ately grouped  with  its  fellows  to  constitute  the  particular  tissue 
or  organ — gland,  muscle  or  brain — which  has  for  its  function 
that  of  its  constituent  cells.  In  unicellular  animals  we  also 
find  division  of  labour  and  its  accompanying  morphological 
differentiation,  but  here  there  is  no  subdivision  of  the  protoplasm 
of  the  organism  into  the  semi-autonomous  units  which  so  greatly 
facilitate  division  of  labour  in  the  Metazoa;  instead,  division 
of  labour  must  be  between  different  regions  of  protoplasm  in 
the  single  cell.  The  sharply  defined  character  of  this  regional 
differentiation  in  the  Protozoa,  and  the  surprising  structural 
complexity  it  may  produce,  sufficiently  clearly  show  that  although 
multicellular  structure  has  greatly  facilitated  regional  differentia- 
tion in  the  Metazoa,  it  is  by  no  means  essential  to  this  process 
(see  below,  Present  Position  of  the  Cell-theory). 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to  attempt  a  compre- 
hensive review  of  the  variety  in  structural  complexity  to  which 
this  division  of  labour  among  the  cells  of  the  Metazoan  and  the 
regional  differentiation  of  the  cell-bodies  of  the  Protozoa  has 
given  rise.  Some  indication  of  the  wealth  of  variety  may  be 
best  given  by  taking  a  general  survey  of  cell-modifications, 
grouped  according  to  the  cell-attributes  the  expression  of  which 
they  facilitate. 

(a)  Structural  Complexity  facilitating  Movement. — One  of 
the  most  striking,  and  hence  earliest  described,  of  the  funda- 
mental attributes  of  protoplasm  is  its  power  of  spontaneous 
movement.  This  is  seen  in  the  walled  cell  of  plant  tissue  and  in 


;  ' 


«iW«itMMiMwwl' 

a  and  6  from  Senator's  Essentials  oj  Histology,  by  permission  of  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
FIG.  I. — Types  of  Cells,     a,  Fat-cell  enclosing  a  huge  fat-globule. 
6,  Part  of  a  Mammalian  "  striated  "  muscle-cell  (diagrammatic). 
c,  Spermatozoa  of  mouse  and  bird. 

the  naked  cell-body  of  Amoeba.  In  the  latter  case  the  streaming 
movements  of  the  naked  protoplasm  are  accompanied  by  the 
formation  of  "  pseudopodia,"  and  result  in  the  highly  charac- 
teristic "  amoeboid  "  creeping  movement  of  this  and  similar 
organisms  (e.g.  lymph  corpuscles  of  the  blood).1  In  these 
examples  the  whole  protoplasm  participates  in  the  movement, — 
there  has  been  no  division  of  labour,  and  there  is,  therefore,  no 
visible  morphological  differentiation.  In  many  cells,  movement 
(either  of  the  entire  body  or  of  the  surrounding  medium)  is  by 
means  of  slender  whip-like  processes  of  the  protoplasm  flagella 
or  cilia.  These  represent  modified  pseudopodia,  and  in  the 
formation  of  the  motile  gametes  of  some  of  the  lower  forms, 
e.g.  Myxomycetes  (deBary,  1859), Rhizopods  (R.  Hertwig,  1874), 
&c.,  the  actual  conversion  of  a  pseudopodium  into  a  flagellum 
can  be  witnessed.  These  vibratile  processes  may  be  either  one 
or  few  in  number,  and  are  then  large  in  size  and  move  independ- 
ently of  one  another;  or  they  may  be  very  numerous,  covering 
the  free  surface  of  the  cell  (fig.  2,  o);  they  are  then  very  small 
and  move  strictly  in  unison.  In  the  former  case  they  are  termed 
"  flagella,"  in  the  latter  "  cilia."  In  some  cases  the  flagellum 
is  accompanied  by  an  undulating  membrane  (e.g.  Trypanosoma 
among  the  protozoa  and  in  many  spermatozoa),  and  it  may  be 
situated  either  at  the  front  end  (Euglena)  or  hind  end  (sper- 
matozoa) of  the  body  during  motion.  The  cilia  may  form  a 

1  The  formation  of  pseudopodia  and  accompanying  changes  in 
form  of  Amoeba  were  observed  as  early  as  1755  by  Raesel  von 
Rosenhof,  who  named  it  on  this  account  the  "  little  Proteus." 


uniform  coating  to  the  free  surface  of  the  cell,  as  in  ciliated 
epithelium  (fig.  2,  a)  and  many  infusoria,  or  the  cilia  may  be 
variously  modified  and  restricted  to  special  regions  of  the  body, 
e.g.  the  "  undulating  membrane  "  of  the  peristomial  region 
in  many  infusoria,  the  swimming  combs  of  the  Ctenophora  (?.».), 


From  A.   Gurwitsch,  Morphologic  und  Biologic  der   Zdle,   by  permission  of   Gustav 
Fischer. 

FIG.  2. — Types  of  Cells,  o.  Ciliated  epithelial  cells.  (After 
Heidenhain.)  b.  Mucus-secreting  "  goblet  "-cells.  (After  Gur- 
witsch.) 

and  the  flame  cells  of  the  Platyelmia  (q.v.).  In  one  group  of 
infusoria  (Hypotricha),  the  cilia,  "  cirri,"  have  attained  a  high 
degree  of  differentiation,  and  reach  a  considerable  size.  Both 
cilia  and  flagella  spring  directly  from  the  cell-protoplasm,  piercing 
the  cell-membrane,  when  this  is  present.  At  the  point  where 
they  become  continuous  with  the  cell-body  there  is  usually  a 
deeply  staining  "  basal  granule."  In  some  cases  the  flagella 
are  in  direct  connexion  with  the  centrosome  (see  below,  Cell- 
division),  e.g.  Trypanosoma  and  spermatozoa,  in  some  cases  even 
while  the  centrosome  is  functioning  in  mitosis  (e.g.  insect 
spermatogenesis,  Henneguy2  and  Meves3  (fig.  3). 

In  the  ability  of  Amoeba  to  contract  into  a  spherical  mass,  and 
in  the  presence  in  its  protoplasm  of  the  contractile  vacuole, 
we  see  another  type  of  spontaneous  movement — contractility — 
of  the  protoplasm.  In  the  "  musculo-epithelial  "  cells  of  Hydra, 


From  O.  Hertwig,  A Ugemeine  Biologic,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  3. — Spermatocytes  of  Bombyx  mori,  showing  the  precocious 
appearance  of  the  spermatozoon  flagellum  and  its  relation  to  the 
centrosome.  (After  Henneguy.) 

the  elongated  basal  portion  of  the  cell  alone  possesses  this 
contractility.  In  the  higher  Metazoa  the  whole  cell — muscle 
cell — is  specialized  for  contractility,  and  shows,  as  a  result  of 
its  specialization,  a  distinct  fibrillation.  This  fibrillation  is 
foreshadowed  in  the  contractile  regions  of  many  Protozoa,  e.g. 

2  "  Sur  les  rapports  des  cils  vibratiles  avec  les  centrosomes," 
Archives  d'anatomie  microscopique  (1898). 

3  "  tJber    Zentralkorper    in    mannlichen    Geschlechtszellen    von 
Schmetterlingen  "  (Anal.  Anz.  Bd.  xiv.,  1897).     Cf.  also  the  papers 
of  Lenhossek  (Vber  Flimmerzellen,  1898),  Karl  Peter  (Das  Zentrum 
fitr  die  Flimm-und  Giesselbewegung,  1899)  and  Verworn  (Studien  zur 
Physiologic  der  Flimmerbewegung,  1899). 


CYTOLOGY 


in  the  cirri  of  hypotrichous  Infusoria,  the  tentacle  of  NoctUuca, 
and  the  myophane  layer  of  Gregarines.  In  the  quickly  contract- 
ing muscle  cell  of  Vertebrates  and  insects,  further  specialization 
has  produced  a  structure  of  considerable  complexity  (fig.  i,  b). 
Here  also  the  cell  is  fibrillated,  but  the  fibrillae  (sarco-styles) 
are  much  more  distinct,  and  are  segmented  in  a  manner  which 
gives  to  the  entire  cell  a  "  cross  striated  "  appearance.  Since 
quick  movement  is  usually  (but  not  always)  associated  with 
voluntary  control,  these  striated  muscle  cells  are  often  termed 
"voluntary"  muscle  fibres.  The  great  increase  in  length  of 
these  cells  is  accompanied  by  the  fragmentation  of  the  origin- 
ally single  nucleus. 

(b)  Cell-modification  in  Relation  lo  Secretion. — Just  as  the 
complex  movements  considered  above  were  the  result  of  a 
great  development  of  the  power  of  spontaneous  movement 
possessed  by  all  protoplasm,  so  cell-secretion  is  the  result  of  a 
development  of  the  metabolic  processes  underlying  all  vital 
phenomena.  But  whereas  specialization  of  the  protoplasm 
for  movement  resulted  in  a  very  obvious  morphological  com- 
plexity, specialization  for  secretion  results  in  molecular  com- 
plexity, and  only  rarely  and  indirectly  results  in  morphological 
differentiation.  Usually  indeed  the  specialization  is  only 
rendered  evident  by  the  appearance  of  the  formed  secretion, 
e.g.  mucus-secreting  epithelial  cells  (fig.  2,  b),  the  ovarian  ovum 
and  the  fat  cell  (fig.  i,  a).  In  some  cases  a  distinct  fibrillation 
of  the  cytoplasm  accompanies  or  precedes  the  appearance  of 
the  cell-secretion  (Mathews,  pancreas  cell  of  Amphibia).  In 
many  cases  the  internal  secretion  is  no  mere  accumulation, 
e.g.  the  internal  skeleton  of  the  Radiolaria,  and  the  nematocysts 
of  the  Coelentera.  Frequently  in  animal  tissues  the  cell-secretions 
are  accumulated  in  the  intercellular  spaces,  and  result  in  the 
formation  of  the  various  "  connective  tissues,"  all  of  which  are 
characterized  by  the  immense  amount  of  intercellular  substance, 
e.g.  fibrous  tissue,  cartilage  and  bone.  Cell-modifications 
facilitating  the  general  metabolism,  but  not  necessarily  indicating 
specialized  secretion,  also  occur,  e.g.  the  "  gullet  "  of  many 
Protozoa,  the  suctorial  tubules  of  the  Acinetaria,  and  the  "  nutri- 
tive processes  "  of  the  ovarian  ova  in  many  Lepidoptera.  Men- 
tion may  be  made  here  of  the  network  or  canal  system  of  the 
cytoplasm,  described  for  many  cells  by  Golgi,  Holgren  and 
others.  An  enigmatical  structure,  the  "  yolk-nucleus  "  of  many 
ova,  has  been  frequently  regarded  as  a  structure  of  considerable 
metabolic  importance,  e.g.  Bambeke  (1898)  for  Pholcus.1 

Striking  modifications  resulting  from  specialization  in  secretion 
are  frequently  presented  by  the  nucleus.  In  many  secreting 


FIG.  4. — Types  of  Nuclei. 

From  Prof.  E.  B.  Wilson's  The  Cell  in   Development  and  Inlurilance,  by  permission 
of  the  author  and  of  the  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

a.  Permanent  spireme-nuclei  in  cells  from  the  intestinal  epithelium 
of  a  dipterous  larva,  Ptychoptera.     (After  van  Gehuchten.) 

From     Korschelt     and  Hcider,     Lehrbuch    der    verg.       Entwicklungsgeschichle     der 
wirbellosen  Tiere.  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

b,  Branched  nucleus  of  the  "  nutritive  "  cell,  from  a  portion  of  an 
ovarial  tube  of  Forficula  auricularia. 

cells  this  structure  is  extensively  branched,  e.g.  many  gland 
cells  and  ovarian  nutritive  cells  of  insects  (fig.  4,  b).  In  some 
cases  the  nucleus  of  the  gland  cell  contains  a  persistent  spireme 
thread  (fig.  4,  a);  while  almost  all  actively  secreting  cells 

1  Cf.,  however,  the  present  writer's  interpretation  of  this  structure 
in  the  oocyte  of  Antedon.     Phil.  Trans.  Royal  Soc.  (1906),  B.  249. 


are    characterized   by   the   possession   of   large   or   numerous 
nucleoli. 

(c)  Specialization  for  the  Reception  and  Conduction  of  Stimuli. — 
One  of  the  most  striking  of  the  fundamental  attributes  of  living 
protoplasm  is  its  "  irritability,"  that  is  to  say,  its  power  of 
responding  to  external  impressions,  "  stimuli,"  by  movement, 
which,  both  in  kind  and  intensity,  is  wholly  independent  of  the 
amount  of  energy  expended  by  the  stimulus.  The  stimulus 
conveyed  by  the  nerve  fibre  to  the  muscle  is  out  of  all  proportion 


From  Schafer's  Essentials  oj  Histology,  by  permission  of  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

FIG.  5.— Nervous  and  Sensory  Cells. 

A  and  B,  Ganglion  cells  from  the  cerebral  cortex;  in  A  the  only 
slightly  branched  axon  may  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  spinal 
cord.  (After  Schafer.) 

C,  Body  of  a  ganglion-cell  showing  "  Nissl's  granules." 

D,  Sensory  cells  from  olfactory  epithelium.     (After  Schultze.) 

E,  Diagrammatic  representation  of  the    sensory  epithelium  of 
retina  (rod  and  cone  layer).     (After  Schwalbe.) 

to  the  amount  of  work  it  may  cause  the  muscle  to  do.  Although 
protoplasmic  irritability  is  thus  incapable  of  a  simple  mechanical 
explanation,  science  has  rejected  the  assumption  of  a  special 
"  vital  force,"  and  interprets  protoplasmic  response  as  being 
a  long  series  of  chemico-physical  changes,2  initiated,  but  only 
initiated,  by  the  original  stimulus;  the  latter  thus  standing  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  response  it  produces  as  the  pull  on  the 
trigger  to  the  propulsion  of  the  rifle  bullet.  The  function  of 
receiving  stimuli  from  the  outer  world,  originally  possessed  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  by  all  cells,  has,  in  the  Metazoa,  been 
relegated  to  one  class  of  cells,  the  sensory  cells'  (fig.  5,  D  and  E). 
Another  class  of  cells — the  "  ganglion  cells  "  or  "  neurones  " 
(fig.  5,  A  and  B),  are  concerned  with  the  conduction  of  the 
stimuli  so  received.  The  contractile  elements  in  the  Metazoa 
are  thus  dependent  for  their  stimuli  on  the  nervous  elements — 
the  sensory  cells  and  neurones. 

Origin  of  Cells. — In  the  preceding  sections  we  have  considered 
the  structure  of  the  cell  in  relation  to  the  fundamental  attributes 
of  cell-metabolism,  irritability,  and  movement.  We  have  now 

1  Claude  Bernard  expressed  the  same  conclusion  in  1885.  Reject- 
ing both  the  view  that  vital  phenomena  were  identical  with  chemico- 
physical  phenomena,  and  that  which  regarded  them  as  totally 
distinct,  he  suggested  a  third /point  of  view:  "  I'e'le'ment  ultime  du 
ph^nomene  est  physique;  I'arrangement  est  vital." 

'  Many  forms  of  response  to  stimulus  involve  no  visible  specializa- 
tion, e.g.  positive  and  negative  heliotropism,  chemiotropism,  geo- 
tropism,  &c.,  seen  more  especially  in  plants,  but  occurring  also  in  the 
animal  kingdom. 


7M- 


CYTOLOGY 


to  consider  the  cell  in  relation  to  yet  another  vital  attribute,  that 
of  reproduction.  Just  as  we  now  know  that  the  phenomena 
of  assimilation,  respiration,  excretion,  response,  movement  and 
so  forth,  characteristic  of  living  things,  are  but  the  co-ordinated 
expressions  of  the  corresponding  activities  of  the  constituent 
cells,  so  we  now  know  that  the  reproduction  of  the  organism  is, 
in  its  ultimate  analysis,  a  cell-process.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
essential  fact  that  cells  only  arise  by  the  division  of  pre-existing 
cells,  now  a  fundamental  axiom  of  biology,  and  of  the  details 
of  this  process,  have  been  acquired  during  recent  years  by  the 
strenuous  efforts  of  numerous  workers.1  Matthias  Jakob 
Schleiden  (1838)  supposed  that  in  plants  the  new  cell  arose  from 
the  parent  cell  by  a  sort  of  "  crystallizing  "  process  from  the  cell 
fluid  or  "  cytoblastema  " ;  the  nucleolus  appearing  first,  then 
the  nucleus,  and  finally  the  cell-body.  Theodor  Schwann  (1839) 
extended  Schleiden's  theory  to  animal  tissues,  with  this  yet 
greater  error,  that  new  cells  might  arise,  not  only  within  the 
mother  cell  as  Schleiden  had  supposed,  but  also  in  the  inter- 
cellular substance  so  common  in  animal  tissues  (to  which  he  also 
gave  the  term  "  cytoblastema  ")•  By  1846,  however,  the 
botanists,  thanks  mainly  to  the  efforts  of  Hugo  von  Mohl 
and  Nageli,  recognized  as  a  general  law  that  cells  only  arise  by 
the  division  of  a  pre-existing  cell.  But  it  was  long  before  the 
universal  application  of  this  law  was  recognized  by  zoologists; 
the  delay  being  largely  due  to  pathological  phenomena.  The  work 
of  Kolliker  (1844-1845),  Karl  Bogislaus  Reichert  (1841-1847), 
and  Remak  (1852-1855),  however,  finally  enabled  Virchow  in 
1858  to  maintain  the  law  of  the  genetic  continuity  of  cells  in  the 
since  famous  aphorism  omnis  cellula  e  cellula.  At  this  time, 
however,  nothing  was  known  of  the  details  of  cell-division, — 
one  school  (Reichert,  L.  Auerbach,  and  the  majority  of  the 
botanists)  maintaining  that  the  nucleus  disappeared  prior  to 
cell-division,  the  other  school  (von  Baer,  Remak,  Leydig, 
Haeckel,  &c.)  maintaining  that  it  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
process.  It  is  not  until  the  appearance  of  Anton  Schneider's 
work  in  1873,  followed  by  those  of  Fol,  Auerbach,  Strasburger 
and  many  others,  that  we  begin  to  gain  an  insight  into  the 
process.  In  1882  W.  Flemming  was  able  to  extend  Virchow's 
aphorism  to  the  nucleus  also:  omnis  nucleus  e  nucleo. 

Outline  of  Cell-division. — There  are  two  very  distinct  methods 
of  cell-division.  The  more  general  and  also  more  complicated 
method  is  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  a  complex  fibrillar 
mechanism,  and  was  on  this  account  termed  "  mitosis"  (/uros, 
a  thread)  by  W.  Flemming  (1882),  and  "  karyokinesis  "  (Kapvov, 
nut,  nucleus,  and  KIVIJO-IS,  change,  movement)  by  W.  Schleicher 
(1878).  The  other  method,  "amitosis,"  or  direct  division,  is 
unaccompanied  by  any  visible  mechanism  and  is  of  relatively 
exceptional  occurrence.  In  the  more  usual  method  of  cell- 
division,  or  "  mitosis,"  we  can  distinguish  two  distinct  but 
parallel  processes,  the  one  undergone  by  the  chromatin  and 
resulting  in  the  "  chromatic  figure,"  the  other  usually  only 
concerning  the  cytoplasm  and  resulting  in  the  "  achromatic 
figure."  * 

We  will  consider  the  chromatin  changes  first.  The  chromatin 
granules  lose  their  scattered  arrangement  on  the  nuclear 
reticulum,  and  become  instead  arranged  in  a  linear  series  to 
form  a  coiled  and  deeply  staining  "spireme  thread"  3  (fig.  6,  a). 
As  the  thread  contracts,  its  granular  origin  becomes  less  evident, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  coils  become  fewer  in  number;  the 
"  close  "  spireme  of  earlier  stages  becomes  the  "  loose  "  spireme 
of  later  stages.  As  the  spireme  thread  contracts,  it  segments 
into  a  number  of  short,  and  usually  U-shaped,  segments — the 
"  chromosomes "  (Waldeyer,  1888).  The  number  of  these 
chromosomes  is  always  constant  for  the  cells  of  any  given  species 
of  plant  or  animal,  but  varies  greatly  in  number  in  different 

1  Prominent  among  these  are:  Schleiden  (1873),  Fol  (1873-1877), 
'Auerbach  (1874),  Butschli  (1876),  Strasburger  (1875-1888),  O. 
Hertwig  (1875-1890),  R.  Hertwig  (1875-1877),  Flemming  (1879- 
1891),  van  Beneden  (1883-1887),  Rabl  (1889),  Boveri  (1887-1903). 

*  This  distinction  between  the  chromatic  and  achromatic  portions 
of  the  mitotic  figure  is  due  to  Flemming. 

1  The  genesis  of  the  spireme  thread  was  first  described  by  E.  G. 
Balbiani  in  1876. 


species.  Thus  in  the  parasitic  worm  Ascaris  megalocephala, 
var.  univalens,  there  ate  only  two.  In  the  crustacean  Artemia 
Bauer  found  168,  while  in  the  amphibian  Salamandra  maculala, 
as  also  in  the  lily,  the  number  is  24.  While  these  changes  have 
been  proceeding  in  the  nucleus,  changes  in  the  cytoplasm  have 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  achromatic  figure.  These 
cytoplasmic  changes  are  initiated  by  the  division  into  two  of  a 
minute  body,  the  "  centrosome,"  originally  discovered  by  P.  J. 
van  Beneden  in  i883,4  and  usually  lying  not  far  from  the 
nucleus  (fig.  6,  a).  The  daughter  centrosomes  separate  from 
one  another,  travelling  to  opposite  poles  of  the  nucleus.  At 
the  same  time  radiations  extend  out  into  the  cytoplasm  from 
the  centrosomes,  and,  as  the  nuclear  membrane  disappears, 
invade  the  nuclear  area  (fig.  7,0).  Some  of  the  fibrillae  in  the 
latter  region  become  attached  to  the  chromosomes  and  are 

b 


a,  b  and  c  from  Prof.  E.  B.  Wilson's  Thf  Celt  in  Development  and  Inheritance,  by 
permission  of  the  au'.hor  and  Ihe  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York;  d  from  A.  Gurwitsch, 
Morphologic  «.  Eiologie  dtr  Zellc,  by  po-m^ssion  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  6. — Diagram  of  Nuclear  Division,  a,  Spireme  stage;  b, 
Spindle  formed;  c,  Spindle  complete;  equatorial  plate  formed; 
d,  Division  completed. 

termed  "mantle  fibres";  others  become  continuous  from  one 
centrosome  to  the  other  and  constitute  the  "  spindle  fibres." 
The  remaining  radiations  at  the  two  poles  of  the  spindle  are  the 
"  astral  rays."  (The  details  of  the  formation  of  the  achromatic 
figure  vary  considerably,  some  indication  of  this  is  given  in  the 
next  section  in  connexion  with  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
mitotic  mechanism.)  The  chromosomes  now  arrange  themselves 
in  the  "  equatorial  plate  "  of  the  spindle  and  each  splits  longi- 
tudinally into  two6  (fig.  6,  b  and  c).  The  sister  chromosomes 
now  pass  to  opposite  poles  of  the  spindle  (fig.  6,  d),  and  there, 
returning  to  the  "  resting  "  condition,  constitute  the  daughter 
nuclei.  Division  of  the  cell  follows,  usually,  in  animals,  by 
simple  constriction.  Both  Theodor  Boveri  and  van  Beneden, 
in  their  papers  of  1887,  regarded  the  centrosome  as  initiating, 
not  only  the  division  of  the  cell-body  but  that  of  the  chromatin 
also;  Beneden  even  suggested  that  the  pull  of  the  mantle  fibres 
caused  the  division  of  the  chromatin  in  the  equatorial  plate. 
W.  Pfitzner  in  1882  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  splitting  of  the 
chromosomes  in  the  equatorial  plate  was  only  the  reappearance 
of  a  split  in  the  spireme  thread  and  was  due  to  a  corresponding 

4  "  Recherches  sur  la  maturation  de  1'oeuf,  la  fecondation  et  la 
division  cellulaire  "  (Archives  de  biologic,  vol.  iv.). 

6  First  discovered  by  Flemming  in  1879  and  confirmed  by  Retzius 
in  1881. 


CYTOLOGY 


division  into  two  of  each  of  the  chromatin  granules.  In  the 
spermatogenic  cells  of  Ascaris,  A.  Brauer  has  shown  that  the 
chromatin  granules  divide  while  still  scattered  over  the  nuclear 
reticulum  and  before  either  the  formation  of  a  spireme  thread 
or  the  division  of  the  centrosome.  In  many  other  cases  the 
reverse  of  this  condition  occurs,  the  centrosome  dividing  long 
before  there  is  any  indication  of  division  in  the  nucleus  (e.g. 
salamander  spermatogenic  cells,  Meves,  &c.).  We  must  there- 
fore, with  Boveri  and  Brauer,  regard  the  division  of  the  chromatin 
in  mitosis  as  a  distinct  reproductive  act  on  the  part  of  the 
chromatin  granules,  the  chromosomes  being  merely  aggregates 
(temporary  or  permanent,  vide  infra)  of  these  self-propagating 
units. 

For  convenience  of  description  it  is  usual  to  recognize  four 
periods  in  mitosis:  (i.)  Prophase,  (ii.)  Metaphase,  (iii.)  Anaphase, 
and  (iv.)  Telophase  (Strasburger,  1884).  The  prophase  covers 
all  changes  up  to  the  completion  of  the  mitotic  figure.  The 
metaphase  is  the  parting  of  the  sister  chromosomes  in  the 
equatorial  plate;  their  passage  to  opposite  poles  of  the  spindle 
constitutes  the  anaphase;  and  their  reconstruction  to  form 
the  resting  daughter  nuclei,  the  telophase. 

The  Achromatic  Figure. — The  mode  of  origin  of  the  achro- 
matic figure  varies  greatly.  In  some  cases  a  distinct  and  con- 
tinuous spindle,  the  "  central  spindle  "  of  F.  Hermann,  is  visible 
from  the  very  first  separation  of  the  daughter  centrosomes 
(e.g.  salamander  spermatogenic  cell)1  (fig.  7,  b).  In  other 


FIG.  7. — Centrosomes. 

From  Prof.  E.  B.  Wilson's  Tlte  Cell  in  Development  and  Inheritance,   by  permission 
of  the  author  and  of  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

a,  Leucocyte  from  a  Salamander,  showing  permanent  aster  and 
centrosome. 

From  A.  Gurwitsch,    Morphologie  u.  Biologie  der  Zelle,   by  permission  of  Gustav 
Fischer. 

6,  Sperm-mother  cell  of  Salamandra  maculata,  showing  Hermann's 
"  central  spindle." 

cases  the  rays  only  invade  the  nuclear  area  and  become  con- 
tinuous in  the  equatorial  plane  after  the  centrosomes  have 
assumed  their  definitive  positions  at  the  two  poles  of  the  nucleus, 
and  may  even  appear  to  indent  the  disappearing  nuclear  mem- 
brane as  they  invade  the  nuclear  area.2  In  the  salamander 
testis  cell  (fig.  7,  b),  and  in  many  other  cases,  the  whole  of  the 
achromatic  figure  is  obviously  of  cytoplasmic  origin.  In  many 
cases,  however,  it  equally  obviously  arises  within  the  nucleus,3 
while  in  yet  other  cases4  the  spindle  fibres  are  of  mixed  origin. 
The  question,  therefore,  of  the  cytoplasmic  or  nuclear  origin  of 
the  achromatic  figure,  at  one  time  regarded  as  of  considerable 
importance,  is  wholly  immaterial.  Various  elaborate  theories 
have  been  propounded  to  explain  the  mechanism  of  the  mitotic 
figure.  H.  Fol  (1873)  regarded  the  centrosomes  as  centres  of 
attractive  forces,  and  compared  the  mitotic  figure  to  the  lines 
of  force  in  the  magnetic  field,  a  comparison  made  by  numerous 
subsequent  workers.  E.  Klein's  hypotheses  of  two  opposing 

1  The  discovery  by  Hermann  of  the  central  spindle  first  clearly 
showed  that  two  kinds  of  fibres  must  be  recognized  in  the  mitotic 
figure.     Those  of  the  central  spindle  correspond  to  the  continuous 
spindle  fibres  of  Flemming  (1891)  and  Strasburger  (1884),  and  the 
mantle  fibres,  i.e.  half-spindle  or  Polstrahlen,  of  van  Beneden  (1887) 
and  Boveri  (1889-1890). 

2  Planter,  VVatas6,  Griffen  and  others. 

'e.g.  Euglypha  (Schewiakoff,  1888),  Infusoria  (R.  Hertwig,  1898) 
So  also  Korschelt  for  Ophryotrocha,  and  many  other  cases. 
4  e.g.  Bauer,  spermatogenic  cells  of  Ascaris  univalens. 


systems  of  contractile  fibrillae,  elaborated  by  van  Beneden 
(1883,  1887)  and  accepted  by  Boveri  (1888),  was  still  further 
extended  by  R.  Heidenhain  in  relation  to  the  leucocytes  of  the 
salamander,  in  which  there  is  a  permanent  centrosome  and 
astral  rays  to  which  the  contractile  movements  of  the  cell  appear 
to  be  due6  (fig.  7,  a).  Hermann  on  the  other  hand  confined  the 
contractility  to  the  astral  and  mantle  fibres;  while  L.  Druner 
regarded  the  spindle  as  exerting  a  pushing  force,  for  not  only 
do  the  interzonal  spindle  fibres  elongate  during  the  anaphase, 
but  they  were  often  at  this  period  contorted,  while  on  the  other 
hand  astral  rays  may  be  entirely  absent  (e.g.  Infusoria),  and  in 
some  cases  the  spindle  pole  may  be  caused  to  project  at  the 
surface  of  the  cell.  The  futility  of  these  attempted  mechanical 
explanations  of  mitosis  is  sufficiently  clearly  shown,  not  only  by 
the  contradictory  nature  of  the  explanations  themselves,  but 
by  the  fact  that,  in  amitosis,  nuclear  and  cytoplasmic  division 
occur  without  any  fibrillar  mechanism  whatever. 

Centrosome.6 — This  minute  body  was  first  detected  at  the 
spindle  poles  by  Flemming  in  1875,  and  independently  by  P.  J. 
van  Beneden  in  1876.  The  important  part  played  by  the 
centrosome  in  fertilization,7  first  described  by  van  Beneden 
and  Theodor  Boveri  in  their  papers  of  1887-1888,  together  with 
the  behaviour  of  this  structure  in  mitosis,  led  these  authors 
to  regard  the  centrosome  not  only  as  the  dynamic  centre  of  the 
cell  but  as  a  permanent  cell-organ,  which,  like  the  nucleus, 
passed  by  division  from  one  cell-generation  to  the  next.  This 
conclusion  appeared  to  receive  considerable  support  from  the 
recognition  of  the  centrosome  in  various  kinds  of  resting  cells,8 
and  especially  from  the  relation  this  structure  frequently  shows 
to  the  locomotor  apparatus  of  the  cell  (e.g.  its  position  in  the 
centre  of  the  radiating  fibrillae  in  the  contractile  lymph  and 
pigment  cells,  and  its  relation  to  the  vibratile  nagellum  in 
spermatozoa  and  some  protozoa,  e.g.  Trypanosoma).9  In 
almost  all  cases  the  centrosome  of  the  resting  cell,  when  this 
can  be  detected,  lies  in  the  cytoplasm,  and  is  often  already 
divided  in  preparation  for  the  next  mitotic  division  (e.g.  spermato- 
genic cells  of  the  salamander;  Meves).  In  some  cases,  however, 
it  resides  in,  or  arises  from,  the  nucleus  (Brauer;  spermatogenesis 
of  Ascaris,  var.  univalens).  This  indifferent  nuclear  or  cyto- 
plasmic position  for  the  centrosome  is  paralleled  by  the  attraction 
sphere  or  homologue  of  the  centrosome  in  many  Protozoa. 
Thus  in  many  forms,  e.g.  Euglena  (Keuten),  it  lies  within  the 
nucleus,  while  in  other  forms,  e.g.  Noctiluca  (Ishikawa,  1894, 
1898;  Calkins,  1898)  and  Paramoeba  (F.  Schaudinn,  1896),  it 
lies  in  the  cytoplasm,  while  in  Tetramitus  it  coexists  with  a 
"  distributed  "  nucleus.  In  the  Heliozoa  conditions  are  ex- 
ceptionally interesting;  not  only  is  the  centrosome — here  resem- 
bling in  appearance  that  of  the  higher  forms — permanently  visible 
and  extranuclear,  lying  at  the  centre  of  the  radiations  character- 
istic of  these  forms,  but  there  is  the  strongest  possible  evidence 
for  its  formation  de  nemo.  For  Schaudinn  has  shown  in  Acantho- 
cyslis  that,  in  the  formation  of  the  swarm  spores,  the  nucleus 
divides  amitotically,  the  centrosome  remaining  visible  and 
unchanged  at  the  centre  of  the  radiating  processes.  Yet  a 
centrosome  appears  later  in  the  nucleus  of  the  swarm  spores 
and  migrates  into  the  cytoplasm.  The  experiments  of  T.  H. 
Morgan  and  E.  B.  Wilson,  in  which  numerous  centrosomes  and 
asters  ("  cytasters  ")  are  caused  to  appear  in  unfertilized  sea- 
urchin  eggs  by  a  brief  immersion  in  a  13  %  solution  of  magnesium 

5  Cf.  also  Watase1,  Solger  and  Zimmermann. 

6  This  term  is  due  to  Boveri  (Zellenstudien,  ii.,  1888,  p.  68;  Jen. 
Zeit.  xxii.),  but  it  was  intended  by  him  to  include  the  region  of 
modified  cytoplasm  or  "  centrosphere  "  often  enclosing  the  centro- 
some proper,  i.e.  "  centriole  "  of  Boveri. 

7  For  outline  of  fertilization  see  article  REPRODUCTION. 

8  e.g.  lymph  and  various  epithelial  and  connective  tissue  cells  of 
salamander  larva  (Flemming,   1891;  Heidenhain,   1892);  pigment 
cells  of  fishes   (Solger,   1891);  red  blood  corpuscles  (Heidenhain, 
Eisen,  1897) ;  and  numerous  other  cases. 

8  For  an  interesting  development  of  this  subject  see  Watasd  (1894). 
This  author  not  only  identifies  the  centrosome  with  the  structures 
seen  in  lymph  cells,  &c.,  but  compares  it  to  the  basal  granules  of 
ciliated  cells  and  to  the  varicose  swellings  on  the  sarcostyles  of  striped 
muscle  cells! 


yi6 


CYTOLOGY 


chloride  in  sea-water,1  as  also  the  possibility  in  many  cases  that 
even  in  normal  fertilization  the  cleavage  centrosomes  may  arise 
de  novo?  make  it  no  longer  possible  to  regard  the  centrosome  as 
a  permanent  cell-structure. 

Significance  of  Mitosis. — Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of 
the  chemico-physical  changes  occurring  during  cell-division, 
of  which  the  achromatic  spindle  and  astral  rays  are  the  visible 
expression,  it  is  certain  that  the  whole  of  this  complicated 
process  has  for  its  function,  not  the  division  of  the  chromatin, 
for  that  has  already  occurred  on  the  spireme  thread  or  even 
earlier,  but  the  distribution  of  the  divided  chromatin  granules 
to  the  two  daughter  nuclei.  It  is  indeed  usually  assumed  that 
the  mitotic  mechanism  is  not  merely  for  the  distribution,  but  for 
the  equal  distribution,  of  the  sister  granules  to  the  two  daughter 
nuclei.  The  conspicuous  part  the  chromatin  is  seen  to  play  in 
the  whole  mechanism  of  heredity — in  maturation,  fertilization 
and  development — indicating  as  it  does  that  the  chromatin 
is  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  bearer  of  the  specific  qualities  of 
the  organism,  sufficiently  clearly  emphasizes  the  importance  of 
the  equal  distribution  of  this  substance  between  the  daughter 
cells  at  successive  cell-divisions.  There  are,  however,  serious 
objections  to  the  interpretation  of  mitosis  as  an  adaptation  to 
ensure  this  equal  distribution  of  the  chromatin.  Not  only  does 
the  occurrence  of  amitosis  show  that  the  mitotic  mechanism  is  not 
essential  for  either  nuclear  or  cytoplasmic  division,  but  direct 
division  may  occur3  in  the  life-history  of  the  germ  cells,  the 
very  point  at  which  it  should  not  occur  had  mitosis  the  signifi- 
cance usually  attached  to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most 
elaborate  mitosis  occurs  in  cell-tissues  (e.g.  skin  of  salamander 
larva)  which  can  take  no  possible  share  in  the  reproduction 
of  the  species.  Moreover,  we  have.no  reason  for  supposing  that 
the  division  of  the  chromatin  in  amitosis  is  not  as  meristic,  and 
its  subsequent  distribution  as  equal,  as  is  so  visibly  the  case 
in  mitosis.4  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  seek  for  some  other 
explanation  of  the  elaborate  mechanism  of  mitosis  than  that 
which  assumes  it  necessary  for  the  equal  distribution  of  the 
divided  chromatin  granules.  The  present  writer  believes  the 
true  explanation  to  be  found  in  that  great  economic  law  of 
nature,  "  division  of  labour."  The  same  economy  which, 
working  under  the  control  of  natural  selection,  has  produced 
the  complexly  differentiated  tissues  of  the  higher  metazoa, 
which  has  led  to  the  sexual  differentiation  between  the  con- 
jugating gametes  and  thus  to  the  sexual  differentiation  of  the 
parents,  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  mitosis.  Only  here 
the  economy  finds  expression  in  division  of  labour,  not  in  space, 
but  in  time.  The  work  of  the  self-propagating  chromatin 
granules  is  so  ordered  that  periods  of  undisturbed  metabolic 
activity  alternate  with  periods  of  reproductive  activity.  The 
brief  space  of  time  occupied  by  the  latter  process  has  necessitated 
a  more  elaborate  specialization  of  the  forces — whatever  their 
nature — controlling  cell-division;  a  specialization  which  has 
resulted,  just  as  a  similar  specialization  in  so  many  other  cases 
has  resulted,  in  a  visible  differentiation  of  the  cell-protoplasm. 
This  explanation  is  in  harmony  with  the  occurrence  of  typical 
mitosis  in  active  tissue  cells  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  amitosis 
in  the  relatively  quiescent  primary  germ  cells  on  the  other. 

Individuality  of  the  Chromosomes. — The  most  striking  feature 
in  the  behaviour  of  the  chromatin  in  mitosis  is  its  resolution, 
at  each  division,  into  a— for  any  particular  species — constant 
number  of  chromosomes.  This  constant  recurrence  of  the 
specific  number  of  chromosomes  at  every  cell-division  is  capable 

1  The  force  of  this  evidence  is  admitted  by  Boveri  himself.     Meves, 
however,  maintains  the  possibility  that  the  numerous  centrosomes 
appearing  in  the  egg  arise  by  the  rapid  fragmentation  of  a  centrosome 
already  present. 

2  Cf.  especially  the  behaviour  of  the  centrosomes  in  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  egg  of  Pleurophyllidia  (MacFarland,  1897)  and  that  of 
Cerebratulus  (Coe,   1901).     Not  only  may  the  sperm  centrosomes 
totally  disappear  before  reaching  the  egg-nucleus,  but  in  the  latter 
type  the  definitive  centrosomes  appear  while  the  last  traces  of  the 
sperm  asters  are  still  visible. 

3  e.g.  Meves;  Spermatagonia  of  Salamandra. 

4  Cf.  especially  the  artificial  production  of  amitosis  in  Spiroeyra; 
W.  Pfeffer,  1899. 


of  explanation  in  two  radically  different  ways.  One  explanation 
assumes  for  the  organism  a  specific  peculiarity  determining  the 
segmentation  of  the  spireme  thread  into  a  definite  number  of 
segments  (Delage,  1899  and  i9<Di).6  The  other  regards  chromo- 
somes as  independent  units  of  the  cell,  retaining  their  identity 
between  successive  cell-divisions.  The  latter  "  Individualitats 
Hypothese  "  was  originally  put  forward  by  Theodor  Boveri  in 
1887  as  a  result  of  C.  Rabl's  observation  (1885)  that  in  epidermal 
cells  of  the  salamander  larva  the  chromosomes  reappear  in  the 
mitosis  of  the  daughter  cells  with  the  same  arrangement  as 
they  possessed  in  the  prophase  of  the  mother  cell — the  angles 
of  the  U-shaped  chromosomes  being  all  directed  towards  one 
pole  (Rabl's  "  Poleseite  ")  of  the  nucleus.  In  the  formation  of 
the  "  resting  "  nucleus,  the  chromatin,  becoming  metabolically 
active,  flows  out  on  to  the  linin  reticulum,  all  trace  of  the  chromo- 
somes being  for  the  time  lost.  In  Ascaris,  Boveri  (1888)  obtained 
similar  but  still  more  striking  results.  The  thickened  ends  of 
the  four  elongated  chromosomes  cause  projections  on  the  nuclear 
surface  throughout  the  resting  period,  and  the  ends  of  the 
reappearing  chromosomes  always  coincided  with  these  protuber- 
ances; cf.  also  Sutton  (1902)  on  locust  spermatagonia.  Moreover, 
the  arrangement  of  the  chromosomes  must  follow  one  of  three 
well-marked  groupings,  and  this  is  determined  for  each  individual 
in  the  cleavage  spindle  of  the  egg  and  maintained  throughout 
later  development  (fig.  8). 

In  the  same  worm  (var.  univalens)  Boveri  (1888  and  1899) 
found  that  occasional  abnormalities  in  maturation  resulted  in 


From    Boveri's    Ergebnisse    it.    d.    Konslitution    der    chromatischfn    Substanz    des 
Zellkerns,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  8. — Preparation  for  Mitosis,  a,  Nucleus  of  "  J  blastomere  " 
of  Ascaris  megalocephala  bivalens  in  resting  condition;  b  and  c, 
nuclei  from  sister  £  blastomeres  in  preparation  for  mitosis. 

the  suppression  of  the  first  polar  body  and  the  inclusion  of  its 
chromosomes  in  the  second  maturation  spindle;  the  egg-nucleus 
at  the  time  of  fertilization  thus  having  two  chromosomes  instead 
of  one,  while  the  spermatozoon  nucleus  has  only  one.  Three 
chromosomes  instead  of  two  reappear  in  subsequent  divisions. 
Boveri's  "  Individualitats  Hypothese  "  received  striking  support 
from  the  work  of  Herla  (1893),  L.  R.  Zoja  (1895)  and  O.  zur 
Strassen  (1898).  Herla  and  Zoja  showed  thatif  theeggof  Ascaris 
megalocephala  (var.  bivalens),  which  possesses  two  chromosomes, 
be  fertilized  with  the  spermatozoon  of  var.  univalens,  in  which 
the  germ  cell  has  only  one  chromosome  and  that  smaller  than 
either  of  the  two  in  the  other  variety,  three  chromosomes 
reappear,  two  large  and  one  small,  in  the  cleavage  divisions  of 
the  resulting  hybrid  embryo.  Zur  Strassen's  observations  on  the 
giant  embryos  of  Ascaris  also  support  Boveri's  theory.  These 
embryos  arise  by  the  fusion  of  eggs,  either  before  or  after  fertiliza- 
tion. The  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  subsequent  cleavage- 
figures  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  nuclei  that  have  fused 
together.  Similar  results  are  given  by  Boveri's  (1893-1895) 
and  T.  H.  Morgan's  (1895)  experiments  on  the  fertilization  of 
enucleated  sea-urchin  egg-fragments;  all  the  nuclei  of  the 
resulting  embryo  having  only  half  the  number  of  chromosomes 
characteristic  of  the  species  (e.g.  in  Echinus  9  instead  of  18). 
All  the  above  facts  point  to  the  conclusion  that,  as  Boveri 
expressed  it  in  his  Grundgesetz  der  Zahlenkonstanz  (1888), 
"  the  number  of  chromosomes  arising  from  a  resting  nucleus 
is  solely  dependent  on  the  number  which  originally  entered  into 
its  composition." 6 

6  Cf.  Boveri,  1904,  p.  13.  (For  Boveri's  criticism  of  Delage's 
views,  cf.  Boveri,  1901  and  1902.) 

6  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that  the  assumption  that  a  particular 
group  of  characters  remains  always  associated  'in  a  particular 
chromosome  is  one  that  is  very  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  mode 
of  inheritance  of  Mendelian  pairs  of  characters  in  the  case  of  organisms 
with  a  relatively  small  chromosome  number. 


CYTOLOGY 


717 


Boveri's  Law  of  Proportional  Nuclear  Growth. — The  chromatin 
in  the  nucleus  is  exactly  halved  at  every  cell-division.  As  the 
bulk  of  the  chromatin  remains  constant  from  one  cell-generation 
to  another,  it  must  double  its  bulk  between  successive  divisions. 
That  this  proportional  growth  of  the  chromatin  is  dependent 
solely  on  the  chromatin  mass,  and  not  on  that  of  the  cell,  is  very 
clearly  indicated  by  cases  where  the  normal  chromatin  mass 
has  been  artificially  increased  or  reduced,1  the  chromatin  in 
either  case  doubling  its  bulk  between  successive  cell-divisions, 
and  neither  the  mass  of  the  chromatin  nor  the  number  of  the 
chromosomes  undergoing  any  readjustment.  By  double  or 
partial  fertilization,  different  regions  in  the  same  embryo  may 
show  nuclei  of  different  sizes  (Boveri).  We  must  therefore 
distinguish  in  the  cell  between  "  young  "  and  "  adult  "  chro- 
matin. In  other  words  the  chromatin  must  be  regarded  as  being 
composed  of  individual  units,  each  with  a  definite  constant 
structure  and  maximum  growth  (Boveri,  1904).  This  conclusion 
is  strongly  suggested,  not  only  by  the  evidence  in  favour  of  the 
individuality  of  the  chromosomes  considered  above,  but  also  by 
the  independent  reproductive  activity  of  the  chromatin  granules 
in  the  prophase  of  mitosis. 

Differentiation  among  the  Chromosomes. — If  we  grant  the 
assumption  of  a  persistent  individuality  for  the  chromosomes, 
then  it  becomes  possible  to  consider  whether  in  one  and  the  same 
nucleus  these  structures  may  not  take  varying  parts  in  controlling 
the  cell's  activity  in  development  and  in  inheritance.  Such  a 
differentiation  among  the  chromosomes  would  be  due  to  in- 
dependent ancestry  rather  than  to  the  economy  resulting  from 
a  division  of  labour;  nevertheless  a  division  of  labour  of  a  sort 
would  be  the  result  of  this  gradual  divergence  of  the  chromo- 
somes from  one  another,  and  we  might  therefore  expect  that,  in 
some  cases  at  least,  a  morphological  would  accompany  the 
physiological  differentiation.  Examples  of  such  a  morphological 
differentiation  do  indeed  occur  in  the  "  accessory  "  chromosomes 
first  described  by  H.  Henking  (1891)  for  the  spermatogonia  of 
Pyrrhocoris,  and  since  described  for  numerous  other  insects, 


From      Boveri's    Ergebnisse    «.    d.     Kmstilulion     der     chromalisclun     Sutslans     des 
Zdlkerns,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 

FIG.  9. — Preparation  for  Mitosis,  a,  Sperrnatogonium  of  Brachystola 
magna  with  resting  nucleus;  b,  Same  with  prophase  for  mitosis. 
(After  Sutton.) 

Arachnids  and  Myriapods.  W.  Sutton's  work  on  the  spermato- 
genesis  of  Brachystola  magna  is  of  especial  interest  in  this  con- 
nexion. Not  only  does  the  "accessory  chromosome"  in  this 
insect  form  a  resting  nucleus  independent,  and  obviously  physio- 
logically differentiated  from  that  formed  from  the  remaining 
chromosomes  (fig.  9,  a),  but  the  latter  are  themselves 
differentiated  by  size,  there  being  one  pair  of  chromosomes  of 
each  size  (fig.  9,  b),  a  point  of  considerable  interest  when  we 
remember  that  half  the  chromosomes  in  each  cell  are  necessarily 
derived  from  each  parent.2 

Although  this  morphological  differentiation  among  the 
chromosomes  is  undoubtedly  to  be  regarded  as  indicating  a 
corresponding  physiological  differentiation,  it  by  no  means 

1  Boveri  (1902),  "  Fertilization  of  enucleated  Echinus-egg  frag- 
ments," and  M.  Boveri  (1903);  by  shaking  the  egg  shortly  after 
fertilization  the  sperm  centrosome  is  prevented  from  dividing,  and 
a  monaster  instead  of  a  diaster  results,  the  divided  chromosomes 
remaining  in  the  one  nucleus. 

'  Cf .  especially  in  this  connexion  Hacker's  paper  tfber  die  Schicksale 
der  elterlichen  und  grosselterlichen  Kernanteile  (1902). 


follows  that  the  latter  need  always,  or  even  generally,  be  accom- 
panied by  the  former.  Since,  however,  the  specific  characters 
of  the  organism  must  be  due  to  the  combined  activity  of  all 
the  chromosomes,  any  physiological  differentiation  among  the 
latter  should  result  in  abnormal  development  if  the  full  com- 
plement of  chromosomes  be  not  present.3  Boveri,4  utilizing 
Herbst's  method6  for  separating  echinoderm  blastomeres,  has 
interpreted  in  this  manner  the  abnormal  development  which 
H.  Driesch6  found  almost  invariably  to  follow  the  double 
fertilization  of  the  sea-urchin  egg.  In  such  eggs  the  first  cleavage 
spindle  is  four-poled.  The  chromosomes  are  half  again  as 
numerous  as  in  normally  fertilized  eggs  (54  instead  of  36),  but 
each  is  only  divided  once,  so  that  in  the  distribution  of  the 
resulting  108  chromosomes  the  four  daughter  nuclei  receive 
each  only  27  instead  of  36  (assuming  the  distribution  to  be  fairly 
equal,  which  is  by  no  means  usually  the  case  in  four-poled 
mitosis).  Driesch  had  already  (1900)  shown  that  any  one  of 
the  first  four  blastomeres  of  a  normally  fertilized  egg  will,  if 
isolated,  develop  normally.  Boveri  found  that  in  the  case  of 
the  doubly  fertilized  egg  the  isolated  "  J  "  blastomeres  develop 
very  variously,  a  variability  only  to  be  accounted  for  by  their 
varying  chromosome  equipment.  Occasionally  a  three-poled 
instead  of  a  four-poled  figure  resulted  from  double  fertilization. 
In  such  cases  Driesch  found,  as  we  should  expect  from  Boveri's 
interpretation,  that  the  percentage  of  approximately  normal 
larvae  was  considerably  greater;  for  not  only  would  the  chances 
of  an  equal  distribution  of  the  chromosomes  be  much  greater, 
but  the  number  received  by  each  of.  the  three  daughter  cells 
would  approximate  to,  or  even  equal,  the  normal. 

Reduction. — In  all  the  Metazoa  the  prevailing,  and  in  the 
higher  forms  the  only,  method  of  reproduction  is  by  the  union 
(conjugation)  of  two  "  sexually  "  differentiated  germ-cells  or 
"  gametes  ";  a  small  motile  "  microgamete  "  or  spermatozoon 
and  a  large  yolk-laden  "  macrogamete  "  or  ovum  (see  REPRO- 
DUCTION) .  This  differentiation  between  the  germ-cells  is  another 
example  of  the  advantages  of  division  of  labour;  for  while  the 
onus  of  bringing  about  the  union  of  the  germ-cells  is  thrown 
entirely  on  the  spermatozoon,  the  egg  devotes  itself  to  the 
accumulation  of  food-material  (yolk)  for  the  subsequent  use 
of  the  developing  embryo.  Far  more  yolk  is  thus  secreted  than 
would  be  possible  by  the  combined  efforts  of  both  the  germ-cells 
had  each  of  these  at  the  same  time  to  preserve  its  motility.  The 
fundamental  physiological  difference  which  this  division  of 
labour  has  produced  in  the  germ-cells  is  reflected  on  to  the 
general  metabolism  of  the  parents  and  underlies  the  sexual 
differentiation  of  the  latter.7  Beyond  this,  however,  sexual 
differentiation  does  not  go.  The  two  germ  nuclei  which  enter  into 
the  formation  of  the  first  mitotic  figure  of  the  developing  egg 
are  not  only  physiologically  equivalent,  but,  at  the  time  of  their 
union  in  the  egg,  are  usually  morphologically  identical.8  The 
essence  of  fertilization  is,  therefore,  the  union  of  two  germ  nuclei 
only  differing  from  one  another  in  that  they  are  derived  from 
separate  individuals.9  Since  the  number  of  chromosomes 
appearing  in  mitosis  is  solely  dependent  on  the  number  which 

3  Each  nucleus  contains  a  duplicate  set  of  chromosomes,  the  one 
of  maternal,  the  other  of  paternal  origin,  and  either  of  these  sets 
alone  suffices  for  development.     This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  ex- 
periments of  Loeb  (1899)  and  Wilson  (1901)  on  the  artificial  partheno- 
genesis of  the  sea-urchin  egg;  and  those  of  O.  Hertwig  (1889  and 
1895),  Delage  (1899)  and  Winkler  (1901),  on  the  fertilization  of 
enucleated  Echinoderm  eggs  (Merogony,  Delage).     The  fact  that  in 
some  forms,  e.g.  Ascaris  megalocephala     var.  univaJens,  only  one 
chromosome  is  derived  from  each  parent,  originally  led  Boveri  to 
conclude  that  all  chromosomes  must  necessarily  be  physiologically 
equivalent. 

4  Vber  mehrpolige  Mitosen  als  Mittel  zur  Analyse  des  Zell kerns 
(1902). 

6  Vber  das  Auseinandergehen  von  Furchungs-  und  Gewebezellen  in 
kalkfreien  Medium  (1900). 

•  Entwicklungsmechanische  Studien  V."  (Zeit.  fur  wiss.  Zool., 
Bd.  lv.,  1892). 

7  See  Geddes  and  Thomson,  Sex,  esp.  pp.  127,  137  and  139. 

8  The  equivalence  of  the  germ  nuclei  in  development  is  shown  by 
the  experiments  on  the  fertilization  of  enucleated  eggs  and  artificial 
parthenogenesis  already  referred  to. 

'  O.  Hertwig,  1873;  but  esp.  van  Beneden,  1883. 


7i8 


CYTOLOGY 


originally  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  nucleus  (Boveri's 
Law  of  Chromosome-Constancy),  it  follows  that,  in  the  mitotic 
figures  of  the  developing  embryo,  the  chromosomes  will  be  half 
maternal,  half  paternal  in  origin ; l  the  germ  nuclei  thus 
necessarily  possessing  only  half  the  number  of  chromosomes 
characteristic  of  the  ordinary  tissue  cells  of  species,  i.e.  the 
somatic  number.2  The  manner  in  which  this  "  reduction  "  in 
the  number  of  chromosomes  in  the  germ-cells  is  brought  about, 
and  the  significance  to  be  attached  to  the  process,  constitute 
the  most  hotly  debated  questions  in  cytology.  In  all  the  metazoa 
the  phenomenon  of  reduction  is  associated  with  the  two  last  and, 
usually,  rapidly  succeeding  "  maturation  "  divisions  by  which 
the  definitive  germ-cells — ova  or  spermatozoa — are  produced.3 

Assuming  the  persistent  individuality  of  the  chromosomes, 
then  there  are  only  three  conceivable  methods  by  which  this 
numerical  reduction  can  be  brought  about  (Boveri,  1904,  p.  60). 
(i)  One-half  the  chromosomes  degenerate.  (2)  The  chromosomes 
are  distributed  entire,  half  to  one  daughter  cell,  half  to  the  other 
(reducing  division  of  Weismann,  1887).  (3)  The  chromosomes 
fuse  in  pairs  (Conjugation  of  the  Chromosomes,  Boveri,  1892). 
The  first  possibility — that  of  an  actual  degeneration  of  a  part  of 
the  chromatin  originally  suggested  by  van  Beneden  and  adopted 
by  August  Weismann,  Boveri  and  others,  has  been  long 
abandoned,  and  a  steadily  increasing  bulk  of  evidence  is  tending 
to  prove  the  general,  if  not  universal,  occurrence  of  the  second 
method — the  distribution  between  the  daughter  cells  of  un- 
divided chromosomes.  The  occurrence  of  such  a  "  reducing 
division  "  was  postulated  on  theoretical  grounds  by  Weismann 
(1887)'*  and  by  Boveri  (1888);  by  the  former  as  a  result  of  his 
adoption  of  de  Vries's  hypothesis  of  self-propagating  and  qualita- 
tively varying  units  for  the  chromatin;  by  the  latter  in  relation 
to  his  theory  of  chromosome  individuality.  The  actual  occurrence 
of  this  reducing  division  was  first  demonstrated  by  Henking 
(1891)  for  Pyrrhocoris,  and  afterwards  by  Hacker,  vom  Rath 
and  many  others,  but  especially  by  Ruckert  (1894)  for  Cyclops 
(fig.  10).  In  this  latter  type  the  chromatin  of  the  oocyte,  as 
this  prepares  for  the  first  maturation  division,  resolves  itself 
into  12  (instead  of  24)  longitudinally  split  chromosomes  (fig.  io,a). 
As  these  continue  to  thicken  and  contract  a  transverse  fission 
appears  (fig.  10,  c).  This  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  belated  segmenta- 
tion of  the  spireme  thread,  and  shows  that  the  reduction  so  far 
is  only  a  "pseudo-reduction"  (Ruckert),  the  chromosomes 
being  really  all  present  but  temporally  united  in  pairs,  i.e. 
"  bivalent  "  (Hacker).  A  striking  confirmation  of  this  inter- 
pretation is  provided  by  Korschelt's  description  of  reduction 
in  the  annelid  Ophryotrocha.  In  this  type  the  full  somatic  number 
of  split  chromosomes  (here  only  four)  appears,  and  these 
secondarily  associate  end  to  end  in  pairs,  thus  forming  split 
"  diads  "  (i.e.  tetrads),  in  every  way  similar  to  those  described 
by  Ruckert  for  Cyclops.  In  the  latter  type,  at  the  first  matura- 
tion division,  the  sister  diads  are  separated  from  one  another, 
an  "  equating "  division  thus  taking  place.  At  the  second 
division  the  diads  are  resolved  into  their  constituent  parts,  and 
the  "  univalent  "  chromosomes  are  distributed  to  the  daughter 

1  Hacker,  "  t)ber  die  Selbststandigkeit  der  vaterlichen  und 
mutterlichen  Kernbestandteile,"  Arch.f.  mikr.  Anal.  Bd.  xlvi.  (1896). 

'First  discovered  by  van  Beneden  (1883,  1887)  for  the  egg  of 
A  scaris. 

'  In  the  case  of  the  egg  the  whole  of  the  yolk  stored  by  the 
"  oocyte  "  (cell-generation  immediately  preceding  the  maturation 
divisions)  is  handed  on  to  only  one  of  the  four  resulting  cells — an 
obvious  economy.  The  three  yolkless  cells  are  necessarily  function- 
less — abortive  ova — and  are  known  as  the  "  polar  bodies  "  (Hertwig). 
In  spermatogenesis  the  maturation  divisions,  though  bearing  the 
same  relation  to  reduction  as  in  oogenesis  (Plainer,  1889 ;  O.  Hertwig, 
1890),  give  rise  to  four  functional  germ-cells.  The  explanation  of 
sexual  differentiation  given  above,  and  that  of  polar  body  formation 
given  here,  render  it  needless  to  do  more  than  mention  the  theories 
of  Mimot  (1877),  van  Beneden  (1883)  and  others,  by  which  "matura- 
tion "  was  regarded  as  removing  the  "  male  "  element  from  the 
otherwise  "  hermaphrodite  "  egg. 

4  Weismann  postulated  a  transverse  division  of  the  chromosomes, 
not  a  distribution  of  entire  chromosomes;  but  the  result  as  far  as 
the  reduction  in  the  number  of  hereditary  qualities  goes  is  the  same. 
The  inability  of  the  mitotic  mechanism  to  effect  the  transverse 
division  of  unsplit  chromosomes  is  pointed  out  by  Boveri  (1904). 


cells  (reducing  division).  A  similar  process  has  since  been 
described  for  numerous  other  types  (e.g.  various  arthropods, 
Hacker,  1895-1898;  vom  Rath,  1895;  and  by  Sutton  for 
Brachystola,  1902-1903).  In  Ophryotrocha,  as  in  Pyrrhocoris 
(Henking),  Anasa  (Paulmeir),  Peripatus  (Montgomery),  &c., 


From     Korschelt     and      Heider's    Lehrbuch    d.     vergl. 
ivirbellosen  Tiere,  by  permission  of  Gustav  Fischer. 


Entwicklungsgeschichtt    d. 


FIG.  10. — Maturation  Divisions,  a-d,  Formation  of  the  tetrads  in 
Cyclops.  (After  Ruckert.)  e,  1st  maturation  division;  separation 
of  the  bivalent  sister  chromosomes.  /,  2nd  maturation  division; 
distribution  of  the  univalent  chromosomes. 

reduction  occurs  at  the  first  maturation  division  ("pre-reduction" 
of  Korschelt  and  Heider,  1900),  instead  of  at  the  second  division 
(post-reduction)  as  in  most  Copepods  and  Orthoptera.  In 
many  cases  the  tetrads  (i.e.  split  chromosomes  associated  in 
pairs)  have  the  form  of  rings,  the  genesis  of  which  was  first 
clearly  determined  by  vom  Rath  (1892)  in  the  mole  cricket 
Gryllotalpa  (fig.  n).  In  this  form  the  sister  diads  remain  united 

b  c 


From  Prof.  E.  B.  Wilson's  The  Cell  in   Development  and  Inheritance,  by   permission 
of  the  author  and  of  the  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y. 

FIG.  II. — Maturation  Divisions.  Origin  of  the  tetrads  by  ring 
formation  in  the  spermatogenesis  of  the  mole-cricket  (Gryllotalpa) 
(vom  Rath),  a.  Primary  spermatocyte  with  six  split,  bivalent 
chromosomes,  b  and  c,  Split  has  opened  out.  d,  Concentration  of 
the  chromatin  has  made  visible  the  belated  transverse  division. 
e  and  /,  Grouping  of  the  completed  tetrads  in  the  equatorial  plate 
of  the  first  maturation  division. 

by  their  ends  but  widely  separate  in  the  middle  (fig.  n,  b).  As 
in  Cyclops,  the  belated  transverse  segmentation  appears  as  the 
condensation  of  the  chromatin  proceeds  (fig.  n,  d),  but  the 
symmetrical  tetrads  which  this  process  here  produces  make 
it  impossible  to  determine  at  which  of  the  two  divisions  reduction 
is  effected.  An  essentially  similar  ring  formation  occurs  in 


CYTOLOGY 


719 


Enckaeta  and  Calanus  (vom  Rath),  and  in  the  Copepods  Hetero- 
tope  and  Diaptomus  (Rtickert),  and  in  other  types.1 

All  the  above  cases,  in  which  the  reduction  is  effected  by 
the  distribution  of  entire  chromosomes  at  one  or  other  of  the 
maturation  divisions,  may  be  grouped  together  as  "  pseudo- 
mitotic "  (Hacker,  and  Korschelt  &  Heider).  In  sharp 
contrast  to  the  pseudomitotic  method  is  the  "  Eumitotic  " 
method,  in  which  the  chromosomes  are  longitudinally  divided 
at  both  divisions.  Such  a  method  not  only  robs  the  process  of 
any  "  reducing  "  value  in  Weismann's  sense,  but  is  in  serious 
conflict  with  the  chromosome-individuality  hypothesis.  Never- 
theless it  is  in  this  sense  that  Boveri  (1881)  and  van  Beneden 
(1883-1887)  described  the  maturation  of  the  egg,  and  at  a  later 
period  Brauer  (1893)  that  of  the  spermatozoon,  in  Ascaris.  In 
each  case  the  tetrads  are  formed  by  the  double  longitudinal 
splitting  of  the  chromosomes,  the  latter  appearing  in  the  prophase 
in  the  reduced  number.  Not  only  was  the  eumitotic  method 
of  Ascaris  the  first  method  to  be  described,  but  the  descriptions 
are  fully  equal  in  point  of  clearness  to  that  of  Hertwig  for  the 
pseudomitotic  maturation  of  Cyclops?  A  similar  eumitotic 
maturation  has  been  described  for  other  types  also,  e.g.  Sagitta 
and  the  Heteropods,  but  nowhere  more  frequently  than  in  the 
Vertebrates  among  animals  and  the  Phanerogams  among  plants. 
In  these  two  latter  groups  the  chromosomes  of  the  reducing 
division  only  rarely  have  a  ring  form  comparable  to  that  seen 
in  Gryllotalpa,  &c.  When  such  rings  do  occur  their  genesis  is  very 
obscure,  and  at  no  time  do  they  present  the  appearance  of 
"  tetrads."  It  is  the  characteristic  appearance  these  looped 
chromosomes  give  to  the  first  maturation  division  in  many 
Vertebrates,  and  especially  in  the  Amphibia  (fig.  12),  that 
originally  led  Flemming  (1887)  to  term  this  type  of  mitosis 
a  b  c 


V 


From  O.  Herlwig,  Allgemcinc  Biologic,  by  permission  of  Guslav  Fischer. 

FIG.  12. — Heterotypical  Mitosis.     (Schematic,  after  Flemming.) 

"  heterotypical  " ;  the  second  division,  lacking  this  peculiar 
appearance,  being  distinguished  as  "  homotypical."  Until 
quite  recently  these  looped  chromosomes  of  the  heterotypical 
mitosis  of  Vertebrates  (and  plants)  were  described  as  arising 
by  the  opening  out  of  longitudinally  split  chromosomes,  exactly 
as  this  occurs  in  the  early  prophase  of  the  maturation  divisions 
in  such  types  as  Gryllotalpa,  Diaptomus,  &c.  In  the  heterotype 
mitosis,  however,  no  transverse  segmentation  appears,  and  the 
halves  of  the  rings,  as  they  separate  in  the  first  division,  show 
an  obvious  longitudinal  split  in  preparation  for  the  second 
division.3  Both  divisions  were  thus  interpreted  as  equating 
divisions.4  The  more  recent  works  of  Farmer  and  Moore  (1003- 
1905),  Montgomery  (1903,  Amphibia),  and  (for  plants)  Stras- 
burger  (1903-1904)  have  shown,  however,  that  even  for  the 
higher  plants  and  animals,  a  reducing  division  in  Weismann's 
sense  occurs  in  an  essentially  similar  manner  to  that  so  con- 
vincingly described  by  Riickert,  vom  Rath  and  others,  for 

1  For  an  exhaustive  account  of  reduction  in  Invertebrates  see 
Korschelt  and  Heider,  Entwicklungsgeschichte,  Allgem.  Teil  li. 
(Jena,  1903). 

*  Nevertheless  the  possibility  of  a  pseudomitotic  interpretation  of 
maturation  in  Ascaris  also  has  been  maintained  by  O.  Hertwig 
(1890),  p.  277,  Carnoy  and  Boveri  (1904). 

J  The  partial  or  even  complete  reconstruction  of  the  nucleus 
between  the  heterotype  and  homptype  division  in  Vertebrates  makes 
it  difficult  to  determine  the  identity  of  the  split  seen  in  the  anaphase 
of  the  heterotype  with  that  reappearing  in  the  prophase  of  the 
homotypc. 

*e.g.  Moore,  1895  (Scyllium);  Flemming,  1897;  Carnoy  and 
Lebrun,  1899  (Amphibia);  McGregor,  1899;  Lenhossek,  1898 
(mammals),  and  many  others.  So  also  for  plants:  Strasburger 
and  Mottier,  1897;  Dixon,  1896;  Sargant,  1896-1897;  Farmer  and 
Moore,  1895;  Gregoire,  1899;  Guignard,  1899,  &c- 


Invertebrate  types.  -For  the  chromosomes  of  the  heterotype 
mitosis  arise  by  the  looping  round,  not  opening  out,  of  the 
bivalent  chromosomes.  The  first  division  is  thus  a  reducing 
division,  while  the  split  appearing  in  the  anaphase  of  the  hetero- 
type and  presumably  reappearing  in  the  prophase  of  the  homo- 
type  is  the  original  split  of  the  spireme  thread. 

The  widespread,  if  not  universal,  formation  of  tetrads,  i.e. 
the  temporary  union  in  pairs  of  split  chromosomes,  in  reduction, 
and  the  relation  this  latter  process  always  bears  to  two  rapidly 
succeeding  maturation  divisions — those  completing  the  gameto- 
genic  cycle  in  animals  and  terminating  the  sporophytic  generation 
in  plants, — has  received  a  suggestive  explanation  at  the  hands 
of  Boveri  (1904).  The  growth  of  the  chromatin  is  an  indispens- 
able prelude  to  its  reproduction  (Boveri's  Law  of  Proportional 
Growth).  The  chromatin  is  therefore  incapable  of  undergoing 
reproductive  fission  in  two  successive  mitotic  divisions  when 
these  are  not  separated  by  a  resting  (i.e.  growth)  period.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  "  bipolar  "  condition  of  the  adult  chromo- 
somes, which  determines  its  mode  of  attachment  to  mantle 
fibres  from  both  poles  of  the  spindle,  is  not  possessed  by  the 
unripe  chromatin.  The  undivided,  i.e.  unripe,  chromosomes  are 
therefore  incapable  of  utilizing  the  mitotic  mechanism  for 
such  a  transverse  fission  as  Weismann  originally  postulated. 
The  difficulty  is,  however,  at  once  overcome  if  the  unripe  chromo- 
somes are  associated  in  pairs  in  the  equatorial  plate,  for  the 
bivalent  chromosomes  so  produced  are  bipolar  just  as  are  the 
adult  (i.e.  split)  chromosomes  in  the  ordinary  and  homotype 
mitosis.5 

Synapsis  (ffwavrtiv,  to  fuse  together). — During  the  prophase 
of  the  reducing  or  heterotype  divisions  the  whole  of  the  chromatin 
becomes  temporarily  massed  together  at  one  pole  of  the  nucleus 
(Moore,  1896,  for  Elasmobranchs).  Montgomery  (1901)  has 
suggested  that  this  is  to  facilitate  the  temporary  union  in  pairs, 
or  "  conjugation  "  of  homologous  paternal  and  maternal  chromo- 
somes. In  Ascaris  megalocephala  var.  univalens,  where  the 
somatic  number  is  only  two,  the  association  must  necessarily 
be  between  homologous  chromosomes.  The  assumption  that  this 
"  selective  pairing "  of  equivalent  chromosomes  is  universal 
is  supported  by  the  behaviour  of  the  "  Heterochromosomes  " 
(Montgomery)  of  the  Hemiptera.  These  chromosomes,  dis- 
tinguished by  their  size,  ar.e  paired  before,  and  single  after,  the 
"  pseudoreduction  "  has  taken  place.  Even  more  convincing 
is  Sutton's  account  of  reduction  in  Brachystola  already  referred 
to.6  Boveri  (1904)  has  suggested  that  this  temporary  association 
of  the  chromosomes — presumably  facilitated  by  the  synapsis — 
has  a  much  deeper  meaning  than  to  ensure  their  correct  dis- 
tribution between  the  daughter  nuclei  in  the  heterotype  mitosis; 
the  associated  chromosomes  exchanging  material  in  a  manner 
analogous  to  conjugation  in  Paramoecium.1 

Present  Position  of  the  Cell-theory. —  Since  the  time  of 
Schleiden  and  Schwann  a  wealth  of  evidence  has  accumulated 
in  support  of  the  "  cell-theory  " — the  theory  which  regards  the 
cell  as  the  unit  of  organic  structure.  "  The  organism  consists 

6H.  Henking  (1899),  T.  Montgomery  (1898)  and  F.  C.  Paulmeir 
(1899)  describe  the  diverging  bivalent  halves  of  the  tetrad  as  being 
united  each  by  two  fibres  with  the  corresponding  spindle  pole.  At 
the  next  division,  at  which  the  diad  is  resolved  into  its  constituent 
univalent  chromosomes,  the  daughter  chromosomes  are  attached  to 
the  spindle  pole  each  by  only  one  fibre;  the  two  fibres  now  passing 
to  opposite  poles  of  the  spindle  being  the  same  fibres  which,  in  the 
preceding  mitosis,  were  attached  to  one  and  the  same  pole. 

6  Reference  may  be  here  made  to  Rosenberg's  description  (1904) 
of  the  heterotype  mitosis  in  Drosera  hybrids.     In  the  one  parent 
(D.  rotundifolia)  the  somatic  number  is  20,  in  the  other  (D.  longifolia) 
10;  while  the  hybrid  itself  has  a  somatic  number  of  30.     The 
reduced  number  in  the  hybrid,  however,  is  not  15  but  20.     Of  these 
10  are  large  and  10  small,  the  latter  presumably  representing  the 
supernumerary,  and  hence  unpaired,  chromosomes  of  the  D.  rotundi- 
folia parent. 

7  In  their  1905  paper  J.  B.  Farmer  and  J.  E.  S.  Moore  describe 
two  successive  synaptic  stages  (e.g.  Elasmobranchs),  the  first  during 
the  contraction  of  the  spireme  thread,  the  second  during  the  looping 
up  of  the  bivalent  segments.     (In  this  paper  the  authors  suggest  the 
term   "  Meiosis  "   or   "  Meiotic   phase  "   for  the   nuclear  changes 
accompanying  the  two  maturation  divisions  in  plants  and  animals 

,  reduction). 


720 


CYTOLOGY— CYZICUS 


morphologically,  of  cells,  and  subsists,  physiologically,  by  means 
of  the  '  reciprocal  action  '  of  the  cells," — this  was  the  cell  stand- 
point of  Schleiden  and  Schwann,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say 
that  this  same  conception  has  dominated  the  cell-theory  almost 
to  the  present  day.1  The  frequently  striking  correlation  between 
cell-division  and  cell-differentiation  in  development  has  caused 
this  process  to  be  regarded  as  dependent  on  cell-division,  while 
a  wholly  exaggerated  importance  has  been  attached  to  the 
distinction  between  "unicellular"  and  "  multicellular "  organ- 
isms— between  "  intercellular  "  and  "  intracellular  "  organs. 
The  influence  of  the  "  cells  "  upon  one  another,  the  subordination 
of  the  cell's  growth,  division  and  differentiation,  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  whole  organism — seen  in  normal  growth,  but 
nowhere  more  strikingly  than  in  development  and  regeneration, — 
is,  however,  very  difficult  of  explanation  in  terms  of  the  cell- 
theory  as  this  was,  until  quite  recently,  generally  understood. 
The  very  elaborate  regional  differentiation  of  the  protoplasm 
often  seen  in  the  Protozoa  sufficiently  indicate  that  multi- 
cellular  structure  is  no  essential  condition  for  complex  regional 
differentiation.  That  the  reg-ional  differentiation  of  the  proto- 
plasm in  the  Metazoa  should  usually  correspond  with  cell-limits 
is  scarcely  surprising.  Nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that,  with  so 
convenient  a  mechanism  for  segregation  to  hand  as  cell-division, 
the  progressive  differentiation  seen  during  development  should 
often  appear  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  this  process.  In  recent 
years,  however,  evidence  has  been  steadily  accumulating  to  show 
that  this  association  between  cell-division  and  regional  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  protoplasm  in  development  is  a  casual  one — 
as  casual,  and  as  natural,  as  the  correspondence  between  cell 
limits  and  regional  differentiation  in  the  formed  tissues.  The 
fact  that  the  regional  differentiation  may  be  foreshadowed  in  the 
egg  before  cleavage  begins,2 — that  as  Driesch  has  shown,  the 
mode  of  cleavage  may  be  artificially  altered  without  affecting 
the  ultimate  organization  of  the  embryo, — and  many  other 
similar  observations,  tend  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  the 
"  organism "  standpoint  (C.  O.  Whitman,  1903,  p.  642)  in 
contradistinction  to  the  widely  prevalent  "  cell  "  standpoint. 
The  occurrence  of  syncytial  organs  and  organisms,  and  the 
increasing  frequency  with  which  protoplasmic  continuity  is 
being  demonstrated  between  all  kinds  of  cells,  are  facts  tending 
in  the  same  direction.  In  the  plant  kingdom  the  growth  of  the 
mass  has  been  recognized  as  the  primary  factor  in  development; 3 
die  Pflanze  bildet  Zellen,  nicht  die  Zelle  bildet  Pflanzen  (de  Bary). 
For  the  animal  kingdom  this  "  Inadequacy  of  the  Cell-Theory 
of  Development "  has  been  maintained  amongst  others  by 
Whitman,4  and  by  Adam  Sedgwick.6  The  latter  author, 
mainly  as  the  result  of  work  on  the  development  of  Peripatus 
and  of  Elasmobranch  embryos,  regards  the  developing  embryo 
as  a  continuous  protoplasmic  reticulum,  for  the  nuclei  of  which 
the  limiting  epithelial  layers  constitute  as  it  were  a  breeding 
ground.  Differentiation  is  a  regional  specialization  of  this 
nucleated  meshwork,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  the  result  of 
the  proliferation  and  subsequent  specialization  of  cells  pre- 
destined by  cleavage  for  this  end. 

It  is  possible  to  suggest  a  mechanico-physical  explanation  of 
multicellular  structure  which  will  deprive  the  cell  of  much  of  its 
assumed  significance  as  a  unit  of  organization.  The  fact  that 
surface  area  becomes  relatively  less  extensive  as  bulk  increases 
would  alone  set  a  limit  to  the  size  of  "  unicellular  "  organisms; 
for  not  only  is  there  a  constant  reaction  between  nucleus  and 
cytoplasm  through  the  nuclear  membrane,  but  the  surface  of 
the  cell  serves  both  for  the  intake  of  food  and  the  elimination  of 
waste  material.  In  addition  to  the  limit  thus  imposed  upon  the 
cytoplasmic  area  which  can  be  effectually  controlled  by  the 
nucleus,  and  the  necessity  for  a  minimum  surface  area  to  the 
protoplasmic  mass,  the  advantages  of  the  more  or  less  complete 

1  Whitman,  Jour.  Morph.,  1903. 

2  This  "Precocious  segregation"   (Lankester,   1877)  is  well  seen 
in  the  eggs  of  many  Ctenophorae,  Annelids,  Gastropods  and  Nema- 
todes.     See  the  papers  by  Lillie  (1901),  Conklin  (1902),  &c.,  and 
especially  Wilson  on  "  Dentalium,"  Journ.  of  Exp.  Zool.,  No.  I,  1904. 

Hofmeister,  de  Bary,  Sachs,  &c.  *  Loc.  cit. 

'  Quart.  Journ.  Micro.  Science,  1894,  vol.  xxxvii. 


subdivision  of  the  living  substance  into — as  far  as  their  meta- 
bolism is  concerned — semi-autonomous  units,  is  indicated  by 
the  mechanical  support  derived  from  the  specialized  cell  walls 
and  turgescent  cells  of  the  plant,  and  the  intercellular  secretions 
of  the  animal  tissues.  It  is  more  than  possible  that  these  two 
conditions — i.e.  surface  area  for  diffusion,  and  mechanical 
support — are  alone  responsible  for  the  origin  of  multicellular 
structure,  and  that  the  sharply  defined  character  this  now  so 
generally  possesses  has  been  secondarily  acquired  as  a  result 
of  the  facilities  it  undoubtedly  offers  for  regional  specialization 
in  the  protoplasmic  mass. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  special  literature  of  cytology  has  grown  to 
large  dimensions.  The  following  are  the  more  important  text- 
books and  papers  of  general  interest:  E.  B.  Wilson,  The  Cell  in 
Development  and  Inheritance  (2nd  ed.,  1900);  A.  Gurwitsch, 
Morphologic  und  Biologie  der  Zelle  (Jena,  1904) ;  O.  Hertwig,  Allge- 
meine  Biologie  (Jena,  1906);  Korschelt  and  Heider,  Lehrbuch  der 
vergl.  Entwicklungsgeschichte  der  wirbellosen  Tiere,  Allgem.  Teil, 
"The  Germ  Cells  and  Experimental  Embryology"  (Jena,  1903); 
Whitman,  "  The  Inadequacy  of  the  Cell  Theory  of  Development," 
Journ.  Morph.  viii.,  1893;  Adam  Sedgwick,  "On  the  Inadequacy 
of  the  Cellular  Theory  of  Development,"  Quart.  Journ.  Micro. 
Science,  xxxvii.;  G.  C.  Bourne,  "  A  Criticism  of  the  Cell  Theory  " 
(an  answer  to  Sedgwick's  paper),  Quart.  Journ.  Micro.  Science, 
xxxviii. ;  *Th.  Boveri,  "  Befruchtung,"  Merkel-Bonnets  Ergebnisse 
der  Anal.  u.  Entwicklungsgesch.  Bd.  i.  (1892),  Das  Problem  der 
Befruchtung  (Jena,  1902),  Ergebnisse  iiber  die  Konstitution  der 
chromatischen  Substanz  des  Zellkerns  (Jena,  1904) ;  J.  Ruckert,  "  Die 
Chromatinreduktion  bei  der  Reifung  der  Sexualzellen,"  Merkel- 
Bonnets  Ergebnisse,  Bd.  iii.  (1894);  V.  Hacker,  "Die  Reifungs- 
erscheinungen,"  Ergebn.  Anat.  u.  Entwicklungsgesch.  Bd.  viii.  (1898) ; 
F.  Meves,  "  Zellteilung,"  Merkel-Bonnets  Ergebnisse,  Bd.  viii.  (1898, 
1899);  W.  Waldeyer,  "Die  Geschlechtszellen,"  in  O.  Hertwig's 
Handbuch  der  vergleich.  u.  experiment.  Entwicklungslehre  d.  Wirbeltiere 
(1901,  1903).  (G.  C.  C.) 

CYZICENUS,  the  architectural  term  given  by  Vitruvius  to 
the  large  hall,  used  by  the  Greeks,  which  faced  the  north,  with 
a  prospect  towards  the  gardens;  the  windows  of  this  hall 
opened  down  to  the  ground,  so  that  the  green  verdure  could  be 
seen  by  those  lying  on  the  couches. 

CYZICUS,  an  ancient  town  of  Mysia  in  Asia  Minor,  situated 
on  the  shoreward  side  of  the  present  peninsula  of  Kapu-Dagh 
(Arctonnesus),  which  is  said  to  have  been  originally  an  island 
in  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  to  have  been  artificially  connected 
with  the  mainland  in  historic  times.  It  was,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, occupied  by  Thessalian  settlers  at  the  coming  of  the 
Argonauts,  and  in  756  B.C.  the  town  was  founded  by  Greeks 
from  Miletus.  Owing  to  its  advantageous  position  it  speedily 
acquired  commercial  importance,  and  the  gold  staters  of  Cyzicus 
were  a  staple  currency  in  the  ancient  world  till  they  were  super- 
seded by  those  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  During  the  Peloponnesian 
War  (431-404  B.C.)  Cyzicus  was  subject  to  the  Athenians  and 
Lacedaemonians  alternately,  and  at  the  peace  of  Antalcidas 
(387  B.C.),  like  the  other  Greek  cities  in  Asia,  it  was  made  over 
to  Persia.  The  history  of  the  town  in  Hellenistic  times  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  the  dynasts  of  Pergamum,  with  whose 
extinction  it  came  into  direct  relations  with  Rome.  Cyzicus 
was  held  for  the  Romans  against  Mithradates  in  74  B.C.  till  the 
siege  was  raised  by  Lucullus:  the  loyalty  of  the  city,  was  rewarded 
by  an  extension  of  territory  and  other  privileges.  Still  a 
flourishing  centre  in  Imperial  times,  the  place  appears  to  have 
been  ruined  by  a  series  of  earthquakes — the  last  in  A.D.  1063 — 
and  the  population  was  transferred  to  Artaki  at  least  as  early 
as  the  i3th  century,  when  the  peninsula  was  occupied  by  the 
Crusaders.  The  site  is  now  known  as  Bal-Kiz  (IlaXaia  Kiifixos?) 
and  entirely  uninhabited,  though  under  cultivation.  The 
principal  extant  ruins  are: — the  walls,  which  are  traceable  for 
nearly  their  whole  extent,  a  picturesque  amphitheatre  intersected 
by  a  stream,  and  the  substructures  of  the  temple  of  Hadrian. 
Of  this  magnificent  building,  sometimes  ranked  among  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  ancient  world,  thirty-one  immense  columns  still 
stood  erect  in  1444.  These  have  since  been  carried  away  piece- 
meal for  building  purposes  by  the  Turks. 

See  J.  Marquardt,  Cyzicus  (Berlin,  1830);  G.  Ferret,  Exploration 
de  la  Galatie  (Paris,  1862) ;  F.  W.  Hasluck  and  A.  E.  Henderson  in 
Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  (1904),  135-143.  (F.  W.  HA.) 


CZARNIECKI— CZARTORYSKI,  A.  G. 


CZARNIECKI,  STEPHEN  (1599-1665),  Polish  general,  learnt 
the  science  of  war  under  Stanislaw  Koniecpolski  in  the  Prussian 
campaigns  against  Gustavus  Adolphus  (1626-1629),  an<l  under 
Wladislaus  IV.  in  the  Muscovite  campaign  of  1633.  On  the  isth 
of  April  1648  he  was  one  of  the  many  noble  Polish  prisoners  who 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Chmielnicki  at  the  battle  of  "  Yellow 
Waters,"  and  was  sent  in  chains  to  the  Crimea,  whence  he  was 
ransomed  in  1649.  He  took  an  active  part  in  all  the  subsequent 
wars  with  the  Cossacks  and  received  more  disfiguring  wounds 
than  any  other  commander.  When  Charles  X.  of  Sweden  in- 
vaded Poland  in  1655,  Czarniecki  distinguished  himself  by  his 
heroic  defence  of  Cracow,  which  he  only  surrendered  under  the 
most  honourable  conditions.  His  energy  and  ability  as  a  leader 
of  guerillas  hampered  Charles  X.  at  every  step,  and  though 
frequently  worsted  he  from  time  to  time  inflicted  serious  defeats 
upon  the  Swedes,  notably  at  Jaroslaw  and  at  Kozienice  in  1656. 
Under  his  direction  the  popular  rising  against  the  invader  ulti- 
mately proved  triumphant.  It  was  he  who  brought  King  John 
Casimir  back  from  exile  and  enabled  him  to  regain  his  lost 
kingdom.  It  was  against  his  advice  that  the  great  battle  of 
Warsaw  was  fought,  and  his  subsequent  strategy  neutralized 
the  ill  effects  of  that  national  disaster.  On  the  retirement  of 
the  Swedes  from  Cracow  and  Warsaw,  and  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  Copenhagen  with  the  Danes,  he  commanded  the  army 
corps  sent  to  drive  the  troops  of  Charles  X.  out  of  Jutland  and 
greatly  contributed  to  the  ultimate  success  of  the  Allies.  On 
the  conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Oliva,  which  adjusted  the  long 
outstanding  differences  between  Poland  and  Sweden,  Czarniecki 
was  transferred  to  the  eastern  frontier  where  the  war  with 
Muscovy  was  still  raging.  In  the  campaign  of  1660  he  won  the 
victories  of  Polonka  and  Lachowicza  and  penetrated  to  the  heart 
of  the  enemy's  country.  The  diet  of  1661  publicly  thanked  him 
for  his  services;  the  king  heaped  honours  and  riches  upon  him, 
and  in  1665  he  was  appointed  acting  commander-in-chief  of 
Poland,  but  died  a  few  days  after  receiving  this  supreme 
distinction.  By  his  wife  Sophia  Kobierzycka  he  left  two 
daughters.  Czarniecki  is  rightly  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  heroic  Poland's  great  captains,  and  to  him  belongs 
the  chief  merit  of  extricating  her  from  the  difficulties  which 
threatened  to  overwhelm  her  during  the  disastrous  reign  of 
John  Casimir.  Czarniecki  raised  partisan-warfare  to  the  dignity 
of  a  science,  and  by  his  ubiquity  and  tenacity  demoralized  and 
exhausted  the  regular  armies  to  which  he  was  generally  opposed. 

See  Ludwik  Jenike,  Stephen  Czarniecki  (Pol.)  (Warsaw,  1891); 
Michal  Dymitr  Krajewski,  History  of  Stephen  Czarniecki  (Pol.), 
(Cracow,  1859). 

CZARTORYSKI,  ADAM  GEORGE,  PRINCE  (1770-1861), 
Polish  statesman,  was  the  son  of  Prince  Adam  Casimir  Czartoryski 
and  Isabella  Fleming.  After  a  careful  education  at  home  by 
eminent  specialists,  mostly  Frenchmen,1  he  first  went  abroad 
in  1786.  At  Gotha  he  heard  Goethe  read  his  Iphigenie  auf 
Tauris,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  dignified  Herder  and 
"  fat  little  Wieland."  In  1789  he  visited  England  with  his 
mother,  and  was  present  at  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings.  On  a 
second  visit  in  1793  he  made  many  acquaintances  among  the 
English  aristocracy  and  studied  the  English  constitution.  In 
the  interval  between  these  visits  he  fought  for  his  country 
during  the  war  of  the  second  partition,  and  would  subsequently 
have  served  under  Kosciuszko  also  had  he  not  been  arrested  on 
his  way  to  Poland  at  Brussels  by  the  Austrian  government. 
After  the  third  partition  the  estates  of  the  Czartoryskis  were 
confiscated,  and  in  May  1795  Adam  and  his  younger  brother 
Co'nstantine  were  summoned  to  St  Petersburg;  later  in  the  year 
they  were  commanded  to  enter  the  Russian  service,  Adam 
becoming  an  officer  in  the  horse,  and  Constantine  in  the  foot 
guards.  Catherine  was  so  favourably  impressed  by  the  youths 
that  she  restored  them  part  of  their  estates,  and  in  the  beginning 
of  1796  made  them  gentlemen  in  waiting.  Adam  had  already 
met  the  grand  duke  Alexander  at  a  ball  at  the  princess  Golitsuin's, 
and  the  youths  at  once  conceived  a  strong  "  intellectual  friend- 
ship "  for  each  other.  On  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Paul, 

1  Among  them  was  the  famous  democrat  Dupont  de  Nemours. 


721 

Czartoryski  was  appointed  adjutantto  Alexander,  now  Cesarevich, 
and  was  permitted  to  revisit  his  Polish  estates  for  three  months. 
At  this  time  the  tone  of  the  Russian  court  was  extremely  liberal, 
humanitarian  enthusiasts  like  Peter  Volkonsky  and  Nikolai 
Novosiltsov  possessing  great  influence. 

Throughout  the  reign  of  Paul,  Czartoryski  was  in  high  favour 
and  on  terms  of  the  closest  intimacy  with  the  emperor,  who  in 
December  1798  appointed  him  ambassador  to  the  court  of 
Sardinia.  On  reaching  Italy  Czartoryski  found  that  the  monarch 
to  whom  he  was  accredited  was  a  king,  without  a  kingdom,  so 
that  the  outcome  of  his  first  diplomatic  mission  was  a  pleasant 
tour  through  Italy  to  Naples,  the  acquisition  of  the  Italian 
language,  and  a  careful  exploration  of  the  antiquities  of  Rome. 
In  the  spring  of  1801  the  new  emperor  Alexander  summoned  his 
friend  back  to  St  Petersburg.  Czartoryski  found  the  tsar  still 
suffering  from  remorse  at  his  father's  assassination,  and  incapable 
of  doing  anything  but  talk  religion  and  politics  to  a  small  circle 
of  private  friends.  To  all  remonstrances  he  only  replied  "  There's 
plenty  of  time."  The  senate  did  most  of  the  current  business; 
Peter  Vasilevich  Zavadovsky,  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  was  minister 
of  education.  Alexander  appointed  Czartoryski  curator  of  the 
academy  of  Vilna  (April  3,  1803)  that  he  might  give  full  play 
to  his  advanced  ideas.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  give  much 
attention  to  education,  for  from  the  beginning  of  1804,  as 
adjunct  of  foreign  affairs,  he  had  the  practical  control  of  Russian 
diplomacy.  His  first  act  was  to  protest  energetically  against 
the  murder  of  the  due  d'Enghien  (March  20,  1804),  and  insist 
on  an  immediate  rupture  with  France.  On  the  7th  of  June  the 
French  minister  Hedouville  quitted  St  Petersburg;  and  on  the 
nth  of  August  a  note  dictated  by  Czartoryski  to  Alexander 
was  sent  to  the  Russian  minister  in  London,  urging  the  formation 
of  an  anti-French  coalition.  It  was  Czartoryski  also  who  framed 
the  Convention  of  the  6th  of  November  1804,  whereby  Russia 
agreed  to  put  115,000  and  Austria  235,000  men  in  the  field 
against  Napoleon.  Finally,  on  the  nth  of  April  1805  he  signed 
an  offensive-defensive  alliance  with  England.  But  his  most 
striking  ministerial  act  was  a  memorial  written  in  1805,  but 
otherwise  undated,  which  aimed  at  transforming  the  whole  map 
of  Europe.  In  brief  it  amounted  to  this.  Austria  and  Prussia 
were  to  divide  Germany  between  them.  Russia  was  to  acquire 
the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the  Bosphorus  with 
Constantinople,  and  Corfu.  Austria  was  to  have  Bosnia, 
Wallachia  and  Ragusa.  Montenegro,  enlarged  by  Mostar  and 
the  Ionian  Islands,  was  to  form  a  separate  state.  England  and 
Russia  together  were  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  world. 
In  return  for  their  acquisitions  in  Germany,  Austria  and  Prussia 
were  to  consent  to  the  erection  of  an  autonomous  Polish  state 
extending  from  Danzig  to  the  sources  of  the  Vistula,  under  the 
protection  of  Russia.  Fantastic  as  it  was  in  some  particulars, 
this  project  was  partly  realized2  in  more  recent  times,  and  it 
presented  the  best  guarantee  for  the  independent  existence  of 
Poland  which  had  never  been  able  to  govern  itself.  But  in 
the  meantime  Austria  had  come  to  an  understanding  with 
England  as  to  subsidies,  and  war  had  begun. 

In  1805  Czartoryski  accompanied  Alexander  both  to  Berlin 
and  Olmtitz  as  chief  minister.  He  regarded  the  Berlin  visit  as  a 
blunder,  chiefly  owing  to  his  profound  distrust  of  Prussia; 
but  Alexander  ignored  his  representations,  and  in  February 
1807  he  lost  favour  and  was  superseded  by  Andrei  Eberhard 
Budberg.  But  though  no  longer  a  minister  Czartoryski  continued 
to  enjoy  Alexander's  confidence  in  private,  and  in  1810  the 
emperor  candidly  admitted  to  Czartoryski  that  his  policy  in 
1805  had  been  erroneous  and  he  had  not  made  a  proper  use  of  his 
opportunities.  The  same  year  Czartoryski  quitted  St  Petersburg 
for  ever;  but  the  personal  relations  between  him  and  Alexander 
were  never  better.  The  friends  met  again  at  Kalisch  shortly 
before  the  signature  of  the  Russo-Prussian  alliance  of  the 
20th  of  February  1813,  and  Czartoryski  was  in  the  emperor's 
suite  at  Paris  in  1814,  and  rendered  his  sovereign  material 
services -at  the  congress  of  Vienna. 

On  the  erection  of  the  congressional  kingdom  of  Poland 
2  e.g.  Austria  obtained  Bosnia,  and  Montenegro  has  been  enlarged. 


722 


CZARTORYSKI,  F.  M.— CZECH 


every  one  thought  that  Czartoryski,  who  more  than  any  other 
man  had  prepared  the  way  for  it,  would  be  its  first  governor- 
general,  but  he  was  content  with  the  title  of  senator-palatine 
and  a  share  in  the  administration.  In  1817  the  prince  married 
Anna  Sapiezanko,  the  wedding  leading  to  a  duel  with  his  rival 
Pac.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1823  he  retired  to  his  ancestral 
castle  at  Pulawy;  but  the  Revolution  of  1830  brought  him  back 
to  public  life.  As  president  of  the  provisional  government  he 
summoned  (Dec.  i8th,  1830)  the  Diet  of  1831,  and  after  the 
termination  of  Chlopicki's  dictatorship  was  elected  chief  of 
the  supreme  council  by  121  out  of  138  votes  (January  3oth). 
On  the  i6th  of  September  his  disapproval  of  the  popular  excesses 
at  Warsaw  caused  him  to  quit  the  government  after  sacrificing 
half  his  fortune  to  the  national  cause;  but  it  must  be  admitted 
that  throughout  the  insurrection  he  did  not  act  up  to  his  great 
reputation.  Yet  the  energy  of  the  sexagenarian  statesman  was 
wonderful.  On  the  23rd  of  August  he  joined  Girolano 
Ramorino's  army-corps  as  a  volunteer,  and  subsequently  formed 
a  confederation  of  the  three  southern  provinces  of  Kalisch, 
Sandomir  and  Cracow.  At  the  end  of  the  war  he  emigrated  to 
France,  where  he  resided  during  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life. 
He  died  at  his  country  residence  at  Montfermeil,  near  Meaux, 
on  the  isth  of  July  1861.  He  left  two  sons,  Witold  (1824- 
1865),  and  Wladyslaus  (1828-1894),  and  a  daughter  Isabella, 
who  married  Jan  Dzialynski  in  1857.  The  principal  works  of 
Czartoryski  are  Essai  sur  la  diplomatic  (Marseilles,  1830); 
Life  of  J.  U.  Niemcewiez  (Pol).  (Paris,  1860);  Alexander  I.  et 
Czartoryski:  correspondance  .  .  .  et  conversations  (1801-1823) 
(Paris,  1865);  Mtmoires  et  correspondance  avec  Alex.  I.,  with 
preface  by  C.  de  Mazade,  2  vols.  (Paris,  1887);  an  English 
translation  Memoirs  of  Czartoryski,  &c.,  edited  by  A.  Gielguch, 
with  documents  relating  to  his  negotiations  with  Pitt,  and 
conversations  with  Palmerston  in  1832  (2  vols.,  London,  1888). 

See  Bronislaw  Zaleski,  Life  of  Adam  Czartoryski  (Pol.)  (Paris, 
1881);  Lubomir  Gadon,  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski  (Pol.)  (Cracow, 
1892);  Ludovik  Debicki,  Pulawy,  vol.  iv.;  Lubomir  Gadon,  Prince 
Adam  Czartoryski  during  the  Insurrection  of  November  (Pol.)  (Cracow, 
1900).  (R.  N.  B.) 

CZARTORYSKI,  FRYDERYK  MICHAL,  PRINCE  (1696-1775), 
Polish  statesman,  was  born  in  1696.  Of  small  means  and  no 
position,  he  owed  his  elevation  in  the  world  to  extraordinary 
ability,  directed  by  an  energetic  but  patriotic  ambition.  After 
a  careful  education  on  the  best  French  models,  which  he  com- 
pleted at  Paris,  Florence  and  Rome,  he  attached  himself  to  the 
court  of  Dresden,  and  through  the  influence  of  Count  Fleming, 
the  leading  minister  there,  obtained  the  vice-chancellorship  of 
Lithuania  and  many  other  dignities.  Czartoryski  was  one  of  the 
many  Polish  nobles  who,  when  Augustus  II.  was  seriously  ill 
at  Bialy  vostok  in  17 27,  signed  the  secret  declaration  guaranteeing 
the  Polish  succession  to  his  son;  but  this  did  not  prevent  him 
from  repudiating  his  obligations  when  Stanislaus  Leszczynski 
was  placed  upon  the  throne  by  the  influence  of  France  in  1733. 
When  Stanislaus  abdicated  in  1735  Czartoryski  voted  for 
Augustus  III.  (of  Saxony),  who  gladly  employed  him  and  his 
family  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the  irreconcilable  Potokis. 
For  the  next  forty  years  Czartoryski  was  certainly  the  leading 
Polish  statesman.  In  foreign  affairs  he  was  the  first  to  favour 
an  alliance  with  Russia,  Austria  and  England,  as  opposed  to 
France  and  Prussia — a  system  difficult  to  sustain  and  not  always 
beneficial  to  Poland  or  Saxony.  In  Poland  Czartoryski  was  at 
the  head  of  the  party  of  reform.  His  palace  was  the  place  where 
the  most  promising  young  gentlemen  of  the  day  were  educated 
and  sent  abroad  that  they  might  return  as  his  coadjutors  in  the 
great  work.  His  plan  aimed  at  the  restoration  of  the  royal 
prerogative  and  the  abolition  of  the  liberum  leto,  an  abuse  that 
made  any  durable  improvement  impossible.  These  patriotic 
endeavours  made  the  Czartoryskis  very  unpopular  with  the 
ignorant  szlachta,  but  for  many  years  they  had  the  firm  and 
constant .  support  of  the  Saxon  court,  especially  after  Briihl 
succeeded  Fleming. 

Czartoryski  reached  the  height  of  his  power  in  1752  when  he 
was  entrusted  with  the  great  seal  of  Lithuania;  but  after  that 


date  the  influence  of  his  rival  Mniszek  began  to  prevail  at  Dresden, 
whereupon  Czartoryski  sought  a  reconciliation  with  his  political 
opponents  at  home  and  foreign  support  both  in  England  and 
Russia.  In  1755  he  sent  his  nephew  Stanislaus  Poniatowski 
to  St  Petersburg  as  Saxon  minister,  a  mission  which  failed 
completely.  Czartoryski's  philo-Russian  policy  had  by  this 
time  estranged  Briihl,  but  he  frustrated  all  the  plans  of  the 
Saxon  court  by  dissolving  the  diets  of  1760,  1761  and  1762. 
In  1763  he  went  a  step  farther  and  proposed  the  dethronement 
of  Augustus  III.,  who  died  the  same  year.  During  the  ensuing 
interregnum  the  prince  chancellor  laboured  night  and  day  at 
the  convocation  diet  of  1764  to  reform  the  constitution,  and  it 
was  with  displeasure  that  he  saw  his  incompetent  nephew 
Stanislaus  finally  elected  king  in  1765.  But  though  disgusted 
with  the  weakness  of  the  king  and  obliged  to  abandon  at  last  all 
hope  of  the  amelioration  of  his  country,  Czartoryski  continued 
to  hold  office  till  the  last;  and  as  chancellor  of  Lithuania  he 
sealed  all  the  partition  treaties.  He  died  in  the  full  possession 
of  his  faculties  and  was  considered  by  the  Russian  minister 
Repnin  "  the  soundest  head  in  the  kingdom."  It  is  a  mistake, 
however,  to  regard  Czartoryski  as  the  sole  reforming  statesman 
of  his  day,  and  despite  his  great  services  there  were  occasions 
when  the  partisan  in  him  got  the  better  of  the  statesman.  His 
foreign  policy,  moreover,  was  very  vacillating,  and  he  changed 
his  "  system  "  more  frequently  perhaps  than  any  contemporary 
diplomatist.  But  when  all  is  said  he  must  remain  one  of  the 
noblest  names  in  Polish  history. 

See  the  Correspondence  of  Czartoryski  in  the  Collections  of  the 
Russian  Historical  Society,  vols.  7,  jo,  13,  48,  51,  67  (St  Petersburg, 
1890,  &c.);  Wladyslaw  Tadeusz  Kisielewski,  Reforms  of  the  Czar- 
torysccy  (Pol.)  (Sambor,  1880);  Adalbert  Roepell,  Polen  um  die 
Mitte  des  XVIII.  Jahrhunderts  (Gotha,  1876);  Jacques  Viltor 
Albert  de  Broglie,  Le  Secret  du  roi  (Paris,  1878) ;  Antoni  Waliszewki, 
The  Potoccy  and  the  Czartorysccy  (Pol.) ;  Carl  Heinrich  Heyking,  Aus 
Polens  und  Kurlands  letzten  Tagen  (Berlin,  1897);  Ludwik  Denbicki, 
Pulawy  (Pol.)  (Lemberg,  1887-1888).  (R.  N.  B.) 

CZECH  (in  ^Bohemian,  Gech),  a  name  which  signifies  an 
inhabitant  of  Cechy,  the  native  designation  of  Bohemia.  The 
Czechs  belong  to  the  Slavic  race,  and  according  to  the  usually 
accepted  division  they  form,  together  with  the  Poles  and  the 
almost  extinct  Lusatians,  the  group  of  the  Western  Slavs. 
Speaking  generally,  it  can  be  said  that  the  Czechs  inhabit  a  large 
part  of  Bohemia,  a  yet  larger  part  of  Moravia,  parts  of  Silesia — 
both  Austrian  and  Prussian —  and  extensive  districts  in  northern 
Hungary.  In  the  igth  century  the  Czechs  of  Hungary — much 
to  their  own  detriment — developed  a  written  language  that  differs 
slightly  from  that  used  in  Bohemia,  but  as  regards  their  race  they 
are  identical  with  the  Bohemians  and  Moravians.  Beyond  the 
borders  of  this  continuous  territory  there  are  many  Czechs  in 
Lower  Austria.  Vienna  in  particular  has  a  large  and  increasing 
Czech  population.  There  are  also  numerous  Czechs  in  Russia, 
particularly  Volhynia,  in  the  United  States — where  a  large  num- 
ber of  newspapers  and  periodicals  are  published  in  the  Czech 
language — and  in  London.  Though  the  statistics  are  very 
uncertain  and  untrustworthy,  it  can  be  stated  that  the  Czechs 
number  about  eight  millions. 

The  period  at  which  the  Czechs  settled  in  Bohemia  is  very 
uncertain;  all  theories,  indeed,  with  regard  to  the  advent  of  the 
Slavs  in  northern  and  eastern  Europe  are  merely  conjectural. 
It  was  formerly  generally  accepted  as  a  fact  that  all  Bohemia 
was  originally  inhabited  by  Celtic  tribes,  who  were  succeeded 
by  the  Germanic  Marcomanni,  and  later  by  the  Slavic  Czechs. 
According  to  a  very  ancient  tradition  reproduced  in  the  book  of 
Cosmas,  the  earliest  Bohemian  chronicler,  the  Czechs  arrived  in 
Bohemia  led  by  their  eponymous  chief  Cechus,  and  first  settled 
on  the  Rip  Hill  (Georgberg)  near  Roudnice.  It  is  a  strange  proof 
of  the  intense  obscurity  of  the  earliest  Bohemian  history  that 
Cosmas,  writing  at  the  beginning  of  the  I2th  century,  is  already 
unaware  of  the  existence  of  pre-Slavic  inhabitants  of  Bohemia- 
It  is  historically  certain  that  the  Czechs  inhabited  parts  o' 
Bohemia  as  early  as  the  6th  century.  In  the  absence  of  all 
historical  evidence,  modern  Czech  scholars  have  endeavoured 
by  other  means  to  throw  some  light  on  the  earliest  period  of  the 


CZECH 


723 


Czechs.  By  craniological  studies  and  a  thorough  examination 
of  the  fields  where  the  dead  were  burnt  (in  Czech  Isdrove  pole), 
still  found  in  some  parts  of  Bohemia,  they  have  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  parts  of  the  country  were  inhabited  by  Czechs, 
or  at  least  by  Slavs,  long  before  the  Christian  era,  perhaps  about 
the  year  500  B.C. 

It  is  certain  that  the  Slavs  at  the  time  when  they  first  appeared 
in  history  had  a  common  language,  known  as  the  ancient  Slavic 
(praslovansky)  language.  When  in  the  course  of  time  the  Slavs 
occupied  various  countries,  which  were  often  widely  apart, 
different  dialects  arose  among  them,  many  of  which  were 
influenced  by  the  language  of  the  neighbouring  non-Slavic 
populations.  Thus  the  Czech  language  from  an  early  period 
absorbed  many  German  words.  It  is  probable  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Czech  language  as  an  independent  one,  was  very 
gradual.  Existent  documents,  such  as  the  hymn  to  St  Wenceslas, 
which  belongs  to  the  second  half  of  the  loth  century,  are  written 
partly  in  old-Slavic,  partly  in  Czech.  When  the  Slavs  first 
occupied  Bohemia,  they  were  probably  divided  into  several 
tribes,  of  which  the  Czechs,  who  inhabited  Prague  and  the 
country  surrounding  it,  were  the  most  powerful.  It  is  probable 
that  these  smaller  tribes  were  only  gradually  subdued  by  the 
Czechs  and  that  some  of  them  had  previously  to  their  absorp- 
tion adopted  special  dialects.  The  Netolice,  Lucane,  Psovane, 
Sedlcane  appear  to  have  been  among  the  more  important  tribes 
who  were  forced  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Czechs, 
and  it  may  be  conjectured  that  their  language  for  a  time  differed 
slightly  from  that  of  their  conquerors.  The  Czech  language  has, 
like  all  Slavic  ones,  a  strong  tendency  to  develop  dialects; 
this  was  the  case  at  the  time  of  its  first  appearance  as  an  inde- 
pendent language,  and  has  to  a  certain  extent  continued  up  to 
the  present  day.  The  dialects  of  Moravia  and  the  northern 
districts  of  Hungary  still  show  variations  from  the  generally 
accepted  forms  of  the  Czech  language,  though  since  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Czech  university  of  Prague  this — at  least  among  the 
educated  classes — is  no  longer  true  to  the  same  extent  as  it 
formerly  was.  The  Czech  language  at  the  time  of  its  formation 
naturally  remained  closest  to  those  other  Slav-speaking  countries 
which  were  geographically  its  neighbours,  the  Poles  and  the 
Lusatians,  and  it  may  be  said  that  this  is  still  the  case.  The 
Czech  language  at  the  time  when  in  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries 
it  first  appears  as  a  separate  and  distinct  one,  differed  consider- 
ably from  that  of  the  present  day.  Ancient  Czech  had  several 
diphthongs,  such  as:  ia,  ie,  iu,  uo  and  au,  that  are  unknown  to 
the  present  language.  The  letter  "  /  "  had  a  threefold  sound, 
and  besides  the  letters  b,  p,  m,  v,  the  softer  forms  b',  p' ,  m',  v', 
were  also  in  existence.  The  letter  g  (as  in  other  Slavic  languages) 
was  often  used  where  modern  Czechs  employ  the  letter  h. 
Ancient  Bohemian  had  three  numbers,  the  singular,  plural  and 
dual;  of  the  dual  only  scant  vestiges  remain  in  modern  Czech. 

Once  it  had  obtained  its  independence,  the  Czech  language 
developed  rapidly,  and  the  philosophical  and  theological  writings 
of  Thomas  of  Stitny  (1331-1401)  proved  that  it  could  already 
be  used  even  for  dealing  with  the  most  abstract  subjects,  though 
Stitny  was  blamed  by  the  monks  for  not  writing  in  Latin,  as 
was  then  customary.  The  Czech  language  is  greatly  indebted 
also  to  John  Hus,  whose  best  and  most  original  works  were 
written  in  the  language  of  his  country.  Hus  showed  great 
interest  in  the  orthography  and  grammar  of  his  language,  and 
has  devoted  an  interesting  treatise  entitled  "  Orlhographia 
bohemica  "  to  it.  As  already  mentioned,  the  Czech  Janguage 
had  sprung  from  diverse  dialects,  and  Hus  endeavoured  to 
establish  uniformity.  To  the  Bohemian  reformer  is  also  due 
the  system  of  so-called  diacritic  marks — such  as  I,  A,  $ — which 
with  some  modifications  are  still  in  use.1  The  Latin  characters 
which  were  in  the  earliest  times,  as  again  at  the  present  day, 
used  when  writing  Czech,  are  quite  unable  to  reproduce  some 
sounds  peculiar  to  Slavic  languages.  This  was  remedied  by  the 
introduction  of  these  marks,  and  Hus's  system  of  orthography 
became  known  as  the  diacritic  one.  The  Bohemian  reformer, 

1  For  the  pronunciation  of  these  see  the  footnote  at  the  beginning 
of  the  article  BOHEMIA. 


zealous  for  the  purity  of  the  language  of  his  country,  often  in  his 
sermons  inveighed  quaintly  and  vehemently  against  those  who 
defiled  the  Czech  language  by  introducing  numerous  "  German- 
isms." A  century  later  the  Czech  language  was  largely  indebted 
to  the  then  recently  founded  community  of  the  Bohemian  (or 
as  they  were  also  often  called,  Moravian)  brethren.  A  member 
of  the  community,  Brother  John  Blakoslav,  wrote  in  1571  a 
Grammatika  Ceskd,  that  still  has  considerable  philological  interest. 
It  contains  a  full  account  of  the  construction  of  the  Czech 
language,  based  on  Latin  grammar,  with  which  the  writer  was 
thoroughly  acquainted.  Divines  belonging  to  the  same  com- 
munity also  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  published  at  Kralice 
in  Moravia  a  complete  Czech  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. Together  with  the  Labyrint  SvSta  (Labyrinth  of  the 
World)  of  Komensky  (Comenius),  who  was  also  a  member  of 
the  brotherhood,  it  can  be  considered  a  model  of  the  Czech 
language  in  the  period  immediately  preceding  its  downfall. 

The  Czechs  have  always  enthusiastically  upheld  the  language 
of  their  country.  In  ancient  Czech,  indeed,  the  same  word 
jazyk  denotes  both  "  nation  "  and  "  language."  As  late  as  in 
1608  a  decree  of  the  estates  of  Bohemia  declared  that  Czech  was 
the  only  official  and  recognized  state-language,  and  that  all  who 
wished  to  acquire  citizenship  in  the  country  should  be  obliged 
to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  it.  While  all  patriots  thus  supported 
the  national  language,  it  was  greatly  disliked  by  the  absolutists 
who  were  opposed  to  the  ancient  free  constitution  of  Bohemia, 
as  well  as  by  all  who  favoured  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  over- 
throw of  Bohemian  independence  at  the  battle  of  the  White 
Mountain  (1620)  was  therefore  shortly  followed  by  the  decline 
of  the  Czech  language.  All  Czech  writings  which  could  be  found 
were  destroyed  by  the  Austrian  authorities  as  being  tainted  with 
heresy,  while  no  new  books  written  in  Czech  appeared,  except 
occasional  prayer-books  and  almanacs.  For  these  scanty 
writings  the  German  so-called  "  Schwabach  "  characters  were 
used,  and  this  custom  only  ceased  in  the  middle  of  the  igth 
century.  The  Czech  language,  for  some  time  entirely  excluded 
from  the  schools,  all  but  ceased  to  be  written,  and  its  revival 
at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  was  almost  a  resurrection. 

The  first  originator  of  the  movement,  Joseph  Dobrovsk^  or 
Doubravsky  (1753-1829)  seems  himself,  at  least  at  the  beginning 
of  his  life,  to  have  considered  it  impossible  that  Czech  should 
again  become  a  widely-spoken  language,  and  one  whose  literature 
could  successfully  compete  with  that  of  larger  countries.  Yet 
it  was  the  works  of  this  "patriarch  of  Slavic  philology"  which 
first  drew  the  public  attention  to  the  half-forgotten  Czech 
language.  Dobrovsk^'s  work  was  afterwards  continued  by 
Kolar,  Jungmann,  Palacky,  Safafek,  and  many  others,  and  Czech 
literature  has,  both  as  regards  its  value  and  its  extension, 
reached  a  height  that  in  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  would 
have  appeared  incredible. 

Though  met  by  constant  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Austrian 
authorities,  the  Czechs  have  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the 
use  of  their  language  in  many  of  the  lower  and  middle  schools  of 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  the  foundation  of  a  Czech  university 
at  Prague  (1882-1884)  has  of  course  contributed  very  largely 
to  the  ever-increasing  expansion  of  the  Czech  language.  The 
national  language  has  at  all  times  appeared  to  the  Bohemians 
as  the  palladium  of  their  nationality  and  independence,  and  the 
movement  in  favour  of  the  revival  of  the  Czech  language 
necessarily  became  a  political  one,  as  soon  as  circumstances 
permitted.  The  friends  of  the  national  language  at  the  beginning 
of  the  igth  century  were  generally  known  as  the  vlastenci 
(patriots),  but  when  in  1848  representatives  of  many  parts  of 
Austria  met  at  Vienna,  the  deputies  of  Bohemia — with  the 
exception  of  the  Germans — formed  what  was  called  the  national 
or  Czech  party.  Parliamentary  government  did  not  at  that 
period  long  survive,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  1851  absolutism 
had  been  re-established.  In  1860  a  new  attempt  to  establish 
constitutional  government  in  Austria  was  made,  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Czech  party  appeared  at  the  provincial  diet 
of  Prague  and  the  central  parliament  at  Vienna.  The  Czech 
party  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  re-establishment  of  the  ancient 


724 


CZENSTOCHOWA— CZERNY 


Bohemian  constitution,  but,  allied  as  they  were  with  a  large 
part  of  the  Bohemian  nobility,  it  was  their  policy  to  maintain 
a  somewhat  conservative  attitude.  After  having  absented 
themselves  for  a  considerable  time  from  the  parliament  of 
Vienna,  the  legality  of  which  they  denied,  the  Czech  deputies 
reappeared  in  Vienna  in  1879,  and,  together  with  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Bohemian  nobility,  formed  there  what  was 
known  as  the  Cesky  Klub. 

While  the  Czechs  for  a  time  continued  united  at  Vienna,  a 
schism  among  them  had  some  time  previously  occurred  at 
Prague.  Dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  the  Czechs,  a  new  party 
had  been  formed  in  Bohemia  which  affected  more  advanced 
views  and  became  known  as  the  "  Young  Czech  "  party. '  The 
more  conservative  Czechs  were  henceforth  known  as  the  "  Old 
Czechs."  The  "  Young  Czechs,"  when  the  party  first  became 
independent  in  1872,  had  thirty-five  representatives  in  the  diet 
of  Prague,  but  at  the  elections  of  1874  their  number  was  reduced 
to  seven.  They  continued,  however,  to  gain  in  strength,  and 
obtained  for  a  long  time  a  large  majority  in  the  diet,  while  the 
Old  Czech  party  for  a  considerable  period  almost  disappeared. 
In  Vienna  also  the  Old  Czech  party  gradually  lost  ground.  Its 
leader  Dr  Rieger,  indeed,  obtained  for  the  Czechs  certain  con- 
cessions which,  underrated  at  the  time,  have  since  proved  by  no 
means  valueless.  The  decision  of  the  Old  Czech  party  to  take 
part  at  a  conference  in  Vienna  under  the  presidency  of  Count 
Taafe — then  Austrian  prime-minister — which  was  to  settle  the 
national  differences  in  Bohemia,  caused  its  complete  downfall. 
The  proposals  of  the  Vienna  conference  were  rejected  with 
indignation,  and  the  Old  Czechs,  having  become  very  unpopular, 
for  a  time  ceased  to  contest  the  elections  for  the  legislative 
assemblies  of  Prague  and  Vienna.  The  victorious  Young  Czechs, 
however,  soon  proved  themselves  very  unskilful  politicians. 
After  very  unsuccessfully  assuming  for  a  short  time  an  attitude 
of  intransigeant  opposition,  they  soon  became  subservient  to 
the  government  of  Vienna  to  an  extent  which  the  Old  Czechs 
had  never  ventured.  Dr  Kramaf,  in  particular,  as  leader  of 
the  Young  Czech  party,  supported  the  foreign  policy  of  Austria 
even  when  its  tendency  was  most  hostile  to  the  interests  of 
Bohemia.  The  Vienna  government  has,  in  recent  years,  as 
regards  internal  affairs,  also  adopted  a  policy  very  unfavourable 
to  the  Czech  race.  Even  the  continuance  of  some  of  the  con- 
cessions formerly  obtained  by  the  Old  Czechs  has  become  doubt- 
ful. At  the  elections  to  the  diet  of  Prague  which  took  place  in 
March  1908,  the  Young  Czechs  lost  many  seats  to  the  Old 
Czechs,  while  the  Agrarians,  Clericals  and  Radicals  were  also 
successful. 

See  J.  Dobrovsky,  Geschichte  der  bohmischen  Sprache  (1818),  and 
Lehrgebdude  der  bohmischen  Sprache  (1819);  J.  Blahoslav,  Gram- 
matika  Ceskd,  printed  from  MS.  (1867);  Lippert,  Social  Geschichte 
Bohmens  (1896);  Gebauer,  Slovnik  Starocesky  (Dictionary  of  the 
ancient  Czech  language,  1903);  I.  Herzer,  B ohmisch-deutsches 
Worterbuch  (Prague,  1901,  &c.) ;  Coufal  and  Zaba,  Slovnik  Ceskp- 
latinskf  a  Latinsko-lesky  (Prague,  1904,  &c.),  and  Historicka  Uluonice 
Jazyka  ceskeha  (Historical  grammar  of  the  Czech  language,  1904); 
Morfill,  Grammar  of  the  Bohemian  or  Cech  Language  (1899) ;  Bourlier, 
Les  Tcheques  (1897).  (L.) 

CZENSTOCHOWA,  or  CHENSTOKHOV,  a  town  of  Russian 
Poland,  in  the  government  of  Piotrkow,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Warta  (Warthe),  143  m.  S.W.  of  Warsaw,  on  the  railway  between 
that  city  and  Cracow.  Pop.  (1900)  53,650.  Here  is  a  celebrated 
monastery  crowning  the  steep  eminence  called  Yaznagora  or 
Klarenberg.  It  was  founded  by  King  Vladislaus  of  the  house  of 
Jagiello  and  was  at  one  time  fabulously  wealthy.  In  1430  it 
was  attacked  and  plundered  by  the  Hussites;  in  1655,  and  again 
in  1705,  it  bravely  resisted  the  Swedes;  but  in  1772  it  was  forced 
to  capitulate  to  the  Russians,  and  in  1793  to  the  Prussians. 
The  fortifications,  which  had  been  built  from  1500  onwards, 
were  razed  in  1813.  This  monastery,  which  is  occupied  by 
monks  of  the  order  of  Paul  the  Hermit,  contains  over  the  altar 
in  its  church  a  painted  image  of  the  Virgin,  traditionally  believed 
to  have  been  painted  by  St  Luke,  and  visited  annually  by 
throngs  (400,000)  of  pilgrims  from  all  over  Russia,  eastern 
Prussia  and  other  neighbouring  regions.  The  inhabitants  of 


the  town  manufacture  cotton,  cloth  and  paper,  and  do  a  lively 
business  in  rosaries,  images,  scapularies  and  so  forth. 

CZERNOWITZ  (Rum.  Cernautzi),  the  capital  of  the  Austrian 
duchy  of  Bukovina,  420  m.  E.  of  Vienna  and  164  m.  S.E.  of 
Lemberg  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  69,619.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  a  height  above  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Pruth, 
which  is  crossed  here  by  two  bridges,  of  which  one  is  a  railway 
bridge.  Czernowitz  is  a  clean,  pleasant  town  of  recent  date, 
and  is  the  seat  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  archbishop  or  metropolitan 
of  Bukovina.  The  principal  buildings  include  the  Greek 
Orthodox  cathedral,  finished  in  1864  after  the  model  of  the 
church  of  St  Isaac  at  St  Petersburg;  the  Armenian  church,  in 
a  mixed  Gothic  and  Renaissance  style,  consecrated  in  1875; 
a  handsome  new  Jesuit  church,  and  a  new  synagogue  in  Moorish 
style,  built  in  1877.  The  most  conspicuous  building  of  the  town 
is  the  Episcopal  palace,  in  Byzantine  style,  built  in  1864-1875, 
which  is  adorned  with  a  high  tower  and  possesses  a  magnificent 
reception  hall.  In  one  of  the  public  squares  stands  the  Austrian 
monument,  executed  by  Pekary  and  erected  in  1875  to  com- 
memorate the  centenary  of  Austria's  possession  of  Bukovina. 
It  consists  of  a  marble  statue  of  Austria  erected  on  a  pedestal 
of  green  Carpathian  sandstone.  The  Francis  Joseph  University, 
also  opened  in  1875,  had  50  lecturers  and  over  500  students  in 
1901.  The  language  of  instruction  is  German,  and  it  possesses 
three  faculties:  theology,  law  and  philosophy.  The  industry  is 
not  very  developed  and  consists  chiefly  in  corn-milling  and 
brewing.  An  active  trade  is  carried  on  in  agricultural  produce, 
wood,  wool,  cattle  and  spirits.  Czernowitz  has  a  mixed  popula- 
tion, which  consists  of  Germans,  Ruthenians,  Rumanians,  Poles, 
Jews,  Armenians  and  Gypsies.  The  town  presents,  therefore, 
a  cosmopolitan  and  on  market  days  a  very  varied  appearance, 
when  side  by  side  with  people  turned  out  in  the  latest  fashions 
from  Paris  or  Vienna,  we  meet  peasants  of  various  nationalities, 
attired  in  their  national  costume,  intermingled  with  very  scantily- 
clad  Gypsies. 

On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Pruth,  at  a  very  little  distance  to 
the  N.,  is  situated  the  town  of  Sadagora  (pop.  4512,  mostly  Jews), 
where  a  famous  cattle  fair  takes  place  every  year. 

Czernowitz  was  at  the  time  of  the  Austrian  occupation  (1775) 
an  unimportant  village.  It  was  created  a  town  in  1 786,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  I9th  century  it  numbered  only  5000  inhabitants. 

CZERNY,  KARL  (1791-1857),  Austrian  pianist  and  composer, 
was  born  at  Vienna  on  the  2ist  of  February  1791.  His  father, 
who  was  a  teacher  of  the  piano,  trained  him  for  that  instrument 
from  an  early  age  with  such  success  that  he  performed  in  public 
at  the  age  of  nine,  and  commenced  his  own  career  as  a  teacher 
at  fourteen.  He  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  Beethoven, 
and  was  his  pupil  in  the  sense  in  which  the  great  master  had 
pupils.  It  is  perhaps  his  greatest  claim  to  distinction  as  a 
performer  that  he  was  selected  to  be  the  first  to  play  Beethoven's 
celebrated  Emperor  concerto  in  public.  He  soon  became  the 
most  popular  teacher  of  his  instrument  in  a  capital  which 
abounded  in  pianists  of  the  first  rank.  Among  his  pupils  he 
numbered  Liszt,  Theodor  Dohler  (1814-1843)  and  many  others 
who  afterwards  became  famous.  As  a  composer  he  was  prolific 
to  an  astonishing  degree,  considering  the  other  demands  on  his 
time.  His  works,  which  included  every  class  of  composition, 
numbered  849  at  the  time  of  his  death.  Comparatively  few  of 
them  possess  high  merit,  and  none  is  the  production  of  genius. 
He  had  considerable  skill  in  devising  variations  for  the  piano 
of  the  display  type,  and  in  this  and  other  ways  helped  to  develop 
the  executive  power  which  in  the  modern  school  of  pianoforte 
playing  seems  to  have  reached  the  limits  of  the  possible.  His 
various  books  of  exercises,  elementary  and  advanced,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  the  Etudes  de  la  velocite,  have  probably  had 
a  wider  circulation  than  any  other  works  of  their  class.  To 
the  theory  of  music  he  contributed  a  translation  of  Reicha's 
TraitS  de  composition,  and  a  work  entitled  Umriss  der  ganzen 
Musikgeschichte.  Czerny  died  on  the  isth  of  July  1857  at 
Vienna.  Having  no  family,  he  left  his  fortune,  which  was 
considerable,  to  the  Vienna  Conservatorium  and  various  bene- 
volent institutions. 


D— DACCA 


725 


DThe  fourth  letter  in  the  English  alphabet  occupies  the 
same  position  in  the  Latin,  Greek  and  Phoenician 
alphabets,  which  represent  the  preceding  stages  in  its 
history.  The  Phoenician  name  Daleth  is  represented 
by  the  Greek  Delta.  In  form  D  has  varied  throughout  its  career 
comparatively  little.  In  the  earliest  Phoenician  it  is  <3  with 
slight  variations;  in  most  Greek  dialects  A  which  has  been 
adopted  as  the  Greek  literary  form,  but  in  others  as  e.g.  the 
earliest  Attic  £>  or  <\ .  The  form  with  the  rounded  back,  which 
has  passed  from  Latin  into  the  languages  of  western  Europe, 
was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  of  S.W.  Italy,  but  is  widely 
spread  also  amongst  the  peoples  of  the  Peloponnese  and  of 
northern  Greece.  It  arises  from  a  form  like  C>  when  the  sides 
which  meet  to  the  right  are  written  or  engraved  at  one  stroke. 
From  a  very  early  period  one  side  of  the  triangle  was  often 
prolonged,  thus  producing  a  form  ^  which  is  characteristic  of 
Aramaic  from  800  B.C.  In  Greek  this  was  avoided  because  of 
the  likelihood  of  its  confusion  with  9,  the  oldest  form  of  the 
symbol  for  r,  but  in  the  alphabets  of  Italy — which  were  borrowed 
from  Etruscan — this  confusion  actually  takes  place.  Etruscan 
had  no  sound  corresponding  to  the  symbol  D  (in  inscriptions 
written  from  right  to  left,  Q  ),  and  hence  used  it  as  a  by-form 
for  Q,  the  symbol  for  r.  The  Oscans  and  Umbrians  took  it  over 
in  this  value,  but  having  the  sound  d  they  used  for  it  the  symbol 
for  r  (9  in  Umbrian,  fj  in  Oscan). 

The  sound  which  D  represents  is  the  voiced  dental  correspond- 
ing to  the  unvoiced  t.  The  English  d,  however,  is  not  a  true 
dental,  but  is  really  pronounced  by  placing  the  tongue  against 
the  sockets  of  the  teeth,  not  the  teeth  themselves.  It  thus 
differs  from  the  d  of  French  and  German,  and  in  phonetic  ter- 
minology is  called  an  alveolar.  In  the  languages  of  India  where 
both  true  dentals  and  alveolars  are  found,  the  English  d  is 
represented  by  the  alveolar  symbol  (transliterated  d).  Etymo- 
logically  in  genuine  English  words  d  represents  in  most  cases 
dh  of  the  original  Indo-European  language,  but  in  some  cases 
an  original  /.  In  many  languages  d  develops  an  aspirate  after  it, 
and  this  dh  becomes  then  a  voiced  spirant  (5),  the  initial  sound 
of  there  and  that.  This  has  occurred  widely  in  Semitic,  and  is 
found  also  in  languages  like  modern  Greek,  where  d,  except  after 
v,  is  always  spirant,  5iv  (  =  not)  being  pronounced  like  English 
then.  As  the  mouth  position  for  /  differs  from  that  for  d  only  by 
the  breath  being  allowed  to  escape  past  one  or  both  sides  of 
the  tongue,  confusion  has  arisen  in  many  languages  between 
d  and  /,  the  best-known  being  cases  like  the  Latin  lacrima  as 
compared  with  the  Greek  5a.K-pv.  The  English  tear  and  the 
forms  of  other  languages  show  that  d  and  not  /  is  the  more 
original  sound.  Between  vowels  in  the  ancient  Umbrian  d 
passed  into  a  sound  which  was  transliterated  in  the  Latin 
alphabet  by  rs;  this  was  probably  a  sibilant  r,  like  the  Bohemian 
f.  In  many  languages  it  is  unvoiced  at  the  end  of  words,  thus 
becoming  almost  or  altogether  identical  with  t.  As  an  abbrevia- 
tion it  is  used  in  Latin  for  the  praenomen  Decimus,  and  under 
the  empire  for  the  title  Divus  of  certain  deceased  emperors. 
As  a  Roman  numeral  (=500)  it  is  only  the  half  of  the  old  symbol 
(D  (  =  1000);  this  was  itself  the  old  form  of  the  Greek  <£,  which 
was  useless  in  Latin  as  that  language  had  no  sound  identical 
with  the  Greek  </>.  (P.  Gi.) 

DACCA,  a  city  of  British  India,  giving  its  name  to  a  district 
and  division  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  It  was  made  the 
capital  of  that  province  on  its  creation  in  October  1905.  The 
city  is  254  m.  N.E.  by  E.  of  Calcutta,  on  an  old  channel  of  the 
Ganges.  Railway  station,  10  m.  from  the  terminus  of  the  river 
steamers  at  Narayanganj.  The  area  is  about  8  sq.  m.  The 
population  in  1901  was  90,542.  The  ruins  of  the  English  factory, 
St  Thomas's  church,  and  the  houses  of  the  European  residents 
lie  along  the  river  banks.  Of  the  old  fort  erected  by  Islam 
Khan,  who  in  1608  was  appointed  nawab  of  Bengal,  and  removed 


his  capital  from  Rajmahal  to  Dacca,  no  vestige  remains;  but 
the  jail  is  built  on  a  portion  of  its  site.  The  principal  Mahom- 
medan  public  buildings,  erected  by  subsequent  governors  and 
now  in  ruins,  are  the  Katra  and  the  Lal-bagh  palace — the 
former  built  by  Sultan  Mahommed  Shuja  in  1645,  in  front  of  the 
chauk  or  market  place.  Its  extensive  front  faced  the  river, 
and  had  a  lofty  central  gateway,  flanked  by  smaller  entrances, 
and  by  two  octagonal  towers  rising  to  some  height  above  the 
body  of  the  building.  The  Lal-bagh  palace  was  commenced  by 
Azam  Shah,  the  third  son  of  the  emperor  Aurangzeb.  It  origin- 
ally stood  close  to  the  Buriganga  river;  but  the  channel  has 
shifted  its  course,  and  there  is  now  an  intervening  space  covered 
with  trees  between  it  and  the  river.  The  walls  on  the  western 
side,  and  the  terrace  and  battlement  towards  the  river,  are  of  a 
considerable  height,  and  present  a  commanding  aspect  from  the 
water.  These  outworks,  with  a  few  gateways,  the  audience  hall 
and  the  baths,  were  the  only  parts  of  the  building  that  survived 
in  1840.  Since  then  their  dilapidation  has  rapidly  advanced; 
but  even  in  ruin  they  show  the  extensive  and  magnificent  scale 
on  which  this  princely  residence  was  originally  designed.  It 
appears  never  to  have  been  completed;  and  when  Jean  Baptiste 
Ta vernier  visited  Dacca  (c.  1666),  the  nawab  was  residing  in  a 
temporary  wooden  building  in  its  court.  The  English  factory 
was  built  about  that  year.  The  central  part  of  the  old  factory 
continued  to  be  used  as  a  court-house  till  the  igth  century,  but 
owing  to  its  ruinous  state  it  was  pulled  down  in  1829  or  1830; 
in  1840  the  only  portion  that  remained  was  the  outward  wall. 
The  French  and  Dutch  factories  were  taken  possession  of  by 
the  English  in  the  years  1778  and  1781  respectively.  In  the 
mutiny  of  1857  two  companies  of  the  73rd  Native  Infantry 
which  were  stationed  in  the  town  joined  in  the  revolt,  but  were 
overpowered  by  a  small  European  force  and  dispersed.  The 
city  still  shows  some  signs  of  its  former  magnificence.  The 
famous  manufacture  of  fine  muslins  is  almost  extinct,  but  the 
carving  of  shells,  carried  on  from  ancient  times,  is  an  important 
i  ndustry  in  the  city.  There  are  a  Government  college,  a  collegiate 
school  and  an  unaided  Hindu  college.  There  is  a  large  settlement 
of  mixed  Portuguese  descent,  known  as  Feringhis.  Many  of  the 
public  buildings,  including  the  college,  suffered  severely  from  the 
earthquake  of  the  I2th  of  June  1897;  and  great  damage  was 
done  by  tornadoes  in  April  of  1888  and  1902. 

The  district  of  Dacca  comprises  an  area  of  2782  sq.  m.  In 
1901  the  population  was  2,649,522,  showing  an  increase  of  11% 
in  the  decade.  The  district  consists  of  a  vast  level  plain,  divided 
into  two  sections  .by  the  Dhaleswari  river.  The  northern  part, 
again  intersected  by  the  Lakshmia  river,  contains  the  city  of 
Dacca,  and  as  a  rule  lies  well  above  flood-level. 

Dacca  is  watered  by  a  network  of  rivers  and  streams,  ten  of 
which  are  navigable  throughout  the  year  by  native  cargo  boats 
of  four  tons  burthen.  Among  them  are  the  Meghna,  the  Ganges 
or  Padma,  the  Lakshmia,  a  branch  of  the  Brahmaputra,  the 
Jamuna,  or  main  stream  of  the  Brahmaputra,  the  Mendi-Khali, 
a  large  branch  of  the  Meghna,  the  Dhaleswari,  an  offshoot  of  the 
Jamuna,  the  Ghazi-khali  and  the  Buriganga.  The  soil  is  com- 
posed of  red  ferruginous  kankar,  with  a  stratum  of  clay  in  the 
more  elevated  parts,  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  vegetable  mould, 
or  by  recent  alluvial  deposits.  The  scenery  along  the  Lakshmia 
is  very  beautiful,  the  banks  being  high  and  wooded.  About  20  m. 
north  of  Dacca  city,  small  ridges  are  met  with  in  the  Madhupur 
jungle,  stretching  into  Mymensingh  district.  These  hills,  how- 
ever, are  mere  mounds  of  from  20  to  40  ft.  high,  composed  of 
red  soil  containing  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron  ore;  and  the 
whole  tract  is  for  the  most  part  unproductive.  Towards  the 
city  the  red  soil  is  intersected  by  creeks  and  morasses,  whose 
margins  yield  crops  of  rice,  mustard  and  til  seed;  while  to  the 
east  of  the  town,  a  broad,  alluvial,  well-cultivated  plain  reaches 
as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  Dhaleswari  and  Lakshmia  rivers. 
The  country  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Dhaleswari  is  the  most 


DACE— DACIA 


fertile  part  of  the  district.  It  consists  entirely  of  rich  alluvial 
soil,  annually  inundated  to  a  depth  varying  from  2  to  14  ft.  of 
water.  The  villages  are  built  on  artificial  mounds  of  earth,  so 
as  to  raise  them  above  the  flood-level. 

The  wild  animals  found  in  the  district  comprise  a  few  tigers, 
leopards  and  wild  elephants,  deer,  wild  pig,  porcupines,  jackals, 
foxes,  hares,  otters,  &c.  The  green  monkey  is  very  common; 
porpoises  abound  in  the  large  rivers.  The  manufactures  consist 
of  weaving,  embroidery,  gold  and  silver  work,  shell-carving  and 
pottery.  The  weaving  industry  and  the  manufacture  of  fine 
Dacca  muslins  have  greatly  fallen  off,  owing  to  the  competition 
of  European  piece  goods.  Forty  different  kinds  of  cloth  were 
formerly  manufactured  in  this  district,  the  bulk  of  which  during 
many  years  was  made  from  English  twist,  country  thread  being 
used  only  for  the  finest  muslins.  It  is  said  that,  in  the  time  of 
the  emperor  Jahangir,  a  piece  of  muslin,  15  ft.  by  3,  could  be 
manufactured,  weighing  only  900  grains,  its  value  being  £40. 
In  1840  the  finest  cloth  that  could  be  made  of  the  above  dimen- 
sions weighed  about  1600  grains,  and  was  worth  £10.  Since  then 
the  manufacture  has  still  further  decayed,  and  the  finer  kinds  are 
not  now  made  at  all  except  to  order.  The  district  is  traversed 
by  a  line  of  the  Eastern  Bengal  railway,  but  most  of  the  traffic 
is  still  conducted  by  water.  It  is  a  centre  of  the  jute  trade. 

The  division  of  Dacca  occupies  the  delta  of  the  Brahmaputra, 
where  it  joins  the  main  stream  of  the  Ganges.  It  consists  of  the 
four  districts  of  Dacca,  Mymensingh,  Faridpur  and  Backergunge. 
Its  area  is  15,837  sq.  m.  Its  population  in  1901  was  10,793,988. 

DACE,  DARE,  or  DART  (Leuciscus  vulgaris,  or  L.  dobula),  a 
freshwater  fish  belonging  to  the  family  Cyprinidae.  It  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  rivers  and  streams  of  Europe  north  of  the 
Alps,  but  it  is  most  abundant  in  those  of  France  and  Germany. 
It  prefers  clear  streams  flowing  over  a  gravelly  bottom,  and 
deep,  still  water,  keeping  close  to  the  bottom  in  winter  but 
disporting  itself  near  the  surface  in  the  sunshine  of  summer. 
It  is  preyed  upon  by  the  larger  predaceous  fishes  of  fresh  waters, 
and  owing  to  its  silvery  appearance  is  a  favourite  bait  in  pike- 
fishing.  The  dace  is  a  lively,  active  fish,  of  gregarious  habits, 
and  exceedingly  prolific,  depositing  its  eggs  in  May  and  June 
at  the  roots  of  aquatic  plants  or  in  the  gravelly  beds  of  the 
streams  it  frequents.  Its  flesh  is  wholesome,  but  is  not  held  in 
much  estimation.  In  appearance  it  closely  resembles  the  roach, 
usually  attaining  a  length  of  8  or  9  in.,  with  the  head  and  back 
of  a  dusky  blue  colour  and  the  sides  of  a  shining  silvery  aspect, 
with  numerous  dark  lines  running  along  the  course  of  the  scales. 
The  ventral  and  anal  fins  are  white,  tinged  with  pale  red;  and 
the  dorsal,  pectoral  and  caudal  tipped  with  black.  The  dace 
feeds  on  worms,  insects,  insect-larvae,  and  also  on  vegetable 
matter.  It  is  abundant  in  many  of  the  streams  of  the  south  of 
England,  but  is  unknown  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  America 
the  name  of  dace  is  also  applied  to  members  of  other  genera  of 
the  family;  the  "  horned  dace  "  (Semnotilus  atromaculatus)  is  a 
well-known  variety. 

DACH,  SIMON  (1605-1659),  German  lyrical  poet,  was  born 
at  Memel  in  East  Prussia  on  the  2gth  of  July  1605.  Although 
brought  up  in  humble  circumstances,  he  received  a  careful 
education  in  the  classical  schools  of  Konigsberg,  Wittenberg 
and  Magdeburg,  and  entered  the  university  of  Konigsberg  in 
1626  as  a  student  of  theology  and  philosophy.  After  taking  his 
degree,  he  was  appointed  in  1633  Kollaborator  (teacher)  and  in 
1636  co-rector  of  the  Domschule  (cathedral  school)  in  that  city. 
In  1639  he  received  the  chair  of  poetry  at  the  university  of 
Konigsberg,  which  he  occupied  until  his  death  on  the  isth  of 
April  1659.  In  Konigsberg  he  entered  into  close  relations  with 
Heinrich  Albert  (1604-1651),  Robert  Roberthin  (1600-1648) 
and  Sibylla  Schwarz  (1621-1638),  and  with  them  formed  the 
so-called  Konigsberger  Dictergruppe.  He  sang  the  praises  of  the 
house  of  the  electors  of  Brandenburg  in  a  collection  of  poems 
entitled  Kurbrandenburgische  Rose,  Adler,  Lowe  und  Scepter 
(1661),  and  also  produced  many  occasional  poems,  several  of 
which  became  popular;  the  most  famous  of  them  is  Anke  von 
Tharaw  oss,  de  my  gejollt  (rendered  by  Herder  into  modern 
German  as  Annchen  von  Tharau),  composed  in  1637  in  honour 


of  the  marriage  of  a  friend.  Among  his  hymns,  many  of  which 
are  of  great  beauty,  are  the  following:  Ich  binja,  Herr,  in  deiner 
Macht,  Ich  bin  bei  Gott  in  Gnaden  durch  Christi  Blut  und  Tod, 
and  O,  tne  selig  seid  ihr  boch,  ihr  Frommen. 

Editions  of  Dach's  poems  have  been  published  by  W.  Miiller 
(1823),  by  H.  Osterley  (for  the  Stuttgart  Literarischer  Verein,  1876) ; 
also  selections  by  the  same  editor  (1876),  and  in  Kiirschner's 
Deutsche  Nationalliteratur  (1883).  See  especially  the  introductions 
to  Osterley's  editions;  also  H.  Stiehler,  Simon  Dock,  sein  Leben 
und  seine  ausgewahlte  Dichtungen  (1896). 

DACIA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  land  of  the  Daci,  a  large 
district  of  central  Europe,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Carpathians, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Danube,  on  the  W.  by  the  Pathissus  (Theiss), 
on  the  E.  by  the  Tyras  (Dniester) ,  thus  corresponding  in  the  main 
to  the  modern  Rumania  and  Transylvania.  Towards  the  west 
it  may  originally  have  extended  as  far  as  the  Danube  where  it 
runs  from  north  to  south  at  Waitzen  (Vacz),  while  on  the  other 
hand  Ptolemy  puts  its  eastern  boundary  as  far  back  as  the 
Hierasus  (Sereth).  The  inhabitants  of  this  district  were  a 
Thracian  stock,  originally  called  ASoi,  a  name  which  after 
the  4th  century  B.C.  gave  place  to  Acucoi.  Of  the  other 
Thracian  tribes  the  Getae  (q.v.)  were  most  akin  to  them  in 
language  and  manners;  by  the  Greeks  the  Dacians  were  usually 
called  Getae,  by  the  Romans  Daci.  Aoos  and  Tera  (Davus, 
Geta)  were  common  as  names  of  slaves  in  Attic  comedy  and  in 
the  adaptations  of  Plautus  and  Terence. 

The  Dacians  had  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  civilization 
when  they  first  became  known  to  the  Romans.  They  believed 
in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  regarded  death  as  merely 
a  change  of  country  (/ierouafecrflai.).  Their  chief  priest  held 
a  prominent  position  as  the  representative  of  the  deity  upon 
earth;  he  was  the  king's  chief  adviser  and  his  decisions  were 
accepted  as  final.  They  were  divided,  into  two  classes — an 
aristocracy  and  a  proletariate.  The  first  alone  had  the  right  to 
cover  their  heads  and  wore  a  felt  hat  (hence  tarabostesei  = 
iri\o<t>6poi,  pileati);  they  formed  a  privileged  class,  and  were 
the  predecessors  of  the  Rumanian  boyars.  The  second  class, 
who  comprised  the  rank  and  file  of  the  army,  the  peasants  and 
artisans,  wore  their  hair  long  ((cop?Tai,  capillati).  They  dwelt 
in  wooden  huts  surrounded  by  palisades,  but  in  later  times, 
aided  by  Roman  architects,  built  walled  strongholds  and  conical 
stone  towers.  Their  chief  occupations  were  agriculture  and 
cattle  breeding;  horses  were  mainly  used  as  draught  animals. 
They  also  worked  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Transylvania, 
and  carried  on  a  considerable  outside  trade,  as  is  shown  by  the 
number  of  foreign  coins  found  in  the  country. 

A  kingdom  of  Dacia  was  in  existence  at  least  as  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.  under  a  king  Oroles.  Conflicts 
with  the  Bastarnae  and  the  Romans  (112-109,  74),  against 
whom  they  had  assisted  the  Scordisci  and  Dardani,  had  greatly 
weakened  the  resources  of  the  Dacians.  Under  Burbista  (Boere- 
bista),  a  contemporary  of  Caesar,  who  thoroughly  reorganized 
the  army  and  raised  the  moral  standard  of  the  people,  the  limits 
of  the  kingdom  were  extended;  the  Bastarnae  and  Boii  were 
conquered,  and  even  Greek  towns  (Olbia,  Apollonia)  on  the 
Euxine  fell  into  his  hands.  Indeed  the  Dacians  appeared  so 
formidable  that  Caesar  contemplated  an  expedition  against 
them,  which  was  prevented  by  his  death.  About  the  same 
time  Burbista  was  murdered,  and  the  kingdom  was  divided  into 
four  (or  five)  parts  under  separate  rulers.  One  of  these  was 
Cotiso,  whose  daughter  Augustus  is  said  to  have  desired  to  marry 
and  to  whom  he  betrothed  his  own  five-year-old  daughter  Julia. 
He  is  well  known  from  the  line  in  Horace  ("  Occidit  Daci  Coti- 
sonis  agmen,"  Odes,  iii.  8.  18),  which,  as  the  ode  was  written 
on  the  ist  of  March  29,  probably  refers  to  the  campaign  of  Marcus 
Crassus  (30-28),  not  to  that  of  Cornelius  Lentulus,  who  was  not 
consul  till  1 8.  The  Dacians  are  often  mentioned  under  Augustus, 
according  to  whom  they  were  compelled  to  recognize  the  Roman 
supremacy.  But  they  were  by  no  means  subdued,  and  in  later 
times  seized  every  opportunity  of  crossing  the  frozen  Danube 
and  ravaging  the  province  of  Moesia.  From  A.D.  85  to  89  the 
Dacians  were  engaged  in  two  wars  with  the  Romans,  under  Duras 
or  Diurpaneus,  and  the  great  Decebalus,  who  ruled  from  86-87 


DACIER 


to  107.  After  two  severe  reverses,  the  Romans,  under  Tettiu 
Julianus,  gained  a  signal  advantage,  but  were  obliged  to  mak 
peace  owing  to  the  defeat  of  Domitian  by  the  Marcomanni 
Decebalus  restored  the  arms  he  had  taken  and  some  of  th< 
prisoners  and  received  the  crown  from  Domitian's  hands 
an  apparent  acknowledgment  of  Roman  suzerainty.  But  thi 
Dacians  were  really  left  independent,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  tha 
Domitian  agreed  to  purchase  immunity  from  further  Dacian  in 
roads  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute. 

To  put  an  end  to  this  disgraceful  arrangement,  Trajan  resolvet 
to  crush  the  Dacians  once  and  for  all.     The  result  of  his  first 
•campaign  (101-102)  was  the  occupation  of  the  Dacian  capita 
Sarmizegethusa  (Varhely)  and  the  surrounding  country;  of  the 
second  (105-107),  the  suicide  of  Decebalus,  the   conquest   o: 
the  whole  kingdom  and  its  conversion  into  a  Roman  province 
The  history  of  the  war  is  given  in  Dio  Cassius,  but  the  best 
commentary  upon  it  is  the  famous  column  of  Trajan.    According 
to  Marquardt,  the  boundaries  of  the  province  were  the  Tibiscus 
(Temes)  on  the  W.,  the  Carpathians  on  the  N.,  the  Tyras  on  the 
E.,  and  the  Danube  on  the  S.,  but  Brandis  (in  Pauly-Wissowa's 
Realencydopadie)    maintains    that   it   did   not   extend   farther 
eastwards   than   the   river  Olt   (Aluta) — the   country   beyond 
belonging  to  lower  Moesia — and  not  so  far  as  the  Theiss  west- 
wards, being  thus  limited  to  Transylvania  and  Little  Walachia. 
It  was  under  a  governor  of  praetorian  rank,  and  the  legio  xiii. 
gemina  with  numerous  auxiliaries  had  their  fixed  quarters  in 
the  province.     To  make  up  for  the  ravages  caused  by  the  recent 
wars  colonists  were  imported  to  cultivate  the  land  and  work 
the  mines,  and  the  old  inhabitants  gradually  returned.     Forts 
were  built  as  a  protection  against  the  incursions  of  the  surround- 
ing barbarians,  and  three  great  military  roads  were  constructed 
to  unite  the  chief  towns,  while  a  fourth,  named  after  Trajan, 
traversed  the  Carpathians  and  entered  Transylvania  by  the 
Roteturm  pass.     The   two  chief   towns  were   Sarmizegethusa 
(afterwards  Ulpia  Trajana)  and  Apulum  (Karlsburg).     With  the 
religion  the  Dacians  also  adopted  the  language  of  the  conquerors, 
and  modern  Rumanian  is  full  of  Latin  words  easily  recognizable. 
In  129,  under  Hadrian,  Dacia  was  divided  into  Dacia  Superior 
and  Inferior,  the  former  comprising  Transylvania,  the  latter 
Little  Walachia,  with  procurators,  probably  both  under  the 
same  praetorian  legate  (according  to  Brandis,  the  procurator 
of   Dacia  inferior  was  independent,  but  see  A.   Domaszewski 
in   Rheinisches  Museum,   xlviii.,   1893).     Marcus  Aurelius   re- 
divided  it  into  three  (tres  Daciae) :  Porolissensis,  from  the  chief 
town  Porolissum  (near  Mojrad),  Apulensis  from  Apulum  and 
Maluensis  (site  unknown).     The  Ires  Daciae  formed  a  commune 
in  so  far  that  they  had  a  common  capital,  Sarmizegethusa,  and 
a  common  diet,  which  discussed  provincial  affairs,  formulated 
complaints  and  adjusted   the   incidence  of   taxation;   but   in 
other  respects  they  were    practically   independent  provinces, 
each  under  an  ordinary  procurator,  subordinate  to  a  governor 
of  consular  rank. 

The  Roman  hold  on  the  country  was,  however,  still  pre- 
carious. Indeed  it  is  said  that  Hadrian,  conscious  of  the  difficulty 
of  retaining  it,  had  contemplated  its  abandonment  and  was 
only  deterred  by  consideration  for  the  safety  of  the  numerous 
Roman  settlers.  Under  Gallienus  (256),  the  Goths  crossed  the 
Carpathians  and  drove  the  Romans  from  Dacia,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  fortified  places  between  the  Temes  and  the  Danube. 
No  details  of  the  event  are  recorded,  and  the  chief  argument 
in  support  of  the  statement  in  Ruf(i)us  Festus  that  "  under  the 
Emperor  Gallienus  Dacia  was  lost  "  is  the  sudden  cessation  of 
Roman  inscriptions  and  coins  in  the  country  after  256.  Aurelian 
(270-275)  withdrew  the  troops  altogether  and  settled  the  Roman 
colonists  on  the  south  of  the  Danube,  in  Moesia,  where  he  created 
the  province  Dacia  Aureliani.  This  was  subsequently  divided 
into  Dacia  Ripensis  on  the  Danube,  with  capital  Ratiaria  (Arcar 
in  Bosnia),  and  Dacia  Mediterranea,  with  capital  Sardica  (Sofia, 
the  capital  of  Bulgaria),  the  latter  again  being  subdivided  into 
Dardania  and  Dacia  Mediterranea. 

See  J.  D.  F.  Neigebaur,  Dacien  aus  den  Uberresten  des  klassischen 
Alterthums  (Kronstadt,  1851) ;  C.  Gooss,  Studien  zur  Geographie  und 
Oeschichte  des  trajanischen  Daciens  (Hermannstadt,  1874)-  E  R 


727 


Rosier,  Dacier  und  Romanen  (Vienna,  1866),  and  Romanische  Studien 
(Leipzig,  1871);  J.  Jung,  Romer  und  Romanen  in  den  Donauldndern 
(Innsbruck,  1877),  Die  romanischen  Landschaften  des  romischen 
Ketches  (1881;,  and  Fasten  der  Provinz  Dacien  (1894);  W.  Toma- 
schek,  Die  alten  Thraker,"  in  Sitzungsberichte  der  k.  Akad.  der 
Wissenschaften,  cxxviii.  (Vienna,  1893);  J.  Marquardt,  Romische 
Staatsverwallung,  i.  (1881),  p.  308;  T.  Mommsen  in  Corpus  Inscrip- 
twnum  Lahnarum,  iii.  160,  and  Provinces  of  Roman  Empire 
(Eng.  trans.,  1886) ;  C.  G.  Brandis  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclo- 
padte,  iv.|Pt.  2  (1901) ;  W.  Miller,  The  Balkans  in  "  The  Story  of  the 
Nations,  vol.  44;  on  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  province  of 
IJacia,  see  1.  Hodgkin  and  F.  Haverfield  in  English  Historical 
Review,  11.  100,  734.  (See  also  VLACHS.) 

DACIER,  ANDR6  (1651-1722),  French  classical  scholar,  was 
born  at  Castres  in  upper  Languedoc,  on  the  6th  of  April  1651. 
His'  father,  a  Protestant  advocate,  sent  him  first  to  the  academy 
of  Puy  Laurens,  and  afterwards  to  Saumur  to  study  under 
Tanneguy  Lefevre.  On  the  death  of  Lefevre  in  1672,  Dacier  re- 
moved to  Paris,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Delphin  series  of  the  classics.  In  1683  he  married  Anne  Lefevre, 
the  daughter  of  his  old  tutor  (see  below).  In  1695  he  was  elected 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  also  of  the  French 
Academy;  not  long  after,  as  payment  for  his  share  in  the 
"medallic"  history  of  the  king's  reign,  he  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  library  of  the  Louvre.  He  died  two  years  after  his  wife, 
on  the  1 8th  of  September  1722.  The  most  important  of  his 
works  were  his  editions  of  Pompeius  Festus  and  Verrius  Flaccus, 
and  his  translations  of  Horace  (with  notes),  Aristotle's  Poetics, 
the  Electro,  and  Oedipus  Coloneus  of  Sophocles,  Epictetus, 
Hippocrates  and  Plutarch's  Lives. 

His  wife,  ANNE  LEFEVRE  (1654-1720),  French  scholar  and 
translator  from  the  classics,  was  born  at  Saumur,  probably  in 
March  1654.     On  her  father's  death  in  1672  she  removed  to 
Paris,  carrying  with  her  part  of  an  edition  of  Callimachus, 
which  she  afterwards  published.     This  was  so  well  received  that 
she  was  engaged  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Delphin  series  of 
classical  authors,  in  which  she  edited  Florus,  Dictys  Cretensis, 
Aurelius  Victor  and  Eutropius.     In  1681  appeared  her  prose 
version  of  Anacreon  and  Sappho,  and  in  the  next  few  years  she 
Dublished  prose  versions  of  Terence  and  some  of  the  plays  of 
Plautus   and   Aristophanes.     In    1684    she   and   her   husband 
retired  to  Castres,  with  the  object  of  devoting  themselves  to 
theological  studies.     In  1685  the  result  was  announced  in  the 
conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism  of  both  M.  and  Mme  Dacier, 
who  were  rewarded  with  a  pension  by  the  king.     In  1699  appeared 
the  prose  translation  of  the  Iliad  (followed  nine  years  later  by  a 
similar  translation  of  the  Odyssey),  which  gained  for  her  the 
)osition  she  occupies  in  French  literature.     The  appearance  of 
this  version,  which  made  Homer  known  for  the  first  time  to 
many  French  men  of  letters,  and  among  others  to  A.  Houdart 
le  la  Motte,  gave  rise  to  a  famous  literary  controversy.     In  1714 
a  Motte  published  a  poetical  version  of  the  Iliad,  abridged  and 
altered  to  suit  his  own  taste,  together  with  a  Discours  sur  Homere, 
tating  the  reasons  why  Homer  failed  to  satisfy  his  critical  taste. 
Mme  Dacier  replied  in  the  same  year  in  her  work,  Des  causes  ie 
a  corruption  du  gout.     La  Motte  carried  on  the  discussion  with 
ight  gaiety  and  badinage,  and  had  the  happiness  of  seeing  his 
Tiews   supported  by  the  abbe  Jean  Terrasson,  who  in   1715 
iroduced  two  volumes  entitled  Dissertation  critique  sur  riliade. 
n  which  he  maintained  that  science  and  philosophy,  and  especi- 
lly  the  science  and  philosophy  of  Descartes,  had  so  developed 
he  human  mind  that  the  poets  of  the  i8th  century  were  im- 
measurably superior  to  those  of  ancient  Greece.     In  the  same 
ear  Pere  C.  Buffier  published  Homere  en  arbitrage,  in  which  he 
oncluded  that  both  parties  were  really  agreed  on  the  essential 
oint — that  Homer  was  one  of  the  greatest  geniuses  the  world 
had  seen,  and  that,  as  a  whole,  no  other  poem  could  be  preferred 
to  his;  and,  soon  after  (on  the  sth  of  April  1716),  in  the  house 
of  M.  de  Valincourt,  Mme  Dacier  and  la  Motte  met  at  supper, 
and  drank  together  to  the  health  of  Homer.     Nothing  of  import- 
ance marks  the  rest  of  Mme  Dacier's  life.     She  died  at  the 
Louvre,  on  the  i7th  of  August  1720. 

See  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi,  vol.  ix. ;  J.  F.  Rodin 
Recherches  historiques  sur  la  ville  de  Saumur  (1812-1814)-  P  J 
Burette,  Eloge  de  Mme  Dacier  (1721);  Memoires  de  Mme  de  Stael 


728 


DACITE— DAFYDD  AB  GWILYM 


(1755);  E.  Egger,  L'Hellenisme  en  France,  ii.  (1869);  Memoires 
de  Saint-Simon,  iii. ;  R.  Rigault,  Histoire  de  la  querelle  des  anciens 
et  des  modernes  (1856). 

DACITE  (from  Dacia,  mod.  Transylvania),  in  petrology,  vol- 
canic rocks  which  may  be  considered  a  quartz-bearing  variety 
of  andesite.  Like  the  latter  they  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
plagioclase  felspar  with  biotite,  hornblende,  augite  or  enstatite, 
and  have  generally  a  porphyritic  structure,  but  they  contain  also 
quartz  as  rounded,  corroded  phenocrysts,  or  as  an  element  of 
the  ground-mass.  Their  felspar  ranges  from  oligoclase  to 
andesite  and  labradorite,  and  is  often  very  zonal;  sanidine 
occurs  also  in  some  dacites,  and  when  abundant  gives  rise  to 
rocks  which  form  transitions  to  the  rhyolites.  The  biotite  is 
brown;  the  hornblende  brown  or  greenish  brown;  the  augite 
usually  green.  The  ground-mass  of  these  rocks  is  often  micro- 
crystalline,  with  a  web  of  minute  felspars  mixed  with  interstitial 
grains  of  quartz;  but  in  many  dacites  it  is  largely  vitreous, 
while  in  others  it  is  felsitic  or  cryptocrystalline.  In  the  hand 
specimen  many  of  the  hornblende  and  biotite  dacites  are  grey 
or  pale  brown  and  yellow  rocks  with  white  felspars,  and  black 
crystals  of  biotite  and  hornblende.  Other  dacites,  especially 
augite-  and  enstatite-dacites,  are  darker  coloured.  The  rocks 
of  this  group  occur  in  Hungary,  Almeria  (Spain),  Argyllshire 
•  and  other  parts  of  Scotland,  New  Zealand,  the  Andes,  Martinique, 
Nevada  and  other  districts  of  western  North  America,  Greece, 
&c.  They  are  mostly  associated  with  andesites  and  trachytes, 
and  form  lava  flows,  dikes,  and  in  some  cases  massive  intrusions 
in  the  centres  of  old  volcanoes.  Among  continental  petro- 
graphers  the  older  dacites  (Carboniferous,  &c.)  are  often  known 
as  "  porphyrites."  (J.  S.  F.) 

DACOIT,  a  term  used  in  India  for  a  robber  belonging  to  an 
armed  gang.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Hindustani  dakait, 
and  being  current  in  Bengal  got  into  the  Indian  penal  code. 
By  law,  to  constitute  dacoity,  there  must  be  five  or  more  in  the 
gang  committing  the  crime.  In  the  time  of  the  Thugs  (q.v.)  a 
special  police  department  was  created  in  India  to  deal  with 
thuggy  and  dacoity  (thagi  and  dakaiti),  which  exists  down  to  the 
present  day.  In  Burma  also  the  word  dacoit  came  to  be  applied 
in  a  special  sense  to  the  armed  gangs,  which  maintained  a  state 
of  guerilla  warfare  for  several  years  after  the  defeat  of  the  king 
and  his  army.  (See  BURMESE  WARS.) 

DA  COSTA,  ISAAK  (1798-1860),  Dutch  poet  and  theologian, 
was  born  at  Amsterdam  on  the  i4th  of  January  1798.  His 
father  was  a  Jew  of  Portuguese  descent,  and  claimed  kindred 
with  the  celebrated  Uriel  D'Acosta.  An  early  acquaintance 
with  Bilderdijk  had  a  strong  influence  over  the  boy  both  in 
poetry  and  in  theology.  He  studied  at  Amsterdam,  and  after- 
wards at  Leiden,  where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  law  in 
1818,  and  in  literature  in  1821.  In  1814  he  wrote  De  Verlossing 
van  Nederland,  a  patriotic  poem,  which  placed  him  in  line  with 
the  contemporary  national  romantic  poets  in  Germany  and  in 
France.  His  Poezy  (2  vols.,  1821-1822)  revealed  his  emancipa- 
tion from  the  Bilderdijk  tradition,  and  the  oriental  colouring  of 
his  poems,  his  hymn  to  Lamartine,  and  his  translation  of  part  of 
Byron's  Cain,  establish  his  claim  to  be  considered  as  the  earliest 
of  the  Dutch  romantic  poets.  In  1822  he  became  a  convert  to 
Christianity,  and  immediately  afterwards  asserted  himself  as  a 
champion  of  orthodoxy  and  an  assailant  of  latitudinarianism  in 
his  Bezwaren  tegen  den  Geest  der  Eeuw  (1823).  He  took  a  lively 
interest  in  missions  to  the  Jews,  and  towards  the  close  of  his 
life  was  a  director  of  the  seminary  established  in  Amsterdam  in 
connexion  with  the  mission  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  He 
died  at  Amsterdam  on  the  28th  of  April  1860.  Da  Costa  ranked 
first  among  the  poets  of  Holland  after  the  death  of  Bilderdijk. 
His  principal  poetical  works  were:  Alphonsus  I.  (1818),  a 
tragedy;  Poezy  (Leiden,  1821);  God  melons  (1826);  Festliedern 
(1828);  Vijf-en-twintig  jaren  (1840);  Hagar  (1852);  De  Slag 
bij  Nieupoort  (1857).  He  also  translated  The  Persians  (1816) 
and  the  Prometheus  (1818)  of  Aeschylus,  and  edited  the  poetical 
works  of  Bilderdijk  in  sixteen  volumes,  the  last  volume  being  an 
account  of  the  poet.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  theologi- 
cal works,  chiefly  in  connexion  with  the  criticism  of  the  gospels. 


His  complete  poetical  works  were  edited  by  J.  P.  Hasebroek 
(3  vols.,  Haarlem,  1861-1862).  See  G.  Groen  van  Prinsterer,  Brieven 
van  Mr  I.  da  Costa,  1830-1849  (1872),  and  J.  ten.  Brink,  Geschie- 
denis  der  "Noord-Nederlandsche  Letteren  in  de  XIX'  Eeuw  (vol.  \., 

88),  which  contains  a  complete  bibliography  of  his  works. 

DACTYL  (from  Gr.  Sd/cruXos,  a  finger),  in  prosody,  a  long 
syllable  followed  by  two  short(see  VERSE). 

DAEDALUS,  a  mythical  Greek  architect  and  sculptor,  who 
figures  largely  in  the  early  legends  of  Crete  and  of  Athens.  He 
was  said  to  have  built  the  labyrinth  for  Minos,  to  have  made 
a  wooden  cow  for  Pasiphae  and  to  have  fashioned  a  bronze 
man  who  repelled  the  Argonauts.  Falling  under  the  displeasure 
of  Minos,  he  fashioned  wings  for  himself  and  his  son  Icarus,  and 
escaped  to  Sicily.  These  legends  seem  primarily  to  belong  to 
Crete;  and  the  Athenian  element  in  them  which  connected 
Daedalus  with  the  royal  house  of  Erechtheus  is  a  later  fabrica- 
tion. To  Daedalus  the  Greeks  of  the  historic  age  were  in  the 
habit  of  attributing  buildings,  and  statues  the  origin  of  which 
was  lost  in  the  past,  and  which  had  no  inscription  belonging  to 
them.  In  a  later  verse  in  the  Iliad  (date,  7th  or  6th  century), 
Daedalus  is  mentioned  as  the  maker  of  a  dancing-place  for 
Ariadne  in  Crete;  and  such  a  dancing-place  has  been  discovered 
by  A.  J.  Evans,  in  the  Minoan  palace  of  Cnossus.  Diodorus 
Siculus  says  that  he  executed  various  works  in  Sicily  for  King 
Cocalus.  In  many  cities  of  Greece  there  were  rude  wooden 
statues,  said  to  be  by  him.  Later  critics,  judging  from  their 
own  notions  of  the  natural  course  of  development  in  art, 
ascribed  to  Daedalus  such  improvements  as  separating  the  legs 
of  statues  and  opening  their  eyes.  In  fact  the  name  Daedalus  is 
a  mere  symbol,  standing  for  a  particular  phase  of  early  Greek 
art,  when  wood  was  the  chief  material,  and  other  substances 
were  let  into  it  for  variety. 

This  Daedalus  must  not  be  confused  with  Daedalus  of  Sicyon, 
a  great  sculptor  of  the  early  part  of  the  4th  century  B.C.,  none  of 
whose  works  is  extant.  (P.  G.) 

DAFFODIL,  the  common  name  of  a  group  of  plants  of  the 
genus  Narcissus,  and  natural  order  Amaryllidaceae.  (See  generally 
under  NARCISSUS.)  The  common  daffodil,  N.  Pseudo-narcissus, 
is  common  in  woods  and  thickets  in  most  parts  of  the  N.  of 
Europe,  but  is  rare  in  Scotland.  Its  leaves  are  five  or  six  in 
number,  are  about  a  foot  in  length  and  an  inch  in  breadth,  and 
have  a  blunt  keel  and  flat  edges.  The  stem  is  about  18  in.  long, 
and  the  spathe  single-flowered.  The  flowers  are  large,  yellow, 
scented  and  a  little  drooping,  with  a  corolla  deeply  cleft  into 
six  lobes,  and  a  central  bell-shaped  nectary,  which  is  crisped  at 
the  margin.  They  appear  early  in  the  year,  or,  as  Shakespeare 
says,  "  come  before  the  swallow  dares,  and  take  the  winds  of 
March  with  beauty."  The  stamens  are  shorter  than  the  cup, 
the  anthers  oblong  and  converging;  the  ovary  is  globose,  and 
has  three  furrows;  the  seeds  are  roundish  and  black.  Many 
new  varieties  of  the  flower  have  recently  been  cultivated  in 
gardens.  The  bulbs  are  large  and  orbicular,  and  have  a  blackish 
coat;  they,  as  well  as  the  flowers,  are  reputed  to  be  emetic  in 
properties.  The  Peruvian  daffodil  and  the  sea  daffodil  are 
species  of  the  genus  Ismene.  (For  derivation  see  ASPHODEL.) 

DAFYDD  AB  GWILYM  (c.  1340-*;.  1400),  son  of  Gwilym  Gam 
and  Ardudful  Fychan,  greatest  of  the  medieval  Welsh  poets, 
was  born  at  Bro  Gynin,  Cardiganshire,  about  the  year  1340. 
Educated  by  a  scholarly  uncle,  Llewelyn  ab  Gwilym  Fychan 
of  Emlyn,  he  became  steward  to  his  kinsman,  Ivor  Hael  of 
Maesaleg,  Monmouthshire,  who  also  appointed  him  instructor 
to  his  daughter.  The  latter  arrangement  leading  to  an  attach- 
ment between  tutor  and  pupil,  the  girl  was  banished  to  a  convent 
in  Anglesey,  whither  the  poet  followed  her,  taking  service  in  an 
adjacent  monastery,  but  on  returning  to  Maesaleg  he  was  per- 
mitted to  retain  his  stewardship.  He  was  elected  chief  bard 
of  Glamorgan  and  became  household  bard  to  Ivor  Hael.  At 
Rhosyr  in  North  Wales  he  met  Morfudd  Lawgam,  to  whom  he 
addressed  147  amatory  odes.  In  consequence  of  attempting 
to  elope  with  this  lady,  Dafydd  ab  Gwilym,  being  unable  to  pay 
the  fine  demanded  by  her  husband,  was  imprisoned.  Liberated 
by  the  goodwill  of  his  friends,  he  went  back  to  Maesaleg,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  patron,  retired  to  his  birthplace,  Bro  Gynin. 


DAGGER— DAGHEST  AN 


729 


Tradition  states  that  he  was  a  man  of  noble  appearance,  and 
his  poems  bear  evidence  of  high  mental  culture.  He  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  works  of  Homer,  Virgil,  Ovid  and  Horace, 
and  was  also  a  student  of  Italian  literature.  Especially  remark- 
able as  a  poet  of  nature  in  an  age  when  more  warlike  taemes 
were  chosen  by  his  contemporaries,  his  poems  entitled  "  The 
Lark,"  "The  Wind"  and  "The  Mist"  are  amongst  his  finest 
efforts.  He  has  been  called  the  Petrarch,  the  Ovid,  and  (by 
George  Borrow)  the  Horace  of  Wales,  His  poems  were  almost 
all  written  in  the  cywydd  form:  a  short  ode  not  divided  into 
stanzas,  each  line  having  the  same  number  of  syllables.  The 
poet  died  about  the  year  1400,  and  according  to  tradition  was 
buried  in  the  graveyard  of  the  monastery  of  Strata  Florida,  in 
Cardiganshire. 

See  also  under  CELT;  Celtic  Literature,  iv.  Welsh. 

DAGGER,  a  hand  weapon  with  a  short  blade.  The  derivation 
is  obscure  (cf.  Fr.  dague  and  Ger.  Degen),  but  the  word  is  related 
to  dag,  a  long  pointed  jag  such  as  would  be  made  in  deeply  nicking 
the  edge  of  a  garment.  The  war  knife  in  various  forms  and  under 
many  names  has  of  course  been  in  use  in  all  ages  and  amongst 
all  races.  But  the  dagger  as  generally  understood  was  not  a 
short  sword,  but  a  special  stabbing  weapon  which  could  be  used 
along  with  the  sword.  The  distinction  is  often  difficult  to  estab- 
lish in  a  given  case  owing  to  the  variations  in  the  length  of  the 
weapon.  The  principal  medieval  dagger  was  the  misericorde, 
which  from  the  end  of  the  i2th  century  was  used,  in  all  countries 
in  which  chivalry  flourished,  to  penetrate  the  joints  of  the 
armour  of  an  unhorsed  adversary  (hence  Ger.  Panzerbrecher , 
armour-breaker).  It  was  so  called  either  because  the  threat 
of  it  caused  the  vanquished  to  surrender  "  at  mercy,"  or  from 
its  use  in  giving  what  was  called  the  coup  de  grdce.  From  about 
1330  till  the  end  of  the  succeeding  century,  in  many  knightly 
effigies  it  is  often  represented  as  attached  on  the  right  side  by 
a  cord  or  a  chain  to  the  sword-belt.  This  weapon  and  its  sheath 
were  often  elaborately  adorned.  It  was  customary  to  secure 
it  from  accidental  loss  by  a  guard-chain  fastened  to  the  breast- 
armour.  Occasionally  the  misericorde  was  fixed  to  the  body- 
armour  by  a  staple;  or,  more  rarely,  it  was  connected  with  a 
gypdere  or  pouch.  The  misericorde  may  be  called  a  poniard. 
The  distinction  between  the  dagger  and  the  poniard  is  arbitrary, 
and  in  ordinary  language  the  latter  is  taken  as  being  the  shorter 
and  as  having  less  resemblance  to  a  short  sword  or  cutlass.  A 
weapon,  with  a  longer  blade  than  the  misericorde,  was  habitually 
worn  by  civilians,  including  judges,  during  the  middle  ages; 
such  weapons  bore  the  name  of  anlace  (from  annulus,  as  it  was 
fastened  by  a  ring),  basilarde  or  langue  de  bceuf,  the  last  from 
the  broad  ox-tongue  shape  of  the  blade.  This  had  often  a  small 
knife  fixed  on  the  scabbard,  like  a  Highland  officer's  dirk  of  the 
present  day.  By  nobles  and  knights  the  dagger  or  poniard 
was  worn  when  they  had  exchanged  their  armour  for  the  costume 
of  peace.  It  is  recorded  besides  that  when  they  appeared  at 
a  tournament  and  on  some  other  occasions,  ladies  at  that  time 
wore  daggers  depending,  with  their  gypcieres,  from  their  girdles. 
Thus,  writing  of  the  year  1348,  Knighton  speaks  of  certain  ladies 
who  were  present  at  jousts  as  "  habentes  cultellos,  quos  daggerios 
vulgariter  dicunt,  in  powchiis  desuper  impositis."  A  longer  and 
heavier  dagger  with  a  broad  blade  (Italian)  is  called  cinquedea. 
The  Scottish  "  dirk  "  was  a  long  dagger,  and  survives  in  name 
in  the  dirk  worn  by  midshipmen  of  the  royal  navy,  and  in  fact 
in  that  worn  by  officers  of  Highland  regiments.  In  the  isth 
and  1 6th  centuries  the  infantry  soldiers  (Swiss  or  lands knecht) 
carried  a  heavy  poniard  or  dagger.  This  and  the  earlier  Spanish 
dagger  with  a  thumb-ring  were  distinctively  the  weapons  of 
professional  soldiers.  The  rise  of  duelling  produced  another 
type,  called  the  main  gauche,  which  was  a  parrying  weapon 
and  often  had  a  toothed  edge  on  which  the  adversary's  sword  was 
caught  and  broken.  One  form  of  this  dagger  had  a  blade  which 
expanded  into  a  triple  fork  on  pressing  a  spring;  this  served 
the  same  purpose.  The  satellites  of  the  Vehmgericht  had  a 
similar  weapon,  in  order,  it  is  suggested,  that  their  acts  should 
be  done  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  The  smaller  poniards  are 
generally  called  "  stilettos."  Much  ingenuity  and  skill  have  been 


lavished  on  the  adornment  of  daggers,  and  in  rendering  the 
blades  more  capable  of  inflicting  severe  wounds.  Daggers  also 
were  sometimes  made  to  poison  as  well  as  to  wound.  Of  oriental 
daggers  may  be  mentioned  the  Malay  "  crease  "  or  "  kris,"  which 
has  a  long  waxed  blade;  the  Gurkha  "  kukri,"  a  short  curved 
knife,  broadest  and  heaviest  towards  the  point;  and  the  Hindu 
"  khuttar,"  which  has  a  flat  triangular-shaped  blade,  and  a  hilt 
of  H-shape,  the  cross-bar  forming  the  grip  and  the  sides  the  guard. 
DAGHESTAN,  a  province  of  Russia,  Transcaucasia,  occupying 
the  triangular  space  between  the  Andi  ridge,  the  south-east 
division  of  the  main  Caucasus  range,  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  It 
has  the  province  of  Terek  on  the  N.W.,  the  government  of  Tiflis 
on  the  S.W.,  and  that  of  Baku  on  the  S.E.  With  the  exception 
of  a  narrow  strip  along  the  sea-coast  and  a  small  district  in  the 
N.,  it  is  entirely  mountainous.  Area,  11,332  sq.  m.  The  snow- 
clad  Andi  ridge,  belonging  to  the  system  of  transverse  upheavals 
which  cross  the  Caucasus,  branches  off  the  latter  at  Borbalo 
Peak  (10,175  ft.),  and  reaches  its  highest  altitudes  in  Tebulos- 
mta  (i4,77S  ft.)  and  Diklos-mta  (13,740  ft.).  It  is  encircled  on 
the  N.  by  a  lower  outer  ridge,  the  Karadagh,  through  which  the 
rivers  cut  their  way.  This  ridge  is  thickly  clothed  with  forests, 
chiefly  beech.  The  Boz-dagh  and  another  ridge  run  between 
the  four  Koisu  rivers,  the  head-streams  of  the  Sulak,  which  flows 
into  the  Caspian.  The  next  most  important  stream,  out  of  the 
great  number  which  course  down  the  flanks  of  the  Caucasus  and 
terminate  in  the  Caspian,  is  the  Samur.  The  most  notable  feature 
of  the  province  is,  however,  according  to  O.  W.  H.  Abich  (Sur  la 
structure  et  la  geologic  du  Daghestan,  1862),  the  successive  folds 
of  Jurassic  limestones  and  slates,  all  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Caucasus,  which  form  lofty,  narrow  plateaus.  Many  of  the 
peaks  upon  them  rise  higher  than  12,000  ft.,  and  the  passes  lie 
at  altitudes  of  11,000  ft.  in  the  interior  and  9000  ft.  towards 
the  Caspian.  Towards  the  Caspian,  especially  between  Petrovsk 
and  the  river  Sulak,  the  Cretaceous  system  is  well  represented, 
and  upon  its  rocks  rest  marls,  shales,  and  sandstones  of  the 
Eocene  period.  The  country  is  altogether  difficult  of  access, 
and  only  one  military  route  leads  up  from  the  river  Terek,  while 
every  one  of  the  eleven  passes  known  across  the  Caucasus  is  a 
mere  bridle-path.  The  climate  is  severe  on  the  plateaus,  hot 
towards  the  Caspian,  and  dry  everywhere.  The  average  tem- 
peratures are— year  51°,  January  26°,  July  73°  at  Temir-khan- 
shura  (42°  49'  N.;  alt.  1510  ft.).  The  annual  rainfall  varies 
from  17  to  21  in.  The  population,  estimated  at  605,100  in  1906, 
numbered  587,326  in  1897,  of  whom  only  5000  were  Russians. 
They  consist  chiefly  of  mountaineers  known  as  Lesghians  (i.e. 
158,550  Avars,  121,375  Darghis,  94,506  Kurins),  a  race  closely 
akin  to  the  Circassians,  intermingled  towards  the  Caspian  Sea 
with  Tatars  and  Georgians.  There  are  also  sprinklings  of  Jews 
and  Persians.  The  highlands  of  Daghestan  were  for  many  years 
the  stronghold  of  the  Circassians  in  their  struggle  against  Russia, 
especially  under  the  leadership  of  Shamyl,  whose  last  stand  was 
made  on  the  steep  mountain  fastness  of  Gunib,  74  m.  S.  of  Temir- 
khan-shura,  in  1859.  The  difficulty  of  communication  between 
the  valleys  has  resulted  in  the  growth  of  a  great  number  of 
dialects.  Avarian  is  a  sort  of  inter-tribal  tongue,  while  Lakh  or 
Kazi-kumukh,  Kurin,  Darghi-kaitakh,  Andi,  and  Tabasaran  are 
some  of  the  more  important  dialects,  each  subdivided  into  sub- 
dialects.  The  mountaineers  breed  some  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
cultivate  small  fields  on  the  mountain-sides.  In  the  littoral 
districts  excellent  crops  of  cereals,  cotton,  fruit,  wine  and  tobacco 
are  obtained  with  the  aid  of  irrigation.  Silkworms  are  bred. 
The  mountaineers  excel  also  in  a  variety  of  petty  trades.  Sulphur, 
salt  and  copper  are  the  most  important  of  the  minerals.  A  rail- 
way line  to  connect  the  North  Caucasian  line  (Rostov  to  Petrovsk) 
with  the  Transcaucasian  line  (Batum  to  Baku)  has  been  built 
along  the  Caspian  shore  from  Petrovsk,  through  the  "  gate  "  or 
pass  of  Derbent,  to  Baku.  The  province  is  divided  into  nine 
districts — Temir-khan-shura,  Avar,  Andi,  Gunib,  Dargo,  Kazi- 
kumukh,  Kaitago-Tabasaran,  Kurin,  and  Samur.  The  only 
towns  are  Temir-khan-shura  (pop.  9208  in  1897),  the  capital  of 
the  government,  Derbent  (14,821)  and  Petrovsk  (9806),  the  last 
two  both  on  the  Caspian. 


730 


DAGO— DAGUERRE 


See  G.  Radde,  "  Aus  den  Daghestanischen  Hochalpen,"  in  Peter- 
manns  Mitteilungen,  Erganzungsheft,  No.  85,  1887,  and,  with  E. 
Konig,  "  Der  Nordfuss  des  Daghestan,"  i'n  Petermanns  Mitteil., 
Erganzungsheft,  No.  117,  1895.  (P.  A.  K.;  J.  T.  BE.) 

DAGO,  a  name  given  somewhat  contemptuously  to  Spanish, 
Portuguese  and  Italian  sailors,  as  "  Dutchman  "  is  similarly 
applied  to  Germans  and  Scandinavians  as  well  as  to  natives  of 
Holland.  In  America  the  word  is  generally  confined  to  the 
poorer  class  of  Italian  immigrants.  In  the  South  Wales  mining 
districts  the  casual  labourers,  who  are  only  engaged  when  work 
is  plentiful,  are  so  called.  The  word  is  apparently  a  corruption 
of  the  common  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Christian  name  "  Diego." 
DAGOBERT  I.  (d.  639),  king  of  the  Franks,  was  the  son  of 
Clotaire  II.  In  623  his  father  established  him  as  king  of  the 
region  east  of  the  Ardennes,  and  in  626  revived  for  him  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  minus  Aquitaine  and  Provence. 
As  Dagobert  was  yet  but  a  child,  he  was  placed  under  the 
authority  of  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  Pippin,  and  Arnulf, 
bishop  of  Metz.  At  the  death  of  Clotaire  II.  in  629,  Dagobert 
wished  to  re-establish  unity  in  the  Prankish  realm,  and  in  629 
and  630  made  expeditions  into  Neustria  and  Burgundy,  where 
he  succeeded  in  securing  the  recognition  of  his  authority.  In 
Aquitaine  he  gave  his  brother  Charibert  the  administration  of 
the  counties  of  Toulouse,  Cahors,  Agen,  Perigueux,  and  Saintes; 
but  at  Charibert's  death  in  632  Dagobert  became  sole  ruler  of  the 
whole  of  the  Prankish  territories  south  of  the  Loire.  Under  him 
the  Merovingian  monarchy  attained  its  culminating  point.  He 
restored  to  the  royal  domain  the  lands  that  had  been  usurped  by 
the  great  nobles  and  by  the  church;  he  maintained  at  Paris  a 
luxurious,  though,  from  the  example  he  himself  set,  a  disorderly 
court;  he  was  a  patron  of  the  arts,  and  delighted  in  the  exquisite 
craftsmanship  of  his  treasurer,  the  goldsmith  St  Eloi.  His 
authority  was  recognized  through  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
realm.  The  duke  of  the  Basques  came  to  his  court  to  swear 
fidelity,  and  at  his  villa  at  Clichy  the  chief  of  the  Bretons  of 
Domnone  promised  obedience.  He  intervened  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Visigoths  of  Spain  and  the  Lombards  of  Italy,  and  was  heard 
with  deference.  Indeed,  as  a  sovereign,  Dagobert  was  reckoned 
superior  to  the  other  barbarian  kings.  He  entered  into  relations 
with  the  eastern  empire,  and  swore  a  "  perpetual  peace  "  with  the 
emperor  Heraclius;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  two  sovereigns 
took  common  measures  against  the  Slav  and  Bulgarian  tribes, 
which  ravaged  in  turn  the  Byzantine  state  and  the  German 
territories  subject  to  the  Franks.  Dagobert  protected  the 
church  and  placed  illustrious  prelates  at  the  head  of  the  bishoprics 
— Eloi  (Eligius)  at  Noyon,  Ouen  (Audoenus)  at  Rouen,  and 
Didier  (Desiderius)  at  Cahors.  His  reign  is  also  marked  by  the 
creation  of  numerous  monasteries  and  by  renewed  missionary 
activity  in  Flanders  and  among  the  Basques.  He  died  on  the 
i9th  of  January  639,  and  was  buried  at  St  Denis.  After  his  death 
the  Frankish  monarchy  was  again  divided.  In  634  he  had  been 
obliged  to  give  the  Austrasians  a  special  king  in  the  person  of 
his  eldest  son  Sigebert,  and  at  the  birth  of  a  second  son,  Clovis, 
in  635,  the  Neustrians  had  immediately  claimed  him  as  king. 
Thus  the  unification  of  the  realm,  which  Dagobert  had  re- 
established with  so  much  pains,  was  annulled. 

See  the  Chronicon  of  Fredegarius;  "  Gesta  Dagoberti  I.  regis  Fran- 
corum  "  in  Mon.  Germ,  hist.  Script,  rer.  Meroving.  vol.  ii.  edited  by 
B.  Krusch;  I.  H.  Albers,  Konig  Dagobert  in  Gesch.,  Legends,  und 
Sage  (2nd  ed.,  Kaiserslautern,  1884);  E.  Vacandard,  Vie  de  Saint 
Ouen,  eveque  de  Rouen  (Paris,  1901) ;  and  H.  E.  Bonnell,  Die  Anfange 
des  karoling.  Hauses  (Berlin,  1866).  (C.  Pp.) 

DAGON,  a  god  of  the  Philistines  who  had  temples  at  Ashdod 
(i  Sam.  v.  i),  and  Gaza  (Judg.  xvi.  21,  23);  the  former  was 
destroyed  by  Jonathan,  the  brother  of  Judas  the  Maccabee 
(i  Mace.  x.  84;  148  B.C.).  But  Dagon  was  more  than  a  mere 
local  deity;  there  was  a  place  called  Beth-Dagon  in  Judah 
(Josh.  xv.  41),  another  on  the  borders  of  Asher  (ib.  xix.  27),  and 
a  third  underlies  the  modern  Bet  Dejan,  south-east  of  Nablus. 
Dagon  was  in  all  probability  an  old  Canaanite  deity;  it  appears 
in  the  name  of  the  Canaanite  Dagantakala  as  early  as  the  i5th 
century,  and  is  possibly  to  be  identified  with  the  Babylonian  god 
Dagan.  Little  is  known  of  his  cult  (Judg.  xvi.  23  seq.),  although 
as  the  male  counterpart  of  Ashtoreth  (see  ASTARTE)  his  worship 


would  scarcely  differ  from  that  of  the  Baalim  (see  BAAL).  The 
name  Dagon  seems  to  come  from  dag  "  fish,"  and  that  his  idol 
was  half-man  half-fish  is  possible  from  the  ichthyomorphic 
representations  found  upon  coins  of  Ascalon  and  Arvad,  and 
from  the  fact  that  Berossus  speaks  of  an  Assyrian  merman-god. 

The  true  meaning  Of  the  name  is  doubtful.  In  i  Sam.  v.  4,  Thenius 
and  Wellhausen,  followed  by  Robertson  Smith  and  others,  read 
"  only  his  fish-part  (dago)  was  left  to  him  ";  against  this,  see  the 
comm.  of  H.  P.  Smith  and  Budde.  The  identification  of  Dagon 
with  the  Babylonian  Dagan  is  doubted  by  G.  F.  Moore  (Encyc.  Bib., 
col.  985),  and  that  of  the  latter  with  Odacon  and  Ea-Oannes  is 
questionable.  Philo  Byblius  (Miiller,  Fr.  Hist.  Grace,  iii.  567  seq.) 
makes  Dagon  the  inventor  of  corn  and  the  plough,  whence  he  was 
called  Zeus  'Aporpios.  This  points  to  a  natural  though  possibly  late 
etymology  from  the  Hebrew  and  Phoenician  dagan  "  corn."  It  is 
not  improbable  that,  at  least  in  later  times,  Dagon  had  in  place  of,  or 
in  addition  to,  his  old  character,  that  of  the  god  who  presided  over 
agriculture;  for  in  the  last  days  of  paganism,  as  we  learn  from 
Marcus  Diaconus  in  the  Life  of  Porphyry  of  Gaza  (§  19),  the  great 
god  of  Gaza,  now  known  as  Marna  (our  Lord),  was  regarded  as  the 
god  of  rains  and  invoked  against  famine.  That  Marna  was  lineally 
descended  from  Dagon  is  probable  in  every  way,  and  it  is  therefore 
interesting  to  note  that  he  gave  oracles,  that  he  had  a  circular  temple, 
where  he  was  sometimes  worshipped  by  human  sacrifices,  that  there 
were  wells  in  the  sacred  circuit,  and  that  there  was  also  a  place 
of  adoration  to  him  situated,  as  was  usual,  outside  the  town. 
Certain  "  marmora  "  in  the  temple,  which  might  not  be  approached, 
especially  by  women,  may  perhaps  be  connected  with  the  threshold 
which  the  priests  of  Dagon  would  not  touch  with  their  feet  (i  Sam. 
v.  5,  Zeph.  i.  9).  See  further,  the  comm.  on  the  Old  Testament 
passages,  Moore  (loc.  cit.),  and  Lagrangtf,  Relig.  semit.  p.  131  seq. 

DAGUERRE,  LOUIS  JACQUES  MANDlS  (1789-1851),  French 
painter  and  physicist,  inventor  of  the  daguerreotype,  was  born  at 
Cormeilles,  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  and  died  on  the 
I2th  of  July  1851  at  Petit-Brie-sur-Marne,  near  Paris.  He  was 
at  first  occupied  as  an  inland  revenue  officer,  but  soon  took  to 
scene-painting  for  the  opera.  He  assisted  Pierre  Prevost  (1764- 
1823)  in  the  execution  of  panoramic  views  of  Rome,  Naples, 
London,  Jerusalem,  and  Athens,  and  subsequently  (July  n, 
1822),  in  conjunction  with  Bouton,  he  opened  at  Paris  the 
Diorama  (Sis,  double;  opajua,  view),  an  exhibition  of  pictorial 
views,  the  effect  of  which  was  heightened  by  changes  in  the  light 
thrown  upon  them.  An  establishment  similar  to  that  at  Paris 
was  opened  by  Daguerre  in  Regent's  Park,  London.  On  the  3rd 
of  March  1839  the  Diorama,  together  with  the  work  on  which 
Daguerre  was  then  engaged,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  This  reverse 
of  fortune  was  soon,  however,  more  than  compensated  for  by 
the  distinction  he  achieved  as  the  inventor  of  the  daguerreotype 
photographic  process.  J.  Nicephore  Niepce,  who  since  1814 
had  been  seeking  a  means  of  obtaining  permanent  pictures  by 
the  action  of  sunlight,  learned  in  1826  that  Daguerre  was  similarly 
occupied.  In  1829  he  communicated  to  Daguerre  particulars  of 
his  method  of  fixing  the  images  produced  in  the  camera  lucida  by 
making  use  of  metallic  plates  coated  with  a  composition  of 
asphalt  and  oil  of  lavender;  this,  where  acted  on  by  the  light, 
remained  undissolved  when  the  plate  was  plunged  into  a  mixture 
of  petroleum  and  oil  of  lavender,  and  the  development  of  the 
image  was  effected  by  the  action  of  acids  and  other  chemical 
reagents  on  the  exposed  surface  of  the  plate.  The  two  investi- 
gators laboured  together  in  the  production  of  their  "  heliographic 
pictures  "  from  1829  until  the  death  of  Niepce  in  1833.  Daguerre, 
continuing  his  experiments,  discovered  eventually  the  process 
connected  with  his  name.  This,  as  he  described  it,  consists  of 
five  operations: — the  polishing  of  the  silver  plate;  the  coating  of 
the  plate  with  iodide  of  silver  by  submitting  it  for  about  20 
minutes  to  the  action  of  iodine  vapour;  the  projection  of  the 
image  of  the  object  upon  the  golden-coloured  iodized  surface; 
the  development  of  the  latent  image  by  means  of  the  vapour  of 
mercury;  and,  lastly,  the  fixing  of  the  picture  by  immersing 
the  plate  in  a  solution  of  sodium  "  hyposulphite  "  (sodium 
thiosulphate).  On  the  9th  of  January  1839,  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Arago  dwelt  on  the  importance  of  the 
discovery  of  the  daguerreotype;  and,  in  consequence  of  the 
representations  made  by  him  and  Gay  Lussac  to  the  French 
government,  Daguerre  was  on  the  isth  of  June  appointed  an 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  On  the  same  day  a  bill  was 
presented  to  the  chambers,  according  to  the  provisions  of  which 


DAGUPAN— DAHLGREN,  J.  A. 


Daguerre  and  the  heir  of  Niepce  were  to  receive  annuities  of 
6000  and  4000  francs  respectively,  on  the  condition  that  their 
process  should  be  made  known  to  the  Academy.  The  bill  having 
been  approved  at  the  meetings  of  the  two  chambers  on  the  gth 
of  July  and  on  the  2nd  of  August,  Daguerre's  process,  together 
with  his  system  of  transparent  and  opaque  painting,  was  pub- 
lished by  the  government,  and  soon  became  generally  known 
(see  PHOTOGRAPHY). 

Daguerre's  Historique  et  description  des  precedes  du  daguerreotype 
et  du  diorama  (Paris,  1839)  passed  through  several  editions,  and 
was  translated  into  English.  Besides  this  he  wrote  an  octavo  work, 
entitled  Nouveau  moyen  de  preparer  la  couche  sensible  des  plagues 
destinees  a  recevoir  les  images  photographigues  (Paris,  1844). 

DAGUPAN,  a  town  and  the  most  important  commercial  centre 
of  the  province  of  Pangasinan,  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Agno  river  near  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of 
Lingayen,  1 20  m.  by  rail  N.N.W.  of  Manila.  Pop.  (1903),  20,357. 
It  is  served  by  the  Manila  &  Dagupan  railway.  Dagupan  has  a 
healthy  climate.  It  is  the  chief  point  of  exportation  for  a  very 
rich  province,  which  produces  sugar,  indigo,  Indian  corn,  copra, 
and  especially  rice.  There  are  several  rice  mills  here.  Salt  is  an 
important  export,  being  manufactured  in  salt  water  swamps  and 
marshes  throughout  the  province  of  Pangasinan  (whose  name, 
from  asin,  "  salt,"  means  "  the  place  where  salt  is  produced  "). 
In  these  marshes  grows  the  nipa  palm,  from  which  a  liquor  is 
distilled — there  are  a  number  of  small  distilleries  here.  Dagupan 
has  a  small  shipyard  in  which  sailing  vessels  and  steam  launches 
are  constructed.  The  principal  language  is  Pangasinan. 

DAHABEAH  (also  spelt  dahablya,  dahabiyeh,  dahabeeyah, 
&c.),  an  Arabic  word  (variously  derived  from  dahab,  gold,  and 
dafiab,  one  of  the  forms  of  the  verb  to  go)  for  a  native  passenger 
boat  used  on  the  Nile.  The  typical  form  is  that  of  a  barge-like 
house-boat  provided  with  sails,  resembling  the  painted  galleys 
represented  on  the  tombs  of  the  Pharaohs.  Similar  state  barges 
were  used  by  the  Mahommedan  rulers  of  Egypt,  and  from  the 
circumstance  that  these  vessels  were  ornamented  with  gilding  is 
attributed  the  usual  derivation  of  the  name  from  gold.  Before 
the  introduction  of  steamers  dahabeahs  were  generally  used  by 
travellers  ascending  the  Nile,  and  they  are  still  the  favourite 
means  of  travelling  for  the  leisured  and  wealthy  classes.  The 
modern  dahabeah  is  often  made  of  iron,  draws  about  2  ft.  of 
water,  and  is  provided  with  one  very  large  and  one  small  sail. 
According  to  size  it  provides  accommodation  for  from  two  to  a 
dozen  passengers.  Steam  dahabeahs  are  also  built  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  tourists. 

DAHL,  HANS  (1840-  ),  Norwegian  painter,  was  born  at 
Hardanger.  After  being  in  the  Swedish  army  he  studied  art  at 
Karlsruhe  and  at  Dusseldorf ,  being  a  notable  painter  of  landscape 
and  genre.  His  work  has  considerable  humour,  but  his  colouring 
is  hard  and  rather  crude.  In  1889  he  settled  in  Berlin.  His 
pictures  are  very  popular  in  Norway. 

DAHL,  JOHANN  CHRISTIAN  (1778-1857),  Norwegian  lands- 
cape painter,  was  born  in  Bergen.  He  formed  his  style  without 
much  tuition,  remaining  at  Bergen  till  he  was  twenty-four, 
when  he  left  for  the  better  field  of  Copenhagen,  and  ultimately 
settled  in  Dresden  in  1818.  He  is  usually  included  in  the  German 
school,  although  he  was  thus  close  on  forty  years  of  age  when  he 
finally  took  up  his  abode  in  Dresden,  where  he  was  quickly 
received  into  the  Academy  and  became  professor.  German 
landscape-painting  was  not  greatly  advanced  at  that  time,  and 
Dahl  contributed  to  improve  it.  He  continued  to  reside  in 
Dresden,  though  he  travelled  into  Tirol  and  in  Italy,  painting 
many  pictures,  one  of  his  best  being  that  of  the  "  Outbreak  of 
Vesuvius,  1820."  He  was  fond  of  extraordinary  effects,  as  seen 
in  his  "  Winter  at  Munich,"  and  his  "  Dresden  by  Moonlight;" 
also  the  "  Haven  of  Copenhagen,"  and  the  "  Schloss  of  Fried- 
richsburg,"  under  the  same  condition.  At  Dresden  may  be  seen 
many  of  his  works,  notably  a  large  picture  called  "  Norway," 
and  a  "  Storm  at  Sea."  He  was  received  into  several  academic 
bodies,  and  had  the  orders  of  Wasa  and  St  Olaf  sent  him  by  the 
king  of  Norway  and  Sweden. 

DAHL,  MICHAEL  (1656-1743),  Swedish  portrait  painter,  was 
born  at  Stockholm.  He  received  his  first  professional  education 


from  Ernst  Klocke,  who  had  a  respectable  position  in  that 
northern  town,  which,  however,  Dahl  left  in  his  twenty-second 
year.  His  first  destination  was  England,  where  he  did  not  long 
remain,  but  crossed  over  to  Paris,  and  made  his  way  at  last  to 
Rome,  there  taking  up  his  abode  for  a  considerable  time,  painting 
the  portraits  of  Queen  Christina  and  other  celebrities.  In  1688 
he  returned  to  England,  and  became  for  some  years  a  dangerous 
rival  to  Kneller.  He  died  in  London.  His  portraits  still  exist 
in  many  houses,  but  his  name  is  not  always  preserved  with  them. 
Nagler  (Kilnstlet --Lexicon)  says  those  at  Hampton  Court  and  at 
Petworth  contest  the  palm  with  those  of  the  better  known  and 
vastly  more  employed  painter. 

DAHL  (or  DALE),  VLADIMIR  IVANOVICH  (1802-1872), 
Russian  author  and  philologist,  was  born  of  Scandinavian  parent- 
age in  1802,  and  received  his  education  at  the  naval  cadets'  in- 
stitution at  St  Petersburg.  He  joined  the  Black  Sea  fleet  in  1819; 
but  at  a  later  date  he  entered  the  military  service,  and  was  thus 
engaged  in  the  Polish  campaign  of  1831,  and  in  the  expedition 
against  Khiva.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to  a  medical  post 
in  one  of  the  government  hospitals  at  St  Petersburg,  and  was 
ultimately  transferred  to  a  situation  in  the  civil  service.  The 
latter  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at  Moscow,  and  he  died  there  on 
November  3  (October  22),  1872.  Under  the  name  of  Kossack 
Lugansky  he  obtained  considerable  fame  by  his  stories  of  Russian 
life: — The  Dream  and  the  Waking,  A  Story  of  Misery,  Happiness, 
and  Truth,  The  Door-Keeper  (Dvernik),  The  Officer's  Valet 
(Denshchik).  His  greatest  work,  however,  was  a  Dictionary  of 
the  Living  Russian  Tongue  (Tolkovyi  Slovar  Zhivago  Velikorus- 
skago  Yasika),  which  appeared  in  four  volumes  between  1861 
and  1866,  and  is  of  the  most  essential  service  to  the  student  of 
the  popular  literature  and  folk-lore  of  Russia.  It  was  based  on 
the  results  of  his  own  investigations  throughout  the  various 
provinces  of  Russia, — investigations  which  had  furnished  him 
with  no  fewer  than  4000  popular  tales  and  upwards  of  30,000 
proverbs.  Among  his  other  publications  may  be  mentioned 
Bemerkungen  zu  Zimmermann's  Entwurf  des  Kriegstheaters 
Russlands  gegen  Khiwa,  published  in  German  at  Orenburg,  and  a 
Handbook  of  Botany  (Moscow,  1849). 

A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared  at  St  Petersburg  in 
8  volumes,  1860-1861. 

DAHLBERG  (DAHLBERGH),  ERIK  JOHANSEN,  COUNT  (1625- 
1703),  Swedish  soldier  and  engineer,  was  born  at  Stockholm. 
His  early  studies  took  the  direction  of  the  science  of  fortification, 
and  as  an  engineer  officer  he  saw  service  in  the  latter  years  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  in  Poland.  As  adjutant-general  and 
engineer  adviser  to  Charles  X.  (Gustavus),  he  had  a  great  share 
in  the  famous  crossing  of  the  frozen  Belts,  and  at  the  sieges  of 
Copenhagen  and  Kronborg  he  directed  the  engineers.  In  spite 
of  these  distinguished  services,  Dahlberg  remained  an  obscure 
lieutenant-colonel  for  many  years.  His  patriotism,  however, 
proved  superior  to  the  tempting  offers  Charles  II.  of  England 
made  to  induce  him  to  enter  the  British  service,  though,  in  that 
age  of  professional  soldiering,  there  was  nothing  in  the  offer  that 
a  man  of  honour  could  not  accept.  At  last  his  talents  were 
recognized,  and  in  1676  he  became  director-general  of  fortifica- 
tions. In  the  wars  of  the  next  twenty-five  years  Dahlberg  again 
rendered  distinguished  service,  alike  in  attack  (as  at  Helsingborg 
in  1677,  and  Dunamiinde  in  1700)  and  defence  (as  in  the  two 
sieges  of  Riga  in  1 700) :  and  his  work  in  repairing  the  fortresses 
of  his  own  country,  not  less  important,  earned  for  him  the  title 
of  the  "  Vauban  of  Sweden."  He  was  also  the  founder  of  the 
Swedish  engineer  corps.  He  retired  as  field-marshal  in  1702,  and 
died  the  following  year. 

Erik  Dahlberg  was  responsible  for  the  fine  collection  of 
drawings  called  Suecia  anliqua  et  hodierna  (Stockholm,  1660- 
1716;  2nd  edition,  1856;  3rd  edition,  1864-1865),  and  assisted 
Pufendorf  in  his  Histoire  de  Charles  X  Gustave.  He  wrote  a 
memoir  of  his  life  (to  be  found  in  Svenska  Bibliotek,  1757)  and  an 
account  of  the  campaigns  of  Charles  X.  (ed.  Lundblad,  Stockholm, 
1823). 

DAHLGREN,  JOHN  ADOLF  (1809-1870),  admiral  in  the  U.S. 
navy,  was  the  son  of  the  Swedish  consul  at  Philadelphia,  Pennsyl- 


732 


DAHLGREN,  K.  F.— DAHLMANN 


vania,  and  was  born  in  that  rity  on  the  i3th  of  November  1809. 
He  entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1826,  and  saw  some  service 
in  the  Civil  War  in  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  blockading 
squadron.  But  he  was  chiefly  notable  as  a  scientific  officer. 
His  knowledge  of  mathematics  caused  him  to  be  employed  on 
the  coast  survey  in  1834.  In  1837  his  eyesight  threatened  to 
fail,  he  retired  in  1838-1842,  and  in  1847  he  was  transferred 
to  the  ordnance  department.  In  this  post  he  applied  himself 
to  the  improvement  of  the  guns  of  the  U.S.  navy.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  smooth  bore  gun  which  bore  his  name,  but  was 
from  its  shape  familiarly  known  as  "  the  soda  water  bottle." 
It  was  used  in  the  Civil  War,  and  for  several  years  afterwards  in 
the  United  States  navy.  Dahlgren's  guns  were  first  mounted 
in  a  vessel  named  the  "  Experiment,"  which  cruised  under  his 
command  from  1857  till  1859.  They  were  "  the  first  practical 
application  of  results  obtained  by  experimental  determinations 
of  pressure  at  different  points  along  the  bore,  by  Colonel  Bom- 
ford's  tests — that  is  by  boring  holes  in  the  walls  of  the  gun, 
through  which  the  pressure  acts  upon  other  bodies,  such  as 
pistol  balls,  pistons,  &c."  (Cf.  article  by  J.  M.  Brooke  in 
Hamersley's  Naval  Encyclopaedia.)  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
out,  he  was  on  ordnance  duty  in  the  Washington  navy  yard, 
and  he  was  one  of  the  three  officers  who  did  not  resign  from 
confederate  sympathies.  His  rank  at  the  time  was  commander, 
and  the  command  could  only  by  held  by  a  captain.  President 
Lincoln  insisted  on  retaining  Commander  Dahlgren,  and  he  was 
qualified  to  keep  the  post  by  special  act  of  Congress.  He  became 
post -captain  in  1862  and  rear-admiral  in  1863.  He  commanded 
the  Washington  navy  yard  when  he  died  on  the  I2th  of  July  1870. 
A  memoir  of  Admiral  Dahlgren  by  his  widow  was  published  at 
Boston  in  1882.  (D.  H.) 

DAHLGREN,  KARL  FREDRIK  (1791-1844),  Swedish  poet, 
was  born  at  Stensbruk  in  Ostergotland  on  the  2oth  of  June  1791. 
At  a  time  when  literary  partisanship  ran  high  in  Sweden,  and  the 
writers  divided  themselves  into  "  Goths  "  and  "  Phosphorists," 
Dahlgren  made  himself  indispensable  to  the  Phosphorists  by  his 
polemical  activity.  In  the  mock-heroic  poem  of  Markalls 
somnlosa  natter  (Markall's  Sleepless  Nights),  in  which  the  Phos- 
phorists ridiculed  the  academician  Per  Adam  Wallmark  and 
others,  Dahlgren,  who  was  a  genuine  humorist,  took  a  prominent 
part.  In  1825  he  published  Babels  Torn  (The  Tower  of  Babel),  a 
satire,  and  a  comedy,  Argus  in  Olympen;  and  in  1828  two 
volumes  of  poems.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  to  an  ecclesiastical 
post  in  Stockholm,  which  he  held  until  his  death.  In  a  series  of 
odes  and  dithyrambic  pieces,  entitled  Mollbergs  Epistlar  (1819, 
1820),  he  strove  to  emulate  the  wonderful  lyric  genius  of  K.  M. 
Bellman,  of  whom  he  was  a  student  and  follower.  From  1825  to 
1827  he  edited  a  critical  journal  entitled  Kometen  (The  Comet), 
and  in  company  with  Almqvist  he  founded  the  Manhems- 
f or  bund,  a  short-lived  society  of  agricultural  socialists.  In  1834 
he  collected  his  poems  in  one  volume;  and  in  1837  appeared  his 
last  book,  Angbdls-Sanger  (Steamboat  Songs).  On  the  ist  of 
May  1844  he  died  at  Stockholm.  Dahlgren  is  one  of  the  best 
humorous  writers  that  Sweden  has  produced;  but  he  was  perhaps 
at  his  best  in  realistic  and  idyllic  description.  His  little  poem  of 
Zephyr  and  the  Girl,  which  is  to  be  found  in  every  selection  from 
Swedish  poetry,  is  a  good  example  of  his  sensuous  and  ornamented 
style. 

His  works  were  collected  and  published  after  his  death  by  A.  J. 
Arwidsson  (5  vols.,  Stockholm,  1847-1852). 

DAHLIA,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Compositae,  so  called  after  Dr  Dahl,  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus.  The 
genus  contains  about  nine  species  indigenous  in  the  high  sandy 
plains  of  Mexico.  The  dahlia  was  first  introduced  into  Britain 
from  Spain  in  1 789  by  the  marchioness  of  Bute.  The  species  was 
probably  D.  variabilis,  whence  by  far  the  majority  of  the  forms 
now  common  have  originated.  The  flowers,  at  the  time  of  the 
first  introduction  of  the  plant,  were  single,  with  a  yellow  disk 
and  dull  scarlet  rays;  under  cultivation  since  the  beginning  of 
the  i  gth  century  in  France  and  England,  flowers  of  numerous 
brilliant  hues  have  been  produced.  The  flower  has  been  modified 
also  from  a  flat  to  a  globular  shape,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 


florets  has  been  rendered  quite  distinct  in  the  ranunculus  and 
anemone-like  kinds.  The  ordinary  natural  height  of  the  dahlia 
is  about  7  or  8  ft.,  but  one  of  the  dwarf  races  grows  to  only  18  in. 
With  changes  in  the  flower,  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  seed 
have  been  brought  about  by  cultivation;  varieties  of  the  plant 
have  been  produced  which  require  more  moisture  than  others; 
and  the  period  of  flowering  has  been  made  considerably  earlier. 
In  1808  dahlias  were  described  as  flowering  from  September  to 
November,  but  some  of  the  dwarf  varieties  at  present  grown  are 
in  full  blossom  in  the  middle  of  June. 

The  large  number  of  varieties  may  be  classed  as  under  the 
following  heads:  (i)  Single  dahlias.  These  have  been  derived 
from  D.  coccinea;  they  have  a  disk  of  tubular  florets  surrounded 
by  the  large  showy  ray  florets.  (2)  Shaw  dahlias,  large  and  double 
with  flowers  self-coloured  or  pale-coloured  and  edged  or  tipped 
with  a  darker  colour.  (3)  Fancy  dahlias,  resembling  the  show 
but  having  the  florets  striped  or  tipped  with  a  second  tint.  (4) 
Bouquet  or  Pompon  dahlias,  with  much  smaller  double  flowers 
of  various  colours.  (5)  Cactus  dahlias,  derived  from  D.  Juarezi,  a 
form  which  has  given  rise  to  a  beautiful  race  with  pointed  starry 
flowers.  (6)  Paeony-flowered  dahlias,  a  new  but  not  pretty  race, 
with  large  floppy  heads,  broad  florets  and  several  disk  florets  in 
centre. 

New  varieties  are  procured  from  seed,  which  should  be  sown  in 
pots  or  pans  towards  the  end  of  March,  and  placed  in  a  hotbed  or 
propagating  pit,  the  young  plants  being  pricked  off  into  pots  or 
boxes,  and  gradually  hardened  off  for  planting  out  in  June;  they 
will  flower  the  same  season  if  the  summer  is  a  genial  one.  The 
older  varieties  are  propagated  by  dividing  the  large  tuberous 
roots,  in  doing  which  care  must  be  taken  to  leave  an  eye  to  each 
portion  of  tuber,  otherwise  it  will  not  grow.  Rare  varieties  are 
sometimes  grafted  on  the  roots  of  others.  The  best  and  most 
general  mode  of  propagation  is  by  cuttings,  to  obtain  which,  the 
old  tubers  are  placed  in  heat  in  February,  and  as  the  young 
shoots,  which  rise  freely  from  them,  attain  the  height  of  3  in., 
they  are  taken  off  with  a  heel,  and  planted  singly  in  small  pots 
filled  with  fine  sandy  soil,  and  plunged  in  a  moderate  heat.  They 
root  speedily,  and  are  then  transferred  to  larger  pots  in  light  rich 
soil,  and  their  growth  encouraged  until  the  planting-out  season 
arrives,  about  the  middle  of  June  north  of  the  Thames. 

Dahlias  succeed  best  in  an  open  situation,  and  in  rich  deep 
loam,  but  there  is  scarcely  any  garden  soil  in  which  they  will  not 
thrive,  if  it  is  manured.  For  the  production  of  fine  show  flowers 
the  ground  must  be  deeply  trenched,  and  well  manured  annually. 
The  branches  as  well  as  the  blossoms  require  a  considerable  but 
judicious  amount  of  thinning;  they  also  need  shading  in  some 
cases.  The  plants  should  be  protected  from  cold  winds,  and 
when  watered  the  whole  of  the  foliage  should  be  wetted.  They 
may  stand  singly  like  common  border  flowers,  but  have  the  most 
imposing  appearance  when  seen  in  masses  arranged  according  to 
their  height.  Florists  usually  devote  a  plot  of  ground  to  them, 
and  plant  them  in  lines  5  to  10  ft.  apart.  This  is  done  about  the 
beginning  of  June,  sheltering  them  if  necessary  from  late  frosts 
by  inverted  pots  or  in  some  other  convenient  way.  Old  roots 
often  throw  up  a  multitude  of  stems,  which  render  thinning 
necessary.  As  the  plants  increase  in  height,  they  are  furnished 
with  strong  stakes,  to  secure  them  from  high  winds.  Dahlias 
flower  on  till  they  are  interrupted  by  frost  in  autumn.  The  roots 
are  then  taken  up,  dried,  and  stored  in  a  cellar,  or  some  other 
place  where  they  may  be  secure  from  frost  and  moisture.  Ear- 
wigs are  very  destructive,  eating  out  the  young  buds  and  florets. 
Small  flower-pots  half  filled  with  dry  moss  and  inverted  on  stakes 
placed  among  the  branches,  form  a  useful  trap. 

DAHLMANN,  FRIEDRICH  CHRISTOPH  (1785-1860),  German 
historian  and  politician,  was  born  on  the  i3th  of  May  1785; 
he  came  of  an  old  Hanseatic  family  of  Wismar,  which  then 
belonged  to  Sweden.  His  father,  who  was  the  burgomaster  of 
the  town,  intended  him  to  study  theology,  but  his  bent  was 
towards  classical  philology,  and  this  he  studied  from  1802  to 
1 806  at  the  universities  of  Copenhagen  and  Halle,  and  again  at 
Copenhagen.  After  finishing  his  studies,  he  translated  some  of 
the  Greek  tragic  poets,  and  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes.  But  he 


DAHLSTJERNA 


33 


was  also  interested  in  modern  literature  and  philosophy;  and 
the  troubles  of  the  times,  of  which  he  had  personal  experience, 
aroused  in  him,  as  in  so  many  of  his  contemporaries,  a  strong 
feeling  of  German  patriotism,  though  throughout  his  life_he  was 
always  proud  of  his  connexion  with  Scandinavia,  and  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  his  particular  hero.  In  1809,  on  the  news  of  the 
outbreak  of  war  in  Austria,  Dahlmann,  together  with  the  poet 
Heinrich  von  Kleist,  whom  he  had  met  in  Dresden,  went  to 
Bohemia,  and  was  afterwards  with  the  Imperial  army,  up  till 
the  battle  of  Aspern,  with  the  somewhat  vague  object  of  trying 
to  convert  the  Austrian  war  into  a  German  one.  This  hope  was 
shattered  by  the  defeat  of  Wagram.  He  now  decided  to  try  his 
fortunes  in  Denmark,  where  he  had  influential  relations.  After 
taking  his  doctor's  degree  at  Wittenberg  (1810)  he  qualified  at 
Copenhagen  in  1811,  with  an  essay  on  the  origins  of  the  ancient 
theatre,  as  a  lecturer  on  ancient  literature  and  history,  on  which 
he  delivered  lectures  in  Latin.  His  influential  friends  soon 
brought  him  further  advancement.  As  early  as  1812  he  was 
summoned  to  Kiel,  as  successor  to  the  historian  Dietrich  Her- 
mann Hegewisch  (1746-1812).  This  appointment  was  in  two 
respects  a  decisive  moment  in  his  career;  on  the  one  hand  it 
made  him  give  his  whole  attention  to  a  subject  for  which  he 
was  admirably  suited,  but  to  which  he  had  so  far  given  only  a 
secondary  interest;  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  threw  him  into 
politics. 

In  1815  he  obtained,  in  addition  to  his  professorate,  the 
position  of  secretary  to  the  perpetual  deputation  of  the  estates  of 
Schleswig-Holstein.  In  this  capacity  he  began,  by  means  of 
memoirs  or  of  articles  in  the  Kieler  Blatter,  which  he  founded 
himself,  to  appear  as  an  able  and  zealous  champion  of  the 
half-forgotten  rights  of  the  Elbe  duchies,  as  against  Denmark, 
and  of  their  close  connexion  with  Germany.  It  was  he  upon 
whom  the  Danes  afterwards  threw  the  blame  of  having  invented 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  question;  certainly  his  activites  form 
an  important  link  in  the  chain  of  events  which  eventually  led 
to  the  solution  of  1864.  So  far  as  this  interest  affected  himself, 
the  chief  profit  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  deepened  his  conception 
of  the  state,  and  directed  it  to  more  practical  ends.  Whereas 
at  that  time  mere  speculation  dominated  both  the  French 
Liberalism  of  the  school  of  Rotteck,  and  Karl  Ludwig  von 
Haller's  Romanticist  doctrine  of  the  Christian  state,  Dahl- 
mann took  as  his  premisses  the  circumstances  as  he  found  them, 
and  evolved  the  new  out  of  the  old  by  a  quiet  process  of  develop- 
ment. Moreover,  in  the  inevitable  conflict  with  the  Danish 
crown  his  upright  point  of  view  and  his  German  patriotism  were 
further  confirmed.  After  his  transference  to  Gottingen  in  1829 
he  had  the  opportunity  of  working  in  the  same  spirit.  As 
confidant  of  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  he  was  allowed  to  take  a 
share  in  framing  the  Hanoverian  constitution  of  1833,  which 
remodelled  the  old  aristocratic  government  in  a  direction  which 
had  become  inevitable  since  the  July  revolution  in  Paris;  and 
when  in  1837  the  new  king  Ernest  Augustus  declared  the  con- 
stitution invalid,  it  was  Dahlmann  who  inspired  the  famous 
protest  of  the  seven  professors  of  Gottingen.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  position  and  banished,  but  he  had  the  satisfaction  of 
knowing  that  German  national  feeling  received  a  mighty  impulse 
from  his  courageous  action,  while  public  subscriptions  prevented 
him  from  material  cares. 

After  he  had  lived  for  several  years  in  Leipzig  and  Jena,  King 
Frederick  William  IV.  appointed  him  in  October  1842  to  a 
professorship  at  Bonn.  The  years  that  followed  were  those  of 
his  highest  celebrity.  His  Politik  (1835)  had  already  made  him 
a  great  name  as  a  writer;  he  now  published  his  Danische 
Geschichte  (1840-1843),  a  historical  work  of  the  first  rank;  and 
this  was  soon  followed  by  histories  of  the  English  and  French 
revolutions,  which,  though  of  less  scientific  value,  exercised  a 
decisive  influence  upon  public  opinion  by  their  open  advocacy 
of  the  system  of  constitutional  monarchy.  As  a  teacher  too  he 
was  much  beloved.  Though  no  orator,  and  in  spite  of  a  person- 
ality not  particularly  amiable  or  winning,  he  produced  a  profound 
impression  upon  young  men  by  the  pregnancy  of  his  expression, 
a  consistent  logical  method  of  thought  based  on  Kant  and  by 


the  manliness  of  his  character.  When  the  revolution  of  1848 
broke  out,  the  "  father  of  German  nationality,"  as  the  pro- 
visional government  at  Milan  called  him,  found  himself  the  centre 
of  universal  interest.  Both  Mecklenburg  and  Prussia  offered 
him  in  vain  the  post  of  envoy  to  the  diet  of  the  confederation. 
Naturally,  too,  he  was  elected  to  the  national  assembly  at 
Frankfort,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  constitutional  com- 
mittees appointed  first  by  the  diet,  then  by  the  parliament.  His 
object  was  to  make  Germany  as  far  as  possible  a  united  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  with  the  exclusion  of  the  whole  of  Austria,  or 
at  least,  of  its  non-German  parts.  Prussia  was  to  provide  the 
emperor,  but  at  the  same  time — and  in  this  lay  the  doctrinaire 
weakness  of  the  system — was  to  give  up  its  separate  existence, 
consecrated  by  history,  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  states. 
When,  therefore,  Frederick  William  IV.,  without  showing  any 
anxiety  to  bind  himself  by  the  conditions  laid  down  at  Frankfort, 
concluded  with  Denmark  the  seven  months'  truce  of  Malmo 
(26th  August  1848),  Dahlmann  proposed  that  the  national 
parliament  should  refuse  to  recognize  the  truce,  with  the  express 
intention  of  clearing  up  once  for  all  the  relations  of  the  parlia- 
ment with  the  court  of  Berlin.  The  motion  was  passed  by  a 
small  majority  (September  5th);  but  the  members  of  Dahl- 
mann's  party  were  just  those  who  voted  against  it,  and  it  was 
they  who  on  the  I7th  of  September  reversed  the  previous  vote 
and  passed  a  resolution  accepting  the  truce,  after  Dahlmann  had 
failed  to  form  a  ministry  on  the  basis  of  the  resolution  of  the  5th, 
owing  to  his  objection  to  the  Radicals.  Dahlmann  afterwards 
described  this  as  the  decisive  turning-point  in  the  fate  of  the 
parliament.  He  did  not,  however,  at  once  give  up  all  hope. 
Though  he  took  but  little  active  part  in  parliamentary  debates, 
he  was  very  active  on  commissions  and  in  party  conferences, 
and  it  was  largely  owing  to  him  that  a  German  constitution  was 
at  last  evolved,  and  that  Frederick  William  IV.  was  elected 
hereditary  emperor  (28th  of  March  1849).  He  was  accordingly 
one  of  the  deputation  which  offered  the  crown  to  the  king  in 
Berlin.  The  king's  refusal  was  less  of  a  surprise  to  him  than  to 
most  of  his  colleagues.  He  counted  on  being  able  to  compel 
recognition  of  the  constitution  by  the  moral  pressure  of  the 
consent  of  the  people.  It  was  only  when  the  attitude  of  the 
Radicals  made  it  clear  to  him  that  this  course  would  lead  to  a 
revolution,  that  he  decided,  after  a  long  struggle,  to  retire  from 
the  national  parliament  (2ist  May).  He  was  still,  however,  one 
of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  well-known  conference  of  the 
imperial  party  at  Gotha,  the  proceedings  of  which  were  not, 
however,  satisfactory  to  him;  and  he  took  part  in  the  sessions 
of  the  first  Prussian  chamber  (1840-1850)  and  of  the  parliament 
of  Erfurt  (1850).  But  finally,  convinced  that  for  the  moment 
all  efforts  towards  the  unity  of  Germany  were  unavailing,  he 
retired  from  political  life,  though  often  pressed  to  stand  for 
election,  and  again  took  up  his  work  of  teaching  at  Bonn.  His 
last  years  were,  however,  saddened  by  illness,  bereavement  and 
continual  friction  with  his  colleagues.  His  death  took  place  on 
the  5th  of  December  1860,  following  on  an  apoplectic  fit.  He  was 
a  man  whose  personality  had  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the 
world,  and  whose  teaching  was  to  continue  to  exercise  a  far- 
reaching  influence  on  the  development  of  German  affairs. 

His  chief  works  were: — Quellenkunde  der  deutschen  Geschichte 
nach  der  Folge  der  Begebenheiten  geordnet  (1830,  7th  edition  of 
Dahlmann-Waitz,  Quellenkunde,  Leipzig,  1906);  Politik,  auf 
den  Grund  und  das  Mass  der  gegebenen  Zustande  zuriickgefiihrt 
(i  vol.,  1835);  Geschichte  Danemarks  (3  vols.,  1840-1843); 
Geschichte  der  englischen  Revolution  (1844);  Geschichte  der 
franzosischen  Revolution  (1845). 

See  A.  Springer,  Friedrich  Christoph  Dahlmann  (2  vols.,  1870- 
1872);  and  H.  v.  Treitschke,  Histor.  und  polit.  Av.jsa.tze,  i.  365 
et  seq.  (F.  Lu.) 

DAHLSTJERNA,  GUNNO  (1661-1700),  Swedish  poet,  whose 
original  surname  was  Eurelius,  was  born  on  the  7th  of  September 
1661  in  the  parish  of  Ohr  in  Dalsland,  where  his  father  was 
rector.  He  entered  the  university  of  Upsala  in  1677,  and  after 
gaining  his  degree  entered  the  government  office  of  land-survey- 
ing. He  was  sent  in  1681  on  professional  business  to  Livonia, 


734 


DAHN— DAHOMEY 


then  under  Swedish  rule.  A  dissertation  read  at  Leipzig  in  1687 
brought  him  the  offer  of  a  professorial  chair  in  the  university, 
which  he  refused.  Returning  to  Sweden  he  executed  commis- 
sions ip  land-surveying  directed  by  King  Charles  XI.,  and  in 
1699  he  became  head  of  the  whole  department.  In  1702  he  was 
ennobled  under  the  name  of  Dahlstjerna.  He  wandered  over 
the  whole  of  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  Livonia,  Riigen  and 
Pomerania,  preparing  maps  which  still  exist  in  the  office  of 
public  land-surveying  in  Stockholm.  His  death,  which  took 
place  in  Pomerania  on  his  forty-eighth  birthday,  7th  of  September 
1709,  is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by  the  disastrous  news  of 
the  battle  of  Poltava.  Dahlstjerna's  patriotism  was  touching 
in  its  pathos  and  intensity,  and  during  his  long  periods  of  pro- 
fessional exile  he  comforted  himself  by  the  composition  of  songs 
to  his  beloved  Sweden.  His  genius  was  most  irregular,  but  at 
his  best  he  easily  surpasses  all  the  Swedish  poets  of  his  time. 
His  best-known  original  work  is  Kungaskald  (Stettin,  1697),  an 
elegy  on  the  death  of  Charles  XI.  It  is  written  in  alexandrines, 
arranged  in  ottava  rima.  The  poem  is  pompous  and  allegorical, 
but  there  are  passages  full  of  melody  and  high  thoughts. 
Dahlstjerna  was  a  reformer  in  language,  and  it  has  been  well 
said  by  Atterbom  that  in  this  poem  "  he  treats  the  Swedish 
speech  just  as  dictatorially  as  Charles  XI.  and  Charles  XII. 
treated  the  Swedish  nation."  In  1690  was  printed  at  Stettin 
his  paraphrase  of  the  Pastor  Fido  of  Guarini.  His  most  popular 
work  is  his  Gotha  kampavisa  om  Konungen  och  Herr  Peder  (The 
Goth's  Battle  Song,  concerning  the  King  and  Master  Peter; 
Stockholm,  1701).  The  King  is  Charles  XII.  and  Master  Peter 
is  the  tsar  of  Russia.  This  spirited  ballad  lived  almost  until  our 
own  days  on  the  lips  of  the  people  as  a  folk-song. 

The  works  of  Dahlstjerna  have  been  collected  by  P.  Hanselli,  in 
the  Samlade  Vitterhetsarbeten  a}  svenska  Forfattare  fr&n  Stjernhjelm 
till  Dalin  (Upsala,  1856,  &c.). 

DAHN,  JULIUS  SOPHUS  FELIX  (1834-  ),  German  his- 
torian, jurist  and  poet,  was  born  on  the  gth  of  February  1834  in 
Hamburg,  where  his  father,  Friedrich  Dahn  (1811-1889),  was  a 
leading  actor  at  the  city  theatre.  His  mother,  Constance  Dahn, 
nee  Le  Gay,  was  a  noted  actress.  In  1834  the  family  moved  to 
Munich,  where  the  parents  took  leading  roles  in  the  classical 
German  drama,  until  they  retired  from  the  stage:  the  mother 
in  1865  and  the  father  in  1878.  Felix  Dahn  studied  law  and 
philosophy  in  Munich  and  Berlin  from  1849  to  1853.  His  first 
works  were  in  jurisprudence,  (iber  die  Wirkung  der  Klagver- 
jiihrung  bei  Obligatlonen  (Munich,  1855),  and  Studien  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  germanischen  Gottesurteile  (Munich,  1857).  In  1857  he 
became  decent  in  German  law  at  Munich  university,  and  in  1862 
professor-extraordinary,  but  in  1863  was  called  to  Wiirzburg  to 
a  full  professorship.  In  1872  he  removed  to  the  university  of 
Kb'nigsberg,  and  in  1888  settled  at  Breslau,  becoming  rector  of 
the  university  in  1895.  Meanwhile  in  addition  to  many  legal 
works  of  high  standing,  he  had  begun  the  publication  of  that 
long  series  of  histories  and  historical  romances  which  has  made 
his  name  a  household  word  in  Germany.  The  great  history  of 
the  German  migrations,  Die  Kdnige  der  Germanen,  Bande  i.-vi. 
(Munich  and  Wiirzburg,  1861-1870),  Bande  vii.-xi.  (Leipzig, 
1894-1908),  was  a  masterly  study  in  constitutional  history  as 
well  as  a  literary  work  of  high  merit,  which  carries  the  narrative 
down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Carolingian  empire.  In  his 
Urgeschichte  der  germanischen  und  romanischen  Volker  (Berlin, 
1881-1890),  Dahn  went  a  step  farther  back  still,  but  here  as  in 
his  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Urzeit  (Gotha,  1883-1888),  a  wealth  of 
picturesque  detail  has  been  worked  over  and  resolved  into  history 
with  such  imaginative  insight  and  critical  skill  as  to  make  real 
and  present  the  indistinct  beginnings  of  German  society.  To- 
gether with  these  larger  works  Dahn  wrote  many  monographs 
and  studies  upon  primitive  German  society.  Many  of  his  essays 
were  collected  in  a  series  of  six  volumes  entitled  Bausteine 
(Berlin,  1870-1884).  Not  less  important  than  his  histories  are 
the  historical  romances,  the  best-known  of  which,  Ein  Kampf 
um  Rom,  in  four  volumes  (Leipzig,  1876),  which  has  gone  through 
many  later  editions,  was  also  the  first  of  the  series.  Others  are 
Odhins  T-rost  (Leipzig,  1880);  Die  Kreuzfahrer  (Leipzig,  1884); 


Odhins  Roche  (Leipzig,  1891);  Julian  der  Abtriinnige  (Leipzig, 
1894),  and  one  of  the  most  popular,  Biszum  Tode  getreu  (Leipzig, 
1887).  The  list  is  too  long  to  be  given  in  full,  yet  almost  all  are 
well-known.  Parallel  with  this  great  production  of  learned  and 
imaginative  works,  Dahn  published  some  twenty  small  volumes 
of  poetry.  The  most  notable  of  these  are  the  epics  of  the  early 
German  period.  His  wife  Therese,  nee  Freiin  von  Droste- 
Hiilshoff,  was  joint-author  with  him  of  Walhall,  Germanische 
Goiter  und  Heldensagen  (Leipzig,  1898). 

A  collected  edition  of  his  works  of  fiction,  both  in  prose  and  verse, 
has  reached  twenty-one  volumes  (Leipzig,  1898),  and  a  new  edition 
was  published  in  1901.  Dahn  also  published  four  volumes  of 
memoirs,  Erinnerungen  (Leipzig,  1890-1895). 

DAHOMEY  (Fr.  Dahome),  a  country  of  West  Africa,  formerly 
an  independent  kingdom,  now  a  French  colony.  Dahomey  is 
bounded  S.  by  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  E.  by  Nigeria  (British),  N. 
and  N.W.  by  the  French  possessions  on  the  middle  Niger,  and  W. 
by  the  German  colony  of  Togoland.  The  French  colony  extends 
far  north  of  the  limits  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  same  name. 
With  a  coast-line  of  only  75  m.  (i°  38'  E.  to  2°  46'  55"  E.),  the 
area  of  the  colony  is  about  40,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  population  over 
i  ,000,000.  As  far  as  9  °  N.  the  width  of  the  colony  is  no  greater 
than  the  coast-line.  From  this  point,  the  colony  broadens  out  both 
eastward  and  westward,  attaining  a  maximum  width  of  200  m. 
It  includes  the  western  part  of  Borgu  (q.v.),  and  reaches  the  Niger 
at  a  spot  a  little  above  Illo.  Its  greatest  length  N.  to  S.  is  430  m. 

Physical  Features. — The  littoral,  part  of  the  old  Slave  Coast 
(see  GUINEA),  is  very  low,  sandy  Und  obstructed  by  a  bar. 
Behind  the  seashore  is  a  line  of  lagoons,'  where  small  steamers 
can  ply;  east  to  west  they  are  those  of  Porto  Novo  (or  Lake 
Nokue),  Whydah  and  Grand  Popo.  The  Weme  (300  m.  long), 
known  in  its  upper  course  as  the  Ofe,  the  most  important  river 
running  south,  drains  the  colony  from  the  Bariba  country  to 
Porto  Novo,  entering  the  lagoon  so  named.  The  Zu  is  a  western 
affluent  of  the  Weme.  Farther  west  is  the  Kuffu  (150  m.  long), 
which,  before  entering  the  Whydah  lagoon,  broadens  out  into  a 
lake  or  lagoon  called  Aheme,  20  m.  long  by  5  m.  broad.  The  Makru 
and  Kergigoto,  each  of  which  has  various  affluents,  flow  north- 
east to  the  Niger,  which  in  the  part -of  its  course  forming  the 
north-east  frontier  of  the  colony  is  only  navigable  for  small 
vessels  and  that  with  great  difficulty  (see  NIGER). 

For  some  50  m.  inland  the  country  is  flat,  and,  after  the  first 
mile  or  two  of  sandy  waste  is  passed,  covered  with  dense  vegeta- 
tion. At  this  distance  (50  m.)  from  the  coast  is  a  great  swamp 
known  as  the  Lama  Marsh.  It  extends  east  to  west  some  25m. 
and  north  to  south  6  to  9  m.  North  of  the  swamp  the  land  rises 
by  regular  stages  to  about  1650  ft.,  the  high  plateau  falling  again 
to  the  basin  of  the  Niger.  In  the  north-west  a  range  of  hills 
known  as  the  Atacora  forms  a  watershed  between  the  basins 
of  the  Weme,  the  Niger  and  the  Volta.  A  large  part  of  the  interior 
consists  of  undulating  country,  rather  barren,  with  occasional 
patches  of  forest.  The  forests  contain  the  baobab,  the  coco-nut 
palm  and  the  oil  palm.  The  fauna  resembles  that  of  other 
parts  of  the  West  Coast,  but  the  larger  wild  animals,  such  as  the 
elephant  and  hippopotamus,  are  rare.  The  lion  is  found  in  the 
regions  bordering  the  Niger.  Some  kinds  of  antelopes  are 
common;  the  buffalo  has  disappeared. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  coast  regions  is  very  hot  and 
moist.  Four  seasons  are  well  marked:  the  harmattan  or  long 
dry  season,  from  the  ist  December  to  the  isth  March;  the 
season  of  the  great  rains,  from  the  isth  March  to  the  isth 
July;  the  short  dry  season,  from  the  isth  July  to  the  isth 
September;  and  the  "little  rains,"  from  the  isth  September 
to  the  ist  December.  Near  the  sea  the  average  temperature  is 
about  80°  F.  The  harmattan  prevails  for  several  days  in  suc- 
cession, and  alternates  with  winds  from  the  south  and  south- 
west. During  its  continuance  the  thermometer  falls  about  10°, 
there  is  not  the  slightest  moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  vegetation 
dries  up  or  droops,  the  skin  parches  and  peels,  and  all  woodwork 
is  liable  to  warp  and  crack  with  a  loud  report.  Tornadoes  occur 
occasionally.  During  nine  months  of  the  year  the  climate  is 
tempered  by  a  sea-breeze,  which  is  felt  as  far  inland  as  Abomey 


DAHOMEY 


735 


(60  m.).  It  generally  begins  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  summer 
it  often  increases  to  a  stiff  gale  at  sundown.  In  the  interior 
there  are  but  two  seasons:  the  dry  season  (November  to  May) 
and  the  rainy  season  (June  to  October).  The  rains  are  more 
scanty  and  diminish  considerably  in  the  northern  regions. 

Inhabitants. — The  inhabitants  of  the  coast  region  are  of  pure 
negro  stock.  The  Dahomeyans  (Dahomi),  who  inhabit  the 
central  part  of  the  colony,  form  one  of  eighteen  closely-allied 
clans  occupying  the  country  between  the  Volta  and  Porto  Novo, 
and  from  their  common  tongue  known  as  the  Ewe-speaking 
tribes.  In  their  own  tongue  Dahomeyans  are  called  Fon  or 
Fawin.  They  are  tall  and  well-formed,  proud,  reserved  in 
demeanour,  polite  in  their  intercourse  with  strangers,  warlike 
and  keen  traders.  The  Mina,  who  occupy  the  district  of  the 
Popos,  are  noted  for  their  skill  as  surf-men,  which  has  gained  for 
them  the  title  of  the  Krumen  of  Dahomey.  Porto  Novo  is  in- 
habited by  a  tribe  called  Nago,  which  has  an  admixture  of 
Yoruba  blood  and  speaks  a  Yoruba  dialect.  The  Nago  are  a 
peaceful  tribe  and  even  keener  traders  than  the  Dahomi.  In 
Whydah  and  other  coast  towns  are  many  mulattos,  speaking 
Portuguese  and  bearing  high-sounding  Portuguese  names.  In 
the  north  the  inhabitants — Mahi,  Bariba,  Gurmai, — are  also  of 
Negro  stock,  but  scarcely  so  civilized  as  the  coast  tribes.  Settled 
among  them  are  communities  of  Fula  and  Hausas.  There  are 
many  converts  to  Islam  in  the  northern  districts,  but  the  Mahi 
and  Dahomeyans  proper  are  nearly  all  fetish  worshippers. 

Chief  Towns. — The  chief  port  and  the  seat  of  government  is 
Kotonu,  the  starting-point  of  a  railway  to  the  Niger.  An  iron 
pier,  which  extends  well  beyond  the  surf,  affords  facilities  for 
shipping.  Kotonu  was  originally  a  small  village  which  served  as 
the  seaport  of  Porto  Novo  and  was  burnt  to  the  ground  in  1890. 
It  has  consequently  the  advantage  of  being  a  town  laid  out  by 
Europeans  on  a  definite  plan.  Situated  on  the  beach  between 
the  sea  and  the  lagoon  of  Porto  Novo,  the  soil  consists  of  heavy 
sand.  Good  hard  roads  have  been  made.  Owing  to  an  almost 
continuous,  cool,  westerly  sea-breeze,  Kotonu  is,  in  comparison 
with  the  other  coast  towns,  decidedly  healthy  for  white  men. 
Porto  Novo  (pop.  about  50,000),  the  former  French  headquarters 
and  chief  business  centre,  is  on  the  northern  side  of  the  lagoon 
of  the  same  name  and  20  m.  north-east  of  Kotonu  by  water. 
The  town  has  had  many  names,  and  that  by  which  it  is  known 
to  Europeans  was  given  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  i7th  century. 
It  contains  numerous  churches  and  mosques,  public  buildings 
and  merchants'  residences.  Whydah,  23  m.  west  of  Kotonu, 
is  an  old  and  formerly  thickly-populated  town.  Its  population 
is  now  about  15,000.  It  is  built  on  the  north  bank  of  the  coast 
lagoon  about  2  m.  from  the  sea.  There  is  no  harbour  at  the 
beach,  and  landing  is  effected  in  boats  made  expressly  to  pass 
through  the  surf,  here  particularly  heavy.  Whydah,  during  the 
period  of  the  slave-trade,  was  divided  into  five  quarters:  the 
English,  French,  Portuguese,  Brazilian  and  native.  The  three 
first  quarters  once  had  formidable  forts,  of  which  the  French 
fort  alone  survives.  In  consequence  of  the  thousands  of  orange 
and  citron  trees  which  adorn  it,  Whydah  is  called  "  the  garden 
of  Dahomey."  West  of  Whydah,  on  the  coast  and  near  the 
frontier  of  Togoland,  is  the  trading  town  of  Grand  Popo.  Inland 
in  Dahomey  proper  are  Abomey  (<?.».),  the  ancient  capital,  Allada, 
Kana  (formerly  the  country  residence  and  burial-place  of  the 
kings  of  Dahomey)  and  Dogba.  In  the  hinterland  are  Carnot- 
ville  (a  town  of  French  creation),  Nikki  and  Paraku,  Borgu 
towns,  and  Garu,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niger  near  the  British 
frontier,  the  terminus  of  the  railway  from  the  coast. 

Agriculture  and  Trade. — The  agriculture,  trade  and  commerce 
of  Dahomey  proper  are  essentially  different  from  that  of  the 
hinterland  (Haul  Dahomg).  The  soil  of  Dahomey  proper  is 
naturally  fertile  and  is  capable  of  being  highly  cultivated.  It 
consists  of  a  rich  clay  of  a  deep  red  colour.  Finely-powdered 
quartz  and  yellow  mica  are  met  with,  denoting  the  deposit  of 
disintegrated  granite  from  the  interior.  The  principal  product 
is  palm-oil,  which  is  made  in  large  quantities  throughout  the 
country.  The  district  of  Toffo  is  particularly  noted  for  its  oil- 
palm  orchards.  Palm-wine  is  also  made,  but  the  manufacture 


is  discouraged  as  the  process  destroys  the  tree.  Next  to  palm-oil 
the  principal  vegetable  products  are  maize,  guinea-corn,  cassava, 
yams,  sweet  potatoes,  plantains,  coco-nuts,  oranges,  limes  and 
the  African  apple,  which  grows  almost  wild.  The  country  also 
produces  ground-nuts,  kola-nuts,  pine-apples,  guavas,  spices  of 
all  kinds,  ginger,  okros  (Hibiscus),  sugar-cane,  onions,  tomatoes 
and  papaws.  Plantations  of  rubber  trees  and  vines  have  been 
made.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  fowls  are  scarce.  There  is  a 
large  fishing  industry  in  the  lagoons.  Round  the  villages,  and 
here  and  there  in  the  forest,  clearings  are  met  with,  cultivated 
in  places,  but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  condition.  In  the 
grassy  uplands  of  the  interior  cattle  and  horses  thrive,  and 
cotton  of  a  fairly  good  quality  is  grown  by  the  inhabitants 
for  their  own  use.  The  prosperity  of  the  country  depends  chiefly 
on  the  export  of  palm-oil  and  palm-kernels.  Copra,  kola-nuts, 
rubber  and  dried  fish  are  also  exported,  the  fish  going  to  Lagos. 
The  adulteration  of  the  palm-kernels  by  the  natives,  which 
became  a  serious  menace  to  trade,  was  partially  checked  (1900- 
1903)  by  measures  taken  to  ensure  the  inspection  of  the  kernels 
before  shipment.  Trade  is  mainly  with  Germany  and  Great 
Britain,  a  large  proportion  of  the  cargo  passing  through  the 
British  port  of  Lagos.  Only  some  25  %  of  the  commerce  is 
with  France.  Cotton  goods  (chiefly  from  Great  Britain), 
machinery  and  metals,  alcohol  (from  Germany)  and  tobacco  are 
the  chief  imports.  The  volume  of  trade,  which  had  increased 
from  £701,000  in  1898  to  £1,230,000  in  1902,  declined  in  1903  to 
£826,000  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  rain,  this  causing  a 
decrease  in  the  production  of  palm-oil  and  kernels.  In  1904  the 
total  rose  to  £873,399.  In  1905  the  figure  was  £734,667,  and  in 
1907  £853,051.  By  the  Anglo-French  Convention  of  1898  the 
imposition  of  differential  duties  on  goods  of  British  origin  was 
forbidden  for  a  period  of  thirty  year's  from  that  date. 

Communications. — The  Dahomey  railway  from  Kotonu  to  the 
Niger  is  of  metre  gauge  (3-28  ft.).  Work  was  begun  in  1900,  and 
in  1902  the  main  line  was  completed  to  Toffo,  a  distance  of  55  m. 
Some  difficulty  was  then  encountered  in  crossing  the  Lama 
Marsh,  but  by  the  end  of  1905  the  railway  had  been  carried 
through  Abomey  to  Pauignan,  120  m.  from  Kotonu.  In  1907 
the  rails  had  reached  Paraku,  150  m.  farther  north.  A  branch 
railway  from  the  main  line  serves  the  western  part  of  the  colony. 
It  goes  via  Whydah  to  Segborue  on  Lake  Aheme.  Besides  the 
railways,  tramway  lines  exist  in  various  parts  of  Dahomey.  One, 
28  m.  long,  runs  from  Porto  Novo  through  the  market-town  of 
Adjara  to  Sakete,  close  to  the  British  frontier  in  the  direction 
of  Lagos.  This  line  serves  a  belt  of  country  rich  in  oil-palms. 
Kotonu  is  a  regular  port  of  call  for  steamers  from  Europe  to  the 
West  Coast,  and  there  is  also  regular  steamship  communication 
along  the  lagoons  between  Porto  Novo  and  Lagos.  There  is  a 
steamboat  service  between  Porto  Novo  and  Kotonu.  A  telegraph 
line  connects  Kotonu  with  Abomey,  the  Niger  and  Senegal. 

Administration. — The  colony  is  administered  by  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  assisted  by  a  council  composed  of  official  and  unofficial 
members.  The  colony  is  divided  into  territories  annexed, 
territories  protected,  and  "  territories  of  political  action,"  but 
for  administrative  purposes  the  division  is  into  "  circles  "  or 
provinces.  Over  each  circle  is  an  administrator  with  extensive 
powers.  Except  in  the  annexed  territories  the  native  states  are 
maintained  under  French  supervision,  and  native  laws  and 
customs,  as  far  as  possible,  retained.  Natives,  however,  may 
place  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  French  law.  Such 
natives  are  known  as  "  Assimiles."  In  general  the  adminis- 
trative system  is  the  same  as  that  for  all  the  colonies  of  French 
West  Africa  (<?.».).  The  chief  source  of  revenue  is  the  customs, 
while  the  capitation  tax  contributes  most  to  the  local  budget. 

History. — The  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  like  those  of  Benin  and 
Ashanti,  is  an  instance  of  a  purely  negro  and  pagan  state, 
endowed  with  a  highly  organized  government,  and  possessing 
a  certain  amount  of  indigenous  civilization  and  culture.  Its 
history  begins  about  the  commencement  of  the  I7th  century. 
At  that  period  the  country  now  known  as  Dahomey  was  included 
in  the  extensive  kingdom  of  Allada  or  Ardrah,  of  which  the 
capital  was  the  present  town  of  Allada,  on  the  road  from  Whydah 


DAHOMEY 


to  Abomey.  Allada  became  dismembered  on  the  death  of  a 
reigning  sovereign,  and  three  separate  kingdoms  were  constituted 
under  his  three  sons.  One  state  was  formed  by  one  brother 
round  the  old  capital  of  Allada,' and  retained  the  name  of  Allada 
or  Ardrah;  another  brother  migrated  to  the  east  and  formed 
a  state  known  under  the  name  of  Porto  Novo;  while  the  third 
brother,  Takudonu,  travelled  northwards,  and  after  some 
vicissitudes  established  the  kingdom  of  Dahomey.  The  word 
Dahomey  means  "  in  Danh's  belly,"  and  is  explained  by  the 
following  legend  which,  says  Sir  Richard  Burton,  "  is  known 
(1864)  to  everybody  in  the  kingdom."  Takudonu  having  settled 
in  a  town  called  Uhwawe  encroached  on  the  land  of  a  neighbouring 
chief  named  Danh  (the  snake).  Takudonu  wearied  Danh  by 
perpetual  demands  for  land,  and  the  chief  one  day  exclaimed  in 
anger  "  soon  thou  wilt  build  in  my  belly."  So  it  came  to  pass. 
Takudonu  slew  Danh  and  over  his  grave  built  himself  a  palace 
which  was  called  Dahomey,  a  name  thenceforth  adopted  by 
the  new  king's  followers.  About  1724-1728  Dahomey,  having 
become  a  powerful  state,  invaded  and  conquered  successively 
Allada  and  Whydah.  The  Whydahs  made  several  attempts  to 
recover  their  freedom,  but  without  success;  while  on  the  other 
hand  the  Dahomeyans  failed  in  all  their  expeditions  against 
Grand  Popo,  a  town  founded  by  refugee  Whydahs  on  a  lagoon 
to  the  west.  It  is  related  that  the  repulses  they  met  with  in  that 
quarter  led  to  the  order  that  no  Dahomeyan  warrior  was  to  enter 
a  canoe.  Porto  Novo  at  the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century 
became  tributary  to  Dahomey. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  at  the  accession  of  King  Gezo 
about  the  year  1818.  This  monarch,  who  reigned  forty  years, 
raised  the  power  of  Dahomey  to  its  highest  pitch,  extending 
greatly  the  border  of  his  kingdom  to  the  north.  He  boasted  of 
having  first  organized  the  Amazons,  a  force  of  women  to  whom 
he  attributed  his  successes.  The  Amazons,  however,  were  state 
soldiery  long  before  Gezo's  reign,  and  what  that  monarch  really 
did  was  to  reorganize  and  strengthen  the  force. 

In  1851  Gezo  attacked  Abeokuta  in  the  Yoruba  country  and 
the  centre  of  the  Egba  power,  but  was  beaten  back.  In  the 
same  year  the  king  signed  a  commercial  treaty  with  France,  in 
which  Gezo  also  undertook  to  preserve  "  the  integrity  of  the 
territory  belonging  to  the  French  fort  "  at  Whydah.  The  fort 
referred  to  was  one  built  in  the'  i7th  century,  and  in  1842  made 
over  to  a  French  mercantile  house.  England,  Portugal  and 
Brazil  also  had  "  forts  "  at  Whydah — all  in  a  ruinous  condition 
and  ungarrisoned.  But  when  in  1852  England,  to  prevent  the 
slave-trade,  blockaded  the  Dahomeyan  coast,  energetic  protests 
were  made  by  Portugal  and  France,  based  on  the  existence  of 
these  "  forts."  In  1858  Gezo  died.  He  had  greatly  reduced 
the  custom  of  human  sacrifice,  and  left  instructions  that  after 
his  death  there  was  to  be  no  general  sacrifice  of  the  palace 
women. 

Gezo  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Glegle  (or  Gelele) ,  whose  attacks 
on  neighbouring  states,  persecution  of  native  Christians,  and 
encouragement  of  the  slave-trade  involved  him  in  difficulties 
with  Great  Britain  and  with  France.  It  was,  said  Earl  Russell, 
foreign  secretary,  to  check  "  the  aggressive  spirit  of  the  king  of 
Dahomey  "  that  England  in  1861  annexed  the  island  of  Lagos. 
Nevertheless  in  the  following  year  Glegle  captured  Ishagga  and 
in  1864  unsuccessfully  attacked  Abeokuta,  both  towns  in  the 
Lagos  hinterland.  In  1863  Commander  Wilmot,  R.N.,  and  in 
1864  Sir  Richard  Burton  (the  explorer  and  orientalist)  were 
sent  on  missions  to  the  king,  but  their  efforts  to  induce  the 
Dahomeyans  to  give  up  human  sacrifices,  slave-trading,  &c. 
met  with  no  success.  In  1863,  however,  a  step  was  taken  by 
France  which  was  the  counterpart  of  the  British  annexation  of 
Lagos.  In  that  year  the  kingdom  of  Porto  Novo  accepted  a 
French  protectorate,  and  an  Anglo-French  agreement  of  1864 
fixed  its  boundaries.  This  protectorate  was  soon  afterwards 
abandoned  by  Napoleon  III.,  but  was  re-established  in  1882. 
At  this  period  the  rivalry  of  European  powers  for  possessions  in 
Africa  was  becoming  acute,  and  German  agents  appeared  on 
the  Dahomeyan  coast.  However,  by  an  arrangement  concluded 
in  1885,  the  German  'protectorate  in  Guinea  was  confined  to 


Togo,  save  for  the  town  of  Little  Popo  at  the  western  end  of  the 
lagoon  of  Grand  Popo.  In  January  1886  Portugal — in  virtue 
of  her  ancient  rights  at  Whydah — announced  that  she  had 
assumed  a  protectorate  over  the  Dahomeyan  coast,  but  she  was 
induced  by  France  to  withdraw  her  protectorate  in  December 
1887.  Finally,  the  last  international  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
France  was  removed  by  the  Anglo-French  agreement  of  1889, 
whereby  Kotonu  was  surrendered  by  Great  Britain.  France 
claimed  rights  at  Kotonu  in  virtue  of  treaties  concluded  with 
Glegle  in  1868  and  1878,  but  the  chiefs  of  the  town  had  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  British  at  Lagos. 

With  the  arrangements  between  the  European  powers  the 
Dahomeyans  had  little  to  do,  and  in  1889,  the  year  in  which  the 
Anglo-French  agreement  was  signed,  trouble  arose  between 
Glegle  and  the  French.  The  Dahomeyans  were  the  more  con- 
fident, as  through  German  and  other  merchants  at  Whydah  they 
were  well  supplied  with  modern  arms  and  ammunition.  Glegle 
claimed  the  right  to  collect  the  customs  at  Kotonu,  and  to  depose 
the  king  of  Porto  Novo,  and  proceeded  to  raid  the  territory  of 
that  potentate  (his  brother).  A  French  mission  sent  to  Abomey 
failed  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  the  Dahomeyans,  who 
attributed  the  misunderstandings  to  the  fact  that  there  was  no 
longer  a  king  in  France!  Glegle  died  on  the  2&th  of  December 
1889,  two  days  after  the  French  mission  had  left  his  capital. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Behanzin.  A  French  force  was 
landed  at  Kotonu,  and  severe  fighting  followed  in  which  the 
Amazons  played  a  conspicuous  part.  In  October  1890  a  treaty 
was  signed  which  secured  to  France  Porto  Novo  and  Kotonu, 
and  to  the  king  of  Dahomey  an  annual  pension  of  £800.  It  was 
unlikely  that  peace  on  such  terms  would  prove  lasting,  and 
Behanzin's  slave-raiding  expeditions  led  in  1892  to  a  new  war 
with  France.  General  A.  A.  Dodds  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
strong  force  of  Europeans  and  Senegalese,  and  after  a  sharp 
campaign  during  September  and  October  completely  defeated 
the  Dahomeyan  troops.  Behanzin  set  fire  to  Abomey  (entered 
by  the  French  troops  on  the  i7th  of  November)  and  fled  north. 
Pursued  by  the  enemy,  abandoned  by  his  people,  he  surrendered 
unconditionally  on  the  2sth  of  January  1894,  and  was  deported 
to  Martinique,  being  transferred  in  1906  to  Algeria,  where  he 
died  on  the  roth  of  December  of  the  same  year. 

Thus  ended  the  independent  existence  of  Dahomey.  The 
French  divided  the  kingdom  in  two — Abomey  and  Allada — 
placing  on  the  throne  of  Abomey  a  brother  of  the  exiled  monarch. 
Chief  among  the  causes  which  led  to  the  collapse  of  the 
Dahomeyan  kingdom  was  the  system  which  devoted  the  flower 
of  its  womanhood  to  the  profession  of  arms. 

Whydah  and  the  adjacent  territory  was  annexed  to  France  by 
General  Dodds  on  the  3rd  of  December  1892,  and  the  rest  of 
Dahomey  placed  under  a  French  protectorate  at  the  same  time. 
The  prince  who  had  been  made  king  of  Abomey  was  found 
intriguing  against  the  French,  and  in  1900  was  exiled  by  them 
to  the  Congo,  and  with  him  disappeared  the  last  vestige  of 
Dahomeyan  sovereignty. 

Dahomey  conquered,  the  French  at  once  set  to  work  to  secure 
as  much  of  the  hinterland  as  possible.  On  the  north  they  pene- 
trated to  the  Niger,  on  the  east  they  entered  Borgu  (a  country 
claimed  by  the  Royal  Niger  Company  for  Great  Britain),  on  the 
west  they  overlapped  the  territory  claimed  by  Germany  as  the 
hinterland  of  Togo.  The  struggle  with  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many for  supremacy  in  this  region  forms  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting chapters  in  the  story  of  the  partition  of  Africa.  In  the 
result  France  succeeded  in  securing  a  junction  between  Dahomey 
and  her  other  possessions  in  West  Africa,  but  failed  to  secure  any 
part  of  the  Niger  navigable  from  the  sea  (see  AFRICA:  History, 
and  NIGERIA).  A  Franco-German  convention  of  1897  settled 
the  boundary  on  the  west,  and  the  Anglo-French  convention  of 
the  i4th  of  June  1898  defined  the  frontier  on  the  east.  In  1899, 
on  the  disintegration  of  the  French  Sudan,  the  districts  of  Fada 
N'Gurma  and  Say,  lying  north  of  Borgu,  were  added  to  Dahomey, 
but  in  1907  they  were  transferred  to  Upper  Senegal-Niger,  with 
which  colony  they  are  closely  connected  both  geographically  and 
ethnographically.  From  1894  onward  the  French  devoted  great 


DAILLE— DAIRY 


737 


attention  to  the  development  of  the  material  resources  of  the 
country. 

The  "  Customs." — Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
Dahomey  "  Customs,"  which  gave  the  country  an  infamous 
notoriety.  The  "  Customs  "  appear  to  date  from  the  middle  of 
the  iyth  century,  and  were  of  two  kinds:  the  grand  Customs 
performed  on  the  death  of  a  king;  and  the  minor  Customs, 
held  twice  a  year.  The  horrors  of  these  saturnalia  of  bloodshed 
were  attributable  not  to  a  love  of  cruelty  but  to  filial  piety. 
Upon  the  death  of  a  king  human  victims  were  sacrificed  at  his 
grave  to  supply  him  with  wives,  attendants,  &c.  in  the  spirit 
world.  The  grand  Customs  surpassed  the  annual  rites  in  splen- 
dour and  bloodshed.  At  those  held  in  1791  during  January, 
February  and  March,  it  is  stated  that  no  fewer  than  500  men, 
women  and  children  were  put  to  death.  The  minor  Customs 
were  first  heard  cf  in  Europe  in  the  early  years  of  the  i8th 
century.  They  formed  continuations  of  the  grand  Customs, 
and  "  periodically  supplied  the  departed  monarch  with  fresh 
attendants  in  the  shadowy  world."  The  actual  slaughter  was 
preluded  by  dancing,  feasting,  speechmaking  and  elaborate 
ceremonial.  The  victims,  chiefly  prisoners  of  war,  were  dressed 
in  calico  shirts  decorated  round  the  neck  and  down  the  sleeves 
with  red  bindings,  and  with  a  crimson  patch  on  the  left  breast, 
and  wore  long  white  night-caps  with  spirals  of  blue  ribbon  sewn 
on.  Some  of  them,  tied  in  baskets,  were  at  one  stage  of  the 
proceedings  taken  to  the  top  of  a  high  platform,  together  with 
an  alligator,  a  cat  and  a  hawk  in  similar  baskets,  and  paraded  on 
the  heads  of  the  Amazons.  The  king  then  made  a  speech  ex- 
plaining that  the  victims  were  sent  to  testify  to  his  greatness  in 
spirit-land,  the  men  and  the  animals  each  to  their  kind.  They 
were  then  hurled  down  into  the  middle  of  a  surging  crowd  of 
natives,  and  butchered.  At  another  stage  of  the  festival  human 
sacrifices  were  offered  at  the  shrine  of  the  king's  ancestors,  and 
the  blood  was  sprinkled  on  their  graves.  This  was  known  as 
Zan  Nyanyana  or  "  evil  night,"  the  king  going  in  procession  with 
bis  wives  and  officials  and  himself  executing  the  doomed.  These 
semi-public  massacres  formed  only  a  part  of  the  slaughter,  for 
many  women,  eunuchs  and  others  within  the  palace  were  done 
to  death  privately.  The  skulls  were  used  to  adorn  the  palace 
walls,  and  the  king's  sleeping-chamber  was  paved  with  the  heads 
of  his  enemies.  The  skulls  of  the  conquered  kings  were  turned 
into  royal  drinking  cups,  their  conversion  to  this  use  being 
esteemed  an  honour.  Sir  Richard  Burton  insists  (A  Mission  to 
Gelele,  King  of  Dahome)  that  the  horrors  of  these  rites  were 
greatly  exaggerated.  For  instance,  the  story  that  the  king 
floated  a  canoe  in  a  tank  of  human  blood  was,  he  writes,  quite 
untrue.  He  denies,  too,  that  the  victims  were  tortured,  and 
affirms  that  on  the  contrary  they  were  treated  humanely,  and, 
in  many  cases,  even  acquiesced  in  their  fate.  It  seems  that 
cannibalism  was  a  sequel  of  the  Customs,  the  bodies  of  the 
slaughtered  being  roasted  and  devoured  smoking  hot.  On  the 
death  of  the  king  the  wives,  after  the  most  extravagant  demon- 
strations of  grief,  broke  and  destroyed  everything  within 
their  reach,  and  attacked  and  murdered  each  other,  the  uproar 
continuing  until  order  was  restored  by  the  new  sovereign. 

Amazonian  Army. — The  training  of  women  as  soldiers  was 
the  most  singular  Dahomeyan  institution.  About  one-fourth  of 
the  whole  female  population  were  said  to  be  "  married  to  the 
fetich,"  many  even  before  their  birth,  and  the  remainder  were 
entirely  at  the  disposal  of  the  king.  The  most  favoured  were 
selected  as  his  own  wives  or  enlisted  into  the  regiments  of 
Amazons,  and  then  the  chief  men  were  liberally  supplied.  Of 
the  female  captives  the  most  promising  were  drafted  into  the 
ranks  as  soldiers,  and  the  rest  became  Amazonian  camp  followers 
and  slaves  in  the  royal  households.  These  female  levies  formed 
the  flower  of  the  Dahomeyan  army.  They  were  marshalled  in 
regiments,  each  with  its  distinctive  uniform  and  badges,  and  they 
took  the  post  of  honour  in  all  battles.  Their  number  has  been 
variously  stated.  Sir  R.  F.  Burton,  in  1862,  who  saw  the  army 
marching  out  of  Kana  on  an  expedition,  computed  the  whole 
force  of  female  troops  at  2500,  of  whom  one-third  were  unarmed 
or  only  half-armed.  Their  weapons  were  blunderbusses,  flint 

vn.  24 


muskets,  and  bows  and  arrows.  A  later  writer  estimated  the 
number  of  Amazons  at  1000,  and  the  male  soldiers  at  10,000. 
The  system  of  warfare  was  one  of  surprise.  The  army  marched 
out,  and,  when  within  a  few  days'  journey  of  the  town  to  be 
attacked,  silence  was  enjoined  and  no  fires  permitted.  The 
regular  highways  were  avoided,  and  the  advance  was  by  a  road 
specially  cut  through  the  bush.  The  town  was  surrounded  at 
night,  and  just  before  daybreak  a  rush  was  made  and  every  soul 
captured  if  possible;  none  were  killed  except  in  self-defence,  as 
the  first  object  was  to  capture,  not  to  kill.  The  season  usually 
selected  for  expeditions  was  from  January  to  March,  or  immedi- 
ately after  the  annual  "  Customs."  The  Amazons  were  carefully 
trained,  and  the  king  was  in  the  habit  of  holding  "autumn 
manoeuvres  "  for  the  benefit  of  foreigners.  Many  Europeans 
have  witnessed  a  mimic  assault,  and  agree  in  ascribing  a  marvel- 
lous power  of  endurance  to  the  women.  Lines  of  thorny  acacia 
were  piled  up  one  behind  the  other  to  represent  defences,  and  at 
a  given  signal  the  Amazons,  barefooted  and  without  any  special 
protection,  charged  and  disappeared  from  sight.  Presently  they 
emerged  within  the  lines  torn  and  bleeding,  but  apparently 
insensible  to  pain,  and  the  parade  closed  with  a  march  past,  each 
warrior  leading  a  pretended  captive  bound  with  a  rope. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Notre  Colonie  de  Dahomey,  by  G.  Francois 
(Paris,  1906),  and  Le  Dahomey  (1909),  an  official  publication,  deal 
with  topography,  ethnography  and  economics;  L.  Brunei  and  L. 
Giethlen,  Dohomey  et  dependences  (Paris,  1900) ;  Edouard  Foa,  Le 
Dahomey  (Paris,  1895).  Religion,  laws  and  language  are  specially 
dealt  with  in  Ewe-Speaking  Peoples  of  the  Slave  Coast,  by  A.  B. 
Ellis  (London,  1890),  and  in  La  Cote  des  Esclaves  et  le,  Dahomey,  by 
P.  Bouche  (Paris,  1885).  Much  historical  matter,  with  particular 
notices  of  the  Amazons  and  the  "  Customs,"  is  contained  in  A  Mission 
to  Gelele,  by  Sir  R.  Burton  (London,  1864).  The  story  of  the  French 
conquest  is  told  in  Campagne  du  Dahomey,  by  Jules  Poirier  (Paris, 
1895).  The  standard  authority  on  the  early  history  is  The  History 
of  Dahomey,  by  Archibald  Dalzel  (sometime  governor  of  the  English 
fort  at  Whydah)  (London,  1793).  The  annual  Reports  issued  by  the 
British,  Foreign,  and  French  Colonial  Offices  may  be  consulted,  and 
the  Biblioeraphie  raisonnee  des  outrages  concernant  le  Dahomey, 
by  A.  Pawlowski  (Paris,  1895),  is  a  useful  guide  to  the  literature  of 
the  country  to  that  date.  A  Carte  du  Dahomey,  by  A.  Meunier, 
(3  sheets,  scale  I  :  500,000),  was  published  in  Paris,  1907. 

DAILLE  (DALLAEUS),  JEAN  (1594-1670),  French  Protestant 
divine,  was  born  at  Chatellerault  and  educated  at  Poitiers  and 
Saumur.  From  1612  to  1621  he  was  tutor  to  two  of  the  grand- 
sons of  Philippe  de  Mornay,  seigneur  du  Plessis  Marly.  Ordained 
to  the  ministry  in  1623,  he  was  for  some  time  private  chaplain 
to  Du  Plessis  Mornay,  whose  memoirs  he  subsequently  wrote. 
In  1625  Daille  was  appointed  minister  of  the  church  of  Saumur, 
and  in  1626  was  chosen  by  the  Paris  consistory  to  be  minister 
of  the  church  of  Charenton.  Of  his  works,  which  are  principally 
controversial,  the  best  known  is  the  treatise  Du  vrai  emploi  des 
Peres  (1631),  translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Smith  under 
the  title  A  Treatise  concerning  the  right  use  of  the  Fathers  (1651). 
The  work  attacks  those  who  made  the  authority  of  the  Fathers 
conclusive  on  matters  of  faith  and  practice.  Daille  contends 
that  the  text  of  the  Fathers  is  often  corrupt,  and  that  even 
when  it  is  correct  their  reasoning  is  often  illogical.  In  his 
Sermons  on  the  Philippians  and  Colossians,  Daille  vindicated 
his  claim  to  rank  as  a  great  preacher  as  well  as  an  able  contro- 
versialist. He  was  president  of  the  last  national  synod  held 
in  France,  which  met  at  Loudun  in  1659  (H.  M.  Baird,  Thf 
Huguenots  and  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1895,  '• 
pp.  412  ff.),  when,  as  in  the  Apologie  des  Synodes  d'Alen^on 
et  de  Charenton  (1655),  ne  defended  the  universalism  of  Moses 
Amyraut.  He  wrote  also  Apologie  pour  les  Eglises  Riformies 
and  La  Foy  fondte  sur  les  Saintes  Ecritures.  His  life  was  written 
by  his  son  Adrien,  who  retired  to  Zurich  at  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes. 

DAIRY  and  DAIRY-FARMING  (from  the  Mid.  Eng.  deieris, 
from  dey,  a  maid-servant,  particularly  one  about  a  farm;  cf. 
Norw.  deia,  as  in  bu-deia,  a  maid  in  charge  of  live-stock,  and  in 
other  compounds;  thus  "  dairy  "  means  that  part  of  the  farm 
buildings  where  the  "  dey  "  works).  Milk,  either  in  its  natural 
state,  or  in  the  form  of  butter  and  cheese,  is  an  article  of  diet  so 
useful,  wholesome  and  palatable,  that  dairy  management,  which 


738 


DAIRY 


includes  all  that  concerns  its  production  and  treatment,  con- 
stitutes a  most  important  branch  of  husbandry.  The  physical 
conditions  of  the  different  countries  of  the  world  have  determined 
in  each  case  the  most  suitable  animal  for  dairy  purposes.  The 
Laplander  obtains  his  supplies  of  milk  from  his  rein-deer,  the 
roving  Tatar  from  his  mares,  and  the  Bedouin  of  the  desert 
from  his  camels.  In  the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth  many 
pastoral  tribes  subsist  mainly  upon  the  milk  of  the  sheep.  In 
some  rocky  regions  the  goat  is  invaluable  as  a  milk-yielder;  and 
the  buffalo  is  equally  so  amid  the  swamps  and  jungles  of  tropical 
climates.  The  milking  of  ewes  was  once  a  common  practice  in 
Great  Britain;  but  it  has  fallen  into  disuse  because  of  its  hurtful 
effects  upon  the  flock.  A  few  milch  asses  and  goats  are  here 
and  there  kept  for  the  benefit  of  infants  or  invalids;  but  with 
these  exceptions  the  cow  is  the  only  animal  now  used  for  dairy 
purposes. 

No  branch  of  agriculture  underwent  greater  changes  during 
the  closing  quarter  of  the  ipth  century  than  dairy-farming; 
within  the  period  named,  indeed,  the  dairying  industry  may  be 
said  to  have  been  revolutionized.  The  two  great  factors  in  this 
modification  were  the  introduction  about  the  year  1880  of  the 
centrifugal  cream-separator,  whereby  the  old  slow  system  of 
raising  cream  in  pans  was  dispensed  with,  and  the  invention 
some  ten  years  later  of  a  quick  and  easy  method  of  ascertaining 
the  fat  content  of  samples  of  milk  without  having  to  resort  to 
the  tedious  processes  of  chemical  analysis.  About  the  year  1875 
the  agriculturists  of  the  United  Kingdom,  influenced  by  various 
economic  causes,  began  to  turn  their  thoughts  more  intently  in 
the  direction  of  dairy-farming,  and  to  the  increased  production 
of  milk  and  cream,  butter  and  cheese.  On  the  24th  of  October 
1876  was  held  the  first  London  dairy  show,  under  the  auspices 
of  a  committee  of  agriculturists,  and  it  has  been  followed  by  a 
similar  show  in  every  subsequent  year.  The  official  report  of  the 
pioneer  show  stated  that  "  there  was  a  much  larger  attendance 
and  a  greater  amount  of  enthusiasm  in  the  movement  than  even 
the  most  sanguine  of  its  promoters  anticipated."  On  the  day 
named  Professor  J.  Prince  Sheldon  read  at  the  show  a  paper  on 
the  dairying  industry,  and  proposed  the  formation  of  a  society 
to  be  called  the  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association.  This  was 
unanimously  agreed  to,  and  thus  was  founded  an  organization 
which  has  since  been  closely  identified  with  the  development  of 
the  dairying  industry  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  its  earlier 
publications  the  Association  was  wont  to  reproduce  from  House- 
hold Words  the  following  tribute  to  the  cow: — 

"  If  civilized  people  were  ever  to  lapse  into  the  worship  of  animals, 
the  Cow  would  certainly  be  their  chief  goddess.  What  a  fountain 
of  blessings  is  the  Cow!  She  is  the  mother  of  beef,  the  source  of 
butter,  the  original  cause  of  cheese,  to  say  nothing  of  shoe-horns, 
hair-combs  and  upper  leather.  A  gentle,  amiable,  ever-yielding 
creature,  who  has  no  joy  in  her  family  affairs  which  she  does  not 
share  with  man.  We  rob  her  of  her  children  that  we  may  rob  her 
of  her  milk,  and  we  only  care  for  her  when  the  robbing  may  be 
perpetrated." 

The  association  has,  directly  or  indirectly,  brought  about 
many  valuable  reforms  and  improvements  in  dairying.  Its 
London  shows  have  provided,  year  after  year,  a  variety  of 
object-lessons  in  cheese,  in  butter  and  in  dairy  equipment.  In 
order  to  demonstrate  to  producers  what  is  the  ideal  to  aim  at, 
there  is  nothing  more  effective  than  a  competitive  exhibition  of 
products,  and  the  approach  to  uniform  excellence  of  character 
in  cheese  and  butter  of  whatever  kinds  is  most  obvious  to  those 
who  remember  what  these  products  were  like  at  the  first  two  or 
three  dairy  shows.  Simultaneously  there  has  been  a  no  less 
marked  advance  in  the  mechanical  aids  to  dairying,  including, 
in  particular,  the  centrifugal  cream-separator,  the  crude  germ 
of  which  was  first  brought  before  the  public  at  the  international 
dairy  show  held  at  Hamburg  in  the  spring  of  1877.  The  associa- 
tion in  good  time  set  the  example,  now  beneficially  followed  in 
many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  of  providing  means  for  technical 
instruction  in  the  making  of  cheese  and  butter,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  dairy  school  in  the  Vale  of  Aylesbury,  subsequently 
removing  it  to  new  and  excellent  premises  at  Reading,  where 
it  is  known  as  the  British  Dairy  Institute.  The  initiation  of 


butter-making  contests  at  the  annual  dairy  shows  stimulated 
the  competitive  instinct  of  dairy  workers,  and  afforded  the 
public  useful  object-lessons;  in  more  recent  years  milking 
competitions  have  been  added.  Milking  trials  and  butter  tests 
of  cows  conducted  at  the  dairy  shows  have  afforded  results  of 
much  practical  value.  Many  of  the  larger  agricultural  societies 
have  found  it  expedient  to  include  in  their  annual  shows  a  work- 
ing dairy,  wherein  butter-making  contests  are  held  and  public 
demonstrations  are  given. 

What  are  regarded  as  the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  is  illustrated 
by  the  prize  schedule  of  the  annual  London  dairy  show,  in  which 
sections  are  provided  for  cows  and  heifers  of  the  Shorthorn, 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  Red  Polled,  Ayrshire,  Kerry  and  Dexter 
breeds  (see  CATTLE).  A  miscellaneous  class  is  also  provided, 
the  entries  in  which  are  mostly  cross-breds.  There  are  likewise 
classes  for  Shorthorn  bulls,  Jersey  bulls,  and  bulls  of  any  other 
pure  breed,  but  it  is  stipulated  that  all  bulls  must  be  of  proved 
descent  from  dams  that  have  won  prizes  in  the  milking  trials  or 
butter  tests  of  the  British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association  or  other 
high-class  agricultural  society.  The  importance  of  securing 
dairy  characters  in  the  sire  is  thus  recognized,  and  it  is  notified 
that,  as  the  object  of  the  bull  classes  is  to  encourage  the  breeding 
of  bulls  for  dairy  purposes,  the  prizes  are  to  be  given  solely  to 
animals  exhibited  in  good  stock-getting  condition. 
MILK  AND  BUTTER  TESTS 

The  award  of  prizes  in  connexion  with  milking  trials  cannot 
be  determined  simply  by  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  in  a  given 
period,  say  twenty-four  hours.  Other  matters  must  obviously 
be  taken  into  consideration,  such  as  the  quality  of  the  milk  and 
the  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  birth  of  the  last  calf.  With 
regard  to  the  former  point,  for  example,  it  is  quite  possible  for 
one  cow  to  give  more  milk  than  another,  but  for  the  milk  of  the 
second  cow  to  include  the  larger  quantity  of  butter-fat.  The 
awards  are  therefore  determined  by  the  total  number  of  points 
obtained  according  to  the  following  scheme: — 

One  point  for  every  ten  days  since  calving  (deducting  the  first 
forty  days),  with  a  maximum  of  fourteen  points. 

One  point  for  every  pound  of  milk,  taking  the  average  of  two 
days'  yield. 

Twenty  points  for  every  pound  of  butter-fat  produced. 

Four  points  for  every  pound  of  "  solids  other  than  fat." 

Deductions. — Ten  points  each  time  the  fat  is  below  3  %. 

Ten  points  each  time  the  solids  other  than  fat  fall  below  8-5  %. 

This  method  of  award  is  at  present  the  best  that  can  be  devised, 
but  it  is  possible  that,  as  experience  accumulates,  some  rearrange- 
ment of  the  points  may  be  found  to  be  desirable.  Omitting 
many  of  the  details,  Table  I.  shows  some  of  the  results  in  the 
case  of  Shorthorn  and  Jersey  prize  cows.  The  days  "  in  milk  " 
denote  in  each  case  the  number  of  days  that  have  elapsed  since 

TABLE  I. — Prize  Shorthorn  and  Jersey  Cows  in  the  Milking  Trials, 
London  Dairy  Show,  /poo. 


Cow. 

Age. 

In 

Milk. 

Milk 
per 
Day. 

Fat. 

Other 
Solids. 

Total 
Points. 

Years. 

Days. 

lb 

% 

% 

No. 

Shorthorns     eligible 

for  Herd-Book  — 

Heroine  III. 

6 

61 

52-4 

3-7 

8-3 

91-5 

M  usical 

7 

16 

45-2 

3-2 

9-3 

90-8 

Lady  Rosedale     . 

8 

48 

47-8 

3-5 

9-0 

88-7 

Shorthorns  not  eli- 

gible   for    Herd- 

Book  — 

Granny 

9 

33 

70-2 

3'5 

8-9 

144-1 

Cherry 

9 

103 

55-5 

4-0 

8-9 

127-1 

Chance 

6 

23 

60-0 

3-6 

8-9 

124-6 

Jerseys  — 

Sultane  I4th 

12 

256 

41-7 

4-9 

9-4 

112 

8ueen  Bess 

7i 

136 

39-4 

4-8 

9-0 

101 

loaming  IV. 

7 

156 

30-5 

6-7 

9-5 

94-9 

calving;  and  if  the  one  day's  yield  of  milk  is  desired  in  gallons, 
it  can  be  obtained  approximately '  by  dividing  the  weight  in 
1  A  gallon  of  milk  weighs  10-3  Ib,  so  that  very  little  error  is  in- 
volved in  converting  pounds  to  gallons  by  dividing  the  number  of 
pounds  by  10. 


DAIRY 


739 


pounds  by  10:  thus,  the  Shorthorn  cow  Heroine  III.  gave  52.4  Ib, 
or  5.24  gallons,  of  milk  per  day.  The  table  is  incidentally  of 
interest  as  showing  how  superior  as  milch  kine  are  the  un- 
registered or  non-pedigree  Shorthorns — which  are  typical  of 
the  great  majority  of  dairy  cows  in  the  United  Kingdom — as 
compared  with  the  pedigree  animals  entered,  or  eligible  for  entry, 
in  Coates's  Herd-Book.  The  evening's  milk,  it  should  be  added, 
is  nearly  always  richer  in  fat  than  the  morning's,  but  the  per- 
centages in  the  table  relate  to  the  entire  day's  milk. 

The  milking  trials  are  based  upon  a  chemical  test,  as  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  the  percentage  of  fat  and  of  solids  other 
than  fat  in  each  sample  of  milk.  The  butter  test,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  churn  test,  as  the  cream  has  to  be  separated  from 
the  milk  and  churned.  The  following  is  the  scale  of  points 
used  at  the  London  dairy  show  in  making  awards  in  butter 
tests:— 

One  point  for  every  ounce  of  butter;  one  point  for  every  com- 
pleted ten  days  since  calving,  deducting  the  first  forty  days.  Maxi- 
mum allowance  for  period  of  lactation,  12  points. 

Fractions  of  ounces  of  butter,  and  incomplete  periods  of  less  than 
ten  days,  to  be  worked  out  in  decimals  and  added  to  the  total 
points. 

In  the  case  of  cows  obtaining  the  same  number  of  points,  the 
prize  to  be  awarded  to  the  cow  that  has  been  the  longest  time  in 
milk. 

No  prize  or  certificate  to  be  given  in  the  case  of: — 

(a)  Cows  under  five  years  old  failing  to  obtain  28  points, 
(ft)  Cows  five  years  old  and  over  failing  to  obtain  32  points. 

The  manner  in  which  butter  tests  are  decided  will  be  rendered 
clear  by  a  study  of  Table  II.  It  is  seen  that  whilst  the  much 
larger  Shorthorn  cows — having  a  bigger  frame  to  maintain 
and  consuming  more  food — gave  both  more  milk  and  more 


tests  conducted  by  the  English  Jersey  Cattle  Society  over  the 
period  of  fourteen  years  1886  to  1899  inclusive.  These  tests 
were  carried  out  year  after  year  at  half  a  dozen  different  shows, 
and  the  results  are  classified  in  Table  III.  according  to  the  age 
of  the  animals.  The  average  time  in  milk  is  measured  by  the 
number  of  days  since  calving,  and  the  milk  and  butter  yields 
are  those  for  the  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  last  column 
shows  the  "  butter  ratio."  This  number  is  lower  in  the  case 
of  the  Jerseys  than  in  that  of  the  general  run  of  dairy  cows. 
The  average  results  from  the  total  of  1023  cows  of  the  various 
ages  are: — One  day's  milk,  32  Ib  2j  oz.,  equal  to  about  3  gallons 
or  12  quarts;  one  day's  butter,  i  tb  lof  oz.;  butter  ratio, 
19-13  or  about  16  pints  of  milk  to  i  Ib  of  butter.  Individual 
yields  are  sometimes  extraordinarily  high.  Thus  at  the  Tring 
show  in  1899  the  three  leading  Jersey  cows  gave  the  following 
results: — 


Cow. 

Age. 

Live- 
Weight. 

In  Milk. 

Butter. 

Butter 
Ratio. 

Sundew  4th 
Madeira  5th 
Em   . 

Years. 
8 
7 
7 

Ib 
929 
1060 
864 

Days. 

77 
107 

44 

Ib  oz. 
3     6J 
2  I5i 
3     4* 

Ib 

15-10 
16-14 
I3-32 

The  eight  prize-winning  Jerseys  on  this  occasion,  with  an 
average  weight  of  916  Ib  and  an  average  of  117  days  in  milk, 
yielded  an  average  of  2  Ib  9  oz.  of  butter  per  cow  in  the  twenty- 
four  hours,  the  butter  ratio  working  out  at  16-69.  At  the  Tring 
show  of  1900  a  Shorthorn  cow  Cherry  gave  as  much  as  4  Ib  45  oz. 
of  butter  in  twenty-four  hours;  she  had  been  in  milk  41  days, 


TABLE  II. — Prize  Shorthorn  and  Jersey  Cows  in  the  Butter  Tests,  London  Dairy  Show,  1900. 


Cows. 

Age. 

In 

Milk. 

Milk 
per 
Day. 

Butter. 

Milk  to 
i  ft 
Butter. 

Points 
for 
Butter. 

Points 
for 
Lacta- 
tion. 

Total 
Points. 

Shorthorns  —       . 
1st 
2nd 
3rd        .          . 
Jerseys  — 

ISt 

2nd 
3rd       . 

Years. 

9 
9 

7 

7 

4 

12 

Days. 

104 
34 

33 

157 
103 

257 

Ib  oz. 

55     2 
72     7 
58     5 

29  10 
33  10 
40  13 

Ib  oz. 
2     5t 

2    IOJ 
2      7l 

2      2j 

2      3 
I    12 

H>. 

23-67 
27-11 
23-47 

13-83 
15-37 
23-32 

No. 

37-25 
42-75 
39-75 

34-25 
35-oo 
28-00 

No. 
6-40 

11-70 
6-30 

12-00 

No. 

43-65 
42-75 
39-75 

45-95 
41-30 
40-00 

butter  in  the  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  Jersey  milk  was 
much  the  richer  in  fat.  In  the  case  of  the  first-prize  Jersey 
the  "  butter  ratio,"  as  it  is  termed,  was  excellent,  as  only  13-83  Ib 
of  milk  were  required  to  yield  i  ft  of  butter;  in  the  case  of  the 
second-prize  Shorthorn,  practically  twice  this  quantity  (or 
27-11  Ib)  was  needed.  Moreover,  if  the  days  in  milk  are  taken 
into  account,  the  difference  in  favour  of  the  Jersey  is  seen  to 
be  123  days. 

The  butter-yielding  capacity  of  the  choicest  class  of  butter 
cows,  the  Jerseys,  is  amply  illustrated  in  the  results  of  the  butter 

TABLE   III. — Summary  of  the  English  Jersey  Cattle  Society's 
Butter    Tests,    Fourteen     Years,    1886-1899. 


Cows'  Ages. 

Cows 
Tested. 

Average 
Time  in 
Milk. 

Average 
Milk 
Yield. 

Average 
Butter 
Yield. 

Quantity 
Milk  to 
i  ft 
Butter. 

Years. 

No. 

Days. 

ft  oz. 

ft  oz. 

ft 

I  to     2 

2 

34 

15      2 

o  13 

18-43 

2            3 

57 

73 

24    '5* 

5t 

18-74 

3        4 

1  08 

77 

29    14 

IO 

18-42 

4        5 

165 

72 

32     5 

»i 

19-01 

5        6 

188 

80 

32  15 

12 

18-76 

6         7 

189 

89 

34     7 

13 

18-92 

7         8 

139 

84 

33  I' 

i3i 

18-40 

8        9 

71 

82 

33     6 

12 

19-03 

9       10 

IO         II 

42 
31 

92 

88 

32     6) 
35     4 

"i 

Hi 

18-95 
18-60 

II         12 
12         13 

15 
13 

89 
95 

37     I 
34    'i 

13} 

ioi 

19-96 
20-56 

13         H 

3 

54 

42     it 

2       Ij 

19-85 

and  her  butter  ratio  worked  out  at  15-79, 
which  is  unusually  good  for  a  big  cow. 

In  the  six  years  1895  to  1900  inclusive 
285  cows  of  the  Shorthorn,  Jersey,  Guernsey 
and  Red  Polled  breeds  were  subjected  to 
butter  tests  at  the  London  dairy  show,  arid 
the  general  results  are  summarized  in 
Table  IV. 

Although  cows  in  the  showyard  may 
perhaps  be  somewhat  upset  by  their 
unusual  surroundings,  and  thus  not  yield 
so  well  as  at  home,  yet  the  average  results 
of  these  butter-test  trials  over  a  number  of 
years  are  borne  out  by  the  private  trials  that 
have  taken  place  in  various  herds.  The  trials  have,  moreover, 
brought  into  prominence  the  peculiarities  of  different  breeds, 
such  as:  (a)  that  the  Shorthorns,  Red  Polls  and  Kernes,  being 
cattle  whose  milk  contains  small  fat  globules,  are  better  for 
milk  than  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys,  whose  milk  is  richer, 

TABLE  IV.— Average  Butter  Yields  and  Butter  Ratios  at  the  London 
Dairy  Show,  Six  Years,  1895-1900. 


Breed. 

No.  of 
Cows. 

In 
Milk. 

Butter. 

Milk  to  I  Ib 
Butter. 

Days. 

ft  oz. 

ft 

Shorthorn    . 

106 

50 

I   II 

28-81 

Jersey 

126 

99 

I    I0i 

'9-15 

Guernsey     . 
Red  Polled 

23 

30 

72 
60 

i     9i 

i     4* 

21-86 
30-29 

containing  larger-sized  fat  globules,  and  is  therefore  more 
profitable  for  converting  into  butter;  (b)  that  the  weights  of 
the  animals,  and  consequently  the  proportionate  food,  must 
be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the  cost  of  the  dairy 
produce;  (c)  that  the  influence  of  the  stage  reached  in  the 
period  of  lactation  is  much  more  marked  in  some  breeds  than  in 
others. 

An  instructive  example  of  the  milk-yielding  capacity  of  Jersey 
cows  is  afforded  in  the  carefully  kept  records  of  Lord  Rothschild's 
herd  at  Tring  Park,  Herts.  Overleaf  are  given  the  figures  for 
four  years,  the  gallons  being  calculated  at  the  rate  of  10  Ib  of 
milk  to  the  gallon. 


740 


DAIRY 


In  1897,  30  cows  averaged  6396  ft,  or  640  gallons  per  cow. 

In  1898,  29      „  „        6209      „     621 

In  1899,  37      -.  .1        6430      ,,     643 

In  1900,  39      „  ,,        6136      „     614        ,,          ,, 

The  average  over  the  four  years  works  out  at  about  630  gallons 
per  cow  per  annum. 

Cows  of  larger  type  will  give  more  milk  than  the  Jerseys, 
but  it  is  less  rich  in  fat.  The  milk  record  for  the  year  1000 
of  the  herd  of  Red  Polled  cattle  belonging  to  Mr  Garrett  Taylor, 
Whitlingham,  Norfolk,  affords  a  good  example.  The  cows  in 
the  herd,  which  had  before  1900  produced  one  or  more  calves, 
and  in  1900  added  another  to  the  list,  being  in  full  profit  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  numbered  82.  Their  total  yield  was 
521,950  ft  of  milk,  or  an  average  of  6365  ft— equivalent  to 
about  636  gallons — per  cow.  In  1899  the  average  yield  of  96 
cows  was  6283  ft  or  628  gallons;  in  1898  the  average  yield  of 
75  cows  was  6473  ft  or  647  gallons.  Of  cows  which  dropped 
a  first  calf  in  the  autumn  of  1899,  one  of  them — Lemon — milked 
continuously  for  462  days,  yielding  a  total  of  7166  ft  of  milk, 
being  still  in  milk  when  the  herd  year  closed  on  the  2  7th  of 
December.  Similar  cases  were  those  of  Nora,  which  gave  9066  ft 
of  milk  in  455  days;  Doris,  8138  ft  in  462  days;  Brisk,  9248  ft 
in  469  days;  Delia,  8806  ft  in  434  days,  drying  28  days  before 
the  year  ended;  and  Lottie,  6327  ft  in  394  days,  also  drying 
28  days  before  the  year  ended;  these  were  all  cows  with  their 
first  calf.  Eight  cows  in  the  herd  gave  milk  on  every  day  of 
the  52  weeks,  and  30  others  had  their  milk  recorded  on  300  days 
or  more.  Three  heifers  which  produced  a  first  calf  before  the 
nth  of  April  1900,  averaged  in  the  year  4569  ft  of  milk,  or 
about  456  gallons.  In  1900  three  cows,  Eyke  Jessie,  Kathleen 
and  Doss,  each  gave  over  10,000  ft,  or  1000  gallons  of  milk; 
four  cows  gave  from  9000  ft  to  10,000  ft,  two  from  8000  ft  to 
gooo  ft,  17  from  7000  ft  to  8000  ft,  19  from  6000  ft  to  7000  ft, 
30  from  5000  ft  to  6000  ft,  and  16  from  4000  ft  to  5000  ft. 
The  practice,  long  followed  at  Whitlingham,  of  developing 
the  milk-yielding  habit  by  milking  a  young  cow  so  long  as  she 
gives  even  a  small  quantity  of  milk  daily,  is  well  supported  by 
the  figures  denoting  the  results. 

Though  milking  trials  and  butter  tests  are  not  usually  available 
to  the  ordinary  dairy  farmer  in  the  management  of  his  herd, 
it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  simple  matter  for  him  to  keep  what 
is  known  as  a  milk  register.  By  a  milk  register  is  meant  a  record 
of  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  a  cow.  In  other  words,  it 
is  a  quantitative  estimation  of  the  milk  the  cow  gives.  It  affords 
no  information  as  to  the  quality  of  the  milk  or  as  to  its  butter- 
yielding  or  cheese-yielding  capacity.  Nevertheless,  by  its  aid 
the  milk-producing  capacity  of  a  cow  can  be  ascertained  exactly, 
and  her  character  in  this  respect  can  be  expressed  by  means  of 
figures  about  which  there  need  be  no  equivocation.  A  greater 
or  less  degree  of  exactness  can  be  secured,  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  frequency  with  which  the  register  is  taken.  Even 
a  weekly  register  would  give  a  fair  idea  as  to  the  milk  yields  of  a 
cow,  and  would  be  extremely  valuable  as  compared  with  no 
register  at  all. 

The  practice  of  taking  the  milk  register,  as  followed  in  a  well- 
known  dairy,  may  be  briefly  described.  The  cows  are  always 
milked  in  the  stalls,  and  during  summer  they  are  brought  in 
twice  a  day  for  this  purpose.  After  each  cow  is  milked,  the 
pail  containing  the  whole  of  her  milk  is  hung  on  a  spring  balance 
suspended  in  a  convenient  position,  and  from  the  gross  weight 
indicated  there  is  deducted  the  already  known  weight  of  the 
pail.1  The  difference,  which  represents  the  weight  of  milk,  is 
recorded  in  a  book  suitably  ruled.  This  book  when  open  presents 
a  view  of  one  week's  records.  In  the  left-hand  column  are  the 
names  of  the  cows;  on  the  right  of  this  are  fourteen  columns, 
two  of  which  receive  the  morning  and  evening  record  of  each 
cow.  In  a  final  column  on  the  right  appears  the  week's  total 
yield  for  each  cow;  and  space  is  also  allowed  for  any  remarks. 
1  A  portable  milk-weighing  appliance  is  made  in  which  the  weighl 
of  the  pail  is  included,  and  an  indicator  shows  on  a  dial  the  exacl 
weight  in  pounds  and  ounces,  and  likewise  the  volume  in  gallons  anc 
pints,  of  the  milk  in  the  pail.  When  the  pail  is  empty  the  indicator 
of  course  points  to  zero. 


fractions  of  a  pound  are  not  entered,  but  18  ft  12  oz.  would 
)e  recorded  as  19  ft,  whereas  21  ft  5  oz.  would  appear  as  21  ft, 
so  that  a  fraction  of  over  half  a  pound  is  considered  as  a  whole 
x>und,  and  a  fraction  of  under  half  a  pound  is  ignored.  By 
dividing  the  pounds  by  10  the  yield  in  gallons  is  readily  ascer- 
tained. 

Every  dairy  farmer  has  some  idea,  as  to  each  of  his  cows, 
whether  she  is  a  good,  a  bad  or  an  indifferent  milker,  but  such 
inowledge  is  at  best  only  vague.  By  the  simple  means  indicated 
the  character  of  each  cow  as  a  milk-producer  is  slowly  but  surely 
recorded  in  a  manner  which  is  at  once  exact  and  definite.  Such 
a  record  is  particularly  valuable  to  the  farmer,  in  that  it  shows 
to  him  the  relative  milk-yielding  capacities  of  his  cows,  and  thus 
enables  him  gradually  to  weed  out  the  naturally  poor  milkers 
and  replace  them  by  better  ones.  It  also  guides  him  in  regulating 
the  supply  of  food  according  to  the  yield  of  milk.  The  register 
will,  in  fact,  indicate  unerringly  which  are  the  best  milk-yielding 
cows  in  the  dairy,  and  which  therefore  are,  with  the  milking 
capacity  in  view,  the  best  to  breed  from. 

The  simplicity  and  inexpensiveness  of  the  milk  register  must 
not  be  overlooked.  These  are  features  which  should  commend 
it  especially  to  the  notice  of  small  dairy  farmers,  for  with  a 
moderate  number  of  cows  it  is  particularly  easy  to  introduce 
the  register.  But  even  with  a  large  dairy  it  will  be  found  that, 
as  soon  as  the  system  has  got  fairly  established,  the  additional 
time  and  trouble  involved  will  sink  into  insignificance  when 
compared  with  the  benefits  which  accrue. 

The  importance  of  ascertaining  not  only  the  quantity  but  also, 
the  quality  of  milk  is  aptly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  two  cows  at 
the  Tring  show,  1900.  The  one  cow  gave  in  24  hours  45  gallons 
of  milk,  which  at  yd.  per  gallon  would  work  out  at  about  2s.  yd.; 
she  made  2  ft  12  oz.  of  butter,  which  at  is.  4d.  per  ft  would 
bring  in  35.  8d.;  consequently  by  selling  the  milk  the  owner 
lost  about  is.  id.  per  day.  The  second  cow  gave  53  gallons  of 
milk,  which  would  work  out  at  35.  id.;  she  made  i  ft  12  oz. 
of  butter,  which  would  only  be  worth  2s.  4d.,  so  that  by  convert- 
ing the  milk  into  butter  the  owner  lost  gd.  per  day. 

The  colour  of  milk  is  to  some  extent  an  indication  of  its  quality 
— the  deeper  the  colour  the  better  the  quality.  The  colour  de- 
pends upon  the  size  of  the  fat  globules,  a  deep  yellowish  colour 
indicating  large  globules  of  fat.  When  the  globules  are  of  large 
size  the  milk  will  churn  more  readily,  and  the  butter  is  better 
both  in  quality  and  in  colour. 

The  following  fifty  dairy  rules  relating  to  the  milking  and 
general  management  of  cows,  and  to  the  care  of  milk  and  dairy 
utensils,  were  drawn  up  on  behalf  of,  and  published  by,  the 
United  States  department  of  agriculture  at  Washington.  They 
are  given  here  with  a  few  merely  verbal  alterations: — 

THE  OWNER  AND  HIS  HELPERS 

1.  Read  current  dairy  literature  and  keep  posted  on  new  ideas. 

2.  Observe  and  enforce  the  utmost  cleanliness  about  the  cattle, 

their     attendants,     the     cow-house,     the     dairy     and     all 
utensils. 

3.  A  person  suffering  from  any  disease,  or  who  has  been  exposed 

to  a  contagious  disease,  must  remain  away  from  the  cows 
and  the  milk. 

THE  Cow-HousE 

4.  Keep  dairy  cattle  in  a  shed  or  building  by  themselves.     It  is 

preferable   to   have    no   cellar   below   and   no   storage   loft 
above. 

5.  Cow-houses  should  be  well  ventilated,  lighted  and  drained; 

should   have   tight   floors  and   walls,   and   be   plainly  con- 
structed. 

6.  Never  use  musty  or  dirty  litter. 

7.  Allow  no  strong-smelling  material  in  the  cow-house  for  any 

length  of  time.     Store  the  manure  under  cover  outside  the 
cow-house,  and  remove  it  to  a  distance  as  often  as  practicable. 

8.  Whitewash  the  cow-house  once  or  twice  a  year;  use  gypsum  in 

the  manure  gutters  daily. 

9.  Use  no  dry,  dusty  feed  just  previous  to  milking;  if  fodder  is 

dusty,  sprinkle  it  before  it  is  fed. 
10.  Clean  and  thoroughly  air  the  cow-house  be/ore  milking;  in  hot 

weather  sprinkle  the  floor, 
n.  Keep  the  cow-house  and  dairy  room  in  good  condition,  and  then 

insist  that  the  dairy,  factory  or  place  where  the  milk  goes 

be  kept  equally  well. 


DAIRY 


THE  Cows 


12.  Have  the  herd  examined  at  least  twice  a  year  by  a  skilled 

veterinarian. 

13.  Promptly  remove  from  the  herd  any  animal  suspected  of  being 

in  bad  health,  and  reject  fier  milk.  Never  add  an  animal  to 
the  herd  until  it  is  ascertained  to  be  free  from  disease,  especi- 
ally tuberculosis. 

14.  Do  not  move  cows  faster  than  a  comfortable  walk  while  on  the 

way  to  the  place  of  milking  or  feeding. 

15.  Never  allow  the  cows  to  be  excited  by  hard  driving,  abuse,  loud 

talking  or  unnecessary  disturbance;  do  not  expose  them  to 
cold  or  storms. 

1 6.  Do  not  change  the  feed  suddenly. 

17.  Feed. liberally,  and  use  only  fresh,  palatable  feed-stuffs;  in  no 

case  should  decomposed  or  mouldy  material  be  used. 

1 8.  Provide  water  in  abundance,  easy  of  access,  and  always  pure; 

fresh,  but  not  too  cold. 

19.  Salt  should  always  be  accessible  to  the  cows. 

20.  Do  not  allow  any  strong-flavoured  food,  like  garlic,  cabbages 

and  turnips,  to  be  eaten,  except  immediately  after  milking. 

21.  Clean  the  entire  skin  of  the  cow  daily.     If  hair  in  the  region  of 

the  udder  is  not  easily  kept  clean,  it  should  be  clipped. 

22.  Do  not  use  the  milk  within  twenty  days  before  calving,  nor  for 

three  to  five  days  afterwards. 

MILKING 

23.  The  milker  should  be  clean  in  all  respects;  he  should  not  use 

tobacco  while  milking;  he  should  wash  and  dry  his  hands 
just  before  milking. 

24.  The  milker  should  wear  a  clean  outer  garment,  used  only  when 

milking  and  kept  in  a  clean  place  at  other  times. 

25.  Brush  the  udder  and    surrounding  parts  just  before    milking 

and  wipe  them  with  a  clean  damp  cloth  or  sponge. 

26.  Milk  quietly,  quickly,  cleanly  and  thoroughly.     Cows  do  not  like 

unnecessary  noise  or  delay.  Commence  milking  at  exactly  the 
same  hour  every  morning  and  evening,  and  milk  the  cows  in 
the  same  order. 

27.  Throw  away  (but  not  on  the  floor — better  in  the  gutter)  the 

first  two  or  three  streams  from  each  teat;  this  milk  is  very 
watery  and  of  little  value,  but  it  may  injure  the  rest. 

28.  If  in  any  milking  a  part  of  the  milk  is  bloody  or  stringy  or 

unnatural  in  appearance,  the  whole  should  be  rejected. 

29.  Milk  with  dry  hands;  never  let  the  hands  come  in  contact  with 

the  milk. 

30.  Do  not  allow  dogs,  cats  or  loafers  to  be  around  at  milking  time. 

31.  If  any  accident  occurs  by  which  a  pail,  full  or  partly  full,  of  milk 

becomes  dirty,  do  not  try  to  remedy  this  by  straining,  but 
reject  all  this  milk  and  rinse  the  pail. 

32.  Weigh  and  record  the  milk  given  by  each  cow,  and  take  a  sample 

morning  and  night,  at  least  once  a  week,  for  testing  by  the 
fat  test. 

CARE  OF  MILK 

33.  Remove  the  milk  of  every  cow  at  once  from  the  cow-house  to  a 

clean  dry  room,  where  the  air  is  pure  and  sweet.  Do  not 
allow  cans  to  remain  in  the  cow-house  while  they  are  being 
filled  with  milk. 

34.  Strain  the  milk  through  a  metal  gauze  and  a   flannel  cloth  or 

layer  of  cotton  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn. 

35.  Cool  the  milk  as  soon  as  strained — to  45°  F.  if  the  milk  is  for 

shipment,  or  to  60"  if  for  home  use  or  delivery  to  a  factory. 

36.  Never  close  a  can  containing  warm  milk. 

37.  If  the  cover  is  left  off  the  can,  a  piece  of  cloth  or  mosquito 

netting  should  be  used  to  keep  out  insects. 

38.  If  milk  is  stored,  it  should  be  kept  in  tanks  of  fresh  cold  water 

(renewed  as  often  as  the  temperature  increases  to  any  material 
extent),  in  a  clean,  dry,  cold  room.  Unless  it  is  desired  to 
remove  cream,  it  should  be  stirred  with  a  tin  stirrer  often 
enough  to  prevent  the  forming  of  a  thick  cream  layer. 

39.  Keep  the  night  milk  under  shelter  so  that  rain  cannot  get  into 

the  cans.  In  warm  weather  keep  it  in  a  tank  of  fresh  cold 
water. 

40.  Never  mix  fresh  warm  milk  with  that  which  has  been  cooled. 

41.  Do  not  allow  the  milk  to  freeze. 

42.  In  no  circumstances  should  anything  be  added  to  milk  to  prevent 

its  souring.  Cleanliness  and  cold  are  the  only  preventives 
needed. 

43.  All  milk  should  be  in  good  condition  when  delivered  at  a  creamery 

or  a  cheesery.  This  may  make  it  necessary  to  deliver  twice 
a  day  during  the  hottest  weather. 

44.  When  cans  are  hauled  far  they  should  be  full,  and  carried  in  a 

spring  waggon. 

45.  In  hot  weather  cover  the  cans,  when  moved  in  a  waggon,  with 

a  clean  wet  blanket  or  canvas. 

THE  UTENSILS 

46.  Milk  utensils  for  farm  use  should  be  made  of  metal  and  have  all 

joints  smoothly  soldered.  Never  allow  them  to  become  rusty 
or  rough  inside. 


47.  Do  not  haul  waste  products  back  to  the  farm  in  the  cans  used 

for  delivering  milk.  When  this  is  unavoidable,  insist  that 
the  skim  milk  or  whey  tank  be  kept  clean. 

48.  Cans  used  for  the  return  of  skim  milk  or  whey  should  be  emptied, 

scalded  and  cleaned  as  soon  as  they  arrive  at  the  farm. 

49.  Clean  all  dairy  utensils    by  first  thoroughly  rinsing  them  in 

warm  water;  next  clean  inside  and  out  with  a  brush  and 
hot  water  in  which  a  cleaning  material  is  dissolved;  then 
rinse  and,  lastly,  sterilize  by  boiling  water  or  steam.  Use 
pure  water  only. 

50.  After  cleaning,  keep  utensils  inverted  in  pure  air,  and  sun  if 

possible,  until  wanted  for  use. 

FOOD  AND  MILK  PRODUCTION 

In  their  comprehensive  paper  relating  to  the  feeding  of  animals 
published  in  1895,  Lawes  and  Gilbert  discussed  amongst  other 
questions  that  of  milk  production,  and  directed  attention  to 
the  great  difference  in  the  demands  made  on  the  food — on  the 
one  hand  for  the  production  of  meat  (that  is,  of  animal  increase), 
and  on  the  other  for  the  production  of  milk.  Not  only,  however, 
do  cows  of  different  breeds  yield  different  quantities  of  milk, 
and  milk  of  characteristically  different  composition,  but  in- 
dividual animals  of  the  same  breed  have  very  different  milk- 
yielding  capacity;  and  whatever  the  capacity  of  a  cow  may 
be,  she  has  a  maximum  yield  at  one  period  of  her  lactation, 
which  is  followed  by  a  gradual  decline.  Hence,  in  comparing 
the  amounts  of  constituents  stored  up  in  the  fattening  increase 
of  an  ox  with  the  amounts  of  the  same  constituents  removed 
in  the  milk  of  a  cow,  it  is  necessary  to  assume  a  wide  range  of 
difference  in  the  yield  of  milk.  Accordingly,  Table  V.  shows  the 

TABLE  V. — Comparison  of  the  Constituents  of  Food  carried  off  in 
Milk,  and  in  the  Fattening  Increase  of  Oxen. 


Non- 

[i  Gallon  =  10-33  ft] 

Nitro- 
genous 
Sub- 

Fat. 

Nitro- 
genous 
Sub- 
stance 

Min- 
eral 
Mat- 

Total 
Solid 

Mat- 

stance. 

not  Fat 

ter. 

ter. 

(Sugar). 

In  Milk  per  Week. 

If:— 

Ib 

ft 

Ib 

ft 

Ib 

4  quarts  per  head  per  day 

2-64 

2-53 

3-33 

o-54 

9-04 

6 

3-96 

,V»o 

4-99 

0-81 

I3-56 

8 

5-28 

5-06 

6-66 

1-08 

18-08 

10 

6-60 

6-33 

8-32 

1-35 

22-60 

12 

7-92 

7-59 

9-99 

1-62 

27-12 

«4 

9-24 

8-86 

11-65 

1-89 

31-64 

16 

10-56 

IO-I2 

I3-32 

2-16 

36-16 

18 

n-88 

1  1  -39 

14-98 

2-43 

40-68 

20 

13-20 

12-65 

16-65 

2-70 

45-20 

In  Increase  in  Live-Weight  per  Week.  —  Oxen. 

If  10  Ib  increase    . 

o-75 

6-35 

0-15 

7-25 

If  15  ft  increase    . 

1-13 

9-53 

0-22 

10-88 

amounts  of  nitrogenous  substance,  of  fat,  of  non-nitrogenous 
substance  not  fat,  of  mineral  matter,  and  of  total  solid  matter, 
carried  off  in  the  weekly  yield  of  milk  of  a  cow,  on  the  alternative 
assumptions  of  a  production  of  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  14,  16,  18  or  20 
quarts  per  head  per  day.  For  comparison,  there  are  given  at  the 
foot  of  the  table  the  amounts  of  nitrogenous  substance,  of  fat, 
of  mineral  matter,  and  of  total  solid  matter,  in  the  weekly 
increase  in  live-weight  of  a  fattening  ox  of  an  average  weight 
of  looo  Ib — on  the  assumption  of  a  weekly  increase,  first,  of 
10  Ib,  and,  secondly,  of  15  Ib.  The  estimates  of  the  amounts 
of  constituents  in  the  milk  are  based  on  the  assumption  that 
it  will  contain  12-5%  of  total  solids — consisting  of  3-65  albu- 
minoids, 3-50  butter-fat,  4-60  sugar  and  0-75  of  mineral  matter. 
The  estimates  of  the  constituents  in  the  fattening  increase  of 
oxen  are  founded  on  determinations  made  at  Rothamsted. 

With  regard  to  the  very  wide  range  of  yield  of  milk  per  head 
per  day  which  the  figures  in  the  following  table  assume,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  that  the  same 
animal  might  yield  the  largest  amount,  namely,  20  quarts,  or 
S  gallons,  per  day  near  the  beginning,  and  only  4  quarts,  or 


742 


DAIRY 


i  gallon,  or  even  less,  towards  the  end  of  her  period  of  lactation. 
At  the  same  time,  an  entire  herd  of,  for  example,  Shorthorns 
or  Ayrshires,  of  fairly  average  quality,  well  fed,  and  including 
animals  at  various  periods  of  lactation,  should  not  yield  an 
average  of  less  than  8  quarts,  or  2  gallons,  and  would  seldom 
exceed  10  quarts,  or  2|  gallons,  per  head  per  day  the  year  round. 

For  the  sake  of  illustration,  an  average  yield  of  milk  of  10 
quarts,  equal  25  gallons,  or  between  25  and  26  Ib  per  head  per 
day,  may  be  assumed,  and  the  amount  of  constituents  in  the 
weekly  yield  at  this  rate  may  be  compared  with  that  in  the 
weekly  increase  of  the  fattening  ox  at  the  higher  rate  assumed 
in  the  table,  namely,  15  Ib  per  1000  Ib  live- weight,  or  1-5% 
per  week.  It  is  seen  that  whilst  of  the  nitrogenous  substance 
of  the  food  the  amount  stored  up  in  the  fattening  increase  of 
an  ox  would  be  only  1-13  Ib,  the  amount  carried  off  as  such  in 
the  milk  would  be  6-6  Ib,  or  nearly  six  times  as  much.  Of 
mineral  matter,  again,  whilst  the  fattening  increase  would  only 
require  about  0-22  Ib,  the  milk  would  carry  off  1-35  Ib,  or  again 
about  six  times  as  much.  Of  fat,  however,  whilst  the  fattening 
increase  would  contain  9-53  Ib,  the  milk  would  contain  only 
6-33  Ib,  or  only  about  two-thirds  as  much.  On  the  other  hand, 
whilst  the  fattening  increase  contains  no  other  non-nitrogenous 
substance  than  fat,  the  milk  would  carry  off  8-32  Ib  in  the  form 
of  milk-sugar.  This  amount  of  milk-sugar,  reckoned  as  fat, 
would  correspond  approximately  to  the  difference  between  the 
fat  in  the  milk  and  that  in  the  fattening  increase. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  drain  upon  the  food  is  very  much 
greater  for  the  production  of  milk  than  for  that  of  meat.  This 
is  especially  the  case  in  the  important  item  of  nitrogenous 
substance;  and  if,  as  is  frequently  assumed,  the  butter-fat 
of  the  milk  is  at  any  rate  largely  derived  from  the  nitrogenous 
substance  of  the  food,  so  far  as  it  is  so  at  least  about  two  parts  of 
such  substance  would  be  required  to  produce  one  of  fat.  On 
such  an  assumption,  therefore,  the  drain  upon  the  nitrogenous 
substance  of  the  food  would  be  very  much  greater  than  that 
indicated  in  the  table  as  existing  as  nitrogenous  substance  in 
the  milk.  To  this  point  further  reference  will  be  made  presently. 

Attention  may  next  be  directed  to  the  amounts  of  food,  and 
of  certain  of  its  constituents,  consumed  for  the  production  of 
a  given  amount  of  milk.  This  point  is  illustrated  in  Table  VI., 
which  shows  the  constituents  consumed  per  1000  Ib  live-weight 

TABLE  VI. — Constituents  consumed  per  1000  Ib  Live-Weight  per  Day, 
for  Sustenance  and  for  Milk-Production.  The  Rothamsted  Herd 
of  30  Cows,  Spring  1884. 


Digestible. 

Total 

Total 

Dry 

Nitro- 

Non-Nitro- 

Nitro- 

Sub- 
stance. 

genous 
Sub- 
stance. 

genous 
Substance 
(as  Starch). 

genous 
and  Non- 
Nitro- 
genous 

Substance. 

Ib 

Ib 

ft 

ft 

3-1  Ib  Cotton  cake 

2-76 

1-07 

1-50 

2-57 

2-7  Ib  Bran  . 

2-33 

o-33 

1-09 

1-42 

2-8  Ib  Hay-chaff    . 

2'34 

0-15 

1-18 

i  '33 

5-6    Ib    Oat-straw- 

chaff  .... 

4-64 

0-08 

2-21 

2-29 

62-8  Ib  Mangel  . 

7-85 

I-OI 

5-73 

6-74 

Total.            .      . 

19-92 

2-64* 

11-71* 

14-35 

Required    for    sus- 

tenance . 

o-57 

7-40 

7-97 

Available  for  milk. 

2-07 

4'3i 

6-38 

In  23-3  Ib  milk.     . 

0-85 

3-02 

387 

Excess  in  food     . 

1-22 

1-29 

2-51 

Per  1000  Ib  Live-Weight. 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

Wolff     .        .        . 

24 

2-5 

I2-St 

15-4 

*  Albuminoid  ratio,  1-4-4. 

t  Exclusive  of  0-4  fat;  albuminoid  ratio,  1-5-4. 

per  day  in  the  case  of  the  Rothamsted  herd  of  30  cows  in  the 
spring  of  1884.  On  the  left  hand  are  shown  the  actual  amounts 
of  the  different  foods  consumed  per  1000  tb  live- weight  per  day; 
and  in  the  respective  columns  are  recorded — first  the  amounts  of 
total  dry  substance  which  the  foods  contained,  and  then  the 
amounts  of  digestible  nitrogenous,  digestible  non-nitrogenous 
(reckoned  as  starch),  and  digestible  total  organic  substance 
which  the  different  foods  would  supply;  these  being  calculated 
according  to  Lawes  and  Gilbert's  own  estimates  of  the  percentage 
composition  of  the  foods,  and  to  Wolff's  estimates  of  the  pro- 
portion of  the  several  constituents  which  would  be  digestible. 

The  first  column  shows  that  the  amount  of  total  dry  substance 
of  food  actually  consumed  by  the  herd,  per  1000  Ib  live-weight 
per  day,  was  scarcely  20  ft,  whilst  Wolff's1  estimated  require- 
ment, as  stated  at  the  foot  of  the  table,  is  24  ft.  But  his  ration 
would  doubtless  consist  to  a  greater  extent  of  hay  and  straw- 
chaff,  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  indigestible  and  effete 
woody  fibre.  The  figures  show,  indeed  that  the  Rothamsted 
ration  supplied,  though  nearly  the  same,  even  a  somewhat  less 
amount  of  total  digestible  constituents  than  Wolff's. 

Of  digestible  nitrogen  substance  the  food  supplied  2-64  ft 
per  day,  whilst  the  amount  estimated  to  be  required  for  susten- 
ance merely  is  0-57  ft;  leaving,  therefore,  2-07  ft  available 
for  milk  production.  The  23-3  ft  of  milk  yielded  per  1000  ft 
live-weight  per  day  would,  however,  contain  only  0-85  ft;  and 
there  would  thus  remain  an  apparent  excess  of  1-22  ft  of  digest- 
ible nitrogenous  substance  in  the  food  supplied.  But  against  the 
amount  of  2-64  ft  actually  consumed,  Wolff's  estimate  of  the 
amount  required  for  sustenance  and  for  milk-production  is 
2-5  ft,  or  but  little  less  than  the  amount  actually  consumed  at 
Rothamsted.  On  the  assumption  that  the  expenditure  of 
nitrogenous  substance  in  the  production  of  milk  is  only  in  the 
formation  of  the  nitrogenous  substances  of  the  milk,  there  would 
appear  to  have  been  a  considerable  excess  given  in  the  food. 
But  Wolff's  estimate  assumes  no  excess  of  supply,  and  that  the 
whole  is  utilized;  the  fact  being  that  he  supposes  the  butter-fat 
of  the  milk  to  have  been  derived  largely,  if  not  wholly,  from  the 
albuminoids  of  the  food. 

It  has  been  shown  that  although  it  is  possible  that  some  of 
the  fat  of  a  fattening  animal  may  be  produced  from  the  albu- 
minoids of  the  food,  certainly  the  greater  part  of  it,  if  not  the 
whole,  is  derived  from  the  carbohydrates.  But  the  physiological 
conditions  of  the  production  of  milk  are  so  different  from  those 
for  the  production  of  fattening  increase,  that  it  is  not  admissible 
to  judge  of  the  sources  of  the  fat  of  the  one  from  what  may 
be  established  in  regard  to  the  other.  It  has  been  assumed, 
however,  by  those  who  maintain  that  the  fat  of  the  fattening 
animal  is  formed  from  albuminoids,  that  the  fat  of  milk  must 
be  formed  in  the  same  way.  Disallowing  the  legitimacy  of  such 
a  deduction,  there  do,  nevertheless,  seem  to  be  reasons  for  sup- 
posing that  the  fat  of  milk  may,  at  any  rate  in  large  proportion, 
be  derived  from  albuminoids. 

Thus,  as  compared  with  fattening  increase,  which  may  in 
a  sense  be  said  to  be  little  more  than  an  accumulation  of  reserve 
material  from  excess  of  food,  milk  is  a  special  product,  of  a 
special  gland,  for  a  special  normal  exigency  of  the  animal. 
Further,  whilst  common  experience  shows  that  the  herbivorous 
animal  becomes  the  more  fat  the  more,  within  certain  limits,  its 
food  is  rich  in  carbohydrates,  it  points  to  the  conclusion  that  both 
the  yield  of  milk  and  its  richness  in  butter  are  more  connected 
with  a  liberal  supply  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  in  the  food. 
Obviously,  so  far  as  this  is  the  case,  it  may  be  only  that  thereby 
more  active  change  in  the  system,  and  therefore  greater  activity 
of  the  special  function,  is  maintained.  The  evidence  at  command 
is,  at  any  rate,  not  inconsistent  with  the  supposition  that  a  good 
deal  of  the  fat  of  milk  may  have  its  source  in  the  breaking  up 
of  albuminoids,  but  direct  evidence  on  the  point  is  still  wanting; 
and  supposing  such  breaking  up  to  take  place  in  the  gland,  the 
question  arises — What  becomes  of  the  by-products?  Assuming, 
however,  that  such  change  does  take  place,  the  amount  of  nitro- 
genous substance  supplied  to  the  Rothamsted  cows  would  be  less 
1  Landw.  Futterungslehre,  ste  Aufl.,  1888,  p.  249. 


DAIRY 


743 


in  excess  of  the  direct  requirement  for  milk-production  than  the 
figures  in  the  table  would  indicate,  if,  indeed,  in  excess  at  all. 

The  figures  in  the  column  of  Table  VI.  relating  to  the  estimated 
amount  of  digestible  non-nitrogenous  substance  reckoned  as 
starch  show  that  the  quantity  actually  consumed  was  11-71  ft, 
whilst  the  amount  estimated  by  Wolff  to  be  required  was  12-5  Ib, 
besides  0-4  Ib  of  fat.  The  figures  further  show  that,  deducting 
7-4  Ib  for  sustenance  from  the  quantity  actually  consumed,  there 
would  remain  4-31  Ib  available  for  milk-production,  whilst  only 
about  3-02  Ib  would  be  required  supposing  that  both  the  fat 
of  the  milk  and  the  sugar  had  been  derived  from  the  carbo- 
hydrates of  the  food;  and,  according  to  this  calculation,  there 
would  still  be  an  excess  in  the  daily  food  of  1-29  Ib.  It  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  estimates  of  the  requirement  for 
mere  sustenance  are  mainly  founded  on  the  results  of  experiments- 
in  which  the  animals  are  allowed  only  such  a  limited  amount 
of  food  as  will  maintain  them  without  either  loss  or  gain  when  at 
rest.  But  physiological  considerations  point  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  expenditure,  independently  of  loss  or  gain,  will  be  the 
greater  the  more  liberal  the  ration,  and  hence  it  is  probable 
that  the  real  excess,  if  any,  over  that  required  for  sustenance 
and  milk-production  would  be  less  than  that  indicated  in  the 
table,  which  is  calculated  on  the  assumption  of  a  fixed  require- 
ment for  sustenance  for  a  given  live-weight  of  the  animal. 
Supposing  that  there  really  was  any  material  excess  of  either 
the  nitrogenous  or  the  non-nitrogenous  constituents  supplied 
over  the  requirement  for  sustenance  and  milk-production, 
the  question  arises — Whether,  or  to  what  extent,  it  conduced 
to  increase  in  live-weight  of  the  animals,  or  whether  it  was  in 
part,  or  wholly,  voided,  and  so  wasted. 

As  regards  the  influence  of  the  period  of  the  year,  with  its 
characteristic  changes  of  food,  on  the  quantity  and  composition 
of  the  milk,  the  first  column  of  the  second  division  of  Table  VII. 
shows  the  average  yield  of  milk  per  head  per  day  of  the  Rotham- 
sted  herd,  averaging  about  42  cows,  almost  exclusively  Short- 
horns, in  each  month  of  the  year,  over  six  years,  1884  to  1889 


It  should  be  stated  that  the  Rothamsted  cows  had  cake 
throughout  the  year;  at  first  4  Ib  per  head  per  day,  but  after- 
wards graduated  according  to  the  yield  of  milk,  on  the  basis 
of  4  Ib  for  a  yield  of  28  Ib  of  milk,  the  result  being  that  then 
the  amount  given  averaged  more  per  head  per  day  during  the 
grazing  period,  but  less  earlier  and  later  in  the  year.  Bran, 
hay  and  straw-chaff,  and  roots  (generally  mangel),  were  also 
given  when  the  animals  were  not  turned  out  to  grass.  The 
general  plan  was,  therefore,  to  give  cake  alone  in  addition  when 
the  cows  were  turned  out  to  grass,  but  some  other  dry  food, 
and  roots,  when  entirely  in  the  shed  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring  months. 

Referring  to  the  column  showing  the  average  yield  of  milk 
per  head  per  day  each  month  over  the  six  years,  it  will  be  seen 
that  during  the  six  months  January,  February,  September, 
October,  November  and  December  the  average  yield  was 
sometimes  below  20  Ib,  and  on  the  average  only  about  21  ft 
of  milk  per  head  per  day;  whilst  over  the  other  six  months 
it  averaged  27-63  ft,  and  over  May  and  June  more  than  31  ft, 
per  head  per  day.  That  is  to  say,  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded 
was  considerably  greater  during  the  grazing  period  than  when 
the  animals  had  more  dry  food,  and  roots  instead  of  grass. 

Next,  referring  to  the  particulars  of  composition,  according 
to  Dr  Vieth's  results,  which  may  well  be  considered  as  typical 
for  the  different  periods  of  the  year,  it  is  seen  that  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  milk  was  only  average,  or  lower  than  average, 
during  the  grazing  period,  but  rather  higher  in  the  earlier  and 
later  months  of  the  year.  The  percentage  of  total  solids  was 
rather  lower  than  the  average  at  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
lowest  during  the  chief  grazing  months,  but  considerably  higher 
in  the  later  months  of  the  year,  when  the  animals  were  kept  in 
the  shed  and  received  more  dry  food.  The  percentage  of  butter- 
fat  follows  very  closely  that  of  the  total  solids,  being  the  lowest 
during  the  best  grazing  months,  but  considerably  higher  than 
the  average  during  the  last  four  or  five  months  of  the  year,  when 
more  dry  food  was  given.  The  percentage  of  solids  not  fat  was 


Records. 


TABLE  VII.— Percentage  Composition  of  Milk  each  Month  of  the  Year;  also  Average  Yield  of  considerably  the  lowest  during  the  later 
Milk,  and  of  Constituents,  per  Head  per  Day  each  Month,  according  to  Rothamsted  Dairy  months  of  the  grazing  period,  but  average, 

or  higher  than  average,  during  the  earlier 
and  later  months  of  the  year.  It  may  be 
observed  that,  according  to  the  average 
percentages  given  in  the  table,  a  gallon 
of  milk  will  contain  more  of  both 
total  solids  and  of  butter-fat  in  the  later 
months  of  the  year;  that  is,  when  there 
is  less  grass  and  more  dry  food  given. 

Turning  to  the  last  three  columns  of  the 
table,  it  is  seen  that  although,  as  has 
been  shown,  the  percentage  of  the  several 
constituents  in  the  milk  is  lower  during 
the  grazing  months,  the  actual  amounts 
contained  in  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded 
per  head  are  distinctly  greater  during 
those  months.  Thus,  the  amount  of  but  ter- 
fat  yielded  per  head  per  day  is  above  the 
average  of  the  year  from  April  to  Sep- 
tember inclusive;  the  amounts  of  solids 
not  fat  are  over  average  from  April  to 
August  inclusive;  and  the  amounts  of 
total  solids  yielded  are  average,  or  over 
average,  from  April  to  August  inclusive. 

From  the  foregoing  results  it  is  evident 


Average  Composition  of  Milk  each 

Rothamsted  Dairy. 

Month,  1884. 
(Dr  Vieth  —  14,235  analyses.) 

Average 

Estimated  Quantity 
of  Constituents  in 

Tiyl'lt              T  i  '    j 

Yield 

Milk  per  Head  per 

Solids 

of  Milk 

Day  each  Month. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Butter- 
Fat. 

not 
Fat. 

Total 
Solids. 

per  Head 
per  Day, 
6  Years. 

Butter- 
Fat. 

Solids 
not 
Fat. 

Total 
Solids. 

% 

% 

% 

Ib 

ft 

Ib 

Ib 

January 

•0325 

3-55 

9-34 

12-89 

20-31* 

0-72 

1-90 

2-62 

February 

•0325 

'  3-53 

9-24 

12-77 

22-81 

0-80 

2-II 

2-91 

March 

•0323 

3-50 

9-22 

12-72 

24-I9 

0-85 

2-23 

3-08 

April 

•0323 

3-43 

9-22 

12-65 

26-50 

0-91 

2-44 

3-35 

May. 

•0324 

3-34 

9-30 

12-64 

3I-3I 

1-05 

2-91 

3-96 

June. 

•0323 

3-31 

9-19 

12-50 

30-81 

1-02 

2-83 

3-85 

uly. 

•0319 

3-47 

9-13 

12-60 

28-00 

0-97 

2-56 

3-53 

August 

•0318 

3-87 

9-08 

12-95 

25-00 

0-97 

2-27 

3-24 

September 

•0321 

4-n 

9-17 

13-28 

22-94 

o-94 

2-II 

3-05 

October 

•0324 

4-26 

9-27 

13-53 

2I-OO 

0-89 

1-95 

2-84 

November 

•0324 

4-36 

9-29 

I3-65 

I9-I9 

0-84 

1-78 

2-62 

December 

•0326 

4-10 

9-29 

13-39 

19-31 

0-79 

1-79 

2-58 

Mean   . 

1-0323 

3-74 

9-22 

12-96 

24-28 

0-90 

2-24 

3-14 

*  Average  over  five  years  only,  as  the  records  did  not  commence  until  February  1884. 


inclusive;  and  the  succeeding  columns  show  that  amounts  of 
butter-fat,  of  solids  not  fat,  and  of  total  solids  in  the  average 
yield  per  head  per  day  in  each  month  of  the  year,  calculated, 
not  according  to  direct  analytical  determinations  made  at 
Rothamsted,  but  according  to  the  results  of  more  than  14,000 
analyses  made,  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr  Vieth,  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  Aylesbury  Dairy  Company  in  1884;'  the 
samples  analysed  representing  the  milk  from  a  great  many 
different  farms  in  each  month. 

1  The  Analyst,  April  1885,  vol.  x.  p.  67. 


that  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  per  head  is  very  much  the 
greater  during  the  grazing  months  of  the  year,  but  that  the 
percentage  composition  of  the  milk  is  lower  during  that  period 
of  higher  yield,  and  considerably  higher  during  the  months  of 
more  exclusively  dry-food  feeding.  Nevertheless,  owing  to  the 
much  greater  quantity  of  milk  yielded  during  the  grazing 
months,  the  actual  quantity  of  constituents  yielded  per  cow  is 
greater  during  those  months  than  during  the  months  of  higher 
percentage  composition  but  lower  yield  of  milk  per  head.  It 
may  be  added  that  a  careful  consideration  of  the  number  of 


744 


DAIRY 


newly-calved  cows  brought  into  the  herd  each  month  shows 
that  the  results  as  above  stated  were  perfectly  distinct, 
independently  of  any  influence  of  the  period  of  lactation  of  the 
different  individuals  of  the  herd. 

The  few  results  which  have  been  brought  forward  in  relation 
to  milk-production  are  admittedly  quite  insufficient  adequately 
to  illustrate  the  influence  of  variation  in  the  quantity  and  com- 
position of  the  food  on  the  quantity  and  composition  of  the 
milk  yielded.  Indeed,  owing  to  the  intrinsic  difficulties  of 
experimenting  on  such  a  subject,  involving  so  many  elements  of 
variation,  any  results  obtained  have  to  be  interpreted  with  much 
care  and  reservation.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  taken  as  clearly 
indicated  that,  within  certain  limits,  high  feeding,  and  especially 
high  nitrogenous  feeding,  does  increase  both  the  yield  and  the 
richness  of  the  milk.1  But  it  is  evident  that  when  high  feeding 
is  pushed  beyond  a  comparatively  limited  range,  the  tendency 
is  to  increase  the  weight  of  the  animal — that  is,  to  favour  the 
development  of  the  individual,  rather  than  to  enhance  the 
activity  of  the  functions  connected  with  the  reproductive  system. 
This  is,  of  course,  a  disadvantage  when  the  object  is  to  maintain 
the  milk-yielding  condition  of  the  animal;  but  when  a  cow  is 
to  be  fattened  off  it  will  be  otherwise. 

It  has  been  stated  that,  early  in  the  period  of  six  years  in  which 
the  Rothamsted  results  that  have  been  quoted  were  obtained, 
the  amount  of  oil-cake  given  was  graduated  according  to  the 
yield  of  milk  of  each  individual  cow;  as  it  seemed  unreasonable 
that  an  animal  yielding,  say,  only  4  quarts  per  day,  should 
receive,  beside  the  home  foods,  as  much  cake  as  one  yielding 
several  times  the  quantity.  The  obvious  inference  is,  that  any 
excess  of  food  beyond  that  required  for  sustenance  and  milk- 
production  would  tend  to  increase  the  weight  of  the  animal, 
which,  according  to  the  circumstances,  may  or  may  not  be 
desirable. 

It  may  be  observed  that  direct  experiments  at  Rothamsted 
confirm  the  view,  arrived  at  by  common  experience,  that  roots, 
and  especially  mangel,  have  a  favourable  effect  on  the  flow  of 
milk.  Further,  the  Rothamsted  experiments  have  shown  that 
a  higher  percentage  of  butter-fat,  of  other  solids,  and  of  total 
solids,  was  obtained  with  mangel  than  with  silage  as  the  suc- 
culent food.  The  yield  of  milk  was,  however,  in  a  much  greater 
degree  increased  by  grazing  than  by  any  other  change  in  the 
food;  and  at  Rothamsted  the  influence  of  roots  comes  next 
in  order  to  that  of  grass,  though  far  behind  it,  in  this  respect. 
But  with  grazing,  as  has  been  shown,  the  percentage  composition 
of  the  milk  is  considerably  reduced;  though,  owing  to  the  greatly 
increased  quantity  yielded,  the  amount  of  soil-constituents 
removed  in  the  milk  when  cows  are  grazing  may  nevertheless 
be  greater  per  head  per  day  than  under  any  other  conditions. 
Lastly,  it  has  been  clearly  illustrated  how  very  much  greater 
is  the  demand  upon  the  food,  especially  for  nitrogenous  and  for 
mineral  constituents,  in  the  production  of  milk  than  in  that  of 
fattening  increase. 

1  The  evidence  on  this  point  taken  by  the  Committee  on  Milk  and 
Cream  Regulations  in  1900  is  somewhat  conflicting.  The  report 
states  that  an  impression  commonly  prevails  that  the  quality  of  milk 
is  more  or  less  determined  by  the  nature  and  composition  of  the  food 
which  the  cow  receives.  One  witness  said  that  farmers  who  produce 
milk  for  sale  feed  differently  from  what  they  do  if  they  are  producing 
for  butter.  Another  stated  that  most  of  the  statistics  which  go  to 
show  that  food  has  no  effect  on  milk  fail,  because  the  experiments  are 
not  carried  far  enough  to  counterbalance  that  peculiarity  of  the 
animal  first  to  utilize  the  food  for  itself  before  utilizing  it  for  the 
milk.  A  witness  who  kept  a  herd  of  100  milking  cows  expressed  the 
opinion  that  improvement  in  the  quality  of  milk  can  be  effected  by 
feeding,  though  not  to  any  large  extent.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was 
maintained  that  the  fat  percentage  in  the  milk  of  a  cow  cannot  be 
raised  by  any  manner  or  method  of  feeding.  It  is  possible  that  in  the 
case  of  cows  very  poorly  fed  the  addition  of  rich  food  would  alter  the 
composition  of  their  milk,  but  if  the  cows  are  well-fed  to  begin  with, 
this  would  not  be  so.  The  proprietor  of  a  herd  of  500  milking  cows 
did  not  think  that  feeding  affected  the  quality  of  milk  from  ordinarily 
well-kept  animals.  An  experimenter  found  that  the  result  of  resort- 
ing to  rather  poor  feeding  was  that  the  first  effect  was  produced  upon 
the  weight  of  the  cow  and  not  upon  the  milk;  the  animal  began  to 
get  thin,  losing  its  weight,  though  there  was  not  very  much  effect 
upon  the  quality  of  the  milk. 


MANTJRIAL  VALUE  OF  FOOD  CONSUMED  IN  THE 
PRODUCTION  OF  MILK 

In  any  attempt  to  estimate  the  average  value  of  the  manure 
derived  from  the  consumption  of  food  for  the  production  of 
milk,  the  difficulty  arising  from  the  very  wide  variation  in  the 
amount  of  milk  yielded  by  different  cows,  or  by  the  same  cow 
at  different  periods  of  her  lactation,  is  increased  by  the  inadequate 
character  of  information  concerning  the  difference  in  the  amount 
of  the  food  actually  consumed  by  the  animal  coincidently 
with  the  production  of  such  different  amounts  of  milk.  But 
although  information  is  lacking  for  correlating,  with  numerical 
accuracy,  the  great  difference  in  milk-yield  of  individual  cows 
with  the  coincident  differences  in  consumption  to  produce  it, 
it  may  be  considered  as  satisfactorily  established  that  more  food 
is  consumed  by  a  herd  of  cows  to  produce  a  fair  yield  of  milk, 
of  say  10  or  12  quarts  per  head  per  day,  than  by  an  equal  live- 
weight  of  oxen  fed  to  produce  fattening  increase.  In  the  cases 
supposed  it  may,  for  practical  purposes,  be  assumed  that  the 
cows  would  consume  about  one-fourth  more  food  than  the 
oxen.  Accordingly,  in  the  Rothamsted  estimates  of  the  value 
of  the  manure  obtained  on  the  consumption  of  food  for  the 
production  of  milk,  it  is  assumed  that  one-fourth  more  will  be  con- 
sumed by  1000  ft  live-weight  of  cows  than  by  the  same  weight 
of  oxen;  but  the  estimates  of  the  amounts  of  the  constituents  of 
the  food  removed  in  the  milk,  or  remaining  for  manure,  are  never- 
theless reckoned  per  ton  of  each  kind  of  food  consumed,  as  in  the 
case  of  those  relating  to  feeding  for  the  production  of  fattening 
increase.  It  may  be  added  that  the  calculations  of  the  amounts  of 
the  constituents  in  the  milk  are  based  on  the  same  average  compo- 
sition of  milk  as  is  adopted  in  the  construction  of  Table  V.  Thus 
the  nitrogen  is  taken  at  0-579  (  =  3'6s  nitrogenous  substance)  %, 
the  phosphoric  acid  at  0-2175%,  and  the  potash  at  0-1875% 
in  the  milk. 

Table  VIII.  shows  in  detail  the  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  one  ton  of  each  food,  and  in  the  milk  produced  from 
its  consumption,  on  the  assumption  of  an  average  yield  of  10 
quarts  per  head  per  day;  also  the  amount  remaining  for  manure, 
the  amount  of  ammonia  corresponding  to  the  nitrogen,  and  the 
value  of  the  ammonia  at  4d.  per  Ib.  Similar  particulars  are  also 
given  in  relation  to  the  phosphoric  acid  and  the  potash  consumed 
in  the  food,  removed  in  the  milk,  and  remaining  for  manure,  &c. 
This  table  will  serve  as  a  sufficient  illustration  of  the  mode  of 
estimating  the  total  or  original  value  of  the  manure,  derived 
from  the  consumption  of  the  different  foods  for  the  production 
of  milk  in  the  case  supposed;  that  is,  assuming  an  average 
yield  of  a  herd  of  10  quarts  per  head  per  day. 

In  Table  IX.  are  given  the  results  of  similar  detailed  calcula- 
tions of  the  total  or  original  manure-value  (as  in  Table  VIII. 
for  10  quarts),  on  the  alternative  assumptions  of  a  yield  of  6,  8, 
12  or  14  quarts  per  head  per  day.  For  comparison  there  is 
also  given,  in  the  first  column,  the  estimate  of  the  total  or  original 
manure-value  when  the  foods  are  consumed  for  the  production 
of  fattening  increase. 

So  much  for  the  plan  and  results  of  the  estimations  of  total 
or  original  manure-value  of  the  different  foods,  that  is,  deducting 
only  the  constituents  removed  in  the  milk,  and  reckoning  the 
remainder  at  the  prices  at  which  they  can  be  purchased  in 
artificial  manures.  With  a  view  to  direct  application  to  practice, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  estimate  the  unexhausted  manure-value 
of  the  different  foods,  or  what  may  be  called  their  compensation- 
value,  after  they  have  been  used  for  a  series  of  years  by  the 
outgoing  tenant  and  he  has  realized  a  certain  portion  of  the 
manure-value  in  his  increased  crops.  In  the  calculations  for  this 
purpose  the  rule  is  to  deduct  one-half  of  the  original  manure-value 
of  the  food  used  the  last  year,  and  one-third  of  the  remainder 
each  year  to  the  eighth,  in  the  case  of  all  the  more  concentrated 
foods  and  of  the  roots — in  fact,  of  all  the  foods  in  the  list  ex- 
cepting the  hays  and  the  straws.  For  these,  which  contain 
larger  amounts  of  indigestible  matter,  and  the  constituents  of 
which  will  be  more  slowly  available  to  crops,  two-thirds  of  the 
original  manure-value  is  deducted  for  the  last  year,  and  only 


DAIRY 


745 


TABLE  VIII. — Estimates  of  the  Total  or  Original  Manure-  Value  of  Cattle  Foods  after  Consumption  by  Cows  for  the  Production  of  Milk. 
Valuation  on  the  assumption  of  an  average  production  by  a  herd  of  10  quarts  of  milk  per  head  per  day. 


Nos. 

Description 
of  Food. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Potash. 

Total  or 
Original 
Manure- 
Value 
per  Ton 
of  Food 
con- 
sumed. 

In 
i  Ton 
of 
Food. 

In 
Milk 
from 
I  Ton 
of 
Food. 

In  Manure. 

In 

i  Ton 
of 
Food. 

In 

Milk 
from 
i  Ton 
of 
Food. 

In  Manure. 

In 
i  Ton 
of 
Food. 

In 

Milk 
from 
I  Ton 
of 
Food. 

In  Manure. 

Total 
remain- 
ing for 
Manure. 

Nitro- 
gen 
equal 
Am- 
monia. 

Value 
of  Am- 
monia 
at4d. 
per  ID. 

Total 
remain- 
ing for 
Manure. 

Value 
at  2d. 
perlb 

Total 
remain- 
ing for 
Manure. 

Value 
at 
'id- 

per  ft. 

i 

2 

3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
ii 

12 
'3 
H 
15 

16 

17 

18 
19 

20 
21 

22 

23 
24 

25 
26 

27 
28 

29 

3° 

31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 

Linseed 
Linseed  cake 
Decorticated 
cotton  cake 
Palm-nut 
cake 
Undecorti- 
cated  cot- 
ton cake  . 
Cocoa-nut 
cake 
Rape  cake 

Peas 
Beans 
Lentils 
Tares   (seed) 

Maize 
Wheat 
Malt 
Barley 
Oats 
Rice  meal  . 
Locust  beans 

Malt  coombs 
Fine   pollard 
Coarse     pol- 
lard 
Bran 

Clover  hay 
Meadow  hay 

Pea  straw  . 
Oat  straw  . 
Wheat  straw 
Barley  straw 
Bean  straw 

Potatoes     . 
Carrots 
Parsnips     . 
Mangel  wur- 
zels 
Swedish 
turnips 
Yellow     tur- 
nips 
White      tur- 
nips 

Ib 
80-64 
106-40 

147-84 
56-00 

84-00 

76-16 

109-76 

ft 
25-04 
20-86 

19-27 
17-86 

15-66 

15-66 
12-50 

ft 
55-60 
85-54 

128-57 
38-14 

68-34 

60-50 
97-26 

ft 
67-52 
103-87 

I56-I3 
46-31 

82-99 

73-47 
118-11 

L     S-  d. 

I       2      6 

i   14     7 

2    12       I 

o  15     5 

i     7     8 

i     4    6 
i   19     4 

ft 
34-50 
44-80 

69-44 
26-88 

44-80 

3I-36 
56-00 

ft 
9-34 
7-79 

7-18 
6-68 

5-85 

5-85 
4-69 

ft 
25-16 
37-01 

62-26 

20-20 

38-95 

25-5I 
5I-3I 

s.  d. 
4    2 

6      2 

10     5 
3     4 

6     6 

4     3 

8     7 

ft 
30-69 
3'  -36 

44-80 
1  1  -20 

44-80 

44-80 
33-6o 

ft 

8-02 

6-71 

6-22 

5-73 

5-°7 

5-07 
4-09 

ft 
22-67 
24-65 

38-58 
5-47 

39-73 

39-73 
29-5I 

s.    d. 

2    10 

3     i 
4  10 

o    8 

5    o 

5     o 
3     8 

£   s.  d. 
i     9    6 
2     3  10 

374 
o  19    5 

I    19      2 

i   13    9 

2    II       7 

80-64 
89-60 
94-08 
94-08 

17-86 
17-86 
17-86 
17-86 

62-78 

71-74 
76-22 
76-22 

76-24 
87-12 
92-56 
92-56 

i     5     5 
190 

I    IO    IO 
I    IO    IO 

19-04 
24-64 
16-80 
17-92 

6-68 
6-68 
6-68 
6-68 

12-36 
17-96 

IO-I2 
11-24 

2       I 

3     o 
i     8 

I    IO 

21-50 
29-12 
15-68 
17-92 

5-73 
5-73 
5-73 
5-73 

15-77 
23-39 
9-95 
12-19 

2      O 
2    II 

i     3 
i     6 

196 
i   14  ii 
i   13     9 

I    14      2 

38-08 
40-32 
38-08 
36-96 
44-80 
42-56 
26-88 

I7-38 
I7-38 
17-86 
I7-38 
16-68 
16-68 
13-90 

20-70 
22-94 
20-22 

19-58 

28-12 

25-88 

12-98 

25-I4 
27-86 

24-55 
23-78 

34-15 
31-43 
I5-76 

085 

093 
082 
o    7  ii 
o  ii     5 
o  10    6 
053 

13-44 
19-04 
17-92 
1  6-  80 
13-44 
(I3-44) 

6-50 
6-50 
6-68 
6-50 
6-24 
6-24 
5-19 

6-94 
12-54 
11-24 
10-30 
7-20 
7-20 

I      2 
2       I 
I    10 

I       9 
I       2 
I       2 

8-29 
11-87 
1  1  -20 
12-32 
1  1  -20 
(8-29) 

5-56 
5-56 
5-73 
5-56 
5-40 

5-4° 
4-42 

2-73 
6-31 
5-47 
6-76 
5-8o 
2-89 

o    4 
o    9 
o     8 

0    10 

09 
o    4 

o    9  ii 

O    12       I 

o  10     8 
o  10    6 
o  13     4 

0    12      0 

87-36 
54-88 

56-00 
56-00 

15-66 
16-68 

15-66 
13-90 

71-70 
38-20 

40-34 

42-10 

87-07 
46-39 

48-99 
51-12 

190 
o  15     6 

o  16     4 
o  17     o 

44-80 
64-96 

78-40 
80-64 

5-85 
6-24 

5-85 
5-19 

38-95 

58-72 

72-55 
75-45 

6    6 
9     9 

12       I 

12    7 

44-80 
32-70 

33-6o 
32-48 

5-07 
5-40 

5-07 

4-42 

39-73 
27-30 

28-53 
28-06 

5     o 
3     5 

3     7 
3     6 

206 

i     8     8 

I    12      O 
I    13       I 

53-76 
33-6o 

8-94 
8-36 

44-82 
25-24 

54-43 
30-65 

0    18      2 

o  10    3 

12-77 
8-96 

3-35 
3-10 

9-42 
5-86 

i     7 

I       O 

33-6o 

35-84 

2-94 
2-62 

30-66 
33-22 

3  10 

4     2 

i     3    7 
o  15    5 

22-40 
1  1  -20 
10-08 
8-96 
20-16 

7-83 
6-95 
5-98 
5-46 
5-68 

14-57 
4-25 

4-10 

3-50 

14-48 

17-69 
5-16 
4-98 
4-25 
I7-58 

o     5  ii 
o          9 
o          8 
o          5 

0            10 

7-84 
5-38 
5-38 
4-03 
6-72 

2-91 
2-60 
2-23 
2-04 
2-14 

4-93 

2-78 

3-15 
1-99 
4-58 

O    IO 

o    6 
o    6 

o    4 
o    9 

22-40 
22-40 
17-92 
22-40 
22-40 

2-46 
2-29 
1-96 
i  -80 
i  -80 

19-94 
20-  1  1 
15-96 
20-60 
20-60 

2      6 
2      6 
2      O 

2      7 
2      7 

093 
049 
042 
044 
092 

5-60 
4-48 
4-93 

4-93 
5-6o 

4-48 
4-03 

2-07 
1-46 
1-67 

1-32 
1-14 

o-93 
0-84 

3-53 
3-02 
3-26 

3-6i 
4-46 

3-55 
3-19 

4-29 
3-67 
3-96 

4-38 
5-42 
4-31 
3-87 

o          5 
o          3 
o          4 

o     i     6 

0       I    10 

o     i     5 
o     i     3 

3-36 

2  -O2 
4-26 

1-57 
1-34 
(1-34) 

I-I2 

0-78 

o-54 
0-63 

0-49 
0-44 

o-34 
0-31 

2-58 
1-48 
3-63 

i  -08 
0-90 

I-OO 

0-81 

o     5 
o    3 

o     7 

O      2 
O      2 
0      2 
O      2 

12-32 
6-27 
8-06 

8-96 
4-93 
(4-93) 
6-72 

0-66 
0-49 
0-49 

0-49 
0-33 
o-33 
o-33 

n-66 
5-78 

7-57 

8-47 
4-60 
(4-60) 
6-39 

i     5 
o    9 

O    II 

i     i 
o    7 
o     7 
0   IO 

033 
023 

O      2    IO 
O29 
027 
022 
023 

one-fifth  from  year  to  year  to  the  eighth  year  back.  The  results 
of  the  estimates  of  compensation-value  so  made  are  given  for  the 
five  yields  of  6,  8, 10,  12  and  14  quarts  of  milk  per  head  per  day 
respectively  in  Lawes  and  Gilbert's  paper1  on  the  valuation 
of  the  manures  obtained  by  the  consumption  of  foods  for  the 
production  of  milk,  which  may  be  consulted  for  fuller  details. 
It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  cows  are  fed  in 
sheds  or  yards  the  manure  is  generally  liable  to  greater  losses 
than  is  the  case  with  fattening  oxen.  The  manure  of  the  cow 
contains  much  more  water  in  proportion  to  solid  matter  than 
that  of  the  ox.  Water  will,  besides,  frequently  be  used  for 
washing,  and  it  may  be  that  a  good  deal  of  the  manure  is  washed 
into  drains  and  lost.  In  the  event,  therefore,  of  a  claim  for 
compensation,  the  management  and  disposal  of  the  manure 
•requires  the  attention  of  the  valuer.  Indeed,  the  varying 
circumstances  that  will  arise  in  practice  must  be  carefully 
considered.  Bearing  these  in  mind,  the  estimates  may  be 
accepted  as  at  any  rate  the  best  approximation  to  the  truth 
1  Journ.  Roy.  Agric.  Soc.,  1898. 


that  existing  knowledge  provides;  and  they  should  be  found 
sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  practical  use.  Obviously  they 
will  be  more  directly  applicable  in  the  case  of  cows  feeding  en- 
tirely on  the  foods  enumerated  in  the  list,  and  not  depending 
largely  on  grass;  but,  even  when  the  animals  are  partially 
grass-fed,  the  value  of  the  manure  derived  from  the  additional 
dry  food  or  roots  may  be  estimated  according  to  the  scale  given. 

CHEESE  AND  CHEESE-MAKING 

For  generations,  perhaps  for  centuries,  the  question  has  been 
discussed  as  to  why  there  should  be  so  large  a  proportion  of  bad 
and  inferior  cheese  and  so  small  a  proportion  of  really  good  cheese 
made  in  farmhouses  throughout  the  land.  That  the  result  is 
not  wholly  due  to  skill  and  care  or  to  the  absence  of  these  qualities 
on  the  part  of  the  dairymaid  may  now  be  taken  for  granted. 
Instances  might  be  quoted  in  which  the  most  painstaking  of 
dairymaids,  in  the  cleanest  of  dairies,  have  failed  to  produce 
cheese  of  even  second-rate  quality  and  character,  and  yet  others 
in  which  excellent  cheese  has  been  made  under  commonplace 


74-6 


DAIRY 


conditions  as  to  skill  and  equipment,  and  with  not  much  regard 
to  cleanliness  in  the  dairy.  The  explanation  of  what  was  so 
long  a  mystery  has  been  found  in  the  domain  of  ferments.  It 
is  now  known  that  whilst  various  micro-organisms,  which  in 
many  dairies  have  free  access  to  the  milk,  have  ruined  an  in- 
calculable quantity  of  cheese — and  of  butter  also — neither  cheese 
nor  butter  of  first-rate  quality  can  be  made  without  the  aid 
of  lactic  acid  bacilli.  As  an  illustrative  case,  mention  may  be 
made  of  that  of  two  most  painstaking  dairymaids  who  had  tried 
in  vain  to  make  good  cheese  from  the  freshest  of  milk  in  the 


organism;  (2)  this  organism  abounds  in  all  samples  of  sour 
milk  and  sour  whey;  (3)  the  use  of  a  whey  starter  is  attended 
with  results  equal  in  every  respect  to  those  obtained  from  a 
milk-starter.  It  is  well  within  the  power  of  any  dairyman  to 
prepare  what  is  practically  a  pure  culture  of  the  same  bacterium 
as  is  supplied  from  the  laboratory.  Moreover,  the  sour-whey 
starter  used  by  some  of  the  successful  cheese-makers  before  the 
introduction  of  the  American  system  is  in  effect  a  pure  culture, 
from  which  it  follows  that  these  men  had,  by  empirical  methods, 
attained  the  same  end  as  that  to  which  bacteriological  research 


,  ,    _    .  ,  _  -  .  .     ,  ...  ...  subsequently  led.     Wherever  a  starter  is 

TABLE  IX. — Comparison  of  the  Estimates  of  Total  or  Original  Manure- Value  when  Foods  are  ,  „ 

consumed  for  the  Production  of  Fattening  Increase,  with  those  when  the  Food  is  consumed  necessary,  the  use  of  a  culture  practically 


by  Cows  giving  different  Yields  of  Milk. 


Nos. 

Description 
of  Food. 

Total  or  Original  Manure-  Value  per  Ton  of  Food  consumed  — 
that  is,  only  deducting  the  Constituents  in  Fattening 
Increase  or  in  Milk. 

For  the 
Produc- 
tion of 
Fattening 
Increase 

For  the  Production  of  Milk,  supposing  the  Yield 
per  Head  per  Day  to  be  as  under  — 

6qts. 

8  qts. 

IO  qts. 

12  qts. 

14  qts. 

i 

2 

3 

4 
5 

6 
7 

8 
9 

10 

ii 

12 
13 
«4 

\l 
17 

18 

19 
20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 
26 
27 
28 
29 

30 
31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 

Linseed     . 
Linseed  cake 
Decorticated 
cotton  cake 
Palm-nut  cake    . 
Undecorticated 
cotton  cake 
Cocoa-nut  cake  . 
Rape  cake 

Peas      .    • 
Beans 
Lentils 
Tares  (seed) 

Maize 
Wheat 
Malt 
Barley 
Oats 
Rice  meal  . 
Locust  beans 

Malt  coombs 
Fine  pollard 
Coarse  pollard    . 
Bran 

Clover  hay  . 
Meadow  hay 

Pea  straw  . 
Oat  straw  . 
Wheat  straw 
Barley  straw 
Bean  straw 

Potatoes    . 
Carrots 
Parsnips    . 
Mangel  wurzels  . 
Swedish  turnips  . 
Yellow  turnips    . 
White  turnips     . 

£   s.     d. 

I    19      2 
2    II    II 

3  14    9 
164 

253 

i  19  10 
2  16    5 

£    s.    d. 

I   14     7 

2      8       I 

3  II     2 
I     3     2 

224 
16  ii 

14      2 

i    s.    d. 

I    12      O 
260 

392 

I     i     4 

208 
i   15     3 

2    12    II 

£    s.    d. 
196 

2      3    10 

374 
o  19    5 

19      2 

13    9 
ii     7 

£   s.    d. 
i     7     I 
2     i     9 

354 
o  17    9 

i  17    6 
i  12     3 

2    IO      4 

£    s.  d. 

i     4    5 
I  19     8 

334 
o  15  n 

15  ii 
10    6 

9     i 

i   16    5 

2       I    II 
208 
211 

13       I 

18     7 

i?    5 
17  ii 

I    II       2 

i   16  10 

i   15     7 

i    16     o 

9     6 
14  n 
13    9 

14      2 

i     7     8 
I   13     i 

I    12      2 

I    12      6 

5    9 
ii     4 

IO      I 

10     7 

o  16    7 
o  18  ii 
o  17    7 

0    17      2 

o  19    9 
(o  18     6) 

o  13    4 
o  15    8 

o  14    5 
o  14    o 
0  16    8 

o  15    5 

o  ii     7 
o  13  ii 
o  12    7 
o  12     3 
o  15    o 
o  13    9 

o    9  ii 

O    12       I 

o  10    8 
o  10    6 

o  13     4 

O    12      O 

o    8     I 
o  10     5 
090 
088 
on     7 
o  10    5 

065 
088 
o    7     i 
o    6  ii 
o    9  10 
087 

2     6     7 

I    15      2 

i   18     i 
I   18     6 

239 

I    12      O 

I    15      2 
I    15    II 

220 
i   10     5 
i   13     6 
i   14    6 

2O6 

i     8     8 

I    12      0 
I    13       I 

i   18  II 
i     6  n 
i  10    5 
i   n     8 

I   17     4 

I     5     3 
i     8    9 
i  10    3 

i     7     o 
o  18     7 

i     5    5 
o  17    o 

i     4    5 
o  16    3 

i     3    7 
o  15     5 

I      2      8 

o  14     5 

i     I     8 
o  13     7 

O   12      2 

075 
066 
065 

o  ii     5 

o  10    9 
062 

055 
056 
o  10    4 

o  10    o 

°55 
o    4  10 
o    4  10 
099 

°93 
049 
042 
044 
092 

085 
040 
036 

039 

087 

078 

»33 
030 

032 

080 

041 
029 
036 
032 

O      2    II 

(0      2      6) 
027 

039 
026 

033 
030 
029 
024 
025 

036 
024 
o    3     i 

O      2    IO 
028 
023 
O24 

033 
023 

0      2    10 
029 
027 
O      2      2 
023 

031 

021 
028 
O27 
025 
021 
O      2      2 

0      2    II 
0      I    II 
027 
025 
023 
020 
O      2      O 

cleanest  of  dairies  in  North  Lancashire.  Advice  to  resort  to 
the  use  of  the  ferment  was  acted  upon,  and  the  result  was  a 
revelation  and  a  transformation,  excellent  prize-winning  cheese 
being  made  from  that  time  forward.  By  the  addition  of  a 
"  starter,"  in  the  form  of  a  small  quantity  of  sour  milk,  whey 
or  buttermilk,  in  an  advanced  stage  of  fermentation,  the  develop- 
ment of  acidity  in  the  main  body  of  milk  is  accelerated.  It 
has  been  ascertained  that  the  starter  is  practically  a  culture 
of  bacteria,  which,  if  desired,  may  be  obtained  as  a  pure  culture. 
Professor  J.  R.  Campbell,  as  the  result  of  experiments  on  pure 
cultures  for  Cheddar  cheese-making,  states1  that  (i)  first-class 
Cheddar  cheese  can  be  made  by  using  pure  cultures  of  a  lactic 
1  Trans.  Highl.  and  Agric.  Soc,  Scot.,  1899. 


pure  is  imperative,  whether  such  culture 
be  obtained  from  the  laboratory  or  pre- 
pared by  what  may  be  called  the  "  home- 
made starter."  Pure  cultures  may  be 
bought  for  a  few  shillings  in  the  open 
market. 

The  factory-made  cheese  of  Canada, 
the  United  States  and  Australasia,  which 
is  so  largely  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  all  of  the  Cheddar  type.  The 
factory  system  has  made  no  headway  in 
the  original  home  of  the  Cheddar  cheese 
in  the  west  of  England.  The  system  was 
thus  described  in  the  Journal  of  the 
British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association  in 
1889  by  Mr  R.  J.  Drummond: — 

"  In  the  year  1885  I  was  engaged  as  cheese 
instructor  by  the  Ayrshire  Dairy  Associa- 
tion, to  teach  the  Canadian  system  of 
Cheddar  cheese-making.  I  corrrrenced 
operations  under  many  difficulties,  being  a 
total  stranger  to  both  the  people  and  the 
country,  and  with  this,  the  quantities  of 
milk  were  very  much  less  than  I  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  handling.  Instead  of  having 
the  milk  from  500  to  1000  cows,  we  had  to 
operate  with  the  milk  from  25  to  not  over 
60  cows. 

"  The  system  of  cheese-making  commonly 
practised  in  the  county  of  Ayr  at  that  time 
was  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  Joseph 
Harding  or  English  Cheddar  system,  which 
differs  from  the  Canadian  system  in  rrany 
details,  and  in  one  particular  is  essentially 
different,  namely,  the  rranner  in  which  the 
necessary  acidity  in  the  rrilk  is  produced. 
In  the  old  method  a  certain  quantity  of 
sour  whey  was  added  to  the  rrilk  each  day 
before  adding  the  rennet,  and  I  have  no 
doubt  in  my  own  mind  that  this  whey  was 
often  added  when  the  milk  was  already  acid 
enough,  and  the  consequence  was  a  spoiled 
cheese. 

"  Another  objection  to  this  system  of 
adding  sour  whey  was,  should  the  stuff  be 
out  of  condition  one  day,  the  same  trouble 
was  inoculated  with  the  rrilk  from  day  to 
day,  and  the  result  was  sure  to  be  great 
unevenness  in  the  quality  of  the  cheese. 
The  utensils  commonly  in  use  were  very 
different  to  anything  I  had  ever  seen  before; 
instead  of  the  oblong  cheese  vat  with  double 
casings,  as  is  used  by  the  best  makers  at 
the  present  time,  a  tub,  sometimes  of  tin 
and  sometimes  of  wood,  from  4  to  7  ft.  in  diameter  by  about 
30  in.  deep,  was  universally  in  use.  Instead  of  being  able  to  heat 
the  milk  with  warm  water  or  steam,  as  is  commonly  done  now,  a 
large  can  of  a  capacity  of  from  20  to  30  gallons  was  filled  with  cold 
milk  and  placed  in  a  common  hot- water  boiler,  and  heated  sufficiently 
to  bring  the  whole  body  of  the  milk  in  the  tub  to  the  desired  tem- 
perature for  adding  the  rennet.  I  found  that  many  mistakes  were 
made  in  the  quantity  of  rennet  used,  as  scarcely  any  two  makers 
used  the  same  quantity  to  a  given  quantity  of  milk.  Instead  of 
having  a  graduated  measure  for  measuring  the  rennet,  a  common 
tea-cup  was  used  for  this  purpose,  and  I  have  found  in  some  dairies 
as  low  as  3  oz.  of  rennet  was  used  to  100  gallons  of  milk,  where  in 
others  as  high  as  6J  oz.  was  used  to  the  same  quantity.  This  of  itself 
would  cause  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  cheese. 

"  Coagulation  and  breaking  completed,  the  second  heating  was 
effected  by  dipping  the  whey  from  the  curd  into  the  can  already 


DAIRY 


747 


mentioned,  and  heated  to  a  temperature  of  140°  F.,  and  returned 
to  the  curd,  and  thus  the  process  was  carried  on  till  the  desired 
temperature  was  reached.  This  mode  of*  heating  I  considered 
very  laborious  and  at  the  same  time  very  unsatisfactory,  as  it  is 
impossible  to  distribute  the  heat  as  evenly  through  the  curd  in  this 
way  as  by  heating  either  with  hot  water  or  steam.  The  other  general 
features  of  the  method  do  not  differ  from  our  own  very  materially, 
with  the  exception  that  in  the  old  method  the  curd  was  allowed  to 
mature  in  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  where  at  the  same  stage  we  remove 
the  curd  from  the  vat  to  what  we  call  a  curd-cooler,  made  with  a 
sparred  bottom,  so  as  to  allow  the  whey  to  separate  from  the  curd 
during  the  maturing  or  ripening  process.  In  regard  to  the  quality 
of  cheese  on  the  one  method  compared  with  the  other,  I  think  that 
there  was  some  cheese  just  as  fine  made  in  the  old  way  as  anything 
we  can  possibly  make  in  the  new,  with  one  exception,  and  that  is, 
that  the  cheese  made  according  to  the  old  method  will  not  toast — 
instead  of  the  casein  melting  down  with  the  butter-fat,  the  two 
become  separated,  which  is  very  much  objected  to  by  the  consumer 
—  and,  with  this,  want  of  uniformity  through  the  whole  dairy.  This 
is  a  very  short  and  imperfect  description  of  now  the  cheese  was  made 
at  the  time  I  came  into  Ayrshire;  and  I  will  now  give  a  short  de- 
scription of  the  system  that  has  been  taught  by  myself  for  the  past 
four  years,  and  has  been  the  means  of  bringing  this  county  so 
prominently  to  the  front  as  one  of  the  best  cheese-making  counties 
in  Britain. 

"  Our  duty  in  this  system  of  cheese-making  begins  the  night 
before,  in  having  the  milk  properly  set  and  cooled  according  to  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  so  as  to  arrive  at  a  given  heat  the 
next  morning.  Our  object  in  this  is  to  secure,  at  the  time  we  wish 
to  begin  work  in  the  morning,  that  degree  of  acidity  or  ripeness 
essential  to  the  success  of  the  whole  operation.  We  cannot  give  any 
definite  guide  to  makers  how,  or  in  what  quantities,  to  set  their  milk, 
as  the  whole  thing  depends  on  the  good  judgment  of  the  operator. 
If  he  finds  that  his  milk  works  best  at  a  temperature  of  68°  F.  in 
the  morning,  his  study  the  night  before  should  tend  toward  such  a 
result,  and  he  will  soon  learn  by  experience  how  best  to  manage 
the  milk  in  his  own  individual  dairy.  I  have  found  in  some  dairies 
that  the  milk  worked  quite  fast  enough  at  a  temperature  of  64°  in 
the  morning,  where  in  others  the  milk  set  in  the  same  way  would  be 
very  much  out  of  condition  by  being  too  sweet,  causing  hours  of 
delay  before  matured  enough  to  add  the  rennet.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  at  this  point,  making  sure  that  the  milk  is  properly  matured 
before  the  rennet  is  added,  as  impatience  at  this  stage  often  causes 
hours  of  delay  in  the  making  of  a  cheese.  I  advise  taking  about 
six  hours  from  the  time  the  rennet  is  added  till  the  curd  is  ready  for 
salting,  which  means  a  six-hours'  process;  if  much  longer  than  this, 
I  have  found  by  experience  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  best 
results.  The  cream  should  always  be  removed  from  the  night's  milk 
in  the  morning  and  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  84°  before 
returning  it  to  the  vat.  To  do  this  properly  and  with  safety,  the 
cream  should  be  heated  by  adding  about  two-thirds  of  warm  milk 
as  it  comes  from  the  cow  to  one-third  of  cream,  and  passed  through 
the  ordinary  milk-strainers.  If  colouring  matter  is  used,  it  should  be 
added  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  before  the  rennet,  so  as  to  become 
thoroughly  mingled  with  the  milk  before  coagulation  takes  place. 

"  We  use  from  4  to  4i  oz.  of  Hansen's  rennet  extract  to  each 
loo  gallons  of  milk,  at  a  temperature  of  86°  in  spring  and  84°  in 
summer,  or  sufficient  to  coagulate  milk  firm  enough  to  cut  in  about 
forty  minutes  when  in  a  proper  condition.  In  cutting,  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  bruise  the  curd.  I  cut  lengthwise,  then 
across  with  perpendicular  knife,  then  with  horizontal  knife  the 
same  way  of  the  perpendicular,  leaving  the  curd  in  small  cubes 
about  the  size  of  ordinary  peas.  Stirring  with  the  hands  should 
begin  immediately  after  cutting,  and  continue  for  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes  prior  to  the  application  of  heat.  At  this  stage  we  use  a 
rake  instead  of  the  hands  for  stirring  the  curd  during  the  heating 
process,  which  lasts  about  one  hour  from  the  time  of  beginning  until 
the  desired  temperature  of  100°  or  102°  is  reached.  After  heating, 
the  curd  should  be  stirred  another  twenty  minutes,  so  as  to  become 
properly  firm  before  allowing  it  to  settle.  We  like  the  curd  to  lie 
in  the  whey  fully  one  hour  after  allowing  it  to  settle  before  it  is 
ready  for  drawing  the  whey,  which  is  regulated  altogether  by  the 
condition  of  the  milk  at  the  time  the  rennet  is  added.  At  the  first 
indication  of  acid,  the  whey  should  be  removed  as  quickly  as  possible. 
I  think  at  this  point  lies  the  greatest  secret  of  cheese-making — to 
know  when  to  draw  the  whey. 

"  I  depend  entirely  on  the  hot-iron  test  at  this  stage,  as  I  consider 
it  the  most  accurate  and  reliable  guide  known  to  determine  when 
the  proper  acidity  has  been  developed.  To  apply  this  test,  take  a 
piece  of  steel  bar  about  18  in.  long  by  I  in.  wide  and  i  in.  thick,  and 
heat  to  a  black  heat;  if  the  iron  is  too  hot,  it  will  burn  the  curd; 
if  too  cold,  it  will  not  stick ;  consequently  it  is  a  very  simple  matter 
to  determine  the  proper  heat.  Take  a  small  quantity  of  the  curd 
from  the  vat  and  compress  it  tightly  in  the  hand,  so  as  to  expel  all 
the  whey;  press  the  curd  against  the  iron,  and  when  acid  enough 
it  will  draw  fine  silky  threads  {  in.  long.  At  this  stage  the  curd 
should  be  removed  to  the  curd-cooler  as  quickly  as  possible,  and 
stirred  till  dry  enough  to  allow  it  to  mat,  which  generally  takes  from 
five  to  eight  minutes.  The  curd  is  now  allowed  to  stand  in  one  end 
of  the  cooler  for  thirty  minutes,  when  it  is  cut  into  pieces  from  6  to 


8  in.  square  and  turned,  and  so  on  every  half-hour  until  it  is  fit  for 
milling.  After  removing  the  whey,  a  new  acid  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  body  of  the  curd,  which  seems  to  depend  for  its  development 
upon  the  action  of  the  air,  and  the  presence  of  which  experience  has 
shown  to  be  an  essential  element  in  the  making  of  a  cheese.  This 
acid  should  be  allowed  to  develop  properly  before  the  addition  of 
salt.  To  determine  when  the  curd  is  ready  for  salting,  the  hot-iron 
test  is  again  resorted  to;  and  when  the  curd  will  draw  fine  silky 
threads  ij  in.  long,  and  at  the  same  time  have  a  soft  velvety  feel 
when  pressed  in  the  hand,  the  butter-fat  will  not  separate  with  the 
whey  from  the  curd.  I  generally  advise  using  I  Ib  of  salt  to  50  Ib  of 
curd,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  curd.  After 
salting,  we  let  the  curd  lie  fifteen  minutes,  so  as  to  allow  the  salt  to 
be  thoroughly  dissolved  before  pressing. 

"  In  the  pressing,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  press  the  curd  too 
severely  at  first,  as  you  are  apt  to  lose  some  of  the  butter-fat,  and 
with  this  I  do  not  think  that  the  whey  will  come  away  so  freely  by 
heavy  pressing  at  first.  We  advise  three  days'  pressing  before 
cheese  is  taken  to  the  curing-room.  All  cheese  should  have  a  bath 
in  water  at  a  temperature  of  120°  next  morning  after  being  made, 
so  as  to  form  a  good  skin  to  prevent  cracking  or  chipping.  The 
temperature  of  the  curing-room  should  be  kept  as  near  60°  as 
possible  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  I  think  it  a  good  plan  to 
ventilate  while  heating." 

With  regard  to  the  hot-iron  test  for  acidity,  Mr  F.  J.  Lloyd, 
in  describing  his  investigations  on  behalf  of  the  Bath  and  West 
of  England  Society,  states  that  cheese-makers  have  long  known 
that  in  both  the  manufacture  and  the  ripening  of  cheese  the 
acidity  produced — known  to  the  chemist  as  "  lactic  acid  "- 
materially  influences  the  results  obtained,  and  that  amongst 
other  drawbacks  to  the  test  referred  to  is  the  uncertainty  of  the 
temperature  of  the  iron  itself.  He  gives  an  account,1  however, 
of  a  chemical  method  involving  the  use  of  a  standard  solution 
of  an  alkali  (soda),  and  of  a  substance  termed  an  "  indicator  " 
(phenolphthalein),  which  changes  colour  according  to  whether 
a  solution  is  acid  or  alkaline.  The  apparatus  used  with  these 
reagents  is  called  the  acidimeter.  The  two  stages  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  Cheddar  cheese  most  difficult  to  determine  empiri- 
cally are — (i)  when  to  stop  stirring  and  to  draw  the  whey,  and 
(2)  when  to  grind  the  curd.  The  introduction  of  the  acidimeter 
has  done  away  with  these  difficulties;  and  though  the  use  of 
this  apparatus  is  not  actually  a  condition  essential  to  the  manu- 
facture of  a  good  cheese,  it  is  to  many  makers  a  necessity  and  to 
all  an  advantage.  By  its  use  the  cheese-maker  can  determine 
the  acidity  of  the  whey,  and  so  decide  when  to  draw  the  latter 
off,  and  will  thus  secure  not  only  the  proper  development  of 
acidity  in  the  subsequent  changes  of  cheese-making,  but  also 
materially  diminish  the  time  which  the  cheese  takes  to  make. 
Furthermore,  it  has  been  proved  that  the  acidity  of  the  whey 
which  drains  from  the  curd  when  in  the  cooler  is  a  sufficiently 
accurate  guide  to  the  condition  of  the  curd  before  grinding; 
and  by  securing  uniformity  in  this  acidity  the  maker  will  also 
ensure  uniformity  in  the  quality  and  ripening  properties  of  the 
cheese.  Speaking  generally,  the  acidity  of  the  liquid  from 
the  press  should  never  fall  below  0-80%  nor  rise  above  1-20%, 
and  the  nearer  it  can  be  kept  to  1-00%  the  better.  Simul- 
taneously, of  course,  strict  attention  must  be  paid  to  temperature, 
time  and  every  other  factor  which  can  be  accurately  determined. 
Analyses  of  large  numbers  of  Cheddar  cheeses  manufactured 
in  every  month  of  the  cheese-making  season  show  the  average 
composition  of  ripe  specimens  to  be — water,  35-58%;  fat, 
31-33;  casein,  29-12;  mineral  matter  or  ash,  3-97.  It  has  been 
maintained  that  in  the  ripening  of  Cheddar  cheese  fat  is  formed 
out  of  the  curd,  but  a  comparison  of  analyses  of  ripe  cheeses 
with  analyses  of  the  curd  from  which  the  cheeses  were  made 
affords  no  evidence  that  this  is  the  case. 

The  quantity  of  milk  required  to  make  i  Ib  of  Cheddar  cheese 
may  be  learnt  from  Table  X.,  which  shows  the  results  obtained 
at  the  cheese  school  of  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Society 
in  the  two  seasons  of  1899  and  1900.  The  cheese  was  sold  at  an 
average  age  of  ten  to  twelve  weeks.  In  1899  a  total  of  21,220 
gallons  of  milk  yielded  20,537  R>  of  saleable  cheese,  and  in  1900, 
31,808  gallons  yielded  29,631  Ib.  In  the  two  years  together 
53,028  gallons  yielded  50,168  Ib,  which  is  equivalent  to  1-05 
gallon  of  milk  to  i  Ib  of  cheese.  For  practical  purposes  it  may 

1  Report  on  Cheddar  Cheese- Making,  London,  1899. 


DAIRY 


be  taken  that  one  gallon,  or  slightly  over  10  Ib.  of  milk,  yields 
i  Ib  of  pressed  cheese.  The  prices  obtained  are  added  as  a  matter 
of  interest. 

Cheshire  cheese  is  largely  made  in  the  county  from  which  it 
takes  its  name,  and  in  adjoining  districts.  It  is  extensively 
consumed  in  Manchester  and  Liverpool,  and  other  parts  of  the 
densely  populated  county  of  Lancaster. 

TABLE  X. — Quantities  of  Milk  employed  and  of  Cheese  produced  in  the  Manu- 
facture of  Cheddar  Cheese. 


When  Made. 

Milk. 

Green 
Cheese. 

Saleable 
Cheese. 

Shrinkage. 

Price. 

galls. 

Ib 

ft 

per  cwt. 

April  1899    . 

3077 

3100 

2924 

6  per  cent. 

6os. 

May    . 

4462 

4502 

4257 

6J  Ib  per  cwt. 

633. 

June    . 

4316 

4434 

4141 

7  Ib  6  oz.  per  cwt. 

703. 

July     . 

3699 

3785 

3545 

7  Ib  2  oz.  per  cwt. 

745. 

August 

2495 

2539 

2353 

8  ft  3  oz.  per  cwt. 

743. 

Sept.  and  Oct. 

3171 

3583 

3317 

8  Ib  5  oz.  per  cwt. 

743. 

April  1900    . 

3651 

3505 

3292 

6  per  cent. 

63s. 

May    . 

6027 

6048 

5577 

7  1  per  cent. 

643. 

June    . 

5960 

5889 

5466 

7J  per  cent. 

68s. 

July  and  Aug. 

7227 

7177 

6630 

7J  per  cent. 

66s. 

Sept.  and  Oct. 

8943 

9635 

8666 

10  per  cent. 

66s. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  making  of    Cheshire 

cheese: — 

The  evening's  milk  is  set  apart  until  the  following  morning,  when 
the  cream  is  skimmed  off.  The  latter  is  poured  into  a  pan  which 
has  been  heated  by  being  placed  in  the  boiling  water  of  a  boiler. 
The  new  milk  obtained  early  in  the  morning  is  poured  into  the  vessel 
containing  the  previous  evening's  milk  with  the  warmed  cream, 
and  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  is  brought  to  about  75°  F. 
Into  the  vessel  is  introduced  a  piece  of  rennet,  which  has  been  kept 
in  warm  water  since  the  preceding  evening,  and  in  which  a  little 
Spanish  annatto  (J  oz.  is  enough  for  a  cheese  of  60  Ib)  is  dissolved. 
(Marigolds,  boiled  in  milk,  are  occasionally  used  for  colouring  cheese, 
to  which  they  likewise  impart  a  pleasant  flavour.  In  winter,  carrots 
scraped  and  boiled  in  milk,  and  afterwards  strained,  will  produce 
a  richer  colour;  but  they  should  be  used  with  moderation,  on 
account  of  their  taste.)  The  whole  is  now  stirred  together,  and 
covered  up  warm  for  about  an  hour,  or  until  it  becomes  curdled; 
it  is  then  turned  over  with  a  bowl  and  broken  very  small.  After 
standing  a  little  time,  the  whey  is  drawn  from  it,  and  as  soon  as 
the  curd  becomes  somewhat  more  solid  it  is  cut  into  slices  and  turned 
over  repeatedly,  the  better  to  press  out  the  whey. 

The  curd  is  then  removed  from  the  tub,  broken  by  hand  or  cut 
by  a  curd-breaker  into  small  pieces,  and  put  into  a  cheese  vat, 
where  it  is  strongly  pressed  both  by  hand  and  with  weights,  in  order 
to  extract  the  remaining  whey.  After  this  it  is  transferred  to 
another  vat,  or  into  the  same  if  it  has  in  the  meantime  been  well 
scalded,  where  a  similar  process  of  breaking  and  expressing  is 
repeated,  until  all  the  whey  is  forced  from  it.  _  The  cheese  is  now 
turned  into  a  third  vat,  previously  warmed,  with  a  cloth  beneath 
it,  and  a  thin  loop  of  binder  put  round  the  upper  edge  of  the  cheese 
and  within  the  sides  of  the  vat,  the  cheese  itself  being  -previously 
enclosed  in  a  clean  cloth,  and  its  edges  placed  within  the  vat,  before 
transfer  to  the  cheese-oven.  These  various  processes  occupy  about 
six  hours,  and  eight  more  are  requisite  for  pressing  the  cheese,  under 
a  weight  of  14  or  15  cwt.  The  cheese  during  that  time  should  be 
twice  turned  in  the  vat.  Holes  are  bored  in  the  vat  which  contains 
the  cheese,  and  also  in  the  cover  of  it,  to  facilitate  the  extraction  of 
every  drop  of  whey.  The  pressure  being  continued,  the  cheese  is 
at  length  taken  from  the  vat  as  a  firm  and  solid  mass. 

On  the  following  morning  and  evening  it  must  be  again  turned 
and  pressed;  and  also  on  the  third  day,  about  the  middle  of  which 
it  should  be  removed  to  the  salting-chamber,  where  the  outside  is 
well  rubbed  with  salt,  and  a  cloth  binder  passed  round  it  which  is 
not  turned  over  the  upper  surface.  The  cheese  is  then  placed  in 
brine  extending  half-way  up  in  a  salting-tub,  and  the  upper  surface 
is  thickly  covered  with  salt.  Here  it  remains  for  nearly  a  week, 
being  turned  twice  in  the  day.  It  is  then  left  to  dry  for  two  or  three 
days,  during  which  period  it  is  turned  once — being  well  salted  at 
each  turning — and  cleaned  every  day.  When  taken  from  the  brine 
it  is  put  on  the  salting  benches,  with  a  wooden  girth  round  it  of 
nearly  the  thickness  of  the  cheese,  where  it  stands  a  few  days,  during 
which  time  it  is  again  salted  and  turned  every  day._  It  is  next 
washed  and  dried;  and  after  remaining  on  the  drying  benches 
about  seven  days,  it  is  once  more  washed  in  warm  water  with  a  brush, 
and  wiped  dry.  In  a  couple  of  hours  after  this  it  is  rubbed  all  over 
with  sweet  whey  butter,  which  operation  is  afterwards  frequently 
repeated ;  and,  lastly,  it  is  deposited  in  the  cheese-  or  store-room — 
which  should  be  moderately  warm  and  sheltered  from  the  access  of 
air,  lest  the  cheese  should  crack — and  turned  every  day,  until  it  has 
become  sufficiently  hard  and  firm.  These  cheeses  require  to  be  kept 
a  considerable  time. 


As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  three  different  modes  of  cheese- 
making  followed  in  Cheshire,  known  as  the  early  ripening,  themedium 
ripening  and  the  tote-ripening  processes.     There  is  also  a  method 
which  produces  a  cheese  that  is  permeated  with  "  green  mould  " 
when  ripe,  called  "  Stilton  Cheshire  ";  this,  however,  is  confined  to 
limited  districts  in  the  county.  The  early  ripening  method  is  generally 
followed  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  until  the  middle  or  end  of  April ; 
the  medium  process,  from  that  time  till  late  autumn,  or  until  early  in 
June,  when  the  late  ripening  process  is  adopted  and  followed  until  the 
end  of  September,  changing  again  to  the  medium  process 
as  the  season  advances.     The  late  ripening  process  is  not 
found  to  be  suitable  for  spring  or  late  autumn  make. 
There   is  a  decided   difference   between  these  several 
methods  of  making.     In  the  early  ripening  system  a 
larger  quantity  of  rennet  is  used,  more  acidity  is  devel- 
oped, and  less  pressure  employed  than  in  the  other 
processes.     In  the  medium  ripening  process  a  moderate 
amount  of  acidity  is  developed,  to  cause  the  natural 
drainage  of  the  whey  from  the  curd  when  under  press. 
In  the  late  ripening  system,  on  the  other  hand,   the 
development  of  acidity  is  prevented  as  far  as  possible, 
and  the  whey  is  got  out  of  the  curd  by  breaking  down 
finer,  using  more  heat,  and  skewering  when  under  press. 
In  the  Stilton  Cheshire  process  a  larger  quantity  of 
rennet  is  used,  and  less  pressure  is  employed,  than  in  the 
medium  or  late  ripening  systems. 

It  is  hardlypossibletoenunciateanygeneral  rules  for 
themakingof  Stilton  cheese,  which  differs  from  Cheddar 
and  Cheshire  in  that  it  is  not  subjected  to  pressure.  Mr  J.  Marshall 
Dugdale,  in  1899,  made  a  visit  of  inspection  to  the  chief  Leicester- 
shire dairies  where  this  cheese  is  produced,  but  in  his  report1  he 
stated  that  every  Stilton  cheese-maker  worked  on  his  own  lines, 
and  that  at  no  two  dairies  did  he  find  the  details  all  carried  out 
in  the  same  manner.  There  is  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  up  to 
the  point  when  the  curd  is  ladled  into  the  straining-cloths,  but 
at  this  stage,  and  in  the  treatment  of  the  curd  before  salting, 
diversity  sets  in,  several  different  methods  being  in  successful 
use.  Most  of  the  cheese  is  made  from  two  curds,  the  highly  acid 
curd  from  the  morning's  milk  being  being  mixed  with  the  compara- 
tively sweet  curd  from  the  evening's  milk.  Opinion  varies  widely 
as  to  the  degree  of  tightening  of  the  straining-cloths.  No  test  for 
acidity  appears  to  be  used,  the  amount  of  acidity  being  judged 
by  the  taste,  feel  and  smell  of  the  curd.  When  the  desired  degree 
of  acidity  has  developed,  the  curd  is  broken  by  hand  to  pieces 
the  size  of  small  walnuts,  pnd  salt  is  added  at  the  rate  of  about 
i  oz.  to  4  Ib  of  dry  curd,  or  i  oz.  to  35  Ib  of  wet  curd,  care  being 
taken  not  to  get  the  curd  pasty.  If  a  maker  has  learnt  how  to 
rennet  the  milk  properly,  and  how  to  secure  the  right  amount  of 
acidity  at  the  time  of  hooping — that  is,  when  the  broken  and 
salted  curd  is  put  into  the  wooden  hoops  which  give  the  cheese 
its  shape — he  has  acquired  probably  two  of  the  most  important 
details  necessary  to  success.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  add 
cream  to  the  milk  used  for  making  Stilton  cheese,  but  the  more 
general  practice  now  is  to  employ  new  milk  alone,  which  yields  a 
product  apparently  as  excellent  and  mellow  as  that  from  enriched 
milk. 

As  a  cheese  matures  or  becomes  fit  for  consumption,  not  only 
is  there  produced  the  characteristic  flavour  peculiar  to  the  type 
of  cheese  concerned,  but  with  all  varieties,  independently  of  the 
quality  of  flavours  developed,  a  profound  physical  transforma- 
tion of  the  casein  occurs.  In  the  course  of  this  change  the  firm 
elastic  curd  "  breaks  down  "—that  is,  becomes  plastic,  whilst 
chemically  the  insoluble  casein  is  converted  into  various  soluble 
decomposition  products.  These  ripening  phenomena — the  pro- 
duction of  flavour  and  the  breaking  down  of  the  casein  (that  is, 
the  formation  of  proper  texture) — used  to  be  regarded  as  different 
phases  of  the  same  process.  As  subsequently  shown,  however, 
these  changes  are  not  necessarily  so  closely  correlated.  The 
theories  formerly  advanced  as  explanatory  of  the  ripening 
changes  in  cheese  were  suggestive  rather  than  based  upon  ex- 
perimental data,  and  it  is  only  since  1896  that  careful  scientific 
studies  of  the  problem  have  been  made.  Of  the  two  existing 
theories,  the  one,  which  is  essentially  European,  ascribes  the 
ripening  changes  wholly  to  the  action  of  living  organisms — the 
bacteria  present  in  the  cheese.  The  other,  which  had  its  origin 

1  "  The  Practice  of  Stilton  Cheese-Making,"  Journ,  Roy.  Agric. 
Soc.,  1899. 


DAIRY 


749 


in  the  United  States,  asserts  that  there  are  digestive  enzymes — 
that  is,  unorganized  or  soluble  ferments — inherent  in  the  milk 
itself  that  render  the  casein  soluble.  The  supporters  of  the 
bacterial  theory  are  ranged  in  two  classes.  The  one,  led  by 
Duclaux,  regards  the  breaking  down  of  the  casein  as  due  to  the 
action  of  liquefying  bacteria  (Tyrothrix  forms).  On  the  other 
hand,  von  Freudenreich  has  ascribed  these  changes  to  the  lactic- 
acid  type  of  bacteria,  which  develop  so  luxuriantly  in  hard  cheese 
like  Cheddar. 

With  regard  to  the  American  theory,  and  in  view  of  the 
important  practical  results  obtained  by  Babcock  and  Russell  at 
the  Wisconsin  experiment  station,  the  following  account1  of 
their  work  is  of  interest,  especially  as  the  subject  is  of  high 
practical  importance.  In  1897  they  announced  the  discovery  of 
an  inherent  enzyme  in  milk,  which  they  named  galactase,  and 
which  has  the  power  of  digesting  the  casein  of  milk,  and  producing 
chemical  decomposition  products  similar  to  those  that  normally 
occur  in  ripened  cheese.  The  theory  has  been  advanced  by  them 
that  this  enzyme  is  an  important  factor  in  the  ripening  changes; 
and  as  in  their  experiments  bacterial  action  was  excluded  by  the 
use  of  anaesthetic  agents,  they  conclude  that,  so  far  as  the 
breaking  down  of  the  casein  is  concerned,  bacteria  are  not 
essential  to  this  process.  In  formulating  a  theory  of  cheese- 
ripening,  they  have  further  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  con- 
sidering the  action  of  rennet  extract  as  a  factor  concerned  in 
the  curing  changes.  They  have  shown  that  the  addition  of 
increased  quantities  of  rennet  extract  materially  hastens  the 
rate  of  ripening,  and  that  this  is  due  to  the  pepsin  which  is 
present  in  all  commercial  rennet  extracts.  They  find  it  easily 
possible  to  differentiate  between  the  proteolytic  action — that  is, 
the  decomposing  of  proteids — of  pepsin  and  galactase,  in  that 
the  first-named  enzyme  is  incapable  of  producing  decomposition 
products  lower  than  the  peptones  precipitated  by  tannin.  They 
have  shown  that  the  increased  solubility — the  ripening  changes 
— of  the  casein  in  cheese  made  with  rennet  is  attributable  solely 
to  the  products  peculiar  to  peptic  digestion.  The  addition  of 
rennet  extract  or  pepsin  to  fresh  milk  does  not  produce  this 
change,  unless  the  acidity  of  the  milk  is  allowed  to  develop  to  a 
point  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  the  best  adapted  to  the 
making  of  Cheddar  cheese.  The  rationale  of  the  empirical  process 
of  ripening  the  milk  before  the  addition  of  the  rennet  is  thus 
explained.  In  studying  the  properties  of  galactase  it  was  further 
found  that  this  enzyme,  as  well  as  those  present  in  rennet  extract, 
is  operative  at  very  low  temperatures,  even  below  freezing-point. 
When  cheese  made  in  the  normal  manner  was  kept  at  tempera- 
tures ranging  from  25°  to  45°  F.  for  periods  averaging  from  eight 
to  eighteen  months,  it  was  found  that  the  texture  of  the  product 
simulated  that  of  a  perfectly  ripened  cheese,  but  that  such  cheese 
developed  a  very  mild  flavour  in  comparison  with  the  normally- 
cured  product.  Subsequent  storage  at  somewhat  higher  tempera- 
tures gives  to  such  cheese  a  flavour  the  intensity  of  which  is 
determined  by  the  duration  of  storage.  This  indicates  that  the 
breaking  down  of  the  casein  and  the  production  of  the  flavour 
peculiar  to  cheese  are  in  a  way  independent  of  each  other,  and 
may  be  independently  controlled — a  point  of  great  economic 
importance  in  commercial  practice.  Although  it  is  generally 
believed  that  cheese  ripened  at  low  temperatures  is  apt  to  develop 
a  more  or  less  bitter  flavour,  the  flavours  in  the  cases  described 
were  found  to  be  practically  perfect.  Under  these  conditions  of 
curing,  bacterial  activity  is  inoperative,  and  these  experiments 
are  held  to  furnish  an  independent  proof  of  the  enzyme  theory. 

Not  only  are  these  investigations  of  interest  from  the  scientific 
standpoint,  as  throwing  light  on  the  obscure  processes  of  cheese- 
curing,  but  from  a  practical  point  of  view  they  open  up  a  new 
field  for  commercial  exploitation.  The  inability  to  control  the 
temperature  in  the  ordinary  factory  curing-room  results  in  serious 
losses,  on  account  of  the  poor  and  uneven  quality  of  the  product, 
and  the  consumption  of  cheese  has  been  greatly  lessened  thereby. 
These  conditions  may  all  be  avoided  by  this  low-temperature 
curing  process,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  cheese  industry 
may  undergo  important  changes  in  methods  of  treatment.  With 
1  Experiment  Station  Record,  xii.  9  (Washington,  1901). 


the  introduction  of  cold-storage  curing,  and  the  necessity  of 
constructing  centralized  plant  for  this  purpose,  the  cheese 
industry  may  perhaps  come  to  be  differentiated  into  the  manu- 
facture of  the  product  in  factories  of  relatively  cheap  construc- 
tion, and  the  curing  or  ripening  of  the  cheese  in  central  curing 
stations.  In  this  way  not  only  would  the  losses  which  occur 
under  present  practices  be  obviated,  but  the  improvement  in 
the  quality  of  the  cured  product  would  be  more  than  sufficient 
to  cover  the  cost  of  cold-storage  curing. 

The  characteristics  of  typical  specimens  of  the  different  kinds 
of  English  cheese  may  be  briefly  described.     Cheddar  cheese 
possesses  the  aroma  and  flavour  of  a  nut — the  so-called  "  nutty  " 
flavour.     It  should  melt  in  the  mouth,  and  taste  neither  sweet 
nor  acid.     It  is  of  flaky  texture,  neither  hard  nor  crumbly,  and  is 
firm  to  the  touch.     It  is  early-ripening  and,  if  not  too  much  acid 
is  developed  in  the  making,  long-keeping.     Before  all  others  it 
is  a  cosmopolitan  cheese.     Some  cheeses  are  "  plain,"  that  is, 
they  possess  the  natural  paleness  of  the  curd,  but  many  are 
coloured  with  annatto — a  practice  that  might  be  dispensed  with. 
The  average  weight  of  a  Cheddar  cheese  is  about  70  Ib.     Stilton 
cheese  is  popularly  but  erroneously  supposed  to  be  commonly 
made  from  morning's  whole  milk  with  evening's  cream  added, 
and  to  be  a  "  double-cream  "  cheese.     The  texture  is  waxy,  and 
a  blue-green  mould  permeates  the  mass   if  well   ripened;  the 
flavour  is  suggestive  of  decay.     The  average  weight  of  a  Stilton 
is  15  Ib.     Cheshire  cheese  has  a  fairly  firm  and  uniform  texture, 
neither  flaky  on  the  one    hand  nor  waxy  on  the  other ;  is  of 
somewhat  sharp  and  piquant  flavour  when  fully  ripe;  and  is 
often — at  eighteen  months  old,   when  a  well-made  Cheshire 
cheese  is  at  its  best — permeated  with  a  blue-green  mould,  which, 
as  in  the  case  of  Stilton  cheese,  contributes  a  characteristic 
flavour  which  is  much  appreciated.     Cheshire  cheese  is,  like 
Cheddar,  sometimes  highly-coloured,  but  the  practice  is  quite 
unnecessary;  the  weight  is  about  55  Ib.     Gloucester  cheese  has 
a  firm,  somewhat  soapy,  texture  and  sweet  flavour.     Double 
Gloucester  differs  from  single  Gloucester  only  in  size,  the  former 
usually  weighing  26  to  30  Ib,  and  the  latter  13  to  15  Ib.     Leicester 
cheese  is  somewhat  loose  in  texture,  and  mellow  and  moist  when 
nicely  ripened.     Its  flavour  is  "  clean,"  sweet  and  mild,  and  its 
aroma  pleasant.     To  those  who  prefer  a  mild  flavour  in  cheese,  a 
perfect  Leicester  is  perhaps  the  most  attractive  of  all  the  so- 
called  "  hard  "  cheese;  the  average  weight  of  such  a  cheese  is 
about  3  5  Ib.    Derby  cheese  in  its  best  forms  is  much  like  Leicester, 
being  "  clean  "  in  flavour  and  mellow.   It  is  sometimes  rather 
flaky  in  texture,  and  is  slow-ripening  and  long-keeping  if  made 
on  the  old  lines;  the  average  weight  is  25  Ib.     Lancashire  cheese, 
when  well  made  and  ripe,  is  loose  in  texture  and  is  mellow;  it 
has  a  piquant  flavour.    As  a  rule  it  ripens  early  and  does  not 
keep  long.     Dorset  cheese — sometimes  called  "  blue  vinny  "  (or 
veiny) — is  of   firm   texture,  blue-moulded,   and  rather  sharp- 
flavoured  when  fully  ripe ;    it  has  local  popularity  and  the  best 
makes  are  rather  like  Stilton.     Wensleydale  cheese,  a  local  pro- 
duct in  North  Yorkshire,  is  of  fairly  firm  texture  and  mild  flavour, 
and  may  almost  be  spread  with  a  knife  when  ripe;  the  finest 
makes  are  equal  to  the  best  Stilton.     Cotherstone  cheese,  also  a 
Yorkshire  product,  is  very  much  like  Stilton  and  commonly 
preferable  to  it.     The  blue-green  mould  develops,  and  the  cheese 
is  fairly  mellow  and  moist,  whereas  many  Stiltons  are  hard  and 
dry.     Wiltshire  cheese,  in  the  form  of  "  Wilts  truckles,"  may  be 
described  as  small  Cheddars,  the  weight  being  usually  about 
1 6  Ib.     Caerphilly  cheese  is  a  thin,  flat  product,  having  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  undersized  single  Gloucester  and  weighing  about 
8  Ib;  it  has  no  very  marked  characteristics,  but  enters  largely 
into   local   consumption    amongst    the   mining   population   of 
Glamorganshire  and  Monmouthshire.     Soft  cheese  of  various 
kinds  is  made  in  many  localities,  beyond  which  its  reputation 
scarcely  extends.     One  of  the  oldest  and  best,  somewhat  resem- 
bling Camembert  when  well  ripened,  is  the  little  "  Slipcote," 
made  on  a  small  scale  in  the  county  of  Rutland;  it  is  a  soft, 
mellow,  moist  cheese,  its  coat  slipping  off  readily  when  the  cheese 
is  at  its  best  for  eating — hence  the  name.     Cream  cheese  is  like- 
wise made  in  many  districts,  but  nowhere  to  a  great  extent.     A 


750 


DAIRY 


good  cream  cheese  is  fairly  firm  but  mellow,  with  a  slightly  acid 
yet  very  attractive  flavour.  It  is  the  simplest  of  all  cheese  to 
make — cream  poured  into  a  perforated  box  lined  with  loose 
muslin  practically  makes  itself  into  cheese  in  a  few  days'  time, 
and  is  usually  ripe  in  a  week. 

In  France  the  pressed  varieties  of  cheese  with  hard  rinds 
include  Gruyere,  Cantal,  Roquefort  and  Port  Salut.  The  first- 
named,  a  pale-yellow  cheese  full  of  holes  of  varying  size,  is  made 
in  Switzerland  and  in  the  Jura  Mountains  district  in  the  east  of 
France;  whilst  Cantal  cheese,  which  is  of  lower  quality,  is  a 
product  of  the  midland  districts  and  is  made  barrel-shape. 
Roquefort  cheese  is  made  from  the  milk  of  ewes,  which  are  kept 
chiefly  as  dairy  animals  in  the  department  of  Aveyron,  and  the 
cheese  is  cured  in  the  natural  mountain  caves  at  the  village  of 
Roquefort.  It  is  a  small,  rather  soft,  white  cheese,  abundantly 
veined  with  a  greenish-blue  mould  and  weighs  between  4  and 
5  Ib.  The  Port  Salut  is  quite  a  modern  cheese,  which  originated 
in  the  abbey  of  that  name  in  Mayenne;  it  is  a  thin,  flat  cheese 
of  characteristic,  and  not  unattractive  odour  and  flavour.  The 
best  known  of  the  soft  unpressed  cheeses  are  Brie,  Camembert 
and  Coulommiers,  whilst  Pont  1'Eveque,  Livarot  and  other 
varieties  are  also  made.  After  being  shaped  in  moulds  of  various 
forms,  these  cheeses  are  laid  on  straw  mats  to  cure,  and  when 
fit  to  eat  they  possess  about  the  same  consistency  as  butter. 
The  Neufchatel,  Gervais  and  Bondon  cheeses  are  soft  varieties 
intended  to  be  eaten  quite  fresh,  like  cream  cheese. 

Of  the  varieties  of  cheese  made  in  Switzerland,  the  best  known 
is  the  Emmenthaler,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  cart-wheel,  and 
has  a  weight  varying  from  150  to  300  Ib.  It  is  full  of  small 
holes  of  almost  uniform  size  and  very  regularly  distributed.  In 
colour  and  flavour  it  is  the  same  as  Gruyere.  The  Edam  and 
Gouda  are  the  common  cheeses  of  Holland.  The  Edam  is 
spherical  in  shape,  weighs  from  3  to  4  Ib,  and  is  usually  dyed 
crimson  on  the  outside.  The  Gouda  is  a  flat  cheese  with  convex 
edges  and  is  of  any  weight  up  to  20  Ib.  Of  the  two,  the  Edam 
has  the  finer  flavour.  Limburger  is  the  leading  German  cheese, 
whilst  other  varieties  are  the  Backstein  and  Munster;  all  are 
strong-smelling.  Parmesan  cheese  is  an  Italian  product,  round 
and  flat,  about  5  in.  thick,  weighing  from  60  to  80  Ib  and 
possessed  of  fine  flavour.  Gorgonzola  cheese,  so  called  from  the 
Italian  town  of  that  name  near  Milan,  is  made  in  the  Cheddar 
shape  and  weighs  from  20  to  40  Ib.  When  ripe  it  is  permeated 
by  a  blue  mould,  and  resembles  in  flavour,  appearance  and 
consistency  a  rich  old  Stilton. 

For  descriptions  of  all  the  named  varieties  of  cheese,  see  Bulletin 
105  of the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington),  issued  27th  of  June  1908,  compiled  by  C.  F.  Doane 
and  H.  W.  Lawson. 

BUTTER  AND  BUTTER-MAKING 

As  with  cheese,  so  with  butter,  large  quantities  of  the  latter 
have  been  inferior  not  because  the  cream  was  poor  in  quality, 
but  because  the  wrong  kinds  of  bacteria  had  taken  possession  of 
the  atmosphere  in  hundreds  of  dairies.  The  greatest  if  not  the 
latest  novelty  in  dairying  in  the  last  decade  of  the  igth  century 
was  the  isolation  of  lactic  acid  bacilli,  their  cultivation  in  a 
suitable  medium,  and  their  employment  in  cream  preparatory 
to  churning.  Used  thus  in  butter-making,  an  excellent  product 
results,  provided  cleanliness  be  scrupulously  maintained.  The 
culture  repeats  itself  in  the  buttermilk,  which  in  turn  may  be 
used  again  with  marked  success.  Much  fine  butter,  indeed,  was 
made  long  before  the  bearing  of  bacteriological  science  upon  the 
practice  of  dairying  was  recognized — made  by  using  acid  butter- 
milk from  a  previous  churning. 

In  Denmark,  which  is,  for  its  size,  the  greatest  butter-produc- 
ing country  in  the  world,  most  of  the  butter  is  made  with  the  aid 
of  "  starters,"  or  artificial  cultures  which  are  employed  in 
ripening  the  cream.  Though  the  butter  made  by  such  cultures 
shows  little  if  any  superiority  over  a  good  sample  made  from 
cream  ripened  in  the  ordinary  way — that  is,  by  keeping  the 
cream  at  a  fairly  high  temperature  until  it  is  ready  for  churning, 
when  it  must  be  cooled — it  is  claimed  that  the  use  of  these 
cultures  enables  the  butter-makers  of  Denmark  to  secure  a  much 


greater  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  their  produce  than  would  be 
possible  if  they  depended  upon  the  ripening  of  the  cream  through 
the  influence  of  bacteria  taken  up  in  the  usual  way  from  the  air. 

Butter-making  is  an  altogether  simpler  process  than  cheese- 
making,  but  success  demands  strict  attention  to  sound  principles, 
the  observance  of  thorough  cleanliness  in  every  stage  of  the 
work,  and  the  intelligent  use  of  the  thermometer.  The  following 
rules  for  butter-making,  issued  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
sufficiently  indicate  the  nature  of  the  operation: — 

Prepare  churn,  butter-worker,  wooden-hands  and  sieve  as 
follows: — (l)Rinse  with  cold  water.  (2)  Scald  with  boiling  water. 
(3)  Rub  thoroughly  with  salt.  (4)  Rinse  with  cold  water. 

Always  use  a  correct  thermometer. 

The  cream,  when  in  the  churn,  to  be  at  a  temperature  of  56°  to 
58°  F.  in  summer  and  60°  to  62°  F.  in  winter.  The  churn  should  never 
be  more  than  half  full.  Churn  at  number  of  revolutions  suggested 
by  maker  of  churn.  If  none  are  given,  churn  at  40  to  45  revolutions 
per  minute.  Always  churn  slowly  at  first. 

Ventilate  the  churn  freely  and  frequently  during  churning,  until 
no  air  rushes  out  when  the  vent  is  opened. 

Stop  churning  immediately  the  butter  comes.  This  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  the  sound ;  if  in  doubt,  look. 

The  butter  should  now  be  like  grains  of  mustard  seed.  Pour  in 
a  small  quantity  of  cold  water  (l  pint  of  water  to  2  quarts  of  cream) 
to  harden  the  grains,  and  give  a  few  more  turns  to  the  churn  gently. 

Draw  off  the  buttermilk,  giving  plenty  of  time  for  draining.  Use 
a  straining-cloth  placed  over  the  hair-sieve,  so  as  to  prevent  any 
loss,  and  wash  the  butter  in  the  churn  with  plenty  of  cold  water: 
then  draw  off  the  water,  and  repeat  the  process  until  the  water 
comes  off  quite  clear. 

To  brine  butter,  make  a  strong  brine,  2  to  3  Ib  of  salt  to  I  gallon 
of  water.  Place  straining-cloth  over  mouth  of  churn,  pour  in  brine, 
put  lid  on  churn,  turn  sharply  half  a  dozen  times,  and  leave  for  10 
to  15  minutes.  Then  lift  the  butter  out  of  the  churn  into  sieve,  turn 
butter  out  on  worker,  leave  it  a  few  minutes  to  drain,  and  work 
gently  till  all  superfluous  moisture  is  pressed  out. 

To  drysalt  butter,  place  butter  on  worker,  let  it  drain  10  to  15 
minutes,  then  work  gently  till  all  the  butter  comes  together.  Place 
it  on  the  scales  and  weigh ;  then  weight  salt,  for  slight  salting,  i  oz. ; 
medium,  J  oz. ;  heavy  salting,  J  oz.  to  the  Ib  of  butter.  Roll  butter 
out  on  worker  and  carefully  sprinkle  salt  over  the  surface,  a  little 
at  a  time;  roll  up  and  repeat  till  all  the  salt  is  used. 

Never  touch  the  butter  with  your  hands. 

Well-made  butter  is  firm  and  not  greasy.  It  possesses  a 
characteristic  texture  or  "  grain,"  in  virtue  of  which  it  cuts 
clean  with  a  knife  and  breaks  with  a  granular  fracture,  like  that 
of  cast-iron.  Theoretically,  butter  should  consist  of  little  else 
than  fat,  but  in  practice  this  degree  of  perfection  is  never  attained. 
Usually  the  fat  ranges  from  83  to  88  %,  whilst  water  is  present 
to  the  extent  of  from  10  to  15  %.'  There  will  also  be  from  0-2 
to  0-8%  of  milk-sugar,  and  from  0-5  to  0-8%  of  casein.  It  is 
the  casein  which  is  the  objectionable  ingredient,  and  the  presence 
of  which  is  usually  the  cause  of  rancidity.  In  badly-washed 
or  badly-worked  butter,  from  which  the  buttermilk  has  not 
been  properly  removed,  the  proportion  of  casein  or  curd  left 
in  the  product  may  be  considerable,  and  such  butter  has  only 
inferior  keeping  qualities.  At  the  same  time,  the  mistake  may 
be  made  of  overworking  or  of  overwashing  the  butter,  thereby 
depriving  it  of  the  delicacy  of  flavour  which  is  one  of  its  chief 
attractions  as  an  article  of  consumption  if  eaten  fresh.  The 
object  of  washing  with  brine  is  that  the  small  quantity  of  salt 
thus  introduced  shall  act  as  a  preservative  and  develop  the 
flavour.  Streaky  butter  may  be  due  either  to  curd  left  in  by 
imperfect  washing,  or  to  an  uneven  distribution  of  the  salt. 

EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY 

The  improved  form  of  milking-pail  shown  in  fig.  i  has  rests 
or  brackets,  which  the  milker  when  seated  on  his  stool  places 
on  his  knees;  he  thus  bears  the  weight  on  his  thighs,  and  is 
entirely  relieved  of  the  strain  involved  in  gripping  the  can 
between  the  knees.  The  milk  sieve  or  strainer  (fig.  2)  is  used 
to  remove  cow-hairs  and  any  other  mechanical  impurity  that 
may  have  fallen  into  the  milk.  A  double  straining  surface 
is  provided,  the  second  being  of  very  fine  gauze  placed  vertically, 
so  that  the  pressure  of  the  milk  does  not  force  the  dirt  through^ 
the  strainer  is  easily  washed.  The  cheese  tub  or  vat  receives 

1  Market  butter  is  sometimes  deliberately  over-weighted  with 
water,  and  a  fraudulent  profit  is  obtained  by  selling  this  extra 
moisture  at  the  price  of  butter. 


DAIRY 


the  milk  for  cheese-making.  The  rectangular  form  shown 
in  fig.  3  is  a  Cheshire  cheese-vat,  for  steam.  The  inner  vat  is 
of  tinned  steel,  and  the  outer  is  of  iron  and  is  fitted  with  pipes 


FIG.  I. — Milking-Pail. 


FlG.  2. — Milk  Sieve. 


FIG.  3. — Rectangular  Cheese- Vat. 

for  steam  supply.  Round  cheese-tubs  (fig.  4)  are  made  of  strong 
sheets  of  steel,  double  tinned  to  render  them  lasting.  They 
are  fitted  with  a  strong  bottom  hoop  and  bands  round  the  sides, 


FIG.  4.—  Cheese-Tub. 

and  can  be  double-jacketed  for  steam-heating  if  required.     Curd- 
knives  (fig.  .0  are  used  for  cutting  the  coagulated  mass  into 

cubes  in  order  to  liber- 
r-j-^  ................  ..............  _       ate  the  whey.     They  are 

made  of  fine  steel,  with 
sharp  edges;  there  are 
also  wire  curd-breakers. 
The  object  of  the  curd- 
mill  (fig.  6)  is  to  grind 
consolidated  curd  into 
small  pieces,  prepara- 
tory to  salting  and  vat- 
ting;  two  spiked  rollers 
work  up  to  spiked 

br,.e.asuts-  ^oops,  into 
which  the  curd  is 


FIG.  s.-Curd-Knives. 


placed  in  order  to  acquire  the  shape  of  the  cheese,  are  of 
wood  or  steel,  the  former  being  made  of  well-seasoned  oak 
with  iron  bands  (fig.  7),  the  latter  of  tinned  steel.  The  cheese 
is  more  easily  removed  from  the  steel  hoops  and  they  are  readily 
cleaned.  The  cheese-press  (fig.  8)  is  used  only  for  hard  or 
"  pressed  "  cheese,  such  as  Cheddar.  The  arrangement  is  such 


that  the  pressure  is  continuous;  in  the  case  of  soft  cheese  the 
curd  is  merely  placed  in  moulds  (figs.  9  and  10)  of  the  required 
shape,  and. then  taken  out  to  ripen,  no  pressure  being  applied. 

The  cheese-room  is  fitted 
with  easily-turned  shelves, 
on  which  newly  -  made 
"  pressed  "  cheeses  are  laid 
to  ripen. 

In  the  butter  dairy,  when 
the  centrifugal  separator  is 
not  used,  milk  is  "  set  "  for 
cream-raising  in  the  milk- 
pan  (fig.  n),  a  shallow 
vessel  of  white  porcelain, 


FIG.  6.— Curd-Mill. 


FIG.  7.— Hoop  for  Flat  Cheese. 


tinned  steel  or  enamelled  iron.     The  skimming-dish  or  skimmer 
(fig.  12),  made  of  tin,  is  for  collecting  the  cream  from  the  surface  of 


Fic.g.— Cheese-Mould(Gervais). 


FIG.  10. — Cheese-Mould 
(Pont  l'£veque). 


FIG.  8.— Cheese- Press. 


the  milk,  whence  it  is  transferred  to  the  cream-crock  (fig.  13),  in 
which  vessel  the  cream  remains  from  one  to  three  days,  till  it 
is  required  for  churning. 
Many  different  kinds  of 
churns  are  in  use,  and 
vary  much  in  size,  shape  i 
and  fittings;  the  one 
illustrated  in  fig.  14 
is  a  very  good  type  of 
diaphragm  churn.  The 
butter-scoop  (fig.  15)  is 
of  wood  and  is  some- 
times perforated;  it  is 
used  for  taking  the  butter 
out  of  the  churn.  The 
butter-worker  (fig.  16) 
is  employed  for  consoli- 
dating newly  -  churned 
butter,  pressing  out 
superfluous  water  and 


FIG.  ii.— Milk-Pan. 


FIG.  12. — Skimmer. 


mixing  in  salt.  More  extended  use,  however,  is  now  being  made 
of  the  "  D61aiteuse  "  butter  dryer,  a  centrifugal  machine  that 
rapidly  extracts  the  moisture  from  the  butter,  and  renders  the 


752 


DAIRY 


butter-worker  unnecessary,  whilst  the  butter  produced  has  a 
better  grain.  Scotch  hands  (fig.  1 7 ) ,  made  of  boxwood,  are  used 
for  the  lifting,  moulding  and  pressing  of  butter. 

In  the  centrifugal  cream-separator  the  new  milk  is  allowed 
to  flow  into  a  bowl,  which  is  caused  to  rotate  on  its  own  axis 

several  thousand  times  per 
minute.  The  heavier  portion 
which  makes  up  the  watery  part 
of  the  milk  flies  to  the  outer  cir- 
cumference of  the  bowl,  whilst 
the  lighter  particles  of  butter-fat 
are  forced  to  travel  in  an  inner 
zone.  By  a  simple  mechanical 
arrangement  the  separated  milk 
is  forced  out  at  one  tube  and 
the  cream  at  another,  and  they 
are  collected  in  distinct  vessels. 
Separators  are  made  of  all  sizes, 
from  small  machines  dealing 
with  10  or  20  up  to  100  gallons 
an  hour,  and  worked  by  hand  (fig.  18),  to  large  machines 
separating  150  to  440  gallons  an  hour,  and  worked  by  horse, 
steam  or  other  power  (fig.  19).  Separation  is  found  to  be 
most  effective  at  temperatures  ranging  in  different  machines 


FIG.  13. — Cream-Crock. 


FIG.  14. — Churn. 


150°  is 


from  80°  to  98°  F.,  though  as  high  a  temperature  as 
sometimes  employed.  The  most  efficient  separators  remove 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  butter-fat,  the  quantity  of  fat  left  in 
the  separated  milk  falling  in  some  cases  to  as  low  as  o-i. 
When  cream  is  raised  by  the  deep-setting  method,  from  0-2 

to  0-4%  of  fat  is  left  in 
the  skim-milk;  by  the 
shallow-setting  method 
from  0-3  to  0-5%  of 

FIG.  15.— Butter-Scoop.  the   fat   &   left    behind. 

As   a  rule,    therefore, 

"  separated  "  milk  is  much  poorer  in  fat  than  ordinary  "  skim  " 
milk  left  by  the  cream-raising  method  in  deep  or  shallow  vessels. 
The  first  continuous  working  separator  was  the  invention  of 
Dr  de  Laval.  The  more  recent  invention  by  Baron  von  Bechtol- 
sheim  of  what  are  known  as  the  Alfa  discs,  which  are  placed  along 
the  centre  of  the  bowl  of  the  separator,  has  much  increased  the 
separating  capacity  of  the  machines  without  adding  to  the 
power  required.  This  has  been  of  great  assistance  to  dairy 
farmers  by  lessening  the  cost  of  the  manufacture  of  butter,  and 


thus  enabling  a  large  additional  number  of  factories  to  be 
established  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  particularly  in  Ireland, 
where  these  disc  machines  are  very  extensively  used. 

The  pasteurizer — so  named  after  the  French  chemist  Pasteur 


TIG.  17. — Scotch 
Hands. 


FIG.  16.— Butter-Worker. 

— affords  a  means  whereby  at  the  outset  the  milk  is  maintained 
at  a  temperature  of  170°  to  180°  F.  for  a  period  of  eight  or  ten 
minutes.  The  object  of  this  is  to  destroy 
the  tubercle  bacillus,  if  it  should  happen 
to  exist  in  the  milk,  whilst  incidentally 
the  bacilli  associated  with  several  other 
diseases  communicable  through  the 
medium  of  milk  would  also  be  killed  if 
they  were  present.  Discordant  results 
have  been  recorded  by  experimenters 
who  have  attempted  to  kill  tubercle 
bacilli  in  milk  by  heating  the  latter  in 
open  vessels,  thereby  permitting  the 
formation  of  a  scum  or  "  scalded  layer  " 
capable  of  protecting  the  tubercle  bacilli, 
and  enabling  them  to  resist  a  higher 
temperature  than  otherwise  would  be 
fatal  to  them.  At  a  temperature  not  much  above  150°  F. 
milk  begins  to  acquire  the  cooked  flavour  which  is  objection- 
able to  many  palates,  whilst  its 
"  body  "  is  so  modified  as  to  lessen 
its  suitability  for  creaming  pur- 
poses. Three  factors  really  enter 
into  effective  pasteurization  of  milk, 
namely  (i)  the  temperature  to  which 
the  milk  is  raised,  (2)  the  length  of 
time  it  is  kept  at  that  temperature, 
(3)  the  maintenance  of  a  condition 
of  mechanical  agitation  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  "  scalded  layer." 
Within  limits,  what  a  higher  tem- 
perature will  accomplish  if  main- 
tained for  a  very  short  time  may 
be  effected  by  a  lower  temperature 
continued  over  a  longer  period. 
The  investigation  of  the  problem 
forms  the  subject  of  a  paper1  in 
the  1 7th  Annual  Report  of  the 
Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  1900.  The  following  are 
the  results  of  the  experiments: — 
I.  An  exposure  of  tuberculous  milk 
in  a  tightly  closed  commercial  pas- 
teurizer for  a  period  of  ten  minutes 

destroyed  in  every  case  the  tubercle  bacillus,  as  determined  by  the  in- 
oculation of  such  heated  milk  into  susceptible  animals  like  guinea-pigs. 

1  "  Thermal  Death-Point  of  Tubercle  Bacilli,  and  Relation  of  same 
to  Commercial  Pasteurization  of  Milk,"  by  H.  L.  Russell  and  E.  G. 
Hastings. 


FIG.  1 8. — Hand-Separator. 


DAIRY 


753 


2.  Where  milk  is  exposed  under  conditions  that  would  enable  a 
pellicle  or  membrane  to  form  on  the  surface,  the  tubercle  organism 
is  able  to  resist  the  action  of  heat  at  140°  F.  (60°  C.)  for  considerably 
longer  periods  of  time. 

3.  Efficient  pasteurization  can  be  more  readily  accomplished  in  a 


FIG.  19. — Power  Separator. 

closed  receptacle  such  as  is  most  frequently  used  in  the  commercial 
treatment  of  milk,  than  where  the  milk  is  heated  in  open  bottles  or 
open  vats. 

4.  It  is  recommended,  in  order  thoroughly  to  pasteurize  milk  so 
as  to  destroy  any  tubercle  bacilli  which  it  may  contain,  without  in  any 


FIG.  20. — Refrigerator  and  Can. 

way  injuring  its  creaming  properties  or  consistency,  to  heat  the  same 
in  closed  pasteurizers  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  twenty  minutes 
at  140°  F. 

Under  these  conditions  one  may  be  certain  that  disease  bacteria 


FIG.  21. — Cylindrical  Cooler  or 
Refrigerator. 


such  as  the  tubercle  bacillus  will  be  destroyed  without  the  milk  or 
cream  being  injured  in  any  way.  For  over  a  year  this  new  standard 
has  been  in  constant  use  in  the  Wisconsin  University  Creamery, 
and  the  results,  from  a  purely  practical  point  of  view,  reported  a 
year  earlier  by  Farrington  and  Russell,1  have  been  abundantly 
confirmed. 

Dairy  engineers  have  solved  the  problem  as  to  how  large 
bodies  of  milk  may  be  pasteurized,  the  difficulty  of  raising  many 
hundreds  or  thousands  of 
gallons  of  milk  up  to  the 
required  temperature,  and 
maintaining  it  at  that  heat 
for  a  period  of  twenty 
minutes,  having  been  suc- 
cessfully dealt  with.  The 
plant  usually  employed 
provides  for  the  thorough 
nitration  of  the  milk  as  it 
comes  in  from  the  farms, 
its  rapid  heating  in  a 
closed  receiver  and  under 
mechanical  agitation  up  to 
the  desired  temperature, 
its  maintenance  thereat 
for  the  requisite  time,  and 
finally  its  sudden  reduc- 
tion to  the  temperature  of  cold  water  through  the  agency  of  a 
refrigerator,  to  be  next  noticed. 

Refrigerators  are  used  for  reducing  the  temperature  of  milk 
to  that  of  cold  water,  whereby  its  keeping  properties  are  en- 
hanced. The  milk  flows  down  the  outside  of  the  metal  refrigerator 
(fig.  20),  which  is  corrugated  in  order  to  provide  a  larger  cooling 
surface,  whilst  cold  water  circulates  through  the  interior  of  the 
refrigerator.  The  conical  vessel  into  which  the  milk  is  represented 
as  flowing  from  the  refrigerator  in  fig.  20  is  absurdly  called  a 
"  milk-churn,"  whereas  milk-can  is  a  much  more  appropriate 
name.  For  very  large  quantities  of  milk,  such  as  flow  from 
a  pasteurizing  plant,  cylindrical  refrigerators  (fig.  21),  made 
of  tinned  copper,  are  available;  the  cold  water  circulates  inside, 
and  the  milk,  flowing  down  the  outside  in  a  very  thin  sheet, 
is  rapidly  cooled  from  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  or  higher  to  i° 
above  the  temperature  of  the  water. 

The  fat  test  for  milk  was  originally  devised  by  Dr  S.  M. 
Babcock,  of  the  Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  experiment  station.  It 
combines  the  principle  of  centrifugal  force  with  simple  chemical 
action.  Besides  the  machine  itself  and  its  graduated  glass 
vessels,  the  only  require- 
ments are  sulphuric  acid 
of  standard  strength  and 
warm  water.  The 
machines  —  often  termed 
butyrometers — are  com- 
monly made  to  hold  from 
two  up  to  two  dozen 
testers.  After  the  tubes 
or  testers  have  been 
charged,  they  are  put  in 
the  apparatus,  which  is 
rapidly  rotated  as  shown 
(fig.  22) ;  in  a  few  minutes 
the  test  is  complete,  and 
with  properly  graduated 
vessels  the  percentage  of 
fat  can  be  read  off  at  a 
glance.  The  butyrometer 
is  extremely  useful,  alike 
for  measuring  periodi- 
cally the  fat-producing  capacity  of  individual  cows  in  a  herd, 
for  rapidly  ascertaining  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk  delivered 
to  factories  and  paying  for  such  milk  on  the  basis  of  quality, 
and  for  determining  the  richness  in  fat  of  milk  supplied  for  the 
urban  milk  trade.  Any  intelligent  person  can  soon  learn  to 
1  i6th  Rept.  Wis.  Agric.  Expt.  Station,  1899,  p.  129. 


FIG.  22. — Butyrometer. 


754 


DAIRY 


work  the  apparatus,  but  its  efficiency  is  of  course  dependent 
upon  the  accuracy  of  the  measuring  vessels.  To  ensure  this  the 
board  of  agriculture  have  made  arrangements  with  the  National 
Physical  Laboratory,  Old  Deer  Park,  Richmond,  Surrey,  to 
verify  at  a  small  fee  the  pipettes,  measuring-glasses,  and  test- 
bottles  used  in  connexion  with  the  centrifugal  butyrometer, 
which  in  recent  years  has  been  improved  by  Dr  N.  Gerber  of 

Zurich. 

DAIRY  FACTORIES 

In  connexion  with  co-operative  cheese-making  the  merit  of 
having  founded  the  first  "  cheesery  "  or  cheese  factory  is  generally 
credited  to  Jesse  Williams,  who  lived  near  Rome,  Oneida  county, 
N.Y.  The  system,  therefore,  was  of  American  origin.  Williams 
was  a  skilled  cheese-maker,  and  the  produce  of  his  dairy  sold 
so  freely,  at  prices  over  the  average,  that  he  increased  his  output 
of  cheese  by  adding  to  his  own  supply  of  milk  other  quantities 
which  he  obtained  from  his  neighbours.  His  example  was 
so  widely  followed  that  by  the  year  1866  there  had  been  estab- 
lished close  upon  500  cheese  factories  in  New  York  state  alone. 
In  1870  two  co-operative  cheeseries  were  at  work  in  England, 
one  in  the  town  of  Derby  and  one  at  Longford  in  the  same 
county.  There  are  now  thousands  of  cheeseries  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  also  many  "  creameries,"  or  butter 
factories,  for  the  making  of  high-class  butter. 

The  first  creamery  was  that  of  Alanson  Slaughter,  and  it  was 
built  near  Wallkill,  Orange  county,  N.Y.,  in  1861,  or  ten  years 
later  than  the  first  cheese  factory;  it  dealt  daily  with  the  milk 
of  375  cows.  Cheeseries  and  creameries  would  almost  certainly 
have  become  more  numerous  than  they  are  in  England  but  for 
the  rapidly  expanding  urban  trade  in  country  milk.  The  develop- 
ment of  each,  indeed,  has  been  contemporaneous  since  1871, 
and  they  are  found  to  work  well  in  conjunction  one  with  the  other 
— that  is  to  say,  a  factory  is  useful  for  converting  surplus  milk 
into  cheese  or  butter  when  the  milk  trade  is  overstocked,  whilst 
the  trade  affords  a  convenient  avenue  for  the  sale  of  milk  when- 
ever this  may  happen  to  be  preferable  to  the  making  of  cheese  or 
butter.  Extensive  dealers  in  milk  arrange  for  its  conversion  into 
cheese  or  butter,  as  the  case  may  be,  at  such  times  as  the  milk 
market  needs  relief,  and  in  this  way  a  cheesery  serves  as  a  sort  of 
economic  safety-valve  to  the  milk  trade.  The  same  cannot 
always  be  said  of  creameries,  because  the  machine-skimmed 
milk  of  some  of  these  establishments  has  been  far  too  much 
used  to  the  prejudice  of  the  legitimate  milk  trade  in  urban 
districts.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  operations  of  cheeseries  and 
creameries  in  conjunction  with  the  milk  trade  have  led  to  the 
diminution  of  home  dairying.  A  rapidly  increasing  population 
has  maintained,  and  probably  increased,  its  consumption  of  milk, 
which  has  obviously  diminished  the  farmhouse  production  of 
cheese,  and  also  of  butter.  The  foreign  competitor  has  been  less 
successful  with  cheese  than  with  butter,  for  he  is  unable  to 
produce  an  article  qualified  to  compete  with  the  best  that  is 
made  in  Great  Britain.  In  the  case  of  butter,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  imported  article,  though  not  ever  surpassing  the  best  home- 
made, is  on  the  average  much  better,  especially  as  regards 
uniformity  of  quality.  Colonial  and  foreign  producers,  however, 
send  into  the  British  markets  as  a  rule  only  the  best  of  their 
butter,  as  they  are  aware  that  their  inferior  grades  would  but 
injure  the  reputation  their  products  have  acquired. 

There  are  no  official  statistics  concerning  dairy  factories  in 
Great  Britain,  and  such  figures  relating  to  Ireland  were  issued 
for  the  first  time  in  1901.  The  number  of  dairy  factories  in 
Ireland  in  1900  was  returned  at  506,  comprising  333  in  Munster, 
92  in  Ulster,  52  in  Leinster  and  29  in  Connaught.  Of  the  total 
number  of  factories,  495  received  milk  only,  9  milk  and  cream 
and  2  cream  only.  As  to  ownership,  219  were  joint-stock  con- 
cerns, 190  were  maintained  by  co-operative  farmers  and  97  were 
proprietary.  In  the  year  ended  3oth  September  1900  these 
factories  used  up  nearly  121  million  gallons  of  milk,  namely,  94 
in  Munster,  14  in  Ulster,  7  in  Leinster  and  6  in  Connaught. 
The  number  of  centrifugal  cream-separators  in  the  factories  was 
985,  of  which  889  were  worked  by  steam,  79  by  water,  9  by 
horse-power  and  8  by  hand-power.  The  number  of  hands 


permanently  employed  was  3653,  made  up  of  976  in  Munster, 
279  in  Leinster,  278  in  Ulster  and  1 20  in  Connaught.  The  year's 
output  was  returned  at  401,490  cwt.  of  butter,  439  cwt.  of  cheese 
(made  from  whole  milk)  and  46,253  gallons  of  cream.  In  most 
cases  the  skim-milk  is  returned  to  the  farmers.  A  return  of  the 
number  of  separators -used  in  private  establishments  gave  a  total 
of  899,  comprising  693  in  Munster,  157  in  Leinster,  39  in  Ulster 
and  10  in  Connaught.  In  factories  and  private  establishments 
together  as  many  as  1884  separators  were  thus  accounted  for. 
Much  of  the  factory  butter  would  be  sent  into  the  markets  of 
Great  Britain,  though  some  would  no  doubt  be  retained  for  local 
consumption.  A  great  improvement  in  the  quality  of  Irish 
butter  has  recently  been  noticeable  in  the  exhibits  entered  at  the 
London  dairy  show. 

ADULTERATION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCE* 

The  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  1899,  which  came  into  opera- 
tion on  the  ist  of  January  1900,  contains  several  sections  relating 
to  the  trade  in  dairy  produce  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Section  i 
imposes  penalties  in  the  case  of  the  importation  of  produce  in- 
sufficiently marked,  such  as  (a)  margarine  or  margarine-cheese, 
except  in  passages  conspicuously  marked  "  Margarine "  or 
"  Margarine-cheese  ";  (6)  adulterated  or  impoverished  butter 
(other  than  margarine)  or  adulterated  or  impoverished  milk  or 
cream,  except  in  packages  or  cans  conspicuously  marked  with 
a  name  or  description  indicating  that  the  butter  or  milk  or 
cream  has  been  so  treated;  (c)  condensed  separated  or  skimmed 
milk,  except  in  tins  or  other  receptacles  which  bear  a  label 
whereon  the  words  "  machine-skimmed  milk  "  or  "  skimmed 
milk  "  are  printed  in  large  and.  legible  type.  For  the  purposes 
of  this  section  an  article  of  food  is  deemed  to  be  adulterated  or 
impoverished  if  it  has  been  mixed  with  any  other  substance,  or 
if  any  part  of  it  has  been  abstracted,  so  as  in  either  case  to  affect 
injuriously  its  quality,  substance,  or  nature;  provided  that  an 
article  of  food  shall  not  be  deemed  to  be  adulterated  by  reason 
only  of  the  addition  of  any  preservative  or  colouring  matter  of 
such  a  nature  and  in  such  quantity  as  not  to  render  the  article 
injurious  to  health.  Section  7  provides  that  every  occupier  of 
a  manufactory  of  margarine  or  margarine-cheese,  and  every 
wholesale  dealer  in  such  substances,  shall  keep  a  register  showing 
the  quantity  and  destination  of  each  consignment  of  such  sub- 
stances sent  out  from  his  manufactory  or  place  of  business,  and 
this  register  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  any  officer  of  the 
board  of  agriculture.  Any  such  officer  shall  have  power  to  enter 
at  all  reasonable  times  any  such  manufactory,  and  to  inspect  any 
process  of  manufacture  therein,  and  to  take  samples  for  analysis . 
Section  8  is  of  much  practical  importance,  as  it  limits  the  quantity 
of  butter-fat  which  may  be  contained  in  margarine;  it  states 
that  it  shall  be  unlawful  to  manufacture,  sell,  expose  for  sale 
or  import  any  margarine  the  fat  of  which  contains  more  than 
10%  of  butter-fat,  and  every  person  who  manufactures,  sells, 
exposes  for  sale  or  imports  any  margarine  which  contains  more 
than  that  percentage  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  under  the 
Margarine  Act  1887.  For  the  purposes  of  the  act  margarine- 
cheese  is  defined  as  "  any  substance,  whether  compound  or 
otherwise,  which  is  prepared  in  imitation  of  cheese,  and  which 
contains  fat  not  derived  from  milk  ";  whilst  cheese  is  defined  as 
"  the  substance  usually  known  as  cheese,  containing  no  fat 
derived  otherwise  than  from  milk."  The  so-called  "  filled  " 
cheese  of  American  origin,  in  which  the  butter-fat  of  the  milk  is 
partially  or  wholly  replaced  by  some  other  fat,  would  come  under 
the  head  of  "  margarine-cheese."  In  making  such  cheese  a  cheap 
form  of  fat,  usually  of  animal  origin,  but  sometimes  vegetable, 
is  added  to  and  incorporated  with  the  skim-milk,  and  thus  takes 
the  place  previously  occupied  by  the  genuine  butter-fat.  The 
act  is  regarded  by  some  as  defective  in  that  it  does  not  prohibit 
the  artificial  colouring  of  margarine  to  imitate  butter. 

In  connexion  with  this  act  a  departmental  committee  was 

appointed  in  1900  "  to  inquire  and  report  as  to  what  regulations, 

if  any,  may  with  advantage  be  made  by  the  board  of  agriculture 

under  section  4  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  1899,  for 

1  See  also  the  article  ADULTERATION. 


DAIRY 


755 


determining  what  deficiency  in  any  of  the  normal  constituents 
of  genuine  milk  or  cream,  or  what  addition  of  extraneous  matter 
or  proportion  of  water,  in  any  sample  of  milk  (including  con- 
densed milk)  or  cream,  shall  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food 
and  Drugs  Acts  1875  to  1899,  raise  a  presumption,  until  the 
contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  or  cream  is  not  genuine." 
Much  evidence  of  the  highest  interest  to  dairy-farmers  was  taken, 
and  subsequently  published  as  a  Blue-Book  (Cd.  484).  The 
report  of  the  committee  (Cd.  491)  included  the  following  "  recom- 
mendations," which  were  signed  by  all  the  members  excepting 

one: — 

I.  That  regulations  under  section  4  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act 
1899  be  made  by  the  board  of  agriculture  with  respect 
to  milk  (including  condensed  milk)  and  cream. 
II.  (a)  That  in  the  case  of  any  milk  (other  than  skimmed,  sepa- 
rated or  condensed  milk)  the  total  milk-solids  in  which  on 
being  dried  at  100°  C.  do  not  amount  to  12  %  a  presump- 
tion shall  be  raised,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the 
milk  is  deficient  in  the  normal  constituents  of  genuine  milk. 

(6)  That  any  milk  (other  than  skimmed,  separated  or  con- 
densed milk)  the  total  milk-solids  in  which  are  less  than 
12  %,  and  in  which  the  amount  of  milk-fat  is  less  than 
3-25%,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  deficient  in  milk-fat  as  to 
raise  a  presumption,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  it 
has  been  mixed  with  separated  milk  or  water,  or  that  some 
portion  of  its  normal  content  of  milk-fat  has  been  removed. 
In  calculating  the  percentage  amount  of  deficiency  of  fat 
the  analyst  shall  have  regard  to  the  above-named  limit 
of  3-25%  of  milk-fat. 

(c)  That  any  milk  (other  than  skimmed,  separated  or  con- 
densed rr.ilk)  the  total  milk-solids  in  which  are  less  than 
12%,  and  in  which  the  amount  of  non-fatty  milk-solids 
is  less  than  8-5%,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  so  deficient  in 
normal  constituents  as  to  raise  a  presumption,  until  the 
contrary  is  proved,  that  it  has  been  mixed  with  water. 
In  calculating  the  percentage  amount  of  admixed  water 
the  analyst  shall  have  regard  to  the  above-named  limit 
of  8-5%  of  non-fatty  milk-solids,  and  shall  further  take 
into  account  the  extent  to  which  the  milk-fat  may  exceed 

i  III.  That  the  artificial  thickening  of  cream  by  any  addition  of 
gelatin  or  other  substance  shall  raise  a  presumption  that 
the  cream  is  not  genuine. 

IV.  That  any  skimmed  or  separated  milk  in  which  the  total  milk- 
solids  are  less  than  9  %  shall  be  deemed  to  be  so  deficient 
in  normal  constituents  as  to  raise  a  presumption,  until 
the  contrary  is  proved,  that  it  has  been  mixed  with  water. 
V.  That  any  condensed  milk  (other  than  that  labelled  "  machine- 
skimmed  milk  "  or  "  skimmed  milk,"  in  conformity  with 
section  n  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  1899)  in  which 
either  the  amount  of  milk-fat  is  less  than  10%,  or  the 
amount  of  non-fatty  milk-solids  is  less  than  25%,  shall 
be  deemed  to  be  so  deficient  in  some  of  the  normal  con- 
stituents of  milk  as  to  raise  a  presumption,  until  the  con- 
trary is  proved,  that  it  is  not  genuine. 
The  committee  further  submitted  the  following  expressions  of 

opinion  on  points  raised  before  them  in  evidence: — 

(a)  That  it  is  desirable  to  call  the  attention  of  those  engaged 

in  the  administration  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  to  the 
necessity  of  adopting  effective  measures  to  prevent  any 
addition  of  water,  separated  or  condensed  milk,  or  other 
extraneous  matter,  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  quality 
of  genuine  milk  to  any  limits  fixed  by  regulation  of  the 
board  of  agriculture. 

(b)  That  it  is  desirable  that  steps  should  be  taken  with  the  view 

of  identifying  or  "  ear-marking  "  separated  milk  by  the 
addition  of  some  suitable  and  innocuous  substance,  and  by 
the  adoption  of  procedure  similar  to  that  provided  by 
section  7  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  1899,  in  regard  to 
margarine. 

(c)  That  It  is  desirable  that,  so  far  as  may  be  found  practicable, 

the  procedure  adopted  in  collecting,  forwarding,  and  retain- 
ing pending  examination,  samples  of  milk  (including  con- 
densed milk)  and  cream  under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Acts 
should  be  uniform. 

(d)  That  it  is  desirable  that,  so  far  as  may  be  found  practicable, 

the  methods  of  analysis  used  in  the  examination  of  samples 
of  milk  (including  condensed  milk)  or  cream  taken  under 
the  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  should  be  uniform. 
(«)  That  it  is  desirable  in  the  case  of  condensed  milk  (other  thar 
that  labelled  "  machine-skimmed  milk  "  or  "  skimmed  milk," 
in  conformity  with  section  n  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act 
1899)  that  the  label  should  state  the  amount  of  dilution 
required  to  make  the  proportion  of  milk-fat  equal  to  that 
found  in  uncondensed  millc  containing  not  less  than  3-25  % 
of  milk-fat. 


(/)  That  it  is  desirable  in  the  case  of  condensed  whole  milk  to 
limit,  and  in  the  case  of  condensed  machine-skimmed  milk 
to  exclude,  the  addition  of  sugar. 

(g)  That  the  official  standardizing  of  the  measuring  vessels  com- 
mercially used  in  the  testing  of  milk  is  desirable. 

In  the  minority  report,  signed  by  Mr  Geo.  Barham,  the  most 
mportant  clauses  are  the  following: — 

(a)  That  in  the  case  of  any  milk  (other  than  skimmed,  separated 
or  condensed  milk)  the  total  milk-solids  in  which  are  less  than 
[i .75%,  and  in  which,  during  the  months  of  July  to  February 
nclusive,  the  amount  of  milk-fat  is  less  than  3%,  and  in  the  case 

of  any  milk  which  during  the  months  of  March  to  June  inclusive 
shall  fall  below  the  above-named  limit  for  total  solids,  and  at  the 
same  time  shall  contain  less  than  2-75%  of  fat,  it  shall  be  deemed 
that  such  milk  is  so  deficient  in  its  normal  constituent  of  fat  as  to 
raise  a  presumption,  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs 
Acts  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  is  not 
genuine. 

(b)  That  any  milk  (other  than  skimmed,  separated  or  condensed 
milk)  the  total  milk-solids  in  which  are  less  than  1 1  -75%,  and  in 
which  the  amount  of  non-fatty  solids  is  less  than  8-5%,  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  so  deficient  in  its  normal  constituents  as  to  raise  a 
presumption,  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts 
1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  is  not 
genuine.     In  calculating  the  amount  of  the  deficiency  the  analyst 
shall  take  into  account  the  extent  to  which  the  milk-fat  exceeds  the 
limits  above  named. 

(c)  That  any  skimmed  or  separated  milk  in  which  the  total  milk- 
solids  are  less  than  8-75%  shall  be  deemed  to  be  so  deficient  in  its 
normal  constituents  as  to  raise  a  presumption,  for  the  purpose  of 
the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary 
is  proved,  that  the  milk  is  not  genuine. 

Much  controversy  arose  out  of  the  publication  of  these  reports, 
the  opinion  most  freely  expressed  being  that  the  standard  recom- 
mended in  the  majority  report  was  too  high.  The  difficulty  of 
the  problem  is  illustrated  by,  for  example,  the  diverse  legal 
standards  for  milk  that  prevail  in  the  United  States,  where  the 
prescribed  percentage  of  fat  in  fresh  cows'  milk  ranges  from  2-5 
in  Rhode  Island  to  3-5  in  Georgia  and  Minnesota,  and  3-7  (in  the 
winter  months)  in  Massachusetts,  and  the  prescribed  total  solids 
range  from  12  in  several  states  (11-5  in  Ohio  during  May  and 
June)  up  to  13  in  others.  Standards  are  recognized  in  twenty- 
one  of  the  states,  but  the  remaining  states  have  no  laws 
prescribing  standards  for  dairy  products.  That  the  public  dis- 
cussion of  the  reports  of  the  committee  was  effective  is  shown  by 
the  following  regulations  which  appeared  in  the  London  Gazelle 
on  the  6th  of  August  1901,  and  fixed  the  limit  of  fat  at  3%: — 

The  board  of  agriculture,  in  exercise  of  the  powers  conferred 
on  them  by  section  4  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  1899,  do 
hereby  make  the  following  regulations: — 

1.  Where  a  sample  of  milk  (not  being  milk  sold  as  skimmed, 
or  separated  or  condensed  milk)  contains  less  than  3%  of  milk-fat, 
it  shall  be  presumed  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs. 
Acts  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  is  not 
genuine,  by  reason  of  the  abstraction  therefrom  of  milk-fat,  or  the 
addition  thereto  of  water. 

2.  Where  a  sample  of  milk  (not  being  milk  sold  as  skimmed,  or 
separated  or  condensed  milk)  contains  less  than  8-5  %  of  milk-solids 
other  than  milk-fat,  it  shall  be  presumed  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale 
of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved, 
that  the  milk  is  not  genuine,  by  reason  of  the  abstraction  there- 
from of  milk-solids  other  than  milk-fat,  or  the  addition  thereto  of 
water. 

3.  Where  a  sample  of  skimmed  or  separated  milk  (not  being 
condensed  milk)  contains  less  than  9%  of  milk-solids,  it  shall  be 
presumed  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  1875 
to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  is  not  genuine, 
by  reason  of  the  abstraction  therefrom  of  milk-solids  other  than 
milk-fat,  or  the  addition  thereto  of  water. 

4.  These  regulations  shall  extend  to  Great  Britain. 

5.  These  regulations  shall  come  into  operation  on  the   1st  of 
September  1901. 

6.  These  regulations  may  be  cited  as  the  Sale  of  Milk  Regulations 
1901. 

In  July  1901  another  departmental  committee  was  appointed 
by  the  board  of  agriculture  to  inquire  and  report  as  to  what 
regulations,  if  any,  might  with  advantage  be  made  under  section 
4  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  1899,  for  determining  what 
deficiency  in  any  of  the  normal  constituents  of  butter,  or  what 
addition  of  extraneous  matter,  or  proportion  of  water  in  any 
sample  of  butter  should,  for  the  purpose  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and 
Drugs  Acts,  raise  a  presumption,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,. 


756 


DAIRY 


that  the  butter  is  not  genuine.  As  bearing  upon  this  point 
reference  may  be  made  to  a  report  of  the  dairy  division  of  the 
United  States  department  of  agriculture  on  experimental  exports 
of  butter,  in  the  appendix  to  which  are  recorded  the  results  of  the 
analyses  of  many  samples  of  butter  of  varied  origin.  First,  as  to 
American  butters,  19  samples  were  analysed  in  Wisconsin,  17  in 
Iowa,  5  in  Minnesota  and  2  in  Vermont,  at  the  respective  ex- 
periment stations  of  the  states  named.  The  amount  of  moisture 
throughout  was  low,  and  the  quantity  of  fat  correspondingly 
high.  In  no  case  was  there  more  than  1 5  %  of  water,  and  only  4 
samples  contained  more  than  14%.  On  the  other  hand,  n 
samples  had  less  than  10  %,  the  lowest  being  a  pasteurized  butter 
from  Ames,  Iowa,  with  only  6-72%  of  water.  The  average 
amount  of  water  in  the  total  43  samples  was  11-24%.  The  fat 
varies  almost  inversely  as  the  water,  small  quantities  of  curd  and 
ash  having  to  be  allowed  for.  The  largest  quantity  of  fat  was 
91-23%  in  the  sample  containing  only  6-72%  of  water.  The 
lowest  proportion  of  fat  was  80-18%,  whilst  the  average  of  all 
the  samples  shows  85-9%,  which  is  regarded  as  a  good  market 
standard.  The  curd  varied  from  0-55  to  1-7%,  with  an  average 
of  0-98.  This  small  amount  indicates  superior  keeping  qualities. 
Theoretically  there  should  be  no  curd  present,  but  this  degree  of 
perfection  is  never  attained  in  practice.  It  was  desired  to  have 
the  butter  contain  about  25%  of  salt,  but  the  quantity  of  ash 
in  the  43  samples  ranged  from  0-83  to  4-79%,  the  average  being 
1-88.  Analyses  made  at  Washington  of  butters  other  than 
American  showed  a  general  average  of  13-22%  of  water  over 
28  samples  representing  14  countries.  The  lowest  were  10-25% 
in  a  Canadian  butter  and  10-38  in  an  Australian  sample.  The 
highest  was  19-1%  in  an  Irish  butter,  which  also  contained  the 
remarkably  large  quantity  of  8-28%  of  salt.  Three  samples  of 
Danish  butter  contained  12-65,  14-27  and  15-14%  respectively 
of  water.  French  and  Italian  unsalted  butter  included,  the 
former  15-46  and  the  latter  14-41  %  of  water,  and  yet  appeared 
to  be  unusually  dry.  In  7  samples  of  Irish  butters  the  percent- 
ages of  water  ranged  from  11-48  to  19-1.  Of  the  28  foreign 
butters  15  were  found  to  contain  preservatives.  All  5  samples 
from  Australia,  the  2  from  France,  the  single  ones  from  Italy, 
New  Zealand,  Argentina,  and  England,  and  4  out  of  the  7  from 
Ireland,  contained  boric  acid. 

THE  MILK  TRADE 

The  term  "  milk  trade  "  has  come  to  signify  the  great  traffic  in 
country  milk  for  the  supply  of  dwellers  in  urban  districts.  Prior 
to  1860  this  traffic  was  comparatively  small  or  in  its  infancy. 
Thirty  years  earlier  it  could  not  have  been  brought  into  existence, 
for  it  is  an  outcome  of  the  great  network  of  railways  which  was 
spread  over  the  face  of  the  country  in  the  latter  half  of  the  igth 
century.  It  affords  an  instructive  illustration  of  the  process  of 
commercial  evolution  which  has  been  fostered  by  the  vast 
increase  of  urban  population  within  the  period  indicated.  It 
is  a  tribute  to  the  spirit  of  sanitary  reform  which — as  an  example 
in  one  special  direction — has  brought  about  the  disestablishment 
of  urban  cow-sheds  and  the  consequent  demand  for  milk  pro- 
duced in  the  shires.  London,  in  fact,  is  now  being  regularly 
supplied  with  fresh  milk  from  places  anywhere  within  150  m., 
and  the  milk  traffic  on  the  railways,  not  only  to  London  but  to 
other  great  centres,  is  an  important  item.  A  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  milk  trade  must  no  doubt  be  sought  in  the 
outbreak  of  cattle  plague  in  1865,  for  it  was  then  that  the  dairy- 
men of  the  metropolis  were  compelled  to  seek  milk  all  over 
England,  and  the  capillary  refrigerator  being  invented  soon 
after,  the  production  of  milk  has  remained  ever  since  in  the  hands 
of  dairymen  living  mainly  at  a  distance  from  the  towns  supplied. 

This  great  change  in  country  dairying,  involving  the  continuous 
export  of  enormous  quantities  of  milk  from  the  farms,  has  been 
accompanied  by  subsidiary  changes  in  the  management  of  dairy- 
farms,  and  has  necessitated  the  extensive  purchase  of  feeding- 
stuffs  for  the  production  of  milk,  especially  in  winter-time.  It 
is  probable  that,  in  this  way,  a  gradual  improvement  of  the  soil 
on  such  farms  has  been  effected,  and  the  corn-growing  soils  of 
distant  countries  are  adding  to  the  store  of  fertility  of  soils  in  the 


British  Isles.  Country  roads,  exposed  to  the  wear  and 
tear  of  a  comparatively  new  traffic,  are  lively  at  morn  and 
eve  with  the  rattle  of  vehicles  conveying  fresh  milk  from  the 
farms  to  the  railway  stations.  Most  of  these  changes  were 
brought  about  within  the  limits  of  the  last  third  of  the  igth 
century. 

In  the  case  of  London  the  daily  supply  of  a  perishable  article 
such  as  milk,  which  must  be  delivered  to  the  consumer  within  a 
few  hours  of  its  production,  to  a  population  of  five  millions,  is  an 
undertaking  of  very  great  magnitude,  especially  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  only  a  comparatively  minute  proportion  of  the 
supply  is  produced  in  the  metropolitan  area  itself.  To  meet  the 
demand  of  the  London  consumer  some  5000  dairies  proper  exist, 
as  well  as  a  large  number  of  businesses  where  milk  is  sold  in 
conjunction  with  other  commodities.  It  has  been  computed 
that  some  12,000  traders  are  engaged  in  the  business  of  milk- 
selling  in  the  metropolis,  and  the  number  of  persons  employed  in 
its  distribution,  &c.,  cannot  be  fewer  than  25,000.  The  amount 
of  capital  involved  is  very  great,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
the  paid-up  capital  of  six  of  the  principal  distributing  and  retail 
dairy  companies  amounts  to  upwards  of  one  million  sterling. 
The  most  significant  feature  in  connexion  with  the  milk-supply  of 
the  metropolis  at  the  beginning  of  the  2oth  century  is  the  gradual 
extinction  of  the  town  "  cowkeeper  " — the  retailer  who  produces 
the  milk  he  sells.  The  facilities  afforded  by  the  railway  com- 
panies, the  favourable  rates  which  have  been  secured  for  the 
transport  of  milk,  and  the  more  enlightened  methods  of  its  treat- 
ment after  production,  have  made  it  possible  for  milk  produced 
under  more  favourable  conditions  to  be  brought  from  consider- 
able distances  and  delivered  to  the  retailer  at  a  price  lower  than 
that  at  which  it  has  been  possible  to  produce  it  in  the  metropolis 
itself.  As  a  result,  the  number  of  milk  cows  in  the  county  of 
London  diminished  from  10,000  in  1889  to  5144  in  1900,  the 
latter,  on  an  estimated  production  of  700  gallons  per  cow — the 
average  production  of  stall-fed  town  cows — representing  a  yearly 
milk  yield  of  3,600,000  gallons.  How  small  a  proportion  this  is  of 
the  total  supply  will  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  annual 
quantity  of  milk  delivered  in  London  on  the  Great  Western  line 
amounts  to  some  1 1 ,000,000  gallons,  whilst  the  London  &  North- 
Western  railway  delivers  9,000,000,  and  the  Midland  railway  at 
St  Pancras  5,000,000,  and  at  others  of  its  London  stations 
about  1,000,000,  making  6,000,000  in  all.  The  London  &  South- 
western railway  brings  upwards  of  8,000,000  gallons  to  London, 
a  quantity  of  7,500,000  gallons  is  carried  by  the  Great  Northern 
railway,  and  the  Great  Eastern  railway  is  responsible  for 
7,000,000.  The  London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  railway  de- 
livers 1,000,000  gallons,  and  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham  and 
the  London  &  Tilbury  railways  carry  approximately  1,000,000 
gallons  between  them.  A  large  quantity  of  milk  is  also  carried 
in  by  local  lines  from  farms  in  the  vicinity  of  London  and 
delivered  at  the  local  stations,  and  a  quantity  is  also  brought 
by  the  Great  Central  railway.  In  addition  to  this,  milk  is  taken 
into  London  by  carts  from  farms  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
metropolis.  A  computation  of  the  total  milk-supply  of  the 
metropolis  reveals  a  quantity  approximating  to  60,000,000 
gallons  per  annum,  or  rather  more  than  a  million  gallons  per 
week,  which,  taking  500  gallons  as  the  average  yearly  production 
of  the  cows  contributing  to  this  supply,  represents  the  yield  of  at 
least  1 20,000  cows.  The  growth  of  the  supply  of  country  milk  to 
London  may  be  judged  from  the  figures  given  by  Mr  George 
Barham,  chairman  of  the  Express  Dairy  Co.  Ltd.,  in  an  article  on 
"  The  Milk  Trade  "  contributed  to  Professor  Sheldon's  work  on 
The  Farm  and  Dairy.  The  quantities  carried  by  the  respective 
railways  in  1889  are  therein  stated  in  gallons  as: — Great  Western, 
9,000,000;  London  &  North-Western,  7,000,000;  Midland, 
7,000,000;  London  &  South- Western,-  6,000,000;  Great 
Northern,  3,000,000;  Great  Eastern,  3,000,000;  the  southern 
lines,  2,000,000.  The  increase,  therefore,  on  these  lines  amounted 
to  no  less  than  13,500,000  gallons  per  annum,  or  36%.  The 
diminished  production  in  the  metropolis  itself  amounted  approxi- 
mately only  to  3,000,000  gallons,  and  it  follows,  therefore,  that 
the  consumption  largely  increased. 


DAIRY 


757 


Previously  to  1864  it  was  only  possible  to  bring  milk  into 
London  from  short  distances,  but  the  introduction  of  the  re- 
frigerator has  enabled  milk  to  be  brought  from  places  as  far 
removed  from  the  metropolis  as  North  Staffordshire,  and  it  has 
even  been  received  from  Scotland.  Practically  the  whole  of 
the  milk  supplied  to  the  metropolis  is  produced  in  England. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  foreign  milk,  and  in 
1898  a  company  was  formed  to  promote  the  sale  of  fresh  milk 
from  Normandy,  but  the  enterprise  did  not  succeed.  The  trade 
subsequently  showed  signs  of  reviving,  owing  probably  to  the 
increased  cost  of  the  home  produced  article,  and  during  the 
winter  season  of  1900-1901  the  largest  quantity  received  into 
the  kingdom  in  one  week  amounted  to  10,000  gallons.  Of  recent 
years  a  large  demand  has  sprung  up  for  sterilized  milk  in  bottles, 
and  a  considerable  trade  is  also  done  in  humanized  milk,  which 
is  a  milk  preparation  approximating  in  its  chemical  composition 
to  human  milk. 

Estimating  the  average  yield  of  milk  of  each  country  cow  at 
500  gallons  per  annum,  and  assuming  an  average  of  28  cows  to 
each  farm,  as  many  as  4300  farmers  are  engaged  in  supplying 
London  with  milk;  allotting  ten  cows  to  each  milker,  it  needs 
12  battalions  of  1000  men  each  for  this  work  alone.  Some  3500 
horses  are  required  to  convey  the  milk  from  the  farms  to  the 
country  railway  stations.  The  chief  sources  of  supply  are  in  the 
counties  of  Derby,  Stafford,  Leicester,  Northampton,  Notts, 
Warwick,  Bucks,  Oxford,  Gloucester,  Berks,  Wilts,  Hants, 
Dorset,  Essex,  and  Cambridge.  It  is  not  entirely  owing  to  the 
railways  that  London's  enormous  supply  of  milk  has  been 
rendered  possible,  for  the  milk  must  still  have  been  produced  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  metropolis  had  not  the 
method  of  reducing  the  temperature  of  the  product  by  means  of 
the  refrigerator  been  devised.  There  are  probably  5700  horses 
engaged  in  the  delivery  of  milk  in  London,  and  more  people  are 
employed  in  this  work  than  in  milking  the  cows.  One  of  the 
great  difficulties  the  London  dairyman  has  to  contend  with,  and 
a  cause  of  frequent  anxiety  to  him.  is  associated  with  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  thermometer,  for  a  movement  to  the  extent  of  ten 
degrees  one  way  or  the  other  may  diminish  or  increase  the  supply 
in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  demand.  Thus,  at  periods  of  extreme 
cold,  the  cows  shrink  in  their  yield  of  milk,  while  from  the  same 
cause  the  Londoner  is  demanding  more,  in  an  extra  cup  of  coffee, 
&c.  Again,  at  periods  of  extreme  heat,  which  has  the  same  effect 
on  the  cow's  production  as  extreme  cold,  the  customer  also 
demands  an  increased  quantity  of  milk.  Ten  degrees  fall  of 
temperature  in  the  summer  will  result  in  a  lessened  demand  and 
an  enlarged  supply — to  such  an  extent,  indeed,  that  a  single 
firm  has  been  known  to  have  had  returned  by  its  carriers  some 
600  gallons  in  one  day.  In  such  cases  the  cream  separator  is 
capable  of  rendering  invaluable  assistance.  To  make  cheese  in 


London  in  large  quantities  and  at  uncertain  intervals  has  been 
found  to  be  impracticable,  while  to  set  for  cream  a  great  bulk  of 
milk  is  almost  equally  so.  But  now  a  considerable  portion  of 
what  would  otherwise  be  lost  is  saved  by  passing  the  milk 
through  separators,  and  churning  the  cream  into  butter. 

Previously  to  the  enormous  development  of  the  urban  trade  in 
country  milk,  dairy  farms  were  in  the  main  self-sustaining  in  the 
matter  of  manures  and  feeding-stuffs,  and  the  cropping  of  arable 
land  was  governed  by  routine.  To-day,  on  the  contrary,  many 
dairy  farms  are  run  at  high  pressure  by  the  help  of  purchased 
materials, — corn,  cake,  and  manure, — and  the  land  is  cropped 
regardless  of  routine  and  independent  of  courses.  Such  crops, 
moreover,  are  grown — white  straw  crops,  green  crops,  root  crops 
— as  are  deemed  likely  to  be  most  needed  at  the  time  when  they 
are  ready.  Green  crops, — "  soiling  "  crops,  as  they  are  termed 
in  North  America, — consisting  largely  of  vetches  or  tares  (held 
up  by  stalks  of  oat  plants  grown  amongst  them),  cabbages,  and 
in  some  districts  green  maize,  are  used  to  supplement  the  failing 
grass-lands  at  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  root  crops,  especially 
mangel,  are  advantageously  grown  for  the  same  purpose.  For 
winter  feeding  the  farm  is  made  to  yield  what  it  will  in  the  shape 
of  meadow  and  clover  hay,  and  of  course  root  crops  of  the  several 
kinds.  This  provision  is  supplemented  by  the  purchase  of,  for 
example,  brewers'  grains  as  a  bulky  food,  and  of  oilcake  and  corn 
of  many  sorts  as  concentrated  food. 

BRITISH  OUTPUT,  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  DAIRY 
PRODUCE 

Whilst  the  quantity  of  imported  butter  and  cheese  consumed 
in  the  United  Kingdom  from  year  to  year  can  be  arrived  at 
with  a  tolerable  degree  of  accuracy,  it  is  more  difficult  to  form 
an  estimate  of  the  amounts  of  these  articles  annually  produced 
at  home.  Various  attempts  have,  however,  from  time  to  time 
been  made  by  competent  authorities  to  arrive  approximately 
at  the  annual  output  of  milk,  butter  and  cheese  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  the  results  are  given  by  Messrs  W.  Weddel  &  Co. 
in  their  annual  Dairy  Produce  Review.  Table  XI.  shows  the 
estimates  for  each  of  the  ten  years  1890  to  1899,  the  numbers 
in  the  second  column  of  "  cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or  in  calf  " 
being  identical  with  those  officially  recorded  in  the  agricultural 
returns.  In  thus  estimating  the  quantity  of  milk,  butter  and 
cheese  produced  within  the  United  Kingdom,  the  "  average 
milking  life  "  of  a  cow  is  taken  to  be  four  years,  from  which  it 
follows  that  on  the  average  one-fourth  of  the  total  herd  has  to 
be  renewed  every  year  by  heifers  with  their  first  calf.  This 
leaves  75%  of  the  total  herd  giving  milk  throughout  the  year. 
Each  cow  of  this  75%  is  estimated  as  yielding  49  cwt.,  or 
531  gallons  of  milk  annually.  It  is  assumed  that  15%  of  the 
total  milk  yield  is  used  for  the  calf,  32%  utilized  for  butter- 


TABLE  XI. — Estimated  Annual  Production  of  Milk,  Butter  and  Cheese  in  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  Ten  Years  ended 

J  1st  December  1899. 


Year 
ended 
Decem- 
ber 31 

Cows  and  Heifers 
in  Milk  or  in 
Calf  on  4th  June. 

Cows 
per 

1000 

of 
Popu- 
lation. 

Cows  and 
Heifers  giving 
Milk  all  the 
year  round  ; 
say  75%  of. 
Total. 

Influence  of 
Season.     Per- 
centage above 
or  below  the 
Average  of 
previous 
10  Years. 

Estimated  Total 
Quantity  of 
Milk  produced 
in  the  52  Weeks, 
by  75%  of  the 
Total  Herd,  at 
49  cwt.  or  531 
gallons  per  Cow. 

Estimated  Total 
Quantity  of 
Butter  produced 
in  the  52  Weeks, 
taking  32  %  of 
the  Total  Milk 
to  yield  80  Ib 
of  Butter  per 
Ton  of  Milk. 

Estimated  Total 
Quantity  of 
Cheese  produced 
in  the  52  Weeks, 
taking  20  %  of 
the  Total  Milk 
to  yield  220  Ib 
of  Cheese  per 
Ton  of  Milk. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

% 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1890 

3,956,220 

105-5 

2,967,165 

+3-o 

7,487,640 

85,572 

147,078 

1891 

4,"7,707 

108-9 

3,088,281 

Average. 

7,566,288 

86,472 

148,624 

1892 

4,120,451 

108-1 

3,090,339 

-5-6 

7.147,337 

81,684 

•40,394 

1893 

4,014,055 

104-4 

3,010,542 

-9-0 

6,712,004 

76,709 

•31-843 

1894 

3,925,486 

IOI-2 

2,944,115 

+6-3 

7,667,505 

87,628 

150,611 

1895 

3-937,590 

100-5 

2,953,193 

-3-5 

6,982,087 

79,652 

I37.«48 

1896 

3,958,762 

IOO-O 

2,969,387 

-4-0 

6,983.999 

79,8i7 

130,000 

1897 

3,984-167 

99-7 

2,988,126 

+3-1 

7.547.856 

86,261 

148,260 

1898 

4.035,501 

IOO-O 

3,025,526 

+3-2 

7,645,105 

87,372 

150,171 

1899 

4,133,249 

101-9 

3,099,937 

-3-5 

7,329,027 

83,760 

130,020 

10  Years' 
Average 

4,018,318 

103.0 

3,013,660 

-0.7 

7,906,874 

83.992 

I4J-4I2 

758 


DAIRY 


making,  20%  for  cheese-making,  and  the  remaining  33% 
consumed  in  the  household  as  fresh  milk.  A  ton  of  milk  is 
estimated  to  produce  80  Ib  of  butter  or  220  Ib  of  cheese.  A 
gallon  of  milk  weighs  10-33  tt>  (loi  H>)-  The  probable  effects 
of  each  season  upon  the  production  have  been  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  making  these  estimates,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that 
owing  to  the  terrible  drought  of  1893  a  reduction  of  9%  is 
made  from  the  average.  Accepting  these  estimates  with  due 
reservation,1  it  is  seen  that  the  annual  production  of  milk  varied 
in  the  decade  to  the  extent  of  nearly  a  million  tons,  the  exact 
difference  between  the  maximum  of  7,667,505  tons  in  1894 
and  the  minimum  of  6,712,004  tons  in  1893  being  955,501  tons. 
The  decennial  averages  are  7,906,874  tons  of  milk,  83,992  tons 
of  butter,  and  141,412  tons  of  cheese. 

Table  XII.  furnishes  an  estimate  of  the  total  consumption  of 
butter  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  each  of  the  years  1891  to  1900. 
Whilst  the  estimated  home  production  did  not  vary  greatly  from 
year  to  year,  the  imports  from  colonial  and  foreign  sources  under- 
went almost  continuous  increase.  The  ten  years'  average  indicates 
37'6%  home-made,  7-3%  imported  colonial,  and  55-1%  imported 
foreign  butter.  But  whereas  at  the  beginning  of  the  decade  the 
proportions  were  45-4%  home-made,  1-5%  colonial,  and  53-2% 
foreign,  at  the  end  of  the  percentages  were  32-8,  14-7  and  52-5 
respectively.  It  thus  appears  that  whilst  the  United  Kingdom  was 
able  in  1891  to  furnish  nearly  half  of  its  requirements  (45-4%),  by 
1900  it  was  unable  to  supply  more  than  one-third  (32-8%). 

The  rapid  headway  which  colonial  butter  has  made  in  British 
markets  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  for  the  five  years  ended  3Oth  of 

TABLE  XII. — Estimated  Home  Production  and  Imports  of  Butter 
into  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  Ten  Years  ended  joth  June 
1900. 


Home 

Year  ended 
30th  June. 

Production, 
estimated. 

Imported 
Colonial. 

Imported 
Foreign. 

Total. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1891 

84,961 

2,883 

99,598 

187,442 

1892 

86,022 

6,323 

101,796 

194,141 

1893 

84,078 

9,408 

105,712 

199,198 

1894 

79,196 

15-550 

107,534 

202,280 

1895 

82,168 

17,807 

116,730 

216,705 

1896 

83,640 

12,949 

133,249 

229,838 

1897 

79,734 

ifi.ii  i 

138,800 

236,645 

1898 

83,039 

17,732 

141,426 

242,197 

1899 

87,326 

22,443 

H2,I93 

251,962 

1900 

83,760 

37,534 

133,957 

255,251 

10  Years' 
Average 

83,392 

16,074 

122,099 

221,565 

June  1900  the  import  had  grown  from  12,949  tons  to  37,534  tons 
per  annum,  or  an  increase  of  24,585  tons.  It  is  during  the  mid-winter 
months  that  the  colonial  butter  from  Australasia  arrives  on  the 
British  markets,  while  that  from  Canada  begins  to  arrive  in  July, 
and  virtually  ceases  in  the  following  January.  The  bulk  of  the 
Canadian  butter  reaches  British  markets  during  August,  September 
and  October;  the  bulk  of  the  Australasian  in  December,  January 
and  February. 

It  appears  to  be  demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  the  last  decade 
of  the  ipth  century  that  the  United  Kingdom  is  quite  unable  to  turn 
out  sufficient  dairy  produce  to  supply  its  own  population.  In  the 
year  ended  3Oth  of  June  1891  the  total  import  or  butter  was  102,500 
tons,  and  for  the  year  ended  3Oth  of  June  1900  it  was  170,700  tons, 
which  shows  an  annual  average  increase  in  the  decade  of  6800  tons. 
This  growth  was  on  the  whole  very  uniform,  any  disturbance  in  its 
regularity  being  attributable  more  to  the  deficient  seasons  in  the 
colonies  and  foreign  countries  than  to  the  bountiful  seasons  at  home. 
Twice  in  the  decade  the  import  of  butter  from  colonial  sources  fell 
off  slightly  from  the  previous  year,  namely,  in  1896  and  1898,  while 
only  once  was  there  any  decrease  in  the  foreign  supply,  and  this 
occurred  in  1900.  In  1896  the  colonial  supply  fell  of!  by  5000  tons, 
principally  owing  to  drought  in  Australia,  but  from  foreign  countries 
this  deficiency  was  more  than  made  good,  as  the  increased  import 
from  these  sources  exceeded  16,500  tons.  In  1900  the  position  was 
reversed,  for  while  the  foreign  import  fell  away  to  the  extent  of  over 
8000  tons,  the  supply  from  the  colonies  exceeded  that  of  1899  by 
15,000  tons,  thus  leaving  a  gain  in  the  quantity  of  imported  butter 
of  nearly  7000  tons  on  the  year.  Table  XII.  shows  that  over  the 
ten  years,  1891-1900,  the  import  of  colonial  butter  was  augmented 
by  34,600  tons,  and  that  of  foreign  by  33,600  tons,  so  that  the  in- 

1 A  special  committee  appointed  by  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Statistical  Society  commenced  in  1901  an  inquiry  into  the  home  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  meat  in  the  United  Kingdom. 


creased  import  is  fairly  divided  between  colonial  and  foreign  sources. 
If,  however,  the  last  five  years  of  the  period  be  taken,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  increases  in  the  arrivals  of  colonial  butter  have  far  exceeded 
those  from  foreign  countries.  Between  1891  and  1900  the  Austral- 
asian colonies  increased  their  quota  by  13,400  tons,  and  Canada  by 
11,100  tons.  Of  foreign  countries,  Denmark  showed  the  greatest 
development  in  the  supply  of  imported  butter,  which  increased  in 
the  ten  years  by  28,678  tons.  Next  came  Russia  and  Holland,  with 
increases  respectively  of  7207  tons  and  6589  tons.  Sweden,  which 
made  steady  progress  from  1891  to  1896,  subsequently  declined, 
and  in  1900  sent  1400  tons  less  than  in  1891.  France  and  Germany 
are  rapidly  falling  away,  and  the  latter  country  will  soon  cease  its 
supply  altogether.  Up  to  1896  it  was  6000  tons  annually;  by  1900 
it  had  fallen  to  1850  tons.  France,  which  in  1892  sent  to  the  United 
Kingdom  29,000  tons,  regularly  declined,  and  in  1900  sent  only 
16,800.  Among  the  countries  sending  the  smaller  quantities,  Argen- 
tina, Belgium  and  Norway  are  all  gradually  increasing  their  supplies; 
but  their  totals  are  comparatively  insignificant,  as  they  together 
contributed  in  1900  only  6400  tons  out  of  a  total  foreign  supply  of 
134,000  tons.  The  United  States  was  erratic  in  its  supplies  during 
the  decade,  and  up  to  1900  had  not  made  butter  specially  for  export 
to  the  United  Kingdom,  as  all  the  other  foreign  countries  had  done. 
Consequently  it  is  only  when  supplies  from  elsewhere  fail  that 
American  butter  is  sought  for  by  British  buyers.  The  large  amount 
of  salt  in  this  butter,  although  suitable  for  the  American  palate, 
prevents  its  becoming  popular  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  sources  whence  the  United  Kingdom  receives  butter  from 
abroad  are  sufficiently  indicated  in  Table  XIII.,  which  shows  the 
absolute  quantities  and  the  relative  proportions  sent  by  the  chief 
contributory  countries  in  each  of  the  four  years  1897  to  1900,  the 

TABLE  XIII. — Annual  Imports  of  Butter  into  the  United  Kingdom, 


From 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Denmark     . 

1,334,726 

1,465,030 

i,  430,052 

1,486,342 

Australasia 

269,432 

228,563 

366,944 

509,910 

France 

448,128 

416,821 

353,942 

322,048 

Holland 

278,631 

269,631 

284,810 

282,805 

Russia* 

209,738 

Sweden 

299,214 

294,962 

245,599 

196,041 

Canada 

109,402 

156,865 

250,083 

138,313 

United  States 

154,196 

66,712 

159,137 

56,046 

Germany     . 

41,231 

36,953 

36,042 

Other  countries    . 

272^312 

269,645 

262,331 

141,231 

Total 

3,217,802 

3,209,153 

3,389,851 

3,378,516 

Denmark 

4i°5 

45°6 

42-2 

44-0 

Australasia 

8-4 

7-r 

10-8 

I5-I 

France 

13-9 

13-0 

10-5 

9-5 

Holland       . 

8-7 

8-4 

8-4 

8-4 

Russia* 

6-2 

Sweden 

9'3 

9-2 

7-2 

5-8 

Canada 

3'4 

4-9 

7-4 

4-1 

United  States 

4-8 

2-1 

4-7 

1-6 

Germany 

1-6 

1-3 

i-i 

i-i 

Other  countries    . 

8-4 

8-4 

7-7 

4-2 

Total 

IOO-O 

IOO-O 

IOO-O 

IOO-O 

*  Not  shown  separately  in  the  Trade  and  Navigation  Returns 
prior  to  1900. 

order  of  precedence  of  the  several  countries  being  in  accord  with 
the  figures  for  1900.  Denmark,  as  a  result  of  the  efforts  made  by 
that  little  kingdom  to  supply  a  sound  product  of  uniform  quality, 
possesses  over  40%  of  the  trade,  and  in  the  year  1900  received  from 
the  United  Kingdom  upwards  of  £8,000,000  for  butter  and  over 
£3,000,000  for  bacon,  the  raising  of  pigs  for  the  consumption  of 
separated  milk  being  an  important  adjunct  of  the  dairying  industry 
in  Denmark,  where  butter  factories  are  extensively  maintained  on 
the  co-operative  principle.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  some  at  least 
of  the  butter  received  in  the  United  Kingdom  from  Russia  is  made 
in  Siberia,  whence  it  is  sent  at  the  outset  on  a  long  land  journey  in 
refrigerated  railway  cars  for  shipment  at  a  Baltic  port,  usually  Riga. 
The  countries  not  specially  enumerated  in  Table  XIII.  from  which 
butter  is  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom  are  Argentina,  Belgium, 
Norway  and  Spain — these  are  included  in  "  other  countries." 

In  Table  XIV.,  relating  to  the  estimated  home  production  of 
cheese  and  the  imports  of  that  article,  the  ten  years'  average  indicates 
a  home-made  supply  of  555-3%,  imports  of  colonial  cheese  24-2%, 
and  imports  of  foreign  cheese  20-5  %.  Comparing,  however,  the  first 
with  the  last  year  of  the  period  1891-1900,  it  appears  that  in  1891 
the  proportions  were  58-6%  home-made,  17-2%  colonial  and 
24-2  %  foreign,  whereas  in  1900  the  percentages  were  50-3,  28-9 
and  20-8  respectively.  Hence  the  colonial  contribution  (chiefly 


DAIRY 


759 


Canadian)  has  gained  ground  at  the  expense  both  of  the  home-made 
and  of  the  foreign.  Again,  comparing  1891  with  1900,  the  import 
of  cheese  into  the  United  Kingdom  increased  to  the  extent  of  only 
24,500  tons,  so  that  it  shows  no  expansion  comparable  with  that 
of  butter,  which  increased  by  about  70,000  tons.  Simultaneously 
the  estimated  home  production  diminished  by  17,000  tons. 

TABLE  XIV. — Estimated  Home  Production  and  Imports  of  Cheese 
into  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  Ten  Years  ended  jolh  June 
/poo. 


Year  ended 
30th  June 

Home 
Production, 
estimated. 

Imported 
Colonial 

Imported, 
Foreign. 

Total. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1891     . 

147,078 

43.228 

60,816 

251,122 

1892     . 

148,624 

45.781 

59,452 

253.857 

1893     . 

I40.394 

55,549 

56,767 

252,710 

1894     . 

131.843 

57.322 

52,498 

241,663 

1895     . 
1896     . 

150,611 
I37.H8 

61,622 
62,478 

52,570 
44,569 

264,803 
244,  '95 

1897     . 

130,000 

67,028 

46,317 

243,345 

1898     . 

148,260 

77,620 

49.H4 

274,994 

1899     . 

150,000 

73,752 

46,985 

270,737 

1900     . 

130,000 

74,702 

53,903 

258,605 

10  Years' 

141,396 

61,908 

52,299 

255,603 

Average 

In  imported  colonial  cheese  Canada  virtually  has  the  field  to  itself, 
for  the  only  other  colonial  cheese  which  finds  its  way  into  the  United 
Kingdom  is  from  New  Zealand,  but  the  amount  of  this  kind  is  com- 
paratively insignificant,  having  been  in  1900  only  4000  tons  out  of 
a  total  import  of  128,600  tons.  Australia,  in  several  seasons  since 
1891,  sent  small  quantities,  but  they  are  not  worth  quoting. 

From  foreign  countries  the  decline  in  the  export  of  cheese  is  mainly 
in  the  case  of  the  United  States,  which  shipped  to  British  ports 
10,000  tons  less  in  1900  than  in  1891.  France  also  is  losing  its  cheese 
trade  in  British  markets,  and  is  being  supplanted  by  Belgium.  In 
1891  France  supplied  over  3000  tons,  in  1900  the  import  was  below 
2000  tons.  Belgium  in  1891  supplied  less  than  ipoo  tons,  but  in 
1900  contributed  2600  tons.  The  import  trade  in  Dutch  cheese 
remains  almost  stationary.  In  1891  it  amounted  to  15,300  tons,  in 
1899  it  was  15,600  tons,  whilst  in  1900,  owing  to  exceptionally  high 
prices,  which  stimulated  the  manufacture,  it  reached  17,000  tons. 

Over  80%  of  the  cheese  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  is 
derived  from  North  America,  but  the  bulk  of  the  trade  belongs  to 
Canada,  which  supplies  nearly  60  %  of  the  entire  import.  The  value 
of  the  cheese  exported  from  Canada  to  the  United  Kingdom  in  the 
calendar  year  1900  was  close  upon  £3,800,000.  As  is  shown  in 
Table  XV.  below,  Holland,  Australasia  and  France  participate  in 
this  trade,  whilst  amongst  the  "  other  countries  "  are  Germany, 
Italy  and  Russia.  The  cheese  sent  from  North  America  and  Aus- 

TABLE  XV. — Annual  Imports  of  Cheese  into  the  United  Kingdom, 
1807-1000. 


From 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Canada 
United  States      . 
Holland      . 
Australasia 
France 
Other  countries  . 

Total  . 

Canada 
United  States      . 
Holland      . 
Australasia 
France 
Other  countries  • 

Total    . 

Cwt. 
1,526,664 
631,616 
297,604 
68,615 
36,358 
42,321 

Cwt. 
1,432,181 

485,995 
292,925 
44,608 
33,086 
50,657 

Cwt. 
1,337,198 
590,737 
328,541 
32,294 
34,307 
60,992 

Cwt. 
1,511,872 
680,583 

327,817 
86,513 
35,110 
69,910 

2,603,178 

2,339,452 

2,384,069 

2,711,805 

% 
58-6 

24-3 
n-4 
2-7 
1-4 
1-6 

o/ 
/o 

61-2 
20-8 

12-5 
1-9 
1-4 

2-2 

% 
56-1 
24-8 
13-8 
1-3 
1-4 

2-6 

% 
55-8 
25-1 

12-0 

3-2 
i-3 
2-6 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

tralasia  is  mostly  of  the  substantial  Cheddar  type,  whereas  soft  or 
"  fancy  "  cheese  is  the  dominant  feature  of  the  French  shipments. 
Thus,  in  the  calendar  year  1900  the  average  price  of  the  cheese 
imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  France  was  6ls.  per  cwt., 
whilst  the  average  value  of  the  cheese  from  all  other  sources  was 
503.  per  cwt.,  there  being  a  difference  of  I  is.  in  favour  of  the  "  soft  " 
cheese  of  France. 

The  imports  of  butter  and  margarine  into  the  United  Kingdom 
were  not  separately  distinguished  before  the  year  1886.    Previous  to 


that  date  they  amounted,  at  five-year  intervals,  to  the  following 
aggregate  quantities: — 

1870.  1875.                1880.              1885. 

Cwt.       .         .     1,159,210  1,467,870      2,326,305      2,401,373 
For  the  same  years  the  imports  of  cheese  registered  the  subjoined 
totals : — 

1870.  1875.              1880.              1885. 

Cwt.       .         .     1,041,281  1,627,748      1,775.997      1,833,832 

The  imports  of  butter  and  margarine,  both  separately  and  to- 
gether, and  also  the  imports  of  cheese  in  each  year  from  1886  to  1900 
inclusive,  are  set  out  in  Table  XVI.,  the  most  significant  feature  of 
which  is  the  rapid  expansion  it  shows  in  the  imports  of  butter.  In 
the  space  of  nine  years,  between  1887  and  1896,  the  quantity  was 
doubled.  On  the  other  hand,  the  general  tendency  of  the  imports 
of  margarine,  which  have  been  much  more  uniform  than  those  of 
butter,  has  been  in  the  direction  of  decline  since  1892.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  point  out  that  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  margarine  factories  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  in  the 
quantity  of  margarine  manufactured  in  them,  during  the  last  few 
years.  Taking  the  imports  of  butter  and  margarine  together,  the 
aggregate  in  1889  and  also  in  1900  was  practically  three  times  as 
large  as  a  quarter  of  a  century  earliei,  in  1875.  The  imports  of 
cheese  have  increased  at  a  less  rapid  rate  than  those  of  butter,  and 
the  quantity  imported  in  1900,  which  was  a  maximum,  fell  con- 
siderably short  of  twice  the  quantity  in  1875.  In  1886,  1887,  1888, 
1 890  and  1 892  the  imports  of  cheese  exceeded  those  of  butter,  but  since 

TABLE  XVI.- Imports  of  Butter,  Margarine  and  Cheese  into  the 
United  Kingdom,  1886-1000. 


Year. 

Butter. 

Margarine. 

Total  Butter 
and 
Margarine. 

Cheese. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

1886  . 

1,543,566 

887,974 

2,431,540 

1,734,890 

1887  . 

1,513,134 

,276,140 

2,789,274 

1,836,789 

1888  . 

1,671,433 

,139,743 

2,811,176 

1,917,616 

1889  . 

1,927,842 

,241,690 

3,169,532 

1,907,999 

1890  . 

2,027,717 

,079,856 

3,107.573 

2,144,074 

1891  . 

2,135,607 

,235.430 

3,371,037 

2,041,325 

1892  . 

2,183,009 

.305,350 

3,488,359 

2,232,817 

1893  • 

2,327,474 

,299,970 

3,627,444 

2,077,462 

1894  . 

2,574,835 

,109,325 

3,684,160 

2,266,145 

1895  . 

2,825,662 

940,168 

3,765,830 

2,133,819 

1896  . 

3,037,718 

925,934 

3,963,652 

2,244,525 

1897  . 

3,217,802 

936,543 

4,154,345 

2,603,178 

1898  . 

3,209,153 

900,615 

4,109,768 

2,339.452 

1899  . 

3,389,851 

953,175 

4,343,026 

2,384,069 

1900  . 

3,378,516 

920,416 

4,298,932 

2,711,805 

the  last-named  year  those  of  butter  have  always  been  the  larger,  and 
1899  were  fully  a  million  cwt.  more  than  the  cheese  imports.  The 
cheapness  of  imported  fresh  meat  has  probably  had  the  effect  of 
checking  the  growth  of  the  demand  for  cheese  amongst  the  industrial 
classes. 

The  imports  of  condensed  milk  into  the  United  Kingdom  were 
not  separately  distinguished  before  1888.  In  that  year  they 
amounted  to  352,332  cwt.  The  quantities  imported  in  subsequent 
years  were  the  following: — 


Year. 

Cwt. 

Year. 

Cwt. 

Year. 

Cwt. 

1889  . 
1890 
1891  . 
1892  . 

339,892 
407,426 
444,666 
48i,374 

1893   • 
1894   • 

1895   • 
1896   . 

501,005 
529,465 
545.394 
6u,335 

1897   . 
1898   . 
1899   . 
1900 

756,243 
817,274 

824.599 
986,741 

The  quantity  thus  increased  continuously  in  each  year  after  1889, 
with  the  result  that  in  1900  the  imports  had  grown  to  nearly  three 
times  the  amount  of  those  in  1889.  Simultaneously,  over  the  period 
1889-1900  the  annual  value  of  the  imports  steadily  advanced  from 
£704,849  to  £1,405,033.  Thus,  while  the  imports  of  condensed  milk 
trebled  in  quantity,  they  doubled  in  value.  A  fair  proportion  is, 
however,  exported,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  statement  of  exports 
of  imported  condensed  milk  for  the  four  years  1897  to  1900: — 

1897.  1898.  1899.  1900. 

Quantity,     .    cwt.       143,932        133,596        "8,394        164,602 
Value  .     £274,578     £256,525     £228,446     £309,460 

There  is  also  an  export  trade  in  condensed  milk  made  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  Thus,  in  1892  the  exports  of  home-made  con- 
densed milk  amounted  to  61,442  cwt.,  valued  at  £133,556.  By  1896 
the  quantity  had  almost  doubled,  and  reached  111,959  cwt.,  of  the 
value  of  £224,831.  In  subsequent  years  the  exports  were: — 

1897.  1898.  1899.  1900. 

Quantity,     .    cwt.       154,901        178,055        185,749       209,447 
Value  .         .     £302,748     £343,070     £353,819     £390-559 


760 


DAIRY 


Milk  and  cream  (fresh  or  preserved  other  than  condensed)  received 
no  separate  classification  in  the  imports  until  1894,  in  which  year 
the  quantity  imported  was  161,633  gallons,  followed  by  126,995 
gallons  in  1895,  and  22,776  gallons  in  1896.  The  quantities  have 
since  been  returned  by  weight — 10,006  cwt.  in  1897,  10,691  cwt.  in 
1898,  7859  cwt.  in  1899,  and  15,638  cwt.  in  1900.  The  values  of 
these  imports  in  the  successive  years  1894  to  1900  were  £21,371, 
£i9.99l-  £5489,  £9848,  £n,293-  £16,068  and  £26,837. 

The  total  values  of  the  imports  of  dairy  produce  of  all  kinds — 
butter,  margarine,  cheese,  &c. — into  the  United  Kingdom  were,  at 
five-year  intervals  between  1875  and  1890,  the  following: — 

1875.  1880.  1885.  1890. 

Value       .     £13,211,592      £17,232,548      £15,632,852     £19,505,798 

The  values  in  each  year  of  the  closing  decade  of  the  igth  century 
are  set  forth  in  Table  XVII.,  where  the  totals  in  the  last  column 
include  small  sums  for  margarine-cheese  and,  since  1893,  for  fresh 
milk  and  cream.  The  aggregate  value  more  than  doubled  during 
the  last  quarter  of  the  century.  The  earliest  year  for  which  the  value 

TABLE  XVII. — Values  of  Dairy  Products  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  from  1891  to  /poo,  in  Thousands  of  Pounds  Sterling. 


Year. 

Butter. 

Margarine. 

Cheese. 

Condensed 
Milk. 

Total. 

£1000. 

£1000. 

£1000. 

£1000. 

£1000. 

1891 

11,591 

3558 

4813 

900 

20,863 

1892 

n,965 

3713 

5417 

930 

22,025 

1893 

12,754 

3655 

5161 

1010 

22,580 

1894 

13,457 

3045 

5475 

1079 

23,077 

1895 

14,245 

2557 

4675 

1084 

22,581 

1896 

15,344 

2498 

4900 

1170 

23,920 

1897 

15,917 

2485 

5886 

1398 

25-715 

.   1898 

15-962 

2384 

4970 

H36 

24-779 

1899 

17,214 

2549 

5503 

1455 

26,747 

1900 

17-450 

2465 

6838 

1743 

28,544 

of  imported  butter  is  separately  available  is  1886,  when  it  amounted 
to  £8,141,438.  Thirteen  years  later  this  sum  had  more  than  doubled, 
and  it  is  an  impressive  fact  that  in  the  closing  year  of  the  century 
the  United  Kingdom  should  have  expended  on  imported  butter  alone 
a  sum  closely  approximating  to  17$  million  pounds  sterling,  equiva- 
lent to  about  three-fourths  of  the  total  amount  disbursed  on  imported 
wheat  grain.1 

The  imports  of  margarine — that  is,  of  margarine  specifically 
declared  to  be  such — into  the  United  Kingdom  are  derived  almost 
entirely  from  Holland.  Out  of  a  total  of  920,416  cwt.  imported  in 
1900  Holland  supplied  862,154  cwt.,  and  out  of  £2,464,839  expended 
on  imported  margarine  in  the  same  year  Holland  received  £2,295,174. 
To  the  imports  in  the  year  named  Holland  contributed  93-7%; 
France,  2-9;  Norway,  0-9;  all  other  countries,  2-5;  so  that  Holland 
possesses  almost  a  monopoly  of  this  trade.  The  quantities  of  im- 
ported butter,  margarine  and  cheese  that  are  again  exported  from 
the  United  Kingdom  are  trivial  when  compared  with  the  imports, 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  quantities  and  values  in  the  three 
years  1898  to  1900: — 


1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Butter 
Margarine 
Cheese 

Cwt. 

63,491 
10,023 
56,694 

Cwt. 

50,453 
13,139 
56,390 

Cwt. 

51,583 
11,326 
55-982 

£ 
319,806 
24,721 
159,210 

£ 
257,999 
33,319 
163,991 

£ 
258,931 
27,882 
168,369 

There  is  also  a  very  small  export  trade  in  butter  and  cheese  made 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  its  insignificant  character  is  evident 
from  the  subjoined  details  as  to  quantities  and  values  for  the  years 
named : — 


1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Butter 
Cheese 

Cwt. 

",359 
10,126 

Cwt. 
9-936 
9-758 

Cwt. 
10,127 
9,356 

£ 
59,731 
36,803 

£ 
53,i95 
35,890 

£ 
53,701 
36,691 

AMERICAN  DAIRYING 

The  development  of  the  dairying  industry  in  the  vast  region 
of  the  United  States  of  America  has  been  described  in  the 
official  Year-Book  by  Major  Henry  E.  Alvord,  chief  of  the  dairy 
division  of  the  bureau  of  animal  industry  in  the  department 
of  agriculture  at  Washington.  The  beginning  of  the  zoth  century 
found  the  industry  upon  an  altogether  higher  level  than  seemed 
possible  a  few  decades  earlier.  The  milch  cow  herself,  upon  which 

1  In  1901  the  United  Kingdom  imported  3,702,810  cwt.  of  butter, 
valued  at  £19,297,005,  both  totals  being  the  largest  on  record. 


the  whole  business  rests,  has  become  almost  as  much  a  machine 
as  a  natural  product,  and  a  very  different  creature  from  the 
average  animal  of  bygone  days.  The  few  homely  and  incon- 
venient implements  for  use  in  the  laborious  duties  of  the  dairy 
have  been  replaced  by  perfected  appliances,  skilfully  devised 
to  accomplish  their  object  and  to  lighten  labour.  Long  rows 
of  shining  metal  pans  no  longer  adorn  rural  dooryards.  The 
factory  system  of  co-operative  or  concentrated  manufacture 
has  so  far  taken  the  place  of  home  dairying  that  in  entire  states 
the  cheese  vat  or  press  is  as  rare  as  the  handloom,  and  in  many 
counties  it  is  as  difficult  to  find  a  farm  churn  as  a  spinning-wheel. 
An  illustration  of  the  nature  of  the  changes  is  afforded  in  the 
butter-making  district  of  northern  Vermont,  at  St  Albans,  the 
business  centre  of  Franklin  county.  In  1880  the  first  creamery 
was  built  in  this  county;  ten  years  later  there  were  15.  Now 
a  creamery  company  at  St  Albans  has  upwards  of  50  skimming 
or  separating  stations  distributed  through  Franklin  and  adjoining* 
counties.  To  these  is  carried  the  milk  from  more  than  30,000 
cows.  Farmers  who  possess  separators  at  home  may  deliver 
cream  which,  after  being  inspected  and  tested,  is  accepted  and 
credited  at  its  actual  butter  value,  just  as  other  raw  material  is 
sold  to  mills  and  factories.  The  separated  cream  is  conveyed 
by  rail  and  waggon  to  the  central  factory,  where  in  one  room 
from  10  to  12  tons  of  butter  are  made  every  working  day — a 
single  churning  place  for  a  whole  county!  The  butter  is  all  of 
standard  quality,  "  extra  creamery,"  and  is  sold  on  its  reputation 
upon  orders  received  in  advance  of  its  manufacture.  The  price 
is  relatively  higher  than  the  average  for  the  product  of  the  same 
farms  fifty  years  earlier.  This  is  mainly  due  to  better  average 
quality  and  greater  uniformity — two  important  advantages 
of  the  creamery  system. 

In  one  important  detail  dairy  labour  is  the  same  as  a  century 
ago.  Cows  still  have  to  be  milked  by  hand.  Although  many 
attempts  have  been  made;  and  patent  after  patent  has  been 
issued,  no  mechanical  contrivance  has  yet  proved  a  practical 
success  as  a  substitute  for  the  human  hand  in  milking.  Con- 
sequently, twice  (or  thrice)  daily  every  day  in  the  year,  the  dairy 
cows  must  be  milked  by  manual  labour.  This  is  one  of  the  main 
items  of  labour  in  dairying,  and  is  a  delicate  and  important  duty. 
Assuming  10  cows  per  hour  to  a  milker,  which  implies  quick 
work,  it  requires  the  continuous  service  of  an  army  of  300,000 
men,  working  10  or  12  hours  a  day  throughout  the  year,  to 
milk  the  cows  kept  in  the  United  States. 

The  business  of  producing  milk  for  urban  consumption,  with 
the  accompanying  agencies  for  transportation  and  distribution, 
has  grown  to  immense  proportions.  In  many  places  the  milk 
trade  is  regulated  and  supervised  by  excellent  municipal  ordin- 
ances, which  have  done  much  to  prevent  adulteration  and  to 
improve  the  average  quality  of  the  supply.  Quite  as  much  is, 
however,  being  done  by  private  enterprise  through  large  milk 
companies,  well  organized  and  equipped,  and  establishments 
which  make  a  speciality  of  serving  milk  and  cream  of  fixed 
quality  and  exceptional  purity.  Such  efforts  to  furnish  "  certi- 
fied "  and  "  guaranteed  "  milk,  together  with  general  competi- 
tion for  the  best  class  of  trade,  are  doing  more  to  raise  the 
standard  of  quality  and  improve  the  service  than  all  the  legal 
measures.  The  buildings  and  equipment  of  some  of  these  modern 
dairies  are  beyond  precedent.  This  branch  of  dairying  is 
advancing  fast,  upon  the  safe  basis  of  care,  cleanliness  and 
better  sanitary  conditions. 

Cheese-making  has  been  transferred  bodily  from  the  domain  of 
domestic  arts  to  that  of  manufactures.  In  the  middle  of  the  i  gth 
century  about  100,600,000  Ib  of  cheese  was  made  yearly  in  the 
United  States,  and  all  of  it  in  farm  dairies.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  20th  century  the  annual  production  was  about  300,000,000  Ib, 
and  96  or  97  %  of  this  was  made  in  factories.  Of  these  there 
are  nearly  3000,  but  they  vary  greatly  in  capacity,  and  some  are 
very  small.  New  York  and  Wisconsin  possess  a  thousand  each, 
but  the  former  state  makes  nearly  twice  as  much  cheese  as  the 
latter,  whilst  the  two  together  produce  three-fourths  of  the  entire 
output  of  the  country.  A  change  is  taking  place  in  the  direction 
of  bringing  a  number  of  factories  previously  independent  into  a 


DAIS— DAISY 


761 


"  combination  "  or  under  the  same  management.     This  tends  to 
improve  the  quality  and  secure  greater  uniformity  in  the  product, 
and  often  reduces  cost  of  manufacture.   More  than  nine-tenths  of 
all  the  cheese  made  is  of  the  familiar  standard  type,  copied  after 
the  English  Cheddar,  but  new  kinds  and  imitations  of  foreign 
varieties  are  increasing.     The  annual  export  of 
cheese  from   the   United   States  ranges  between 
30,000,000  and  50,000,000  Ib.     The  consumption 
per  capita  does  not  exceed  35  Ib  per  annum,  which 
is  much  less  than  in  most  European  countries. 

Butter  differs  from  cheese  in  that  it  is  still 
made  much  more  largely  on  farms  in  the  United 
States  than  in  creameries.  Creamery  butter  con- 
trols all  the  large  markets,  but  this  represents 
little  more  than  one-third  of  the  entire  business. 
Estimating  the  annual  butter  product  of  the  entire 
country  at  1,400,000,000  Ib  not  much  over  500,000,000  Ib  of 
this  is  made  at  the  7500  or  8000  creameries  in  operation. 
Iowa  is  the  greatest  butter-producing  state,  and  the  one 
in  which  the  greater  proportion  is  made  on  the  factory 
plan.  The  total  output  of  butter  in  this  state  is  one-tenth 
of  all  made  in  the  Union.  The  average  quality  of  butter 
has  materially  improved  since  the  introduction  of  the  creamery 
system  and  the  use  of  modern  appliances.  Nevertheless,  a 
vast  quantity  of  poor  butter  is  made — enough  to  afford  a 
large  and  profitable  business  in  collecting  it  at  country  stores  at 
grease  prices  or  a  little  more,  and  then  rendering  or  renovating  it 
by  patent  processes.  This  renovated  butter  has  been  fraudu- 
lently sold  to  a  considerable  extent  as  the  true  creamery  article, 
of  which  it  is  a  fair  imitation  while  fresh,  and  several  states  have 
made  laws  for  the  identification  of  the  product  and  to  prevent 
buyers  from  being  imposed  upon.  No  butter  is  imported,  and  the 
quantity  exported  is  insignificant,  although  there  is  beginning  to 
be  a  foreign  demand  for  American  butter.  The  home  consump- 
tion is  estimated  at  the  yearly  rate  of  20  Ib  per  person,  which,  if 
correct,  would  indicate  Americans  to  be  the  greatest  butter-eating 
people  in  the  world.  The  people  of  the  United  States  also  con- 
sume millions  of  pounds  every  year  of  butter  substitutes  and 
imitations,  such  as  oleomargarine  and  butterine.  Most  of  this  is 
believed  to  be  butter  by  those  who  use  it,  and  the  state  dairy 
commissioners  are  busily  employed  in  carrying  out  the  laws 
intended  to  protect  purchasers  from  these  butter  frauds. 

The  by-products  of  dairying  have,  within  recent  years, been  put 
to  economical  uses,  in  an  increasing  degree.  For  every  pound  of 
butter  made  there  are  15  to  20  Ib  of  skim-milk  and  about  3  Ib  of 
butter-milk,  and  for  e/ery  pound  of  cheese  nearly  9  Ib  of  whey. 
Up  to  1889  or  1890  enormous  quantities  of  skim-milk  and  butter- 
milk from  the  creameries  and  of  whey  from  the  cheese  factories 
were  entirely  wasted.  At  farm  dairies  these  by-products  are 
generally  used  to  advantage  in  feeding  animals,  but  at  the 
factories — especially  at  the  seasons  of  greatest  milk  supply — this 
most  desirable  method  of  utilization  is  to  a  great  extent  im- 
practicable. In  many  places  new  branches  have  been  instituted 
for  the  making  of  sugar-of-milk  and  other  commercial  products 
from  whey,  and  for  the  utilization  of  skim-milk  in  various  ways. 
The  albumin  of  the  latter  is  extracted  for  use  with  food  products 
and  in  the  arts.  The  casein  is  desiccated  and  prepared  as  a 
substitute  for  eggs  in  baking,  as  the  basis  of  an  enamel  paint,  and 
as  a  substitute  for  glue  in  paper-sizing.  It  has  also  been  proposed 
to  solidify  it  to  make  buttons,  combs,  brush-backs,  electrical 
insulators  and  similar  articles. 

No  census  of  cows  in  the  United  States  was  taken  until  the  year 
1840,  but  they  have  been  enumerated  in  each  subsequent  decennial 
census.  From  23  to  27  cows  to  every  loo  of  the  population  were 
required  to  keep  the  country  supplied  with  milk,  butter  and  cheese, 
and  provide  for  the  export  of  dairy  products.  The  export  trade, 
though  it  has  fluctuated  considerably,  has  never  exceeded  the 
produce  of  500,000  cows.  At  the  close  of  the  igth  century  it  was 
estimated  that  there  was  one  milch  cow  in  the  United  States  for 
every  four  persons,  making  the  number  of  cows  about  17,500,000. 
They  are;  however,  very  unevenly  distributed,  being  largely  concen- 
trated in  the  great  dairy  states,  Iowa  leading  with  1,500,000  cows, 
and  being  followed  closely  by  New  York.  In  the  middle  and  eastern 
states  the  milk  product  goes  very  largely  to  the  supply  of  the  numer- 


ous large  towns  and  cities.     In  the  central,  west  and  north-west 
butter  is  the  leading  dairy  product. 

Table  XVIII.  shows  approximately  the  quantity  and  value  of  the 
dairy  products  of  the  United  States  for  a  typical  year,  the  grand  total 
representing  a  value  of  $451,600,000.  Adding  to  this  the  skim-milk, 
butter-milk  and  whey,  at  their  proper  feeding  value,  and  the  calves 

TABLE  XVIII. — Estimated  Number  of  Cows  and  Quantity  and  Value  of  Dairy 
Products  in  the  United  States  in  1899. 


Cows. 

Product. 

Rate  of 
Product 
per  Cow. 

Total  Product. 

Rate  of 
Value. 

Total  Value. 

1  1  ,000,000 
i  ,000,000 
5,500,000 

Butter 
Cheese 
Milk 

130  jb 
300  Ib 
380  gals. 

1,430,000,000  ft 
300,000,000  fti 
2,090,000,000  gals. 

Cents. 
18 

9 

8 

Dollars. 
257,400,000 
27,000,000 
167,200,000 

dropped  yearly,  the  annual  aggregate  value  of  the  produce  of  the 
dairy  cows  exceeds  $500,000,000,  or  is  more  than  one  hundred 
million  pounds  sterling.  Accepting  these  estimates  as  conservative, 
they  show  that  the  commercial  importance  of  the  dairy  industry 
of  the  United  States  is  such  as  to  justify  all  reasonable  provisions 
for  guarding  its  interests.  (W.  FR.) 

DAIS  (Fr.  dais,  estrade,  Ital.  predella),  originally  a  part  of  the 
floor  at  the  end  of  a  medieval  hall,  raised  a  step  above  the  rest  of 
the  building.  On  this  the  lord  of  the  mansion  dined  with  his 
friends  at  the  high  table,  apart  from  the  retainers  and  servants. 
In  medieval  halls  there  was  generally  a  deep  recessed  bay  window 
at  one  or  at  each  end  of  the  dais,  supposed  to  be  for  retirement, 
or  greater  privacy  than  the  open  hall  could  afford.  In  France  the 
word  is  understood  as  a  canopy  or  hanging  over  a  seat;  probably 
the  name  was  given  from  the  fact  that  the  seats  of  great  men  were 
then  surmounted  by  such  a  feature.  In  ordinary  use,  the  term 
means  any  raised  platform  in  a  room,  for  dignified  occupancy. 

DAISY  (A.S.  daeges  cage,  day's  eye),  the  name  applied  to  the 
plants  constituting  the  genus  Bellis,  of  the  natural  order  Com- 
positae.  The  genus  contains  ten  species  found  in  Europe  and  the 
Mediterranean  region.  The  common  daisy,  B.  perennis,  is  the 
only  representative  of  the  genus  in  the  British  Isles.  It  is  a 
perennial,  abundant  everywhere  in  pastures  and  on  banks  in 
Europe,  except  in  the  most  northerly  regions,  and  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  occurs  as  an  introduced  plant  in  North  America.  The  stem 
of  the  daisy  is  short;  the  leaves,  which  are  numerous  and  form 
a  rosette,  are  slightly  hairy,  obovate-spathulate  in  shape,  with 
rounded  teeth  on  the  margin  in  the  upper  part;  and  the  root- 
stock  is  creeping,  and  of  a  brownish  colour.  The  flowers  are  to  be 
found  from  March  to  November,  and  occasionally  in  the  winter 
months.  The  heads  of  flowers  are  solitary,  the  outer  or  ray- 
florets  pink  or  white,  the  disk-florets  bright  yellow.  The  size  and 
luxuriance  of  the  plant  are  much  affected  by  the  nature  of  the 
soil  in  which  it  grows.  The  cultivated  varieties,  which  are 
numerous,  bear  finely-coloured  flowers,  and  make  very  effective 
borders  for  walks.  What  is  known  as  the  "  hen-and-chicken  " 
daisy  has  the  main  head  surrounded  by  a  brood  of  sometimes  as 
many  as  ten  or  twelve  small  heads,  formed  in  the  axils  of  the 
scales  of  the  involucre.  The  ray-florets  curve  inwards  and 
"  close  "  the  flower-head  in  dull  weather  and  towards  evening. 

Chaucer  writes — 

"  The  daisie,  or  els  the  eye  of  the  daie, 

The  emprise,  and  the  noure  of  flouris  alle  "; 
and  again — 

"  To  seen  this  floure  agenst  the  sunne  sprede 
Whan  it  riscth  early  by  the  morrow, 
That  blissful  sight  softeneth  all  my  sorrow  "; 

and  the  flower  is  often  alluded  to  with  admiration  by  the  other 
poets  of  nature.  To  the  farmer,  however,  the  daisy  is  a  weed, 
and  a  most  wasteful  one,  as  it  exhausts  the  soil  and  is  not  eaten 
by  any  kind  of  stock. 

In  French  the  daisy  is  termed  la  marguerite  (tLapyapirrft,  a 
pearl),  and  "herb  margaret  "  is  stated  to  be  an  old  English 
appellation  for  it.  In  Scotland  it  is  popularly  called  the  gowan, 
and  in  Yorkshire  it  is  the  bairn  wort,  or  flower  beloved  by  children. 
The  Christmas  and  Michaelmas  daisies  are  species  of  Aster; 
the  ox-eye  daisy  is  Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum,  a  common 
weed  in  meadows  and  waste  places.  B.  perennis  flore-pleno,  the 


762 


DAKAR— DALBERG  FAMILY 


double  daisy,  consists  of  dwarf,  showy,  3  to  4  in.  plants,  flowering 
freely  in  spring  if  grown  in  rich  light  soil,  and  frequently  divided 
and  transplanted.-  The  white  and  pink  forms,  with  the  white  and 
red  quilled,  and  the  variegated-leaved  aucubaefolia,  are  some  of 
the  best. 

DAKAR,  a  seaport  of  Senegal,  and  capital  of  French  West 
Africa,  in  14°  40'  N.,  17°  24'  W.  The  town,  which  is  strongly 
fortified,  holds  a  commanding  strategic  position  on  the  route 
between  western  Europe  and  Brazil  and  South  Africa,  being 
situated  in  the  Gulf  of  Goree  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula 
of  Cape  Verde,  the  most  westerly  point  of  Africa.  It  is  the  only 
port  of  Senegal  affording  safe  anchorage  for  the  largest  ships. 
Pop.  (1904),  within  the  municipal  limits,  18,447;  including 
suburbs,  23,452. 

The  town  consists  for  the  most  part  of  broad  and  regular 
streets  and  possesses  several  fine  public  buildings,  notably  the 
palace  of  the  governor-general.  It  is  plentifully  supplied  with 
good  water  and  is  fairly  healthy.  It  is  the  starting  point  of  the 
railway  to  St  Louis,  and  is  within  five  days  steam  of  Lisbon. 
The  harbour,  built  in  1904-1908,  is  formed  by  two  jetties,  one 
of  6840  ft.,  the  other  of  1968  ft.,  the  entrance  being  720  ft. 
wide.  There  are  three  commercial  docks,  with  over  7000  ft. 
of  quayage,  ships  drawing  26  ft.  being  able  to  moor  alongside. 
Cargo  is  transferred  directly  to  the  railway  trucks.  There  is 
also  a  naval  dock  and  arsenal  with  a  torpedo-boat  basin  755  ft. 
by  410  ft.  and  a  dry  dock  656  ft.  long  and  92  ft.  broad.  The 
Messageries  Maritimes  Company  use  the  port  as  a  coaling 
station  and  provisioning  depot  for  their  South  American  trade. 
Dakar  is  a  regular  port  of  call  for  other  French  lines  and  for 
the  Elder  Dempster  boats  sailing  between  Liverpool  and  the 
West  Coast  of  Africa.  It  shares  with  Rufisque  and  St  Louis 
the  external  trade  of  Senegal  and  the  adjacent  regions.  For, 
trade  statistics  see  SENEGAL. 

Dakar  was  originally  a  dependency  of  Goree  and  was  founded 
in  1862,  a  year  after  the  declaration  of  a  French  protectorate  over 
the  mainland.  The  port  was  opened  for  commerce  in  1867, 
and  in  1885  its  importance  was  greatly  increased  by  the  com- 
pletion of  the  railway  (163  m.  long)  to  St  Louis.  Dakar  thus 
came  into  direct  communication  with  the  countries  of  Upper 
Senegal  and  the  middle  Niger.  In  1887  the  town  was  made 
a  commune  on  the  French  model,  all  citizens  irrespective  of 
colour  being  granted  the  franchise.  In  1903  the  offices  of  the 
governor-general  and  of  the  court  of  appeal  of  French  West 
Africa  were  transferred  from  St  Louis  to  Dakar,  which  is  also 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  In  February  1905  a  submarine  cable 
was  laid  between  Brest  and  Dakar,  affording  direct  telegraphic 
communication  between  France  and  her  West  African  colonies 
by  an  all  French  route. 

DALAGUETE,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Cebu,  island  of 
Cebu,  Philippine  Islands,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tap6n  river  on 
the  E.  coast,  50  rn.  S.S.W.  of  Cebu,  the  capital.  The  town  has 
a  healthy  climate,  cool  during  November,  December,  January 
and  February,  and  hot  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  The  in- 
habitants grow  hemp,  Indian  corn,  coffee,  sibucao,  cacao,  cocoa- 
nuts  (for  copra)  and  sugar,  weave  rough  fabrics  and  manufacture 
tuba  (a  kind  of  wine  used  as  a  stimulant),  clay  pots  and  jars, 
salt  and  soap.  There  is  some  fishing  here.  The  language  is 
Cebu-Visayan. 

DALBEATTIE,  a  police  burgh  of  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  3469.  It  lies  on  Dalbeattie  Burn,  14^  m.  S.W. 
of  Dumfries  by  the  Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway.  The 
town  dates  from  1780  and  owes  its  rise  to  the  granite  quarries 
at  Craignair  and  elsewhere  in  the  vicinity,  from  which  were 
derived  the  supplies  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Thames 
Embankment,  the  docks  at  Odessa  and  Liverpool  and  other 
works.  Besides  quarrying,  the  industries  include  granite- 
polishing,  concrete  (crushed  granite)  works,  dye-works,  paper- 
mills  and  artificial  manures.  The  estuary  of  the  Urr,  known 
as  Rough  Firth,  is  navigable  by  ships  of  from  80  to  100  tons, 
and  small  vessels  can  ascend  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  Dalbeattie 
Burn,  within  a  mile  of  the  town.  A  mile  to  the  north-west  stand 
the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Buittle  or  Botel,  where  lived  John  de 


Baliol,  founder  of  Baliol  college,  who  had  married  Dervorguila, 
daughter  of  Alan  (d.  1234),  the  last  "  king  "  of  Galloway. 

DALBERG,  the  name  of  an  ancient  and  distinguished  German 
noble  family,  derived  from  the  hamlet  and  castle  (now  in  ruins) 
of  Dalberg  or  Dalburg  near  Kreuznach  in  the  Rhine  Province. 
In  the  I4th  century  the  original  house  of  Dalberg  became 
extinct  in  the  male  line,  the  fiefs  passing  to  Johann  Gerhard, 
chamberlain  of  the  see  of  Worms,  who  married  the  heiress  of 
his  cousin,  Anton  of  Dalberg,  about  1330.  His  own  family 
was  of  great  antiquity,  his  ancestors  having  been  hereditary 
ministerials  of  the  bishop  of  Worms  since  the  time  of  Ekbert 
the  chamberlain,  who  founded  in  1 1 19  the  Augustinian  monastery 
of  Frankenthal  and  died  in  1132.  By  the  close  of  the  isth 
century  the  Dalberg  family  had  grown  to  be  of  such  importance 
that,  in  1494,  the  German  King  Maximilian  I.  granted  them  the 
honour  of  being  the  first  to  receive  knighthood  at  the  coronation ; 
this  part  of  the  ceremonies  being  opened  by  the  herald  asking 
in  a  loud  voice  "  Is  no  Dalberg  present?"  (1st  kein  Dalberg  da?). 
This  picturesque  privilege  the  family  enjoyed  till  the  end  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  The  elder  line  of  the  family  of  Dalberg- 
Dalberg  became  extinct  in  1848,  the  younger,  that  of  Dalberg- 
Herrnsheim,  in  1833.  The  male  line  of  the  Dalbergs  is  now 
represented  only  by  the  family  of  Hessloch,  descended  from 
Gerhard  of  Dalberg  (c.  1239),  which  in  1809  succeeded  to  the 
title  and  estates  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia  of  the  extinct  counts  of 
Ostein. 

The  following  are  the  most  noteworthy  members  of  the  family: 

1.  JOHANN    VON    DALBERG    (1445-1503),    chamberlain    and 
afterwards  bishop  of  Worms,  son  of  Wolfgang  von  Dalberg. 
He  studied  at  Erfurt  and  in  Italy,  where  he  took  his  degree 
of  doctor  utriusque  juris  at  Ferrara  and  devoted  himself  more 
especially  to  the  study  of  Greek.     Returning  to  Germany,  he 
became  privy  councillor  to  the  elector  palatine  Philip,  whom 
he  assisted  in  bringing  the  university  of  Heidelberg  to  the  height 
of  its  fame.     He  was  instrumental  in  founding  the  first  chair 
of  Greek,  which  was  filled  by  his  friend  Rudolph  Agricola,  and 
he  also  established  the  university  library  and  a  college  for 
students  of  civil  law.    He  was  an  ardent  humanist,  was  president 
of  the  Sodalitas  Celtica  founded  by  the  poet  Konrad  Celtes  (q.v.), 
and  corresponded  with  many  of  the  leading  scholars  of  his  day, 
to  whom  he  showed  himself  a  veritable  Maecenas.     He  was 
employed  also  on  various  diplomatic  missions  by  the  emperor 
and  the  elector. 

See  K.  Morneweg,  Johann  von  Dalberg,  ein  deutscher  Humanist  und 
Bischof  (Heidelberg,  1887). 

2.  KARL  THEODOR  ANTON  MARIA  VON  DALBERG  (1744-1817), 
archbishop-elector  of  Mainz,  arch-chancellor  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  and  afterwards  primate  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  and  grand-duke  of  Frankfort.     He  was  the  son  of  Franz 
Heinrich,  administrator  of  Worms,  one  of  the  chief  counsellors  of 
the  elector  of  Mainz.     Karl  had  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
canon  law,  and  entered  the  church;  and,  having  been  appointed 
in  1772  governor  of  Erfurt,  he  won  further  advancement  by  his 
successful  administration;  in  1787  he  was  elected  coadjutor  of 
Mainz  and  of  Worms,  and  in  1788  of  Constance;  in  1802  he 
became  archbishop-elector  of  Mainz  and  arch-chancellor  of  the 
Empire.     As    statesman    Dalberg    was    distinguished    by    his 
"  patriotic  "  attitude,  whether  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  in  which 
he  leaned  to  the  Febronian  view  of  a  German  national  church,  or 
in  his  efforts  to  galvanize  the  atrophied  machinery  of  the  Empire 
into  some  sort  of  effective  central  government  of  Germany. 
Failing  in  this,  he  turned  to  the  rising  star  of  Napoleon,  believing 
that  he  had  found  in  "  the  truly  great  man,  the  mighty  genius 
which  governs  the  fate  of  the  world,"  the  only  force  strong 
enough  to  save  Germany  from  dissolution.     By  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  accordingly,  though  he  had  to  surrender  Worms  and 
Constance,  he  received  Regensburg,  Aschaffenburg  and  Wetzlar. 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  Empire  in  1806  he  formally  resigned  the 
office  of  arch-chancellor  in  a  letter  to  the  emperor  Francis,  and 
was  appointed  by  Napoleon  prince  primate  of  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine.    In  1810,  after  the  peace  of  Vienna  (Schonbrunn), 
the  grand-duchy  of  Frankfort  was  created  for  his  benefit  out  of  his 


DALE,  R.  W.— DALE,  SIR  T. 


763 


territories,  which,  in  spite  of  the  cession  of  Regensburg  to 
Bavaria,  were  greatly  augmented.  Dalberg's  subservience,  as  a 
prince  of  the  Confederation,  to  Napoleon  was  specially  resented 
since,  as  a  priest,  he  had  no  excuse 'of  necessity  on  the  ground 
of  saving  family  or  dynastic  interests;  his  fortunes  therefore 
fell  with  those  of  Napoleon,  and,  when  he  died  on  the  icth  of 
February  1817,  of  all  his  dignities  he  was  in  possession  only  of 
the  archbishopric  of  Regensburg.  Weak  and  shortsighted  as  a 
statesman,  as  a  man  and  prelate  Dalberg  was  amiable,  con- 
scientious and  large-hearted.  Himself  a  scholar  and  author,  he 
•was  a  notable  patron  of  letters,  and  was  the  friend  of  Goethe, 
Schiller  and  Wieland. 

See  Karl  v.  Beaulieu-Marconnay,  Karl  von  Dalberg  und  seine 
Zeit  (Weimar,  1879). 

3.  WOLFGANG  HERIBERT  VON  DALBERG  (1750-1806),  brother 
of  the  above.     He  was  intendant  of  the  theatre  at  Mannheim, 
which  he  brought  to  a  high  state  of  excellence.     His  chief  claim  to 
remembrance  is  that  it  was  he  who  first  put  Schiller's  earlier 
dramas  on  the  stage,  and  it  is  to  him  that  the  poet's  Briefe  an  den 
Frelherrn  von   Dalberg   (Karlsruhe,    1819)  are  addressed.     He 
himself  wrote  several  plays,  including  adaptations  of  Shakes- 
peare.    His  brother,  Johann  Friedrich  Hugo  von  Dalberg  (1752- 
1812),  canon  of  Trier,  Worms  and  Spires,  had  some  vogue  as  a 
composer  and  writer  on  musical  subjects. 

4.  EMMERICH  JOSEPH,  DUC  DE  DALBERG  (1773-1833),  son  of 
Baron  Wolfgang  Heribert.     He  was  born  at  Mainz  on  the  3oth  of 
May  1773.     In  1803  he  entered  the  service  of  Baden,  which  he 
represented  as  envoy  in  Paris.     After  the  peace  of  Schonbrunn 
(1809)  he  entered  the  service  of  Napoleon,  who,  in  1810,  created 
him  a  duke  and  councillor  of  state.     He  had  from  the  first  been 
on  intimate  terms  with  Talleyrand,  and  retired  from  the  public 
service  when  the  latter  fell  out  of  the  emperor's  favour.     In  1814 
he  was  a  member  of  the  provisional  government  by  whom  the 
Bourbons  were  recalled,  and  he  attended  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
with  Talleyrand,  as  minister  plenipotentiary.     He  appended  his 
signature  to  the  decree  of  outlawry  launched  in  1815  by  the 
European  powers  against  Napoleon.     For  this  his  property  in 
France  was  confiscated,  but  was  given  back  after  the  second 
Restoration,  when  he  became  a  minister  of  state  and  a  peer  of 
France.     In  1816  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Turin.     The 
latter  years  of  his  life  he  spent  on  his  estates  at  Herrnsheim, 
where  he  died  on  the  27th  of  April  1833. 

The  due  de  Dalberg  had  inherited  the  family  property  of 
Herrnsheim  from  his  uncle  the  arch-chancellor  Karl  von  Dalberg, 
and  this  estate  passed,  through  his  daughter  and  heiress,  Marie 
Louise  Pelline  de  Dalberg,  by  her  marriage  with  Sir  (Ferdinand) 
Richard  Edward  Acton,  7th  baronet  (who  assumed  the  addi- 
tional name  of  Dalberg),  to  her  son  the  historian,  John  Emerich 
Edward  Dalberg-Acton,  ist  Baron  Acton  (q.v.). 

DALE,  ROBERT  WILLIAM  (1829-1894),  English  Noncon- 
formist divine,  was  born  in  London  on  the  ist  of  December 
1829,  and  was  educated  at  Spring  Hill  College,  Birmingham, 
for  the  Congregational  ministry.  In  1853  he  was  invited  to 
Carr's  Lane  Chapel,  Birmingham,  as  co-pastor  with  John  Angell 
James  (q.v.),  on  whose  death  in  1859  he  became  sole  pastor  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  the  London  University  M.A.  examination 
(1853)  Dale  stood  first  in  philosophy  and  won  the  gold  medal. 
The  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  university 
of  Glasgow  during  the  lord  rectorship  of  John  Bright.  Yale 
University  gave  him  its  D.D.  degree,  but  he  never  used  it,  "  not 
because  it  came  from  America,  but  because  I  have  a  sentimental 
objection — perhaps  it  is  something  more — to  divinity  degrees." 
Dale  displayed  a  keen  interest  in  Liberal  politics  and  in  the 
municipal  affairs  of  Birmingham;  and  his  high  moral  ideal 
made  him  a  great  force  on  the  progressive  side.  In  1886  he 
adhered  to  Mr  Chamberlain  in  opposition  to  Irish  Home  Rule, 
but  this  difference  did  not  diminish  his  influence  even  among 
those  Liberals  and  Nonconformists  who  adopted  the  Glad- 
stonian  standpoint.  In  the  education  controversy  of  1870  he 
took  an  important  part,  ably  championing  the  Nonconformist 
position.  When  Mr  Foster's  bill  appeared,  Dale  attacked  it  on 
the  grounds  that  the  schools  would  in  many  cases  be  purely 


denominational  institutions,  that  the  conscience  clause  gave 
inadequate  protection,  and  that  school  boards  were  empowered 
by  it  to  make  grants  out  of  the  rates  to  maintain  sectarian 
schools.  He  was  himself  in  favour  of  secular  education,  claiming 
that  it  was  the  only  logical  solution  and  the  only  legitimate 
outcome  of  Nonconformist  principles.  In  Birmingham  the  con- 
troversy was  terminated  in  1879  by  a  compromise,  from  which, 
however,  Dale  stood  aloof.  His  interest  in  educational  affairs 
had  led  him  to  accept  a  seat  on  the  Birmingham  school  board. 
He  was  appointed  a  governor  of  the  grammar  school,  served  on 
the  royal  commission  of  education,  and  was  also  chairman  of  the 
council  of  Mansfield  College,  Oxford,  with  the  foundation  of 
which  he  had  much  to  do.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  dis- 
establishment, holding  that  the  church  was  essentially  a  spiritual 
brotherhood,  and  that  any  vestige  of  political  authority  impaired 
its  spiritual  work.  In  church  polity  he  held  that  Congrega- 
tionalism constituted  the  most  fitting  environment  in  which 
religion  could  achieve  her  work.  Perhaps  the  most  effective 
contributions  he  made  to  ecclesiastical  literature  were  those 
dealing  with  the  history  and  principles  of  the  congregational 
system.  At  his  death  on  the  i3th  of  March  1895  ne  left  an  un- 
finished MS.  of  the  history  of  Congregationalism,  since  edited 
and  completed  (1907)  by  his  son,  A.  W.  W.  Dale,  principal  of 
Liverpool  University. 

Dale's  powers  were  fully  appreciated  by  his  colleagues  in  the 
congregational  ministry,  and  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine  he 
was  elected  chairman  of  the  Congregational  union  of  England 
and  Wales.  His  addresses  from  the  chair  on  "  Christ  and  the 
Controversies  of  Christendom,"  and  the  "  Holy  Spirit  and  the 
Christian  Ministry  "  were  remarkable  for  a  keen  insight  into  the 
conditions  and  demands  of  the  age.  For  some  years  he  edited 
the  Congregalionalist,  a  monthly  magazine  connected  with  the 
denomination.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  Lyman  Beecher 
lecturer  at  Yale  University,  and  visited  America  to  deliver  his 
"  Lectures  on  Preaching."  At  the  International  Council  of 
Congregationalists,  meeting  in  London  in  1891 ,  the  first  gathering 
of  the  kind,  Dale  was  nominated  for  the  presidency.  He  accepted 
the  honour  and  delivered  an  address  on  "  The  Divine  Life  in 
Man." 

As  a  theologian  Dale  occupied  an  influential  position  amongst 
the  religious  thinkers  of  the  igth  century.  He  ably  interpreted 
the  Evangelical  thought  of  his  age,  but  his  Evangelicalism  was 
of  a  broad  and  progressive  type.  His  chief  contribution  to  con- 
structive theological  thought  is  his  work  On  The  Atonement,  in 
which  he  contends  that  the  death  of  Christ  is  the  objective 
ground  on  which  the  sins  of  man  were  remitted.  Among  his 
other  theological  books  are:  The  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (a 
series  of  expositions),  Christian  Doctrine,  The  Living  Christ  and 
the  Four  Gospels,  Fellowship  with  Christ,  The  Epistle  to  James, 
and  The  Ten  Commandments, 

DALE,  SIR  THOMAS  (d.  1619),  British  naval  commander  and 
colonial  deputy -governor  of  Virginia.  From  about  1588  to  1609 
he  was  in  the  service  of  the  Low  Countries  with  the  English  army 
originally  under  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester;  in  1606,  while 
visiting  in  England,  he  was  knighted  by  King  James;  from  1611 
to  1616  be  was  actually  though  not  always  nominally  in  chief 
control  of  the  province  of  Virginia  either  as  deputy-governor  or 
as  "  high  marshall,"  and  he  is  best  remembered  for  the  energy 
and  the  extreme  rigour  of  his  administration  there,  which  estab- 
lished order  and  in  various  ways  seems  to  have  benefited  the 
colony;  he  himself  declared  that  he  left  it  "  in  great  prosperity 
and  peace."  Under  him  began  the  first  real  expansion  of  the 
colony  with  the  establishment  of  the  settlement  of  Henrico  on 
and  about  what  was  later  known  as  Farrar's  Island;  it  was  he 
who,  about  1614,  took  the  first  step  toward  abolishing  the  com- 
munal system  by  the  introduction  of  private  holdings,  and  it  was 
during  his  administration  that  the  first  code  of  laws  of  Virginia, 
nominally  in  force  from  1610  to  1619,  was  effectively  tested. 
This  code,  entitled  "  Articles,  Lawes,  and  Orders — Divine, 
Politique,  and  Martiall,"  but  popularly  known  as  Dale's  Code, 
was  notable  for  its  pitiless  severity,  and  seems  to  have  been 
prepared  in  large  part  by  Dale  himself.  He  left  Virginia  in  1616 


764 


DALECARLIA— DALHOUSIE 


with  the  intention  probably  of  returning  to  the  service  of  the 
Low  Countries,  but  instead  was  given  command  of  an  English 
fleet  sent  against  the  Dutch,  defeated  the  enemy  near  Batavia 
in  the  East  Indies  late  in  the  year  1618,  arrived  at  Masulipatam 
in  July  1619,  and  died  there  on  the  pth  of  the  following  month. 

An  account  of  Dale's  career  in  Virginia  is  given  in  Alexander 
Brown's  The  First  Republic  in  America  (Boston,  1898);  a  scholarly 
discussion  of  "  Dale's  Code  "  by  Walter  F.  Prince  may  be  found  in 
vol.  i.  of  the  Annual  Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association  for 
1899  (Washington,  D.C.,  1900),  and  the  code  itself  is  reprinted  in 
Peter  Force's  Historical  Tracts,  vol.  iii.,  No.  II. 

DALECARLIA  (Dalarne,  "  the  Dales  "),  a  west  midland  region 
of  Sweden,  virtually  coincident  with  the  district  (Ian)  of  Koppar- 
berg,  which  extends  from  the  mountains  of  the  Norwegian 
frontier  to  within  25  m.  of  Gefle  on  the.  Baltic  coast.  It  is  a 
region  full  of  historical  associations,  and  possesses  strong  local 
characteristics  in  respect  of  its  products,  and  especially  of  its 
people.  The  Dalecarlians  or  Dalesmen  speak  their  own  peculiar 
dialect,  wear  their  own  peculiar  costumes,  and  are  famed  for 
their  brave  spirit  and  sturdy  love  of  independence.  In  1434, 
led  by  Engelbrecht,  the  miner,  they  rose  against  the  oppressive 
tyranny  of  the  officers  of  Eric  XIV.  of  Denmark,  and  in  1519- 
1523  it  was  among  them  that  Gustavus  Vasa  found  his  staunchest 
supporters  in  his  patriotic  task  of  freeing  Sweden  from  the  yoke 
of  the  Danes.  The  districts  around  Lakes  Runn  and  Siljan  ("  the 
Eye  of  the  Dales  "),  the  principal  sheets  of  water  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Dal  rivers,  are  consequently  classic  ground.  By  the  banks 
of  Lake  Runn,  for  example,  is  seen  the  barn  in  which  Vasa 
threshed  corn  in  disguise,  when  still  a  fugitive  from  the  Danes. 
The  people  are  for  the  most  part  small  peasant  proprietors. 
They  eke  out  their  scanty  returns  from  tilling  the  soil  by  a 
variety  of  home  industries,  such  as  making  scythes,  saws,  bells, 
wooden  wares,  hair  goods,  and  so  forth.  About  three  quarters 
of  the  whole  district  is  covered  with  forest.  Besides  the  wealth 
of  the  forests,  the  Dales  contain  some  of  the  largest  and  most 
prolific  iron  mines  in  Sweden,  notably  those  of  Grangesberg. 
Copper  is  mined  at  Falun  (q.v.),  the  chief  town  of  Kopparberg, 
and  some  silver  and  lead,  zinc  and  sulphur  is  found.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  the  district  has  numerous  smelting  furnaces, 
blasting  and  rolling  mills,  iron  and  metallurgical  works,  as  well 
as  saw-mills,  wood-pulp  factories,  and  chemical  works. 

See  G.  H.  Mellin,  Skildringar  af  den  Skandinaviska  Nordens 
Folklif  og  Natur,  vol.  iii.  (1865);  and  Frederika  Bremer,  /  Dalarne 
(1845),  of  which  there  is  an  English  translation  by  William  and  Mary 
Howitt  (1852).  For  the  dialect,  see  a  paper  by  A.  Noreen,  in  De 
Svenska  Landsmalen,  vol.  iv.  (1881). 

DALGAIRNS,  JOHN  DOBREE  (1818-1876),  English  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  was  born  in  Guernsey  on  the  2ist  of  October 
1818.  About  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  and  soon  after  taking  his  degree  he  contributed  a  letter 
to  Louis  Veuillot's  ultramontane  organ  L'Univers,  on  "  Anglican 
Church  Parties,"  which  gave  him  considerable  repute.  Together 
with  Mark  Pattison  and  others,  he  translated  the  Galena  aurea 
of  St  Thomas  Aquinas,  a  commentary  on  the  Gospels,  taken 
from  the  works  of  the  Fathers.  He  was  a  contributor  to  New- 
man's Lives  of  the  English  Saints,  for  which  he  wrote  the  beautiful 
studies  on  the  Cistercian  Saints.  The  Life  of  St  Stephen  Harding 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages.  Dalgairns  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  in  1845,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year.  He  joined  his  friend  John  Henry  Newman  in  Rome,  and, 
together  with  him,  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory. 
On  his  return  to  England  in  1848,  he  was  attached  to  the  London 
Oratory,  where  he  laboured  successfully  as  a  priest,  with  the 
exception  of  three  years  spent  in  Birmingham.  Dalgairns  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  well-known  "  Metaphysical  Society." 
He  died  at  Burgess  Hill,  near  Brighton,  on  the  6th  of  April  1876. 
During  the  Catholic  period  of  his  life,  Dalgairns  wrote  The 
Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  with  an  Introduction  on  the 
History  of  Jansenism  (London  1853) !  The  German  Mystics  of 
the  Fourteenth  Century  (London,  1858);  The  Holy  Communion, 
its  Philosophy,  Theology  and  Practice  (Dublin,  1861). 

A  list  of  his  contributions  on  religious  and  philosophical  subjects, 
to  the  reviews  and  periodicals,  is  given  in  J.  Gillow's  Bibliographical 
Dictionary  of  English  Catholics,  vol.  ii. 


DALGARNO,  GEORGE  (c.  1626-1687),  Engiish  writer,  was 
born  at  Old  Aberdeen  about  1626.  He  appears  to  have  studied 
at  Marischal  College;  but  he  finally  settled  in  Oxford,  where, 
according  to  Wood,  "  he  taught  a  private  grammar-school  with 
good  success  for  about  thirty  years,"  and  where  he  died  on  the 
28th  of  August  1687.  He  was  master  of  Elizabeth  school, 
Guernsey,  for  some  ten  years,  but  resigned  in  1672.  In  his  work 
entitled  Didascalocophus,  or  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Man's  Tutor 
(Oxford,  1680),  he  explained,  for  the  first  time,  the  hand  alphabet 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  though  he  does  not  claim  to  have  invented 
this  method  of  communication.  Twenty  years  before  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Didascalocophus,  Dalgarno  had  given  to  the  world 
a  very  ingenious  piece  entitled  Ars  Signorum  (1661),  dividing 
ideas  into  seventeen  classes,  to  be  represented  by  the  letters 
of  the  Latin  alphabet  with  the  addition  of  two  Greek  characters. 
Among  the  Sloane  manuscripts  are  several  tracts  by  Dalgarno, 
further  elucidating  his  system  of  universal  shorthand.  Leibnitz 
on  various  occasions  alluded  to  the  Ars  signorum  in  commen- 
datory terms. 

The  chief  works  of  Dalgarno  were  reprinted  (1834)  for  the  Maitland 
Club. 

DALHOUSIE,    JAMES    ANDREW    BROUN    RAMSAY,     IST 

MARQUESS  and  IOTHEARLOF  (1812-1860),  British  statesman  and 
Indian  administrator,  was  born  at  Dalhousie  Castle,  Scotland,  on 
the  2 2nd  of  April  1812.  He  crowded  into  his  short  life  conspicuous 
public  services  in  England,  and  established  an  unrivalled  position 
among  the  master-builders  of  the  Indian  empire.  Denounced 
on  the  eve  of  his  death  as  the  chief  offender  who  failed  to  notice 
the  signs  of  the  mutiny  of  1857,  and  even  aggravated  the  crisis 
by  his  overbearing  self-consciousness^  centralizing  activity  and 
reckless  annexations,  he  stands  out  in  the  clear  light  of  history 
as  the  far-sighted  governor-general  who  consolidated  British 
rule  in  India,  laid  truly  the  foundations  of  its  later  adminis- 
tration, and  by  his  sound  policy  enabled  his  successors  to  stem 
the  tide  of  rebellion. 

He  was  the  third  son  of  George  Ramsay.  9th  earl  of  Dalhousie 
(1770-1838),  one  of  Wellington's  generals,  who,  after  holding 
the  highest  offices  in  Canada,  became  commander-in-chief  in 
India,  and  of  his  wife  Christina  Broun  of  Coalstoun,  a  lady  of 
noble  lineage  and  distinguished  gifts.  From  his  father  he  in- 
herited a  vigorous  self-reliance  and  a  family  pride  which  urged 
him  to  prove  worthy  of  the  Ramsays  who  had  "  not  crawled 
through  seven  centuries  of  their  country's  history,"  while  to  his 
mother  he  owed  his  high-bred  courtesy  and  his  deeply  seated 
reverence  for  religion.  The  Ramsays  of  Dalhousie  (or  Dalwolsie) 
in  Midlothian  were  a  branch  of  the  main  line  of  Scottish  Ramsays, 
of  whom  the  earliest  known  is  Simon  de  Ramsay,  of  Huntingdon, 
England,  mentioned  in  1140  as  the  grantee  of  lands  in  West 
Lothian  at  the  hands  of  David  I.  A  Sir  William  de  Ramsay 
of  Dalhousie  swore  fealty  to  Edward  I.  in  1296,  but  is  famous  for 
having  in  1320  signed  the  letter  to  the  pope  asserting  the  in- 
dependence of  Scotland;  and  his  supposed  son,  Sir  Alexander 
Ramsay  (d.  1342),  was  the  Scottish  patriot  and  capturer  of 
Roxburgh  Castle  (1342),  who,  having  been  made  warder  of  the 
castle  and  sheriff  of  Teviotdale  by  David  II.,  was  soon  afterwards 
carried  off  and  starved  to  death  by  his  predecessor,  the  Douglas, 
in  revenge.  Sir  John  Ramsay  of  Dalhousie  (1580-1626), 
James  VI. 's  favourite,  is  famous  for  rescuing  the  king  in  the 
Gowrie  conspiracy,  and  was  created  (1606)  Viscount  Haddington 
and  Lord  Ramsay  of  Barns  (subsequently  baron  of  Kingston 
and  earl  of  Holderness  in  England).  The  barony  of  Ramsay  of 
Melrose  was  granted  in  1618  to  his  brother  George  Ramsay  of 
Dalhousie  (d.  1629),  whose  son  William  Ramsay  (d.  1674)  was 
made  ist  earl  of  Dalhousie  in  1633. 

The  9th  earl  was  in  1815  created  Baron  Dalhousie  in  the 
peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  had  three  sons,  the  two 
elder  of  whom  died  early.  His  youngest  son,  the  subject  of  this 
article,  was  small  in  stature,  but  his  firm  chiselled  mouth,  high 
forehead  and  masterful  manner  intimated  a  dignity  that  none 
could  overlook.  Yet  his  early  life  gave  little  promise  of  the 
dominating  force  of  his  character  or  of  his  ability  to  rise  to  the 
full  height  of  his  splendid  opportunities.  Nor  did  those  brought 


DALHOUSIE 


765 


into  closest  intimacy  with  him,  whether  at  school  or  at  Oxford, 
suspect  the  higher  qualities  of  statesmanship  which  afterwards 
established  his  fame  on  so  firm  a  foundation. 

Several  years  of  his  early  boyhood  were  spent  with  his  father 
and  mother  in  Canada,  reminiscences  of  which  were  still  vivid 
with  him  when  governor-general  of  India.  Returning  to  Scotland 
he  was  prepared  for  Harrow,  where  he  entered  in  1825.  Two 
years  later  he  was  removed  from  school,  his  entire  education 
being  entrusted  to  the  Rev.  Mr  Temple,  incumbent  of  a  quiet 
parish  in  Staffordshire.  To  this  gentleman  he  referred  in  later 
days  as  having  taught  him  all  he  knew,  and  to  his  training  he 
must  have  owed  those  habits  of  regularity  and  that  indomitable 
industry  which  marked  his  adult  life.  In  October  1829  he  passed 
on  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  worked  fairly  hard,  won 
some  distinction,  and  made  many  lifelong  friends.  His  studies, 
however,  were  so  greatly  interrupted  by  the  protracted  illness 
and  death  in  1832  of  his  only  surviving  brother,  that  Lord 
Ramsay,  as  he  then  became,  had  to  content  himself  with  entering 
for  a  "  pass  "  degree,  though  the  examiners  marked  their 
appreciation  of  his  work, by  placing  him  in  the  fourth  class  of 
honours  for  Michaelmas  1833.  He  then  travelled  in  Italy  and 
Switzerland,  enriching  with  copious  entries  the  diary  which 
he  religiously  kept  up  through  life,  and  storing  his  mind  with 
valuable  observations. 

An  unsuccessful  but  courageous  contest  at  the  general  election 
in  1835  for  one  of  the  seats  in  parliament  for  Edinburgh, 
fought  against  such  veterans  as  the  future  speaker,  James 
Abercrombie,  afterwards  Lord  Dunfermline,  and  John  Campbell, 
future  lord  chancellor,  was  followed  in  1837  by  Ramsay's 
return  to  the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for  East  Lothian. 
In  the  previous  year  he  had  married  Lady  Susan  Hay,  daughter 
of  the  marquess  of  Tweeddale,  whose  companionship  was  his 
chief  support  in  India,  and  whose  death  in  1853  left  him  a 
heartbroken  man.  In  1838  his  father  had  died  after  a  long 
illness,  while  less  than  a  year  later  he  lost  his  mother. 

Succeeding  to  the  peerage,  the  new  earl  soon  made  his  mark 
in  a  speech  delivered  on  the  i6th  of  June  1840  in  support  of  Lord 
Aberdeen's  Church  of  Scotland  Benefices  Bill,  a  controversy 
arising  out  of  the  Auchterarder  case,  in  which  he  had  already 
taken  part  in  the  "general  assembly"  in  opposition  to  Dr 
Chalmers.  In  May  1843  he  became  vice-president  of  the  board 
of  trade,  Gladstone  being  president,  and  was  sworn  in  as  a 
member  of  the  privy  council.  Succeeding  Gladstone  as  president 
in  1845,  he  threw  himself  into  the  work  during  the  crisis  of  the 
railway  mania  with  such  energy  that  his  health  partially  broke 
down  under  the  strain.  In  the  struggle  over  the  corn  laws 
he  ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  after  the 
failure  of  Lord  John  Russell  to  form  a  ministry  he  resumed 
his  post  at  the  board  of  trade,  entering  the  cabinet  on  the  retire- 
ment of  Lord  Stanley.  When  Peel  resigned  office  in  June  1846, 
Lord  John  offered  Dalhousie  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  an  offer 
which  he  declined  from  a  fear  that  acceptance  might  "  involve 
the  loss  of  public  character."  Another  attempt  to  secure  his 
services  in  the  appointment  of  president  of  the  railway  board 
was  equally  unsuccessful;  but  in  1847  he  accepted  the  post  of 
governor-general  of  India  in  succession  to  Lord  Hardinge,  on 
the  understanding  that  he  was  to  be  left  in  "  entire  and  un- 
questioned possession "  of  his  own  "  personal  independence 
with  reference  to  party  politics." 

Dalhousie  assumed  charge  of  his  dual  duties  as  governor- 
general  of  India  and  governor  of  Bengal  on  the  i2th  of  January 
1848,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  was  honoured  with  the  green 
ribbon  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle.  In  writing  to  the  president 
of  the  board  of  control,  Sir  John  Hobhouse,  he  was  able  to  assure 
him  that  everything  was  quiet.  This  statement,  however,  was 
to  be  falsified  by  events,  almost  before  it  could  reach  England. 
For  on  the  igth  of  April  Vans  Agnew  of  the  civil  service  and 
Lieutenant  Anderson  of  the  Bombay  European  regiment,  having 
been  sent  to  take  charge  of  Multan  from  Diwan  Mulraj,  were 
murdered  there,  and  within  a  short  time  the  Sikh  troops  and 
sardars  joined  in  open  rebellion.  Dalhousie  agreed  with  Sir 
Hugh  Gough,  the  commander-in-chief,  that  the  Company's 


military  forces  were  neither  adequately  equipped  with  transport 
and  supplies,  nor  otherwise  prepared  to  take  the  field  immedi- 
ately. He  also  foresaw  the  spread  of  the  rebellion,  and  the 
necessity  that  must  arise,  not  merely  for  the  capture  of  Multan, 
but  also  for  the  entire  subjugation  of  the  Punjab.  He  therefore 
resolutely  delayed  to  strike,  organized  a  strong  army  for  operations 
in  November,  and  himself  proceeded  to  the  Punjab.  Despite 
the  brilliant  successes  gained  by  Herbert  Edwardes  in  conflict 
with  Mulraj,  and  Goagh's  indecisive  victories  at  Ramnagar 
in  November,  at  Sadulapur  in  December,  and  at  Chillianwalla 
in  the  following  month,  the  stubborn  resistance  at  Multan 
showed  that  the  task  required  the  utmost  resources  of  the 
government.  At  length,  on  the  22nd  of  January  1849,  the 
Multan  fortress  was  taken  by  General  Whish,  who  was  thus  set 
at  liberty  to  join  Gough  at  Gujrat.  Here  a  complete  victory 
was  won  on  the  2ist  of  February,  the  Sikh  army  surrendered 
at  Rawal  Pindi,  and  their  Afghan  allies  were  chased  out  of  India. 
For  his  services  the  earl  of  Dalhousie  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament  and  a  step  in  the  peerage,  as  marquess. 

The  war  being  now  over,  Dalhousie,  without  waiting  for 
instructions  from  home,  annexed  the  Punjab,  and  made  provision 
for  the  custody  and  education  of  the  infant  maharaja.  For  the 
present  the  province  was  administered  by  a  triumvirate  under 
the  personal  supervision  of  the  governor-general,  and  later,  a 
place  having  been  found  for  Henry  Lawrence  in  Rajputana,  by 
John  Lawrence  as  sole  commissioner.  Twice  did  Dalhousie  tour 
through  its  length  and  breadth,  settling  on  the  spot  all  matters 
of  importance,  and  when  he  left  India  no  province  could  show  a 
better  record  of  progress. 

One  further  addition  to  the  empire  was  made  by  conquest. 
The  arrogant  Burmese  court  at  Ava  was  bound  by  the  treaty  of 
Yandabo,  1826,  to  protect  British  ships  in  Burmese  waters,  but 
the  outrageous  conduct  of  the  governor  of  Rangoon  towards  the 
masters  of  the  "  Monarch  "  and  "  Champion  "  met  with  no 
redress  from  the  king.  Dalhousie  adopted  the  maxim  of  Lord 
Wellesley  "  that  an  insult  offered  to  the  British  flag  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ganges  should  be  resented  as  promptly  and  fully 
as  an  insult  offered  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames";  but,  anxious 
to  save  the  cost  of  war,  he  tried  to  settle  the  dispute  by  diplomacy. 
When  that  failed  he  made  vigorous  preparation  for  the  campaign 
to  be  undertaken  in  the  autumn,  giving  his  attention  to  the 
adequate  provision  of  rations,  boat  transport,  and  medical 
supplies,  composing  differences  between  the  military  contingents 
from  Bengal  and  Madras,  and  between  the  military  and  naval 
forces  employed,  and  conferring  with  General  Godwin  whom  he 
had  chosen  to  command  the  expedition.  Martaban  was  taken  on 
the  5th  of  April  1852,  and  Rangoon  and  Bassein  shortly  after- 
wards. Since,  however,  the  court  of  Ava  showed  no  sign  of 
submission,  the  second  campaign  opened  in  October,  and  after 
the  capture  of  Prome  and  Pegu  the  annexation  of  the  province 
of  Pegu  was  declared  by  a  proclamation  dated  the  2oth  of 
December  1853.  To  any  further  invasion  of  the  Burmese  empire 
Dalhousie  was  firmly  opposed,  being  content  to  "consolidate" 
the  Company's  possessions  by  uniting  Arakan  to  Tenasserim. 
By  his  wise  policy  he  pacified  the  new  province,  placing  Colonel 
Arthur  Phayre  in  sole  charge  of  it,  personally  visiting  it,  and 
establishing  a  complete  system  of  telegraphs  and  communications. 

These  military  operations  added  force  to  the  conviction  which 
Dalhousie  had  formed  of  the  need  of  consolidating  the  Company's 
ill-knit  possessions,  and  as  a  step  in  that  direction  he  decided  to 
apply  the  doctrine  of  "  lapse,"  and  annex  any  Hindu  native 
states,  created  or  revived  by  the  grants  of  the  British  government, 
in  which  there  was  a  failure  of  male  lineal  descendants,  reserving 
for  consideration  the  policy  of  permitting  adoptions  in  other 
Hindu  chiefships  tributary  and  subordinate  to  the  British  govern- 
ment as  paramount.  Under  the  first  head  he  recommended  the 
annexation  of  Satara  in  January  1849,  of  Jaitpur  and  Sambalpur 
in  the  same  year,  and  of  Jhansi  and  Nagpur  in  1853.  In  these 
cases  his  action  was  approved  by  the  home  authorities,  but  his 
proposal  to  annex  Karauli  in  1849  was  disallowed,  while  Baghat 
and  the  petty  estate  of  Udaipur,  which  he  had  annexed  in  1851 
and  1852  respectively,  were  afterwards  restored  to  native  rule. 


766 


DALHOUSIE 


Other  measures  with  the  same  object  were  carried  out  in  the 
Company's  own  territories.  Bengal,  too  long  ruled  by  the 
governor-general  or  his  delegate,  was  placed  under  a  separate 
lieutenant-governor  in  May  1854;  a  department  of  public  works 
was  established  in  each  presidency,  and  engineering  colleges 
were  provided.  An  imperial  system  of  telegraphs  followed; 
the  first  link  of  railway  communication  was  completed  in  1855; 
well-considered  plans  mapped  out  the  course  of  other  lines  and 
their  method  of  administration;  the  Ganges  canal,  which  then 
exceeded  "  all  the  irrigation  lines  of  Lombardy  and  Egypt 
together,"  was  completed;  and  despite  the  cost  of  wars  in  the 
Punjab  and  Burma,  liberal  provision  was  made  for  metalled 
roads  and  bridges.  The  useless  military  boards  were  swept 
away;  selection  took  the  place  of  seniority  in  the  higher  com- 
mands; an  army  clothing  and  a  stud  department  were 
created,  and  the  medical  service  underwent  complete  re- 
organization. 

"  Unity  of  authority  coupled  with  direct  responsibility  "  was 
the  keynote  of  his  policy.  In  nine  masterly  minutes  he  suggested 
means  for  strengthening  the  Company's  European  forces,  calling 
attention  to  the  dangers  that  threatened  the  English  community, 
"  a  handful  of  scattered  strangers  ";  but  beyond  the  additional 
powers  of  recruitment  which  at  his  entreaty  were  granted  in  the 
last  charter  act  of  1853,  his  proposals  were  shelved  by  the  home 
authorities,  who  scented  no  danger  and  wished  to  avoid  expense. 
In  his  administration  Dalhousie  vigorously  asserted  the  control 
of  the  civil  government  over  military  affairs,  and  when  Sir 
Charles  Napier  ordered  certain  allowances,  given  as  compensation 
for  the  dearness  of  provisions,  to  be  granted  to  the  sepoys  on  a 
system  which  had  not  been  sanctioned  from  headquarters,  and 
threatened  to  repeat  the  offence,  the  governor-general  found  it 
necessary  to  administer  such  a  rebuke  that  the  hot-headed  soldier 
resigned  his  command. 

Dalhousie's  reforms  were  not  confined  to  the  departments  of 
public  works  and  military  affairs.  He  created  an  imperial 
system  of  post-offices,  reducing  the  rates  of  carrying  letters  and 
introducing  postage  stamps.  To  him  India  owes  the  first 
department  of  public  instruction;  it  was  he  who  placed  the 
gaols  under  proper  inspection,  abolishing  the  practice  of  branding 
convicts;  put  down  the  crime  of  meriahs  or  human  sacrifices; 
freed  converts  to  other  religions  from  the  loss  of  their  civil 
rights;  inaugurated  the  system  of  administrative  reports;  and 
enlarged  and  dignified  the  legislative  council  of  India.  His  wide 
interest  in  everything  that  concerned  the  welfare  of  the  country 
was  shown  in  the  encouragement  he  gave  to  the  culture  of  tea, 
in  his  protection  of  forests,  in  the  preservation  of  ancient  and 
historic  monuments.  With  the  object  of  improving  civil  ad- 
ministration, he  closed  the  useless  college  in  Calcutta  for  the 
education  of  young  civilians,  establishing  in  its  place  a  proper 
system  of  training  them  in  mufasal  stations,  and  subjecting 
them  to  departmental  examinations.  He  was  equally  careful  of 
the  well-being  of  the  European  soldier,  providing  him  with 
healthy  recreations  and  public  gardens.  To  the  civil  service  he 
gave  improved  leave  and  pension  rules,  while  he  purified  its  moral 
by  forbidding  all  share  in  trading  concerns,  by  vigorously 
punishing  insolvents,  and  by  his  personal  example  of  careful 
selection  in  the  matter  of  patronage.  As  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  constitution  of  the  Indian  government,  dealing  with  the 
functions  of  its  various  members  and  the  different  parts  of  the 
official  machinery,  nothing  could  be  more  masterly  than  his 
minute  of  the  I3th  of  October  1852.  Indeed  no  governor-general 
ever  penned  a  larger  number  of  weighty  papers  dealing  with 
public  affairs  in  India.  Even  after  laying  down  office  and  while 
on  his  way  home,  he  forced  himself,  ill  as  he  was,  to  review  his 
own  administration  in  a  document  of  such  importance  that  the 
House  of  Commons  gave  orders  for  its  being  printed  (Blue  Book 
245  of  1856). 

His  foreign  policy  was  guided  by  a  desire  to  recognize  the 
"  independence  "  of  the  larger  native  states,  and  to  avoid 
extending  the  political  relations  of  his  government  with  foreign 
powers  outside  India.  Pressed  to  intervene  in  Hyderabad,  he 
refused  to  do  so,  laying  down  the  doctrine  that  interference  was 


only  justified  "  if  the  administration  of  native  princes  tends 
unquestionably  to  the  injury  of  the  subjects  or  of  the  allies  of 
the  British  government."  Protection  in  his  view  carried  no 
right  of  interference  in  the  affairs  of  what  he  called  "  indepen- 
dent "  states.  In  this  spirit  he  negotiated  in  1853  a  treaty  with 
the  nizam,  which  provided  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
contingent  kept  up  by  the  British  in  support  of  that  prince's 
authority,  by  the  assignment  of  the  Berars  in  lieu  of  annual 
payments  of  the  cost  and  large  outstanding  arrears.  "  The 
Berar  treaty,"  he  told  Sir  Charles  Wood,  "  is  more  likely  to  keep 
the  nizam  on  his  throne  than  anything  that  has  happened  for 
fifty  years  to  him,"  while  at  the  same  time  the  control  thus 
acquired  over  a  strip  of  territory  intervening  between  Bombay 
and  Nagpur  promoted  his  policy  of  consolidation  and  his  schemes 
of  railway  extension.  The  same  spirit  induced  him  to  tolerate  a 
war  of  succession  in  Bahawalpur,  so  long  as  the  contending 
candidates  did  not  violate  British  territory.  This  reluctance  to 
increase  his  responsibilities  further  caused  him  to  refrain  from 
punishing  Dost  Mahommed  for  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  Sikh 
War,  and  resolutely  to  refuse  to  enter  upon  any  negotiations  until 
the  amir  himself  came  forward.  Then  he  steered  a  middle  course 
between  the  proposals  of  his  own  agent,  Herbert  Edwardes, 
who  advocated  an  offensive  alliance,  and  those  of  John  Lawrence, 
who  would  have  avoided  any  sort  of  engagement.  He  himself 
drafted  the  short  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  which  Lawrence 
signed  in  1855,  that  officer  receiving  in  1856  the  order  of  K.C.B. 
in  acknowledgment  of  his  services  in  the  matter.  While,  how- 
ever, Dalhousie  was  content  with  a  mutual  engagement  with  the 
Afghan  chief,  binding  each  party  to  respect  the  territories  of  the 
other,  he  saw  that  a  larger  measure  of  interference  was  needed 
in  Baluchistan,  and  with  the  khan  of  Kalat  he  authorized  Major 
Jacob  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  subordinate  co-operation  on  the 
i4th  of  May  1854.  The  khan  was  guaranteed  an  annual  subsidy 
of  Rs.  50,000,  in  return  for  the  treaty  which  "  bound  him  to  us 
wholly  and  exclusively."  To  this  the  home  authorities  demurred, 
but  the  engagement  was  duly  ratified,  and  the  subsidy  was 
largely  increased  by  Dalhousie's  successors.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  insisted  on  leaving  all  matters  concerning  Persia  and  Central 
Asia  to  the  decision  of  the  queen's  advisers.  The  frontier  tribes- 
men it  was  obviously  necessary  to  coerce  into  good  behaviour 
after  the  annexation  of  the  Punjab.  "  The  hillmen,"  he  wrote, 
"  regard  the  plains  as  their  food  and  prey,"  and  the  Afridis, 
Mohmands,  Black  Mountain  tribes,  Waziris  and  others  had  to 
be  taught  that  their  new  neighbours  would  not  tolerate  outrages. 
But  he  proclaimed  to  one.and  all  his  desire  for  peace,  and  urged 
upon  them  the  duty  of  tribal  responsibility. 

The  settlement  of  the  Oudh  question  was  reserved  to  the  last. 
The  home  authorities  had  begged  Dalhousie  to  prolong  his  tenure 
of  office  during  the  Crimean  War,  but  the  difficulties  of  the 
problem  no  less  than  complications  elsewhere  had  induced  him 
to  delay  operations.  In  1854  he  appointed  Outram  as  resident 
at  the  court  of  Lucknow,  directing  him  to  submit  a  report  on 
the  condition  of  the  province.  This  was  furnished  in  March 
1855.  But  though  the  state  of  disorder  and  misrule  revealed 
by  it  called  for  prompt  remedy,  Dalhousie,  looking  at  the  treaty 
of  1801,  considered  that  he  was  bound  to  proceed  in  the  matter 
of  reform  with  the  king's  consent.  He  proposed,  therefore,  to 
demand  a  transfer  to  the  Company  of  the  entire  administration, 
the  king  merely  retaining  his  royal  rank,  certain  privileges  in 
the  courts,  and  a  liberal  allowance.  If  he  should  refuse  this 
arrangement,  a  general  rising  was  almost  certain  to  follow,  and 
then  the  British  government  would  of  necessity  intervene  on  its 
own  terms.  On  the  2ist  of  November  1855  the  court  of  directors 
instructed  Dalhousie  to  assume  the  powers  essential  to  the 
permanence  of  good  government  in  Oudh,  and  to  give  the  king 
no  option  unless  he  was  sure  that  his  majesty  would  surrender 
the  administration  rather  than  risk,  a  revolution.  Dalhousie 
was  in  wretched  health  and  on  the  eve  of  retirement  when  the 
belated  orders  reached  him;  but  he  at  once  laid  down  instruc- 
tions for  Outram  in  every  detail,  moved  up  troops,  and  elaborated 
a  scheme  of  government  with  particular  orders  as  to  conciliating 
local  opinion.  The  king  refused  to  sign  the  treaty  put  before 


DALHOUSIE— DALKEITH 


767 


him,  and  a  proclamation  annexing  the  province  was  therefore 
issued  on  the  I3th  of  February  1856. 

Only  one  important  matter  now  remained  to  him  before 
quitting  office.  The  insurrection  of  the  half-civilized  Kolarian 
Santals  of  Bengal  against  the  extortions  of  landlords  and  money- 
lenders had  been  severely  repressed,  but  the  causes  of  the  in- 
surrection had  still  to  be  reviewed  and  a  remedy  provided.  By 
removing  the  tract  of  country  from  the  ordinary  regulations, 
enforcing  the  residence  of  British  officers  there,  and  employing 
the  Santal  headmen  in  a  local  police,  he  ensured  a  system  of 
administration  which  afterwards  proved  eminently  successful. 

At  length,  after  seven  years  of  strenuous  labour,  Dalhousie, 
on  the  6th  of  March  1856,  set  sail  for  England  on  board  the 
Company's  "  Firoze,"  an  object  of  general  sympathy  and  not 
less  general  respect.  At  Alexandria  he  was  carried  by  H.M.S. 
"  Caradoc  "  to  Malta,  and  thence  by  the  "  Tribune  "  to  Spithead, 
which  he  reached  on  the  I3th  of  May.  His  return  had  been 
eagerly  looked  for  by  statesmen  who  hoped  that  he  would 
resume  his  public  career,  by  the  Company  which  voted  him  an 
annual  pension  of  £5000,  by  public  bodies  which  showered  upon 
him  every  mark  of  respect,  and  by  the  queen  who  earnestly 
prayed  for  the  "  blessing  of  restored  health  and  strength." 
That  blessing  was  not  to  be  his.  He  lingered  on,  seeking  sunshine 
in  Malta  and  medical  treatment  at  Malvern,  Edinburgh  and  other 
places  in  vain  obedience  to  his  doctors.  The  outbreak  of  the 
mutiny  led  to  bitter  attacks  at  home  upon  his  policy,  and  to 
strange  misrepresentation  of  his  public  acts,  while  on  the  other 
hand  John  Lawrence  invoked  his  counsel  and  influence,  and 
those  who  really  knew  his  work  in  India  cried  out,  "  Oh,  for  a 
dictator,"  and  his  return  "  for  one  hour!"  To  all  these  cries 
he  turned  a  deaf  ear,  refusing  to  embarrass  those  who  were 
responsible  by  any  expressions  of  opinion,  declining  to  undertake 
his  own  defence  or  to  assist  in  his  vindication  through  the  public 
press,  and  by  his  last  directions  sealing  up  his  private  journal 
and  papers  of  personal  interest  against  publication  until  fifty 
years  after  his  death.  On  the  pth  of  August  1859  his  youngest 
daughter,  Edith,  was  married  at  Dalhousie  Castle  to  Sir  James 
Fergusson,  Bart.  In  the  same  castle  Dalhousie  died  on  the  igth 
of  December  1860;  he  was  buried  in  the  old  churchyard  of 
Cockpen. 

Dalhousie's  family  consisted  of  two  daughters,  and  the 
marquessate  became  extinct  at  his  death. 

The  detailed  events  of  the  period  will  be  found  in  Sir  William 
Lee- Warner's  Life  of  the  Marquis  of  Dalhousie,  K.  T. ;  Sir  E.  Arnold's 
Dalhousie's  Administration  of  British  India;  Sir  C.  Jackson's  Vin- 
dication of  Dalhuusie's  Indian  Administration;  Sir  W.  W.  Hunter's 
Dalhousie;  Capt.  L.  J.  Trotter's  Life  of  the  Marquis  of  Dalhousie; 
the  duke  of  Argyll's  India  under  Dalhousie  and  Canning;  Broughton 
MSS.  (British  Museum);  and  parliamentary  papers. 

(W.  L.-W.) 

DALHOUSIE,  FOX  MAULE  RAMSAY,  nth  EARL  OF  (1801- 
1874),  was  the  eldest  son  of  William  Ramsay  Maule,  ist  Baron 
Panmure  (1771-1852),  and  a  grandson  of  George,  8th  earl  of 
Dalhousie.  Born  on  the  22nd  of  April  1801  and  christened  Fox 
as  a  compliment  to  the  great  Whig,  he  served  for  a  term  in  the 
army,  and  then  in  1835  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  member 
for  Perthshire.  In  Lord  Melbourne's  ministry  (1835-1841) 
Maule  was  under-secretary  for  home  affairs,  and  under  Lord 
John  Russell  he  was  secretary-at-war  from  July  1846  to  January 
1852,  when  for  two  or  three  weeks  he  was  president  of  the  board 
of  control.  In  April  1852  he  became  the  2nd  Baron  Panmure, 
and  early  in  1855  he  joined  Lord  Palmerston's  cabinet,  filling 
the  new  office  of"  secretary  of  state  for  war.  Panmure  held  this 
office  until  February  1858,  being  at  the  war  office  during  the 
concluding  period  of  the  Crimean  War  and  having  to  meet  a 
good  deal  of  criticism,  some  of  which  was  justified  and  some  of 
which  was  not.  In  December  1860  he  succeeded  his  kinsman, 
the  marquess  of  Dalhousie,  as  nth  earl  of  Dalhousie,  and  he  died 
childless  on  the  6th  of  July  1874.  Always  interested  in  church 
matters,  Dalhousie  was  a  prominent  supporter  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  after  the  disruption  of  1843.  On  his  death  the  barony 
became  extinct,  but  his  earldom  passed  to  his  cousin,  George 
Ramsay  (1806-1880),  an  admiral  who,  in  1875,  was  created  a 


peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  Baron  Ramsay.  George's 
grandson,  Arthur  George  Maule  Ramsay  (b.  1878),  became  the 
I4th  earl  in  1887. 

See  the  Panmure  Papers,  a  selection  from  Panmure's  correspond- 
ence, edited  in  two  volumes  (1908),  by  Sir  G.  Douglas,  Bart.,  and 
Sir  G.  D.  Ramsay.  These  numerous  letters  throw  much  light  on 
the  concluding  stage  of  the  Crimean  War. 

DALIN,  OLOF  VON  (1708-1763),  Swedish  poet,  was  born  on 
the  29th  of  August  1708  in  the  parish  of  Vinberg  in  Halland, 
where  his  father  was  the  minister.  He  was  nearly  related  to 
Rydelius,  the  philosophical  bishop  of  Lund,  and  he  was  sent  at 
a  very  early  age  to  be  instructed  by  him,  Linnaeus  being  one  of 
his  fellow-pupils.  While  studying  at  Lund,  Dalin  had  visited 
Stockholm  in  the  year  1723,  and  in  1726  entered  one  of  the  public 
offices  there.  Under  the  patronage  of  Baron  Rilamb  he  rapidly 
rose  to  preferment,  and  his  skill  and  intelligence  won  him  golden 
opinions.  In  1733  he  started  the  weekly  Svenska  Argus,  on  the 
model  of  Addison's  Spectator,  writing  anonymously  till  1736. 
His  next  work  was  Tankar  iifver  Critiquer  (Thoughts  about 
Critics,  1736).  With  the  avowed  purpose  of  enlarging  the  horizon 
of  his  cultivation  and  tastes,  Dalin  set  off,  in  company  with  his 
pupil,  Baron  Ralamb's  son,  on  a  tour  through  Germany  and 
France,  in  1730-1740.  On  his  return  the  shifting  of  political 
life  at  home  caused  him  to  write  his  famous  satiric  allegories  of 
The  Story  of  the  Horse  and  Aprilverk  (1738),  which  were  very 
popular  and  provoked  countless  imitations.  His  didactic  epos 
of  Svenska  Friheten  (Swedish  Liberty)  appeared  in  1742. 
Hitherto  Addison  and  Pope  had  been  his  models;  in  this  work 
he  draws  his  inspiration  from  Thomson,  whose  poem  of  Liberty 
it  emulated.  On  the  accession  of  Adolphus  Freduck  in  1751 
Dalin  received  the  post  of  tutor  to  the  crown  prince,  afterwards 
Gustavus  III.  He  had  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Queen  Louisa 
Ulrika,  sister  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Germany,  while  she  was 
crown  princess,  and  she  now  made  him  secretary  of  the  Swedish 
academy  of  literature,  founded  by  her  in  1753.  His  position 
at  court  involved  him  in  the  queen's  political  intrigues,  and 
separated  him  to  a  vexatious  degree  from  the  studies  in  which 
he  had  hitherto  been  absorbed.  He  held  the  post  of  tutor  to 
the  crown  prince  until  1756,  when  he  was  arrested  on  suspicion 
of  having  taken  part  in  the  attempted  coup  d'etat  of  that  year, 
and  was  tried  for  his  life  before  the  diet.  He  was  acquitted,  but 
was  forbidden  on  any  pretence  to  show  himself  at  court.  This 
period  of  exile,  which  lasted  until  1761,  Dalin-  spent  in  the 
preparation  of  the  third  volume  of  his  great  historical  work,  the 
Svea  Rikes  historia  (History  of  the  Swedish  Kingdom),  which 
came  down  to  the  death  of  Charles  IX.  in  1611.  The  first  two 
volumes  appeared  in  1746-1750;  the  third,  in  two  parts,  in 
1760-1762.  Dalin  had  been  ennobled  in  1751,  and  made  privy 
councillor  in  1753;  and  now,  in  1761,  he  once  more  took  his 
place  at  court.  During  his  exile,  however,  his  spirit  and  his 
health  had  been  broken;  in  a  fit  of  panic  he  had  destroyed  some 
packets  of  his  best  unpublished  works  and  this  he  constantly 
brooded  over.  On  the  I2th  of  August  1763  he  died  at  his  house 
in  Drottningholm.  In  the  year  1767  his  writings  in  belles  letlres 
were  issued  in  six  volumes,  edited  by  J.  C.  Bokman,  his  half- 
brother.  Amid  an  enormous  mass  of  occasional  verses,  ana- 
grams, epigrams,  impromptus  and  the  like,  his  satires  and 
serious  poems  were  almost  buried.  But  some  of  these  former, 
even,  are  found  to  be  songs  of  remarkable  grace  and  delicacy, 
and  many  display  a  love  of  natural  scenery  and  a  knowledge  of 
its  forms  truly  remarkable  in  that  artificial  age.  His  dramas 
also  are  of  interest,  particularly  his  admirable  comedy  of  Den 
afvundsjuke  (The  Envious  M^n,  1738);  he  also  wrote  a  tragedy, 
Brynilda  (1739),  and  a  pastoral  in  three  scenes  on  King  Adolphus 
Frederick's  return  from  Finland.  During  the  early  part  of  his 
life  he  was  universally  admitted  to  be/o<;»/e  princeps  among  the 
Swedish  poets  of  his  time. 

See  also  K.  Warburg,  "  Olof  von  Dalin,"  in  the  Handlingar  (vol. 
lix.,  1884)  of  the  Swedish  Academy.  A  selection  of  his  works  was 
edited  by  E.  V.  Lindblad  (Orebro,  1872). 

DALKEITH,  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  of  Edinburghshire, 
Scotland,  lying  between  the  North  and  South  Esk,  7$  m.  S.E. 


768 


DALKEY— DALLAS,  A.  J. 


of  Edinburgh,  by  the  North  British  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  7035; 
(1901)  6812.  It  is  an  important  agricultural  centre,  and  has 
every  week  one  of  the  largest  grain-markets  in  Scotland.  Besides 
milling,  brewing  and  tanning,  the  chief  industries  are  the  making 
of  carpets,  brushes  and  bricks,  and  iron  and  brass  founding. 
Near  Eskbank,  a  handsome  residential  quarter  with  a  railway 
station,  coal-mining  is  carried  on.  Market-gardening,  owing  to 
the  proximity  of  the  capital,  flourishes.  The  parish  church — an 
old  Gothic  edifice,  which  was  originally  the  Castle  chapel,  and 
was  restored  in  1852 — the  municipal  buildings,  corn  exchange, 
Foresters'  hall  and  Newmills  hospital  are  among  the  principal 
public  buildings.  Dalkeith  was  the  birthplace  of  Professor 
Peter  Guthrie  Tail,  the  mathematician  (1831-1901).  Dalkeith 
Palace,  a  seat  of  the  duke  of  Buccleuch,  was  designed  by  Sir 
John  Vanbrugh  in  1 700  for  the  widow  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth, 
countess  of  Buccleuch  in  her  own  right.  It  occupies  the  site  of 
a  castle  which  belonged  first  to  the  Grahams  and  afterwards  to 
the  Douglases,  and  was  sold  in  1642  by  William,  seventh  or 
eighth  earl  of  Morton,  to  Francis,  second  earl  of  Buccleuch, 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  to  assist  Charles  I.  in  the  Civil 
War.  The  palace  has  been  the  residence  of  several  sovereigns 
during  their  visits  to  Edinburgh,  among  them  George  IV. 
in  1822,  Queen  Victoria  in  1842,  and  Edward  VII.  in  1903. 
The  picture  gallery  possesses  important  examples  of  the  Old 
Masters;  the  gardens  are  renowned  for  their  fruit  and  flowers; 
and  the  beautiful  park  of  over  toco  acres — containing  a  remnant 
of  the  Caledonian  Forest,  with  oaks,  beeches  and  ashes  of  great 
girth  and  height — is  watered  by  the  North  and  South  Esk, 
which  unite  before  they  leave  the  policy.  About  i  m.  south  is 
Newbattle  Abbey,  the  seat  of  the  marquess  of  Lothian,  delight- 
fully situated  on  the  South  Esk.  It  is  built  on  the  site  of  an 
abbey  founded  by  David  I.,  the  ancient  crypt  being  incorporated 
in  the  mansion.  The  library  contains  many  valuable  books  and 
illuminated  MSS.,  and  excellent  pictures  and  carvings.  In  the 
park  are  several  remarkable  trees,  among  them  one  of  the 
largest  beeches  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Two  miles  still  farther 
south  lies  Cockpen,  immortalized  by  the  Baroness  Nairne's 
humorous  song  "  The  Laird  of  Cockpen,"  and  Dalhousie  Castle, 
partly  ancient  and  partly  modern,  which  gives  a  title  to  the 
earls  of  Dalhousie.  About  6  m.  south-east  of  Dalkeith  are 
Borthwick  and  Crichton  castles,  i  m.  apart,  both  now  in  ruins. 
Queen  Mary  spent  three  weeks  in  Borthwick  Castle,  as  in  durance 
vile,  after  her  marriage  with  Bothwell,  and  fled  from  it  to  Dunbar 
in  the  guise  of  a  page.  The  castle,  which  is  a  double  tower, 
was  besieged  by  Cromwell,  and  the  marks  of  his  cannon-balls 
are  still  visible.  In  the  manse  of  the  parish  of  Borthwick,  William 
Robertson,  the  historian,  was  born  in  1721.  About  4  m.  west  of 
Dalkeith  is  the  village  of  Burdiehouse,  the  limestone  quarries 
of  which  are  famous  for  fossils.  The  name  is  said  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  Bordeaux  House,  which  was  bestowed  on  it  by  Queen 
Mary's  French  servants,  who  lived  here  when  their  mistress 
resided  at  Craigmillar. 

DALKEY,  a  small  port  and  watering-place  of  Co.  Dublin, 
Ireland,  in  the  south  parliamentary  division,  9  m.  S.E.  of 
Dublin  by  the  Dublin  &  South-Eastern  railway.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1901),  3398.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  and  about 
Sorrento  Point,  the  southern  horn  of  Dublin  Bay.  Dalkey 
Island,  lying  off  the  town,  has  an  ancient  ruined  chapel,  of  the 
history  of  which  nothing  is  certainly  known,  and  a  disused 
battery,  which  protected  the  harbour,  a  landing-place  of  some 
former  importance.  A  castle  in  the  town,  of  the  isth  century, 
is  restored  to  use  as  offices  for  the  urban  district  council.  There 
are  also  ruins  of  an  old  church,  the  dedication  of  which,  like 
the  island  chapel,  is  ascribed  to  one  St  Begnet,  perhaps  a  diminu- 
tive form  of  Bega,  but  the  identity  is  not  clear.  Until  the  close 
of  the  1 8th  century  Dalkey  was  notorious  for  the  burlesque 
election  of  a  "  king,"  a  mock  ceremony  which  became  invested 
with  a  certain  political  importance. 

DALLAS,  ALEXANDER  JAMES  (1750-1817),  American 
statesman  and  financier,  was  born  on  the  island  of  Jamaica, 
West  Indies,  on  the  2ist  of  June  1759,  the  son  of  Dr  Robert  C. 
Dallas  (d.  1774),  a  Scottish  physician  then  practising  there. 


Dr  Dallas  soon  returned  to  England  with  his  family,  and 
Alexander  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Westminster.  He 
studied  law  for  a  time  in  the  Inner  Temple,  and  in  1780  returned 
to  Jamaica.  There  he  met  the  younger  Lewis  Hallam  (1738- 
1808),  a  pioneer  American  theatrical  manager  and  actor,  who 
induced  him  to  remove  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1783  he 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  at  once  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  United  States,  was  admitted  to  practise  law 
in  1785,  and  rapidly  attained  a  prominent  position  at  the  bar. 
He  was  interested  in  the  theatrical  projects  of  Hallam,  for  whom 
he  wrote. several  dramatic  compositions,  and  from  1787  to  1789 
he  edited  The  Columbian  Magazine.  From  1791  to  1801  he 
was  secretary  of  the  commonwealth  of  Pennsylvania.  Partly 
owing  to  his  publication  of  an  able  pamphlet  against  the  Jay 
treaty  in  1795,  he  soon  acquired  a  position  of  much  influence 
in  the  Democratic-Republican  party  in  the  state.  During  the 
Whisky  Insurrection  he  was  paymaster-general  of  the  state 
militia.  His  official  position  as  secretary  did  not  entirely 
prevent  him  from  continuing  his  private  law  practice,  and,  with 
Jared  Ingersoll,  he  was  the  counsel  of  Senator  William  Blount 
in  his  impeachment  trial.  Dallas  was  United  States  attorney 
for  the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania  from  1801  until  1814, 
a  period  marked  by  bitter  struggles  between  the  Democratic- 
Republican  factions  in  the  state,  in  which  he  took  a  leading 
part  in  alliance  with  Governor  Thomas  M'Kean  and  Albert 
Gallatin,  and  in  opposition  to  the  radical  factions  led  by  Michael 
Leib  (1759-1822)  and  William  Duane  (1760-1835),  of  the  Aurora. 
The  quarrel  led  in  1805  to  the  M'Kean  party  seeking  Federalist 
support.  By  such  an  alliance,  largely  due  to  the  political 
ingenuity  of  Dallas,  M'Kean  was  re-elected.  In  October  1814 
President  Madison  appointed  Dallas  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
to  succeed  George  W.  Campbell  (1768-1848),  whose  brief  and 
disastrous  term  had  been  marked  by  wholesale  bank  suspensions, 
and  an  enormous  depreciation  of  state  and  national  bank  notes. 
The  appointment  itself  inspired  confidence,  and  Dallas's  prompt 
measures  still  further  relieved  the  situation.  He  first  issued 
new  interest-bearing  treasury  notes  of  small  denominations, 
and  in  addition  proposed  the  re-establishment  of  a  national 
bank,  by  which  means  he  expected  to  increase  the  stability 
and  uniformity  of  the  circulating  medium,  and  furnish  the  govern- 
ment with  a  powerful  engine  in  the  upholding  of  its  credit. 
In  spite  of  his  already  onerous  duties,  Dallas,  with  characteristic 
energy,  served  also  as  secretary  of  war  ad  interim  from  March 
to  August  1815,  and  in  this  capacity  successfully  reorganized 
the  army  on  a  peace  footing.  Although  peace  brought  a  more 
favourable  condition  of  the  money  market,  Dallas's  attempt  to 
fund  the  treasury  notes  on  a  satisfactory  basis  was  unsuccessful, 
but  a  bill,  reported  by  Calhoun,  as  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  national  currency,  for  the  establishment  of  a  national  bank, 
became  law  on  the  icth  of  April  1816.  Meanwhile  (i2th  of 
February  1816)  Dallas,  in  a  notable  report,  recommended  a 
protective  tariff,  which  was  enacted  late  in  April,  largely  in 
accordance  with  his  recommendation.  Although  Dalla',  left 
the  cabinet  in  October  1816,  it  was  through  his  efforts  that  the 
new  bank  began  its  operations  in  the  following  January,  and 
specie  payments  were  resumed  in  February.  Dallas,  who 
belonged  to  the  financial  school  of  Albert  Gallatin,  deserves 
to  rank  among  America's  greatest  financiers.  He  found  the 
government  bankrupt,  and  after  two  years  at  the  head  of  the 
treasury  he  left  it  with  a  surplus  of  $20,000,000;  moreover,  as 
Henry  Adams  points  out,  his  measures  had  "  fixed  the  financial 
system  in  a  firm  groove  for  twenty  years."  He  retired  from 
office  to  resume  his  practice  of  the  law,  but  the  burden  of  his 
official  duties  had  undermined  his  health,  and  he  died  suddenly 
at  Philadelphia  on  the  i6th  of  June  1817.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  notable  political  pamphlets  and  state  papers,  and  in 
addition  edited  The  Laws  of  Pennsylvania,  1700-1801  (1801), 
and  Reports  of  Cases  ruled  and  adjudged  by  the  Courts  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Pennsylvania  before  and  since  the  Revolution 
(4  vols.,  1790-1807;  new  edition  with  notes' by  Thomas  J. 
Wharton,  1830).  He  wrote  An  Exposition  of  the  Causes  and 
Character  of  the  War  of  1812-15  (1815),  which  was  republished 


DALLAS,  G.  M.— DALLING  AND  BULWER 


769 


by  government  authority  in  New  York  and  London  and  widely 
circulated.  He  left  in  MS.  an  unfinished  History  of  Pennsylvania. 

His  brother,  ROBERT  CHARLES  DALLAS  (1754-1824),  was  born 
in  Jamaica,  and  lived  at  various  times  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
United  States,  England  and  France.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Lord  Byron.  He  wrote  Recollections  of  Lord  Byron 
(1824),  and  several  novels,  plays  and  miscellaneous  works. 

See  G.  M.  Dallas,  Life  and  Writings  of  Alexander  James  Dallas 
(Philadelphia,  1871). 

DALLAS,  GEORGE  MIFFLIN  (1792-1864),  American  states- 
man and  diplomat,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  loth  of  July  1792.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1810  at 
the  head  of  his  class;  then  studied  law  in  the  office  of  his  father, 
Alexander  J.  Dallas,  the  financier,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1813.  In  the  same  year  he  accompanied  Albert  Gallatin,  as 
his  secretary,  to  Russia,  and  in  1814  returned  to  the  United 
States  as  the  bearer  of  important  dispatches  from  the  American 
peace  commissioners  at  Ghent.  He  practised  law  in  New  York 
and  Philadelphia,  was  chosen  mayor  of  Philadelphia  in  1828, 
and  in  1829  was  appointed  by  President  Jackson,  whom  he  had 
twice  warmly  supported  for  the  presidency,  United  States 
attorney  for  the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania,  a  position  long 
held  by  his  father.  From  1831  to  1833  he  was  a  Democratic 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  advocated  a 
compromise  tariff  and  strongly  supported  Jackson's  position  in 
regard  to  nullification.  On  the  bank  question  he  was  at  first  at 
variance  with  the  president;  in  January  1832  he  presented  in 
the  Senate  a  memorial  from  the  bank's  president,  Nicholas 
Biddle,  and  its  managers,  praying  for  a  recharter,  and  subse- 
quently he  was  chairman  of  a  committee  which  reported  a  bill 
re-chartering  the  institution  for  a  fifteen-year  period.  After- 
wards, however,  his  views  changed  and  he  opposed  the  bank. 
From  1833  to  1835  Dallas  was  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  from  1835  to  1839  was  minister  to  Russia.  During  the 
following  years  he  was  engaged  in  a  long  struggle  with  James 
Buchanan  for  party  leadership  in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  from  1845  to  1849,  but  the 
appointment  of  Buchanan  as  secretary  of  state  at  once  shut  him 
off  from  all  hope  of  party  patronage  or  influence  in  the  Polk 
administration,  and  he  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  leader  of 
that  body  of  conservative  Democrats  of  the  North,  who,  while 
they  themselves  chafed  at  the  domination  of  Southern  leaders, 
were  disposed  to  disparage  all  anti-slavery  agitation.  By  his 
casting  vote  at  a  critical  period  during  the  debate  in  the  Senate 
on  the  tariff  bill  of  1846,  he  irretrievably  lost  his  influence  with 
the  protectionist  element  of  his  native  state,  to  whom  he  had 
given  assurances  of  his  support  of  the  Tyler  tariff  of  1842.  For 
several  years  after  his  retirement  from  office,  he  devoted  himself 
to  his  law  practice,  and  in  1856  succeeded  James  Buchanan  as 
United  States  minister  to  England,  where  he  remained  until 
relieved  by  Charles  Francis  Adams  in  May  1861.  During  this 
trying  period  he  represented  his  country  with  ability  and  tact, 
making  every  endeavour  to  strengthen  the  Union  cause  in  Great 
Britain.  He  died  at  Philadelphia  on  the  ist  of  December  1864. 
He  wrote  a  biographical  memoir  for  an  edition  of  his  father's 
writings,  which  was  published  in  1871. 

His  Diary  of  his  residence  in  St  Petersburg  and  London  was 
published  in  Philadelphia  in  1892. 

DALLAS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Dallas  county,  Texas, 
U.S.A.,  about  220  m.  N.W.  of  Houston,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the 
Trinity  river.  Pop.  (1880)  10,358;  (1890)  38,067;  (1900) 
42,638,  of  whom  9035  were  negroes  and  3381  were  foreign-born; 
(1910)  92,104.  Area,  about  15  sq.  m.  Dallas  is  served 
by  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Gulf,  Colorado  & 
Santa  Fe,  the  Houston  &  Texas  Central,  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
&  Texas,  the' St  Louis  South-western,  the  Texas  &New  Orleans, 
the  Trinity  &  Brazos  Valley,  and  the  Texas  &  Pacific  railways, 
and  by  interurban  electric  railways  to  Fort  Worth  and  Sherman. 
The  lower  channel  of  the  Trinity  river  has  been  greatly  improved 
by  the  Federal  government;  but  in  1908  the  river  was  not 
navigable  as  far  as  Dallas.  Among  public  buildings  are 
the  Carnegie  library  (1901),  Dallas  county  court  house,  the 
vn.  25 


city  hall,  the  U.S.  government  building,  St  Matthew's  cathedral 
(Prot.  Episc.),  the  cathedral  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (Rom.  Cath.), 
the  city  hospital,  St  Paul's  sanitarium  (Rom.  Cath.),  and  the 
Baptist  Memorial  sanitarium.  Educational  institutions  include 
Dallas  medical  college(  1901 )  ,the  collegesof  medicine  and  pharmacy 
of  Baylor  University,  the  medical  college  of  South-western 
University  (at  Georgetown,  Texas),  Oak  Cliff  female  academy, 
Patton  seminary,  St  Mary's  female  college  (Prot.  Episc.),  and 
Holy  Trinity  college  (Rom.  Cath.).  The  city  had  in  1908  three 
parks — Bachman's  Reservoir  (500  acres);  Fair  (525  acres) — the 
Texas  state  fair  grounds,  in  which  an  annual  exhibition  is  held— 
and  City  park  (17  acres).  Lake  Cliff,  Cycle  and  Oak  Lawn  parks 
are  amusement  grounds.  A  Confederate  soldiers'  monument, 
a  granite  shaft  50  ft.  high,  was  erected  in  1897,  with  statues  of 
R.  E.  Lee,  Jefferson  Davis,  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson  and  A.  S. 
Johnston.  Dallas  was  in  1900  the  third  city  in  population  and 
the  most  important  railway  centre  in  Texas.  It  is  a  shipping 
centre  for  a  large  wheat,  fruit  and  cotton-raising  region,  and 
the  principal  jobbing  market  for  northern  Texas,  Oklahoma  and 
part  of  Louisiana,  and  the  biggest  distributing  point  for  agri- 
cultural machinery  in  the  South-west.  It  is  a  livestock  market, 
and  one  of  the  chief  centres  in  the  United  States  for  the  manu- 
facture of  saddlery  and  leather  goods,  and  of  cotton-gin 
machinery.  It  has  flour  and  grist  mills  (the  products  of  which 
ranked  first  in  value  among  the  city's  manufactures  in  1905), 
wholesale  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  establishments,  cooper- 
age works,  railway  repair  shops,  cotton  compresses,  lumber  yards, 
salt  works,  and  manufactories  of  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake,  boots 
and  shoes  and  cotton  and  agricultural  machinery.  In  1900 
and  1905  it  was  the  principal  manufacturing  centre  in  the  state, 
the  value  of  its  factory  product  in  1905  being  $15,627,668,  an 
increase  of  64-7  %  over  that  in  1900.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  city,  and  the  water  is  taken  from 
the  Elm  fork  of  Trinity  river.  There  are  several  artesian  wells. 
Dallas,  named  in  honour  of  G.  M.  Dallas,  was  settled  in  1841,  and 
first  chartered  as  a  city  in  1856.  The  city  is  governed,  under  a 
charter  of  1907,  by  a  mayor  and  four  commissioners,  who 
together  pass  ordinances,  appoint  nearly  all  city  officers,  and 
generally  are  responsible  for  administering  the  government. 
In  addition  a  school  board  is  elected  by  the  people.  The  charter 
contains  initiative  and  referendum  provisions,  provides  for  the 
recall  of  any  elective  city  official,  and  prohibits  the  granting 
of  any  franchise  for  a  longer  term  than  twenty  years. 

DALLE  (pronounced  "  dal,"  Fr.  for  a  flag-stone  or  flat  tile), 
a  rapid  falling  over  flat  smooth  rock  surfaces  in  a  river  bed, 
especially  in  rivers  flowing  between  basaltic  rocks.  The  name  is 
common  in  America,  and  came  into  use  through  the  French 
employes  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  Well-known  "dalles  "  are 
on  the  St  Louis,  St  Croix  and  Wisconsin  rivers.  The  "  dalles  "  of 
the  Columbia  river  are  very  beautiful,  and  have  given  its  name  to 
Dalles  (1910  pop.  4880),  county-seat  of  Wasco  county,  Oregon. 

DALLIN,  CYRUS  EDWIN  (1861-  ),  American  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Springville,  Utah,  on  the  22nd  of  November  1861. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Truman  H.  Bartlett  in  Boston,  of  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  the  Academic  Julien  and  the  sculptors  Henri  M. 
Chapu  and  Jean  Dampt  (born  1858),  in  Paris,  and  on  his  return 
to  America  became  instructor  in  modelling  in  the  state  normal  art 
school  in  Boston.  He  is  best  known  for  his  plastic  representa- 
tions of  the  North  American  Indian — especially  for  "  The  Signal 
of  Peace  "  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  and  "  The  Medicine  Man," 
in  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia.  As  a  boy  he  had  lived  among 
the  Indians  in  the  Far  West,  and  had  learned  their  language.  His 
later  works  include  "  Pioneer  Monument,"  Salt  Lake  City; 
"  Sir  Isaac  Newton,"  Congressional  Library,  Washington;  and 
"  Don  Quixote."  He  won  a  silver  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition, 
1900,  and  a  gold  medal  at  the  St  Louis  Exposition,  1904. 

DALLING  AND  BULWER,  WILLIAM  HENRY  LYTTON 
EARLE  BULWER,  BARON  (1801-1872),  better  known  as  Sir 
HENRY  BULWER,  English  diplomatist  and  author,  was  born  in 
London  on  the  I3th  of  February  1801.  His  father,  General 
William  Earle  Bulwer,  when  colonel  of  the  io6th  regiment, 
had  married  Elizabeth  Barbara  Lytton,  who — as  the  only  child 

5 


770 


DALLING  AND  BULWER 


of  Richard  Warburton  Lytton,  of  Knebworth  Park,  in  Hertford- 
shire— was  sole  heiress  of  the  family  of  Norreys-Robinson- 
Lytton  of  Monacdhu  in  the  island  of  Anglesea  and  of  Guersylt 
in  Denbighshire.  Three  sons  were  the  fruit  of  this  marriage. 
The  second,  afterwards  Lord  Balling,  was  amply  provided  for 
by  his  selection  as  heir  to  his  maternal  grandmother;  the 
paternal  estates  in  Norfolk  went  to  his  elder  brother  William, 
and  the  maternal  property  in  Herts  to  the  youngest,  Edward, 
known  first  as  Bulwer  the  novelist  and  dramatist,  and  after- 
wards as  the  first  Baron  Lytton  (q.v.)  of  Knebworth. 

General  Bulwer,  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  was  one 
of  the  four  commanding  officers  to  whom  was  entrusted  the 
defence  of  England  in  1804,  when  threatened  with  invasion  by 
Napoleon.  Three  years  afterwards,  on  the  7th  of  July  1807, 
he  died  prematurely  at  fifty-two  at  Heyden  Hall.  His  young 
widow  had  then  devolved  upon  her  not  only  the  double  charge 
of  caring  for  the  estates  in  Herts  and  Norfolk,  but  the  far 
weightier  responsibility  of  superintending  the  education  of  her 
three  sons,  then  in  their  earliest  boyhood.  Henry  Bulwer  was 
educated  at  Harrow,  under  Dr  George  Butler,  and  at  Trinity 
College  and  Downing  College,  Cambridge.  In  1822  he  pub- 
lished a  small  volume  of  verse,  beginning  with  an  ode  on  the 
death  of  Napoleon.  It  is  chiefly  interesting  now  for  its  fraternal 
dedication  to  Edward  Lytton  Bulwer,  then  a  youth  of  nineteen. 

On  leaving  Cambridge  in  the  autumn  of  1824,  Henry  Bulwer 
went,  as  emissary  of  the  Greek  committee  then  sitting  in  London, 
to  the  Morea,  carrying  with  him  £80,000  sterling,  which  he  handed 
over  to  Prince  Mavrocordato  and  his  colleagues,  as  the  responsible 
leaders  of  the  War  of  Independence.  He  was  accompanied 
on  this  expedition  by  Hamilton  Browne,  who,  a  year  before, 
had  been  despatched  by  Lord  Byron  to  Cephalonia  to  treat 
with  the  insurgent  government.  Shortly  after  his  return  to 
England  in  1826,  Bulwer  published  a  record  of  this  excursion, 
under  the  title  of  An  Autumn  in  Greece.  Meanwhile,  bent  for 
the  moment  upon  following  in  his  father's  footsteps,  he  had,  on 
the  igth  of  October  1825,  been  gazetted  as  a  cornet  in  the 
2nd  Life  Guards.  Within  less  than  eight  months,  however,  he 
had  exchanged  from  cavalry  to  infantry,  being  enrolled  on  the 
2nd  of  June  1826  as  an  ensign  in  the  s8th  regiment.  That 
ensigncy  he  retained  for  little  more  than  a  month,  obtaining 
another  unattached,  which  he  held  until  the  ist  of  January  1829, 
when  he  finally  abandoned  the  army.  The  court,  not  the  camp, 
was  to  be  the  scene  of  his  successes;  and  for  thirty-eight  years 
altogether — from  August  1827  to  August  1865 — he  contrived, 
while  maturing  from  a  young  attache  to  an  astute  and  veteran 
ambassador,  to  hold  his  own  with  ease,  and  in  the  end  was 
ranked  amongst  the  subtlest  intellects  of  his  time  as  a  master 
of  diplomacy.  His  first  appointment  in  his  new  profession 
was  as  an  attache  at  Berlin.  In  April  1830  he  obtained  his  next 
step  through  his  nomination  as  an  attache  at  Vienna.  Thence, 
exactly  a  year  afterwards,  he  was  employed  nearer  home  in  the 
same  capacity  at  the  Hague. 

As  yet  ostensibly  no  more  than  a  careless  lounger  in  the 
salons  of  the  continent,  the  young  ex-cavalry  officer  veiled  the 
keenest  observation  under  an  air  of  indifference.  His  con- 
stitutional energy,  which  throughout  life  was  exceptionally 
intense  and  tenacious,  wore  from  the  first  a  mask  of  languor. 
When  in  reality  most  cautious  he  was  seemingly  most  negligent. 
No  matter  what  he  happened  at  the  moment  to  take  in  hand, 
the  art  he  applied  to  it  was  always  that  highest  art  of  all,  the 
ars  celare  artem.  His  mastery  of  the  lightest  but  most  essential 
weapon  in  the  armoury  of  the  diplomatist,  tact,  came  to  him 
as  it  seemed  intuitively,  and  from  the  outset  was  consummate. 
Talleyrand  himself  would  have  had  no  reason,  even  in  Henry 
Bulwer's  earliest  years  as  an  attache,  to  write  entreatingly,  "  pas 
de  zele,"  to  one  who  concealed  so  felicitously,  even  at  starting, 
a  lynx-like  vigilance  under  an  aspect  the  most  phlegmatic. 
He  had  hardly  reached  his  new  post  at  the  Hague  when  he  found 
and  seized  his  opportunity.  The  revolutionary  explosion  of 
July  at  Paris  had  been  echoed  on  the  25th  of  August  1830  by 
an  outburst  of  insurrection  at  Brussels.  During  the  whole  of 
September  a  succession  of  stormy  events  swept  over  Belgium, 


until  the  popular  rising  reached  its  climax  on  the  4th  of  October  in 
the  declaration  of  Belgian  independence  by  the  provisional 
government.  At  the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  the  young 
attache  was  despatched  by  the  then  foreign  secretary  at  White- 
hall, Lord  Aberdeen,  to  watch  events  as  they  arose  and  report 
their  character.  In  the  execution  of  his  special  mission  he 
traversed  the  country  in  all  directions  amidst  civil  war,  the  issue 
of  which  was  to  the  last  degree  problematic.  Under  those 
apparently  bewildering  circumstances,  he  was  enabled  by  his 
sagacity  and  penetration  to  win  his  spurs  as  a  diplomatist. 
Writing  almost  haphazard  in  the  midst  of  the  conflict,  he  sent 
home  from  day  to  day  a  series  of  despatches  which  threw  a 
flood  of  light  upon  incidents  that  would  otherwise  have  appeared 
almost  inexplicable.  Scarcely  a  week  had  elapsed,  during  which 
his  predictions  had  been  wonderfully  verified,  when  he  was 
summoned  to  London  to  receive  the  congratulations  of  the 
cabinet.  He  returned  to  Brussels  no  longer  in  a  merely  temporary 
or  informal  capacity.  As  secretary  of  legation,  and  afterwards 
as  charge  d'affaires,  he  assisted  in  furthering  the  negotiations 
out  of  which  Belgium  rose  into  a  kingdom.  Scarcely  had  this 
been  accomplished  when  he  wrote  what  may  be  called  the  first 
chapter  of  the  history  of  the  newly  created  Belgian  kingdom. 
It  appeared  in  1831  as  a  brief  but  luminous  paper  in  the  January 
number  of  the  Westminster  Review.  And  as  the  events  it  recorded 
had  helped  to  inaugurate  its  writer's  career  as  a  diplomatist,  so 
did  his  narrative  of  those  occurrences  in  the  pages  of  the  Radical 
quarterly  signalize  in  a  remarkable  way  the  commencement  of 
his  long  and  consistent  career  as  a  Liberal  politician.  Shortly 
before  his  appearance  as  a  reviewer,  and  immediately  prior  to 
the  carrying  of  the  first  Reform  Bill,  Bulwer  had  won  a  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Wilton,  afterwards  in  1831 
and  1832  sitting  there  as  M.P.  for  Coventry.  Nearly  two  years 
having  elapsed,  during  which  he  was  absent  from  parliament, 
he  was  in  1834  returned  to  Westminster  as  member  for  Maryle- 
bone.  That  position  he  retained  during  four  sessions,  winning 
considerable  distinction  as  a  debater.  Within  the  very  year 
in  which  he  was  chosen  by  the  Marylebone  electors,  he  brought 
out  in  two  volumes,  entitled  France — Literary,  Social  and 
Political,  the  first  half  of  a  work  which  was  only  completed 
upon  the  publication,  two  years  afterwards,  of  a  second  series, 
also  in  two  volumes,  under  the  title  of  The  Monarchy  of  the 
Middle  Classes.  Through  its  pages  he  made  good  his  claim  to  be 
regarded  not  merely  as  a  keen-witted  observer,  but  as  one  of  the 
most  sagacious  and  genial  delineators  of  the  generic  Frenchman, 
above  all  of  that  supreme  type  of  the  race,  with  whom' all  through 
his  life  he  especially  delighted  to  hold  familiar  intercourse,  the 
true  Parisian.  Between  the  issuing  from  the  press  of  these  two 
series,  Henry  Bulwer  had  prefixed  an  intensely  sympathetic 
Life  of  Lord  Byron  to  the  Paris  edition  of  the  poet's  works  pub- 
lished by  Galignani, — a  memoir  republished  sixteen  years  after- 
wards. A  political  argument  of  a  curiously  daring  and  outspoken 
character,  entitled  The  Lords,  the  Government,  and  the  Country, 
was  given  to  the  public  in  1836  by  Bulwer,  in  the  form  of  an 
elaborate  letter  to  a  constituent.  At  this  point  his  literary 
labours,  which  throughout  life  were  with  him  purely  labours 
by-the-way,  ceased  for  a  time,  and  he  disappeared  during  three 
decades  from  authorship  and  from  the  legislature. 

During  the  period  of  his  holding  the  position  of  charge  d'affaires 
at  Brussels,  Bulwer  had  seized  every  opportunity  of  making 
lengthened  sojourns  at  Paris,  always  for  him  the  choicest  place  of 
residence.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  one  of  these  dolce  far  nienle 
loiterings  on  the  boulevards  that,  on  the  I4th  of  August  1837,  he 
received  his  nomination  as  secretary  of  embassy  at  Constanti- 
nople. Recognizing  his  exceptional  ability  Lord  Ponsonby,  the 
British  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  at  once  entrusted  to  him 
the  difficult  task  of  negotiating  a  commercial  treaty,  which  had 
the  double  object  of  removing  the  intolerable  conditions  which 
hampered  British  trade  with  Turkey  and  of  dealing  a  blow  at  the 
threatening  power  of  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  by  shattering 
the  system  of  monopolies  on  which  it  was  largely  based.  In  this 
difficult  task  Bulwer  was  helped  by  the  hatred  of  Sultan  Mahmed 
II.  for  Mehemet  Ali,  but  the  treaty  was  none  the  less  a  remarkable 


DALLMEYER 


771 


proof  of  his  diplomatic  skill,  and  the  compliment  was  well 
deserved  when  Palmerston,  in  writing  his  congratulations  to  him 
from  Windsor  Castle,  on  the  i3th  of  September  1838,  pronounced 
the- treaty  a  capo  d' opera,  adding  that  without  reserve  it  would 
be  at  once  ratified.  Shortly  after  this  achievement  Bulwer  was 
nominated  secretary  of  embassy  at  St  Petersburg.  Illness, 
however,  compelled  him  to  delay  his  northern  journey — almost 
opportunely,  as  it  happened,  for  in  June  1839  he  was  despatched, 
in  the  same  capacity,  to  the  more  congenial  atmosphere  of  Paris. 
At  that  juncture  the  developments  of  the  feud  between  Mehemet 
Ali  and  the  Porte  were  threatening  to  bring  England  and  France 
into  armed  collision  (see  MEHEMET  ALI).  In  1839  and  1840, 
during  the  temporary  absence  of  his  chief,  Lord  Granville,  the 
secretary  of  embassy  was  gazetted  ad  interim  charge  d'affaires  at 
the  court  of  France,  and  thus  during  this  critical  time  he  had 
fresh  opportunities  of  winning  distinction  as  a  diplomatist. 

On  the  i4th  of  November  1843  ne  was  appointed  ambassador 
at  the  court  of  the  young  Spanish  queen  Isabella  II.  Upon  his 
arrival  at  Madrid  signal  evidence  was  afforded  of  the  estimation 
in  which  he  was  then  held  as  a  diplomatist.  He  was  chosen 
arbitrator  between  Spain  and  Morocco,  then  confronting  each 
other  in  deadly  hostility,  and,  as  the  result  of  his  mediation,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between  the  two  powers  in  1844.  In 
1846  a  much  more  formidable  difficulty  arose, — one  which,  after 
threatening  war  between  France  and  England,  led  at  last  to  a 
diplomatic  rupture  between  the  British  and  Spanish  govern- 
ments. The  dynastic  intrigues  of  Louis  Philippe  were  the 
immediate  cause  of  this  estrangement,  and  those  intrigues  found 
their  climax  in  what  has  ever  since  been  known  in  European 
annals  as  the  Spanish  Marriages.  The  storm  sown  in  the  Spanish 
marriages  was  reaped  in  the  whirlwind  of  the  February  revolu- 
tion. And  the  explosion  which  took  place  at  Paris  was  answered 
a  month  afterwards  at  Madrid  by  a  similar  outbreak.  Marshal 
Narvaez  thereupon  assumed  the  dictatorship,  and  wreaked  upon 
the  insurgents  a  series  of  reprisals  of  the  most  pitiless  character. 
These  excessive  severities  of  the  marshal-dictator  the  British 
ambassador  did  his  utmost  to  mitigate.  When  at  last,  however, 
Narvaez  carried  his  rigour  to  the  length  of  summarily  suppressing 
the  constitutional  guarantees,  Bulwer  sent  in  a  formal  protest  in 
the  name  of  England  against  an  act  so  entirely  ruthless  and  un- 
justifiable. This  courageous  proceeding  at  once  drew  down  upon 
the  British  envoy  a  counter-stroke  as  ill-judged  as  it  was  un- 
precedented. Narvaez,  with  matchless  effrontery,  denounced  the 
ambassador  from  England  as  an  accomplice  in  the  conspiracies 
of  the  Progressistas;  and  despite  his  position  as  an  envoy,  and  in 
insolent  defiance  of  the  Palmerstonian  boast,  Civis  Britannicus, 
Bulwer,  on  the  i2th  of  June,  was  summarily  required  to  quit 
Madrid  within  twenty-four  hours.  Two  days  afterwards  M. 
Isturitz,  the  Spanish  ambassador  at  the  court  of  St  James's, 
took  his  departure  from  London.  Diplomatic  relations  were  not 
restored  between  the  two  countries  until  years  had  elapsed,  nor 
even  then  until  after  a  formal  apology,  dictated  by  Lord  Pal- 
merston, had  been  signed  by  the  prime  minister  of  Queen 
Isabella.  Before  his  return  the  ambassador  was  gazetted  a 
K.C.B.,  being  promoted  to  the  grand  cross  some  three  years 
afterwards.  In  addition  to  this  mark  of  honour  he  received  the 
formal  approbation  of  the  ministry,  and  with  it  the  thanks  of 
both  Houses  of  Parliament. 

Before  the  year  of  his  return  from  the  peninsula  had  run  out 
Sir  Henry  Bulwer  was  married  to  the  Hon.  Georgiana  Charlotte 
Mary  Wellesley,  youngest  daughter  of  the  ist  Baron  Cowley, 
and  niece  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  Early  in  the  following  year, 
on  the  27th  of  April  1849,  he  was  nominated  ambassador  at 
Washington.  There  he  acquired  immense  popularity.  His 
principal  success  was  the  compact  known  as  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty  (q.v.),  ratified  in  May  1850,  pledging  the  contracting 
governments  to  respect  the  neutrality  of  the  meditated  ship  canal 
through  Central  America,  bringing  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  into  direct  communication.  After  having  been 
accredited  as  ambassador  to  the  United  States  for  three  years, 
Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  early  in  1852,  was  despatched  as  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  the  court  of  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  at 


Florence.  Shortly  after  his  retirement  from  that  post  in  the 
January  of  1855,  he  was  entrusted  with  various  diplomatic 
missions,  in  one  of  which  he  was  empowered  as  commissioner 
under  the  23rd  article  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1856,  to  investigate 
the  state  of  things  in  the  Danubian  principalities,  with  a  view  to 
their  definite  reorganization.  Finally  he  was  installed,  from 
May  1858  to  August  1865,  as  the  immediate  successor,  after  the 
close  of  the  Crimean  war,  of  the  "  Great  Elchi,"  Viscount  Strat- 
ford de  Redcliffe,  as  ambassador  extraordinary  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte  at  Constantinople. 

In  the  winter  of  1865  Bulwer  returned  home  from  the  Bosporus, 
and  retired  with  a  pension.  He  was  elected  member  for  Tarn- 
worth  on  the  1 7th  of  November  1868,  and  retained  his  seat  until 
gazetted  as  a  peer  of  the  realm  on  the  2ist  of  March  1871,  under 
the  title  of  Baron  Balling  and  Bulwer  of  Wood  Balling  in  the 
county  of  Norfolk.  Upon  the  eve  of  his  return  to  his  old  haunts 
as  a  debater  and  a  politician  he  had  asserted  his  claim  to  literary 
distinction  by  giving  to  the  world  in  two  volumes  his  four 
masterly  sketches  of  typical  men,  entitled  Historical  Characters. 
This  work,  dedicated  to  his  brother  Edward,  in  testimony  of 
the  writer's  fraternal  affection  and  friendship,  portrayed  in 
luminous  outline  Talleyrand  the  Politic  Man,  Cobbett  the  Con- 
tentious Man,  Canning  the  Brilliant  Man,  and  Mackintosh  the 
Man  of  Promise.  Two  other  kindred  sketches,  those  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel  and  Viscount  Melbourne,  having  been  selected  from 
among  their  author's  papers,  were  afterwards  published  posthum- 
ously. Another  work  of  ampler  outline  and  larger  pretension 
was  begun  and  partially  issued  from  the  press  during  Lord 
Balling's  lifetime,  but  not  completed.  This  was  the  Life  of 
Viscount  Palmerston,  the  first  two  volumes  of  which  were  pub- 
lished in  1870.  A  third  volume  appeared  four  years  afterwards. 
Even  then  it  left  the  story  of  the  English  statesman  broken 
off  so  abruptly  that  the  work  remained  at  the  last  the  merest 
fragment.  It  was  completed  by  Evelyn  Ashley. 

Lord  Balling  died  unexpectedly  on  the  23rd  of  May  1872  at 
Naples.  He  had  no  issue,  and  the  title  became  extinct.  In  his 
public  career  he  enjoyed  a  three-fold  success — as  ambassador,  as 
politician  and  as  man  of  letters.  His  popularity  in  society  was 
at  all  times  remarkable, 'mainly  no  doubt  from  his  mastery  of  all 
the  subtler  arts  of  a  skilled  conversationalist.  The  apparent 
languor  with  which  he  related  an  anecdote,  flung  off  a  ban  mot, 
or  indulged  in  a  momentary  stroke  of  irony  imparted  interest  to 
the  narrative,  wings  to  the  wit  and  point  to  the  sarcasm  in  a 
manner  peculiarly  his  own.  (C.  K.) 

DALLMEYER,  JOHN  HENRY  (1830-1883),  Anglo-German 
optician,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  September  1830  at  Loxten, 
Westphalia,  the  son  of  a  landowner.  On  leaving  school  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  an  Osnabriick  optician,  and 
in  1851  he  came  to  London,  where  he  obtained  work  with  an 
optician,  W.  Hewitt,  who  shortly  afterwards,  with  his  workmen, 
entered  the  employment  of  Andrew  Ross,  a  lens  and  telescope 
manufacturer.  Ballmeyer's  position  in  this  workshop  appears 
to  have  been  an  unpleasant  one,  and  led  him  to  take,  for  a  time, 
employment  as  French  and  German  corrrespondent  for  a  com- 
mercial firm.  After  a  year  he  was,  however,  re-engaged  by  Ross 
as  scientific  adviser,  and  was  entrusted  with  the  testing  and 
finishing  of  the  highest  class  of  optical  apparatus.  This  appoint- 
ment led  to  his  marriage  with  Ross's  second  daughter,  Hannah, 
and  to  the  inheritance,  at  Ross's  death  (1859),  of  a  third  of  his 
employer's  large  fortune  and  the  telescope  manufacturing  portion 
of  the  business.  Turning  from  astronomical  work  to  the  making 
of  photographic  lenses  (see  PHOTOGRAPHY),  he  introduced 
improvements  in  both  portrait  and  landscape  lenses,  in  object- 
glasses  for  the  microscope  and  in  condensers  for  the  optical 
lantern.  In  connexion  with  celestial  photography  he  constructed 
photo-heliographs  for  the  Wilna  observatory  in  1863,  for  the 
Harvard  College  observatory  in  1864,  and,  in  1873,  several  for 
the  British  government.  Ballmeyer's  instruments  achieved  a 
wide  success  in  Europe  and  America,  taking  the  highest  awards 
at  various  international  exhibitions.  The  Russian  government 
gave  him  the  order  of  St  Stanislaus,  and  the  French  government 
made  him  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  was  for  many 


772 


BALL'  ONGARO— DALMATIA 


years  upon  the  councils  of  both  the  Royal  Astronomical  and 
Royal  Photographic  societies.  About  1880  he  was  advised  to 
give  up  the  personal  supervision  of  his  workshops,  and  to  travel 
for  his  health,  but  he  died  on  board  ship,  off  the  coast  of  New 
Zealand,  on  the  3oth  of  December  1883. 

His  second  son,  THOMAS  RUDOLPHUS  DALLMEYER  (1850-1906), 
who  assumed  control  of  the  business  on  the  failure  of  his  father's 
health,  was  principally  known  as  the  first  to  introduce  tele- 
photographic  lenses  into  ordinary  practice  (patented  1891),  and 
he  was  the  author  of  a  standard  book  on  the  subject  ( Telephoto- 
graphy, 1899).  He  served  as  president  of  the  Royal  Photographic 
Society  in  1900-1903. 

DALL'  ONGARO,  FRANCESCO  (1808-1873),  Italian  writer, 
born  in  Friuli,  was  educated  for  the  priesthood,  but  abandoned 
his  orders,  and  taking  to  political  journalism  .founded  the  Favilla 
at  Trieste  in  the  Liberal  interest.  In  1848  he  enlisted  under 
Garibaldi,  and  next  year  was  a  member  of  the  assembly  which 
proclaimed  the  republic  in  Rome,  being  given  by  Mazzini  the 
direction  of  the  Monitor  officiate.  On  the  downfall  of  the  republic 
he  fled  to  Switzerland,  then  to  Belgium  and  later  to  France, 
taking  a  prominent  part  in  revolutionary  journalism;  it  was  not 
till  1860  that  he  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  dramatic  literature  at  Florence.  Subsequently  he 
was  transferred  to  Naples,  where  he  died  on  the  loth  of  January 
1873.  His  patriotic  poems,  Stornelli,  composed  in  early  life, 
had  a  great  popular  success;  and  he  produced  a  number  of  plays, 
notably  Fornaretto,  Bianca  Capello,  Fasma  and  //  Tesoro.  His 
collected  Fantasie  drammatiche  e  liriche  were  published  in  his 
lifetime. 

DALMATIA  (Ger.  Dalmatien;  Ital.  Dalmazia;  Serbo- 
Croatian,  Dalmacija),  a  kingdom  and  crownland  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  empire,  in  the  north-west  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
and  on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Dalmatia  is  bounded,  on  the  landward 
side,  by  Croatia  and  Bosnia,  in  the  N.  and  N.E.;  and  by  Herze- 
govina and  Montenegro,  in  the  S.E.  and  S.  Its  area  amounts  to 
4923  sq.  m.;  its  greatest  length,  from  north-west  to  south-east, 
is  210  m.;  its  breadth  reaches  35  m.  between  Point  Planca  and 
the  Bosnian  frontier,  diminishing  to  less  than  i  m.  at  Cattaro. 
Near  the  ports  of  Klek  and  Castelnuovo  the  Herzegovinian  frontier 
comes  down  to  the  sea,1  but  only  for  a  total  distance  of  145  m. 

Physical  Features. — No  part  of  the  Mediterranean  shore,  except 
the  coast  of  Greece,  is  so  deeply  indented  as  the  Dalmatian 
littoral,  with  its  multitude  of  rock-bound  bays  and  inlets.  It  is 
sheltered  from  the  open  sea  by  a  rampart  of  islands  which  vary 
greatly  in  size;  a  few  being  large  enough  to  support  several 
thousand  inhabitants,  while  others  are  mere  reefs,  swept  bare  by 
the  sea,  or  tenanted  only  by  rabbits  and  seabirds.  This  Dal- 
matian archipelago,  separated  from  the  Istrian  by  the  Gulf  of 
Quarnerolo,  forms  two  island  groups,  the  northern  or  Liburnian, 
and  the  southern;  with  open  water  intervening,  off  Point  Planca. 
In  calm  weather  the  channels  between  the  islands  and  the  main- 
land resemble  a  chain  of  landlocked  lakes,  brilliantly  clear  to  a 
depth  of  several  fathoms.  As  a  rule,  the  surrounding  hills  are 
rugged,  bleached  almost  white  or  pale  russet,  and  destitute  of 
verdure;  but  their  monotony  is  relieved  by  the  half -ruined 
castles  and  monasteries  clinging  to  the  rocks,  or  by  the  beauty 
of  such  cities  as  Ragusa,  or  Arbe,  with  its  fantastic  row  of 
steeples  overlooking  the  beach.  The  principal  islands,  Arbe, 
Brazza,  Curzola,  Lacroma,  Lesina,  Lissa  and  Meleda,  are  de- 
scribed under  separate  headings.  The  promontory  of  Sabbion- 
cello,  or  Punta  di  Stagno,  which  juts  out  for  41  m.  into  the  sea, 
between  Curzola  and  Lesina,  is  almost  another  island;  for  its 
breadth,  which  nowhere  exceeds  5  m.,  dwindles  to  about  i  m. 
at  the  narrow  isthmus  which  unites  it  with  the  shore.  There  are 
two  small  ports  on  this  isthmus — on  the  south,  Stagno  Grande 

1  This  arrangement  is  based  on  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Carlowitz 
1699  (articles  IX.  and  XI.  of  the  Turco- Venetian  Treaty).  It  is  due 
to  the  commercial  and  maritime  rivalry  between  Venice  and  Ragusa. 
The  Ragusans  bribed  the  Turkish  envoys  at  Carlowitz  to  stipulate 
for  a  double  extension  of  the  Ottoman  dominions  down  to  the 
Adriatic ;  and  thus  the  Ragusan  lands,  which  otherwise  would  have 
bordered  upon  the  Dalmatian  possessions  of  Venice,  were  surrounded 
by  neutral  territory. 


(Serbo-Croatian,  Ston  Veliki),  once  celebrated  for  its  salt  and 
shipbuilding  industries,  and,  on  the  north,  Stagno  Piccolo  (Ston 
Mali).  Dalmatia  possesses  a  magnificent  anchorage  in  the 
Bocche  di  Cattaro,  and  there  are  numerous  lesser  havens,  at 
Sebenico,  Trau,  Zara  and  elsewhere  along  the  coast  and  among 
the  islands. 

The  country  is  almost  everywhere  hilly  or  mountainous.  On 
the  Croatian  border  rises  the  lofty  barrier  of  the  Velebit,  which 
culminates  in  Sveto  Brdo  (5751  ft.),  and  Vakanski  Vrh  (5768  ft.). 
The  Dinaric  Alps  form  the  frontier  between  Dalmatia  and 
Bosnia;  Dinara  (6007  ft.),  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole 
chain,  and  Troglav  (6276  ft.),  being  the  highest  Dalmatian 
summits.  North-west  of  Sinj  rise  the  Svilaja  and  Mosec 
Planinas;  the  ridges  of  Mosor  and  Biokovo,  with  Sveto  Juraj 
(5781  ft.),  follow  the  windings  of  the  coast  from  Spalato  to 
Macarsca;  Orjen  marks  the  meeting-place  of  the  Herzegovinian, 
Montenegrin  and  Dalmatian  frontiers,  and  the  Sutorman  range 
appears  in  the  extreme  south.  The  barren  dry  limestone  of  the 
Dalmatian  highlands  has  been  aptly  compared  with  a  petrified 
sponge;  for  it  is  honeycombed  with  underground  caverns  and 
water-courses,  into  which  the  rainfall  is  at  once  filtered.  Thus 
arises  a  complete  system  of  subterranean  rivers,  with  waterfalls, 
lakes  and  regular  seasons  of  flood.  Even  the  few  surface  rivers 
vanish  and  emerge  again  at  intervals.  The  Trebinjcica,  for  in- 
stance, disappearing  in  Herzegovina,  supplies  both  the  broad 
and  swift  estuary  of  Ombla,  near  Ragusa,  and  the  fresh-water 
spring  of  Doli,  which  issues  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Apart 
from  the  Ombla,  and  the  Narenta  (Serbo-Croatian,  Neretva; 
Roman,  Naro),  which  creates  a  broad  marshy  delta  between 
Metkovic  and  the  sea,  Dalmatia  has  only  three  rivers  more  than 
25  m.  long;  the  Zermagna  (Zrmanja,  Tedanium),  Kerka,  (Krka, 
Titius),a,nd  Cetina.  (Cetina;  NaronaoT  Tilurus).  The  Zermagna 
skirts  the  southern  foothills  of  the  Velebit  and  falls  into  the 
harbour  of  Novigrad.  Better  known  is  the  Kerka,  which  rises 
in  the  Dinaric  Alps  and  flows  south-westward  to  the  Adriatic. 
Near  Scardona  (Skradin)  it  spreads  into  a  broad  lake,  and  forms 
several  fine  waterfalls,  after  receiving  its  tributary  the  Cikola 
(Cikola) ,  from  the  east.  South  of  Spalato,  the  Cetina,  which  also 
springs  from  the  Dinaric  Alps,  descends  to  the  sea  at  Almissa 
(Omis),  after  passing  between  the  Mosor  and  Biokovo  ranges. 
There  are  a  few  small  lakes  near  Zara,  Zaravecchia  and  the 
Narenta  estuary;  while  the  fertile,  but  unhealthy,  hollows 
among  the  mountains  fill  with  water  after  heavy  rain,  and  some- 
times cause  disastrous  floods.  But  most  parts  of  the  country 
suffer  from  drought. 

For  an  account  of  the  chief  geological  formations  see  BALKAN 
PENINSULA.  Small  quantities  of  iron,  lignite,  asphalt  and  bay 
salt  are  the  only  minerals  of  commercial  importance. 

The  climate  is  warm  and  healthy,  the  mean  temperature  at 
Zara  being  57°  F.,  at  Lesina  62°,  and  at  Ragusa  63°.  The  pre- 
vailing wind  is  the  sirocco,  or  S.E.;  but  the  terrible  Bora,  or 
'N.N.E. ,  may  blow  at  any  season  of  the  yea.r.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  about  28  in.,  but  a  dry  and  a  wet  year  usually  alternate. 

Fauna. — Bears,  badgers  and  wild  cats,  with  a  larger  number 
of  wolves  and  foxes,  find  shelter  in  the  Dinaric  Alps  and  on  the 
heights  of  Svilaja,  Mosor  and  Biokovo;  while  jackals  exist 
on  Curzola  and  Sabbioncello,  almost  their  last  refuges  in  Europe. 
Roedeer  are  uncommon,  and  the  wild  boar,  chamois,  red-deer  and 
beaver  are  extinct;  but  hares  and  rabbits  abound.  The  game- 
laws  are  not  strict,  and  are  often  evaded  by  the  Morlachs  ; 
but  moderate  sport  may  be  obtained  in  the  fens  formed  by  the 
Cetina  about  Sinj,  and  the  lagoons  of  the  Narenta  estuary; 
both  regions  being  frequented  by  wild  swans,  geese,  duck,  snipe 
and  other  aquatic  birds.  Among  land-birds,  the  commonest 
are  quails,  woodcock,  partridges,  and  especially  the  so-called 
"  stone-fowl "  (Steinhuhn,  Perdix  Graeca).  Tortoises  are 
numerous;  snakes,  lizards,  scorpions  and  innumerable  sand- 
flies  infest  the  dry  hillsides;  and  the  limestone  caverns  are 
peopled  by  sightless  bats,  reptiles,  fish,  flies,  beetles,  spiders, 
Crustacea  and  molluscs. 

Fisheries. — No  region  of  Europe  is  richer  in  its  marine  fauna 
and  flora.  Sponge  and  coral  fisheries  afford  a  valuable  source  of 


DALMATIA 


773 


income  to  the  peasantry,  many  of  whom  also  go  northward  for  the 
sardine  and  tunny  fisheries  of  the  Istrian  coast,  while  salmon, 
trout  and  eels  are  caught  in  the  Dalmatian  rivers. 

Flora. — The  olive,  almond,  fig,  orange,  palm,  aloe,  myrtle, 
locust-tree  and  other  characteristic  members  of  the  Mediterranean 
flora  thrive  in  the  sheltered  valleys  of  the  Dalmatian  littoral, 
where  almond-blossoms  appear  in  mid-winter,  and  the  palm 
occasionally  bears  ripe  fruit.  The  marasca,  or  wild  cherry,  is 
abundant,  and  yields  the  celebrated  liqueur  called  maraschino. 
But  at  a  little  distance  from  the  rivers  and  on  the  more  exposed 
parts  of  the  coast  the  aspect  of  the  country  changes  entirely. 
Patches  of  thin  grass,  heather,  juniper,  thyme,  tamarisks  and 
mountain  roses  hardly  relieve  the  bareness  and  aridity  of  the 
seaward  slopes. 

Forests. — Oaks,  pines  and  beeches  still,  in  a  few  parts,  clothe 
the  landward  slopes,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  forests  for  which  Dalmatia 
was  once  famous  were  cut  down  for  the  Venetian  shipyards 
or  burned  by  pirates;  while  every  attempt  at  replanting  is 
frustrated  by  the  shallowness  of  the  soil,  the  drought  and  the 
multitude  of  goats  that  browse  on  the  young  trees. 

Agriculture. — Little  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  whole  surface 
is  under  the  plough;  the  rest,  where  it  is  not  altogether  sterile, 
being  chiefly  mountain  pasture,  vineyards  and  garden  land. 
Asses  are  the  favourite  beasts  of  burden;  goats  are  strikingly 
numerous;  and  sheep  are  kept  for  the  sake  of  their  mutton, 
which  is  almost  the  only  animal  food  freely  consumed  by  the 
peasantry.  Cattle-breeding,  bee-keeping,  and  the  cultivation 
of  fruit  and  vegetables,  especially  potatoes  and  beetroot,  are 
among  the  principal  resources  of  the  people,  while  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  oats,  Indian  corn,  hemp  and  millet  are  also  grown. 
Viticulture  is  carried  on  with  great  and  increasing  success  (see 
WINE). 

Land-tenure. — Individual  proprietorship  of  the  soil  is  rare, 
for,  despite  the  decadence  of  the  zadruga  or  household  com- 
munity, the  tenure  of  land  and  the  privilege  of  using  the  com- 
munal domain  still  appertain  to  the  family  as  a  whole.  There 
are  a  few  large  estates,  but  most  of  the  land  is  parcelled  out  in 
small  holdings. 

Industries. — Besides  fishing,  farming  and  such  allied  trades  as 
ship-building,  wine  and  oil  pressing,  and  the  distillation  of 
spirits,  notably  maraschino,  a  few  other  industries  are  practised, 
such  as  tile-burning  and  the  manufacture  of  soap;  but  these  are 
of  minor  importance.  Certain  crafts  are  also  carried  on  by  the 
country-folk,  in  their  own  homes;  thus  the  peasant  is  sometimes 
his  own  mason,  carpenter,  weaver  and  miller.  Manufactured 
goods  and  foodstuffs  are  imported,  in  return  for  asphalt,  lignite, 
bay  salt,  wine,  spirits,  oil,  honey,  wax  and  hides;  and  there  is 
a  lucrative  transit  trade  with  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Monte- 
negro, Turkey  and  various  Adriatic  and  Mediterranean  ports. 

Communications. — Communications  are  defective,  some  parts 
of  the  interior  being  only  accessible  by  the  roughest  of  mountain 
roads.  The  principal  railway,  in  point  of  size,  traverses  the 
central  districts,  linking  together  Knin,  Spalato,  Sebenico  and 
Sinj ;  but  the  southern  lines,  which  unite  Dalmatia  with  Herze- 
govina and  terminate  at  Ragusa,  Metkovic  and  Castlemiovo 
on  the  Bocche  di  Cattaro,  are  almost  of  equal  importance, 
Cattaro  being  one  of  the  chief  outlets  for  Montenegrin  commerce, 
while  the  vessels  which  steam  up  the  Narenta  to  Metkovic  carry 
the  bulk  of  the  sea-borne  trade  of  Herzegovina.  In  1897 
Dalmatia  possessed  151  post  and  98  telegraph  offices. 

Chief  Towns. — The  chief  towns  are  Zara,  the  capital,  with 
32,506'  inhabitants  in  1900,  Spalato  (27,198),  Sebenico  (24,751), 
Trau  (17,064),  Ragusa  (13,174),  Macarsca  (11,016),  and 
Cattaro  (5418).  All  these  are  described  under  separate  headings. 

Population  and  National  Characteristics. — With  a  constant 
excess  of  male  over  female  children,  the  population  increased 
steadily  from  1869  to  1900,  when  it  reached  591,597.  Of  this 
total  i  %  are  foreigners  and  about  3  %  Italians,  whose  numbers 

1  These  figures,  taken  from  the  Austrian  official  returns,  include 
the  population  of  the  entire  commune,  not  merely  the  urban  resi- 
dents. Only  in  Zara,  Spalato,  Sebenico  and  Ragusa,  do  the  actual 
townsfolk  number  more  than  1000. 


tend  slowly  to  diminish.  The  Morlachs,  who  constitute  the 
remaining  96%,  belong  to  the  Serbo-Croatian  branch  of  the 
Slavonic  race,  having  absorbed  the  Latinized  Illyrians,  Albanians 
and  other  alien  elements  with  which  they  have  been  associated. 
The  name  of  Morlachs,  Morlaks  or  Morlacks  commonly  bestowed 
by  English  writers  on  the  Dalmatian  Slavs,  though  sometimes 
restricted  to  the  peasantry  of  the  hills,  is  an  abbreviated  form 
of  Mavrovlachi,  meaning  either  "  Black  Vlachs,"  or,  less  probably, 
"  Sea  Vlachs."  It  was  originally  applied  to  the  scattered 
remnants  of  the  Latin  or  Latinized  inhabitants  of  central  Illyria, 
who  were  driven  from  their  homes  by  the  barbarian  invaders 
during  the  7th  century,  and  took  refuge  among  the  mountains. 
Throughout  the  middle  ages  the  Mavrovlachi  were  usually 
nomadic  shepherds,  cattle-drovers  or  muleteers.  In  the  i4th 
century  they  emigrated  from  central  Illyria  into  northern 
Dalmatia  and  maritime  Croatia;  and  these  regions  were  thence- 
forward known  as  Morlacchia,  until  the  1 8th  century.  Gradually, 
however,  the  Mavrovlachi  became  identified  with  the  Slavs, 
whose  language  and  manners  they  adopted,  and  to  whom  they 
gave  their  own  name.  In  northern  Dalmatia  the  Slavs  of  the 
interior  are  still  called  Morlacchi',  in  the  south  this  name  ex- 
presses contempt.  Of  the  Vlachs,  properly  so  called,  very  few 
are  left  in  the  country;  although  the  name  Vlachs  (<?.».)  is 
frequently  used  by  the  Slavs  to  designate  the  Italians  and  the 
town-dwellers  generally.  The  literary  languages  of  Dalmatia 
are  Italian  and  Serbo-Croatian;  the  spoken  language  is,  in 
each  case,  modified  by  the  introduction  of  various  dialect  forms. 

The  Morlachs  wear  a  picturesque  and  brightly-coloured 
costume,  resembling  that  of  the  Serbs  (see  SERVIA).  In  appear- 
ance they  are  sometimes  blond,  with  blue  or  grey  eyes,  like 
the  Shumadian  peasantry  of  Servia;  more  often,  olive-skinned, 
with  dark  hair  and  eyes,  like  the  Montenegrins,  whom  they  rival 
in  stature,  strength  and  courage;  while  their  conservative 
spirit,  their  devotion  to  national  traditions,  poetry  and  music, 
their  pride,  indolence  and  superstition,  are  typically  Servian. 
Dalmatian  public  life  is  deeply  affected  by  the  jealousies  which 
subsist  between  the  Slavs  and  the  Italians,  whose  influence, 
though  everywhere  waning,  remains  predominant  in  some  of  the 
towns;  and  between  Orthodox  "  Serbs,"  who  use  the  Cyrillic 
alphabet,  and  Roman  Catholic  "  Croats,"  who  prefer  the  Latin. 

Government. — Dalmatia  occupies  a  somewhat  anomalous 
position  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  state  system.  Itself  a  crown- 
land  of  Austria,  returning  eleven  members  to  the  Austrian 
parliament,  it  is  severed  geographically  from  the  other  Austrian 
lands  by  the  Hungarian  kingdom  of  Croatia.  Ethnologically 
it  is  one  with  Croatia,  and  it  is  included  in  the  official  title  of 
the  Croatian  king,  i.e.  the  emperor.  The  political  system  is 
based  on  a  law  of  the  26th  of  February  1861.  The  provincial 
diet  is  composed  of  43  members,  comprising  the  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop,  the  Orthodox  bishop  of  Zara  and  representatives 
of  the  chief  taxpayers,  the  towns  and  the  communes.  Benkovac, 
on  the  main  road  from  Zara  to  Spalato,  Cattaro,  Curzola,  Imotski, 
21  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Macarsca,  Knin,  Lesina,  Macarsca,  Ragusa, 
Sebenico,  Sinj,  Spalato  and  Zara,  give  names  to  the  twelve 
administrative  districts,  of  which  they  are  the  capitals. 

Defence. — Conscription  is  in  force,  as  elsewhere  in  Austria, 
and  the  Dalmatian  coast  furnishes  the  Austrian — as  formerly 
the  Venetian — navy  with  many  of  its  best  recruits. 

Religion. — Roman  Catholicism  is  the  religion  of  more  than 
80%  of  the  population,  the  remainder  belonging  chiefly  to  the 
Orthodox  Church.  The  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  has  his  seat 
in  Zara,  while  Cattaro,  Lesina,  Ragusa,  Sebenico  and  Spalato  are 
bishoprics.  At  the  head  of  the  Orthodox  community  stands 
the  bishop  of  Zara. 

The  use  of  Slavonic  liturgies  written  in  the  Glagolitic  alphabet, 
a  very  ancient  privilege  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Dalmatia 
and  Croatia,  caused  much  controversy  during  the  first  years  of 
the  2oth  century.  There  was  considerable  danger  that  the  Latin 
liturgies  would  be  altogether  superseded  by  the  Glagolitic, 
especially  among  the  northern  islands  and  in  rural  communes, 
where  the  Slavonic  element  is  all-powerful.  In  1904  the  Vatican 
forbade  the  use  of  Glagolitic  at  the  festival  of  SS.  Cyril  and 


774 


DALMATIA 


Methodius,  as  likely  to  impair  the  unity  of  Catholicism.  A 
few  years  previously  the  Slavonic  archbishop  Rajcevi6  of  Zara, 
in  discussing  the  "  Glagolitic  controversy,"  had  denounced  the 
movement  as  "  an  innovation  introduced  by  Panslavism  to 
make  it  easy  for  the  Catholic  clergy,  after  any  great  revolution 
in  the  Balkan  States,  to  break  with  Latin  Rome."  This  view 
is  shared  by  very  many,  perhaps  by  the  majority,  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  Dalmatia. 

Education. — Education  progressed  slowly  between  1860  and 
1000,  attendance  at  school  being  often  a  hardship  in  the  poor  and 
widely  scattered  hamlets  of  the  interior.  In  1800  more  than 
80%  of  the  population  could  neither  read  nor  write,  although 
schools  are  maintained  by  every  commune.  In  1893  the  country 
possessed  5  intermediate  and  337  elementary  schools,  6  theo- 
logical seminaries,  6  gymnasia,  and  about  40  continuation  and 
technical  schools. 

Antiquities. — To  the  foreign  visitor  Dalmatia  is  chiefly 
interesting  as  a  treasury  of  art  and  antiquities.  The  grave- 
mounds  of  Curzola,  Lesina  and  Sabbioncello  have  yielded  a  few 
relics  of  prehistoric  man,  and  the  memory  of  the  early  Celtic 
conquerors  and  Greek  settlers  is  preserved  only  in  a  few  place- 
names;  but  the  monuments  left  by  the  Romans  are  numerous 
and  precious.  They  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  cities;  for  the 
civilization  of  the  country  was  always  urban,  just  as  its  history 
is  a  record  of  isolated  city-states  rather  than  of  a  united  nation. 
Beyond  the  walls  of  its  larger  towns,  little  was  spared  by  the 
barbarian  Goths,  Avars  and  Slavs;  and  the  battered  fragments 
of  Roman  work  which  mark  the  sites  of  Salona,  near  Spalato, 
and  of  many  other  ancient  cities,  are  of  slight  antiquarian  interest 
and  slighter  artistic  value.  Among  the  monuments  of  the  Roman 
period,  by  far  the  most  noteworthy  in  Dalmatia,  and,  indeed, 
in  the  whole  Balkan  Peninsula,  is  the  Palace  of  Diocletian  at 
Spalato  (?.».).  Dalmatian  architecture  was  Byzantine  in  its 
general  character  from  the  6th  century  until  the  close  of  the  loth. 
The  oldest  memorials  of  this  period  are  the  vestiges  of  three 
basilicas,  excavated  in  Salona,  and  dating  from  the  first  half  of 
the  7th  century  at  latest.  Byzantine  art,  in  the  latter  half  of 
this  period  and  the  two  succeeding  centuries,  continued  to 
flourish  in  those  cities  which,  like  Zara,  gave  their  allegiance  to 
Venice;  just  as,  in  the  architecture  of  Trau  and  other  cities 
dominated  by  Hungary,  there  are  distinct  traces  of  German 
influence.  The  belfry  of  S.  Maria,  at  Zara,  erected  in  1105,  is 
first  in  a  long  list  of  Romanesque  buildings.  At  Arbe  there  is 
a  beautiful  Romanesque  campanile  which  also  belongs  to  the 
1 2th  century;  but  the  finest  example  in  this  style  is  the  cathedral 
of  Trau.  The  i4th  century  Dominican  and  Franciscan  convents 
in  Ragusa  are  also  noteworthy.  Romanesque  lingered  on  in 
Dalmatia  until  it  was  displaced  by  Venetian  Gothic  in  the  early 
years  of  the  i$th  century.  The  influence  of  Venice  was  then 
at  its  height.  Even  in  the  hostile  republic  of  Ragusa  the 
Romanesque  of  the  custom-house  and  Rectors'  palace  is  com- 
bined with  Venetian  Gothic,  while  the  graceful  balconies  and 
ogee  windows  of  the  Prijeki  closely  follow  their  Venetian  models. 
Gothic,  however,  which  had  been  adopted  very  late,  was  aban- 
doned very  early;  for  in  1441  Giorgio  Orsini  of  Zara,  summoned 
from  Venice  to  design  the  cathedral  of  Sebenico,  brought  with 
him  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  new  forms 
which  he  introduced  were  eagerly  imitated  and  developed  by 
other  architects,  until  the  period  of  decadence — which  virtually 
concludes  the  history  of  Dalmatian  art — set  in  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  i7th  century.  Special  mention  must  be  made  of  the 
carved  woodwork,  embroideries  and  plate  preserved  in  many 
churches.  The  silver  statuette  and  the  reliquary  of  St  Biagio  at 
Ragusa,  and  the  silver  ark  of  St  Simeon  at  Zara,  are  fine  speci- 
mens of  Byzantine  and  Italian  jewellers'  work,  ranging  in  date 
from  the  i  ith  or  1 2th  to  the  1 7th century. 

HISTORY 

Dalmalia  under  Roman  Rule,  A.D.  0-1102. — The  history  of 
Dalmatia  may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  year  180  B.C.,  when  the 
tribe  from  which  the  country  derives  its  name  declared  itself 
independent  of  Gentius,  the  Illyrian  king,  and  established  a 


republic.  Its  capital  was  Delminium1;  its  territory  stretched 
northwards  from  the  Narenta  to  the  Cetina,  and  later  to  the 
Kerka,  where  it  met  the  confines  of  Liburnia.  In  156  B.C.  the 
Dalmatians  were  for  the  first  time  attacked  by  a  Roman  army 
and  compelled  to  pay  tribute;  but  only  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
(31  B.C.-A.D.  14)  was  their  land  finally  annexed,  after  the  last 
of  many  formidable  revolts  had  been  crushed  by  Tiberius  in 
A.D.  9.  This  event  was  followed  by  total  submission  and  a 
ready  acceptance  of  the  Latin  civilization  which  overspread 
Illyria  (<?.».).  The  downfall  of  the  Western  Empire  left  this 
region  subject  to  Gothic  rulers,  Odoacer  and  Theodoric,  from 
476  to  53  5,  when  it  was  added  by  Justinian  to  the  Eastern  Empire. 
The  great  Slavonic  migration  into  Illyria,  which  wrought  a 
complete  change  in  the  fortunes  of  Dalmatia,  took  place  in  the 
first  half  of  the  7th  century.  In  other  parts  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  these  invaders — Serbs,  Croats  or  Bulgars — found  little 
difficulty  in  expelling  or  absorbing  the  native  population.  But 
here  they  were  baffled  when  confronted  by  the  powerful  maritime 
city-states,  highly  civilized,  and  able  to  rely  on  the  moral  if  not 
the  material  support  of  their  kinsfolk  in  Italy.  Consequently, 
while  the  country  districts  were  settled  by  the  Slavs,  the  Latin  or 
Italian  population  flocked  for  safety  to  Ragusa,  Zara  and  other 
large  towns,  and  the  whole  country  was  thus  divided  between 
two  frequently  hostile  communities.  This  opposition  was  in- 
tensified by  the  schism  between  Eastern  and  Western  Chris- 
tianity (1054),  the  Slavs  as  a  rule  preferring  the  Orthodox  or 
sometimes  the  Bogomil  creed,  while  the  Italians  were  firmly . 
attached  to  the  Papacy.  Not  until  the  isth  century  did  the 
rival  races  contribute  to  a  common  civilization  in  the  literature 
of  Ragusa.  To  such  a  division  of  population  may  be  attributed 
the  two  dominant  characteristics  of  local  history — the  total 
absence  of  national  as  distinguished  from  civic  life,  and  the 
remarkable  development  of  art,  science  and  literature.  Bosnia, 
Servia  and  Bulgaria  had  each  its  period  of  national  greatness, 
but  remained  intellectually  backward;  Dalmatia  failed  ever  to 
attain  political  or  racial  unity,  but  the  Dalmatian  city-states, 
isolated  and  compelled  to  look  to  Italy  for  support,  shared 
perforce  in  the  march  of  Italian  civilization.  Their  geographical 
position  suffices  to  explain  the  relatively  small  influence  exercised 
by  Byzantine  culture  throughout  the  six  centuries  (535-1102) 
during  which  Dalmatia  was  part  of  the  Eastern  empire.  Towards 
the  close  of  this  period  Byzantine  rule  tended  more  and  more  to 
become  merely  nominal.  In  806  Dalmatia  was  added  to  the 
Holy  Roman  empire,  but  was  soon  restored;  in  829  the  coast  was 
ravaged  by  Saracens.  A  strange  republic  of  Servian  pirates  arose 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Narenta.  In  the  loth  century  description  of 
Dalmatia  by  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (De  Administrando 
Imperio,  29-37),  this  region  is  called  Pagania,  from  the  fact  that 
its  inhabitants  had  only  accepted  Christianity  about  890,  or  250 
years  later  than  the  other  Slavs.  These  Pdgani,  or  Arentani 
(Narentines) ,  utterly  defeated  a  Venetian  fleet  despatched  against 
them  in  887,  and  for  more  than  a  century  exacted  tribute  from 
Venice  itself.  In  998  they  were  finally  crushed  by  the  doge 
Pietro  Orseolo  II.,  who  assumed  the  title  duke  of  Dalmatia, 
though  without  prejudice  to  Byzantine  suzerainty.  Meanwhile 
the  Croatian  kings  had  extended  their  rule  over  northern  and 
central  Dalmatia,  exacting  tribute  from  the  Italian  cities,  Trau, 
Zara  and  others,  and  consolidating  their  own  power  in  the  purely 
Slavonic  towns,  such  as  Nona  or  Belgrad  (Zaravecchia).  The 
Church  was  involved  in  the  general  confusion;  for  the  synod  of 
Spalato,  in  1059,  had  forbidden  the  use  of  any  but  Greek  or  Latin 
liturgies,  and  so  had  accentuated  the  differences  between  Latin 
and  Slav.  A  raid  of  Norman  corsairs  in  1073  was  hardly  defeated 
with  the  help  of  a  Venetian  fleet. 

1  Also  written  Dalminium,  Deminium,  and  Delmis.  Thomas  of 
Spalato  (c.  1200-1250)  mentions  that  the  site  of  Delminium  had  been 
forgotten  in  his  time,  although  certain  ancient  walls  among  the 
mountains  were  believed  to  be  its  ruins.  It  has  been  variously 
identified,  by  modern  archaeologists,  with  Almissa,  on  the  coast, 
Dalen,  in  the  Herzegovina,  Duvno,  near  Sinj.'and  Gardun,  in  the 
same  locality.  It  was  evidently  a  stronghold  of  considerable  size 
and  importance,  and  Appian  (De  bellis  Illyricis)  alludes  to  its  almost 
impregnable  fortifications. 


DALMATIA 


775 


Rivalry  of  Venice  and  Hungary  in  Dalmatia,  1102-1420. — 
Unable  amid  such  dissensions  to  stand  alone,  unprotected  by  the 
Eastern  empire  and  hindered  by  their  internal  dissensions  from 
uniting  in  a  defensive  league,  the  city-states  turned  to  Venice 
and  Hungary  for  support.  The  Venetians,  to  whom  they  were 
already  bound  by  race,  language  and  culture,  could  afford  to 
concede  liberal  terms  because  their  own  principal  aims  was  not 
the  territorial  aggrandizement  sought  by  Hungary,  but  only  such 
a  supremacy  as  might  prevent  the  development  of  any  dangerous 
political  or  commercial  competitor  on  the  eastern  Adriatic. 
Hungary  had  also  its  partisans;  for  in  the  Dalmatian  city- 
states,  like  those  of  Greece  and  Italy,  there  were  almost  invariably 
two  jealous  political  factions,  each  ready  to  oppose  any  measure 
advocated  by  its  antagonist.  The  origin  of  this  division  seems 
here  to  have  been  economic.  The  farmers  and  the  merchants 
who  traded  in  the  interior  naturally  favoured  Hungary,  their 
most  powerful  neighbour  on  land;  while  the  seafaring  com- 
munity looked  to  Venice  as  mistress  of  the  Adriatic.  In  return 
for  protection,  the  cities  often  furnished  a  contingent  to  the 
army  or  navy  of  their  suzerain,  and  sometimes  paid  tribute 
either  in  money  or  in  kind.  Arbe,  for  example,  annually  paid 
ten  pounds  of  silk  or  five  pounds  of  gold  to  Venice.  The  citizens 
clung  to  their  municipal  privileges,  which  were  reaffirmed  after 
the  conquest  of  Dalmatia  in  1 102-1 105  by  Coloman  of  Hungary. 
Subject  to  the  royal  assent  they  might  elect  their  own  chief 
magistrate,  bishop  and  judges.  Their  Roman  law  remained 
valid.  They  were  even  permitted  to  conclude  separate  alliances. 
No  alien,  not  even  a  Hungarian,  could  reside  in  a  city  where  he 
was  unwelcome;  and  the  man  who  disliked  Hungarian  dominion 
could  emigrate  with  all  his  household  and  property.  In  lieu  of 
tribute,  the  revenue  from  customs  was  in  some  cases  shared 
equally  by  the  king,  chief  magistrate,  bishop  and  municipality. 
These  rights  and  the  analogous  privileges  granted  by  Venice 
were,  however,  too  frequently  infringed,  Hungarian  garrisons 
being  quartered  on  unwilling  towns,  while  Venice  interfered 
with  trade,  with  the  appointment  of  bishops,  or  with  the  tenure 
of  communal  domains.  Consequently  the  Dalmatians  remained 
loyal  only  while  it  suited  their  interests,  and  insurrections 
frequently  occurred.  Even  in  Zara  four  outbreaks  are  recorded 
between  1180  and  1345,  although  Zara  was  treated  with  special 
consideration  by  its  Venetian  masters,  who  regarded  its  posses- 
sion as  essential  to  their  maritime  ascendancy.  The  doubtful 
allegiance  of  the  Dalmatians  tended  to  protract  the  struggle 
between  Venice  and  Hungary,  which  was  further  complicated  by 
internal  discord  due  largely  to  the  spread  of  the  Bogomil  heresy ; 
and  by  many  outside  influences,  such  as  the  vague  suzerainty 
still  enjoyed  by  the  Eastern  emperors  during  the  i2th  century; 
the  assistance  rendered  to  Venice  by  the  armies  of  the  Fourth 
Crusade  in  1 202 ;  and  the  Tartar  invasion  of  Dalmatia  forty  years 
later  (see  TRAU).  The  Slavs  were  no  longer  regarded  as  a 
hostile  race,  but  the  power  of  certain  Croatian  magnates,  notably 
the  counts  of  Bribir,  was  from  time  to  time  supreme  in  the 
northern  districts  (see  CROATIA-SLAVONIA)  ;  and  Stephen 
Tvrtko,  the  founder  of  the  Bosnian  kingdom,  was  able  in  1389 
to  annex  the  whole  Adriatic  littoral  between  Cattaro  and  Fiume, 
except  Venetian  Zara  and  his  own  independent  ally,  Ragusa  (see 
BOSNIA  AND  HERZEGOVINA).  Finally,  the  rapid  decline  of  Bosnia, 
and  of  Hungary  itself  when  assailed  by  the  Turks,  rendered  easy 
the  success  of  Venice;  and  in  1420  the  whole  of  Dalmatia,  except 
Almissa,  which  yielded  in  1444,  and  Ragusa,  which  preserved 
its  freedom,  either  submitted  or  was  conquered.  Many  cities 
welcomed  the  change  with  its  promise  of  tranquillity. 

Venetian  and  Turkish  Rule,  1420-1797. — An  interval  of  peace 
ensued,  but  meanwhile  the  Turkish  advance  continued.  Con- 
stantinople fell  in  1453,  Servia  in  1459,  Bosnia  in  1463  and 
Herzegovina  in  1483.  Thus  the  Venetian  and  Ottoman  frontiers 
met;  border  wars  were  incessant;  Ragusa  sought  safety  in 
friendship  with  the  invaders.  In  1508  the  hostile  league  of 
Cambrai  compelled  Venice  to  withdraw  its  garrison  for  home 
service,  and  after  the  overthrow  of  Hungary  at  Mohacs  in  1526 
the  Turks  were  able  easily  to  conquer  the  greater  part  of  Dal- 
matia. The  peace  of  1540  left  only  the  maritime  cities  to 


Venice,  the  interior  forming  a  Turkish  province,  governed  from 
the  fortress  of  Clissa  by  a  Sanjakbeg,  or  administrator  with 
military  powers.  Christian  Slavs  from  the  neighbouring  lands 
now  thronged  to  the  towns,  outnumbering  the  Italian  population 
and  introducing  their  own  language,  but  falling  under  the 
influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  pirate  community 
of  the  Uskoks  (q.v.)  had  originally  been  a  band  of  these  fugitives; 
its  exploits  contributed  to  a  renewal  of  war  between  Venice  and 
Turkey  (1571-1573).  An  extremely  curious  picture  of  con- 
temporary manners  is  presented  by  the  Venetian  agents,1  whose 
reports  on  this  war  resemble  some  knightly  chronicle  of  the 
middle  ages,  full  of  single  combats,  tournaments  and  other 
chivalrous  adventures.  They  also  show  clearly  that  the  Dal- 
matian levies  far  surpassed  the  Italian  mercenaries  in  sit  ill  and 
courage.  Many  of  these  troops  served  abroad;  at  Lepanto,  for 
example,  in  1571,  a  Dalmatian  squadron  assisted  the  allied  fleets 
of  Spain,  Venice,  Austria  and  the  Papal  States  to  crush  the 
Turkish  navy.  A  fresh  war  broke  out  in  1645,  lasting  inter- 
mittently until  1699,  when  the  peace  of  Carlowitz  gave  the 
whole  of  Dalmatia  to  Venice,  including  the  coast  of  Herzegovina, 
but  excluding  the  domains  of  Ragusa  and  the  protecting  band  of 
Ottoman  territory  which  surrounded  them.  After  further  fight- 
ing this  delimitation  was  confirmed  in  1718  by  the  treaty  of 
Passarowitz;  and  it  remains  valid,  though  modified  by  the 
destruction  of  Ragusan  liberty  and  the  substitution  of  Austria- 
Hungary  for  Venice  and  Turkey. 

The  intellectual  life  of  Dalmatia  during  the  isth,  i6th  and 
1 7th  centuries  reached  a  higher  level  than  any  attained  by  the 
purely  Slavonic  peoples  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  Its  chief 
monuments  are  described  elsewhere, — the  work  of  the  Ragusan 
poets  and  historians  as  a  part  of  Servian  literature,  the  scientific 
achievements  of  R.  G.  Boscovich  and  Marcantonio  de  Dominis 
in  separate  biographies.  Architecture  and  art  generally  have 
been  discussed  above.  But  this  intellectual  development  was 
the  work  of  a  small  and  opulent  minority  in  all  the  cities  except 
Ragusa.  Popular  education  was  neglected;  Zara  had  no 
printing-press  until  1796;  Venetian  Dalmatia  possessed  only 
one  public  school,  and  that  an  ecclesiastical  seminary;  and 
even  the  sons  of  the  rich,  though  free  to  visit  the  universities 
of  Italy,  France,  Holland  and  England,  ran  the  risk  of  exile  or 
worse  punishment  if  they  brought  home  too  liberal  a  culture. 
Poorer  students  learned  what  they  could  from  the  clergy,  and  the 
peasantry  were  wholly  illiterate.  Although  the  secular  power  of 
the  Church  was  strictly  limited,  the  country  was  overrun  by 
ecclesiastics.  When  Fortis  visited  the  island  of  Arbe  in  the 
1 8th  century,  he  found  a  population  of  3000,  mostly  fishermen, 
contributing  to  the  stipends  of  sixty  priests.  There  were  also 
three  monasteries  and  three  nunneries.  Heavy  taxes,  the  salt 
monopoly,  reckless  destruction  of  timber,  and  a  deliberate 
attempt  to  ruin  the  oil  and  silk  industries,  were  among  the  means 
by  which  Venice  prevented  competition  with  its  own  trade. 
Although  justice  was  fairly  well  administered  and  some  show 
of  municipal  autonomy  conceded,  the  right  of  electing  a  chief 
magistrate  had  been  withheld  after  1420;  and  the  Grand  Council 
or  Senate  of  each  city,  losing  its  original  democratic  character, 
had  degenerated  into  a  mere  tool  of  the  resident  Venetian  agents 
(provueditori) ,  officials  who  held  their  post  for  thirty-two  months 
and  were  subject  to  little  effective  control.  Nevertheless,  150 
years  of  war  against  the  common  Turkish  enemy  had  drawn  the 
Venetians  and  their  subjects  closely  together,  and  the  loyalty  of 
the  Dalmatian  soldiers  and  sailors  abroad,  if  not  of  their  fellow- 
citizens  at  home,  rests  beyond  doubt. 

Dalmatia  after  1797. — After  the  fall  of  the  Venetian  republic 
in  1797,  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formic  gave  Dalmatia  to  Austria. 
The  republics  of  Ragusa  and  Poglizza  retained  their  independ- 
ence, and  Ragusa  grew  rich  by  its  neutrality  during  the  earlier 
Napoleonic  wars.  By  the  peace  of  Pressburg  in  1805  the  country 
was  handed  over  to  France,  but  its  occupation  was  ineffectually 
contested  by  a  Russian  force  which  seized  the  Bocche  di  Cattaro 
and  induced  the  Montenegrins  to  render  aid.  Poglizza  was 

1  Long  extracts  from  these  reports  or  diaries  are  published  by 
Wilkinson,  Dalmatia  and  Montenegro  (London,  1840),  u.  297-350. 


DALMATIC 


deprived  of  its  independence  by  Napoleon  in  1807,  Ragusa 
in  1808.  In  1809  the  French  troops  were  withdrawn,  but  in 
the  same  year  Dalmatia  was  restored  to  France  and  united  to 
the  Illyrian  kingdom  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna.  A  British  naval 
force  under  Captain  Hoste,  after  a  successful  engagement  with 
a  small  French  squadron  off  Lissa,  occupied  the  islands  of 
Curzola,  Lesina  and  Lagosta  from  1812  to  1815,  and  established 
a  considerable  overland  trade  through  Dalmatia,  Austria  and 
Germany.  The  allied  British  and  Austrian  forces  drove  out 
the  last  French  garrison  in  1814,  and  in  1815  Dalmatia  was 
finally  incorporated  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  with  which 
its  history  has  since  been  identified.  Its  subsequent  tran- 
quillity has  only  been  disturbed  by  the  ineffectual  risings  of 
1869  and  1881-1882,  which  took  place  near  Cattaro  (q.v.).  For 
an  account  of  the  development  of  Croatian  nationalism  among 
the  Dalmatians,  during  the  igih  and  2oth  centuries,  see  CROATIA- 
SLAVONIA. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A  minute  and  accurate  account  of  Dalmatian 
history,  art  (especially  architecture),  antiquities  and  topography,  is 
given  by  T.  G.  Jackson,  in  Dalmatia,  the  Quarnero  and  Istria  (Oxford, 
1887),  (3  vols.  illustrated).  E.  A.  Freeman,  Subject  and  Neighbour 
Lands  of  Venice  (London,  1881),  and  G.  Modrich,  La  Dalmazia 
(Turin,  1892),  describe  the  chief  towns,  their  history  and  antiquities. 
Much  miscellaneous  information  is  contained  in  the  following  mainly 
topographical  works: — P.  Bauron,  Les  Rives  illyriennes  (Paris, 
1888);  Sir  A.  A.  Paton,  Highlands  and  Islands  of  the  Adriatic 
(London,  1849);  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  Dalmatia  and  Montenegro 
(London,  1840);  A.  Fprtis,  Travels  into  Dalmatia  (London,  1778); 
and  the  periodicals,  Rivista  Dalmatica  (Zara,  1899,  &c.),  and  Annu- 
ario  Dalmatico  (Zara,  1884,  &c.).  The  best  maps  are  those  of  the 
Austrian  General  Staff  and  Vincenzo  de  Haardt's  Zemljovid  Kral- 
jevine  Dalmacije  (Zara.,  1892).  See  also  for  trade,  the  Annual  British 
Consular  Reports;  for  sport,  "  Snaffle,"  In  the  Land  of  the  Bora 
(London,  1897);  for  Roman  and  pre-Roman  antiquities,  R.  Munro, 
Bosnia-Herzegovina  and  Dalmatia  (Edinburgh,  1904).  Besides  the 
works  mentioned  above,  and  those  by.'Farlatus,  Makushev,  Miklosich, 
Theiner,  Shafarik,  Orbini  and  du  Cange,  which  are  quoted  under 
BOSNIA  AND  HERZEGOVINA,  the  chief  authority  for  Dalmatian 
history  is  G.  Lucio  (Lucius  of  Trail),  De  regno  Dalmatiae  et  Croatiae, 
a  genlis  origine  ad  annum  14.80  (Amsterdam,  1666).  To  this  edition 
are  appended  the  works  of  the  Presbyter  Diocleas,  Thomas  of 
Spalato  and  other  native  chroniclers  from  the  I2th  century  onwards. 
An  Italian  translation,  omitting  the  appendix,  was  published  at 
Trieste  in  1892,  entitled  Storia  del  Regno  di  Dalmatia  e  di  Croazia, 
and  edited  by  Luigi  Cesare.  Ludo's  work  is  singularly  trustworthy 
and  scientific.  See  also  P.  Pisani,  La  Dalmatie  de  1707  a  1815  (Paris, 
1893).  (K.  G.  J.) 

DALMATIC  (Lat.  dalmatica,  tunica  dalmatica),  a  liturgical 
vestment  of  the  Western  Church,  proper  to  deacons,  as  the 
tunicle  (tunicella)  is  to  subdeacons.  Dalmatic  and  tunicle  are 
now,  however,  practically  identical  in  shape  and  size;  though, 
strictly,  the  latter  should  be  somewhat  smaller  and  with  narrower 
arms.  In  most  countries,  e.g.  England,  France,  Spain  and 
Germany,  dalmatic  and  tunicle  are  now  no  longer  tunics,  but 
scapular-like  cloaks,  with  an  opening  for  the  head  to  pass  through 
and  square  lappets  falling  from  the  shoulder  over  the  upper 
part  of  the  arm;  in  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  though  open  up 
the  side,  they  still  have  regular  sleeves  and  are  essentially  tunics. 
The  most  characteristic  ornament  of  the  dalmatic  and  tunicle 
is  the  vertical  stripes  running  from  the  shoulder  to  the  lower 
hem,  these  being  connected  by  a  cross-band,  the  position  of 
which  differs  in  various  countries  (see  figs.  3,  4).  Less  essential 
are  the  orphreys  on  the  hem  of  the  arms  and  the  fringes  along 
the  slits  at  the  sides  and  the  lower  hem.  The  tassels  hanging 
from  either  shoulder  at  the  back  (see  fig.  6),  formerly  very 
much  favoured,  have  now  largely  gone  out  of  use. 

The  dalmatica,  which  originated — as  its  name  implies — in 
Dalmatia,  came  into  fashion  in  the  Roman  world  in  the  2nd 
century  A.D.  It  was  a  loose  tunic  with  very  wide  sleeves,  and 
was  worn  over  the  tunica  alba  by  the  better  class  of  citizens 
(see.  fig.  2).  According  to  the  Liber  pontificalis  (ed.  Duchesne, 
1.  171)  the  dalmatic  was  first  introduced  as  a  vestment  in  public 
worship  by  Pope  Silvester  I.  (314-335),  who  ordered  it  to  be 
worn  by  the  deacons;  but  Braun  (Liturg.  Gewandung,  p.  250) 
thinks  that  it  was  probably  in  use  by  the  popes  themselves  so 
early  as  the  3rd  century,  since  St  Cyprian  (d.  258)  is  mentioned 
as  wearing  it  when  he  went  to  his  death.  If  this  be  so,  it  was 
probably  given  to  the  Roman  deacons  to  distinguish  them 


from  the  other  clergy  and  to  mark  their  special  relations  to 
the  pope.  However  this  may  be,  the  dalmatic  remained  for 
centuries  the  vestment  distinctive  of  the  pope  and  his  deacons. 
and  —  according  at  least  to  the  view  held  at  Rome  —  could  be 
worn  by  other  clergy  only  by  special  concession  of  the  pope. 
Thus  Pope  Symmachus  (498-514)  granted  the  right  to  wear  it 
to  the  deacons  of  Bishop  Caesarius  of  Aries;  and  so  late  as 
757  Pope  Stephen  II.  gave  permission  to  Fulrad,  abbot  of  St 
Denis,  to  be  assisted  by  six  deacons  at  mass,  and  these  are 
empowered  to  wear  "  the  robe  of  honour  of  the  dalmatic." 
How  far,  however,  this  rule  was  strictly  observed,  and  what  was 
the  relation  of  the  Roman  dalmatic  to  the  diaconal  alba  and 
subdiaconal  tunica,  which  were  in  liturgical  use  in  Gaul  and 
Spain  so  early  as  the  6th  century,  are  moot  points  (see  Braun, 
p.  252).  The  dalmatic  was  in  general  use  at  the  beginning  of  the 
9th  century,  partly  as  a  result  of  the  Carolingian  reforms,  which 
established  the  Roman  model  in  western  Europe;  but  it  con- 
tinued to  be  granted  by  the  popes  to  distinguished  ecclesiastics 
not  otherwise  entitled  to  wear  it,  e.g.  to  abbots  or  to  the  cardinal 
priests  of  important  cathedrals.  So  far  as  the  records  show,  Pope 
John  XIII.  (965-972)  was  the  first  to  bestow  the  right  to  wear 
the  dalmatic  on  an  abbot,  and  Pope  Benedict  VII.  the  first  to 
grant  it  to  a  cardinal  priest  of  a  foreign 
cathedral  (975).  The  present  rule  was 
firmly  established  by  the  nth  century. 
According  to  the  actual  use  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  dalmatic  and  tunicle  are 
worn  by  deacon  and  subdeacon  when 
assisting  at  High  Mass,  and  at  solemn 
processions  and  benedictions.  They  are, 
however,  traditionally  vestments  sym- 
bolical of  joy  (the  bishop  in  placing  the 
dalmatic  .  on  the  newly  ordained  deacon 
says:  —  "  May  the  Lord  clothe  thee  in  the 
tunic  of  joy  and  the  garment  of  rejoic- 
ing "),  and  they  are  therefore  not  worn 
during  seasons  of  fasting  and  penitence  or 
functions  connected  with  these,  the  folded 
chasuble  (paenula  plicata)  being  substi- 
tuted (see  CHASUBLE).  Dalmatic  and  tunicle 
are  never  worn  by  priests,  as  priests,  but 
both  are  worn  by  bishops  under  the 
chasuble  (never  under  the  cope)  and  also 
by  those  prelates,  not  being  bishops,  to 
whom  the  pope  has  conceded  the  right  to 
wear  the  episcopal  vestments. 

In  England  at  the  Reformation  the 
dalmatic  ultimately  shared  the  fate  of  the  chasuble  and  other 
mass  vestments.  It  was,  however,  certainly  one  of  the  "  orna- 
ments of  the  minister  "  in  the  second  year  of  Edward  VI.,  the 
rubric  in  the  office  for  Holy  Communion  directing  the  priest's 
"  helpers  "  to  wear  "  albes  with  lunacies."  In  many  Anglican 
churches  it  has  therefore  been  restored,  as  a  result  of  the 
ritual  revival  of  the  igth  century,  it  being  claimed  that  its  use 
is  obligatory  under  the  "  ornaments  rubric  "  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  (see  VESTMENTS). 

In  the  Eastern  churches  the  only  vestment  that  has  any  true 
analogy  with  the  dalmatic  or  liturgical  upper  tunic  is  the 
sakkos,  the  tunic  worn  by  deacons  and  subdeacons  over  their 
everyday  clothes  being  the  equivalent  of  the  Western  alb  (<?.».). 
The  sakkos,  which,  as  a  liturgical  vestment,  first  appears  in  the 
1  2th  century  as  peculiar  to  patriarchs,  is  now  a  scapular-like 
robe  very  similar  to  the  modern  dalmatic  (see  fig.  5).  Its  origin 
is  almost  certainly  the  richly  embroidered  dalmatic  that  formed 
part  of  the  consular  insignia,  which  under  the  name  of  sakkos 
became  a  robe  of  state  special  to  the  emperors.  It  is  clear,  then, 
that  this  vestment  can  only  have  been  assumed  with  the  emperor's 
permission;  and  Braun  suggests  (p.  305)  that  its  use  was  granted 
to  the  patriarchs,  after  the  completion  of  the  schism  of  East  and 
West,  in  order  "  in  some  sort  to  give  them  the  character,  in 
outward  appearance  as  well,  of  popes  of  the  East."  Its  use  is 
confined  to  the  Greek  rite.  In  the  Greek  and  Greek-Melchite 


amice  and 


DALMATIC 


PLATE  I. 


FIG.  2.  -TUNIC   or    LINKX,  WOVEN    WITH    BANDS   OF   PURPLE   WOOL   EMBROIDERED   WITH    WHITE   FLAX. 
From  the  tombs  at  Akhmim.     Egypto-Roman;  1st  to  4th  century.     (In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


FIG.  3.— BACK   OF  A   DALMATIC   OF   STAMPED   GREEN   WOOLLEN   VELVET:    THE    ORPHREYS   AND    APPARELS 

ARE  OF  EMBROIDERED  SILK  VELVET. 

The  two  figures  on  thf  cross-band  or  apparel  represent  St.  Gregory  the  Great  and  St.  Augustine.  The  shields  of  arms  are  for  the 
dukes  of  Jiilirh  and  Berg,  counts  of  Ravensberg,  and  for  the  electors  of  Bavaria.  Said  to  have  come  from  the  church  of  St.  Severin, 
Cologne.  German  (Cologne);  second  half  of  I5th  century.  (In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  ) 


vn. 


PLATE  II. 


DALMATIC 


FiG.  4.— DALMATIC  OF  WHITE  SATIN  EMBROIDERED  WITH  COLOURED  SILKS  AND  SILVER-GILT  AND  SILVER  THREA1 

Spanish;  early  iyth  century.     (In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


FIG.  5.— GREEK  SAKKOS,  OF  RED  SATIN  EM- 
BROIDERED WITH  SILVER-GILT  AND 
SILVER  THREAD  WITH  SILK. 

It  has  the  names  and  arms  of  two  archbishops.  i8th 
century.  (In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.) 


FIG.  6.— DALMATIC   OF   POPE   PIUS   V. 

An  early  example  of  the  modern  Roman  type.  Roman ;  i6th  century. 
Preserved  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome.  From  a  photograph  taken  by 
Father  J.  Braun  (in  Die  liturgische  Gewandung),  by  permission  of  B.  Herder. 


DALMELLINGTON— DALTON,  JOHN 


churches  it  is  confined  to  the  patriarchs  and  metropolitans; 
in  the  Russian,  Ruthenian  and  Bulgarian  churches  it  is  worn  by 
all  bishops.  Unlike  the  practice  of  the  Latin  church,  it  is  not 
worn  under,  but  has  replaced  the  phelonion  (chasuble). 

A  silk  dalmatic  forms  one  (the  undermost)  of  the  English 
coronation  robes.  Its  use  would  seem  to  have  been  borrowed, 
not  from  the  robes  of  the  Eastern  emperors,  but  from  the 
church,  and  to  symbolize  with  the  other  robes  the  quasi- 
sacerdotal  character  of  the  kingship  (see  CORONATION).  The 
magnificent  so-called  dalmatic  of  Charlemagne,  preserved  at 
Rome  (see  EMBROIDERY),  is  really  a  Greek  sakkos. 

See  Joseph  Braun,  S.J.,  Die  liturgische  Gewandung  (Freiburg  im 
Breisgau,  1907),  pp.  247-305.  For  further  references  and  illustrations 
see  the  article  VESTMENTS.  (W.  A.  P.) 

DALMELLINGTON,  a  village  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  15  m.  S.E. 
of  Ayr  by  a  branch  line,  of  which  it  is  the  terminus,  of  the 
Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  1448.  The 
district  is  rich  in  minerals — coal,  ironstone,  sandstone  and 
limestone.  Though  the  place  is  of  great  antiquity,  the  Roman 
road  running  near  it,  few  remains  of  any  interest  exist.  It  was, 
however,  a  centre  of  activity  in  the  Covenanting  times. 

DALOU,  JULES  (1838-1902),  French  sculptor,  was  the  pupil 
of  Carpeaux  and  Duret,  and  combined  the  vivacity  and  richness 
of  the  one  with  the  academic  purity  and  scholarship  of  the  other. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  virtuosos  of  the  French  school, 
admirable  alike  in  taste,  execution  and  arrangement.  He  first 
exhibited  at  the  Salon  in  1867,  but  when  in  1871  the  troubles  of 
the  Commune  broke  out  in  Paris,  he  took  refuge  in  England, 
where  he  rapidly  made  a  name  through  his  appointment  at 
South  Kensington.  Here  he  laid  the  foundation  of  that  great 
improvement  which  resulted  in  the  development  of  the  modern 
British  school  of  sculpture,  and  at  the  same  time  executed  a 
remarkable  series  of  terra-cotta  statuettes  and  groups,  such  as 
"  A  French  Peasant  Woman  "  (of  which  a  bronze  version  under 
the  title  of  "  Maternity  "  is  erected  outside  the  Royal  Exchange), 
the  group  of  two  Boulogne  women  called  "  The  Reader  "  and 
"  A  Woman  of  Boulogne  telling  her  Beads."  He  returned  to 
France  in  1879  and  produced  a  number  of  masterpieces.  His 
great  relief  of  "  Mirabeau  replying  to  M.  de  Dreux-Breze," 
exhibited  in  1883  and  now  at  the  Palais  Bourbon,  and  the  highly 
decorative  panel,  "  Triumph  of  the  Republic,"  were  followed  in 
1885  by  "  The  Procession  of  Silenus."  For  the  city  of  Paris 
he  executed  his  most  elaborate  and  splendid  achievement,  the 
vast  monument,  "  The  Triumph  of  the  Republic,"  erected,  after 
twenty  years'  work,  in  the  Place  de  la  Nation,  showing  a  sym- 
bolical figure  of  the  Republic,  aloft  on  her  car,  drawn  by  lions 
led  by  Liberty,  attended  by  Labour  and  Justice,  and  followed  by 
Peace.  It  is  somewhat  in  the  taste  of  the  Louis  XIV.  period, 
ornate,  but  exquisite  in  every  detail.  Within  a  few  days  there 
was  also  inaugurated  his  great  "Monument  to  Alphand"  (1899), 
which  almost  equalled  in  the  success  achieved  the  monument  to 
Delacroix  in  the  Luxembourg  Gardens.  Dalou,  who  gained  the 
Grand  Prix  of  the  International  exhibition  of  1889,  and  was  an 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
New  Salon  (Societe  Nationale  des  Beaux- Arts),  and  was  the  first 
president  of  the  sculpture  section.  In  portraiture,  whether 
statues  or  busts,  his  work  is  not  less  remarkable. 

DALRADIAN,  in  geology,  a  series  of  metamorphic  rocks, 
typically  developed  in  the  high  ground  which  lies  E.  and  S. 
of  the  Great  Glen  of  Scotland.  This  was  the  old  Celtic  region  of 
Dalradia,  and  in  1891  Sir  A.  Geikie  proposed  the  name  Dalradian 
as  a  convenient  provisional  designation  for  the  complicated  set 
of  rocks  to  which  it  is  difficult  to  assign  a  definite  position  in 
the  stratigraphical  sequence  (Q.J.G.S.  47,  p.  75).  In  Sir  A. 
Geikie's  words,  "  they  consist  in  large  proportion  of  altered 
sedimentary  strata,  now  found  in  the  form  of  mica-schist, 
graphite-schist,  andalusite-schist,  phyllite,  schistose  grit,  grey- 
wacke  and  conglomerate,  quartzite,  limestone  and  other 
rocks,  together  with  epidiorites,  chlorite-schists,  hornblende 
schists  and  other  allied  varieties,  which  probably  mark  sills, 
lava-sheets  or  beds  of  tuff,  intercalated  among  the  sediments. 
The  total  thickness  of  this  assemblage  of  rocks  must  be  many 


777 

thousand  feet."  The  Dalradian  series  includes  the  "  Eastern  or 
Younger  schists  "  of  eastern  Sutherland,  Ross-shire  and  Inver- 
ness-shire— the  Moine  gneiss,  &c. — as  well  as  the  metamorphosed 
sedimentary  and  eruptive  rocks  of  the  central,  eastern  and 
south-western  Highlands.  The  series  has  been  traced  into  the 
north-western  counties  of  Ireland.  The  whole  of  the  Dalradian 
complex  has  suffered  intense  crushing  and  thrusting. 

See  PRE-CAMBRIAN;  also  J.  B.  Hill,  Q.J.G.S.,  1899,  55,  and  G. 

Barrow,  loc.  cit.,  1901,  57,  and  the  Annual  Reports  and  Summaries 
of  Progress  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom  from  1893 
onwards. 

DALRIADA,  the  name  of  two  ancient  Gaelic  kingdoms,  one 
in  Ireland  and  the  other  in  Scotland.  The  name  means  the 
home  of  the  descendants  of  Riada.  Irish  Dalriada  was  the 
district  which  now  forms  the  northern  part  of  county  Antrim, 
and  from  which  about  A.D.  500  some  emigrants  crossed  over  to 
Scotland,  and  founded  in  Argyllshire  the  Scottish  kingdom  of 
Dalriada.  For  a  time  Scottish  Dalriada  appears  to  have  been 
dependent  upon  Irish  Dalriada,  but  about  575  King  Aidan 
secured  its  independence.  One  of  Aidan's  successors,  Kenneth, 
became  king  of  the  Picts  about  843,  and  gradually  the  name 
Dalriada  both  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  fell  into  disuse. 

See  W.  F.  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1876-1880). 

DALRY  (Gaelic,  "  the  field  of  the  king  "),  a  mining  and 
manufacturing  town  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  on  the  Garnock, 
231  m.  S.W.  of  Glasgow,  by  the  Glasgow  &  South-Western 
railway.  Pop.  (1901)  5316.  The  public  buildings  include  the 
library  and  reading-room,  the  assembly  rooms,  Davidshill 
hospital,  Temperance  hall  and  night  asylum.  There  is  a  public 
park.  The  industries  consist  of  woollen  factories,  worsted 
spinning,  box-,  cabinet-,  coke-  and  brick-making,  machine- 
knitting,  currying  and  the  manufacture  of  aerated  waters. 
Coal  and  iron  are  found,  but  mining  is  not  extensively  pursued. 
In  the  vicinity  are  the  iron  works  of  Blair  and  Glengarnock, 
and  a  curious  stalactite  cave,  known  as  Elf  House,  30  ft.  high 
and  about  200  ft.  long,  offering  some  resemblance  to  a  pointed 
aisle.  Rye  Water  flows  into  the  Garnock  close  to  the  town. 
Captain  Thomas  Crawford  of  Jordanhill  (1530-1603),  the  captor 
of  Dumbarton  Castle,  spent  the  closing  years  of  his  life  at  Dairy, 
where  a  considerable  estate  had  been  granted  to  him. 

DALTON,  JOHN  (1766-1844),  English  chemist  and  physicist, 
was  born  about  the  6th  of  September  1766  at  Eaglesfield,  near 
Cockermouth  in  Cumberland.  His  father,  Joseph  Dalton,  was 
a  weaver  in  poor  circumstances,  who,  with  his  wife  (Deborah 
Greenup),  belonged  to  the  Society  of  Friends;  they  had  three 
children — Jonathan,  John  and  Mary.  John  received  his  early 
education  from  his  father  and  from  John  Fletcher,  teacher  of 
the  Quakers'  school  at  Eaglesfield,  on  whose  retirement  in  1778 
he  himself  started  teaching.  This  youthful  venture  was  not 
successful,  the  amount  he  received  in  fees  being  only  about 
five  shillings  a  week,  and  after  two  years  he  took  to  farm  work. 
But  he  had  received  some  instruction  in  mathematics  from 
a  distant  relative,  Elihu  Robinson,  and  in  1781  he  left  his  native 
village  to  become  assistant  to  his  cousin  George  Bewley  who 
kept  a  school  at  Kendal.  There  he  passed  the  next  twelve  years, 
becoming  in  1785,  through  the  retirement  of  his  cousin,  joint 
manager  of  the  school  with  his  elder  brother  Jonathan.  About 
1790  he  seems  to  have  thought  of  taking  up  law  or  medicine, 
but  his  projects  met  with  no  encouragement  from  his  relatives  and 
he  remained  at  Kendal  till,  in  the  spring  of  1793,  he  moved  to 
Manchester,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  Mainly  through 
John  Gough  (1757-1825),  a  blind  philosopher  to  whose  aid  he 
owed  much  of  his  scientific  knowledge,  he  was  appointed  teacher 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at  the  New  College  in 
Moseley  Street  (in  1889  transferred  to  Manchester  College, 
Oxford),  and  that  position  he  retained  until  the  removal  of  the 
college  to  York  in  1799,  when  he  became  a  "  public  and  private 
teacher  of  mathematics  and  chemistry." 

During  his  residence  in  Kendal,  Dalton  had  contributed  solu- 
tions of  problems  and  questions  on  various  subjects  to  the 
Gentlemen's  and  Ladies'  Diaries,  and  in  1787  he  began  to  keep 
a  meteorological  diary  in  which  during  the  succeeding  fifty-seven 


778 


DALTON,  JOHN 


years  he  entered  more  than  200,000  observations.  His  first 
separate  publication  was  Meteorological  Observations  and  Essays 
(i793)»  which  contained  the  germs  of  several  of  his  later  dis- 
coveries; but  in  spite  of  the  originality  of  its  matter,  the  book 
met  with  only  a  limited  sale.  Another  work  by  him,  Elements 
of  English  Grammar,  was  published  in  1801.  In  1794  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society,  and  a  few  weeks  after  election  he  communicated  his 
first  paper  on  "Extraordinary  facts  relating  to  the  vision  of 
colours,"  in  which  he  gave  the  earliest  account  of  the  optical 
peculiarity  known  as  Daltonism  or  colour-blindness,  and  summed 
up  its  characteristics  as  observed  in  himself  and  others.  Besides 
the  blue  and  purple  of  the  spectrum  he  was  able  to  recognize 
only  one  colour,  yellow,  or,  as  he  says  in  his  paper,  "  that  part 
of  the  image  which  others  call  red  appears  to  me  little  more 
than  a  shade  or  defect  of  light;  after  that  the  orange,  yellow 
and  green  seem  one  colour  which  descends  pretty  uniformly 
from  an  intense  to  a  rare  yellow,  making  what  I  should  call 
different  shades  of  yellow."  This  paper  was  followed  by  many 
others  on  diverse  topics — on  rain  and  dew  and  the  origin  of 
springs,  on  heat,  the  colour  of  the  sky,  steam,  the  auxiliary 
verbs  and  participles  of  the  English  language  and  the  reflection 
and  refraction  of  light.  In  1800  he  became  a  secretary  of  the 
society,  and  in  the  following  year  he  presented  the  important 
paper  or  series  of  papers,  entitled  "  Experimental  Essays  on  the 
constitution  of  mixed  gases;  on  the  force  of  steam  or  vapour 
of  water  and  other  liquids  in  different  temperatures,  both  in 
Torricellian  vacuum  and  in  air;  on  evaporation;  and  on  the 
expansion  of  gases  by  heat."  The  second  of  these  essays  opens 
with  the  striking  remark,  "  There  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  enter- 
tained respecting  the  reducibility  of  all  elastic  fluids  of  whatever 
kind,  into  liquids;  and  we  ought  not  to  despair  of  effecting 
it  in  low  temperatures  and  by  strong  pressures  exerted  upon 
the  unmixed  gases  ";  further,  after  describing  experiments 
to  ascertain  the  tension  of  aqueous  vapour  at  different  points 
between  32°  and  212°  F.,  he  concludes,  from  observations  on 
the  vapour  of  six  different  liquids,  "  that  the  variation  of  the 
force  of  vapour  from  all  liquids  is  the  same  for  the  same  variation 
of  temperature,  reckoning  from  vapour  of  any  given  force." 
In  the  fourth  essay  he  remarks,  "  I  see  no  sufficient  reason  why 
we  may  not  conclude  that  all  elastic  fluids  under  the  same 
pressure  expand  equally  by  heat  and  that  for  any  given  expansion 
of  mercury,  the  corresponding  expansion  of  air  is  proportionally 
something  less,  the  higher  the  temperature.  ...  It  seems, 
therefore,  that  general  laws  respecting  the  absolute  quantity 
and  the  nature  of  heat  are  more  likely  to  be  derived  from  elastic 
fluids  than  from  other  substances."  He  thus  enunciated  the 
law  of  the  expansion  of  gases,  stated  some  months  later  by 
Gay-Lussac.  In  the  two  or  three  years  following  the  reading 
of  these  essays,  he  published  several  papers  on  similar  topics, 
that  on  the  "  Absorption  of  gases  by  water  and  other  liquids  " 
(1803),  containing  his  "  Law  of  partial  pressures." 

But  the  most  important  of  all  Dalton's  investigations  are 
those  concerned  with  the  Atomic  Theory  in  chemistry,  with 
which  his  name  is  inseparably  associated.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  this  theory  was  suggested  to  him  either  by  researches  on 
olefiant  gas  and  carburet  ted  hydrogen  or  by  analysis  of  "  pro- 
toxide and  deutoxide  of  azote,"  both  views  resting  on  the 
authority  of  Dr  Thomas  Thomson  (1773-1852),  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Glasgow  university.  But  from  a  study  of  Dalton's 
own  MS.  laboratory  notebooks,  discovered  in  the  rooms  of  the 
Manchester  society,  Roscoe  and  Harden  (A  New  View  of  the 
Origin  of  Dalton's  Atomic  Theory,  1896)  conclude  that  so  far 
from  Dalton  being  led  to  the  idea  that  chemical  combination 
consists  in  the  approximation  of  atoms  of  definite  and  character- 
istic weight  by  his  search  for  an  explanation  of  the  law  of  com- 
bination in  multiple  proportions,  the  idea  of  atomic  structure 
arose  in  his  mind  as  a  purely  physical  conception,  forced  upon 
him  by  study  of  the  physical  properties  of  the  atmosphere  and 
other  gases.  The  first  published  indications  of  this  idea  are  to 
be  found  at  the  end  of  his  paper  on  the  "  Absorption  of  gases  " 
already  mentioned,  which  was  read  on  the  2ist  of  October  1803 


though  not  published  till  1805.  Here  he  says:  "  Why  does  not 
water  admit  its  bulk  of  every  kind  of  gas  alike?  This  question 
I  have  duly  considered,  and  though  I  am  not  able  to  satisfy 
myself  completely  I  am  nearly  persuaded  that  the  circumstance 
depends  on  the  weight  and  number  of  the  ultimate  particles  of 
the  several  gases."  He  proceeds  to  give  what  has  been  quoted 
as  his  first  table  of  atomic  weights,  but  on  p.  248  of  his  laboratory 
notebooks  for  1802-1804,  under  the  date  6th  of  September  1803, 
there  is  an  earlier  one  in  which  he  sets  forth  the  relative  weights 
of  the  ultimate  atoms  of  a  number  of  substances,  derived  from 
analysis  of  water,  ammonia,  carbon-dioxide,  &c.  by  chemists  of 
the  time.  It  appears,  then,  that,  confronted  with  the  "  problem 
of  ascertaining  the  relative  diameter  of  the  particles  of  which, 
he  was  convinced,  all  gases  were  made  up,  he  had  recourse  to 
the  results  of  chemical  analysis.  Assisted  by  the  assumption 
that  combination  always  takes  place  in  the  simplest  possible 
way,  he  thus  arrived  at  the  idea  that  chemical  combination  takes 
place  between  particles  of  different  weights,  and  this  it  was 
which  differentiated  his  theory  from  the  historic  speculations 
of  the  Greeks.  The  extension  of  this  idea  to  substances  in  general 
necessarily  led  him  to  the  law  of  combination  in  multiple 
proportions,  and  the  comparison  with  experiment  brilliantly 
confirmed  the  truth  of  his  deduction  "  (A  New  View,  &c., 
pp.  50,  51).  It  may  be  noted  that  in  a  paper  on  the  "  Proportion 
of  the  gases  or  elastic  fluids  constituting  the  atmosphere,"  read 
by  him  in  November  1802,  the  law  of  multiple  proportions 
appears  to  be  anticipated  in  the  words — "  The  elements  of 
oxygen  may  combine  with  a  certain  portion  of  nitrous  gas  or 
with  twice  that  portion,  but  with  no  intermediate. quantity," 
but  there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  this  sentence  was  added 
some  time  after  the  reading  of  the  paper,  which  was  not  published 
till  1805. 

Dalton  communicated  his  atomic  theory  to  Dr  Thomson,  who 
by  consent  included  an  outline  of  it  in  the  third  edition  of  his 
System  of  Chemistry  (1807),  and  Dalton  gave  a  further  account  of 
it  in  the  first  part  of  the  first  volume  of  his  New  System  of  Chemical 
Philosophy  (1808).  The  second  part  of  this  volume  appeared 
in  1810,  but  the  first  part  of  the  second  volume  was  not  issued 
till  1827,  though  the  printing  of  it  began  in  1817.  This  delay 
is  not  explained  by  any  excess  of  care  in  preparation,  for  much 
of  the  matter  was  out  of  date  and  the  appendix  giving  the  author's 
latest  views  is  the  only  portion  of  special  interest.  The  second 
part  of  vol.  ii.  never  appeared. 

Altogether  Dalton  contributed  116  memoirs  to  the  Manchester 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  of  which  from  1817  till  his 
death  he  was  the  president.  Of  these  the  earlier  are  the  rr.ost 
important.  In  one  of  them,  read  in  1814,  he  explains  the 
principles  of  volumetric  analysis,  in  which  he  was  one  of  the 
earliest  workers.  In  1840  a  paper  on  the  phosphates  and 
arsenates,  which  was  clearly  unworthy  of  him,  was  refused  by 
the  Royal  Society,  and  he  was  so  incensed  that  he  published  it 
himself.  He  took  the  same  course  soon  afterwards  with  four 
other  papers,  two  of  which — "  On  the  quantity  of  acids,  bases 
and  salts  in  different  varieties  of  salts  "  and  "  On  a  new  and  easy 
method  of  analysing  sugar,"  contain  his  discovery,  regarded 
by  him  as  second  in  importance  only  to  the  atomic  theory,  that 
certain  anhydrous  salts  when  dissolved  in  water  cause  no  increase 
in  its  volume,  his  inference  beihg  that  the  "  salt  enters  into  the 
pores  of  the  water." 

As  an  investigator,  Dalton  was  content  with  rough  and  in' 
accurate  instruments,  though  better  ones  were  readily  attainable. 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  described  him  as  a  "  very  coarse  experi- 
menter," who  "  almost  always  found  the  results  he  required, 
trusting  to  his  head  rather  than  his  hands."  In  the  preface  to 
the  second  part  of  vol.  i.  of  his  New  System  he  says  he  had  so 
often  been  misled  by  taking  for  granted  the  results  of  others 
that  he  "  determined  to  write  as  little  as  possible  but  what  I  can 
attest  by  my  own  experience,"  but  this  independence  he  carried 
so  far  that  it  sometimes  resembled  lack  of-  receptivity.  Thus 
he  distrusted,  and  probably  never  fully  accepted,  Gay-Lussac's 
conclusions  as  to  the  combining  volumes  of  gases;  he  held 
peculiar  and  quite  unfounded  views  about  chlorine,  even  after 


DALTON— DALYELL 


779 


its  elementary  character  had  been  settled  by  Davy;  he  persisted 
in  using  the  atomic  weights  he  himself  had  adopted,  even  when 
they  had  been  superseded  by  the  more  accurate  determinations 
of  other  chemists;  and  he  always  objected  to  the  chemical 
notation  devised  by  J.  J.  Berzelius,  although  by  common  consent 
it  was  much  simpler  and  more  convenient  than  his  cumbersome 
system  of  circular  symbols.  His  library,  he  was  once  heard  to 
declare,  he  could  carry  on  his  back,  yet  he  had  not  read  half  the 
books  it  contained. 

Before  he  had  propounded  the  atomic  theory  he  had  already 
attained  a  considerable  scientific  reputation.  In  1804  he  was 
chosen  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  on  natural  philosophy  at  the 
Royal  Institution  in  London,  where  he  delivered  another  course 
in  1800-1810.  But  he  was  deficient,  it  would  seem,  in  the 
qualities  that  make  an  attractive  lecturer,  being  harsh  and 
indistinct  in  voice,  ineffective  in  the  treatment  of  his  subject, 
and  "  singularly  wanting  in  the  language  and  power  of  illustra- 
tion." In  1810  he  was  asked  by  Davy  to  offer  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  the  fellowship  of  the  Royal  Society,  but  declined, 
possibly  for  pecuniary  reasons;  but  in  1822  he  was  proposed 
without  his  knowledge,  and  on  election  paid  the  usual  fee.  Six 
years  previously  he  had  been  made  a  corresponding  member  of 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1830  he  was  elected  as 
one  of  its  eight  foreign  associates  in  place  of  Davy.  In  1833  Lord 
Grey's  government  conferred  on  him  a  pension  of  £150,  raised  in 
1836  to  £300.  Never  married,  though  there  is  evidence  that  he 
delighted  in  the  society  of  women  of  education  and  refinement, 
he  lived  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  with  his  friend 
the  Rev.  W.  Johns  (1771-1845),  in  George  Street,  Manchester, 
where  his  daily  round  of  laboratory  work  and  tuition  was  broken 
only  by  annual  excursions  to  the  Lake  district  and  occasional 
visits  to  London,  "  a  surprising  place  and  well  worth  one's  while 
to  see  once,  but  the  most  disagreeable  place  on  earth  for  one  of  a 
contemplative  turn  to  reside  in  constantly."  In  1822  he  paid  a 
short  visit  to  Paris,  where  he  met  many  of  the  distinguished  men 
of  science  then  living  in  the  French  capital,  and  he  attended 
several  of  the  earlier  meetings  of  the  British  Association  at  York, 
Oxford,  Dublin  and  Bristol.  Into  society  he  rarely  went,  and 
his  only  amusement  was  a  game  of  bowls  on  Thursday  afternoons. 
He  died  in  Manchester  in  1844  of  paralysis.  The  first  attack  he 
suffered  in  1837,  and  a  second  in  1838  left  him  much  enfeebled, 
both  physically  and  mentally,  though  he  remained  able  to  make 
experiments.  In  May  1844  he  had  another  stroke;  on  the  26th 
of  July  he  recorded  with  trembling  hand  his  last  meteorological 
observation,  and  on  the  27th  he  fell  from  his  bed  and  was  found 
lifeless  by  his  attendant.  A  bust  of  him,  by  Chantrey,  was 
publicly  subscribed  for  in  1833  and  placed  in  the  entrance  hall  of 
the  Manchester  Royal  Institution. 

See  Henry,  Life  of  Dalton,  Cavendish  Society  (1854);  Angus 
Smith,  Memoir  of  John  Dalton  and  History  of  th;  Atomic  Theory 
(1856),  which  on  pp.  253-263  gives  a  list  of  Dalton's  publications; 
and  Roscoe  and  Harden,  A  New  View  of  the  Origin  of  Dalton's  A  tomic 
Theory  (1896) ;  also  ATOM. 

DALTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Whitfield  county, 
Georgia,  U.S.A.,  in  the  N.W.  part  of  the  state,  100  m.  N.N.W.  of 
Atlanta.  Pop.  (1890)3046;  (1900)  4315  (957 negroes); (1910)  5324. 
Dalton  is  served  by  the  Southern,  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  & 
St  Louis,  and  the  Western  &  Atlanta  (operated  by  the  Nashville, 
Chattanooga  &  St  Louis)  railways.  The  city  is  in  a  rich  agricul- 
tural region;  ships  cotton,  grain,  fruit  and  ore;  and  has  various 
manufactures,  including  canned  fruit  and  vegetables,  flour  and 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products.  It  is  the  seat  of  Dalton 
Female  College.  Dalton  was  founded  by  Duff  Green  and  others 
in  1848,  and  was  incorporated  in  1874.  Hither  General  Braxton 
Bragg  retreated  after  his  defeat  at  Chattanooga  in  the  last  week 
of  November  1863.  Three  weeks  afterwards  Bragg,  in  command 
of  the  army  in  northern  Georgia  in  winter  quarters  here,  was 
replaced  by  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  who,  with  his  force  of 
54,400,  adopted  defensive  tactics  to  meet  Sherman's  invasion  of 
Georgia,  with  his  99,000  or  100,000  men  in  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  (60,000)  under  General  G.  H.  Thomas,  the  Army  of 
the  Tennessee  (25,000)  under  General  J.  B.  M'Pherson,  and  the 
Army  of  the  Ohio  (14,000)  under  General  J.  M.  Schofield.  The 


Federal  forces  stretched  for  20  m.  in  a  position  south  of  Ringgold 
and  between  Ringgold  and  Dalton.  Johnston's  line  of  defences 
included  Rocky  Face  Ridge,  a  wall  of  rock  through  which  the 
railway  passes  about.  5  m.  north-west  of  the  city,  Mill  Creek  (i  m. 
north-north-west  of  Dalton),  which  he  dammed  so  that  it  could 
not  be  forded,  and  earthworks  north  and  east  of  the  city.  On 
the  7th  of  May  General  M'Pherson  started  for  Resaca,  18  m. 
south  of  Dalton,  to  occupy  the  railway  there  in  Johnston's  rear, 
but  he  did  not  attack  Resaca,  thinking  it  too  strongly  protected; 
Thomas,  with  Schofield  on  his  left,  on  the  7th  forced  the  Con- 
federates through  Buzzard's  Roost  Gap  (the  pass  at  Mill  Creek) 
north-west  of  Dalton;  at  Dug  Gap,  4  m.  south-west  of  Dalton, 
on  the  8th  a  fierce  Federal  assault  under  Brigadier-General  John 
W.  Geary  failed  to  dislodge  the  Confederates  from  a  quite  im- 
pregnable position.  On  the  nth  the  main  body  of  Sherman's 
army  followed  M'Pherson  toward  Resaca,  and  Johnston,  having 
evacuated  Dalton  on  the  night  of  the  I2th,  was  thus  forced,  after 
five  days'  manoeuvring  and  skirmishing,  to  march  to  Resaca  and 
to  meet  Sherman  there. 

See  J.  D.  Cox,  The  Atlanta  Campaign  (New  York,  1882) ;  Johnson 
and  Buel,  Battles  and  Leaders  of  tlie  Civil  War  (4  yols.,  New  York, 
1887) ;  and  Official  Records  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  series  I,  vols. 
32,  38,  39.  45,  49;  series  ii.,  vol.  8. 

DALTON-IN-FURNESS,  a  market  town  in  the  North  Lonsdale 
parliamentary  division  of  Lancashire,  England,  4  m.  N.E.  by  N. 
of  Barrow-in-Furness  by  the  Furness  railway.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1901)  13,020.  The  church  of  St  Mary  is  in  the  main  a 
modern  reconstruction,  but  retains  ancient  fragments  and  a  font 
believed  to  have  belonged  to  Furness  Abbey.  This  fine  ruin  lies 
3  m.  south  of  Dalton  (see  FURNESS).  St  Mary's  churchyard 
contains  the  tomb  of  the  painter  George  Romney,  a  native  of 
the  town.  Of  Dalton  Castle  there  remains  a  square  tower, 
showing  decorated  windows.  Here  was  held  the  manorial  court 
of  Furness  Abbey.  There  are  numerous  iron-ore  mines  in  the 
parish,  and  ironworks  at  Askam-in-Furness,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  district. 

DALY,  AUGUSTIN  (1838-1899),  American  theatrical  manager 
and  playwright,  was  born  in  Plymouth,  North  Carolina,  on  the 
2oth  of  July  1838.  He  was  dramatic  critic  for  several  New  York 
papers  from  1859,  and  he  adapted  or  wrote  a  number  of  plays, 
Under  the  Gaslight  (1867)  being  his  first  success.  In  1869  he  was 
the  manager  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  theatre,  and  in  1879  he  built 
and  opened  Daly's  theatre  in  New  York,  and,  in  1893,  Daly's 
theatre  in  London.  At  the  former  he  gathered  a  company  of 
players,  headed  by  Miss  Ada  Rehan,  which  made  for  it  a  high 
reputation,  and  for  them  he  adapted  plays  from  foreign  sources, 
and  revived  Shakespearean  comedies  in  a  manner  before  un- 
known in  America.  He  took  his  entire  company  on  tour,  visiting 
England,  Germany  and  France,  and  some  of  the  best  actors  on 
the  American  stage  have  owed  their  training  and  first  successes 
to  him.  Among  these  were  Clara  Morris,  Sara  Jewett,  John 
Drew,  Fanny  Davenport,  Maude  Adams,  Mrs  Gilbert  and  many 
others.  Daly  was  a  great  book-lover,  and  his  valuable  library 
was  dispersed  by  auction  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
Paris  on  the  7th  of  June  1899.  Besides  plays,  original  and 
adapted,  he  wrote  Woffinglon:  a  Tribute  to  the  Actress  and  the 
Woman  (1888). 

DALYELL  (or  DALZIELL  or  DALZELL),  THOMAS  (d.  1685), 
British  soldier,  was  the  son  of  Thomas  Dalyell  of  Binns,  Lin- 
lithgowshire,  a  cadet  of  the  family  of  the  earls  of  Carnwath,  and 
of  Janet,  daughter  of  the  ist  Lord  Bruce  of  Kinloss,  master  of 
the  rolls  in  England.  He  appears  to  have  accompanied  the 
Rochelle  expedition  in  1628,  and  afterwards,  becoming  colonel, 
served  under  Robert  Munro,  the  general  in  Ireland.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  capitulation  of  Carrickfergus  in  August 
1650,  but  was  given  a  free  pass,  and  having  been  banished  from 
Scotland  remained  in  Ireland.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Worcester  (3rd  of  September  1651),  where  his  men  surrendered, 
and  he  himself  was  captured  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  In 
May  he  escaped  abroad,  and  in  1654  took  part  in  the  Highland 
rebellion  and  was  excepted  from  Cromwell's  act  of  grace,  a 
reward  of  £200  being  offered  for  his  capture,  dead  or  alive.  The 
king's  cause  being  now  for  the  time  hopeless,  Dalyell  entered  the 


780 


DAM— DAMAGES 


service  of  the  tsar  of  Russia,  and  distinguished  himself  as  general 
in  the  wars  against  the  Turks  and  Tatars.  He  returned  to  Charles 
in  1665,  and  on  the  igth  of  July  1666  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  Scotland  to  subdue  the  Covenanters.  He 
defeated  them  at  Rullion  Green  and  exercised  his  powers  with 
great  cruelty,  his  name  becoming  a  terror  to  the  peasants.  He 
obtained  several  of  the  forfeited  estates.  On  the  3rd  of  January 
1667  he  was  made  a  privy  councillor,  and  from  1678  till  his  death 
represented  Linlithgow  in  the  Scottish  parliament.  He  was 
incensed  by  the  choice  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  as  commander- 
in-chief  in  June  1679,  and  was  confirmed  in  his  original  appoint- 
ment by  Charles,  but  in  consequence  did  not  appear  at  Bothwell 
Bridge  till  after  the  close  of  the  engagement.  On  the  25th  of 
November  1681,  a  commission  was  issued  authorizing  him  to 
enrol  the  regiment  afterwards  known  as  the  Scots  Greys.  He 
was  continued  in  his  appointment  by  James  II.,  but  died  soon 
after  the  latter's  accession  in  August  1685.  He  married  Agnes, 
daughter  of  John  Ker  of  Cavers,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Thomas, 
created  a  baronet  in  1685,  whose  only  son  and  heir,  Thomas, 
died  unmarried.  The  baronetage  apparently  became  extinct, 
but  it  was  assumed  about  1726  by  James  Menteith,  a  son  of  the 
sister  of  the  last  baronet,  who  took  the  name  of  Dalyell;  his 
last  male  descendant,  Sir  Robert  Dalyell,  died  unmarried  in 
1886. 

DAM.  (i)  (A  common  Teutonic  word,  cf.  Swed.  and  Ger. 
damm,  and  the  Gothic  verb  faurdammjan,  to  block  up),  a  barrier 
of  earth  or  masonry  erected  to  restrain,  divert  or  contain  a 
body  of  water,  particularly  in  order  to  form  a  reservoir.  (2) 
(Fr.  dame,  dame;  Lat.  domina,  feminine  of  dominus,  lord, 
master),  the  mother  of  an  animal,  now  chiefly  used  of  the  larger 
quadrupeds,  and  particularly  of  a  mare,  the  mother  of  a  foal. 

DAMAGES  (through  O.  Fr.  damage,  mod.  Fr.  dommage,  from 
Lat.  damnum,  loss),  the  compensation  which  a  person  who  has 
suffered  a  legal  wrong  is  by  law  entitled  to  recover  from  the  person 
responsible  for  the  wrong.  Loss  caused  by  an  act  which  is  not 
a  legal  wrong  (damnum  sine  injuria)  is  not  recoverable,  e.g. 
where  a  father  loses  a  young  child  by  the  negligence  of  a  third 
party. 

The  principle  of  compensation  in  law  makes  its  first  appearance 
as  a  substitute  for  personal  retaliation.  In  primitive  law  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  wer-gild,  or  the  iroivr; 
of  the  Iliad,  appears  to  be  universal.  It  marks  out  with  great 
minuteness  the  measure  of  the  compensation  appropriate  to 
each  particular  case  of  personal  injury.  And  there  is  a  resem- 
blance between  the  legal  compensation,  as  it  may  be  called,  and 
the  compensation  which  an  injured  person,  seeking  his  own 
remedy,  would  be  likely  to  exact  for  himself.  In  such  a  system 
the  two  entirely  different  objects  of  personal  satisfaction  and 
criminal  punishment  are  not  clearly  separated,  and  in  fact, 
criminal  and  civil  remedies  were  administered  in  the  same 
proceeding. 

Under  modern  systems  of  law,  the  object  of  legal  compensation 
is  to  place  the  injured  person  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  situation 
in  which  he  would  have  been  but  for  the  injury;  and  the  con- 
trolling principle  is  that  compensation  should  be  determined  so 
far  as  possible  by  the  actual  amount  of  the  loss  sustained.  In 
England,  civil  proceedings  for  reparation  and  criminal  proceed- 
ings for  punishment  are  with  few  exceptions  carefully  kept 
separate.  In  Scotland,  pursuit  of  the  two  kinds  of  remedies  in 
the  same  proceeding  is  possible  but  very  rare;  but  in  France  and 
other  European  states  it  is  lawful  and  usual  in  the  case  of  those 
delicts  which  are  also  punishable  criminally. 

In  the  law  of  England  the  two  historical  systems  of  common 
law  and  equity  viewed  compensation  or  reparation  from  two 
different  points  of  view.  The  principle  of  the  common  law  was 
that  the  amount  of  every  injury  might  be  estimated  by  pecuniary 
valuation.  The  idea  was  no  doubt  derived  from  the  old  tariffs 
of  were,  hot  and  wile,  in  which  the  valuations  were  elaborate. 
Until  1858  (Cairns'  Act)  courts  of  equity  had  no  direct  jurisdic- 
tion to  award  damages,  and  their  business  was  to  place  the 
injured  party  in  the  actual  position  to  which  he  was  entitled 
(restitutio  ad  integrum) .  This  difference  comes  out  most  clearly 


in  cases  of  breach  of  contract.  The  common  law,  with  a  few 
partial  exceptions,  could  do  no  more  than  compel  the  defaulter 
to  make  good  the  loss  of  the  other  party,  by  paying  him  an  ascer- 
tained sum  of  money  as  damages.  Equity,  recognizing  the  fact 
that  complete  satisfaction  was  not  in  all  cases  to  be  obtained  by 
mere  money  payment,  compelled  those  who  broke  certain  classes 
of  contracts  specifically  to  perform  them,  and  in  the  case  of  acts 
or  defaults  not  amounting  to  breach  of  contract,  on  satisfactory 
proof  that  a  wrong  was  contemplated,  would  interfere  to  prevent 
it  by  injunction;  while  at  common  law  no  action  could  be 
brought  until  the  injury  was  accomplished,  and  then  only 
pecuniary  damages  could  be  obtained.  Since  the  Judicature 
Acts  this  distinction  has  ceased  and  the  appropriate  remedy  may 
be  awarded  in  any  division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice. 

Under  the  common  law  damages  were  always  assessed  by  a 
jury.  Under  the  existing  procedure  in  England  they  may  be 
assessed  (i)  by  a  jury  under  the  directions  of  a  judge;  (2)  by  a 
judge  alone  or  sitting  with  assessors;  (3)  by  a  referee,  official  or 
special,  or  officer  of  the  courts  with  or  without  the  assistance  of 
mercantile  or  other  assessors;  (4)  b"y  a  consensual  tribunal  such 
as  an  arbitrator  or  valuer  selected  by  the  parties.  Whatever  the 
mode  of  assessment,  it  is  subject  to  review  if  the  assessors  have 
clearly  mistaken  the  proper  measure  of  damage. 

In  the  case  of  assessment  by  a  jury,  the  verdict  may  be  set 
aside  because  the  damages  are  clearly  excessive  or  palpably 
insufficient,  or  arrived  at  by  some  irregular  conduct,  e.g.  by 
setting  down  the  sum  which  each  juryman  would  give  and  divid- 
ing the  result  by  twelve.  The  appellate  court,  however,  cannot, 
without  the  consent  of  the  parties,  itself  fix  the  amount  of 
damages  in  a  case  which  has  been  submitted  to  a  jury  (Watt  v. 
Watt,  1905,  Appeal  Cases  115). 

The  courts  have  gradually  evolved  certain  rules  or  principles 
for  the  proper  assessment  of  damages,  although  extreme  difficulty 
is  found  in  their  application  to  concrete  cases.  A 
distinction  is  drawn  between  general  and  special  ^asun 
damages,  (i)  General  damage  is  that  implied  by  law  damages. 
as  necessarijy  flowing  from  the  breach  of  right,  and 
requiring  no  proof.  (2)  Special  damage  is  that  in  fact  caused  by 
the  wrong.  Under  existing  practice  this  form  of  damage  cannot 
be  recovered  unless  it  has  been  specifically  claimed  and  proved, 
or  unless  the  best  available  particulars  or  details  have  been 
before  trial  communicated  to  the  party  against  whom  it  is 
claimed. 

Contracts. — "  The  law  imposes  or  implies  a  term  that  upon 
breach  of  contract  damages  must  be  paid."  The  general  tend- 
ency of  legal  decisions  in  cases  of  contract  is  (i.)  to  make  the 
amount  of  damages  which  may  be  awarded  a  matter  of  legal 
certainty,  (ii.)  to  leave  to  a  jury  or  like  tribunal  little  more  to  do 
than  find  the  facts,  (iii.)  and  to  revise  the  assessment  if  it  is 
clear  that  it  has  been  made  in  disregard  of  the  terms  of  the 
contract  or  of  the  natural  and  direct  consequences  of  the  breach. 
The  measure  of  damage,  general  speaking,  is  the  sum  necessary 
to  place  the  aggrieved  party  in  the  same  position  so  far  as  money 
will  do  it  as  if  the  contract  had  been  performed.  If  the  breach 
is  proved,  but  the  person  complaining  has  suffered  no  real 
damage,  he  is  entitled  to  have  his  legal  right  recognized  by  an 
award  of  what  are  called  nominal  damages,  i.e.  a  sum  just  suffi- 
cient to  carry  a  judgment  in  his  favour  on  the  infraction  of  his 
rights.  Nominal  damages,  it  will  therefore  be  seen,  are  not  the 
same  as  "  small  damages."  He  is,  however,  also  entitled  to 
prove  and  recover  the  special  or  particular  damage  lawfully 
attributable  to  the  breach.  Where  the  contract  is  to  pay  a 
fixed  sum  of  money  or  liquidated  amount,  the  measure  of 
damages  for  non-payment  is  the  sum  agreed  to  be  paid  and 
interest  thereon  at  the  rate  stipulated  in  the  contract  or  recog- 
nized by  law. 

The  law  is  the  same  in  Scotland  and  in  France  (Civil  Code,  art. 
1153).  In  some  contracts  the  parties  themselves  fix  the  sum 
to  be  paid  as  damages  if  the  contract  is  not  fulfilled.  These 
damages  are  described  as  liquidated,  in  Scots  law  stipulated  or 
estimated.  It  would  be  supposed  that  the  sum  thus  fixed  wpuld 
be  the  proper  damages  to  be  awarded.  And  under  the  French 


DAMAGES 


781 


Civil  Code  (arts.  1152,  1153,  1780)  the  stipulation  of  the  parties 
as  to  the  damages  to  be  paid  for  breach  of  a  stipulation  other 
than  for  paying  a  sum  of  money  is  binding  on  the  courts.  But 
in  England,  Scotland  and  the  United  States,  courts  disregard  the 
words  used,  and  inquire  into  the  real  nature  of  the  transaction  in 
order  to  see  whether  the  sum  fixed  is  to  be  treated  as  ascertained 
damage  or  as  a  penalty  to  be  held  in  terrorem  over  the  defaulter, 
and  in  the  latter  case,  notwithstanding  the  stipulation,  will 
require  proof  of  the  actual  loss.  In  Kemble  v.  Farren  (1829,  6 
Bingham,  141),  a  contract  between  a  manager  and  an  actor 
provided  that  for  a  breach  of  any  of  the  stipulations  therein,  the 
sum  of  £1000  should  be  payable  by  the  defaulter,  not  as  a 
penalty,  but  as  liquidated  and  ascertained  damages.  Yet,  the 
court,  observing  that  under  the  stipulations  of  the  contract  the 
sum  of  £1000,  if  it  were  taken  to  be  liquidated  damages,  might 
become  payable  for  mere  non-payment  of  a  trifling  sum,  held 
that  it  was  not  fixed  as  damages,  but  as  a  penalty  only.  The 
case  in  which  an  agreed  sum  is  most  usually  treated  as  a  penalty 
is  a  bond  to  pay  a  fixed  sum  containing  a  condition  that  it  shall 
be  void  if  certain  acts  are  done  or  a  certain  smaller  sum  paid. 
Another  case  is  where  a  single  lump  sum  is  fixed  as  the  liquidated 
amount  of  damage  to  be  paid  for  doing  or  failing  to  do  a  number 
of  different  things  of  very  varying  degrees  of  importance  (Elphin- 
stonev.Monkland  Iron  Co.,  1887,  n  A.C.  333).  But  the  courts 
have  accepted  as  creating  a  contractual  measure  of  damage  a 
stipulation  to  finish  sewerage  works  by  a  given  day  (Law  v. 
Redditch  Local  Board,  1892,  i  Q.B.  127);  or  to  complete 
torpedo  boats  within  a  limited  time  for  a  foreign  government 
(Clydebank  Engineering  Co.  v.  Yzquierda,  1905,  A.C.  6).  In 
this  last  case  the  law  lords  indicated  that  the  provision  of  an 
agreed  sum  was  peculiarly  appropriate  in  view  of  the  difficulty  of 
showing  the  exact  damage  which  a  state  sustains  by  non-delivery 
of  a  warship.  Where  the  damage  is  not  liquidated  or  agreed 
it  is  assessed  to  upon  evidence  as  to  the  actual  loss  naturally  and 
directly  flowing  from  the  breach  of  contract. 

In  contracts  for  the  sale  of  goods  the  measure  of  damages  is 
fixed  by  statute.  Where  the  buyer  wrongfully  refuses  or  neglects 
to  accept  and  pay  for,  or  the  seller  wrongfully  neglects  or  refuses 
to  deliver  the  goods,  the  measure  is  the  estimated  loss  directly 
and  naturally  resulting  in  the  ordinary  course  of  events  from 
the  buyer's  or  seller's  breach  of  contract.  Where  there  is  an 
available  market  for  the  goods  in  question,  the  measure  of 
damages  is  prima  facie  to  be  ascertained  by  the  difference  between 
the  contract  price  and  the  market  or  current  price  at  the  time 
or  times  when  the  goods  ought  to  have  been  accepted  or  delivered, 
or  if  no  such  time  was  fixed  for  acceptance  or  delivery,  then  at 
the  time  of  refusal  to  accept  or  deliver  (Sale  of  Goods  Act  1893, 

§§  So,  Si)- 

Where  there  is  no  market,  the  value  is  fixed  by  the  price  of  the 
nearest  available  substitute.  Where  the  sufferer,  at  the  request 
of  the  person  in  default,  postpones  purchase  or  sale,  any  in- 
creased loss  thereby  caused  falls  on  the  defaulter.  If  the  buyer, 
before  the  time  fixed  for  delivery,  has  resold  the  goods  to  a  sub- 
vendor,  he  cannot  claim  against  his  own  vendor  any  damages 
which  the  sub-vendor  may  recover  against  him  for  breach  of 
contract,  because  he  ought  to  have  gone  into  the  market  and 
purchased  other  goods.  But  this  is  subject  to  modification  in 
cases  falling  within  the  rule  in  Hadley  v.  Baxendale  (1854,  9 
Exchequer,  341).  But  trouble  and  expense  incurred  by  the  seller 
of  finding  a  new  purchaser  or  other  goods  may  be  taken  account 
of  in  assessing  the  damages. 

Where  the  goods  delivered  are  not  as  contracted  the  buyer 
may  as  a  rule  sue  the  seller  for  a  breach  of  warranty,  or  set  it 
up  as  reduction  of  price.  Where  the  warranty  is  of  quality  the 
loss  is  prima  facie  the  difference  between  the  value  of  the  goods 
delivered  when  delivered  and  the  value  which  they  would  have 
then  had  if  they  had  answered  to  the  warranty  (Sale  of  Goods 
Act  1893,  §  53).  In  an  American  case,  where  a  person  had  agreed 
with  a  boarding-house  keeper  for  a  year,  and  quitted  the  house 
within  the  time,  it  was  held  that  the  measure  of  damages  was  not 
the  price  stipulated  to  be  paid,  but  only  the  loss  caused  by  the 
breach  of  contract.  In  contracts  to  marry,  a  special  class  of 


considerations  is  recognized,  and  the  jury  in  assessing  damages 
will  take  notice  of  the  conduct  of  the  parties.  The  social  position 
and  means  of  the  defendant  may  be  given  in  evidence  to  show 
what  the  plaintiff  has  lost  by  the  breach  of  contract. 

On  a  breach  of  contract  to  replace  stock  lent,  the  measure  of 
damages  is  the  price  of  the  stock  on  the  day  when  it  ought  to 
have  been  delivered,  or  on  the  day  of  trial,  at  the  plaintiff's 
option. 

In  contracts  for  the  sale  of  realty,  the  measure  of  damage  for 
breach  by  the  vendor  is  the  amount  of  any  deposit  paid  by  the 
would-be  purchaser  and  of  the  expenses  thrown  away.  But  the 
purchaser  may,  in  a  proper  case,  obtain  specific  performance, 
and  if  he  has  been  cheated  may  obtain  damages  in  an  action  for 
deceit. 

Breaches  of  trust  are  in  a  sense  distinct  from  breaches  of 
contract,  as  they  fell  under  the  jurisdiction  of  courts  of  equity 
and  not  of  the  common  law  courts.  The  rule  applied  was  to 
require  a  defaulting  trustee  to  make  good  to  the  beneficiaries 
any  loss  flowing  from  a  breach  of  trust  and  not  to  allow  him  to 
set  off  against  this  liability  any  gain  to  the  trust  fund  resulting 
from  a  different  breach  of  trust  or  from  good  management 
(Lewin  on  Trusts,  ed.  1904.  1146). 

In  estimating  the  proper  amount  to  be  assessed  as  damages 
for  a  breach  of  contract,  it  is  not  permissible  to  include  every 
loss  caused  by  the  act  or  default  upon  which  the  claim  for 
damages  is  based.  The  damage  to  be  awarded  must  be  that 
fairly  and  naturally  arising  from  the  breach  under  ordinary 
circumstances  or  the  special  circumstances  of  the  particular 
contract,  or  in  other  words,  which  may  reasonably  be  supposed 
to  have  been  in  the  contemplation  of  the  parties  at  the  time  of 
making  the  contract.  The  chief  authority  for  this  rule  is  the 
case  of  Hadley  v.  Baxendale  (1854,  9  Exch.  341),  which  has 
been  accepted  in  Scotland  and  the  United  States  and  through- 
out the  British  empire,  and  often  differs  little,  if  at  all,  from  the 
rule  adopted  in  the  French  civil  code  (art.  1150).  In  that  case 
damages  were  sought  for  the  loss  of  profits  caused  by  a  steam  mill 
being  kept  idle,  on  account  of  the  delay  of  the  defendants  in 
sending  a  new  shaft  which  they  had  contracted  to  make.  The 
court  held  the  damage  to  be  too  remote,  and  stated  the  proper 
rule  as  follows: — 

"  Where  two  parties  have  made  a  contract  which  one  of  them  has 
broken,  the  damages  which  the  other  party  ought  to  receive  in  respect 
of  such  breach  of  contract  should  be  such  as  may  fairly  and  reason- 
ably be  considered  either  arising  naturally,  i.e.  according  to  the  usual 
course  of  things,  from  such  breach  of  contract  itself,  or  such  as  may 
reasonably  be  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  contemplation  of  both 
patties  at  the  time  they  made  the  contract  as  the  probable  result  of 
the  breach  of  it.  Now  if  the  special  circumstances  under  which  the 
contract  was  actually  made  were  communicated  by  the  plaintiffs  to 
the  defendants,  and  thus  known  to  both  parties,  the  damages  result- 
ing from  such  contract  which  they  would  reasonably  contemplate 
would  be  the  amount  of  injury  which  would  ordinarily  flow  from  a 
breach  of  contract  under  these  special  circumstances  so  known  and 
communicated.  But  on  the  other  hand,  if  those  special  circumstances 
were  wholly  unknown  to  the  party  breaking  the  contract,  he  at  the 
most  could  only  be  supposed  to  have  had  in  his  mind  the  amount  of 
injury  which  would  arise  generally,  and  in  the  great  multitude  of 
cases  not  affected  by  any  special  circumstances,  from  such  breach  of 
contract." 1 

The  rule  is,  however,  only  a  general  guide,  and  does  not 
obviate  the  necessity  of  inquiring  in  each  case  what  are  the 
natural  or  contemplated  damages.  In  an  action  by  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  theatre,  it  was  alleged  that  the  defendant  had 
written  a  libel  on  one  of  the  plaintiff's  singers,  whereby  she  was 

1  In  the  Indian  Contracts  Code  (Act  xii.  of  1872),  the  rule  is  thus 
summarized : — 

"  When  a  contract  has  been  broken,  the  party  who  suffers  by 
such  breach  is  entitled  to  receive  from  the  party  who  has  broken 
the  contract,  compensation  for  any  loss  or  damage  caused  to  him 
thereby,  which  naturally  arose  in  the  usual  course  of  things  from 
such  breach,  or  which  the  parties  knew  when  they  made  the  contract 
to  be  likely  to  result  from  the  breach  of  it.  Such  compensation  is 
not  to  be  given  for  any  remote  or  indirect  loss  or  damage  sustained 
by  reason  of  the  breach.  ...  In  estimating  the  loss  or  damage 
arising  from  a  breach  of  contract,  the  means  of  remedying  the 
inconvenience  caused  by  the  non-performance  must  be  taken  into 
account  "  (§  73). 


DAMAGES 


deterred  from  appearing  on  the  stage,  and  the  plaintiff  lost  his 
profits;  such  loss  was  held  to  be  too  remote  to  be  the  ground 
of  an  action  for  damages.  In  Smeed  v.  Foord  (i  Ellis  and  Ellis, 
602),  the  defendant  contracted  to  deliver  a  threshing-machine 
to  the  plaintiff,  a  farmer,  knowing  that  it  was  needed  to  thresh 
the  wheat  in  the  field.  Damages  were  sought  for  injury  done  to 
the  wheat  by  rain  in  consequence  of  the  machine  not  having 
been  delivered  in  time,  and  also  for  a  fall  in  the  market  before 
the  grain  could  be  got  ready.  It  was  held  that  the  first  claim 
was  good,  as  the  injury  might  have  been  anticipated,  but  that 
the  second  was  bad.  When,  through  the  negligence  of  a  railway 
company  in  delivering  bales  of  cotton,  the  plaintiffs,  having  no 
cotton  to  work  with,  were  obliged  to  keep  their  workmen  un- 
employed, it  was  held  that  the  wages  paid  and  the  profits  lost 
were  too  remote  for  damages.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the 
defendant  failed  to  keep  funds  on  hand  to  meet  the  drafts  of 
the  plaintiff,  so  that  a  draft  was  returned  dishonoured,  and  his 
business  in  consequence  was  for  a  time  suspended  and  injured, 
the  plaintiff  was  held  entitled  to  recover  damage  for  such  loss. 

The  rule  that  the  contract  furnishes  the  measure  of  the 
damages  does  not  prevail  in  the  case  of  unconscionable,  i.e. 
unreasonable,  absurd  or  impossible  contracts.  The  old  school- 
book  juggle  in  geometrical  progression  has  more  than  once 
been  before  the  courts  as  the  ground  of  an  action.  Thus,  when 
a  man  agreed  to  pay  for  a  horse  a  barley-corn  per  nail,  doubling 
it  every  nail,  and  the  amount  calculated  as  32  nails  was  500 
quarters  of  barley,  the  judge  directed  the  jury  to  disregard  the 
contract,  and  give  as  damages  the  value  of  the  horse.  And  when 
a  defendant  had  agreed  for  £5  to  give  the  plaintiff  two  grains  of 
rye  on  Monday,  four  on  the  next  Monday,1  and  so  on  doubling  it 
every  Monday,  it  was  contended  that  the  contract  was  impossible, 
as  all  the  rye  in  the  world  would  not  suffice  for  it;  but  one  of  the 
judges  said  that,  though  foolish,  it  would  hold  in  law,  and  the 
defendant  ought  to  pay  something  for  his  folly.  And  when  a 
man  had  promised  £1000  to  the  plaintiff  if  he  should  find  his  owl, 
the  jury  were  directed  to  mitigate  the  damages. 

Interest  is  recoverable  as  damages  at  common  law  only  upon 
mercantile  securities,  such  as  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory 
notes  or  where  a  promise  to  pay  interest  has  been  made  in  express 
terms  or  may  be  implied  from  the  usage  of  trade  or  other  circum- 
stances [Mayne,  Damages  (yth  ed.)  166].  Under  the  Civil 
Procedure  Act  1833,  the  jury  is  allowed  to  give  interest  by  way 
of  damages  on  debts  or  sums  payable  at  a  certain  time,  or  if  not 
so  payable,  from  the  date  of  demand  in  writing,  and  in  actions 
on  policies  of  insurance,  and  in  actions  of  tort  arising  out  of 
conversion  or  seizure  of  goods. 

In  the  United  States,  interest  is  in  the  discretion  of  the  court, 
and  is  made  to  depend  on  the  equity  of  the  case.  In  both 
England  and  America  compound  interest,  or  interest  on  interest, 
appears  to  have  been  regarded  with  the  horror  that  formerly 
attached  to  usury.  Lord  Eldon  would  not  recognize  as  valid 
an  agreement  to  pay  compound  interest.  And  Chancellor  Kent 
held  that  compound  interest  could  not  be  taken  except  upon  a 
special  agreement  made  after  the  simple  interest  became  due. 

In  Scotland  compound  interest  is  not  allowed  by  way  of 
damages. 

Torts. — In  actions  arising  otherwise  than  from  breach  of 
contract  (i.e.  of  tort,  delict  orquasi-delict),  the  principles  applied 
to  the  assessment  of  damage  in  cases  arising  ex  contractu  are 
generally  applicable  (The  Netting  Hill,  1884,  9  P.p.  105);  but 
from  the  nature  of  the  case  less  precision  in  assessment  is  attain- 
able. The  remoteness  of  the  damage  claimed  is  a  ground  for 
excluding  it  from  the  assessment.  In  some  actions  of  tort  the 
damages  can  be  calculated  with  exactness  just  as  in  cases  of 
contract,  e.g.  in  most  cases  of  interference  with  rights  of  property 
or  injury  to  property.  Thus,  for  wrongful  dispossession  from  a 
plantation  (in  Samoa)  it  was  held- that  the  measure  of  damage 
was  the  annual  value  of  the  produce  of  the  lands  when  wrongfully 

1  Quolibet  alio  die  lunae,  which  was  translated  by  some  every 
Monday,  and  by  others  every  other  Monday.  The  amount  in  the 
latter  case  would  have  been  125  quarters,  in  the  former  524,288,000 
quarters. 


seized,  less  the  cost  of  management,  and  that  the  wilful  character 
of  the  seizure  did  not  justify  the  infliction  of  a  penalty  over  and 
above  the  loss  to  the  plaintiff  (McArthur  v.  Corn-wall,  1892, 
A.C.  75).  Where  minerals  are  wrongfully  severed  and  carried 
away,  the  damage  is  assessed  by  calculating  the  value  of  the 
mineral  as  a  chattel  and  deducting  the  reasonable  expense  of 
getting  it.  But  where  the  interference  with  property,  whether 
real  or  personal,  is  attended  by  circumstances  of  aggravation 
such  as  crime  or  fraud  or  wanton  insult,  it  is  well  established 
that  additional  damages  may  be  awarded  which  in  effect  are 
penal  or  vindictive.  In  actions  for  injuries  to  the  person  or  to 
reputation,  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  damages  a  matter  for 
exact  calculation,  and  it  has  been  found  impossible  or  inexpedient 
by  the  courts  to  prevent  juries  from  awarding  amounts  which 
operate  as  a  punishment  of  the  delinquent  rather  than  as  a 
true  assessment  of  the  reparation  due  to  the  sufferer.  And 
while  a  bad  motive  (malice)  is  seldom  enough  to  give  a  cause 
of  action,  proof  of  its  existence  is  a  potent  inducement  to  a  jury 
to  swell  the  assessment  of  damages,  as  evidence  of  bad  character 
may  induce  them  to  reduce  the  damages  to  a  derisory  amount. 
In  the  case  of  injuries  to  the  person  caused  by  negligence,  the 
tribunal  considers,  as  part  of  the  general  damage,  the  actual  pain 
and  suffering,  including  nervous  shock  (but  not  wounded  feelings) 
and  the  permanent  or  temporary  character  of  the  injury,  and  as 
special  damage  the  loss  of  time  and  employment  during  recovery 
and  the  cost  of  cure.  It  is  difficult  by  any  arithmetical  calcula- 
tion to  value  pain  and  suffering;  nor  is  it  easy  to  value  the  effect 
of  a  permanent  injury;  and  in  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act 
and  Employers'  Liability  Act,  an  attempt  has  been  made  in  the 
case  of  workmen  to  assess  by  reference  to  the  earnings  of  the 
injured  person. 

In  the  case  of  such  wrongs  as  assault,  arrest  or  prosecution, 
the  motives  of  the  defendant  naturally  affect  the  amount  of 
general  damage  awarded,  even  when  not  essential  elements  in 
the  case,  and  the  damages  are  "  at  large."  Any  other  rule  would 
enable  a  man  to  distribute  blows  as  he  can  utter  curses  at  a 
statutory  tariff  of  so  much  a  curse,  according  to  his  rank.  This 
position  was  strongly  asserted  in  the  cases  arising  out  of  the 
celebrated  "General  Warrants"  (1763)  in  the  time  of  Lord 
Camden,  who  is  reported  in  one  case  to  have  said,  "  damages 
are  designed  not  only  as  a  satisfaction  to  the  injured  person, 
but  as  a  punishment  to  the  guilty,  and  as  a  proof  of  the  detesta- 
tion in  which  the  wrongful  act  is  held  by  the  jury."  In  another 
case  he  mentioned  the  importance  of  the  question  at  issue, 
the  attempt  to  exercise  arbitrary  power,  as  a  reason  why  the 
jury  might  give  exemplary  damages.  Another  judge,  in  another 
case,  said  "  I  remember  a  case  when  the  jury  gave  £500  damages 
for  knocking  a  man's  hat  off;  and  the  court  refused  a  new 
trial."  And  he  urged  that  exemplary  damages  for  personal  insult 
would  tend  to  prevent  the  practice  of  duelling. 

The  right  to  give  exemplary  or  punitive  or  (as  they  are  some- 
times called)  vindictive  damages  is  fully  recognized  both  in 
England  and  in  the  United  States,  and  especially  in  the  following 
cases,  (i)  Against  the  co-respondent  in  a  divorce  suit.  This 
right  is  the  same  as  that  recognized  at  common  law  in  the 
abolished  action  of  criminal  conversation,  but  the  damages 
awarded  may  by  the  court  be  applied  for  the  maintenance  and 
education  of  the  children  of  the  marriage  or  the  maintenance 
of  the  offending  wife.  (2)  In  actions  of  trespass  to  land  where 
the  conduct  of  the  defendant  has  been  outrageous.  (3)  In 
actions  of  defamation  spoken  or  written,  attended  by  circum- 
stances of  aggravation,  and  the  analogous  action  of  malicious 
prosecution.  (4)  In  the  anomalous  actions  of  seduction  and 
breach  of  promise  of  marriage. 

In  actions  for  wrongs,  as  in  those  ex  contractu,  the  damages 
may  be  general  or  special.  In  a  few  cases  of  tort,  the  action  fails 
wholly  if  special  damage  is  not  proved,  e.g.  slander  by  imputing 
to  a  man  vicious,  unchaste  or  immoral  conduct,  slander  of  title 
to  land  or  goods  or  nuisance. 

In  theory,  English  law  does  not  recognize-"  moral  or  intel- 
lectual "  damage,  such  as  was  claimed  by  the  South  African 
Republic  after  the  Jameson  Raid.  The  law  of  Scotland  allows 


DAMANHUR— DAMASCIUS 


783 


a  solatium  for  wounded  feelings,  as  does  French  law  under  the 
name  of  dommage  moral,  eprouve  par  la  parlie  lesee  dans  so, 
liberte,  so,  siirete,  son  honneur,  sa  consideration,  ses  affections 
ligitimes  ou  dans  lajouissance  de  son  palrimoine.  Under  this  head 
compensation  is  awarded  to  widow,  child  or  sister,  for  the  loss  of 
husband,  parent  or  brother,  in  addition  to  the  actual  pecuniary 
loss  (Dalloz,  Nouveau  Code  civil,  art.  1382).  Claims  of  damage 
for  negligence  are  defeated  by  proof  of  what  is  known  as  con- 
tributory negligence  (faute  commune).  In  other  claims  of  tort, 
as  already  stated,  the  conduct  of  the  claimant  may  materially 
reduce  the  amount  of  his  damages. 

In  cases  of  damages  to  ships  or  cargo  by  collision  at  sea,  the 
rule  of  the  old  court  of  admiralty  (derived  from  the  civil  law 
and  preserved  by  the  Judicature  Acts)  is  that  when  both  or  all 
vessels  are  to  blame,  the  whole  amount  of  the  loss  is  divided 
between  them.  The  rule  appears  not  to  apply  to  cases  where 
death  or  personal  injury  results  from  the  collision  ("  Vera  Cruz," 
1884, 14  A.C.  59.  "  Bernina,"  1888, 13  A.C.  i). 

Costs. — The  costs  of  a  legal  proceeding  are  no  longer  treated  as 
damages  to  be  assessed  by  the  jury,  nor  do  they  depend  on  any 
act  of  the  jury.  The  right  to  receive  them  depends  on  the  court, 
and  they  are  taxed  or  assessed  by  its  officers  (see  COSTS).  In  a 
few  cases  where  costs  cannot  be  given,  e.g.  on  compulsory 
acquisition  of  land  in  London,  the  assessing  tribunal  is  invited 
to  add  to  the  compensation  price  the  owner's  expense  in  the 
compensation  proceedings. 

Death. — In  English  law  a  right  to  recover  damages  for  a  tort 
as  a  general  rule  was  lost  on  the  death  of  the  sufferer  or  of  the 
delinquent.  The  cause  of  action  was  considered  not  to  survive. 
This  rule  differs  from  that  of  Scots  law  (under  which  the  claim 
for  damages  arises  at  the  moment  of  injury  and  is  not  affected 
by  the  death  of  either  party).  The  English  rule  has  been  criti- 
cized as  barbarous,  and  has  been  considerably  broken  in  upon  by 
legislation,  in  cases  of  taking  the  goods  of  another  (4  Edw.  III., 
c-  7.  133°).  and  injuries  to  real  or  personal  property  (3  &  4 
Will.  IV.,  c.  42,  1833),  but  continues  in  force  as  to  such  matters 
as  defamation,  malicious  prosecution  and  trespass  to  the  person. 
By  the  Fatal  Accidents  Act  1846  (commonly  called  Lord  Camp- 
bell's Act),  it  is  enacted  that  wherever  a  wrongful  act  would  have 
entitled  the  injured  person  to  recover  damages  (if  death  had  not 
ensued),  the  person  who  in  such  case  would  have  been  liable 
"  shall  be  liable  to  an  action  for  damages  for  the  pecuniary  loss 
which  the  death  has  caused  to  certain  persons,  and  although  the 
death  shall  have  been  caused  under  such  circumstances  as  amount 
in  law  to  felony."  The  only  persons  by  whom  or  for  whose 
benefit  such  an  action  may  be  brought  are  the  husband,  wife, 
parent  and  child  (including  grandchild  and  stepchild,  but  not 
illegitimate  child)  of  the  deceased.  The  right  of  action  and  the 
measure  of  damages  are  statutory  and  distinct  from  the  right 
which  the  deceased  had  till  he  died.  It  was  held  in  Osborne  v. 
Gilletl,  1873,  L.R.  8  Ex.  88,  and  has  since  been  approved  (Clark 
v.  London  General  Omnibus  Co.,  1906,  2  K.B.  648),  that  no 
person  can  recover  damages  for  the  death  of  another  wrongfully 
killed  by  the  act  of  a  third  person,  unless  he  claims  through  or 
represents  the  person  killed,  and  unless  that  person  in  case  of  an 
injury  short  of  death  would  have  had  a  good  claim  to  recover 
damages. 

In  Scotland  the  law  of  compensation  for  breach  of  contract  is 
substantially  the  same  as  in  England.  In  cases  of  delict  or  quasi- 
delict,  the  measure  of  reparation  is  a  fair  and  reasonable  compensa- 
tion for  the  advantage  which  the  sufferer  would,  but  for  the  wrong, 
have  enjoyed  and  has  lost  as  a  natural  and  proximate  result  of  the 
wrong,  coupled  with  a  solatium  for  wounded  feelings.  The  claim 
for  reparation  vests  as  a  debt  when  it  arises  and  survives  to  che 
representatives  of  the  sufferer,  and  against  the  representatives  of  the 
delinquent.  In  other  words,  the  maxim  actio  personalis  moritur  cum 
persona  does  not  apply  in  Scots  law;  and  even  in  cases  of  murder 
there  has  always  been  recognized  a  right  to  "  assythement." 

See  also  Mayne  on  Damages,  7th  ed.;  Sedgwick  on  Damage; 
Bell,  Principles  of  Law  of  Scotland.  (W.  F.  C.) 

DAMANHUR,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  38  m.  E.S.E.  of  Alex- 
andria by  rail,  capital  of  the  richly-cultivated  province  of  Behera. 
It  is  the  ancient  Tinienhor,  "  town  of  Horus,"  which  in  Ptolemaic 


times  was  capital  of  a  nome  and  lay  on  the  Canopic  branch  of  the 
Nile.  Its  name  and  other  circumstances  imply  that  Horus 
(  =  Apollo)  was  worshipped  there  in  the  same  form  as  at  Edfu 
(Brugsch,  Dictionnaire  geographique,  p.  521),  but  its  Greek  name, 
Hermopolis  Parva,  should  indicate  Thoth  as  the  local  god. 
This  apparent  contradiction  is  perhaps  due  to  some  early  mis- 
understanding that  held  its  ground  after  the  Greeks  knew  Egypt 
better.  A  much  frequented  fair  is  held  at  Damanhur  three 
times  a  year,  and  there  are  several  cotton  manufactories. 
Population  (1907)  38,752. 

DAMARALAND,  a  region  of  south-western  Africa,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Atlantic,  E.  by  the  Kalahari,  N.  by  Ovampoland, 
and  S.  by  Great  Namaqualand.  It  forms  the  central  portion 
of  German  South-West  Africa.  Damaraland  is  alternatively 
known  as  Hereroland,  both  names  being  derived  from  the  tribes 
inhabiting  the  region.  The  so-called  Damara  consist  of  two 
probably  distinct  peoples.  They  are  known  respectively  as 
"  the  Hill  Damara  "  and  "  the  Cattle  Damara,"  i.e.  those  who 
breed  cattle  in  the  plains.  The  Hill  Damara  are  Negroes  with 
much  Hottentot  blood,  and  have  adopted  the  Hottentot  tongue, 
while  the  Cattle  Damara  are  of  distinct  Bantu-Negro  descent 
and  speak  a  Bantu  language.  The  term  Damara  ("  Two  Dama 
Women  ")  is  of  Hottentot  origin,  and  is  not  used  by  the  people, 
who  call  themselves  Ova-herero,  "  the  Merry  People  "  (see 
HOTTENTOTS  and  HERERO). 

DAMASCENING,  or  DAMASKEENING,  a  term  sometimes  applied 
to  the  production  of  damask  steel,  but  properly  the  art  of  in- 
crusting  wire  of  gold  (and  sometimes  of  silver  or  copper)  on  the 
surface  of  iron,  steel  or  bronze.  The  surface  upon  which  the 
pattern  is  to  be  traced  is  finely  undercut  with  a  sharp  instrument, 
and  the  gold  thread  by  hammering  is  forced  into  and  securely 
held  by  the  minute  furrows  of  the  cut  surface.  This  system  of 
ornamentation  is  peculiarly  Oriental,  having  been  much  practised 
by  the  early  goldsmiths  of  Damascus,  and  it  is  still  eminently 
characteristic  of  Persian  metal  work. 

DAMASCIUS,  the  last  of  the  Ncoplatonists,  was  born  in 
Damascus  about  A.D.  480.  In  his  early  youth  he  went  to  Alex- 
andria, where  he  spent  twelve  years  partly  as  a  pupil  of  Theon, 
a  rhetorician,  and  partly  as  a  professor  of  rhetoric.  He  then 
turned  to  philosophy  and  science,  and  studied  under  Hermeias 
and  his  sons,  Ammonius  and  Heliodorus.  Later  on  in  life  he 
migrated  to  Athens  and  continued  his  studies  under  Marinus, 
the  mathematician,  Zenodotus,  and  Isidore,  the  dialectician. 
He  became  a  close  friend  of  Isidore,  succeeded  him  as  head  of  the 
school  in  Athens,  and  wrote  his  biography,  part  of  which  is 
preserved  in  the  Bibliotheca  of  Photius  (see  appendix  to  the 
Didot  edition  of  Diogenes  Laertius).  In  529  Justinian  closed  the 
school,  and  Damascius  with  six  of  his  colleagues  sought  an 
asylum,  probably  in  532,  at  the  court  of  Chosroes  I.,  king  of 
Persia.  They  found  the  conditions  intolerable,  and  in  533,  in  a 
treaty  between  Justinian  and  Chosroes,  it  was  provided  that  they 
should  be  allowed  to  return.  It  is  believed  that  Damascius 
settled  in  Alexandria  and  there  devoted  himself  to  the  writing 
of  his  works.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

His  chief  treatise  is  entitled  Difficulties  and  Solutions  of  First 
Principles  ('Airopiai  nal  \wres  irtpl  TUV  TTO&TUV  &.p\G>v).  It 
examines  into  the  nature  and  attributes  of  God  and  the  human 
soul.  This  examination  is,  in  two  respects,  in  striking  contrast 
to  that  of  certain  other  Neoplatonist  writers.  It  is  conspicuously 
free  from  that  Oriental  mysticism  which  stultifies  so  much  of  the 
later  pagan  philosophy  of  Europe.  Secondly,  it  contains  no 
polemic  against  Christianity,  to  the  doctrines  of  which,  in  fact, 
there  is  no  allusion.  Hence  the  charge  of  impiety  which  Photius 
brings  against  him.  His  main  result  is  that  God  is  infinite,  and 
as  such,  incomprehensible;  that  his  attributes  of  goodness, 
knowledge  and  power  are  credited  to  him  only  by  inference 
from  their  effects;  that  this  inference  is  logically  valid  and 
sufficient  for  human  thought.  He  insists  throughout  on  the 
unity  and  the  indivisibility  of  God,  whereas  Plotinus  and 
Porphyry  had  admitted  not  only  a  Trinity,  but  even  an  Ennead 
(nine-fold  personality). 

Interesting  as  Damascius  is  in  himself.heis  still moreinteresting 


DAMASCUS 


as  the  last  in  the  long  succession  of  Greek  philosophers.     (See 
NEOPLATONISM.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  'Awopiai  was  partly  edited  by  J.  Kopp 
(1826),  and  in  full  by  C.  E.  Ruelle  (Paris,  1889).  French  trans,  by 
Chaignet  (1898).  See  T.  Whittaker,  The  Neo-platonists  (Cambridge, 
1901);  E.  Zeller,  History  of  Creek  Philosophy;  C.  E.  Ruelle,  Le 
Philosophe  Damascius  (1861) ;  Ch.  Levlque,  "  Damascius  "  (Journal 
des  savants,  February  1891).  See  also  works  quoted  under  NEO- 
PLATONISM and  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL. 

DAMASCUS,  the  chief  town  of  Syria,  and  the  capital  of  a 
government  province  of  the  same  name,  57  m.  from  Beirut, 
situated  in  33°  30'  N.,  and  36°  18'  E. 

History. — The  origin  of  the  city  is  unknown,  and  the  popular 
belief  that  it  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  world  still  inhabited  has 
much  to  recommend  it.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  ideogram 
by  which  it  is  indicated  in  Babylonian  monuments  literally  means 
"  fortress  of  the  Amorites  ";  could  this  be  proved  it  would  be 
valuable  testimony  to  its  antiquity  if  not  its  origin.  The  city  is 
mentioned  in  the  document  that  describes  the  battle  of  the  four 
kings  against  five,  inserted  in  the  book  of  Genesis  (ch.  xiv.): 
Abram  (Abraham)  is  reported  to  have  pursued  the  routed  kings 
to  Hobah  north  of  Damascus  (v.  15).  The  name  of  the  steward 
of  Abram's  establishment  is  given  in  Genesis  xv.  2,  as  Dammesek 
Eliezer,  which  is  explained  in  the  Aramaic  and  Syriac  versions  as 
"  Eliezer  of  Damascus."  This  reading  is  adopted  by  the  author- 
ized version,  but  the  Hebrew,  as  it  stands,  will  not  support  it. 
There  is  probably  here  some  textual  corruption. 

In  the  period  of  the  Egyptian  suzerainty  over  Palestine  in  the 
eighteenth  dynasty  Damascus  (whose  name  frequently  appears  in 
the  Tell  el-Amarna  tablets)  was  Capital  of  the  small  province  of 
Ubi.  The  name  of  the  city  in  the  Tell  el-Amarna  correspondence 
is  Dimashka.  Towards  the  end  of  that  period  the  overrunning 
of  Palestine  and  Syria  by  the  Khabiri  and  Suti,  the  forerunners 
of  the  Aramaean  immigration,  changed  the  conditions,  language 
and  government  of  the  country.  One  of  the  first  indications  of 
this  change  that  has  been  traced  is  the  appearance  of  the  Ara- 
maean Darmesek  for  Damascus  in  an  inscription  of  Rameses  III. 

The  growth  of  an  independent  kingdom  with  Damascus  as 
centre  must  date  from  very  early  in  the  Aramaean  occupation. 
It  had  reached  such  strength  that  though  Tiglath-Pileser  I. 
reduced  the  whole  of  northern  Syria,  and  by  the  fame  of  his 
victories  induced  the  king  of  Egypt  to  send  him  presents,  yet  he 
did  not  venture  to  attack  Kadesh  and  Damascus,  so  that  this 
kingdom  acted  as  a  "  buffer  "  between  the  king  of  Assyria  and 
the  rising  kingdom  of  Saul. 

David,  however,  after  his  accession  made  an  expedition 
against  Damascus  as  a  reprisal  for  the  assistance  the  city  had 
given  his  enemy  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah.  The  expedition  was 
successful;  David  smote  of  the  Syrians  22,000  men,  and  took 
and  garrisoned  the  city;  "  and  the  Syrians  became  servants  to 
David,  and  brought  gifts  "  (2  Sam.  viii.  5,  6;  i  Chron.  xviii.  5). 
This  statement,  it  should  be  noticed,  has  been  questioned  by 
some  modern  historical  and  textual  critics,  who  believe  that 
"  Syria  "  (Hebrew  Aram)  is  here  a  corruption  for  "  Edom." 
There  is  no  other  evidence — save  the  corrupt  passage,  2  Sam.  xxiv. 
6,  where  "  Tahtim-hodshi  "  is  explained  as  meaning  "  the  land 
of  the  Hittites  to  Kadesh  " — that  David's  kingdom  was  so  far 
extended  northward.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  evident  that 
the  Israelite  possession  of  Syria  did  not  last  long.  A  subordinate 
of  Hadadezer  named  Rezon  (Rasun)  succeeded  in  establishing 
himself  in  Damascus  and  in  founding  there  a  royal  dynasty. 
Throughout  the  reign  of  Solomon  (i  Kings  xi.  23,  24)  this  Rezon 
seems  to  have  been  a  constant  enemy  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

It  is  inferred  from  i  Kings  xv.  19  that  Abijah,son  of  Rehoboam, 
king  of  Judah,  made  a  league  with  Tab-Rimmon  of  Damascus  to 
assist  him  in  his  wars  against  Israel,  and  that  afterwards  Tab- 
Rimmon's  son  Ben-Hadad  came  to  terms  with  the  second  suc- 
cessor of  Jeroboam,  Baasha.  Asa,  son  of  Abijah,  followed  his 
father's  policy,  and  bought  the  aid  of  Syria,  whereby  he  was 
enabled  to  destroy  the  border  fort  that  Baasha  had  erected 
(i  Kings  xv.  22). 

Hostilities  between  Israel  and  Syria  lasted  to  the  days  of  Ahab. 
From  Omri  the  king  of  Syria  took  cities  and  the  right  to  establish 


a  quarter  for  his  merchants  in  Samaria  (i  Kings  xx.  34).  His 
son  Ben-Hadad  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Israel  at  Aphek, 
and  was  allowed  by  Ahab  to  depart  on  a  reversal  of  these  terms 
(loc.  cit.).  This  was  the  cause  of  a  prophetic  denunciation  (i 
Kings  xx.  42).  According  to  the  Assyrian  records  Ahab  fought 
as  Ben-Hadad's  ally  at  the  battle  of  Karkar  against  Shalmaneser 
in  854.  This  seems  to  indicate  an  intermediate  defeat  and 
vassalage  of  Ahab,  of  which  no  direct  record  remains;  and  it 
was  probably  in  the  attempt  to  throw  off  this  vassalage  in  853, 
the  year  after  the  battle  of  Karkar,  that  Ahab  met  his  death  in 
battle  with  the  Syrians  (i  Kings  xxii.  34-40).  In  the  reign  of 
Jeh9ram,  Naaman,  the  Syrian  general,  came  and  was  cleansed  by 
the  prophet  Elisha  of  leprosy  (2  Kings  v.). 

In  843  Hazael  assassinated  Ben-Hadad  and  made  himself 
king  of  Damascus.  The  states  which  Ben-Hadad  had  brought 
together  into  a  coalition  against  the  advancing  power  of  Assyria 
all  revolted;  and  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  took  advantage 
of  this  in  842  and  attacked  Syria.  He  wasted  the  country,  but 
could  not  take  the  capital.  Jehu,  king  of  Israel,  paid  tribute  to 
Assyria,  for  which  Hazael  afterwards  revenged  himself,  during 
the  time  when  Shalmaneser  was  distracted  by  his  Armenian 
wars,  by  attacking  the  borders  of  Israel  (2  Kings  x.  32). 

Adad-nirari  IV.  invaded  Syria  and  besieged  Damascus  in  806. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  and  similar  succeeding  events,  Jehoash, 
king  of  Israel,  recovered  the  cities  that  his  father  had  lost  to 
Hazael. 

In  734  Ahaz  became  king  of  Judah,  and  Rezon  (Rasun,  Rezin), 
the  king  of  Damascus  at  the  time,  came  up  against  him ;  at  the 
same  time  the  Edomites  and  the  Philistines  revolted.  Ahaz 
appealed  to  Tiglath-Pileser  III.,  king  of  Assyria,  sent  him  gifts, 
and  besought  his  protection.  Tiglath-Pileser  invaded  Syria,  and 
in  732  succeeded  in  reducing  Damascus  (see  also  BABYLONIA 
AND  ASSYRIA,  Chronology,  §  5,  and  JEWS,  §§  10  sqq.). 

Except  for  the  abortive  rising  under  Sargon  in  720,  we  hear 
nothing  more  of  Damascus  for  a  long  period.  In  333  B.C.,  after 
the  battle  of  Issus,  it  was  delivered  over  by  treachery  to  Par- 
menio,  the  general  of  Alexander  the  Great;  the  harem  and 
treasures  of  Darius  had  here  been  lodged.  It  had  a  chequered 
history  during  the  wars  of  the  successors  of  Alexander,  being 
occasionally  in  Egyptian  hands.  In  112  B.C.  the  empire  of  Syria 
was  divided  by  Antiochus  Grypus  and  Antiochus  Cyzicenus; 
the  city  of  Damascus  fell  to  the  share  of  the  latter.  Hyrcanus 
took  advantage  of  the  disputes  of  these  rulers  to  advance  his 
own  kingdom.  Demetrius  Eucaerus,  successor  of  Cyzicenus, 
invaded  Palestine  in  88  B.C.,  and  defeated  Alexander  Jannaeus 
at  Shechem.  On  his  dethronement  and  captivity  by  the  Par- 
thians,  Antiochus  Dionysus,  his  brother,  succeeded  him,  but  was 
slain  in  battle  by  Haritha  (Aretas)  the  Arab — the  first  instance  of 
Arab  interference  with  Damascene  politics.  Haritha  yielded  to 
Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  who  in  his  turn  was  driven  out  by 
Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  (son  of  Scipio  Nasica),  the  Roman  general. 
In  63  Syria  was  made  a  Roman  province. 

In  the  New  Testament  Damascus  appears  only  in  connexion 
with  the  miraculous  conversion  of  St  Paul  (Acts  ix.,  xxii.,  xxvi.), 
his  escape  from  Aretas  the  governor  by  being  lowered  in  a  basket 
over  the  wall  (Acts  ix.  25;  2  Cor.  xi.  32,  33),  and  his  return 
thither  after  his  retirement  in  Arabia  (Gal.  i.  17). 

In  150,  under  Trajan,  Damascus  became  a  Roman  provincial 
city. 

On  the  establishment  of  Christianity  Damascus  became  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  who  ranked  next  to  the  patriarch  of  Antioch. 
The  great  temple  of  Damascus  was  turned  by  Arcadius  into 
a  Christian  church. 

In  635  Damascus  was  captured  for  Islam  by  Khalid  ibn  Walid, 
the  great  general  of  the  new  religion,  being  the  first  city  to  yield 
after  the  battle  of  the  Yarmuk  (Hieromax).  After  the  murder 
of  Ali,  the  fourth  caliph,  his  successor  Moawiya  transferred  the 
seat  of  the  Caliphate  (q.v.)  from  Mecca  to  Damascus  and  thus 
commenced  the  great  dynasty  of  the  Omayyads,  whose  rule 
extended  from  the  Atlantic  to  India.  This  dynasty  lasted  about 
ninety  years;  it  was  supplanted  by  that  of  the  Abbasids,  who 
removed  the  seat  of  empire  to  Mesopotamia ;  and  Damascus 


DAMASK 


785 


passed  through  a  period  of  unrest  in  which  it  was  captured  and 
ravaged  by  Egyptians,  Carmathians  and  Seljuks  in  turn.  The 
crusaders  attacked  Damascus  in  1126,  but  never  succeeded  in 
keeping  a  firm  hold  of  it,  even  during  their  brief  domination  of  the 
country.  It  was  the  headquarters  of  Saladin  in  the  wars  with 
the  Franks.  Of  its  later  history  we  need  only  mention  the 
Mongolian  capture  in  1260;  its  Egyptian  recapture  by  the 
Mameluke  Kotuz;  the  ferocious  raid  of  Timur  (Tamerlane)  in 
1399;  and  the  conquest  by  the  Turkish  sultan  Seh'm,  whereby 
it  became  a  city  ol  the  Ottoman  empire  (1516).  In  its  more 
recent  history  the  only  incidents  that  need  be  mentioned  are 
its  capture  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  Egyptian  general,  in  1832, 
when  the  city  was  first  opened  to  the  representatives  of  foreign 
powers;  its  revolt  against  Ibrahim's  tyranny  in  1834,  which 
he  crushed  with  the  aid  of  the  Druses;  the  return  of  the  city 
to  Turkish  domination,  when  the  Egyptians  were  driven  out 
of  Syria  in  1840  by  the  allied  powers;  and  the  massacre  of  July 
1860,  when  the  Moslem  population  rose  against  the  Christians, 
burnt  their  quarter,  and  slaughtered  about  3000  adult  males. 

Modern  City. — Damascus  is  a  city  with  a  population  estimated 
at  from  154,000  (35,000  Christians  and  Jews)  10225,000(55,000 
Christians  and  Jews),  situated  near  the  northern  edge  of  a  plain 
called  the  Ghutah,  at  the  foot  of  Anti-Lebanon,  2250  ft.  above 
the  sea.  The  river  Barada  (the  Abanah  of  2  Kings  v.  12)  rises 
in  the  Anti-Lebanon,  runs  for  about  10  m.  in  a  narrow  channel, 
and  then  spreads  itself  fan-wise  over  the  plain.  About  18  m. 
east  of  the  city  it  loses  itself  in  the  marshlands  known  as  the 
Meadow  Lakes.  A  second  river,  the  'Awaj  (possibly  the  Pharpar 
of  2  Kings),  pursues  a  similar  course.  The  plain  is  thus  excep- 
tionally well  irrigated,  and  its  consequent  fertility  is  proverbial 
over  the  East.  Damascus  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Barada,  about  2  m.  from  the  exit  of  the  river  from  the  gorge. 
On  the  right  bank  is  all  the  older  part  of  the  city,  and  a  long 
suburb  called  El-Meidan  extending  about  a  mile  along  the  Hajj 
Road.  On  the  left  bank  are  the  suburbs  El  'Amara  and  El- 
Salihia.  The  waters  of  the  river  are  carried  by  channels  and 
conduits  to  all  the  houses  of  the  city.  The  orchards,  gardens, 
vineyards  and  fields  of  Damascus  are  said  to  extend  over  a 
circuit  of  at  least  60  m.  In  the  surrounding  plain  are  one  hundred 
and  forty  villages,  occupied  in  all  by  about  50,000  persons  (1000 
Christians,  2000  Druses). 

The  rough  mud  walls  in  the  private  houses  give  poor  promise 
of  splendour  within.  The  entrance  is  usually  by  a  low  door,  and 
through  a  narrow  winding  passage  which  leads  to  the  outer 
court,  where  the  master  has  his  reception  room.  From  this 
another  winding  passage  leads  to  the  harem,  which  is  the  principal 
part  of  the  house.  The  plan  of  all  is  the  same — an  open  court, 
with  a  tesselated  pavement,  and  one  or  two  marble  fountains; 
orange  and  lemon  trees,  flowering  shrubs,  and  climbing  plants 
give  freshness  and  fragrance.  'All  the  apartments  open  into  the 
court;  and  on  the  south  side  is  an  open  alcove,  with  a  marble 
floor,  and  raised  dais  round  three  sides,  covered  with  cushions; 
the  front  wall  is  supported  by  an  ornamented  Saracenic  arch. 
The  decoration  of  some  of  the  rooms  is  gorgeous,  the  walls  being 
covered  in  part  with  mosaics  and  in  part  with  carved  work, 
while  the  ceilings  are  rich  in  arabesque  ornaments,  elaborately 
gilt.  A  few  of  the  modern  Jewish  houses  have  been  embellished 
at  an  enormous  cost,  but  they  are  wanting  in  taste. 

Antiquities. — Considering  the  great  age  of  Damascus,  its 
comparative  poverty  in  antiquities  is  remarkable.  The  walls 
of  the  city  seem  to  be  Seleucid  in  origin;  some  of  the  Roman 
gateways  being  still  in  good  order.  The  Derb  el-Mistakim,  or 
"  Straight  Street,"  still  runs  through  the  city  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  gate.  At  the  north-west  corner  is  a  large  castle 
built  in  A.D.  1219,  by  El-Malik  el-Ashraf,  on  the  site  of  an  earlier 
palace.  It  is  quadrangular,  surrounded  by  a  moat  filled  by  the 
Barada.  The  outer  walls  are  in  good  preservation,  but  the 
interior  is  ruined. 

The  church  of  St  John  the  Baptist  constructed  by  Arcadius 
on  the  site  of  the  temple  was  turned  by  Caliph  Walid  I.  (705-717) 
to  a  mosque  which  was  the  most  important  building  of  Damascus. 
It  was  a  structure  431  ft.  by  125  ft.  interior  dimensions,  extending 


along  the  south  side  of  a  quadrangle  163  yds.by  108  yds.  Except 
the  famous  inscription  over  the  door — "  Thy  kingdom,  O  Christ, 
is  an  everlasting  kingdom,  and  thy  dominion  endureth  throughout 
all  generations  " — every  trace  of  Christianity  was  effaced  from 
the  church  at  its  conversion.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the 
I4th  of  October  1893,  and  though  it  was  subsequently  rebuilt, 
much  that  was  of  archaeological  and  historical  interest  perished. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  over  two  hundred  mosques  in 
Damascus. 

Products, Manufactures,  6*c. — Damascus  occupies  an  important 
commercial  position,  being  the  market  for  the  whole  of  the  desert; 
it  also  is  of  great  importance  religiously,  as  being  the  starting- 
point  for  the  Hajj  pilgrimage  from  Syria  to  Mecca,  which  leaves 
on  the  1 5th  of  the  lunar  month  of  Shawwal  each  year.  This  of 
course  brings  much  trade  to  the  city.  Its  chief  manufactures  are 
silk  work,  cloths  and  cloaks,  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  &c., 
brass  and  copper  work,  furniture  and  ornamental  woodwork. 
The  bazaars  of  Damascus  are  among  the  most  famous  of  their 
kind.  It  is  connected  with  Beirut  and  Mezerib  by  railway,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  past  century  the  great  undertaking  of  running 
a  line  to  Mecca  was  commenced.  In  the  surrounding  gardens  and 
fields  walnuts,  apricots,  wheat,  barley,  maize,  &c.  are  grown. 
Its  commercial  importance  is  referred  to  by  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  18), 
who  mentions  its  trade  in  wines  and  wool.  The  climate  is  good; 
in  winter  there  is  often  hard  frost  and  much  snow,  and  even  in 
summer,  with  a  day  temperature  of  100°  F.,  the  nights  are  always 
cool.  Fever,  dysentery  and  ophthalmia,  chiefly  due  to  exposure 
to  heavy  dews  and  cold  nights,  are  prevalent.  Though  still 
the  market  of  the  nomads,  the  surer  and  cheaper  sea  route  has 
almost  destroyed  the  transit  trade  to  which  it  once  owed  its 
wealth,  and  has  even  diminished  the  importance  of  the  annual 
pilgrim  caravan  to  Mecca.  The  Damascene,  however,  still 
retains  his  skill  as  a  craftsman  and  tiller  of  the  soil.  The  chief 
imports  are  cloths,  prints,  muslins,  raw  silk,  sugar,  rice,  &c. 

The  value  of  exports  and  imports  in  certain  specified  years 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: — 


1890. 

1894. 

1898. 

1905. 

Exports       .... 
Imports       .... 

£325,660 
525-710 

£400,830 
614,490 

£302,050 
675,080 

£386,000 
872,400 

Most  of  the  Christians  belong  to  the  Orthodox  and  Roman 
Catholic  (United)  Greek  Churches;  and  there  are  also  communi- 
ties of  Melchites,  Jacobites, Maronites,Nestorians,Armenians  and 
Protestants.  There  are  Protestant  missions,  founded  1843,  and 
a  British  hospital. 

AUTHORITIES. — Lortet,  La  Syrie  d'aujourd'hui,  p.  567  f.  (Paris, 
1884) ;  Von  Oppenheim,  Vom  Mittelmeer  zum  Persischen  Golf,  i. 
49  f.  (Berlin, 1 899);  G.  A.  Smith,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy 
Land;  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  art.  "  Damascus  " ;  Consular  Reports ; 
Baedeker-Socin,  Handbook  to  Syria  and  Palestine.  For  the  Great 
Mosque  see  Dickie,  Phene  Spiers,  and  Sir  C.  W.  Wilson  in  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  Oct.  1897.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

DAMASK,  the  technical  term  applied  to  certain  distinct  types 
of  fabric.  The  term  owes  its  origin  to  the  ornamental  silk  fabrics 
of  Damascus,  fabrics  which  were  elaborately  woven  in  colours, 
sometimes  with  the  addition  of  gold  and  other  metallic  threads. 
At  the  present  day  it  denotes  a  linen  texture  richly  figured  in 
the  weaving  with  flowers,  fruit,  forms  of  animal  life,  and  other 
types  of  ornament.  "  China,  no  doubt,"  says  Dr  Rock  (Catalogue 
of  Textile  Fabrics,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum) ,  "  was  the  first 
country  to  ornament  its  silken  webs  with  a  pattern.  India, 
Persia,  and  Syria,  then  Byzantine  Greece  followed,  but  at  long 
intervals  between,  in  China's  footsteps.  Stuffs  so  figured  brought 
with  them  to  the  West  the  name  '  diaspron  '  or  diaper,  bestowed 
upon  them  at  Constantinople.  But  about  the  I2th  century  the 
city  of  Damascus,  even  then  long  celebrated  for  its  looms,  so 
far  outstripped  all  other  places  for  beauty  of  design,  that  her 
silken  textiles  were  in  demand  everywhere;  and  thus,  as  often 
happens,  traders  fastened  the  name  of  damascen  or  damask  upon 
every  silken  fabric  richly  wrought  and  curiously  designed,  no 
matter  whether  it  came  or  not  from  Damascus."  The  term  is 
perhaps  now  best  known  in  reference  to  damask  table-cloths,  a 


786 


DAMASK  STEEL— DAMAUN 


species  of  figured  cloth  usually  of  flax  or  tow  yarns,  but  sometimes 
made  partly  of  cotton.  The  finer  qualities  are  made  of  the  best 
linen  yarn,  and,  although  the  latter  is  of  a  brownish  colour  during 
the  weaving  processes,  the  ultimate  fabric  is  pure  white.  The 
high  lights  in  these  cloths  are  obtained  by  long  floats  of  warp 
and  weft,  and,  as  these  are  set  at  right  angles,  they  reflect  the 
light  differently  according  to  the  angle  of  the  rays  of  light;  the 
effect  changes  also  with  the  position  of  the  observer.  Subdued 
effects  are  produced  by  shorter  floats  of  yarn,  and  sometimes 
by  special  weaves.  Any  subject,  however  intricate,  can  be 
copied  by  this  method  of  weaving,  provided  that  expense  is  no 
object.  The  finest  results  are  obtained  when  the  so-called 
double  damask  weaves  are  used.  These  weaves  are  shown  under 
DIE,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  each  weave  gives  a  maximum  float 
of  seven  threads.  (In  some  special  cases  a  weave  is  used  which 
gives  a  float  of  nine.)  The  small  figure  here  shown  to  illustrate 
a  small  section  of  a  damask  design  is  composed  of  the  two  single 
damask  weaves;  these  give  a  maximum  float  of  four  threads  or 
picks.  No  shading  is  shown  in  the  design,  and  this  for  two 
reasons — (i)  the  single  damask  weaves  do  not  permit  of 
elaborate  shading,  although  some  very  good  effects  are  obtain- 
able; (2)  the  available  space  is  not  sufficiently  large  to  show  the 
method  to  advantage.  The  different  single  damask  weaves  used 

in  the  shading  of  these 
cloths  appear,  however, 
at  the  bottom  of  the 
figure,  while  between 
these  and  the  design 
proper  there  is  an  illus- 
tration of  the  thirty-first 
pick  interweaving  with  all 
the  forty-eight  threads. 

The  principal  British 
centres  for  fine  damasks 
are  Belfast  and  Dunferm- 
line,  while  the  medium 
qualities  are  made  in 
several  places  in  Ireland, 
in  a  few  places  in  England, 
and  in  the  counties  of 
Fife,  Forfar  and  Perth 
in  Scotland.  Cotton 
damasks,  which  are  made 
in  Paisley,  Glasgow,  and  several  places  in  Lancashire,  are 
used  for  toilet  covers,  table-cloths,  and  similar  purposes.  They 
are  often  ornamented  with  colours  and  sent  to  the  Indian  and 
West  Indian  markets.  Silk  damasks  for  curtains  and  upholstery 
decoration  are  made  in  the  silk -weaving  centres. 

DAMASK  STEEL,  or  DAMASCUS  STEEL,  a  steel  with  a  peculiar 
watered  or  streaked  appearance,  as  seen  in  the  blades  of  fine 
swords  and  other  weapons  of  Oriental  manufacture.  One  way  of 
producing  this  appearance  is  to  twist  together  strips  of  iron  and 
steel  of  different  quality  and  then  weld  them  into  a  solid  mass. 
A  similar  but  inferior  result  may  be  obtained  by  etching  with 
acid  the  surface  of  a  metal,  parts  of  which  are  protected  by  some 
greasy  substance  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  watered  pattern 
desired.  The  art  of  producing  damask  steel  has  been  generally 
practised  in  Oriental  countries  from  a  remote  period,  the  most 
famous  blades  having  come  from  Isfahan,  Khorasan,  and 
Shiraz  in  Persia. 

DAMASUS,  the  name  of  two  popes. 

DAMASUS  I.  was  pope  from  366  to  384.  At  the  time  of  the 
banishment  of  Pope  Liberius  (355),  the  deacon  Damasus,  like 
all  the  Roman  clergy,  made  energetic  protest.  When,  however, 
the  emperor  Constantius  sent  to  Rome  an  anti-pope  in  the 
person  of  Felix  II.,  Damasus,  with  the  other  clergy,  rallied  to 
his  cause.  When  Liberius  returned  from  exile  and  Felix  was 
expelled  from  Rome,  Damasus  again  took  his  place  among  the 
adherents  of  Liberius.  On  the  death  of  Liberius  (366)  a  consider- 
able party  nominated  Damasus  successor;  but  the  irreconcil- 
ables  of  the  party  of  Liberius  refused  to  pardon  his  trimming, 
and  set  up  against  him  another  deacon,  Ursinus.  A  serious 


conflict  ensued  between  the  rival  factions,  which  quickly  led  to 
rioting  and  hand-to-hand  fighting.  In  one  of  these  encounters 
the  then  new  basilica,  called  the  Liberian  Basilica  (S.  Maria 
Maggiore),  was  partially  destroyed,  and  137  dead  bodies  were 
left  in  the  building.  On  several  occasions  the  secular  arm  had  to 
intervene,  although  the  government  of  the  emperor  Valentinian 
was  averse  from  involving  itself  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  From 
the  outset  the  prefect  of  Rome  recognized  the  claims  of  Damasus, 
and  exerted  himself  to  support  him.  Ursinus  and  the  leading 
men  of  his  faction  were  expelled  from  Rome,  and  afterwards 
from  central  Italy,  or  even  interned  in  Gaul.  They,  however, 
persisted  obstinately  in  their  opposition  to  Damasus,  combating 
him  at  first  by  riots,  and  then  by  calumnious  law-suits,  such  as 
that  instituted  by  one  Isaac,  a  converted  and  relapsed  Jew. 

To  the  official  support,  which  never  failed  him,  Damasus 
endeavoured  to  join  the  popular  sympathy.  From  before  his 
election  he  had  been  in  high  favour  with  the  Roman  aristocracy, 
and  especially  with  the  great  ladies.  At  that  period  the  urban 
masses,  but  recently  converted  to  Christianity,  sought  in  the 
worship  of  the  martyrs  a  sort  of  substitute  for  polytheism. 
Damasus  showed  great  zeal  in  discovering  the  tombs  of  martyrs, 
adorning  them  with  precious  marbles  and  monumental  inscrip- 
tions. The  inscriptions  he  composed  himself,  in  mediocre 
verse,  full  of  Virgilian  reminiscences.  Several  have  come  down 
to  us  on  the  original  marbles,  entire  or  in  fragments;  others  are 
known  from  old  copies.  In  the  interior  of  Rome  he  erected  or 
embellished  the  church  which  still  bears  his  name  (S.  Lorenzo 
in  Damaso),  near  which  his  father's  house  appears  to  have 
stood. 

The  West  was  recovering  gradually  from  the  troubles  caused 
by  the  Arian  crisis.  Damasus  took  part,  more  or  less  effectually, 
in  the  efforts  to  eliminate  from  Italy  and  Illyria  the  last  cham- 
pions of  the  council  of  Rimini.  In  spite  of  his  declaration  at 
the  council  convened  by  him  in  372,  he  did  not  succeed  in 
evicting  Auxentius  from  Milan.  But  Auxentius  died  soon 
afterwards,  and  his  successor,  Ambrose,  undertook  to  bring 
these  hitherto  abortive  efforts  to  a  successful  conclusion,  and  to 
complete  the  return  of  Illyria  to  the  confessions  of  Nicaea.  The 
bishops  of  the  East,  however,  under  the  direction  of  St  Basil, 
were  involved  in  a  struggle  with  the  emperor  Valens,  whose 
policy  was  favourable  to  the  council  of  Rimini.  Damasus,  to 
whom  they  appealed  for  help,  was  unable  to  be  of  much  service 
to  them,  the  more  so  because  that  episcopal  group,  viewed 
askance  by  St  Athanasius  and  his  successor  Peter,  was  inces- 
santly combated  at  the  papal  court  by  the  inveterate  hatred  of 
Alexandria.  The  Eastern  bishops  triumphed  in  the  end  under 
Theodosius,  at  the  council  of  Constantinople  (381),  in  which 
the  pope  and  the  Western  church  took  no  part.  They  were 
invited  to  a  council  of  wider  convocation,  held  at  Rome  in  382, 
but  very  few  attended. 

This  council  had  brought  to  Rome  the  learned  monk  Jerome, 
for  whom  Damasus  showed  great  esteem.  To  him  Damasus 
entrusted  the  revision  of  the  Latin  text  of  the  Bible  and  other 
works  of  religious  erudition.  A  short  time  before,  the  pope  had 
received  a  visit  from  the  Priscillianists  after  their  condemnation 
in  Spain,  and  had  dismissed  them.  Damasus  died  in  384,  on 
the  nth  of  December,  the  day  on  which  his  memory  is  still 
celebrated. 

DAMASUS  II.,  pope  from  the  I7th  of  July  to  the  gth  of  August 
1048,  was  the  ephemeral  successor  of  Clement  II.  His  original 
name  was  Poppo,  and  he  was  bishop  of  Brixen  when  the  emperor 
Henry  III.  raised  him  to  the  papacy.  (L.  D.*) 

DAMAUN  or  DAMAN,  a  town  of  Portuguese  India,  capital  of 
the  settlement  of  Damaun,  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  within  the  Bombay  Presidency. 
The  area  of  the  settlement  is  82  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1900)  41,671. 
The  settlement  is  divided  into  two  parts,  Damaun  proper,  and 
the  larger  pargana  of  Nagar  Havili,  the  two  being  separated 
by  a  narrow  strip  of  British  territory.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  rice, 
wheat  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  crops.  The  teak  forests  are 
valuable.  Weaving  is  an  industry  less  important  than  formerly; 
mats  and  baskets  are  manufactured,  and  deep-sea  fishing  is  an 


DAME— DAMIANI 


787 


important  industry.  The  shipbuilding  business  at  the  town 
of  Damaun  is  important.  Early  in  the  ipth  century  a  large 
transit  trade  in  opium  between  Karachi  and  China  was  carried 
on  at  Damaun,  but  it  ceased  in  1837,  when  the  British  prohibited 
it  after  their  conquest  of  Sind.  The  settlement  is  administered  as 
a  unit,  and  has  a  municipal  chamber. 

Damaun  town  was  sacked  and  burnt  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1531.  It  was  subsequently  rebuilt,  and  in  1558  was  again  taken 
by  the  Portuguese,  who  made  a  permanent  settlement  and 
converted  the  mosque  into  a  Christian  church.  From  that  time 
it  has  remained  in  their  hands.  The  territory  of  Damaun  proper 
was  conquered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1559;  that  of  Nagar  Havili 
was  ceded  to  them  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1780  in  indemnification 
for  piracy. 

DAME  (through  the  Fr.  from  Lat.  domina,  mistress,  lady, 
the  feminine  of  dominus,  master,  lord),  properly  a  name  of 
respect  or  a  title  equivalent  to  "  lady,"  now  surviving  in  English 
as  the  legal  designation  of  the  wife  or  widow  of  a  baronet  or  knight 
and  prefixed  to  the  Christian  name  and  surname.  It  has  also 
been  used  in  modern  times  by  certain  societies  or  orders,  e.g.  the 
Primrose  League,  as  the  name  of  a  certain  rank  among  the  lady 
members,  answering  to  the  male  rank  of  knight.  The  ordinary 
use  of  the  word  by  itself  is  for  an  old  woman.  As  meaning 
"mistress,"  i.e.  teacher,  "dame"  was  used  of  the  female  keepers 
of  schools  for  young  children,  which  have  become  obsolete  since 
the  advance  of  public  elementary  education.  At  Eton  College 
boarding-houses  kept  by  persons  other  than  members  of  the 
teaching  staff  of  the  school  were  known  as  "  Dames'  Houses," 
though  the  head  might  not  necessarily  be  a  lady.  As  a  term  of 
address  to  ladies  of  all  ranks,  from  the  sovereign  down,  "  madam," 
shortened  to  "  ma'am,"  represents  the  French  madame,  my 
lady. 

"  Damsel,"  a  young  girl  or  maiden,  now  only  used  as  a  literary 
word,  is  taken  from  the  Old  French  dameisele,  formed  from  dame, 
and  parallel  with  the  popular  dansele  or  doncele  from  the  medieval 
Latin  domicella  or  dominicella,  diminutive  of  domina.  The 
French  damoiselle  and  demoiselle  are  later  formations.  The 
English  literary  form  "  damosel  "  was  another  importation  from 
France  in  the  isth  century.  In  the  early  middle  ages  damoiseau, 
medieval  Latin  domicellus,  dameicele,  damoiselle,  domicella,  were 
used  as  titles  of  honour  for  the  unmarried  sons  and  daughters 
of  royal  persons  and  lords  (seigneurs).  Later  the  damoiseau 
(in  the  south  donzel,  in  Beam  domengar)  was  specifically  a  young 
man  of  gentle  birth  who  aspired  to  knighthood,  equivalent  to 
fcuyer,  esquire,  or  valet  (q.v.).  The  damoiseau  performed  certain 
functions  and  received  training  in  knightly  accomplishments 
in  the  domestic  service  of  his  lord.  Later  again  the  name  was 
also  used  of  nobles  who  had  not  been  knighted.  In  certain 
seigneuries  in  France,  notably  in  that  of  Commercy,  in  Lorraine, 
damoiseau  became  the  permanent  title  of  the  holder.  In  England 
the  title,  when  used  by  the  French-speaking  nobility  and  members 
of  the  court,  was  only  applied  to  the  son  or  grandson  of  the  king; 
thus  in  the  Laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  quoted  in  Du  Cange 
(Glossarium,  s.v.  Domicellus),  we  find  "  Rex  vero  Edgarum  .  .  . 
pro  filio  nutrivit  et  quia  cogitavit  ipsum  heredem  facere,  nomi- 
navit  Ethelinge,  quod  nos  Domicellum,  id,  Damisell;  sed  nos 
indiscrete  de  pluribus  dicimus,  quia  Baronum  filios  vocamus 
domicellos,  Angli  vero  nullos  nisi  natos  regum."  Froissart 
calls  Richard  II.  during  the  lifetime  of  his  father  the  Black 
Prince,  le  jeune  Demoisel.  The  use  of  damoiselle  followed  much 
the  same  development;  it  was  first  applied  to  the  unmarried 
daughters  of  royal  persons  and  seigneurs,  then  to  the  wife  of  a 
damoiseau,  and  also  to  the  young  ladies  of  gentle  birth  who 
performed  for  the  wives  of  the  seigneurs  the  same  domestic 
services  as  the  djimoiseaus  for  their  husbands.  Hence  the  later 
form  demoiselle  became  merely  the  title  of  address  of  a  young 
unmarried  lady,  the  mademoiselle  of  modern  usage,  the  English 
"  miss."  At  the  court  of  France,  after  the  I7th  century, 
Mademoiselle,  without  the  name  of  the  lady,  was  a  courtesy 
title  given  to  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  eldest  brother  of  the  king, 
who  was  known  as  Monsieur.  To  distinguish  the  daughter  of 
Gaston  d'Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIII.,  from  the  daughter  of 


Philippe  d'Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIV'.,  the  former,  Anne 
Marie  Louise,  duchesse  de  Montpensier,  was  called  La  Grande 
Mademoiselle,  by  which  title  she  is  known  to  history  (see  MONT- 
PENSIER, A.  M.  L.,  DUCHESSE  DE). 

DAME'S  VIOLET,  the  English  name  for  Hesperis  matronalis, 
a  herbaceous  plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Cruciferae, 
and  closely  allied  to  the  wallflower  and  stock.  It  has  an  erect 
stout  leafy  stem  2  to  3  ft.  high,  with  irregularly  toothed  short- 
stalked  leaves  and  white  or  lilac  flowers,  f  in.  across,  which  are 
scented  in  the  evening  (hence  the  name  of  the  genus,  from  the 
Gr.  eairtpos,  evening).  The  slender  pods  are  constricted  be- 
tween the  seeds.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  temperate 
Asia,  and  is  found  in  Britain  as  an  escape  from  gardens,  in 
meadows  and  plantations. 

DAMGHAN,  a  town  of  Persia  in  the  province  of  Semnan  va 
Damghan,  216  m.  from  Teheran  on  the  high-road  thence  to 
Khorasan,  at  an  elevation  of  3770  ft.  and  in  36°  10'  N.,  54°  20'  E. 
Pop.  about  10,000.  There  are  post  and  telegraph  offices,  and 
a  great  export  trade  is  done  in  pistachios  and  almonds,  the  latter 
being  of  the  kind  called  Kaghazi  ("  of  paper  ")  with  very  thin 
shells,  famous  throughout  the  country.  Damghan  was  an  im- 
portant city  in  the  middle  ages,  but  only  a  ruined  mosque  with 
a  number  of  massive  columns  and  some  fine  wood  carvings 
and  two  minarets,  of  the  nth  century  remain  of  that  period. 
Near  the  city,  a  few  miles  south  and  south-west,  are  the  remains 
of  Hecatompylos,  extending  from  Frat,  16  m.  south  of  Damghan, 
to  near  Gusheh,  20  m.  west.  Damghan  was  destroyed  by  the 
Afghans  in  1723.  On  an  eminence  in  the  western  part  of  the 
city  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  square  citadel  with  a  small  white- 
washed building,  called  Molud  Khaneh  (the  house  of  birth),  in 
which  Fath  Ali  Shah  was  born  (1772). 

DAMIANI,  PIETRO  (c.  1007-1072),  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
ecclesiastics  of  the  nth  century,  was  born  at  Ravenna,  and  after 
a  youth  spent  in  hardship  and  privation,  gained  some  renown 
as  a  teacher.  About  1035,  however,  he  deserted  his  secular 
calling  and  entered  the  hermitage  of  Fonte  Avellana,  near 
Gubbio;  and  winning  sound  reputation  through  his  piety  and 
his  preaching,  he  became  the  head  of  this  establishment  about 
1043.  A  zealot  for  monastic  and  clerical  reform,  he  introduced 
a  more  severe  discipline,  including  the  practice  of  flagellation, 
into  the  house,  which,  under  his  rule,  quickly  attained  celebrity, 
and  became  a  model  for  other  foundations.  Extending  the  area 
of  his  activities,  he  entered  into  communication  with  the  emperor 
Henry  III.,  addressed  to  Pope  Leo  IX.  in  1049  a  writing  denoun- 
cing the  vices  of  the  clergy  and  entitled  Liber  Gomorrhianus; 
and  soon  became  associated  with  Hildebrand  in  the  work  of 
reform.  As  a  trusted  counsellor  of  a  succession  of  popes  he  was 
made  cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia,  a  position  which  he  accepted 
with  some  reluctance;  and  presiding  over  a  council  at  Milan  in 
1059,  he  courageously  asserted  the  authority  of  Rome  over  this 
province,  and  won  a  signal  victory  for  the  principles  which  he 
advocated.  He  rendered  valuable  assistance  to  Pope  Alexander 
II.  in  his  struggle  with  the  anti-pope,  Honorius  II.;  and  having 
served  the  papacy  as  legate  to  France  and  to  Florence,  he  was 
allowed  to  resign  his  bishopric  in  1067.  After  a  period  of  retire- 
ment at  Fonte  Avellana,  he  proceeded  in  1069  as  papal  legate  to 
Germany,  and  persuaded  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  to  give  up  his 
intention  of  divorcing  his  wife  Bertha.  During  his  concluding 
years  he  was  not  altogether  in  accord  with  the  political  ideas  of 
Hildebrand.  He  died  at  Faenza  on  the  22nd  of  February  1072. 
Damiani  was  a  determined  foe  of  simony,  but  his  fiercest  wrath 
was  directed  against  the  married  clergy.  He  was  an  extremely 
vigorous  controversialist,  and  his  Latin  abounds  in  denunciatory 
epithets.  He  was  specially  devoted  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
wrote  an  Officium  Beatae  Virginis,  in  addition  to  many  letters, 
sermons,  and  other  writings. 

His  works  were  collected  by  Cardinal  Cajetan,  and  were  published 
in  four  volumes  at  Rome  (1606-1615),  and  then  at  Paris  in  1642, 
at  Venice  in  1743,  and  there  are  other  editions.  See  A.  Vogel,  Peter 
Damiani  (Jena,  1856);  A.  Capecelatro,  Storia  di  S.  Pier  Damiani  e 
del  suo  tempo  (Florence,  1862) ;  F.  Neukirch,  Das  Leben  des  Peter 
Damiani  (Gottingen,  1875) ;  L.  Guerrier,  De  Petro  Damiano  (Orleans, 
1881);  W.  von  Giesebrecht,  Ceschickte  der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit 


788 


DAMIEN,  FATHER— DAMIRON 


(Leipzig,  1885-1890) ;  and  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie,  Band 
iv.  (Leipzig,  1898). 

DAMIEN,  FATHER,  the  name  in  religion  of  JOSEPH  DE 
VEUSTER  (1840-1889),  Belgian  missionary,  was  born  at  Tremeloo, 
near  Louvain,  on  the  3rd  of  January  1840.  He  was  educated  for 
a  business  career,  but  in  his  eighteenth  year  entered  the  Church, 
joining  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (also 
known  as  the  Picpus  Congregation),  and  taking  Damien  as  his 
name  in  religion.  In  October  1863,  while  he  was  still  in  minor 
orders,  he  went  out  as  a  missionary  to  the  Pacific  Islands,  taking 
the  place  of  his  brother,  who  had  been  prevented  by  an  illness. 
He  reached  Honolulu  in  March  1864,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
Whitsuntide  of  that  year.  Struck  with  the  sad  condition  of  the 
lepers,  whom  it  was  the  practice  of  the  Hawaian  government  to 
deport  to  the  island  of  Molokai,  he  conceived  an  earnest  desire 
to  mitigate  their  lot,  and  in  1873  volunteered  to  take  spiritual 
charge  of  the  settlement  at  Molokai.  Here  he  remained  for  the 
rest  of  his  life,  with  occasional  visits  to  Honolulu,  until  he  became 
stricken  with  leprosy  in  1885.  Besides  attending  to  the  spiritual 
needs  of  the  lepers,  he  managed,  by  the  labour  of  his  own  hands 
and  by  appeals  to  the  Hawaian  government,  to  improve  materi- 
ally the  water-supply,  the  dwellings,  and  the  victualling  of  the 
settlement.  For  five  years  he  worked  alone;  subsequently 
other  resident  priests  from  time  to  time  assisted  him.  He  suc- 
cumbed to  leprosy  on  the  i5th  of  April  1889.  Some  ill-considered 
imputations  upon  Father  Damien  by  a  Presbyterian  minister 
produced  a  memorable  tract  by  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  (An 
Open  Letter  to  the  Rev.  Dr  Hyde,  1890). 

See  also  lives  by  E.  Clifford  (1889)  and  Fr.  Pamphile  (1889). 

(J.  M'F.) 

DAMIENS,  ROBERT  FRANCOIS  (1715-1757),  a  Frenchman 
who  attained  notoriety  by  his  attack  on  Louis  XV.  of  France  in 
1757,  was  born  in  a  village  near  Arras  in  1715,  and  early  enlisted 
in  the  army.  After  his  discharge,  he  became  a  menial  in  the 
college  of  the  Jesuits  in  Paris,  and  was  dismissed  from  this  as 
well  as  from  other  employments  for  misconduct,  his  conduct 
earning  for  him  the  name  of  Robert  le  Diable.  During  the 
disputes  of  Clement  XI.  with  the  parlement  of  Paris  the  mind 
of  Damiens  seems  to  have  been  excited  by  the  ecclesiastical 
disorganization  which  followed  the  refusal  of  the  clergy  to  grant 
the  sacraments  to  the  Jansenists  and  Convulsionnaires;  and  he 
appears  to  have  thought  that  peace  would  be  restored  by  the 
death  of  the  king.  He,  however,  asserted,  perhaps  with  truth, 
that  he  only  intended  to  frighten  the  king  without  wounding 
him  severely.  On  the  sth  of  January  1757,  as  the  king  was 
entering  his  carriage,  he  rushed  forward  and  stabbed  him  with  a 
knife,  inflicting  only  a  slight  wound.  He  made  no  attempt  to 
escape,  and  was  at  once  seized.  He  was  condemned  as  a  regicide, 
and  sentenced  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  horses  in  the  Place  de 
Greve.  Before  being  put  to  death  he  was  barbarously  tortured 
with  red-hot  pincers,  and  molten  wax,  lead,  and  boiling  oil  were 
poured  into  his  wounds.  After  his  death  his  house  was  razed  to 
the  ground,  his  brothers  and  sisters  were  ordered  to  change  their 
names,  and  his  father,  wife,  and  daughter  were  banished  from 
France. 

See  Pieces  originates  et  procedures  du  proces  fait  a  Robert  Francois 
Damiens  (Paris,  1757).  . 

DAMIETTA,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the  eastern  (Damietta 
or  Phatnitic)  branch  of  the  Nile,  about  12  m.  above  its  mouth, 
and  125  m.  N.N.E.  of  Cairo  by  rail.  Pop.  (1907)  29,354. 
The  town  is  built  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  between  it  and 
Lake  Menzala.  Though  in  general  ill-built  and  partly  ruinous, 
the  town  possesses  some  fine  mosques,  with  lofty  minarets, 
public  baths  and  busy  bazaars.  Along  the  river-front  are  many 
substantial  houses  furnished  with  terraces,  and  with  steps  leading 
to  the  water.  Their  wooden  lattices  of  saw-work  are  very 
graceful.  After  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  Damietta  was  for  cen- 
turies the  largest  town  in  Egypt,  but  the  silting  up  of  the  entrance 
to  the  harbour,  the  rise  of  Port  Said,  and  the  remarkable  develop- 
ment of  Alexandria  have  robbed  Damietta  of  its  value  as  a  port. 
It  has  still,  however,  a  coasting  trade  with  Syria  and  the  Levant. 
Ships  over  6  ft.  draught  cannot  enter  the  river,  but  must  anchor 


in  the  offing.  Lake  Menzala  yields  large  supplies  of  fish,  which 
are  dried  and  salted,  and  these,  with  rice,  furnish  the  chief  articles 
of  trade. 

Damietta  is  a  Levantine  corruption  of  the  Coptic  name 
Tamiati,  Arabic  Dimyal.  The  original  town  was  4  m.  nearer 
the  sea  than  the  modern  city,  and  first  rose  into  importance  on 
the  decay  of  Pelusium.  When  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens  it  became  a  place  of  great  wealth  and  commerce,  and, 
as  the  eastern  bulwark  of  Egypt,  was  frequently  attacked  by  the 
crusaders.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  sieges  lasted  eighteen 
months,  from  June  1218  to  November  1219,  and  ended  in  the 
capture  of  the  town,  which  was,  however,  held  but  for  a  brief 
period.  In  June  1249  Louis  IX.  of  France  occupied  Damietta 
without  opposition,  but  being  defeated  near  Mansura  in  the 
February  following,  and  compelled  (6th  April)  to  surrender 
himself  prisoner,  Damietta  was  restored  to  the  Moslems  as  part 
of  the  ransom  exacted.  To  prevent  further  attacks  from  the  sea 
the  Mameluke  sultan  Bibars  blocked  up  the  Phatnitic  mouth  of 
the  Nile  (about  1260),  razed  old  Damietta  to  the  ground,  and 
transferred  the  inhabitants  to  the  site  of  the  modern  town.  It 
continued  to  be  a  place  of  commercial  importance  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  until  in  fact  Port  Said  gave  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Delta  a  better  port.  Damietta  gives  its  name  to  dimity,  a 
kind  of  striped  cloth,  for  which  the  place  was  at  one  time  famous. 
Cotton  and  silk  goods  are  still  manufactured  here. 

DAMIRI,  the  common  name  of  KAMAL  uo-DiN  MUHAMMAD  IBN 
MUSA  UD-DAMIRI  (1344-1405),  Arabian  writer  on  canon  law  and 
natural  history,  belonged  to  one  of  the  two  towns  called  Damlra 
near  Damietta  and  spent  his  life  in  Egypt.  Of  the  Shafi'ite  school 
of  law,  he  became  professor  of  tradition  in  the  Ruknlyya  at  Cairo, 
and  also  at  the  mosque  el-Azhar;  in  connexion  with  this  work 
he  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Minhaj  ut-  Tdlibin  of  Nawawi 
(q.v.).  He  is,  however,  better  known  in  the  history  of  literature 
for  his  Life  of  Animals  (Hay at  ul-Hayawari),  which  treats  in 
alphabetic  order  of  931  animals  mentioned  in  the  Koran,  the 
traditions  and  the  poetical  and  proverbial  literature  of  the  Arabs. 
The  work  is  a  compilation  from  over  500  prose  writers  and  nearly 
200  poets.  The  correct  spelling  of  the  names  of  the  animals  is 
given  with 'an  explanation  of  their  meanings.  The  use  of  the 
animals  in  medicine,  their  lawfulness  or  unlawfulness  as  food, 
their  position  in  folk-lore  are  the  main  subjects  treated,  while 
occasionally  long  irrelevant  sections  on  political  history  are 
introduced. 

The  work  exists  in  three  forms.  The  fullest  has  been  published 
several  times  in  Egypt;  a  mediate  and  a  short  recension  exist  in 
manuscript.  Several  editions  have  been  made  at  various  times  of 
extracts,  among  them  the  poetical  one  by  Suyuti  (q.v.),  which  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  A.  Ecchelensis  (Paris,  1667).  Bochartus 
in  his  Hierozoicon  (1663)  used  Darmri's  work.  There  is  a  translation 
of  the  whole  into  English  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Jayakar  (Bombay, 
1906-1908).  (G.  W.  T.) 

DAMIRON,  JEAN  PHILIBERT  (1794-1862),  French  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Belleville.  At  nineteen  he  entered  the 
normal  school,  where  he  studied  under  Burnouf,  Villemain,  and 
Cousin.  After  teaching  for  several  years  in  provincial  towns,  he 
came  to  Paris,  where  he  lectured  on  philosophy  in  various  in- 
stitutions, and  finally  became  professor  in  the  normal  school, 
and  titular  professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  In  1824  he  took  part 
with  P.  F.  Dubois  and  Th.  S.  Jouffroy  in  the  establishment  of 
the  Globe;  and  he  was  also  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the 
society  which  took  for  its  motto  Aide-toi,  le  ciel  f  aider  a.  In 
1833  he  was  appointed  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  in 
1836  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  Sciences.  Damiron  died 
at  Paris  on  the  nth  of  January  1862. 

The  chief  works  of  Damiron,  of  which  the  best  are  his  accounts 
of  French  philosophers,  are  the  following: — A«  edition  of  the 
Nouveaux  melanges  philosophiques  de  Jouffroy  (1842),  with  a 
notice  of  the  author,  in  which  Damiron  softened  and  omitted 
several  expressions  used  by  Jouffroy,  which  were  opposed  to  the 
system  of  education  adopted  by  the  Sorbonne,  an  article  which 
gave  rise  to  a  bitter  controversy,  and  to  a  book  by  Pierre  Leroux, 
De  la  mutilation  des  manuscrits  de  M.  Jouffroy  (1843);  Essai  sur 
riiistoire  de  la  philosophie  en  France  au  XIX'  siecle  (1828,  3rd  ed. 


DAMJANICH— DAMOCLES 


789 


1834);  Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  la  philosophic  en  France  au  XVII. 
siecle  (1846);  M (moires  a  servir  pour  I'histoire  de  la  philosophic 
en  France  au  XVIII.  siecle  (1858-1864) ;  Cours  de  la  philosophic; 
De  la  Providence  (1849,  1850). 
See  A.  Franck,  Moralistes  el  philosophes  (1872). 

DAMJANICH,  JANOS  (1804-1849),  Hungarian  soldier,  was 
born  at  Stasa  in  the  Banat.  He  entered  the  army  as  an  officer 
in  the  6ist  regiment  of  foot,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Hun- 
garian war  of  independence  was  promoted  to  be  a  major  in  the 
third  Honved  regiment  at  Szeged.  Although  an  orthodox  Serb, 
he  was  from  the  first  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Magyar  liberals. 
He  won  his  colonelcy  by  his  ability  and  valour  at  the  battles  of 
Alibunar  and  Lagerdorf  in  1848.  At  the  beginning  of  1849  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  3rd  army  corps  in  the  middle 
Theiss,  and  quickly  gained  the  reputation  of  being  the  bravest 
man  in  the  Magyar  army,  winning  engagement  after  engagement 
by  sheer  dash  and  daring.  At  the  beginning  of  March  1849  he 
annihilated  a  brigade  at  Szolnok,  perhaps  his  greatest  exploit. 
He  was  elected  deputy  for  Szolnok  to  the  Hungarian  diet,  but 
declined  the  honour.  Damjanich  played  a  leading  part  in  the 
general  advance  upon  the  Hungarian  capital  under  Gorgei.  He 
was  present  at  the  engagements  of  Hort  and  Hatvan,  converted 
the  doubtful  fight  of  Tapio-Bicsk  into  a  victory,  and  fought 
with  irresistible  elan  at  the  bloody  battle  of  Isaszeg.  At  the 
ensuing  review  at  Godollo,  Kossuth  expressed  the  sentiments  of 
the  whole  nation  when  he  doffed  his  hat  as  Damjanich 's  battalions 
passed  by.  Always  a  fiery  democrat,  Damjanich  uncompromis- 
ingly supported  the  extremist  views  of  Kossuth,  and  was 
appointed  commander  of  one  of  the  three  divisions  which,  under 
Gorgei,  entered  Vacz  in  April  1849.  His  fame  reached  its 
culmination  when,  on  the  igth  of  April,  he  won  the  battle  of 
Nagysarlo,  which  led  to  the  relief  of  the  hardly-pressed  fortress 
of  Komarom.  At  this  juncture  Damjanich  broke  his  leg,  an 
accident  which  prevented  him  from  taking  part  in  field  opera- 
tions at  the  most  critical  period  of  the  war,  when  the  Magyars 
had  to  abandon  the  capital  for  the  second  time.  He  recovered 
sufficiently,  however,  to  accept  the  post  of  commandant  of  the 
fortress  of  Arad.  After  the  Vilagos  catastrophe,  Damjanich,  on 
being  summoned  to  surrender,  declared  he  would  give  up  the 
fortress  to  a  single  company  of  Cossacks,  but  would  defend  it  to 
the  last  drop  of  his  blood  against  the  whole  Austrian  army.  He 
accordingly  surrendered  to  the  Russian  general  Demitrius 
Buturlin  (1790-1849),  by  whom  he  was  handed  over  to  the 
Austrians,  who  shot  him  in  the  market-place  of  Arad  a  few  days 
later. 

See  Odon  Hamvay,  Life  of  Jdnos  Damjanich  (Hung.),  (Budapest, 
1904).  (R.  N.  B.) 

DAMMAR,  or  DAMMER  (Hind.  damar  =  Tesin,  pitch),  a  resin, 
or  rather  series  of  resins,  obtained  from  various  coniferous  trees 
of  the  genus  Dammara  (Agathis).  East  Indian  dammar  or  cat's 
eye  resin  is  the  produce  of  Dammara  orientalis,  which  grows  in 
Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo  and  other  eastern  islands  and  some- 
times attains  a  height  of  80-100  ft.  It  oozes  in  large  quantities 
from  the  tree  in  a  soft  viscous  state,  with  a  highly  aromatic 
odour,  which,  however,  it  loses  as  it  hardens  by  exposure.  The 
resin  is  much  esteemed  in  oriental  communities  for  incense- 
burning.  Dammar  is  imported  into  England  by  way  of  Singa- 
pore; and  as  found  in  British  markets  it  is  a  hard,  transparent, 
brittle,  straw-coloured  resin,  destitute  of  odour.  It  is  readily 
soluble  in  ether,  benzol  and  chloroform,  and  with  oil  of  turpentine 
it  forms  a  fine  transparent  varnish  which  dries  clear,  smooth  and 
hard.  The  allied  kauri  gum,  or  dammar  of  New  Zealand 
(Australian  dammar),  is  produced  by  Dammara  australis,  or 
kauri-pine,  the  wood  of  which  is  used  for  wood  paving.  Much  of 
the  New  Zealand  resin  is  found  fossil  in  circumstances  analogous 
to  the  conditions  under  which  the  fossil  copal  of  Zanzibar  is 
obtained.  Dammar  is  besides  a  generic  Indian  name  for  various 
other  resins,  which,  however,  are  little  known  in  western  com- 
merce. Of  these  the  principal  are  black  dammar  (the  Hindustani 
kala-damar),  yielded  by  Canarium  strictum,  and  white  dammar, 
Indian  copal,  or  piney  varnish  (sufed-d amar) ,  the  produce  of 
Valeria  indica.  Sal  dammar  (damar)  is  obtained  from  Shorea 


robusta;  Hopea  micrantha  is  the  source  of  rock  dammar  (the 
Malay  dammer-batu) ;  and  other  species  yield  resins  which  are 
similarly  named  and  differ  little  in  physical  properties. 

DAMMARTIN,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Seine  et  Marne,  22  m.  N.E.  of  Paris.  It  is  well  situated  on  a 
hill  forming  part  of  the  plateau  of  la  Goele,  and  is  known  as 
Dammartin-en-Goele  to  distinguish  it  from  Dammartin-sous- 
Tigeaux,  a  small  commune  in  the  same  department.  Dam  martin 
is  historically  important  as  the  seat  of  a  countship  of  which  the 
holders  played  a  considerable  part  in  French  history.  The 
earliest  recorded  count  of  Dammartin  was  a  certain  Hugh,  who 
made  himself  master  of  the  town  in  the  loth  century;  but  his 
dynasty  was  replaced  by  another  family  in  the  nth  century. 
Reynald  I.  (Renaud),  count  of  Dammartin  (d.  1227),  who  was 
one  of  the  coalition  crushed  by  King  Philip  Augustus  at  the 
battle  of  Bouvines  (1214),  left  two  co-heiresses,  of  whom  the 
elder,  Maud  (Matilda  or  Mahaut),  married  Philip  Hurepel,  son 
of  Philip  Augustus,  and  the  second,  Alix,  married  Jean  de  Trie, 
in  whose  line  the  countship  was  reunited  after  the  death  of 
Philip  Hurepel's  son  Alberic.  The  countship  passed,  through 
heiresses,  to  the  houses  of  Fayel  and  Nanteuil,  and  in  the  isth 
century  was  acquired  by  Antoine  de  Chabannes  (d.  1488),  one 
of  the  favourites  of  King  Charles  VII.,  by  his  marriage  with 
Marguerite,  heiress  of  Reynald  V.  of  Nanteuil-Aci  and  Marie  of 
Dammartin.  This  Antoine  de  Chabannes,  count  of  Dammartin 
in  right  of  his  wife,  fought  under  the  standard  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
became  a  leader  of  the  £corcheurs,  took  part  in  the  war  of  the 
public  weal  against  Louis  XI.,  and  then  fought  for  him  against 
the  Burgundians.  The  collegiate  church  at  Dammartin  was 
founded  by  him  in  1480,  and  his  tomb  and  effigy  are  in  the 
chancel.  His  son,  Jean  de  Chabannes,  left  three  heiresses, 
of  whom  the  second  left  a  daughter  who  brought  the  countship 
to  Philippe  de  Boulainvilliers,  by  whose  heirs  it  was  sold  in 
1554  to  the  dukes  of  Montmorency.  In  1632  the  countship  was 
confiscated  by  Louis  XIII.  and  bestowed  on  the  princes  of 
Conde. 

DAMME,  a  decayed  city  of  Belgium,  5  m.  N.E.  of  Bruges, 
once  among  the  most  important  commercial  ports  of  Europe. 
It  is  situated  on  the  canal  from  Bruges  to  Sluys  (Ecluse),  but 
in  the  middle  ages  a  navigable  channel  or  river  called  the  Zwyn 
gave  ships  access  to  it  from  the  North  Sea.  The  great  naval 
battle  of  Sluys,  in  which  Edward  III.  destroyed  the  French 
fleet  and  secured  the  command  of  the  channel,  was  fought  in 
the  year  1340  at  the  mouth  of  the  Zwyn.  About  1395  this 
channel  began  to  show  signs  of  silting  up,  and  during  the  next 
hundred  years  the  process  proved  rapid.  In  1490  a  treaty  was 
signed  at  Damme  between  the  people  of  Bruges  and  the  archduke 
Maximilian,  and  very  soon  after  this  event  the  channel  became 
completely  closed  up,  and  the  foreign  merchant  gilds  or  "  nations" 
left  the  place  for  Antwerp.  This  signified  the  death  of  the  port 
and  was  indirectly  fatal  to  Bruges  as  well.  The  marriage  of 
Charles  the  Bold  and  Margaret  of  York,  sister  of  Edward  IV., 
was  celebrated  at  Damme  on  the  2nd  of  July  1468.  It  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  town  to  mention  that  it  had 
its  own  maritime  law,  known  as  Droit  maritime  de  Damme.  The 
new  ship  canal  from  Zeebrugge  will  not  revive  the  ancient  port, 
as  it  follows  a  different  route,  leaving  Damme  and  Ecluse  quite 
untouched.  Damme,  although  long  neglected,  preserves  some 
remains  of  its  former  prosperity,  thanks  to  its  remoteness  from 
the  area  of  international  strife  in  the  Low  Countries.  The  tower 
of  Notre  Dame,  dating  from  1180,  is  a  landmark  across  the 
dunes,  and  the  church  behind  it,  although  a  shell,  merits  in- 
spection. Out  of  a  portion  of  the  ancient  markets  a  h6tel-de- 
ville  of  modest  dimensions  has  been  constructed,  and  in  the 
hospital  of  St  Jean  are  a  few  pictures.  Camille  Lemonnier  has 
given  in  one  of  his  Causeries  a  striking  picture  of  this  faded 
scene  of  former  greatness,  now  a  solitude  in  which  the  few 
residents  seem  spectres  rather  than  living  figures. 

DAMOCLES,  one  of  the  courtiers  of  the  elder  Dionysius  of 
Syracuse.  When  he  spoke  in  extravagant  terms  of  the  happiness 
of  his  sovereign,  Dionysius  is  said  to  have  invited  him  to  a 
sumptuous  banquet,  at  which  he  found  himself  seated  under 


79° 


DAMOH— DAMPIER 


a  naked  sword  suspended  by  a  single  hair  (Cicero,  Tusc.  v.  21; 
Horace,  Odes,  iii.  i,  17;  Persius  iii.  40). 

DAMOH,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Jubbul- 
pore  division  of  the  Central  Provinces.  The  town  has  a  railway 
station,  48  m.  E.  of  Saugor.  Pop.  (1901)  13,355.  It  has  a  con- 
siderable cattle-market,  and  a  number  of  small  industries,  such 
as  weaving,  dyeing  and  pottery-making. 

The  DISTRICT  or  DAMOH  has  an  area  of  2816  sq.  m.  Except 
on  the  south  and  east,  where  the  offshoots  from  the  surrounding 
hills  and  patches  of  jungle  break  up  the  country,  the  district 
consists  of  open  plains  of  varying  degrees  of  fertility,  interspersed 
with  low  ranges  and  isolated  heights.  The  richest  tracts  lie  in 
the  centre.  The  gentle  declivity  of  the  surface  and  the  porous 
character  of  the  prevailing  sandstone  formation  render  the 
drainage  excellent.  All  the  streams  flow  from  south  to  north. 
The  Sunar  and  the  Bairma,  the  two  principal  rivers,  traverse 
the  entire  length  of  the  district.  Little  use  has  been  made  of 
any  of  the  rivers  for  irrigation,  though  in  many  places  they  offer 
great  facilities  for  the  purpose.  Damoh  was  first  formed  into 
a  separate  district  in  1861.  In  1901  the  population  was  285,326, 
showing  a  decrease  of  1 2  %  in  one  decade  due  to  famine.  Damoh 
suffered  severely  from  the  famine  of  1896-1897.  Fortunately 
the  famine  of  1900  was  little  felt.  A  branch  of  the  Indian 
Midland  railway  was  opened  throughout  from  Saugor  to  Katni 
in  January  1899. 

DAMON,  of  Syracuse,  a  Pythagorean,  celebrated  for  his 
disinterested  affection  for  Phintias  (not,  as  commonly  given, 
Pythias),  a  member  of  the  same  sect.  Condemned  to  death  by 
Dionysius  the  Elder  (or  Younger)  of  Syracuse,  Phintias  begged 
to  be  set  at  liberty  for  a  short  time  that  he  might  arrange  his 
affairs.  Damon  pledged  his  life  for  the  return  of  his  friend; 
and  Phintias  faithfully  returned  before  the  appointed  day  of 
execution.  The  tyrant,  to  express  his  admiration  of  their 
fidelity,  released  both  the  friends  and  begged  to  be  admitted 
to  their  friendship  (Diod.  Sic.  x.  4;  Cicero,  De  Of.  iii.  10). 
Hyginus  (Fab.  257,  who  is  followed  by  Schiller  in  his  ballad, 
Die  Biirgschaft)  tells  a  similar  story,  in  which  the  two  friends 
are  named  Moerus  and  Selinuntius. 

DAMOPHON,  a  Greek  sculptor  of  Messene,  who  executed 
many  statues  for  the  people  of  Messene,  Megalopolis,  Aegium  and 
other  cities  of  Peloponnesus.  Considerable  fragments,  including 
three  colossal  heads  from  a  group  by  him  representing  Demeter, 
Persephone,  Artemis  and  the  giant  Anytus,  have  been  discovered 
on  the  site  of  Lycosura  in  Arcadia,  where  was  a  temple  of  the 
goddess  called  "  The  Mistress."  They  are  preserved  in  part  in 
the  museum  at  Athens  and  partly  on  the  spot.  Hence  there 
has  arisen  a  great  controversy  as  to  the  date  of  the  artist,  who 
has  been  assigned  to  various  periods,  from  the  4th  century  B.C. 
to  the  2nd  A.D.  A  good  account  of  the  whole  matter  will  be 
found  in  Frazcr's  Pausanias,  iv.  372-379.  Frazer  wisely  in- 
clines to  an  early  date;  it  is  in  fact  difficult  to  find  any  period, 
when  the  cities  mentioned  were  in  a  position  to  found  temples, 
later  than  the  time  of  Alexander. 

DAMP,  a  common  Teutonic  word,  meaning  vapour  or  mist 
(cf.  Ger.  Dampf,  steam),  and  hence  moisture.  In  its  primitive 
sense  the  word  persists  in  the  vocabulary  of  coal-miners.  Their 
"  firedamp  "  (formerly  fulminating  damp)  is  marsh  gas,  which, 
when  mixed  with  air  and  exploded,  produced  "  choke  damp," 
"  after  damp,"  or  "  suffocating  damp "  (carbon  dioxide). 
"  Black  damp  "  consists  of  accumulations  of  irrespirable  gases, 
mostly  nitrogen,  which  cause  the  lights  to  burn  dimly,  and 
the  term  "  white  damp  "  is  sometimes  applied  to  carbon  mon- 
oxide. As  a  verb,  the  word  means  to  stifle  or  check  ;  hence 
damped  vibrations  or  oscillations  are  those  which  have  been 
reduced  or  stopped,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  die  out  natur- 
ally; the  "  dampers  "  of  the  piano  are  small  pieces  of  felt- 
covered  wood  which  fall  upon  the  strings  and  stop  their  vibra- 
tions as  the  keys  are  allowed  to  rise;  and  the  "  damper  "  of  a 
chimney  or  flue,  by  restricting  the  draught,  lessens  the  rate  of 
combustion. 

DAMPIER,  WILLIAM  (1652-1715),  English  buccaneer,  navi- 
gator and  hydrographer,  was  born  at  East  Coker,  Somersetshire, 


in  1652  (baptized  8th  of  June).  Having  early  become  an  orphan, 
he  was  placed  with  the  master  of  a  ship  at  Weymouth,  in  which 
he  made  a  voyage  to  Newfoundland.  On  his  return  he  sailed  to 
Bantam  in  the  East  Indies.  He  served  in  1673  in  the  Dutch 
War  under  Sir  Edward  Sprague,  and  was  present  at  two  engage- 
ments (28th  of  May;  4th  of  June);  but  then  fell  sick  and  was 
put  ashore.  In  1674  he  became  an  under-manager  of  a  Jamaica 
estate,  but  continued  only  a  short  time  in  this  situation.  He 
afterwards  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  and  thus  acquired  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  all  the  ports  and  bays  of  the  island.  He 
made  two  voyages  to  the  Bay  of  Campeachy  (1675-1676),  and 
remained  for  some  time  with  the  logwood-cutters,  varying  this 
occupation  with  buccaneering.  In  1678  he  returned  to  England, 
again  visiting  Jamaica  in  1679  and  joining  a  party  of  buccaneers, 
with  whom  he  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  spent  the  year 
1680  on  the  Peruvian  coast,  and  sacking,  plundering  and  burn- 
ing, made  his  way  down  to  Juan  Fernandez  Island.  After  serving 
with  another  privateering  expedition  in  the  Spanish  Main,  he 
went  to  Virginia  and  engaged  with  a  captain  named  Cook  for  a 
privateering  voyage  against  the  Spaniards  in  the  South  Seas. 
They  sailed  in  August  1683,  touched  at  the  Guinea  coast,  and 
then  proceeded  round  Cape  Horn  into  the  Pacific.  Having 
touched  at  Juan  Fernandez,  they  made  the  coast  of  South 
America,  cruising  along  Chile  and  Peru.  They  took  some  prizes, 
and  with  these  they  proceeded  to  the  Galapagos  Islands  and 
to  Mexico,  which  last  they  fell  in  with  near  Cape  Blanco. 
While  they  lay  here  Captain  Cook  died,  and  the  command 
devolved  on  Captain  Davis,  who,  with  several  other  pirate 
vessels,  English  and  French,  raided  the  west  American  shores 
for  the  next  year,  attacking  Guayaquil,  Puebla  Nova,  &c.  At 
last  Dampier,  leaving  Davis,  went  on  board  Swan's  ship,  and 
proceeded  with  him  along  the  northern  parts  of  Mexico  as  far  as 
southern  California.  Swan  then  proposed,  as  the  expedition  met 
with  "  bad  success  "  on  the  Mexican  coast,  to  run  across  the 
Pacific  and  return  by  the  East  Indies.  They  started  from  Cape 
Corrientes  on  the  3ist  of  March  1686,  and  reached  Guam  in  the 
Ladrones  on  the  2oth  of  May;  the  men,  having  almost  come  to 
an  end  of  their  rations,  had  decided  to  kill  and  eat  their  leaders 
next,  beginning  with  the  "  lusty  and  fleshy  "  Swan.  After  six 
months'  drunkenness  and  debauchery  in  the  Philippines,  the 
majority  of  the  crew,  including  Dampier,  left  Swan  and  thirty- 
six  others  behind  in  Mindanao,  cruised  (1687-1688)  from  Manila 
to  Pulo  Condore,  from  the  latter  to  China,  and  from  China  to 
the  Spice  Islands  and  New  Holland  (the  Australian  mainland). 
In  March  1688  they  were  off  Sumatra,  and  in  May  off  the  Nico- 
bars,  where  Dampier  was  marooned  (at  his  own  request,  as  he 
declares,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  trade  in  ambergris) 
with  two  other  Englishmen,  a  Portuguese  and  some  Malays. 
He  and  his  companions  contrived  to  navigate  a  canoe  to  Achin 
in  Sumatra;  but  the  fatigues  and  distress  of  the  voyage  proved 
fatal  to  several  and  nearly  carried  off  Dampier  himself.  After 
making  several  voyages  to  different  places  of  the  East  Indies 
(Tongking,  Madras,  &c.),  he  acted  for  some  time,  and  apparently 
somewhat  unwillingly,  as  gunner  to  the  English  fort  of  Benkulen. 
Thence  he  ultimately  contrived  to  return  to  England  in  1691. 

In  1699  he  was  sent  out  by  the  English  admiralty  in  command 
of  the  "  Roebuck,"  especially  designed  for  discovery  in  and 
around  Australia.  He  sailed  from  the  Downs,  the  i4th  of 
January,  with  twenty  months'  provisions,  touched  at  the 
Canaries,  Cape  Verdes  and  Bahia,  and  ran'from  Brazil  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  direct  to  Australia,  whose  west  coast  he 
reached  on  the  26th  of  July,  in  about  26°  S.  lat.  Anchoring  in 
Shark's  Bay,  he  began  a  careful  exploration  of  the  neighbouring 
shore-lands,  but  found  no  good  harbour  or  estuary,  no  fresh 
water  or  provisions.  In  September,  accordingly,  he  left  Australia, 
recruited  and  refitted  at  Timor,  and  thence  made  for  New  Guinea, 
where  he  arrived  on  the  3rd  of  December.  By  sailing  along  to 
its  easternmost  extremity,  he  discovered  that  it  was  terminated 
by  an  island,  which  he  named  New  Britain  (now  Neu  Pommern), 
whose  north,  south  and  east  coasts  he  surveyed.  That  St 
George's  Bay  was  really  St  George's  Channel,  dividing  the  island 
into  two,  was  not  perceived  by  Dampier;  it  was  the  discovery 


DAN— DANA,  C.  A. 


791 


of  his  successor,  Philip  Carteret.  Nor  did  Dampier  visit  the 
west  coast  of  New  Britain  or  realize  its  small  extent  on  that  side. 
He  was  prevented  from  prosecuting  his  discoveries  by  the  dis- 
content of  his  men  and  the  state  of  his  ship.  In  May  1 700  he  was 
again  at  Timor,  and  thence  he  proceeded  homeward  by  Batavia 
(4th  July-i7th  October)  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In 
February  1701  he  arrived  off  Ascension  Island,  when  the  vessel 
foundered  (2ist-24th  February),  the  crew  reaching  land  and 
staying  in  the  island  till  the  3rd  of  April,  when  they  were  con- 
veyed to  England  by  some  East  Indiamen  and  warships  bound  for 
home.  In  1703-1707  Dampier  commanded  two  government 
privateers  on  an  expedition  to  the  South  Seas  with  grievous 
unsuccess;  better  fortune  attended  him  on  his  last  voyage,  as 
pilot  to  Woodes  Rogers  in  the  circumnavigation  of  1708-1711. 
On  the  former  venture  Alexander  Selkirk,  the  master  of  one  of 
the  vessels,  was  marooned  at  Juan  Fernandez;  on  the  latter 
Selkirk  was  rescued  and  a  profit  of  nearly  £200,000  was  made. 
But  four  years  before  the  prize-money  was  paid  Dampier  died 
(March  1715)  in  St  Stephen's  parish,  Coleman  Street,  London. 
Dampier's  accounts  of  his  voyages  are  famous.  He  had  a  genius 
for  observation,  especially  of  the  scientific  phenomena  affecting 
a  seaman's  life;  his  style  is  usually  admirable — easy,  clear  and 
manly.  His  knowledge  of  natural  history,  though  not  scientific, 
appears  surprisingly  accurate  and  trustworthy. 

See  Dampier's  New  Voyage  Round  the  World  (1697);  his  Voyages 
and  Descriptions  (1699),  a  work  supplementary  to  the  New  Voyage; 
his  Voyage  to  New  Holland  in  .  .  .  1699  (1703,  1709);  also  Fun- 
nell's  Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  1703-1707 ;  Dampier's  Vindication  of 
his  Voyage  (1707) ;  Welbe's  Answer  to  Captain  Dampier's  Vindication ; 
Woodes  Rogers,  Cruising  Voyage  Round  the  World  (1712).  (C.  R.  B.) 

DAN  (from  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  "  judge  "),  a  tribe  of 
Israel,  named  after  a  son  of  Jacob  and  Bilhah,  the  maid  of 
Rachel.  The  meaning  of  the  name  (referred  to  in  Gen.  xxx.  5  seq. , 
xlix.  16)  connects  Dan  with  Dinah  ("  judgment  "),  the  daughter 
of  Leah,  whose  story  in  Gen.  xxxiv.  (cf.  xlix.  5  seq.)  seems  to 
point  to  an  Israelite  occupation  of  Shechem,  a  treacherous 
massacre  of  its  Canaanite  inhabitants  by  Simeon  and  Levi,  and 
the  subsequent  scattering  of  the  latter.  But,  historically,  the 
occupation  of  Shechem,  whether  by  conquest  (Gen.  xlviii.  22)  or 
purchase  (xxxiii.  19),  is  as  obscure  as  the,  conquest  of  central 
Palestine  itself  (see  JOSHUA),  and  the  true  relation  between  Dan 
and  Dinah  is  uncertain.  The  earliest  seats  of  Dan  lay  at  Zorah, 
Eshtaol  and  Kirjath-jsarim,  west  of  Jerusalem,  whence  they  were 
forced  to  seek  a  new  home,  and  a  valuable  narrative  detailing 
some  of  the  events  of  the  move  is  preserved  in  the  story  of  the 
sanctuary  of  the  Ephraimite  Micah  (q.v.)'  Laish  (Leshem)  was 
taken  with  the  sword  and  re-named  Dan  (see  below).  Here  a 
sanctuary  was  founded  under  the  guardianship  of  Jonathan, 
the  grandson  of  Moses,  which  survived  until  the  "  captivity  of 
the  land  "  (by  Tiglath-Pileser  IV.  in  733~732)i  or,  according  to 
another  notice,  until  the  fall  of  Shiloh  (Judg.  xviii.  30  seq.).  Dan 
formed  the  northern  limit  of  the  land,1  and  with  Abel  (-beth- 
Maacah)  was  an  old  place  renowned  for  Israelite  lore  (2  Sam. 
xx.  18;  on  the  text  see  the  commentaries).  Little  can  be  made 
of  Dan's  history.  The  reference  to  it  as  a  seafaring  folk  (Judg. 
v.  17)  is  difficult,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether  its  character  as 
represented  in  Gen.  xlix.  17,  Deut.  xxxiii.  22,  refers  to  its  earlier 
or  later  seat.  The  post-exilic  accounts  of  its  southern  border 
would  make  it  part  of  Judah,  and  both  of  them  are  in  tradition 
the  greatest  of  the  tribes  in  the  wanderings  in  the  wilderness. 
Dan  was  subsequently  either  regarded  as  the  embodiment  of 
wickedness  or  entirely  ignored;  late  speculation  that  the 
Antichrist  should  spring  from  it  appears  to  be  based  upon  an 
interpretation  of  Gen.  xlix.  17  (see  further  R.  H.  Charles, 
Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  pp.  128  seq.). 

A  brief  record  of  the  Danite  migration  is  found  in  some  old 
detached  fragments  which  K.  Budde  (Richter  und  Samuel) 
ingeniously  arranges  thus: — Judg.  i.  34  (Amorite  pressure); 
Josh.  xix.  470  (see  the  Septuagint),  476;  Judg.  i.  35.  The  position 

1  On  the  late  phrase  "  Dan  to  Beersheba  "  as  the  extreme  points 
of  religious  life  in  Israel,  see  H.  W.  Hogg,  Expositor,  viii.  411-421 
(1898);  and  for  a  complete  discussion  of  the  tribe,  his  art.  "  Dan  " 
in  Encyc.  Bib. 


of  Judg.  xvii.  seq.  (after  the  stories  of  Samson)  may  imply  that 
the  Philistines,  not  the  Amorites,  caused  the  migration  (cf. 
i  Sam.  vii.  14,  where  the  two  ethnical  terms  interchange).  The 
Mosaic  priesthood  and  the  reference  to  Shiloh  suggest  that  the 
story  of  Eli  may  have  belonged  to  this  cycle  of  narratives;  and 
the  spoliation  of  the  unknown  sanctuary  of  the  Ephraimite 
Micah  and  the  character  of  the  fierce  Puritan  tribesmen  connect 
Dan  with  the  problems  of  the  tribes  of  Simeon  and  Levi.  Dan's 
northern  home  lay  near  Beth-rehob,  which  appears  to  have  been 
Aramean  in  David's  time  (2  Sam.  x.  6),  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  migration  has  been  antedated  (cf.  similarly  the  case  of  Jair 
Num.  xxxii.  41,  Judg.  x.  3-5).  The  Tyrian  artificer  sent  to 
Solomon  by  Hiram  was  partly  of  Danite  descent  (2  Chron. 
ii.  13  seq.;  but  of  Naphtali,  so  i  Kings  vii.  14);  and  of  the  two 
workers  in  brass  who  took  part  in  the  building  of  the  tabernacle  in 
the  desert,  one  was  Danite  (Oholiab,  Ex.  xxxi.  6),  while  the  other 
appears  to  have  been  Calebite  (Bezalel,  ib.,  v.  2;  i  Chron.  ii.  20). 
The  Kenites,  too,  have  been  regarded  as  a  race  of  metal-workers 
(see  CAIN,  KENITES),  and  there  is  evidence  which  would  show 
that  Danites,  Calebites  and  Kenites  were  once  closely  associated 
in  tradition. 

See  S.  A.  Cook,  Critical  Notes,  Index,  s.v.:  E  Meyer,  Israelilen 
pp.  525  seq.  (s.  A.  C.) 

DAN,  a  town  of  ancient  Israel,  near  the  head-waters  of  the 
Jordan,  inhabited  before  its  conquest  by  the  Danites  by  a  peace- 
ful commercial  population  who  called  their  city  Laish  or  Leshem 
(Josh.  xix.  47,  Judg.  xviii.).  It  appears  to  have  been  even  at 
this  early  period  a  sacred  city,  the  shrine  of  Micah  being  removed 
hither,  and  it  was  chosen  by  Jeroboam  as  the  site  of  one  of  his 
calf-shrines.  It  makes  the  north  limit  of  Palestine  in  the  pro- 
verbial expression  "  from  Dan  to  Beersheba."  The  town  was 
plundered  by  Benhadad  of  Damascus,  and  appears  from  that 
time  to  have  gradually  declined.  Its  site  is  sought  in  the  mound 
called  Tell-el-Kadi,  "the  hill  of  the  judge"  (Dan  =  "  judge" 
in  Hebrew),  though  weighty  authorities  incline  to  place  it  4  m. 
east  of  this,  at  Banias,  the  old  Caesarea  Philippi.  (See  above.) 

DANA,  CHARLES  ANDERSON  (1819-1897),  American  jour- 
nalist, was  born  in  Hinsdale,  New  Hampshire,  on  the  8th  of 
August  1819.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  became  a  clerk  in  his 
uncle's  general  store  at  Buffalo,  which  failed  in  1837.  In  1839 
he  entered  Harvard,  but  the  impairment  of  his  eyesight  in  1841 
forced  him  to  leave  college,  and  caused  him  to  abandon  his 
intention  of  entering  the  ministry  and  cf  studying  in  Germany. 
From  September  1841  until  March  1846  he  lived  at  Brook  Farm, 
where  he  was  made  one  of  the  trustees  of  the  farm,  was  head 
waiter  when  the  farm  became  a  Fourierite  phalanx,  and  was  in 
charge  of  the  phalanstery's  finances  when  its  buildings  were 
burned  in  1846.  He  had  previously  written  for  (and  managed) 
the  Harbinger,  the  Brook  Farm  organ,  and  had  written  as  early 
as  1844  for  the  Boston  Chronotype.  In  1847  he  joined  the  staff 
of  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  in  1848  he  wrote  from  Europe 
letters  to  it  and  other  papers  on  the  revolutionary  movements 
of  that  year.  Returning  to  the  Tribune  in  1849,  he  became  its 
managing-editor,  and  in  this  capacity  actively  promoted  the 
anti-slavery  cause,  seeming  to  shape  the  paper's  policy  at  a  time 
when  Greeley  was  undecided  and  vacillating.  In  1862  his 
resignation  was  asked  for  by  the  board  of  managers  of  the 
Tribune,  apparently  because  of  wide  temperamental  differences 
between  him  and  Greeley.  Secretary  of  War  Stanton  immedi- 
ately made  him  a  special  investigating  agent  of  the  war.  depart- 
ment; in  this  capacity  Dana  discovered  frauds  of  quartermasters 
and  contractors,  and  as  the  "  eyes  of  the  administration,"  as 
Lincoln  called  him,  he  spent  much  time  at  the  front,  and  sent  to 
Stanton  frequent  reports  concerning  the  capacity  and  methods 
of  various  generals  in  the  field;  he  went  through  the  Vicksburg 
campaign  and  was  at  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga,  and  urged 
the  placing  of  General  Grant  in  supreme  command  of  all  the  ' 
armies  in  the  field.  Dana  was  second  assistant-secretary  of  war 
in  1864-1865,  and  in  1865-1866  conducted  the  newly-established 
and  unsuccessful  Chicago  Republican.  He  became  the  editor 
and  part-owner  of  the  New  York  Sun  in  1868,  and  remained  in 
control  of  it  until  his  death  at  Glen  Cove,  Long  Island,  New  York, 


792 


DANA,  F. 


on  the  lyth  of  October  1897.  Under  Dana's  control  the  Sun 
opposed  the  impeachment  of  President  Johnson;  it  supported 
Grant  for  the  presidency  in  1868;  it  was  a  sharp  critic  of  Grant 
as  president;  and  in  1872  took  part  in  the  Liberal  Republican 
revolt  and  urged  Greeley's  nomination.  It  favoured  Tilden, 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presidency,  in  1876,  opposed 
the  Electoral  Commission  and  continually  referred  to  Hayes  as 
the  "  fraud  president."  In  1884  it  supported  Benjamin  F. 
Butler,  the  candidate  of  Greenback-Labor  and  Anti-Monopolist 
parties,  for  the  presidency,  and  opposed  Elaine  (Republican) 
and  even  more  bitterly  Cleveland  (Democrat);  it  supported 
Cleveland  and  opposed  Harrison  in  1888,  although  it  had  bitterly 
criticized  Cleveland's  first  administration,  and  was  to  criticize 
nearly  every  detail  of  his  second,  with  the  exception  of  Federal 
interference  in  the  Pullman  strike  of  1894;  and  in  1896,  on 
the  free-silver  issue,  it  opposed  Bryan,  the  Democratic  candidate 
for  the  presidency.  Dana's  literary  style  came  to  be  the  style 
of  the  Sun — simple,  strong,  clear,  "  boiled  down."  The  Art  of 
Newspaper  Making,  containing  three  lectures  which  he  wrote 
on  journalism,  was  published  in  1900.  With  George  Ripley 
he  edited  The  New  American  Cyclopaedia  (15  vols.,  1857-1863), 
reissued  as  the  American  Cyclopaedia  in  1873-1876.  He  had 
excellent  taste  in  the  fine  arts  and  edited  an  anthology,  The 
Household  Book  of  Poetry  (1857).  He  was  a  very  good  linguist, 
published  several  versions  from  the  German,  and  read  the 
Romance  and  Scandinavian  languages;  he  was  an  art  con- 
noisseur and  left  a  remarkable  collection  of  Chinese  porcelain. 
Dana's  Reminiscences  of  the  Civil  War  was  published  in  1898, 
as  was  his  Eastern  Journeys,  Notes  of  Travel.  He  also  edited  a 
campaign  Life  of  U .  S.  Grant,  published  over  his  name  and  that 
of  General  James  H.  Wilson  in  1868. 

See  James  Wilson,  The  Life  of  Charles  A .  Dana  (New  York,  1907). 

DANA,  FRANCIS  (1743-1811),  American  jurist,  was  born  in 
Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  on  the  i3th  of  June  1743.  He  was 
the  son  of  Richard  Dana  (1699-1772),  a  leader  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts provincial  bar,  and  a  vigorous  advocate  of  colonial  rights 
in  the  pre-revolutionary  period.  Francis  Dana  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1762,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1767,  and,  being 
an  opponent  of  the  British  colonial  policy,  became  a  leader  of 
the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  in  1774  was  a  member  of  the  first  pro- 
vincial congress  of  Massachusetts.  During  a  two  years'  visit  to 
England  he  sought  earnestly  to  gain  friends  to  his  colony's  cause, 
but  returned  to  Boston  in  April  1776  convinced  that  a  friendly 
settlement  of  the  dispute  was  impossible.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  executive  council  from  1776  to  1780,  and  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  from  1776  to  1778.  As  a 
member  of  the  latter  body  he  became  chairman  in  January  1778 
of  the  committee  appointed  to  visit  Washington  at  Valley  Forge, 
and  confer  with  him  concerning  the  reorganization  of  the  army. 
This  committee  spent  about  three  months  in  camp,  and  assisted 
Washington  in  preparing  the  plan  of  reorganization  which  Con- 
gress in  the  main  adopted.  In  this  year  he  was  also  a  member 
of  a  committee  to  consider  Lord  North's  offer  of  conciliation, 
which  he  vigorously  opposed.  In  the  autumn  of  1779  he  was 
appointed  secretary  to  John  Adams,  who  had  been  selected 
as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  treaties  of  peace  and 
commerce  with  Great  Britain,  and  in  December  1780  he  was 
appointed  diplomatic  representative  to  the  Russian  government. 
He  remained  at  St  Petersburg  from  1781  to  1783,  but  was  never 
formally  received  by  the  empress  Catherine.  In  February  1784 
he  was  again  chosen  a  delegate  to  Congress,  and  in  January  1785 
he  became  a  justice  of  the  Massachusetts  supreme  court.  He 
was  chief  justice  of  this  court  from  1791  to  1806,  and  presided 
with  ability  and  rare  distinction.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate 
of  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  constitution,  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  convention  which  ratified  that  instrument,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  influential  advisers  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Federalist  party.  His  tastes  were  scholarly,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 
He  died  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  on  the  zsth  of  April  1811, 

His  son,  RICHARD  HENRY  DANA  (1787-1879),  was  born  in 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  on  the  isth  of  November  1787.     He 


was  educated  at  Harvard  in  the  class  of  1808.     Subsequently  he 
studied  law  and  in  181 1  was  admitted  to  practice.     But  all  other 
interests  were  early  subordinated  to  his  love  of  literature,  to 
which  the  greater  part  of  his  long  life  was  devoted.     He  became 
in  1814  a  member  of  a  literary  society  in  Cambridge,  known  as 
the  Anthology  Club.     This  club  began  the  publication  of  a 
monthly  magazine,  The  Monthly  Anthology,  which  gave  way  in 
1815  to  The  North  American  Review.     In  the  editorial  control  of 
this  periodical  he  was  associated  with  Jared  Sparks  and  Edward 
T.  Channing  (1790-1856)  until  1821,  contributing  essays  and 
criticisms  which  attracted  wide  attention.     In   1821-1822  he 
edited  in  New  York  a  short-lived  literary  magazine,  The  Idle 
Man.     He  published  his  first  volume  of  Poems  in  1827,  and  in 
1833  appeared  his  Poems  and  Prose  Writings,  republished  in 
1850  in  two  volumes,  in  which  were  included  practically  all  of 
his  poems  and  of  his  prose  contributions  to  periodical  literature. 
Although  the  bulk  of  his  published  writings  was  not  large,  his 
influence  on  American  literature  during  the  first  half  of  the 
1 9th  century  was  surpassed  by  that  of  few  of  his  contemporaries. 
RICHARD  HENRY  DANA  (1815-1882),  son  of  the  last-mentioned, 
was  born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  on  the  ist  of  August  1815. 
He  entered  Harvard  in  the  class  of  1835,  but  at  the  beginning  of 
his  junior  year  an  illness  affecting  his  sight  necessitated  a  suspen- 
sion of  his  college  work,  and  in  August  1834  he  shipped  before 
the  mast  for  California,  returning  in  September  1836.     The 
rough  experience  of  this  voyage  did  more  than  endow  him  with 
renewed  health;  it  changed  him  from  a  dreamy,  sensitive  boy, 
hereditarily  disinclined  to  any  sort  of  active  career,  into  a  self- 
reliant,  energetic  man,  with  broad  interests  and  keen  sympathies. 
He  re-entered  Harvard  in  December  1836  and  graduated  in  June 
1837.     He  was  a  student  at  the  Harvard  law  school  from  1837 
to  1840,  and  from  January  1839  to  February  1840  he  was  also  an 
instructor  in  elocution  in  the  college.      In  1840  the  notes  of  his 
sea-trip  were  published  under  the  title  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast. 
The  book  attained  an  almost  unprecedented  popularity  both  in 
America  and  in  Europe,  where  it  was  translated  into  several 
languages;  and  it  came  to  be  considered  a  classic.     Immediately 
after  the  appearance  of  this  book  Dana  began  the  practice  of  law, 
which  brought  him  a  large  number  of  maritime  cases.     In  1841  he 
published  The  Seaman's  Friend,  republished  in  England  as  The 
Seaman's  Manual,  which  was  long  the  highest  authority  on  the 
legal  rights  and  duties  of  seamen.     After  gaining  recognition  as 
one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Suffolk  bar,  he  became 
associated  in  1848  with  the  Free  Soil  movement,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Buffalo  convention  of  that  year.     This 
step,  which  caused  him  to  be  ostracized  for  a  time  from  the 
Boston  circles  in  which  he  had  been  reared,  brought  him  the 
cases  of  the  fugitive  slaves,  Shadrach,  Sims  and  Burns,  and  of  the 
rescuers  of  Shadrach.     On  the  night  following  the  surrender  of 
Burns  (May  1854)  Dana  was  brutally  assaulted  on  the  Boston 
streets.     In  1853  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  state  constitu- 
tional convention.     He  allied  himself  with  the  Republican  party 
on  its  organization,  but  his  inborn  dislike  for  political  man- 
oeuvring prevented  his  ever  becoming  prominent  in  its  councils. 
In  1857  he  became  a  regular  attendant  at  the  meetings  of  the 
famous  Boston  Saturday  Club,  to  the  members  of  which  he 
dedicated  his  account  of  a  vacation  trip,  To  Cuba  and  Back 
(1857).     He  returned  to  America  from  a  trip  round  the  world  in 
time  to  participate  in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1860,  and 
after  Lincoln's  inauguration  he  was  appointed  United  States 
district  attorney  for  Massachusetts.     In  this  office  in  1863  he 
won  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  the  famous 
prize  case  of  the  "  Amy  Warwick,"  on  the  decision  in  which 
depended  the  right  of  the  government  to  blockade  the  Con- 
federate ports,  without  giving  the  Confederate  States  an  inter- 
national status  as  belligerents.     He  brought  out  in  1865  an  edition 
of  Wheaton's  International  Law,  his  notes  constituting  a  most 
learned  and  valuable  authority  on  international  law  and  its 
bearings  on  American  history  and  diplomacy;  but  immediately 
after  its  publication  Dana  was  charged  by  the  editor  of  two 
earlier  editions,  William  Beach  Lawrence,  with  infringing  his 
copyright,  and  was  involved  in  litigation  which  was  continued 


DANA,  J.  D.— DANBURY 


793 


for  thirteen  years.  In  such  minor  matters  as  arrangement  of 
notes  and  verification  of  citations  the  court  found  against  Dana, 
but  in  the  main  Dana's  notes  were  vastly  different  from 
Lawrence's.  In  1865  Dana  declined  an  appointment  as  a 
United  States  district  judge.  During  the  Reconstruction  period 
he  favoured  the  congressional  plan  rather  than  that  of  President 
Johnson,  and  on  this  account  resigned  the  district-attorneyship. 
In  1867-1868  he  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of 
Representatives,  and  in  1867  was  retained  with  William  M. 
Evarts  to  prosecute  Jefferson  Davis,  whose  admission  to  bail  he 
counselled.  In  1877  he  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  United 
States  before  the  commission  which  in  accordance  with  the  treaty 
of  Washington  met  at  Halifax,  N.S.,  to  arbitrate  the  fisheries 
question  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  In 
1878  he  gave  up  his  law  practice  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life 
to  study  and  travel.  He  died  in  Rome,  Italy,  on  the  gth  of 
January  1882. 

See  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Richard  Henry  Dana:  a  Biography 
(2  vols.,  Boston,  Mass.,  1891). 

DANA,  JAMES  DWIGHT  (1813-1895),  American  geologist, 
mineralogist  and  zoologist,  was  born  in  Utica,  New  York,  on 
the  1 2th  of  February  1813.  He  early  displayed  a  taste  for  science, 
which  had  been  fostered  by  Fay  Edgerton,  a  teacher  in  theUtica 
high  school,  and  in  1830  he  entered  Yale  College,  in  order  to 
study  under  Benjamin  Silliman  the  elder.  Graduating  in  1833, 
for  the  next  two  years  he  was  teacher  of  mathematics  to  midship- 
men in  the  navy,  and  sailed  to  the  Mediterranean  while  engaged 
in  his  duties.  In  1836-1837  he  was  assistant  to  Professor  Silliman 
in  the  chemical  laboratory  at  Yale,  and  then,  for  four  years,  acted 
as  mineralogist  and  geologist  of  a  United  States  exploring  ex- 
pedition, commanded  by  Captain  Charles  Wilkes,  in  the  Pacific 
ocean  (see  WILHES,  CHARLES).  His  labours  in  preparing  the 
reports  of  his  explorations  occupied  parts  of  thirteen  years  after 
his  return  to  America  in  1842.  In  1844  he  again  became  a  resi- 
dent of  New  Haven,  married  the  daughter  of  Professor  Silliman, 
and  in  1850,  on  the  resignation  of  the  latter,  was  appointed 
Silliman  Professor  of  Natural  History  and  Geology  in  Yale 
College,  a  position  which  he  held  till  1892.  In  1846  he  became 
joint  editor  and  during  the  later  years  of  his  life  he  was  chief 
editor  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts  (founded 
in  1818  by  Benjamin  Silliman),  to  which  he  was  a  constant 
contributor,  principally  of  articles  on  geology  and  mineralogy. 
A  bibliographical  list  of  his  writings  shows  214  titles  of  books 
and  papers,  beginning  in  1835  with  a  paper  on  the  conditions 
of  Vesuvius  in  1834,  and  ending  with  the  fourth  revised  edition 
(finished  in  February  1895)  of  his  Manual  of  Geology.  His 
reports  on  Zoophytes,  on  the  Geology  of  the  Pacific  Area,  and  on 
Crustacea,  summarizing  his  work  on  the  Wilkes  expedition, 
appeared  in  1846,  1849  and  1852-1854,  in  quarto  volumes,  with 
copiously  illustrated  atlases;  but  as  these  were  issued  in  small 
numbers,  his  reputation  more  largely  rests  upon  his  System  of 
Mineralogy  (1837  and  many  later  editions  in  1892);  Manual 
of  Geology  (1862;  ed.  4,  1895);  Manual  of  Mineralogy  (1848), 
afterwards  entitled  Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Lithology  (ed.  4, 
1887);  and  Corals  and  Coral  Islands  (1872;  ed.  2,  1890).  In 
1887  Dana  revisited  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  the  results  of  his 
further  investigations  were  published  in  a  quarto  volume  in  1890, 
entitled  Characteristics  of  Volcanoes.  By  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  he  was  awarded  the  Copley  medal  in  1877;  and  by 
the  Geological  Society  the  Wollaston  medal  in  1874.  His  powers 
of  work  were  extraordinary,  and  in  his  8znd  year  he  was  occupied 
in  preparing  a  new  edition  of  his  Manual  of  Geology,  the  4th 
edition  being  issued  in  1895.  He  died  on  the  I4th  of  April  1895. 

His  son  EDWARD  SALISBURY  DANA,  born  at  New  Haven  on 
the  i6th  of  November  1849,  is  author  of  A  Textbook  of  Mineralogy 
(1877;  new  ed.  1898)  and  a  Text  Book  of  Elementary  Mechanics 
(1881).  In  1879-80  he  was  professor  of  natural  philosophy  and 
then  became  professor  of  physics  at  Yale. 

See  Life  of  J.  D.  Dana,  by  Daniel  C.  Gilman  (1899). 

DANAE,  in  Greek  legend,  daughter  of  Acrisius,  king  of  Argos. 
Her  father,  having  been  warned  by  an  oracle  that  she  would  bear 
a  son  by  whom  he  would  be  slain,  confined  Danae  in  a  brazen 


tower.  But  Zeus  descended  to  her  in  a  shower  of  gold,  and  she 
gave  birth  to  Perseus,  whereupon  Acrisius  placed  her  and  her 
infant  in  a  wooden  box  and  threw  them  into  the  sea.  They  were 
finally  driven  ashore  on  the  island  of  Seriphus,  where  they  were 
picked  up  by  a  fisherman  named  Dictys.  His  brother  Polydectes, 
who  was  king  of  the  island,  fell  in  love  with  Danae  and  married 
her.  According  to  another  story,  her  son  Perseus,  on  his  return 
with  the  head  of  Medusa,  finding  his  mother  persecuted  by 
Polydectes,  turned  him  into  stone,  and  took  Danae  back  with  him 
to  Argos.  Latin  legend  represented  her  as  landing  on  the  coast 
of  Latium  and  marrying  Pilumnus  or  Picumnus,  from  whom 
Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutulians,  was  descended.  Danae  formed 
the  subject  of  tragedies  by  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides, 
Livius  Andronicus  and  Naevius.  She  is  the  personification  oi 
the  earth  suffering  from  drought,  on  which  the  fertilizing  rain 
descends  from  heaven. 

Apollodorus  ii.  4;  Sophocles,  Antigone,  944;  Horace,  Odes,  iii. 
16;  Virgil,  Aeneid,  vii.  410.  See  also  P.  Schwarz,  De  Fabula 
Danaeia  (1881). 

DANAO,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Cebu,  island  of  Cebu, 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  E.  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Danao 
river,  17  m.  N.N.E.  of  Cebu,  the  capital.  Pop.  (1903)  16.173. 
Danao  has  a  comparatively  cool  and  healthy  climate,  is  the 
centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  region  producing  rice,  Indian  corn, 
sugar,  copra  and  cacao,  and  coal  is  mined  in  the  vicinity.  The 
language  is  Cebti-Visayan. 

DANAUS,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Belus,  king  of  Egypt,  and 
twin-brother  of  Aegyptus.  He  was  born  at  Chemmis  (Panopolis) 
in  Egypt, buthavingbeen driven  out  byhis  brother  he  fled  with  his 
fifty  daughters  to  Argos,  the  home  of  his  ancestress  lo.  Here  he 
became  king  and  taught  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  to  dig 
wells.  In  the  meantime  the  fifty  sons  of  Aegyptus  arrived  in 
Argos,  and  Danaus  was  obliged  to  consent  to  their  marriage 
with  his  daughters.  But  to  each  of  these  he  gave  a  knife  with 
injunctions  to  slay  her  husband  on  the  marriage  night.  They  all 
obeyed  except  Hyperm(n)estra,  who  spared  Lynceus.  She  was 
brought  to  trial  by  her  father,  acquitted  and  afterwards  married 
to  her  lover.  Being-unable  to  find  suitors  for  the  other  daughters, 
Danaus  offered  them  in  marriage  to  the  youths  of  the  district 
who  proved  themselves  victorious  in  racing  contests  (Pindar, 
Pythia,  ix.  117).  According  to  another  story,  Lynceus  slew 
Danaus  and  his  daughters  and  seized  the  throne  of  Argos  (schol. 
on  Euripides,  Hecuba,  886).  By  way  of  expiation  for  their  crime 
the  Danaides  were  condemned  to  the  endless  task  of  filling  with 
water  a  vessel  which  had  no  bottom.  This  punishment,  originally 
inflicted  on  those  who  neglected  certain  mystic  rites,  was  trans- 
ferred to  those  who,  like  the  Danaides,  despised  the  mystic  rite 
of  marriage;  cf.  the  water-bearing  figure  (Xoin-po<£6pos)  on  the 
grave  of  unmarried  persons.  The  murder  of  the  sons  of  Aegyptus 
by  their  wives  is  supposed  to  represent  the  drying  up  of  the  rivers 
and  springs  of  Argolis  in  summer  by  the  agency  of  the  nymphs. 

Appllodorus  ii.  I ;  Horace,  Odes,  iii.  n  ;  O.  Waser,  in  Archiv  fiir 
Religionswtssenschaft,  ii.  Heft  I,  1899;  articles  in  Pauly-Wissowa's 
Realencyclopddie  and  W.  H.  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie; 
Campbell  Bonner,  in  Harvard  Studies,  xiii.  (1902). 

DANBURITE,  a  rare  mineral  species  consisting  of  calcium 
and  boron  orthosilicate,  CaB2(SiO4)i,  crystallizing  in  the  ortho- 
rhombic  system.  It  was  discovered  by  C.  U.  Shepard  in  1839 
at  Danbury,  Connecticut,  U.S.A.,  and  named  by  him  after  this 
locality.  The  crystals  are  prismatic  in  habit,  and  closely  re- 
semble topaz  in  form  and  interfacial  angles.  There  is  an  im- 
perfect cleavage  parallel  to  the  basal  plane.  Crystals  are 
transparent  to  translucent,  and  colourless  to  pale  .yellow; 
hardness  7 ;  specific  gravity  3-0.  At  Danbury  the  mineral  occurs 
with  microcline  and  oligoclase  embedded  in  dolomite.  Large 
crystals,  reaching  4  in.  in  length,  have  been  found  with  calcite  in 
veins  traversing  granite  at  Russell  in  St  Lawrence  county,  New 
York.  Smaller  but  well-developed  crystals  have  been  found  on 
gneiss  at  Mt.  Scopi  and  Petersthal  (the  valley  of  the  Vals  Rhine) 
in  Switzerland.  Splendid  crystals  have  recently  been  obtained 
from  Japan. 

DANBURY,  a  city  and  one  of  the  county-seats  of  Fair- 
field  county,  Connecticut,  U.S.A.,  in  Danbury  township,  in  the 


794 


DANBY— DANCE 


south-west  part  of  the  state,  on  the  Still  river,  a  tributary  of  the 
Housatonic.  Pop.  (1890)  16,552;  (1900)  16,537  (3702  foreign- 
born)  ;  (1910)  20,234.  In  1900  the  population  of  the  township,  in- 
cluding that  of  the  city,  was  19474,  andin  1910,  23,502.  Danbury 
is  served  by  three  divisions  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  railway;  by  the  Danbury  &  Harlem  electric  railway, 
which  connects  at  Goldens  Bridge,  New  York,  with  the  Harlem 
division  of  the  New  York  Central;  and  by  an  electric  line  to 
Bethel,  Connecticut.  Lake  Kenosia,  about  i\  m.  from  the  centre 
of  the  city,  is  a  pleasure  resort.  A  state  normal  school  was 
opened  in  Danbury  in  1904,  and  there  is  a  home  for  destitute 
and  homeless  children  under  private  (unsectarian)  control. 
The  city  has  good  water-power,  and  the  municipality  owns  the 
water  works.  The  principal  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  felt 
hats,  begun  in  1780,  and  in  1905  engaging  about  thirty  factories, 
with  a  product  for  the  year  valued  at  $5,798,107  (71-9%  of  the 
value  of  all  the  factory  products  of  the  city,  and  15.8%  of  the 
value  of  all  the  felt  hats  produced  in  the  United  States).  The 
city  ranked  first  among  the  cities  of  the  country  in  this  industry 
in  1900  and  second  in  1905,  and  in  1905  no  other  city  showed  so 
high  a  degree  of  specialization  in  it.  Silver-plated  ware  (mostly 
manufactured  by  Rogers  Bros.)  is  another  important  product. 
At  Danbury  is  held  annually  the  well-known  agricultural 
Danbury  Fair.  The  township  was  settled  in  1684  by  emigrants 
from  Norwalk,  and  received  its  present  name  in  1687.  When 
the  War  of  Independence  opened,  Enoch  Crosby,  believed  to  be 
the  original  of  Harvey  Birch,  the  hero  of  J.  F.  Cooper's  The  Spy, 
was  a  resident  of  Danbury.  A  depot  of  military  supplies  was 
established  in  the  village  of  Danbury  in  1776;  in  April  1777 
Governor  William  Tryon,  of  New  York,  raided  the  place,  destroy- 
ing the  military  stores  and  considerable  private  property. 
During  his  retreat  he  was  attacked  (April  26th)  at  Ridgefield 
(about  9  m.  south  by  east  of  Danbury)  by  the  Americans  under 
General  David  Wooster  (1710-1777),  who  was  fatally  wounded 
in  the  conflict  (being  succeeded  by  General  Benedict  Arnold), 
and  to  whose  memory  a  monument  was  erected  in  Danbury  in 
1854.  Danbury  was  chartered  as  a  borough  in  1832  and  as  a 
city  in  1880.  In  1870  the  Danbury  News  was  established  by  the 
consolidation  of  the  Jejfersonian  and  the  Times,  by  James 
Montgomery  Bailey  (1841-1894),  from  1865  to  1870  proprietor 
of  the  Times.  He  wrote  for  the  News  humorous  sketches, 
which  made  him  and  the  paper  famous,  Bailey  being  known  as 
the  "  Danbury  News  Man  ";  among  his  books  are  Life  in  Dan- 
bury  (1873),  The  Danbury  Neivs  Man's  Almanac  (1873),  They 
All  Do  It  (1877),  England  from  a  Back  Window  (1878),  Mr 
Philip's  Goneness  (1879),  The  Danbury  Boom  (1880),  and  History 
of  Danbury  (1896). 

DANBY,  FRANCIS  (1793-1861),  English  painter,  was  born  in 
the  south  of  Ireland  on  the  i6th  of  November  1793.  His  father 
farmed  a  small  property  he  owned  near  Wexford,  but  his  death 
caused  the  family  to  remove  to  Dublin,  while  Francis  was  still  a 
schoolboy.  He  began  to  practice  drawing  at  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society's  schools;  and  under  an  erratic  young  artist  named 
O'Connor  he  began  painting  landscape.  Danby  also  made 
acquaintance  with  George  Petrie,  and  all  three  left  for  London 
together  in  1813.  This  expedition,  undertaken  with  very  in- 
adequate funds,  quickly  came  to  an  end,  and  they  had  to  get 
home  again  by  walking.  At  Bristol  they  made  a  pause,  and 
Danby,  finding  he  could  get  trifling  sums  for  water-colour 
drawings,  remained  there  working  diligently  and  sending  to  the 
London  exhibitions  pictures  of  importance.  There  his  large 
pictures  in  oil  quickly  attracted  attention.  "  The  Upas  Tree  " 
(1820)  and  "  The  Delivery  of  the  Israelites  "  (1825)  brought 
him  his  election  as  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  left 
Bristol  for  London,  and  in  1828  exhibited  his  "  Opening  of  the 
Sixth  Seal  "  at  the  British  Institution,  receiving  from  that  body 
a  prize  of  200  guineas;  and  this  picture  was  followed  by  two 
others  from  the  Apocalypse.  He  suddenly  left  London,  declaring 
that  he  would  never  live  there  again,  and  that  the  Academy, 
instead  of  aiding  him,  had,  somehow  or  other,  used  him  badly. 
Some  insurmountable  domestic  difficulty  overtook  him  also,  and 
for  eleven  or  twelve  years  he  lived  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  a 


Bohemian  with  boat-building  fancies,  painting  only  now  and 
then.  He  returned  to  England  in  1841,  when  his  sons,  James  • 
and  Thomas,  both  artists,  were  growing  up.  Other  pictures  by 
him  were  "  The  Golden  Age  "  and  "  The  Evening  Gun,"  the 
first  begun  before  he  left  England,  the  second  painted  after  his 
return;  he  had  taken  up  his  abode  at  Exmouth,  where  he  died 
on  the  pth  of  February  1861. 

DANCE,  the  name  of  an  English  family  distinguished  in 
architecture,  art  and  the  drama.  GEORGE  DANCE,  the  elder 
(1700-1768),  obtained  the  appointment  of  architect  to  the  city 
of  London,  and  designed  the  Mansion  House  (1739);  the  churches 
of  St  Botolph,  Aldgate  (1741),  St  Luke's,  Old  Street;  St 
Leonard,  Shoreditch;  the  old  excise  office;  Broad  Street;  and 
other  public  works  of  importance.  He  died  on  the  8th  of 
February  1768.  His  eldest  son,  JAMES  DANCE  (1722-1744),  was 
born  on  the  i7th  of  March  1722,  and  educated  at  the  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  and  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  which  he  left 
before  graduating.  He  took  the  name  of  Love,  and  became  an 
actor  and  playwright  of  no  great  merit.  In  the  former  capacity 
he  was  for  twelve  years  connected  with  Drury  Lane  theatre. 
He  wrote  "  an  heroic  poem  "  on  Cricket,  about  1 740,  and  a  volume 
of  Poems  on  Several  Occasions  (1754),  and  a  number  of  comedies 
— the  earliest  Pamela  (1742). 

George  Dance's  third  son,  Sir  NATHANIEL  DANCE-HOLLAND, 
Bart.  (1735-1811),  was  born  on  the  i8th  of  May  1735,  and 
studied  art  under  Francis  Hayman,  and  in  Italy,  where  he  met 
Angelica  Kauffmann,  to  whom  he  was  devotedly  and  hopelessly 
attached.  From  Rome  he  sent  home  "  Dido  and  Aeneas  " 
(1763),  and  he  continued  to  paint  occasional  historical  pictures 
of  the  same  quasi-classic  kind  throughout  his  career.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  took  up  portrait-painting  with  great 
success,  and  contributed  to  the  first  exhibition  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  of  which  he  was  a  foundation  member,  full-length 
portraits  of  George  HI.  and  his  queen.  These,  and  his  portraits 
of  Captain  Cook  and  of  Garrick  as  Richard  III.,  engraved  by 
Dixon,  are  his  best-known  works.  Himself  a  rich  man,  in  1790 
he  married  a  widow  with  £15,000  a  year,  dropped  his  profession, 
and  became  M.P.  for  East  Grinstead,  taking  the  additional  name 
of  Holland.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1800.  He  died  on  the 
I5th  of  October  1811,  leaving  a  fortune  of  £200,000. 

George  Dance's  fifth  and  youngest  son,  GEORGE  DANCE,  the 
younger  (1741-1825),  succeeded  his  father  as  city  surveyor  and 
architect  in  1768.  He  was  then  only  twenty-seven,  had  spent 
several  years  abroad,  chiefly  in  Italy  with  his  brother  Nathaniel, 
and  had  already  distinguished  himself  by  designs  for  Blackfriars 
Bridge  sent  to  the  1761  exhibition  of  the  Incorporated  Society  of 
Artists.  His  first  important  public  work  was  the  rebuilding 
of  Newgate  prison  in  1770.  The  front  of  the  Guildhall  was  also 
his.  He,  too,  was  a  foundation  member  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  for  a  number  of  years  the  last  survivor  of  the  forty  original 
academicians.  His  last  years  were  devoted  to  art  rather  than  to 
architecture,  and  after  1798  his  Academy  contributions  consisted 
solely  of  chalk  portraits  of  his  friends,  seventy-two  of  which  were 
engraved  and  published  (1808-1814).  He  resigned  his  office  in 
1815,  and  after  many  years  of  illness  died  on  the  I4th  of  January 
1825,  and  was  buried  in  St  Paul's.  His  son,  CHARLES  DANCE 
(1794-1863),  was  for  thirty  years  registrar,  taxing  officer  and 
chief  clerk  of  the  insolvent  debtors'  court,  retiring,  when  it  was 
abolished,  on  an  allowance.  In  collaboration  with  J.  R.  Planch6 
and  others,  or  alone,  he  wrote  a  great  number  of  extravaganzas, 
farces  and  comediettas.  He  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first, 
of  the  burlesque  writers,  and  was  the  author  of  those  produced 
so  successfully  by  Madame  Vestris  .for  years  at  the  Olympic. 
Of  his  farces,  Delicate  Ground,  Who  Speaks  First  ?,  A  Morning 
Call  and  others  are  still  occasionally  revived.  He  died  on  the 
6th  of  January  1863. 

DANCE  (Fr.  danse-  of  obscure  origin,  connected  with  Old 
High  Ger.  danson,  to  stretch).  The  term  "  dancing  "  in  its 
widest  sense  includes  three  things: — (i)  the  spontaneous  activity 
of  the  muscles  under  the  influence  of  some  strong  emotion,  such 
as  social  joy  or  religious  exultation  ;  (2)  definite  combinations  of 
graceful  movements  performed  for  the  sake  of  the  pleasure 


DANCE 


795 


which  the  exercise  affords  to  the  dancer  or  to  the  spectator; 
(3)  carefully  trained  movements  which  are  meant  by  the  dancer 
vividly  to  represent  the  actions  and  passions  of  other  people. 
In  the  highest  sense  it  seems  to  be  for  prose-gesture  what  song 
is  for  the  instinctive  exclamations  of  feeling.  Regarded  as  the 
outlet  or  expression  of  strong  feeling,  dancing  does  not  require 
much  discussion,  for  the  general  rule  applies  that  such  demon- 
strations for  a  time  at  least  sustain  and  do  not  exhaust  the  flow 
of  feeling.  The  voice  and  the  facial  muscles  and  many  of  the 
organs  are  affected  at  the  same  time,  and  the  result  is  a  high  state 
of  vitality  which  among  the  spinning  Dervishes  or  in  the  ecstatic 
worship  of  Bacchus  and  Cybele  amounted  to  something  like 
madness.  Even  here  there  is  traceable  an  undulatory  movement 
which,  as  Herbert  Spencer  says,  is  "  habitually  generated  by 
feeling  in  its  bodily  discharge."  But  it  is  only  in  the  advanced 
or  volitional  stage  of  dancing  that  we  find  developed  the  essential 
feature  of  measure,  which  has  been  said  to  consist  in  "  the  alter- 
nation of  stronger  muscular  contractions  with  weaker  ones,"  an 
alternation  which,  except  in  the  cases  of  savages  and  children, 
"  is  compounded  with  longer  rises  and  falls  in  the  degree  of 
muscular  excitement."  •  In  analysing  the  state  of  mind  which 
this  measured  dancing  produces,  we  must  first  of  all  allow  for 
the  pleasant  glow  of  excitement  caused  by  the  excess  of  blood 
sent  to  the  brain.  But  apart  from  this,  there  is  an  agreeable 
sense  of  uniformity  in  the  succession  of  muscular  efforts,  and  in 
the  spaces  described,  and  also  in  the  period  of  their  recurrence. 
If  the  steps  of  dancing  and  the  intervals  of  time  be  not  precisely 
equal,  there  is  still  a  pleasure  depending  on  the  gradually  in- 
creasing intensity  of  motion,  on  the  undulation  which  uniformly 
rises  in  order  to  fall.  As  Florizel  says  to  Perdita,  "  When  you  do 
dance,  I  wish  you  a  wave  of  the  sea  "  (Winter's  Tale,  iv.  3). 
The  mind  feels  the  beauty  of  emphasis  and  cadence  in  muscular 
motion,  just  as  much  as  in  musical  notes.  Then,  the  figure  of 
the  dance  is  frequently  a  circle  or  some  more  graceful  curve  or 
series  of  curves, — a  fact  which  satisfies  the  dancer  as  well  as  the 
eye  of  the  spectator.  But  all  such  effects  are  intensified  by  the 
use  of  music,  which  not  only  brings  a  perfectly  distinct  set  of 
pleasurable  sensations  to  dancer  and  spectator,  but  by  the  control 
of  dancing  produces  an  inexpressibly  sweet  harmony  of  sound 
and  motion.  This  harmony  is  further  enriched  if  there  be  two 
dancing  together  on  one  plan,  or  a  large  company  of  dancers 
executing  certain  evolutions,  the  success  of  which  depends  on 
the  separate  harmonies  of  all  the  couples.  The  fundamental 
condition  is  that  throughout  the  dance  all  the  dancers  keep 
within  their  bases  of  gravity.  This  is  not  only  required  for  the 
dancers'  own  enjoyment,  but,  as  in  the  famous  Mercury  on 
tiptoe,  it  is  essential  to  the  beautiful  effect  for  the  spectator. 
The  idea  of  much  being  safely  supported  by  little  is  what  proves 
attractive  in  the  posturing  ballet.  But  this  is  merely  one  condi- 
tion of  graceful  dancing,  and  if  it  be  made  the  chief  object  the 
dancer  sinks  into  the  acrobat. 

Dancing  is,  in  fact,  the  universal  human  expression,  by 
movements  of  the  limbs  and  body,  of  a  sense  of  rhythm  which 
is  implanted  among  the  primitive  instincts  of  the  animal  world. 
The  rhythmic  principle  of  motion  extends  throughout  the  uni- 
verse, governing  the  lapse  of  waves,  the  flow  of  tides,  the  rever- 
berations of  light  and  sound,  and  the  movements  of  celestial 
bodies;  and  in  the  human  organism  it  manifests  itself  in  the 
automatic  pulses  and  flexions  of  the  blood  and  tissues.  Dancing 
is  merely  the  voluntary  application  of  the  rhythmic  principle, 
when  excitement  has  induced  an  abnormally  rapid  oxidization 
of  brain  tissue,  to  the  physical  exertion  by  which  the  over- 
charged brain  is  relieved.  This  is  primitive  dancing;  and  it 
embraces  all  movements  of  the  limbs  and  body  expressive  of 
joy  or  grief,  all  pantomimic  representations  of  incidents  in  the 
lives  of  the  dancers,  all  performances  in  which  movements  of 
the  body  are  employed  to  excite  the  passions  of  hatred  or  love, 
pity  or  revenge,  or  to  arouse  the  warlike  instincts,  and  all  cere- 
monies in  which  such  movements  express  homage  or  worship, 
or  are  used  as  religious  exercises.  Although  music  is  not  an 
essential  part  of  dancing,  it  almost  invariably  accompanies  it, 
even  in  the  crudest  form  of  a  rhythm  beaten  out  on  a  drum. 


Primitive  and  Ancient  Dancing. — In  Tigre  the  Abyssinians 
dance  the  chassie  step  in  a  circle,  and  keep  time  by  shrugging 
their  shoulders  and  working  their  elbows  backwards  and  for- 
wards. At  intervals  the  dancers  squat  on  the  ground,  still 
moving  the  arms  and  shoulders  in  the  same  way.  The  Bushmen 
dance  in  their  low-roofed  rooms  supporting  themselves  by 
sticks;  one  foot  remains  motionless,  the  other  dances  in  a  wild 
irregular  manner,  while  the  hands  are  occupied  with  the  sticks. 
The  Gonds,  a  hill-tribe  of  Hindustan,  dance  generally  in  pairs, 
with  a  shuffling  step,  the  eyes  on  the  ground,  the  arms  close  to 
the  body,  and  the  elbows  at  an  angle  with  the  closed  hand. 
Advancing  to  a  point,  the  dancer  suddenly  erects  his  head,  and 
wheels  round  to  the  starting  point.  The  women  of  the  Pultooah 
tribe  dance  in  a  circle,  moving  backwards  and  forwards  in  a  bent 
posture.  The  Santal  women,  again,  are  slow  and  graceful  in 
dance;  joining  hands,  they  form  themselves  into  the  arc  of  a 
circle,  towards  the  centre  of  which  they  advance  and  then  retire, 
moving  at  the  same  time  slightly  towards  the  right,  so  as  to 
complete  the  circle  in  an  hour.  The  Kukis  of  Assam  have  only 
the  rudest  possible  step,  an  awkward  hop  with  the  knees  very 
much  bent.  The  national  dance  of  the  Kamchadale  is  one  of 
the  most  violent  known,  every  muscle  apparently  quivering  at 
every  movement.  But  there,  and  in  some  other  cases  where 
men  and  women  dance  together,  there  is  a  trace  of  deliberate 
obscenity;  the  dance  is,  in  fact,  a  rude  representation  of  sexual 
passion.  It  has  been  said  that  some  of  the  Tasmanian  corrobories 
have^a  phallic  design.  The  Yucatan  dance  of  naual  may  also 
be  mentioned.  The  Andamans  hop  on  one  foot  and  swing  the 
arms  violently  backwards  and  forwards.  The  Veddahs  jump 
with  both  feet  together,  patting  their  bodies,  or  clapping  their 
hands,  and  make  a  point  of  bringing  their  long  hair  down  in 
front  of  the  face.  In  New  Caledonia  the  dance  consists  of  a  series 
of  twistings  of  the  body,  the  feet  being  lifted  alternately,  but 
without  change  of  place.  The  Fijians  jump  half  round  from  side 
to  side  with  their  arms  akimbo.  The  only  modulation  of  the 
Samoan  dance  is  one  of  time — a  crescendo  movement,  which  is 
well-known  in  the  modern  ball-room.  The  Javans  are  perhaps 
unique  in  their  distinct  and  graceful  gestures  of  the  hands  and 
fingers.  At  a  Mexican  feast  called  Huitzilopochtli,  the  noblemen 
and  women  danced  tied  together  at  the  hands,  and  embracing 
one  another,  the  arms  being  thrown  over  the  neck.  This  re- 
sembles the  dance  variously  known  as  the  Greek  Bracelet  or 
Brawl,  "Opfjtos,  or  Bearsfeet;  but  all  of  them1  probably  are  to  a 
certain  extent  symbolical  of  the  relations  between  the  sexes. 
Actual  contact  of  the  partners,  however,  is  quite  intelligible  as 
matter  of  pure  dancing;  for,  apart  altogether  from  the  pleasure 
of  the  embrace,  the  harmony  of  the  double  rotation  adds  very 
much  to  the  enjoyment.  In  a  very  old  Peruvian  dance  of 
ceremony  before  the  Inca,  several  hundreds  of  men  formed  a 
chain,  each  taking  hold  of  the  hand  of  the  man  beyond  his 
immediate  neighbour,  and  the  whole  body  moving  forwards  and 
backwards  three  steps  at  a  time  as  they  approached  the  throne. 
In  this,  as  in  the  national  dance  of  the  Coles  of  Lower  Bengal, 
there  was  perhaps  a  suggestion  of  "  1'union  fait  la  force."  In 
Yucatan  stilts  were  occasionally  used  for  dancing. 

It  seldom  happens  that  dancing  takes  place  without  accom- 
paniment, either  by  the  dancers  or  by  others.  This  is  not  merely 
because  the  feelings  which  find  relief  in  dancing  express  them- 
selves at  the  same  time  in  other  forms;  in  some  cases,  indeed, 
the  vocal  and  instrumental  elements  largely  predominate,  and 
form  the  ground-work  of  the  whole  emotional  demonstration. 
Whether  they  do  so  or  not  will  of  course  depend  on  the  intellectual 
advancement  of  the  nation  or  tribe  and  upon  the  particular 
development  of  their  aesthetical  sensibility.  A  striking  instance 
occurs  among  the  Zulus,  whose  grand  dances  are  merely  the 
accompaniment  to  the  colloquial  war  and  hunting  songs,  in 
which  the  women  put  questions  which  are  answered  by  the  men. 
So  also  in  Tahiti  there  is  a  set  of  national  ballads  and  songs, 
referring  to  many  events  in  the  past  and  present  lives  of  the 

1  Compare  the  Chica  of  South  America,  the  Fandango  of  Spain, 
and  the  Angrismene  or  la  Fachee  of  modern  Greece.  See  also 
Romaunt  de  la  rose,  v.  776. 


796 


DANCE 


people.  The  fisherman,  the  woodsman,  the  canoe-builder,  has 
each  his  trade  song,  which  on  public  occasions  at  least  is  illus- 
trated by  dancing.  But  the  accompaniment  is  often  consciously 
intended,  by  an  appeal  to  the  ear,  to  regulate  and  sustain  the 
excitement  of  the  muscles.  And  a  close  relation  will  be  found 
always  to  exist  between  the  excellence  of  a  nation's  dancing 
and  the  excellence  or  complexity  of  its  music  and  poetry.  In 
some  cases  the  performer  himself  sings  or  marks  time  by  the 
clanking  of  ornaments  on  his  person.  In  others  the  accompani- 
ment consists  sometimes  of  a  rude  chant  improvised  by  those 
standing  round,  or  of  music  from  instruments,  or  of  mere  clapping 
of  the  hands,  or  of  striking  one  stick  against  another  or  on  the 
ground,  or  of  "  marking  time,"  in  the  technical  sense.  The 
Tasmanians  beat  on  a  rolled-up  kangaroo-skin.  The  Kamcha- 
dales  make  a  noise  like  a  continuous  hiccough  all  through  the 
dance.  The  Andamans  use  a  large  hollow  dancing-board,  on 
which  one  man  is  set  apart  to  stamp.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
privilege  of  the  tribal  chief  to  sing  the  accompaniment  while  his 
people  dance.  The  savages  of  New  Caledonia  whistle  and  strike 
upon  the  hip. 

The  rude  imitative  dances  of  early  civilization  are  of  extreme 
interest.     In  the  same  way  the  dances  of  the  Ostyak  tribes 
(Northern  Asiatic)  imitate  the  habitual  sports  of  the  chase  and 
the  gambols  of  the  wolf  and  the  bear  and  other  wild  beasts,  the 
dancing  consisting  mainly  of  sudden  leaps  and  violent  turns 
which  exhaust  the  muscular  powers  of  the  whole  body.     The 
Kamchadales,  too,  in  dancing,  imitate  bears,  dogs  and  birds. 
The  Kru  dances  of  the  Coast  Negroes  represent  hunting  scenes; 
and  on  the  Congo,  before  the  hunters  start,  they  go  through  a 
dance  imitating  the  habits  of  the  gorilla  and  its  movements 
when  attacked.     The  Damara  dance  is  a  mimic  representation 
of  the  movements  of  oxen  and  sheep,  four  men  stooping  with 
their  heads  in  contact  and  uttering  harsh  cries.     The  canter  of 
the  baboon  is  the  humorous  part  of  the  ceremony.     The  Bushmen 
dance  in  long  irregular  jumps,  which  they  compare  to  the  leaping 
of  a  herd  of  calves,  and  the  Hottentots  not  only  go  on  all-fours 
to  counterfeit  the  baboon,  but  they  have  a  dance  in  which  the 
buzzing  of  a  swarm  of  bees  is  represented.     The  Kennowits  in 
Borneo  introduce  the  mias  and  the  deer  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  Australians  and  Tasmanians  in  their  dances  called  corrobories 
imitate  the  frog  and  the  kangaroo  (both  leaping  animals).     The 
hunt  of  the  emu  is  also  performed,  a  number  of  men  passing 
slowly  round  the  fire  and  throwing  their  arrows  about  so  as 
to  imitate  the  movements  of  the  animal's  head  while  feeding. 
The  Gonds  are  fond  of  dancing  the  bison  hunt,  one  man  with 
skin  and  horns  taking  the  part  of  the  animal.     Closely  allied  to 
these  are  the  mimic  fights,  almost  universal  among  tribes  to 
which  war  is  one  of  the  great  interests  of  life.     The  Bravery 
dance  of  the  Dahomans  and  the  Hoolee  of  the  Bhil  tribe  in  the 
Vindhya  Hills  are  illustrations.     The  latter  seems  to  have  been 
reduced  to  an  amusement  conducted  by  professionals  who  go 
from  village  to  village, — the  battle  being  engaged  in  by  women 
with  long  poles  on  the  one  side,  and  men  with  short  cudgels  on 
the  other.     There  is  here  an  element  of  comedy,  which  also 
appears  in  the  Fiji  club-dance.     This,  although  no  doubt  origin- 
ally suggested  by  war,  is  enlivened  by  the  presence  of  a  clown 
covered  with  leaves  and  wearing  a  mask.     The  monotonous  song 
accompanying  the  club-dance  is  by  way  of  commentary  or  ex- 
planation.    So,  also,  in  Gautemala  there  is  a  public  baile  or  dance, 
in  which  all  the  performers,  wearing  the  skins  and  heads  of  beasts, 
go  through  a  mock  battle,  which  always  ends  in  the  victory  of 
those  wearing  the  deer's  head.     At  the  end  the  victors  trace  in 
the  sand  with  a  pole  the  figure  of  some  animal;  and  this  exhibi- 
tion is  supposed  to  have  some  historical  reference.     But  nearly 
all  savage  tribes  have  a  regular  war-dance,  in  which  they  appear 
in  fighting  costume,  handle  their  weapons,  and  go  through  the 
movements  of  challenge,  conflict,  pursuit  or  defeat.     The  women 
generally  supply  the  stimulus  of  music.     There  is  one  very 
picturesque  dance  of  the  Natal  Kaffirs,  which  probably  refers  to 
the  departure  of  the  warriors  for  the  battle.     The  women  appeal 
plaintively  to  the  men,  who  slowly  withdraw,  stamping  on  the 
ground  and  darting  their  short  spears  or  assegais  towards  the  sky. 


[n  Madagascar,  when  the  men  are  absent  on  war,  the  women 
dance  for  a  great  part  of  the  day,  believing  that  this  inspires 
their  husbands  with  courage.  In  this,  however,  there  may  be 
some  religious  significance.  These  war-dances  are  totally  distinct 
irom  the  institution  of  military  drill,  which  belongs  to  a  later 
period,  when  social  life  has  become  less  impulsive  and  more  re- 
flective.1 There  can  be  little  doubt  that  some  of  the  character- 
istic movements  of  these  primitive  hunting  and  war-dances 
survive  in  the  smooth  and  ceremonious  dances  of  the  present  day. 
But  the  early  mimetic  dance  was  not  confined  to  these  two 
subjects;  it  embraced  the  other  great  events  of  savage  life — 
the  drama  of  courtship  and  marriage,  the  funeral  dance,  the 
consecration  of  labour,  the  celebration  of  harvest  or  vintage;2 
sometimes,  too,  purely  fictitious  scenes  of  dramatic  interest, 
while  other  dances  degenerated  into  games.  For  instance,  in 
Yucatan  one  man  danced  in  a  cowering  attitude  round  a  circle, 
while  another  followed,  hurling  at  him  bohordos  or  canes,  which 
were  adroitly  caught  on  a  small  stick.  Again,  in  Tasmania,  the 
dances  of  the  women  describe  their  "  clamber  for  the  opossum, 
diving  for  shell-fish,  digging  for  roots,  nursing  children  and 
quarrelling  with  husbands."  Another  dance,  in  which  a  woman 
by  gesture  taunts  a  chieftain  with  cowardice,  gives  him  an 
opportunity  of  coming  forward  and  recounting  his  courageous 
deeds  in  dance.  The  funeral  dance  of  the  Todas  (another  Indian 
hill-tribe)  consists  in  walking  backwards  and  forwards,  without 
variation,  to  a  howling  tune  of  "  ha!  hoo!  "  The  meaning  of 
this  is  obscure,  but  it  can  scarcely  be  solely  an  outburst  of  grief. 
In  Dahomey  the  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  hunters,  braves  and 
bards,  with  their  various  tools  and  instruments,  join  in  a  dramatic 
dance.  We  may  add  here  a  form  of  dance  which  is  almost  pre- 
cisely equivalent  to  the  spoken  incantation.  It  is  used  by  the 
professional  devil-dancer  of  the  wild  Veddahs  for  the  cure  of 
diseases.  An  offering  of  eatables  is  put  on  a  tripod  of  sticks, 
and  the  dancer,  decorated  with  green  leaves,  goes  into  a  paroxysm 
of  dancing,  in  the  midst  of  which  he  receives  the  required  infor- 
mation. This,  however,  rather  belongs  to  the  subject  of  religious 
dances. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enumerate  either  the  names  or  the 
forms  of  the  sacred  dances  which  formed  so  prominent  a  part 
of  the  worship  of  antiquity.  A  mystic  philosophy  found  in  them 
a  resemblance  to  the  courses  of  the  stars.  This  Pythagorean 
idea  was  expanded  by  Sir  John  Davies,  in  his  epic  poem  Orchestra, 
published  in  1596.  They  were  probably  adapted  to  many 
purposes, — to  thanksgiving,  praise,  supplication  and  humiliation. 
It  is  only  one  striking  illustration  of  this  widespread  practice, 
that  there  was  at  Rome  a  very  ancient  order  of  priests  especially 
named  Salii,  who  struck  their  shields  and  sang  assamenla  as 
they  danced.  The  practice  reappeared  in  the  early  church, 
special  provision  being  made  for  dancing  in  the  choir.  Scaliger, 
who  astonished  Charles  V.  by  his  dancing  powers,  says  the 
bishops  were  called  Praesules,  because  they  led  the  dance  on 
feast  days.  According  to  some  of  the  fathers,  the  angels  are 
always  dancing,  and  the  glorious  company  of  the  apostles  is 
really  a  chorus  of  dancers.  Dancing,  however,  fell  into  discredit 
with  the  feast  of  the  Agapae.  St  Augustine  says,  "  Melius  est 
fodere  quam  saltare  ";  and  the  practice  was  generally  prohibited 
for  some  time.  No  church  or  sect  has  raged  so  fiercely  against 
the  cardinal  sin  of  dancing  as  the  Albigenses  of  Languedoc  and 
the  Waldenses,  who  agreed  in  calling  it  the  devil's  procession. 
After  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  there  were  still  traces  of 
religious  dancing  in  the  cathedrals  of  Spain,  Portugal  and 
Roussillon — especially  in  the  Mozarabic  Mass  of  Toledo.  An 
account  of  the  numerous  secular  dances,  public  and  private,  of 
Greece  and  Rome  will  be  found  in  the  classical  histories,  and  in 
J.  Weaver's  Essay  towards  a  History  of  Dancing,  (London,  1712), 
which,  however,  must  be  revised  by  more  recent  authorities. 
The  Pyrrhic  (derived  from  the  Memphitic)  in  all  its  local  varieties, 

1  The  Greek  Kapirala  represented  the  surprise  by  robbers  of  a  warrior 
ploughing  a  field.     The  gymnopaedic  dances  imitated  the  sterner 
sports  of  the  palaestra. 

2  The  Greek  Lenaea  and  Dionysia  had  a  distinct  reference  to  the 
seasons. 


DANCE 


797 


the  Bacchanalia  and  the  Hymenaea  were  among  the  more 
important.  The  name  of  Lycurgus  is  also  associated  with  the 
Trichoria.  Among  the  stage  dances  of  the  Athenians,  which 
formed  interludes  to  the  regular  drama,  one  Of  the  oldest  was 
the  Delian  dance  of  the  Labyrinth,  ascribed  to  Theseus,  and 
called  npavos,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  flight  of  cranes, 
and  one  of  the  most  powerful  was  the  dance  of  the  Eumenides. 
A  further  development  of  the  art  took  place  at  Rome,  under 
Augustus,  when  Pylades  and  Bathyllus  brought  serious  and  comic 
pantomime  to  great  perfection.  The  subjects  chosen  were  such 
as  the  labours  of  Hercules,  and  the  surprise  of  Venus  and  Mars  by 
Vulcan.  The  state  of  public  feeling  on  the  subject  is  well  shown 
in  Lucian's  amusing  dialogue  De  Saltatione.  Before  this  Rome 
had  only  very  inferior  buffoons,  who  attended  dinner  parties, 
and  whose  art  traditions  belonged  not  to  Greece,  but  to  Etruria.1 
Apparently,  however,  the  Romans,  though  fond  of  ceremony 
and  of  the  theatre,  were  by  temperament  not  great  dancers 
in  private.  Cicero  says:  "  Nemo  fere  saltat  sobrius,  nisi 
forte  insanit."  But  the  Italic  dance  of  the  imperial  theatre, 
supported  by  music  and  splendid  dresses,  supplanted  for  a 
time  the  older  dramas.  It  was  the  policy  of  Augustus  to 
cultivate. other  than  political  interests  for  the  people;  and  he 
passed  laws  for  the  protection  and  privilege  of  the  pantomimists. 
They  were  freed  from  the  jus  iiirgarum,  and  they  used  their 
freedom  against  the  peace  of  the  city.  Tiberius  and  Domitian 
oppressed  and  banished  them;  Trajan  and  Aurelius  gave  them 
such  titles  as  decurions  and  priests  of  Apollo;  but  the  panto- 
mime stage  soon  yielded  to  the  general  corruption  of  the 
empire. 

Modern  Dancing. — In  modern  civilized  countries  dancing 
has  developed  as  an  art  and  pastime,  as  an  entertainment.  Its 
direct  application  to  arouse  emotion  or  religious  feeling  tends  to 
be  obscured  and  finally  dropped  out. 

Italy,  in  the  i5th  century,  saw  the  renaissance  of  dancing, 
and  France  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  nursery  of  the  modern 
art,  though  comparatively  few  modern  dances  are  really  French 
in  origin.  The  national  dances  of  other  countries  were  brought 
to  France,  studied  systematically,  and  made  perfect  there. 
An  English  or  a  Bohemian  dance,  practised  only  amongst 
peasants,  would  be  taken  to  France,  polished  and  perfected, 
and  would  at  last  find  its  way  back  to  its  own  country,  no  more 
recognizable  than  a  piece  of  elegant  cloth  when  it  returns  from 
the  printer  to  the  place  from  which  as  "  grey  "  material  it  was 
sent.  The  fact  that  the  terminology  of  dancing  is  almost  entirely 
French  is  a  sufficient  indication  of  the  origin  of  the  rules  that 
govern  it.  The  earliest  dances  that  bear  any  relation  to  the 
modern  art  are  probably  the  dames  basses  and  danses  hautes 
of  the  i6th  century.  The  danse  basse  was  the  dance  of  the 
court  of  Charles  IX.  and  of  good  society,  the  steps  being  very 
grave  and  dignified,  not  to  say  solemn,  and  the  accompaniment 
a  psalm  tune.  The  danses  hautes  or  baladines  had  a  skipping 
step,  and  were  practised  only  by  clowns  and  country  people. 
More  lively  dances,  such  as  the  Gaillarde  and  Volta,  were  intro- 
duced into  France  from  Italy  by  Catherine  de'  Medici,  but  even 
in  these  the  interest  was  chiefly  spectacular.  Other  dances  of 
the  same  period  were  the  Branle  (afterwards  corrupted  to  Braule, 
and  known  in  England  as  the  Brawle) — a  kind  of  generic  dance 
which  was  capable  of  an  almost  infinite  amount  of  variety. 
Thus  there  were  imitative  dances — Branles  mimes,  such  as  the 
Branles  des  Ermites,  Branles  des  flambeaux  and  the  Branles  des 
lavandieres.  The  Branle  in  its  original  form  had  steps  like  the 
Allemande.  Perhaps  the  most  famous  and  stately  dance  of  this 
period  was  the  Pavane  (of  Spanish  origin),  which  is  very  fully 
described  in  Tabouret's  Orchesographie,  the  earliest  work  in  which 
a  dance  is  found  minutely  described.  The  Pavane,  which  was 
really  more  a  procession  than  a  dance,  must  have  been  a  very 
gorgeous  and  noble  sight,  and  it  was  perfectly  suited  to  the  dress 
of  the  period,  the  stiff  brocades  of  the  ladies  and  the  swords  and 
heavily-plumed  hats  of  the  gentlemen  being  displayed  in  its 
simple  and  dignified  measures  to  great  advantage.  The  dancers 

The  Pantomimus  was  an  outgrowth  from  the  canticum  or  choral 
singing  of  the  older  comedies  and  fabuiae  Atellanae. 


in  the  time  of  Henry  III.  of  France  usually  sang,  while  performing 
the  Pavane,  a  chanson,  of  which  this  is  one  of  the  verses: 
"  Approche  done,  ma  belle, 

Approche-toi,  mon  bien; 
Ne  me  sois  plus  rebclle, 

Puisque  mon  coeur  est  tien; 
Pour  mon  ame  apaiser, 
Donne-moi  un  baiser." 

In  the  Pavane  and  Branle,  and  in  nearly  all  the  dances  of  the 
I7th  and  i8th  centuries,  the  practice  of  kissing  formed  a  not 
unimportant  part,  and  seems  to  have  added  greatly  to  the  popu- 
larity of  the  pastime.  Another  extremely  popular  dance  was  the 
Saraband,  which,  however,  died  out  after  the  i7th  century. 
It  was  originally  a  Spanish  dance,  but  enjoyed  an  enormous 
success  for  a  time  in  France.  Every  dance  at  that  time  had  its 
own  tune  or  tunes,  which  were  called  by  its  own  name,  and  of 
the  Saraband  the  chevalier  de  Grammont  wrote  that  "  it  either 
charmed  or  annoyed  everyone,  for  all  the  guitarists  of  the  court 
began  to  learn  it,  and  God  only  knows  the  universal  twanging 
that  followed."  Vauquelin  des  Yveteaux,  in  his  eightieth  year, 
desired  to  die  to  the  tune  of  the  Saraband,  "  so  that  his  soul  might 
pass  away  sweetly."  After  the  Pavane  came  the  Courante, 
a  court  dance  performed  on  tiptoe  with  slightly  jumping  steps 
and  many  bows  and  curtseys.  The  Courante  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  strictly  modern  dances.  The  minuet  and  the 
waltz  were  both  in  some  degree  derived  from  it,  and  it  had  much 
in  common  with  the  famous  Seguidilla  of  Spain.  It  was  a 
favourite  dance  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  was  an  adept  in  the  art, 
and  it  was  regarded  in  his  time  as  of  such  importance  that  a 
nobleman's  education  could  hardly  have  been  said  to  be  begun 
until  he  had  mastered  the  Courante. 

The  dance  which  the  French  brought  to  the  greatest  perfection 
— which  many,  indeed,  regard  as  the  fine  flower  of  the  art — was 
the  Minuet.  Its  origin,  as  a  rustic  dance,  is  not  less  antique 
than  that  of  the  other  dances  from  which  the  modern  art  has 
been  evolved.  It  was  originally  a  branle  of  Poitou,  derived  from 
the  Courante.  It  came  to  Paris  in  1650,  and  was  first  set  to 
music  by  Lully.  It  was  at  first  a  gay  and  lively  dance,  but  on 
being  brought  to  court  it  soon  lost  its  sportive  character  and 
became  grave  and  dignified.  It  is  mentioned  by  Beauchamps, 
the  father  of  dancing-masters,  who  flourished  in  Louis  XIV.'s 
reign,  and  also  by  Blondy,  his  pupil;  but  it  was  Pecour  who 
really  gave  the  minuet  its  popularity,  and  although  it  was 
improved  and  made  perfect  by  Dauberval,  Gardel,  Marcel  and 
Vestris,  it  was  in  Louis  XV.'s  reign  that  it  saw  its  golden  age. 
It  was  then  a  dance  for  two  in  moderate  triple  time,  and  was 
generally  followed  by  the  gavotte.  Afterwards  the  minuet  was 
considerably  developed,  and  with  the  gavotte  became  chiefly  a 
stage  dance  and  a  means  of  display;  but  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  minuets  which  are  now  danced  on  the  stage  are 
generally  highly  elaborated  with  a  view  to  their  spectacular  effect, 
and  have  imported  into  them  steps  and  figures  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  minuet  at  all,  but  are  borrowed  from  all  kinds  of 
other  dances.  The  original  court  minuet  was  a  grave  and  simple 
dance,  although  it  did  not  retain  its  simplicity  for  long.  But 
when  it  became  elaborated  it  was  glorified  and  moulded  into  a 
perfect  expression  of  an  age  in  which  deportment  was  most 
sedulously  cultivated  and  most  brilliantly  polished.  The  "  lan- 
guishing eye  and  smiling  mouth  "  had  their  due  effect  in  the 
minuet;  it  was  a  schooj  for  chivalry,  courtesy  and  ceremony; 
the  hundred  slow  graceful  movements  and  curtseys,  the  pauses 
which  had  to  be  filled  by  neatly-turned  compliments,  the  beauty 
and  bravery  of  attire — all  were  eloquent  of  graces  and  outward 
refinements  which  we  cannot  boast  now.  The  fact  that  the 
measure  of  the  minuet  has  become  incorporated  in  the  structure 
of  the  symphony  shows  how  important  was  its  place  in  the  polite 
world.  The  Gavotte,  which  was  often  danced  as  a  pendant  to 
the  minuet,  was  also  originally  a  peasant's  dance,  a  danse  des 
Gavots,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  kissing  and  capering.  It  also 
became  stiff  and  artificial,  and  in  the  later  and  more  prudish 
half  of  the  i8th  century  the  ladies  received  bouquets  instead  of 
kisses  in  dancing  the  gavotte.  It  rapidly  became  a  stage  dance, 
and  it  has  never  been  restored  to  the  ballroom.  Grdtry  attempted 


DANCE 


to  revive  it,  but  his  arrangement  never  became  popular.  Other 
dances  which  were  naturalized  in  France  were  the  £cossaise, 
popular  in  1760;  the  Cotillon,  fashionable  under  Charles  X., 
derived  from  the  peasant  branles  a,nd  danced  by  ladies  in  short 
skirts;  the  Galop,  imported  from  Germany;  the  Lancers, 
invented  by  Laborde  in  1836;  the  Polka,  brought  by  a  dancing- 
master  from  Prague  in  1840;  the  Schotlische,  also  Bohemian, 
first  introduced  in  1844;  the  Bourree,  or  French  clog-dance;  the 
Quadrille,  known  in  the  i8th  century  as  the  Contre-danse;  and 
the  Waltz,  which  was  danced  as  a  volte  by  Henry  III.  of  France, 
but  only  became  popular  in  the  beginning  of  the  ipth  century. 
We  shall  return  to  the  history  of  some  of  these  later  dances  in 
discussing  the  dances  at  present  in  use. 

If  France  has  been  the  nursery  and  school  of  the  art  of  dancing, 
Spain  is  its  true  home.  There  it  is  part  of  the  national  life,  the 
inevitable  expression  of  the  gay,  contented,  irresponsible,  sun- 
burnt nature  of  the  people.  The  form  of  Spanish  dances  has 
hardly  changed;  some  of  them  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  may 
be  traced  back  with  hardly  a  break  to  the  performances  in  ancient 
Rome  of  the  famous  dancing-girls  of  Cadiz.  The  connexion  is 
lost  during  the  period  of  the  Arab  invasion,  but  the  art  was  not 
neglected,  and  Jovellanos  suggests  that  it  took  refuge  in  the 
Asturias.  At  any  rate,  dances  of  the  zoth  and  i2th  centuries 
have  been  preserved  uncorrupted.  The  earliest  dances  known 
were  the  Turdion,  the  Gibidana,  the  Pie-de-gibao,  and  (later)  the 
Madama  Orleans,  the  Alemana  and  the  Pmiana.  Under  Philip 
IV.  theatrical  dancing  was  in  high  popularity,  and  ballets  were 
organized  with  extraordinary  magnificence  of  decoration  and 
costume.  They  supplanted  the  national  dances,  and  the  Zara- 
banda  and  Chacona  were  practically  extinct  in  the  i8th  century. 
It  is  at  this  period  that  the  famous  modern  Spanish  dances,  the 
Bolero,  Seguidilla  and  the  Fandango,  first  appear.  Of  these  the 
Fandango  is  the  most  important.  It  is  danced  by  two  people  in 
6-8  time,  beginning  slowly  and  tenderly,  the  rhythm  marked  by 
the  click  of  castanets,  the  snapping  of  the  fingers  and  the 
stamping  of  feet,  and  the  speed  gradually  increasing  until  a 
whirl  of  exaltation  is  reached.  A  feature  of  the  Fandango  and 
also  of  the  Seguidilla  is  a  sudden  pause  of  the  music  towards  the 
end  of  each  measure,  upon  which  the  dancers  stand  rigid  in  the 
attitudes  in  which  the  stopping  of  the  music  found  them,  and 
only  move  again  when  the  music  is  resumed.  M.  Vuillier,  in  his 
History  of  Dancing,  gives  the  following  description  of  the  Fan- 
dango:— "  Like  an  electric  shock,  the  notes  of  the  Fandango  ani- 
mate all  hearts.  Men  and  women,  young  and  old,  acknowledge 
the  power  of  this  air  over  the  ears  and  soul  of  every  Spaniard. 
The  young  men  spring  to  their  places,  rattling  castanets  or 
imitating  their  sound  by  snapping  their  fingers.  The  girls  are 
remarkable  for  the  willowy  languor  and  lightness  of  their  move- 
ments, the  voluptuousness  of  their  attitudes — beating  the 
exactest  time  with  tapping  heels.  Partners  tease  and  entreat 
and  pursue  each  other  by  turns.  Suddenly  the  music  stops,  and 
each  dancer  shows  his  skill  by  remaining  absolutely  motionless, 
bounding  again  into  the  full  life  of  the  Fandango  as  the  orchestra 
strikes  up.  The  sound  of  the  guitar,  the  violin,  the  rapid  tic-tac 
of  heels  (taconeos),  the  crack  of  fingers  and  castanets,  the  supple 
swaying  of  the  dancers,  fill  the  spectator  with  ecstasy.  The 
measure  whirls  along  in  a  rapid  triple  time.  Spangles  glitter; 
the  sharp  clank  of  ivory  and  ebony  castanets  beats  out  the 
cadence  of  strange,  throbbing,  deepening  notes — assonances 
unknown  to  music,  but  curiously  characteristic,  effective  and 
intoxicating.  Amidst  the  rustle  of  silks,  smiles  gleam  over  white 
teeth,  dark  eyes  sparkle  and  droop  and  flash  up  again  in  flame. 
All  is  flutter  and  glitter,  grace  and  animation — quivering, 
sonorous,  passionate,  seductive." 

The  Bolero  is  a  comparatively  modern  dance,  having  been 
invented  by  Sebastian  Cerezo,  a  celebrated  dancer  of  the  time  of 
King  Charles  III.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  free  use  made  in  it 
of  the  arms,  and  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  ancient  Zarabanda, 
a  violent  and  licentious  dance,  which  has  entirely  disappeared, 
and  with  which  the  later  Saraband  has  practically  nothing  in 
common.  The  step  of  the  Bolero  is  low  and  gliding  but  well 
marked.  It  is  danced  by  one  or  more  couples.  The  Seguidilla  is 


hardly  less  ancient  than  the  Fandango,  which  it  resembles. 
Every  province  in  Spain  has  its  own  Seguidilla,  and  the  dance  is 
accompanied  by  coplas,  or  verses,  which  are  sung  either  to 
traditional  melodies  or  to  the  tunes  of  local  composers;  indeed, 
the  national  music  of  Spain  consists  largely  of  these  coplas. 
Baron  Davillier,  among  several  specimens  of  Seguidillas,  gives 
this  one 

"  Mi  corazon  volando 
Se  f  ue  a  tu  pecho ; 
Le  cortaste  las  alas, 
Y  quedo  dentro. 
For  atrevido 
Se  quedara  por  siempre 
En  el  metido."1 

M.  Vuillier  quotes  a  copla  which  he  heard  at  Polenza,  in  the 
Balearic  Islands.  This  verse  is  formed  on  the  rhythm  of  the 
Malaguena : 

"  Una  estrella  se  ha  pardida 

En  el  ciel  y  no  parece ; 
En  tu  cara  se  ha  metido ; 
Y  en  tu  f  rente  resplandece." 2 

The  Jota  is  the  national  dance  of  Aragon,  a  lively  and  splendid, 
but  withal  dignified  and  reticent,  dance  derived  from  the  16th- 
century  Passacaille.  It  is  still  used  as  a  religious  dance.  The 
Cachuca  is  a  light  and  graceful  dance  in  triple  time.  It  is  per- 
formed by  a  single  dancer  of  either  sex.  The  head  and  shoulders 
play  an  important  part  in  the  movements  of  this  dance.  Other 
provincial  dances  now  in  existence  are  the  Jaleo  de  Jerez,  a  whirl- 
ing measure  performed  by  gipsies,  the  PaloUa,  the  Polo,  the 
Gallegada,  the  Muyneria,  the  Habas  Verd.es,  the  Zapateado,  the 
Zorongo,  the  Vito,  the  Tirana  and  the  Tripola  Trapola.  Most  of 
these  dances  are  named  either  after  the  places  where  they  are 
danced  or  after  the  composers  who  have  invented  tunes  for  them. 
Many  of  them  are  but  slight  variations  from  the  Fandango  and 
Seguidilla. 

The  history  of  court  dancing  in  Great  Britain  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  France,  and  need  not  occupy  much  of  our 
attention  here.  But  there  are  strictly  national  dances  still  in 
existence  which  are  quite  peculiar  to  the  country,  and  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  dances  and  games  of  the  Saxon  gleemen. 
The  Egg  dance  and  the  Carole  were  both  Saxon  dances,  the  Carole 
being  a  Yule-tide  festivity,  of  which  the  present-day  Christmas 
carol  is  a  remnant.  The  oldest  dances  which  remain  unchanged 
in  England  are  the  Morris  dances,  which  were  introduced  in  the 
time  of  Edward  III.  The  name  Morris  or  Moorish  refers  to  the 
origin  of  these  dances,  which  are  said  to  have  been  brought  back 
by  John  of  Gaunt  from  his  travels  in  Spain.  The  Morris  dances 
are  associated  with  May-day,  and  are  danced  round  a  maypole 
to  a  lively  and  capering  step,  some  of  the  performers  having  bells 
fastened  to  their  knees  in  the  Moorish  manner.  They  are  dressed 
as  characters  of  old  English  tradition,  such  as  Robin  Hood, 
Maid  Marian,  Friar  Tuck,  Little  John  and  Tom  the  Piper.  All 
the  true  country  dances  of  Great  Britain  are  of  an  active  and 
lively  measure;  they  may  all,  indeed,  be  said  to  be  founded  on 
the  jig;  and  the  hornpipe,  which  is  a  kind  of  jig,  is  the  national 
dance  of  England.  Captain  Cook,  on  his  voyages,  made  his  sailors 
dance  hornpipes  in  calm  weather  to  keep  them  in  good  health. 
A  characteristic  of  English  dances  was  that  they  partook  to  a 
great  extent  of  the  nature  of  games;  there  was  little  variety  in 
the  steps,  which  were  nearly  all  those  of  the  jig  or  hornpipe,  but 
these  were  incorporated  into  various  games  or  plays,  of  which 
the  Morris  dances  were  the  most  elaborate.  Richard  Baxter 
wrote  that  "  sometimes  the  Morris  dancers  would  come  into  the 
church  in  all  their  linen  and  scarves  and  antic  dresses,  with 
Morris  bells  jingling  at  their  legs;  and  as  soon  as  Common 
Prayer  was  read,  did  haste  and  presently  to  their  play  again." 
May-day  has  always  been  celebrated  in  England  with  rustic 
dances  and  festivities.  Before  the  Reformation  there  were  no 

1  "  My  heart  flew  to  thy  breast.  Thou  didst  cut  its  wings,  so  that 
it  remained  there.  And  now  it  has  waxed  daring,  and  will  stay  with 
thee  for  evermore." 

1  "  A  star  is  lost  and  appears  not  in  the  sky;  in  thy  face  it  has  set 
itself;  on  thy  brow  it  shines." 


DANCE 


799 


really  national  dances  in  use  at  court;  but  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  the  homely,  domestic  style  of  dancing  reached  the 
height  of  its  popularity.  Remnants  of  many  of  these  dances 
remain  to-day  in  the  games  played  by  children  and  country 
people;  "  Hunt  the  Slipper,"  "  Kiss  in  the  Ring,"  "  Here  we  go 
round  the  Mulberry  Bush,"  are  examples.  All  the  Tudor  dances 
were  kissing  dances,  and  must  have  been  the  occasion  of  a  great 
deal  of  merriment.  Mrs  Groves  gives  the  following  description 
of  the  Cushion  darice: — "  The  dance  is  begun  by  a  single  person, 
man  or  woman,  who,  taking  a  cushion  in  hand,  dances  about  the 
room,  and  at  the  end  of  a  short  time  stops  and  sings:  'This 
dance  it  will  no  farther  go,'  to  which  the  musician  answers: 
'  I  pray  you,  good  sir,  why  say  so? '  '  Because  Joan  Sanderson 
will  not  come  to.'  '  She  must  come  to  whether  she  will  or  no,' 
returns  the  musician,  and  then  the  dancer  lays  the  cushion  before 
a  woman;  she  kneels  and  he  kisses  her,  singing  '  Welcome,  Joan 
Sanderson.'  Then  she  rises,  takes  up  the  cushion,  and  both 
dance  and  sing  '  Prinkum  prankum  is  a  fine  dance,  and  shall  we 
go  dance  it  over  again?'  Afterwards  the  woman  takes  the 
cushion  and  does  as  the  man  did."  Other  popular  dances — 
generally  adapted  to  the  tunes  of  popular  songs,  the  nature  of 
some  of  which  may  be  guessed  from  their  titles — were  the 
Trenchmore,  Omnium-gatherum,  Tolly-polly,  Hoite  cum  toitc, 
Dull  Sir  John,  Faine  I  would,  Sillinger,  All  in  a  Garden  Green, 
An  Old  Man's  a  Bed  Full  of  Bones,  If  All  the  World  were  Paper, 
John,  Come  Kiss  Me  Now,  Cuckholds  All  Awry,  Green  Sleeves 
and  Pudding  Pies,  Lumps  of  Pudding,  Under  and  Over,  Up  Tails 
All,  The  Slaughter  House,  Rub  her  Down  with  Straw,  Have  at 
thy  Coat  Old  Woman,  The  Happy  Marriage,  Dissembling  Love, 
Sweet  Kate,  Once  I  Loved  a  Maiden  Fair.  Dancing  practically 
disappeared  during  the  Puritan  regime,  but  with  the  Restoration 
it  again  became  popular.  It  underwent  no  considerable  develop- 
ments, however,  until  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  when  the  glories 
of  Bath  were  revived  in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  and 
Beau  Nash  drew  up  his  famous  codes  of  rules  for  the  regulation 
of  dress  and  manners,  and  founded  the  balls  in  which  the  polite 
French  dances  completely  eclipsed  the  simpler  English  ones. 
An  account  of  a  dancing  lesson  witnessed  by  a  fond  parent  at 
this  time  is  worth  quoting,  as  it  shows  how  far  the  writer  (but 
not  his  daughter)  had  departed  from  the  jolly,  romping  traditions 
of  the  old  English  dances: — "  As  the  best  institutions  are  liable 
to  corruption,  so,  sir,  I  must  acquaint  you  that  very  great  abuses 
are  crept  into  this  entertainment.  I  was  amazed  to  see  my  girl 
handed  by  and  handing  young  fellows  with  so  much  familiarity, 
and  I  could  not  have  thought  it  had  been  my  child.  They  very 
often  made  use  of  a  most  impudent  and  lascivious  step  called 
setting  to  partners,  which  I  know  not  how  to  describe  to  you 
but  by  telling  you  that  it  is  the  very  reverse  of  back  to  back. 
At  last  an  impudent  young  dog  bid  the  fiddlers  play  a  dance  called 
Moll  Patley,  and,  after  having  made  two  or  three  capers,  ran  to 
his  partner,  locked  his  arms  in  hers,  and  whisked  her  round 
cleverly  above  ground  in  such  a  manner  that  I,  who  sat  upon  one 
of  the  lowest  benches,  saw  farther  above  her  shoe  than  I  can  think 
fit  to  acquaint  you  with.  I  could  uo  longer  endure  these  enor- 
mities, wherefore,  just  as  my  girl  was  going  to  be  made  a  whirligig, 
I  ran  in,  seized  my  child  and  carried  her  home."  What  we  may 
call  polite  dancing,  when  it  became  fashionable,  soon  invaded 
London,  its  first  home  being  Madame  Cornely's  famous  Carlisle 
House  in  Soho  Square.  Ranelagh  and  Vauxhall  and  Almack's 
were  all  extensively  patronized,  and  the  rage  for  magnificent 
entertainment  and  dancing  culminated  in  the  erection  of  the 
palatial  Pantheon  in  Oxford  Street — a  place  so  universally 
patronized  that  even  Dr  Johnson  was  to  be  found  there.  White's 
and  Boodle's  were  also  famous  assembly  rooms,  but  the  most 
exclusive  of  all  these  establishments  was  Almack's,  the  original 
of  Brooks's  Club. 

The  only  true  national  dances  of  Scotland  are  reels,  strathspeys 
and  flings,  while  in  Ireland  there  is  but  one  dance — the  jig,  which 
is  there,  however,  found  in  many  varieties  and  expressive  of 
many  shades  of  emotion,  from  the  maddest  gaiety  to  the  wildest 
lament.  Curiously  enough,  although  the  Welsh  dance  often, 
they  have  no  strictly  national  dances. 


Dancing  in  present-day  society  is  a  comparatively  simple  affair, 
as  five-sixths  of  almost  all  ball  programmes  consists  of  waltzes. 
The  origin  of  the  waltz  is  a  much-debated  subject,  the  French, 
Italians  and  Bavarians  each  claiming  for  their  respective 
countries  the  honour  of  having  given  birth  to  it.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  the  waltz,  as  it  is  now  danced,  comes  from  Germany;  but 
it  is  equally  true  that  its  real  origin  is  French,  since  it  is  a  de- 
velopment of  the  Volte,  which  in  its  turn  came  from  the  Lavolta 
of  Provence,  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  French  dances.  The 
Lavolta  was  fashionable  in  the  i6th  century  and  was  the  delight 
of  the  Valois  court.  The  Volte  danced  by  Henry  III.  was  really 
a  Valse  a  deux  pas;  and  Castil-Blaze  says  that  "  the  waltz 
which  we  took  again  from  the  Germans  in  1 795  had  been  a  French 
dance  for  four  hundred  years."  The  change,  it  is  true,  came  upon 
it  during  its  visit  to  Germany,  hence  the  theory  of  its  German 
origin.  The  first  German  waltz  tune  is  dated  1770 — "  Ach!  du 
lieber  Augustin."  It  was  first  danced  at  the  Paris  opera  in  1793, 
in  Gardel's  ballet  La  Dansomanie.  It  was  introduced  to  English 
ballrooms  in  1812,  when  it  roused  a  storm  of  ridicule  and  opposi- 
tion, but  it  became  popular  when  danced  at  Almack's  by  the 
emperor  Alexander  in  1816.  The  waltz  a  trois  temps  has  a  sliding 
step  in  which  the  movements  of  the  knees  play  an  important  * 
part.  The  tempo  is  moderate,  so  as  to  allow  three  distinct 
movements  on  the  three  beats  of  each  bar;  and  the  waltz  is 
written  in  3-4  time  and  in  eight-bar  sentences.  Walking  up  and 
down  the  room  and  occasionally  breaking  into  the  step  of  the 
dance  is  not  true  waltzing,  and  the  habit  of  pushing  one's  partner 
backwards  along  the  room  is  an  entirely  English  one.  But  the 
dancer  must  be  able  to  waltz  equally  well  in  all  directions, 
pivoting  and  crossing  the  feet  when  necessary  in  the  reverse  turn. 
It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  feet  should  never  leave  the  floor 
in  the  true  waltz.  Gungl,  Waldteufel  and  the  Strauss  family 
may  be  said  to  have  moulded  the  modern  waltz  to  its  present 
form  by  their  rhythmical  and  agreeable  compositions.  There 
are  variations  which  include  hopping  and  lurching  steps;  these 
are  degradations,  and  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  the  true 
waltz. 

The  Quadrille  is  of  some  antiquity,  and  a  dance  of  this  kind 
was  first  brought  to  England  from  Normandy  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  and  was  common  all  over  Europe  in  the  i6th  and 
1 7th  centuries.  The  term  quadrille  means  a  kind  of  card  game, 
and  the  dance  is  supposed  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with 
the  game.  A  species  of  quadrille  appeared  in  a  French  ballet  in 
1745,  and  since  that  time  the  dance  has  gone  by  that  name. 
Like  many  other  dances,  it  came  from  Paris  to  Almack's  in 
1815,  and  in  its  modern  form  was  danced  in  England  for  the 
first  time  by  Lady  Jersey,  Lady  Harriet  Butler,  Lady  Susan 
Ryder  and  Miss  Montgomery,  with  Count  Aldegarde,  Mr  Mont- 
gomery, Mr  Harley  and  Mr  Montague.  It  immediately  became 
popular.  It  then  consisted  of  very  elaborate  steps,  which  in 
England  have  been  simplified  until  the  degenerate  practice  has 
become  common  of  walking  through  the  dance.  The  quadrille, 
properly  danced,  has  many  of  the  graces  of  the  minuet.  It  is 
often  stated  that  the  square  dance  is  of  modern  French  origin. 
This  is  incorrect,  and  probably  arises  from  a  mistaken  identifica- 
tion of  the  terms  quadrille  and  square  dance.  "  Dull  Sir  John  " 
and  "  Faine  I  would  "  were  square  dances  popular  in  England 
three  hundred  years  ago. 

An  account  of  the  country-dance,  with  the  names  of  some  of 
the  old  dance-tunes,  has  been  given  above.  The  word  is  not,  as 
has  been  supposed,  an  adaptation  of  the  French  contre-danse, 
neither  is  the  dance  itself  French  in  origin.  According  to  the 
New  English  Dictionary,  contre-danse  is  a  corruption  of  "  country- 
dance,"  possibly  due  to  a  peculiar  feature  of  many  of  such  dances, 
like  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  where  the  partners  are  drawn  up  in 
lines  opposite  to  each  other.  The  earliest  appearance  of  the 
French  word  is  in  its  application  to  English  dances,  which  are 
contrasted  with  the  French;  thus  in  the  Memoirs  of  Grammont, 
Hamilton  says:  "  On  quitta  les  danses  francaises  pour  se  mettre 
aux  contre-danses."  The  English  "  country-dances  "  were  intro- 
duced into  France  in  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  century  and 
became  popular;  later  French  modifications  were  brought  back 


8oo 


DANCOURT 


to  England  under  the  French  form  of  the  name,  and  this,  no 
doubt,  caused  the  long-accepted  but  confused  derivation. 

The  Lancers  were  invented  by  Laborde  in  Paris  in  1836. 
They  were  brought  over  to  England  in  1850,  and  were  made 
fashionable  by  Madame  Sacre  at  her  classes  in  Hanover  Square 
Rooms.  The  first  four  ladies  to  dance  the  lancers  in  England 
were  Lady  Georgina  Lygon,  Lady  Jane  Fielding,  Mdlle.  Olga  de 
Lechner  and  Miss  Berkeley. 

The  Polka,  the  chief  of  the  Bohemian  national  dances,  was 
adopted  by  Society  in  1835  at  Prague.  Josef  Neruda  had  seen 
a  peasant  girl  dancing  and  singing  the  polka,  and  had  noted 
down  the  tune  and  the  steps.  From  Prague  it  readily  spread  to 
Vienna,  and  was  introduced  to  Paris  by  Cellarius,  a  dancing- 
master,  who  gave  it  at  the  Odeon  in  1840.  It  took  the  public  by 
storm,  and  spread  like  an  infection  through  England  and  America. 
Everything  was  named  after  the  polka,  from  public-houses  to 
articles  of  dress.  Mr  Punch  exerted  his  wit  on  the  subject 
weekly,  and  even  The  Times  complained  that  its  French  corre- 
spondence was  interrupted,  since  the  polka  had  taken  the  place 
of  politics  in  Paris.  The  true  polka  has  three  slightly  jumping 
steps,  danced  on  the  first  three  beats  of  a  four-quaver  bar,  the 
last  beat  of  which  is  employed  as  a  rest  while  the  toe  of  the  un- 
employed foot  is  drawn  up  against  the  heel  of  the  other. 

The  Galop  is  strictly  speaking  a  Hungarian  dance,  which 
became  popular  in  Paris  in  1830.  But  some  kind  of  a  dance 
corresponding  to  the  galop  was  always  indulged  in  after  Voltes 
and  Contre-danses,  as  a  relief  from  their  grave  and  constrained 
measures. 

The  Washington  Post  and  several  varieties  of  Barn-dance  are 
of  American  origin,  and  became  fashionable  towards  the  end  of 
the  ipth  century. 

The  Polka-Mazurka  is  extremely  popular  in  Vienna  and  Buda- 
pest, and  is  a  favourite  theme  with  Hungarian  composers.  The  six 
movements  of  this  dance  occupy  two  bars  of  3-4  time,  and  consist 
of  a  mazurka  step  joined  to  the  polka.  It  is  of  Polish  origin. 

The  Polonaise  and  Mazurka  are  both  Polish  dances,  and  are 
still  fashionable  in  Russia  and  Poland.  Every  State  ball  in 
Russia  is  opened  with  the  ceremonious  Polonaise. 

The  Schottische,  a  kind  of  modified  polka,  was  "  created  " 
by  Markowski,  who  was  the  proprietor  of  a  famous  dancing 
academy  in  1850.  The  Highland  Schottische  is  a  fling.  The 
Fling  and  Reel  are  Celtic  dances,  and  form  the  national  dances 
of  Scotland  and  Denmark.  They  are  complicated  measures 
of  a  studied  and  classical  order,  in  which  free  use  is  made  of  the 
arms  and  of  cries  and  stampings.  The  Strathspey  is  a  slow  and 
grandiose  modification  of  the  Reel. 

Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  is  the  only  one  of  the  old  English  social 
dances  which  has  survived  to  the  present  day,  and  it  is  frequently 
danced  at  the  conclusion  of  the  less  formal  sort  of  balls.  It  is  a 
merry  and  lively  game  in  which  all  the  company  take  part,  men 
and  women  facing  each  other  in  two  long  rows.  The  dancers 
are  constantly  changing  places  in  such  a  way  that  if  the  dance  is 
carried  to  its  conclusion  everyone  will  have  danced  with  everyone 
else.  The  music  was  first  printed  in  1685,  and  is  sometimes 
written  in  2-4  time,  sometimes  in  6-8  time,  and  sometimes  in 
3-9  time. 

The  Cotillon  is  a  modern  development  of  the  French  dance  of 
the  same  name  referred  to  above.  It  is  an  extremely  elaborate 
dance,  in  which  a  great  many  toys  and  accessories  are  employed; 
hundreds  of  figures  may  be  contrived  for  it,  in  which  presents, 
toys,  lighted  tapers,  biscuits,  air-balloons  and  hurdles  are  used. 

Ballet,  &c. — The  modern  ballet  (q.v.)  seems  to  have  been  first 
produced  on  a  considerable  scale  in  1489  at  Tortona,  before 
Duke  Galeazzo  of  Milan.  It  soon  became  a  common  amusement 
on  great  occasions  at  the  European  courts.  The  ordinary  length 
was  five  acts,  each  containing  several  entries,  and  each  entree 
containing  several  quadrilles.  The  accessories  of  painting, 
sculpture  and  movable  scenery  were  employed,  and  the  repre- 
sentation often  took  place  at  night.  The  allegorical,  moral  and 
ludicrous  ballets  were  introduced  to  France  by  Balf  in  the  time 
of  Catherine  de'  Medici.  The  complex  nature  of  these  exhibitions 
may  be  gathered  from  the  title  of  one  played  at  Turin  in  1634 — 


La  verita  nemica  delta  apparenza,  sollevata  dal  tempo.  Of  the 
ludicrous,  one  of  the  best  known  was  the  Venetian  ballet  of  /  a 
verita  raminga.  Now  and  then,  however,  a  high  political  aim 
may  be  discovered,  as  in  the  "  Prosperity  of  the  Arms  of  France," 
danced  before  Richelieu  in  1641,  or  "  Religion  uniting  Great 
Britain  to  the  rest  of  the  World,"  danced  at  London  on  the 
marriage  of  Princess  Elizabeth  to  the  elector  Frederick.  Outside 
the  theatre,  the  Portuguese  revived  an  ambulatory  ballet  which 
was  played  on  the  canonization  of  Carlo  Borromeo,  and  to 
which  they  gave  the  name  of  the  Tyrrhenic  Pomp.  During  this 
time  also  the  ceremonial  ball  (with  all  its  elaborate  detail  of 
courante,  minuet  and  saraband)  was  cultivated.  The  fathers  of 
the  church  assembled  at  Trent  gave  a  ball  in  which  they  took  a 
part.  Masked  balls,  too,  resembling  in  some  respects  the  Roman 
Saturnalia,  became  common  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  century. 
In  France  a  ball  was  sometimes  diversified  by  a  masquerade, 
carried  on  by  a  limited  number  of  persons  in  character-costume. 
Two  of  the  most  famous  were  named  "  au  Sauvage  "  and  "  des 
Sorciers."  In  1715  the  regent  of  France  started  a  system  of 
public  balls  in  the  opera-house,  which  did  not  succeed.  Dancing, 
also,  formed  a  leading  element  in  the  Opera  Francais  introduced 
by  Quinault.  His  subjects  were  chiefly  marvellous,  drawn  from 
the  classical  mythologies;  and  the  choral  dancing  was  not  merely 
divertissement,  but  was  intended  to  assist  and  enrich  the  dramatic 
action  of  the  whole  piece. 

Musical  Gymnastics. — Dancing  is  an  important  branch  of 
physical  education.  Long  ago  Locke  pointed  out  (Education, 
§§  67,  196)  that  the  effects  of  dancing  are  not  confined  to  the 
body;  it  gives  to  children,  he  says,  not  mere  outward  graceful- 
ness of  motion,  but  manly  thoughts  and  a  becoming  confidence. 
Only  lately,  however,  has  the  advantage  been  recognized  of 
making  gymnastics  attractive  by  connecting  it  with  what  Homer 
calls  "  the  sweetest  and  most  perfect  of  human  enjoyments." 
The  practical  principle  against  heavy  weights  and  intense 
monotonous  exertion  of  particular  muscles  was  thus  stated  by 
Samuel  Smiles  (Physical  Education,  p.  148): — "The  greatest 
benefit  is  derived  from  that  exercise  which  calls  into  action  the 
greatest  number  of  muscles,  and  in  which  the  action  of  these  is 
intermitted  at  the  shortest  intervals."  It  required  only  one 
further  step  to  see  how,  if  light  and  changing  movements  were 
desirable,  music  would  prove  a  powerful  stimulus  to  gymnastics. 
It  touches  the  play-impulse,  and  substitutes  a  spontaneous  flow 
of  energy  for  the  mechanical  effort  of  the  will.  The  force  of 
imitation  or  contagion,  one  of  the  most  valuable  forces  in 
education,  is  also  much  increased  by  the  state  of  exhilaration 
into  which  dancing  puts  the  system.  This  idea  was  embodied 
by  Froebel  in  his  Kindergarten  plan,  and  was  developed  by  Jahn 
and  Schreber  in  Germany,  by  Dio  Lewis  in  the  United  States, 
and  by  Ling  (the  author  of  the  Swedish  Cure  Movement)  in 
Sweden. 

AUTHORITIES. — For  the  old  division  of  the  Ars  Gymnastica  into 
palaestrica  and  sanatoria,  and  of  the  latter  into  cubistica,  sphaeristica 
and  orchestica,  see  the  learned  work  of  Hieronymus  Mercurialis,  De 
arte  Gymnastica  (Amsterdam,  1572).  Cubistic  was  the  art  of  throwing 
somersaults,  and  is  described  minutely  by  Tuccaro  in  his  Trots 
Dialogues  (Paris,  1599).  Sphaeristic  included  several  complex  games 
at  ball  and  tilting — the  Greek  xupu/to;,  and  the  Roman  trigonalis 
and  paganica.  Orchestic,  divided  by  Plutarch  into  latio,  figura  and 
indicatw,  was  really  imitative  dancing,  the  "  silent  poetry  "  of 
Simonides.  The  importance  of  the  xtipovoida.  or  hand-movement 
is  indicated  by  Ovid: — "  Si  vox  est,  canta;  si  mollia  brachia,  salta." 
For  further  information  as  to  modern  dancing,  see  Rameau's  Le 
mattre  d  danser  (1726);  Querlon's  Le  triomphe  des  gr&ces  (1774);. 
Cahousac,  La  danse  ancienne  et  moderne  (1754);  Vuillier,  History  of 
Dancing  (Eng.  trans.,  1897);  Giraudet,  Traite  de  la  danse  (1900). 

(W.  C.  S.;  A.  B.  F.  Y.) 

DANCOURT,  FLORENT  CARTON  (1661-1725),  French  drama- 
tist and  actor,  was  born  at  Fontainebleau  on  the  ist  of  November 
1 66 1 .  He  belonged  to  a  family  of  rank ,  and  his  parents  entrusted 
his  education  to  Pere  de  la  Rue,  a  Jesuit,  who  made  earnest 
efforts  to  induce  him  to  join  the  order.  But  he  had  no  religious 
vocation  and  proceeded  to  study  law.  He  practised  at  the  bar 
for  some  time,  but  his  marriage  to  the  daughter  of  the  comedian 
Francois  Lenoir  de  la  Thorilliere  led  him  to  become  an  actor, 
and  in  1685,  in  spite  of  the  strong  opposition  of  his  family,  he 


DANDELION— DANDOLO  FAMILY 


801 


appeared  at  the  Theatre  Francais.  His  gifts  as  a  comedian  gave 
him  immediate  and  marked  success,  both  with  the  public  and 
with  his  fellow  actors.  He  was  the  spokesman  of  his  company 
on  occasions  of  state,  and  in  this  capacity  he  frequently  appeared 
before  Louis  XIV.,  who  treated  him  with  great  favour.  One  of 
his  most  famous  impersonations  was  Alceste  in  the  Misanthrope 
of  Moliere.  His  first  play,  Le  Notaire  obligeant,  produced  in  1685, 
was  well  received.  La  Desolation  des  joueuses  (1687)  was  still 
more  successful.  Le  Chevalier  a  la  mode  (1687)  is  generally 
regarded  as  his  best  work,  though  his  claim  to  original  author- 
ship in  this  and  some  other  cases  has  been  disputed.  In  Le 
Chevalier  a  la  mode  appears  the  bourgeoise  infatuated  with  the 
desire  to  be  an  aristocrat.  The  type  is  developed  in  Les  Bour- 
geoises a  la  mode  (1692)  and  Les  Bourgeoises  de  qualile  (1700). 
Dancourt  was  a  prolific  author,  and  produced  some  sixty  plays 
in  all.  Some  years  before  his  death  he  terminated  his  career 
both  as  an  actor  and  as  an  author  by  retiring  to  his  chateau  at 
Courcelles  le  Roi,  in  Berry,  where  he  employed  himself  in  making 
a  poetical  translation  of  the  Psalms  and  in  writing  a  sacred 
tragedy.  He  died  on  the  7th-bf  December  1725.  The  plays  of 
Dancourt  are  faithful  descriptions  of  the  manners  of  the  time, 
and  as  such  have  real  historical  value.  The  characters  are  drawn 
with  a  realistic  touch  that  led  to  his  being  styled  by  Charles 
Palissot  the  Teniers  of  comedy.  He  is  very  successful  in  his 
delineation  of  low  life,  and  especially  of  the  peasantry.  The 
dialogue  is  sparkling,  witty  and  natural.  Many  of  the  incidents 
of  his  plots  were  derived  from  actual  occurrences  in  the  "  fast  " 
and  scandalous  life  of  the  period,  and  several  of  his  characters 
were  drawn  from  well-known  personages  of  the  day.  Most  of 
the  plays  incline  to  the  type  of  farce  rather  than  of  pure  comedy. 
Voltaire  defined  his  talent  in  the  words:  "  Ce  que  Regnard  etait 
a  1'  egard  de  Moliere  dans  la  haute  comedie,  le  comedien  Dancourt 
1'  etait  dans  la  farce." 

His  two  daughters,  Manon  and  Marie  Anne  (Mimi),  both 
obtained  success  on  the  stage  of  the  Theatre  Francais. 

The  complete  works  of  Dancourt  were  published  in  1760  (12  vols. 
I2mo).  An  edition  of  his  Theatre  choisi,  with  a  preface  by  F.  Sarcey, 
appeared  in  1884. 

DANDELION  (Taraxacum  officinale),  a  perennial  herb  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Compositae.  The  plant  has  a  wide  range, 
being  found  in  Europe,  Central  Asia,  North  America,  and  the 
Arctic  regions,  and  also  in  the  south  temperate  zone.  The  leaves 
form  a  spreading  rosette  on  the  very  short  stem;  they  are  smooth, 
of  a  bright  shining  green,  sessile,  and  tapering  downwards.  The 
name  dandelion  is  derived  from  the  French  dent-de-lion,  an 
appellation  given  on  account  of  the  tooth-like  lobes  of  the  leaves. 
The  long  tap-root  has  a  simple  or  many-headed  rhizome;  it  is 
black  externally,  and  is  very  difficult  of  extirpation.  The  flower- 
stalks  are  smooth,  brittle,  leafless,  hollow,  and  very  numerous. 
The  flowers  bloom  from  April  till  August,  and  remain  open  from 
five  or  six  in  the  morning  to  eight  or  nine  at  night.  The  flower- 
heads  are  of  a  golden  yellow,  and  reach  \\  to  2  in.  in  width; 
the  florets  are  all  strap-shaped.  The  fruits  are  olive  or  dull 
yellow  in  colour,  and  are  each  surmounted  by  a  long  beak,  on 
which  rests  a  pappus  of  delicate  white  hairs,  which  occasions 
the  ready  dispersal  of  the  fruit  by  the  wind;  each  fruit  contains 
one  seed.  The  globes  formed  by  the  plumed  fruits  are  nearly 
two  inches  in  diameter.  The  involucre  consists  of  an  outer 
spreading  (or  reflexed)  and  an  inner  and  erect  row  of  bracts. 
In  all  parts  of  the  plant  a  milky  juice  is  contained,  which  has  a 
somewhat  complex  composition.  The  chief  constituent  is 
taraxacin,  a  neutral  principle.  In  addition  the  juice  contains 
taraxacerin  (derived  from  the  former),  asparagin,  inulin,  resins 
and  salts.  An  extract  (dose  5-15  grains),  a  liquid  extract  (dose 
£-1  drachm)  and  a  succus  (dose  1-2  drachms)  of  the  root  are  all 
used  medicinally.  For  the  purposes  formerly  recognized  tarax- 
acum is  now  never  used,  but  it  has  been  shown  to  possess  definite 
cholagogue  properties,  and  may  therefore  be  prescribed  along 
with  ammonium  chloride  in  cases  of  hepatic  constipation,  which 
it  very  constantly  relieves.  The  root — which  is  the  medicinal 
product — is  most  bitter  from  March  to  July,  but  the  milky  juice 
it  contains  is  less  abundant  in  the  summer  than  in  the  autumn. 
VH.  26 


For  this  reason,  the  extract  and  succus  are  usually  prepared 
during  the  months  of  September  and  October.  After  a  frost  a 
change  takes  place  in  the  root,  which  loses  its  bitterness  to  a 


Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale). 

I,  Unopened  head,  §  natural  size;  2,  ripe  head  from  which  all  the 
fruits  except  two  have  been  removed,  f  natural  size;  3,  one  floret, 
enlarged ;  4,  one  fruit,  magnified  four  times. 

large  extent.  In  the  dried  state  the  root  will  not  keep  well, 
being  quickly  attacked  by  insects.  Externally  it  is  brown  and 
wrinkled,  internally  white,  with  a  yellow  centre  and  concentric 
paler  rings.  It  is  two  inches  to  a  foot  long,  and  about  a  quarter 
to  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  leaves  are  bitter,  but  are  some- 
times eaten  as  a  salad;  they  serve  as  food  for  silkworms  when 
mulberry  leaves  are  not  to  be  had.  The  root  is  roasted  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee.  Several  varieties  of  the  dandelion  are 
recognized  by  botanists;  they  differ  in  the  degree  and  mode  of 
cutting  of  the  leaf-margin  and  the  erect  or  spreading  character 
of  the  outer  series  of  bracts.  The  variety  palustre,  which  affects 
boggy  situations,  and  flowers  in  late  summer  and  autumn,  has 
nearly  entire  leaves,  and  the  outer  bracts  of  its  involucre  are 
erect. 

DANDOLO,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious  patrician 
families  of  Venice,  of  which  the  earliest  recorded  member  was 
one  of  the  electors  of  the  first  doge  (A.D.  697).  The  Dandolo 
gave  to  Venice  four  doges;  of  these  the  first  and  most  famous  was 
Enrico  Dandolo  (c.  1120-1205),  elected  on  the  ist  of  January 
1193  (more  Venelo,  1192).  He  had  distinguished  himself  in  various 
military  enterprises  and  diplomatic  negotiations  in  the  course  of 
an  active  career,  and  although  over  seventy  years  old  and  of 
very  weak  sight  (the  story  that  he  had  been  made  blind  by  the 
emperor  Manuel  Comnenus  while  he  was  at  Constantinople  is  a 
legend),  he  proved  a  most  energetic  and  capable  ruler.  His  first 
care  was  to  re-establish  Venetian  authority  over  the  Dalmatians 
who  had  rebelled  with  the  king  of  Hungary's  protection,  but  he 
failed  to  capture  Zara,  owing  to  the  arrival  of  the  Pisan  fleet, 
and  although  the  latter  was  defeated  by  the  Venetians,  the  under- 
taking was  suspended.  In  the  meanwhile  the  situation  in  the 
East  was  becoming  critical.  The  Eastern  emperor  Isaac  II. 
Angelus  had  been  deposed,  imprisoned,  and  blinded  by  his 


802 


DANDOLO,  V. 


brother  Alexius,  who  usurped  the  throne.  The  new  emperor 
proved  unfriendly  to  the  Venetians  and  made  difficulties  about 
renewing  their  privileges.  In  the  West  a  new  crusade  to  the 
Holy  Land  was  in  preparation,  and  the  crusaders  sent  am- 
bassadors, one  of  whom  was  Villehardouin,  the  historian  of  the 
expedition,  to  ask  the  Venetians  to  give  them  passage  and 
means  of  transport  (i  201).  After  much  deliberation  the  republic 
agreed  to  transport  450x5  horse  and  29,000  foot  to  Palestine  with 
provisions  for  one  year,  for  a  sum  of  85,000  marks;  in  addition 
50  Venetian  galleys  would  be  provided  free  of  charge,  while 
Venice  was  to  receive  half  the  conquests  made  by  the  crusaders. 
But  as  the  time  agreed  upon  for  the  departure  approached,  it 
appeared  that  the  crusaders  had  not  the  money  to  pay  the  stipu- 
lated advance.  Dandolo  then  proposed  that  if  they  helped  him 
to  reduce  Zara  payment  might  be  deferred.  Some  of  the  cru- 
saders disapproved  of  this  attack  on  a  Christian  city,  but  the 
majority,  only  too  glad  of  an  opportunity  for  plunder,  willingly 
agreed.  The  expedition  sailed  on  the  8th  of  October  1202,  three 
hundred  sail  in  all,  with  the  aged  Dandolo  himself  in  command. 
Zara  was  taken  and  pillaged,  for  which  the  Venetians  were 
severely  reprimanded  by  the  pope.  But  new  possibilities  of 
conquest  were  now  opened  up  at  the  suggestion  of  Alexius,  the 
son  of  the  deposed  emperor  Isaac.  He  promised  the  crusaders 
that  if  they  went  first  to  Constantinople  and  re-instated  Isaac, 
the  latter  would  maintain  them  for  a  year,  contribute  10,000 
men  and  200,000  marks  for  the  expedition  to  Egypt,  and  subject 
the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Church.  The  proposal  was  accepted, 
largely  owing  to  the  influence  of  Dandolo,  who  saw  in  it  a  means 
for  further  extending  the  dominions  and  commerce  of  the 
Venetians.  After  wintering  at  Zara  the  fleet  set  sail  on  the  7th 
of  April  1203,  and  on  the  23rd  of  June  anchored  in  the  Bosporus. 
After  long  parleys  the  city  was  attacked  by  land  and  sea  on  the 
I7th  of  July  (the  fleet  being  commanded  by  Dandolo)  and  taken 
by  storm.  The  emperor  Alexius  fled,  and  Isaac  reoccupied  the 
throne,  but,  although  grateful  to  the  crusaders,  he  was  not  dis- 
posed to  fulfil  the  promises  made  by  his  son.  Tumults  between 
crusaders  and  Greeks  arose,  and  the  people  of  the  city,  excited 
by  a  certain  Alexis  Murzuphlus,  murmured  at  the  new  taxes 
which  were  imposed  on  them.  A  revolt  broke  out,  and  an  officer 
named  Nicholas  Canabus  was  placed  on  the  throne;  Prince 
Alexius  was  strangled  by  order  of  Murzuphlus,  Isaac  died  of  the 
shock,  Murzuphlus  imprisoned  Canabus  and  made  himself 
emperor  (Alexius  V.).  The  crusaders  thereupon  Attacked  Con- 
stantinople a  second  time  (i2th  of  April  1204),  and  after  a 
desperate  struggle  captured  the  city,  which  they  subjected  to 
hideous  carnage.  Immense  booty  was  secured,  the  Venetians 
obtaining  among  other  treasures  the  four  bronze  horses  which 
adorn  the  facade  of  St  Mark's.  The  Eastern  empire  was  abol- 
ished, and  a  feudal  Latin  empire  erected  in  its  stead.  The 
leaders  of  the  crusaders  then  met  to  elect  an  emperor.  Dandolo 
was  one  of  the  candidates,  but  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders  was 
elected  and  crowned  on  the  23rd  of  May.  The  Venetians  were 
given  Crete  and  several  other  islands  and  ports  in  the  Levant, 
which  formed  an  uninterrupted  chain  from  Venice  to  the  Black 
Sea,  a  large  part  of  Constantinople  (whence  the  doge  assumed 
the  title  of  "  lord  of  a  quarter  and  a  half  of  Romania  "),  and 
many  valuable  privileges.  But  hardly  had  the  new  state  been 
established  when  various  provinces  rose  in  rebellion  and  the 
Bulgarians  invaded  Thrace.  A  Latin  army  was  defeated  by 
them  at  Adrianople  (April  1205),  and  the  emperor  himself  was 
captured  and  killed,  the  fragments  of  the  force  being  saved  only 
by  Dandolo's  prowess.  But  he  was  now  old  and  ill,  and  on  the 
23rd  of  June  1 205  he  died.  He  certainly  consolidated  Venice's 
dominion  in  the  East  and  increased  its  commercial  prosperity 
to  a  very  high  degree.  But  the  policy  he  pursued  in  turning  the 
crusaders  against  Constantinople,  in  order  to  promote  the 
interests  of  the  republic,  while  serving  to  break  up  the  Greek 
empire,  created  in  its  place  a  Latin  state  that  was  far  too  feeble 
to  withstand  the  onslaught  of  Greek  national  feeling  and 
Orthodox  fanaticism;  at  the  same  time  the  Greeks  were  greatly 
weakened  and  their  power  of  resisting  the  Turks  consequently 
lessened.  This  paved  the  way  for  the  Turkish  invasion  of 


Europe,  which  proved  an  unmixed  calamity  for  all  Christendom, 
Venice  included. 

Enrico  Dandolo's  sons  distinguished  themselves  in  the  public 
service,  and  his  grandson  Giovanni  was  doge  from  1280  to  1289. 
The  latter's  son  Andrea  commanded  the  Venetian  fleet  in  the 
war  against  Genoa  in  1294,  and,  having  been  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner,  he  was  so  overwhelmed  with  shame  that  he  committed 
suicide  by  beating  his  head  against  the  mast  (according  to  Andrea 
Navagero).  Francesco  Dandolo,  also  known  as  Dandolo  Cane, 
was  doge  from  1329  to  1339.  During  his  reign  the  Venetians 
went  to  war  with  Martino  della  Scala,  lord  of  Verona,  with  the 
result  that  they  occupied  Treviso  and  otherwise  extended  their 
possessions  on  the  terra  firma.  Andrea  Dandolo  (1307/10- 
1354),  the  last  doge  of  the  family,  reigned  from  1343  to  1354. 
He  had  been  the  first  Venetian  noble  to  take  a  degree  at  the 
university  of  Padua,  where  he  had  also  been  professor  of  juris- 
prudence. The  terrible  plague  of  1348,  wars  with  Genoa,  against 
whom  the  great  naval  victory  of  Lojera  was  won  in  1353,  many 
treaties,  and  the  subjugation  of  the  seventh  revolt  of  Zara,  are 
the  chief  events  of  his  reign.  The  poet  Petrarch,  who  was  the 
doge's  intimate  friend,  was  sent  to  Venice  on  a  peace  mission  by 
Giovanni  Visconti,  lord  of  Milan.  "  Just,  incorruptible,  full  of 
zeal  and  of  love  for  his  country,  and  at  the  same  time  learned, 
of  rare  eloquence,  wise,  affable,  and  humane,"  is  the  poet's 
verdict  on  Andrea  Dandolo  (Varior.  epist.  xix.).  Dandolo  died 
on  the  7th  of  September  1354.  He  is  chiefly  famous  as  a  his- 
torian, and  his  Annals  to  the  year  1280  are  one  of  the  chief  sources 
of  Venetian  history  for  that  period;  they  have  been  published 
by  Muratori  (Rer.  Ital.  Script,  torn.  xxi.).  He  also  had  a  new 
code  of  laws  compiled  (issued  in  1346)  in  addition  to  the  statute 
of  Jacopo  Tiepolo. 

Another  well-known  member  of  this  fami'y  was  Silvestro 
Dandolo  (1796-1866),  son  of  Girolamo  Dandolo,  who  was  the 
last  admiral  of  the  Venetian  republic  and  died  an  Austrian 
admiral  in  1847.  Silvestro  was  an  Italian  patriot  and  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1848. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S.  Romanin,  Storia  documenlata  di  Venezia 
(Venice,  1853);  among  more  recent  books  H.  Kretschmayr's 
excellent  Geschichte  von  Venedig  (Gotha,  1905)  should  be  consulted: 
it  contains  a  bibliography  of  the  authorities  and  all  the  latest  re- 
searches and  discoveries ;  C.  Cipolla  and  G.  Monticolo  have  published 
many  essays  and  editions  of  chronicles  in  the  A  rchivio  Veneto,  and  the 
"  Font!  per  la  Storia  d'ltalia,"  in  the  Istituto  storico  italiano;  H. 
Simonsfeld  has  written  a  life  of  Andrea  Dandolo  in  German  (Munich, 
1876).  (L.  V.*) 

DANDOLO,  VINCENZO,  COUNT  (1758-1819),  Italian  chemist 
and  agriculturist,  was  born  at  Venice,  of  good  family,  though  not 
of  the  same  house  as  the  famous  doges,  and  began  his  career  as  a 
physician.  He  was  a  prominent  opponent  of  the  oligarchical 
party  in  the  revolution  which  took  place  on  the  approach  of 
Napoleon;  and  he  was  one  of  the  envoys  sent  to  seek  the  pro- 
tection of  the  French.  When  the  request  was  refused,  and 
Venice  was  placed  under  Austria,  he  removed  to  Milan,  where  he 
was  made  member  of  the  great  council.  In  1799,  on  the  invasion 
of  the  Russians  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Cisalpine  republic, 
Dandolo  retired  to  Paris,  where,  in  the  same  year,  he  published 
his  treatise  Les  Hommes  nouveaux,  ou  moyen  d'operer  une  rf genera- 
tion nouvelle.  But  he  soon  after  returned  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Milan,  to  devote  himself  to  scientific  agriculture.  In  1805 
Napoleon  made  him  governor  of  Dalmatia,  with  the  title  of 
provediteur  g&ntral,  in  which  position  Dandolo  distinguished 
himself  by  his  efforts  to  remove  the  wretchedness  and  idleness  of 
the  people,  and  to  improve  the  country  by  draining  the  pesti- 
lential marshes  and  introducing  better  methods  of  agriculture. 
When,  in  1809,  Dalmatia  was  re-annexed  to  the  Illyrian  prov- 
inces, Dandolo  returned  to  Venice,  having  received  as  his  reward 
from  the  French  emperor  the  title  of  count  and  several  other 
distinctions.  He  died  in  his  native  city  on  the  I3th  of  December 
1819. 

Dandolo  published  in  Italian  several  treatises  on  agriculture, 
vine-cultivation,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep;  a  work  on 
silk- worms,  which  was  translated  into  French  by  Fontanelle;  a 
work  on  the  discoveries  in  chemistry  which  were  made  in  the  last 


DANDY— DANELAGH 


803 


quarter  of  the  i8th  century  (published  1796);  and  translations  of 
several  of  the  best  French  works  on  chemistry. 

DANDY,  a  word  of  uncertain  origin  which  about  1813-1816 
became  a  London  colloquialism  for  the  exquisite  or  fop  of  the 
period.  It  seems  to  have  been  in  use  on  the  Scottish  border  at 
the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  its  full  form,  it  is  suggested,  being 
"  Jack-a-Dandy,"  which  from  1659  had  a  sense  much  like  its 
later  one.  It  is  probably  ultimately  derived  from  the  French 
dandin,  "  a  ninny  or  booby,"  but  a  more  direct  derivation  was 
suggested  at  the  time  of  the  uprise  of  the  Regency  dandies.  In 
The  Northampton  Mercury,  under  date  of  the  I7th  of  April 
1819,  occurs  the  following:  "  Origin  of  the  word  '  dandy.' 
This  term,  which  has  been  recently  applied  to  a  species  of 
reptile  very  common  in  the  metropolis,  appears  to  have 
arisen  from  a  small  silver  coin  struck  by  King  Henry  VII.,  of 
little  value,  called  a  dandiprat;  and  hence  Bishop  Fleetwood 
observes  the  term  is  applied  to  worthless  and  contemptible 
persons." 

It  was  Beau  Brummel,  the  high-priest  of  fashion,  who  gave 
dandyism  its  great  vogue.  But  before  his  day  foppery  in  dress 
had  become  something  more  than  the  personal  eccentricity 
which  it  had  been  in  the  Stuart  days  and  earlier.  About  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century  was  founded  the  Macaroni  Club. 
This  was  a  band  of  young  men  of  rank  who  had  visited  Italy 
and  sought  to  introduce  the  southern  elegances  of  manner  and 
dress  into  England.  The  Macaronis  gained  their  name  from 
their  introduction  of  the  Italian  dish  to  English  tables,  and  were 
at  their  zenith  about  1772,  when  their  costume  is  described  as 
"  white  silk  breeches,  very  tight  coat  and  vest  with  enormous 
white  neckcloths,  white  silk  stockings  and  diamond-buckled 
red-heeled  shoes."  For  some  time  the  moving  spirit  of  the  club 
was  Charles  James  Fox.  It  was  with  the  advent  of  Brummel, 
however,  that  the  cult  of  dandyism  became  a  social  force.  Beau 
Brummel  was  supreme  dictator  in  matters  of  dress,  and  the  prince 
regent  is  said  to  have  wept  when  he  disapproved  of  the  cut  of 
the  royal  coat.  Around  the  Beau  collected  a  band  of  young 
men  whose  insolent  and  affected  manners  made  them  universally 
unpopular.  Their  chief  glory  was  their  clothes.  They  wore 
coats  of  blue  or  brown  cloth  with  brass  buttons,  the  coat-tails 
almost  touching  the  heels.  Their  trousers  were  buckskin,  so 
tight  that  it  is  said  they  "  could  only  be  taken  off  as  an  eel 
would  be  divested  of  his  skin."  A  pair  of  highly-polished 
Hessian  boots,  a  waistcoat  buttoned  incredibly  tight  so  as  to 
produce  a  small  waist,  and  opening  at  the  breast  to  exhibit  the 
frilled  shirt  and  cravat,  completed  the  costume  of  the  true  dandy. 
Upon  the  Beau's  disgrace  and  ruin,  Lord  Alvanley  was  regarded 
as  leader  of  the  dandies  and  "  first  gentleman  in  England." 
Though  in  many  ways  a  worthier  man  than  Brummel,  his  vanity 
exposed  him  to  much  derision,  and  he  fought  a  duel  on 
Wimbledon  Common  with  Morgan  O'Connell,  who,  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  had  called  him  a  "  bloated  buffoon."  After  1825 
"  dandy  "  lost  its  invidious  meaning,  and  came  to  be  applied 
generally  to  those  who  were  neat  in  dress  rather  than  to  those 
guilty  of  effeminacy. 

See  Barbey  D'Aurevilly,  Du  dandysme  et  de  G.  Brummel  (Paris, 
1887). 

DANEGELD,  an  English  national  tax  originally  levied  by 
jEthelred  II.  (the  Unready)  as  a  means  of  raising  the  tribute 
which  was  the  price  of  the  temporary  cessation  of  the  Danish 
ravages.  This  expedient  of  buying  off  the  invader  was  first 
adopted  in  991  on  the  advice  of  certain  great  men  of  the  kingdom. 
It  was  repeated  in  994,  1002,  1007  and  1012.  With  the  accession 
of  the  Danish  king  Canute,  the  original  raison  d'etre  of  the  tax 
ceased  to  exist,  but  it  continued  to  be  levied,  though  for  a 
different  purpose,  assuming  now  the  character  of  an  occasional 
war-tax.  It  was  exceedingly  burdensome,  and  its  abolition  by 
Edward  the  Confessor  in  1051  was  welcomed  as  a  great  relief. 
William  the  Conqueror  revived  it  immediately  after  his  accession, 
as  a  convenient  method  of  national  taxation,  and  it  was  with  the 
object  of  facilitating  its  collection  that  he  ordered  the  compilation 
of  Domesday  Book.  It  continued  to  be  levied  until  1163,  in 
which  year  the  name  Danegeld  appears  for  the  last  time  in  the 


Rolls.  Its  place  was  taken  by  other  imposts  of  similar  character 
but  different  name. 

DANELAGH,  the  name  given  to  those  districts  in  the  north 
and  north-east  of  England  which  were  settled  by  Danes  and  other 
Scandinavian  invaders  during  the  period  of  the  Viking  invasions. 
The  real  settlement  of  England  by  Danes  began  in  the  year  866 
with  the  appearance  of  a  large  army  in  East  Anglia,  which  turned 
north  in  the  following  year.  The  Danes  captured  York  and 
overthrew  the  Northumbrian  kingdom,  setting  up  a  puppet 
king  of  their  own.  They  encamped  in  Nottingham  in  868,  and 
Northern  Mercia  was  soon  in  their  hands;  in  870  Edmund,  king 
of  the  East  Anglians,  fell  before  them.  During  the  next  few  years 
they  maintained  their  hold  on  Mercia,  and  we  have  at  this  time 
coins  minted  in  London  with  the  inscription  "  Alfdene  rex,"  the 
name  of  the  Danish  leader.  In  the  winter  of  874-875  they 
advanced  as  far  north  as  the  Tyne,  and  at  the  same  time  Cam- 
bridge was  occupied.  In  the  meantime  the  great  struggle  with 
Alfred  the  Great  was  being  carried  on.  This  was  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Wedmore  in  878,  when  the  Danes  withdrew  from  Wessex 
and  settled  finally  in  East  Anglia  under  their  king  Guthrum. 
This  peace  was  finally  and  definitely  ratified  in  the  document 
known  as  the  peace  of  Alfred  and  Guthrum,  which  is  probably  to 
be  referred  to  the  year  880.  The  peace  determined  the  boundary 
of  Guthrum's  East  Anglian  kingdom.  According  to  the  terms 
of  the  agreement  the  boundary  was  to  run  along  the  Thames 
estuary  to  the  mouth  of  the  Lea  (a  few  miles  east  of  London), 
then  up  the  Lea  to  its  source  near  Leighton  Buzzard,  then  due 
north  to  Bedford,  then  eastwards  up  the  Ouse  to  Watling  Street 
somewhere  near  Fenny  or  Stony  Stratford.  From  this  point 
the  boundary  is  left  undefined,  perhaps  because  the  kingdoms 
of  Alfred  and  Guthrum  ceased  to  be  conterminous  here,  though  if 
Northamptonshire  was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Guthrum, 
as  seems  likely,  the  boundary  must  be  carried  a  few  miles  along 
Watling  Street.  Thus  Northern  Mercia,  East  Anglia,  the  greater 
part  of  Essex  and  Northumbria  were  handed  over  to  the 
Danes  and  henceforth  constitute  the  district  known  as  the 
Danelagh. 

The  three  chief  divisions  of  the  Danelagh  were  (i)  the  kingdom 
of  Northumbria,  (2)  the  kingdom  of  East  Anglia,  (3)  the  district 
of  the  Five  (Danish)  Boroughs — lands  grouped  round  Leicester, 
Nottingham,  Derby,  Stamford  and  Lincoln,  and  forming  a  loose 
confederacy.  Of  the  history  of  the  two  Danish  kingdoms  we 
know  very  little.  Guthrum  of  East  Anglia  died  in  890,  and  later 
we  hear  of  a  king  Eric  or  Eohnc  who  died  in  902.  Another 
Guthrum  was  ruling  there  in  the  days  of  Edward  the  Elder.  The 
history  of  the  Northumbrian  kingdom  is  yet  more  obscure. 
After  an  interregnum  consequent  on  the  death  of  Healfdene  the 
kingdom  passed  in  883  to  one  Guthred,  son  of  Hardicanute,  who 
ruled  till  894,  when  his  realm  was  taken  over  by  King  Alfred, 
though  probably  only  under  a  very  loose  sovereignty.  It  may  be 
noted  here  that  Northumbria  north  of  the  Tyne,  the  old  Bernicia, 
seems  never  to  have  passed  under  Danish  authority  and  rule,  but 
to  have  remained  in  independence  until  the  general  submission  to 
Edward  in  924. 

More  is  known  of  the  history  of  the  five  boroughs.  From  007 
onwards  Edward  the  Elder,  working  together  with  ^Ethelred  of 
Mercia  and  his  wife,  worked  for  the  recovery  of  the  Danelagh.  In 
that  year  Chester  was  fortified.  In  91 1-91 2  an  advance  on  Essex 
and  Hertfordshire  was  begun.  In  914  Buckingham  was  fortified 
and  the  Danes  of  Bedfordshire  submitted.  In  917  Derby  was 
the  first  of  the  five  boroughs  to  fall,  followed  by  Leicester  a 
few  months  later.  In  the  same  year  after  a  keen  struggle  all  the 
Danes  belonging  to  the  "  borough  "  of  Northampton,  as  far  north 
as  the  Welland  (i.e.  the  border  of  modern  Northamptonshire), 
submitted  to  Edward  and  at  the  same  time  Colchester  was  forti- 
fied; a  large  portion  of  Essex  submitted  and  the  whole  of  the  East 
Anglian  Danes  came  in.  Stamford  was  the  next  to  yield,  soon 
followed  by  Nottingham,  and  in  920  there  was  a  general  submis- 
sion on  the  part  of  the  Danes  and  the  reconquest  of  the  Danelagh 
was  now  complete. 

Though  the  independent  occupation  of  the  Danelagh  by 
Viking  invaders  did  not  last  for  more  than  fifty  years  at  the 


8  04 


DANGERFIELD— DANIEL 


outside,  the  Danes  left  lasting  marks  of  their  presence  in  these 
territories. 

The  divisions  of  the  land  are  foreign  not  native.  The  grouping 
of  shires  round  a  county  town  as  distinct  from  the  old  national 
shires  is  probably  of  Scandinavian  origin,  and  so  certainly  is  the 
division  of  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire  into  "  ridings."  In 
Derbyshire,  Leicestershire,  Lincolnshire,  part  of  Northampton- 
shire, Nottinghamshire,  Rutlandshire  (of  later  formation)  and 
Yorkshire  we  have  the  counties  divided  into  "  wapentakes  " 
instead  of  "  hundreds,"  again  a  mark  of  Danish  influence. 

When  we  turn  to  the  social  divisions  we  find  in  Domesday  and 
other  documents  classes  of  society  in  these  districts  bearing  purely 
Norse  names,  dreng,  karl,  karlman,  bonde,  thrall,  lysing,  hold;  in 
the  system  of  taxation  we  have  an  assessment  by  carucates  and 
not  by  hides  and  virgates,  and  the  duodecimal  rather  than  the 
decimal  system  of  reckoning". 

The  highly  developed  Scandinavian  legal  system  has  also  left 
abundant  traces  in  this  district.  We  may  mention  specially  the 
institution  of  the  "  lawmen,"  whom  we  find  as  a  judicial  body  in 
several  of  the  towns  in  or  near  the  Danelagh.  They  are  found  at 
Cambridge,  Stamford,  Lincoln,  York  and  Chester.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  these  "  lawmen,"  who  can  be  shown  to  form  a  close 
parallel  to  and  indeed  the  ultimate  source  of  our  jury,  were  of 
Scandinavian  origin.  Many  other  legal  terms  can  be  definitely 
traced  to  Scandinavian  sources,  and  they  are  first  found  in  use  in 
the  district  of  the  Danelagh. 

The  whole  of  the  place  nomenclature  of  Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire, 
Nottinghamshire  and  Northern  Northamptonshire  is  Scandi- 
navian rather  than  native  English,  and  in  the  remaining  districts 
of  the  Danelagh  a  goodly  proportion  of  Danish  place-names  may 
be  found.  Their  influence  is  also  evident  in  the  dialects  spoken 
in  these  districts  to  the  present  day.  It  is  probable  that  until 
the  end  of  the  loth  century  Scandinavian  dialects  were  almost  the 
sole  language  spoken  in  the  district  of  the  Danelagh,  and  when 
English  triumphed,  after  an  intermediate  bilingual  state,  large 
numbers  of  words  were  adopted  from  the  earlier  Scandinavian 
speech. 

See  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  edited  by  Earle  and  Plummer 
(Oxford,  1892-1899);  J.  C.  H.  R.  Steenstrup,  Normannerne  (4  vols., 
1876-1882);  and  A.  Bugge,  Vikingerne  (2  vols.).  (A.  Mw.) 

•DANGERFIELD,  THOMAS  (c.  1650-1685),  English  conspirator, 
was  born  about  1650  at  Waltham,  Essex,  the  son  of  a  farmer. 
He  began  his  career  by  robbing  his  father,  and,  after  a  rambling 
life,  took  to  coining  false  money,  for  which  offence  and  others  he 
was  many  times  imprisoned.  False  to  everyone,  he  first  tried  to 
involve  the  duke  of  Monmouth  and  others  by  concocting  infor- 
mation about  a  Presbyterian  plot  against  the  throne,  and  this 
having  been  proved  a  lie,  he  pretended  to  have  discovered  a 
Catholic  plot  against  Charles  II.  This  was  known  as  the  "  Meal- 
tub  Plot,"  from  the  place  where  the  incriminating  documents 
were  hidden  at  his  suggestion,  and  found  by  the  king's  officers  by 
his  information.  Mrs  Elizabeth  Cellier, — in  whose  house  the  tub 
was, — almoner  to  the  countess  of  Powis,  who  had  befriended 
Dangerfield  when  he  posed  as  a  Catholic,  was,  with  her  patroness, 
actually  tried  for  high  treason  and  acquitted  (1680).  Danger- 
field,  when  examined  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commons,  made 
other  charges  against  prominent  Papists,  and  attempted  to 
defend  his  character  by  publishing,  among  other  pamphlets, 
Dangerfield' s  Narrative.  This  led  to  his  trial  for  libel,  and  on  the 
2pth  of  June  1685  he  received  sentence  to  stand  in  the  pillory  on 
two  consecutive  days,  be  whipped  from  Aldgate  to  Newgate,  and 
two  days  later  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn.  On  his  way  back  he 
was  struck  in  the  eye  with  a  cane  by  a  barrister,  Robert  Francis, 
and  died  shortly  afterwards  from  the  blow.  The  barrister  was, 
tried  and  executed  for  the  muider. 

DANIEL,  the  name  given  to  the  central  figure  l  of  the  biblical 
Book  of  Daniel  (see  below),  which  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a 
production  dating  from  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (175- 

1  Four  personages  of  the  name  of  Daniel  appear  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment: (i)  the  patriarch  of  Ezekiel  (see  above);  (2)  a  son  of  David 
(i  Chron.  iii.  i) ;  (3)  a  Levite  contemporary  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii.  2 ; 
Neh.  x.  6) ;  (4)  our  Daniel. 


164  B.C.).  There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  anything  definite 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  hero  Daniel.  The  account  of  him  in 
Dan.  i.  has  been  generally  misunderstood.  According  to  i.  3,  the 
Babylonian  chief  eunuch  was  commanded  to  bring  "  certain  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  and  of  the  king's  seed,  and  of  the  nobles  " 
to  serve  in  the  court.  Many  commentators  have  considered  this 
to  mean  that  some  of  the  children  were  of  the  royal  Judaean  line 
of  Jewish  noble  families,  an  interpretation  which  is  not  justified 
by  the  wording  of  the  passage,  which  contains  nothing  to  indicate 
that  the  author  meant  to  convey  the  idea  that  Daniel  was  either 
royal  or  noble.  Josephus,2  never  doubting  the  historicity  of 
Daniel,  made  the  prophet  a  relative  of  Zedekiah  and  consequently 
of  Jehoiakim,  a  conclusion  which  he  apparently  drew  from  the 
same  passage,  i.  3.  Pseudo-Epiphanius,3  again,  probably  having 
the  same  source  in  mind,  thought  that  Daniel  was  a  Jewish 
noble.  The  true  Epiphanius4  even  gives  the  name  of  his  father  as 
Sabaan,  and  states  that  the  prophet  was  born  at  Upper  Beth- 
Horon,  a  village  near  Jerusalem.  The  after  life  and  death  of  the 
seer  are  as  obscure  as  his  origin.  The  biblical  account  throws  no 
light  on  the  subject.  According  to  the  rabbis,5  Daniel  went  back 
to  Jersualem  with  the  return  of  the  captivity,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  one  of  the  founders  of  the  mythical  Great  Synagogue. 
Other  traditions  affirm  that  he  died  and  was  buried  in  Babylonia 
in  the  royal  vault,  while  the  Jewish  traveller  Benjamin  of 
Tudela  (i2th  cent.  A.D.)  was  shown  his  tomb  in  Susa,  which  is 
also  mentioned  by  the  Arab,  Abulfaragius  (Bar-hebraeus). 
The  author  of  Daniel  did  not  pretend  to  give  any  sketch  of  the 
prophet's  career,  but  was  content  merely  with  making  him  the 
central  figure,  around  which  to  group  more  or  less  disconnected 
narratives  and  accounts  of  visions.  In  view  of  these  facts,  and 
also  of  the  generally  inaccurate  character  of  all  the  historical 
statements  in  the  work,  there  is  really  no  evidence  to  prove  even 
the  existence  of  the  Daniel  described  in  the  book  bearing  his  name. 

The  question  at  once  arises  as  to  where  the  Maccabaean  author 
of  Daniel  could  have  got  the  name  and  personality  of  his  Daniel. 
It  is  not  probable  that  he  could  have  invented  both  name  and 
character.  There  is  an  allusion  in  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14, 
20,  xxviii.  3)  to  a  Daniel  whom  he  places  as  a  great  personality 
between  Noah  and  Job.  But  this  could  not  be  our  Daniel ,  whom 
Ezekiel,  probably  a  man  of  ripe  age  at  the  time  of  the  Babylonian 
deportation  of  the  Jews,  would  hardly  have  mentioned  in  the  same 
breath  with  two  such  characters,  much  less  have  put  him  between 
them,  because,  had  the  Daniel  of  the  biblical  book  existed  at  this 
time,  he  would  have  been  a  mere  boy,  lacking  any  such  distinction 
as  to  make  him  worthy  of  so  high  a  mention.  It  is  evident  that 
Ezekiel  considered  his  Daniel  to  be  a  celebrated  ancient  prophet, 
concerning  whose  date  and  origin,  however,  there  is  not  a  single 
trace  to  guide  research.  Hitzig's  6  conjecture  that  the  Daniel  of 
Ezekiel  was  Melchizedek  is  quite  without  foundation.  The  most 
that  can  be  said  in  this  connexion  is  that  there  may  really  have 
been  a  spiritual  leader  of  the  captive  Jews  who  resided  at  Babylon 
and  who  was  either  named  Daniel,  perhaps  after  the  unknown 
patriarch  mentioned  by  Ezekiel,  or  to  whom  the  same  name  had 
been  given  in  the  course  of  tradition  by  some  historical  confusion 
of  persons.  Following  this  hypothesis,  it  must  be  assumed  that 
the  fame  of  this  Judaeo-Babylonian  leader  had  been  handed 
down  through  the  unclear  medium  of  oral  tradition  until  the  time 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  when  some  gifted  Jewish  author,  feeling 
the  need  of  producing  a  work  which  should  console  his  people  in 
their  affliction  under  the  persecutions  of  that  monarch,  seized 
upon  the  personality  of  the  seer  who  lived  during  a  time  of  persecu- 
tion bearing  many  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of  Antiochus  IV., 
and  moulded  some  of  the  legends  than  extant  about  the  life 
and  activity  of  this  misty  prophet  fnto  such  a  form  as  should  be 
best  suited  to  a  didactic  purpose.7 

2  Ant.  x.  10,  I.  *  Chap,  x.,  on  the  Prophets. 

•  Panarion,  adv.  Haeres.  55,  3.      6  Prince,  Dan.  p.  26,  n.  6. 

*  Dan.  p.  viii. 

7  The  account  in  chap.  ii.  of  the  promotion  of  Daniel  to  be  governor 
of  Babylon,  as  a  reward  for  his  correct  interpretation  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's dream,  is  very  probably  an  imitation  of  the  story  of  Joseph 
in  Gen.  xl-xli.  The  points  of  resemblance  are  very  striking.  In  both 
accounts,  we  have  a  young  Hebrew  raised  by  the  favour  of  a  heathen 


DANIEL,  BOOK  OF 


805 


DANIEL,  BOOK  OF. — The  Book  of  Daniel  stands  between  Ezra 
and  Esther  in  the  third  great  division  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  known 
as  the  Hagiographa,  in  which  are  classed  all  works  which  were 
not  regarded  as  being  part  of  the  Law  or  the  Prophets.  The  book 
presents  the  unusual  peculiarity  of  being  written  in  two  languages, 
i.-ii.  4  and  viii.-xii.  being  in  Hebrew,  while  the  text  of  ii.  4-vii. 
is  the  Palestinian  dialect  of  Aramaic.1  The  subject  matter, 
however,  falls  naturally  into  two  divisions  which  are  not  co-ter- 
minous  with  the  linguistic  sections;  viz.  i.-vi.  and  vii.-xii.  The 
first  of  these  sense-divisions  deals  only  with  narratives  regarding 
the  reign  of  Nebuchadrezzar  and  his  supposed  son  Belshazzar, 
while  the  second  section  consists -exclusively  of  apocalyptic 
prophecies.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  definite  plan  was 
followed  in  the  arrangement  of  the  work.  The  author's  object 
was  clearly  to  demonstrate  to  his  readers  the  necessity  of  faith 
in  Israel's  God,  who  shall  not  for  ever  allow  his  chosen  ones  to 
be  ground  under  the  heel  of  a  ruthless  heathen  oppressor.  To 
illustrate  this,  he  makes  use  on  the  one  hand  (i.-vi.)  of  carefully 
chosen  narratives,  somewhat  loosely  connected  it  is  true,  but  all 
treating  substantially  the  same  subject, — the  physical  triumph 
of  God's  servant  over  his  unbelieving  enemies;  and  on  the  other 
hand  (vii.-xii.) ,  he  introduces  certain  prophetic  visions  illustrative 
of  God's  favour  towards  the  same  servant,  Daniel.  So  carefully 
is  this  record  of  the  visions  arranged  that  the  first  two  chapters  of 
the  second  part  of  the  book  (.vii.-viii.)  were  no  doubt  purposely 
made  to  appear  in  a  symbolic  form,  in  order  that  in  the  last  two 
revelations  (xi.-xii.),  which  were  couched  in  such  direct  language 
as  to  be  intelligible  even  to  the  modern  student  of  history,  the 
author  might  obtain  the  effect  of  a  climax.  The  book  is  probably 
not  therefore  a  number  of  parts  of  different  origin  thrown  loosely 
together  by  a  careless  editor,  who  does  not  deserve  the  title  of 
author.2  The  more  or  less  disconnected  sections  of  the  first  part 
of  the  work  were  probably  so  arranged  purposely,  in  order  to 
facilitate  its  diffusion  at  a  time  when  books  were  known  to  the 
people  at  large  chiefly  by  being  read  aloud  in  public. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the  sudden  change 
from  Hebrew  to  Aramaic  in  ii.  4.  It  was  long  thought,  for 
example,  that  Aramaic  was  the  vernacular  of  Babylonia  and  was 
consequently  employed  as  the  language  of  the  parts  relating  to 
that  country.  But  this  was  not  the  case,  because  the  Babylonian 
language  survived  until  a  later  date  than  that  of  the  events 
portrayed  in  Daniel.3  Nor  is  it  possible  to  follow  the  theory  of 
Merx,  that  Aramaic,  which  was  the  popular  tongue  of  the  day 
when  the  Book  of  Daniel  was  written,  was  therefore  used  for  the 
simpler  narrative  style,  while  the  more  learned  Hebrew  was  made 
the  idiom  of  the  philosophical  portions.4  The  first  chapter, 
which  is  just  as  much  in  the  narrative  style  as  are  the  following 
Aramaic  sections,  is  in  Hebrew,  while  the  distinctly  apocalyptic 
chapter  vii.  is  in  Aramaic.  A  third  view,  that  the  bilingual 
character  of  the  work  points  to  a  time  when  both  languages  were 
used  indifferently,  is  equally  unsatisfactory,6  because  it  is  highly 
questionable  whether  two  idioms  can  ever  be  used  quite  indiffer- 
ently. In  fact,  a  hybrid  work  in  two  languages  would  be  a 
literary  monstrosity.  In  view  of  the  apparent  unity  of  the  entire 
work,  the  only  possible  explanation  seems  to  be  that  the  book 
was  written  at  first  all  in  Hebrew,  but  for  the  convenience  of  the 
general  reader  whose  vernacular  was  Aramaic,  a  translation, 
possibly  from  the  same  pen  as  the  original,  was  made  into 
king  to  great  political  prominence,  owing  to  his  extraordinary  God- 
given  ability  to  interpret  dreams.  In  both  versions,  the  heathen 
astrologers  make  the  first  attempt  to  solve  the  difficulty,  which 
results  in  failure,  whereupon  the  pious  Israelite,  being  summoned  to 
the  royal  presence,  in  both  cases  through  the  friendly  intervention 
of  a  court  official,  triumphantly  explains  the  mystery  to  the  king's 
satisfaction  (cf.  Prince,  Dan.  p.  29). 

1  See  Beyan,  Dan.  28-40,  on  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  of  Daniel. 

2  According  to  Lagarde,  Mitteilungen,  iv.  351  (1891);  also  Gott, 
Gelehrte  Anzeigen  (1891),  497-520. 

3  The     latest     connected     Babylonian     inscription     is    that     of 
Antiochus  Soter  (280-260  B.C.),  but  the  language  was  probably 
spoken  until  Hellenic  times;  cf.  Gutbrod,  Zeitschr.  fur  Assyria, 
vi.  27. 

1  Prince,  Dan.  12. 

6  Bertholdt,  Dan.  15;  Franz  Delitzsch,  in  Herzog,  Reakncyklo- 
padif,  2nd  ed.,  iii.  470. 


Aramaic.  It  must  be  supposed  then  that,  certain  parts  of  the 
original  Hebrew  manuscript  being  lost,  the  missing  places  were 
supplied  from  the  current  Aramaic  translation.* 

It  cannot  be  denied  in  the  light  of  modern  historical  research 
that  if  the  Book  of  Daniel  be  regarded  as  pretending  to  full 
historical  authority,  the  biblical  record  is  open  to  all  manner  of 
attack.  It  is  now  the  general  opinion  of  most  modern  scholars 
who  study  the  Old  Testament  from  a  critical  point  of  view  that 
this  work  cannot  possibly  have  originated,  according  to  the 
traditional  theory,  at  any  time  during  the  Babylonian  monarchy, 
when  the  events  recorded  are  supposed  to  have  taken  place. 

The  chief  reasons  for  such  a  conclusion  are  as  follows.7 

1 .  The  position  of  the  book  among  the  Hagiographa,  instead  of 
among  the  Prophetical  works,  seems  to  show  that  it  was  intro- 
duced after  the  closing  of  the  Prophetical  Canon.     Some  com- 
mentators have  believed  that  Daniel  was  not  an  actual  prophet  in 
the  proper  sense,  but  only  a  seer,  or  else  that  he  had  no  official 
standing  as  a  prophet  and  that  therefore  the  book  was  not 
entitled  to  a  place  among  official  prophetical  books.     But  if  the 
work  had  really  been  in  existence  at  the  time  of  the  completion 
of  the  second  part  of  the  canon,  the  collectors  of  the  prophetical 
writings,  who  in  their  care  did  not  neglect  even  the  parable  of 
Jonah,  would  hardly  have  ignored  the  record  of  so  great  a 
prophet  as  Daniel  is  represented  to  have  been. 

2.  Jesus  ben  Sirach  (Ecclesiasticus),  who  wrote  about  200- 
180  B.C.,  in  his  otherwise  complete  list  of  Israel's  leading  spirits 
(xlix.),  makes  no  mention  of  Daniel.     Hengstenberg's  plea  that 
Ezra  and  Mordecai  were  also  left  unmentioned  has  little  force, 
because  Ezra  appears  in  the  book  bearing  his  name  as  nothing 
more  than  a  prominent  priest  and  scholar,  while  Daniel  is  repre- 
sented as  a  great  prophet. 

3.  Had  the  Book  of  Daniel  been  extant  and  generally  known 
after  the  time  of  Cyrus  (537-5293.0.),  it  would  be  natural  to  look 
for  some  traces  of  its  power  among  the  writings  of  Haggai, 
Zechariah  and  Malachi,  whose  works,  however,  show  no  evidence 
that  either  the  name  or  the  history  of  Daniel  was  known  to  these 
authors.     Furthermore,  the  manner  in  which  the  prophets  are 
looked  back  upon  in  ix.  6- 10  cannot  fail  to  suggest  an  extremely 
late  origin  for  the  book.     Besides  this,  a  careful  study  of  ix.  2 
seems   to  indicate  that  the  Prophetical  Canon  was  definitely 
completed  at  the  time  when  the  author  of  Daniel  wrote.     It  is  also 
highly  probable  that  much  of  the  material  in  the  second  part  of 
the  book  was  suggested  by  the  works  of  the  later  prophets, 
especially  by  Ezekiel  and  Zechariah. 

4.  Some  of  the  beliefs  set  forth  in  the  second  part  of  the  book 
also  practically  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  author  having 
lived  at  the  courts  of  Nebuchadrezzar  and  his  successors.     Most 
noticeable    among  these  doctrines  is  the  complete  system  of 
angelology  consistently  followed  out  in  the  Book  of  Daniel, 
according  to  which  the  management  of  human  affairs  is  en- 
trusted to  a  regular  hierarchy  of  commanding  angels,  two  of 
whom,  Gabriel  and  Michael,  are  even  mentioned  by  name.     Such 
an  idea  was  distinctly  foreign  to  the  primitive  Israeli! ish  con- 
ception of  the  indivisibility  of  Yahweh's  power,  and  must  conse- 
quently have  been  a  borrowed  one.     It  could  certainly  not  have 
come  from  the  Babylonians,  however,  whose  system  of  attendant 
spirits  was  far  from  being  so  complete  as  that  which  is  set  forth 
in  the  Book  of  Daniel,  but  rather  from  Persian  sources  where 
a  more  complicated  angelology  had  been  developed.     As  many 
commentators  have  brought  out,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  doctrine  of  angels  in  Daniel  is  an  indication  of  prolonged 
Persian  influence.  Furthermore,  it  is  now  very  generally  admitted 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the   dead,    which   is 
advanced  for  the  first  time  in  the  Old  Testament  in  Daniel,  also 
originated  among  the   Persians,8  and    could   only   have   been 
engrafted  on  the  Jewish  mind  after  a  long  period  of  intercourse 
with  the  Zoroastrian  religion,  which  came  into  contact  with  the 
Jewish  thinkers  considerably  after  the  time  of  Nebuchadrezzar. 

8  Bevan,  Dan.  27  ff. ;  Prince,  Dan.  13. 

7  For  this  whole  discussion,  see  Prince,  Dan.  15  ff. 

8  The  investigations  of  Haug,  Spiegel  and  Windischmann  show 
that  this  was  a  real  Zoroastrian  doctrine. 


8o6 


DANIEL,  BOOK  OF 


5.  All  the  above  evidences  are  merely  internal,  but  we  are  now 
able  to  draw  upon  the  Babylonian  historical  sources  to  prove 
that  Daniel  could  not  have  originated  at  the  time  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  author  of  Daniel  thought 
that  Belshazzar  (q.v.),  who  has  now  been  identified  beyond  all 
question  with  Bel-Sar-uzur,  the  son  of  Nabonidus,  the  last  Semitic 
king  of  Babylon,  was  the  son  of  Nebuchadrezzar,  and  that 
Belshazzar  attained  the  rank  of  king.1  This  prince  did  not  even 
come  from  the  family  of  Nebuchadrezzar.  Nabonidus,  the  father 
of  Belshazzar,  was  the  son  of  a  nobleman  Nabu-baladsu-iqbi,  who 
was  in  all  probability  not  related  to  any  of  the  preceding  kings  of 
Babylon.  Had  Nabonidus  been  descended  from  Nebuchadrezzar 
he  could  hardly  have  failed  in  his  records,  which  we  possess,  to 
have  boasted  of  such  a  connexion  with  the  greatest  Babylonian 
monarch;  yet  in  none  of  his  inscriptions  does  he  trace  his  descent 
beyond  his  father.  Certain  expositors  have  tried  to  obviate  the 
difficulty,  first  by  supposing  that  the  expression  "  son  of 
Nebuchadrezzar  "  in  Daniel  means  "  descendant  "  or  "  son,"  a 
view  which  is  rendered  untenable  by  the  facts  just  cited.  This 
school  has  also  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the  author  of  Daniel 
did  not  mean  to  imply  Belshazzar's  kingship  of  Babylon  at  all  by 
his  use  of  the  word  "  king,"  but  they  suggest  that  the  writer  of 
Daniel  believed  Belshazzar  to  have  been  co-regent.  If  Belshazzar 
had  ever  held  such  a  position,  which  is  extremely  unlikely  in  the 
absence  of  any  evidence  from  the  cuneiform  documents,  he  would 
hardly  have  been  given  the  unqualified  title  "  king  of  Babylon  " 
as  occurs  in  Daniel.2  For  example,  Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus,  was 
undoubtedly  co-regent  and  bore  the  title  "  king  of  Babylon  " 
during  his  father's  lifetime,  but,  in  a  contract  which  dates  from  the 
first  year  of  Cambyses,  it  is  expressly  stated  that  Cyrus  was  still 
"  king  of  the  lands."  This  should  be  contrasted  with  Dan. 
viii.  i,  where  reference  is  made  to  the  "  third  year  of  Belshazzar, 
king  of  Babylon  "  without  any  allusion  to  another  over-ruler. 
Such  attempts  are  at  best  subterfuges  to  support  an  impossible 
theory  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  whose  author 
clearly  believed  in  the  kingship  of  Belshazzar  and  in  that  prince's 
descent  from  Nebuchadrezzar. 

Furthermore,  the  writer  of  Daniel  asserts  (v.  i)  that  a 
monarch  "  Darius  the  Mede  "  received  the  kingdom  of  Babylon 
after  the  fall  of  the  native  Babylonian  house,  although  it  is 
evident,  from  i.  21,  x.  i,  that  the  biblical  author  was  perfectly 
aware  of  the  existence  of  Cyrus.3  The  fact  that  in  no  other 
scriptural  passage  is  mention  made  of  any  Median  ruler  between 
the  last  Semitic  king  of  Babylon  and  Cyrus,  and  the  absolute 
silence  of  the  authoritative  ancient  authors  regarding  such  a  king, 
make  it  apparent  that  the  late  author  of  Daniel  is  again  in  error 
in  this  particular.  It  is  known  that  Cyrus  became  master  of 
Media  by  conquering  Astyages,  and  that  the  troops  of  the  king  of 
Persia  capturing  Babylon  took  Nabonidus  prisoner  with  but  little 
difficulty.  Unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  this 
mythical  Darius  with  the  Cyaxares,  son  of  Astyages,  of  Xeno- 
phon's  Cyropaedia,  and  also  with  the  Darius  of  Eusebius,  who  was 
in  all  probability  Darius  Hystaspis.  There  is  not  only  no  room 
in  history  for  this  Median  king  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  but  it  is 
also  highly  likely  that  the  interpolation  of  "  Darius  the  Mede  " 
was  caused  by  a  confusion  of  history,  due  both  to  the  destruction 
of  the  Assyrian  capital  Nineveh  by  the  Medes,  sixty-eight  years 
before  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  and  also  to  the  fame  of 
the  later  king,  Darius  Hystaspis,  a  view  which  was  advanced  as 
early  in  the  history  of  biblical  criticism  as  the  days  of  the  Bene- 
dictine monk,  Marianus  Scotus.  It  is  important  to  note  in 
this  connexion  that  Darius  the  Mede  is  represented  as  the  son 
of  Xerxes  (Ahasuerus)  and  it  is  stated  that  he  established 
1 20  satrapies.  Darius  Hystapis  was  the  father  of  Xerxes,  and 
according  to  Herodotus  (iii.  89)  established  twenty  satrapies. 
Darius  the  Mede  entered  into  possession  of  Babylon  after  the 
death  of  Belshazzar;  Darius  Hystaspis  conquered  Babylon 

1  Prince,  Dan.  35-42. 

*  Certain  tablets  published  by  Strassmaier,  bearing  date  con- 
tinuously from  Nabonidus  to  Cyrus,  show  that  neither  Belshazzar 
nor  "  Darius  the  Mede  "  could  have  had  the  title  "  king  of  Babylon." 
See  Driver,  Introduction,*  xxii. 

'  Prince,  Dan.  44-56. 


from  the  hands  of  certain  rebels  (Her.  iii.  153-160).  In  fine,  the 
interpolation  of  a  Median  Darius  must  be  regarded  as  the  most 
glaring  historical  inaccuracy  of  the  author  of  Daniel.  In  fact, 
this  error  of  the  author  alone  is  proof  positive  that  he  must  have 
lived  at  a  very  late  period,  when  the  record  of  most  of  the  earlier 
historical  events  had  become  hopelessly  confused  and  perverted. 

With  these  chief  reasons  why  the  Book  of  Daniel  cannot  have 
originated  in  the  Babylonian  period,  if  the  reader  will  turn  more 
especially  to  the  apocalyptic  sections  (vii.-xii.),  it  will  be  quite 
evident  that  the  author  is  here  giving  a  detailed  account  of 
historical  events  which  may  easily  be  recognized  through  the  thin 
veil  of  prophetic  mystery  thrown  lightly  around  them.  It  is 
indeed  highly  suggestive  that  just  those  occurrences  which  are 
the  most  remote  from  the  assumed  standpoint  of  the  writer 
are  the  most  correctly  stated,  while  the  nearer  we  approach  the 
author's  supposed  time,  the  more  inaccurate  does  he  become. 
It  is  quite  apparent  that  the  predictions  in  the  Book  of  Daniel 
centre  on  the  period  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.),  when 
that  Syrian  prince  was  endeavouring  to  suppress  the  worship 
of  Yahweh  and  substitute  for  it  the  Greek  religion.4  There  can 
be  no  doubt,  for  example,  that  in  the  "  Little  Horn  "  of  vii.  8, 
viii.  9,  and  the  "  wicked  prince  "  described  in  ix.-x.,  who  is  to 
work  such  evil  among  the  saints,  we  have  clearly  one  and  the 
same  person.  It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  the  king 
symbolized  by  the  Little  Horn,  of  .whom  it  is  said  that  he  shall 
come  of  one  of  four  kingdoms  which  shall  be  formed  from  the 
Greek  empire  after  the  death  of  its  first  king  (Alexander),  can  be 
none  other  than  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  in  like  manner  the 
references  in  ix.  must  allude  to  the  same  prince.  It  seems  quite 
clear  that  xi.  21-45  refers  to  the  evil  deeds  of  Antiochus  IV.  and 
his  attempts  against  the  Jewish  people  and  the  worship  of 
Yahweh.  In  xii.  follows  the  promise  of  salvation  from  the  same 
tyrant,  and,  strikingly  enough,  the  predictions  in  this  last  section, 
x.-xii.,  relating  to  future  events,  become  inaccurate  as  soon  as 
the  author  finishes  the  section  describing  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  The  general  style  of  all  these  prophecies  differs 
materially  from  that  of  all  other  prophetic  writings  in  the  Old 
Testament.  Other  prophets  confine  themselves  to  vague  and 
general  predictions,  but  the  author  of  Daniel  is  strikingly 
particular  as  to  detail  in  everything  relating  to  the  period  in 
which  he  lived,  i.e.  the  reign  of  Antiochus  IV.  Had  the  work 
been  composed  during  the  Babylonian  era,  it  would  be  more 
natural  to  expect  prophecies  of  the  return  of  the  exiled  Jews  to 
Palestine,  as  in  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  and  Isaiah,  rather  than  the 
acclamation  of  an  ideal  Messianic  kingdom  such  as  is  emphasized 
in  the  second  part  of  Daniel. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  apocalyptic  method  followed  in  Daniel, 
the  celebrated  prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks  (ix.  24-27)  may  be 
cited,  a  full  discussion  of  which  will  be  found  in  Prince,  Daniel 
157-161.  According  to  Jer.  xxv.  11-12,  the  period  of  Israel's 
probation  and  trial  was  to  last  seventy  years.  In  the  angelic 
explanation  in  Daniel  of  Jeremiah's  prophecy,  these  years  were 
in  reality  year- weeks,  which  indicated  a  period  of  490  years.  This 
is  the  true  apocalyptic  system.  The  author  takes  a  genuine 
prophecy,  undoubtedly  intended  by  Jeremiah  to  refer  simply  to 
the  duration  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  and,  by  means  of  a 
purely  arbitrary  and  mystical  interpretation,  makes  it  denote  the 
entire  period  of  Israel's  degradation  down  to  his  own  time.  This 
prophecy  is  really  nothing  more  than  an  extension  of  the  vision 
of  the  2300  evening-mornings  of  viii.  14,  and  of  the  "  time,  times 
and  a  half  a  time  "  of  vii.  25.  The  real  problem  is  as  to  the 
beginning  and  end  of  this  epoch,  which  is  divided  into  three 
periods  of  uneven  length;  viz.  one  of  seven  weeks;  one  of  sixty- 
two  weeks;  and  the  last  of  one  week.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
author  of  Daniel ,  like  the  Chronicler,  began  his  period  with  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  in  586.  His  first  seven  weeks,  therefore,  ending  with 
the  rule  of  "  Messiah  the  Prince,"6  probably  Joshua  ben  Jozadak, 
the  first  high-priest  after  the  exile  (Ezra  iii.  2) ,  seem  to  coincide  ex- 
actly with  the  duration  of  the  Babylon  exile,  i.e.  forty-nine  years. 

4  Prince;  Dan.  19-20,  140,  155,  179  ff. 

6  That  "  Messiah  "  or  "  Anointed  One  "  was  used  of  the  High- 
Priest  is  seen  from  Lev.  x,  3,  v.  16. 


DANIEL,  BOOK  OF 


807 


The  second  period  of  the  epoch,  during  which  Jerusalem  is  to 
be  peopled  and  built,  and  at  the  end  of  which  the  Messiah  is  to 
be  cut  off,  is  much  more  difficult  to  determine.  The  key  to  the 
problem  lies  undoubtedly  in  the  last  statement  regarding  the 
overthrow  of  the  Messiah  or  Anointed  One.  Such  a  reference 
coming  from  a  Maccabean  author  can  only  allude  to  the  deposi- 
tion by  Antiochus  IV.  of  the  high-priest  Onias  III.,  which  took 
place  about  174  B.C.,  and  the  Syrian  king's  subsequent  murder 
of  the  same  person  not  later  than  171  (2  Mace.  iv.  33-36).  The 
difficulty  now  arises  that  between  537  and  171  there  are  only  366 
years  instead  of  the  required  number  434.  It  was  evidently  not 
the  author's  intention  to  begin  the  second  period  of  sixty  weeks 
simultaneously  with  the  first  period,  as  some  expositors  have 
thought,  because  the  whole  passage  shows  conclusively  that  he 
meant  seventy  independent  weeks.  Besides,  nothing  is  gained 
by  such  a  device,  which  would  bring  the  year  of  the  end  of  the 
second  period  down  to  the  meaningless  date  152,  too  late  to  refer 
to  Onias.  Cornill  therefore  adopted  the  only  tenable  theory 
regarding  the  problem;  viz.  that  the  author  of  Daniel  did  not 
know  the  chronology  between  537  and  312,  the  establishment  of 
the  Seleucid  era,  and  consequently  made  the  period  too  long.  A 
parallel  case  is  the  much  quoted  example  of  Demetrius,  who 
placed  the  fall  of  Samaria  (722  B.C.)  573  years  before  the  succes- 
sion of  Ptolemy  IV.  (222),  thus  making  an  error  of  seventy-three 
years.  Josephus,  who  places  the  reign  of  Cyrus  forty  to  fifty 
years  too  early,  makes  a  similar  error. 

The  last  week  is  divided  into  two  sections  (26-27),  in  the  first 
of  which  the  city  and  sanctuary  shall  be  destroyed  and  in  the 
second  the  daily  offering  is  to  be  suspended.  All  critical  scholars 
recognize  the  identity  of  this  second  half-week  with  the  "  time, 
times  and  a  half  a  time  "  of  vii.  25.  This  last  week  must,  there- 
fore, end  with  the  restoration  of  the  temple  worship  in  164  B.C. 

This  whole  prophecy,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting 
in  the  Book  of  Daniel,  presents  problems  which  can  never  be 
thoroughly  understood,  first  because  the  author  must  have  been 
ignorant  of  both  history  and  chronology,  and  secondly,  because, 
in  his  effort  to  be  as  mystical  as  possible,  he  purposely  made  use 
of  indefinite  and  vague  expressions  which  render  the  criticism  of 
the  passage  a  most  unsatisfactory  task. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  loses  none  of  its  beauty  and  force  because 
we  are  bound,  in  the  light  of  modern  criticism,  to  consider  it  as 
a  production  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  nor  should 
conservative  Bible-readers  lament  because  the  historical  accuracy 
of  the  work  is  thus  destroyed.  The  influence  of  the  work  was 
very  great  on  the  subsequent  development  of  Christianity,  but 
it  was  not  the  influence  of  the  history  contained  in  it  which  made 
itself  felt,  but  rather  of  that  sublime  hope  for  a  future  deliverance 
of  which  the  author  of  Daniel  never  lost  sight.  The  allusion  to 
the  book  by  Jesus  (Matt.  xxiv.  15)  shows  merely  that  our  Lord 
was  referring  to  the  work  by  its  commonly  accepted  title,  and 
implies  no  authoritative  utterance  with  regard  to  its  date  or 
authorship.  Our  Lord  simply  made  use  of  an  apt  quotation  from 
a  well-known  work  in  order  to  illustrate  and  give  additional  force 
to  his  own  prediction.  If  the  book  be  properly  understood,  it 
must  not  only  be  admitted  that  the  author  made  no  pretence  at 
accuracy  of  detail,  but  also  that  his  prophecies  were  clearly  in- 
tended to  be  merely  an  historical  resum6,  clothed  for  the  sake  of 
greater  literary  vividness  in  a  prophetic  garb.  The  work,  which  is 
certainly  not  a  forgery,  but  only  a  consolatory  political  pamphlet, 
is  just  as  powerful,  viewed  according  to  the  author's  evident 
intention,  as  a  consolation  to  God's  people  in  their  dire  distress 
at  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  as  if  it  were,  what  an  ancient 
but  mistaken  tradition  had  made  it,  really  an  accurate  account  of 
events  which  took  place  at  the  close  of  the  Babylonian  period.1 

LITERATURE. — See  bibliography  in  Bevan,  Daniel  9,  and  add 
Kamphausen,  Dan.,  in  Haupt's  Sacred  Books  of  the  Old  Testament; 
Behrmann,  Dan.  (1894);  J.  D.  Prince,  Dan.  (1899);  G.  A.  Barton, 
"  The  Compilation  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,"  in  Journ.  Bibl.  Lit. 
(1898),  62-86,  against  the  unity  of  the  book,  &c.,  &c.;  J.  D.  Davis, 
"  Persian  Words  and  the  Date  of  O.T.  Documents,"  in  Old 
Testament  and  Semitic  Studies:  in  Memory  of  W.  R.  Harper 
(Chicago,  1908). (J.  D.  PR.) 

1  Prince,  Dan.  22-24. 


ADDITIONS  TO  DANIEL. — The  "  additions  to  Daniel  "  are  three 
in  number:  Susannah  and  the  Elders,  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  and 
The  Song  of  the  Three  Children.  Of  these  the  two  former  have 
no  organic  connexion  with  the  text.  The  case  is  otherwise  with 
regard  to  the  last.  In  some  respects  it  helps  to  fill  up  a  gap  in  the 
canonical  text  between  verses  23  and  24  of  chapter  iii.  And  yet 
we  find  Polychronius,  early  in  the  sth  century,  stating  that  this 
song  was  not  found  in  the  Syriac  version. 

Susannah. — This  addition  was  placed  by  Theodotion  before 
chap.  L,  and  Bel  and  the  Dragon  at  its  close,  whereas  by  the 
Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate  it  was  reckoned  as  chap.  xiii.  after 
the  twelve  canonical  chapters,  Bel  and  the  Dragon  as  xiv. 
Theodotion's  version  is  the  source  of  the  Peshitto  and  the  Vulgate, 
for  all  three  additions,  and  the  Septuagint  is  the  source  of 
the  Syro-Hexaplaric  which  has  been  published  by  Ceriani  (Man. 
Sacr.  vii.) .  The  legend  recounts  how  that  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Captivity  Susannah,  the  beautiful  and  pious  wife  of  the  rich 
Joakim,  was  walking  in  her  garden  and  was  there  seen  by  two 
elders  who  were  also  judges.  Inflamed  with  lust,  they  made 
infamous  proposals  to  her,  and  when  repulsed  they  brought 
against  her  a  false  charge  of  adultery.  When  brought  before  the 
tribunal  she  was  condemned  to  death  and  was  on  the  way  to 
execution,  when  Daniel  interposed  and,  by  cross-questioning  the 
accusers  apart,  convinced  the  people  of  the  falsity  of  the  charge. 

The  source  of  the  story  may,  according  to  Ewald  (Cesch? 
iv.  636),  have  been  suggested  by  the  Babylonian  legend  of  the 
seduction  of  two  old  men  by  the  goddess  of  love  (see  also  Koran, 
Sur.  ii.  96) .  Another  and  much  more  probable  origin  of  the  work 
is  that  given  by  Briill  (Das  apocr.  Susanna-Buch,  1877)  and  Ball 
(Speaker's  A  pocr.  {1.323-331).  The  first  half  of  the  story  is  based 
on  a  tradition — originating  possibly  in  Jer.  xxix.  21-32  and  found 
in  the  Talmud  and  Midrash — of  two  elders  Ahab  and  Zedekiah, 
who  in  the  Captivity  led  certain  women  astray  under  the  delusion 
that  they  should  thereby  become  the  mother  of  the  Messiah. 
But  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  investigation  is  concerned 
with  the  latter  half  of  the  story,  which  deals  with  the  trial.  The 
characteristics  of  this  section  point  to  its  composition  about  100- 
90  B.C.,  when  Simon  ben  Shetah  was  president  of  the  Sanhedrin. 
Its  object  was  to  support  the  attempts  of  the  Pharisees  to 
bring  about  a  reform  in  the  administration  of  the  law  courts. 
According  to  Sadducean  principles  the  man  who  was  convicted 
of  falsely  accusing  another  of  a  capital  offence  was  not  put  to 
death  unless  his  victim  was  already  executed.  The  Pharisees  held 
that  the  intention  of  the  accusers  was  equivalent  to  murder.  Our 
apocryph  upholds  the  Pharisaic  contention.  As  Simon  ben  Shetah 
insisted  on  a  rigorous  examination  of  the  witnesses,  so  does  our 
writer:  as  he  and  his  party  required  that  the  perjurer  should  suffer 
the  same  penalty  he  sought  to  inflict  on  another,  so  our  writer 
represents  the  death  penalty  as  inflicted  on  the  perjured  elders. 

The  language  was  in  all  probability  Semitic-Hebrew  or 
Aramaic.  The  paronomasiae  in  the  Greek  in  verses  54-55  (wrd 
<rxivov  .  .  .  a\io€i)  and  58-59  (wrd  irpivov  .  .  .  irpiati)  present 
no  cogent  difficulty  against  this  view;  for  they  may  be  accidental 
and  have  arisen  for  the  first  time  in  the  translation.  But  as  Briill 
and  Ball  have  shown  (see  Speaker's  Apocr.  ii.  324),  the  same 
paronomasiae  are  possible  either  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic. 

LITERATURE. — Ball  in  the  Speaker's  Apocr.  ii.  233  sqq.;  Schiirer, 
Cesch.3  iii.  333;  Rothstein  in  Kautzsch's  Apocr.  u.  Pseud.  \. 
176  sqq.;  Kamphausen  in  Ency.  Bib.;  Marshall  in  Hastings'  Bible 
Diet. ;  Toy  in  the  Jewish  Encyc. 

Bel  and  the  Dragon. — We  have  here  two  independent  narratives, 
in  both  of  which  Daniel  appears  as  the  destroyer  of  heathenism. 
The  latter  had  a  much  wider  circulation  than  the  former,  and  is 
most  probably  a  Judaized  form  of  the  old  Semitic  myth  of  the 
destruction  of  the  old  dragon,  which  represents  primeval  chaos 
(see  Ball,  Speaker's  Apocr.  ii.  346-348;  Gunkel,  Schdpfung  und 
Chaos,  320-323).  Marduk  destroys  Tiamat  in  a  similar  manner 
to  that  in  which  Daniel  destroys  the  dragon  (Delitzsch,  Das 
babylonische  WeltschSpfung  Epos),  by  driving  a  storm-wind  into 
the  dragon  which  rends  it  asunder.  Marshall  (Hastings'  Bib. 
Diet.  i.  267)  suggests  that  the  "  pitch  "  of  the  Greek  (Aramaic 
KSM)  arose  from  the  original  term  for  storm-wind  (KBV). 


8o8 


DANIEL  OF  KIEV— DANIEL,  SAMUEL 


The  Greek  exists  in  two  recensions,  those  of  the  Septuagint  and 
Theodotion.  Most  scholars  maintain  a  Greek  original,  but  this  is 
by  no  means  certain.  Marshall  (Hastings'  Bib  Diet.  i.  268)  argues 
for  an  Aramaic,  and  regards  Gasters's  Aramaic  text  [Proceedings 
of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology  (1894),  pp.  280-290,  312-317; 
(1895)  75-94]  as  of  primary  value  in  this  respect,  but  this  is 
doubtful. 

.LITERATURE. — Fritzsche's  Handbuch  zu  den  Apoc.;  Ball  in  the 
Speaker's  Apocr.  ii.  344  sqq.;  Schiirer,3  Gesch.  iii.  332  sqq.;  and 
the  articles  in  the  Ency.  Bibl.,  Bible  Diet.,  and  Jewish  Encyc. 

The  Greek  text  is  best  given  in  Swete  iii.,  and  the  Syriac  will  be 
found  in  Walton's  Polyglot,  Lagarde  and  Neubauer's  Tobit. 

Song  of  the  Three  Children. — This  section  is  composed  of  the 
Prayer  of  Azariah  and  the  Song  of  Azariah,  Ananias  and  Misael, 
and  was  inserted  after  iii.  23  of  the  canonical  text  of  Daniel. 
According  to  Fritzsche,  Konig,  Schurer,  &c.,  it  was  composed  in 
Greek  and  added  to  the  Greek  translation.  On  the  other  hand, 
Delitzsch,  Bissell,  Ball,  &c.,  maintain  a  Hebrew  original.  The 
latter  view  has  been  recently  supported  by  Rothstein,  Apocr.  und 
Pseud,  i.  173-176,  who  holds  that  these  additions  were  made  to 
the  text  before  its  translation  into  Greek.  These  additions  still 
preserve,  according  to  Rothstein,  a  fragment  of  the  original  text, 
i.e.  verses  23-28,  which  came  between  verses  23  and  24  of 
chapter  iii.  of  the  canonical  text.  They  certainly  fill  up 
excellently  a  manifest  gap  in  this  text.  "  The  Song  of  the  Three 
Children  "  was  first  added  after  the  verses  just  referred  to,  and 
subsequently  the  Prayer  of  Azariah  was  inserted  before  these 
verses. 

LITERATURE. — Ball  in  the  Speaker's  Apocr.  ii.  305  sqq. ;  Rothstein 
in  Kautzsch's  Apocr.  und  Pseud,  i.  173  sqq.;  Schurer,3  Gesch.  iii. 
332  sqq-  (R.  H.  C.) 

DANIEL  (DANIL),  of  Kiev,  the  earliest  Russian  travel- writer, 
and  one  of  the  leading  Russian  travellers  in  the  middle  ages.  He 
journeyed  to  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant  about  1106- 
1107.  He  was  the  igumen,  or  abbot,  of  a  monastery  probably 
near  Chernigov  in  Little  Russia:  some  identify  him  with  one 
Daniel,  bishop  of  Suriev  (fl.  1115-1122).  He  visited  Palestine 
in  the  reign  of  Baldwin  I.,  Latin  king  of  Jerusalem  (1100-1118), 
and  apparently  soon  after  the  crusading  capture  of  Acre  (1104); 
he  claims  to  have  accompanied  Baldwin,  who  treated  him  with 
marked  friendliness,  on  an  expedition  against  Damascus  (c.  1 107). 
Though  Daniel's  narrative,  beginning  (as  it  practically  ends)  at 
Constantinople,  omits  some  of  the  most  interesting  sections  of 
his  journey,  his  work  has  considerable  value.  His  picture  of  the 
Holy  Land  preserves  a  record  of  conditions  (such  as  the  Saracen 
raiding  almost  up  to  the  walls  of  Christian  Jerusalem,  and  the 
friendly  relations  subsisting  between  Roman  and  'Eastern 
churches  in  Syria)  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  time;  his 
account  of  Jerusalem  itself  is  remarkably  clear,  minute  and 
accurate;  his  three  excursions — to  the  Dead  Sea  and  Lower 
Jordan  (which  last  he  compares  to  a  river  of  Little  Russia,  the 
Snov),  to  Bethlehem  and  Hebron,  and  towards  Damascus — 
gave  him  an  exceptional  knowledge  of  certain  regions.  In  spite 
of  some  extraordinary  blunders  in  topography  and  history,  his 
observant  and  detailed  record,  marked  by  evident  good  faith,  is 
among  the  most  valuable  of  medieval  documents  relating  to 
Palestine:  it  is  also  important  in  the  history  of  the  Russian 
language,  and  in  the  study  of  ritual  and  liturgy  (from  its  descrip- 
tion of  the  Easter  services  in  Jerusalem,  the  Descent  of  the  Holy 
Fire,  &c.).  Several  Russian  friends  and  companions,  from  Kiev 
and  Old  Novgorod,  are  recorded  by  Daniel  as  present  with  him  at 
the  Easter  Eve  "  miracle,"  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

There  are  seventy-six  MSS.  of  Daniel's  Narrative,  of  which  only 
five  are  anterior  to  A.D.  1500;  the  oldest  is  of  1475  (St  Petersburg, 


1-45).  See  also  the  French  version  in  Itineraires  russes  en  orient,  ed 
Me  B.  de  Khitrovo  (Geneva,  1889)  (Societe  de  I'orient  latin);  and 
the  account  of  Daniel  in  C.  R.  Beazley,  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography, 
ii.  I55-I74-  (C.  R.  B.) 

DANIEL,  GABRIEL  (1649-1728),  French  Jesuit  historian,  was 
born  at  Rouen  on  the  8th  of  February  1649.  He  was  educated 
by  the  Jesuits,  entered  the  order  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and 


became  superior  at  Paris.  He  is  best  known  by  his  Histoire  de 
France  depuis  I '  etablissement  de  la  monarchie  franfaise  (first 
complete  edition,  1713),  which  was  republished  in  1720,  1721, 
1725,  1742,  and  (the  last  edition,  with  notes  by  Father  Griffet) 
1 755-1 760.  Daniel  published  an  abridgment  in  1724  (English 
trans.,  17 26),  and  another  abridgment  was  published  by  Dorival 
in  1751.  Though  full  of  prejudices  which  affect  his  accuracy, 
Daniel  had  the  advantage  of  consulting  valuable  original  sources. 
His  Histoire  de  la  milice  franf aise,  &c.  (1721)  is  superior  to  his 
Histoire  de  France,  and  may  still  be  consulted  with  advantage. 
Daniel  also  wrote  a  by  no  means  successful  reply  to  Pascal's 
Provincial  Letters,  entitled  Entretiens  de  Cleanthe  et  d'Eudoxe  sur 
les  lettres  provinciates  (1694);  two  treatises  on  the  Cartesian 
theory  as  to  the  intelligence  of  the  lower  animals,  and  other 
works. 

See  Sommervogel,  Bibliotheque  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  t.  ii. 

DANIEL,  SAMUEL  (1562-1619),  English  poet  and  historian, 
was  the  son  of  a  music-master,  and  was  born  near  Taunton,  in 
Somersetshire,  in  1562.  Another  son,  John  Daniel,  was  a 
musician,  who  held  some  offices  at  court,  and  was  the  author  of 
Songs  for  the  Lute,  Viol  and  Voice  (1606).  In  1579  Samuel  was 
admitted  a  commoner  of  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  where  he 
remained  for  about  three  years,  and  then  gave  himself  up  to  the 
unrestrained  study  of  poetry  and  philosophy.  The  name  of 
Samuel  Daniel  is  given  as  the  servant  of  Lord  Stafford,  am- 
bassador in  France,  in  1 586,  and  probably  refers  to  the  poet.  He 
was  first  encouraged  and,  if  we  may  believe  him,  taught  in  verse, 
by  the  famous  countess  of  Pembroke,  whose  honour  he  was 
never  weary  of  proclaiming.  He  had  entered  her  household  as 
tutor  to  her  son,  William  Herbert.  His  first  known  work,  a 
translation  of  Paulus  Jovius,  to  which  some  original  matter  is 
appended,  was  printed  in  1585.  His  first  known  volume  of  verse 
is  dated  1592;  it  contains  the  cycle  of  sonnets  to  Delia  and  the 
romance  called  The  Complaint  of  Rosamond.  Twenty-seven  of 
the  sonnets  had  already  been  printed  at  the  end  of  Sir  Philip 
Sidney's  Astrophel  and  Stella  without  the  author's  consent. 
Several  editions  of  Delia  appeared  in  1592,  and  they  were  very 
frequently  reprinted  during  Daniel's  lifetime.  We  learn  by 
internal  evidence  that  Delia  lived  on  the  banks  of  Shakespeare's 
river,  the  Avon,  and  that  the  sonnets  to  her  were  inspired  by  her 
memory  when  the  poet  was  in  Italy.  To  an  edition  of  Delia  and 
Rosamond,  in  1594,  was  added  the  tragedy  of  Cleopatra,  a  severe 
study  in  the  manner  of  the  ancients,  in  alternately  rhyming 
heroic  verse,  diversified  by  stiff  choral  interludes.  The  First 
Four  Books  of  the  Civil  Wars,  an  historical  poem  in  ottava  rima, 
appeared  in  1 595.  The  bibliography  of  Daniel's  works  is  attended 
with  great  difficulty,  but  as  far  as  is  known  it  was  not  until  1 599 
that  there  was  published  a  volume  entitled  Poetical  Essays, 
which  contained,  besides  the  "  Civil  Wars,"  "  Musophilus,  "  and 
"  A  letter  from  Octavia  to  Marcus  Antonius,"  poems  in  Daniel's 
finest  and  most  mature  manner.  About  this  time  he  became 
tutor  to  Anne  Clifford,  daughter  of  the  countess  of  Cumberland. 
On  the  death  of  Spenser,  in  the  same  year,  Daniel  received  the 
somewhat  vague  office  of  poet-laureate,  which  he  seems,  however, 
to  have  shortly  resigned  in  favour  of  Ben  Jonson.  Whether  it 
was  on  this  occasion  is  not  known,  but  about  this  time,  and  at  the 
recommendation  of  his  brother-in-law,  Giovanni  Florio,  he  was 
taken  into  favour  at  court,  and  wrote  a  Panegyric  Congratulatorie 
ojjered  to  the  King  at  Burleigh  Harrington  in  Rutlandshire,  in 
ottava  rima.  In  1603  this  poem  was  published,  and  in  many  cases 
copies  contained  in  addition  his  Poetical  Epistles  to  his  patrons 
and  an  elegant  prose  essay  called  A  Defence  of  Rime  (originally 
printed  in  1602)  in  answer  to  Thomas  Campion's  Observations  on 
the  Art  of  English  Poesie,  in  which  it  was  contended  that  rhyme 
was  unsuited  to  the  genius  of  the  English  language.  In  1603, 
moreover,  Daniel  was  appointed  master  of  the  queen's  revels. 
In  this  capacity  he  brought  out  a  series  of  masques  and  pastoral 
tragi-comedies, — of  which  were  printed  A  Vision  of  the  Twelve 
Goddesses,  in  1604;  The  Queen's  Arcadia,  an  adaptation  of 
Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  in  1606;  Tethys  Festival  or  the  Queenes 
Wake,  written  on  the  occasion  of  Prince  Henry's  becoming  a 
Knight  of  the  Bath,  in  1610;  and  Hymen's  Triumph,  in  honour 


DANIELL,  J.  F.— DANNAT 


809 


of  Lord  Roxburgh's  marriage  in  1615.  Meanwhile  had  appeared, 
in  1605,  Certain  Small  Poems,  with  the  tragedy  of  Philotas; 
the  latter  was  a  study,  in  the  same  style  as  Cleopatra,  written 
some  five  years  earlier.  This  drama  brought  its  author  into 
difficulties,  as  Philotas,  with  whom  he  expressed  some  sym- 
pathy, was  taken  to  represent  Essex.  In  1607,  under  the  title 
of  Certaine  small  Workes  heretofore  divulged  by  Samuel  Daniel,  the 
poet  issued  a  revised  version  of  all  his  works  except  Delia  and 
the  Civil  Wars.  In  1609  the  Civil  Wars  had  been  completed 
in  eight  books.  In  1612  Daniel  published  a  prose  History  of 
England,  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  This  work  afterwards  continued,  and  published 
in  1617,  was  very  popular  with  Drayton's  contemporaries.  The 
section  dealing  with  William  the  Conqueror  was  published  in 
1692  as  being  the  work  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  apparently  without 
sufficient  grounds. 

Daniel  was  made  a  gentleman-extraordinary  and  groom  of 
the  chamber  to  Queen  Anne,  sinecure  offices  which  offered  no 
hindrance  to  an  active  literary  career.  He  was  now  acknow- 
ledged as  one  of  the  first  writers  of  the  time.  Shakespeare, 
Selden  and  Chapman  are  named  among  the  few  intimates  who 
were  permitted  to  intrude  upon  the  seclusion  of  a  garden-house 
in  Old  Street,  St  Luke's,  where,  Fuller  tells  us,  he  would  "  lie 
hid  for  some  months  together,  the  more  retiredly  to  enjoy  the 
company  of  the  Muses,  and  then  would  appear  in  public  to  con- 
verse with  his  friends."  Late  in  life  Daniel  threw  up  his  titular 
posts  at  court  and  retired  to  a  farm  called  "  The  Ridge,"  which 
he  rented  at  Beckington,  near  Devizes  in  Wiltshire.  Here  he  died 
on  the  I4th  of  October  1619. 

The  poetical  writings  of  Daniel  are  very  numerous,  but  in  spite 
of  the  eulogies  of  all  the  best  critics,  they  were  long  neglected. 
This  is  the  more  singular  since,  during  the  i8th  century,  when  so 
little  Elizabethan  literature  was  read,  Daniel  retained  his  poetical 
prestige.  In  later  times  Coleridge,  Charles  Lamb  and  others 
expended  some  of  their  most  genial  criticisms  on  this  poet.  Of 
his  multifarious  works  the  sonnets  are  now,  perhaps,  most  read. 
They  depart  from  the  Italian  sonnet  form  in  closing  with  a 
couplet,  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  the  sonnets  of  Surrey  and 
Wyat,  but  they  have  a  grace  and  tenderness  all  their  own.  Of  a 
higher  order  is  The  Complaint  of  Rosamond,  a  soliloquy  in  which 
the  ghost  of  the  murdered  woman  appears  and  bewails  her  fate 
in  stanzas  of  exquisite  pathos.  Among  the  Epistles  to  Dis- 
tinguished Persons  will  be  found  some  of  Daniel's  noblest  stanzas 
and  most  polished  verse.  Theepistle  toLucy,countessof  Bedford, 
is  remarkable  among  those  as  being  composed  in  genuine  lerza 
rima,  till  then  not  used  in  English.  Daniel  was  particularly 
fond  of  a  four-lined  stanza  of  solemn  alternately  rhyming 
iambics,  a  form  of  verse  distinctly  misplaced  in  his  dramas. 
These,  inspired  it  would  seem  by  like  attempts  of  the  countess  of 
Pembroke's,  are  hard  and  frigid;  his  pastorals  are  far  more 
pleasing;  and  Hymen's  Triumph  is  perhaps  the  best  of  all  his 
dramatic  writing.  An  extract  from  this  masque  is  given  in 
Lamb's  Dramatic  Poets,  and  it  was  highly  praised  by  Coleridge. 
In  elegiac  verse  he  always  excelled,  but  most  of  all  in  his  touching 
address  To  the  Angel  Spirit  of  the  Most  Excellent  Sir  Philip 
Sidney.  We  must  not  neglect  to  quote  Musophilus  among  the 
most  characteristic  writings  of  Daniel.  It  is  a  dialogue  between 
a  courtier  and  a  man  of  letters,  and  is  a  general  defence  of  learning, 
and  in  particular  of  poetic  learning  as  an  instrument  in  the 
education  of  the  perfect  courtier  or  man  of  action.  It  is  addressed 
to  Fulke  Greville,  and  written,  with  much  sententious  melody, 
in  a  sort  of  lerza  rima,  or,  more  properly,  ottava  rima  with  the 
couplet  omitted.  Daniel  was  a  great  reformer  in  verse,  and  the 
introducer  of  several  valuable  novelties.  It  may  be  broadly  said 
of  his  style  that  it  is  full,  easy  and  stately,  without  being  very 
animated  or  splendid.  It  attains  a  high  average  of  general 
excellence,  and  is  content  with  level  flights.  As  a  gnomic  writer 
Daniel  approaches  Chapman,  but  is  far  more  musical  and 
coherent.  He  is  wanting  in  fire  and  passion,  but  he  is  pre- 
eminent in  scholarly  grace  and  tender,  mournful  reverie. 

Daniel's  works  were  edited  by  A.  B.  Grosart  in  1885-1806. 

(E.G.) 


DANIELL,  JOHN  FREDERIC  (1700-1845),  English  chemist 
and  physicist,  was  born  in  London  on  the  i2th  of  March  1790, 
and  in  1831  became  the  first  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  newly 
founded  King's  College,  London.  His  name  is  best  known  for 
his  invention  of  the  Daniell  cell  (Phil.  Trans.,  1836),  still  ex- 
tensively used  for  telegraphic  and  other  purposes.  He  also 
invented  the  dew-point  hygrometer  known  by  his  name  (Quar. 
Journ.Sci.,  1820),  and  a  register  pyrometer  (Phil.  Trans.,  1830); 
and  in  1830  he  erected  in  the  hall  of  the  Royal  Society  a  water- 
barometer,  with  which  he  carried  out  a  large  number  of  observa- 
tions (Phil.  Trans.,  1832).  A  process  devised  by  him  for  the 
manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  from  turpentine  and  resin  was 
in  use  in  New  York  for  a  time.  His  publications  include  Meteoro- 
logical Essays  (1823),  an  Essay  on  Artificial  Climate  considered  in 
its  Applications  to  Horticulture  (1824),  which  showed  the  necessity 
of  a  humid  atmosphere  in  hothouses  devoted  to  tropical  plants, 
and  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chemical  Philosophy  (1839). 
He  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy  on  the  I3th  of  March  1845,  'n 
London,  while  attending  a  meeting  of  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1813  and  foreign  secretary 
in  1839. 

DANIELL,  THOMAS  (1749-1840),  English  landscape  painter, 
was  born  at  the  Chertsey  inn,  kept  by  his  father,  in  1749,  and 
apprenticed  to  an  heraldic  painter.  Daniell,  however,  was  ani- 
mated with  a  love  of  the  romantic  and  beautiful  in  architecture 
and  nature.  Up  to  1784  he  painted  topographical  subjects  and 
flower  pieces.  By  this  time  his  two  nephews  (see  below)  had  come 
under  his  influence,  the  younger,  Samuel,  being  apprenticed  to 
Medland  the  landscape  engraver,  and  the  elder,  William,  being 
under  his  own  care.  In  this  year  (1784)  he  embarked  for  India 
accompanied  by  William,  and  found  at  Calcutta  ample  encourage- 
ment. Here  he  remained  ten  years,  and  on  returning  to  London 
he  published  his  largest  work,  Oriental  Scenery,  in  six  large 
volumes,  not  completed  till  1808.  From  1795  till  1828  he 
continued  to  exhibit  Eastern  subjects,  temples,  jungle  hunts,  &c., 
and  at  the  same  time  continued  the  publication  of  illustrated 
works.  These  are — Views  of  Calcutta;  Oriental  Scenery,  144 
plates;  Views  in  Egypt;  Excavations  at  Ellora;  Picturesque 
Voyage  to  China.  These  were  for  the  most  part  executed  in 
aquatint.  He  was  elected  an  Academician  in  1799,  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  about  the  same  time,  and  at  different  times 
member  of  several  minor  societies.  His  nephews  both  died  before 
him;  his  Indian  period  had  made  him  independent,  and  he  lived 
a  bachelor  life  in  much  respect  at  Kensington  till  his  death  on  the 
1 9th  of  March  1840. 

WILLIAM  DANIELL  (1760-1837),  his  nephew,  was  fourteen 
when  he  accompanied  his  uncle  to  India.  His  own  publications, 
engraved  in  aquatint,  were — Voyage  to  India;  Zoography; 
Animated  Nature;  Views  of  London;  Views  of  Bootan,  a  work 
prepared  from  his  uncle's  sketches;  and  a  Voyage  Round  Great 
Britain,  which  occupied  him  several  years.  The  British 
Institution  made  him  an  award  of  £100  for  a  "  Battle  of 
Trafalgar,"  and  he  was  elected  R.A.  in  1822.  He  turned  to 
panorama  painting  before  his  death,  beginning  in  1832  with 
Madras,  the  picture  being  enlivened  by  a  representation  of  the 
Hindu  mode  of  taming  wild  elephants. 

SAMUEL  DANIELL,  William's  younger  brother,  was  brought  up 
as  an  engraver,  and  first  appears  as  an  exhibitor  in  1792.  A  few 
years  later  he  went  to  the  Cape  and  travelled  into  the  interior 
of  Africa,  with  his  sketching  materials  in  his  haversack.  The 
drawings  he  made  there  were  published,  after  his  return,  in  his 
African  Scenery.  He  did  not  rest  long  at  home,  but  left  for 
Ceylon  in  1806,  where  he  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  life, 
publishing  The  Scenery,  Animals  and  Natives  of  Ceylon. 

DANNAT,  WILLIAM  T.  (1853-  ),  American  artist,  was 
born  in  New  York  city  in  1853.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Munich  and  of  Munkacsy,  and  became  an  accom- 
plished draughtsman  and  a  distinguished  figure  and  portrait 
painter.  He  early  attracted  attention  with  sketches  and  pictures 
made  in  Spain,  and  a  large  composition,  "  The  Quartette,"  now 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  was  one  of  the 
successes  of  the  Paris  Salon  of  1884.  Dannat  settled  in  Paris, 


8io 


DANNECKER— DANTE 


became  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  is  represented  in 
the  Luxembourg. 

DANNECKER,  JOHANN  HEINRICH  VON  (1758-1841), 
German  sculptor,  was  born  at  Stuttgart,  where  his  father  was 
employed  in  the  stables  of  the  duke  of  Wiirttemberg,  on  the  isth 
of  October  1758.  The  boy  was  entered  in  the  military  school  at 
the  age  of  thirteen,  but  after  two  years  he  was  allowed  to  take  his 
own  taste  for  art.  We  find  him  at  once  associating  with  the 
young  sculptors  Scheffauer  and  Le  Jeune,  the  painters  Guibaland 
Harper,  and  also  with  Schiller,  and  the  musician  Zumsteeg.  His 
busts  of  some  of  these  are  good;  that  of  Schiller  is  well  known. 
In  his  eighteenth  year  he  carried  off  the  prize  at  the  Concours 
with  his  model  of  Milo  of  Crotona.  On  this  the  duke  made  him 
sculptor  to  the  palace  (1780),  and  for  some  time  he  was  employed 
on  child-angels  and  caryatides  for  the  decoration  of  the  reception 
rooms.  In  1783  he  left  for  Paris  with  Scheffauer,  and  placed 
himself  under  Pajou.  His  Mars,  a  sitting  figure  sent  home  to 
Stuttgart,  marks  this  period;  and  we  next  find  him,  still  travel- 
ling with  his  friend,  at  Rome  in  1785,  where  he  settled  down  to 
work  hard  for  five  years.  Goethe  and  Herder  were  then  in  Rome 
and  became  his  friends,  as  well  as  Canova,  who  was  the  hero  of  the 
day,  and  who  had  undoubtedly  a  great  authoritative  influence  on 
his  style.  His  marble  statues  of  Ceres  and  Bacchus  were  done  at 
this  time.  These  are  now  in  the  Residenz-schloss,  at  Stuttgart. 
On  his  return  to  Stuttgart,  which  he  never  afterwards  quitted 
except  for  short  trips  to  Paris,  Vienna  and  Zurich,  the  double 
influence  of  his  admiration  for  Canova  and  his  study  of  the  antique 
is  apparent  in  his  works.  The  first  was  a  girl  lamenting  her  dead 
bird,  which  pretty  light  motive  was  much  admired.  Afterwards, 
Sappho,  in  marble  for  the  Lustschloss,  and  two  offering-bearers 
for  the  Jagdschloss;  Hector,  now  in  the  museum,  not  in  marble; 
the  complaint  of  Ceres,  from  Schiller's  poem;  a  statue  of  Christ, 
worthy  of  mention  for  its  nobility,  which  has  been  skilfully 
engraved  by  Amsler;  Psyche;  kneeling  water-nymph;  Love, 
a  favourite  he  had  to  repeat.  These  stock  subjects  with  sculp  tors 
had  freshness  of  treatment;  and  the  Ariadne,  done  a  little  later, 
especially  had  a  charm  of  novelty  which  has  made  it  a  European 
favourite  in  a  reduced  size.  It  was  repeated  for  the  banker  Von 
Bethmann  in  Frankfort,  and  it  now  appears  the  ornament  of  the 
Bethmann  Museum.  Many  of  the  illustrious  men  of  the  time 
were  modelled  by  him.  The  original  marble  of  Schiller  is  now  at 
Weimar;  after  the  poet's  death  it  was  again  modelled  in  colossal 
size.  Lavater,  Metternich,  Countess  Stephanie  of  Baden, 
General  Benkendorf  and  others  are  much  prized.  Dannecker 
was  director  of  the  Gallery  of  Stuttgart,  and  received  many 
academic  and  other  distinctions.  His  death  in  1841  was  preceded 
by  a  period  of  mental  failure. 

DANNEWERK,  or  DANEWERK  (Danish,  Dannevirke  or  Dane- 
virke,  "  Danes'  rampart  "),  the  ancient  frontier  rampart  of  the 
Danes  against  the  Germans,  extending  105  m.  from  just  south  of 
the  town  of  Schleswig  to  the  marshes  of  the  river  Trene  near  the 
village  of  Hollingstedt.  The  rampart  was  begun  by  GuSoSr 
(Godefridus) ,  king  of  Vestfold,  early  in  the  gth  century.  In  934 
it  was  passed  by  the  German  king  Henry  I.,  after  which  it  was 
extended  by  King  Harold  Bluetooth  (940-986),  but  was  again 
stormed  by  the  emperor  Otto  II.  in  974.  The  chronicler  Saxo 
Grammaticus  mentions  in  his  Gesta  Danorum  the  "  rampart  of 
Jutland  "  (Jutiae  moenia}  as  having  been  once  more  extended 
by  Valdemar  the  Great  (1157-1182),  which  has  been  cited  among 
the  proofs  that  Schleswig  (Sender jylland)  forms  an  integral  part  of 
Jutland  (Manuel  hist,  de  la  question  de  Slesvig,  1906).  After  the 
union  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  under  the  Danish  crown,  the 
Danevirke  fell  into  decay,  but  in  1848  it  was  hastily  strengthened 
by  the  Danes,  who  were,  however,  unable  to  hold  it  in  face  of  the 
superiority  of  the  Prussian  artillery,  and  on  the  23rd  of  April  it 
was  stormed.  From  1850  onwards  it  was  again  repaired  and 
strengthened  at  great  cost,  and  was  considered  impregnable;  but 
in  the  war  of  1864  the  Prussians  turned  it  by  crossing  the  Schlei, 
and  it  was  abandoned  by  the  Danes  on  the  6th  of  February 
without  a  blow.  It  was  thereupon  destroyed  by  the  Prussians; 
in  spite  of  which,  however,  a  long  line  of  imposing  ruins  still 
remains.  The  systematic  excavation  of  these,  begun  in  1900,  has 


yielded  some  notable  finds,  especially  of  valuable  runic  inscrip- 
tions (F.  de  Jessen,  La  Question  de  Slesvig,  pp.  25,  44-50,  &c.). 

See  Lorenzen,  Dannevirke  og  Omegn  (2nd  ed.,  Copenhagen,  1864); 
H.  Handelmann,  Das  Dannewerk  (Kiel,  1885);  Philippsen  and 
Siinksen,  Fiihrer  durch  das  Danewerk  (Hamburg,  1903). 

DANSVILLE,  a  village  of  Livingston  county,  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  49  m.  S.  of  Rochester,  on  the  Canaseraga  Creek.  Pop. 
(1890)  3758;  (1900)  3633,  of  whom  417  were  foreign-born; 
(1905)  3908;  (1910)  3938.  The  village  is  served  by  the  Delaware, 
Lackawanna  &  Western,  and  the  Dansville  &  Mount  Morris 
railways.  At  Dansville  is  the  Jackson  Health  Resort,  a  large 
sanatorium,  with  which  a  nurses'  training  school  is  connected. 
There  is  a  public  library.  The  village  has  large  nurseries  and 
vineyards,  flour  and  paper  mills,  a  large  printing  establishment, 
a  foundry,  and  a  shoe  factory.  Dansville,  named  in  honour  of 
Daniel  P.  Faulkner,  was  settled  about  1800,  and  was  incorpor- 
ated in  1845. 

DANTE,  Dante  (or  Durante)  Alighieri  (1265-1321),  the 
greatest  of  Italian  poets,  was  born  at  Florence  about  the  middle 
of  May  1265.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family,  but 
from  one  which  at  any  rate  for  several  generations  had  belonged 
to  the  burgher  and  not  to  the  knightly  class.  His  biographers 
have  attempted  on  very  slight  grounds  to  deduce  his  origin  from 
the  Frangipani,  one  of  the  oldest  senatorial  families  of  Rome.  We 
can  affirm  with  greater  certainty  that  he  was  connected  with  the 
Elisei  who  took  part  in  the  building  of  Florence  under  Charles 
the  Great.  Dante  himself  does  not,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  obscure  and  scattered  allusions,  carry  his  ancestry  beyond 
the  warrior  Cacciaguida,  whom  he  met  in  the  sphere  of  Mars 
(Par.  xv.  87,  foil.).  Of  Cacciaguida's  family  nothing  is  known. 
The  name,  as  he  told  Dante  (Par.  xv.  139,  5),  was  given  him  at 
his  baptism;  it  has  a  Teutonic  ring.  The  family  may  well  have 
sprung  from  one  of  the  barons  who,  as  Villani  tells  us,  remained 
behind  Otto  I.  It  has  been  noted  that  the  phrase  "  Tonde 
venner  quivi  "  (xvi.  44)  seems  to  imply  that  they  were  not 
Florentines.  He  further  tells  his  descendant  that  he  was  born  in 
the  year  1106  (or,  if  another  reading  of  xvi,  37,  38  be  adopted,  in 
1091),  and  that  he  married  an  Aldighieri  from  the  valley  of  the 
Po.  Here  the  German  strain  appears  unmistakably;  the  name 
Aldighiero  (Aldiger)  being  purely  Teutonic.  He  also  mentions 
two  brothers,  Moronte  and  Eliseo,  and  that  he  accompanied  the 
emperor  Conrad  III.  upon  his  crusade  into  the  Holy  Land,  where 
he  died  (1147)  among  the  infidels.  From  Eliseo  was  probably 
descended  the  branch  of  the  Elisei;  from  Aldighiero,  son  of 
Cacciaguida,  the  branch  of  the  Alighieri.  Bellincione,  son  of 
Aldighiero,  was  the  grandfather  of  Dante.  His  father  was  a 
second  Aldighiero,  a  lawyer  of  some  reputation.  By  his  first 
wife,  Lapa  di  Chiarissimo  Cialuffii,  this  Aldighiero  had  a  son 
Francesco;  by  his  second,  Donna  Bella,  whose  family  name  is 
not  known,  Dante  and  a  daughter.  Thus  the  family  of  Dante 
held  a  most  respectable  position  among  the  citizens  of  his  beloved 
city;  but  had  it  been  reckoned  in  the  very  first  rank  they  could 
not  have  remained  in  Florence  after  the  defeat  of  the  Guelphs  at 
Montaperti  in  1 260.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  Dante's  mother  at 
least  did  so  remain,  for  Dante  was  born  in  Florence  in  1265.  The 
heads  of  the  Guelph  party  did  not  return  till  1267. 

Dante  was  born  under  the  sign  of  the  twins,  "  the  glorious  stars 
pregnant  with  virtue,  to  whom  he  owes  his  genius  such  as  it 
is."  Astrologers  considered  this  constellation  as  favourable  to 
literature  and  science,  and  Brunette  Latini,  the  philosopher  and 
diplomatist,  his  instructor,  tells  him  in  the  Inferno  (xv.  25,  foil.) 
that,  if  he  follows  its  guidance,  he  cannot  fail  to  reach  the  harbour 
of  fame.  Boccaccio  relates  that  before  his  birth  his  mother 
dreamed  that  she  lay  under  a  very  lofty  laurel,  growing  in  a  green 
meadow,  by  a  very  clear  fountain,  when  she  felt  the  pangs  of 
childbirth, — that  her  child,  feeding  on  the  berries  which  fell  from 
the  laurel,  and  on  the  waters  of  the  fountain,  in  a  very  short  time 
became  a  shepherd,  and  attempted  to  reach  the  leaves  of  the 
laurel,  the  fruit  of  which  had  nurtured  him-, — that,  trying  to 
obtain  them  he  fell,  and  rose  up,  no  longer  a  man,  but  in  the  guise 
of  a  peacock.  We  know  little  of  Dante's  boyhood  except  that 
he  was  a  hard  student  and  was  profoundly  influenced  by 


DANTE 


811 


Brunette  Latini.  Boccaccio  tells  us  that  he  became  very  familiar 
with  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid  and  Statius,  and  all  other  famous 
poets.  From  the  age  of  eighteen  he,  like  most  cultivated  young 
men  of  that  age,  wrote  poetry  assiduously,  in  the  philosophical 
amatory  style  of  which  his  friend,  older  by  many  years  than  him- 
self, Guido  Cavalcanti,  was  a  great  exponent,  and  of  which  Dante 
regarded  Guido  Guinicelli  of  Bologna  as  the  master  (Purg. 
xxvi.  97,  8).  Leonardo  Bruni  of  Arezzo,  writing  a  hundred  years 
or  more  after  his  death,  says  that  "  by  study  of  philosophy,  of 
theology,  astrology,  arithmetic  and  geometry,  by  reading  of 
history,  by  the  turning  over  many  curious  books,  watching  and 
sweating  in  his  studies,  he  acquired  the  science  which  he  was  to 
adorn  and  explain  in  his  verses."  Of  Brunetto  Latini  Dante 
himself  speaks  with  the  most  loving  gratitude  and  affection, 
though  he  does  not  hesitate  to  brand  his  vices  with  infamy. 
Under  such  guidance  Dante  became  master  of  all  the  science  of  his 
age  at  a  time  when  it  was  not  impossible  to  know  all  that  could  be 
known.  He  had  some  knowledge  of  drawing;  at  any  rate  he  tells 
us  that  on  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Beatrice  he  drew  an 
angel  on  a  tablet.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Giotto,  who 
has  immortalized  his  youthful  lineaments  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Bargello,  and  who  is  recorded  to  have  drawn  from  his  friend's 
inspiration  the  allegories  of  Virtue  and  Vice  which  fringe  the 
frescoes  of  the  Scrovegni  Chapel  at  Padua.  Nor  was  he  less 
sensible  to  the  delights  of  music.  Milton  had  not  a  keener  ear 
for  the  loud  uplifted  angel  trumpets  and  the  immortal  harps  of 
golden  wires  of  the  cherubim  and  seraphim;  and  the  English 
poet  was  proud  to  compare  his  own  friendship  with  Henry  LaweS 
with  that  between  Dante  and  Casella,  "  met  in  the  milder  shades 
of  purgatory."  Of  his  companions  the  most  intimate  and 
sympathetic  were  the  lawyer-poet  Cino  of  Pistoia,  Lapo  Gianni, 
Guido  Cavalcanti  and  others,  similarly  gifted  and  dowered 
with  like  tastes,  who  moved  in  the  lively  and  acute  society  of 
Florence,  and  felt  with  him  the  first  warm  flush  of  the  new  spirit 
which  was  soon  to  pass  over  Europe.  He  has  written  no  sweeter 
or  more  melodious  lines  than  those  in  which  he  expresses  the 
wish  that  he,  with  Guido  and  Lapo,  might  be  wafted  by  enchant- 
ment over  the  sea  wheresoever  they  might  list,  shielded  from 
tempest  and  foul  weather,  in  such  contentment  that  they  should 
wish  to  live  always  in  one  mind,  and  that  the  good  enchanter 
should  bring  Monna  Vanna  and  Monna  Bice  and  trial  other  lady 
into  their  barque,  where  they  should  for  ever  discourse  of  love 
and  be  for  ever  happy.  It  is  a  wonderful  thing  (says  Leonardo 
Bruni)  that,  though  he  studied  without  intermission,  it  would 
not  have  appeared  to  anyone  that  he  studied,  from  his  joyous 
mien  and  youthful  conversation.  Like  Milton  he  was  trained  in 
the  strictest  academical  education  which  the  age  afforded;  but 
Dante  lived  under  a  warmer  sun  and  brighter  skies,  and  found  in 
the  rich  variety  and  gaiety  of  his  early  life  a  defence  against  the 
withering  misfortunes  of  his  later  years.  Milton  felt  too  early  the 
chill  breath  of  Puritanism,  and  the  serious  musing  on  the  experi- 
ence of  life,  which  saddened  the  verse  of  both  poets,  deepened  in 
his  case  rather  into  grave  and  desponding  melancholy,  than  into 
the  fierce  scorn  and  invective  which  disillusion  wrung  from  Dante. 
We  must  now  consider  the  political  circumstances  in  which 
lay  the  activity  of  Dante's  manhood.  From  1115,  the  year  of 

the  death  of  Matilda  countess  of  Tuscany,  to  1215, 
///e-  '  Florence  enjoyed  a  nearly  uninterrupted  peace. 

Attached  to  the  Guelph  party,  it  remained  undivided 
against  itself.  But  in  1215  a  private  feud  between  the  families 
of  Buondelmonte  and  Uberti  introduced  into  the  city  the  horrors 
of  civil  war.  Villani  (lib.  v.  cap.  38)  relates  how  Buondelmonte 
de'  Buondelmonti,  a  noble  youth  of  Florence,  being  engaged  to 
marry  a  lady  of  the  house  of  Amidei,  allied  himself  instead  to  a 
Donati,  and  how  Buondelmonte  was  attacked  and  killed  by  the 
Amidei  and  Uberti  at  the  foot  of  the  Ponte  Vecchio,  close  by  the 
pilaster  which  bears  the  image  of  Mars.  "  The  death  of  Messer 
Buondelmonte  was  the  occasion  and  beginning  of  the  accursed 
parties  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  in  Florence. "  Of  the  seventy- 
two  families  then  in  Florence  thirty-nine  became  Guelph  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Buondelmonte  and  the  rest  Ghibelline 
under  the  Uberti.  The  strife  of  parties  was  for  a  while  allayed 


by  the  war  against  Pisa  in  1222,  and  the  constant  struggles 
against  Siena;  but  in  1248  Frederick  II.  sent  into  the  city  his 
natural  son  Frederick  "  of  Antioch,"  with  1600  German  knights. 
The  Guelphs  were  driven  away  from  the  town,  and  took  refuge, 
part  in  Montevarchi,  part  in  Capraia.  The  Ghibellines,  masters 
of  Florence,  behaved  with  great  severity,  and  destroyed  the 
towers  and  palaces  of  the  Guelph  nobles.  At  last  the  people 
became  impatient.  They  rose  in  rebellion,  reduced  the  powers  of 
the  podesta,  elected  a  captain  of  the  people  to  manage  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  city,  with  a  council  of  twelve,  established  a  more 
democratic  constitution,  and,  encouraged  by  the  death  of 
Frederick  II.  in  December  1250,  recalled  the  exiled  Guelphs. 
Manfred,  the  bastard  son  of  Frederick,  pursued  the  policy  of  his 
father.  He  stimulated  the  Ghibelline  Uberti  to  rebel  against 
their  position  of  subjection.  A  rising  of  the  vanquished  party 
was  put  down  by  the  people,  in  July  1258  the  Ghibellines  were 
expelled  from  the  town,  and  the  towers  of  the  Uberti  razed  to 
the  ground.  The  exiles  betook  themselves  to  the  friendly  city 
of  Siena.  Manfred  sent  them  a  reinforcement  of  German  horse, 
under  his  kinsman  Count  Giordano  Lancia.  The  Florentines, 
after  vainly  demanding  their  surrender,  despatched  an  army 
against  them.  On  the  4th  of  September  1260  was  fought  the 
great  battle  of  Montaperti,  which  dyed  the  Arbia  red,  and  in 
which  the  Guelphs  were  entirely  defeated.  The  hand  which 
held  the  banner  of  the  republic  was  sundered  by  the  sword  of 
a  traitor  (Inf.  xxxii.  106).  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
Florence  the  Carroccio  was  taken.  Florence  lay  at  the  mercy  of 
her  enemies.  A  parliament  was  held  at  Empoli,  in  which  the 
deputies  of  Siena,  Pisa,  Arezzo  and  other  Tuscan  town's  consulted 
on  the  best  means  of  securing  their  new  war  power.  They  voted 
that  the  accursed  Guelph  city  should  be  blotted  out.  But 
Farinata  degli  Uberti  stood  up  in  their  midst,  bold  and  defiant 
as  when  he  stood  erect  among  the  sepulchres  of  hell,  and  said  that 
if,  from  the  whole  number  of  the  Florentines,  he  alone  should 
remain,  he  would  not  suffer,  whilst  he  could  wield  a  sword,  that 
his  country  should  be  destroyed,  and  that,  if  it  were  necessary  to 
die  a  thousand  times  for  her,  a  thousand  times  would  he  be  ready 
to  encounter  death.  Help  came  to  the  Guelphs  from  an  unex- 
pected quarter.  Clement  IV.,  elected  pope  in  1265,  offered  the 
crown  of  Apulia  and  Sicily  to  Charles  of  Anjou.  The  French 
prince,  passing  rapidly  through  Lombardy,  Romagna  and  the 
Marches,  reached  Rome  by  way  of  Spoleto,  was  crowned  on 
the  6th  of  January  1266,  and  on  the  23rd  of  February  defeated 
and  killed  Manfred  at  Benevento.  In  such  a  storm  of  conflict 
did  Dante  first  see  the  light.  In  1267  the  Guelphs  were  recalled, 
but  instead  of  settling  down  in  peace  with  their  opponents  they 
summoned  Charles  of  Anjou  to  vengeance,  and  the  Ghibellines 
were  driven  out.  The  meteor  passage  of  Conradin  gave  hope  to 
the  imperial  party,  which  was  quenched  when  the  head  of  the 
fair-haired  boy  fell  on  the  scaffold  at  Naples.  Pope  after  pope 
tried  in  vain  to  make  peace.  Gregory  X.  placed  the  rebellious 
city  under  an  interdict;  in  1278  Cardinal  Latini  by  order  of 
Nicholas  III.  effected  a  truce,  which  lasted  for  four  years.  The 
city  was  to  be  governed  by  a  committee  of  fourteen  buonomini, 
on  which  the  Guelphs  were  to  have  a  small  majority.  In  1282 
the  constitution  of  Florence  received  the  final  form  which  it 
retained  till  the  collapse  of  freedom.  From  the  three  arti 
maggiori  were  chosen  six  priors,  in  whose  hands  was  placed  the 
government  of  the  republic.  Before  the  end  of  the  century, 
seven  greater  arts  were  recognized,  including  the  speziali, — 
druggists  and  dealers  in  all  manner  of  oriental  goods,  and  in 
books — among  whom  Dante  afterwards  enrolled  himself.  They 
remained  in  office  for  two  months,  and  during  that  time  lived  and 
shared  a  common  table  in  the  public  palace.  We  shall  See  what 
influence  this  office  had  upon  the  fate  of  Dante.  The  success  of 
the  "  Sicilian  Vespers  "  (March  1282),  the  death  of  Charles  of 
Anjou  (January  1285),  and  of  Martin  IV.  in  the  following  March, 
roused  again  the  courage  of  the  Ghibellines.  They  entered 
Arezzo,  where  the  Ghibellines  at  present  had  the  upper  hand,  and 
threatened  to  drive  out  the  Guelphs  from  Tuscany.  Skirmishes 
and  raids,  of  which  Villani  and  Bruni  have  left  accounts,  went  on 
through  the  winter  of  1288-1289,  forming  a  prelude  to  the  great 


8l2 


DANTE 


battle  of  Campaldino  in  the  following  summer.  Then  it  was 
that  Dante  saw  "  horsemen  moving  camp  and  commencing  the 
assault,  and  holding  muster,  and  the  march  of  foragers,  the  shock 
of  tournaments,  and  race  of  jousts,  now  with  trumpets  and  now 
with  bells,  with  drums  and  castle  signals,  with  native  things  and 
foreign  "  (Inf.  xxii.  i,  foil.).  On  the  nth  of  June  1289,  at  Cam- 
paldino near  Poppi,  in  the  Casentino,  the  Ghibellines  were  utterly 
defeated.  They  never  again  recovered  their  hold  on  Florence, 
but  the  violence  of  faction  survived  under  other  names.  In  a 
letter  quoted,  though  not  at  first  hand,  by  Leonardo  Bruni,  which 
is  not  now  extant,  Dante  is  said  to  mention  that  he  himself  fought 
with  distinction  at  Campaldino.  He  was  present  shortly  after- 
wards at  the  battle  of  Caprona  (Inf.  xxi.  95,  foil.),  and  returned  in 
September  1 289  to  his  studies  and  his  love.  His  peace  was  of  short 
duration.  On  the  gth  of  June  1290  died  Beatrice,  whose  mortal 
love  had  guided  him  for  thirteen  years,  and  whose  immortal  spirit 
purified  his  later  life,  and  revealed  to  himthemysteriesof  Paradise. 
Dante  had  first  met  Beatrice  Portinari  at  the  house  of  her 
father  Folco  on  May-day  1274.  In  his  own  words,  "  already  nine 
times  after  my  birth  the  heaven  of  light  had  returned  as  it  were 
to  the  same  point,  when  there  appeared  to  my  eyes  the  glorious 
lady  of  mymind,  who  was  by  many  called  Beatrice  who  knew  not 
what  to  call  her.  She  had  already  been  so  long  in  this  life  that 
already  in  its  time  the  starry  heaven  had  moved  towards  the  east 
the  twelfth  part  of  a  degree,  so  that  she  appeared  to  me  about 
the  beginning  of  her  ninth  year,  and  I  saw  her  about  the  end  of 
my  ninth  year.  Her  dress  on  that  day  was  of  a  most  noble 
colour,  a  subdued  and  goodly  crimson,  girdled  and  adorned  in 
such  sort  as  best  suited  with  her  tender  age.  At  that  moment  I 
saw  most  truly  that  the  spirit  of  life  which  hath  its  dwelling  in 
the  secretest  chamber  of  the  heart  began  to  tremble  so  violently 
that  the  least  pulses  of  my  body  shook  therewith;  and  in 
trembing  it  said  these  words,  'Ecce  deus  fortior  me  qui  veniens 
dominabitur  mini.'  "  In  the  Vita  Nuova  is  written  the  story  of 
his  passion  from  its  commencement  to  within  a  year  after  the 
lady's  death  (June  9th,  1290).  He  saw  Beatrice  only  once  or 
twice,  and  she  probably  knew  little  of  him.  She  married  Simone 
de'  Bardi.  But  the  worship  of  her  lover  was  stronger  for  the 
remoteness  of  its  subject.  The  last  chapter  of  the  Vita  Nuova 
relates  how,  after  the  lapse  of  a  year,  "  it  was  given  me  to  behold 
a  wonderful  vision,  wherein  I  saw  things  which  determined  me 
to  say  nothing  further  of  this  blessed  one  until  such  time  as  I 
could  discourse  more  worthily  concerning  her.  And  to  this  end 
I  labour  all  I  can,  asshe  in  truth  knoweth.  Therefore  if  it  beHis 
pleasure  through  whom  is  the  life  of  all  things  that  my  life 
continue  with  me  a  few  years,  it  is  my  hope  that  I  shall  yet  write 
concerning  her  what  hath  not  before  been  written  of  any  woman. 
After  the  which  may  it  seem  good  unto  Him  who  is  the  master  of 
grace  that  my  spirit  should  go  hence  to  behold  the  glory  of  its 
lady,  to  wit,  of  that  blessed  Beatrice  who  now  gloriously  gazes  on 
the  countenance  of  Him  qui  est  per  omnia  saecula  benedictus." 
In  the  Convito  he  resumes  the  story  of  his  life.  "  When  I  had  lost 
the  first  delight  of  my  soul  (that  is,  Beatrice)  I  remained  so  pierced 
with  sadness  that  no  comforts  availed  me  anything,  yet  after 
some  time  my  mind,  desirous  of  health,  sought  to  return  to  the 
method  by  which  other  disconsolate  ones  had  found  consolation, 
and  I  set  myself  to  read  that  little-known  book  of  Boetius  in 
which  he  consoled  himself  when  a  prisoner  and  an  exile.  And 
hearing  that  Tully  had  written  another  work,  in  which,  treating 
of  friendship,  he  had  given  words  of  consolation  to  Laelius,  I  set 
myself  to  read  that  also."  He  so  far  recovered  from  the  shock  of 
his  loss  that  in  1292  he  married  Gemma,  daughter  of  Manetto 
Donati,  a  connexion  of  the  celebrated  Corso  Donati,  afterwards 
Dante's  bitter  foe.  It  is  possible  that  she  is  the  lady  mentioned 
in  the  Vita  Nuova  as  sitting  full  of  pity  at  her  window  and 
comforting  Dante  for  his  sorrow.  By  this  wife  he  had  two  sons 
and  two  daughters,  and  although  he  never  mentions  her  in  the 
Divina  Commedia,  and  although  she  did  not  accompany  him  into 
exile,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  she  was  other  than  a  good 
wife,  or  that  the  union  was  otherwise  than  happy.  Certain  it  is 
that  he  spares  the  memory  of  Corso  in  his  great  poem,  and  speaks 
kindly  of  his  kinsmen  Piccarda  and  Forese. 


In  1 293  Giano  della  Bella,  a  man  of  old  family  who  had  thrown 
in  his  lot  with  the  people,  induced  the  commonwealth  to  adopt  the 
so-called  "  Ordinances  of  Justice,"  a  severely  democratic  consti- 
tution, by  which  among  other  things  it  was  enacted  that  no 
man  of  noble  family,  even  though  engaged  in  trade,  could  hold 
office  as  prior.  Two  years  later  Giano  was  banished,  but  the 
ordinances  remained  in  force,  though  the  grandi  recovered  much 
of  their  power. 

Dante  now  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  politics.  He  was 
inscribed  in  the  arte  of  the  Medici  and  Speziali,  which  made  him 
eligible  as  one  of  the  six  priori  to  whom  the  government  of  the 
city  was  entrusted  in  1282.  Documents  still  existing  in  the 
archives  of  Florence  show  that  he  took  part  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  several  councils  of  the  city  in  1295,  1296,  1300  and  1301. 
The  notice  in  the  last  year  is  of  some  importance.  The  pope 
had  demanded  a  contingent  of  100  Florentine  knights  to  serve 
against  his  enemies,  the  Colonna  family.  On  the  igth  of  June 
we  read  in  the  contemporary  report  of  the  debate  on  this 
question  in  the  Council  of  a  Hundred :  "  Dantes  Alagherius 
consuluit  quod  de  servitio  faciendo  Domino  Papae  nihil  fieret." 
Other  instances  of  his  invariable  opposition  to  Boniface  occur. 
Filelfo  says  that  he  served  on  fourteen  embassies,  a  statement  not 
only  unsupported  by  evidence,  but  impossible  in  itself.  Filelfo 
does  not  mention  the  only  embassy  in  which  we  know  for  certain 
that  Dante  was  engaged,  that  to  the  town  of  San  Gemignano  in 
May  1300.  From  the  isth  of  June  to  the  isth  of  August  1300 
he  held  the  office  of  prior,  which  was  the  source  of  all  the  miseries 
of  his  life.  The  spirit  of  faction  had  again  broken  out  in  Florence. 
The  two  rival  families  were  the  Cerchi  and  the  Donati, — the  first 
of  great  wealth  but  recent  origin,  the  last  of  ancient  ancestry  but 
poor.  A  quarrel  had  arisen  in  Pistoia  between  the  two  branches 
of  the  Cancellieri, — the  Bianchi  and  Neri,  the  Whites  and  the 
Blacks.  The  quarrel  spread  to  Florence,  the  Donati  took  the  side 
of  the  Blacks,  the  Cerchi  of  the  Whites.  Pope  Boniface  was 
asked  to  mediate,  and  sent  Cardinal  Matteo  d'Acquasparta  to 
maintain  peace.  He  arrived  just  as  Dante  entered  upon  his 
office'as  prior.  The  cardinal  effected  nothing,  but  Dante  and  his 
colleagues  banished  the  heads  of  the  rival  parties  in  different 
directions  to  a  distance  from  the  capital.  The  Blacks  were  sent  to 
Citta  della  Pieve  in  the  Tuscan  mountains;  the  Whites,  among 
whom  was  Dante's  dearest  friend  Guide  Cavalcanti,  to  Serrezzano 
in  the  unhealthy  Maremma.  After  the  expiration  of  Dante's 
office  both  parties  returned,  Guido  Cavalcanti  so  ill  with  fever 
that  he  shortly  afterwards  died.  At  a  meeting  held  in  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  the  Whites  were  denounced  as  Ghibellines, 
enemies  of  the  pope.  The  Blacks  sought  for  vengeance.  Their 
leader,  Corso  Donati,  hastened  to  Rome,  and  persuaded  Boniface 
VIII.  to  send  for  Charles  of  Valois,  brother  of  the  French  king, 
Philip  the  Fair,  to  act  as  "  peacemaker."  The  priors  sent  at 
the  end  of  September  four  ambassadors  to  the  pope,  one  of  whom, 
according  to  the  chronicler  Dino,  was  Dante.  There  are,  how- 
ever, improbabilities  in  the  story,  and  the  passage  quoted  in 
support  of  it  bears  marks  of  later  interpolation.  He  never  again 
saw  the  towers  of  his  native  city.  Charles  of  Valois,  after  visiting 
the  pope  at  Anagni,  retraced  his  steps  to  Florence,  entering 
the  city  on  All  Saints'  Day  and  taking  up  his  abode  in  the 
Oltr'  Arno.  Corso  Donati,  who  had  been  banished  a  second 
time,  returned  in  force  and  summoned  the  Blacks  to  arms.  The 
prisons  were  broken  open,  the  podesta  driven  from  the  town,  the 
Cerchi  confined  within  their  houses,  a  third  of  the  city  was 
destroyed  with  fire  and  sword.  By  the  help  of  Charles  the  Blacks 
were  victorious.  They  appointed  Cante  de'  Gabrielli  of  Gubbio 
as  podesta,  a  man  devoted  to  their  interests.  More  than  600 
Whites  were  condemned  to  exile  and  cast  as  beggars  upon  the 
world.  On  the  27th  of  January  1302,  Dante,  with  four  others 
of  the  White  party,  was  charged  before  the  podesta,  Cante 
de'  Gabrielli,  with  baratleria,  or  corrupt  jobbery  and  peculation 
when  in  office,  and,  not  appearing,  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of 
5000  lire  of  small  florins.  If  the  money  was  not  paid  within 
three  days  their  property  was  to  be  destroyed  and  laid  waste; 
if  they  did  pay  the  fine  they  were  to  be  exiled  for  two  years  from 
Tuscany;  in  any  case  they  were  never  again  to  hold  office  in  the 


DANTE 


813 


republic.  The  charge  in  Dante's  case  was  obviously  preposterous, 
though  ingeniously  devised;  for  he  was  known  to  be  at  the  time 
in  somewhat  straitened  circumstances,  and  had  recently  been 
in  control  of  certain  public  works.  But  of  all  sins,  that  of 
"  barratry  "  was  one  of  the  most  hateful  to  him.  No  doubt  the 
papal  finger  may  be  traced  in  the  affair.  On  the  loth  of  March 
Dante  and  fourteen  others  were  condemned  to  be  burned  alive 
if  they  should  come  into  the  power  of  the  republic.  Similar 
sentences  were  passed  in  September  1311  and  October  1315. 
The  sentence  was  not  formally  reversed  till  1494,  under  the 
government  of  the  Medici. 

Leonardo  Bruni,  who  accepts  the  story  of  the  embassy  to 
Rome,  states  that  Dante  received  the  news  of  his  banishment  in 
that  city,  and  at  once  joined  the  other  exiles  at  Siena.  How  he 
escaped  arrest  in  the  papal  states  is  not  explained.  The  exiles 
met  first  at  Gargonza,  a  castle  between  Siena  and  Arezzo,  and 
then  at  Arezzo  itself.  They  joined  themselves  to  the  Ghibellines, 
to  which  party  the  podesta  Uguccione  della  Faggiuola  belonged. 
The  Ghibellines,  however,  were  divided  amongst  themselves,  and 
the  more  strict  Ghibellines  were  not  disposed  to  favour  the  cause 
of  the  White  Guelphs.  On  the  8th  of  June  1302,  however,  a 
meeting  was  held  at  San  Godenzo,  a  place  in  the  Florentine 
territory,  Dante's  presence  at  which  is  proved  by  documentary 
evidence,  and  an  alliance  was  there  made  with  the  powerful 
Ghibelline  clan  of  the  Ubaldini.  The  exiles  remained  at  Arezzo 
till  the  summer  of  1304.  In  September  1303  the  fleur-de-lis  had 
entered  Anagni,  and  Christ  had  a  second  time  been  made  prisoner 
in  the  person  of  his  vicar.  At  the  instigation  of  Philip  the  Fair, 
William  of  Nogaret  and  Sciarra  Colonna  had  entered  the  papal 
palace  at  Anagni,  and  had  insulted  and,  it  is  said,  even  beaten 
the  aged  pontiff  under  his  own  roof.  Boniface  did  not  survive 
the  insult  long,  but  died  in  the  following  month.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Benedict  XI.,  and  in  March  the  cardinal  da  Prato 
came  to  Florence,  sent  by  the  new  pope  to  make  peace.  The 
people  received  him  with  enthusiasm;  ambassadors  came  to  him 
from  the  Whites;  and  he  did  his  best  to  reconcile  the  two  parties. 
But  the  Blacks  resisted  all  his  efforts.  He  shook  the  dust  from 
off  his  feet,  and  departed,  leaving  the  city  under  an  interdict. 
Foiled  by  the  calumnies  and  machinations  of  the  one  party, 
the  cardinal  gave  his  countenance  to  the  other.  It  happened 
that  Corso  Donati  and  the  heads  of  the  Black  party  were  absent 
at  Pistoia.  Da  Prato  advised  the  Whites  to  attack  Florence, 
deprived  of  its  heads  and  impaired  by  a  recent  fire.  An  army 
was  collected  of  16,000  foot  and  9000  horse.  Communications 
were  opened  with  the  Ghibellines  of  Bologna  and  Romagna,  and 
a  futile  attempt  was  made  to  enter  Florence  from  Lastra,  the 
failure  of  which  further  disorganized  the  party.  Dante  had, 
however,  already  separated  from  the  "  ill-conditioned  and 
foolish  company  "  of  common  party-politicians,  who  rejected  his 
counsels  of  wisdom,  and  had  learnt  that  he  must  henceforth  form 
a  party  by  himself.  In  1303  he  had  left  Arezzo  and  gone  to  Forli 
in  Romagna,  of  which  city  Scarpetta  degli  Ordelaffi  was  lord. 
To  him,  according  to  -Flavius  Blondus  the  historian  (d.  before 
1484),  a  native  of  the  place,  Dante  acted  for  a  time  as  secretary. 
From  Forli  Dante  probably  went  to  Bartolommeo  della  Scala, 
lord  of  Verona,  where  the  country  of  the  great  Lombard  gave  him 

his  first  refuge  and  his  first  hospitable  reception.  Can 
Oft»e/*  Grande,  to  whom  he  afterwards  dedicated  the  Paradise, 
iinism.  was  then  a  boy.  Bartolommeo  died  in  1304,  and  it  is 

possible  that  Dante  may  have  remained  in  Verona  till 
his  death.  We  must  consider,  if  we  would  understand  the  real 
nature  of  Dante's  Ghibellinism,  that  he  had  been  born  and 
bred  a  Guelph;  but  he  saw  that  the  conditions  of  the  time  were 
altered,  and  that  other  dangers  menaced  the  welfare  of  his 
country.  There  was  no  fear  now  that  Florence,  Siena,  Pisa, 
Arezzo  should  be  razed  to  the  ground  in  order  that  the  castle  of 
the  lord  might  overlook  the  humble  cottages  of  his  contented 
subjects;  but  there  was  danger  lest  Italy  should  be  torn  in 
sunder  by'  its  own  jealousies  and  passions,  and  lest  the  fair 
domain  bounded  by  the  sea  and  the  Alps  should  never  properly 
assert  the  force  of  its  individuality,  and  should  present  a  con- 
temptible contrast  to  a  united  France  and  a  confederated 


Wander- 
lags. 


Germany.  Sick  with  petty  quarrels  and  dissensions,  Dante 
strained  his  eyes  towards  the  hills  for  the  appearance  of  a 
universal  monarch,  raised  above  the  jars  of  faction  and  the  spur  of 
ambition,  under  whom  each  country,  each  city,  each  man,  might, 
under  the  institutions  best  suited  to  it,  lead  the  life  and  do  the 
work  for  which  it  was  best  fitted.  United  in  spiritual  harmony 
with  the  vicar  of  Christ,  he  should  show  for  the  first  time  to  the 
world  an  example  of  a  government  where  the  strongest  force  and 
the  highest  wisdom  were  interpenetrated  by  all  that  God  had 
given  to  the  world  of  piety  and  justice.  In  this  sense  and  in  no 
other  was  Dante  a  Ghibelline.  The  vision  was  never  realized 
— the  hope  was  never  fulfilled.  Not  till  500  years  later  did 
Italy  become  united  and  the  "  greyhound  of  deliverance " 
chase  from  city  to  city  the  wolf  of  cupidity.  But  is  it  possible 
to  say  that  the  dream  did  not  work  its  own  realization,  or  to 
deny  that  the  high  ideal  of  the  poet,  after  inspiring  a  few  minds 
as  lofty  as  his  own,  has  become  embodied  in  the  constitution  of 
a  state  which  acknowledges  no  stronger  bond  of  union  than  a 
common  worship  of  the  exile's  indignant  and  impassioned  verse? 
It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  with  exactness  the  order  and 
the  place  of  Dante's  wanderings.  Many  cities  and  castles  in  Italy 
have  claimed  the  honour  of  giving  him  shelter,  or  of 
being  for  a  time  the  home  of  his  inspired  muse.  He 
certainly  spent  some  time  with  Count  Guido  Salvatico 
in  the  Casentino  near  the  sources  of  the  Arno,  probably  in  the 
castle  of  Porciano,  and  with  Uguccione  in  the  castle  of  Faggiuola 
in  the  mountains  of  Urbino.  After  this  he  is  said  to  have  visited 
the  university  of  Bologna;  and  in  August  1306  we  find  him  at 
Padua.  Cardinal  Napoleon  Orsini,  the  legate  of  the  French  pope 
Clement  V. ,  had  put  Bologna  under  a  ban,  dissolved  the  university 
and  driven  the  professors  to  the  northern  city.  In  May  or  June 
1307  the  same  cardinal  collected  the  Whites  at  Arezzo  and  tried 
to  induce  the  Florentines  to  recall  them.  The  name  of  Dante  is 
found  attached  to  a  document  signed  by  the  Whites  in  the  church 
of  St  Gaudenzio  in  the  Mugello.  This  enterprise  came  to  nothing. 
Dante  retired  to  the  castle  of  Moroello  Malaspina  in  the  Lunigi- 
ana,  where  the  marble  ridges  of  the  mountains  of  Carrara  descend 
in  precipitous  slopes  to  the  Gulf  of  Spezzia.  From  this  time  till 
the  arrival  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  in  Italy,  October  1310,  all 
is  uncertain.  His  old  enemy  Corso  Donati  had  at  last  allied 
himself  with  Uguccione  della  Faggiuola,  the  leader  of  the 
Ghibellines.  Dante  thought  it  possible  that  this  might  lead  to 
his  return.  But  in  1308  Corso  was  declared  a  traitor,  attacked 
in  his  house,  put  to  flight  and  killed.  Dante  lost  his  last  hope. 
He  left  Tuscany,  and  went  to  Can  Grande  della  Scala  at  Verona. 
From  this  place  it  is  thought  that  he  visited  the  university  of 
Paris  (1309),  studied  in  the  rue  du  Fouarre  and  went  on  into 
the  Low  Countries.  That  he  ever  crossed  the  Channel  or  went  to 
Oxford,  or  himself  saw  where  the  heart  of  Henry,  son  of  Richard, 
earl  of  Cornwall,  murdered  by  his  cousin  Guy  of  Montfort  in 
1271,  was  "  still  venerated  on  the  Thames,"  may  safely  be  dis- 
believed. The  only  evidence  for  it  is  in  the  Commentary  of  John 
of  Serravalle,  bishop  of  Fermo,  who  lived  a  century  later,  had  no 
special  opportunity  of  knowing,  and  was  writing  for  the  benefit 
of  two  English  bishops.  The  election  in  1308  of  Henry  of  Luxem- 
burg as  emperor  stirred  again  his  hopes  of  a  deliverer.  At  the  end 
of  1310,  in  a  letter  to  the  princes  and  people  of  Italy,  he  pro- 
claimed the  coming  of  the  saviour;  at  Milan  he  did  personal 
homage  to  his  sovereign.  The  Florentines  made  every  preparation 
to  resist  the  emperor.  Dante  wrote  from  the  Casentino  a  letter 
dated  the  3ist  of  March  1311,  in  which  he  rebuked  them  for  their 
stubbornness  and  obstinacy.  Henry  still  lingered  in  Lombardy 
at  the  siege  of  Cremona,  when  Dante,  on  the  i6th  of  April  1311, 
in  a  celebrated  epistle,  upbraided  his  delay,  argued  that  the 
crown  of  Italy  was  to  be  won  on  the  Arno  rather  than  on  the  Po, 
and  urged  the  tarrying  emperor  to  hew  the  rebellious  Florentines 
like  Agag  in  pieces  before  the  Lord.  Henry  was  as  deaf  to  this 
exhortation  as  the  Florentines  themselves.  After  reducing 
Lombardy  he  passed  from  Genoa  to  Pisa,  and  on  the  zgth  of  June 
1312  was  crowned  by  some  cardinals  in  the  church  of  St  John 
Lateran  at  Rome;  the  Vatican  being  in  the  hands  of  his  adversary 
King  Robert  of  Naples.  Then  at  length  he  moved  towards 


814 


DANTE 


Tuscany  by  way  of  Umbria.  Leaving  Cortona  and  Arezzo,  he 
reached  Florence  on  the  igth  of  September.  He  did  not  dare  to 
attack  it,  but  returned  in  November  to  Pisa.  In  the  summer  of 
the  following  year  he  prepared  to  invade  the  kingdom  of  Naples; 
but  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Siena  he  caught  a  fever  and  died  at 
the  monastery  of  Buonconvento,  on  the  24th  of  August  1313. 
He  lies  in  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa;  and  the  hopes  of  Dante  and 
his  party  were  buried  in  his  grave. 

After  the  death  of  the  emperor  Henry  (Bruni  tells  us)  Dante 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life  as  an  exile,  sojourning  in  various  places 

throughout  Lombardy,  Tuscany  and  the  Romagna, 
°an<i  death.  ur>der  the  protection  of  various  lords,  until  at  length 

he  retired  to  Ravenna,  where  he  ended  his  life.  Very 
little  can  be  added  to  this  meagre  story.  There  is  reason  for 
supposing  that  he  stayed  at  Gubbio  with  Bosone  dei  Rafaelli,  and 
tradition  assigns  him  a  cell  in  the  monastery  of  Sta  Croce  di  Fonte 
Avellana  in  the  same  district,  situated  on  the  slopes  of  Catria, 
one  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Apennines  in  that  region. 
After  the  death  of  the  French  pope,  Clement  V.,  he  addressed  a 
letter,  dated  the  i4th  of  July  1314,  to  the  cardinals  in  conclave, 
urging  them  to  elect  an  Italian  pope.  About  this  time  he  came 
to  Lucca,  then  lately  conquered  by  his  friend  Uguccione.  Here  he 
completed  the  last  cantos  of  the  Purgatory,  which  he  dedicated 
to  Uguccione,  and  here  he  must  have  become  acquainted  with 
Gentucca,  wKose  name  had  been  whispered  to  him  by  her  country- 
man on  the  slopes  of  the  Mountain  of  Purification  (Purg.  xxiv. 
37).  That  the  intimacy  between  the  "  world-worn  "  poet  and 
the  young  married  lady  (who  is  thought  to  be  identifiable  with 
Gentucca  Morla,  wife  of  one  Cosciorino  Fondora)  was  other  than 
blameless,  is  quite  incredible.  In  August  1315  was  fought  the 
battle  of  Monte  Catini,  a  day  of  humiliation  and  mourning  for 
the  Guelphs.  Uguccione  made  but  little  use  of  his  victory;  and 
the  Florentines  marked  their  vengeance  on  his  adviser  by  con- 
demning Dante  yet  once  again  to  death  if  he  ever  should  come 
into  their  power.  In  the  beginning  of  the  following  year  Uguc- 
cione lost  both  his  cities  of  Pisa  and  Lucca.  At  this  time  Dante 
was  offered  an  opportunity  of  returning  to  Florence.  The  con- 
ditions given  to  the  exiles  were  that  they  should  pay  a  fine  and 
walk  in  the  dress  of  humiliation  to  the  church  of  St  John,  and 
there  do  penance  for  their  offences.  Dante  refused  to  tolerate 
this  shame;  and  the  letter  is  still  extant  in  which  he  declines  to 
enter  Florence  except  with  honour,  secure  that  the  means  of  life 
will  not  fail  him,  and  that  in  any  corner  of  the  world  he  will  be 
able  to  gaze  at  the  sun  and  the  stars,  and  meditate  on  the  sweetest 
truths  of  philosophy.  He  preferred  to  take  refuge  with  his  most 
illustrious  protector  Can  Grande  della  Scala  of  Verona,  then  a 
young  man  of  twenty-five,  rich,  liberal  and  the  favoured  head 
of  the  Ghibelline  party.  His  name  has  been  immortalized  by  an 
eloquent  panegyric  in  the  seventeenth  canto  of  the  Paradiso. 
Whilst  on  a  visit  at  the  court  of  Verona  he  maintained,  on  the 
zoth  of  January  1320,  the  philosophical  thesis  De  aqua  et  terra, 
on  the  levels  of  land  and  water,  which  is  included  in  his  minor 
works.  The  last  three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  at  Ravenna, 
under  the  protection  of  Guido  da  Polenta.  In  his  service  Dante 
undertook  an  embassy  to  the  Venetians.  He  failed  in  the  object 
of  his  mission,  and,  returning  disheartened  and  broken  in  spirit 
through  the  unhealthy  lagoons,  caught  a  fever  and  died  in 
Ravenna  on  the  i4th  of  September  1321.  His  bones  still  repose 
there.  His  doom  of  exile  has  been  reversed  by  the  union  of  Italy, 
which  has  made  the  city  of  his  birth  and  the  various  cities  of  his 
wanderings  component  members  of  a  common  country.  His  son 
Piero,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Divina  Commedia,  settled 
as  a  lawyer  in  Verona,  and  died  in  1364.  His  daughter  Beatrice 
lived  as  a  nun  in  Ravenna,  dying  at  some  time  between  1330 
(when  Boccaccio  brought  her  a  present  of  ten  gold  crowns  from  a 
Florentine  gild)  and  1370.  His  direct  line  became  extinct  in  1 509. 
Dante's  Works. — Of  Dante's  works,  that  by  which  he  is  known 
to  all  the  educated  world,  and  in  virtue  of  which  he  holds  his 
Divia  place  as  one  of  the  half-dozen  greatest  writers  of  all 
Commedia.  tin16)  is  of  course  the  Commedia.  (The  epithet  divina, 

it  may  be  noted,  was  not  given  to  the  poem  by  its 
author,  nor  does  it  appear  on  a  title-page  until  1555,  in  the 


edition  of  Ludovico  Dolce,  printed  by  Giolito;  though  it  is 
applied  to  the  poet  himself  as  early  as  1512.)  The  poem  is 
absolutely  unique  in  literature;  it  may  safely  be  said  that  at  no 
other  epoch  of  the  world's  history  could  such  a  work  have  been 
produced.  Dante  was  steeped  in  all  the  learning,  which  in  its 
way  was  considerable,  of  his  time;  he  had  read  the  Summa 
Theologica  of  Aquinas,  the  Tresor  of  his  master  Brunette,  and 
other  encyclopaedic  works  available  in  that  age;  he  was  familiar 
with  all  that  was  then  known  of  the  Latin  classical  and  post- 
classical  authors.  Further,  he  was  a  deep  and  original  political 
thinker,  who-  had  himself  borne  a  prominent  part  in  practical 
politics.  He  was  born  into  a  generation  in  which  almost  every 
man  of  education  habitually  wrote  verse,  as  indeed  their  pre- 
decessors had  been  doing  for  the  last  fifty  years.  Vernacular 
poetry  had  come  late  into  Italy,  and  had  hitherto,  save  for  a  few 
didactic  or  devotional  treatises  hitched  into  rough  rhyme,  been 
exclusively  lyric  in  form.  Amatory  at  first,  later,  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  Guittone  of  Arezzo  and  Guido  Cavalcanti,  taking  an 
ethical  and  metaphysical  tone,  it  had  never  fully  shaken  off  the 
Provencal  influence  under  which  it  had  started,  and  of  which 
Dante  himself  shows  considerable  traces. 

The  age  also  was  unique,  though  the  two  great  events  which 
made  the  isth  century  a  turning-point  in  the  world's  history — 
the  invention  of  printing  and  the  discovery  of  the  new  world  (to 
which  might  perhaps  be  added  the  intrusion  of  Islam  into  Europe) 
— were  still  far  in  the  future.  But  the  age  was  essentially  one  of 
great  men;  of  free  thought  and  free  speech;  of  brilliant  and 
daring  action,  whether  for  good  or  evil.  It  is  easy  to  understand 
how  Dante's  bitterest  scorn  is  reserved  for  those  "  sorry  souls 
who  lived  without  infamy  and  without  renown,  displeasing  to 
God  and  to  His  enemies." 

The  time  was  thus  propitious  for  the  production  of  a  great 
imaginative  work,  and  the  man  was  ready  who  should  produce  it. 
It  called  for  a  prophet,  and  the  prophet  said,  "  Here  am  I." 
"  Dante,"  says  an  acute  writer,  "  is  not,  as  Homer  is,  the  father 
of  poetry  springing  in  the  freshness  and  simplicity  of  childhood 
out  of  the  arms  of  mother  earth;  he  is  rather,  like  Noah,  the 
father  of  a  second  poetical  world,  to  whom  he  pours  forth  his 
prophetic  song  fraught  with  the  wisdom  and  the  experience  of  the 
old  world."  Thus  the  Commedia,  though  often  classed  for  want 
of  a  better  description  among  epic  poems,  is  totally  different  in 
method  and  construction  from  all  other  poems  of  that  kind.  Its 
"  hero  "  is  the  narrator  himself;  the  incidents  do  not  modify  the 
course  of  the  story;  the  place  of  episodes  is  taken  by  theological 
or  metaphysical  disquisitions;  the  world  through  which  the  poet 
takes  his  readers  is  peopled,  not  with  characters  of  heroic  story, 
but  with  men  and  women  known  personally  or  by  repute  to  him 
and  those  for  whom  he  wrote.  Its  aim  is  not  to  delight,  but  to 
reprove,  to  rebuke,  to  exhort;  to  form  men's  characters  by 
teaching  them  what  courses  of  life  will  meet  with  reward,  what 
with  penalty,  hereafter;  "  to  put  into  verse,"  as  the  poet  says, 
"  things  difficult  to  think."  For  such  new  matter  a  new  vehicle 
was  needed.  We  have  Bembo's  authority  for  believing  that  the 
terza  rima, surpassed,  if  at  all,  only  by  the  ancient  hexameter,  as 
a  measure  equally  adaptable  to  sustained  narrative,  to  debate, 
to  fierce  invective,  to  clear-cut  picture  and  to  trenchant  epigram, 
was  first  employed  by  Dante. 

The  action  of  the  Commedia  opens  in  the  early  morning  of  the 
Thursday  before  Easter,  in  the  year  1 300.  The  poet  finds  himself 
lost  in  a  forest,  escaping  from  which  he  has  his  way  barred  by  a 
wolf,  a  lion  and  a  leopard.  All  this,  like  the  rest  of  the  poem,  is 
highly  symbolical.  This  branch  of  the  subject  is  too  vast  to  be 
entered  on  at  any  length  here;  but  so  far  as  this  passage  is  con- 
cerned it  may  be  said  that  it  seems  to  indicate  that  at  this  period 
of  his  life,  about  the  age  of  thirty-five,  Dante  went  through  some 
experience  akin  to  what  is  now  called  "  conversion."  Having  led 
up  till  then  the  ordinary  life  of  a  cultivated  Florentine  of  good 
family;  taking  his  part  in  public  affairs,  military  and  civil,  as  an 
hereditary  member  of  the  predominant  Guelph  parfy;  dallying 
in  prose  which  with  all  its  beauty  and  passion  is  full  of  the 
conceits  familiar  to  the  i3th  century,  and  in  verse  which  save  for 
the  excellence  of  its  execution  differs  in  no  way  from  that  of  his 


DANTE 


815 


predecessors,  with  the  memory  of  his  lost  love;  studying  more 
seriously,  perhaps,  than  most  of  his  associates;  possibly  travel- 
ling a  little, — gradually  or  suddenly  he  became  convinced  that  all 
was  not  well  with  him,  and  that  not  by  leading,  however  blame- 
lessly, the  "active"  life  could  he  save  his  soul.  The  strong  vein  of 
mysticism,  found  in  so  many  of  the  deepest  thinkers  of  that  age, 
and  conspicuous  in  Dante's  mind,  no  doubt  played  its  part.  His 
efforts  to  free  himself  from  the  "  forest  "  of  worldly  cares  were 
impeded  by  the  temptations  of  the  world — cupidity  (including 
ambition),  the  pride  of  life  and  the  lusts  of  the  flesh,  symbolized 
by  the  three  beasts.  But  a  helper  is  at  hand.  Virgil  appears  and 
explains  that  he  has  a  commission  from  three  ladies  on  high  to 
guide  him.  The  ladies  are  the  Blessed  Virgin,  St  Lucy  (whom  for 
some  reason  never  yet  explained  Dante  seems  to  have  regarded 
as  in  a  special  sense  -his  protector)  and  Beatrice.  In  Virgil  we 
are  apparently  intended  to  see  the  symbol  of  what  Dante  calls 
philosophy,  what  we  should  rather  call  natural  religion;  Beatrice 
standing  for  theology,  or  rather  revealed  religion.  Under  Virgil's 
escort  Dante  is  led  through  the  two  lower  realms  of  the  next 
world,  Hell  and  Purgatory;  meeting  on  the  way  with  many 
persons' illustrious  or  notorious  in  recent  or  remoter  times,  as  well 
as  many  well  enough  known  then  in  Tuscany  and  the  neighbour- 
ing states;  but  who,  without  the  immortality,  often  unenvi- 
able, that  the  poet  has  conferred  on  them,  would  long  ago  have 
been  forgotten.  Popes,  kings,  emperors,  poets  and  warriors, 
Florentine  citizens  of  all  degrees,  are  there  found;  some  doomed 
to  hopeless  punishment,  others  expiating  their  offences  in  milder 
torments,  and  looking  forward  to  deliverance  in  due  time.  It  is 
remarkable  to  notice  how  rarely,  if  ever,  Dante  allows  political 
sympathy  or  antagonism  to  influence  him  in  his  distribution  of 
judgment.  Hell  is  conceived  as  a  vast  conical  hollow,  reaching  to 
the  centre  of  the  earth.  It  has  three  great  divisions,  correspond- 
ing to  Aristotle's  three  classes  of  vices,  incontinence,  brutishness 
and  malice.  The  first  are  outside  the  walls  of  the  city  of  Dis; 
the  second,  among  whom  are  included  unbelievers,  tyrants, 
suicides,  unnatural  offenders,  usurers,  are  within;  the  first 
apparently  on  the  same  level  as  those  without,  the  rest  separated 
from  them  by  a  steep  descent  of  broken  rocks.  (It  should  be  said 
that  many  Dante  scholars  hold  that  Aristotle's  "  brutishness  "  has 
no  place  in  Dante's  scheme;  but  the  symmetry  of  the  arrange- 
ment, the  special  reference  made  to  that  division,  and  certain 
expressions  used  elsewhere  by  Dante,  seem  to  make  it  probable 
that  he  would  here,  as  in  most  other  cases,  have  followed  his 
master  in  philosophy.)  The  sinners  by  malice,  which  includes  all 
forms  of  fraud  or  treachery,  are  divided  from  the  last  by  a  yet 
more  formidable  barrier.  They  lie  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit,  the 
depth  of  which  is  not  stated,  with  vertical  sides,  and  accessible 
only  by  supernatural  means;  a  monster  named  Geryon  bearing 
the  poets  down  on  his  back.  The  torments  here  are  of  a  more 
terrible,  often  of  a  loathsome  character.  Ignominy  is  added  to 
pain,  and  the  nature  of  Dante's  demeanour  towards  the  sinners 
changes  from  pity  to  hatred.  At  the  very  bottom  of  the  pit  is 
Lucifer,  immovably  fixed  in  ice;  climbing  down  his  limbs  they 
reach  the  centre  of  the  earth,  whence  a  cranny  conducts  them 
back  to  the  surface,  at  the  foot  of  the  purgatorial  mountain, 
which  they  reach  as  Easter  Day  is  dawning.  Before  the  actual 
Purgatory  is  attained  they  have  to  climb  for  the  latter  half  of  the 
day  and  rest  at  night.  The  occupants  of  this  outer  region  are 
those  who  have  delayed  repentance  till  death  was  upon  them. 
They  include  many  of  the  most  famous  men  of  the  last  thirty 
years.  In  the  morning  the  gate  is  opened,  and  Purgatory  proper 
is  entered.  This  is  divided  into  seven  terraces,  corresponding  to 
the  seven  deadly  sins,  which  encircle  the  mountain  and  have 
to  be  reached  by  a  series  of  steep  climbs,  compared  by  Dante  in 
one  instance  to  the  path  from  Florence  to  Samminiato.  The 
penalties  are  not  degrading,  but  rather  tests  of  patience  or 
endurance;  and  in  several  cases  Dante  has  to  bear  a  share  in 
them  as  he  passes.  On  the  summit  is  the  Earthly  Paradise. 
Here  Beatrice  appears,  in  a  mystical  pageant ;  Virgil  departs, 
leaving  Dante  in  her  charge.  By  her  he  is  led  through  the 
various  spheres  of  which,  according  to  both  the  astronomy  and 
the  theology  of  the  time,  Heaven  is  composed,  to  the  supreme 


Heaven,  or  Empyrean,  the  seat  of  the  Godhead.  For  one 
moment  there  is  granted  him  the  intuitive  vision  of  the  Deity, 
and  the  comprehension  of  all  mysteries,  which  is  the  ultimate 
goal  of  mystical  theology ;  his  will  is  wholly  blended  with  that  of 
God,  and  the  poem  ends. 

The  Convito,  or  Banquet,  also  called  Convivio  (Bembo  uses  the 
first  form,  Trissino  the  other),  is  the  work  of  Dante's  manhood, 
as  the  Vita  Nuova  is  the  work  of  his  youth.  It  consists,  convHo, 
in  the  form  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us,  of  an 
introduction  and  three  treatises,  each  forming  an  elaborate 
commentary  in  a  long  canzone.  It  was  intended,  if  completed, 
to  have  comprised  commentaries  on  eleven  more  canzoni, 
making  fourteen  in  all,  and  in  this  shape  would  have  formed  a 
tesoro  or  handbook  of  universal  knowledge,  such  as  Brunette 
Latini  and  others  have  left  to  us.  It  is  perhaps  the  least  well 
known  of  Dante's  Italian  works,  but  crabbed  and  unattractive 
as  it  is  in  many  parts,  it  is  well  worth  reading,  and  contains 
many  passages  of  great  beauty  and  elevation.  Indeed  a  knowledge 
of  it  is  quite  indispensable  to  the  full  understanding  of  the  Divina 
Commedia  and  the  De  Monqrchia.  The  time  of  its  composition  is 
uncertain.  As  it  stands  it  has  very  much  the  look  of  being  the 
contentsofnote-bookspartiallyarranged.  Dantementions princes 
as  living  who  died  in  1309;  he  does  not  mention  Henry  VII.  as 
emperor,  who  succeeded  in  13 10.  There  are  some  passages  which 
seem  to  have  been  inserted  at  a  later  date.  The  'canzoni  upon 
which  the  commentary  is  written  were  probably  composed  bet  ween 
1292  and  1300,  when  he  was  seeking  in  philosophy  consolation 
for  the  loss  of  Beatrice.  The  Comiito  was  first  printed  in  Florence 
by  Buonaccorsi  in  1490.  It  has  never  been  adequately  edited. 

The  Vita  Nuova  ( Young  Life  or  New  Life,  for  both  significations 
seem  to  be  intended)  contains  the  history  of  his  love  for  Beatrice. 
.He  describes  how  he  met  Beatrice  as  a  child,  himself  a 
child,  how  he  often  sought  her  glance,  how  she  once  NUOVO. 
greeted  him  in  the  street,  how  he  feigned  a  false  love 
to  hide  his  true  love,  how  he  fell  ill  and  saw  in  a  dream  the  death 
and  transfiguration  of  his  beloved,  how  she  died,  and  how  his 
health  failed  from  sorrow,  how  the  tender  compassion  of  another 
lady  nearly  won  his  heart  from  its  first  affection,  how  Beatrice 
appeared  to  him  in  a  vision  and  reclaimed  his  heart,  and  how  at 
last  he  saw  a  vision  which  induced  him  to  devote  himself  to  study 
that  he  might  be  more  fit  to  glorify  her  who  gazes  on  the  face  of 
God  for  ever.  This  simple  story  is  interspersed  with  sonnets, 
ballads  and  canzoni,  arranged  with  a  remarkable  symmetry,  to 
which  Professor  Charles  Eliot  Norton  was  the  first  to  draw 
attention,  chiefly  written  at  the  time  to  emphasize  some  mood  of 
his  changing  passion.  After  each  of  these,  in  nearly  every  case, 
follows  an  explanation  in  prose,  which  is  intended  to  make  the 
thought  and  argument  intelligible  to  those  to  whom  the  language 
of  'poetry  was  not  familiar.  The  whole  has  a  somewhat  artificial 
air,  in  spite  of  its  undoubted  beauty;  showing  that  Dante- 
was  still  under  the  influence  of  the  Dugentisli,  many  of  whose 
conceits  he  reproduces.  The  book  was  probably  completed  by 
1300.  It  was  first  printed  by  Sermartelli  in  Florence,  1576. 

Besides  the  smaller  poems  contained  in  the  Vita  Nuova  and 
Convito  there  are  a  considerable  number  of  canzoni,  ballatc  and 
sonnetti  bearing  the  poet's  name.  Of  these  many 
undoubtedly  are  genuine,  others  as  undoubtedly 
spurious.  Some  which  have  been  preserved  under  the 
name  of  Dante  belong  to  Dante  de  Maiano,  a  poet  of  a  harsher 
style;  others  which  bear  the  name  of  Aldighiero  are  referable 
to  Dante's  sons  Jacopo  or  Pietro,  or  to  his  grandsons;  others  may 
be  ascribed  to  Dante's  contemporaries  and  predecessors  Cino 
da  Pistoia  and  others.  Those  which  are  genuine  secure  Dante 
a  place  among  lyrical  poets  scarcely  if  at  all  inferior  to  that  of 
Petrarch.  Most  of  these  were  printed  in  Sonetti  e  canzoni 
(Giunta,  1527).  The  best  edition  of  the  Canzoniere  of  Dante  is 
that  by  Fraticelli  published  by  Barbera  at  Florence.  His  collec- 
tion includes  seventy-eight  genuine  poems,  eight  doubtful  and 
fifty-four  spurious.  To  these  are  added  an  Italian  paraphrase  of 
the  seven  penitential  psalms  in  terza  rima,  and  a  similar  paraphrase 
of  the  Credo,  the  seven  sacraments,  the  ten  commandments,  the 
Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ave  Maria. 


8i6 


DANTE 


De  vul- 


***• 


The  Latin  treatise  De  monarchia,  in  three  books,  contains  the 
mature  statement  of  Dante's  political  ideas.  In  it  he  propounds 
the  theory  that  the  supremacy  of  the  emperor  is  derived 
from  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  people  over  the 
world,  which  was  given  to  them  direct  from  God.  As 
the  emperor  is  intended  to  assure  their  earthly  happiness,  so 
does  their  spiritual  welfare  depend  upon  the  pope,  to  whom  the 
emperor  is  to  do  honour  as  to  the  first-born  of  the  Father.  The 
date  of  its  publication  is  almost  universally  admitted  to  be  the 
time  of  the  descent  of  Henry  VII.  into  Italy,  between  1310  and 
1313,  although  its  composition  may  have  been  in  hand  from  a 
much  earlier  period.  The  book  was  first  printed  by  Oporinus 
at  Basel  in  1559,  and  placed  on  the  Index  of  forbidden  books. 

The  treatise  De  indgari  eloquentia,  in  two  books,  also  in  Latin, 
is  mentioned  in  the  Convito.  Its  object  was  first  to  establish  the 
Italian  language  as  a  literary  tongue,  and  to  distinguish 
the  noble  or  "  courtly  "  speech  which  might  become  the 
property  of  the  whole  nation,  at  once  a  bond  of  internal 
unity  and  a  tine  of  demarcation  against  external 
nations,  from  the  local  dialects  peculiar  to  different  districts; 
and  secondly,  to  lay  down  rules  for  poetical  composition  in  the 
language  so  established.  The  work  was  intended  to  be  in  four 
books,  but  only  two  are  extant.  The  first  of  these  deals  with  the 
language,  the  second  with  the  style  and  with  the  composition  of 
the  canzone.  The  third  was  probably  intended  to  continue  this 
subject,  and  the  fourth  was  destined  to  the  laws  of  the  ballata  and 
sonetto.  It  contains  much  acute  criticism  of  poetry  and  poetic 
diction.  This  work  was  first  published  in  the  Italian  translation 
of  Trissino  at  Vicenza  in  1529.  The  original  Latin  was  not  pub- 
lished till  1577  at  Paris  by  Jacopo  Corbinelli,  one  of  the  Italians 
who  were  brought  from  Florence  by  Catherine  de'  Medici,  from 
a  MS.  now  preserved  at  Grenoble.  The  work  was  probably  left 
unfinished  in  consequence  of  Dante's  death. 

Boccaccio  mentions  in  his  life  of  Dante  that  he  wrote  two 
eclogues  in  Latin  in  answer  to  Johannes  de  Virgitio,  who  invited 
Bclozaes  n^m  *°  come  fr°m  Ravenna  to  Bologna  and  compose 
a  great  work  in  the  Latin  language.  The  most  interest- 
ing passage  in  the  work  is  that  in  the  first  poem,  where  he  expresses 
his  hope  that  when  he  has  finished  the  three  parts  of  his  great 
poem  his  grey  hairs  may  be  crowned  with  laurel  on  the  banks  of 
the  Arno.  Although  the  Latin  of  these  poems  is  superior  to  that 
of  his  prose  works,  we  may  feel  thankful  that  Dante  composed 
the  great  work  of  his  life  in  his  own  vernacular.  The  versification, 
however,  is  good,  and  there  are  pleasant  touches  of  gentle  humour. 
The  Eclogues  have  been  edited  by  Messrs  Wicksteed  and  Gardiner 
(Dante  and  Giovanni  del  Virgilio,  London,  1002). 

A  treatise  De  aqua  el  terra  has  come  down  to  us,  which  Dante 
tells  us  was  delivered  at  Mantua  in  January  1320  (perhaps  1321) 
as  a  solution  of  the  question  which  was  being  at  that 
time  much  discussed — whether  in  any  place  on  the 
earth's  surface  water  is  higher  than  the  earth.  It  was 
first  published  at  Venice  in  1508,  by  an  ecclesiastic  named 
Moncetti,  from  a  MS.  which  he  alleged  to  be  in  his  possession,  but 
which  no  one  seems  to  have  seen.  Its  genuineness  is  accordingly 
very  doubtful;  but  Dr  Moore  has  from  internal  evidence  made 
out  a  very  strong  case  for  it. 

The  Letters  of  Dante  are  among  the  most  important  materials 
for  his  biography.  Giovanni  Villani  mentions  three  as  specially 
Letters  remarkable — one  to  the  government  of  Florence,  in 
which  he  complains  of  undeserved  exile;  another  to 
the  emperor  Henry  VII.,  when  he  lingered  too  long  at  the  siege 
of  Brescia;  and  a  third  to  the  Italian  cardinals  to  urge  them  to 
the  election  of  an  Italian  pope  after  the  death  of  Clement  V. 
The  first  of  these  letters  has  not  come  down  to  us,  the  two  last  are 
extant.  Besides  these  we  have  one  addressed  to  the  cardinal  da 
Prato,  one  to  a  Florentine  friend  refusing  the  base  conditions  of 
return  from  exile,  one  to  the  princes  and  lords  of  Italy  to  prepare 
them  for  the  coming  of  Henry  of  Luxembourg,  another  to  the 
Florentines  reproaching  them  with  the  rejection  of  the  emperor, 
and  a  long  letter  to  Can  Grande  della  Scala,  containing  directions 
for  interpreting  the  Divina  Commedia,  with  especial  reference  to 
the  Paradiso.  Of  less  importance  are  the  letters  to  the  nephews 


of  Count  Alessandro  da  Romena,  to  the  marquis  Moroello 
Malespina,  to  Cino  da  Pistoia  and  to  Guido  da  Polenta.  The 
genuineness  of  all  the  letters  has  at  one  time  or  another  been 
impugned;  but  the  more  important  are  now  generally  accepted. 
They  have  been  translated  by  Mr  C.  S.  Latham,  ed.  by  Mr  G.  R. 
Carpenter  (Cambridge,  Massachusetts  and  London,  1891). 

Dante's  reputation  has  passed  through  many  vicissitudes,  and 
much  trouble  has  been  spent  by  critics  in  comparing  him  with 
other  poets  of  established  fame.  Read  and  commented  upon 
with  more  admiration  than  intelligence  in  the  Italian  universities 
in  the  generation  immediately  succeeding  his  death,  his  name 
became  obscured  as  the  sun  of  the  Renaissance  rose  higher 
towards  its  meridian.  In  the  i6th  century  he  was  held  inferior 
to  Petrarch;  in  the  i7th  and  first  half  of  the  i8th  he  was  almost 
universally  neglected.  His  fame  is  now  fully  vindicated.  Trans- 
lations and  commentaries  issue  from  every  press  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  many  studies  for  separate  points  are  appearing 
every  year. 

AUTHORITIES. — It  would  be  impossible  here  to  give  anything  like 
a  complete  account  even  of  the  editions  of  Dante's  works;  still  more 
of  the  books  which  have  been  written  to  elucidate  the  Commedia 
as  a  whole,  or  particular  points  in  it.  The  section  "  Dante  "  in  the 
British  Museum  catalogue  down  to  1887  occupies  twenty-nine  folio 
pages;  the  supplement,  to  1900,  as  many  more.  The  catalogue  of 
the  Fiske  collection,  in  Cornell  University  library,  is  in  two  quarto 
volumes  and  covers  606  pages.  A  few  of  the  more  important  editions 
and  of  the  more  valuable  commentaries  and  aids  may,  however,  be 
recorded. 

Editions. — The  Commedia  was  first  printed  by  John  Numeister 
at  Foligno,  in  April  1472.  Two  other  editions  followed  in  the  same 
year:  one  at  Jesi  (Federicus  Veronensis),  and  Mantua  (Georgius  et 
Paulus  Teutomci).  These,  together  with  a  Naples  edition  of  about 
1477  (Francesco  del  Tuppo),  were  included  by  Lord  Vernon  in 
Le  Prime  Quattro  Edizioni  (1858).  Another  Neapolitan  edition,. with- 
out printer's  name,  is  dated  1477,  and  in  the  same  year  Wendelin  of 
Spires  published  the  first  Venetian  edition.  Milan  followed  in  1478 
with  that  known  from  the  name  of  its  editor  as  the  Nidobeatine.  In 
1481  appeared  the  first  Florentine  edition  (Nicolo  and  Lorenzo  della 
Magna)  with  the  commentary  of  Cristoforo  Landinp,  and  a  series  of 
copper  engravings  ascribed  to  Baccio  Baldini,  varying  in  number  in 
different  copies  from  two  to  twenty;  a  sumptuous  and  very  care- 
lessly printed  volume.  Venice  supplied  most  of  the  editions  for  many 
years  to  come.  Altogether  twelve  existed  by  the  end  of  the  century. 
In  1502  Aldus  produced  the  first  "  pocket  "  edition  in  his  new 
"  italic  "  type,  probably  cut  from  the  handwriting  of  his  friend 
Bembo.  A  second  edition  of  this  is  dated  1515.  The  firmof  Giuntaat 
Florence  printed  the  poem  in  a  small  volume  with  cuts,  in  1506;  and 
for  the  rest  of  the  i6th  century  edition  follows  edition,  to  the  number 
of  about  thirty  in  all.  The  most  noteworthy  commentaries  are 
those  of  Alessandro  Vellutello  (Venice,  1544),  and  Bernardo  Daniello 
(Venice,  1568),  both  of  Lucca.  The  Cruscan  Academicians  edited 
the  text  in  1595.  The  first  edition  with  woodcuts  is  that  of  Boninus 
de  Boninis  (Brescia,  1487).  Bernardino  Benali  followed  at  Venice 
in  1491 ,  and  from  that  time  onward  few  if  any  of  the  folio  editions  are 
without  them.  The  I7th  century  produced  three  (or  perhaps  four) 
small,  shabby  and  inaccurate  editions.  In  1716  a  revival  of  interest 
in  Dante  had  set  in,  and  before  1800  some  score  of  editions  had  ap- 
peared, the  best-known  being  those  of  G.  A.  Volpi  (Padua,  1727), 
Pompeo  Venturi  (Venice,  1739)  and  Baldassare  Lombardi  (Rome, 
1791). 

Commentaries. — The  Commedia  began  to  be  the  subject  of  com- 
mentaries as  soon  as,  if  not  before,  the  author  was  in  his  grave.  One 
known  as  the  Anonimo  until  in  1881  Dr  Moore  identified  its  writer 
as  Graziolo  de'  Bambaglioli,  was  in  course  of  writing  in  1324.  It  was 

Cublished  by  Lord  Vernon,  to  whose  munificence  we  owe  the  accessi- 
ility  of  most,  of  the  earlier  commentaries,  in  1848.  That  of  Jacopo 
della  Lana  is  thought  to  have  been  composed  before  1340.  It  was 
printed  in  the  Venice  and  Milan  editions  of  1477,  and  1478  respec- 
tively. The  so-called  Ottimo  Comento  (Pisa,  1837)  is  of  about  the 
same  date.  It  embodies  parts  of  Lana's,  but  is  largely  an  independent 
work.  Witte  ascribes  it  to  Andrea  della  Lancia,  a  Florentine  notary. 
Dante's  sons  Pietro  and  Jacopo  also  commented  on  their  father's 
poem.  Their  works  were  published,  again  at  Lord  Vernon's  expense, 
in  1845  and  1848.  Boccaccio's  lectures  on  the  Commedia,  cut  short 
at  Inf.  xvii.  17  by  his  death  in  1375,  are  accessible  in  various  forms. 
His  work  was  achieved  by  his  disciple  Benvenuto  Rambaldi  of  Imola 
(d.  c.  1390).  Benvenuto's  commentary,  written  in  Latin,  genial  in 
temper,  and  often  acute,  was  popular  from  the  first.  Extracts  from 
it  were  used  as  notes  in  many  MSS.  Much  of  it  was  printed  by 
Muratori  in  his  Antiquitates  Italicae;  but  the  entire  work  was  first 
published  in  1887  by  Mr  William  Warren  Vernon,.with  the  aid  of  Sir 
James  Lacaita.  No  greater  boon  has  ever  been  offered  to  students 
of  Dante.  Another  early  annotator  who  must  not  be.overlooked  is 
Francesco  da  Buti  of  Pisa,  who  lectured  in  that  city  towards  the  close 


DANTON 


817 


of  the  same  century.  His  commentary,  which  served  as  the  basis 
of  Landino's  already  mentioned,  was  first  printed  in  Pisa  in  1858. 
One  more  commentary  deserves  mention.  During  the  council  of 
Constance,  John  of  Serravalle,  bishop  of  Fermo,  fell  in  with  the 
English  bishops  Robert  Hallam  and  Nicholas  Bubwith,  and  at  their 
request  compiled  a  voluminous  exposition  of  the  Commedia.  This 
remained  in  MS.  till  recently,  when  it  was  printed  in  a  costly  form. 

Translations. — Probably  the  first  complete  translation  of  Dante 
into  a  modern  language  was  the  Castilian  version  of  Villena  (1428). 
In  the  following  year  Andreu  Febrer  produced  a  rendering  into 
Catalan  verse.  In  1515  Villegas  published  the  Inferno  in  Spanish. 
The  earliest  French  version  is  that  of  B.  Grangier  (1597).  Chaucer 
has  rendered  several  passages  beautifully,  and  similar  fragments  are 
embedded  in  Milton  and  others.  But  the  first  attempt  to  reproduce 
any  considerable  portion  of  the  poem  was  made  by  Rogers,  who  only 
completed  the  Inferno  (1782).  The  entire  poem  appeared  first  in 
English  in  the  version  of  Henry  Boyd  (1802)  in  six-line  stanzas;  but 
the  first  adequate  rendering  is  the  admirable  blank  verse  of  H.  F. 
Gary  (1814,  2nd  ed.  1819),  which  has  remained  the  standard  trans- 
lation, though  others  of  merit,  notably  those  of  Pollock  (1854)  and 
Longfellow  (1867)  in  blank  verse,  Plumptre  (1887)  and  Haselfoot 
(1887)  in  term rima;].  A.  Carlyle  (Inferno only,  1847).  C.  E.  Norton 
(1891),  and  H.  F.  Tozer  (1904),  in  prose,  have  since  appeared.  The 
best  in  German  are  those  of  "  Philalethes  "  (the  late  King  John  of 
Saxony)  and  Witte,  both  in  blank  verse. 

Modern  Editions  and  Commentaries. — The  first  serious  attempt  to 
establish  an  accurate  text  in  recent  times  was  made  by  Carl  Witte, 
whose  edition  (1862)  has  been  subsequently  used  as  the  basis  for  the 
text  of  the  Commedia  in  the  Oxford  edition  of  Dante's  complete 
works  (1896  and  later  issues).  Dr  Toynbee's  text  (1900)  follows  the 
Oxford,  with  some  modifications.  The  notes  of  Gary,  Longfellow, 
Witte  and  "  Philalethes,"  appended  to  their  several  translations, 
and  Tozer's,  in  an  independent  volume,  are  valuable.  Scartazzini's 
commentary  is  the  most  voluminous  that  has  appeared  since  the 
I5th  century.  With  a  good  deal  of  superfluous,  and  some  superficial, 
erudition,  it  cannot  be  neglected  by  any  one  who  wishes  to  study  the 
poem  thoroughly.  An  edition  by  A.J.  Butler  contains  a  prose  version 
and  notes.  Of  modern  Italian  editions,  Bianchi's  and  Fraticelli's  are 
still  as  good  as  any. 

Other  Aids. — For  beginners  no  introduction  is  equal  to  the  essay 
on  Dante  by  the  late  Dean  Church.  Maria  Rossetti's  Shadow  of 
Dante  is  also  useful.  A  Study  of  Dante,  by  J.  A.  Svmonds,  is 
interesting.  More  advanced  students  will  find  Dr  Toynbee's  Dante 
Dictionary  indispensable,  and  Dr  E.  Moore's  Studies  in  Dante  of  great 
service  in  its  discussion  of  difficult  places.  Two  concordances,  to  the 
Commedia  by  Dr  Fay  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1888),  and  to  the  minor 
works  by  Messrs  Sheldon  and  White  (Oxford,  1905),  are  due  to 
American  scholars.  Mr  W.  W.  Vernon's  Readings  in  Dante  have 
profited  many  students.  Dante's  minor  works  still  lack  thorough 
editing  and  scholarly  elucidation,  with  the  exception  of  the  De 
vulgari  eloquentia,  which  has  been  well  handled  by  Professor  Pio 
Rajna  (1896),  and  the  Vita  Nuova  by  F.  Beck  (1896)  and  Barbi 
(1907).  Good  translations  of  the  latter  by  D.  G.  Rossetti  and  C.  E. 
Norton,  and  of  the  De  monarchia  by  F.  C.  Church  and  P.  H.  Wicksteed 
are  in  existence.  The  best  text  is  that  of  the  Oxford  Dante,  though 
much  confessedly  remains  to  be  done.  The  dates  of  their  original 
publication  have  already  been  given. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  first  attempt  at  a  bibliography  of  editions 
of  Dante  was  made  in  Pasquali's  edition  of  his  collected  works 
(Venice,  1739) ;  but  the  first  really  adequate  work  on  the  subject  is 
that  of  the  viscount  Colomb  de  Batines  (1846-1848).  A  supplement 
by  Dr  Guido  Biagi  appeared  in  1888.  Julius  Petzholdt  had  already 
covered  some  of  the  same  ground  in  Bibliographia  Dantea,  extend- 
ing from  1865  to  1880.  The  period  from  1891  to  1900  has  been  dealt 
with  by  SS.  Passerini  and  Mazzi  in  Un  Decennio  di  bibliografia 
Dantesca  (1905).  The  catalogues  of  the  two  libraries  already  named, 
and  that  of  Harvard  University,  are  worth  consulting.  For  the 
MSS.  Dr  E.  Moore's  Textual  Criticism  (1889)  is  the  most  complete 
guide.  (A.  J.  B.*) 

DANTON,  GEORGE  JACQUES  (1759-1794),  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  actors  in  the  decisive  episodes  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, was  born  at  Arcis-sur-Aube  on  the  26th  of  October  1759. 
His  family  was  of  respectable  quality,  though  of  very  moderate 
means.  They  contrived  to  give  him  a  good  education,  and  he 
was  launched  in  the  career  of  an  advocate  at  the  Paris  bar. 
When  the  Revolution  broke  out,  it  found  Danton  following  his 
profession  with  apparent  success,  leading  a  cheerful  domestic  life, 
and  nourishing  his  intelligence  on  good  books.  He  first  appears 
in  the  revolutionary  story  as  president  of  the  popular  club  or 
assembly  of  the  district  in  which  he  lived.  This  was  the  famous 
club  of  the  Cordeliers,  so  called  from  the  circumstance  that  its 
meetings  were  held  in  the  old  convent  of  the  order  of  the 
Cordeliers,  just  as  the  Jacobins  derived  their  name  from  the 
refectory  of  the  convent  of  the  Jacobin  brothers.  It  is  an  odd 
coincidence  that  the  old  rivalries  of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans 


in  the  democratic  movement  inside  the  Catholic  Church  should 
be  recalled  by  the  names  of  the  two  factions  in  the  democratic 
movement  of  a  later  century  away  from  the  church.  The 
Cordeliers  were  from  the  first  the  centre  of  the  popular  principle 
in  the  French  Revolution  carried  to  its  extreme  point;  they  were 
the  earliest  to  suspect  the  court  of  being  irreconcilably  hostile  to 
freedom;  and  it  was  they  who  most  vehemently  proclaimed  the 
need  for  root-and-branch  measures.  Danton's  robust,  energetic 
and  impetuous  temperament  made  him  the  natural  leader  in  such 
a  quarter.  We  find  no  traces  of  his  activity  in  the  two  great 
insurrectionary  events  of  1789 — the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  and  the 
forcible  removal  of  the  court  from  Versailles  to  the  Tuileries. 
In  the  spring  of  1700  we  hear  his  voice  urging  the  people  to  pre- 
vent the  arrest  of  Marat.  In  the  autumn  we  find  him  chosen  to 
be  the  commander  of  the  battalion  of  the  national  guard  of  his 
district.  In  the  beginning  of  1791  he  was  elected  to  the  post  of 
administrator  of  the  department  of  Paris.  This  interval  was  for 
all  France  a  barren  period  of  doubt,  fatigue,  partial  reaction  and 
hoping  against  hope.  It  was  not  until  1792  that  Danton  came 
into  the  prominence  of  a  great  revolutionary  chief. 

In  the  spring  of  the  previous  year  (1791)  Mirabeau  had  died, 
and  with  him  had  passed  away  the  only  man  who  was  at  all  likely 
to  prove  a  wise  guide  to  the  court.  In  June  of  that  year  the  king 
and  queen  made  a  disastrous  attempt  to  flee  from  their  capital  and 
their  people.  They  were  brought  back  once  more  to  the  Tuileries, 
which  from  that  time  forth  they  rightly  looked  upon  more  as  a 
prison  than  a  palace  or  a  home.  The  popular  exasperation  was 
intense,  and  the  constitutional  leaders,  of  whom  the  foremost  was 
Lafayette,  became  alarmed  and  lost  their  judgment.  A  bloody 
dispersion  of  a  popular  gathering,  known  afterwards  as  the 
massacre  of  the  Champ-de-Mars  (July  1791),  kindled  a  flame  of 
resentment  against  the  court  and  the  constitutional  party  which 
was  never  extinguished.  The  Constituent  Assembly  completed 
its  infertile  labours  in  September  1791.  Then  the  elections  took 
place  to  its  successor,  the  short-lived  Legislative  Assembly. 
Danton  was  not  elected  to  it,  and  his  party  was  at  this  time  only 
strong  enough  to  procure  for  him  a  very  subordinate  post  in  the 
government  of  the  Parisian  municipality.  Events,  however, 
rapidly  prepared  a  situation  in  which  his  influence  became  of 
supreme  weight.  Between  January  and  August  1792  the  want 
of  sympathy  between  the  aims  of  the  popular  assembly  and  the 
spirit  of  the  king  and  the  queen  became  daily  more  flagrant  and 
beyond  power  of  disguise.  In  April  war  was  declared  against 
Austria,  and  to  the  confusion  and  distraction  caused  by  the 
immense  civil  and  political  changes  of  the  past  two  years  was  now 
added  the  ferment  and  agitation  of  war  with  an  enemy  on  the 
frontier.  The  distrust  felt  by  Paris  for  the  court  and  its  loyalty 
at  length  broke  out  in  insurrection.  On  the  memorable  morning 
of  the  loth  of  August  1792  the  king  and  queen  took  refuge  with 
the  Legislative  Assembly  from  the  apprehended  violence  of  the 
popular  forces  who  were  marching  on  the  Tuileries.  The  share 
which  Danton  had  in  inspiring  and  directing  this  momentous 
rising  is  very  obscure.  Some  look  upon  him  as  the  head  and 
centre  of  it.  Apart  from  documents,  support  is  given  to  this  view 
by  the  fact  that  on  the  morrow  of  the  fall  of  the  monarchy  Danton 
is  found  in  the  important  post  of  minister  of  justice.  This  sudden 
rise  from  the  subordinate  office  which  he  had  held  in  the  commune 
is  a  proof  of  the  impression  that  his  character  had  made  on  the 
insurrectionary  party.  To  passionate  fervour  for  the  popular 
cause  he  added  a  certain  broad  steadfastness  and  an  energetic 
practical  judgment  which  are  not  always  found  in  company  with 
fervour.  Even  in  those  days,  when  so  many  men  were  so  astonish- 
ing in  their  eloquence,  Danton  stands  out  as  a  master  of  com- 
manding phrase.  One  of  his  fierce  sayings  has  become  a  proverb. 
Against  Brunswick  and  the  invaders,  "il  nous  faut  de  I'audace,  el 
encore  de  I'audace,  et  toujours  de  I'audace," — we  must  dare,  and 
again  dare,  and  for  ever  dare.  The  tones  of  his  voice  were  loud 
and  vibrant.  As  for  his  bodily  presence,  he  had,  to  use  his  own 
account  of  it,  the  athletic  shape  and  the  stern  physiognomy  of 
the  Liberty  for  which  he  was  ready  to  die.  Jove  the  Thunderer, 
the  rebel  Satan,  a  Titan,  Sardanapalus,  were  names  that  friends 
or  enemies  borrowed  to  describe  his  mien  and  port.  He  was 


8i8 


DANTON 


thought  about  as  a  coarser  version  of  the  great  tribune  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly;  he  was  called  the  Mirabeau  of  the  sans- 
culottes, and  Mirabeau  of  the  markets. 

In  the  executive  government  that  was  formed  on  the  king's 
dethronement,  this  strong  revolutionary  figure  found  himself 
the  colleague  of  the  virtuous  Roland  and  others  of  the  Girondins. 
Their  strength  was  speedily  put  to  a  terrible  test.  The  alarming 
successes  of  the  enemy  on  the  frontier,  and  the  surrender  of  two 
important  fortresses,hadengendered  a  naturalpanicin  thecapital. 
But  in  the  breasts  of  some  of  the  wild  men  whom  the  disorder 
of  the  time  had  brought  to  prominent  place  in  the  Paris  com- 
mune this  panic  became  murderously  heated.  Some  hundreds 
of  captives  were  barbarously  murdered  in  the  prisons.  There  has 
always  been  much  dispute  as  to  Danton's  share  in  this  dreadful 
transaction.  At  the  time,  it  must  be  confessed,  much  odium  on 
account  of  an  imputed  direction  of  the  massacres  fell  to  him. 
On  the  whole,  however,  he  cannot  be  fairly  convicted  of  any  part 
in  the  plan.  What  he  did  was  to  make  the  best  of  the  misdeed, 
with  a  kind  of  sombre  acquiescence.  He  deserves  credit  for 
insisting  against  his  colleagues  that  they  should  not  flee  from 
Paris,  but  should  remain  firm  at  their  posts,  doing  what  they 
could  to  rule  the  fierce  storm  that  was  raging  around  them. 

The  elections  to  the  National  Convention  took  place  in 
September,  when  the  Legislative  Assembly  surrendered  its 
authority.  The  Convention  ruled  France  until  October  1795. 
Danton  was  a  member;  resigning  the  ministry  of  justice,  he  took 
a  foremost  part  in  the  deliberations  and  proceedings  of  the 
Convention,  until  his  execution  in  April  1 794.  This  short  period 
of  nineteen  months  was  practically  the  life  of  Danton,  so  far  as  the 
world  is  concerned  with  him. 

He  took  his  seat  in  the  high  and  remote  benches  which  gave 
the  name  of  the  Mountain  to  the  thoroughgoing  revolutionists 
who  sat  there.  He  found  himself  side  by  side  with  Marat,  whose 
exaggerations  he  never  countenanced;  with  Robespierre,  whom 
he  did  not  esteem  very  highly,  but  whose  immediate  aims  were  in 
many  respects  his  own;  with  Camille  Desmoulins  and  Phelip- 
peaux,  who  were  his  close  friends  and  constant  partisans.  The 
foes  of  the  Mountain  were  the  group  of  the  Girondins, — eloquent, 
dazzling,  patriotic,  but  unable  to  apprehend  the  fearful  nature  of 
the  crisis,  too  full  of  vanity  and  exclusive  party-spirit,  and  too 
fastidious  to  strike  hands  with  the  vigorous  and  stormy  Danton. 
The  Girondins  dreaded  the  people  who  had  sent  Danton  to  the 
Convention ;  and  they  insisted  on  seeing  on  his  hands  the  blood  of 
the  prison  massacres  of  September.  Yet  in  fact  Danton  saw 
much  more  clearly  than  they  saw  how  urgent  it  was  to  soothe  the 
insurrectionary  spirit,  after  it  had  done  the  work  of  abolition 
which  to  him,  as  to  them  too,  seemed  necessary  and  indispensable. 
Danton  discerned  what  the  Girondins  lacked  the  political  genius 
to  see,  that  this  control  of  Paris  could  only  be  wisely  effected  by 
men  who  sympathized  with  the  vehemence  and  energy  of  Paris, 
and  understood  that  this  vehemence  and  energy  made  the  only 
force  to  which  the  Convention  could  look  in  resisting  the  Germans 
on  the  north-east  frontier,  and  the  friends  of  reaction  in  the 
interior.  "  Paris,"  he  said,  "  is  the  natural  and  constituted  centre 
of  free  France.  It  is  the  centre  of  light.  When  Paris  shall  perish 
there  will  no  longer  be  a  republic." 

Danton  was  among  those  who  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king 
(January  1793).  He  had  a  conspicuous  share  in  the  creation  of 
the  famous  revolutionary  tribunal,  his  aim  being  to  take  the 
weapons  away  from  that  disorderly  popular  vengeance  which  had 
done  such  terrible  work  in  September.  When  all  executive 
power  was  conferred  upon  a  committee  of  public  safety,  Danton 
had  been  one  of  the  nine  members  of  whom  that  body  was  origin- 
ally composed.  He  was  despatched  on  frequent  mis-ions  from 
the  Convention  to  the  republican  armies  in  Belgium,  and  wherever 
he  went  he  infused  new  energy  into  the  work  of  national  liberation. 
He  pressed  forward  the  erection  of  a  system  of  national  education, 
and  he  was  one  of  the  legislative  committee  charged  with  the 
construction  of  a  new  system  of  government.  He  vainly  tried  to 
compose  the  furious  dissensions  between  Girondins  and  Jacobins. 
The  Girondins  were  irreconcilable,  and  made  Danton  the  object 
of  deadly  attack.  He  was  far  too  robust  in  character  to  lose 


himself  in  merely  personal  enmities,  but  by  the  middle  of  May 
(1793)  he  had  made  up  his  mind  that  the  political  suppression 
of  the  Girondins  had  become  indispensable.  The  position  of 
the  country  was  most  alarming.  Dumouriez,  the  victor  of  Valmy 
and  Jemmappes,  had  deserted.  The  French  arms  were  suffering 
a  series  of  checks  and  reverses.  A  royalist  rebellion  was  gaining 
formidable  dimensions  in  the  west.  Yet  the  Convention  was 
wasting  time  and  force  in  the  vindictive  recriminations  of 
faction.  There  is  no  positive  evidence  that  Danton  directly 
instigated  the  insurrection  of  the  3ist  of  May  and  the  2nd  of  June, 
which  ended  in  the  purge  of  the  Convention  and  the  proscription 
of -the  Girondins.  He  afterwards  spoke  of  himself  as  in  some 
sense  the  author  of  this  revolution,  because  a  little  while  before, 
stung  by  some  trait  of  factious  perversity  in  the  Girondins,  he 
had  openly  cried  out  in  the  midst  of  the  Convention,  that  if  he 
could  only  find  a  hundred  men,  they  would  resist  the  oppressive 
authority  of  the  Girondin  commission  of  twelve.  At  any  rate, 
he  certainly  acquiesced  in  the  violence  of  the  commune,  and  he 
publicly  gloried  in  the  expulsion  of  the  men  who  stood  obsti- 
nately in  the  way  of  a  vigorous  and  concentrated  exertion  of 
national  power.  Danton,  unlike  the  Girondins,  accepted  the  fury 
of  popular  passion  as  an  inevitable  incident  in  the  work  of 
deliverance.  Unlike  Billaud  Varenne  or  Hebert,  or  any  other 
of  the  Terrorist  party,  he  had  no  wish  to  use  this  frightful  two- 
edged  weapon  more  freely  than  was  necessary.  Danton,  in  short, 
had  the  instinct  of  the  statesman.  His  object  was  to  reconcile 
France  with  herself;  to  restore  a  society  that,  while  emanci- 
pated and  renewed  in  every  part,  should  yet  be  stable;  and 
above  all  to  secure  the  independence  of  his  country,  both  by 
a  resolute  defence  against  the  invader,  and  by  such  a  mixture 
of  vigour  with  humanity  as  should  reconcile  the  offended  opinion 
of  the  rest  of  Europe.  This,  so  far  as  we  can  make  it  out,  was 
what  was  in  his  mind. 

The  position  of  the  Mountain  had  now  undergone  a  complete 
change.  In  the  Constituent  Assembly  its  members  did  not 
number  more  than  30  out  of  the  578  of  the  third  estate  In 
the  Legislative  Assembly  they  had  not  been  numerous,  and 
none  of  their  chiefs  had  a  seat.  In  the  Convention  for  the 
first  nine  months  they  had  an  incessant  struggle  for  their  very 
lives  against  the  Girondins.  They  were  now  (June  1793)  for  the 
first  time  in  possession  of  absolute  power.  It  was  not  easy,  how- 
ever, for  men  who  had  for  many  months  been  nourished  on  the 
ideas  and  stirred  to  the  methods  of  opposition,  all  at  once  to 
develop  the  instincts  of  government.  Actual  power  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  two  committees — that  of  public  safety  and  of 
general  security.  Both  were  chosen  out  of  the  body  of  the 
Convention.  The  drama  of  the  nine  months  between  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Girondins  and  the  execution  of  Danton  turns  upon  the 
struggle  of  the  committee  to  retain  power — first,  against  the 
insurrectionary  commune  of  Paris,  and  second,  against  the 
Convention,  from  which  the  committees  derived  an  authority 
that  was  regularly  renewed  on  the  expiry  of  each  short  term. 

Danton,  immediately  after  the  fall  of  the  Girondins,  had 
thrown  himself  with  extraordinary  energy  into  the  work  to  be 
done.  The  first  task  in  a  great  city  so  agitated  by  anarchical 
ferment  had  been  to  set  up  a  strong  central  authority.  In  this 
genuinely  political  task  Danton  was  prominent.  He  was  not  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  when  that  body  was 
renewed  in  the  shape  that  speedily  made  its  name  so  redoubtable 
all  over  the  world.  This  was  the  result  of  a  self-denying  ordinance 
which  he  imposed  upon  himself.  It  was  he  who  proposed  that 
the  powers  of  the  committee  should  be  those  of  a  dictator,  and 
that  it  should  have  copious  funds  at  its  disposal.  In  order  to 
keep  himself  clear  of  any  personal  Suspicion,  he  announced  his 
resolution  not  to  belong  to  the  body  which  he  had  thus  done  his 
best  to  make  supreme  in  the  state.  His  position  during  the 
autumn  of  1793  was  that  of  a  powerful  supporter  and  inspirer, 
from  without,  of  the  government  which  he  had  been  foremost  in 
setting  up.  Danton  was  not  a  great  practical  administrator  and 
contriver,  like  Carnot,  for  instance.  But  he  had  the  gift  of  raising 
in  all  who  heard  him  an  heroic  spirit  of  patriotism  and  fiery 
devotion,  and  he  had  a  clear  eye  and  a  cool  judgment  in  the 


DANUBE 


819 


tempestuous  emergencies  which  aroseinsuchappallingsuccession. 
His  distinction  was  that  he  accepted  the  insurrectionary  forces, 
instead  of  blindly  denouncing  them  as  the  Girondins  had  done. 
After  these  forces  had  shaken  down  the  throne,  and  then,  by 
driving  away  the  Girondins,  had  made  room  for  a  vigorous 
government,  Danton  perceived  the  expediency  of  making  all 
haste  to  an  orderly  state.  Energetic  prosecution  of  the  war,  and 
gradual  conciliation  of  civil  hatreds,  had  been,  as  we  have  said, 
the  two  marks  of  his  policy  ever  since  the  fall  of  the  monarchy. 
The  first  of  these  objects  was  fulfilled  abundantly,  partly  owing 
to  the  energy  with  which  he  called  for  the  arming  of  the  whole 
nation  against  its  enemies.  His  whole  mind  was  now  given  to 
the  second  of  them.  But  the  second  of  them,  alas,  was  desperate. 
It  was  to  no  purpose  that,  both  in  his  own  action  and  in  the 
writings  of  Camille  Desmoulins  (LeVieux  Cordelier),  of  whom  he 
was  now  and  always  the  intimate  and  inspirer,  he  worked  against 
the  iniquities  of  the  bad  men,  like  Carrier  and  Collot  d'Herbois, 
in  the  provinces,  and  against  the  severity  of  the  revolutionary 
tribunal  in  Paris.  The  black  flood  could,  not  at  a  word  or  in  an 
hour  subside  from  its  storm-lashed  fury.  The  commune  of  Paris 
was  now  composed  of  men  like  Hebert  and  Chaumette,  to  whom 
the  restoration  of  any  sort  of  political  order  was  for  the  time 
indifferent.  They  wished  to  push  destruction  to  limits  which 
even  the  most  ardent  sympathizers  with  the  Revolution  condemn 
now,  and  which  Danton  condemned  then,  as  extravagant  and 
senseless.  Those  men  were  not  politicians,  they  were  fanatics; 
and  Danton,  who  was  every  inch  a  politician,  though  of  a  vehe- 
ment type,  had  as  little  in  common  with  them  as  John  Calvin  of 
Geneva  had  with  John  of  Leiden  and  the  Miinster  Anabaptists. 
The  committee  watched  Hebert  and  his  followers  uneasily  for 
many  weeks,  less  perhaps  from  disapproval  of  their  excesses 
than  from  apprehensions  of  their  hostility  to  the  committee's  own 
power.  At  length  the  party  of  the  commune  proposed  to  revolt 
against  the  Convention  and  the  committees.  Then  the  blow  was 
struck,  and  the  Hebertists  were  swiftly  flung  into  prison,  and 
thence  under  the  knife  of  the  guillotine  (March  24th,  1794). 
The  execution  of  the  Hebertists  was  the  first  victory  of  the 
revolutionary  government  over  the  extreme  insurrectionary 
party.  But  the  committees  had  no  intention  to  concede  anything 
to  their  enemies  on  the  other  side.  If  they  refused  to  follow  the 
lead  of  the  anarchists  of  the  commune,  they  were  none  the  more 
inclined  to  give  way  to  the  Dantonian  policy  of  clemency. 
Indeed,  such  a  course  would  have  been  their  own  instant  and 
utter  ruin.  The  Terror  was  not  a  policy  that  could  be  easily 
transformed.  A  new  policy  would  have  to  be  carried  out  by  new 
men,  and  this  meant  the  resumption  of  power  by  the  Convention, 
and  the  death  of  the  Terrorists.  In  Thermidor  1794  such  a 
revolution  did  take  place,  with  those  very  results.  But  in 
Germinal  feeling  was  not  ripe.  The  committees  were  still  too 
strong  to  be  overthrown.  And  Danton  seems  to  have  shown 
a  singular  heedlessness.  Instead  of  striking  by  vigour  in  the 
Convention,  he  waited  to  be  struck.  In  these  later  days  a  certain 
discouragement  seems  to  have  come  over  his  spirit.  His  wife  had 
died  during  his  absence  on  one  of  his  expeditions  to  the  armies; 
he  had  now  married  again,  and  the  rumour  went  that  he  was 
allowing  domestic  happiness  to  tempt  him  from  the  keen  incessant 
vigilance  proper  to  the  politician  in  such  a  crisis.  He  must  have 
known  that  he  had  enemies.  When  the  Jacobin  club  was 
"  purified  "  in  the  winter,  Danton's  name  would  have  been 
struck  out  as  a  moderate  if  Robespierre  had  not  defended  him. 
The  committees  had  deliberated  on  his  arrest  soon  afterwards, 
and  again  it  was  Robespierre  who  resisted  the  proposal.  Yet 
though  he  had  been  warned  of  the  lightning  that  was  thus  playing 
round  his  head,  Danton  did  not  move.  Either  he  felt  himself 
powerless,  or  he  rashly  despised  his  enemies.  At  last  Billaud 
Varenne,  the  most  prominent  spirit  of  the  committee  after 
Robespierre,  succeeded  in  gaining  Robespierre  over  to  his  designs 
against  Danton.  Robespierre  was  probably  actuated  by  the 
motives  of  selfish  policy  which  soon  proved  the  greatest  blunder 
of  his  life.  The  Convention,  aided  by  Robespierre  and  the 
authority  of  the  committee,  assented  with  ignoble  unanimity. 
On  the  30th  of  March  Danton,  Desmoulins  and  others  of  the 


party  were  suddenly  arrested.  Danton  displayed  such  vehe- 
mence before  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  that  his  enemies  feared 
lest  he  should  excite  the  crowd  in  his  favour.  The  Convention, 
in  one  of  its  worst  fits  of  cowardice,  assented  to  a  proposal  made 
by  St  Just  that,  if  a  prisoner  showed  want  of  respect  for  justice, 
the  tribunal  might  pronounce  sentence  without  further  delay. 
Danton  was  at  once  condemned,  and  led,  in  company  with 
fourteen  others,  including  Camille  Desmoulins,  to  the  guillotine 
(April  5th,  1794).  "  I  leave  it  all  in  a  frightful  welter,"  he  said; 
"  not  a  man  of  them  has  an  idea  of  government.  Robespierre 
will  follow  me;  he  is  dragged  down  by  me.  Ah,  better  be  a  poor 
fisherman  than  meddle  with  the  government  of  men!" 

Events  went  as  Danton  foresaw.  The  committees  presently 
came  to  quarrel  with  the  pretensions  of  Robespierre.  Three 
months  after  Danton,  Robespierre  fell.  His  assent  to  the  execu- 
tion of  Danton  had  deprived  him  of  the  single  great  force  that 
might  have  supported  him  against  the  committee.  The  man  who 
had  "  saved  France  from  Brunswick  "  might  perhaps  have  saved 
her  from  the  White  reaction  of  1794. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sources  for  the  life  of  Danton  abound  in  the 
national  archives  and  in  the  columns  of  the  Moniteur.  His  CEuvres 
were  published  by  A.  Vermorel  (Paris,  1866),  and  his  speeches  are 
included  in  H.  Morse  Stephens'  Principal  Speeches  of  the  Statesmen 
and  Orators  of  the  French  Revolution  (vol.  ii.,  Oxford,  1892);  cf.  F.  V. 
Aulard,  Les  Orateurs  de  la  Legislative  et  de  la  Convention  (Danton  and 
his  group;  2  vols.,  1885-1886).  The  charges  of  corruption  freely 
brought  against  Danton  by  contemporaries  were  accepted  by  many 
historians,  and  he  has  been  persistently  accused  of  instigating  or  at 
least  abetting,  by  failure  to  use  the  power  he  possessed,  the  September 
massacres.  A  minute  examination  of  the  evidence  by  F.  V.  Aulard 
and  J.  F.  E.  Robinet  in  France,  followed  by  A.  H.  Beesly  in  England, 
has  placed  his  career  and  his  character  in  a  fairer  light.  The  chief 
books  on  Danton's  life  are: — A.  Bougeart,  Danton,  documents  pour 
servir  d  I'histoire  de  la  Revolution  franfaise  (Brussels,  1861);  J.  F.  E. 
Robinet,  Danton,  memoire  sur  sa  vie  privee  (Paris,  1865),  Le  Proces 
des  Dantonistes  (Paris,  1879),  Danton  emigre  (Paris,  1887),  Danton, 
homme  d'etat  (Paris,  1889);  F.  V.  Aulard,  Hist.  pol.  de  la  Rev.  fr. 
(Paris,  1901),  and  Danton  (Paris,  1887);  A.  Dubost,  Danton  et  la 
politique  contemporaine  (Paris,  1880);  A.  H.  Beesly,  Life  of  Danton 
(1899,  new  ed.  1906);  H.  Belloc,  Danton  (1899).  There  is  a  short 
"  Life  of  Danton  "  in  Morse  Stephens'  Principal  Speeches,  cited 
above.  See  also  C.  F.  Warwick,  Danton  and  the  French  Revolution 
(1909)-  (J.  Mo.) 

DANUBE  (Ger.  Donau,  Hungarian  Duna,  Rumanian  Dunarea, 
Lat.  Danubius  or  Danuvius,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course 
Ister),  the  most  important  river  of  Europe  as  regards  the  volume 
of  its  outflow,  but  inferior  to  the  Volga  in  length  and  in  the  area 
of  its  drainage.  It  'originates  at  Donaueschingen  in  the  Black 
Forest,  where  two  mountain  streams,  the  Brigach  and  the  Brege, 
together  with  a  thifd  stream  from  the  Palace  Gardens,  unite 
at  an  elevation  of  2187  ft.  above  the  sea  to  form  the  Danube 
so  called.  From  this  point  it  runs  in  an  easterly  direction  until 
it  falls  into  the  Black  Sea  some  1750  m.  from  its  source,  being  the 
only  European  river  of  importance  with  a  course  from  west  to  east. 
Its  basin,  which  comprises  a  territory  of  nearly  300,000  sq.  m., 
is  bounded  by  the  Black  Forest,  some  of  the  minor  Alpine  ranges, 
the  Bohemian  Forest  and  the  Carpathian  Mountains  on  the  north, 
and  by  the  Alps  and  the  Balkan  range  on  the  south.  From  the 
point  where  the  Danube  first  becomes  navigable,  i.e.  at  its 
junction  with  the  Iller  at  Ulm  (1505  ft.  above  sea-level),  it  is  fed 
by  at  least  300  tributaries,  the  principal  of  which  on  the  right 
bank  are  the  Inn,  the  Drave  and  the  Save;  while  on  the  left 
bank  are  the  Theiss  or  Tisza,  the  Olt,  the  Sereth  and  the  Pruth. 
These  seven  rivers  have  a  total  length  of  2920  m.  and  drain  one 
half  of  the  basin  of  the  Danube. 

The  course  of  this  mighty  river  is  rich  in  historical  and  political 
associations.      For  a  long  period  it  formed  the  frontier  of  the 
Roman  empire;  near  Eining  (above  Regensburg)  was    Historical 
the  ancient  Abusina,  which  for  nearly  five  centuries    and 
was  the  chief  Roman  outpost  against  the  northern    political 
barbarians.     Traces  of  Trajan's  wall  still  exist  between    *"^*~ 
that  point  and  Wiesbaden,  while  another  line  of  forti- 
fications bearing  the  same  emperor's  name  are  found  in  the 
Dobnidja  between  Cernavoda   (on   the  lower  Danube)   and 
Constantza.     At  intervening  points  are  still  found  many  notable 
Roman  remains,  such  as  Trajan's  road,  a  marvellous  work  on  the 


'820 


DANUBE 


right  bank  of  the  river  in  the  rocky  Kazan  defile  (separating  the 
Balkans  on  the  south  from  the  Carpathians  on  the  north),  where 
a  contemporary  commemorative  tablet  is  still  conspicuously 
visible.  At  Turnu  Severin  below  the  end  of  this  famous  gorge 
are  the  remains  of  a  solid  masonry  bridge  constructed  by  the 
same  emperor  at  the  period  of  his  Dacian  conquests.  But  since 
Roman  days  the  central  Danube  has  never  formed  the  boundary 
of  a  state;  on  the  contrary  it  became  the  route  followed  from 
east  to  west  by  successive  hordes  of  barbarians — the  Huns, 
Avars,  Slavs,  Magyars  and  Turks;  while  the  Franks  under 
Charlemagne,  the  Bavarians  and  the  Crusaders  all  marched  in 
the  opposite  direction  towards  the  east.  In  more  modern  days 
its  banks  were  the  scenes  of  many  bloody  battles  during  the 
Napoleonic  Wars.  Still  more  recently  it  has  become  the  great 
highway  of  commerce  for  central  Europe.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  by  J.  G.  Kohl  (Austria  and  the  Danube,  London,  1844)  and 
others  that,  in  consequence  of  the  Danube  having  been  in 
constant  use  as  the  line  of  passage  of  migratory  hostile  tribes, 
it  nowhere  forms  the  boundary  between  two  states  from  Orsova 
upwards,  and  thus  it  traverses  as"  a  central  artery  Wurttemberg, 
Bavaria,  Austria  and  Hungary,  while  on  the  other  hand  various 
tributaries  both  north  and  south,  which  formed  serious  obstacles 
to  the  march  of  armies,  have  become  lines  of  separation  between 
different  states.  Thus  Hungary  is  separated  from  Austria  by  the 
rivers  March  and  Leitha;  the  river  Enns,  for  a  considerable 
period  the  extreme  western  boundary  of  the  Magyar  kingdom, 
still  separates  Upper  and  Lower  Austria;  the  Inn  and  the 
Salzach  divide  Austria  from  Bavaria,  and  farther  west  the  Iller 
separates  Bavaria  from  Wurttemberg. 

The  Danube  after  leaving  Donaueschingen  flows  south-east 
in  the  direction  of  Lake  Constance,  and  below  Immendingen  a 
considerable  quantity  of  its  waters  escapes  through 
ree'  subterranean  fissures  to  the  river  Ach  in  the  Rhine 
basin.  At  Gutmadingen  it  turns  to  the  north-east,  which 
general  direction,  although  with  many  windings,  it  maintains  as 
far  as  Linz.  At  Tuttlingen  it  contracts  and  the  hills  crowd  close 
to  the  banks,  while  ruins  of  castles  crown  almost  every  possible 
summit.  The  scenery  is  wild  and  beautiful  until  the  river  passes 
Sigmaringen.  At  Ulm,  where  the  river  leaves  Wurttemberg 
and  enters  Bavaria,  it  is  joined  by  a  large  tributary,  the  Iller, 
and  from  this  point  becomes  navigable  downstream  for  specially 
constructed  boats  carrying  100  tons  of  merchandise.  It  is  here 
some  78  yds.  in  breadth,  with  an  average  depth  of  3  ft.  6  in. 
Continuing  its  north-easterly  course  it  passes  through  Bavaria, 
gradually  widening  its  channel  first  at  Steppberg,  then  at  Ingol- 
stadt,  but  finally  narrowing  again  until  it  reaches  Regensburg 
(height  949  ft.).  At  this  point  it  changes  its  direction  to  the  south- 
east, and  passing  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Bavarian 
Forest  enters  Austria  at  Passau  (height  800  ft.).  In  its  passage 
through  Bavaria  it  receives  several  important  affluents  on  both 
banks,  notably  on  the  right  the  Alpine  rivers  Lech,  Isar  and  Inn, 
the  last  of  which  at  the  junction  near  Passau  exceeds  in  volume 
the  waters  of  the  Danube. 

From  Passau  the  Danube  flows  through  Austria  for  a  distance 
of  233  m.  Closed  in  by  mountains  it  flows  past  Linz  in  an  un- 
broken stream — below,  it  expands  and  divides  into  many  arms 
until  it  reaches  the  famous  whirlpool  near  Grein  where  its  waters 
unite  and  flow  on  in  one  channel  for  40  m.,  through  mountains 
and  narrow  passes.  Beyond  Krems  it  again  divides,  forming 
arms  and  islands  beyond  Vienna.  The  Danube  between  Linz  and 
Vienna  is  renowned  not  only  for  its  picturesque  beauty  but  for  the 
numerous  medieval  and  modern  buildings  of  historical  and  archae- 
ological interest  which  crown  its  banks.  The  splendid  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Melk  and  the  ruins  of  Diirrenstein,  the  prison 
of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  are  among  the  most  interesting. 

After  passing  Vienna  and  the  Marchfeld,  the  Danube  (here 
316  yds.  wide  and  429  ft.  above  sea-level)  passes  through  a  defile 
formed  by  the  lower  spurs  of  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathians  and 
enters  Hungary  at  the  ruined  castle  of  Theben  a  little  above 
Pressburg,  the  old  Magyar  capital,  after  leaving  which  the  river 
passes  through  the  Hungarian  plains,  receiving  several  affluents 
on  both  sides.  It  divides  into  three  channels,  forming  several 


islands.  After  passing  the  fortress  of  Komarom  it  loses  its  easterly 
course  at  Vacz  (Waitzen),  and  flows  nearly  due  south  for  230  m. 
down  to  its  junction  with  the  Drave  (81  ft.  above  sea-level), 
passing  in  its  course  Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  and 
farther  on  Mobiles.  Below  Monies  the  Franz  Josef  canal  con- 
nects the  Danube  with  the  Theiss.  After  its  junction  with  the 
Save  the  Danube  follows  a  south-easterly  direction  for  200  m. 
until  it  is  joined  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Drave  at  Belgrade, 
above  which  it  receives  on  the  left  bank  the  Theiss  or  Tisz.,  the 
largest  of  its  Hungarian  affluents.  From  Belgrade  the  Danube 
separates  Hungary  from  Servia.  It  flows  eastward  until  it  has 
passed  through  the  stupendous  Kazan  defile,  in  which  its  waters 
(at  Semlin  1700  yds.  wide  and  40  ft.  deep)  are  hemmed  in  by 
precipitous  rocks  to  a  width  of  only  162  yds.,  with  a  depth  of 
150  ft.  and  a  tremendous  current.  Emerging,  above  Orsova,  at 
a  height  of  42  ft.  above  sea-level,  it  opens  to  nearly  a  mile  in 
width  andj  turning  south-eastwards,  is  again  narrowed  by  its 
last  defile,  the  Iron  Gates,  where  it  passes  over  the  Prigrada 
rock.  The  course  of  the  river  through  Hungary,  from  Pressburg 
to  Orsova,  is  some  600  m. 

The  river  now  flows  south,  separating  Servia  from  Rumania 
down  to  its  junction  with  the  Timok,  after  which  as  far  as 
Silistria,  a  distance  of  284  m.,  it  separates  Rumania  from 
Bulgaria.  The  north  bank  is  mostly  flat  and  marshy,  whereas 
the  Bulgarian  bank  is  almost  continuously  crowned  by  low 
heights  on  which  are  built  the  considerable  towns  of  Vidin 
(Widdin),  Lorn  Palanka,  Rustchuk  and  Silistria,  all  memorable 
names  in  Turko-Russian  wars.  From  Silistria  the  river  flows 
through  Rumanian  territory  and  after  passing  Cernavoda,  where 
it  is  crossed  by  a  modern  railway  bridge,  it  reaches  (left  bank) 
the  important  commercial  ports  of  Braila  and  Galatz.  A  few 
miles  east  of  Galatz  the  Pruth  enters  on  the  left  bank,  which  is 
thenceforward  Russian  territory.  The  Danube  flows  in  a  single 
channel  from  Galatz  for  30  m.  to  the  Ismail  Chatal  (or  fork), 
where  it  breaks  up  into  the  several  branches  of  the  delta.  The 
Kilia  branch  from  this  point  flows  to  the  north-east  past  the 
towns  of  Ismail  and  Kilia,  and  17  m.  below  the  latter  breaks  up 
into  another  delta  discharging  by  seven  channels  into  the  Black 
Sea.  The  Tulcea  branch  flows  south-east  from  the  Ismail 
Chatal,  and  7  m.  below  the  town  of  Tulcea  separates  into  two 
branches.  The  St  George's  branch,  holding  a  general,  though 
winding,  course  to  the  south-east,  discharges  by  two  channels 
into  the  sea;  and  the  Sulina  branch,  taking  an  easterly  direction, 
emerges  into  the  Black  Sea  20  m.  south  of  the  Ochakov  mouth  of 
the  Kilia,  and  20  m.  north  of  the  Kedrilles  mouth  of  the  St  George. 

In  1857  the  proportion  of  discharge  by  the  three  branches  of  the 
Danube  was  Sulina  7%,  St  George's  30%  and  Kilia  63%;  but 
in  1905  the  relative  proportions  had  altered  to  Sulina  9%,  St 
George's  24%  and  Kilia  67%.  The  average  outflow  by  the 
three  mouths  combined  is  236,432  cub.  ft.  per  second.  The 
delta  enclosed  between  the  Kilia  and  St  George's  branches,  about 
1000  sq.  m.  in  area,  mainly  consists  of  one  large  marsh  covered 
with  reeds,  and  intersected  by  channels,  relieved  in  places  by 
isolated  elevations  covered  with  oak,  beech  and  willows,  many 
of  them  marking  the  ancient  coast-line.  On  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Kilia  delta  the  coast-line  is  constantly  advancing  and  the 
sea  becoming  shallower,  owing  to  the  enormous  amount  of  solid 
deposits  brought  down  by  the  river.  In  time  of  ordinary  flood 
the  Kilia  branch  with  its  numerous  mouths  pours  into  the  sea 
some  3000  cub.  ft.  of  sand  and  mud  per  minute.  Its  effects  are 
felt  as  far  south  as  Sulina,  and  tend  to  necessitate  the  farther 
extension  into  the  sea  of  the  guiding  piers  of  that  port. 

In  the  course  of  the  I9th  century,  more  especially  during  its 
latter  half,  much  was  done  to  render  the  Danube  more  available 
as  a  means  of  communication.    In  1816  Austria  and 
Bavaria  made  arrangements  for  the  common  utilization       tloa? 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  river,  and  since  then  both 
governments  have  been  liberal  in  expenditure  on  its  improve- 
ment. In  1844  the  Ludwigs  Canal  was  constructed  by  King  Louis 
of  Bavaria.  It  is  no  m.  in  length  and  7  ft.  in  depth,  and  connects 
the  Danube  at  Kelheim  (half  way  between  Ulm  and  Passau)  with 
the  Rhine  at  Mainz  by  means  of  the  rivers  Altmiihl,  Regnitz  and 


DANUBE 


821 


Main.  Various  other  projects  exist,  one  for  the  connexion  of  the 
Danube  (near  Vienna)  with  the  river  Oder  at  Oderberg,  another 
for  a  canal  from  the  Danube  to  the  Moldau  at  Budwejs,  125  m.  in 
length,  which  owing  to  the  regularization  of  the  Moldau  is  the 
last  uncompleted  link  of  a  navigable  channel  1875  m.  in  length 
between  Sulina  and  Hamburg  at  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and 
the  Elbe  respectively.  There  also  exist  other  schemes  for  joining 
the  Danube  with  the  rivers  Neckar  and  Theiss,  and  also  for 
connecting  the  Oder  Canal  with  the  Vistula  and  the  Dniester. 
Between  Ulm  and  Vienna,  a  distance  of  629  m.,  works  of 
rectification  have  been  numerous  and  have  greatly  improved 
the  navigability  of  the  river.  The  draining  of  the  Donau-moos 
between  Neuburg  and  Ingolstadt,  commenced  in  1791,  was 
successfully  completed  about  1835;  and  in  1853  the  removal  of 
the  rocks  which  obstructed  the  river  below  Grein  was  finally 
achieved;  while  at  Vienna  itself  the  whole  mass  of  the  Danube 
was  conducted  nearer  the  town  for  a  distance  of  nearly  2  m. 
through  an  artificial  channel  10  m.  in  length  and  330  yds.  in 
width,  with  a  depth  of  about  12  ft.,  and  at  a  cost  with  subsidiary 
works  of  over  three  millions  sterling.  The  work,  begun  in  1866, 
involved  the  removal  of  12,000,000  cub.  metres  of  sand  and 
gravel,  and  proved  a  great  success,  not  only  amply  realizing  its 
principal  object,  the  protection  of  Vienna  from  disastrous  inun- 
dations, but  also  improving  the  navigability  of  the  river  in  that 
portion  of  its  course.  The  Hungarian  government  also,  through- 
out the  latter  half  of  the  igih  century,  expended  vast  sums  at 
Budapest  for  the  improvement  of  navigation  and  the  protection 
of  the  town  from  inundation,  and  in  the  regularization  of  the 
Danube  down  to  Orsova. 

In  prehistoric  times  a  great  part  of  the  plains  of  Hungary 
formed  a  large  inland  sea,  which  ultimately  burst  its  bounds, 
whereupon  the  Danube  forced  its  way  through  the  Carpathians 
at  the  Kazan  defile.  Much  of  what  then  formed  the  bottom  of 
this  sea  consisted  until  modern  times  of  marshes  and  waste  lands 
lying  in  the  vicinity  of  its  numerous  rivers.  The  problem  of 
draining  and  utilizing  these,  lands  was  not  the  only  difficulty  to 
be  surmounted  by  the  Hungarian  engineers;  the  requirements 
of  navigation  and  the  necessity  in  winter  of  preventing  the 
formation  of  large  ice-fields,  such  as  caused  the  disastrous  floods 
at  Budapest  in  1838,  had  also  to  be  considered.  In  carrying  out 
these  works  the  Hungarian  government  between  1867  and  1895 
spent  seven  millions  sterling,  and  a  further  expenditure  of  three 
and  a  half  millions  was  provided  for  up  to  1907.  At  Budapest, 
where  the  formation  of  ice-fields  at  the  upper  entrance  of  the  two 
side  arms  of  the  Danube — the  Promontor  on  the  north,  20  m.  in 
length,  and  the  Soroksar,  35  m.  long, — caused  the  inundation 
alluded  to,  the  latter  branch  has  been  artificially  blocked  and 
the  whole  of  the  Danube  now  flows  through  Budapest  in  a  single 
channel.  For  the  first  section  of  60  m.  after  entering  Hungary, 
the  bed  of  the  river,  here  surcharged  with  gravel,  was  constantly 
changing  its  course.  It  has  been  regularized  throughout,  the 
width  of  the  stream  varying  from  320  to  400  yds.  In  the  second 
section  from  Gonyo  to  Paks,  164  m.  in  length,  the  river  had  a 
tendency  to  form  islands  and  sandbanks — its  width  now  varies 
uniformly  from  455  to  487  yds.  The  third  section  of  113  m.,  from 
Paks  to  the  mouth  of  the  Drave,  differed  from  the  others  and  made 
innumerable  twists  and  curves.  No  fewer  than  seventeen  cuttings 
have  been  made,  reducing  the  original  course  of  the  river  by  75  m. 
The  fourth  section,  217  m.  in  length,  from  the  Drave  to  Old 
Moldova,  resembles  in  its  characteristics  the  second  section  and 
has  been  similarly  treated.  Cuttings  have  also  been  made  where 
necessary,  and  the  widths  of  the  channel  are  487  yds.  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Theiss,  650  between  that  point  and  the  Save,  and  lower 
down  760  yds.  In  the  fifth  and  last  section  from  Old  Moldova 
to  Orsova  and  the  Iron  Gates  the  river  is  enclosed  by  mountains 
and  rocky  banks,  and  the  obstacles  to  navigation  are  rocks  and 
whirlpools. 

Article  VI.  of  the  treaty  of  London  (1871)  authorized  the 
powers  which  possess  the  shores  of  this  part  of  the  Danube  to 
come  to  an  understanding  with  the  view  of  removing  these 
impediments,  and  to  have  the  right  of  levying  a  provisional  tax 
on  vessels  of  every  flag  which  may  henceforth  benefit  thereby 


until  the  extinction  of  the  debt  contracted  for  the  execution  of  the 
works.  As  the  riverain  powers  could  not  come  to  an  agreement  on 
the  subject,  the  great  powers  at  the  congress  of  Berlin  (1878) 
entrusted  to  Austria-Hungary  the  execution  of  the  works  in 
question.  Austria-Hungary  subsequently  conferred  its  rights  on 
Hungary,  by  which  country  the  works  were  carried  out  at  a  cost 
of  about  one  and  a  half  millions  sterling. 

The  principal  obstructions  between  Old  Moldova  and  Turnu 
Severin  were  the  Stenka  Rapids,  the  Kozla  Dojke  Rapids,  the 
Greben  section  and  the  Iron  Gates.  At  the  first  named  there 
was  a  bank  of  rocks,  some  of  them  dry  at  low  water,  extending 
almost  across  the  river  (985  yds.  wide).  The  fall  of  the  river  bed 
is  small,  but  the  length  of  the  rapid  is  noo  yds.  The  Kozla 
Dojke,  9  m.  below  the  Stenka  Rapids,  extend  also  for  nooyds., 
with  a  fall  of  i  in  1000,  where  two  banks  of  rocks  cause  a  sudden 
alternation  in  the  direction  of  the  current.  The  river  is  here 
only  170  to  330  yds.  in  width.  Six  miles  farther  on  is  the  Greben 
section,  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  works  of  improvement.  A 
spur  of  the  Greben  mountains  runs  out  below  two  shoals  where 
the  river  suddenly  narrows  to  300  yds.  at  low  water,  but  presently 
widens  to  ij  m.  Seven  miles  lower  down  are  the  Jucz  Rapids, 
where  the  river-bed  has  a  fall  of  i  in  433.  At  the  Iron  Gates, 
34  m.  below  the  Greben,  the  Prigrada  rocky  bank  nearly  blocked 
the  river  at  the  point  where  it  widens  out  after  leaving  the  Kazan 
defile.  The  general  object  of  the  works  was  to  obtain  a  navigable 
depth  of  water  at  all  seasons  of  2  metres  (6-56  ft.)  on  that  portion 
of  the  river  above  Orsova,  and  a  depth  of  3  metres  (9-84  ft.) 
below  that  town.  To  effect  this  at  Stenka,  Kozla  Dojke,  Islaz 
and  Tachtalia,  channels  66  yds.  wide  had  to  be  cut  in  the  solid 
rock  to  a  depth  of  6  ft.  6  in.  below  low  water.  The  point  of  the 
Greben  spur  had  to  be  entirely  removed  for  a  distance  of  167  yds. 
back  from  its  original  face.  Below  the  Greben  point  a  training 
wall  7  to  9  ft.  high,  10  ft.  at  top  and  nearly  4  m.  in  length,  has 
been  built  along  the  Servian  shore  in  order  to  confine  the  river 
in  a  narrow  channel.  At  Jucz  another  similar  channel  had  to  be 
cut  and  a  training  wall  built.  At  the  Iron  Gates  a  channel  80  yds. 
wide,  nearly  2000  yds.  in  length  and  10  ft.  deep  (in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  traces  of  an  old  Roman  canal)  had  to  be  cut  on  the 
Servian  side  of  the  river  through  solid  rock.  Training  walls  have 
been  built  on  either  side  of  the  channel  to  confine  the  water  so  as 
to  raise  its  level;  that  on  the  right  bank  having  a  width  of  19  ft. 
6  in.  at  top,  and  serving  as  a  tow-path;  that  on  the  left  being 
13  ft.  in  width.  These  training  walls  are  built  of  stone  with  flat 
revetments  to  protect  them  against  ice.  These  formidable  and 
expensive  works  have  not  altogether  realized  the  expectations 
that  had  been  formed  of  them.  One  most  important  result, 
however,  has  been  attained,  i.e.  vessels  can  now  navigate  the 
Iron  Gates  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  river  is  not  closed 
by  ice,  whereas  formerly  at  extreme  low  water,  lasting  generally 
for  about  three  months  in  the  late  summer  and  autumn,  through 
navigation  was  always  at  a  standstill,  and  goods  had  to  be  landed 
and  transported  considerable  distances  by  land.  The  canal  was 
opened  for  traffic  on  the  ist  of  October  1898.  It  was  designed  of 
sufficient  width,  as  was  supposed,  for  the  simultaneous  passage 
of  boats  in  opposite  directions;  but  on  account  of  the  great 
velocity  of  the  current  this  has  been  found  to  be  impracticable. 

From  the  Iron  Gates  down  to  Braila,  which  is  the  highest  point 
to  which  large  sea-going  ships  ascend  the  river,  there  have  been 
no  important  works  of  improvement.   From  Braila  to    European 
Sulina,  a  distance  of  about  100  m.,  the  river  falls  under    commis- 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  European  commission  of  the    *ioaof 
Danube,  an  institution  of  such  importance  as  to  merit     j£j" 
lengthened  notice.   It  was  called  into  existence  under 
Art.  XVI.  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856),  and  in  November  of  that 
year  a  commission  was  constituted  in  which  Austria,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sardinia  and  Turkey  were  each 
represented  by  one  delegate  "  to  designate  and  cause  to  be  exe- 
cuted the  works  necessary  below  Isaktcha1  to  clear  the  mouths 
of  the  Danube  as  well  as  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  sea,  from 

1  Isakcea  was  66  nautical  m.  from  the  sea  measured  by  the 
Sulina  arm  of  the  Danube,  37  m.  below  Braila  and  26  m.  below 
Galatz. 


822 


DANUBE 


the  sands  and  other  impediments  which  obstructed  them,  in  order 
to  put  that  part  of  the  river  and  the  said  parts  of  the  sea  in  the 
best  possible  state  for  navigation." 

In  Art.  XVIII.  of  the  same  treaty  it  was  anticipated  that  the 
European  commission  would  have  finished  the  works  described 
within  the  period  of  two  years,  when  it  was  to  be  dissolved  and  its 
powers  taken  over  by  a  Riverain  commission  to  be  established 
under  the  same  treaty;  but  this  commission  has  never  come 
into  existence.  Extended  by  short  periods  up  to  1871,  the 
powers  of  the  European  commission  were  then  prolonged  under 
the  treaty  of  London  for  twelve  years.  At  the  congress  of  Berlin 
in  1878  its  jurisdiction  was  extended  from  Isakcea  to  Galatz 
(26  m.),  and  it  was  decided  that  the  commission,  in  which 
Rumania  was  henceforward  to  be  represented  by  a  delegate, 
should  exercise  its  powers  in  complete  independence  of  the 
territorial  authority.  By  the  treaty  of  London  of  1883  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  commission  was  extended  from  Galatz  to 
Braila  and  its  powers  were  prolonged  for  twenty-one  years  (i.e.  till 
the  24th  of  April  1904),  after  which  its  existence  was  to  continue 
by  tacit  prolongation  for  successive  terms  of  three  years  unless 
one  of  the  high  contracting  powers  should  propose  any  modifica- 
tion in  its  constitution  or  attributes.  It  was  also  decided  that 
the  European  commission  should  no  longer  exercise  any  effective 
control  over  that  portion  of  the  Kilia  branch  of  which  the  two 
banks  belonged  to  one  of  the  riverain  powers  (Russia  and 
Rumania),  while  as  regards  that  portion  of  it  which  separated  the 
two  countries,  control  was  to  be  exercised  by  the  Russian  and 
Rumanian  delegates  on  the  European  commission.  Russia  was 
also  authorized  to  levy  tolls  intended  to  cover  the  expenses  of 
any  works  of  improvement  that  might  be  undertaken  by  her. 
Art.  VII.  of  the  same  treaty  declared  that  the  regulations  for 
navigation,  river  police,  and  superintendence  drawn  up  on  the 
2nd  of  June  1882  by  the  European  commission,  assisted  by  the 
delegates  of  Servia  and  Bulgaria,  should  be  made  applicable  to 
that  part  of  the  Danube  situated  between  the  Iron  Gates  and 
Braila.  In  consequence  of  Rumania's  opposition,  the  proposed 
Commission  Atixte  was  never  formed,  and  these  regulations  have 
never  been  put  in  force.  As  regards  the  extension  of  the  powers 
of  the  European  commission  to  Braila,  n  m.  above  Galatz,  and 
at  the  head  of  the  maritime  navigation,  a  tacit  understanding  has 
been  arrived  at,  under  which  questions  concerning  navigation 
proper  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  commission,  while  the 
police  of  the  ports  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  Rumanian 
authorities. 

Sir  Charles  Hartley,  who  was  chief  engineer  of  the  commission 
from  1856  to  1907,'  in  a  paper  contributed  to  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers  in  1873  (vol.  xxxvi.),  gave  the  following  graphic 
description  of  the  state  of  the  Sulina  mouth  when  the  commission 
entered  on  its  labours  in  1856: — 

"  The  entrance  to  the  Sulina  branch  was  a  wild  open  seaboard 
strewn  with  wrecks,  the  hulls  and  masts  of  which,  sticking  out  of 
the  submerged  sandbanks,  gave  to  mariners  the  only  guide  where  the 
deepest  channel  was  to  be  found.  The  depth  of  the  channel  varied 
from  7  to  II  ft.,  and  was  rarely  more  than  9  ft. 

"  The  site  now  occupied  by  wide  quays  extending  several  miles 
in  length  was  then  entirely  covered  with  water  when  the  sea  rose  a 
few  inches  above  ordinary  level,  and  that  even  in  a  perfect  calm; 
the  banks  of  the  river  near  the  mouth  were  only  indicated  by 
clusters  of  wretched  hovels  built  on  piles  and  by  narrow  patches  of 
sand  skirted  by  tall  weeds,  the  only  vegetable  product  of  the  vast 
swamps  beyond. 

"  For  some  years  before  the  improvements,  an  average  of  2000 
vessels  of  an  aggregate  capacity  of  400,000  tons  visited  the  Danube, 
and  of  this  number  more  than  three-fourths  loaded  either  the  whole 
or  part  of  their  cargoes  from  lighters  in  the  Sulina  roadstead,  where, 
lying  off  a  lee  shore,  they  were  frequently  exposed  to  the  greatest 
danger.  Shipwrecks  were  of  common  occurrence,  and  occasionally 
the  number  of  disasters  was  appalling.  One  dark  winter  night  in 
1855,  during  a  terrific  gale,  24  sailing  ships  and  60  lighters  went 
ashore  off  the  mouth  and  upwards  of  300  persons  perished." 

The  state  of  affairs  in  the  river  was  not  much  better  than  at  the 
Sulina  mouth.  Of  the  three  arms  of  the  Danube,  the  Kilia,  the 

1  Sir  Charles  Hartley  became  consulting  engineer  in  1872,  when  he 
was  succeeded  as  resident  engineer  by  Mr  Charles  Kiihl,  C.E.,  C.M.G. 
To  those  two  gentlemen  is  mainly  due  the  conspicuous  success  of  the 
engineering  works. 


Sulina  and  the  St  George,  the  central  or  Sulina  branch,  owing  to  its 
greater  depth  of  water  over  the  bar,  had  from  time  immemorial 
been  the  principal  waterway  for  sea-going  vessels;  its  average 
depth  throughout  its  course,  which  could  not  always  be  counted 
on,  was  8  ft.,  but  it  contained  numerous  shoals  where  vessels  had 
to  lighten,  so  that  cargo  had  often  to  be  shifted  several  times  in 
the  voyage  down  the  river.  It  also  contained  numerous  bends 
and  sharp  curves,  sources  of  the  greatest  difficulty  to  navigation. 
The  commission  fixed  its  seat  at  Galatz.  Provisional  works 
of  improvement  were  begun  almost  immediately  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Sulina  branch  of  the  Danube,  but  two  years  were  spent  in 
discussing  the  relative  claims  to  adoption  of  the  Kilia,  the  Sulina 
and  the  St  George's  mouths.  Unable  to  agree,  the  delegates 
referred  the  question  to  their  respective  governments,  and  a 
technical  commission  appointed  by  France,  England,  Prussia  and 
Sardinia  met  at  Paris  and  decided  unanimously  in  favour  of  St 
George's;  but  recommended,  instead  of  the  embankment  of  the 
natural  channel,  the  formation  of  an  artificial  canal  17  ft.  in 
depth  closed  by  sluices  at  its  junction  with  the  river,  and  reaching 
the  sea  at  some  distance  from  the  natural  embouchure.  The 
choice  of  St  George's  made  by  this  commission  was  adopted  at 
Galatz  in  December  1858,  and  six  of  the  seven  representatives 
voted  for  its  canalization;  but  owing  to  various  political  and 
financial  considerations,  it  was  ultimately  decided  to  do  nothing 
more  in  the  meantime  than  render  permanent  and  effective 
the  provisional  works  already  in  progress  at  the  Sulina  mouth. 
These  consisted  of  two  piers  forming  a  seaward  prolongation  of 
the  fluvial  channel,  begun  in  1858  and  completed  in  1861.  The 
northern  pier  had  a  length  of  4631  ft.,  the  southern  of  3000, 
and  the  depth  of  the  water  in  which  they  were  built  varied  from 
6  to  20  ft.  At  the  commencement  of  the  works  the  depth  of  the 
channel  was  only  9  ft.  but  by  their  completion  it  had  increased 
to  19  ft.  The  works  designed  and  constructed  by  Sir  Charles 
Hartley  had  in  fact  proved  so  successful  that  nothing  more  was 
ever  heard  of  the  St  George's  project.  In  1865  a  new  lighthouse 
was  erected  at  the  end  of  the  north  pier.  The  value  of  these 
early  works  of  the  commission  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  of  2928 
vessels  navigating  the  lower  Danube  in  1855,  36  were  wrecked, 
while  of  2676  in  1865  only  7  were  wrecked.  In  1871  it  was 
found  expedient  to  lengthen  the  piers  seaward,  and  in  1876  the 
south  jetty  was  prolonged,  so  as  to  bring  its  end  exactly  opposite 
the  lighthouse  on  the  north  pier.  This  resulted  in  an  increase  of 
the  depth  to  2o|  ft.,  and  for  fifteen  years,  from  1879  to  1895,  this 
depth  remained  constant  without  the  aid  of  dredging.  In  1894, 
owing  to  the  constantly  increasing  size  of  vessels  frequenting  the 
Danube,  it  was  found  necessary  to  deepen  the  entrance  still 
further,  and  to  construct  two  parallel  piers  between  the  main 
jetties,  reducing  the  breadth  of  the  river  to  500  ft.,  and  thereby 
increasing  the  scour.  There  is  now  a  continuous  channel  24  ft. 
in  depth,  5200  ft.  in  length,  and  300  ft.  in  width  between  the  piers, 
and  600  ft.  outside  the  extremities  of  the  piers,  until  deep  water 
is  reached  in  the  open  sea.  This  depth  is  only  maintained  by 
constant  dredging.  The  engineers  of  the  commission  have  been 
equally  successful  in  dealing  with  the  Sulina  branch  of  the  river. 
Its  original  length  of  45  m.  from  St  George's  Chatal  to  the  sea  was 
impeded  at  the  commencement  of  the  improvement  works  by 
eleven  bends,  each  with  a  radius  of  less  than  1000  ft.,  besides 
numerous  others  of  somewhat  larger  radius,  and  its  bed  was 
encumbered  by  ten  shifting  shoals,  varying  from  8  to  13  ft.  in 
depth  at  low  water.  By  means  of  a  series  of  training  walls, 
by  groynes  thrown  out  from  the  banks,  by  revetments  of  the 
banks,  and  by  dredging,  all  done  with  the  view  of  narrowing  the 
river,  a  minimum  depth  of  n  ft.  was  attained  in  1865,  and  13  ft. 
in  1871.  In  1880  the  needs  of  commerce  and  the  increased  size 
of  steamers  frequenting  the  river  necessitated  the  construction 
of  a  new  entrance  from  the  St  George's  branch.  This  work, 
designed  in  1857,  but  unexecuted  during  a  quarter  of  a  century, 
owing  to  insufficiency  of  funds,  was  completed  in  1882;  and  in 
1886,  after  other  comparatively  short  cuttings  had  been  made  to 
get  rid  of  difficult  bends  and  further  to  deepen  the  channel 
without  having  to  resort  to  dredgers,  the  desired  minimum  depth 
of  15  ft.  was  attained.  Since  that  date  a  series  of  new  cuttings 


DANVERS— DANVILLE 


823 


has  been  made.  These  have  shortened  the  length  of  the  Sulina 
canal  by  n  nautical  m.,  eliminated  all  the  difficult  bends  and 
Shoals,  and  provided  an  almost  straight  waterway  34  m.  in  length 
from  Sulina  to  St  George's  Chatal,  with  a  minimum  depth  of 
20  ft.  when  the  river  is  at  its  lowest. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  commission,  i.e.  from  1857  to  1860,  the 
money  spent  on  the  works  of  improvement,  amounting  to  about 
£150,000,  was  advanced  as  a  loan  by  the  then  territorial  power, 
Turkey;  but  in  1860  the  commission  began  to  levy  taxes  on 
vessels  frequenting  the  river,  and  since  then  has  repaid  its  debt 
to  the  Turkish  government,  as  well  as  various  loans  for  short 
periods,  and  a  larger  one  of  £120,000  guaranteed  by  the  powers, 
and  raised  in  1868,  mainly  through  the  energy  of  the  British 
commissioner,  Sir  John  Stokes.  This  last  loan  was  paid  off  in 
1882  and  the  commission  became  free  from  debt  in  1887.  It  has 
now  an  average  annual  income  of  about  £80,000  derived  from 
taxes  paid  by  ships  when  *  leaving  the  river.  The  normal  annual 
expenditure  amounts  to  about  £56,000,  while  £24,000  is  gener- 
ally allotted  to  extraordinary  works,  such  as  new  cuttings,  &c. 
Between  1857  and  1905  a  sum  of  about  one  and  three  quarter 
millions  sterling  was  spent  on  engineering  works,  including  the 
construction  of  quays,  lighthouses,  workshops  and  buildings, 
&c.  Sulina  from  being  a  collection  of  mud  hovels  has  developed 
into  a  town  with  5000  inhabitants;  a  well-found  hospital  has  been 
established  where  all  merchant  sailors  receive  gratuitous  treat- 
ment; lighthouses,  quays,  floating  elevators  and  an  efficient 
pilot  service  all  combine  to  make  it  a  first-class  port. 

The  result  of  all  the  combined  works  for  the  rectification  of  the 
Danube  is  that  from  Sulina  up  to  Braila  the  river  is  navigable  for 
sea-going  vessels  up  to  4000  tons  register,  from  Braila  to  Turnu 
Severin  it  is  open  for  sea-going  vessels  up  to  600  tons,  and  for  flat 
barges  of  from  1 500  to  2000  tons  capacity.  From  Turnu  Severin 
to  Orsova  navigation  is  confined  to  river  steamers,  tugs  and 
barges  drawing  6  ft.  of  water.  Thence  to  Vienna,  the  draught  is 
limited  to  5  ft.,  and  from  Vienna  to  Regensburg  to  a  somewhat 
lower  figure.  Barges  of  600  tons  register  can  be  towed  from  the 
lower  Danube  to  Regensburg.  Here  petroleum  tanks  have  been 
constructed  for  the  storage  of  Rumanian  petroleum,  the  first 
consignment  of  which  in  1898,  conveyed  in  tank  boats,  took  six 
weeks  on  the  voyage  up  from  Giurgevo.  The  principal  navigation 
company  on  the  upper  Danube  is  the  Societe  Imperiale  et  Royale 
Autrichienne  of  Vienna,  which  started  operations  in  1830.  This 
company  also  owns  the  Fiinfkirchen  mines,  producing  annu- 
ally 500,000  tons  of  coal.  The  society  transports  goods  and 
passengers  between  Galatz  and  Regensburg.  A  less  important 
society  is  the  Rumanian  State  Navigation  Company,  possessing 
a  large  flotilla  of  tugs  and  barges,  which  run  to  Budapest,  where 
they  have  established  a  combined  service  with  the  South  Danube 
German  Company  for  the  transport  of  goods  from  Pest  to 
Regensburg.  A  Hungarian  Navigation  Company,  subsidized  by 
the  state,  has  also  been  formed,  and  the  Hungarian  railways,  the 
Servian  government  and  private  owners  own  a  large  number  of 
tugs  and  barges. 

But  it  is  the  trade  of  the  lower  Danube  that  has  principally 
benefited.  Freights  from  Galatz  and  Braila  to  North  Sea  ports 
have  fallen  from  505.  to  about  1 25.  or  even  tos.  per  ton.  Sailing 
ships  of  200  tons  register  have  given  way  to  steamers  up  to 
4000  tons  register  carrying  a  deadweight  of  nearly  8000  tons;  and 
good  order  has  succeeded  chaos.  From  1847  to  1860  an  average 
of  203  British  ships  entered  the  Danube  averaging  193  tons  each; 
from  1861  to  1889,  486  ships  averaging  796  tons;  in  1893,  905 
vessels  of  1,287,762  tons,  or  68%  of  the  total  traffic,  and  rather 
more  than  two  and  a  half  times  the  total  amount  of  British 
tonnage  visiting  the  Danube  in  the  fourteen  years  between  1847 
and  1860.  The  average  amount  of  cereals  (principally  wheat) 
annually  exported  from  the  Danube  during  the  period  1901-190; 
was  13,000,000  quarters,  i.e.  about  five  times  the  average  annua 

1  Ships  pay  no  taxes  to  the  commission  on  entering  the  river,  but 
on  leaving  it  every  ship  of  over  1500  tons  register  pays  is.  sd.  per 
registered  ton  if  loaded  at  Galatz  or  Braila,  or  I  id.  per  ton  if  loadec 
at  Sulina.  This  includes  pilotage  and  light  dues.  Smaller  vessels 
pay  less  and  ships  of  less  than  300  tons  are  exempt. 


ixportation  during  the  period  1861-1867.  It  has  been  calculated 
hat  between  1861  and  1902  the  total  tonnage  of  ships  frequenting 
he  Danube  increased  five-fold,  while  the  mean  size  of  individual 
hips  increased  ten-fold. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Marsiglius,  Danubius  Pannonico-Mysicus  (the 
lague,  1726);  Schulte,  Donaufahrten  (1819^1829);  Planche, 
descent  of  the  Danube  (1828) ;  Szechenyi,  Ober  die  Donauschiffahrt 
'1836) ;  A.  Miiller,  Die  Donau  vom  Ursprunge  bis  zu  den  Mundungen 
'1839-1841);  J.  G.  Kohl,  Die  Donau  (Trieste,  1853-1854);  G.  B. 
Rennie,  Suggestions  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Danube  (1856);  Sir 
C.  A.  Hartley,  Description  of  the  Delta  of  the  Danube  (1862  and  1874) ; 
Memoire  sur  le  regime  administratif  etabli  aux  embouchures  du 
Danube  (Galatz,  1867);  Desjardins,  Rhone  et  Danube,  a  defence  of 
the  canalization  scheme  (Paris,  1870);  Carte  du  Danube  entre  Braila 
et  la  tner,  published  by  the  European  Commission  (Leipzig,  1874); 
Peters,  Die  Donau  und  ihr  Gebiet,  eine  geologische  Studie  (1876); 
A.  F.  Heksch,  Guide  illustre  sur  le  Danube  (Vienna,  1883);  F.  D. 
Millet,  The  Danube  (New  York,  1893) ;  Schweiger-Lerchenfeld,  Die 
Donau  als  Volkerweg,  Schiffahrtsstrasse,  und  Reiseroute  (Vienna, 
1895);  D.  A.  Sturza,  La  Question  des  Fortes  de  Per  et  des  cataracles 
du  Danube  (Berlin,  1899);  A.  de  Saint  Clair,  Le  Danube:  etude  de 
droit  international  (Paris,  1899);  D.  A.  Sturdza,  Recueti  de  docu- 
ments relatifs  a  la  liberte  de  navigation  du  Danube,  pp.  933  (Berlin, 
1904);  A.  Schroth-Ukmar,  Donausagen  von  Passau  bis  Wien 
(Vienna,  1904).  (H.  TE.) 

DANVERS,  a  township  of  Essex  county,  on  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  about  19  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1890)  7454;  (1900)  8542,  of  whom  1873  were  foreign-born; 
[1910  census)  9407.  Danvers  includes  an  area  of  14  sq.  m.  of 
level  country  diversified  by  hills.  There  are  several  villages  or 
business  centres,  the  largest  of  which,  bearing  the  same  name 
as  the  township,  is  served  by  the  Boston  &  Maine  railway.  In 
the  township  are  a  state  insane  asylum,  with  accommodation  for 
1000  patients;  St  John's  Preparatory  College  (Roman  Catholic), 
conducted  by  the  Xavierian  Brothers;  and,  in  Peabody  Park, 
the  Peabody  Institute,  with  a  good  public  library  and  museum, 
the  gift  (1867)  of  George  Peabody.  The  Danvers  historical 
society  has  a  valuable  collection.  Although  chiefly  a  residential 
town,  Danvers  has  various  manufactures,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  bricks,  boxes  and  electric 
lamps.  The  total  value  of  the  factory  product  in  1905  was 
$2,017,908,  of  which  more  than  one  half  was  the  value  of  leather. 
Danvers  owns  its  water-works  and  its  electric  lighting  and  power 
plant.  A  part  of  what  is  now  Danvers  was  included  in  the  grant 
made  by  the  court  of  assistants  to  Governor  John  Endecott  and 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Skelton  of  the  Salem  church  in  1632.  Danvers 
was  set  off  from  Salem  as  a  district  in  1752  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  township  in  1757,  but  the  act  of  incorporation  was  disallowed 
in  1759  by  the  privy  council  on  the  recommendation  of  the  board 
of  trade,  in  view  of  George  II. 's  disapproval  of  the  incorporation 
of  new  townships  at  that  time, — hence  the  significance  of  the 
words  on  the  seal  of  Danvers,  "  The  King  Unwilling  ";  in  1775 
the  district  was  again  incorporated.  Salem  Village,  a  part  of 
the  present  township,  was  the  centre  of  the  famous  witchcraft 
delusion  in  1692.  In  1885  South  Danvers  was  set  off  as  a  separate 
township,  and  in  1868  was  named  Peabody  in  honour  of  George 
Peabody,  who  was  born  and  is  buried  there.  In  1857  part  of 
Beverly  was  annexed  to  Danvers.  Among  distinguished  natives 
of  Danvers  are  Samuel  Holton  (1738-1816),  a  member  (1778-1780 
and  1782-1787)  of  the  Continental  Congress  and  (i793-i?95)  of 
the  Federal  Congress;  Israel  Putnam;  Moses  Porter  (1755-1822), 
who  served  through  the  War  of  Independence  and  the  War  of 
1812;  and  Grenville  Mellen  Dodge  (b.  1831),  a  prominent  rail- 
way engineer,  who  fought  in  the  Union  army  in  the  Civil  War, 
reaching  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers,  was  a  Re- 
publican member  of  the  national  House  of  Representatives  in 
1867-1869,  and  in  1898  president  of  the  commission  which 
investigated  the  management  of  the  war  with  Spain. 

See  J.  W.  Hanson,  History  of  the  Town  of  Danvers  (Danvers,  1848) ; 
Ezra  D.  Mines,  Historic  Danvers  (Danvers,  1894)  and  Historical 
Address  (Boston,  1907),  in  celebration  of  the  isoth  anniversary  of 
the  first  incorporation;  and  A.  P.  White,  "  History  of  Danvers  in 
History  of  Essex  County,  Mass.  (Philadelphia,  1888). 

DANVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Vermilion  county, 
Illinois,  U.S.A.,  in  the  E.  part  of  the  state,  near  the  Big  V'ermilioii 
river,  120  m.  S.  of  Chicago.  P.op.  (1890)  11,491;  (i9°°)  16,354, 


824 


DANVILLE— DANZIG 


of  whom  1435  were  foreign-born ;  (1910)  27,871.  Danville 
is  served  by  the  Chicago  &  Eastern  Illinois  (whose  shops  are 
here),  the  Wabash,  the  Chicago,  Indiana  &  Southern,  and  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis  railways,  and  by  three 
interurban  lines.  There  are  three  public  parks  (Lincoln,  Douglas 
and  Ellsworth),  a  Carnegie  library  (1883),  and  a  national  home 
for  disabled  volunteer  soldiers  (opened  in  1898).  Situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  an  extensive  coalfield  (the  Grape  Creek  district), 
Danville  has  a  large  trade  in  coal;  it  has  also  several  manufactur- 
ing establishments  engaged  principally  in  the  construction  and 
repair  of  railway  cars,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  foundry 
products,  glass,  carriages,  flour  and  hominy.  The  value  of  the 
factory  products  of  the  city  in  1905  was  $3,304,120,  an  increase 
of  72-7  %  since  1900.  Danville  was  first  settled  about  1830  and 
was  first  incorporated  in  1839;  in  1874  it  was  chartered  as  a  city 
under  the  general  state  law  of  1872  for  the  incorporation  of 
municipalities.  It  annexed  Vermilion  Heights  in  1905,  South 
Danville  (pop.  in  1900,  898)  in  1906,  and  Germantown  (pop.  in 
1900,  1782)  and  Roselawn  in  1907. 

DANVILLE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Boyle  county, 
Kentucky,  U.S.A.,  113  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Cincinnati.  Pop.  (1890) 
3766;  (1900)  4285  (1913  negroes)  (1910)  5420.  The  city  is 
served  by  the  Southern  and  the  Cincinnati  Southern  railways, 
the  latter  connecting  at  Junction  city  (4  m.  S.)  with  the  Louis- 
ville &  Nashville  railway.  Danville  is  an  attractive  city, 
situated  in  the  S.E.  part  of  the  fertile  "  Blue  Grass  region  " 
of  Kentucky.  In  McDowell  Park  there  is  a  monument  to  the 
memory  of  Dr  Ephraim  McDowell  (1771-1830),  who  after  1795 
lived  in  Danville,  and  is  famous  for  having  performed  in 
1809  the  first  entirely  successful  operation  for  the  removal  of 
an  ovarian  tumour.  Danville  is  the  seat  of  several  educational 
institutions,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Central  Uni- 
versity of  Kentucky  (Presbyterian),  founded  in  1901  by  the 
consolidation  of  Centre  College  (opened  at  Danville  in  1823), 
and  the  Central  University  (opened  at  Richmond,  Ky.,  in  1874). 
The  law  school  also  is  in  Danville.  The  classical,  scientific  and 
literary  department  of  the  present  university  is  still  known  as 
Centre  College;  the  medical  and  dental  departments  are  in  Louis- 
ville, and  the  university  maintains  a  preparatory  school,  the 
Centre  College  academy,  at  Danville.  In  1908  the  university  had 
87  instructors  and  696  students.  Other  institutions  at  Danville 
are  Caldwell  College  for  women  (1860;  Presbyterian),  and  the 
Kentucky  state  institution  for  deaf  mutes  (1823).  The  Transyl- 
vania seminary  was  opened  here  in  1785,  but  four  years  later 
was  removed  to  Lexington  (<?.».),  and  a  Presbyterian  theological 
seminary  was  founded  here  in  1853,  but  was  merged  with  the 
Louisville  theological  seminary  (known  after  1902  as  the 
Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  of  Kentucky)  in  1901.  The 
municipality  owns  and  operates  its  water-works  and  power  plant. 
From  its  first  settlement  in  1781  until  the  admission  of  Kentucky 
into  the  Union  in  1792  Danville  was  an  important  political  centre. 
There  was  an  influential  political  club  here  from  1786  to  1790, 
and  here,  too,  sat  the  several  conventions — nine  in  all — which 
asked  for  a  separation  from  Virginia,  discussed  the  proposed 
conditions  of  separation  from  that  commonwealth,  framed  the 
first  state  constitution,  and  chose  Frankfort  as  the  capital. 
Danville  was  incorporated  in  1789.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
James  G.  Birney  and  of  Theodore  O'Hara. 

DANVILLE,  a  borough  and  the  county-seat  of  Montour 
county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  on  the  N.  branch  of  the  Susque-: 
hanna  river,  about  65  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Harrisburg.  Pop.  (1890) 
7998;  (1900)  8042,  of  whom  771  were  foreign-born;  (1910 
census)  7517.  It  is  served  by  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  & 
Western,  and  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  railways,  and  by 
electric  railway  to  Bloomsburg.  The  borough  is  built  on  an 
elevated  bank  of  the  river  at  the  base  of  Montour  Ridge,  where 
the  narrow  valley  appears  to  be  shut  in  on  every  side  by  hills; 
the  river  is  spanned  by  a  steel  bridge,  built  in  1905.  Iron,  coal 
and  limestone  abound  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  borough  has  large 
manufactories  of  stoves  and  furnaces,  and  of  iron  and  steel,  in  one 
of  which  in  1845  a  "  T  "-rail,  probably  the  first  in  America,  was 
rolled.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  state  hospital  for  the  insane  (established 


in  1 868) .  The  water- works  and  electric  light  plant  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  A  settlement  was  founded  here 
about  1776  by  Captain  William  Montgomery  and  his  son  Daniel; 
and  a  town  was  laid  out  in  1792  and  called  Dan's  Town  until  the 
present  name  was  adopted  a  few  years  later.  Growth  was  slow 
until  the  discovery  of  iron  ore  on  Montour  Ridge,  followed  in 
1832  by  the  completion  of  the  N.  branch  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Canal,  which  runs  through  the  centre  of  the  borough.  Danville 
was  incorporated  in  1849. 

DANVILLE,  a  city  in  Pittsylvania  county,  Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on 
the  Dan  river  about  140  m.  (by  rail)  S.W.  of  Richmond.  Pop. 
(1890)  10,305;  (1900)  16,520  (6515  negroes);  (1910)  19,020.  It 
is  on  the  main  line  of  the  Southern  railway,  and  is  the  terminus 
of  branches  to  Richmond  and  Norfolk;  it  is  also  served  by  the 
Danville  &  Western  railway,  a  road  (75  m.  long)  connecting  with 
Stuart,  Va.,  and  controlled  by  the  Southern,  though  operated 
independently.  The  city  is  built  on  high  ground  above  the  river. 
It  has  a  city  hall,  a  general  hospital,  a  Masonic  temple,  and  a 
number  of  educational  institutions,  including  the  Roanoke 
College  (1860;  Baptist),  for  young  women;  the  Randolph- 
Macon  Institute  (1897;  Methodist  Episcopal,  South),  for  girls; 
and  a  commercial  college.  The  river  furnishes  valuable  water- 
power,  which  is  utilized  by  the  city's  manufactories  (value  of 
product  in  1900,  third  in  rank  in  the  state,  $8,103,484,  of  which 
only  $3,693,792  was  "  factory  "  product;  in  1905  the  "  factory  " 
product  was  valued  at  $4,774,818),  including  cotton  mills — in 
1905  Danville  ranked  first  among  the  cities  of  the  state  in  the 
value  of  cotton  goods  produced — a  number  of  tobacco  factories, 
furniture  and  overall  factories,  and  flour  and  knitting  mills. 
The  city  is  a  jobbing  centre  and  wholesale  market  for  a  consider- 
able area  in  southern  Virginia  and  northern  North  Carolina,  and 
is  probably  the  largest  loose-leaf  tobacco  market  in  the  country, 
selling  about  40,000,000  Ib  annually.  In  the  industrial  suburb 
of  Schoolfield,  which  in  1908  had  a  population  of  about  3000,  there 
is  a  large  textile  mill.  The  city  owns  and  operates  its  water- 
supply  system  (with  an  excellent  filtration  plant  installed  in  1904) 
and  its  gas  and  electric  lighting  plants.  Danville  was  settled 
about  1770,  was  first  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1792,  and  became 
a  city  in  1833;  it  is  politically  independent  of  Pittsylvania 
county.  To  Danville,  after  the  evacuation  of  Richmond  on  the 
2nd  of  April  1865,  the  archives  of  the  Confederacy  were  carried, 
and  here  President  Jefferson  Davis  paused  for  a  few  days  in  his 
flight  southward. 

DANZIG,  or  DANTSIC  (Polish  Gdansk),  a  strong  maritime 
fortress  and  seaport  of  Germany,  capital  of  the  province  of  West 
Prussia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  western  arm  of  the  Vistula, 
4  m.  S.  of  its  entrance,  at  Neufahrwasser,  into  the  Baltic,  253  m. 
N.E.  from  Berlin  by  rail.  Pop.  (1885)  114,805;  (1905)  159,088. 
The  city  is  traversed  by  two  branches  of  the  Mottlau,  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Vistula,  dredged  to  a  depth  of  15  ft.,  thus  enab- 
ling large  vessels  to  reach  the  wharves  of  the  inner  town.  The 
strong  fortifications  which,  with  ramparts,  bastions  and  wet 
ditches,  formerly  entirely  surrounded  the  city,  were  removed  on 
the  north  and  west  sides  in  1895-1896,  the  trenches  filled  in,  and 
the  area  thus  freed  laid  out  on  a  spacious  plan.  One  portion, 
acquired  by  the  municipality,  has  been  turned  into  promenades 
and  gardens,  the  Steffens  Park,  outside  the  Olivaer  Tor,  fifty  acres 
in  extent,  occupying  the  north-western  corner.  The  remainder  of 
the  massive  defences  remain,  with  twenty  bastions,  in  the  hands 
of  the  military  authorities;  the  works  for  laying  the  surrounding 
country  under  water  on  the  eastern  side  have  been  modernized, 
and  the  western  side  defended  by  a  cordon  of  forts  crowning  the 
hills  and  extending  down  to  the  port  of  Neufahrwasser. 

Danzig  almost  alone  of  larger  German  cities  still  preserves  its 
picturesque  medieval  aspect.  The  grand  old  patrician  houses  of 
the  days  of  its  Hanseatic  glory,  with  their  lofty  and  often  elabor- 
ately ornamented  gables  and  their  balconied  windows,  are  the 
delight  of  the  visitor  to  the  town.  Only  one  ancient  feature  is 
rapidly  disappearing — owing  to  the  exigencies  of  street  traffic — 
the  stone  terraces  close  to  the  entrance  doors  and  abutting  on  the 
street.  Of  its  old  gates  the  Hohe  Tor,  modelled  after  a  Roman 
triumphal  arch,  is  a  remarkable  monumental  erection  of  the  i6th 


DAPHLA  HILLS— DAPHNEPHORIA 


825 


century.  From  it  runs  the  Lange  Gasse,  the  main  street,  to  the 
Lange  Markt.  On  this  square  stands  the  Artus-  or  Junker-hof 
(the  merchant  princes  of  the  middle  ages  were  in  Germany  styled 
Junker,  squire),  containing  a  hall  richly  decorated  with  wood 
carving  and  pictures,  once  used  as  a  banqueting-room  and  now 
serving  as  the  exchange.  There  are  twelve  Protestant  and  seven 
Roman  Catholic  churches  and  two  synagogues.  Of  these  the 
most  important  is  St  Mary's,  begun  in  1343  and  completed  in 
1503,  one  of  the  largest  Protestant  churches  in  existence.  It 
possesses  a  famous  painting  of  the  Last  Judgment,  formerly 
attributed  to  Jan  van  Eyck,  but  probably  by  Memlinc.  Among 
other  ancient  buildings  of  note  are  the  beautiful  Gothic  town  hall, 
surmounted  by  a  graceful  spire,  the  armoury  (Zeughaus)  and 
the  Franciscan  monastery,  restored  in  1871,  and  now  housing 
the  municipal  picture  gallery  and  a  collection  of  antiquities. 
Of  modern  structures,  the  government  offices,  the  house  of  the 
provincial  diet,  the  post  office  and  the  palace  of  the  commander 
of  the  i yth  army  corps,  which  has  its  headquarters  in  Danzig,  are 
the  most  noteworthy. 

The  manufacture  of  arms  and  artillery  is  carried  on  to  a  great 
extent,  and  the  imperial  and  private  docks  and  shipbuilding 
establishments,  notably  the  Schichau  yard,  turn  out  ships  of  the 
largest  size.  The  town  is  famous  for  its  amber,  beer,  brandy  and 
liqueurs,  and  its  transit  trade  makes  it  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  cities  of  northern  Europe.  Danzig  originally  owed  its 
commercial  importance  to  the  fact  that  it  was  the  shipping  port 
for  the  corn  grown  in  Poland  and  the  adjacent  regions  of  Russia 
and  Prussia;  but  for  some  few  years  past  this  trade  has  been 
slipping  away  from  her.  On  the  other  hand,  her  trade  in  timber 
and  sugar  has  grown  proportionally.  Nevertheless  energetic 
efforts  are  being  made  to  check  any  loss  of  importance — first,  in 
1898,  by  a  determined  attempt  to  make  Danzig  an  industrial 
centre,  manufacturing  on  a  large  scale;  and  secondly,  by  the 
construction  and  opening  in  1899  of  a  free  harbour  at  Neufahr- 
wasser  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula.  The  industries  which  it  has 
been  the  principal  aim  to  foster  and  further  develop  are  ship- 
building (naval  and  marine),  steel  foundries  and  rolling  mills, 
sugar  refineries,  flour  and  oil  mills,  and  distilleries. 

History. — The  origin  of  Danzig  is  unknown,  but  it  is  mentioned 
in  997  as  an  important  town.  At  different  times  it  was  held  by 
Pomerania,  Poland,  Brandenburg  and  Denmark,  and  in  1308 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  under  whose 
rule  it  long  prospered.  It  was  one  of  the  four  chief  towns  of 
the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1455,  when  the  Teutonic  Order  had 
become  thoroughly  corrupt,  Danzig  shook  off  its  yoke  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  king  of  Poland,  to  whom  it  was  formally  ceded, 
along  with  the  whole  of  West  Prussia,  at  the  peace  of  Thorn. 
Although  nominally  subject  to  Poland,  and  represented  in  the 
Polish  diets  and  at  the  election  of  Polish  kings,  it  enjoyed  the 
rights  of  a  free  city,  and  governed  a  considerable  territory  with 
more  than  thirty  villages.  It  suffered  severely  through  various 
wars  of  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries,  and  in  1734,  having  declared 
in  favour  of  Stanislus  Leszczynski,  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the 
Russians  and  Saxons.  At  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  in  1772, 
Danzig  was  separated  from  that  kingdom;  and  in  1793  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  In  1807,  during  the  war  between 
France  and  Prussia,  it  was  bombarded  and  captured  by  Marsha] 
Lefebvre,  who  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  duke  of  Danzig; 
and  at  the  peace  of  Tilsit  Napoleon  declared  it  a  free  town,  under 
the  protection  of  France,  Prussia  and  Saxony,  restoring  to  it  its 
ancient  territory.  A  French  governor,  however,  remained  in  it, 
and  by  compelling  it  to  submit  to  the  continental  system  almost 
ruined  its  trade.  It  was  given  back  to  Prussia  in  1814. 

See  J.  C.  Schultz,  Danzig  und  seine  Bauwerke  (Berlin,  1873); 
Wistulanus,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Danzig  (Danzig,  1891);  Offense  de 
Dantzigen  1813;  documents  militairesdu  lieutenant-general  Campredon, 
pub.  by  Auriel  (Paris,  1888);  Daniel,  Deutschland  (Leipzig,  1895). 

DAPHLA  (or  DAFLA)  HILLS,  a  tract  of  hilly  country  on  the 
border  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  occupied  by  an  independent 
tribe  called  Daphla.  It  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Tezpur  and  North 
Lakhimpur  subdivisions,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Aka 
Hills  and  on  the  east  by  the  Abor  range.  Colonel  Dalton  in 


The  Ethnology  of  Bengal  considers  the  Daphlas  to  be  closely  allied 
to  the  hill  Mini,  and  they  are  akin  to  and  intermarry  with  the 
Abors.  They  have  a  reputation  for  cowardice,  and  as  politically 
they  are  disunited,  they  are  at  the  mercy  of  the  Akas,  their 
less  numerous  but  more  warlike  neighbours  on  the  west.  Their 
clothing  is  scanty,  and  its  most  distinguishing  feature  is  a  cane 
cap  with  a  fringe  of  bearskin  or  feathers,  which  gives  them  a  very 
curious  appearance.  The  men  wear  their  hair  in  a  plait,  which  is 
coiled  into  a  ball  on  the  forehead,  to  which  they  fasten  their 
caps  with  a  long  skewer.  In  1872  a  party  of  independent 
Daphlas  suddenly  attacked  a  colony  of  their  own  tribesmen,  who 
had  settled  at  Amtola  in  British  territory,  and  carried  away  forty- 
four  captives  to  the  hills.  This  led  to  the  Daphla  expedition  of 
1874,  when  a  force  of  1000  troops  released  the  prisoners  and 
reduced  the  tribe  to  submission.  According  to  the  census  of  1901 
the  Daphlas  in  British  territory  numbered  954,  the  tribal  country 
not  being  enumerated. 

DAPHNAE  (Tahpanhes,  Taphne;  mod.  Defenneh),  an  ancient 
fortress  near  the  Syrian  frontier  of  Egypt,  on  the  Pelusian  arm  of 
the  Nile.  Here  King  Psammetichus  established  a  garrison  of 
foreign  mercenaries,  mostly  Carians  and  Ionian  Greeks  (Herodotus 
ii.  154).  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadrezzar 
in  588  B.C.,  the  Jewish  fugitives,  of  whom  Jeremiah  was  one,  came 
to  Tahpanhes.  When  Naucratis  was  given  by  Amasis  II.  the 
monopoly  of  Greek  traffic,  the  Greeks  were  all  removed  from 
Daphnae,  and  the  place  never  recovered  its  prosperity;  in 
Herodotus's  time  the  deserted  remains  of  the  docks  and  buildings 
were  visible.  The  site  was  discovered  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Flinders 
Petrie  in  1886;  the  name  "  Castle  of  the  Jew's  Daughter  " 
seems  to  preserve  the  tradition  of  the  Jewish  refugees.  There  is 
a  massive  fort  and  enclosure;  the  chief  discovery  was  a  large 
number  of  fragments  of  pottery,  which  are  of  great  importance 
for  the  chronology  of  vase-painting,  since  they  must  belong  to 
the  time  between  Psammetichus  and  Amasis,  i.e.  the  end  of  the 
7th  or  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  They  show  the 
characteristics  of  Ionian  art,  but  their  shapes  and  other  details 
testify  to  their  local  manufacture. 

See  W.M.  F.  Petrie,  Tanis  II.,  Nebesheh,  and  Defenneh  (4th  Memoir 
of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  1888).  (E.  GR.) 

DAPHNE  (Gr.  for  a  laurel  tree),  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  the  Arcadian  river-god  Ladon  or  the  Thessalian 
Peneus,  or  of  the  Laconian  Amyclas.  She  was  beloved  by  Apollo, 
and  when  pursued  by  him  was  changed  by  her  mother  Gaea  into 
a  laurel  tree  sacred  to  the  god  (Ovid,  Metam.  i.  452-567).  In 
the  Peloponnesian  legends,  another  suitor  of  Daphne,  Leucippus, 
son  of  Oenomaiis  of  Pisa,  disguised  himself  as  a  girl  and  joined  her 
companions.  His  sex  was  discovered  while  bathing,  and  he  was 
slain  by  the  nymphs  (Pausanias  viii.  20;  Parthenius,  Erotica,  15). 

DAPHNE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  shrubs,  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Thymelaeaceae,  and  containing  about  forty  species, 
natives  of  Europe  and  temperate  Asia.  D.  Laureola,  spurge 
laurel,  a  small  evergreen  shrub  with  green  flowers  in  the  leaf  axils 
towards  the  ends  of  the  branches  and  ovoid  black  very  poisonous 
berries,  is  found  in  England  in  copses  and  on  hedge-banks  in  stiff 
soils.  D.  Mezereum,  mezereon,  a  rather  larger  shrub,  2  to  4  ft. 
high,  has  deciduous  leaves,  and  bears  fragrant  pink  flowers  in 
clusters  in  the  axils  of  last  season's  leaves,  in  early  spring  before 
the  foliage.  The  bright  red  ovoid  berries  are  cathartic,  the  whole 
plant  is  acrid  and  poisonous,  and  the  bark  is  used  medicinally. 
It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  north  Asia,  and  found  apparently  wild 
in  copses  and  woods  in  Britain.  It  is  a  well-known  garden  plant, 
and  several  other  species  of  the  genus  are  cultivated  in  the  open 
air  and  as  greenhouse  plants.  D.  Cneorum  (Europe)  is  a  hardy 
evergreen  trailing  shrub,  with  bright  pink  sweet-scented  flowers. 
D.  pontica  (Eastern  Europe)  is  a  hardy  spreading  evergreen 
with  greenish-yellow  fragrant  flowers.  D.  indica  (China)  and 
D.  japonica  (Japan)  are  greenhouse  evergreens  with  respectively 
red  or  white  and  pinkish-purple  flowers. 

DAPHNEPHORIA,  a  festival  held  every  ninth  year  at  Thebes 
in  Boeotia  in  honour  of  Apollo  Ismenius  or  Galaxius.  It  consisted 
of  a  procession  in  which  the  chief  figure  was  a  boy  of  good  family 
and  noble  appearance,  whose  father  and  mother  must  be  alive. 


826 


DAPHNIS— D'ARBLAY 


Immediately  in  front  of  this  boy,  who  was  called  Daphnephoros 
(laurel  bearer),  walked  one  of  his  nearest  relatives,  carrying  an 
olive  branch  hung  with  laurel  and  flowers  and  having  on  the 
upper  end  a  bronze  ball  from  which  hung  several  smaller  balls. 
Another  smaller  ball  was  placed  on  the  middle  of  the  branch  or 
pole  (called  /coww),  which  was  then  twined  round  with  purple 
ribbons,  and  at  the  lower  end  with  saffron  ribbons.  These  balls 
were  said  to  indicate  the  sun,  stars  and  moon,  while  the  ribbons 
referred  to  the  days  of  the  year,  being  365  in  number.  The  Daphne- 
phoros, wearing  a  golden  crown,  or  a  wreath  of  laurel,  richly 
dressed  and  partly  holding  the  pole,  was  followed  by  a  chorus  of 
maidens  carrying  suppliant  branches  and  singing  a  hymn  to  the 
god.  The  Daphnephoros  dedicated  a  bronze  tripod  in  the  temple 
of  Apollo,  and  Pausanias  (ix.  10. 4)  mentions  the  tripod  dedicated 
there  by  Amphitryon  when  his  son  Heracles  had  been  Daphne- 
phoros. The  festival  is  described  by  Proclus  (in  Photius  cod.  239). 
See  also  A.  Mommsen,  Feste  der  Stadt  Athen  (1898) ;  C.  O.  Miiller, 
Orchomenos  (1844);  article  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire 
des  antiquites. 

DAPHNIS,  the  legendary  hero  of  the  shepherds  of  Sicily,  and 
reputed  inventor  of  bucolic  poetry.  The  chief  authorities  for  his 
story  are  Diodorus  Siculus,  Aelian  and  Theocritus.  According 
to  his  countryman  Diodorus  (iv.84),and  Aelian  ( Far.  Hist.,x.  18), 
Daphnis  was  the  son  of  Hermes  (in  his  character  of  the  shepherd- 
god)  and  a  Sicilian  nymph,  and  was  born  or  exposed  and  found 
by  shepherds  in  a  grove  of  laurels  (whence  his  name.)  He  was 
brought  up  by  the  nymphs,  or  by  shepherds,  and  became  the 
owner  of  flocks  and  herds,  which  he  tended  while  playing  on  the 
syrinx.  When  in  the  first  bloom  of  youth,  he  won  the  affection 
of  a  nymph,  who  made  him  promise  to  love  none  but  her, 
threatening  that,  if  he  proved  unfaithful,  he  would  lose  his  eye- 
sight. He  failed  to  keep  his  promise  and  was  smitten  with  blind- 
ness. Daphnis,  who  endeavoured  to  console  himself  by  playing 
the  flute  and  singing  shepherds'  songs,  soon  afterwards  died.  He 
fell  from  a  cliff,  or  was  changed  into  a  rock,  or  was  taken  up  to 
heaven  by  his  father  Hermes,  who  caused  a  spring  of  water  to 
gush  out  from  the  spot  where  his  son  had  been  carried  off.  Ever 
afterwards  the  Sicilians  offered  sacrifices  at  this  spring  as  an 
expiatory  offering  for  the  youth's  early  death.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  Aelian  in  his  account  follows  Stesichorus  (q.v.)  of 
Himera,  who  in  like  manner  had  been  blinded  by  the  vengeance 
of  a  woman  (Helen)  and  probably  sang  of  the  sufferings  of 
Daphnis  in  his  recantation.  Nothing  is  said  of  Daphnis's  blind- 
ness by  Theocritus,  who  dwells  on  his  amour  with  Nais;  his 
victory  over  Menalcas  in  a  poetical  competition;  his  love  for 
Xenea  brought  about  by  the  wrath  of  Aphrodite;  his  wanderings 
through  the  woods  while  suffering  the  torments  of  unrequited  love ; 
his  death  just  at  the  moment  when  Aphrodite,  moved  by  com- 
passion, endeavours  (but  too  late)  to  save  him;  the  deep  sorrow, 
shared  by  nature  and  all  created  things,  for  his  untimely  end 
(Theocritus  i.  vii.  viii.).  A  later  form  of  the  legend  identifies 
Daphnis  with  a  Phrygian  hero,  and  makes  him  the  teacher  of 
Marsyas.  The  legend  of  Daphnis  and  his  early  death  may  be 
compared  with  those  of  Narcissus,  Linus  and  Adonis — all 
beautiful  youths  cut  off  in  their  prime,  typical  of  the  luxuriant 
growth  of  vegetation  in  the  spring,  and  its  sudden  withering  away 
beneath  the  scorching  summer  sun. 

See  F.  G.  Welcker,  Kleine  Schriften  zur  griechischen  Litteratur- 
geschichte,  i.  (1844);  C.  F.  Hermann,  De  Daphnide  Theocriti  (1853); 
R.  H.  Klausen,  Aeneas  und  die  Penaten,  i.  (1840);  R.  Reitzenstein, 
Epigramm  und  Skolion  (1893) ;  H.  W.  Prescott  in  Harvard  Studies,  x. 
(1899);  H.  W.  Stoll  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie;  and 
G.  Knaack  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclopddie. 

DARAB  (originally  DARABGERD),  a  district  of  the  province 
of  Pars  in  Persia.  It  has  sixty-two  villages,  and  possesses  a  hot 
climate,  snow  being  rarely  seen  there  in  winter.  It  produces  a 
great  quantity  of  dates  and  much  tobacco,  which  is  considered 
the  best  in  Persia.  The  town  Darab,  the  capital  of  the  district, 
is  situated  in  a  very  fertile  plain,  140  m.  S.E.  of  Shiraz.  It  has 
a  population  of  about  5000,  and  extensive  orchards  of  orange 
and  lemon  trees  and  immense  plantations  of  date-palms.  Legend 
ascribes  the  foundation  of  the  city  to  Darius,  hence  its  name 
Darab-gerd  (Darius-town).  In  the  neighbourhood  there  are 


various  remains  of  antiquity,  the  most  important  of  which 
35  m.  S.,  is  known  as  the  Kalah  i  Darab,  or  citadel  of  Darius,  and 
consists  of  a  series  of  earthworks  arranged  in  a  circle  round 
an  isolated  rock.  Nothing,  however,  remains  to  fix  the  date  or 
explain  the  history  of  the  fortification.  Another  monument  in  the 
vicinity  is  a  gigantic  bas-relief,  carved  on  the  vertical  face  of  a 
rock,  representing  the  victory  of  the  Sassanian  Shapur  I.  (Sapor) 
of  Persia  over  the  Roman  emperor  Valerian,  A.D.  260. 

DARBHAN6A,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Patna  division  of  Bengal.  The  town  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Little  Baghmati  river,  and  has  a  railway  station.  Pop.  (1901) 
66,244.  The  town  is  really  a  collection  of  villages  that  have 
grown  up  round  the  residence  of  the  raja.  This  is  a  magnificent 
palace,  with  gardens,  a  menagerie  and  a  good  library.  There 
are  a  first-class  hospital,  with  a  Lady  Dufferin  hospital  attached; 
a  handsome  market-place,  and  an  Anglo-vernacular  school. 
The  district  of  Darbhanga  extends  from  the  Nepal  frontier  to  the 
Ganges.  It  was  constituted  in  1875  out  of  the  unwieldy  district 
of  Tirhoot.  Its  area  is  3348  sq.  m.  In  1901  the  population  was 
2,91 2,6 1 1 ,  showing  an  increase  of  4  %  in  the  decade.  The  district 
consists  entirely  of  an  alluvial  plain,  in  which  the  principal  rivers 
are  the  Ganges,  Buri  Gandak,  Baghmati  and  Little  Baghmati, 
Balanand  Little  Balan,  and  Tiljuga.  The  land  is  especially  fertile 
in  the  more  elevated  part  of  the  district  S.W.  of  the  Buri  Gandak; 
rice  is  the  staple  crop,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  the  cultivator 
in  Darbhanga  is  especially  dependent  on  the  winter  harvest. 
The  chief  exports  are  rice,  indigo,  linseed  and  other  seeds,  saltpetre 
and  tobacco.  There  are  several  indigo  factories  and  saltpetre 
refineries,  and  a  tobacco  factory.  The  district  is  traversed  by  the 
main  line  of  the  Bengal  &  North- Western  railway  and  by  branch 
lines,  part  of  which  were  begun  as  a  famine  relief  work  in  1874. 

The  maharaja  bahadur  of  Darbhanga,  a  Rajput,  whose  ancestor 
Mahesh  Thakor  received  the  Darbhanga  raj  (which  includes  large 
parts  of  the  modern  districts  of  Darbhanga,  Muzaffarpur, 
Monghyr,  Purnea  and  Bhagalpur)  from  the  emperor  Akbar  early 
in  the  i6th  century,  is  not  only  the  premier  territorial  noble  of 
Behar  but  one  of  the  greatest  noblemen  of  all  India.  Maharaja 
Lachhmeswar  Singh  Bahadur,  who  succeeded  to  the  raj  in  1860 
and  died  in  1898,  was  distinguished  for  his  public  services,  and 
especially  as  one  of  the  most  munificent  of  living  philanthropists. 
Under  his  supervision  his  raj  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  model 
for  good  and  benevolent  management;  he  constructed  hundreds 
of  miles  of  roads  planted  with  trees,  bridged  all  the  rivers,  and 
constructed  irrigation  works  on  a  great  scale.  His  charities  were 
without  limit;  thus  he  contributed  £300,000  for  the  relief  of  the 
sufferers  from  the  Bengal  famine  of  1873-1874,  and  it  is  computed 
that  during  his  possession  of  the  raj  he  expended  at  least 
£2,000,000  on  charities,  works  of  public  utility,  and  charitable 
remissions  of  rent.  For  many  years  he  served  as  a  member  of  the 
legislative  council  of  the  viceroy  with  conspicuous  ability  and 
moderation  of  view.  As  representative  of  the  landowners  of 
Berar  and  Bengal  he  took  an  important  part  in  the  discussion 
on  the  Bengal  Tenancy  Bill.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Maharaja  Rameshwar  Singh  Bahadur,  who  was  born  on  the  i6th 
of  January  1860,  and  on  attaining  his  majority  in  1878  was 
appointed  to  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  serving  as  assistant 
magistrate  successively  at  Darbhanga,  Chhapra  and  Bhagalpur. 
In  1886  he  was  created  a  raja  bahadur,  exempted  from  attend- 
ance at  the  civil  courts,  and  appointed  a  member  of  the  legislative 
council  of  Bengal.  He  was  created  a  maharaja  bahadur  on  his 
succession  to  the  raj  in  1898.  Like  his  brother,  he  was  educated 
by  an  English  tutor,  and  his  administration  carried  on  the 
enlightened  traditions  of  his  predecessor. 

See  Sir  Roper  Lethbridge,  The  Golden  Book  of  India. 

D'ARBLAY,  FRANCES  (1752-1840),  English-  novelist  and 
diarist,  better  known  as  FANNY  BURNEY,  daughter  of  Dr  Charles 
Burney  (q.v.),  was  born  at  King's  Lynn,  Norfolk,  on  the  i3th  of 
June  1752.  Her  mother  was  Esther  Sleepe,  granddaughter  of  a 
French  refugee  named  Dubois.  Fanny  was  the  fourth  child  in  a 
family  of  six.  Of  her  brothers,  James  (1750-1821)  became  an 
admiral  and  sailed  with  Captain  Cook  on  his  second  and  third 
voyages,  and  Charles  Burney  (1757-1817)  was  a  well-known 


D'ARBLAY 


827 


classical  scholar.  In  1760  the  family  removed  to  London,  and 
Dr  Burney,  who  was  now  a  fashionable  music  master,  took  a 
house  in  Poland  Street.  Mrs  Burney  died  in  1761,  when  Fanny 
was  only  nine  years  old.  Her  sisters  Esther  (Hetty),  afterwards 
Mrs  Charles  Rousseau  Burney,  and  Susanna,  afterwards  Mrs 
Phillips,  were  sent  to  school  in  Paris,  but  Fanny  was  left  to 
educate  herself.  Early  in  1766  she  paid  her  first  visit  to  Dr 
Burney's  friend  Samuel  Crisp  at  Chessington  Hall,  near  Epsom. 
Dr  Burney  had  first  made  Samuel  Crisp's  acquaintance  about 
1 745  a{.  the  house  of  Fulke  Greville,  grandfather  of  the  diarists, 
and  the  two  studied  music  while  the  rest  of  the  guests  hunted. 
Crisp  wrote  a  play,  Virginia,  which  was  staged  by  David  Garrick 
in  1754  at  the  request  of  the  beautiful  countess  of  Coventry  (nee 
Maria  Gunning).  The  play  had  no  great  success,  and  in  1764 
Crisp  established  himself  in  retirement  at  Chessington  Hall, 
where  he  frequently  entertained  his  sister,  Mrs  Sophia  Cast,  of 
Burford,  Oxfordshire,  and  Dr  Burney  and  his  family,  to  whom 
he  was  familiarly  known  as  "  daddy  "  Crisp.1  It  was  to  her 
"  daddy  "  Crisp  and  her  sister  Susan  that  Fanny  Burney  addressed 
large  portions  of  her  diary  and  many  of  her  letters.  After  his 
wife's  death  in  1767,  Dr  Burney  married  Elizabeth  Allen,  widow 
of  a  King's  Lynn  wine-merchant. 

From  her  fifteenth  year  Fanny  lived  in  the  midst  of  an  excep- 
tionally brilliant  social  circle,  gathered  round  her  father  in  Poland 
Street,  and  later  in  his  new  home  in  St  Martin's  Street,  Leicester 
Fields.  Garrick  was  a  constant  visitor,  and  would  arrive  before 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Of  the  various  "  lyons  "  they 
entertained  she  leaves  a  graphic  account,  notably  of  Omai, 
the  Otaheitan  native,  and  of  Alexis  Orlov,  the  favourite  of 
Catherine  II.  of  Russia.  Dr  Johnson  she  first  met  at  her  father's 
home  in  March  1777.  Her  father's  drawing-room,  where  she  met 
many  of  the  chief  musicians,  actors  and  authors  of  the  day,  was 
in  fact  Fanny's  only  school.  Her  reading,  however,  was  by 
no  means  limited.  Macaulay  stated  that  in  the  whole  of  Dr 
Burney's  library  there  was  but  one  novel,  Fielding's  Amelia; 
but  Austin  Dobson  points  out  that  she  was  acquainted  with  the 
abbe  Prevost's  Doyen  de  Killerine,  and  with  Marivaux's  Vie  de 
Marianne,  besides  Clarissa  Harlowe  and  the  books  of  Mrs 
Elizabeth  Griffith  and  Mrs  Frances  Brooke.  Her  diary  also 
contains  the  record  of  much  more  strenuous  reading.  Her  step- 
mother, a  woman  of  some  cultivation,  did  not  encourage  habits 
of  scribbling.  Fanny,  therefore,  made  a  bonfire  of  her  MSS., 
among  them  a  History  of  Caroline  Evelyn,  a  story  containing  an 
account  of  Evelina's  mother.  Luckily  her  journal  did  not  meet 
with  the  same  fate.  The  first  entry  in  it  was  made  on  the  3oth  of 
May  1768,  and  it  extended  over  seventy-two  years.  The  earlier 
portions  of  it  underwent  wholesale  editing  in  later  days,  and  much 
of  it  was  entirely  obliterated.  She  planned  out  Evelina,  or  A 
Young  Lady's  Entrance  into  the  World,  long  before  it  was  written 
down.  Evelina  was  published  by  Thomas  Lowndes  in  the  end  of 
January  1778,  but  it  was  not  until  June  that  Dr  Burney  learned 
its  authorship,  when  the  book  had  been  reviewed  and  praised 
everywhere.  Fanny  proudly  told  Mrs  Thrale  the  secret.  Mrs 
Thrale  wrote  to  Dr  Burney  on  the  22nd  of  July:  "  Mr  Johnson 
returned  home  full  of  the  Prayes  of  the  Book  I  had  lent  him,  and 
protesting  that  there  were  passages  in  it  which  might  do  honour 
to  Richardson:  we  talk  of  it  for  ever,  and  he  feels  ardent  after 
the  denouement;  he  could  not  get  rid  of  the  Rogue,  he  said." 
Miss  Burney  soon  visited  the  Thrales  at  Streatham,  "  the  most 
consequential  day  I  have  spent  since  my  birth '.'  she  calls  the 
occasion.  It  was  the  prelude  to  much  longer  visits  there.  Dr 
Johnson's  best  compliments  were  made  for  her  benefit,  and 
eagerly  transcribed  in  her  diary.  His  affectionate  friendship  for 
"  little  Burney  "  only  ceased  with  his  death. 

Evelina  was  a  continued  success.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  sat  up  all 
night  to  read  it,  as  did  Edmund  Burke,  who  came  next  to  Johnson 
in  Miss  Burney's  esteem.  She  was  introduced  to  Elizabeth 
Montagu  and  the  other  bluestocking  ladies,  to  Richard  Brinsley 
Sheridan,  and  to  the  gay  Mrs  Mary  Cholmondeley,  the  sister  of 
Peg  Woffington,  whose  manners,  as  described  in  the  diary, 

1  His  letters  to  Mrs  Cast  and  another  sister,  Anne,  were  edited 
with  the  title  of  Burford  Papers  (1906),  by  W.  H.  Hutton. 


explain  much  of  Evelina.  At  the  suggestion  of  Mrs  Thrale,  and 
with  offers  of  help  from  Arthur  Murphy,  and  encouragement  from 
Sheridan,  Fanny  began  to  write  a  comedy.  Crisp,  realizing  the 
limitations  of  her  powers,  tried  to  dissuade  her,  and  the  piece, 
The  Witlings,  was  suppressed  in  deference  to  what  she  called  a 
"  hissing,  groaning,  catcalling  epistle  "  from  her  two  "  daddies." 
Meanwhile  her  intercourse  with  Mrs  Thrale  proved  very  exacting, 
and  left  her  little  time  for  writing.  She  went  with  her  to  Bath 
in  1780,  and  was  at  Streatham  again  in  1781.  Her  next  book  was 
written  partly  at  Chessington  and  after  much  discussion  with 
Mr  Crisp.  Cecilia;  or,  Memoirs  of  an  Heiress,  by  the  author  of 
Evelina,  was  published  in  5  vols.  in  1782  by  Messrs  Payne  & 
Cadell  (who  paid  the  author  £250 — not  £2000  as  stated  by 
Macaulay).  If  Cecilia  has  not  quite  the  freshness  and  charm 
of  Evelina,  it  is  more  carefully  constructed,  and  contains  many 
happy  examples  of  what  Johnson  called  Miss  Burney's  gift  of 
"  character-mongering."  Burke  sent  her  a  letter  full  of  high 
praise.  But  some  of  her  friends  found  the  writing  too  often 
modelled  on  Johnson's,  and  Horace  Walpole  thought  the  person- 
ages spoke  too  uniformly  in  character. 

On  the  24th  of  April  1783,  Fanny  Burney's  "  most  judicious 
adviser  and  stimulating  critic,"  "daddy"  Crisp,  died.  He  was 
her  devoted  friend,  as  she  was  to  him,  "  the  dearest  thing  on 
earth."  The  next  year  she  was  to  lose  two  more  friends.  Mrs 
Thrale  married  Piozzi,  and  Johnson  died.  Fanny  had  met  the 
celebrated  Mrs  Delany  in  1783,  and  she  now  attached  herself  to 
her.  Mrs  Delany,  who  was  living  (1785)  in  a  house  near  Windsor 
Castle  presented  to  her  by  George  III.,  was  on  the  friendliest 
terms  with  both  the  king  and  queen,  and  Fanny  was  honoured 
with  more  than  one  royal  interview.  Queen  Charlotte,  soon  after- 
wards, offered  Miss  Burney  the  post  of  second  keeper  of  the  robes, 
with  a  salary  of  £200  a  year,  which  after  some  hesitation  was 
accepted.  Much  has  been  said  against  Dr  Burney  for  allowing 
the  authoress  of  Evelina  and  Cecilia  to  undertake  an  office  which 
meant  separation  from  all  her  friends  and  a  wearisome  round  of 
court  ceremonial.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  fairly  urged  that 
Fanny's  literary  gifts  were  really  limited.  She  had  written 
nothing  for  four  years,  and  apparently  felt  she  had  used  her 
best  material.  "  What  my  daddy  Crisp  says,"  she  wrote  as  early 
as  1779,  "  '  that  it  would  be  the  best  policy,  but  for  pecuniary 
advantages,  for  me  to  write  no  more,'  is  exactly  what  I  have 
always  thought  since  Evelina  was  published  "  (Diary,  i.  258). 
Her  misgivings  as  to  her  unfitness  for  court  life  were  quite 
justified.  From  Queen  Charlotte  she  received  unvarying  kind- 
ness, though  she  was  not  very  clever  with  her  waiting-maid's 
duties.  She  had  to  attend  the  queen's  toilet,  to  take  care  of  her 
lap-dog  and  her  snuff-box,  and  to  help  her  senior,  Mrs  Schwellen- 
berg,  in  entertaining  the  king's  equerries  and  visitors  at  tea. 
The  constant  association  with  Mrs  Schwellenberg,  who  has  been 
described  as^"  a  peevish  old  person  of  uncertain  temper  and 
impaired  health,  swaddled  in  the  buckram  of  backstairs 
etiquette,  "  proved  to  be  the  worst  part  of  Fanny's  duties.  Her 
diary  is  full  of  amusing  court  gossip,  and  sometimes  deals  with 
graver  matters,  notably  in  the  account  of  Warren  Hastings' 
trial,  and  in  the  story  of  the  beginning  of  George  III.'s  madness, 
as  seen  by  a  member  of  his  household.  But  the  strain  told  on  her 
health,  and  after  pressure  both  from  Fanny  and  her  numerous 
friends,  Dr  Burney  prepared  with  her  a  joint  memorial  asking 
the  queen's  leave  to  resign.  She  left  the  royal  service  in  July 
1791  with  a  retiring  pension  of  £100  fc  year,  granted  from  the 
queen's  private  purse,  and  returned  to  her  father's  house  at 
Chelsea.  Dr  Burney  had  been  appointed  organist  at  Chelsea 
Hospital  in  1783,  through  Burke's  influence. 

In  1 792  she  became  acquainted  with  a  group  of  French  exiles, 
who  had  taken  a  house,  Juniper  Hall,  near  Mickleham,  where 
Fanny's  sister,  Mrs  Phillips,  lived.  On  the  3ist  of  July  1793  she 
married  one  of  the  exiles,  Alexandre  D'Arblay,  an  artillery 
officer,  who  had  been  adjutant-general  to  La  Fayette.  They 
took  a  cottage  at  Bookham  on  the  strength,  it  appears,  of  Miss 
Burney's  pension.  In  1793  she  produced  her  Brief  Reflections 
relative  to  the  Emigrant  French  Clergy.  Her  son  Alexandre  was 
born  on  the  i8th  of  December  1794.  In  the  following  spring 


828 


DARBOY— DARCY 


Sheridan  produced  at  Drury  Lane  her  Edwy  and  Elgiiia,  a  tragedy 
which  was  not  saved  even  by  the  acting  of  the  Kembles  and  Mrs 
Siddons.  The  play  was  never  printed.  Money  was  now  a  serious 
object,  and  Madame  D'Arblay  was  therefore  persuaded  to  issue 
her  next  novel,  Camilla:  or  A  Picture  of  Youth  (5  vols.,  1796), 
by  subscription.  A  month  after  publication  Dr  Burney  told 
Horace  Walpole  that  his  daughter  had  made  £2000  by  the  book, 
and  this  sum  was  almost  certainly  augmented  later.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  Jane  Austen  was  among  the  subscribers.  Unfor- 
tunately its  literary  success  was  not  as  great.  "  How  I  like 
Camilla  ?  "  wrote  Horace  Walpole  to  Miss  Hannah  More  (August 
29th,  1796),  "  I  do  not  care  to  say  how  little.  Alas!  she  has 
reversed  experience  .  .  .  this  author  knew  the  world  and 
penetrated  characters  before  she  had  stepped  over  the  threshold; 
and,  now  she  has  seen  so  much  of  it,  she  has  little  or  no  insight 
at  all:  perhaps  she  apprehended  having  seen  too  much,  and  kept 
the  bags  of  foul  air  that  she  brought  from  the  Cave  of  Tempests 
too  closely  tied."  Nevertheless  Camilla  has  found  judicious 
persons  to  admire  it,  notably  Jane  Austen  in  Northanger  Abbey. 
A  second  play,  Love  and  Fashion,  was  actually  put  in  rehearsal  in 
1799,  but  was  withdrawn  in  the  next  year.  In  1801  Madame 
D'Arblay  accompanied  her  husband  to  Paris,  where  General 
D'Arblay  eventually  obtained  a  place  in  the  civil  service.  In 
1812  she  returned  to  England,  bringing  with  her  her  son  Alexandra 
to  escape  the  conscription.  In  1814  she  published  TheWanderer; 
or  Female  Difficulties.  Possibly  because  readers  expected  to  find 
a  description  of  her  impressions  of  revolutionary  France,  it  had 
a  large  sale,  from  which  the  author  realized  £7000.  Nobody, 
it  has  been  said,  ever  read  The  Wanderer.  In  the  end  of  the 
year  General  D'Arblay  came  to  England  and  took  his  wife 
back  to  France.  During  the  Hundred  Days  of  1815  she  was 
in  Belgium,  and  the  vivid  account  in  her  Diary  of  Brussels 
during  Waterloo  may  have  been  used  by  Thackeray  in  Vanity 
Fair.  General  D'Arblay  now  received  permission  to  settle  in 
England.  After  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Bath  on  the  3rd 
of  May  1818,  his  wife  lived  in  Bolton  Street,  Piccadilly.  There 
she  was  visited  in  1826  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  describes  her 
(Journal,  November  i8th,  1826)  as  an  elderly  lady  with  no 
remains  of  personal  beauty,  but  with  a  gentle  manner  and  a 
pleasing  countenance.  The  later  years  of  her  life  were  occupied 
with  the  editing  of  the  Memoirs  of  Dr  Burney,  arranged  from  his 
own  Manuscripts,  from  family  papers  and  from  personal  recollec- 
tions (3  vols.,  1832).  Her  style  had,  as  time  went  on,  altered  for 
the  worse,  and  this  book  is  full  of  extraordinary  affectations. 
Madame  D'Arblay  died  in  London  on  the  6th  of  January  1840 
and  was  buried  at  Walcot,  Bath,  near  her  son  and  husband. 

Madame  D'Arblay  is  still  read  in  Evelina,  but  her  best  title  to 
the  affections  of  modern  readers  is  the  Diary  and  Letters.  The 
small  egotisms  of  the  writer  do  not  alienate  other  readers  as  they 
did  John  Wilson  Croker.  Dr  Johnson  lives  in  its  pages  almost  as 
vividly  as  in  those  of  Boswell,  and  King  George  andnis  wife  in  a 
friendlier  light  than  in  most  of  their  contemporary  portraits. 
Croker,  in  TheQuarterly  Review,  April  1833  and  June  1842,  made 
two  attacks  on  Madame  D'Arblay.  The  first  is  an  unfriendly 
but  largely  justifiable  criticism  on  the  Memoirs  of  Dr  Burney.  In 
the  second,  a  review  of  the  first  three  volumes  of  the  Diary  and 
Letters,  Croker  abused  the  writer's  innocent  varifty,  and  declared 
that,  considering  their  bulk  and  pretensions,  the  Diary  and 
Letters  were  "  nearly  the  most  worthless  we  have  ever  waded 
through."  These  prono«ncements  drew  forth  the  eloquent 
defence  by  Lord  Macaulay,  first  printed  in  The  Edinburgh  Review, 
January  1843,  which,  in  spite  of  some  inaccuracies  and  consider- 
able exaggeration,  has  perhaps  done  more  than  anything  else  to 
maintain  Madame  D'Arblay's  constant  popularity. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  Diary  and  Letters  of  Madame  D'Arblay  was 
edited  by  her  niece,  Charlotte  Frances  Barrett,  in  7  vols.  (1842-1846). 
The  text,  covering  the  years  1778-1840,  was  edited  with  preface, 
notes  and  reproductions  of  contemporary  portraits  and  other 
illustrations,  by  Mr  Austin  Dobson  in  6  vols.  (1904-1905).  This 
Diary,  which  begins  with  the  publication  of  Evelina,  was  supple- 
mented in  1889  by  The  Early  Diary  of  Frances  Burney  (1768-1778), 
which  was  in  the  first  instance  suppressed  as  being  of  purely  private 
interest,  edited  by  Mrs  Annie  Raine  Ellis,  with  an  introduction 


giving  many  particulars  of  the  Burney  family.  Mrs  Ellis  also  edited 
Evelina  for  "  Bohn's  Novelist's  Library  "  in  1881,  and  Cecilia  in  1882. 
See  also  Austin  Dobson's  Fanny  Burney  (Madame  D'Arblay)  (1903), 
in  the  "  English  Men  of  Letters  Series." 

DARBOY,  GEORGES  (1813-1871),  archbishop  of  Paris,  was 
born  at  Fayl-Billot  in  Haul  Marne  on  the  i6th  of  January  1813. 
He  studied  with  distinction  at  the  seminary  at  Langres,  and  was 
ordained  priest  in  1836.  Transferred  to  Paris  as  almoner  of  the 
college  of  Henry  IV.,  and  honorary  canon  of  Notre  Dame,  he 
became  the  close  friend  of  Archbishop  Affre  and  of  his  successor 
Archbishop  Sibour.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Nancy  ii  1859, 
and  in  January  1863  was  raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Paris. 
The  archbishop  was  a  strenuous  upholder  of  episcopal  independ- 
ence in  the  Gallican  sense,  and  involved  himself  in  a  controversy 
with  Rome  by  his  endeavours  to  suppress  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Jesuits  and  other  religious  orders  within  his  diocese.  Pius  IX. 
refused  him  the  cardinal's  hat,  and  rebuked  him  for  his  liberalism 
in  a  letter  which  was  probably  not  intended  for  publication.  At 
the  Vatican  council  he  vigorously  maintained  the  rights  of  the 
bishops,  and  strongly  opposed  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility, 
against  which  he  voted  as  inopportune.  When  the  dogma  had 
been  finally  adopted,  however,  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  set  the 
example  of  submission.  Immediately  after  his  return  to  Paris 
the  war  with  Prussia  broke  out,  and  his  conduct  during  the 
disastrous  year  that  followed  was  marked  by  a  devoted  heroism 
which  has  secured  for  him  an  enduring  fame.  He  was  active  in 
organizing  relief  for  the  wounded  at  the  commencement  of  the 
war,  remained  bravely  at  his  post  during  the  siege,  and  refused 
to  seek  safety  by  flight  during  the  brief  triumph  of  the  Commune. 
On  the  4th  of  April  1871  he  was  arrested  by  the  communists  as 
a  hostage,  and  confined  in  the  prison  at  Mazas,  from  which  he 
was  transferred  to  La  Roquette  on  the  advance  of  the  army  of 
Versailles.  On  the  27th  of  May  he  was  shot  within  the  prison 
along  with  several  other  distinguished  hostages.  He  died  in  the 
attitude  of  blessing  and  uttering  words  of  forgiveness.  His  body 
was  recovered  with  difficulty,  and,  having  been  embalmed,  was 
buried  with  imposing  ceremony  at  the  public  expense  on  the 
7th  of  June.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  Darboy  was  the 
third  archbishop  of  Paris  who  perished  by  violence  in  the 
period  between  1848  and  1871.  Darboy  was  the  author  of  a 
number  of  works,  of  which  the  most  important  are  a  Vie  de  St 
Thomas  Becket  (1859),  a  translation  of  the  works  of  St  Denis  the 
Areopagite,  and  a  translation  of  the  Imitation  of  Christ. 

See  J.  A.  Foulon,  Histoire  de  la  vie  et  des  asuvres  de  Mgr.  Darboy 
(Paris,  1889),  and  J.  Guillermin,  Vie  de  Mgr.  Darboy  (Pans,  1888), 
biographies  written  from  the  clerical  standpoint,  which  have  called 
forth  a  number  of  pamphlets  in  reply. 

DARCY,  THOMAS  DARCY,  BARON  (1467-1537),  English 
soldier,  was  a  son  of  Sir  William  Darcy  (d.  1488),  and  belonged  to 
a  family  which  was  seated  at  Templehurst  in  Yorkshire.  In  early 
life  he  served,  both  as  a  soldier  and  a  diplomatist,  in  Scotland  and 
on  the  Scottish  borders,  where  he  was  captain  of  Berwick;  and 
in  1505,  having  been  created  Baron  Darcy,  he  was  made  warden 
of  the  east  marches  towards  Scotland.  In  1511  Darcy  led  some 
troops  to  Spain  to  help  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  against  the 
Moors,  but  he  returned  almost  at  once  to  England,  and  was  with 
Henry  VIII.  on  his  French  campaign  two  years  later.  One  of  the 
most  influential  noblemen  in  the  north  of  England,  where  he  held 
several  important  offices,  Darcy  was  also  a  member  of  the  royal 
council,  dividing  his  time  between  state  duties  in  London  and  a 
more  active  life  in  the  north.  He  showed  great  zeal  in  preparing 
accusations  against  his  former  friend,  Cardinal  Wolsey;  how- 
ever, after  the  cardinal's  fall  his  words  and  actions  caused  him 
to  be  suspected  by  Henry  VIII.  Disliking  the  separation  from 
Rome,  Darcy  asserted  that  matrimonial  cases  were  matters  for 
the  decision  of  the  spiritual  power,  and  he  was  soon  communi- 
cating with  Eustace  Chapuys,  the  ambassador  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  about  an  invasion  of  England  in  the  interests  of  the 
Roman  Catholics.  Detained  in  London  against  his  will  by  the 
king,  he  was  not  allowed  to  return  to  Yorkshire  until  late  in 
IS3Si  ar>d  about  a  year  after  his  arrival  in  the  north  the  rising 
known  as  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  broke  out.  For  a  short  time 
Darcy  defended  Pontefract  Castle  against  the  rebels,  but  soo'n 


DARDANELLES—DAR-ES-SALAAM 


829 


he  surrendered  to  them  this  stronghold,  which  he  could  certainly 
have  held  a  little  longer,  and  was  with  them  at  Doncaster,  being 
regarded  as  one  of  their  leaders.  Upon  the  dispersal  of  the  in- 
surgents Darcy  was  pardoned,  but  he  pleaded  illness  when 
Henry  requested  him  to  proceed  to  London.  He  may  have 
assisted  to  suppress  the  rising  which  was  renewed  under  Sir 
Francis  Bigod  early  in  1537,  but  the  king  believed,  probably  with 
good  reason,  that  he  was  guilty  of  fresh  treasons,  and  he  was 
seized  and  hurried  to  London.  During  his  imprisonment  he 
uttered  his  famous  remark  about  Thomas  Cromwell: — "  Crom- 
well, it  is  thou  that  art  the  very  original  and  chief  causer  of  all 
this  rebellion  and  mischief,  .  .  .  and  I  trust  that  or  thou  die, 
though  thou  wouldst  procure  all  the  noblemen's  heads  within  the 
realm  to  be  stricken  off,  yet  shall  there  one  head  remain  that  shall 
strike  off  thy  head. "  Tried  by  his  peers,  Darcy  was  found  guilty  of 
treason,  and  was  beheaded  on  the  zoth  of  June  1537.  In  1548  his 
barony  was  revived  in  favour  of  his  son  George  (d.  1557),  but  it 
became  extinct  on  the  death  of  George's  descendant  John  in  1635.' 
DARDANELLES  (Turk.  Bahr-Sefed  Boghazi),  the  strait,  in 
ancient  times  called  the  Hellespont  (q.v.),  uniting  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  with  the  Aegean,  so  called  from  the  two  castles  which 
protect  the  narrowest  part  and  preserve  the  name  of  the  city  of 
Dardanus  in  the  Troad,  famous  for  the  treaty  between  Sulla  and 
Mithradates  in  84  B.C.  The  shores  of  the  strait  are  formed  by  the 
peninsula  of  Gallipoli  on  the  N.W.  and  by  the  mainland  of  Asia 
Minor  on  the  S.E.;  it  extends  for  a  distance  of  about  47  m.  with 
an  average  breadth  of  3  or  4  m.  At  the  Aegean  extremity  stand 
the  castles  of  Sedil  Bahr  and  Kum  Kaleh  respectively  in  Europe 
and  Asia;  and  near  the  Marmora  extremity  are  situated  the 
important  town  of  Gallipoli  (Callipolis)  on  the  northern  side,  and 
the  less  important  though  equally  famous  Lamsaki  or  Lapsaki 
(Lampsacus)  on  the  southern.  The  two  castles  of  the  Darda- 
nelles par  excellence  are  Chanak-Kalehsi,  Sultanieh-Kalehsi,  or 
the  Old  Castle  of  Anatolia,  and  Kilid-Bahr,  or  the  Old  Castle  of 
Rumelia,  which  were  long  but  erroneously  identified  with  Sestos 
and  Abydos  now  located  farther  to  the  north.  The  strait  of  the 
Dardanelles  is  famous  in  history  for  the  passage  of  Xerxes  by 
means  of  a  bridge  of  boats,  and  for  the  similar  exploit  on  the  part 
of  Alexander.  It  is  famous  also  from  the  story  of  Hero  and 
Leander,  and  from  Lord  Byron's  successful  attempt  (repeated  by 
others)  to  rival  the  ancient  swimmer.  Strategically  the  Darda- 
nelles is  a  point  of  great  importance,  since  it  commands  the 
approach  to  Constantinople  from  the  Mediterranean.  The 
passage  of  the  strait  is  easily  defended,  but  in  1807  the  English 
admiral  (Sir)  J.  T.  Duckworth  made  his  way  past  all  the  fortresses 
into  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  The  treaty  of  July  1841 ,  confirmed  by 
the  Paris  peace  of  1856,  prescribed  that  no  foreign  ship  of  war 
might  enter  the  strait  except  by  Turkish  permission,  and  even 
merchant  vessels  are  only  allowed  to  pass  the  castle  of  Chanak- 
Kalehsi  during  the  day. 

See  Choiseul-Gouffier,  Voyage  pittoredque  (Paris,  1842);  Murray's 
Handbook  for  Constantinople  (London,  1900). 

DARDANELLES  (Turk.  Sultanieh  Kalehsi,  or  Chanak  Kalehsi), 
the  chief  town  and  seat  of  government  of  the  lesser  Turkish 
province  of  Bigha,  Asia  Minor.  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhodius,  and  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  strait  of  the  Darda- 
nelles, where  its  span  is  but  a  mile  across.  Its  recent  growth  has 
been  rapid,  and  it  possesses  a  lyceum,  a  military  hospital,  a  public 
garden,  a  theatre,  quays  and  water-works.  Exclusive  of  the 
garrison,  the  population  is  estimated  at  13,000,  of  whom  one-half 
are  Turkish,  and  the  remainder  Greek,  Jewish,  Armenian  and 
European.  The  town  contains  many  mosques,  Greek,  Armenian 
and  Catholic  churches,  and  a  synagogue.  There  is  a  resident 
Greek  bishop.  The  civil  governor,  and  the  military  command- 
ants of  the  numerous  fortresses  on  each  side  of  the  strait,  are 
stationed  here.  Many  important  works  have  been  added  to 
the  defences.  The  Ottoman  fleet  is  stationed  at  Nagara  (anc. 
Abydos).  The  average  annual  number  of  merchant  vessels 
passing  the  strait  is  12,000  and  the  regular  commercial  vessels 
calling  at  the  port  of  Dardanelles  are  represented  by  numerous 
foreign  agencies.  Besides  the  Turkish  telegraph  service,  the 
Eastern  Telegraph  Company  has  a  station  at  Dardanelles,  and 


there  are  Turkish,  Austrian,  French  and  Russian  post  offices. 
The  import  trade  consists  of  manufactures,  sugar,  flour,  coffee, 
rice,  leather  and  iron.  The  export  trade  consists  of  valonia 
(largely  produced  in  the  province),  wheat,  barley,  beans,  chick- 
peas, canary  seed,  liquorice  root,  pine  and  oak  timber,  wine  and 
pottery.  Excepting  in  the  items  of  wine  and  pottery,  the  export 
trade  shows  steady  increase.  Every  year  sees  a  larger  area  of 
land  brought  under  cultivation  by  immigrants,  and  adds  to 
the  number  of  mature  (i.e.  fruit-bearing)  valonia  trees.  Vine- 
growers  are  discouraged  by  heavy  fiscal  charges,  and  by  the  low 
price  of  wine ;  many  have  uprooted  their  vineyards.  The  pottery 
trade  is  affected  by  change  of  fashion,  and  the  factories  are  losing 
their  importance.  The  lower  quarters  of  the  town  were  heavily 
damaged  in  the  winter  of  1900-1901  by  repeated  inundations 
caused  by  the  overflow  of  the  Rhodius. 

See  V.  Cuinet,  Turquie  d'Asie  (Paris,  1890-1900). 

DARDANUS,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Zeus  and  Electra,  the 
mythical  founder  of  Dardanus  on  the  Hellespont  and  ancestor  of 
the  Dardans  of  the  Troad  and,  through  Aeneas,  of  the  Romans. 
His  original  home  was  supposed  to  have  been  Arcadia,  where 
he  married  Chryse,  .who  brought  him  as  dowry  the  Palladium 
or  image  of  Pallas,  presented  to  her  by  the  goddess  herself 
Having  slain  his  brother  lasius  or  lasion  (according  to  others, 
lasius  was  struck  by  lightning),  Dardanus  fled  across  the  sea. 
He  first  stopped  at  Samothrace,  and  when  the  island  was  visited 
by  a  flood,  crossed  over  to  the  Troad.  Being  hospitably  received 
by  Teucer,  he  married  his  daughter  Batea  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  royal  house  of  Troy. 

See  Apollodorus  iii.  12;  Diod.  Sic.  v.  48-75;  Virgil,  Aeneid,  iii. 
163  ff. ;  articles  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclopadie  and  Roscner's 
Lexikon  der  Mythologie. 

DARDISTAN,  a  purely  conventional  name  given  by  scientists 
to  a  tract  of  country  on  the  north-west  frontier  of  India.  There  is 
no  modern  race  called  Dards,  and  no  country  so  named  by  its 
inhabitants,  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus, 
from  the  Kandia  river  to  Batera,  apply  it  to  the  dwellers  on  the 
left  bank.  In  the  scientific  use  of  the  appellation,  Dardistan 
comprises  the  whole  of  Chitral,  Yasin,  Panyal,  the  Gilgit  valley, 
Hunza  and  Nagar,  the  Astor  valley,  the  Indus  valley  from 
Bunji  to  Batera,  the  Kohistan-Malazai,  i.e.  the  upper  reaches  of 
the  Panjkora  river,  and  the  Kohistan  of  Swat.  The  so-called 
Dard  races  are  referred  to  by  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  and  are 
supposed  to  be  a  people  of  Aryan  origin  who  ascended  the  Indus 
valley  from  the  plains  of  the  Punjab,  reaching  as  far  north  as 
Chitral,  where  they  dispossessed  the  Khos.  They  have  left  their 
traces  in  the  different  dialects,  Khoswar,  Burishki  and  Shina, 
spoken  in  the  Gilgit  agency. 

The  question  of  Dardistan  is  debated  at  length  in  Leitner's 
Dardistan  (1877);  Drew's  Jummoo  and  Kashmir  Territories  (1875); 
Biddulph's  Tribes  of  the  Hindu-Rush  (1880)  and  Durand's  The 
Making  of  a  Frontier  (1899).  For  further  details  see  GILGIT. 

DARES  PHRYGIUS,  according  to  Homer  (Iliad,  v.  9)  a  Trojan 
priest  of  Hephaestus.  He  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  author 
of  an  account  of  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  to  have  lived  before 
Homer  (Aelian,  Var.  Hist.  xi.  2).  A  work  in  Latin,  purporting  to 
be  a  translation  of  this,  and  entitled  Darelis  Phrygii  de  excidio 
Trojae  historia,  was  much  read  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  then 
ascribed  to  Cornelius  Nepos,  who  is  made  to  dedicate  it  to  Sallust ; 
but  the  language  is  extremely  corrupt,  and  the  work  belongs  to  a 
period  much  later  than  the  time  of  Nepos  (probably  the  sth 
century  A.D.).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  work  as  we  have  it  is  an 
abridgment  of  a  larger  Latin  work  or  an  adaptation  of  a  Greek 
original.  Together  with  the  similar  work  of  Dictys  Cretensis 
(with  which  it  is  generally  printed)  the  De  excidio  forms  the  chief 
source  for  the  numerous  middle  age  accounts  of  the  Trojan  legend. 
(See  DICTYS;  and  O.  S.  von  Fleschenberg,  Daresstudien,  1908.) 

DAR-ES-SALAAM  ("  The  harbour  of  peace  "),  a  seaport  of 
East  Africa,  in  6°  50'  S.  39°  20'  E.,  capital  of  German  East 
Africa.  Pop.  (1909)  estimated  at  24,000,  including  some  500 
Europeans.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor,  which  is  perfectly 
sheltered  (hence  its  name),  is  through  a  narrow  opening  in  the 
palm-covered  shore.  The  harbour  is  provided  with  a  floating 
dock,  completed  in  1902.  The  town  is  built  on  the  northern 


83o 


DARESTE,  A.  E.  C.— DARFUR 


sweep  of  the  harbour  and  is  European  in  character.  The  streets 
are  wide  and  regularly  laid  out.  The  public  buildings,  which  are 
large  and  handsome,  include  the  government  and  customs  offices 
on  the  quay  opposite  the  spot  where  the  mail  boats  anchor,  the 
governor's  house,  state  hospital,  post  office,  and  the  Boma  or 
barracks.  Adjoining  the  governor's  residence  are  the  botanical 
gardens,  where  many  European  plants  are  tested  with  a  view  to 
acclimatization.  There  are  various  churches,  and  government 
and  mission  schools.  In  the  town  are  the  head  offices  of  the 
Deutsch-Ostafrikanische  Gesellschaft,  the  largest  trading  com- 
pany in  German  East  Africa.  The  mangrove  swamps  at  the 
north-west  end  of  the  harbour  have  been  drained  and  partially 
built  over. 

Until  the  German  occupation  nothing  but  an  insignificant 
village  existed  at  Dar-es-Salaam.  In  1862  Said  Majid,  sult'an  of 
Zanzibar,  decided  to  build  a  town  on  the  shores  of  the  bay,  and 
began  the  erection  of  a  palace,  which  was  never  finished,  and  of 
which  but  scanty  ruins  remain.  In  1871  Said  Majid  died,  and  his 
scheme  was  abandoned.  In  1876  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  William 
McKinnon  began  the  construction  of  a  road  from  Dar-es-Salaam 
to  Victoria  Nyanza,  intending  to  make  of  Dar-es-Salaam  an 
important  seaport.  This  project  however  failed.  In  1887  Dr 
Carl  Peters  occupied  the  bay  in  the  name  of  the  German  East 
Africa  Company.  Fighting  with  the  Arabs  followed,  and  in  1889 
the  company  handed  over  their  settlement  to  the  German 
imperial  government.  In  1891  the  town  was  made  the  adminis- 
trative capital  of  the  colony.  It  is  the  starting  point  of  a  railway 
to  Mrogoro,  and  is  connected  by  overland  telegraph  via  Ujiji 
with  South  Africa.  A  submarine  cable  connects  the  town  with 
Zanzibar.  Dar-es-Salaam  was  laid  out  by  the  Germans  on  an 
ambitious  scale  in  the  expectation  that  it  would  prove  an 
important  centre  of  commerce,  but  trade  developed  very  slowly. 
Ivory,  rubber  and  copal  are  the  chief  exports.  The  trade  returns 
are  included  in  those  of  German  East  Africa  (<?.».). 

DARESTE  DE  LA  CHAVANNE,  ANTOINE  ELISABETH 
CLEOPHAS  (1820-1882),  French  historian,  was  born  in  Paris  on 
the  28th  of  October  1820,  of  an  old  Lyons  family.  Educated  at 
the  Ecole  des  Charles,  he  became  professor  in  the  faculty  of 
letters  at  Grenoble  in  1844,  and  in  1849  at  Lyons,  where  he 
remained  nearly  thirty  years.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  August 
1882.  His  works  comprise:  Histoire  de  I' administration  en 
France  depuis  Philippe- Auguste  (2  vols.,  1848);  Histoire  des 
classes  agricoles  en  France  depuis  saint  Louis  jusqu'a  Louis  XVI 
(2  vols.,  1853  and  1858),  now  quite  obsolete;  and  a  Histoire  de 
France  (8  vols.,  1865-1873),  completed  by  a  Histoire  de  la 
Restauration  (2  vols.,  1880),  a  good  summary  of  the  work  of 
Veil-Castel,  and  by  a  Histoire  du  Gouvernement  de  Juillet,  a 
dry  enumeration  of  dates  and  facts.  Before  the  publication  of 
Lavisse's  great  work,  Dareste's  general  history  of  France  was 
the  best  of  its  kind;  it  surpassed  in  accuracy  the  work  of  Henri 
Martin,  especially  in  the  ancient  periods,  just  as  Martin's  in  its 
turn  was  an  improvement  upon  that  of  Sismondi. 

DARESTE  DE  LA  CHAVANNE,  RODOLPHE  MADELEINE 
CLEOPHAS  (1824-  ),  French  jurist,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the 
25th  of  December  1824.  He  studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Charles 
and  the  Ecole  de  Droit,  and  slarling  early  on  a  legal  career  he 
rose  to  be  counsellor  to  Ihe  courl  of  cassalion  (1877  lo  1900). 
His  firsl  publicalion  was  an  Essai  sur  Francois  Hotman  (1850), 
compleled  later  by  his  publication  of  Hotman's  correspondence' 
in  Ihe  Revue  historique  (1876),  and  he  devoled  Ihe  whole  of  his 
leisure  lo  legal  hislory.  Of  his  wrilings  may  be  menlioned  Les 
Anciennes  Lois  de  VIslande  (1881);  M (moire  sur  les  anciens 
monuments  du  droit  de  la  Hongrie  (1885),  and  Etudes  d'histoire  du 
droit  (1889).  On  Greek  law  he  wrole  some  nolable  works:  Du 
prel  a  la  grosse  chez  les  Atheniens  (1867) ;  Les  Inscriptions  hypothe- 
cates en  Grece  (1885),  La  Science  du  droit  en  Grece:  Platon, 
Aristote,  Theophraste  (1893),  and  Etude  sur  la  loide  Gortyne  (1885). 
He  collaborated  with  Theodore  Reinach  and  B.  Haussoullier 
in  their  Recuett  des  inscriptions  juridiques  grecques  (1905),  and 
his  name  is  worthily  associated  with  the  edition  of  Philippe  de 
Beaumanoir's  Coutumes  de  Beauvaisis,  published  by  Salmon 
(2  vols.,  1899,  1900). 


DARFUR,  a  country  of  easl  cenlral  Africa,  Ihe  westernmost 
stale  of  the  Anglo-Egyplian  Sudan.  It  extends  from  aboul 
10°  N.  lo  16°  N.  and  from  21°  E.  to  27°  30'  E.,  has  an  area  of  some 
150,000  sq.  m.,  and  an  estimated  population  of  750,000.  Il  is 
bounded  N.  by  Ihe  Libyan  desert,  W.  by  Wadai  (French  Congo), 
S.  by  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  and  E.  by  Kordofan.  The  Iwo  last- 
named  dislricls  are  mudirias  (provinces)  of  Ihe  Anglo-Egyplian 
Sudan.  The  grealer  parl  of  Ihe  counlry  is  a  plateau  from  2000 
to  3000  ft.  above  sea-level.  A  range  of  mountains  of  volcanic 
origin,  the  Jebel  Marra,  runs  N.  and  S.  about  Ihe  line  of  the  24°  E. 
for  a  distance  of  over  100  m.,  its  highest  points  attaining  from 
5000  to  6000  ft.  East  to  west  Ibis  chain  exlends  about  80  m. 
Eastward  the  mountains  fall  gradually  into  sandy,  bush-covered 
steppes.  North-east  of  Jebel  Marra  lies  the  Jebel  Medob 
(3500  ft.  high),  a  range  much  distorted  by  volcanic  aclion,  and 
Bir-el-Melh,  an  extincl  volcano  wilh  a  crater  1 50  f I.  deep.  Soulh 
of  Jebel  Marra  are  the  plains  of  Dar  Dima  and  Dar  Uma;  S.W. 
of  the  Marra  the  plain  is  4000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  walershed 
separaling  Ihe  basins  of  the  Nile  and  Lake  Chad  runs  north  and 
south  through  the  cenlre  of  the  country.  The  mountains  are 
scored  by  numerous  khors,  whose  lower  courses  can  be  traced 
across  the  tableland.  The  khors  formerly  contained  large  rivers 
which  flowed  N.E.  and  E.  to  the  Nile,  W.  and  S.W.  to  Lake 
Chad,  S.  and  S.E.  to  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  The  slreams  going 
N.E.  drain  to  the  Wadi  Melh,  a  dry  river-bed  which  joins  Ihe 
Nile  near  Debba,  bul  on  reaching  Ihe  plain  the  waters  sink  into 
the  sandy  soil  and  disappear.  The  torrenls  flowing  direclly  east 
towards  the  Nile  also  disappear  in  the  sandy  deserts.  The  khors 
in  Ihe  W.,  S.W.  and  S., — Ihe  mosl  fertile  part  of  Darfur — contain 
turbulenl  lorrenls  in  Ihe  rainy  season,  when  much  of  Ihe  soulhern 
dislricl  is  flooded.  Nol  one  of  the  streams  is  perennial,  bul  in 
limes  of  heavy  rainfall  Ihe  waters  of  some  khors  reach  the  Bahr- 
el-Homr  tribulary  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal.  (For  some  200  m.  the 
Bahr-el-Homr  marks  the  southern  frontier  of  the  country.)  In 
the  W.  and  S.  water  can  always  be  oblained  in  Ihe  dry  season  by 
digging  5  or  6  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  khors. 

The  climale,  excepl  in  Ihe  south,  where  the  rains  are  heavy 
and  the  soil  is  a  damp  clay,  is  healthy  except  afler  Ihe  rains. 
The  rainy  season  lasls  for  Ihree  monlhs,  from  the  middle  of  June 
to  the  middle  of  September.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Ihe  khors 
Ihe  vegelation  is  fairly  rich.  The  chief  trees  are  the  acacias 
whence  gum  is  oblained,  and  baobab  (Adansonia  digitata); 
while  the  sycamore  and,  in  Ihe  Marra  mounlains,  the  Euphorbia 
candelabrum  are  also  found.  In  the  S.W.  are  densely  forested 
regions.  Collon  and  lobacco  are  indigenous.  The  mosl  fertile 
land  is  found  on  Ihe  slopes  of  Ihe  mounlains,  where  wheal, 
durra,  dukhn  (a  kind  of  millel  and  Ihe  staple  food  of  the  people) 
and  other  grains  are  grown.  Other  products  are  sesame,  cotlon, 
cucumbers,  waler-melons  and  onions. 

Copper  is  oblained  from  Hofrat-el-Nahas  in  the  S.E.,  iron  is 
wroughl  in  Ihe  S.W.;  and  Ihere  are  deposils  of  rock-sail  in 
various  places.  The  copper  mines  (in  9°  48'  N.  24°  5'  E.)  are 
across  the  Darfur  frontier  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  province.  The 
vein  runs  N.W.  and  S.E.  and  in  places  rises  in  ridges  2  ft.  above 
the  general  level  of  ground.  There  is  an  immense  quantily  of  ore, 
(silicale  and  carbonale)  specimens  conlaining  14%  of  metal. 
Camels  and  cattle  are  both  numerous  and  of  excellenl  breeds. 
Some  of  the  Arab  tribes,  such  as  the  Baggara,  breed  only  callle, 
those  in  the  north  and  east  confine  themselves  lo  rearing  camels. 
Horses  are  comparalively  rare;  Ihey  are  a  small  bul  slurdy 
breed.  Sheep  and  goals  are  numerous.  The  oslrich,  common  in 
Ihe  easlern  steppes,  is  bred  by  various  Arab  tribes,  its  feathers 
forming  a-  valuable  article  of  Irade. 

Inhabitants. — The  population  of  Darfur  consists  of  negroes 
and  Arabs.  The  negro  For,  forming  qdile  half  Ihe  inhabilants, 
occupy  the  cenlral  highlands  and  parl  of  Ihe  Dar  Dima  and  Dar 
Uma  dislricls;  Ihey  speak  a  special  language,  and  are  sub- 
divided inlo  numerous  tribes,  of  which  Ihe  mosl  influential  are 
Ihe  Masabal,  Ihe  Kunjara  and  Ihe  Kera.  They  are  of  middle 
heighl,  and  have  ralher  irregular  fealures!  The  For  are  described 
as  clean  and  induslrious,  somewhat  fanatical,  but  generally 
amenable  to  civilization,  and  freedom-loving.  The  Massalit  are 


DARGAI 


831 


a  negro  tribe  which,  breaking  off  from  the  For  some  centuries 
back,  have  now  much  Arab  blood,  and  speak  Arabic  ;  while 
the  Tunjur  are  an  Arab  tribe  which  must  have  arrived  in  the 
Sudan  at  a  very  early  date,  as  they  have  incorporated  a  large 
For  element,  and  no  longer  profess  Mahommedanism.  The  Dago 
(Tagd)  formerly  inhabited  Jebel  Marra,  but  they  have  been 
driven  to  the  south  and  west,  where  they  maintain  a  certain 
independence  in  Dar  Sula,  but  are  treated  as  inferiors  by  the 
For.  The  Zaghawa,  who  inhabit  the  northern  borders,  are  on  the 
contrary  regarded  by  the  For  as  their  equals,  and  have  all  the 
prestige  of  a  race  that  at  one  time  made  its  influence  felt  as  far  as 
Bornu.  Among  other  tribes  may  be  mentioned  the  Berti 
and  Takruri,  the  Birgirid,  the  Beraunas,  and  immigrants  from 
Wadai  and  Bagirmi,  and  Fula  from  west  of  Lake  Chad.  Genuine 
Arab  tribes,  e.g.  the  Baggara  and  Homr,  are  numerous,  and  they 
are  partly  nomadic  and  partly  settled.  The  Arabs  have  not, 
generally  speaking,  mixed  with  the  negro  tribes.  They  are  great 
hunters,  making  expeditions  into  the  desert  for  five  or  six  days 
at  a  time  in  search  of  ostriches. 

Slaves,  ostrich  feathers,  gum  and  ivory  used  to  be  the  chief 
articles  of  trade,  a  caravan  going  annually  by  the  Arbain 
("  Forty  Days  ")  road  to  Assiut  in  Egypt  and  taking  back 
cloth,  fire-arms  and  other  articles.  The  slave  trade  has  ceased, 
but  feathers,  gum  and  ivory  still  constitute  the  chief  exports  of 
the  country.  The  principal  imports  are  cotton  goods,  sugar  and 
tea.  There  is  also  an  active  trade  in  camels  and  cattle. 

The  internal  administration  of  the  country  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
sultan,  who  is  officially  recognized  as  the  agent  of  the  Sudan 
government.  The  administrative  system  resembles  that  of  other 
Mahommedan  countries. 

Towns. — The  capital  is  El-Fasher,  pop.  about  10,000,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Wadi  Tendelty  in  an  angle  formed  by  the 
junction  of  that  wadi  with  the  Wadi-el-Kho,  one  of  the  streams 
which  flow  towards  the  Bahr-el-Homr.  Fasher  is  the  residence 
of  the  sultan.  There  are  a  few  fine  buildings,  but  the  town 
consists  mainly  of  tukls  and  box-shaped  straw  sheds.  It  is  500  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Khartum.  Dara,  a  small  market  town,  is  no  m.  S. 
of  EI-Fasher.  Shakka  is  in  the  S.E.  of  the  country  near  the  Bahr- 
el-Homr,  and  was  formerly  the  headquarters  of  the  slave  dealers. 

History. — The  Dago  or  Tago  negroes,  inhabitants  of  Jebel 
Marra,  appear  to  have  been  the  dominant  race  in  Darfur  in  the 
earliest  period  to  which  the  history  of  the  country  goes  back. 
How  long  they  ruled  is  uncertain,  little  being  known  of  them 
save  a  list  of  kings.  According  to  tradition  the  Tago  dynasty 
was  displaced,  and  Mahommedanism  introduced,  about  the  i4th 
century,  by  Tunjur  Arabs,  who  reached  Darfur  by  way  of  Bornu 
and  Wadai.  The  first  Tunjur  king  was  Ahmed-el-Makur,  who 
married  the  daughter  of  the  last  Tago  monarch.  Ahmed  reduced 
many  unruly  chiefs  to  submission,  and  under  him  the  country 
prospered.  His  great-grandson,  the  sultan  Dali,  a  celebrated 
figure  in  Darfur  histories,  was  on  his  mother's  side  a  For,  and  thus 
was  effected  a  union  between  the  negro  and  Arab  races.  Dali 
divided  the  country  into  provinces,  and  established  a  penal  code, 
which,  under  the  title  of  Kitab  Dali  or  Dali's  Book,  is  still 
preserved,  and  shows  principles  essentially  different  from  those 
of  the  Koran.  His  grandson  Soleiman  (usually  distinguished  by 
the  Forian  epithet  Solon,  the  Arab  or  the  Red)  reigned  from  1 596 
to  1637,  and  was  a  great  warrior  and  a  devoted  Mahommedan. 
Soleiman's  grandson,  Ahmed  Bahr  (1682-1722),  made  Islam  the 
religion  of  the  state,  and  increased  the  prosperity  of  the  country 
by  encouraging  immigration  from  Bornu  and  Bagirmi.  His  rule 
extended  east  of  the  Nile  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Atbara. 
Under  succeeding  monarchs  the  country,  involved  in  wars  with 
Sennar  and  Wadai,  declined  in  importance.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  1 8th  century  a  sultan  named  Mahommed  Terab  led  an  army 
against  the  Funj,  but  got  no  further  than  Omdurman.  Here  he 
was  stopped  by  the  Nile,  and  found  no  means  of  getting  his  army 
across  the  river.  Unwilling  to  give  up  his  project,  Terab  remained 
at  Omdurman  for  months.  He  was  poisoned  by  his  wife  at  the 
instigation  of  disaffected  chiefs,  and  the  army  returned  to 
Darfur.  The  next  monarch  was  Abd-er-Rahman,  surnamed 
el-Raschid  or  the  Just.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  Napoleon 


Bonaparte  was  campaigning  in  Egypt;  and  in  1799  Abd-er- 
Rahman  wrote  to  congratulate  the  French  general  on  his  defeat 
of  the  Mamelukes.  To  this  Bonaparte  replied  by  asking  the 
sultan  to  send  him  by  the  next  caravan  2000  black  slaves  upwards 
of  sixteen  years  old,  strong  and  vigorous.  To  Abd-er-Rahman 
likewise  is  due  the  present  situation  of  the  Fasher,  or  royal  town- 
ship. The  capital  had  formerly  been  at  a  place  called  Kobbe. 
Mahommed-el-Fadhl,  his  son,  was  for  some  time  under  the 
control  of  an  energetic  eunuch,  Mahommed  Kurra,  but  he  ulti- 
mately made  himself  independent,  and  his  reign  lasted  till  1839, 
when  he  died  of  leprosy.  He  devoted  himself  largely  to  the 
subjection  of  the  semi-independent  Arab  tribes  who  lived  in  the 
country,  notably  the  Rizighat,  thousands  of  whom  he  slew.  In 
1821  he  lost  the  province  of  Kordofan,  which  in  that  year  was 
conquered  by  the  Egyptians.  Of  his  forty  sons,  the  third, 
Mahommed  Hassin,  was  appointed  his  successor.  Hassin  is 
described  as  a  religious  but  avaricious  man.  In  the  later  part  of 
his  reign  he  became  involved  in  trouble  with  the  Arab  slave 
raiders  who  had  seized  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  looked  upon  by  the 
Darfurians  as  their  especial  "  slave  preserve."  The  negroes  of 
Bahr-el-Ghazal  paid  tribute  of  ivory  and  slaves  to  Darfur,  and 
these  were  the  chief  articles  of  merchandise  sold  by  the  Darfurians 
to  the  Egyptian  traders  along  the  Arbain  road  to  Assiut.  The 
loss  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  caused  therefore  much  annoyance  to 
the  people  of  Darfur.  Hassin  died  in  1873,  blind  and  advanced  in 
years,  and  the  succession  passed  to  his  youngest  son  Ibrahim, 
who  soon  found  himself  engaged  in  a  conflict  with  Zobeir  (q.v.), 
the  chief  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  slave  traders,  and  with  an 
Egyptian  force  from  Khartum.  The  war  resulted  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  kingdom.  Ibrahim  was  slain  in  battle  in  the  autumn 
of  1874,  and  his  uncle  Hassab  Alia,  who  sought  to  maintain  the 
independence  of  his  country,  was  captured  in  1875  by  the  troops 
of  the  khedive,  and  removed  to  Cairo  with  his  family.  The 
Darfurians  were  restive  under  Egyptian  rule.  Various  revolts 
were  suppressed,  but  in  1879  General  Gordon  (then  governor- 
general  of  the  Sudan)  suggested  the  reinstatement  of  the  ancient 
royal  family.  This  was  not  done,  and  in  1881  Slatin  Bey  (Sir 
Rudolf  von  Slatin)  was  made  governor  of  the  province.  Slatin 
defended  the  province  against  the  forces  of  the  Mahdi,  who  were 
led  by  a  Rizighat  sheik  named  Madibbo,  but  was  obliged  to 
surrender  (December  1883),  and  Darfur  was  incorporated  in  the 
Mahdi's  dominions.  The  Darfurians  found  Dervish  rule  as  irk- 
some as  that  of  the  Egyptians  had  been,  and  a  state  of  almost 
constant  warfare  ended  in  the  gradual  retirement  of  the 
Dervishes  from  Darfur.  Following  the  overthrow  of  the  khalifa 
at  Omdurman  in  1898  the  new  (Anglo-Egyptian)  Sudan  govern- 
ment recognized  (1899)  Ali  Dinar,  a  grandson  of  Mahommed-el- 
Fadhl,  as  sultan  of  Darfur,  on  the  payment  by  that  chief  of 
an  annual  tribute  of  £500.  Under  Ali  Dinar,  who  during  the 
Mahdia  had  been  kept  a  prisoner  in  Omdurman,  Darfur  enjoyed 
a  period  of  peace. 

The  first  European  traveller  known  to  have  visited  Darfur  was 
William  George  Browne  (q.v.),  who  spent  two  years  (1793-1795) 
at  Kobbe.  Sheik  Mahommed-el-Tounsi  travelled  in  1803  through 
various  regions  of  Africa,  including  Darfur,  in  search  of  Omar, 
his  father,  and  afterwards  gave  to  the  world  an  account  of 
his  wanderings,  which  was  translated  into  French  in  1845  by 
M.  Perron.  Gustav  Nachtigal  in  1873  spent  some  months  in 
Darfur,  and  since  that  time  the  country  has  become  well 
known  through  the  journeys  of  Gordon,  Slatin  and  others. 

AUTHORITIES. — Browne's  account  of  Darfur  will  be  found  in  his 
Travels  in  Africa,  Egypt  and  Syria  (London,  1799);  Xachtigul's 
Sahara  und  Sudan  gives  the  results  of  that  traveller  s  observations. 
The  first  ten  chapters  of  Slatin  Pasha's  book  Fire  and  Su-ord  in  the 
Sudan  (English  edition,  London,  1896)  contain  much  information 
concerning  the  country,  its  history,  and  a  full  account  of  the 
overthrow  of  Egyptian  authority  by  the  Mahdi.  See  also  The 
Anglo- Egyptian  Sudan  (London,  1905),  edited  by  Count  Gleichen, 
and  the  bibliography  given  under  SUDAN. 

DARGAI,  the  name  of  a  mountain  peak  and  a  frontier  station 
in  the  north-west  Frontier  Province  of  India.  The  mountain  peak 
is  situated  on  the  Samana  Range,  and  the  Kohat  border,  and  is 
famous  for  the  stand  made  there  by  the  Afridis  and  Orakzais  in 


832 


DARGOMIJSKY-  -DARIUS 


the  Tirah  Campaign.  (See  TIRAH  CAMPAIGN.)  Dargai  station  is 
situated  on  the  Peshawar  border,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the 
frontier  railway  running  from  Nowshera  to  the  Malakand  Pass. 

DARGOMIJSKY,  ALEXANDER  SERGEIVICH  (1813-1869), 
Russian  composer,  was  born  in  1813,  and  educated  in  St  Peters- 
burg. He  was  already  known  as  a  talented  musical  amateur 
when  in  1833  he  met  Glinka  and  was  encouraged  to  devote  him- 
self to  composition.  His  light  opera  Esmeralda  was  written  in 
1839,  and  his  Roussalka  was  performed  in  1856,  but  he  had  but 
small  success  or  recognition  either  at  home  or  abroad,  except 
in  Belgium,  till  the  'sixties,  when  he  became  one  of  Balakirev's 
circle.  His  opera  The  Stone  Guest  then  became  famous  among 
the  progressive  Russian  school,  though  it  was  not  performed  till 
1872.  Dargomijsky  died  in  January  1869.  His  compositions 
include  a  number  of  songs,  and  some  orchestral  pieces. 

DARIAL,  a  gorge  in  the  Caucasus,  at  the  east  foot  of  Mt. 
Kasbek,  pierced  by  the  river  Terek  for  a  distance  of  8  m.  between 
vertical  walls  of  rock  (5900  ft.).  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Georgian 
annals  under  the  names  of  Ralani,  Dargani,  Darialani;  the 
Persians  and  Arabs  knew  it  as  the  Gate  of  the  Alans;  Strabo 
calls  it  Porto,  Caucasica  and  Porta  Cumana;  Ptolemy,  Porta 
Sarmatica;  it  was  sometimes  known  as  Portae  Caspiae  (a  name 
bestowed  also  on  the  "  gate  "  or  pass  beside  the  Caspian  at 
Derbent) ;  and  the  Tatars  call  it  Darioly.  Being  the  only  avail- 
able passage  across  the  Caucasus,  it  has  been  fortified  since  a 
remote  period — at  least  since  150  B.C.  In  Russian  poetry  it  has 
been  immortalized  by  Lermontov.  The  present  Russian  fort, 
Darial,  which  guards  this  section  of  the  Georgian  military  road, 
is  at  the  northern  issue  of  the  gorge,  at  an  altitude  of  4746  ft. 

DARIEN,  a  district  covering  the  eastern  part  of  the  isthmus 
joining  Central  and  South  America.  It  is  mainly  within  the 
republic  of  Panama,  and  gives  its  name  to  a  gulf  of  the  Carribbean 
Sea.  Darien  is  of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  geographical 
discovery.  It  was  reconnoitred  in  the  first  year  of  the  i6th 
century  by  Rodrigo  Bastidas  of  Seville;  and  the  first  settlement 
was  Santa  Maria  la  Antigua,  situated  on  the  small  Darien  river, 
north-west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato.  In  1513  Vasco  Nunez 
de  Balboa  stood  "silent  upon  a  peak  in  Darien,"1  and  saw  the 
Pacific  at  his  feet  stretching  inland  in  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel; 
and  for  long  this  narrow  neck  of  land  seemed  alternately  to  proffer 
and  refuse  a  means  of  transit  between  the  two  oceans.  The  first 
serious  attempt  to  turn  th"  isthmus  to  permanent  account  as  a 
trade  route  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  and 
forms  an  interesting  chapter  in  Scottish  history.  In  1695  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  Scottish  parliament  giving  extensive  powers 
to  a  company  trading  to  Africa  and  the  Indies;  and  this 
company,  under  the  advice  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
economists  of  the  period,  William  Paterson  (q.v.),  determined  to 
establish  a  colony  on  the  isthmus  of  Darien  as  a  general  emporium 
for  the  commerce  of  all  the  nations  of  the  world.  Regarded  with 
disfavour  both  in  England  and  Holland,  the  project  was  taken 
up  in  Scotland  with  the  enthusiasm  of  national  rivalry  towards 
England,  and  the  "  subscriptions  sucked  up  all  the  money  in  the 
country."  On  the  26th  of  July  1698  the  pioneers  set  sail  from 
Leith  amid  the  cheers  of  an  almost  envious  multitude;  and  on 
the  4th  of  November,  with  the  loss  of  only  fifteen  out  of  1 200  men, 
they  arrived  at  Darien,  and  took  up  their  quarters  in  a  well- 
defended  spot,  with  a  good  harbour  and  excellent  outlook.  The 
country  they  named  New  Caledonia,  and  two  sites  selected  for 
future  cities  were  designated  respectively  New  Edinburgh  and 
New  St  Andrews.  At  first  all  seemed  to  go  well;  but  by  and  by 
lack  of  provisions,  sickness  and  anarchy  reduced  the  settlers  to 
the  most  miserable  plight;  and  in  June  1699  they  re-embarked 
in  three  vessels,  a  weak  and  hopeless  company,  to  sail  whither- 
soever Providence  might  direct.  Meanwhile  a  supplementary 
expedition  had  been  prepared  in  Scotland;  two  vessels  were 
despatched  in  May,  and  four  others  followed  in  August.  But 
this  venture  proved  even  more  unfortunate  than  the  former. 
The  colonists  arrived  broken  in  health;  their  spirits  were  crushed 

1  Keats,  in  his  famous  sonnet  beginning: — "  Much  have  I  travelled 
in  the  realms  of  gold,"  of  which  this  is  the  concluding  line,  inaccur- 
ately substitutes  Cortez  for  Balboa. 


by  the  fate  of  their  predecessors,  and  embittered  by  the  harsh 
fanaticism  of  the  four  ministers  whom  the  general  assembly  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  had  sent  out  to  establish  a  regular 
presbyterial  organization.  The  last  addition  to'  the  settlement 
was  the  company  of  Captain  Alexander  Campbell  of  Fonab,  who 
arrived  only  to  learn  that  a  Spanish  force  of  1 500  or  1600  men  lay 
encamped  at  Tubacanti,  on  the  river  Santa  Maria,  waiting  for  the 
appearance  of  a  Spanish  squadron  in  order  to  make  a  combined 
attack  on  the  fort.  Captain  Campbell,  on  the  second  day  after 
his  arrival,  marched  with  200  men  across  the  isthmus  to  Tubacanti, 
stormed  the  camp  in  the  night-time,  and  dispersed  the  Spanish 
force.  On  his  return  to  the  fort  on  the  fifth  day  he  found  it 
besieged  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  men-of-war;  and,  after  a 
vain  attempt  to  maintain  its  defence,  he  succeeded  with  a  few 
companions  in  making  his  escape  in  a  small  vessel.  A  capitula- 
tion followed,  and  the  Darien  colony  was  no  more.  Of  those  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  enterprise  only  a  miserable  handful  ever 
reached  their  native  land. 

See  J.  H.  Burton,  The  Darien  Papers  (Bannatyne  Club,  1849); 
Macaulay,  History  of  England  (London,  1866)  ;  and  A.  Lang,  History 
of  Scotland,  vol.  iv.  (Edinburgh,  1907). 

DARIUS  (Pers.  Ddrayavaush;  Old  Test.  Daryavesh),  the 
name  of  three  Persian  kings. 

i.  DARIUS  THE  GREAT,  the  son  of  Hystaspes  (q.v.).  The 
principal  source  for  his  history  is  his  own  inscriptions,  especially 
the  great  inscription  of  Behistun  (q.v.),  in  which  he  relates  how  he 
gained  the  crown  and  put  down  the  rebellions.  In  modern  times 
his  veracity  has  often  been  doubted,  but  without  any  sufficient 
reason;  th,e  whole  tenor  of  his  words  shows  that  we  can  rely  upon 
his  account.  The  accounts  given  by  Herodotus  and  Ctesias  of 
his  accession  are  in  many  points  evidently  dependent  on  this 
official  version,  with  many  legendary  stories  interwoven,  e.g. 
that  Darius  and  his  allies  left  the  question  as  to  which  of  them 
should  become  king  to  the  decision  of  their  horses,  and  that 
Darius  won  the  crown  by  a  trick  of  his  groom. 

Darius  belonged  to  a  younger  branch  of  the  royal  family  of 
the  Achaemenidae.  When,  after  the  suicide  of  Cambyses  (March 
521),  the  usurper  Gaumata  ruled  undisturbed  over  the  whole 
empire  under  the  name  of  Bardiya  (Smerdis),  son  of  Cyrus,  and 
no  one  dared  to  gainsay  him,  Darius,  "  with  the  help  of  Ahura- 
mazda,"  attempted  to  regain  the  kingdom  for  the  royal  race. 
His  father  Hystaspes  was  still  alive,  but  evidently  had  not  the 
courage  to  urge  his  claims.  Assisted  by  six  noble  Persians,  whose 
names  he  proclaims  at  the  end  of  the  Behistun  inscription,  he 
surprised  and  killed  the  usurper  in  a  Median  fortress  (October 
521;  for  the  chronology  of  these  times  cf.  E.  Meyer,  Forschungen 
zur  alien  Geschichte,  ii.  472  ff.),  and  gained  the  crown.  But  this 
sudden  change  was  the  signal  for  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  all 
the  eastern  provinces  to  regain  their  independence.  In  Susiana, 
Babylon,  Media,  Sagartia,  Margiana,  usurpers  arose,  pretending 
to  be  of  the  old  royal  race,  and  gathered  large  armies  around  them; 
in  Persia  itself  Vahyazdata  imitated  the  example  of  Gaumata  and 
was  acknowledged  by  the  majority  of  the  people  as  the  true 
Bardiya.  Darius  with  only  a  small  army  of  Persians  and  Medes 
and  some  trustworthy  generals  overcame  all  difficulties,  and  in 
520  and  519  all  the  rebellions  were  put  down  (Babylon  rebelled 
twice,  Susiana  even  three  times),  and  the  authority  of  Darius 
was  established  throughout  the  empire. 

Darius  in  his  inscriptions  appears  as  a  fervent  believer  in  the 
true  religion  of  Zoroaster.  But  he  was  also  a  great  statesman  and 
organizer.  The  time  of  conquests  had  come  to  an  end ;  the  wars 
which  Darius  undertook,  like  those  of  Augustus,  only  served  the 
purpose  of  gaining  strong  natural  frontiers  for  the  empire  and 
keeping  down  the  barbarous  tribes  on  its  borders.  Thus  Darius 
subjugated  the  wild  nations  of  the  Pontic  and  Armenian 
mountains,  and  extended  the  Persian  dominion  to  the  Caucasus; 
for  the  same  reasons  he  fought  against  the  Sacae  and  other 
Turanian  tribes.  But  by  the  organization  which  he  gave  to  the 
empire  he  became  the  true  successor  of  the  great  Cyrus.  His 
organization  of  the  provinces  and  the  fixing  -of  the  tributes  is 
described  by  Herodotus  iii.  90  ff.,  evidently  from  good  official 
sources.  He  fixed  the  coinage  and  introduced  the  gold  coinage 


DARJEELING 


833 


of  the  Daric  (which  is  not  named  after  him,  as  the  Greeks  believed, 
but  derived  from  a  Persian  word  meaning  "  gold  ";  in  Middle 
Persian  it  is  called  zarig).  He  tried  to  develop  the  commerce  of 
the  empire,  and  sent  an  expedition  down  the  Kabul  and  the  Indus, 
led  by  the  Carian  captain  Scylax  of  Caryanda,  who  explored  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  Suez.  He  dug  a 
canal  from  the  Nile  to  Suez,  and,  as  the  fragments  of  a  hiero- 
glyphic inscription  found  there  show,  his  ships  sailed  from  the 
Nile  through  the  Red  Sea  by  Saba  to  Persia.  He  had  connexions 
with  Carthage  (i.e.  the  Karka  of  the  Nakshi  Rustam  inscr.), 
and  explored  the  shores  of  Sicily  and  Italy.  At  the  same  time 
he  attempted  to  gain  the  good-will  of  the  subject  nations,  and  for 
this  purpose  promoted  the  aims  of  their  priests.  He  allowed  the 
Jews  to  build  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem.  In  Egypt  his  name 
appears  on  the  temples  which  he  built  in  Memphis,  Edfu  and  the 
Great  Oasis.  He  called  the  high-priest  of  Sals,  Uzahor,  to  Susa 
(as  we  learn  from  his  inscription  in  the  Vatican),  and  gave  him 
full  powers  to  reorganize  the  "  house  of  life,"  the  great  medical 
school  of  the  temple  of  Sals.  In  the  Egyptian  traditions  he  is 
considered  as  one  of  the  great  benefactors  and  lawgivers  of  the 
country  (Herod,  ii.  1 10,  Diod.  i.  05) .  In  similar  relations  he  stood 
to  the  Greek  sanctuaries  (cf.  his  rescript  to  "his  slave  "  Godatas, 
the  inspector  of  a  royal  park  near  Magnesia,  on  the  Maeander, 
in  which  he  grants  freedom  of  taxes  and  forced  labour  to  the 
sacred  territory  of  Apollo.  See  Cousin  and  Deschamps,  Bulletin 
de  corresp.  helUn.,  xiii.  (1889),  529,  and  Dittenberger,  Sylloge 
inscr.  grace.,  2);  all  the  Greek  oracles  in  Asia  Minor  and  Europe 
therefore  stood  on  the  side  of  Persia  in  the  Persian  wars  and 
admonished  the  Greeks  to  attempt  no  resistance. 

About  512  Darius  undertook  a  war  against  the  Scythians.  A 
great  army  crossed  the  Bosporus,  subjugated  eastern  Thrace,  and 
crossed  the  Danube.  The  purpose  of  this  war  can  only  have  been 
to  attack  the  nomadic  Turanian  tribes  in  the  rear  and  thus  to 
secure  peace  on  the  northern  frontier  of  the  empire.  It  was  based 
upon  a  wrong  geographical  conception;  even  Alexander  and  his 
Macedonians  believed  that  on  the  Hindu  Kush  (which  they  called 
Caucasus)  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Jaxartes  (which  they  called 
Tanais,  i.e.  Don)  they  were  quite  near  to  the  Black  Sea.  Of 
course  the  expedition  undertaken  on  these  grounds  could  not  but 
prove  a  failure;  having  advanced  for  some  weeks  into  the  Russian 
steppes,  Darius  was  forced  to  return.  The  details  given  by  Hero- 
dotus (according  to  him  Darius  had  reached  the  Volga!)  are  quite 
fantastical;  and  the  account  which  Darius  himself  had  given  on  a 
tablet,  which  was  added  to  his  great  inscription  in  Behistun,  is 
destroyed  with  the  exception  of]a  few  words.  (SeeR.  W.  Macan, 
Herodotus,  vol.  ii.  appendix  3;  G.  B.  Grundy,  Great  Persian 
War,  pp.  48-64;  J.  B.  Bury  in  Classical  Review,  July  1897.) 

Although  European  Greece  was  intimately  connected  with  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  opposing  parties  in  the  Greek 
towns  were  continually  soliciting  his  intervention,  Darius  did  not 
meddle  with  their  affairs.  The  Persian  wars  were  begun  by  the 
Greeks  themselves.  The  support  which  Athens  and  Eretria  gave 
to  the  rebellious  lonians  and  Carians  made  their  punishment 
inevitable  as  soon  as  the  rebellion  had  been  put  down.  But  the 
first  expedition,  that  of  Mardonius,  failed  on  the  cliffs  of  Mt. 
Athos  (492),  and  the  army  which  was  led  into  Attica  by  Dads  in 
490  was  beaten  at  Marathon.  Before  Darius  had  finished  his 
preparations  for  a  third  expedition  an  insurrection  broke  out  in 
Egypt  (486).  In  the  next  year  Darius  died,  probably  in  October 
485,  after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years.  He  is  one  of  the  greatest 
rulers  the  east  has  produced. 

2.  DARIUS  II.,  OCHUS.  Artaxerxes  I.,  who  died  in  the  begin- 
ning of  424,  was  followed  by  his  son  Xerxes  II.  But  after  a 
month  and  a  half  he  was  murdered  by  his  brother  Secydianus,  or 
Sogdianus  (the  form  of  the  name  is  uncertain).  Against  him  rose 
a  bastard  brother,  Ochus,  satrap  of  Hyrcania,  and  after  a  short 
fight  killed  him,  and  suppressed  by  treachery  the  attempt  of  his 
own  brother  Arsites  to  imitate  his  example  (Ctesias  ap.  Phot.  44; 
Diod.  xii.  71,  108;  Pausan.  vi.  5,  7).  Ochus  adopted  the  name 
Darius  (in  the  chronicles  called  Nothos,  the  bastard).  Neither 
Xerxes  II.  nor  Secydianus  occurs  in  the  dates  of  the  numerous 
Babylonian  tablets  from  Nippur;  here  the  dates  of  Darius  II. 

vii.  27 


follow  immediately  on  those  of  Artaxerxes  I.  Of  Darius  II. 's 
reign  we  know  very  little  (a  rebellion  of  the  Medes  in  409  is 
mentioned  in  Xenophon,  Hellen.  i.  2. 19),  except  that  he  was  quite 
dependent  on  his  wife  Parysatis.  In  the  excerpts  from  Ctesias 
some  harem  intrigues  are  recorded,  in  which  he  played  a  dis- 
reputable part.  As  long  as  the  power  of  Athens  remained  intact 
he  did  not  meddle  in  Greek  affairs;  even  the  support  which  the 
Athenians  in  413  gave  to  the  rebel  Amorges  in  Caria  would  not 
have  roused  him  (Andoc.  iii.  29;  Thuc.  viii.  28,  54;  Ctesias 
wrongly  names  his  father  Pissuthnes  in  his  stead;  an  account 
of  these  wars  is  contained  in  the  greaf  Lycian  stele  from  Xanthus 
in  the  British  Museum),  had  not  the  Athenian  power  broken  down 
in  the  same  year  before  Syracuse.  He  gave  orders  to  his  satraps 
in  Asia  Minor,  Tissaphernes  and  Pharnabazus,  to  send  in  the 
overdue  tribute  of  the  Greek  towns,  and  to  begin  war  with 
Athens;  for  this  purpose  they  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Sparta.  In  408  he  sent  his  son  Cyrus  to  Asia  Minor,  to  carry  on 
the  war  with  greater  energy.  In  404  he  died  after  a  reign  of 
nineteen  years,  and  was  followed  by  Artaxerxes  II. 

3.  DARIUS  III.,  CODOMANNUS.  The  eunuch  Bagoas  (?.».), 
having  murdered  Artaxerxes  III.  in  338  and  his  son  Arses  in  336, 
raised  to  the  throne  a  distant  relative  of  the  royal  house,  whose 
name,  according  to  Justin  x.  3,  was  Codomannus,  and  who  had 
excelled  in  a  war  against  the  Cadusians  (cf.  Diod.  xvii.  5  ff.,  where 
his  father  is  called  Arsames,  son  of  Ostanes,  a  brother  of 
Artaxerxes).  The  new  king,  who  adopted  the  name  of  Darius, 
took  warning  by  the  fate  of  his  predecessors,  and  saved  himself 
from  it  by  forcing  Bagoas  to  drink  the  cup  himself.  Already 
in  336  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  had  sent  an  army  into  Asia  Minor, 
and  in  the  spring  of  334  the  campaign  of  Alexander  began.  In 
the  following  year  Darius  himself  took  the  field  against  the 
Macedonian  king,  but  was  beaten  at  Issus  and  in  331  at  Arbela. 
In  his  flight  to  the  east  he  was  deposed  and  killed  by  Bessus 
(July  33°)  • 

The  name  Darius  was  also  borne  by  many  later  dynasts  of 
Persian  origin,  among  them  kings  of  Persis  (q.v.),  Darius  of  Media 
Atropatene  who  was  defeated  by  Pompeius,  and  Darius,  king  of 
Pontus  in  the  time  of  Antony.  (£D.  M.) 

DARJEELING,  a  hill  station  and  district  of  British  India,  in 
the  Bhagalpur  division  of  Bengal.  The  sanatorium  is  situated 
367  m.  by  rail  north  of  Calcutta.  In  1901  it  had  a  population  of 
16,924.  It  is  the  summer  quarters  of  the  Bengal  government 
and  has  a  most  agreeable  climate,  which  neither  exceeds  80°  F.  in 
summer,  nor  falls  below  30°  in  winter.  The  great  attraction  of 
Darjeeling  is  its  scenery,  which  is  unspeakably  grand.  The  view 
across  the  hills  to  Kinchinjunga  discloses  a  glittering  white  wall 
of  perpetual  snow,  surrounded  by  towering  masses  of  granite. 
There  are  several  schools  of  considerable  size  for  European  boys 
and  girls,  and  a  government  boarding  school  at  Kurseong.  The 
buildings  and  the  roads  suffered  severely  from  the  earthquake  of 
the  1 2th  of  June  1897.  But  a  more  terrible  disaster  occurred  in 
October  1899,  when  a  series  of  landslips  carried  away  houses  and 
broke  up  the  hill  railway.  The  total  value  of  the  property 
destroyed  was  returned  at  £160,000. 

The  district  of  Darjeeling  comprises  an  area  of  1164  sq.  m. 
It  consists  of  two  well-defined  tracts,  viz.  the  lower  Himalayas 
to  the  south  of  Sikkim,  and  the  tarai,  or  plains,  which  extend  from 
the  south  of  these  ranges  as  far  as  the  northern  borders  of 
Purnea  district.  The  plains  from  which  the  hills  take  their  rise 
are  only  300  ft.  above  sea-level;  the  mountains  ascend  abruptly 
in  spurs  of  6000  to  10,000  ft.  in  height.  The  scenery  throughout 
the  hills  is  picturesque,  and  in  many  parts  magnificent.  The  two 
highest  mountains  in  the  world,  Kinchinjunga  in  Sikkim 
(28,is6ft.)andEverest  in  Nepal  (29,002  ft.),  are  visible  from  the 
town  of  Darjeeling.  The  principal  peaks  within  the  district  are — 
Phalut  (n,8n  ft.),  Subargum  (11,636),  Tanglu  (10,084),  Situng 
and  Sinchal  Pahai  (8163).  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tista,  Great 
and  Little  Ranjit,  Ramman,  Mahananda,  Balasan  and  Jaldhaka. 
None  of  them  is  navigable  in  the  mountain  valleys;  but  the 
Tista,  after  it  debouches  on  the  plains,  can  be  navigated  by  cargo 
boats  of  considerable  burthen.  Bears,  leopards  and  musk  deer 
are  found  on  the  higher  mountains,  deer  on  the  lower  ranges,  and 


834 


DARLEY— DARLINGTON 


a  few  elephants  and  tigers  on  the  slopes  nearest  to  the  plains. 
In  the  lowlands,  tigers,  rhinoceroses,  deer  and  wild  hogs  are 
abundant.  A  few  wolves  are  also  found.  Of  small  game,  hares, 
jungle  fowl,  peacocks,  partridges,  snipe,  woodcock,  wild  ducks 
and  geese,  and  green  pigeons  are  numerous  in  the  tarai,  and 
jungle  fowl  and  pheasants  in  the  hills.  The  mahseer  fish  is  found 
in  the  Tista. 

In  1901  the  population  was  249,117,  showing  an  increase  of 
12%  since  1891,  compared  with  an  increase  of  43%  in  the 
previous  decade.  The  inhabitants  of  the  hilly  tract  consist  to  a 
large  extent  of  Nepali  immigrants  and  of  aboriginal  highland 
races;  in  the  tarai  the  people  are  chiefly  Hindus  and  Mahom- 
medans.  The  Lepchas  are  considered  to  be  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  the  hilly  portion  of  the  district.  They  are  a  fine, 
frank  race,  naturally  open-hearted  and  free-handed,  fond  of 
change  and  given  to  an  out-door  life ;  but  they  do  not  seem 
to  improve  on  being  brought  into  contact  with  civilization.  It 
is  thought  that  they  are  now  being  gradually  driven  out  of  the 
district,  owing  to  the  increase  of  regular  cultivation,  and  to  the 
government  conservation  of  the  forests.  They  have  no  word  for 
plough  in  their  language,  and  they  still  follow  the  nomadic  form 
of  tillage  known  nsjum  cultivation.  This  consists  in  selecting  a 
spot  of  virgin  soil,  clearing  it  of  forest  and  jungle  by  burning,  and 
scraping  the  surface  with  the  rudest  agricultural  implements. 
The  productive  powers  of  the  land  become  exhausted  in  a  few 
years,  when  the  clearing  is  abandoned,  a  new  site  is  chosen,  and 
the  same  operations  are  carried  on  de  now.  The  Lepchas  are  also 
the  ordinary  out-door  labourers  on  the  hills.  They  have  no  caste 
distinctions  but  speak  of  themselves  as  belonging  to  one  of  nine 
septs  or  clans,  who  all  eat  together  and  intermarry  with  each 
other.  In  the  upper  or  northern  tarai,  along  the  base  of  the  hills, 
the  Mechs  form  the  principal  ethnical  feature.  This  tribe  inhabits 
the  deadly  jungle  with  impunity,  and  cultivates  cotton,  rice 
and  other  ordinary  crops,  by  the  jum  process  described  above. 
The  cultivation  of  tea  was  introduced  in  1856,  and  is  now  a 
large  industry.  Cinchona  cultivation  was  introduced  by  the 
government  in  1862,  and  has  since  been  taken  up  by  private 
enterprise.  There  is  a  coal  mine  at  Baling.  The  Darjeeling 
Himalayan  railway  of  2  ft.  gauge,  opened  in  1880,  runs  for 
50  m.  from  Siliguri  in  the  plains  on  the  Eastern  Bengal  line. 

The  British  connexion  with  Darjeeling  dates  from  1816,  when, 
at  the  close  of  the  war  with  Nepali,  the  British  made  over  to  the 
Sikkim  raja  the  tarai  tract,  which  had  been  wrested  from  him  and 
annexed  by  Nepal.  In  1835  the  nucleus  of  the  present  district  of 
British  Sikkim  or  Darjeeling  was  created  by  a  cession  of  a  portion 
of  the  hills  by  the  raja  of  Sikkim  to  the  British  as  a  sanatorium. 
A  military  expedition  against  Sikkim,  rendered  necessary  in  1850 
by  the  imprisonment  of  Dr  A.  Campbell,  the  superintendent  of 
Darjeeling,  and  Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  resulted  in  the  stoppage  of  the 
allowance  granted  to  the  raja  for  the  cession  of  the  hill  station 
of  Darjeeling,  and  in  the  annexation  of  the  Sikkim  tarai  at  the  foot 
of  the  hills  and  of  a  portion  of  the  hills  beyond.  In  August  1866  the 
hill  territory  east  of  the  Tista,  acquired  as  the  result  of  the  Bhutan 
campaign  of  1864,  was  added  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Darjeeling. 

DARLEY,  GEORGE  (1795-1846),  Irish  poet,  was  born  in 
Dublin  in  1 795.  His  parents,  who  were  gentle  folks  of  independent 
means,  emigrated  to  America,  leaving  the  boy  in  charge  of  his 
grandfather  at  Springfield,  Co.  Dublin.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  graduating  in  1820  ;  but  an  unfortunate 
stammer  prevented  him  from  going  into  the  church  or  to  the  bar, 
and  he  established  himself  in  London,  where  he  published  his 
first  volume  of  poems,  the  Errors  of  Ecstasie,  in  1822,  and  became 
a  regular  contributor  to  The  London  Magazine.  He  was  intimate 
with  Gary,  the  translator  of  Dante,  and  with  Charles  Lamb.  In 
1826  he  published  under  the  name  of  "  Grey  Penseval  "  a  volume 
of  prose  tales  and  sketches,  Labour  in  Idleness  (1826),  one  of 
which,  "  The  Enchanted  Lyre,"  is  plainly  autobiographical. 
Sylvia,  or  the  May  Queen  (1827,  reprint  1892),  a  fairy  opera,  met 
with  no  success,  but  about  1830  he  became  dramatic  and  art 
critic  to  the  Athenaeum.  His  other  works  are:  Nepenthe  (1835, 
reprint  1897),  his  most  considerable  poem  ;  introduction  to  the 
•works  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  (1840);  with  two  plays, 


Thomas  A  Becket  (1840),  and  Ethelstan  (1841).     He  died  in 
London  on  the  23rd  of  November  1846. 

Selections  from  the  Poems  of  George  Darley,  with  an  introduction  by 
R.  A.  Streatfield,  appeared  in  1904.  See  also  the  edition  by  Ramsay 
Colles  in  the  "  Muses'  Library  "  (1906). 

DARLING,  GRACE  HORSLEY  (1815-1842),  British  heroine, 
was  born  at  Bamborough,  Northumberland,  on  the  24th  of 
November  1815.  Her  father,  William  Darling,  was  the  keeper  of 
the  Longstone  (Fame  Islands)  lighthouse.  On  the  morning  of 
the  7th  of  September  1838,  the  "  Forfarshire,"  bound  from 
Hull  to  Dundee,  with  sixty-three  persons  on  board,  struck  on  the 
Fame  Islands,  forty-three  being  drowned.  The  wreck  was 
observed  from  the  lighthouse,  and  Darling  and  his  daughter 
determined  to  try  and  reach  the  survivors.  They  recognized 
that  though  they  might  be  able  to  get  to  the  wreck,  they  would 
be  unable  to  return  without  the  assistance  of  the  shipwrecked 
crew,  but  they  took  this  risk  without  hesitation.  By  a  combina- 
tion of  daring,  strength  and  skill,  the  father  and  daughter  reached 
the  wreck  in  their  coble  and  brought  back  four  men  and  a 
woman  to  the  lighthouse.  Darling  and  two  of  the  rescued  men 
then  returned  to  the  wreck  and  brought  off  the  four  remaining 
survivors.  This  gallant  exploit  made  Grace  Darling  and  her 
father  famous.  The  Humane  Society  at  once  voted  them  its  gold 
medal,  the  treasury  made  a  grant,  and  a  public  subscription  was 
organized.  Grace  Darling,  who  had  always  been  delicate,  died 
of  consumption  on  the  2oth  of  October  1842. 

See  Grace  Darling,  her  true  story  (London,  1880). 

DARLING,  a  river  of  Australia.  It  rises  in  Queensland  and 
flows  into  New  South  Wales,  forming  for  a  considerable  distance 
the  boundary  of  the  two  colonies ;  in  its  upper  reaches  it  is 
known  as  the  Barwon,  but  from  Bourke  to  its  junction  on  the 
Victorian  border  with  the  river  Murray,  it  is  called  the  Darling. 
Its  length  is  1160  m.,  and  with  its  affluents  it  drains  an  area  of 
about  200,000  sq.  m.  During  the  dry  season  its  course  is  marked 
by  a  series  of  shallow  pools,  but  during  the  winter,  when  it  is 
subject  to  sudden  floods,  it  is  navigable  as  far  as  Bourke  for 
steamers  of  light  draft.  Excepting  a  narrow  strip  on  the  banks 
of  the  river,  the  country  through  which  it  passes  is,  for  the  most 
part,  an  arid  plain. 

DARLINGTON,  a  market  town  and  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Durham,  England,  232  m.  N.  by  W.  of 
London,  on  the  North-Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  38,060; 
(1901)  44,511.  It  lies  in  a  slightly  undulating  plain  on  the  small 
river  Skerne,  a  tributary  of  the  Tees,  not  far  from  the  main  river. 
Its  appearance  is  almost  wholly  modern,  but  there  is  a  fine  old 
parish  church  dedicated  to  St  Cuthbert.  It  is  cruciform,  and  in 
style  mainly  transitional  Norman.  It  has  a  central  tower  sur- 
mounted by  a  spire  of  the  i4th  century,  which  necessitated  the 
building  of  a  massive  stone  screen  across  the  chancel  arch  to 
support  the  piers.  Traces  of  an  earlier  church  were  discovered  in 
the  course  of  restoration.  Educational  establishments  include 
an  Elizabethan  grammar  school,  a  training  college  for  school- 
mistresses (British  and  Foreign  School  Society),  and  a  technical 
school.  There  is  a  park  of  forty-four  acres.  The  industries  of 
Darlington  are  large  and  varied.  They  include  worsted  spinning 
mills ;  collieries,  ironstone  mines,  quarries  and  brickworks  ;  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  both  in  the  rough  and  in  the  form  of 
finished  articles,  as  locomotives,  bridge  castings,  ships'  engines, 
gun  castings  and  shells,  &c.  The  parliamentary  borough  returns 
one  member.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1867,  and  the 
corporation  consists  of  a  mayor,  six  aldermen  and  eighteen 
councillors.  Area,  3956  acres. 

Not  long  after  the  bishop  and  monks  of  Lindisfarne  had 
settled  at  Durham  in  995,  Styr  the  son  of  Ulf  gave  them  the  vill 
of  Darlington  (Dearthington,  Darnington),  which  by  1083  had 
grown  into  importance,  probably  owing  to  its  situation  on  the 
road  from  Watling  Street  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tees.  Bishop 
William  of  St  Carileph  in  that  year  changed  the  church  to  a 
collegiate  church,  and  placed  there  certain  canons  whom  he 
removed  from  Durham.  Bishop  Hugh  de  Puiset  rebuilt  the 
church  and  built  a  manor  house  which  was  for  many  years  the 
occasional  residence  of  the  bishops  of  Durham.  Boldon  Book, 


DARLINGTONIA— DARMESTETER 


835 


dated  1183,  contains  the  first  mention  of  Darlington  as  a 
borough,  rated  at  £5,  while  half  a  mark  was  due  from  the  dyers 
of  cloth.  The  next  account  of  the  town  is  in  Bishop  Hatfield's 
Survey  (c.  1380),  which  states  that  "  Ingelram  Gen  till  and  his 
partners  hold  the  borough  of  Derlyngton  with  the  profits  of  the 
mills  and  dye  houses  and  other  profits  pertaining  to  the  borough 
rendering  yearly  four  score  and  thirteen  pounds  and  six  shillings." 
Darlington  possesses  no  early  charter,  but  claimed  its  privileges 
as  a  borough  by  a  prescriptive  right.  Until  the  igth  century  it 
was  governed  by  a  bailiff  appointed  by  the  bishop.  The  mention 
of  dyers  in  the  Boldon  Book  and  Hatfield's  Survey  probably 
indicates  the  existence  of  woollen  manufacture.  Before  the  igth 
century  Darlington  was  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  linen, 
worsted  and  flax,  but  it  owes  its  modern  importance  to  the 
opening  of  the  railway  between  Darlington  and  Stockton  on  the 
27th  of  September  1825.  "  Locomotive  No.  I,"  the  first  that 
ever  ran  on  a  public  railway,  stands  in  Bank  Top  station,  a 
remarkable  relic  of  the  enterprise.  As  part  of  the  palatinate  of 
Durham,  Darlington  sent  no  members  to  parliament  until  1862, 
when  it  was  allowed  to  return  one  member.  The  fairs  and 
markets  in  Darlington  were  formerly  held  by  the  bishop  and 
were  in  existence  as  early  as  the  nth  century.  According  to 
Leland,  Darlington  was  in  his  time  the  best  market  town  in  the 
bishopric  with  the  exception  of  Durham.  In  1664  the  bishop, 
finding  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  had  set  up  a  market  "  in 
the  season  of  the  year  unaccustomed,"  i.e.  from  the  fortnight 
before  Christmas  to  Whit  Monday,  prohibited  them  from  con- 
tinuing it.  The  markets  and  fairs  were  finally  in  1854  purchased 
by  the  local  authority,  and  now  belong  to  the  corporation. 

DARLINGTONIA  (called  after  William  Darlington,  an  American 
botanist),  a  Californian  pitcher-plant,  belonging  to  the  order 
Sarraceniaceae.  There  is  only  one  species,  D.  californica,  which 
is  found  at  5000  ft.  altitude  on  the  Sierra  Nevadas  of  California, 
growing  in  sphagnum-bogs  along  with  sundews  and  rushes. 


Darlingtonia  californica. 

The  pitcher-like  leaves  form  a  cluster,  and  are  i  to  2  ft.  high, 
slender,  erect,  and  end  in  a  rounded  hooded  top,  from  which 
hangs  a  blade  shaped  like  a  fish-tail  which  guards  the  entrance  to 
the  pitcher.  Insects  are  attracted  to  the  leaves  by  the  bright 
colouring,  especially  of  the  upper  part;  entering  they  pass  down 
the  narrow  funnel  guided  by  downward  pointing  hairs  which  also 
prevent  their  ascent.  They  form  a  putrefying  mass  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pitcher,  and  the  products  of  their  decomposition  are 
presumably  absorbed  by  the  leaf  for  food. 


DARLY,  MATTHIAS,  18th-century  English  caricaturist, 
designer  and  engraver.  This  extremely  versatile  artist  not  only 
issued  political  caricatures,  but  designed  ceilings,  chimney- 
pieces,  mirror  frames,  girandoles,  decorative  panels  and  other 
mobiliary  accessories,  made  many  engravings  for  Thomas 
Chippendale,  and  sold  his  own  productions  over  the  counter. 
He  was  apparently  an  architect  by  profession.  The  first  publica- 
tion which  can  be  attributed  to  him  with  certainty  is  a  coloured 
caricature,  "  The  Cricket  Players  of  Europe  "  (1741).  In  1754 
he  issued  A  new  Book  of  Chinese  Designs,  which  was  intended  to 
minister  to  the  passing  craze  for  furniture  and  household  decora- 
tions in  the  Chinese  style.  It  was  in  this  year  that  he  engraved 
many  of  the  plates  for  the  Director  of  Thomas  Chippendale.  He 
published  from  many  addresses,  most  of  them  in  the  Strand  or 
its  immediate  neighbourhood,  and  his  shop  was  for  a  long  period 
perhaps  the  most  important  of  its  kind  in  London.  In  his  book 
Nollekens  and  his  Times,  J.  T.  Smith,  writing  of  Richard  Cosway, 
says: — "  So  ridiculously  foppish  did  he  become  that  Matth. 
Darly,  the  famous  caricature  print  seller,  introduced  an  etching 
of  him  in  his  window  in  the  Strand  as  the  '  Macaroni  Miniature 
Painter.'  "  Darly  was  for  many  years  in  partnership  with  a  man 
named  Edwards,  and  together  they  published  many  political 
prints,  which  were  originally  issued  separately  and  collected 
annually  into  volumes  under  the  title  of  Political  and  Satirical 
History.  Darly  was  a  member  both  of  the  Incorporated  Society 
of  Artists  and  the  Free  Society  of  Artists,  forerunners  of  the- 
Royal  Academy,  and  to  their  exhibitions  he  contributed  many 
architectural  drawings,  together  with  a  profile  etching  of  himself 
(1775).  Upon  one  of  these  etchings,  published  from  39  Strand, 
he  is  described  as  "  Professor  of  Ornament  to  the  Academy  of 
Great  Britain."  Darly's  most  important  publication  was  The 
Ornamental  Architect  or  Young  Artists'  Instructor  (1770—1771), 
a  title  which  was  changed  in  the  edition  of  1773  to  A  Compleal 
Body  of  Architecture,  embellished  with  a  great  Variety  of  Orna- 
ments. He  also  issued  Sixty  Vases  by  English,  French  and 
Italian  Masters  (1767).  In  addition  to  his  immense  mass  of 
other  productions  Darly  executed  many  book  plates,  illustrated 
various  books  and  cabinet-makers'  catalogues,  and  gave  lessons 
in  etching.  His  skill  as  a  caricaturist  brought  him  into  close 
personal  relations  with  the  politicians  of  his  time,  and  in  1763 
he  was  instrumental  in  saving  John  Wilkes,  whose  partisan  he 
was,  from  death  at  the  hands  of  James  Dunn,  who  had  determined 
to  kill  him.  Darly,  who  described  himself  as  "  Liveryman  and 
block  maker,"  issued  his  last  caricature  in  October  1780,  and  as 
his  shop,  No.  39  Strand,  was  let  to  a  new  tenant  in  the  following 
year,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  he  had  by  that  time  died,  or 
become  incapable  of  further  work.  As  a  designer  of  furniture 
Darly  travelled  in  a  dozen  years  or  so  from  the  extremes  of 
pseudo-Chinese  affectation  to  classical  severity  of  the  type 
popularized  by  the  brothers  Adam. 

DARMESTETER,  JAMES  (1849-1894),  French  author  and 
antiquarian,  was  born  of  Jewish  parents  on  the  28th  of  March 
1849  at  Chateau  Salins,  in  Alsace.  The  family  name  had 
originated  in  their  earlier  home  of  Darmstadt.  He  was  educated 
in  Paris,  where,  under  the  guidance  of  Michel  Breal  and  Abel 
Bergaigne,  he  imbibed  a  love  for  Oriental  studies,  to  which  for  a 
time  he  entirely  devoted  himself.  He  was  a  man  of  vast  intel- 
lectual range.  In  1875  he  published  a  thesis  on  the  mythology 
of  the  Zend  Avesla,  and  in  1877  became  teacher  of  Zend  at  the 
ficole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  He  followed  up  his  researches  with  his 
Eludes  iraniennes  (1883),  and  ten  years  later  published  a  complete 
translation  of  the  Zend  Avesta,  with  historical  and  philological 
commentary  (3  vols.,  1892-1893),  in  the  Annales  du  musfe 
Guimet.  He  also  edited  the  Zend  Avesla  for  Max  Miiller's  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East.  Darmesteter  regarded  the  extant  texts  as  far 
more  recent  than  was  commonly  believed,  placing  the  earliest  in 
the  ist  century  B.C.,  and  the  bulk  in  the  3rd  century  A.D.  In 
1885  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  College  de  France,  and 
was  sent  to  India  in  1886  on  a  mission  to  collect  the  popular 
songs  of  the  Afghans,  a  translation  of  which,  with  a  valuable 
essay  on  the  Afghan  language  and  literature,  he  published  on 
his  return.  His  impressions  of  English  dominion  in  India 


836 


DARMSTADT— DARNLEY 


were  conveyed  in  Lettres  sur  I'Inde  (1888).  England  interested 
him  deeply;  and  his  attachment  to  the  gifted  English  writer, 
A.  Mary  F.  Robinson,  whom  he  shortly  afterwards  married  (and 
•  who  in  1901  became  the  wife  of  Professor  E.  Duclaux,  director 
of  the  Pasteur  Institute  at  Paris),  led  him  to  translate  her  poems 
into  French  in  1888.  Two  years  after  his  death  a  collection  of 
excellent  essays  on  English  subjects  was  published  in  English. 
He  also  wrote  Le  Mahdi  depuis  les  origines  de  I'Islam  jusqu'A 
nos  jours  (1885);  Les  Origines  de  la  poesie  persane  (1888); 
Prophetes  d' Israel  (1892),  and  other  books  on  topics  connected 
with  the  east,  and  from  1883  onwards  drew  up  the  annual 
reports  of  the  Sociele  Asiatique.  He  had  just  become  connected 
with  the  Revue  de  Paris,  when  his  delicate  constitution  succumbed 
to  a  slight  attack  of  illness  on  the  igth  of  October  1894. 

His  elder  brother,  ARSENE  DARMESTETER  (1846-1888),  was  a 
distinguished  philologist  and  man  of  letters.  He  studied  under 
Gaston  Paris  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  and  became 
professor  of  Old  French  language  and  literature  at  the  Sorbonne. 
His  Life  of  Words  appeared  in  English  in  1888.  He  also  collabor- 
ated with  Adolphe  Hatzfeld  in  a  Dictionnaire  general  de  la  langue 
franfaise  (2  vols.,  1895-1900).  Among  his  most  important  work 
was  the  elucidation  of  Old  French  by  means  of  the  many  glosses 
in  the  medieval  writings  of  Rashi  and  other  French  Jews.  His 
scattered  papers  on  romance  and  Jewish  philology  were  collected 
by  James  Darmesteter  as  Arsene  Darmesteter,  reliques  scienti- 
fiques  (2  vols.,  1890).  His  valuable  Cours  de  grammaire 
historique  de  la  langue  franchise  was  edited  after  his  death  by 
E.  Muret  and  L.  Sudre  (1891-1895  ;  English  edition,  1902). 

There  is  an  eloge  of  James  Darmesteter  in  the  Journal  asiatique 
(1894,  vol.  iv.  pp.  519-534),  and  a  notice  by  Henri  Cordier,  with  a 
list  of  his  writings,  in  The  Royal  Asiatic  Society's  Journal  (January 
1895);  see  also  Gaston  Paris,  "James  Darmesteter,"  in  Penseurs 
el  poetes  (1896),  pp.  1-61). 

DARMSTADT,  a  city  of  Germany,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  a  plain  gently  sloping  from  the  Odenwald 
to  the  Rhine,  21  m.  by  rail  S.E.  from  Mainz  and  17  m.  S.  from 
Frankfort-on-Main.  Pop.  (1905)  83,000.  It  is  the  residence  of 
the  grand-duke  and  the  seat  of  government  of  the  duchy. 
Darmstadt  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new  town,  the  streets  of  the 
former  being  narrow  and  gloomy  and  presenting  no  attractive 
features.  The  new  town,  however,  which  includes  the  greater 
part  of  the  city,  contains  broad  streets  and  several  fine  squares. 
Among  the  latter  is  the  stately  Luisenplatz,  on  which  are  the  house 
of  parliament,  the  old  palace  and  the  post  office,  and  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  column  surmounted  by  the  statue  of  the  grand- 
duke  Louis  I. ,  the  founder  of  the  new  town.  The  square  is  crossed 
by  the  Rhein-strasse,  the  most  important  thoroughfare  in  the 
city,  leading  directly  from  the  railway  station  to  the  ducal 
palace.  This  last,  a  complex  of  buildings,  dating  from  various 
centuries,  but  possessing  few  points  of  special  interest,  is  sur- 
rounded by  grounds  occupying  the  site  of  the  old  moat. 
Opposite  to  it,  on  the  north  side,  and  adjoining  the  pretty  palace 
gardens,  are  the  court  theatre  and  the  armoury,  and  a  little 
farther  west  the  handsome  buildings  of  the  new  museum,  erected 
in  1905  and  containing  the  valuable  scientific  and  art  collections 
of  the  state,  which  were  formerly  housed  in  the  palace:  a  library 
of  600,000  volumes  and  4000  MSS.,  a  museum  of  Egyptian  and 
German  antiquities,  a  picture  gallery  with  masterpieces  of  old 
German  and  Dutch  schools,  a  natural  history  collection  and  the 
state  archives.  To  the  right  of  the  entrance  to  the  palace  gardens 
is  the  tomb  of  the  "  great  landgravine,"  Caroline  Henrietta,  wife 
of  the  landgrave  Louis  IX.,  surmounted  by  a  marble  urn,  the 
gift  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  bearing  the  inscription 
femina  sexu,  ingenio  vir.  To  the  south  of  the  castle  lies  the  old 
town,  with  the  market  square,  the  town  hall  (lately  restored  and 
enlarged)  and  the  town  church.  Of  the  eight  churches  (seven 
Evangelical)  only  the  Roman  Catholic  is  in  any  way  imposing. 
There  are  two  synagogues.  The  town  possesses  a  technical  high 
school,  having  (since  1900)  power  to  confer  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  engineering,  and  attended  by  about  2000  students,  two 
gymnasia,  a  school  of  agriculture,  an  artisans'  school  and  a 
botanical  garden.  The  chemist,  Justus  von  Liebig,  was  born 


in  Darmstadt  in  1803.  Among  the  chief  manufactures  are  the 
production  of  machinery,  carpets,  playing  cards,  chemicals, 
tobacco,  hats,  wine  and  beer. 

The  surroundings  of  Darmstadt  are  attractive  and  contain 
many  features  of  interest.  To  the  east  of  the  town  lies  the 
Mathildenhohe,  formerly  a  park  and  now  converted  into  villa 
residences.  Here  are  the  Alice  hospital  and  the  pretty  Russian 
church,  built  (1898-1899)  by  the  emperor  Nicholas  II.  of  Russia 
in  memory  of  the  empress  Maria,  wife  of  Alexander  II.  In  the 
vicinity  is  the  Rosenhohe,  with  the  mausoleum  of  the  ducal  house, 
with  the  tomb  of  the  grand-duchess  Alice,  daughter  of  Queen 
Victoria  of  England. 

Darmstadt  is  mentioned  in  the  nth  century,  but  in  the  i4th 
century  it  was  still  a  village,  held  by  the  counts  of  Katzeneln- 
bogen.  It  came  by  marriage  into  the  possession  of  the  house  of 
Hesse  in  1479,  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Katzenelnbogen 
having  in  that  year  become  extinct.  The  imperial  army  took 
it  in  the  Schmalkaldic  War,  and  destroyed  the  old  castle.  In 
1567,  after  the  death  of  Philip  the  Magnanimous,  his  youngest 
son  George  received  Darmstadt  and  chose  it  as  his  residence. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  line  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  Its  most 
brilliant  days  were  those  of  the  reign  of  Louis  X.  (1790-1830), 
the  first  grand-duke,  under  whom  the  new  town  was  built. 

See  Walther,  Darmstadt  wie  es  war  und  wie  es  geworden  (Darms. 
1865)  ;  and  Zemin  und  Worner,  Darmstadt  und  seine  Umgebung 
(Zurich,  1890). 

DARNLEY,  HENRY  STEWART  or  STUART,  LORD  (1545- 
1567),  earl  of  Ross  and  duke  of  Albany,  second  husband  of  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Matthew  Stewart,  earl  of 
Lennox  (1516-1571),  and  through  his  mother  Lady  Margaret 
Douglas  (1515-1578)  was  a  great-grandson  of  the  English  king 
Henry  VII.  Born  at  Temple  Newsam  in  Yorkshire  on  the  7th  of 
December  1545,  he  was  educated  in  England,  and  his  lack  of 
intellectual  ability  was  compensated  for  by  exceptional  skill  in 
military  exercises.  After  the  death  of  Francis  II.  of  France  in  1 560 
Darnley  was  sent  into  that  country  by  his  mother,  who  hoped 
that  he  would  become  king  of  England  on  Elizabeth's  death, 
and  who  already  entertained  the  idea  of  his  marriage  with  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots,  the  widow  of  Francis,  as  a  means  to  this  end. 
Consequently  in  1561  both  Lady  Margaret  and  her  son,  who  were 
English  subjects,  were  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth  ;  but  they  were 
soon  released,  and  Darnley  spent  some  time  at  the  English  court 
before  proceeding  to  Scotland  in  February  1565.  The  marriage 
of  Mary  and  Darnley  was  now  a  question  of  practical  politics, 
and  the  queen,  having  nursed  her  new  suitor  through  an  attack  of 
measles,  soon  made  up  her  mind  to  wed  him,  saying  he  "  was  the 
properest  and  best  proportioned  long  man  that  ever  she  had 
seen."  The  attitude  of  Elizabeth  towards  this  marriage  is 
difficult  to  understand.  She  had  permitted  Darnley  to  journey  to 
Scotland,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  she  entangled  Mary  into 
this  union;  but  on  the  other  hand  she  and  her  council  declared 
their  dislike  of  the  proposed  marriage,  and  ordered  Darnley  and 
his  father  to  repair  to  London,  a  command  which  was  disobeyed. 
In  March  1565  there  were  rumours  that  the  marriage  had  already 
taken  place,  but  it  was  actually  celebrated  at  Holyrood  on  the 
29th  of  JiUy  1565. 

Although  Mary  had  doubtless  a  short  infatuation  for  Darnley, 
the  union  was  mainly  due  to  political  motives,  and  in  view  of  the 
characters  of  bride  and  bridegroom  it  is  not  surprising  that 
trouble  soon  arose  between  them.  Contrary  to  his  expectations 
Darnley  did  not  receive  the  crown  matrimonial,  and  his  foolish 
and  haughty  behaviour,  his  vicious  habits,  and  his  boisterous 
companions  did  not  improve  matters.  He  was  on  bad  terms 
with  the  regent  Murray  and  other  powerful  nobles,  who  disliked 
the  marriage  and  were  intriguing  with  Elizabeth.  Scotland  was 
filled  with  rumours  of  plot  and  assassination,  and  civil  war  was 
only  narrowly  avoided.  Unable  to  take  any  serious  part  in 
affairs  of  state,  Darnley  soon  became  estranged  from  his  wife. 
He  believed  that  Mary's  relations  with  David  Rizzio  injured  him 
as  a  husband,  and  was  easily  persuaded  to  assent  to  the  murder 
of  the  Italian,  a  crime  in  which  he  took  part.  Immediately 
afterwards,  however,  flattered  and  cajoled  by  the  queen,  he 


DARRANG— DARTMOOR 


837 


betrayed  his  associates  to  her,  and  assisted  her  to  escape 
from  Holyrood  to  Dunbar.  Owing  to  these  revelations  he  was 
deserted  and  distrusted  by  his  companions  in  the  murder,  and 
soon  lost  the  queen's  favour.  In  these  circumstances  he  decided 
to  leave  Scotland,  but  a  variety  of  causes  prevented  his  departure; 
and  meanwhile  at  Craigmillar  a  band  of  nobles  undertook  to  free 
Mary  from  her  husband,  who  refused  to  be  present  at  the  baptism 
of  his  son,  James,  at  Stirling  in  December  1566.  The  details  of 
the  conspiracy  at  Craigmillar  are  not  clear,  nor  is  it  certain  what 
part,  if  any,  Mary  took  in  these  proceedings.  The  first  intention 
may  have  been  to.  obtain  a  divorce  for  the  queen,  but  it  was  soon 
decided  that  Darnley  must  be  killed.  Rumours  of  the  plot  came 
to  his  ears,  and  he  fled  from  Stirling  to  Glasgow,  where  he  fell 
ill,  possibly  by  poisoning,  and  where  Mary  came  to  visit  him. 
Another  reconciliation  took  place  between  husband  and  wife, 
and  Darnley  was  persuaded  to  journey  with  Mary  by  easy  stages 
to  Edinburgh.  Apartments  were  prepared  for  the  pair  at  Kirk 
o'  Field,  a  house  just  inside  the  city  walls,  and  here  they  remained 
for  a  few  days.  On  the  evening  of  the  gth  of  February  1 567  Mary 
took  an  affectionate  farewell  of  her  husband,  and  went  to  attend 
some  gaieties  in  Edinburgh.  A  few  hours  later,  on  the  morning 
of  the  loth,  Kirk  o'  Field  was  blown  up  with  gunpowder. 
Darnley's  body  was  found  at  some  distance  from  the  house,  and 
it  is  supposed  that  he  was  strangled  whilst  making  his  escape. 
The  remains  were  afterwards  buried  in  the  chapel  at  Holyrood. 

Much  discussion  has  taken  place  about  this  crime,  and  the 
guilt  or  innocence  of  Mary  is  still  a  question  of  doubt  and  debate. 
It  seems  highly  probable,  however,  that  the  queen  was  accessory 
to  the  murder,  which  was  organized  by  her  lover  and  third 
husband,  Bothwell  (q.v.).  As  the  father  of  King  James  I., 
Darnley  is  the  direct  ancestor  of  all  the  sovereigns  of  England 
since  1603.  Personally  he  was  a  very  insignificant  character  and 
his  sole  title  to  fame  is  his  connexion  with  Mary,  queen  of  Scots. 

For  further  information,  and  also  for  a  list  of  the  works  bearing  on 
his  life,  see  the  article  MARY,  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS. 

DARRANG,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  province  of 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  It  lies  between  the  Bhutan  and 
Daphla  Hills  and  the  Brahmaputra,  including  many  islands  in  the 
river.  The  administrative  headquarters  are  at  Tezpur.  Its  area 
is  3418  sq.  m.  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  level  plain  watered  by 
many  tributaries  of  the  Brahmaputra.  The  two  subdivisions  of 
Tezpur  Mangaldai  differ  greatly  in  character.  Tezpur  is  part  of 
Upper  Assam  and  shares  in  the  prosperity  which  tea  cultivation 
has  brought  to  that  part  of  the  valley.  In  this  portion  of  the 
district  there  are  still  large  areas  of  excellent  land  awaiting 
settlement,  and  the  cultivator  finds  a  market  for  his  produce 
in  the  flourishing  tea-gardens,  to  which  large  quantities  of 
coolies  are  imported  every  year.  In  Mangaldai,  on  the  other 
hand,  most  of  the  good  rice  land  was  settled  about  1880-1890 
when  the  subdivision  had  a  population  of  146  to  the  square  mile, 
as  against  42  for  Tezpur ;  the  soil  is  not  favourable  for  tea,  and 
the  population  is  stationary  or  receding.  In  1901  the  population 
of  the  whole  district  was  337,313,  showing  an  increase  of  10%  in 
the  decade.  The  principal  grain-crop  is  rice.  The  principal  means 
of  communication  is  by  river.  A  steam  tramway  of  2\  ft.  gauge 
has  been  opened  from  Tezpur  to  Balipara,  a  distance  of  20  m. 

Darrang  originally  formed,  according  to  tradition,  part  of  the 
dominions  of  Bana  Raja,  who  was  defeated  by  Krishna  in  a  battle 
near  Tezpur  ("  the  town  of  blood  ").  The  massive  granite  ruins 
found  near  by  prove  that  the  place  must  have  been  the  seat  of 
powerful  and  civilized  rulers.  In  the  i6th  century  Darrang  was 
subject  to  the  Koch  king  of  Kamarupa,  Nar  Narayan,  and  on  the 
division  of  his  dominions  among  his  heirs  passed  to  an  independent 
line  of  raias.  Early  in  the  I7th  century  the  raja  Bali  Narayan 
invoked  the  aid  of  the  Ahoms  of  Upper  Assam  against  the  Mussul- 
man invaders;  after  his  defeat  and  death  in  1637  the  Ahoms  domin- 
ated the  whole  district,  and  the  Darrang  rajas  sank  into  petty  feuda- 
tories. About  1785  they  took  advantage  of  the  decay  of  the  Ahom 
kingdom  to  try  and  re-establish  their  independence,  but  they  were 
defeated  by  a  British  expedition  in  1792,  and  in  1826  Darrang,  with 
the  rest  of  Assam,  passed  under  British  control. 

DARTFORD,  a  market  town  in  the  Dartford  parliamentary 
division  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  Darent,  17  m.  E.S.E.  of 
London  by  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  of 


urban  district  (1891),  11,962  ;  (1901)  18,644.  The  town  lies  low, 
flanked  by  two  chalky  eminences,  called  East  and  West  Hills. 
It  possesses  a  town  hall,  a  grammar  school  (1576),  and  a  Martyr's 
Memorial  HalK  The  most  noteworthy  building,  however,  is  the 
parish  church,  restored  in  1863,  which  contains  a  curious  old 
fresco  and  several  interesting  brasses,  and  has  a  Norman  tower. 
The  prosperity  of  the  town  depends  on  the  important  works  in  its 
vicinity,  including  powder  works,  paper  mills,  and  engineering, 
iron,  chemical  and  cement  works.  One  of  the  first  attempts  at 
the  manufacture  of  paper  in  England  was  made  here  by  Sir  John 
Spielman  (d.  1607),  jeweller  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  Dartford  was 
the  scene,  in  1235,  of  the  marriage,  celebrated  by  proxy,  between 
Isabella,  sister  of  Henry  III.,  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. ; 
and  in  1331  a  famous  tournament  was  held  in  the  place  by 
Edward  III.  The  same  monarch  established  an  Augustinian 
nunnery  on  West  Hill  in  1355,  of  which,  however,  few  remains 
exist.  After  the  Dissolution  it  was  used  as  a  private  residence 
by  Henry  VIII.,  Anne  of  Cleves  and  Elizabeth.  The  chantry  of 
St  Edmund  the  Martyr  which  stood  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
town  was  a  part  of  Edward  III.'s  endowment  to  the  priory,  and 
became  so  famous  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  especially  for  those 
on  their  way  to  Canterbury,  that  the  part  of  Watling  Street  which 
crossed  there  towards  London  was  sometimes  called  "  St 
Edmund's  Way."  It  was  here  also  that  Wat  Tyler's  insurrection 
began  in  1377,  and  the  house  in  which  he  resided  is  shown.  On 
Dartford  Heath  is  a  lunatic  asylum  of  the  London  County  Council, 
and,  at  Long  Reach,  the  infectious  diseases  hospital  of  the 
Metropolitan  Asylums  Board.  Stone  church,  2  m.  E.  of  Dartford, 
mainly  late  Early  English  (1251-1274),  and  carefully  restored  by 
G.  E.  Street  in  1860,  is  remarkable ;  the  richness  of  the  work 
within  increases  from  west  to  east,  culminating  in  a  choir  arcade 
decorated  with  work  among  the  finest  of  its  period  extant; 
the  period  is  that  of  the  choir  of  Westminster  Abbey,  and  from  a 
comparison  of  building  materials,  choir  arcades  and  sculpture 
of  foliage,  a  common  architect  has  been  suggested.  Greenhithe, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  has  large  chalk  quarries  in  its 
neighbourhood,  from  which  lime  and  cement  are  manufactured. 

DARTMOOR,  a  high  plateau  in  the  south-west  of  Devonshire, 
England.  Its  length  is  about  23  m.  from  N.  to  S.  and  its  extreme 
breadth  20  m.,  the  mean  altitude  being  about  1500  ft.  The  area 
exceeding  1000  ft.  in  elevation  is  about  200  sq.  m.  It  is  the 
highest  and  easternmost  in  a  broken  chain  of  granitic  elevations 
which  extends  through  Cornwall  to  the  Scilly  Isles.  The  higher 
parts  are  open,  bleak  and  wild,  strongly  contrasting  with  the 
more  gentle  scenery  of  the  well- wooded  lowlands  surrounding  it. 
Sloping  heights  rise  from  the  main  tableland  in  all  directions, 
crested  with  broken  masses  of  granite,  locally  named  tors,  and 
often  singularly  fantastic  in  outline.  The  highest  of  these  are 
Yes  Tor  and  High  Willhays  in  the  north-west,  reaching  altitudes 
of  2028  and  2039  ft.  Large  parts  of  the  moor,  especially  in  the 
centre,  are  covered  with  morasses ;  and  head-waters  of  all  the 
principal  streams  of  Devonshire  (q.v.)  are  found  here.  Two  main 
roads  cross  the  moor,  one  between  Exeter  and  Plymouth,  and 
the  other  between  Ashburton  and  Tavistock,  intersecting  at  Two 
Bridges.  Both  avoid  the  higher  part  of  the  moor,  which,  for  the 
rest,  is  traversed  only  in  part  by  a  few  rough  tracks.  The  central 
part  of  Dartmoor  was  a  royal  forest  from  a  date  unknown,  but 
apparently  anterior  to  the  Conquest.  Its  woods  were  formerly 
more  extensive  than  now,  but  a  few  small  tracts  in  which  dwarf 
oaks  are  characteristic  remain  in  the  lower  parts.  Previous  to 
1337,  the  forest  had  been  granted  to  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall, 
by  Henry  III.,  and  from  that  time  onward  it  has  belonged  to  the 
duchy  of  Cornwall.  The  districts  immediately  surrounding  the 
moor  are  called  the  Venville  or  Fenfield  districts.  The  origin  of 
this  name  is  not  clear.  The  holders  of  land  by  Venville  tenure 
under  the  duchy  have  rights  of  pasture,  fishing,  &c.  in  the  forest, 
and  their  main  duty  is  to  "  drive  "  the  moor  at  certain  times 
in  order  to  ascertain  what  head  of  cattle  are  pastured  thereon, 
and  to  prevent  trespassing.  The  antiquarian  remains  of  Dart- 
moor are  considered  among  those  of  Devonshire. 

Dartmoor  convict  prison,  near  Princetown,  was  adapted  to  its 
present  purpose  in  1850;  but  the  original  buildings  were  erected 


838 


DARTMOUTH— DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE 


in  1809  for  the  accommodation  of  French  prisoners.  A  tract  of 
moorland  adjacent  to  the  prison  has  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion by  the  inmates. 

See  S.  Rowe,  Perambulation  of  the  .  .  .  forest  of  Dartmoor 
(Plymouth,  1848);  J.  L.  W.  Page,  Exploration  of  Dartmoor  (London, 
1889) ;  S.  Baring-Gould,  Book  of  Dartmoor  (London,  1900). 

DARTMOUTH,  a  town  in  Halifax  county,  Nova  Scotia, 
Canada,  on  the  north-eastern  side  of  Halifax  harbour,  connected 
by  a  steam  ferry  with  Halifax,  of  which  it  is  practically  a  suburb. 
Pop.  (1901)  4806.  It  contains  a  large  sugar  refinery,  foundries, 
machine  shops,  saw  mills,  skate,  rope,  nail,  soap  and  sash 
factories. 

DARTMOUTH,  a  seaport,  market  town,  and  municipal 
borough  in  the  Torquay  parliamentary  division  of  Devonshire, 
England,  27  m.  E.  of  Plymouth.  Pop.  (1901)  6579.  It  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  west  bank  and  near  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Dart,  which  here  forms  an  almost  land-locked  estuary. 
The  town  is  connected  by  a  steam  ferry  with  Kingswear  on  the 
opposite  bank,  which  is  served  by  a  branch  of  the  Great  Western 
railway.  The  houses  of  Dartmouth,  many  of  which  are  ancient, 
rise  in  tiers  from  the  shore,  beneath  a  range  of  steep  hills.  An 
embankment  planted  with  trees  fronts  the  river.  The  cruciform 
church  of  St  Saviour  is  of  the  I4th  and  isth  centuries,  and 
contains  a  graceful  rood-screen  of  the  i6th  century,  an  ancient 
stone  pulpit  and  interesting  monuments.  Dartmouth  Castle, 
in  part  of  Tudor  date,  commands  the  river  a  little  below  the 
town.  Portions  of  the  cottage  of  Thomas  Newcomen,  one  of 
the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine,  are  preserved.  Dartmouth  is  a 
favourite  yachting  centre,  and  shipbuilding,  brewing,  engineering 
and  paint-making  are  carried  on.  Coal  is  imported,  and  resold 
to  ships  calling  at  the  harbour.  The  borough  is  under  a  mayor, 
four  aldermen  and  twelve  councillors.  Area,  1924  acres. 

History. — Probably  owing  its  origin  to  Saxon  invaders,  Dart- 
mouth (Darentamuthan,  Dertemue)  was  a  seaport  of  importance 
when  Earl  Beorn  was  buried  in  its  church  in  1049.  From  its 
sheltered  harbour  William  II.  embarked  for  the  relief  of  Mans, 
and  the  crusading  squadron  set  sail  in  1190,  while  John  landed 
here  in  1214.  The  borough,  first  claimed  as  such  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.,  was  in  existence  by  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century, 
since  a  deed  of  Gilbert  Fitz-Stephen,  lord  of  the  manor,  mentions 
the  services  due  from  "  his  burgesses  of  Dertemue,"  and  a  borough 
seal  of  1 280  is  extant.  The  king  in  1 224  required  the  bailiffs  and 
good  men  of  Dartmouth  to  keep  all  ships  in  readiness  for  his 
service,  and  in  1302  they  were  to  furnish  two  ships  for  the  Scottish 
expedition,  an  obligation  maintained  throughout  the  century. 
The  men  of  the  vill  were  made  quit  of  toll  in  1337,  and  in 
1342  the  town  was  incorporated  by  a  charter  frequently  con- 
firmed by  later  sovereigns.  Edward  III.  in  1372  granted  that 
the  burgesses  should  be  sued  only  before  the  mayor  and  bailiffs, 
and  Richard  II.  in  1393  granted  extended  jurisdiction  and  a 
coroner;  further  charters  were  obtained  in  1604  and  1684.  A 
French  attack  on  the  town  was  repulsed  in  1404,  and  in  1485  the 
burgesses  received  a  royal  grant  of  £40  for  walling  the  town 
and  stretching  a  chain  across  the  river  mouth.  Dartmouth  fitted 
out  two  ships  against  the  Armada,  and  was  captured  by  both  the 
royalists  and  parliamentarians  in  the  Civil  War.  It  returned  two 
representatives  to  parliament  in  1298,  and  from  1350  to  1832. 
In  the  latter  year  the  representation  was  reduced  to  one,  and  was 
merged  in  that  of  the  county  in  1868.  Manorial  markets  were 
granted  for  Dartmouth  in  1 23 1  and  1 301 .  These  were  important 
since  as  early  as  1225  the  fleet  resorted  there  for  provisions. 
During  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries  there  was  a  regular  trade 
with  Bordeaux  and  Brittany,  and  complaints  of  piracies  by 
Dartmouth  men  were  frequent. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  an  American  institution  of  higher 
education,  in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire.  It  is  Congregational  in 
its  affiliations,  but  is  actually  non-sectarian.  The  college  is  open 
only  to  men  except  during  the  summer  session,  when  women  also 
are  admitted.  Dartmouth  embraces,  in  addition  to  the  original 
college,  incorporated  in  1769,  a  medical  school,  dating  from  the 
establishment  of  a  professorship  of  medicine  in  the  college  in 
1798;  the  Thayer  school  of  civil  engineering,  established  in  1867 


by  the  bequest  of  Gen.  Sylvanus  Thayer;  and  the  Amos  Tuck 
school  of  administration  and  finance,  established  in  1900  by 
Edward  Tuck — a  remarkable  feature,  as  it  was  the  first,  and, 
until  the  establishment  at  Harvard  of  a  similar  graduate  school, 
the  only  commercial  school  in  the  country  whose  work  is  largely 
post-graduate.  The  Chandler  school  of  science  and  the  arts  was 
founded  by  Abiel  Chandler  in  1851,  in  connexion  with  Dart- 
mouth, and  was  incorporated  into  the  collegiate  department  in 
1893  as  the  Chandler  scientific  course  in  the  college.  From  1866 
to  1893  the  New  Hampshire  college  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts,  now  at  Durham,  was  connected  with  Dartmouth. 
The  medical  school  offers  a  four  years'  course,  and  each  of  the 
other  two  professional  schools  a  two  years'  course,  the  first  year 
of  which  may,  under  certain  conditions,  be  counted  as  the  senior 
year  of  the  undergraduate  department.  The  college  has  a 
beautiful  campus  or  "  yard  ";  a  library  of  more  than  100,000 
volumes,  housed  in  Wilson  Hall  (1885);  instruction  halls,  resi- 
dence halls — Thornton  and  Wentworth  (1828) ,  Hallgarten  (1874), 
Richardson  (1897),  and  Fayerweather  (1900);  a  gymnasium 
(Bissell  Hall,  built  in  1867);  an  athletic  field,  known  as  Alumni 
Oval;  Bartlett  Hall  (1890-1891),  the  house  of  the  College  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association;  Rollins  Chapel  (1885);  College 
Hall  (1901),  a  social  headquarters;  an  astronomical  and  meteoro- 
logical observatory  (Shattuck  Observatory,  1854);  the  Mary 
Hitchcock  hospital  (1893),  associated  with  the  medical  college; 
museums  (especially  the  Butterfield  Museum);  Culver  Hall(i87i), 
the  chemical  laboratory;  and  Wilder  Hall  (1899),  the  physical 
laboratory.  The  college  in  1908  had  100  officers  of  administra- 
tion and  instruction  and  1219  students.  Jt  is  maintained  chiefly 
by  the  proceeds  of  a  productive  endowment  fund  amounting  to 
$2,700,000  and  by  tuition  fees  ($125  a  year  for  each  student). 
The  government  is  entrusted  to  a  board  of  twelve  trustees,  five 
of  whom  are  elected  upon  the  nomination  of  the  alumni. 

Dartmouth  is  the  outgrowth  of  Moor's  Indian  charity  school, 
founded  by  Eleazer  Wheelock  (1711-1779)  about  1750  at 
Lebanon,  Connecticut;  this  school  was  named  in  1755  in  honour 
of  Joshua  Moor,  who  in  this  year  gave  to  it  lands  and  buildings. 
In  1765  Samson  Occom  (c.  1723-1792),  an  Indian  preacher 
and  former  student  of  the  school,  visited  England  and  Scotland 
in  its  behalf  and  raised  £10,000,  whereupon  plans  were  made 
for  enlargement  and  for  a  change  of  site  to  Hanover.  In  1 769  the 
school  was  incorporated  by  a  charter  granted  by  George  III.  as 
Dartmouth  College,  being  named  after  the  earl  of  Dartmouth, 
president  of  the  trustees  of  the  funds  raised  in  Great  Britain. 
The  first  college  building,  Dartmouth  Hall  (closely  resembling 
Nassau  Hall  at  Princetown  and  the  University  Hall  of  Brown 
University),  was  built  in  1784-1791  and  is  still  standing,  as  are 
the  typical  college  church,  built  in  1796  and  enlarged  in  1877  and 
1889,  and  Moor  Hall,  the  second  building  for  Moor's  charity 
school,  since  1852  called  the  Chandler  building.  During  the  War 
of  Independence  the  support  from  Great  Britain  was  mostly 
withdrawn.  In  1815  President  John  Wheelock  (1754-1817), 
who  had  succeeded  his  father  in  1779,  and  was  a  Presbyterian 
and  a  Republican,  was  removed  by  the  majority  of  the  board 
of  trustees,  who  were  Congregationalists  and  Federalists,  and 
Francis  Brown  was  chosen  in  his  place.  Wheelock,  upon  his 
appeal  to  the  legislature,  was  reinstated  at  the  head  of  a  new 
corporation,  called  Dartmouth  University.  The  state  courts 
upheld  the  legislature  and  the  "  University,"  but  in  1819  after 
the  famous  argument  of  Daniel  Webster  (q.v.)  in  behalf  of  the 
"  College  "  board  of  trustees  as  against  the  "  University  "  board 
before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  that  body  decided  that 
the  private  trust  created  by  the.  charter  of  1769  was  inviolable, 
and  Dr  Francis  Brown  and  the  old  "  College  "  board  took 
possession  of  the  institution's  property.  This  was  one  of  the 
most  important  decisions  ever  made  by  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court. 

See  Frederick  Chase,  A  History  of  Dartmouth. College  and  the  Town 
of  Hanover  (Cambridge,  1891).  For  the  Dartmouth  College  Case  see 
Shirley,  The  Dartmouth  College  Causes  (St  Louis,  Missouri,  1879); 
Kent,  Commentaries  on  American  Law  (vol.  i.  Boston,  1884);  and 
Joseph  Story,  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution(vo\.  ii.,  Boston,  1891). 


DARTMOUTH,  EARL  OF— DARU,  COUNT 


839 


DARTMOUTH,  EARL  OF,  an  English  title  borne  by  the  family 
of  Legge  from  1710  to  the  present  day. 

WILLIAM  LEGGE  (c.  1609-1670),  the  eldest  son  of  Edward 
Legge  (d.  1616),  vice-president  of  Munster,  gained  some  military 
experience  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  then  returning  to 
England  assisted  Charles  I.  in  his  war  against  the  Scots  in  1638. 
He  was  also  very  useful  to  the  king  during  the  months  which 
preceded  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  although  his  attempt 
to  seize  Hull  in  January  1642  failed.  During  the  war  Legge 
distinguished  himself  at  Chalgrove  and  at  the  first  battle  of 
Newbury,  and  in  1645  he  became  governor  of  Oxford.  However, 
he  only  held  this  position  for  a  few  months,  as  he  shared  the 
disgrace  of  Prince  Rupert,  to  whom  he  was  very  devoted;  but 
he  was  largely  instrumental  in  putting  an  end  to  the  quarrel 
between  the  king  and  the  prince.  Legge  helped  Charles  to 
escape  from  Hampton  Court  in  1647,  and  after  attending  upon 
him  he  was  arrested  in  May  1648.  He  was  soon  released,  but 
was  again  captured  in  the  following  year  while  proceeding  to 
Ireland  in  the  interests  of  Charles  II.  Regaining  his  freedom  in 
1653,  he  spent  some  years  abroad,  but  in  1659  he  was  once  more 
in  England  inciting  the  royalists  to  rise.  Legge  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Charles  II.,  who  offered  to  make  him  an  earl.  The  old 
royalist  died  on  the  i3th  of  October  1670. 

Legge's  eldest  son,  GEORGE,  BARON  DARTMOUTH  (1647-1691), 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  navy  during  the  Dutch  war  of  1665- 
1667,  and  quickly  won  his  way  to  high  rank.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  household  of  the  duke  of  York,  afterwards 
James  II.;  was  governor  of  Portsmouth  and  master-general  of 
the  army;  in  1678  he  commanded  as  colonel  the  troop  at  Nieu- 
port,  and  in  1682  he  was  created  Baron  Dartmouth.  In  1683  as 
''  admiral  of  a  fleet "  he  sailed  to  Tangiers,  dismantled  the  fortifi- 
cations and  brought  back  the  English  troops,  a  duty  which  he 
discharged  very  satisfactorily.  Under  James  II.  Dartmouth 
was  master  of  the  horse  and  governor  of  the  Tower  of  London; 
and  in  1688,  when  William  of  Orange  was  expected,  James  II. 
made  him  commander-in-chief  of  his  fleet.  Although  himself 
loyal  to  James,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  many  of  his  officers, 
and  an  engagement  with  the  Dutch  fleet  was  purposely  avoided. 
Dartmouth,  however,  refused  to  assist  in  getting  James  Edward, 
prince  of  Wales,  out  of  the  country,  and  even  reproved  the  king 
for  attempting  this  proceeding.  He  then  left  the  fleet  and  took 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary,  but  in  July  1691  he 
was  arrested  for  treason,  and  was  charged  with  offering  to  hand 
over  Portsmouth  to  France  and  to  command  a  French  fleet. 
Macaulay  believed  that  this  accusation  was  true,  but  there  are 
those  who  hold  that  Dartmouth  spoke  the  truth  when  he  pro- 
tested his  innocence.  Further  proceedings  against  him  were 
prevented  by  his  death,  which  took  place  in  the  Tower  of  London 
on  the  25th  of  October  1691. 

Lord  Dartmouth's  only  son,  WILLIAM,  ist  EARL  OF  DART- 
MOUTH (1672-1750),  succeeded  to  his  father's  barony  in  1691. 
In  1702  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  board  of  trade  and 
foreign  plantations,  and  eight  years  later  he  became  secretary  of 
state  for  the  southern  department  and  joint  keeper  of  the  signet 
for  Scotland.  In  1711  he  was  created  viscount  Lewisham  and 
earl  of  Dartmouth;  in  1713  he  exchanged  his  offices  for  that  of 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  which  he  held  until  the  end  of  1714. 
After  a  long  period  of  retirement  from  public  life  he  died  on  the 
1 5th  of  December  1 750.  Dartmouth's  eldest  son  George,viscount 
Lewisham  (c.  1703-1732),  predeceased  his  father.  Other  sons 
were  :  Heneage  Legge  (1704-1759),  judge  of  the  court  of 
exchequer;  Henry  Legge  (q.v.),  afterwards  Bilson-Legge;  and 
Edward  Legge  (1710-1747),  who  served  for  some  time  in  the  navy 
and  died  on  the  igth  of  September  1747. 

WILLIAM,  2nd  EARL  OF  DARTMOUTH  (1731-1801),  was  a  son 
of  George,  viscount  Lewisham,  and  a  grandson  of  the  ist  earl, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1750.  For  a  few  months  in  1765  and  1766 
he  was  president  of  the  board  of  trade  and  foreign  plantations; 
in  1772  he  returned  to  the  same  office  holding  also  that  of 
secretary  for  the  colonies;  and  in  1775  he  became  lord  privy 
seal.  With  regard  to  the  American  colonies  Dartmouth  advised 
them  in  1777  to  accept  the  conciliatory  proposals  put  forward  by 


Lord  North,  but  in  1776  he  opposed  similar  proposals  and  advo- 
cated the  employment  of  force.  In  March  1782  he  resigned  his 
office  as  lord  privy  seal  and  in  1783  he  was  lord  steward  of  the 
household;  he  died  on  the  isth  of  July  1801.  Dartmouth  was  a 
friend  of  Selina,  countess  of  Huntingdon,  and  his  piety  and  his 
intimacy  with  the  early  Methodists  won  for  him  the  epithet  of  the 
Psalm-singer.  Dartmouth  College  was  named  after  him,  and 
among  his  papers  preserved  at  Patshull  House,  Wolverhampton, 
are  many  letters  from  America  relating  to  the  struggle  for 
independence.  His  sixth  son,  Sir  Arthur  Kaye  Legge  (d.  1835), 
was  an  admiral  of  the  blue,  and  his  seventh  son,  Edward  Legge 
(d.  1827),  was  bishop  of  Oxford. 

GEORGE,  3rd  EARL  OF  DARTMOUTH  (1755-1810),  the  eldest  son 
of  the  2nd  earl,  was  lord  warden  of  the  stannaries  and  president 
of  the  board  of  control;  later  he  was  lord  steward  and  then  lord 
chamberlain  of  the  royal  household.  He  died  on  the  ist  of 
November  1810,  when  his  eldest  son,  William  (1784-1853), 
became  4th  earl.  William's  son,  William  V^lter  (1823-1891), 
became  5th  earl  in  1853  and  was  succeeded  in  1891  by  his  son 
William  Heneage  Legge  (b.  1851)  as  6th  earl  of  Dartmouth.  As 
Lord  Lewisham  this  nobleman  was  a  member  of  parliament 
from  1878  to  1891,  and  was  vice-chamberlain  of  the  household  in 
1885-1886,  and  again  from  1886  to  1892. 

DARU,  PIERRE  ANTOINE  NOfiL  BRUNO,  COUNT  (1767- 
1829),  French  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Montpellier 
on  the  1 2th  of  January  1767.  He  was  educated  at  the  military 
school  of  Tournon,  conducted  by  the  Oratorians,  and  entered  the 
artillery  at  an  early  age.  His  fondness  for  literature,  however, 
soon  made  itself  felt,  and  he  published  several  slight  pieces,  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  called  him  to  a  sterner 
occupation.  In  1793  he  became  commissary  to  the  army, 
protecting  the  coasts  of  Brittany  from  projected  descents  of  the 
British,  or  of  French  royalists.  Thrown  into  prison  on  a  frivolous 
charge  of  friendliness  to  the  royalists  and  England,  he  was  released 
after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  in  the  summer  of  1794,  and  rose  in 
the  service  until,  in  1799,  he  became  chief  commissary  to  the 
French  army  serving  under  Massena  in  the  north  of  Switzerland. 
In  that  position  he  won  repute  for  his  organizing  capacity,  great 
power  of  work  and  unswerving  probity — the  last  of  which 
qualities  was  none  too  common  in  the  French  armies  at  that 
time.  These  exacting  tasks  did  not  absorb  all  his  energies.  He 
found  time,  even  during  the  campaign,  to  translate  part  of  Horace 
and  to  compose  two  poems,  the  Polme  des  Alpes  and  the  Chant  de 
guerre.  The  latter  celebrated  in  indignant  strains  the  murder 
of  the  French  envoys  to  the  congress  of  Rastadt.  I 

The  accession  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  to  power  in  November 
1799  led  to  the  employment  of  Daru  as  chief  commissary  to  the 
Army  of  Reserve  intended  for  North  Italy,  and  commanded 
nominally  by  Berthier,  but  really  by  the  First  Consul.  Conjointly 
with  Berthier  and  Dejean,  he  signed  the  armistice  with  the 
Austrians  which  closed  the  campaign  in  North  Italy  in  June 
1800.  Daru  now  returned,  for  a  time,  mainly  to  civil  life,  and 
entered  the  tribunate,  where  he  ably  maintained  the  principles 
of  democratic  liberty.  On  the  renewal  of  war  with  England,  in 
May  1803,  he  again  resumed  his  duties  as  chief  commissary  for 
the  army  on  the  northern  coasts.  It  was  afterwards  asserted 
that,  on  Napoleon's  resolve  to  turn  the  army  of  England  against 
Austria,  Daru  had  set  down  at  the  emperor's  dictation  all  the 
details  of  the  campaign  which  culminated  at  Dim.  The  story  is 
apocryphal;  but  Napoleon's  confidence  in  him  was  evinced  by 
his  being  appointed  to  similar  duties  in  the  Grand  Army,  which  in 
the  autumn  of  1805  overthrew  the  armies  of  Austria  and  Russia. 
After  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  he  took  part  in  the  drafting  of  the 
treaty  of  Presburg.  At  this  time,  too,  he  became  intendant- 
general  of  the  military  household  of  Napoleon.  In  the  campaigns 
of  1806-1807  he  served,  in  his  usual  capacity,  in  the  army  which 
overthrew  the  forces  of  Russia  and  Prussia;  and  he  had  a  share 
in  drawing  up  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  (7th  of  July  1807).  After  this  he 
supervised  the  administrative  and  financial  duties  in  connexion 
with  the  French  army  which  occupied  the  principal  fortresses  of 
Prussia,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  agents  through  whom  Napoleon 
pressed  hard  on  that  land.  At  the  congress  of  Erfurt,  Daru  had 


84o 


DARWEN— DARWIN,  CHARLES 


the  privilege  of  being  present  at  the  interview  between  Goethe 
and  Napoleon,  and  interposed  tactful  references  to  the  works  of 
the  great  poet.  Daru  fulfilled  his  usual  duties  in  the  campaign 
of  1809  against  Austria.  Afterwards,  when  the  subject  of  the 
divorce  of  Josephine  and  the  choice  of  a  Russian  or  of  an  Austrian 
princess  came  to  be  discussed,  Daru,  on  being  consulted  by 
Napoleon,  is  said  boldly  to  have  counselled  his  marriage  with  a 
French  lady;  and  Napoleon,  who  admired  his  frankness  and 
honesty,  took  the  reply  in  good  part. 

In  1811  he  became  secretary  of  state  in  succession  to  Maret, 
due  de  Bassano,  and  showed  his  usual  ability  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  vast  and  complex  affairs  of  the  French  empire, 
including  the  arrangements  connected  with  the  civil  list  and  the 
imperial  domains.  But  neither  his  devotion  to  civic  duty  nor  to 
the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Grand  Army  could  ward 
off  disaster.  Late  in  the  year  1813  he  took  up  the  portfolio  of 
military  affairs.  After  the  first  abdication  of  Napoleon  in  1814, 
Daru  retired  int4lprivate  life,  but  aided  Napoleon  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  After  the  second  Restoration  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  in  which  he  ably  defended  the 
cause  of  popular  liberty  against  the  attacks  of  the  ultra-royalists. 
He  died  at  Meulan  on  the  5th  of  September  1829. 

Few  men  of  the  Napoleonic  empire  have  been  more  generally 
admired  and  respected  than  Daru.  On  one  occasion  when 
he  expressed  a  fear  that  he  lacked  all  the  gifts  of  a  courtier, 
Napoleon  replied,  "  Courtiers!  They  are  common  enough  about 
me;  I  shall  never  be  in  want  of  them.  What  I  want  is  an 
enlightened,  firm  and  vigilant  administrator;  and  that  is  why 
I  have  chosen  you."  At  another  time  Napoleon  said,  "  Daru  is 
good  on  all  sides;  he  has  good  judgment,  a  good  intellect,  a  great 
power  for  work,  and  a  body  and  mind  of  iron."  The  only 
occasion  on  which  he  is  known  to  have  sunk  beneath  the  weight 
of  his  duties  was  in  the  course  of  writing  letters  at  the  emperor's 
dictation  for  the  third  night  in  succession. 

Of  Daru's  literary  works  may  be  mentioned  his  Histoire  de 
Venise,  published  at  Paris  in  7  vols.  in  1819;  the  Histoire  de 
Breiagne,  in  3  vols.  (Paris,  1826);  a  poetical  translation  of 
Horace  (of  which  Le  Brun  remarked:  "  Je  ne  lis  point  Daru, 
j'aime  trop  mon  Horace  ") ;  Discours  en  tiers  sur  les  facultes  de 
I'homme  (Paris,  1825),  and  Astronomic,  a  didactfc  poem  in  six 
cantos  (Paris,  1820). 

See  the  "  Notice  "  by  Vlennet  prefixed  to  the  fourth  edition  of 
Daru's  Histoire  de  la  republique  de  Venise  (9  vols.,  1853),  and  three 
articles  by  Sainte-Beuve  in  Causeries  du  lundi,  vol.  ix.  For  the  many 
letters  of  Napoleon  to  Daru  see  the  Correspondance  de  Napoleon  I" 
(32  vols.,  Paris,  1858-1870).  0-  HL.  R.) 

DARWEN,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  Darwen  parliamentary 
division  of  Lancashire,  England,  20  m.  N.W.  from  Manchester 
by  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  34,192; 
(1901)  38,212.  It  lies  on  the  river  Darwen,  which  traverses  a 
densely  populated  manufacturing  district,  and  is  surrounded  by 
high-lying  moors.  Darwen  is  a  centre  of  the  cotton  trade  and 
has  also  blast  furnaces,  and  paper-making,  paper-staining  and 
fire-clay  works.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  collieries  and  stone 
quarries.  The  market  hall  is  the  chief  public  building;  there  are 
technical  schools,  a  free  library,  and  two  public  parks.  Darwen 
was  incorporated  in  1 788.  The  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor, 
six  aldermen  and  eighteen  councillors. 

DARWIN,  CHARLES  ROBERT  (1800-1882),  English  naturalist, 
author  of  the  Origin  of  Species,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury  on  the 
1 2th  of  February  1809.  He  was  the  younger  of  the  two  sons  and 
the  fourth  child  of  Dr  Robert  Waring  Darwin,  son  of  Dr  Erasmus 
Darwin  (<?.».).  His  mother,  a  daughter  of  Josiah  Wedgwood 
(1730-1795),  died  when  Charles  Darwin  was  eight  years  old. 
Charles  Darwin's  elder  brother,  Erasmus  Alvey  (1804-1881), 
was  interested  in  literature  and  art  rather  than  science:  on  the 
subject  of  the  wide  difference  between  the  brothers  Charles  wrote 
that  he  was  "  inclined  to  agree  with  Francis  Gallon  in  believing 
that  education  and  environment  produce  only  a  small  effect  on 
the  mind  of  anyone,  and  that  most  of  our  qualities  are  innate  " 
(Life  and  Letters,  London,  1887,  p.  22).  Darwin  considered  that 
his  own  success  was  chiefly  due  to  "the  love  of  science,  unbounded 


patience  in  long  reflecting  over  any  subject,  industry  in  observing 
and  collecting  facts,  and  a  fair  share  of  invention  as  well  as  of 
common  sense  "  (I.e.  p.  107).  He  also  says:  "  I  have  steadily 
endeavoured  to  keep  my  mind  free  so  as  to  give  up  any  hypothesis, 
however  much  beloved  (and  I  cannot  resist  forming  one  on  every 
subject) ,  as  soon  as  facts  are  shown  to  be  opposed  to  it  "  (I.e. 
p.  103) .  The  essential  causes  of  his  success  are  to  be  found  in  this 
latter  sentence,  the  creative  genius  ever  inspired  by  existing 
knowledge  to  build  hypotheses  by  whose  aid  further  knowledge 
could  be  won,  the  cairn  unbiassed  mind,  the  transparent  honesty 
and  love  of  truth  which  enabled  him  to  abandon  or  to  modify  his 
own  creations  when  they  ceased  to  be  supported  by  observation. 
The  even  balance  between  these  powers  was  as  important  as  their 
remarkable  development.  The  great  naturalist  appeared  in  the 
ripeness  of  time,  when  the  world  was  ready  for  his  splendid 
generalizations.  Indeed  naturalists  were  already  everywhere 
considering  and  discussing  the  problem  of  evolution,  although 
Alfred  Russel  Wallace  was  the  only  one  who,  independently  of 
Darwin,  saw  his  way  clearly  to  the  solution.  It  is  true  that 
hypotheses  essentially  the  same  as  natural  selection  were  sug- 
gested much  earlier  by  W.  C.  Wells  (Phil.  Trans.,  1813),  and 
Patrick  Matthew  (Naval  Timber  and  Arboriculture,  1831),  but 
their  views  were  lost  sight  of  and  produced  no  effect  upon  the 
great  body  of  naturalists.  In  the  preparation  for  Darwin  Sir 
Charles  Lyell's  Principles  of  Geology  played  an  important  part, 
accustoming  men's  minds  to  the  vast  changes  brought  about  by 
natural  processes,  and  leading  them,  by  its  lucid  and  temperate 
discussion  of  Lamarck's  and  other  views,  to  reflect  upon  evolution. 
Darwin's  early  education  was  conducted  at  Shrewsbury,  first 
for  a  year  at  a  day-school,  then  for  seven  years  at  Shrewsbury- 
School  under  Dr  Samuel  Butler  (1774-1839).  He  gained  but 
little  from  the  narrow  system  which  was  then  universal.  In  1825 
he  went  to  Edinburgh  to  prepare  for  the  medical  profession,  for 
which  he  was  unfitted  by  nature.  After  two  sessions  his  father 
realized  this,  and  in  1828  sent  him  to  Cambridge  with  the  idea 
that  he  should  become  a  clergyman.  He  matriculated  at  Christ's 
College,  and  took  his  degree  in  1831,  tenth  in  the  list  of  those 
who  do  not  seek  honours.  Up  to  this  time  he  Tiad  been  keenly 
interested  in  sport,  and  in  entomology,  especially  the  collecting 
of  beetles.  Both  at  Edinburgh,  where  in  1826  he  read  his  first 
scientific  paper,  and  at  Cambridge  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
much  older  scientific  men — Robert  Edmond  Grant  and  William 
Macgillivray  at  the  former,  John  Stevens  Henslow  and  Adam 
Sedgwick  at  the  latter.  He  had  two  terms'  residence  to  keep  after 
passing  his  last  examination,  and  studied  geology  with  Sedgwick. 
Returning  from  their  geological  excursion  together  in  North 
Wales  (August  1831),  he  found  a  letter  from  Henslow  urging  him 
to  apply  for  the  position  of  naturalist  on  the  "  Beagle,"  about  to 
start  on  a  surveying  expedition.  His  father  at  first  disliked  the 
idea,  but  his  uncle,  the  second  Josiah  Wedgwood,  pleaded  with 
success,  and  Darwin  started  on  the  27th  of  December  1831,  the 
voyage  lasting  until  the  2nd  of  October  1836.  It  is  practically 
certain  that  he  never  left  Great  Britain  after  this  latter  date. 
After  visiting  the  Cape  de  Verde  and  other  islands  of  the 
Atlantic,  the  expedition  surveyed  on  the '  South  American 
coasts  and  adjacent  islands  (including  the  Galapagos),  afterwards 
visiting  Tahiti,  New  Zealand,  Australia,  Tasmania,  Keeling 
Island,  Maldives,  Mauritius,  St  Helena,  Ascension;  and  Brazil, 
de  Verdes  and  Azores  on  the  way  home.  His  work  on  the  geology 
of  the  countries  visited,  and  that  on  coral  islands,  became  the 
subject  of  volumes  which  he  published  after  his  return,  as  well 
as  his  Journal  of  a  Naturalist,  and  his  other  contributions  to  the 
official  narrative.  The  voyage  must  be  regarded  as  the  real 
preparation  for  his  life-work.  His  observations  on  the  relation 
between  animals  in  islands  and  those  of  the  nearest  continental 
areas,  near  akin  and  yet  not  the  same,  and  between  living 
animals  and  those  most  recently  extinct  and  found  fossil  in  the 
same  country,  here  again  related  but  not  the  same,  led  him  even 
then  to  reflect  deeply  upon  the  modification  of  species.  He  had 
also  been  much  impressed  by  "  the  manner  in  which  closely 
allied  animals  replace  one  another  in  proceeding  southwards  " 
in  South  America.  On  his  return  home  Darwin  worked  at  his 


DARWIN,  CHARLES 


841 


collections,  first  at  Cambridge  for  three  months  and  then  in 
London.  His  pocket-book  for  1837  contains  the  words:  "  In 
July  opened  first  note-book  on  Transmutation  of  Species.  Had 
been  greatly  struck  from  about  the  month  of  previous  March 
[while  still  on  the  voyage  and  just  over  twenty-eight  years  old] 
on  character  of  South  American  fossils,  and  species  on  Galapagos 
Archipelago.  These  facts  (especially  latter)  origin  of  all  my 
views."  From  1838  to  1841  he  was  secretary  of  the  Geological 
Society,  and  saw  a  great  deal  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  the  second  edition  of  his  Journal.  On  the  2pth  of 
January  1839  he  married  his  cousin,  Emma  Wedgwood,  the 
daughter  of  Josiah  Wedgwood  of  Maer.  They  lived  in  London 
until  September  1842,  when  they  moved  to  Down,  which  was 
Darwin's  home  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  health  broke  down 
many  times  in  London,  and  remained  precarious  during  the  whole 
of  his  life.  The  immense  amount  of  work  which  he  got  through 
was  only  made  possible  by  the  loving  care  of  his  wife.  For  eight 
years  (1846  to  1854)  he  was  chiefly  engaged  upon  four  mono- 
graphs on  the  recent  and  fossil  Cirripede  Crustacea  (Ray  Soc., 
1851  and  1854;  Palaeontograph.  Soc.,  1851  and  1854).  Towards 
the  close  of  this  work  Darwin  became  very  wearied  of  it,  especi- 
ally of  the  synonymy.  For  a  time  he  hoped  to  start  a  movement 
which  should  discourage  the  habit  of  appending  the  name  of  the 
describer  to  the  name  of  the  species,  a  custom  which  he  thought 
led  to  bad  and  superficial  work.  From  this  time  he  was  engaged 
upon  the  numerous  lines  of  inquiry  which  led  to  the  great  work 
of  his  life,  the  Origin  of  Species,  published  in  November  1859. 

Soon  after  opening  his  note-book  in  July  1837  he  began  to 
collect  facts  bearing  upon  the  formation  of  the  breeds  of  domestic 
animals  and  plants,  and  quickly  saw  "  that  selection  was  the 
keystone  of  man's  success.  But  how  selection  could  be  applied 
to  organisms  living  in  a  state  of  nature  remained  for  so'me  time  a 
mystery  to  me."  Various  ideas  as  to  the  causes  of  evolution 
occurred  to  him,  only  to  be  successively  abandoned.  He  had 
the  idea  of  "  laws  of  change  "  which  affected  species  and  finally 
led  to  their  extinction,  to  some  extent  analogous  to  the  causes 
which  bring  about  the  development,  maturity  and  finally  death 
of  an  individual.  He  also  had  the  conception  that  species  must 
(jive  rise  to  other  species  or  else  die  out,  just  as  an  individual  dies 
unrepresented  if  it  bears  no  offspring.  These  and  other  ideas,  of 
which  traces  exist  in  his  Diary,  arose  in  his  mind,  together  with 
perhaps  some  general  conception  of  natural  selection,  during  the 
fifteen  months  after  the  opening  of  his  note-book.  In  October 
1838  he  read  Mallhus  on  Population,  and  his  observations  having 
long  since  convinced  him  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  it  at  once 
struck  him  "  that  under  these  circumstances  favourable  variations 
would  tend  to  be  preserved,  and  unfavourable  ones  to  be 
destroyed.  The  result  of  this  would  be  the  formation  of  new 
species.  Here,  then,  I  had  a  theory  by  which  to  work."  In 
June  1842  he  wrote  out  a  sketch,  which  two  years  later  he 
expanded  to  an  essay  occupying  231  pages  folio.  The  idea  of 
progressive  divergence  as  an  advantage  in  itself,  because  the 
competition  is  most  severe  between  organisms  most  closely 
related,  did  not  occur  to  him  until  long  after  he  had  come  to 
Down.  During  the  growth  of  the  Origin  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  was 
his  most  intimate  friend,  and  on  the  nth  of  January  1844  he 
wrote:  "  At  last  gleams  of  light  have  come,  and  I  am  almost 
convinced  (quite  contrary  to  the  opinion  I  started  with)  that 
species  are  not  (it  is  like  confessing  a  murder)  immutable  " 
(I.e.  ii.  13).  In  1855  he  began  a  correspondence  with  the  great 
American  botanist  Asa  Gray,  and  in  1857  explained  his  views 
in  a  letter  which  afterwards  became  classical.  In  1856,  urged  by 
Lyell,  he  began  the  preparation  of  a  third  and  far  more  expanded 
treatise,  and  had  completed  about  half  of  it  when,  on  the  i8th  of 
June  1858,  he  received  a  manuscript  essay  from  A.  R.  Wallace, 
who  was  then  at  Ternate  in  the  Moluccas.  Wallace  wanted 
Darwin's  opinion  on  the  essay,  which  he  asked  should  be  for- 
warded to  Lyell.  Darwin  was  much  startled  to  find  in  the  essay 
a  complete  abstract  of  his  own  theory  of  natural  selection.  He 
forwarded  it  the  same  day,  writing  to  Lyell,  "  your  words  have 
come  true  with  a  vengeance — that  I  should  be  forestalled."  He 
placed  himself  in  the  hands  of  Lyell  and  Hooker,  who  decided  to 


send  Wallace's  essay  to  the  Linnean  Society,  together  with  an 
abstract  of  Darwin's  work,  which  they  asked  him  to  prepare, 
the  joint  essay  being  accompanied  by  a  preface  in  the  form  of  an 
explanatory  letter  written  by  them  to  the  secretary.  The  title 
of  the  joint  communication  was  "  On  the  Tendency  of  Species 
to  form  Varieties;  and  on  the  Perpetuation  of  Varieties  and 
Species  by  Natural  Means  of  Selection."  It  was  read  on  the  ist 
of  July  1858,  and  appears  in  the  Linn.  Soc.  Journal  (Zoology) 
for  that  year.  In  this  statement  of  the  theory  of  natural  selection, 
Darwin's  part  consisted  of  two  sections,  the  first  being  extracts 
from  his  1844  essay,  including  a  brief  account  of  sexual  selection, 
and  the  second  an  abstract  of  his  letter  to  Asa  Gray  dated 
the  sth  of  September  1857.  This  latter,  probably  his  first 
attempt  to  expound  natural  selection,  cannot  be  surpassed  as  a 
clear  statement  of  the  theory.  Darwin  explained  at  the  outset, 
what  he  insisted  on  elsewhere,  that  the  facts  of  adaptation  or 
contrivance  in  nature  are  the  real  difficulty  to  be  explained  by 
a  theory  of  evolution,  the  stumbling-block  of  every  previous 
suggestion.  Until  he  could  explain  "  the  mistletoe,  with  its 
pollen  carried  by  insects,  and  seed  by  birds — the  woodpecker, 
with  its  feet  and  tail,  beak  and  tongue,  to  climb  the  tree  and 
secure  insects,"  he  was  "  scientifically  orthodox."  Neverthe- 
less he  was  led  to  believe  in  evolution,  apart  from  any  possible 
motive-cause,  by  "  general  facts  in  the  affinities,  embryology, 
rudimentary  organs,  geological  history,  and  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  organic  beings."  He  then  proceeds  to  describe  the 
manner  in  which  he  met  the  difficulty  of  adaptation  by  "  his 
notions  on  the  means  by  which  Nature  makes  her  species."  The 
essentials  of  the  statement  are  as  follows: — I.  Man  has  made 
his  domestic  breeds  of  animals  and  plants  by  selection,  conscious" 
or  unconscious,  of  very  slight  or  greater  variations.  II.  The 
material  for  selection  exists  in  nature,  namely,  slight  variations 
of  all  parts  of  the  organism.  III.  The  "  unerring  power  "  which 
sifts  these  variations  is  "  natural  selection  .  .  .  which  selects 
exclusively  for  the  good  of  each  organic  being."  The  rate  of 
increase  is  such  that  only  a  few  in  each  generation  can  live: 
hence  the  never  sufficiently  appreciated  struggle  for  life.  "  What 
a  trifling  difference  must  often  determine  which  shall  survive 
and  which  perish!"  The  remaining  heads  explain  the  complex 
nature  of  the  struggle,  the  reasons  for  deficient  direct  evidence, 
the  advantage  of  divergence,  &c.  In  the  joint  essay  the  phrases 
"  natural  selection  "  and  "  sexual  selection  "  were  first  made 
public  by  Darwin,  the  "  struggle  for  existence  "  by  Wallace. 
Darwin  and  Wallace  had  met  only  once  before  the  departure  of 
the  latter  for  the  East.  Their  rivabry  in  the  discovery  of  the 
great  principle  of  natural  selection  was  the  beginning  of  a  lifelong 
friendship.  Wallace  was  lying  ill  with  intermittent  fever  at 
Ternate  in  February  1858  when  he  began  to  think  of  Malthus's 
Essay  on  Population,  read  several  years  before:  suddenly  the 
idea  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  flashed  upon  him.  In  two 
hours  he  had  "  thought  out  almost  the  whole  of  the  theory,", 
and  in  three  evenings  had  finished  his  essay.  Darwin,  also! 
inspired  after  reading  Malthus,  in  October  1838,  did  not  publish 
until  nearly  twenty  years  had  elapsed,  and  then  only  when 
Wallace  sent  him  his  essay.  Canon  H.  B.  Tristram  was  the  first 
to  apply  the  new  theory,  explaining  by  its  aid  the  colours  of 
desert  birds,  &c.  (Ibis,  October  1859). 

Acting  under  the  advice  of  Lyell  and  Hooker,  Darwin  then 
began  to  prepare  what  was  to  become  the  great  work  of  his  life. 
It  appeared  on  the  24th  of  November  1859,  with  the  full  title, 
On  the  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection,  or  the 
Preservation  of  Favoured  Races  in  the  Struggle  for  Life.  The 
whole  edition  of  1250  copies  was  exhausted  on  the  day  of  issue. 
The  first  four  chapters  explain  the  operation  of  artificial  selection 
by  man  and  of  natural  selection  in  consequence  of  the  struggle  for 
existence.  The  fifth  chapter  deals  with  the  laws  of  variation  and 
causes  of  modification  other  than  natural  selection.  The  five 
succeeding  chapters  consider  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  belief 
in  evolution  generally  as  well  as  in  natural  selection.  The  three 
remaining  chapters  (omitting  the  recapitulation  which  occupies 
the  last)  deal  with  the  evidence  for  evolution.  The  theory  which 
suggested  a  cause  of  evolution  is  thus  given  the  foremost  place, 


842 


DARWIN,  CHARLES 


and  the  evidence  for  the  existence  of  evolution  considered  last  of 
all.  This  method  of  presentation  was  no  doubt  adopted  because 
it  was  just  the  want  of  a  reasonable  motive-cause  which  more 
than  anything  else  prevented  the  acceptance  of  evolution.  But 
the  other  side  of  the  book  must  not  be  eclipsed  by  the  brilliant 
theory  of  Darwin  and  Wallace.  The  evidence  for  evolution  itself 
had  never  before  been  thought  out  and  marshalled  in  a  manner 
which  bears  any  comparison  with  that  of  Darwin  in  the  Origin, 
and  the  work  would  have  been  in  the  highest  degree  epoch- 
making  had  it  consisted  of  the  later  chapters  alone.  In  the  fifth 
chapter  Darwin  incorporated  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
doctrines  of  Buffon, — modifications  due  to  the  direct  influence 
of  environment;  and  of  Lamarck, — the  hereditary  effects  of  use 
and  disuse.  Lyell  for  a  long  time  hesitated  to  accept  the  new 
teaching,  and  Darwin  carried  on  a  long  correspondence  with  him. 
His  public  confession  of  faith  was  made  at  the  anniversary 
dinner  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1864.  A  storm  of  controversy 
arose  over  the  book,  reaching  its  height  at  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  at  Oxford  in  1860,  when  the  celebrated  duel 
between  T.  H.  Huxley  and  Bishop  Wilberforce  of  Oxford  took 
place.  Throughout  these  struggles  Huxley  was  the  foremost 
champion  for  evolution  and  for  fair  play  to  natural  selection, 
although  he  never  entirely  accepted  the  latter  theory,  holding 
that  until  man  by  his  selection  had  made  his  domestic  breed 
sterile  inter  se,  there  was  no  sufficient  evidence  that  selection 
accounts  for  natural  species  which  are  thus  separated  by  the 
barrier  of  sterility.  The  theory  of  natural  selection  was  at  first 
greatly  misunderstood.  Thus  some  writers  thought  it  implied 
conscious  choice  hi  the  animals  themselves,  others  that  it  was 
the  personification  of  some  active  power.  By  many  it  was 
thought  to  be  practically  the  same  idea  as  Lamarck's.  Herbert 
Spencer's  alternative  phrase,  "  the  survival  of  the  fittest,"  prob- 
ably helped  to  spread  a  clear  appreciation  of  Darwin's  meaning. 
The  history  of  opinion  since  1859  may  be  summed  up  as  follows. 
Evolution  soon  gained  general  acceptance,  except  among  a  certain 
number  of  those  of  middle  or  more  advanced  age  at  the  time 
when  the  Origin  appeared.  Although  natural  selection  had  been 
an  essential  force  in  producing  this  conviction,  there  gradually 
grew  up  a  tendency  to  minimize  its  importance  in  relation  to  the 
causes  originally  suggested  by  Buffon  and  Lamarck,  which  were 
ably  presented  and  further  elaborated  by  Herbert  Spencer.  In 
America  a  school  of  Neo-Lamarckians  appeared,  and  for  a  time 
flourished  under  the  inspiration  of  the  vigorous  personality  of 
E.  D.  Cope.  The  writings  of  August  Weismann  next  raised  a 
controversy  over  the  scope  of  heredity,  assailing  the  very 
foundation  of  the  hypotheses  of  Buffon,  Lamarck  and  Herbert 
Spencer  by  demanding  evidence  that  the  "  acquired  characters  " 
upon  which  they  rest  are  capable  of  hereditary  transmission. 
The  quantitative  determination  of  heredity  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  patient  investigation  under  the  leadership  of 
Francis  Gallon.  The  question  of  isolation  as  a  factor  in  species- 
formation  has  been  greatly  discussed,  G.  J.  Romanes  proposing, 
in  his  hypothesis  of  "  Physiological  Selection,"  that  the  barrier 
of  sterility  may  arise  spontaneously  by  variation  between  two 
sets  of  individuals  as  the  beginning  instead  of  the  climax  of 
specific  distinction.  Others  have  fixed  their  attention  upon  the 
variations,  which  provided  the  material  for  natural  selection,  and 
have  advocated  the  view  that  evolution  proceeds  by  immense 
strides  instead  of  the  minute  steps  in  which  Darwin  and  Wallace 
believed.  Others,  again,  have  found  significance  in  the  artificial 
production  of  "  monstrosities  "  or  huge  modifications  during 
individual  development.  All  through  the  period  a  varying 
proportion  of  naturalists,  probably  larger  now  than  at  any  other 
time,  has  followed  the  founders  of  the  theory,  and  has  sought  the 
motive-cause  of  evolution  in  "  the  accumulative  power  of  natural 
selection,"  which  Darwin,  as  his  first  public  statement  indicates, 
looked  upon  "  as  by  far  the  most  important  element  in  the  pro- 
duction of  new  forms."  They  hold,  with  Darwin  and  Wallace, 
that  although  variation  provides  the  essential  material,  natural 
selection,  from  its  accumulative  power,  is  of  such  paramount 
importance  that  it  may  be  said  to  create  new  species  as  truly  as  a 
man  may  be  said  to  make  a  building  out  of  the  material  provided 


by  stones  of  various  shapes,  a  metaphor  suggested  and  elaborated 
by  Darwin,  and  forming  the  concluding  sentences  of  The  Variation 
of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication.  This,  probably  the 
second  in  importance  of  all  his  works,  was  published  in  1868,  and 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  complete  account  of  the  material  of 
which  he  had  given  a  very  condensed  abstract  in  the  first  chapter 
of  the  Origin,  together  with  the  conclusions-  suggested  by  it. 
He  finally  brought  together  an  immense  number  of  apparently 
disconnected  sets  of  observations  under  his  "  provisional  hypo- 
thesis of  pangenesis,"  which  assumes  that  every  cell  in  the  body, 
at  every  stage  of  growth  and  in  maturity,  is  represented  in  each 
germ-cell  by  a  gemmule.  The  germ-cell  is  only  the  meeting-place 
of  gemmules,  and  the  true  reproductive  power  lies  in  the  whole 
of  the  body-cells  which  despatch  their  representatives,  hence 
"  pangenesis."  There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  this  infinitely 
complex  conception,  in  which,  as  his  letters  show,  he  had  great 
confidence,  was  forced  upon  Darwin  in  order  to  explain  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  acquired  characters  involved  in  the 
small  proportion  of  Lamarckian  doctrine  which  he  incorporated. 
If  such  transmission  does  not  occur,  a  far  simpler  hypothesis  based 
on  the  lines  of  Weismann's  "  continuity  of  the  germ-plasm  "  is 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  facts. 

The  Descent  of  Man,  and  Selection  in  Relation  to  Sex,  was 
published  in  1871;  as  the  title  implies,  it  really  consists  of  two 
distinct  works.  The  first,  and  by  far  the  shorter,  was  the  full 
justification  of  his  statement  in  the  Origin  that  "  light  would  be 
thrown  on  the  origin  of  man  and  his  history."  In  the  second 
part  he  brought  together  a  large  mass  of  evidence  in  support  of 
his  hypothesis  of  sexual  selection  which  he  had  briefly  described 
in  the  1858  essay.  This  hypothesis  explains  the  development  of 
colours  and  structures  peculiar  to  one  sex  and  displayed  by  it  in 
courtship,  'by  the  preferences  of  the  other  sex.  The  majority  of 
naturalists  probably  agree  with  Darwin  in  believing  that  the 
explanation  is  real,  but  relatively  unimportant.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  only  in  this  subject  and  those  treated  of  in  the  Varia- 
tion under  Domestication  had  Darwin  exhausted  the  whole  of  the 
material  which  he  had  collected.  The  Expression  of  the  Emotions, 
published  in  1872,  offered  a  natural  explanation  of  phenomena 
which  appeared  to  be  a  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  acceptance  of 
evolution.  In  1876  Darwin  brought  out  his  two  previously 
published  geological  works  on  Volcanic  Islards  and  South 
America  as  a  single  volume.  The  widely  read  Formation  of 
Vegetable  Mould  through  the  Action  of  Worms  appeared  in  1881. 
He  also  published  various  volumes  on  botanical  subjects.  The 
Fertilization  of  Orchids  appeared  in  1862.  The  subject  of  cross- 
fertilization  of  flowers  was  in  Darwin's  mind,  as  shown  by  his 
note-book  in  1837.  In  1841  Robert  Brown  directed  his  attention 
to  Christian  Conrad  Sprengel's  work  (Berlin,  1793),  which  con- 
firmed his  determination  to  pursue  this  line  of  research.  The 
Effects  of  Cross-  and  Self-Fertilization  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom 
(1876)  contained  the  direct  evidence  that  the  offspring  of  cross- 
fertilized  individuals  are  more  vigorous,  as  well  as  more  numerous, 
than  those  produced  by  a  self-fertilized  parent.  Different  Forms 
of  Flowers  on  Plants  of  the  Same  Species  appeared  in  1877.  It  is 
here  shown  that  each  different  form,  although  possessing  both 
kinds  of  sexual  organs,  is  specially  adapted  to  be  fertilized  by  the 
pollen  of  another  form,  and  that  when  artificially  fertilized  by  its 
own  pollen  less  vigorous  offspring,  bearing  some  resemblance  to 
hybrids,  are  produced.  He  says,  "  no  little  discovery  of  mine 
ever  gave  me  so  much  pleasure  as  the  making  out  the  meaning 
of  heterostyled  flowers  "  (Autobiography).  Climbing  Plants  was 
published  in  1875,  although  it  had,  in  large  part,  been  communi- 
cated to  the  Linnean  Society,  in  whose  publications  much  of  the 
material  of  several  of  his  other  works  appeared.  This  inquiry 
into  the  nature  of  the  movements  of  twining  plants  was  suggested 
to  him  in  a  paper  by  Asa  Gray.  The  Power  of  Movement  in 
Plants  (1880)  was  produced  by  him  in  conjunction  with  his  son 
Francis.  It  was  an  inquiry  into  the  minute  power  of  movement 
possessed,  he  believed,  by  plants  generally,  out  of  which  the 
larger  movements  of  climbing  plants  of  many  different  groups 
had  been  evolved.  The  work  included  an  investigation  of  other 
kinds  of  plant  movement  due  to  light,  gravity,  &c.,  all  of  which 


DARWIN,  ERASMUS 


843 


he  regarded  as  modifications  of  the  one  fundamental  movement 
(circumnutation)  which  exists  in  a  highly  specialized  form  in 
climbing  plants.  Insectivorous  Plants  (1875)  is  principally  con- 
cerned with  the  description  of  experiments  on  the  Sun-dew 
(Drosera),  although  other  insect-catching  plants,  such  asDionaea, 
are  also  investigated. 

Charles  Darwin's  long  life  of  patient,  continuous  work,  the 
most  fruitful,  the  most  inspiring,  in  the  annals  of  modern  science, 
came  to  an  end  on  the  igth  of  April  1882.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey  on  the  26th.  It  is  of  much  interest  to  attempt 
to  set  forth  some  of  the  main  characteristics  of  the  man  who  did 
so  much  for  modern  science,  and  in  so  large  a  measure  moulded 
the  form  of  modern  thought.  Although  his  ill-health  prevented 
Darwin,  except  on  rare  occasions,  from  attending  scientific  and 
social  meetings,  and  thus  from  meeting  and  knowing  the  great 
body  of  scientific  and  intellectual  workers  of  his  time,  probably 
no  man  has  ever  inspired  a  wider  and  deeper  personal  interest  and 
affection.  This  was  in  part  due  to  the  intimate  personal  friends 
who  represented  him  in  the  circles  he  was  unable  frequently  to 
enter,  but  chiefly  to  the  kindly,  generous,  and  courteous  nature 
which  was  revealed  in  his  large  correspondence  and  published 
writings,  and  especially  in  his  treatment  of  opponents. 

In  a  deeply  interesting  chapter  of  the  Life  and  Letters  Francis 
Darwin  has  given  us  his  reminiscences  of  his  father's  everyday 
life.  Rising  early,  he  took  a  short  walk  before  breakfasting  alone 
at  7.45,  and  then  at  once  set  to  work,  "  considering  the  ij  hours 
between  8.0  and  9.30  one  of  his  best  working  times."  He  then 
read  his  letters  and  listened  to  reading  aloud,  returning  to  work 
at  about  10.30.  At  12  or  12.15  "  ne  considered  his  day's  work 
over,"  and  went  for  a  walk,  whether  wet  or  fine.  For  a  time  he 
rode,  but  after  accidents  had  occurred  twice,  was  advised  to  give 
it  up.  After  lunch  he  read  the  newspaper  and  wrote  his  letters 
or  the  MS.  of  his  books.  At  about  3.0  he  rested  and  smoked  for 
an  hour  while  being  read  to,  often  going  to  sleep.  He  then  went 
for  a  short  walk,  and  returning  about  4.30,  worked  for  an  hour. 
After  this  he  rested  and  smoked,  and  listened  to  reading  until  tea 
at  7.30,  a  meal  which  he  came  to  prefer  to  late  dinner.  He  then 
played  two  games  of  backgammon,  read  to  himself,  and  listened 
to  music  and  to  reading  aloud.  He  went  to  bed,  generally  very 
much  tired,  at  10.30,  and  was  often  much  troubled  by  wakefulness 
and  the  activity  of  his  thoughts.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  the 
number  of  hours  devoted  to  work  in  each  day  was  comparatively 
few.  The  immense  amount  he  achieved  was  due  to  concentration 
during  these  hours,  also  to  the  unfailing  and,  because  of  his  health, 
the  necessary  regularity  of  his  life. 

The  appearance  of  Charles  Darwin  has  been  made  well  known 
in  numerous  portraits  and  statues.  He  was  tall  and  thin,  being 
about  six  feet  high,  but  looked  less  because  of  a  stoop,  which 
increased  towards  the  end  of  his  life.  As  a  young  man  he  had 
been  active, with  considerable  powers  of  endurance,  and  possessed 
in  a  marked  degree  those  qualities  of  eye  and  hand  which  make 
the  successful  sportsman.  . 

Charles  Darwin  was,  as  a  young  man,  a  believer  in  Christianity, 
and  was  sent  to  Cambridge  with  the  idea  that  he  would  take 
orders.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  he  had  merely  yielded  to 
the  influences  of  his  home,  without  thinking  much  on  the  subject 
of  religion.  He  first  began  to  reflect  deeply  on  the  subject  during 
the  two  years  and  a  quarter  which  intervened  between  his  return 
from  the  "  Beagle  "  (October  2nd,  1836)  and  his  marriage  (January 
zgth,  1839).  His  own  words  are,  "  disbelief  crept  over  me  at  a 
very  slow  rate,  but  was  at  last  complete.  The  rate  was  so  slow 
that  I  felt  no  distress."  His  attitude  was  that  of  the  tolerant 
unaggressive  agnostic,  sympathizing  with  and  helping  in  the 
social  and  charitable  influences  of  the  English  Church  in  his 
parish.  He  was  evidently  most  unwilling  that  his  opinions  on 
religious  matters  should  influence  others,  holding,  as  his  son, 
Francis  Darwin,  says,  "  that  a  man  ought  not  to  publish  on  a 
subject  to  which  he  has  not  given  special  and  continuous 
thought  "  (I.e.  i.  p.  305). 

In  addition  to  the  personal  qualities  and  powers  of  Charles 
Darwin,  there  were  other  contributing  causes  without  which  the 
world  could  never  have  reaped  the  benefit  of  his  genius.  It  is 


evident  that  Darwin's  health  could  barely  have  endured  the  strain 
of  working  for  a  living,  and  that  nothing  would  have  been  left 
over  for  his  researches.  A  deep  debt  of  gratitude  is  owing  to  his 
father  for  placing  him  in  a  position  in  which  all  his  energy  could 
be  devoted  to  scientific  work  and  thought.  But  his  ill-health  was 
such  that  this  important  and  essential  condition  would  have 
been  insufficient  without  another  even  more  essential.  Francis 
Darwin,  in  the  Life  and  Letters  (i.  pp.  159-160),  writes  these 
eloquent  and  pathetic  words: — "  No  one  indeed,  except  my 
mother,  knows  the  full  amount  of  suffering  he  endured,  or  the  full 
amount  of  his  wonderful  patience.  For  all  the  latter  years  of  his 
life  she  never  left  him  for  a  night;  and  her  days  were  so  planned 
that  all  his  resting  hours  might  be  shared  with  her.  She  shielded 
him  from  every  avoidable  annoyance,  and  omitted  nothing  that 
might  save  him  trouble,  or  prevent  him  becoming  over-tired, 
or  that  might  alleviate  the  many  discomforts  of  his  ill-health.  I 
hesitate  to  speak  thus  freely  of  a  thing  so  sacred  as  the  lifelong 
devotion  which  prompted  all  this  constant  and  tender  care.  But 
it  is,  I  repeat,  a  principal  feature  of  his  life,  that  for  nearly  forty 
years  he  never  knew  one  day  of  the  health  of  ordinary  men,  and 
that  thus  his  life  was  one  long  struggle  against  the  weariness  and 
the  strain  of  sickness.  And  this  cannot  be  told  without  speaking 
of  the  one  condition  which  enabled  him  to  bear  the  strain  and 
fight  out  the  struggle  to  the  end." 

Charles  Darwin  was  honoured  by  the  chief  societies  of  the 
civilized  world.  He  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Prussian  order, 
"  Pour  le  Merite,"  in  1867,  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1863,  a  fellow  in  1878,  and  later  in  the 
same  year  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French  Institute  in  the 
botanical  section.  He  received  the  Bressa  prize  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Turin,  and  the  Baly  medal  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  in  1879,  the  Wollaston  medal  of  the  Geological  Society 
in  1859,  a  Royal  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1853,  and  the 
Copley  medal  in  1864.  His  health  prevented  him  from  accepting 
the  honorary  degree  which  Oxford  University  wished  to  confer 
on  him,  but  his  own  university  had  stronger  claims,  and  he 
received  its  honorary  LL.D.  in  1877. 

Two  daughters  and  five  sons  survived  him,  four  of  the  latter 
becoming  prominent  in  the  scientific  world, — Sir  George  Howard 
(b.  1845),  who  became  professor  of  astronomy  and  experimental 
philosophy  at  Cambridge  in  1883;  Francis  (b.  1848),  the  dis- 
tinguished botanist;  Leonard  (b.  1850),  a  major  in  the  royal 
engineers,  and  afterwards  well  known  as  an  economist;  and 
Horace  (b.  1851),  civil  engineer. 

See  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Charles  Darwin,  including  an  auto- 
biographical chapter,  edited  by  his  son  Francis  Darwin  (3  vols., 
London,  1887) ;  Charles  Darwin  and  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection, 
by  E.  B.  Poulton  (London,  1896) ;  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Henry 
Huxley,  by  Leonard  Huxley  (2  vols.,  London,  1900);  A.  R.  Wallace, 
Darwinism  (1889) ;  G.  J.  Romanes,  Darwin  and  after  Darwin  (1895). 
Also  the  article  on  T.  H.  HUXLEY.  (E.  B.  P.) 

DARWIN,  ERASMUS  (1731-1802),  English  man  of  science 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Elton,  in  Nottinghamshire,  on  the  i2th  of 
December  1 73 1 .  After  studying  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  at  Edinburgh,  he  settled  in  1 756  as  a  physician  at  Notting- 
ham, but  meeting  with  little  success  he  moved  in  the  following 
year  to  Lichfield.  There  he  gained  a  large  practice,  and  did 
much,  both  by  example  and  by  more  direct  effort,  to  diminish 
drunkenness  among  the  lower  classes.  In  1781  he  removed  to 
Derby,  where  he  died  suddenly  on  the  i8th  of  April  1802.  The 
fame  of  Erasmus  Darwin  as  a  poet  rests  upon  his  Botanic  Garden, 
though  he  also  wrote  The  Temple  of  Nature,  or  the  Origin  of 
Society,  a  Poem,  with  Philosophical  Notes  (1803),  and  The  Shrine 
of  Nature  (posthumously  published).  The  Botanic  Garden  (the 
second  part  of  which — The  Loves  of  the  Plants — was  published 
anonymously  in  1789,  and  the  whole  of  which  appeared  in  1791) 
is  a  long  poem  in  the  decasyllabic  rhymed  couplet.  Its  merit  lies 
in  the  genuine  scientific  enthusiasm  and  interest  in  nature  which 
pervade  it;  and  of  any  other  poetic  quality — except  a  certain, 
sometimes  felicitous  but  oftener  ill-placed,  elaborated  pomp  of 
words — it  may  without  injustice  be  said  to  be  almost  destitute. 
It  was  for  the  most  part  written  laboriously,  and  polished  with 


DASENT— DASS 


unsparing  care,  line  by  line,  often  as  he  rode  from  one  patient  to 
another,  and  it  occupied  the  leisure  hours  of  many  years.  The 
artificial  character  of  the  diction  renders  it  in  emotional  passages 
stilted  and  even  absurd,  and  makes  Canning's  clever  caricature — 
The  Loves  of  the  Triangles — often  remarkably  like  the  poem  it 
satirizes:  in  some  passages,  however,  it  is  not  without  a  stately 
appropriateness.  Gnomes,  sylphs  and  nereids  are  introduced  on 
almost  every  page,  and  personification  is  carried  to  an  extra- 
ordinary excess.  Thus  he  describes  the  Loves  of  the  Plants 
according  to  the  Linnaean  system  by  means  of  a  most  ingenious 
but  misplaced  and  amusing  personification  of  each  plant,  and 
often  even  of  the  parts  of  the  plant.  It  is  significant  that  botanical 
notes  are  added  to  the  poem,  and  that  its  eulogies  of  scientific 
men  are  frequent.  Erasmus  Darwin's  mind  was  in  fact  rather 
that  of  a  man  of  science  than  that  of  a  poet.  His  most  important 
scientific  work  is  his  Zoonomia  (1794-1796),  which  contains  a 
system  of  pathology,  and  a  treatise  on  generation,  in  which  he, 
in  the  words  of  his  famous  grandson,  Charles  Robert  Darwin, 
"  anticipated  the  views  and  erroneous  grounds  of  opinions  of 
Lamarck."  The  essence  of  his  views  is  contained  in  the  following 
passage,  which  he  follows  up  with  the  conclusion  "  that  one  and 
the  same  kind  of  living  filaments  is  and  has  been  the  cause  of  all 
organic  life  ": — 

"  Would  it  be  too  bold  to  imagine  that,  in  the  great  length  of  time 
since  the  earth  began  to  exist,  perhaps  millions  of  ages  before  the 
commencement  of  the  history  of  mankind, — would  it  be  too  bold  to 
imagine  that  all  warm-blooded  animals  have  arisen  from  one  living 
filament,  which  the  great  First  Cause  endued  with  animality,  with 
the  power  of  acquiring  new  parts,  attended  with  new  propensities, 
directed  by  irritations,  sensations,  volitions  and  associations,  and 
thus  possessing  the  faculty  of  continuing  to  improve  by  its  own 
inherent  activity,  and  of  delivering  down  these  improvements  by 
generation  to  its  posterity,  world  without  end!  " 

In  1799  Darwin  published  his  Phytologia,  or  the  Philosophy  of 
Agriculture  and  Gardening  (1799),  in  which  he  states  his  opinion 
that  plants  have  sensation  and  volition.  A  paper  on  Female  Educa- 
tion in  Boarding  Schools  (1797)  completes  the  list  of  his  works. 

Robert  Waring  Darwin  (1766-1848),  his  third  son  by  his  first 
marriage,  a  doctor  at  Shrewsbury,  was  the  father  of  the  famous 
Charles  Darwin;  and  Violetta,  his  eldest  daughter  by  his  second 
marriage,  was  the  mother  of  Francis  Gallon. 

See  Anna  Seward,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Dr  Darwin  (1804) ;  and 
Charles  Darwin,  Life  of  Erasmus  Darwin,  an  introduction  to  an  essay 
on  his  works  by  Ernst  Krause  (1879). 

DASENT,  SIR  GEORGE  WEBBE  (1817-1896),  English  writer, 
was  born  in  St  Vincent,  West  Indies,  on  the  22nd  of  May  1817, 
the  son  of  the  attorney-general  of  that  island.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  school,  King's  College,  and  Oxford,  where  he 
was  a  contemporary  of  J.  T.  Delane  (q.v.),  whose  friend  he  had 
become  at  King's  College.  On  leaving  the  university  in  1840  he 
was  appointed  to  a  diplomatic  post  in  Stockholm.  Here  he  met 
Jacob  Grimm,  and  at  his  suggestion  first  interested  himself  in 
Scandinavian  literature  and  mythology.  In  1842  he  published 
the  results  of  his  studies,  a  version  of  The  Prose  or  Younger 
Edda,  and  in  the  following  year  he  issued  a  Grammar  of  the 
Icelandic  or  Old-Norse  Tongue,  taken  from  the  Swedish.  Return- 
ing to  Engknd  in  1845,  he  became  assistant  editor  of  The  Times 
under  Delane,  whose  sister  he  married ;  but  he  still  continued  his 
Scandinavian  studies,  publishing  translations  of  various  Norse 
stories.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  professor  of  English  literature 
and  modern  history  at  King's  College,  London.  In  1861-1862  he 
visited  Iceland,  and  subsequently  published  Gisli  the  Outlaw  and 
other  translations  from  the  Icelandic.  In  1870  he  was  appointed 
a  civil  service  commissioner  and  consequently  resigned  his  post 
on  The  Times.  In  1876  he  was  knighted.  He  retired  from  the 
public  service  in  1892,  and  died  at  Ascot  on  the  nth  of  June  1896. 
In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above,  he  published  The 
Story  of  Burnt  Njal,  from  the  Icelandic  of  the  Njals  Saga  (1861). 

See  the  Life  of  Delane  (1908),  by  Arthur  IrwinDasent. 

DASHKOV,  CATHERINA  ROMANOVNA  VORONTSOV, 
PRINCESS  ( 1 744- 1 8 1  o) ,  Russian  litterateur,  was  the  third  daughter 
of  Count  Roman  Vorontsov,  a  member  of  the  Russian  senate, 
distinguished  for  his  intellectual  gifts.  (For  the  family  see 


VORONTSOV.)  She  received  an  exceptionally  good  education, 
having  displayed  from  a  very  early  age  the  masculine  ability 
and  masculine  tastes  which  made  her  whole  career  so  singular. 
She  was  well  versed  in  mathematics,  which  she  studied  at  the 
university  of  Moscow,  and  in  general  literature  her  favourite 
authors  were  Bayle,  Montesquieu,  Boileau,  Voltaire  and 
Helvetius.  While  still  a  girl  she  was  connected  with  the  Russian 
court,  and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  party  that  attached 
itself  to  the  grand  duchess  (afterwards  empress)  Catherine. 
Before  she  was  sixteen  she  married  Prince  Mikhail  Dashkov,  a 
prominent  Russian  nobleman,  and  went  to  reside  with  him  at 
Moscow.  In  1762  she  was  at  St  Petersburg  and  took  a  leading  part, 
according  to  her  own  account  the  leading  part,  in  the  coup  d'etat 
by  which  Catherine  was  raised  to  the  throne.  (See  CATHERINE 
II.)  Another  course  of  events  would  probably  have  resulted  in 
the  elevation  of  the  Princess  Dashkov's  elder  sister,  Elizabeth, 
who  was  the  emperor's  mistress,  and  in  whose  favour  he  made  no 
secret  of  his  intention  to  depose  Catherine.  Her  relations  with  the 
new  empress  were  not  of  a  cordial  nature,  though  she  continued 
devotedly  loyal.  Her  blunt  manners,  her  unconcealed  scorn  of 
the  male  favourites  that  disgraced  the  court,  and  perhaps  also  her 
sense  of  unrequited  merit,  produced  an  estrangement  between 
her  and  the  empress,  which  ended  in  her  asking  permission  to 
travel  abroad.  The  cause  of  the  final  breach  was  said  to  have 
been  the  refusal  of  her  request  to  be  appointed  colonel  of  the 
imperial  guards.  Her  husband  having  meanwhile  died,  she 
set  out  in  1768  on  an  extended  tour  through  Europe.  She 
was  received  with  great  consideration  at  foreign  courts,  and  her. 
literary  and  scientific  reputation  procured  her  the  entree  to  the 
society  of  the  learned  in  most  of  the  capitals  of  Europe.  In 
Paris  she  secured  the  warm  friendship  and  admiration  of  Diderot 
and  Voltaire.  She  showed  in  various  ways  a  strong  liking  for 
England  and  the  English.  She  corresponded  with  Garrick,  Dr 
Blair  and  Principal  Robertson;  and  when  in  Edinburgh,  where 
she  was  very  well  received,  she  arranged  to  entrust  the  education 
of  her  son  to  Principal  Robertson.  In  1782  she  returned  to  the 
Russian  capital,  and  was  at  once  taken  into  favour  by  the  empress, 
who  strongly  sympathized  with  her  in  her  literary  tastes,  and 
specially  in  her  desire  to  elevate  Russ  to  a  place  among  the 
literary  languages  of  Europe.  Immediately  after  her  return  the 
princess  was  appointed  "  directeur "  of  the  St  Petersburg 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  and  in  1 784  she  was  named  the 
first  president  of  the  Russian  Academy,  which  had  been  founded 
at  her  suggestion.  In  both  positions  she  acquitted  herself  with 
marked  ability.  She  projected  the  Russian  dictionary  of  the 
Academy,  arranged  its  plan,  and  executed  a  part  of  the  work 
herself.  She  edited  a  monthly  magazine ;  and  wrote  at  least 
two  dramatic  works,  The  Marriage  of  Fabian,  and  a  comedy 
entitled  Toissiokojf.  Shortly  before  Catherine's  death  the  friends 
quarrelled  over  a  tragedy  which  the  princess  had  allowed  to  find 
a  place  in  the  publications  of  the  Academy,  though  it  contained 
revolutionary  principles,  according  to  the  empress.  A  partial 
reconciliation  was  effected,  but  the  princess  soon  afterwards 
retired  from  court.  On  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Paul  in  1 796 
she  was  deprived  of  all  her  offices,  and  ordered  to  retire  to  a 
miserable  village  in  the  government  of  Novgorod,  "  to  meditate 
on  the  events  of  1762."  After  a  time  the  sentence  was  partially 
recalled  on  the  petition  of  her  friends,  and  she  was  permitted  to 
pass  the  closing  years  of  her  life  on  her  own  estate  near  Moscow, 
where  she  died  on  the  4th  of  January  1810. 

Her  son,  the  last  of  the  Dashkov  family,  died  in  1807  and  be- 
queathed his  fortune  to  his  cousin  Illarion  Vorontsov,  who  there- 
upon by  imperial  licence  assumed  the  name  Vorontsov-Dashkov; 
and  Illarion's  son,Illarion  IvanovichVorontsov-Dashkov(b.i837), 
held  an  appointment  in  the  tsar's  household  from  1881  to  1897. 

The  Memoirs  of  the  Princess  Dashkoff  written  by  herself  were  pub- 
lished in  1840  in  London  in  two  volumes.  They  were  edited  by  Mrs 
W.  Bradford,  who,  as  Miss  Wilmot,  had  resided  with  the  princess 
between  1803  and  1808,  and  had  suggested  their  preparation. 

DASS,  FETTER  (1647-1708),  the  "father"  of  modern 
Norwegian  poetry,  was  the  son  of  Peter  Dundas,  a  Scottish 
merchant  of  Dundee,  who,  leaving  his  country  about  1630  to 


DASYURE— DATIA 


845 


escape  the  troubles  of  the  Presbyterian  chursh,  settled  in  Bergen, 
and  in  1646  married  a  Norse  girl  of  good  family.  Fetter  Dass 
was  born  in  1647  on  the  island  of  Nord  Hero,  on  the  north  coast 
of  Norway.  Seven  years  later  his  father  died,  and  his  mother 
placed  him  with  his  aunt,  the  wife  of  the  priest  of  another  little 
island-parish.  In  1660  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Bergen,  in  1665  to 
the  university  of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1667  he  began  to  earn  his 
daily  bread  as  a  private  tutor.  In  1672  he  was  ordained  priest, 
and  remained  till  1681  as  under-chaplain  at  Nesne,  a  little  parish 
near  his  birthplace;  for  eight  years  more  he  was  resident 
chaplain  at  Nesne;  and  at  last  in  1689  he  received  the  living  of 
Alstahoug,  the  most  important  in  the  north  of  Norway.  The 
rule  of  Alstahoug  extended  over  all  the  neighbouring  districts, 
including  Dass's  native  island  of  Hero,  and  its  privileges  were 
accompanied  by  great  perils,  for  it  was  necessary  to  be  constantly 
crossing  stormy  firths  of  sea.  Dass  lived  here  in  quietude,  with 
something  of  the  honours  and  responsibilities  of  a  bishop, 
brought  up  his  family  in  a  God-fearing  way,  and  wrote  endless 
reams  of  verses.  In  1700  he  asked  leave  to  resign  his  living 
in  favour  of  his  son  Anders  Dass,  but  this  was  not  permitted; 
in  1704,  however,  Anders  became  his  father's  chaplain.  About 
this  time  Fetter  went  to  Bergen,  where  he  visited  Dorothea 
Engelbrechtsdatter,  with  whom  he  had  been  for  many  years  in 
correspondence.  He  continued  to  write  till  1707,  and  died  in 
August  1708.  The  materials  for  his  biography  are  very  numerous; 
he  was  regarded  with  universal  curiosity  and  admiration  in 
his  lifetime;  and,  besides,  he  left  a  garrulous  autobiography  in 
verse.  A  portrait,  painted  in  middle  age,  now  in  the  church  of 
Melhus,  near  Trondhjem,  represents  him  in  canonicals,  with 
deep  red  beard  and  hair,  the  latter  waved  and  silky,  and  a  head  of 
massive  proportions.  The  face  is  full  of  fire  and  vigour.  His 
writings  passed  in  MS.  from  hand  to  hand,  and  few  of  them  were 
printed  in  his  lifetime.  Nordlands  Trompet  (The  Trumpet  of 
Nordland),  his  greatest  and  most  famous  poem,  was  not  published 
till  1739;  Den  nor  ska  Dale-Vise  (The  Norwegian  Song  of  the 
Valley)  appeared  in  1696;  the  Aandelig  Tidsfordriv  (Spiritual 
Pastime) ,  a  volume  of  sacred  poetry,  was  published  in  1 7 1 1 .  The 
Trumpet  of  Nordland  remains  as  fresh  as  ever  in  the  memories 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Norway;  boatmen,  peasants, 
priests  will  alike  repeat  long  extracts  from  it  at  the  slightest 
notice,  and  its  popularity  is  unbounded.  It  is  a  rhyming 
description  of  the  province  of  Nordland,  its  natural  features,  its 
trades,  its  advantages  and  its  drawbacks,  given  in  dancing  verse 
of  the  most  breathless  kind,  and  full  of  humour,  fancy,  wit  and 
quaint  learning.  The  other  poems  of  Petter  Dass  are  less  uni- 
versally read;  they  abound,  however,  in  queer  turns  of  thought, 
and  fine  homely  fancies. 

The  collected  writings  of  Dass  were  edited  (3  vols.,  Christiania, 
1873-1877)  by  Dr  A.  E.  Eriksen. 

DASYURE,  a  bookname  for  any  member  of  the  zoological 
family  Dasyuridae.  (See  MARSUPIALIA.)  The  name  is  better 
restricted  to  animals  of  the  typical  genus  Dasyurus,  sometimes 
called  true  Dasyures.  These  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  the 
Australian  continent  and  Tasmania,  where  in  the  economy  of 
nature  they  take  the  place  of  the  smaller  predaceous  Carnivora, 
the  cats,  civets  and  weasels  of  other  parts  of  the  world.  They 
hide  themselves  in  the  daytime  in  holes  among  rocks  or  in  hollow 
trees,  but  prowl  about  at  night  in  search  of  the  small  living 
mammals  and  birds  which  constitute  their  prey,  and  are  to  some 
extent  arboreal  in  habit.  The  spot-tailed  dasyure  (D.  macu- 
latus),  about  the  size  of  a  cat,  inhabiting  Tasmania  and  Southern 
Australia,  has  transversely  striated  pads  on  the  soles  of  the  feet. 
These  organs  are  also  present  in  the  North  Australian  dasyure 
(D.  hallucatus)  and  the  Papuan  D.  albopunctatus,  and  are 
regarded  by  Oldfield  Thomas  as  indication  of  arboreal  habits; 
in  the  common  dasyure  (D.  viverrinus)  from  Tasmania  and 
Victoria,  and  the  black-tailed  dasyure  (D.  geojfroyi)  from  South 
Australia,  these  feet-pads  are  absent,  whence  these  species  are 
believed  to  seek  their  prey  on  the  ground.  The  ursine  dasyure 
(Sarcophilus  ursinus),  often  called  the  "  Tasmanian  Devil," 
constitutes  a  distinct  genus.  In  size  it  may  be  compared  to  an 
English  badger;  the  general  colour  of  the  fur  is  black  tinged 


with  brown,  with  white  patches  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  rump  and 
chest.  It  is  a  burrowing  animal,  of  nocturnal  habits,  intensely 
carnivorous,  and  commits  great  depredations  on  the  sheepyards 
and  poultry-lofts  of  the  settlers.  In  writing  of  this  species  Krefft 
says  that  one — by  no  means  a  large  one — escaped  from  confine- 
ment and  killed  in  two  nights  fifty-four  fowls,  six  geese,  an 
albatross  and  a  cat.  It  was  recaptured  in  what  was  considered  a 
stout  trap,  with  a  door  constructed  of  iron  bars  as  thick  as  a  lead 
pencil,  but  escaped  by  twisting  this  solid  obstacle  aside. 

DATE  PALM.  The  dates1  of  commerce  are  the  fruit  of  a  species 
of  palm,  Phoenix  dactylifera,  a  tree  which  ranges  from  the  Canary 
Islands  through  Northern  Africa  and  the  south-east  of  Asia  to 
India.  It  has  been  cultivated  and  much  prized  throughout  most 
of  these  regions  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  Its  cultivation  and 
use  are  described  on  the  mural  tablets  of  the  ancient  Assyrians. 
In  Arabia  it  is  the  chief  source  of  national  wealth,  and  its  fruit 
forms  the  staple  article  of  food  in  that  country.  The  tree  has  also 
been  introduced  along  the  Mediterranean  snores  of  Europe;  but 
as  its  fruit  does  not  ripen  so  far  north,  the  European  plants  are 
only  used  to  supply  leaves  for  the  festival  of  Palm  Sunday  among 
Christians,  and  for  the  celebration  of  the  Passover  by  Jews.  It 
was  introduced  into  the  new  world  by  early  Spanish  missionaries, 
and  is  now  cultivated  in  the  dry  districts  of  the  south-western 
United  States  and  in  Mexico.  The  date  palm  is  a  beautiful  tree, 
growing  to  a  height  of  from  60  to  80  ft.,  and  its  stem,  which  is 
strongly  marked  with  old  leaf -scars,  terminates  in  a  crown  of 
graceful  shining  pinnate  leaves.  The  flowers  spring  in  branching 
spadices  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  as  the  trees  are  unisexual 
it  is  necessary  in  cultivation  to  fertilize  the  female  flowers  by 
artificial  means.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  fleshy  and  contains  one 
very  hard  seed  which  is  deeply  furrowed  on  the  inside.  The  fruit 
varies  much  in  size,  colour  and  quality  under  cultivation. 
Regarding  this  fruit,  W.  G.  Palgrave  (Central  and  Eastern 
Arabia)  remarked:  "  Those  who,  like  most  Europeans  at  home, 
only  know  the  date  from  the  dried  specimens  of  that  fruit  shown 
beneath  a  label  in  shop- windows,  can  hardly  imagine  how  delicious 
it  is  when  eaten -fresh  and  in  Central  Arabia.  Nor  is  it,  when 
newly  gathered,  heating, — a  defect  inherent  to  the  preserved 
fruit  everywhere;  nor  does  its  richness,  however  great,  bring 
satiety ;  in  short  it  is  an  article  of  food  alike  pleasant  and  healthy. ' ' 
In  the  oases  of  Sahara,  and  in  other  parts  of  Northern  Africa, 
dates  are  pounded  and  pressed  into  a  cake  for  food.  The  dried 
fruit  used  for  dessert  in  European  countries  contains  more  than 
half  its  weight  of  sugar,  about  6  %  of  albumen,  and  12  %  of 
gummy  matter.  All  parts  of  the  date  palm  yield  valuable 
economic  products.  Its  trunk  furnishes  timber  for  house -building 
and  furniture;  the  leaves  supply  thatch;  their  footstalks  are 
used  as  fuel,  and  also  yield  a  fibre  from  which  cordage  is  spun. 

Date  sugar  is  a  valuable  commercial  product  of  the  East  Indies, 
obtained  from  the  sap  or  toddy  of  Phoenix  sylvestris,  the  toddy 
palm,  a  tree  so  closely  allied  to  the  date  palm  that  it  has  been 
supposed  to  be  the  parent  stock  of  all  the  cultivated  varieties. 
The  juice,  when  not  boiled  down  to  form  sugar,  is  either  drunk 
fresh,  or  fermented  and  distilled  to  form  arrack.  The  uses  of  the 
other  parts  and  products  of  this  tree  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
date  palm  products.  Date  palm  meal  is  obtained  from  the  stem  of 
a  small  species,  Phoenix  farinifera,  growing  in  the  hill  country  of 
southern  India. 

For  further  details  see  Sir  G.  Watt,  Dictionary  of  the  Economic 
Products  of  India  (1892);  and  The  Date  Palm,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  No.  53 
(W.  T.  Swingle),  1904. 

DATIA,  a  native  state  of  Central  India,  in  the  Bundelkhand 
agency.  It  lies  in  the  extreme  north-west  of  Bundelkhand,  near 
Gwalior,  and  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  other  states  of  Central 
India,  except  on  the  east  where  it  meets  the  United  Provinces. 
The  state  came  under  the  British  government  after  the  treaty 
of  Bassein  in  1802.  Area,  911  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1901)  173,759. 
Estimated  revenue,  £70,000;  tribute  to  Sindhia  paid  through  the 

1  Lat.  dactylus,  finger,  hence  fruit  of  the  date  palm,  gave  O.  FT. 
date,  mod.  datte;  distinguish  "date,"  in  chronology,  from  Lat. 
datum,  data,  given,  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  letter,  &c.,  to  show 
time  and  place  of  writing,  e.g.  Datum  Romae. 


DATIVE— DAUBENY 


British  Government,  £1000.  The  chief,  whose  title  is  maharaja, 
is  a  Rajput  of  the  Bundela  clan,  being  descended  from  a  younger 
son  of  a  former  chief  of  Orchha.  The  state  suffered  from  famine 
in  1896-1897,  and  again  to  a  less  extent  in  1899-1900.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  branch  of  the  Indian  Midland  railway  from 
Jhansi  to  Gwalior.  The  town  of  Datia  has  a  railway  station, 
16  m.  from  Jhansi.  Pop.  (1901)  24,071.  It  is  surrounded  by 
a  stone  wall,  enclosing  handsome  palaces,  with  gardens;  the 
palace  of  Bir  Singh  Deo,  of  the  i7th  century,  is  "  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  Hindu  domestic  architecture  in  India  "  (Imperial 
Gazetteer  of  India,  1908). 

DATIVE  (Lat.  dativus,  giving  or  given,  from  dare,  to  give), 
the  name,  in  grammar,  of  the  case  of  the  "  indirect  object,"  the 
person  or  thing  to  or  for  whom  or  which  anything  is  given  or  done. 
In  law,  the  word  signifies  something,  such  as  an  office,  which 
may  be  disposed  of  at  will  or  pleasure,  and  is  opposed  to  perpetual. 
In  Scots  law  the  term  is  applied  to  persons,  duties  or  powers, 
appointed  or  granted  by  a  court  of  law;  thus  an  "  executor- 
dative  "  is  an  executor  appointed  by  the  court  and  not  by  a 
testator.  It  answers,  therefore,  to  the  English  administrator  (<?.!>.)• 
In  Roman  law,  a  tutor  was  either  dativus,  if  expressly  nominated 
in  a  testament,  or  optivus,  if  a  power  of  selection  was  given. 

DATOLITE,  a  mineral  species  consisting  of  basic  calcium  and 
boron  orthosilicate,  Ca(BOH)SiO4.  It  was  first  observed  by 
J..Esmark  in  1806,  and  named  by  him  from  Sarelffdcu.,  "to 
divide,"  and  Xi0os,  "  stone,"  in  allusion  to  the  granular  struc- 
ture of  the  massive  mineral.  It  usually  occurs  as  well-developed 
glassy  crystals  bounded  by  numerous  bright  faces,  many  of  which 
often  have  a  more  or  less  pentagonal  outline.  The  crystals  were 
for  a  long  time  considered  to  be  orthorhombic,  and  indeed  they 
approach  closely  to  this  system  in  habit,  interfacial  angles  and 
optical  orientation;  humboldtite  was  the  name  given  by  A.  L6vy 
in  1823  to  monoclinic  crystals  supposed  to  be  distinct  from 
datolite,  but  the  two  were  afterwards  proved  to  be  identical. 
The  mineral  also  occurs  as  masses  with  a  granular  to  compact 
texture;  when  compact  the  fractured  surfaces  have  the  appear- 
ance of  porcelain.  A  fibrous  variety  with  a  botryoidal  or  globular 
surface  is  known  as  botryolite.  Datolite  is  white  or  colourless, 
often  with  a  greenish  tinge;  it  is  transparent  or  opaque.  Hard- 
ness 5-5! ;  specific  gravity  3-0. 

Datolite  is  a  mineral  of  secondary  origin,  and  in  its  mode  of 
occurrence  it  resembles  the  zeolites,  being  found  with  them  in  the 
amygdaloidal  cavities  of  basic  igneous  rocks  such  as  basalt;  it  is 
also  found  in  gneiss  and  serpentine,  and  in  metalliferous  veins 
and  in  beds  of  iron  ore.  At  Arendal  in  Norway,  the  original 
locality  for  both  the  crystallized  and  botryoidal  varieties,  it  is 
found  in  a  bed  of  magnetite.  In  amygdaloidal  basaltic  rocks  it  is 
found  at  Bishopton  in  Renfrewshire  and  near  Edinburgh;  and 
as  excellent  crystallized  specimens  at  several  localities  in  the 
United  States,  e.g.  at  Westfield  in  Massachusetts,  Bergen  and 
Paterson  in  New  Jersey,  and  in  the  copper-mining  region  of 
Lake  Superior.  At  St  Andreasberg  in  the  Harz  it  occurs  both 
in  diabase  and  in  the  veins  of  silver  ore.  Fine  specimens  have 
recently  been  obtained  from  Tasmania. 

Large  crystals  of  datolite  completely  altered  to  chalcedony 
were  formerly  found  with  magnetite  in  the  Haytor  iron  mine  on 
Dartmoor  in  Devonshire  ;  to  these  pseudomorphs  the  name 
haytorite  has  been  applied.  (L.  J.  S.) 

DAUB,  KARL  (1765-1836),  German  Protestant  theologian, 
was  born  at  Cassel  on  the  2oth  of  March  1765.  He  studied 
philosophy,  philology  and  theology  at  Marburg  in  1786,  and 
eventually  (1795)  became  professor  ordinarius  of  theology  at 
Heidelberg,  where  he  died  on  the  2  2nd  of  November  1836.  Daub 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  a  school  which  sought  to  reconcile 
theology  and  philosophy,  and  to  bring  about  a  speculative 
reconstruction  of  orthodox  dogma.  In  the  course  of  his  intel- 
lectual development,  he  came  successively  under  the  influence 
of  Kant,  Schelling  and  Hegel,  and  on  account  of  the  different 
phases  through  which  he  passed  he  was  called  the  Talleyrand  of 
German  thought.  There  was  one  great  defect  in  his  speculative 
theology:  he  ignored  historical  criticism.  His  purpose  was,  as 
Otto  Pfleiderer  says,  "  to  connect  the  metaphysical  ideas,  which 


had  been  arrived  at  by  means  of  philosophical  dialectic,  directly 
with  the  persons  and  events  of  the  Gospel  narratives,  thus  rais- 
ing these  above  the  region  of  ordinary  experience  into  that  of 
the  supernatural,  and  regarding  the  most  absurd  assertions 
as  philosophically  justified.  Daub  had  become  so  hopelessly 
addicted  to  this  perverse  principle  that  he  deduced  not  only  Jesus 
as  the  embodiment  of  the  philosophical  idea  of  the  union  of  God 
and  man,  but  also  Judas  Iscariot  as  the  embodiment  of  the  idea 
of  a  rival  god,  or  Satan."  The  three  stages  in  Daub's  develop- 
ment are  clearly  marked  in  his  writings.  His  Lehrbuch  der 
Katechetik  (1801)  was  written  under  the  spell  of  Kant.  His 
Theologumena  (1806),  his  Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  christl. 
Dogmatik  (1810),  and  his  Judas  Ischarioth  (2  vols.,  1816,  2nd 
ed.,  1818),  were  all  written  in  the  spirit  of  Schelling,  the  last 
of  them  reflecting  a  change  in  Schelling  himself  from  theosophy 
to  positive  philosophy.  Daub's  Die  dogmaliscke  Theologiejelziger 
Zeit  oder  die  Selbstsucht  in  der  Wissenschaft  des  Glaubens  (1833), 
and  Vorlesungen  uber  die  Prolegomena  zur  Dogmatik  (1839),  are 
Hegelian  in  principle  and  obscure  in  language. 

See  Rosenkranz,  Erinnerungen  an  Karl  Daub  (1837);  D.  Fr. 
Strauss,  Charakteristiken  und  Kritiken  (2nd  ed.,  1844) ;  and  cf.  F. 
Lichtenberger,  History  of  German  Theology  (1889) ;  Otto  Pfleiderer, 
Development  of  Theology  (1890).  (M.  A.  C.) 

DAUBENTON,  LOUIS-JEAN-MARIE  (1716-1800),  French 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Montbar  (C&te  d'Or)  on  the  29th  of  May 
1716.  His  father,  Jean  Daubenton,  a  notary,  destined  him  for 
the  church,  and  sent  him  to  Paris  to  learn  theology,  but  the  study 
of  medicine  was  more  to  his  taste.  The  death  of  his  father  in 
1736  set  him  free  to  follow  his  own  inclinations,  and  accordingly 
in  1741  he  graduated  in  medicine  at  Reims,  and  returned  to  his 
native  town  with  the  intention  of  practising  as  a  physician. 
But  about  this  time  Buffon,  also  a  native  of  Montbar,  had  formed 
the  plan  of  bringing  out  a  grand  treatise  on  natural  history,  and 
in  1742  he  invited  Daubenton  to  assist  him  by  providing  the 
anatomical  descriptions  for  that  work.  The  characters  of  the 
two  men  were  opposed  in  almost  every  respect.  Buffon  was 
violent  and  impatient;  Daubenton,  gentle  and  patient;  Buffon 
was  rash  in  his  judgments,  and  imaginative,  seeking  rather  to 
divine  than  to  discover  truths;  Daubenton  was  cautious,  and 
believed  nothing  he  had  not  himself  been  able  to  see  or  ascertain. 
From  nature  each  appeared  to  have  received  the  qualities  requisite 
to  temper  those  of  the  other;  and  a  more  suitable  coadjutor  than 
Daubenton  it  would  have  been  difficult  for  Buffon  to  obtain.  In 
the  first  section  of  the  natural  history  Daubenton  gave  descrip- 
tions and  details  of  the  dissection  of  182  species  of  quadrupeds, 
thus  procuring  for  himself  a  high  reputation,  and  exciting  the 
envy  of  Reaumur,  who  considered  himself  as  at  the  head  of 
the  learned  in  natural  history  in  France.  A  feeling  of  jealousy 
induced  Buffon  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  Daubenton  in  the 
preparation  of  the  subsequent  parts  of  his  work,  which,  as  a 
consequence,  lost  much  in  precision  and  scientific  value.  Buffon 
afterwards  perceived  and  acknowledged  his  error,  and  renewed 
his  intimacy  with  his  former  associate.  The  number  of  disser- 
tations on  natural  history  which  Daubenton  published  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  is  very  great.  Zoological 
descriptions  and  dissections,  the  comparative  anatomy  of  recent 
and  fossil  animals,  vegetable  physiology,  mineralogy,  experiments 
in  agriculture,  and  the  introduction  of  the  merino  sheep  into 
France  gave  active  occupation  to  his  energies;  and  the  cabinet 
of  natural  history  in  Paris,  of  which  in  1744  he  was  appointed 
keeper  and  demonstrator,  was  arranged  and  considerably 
enriched  by  him.  From  1775  Daubenton  lectured  on  natural 
history  in  the  college  of  medicine,  and  in  1783  on  rural  economy 
at  the  Alfort  school.  He  was  also  professor  of  mineralogy  at  the 
Jardin  du  Roi.  As  a  lecturer  he  was  in  high  repute,  and  to  the 
last  retained  his  popularity.  In  December  1 799  he  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  senate,  but  at  the  first  meeting  which  he  attended 
he  fell  from  his  seat  in  an  apoplectic  fit,  and  after  a  short  illness 
died  at  Paris  on  the  ist  of  January  1800. 

DAUBENY,  CHARLES  GILES  BRIDLE  (1793-1867),  English 
chemist,  botanist  and  geologist,  was  the  third  son  of  the  Rev. 
James  Daubeny,  and  was  born  at  Stratton.  in  Gloucestershire  on 


DAUBIGNY— DAUBREE 


847 


the  nth  of  February  1795.  In  1808  he  went  to  Winchester,  and 
in  1810  he  was  elected  to  a  demyship  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  where  the  lectures  of  Dr  Kidd  first  awakened  in  him  a 
desire  for  the  cultivation  of  natural  science.  In  1814  he  gradu- 
ated with  second-class  honours,  and  in  the  next  year  he  obtained 
the  prize  for  the  Latin  essay.  From  1815  to  1818  he  studied 
medicine  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  He  took  his  M.D.  degree 
atOxford.and  was  a  fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  In  1819, 
in  the  course  of  a  tour  through  France,  he  made  the  volcanic 
district  of  Auvergne  a  special  study,  and  his  Letters  on  the 
Volcanos  of  Auvergne  were  published  in  The  Edinburgh  Journal, 
1820-21.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1822.  By  subsequent 
journeys  in  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Italy,  Sicily,  France  and 
Germany  he  extended  his  knowledge  of  volcanic  phenomena; 
and  in  1826  the  results  of  his  observations  were  given  in  a  work 
entitled  A  Description  of  Active  and  Extinct  Volcanos  (2nd  ed., 
1848).  In  common  with  Gay  Lussac  and  Davy,  he  held  subter- 
raneous thermic  disturbances  to  be  probably  due  to  the  contact 
of  water  with  metals  of  the  alkalis  and  alkaline  earths.  In 
November  1822  D*ubeny  succeeded  Dr  Kidd  as  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Oxford,  and  retained  this  post  until  1855;  and  in 
1834  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  botany,  to  which  was 
subsequently  attached  that  of  rural  economy.  At  the  Oxford 
botanic  garden  he  conducted  numerous  experiments  upon  the 
effect  of  changes  in  soil,  light  and  the  composition  of  the  atmo- 
sphere upon  vegetation.  In  1 830  he  published  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  a  paper  on  the  iodine  and  bromine  of  mineral  waters. 
In  the  following  year  appeared  his  Introduction  to  the  Atomic 
Theory,  which  was  succeeded  by  a  supplement  in  1840,  and  in 
1850  by  a  second  edition.  In  1831  Daubeny  represented  the 
universities  of  England  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, which  at  his  request  held  their  next  session  at  Oxford. 
In  1836  he  communicated  to  the  Association  a  report  on  the 
subject  of  mineral  and  thermal  waters.  In  1837  he  visited 
the  United  States,  and  acquired  there  the  materials  for  papers 
on  the  thermal  springs  and  the  geology  of  North  Ame-ica,  read 
in  1838  before  the  Ashmolean  Society  and  the  British  Associa- 
tion. In  1856  he  became  president  of  the  latter  body  at  its 
meeting  at  Cheltenham.  In  1841  Daubeny  published  his  Lectures 
on  Agriculture;  in  1857  his  Lectures  on  Roman  Husbandry;  in 
1863  Climate:  an  inquiry  into  the  causes  of  its  differences  and 
into  its  influence  on  Vegetable  Life;  and  in  1865  an  Essay  on  the 
Trees  and  Shrubs  of  the  Ancients,  and  a  Catalogue  of  the  Trees 
and  Shrubs  indigenous  to  Greece  and  Italy.  His  last  literary  work 
was  the  collection  of  his  Miscellanies,  published  in  two  volumes, 
in  1867.  In  all  his  undertakings  Daubeny  was  actuated  by  a 
practical  spirit  and  a  desire  for  the  advancement  of  knowledge; 
and  his  personal  influence  on  his  contemporaries  was  in  keeping 
with  the  high  character  of  his  various  literary  productions.  He 
died  in  Oxford  on  the  I2th  of  December  1867. 

See  Obituary  by  John  Phillips  in  Proceedings  of  Ashmolean  Soc., 
1868. 

DAUBIGNY,  CHARLES  FRANCOIS  (1817-1878),  French  land- 
scape painter,  allied  in  several  ways  with  the  Barbizon  School, 
was  born  in  Paris,  on  the  isth  of  February  1817,  but  spent  much 
time  as  a  child  at  Valmondois,  a  village  on  the  Oise  to  the  north- 
west of  Paris.  Daubigny  was  the  son  of  an  artist,  and  most  of  his 
family  were  painters.  He  began  to  paint  very  early  in  life,  and  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  took  a  studio  of  his  own.  Within  twelve 
months  he  had  saved  enough  to  go  to  Italy,  where  he  studied  and 
painted  for  nearly  two  years;  he  then  returned  to  Paris,  not  to 
leave  it  again  until,  in  1860,  he  took  a  house  at  Auvers  on  the 
Oise.  By  1837  Daubigny  had  become  famous  as  a  river  and  land- 
scape painter,  although  he  had  been  devoting  himself  as  well  to 
drawing  in  black-and-white,  to  etching,  wood  engraving,  and 
lithography.  In  1855  his  picture,  "  Lock  at  Optevoz,"  now  in 
the  Louvre,  was  purchased  by  the  state;  four  years  later 
Daubigny  was  created  knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  in 
1874  he  was  promoted  to  be  an  officer.  In  1866,  at  the  invitation 
of  Lord,  then  Mr,  Leighton  and  others,  he  visited  London,  where, 
however,  he  was  hurt  by  his  now  famous  "  Moonlight  "  being 
badly  hung  in  the  Old  Royal  Academy.  But  the  personal 


encouragement  of  his  admirers  in  England  made  up  for  the  dis- 
appointment, and  the  sale  of  his  picture  to  a  Royal  Academician 
greatly  pleased  him.  In  1870-1871  he  again  visited  London,  and 
subsequently  Holland,  where  he  painted  a  number  of  river  scenes 
with  windmills.  In  1874,  having  returned  to  Paris,  he  fell  ill, 
and  from  that  time  until  he  died  (on  the  igth  of  February  1878) 
his  work  won  less  distinction  than  before.  In  1904  the  muni- 
cipality of  Auvers-sur-Oise  decided  to  erect  a  bronze  monument 
to  Daubigny 's  memory. 

Daubigny's  finest  pictures  were  -painted  between  1864  and 
1874,  and  these  for  the  most  part  consist  of  carefully  completed 
landscapes  with  trees,  river  and  a  few  ducks.  It  has  curiously 
been  said,  yet  with  some  appearance  of  truth,  that  when 
Daubigny  liked  his  pictures  liimself  he  added  another  duck  or 
two,  so  that  the  number  of  ducks  often  indicates  greater  or  less 
artistic  quality  in  his  pictures.  One  of  his  sayings  was,  "  The 
best  pictures  do  not  sell,"  as  he  frequently  found  his  finest 
achievements  little  understood.  Yet  although  during  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  was  considered  a  highly  successful  painter,  the 
money  value  of  his  pictures  since  his  death  has  increased  nearly 
tenfold.  Daubigny  is  chiefly  preferred  in  his  riverside  pictures, 
of  which  he  painted  a  great  number,  but  although  there  are  two 
large  landscapes  by  Daubigny  in  the  Louvre,  neither  is  a  river 
view.  They  are  for  that  reason  not  so  typical  as  many  of  his 
smaller  Oise  and  Seine  pictures. 

The  works  of  Daubigny  are,  like  Corel's,  to  be  found  in  many 
modern  collections.  His  most  ambitious  canvases  are:  "  Spring- 
time" (1857),  in  the  Louvre;  "Borde  de  la  Cure,  Morvan"  (1864); 
"Villerville sur Mer"  (1864);  "Moonlight"  (1865);  "Andresy sur 
Oise"  (1868);  and  "  Return  of  the  Flock— Moonlight "  (1878). 

His  followers  and  pupils  were  his  sen  Karl  (who  sometimes 
painted  so  well  that  his  works  are  occasionally  mistaken  for  those 
of  his  father,  though  in  few  cases  do  they  equal  his  father's 
mastery),  Oudinot,  Delpy  and  Damoye. 

See  Fred  Henriet,  C.  Daubigny  et  son  aeuvre,  (Paris,  1878); 
D.  Croal  Thomson,  The  Barbizon  School  of  Painters  (London,  1890) ; 
J.  W.  Mollett,  Daubigny  (London,  1890);  J.  Claretie,  Peintres 
et  sculpteurs  contemporains :  Daubigny  (Paris,  1882);  Albert 
Wolff,  La  Capitate  de  I' art:  Ch.  Francois  Daubigny  (Paris,  1881). 

(D.C.T.) 

DAUBREE,  GABRIEL  AUGUSTS  (1814-1896),  French 
geologist,  was  born  at  Metz,  on  the  2Sth  of  June  1814,  and 
educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  in  Paris.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  had  qualified  as  a  mining  engineer,  and  in  1838  he  was 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  mines  in  the  Bas-Rhin  (Alsace) , 
and  subsequently  to  be  professor  of  mineralogy  and  geology  at 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Strassburg.  In  1859  he  became  engineer 
in  chief  of  mines,  and  in  1861  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
geology  at  the  museum  of  natural  history  in  Paris  and  was  also 
elected  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  professor  of  mineralogy  at  the  ficole  des  Mines, 
and  in  1872  director  of  that  school.  In  1880  the  Geological 
Society  of  London  awarded  to  him  the  Wollaston  medal.  His 
published  researches  date  from  1841,  when  the  origin  of  certain 
tin  minerals  attracted  his  attention;  he  subsequently  discussed 
the  formation  of  bog-iron  ore,  and  worked  out  in  detail  the 
geology  of  the  Bas-Rhin  (1852).  From  1857  to  1861,  while 
engaged  in  engineering  works  connected  with  the  springs  of 
Plombieres,  he  made  a  series  of  interesting  observations  on 
thermal  waters  and  their  influence  on  the  Roman  masonry  through 
which  they  made  their  exit.  He  was,  however,  especially  distin- 
guished for  his  long-continued  and  often  dangerous  experiments 
on  the  artificial  production  of  minerals  and  rocks.  He  likewise 
discussed  the  permeability  of  rocks  by  water,  and  the  effects  of 
such  infiltration  in  producing  volcanic  phenomena;  he  dealt  with 
the  subject  of  metamorphism,  with  the  deformations  of  the  earth's 
crust,  with  earthquakes,  and  with  the  composition  and  classifica- 
tion of  meteorites.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  29th  of  May  1896. 

His  publications  were:  Etudes  et  experiences  synthetiques  sur 
le  mttamorphisme  et  sur  la  formation  des  roches  cristallines 
(1860);  Etudes  synthetiques  de  gtologie  exptrimentale  (1879); 
Les  Eaux  souterraines  a  I'tpoque  actuelle  (2  vols.,  1887);  La 
Eaux  souterraines  aux  epoques  anciennes  (1887). 


DAUDET— DAULATABAD 


DAUDET,  ALPHONSE  (1840-1897),  French  novelist,  was  born 
at  Nimes  on  the  I3th  of  May  1840.  His  family,  on  both  sides, 
belonged  to  the  bourgeoisie.  The  father,  Vincent  Daudet,  was  a 
silk  manufacturer — a  man  dogged  through  life  by  misfortune  and 
failure.  The  lad,  amid  much  truancy,  had  but  a  depressing  boy- 
hood. In  1856  he  left  Lyons,  where  his  schooldays  had  been 
mainly  spent,  and  began  life  as  an  usher  at  Alais,  in  the  south. 
The  position  proved  to  be  intolerable.  As  Dickens  declared  that 
all  through  his  prosperous  career  he  was  haunted  in  dreams  by 
the  miseries  of  his  apprenticeship  to  the  blacking  business,  so 
Daudet  says  that  for  months  after  leaving  Alais  he  would  wake 
with  horror  thinking  he  was  still  among  his  unruly  pupils.  On 
the  ist  of  November  1857  he  abandoned  teaching,  and  took 
refuge  with  his  brother  Ernest,  only  some  three  years  his  senior, 
who  was  trying,  "  and  thereto  soberly,"  to  make  a  living  as  a 
journalist  in  Paris.  Alphonse  betook  himself  to  his  pen  likewise, 
— wrote  poems,  shortly  collected  into  a  small  volume  Les  Amou- 
reuses  (1858),  which  met  with  a  fair  reception, — obtained  employ- 
ment on  the  Figaro,  then  under  Cartier  de  Villemessant's 
energetic  editorship,  wrote  two  or  three  plays,  and  began  to  be 
recognized,  among  those  interested  in  literature,  as  possessing 
individuality  and  promise.  Morny,  the  emperor's  all-powerful 
minister,  appointed  him  to  be  one  of  his  secretaries, — a  post 
which  he  held  till  Morny 's  death  in  1865, — and  showed  him  no 
small  kindness.  He  had  put  his  foot  on  the  road  to  fortune. 

In  1 866  appeared  Lettres  de  man  moulin, which  won  the  attention 
of  many  readers.  The  first  of  his  longer  books,  Le  petit  chose 
(1868),  did  not,  however,  produce  any  very  popular  sensation. 
It  is,  in  its  main  feature,  the  story  of  his  own  earlier  years  told 
with  much  grace  and  pathos.  The  year  1872  produced  the 
famous  Aventures  prodigieuses  de  Tartarin  de  Tarascon,  and  the 
three-act  piece  L  Arlesienne.  But  Fromont  jeune  et  Risler  atne 
(1874)  at  once  took  the  world  by  storm.  It  struck  a  note,  not 
new  certainly  in  English  literature,  but  comparatively  new  in 
French.  Here  was  a  writer  who  possessed  the  gift  of  laughter  and 
tears,  a  writer  not  only  sensible  to  pathos  and  sorrow,  but  also  to 
moral  beauty.  He  could  create  too.  His  characters  were  real 
and  also  typical;  the  rates,  the  men  who  in  life's  battle  had 
flashed  in  the  pan,  were  touched  with  a  master  hand.  The  book 
was  alive.  It  gave  the  illusion  of  a  real  world.  Jack,  the  story 
of  an  illegitimate  child,  a  martyr  to  his  mother's  selfishness,  which 
followed  in  1876,  served  only  to  deepen  the  same  impression. 
Henceforward  his  career  was  that  of  a  very  successful  man  of 
letters, — publishing  novel  on  novel,  Le  Nabab  (1877),  Les  Rois  en 
exil  (1879),  Numa  Roumestan  (1881),  Sapho  (1884),  L'Immortel 
(1888), — and  writing  for  the  stage  at  frequent  intervals, — giving 
to  the  world  his  reminiscences  in  Trente  ans  de  Paris  (1887), 
and  Souvenirs  d'un  homme  de  lettres  (1888).  These,  with  the 
three  Tartarins—  Tartarin  the  mighty  hunter,  Tartarin  the 
mountaineer,  Tartarin  the  colonist, — and  the  admirable  short 
stories,  written  for  the  most  part  before  he  had  acquired  fame 
and  fortune,  constitute  his  life  work. 

Though  Daudet  defended  himself  from  the  charge  of  imitating 
Dickens,  it  is  difficult  altogether  to  believe  that  so  many  similar- 
ities of  spirit  and  manner  were  quite  unsought.  What,  however, 
was  purely  his  own  was  his  style.  It  is  a  style  that  may  rightly 
be  called  "  impressionist,"  full  of  light  and  colour,  not  descriptive 
after  the  old  fashion,  but  flashing  its  intended  effect  by  a  masterly 
juxtaposition  of  words  that  are  like  pigments.  Nor  does  it 
convey,  like  the  style  of  the  Goncourts,  for  example,  a  constant 
feeling  of  effort.  It  is  full  of  felicity  and  charm, — un  charmeur 
Zola  has  called  him.  An  intimate  friend  of  Edmond  de  Goncourt 
(who  died  in  his  house),  of  Flaubert,  of  Zola,  Daudet  belonged 
essentially  to  the  naturalist  school  of  fiction.  His  own  experi- 
ences, his  surroundings,  the  men  with  whom  he  had  been  brought 
into  contact,  various  persons  who  had  played  a  part,  more  or  less 
public,  in  Paris  life — all  passed  into  his  art.  But  he  vivified  the 
material  supplied  by  his  memory.  His  world  has  the  great  gift 
of  life.  L'Immortel  is  a  bitter  attack  on  the  French  Academy,  to 
which  august  body  Daudet  never  belonged. 

Daudet  wrote  some  charming  stories  for  children,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  La  Belle  Nivernaise,  the  story  of  an  old  boat 


and  her  crew.  His  married  life — he  married  in  1867  Julia  Allard 
— seems  to  have  been  singularly  happy.  There  was  perfect 
intellectual  harmony,  and  Madame  Daudet  herself  possessed 
much  of  his  literary  gift;  she  is  known  by  her  Impressions  de 
nature  et  d'art  (1879),  L'Enfance  d'une  Parisienne  (1883),  and 
by  some  literary  studies  written  under  the  pseudonym  of  Karl 
Steen.  In  his  later  years  Daudet  suffered  from  insomnia,  failure 
of  health  and  consequent  use  of  chloral.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the 
i7th  of  December  1897. 

The  story  of  Daudet's  earlier  years  is  told  in  his  brother  Ernest 
Daudet's  Monfrere  et  moi.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  autobiographical 
detail  in  Daudet's  Trente  ans  de  Paris  and  Souvenirs  d'un  homme  de 
lettres,  and  also  scattered  in  his  other  books.  The  references  to  him 
in  the  Journal  des  Goncourt  are  numerous.  See  also  L.  A.  Daudet, 
Alphonse  Daudet  (1898),  and  biographical  and  critical  essays  by 
R.  H.  Sherard  (1894);  by  A.  Gerstmann  (1883);  by  B.  Diederich 
(1900);  by  A.  Hermant  (1903),  and  a  bibliography  by  J.  Brivois 
('895) ;  also  The  Works  of  Alphonse  Daudet,  translated  by  L.  Ensor, 
H.  Frith,  E.  Bartow  (1902,  etc.).  Criticism  of  Daudet  is  also  to 
be  found  in  F.  Brunetiere,  Le  Roman  naturaliste  (new  ed.,  1897); 
J.  Lemaitre,  Les  Contemporains  (vols.  ii.  and  iv.);  G.  Pellissier,  Le 
Mouvement  litteraire  au  XIX'  siecle  (1890);  A".  Symons,  Studies  in 
Prose  and  Verse  (1904).  (F.  T.  M.) 

DAULATABAD,  a  hill-fortress  in  Hyderabad  state,  India, 
about  10  m.  N.W.  of  the  city  of  Aurangabad.  The  former  city  of 
Daulatabad  (Deogiri)  has  shrunk  into  a  mere  village,  though 
to  its  earlier  greatness  witness  is  still  borne  by  its  magnificent 
fortress,  and  by  remains  of  public  buildings  noble  even  in  their 
decay.  The  fortress  stands  on  a  conical  rock  crowning  a  hill  that 
rises  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  plain  to  a  height  of  some 
600  ft.  The  outer  wall,  2$  m.  in  circumference,  once  enclosed  the 
ancient  city  of  Deogiri  (Devagiri),  and  between  this  and  the  base 
of  the  upper  fort  are  three  lines  of  defences.  The  fort  is  a  place  of 
extraordinary  strength.  The  only  means  of  access  to  the  summit 
is  afforded  by  a  narrow  bridge,  with  passage  for  not  more  than 
two  men  abreast,  and  a  long  gallery,  excavated  in  the  rock,  which 
has  for  the  most  part  a  very  gradual  upward  slope,  but  about 
midway  is  intercepted  by  a  steep  stair,  the  top  of  which  is  covered 
by  a  grating  destined  in  time  of  war  to  form  the  hearth  of  a  huge 
fire  kept  burning  by  the  garrison  above.  Besides  the  fortifica- 
tions Daulatabad  contains  several  notable  monuments,  of  which 
the  chief  are  the  Chand  Minar  and  the  Chini  Mahal.  The  Chand 
Minar,  considered  one  of  the  most  remarkable  specimens  of 
Mahommedan  architecture  in  southern  India,  is  a  tower  210  ft. 
high  and  70  ft.  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  was  originally 
covered  with  beautiful  Persian  glazed  tiles.  It  was  erected  in 
1445  by  Ala-ud-din  Bahmani  to  commemorate  his  capture  of  the 
fort.  The  Chini  Mahal,  or  China  Palace,  is  the  ruin  of  a  building 
once  of  great  beauty.  In  it  Abul  Hasan,  the  last  of  the  Kutb 
Shahi  kings  of  Golconda,  was  imprisoned  by  Aurangzeb  in  1687. 

Deogiri  is  said  to  have  been  founded  c.  A.D.  1187  by  Bhillama  I. 
the  prince  who  renounced  his  allegiance  to  the  Chalukyas  and 
established  the  power  of  the  Yadava  dynasty  in  the  west.  In 
1294  the  fort  was  captured  by  Ala-ud-din  Khilji,  and  the  rajas, 
so  powerful  that  they  were  held  by  the  Mussulmans  at  Delhi 
to  be  the  rulers  of  all  the  Deccan,  were  reduced  to  pay  tribute. 
The  tribute  falling  into  arrear,  Deogiri  was  again  occupied  by  the 
Mahommedans  under  Malik  Kafur,  in  1307  and  1310,  and  in  1318 
the  last  raja,  Harpal,  was  flayed  alive.  Deogiri  now  became  an 
important  base  for  the  operations  of  the  Mussulman  conquering 
expeditions  southwards,  and  in  1339  Mahommed  ben  Tughlak 
Shah  determined  to  make  it  his  capital,  changed  its  name  to 
Daulatabad  ("  Abode  of  Prosperity  "),  and  made  arrangements 
for  transferring  to  it  the  whole  population  of  Delhi.  The  project 
was  interrupted  by  troubles  which  summoned  him  to  the  north; 
during  his  absence  the  Mussulman  governors  of  the  Deccan 
revolted;  and  Daulatabad  itself  fell  into  the  hands  of  Zafar 
Khan,  the  governor  of  Gulbarga.  It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Bahmanis  till  1526,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Nizam  Shahis. 
It  was  captured  by  the  emperor  Akbar,  but  in  1595  it  again 
surrendered  to  Ahmad  Nizam  Shah  of  Ahmednagar,  on  the  fall  of 
whose  dynasty  in  1607  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  usurper, 
the  Nizam  Shahi  minister  Malik  Amber,  originally  an  Abyssinian 
slave,  who  was  the  founder  of  Kharki  (the  present  Aurangabad). 


DAUMIER— DAUNOU 


849 


His  successors  held  it  until  their  overthrow  by  Shah  Jahan,  the 
Mogul  emperor,  in  1633;  after  which  it  remained  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Delhi  emperors  until,  after  the  death  of  Aurangzeb, 
it  fell  to  the  first  nizam  of  Hyderabad.  Its  glory,  however,  had 
already  decayed  owing  to  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government 
by  the  emperors  to  Aurangabad. 

DAUMIER,  HONORS  (1808-1879),  French  caricaturist  and 
painter,  was  born  at  Marseilles.  He  showed  in  his  earliest  youth 
an  irresistible  inclination  towards  the  artistic  profession,  which 
his  father  vainly  tried  to  check  by  placing  him  first  with  a 
huissier,  and  subsequently  with  a  bookseller.  Having  mastered 
the  technique  of  lithography,  Daumier  started  his  artistic  career 
by  producing  plates  for  music  publishers,  and  illustrations  for 
advertisements;  these  were  followed  by  anonymous  work  for 
publishers,  in  which  he  followed  the  style  of  Charlet  and  dis- 
played considerable  enthusiasm  for  the  Napoleonic  legend. 
When,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  Philipon  launched  the 
comic  journal,  La  Caricature,  Daumier  joined  its  staff,  which 
included  such  powerful  artists  as  Deveria,  Raffet  and  Grandville, 
and  started  upon  his  pictorial  campaign  of  scathing  satire  upon 
the  foibles  of  the  bourgeoisie,  the  corruption  of  the  law  and  the 
incompetence  of  a  blundering  government.  His  caricature  of  the 
king  as  "  Gargantua  "  led  to  Daumier's  imprisonment  for  six 
months  at  Ste  Pelagic  in  1832.  The  publication  of  La  Caricature 
was  discontinued  soon  after,  but  Philipon  provided  a  new  field 
for  Daumier's  activity  when  he  founded  the  Charivari.  For  this 
journal  Daumier  produced  his  famous  social  caricatures,  in  which 
bourgeois  society  is  held  up  to  ridicule  in  the  figure  of  Robert 
Macaire,  the  hero  of  a  then  popular  melodrama.  Another 
series,  "  L'histoire  ancienne,"  was  directed  against  'the  pseudo- 
classicism  which  held  the  art  of  the  period  in  fetters.  In  1848 
Daumier  embarked  again  on  his  political  campaign,  still  in  the 
service  of  Charivari,  which  he  left  in  1860  and  rejoined  in  1864. 
In  spite  of  his  prodigious  activity  in  the  field  of  caricature — the 
list  of  Daumier's  lithographed  plates  compiled  in  1904  numbers 
no  fewer  than  3958 — he  found  time  for  flight  in  the  higher  sphere 
of  painting.  Except  for  the  searching  truthfulness  of  his  vision 
and  the  powerful  directness  of  his  brushwork,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  recognize  the  creator  of  Robert  Macaire,  of  Les  Bas  bleus, 
Les  Boh&miens  de  Paris,  and  the  Masques,  in  the  paintings  of 
"  Christ  and  His  Apostles  "  at  the  Ryks  Museum  in  Amsterdam, 
or  in  his  "  Good  Samaritan,"  "  Don  Quixote  and  Sancho  Panza," 
"Christ  Mocked,"  or  even  in  the  sketches  in  the  lonides  Collection 
at  South  Kensington.  But  as  a  painter,  Daumier,  one  of  the. 
pioneers  of  naturalism,  was  before  his  time,  and  did  not  meet  with 
success  until  in  1878,  a  year  before  his  death,  when  M.  Durand- 
Ruel  collected  his  works  for  exhibition  at  his  galleries  and 
demonstrated  the  full  range  of  the  genius  of  the  man  who  has  been 
well  called  the  Michelangelo  of  caricature.  At  the  time  of  this 
exhibition  Daumier,  totally  blind,  was  living  in  a  cottage  at 
Valmondois,  which  was  placed  at  his  disposal  by  Corot,  and 
where  he  breathed  his  last  in  1879.  An  important  exhibition  of 
his  works  was  held  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  1900. 

His  life  and  art  were  made  the  subject  of  an  important  volume 
by  Arsene  Alexandra  in  1888;  see  also  Gustave  Geffroy,  Daumier 
(Paris,  Libraire  de  1'Art),  and  Henri  Frantz  and  Octave  Uzanne, 
Daumier  and  Gavarni  (London,  The  Studio,  1904),  with  a  large  selec- 
tion of  the  artist's  work. 

DAUN  (DHAUN),  LEOPOLD  JOSEF,  COUNT  VON  (I7os-i766), 
prince  of  Thiano,  Austrian  field  marshal,  was  born  at  Vienna 
on  the  24th  of  September  1705.  He  was  intended  for  the 
church,  but  his  natural  inclination  for  the  army,  in  which  his 
father  and  grandfather  had  been  distinguished  generals,  proved 
irresistible.  In  1718  he  served  in  the  campaign  in  Sicily,  in  his 
father's  regiment.  He  had  already  risen  to  the  rank  of  colonel 
when  he  saw  further  active  service  in  Italy  and  on  the  Rhine  in 
the  War  of  the  Polish  Succession  (1734-35).  He  continued  to  add 
to  his  distinctions  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  (1737-39),  in 
which  he  attained  the  rank  of  a  general  officer.  In  the  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  (1740-42),  Daun,  already  a  lieutenant  field 
marshal  in  rank,  distinguished  himself  by  the  careful  leadership 
which  was  afterwards  his  greatest  military  quality.  He  was 


present  at  Chotusitz  and  Prague,  and  led  the  advanced  guard 
of  Khevenhuller's  army  in  the  victorious  Danube  campaign 
of  1743.  Field  Marshal  Traun,  who  succeeded  Khevenhiiller  in 
1744,  thought  equally  highly  of  Daun,  and  entrusted  him  with 
the  rearguard  of  the  Austrian  army  when  it  escaped  from  the 
French  to  attack  Frederick  the  Great.  He  held  important 
commands  in  the  battles  of  Hohenfriedberg  and  Soor,  and  in  the 
same  year  (1745)  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Feldzeugmeister. 
After  this  he  served  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Val.  He  was  highly  valued  by  Maria  Theresa, 
who  made  him  commandant  of  Vienna  and  a  knight  of  the 
Golden  Fleece,  and  in  1754  he  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  field 
marshal. 

During  the  interval  of  peace  that  preceded  the  Seven  Years' 
War  he  was  engaged  in  carrying  out  an  elaborate  scheme  for  the 
reorganization  of  the  Austrian  army;  and  it  was  chiefly  through 
his  instrumentality  that  the  military  academy  was  established 
at  Wiener- Neustadt  in  1751.  He  was  not  actively  employed  in 
the  first  campaigns  of  the  war,  but  in  1757  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  army  which  was  raised  to  relieve  Prague.  On  the 
1 8th  of  June  1757  Daun  defeated  Frederick  for  the  first  time  in 
his  career  in  the  desperately  fought  battle  of  Kolin  (<?.».).  In 
commemoration  of  this  brilliant  exploit  the  queen  immediately 
instituted  a  military  order  bearing  her  name,  of  which  Daun  was 
nominated  first  grand  cross.  The  union  of  the  relieving  army 
with  the  forces  of  Prince  Charles  at  Prague  reduced  Daun  to  the 
position  of  second  in  command,  and  as  such  he  took  part  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  Prussians  and  the  victory  of  Breslau.  Frederick 
now  reappeared  and  won  the  most  brilliant  victory  of  the  age 
at  Leuthen.  Daun  was  present  on  that  field,  but  was  not  held 
accountable  for  the  disaster,  and  when  Prince  Charles  resigned 
his  command,  Daun  was  appointed  in  his  place.  With  the 
campaign  of  1758  began  the  war  of  manoeuvre  in  which  Daun, 
if  he  missed,  through  over-caution,  many  opportunities  of  crush- 
ing the  Prussians,  at  least  maintained  a  steady  and  cool  resistance 
to  the  fiery  strategy  of  Frederick.  In  1758  Major-General 
Loudon,  acting  under  Daun's  instructions,  forced  the  king  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Olmiitz,  and  later  in  the  same  year  Daun  himself 
surprised  Frederick  at  Hochkirch  and  inflicted  a  severe  defeat 
upon  him  (October  I4th).  In  the  following  year  the  war  of 
manoeuvre  continued,  and  on  the  2oth  and  2ist  of  November  he 
surrounded  the  entire  corps  of  General  Finck  at  Maxen,  forcing 
the  Prussians  to  surrender.  These  successes  were  counter- 
balanced in  the  following  year  by  the  defeat  of  Loudon  at 
Liegnitz,  which  was  attributed  to  the  dilatoriness  of  Daun,  and 
Daun's  own  defeat  in  the  great  battle  of  Torgau  (q.v.).  In  this 
engagement  Daun  was  so  severely  wounded  that  he  had  to  return 
to  Vienna  to  recruit. 

He  continued  to  command  until  the  end  of  the  war,  and  after- 
wards worked  with  the  greatest  energy  at  the  reorganization  of 
the  imperial  forces.  In  1762  he  had  been  appointed  president 
of  the  Hofkriegsrath.  He  died  on  the  sth  of  February  1766.  By 
the  order  of  Maria  Theresa  a  monument  to  his  memory  was 
erected  in  the  church  of  the  Augustinians,  with  an  inscription 
styling  him  the  "  saviour  of  her  states."  In  1888  the  s6th 
regiment  of  Austrian  infantry  was  named  after  him.  As  a 
general  Daun  has  been  reproached  for  the  dilatoriness  of  his 
operations,  but  wariness  was'not  misplaced  in  opposing  a  general 
like  Frederick,  who  was  quick  and  unexpected  in  his  movements 
beyond  all  precedent.  Less  defence  perhaps  may  be  made  for 
him  on  the  score  of  inability  to  profit  by  a  victory. 

See  Der  deutsche  Fabius  Cunctator,  oder  Leben  u.  Thaten  S.  E.  des 
H.  Leopold  Reichsgrafen  v.  Dhaun  K.K.F.M.  (Frankfort  and 
Leipzig,  1759-1760),  and  works  dealing  with  the  wars  of  the  period. 

DAUNOU,  PIERRE  CLAUDE  FRANCOIS  (1761-1840),  French 
statesman  and  historian,  was  born  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  and  after 
a  brilliant  career  in  the  school  of  the  Oratorians  there,  joined  the 
order  in  Paris  in  1777.  He  was  professor  in  various  seminaries 
from  1780  till  1787,  when  he  was  ordained  priest.  He  was 
already  known  in  literary  circles  by  several  essays  and  poems, 
when  the  revolution  opened  a  wider  career.  He  threw  himself 
with  ardour  into  the  struggle  for  liberty,  and  refused  to  be 


850 


DAUPHIN 


silenced  in  his  advocacy  of  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy 
by  the  offer  of  high  office  in  the  church.  Elected  to  the  Con- 
vention by  Pas-le-Calais,  he  associated  himself  with  the  Girondists, 
but  strongly  opposed  the  death  sentence  on  the  king.  He  took 
little  part  in  the  struggle  against  the  Mountain,  but  was  involved 
in  the  overthrow  of  his  friends,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a  year. 
In  December  1794  he  returned  to  the  Convention,  and  was  the 
principal  author  of  the  constitution  of  the  year  III.  It  seems  to 
have  been  due  to  his  Girondist  ideas  that  the  Ancients  were 
given  the  right  of  convoking  the  corps  legislatif  outside  Paris, 
an  expedient  which  made  possible  Napoleon's  coup  d'etat  of  the 
i8th  and  igth  Brumaire.  The  creation  of  the  Institute  was  also 
due  to  Daunou,  who  drew  up  the  plan  for  its  organization.  His 
energy  was  largely  responsible  for  the  suppression  of  the  royalist 
insurrection  of  the  i3th  Vendemiaire,  and  the  important  place  he 
occupied  at  the  beginning  of  the  Directory  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  he  was  elected  by  twenty-seven  departments  as  member 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  became  its  first  president. 
He  had  himself  set  the  age  qualification  of  the  directors  at  forty, 
and  thus  debarred  himself  as  candidate,  as  he  was  only  thirty- 
four.  The  direction  of  affairs  having  passed  into  the  hands 
of  Talleyrand  and  his  associates,  Daunou  turned  once  more  to 
literature,  but  in  1798  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  organize  the 
republic  there,  and  again,  almost  against  his  will,  he  lent  his  aid 
to  Napoleon  in  the  preparation  of  the  constitution  of  the  year 
VIII.  His  attitude  towards  Napoleon  was  not  lacking  in  inde- 
pendence, but  in  this  controversy  with  the  pope,  the  emperor  was 
able  again  to  secure  from  him  the  learned  treatise  Sur  la  puissance 
temporelle  du  Pape  (1809).  Still  he  took  little  part  in  the  new 
regime,. with  which  at  heart  he  had  no  sympathy,  and  turned 
more  and  more  to  literature.  At  the  Restoration  he  was 
deprived  of  the  post  of  archivist  of  the  empire,  which  he  had 
held  from  1807,  but  from  1819  to  1830  (when  he  again  became 
archivist  of  the  kingdom)  he  held  the  chair  of  history  and  ethics 
at  the  College  de  France,  and  his  courses  were  among  the  most 
famous  of  that  age  of  public  lectures.  During  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe  he  received  many  honours.  In  1839  he  was  made  a  peer. 
He  died  in  1840. 

In  politics  Daunou  was  a  Girondist  without  combativeness; 
a  confirmed  republican,  who  lent  himself  always  to  the  policy 
of  conciliation,  but  whose  probity  remained  unchallenged.  He 
belonged  essentially  to  the  centre,  and  lacked  both  the  genius 
and  the  temperament  which  would  secure  for  him  a  commanding 
place  in  a  revolutionary  era.  As  an  historian  his  breadth  of  view 
is  remarkable  for  his  time;  for  although  thoroughly  imbued  with 
the  classical  spirit  of  the  iSth  century,  he  was  able  to  do  justice 
to  the  middle  ages.  His  Discows  sur  I'etat  des  lettres  au  XIII' 
siecle,  in  the  sixteenth  volume  of  the  Histoire  lUteraire  de  France, 
is  a  remarkable  contribution  to  that  vast  collection,  especially 
as  coming  from  an  author  so  profoundly  learned  in  the  ancient 
classics.  Daunou's  lectures  at  the  College  de  France,  collected 
and  published  after  his  death,  fill  twenty  volumes  (Cours 
d' etudes  historiques,  1842-1846).  They  treat  principally  of  the 
criticism  of  sources  and  the  proper  method  of  writing  history,  and 
occupy  an  important  place  in  the  evolution  of  the  scientific  study 
of  history  in  France.  All  his  works  were  written  in  the  most 
elegant  style  and  chaste  diction;  but  apart  from  his  share  in  the 
editing  of  the  Historiens  de  la  France,  they  were  mostly  in  the 
form  of  separate  articles  on  literary  and  historical  subjects. 
Personally  Daunou  was  reserved  and  somewhat  austere,  preserv- 
ing in  his  habits  a  strange  mixture  of  bourgeois  and  monk.  His 
indefatigable  work  as  archivist  in  the  time  when  Napoleon  was 
transferring  so  many  treasures  to  Paris  is  not  his  least  claim  to 
the  gratitude  of  scholars. 

See  Mignet,  Notice  historique  sur  la  vie  el  les  travaux  de  Daunou 
(Paris,  1843) ;  Taillandier,  Documents  bibliographiques  sur  Daunou 
(Paris,  1847),  including  a  full  list  of  his  works;  Sainte-Beuve, 
Daunou  in  his  Portraits  Contemporains,  t.  iii.  (unfavourable  and 
somewhat  unfair). 

DAUPHIN  (Lat.  Delphinus},  an  ancient  feudal  title  in  France, 
borne  only  by  the  counts  and  dauphins  of  Vienne,  the  dauphins 
of  Auvergne,  and  from  1364  by  the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of 


France.  The  origin  of  this  curious  title  is  obscure  and  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  ingenious  controversy;  but  it  now  seems  clear 
that  it  was  in  the  first  instance  a  proper  name.  Among  the  Norse- 
men, and  in  the  countries  colonized  by  them,  the  name  Dolphin 
or  Dolfin  (dolfr,  "  a  wound  ")  was  fairly  common,  e.g.  in  the 
north  of  England;  thus  a  Dolfin  is  mentioned  among  the  tenants- 
in-chief  in  Domesday  Book,  and  there  was  a  Dolphin,  lord  of 
Carlisle,  towards  the  end  of  the  nth  century.  It  has  thus  been 
conjectured  by  some  that  the  dauphins  of  Vienne  derived  their 
title  from  Teutonic  sources  through  Germany.  But  in  the  south, 
too,  the  name — not  necessarily  derived  from  the  same  root — was 
not  unknown,  though  exceedingly  rare,  and  was  moreover 
illustrated  by  two  conspicuous  figures  in  the  Catholic  martyr- 
ology:  St  Delphinus,  bishop  of  Bordeaux  from  380  to  404,  and 
St  Annemundus,  surnamed  Dalfinus,  bishop  of  Lyons  from 
c.  650  to  657.  Whatever  its  origin,  this  name  was  borne  by 
Guigo,  or  GuigueIV.(d.  1 142), count  of  Albon  and  Grenoble,  as  an 
additional  name,  during  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  and  was  also 
adopted  by  his  son  Guigue  V.  Beatrice,  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Guigue  V.,  whose  second  husband  was  Hugh  III.,  duke  of 
Burgundy,  bestowed  the  name  on  their  son  Andre,  to  recall  his 
descent  from  the  ancient  house  of  the  counts  of  Albon,  and  in  the 
charters  he  is  called  sometimes  Andreas  Dalphinus,  sometimes 
Dalphinus  simply,  but  his  style  is  still  "  count  of  Albon  and 
Vienne."  His  successors  Guigue  VI.  (d.  1270)  and  John  I. 
(d.  1282)  call  themselves  sometimes  Delphinus,  sometimes 
Delphini,  the  name  being  obviously  treated  as  a  patronymic, 
and  in  the  latter  form  it  was  borne  by  the  sons  of  the  reigning 
"  dauphin."  But  even  under  Guigue  VI.  foreigners  had  begun 
to  confuse  the  name  with  a  title  of  dignity,  an  imperial  diploma 
of  1248  describing  Guigue  as  "  Guigo  Dalphinus  Viennensis." 

It  was  not  until  the  third  dynasty,  founded  by  the  marriage 
of  Anne,  heiress  of  John  I.,  with  Humbert,  lord  of  La  Tour  du 
Pin,  that  "  dauphin  "  became  definitely  established  as  a  title. 
Humbert  not  only  assumed  the  name  of  Delphinus,  but  styled 
himself  regularly  Dauphin  of  the  Viennois  (Dalphinus  Vien- 
nensis), and  in  a  treaty  concluded  in  1285  between  Humbert  and 
Robert,  duke  of  Burgundy,  the  word  delphinatus  (Dauphin6) 
appears  for  the  first  time,  as  a  synonym  for  comitatus  (county). 
In  1349  Humbert  II.,  the  last  of  his  race,  sold  Dauphine  to 
Charles  of  Valois,  who,  when  he  became  king  of  France  in  1364, 
transferred  it  to  his  eldest  son.  From  that  time  the  eldest  sons  of 
the  kings  of  France  were  always  either  actual  or  titular  dauphins 
of  the  Vienncis.  The  "  canting  arms  "  of  a  dolphin,  which  they 
quartered  with  the  royal  fieurs  de  lys,  were  originally  assumed  by 
Dauphin,  count  of  Clermont,  instead  of  the  arms  of  Auvergne 
(the  earliest  extant  example  is  appended  to  a  deed  of  1199),  and 
from  him  they  were  borrowed  by  the  counts  of  the  Viennois. 
Guigue  VI.  used  this  device  on  his  secret  seal  from  his  accession, 
the  earliest  extant  example  dating  from  1237,  but,  though  no 
specimens  have  survived,  M.  Prudhomme  thinks  it  probable  that 
the  dolphin  was  also  borne  by  Andre  Dauphin.  It  was  also 
assumed  by  Guigue  V.,  count  of  Forez  (1203-1241),  a  descendant 
of  Guigue  Raymond  of  the  Viennois,  count  of  Forez,  in  right  of  his 
wife  Ida  Raymonde.  It  is  thus  abundantly  clear  that  the  name 
of  Dauphin  was  not  assumed  from  the  armorial  device,  but  vice 
versa. 

The  eldest  son  of  the  French  king  was  sometimes  called 
"  the  king  dauphin  "  (le  roy  daulphin),  to  distinguish  him  from 
the  dauphin  of  Auvergne, who  was  known,sjnce  Auvergne  became 
an  appanage  of  the  royal  house,  as  "  the  prince  dauphin."  The 
dauphinate  of  Auvergne,  which  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
county,  dates  from  1155,  when  William  VII.,  count  of  Auvergne, 
was  deposed  by  his  uncle  William  VIII.  "  the  Old."  William  VII. 
had  married  a  daughter  of  Guigue  IV.  Dauphin,  after  whom  their 
son  was  named  Dauphin  (Delphinus).  The  name  continued,  as  in 
Viennois,  as  a  patronymic,  and  was  not  used  as  a  title  until  1281, 
when  Robert  II.,  count  of  Clermont,  in  his  will,  styles  himself  for 
the  first  time  Dauphin  of  Auvergne  (Ahernie  delphinus)  for  the 
portion  of  the  county  of  Auvergne  left  to  his  house.  In  1428 
Jeanne,  heiress  of  the  dauphin  B6raud  III.,  married  Louis  de 
Bourbon,  count  of  Montpensier  (d.  1486),  thus  bringing  the 


DAUPHINE— DAVENANT,  SIR  W. 


851 


dauphinate  into  the  royal  house  of  France.  It  was  annexed  to 
the  crown  in  1693. 

See  A.  Prudhomme,  "  De  1'origine  et  du  sens  des  mots  dauphin  et 
dauphine  "  in  Bibliotheque  de  I'fLcole  des  Charles,  liv.  an.  1893  (Paris, 
1893)- 

DAUPHIN^,  one  of  the  old  provinces  (the  name  being  still 
in  current  use  in  the  country)  of  pre-Revolutionary  France,  in 
the  south-east  portion  of  France,  between  Provence  and  Savoy; 
since  1 790  it  forms  the  departments  of  the  Isere,  the  Drome  and 
the  Hautes  Alpes. 

After  the  death  of  the  last  king  of  Burgundy,  Rudolf  III.,  in 
1032,  the  territories  known  later  as  Dauphine  (as  part  of  his 
realm)  reverted  to  the  far-distant  emperor.  Much  confusion 
followed,  out  of  which  the  counts  of  Albon  (between  Valence  and 
Vienne)  gradually  came  to  the  front.  The  first  dynasty  ended  in 
1162  with  Guigue  V.,  whose  daughter  and  heiress,  Beatrice, 
carried  the  possessions  of  her  house  to  her  husband,  Hugh  III., 
duke  of  Burgundy.  Their  son,  Andre,  continued  the  race,  this 
second  dynasty  making  many  territorial  acquisitions,  among 
them  (by  marriage)  the  Embrunais  and  the  Gapengais  in  1232. 
In  1282  the  second  dynasty  ended  in  another  heiress,  Anna,  who 
carried  all  to  her  husband,  Humbert,  lord  of  La  Tour  du  Pin 
(between  Lyons  and  Grenoble) .  The  title  of  the  chief  of  the  house 
was  Count  (later  Dauphin)  of  the  Viennois,  not  of  Dauphine. 
(For  the  origin  of  the  terms  Dauphin  and  Dauphine  see  DAUPHIN.) 
Humbert  II.  (1333-1349),  grandson  of  the  heiress  Anna,  was  the 
last  independent  Dauphin,  selling  his  dominions  in  1349  to 
Charles  of  Valois,  who  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  France 
as  Charles  V.  bestowed  Dauphine  on  his  eldest  son,  and  the  title 
was  borne  by  all  succeeding  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France. 
In  1422  the  Diois  and  the  Valentinois,  by  the  will  of  the  last 
count,  passed  to  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  VI.,  and  in  1424  were 
annexed  to  the  Dauphine.  Louis  (1440-1461),  later  Louis  XI. 
of  France,  was  the  last  Dauphin  who  occupied  a  semi-independent 
position,  Dauphine  being  annexed  to  the  crown  in  1456.  The 
suzerainty  of  the  emperor  (who  in  1378  had  named  the  Dauphin 
"  Imperial  Vicar  "  within  Dauphine  and  Provence)  gradually  died 
out.  In  the  i6th  century  the  names  of  the  reformer  Guillaume 
Farel  (1480-1565)  and  of  the  duke  of  Lesdiguieres  (1543-1626) 
are  prominent  in  Dauphine  history.  The  "  States  "  of  Dauphine 
(dating  from  about  the  middle  of  the  i4th  century)  were  sus- 
pended by  Louis  XIII.  in  1628,  but  their  unauthorized  meeting 
(on  the  2ist  of  July  1788)  in  the  tennis  court  (Salle  du  Jeu  de 
Paume)  of  the  castle  of  Vizille,  near  Grenoble,  was  one  of 
the  earliest  premonitory  signs  of  the  great  French  Revolution 
of  1789.  It  was  at  Laffrey,  near  Grenoble,  that  Napoleon 
(March  7th,  1815)  was  first  acclaimed  by  his  old  soldiers  sent  to 
arrest  him. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J.  Brun-Durand,  Dictionnaire  topographique  du 
departement  de  la  Drdme  (Paris,  1891);  Jules  Chevalier,  Essai 
historique  stir  I'eglise  et  la  ville  de  Die,  Montelimar  and  Valence 
(2  vols.,  1888  and  1896) ;  W.  A.  B.  Coolidge,  H.  Duhamel  and  Felix 
Perrin,  Climbers'  Guide  to  the  Central  Alps  of  the  Dauphiny  (a  revision 
of  a  French  work  by  the  same,  issued  at  Grenoble  in  1887),  London, 
1892  (new  ed.  1905);  J.  J.  Guiffrey,  Histoire  de  la  reunion  du 
Dauphine  a  la  France  (Paris,  1868) ;  Joanne,  Dauphine  (Paris,  1905) ; 
A.  Prudhomme,  Histoire  de  Grenoble  (Grenoble,  1888) ;  Ib.,  "  De 
1'origine  des  mots '  Dauphin'  et  Dauphine  "  (article  in  vol.  liv.  (1893) 
of  the  Bibliotheque  de  I'ftcole  des  Charles)  ;  A.  Rochas,  Biographic 
du  Dauphine  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1856);  J.  Roman,  Dictionnaire  topo- 
graphique (Paris,  1884);  Tableau  historique  (Paris,  2  vols.,  1887  and 
1890);  and  Repertoire  archeologique  du  departement  des  Haules- 
Alpes  (Paris,  1888)  ;J.  Roman,  Histoire  de  la  mile  de  Gap  (Gap,  1892); 
A.  De  Terrebasse,  Notice  sur  les  Dauphins  de  Viennois  (Vienne, 
1875);  J.  M.  De  Valbonnais,  Histoire  de  Dauphine  (2  vols.,  Geneva, 
1722);  J.  A.  Felix  Faure,  Les  Assemblies  de  Vizille  et  de  Romans, 
1788  (Paris,  1887) ;  O.  Chenavas,  La  Revolution  de  1788  en  Dauphine 
(Grenoble,  1888);  C.  Lory,  Description  geologique  du  Dauphine 
(Paris,  i860).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

DAURAT  (or  DORAT),  JEAN  (in  Lat.  AURATUS),  (1508-1588), 
French  poet  and  scholar,  and  member  of  the  Pleiade,  was  born 
at  Limoges  in  1508.  His  name  was  originally  Dinemandy.  He 
belonged  to  a  noble  family,  and,  after  studying  at  the  college  of 
Limoges,  came  up  to  Paris  to  be  presented  to  Francis  I.,  who 
made  him  tutor  to  his  pages.  He  rapidly  gained  an  immense 


reputation  as  a  classical  scholar.  As  a  private  tutor  in  the  house 
of  Lazare  de  Baif,  he  had  J.  A.  de  Baif  for  his  pupil.  His  son, 
Louis,  showed  great  precocity,  and  at  the  age  of  ten  translated 
into  French  verse  one  of  his  father's  Latin  pieces;  his  poems 
were  published  with  his  father's.  Jean  Daurat  became  the 
director  of  the  College  de  Coqueret,  where  he  had  among  his 
pupils,  besides  Baif,  Ronsard,  Remy,  Belleau  and  Pontus  de 
Tyard.  Joachim  du  Bellay  was  added  by  Ronsard  to  this  group; 
and  these  five  young  poets,  under  the  direction  of  Daurat,  formed 
a  society  for  the  reformation  of  the  French  language  and  literature. 
They  increased  their  number  to  seven  by  the  initiation  of  the 
dramatist  Etienne  Jodelle,  and  thereupon  they  named  themselves 
La  Pleiade,  in  emulation  of  the  seven  Greek  poets  of  Alexandria. 
The  election  of  Daurat  as  their  president  proved  the  weight  of  his 
personal  influence,  and  the  value  his  pupils  set  on  the  learning  to 
which  he  introduced  them,  but  as  a  writer  of  French  verse  he  is 
the  least  important  of  the  seven.  Meanwhile  he  collected  around 
him  a  sort  of  Academy,  and  stimulated  the  students  on  all  sides 
to  a  passionate  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  poetry.  He  himself 
wrote  incessantly  in  both  those  languages,  and  was  styled  the 
Modern  Pindar.  His  influence  extended  beyond  the  bounds  of 
his  own  country,  and  he  was  famous  as  a  scholar  in  England, 
Italy  and  Germany.  In  1556  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Greek  at  the  College  Royale,  a  post  which  he  continued  to  hold 
until,  in  1567,  he  resigned  it  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  Nicolas 
Goulu.  Charles  IX.  gave  him  the  title  of  poeta  regius.  His  flow 
of  language  was  the  wonder  of  his  time;  he  is  said  to  have  com- 
posed more  than  15,000  Greek  and  Latin  verses.  The  best  of 
these  he  published  at  Paris  in  1586  as  J.  Aurali  Lemomcis  poetae 
et  inter pretis  regii  poemata.  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  ist  of 
November  1588,  having  survived  all  his  illustrious  pupils  of  the 
Pleiade,  except  Pontus  de  Tyard.  He  was  a  little,  restless 
man,  of  untiring  energy,  rustic  in  manner  and  appearance.  His 
unequalled  personal  influence  over  the  most  graceful  minds  of 
his  age  gives  him  an  importance  in  the  history  of  literature  for 
which  his  own  somewhat  vapid  writings  do  not  fully  account. 

The  (Euvres  poeliques  in  the  vernacular  of  Jean  Daurat 
were  edited  (1875)  with  biographical  notice  and  bibliography  by 
Ch.  Marty-La veaux  in  his  Pleiade  franc,aise. 

DAVENANT,  CHARLES  (1656-1714),  English  economist, 
eldest  son  of  Sir  William  Davenant,  the  poet,  was  born  in  London, 
and  educated  at  Cheam  grammar  school  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  but  left  the  university  without  taking  a  degree.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  he  had  composed  a  tragedy,  Circe,  which  met  with 
some  success,  but  he  soon  turned  his  attention  to  law,  and  having 
taken  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  he  became  a  member  of  Doctors' 
Commons.  He  was  member  of  parliament  successively  for  St 
Ives,  Cornwall,  and  for  Great  Bedwyn.  He  held  the  post  of 
commissioner  of  excise  from  1683  to  1689,  and  that  of  inspector- 
general  of  exports  and  imports  from  1705  till  his  death  in  1714. 
He  was  also  secretary  to  the  commission  appointed  to  treat  for 
the  union  with  Scotland.  As  an  economist,  he  must  be  classed 
as  a  strong  supporter  of  the  mercantile  theory,  and  in  his  economic 
pamphlets — as  distinct  from  his  political  writings — he  takes  up 
an  eclectic  position,  recommending  governmental  restrictions  on 
colonial  commerce  as  strongly  as  he  advocates  freedom  of  ex- 
change at  home.  Of  his  writings,  a  complete  edition  of  which 
was  published  in  London  in  1771,  the  following  are  the  more 
important: — An  Essay  on  the  East  India  Trade  (1697);  Two 
Discourses  on  the  Public  Revenues  and  Trade  of  England  (1698); 
An  Essay  on  the  probable  means  of  making  the  people  gainers  in 
the  balance  of  Trade  (1699);  A  Discourse  on  Grants  and  Resump- 
tions and  Essays  on  the  Balance  of  Power  (1701). 

DAVENANT  (or  D'AVENANT),  SIR  WILLIAM  (1606-1668), 
English  poet  and  dramatist,  was  baptized  on  the  3rd  of  March 
1606;  he  was  born  at  the  Crown  Inn,  Oxford,  of  which  his 
father,  a  wealthy  vintner,  was  proprietor.  It  was  stated  that 
Shakespeare  always  stopped  at  this  house  in  passing  through  the 
city  of  Oxford,  and  out  of  his  known  or  rumoured  admiration  of 
the  hostess,  a  very  fine  woman,  there  sprang  a  scandalous  story 
which  attributed  Davenant's  paternity  to  Shakespeare,  a  legend 
which  there  is  reason  to  believe  Davenant  himself  encouraged, 


DAVENPORT,  E.  L. 


but  which  later  criticism  has  cast  aside  as  spurious.  In  1621  the 
vintner  was  made  mayor  of  Oxford,  and  in  the  same  year  his  son 
left  the  grammar  school  of  All  Saints,  where  his  master  had  been 
Edward  Sylvester,  and  was  entered  an  undergraduate  of  Lincoln 
College,  Oxford.  He  did  not  stay  at  the  university,  however, 
long  enough  to  take  a  degree,  but  was  hurried  away  to  appear  at 
court  as  a  page,  in  the  retinue  of  the  gorgeous  duchess  of  Rich- 
mond. From  her  service  he  passed  into  that  of  Fulke  Greville, 
Lord  Brooke,  in  whose  house  he  remained  until  the  murder  of 
that  eminent  man  in  1628.  This  blow  threw  him  upon  the  world, 
not  altogether  without  private  means,  but  greatly  in  need  of  a 
profitable  employment. 

He  turned  to  the  stage  for  subsistence,  and  in  1629  produced 
his  first  play,  the  tragedy  of  Albovine.  It  was  not  a  very  brilliant 
performance,  but  it  pleased  the  town,  and  decided  the  poet  to 
pursue  a  dramatic  career.  The  next  year  saw  the  production  at 
Blackfriars  of  The  Cruel  Brother,  a  tragedy,  and  The  Just  Italian, 
a  tragi-comedy.  Inigo  Jones,  the  court  architect,  for  whom 
Ben  Jonson  had  long  supplied  the  words  of  masques  and  compli- 
mentary pieces,  quarrelled  with  his  great  colleague  in  the  year 
1634,  and  applied  to  William  Davenant  for  verses.  The  result 
was  The  Temple  of  Love,  performed  by  the  queen  and  her  ladies 
at  Whitehall  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  1634,  and  printed  in  that  year. 
Another  masque,  The  Triumphs  of  the  Prince  D' Amour,  followed 
in  1636.  The  poet  returned  to  the  legitimate  drama  by  the 
publication  of  the  tragi-comedy  of  The  Platonic  Lovers,  and  the 
famous  comedy  of  The  Wits,  in  1636,  the  latter  of  which,  however, 
had  been  licensed  in  1633.  The  masque  of  Britannica  Triumphans 
(1637)  brought  him  into  some  trouble,  for  it  was  suppressed  as  a 
punishment  for  its  first  performance  having  been  arranged  for 
a  Sunday.  By  this  time  Davenant  had,  however,  thoroughly 
ingratiated  himself  with  the  court;  and  on  the  death  of  Ben 
Jonson  in  1637  he  was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  poet-laureate, 
to  the  exclusion  of  Thomas  May,  who  considered  himself  entitled 
to  the  honour.  It  was  shortly  after  this  event  that  Davenant 
collected  his  minor  lyrical  pieces  in  a  volume  entitled  Mada- 
gascar and  other  Poems  (1638);  and  in  1639  he  became  manager 
of  the  new  theatre  in  Drury  Lane.  The  civil  war,  however,  put  a 
check  upon  this  prosperous  career;  and  he  was  among  the  most 
active  partisans  of  royalty  through  the  whole  of  that  struggle  for 
supremacy. 

As  early  as  May  1642,  Davenant  was  accused  before  the  Long 
Parliament  of  being  mainly  concerned  in  a  scheme  to  seduce  the 
army  to  overthrow  the  Commons.  He  was  accordingly  appre- 
hended at  Faversham,  and  imprisoned  for  two  months  in  London; 
he  then  attempted  to  escape  to  France,  and  succeeded  in  reaching 
Canterbury,  where  he  was  recaptured.  Escaping  a  second  time, 
he  made  good  his  way  to  the  queen,  with  whom  he  remained  in 
France  until  he  volunteered  to  carry  over  to  England  some 
military  stores  for  the  army  of  his  old  friend  the  earl  of  Newcastle, 
by  whom  he  was  induced  to  enter  the  service  as  lieutenant- 
general  of  ordnance.  He  acquitted  himself  with  so  much 
bravery  and  skill  that,  after  the  siege  of  Gloucester,  in  1643,  he 
was  knighted  by  the  king.  After  the  battle  of  Naseby  he  retired 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  spent  some 
months  in  the  composition  of  his  epic  poem  of  Gondibert.  In 
1646  he  was  sent  by  the  queen  on  a  mission  to  Charles  I.,  then  at 
Newcastle,  to  advise  him  to  "  part  with  the  church  for  his  peace 
and  security."  The  king  dismissed  him  with  some  sharpness, 
and  Davenant  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  the  guest  of  Lord 
Jermyn.  In  1650  he  took  the  command  of  a  colonizing  expedi- 
tion that  set  sail  from  France  to  Virginia,  but  was  captured  in  the 
Channel  by  a  parliamentary  man-of-war,  which  took  him  back 
to  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Imprisoned  in  Cowes  castle  until  1651, 
he  tempered  the  discomfort  and  suspense  of  his  condition  by 
continuing  the  composition  of  Gondibert.  He  was  sent  up  to  the 
Tower  to  await  his  trial  for  high  treason,  but  just  as  the  storm 
was  about  to  break  over  his  head,  all  cleared  away.  It  is  believed 
that  the  personal  intercession  of  Milton  led  to  this  result.  Another 
account  is  that  he  was  released  by  the  desire  of  two  aldermen 
of  York,  once  his  prisoners,  whom  he  had  allowed  to  escape. 
Davenant,  released  from  prison,  immediately  published  Gondibert, 


the  work  on  which  his  fame  mainly  rests,  a  chivalric  epic  in" 
the  four-line  stanza  which  Sir  John  Davies  had  made  popular 
by  his  Nosce  teipsum,  the  influence  of  which  is  strongly 
marked  in  the  philosophical  passages  of  Gondibert.  It  is  a 
cumbrous,  dull  production,  but  is  relieved  with  a  multitude 
of  fine  and  felicitous  passages,  and  lends  itself  most  happily  to 
quotation. 

During  the  civil  war  one  of  his  plays  had  been  printed,  the 
tragedy  of  The  Unfortunate  Lovers,  in  1643.  One  of  his  best 
plays,  Love  and  Honour,  was  published  in  1649,  but  appears  to 
have  been  acted  long  before.  He  found  that  there  were  many 
who  desired  him  to  recommence  his  theatrical  career.  Such  a 
step,  however,  was  absolutely  forbidden  by  Puritan  law.  Dave- 
nant, therefore,  by  the  help  of  some  influential  friends,  obtained 
permission  to  open  a  sort  of  theatre  at  Rutland  House,  in 
Charterhouse  Yard,  where,  on  the  2ist  of  May  1656,  he  began  a 
series  of  representations,  which  he  called  operas,  as  an  inoffensive 
term.  This  word  was  then  first  introduced  into  the  English 
language.  The  opening  piece  was  a  kind  of  dialogue  defending 
the  drama  in  the  abstract.  This  was  followed  by  his  own  Siege  of 
Rhodes,  printed  the  same  year,  which  was  performed  with  stage 
decorations  and  machinery  of  a  kind  hitherto  quite  unthought  of 
in  England.  Two  other  innovations  in  its  production  were  the 
introduction  of  recitative  and  the  appearance  of  a  woman,  Mrs 
Coleman,  on  the  stage.  He  continued  until  the  Restoration  to 
produce  ephemeral  works  of  this  kind,  only  one  of  which,  The 
Cruelty  of  the  Spaniards  in  Peru,  in  1658,  was  of  sufficient  literary 
merit  to  survive.  In  1660  he  had  the  infinite  satisfaction  of  being 
able  to  preserve  the  life  of  that  glorious  poet  who  had,  nine  years 
before,  saved  his  own  from  a  not  less  imminent  danger.  The 
mutual  relations  of  Milton  and  Davenant  do  honour  to  the 
generosity  of  two  men  who,  sincerely  opposed  in  politics,  knew 
how  to  forget  their  personal  anger  in  their  common  love  of  letters. 
In  1659  Davenant  suffered  a  short  imprisonment  for  complicity 
in  Sir  George  Booth's  revolt.  Under  Charles  II.  Davenant 
flourished  in  the  dramatic  world;  he  opened  a  new  theatre  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  which  he  called  the  Duke's;  and  he  intro- 
duced a  luxury  and  polish  into  the  theatrical  life  which  it  had 
never  before  known  in  England.  Under  his  management,  the 
great  actors  of  the  Restoration,  Betterton  and  his  coevals,  took 
their  peculiar  French  style  and  appearance;  and  the  ancient 
simplicity  of  the  English  stage  was  completely  buried  under  the 
tinsel  of  decoration  and  splendid  scenery.  Davenant  brought 
out  six  new  plays  in  the  Duke's  Theatre,  The  Rivals  (1668),  an 
adaptation  of  The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen,  which  Davenant  never 
owned,  The  Man's  the  Master  (1669),  comedies  translated  from 
Scarron,  News  from  Plymouth,  The  Distresses,  The  Siege,  The 
Fair  Favourite,  tragi-comedies,  all  of  which  were  printed  after 
his  death,  and  only  one  of  which  survived  their  author  on  the 
stage.  He  died  at  his  house  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  on  the  night 
of  the  7th  of  April  1668,  and  two  days  afterwards  was  buried  in 
Poets'  Corner,  Westminster  Abbey,  with  the  inscription  "  O  rare 
Sir  William  Davenant!"  In  1672  his  writings  were  collected  in 
folio.  His  last  work  had  been  to  travesty  Shakespeare's  Tempest 
in  company  with  Dryden. 

The  personal  character,  adventures  and  fame  of  Davenant, 
and  more  especially  his  position  as  a  leading  reformer,  or  rather 
debaser,  of  the  stage,  have  always  given  him  a  prominence  in  the 
history  of  literature  which  his  writings  hardly  justify.  His  plays 
are  utterly  unreadable,  and  his  poems  are  usually  stilted  and 
unnatural.  With  Cowley  he  marks  the  process  of  transition 
from  the  poetry  of  the  imagination  to  the  poetry  of  the  in- 
telligence; but  he  had  far  less  genius  than  Cowley,  and  his 
influence  on  English  drama  must  be  condemned  as  wholly 
deplorable.  }  ..«.-.  (E.  G.) 

DAVENPORT,  EDWARD  LOOMIS  (1816-1877),  American 
actor,  born  in  Boston,  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  in 
Providence  in  support  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth.  Afterwards  he 
went  to  England,  where  he  supported  Mrs  Anna  Cora  Mowatt 
(Ritchie)  (1810-1870),  Macready  and  others/  In  1854  he  was 
again  in  the  United  States,  appearing  in  Shakespearian  plays 
and  in  dramatizations  of  Dickens's  novels.  As  Bill  Sykes  he  was 


DAVENPORT,  R.— DAVID 


853 


especially  successful,  and  his  Sir  Giles  Overreach  and  Brutus 
were  also  greatly  admired.  He  died  at  Canton,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  ist  of  September  1877.  In  1849  he  had  married  Fanny 
Vining  (Mrs  Charles  Gill)  (d.  1891),  an  English  actress  also  in 
Mrs  Mowatt's  company.  Their  daughter  FANNY  (LiLY  GIPSY) 
DAVENPORT  (1850-1898)  appeared  in  America  at  the  age  of  twelve 
as  the  king  of  Spain  in  Faint  Heart  Never  Won  Fair  Lady. 
Later  (1869)  she  was  a  member  of  Daly's  company;  and  after- 
wards, with  a  company  of  her  own,  acted  with  especial  success 
in  Sardou's  Fedora  (1883),  Cleopatra  (1890),  and  similar  plays. 
Her  last  appearance  was  on  the  25th  of  March  1898,  shortly 
before  her  death. 

DAVENPORT,  ROBERT  (fl.  1623-1639),  English  dramatist,  is 
mentioned  as  the  author  of  a  play  licensed  in  1624  under  the  title 
of  Henry  I.  In  1653  Henry  I.  and  Henry  II.  was  entered  at 
Stationers'  Hall  by  Humphrey  Moseley  with  a  second  part  said 
to  be  the  work  of  Davenport  and  Shakespeare.  Of  this  play  or 
plays  nothing  has  been  discovered,  but  King  John  and  Matilda 
(printed  1655),  which  probably  dates  from  about  the  same  time, 
has  survived.  Throughout  the  play,  as  in  its  closing  scene 
quoted  by  Charles  Lamb  in  his  Dramatic  Specimens,  there  is  much 
"  passion  and  poetry  "  which  saves  the  piece  from  being  classed 
as  pure  melodrama.  The  City-Night-Cap  was  licensed  in  1624, 
but  not  printed  until  1661.  The  underplot  of  this  unsavoury 
play  was  borrowed  from  Cervantes  and  Boccaccio,  and  Mrs 
Aphra  Behn's  Amorous  Prince  (1671)  is  an  adaptation  from  it. 
A  New  Tricke  to  Cheat  the  Dwell  (printed  1639)  is  a  farcical 
comedy,  which  contains  among  other  things  the  idea  of  the 
popular  supper  story  which  reappears  in  Hans  Andersen's 
Little  Claus  and  Big  Claus.  As  told  by  Davenport  the  story 
closely  resembles  the  Scottish  Freires  of  Berwick,  which  was 
printed  in  1603.  Three  other  plays  entered  in  the  Stationers' 
Register  as  Davenport's  are  lost,  and  he  collaborated  in  two 
plays  with  Thomas  Drue. 

Davenport's  plays  were  reprinted  by  A.  H.  Bullen  in  Old  English 
Plays  (new  series,  1890).  The  volume  includes  two  didactic  poems, 
which  first  saw  the  light  in  1623. 

DAVENPORT,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Scott  county, 
Iowa,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  opposite  Rock  Island, 
Illinois,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  two  fine  bridges  and  by 
a  ferry.  It  is  the  third  largest  city  in  the  state.  Pop.  (1890) 
26,872;  (1900)  35,254,  including  8479  foreign-born  (6111 
German),  and  19,230  of  foreign  parentage  (13,294  German); 
(1905,  state  census)  39,797;  (1910)  43,028.  Davenport  is  served 
by  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  & 
St  Paul,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  the  Iowa  &  Illinois 
(interurban) ,  and  the  Davenport,  Rock  Island  &  North  Western 
railways;  opposite  the  city  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Illinois  and  Mississippi,  or  Hennepin,  Canal  (which  connects  the 
Mississippi  and  Illinois  rivers).  Davenport  lies  on  the  slope  of  a 
bluff  affording  extensive  views  of  landscape  and  river  scenery. 
In  the  city  are  an  excellent  public  library,  an  Academy  of  Sciences, 
several  turn-halls  and  other  German  social  organizations,  the 
Iowa  soldiers'  orphans'  home,  Brown  business  college,  and  several 
minor  Roman  Catholic  institutions.  Davenport  is  an  episcopal 
see  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  churches. 
The  city  has  a  large  commerce,and  trade  by  water  and  rail  in  coal 
and  grain,  which  are  produced  in  the  vicinity,  is  of  special 
importance.  With  Rock  Island  and  Moline  it  forms  one  great 
commercial  unit.  Among  Davenport's  manufactures  are  the 
products  of  foundries  and  machine  shops,  and  of  flouring,  grist 
and  planing  mills;  glucose  syrup  and  products;  locomotives, 
steel  cars  and  car  parts,  washing  machines,  waggons,  carriages, 
agricultural  implements,  buttons,  macaroni,  crackers  and 
brooms.  The  value  of  the  total  factory  product  for  1905 
was  $13,695,978,  an  increase  of  38-7%  over  that  of  1900. 
Davenport  was  founded  in  1835,  under  the  leadership  of  Colonel 
George  Davenport;  it  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1838, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1851. 

DAVENTRY,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
Southern  parliamentary  division  of  Northamptonshire,  England, 
74  m.  N.W.  from  London  by  the  London  &  North  Western 


railway.  Pop.  (1901)  3780.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a 
sloping  site  in  a  rich  undulating  country.  On  the  adjacent 
Borough  Hill  are  extensive  earthworks,  and  the  discovery  of 
remains  here  and  at  Burnt  Walls,  immediately  south,  proves  the 
existence  of  a  considerable  Roman  station.  The  chief  industry 
of  the  town  is  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  The  borough 
is  under  a  mayor,  four  aldermen  and  twelve  councillors.  Area, 
3633  acres. 

In  spite  of  the  Roman  remains  on  Borough  Hill,  nothing  is 
known  of  the  town  itself  until  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey, 
when  the  manor  consisting  of  eight  hides  belonged  to  the  countess 
Judith,  the  Conqueror's  niece.  According  to  tradition,  Daventry 
was  created  a  borough  by  King  John,  but  there  is  no  extant 
charter  before  that  of  Elizabeth  in  1576,  by  which  the  town 
was  incorporated  under  the  name  of  the  bailiff,  burgesses  and 
commonalty  of  the  borough  of  Daventry.  The  bailiff  was  to 
be  chosen  every  year  in  the  Moot  Hall  and  to  be  assisted  by 
fourteen  principal  burgesses  and  a  recorder.  James  I.  confirmed 
this  charter  in  1605-1606,  and  Charles  II.  in  1674-1675  granted  a 
new  charter.  The  "  quo  warranto  "  rolls  show  that  a  market  every 
Wednesday  and  a  fair  on  St  Augustine's  day  were  granted  to 
Simon  son  of  Walter  by  King  John.  The  charter  of  1576  con- 
firms this  market  and  fair  to  the  burgesses,  and  grants  them  two 
new  fairs  each  continuing  for  two  days,  on  Tuesday  after  Easter 
and  on  the  feast  of  St  Matthew  the  Apostle.  Wednesday  is  still 
the  market  day.  The  town  was  an  important  coaching  centre,  and 
there  was  a  large  local  industry  in  the  manufacture  of  whips. 
During  the  civil  wars  Daventry  was  the  headquarters  of  Charles  I. 
in  the  summer  of  1645,  immediately  before  the  battle  of  Naseby, 
at  which  he  was  defeated.  A  Cluniac  priory  founded  here  shortly 
after  the  Conquest  has  left  no  remains. 

DAVEY  OF  FERNHURST,  HORACE  DAVEY,  BARON  (1833- 
1907),  English  judge,  son  of  Peter  Davey,  of  Horton,  Bucks,  was 
born  on  the  3oth  of  August  1833,  and  educated  at  Rugby  and 
University  College,  Oxford.  He  took  a  double  first-class  in 
classics  and  mathematics,  was  senior  mathematical  scholar  and 
Eldon  law  scholar,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college.  In 
1861  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  read  in  the 
chambers  of  Mr  (afterwards  Vice-Chancellor)  Wickens.  Devoting 
himself  to  the  Chancery  side,  he  soon  acquired  a  large  practice, 
and  in  1875  became  a  Q.C.  In  1880  he  was  returned  to  parlia- 
ment as  a  Liberal  for  Christchurch,  Hants,  but  lost  his  seat  in 
1885.  On  Gladstone's  return  to  power  in  1886  he  was  appointed 
solicitor-general  and  was  knighted,  but  had  no  seat  in  the  House, 
being  defeated  at  both  Ipswich  and  Stockport  in  1886;  in  1888 
he  found  a  seat  at  Stockton-on-Tees,  but  was  rejected  by  that 
constituency  in  1892.  As  an  equity  lawyer  Sir  Horace  Davey 
ranked  among  the  finest  intellects  and  the  most  subtle  pleaders 
ever  known  at  the  English  bar.  He  was  standing  counsel  to  the 
university  of  Oxford,  and  senior  counsel  to  the  Charity  Com- 
missioners, and  was  engaged  in  all  the  important  Chancery  suits 
of  his  time.  Among  the  chief  leading  cases  in  which  he  took  a 
prominent  part  were  those  of  The  Mogul  Steamship  Company 
v.  M'Gregor,  1892,  Boswell  v.  Coaks,  1884,  Erlanger  v.  New 
Sombrero  Company,  1878,  and  the  Ooregum  Gold  Mines  Company 
v.  Roper,  1892;  he  was  counsel  for  the  promoters  in  the  trial  of 
the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  leading  counsel  in  the  Berkeley  peerage 
case.  In  1862  he  married  Miss  Louisa  Donkin,  who,  with  two 
sons  and  four  daughters,  survived  him.  In  1893  he  was  raised 
to  the  bench  as  a  lord  justice  of  appeal,  and  in  the  next  year  was 
made  a  lord  of  appeal  in  ordinary  and  a  life  peer.  He  died  in 
London  on  the  2oth  of  February  1907.  Lord  Davey's  great  legal 
knowledge  was  displayed  in  his  judgments  no  less  than  at  the 
bar.  In  legislation  he  took  no  conspicuous  part,  but  he  was 
a  keen  promoter  of  the  act  passed  in  1906  for  the  checking  of 
gambling. 

DAVID  (a  Hebrew  name  meaning  probably  beloved1),  in  the 
Bible,  the  son  of  Jesse,  king  of  Judah  and  Israel,  and  founder  of 
the  royal  Judaean  dynasty  at  Jerusalem.  The  chronology  of  his 
period  is  Tincertain :  the  usual  date,  1055-1015  B.C.,  is  probably 

1  See  further  the  third  edition  of  Schrader's  Keilinschr.  u.  das  Alle 
Test.  pp.  225,  483. 


DAVID 


thirty  years  to  half  a  century  too  early.  The  books  of  Samuel 
(strictly,  i  Sam.  xvi.-i  Kings  ii.),  which  are  our  principal  source 
for  the  history  of  David,  show  how  deep  an  impres- 
sion the  personality  of  the  king,  his  character,  his 
genius  and  the  romantic  story  of  his  early  years  had  left  on  the 
mind  of  the  nation.  Of  no  hero  of  antiquity  do  we  possess  so 
life-like  a  portrait.  Minute  details  and  traits  of  character  are 
portrayed  with  a  vividness  which  bears  all  the  marks  of  contem- 
porary narrative.  But  the  record  is  by  no  means  all  of  one  piece 
or  of  one  date.  This  history,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  extracted 
from  various  sources  of  unequal  value,  which  are  fitted  together 
in  a  way  which  offers  considerable  difficulties  to  the  critic.  In 
the  history  of  David's  early  adventures,  for  example,  the 
narrative  is  not  seldom  disordered,  and  sometimes  seems  to 
repeat  itself  with  puzzling  variations  of  detail,  which  have  led 
critics  to  the  unanimous  conclusion  that  the  First  Book  of 
Samuel  is  drawn  from  at  least  two  sources.  It  is  indeed  easy  to 
understand  that  the  romantic  incidents  of  this  period  were  much 
in  the  mouths  of  the  people — to  whom  David  was  a  popular 
hero — and  in  course  of  time  were  written  down  in  various  forms 
which  were  not  combined  into  perfect  harmony  by  later  editors, 
who  gave  excerpts  from  several  sources  rather  than  a  new  and 
independent  history.  These  excerpts,  however,  have  been  so 
pieced  together,  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  separate  them  with 
precision,  and  to  distinguish  accurately  between  earlier  and  later 
elements.  It  even  appears  from  a  study  of  the  Greek  text  that 
some  copies  of  the  books  of  Samuel  incorporated  narratives 
which  other  copies  did  not  acknowledge.  For  the  literary 
problems  of  these  books,  see  also  SAMUEL  (BOOKS). 

The  parallel  history  of  David  in  i  Chron.  xi.-xxix.  contains  a 
great  deal  of  additional  matter,  which  can  rarely  be  treated  as 
of  equal  historical  value  with  the  preceding.  Where  it  follows 
the  chapters  in  Samuel  it  is  important  for  textual  and  other 
critical  problems,  but  it  omits  narratives  in  which  it  is  not 
interested  (David's  youth,  persecution  by  Saul,  Absalom's 
revolt,  &c.),  and  adds  long  passages  (David's  arrangements  for 
the  temple,  &c.)  which  reflect  the  views  of  a  much  later  age 
than  David's.  The  lists  of  officers,  &c.,  are  fuller  than  those 
in  Samuel,  and  here  and  there  contain  notices  of  value.  A 
comparison  of  the  two  records,  however,  is  especially  important 
for  its  illustration  of  the  later  tendency  to  idealize  the  figure  of 
David,  and  the  historical  critic  has  to  bear  in  mind  the  possibility 
that  this  tendency  had  begun -long  before  the  Chronicler's  time, 
and  that  it  may  be  found  in  the  relatively  older  records  pre- 
served in  Samuel. 

David's  father,  Jesse,  was  a  citizen  of  Bethlehem  in  Judah, 
5  m.  south  of  Jerusalem;  the  polite  deprecation  in   i   Sam. 
xviii.  18  means  little  (cf.  Saul  in  ix.  21).    Tradition 


'/em°<o'C" 


mac^e 


a  descendant  of  the  ancient  nobles  of 


Judah  through  Boaz  and  the  Moabitess  Ruth,  but  the 
tendency  to  furnish  a  noble  ancestry  for  a  noble  figure  — 
especially  one  of  obscure  birth  —  is  widespread  (cf.  GENEALOGY). 
He  was  the  youngest  of  eight  sons,1  and  spent  his  youth  in  an 
occupation  which  the  Hebrews  as  well  as  the  Arabs  seem  to  have 
held  in  low  esteem.  He  kept  his  father's  sheep  in  the  desert 
steppes  of  Judah,  and  there  developed  the  strength,  agility, 
endurance  and  courage  which  distinguished  him  throughout  life 
(cf.  i  Sam.  xvii.  34,  xxiv.  2;  2  Sam.  xvii.  9).  There,  too,  he  ac- 
quired that  skill  in  music  which  led  to  his  .first  introduction  to  Saul 
(i  Sam.  xvi.  14-23,  and  the  apocryphal  Psalm  of  David,  Ps.  cli.  in 
the  Septuagint).  He  found  favour  in  the  king's  eye,  and  became 
his  armour-bearer.1  But  traditions  varied.  In  i  Sam.  xvii.  he 
does  not  follow  his  master  to  the  field  against  the  Philistines; 
he  is  an  obscure  untried  shepherd  lad  sent  by  his  father  with 
supplies  for  his  brothers  in  the  Israelite  camp.  He  does  not  even 
present  himself  before  the  king,  and  his  brothers  treat  him  with  a 
petulance  hardly  conceivable  if  he  stood  well  at  court,  and  it 

1  But  four  in  xvii.  13  sqq.,  and  seven  in  i  Chron.  ii.  13-15. 

1  An  armour-bearer  was  not  a  full  warrior  but  a  sort  of  page  or 
apprentice-in-arms,  whose  most  warlike  function  is  to  kill  outright 
those  whom  his  master  has  struck  down  —  an  office  which  among  the 
Arabs  was  often  performed  by  women. 


appears  from  the  close  that  neither  Saul  nor  his  captain  Abner 
had  heard  of  him  before  (vv.  55-58).  There  is,  indeed,  a  flat 
contradiction  between  the  two  accounts,  but  a  family  of  Greek 
MSS.  represented  by  the  Vatican  text  omit  xvii.  12-31,  xvii.  55- 
xviii.  5,  and  thus  the  difficulty  is  greatly  lessened.  Character- 
istic of  the  omitted  portions  are  the  friendship  which  sprang  up 
between  Jonathan  and  David  and  the  latter's  appointment  to  a 
command  in  the  army.  A  further  difficulty  is  caused  by  2  Sam. 
xxi.  19,  which  makes  Elhanan  the  slayer  of  Goliath.  David's 
exploit  is  not  referred  to  in  i  Sam.  xxi.  10-15,  xxix.,  and  on  this 
and  other  grounds  the  simpler  tradition  in  2  Sam.  is  usually  pre- 
ferred. (See  GOLIATH.)  But  it  must  have  been  by  some  valiant 
deed  that  Saul  was  led  to  notice  him  (cf.  xiv.  52),  and  David 
soon  became  both  a  popular  hero  and  an  object  of  jealousy 
to  Saul.  According  to  the  Hebrew  text  of  i  Sam.  xviii.,  Saul's 
jealousy  leaped  at  once  to  the  conclusion  that  David's  ambition 
would  not  stop  short  of  the  kingship.  Such  a  suspicion  would  be 
intelligible  if  we  could  suppose  that  the  king  had  heard  something 
of  the  significant  act  of  Samuel,  which  now  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  history  of  David  in  witness  of  that  divine  election  and  unction 
with  the  spirit  of  Yahweh  on  which  his  whole  career  hung  (xvi. 
1-13).  But  this  passage  is  the  sequel  to  the  rejection  of  Saul  in 
xv.,  and  Samuel's  position  agrees  with  that  of  the  late  writer  in 
vii.,  viii.  and  xii.* 

The  shorter  text,  represented  by  the  Septuagint,  gives  an 
account  of  Saul's  jealousy  which  is  psychologically  more 
intelligible.4  According  to  this  text  Saul  was  simply 
possessed  with  such  a  personal  dislike  and  dread  of  Coanicts 
David  as  might  easily  occupy  his  disordered  brain.  Saul. 
To  be  quit  of  his  hateful  presence  he  gave  him  a  mili- 
tary command.  In  this  charge  David  increased  his  reputation 
as  a  soldier  and  became  a  general  favourite.  Saul's  daughter 
Michal  loved  him;  and  her  father,  whose  jealousy  continued  to 
increase,  resolved  to  put  the  young  captain  on  a  perilous  enter- 
prise, promising  him  the  hand  of  Michal  as  a  reward  of  success, 
but  secretly  hoping  that  he  would  perish  in  the  attempt.  David's 
good  fortune  did  not  desert  him;  he  won  his  wife,  and  in  this  new 
advancement  continued  to  grow  in  the  popular  favour,  and  to 
gain  fresh  laurels  in  the  field.  At  this  point  it  is  necessary  to 
look  back  on  the  proposed  marriage  of  David  with  Saul's  eldest 
daughter  Merab  (xviii.  17-19;  cf.  xvii.  25).  When  the  time 
came  for  Saul  to  fulfil  his  promise,  Merab  was  given  to  Adriel  of 
Abel-Meholah  (perhaps  an  Aramaean).  What  is  said  of  this 
affair  interrupts  the  original  context  of  chap,  xviii!,  to  which  the 
insertion  has  been  clumsily  fitted  by  an  interpolation  in  the 
second  half  of  ver.  21  (LXX  omits).  We  have  here,  therefore,  a 
notice  drawn  from  a  distinct  source  which  connects  itself  with 
the  other  omitted  passage,  xvii.  12-31,  where  Saul  had  promised 
his  daughter  to  the  one  who  should  overthrow  Goliath  (ver.  25). 
Since  Merab  and  Michal  are  confounded  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  8,  the 
whole  episode  of  Merab  and  David  perhaps  rests  on  a  similar 
confusion  of  names. 

As  the  king's  son-in-law,  David  was  necessarily  again  at  court. 
He  became  chief  of  the  bodyguard,  as  Ewald  rightly  interprets 
i  Sam.  xxii.  14,  and  ranked  next  to  Abner  (xx.  25),  so  that  Saul's 
insane  fears  were  constantly  exasperated  by  personal  contact 
with  him.  On  at  least  one  occasion  the  king's  frenzy  broke  out 
in  an  attempt  to  murder  David  with  his  own  hand.6  At  another 
time  Saul  actually  gave  commands  to  assassinate  his  son-in-law, 
but  the  breach  was  made  up  by  Jonathan,  whose  chivalrous 
spirit  had  united  him  to  David  in  a  covenant  of  closest  friendship 
(xix.  1-7).  The  circumstances  of  the  final  outburst  of  Saul's 
hatred,  which  drove  David  into  exile,  are  not  easily  disentangled. 

3  See  SAMUEL.  The  older  history  repeatedly  indicates  that  David's 
kingship  was  predicted  by  a  divine  oracle,  but  would  hardly  lead  us 
to  place  the  prediction  so  early  (i  Sam.  xxv.  30:2  Sam.  iii.  9,  v.  2). 

4  The  LXX  omits  xviii.  1-6  (to  "  Philistine  "),  the  first  and  last 
clauses  of  8,  10-11,  the  reason  given  for  Saul's  fear  in  12,  17-19, 
the  second  half  of  21.     It  also  modifies  28,  and  omits  the  second 
half  of  29  and  the  whole  of  30. 

6  I  Sam.  xix.  9.  The  parallel  narrative,  xviii.  10  sqq.,  is  wanting  in 
the  Greek,  and  in  the  light  of  subsequent  events  is  improbable. 
Its  aim  is  to  paint  Saul's  character  as  black  as  possible. 


DAVID 


855 


The  narrative  of  i  Sam.  xx.,  which  is  the  principal  account  of 
the  matter,  cannot  originally  have  been  preceded  by  xix.  11-24; 
in  chap.  xx.  David  appears  to  be  still  at  court,  and  Jonathan 
is  even  unaware  that  he  is  in  any  danger,  whereas  the  preceding 
verses  represent  him  as  already  a  fugitive.  It  may  also  be 
doubted  whether  the  narrative  of  David's  escape  from  his  own 
house  by  the  aid  of  his  wife  Michal  (xix.  11-17)  has  any  close 
connexion  with  ver.  10,  and  does  not  rather  belong  to  a  later 
period.1  David's  daring  spirit  might  very  well  lead  him  to  visit 
his  wife  even  after  his  first  flight.  The  danger  of  such  an  enter- 
prise was  diminished  by  the  reluctance  to  violate  the  apartments 
of  women  and  attack  a  sleeping  foe,  which  appears  also  in  Judges 
xvi.  2,  and  among  the  Arabs.2 

According  to  chap.  xx.  David  was  still  at  court  in  his  usual 
position  when  he  became  certain  that  the  king  was  aiming  at  his 
life.  He  betook  himself  to  Jonathan,  who  thought  his  suspicions 
groundless,  but  undertook-to  test  them.  A  plan  was  arranged  by 
which  Jonathan  should  draw  from  the  king  an  expression  of  his 
feelings,  and  a  tremendous  explosion  revealed  that  Saul  regarded 
David  as  the  rival  of  his  dynasty,  and  Jonathan  as  little  better 
than  a  fellow-conspirator.  After  a  final  interview  (xx.  40-42), 
which  must  be  regarded  as  a  later  expansion,  they  parted  and 
David  fled.  He  sought  the  sanctuary  at  Nob,  where  he  had  been 
wont  to  consult  the  priestly  oracle  (xxii.  15),  and  here,  concealing 
his  disgrace  by  a  fictitious  story,  he  also  obtained  bread  from  the 
consecrated  table  and  the  sword  of  Goliath  (chap.  xxi.  1-9).* 
His  hasty  flight — without  food  and  weapon — suggests  that  the 
narrative  should  follow  upon  xix.  17. 

It  was  perhaps  after  this  that  David  made  a  last  attempt  to 
find  a  place  of  refuge  in  the  prophetic  circle  of  Samuel  at  Ramah 
^^  (xix.  18-24).  The  episode  now  stands  in  another 

connexion,  where  it  is  certainly  out  of  place.  It  might, 
however,  fit  into  the  break  that  plainly  exists  in  the 
history  at  xxi.  10  after  the  affair  at  Nob.  Deprived  of  the 
protection  of  religion  as  well  as  of  justice,  David  tried  his  fortune 
among  the  Philistines  at  Gath.  Recognized  and  suspected  as  a 
redoubtable  foe,  he  made  his  escape  by  feigning  madness,  which 
in  the  East  has  inviolable  privileges  (xxi.  n-i6).4  The  passage 
anticipates  chap,  xxvii.,  and  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  slayer 
of  Goliath  or  of  any  other  Philistine  giant  fled  to  the  Philistines 
with  their  dead  hero's  sword.  He  returned  to  the  wilds  of  Judah, 
and  was  joined  at  Adullam  5  by  his  father's  house  and  by  a  small 
band  of  outlaws,  of  which  he  became  the  head.  Placing  his 
parents  under  the  charge  of  the  king  of  Moab,  he  took  up  the  life 
of  a  guerilla  captain,  cultivating  friendly  relations  with  the 
townships  of  Judah  (xxx.  26),  which  were  glad  to  have  on  their 
frontiers  a  protector  so  valiant  as  David,  even  at  the  expense  of 
the  blackmail  which  he  levied  in  return.  A  clear  conception  of 
his  life  at  this  time,  and  of  the  respect  which  he  inspired  by  the 
discipline  in  which  he  held  his  men,  and  of  the  generosity  which 
tempered  his  fiery  nature,  is  given  in  chap.  xxv.  His  force 
gradually  swelled,  and  he  was  joined  by  the  prophet  Gad  (note  his 
message  xxii.  5)  and  by  the  priest  Abiathar,  the  only  survivor 
of  a  terrible  massacre  by  which  Saul  took  revenge  for  the  favours 
which  David  had  received  at  the  sanctuary  of  Nob.  He  was 
even  able  to  strike  at  the  Philistines,  and  to  rescue  Kfeilah  (south 
of  Adullam  and  to  the  east  of  Beit  Jibrin)  from  their  attack 

1  The  close  of  ver.  10  in  the  Hebrew  is  corrupt,  and  the  words 
"  (and  it  came  to  pass)  that  night  "  seem  to  belong  to  the  next 
verse  (so  the  Greek).  H.  P.  Smith  suggests  that  the  passage  origin- 
ally followed  upon  xviii.  27. 

1  Wellhausen  cites  a  closely  parallel  case  from  Sprenger's  Leben 
Muhammad,  vol.  ii.  p.  543. 

1  On  the  meaning  of  this  difficult  passage,  see  the  discussions  by 
W.  R.  Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites?),  p.  455  sqq.,  and  Schwally 
Semit.  Krie^salterthumer,  p.  60  sqq. 

4  Interesting  parallels  in  Barhebraeus  Chron.,  ed.  Brun  and 
Kirsch,  p.  222,  and  Ewald,  Hist.  Israel,  iii.  p.  84. 

1  The  cave  of  Adullam  has  been  traditionally  placed  (since  the 
I2th  ce,ntury)  at  Khareitun,  two  hours'  journey  south  of  Bethlehem. 
But  the  town  of  Adullam,  which  has  not  been  identified  with  any 
certainty,  lay  in  the  low  country  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  35).  The 
"  cave  '  is  also  spoken  of  as  a  "  hold  "  or  fortress,  and  this  is  every- 
where the  true  reading.  The  name  has  been  identified  with  'Id-el-mji 
(or  -miye)  about  12  m.  S.W.  of  Bethlehem. 


(xxiii.  1-13).  Forced  to  flee  by  the  treachery  of  the  very  men 
whom  he  had  succoured,  he  lived  for  a  time  in  constant  fear  of 
being  captured  by  Saul,  and  at  length  took  refuge  with  Achish 
king  of  Gath  and  established  himself  in  Ziklag.  Popular  tradi- 
tion, as  though  unwilling  to  let  David  escape  from  Saul,  told  of 
that  king's  continual  pursuit  of  the  outlaw,  of  the  attempt  of  the 
men  of  Ziph  (S.E.  of  Hebron)  to  betray  him,  of  David's  magnan- 
imity displayed  on  two  occasions,  and  of  Jonathan's  visit  to 
console  his  bosom  friend  (xxiv.-xxvi.).6  The  situation  was  one 
which  lent  itself  to  the  imagination. 

The  site  of  Ziklag  is  unknown.  It  hardly  lay  near  Gath 
(probably  Tell  es-Safi,  12  m.  E.  of  Ashdod),  but  rather  to  the 
south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xix.  5).  Here  he  occupied  himself  in 
chastening  the  Amalekites  and  other  robber  tribes  who  made 
raids  on  Judah  and  the  Philistines  without  distinction  (xxvii.). 
The  details  of  the  text  are  obscure,  and  seem  to  imply  that  David 
systematically  attacked  populations  friendly  to  Achish  whilst 
pretending  that  he  had  been  making  forays  against  Judah.  If 
this  were  an  attempt  to  steer  a  middle  course  his  true  actions 
could  not  have  been  kept  secret  long,  and  as  it  is  implied  that  the 
Philistines  subsequently  acquiesced  in  David's  sovereignty  in 
Hebron,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  what  interest  they  had  in  embroiling 
him  with  the  men  of  Judah.  At  length,  in  the  second  year,  he 
was  called  to  join  his  master  in  a  great  campaign  against  Saul. 
The  Philistines  for  once  directed  their  forces  towards  the  plain  of 
Jezreel  (Esdraelon)  in  the  north;  and  Saul,  forsaken  by  Yahweh, 
already  gave  himself  up  for  lost.  David  accompanied  the  army 
as  a  matter  of  course.  But  his  presence  was  not  observed 
until  they  reached  their  destination,  when  the  jealousy  of  the 
Philistines  overrode  his  protestations  of  fidelity  and  he  was 
ordered  to  return.  He  reached  Ziklag  only  to  find  the  town 
pillaged  by  the  Amalekites.  Pursuing  the  foes,  he  inflicted 
upon  them  a  signal  chastisement  and  took  a  great  booty, 
part  of  which  he  spent  in  politic  gifts  to  the  leading  men  of 
the  towns  in  the  south  country.7 

Meantime  Saul  had  fallen  in  battle,  and  northern  Israel  was  in 
a  state  of  chaos.  The  Philistines  took  possession  of  the  fertile 
lowlands  of  Jezreel  and  the  Jordan,  and  the  shattered  forces 
of  Israel  were  slowly  rallied  by  Abner  in  the  remote  city  of 
Mahanaim  in  Gilead,  under  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  Saul's  son 
Ishbaal.  David  now  took  the  first  great  step  to  the  throne.  He 
was  no  longer  an  outlaw  with  a  band  of  wandering  companions, 
but  a  petty  chieftain,  head  of  a  small  colony  of  men,  allied  with 
families  of  Caleb  and  Jezreel  (in  Judah),  and  on  friendly  footing 
with  the  sheikhs  south  of  Hebron.  In  response  to  an 
oracle  he  was  bidden  to  move  northwards  to  Judah 
and  successfully  occupied  it  with  Hebron  as  his  capital. 
Here  he  was  anointed  king,  the  first  ruler  of  the  southern  kingdom. 
If  the  chronological  notice  may  be  trusted,  he  was  then  thirty 
years  of  age,  and  he  reigned  there  for  seven  and  a  half  years 
(2.  Sam.  ii.  1-40,  n,  v.  4  sq.).  The  noble  elegy  on  the  death  of 
Saul  and  Jonathan,  quoted  from  the  Book  of  Jashar  (2  Sam.  i.), 
is  marked  by  the  absence  both  of  religious  feeling  and  of  allusions 
to  his  earlier  experiences  with  Saul  which  David  might  have  been 
expected  to  make.  It  was  deemed  only  natural  that  he  should 
sympathize  deeply  with  the  disasters  of  the  northern  kingdom. 
His  vengeance  on  the  Amalekite  who  slew  Saul — the  account 
is  a  doublet  of  i  Sam.  xxxi. — is  consistent  with  his  generous 
treatment  of  his  late  adversary  in  his  outlaw  life,  and  with  this 
agrees  his  embassy  of  thanks  to  the  men  of  Jabesh-Gilead  for  their 
chivalrous  rescue  of  the  bodies  of  the  fallen  heroes  (2  Sam.  ii.  46-7). 
The  embassy  threw  out  a  hint, — their  lord  was  dead  and  David 
himself  had  been  anointed  king  over  Judah;  but  the  relation 
between  Jabesh-Gilead  and  Saul  had  been  a  close  one,  and  it  was 
not  to  be  expected  that  its  eyes  would  be  turned  upon  the  king  of 
Judah  when  Saul's  son  was  installed  at  the  not  distant  Mahanaim. 

•  According  to  a  late  Rabbinical  story,  David,  like  Bruce  of 
Scotland,  was  once  saved  by  a  spider  which  spun  its  web  over  the 
cave  wherein  he  was  concealed. 

7  The  law  of  the  distribution  of  booty  after  war  enacted  by  David 
(xxx.  2^  sqq.)  is  given  as  a  Mosaic  precedent  in  the  post-exilic  priestly 
legislation  (Num.  xxxi.  27).  On  the  importance  of  this  explicit 
statement,  see  W.  R.  Smith,  Old  Test,  in  Jewish  Church?),  386  sq. 


King  at 
Hebron. 


856 


DAVID 


The  interest  of  the  narratives  is  now  directed  away  from  the 
Philistines  to  the  decaying  fortunes  of  Saul's  house.  (See  ABNER 
and  SAUL.)  Abner  had  taken  Saul's  son  Ishbaal  and  his  authority 
was  gradually  consolidated  in  the  north.  War  broke  out  between 
the  two  parties  at  Gibeon  a  few  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  A 
sham  contest  was  changed  into  a  fatal  fray  by  the  treachery  of 
Ishbaal's  men;  and  in  the  battle  which  ensued  Abner  was  not 
only  defeated,  but,  by  slaying  Asahel,  drew  .upon  himself  a  blood- 
feud  with  Joab.  The  war  continued.  Ishbaal's  party  became 
weaker  and  weaker;  and  at  length  Abner  quarrelled  with  his 
nominal  master  and  Offered  the  kingdom  to  David.  The  king 
seized  the  opportunity  to  demand  the  return  of  Michal,  his 
wife.  The  passage  (iii.  12-16)  is  not  free  from  difficulties, 
but  it  is  intelligible  that  David  should  desire  to  ally  himself 
as  closely  as  possible  with  Saul's  family  (cf.  xii.  8).  The  base 
murder  of  Abner  by  Joab  did  not  long  defer  the  inevitable  issue 
of  events.  Ishbaal  lost  hope,  and  after  he  had  been  foully 
assassinated  by  two  of  his  own  followers,  all  Israel  sought  David 
as  king. 

The  biblical  narrative  is  admittedly  not  so  constructed  as  to 
enable  us  to  describe  in  chronological  order  the  thirty-three  years 
of  David's  reign  over  all  Israel.  It  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
incidents  ascribed  to  this  period  properly  belong  to  an  earlier 
part  of  his  life,  and  that  tradition  has  idealized  the  life  of  David 
the  king  even  as  it  has  not  failed  to  colour  the  history  of  David 
the  outlaw  and  king  of  Hebron. 

In  the  preceding  account  the  biblical  narratives  have  been 
followed  as  closely  as  possible  in  the  light  of  the  critical  results 
generally  accepted.  That  they  have  been  affected  by  the 
,*,  .  growth  of  popular  tradition  is  patent  from  the  traces 
of  duplicate  narratives,  from  the  difficulty  caused,  for 
example,  by  the  story  of  Goliath  (5.11.),  and  from  a  closer 
study  of  the  chapters.  The  later  views  of  the  history  of  this  period 
are  represented  in  the  book  of  Chronicles,  where  immediately  after 
Saul's  death  David  is  anointed  at  Hebron  king  over  all  Israel 
(i  Chron.  xi.).  It  is  quite  in  harmony  with  this  that  the  same  source 
speaks  of  the  Israelites  who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  (i  Chron.  xii. 
1-22),  and  of  the  host  which  came  to  him  at  Hebron  to  turn  over  to 
him  Saul's  kingdom  (xii.  23-40).  This  treatment  of  history  can  be  at 
once  corrected  by  the  books  of  Samuel,  but  it  is  only  from  a  deeper 
study  of  the  internal  evidence  that  these,  too,  appear  to  give  expres- 
sion to  doubtful  and  conflicting  views.  It  is  questionable  whether 
David  could  have  become  king  over  all  Israel  immediately  after  the 
death  of  Ishbaal.  The  chronological  notices  in  ii.  10  sqq.  allow  an 
interval  of  no  less  than  five  and  a  half  years,  and  nowhere  do  the 
events  of  these  years  appear  to  be  recorded.  But  David's  position 
in  the  south  of  Judah  is  clear.  He  is  related  by  marriage  with  south 
Judaean  clans  of  Caleb,  Jezreel, and  probably  Geshur.  (SeeABSALOM.) 
He  was  at  the  head  of  a  small  colony  (i  Sam.  xxvii.  3),  and  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  sheikhs  south  of  Hebron  (xxx.  26-3I).1  His 
step  forward  to  Hebron  is  in  every  way  intelligible  and  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  his  policy.  It  is  less  easy  to  trace  his  previous  moves. 
There  are  gaps  in  the  narratives,  and  the  further  back  we  proceed 
the  more  serious  do  their  difficulties  become.  These  chapters  bring 
him  farther  north,  and  they  commence iby  depicting  David  as  a  man 
of  Bethlehem,  high  in  the  court  of  Saul,  the  king's  son-in-law,  and 
a  popular  favourite  with  the  people.  But  notwithstanding  this,  the 
relation  is  broken  off,  and  years  elapse  before  David  gains  hold  upon 
the  Hebrews  of  north  Israel,  the  weakness  of  the  union  being 
proved  by  the  ease  with  which  it  was  subsequently  broken  after 
Solomon's  death.  Much  of  the  life  of  Saul  is  obscure,  and  this  too, 
it  would  seem,  because  tradition  loved  rather  to  speak  of  the  founder 
of  the  ideal  monarchy  than  of  his  less  successful  rival.  (See  SAUL.) 
It  is  not  impossible  that  some  traditions  did  not  bring  them 
together.  If  Jerusalem  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood  were  first 
conquered  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.),  it  is  probable  that  Beeroth  and 
Gibeon  (2  Sam.  iv.  2,  xxi.  2),  Shaalbim,  Har-heres  and  Aiialon 
(Judg.  i.  35),  Gezer  (ib.  i.  29),  Chephirah  and  Kirjath-jearim  (Josh. 
ix.  17)  had  remained  Canaanite.  The  evidence  has  obviously  some 
bearing  upon  the  history  of  Saul,  as  also  upon  the  intercourse  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin  which  David's  early  history  implies.  It  has 
been  conjectured,  therefore,  that  David's  original  home  lay  in  the 
south.  Since  the  early  historical  narrative  (i  Sam.  xxv.  2)  finds 
him  in  Maon,  Winckler  has  suggested  that  he  was  a  Calebite  chief, 
while  a  criticism  of  the  details  relating  to  David's  family  has  induced 
Marquart2  to  conjecture  that  he  was  born  at  Arad  (Tell  'Arad) 

1  Bethel  (ver.  27)  is  probably  the  Bethuel  near  Ziklag  (i  Chron.  iv. 
30).  David's  friendly  relations  with  the  Philistines  find  a  parallel 
in  Isaac's  covenant  with  Abimelech  (j.r.).  In  Ps.  xxxiv.  the  latter 
name  actually  appears  in  place  of  Achish. 

1  Fundamente  israel.  u.  jtid.  Gesch.  (1806),  pp.  23  sqq.;  see  also 
Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.  i.  24;  Keilinschr.  u.  d.  Alte  Test.(3),  p.  228  sqq. 


about  17  m.  S.E.  of  Hebron.  Once  indeed  we  find  him  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran  i  (Sam.  xxv.  i.LXX  reads  Maon), and  a  more  southerly 
origin  has  been  thought  of  (Winckler).  This  is  involved  with  other 
views  of  the  early  history  of  the  Israelites;  see  further  below. 

David  owed  his  success  to  his  troop  of  freebooters  (i  Sam. 
xxii.  2),  now  an  organized  force,  and  absolutely  attached  to  his 
person.  The  valour  of  these  "  mighty  men  "  (gibborim) 
was  topical.  The  names  of  the  most  honoured  are 
preserved,  and  we  have  some  interesting  accounts  of  sa/em. 
their  exploits  in  the  days  of  the  giants  (2  Sam.  xxi., 
xxiii.).  We  hear  of  two- great  battles  with  the  "  Philistines  "  in 
the  valley  of  Rephaim,  near  Jerusalem,  at  a  time  when  David's 
base  was  Adullam  (v.  17-25).  In  one  conflict  a  giant  thought 
to  slay  him,  but  he  was  saved  by  Abishai,  the  brother  of  Joab, 
and  the  men  took  an  oath  that  David  should  no  more  go  to  battle 
lest  he  "  quench  the  light  of  Israel."  On  another  occasion, 
Elhanan  of  Bethlehem  slew  the  giant  Goliath  of  Gath,  and 
David's  own  brother  Shimei  (or  Shammah)  overthrew  a  monster 
who  could  boast  of  twenty-four  fingers  and  toes.  In  yet  another 
incident  the  Philistines  maintained  a  garrison  in  Bethlehem, 
and  David  expressed  a  wish  for  a  drink  from  its  well.  The  wish 
was  gratified  at  the  risk  of  the  lives  of  three  brave  men,  and  he 
recognized  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion  by  pouring  out  the 
water  as  an  offering  unto  Yahweh. 

From  a  later  summary  (viii.  i)  it  seems  that  the  Philistines 
were  at  length  vanquished,  and  the  unknown  Metheg-Ammah 
taken  out  of  their  hands.3  Not  until  the  district  was  cleared 
could  Jerusalem  be  taken,  and  the  capture  of  the  almost  impreg- 
nable Jebusite  fortress  furnished  a  centre  for  future  action. 
Here,  in  the  midst  of  a  region  which  had  been  held  by  aliens,  he 
fortified  the  "  city  of  David  "  and  garrisoned  it  with  his  men. 
Meanwhile  the  ark  of  Yahweh,  the  only  sanctuary  of  national 
significance,  had  remained  in  obscurity  since  its  return  from  the 
Philistines  in  the  early  youth  of  Samuel.  (See  ARK.)  David 
brought  it  up  from  Baalah  of  Judah  with  great  pomp,  and  pitched 
a  tent  for  it  in  Zion,  amidst  national  rejoicings.  The  narrative 
(2  Sam.  vi.)  represents  the  act  as  that  of  a  loyal  and  God-fearing 
heart  which  knew  that  the  true  principle  of  Israel's  unity  and 
strength  lay  in  national  adherence  to  Yahweh;  but  the  event 
was  far  from  having  the  significance  which  later  times  ascribed 
to  it  (i  Chron.  xiii.,  xv.  sqq.) ;  even  Solomon  visited  the  sanctuary 
at  Gibeon,  and  Absalom  vowed  his  vow  unto  Yahweh  at  Hebron. 
It  was  not  unnatural  that  the  king  who  had  his  palace  built  by 
Tyrian  artists  should  have  proposed  to  erect  a  permanent 
temple  to  Yahweh.  Such,  at  least,  was  the  thought  of  later 
writers,  who  have  given  effect  to  the  belief  in  chap.  viii.  It  was 
said  that  the  prophet  Nathan  commanded  the  execution  of  this 
plan  to  be  delayed  for  a  generation;  but  David  received  at  the 
same  time  a  prophetic  assurance  that  his  house  and  kingdom 
should  be  established  for  ever  before  Yahweh. 

What  remains  to  be  said  of  his  internal  poKcy  may  be  briefly 
detailed.  In  civil  matters  the  king  looked  needfully  to  the 
execution  of  justice  (viii.  15),  and  was  always  accessible  toterM/ 
to  the  people  (xiv.  4).  But  he  does  not  appear  to  have  policy. 
made  any  change  in  the  old  local  administration  of 
justice,  or  to  have  appointed  a  central  tribunal  (xv.  2,  where, 
however,  Absalom's  complaint  that  the  king  was  inaccessible  is 
merely  factious).  A  few  great  officers  of  state  were  appointed 
at  the  court  of  Jerusalem  (viii.  16-18,  xx.  23-26),  which  was 
not  without  a  splendour  hitherto  unknown  in  Israel.  Royal 
pensioners,  of  whom  Jonathan's  son  Mephibosheth  was  one,  were 
gathered  round  a  princely  table.  The  art  of  music  was  not 
neglected  (xix.  35).  A  more  dangerous  piece  of  magnificence  was 
the  harem.  Another  innovation  was  the  census;  it  was  under- 
taken despite  the  protests  of  Joab,  and  was  checked  by  the 
rebukes  of  the  prophet  Gad  and  the  visitation  of  a  pestilence 
(xxiv.).  Striking,  too,  is  the  conception  of  the  national  God  who 
incites  the  king  to  do  an  act  for  which  he  was  to  be  punished.4 
To  us,  the  proposal  to  number  the  people  seems  innocent  and 

3  i  Chron.  xviii.  I  reads  "  Gath  and  her  dependent  villages";  the 
original  reading  is  a  matter  for  conjecture. 

•  4  Cf.  the  idea  in   i  Kings  xxii.   19-23;    Ezek.  xiv.  9;   contrast 
i  Chron.  xxi.  I. 


DAVID 


857 


laudable,  and  the  latest  sources  of  the  Pentateuch  contain  several 
such  lists.  This  new  procedure,  we  may  imagine,  was  resented 
by  the  northern  Hebrews  as  an  encroachment  upon  their 
liberties.  We  learn  that  the  destroying  angel  was  stayed  at 
the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah  the  Jebusite,1  and  the  spot  thus 
sanctified  was  made  a  sanctuary,  and  commemorated  by  an 
altar.  It  was  the  very  place  upon  which  Solomon's  temple  was 
supposed  to  be  founded.  The  census-taking  may  have  been  a 
preliminary  to  the  great  wars,  but  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  obviously  presupposed  by  the  extent  of  his  kingdom.  For 
his  wars  a  larger  force  than  his  early  bodyguard  was  required,  and 
the  Chronicler  gives  an  account  of  the  way  in  which  an  army  of 
nearly  300,000  was  raised  and  held  by  David's  thirty  heroes 
(i  Chron.  xxvii.).  It  is  certain  at  all  events  that  no  small  body 
of  soldiers  would  be  needed,  and  this  alone  would  imply  that  all 
Israel  was  by  this  time  under  his  entire  control. 

Apart  from  the  Ammonite  war,  our  sources  are  confined  to 
a  mere  summary  (viii.),  which  includes  even  the  Amalekites 
(viii.  12,  cf.  i  Sam.  xxx.).  After  the  defeat  of  the 
^"quests.  Philistines  came  the  turn  of  Moab.  It  was  under  the 
care  of  the  king  of  Moab  that  David  placed  his  parents 
when  he  fled  from  Saul  (i  Sam.  xxii.  3  sqq.),  and  what  led  to  the 
war  is  unknown.  The  severity  with  which  the  land  was  treated 
may  pass  for  a  gentle  reprisal  if  the  Moabites  of  that  day  were 
not  more  humane  than  their  descendants  in  the  days  of  King 
Mesha.2  A  deadly  conflict  with  the  Ammonites  was  provoked  by 
a  gross  insult  to  friendly  ambassadors  of  Israel ;  3  and  this  war, 
of  which  we  have  pretty  full  details  in  2  Sam.  x.  i-xi.  i,  xii.  26-31, 
assumed  unexpected  dimensions  when  the  Ammonites  procured 
the  aid  of  their  Aramean  neighbours.  The  defeat  of  Hadadezer 
brought  about  the  submission  of  other  lesser  kings.  The  glory  of 
this  victory  was  increased  by  the  complete  subjugation  of  Edom 
in  a  war  conducted  by  Joab  with  characteristic  severity  (2  Sam. 
viii.  13;  i  Kings  xi.  15-17;  Ps.  lx.,  title).  The  fall  of  Rabbah 
concludes  David's  war-like  exploits;  he  carried  off  the  jewelled 
crown  of  their  god  (Milcom),  and  subjected  the  people,  not  to 
torture  (i  Chron.  xx.  3),  but  to  severe  menial  labour  (xii.  26-31). 

The  Aramean  states,  Beth-rehob,  Maacah,  Tob,  &c.,  lay  partly  to 
the  north  of  Gilead  and  partly  in  the  region  which  was  the  scene  of  the 


fight  with  Jabin  (Josh.  xi.  i-Q,  Judg.  iv. ;  see  DEBORAH).  Apparently 
it  was  here,  too,  that  the  Danites  found  a  settlement  (Judg.  xyiii. 
28) ;  the  migration  has  perhaps  been  ante-dated.  (See  DAN,  tribe.) 
The  account  of  David's  wars  is  remarkable  for  the  inclusion  of  the 
Syrians  of  Damascus  and  beyond  the  Euphrates;  some  exaggeration 
has  been  suspected  (cf.  2  Sam.  viii.  5  with  x.  16).  Some  misunder- 
standing has  been  caused  by  the  confusion  of  Edom  (OIK)  and 
Aram  (OIK)  in  viii.  13.  A  more  moderate  idea  of  David's  power 
has  been  found  in  Ps.  lx.  6-12,  or,  preferably,  in  the  description  of 
the  boundaries  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  5  sqq.).  To  the  east  of  the  Jordan  he 
held  rule  from  Aroer  to  Gad  and  Gilead;  on  its  west  his  power 
extended  from  Beersheba  in  the  south  to  Dan  and  Ijon  at  the  foot 
of  Hermon.  Moab,  Ammon  and  Edom  would  appear  to  have  been 
merely  tributary,  whilst  in  the  north  among  his  allies  David  could 
number  the  king  of  Hamath.  To  the  north-west  Israel  bordered  upon 
Tyre,  with  whom  its  relations  were  friendly.  The  king  of  Tyre,  who 
recognized  David's  newly  won  position  (y.  1 1  seq.),  is  called  Hiram ; 
possibly — unless  the  notice  is  an  anticipation  of  i  Kings  v. — his 
father  Abibaal  is  meant.4 

As  the  birth  of  Solomon  is  placed  before  the  capture  of  Rabbah 
of  Ammon  (xii.),  it  would  appear  that  David's  wars  were  ended 

within  the  first  half  of  his  reign  at  Jerusalem,  and  the 
troubles,  tributary  nations  thus  do  not  seem  to  have  attempted 

any  revolt  during  his  lifetime  (see  i  Kings  xi.  14  sqq. 
and  25).  It  was  only  when  the  nation  was  no  longer  knit 

.  '  This  un-Hebraic  name,  which  is  not  unlike  aron,  "  ark,"  should 
possibly  be  corrected  to  Adonijah  (Cheyne,  Ency.  Bib.  s.v.). 

'  David  destroyed  two-thirds  of  the  Moabites — presumably  of 
their  fighting  men  (2  Sam.  viii.  2) ;  Mesha  destroys  the  inhabitants 
of  the  captured  cities  in  honour  of  his  god  Chemosh. 

3  It  finds  a  parallel  in  the  fate  of  the  heralds  of  Orchomenus  (Frazer, 
Pausan.  v.   135)  and  in  an  Arabian  story  (Ibn  Athir,  viii.  360; 
Noldeke  in  Budde,  Hand-Commentar,  ad  loc.);  cf.  also  Ewald,  iii. 

152- 

4  On  the  questions  raised  see  the  commentaries  upon  2  Sam.  viii. 
and  x.  and  the  Ency.  Biblica,  s.w.  "  David,"  "  Merom,"  "  Zobah." 
The  main  problem  is  whether  the  account  of  David's  rule  has  been 
exaggerated,  or  whether  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  throw  back 
to  the  time  of  the  first  king  of  all  Israel  later  political  conditions. 


together  by  the  fear  of  danger  from  without  that  the  internal 
difficulties  of  the  new  kingdom  became  more  manifest.  Such  at 
least  is  the  impression  which  the  narratives  convey.6  So,  after 
David  had  completed  a  series  of  conquests  which  made  Palestine 
the  greatest  of  the  petty  states  of  the  age,  troubles  arose  with  the 
Israelites,  who  in  times  past  had  sought  for  him  to  be  king  (iii. 
i?>  v.  1-3),  with  his  old  subjects  the  men  of  Judah,  and  with 
the  members  of  his  own  household.  The  northern  tribes,  who 
appear  to  have  submitted  willingly  to  his  rule,  were  not  all  of  one 
mind.  There  were  men  of  stronger  build  than  the  weak  Ishbaal 
and  the  crippled  son  of  Jonathan,  the  survivors  of  Saul's  house, 
and  it  is  only  to  be  expected  that  David's  first  care  must  have 
been  to  cement  the  union  of  the  north  and  south.  The  choice  of 
Jerusalem,  standing  on  neutral  ground,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
stroke  of  genius,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  king 
exercised  that  rigour  which  was  to  be  the  cause  of  his  grandson's 
undoing.  (See  REHOBOAM.)  On  the  other  hand,  when  Sheba, 
probably  one  of  Saul's  clan,  headed  a  rising  and  was  promptly 
pursued  by  Joab  to  Abel-beth-maacah  on  the  west  of  Dan, 
honour  was  satisfied  by  the  death  of  the  rebel,  and  no  further 
steps  were  taken  (xx.).6  This  policy  of  leniency  towards  Israel 
is  characteristic  of  David,  and  may  well  have  become  a  popular 
theme  in  the  tales  of  succeeding  generations.  This  same  magna- 
nimity towards  the  survivorsof  Saul's  house  has  left  its  mark  upon 
many  of  the  narratives,  and  helps  to  a  truer  understanding  of  the 
stories  of  his  early  life.  Thus  it  was  quite  in  keeping  with  the 
romantic  attachment  between  David  and  Saul's  son  Jonathan 
that  when  he  became  king  of  Israel  he  took  Jonathan's  son 
Meribbaal  under  his  care  (ix.).7  The  deed  was  not  merely 
generous,  it  was  politic  to  have  Saul's  grandson  under  his  eyes.' 
The  hope  of  restoring  the  lost  kingdom  had  not  died  out  (cf. 
xvi.  3).  But  from  another  source  we  gain  quite  a  different  idea 
of  the  relations.  A  disastrous  famine  ravaged  the  land  for  three 
long  years,  and  when  Yahweh  was  consulted  the  reply  came  that 
there  was  "  blood  upon  Saul  and  upon  his  house  because  he  put 
the  Gibeonites  to  death."  The  unavenged  blood  was  the  cause 
of  divine  anger,  and  retribution  must  be  made.  This  David 
recognized,  and,  summoning  the  injured  clan,  inquired  what 
expiation  could  be  made.  Bloodshed  could  only  be  atoned  by 
blood-money  or  by  shedding  the  blood  of  the  offender  or  of 
his  family.  The  Gibeonites  demanded  the  latter,  and  five  sons 
of  Merab  (the  text  by  a  mistake  reads  Michal)  and  two  sons  of 
Saul's  concubine  were  sacrificed.  The  awful  deed  took  place  at 
the  beginning  of  harvest  (April-May),  and  the  bodies  remained 
suspended  until,  with  the  advent  of  the  autumn  rains,  Yahweh 
was  once  more  reconciled  to  his  land  (xxi.  1-14).  The  incident 
is  a  valuable  picture  of  crude  ideas  of  Yahweh,  and,  if  nothing  • 
else  were  needed,  it  was  sufficient  to  involve  David  in  a  feud 
with  the  Benjamites.8  Here,  too,  we  learn  of  the  tardy  burial  of 
the  bones  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  which  had  remained  in  Jabesh- 
Gilead  since  the  battle  of  Gilboa; — the  history  of  David's  dealings 
with  the  family  of  Saul  has  been  obscured.  That  he  took  over 
his  harem  is  only  in  accordance  with  the  Eastern  policy  (cf.  xii.  8). 
The  harem,  an  indispensable  part  of  Eastern  state,  was  respons- 
ible for  many  fatal  disorders,  although  it  is  clear  from  2  Sam. 
xvi.  21  that  the  nation  at  large  was  not  very  sensitive  Abtmlom, 
to  the  enormities  which  flow  from  this  system.  David's  nvoH. " 
deep  fall  in  the  matter  of  Bathsheba  (xi.)  was  too  great 
an  iniquity  to  be  passed  over  lightly,  and  the  base  murder  of  her 

6  Viz.  the  present  position  of  2  Sam.  ix.-xx.  after  the  miscellaneous 
collection  of  details  in  v.-viii.     See,  on  the  other  hand,  the  view  of 
I  Kings  v.  3,  4. 

*  The  present  position  of  this  incident,  immediately  after  Absalom's 
rebellion  was  quelled,  is  almost  inconceivable  (Winckler,  H.  P. 
Smith,  B.  Luther,  Ed.  Meyer).  See  next  page. 

7  He  was  five  years  of  age  at  the  battle  of  Gnboa  (iv.  4),  and  is  now 
grown  up  and  with  a  young  child  (ix.  12).     But  the  narrative  loses 
Us  point  unless  David  s  kindness  "  for  Jonathan's  sake"  comes  at  an 
early  date  soon  after  he  became  king,  and  although  the  youth  is  found 
at  Lo-debar  (east  of  the  Jordan)  under  the  protection  of  Machir,  the 
independent  fragment  in  ii.  8  sqq.  implies  that  the  Israelites  had 
recovered  the  position  they  had  lost  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa. 

8  There  is  an  unmistakable  reference  to  the  occurrence  in  the  episode 
of  Shimei,  who  hovers  in  the  background  of  Absalom's  revolt  with  a 
large  body  of  men  at  his  command  (xvi.  7  sqq.). 


858 


DAVID 


husband  Uriah  the  Hittite  could  not  go  unavenged.  Bathsheba's 
influence  added  a  new  element  of  danger  to  the  usual  jealousies  of 
the  harem,  and  two  of  David's  sons  perished  in  vain  attempts  to 
claim  the  throne,  which  she  appears  to  have  viewed  as  the  rightful 
inheritance  of  her  own  child.  This,  at  least,  is  certain  in  the 
revolt  of  Adonijah  (see  SOLOMON),  and  it  was  probably  believed 
that  the  action  of  the  impulsive  Absalom  arose  from  the  suspicion 
that  the  birth  of  Solomon  was  the  death-blow  to  his  succession. 

As  a  piece  of  writing  the  vivid  narratives  are  without  an  equal. 
David's  sons  were  estranged  from  one  another,  and  acquired 
all  the  vices  of  Oriental  princes.  The  severe  impartiality  of  the 
sacred  historian  has  concealed  no  feature  in  this  dark  picture, — 
the  brutal  passion  of  Amnon,  the  shameless  counsel  of  the  wily 
Jonadab,  the  "  black  scowl  " 1  that  rested  on  the  face  of  Absalom 
through  two  long  years  of  meditated  revenge,  the  panic  of  the 
court  when  the  blow  was  struck  and  Amnon  was  assassinated  in 
the  midst  of  his  brethren.  Not  until  five  years  had  elapsed  was 
Absalom  fully  reconciled  with  his  father.  Then  he  meditated 
revolt.  As  heir-apparent  he  collected  a  bodyguard,  and  studi- 
ously courting  personal  popularity  by  a  pretended  interest  in 
the  administration  of  kingly  justice,  ingratiated  himself  with  the 
mass.  Four  years  later  (so  read  in  xv.  7)  he  ventured  to  raise  the 
standard  of  revolt  in  Hebron,  with  the  malcontent  Judaeans  as 
his  first  supporters,  and  the  crafty  Ahithophel  as  his  chief  adviser. 
Arrangements  had  been  made  for  the  simultaneous  proclamation 
of  Absalom  in  all  parts  of  the  land.  The  surprise  was  complete, 
and  David  was  compelled  to  evacuate  Jerusalem,  where  he  might 
have  been  crushed  before  he  had  time  to  rally  his  faithful  subjects. 
He  was  warmly  received  by  the  Gileadites,  and  the  first  battle 
'destroyed  the  party  of  Absalom,  who  was  himself  captured  and 
slain  by  Joab.  Then  all  the  people  repented  except  the  men  of 
Judah,  who  were  not  to  be  conciliated  without  a  virtual  admission 
of  prerogative  of  kinship  to  the  king.  This  concession  involved 
important  consequences.  The  precedence  claimed  by  Judah  was 
challenged  by  the  northern  tribes  even  on  the  day  of  David's 
victorious  return  to  his  capital,  and  a  rupture  ensued,  headed  by 
Sheba,  which  but  for  the  energy  of  Joab  might  have  led  to  a 
second  and  more  dangerous  rebellion. 

Several  indications  suggest  that  the  revolt  was  one  in  which  the 
men  of  Judah  originally  took  the  leading  if  not  the  only  part.  The 
unruly  clans  which  David  knew  how  to  control  when  he  was  at 
Ziklag  or  Hebron  were  doubtless  ready  to  support  the  rebellious  son. 
The  removal  of  the  court  to  Jerusalem  provided  a  suitable  oppor- 
tunity, and  an  element  of  jealousy  even  may  not  have  been  wanting. 
If  Geshur  be  the  district  in  Josh.  xiii.  2,  I  Sam.  xxvii.  8,  it  is  sig- 
nificant that  the  scene  of  Absalom's  exile  lay  to  the  south,  that 
Ahithophel  was  a  south  Judaean,  and  that  Amasa  probably  belonged 
to  the  Jezreel2  with  which  David  was  connected  through  his  wife 
Ahinoam.  The  eleven  years  which  elapsed  between  the  murder  of 
Amnon  and  the  revolt  would  seem  to  disprove  any  connexion  between 
the  two;  the  chronology  may  rest  upon  the  tradition  that  Solomon 
was  twelve  years  old  when  he  came  to  the  throne.  David's  hurried 
flight,  attended  only  by  his  bodyguard,  indicates  that  his  position  was 
not  a  very  strong  one,  and  it  is  difficult  to  connect  this  with  the  fact 
that  he  had  already  waged  the  wars  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  viii.  and  x. 
If  his  reason  for  taking  refuge  in  Ishbaal's  capital  Mahanaim  is  not 
obvious,  it  is  even  more  remarkable  that  he  should  have  been  received 
kindly  by  the  Ammonites  whom  he  had  previously  decimated.  On 
the  theory  that  the  revolt  of  Absalom  chronologically  should  precede 
the  great  wars,  a  slight  correction  of  the  already  corrupt  text  in  xvii. 
27  makes  Nahash  himself  David's  ally,  and  accounts  for  David's 
eagerness  to  repay  to  Hanun,  the  son  of  Nahash,  the  kindness  which 
he  had  received  from  the  father  (x.  2).  That  the  revolt  of  Sheba  is  in 
an  impossible  position  is  obvious.  Tradition  has  probably  confused 
Benjamite  risings  with  Absalom's  misguided  enterprise;  the  parts 
played  by  Shimei  and  Meribbaal,  at  all  events,  are  extremely 
suggestive.  See  ABSALOM,  AHITHOPHEL. 

The  Appendix  ascribes  to  David  a  song  of  triumph  and  some 
exceedingly  obscure  "  last  words  "  (xxii.-xxiii.  7)  which  cannot 
be  used  as  historical  material.     The  history  of  his  life 
life-work.    *s  immediately  continued  in  i  Kings  i.,  where  his  old 
age  and  weakness  are  for  the  first  time  vividly  empha- 
sized.    The  events  of  the  remaining  years  after  2  Sam.  xx.  are 
left  untold,  but  the  Chronicler  omits  the  revolt  of  Absalom  and 
1  If  Ewald's  brilliant  interpretation  of  an  obscure  word  in  2  Sam. 
xiii.  32  be  correct. 

"  Israelite  "  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25)  is  a  very  unnecessary  designation; 
I  Chron.  ii.  17  would  make  him  an  Ishmaelite. 


represents  the  king  as  busily  occupied  with  schemes  concerning 
the  future  temple.  The  last  spark  of  his  old  energy  was  called 
forth  to  secure  the  succession  of  Solomon  against  the  ambition  of 
Adonijah.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  as  in  the  case  of  Absalom,  the 
pretender,  though  supported  by  Joab  and  Abiathar,  found  his  chief 
stay  among  the  men  of  Judah  (i  Kings  i.  9).  (See  SOLOMON.) 

To  estimate  the  work  of  David  it  is  necessary  to  take  into 
account  the  situation  before  and  after  his  period.  According  to 
the  prevailing  traditions,  Saul  at  his  death  had  left  North  Israel 
disunited  and  humiliated.  From  this  condition  David  raised  the 
land  to  the  highest  state  of  prosperity  and  glory,  and  by  his 
conquests  made  the  united  kingdom  the  most  powerful  state  of 
the  age.  To  do  this  other  qualities  than  mere  military  capacity 
were  required.  David  was  not  only  a  great  captain,  he  was  a 
national  hero  in  whom  all  the  noblest  elements  of  the  Hebrew 
genius  were  combined.  His  talent  enabled  him  to  weld  together 
the  mixed  southern  clans  which  became  incorporated  under 
Judah,  and  to  build  up  a  monarchy  which  represented  the 
highest  conception  of  national  life  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances. The  structure,  it  is  true,  was  not  permanent.  Under 
his  successor  it  began  to  decay,  and  in  the  next  generation  it  fell 
asunder  and  lived  only  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  as  the  proudest 
memory  of  past  history  and  the  prophetic  ideal  of  future  glory. 3 
Opinion  will  differ,  however,  as  to  the  extent  to  which  later  ideals 
have  influenced  the  narratives  upon  which  the  student  of  Hebrew 
history  and  religion  is  dependent,  and  how  far  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon  altered  the  face  of  Hebrew  history.  The  foundation 
of  the  united  monarchy  was  the  greatest  advance  in  the  whole 
course  of  the  history  of  the  Israelites,  and  around  it  have  been 
collected  the  hopes  and  fears  which  a  varied  experience  of  mon- 
archical government  aroused.  Many  of  the  narratives  furnish  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  life  of  David  with  a  minuteness  of  personal 
detail  which  has  suggested  to  some  that  their  author  was  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  events,  and,  if  not  a  contemporary, 
belonged  to  the  succeeding  generation,  while  to  others  it  has 
seemed  more  probable  that  these  reflect  rather  "  the  plastic 
mould  of  popular  tradition."  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the 
three  types  of  David,  represented  by  the  books  of  Samuel,  of 
Chronicles,  and  the  superscriptions  of  the  Psalms,  are  irreconcil- 
able, and  that  they  represent  successive  developments  of  the 
original  traditions.  That  the  oldest  of  these  three  does  not 
contain  earlier  attempts  to  idealize  him  is  unlikely.  "  Political 
circumstances  naturally  led  to  an  ever-increasing  appreciation  of 
his  person  and  his  work  as  the  unifier  of  Israel.  In  the  eyes  of 
posterity  he  became  more  and  more  completely  the  model  of  an 
Israelitish  king  and  the  natural  consequence  was  that  he  was 
idealized.  The  hope  of  the  regeneration  of  his  dynasty,  and,  at 
a  later  period,  of  its  restoration  to  the  throne — the  Messianic 
expectation — must  have  worked  powerfully  in  the  same  direction. 
And  meanwhile  the  religious  convictions  of  the  highest  minds  in 
Israel  were  undergoing  a  marked  change.  The  conceptions  of 
Yahweh  and  of  the  religion  which  was  acceptable  to  him  were 
constantly  being  elevated  and  purified.  This  could  not  but  have 
an  influence  on  the  current  ideas  concerning  David.  He,  too, 
must  be  remodelled  as  the  conceptions  of  God  were  changed."  * 
But  what  is  lost  as  regards  historical  material  is  a  distinct  gain 
to  the  study  of  the  development  of  Hebrew  thought  and 
philosophy  of  history. 

David's  character  must  be  judged  partly  in  the  light  of  the 
times  in  which  he  lived  and  partly  in  connexion  with  the  great 
truths  which  he  represents,  truths  whose  value  is  not  impaired 
should  they  prove  to  be  the  convictions  of  later  ages.  Accord- 
ingly, David  is  not  to  be  condemned  for  failing  to  subdue  the 
sensuality  which  is  the  chief  stain  on  his  character,  but  should 
rather  be  judged  by  his  habitual  recognition  of  a  generous 
standard  of  conduct,  by  the  undoubted  purity  and  lofty  justice 
of  an  administration  which  was  never  stained  by  selfish  considera- 
tions or  motives  of  personal  rancour,5  and  finally  by  the  calm 

•  See  HEBREW  RELIGION,  MESSIAH,  PROPHET.- 

4  Kuenen,  "  The  Critical  Method,"  Modern  Review,  1880,  p.  701 
(Gesammelte  Abhandlungen,  Germ.  ed.  by  Budde,  p.  33). 

'  His  charges  to  Solomon  in  i  Kings  ii.  5-9  do  not  arise  necessarily 
from  motives  of  revenge;  a  young  and  untried  sovereign  could  not 


DAVID,  ST- -DAVID  I. 


859 


courage  which  enabled  him  to  hold  an  even  and  noble  course  in 
the  face  of  dangers  and  treachery.  His  great  sin  in  the  matter  of 
Uriah  would  have  been  forgotten  but  for  his  repentance:  the 
things  at  which  modern  ideas  are  most  offended  are  not  always 
those  that  would  have  given  umbrage  to  early  writers.  That  he 
did  not  reform  at  a  stroke  all  ancient  abuses  appears  particularly 
in  relation  to  the  practice  of  blood  revenge;  to  put  an  end  to  this 
deep-rooted  custom  would  have  been  an  impossibility.  But  it  is 
clear  from  2  Sam.  iii.  28  sqq.,  xiv.  i-io,  that  his  sympathies 
were  against  the  barbarous  usage.  Nor  is  it  just  to  accuse  him 
of  cruelty  in  his  treatment  of  enemies.  As  it  was  impossible  to 
establish  a  military  cordon  along  the  borders  of  Canaan,  it  was 
necessary  absolutely  to  cripple  the  adjoining  tribes.  From  the 
lust  of  conquest  for  its  own  sake  David  appears  to  have  been 
wholly  free. 

The  generous  elevation  of  David's  character  is  seen  most 
clearly  in  those  parts  of  his  life  where  an  inferior  nature  would 
have  been  most  at  fault, — in  his  conduct  towards  Saul,  in  the 
blameless  reputation  of  himself  and  his  band  of  outlaws  in  the 
wilderness  of  Judah,  in  his  repentance  under  the  rebuke  of  Nathan 
and  in  his  noble  bearing  on  the  revolt  of  Absalom.  His  touching 
love  for  his  worthless  son  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  descriptions 
of  paternal  affection.  His  unfailing  insight  into  character,  and 
his  power  of  winning  men's  hearts  and  touching  their  better 
impulses,  appear  in  innumerable  traits  (e.g.  2  Sam.  xiv.  18-20, 
iii.  31-37,  xxiii.  15-17),  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  charm  which 
the  life  of  David  has  upon  its  readers  is  entirely  unaffected  by 
technical  questions  of  literary  and  historical  criticism. 

To  the  later  generations  David  was  pre-eminently  the  Psalmist 
and  the  founder  of  the  Temple  service.  The  Hebrew  titles  ascribe 
Growth  ot  to  ^m  seventy~tnree  psalms;  the  Septuagint  •  adds 
tradition.  some  fifteen  more;  and  later  opinion,  both  Jewish 
and  Christian,  claimed  for  him  the  authorship  of  the 
whole  Psalter  (so  the  Talmud,  Augustine  and  others).  That  the 
tradition  of  the  titles  requires  careful  sifting  is  no  longer  doubted, 
and  the  results  of  recent  criticism  have  been  to  confirm  the  view 
that  "  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  treat  the  psalms  as  a  record  of 
David's  spiritual  life  through  all  the  steps  of  his  chequered 
career  "  (W.  R.  Smith,  Old  Test,  in  Jew.  Church  *,  p.  224).  Nor 
can  it  be  maintained  that  the  elaborate  ritual  ascribed  to  David 
by  the  chronicler  has  any  historical  value.  See  further 
CHRONICLES,  PSALMS. 

On  the  other  hand,  these  traditions,  however  unhistorical  in  their 
present  form,  cannot  be  pure  imagination.  The  male  and  female 


p.  527),  and  though  David's  skill  referred  to  in  Amos  vi.  5  may  be 
due  to  a  gloss,  it  is  a  Judaean  narrative  which  tells  of  the  inven- 


tion of  music,  ascribing  it  possibly  to  a  Judaean  legendary  hero 
(Gen.  iv.  21).  And  although  the  Levitical  organization,  as  ascribed  to 
David,  is  manifestly  post-exilic,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  many  of  the 
Levitical  families  were  of  southern  origin.  It  is  in  David's  history 
that  the  clans  of  the  south  first  attained  prominence,  and  some  of 
them  are  known  to  have  been  staunch  upholders  of  a  purer  worship 
of  Yahweh,  or  to  have  been  associated  with  the  introduction  of 
religious  institutions  among  the  Israelites.  (See  LEVITES.) 

The  difficulty  of  the  historical  problems  increases  when  the  nar- 
ratives of  David  are  more  closely  studied:  (a)  2  Sam.  iii.  18,  xix.  9 
show  that  according  to  one  view  David  delivered  Israel  (not  Judah) 
from  the  Philistines.  This  is  in  contradiction  to  ii.  8  sqq.  (from  another 
source),  where  Saul's  son  recovers  Israelite  territory,  but  is  supported 
by  ix.,  where  Mephibosheth  is  found  at  Lo-debar.  This  historical 
view  has  probably  left  its  trace  upon  the  present  traditions  of  Saul, 
whose  defeat  by  the  "  Philistines  (here  found  in  the  north  and  not 
as  usual  in  the  south)  left  Israel  in  much  the  same  position  as  when 
he  was  anointed  king  (cf.  i  Sam.  xxxi.  7  with  xiii.  7).  Again  (6)  the 
primitive  stories  of  conflicts  with  "  Philistine  "  giants  between 
Hebron  and  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  v.  17  sqq.,  xxi.  15  sqq.  and  xxiii.) 
find  their  analogy  in  Caleb's  overthrow  of  the  sons  of  Anak  (Judg. 
i.  10;  Josh.  xv.  14),  and  in  the  allusion  to  the  same  prehistoric  folk 
in  the  account  of  the  spies  (Num.  xiii.  28).  From  a  number  of  points 
of  evidence  there  appears  to  have  been  a  group  of  traditions  of  a 
movement  from  the  south  (probably  Kadesh,  Num.  xiii.  26)  associ- 

afford  to  continue  the  clemency  which  his  father  was  strong  enough  to 
extend  to  dangerous  enemies.  Apart  from  this,  it  is  possible  that  the 
words  have  been  written  to  shift  from  Solomon's  shoulders  the  blood- 
shed incurred  in  establishing  his  throne. 


ated  with  Caleb,  David  and  the  Levites.  If  the  clans  of  Moses'  kin 
which  moved  into  Judah  bore  the  ark  (Num.  x.  29  sqq.;  see  KENITES), 
and  if  Abiathar  carried  it  before  David  (i  Kings  ii.  26),  there  were 
traditions  of  the  ark  distinct  from  those  which  associate  it  with 
Joshua  and  Shiloh  (cf .  2  Sam.  vii.  6).  But  the  stories  of  conflicts  in  a 
much  larger  area  than  the  few  cities  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  Jerusalem  (see  above)  can  scarcely  be  read  with  the  numerous 
narratives  which  recount  or  imply  relations  between  the  young  David 
of  Bethlehem  and  Saul  or  the  Israelites.  It  is  possible,  therefore, 
that  one  early  account  of  David  was  that  of  an  entrance  into  the 
land  of  Judah,  and  that  round  him  have  gathered  traditions  partly 
individual  and  partly  tribal  or  national.  See  further  S.  A.  Cook, 
Critical  Notes  on  O.T.  History,  pp.  122  sqq.,  and  art.  JEWS  (History), 
§§  6-8. 

LITERATURE. — Robertson  Smith's  later  views  subsequent  to  1877 
(when  he  wrote  the  article  on  David  for  this  Encyclopaedia)  were 
expressed  partly  in  the  Old  Test,  in  Jewish  Church  (1881  and  1892), 
passim,  and  partly  in  the  article  on  the  Books  of  Samuel  in  the  Ency. 
Brit,  (gth  ed.) ;  on  David's  character  see  especially  his  criticism  of 
Renan,  Eng.  Hist.  Rev.,  1888,  pp.  134  sqq.  Mention  may  be  made  of 
Stahelin's  Leben  Davids  (Basel,  1866),  still  valuable  for  the  numerous 
parallels  adduced  from  oriental  history;  Cheyne's  Aids  to  Devout 
Study  of  Criticism  (1892),  a  criticism  of  David's  history  in  its  bearing 


narratives)  Luther  in  Ed.  Meyer,  IsraeliUn  und  ihre  Nachbarstdmme 
(1906),  pp.  181  sqq.  (W.  R.  S.;  S.  A.  C.) 

DAVID,  ST  (Dewi,  Sant),  the  national  and  tutelar  saint  of 
Wales,  whose  annual  festival,  known  as  "  St  David's  Day,"  falls 
on  the  ist  of  March.  Few  historical  facts  are  known  regarding 
the  saint's  life  and  actions,  and  the  dates  both  of  his  birth  and 
death  are  purely  conjectural,  although  there  is  reason  to  suppose 
he  was  born  about  the  year  500  and  died  at  a  great  age  towards 
the  close  of  the  6th  century.  According  to  his  various  biographers 
he  was  the  son  of  Sandde,  a  prince  of  the  line  of  Cunedda,  his 
mother  being  Non,  who  ranks  as  a  Cymric  saint.  He  seems  to 
have  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  celebrated  synod  of 
Llanddewi-Brefi  (see  CARDIGANSHIRE),  and  to  have  presided 
at  the  so-called  "  Synod  of  Victory,"  held  some  years  later  at 
Caerleon-on-Usk.  At  some  date  unknown,  St  David,  as  pen- 
escoli  or  primate  of  South  Wales,  moved  the  seat  of  ecclesiastical 
government  from  Caerleon  to  the  remote  headland  of  Mynyw, 
or  Menevia,  which  has  ever  since,  under  the  name  of  St  David's 
(Ty-Dewi),  remained  the  cathedral  city  of  the  western  see.  St 
David  founded  numerous  churches  throughout  all  parts  of  South 
Wales,  of  which  fifty-three  still  recall  his  name,  but  apparently 
he  never  penetrated  farther  north  than  the  region  of  Powys, 
although  he  seems  to  have  visited  Cornwall.  With  the  passing 
of  time  the  saint's  fame  increased,  and  his  shrine  at  St  David's 
became  a  notable  place  of  pilgrimage,  so  that  by  the  time  of  the 
Norman  conquest  his  importance  and  sanctity  were  fully  recog- 
nized, and  at  Henry  I.'s  request  he  was  formally  canonized  by 
Pope  Calixtus  II.  about  1120. 

Of  the  many  biographies  of  St  David,  the  earliest  known  is  that  of 
Rhyddmarch,  or  Ricemarchus  (c.  1090),  one  of  the  last  British 
bishops  of  St  David's,  from  whose  work  Giraldus  Cambrensis  (q.v.) 
chiefly  compiled  his  extravagant  life  of  the  saint. 

DAVID  I.  (1084-1153),  king  of  Scotland,  the  youngest  son 
of  Malcolm  Canmore  and  (Saint)  Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar 
^Etheling,  was  born  in  1084.  He  married  in  1113  Matilda, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Waltheof,  earl  of  Northumbria,  and  thus 
became  possessed  of  the  earldom  of  Huntingdon.  On  the  death 
of  Edgar,  king  of  Scotland,  in  1107,  the  territories  of  the  Scottish 
crown  were  divided  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  his  will 
between  his  two  brothers,  Alexander  and  David.  Alexander, 
together  with  the  crown,  received  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth 
and  Clyde,  David  the  southern  district  with  the  title  of  earl  of 
Cumbria.  The  death  of  Alexander  I.  in  1 1 24  gave  David  posses- 
sion of  the  whole.  In  1127,  in  the  character  of  an  English  baron, 
he  swore  fealty  to  Matilda  as  heiress  to  her  father  Henry  I.,  and 
when  the  usurper  Stephen  ousted  her  in  1135  David  vindicated 
her  cause  in  arms  and  invaded  England.  But  Stephen  marched 
north  with  a  great  army,  whereupon  David  made  peace.  The 
peace,  however,  was  not  kept.  After  threatening  an  invasion  in 
1137,  David  marched  into  England  in  1138,  but  sustained  a 
crushing  defeat  on  Cutton  "Moor  in  the  engagement  known  as 
the  battle  of  the  Standard.  He  returned  to  Carlisle,  and  soon 


86o 


DAVID  II.— DAVID,  FELICIEN 


afterwards  concluded  peace.  In  1 141  he  joined  Matilda  in  London 
and  accompanied  her  to  Winchester,  but  after  a  narrow  escape 
from  capture  he  returned  to  Scotland.  Henceforth  he  remained 
in  his  own  kingdom  and  devoted  himself  to  its  political  and 
ecclesiastical  reorganization.  A  devoted  son  of  the  church,  he 
founded  five  bishoprics  and  many  monasteries.  In  secular 
politics  he  energetically  forwarded  the  process  of  feudalization 
which  had  been  initiated  by  his  immediate  predecessors.  He  died 
at  Carlisle  on  the  24th  of  May  1153. 

DAVID  II.  (1324-1471),  king  of  Scotland,  son  of  King  Robert 
the  Bruce  by  his  second  wife,  Elizabeth  de  Burgh  (d.  1327),  was 
born  at  Dunfermline  on  the  sth  of  March  1324.  In  accordance 
with  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Northampton  he  was  married  in 
July  1328  to  Joanna  (d.  1362),  daughter  of  the  English  king, 
Edward  II.,  and  became  king  of  Scotland  on  his  father's  death  in 
June  1329,  being  crowned  at  Scone  in  November  1331.  Owing  to 
the  victory  of  Edward  III.  of  England  and  his  protege,  Edward 
Baliol,  at  Halidon  Hill  in  July  1333,  David  and  his  queen  were 
sent  for  safety  into  France,  reaching  Boulogne  in  May  1334,  and 
being  received  very  graciously  by  the  French  king,  Philip  VI. 
Little  is  known  about  the  life  of  the  Scottish  king  in  France, 
except  that  Chateau  Gaillard  was  given  to  him  for  a  residence, 
and  that  he  was  present  at  the  bloodless  meeting  of  the  English 
and  French  armies  at  Vironfosse  in  October  1339.  Meanwhile 
his  representatives  had  obtained  the  upper  hand  in  Scotland,  and 
David  was  thus  enabled  to  return  to  his  kingdom  in  June  1341, 
when  he  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands.  In 
1346  he  invaded  England  in  the  interests  of  France,  but  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  in 
October  of  this  year,  and  remained  in  England  for  eleven  years, 
living  principally  in  London  and  at  Odiham  in  Hampshire.  His 
imprisonment  was  not  a  rigorous  one,  and  negotiations  for  his 
release  were  soon  begun.  Eventually,  in  October  1357,  after 
several  interruptions,  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Berwick  by  which 
the  Scottish  estates  undertook  to  pay  100,000  marks  as  a  ransom 
for  their  king.  David,  who  had  probably  recognized  Edward  III. 
as  his  feudal  superior,  returned  at  once  to  Scotland;  but  owing 
to  the  poverty  of  the  kingdom  it  was  found  impossible  to  raise  the 
ransom.  A  few  instalments  were  paid,  but  the  king  sought  to 
get  rid  of  the  liability  by  offering  to  make  Edward  III.,  or  one  of 
his  sons,  his  successor  in  Scotland.  In  1364  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment indignantly  rejected  a  proposal  to  make  Lionel,  duke  of 
Clarence,  the  next  king;  but  David  treated  secretly  with  Edward 
III.  over  this  matter,  after  he  had  suppressed  a  rising  of  some  of 
his  unruly  nobles.  The  king  died  in  Edinburgh  Castle  on  the 
22nd  of  February  1371.  His  second  wife  was  Margaret,  widow  of 
Sir  John  Logic,  whom  he  divorced  in  1369;  but  he  left  no 
children,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Robert  II.  David 
was  a  weak  and  incapable  ruler,  without  a  spark  of  his  father's 
patriotic  spirit. 

See  Andrew  of  Wyntoun,  The  orygynale  cronykil  of  Scotland, 
edited  by  D.  Laing  (Edinburgh,  1872-1879) ;  John  of  Fordun, 
Chronica  gentis  Scotorum,  edited  by  W.  F.  Skene  (Edinburgh,  1871- 
1872);  J.  H.  Burton,  History  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii.  (Edinburgh,  1905); 
and  A.  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  (Edinburgh,  1900). 

DAVID,  the  name  of  three  Welsh  princes. 

DAVID  I.  (d.  1203),  a  son  of  Prince  Owen  Gwynedd  (d.  1169), 
came  into  prominence  as  a  leader  of  the  Welsh  during  the 
expedition  of  Henry  II.  in  1157.  In  1170  he  became  lord  of 
Gwynedd  (i.e.  the  district  around  Snowdon),  but  some  regarded 
him  as  a  bastard,  and  Gwynedd  was  also  claimed  by  other 
members  of  his  family.  After  fighting  with  varying  fortunes  he 
sought  an  ally  in  the  English  king,  whom  he  supported  during 
the  baronial  rising  in  1173;  then  after  this  event  he  married 
Henry's  half-sister  Emma.  But  his  enemies  increased  in  power, 
and  about  1 194  he  was  driven  from  Wales  by  the  partisans  of  his 
half-brother  Llewelyn  ab  lorwerth.  The  chronicler  Benedictus 
Abbas  calls  David  rex,  and  Rhuddlan  castle  was  probably  the 
centre  of  his  vague  authority. 

DAVID  II.  (c.  1208-1246)  was  a  son  of  the  great  Welsh  prince, 
Llewelyn  ab  lorwerth,  and  through  his  mother  Joanna  was  a 
grandson  of  King  John.  He  married  an  English  lady,  Isabella 


de  Braose,  and,  having  been  recognized  as  his  father's  heir  both 
by  Henry  III.  and  by  the  Welsh  lords,  he  had  to  face  the  hostility 
of  his  half-brother  Gruffydd,  whom  he  seized  and  imprisoned 
in  1239.  When  Llewelyn  died  in  April  1240,  David,  who  had 
already  taken  some  part  in  the  duties  of  government, was  acknow- 
ledged as  a  prince  of  North  Wales,  doing  homage  to  Henry  III.  at 
Gloucester.  However,  he  was  soon  at  variance  with  the  English 
king,  who  appears  to  have  espoused  the  cause  of  the  captive 
Gruffydd.  Henry's  Welsh  campaign  in  1241  was  bloodless  but 
decisive.  Gruffydd  was  surrendered  to  him;  David  went  to 
London  and  made  a  full  submission,  but  two  or  three  years  later 
he  was  warring  against  some  English  barons  on  the  borders. 
To  check  the  English  king  he  opened  negotiations  with  Innocent 
IV.,  doubtless  hoping  that  the  pope  would  recognize  Wales  as  an 
independent  state,  but  here,  as  on  the  field  of  battle,  Henry  III. 
was  too  strong  for  him.  Just  after  Henry's  second  campaign  in 
Wales  the  prince  died  in  March  1246. 

DAVID  III.  (d.  1283)  was  a  son  of  Gruffydd  and  thus  a  nephew 
of  David  II.  His  life  was  mainly  spent  in  fighting  against  his 
brother,  the  reigning  prince,  Llewelyn  ab  Gruffydd.  His  first 
revolt  took  place  in  1254  or  1255,  and  after  a  second  about  eight 
years  later  he  took  refuge  in  England,  returning  to  Wales  when 
Henry  III.  made  peace  with  Llewelyn  in  1 267.  Then  about  1 274 
the  same  process  was  repeated.  David  attended  Edward  I. 
during  the  Welsh  expedition  of  1277,  receiving  from  the  English 
king  lands  in  North  Wales;  but  in  1282  he  made  peace  with 
Llewelyn  and  suddenly  attacked  the  English  garrisons,  a  pro- 
ceeding which  led  to  Edward's  final  conquest  of  Wales.  After 
Llewelyn's  death  in  December  1282  David  maintained  the  last 
struggle  of  the  Welsh  for  independence.  All  his  efforts,  however, 
were  vain;  in  June  1283  he  was  betrayed  to  Edward,  was  tried 
by  a  special  court  and  sentenced  to  death,  and  was  executed  with 
great  barbarity  at  Shrewsbury  in  October  1283.  As  the  last 
native  prince  of  Wales,  David's  praises  have  been  sung  by  the 
Welsh  bards,  but  his  character  was  not  attractive,  and  a  Welsh 
historian  says  "  his  life  was  the  bane  of  Wales." 

DAVID,  FELICIEN  (1810-1876),  French  .composer,  was  born 
on  the  I3th  of  April  1810  at  Cadenet,  in  the  department  of 
Vaucluse.  As  a  child  he  showed  unusual  musical  precocity,  and 
being  early  left  an  orphan  he  was  admitted  into  the  choir  of  Saint 
Sauveur  at  Aix.  He  was  for  a  time  employed  in  an  attorney's 
office,  but  quitted  his  service  to  become  chef  d'orchestre  in  the 
theatre  at  Aix,  and  chapel-master  at  Saint  Sauveur.  Then  he 
went  to  Paris,  being  provided  with  £100  a  year  by  a  rich  uncle. 
After  having  studied  for  a  while  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  he 
joined  the  sect  of  Saint  Simonians,  and  in  1833  travelled  in  the 
East  in  order  to  preach  the  new  doctrine.  After  three  years' 
absence,  during  which  Constantinople  and  Smyrna  were  visited 
and  some  time  was  spent  in  Egypt,  he  returned  to  France  and 
published  a  collection  of  Oriental  Melodies.  For  several  years  he 
worked  in  retirement,  and  wrote  two  symphonies,  some  chamber 
music  and  songs.  On  the  Sth  of  December  1844  he  suddenly 
leapt  into  fame  through  the  extraordinary  success  obtained  by  bis 
symphonicode  LeDesert,  which  was  producedat  the  Conservatoire. 
In  this  work  David  had  struck  out  a  new  line.  He  had  attempted 
in  simple  strains  to  evoke  the  majestic  stillness  of  the  desert. 
Notwithstanding  its  title  of  "  symphonic  ode,"  Le  Disert  has  little 
in  common  with  the  symphonic  style.  What  distinguishes  it  is  a 
certain  naivete  of  expression  and  an  effective  oriental  colouring. 
In  this  last  respect  David  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  precursor  of 
a  whole  army  of  composers.  His  succeeding  works,  Moise  au 
Sinai  (1846),  Christophe  Colomb  (1847),  L'£den  (1848),  scarcely 
bore  out  the  promise  shown  in  Le  Desert,  although  the  second  of 
these  compositions  was  successful  at  the  time  of  its  production. 
David  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  theatre,  and  produced 
the  following  operas  in  succession:  La  Perle  du  Brestt  (1851), 
Herculanum  (1859),  Lalla-Roukh  (1862),  Le  Saphir  (1865)..  Of 
these,  Lalla-Roukh  is  the  one  which  has  obtained  the  greatest 
success.  In  1868  he  gained  the  award  of  the  French  Institute  for 
the  biennial  prize  given  by  the  emperor;  and  in  1869  he  was 
made  librarian  at  the  Conservatoire  instead  of  Berlioz,  whom 
subsequently  he  succeeded  as  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  died 


DAVID,  GERARD— DAVID,  J.  L. 


861 


at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  on  the  2Qth  of  August  1876.  If  David 
can  scarcely  be  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  French  composers,  he 
nevertheless  deserves  the  consideration  due  to  a  sincere  artist, 
who  was  undoubtedly  inspired  by  lofty  ideals.  At  a  time  when 
the  works  of  Berlioz  were  still  unappreciated  by  the  majority 
of  people,  David  succeeded  in  making  the  public  take  interest  in 
music  of  a  picturesque  and  descriptive  kind.  Thus  he  may  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  pioneers  of  modern  French  musical  art. 

DAVID,  GERARD  [GHEERAERT  DAVIT],  (P-iSza),  Nether- 
lands painter,  born  at  Oudewater  in  Holland  between  1450  and 
1460,  was  the  last  great  master  of  the  Bruges  school.  He  was 
only  rescued  from  complete  oblivion  in  1860-1863  by  Mr  W.  J.  H. 
Weale,  whose  researches  in  the  archives  of  Bruges  brought  to  the 
light  the  main  facts  of  the  master's  life.  We  have  now  docu- 
mentary evidence  that  David  came  to  Bruges  in  1483,  presumably 
from  Haarlem,  where  he  had  formed  his  early  style  under  the 
tuition  of  Ouwater;  that  he  joined  the  gild  of  St  Luke  at  Bruges 
in  1484  and  became  dean  of  the  gild  in  1501;  that  he  married  in 
1496  Cornelia  Cnoop,  daughter  of  the  dean  of  the  Goldsmiths' 
gild;  became  one  of  the  leading  citizens  of  the  town;  died  on  the 
1 3th  of  August  1523;  and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  Our  Lady 
at  Bruges.  In  his  early  work  he  had  followed  the  Haarlem 
tradition  as  represented  by  Dirck  Bouts,  Ouwater  and  Geertgen 
of  Haarlem,  but  already  gave  evidence  of  his  superior  power  as 
colourist.  To  this  early  period  belong  the  "  St  John  "  of  the 
Kaufmann  collection  in  Berlin,  and  Mr  Salting's  "  St  Jerome." 
In  Bruges  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  and  the  copying  of  the 
masterpieces  by  the  Van  Eycks,  Van  der  Weyden,  and  Van  der 
Goes,  and  came  under  the  direct  influence  of  the  master  whom 
he  followed  most  closely,  Hans  Memlinc.  From  him  he  acquired 
the  soulful  intensity  of  expression,  the  increased  realism  in  the 
rendering  of  the  human  form  and  the  orderly  architectonic 
arrangement  of  the  figures.  Yet  another  master  was  to  influence 
him  later  in  life  when,  in  1515,  he  visited  Antwerp  and  became 
impressed  with  the  life  and  movement  of  Quentin  Matsys,  who 
had  introduced  a  more  intimate  and  more  human  conception  of 
sacred  themes.  David's  "  Pieta  "  in  the  National  Gallery,  and 
the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  in  the  Cavallo  collection,  Paris 
(Guildhall,  1906),  were  painted  under  this  influence  and  are 
remarkable  for  their  dramatic  movement.  But  the  works  on 
which  David's  fame  will  ever  rest  most  securely  are  the  great 
altar-pieces  executed  by  him  before  his  visit  to  Antwerp — 
the  "  Marriage  of  St  Catherine,"  at  the  National  Gallery; 
the  triptych  of  the  "Madonna  Enthroned  and  Saints"  of  the 
Brignole-Sale  collection  hi  Genoa;  the  "  Annunciation  "  of 
the  Sigmaringen  collection;  and,  above  all,  the  "  Madonna  with 
Angels  and  Saints "  which  he  painted  gratuitously  for  the 
Carmelite  Nuns  of  Sion  at  Bruges,  and  which  is  now  in  the  Rouen 
museum.  Only  a  few  of  his  works  have  remained  in  Bruges — 
"  The  Judgment  of  Cambyses,"  "  The  Flaying  of  Sisamnes  " 
and  the  "  Baptism  of  Christ  "  in  the  Town  museum,  and  the 
"  Transfiguration  "  in  the  Church  of  Our  Lady.  The  rest  were 
scattered  all  over  the  world,  and  to  this  may  be  due  the  oblivion 
into  which  his  very  name  had  fallen — partly  to  this,  and  partly 
to  the  fact  that  with  all  the  beauty  and  soulfulness  of  his  work 
he  had  no  new  page  to  add  to  the  history  of  the  progressive 
development  of  art,  and  even  in  his  best  work  only  gave  new 
variations  of  the  tunes  sung  by  his  great  precursors  and  contempo- 
raries. That  he  is  worthy  to  rank  among  the  masters  was  only 
revealed  to  the  world  when  a  considerable  number  of  his  paintings 
were  assembled  at  Bruges  on  the  occasion  of  the  exhibition  of 
early  Flemish  masters  in  1902.  At  the  time  of  his  death  the  glory 
of  Bruges,  and  also  of  the  Bruges  school,  was  on  the  wane, 
and  Antwerp  had  taken  the  leadership  in  art  as  in  political 
and  commercial  importance.  Of  David's  pupils  in  Bruges,  only 
Isenbrandt,  A.  Cornelis  and  Ambrosius  Benson  achieved  import- 
ance. Among  other  Flemish  painters  Joachim  Patinir  and 
Mabuse  were  to  some  degree  influenced  by  him.  • 

Eberhard  Freiherr  von  Bodenhausen  published  in  1905  a  very 
comprehensive  monograph  on  Gerard  David  and  his  School  {Munich, 
F.  Bruckmann),  together  with  a  catalogue  raisonne  of  his  works, 
which,  after  careful  sifting,  are  reduced  to  the  number  of  forty- 
three.  (P.  G.  K.) 


DAVID,  JACQUES  LOUIS  (1748-1825),  French  painter,  was 
born  in  Paris  on  the  3oth  of  April  1748.  His  father  was  killed  in 
a  duel,  when  the  boy  was  but  nine  years  old.  His  education  was 
begun  at  the  College  des  Quatre  Nations,  where  he  obtained  a 
smattering  of  the  classics;  but,  his  artistic  talent  being  already 
obvious,  he  was  soon  placed  by  his  guardian  in  the  studio  of 
Francois  Boucher.  Boucher  speedily  realized  that  his  own 
erotic  style  did  not  suit  the  lad's  genius,  and  recommended  him 
to  J.  M.  Vien,  the  pioneer  of  the  classical  reaction  in  painting. 
Under  him  David  studied  for  some  years,  and,  after  several 
attempts  to  win  the  prix  de  Rome,  at  last  succeeded  in  1775,  with 
his  "  Loves  of  Antiochus  and  Stratonice."  Vien,  who  had  just 
been  appointed  director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome, 
carried  the  youth  with  him  to  that  city.  The  classical  reaction 
was  now  in  full  tide ;  Winckelmann  was  writing,  Raphael  Mengs 
painting;  and  the  treasures  of  the  Vatican  galleries  helped  to 
confirm  David  in  a  taste  already  moulded  by  so  many  kindred 
influences.  This  severely  classical  spirit  inspired  his  first 
important  painting,  "  Date  obolum  Belisario,"  exhibited  at  Paris 
in  1 780.  The  picture  exactly  suited  the  temper  of  the  times,  and 
was  an  immense  success.  It  was  followed  by  others,  painted  on 
the  same  principles,  but  with  greater  perfection  of  art:  "  The 
Grief  of  Andromache"  (1783),  "The  Oath  of  the  Horatii  " 
(Salon,  1785),  "  The  Death  of  Socrates,"  "  Love  of  Paris  and 
Helen"  (1788),  "Brutus"  (1789).  In  the  French  drama  an 
unimaginative  imitation  of  ancient  models  had  long  prevailed ; 
even  in  art  Poussin  and  Le  Sueur  were  successful  by  expressing 
a  bias  in  the  same  direction;  and  in  the  first  years  of  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  the  fashion  of  imitating  the  ancients  even  in 
dress  and  manners  went  to  the  most  extravagant  length.  At  this 
very  time  David  returned  to  Paris;  he  was  now  painter  to  the 
king,  Louis  XVI.,  who  had  been  the  purchaser  of  his  principal 
works,  and  his  popularity  was  soon  immense.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  in  1 789,  David  was  carried  away  by  the  flood 
of  enthusiasm  that  made  all  the  intellect  of  France  believe  in  a 
new  era  of  equality  and  emancipation  from  all  the  ills  of  life. 

The  success  of  his  sketch  for  the  picture  of  the  "  Oath  of  the 
Tennis  Court,"  and  his  pronounced  republicanism,  secured 
David's  election  to  the  Convention  in  September  1792,  by  the 
Section  du  Museum,  and  he  quickly  distinguished  himself  by 
the  defence  of  two  French  artists  in  Rome  who  had  fallen  into 
the  merciless  hands  of  the  Inquisition.  As,  in  this  matter,  the 
behaviour  of  the  authorities  of  the  French  Academy  in  Rome 
had  been  dictated  by  the  tradition  of  subservience  to  authority, 
he  used  his  influence  to  get  it  suppressed.  In  the  January  follow- 
ing his  election  into  the  Convention  his  vote  was  given  for  the 
king's  death.  Thus  the  man  who  was  so  greatly  indebted  to  the 
Roman  academy  and  to  Louis  XVI.  assisted  in  the  destruction 
of  both,  no  doubt  in  obedience  to  a  principle,  like  the  act  of 
Brutus  in  condemning  his  sons — a  subject  he  painted  with  all  his 
powers.  Cato  and  stoicism  were  the  order  of  the  day.  Hitherto 
the  actor  had  walked  the  stage  in  modern  dress.  Brutus  had 
been  applauded  in  red-heeled  shoes  and  culottes  jarrettes;  but 
Talma,  advised  by  David,  appeared  in  toga  and  sandals  before  an 
enthusiastic  audience.  At  this  period  of  his  life  Mademoiselle  de 
Noailles  persuaded  him  to  paint  a  sacred  subject,  with  Christ  as 
the  hero.  When  the  picture  was  done,  the  Saviour  was  found  to 
be  another  Cato.  "  I  told  you  so,"  he  replied  to  the  expostula- 
tions of  the  lady,  "  there  is  no  inspiration  in  Christianity  now!" 
David's  revolutionary  ideas,  which  led  to  his  election  to  the 
presidency  of  the  Convention  and  to  the  committee  of  general 
security,  inspired  his  pictures  "  Last  Moments  of  Lepelletier  de 
Saint-Fargeau  "  and  "  Marat  Assassinated."  He  also  arrangtxl 
the  programme  of  the  principal  republican  festivals.  When 
Napoleon  rose  to  power  David  became  his  enthusiastic  admirer. 
His  picture  of  Napoleon  on  horseback  pointing  the  way  to  Italy 
is  now  in  Berlin.  During  this  period  he  also  painted  the  "  Rapeof 
the  Sabines"  and  "Leonidasat  Thermopylae."  Appointed  painter 
to  the  emperor,  David  produced  the  two  notable  pictures  "  The 
Coronation  "  (of  Josephine)  and  the  "  Distribution  of  the  Eagles." 

On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  the  painter  was  exiled  with  the 
other  remaining  regicides,  and  retired  to  Brussels,  where  he  again 


862 


DAVID,  P.  J.— DAVIDSON,  A.  B. 


returned  to  classical  subjects:  "  Amor  quitting  Psyche,"  "  Mars 
disarmed  by  Venus, "&c.  He  rejected  the  offer,  made  through 
Baron  Humboldt,  of  the  office  of  minister  of  fine  arts  at  Berlin, 
and  remained  at  Brussels  till  his  death  on  the  2gth  of  December 
1825.  His  end  was  true  to  his  whole  career  and  to  his  nationality. 
While  dying,  a  print  of  the  Leonidas,  one  of  his  favourite  subjects, 
was  submitted  to  him.  After  vaguely  looking  at  it  a  long  time, 
"  //  n'y  a  que  moi  qui  pouvais  concevoir  la  tele  de  Leonidas,"  he 
whispered,  and  died.  His  friends  and  his  party  thought  to  carry 
the  body  back  to  his  beloved  Paris  for  burial,  but  the  govern- 
ment of  the  day  arrested  the  procession  at  the  frontier,  an  act 
which  caused  some  scandal,  and  furnished  the  occasion  of  a 
terrible  song  of  Beranger's. 

It  is  difficult  for  a  generation  which  has  witnessed  another 
complete  revolution  in  the  standards  of  artistic  taste  to  realize 
the  secret  of  David's  immense  popularity  in  his  own  day.  His 
style  is  severely  academic,  his  colour  lacking  in  richness  and 
warmth,  his  execution  hard  and  uninteresting  in  its  very  perfec- 
tion. Subjects  and  treatment  alike  are  inspired  by  the  passing 
fashion  of  an  age  which  had  deceived  itself  into  believing  that 
it  was  living  and  moving  in  the  spirit  of  classical  antiquity. 
The  inevitable  reaction  of  the  romantic  movement  made  the 
masterpieces,  which  had  filled  the  men  of  the  Revolution 
with  enthusiasm,  seem  cold  and  lifeless  to  those  who  had  been 
taught  to  expect  in  art  that  atmosphere  of  mystery  which  in 
nature  is  everywhere  present.  Yet  David  was  a  great  artist, 
and  exercised  in  his  day  and  generation  a  great  influence.  His 
pictures  are  magnificent  in  their  composition  and  their  draughts- 
manship; and  his  keen  observation  and  insight  into  character 
are  evident,  especially  in  his  portraits,  notably  of  Madame 
Recamier,  of  the  Conventional  Gerard  and  of  Boissy  d'Anglas. 

See  E.  T.  Delecluze,  Louis  David,  son  ecole  et  son  temps  (Paris, 
1855).  and  Le  Peintre  Louis  David.  Souvenirs  et  documents  inedits, 
by  J.  L.  Jules  David,  the  painter's  grandson  (Paris,  1880). 

DAVID,  PIERRE  JEAN  (1789-1856),  usually  called  David 
d' Angers,  French  sculptor,  was  born  at  Angers  on  the  I2th  of 
March  1789.  His  father  was  a  sculptor,  or  rather  a  carver,  but 
he  had  thrown  aside  the  mallet  and  taken  the  musket,  fighting 
against  the  Chouans  of  La  Vendee.  He  returned  to  his  trade 
at  the  end  of  the  civil  war,  to  find  his  customers  gone,  so  that 
young  David  was  born  into  poverty.  As  the  boy  grew  up  his 
father  wished  to  force  him  into  some  more  lucrative  and  certain 
way  of  life.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  surmounting  the  opposition 
to  his  becoming  a  sculptor,  and  in  his  eighteenth  year  left  for 
Paris  to  study  the  art  upon  a  capital  of  eleven  francs.  After 
struggling  against  want  for  a  year  and  a  half,  he  succeeded  in 
taking  the  prize  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  An  annuity  of 
600  francs  (£24)  was  granted  by  the  municipality  of  his  native 
town  in  1809,  and  in  1811  David's  "  Epaminondas  "  gained  the 
prix  de  Rome.  He  spent  five  years  in  Rome,  during  which  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  works  of  Canova  was  often  excessive. 

Returning  from  Rome  about  the  time  of  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons,  he  would  not  remain  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Tuileries,  which  swarmed  with  foreign  conquerors  and  returned 
royalists,  and  accordingly  went  to  London.  Here  Flaxman  and 
others  visited  upon  him  the  sins  of  David  the  painter,  to  whom 
he  was  erroneously  supposed  to  be  related.  With  great  difficulty 
he  made  his  way  to  Paris  again,  where  a  comparatively  prosper- 
ous career  opened  upon  him.  His  medallions  and  busts  were  in 
much  request,  and  orders  for  monumental  works  also  came  to 
him.  One  of  the  best  of  these  was  that  of  Gutenberg  at  Strass- 
burg;  but  those  he  himself  valued  most  were  the  statue  of  Barra, 
a  drummer  boy  who  continued  to  beat  his  drum  till  the  moment 
of  death  in  the  war  in  La  Vendee,  and  the  monument  to  the  Greek 
liberator  Bozzaris,  consisting  in  a  young  female  figure  called 
"  Reviving  Greece,"  of  which  Victor  Hugo  said:  "  It  is  difficult 
to  see  anything  more  beautiful  in  the  world;  this  statue  joins 
the  grandeur  of  Pheidias  to  the  expressive  manner  of  Puget." 
David's  busts  and  medallions  were  very  numerous,  and  among 
his  sitters  may  be  found  not  only  the  illustrious  men  and  women 
of  France,  but  many  others  both  of  England  and  Germany — 
countries  which  he  visited  professionally  in  1827  and  1829.  His 


medallions,  it  is  affirmed,  number  500.  He  died  on  the  4th  of 
January  1856.  David's  fame  rests  firmly  on  his  pediment  of  the 
Pantheon,  his  monument  to  General  Gobert  in  Pere  Lachaise  and 
his  marble  "  Philopoemen  "  hrthe  Louvre.  In  the  Musee  David  at 
Angers  is  an  almost  complete  collection  of  his  works  either  in  the 
form  of  copies  or  in  the  original  moulds.  As  an  example  of  his  bene- 
volence of  character  may  be  mentioned  his  rushing  off  to  the  sick- 
bed of  Rouget  de  Lisle,  the  author  of  the  "  Marseillaise  Hymn," 
modelling  and  carving  him  in  marble  without  delay,  making 
a  lottery  of  the  work,  and  sending  to  the  poet  in  the  extremity 
of  need  the  seventy-two  pounds  which  resulted  from  the  sale. 

See  H.  Jouin,  David  d' Angers  et  ses  relations  litteraires  (1890); 
Lettres  de  P.  J.  David  d' Angers  a  Louis  Dupre  (Paris,  1891); 
Collection  de  portraits  des  contemporains  d'apres  les  medaillons  de 
P.  J.  David  (Paris,  1838). 

DA  VIDISTS,  a  fancy  name  rather  than  a  recognized  designation 
for  three  religious  sects.  It  has  been  applied  (i)  to  the  followers 
(if  he  had  any)  of  David  of  Dinant,  in  Belgium,  the  teacher  or 
pupil  of  Amalric  (Amaury)  of  Bena,  both  of  whom  taught  appar- 
ently a  species  of  pantheism.  David's  Quaterni,  or  Quaternuli, 
condemned  and  burnt  at  Paris  (1209),  is  a  lost  book,  known  only 
by  references  in  Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  Its 
author  would  have  been  burnt  had  he  not  fled.  The  name  has 
been  given  (2)  to  the  followers  of  David  George  or  Joris  (q.v.), 
and  (3)  to  the  followers  of  Francis  David  (1510-1579),  the  apostle 
of  Transylvanian  unitarianism.  (See  SOCINUS,  UNITARIANISM.) 

DAVIDSON,  ANDREW  BRUCE  (1831-1902),  Scottish  divine, 
was  born  in  1831  at  Kirkhill  in  Aberdeenshire,  where  his  father 
Andrew  Davidson  had  a  farm.  The  Davidsons  belonged  to  the 
congregation  of  James  Robertson  (1803-1860)  of  Ellon,  one  of 
the  ministers  of  Strathbogie  Presbytery,  which  in  the  contro- 
versy which  led  to  the  disruption,  resisted  the  "  dangerous  claims 
of  the  established  church  to  self-government."  When  the  dis- 
ruption came  the  principles  at  stake  were  keenly  canvassed  in 
Ellon,  and  eventually  Andrew  Davidson,  senior,  went  with  the 
Free  Church.  In  1845  the  boy,  who  had  been  a  "  herd  "  on  the 
farm,  went  for  six  months  to  the  grammar  school  at  Aberdeen 
and  was  there  prepared  for  a  university  bursary,  which  was 
sufficient  to  pay  his  fees,  but  no  more.  During  his  four  years  at 
the  university  his  mother  supplied  him  fortnightly  with  pro- 
visions from  the  farm;  sometimes  she  walked  the  whole  twenty 
miles  from  Kirkhill  and  handed  the  coach  fee  to  her  son.  He 
graduated  in  1849.  At  the  university  he  had  acquired  a  distrust 
of  philosophy,  and  found  it  difficult  to  choose  between  mathe- 
matical and  linguistic  studies.  A  Free  Church  school  having 
been  opened  in  Ellon,  he  became  master  there  for  three  years. 
Here  he  developed  special  aptitude  for  linguistic  and  philological 
studies.  Besides  Hebrew  he  taught  himself  French,  German, 
Dutch,  Italian  and  Spanish.  In  November  1852  he  entered  New 
College,  Edinburgh.  There  he  took  the  four  years'  theological 
course,  and  was  licensed  in  1856.  For  two  years  he  preached 
occasionally  and  took  vacancies.  In  1858  the  New  College 
authorities  appointed  him  assistant  to  the  professor  of  Hebrew. 
He  taught  during  the  winter,  and  in  the  long  vacation  continued 
his  preparation  for  his  life  work.  One  year  he  worked  in  Germany 
under  Ewald,  another  year  he  went  to  Syria  to  study  Arabic. 
In  1862  he  published  the  first  part  of  a  commentary  on  Job.  It 
was  never  finished  and  deals  only  with  one-third  of  the  book,  but 
it  is  recognized  as  the  first  really  scientific  commentary  on  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  English  language.  In  1863  he  was  appointed 
by  the  general  assembly  professor  of  oriental  languages  at  New 
College.  He  was  junior  colleague  of  Dr  John  Duncan  (Rabbi 
Duncan)  till  1870,  and  then  for  thirty  years  sole  professor.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  revision  committee,  and  his 
work  was  recognized  by  several  honorary  distinctions,  LL.D. 
(Aberdeen),  D.D.  (Edinburgh),  Litt.D.  (Cambridge).  Among 
his  students  were  Professors  Elmslie,  Skinner,  Harper  of  Mel- 
bourne, Walker  of  Belfast,  George  Adam  Smith  of  Glasgow  and 
W.  Robertson  Smith.  He  understood  it  to  be  the  first  duty  of  an 
exegete  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  writer,  and  he  showed 
that  this  could  be  done  by  the  use  of  grammar  and  history  and  the 
historical  imagination.  He  supplied  guidance  when  it  was  much 


DAVIDSON,  JOHN— DAVIDSON,  R.  T. 


863 


needed  as  to  the  methods  and  results  of  the  higher  criticism. 
Being  a  master  of  its  methods,  but  very  cautious  in  accepting 
assertions  about  its  results,  he  secured  attention  early  in  the 
Free  Church  for  scientific  criticism,  and  yet  threw  the  whole 
weight  of  his  learning  and  his  caustic  wit  into  the  argument 
against  critical  extravagance.  He  had  thought  himself  into  the 
ideas  and  points  of  view  of  the  Hebrews,  and  hisjwork  in  Old 
Testament  theology  is  unrivalled.  He  excels  as  an  expositor  of 
the  governing  Hebrew  ideas  such  as  holiness,  righteousness, 
Spirit  of  God,  Messianism.  In  1897  he  was  chosen  moderator  of 
the  general  assembly,  but  his  health  prevented  his  accepting  the 
post.  He  died,  unmarried,  on  the  26th  of  January  1902. 

Besides  the  commentary  on  Job  he  published  a  book  on  the 
Hebrew  Accents,  the  only  Scottish  performance  of  the  kind  since  the 
days  of  Thomas  Boston.  His  Introductory  Hebrew  Grammar  has 
been  widely  adopted  as  a  class-book  in  theological  colleges.  His 
Hebrew  Syntax  has  the  same  admirable  clearness,  precision  and  teach- 
ing quality.  His  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  one  of  a 
series  of  handbooks  for  Bible  classes.  These  were  followed  by  com- 
mentaries on  Job,  Ezekiel,  Nahum,  Habakkuk  and  Zephaniah,  in  the 
Cambridge  series;  and  a  Bible-class  primer  on  The  Exile  and 
Restoration.  His  lectures  on  Old  Testament  Prophecy  were  published 
after  his  death  by  Professor  J.  A.  Paterson.  The  Theology  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  "  International  Theological  Library  "is  a  posthum- 
ous volume  edited  by  Professor  Salmond.  "  Isaiah  "  in  the  Temple 
Bible  was  finished,  but  not  revised,  when  he  died ;  and  he  also  had  in 
hand  the  volume  on  Isaiah  for  the  International  Critical  Commentary; 
to  which  must  be  added  a  mass  of  articles  contributed  to  The 
Imperial  Bible  Dictionary,  The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  and 
the  chief  religious  reviews.  Various  articles  in  Dr  Hastings' 
Bible  Dictionary  were  by  Davidson,  especially  the  article  "  God." 
Two  volumes  of  sermons,  The  Called  of  God,  and  Waiting  upon  God, 
were  published  from  MS.  after  Davidson's  death. 

DAVIDSON,  JOHN  (1857-1909),  British  poet,  playwright  and 
novelist,  son  of  the  Rev.  Alexander  Davidson,  a  minister  of  the 
Evangelical  Union,  was  born  at  Barrhead,  Renfrewshire,  Scotland , 
on  the  nth  of  April  1857.  After  a  schooling  at  the  Highlanders' 
Academy,  Greenock,.at  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  set  to  work  in 
that  town,  by  helping  in  a  sugar  factory  laboratory  and  then  in 
the  town  analyst's  office;  and  at  fifteen  he  went  back  to  his  old 
school  as  a  pupil-teacher.  In  1876  he  studied  for  a  session  at 
Edinburgh  University,  and  then  went  as  a  master  to  various 
Scotch  schools  till  1890,  varying  his  experiences  in  1884  by  being 
a  clerk  in  a  Glasgow  thread  firm.  He  had  married  in  1885,  and 
meanwhile  his  literary  inclinations  had  shown  themselves,  without 
attracting  any  public  success,  in  the  publication  of  his  poetical 
and  fantastic  plays,  Bruce  (1886),  Smith;  a  tragic  farce  (1888) 
and  Scaramouch  in  Naxos  (1889).  Determining  at  all  costs  to 
follow  his  literary  vocation,  he  went  to  London  in  1890,  but  at 
first  had  a  hard  struggle.  There  his  prose-romance  Perfenid 
(1890)  was  published,  one  of  the  most  original  and  fascinating 
stories  of  "young  blood  "  and  child  adventure  ever  written,  but 
for  some  reason  it  did  not  catch  the  public;  and  a  sort  of  sequel 
in  The  Great  Men  (1891)  met  no  better  fate.  He  contributed, 
however,  to  newspapers  and  became  known  among  literary 
journalists,  and  his  volume  of  verse  In  a  Music-Hail  (1891) 
prepared  the  way  for  the  genuine  success  two  years  later  of  his 
Fleet  Street  Eclogues  (1893),  which  sounded  a  new  and  vigorous 
note  and  at  once  established  his  position  among  the  younger 
generation  of  poets.  He  subsequently  produced  several  more 
books  in  prose,  romantic  stories  like  Baptist  Lake  (1894)  and 
Earl  Lavender  (1895),  and  an  admirable  piece  of  descriptive 
landscape  writing  in  A  Random  Itinerary  (1894);  but  his  accept- 
ance as  a  poet  gave  a  more  emphatic  impulse  to  his  work  in  verse, 
and  most  attention  was  given  to  the  increasing  proof  of  his 
powers  shown  in  his  Ballads  and  Songs  (1894),  Second  Series  of 
Fleet  Street  Eclogues  (1895),  New  Ballads  (1896),  The  Last  Ballad, 
&•(;.(  1 898),  all  full  of  remarkably  fresh  and  unconventional  beauty. 
In  spite  of  the  strangely  neglected  genius  of  this  early  Perfervid, 
it  is  accordingly  as  a  writer  of  verse  rather  than  of  prose-fiction 
that  he  occupies  a  leading  place,  with  a  decided  character  of  his 
own,  in  recent  English  literature,  his  revival  of  a  modernized 
ballad  form  being  a  considerable  achievement  in  itself,  and  his 
poems  being  packed  with  fine  thought,  robust  and  masterful  in 
expression  and  imagery.  Meanwhile  in  1896  he  produced  an 
English  verse  adaptation,  in  For  the  Crown  (acted  by  Forbes 


Robertson  and  Mrs  Patrick  Campbell),  of  Francois  Coppee's 
drama  Pour  la  couronne,  which  had  considerable  success  and 
was  revived  in  1905;  and  he  wrote  several  other  literary  plays, 
remarkable  none  the  less  for  dramatic  qualities, — Godfrida  (1898), 
Self's  the  Man  (1901),  The  Knight  of  the  Maypole  (1902)  and  The 
Thealrocrat  (1905),  in  the  last  of  which  a  tendency  to  be  extra- 
ordinary is  rather  too  manifest.  This  tendency  was  not  absent 
from  his  volume  of  Holiday  and  Other  Poems  (1906),  containing 
many  fine  things,  together  with  an  "essay  on  blank  verse" 
illustrated  from  his  own  compositions,  the  outspoken  criticisms 
of  a  writer  of  admitted  originality  and  insight,  but  not  devoid  of 
eccentric  volubility.  But  if  the  identification  of  "  eccentricity  " 
and  "  greatness  "  by  Cosmo  Mortimer  in  Mr  Davidson's  own 
Perfervid  sometimes  obtrudes  itself  on  the  memory  in  considering 
his  more  peculiarly  "  robust  "  and  somewhat  volcanic  deliver- 
ances, no  such  objection  can  detract  from  the  genuine  inspiration 
of  his  best  work,  in  which  the  true  poetic  afflatus  is  unmistakable. 
This  is  to  be  found  in  his  poems  published  from  1893  to  1898, 
five  years  during  which  his  reputation  steadily  and  deservedly 
grew, — the  Fleet  Street  Eclogues,  with  their  passionate  modern 
criticism  of  life  combined  with  their  breath  of  rural  beauty,  and 
such  intense  ballads  as  those  "  Of  a  Nun,"  and  "  Of  Heaven 
and  Hell."  In  his  ethical  and  didactic  utterances,  The  Testament 
of  a  Vivisector  and  The  Testament  of  a  Man  Forbid  (1901), 
The  Testament  of  an  Empire  Builder  (1902),  Mammon  and  his 
Message  (1908),  &c.,  the  fine  quality  of  the  verse  is  wedded 
with  a  certain  fervid  satirical  journalism  of  subject,  less  admirable 
than  the  detachment  of  thought  in  the  earlier  volumes.  In 
later  years  he  lived  at  Penzance,  provided  with  a  small  Civil 
List  pension,  but  otherwise  badly  off,  for  his  writings  brought 
in  very  little  money.  On  March  23rd,  1909,  he  disappeared, 
in  circumstances  pointing  to  suicide,  and  six  months  later  his 
body  was  found  in  the  sea. 

See  an  article  by  Filson  Young  on  "  The  New  Poetry,"  in  the 
Fortnightly  Review,  January  1909. 

DAVIDSON,  RANDALL  THOMAS  (1848-  ),  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  son  of  Henry  Davidson,  of  Muirhouse,  Edinburgh, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh  and  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity 
College,  Oxford.  He  took  orders  in  1874  and  held  a  curacy  at 
Dartford,  in  Kent,  till  1877,  when  he  became  resident  chaplain 
and  private  secretary  to  Dr  Tait,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
a  position  which  he  occupied  till  Dr  Tail's  death,  and  retained 
for  a  short  time  (1882-1883)  under  his  successor  Dr  Benson.  He 
married  in  1878  Edith,  the  second  daughter  of  Archbishop  Tait, 
whose  Life  he  eventually  wrote  (1891).  In  1882  he  became 
honorary  chaplain  and  sub-almoner  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  in 
the  following  year  was  appointed  dean  of  Windsor,  and  domestic 
chaplain  to  the  queen.  His  advice  upon  state  matters  was 
constantly  sought  by  the  queen  and  greatly  valued.  From  1891 
to  1903  he  was  clerk  of  the  closet,  first  to  Queen  Victoria  and 
afterwards  to  King  Edward  VII.  He  was  made  bishop  of 
Rochester  in  1891,  and  was  translated  to  Winchester  in  1895. 
In  1903  he  succeeded  Temple  as  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The 
new  archbishop,  without  being  one  of  the  English  divines  who 
have  made  notable  contributions  to  theological  learning,  already 
had  a  great  reputation  for  ecclesiastical  statesmanship;  and  in 
subsequent  years  his  diplomatic  abilities  found  ample  scope  in 
dealing  not  only  with  the  difficulties  caused  in  the  church  by 
doctrinal  questions,  but  pre-eminently  with  the  education  crisis, 
and  with  the  new  problems  arising  in  the  enlarged  Anglican  Com- 
munion. As  the  chief  representative  of  the  Church  of  England 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  his  firmness,  combined  with  broadminded- 
ness,  in  regard  to  the  attitude  of  the  nonconformists  towards 
denominational  education,  made  his  influence  widely  felt.  In 
1904  he  visited  Canada  and  the  United  States,  and  was  present 
at  the  triennial  general  convention  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In  1908  he  presided 
at  the  Pan- Anglican  congress  held  in  London,  and  at  the 
Lambeth  conference  which  followed.  He  had  edited  in  1889 
The  Lc.mbclh  Conferences,  an  historical  account  of  the  con- 
ferences of  1867,  1878  and  1888,  giving  the  official  reports  and 
resolutions,  and  the  sermons  preached  on  these  occasions. 


864 


DAVIDSON,  SAMUEL— DA  VIES,  SIR  J. 


DAVIDSON,  SAMUEL  (1807-1898),  Irish  biblical  scholar, 
was  born  near  Ballymena  in  Ireland.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Belfast,  entered  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in 
1835,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  biblical  criticism  at  his  own 
college.  Becoming  a  Congregationalist,  he  accepted  in  1842  the 
chair  of  biblical  criticism,  literature  and  oriental  languages  at  the 
'Lancashire  Independent  College  at  Manchester;  but  he  was 
obliged  to  resign  in  1857,  being  brought  into  collision  with  the 
college  authorities  by  the  publication  of  an  introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament  entitled  The  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
Interpretation  of  the  Bible,  written  for  a  new  edition  of  Home's 
Introduction  to  the  Sacred  Scripture.  Its  liberal  tendencies  caused 
him  to  be  accused  of  unsound  views,  and  a  most  exhaustive 
report  prepared  by  the  Lancashire  College  committee  was  followed 
by  numerous  pamphlets  for  and  against.  After  his  resignation 
a  fund  of  £3000  was  subscribed  as  a  testimonial  by  his  friends. 
In  1862  he  removed  to  London  to  become  scripture  examiner  in 
London  University,  and  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  literary 
work.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  April  1898.  Davidson  was  a 
member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision  Committee.  Among  his 
principal  works  are: — Sacred  Hermeneutics  Developed  and  Applied 
(1843),  rewritten  and  republished  as  A  Treatise  on  Biblical 
Criticism  (1852),  Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  Polity  (1848),  An 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (1848-1851),  The  Hebrew  Text 
of  the  Old  Testament  Revised  (1855),  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament  (1862),  On  a  Fresh  Revision  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1873),  The  Canon  of  the  Bible  (1877) ,  TheDoctrine  of  Last  Things 
in  the  New  Testament  (1883),  besides  translations  of  the  New 
Testament  from  Von  Tischendorf's  text,  Gieseler's  Ecclesiastical 
History  (1846)  and  Fiirst's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon. 

DAVIDSON,  THOMAS  (1817-1885),  British  palaeontologist, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  i7th  of  May  1817.  His  parents 
possessed  considerable  landed  property  in  Midlothian.  Educated 
partly  in  the  university  at  Edinburgh  and  partly  in  France,  Italy 
and  Switzerland,  and  early  acquiring  an  interest  in  natural 
history,  he  benefited  greatly  by  acquaintance  with  foreign 
languages  and  literature,  and  with  men  of  science  in  different 
countries.  He  was  induced  in  1837,  through  the  influence  of 
Leopold  von  Buch,  to  devote  his  special  attention  to  the  brachio- 
poda,  and  in  course  of  time  he  became  the  highest  authority  on 
this  group.  The  great  task  of  his  life  was  the  Monograph  of 
British  Fossil  Brachiopoda,  published  by  the  Palaeontographical 
Society  (1850-1886).  This  work,  with  supplements,  comprises 
six  quarto  volumes  with  more  than  200  plates  drawn  on  stone 
by  the  author.  He  also  prepared  an  exhaustive  memoir  on 
"  Recent  Brachiopoda,"  published  by  the  Linnean  Society.  He 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1857.  He  was  awarded  in  1865  the  Wollaston 
medal  by  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and  in  1870  a  Royal 
medal  by  the  Royal  Society;  and  in  1882  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  university  of  St  Andrews.  He 
died  at  Brighton  on  the  I4th  of  October  1885,  bequeathing  his  fine 
collection  of  recent  and  fossil  brachiopoda  to  the  British  Museum. 

See  biography  with  portrait  and  list  of  papers  in  Geol.  Mag.  for 
1871,  p.  145. 

DAVIES,  DAVID  CHARLES  (1826-1891),  Welsh  noncon- 
formist divine,  was  born  at  Aberystwyth  on  the  nth  of  May 
1826,  his  father  being  a  merchant  and  a  pioneer  of  Welsh  Method- 
ism, his  mother  a  niece  of  Thomas  Charles  (q.v.)  of  Bala.  He 
was  educated  in  his  native  town  by  a  noted  schoolmaster,  John 
Evans,  at  Bala  College,  and  at  University  College,  London, 
where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1847  and  M.A.  (in  mathematics)  in 
1849.  He  had  already  begun  to  preach,  and  after  an  evangelistic 
tour  in  South  Wales  supplied  the  pulpit  of  the  English  presby- 
terian  church  at  Newtown  for  six  months,  and  settled  as  pastor 
of  the  bilingual  church  at  Builth  in  1851.  He  returned  to  this 
charge  after  a  pastorate  at  Liverpool  (1853-1856),  left  it  again 
in  1858  for  Newtown,  and  went  in  May  1859  to  the  Welsh  church 
at  Jewin  Crescent,  London.  Here  he  remained  until  1876,  and 
from  that  date  till  1882,  although  living  at  Bangor  for  reasons 
of  health,  had  the  chief  oversight  of  the  church.  In  1888  he 
accepted  the  principalship  of  the  Calvinistic  Methodist  College  at 
Trevecca  in  Brecknockshire.  His  work  here  was  successful,  but 


short;  he  died  at  Bangor  on  the  26th  of  September  1891,  and 
was  buried  at  Aberystwyth. 

Though  Davies  stood  somewhat  apart  from  the  main  currents 
of  thought  both  without  and  within  his  church,  and  was  largely 
unknown  to  English  audiences  or  readers,  he  exercised  a  strong 
influence  on  Welsh  life  and  thought  in  the  igth  century.  He  was 
a  serious  student,  especially  of  anti-theistic  positions,  a  good 
speaker,  and  a  frequent  contributor  to  Welsh  theological  journals. 
Several  of  his  articles  have  been  collected  and  published,  the 
most  noteworthy  being  expositions  on  The  First  Epistle  of  John 
(1889),  Ephesians  (2  vols.,  1896,  1901),  Psalms  (1897),  Romans 
(1902);  and  The  Atonement  and  Intercession  of  Christ  (1899, 
English  trans,  by  D.  E.  Jenkins,  1901). 

DAVIES,  SIR  JOHN  (1569-1626),  English  philosophical  poet, 
was  baptized  on  the  i6th  of  April  1569,  at  Tisbury,  Wiltshire, 
where  his  parents  lived  at  the  manor-house  of  Chicksgrove.  He 
was  educated  at  Winchester  College,  and  became  a  commoner  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in  1585.  In  1588  he  entered  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1595.  In  his  general 
onslaught  on  literature  in  1599  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
ordered  to  be  burnt  the  notorious  and  now  excessively  rare 
volume,  A II  Ovid's  Elegies,  3  Bookes,  by  C.  M.  Epigrams  by  J.  D. 
(Middleburgh,  1598  ?),  which  contained  posthumous  work  by 
Marlowe.  The  epigrams  by  Davies,  although  not  devoid  of  wit, 
were  coarse  enough  to  deserve  their  fate.  It  is  probable  that 
they  were  earlier  in  date  of  composition  than  the  charming 
fragment  entitled  Orchestra  (1596),  written  in  praise  of  dancing. 
The  poet,  in  the  person  of  Antinoiis,  tries  to  induce  Penelope  to 
dance  by  arguing  that  all  harmonious  natural  processes  partake 
of  the  nature  of  a  conscious  and  well-ordered  dance.  He  closes 
his  argument  by  foreshadowing  in  a  magic  mirror  the  revels  of 
the  court  of  Cynthia  (Elizabeth) .  Orchestra  was  dedicated  to  the 
author's  "  very  friend,  Master  Richard  Martin,"  but  in  the  next 
year  the  friends  quarrelled,  and  Davies  was  expelled  from  the 
society  for  having  struck  Martin  with  a  cudgel  in  the  hall  of  the 
Middle  Temple.  He  spent  the  year  after  his  expulsion  at  Oxford 
in  the  composition  of  his  philosophical  poem  on  the  nature  of  the 
soul  and  its  immortality — Nosce  teipsum  (1599).  The  style  of 
the  work  was  entirely  novel;  and  the  stanza  in  which  it  was 
written — the  decasyllabic  quatrain  with  alternate  rhymes — had 
never  been  so  effectively  handled.  Its  force,  eloquence  and 
ingenuity,  the  orderly  and  lucid  arrangement  of  its  matter,  place 
it  among  the  finest  of  English  didactic  poems.  In  1599  he  also 
published  a  volume  of  twenty-six  graceful  acrostics  on  the  words 
Elisabetha  Regina,  entitled  Hymns  to  Astraea.  He  produced  no 
more  poetry  except  his  contributions  to  Francis  Davison's 
Poetical  Rhapsody  (1608).  These  were  two  dialogues  which  had 
been  written  as  entertainments  for  the  queen,  and  "  Yet  other 
Twelve  Wonders  of  the  World,"  satirical  epigrams  on  the  courtier, 
the  divine,  the  maid,  &c.,  and  "  A  Hymn  in  praise  of  Music." 
Ten  sonnets  to  Philomel  are  signed  J.  D.,  and  are  assigned  to 
Davies  (Poetical  Rhapsody,  ed.  A.  H.  Bullen,  1890).  In  1601 
Davies  was  restored  to  his  position  at  the  bar,  after  making  his 
apologies  to  Martin,  and  in  the  same  year  he  sat  for  Corfe  Castle 
in  parliament.  James  I.  received  the  author  of  Nosce  teipsum 
with  great  favour,  and  sent  him  (1603)  to  Ireland  as  solicitor- 
general,  conferring  the  honour  of  knighthood  upon  him  in  the 
same  year.  In  1606  he  was  promoted  to  be  attorney-general  for 
Ireland,  and  created  serjeant-at-arms.  Of  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  the  prosecution  of  his  work,  and  his  untiring  industry  in 
overcoming  them,  there  is  abundant  evidence  in  his  letters  to 
Cecil  preserved  in  the  State  Papers  on  Ireland.  One  of  his  chief 
aims  was  to  establish  the  Protestant  religion  firmly  in  Ireland, 
and  he  took  strict  measures  to  enforce  the  law  for  attendance 
at  church.  With  the  same  end  in  view  he  too'k  an  active  part 
in  the  "  plantation  "  of  Ulster.  In  1612  he  published  his  prose 
Discoverie  of  the  true  causes  why  Ireland  was  never  entirely  subdued 
untill  the  beginning  of  his  Majestie's  happie  raigne.1  In  the  same 
year  he  entered  the  Irish  parliament  as  member  for  Fermanagh, 
and  was  elected  speaker  after  a  scene  of  disorder  in  which  the 

1  Edited  by  Henry  Morley  in  his  Ireland  under  Elizabeth  and 
James  I.  (1890). 


DAVIES,  J.— DAVIS,  A.  J. 


865 


Catholic  nominee,  Sir  John  Everard,  who  had  been  installed, 
was  forcibly  ejected.  In  the  capacity  of  speaker  he  delivered 
an  excellent  address  reviewing  previous  Irish  parliaments.  He 
resigned  his  Irish  offices  in  1619,  and  sat  in  the  English  parlia- 
ment of  1621  for  Newcastle-under-Lyme.  With  Sir  Robert 
Cotton  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 
He  was  appointed  lord  chief  justice  in  1626,  but  died  suddenly 
(December  8th)  before  he  could  enter  on  the  office.  He  had 
married  (1609)  Eleanor  Touchet,  daughter  of  George,  Baron 
Audley.  She  developed  eccentricity,  verging  on  madness,  and 
wrote  several  fanatical  books  on  prophecy. 

In  1615  Davies  published  at  Dublin  Le  Primer  Discours  des  Cases 
et  Matters  in  Ley  resolues  et  adjudges  en  les  Courts  del  Roy  en  cest 
Realme  (reprinted  1628).  He  issued  an  edition  of  his  poems  in 
1622.  His  prose  publications  were  mainly  posthumous.  The  Question 
concerning  Impositions,  Tonnage,  Poundage  .  .  .  was  printed  in 
1656,  and  four  of  the  tracts  relating  to  Ireland,  with  an  account  of 
Davies  and  his  services  to  that  country,  were  edited  by  G.  Chalmers 
in  1786.  His  works  were  edited  by  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart  (3  vols.  1869- 
1876),  with  a  full  biography,  for  the  Fuller  Worthies  Library. 

He  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  another  poet,  JOHN  DAVIES  of 
Hereford  (i565?-i6l8),  among  whose  numerous  volumes  of  verse 
may  be  mentioned  Mirum  in  modum  (1602),  Microcosmus  (1603), 
The  Holy  Roode  (1609),  Wittes  Pilgrimage  (c.  1610),  The  Scourge  of 
Folly  (c.  1611),  The  Muses  Sacrifice  (1612)  and  Wittes  Bedlam  (1607) ; 
his  Scourge  of  Folly  contains  verses  addressed  to  many  of  his  con- 
temporaries, to  Shakespeare  among  others;  he  also  wrote  A  Select 
Second  Husband  for  Sir  Thomas  Overbury's  Wife  (1616),  and  The 
Writing  Schoolmaster  (earliest  known  edition,  1633) ;  his  works 
were  collected  by  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart  (2  vols.,  1873)  for  the  Chertsey 
Worthies  Library. 

DAVIES  (DAVISIUS),  JOHN  (1670-1732),  English  classical 
scholar  and  critic,  was  born  in  London  on  the  22nd  of  April 
1679.  He  was  educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Queens'  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  society  he  was  elected  fellow  (July  7th, 
1701).  He  subsequently  became  rector  of  Fen  Ditton,  pre- 
bendary of  Ely,  and  president  of  his  college.  He  died  on  the 
7th  of  March  1731-1732,  and  was  buried  in  the  college  chapel. 
Davies  was  considered  one  of  the  best  commentators  on  Cicero, 
his  attention  being  chiefly  devoted  to  the  philosophical  works 
of  that  author.  Amongst  these  he  edited  the  Tusculanae  dispu- 
tationes  (1709),  De  natura  deorum  (1718),  De  divinatione  and 
De  fato  (1725),  Academica  (1725),  De  legibus  (1727),  De  finibus 
(1728).  His  nearly  finished  notes  on  the  De  officiis  he  be- 
queathed to  Dr  Richard  Mead,  with  a  view  to  their  publication. 
Mead,  finding  himself  unable  to  carry  out  the  undertaking, 
transferred  the  notes  to  Thomas  Bentley  (nephew  of  the  famous 
Richard  Bentley),  by  whose  carelessness  they  were  burnt. 
Davies's  editions,  which  were  intended  to  supplement  those  of 
Graevius,  show  great  learning  and  an  extensive  knowledge  of 
the  history  and  systems  of  philosophy,  but  he  allows  himself  too 
much  licence  in  the  matter  of  emendation.  He  also  edited 
Maximus  of  Tyre's  Dissertationes  (1703);  the  works  of  Caesar 
(1706);  the  Octavius  of  Minucius  Felix  (1707);  the  Epitome 
divinarum  institutionum  of  Lactantius  (1718).  Although  on 
intimate  terms  with  Richard  Bentley,  he  found  himself  unable 
to  agree  with  the  great  scholar  in  regard  to  his  dispute  with 
Trinity  College. 

DAVIES,  SIR  LOUIS  HENRY  (1843-  ),  Canadian  politician 
and  jurist,  was  born  in  Prince  Edward  Island  in  1845,  of 
Huguenot  descent.  From  1869  to  1879  he  took  part  in  local 
politics,  and  was  premier  from  1876-1879;  in  1882  he  entered 
the  Canadian  parliament  as  a  Liberal,  and  from  1896  to  1901  was 
minister  of  marine  and  fisheries.  In  the  latter  year  he  became 
one  of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  Canada.  In  1877  he 
was  counsel  for  Great  Britain  before  the  Anglo-American 
fisheries  arbitration  at  Halifax;  in  1897  he  was  a  joint  delegate 
to  Washington  with  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  on  the  Bering  Sea  seal 
question;  and  in  1898-1899  a  member  of  the  Anglo-American 
ioint  high  commission  at  Quebec. 

DAVIES,  RICHARD  (c.  1305-1581),  Welsh  bishop  and  scholar, 
was  born  in  North  Wales,  and  was  educated  at  New  Inn  Hall, 
Oxford,  becoming  vicar  of  Burnham,  Buckinghamshire,  in  1550. 
Being  a  reformer  he  took  refuge  at  Geneva  during  the  reign  of 
Mary,  returning  to  England  and  to  parochial  work  after  the 

VII.  28 


accession  of  Elizabeth  in  1558.  His  connexion  with  Wales  was 
renewed  almost  at  once;  for,  after  serving  on  a  commission  which 
visited  the  Welsh  dioceses,  he  was,  in  January  1560,  conse- 
crated bishop  of  St  Asaph,  whence  he  was  translated,  early  in 
1561,  to  the  bishopric  of  St  Davids.  As  a  bishop  Davies  was 
an  earnest  reformer,  very  industrious,  active  and  liberal,  but  not 
very  scrupulous  with  regard  to  the  property  of  the  church.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  council  of  Wales,  was  very  friendly  with 
Matthew  Parker,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  was  regarded 
both  by  Parker  and  by  William  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley,  as  a  trust- 
worthy adviser  on  Welsh  concerns.  Another  of  the  bishop's 
friends  was  Walter  Devereux,  first  earl  of  Essex.  Assisting 
William  Salisbury,  Davies  took  part  in  translating  the  New 
Testament  into  Welsh,  and  also  did  some  work  on  the  Welsh 
translation  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  He  helped  to  revise 
the  "  Bishops'  Bible  "  of  1568,  being  himself  responsible  for  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy,  and  the  second  book  of  Samuel.  He  died  on 
the  7th  of  November  1581,  and  was  buried  in  Abergwili  church. 

DAVILA,  ENRICO  CATERING  (1576-1631),  Italian  historian, 
was  descended  from  a  Spanish  noble  family.  His  immediate 
ancestors  had  been  constables  of  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  for  the 
Venetian  republic  since  1464.  But  in  1570  the  island  was  taken 
by  the  Turks;  and  Antonio  Davila,  the  father  of  the  historian, 
had  to  leave  it,  despoiled  of  all  he  possessed.  He  travelled  into 
Spain  and  France,  and  finally  returned  to  Padua,  and  at  Sacco 
on  the  3oth  of  October  1576  his  youngest  son,  Enrico  Caterino, 
was  born.  About  1 583  Antonio  took  this  son  to  France,  where 
he  became  a  page  in  the  service  of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  wife  of 
King  Henry  II.  In  due  time  he  entered  the  military  service,  and 
fought  through  the  civil  wars  until  the  peace  in  1 598.  He  then 
returned  to  Padua,  where,  and  subsequently  at  Parma,  he  led 
a  studious  life  until,  when  war  broke  out,  he  entered  the  service 
of  the  republic  of  Venice  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  field. 
But  during  the  whole  of  this  active  life,  many  details  of  which 
are  very  interesting  as  illustrative  of  the  life  and  manners  of  the 
time,  he  never  lost  sight  of  a  design  which  he  had  formed  at  a 
very  early  period,  of  writing  the  history  of  those  civil  wars  in 
France  in  which  he  had  borne  a  part,  and  during  which  he  had 
had  so  many  opportunities  of  closely  observing  the  leading  person- 
ages and  events.  This  work  was  completed  about  1630,  and  was 
offered  in  vain  by  the  author  to  all  the  publishers  in  Venice.  At 
last  one  Tommaso  Baglioni,  who  had  no  work  for  his  presses, 
undertook  to  print  the  manuscript,  on  condition  that  he  should 
be  free  to  leave  off  if  more  promising  work  offered  itself.  The 
printing  of  the  Istoria  delle  guerre  civili  di  Francia  was,  however, 
completed,  and  the  success  and  sale  of  the  work  were  immediate 
and  enormous.  Over  two  hundred  editions  followed,  of  which 
perhaps  the  best  is  the  one  published  in  Paris  in  1644.  Davila 
was  murdered,  while  on  his  way  to  take  possession  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Cremona  for  Venice  in  July  1631 ,  by  a  ruffian,  with  whom 
some  dispute  seems  to  have  arisen  concerning  the  furnishing  of  the 
relays  of  horses  ordered  for  his  use  by  the  Venetian  government. 

The  Istoria  was  translated  into  French  by  G.  Baudouin  (Paris, 
1642) ;  into  Spanish  by  Varen  de  Soto  (Madrid,  1651,  and  Antwerp, 
1686);  into  English  by  W.  Aylesbury  (London,  1647),  and  by 
Charles  Cotterel  (London,  1666),  and  into  Latin  by  Pietro  Francesco 
Cornazzano  (Rome,  1745).  The  best  account  of  the  life  of  Davila  is 
that  by  Apostolo  Zeno,  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  history  printed 
at  Venice  in  2  vols.  in  1733.  Peter  Bayle  is  severe  on  certain 
historical  inaccuracies  of  Davila,  and  it  is  true  that  Davila  must 
be  read  with  due  remembrance  of  the  fact  that  he  was  not  only  a 
Catholic  but  the  especial  protege  of  Catherine  de'  Medici,  but  it 
is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  Bayle  was  as  strongly  Protestant. 

DAVIS,  ANDREW  JACKSON  (1826-1910),  American  spiritual- 
ist, was  born  at  Blooming  Grove,  Orange  county,  New  York,  on 
the  nth  of  August  1826.  He  had  little  education,  though 
probably  much  more  than  he  and  his  friends  pretended.  In  1843 
he  heard  lectures  in  Poughkeepsie  on  "  animal  magnetism,"  as 
the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  was  then  termed,  and  found  that 
he  had  remarkable  clairvoyant  powers;  and  in  the  following  year 
he  had,  he  said,  spiritual  messages  telling  him  of  his  life  work. 
For  the  next  three  years  (1844-1847)  he  practised  magnetic 
healing  with  much  success;  and  in  1847  he  published  The 
Principles  of  Nature,  Her  Divine  Revelations,  and  a  Voice  to 


866 


DAVIS,  C.  H.— DAVIS,  H.  W. 


Mankind,  which  in  1845  he  had  dictated  while  in  a  trance  to  his 
"  scribe,"  William  Fishbough.  He  lectured  with  little  success 
and  returned  to  writing  (or  "  dictating  ")  books,  publishing  about 
thirty  in  all,  including  The  Great  Harmonia  (1850-1861),  an 
"  encyclopaedia  "  in  six  volumes;  The  Philosophy  of  Special 
Providences  (1850),  which  with  its  evident  rehash  of  old  argu- 
ments against  special  providences  and  miracles  would  seem  to 
show  that  Davis's  inspiration  was  literary;  The  Magic  Staff:  an 
Autobiography  (1857),  which  was  supplemented  by  Arabula:  or  the 
Divine  Guest,  Containing  a  New  Collection  of  New  Gospels  (1867), 
the  gospels  being  those  "  according  to  "  St  Confucius,  St  John 
(G.Whittier),St  Gabriel  (Derzhavin),StOctavius  (Frothingham), 
St  Gerrit  (Smith),  St  Emma  (Hardinge),  St  Ralph  (W.  Emerson), 
St  Selden  (J.  Finney),  St  Theodore  (Parker),  &c. ;  and  A  Stellar 
Key  to  the  Summer  Land  (1868)  and  Views  of  Our  Heavenly  Home 
(1878).  each  with  illustrative  diagrams.  Davis  was  much  influenced 
by  Swedenborg  and  by  the  Shakers,  who  reprinted  his  panegyric 
of  Ann  Lee  in  an  official  Sketch  of  Shakers  and  Shakerism  (1884). 

DAVIS,  CHARLES  HOWARD  (1857-  ),  American  land- 
scape painter,  was  born  at  East  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
2nd  of  February  1857.  A  pupil  of  the  schools  of  the  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  he  was  sent  to  Paris  in  1880.  Having 
studied  at  the  Academy  Julian  under  Lefebvre  and  Boulanger, 
he  went  to  Barbizon  and  painted  much  in  the  forest  of  Fontaine- 
bleau  under  the  traditions  of  the  "  men  of  thirty."  He  became 
a  full  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1906,  and 
received  many  awards,  including  a  silver  medal  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1889.  He  is  represented  by  important  works  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York;  the  Corcoran  Art 
Gallery,  Washington;  the  Pennsylvania  Academy,  Philadelphia, 
and  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 

DAVIS,  CUSHMAN  KELLOGG  (1838-1900),  American  political 
leader  and  lawyer,  was  born  in  Henderson,  New  York,  on  the  i6th 
of  June  1838.  He  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  Wisconsin 
Territory  in  the  year  of  his  birth,  and  was  educated  at  Carroll 
College,  Waukesha,  Wisconsin,  and  at  the  university  of 
Michigan,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1857.  After  studying  law 
in  the  office  of  Alexander  W.  Randall,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1860.  During  the  Civil  War,  as  a  first  lieutenant  of  Federal 
volunteers,  he  served  in  the  western  campaigns  of  1862  and  1863, 
and  in  1864  was  an  aide  to  General  Willis  A.  Gorman  (1814- 
1876).  Resigning  his  commission  (1864)  on  account  of  ill-health, 
he  soon  settled  in  St  Paul,  Minnesota,  where  he  practised  law 
in  partnership  with  General  Gorman,  and  soon  became  prominent 
both  at  the  bar  and,  as  a  Republican,  in  politics.  He  served  in  the 
state  House  of  Representatives  in  1867,  1868-1873  was  United 
States  district  attorney  for  Minnesota.  In  1874-1876  he  was 
governor  of  the  state,  and  from  1887  until  his  death  was  a 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate.  In  the  Senate  he  was  one 
of  the  acknowledged  leaders  of  his  party,  an  able  and  frequent 
speaker  and  a  committee  worker  of  great  industry.  In  March 
1897  he  became  chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign  relations 
at  a  time  when  its  work  was  peculiarly  influential  in  shaping 
American  foreign  policy.  His  extensive  knowledge  of  inter- 
national law,  and  his  tact  and  diplomacy,  enabled  him  to 
render  services  of  the  utmost  importance  in  connexion  with  the 
Spanish-American  War,  and  he  was  one  of  the  peace  com- 
missioners who  negotiated  and  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris  by 
which  the  war  was  terminated.  He  died  at  St  Paul  on  the  27th 
of  November  1900.  Few  public  men  in  the  United  States  since 
the  Civil  War  have  combined  skill  in  diplomacy,  constructive 
statesmanship,  talent  for  political  organization,  oratorical 
ability  and  broad  culture  to  such  a  degree  as  Senator  Davis. 
In  addition  to  various  speeches  and  public  addresses,  he 
published  an  essay  entitled  The  Law  of  Shakespeare  (1899). 

DAVIS,  HENRY  WILLIAM  BANKS  (1833-  .),  English 
painter,  received  his  art  training  in  the  Royal  Academy  schools, 
where  he  was  awarded  two  silver  medals.  He  was  elected  an 
associate  of  the  Academy  in  1873,  and  academician  in  1877.  He 
made  a  considerable  reputation  as  an  accomplished  painter  of 
quiet  pastoral  subjects  and  carefully  elaborated  landscapes  with 
cattle.  His  pictures,  "  Returning  to  the  Fold  "  (1880),  and 


"  Approaching  Night  "  (1899),  bought  for  the  Chantrey  Fund 
Collection,  are  now  in  the  National  Gallery  of  British  Art 
(Tate  Gallery). 

DAVIS,  HENRY  WINTER  (1817-1865),  American  political 
leader,  was  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  on  the  i6th  of  August 
1817.  His  father,  Rev  Henry  Lyon  Davis  (1775-1836),  was  a 
prominent  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman  of  Maryland,  and  for 
some  years  president  of  St  John's  College  at  Annapolis.  The  son 
graduated  at  Kenyon  College,  Gambier,  Ohio,  in  1837,  and  from 
the  law  department  of  the  university  of  Virginia  in  1841,  and 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  Alexandria,  Virginia,  but  in  1850 
removed  to  Baltimore,  Maryland,  where  he  won  a  high  position 
at  the  bar.  Early  becoming  imbued  with  strong  anti-slavery 
views,  though  by  inheritance  he  was  himself  a  slave  holder,  he 
began  political  life  as  a  Whig,  but  when  the  Whig  party  dis- 
integrated, he  became  an  "  American  "  or  "  Know-Nothing," 
and  as  such  served  in  the  national  House  of  Representatives  from 
1855  to  1861.  By  his  independent  course  in  Congress  he  won  the 
respect  and  esteem  of  all  political  groups.  In  the  contest  over  the 
speakership  at  the  opening  of  the  Thirty-Sixth  Congress  (1859)  he 
voted  with  the  Republicans,  thereby  incurring  a  vote  of  censure 
from  the  Maryland  legislature,  which  called  upon  him  to  resign. 
In  1860,  not  being  quite  ready  to  ally  himself  wholly  with  the 
Republican  party,  he  declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  Republican 
nomination  for  the  vice-presidency,  and  supported  the  Bell  and 
Everett  ticket.  He  was  himself  defeated  in  this  year  for  re- 
election to  Congress.  In  the  winter  of  1860-1861  he  was  active 
on  behalf  of  compromise  measures.  Finally,  after  President 
Lincoln's  election,  he  became  a  Republican,  and  as  such  was 
re-elected  in  1862  to  the  national  House  of  Representatives,  in 
which  he  at  once  became  one  of  the  most  radical  and  aggressive 
members,  his  views  commanding  especial  attention  owing  ±o  his 
being  one  of  the  few  representatives  from  a  slave  state.  From 
December  1863  to  March  1865  he  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  foreign  affairs;  as  such,  in  1864,  he  was  unwilling  to  leave 
the  delicate  questions  concerning  the  French  occupation  of 
Mexico  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  president  and  his  secretary  of 
state,  and  brought  in  a  report  very  hostile  to  France,  which  was 
adopted  in  the  House,  but  fortunately,  as  it  proved  later,  was  not 
adopted  by  the  Senate.  With  other  radical  Republicans  Davis 
was  a  bitter  opponent  of  Lincoln's  plan  for  the  reconstruction  of 
the  Southern  States,  and  on  the  isth  of  February  1864  he  reported 
from  committee  a  bill  placing  the  process  of  reconstruction  under 
the  control  of  Congress,  and  stipulating  that  the  Confederate 
States,  before  resuming  their  former  status  in  the  Union,  must 
disfranchise  all  important  civil  and  military  officers  of  the 
Confederacy,  abolish  slavery,  and  repudiate  all  debts  incurred 
by  or  with  the  sanction  of  the  Confederate  government.  In  his 
speech  supporting  this  measure  Davis  declared  that  until  Congress 
should  "  recognize  a  government  established  under  its  auspices, 
there  is  no  government  in  the  rebel  states  save  the  authority  of 
Congress."  The  bill — the  first  formal  expression  by  Congress 
with  regard  to  Reconstruction — did  not  pass  both  Houses  until 
the  closing  hours  of  the  session,  and  failed  to  receive  the  approval 
of  the  president,  who  on  the  8th  of  July  issued  a  proclamation 
defining  his  position.  Soon  afterwards,  on  the  5th  of  August 
1864,  Davis  joined  Benjamin  F.  Wade  of  Ohio,  who  had  piloted 
the  bill  through  the  Senate,  in  issuing  the  so-called  "  Wade- 
Davis  Manifesto,"  which  violently  denounced  President  Lincoln 
for  encroaching  on  the  domain  of  Congress  and  insinuated  that 
the  presidential  policy  would  leave  slavery  unimpaired  in  the 
reconstructed  states.  In  a  debate  in  Congress  some  months  later 
he  declared,  "  When  I  came  into  Congress  ten  years  ago  this  was 
a  government  of  law.  I  have  lived  to  see  it  a  government  of 
personal  will."  He  was  one  of  the  radical  leaders  who  preferred 
Fremont  to  Lincoln  in  1864,  but  subsequently  withdrew  his  oppo- 
sition and  supported  the  President  for  re-election.  He  early 
favoured-  the  enlistment  of  negroes,  and  in  July  1865  publicly 
advocated  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  to  them.  He  was  not 
a  candidate  for  re-election  to  Congress  in  1864,  and  died  in 
Baltimore,  Maryland,  on  the  3Oth  of  December  1865.  Davis 
was  a  man  of  scholarly  tastes,  an  orator  of  unusual  ability  and 


DAVIS,  JEFFERSON 


867 


great  eloquence,  tireless  and  fearless  in  fighting  political  battles, 
but  impulsive  to  the  verge  of  rashness,  impractical,  tactless  and 
autocratic.  He  wrote  an  elaborate  political  work  entitled  The 
War  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  in  the  Ninteenth  Century  (1853),  in 
which  he  combated  the  Southern  contention  that  slavery  was  a 
divine  institution. 

See  The  Speeches  of  Henry  Winter  Davis  (New  York,  1867),  to 
which  is  prefixed  an  oration  on  his  life  and  character  delivered  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  by  Senator  J.  A.  J.  Creswell  of  Maryland. 

DAVIS,  JEFFERSON  (1808-1880),  American  soldier  and  states- 
man, president  of  the  Confederate  states  in  the  American  Civil 
War,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  June  1808  at  what  is  now  the  village 
of  Fairview,  in  that  part  of  Christian  county,  Kentucky,  which 
was  later  organized  as  Todd  county.  His  father,  Samuel  Davis 
(1756-1824),  who  served  in  the  War  of  Independence,  was  of 
Welsh,  and  his  mother,  Jane  Cook,  of  Scotch-Irish  descent; 
during  his  infancy  the  family  moved  to  Wilkinson  county, 
Mississippi.  Jefferson  Davis  was  educated  at  Transylvania 
University  (Lexington,  Kentucky)  and  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  From  the  latter  he  graduated 
in  July  1828,  and  became  by  brevet  a  second  lieutenant  of 
infantry.  He  was  assigned  for  duty  to  Jefferson  Barracks  at  St 
Louis,  and  on  reaching  this  post  was  ordered  to  Fort  Crawford, 
near  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin.  In  1833  he  took  part  in  the 
closing  scenes  of  the  Black  Hawk  War,  was  present  at  the  capture 
of  Black  Hawk,  and  was  sent  to  Dixon,  Illinois,  to  muster  into 
service  some  volunteers  from  that  state.  Their  captain  was 
Abraham  Lincoln,  and  Lieutenant  Davis  is  said  to  have 
administered  to  him  his  first  oath  of  allegiance.  In  June  1835 
he  resigned  from  the  army,  married  Miss  Knox  Taylor,  daughter 
of  Colonel  (later  General)  Zachary  Taylor,  and  became  a  cotton 
planter  in  Warren  county,  Miss.  In  September  of  the  same 
year,  while  visiting  in  Louisiana  to  escape  the  fever,  his  wife 
died  of  it  and  Davis  himself  was  dangerously  ill.  For  the  next 
few  months  he  travelled  to  regain  his  health;  and  in  the  spring 
of  1836  returned  to  his  cotton  plantation,  where  for  several  years 
he  devoted  his  time  largely  to  reading  political  philosophy, 
political  economy,  public  law  and  the  English  classics,  and  by 
careful  management  of  his  estate  he  acquired  considerable  wealth. 
In  1843  Davis  entered  the  field  of  politics  as  a  Democrat,  and 
exhibited  great  power  as  a  public  speaker.  In  1 844  he  was  chosen 
as  a  presidential  elector  on  the  Polk  and  Dallas  ticket;  in 
February  1845  hfi  married  Miss  Varina  Howell  (1826-1906)  of 
Mississippi  (a  granddaughter  of  Governor  Richard  Howell  of 
New  Jersey),  and  in  the  same  year  became  a  Democratic  repre- 
sentative in  Congress.  From  the  beginning  of  his  political  career 
he  advocated  a  strict  construction  of  the  Federal  constitution. 
He  was  an  ardent  admirer  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  eventually 
became  his  successor  as  the  leader  of  the  South.  In  his  rare 
speeches  in  the  House  of  Representatives  he  clearly  defined  his 
position  in  regard  to  states  rights,  which  he  consistently  held 
ever  afterwards.  During  his  first  session,  war  with  Mexico  was 
declared,  and  he  resigned  his  seat  in  June  1846  to  take  command 
of  the  first  regiment  raised  in  his  state — the  Mississippi  Rifles. 
He  served  in  the  Northern  Campaign  under  his  father-in-law, 
General  Taylor,  and  was  greatly  distinguished  for  gallantry  and 
soldierly  conduct  at  Monterey  and  particularly  at  Buena  Vista, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded  early  in  the  engagement,  but 
continued  in  command  of  his  regiment  until  victory  crowned  the 
American  arms.  While  still  in  the  field  he  was  appointed  (May 
1847)  by  President  Polk  to  be  brigadier-general  of  volunteers; 
but  this  appointment  Davis  declined,  on  the  ground,  as  he  after- 
wards said,  "  that  volunteers  are  militia  and  the  Constitution 
reserves  to  the  state  the  appointment  of  all  militia  officers." 
Afterwards,  Davis  himself,  as  president  of  the  Confederate  States, 
was  to  appoint  many  volunteer  officers. 

Upon  his  return  to  his  home  late  in  1847  he  was  appointed  to 
fill  a  vacancy  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and  in  1850  he  was 
elected  for  a  full  term  of  six  years.  He  resigned  in  1851,  but  was 
again  elected  in  1857,  and  continued  as  a  member  from  that  year 
until  the  secession  of  his  State  in  1861.  As  a  senator  he  stood  in 
the  front  rank  in  a  body  distinguished  for  ability;  his  purity 


of  character  and  courteous  manner/together  with  his  intellectual 
gifts,  won  him  the  esteem  of  all  parties;  and  he  became  more  and 
more  the  leader  of  the  Southern  Democrats.  He  was,  however, 
possessed  of  a  logical  rather  than  an  intuitive  mind.  In  his 
famous  speech  in  the  Senate  on  the  I2th  of  July  1848,  on  the 
question  of  establishing  a  government  for  Oregon  Territorv,  he 
held  that  a  slave  should  be  treated  by  the  Federal  government 
on  the  same  basis  as  any  other  property,  and  therefore  that  it 
was  the  duty  of  Congress  to  protect  the  owner's  right  to  his  slave 
in  whatever  state  or  territory  of  the  Union  that  slave  might  be. 
In  the  debates  on  the  Compromise  Measures  of  1850  he  took 
an  active  part,  strongly  opposing  these  measures,  while  Henry 
Stuart  Foote  (1800-1880),  the  other  Mississippi  senator,  was  one 
of  their  leading  advocates.  But  although  still  holding  to  the 
theory  expounded  in  his  July  speech  of  1848,  he  was  now  ready 
with  the  proposal  that  slavery  might  be  prohibited  north  of 
latitude  36°  30'  N.  provided  it  should  not  be  interfered  with  in 
any  territory  south  of  that  line.  He  resigned  from  the  Senate  in 
1851  to  become  a  candidate  of  the  Democratic  States-Rights 
party  for  the  governorship  of  his  state  against  Foote,  the  candi- 
date of  the  Union  Democrats.  In  the  campaign  he  held,  in 
opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  more  radical  members  of  his 
party,  that  although  secession  might  be  resorted  to  as  a  last 
alternative  the  circumstances  were  not  yet  such  as  to  justify  it. 
A  temporary  loss  of  eyesight  interfered  with  his  canvass,  and 
he  was  defeated  by  a  small  majority  (1009),  the  campaign  having 
been  watched  with  the  greatest  interest  throughout  the  country. 
In  1853  he  accepted  the  position  of  secretary  of  war  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Pierce,  and  for  four  years  performed  the 
duties  of  the  office  with  great  distinction  and  with  lasting  benefit 
to  the  nation.  He  organized  the  engineer  companies  which 
explored  and  reported  on  the  several  proposed  routes  for  a  rail- 
way connecting  the  Mississippi  valley  with  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
he  effected  the  enlargement  of  the  army,  and  made  material 
changes  in  its  equipment  of  arms  and  ammunition,  utilizing 
the  latest  improvements ;  he  made  his  appointments  of  sub- 
ordinates on  their  merits,  regardless  of  party  considerations; 
he  revised  the  system  of  tactics,  perfected  the  signal  corps 
service,  and  enlarged  the  coast  and  frontier  defences  of  the 
country.  During  all  this  time  he  was  on  terms  of  intimate 
friendship  with  the  president,  over  whom  he  undoubtedly  exerted 
a  powerful,  but  probably  not,  as  is  often  said,  a  dominating 
influence;  for  instance  he  is  generally  supposed  to  have  won 
the  president's  support  for  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  of  1854. 
After  the  passage  of  this  bill,  Davis,  who  as  secretary  of  war 
had  control  of  the  United  States  troops  in  Kansas,  sympathized 
strongly  with  the  pro-slavery  party  there.  At  the  end  of  his 
service  in  the  cabinet,  he  was  returned  to  the  Senate.  To  his 
insistence  in  1860  that  the  Democratic  party  should  support 
his  claim  to  the  protection  of  slavery  in  the  territories  by  the 
Federal  government,  the  disruption  of  that  party  was  in  large 
measure  due.  At  the  same  time  he  practically  told  the  Senate 
that  the  South  would  secede  in  the  event  of  the  election  of  a 
radical  Republican  to  the  presidency;  and  on  the  loth  of 
January  1861,  not  long  after  the  election  of  Lincoln,  he  argued 
before  that  body  the  constitutional  right  of  secession  and 
declared  that  the  treatment  of  the  South  had  become  such  that 
it  could  no  longer  remain  in  the  Union  without  being  degraded. 
When  his  state  had  passed  the  ordinance  of  secession  he  resigned 
his  seat,  and  his  speech  on  the  2ist  of  January  was  a  clear  and 
able  statement  of  the  position  taken  by  his  state,  and  a  most 
pathetic  farewell  to  his  associates. 

On  the  2$th  of  January  1861  Davis  was  commissioned  major- 
general  of  the  forces  Mississippi  was  raising  in  view  of  the 
threatened  conflict.  On  the  gth  of  February  he  received  the 
unanimous  vote  of  the  Provisional  Congress  of  the  seceded  states 
as  president  of  the  "  Confederate  States  of  America."  He  was 
inaugurated  on  the  i8th  of  February,  was  subsequently,  after 
the  adoption  of  the  permanent  constitution,  regularly  elected  by 
popular  vote,  for  a  term  of  six  years,  and  on  the  22nd  of  February 
1862  was  again  inaugurated.  He  had  not  sought  the  office, 
preferring  service  in  the  field.  His  brilliant  career,  both  as 


868 


DAVIS,  JOHN 


a  civilian  and  as  a  soldier,  drew  all  eyes  to  him  as  best  fitted 
to  guide  the  fortunes  of  the  new  Confederacy,  and  with  a  deep 
sense  of  the  responsibility  he  obeyed  the  call.  He  heartily 
approved  of  the  peace  conference,  which  attempted  to  draw  up 
a  plan  of  reconciliation  between  the  two  sections,  but  whose 
failure  made  war  inevitable.  Montgomery,  in  Alabama,  was 
the  first  Confederate  capital,  but  after  Virginia  joined  her  sister 
states,  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Richmond,  on  the 
agth  of  May  1861.  How  Davis — of  whom  W.  E.  Gladstone,  in 
the  early  days  of  English  sympathy  with  the  South,  said  that 
he  had  "  made  a  nation  " — bore  himself  in  his  most  responsible 
position  during  the  gigantic  conflict  which  ensued,  cannot  here 
be  related  in  detail.  (See  CONFEDERATE  STATES;  and  AMERICAN 
CIVIL  WAR.)  In  the  shortest  time  he  organized  and  put  into  the 
field  one  of  the  finest  bodies  of  soldiers  of  which  history  has  record . 
Factories  sprang  up  in  the  South  in  a  few  months,  supplying 
the  army  with  arms  and  munitions  of  war,  and  the  energy  of  the 
president  was  everywhere  apparent.  That  he  committed  serious 
errors,  his  warmest  admirers  will  hardly  deny.  Unfortunately 
his  firmness  developed  into  obstinacy,  and  exhibited  itself  in 
continued  confidence  in  officers  who  had  proved  to  be  failures, 
and  in  dislike  of  some  of  his  ablest  generals.  He  committed  the 
great  mistake,  too,  of  directing  the  movements  of  distant  armies 
from  the  seat  of  government,  though  those  armies  were  under  able 
generals.  This  naturally  caused  great  dissatisfaction,  and  more 
than  once  resulted  in  irreparable  disaster.  Moreover,  he  was  not, 
like  Lincoln,  a  great  manager  of  men;  he  often  acted  without 
tact;  he  was  charged  with  being  domineering  and  autocratic, 
and  at  various  times  he  was  seriously  hampered  by  the  meddling 
of  the  Confederate  Congress  and  the  opposition  of  such  men  as 
the  vice-president,  A.  H.  Stephens,  Governor  Joseph  E.  Brown 
of  Georgia,  and  Governor  Zebulon  Vance  of  North  Carolina. 

During  the  winter  of  1864-1865  the  resources  of  the  govern- 
ment showed  such  exhaustion  that  it  was  apparent  that  the  end 
would  come  with  the  opening  of  the  spring  campaign.  This  was 
clearly  stated  in  the  reports  of  the  heads  of  departments  and  of 
General  Lee.  President  Davis,  however,  acted  as  if  he  was 
assured  of  ultimate  success.  He  sent  Duncan  F.  Kenner  as 
special  commissioner  to  the  courts  of  England  and  France  to 
obtain  recognition  of  the  Confederacy  on  condition  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  When  a  conference  was  held  in  Hampton 
Roads  on  the  3rd  of  February  1865  between  President  Lincoln 
and  Secretary  Seward  on  the  one  side,  and  A.  H.  Stephens, 
R.  M.  T.  Hunter,  and  Judge  James  A.  Campbell,  representing 
President  Davis,  on  the  other,  he  instructed  his  representatives 
to  insist  on  the  recognition  of  the  Confederacy  as  a  condition  to 
any  arrangement  for  the  termination  of  the  war.  This  defeated 
the  object  of  the  conference,  and  deprived  the  South  of  terms 
which  would  have  been  more  beneficial  than  those  imposed  by 
the  conqueror  when  the  end  came  a  few  weeks  later.  The  last 
days  of  the  Confederate  Congress  were  spent  in  recriminations 
between  that  body  and  President  Davis,  and  the  popularity  with 
which  he  commenced  his  administration  had  almost  entirely 
vanished.  In  January  1865  the  Congress  proposed  to  supersede 
the  president  and  make  Genera?  Lee  dictator, — a  suggestion, 
however,  to  which  the  Confederate  commander  refused  to  listen. 

After  the  surrender  of  the  armies  of  Lee  and  Johnston  in  April 
1865,  President  Davis  attempted  to  make  his  way,  through 
Georgia,  across  the  Mississippi,  in  the  vain  hope  of  continuing 
the  war  with  the  forces  of  Generals  Smith  and  Magruder.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  on  the  roth  of  May  by  Federal  troops  near  Irwin- 
ville,  Irwin  county,  Georgia,  and  was  brought  back  to  Old  Point, 
Virginia,  in  order  to  be  confined  in  prison  at  Fortress  Monroe. 
In  prison  he  was  chained  and  treated  with  great  severity.  He 
was  indicted  for  treason  by  a  Virginia  grand  jury,  persistent 
efforts  were  made  to  connect  him  with  the  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln,  he  was  unjustly  charged  with  having  deliber- 
ately and  wilfully  caused  the  sufferings  and  deaths  of  Union 
prisoners  at  Andersonville  and  for  two  years  he  was  denied  trial 
or  bail.  Such  treatment  aroused  the  sympathy  of  the  Southern 
people,  who  regarded  him  as  a  martyr  to  their  cause,  and  in  a 
great  measure  restored  him  to  that  place  in  their  esteem  which 


by  the  close  of  the  war  he  had  lost.  It  also  aroused  a  general 
feeling  in  the  North,  and  when  finally  he  was  admitted  to  bail 
(in  May  1867),  Horace  Greeley,  Gerrit  Smith,  and  others  in  that 
section  who  had  been  his  political  opponents,  became  his  sureties. 
Charles  O'Conor,  a  leader  of  the  New  York  bar,  volunteered  to 
act  as  his  counsel.  With  him  was  associated  Robert  Ould  of 
Richmond,  a  lawyer  of  great  ability.  They  moved  to  quash  the 
indictment  on  which  he  was  brought  to  trial.  Chief  Justice 
Chase  and  Judge  John  C.  Underwood  constituted  the  United 
States  circuit  court  sitting  for  Virginia  before  which  the  case 
was  brought  in  December  1868;  the  court  was  divided,  the  chief 
justice  voting  to  sustain  the  motion  and  Underwood  to  overrule 
it.  The  matter  was  thereupon  certified  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  but  as  the  general  amnesty  of  the  25th  of 
December  1868  included  Davis,  an  order  of  nolle  proseqiti  was 
entered  in  February  1869,  and  Davis  and  his  bondsmen  were 
thereupon  released.  After  his  release  he  visited  Europe,  and 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  retirement,  during  which  he 
wrote  his  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government  (2  vols., 
1881).  In  these  volumes  he  attempted  to  vindicate  his  adminis- 
tration, and  in  so  doing  he  attacked  the  records  of  those  generals 
he  disliked.  He  also  wrote  a  Short  History  of  the  Confederate 
States  of  America  (1890).  He  died  on  the  6th  of  December  1889, 
at  New  Orleans,  leaving  a  widow  and  two  daughters — Margaret, 
who  married  J.  A.  Hayes  in  1877,  and  Varina  Anne  (1864-1898), 
better  known  as  "  Winnie  "  Davis,  the  "  daughter  of  the  Con- 
federacy," who  was  the  author  of  several  books,  including  A 
Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Robert  Emmet  (1888),  a  novel,  The  Veiled 
Doctor  (1895),  and  A  Romance  of  Summer  Seas  (1898).  A  monu- 
ment to  her,  designed  by  George  J.  Zolnay,  and  erected  by  the 
Daughters  of  the  Confederacy,  was  unveiled  hi  Hollywood 
cemetery,  Richmond,  Va.,  on  the  9th  of  November  1899.  Mrs 
Davis,  who  exerted  a  marked  influence  over  her  husband,  sur- 
vived him  many  years,  passed  the  last  years  of  her  life  in  New 
York  City,  and  died  there  on  the  i6th  of  October  1906. 

AUTHORITIES. — Several  biographies  and  memoirs  of  Davis  have 
been  published,  of  which  the  best  are:  Jefferson  Davis,  Ex-President 
of  the  Confederate  States  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1890),  by  his  widow; 
F.  H.  Alfriend's  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis  (Cincinnati,  1868),  which 
defended  him  from  the  charges  of  incompetence  and  despotism 
brought  against  him ;  E.  A.  Pollard's  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis,  with 
a  Secret  History  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  (Philadelphia,  1869),  a 
somewhat  partisan  arraignment  by  a  prominent  Southern  journalist ; 
and  W.  E.  Dodd's  Jefferson  Davis  (Philadelphia,  1907),  which 
embodies  the  results  of  recent  historical  research.  The  Prison  Life 
of  Jefferson  Davis  (New  York,  1866)  by  John  J.  Craven  (d.  1893),  a 
Federal  army  surgeon  who  was  Dayis's  physician  at  Fortress 
Monroe,  was  long  popular;  it  gives  a  vivid  and  sympathetic  picture 
of  Mr  Davis  as  a  prisoner,  but  its  authenticity  and  accuracy  have 
been  questioned.  .  (W.  W.  H.*;  N.  D.  M.) 

DAVIS  (or  DAVYS),  JOHN  (1550  ?-i6o5),  one  of  the  chief 
English  navigators  and  explorers  under  Elizabeth,  especially  in 
Polar  regions,  was  born  at  Sandridge  near  Dartmouth  about  1550. 
From  a  boy  he  was  a  sailor,  and  early  made  several  voyages  with 
Adrian  Gilbert;  both  the  Gilbert  and  Raleigh  families  were 
Devonians  of  his  own  neighbourhood,  and  through  life  he  seems 
to  have  profited  by  their  friendship.  In  January  1 583  he  appears 
to  have  broached  his  design  of  a  north-west  passage  to  Walsing- 
ham  and  John  Dee;  various  consultations  followed;  and  in 
1585  he  started  on  his  first  north-western  expedition.  On  this  he 
began  by  striking  the  ice-bound  east  shore  of  Greenland,  which 
he  followed  south  to  Cape  Farewell;  thence  he  turned  north  once 
more  and  coasted  the  west  Greenland  littoral  some  way,  till, 
finding  the  sea  free  from  ice,  he  shaped  a  "  course  for  China  " 
by  the  north-west.  In  66°  N.,  however,  he  fell  in  with  Baffin 
Land,  and  though  he  pushed  some  way  up  Cumberland  Sound, 
and  professed  to  recognize  in  this  the  "  hoped  strait,"  he  now 
turned  back  (end  of  August).  He  tried  again  in  1586  and  1587; 
in  the  last  voyage  he  pushed  through  the  straits  still  named  after 
him  into  Baffin's  Bay,  coasting  west  Greenland  to  73°  N.,  almost 
to  Upernavik,  and  thence  making  a  last  effort  to  find  a  passage 
westward  along  the  north  of  America.  Many  points  in  Arctic 
latitudes  (Cumberland  Sound,  Cape  Walsingham,  Exeter  Sound, 
&c.)  retain  names  given  them  by  Davis,  who  ranks  with  Baffin 
and  Hudson  as  the  greatest  of  early  Arctic  explorers  and,  like 


DAVIS,  T.  O.— DAVIS  STRAIT 


869 


Frobisher,  narrowly  missed  the  discovery  of  Hudson's  Bay  via 
Hudson's  Straits  (the  "  Furious  Overfall  "  of  Davis).  In  1588 
he  seems  to  have  commanded  the  "  Black  Dog  "  against  the 
Spanish  Armada;  in  1589  he  joined  the  earl  of  Cumberland  off 
the  Azores;  and  in  1591  he  accompanied  Thomas  Cavendish 
on  his  last  voyage,  with  the  special  purpose,  as  he  tells  us,  of 
searching  "  that  north-west  discovery  upon  the  back  parts 
of  America."  After  the  rest  of  Cavendish's  expedition  returned 
unsuccessful,  he  continued  to  attempt  on  his  own  account  the 
passage  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan;  though  defeated  here  by  foul 
weather,  he  discovered  the  Falkland  Islands.  The  passage  home 
was  extremely  disastrous,  and  he  brought  back  only  fourteen  of 
his  seventy-six  men.  After  his  return  in  1593  he  published 
a  valuable  treatise  on  practical  navigation  in  The  Seaman's 
Secrets  (1594),  and  a  more  theoretical  work  in  The  World's 
Hydrographical  Description  (1595).  His  invention  of  back-staff 
and  double  quadrant  (called  a  "  Davis  Quadrant  "  after  him) 
held  the  field  among  English  seamen  till  long  after  Hadley's 
reflecting  quadrant  had  been  introduced.  In  1596-1597  Davis 
seems  to  have  sailed  with  Raleigh  (as  master  of  Sir  Walter's 
own  ship)  to  Cadiz  and  the  Azores;  and  in  1598-1600  he  accom- 
panied a  Dutch  expedition  to  the  East  Indies  as  pilot,  sailing 
from  Flushing,  returning  to  Middleburg,  and  narrowly  escaping 
destruction  from  treachery  at  Achin  in  Sumatra.  In  1601-1603 
he  accompanied  Sir  James  Lancaster  as  first  pilot  on  his  voyage 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company;  and  in  December 
1604  he  sailed  again  for  the  same  destination  as  pilot  to  Sir 
Edward  Michelborne  (or  Michelbourn).  On  this  journey  he  was 
killed  by  Japanese  pirates  off  Bintang  near  Sumatra. 

A  Traverse  Book  made  by  John  Davis  in  1587,  an  Account  of  his 
Second  Voyage  in  1586,  and  a  Report  of  Master  John  Davis  of  his 
three  voyages  made  for  the  Discovery  of  the  North  West  Passage  were 
printed  in  Hakluyt's  collection.  Davis  himself  published  The 
Seaman's  Secrets,  divided  into  two  Parts  (London,  1594),  The  World's 
Hydrographical  Description  .  .  .  whereby  appears  that  there  is  a  short 
and  speedy  Passage  into  the  South  Seas,  to  China,  Molucca,  Philip- 
pina,  and  India,  by  Northerly  Navigation  (London,  1595).  Various 
references  to  Davis  are  in  the  Calendars  of  Stale  Papers,  Domestic 
(1591-1594),  and  East  Indies  (1513-1616).  See  also  Voyages  and 
Works  of  John  Davis,  edited  by  A.  H.  Markham  (London,  Hakluyt 
Society,  1880),  and  the  article  "  John  Davys  "  by  Sir  J.  K.  Laughton 
in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  (C.  R.  B.) 

DAVIS,  THOMAS  OSBORNE  (1814-1845),  Irish  poet  and 
journalist,  was  born  at  Mallow,  Co.  Cork,  on  the  I4th  of  October 
1814.  His  father,  James  Thomas  Davis,  a  surgeon  in  the  royal 
artillery,  who  died  in  the  month  of  his  son's  birth,  belonged  to 
an  English  family  of  Welsh  extraction,  and  his  mother,  Mary 
Atkins,  belonged  to  a  Protestant  Anglo-Irish  family.  Davis 
graduated  B.  A.  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1836,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  two  years  later.  Brought  up  in  an  English  and  Tory 
circle,  he  was  led  to  adopt  nationalist  views  by  the  study  of  Irish 
history,  a  complicated  subject  in  which  text-books  and  the 
ordinary  guides  to  knowledge  were  then  lacking.  In  1840  he 
made  a  speech  appealing  to  Irish  sentiment  before  the  college 
historical  society,  which  had  been  reorganized  in  1839.  With  a 
view  to  indoctrinating  the  Irish  people  with  the  idea  of  nation- 
ality he  joined  John  Blake  Dillon  in  editing  the  Dublin  Morning 
Register.  The  proprietor  very  soon  dismissed  him,  and  Davis 
saw  that  his  propaganda  would  be  ineffective  if  he  continued  to 
stand  outside  the  national  organization.  He  therefore  announced 
himself  a  follower  of  Daniel  O'Connell,  and  became  an  energetic 
worker  (1841)  on  the  committee  of  the  repeal  association.  He 
helped  Dillon  and  Charles  Gavan  Duffy  to  found  the  weekly 
newspaper,  The  Nation,  the  first  number  of  which  appeared  on 
the  1 5th  of  October  1842.  The  paper  was  chiefly  written  by  these 
three  promoters,  and  its  concentrated  purpose  and  vigorous 
writing  soon  attracted  attention.  Davis,  who  had  never  written 
verse,  was  induced  to  attempt  it  for  the  new  undertaking.  The 
"  Lament  of)  Owen  Roe  O'Neill "  was  printed  in  the  sixth 
number,  and  was  followed  by  a  series  of  lyrics  that  take  a  high 
place  in  Irish  national  poetry — "  The  Battle  of  Fontenoy," 
"  The  Geraldines,"  "  Maire  Bhan  a  StoJr  "  and  many  others. 
Davis  contemplated  a  history  of  Ireland,  an  edition  of  the 
speeches  of  Irish  orators,  one  volume  of  which  appeared,  and 


a  life  of  Wolfe  Tone.  These  projects  remained  incomplete,  but 
Davis's  determination  and  continuous  zeal  made  their  mark  on 
his  party.  Differences  arose  between  O'Connell  and  the  young 
writers  of  The  Nation,  and  as  time  went  on  became  more 
pronounced.  Davis  was  accused  of  being  anti-Catholic,  and 
was  systematically  attacked  by  O'Connell's  followers.  But  he 
differed,  said  Sir  Charles  Gavan  Duffy,  from  earlier  and  later 
Irish  tribunes,  "  by  a  perfectly  genuine  desire  to  remain  un- 
known, and  reap  neither  recognition  nor  reward  for  his  work." 
His  early  death  from  scarlet  fever  .(September  isth,  1845)  de- 
prived "Young  Ireland"  of  its  most  striking  personality. 

His  Poems  and  his  Literary  and  Historical  Essays  were  collected 
in  1846.  There  is  an  edition  of  his  prose  writings  (1889)  in  the 
Camelot  Classics.  See  the  monograph  on  Thomas  Davis  by  Sir 
Charles  Gavan  Duffy  (1890,  abridged  ed.  1896),  and  the  same 
writer's  Young  Ireland  (revised  edition,  1896). 

DAVISON,  WILLIAM  (c.  1541-1608),  secretary  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  was  of  Scottish  descent,  and  in  1566  acted  as  secretary 
to  Henry  Killigrew  (d.  1603),  when  he  was  sent  into  Scotland  by 
Elizabeth  on  a  mission  to  Mary,  queen  of  Scots.  Remaining  in 
that  country  for  about  ten  years,  Davison  then  went  twice  to  the 
Netherlands  on  diplomatic  business,  returning  to  England  in 
1586  to  defend  the  hasty  conduct  of  his  friend,  Robert  Dudley, 
earl  of  Leicester.  In  the  same  year  he  became  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Knaresborough,  a  privy  councillor,  and  assistant  to 
Elizabeth's  secretary,  Thomas  Walsingham;  but  he  soon  appears 
to  have  acted  rather  as  the  colleague  than  the  subordinate  of 
Walsingham.  He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  try  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  although  he  took  no  part  in  its 
proceedings.  When  sentence  was  passed  upon  Mary  the  warrant 
for  her  execution  was  entrusted  to  Davison,  who,  after  some 
delay,  obtained  the  queen's  signature.  On  this  occasion,  and 
also  in  subsequent  interviews  with  her  secretary,  Elizabeth 
suggested  that  Mary  should  be  executed  in  some  more  secret 
fashion,  and  her  conversation  afforded  ample  proof  that  she 
disliked  to  take  upon  herself  any  responsibility  for  the  death  of 
her  rival.  Meanwhile,  the  privy  council  having  been  summoned 
by  Lord  Burghley,  it  was  decided  to  carry  out  the  sentence  at 
once,  and  Mary  was  beheaded  on  the  8th  of  February  1587. 
When  the  news  of  the  execution  reached  Elizabeth  she  was 
extremely  indignant,  and  her  wrath  was  chiefly  directed  against 
Davison,  who,  she  asserted,  had  disobeyed  her  instructions  not 
to  part  with  the  warrant.  The  secretary  was  arrested  and 
thrown  into  prison,  but,  although  he  defended  himself  vigorously, 
he  did  not  say  anything  about  the  queen's  wish  to  get  rid  of 
Mary  by  assassination.  Charged  before  the  Star  Chamber  with 
misprision  and  contempt,  he  was  acquitted  of  evil  intention,  but 
was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  10,000  marks,  and  to  imprison- 
ment during  the  queen's  pleasure;  but  owing  to  the  exertions 
of  several  influential  men  he  was  released  in  1 589.  The  queen, 
however,  refused  to  employ  him  again  in  her  service,  and  he 
retired  to  Stepney,  where  he  died  in  December  1608.  Davison 
appears  to  have  been  an  industrious  and  outspoken  man,  and  was 
undoubtedly  made  the  scapegoat  for  the  queen's  pusillanimous 
conduct.  By  his  wife,  Catherine  Spelman,  he  had  a  family  of  four 
sons  and  two  daughters.  Two  of  his  sons,  Francis  and  Walter, 
obtained  some  celebrity  as  poets._ 

Many  state  papers  written  by  him,  and  many  of  his  letters,  are 
extant  in  various  collections  of  manuscripts.  See  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas, 
Life  of  W.  Davison  (London,  1823) ;  J.  A.  Froude,  History  of  England 
(London,  1881  fol.) ;  Calendar  of  State  Papers  1380-1609;  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Leicester  during  his  Government  of  the  Low  Countries, 
edited  by  J.  Bruce  (London,  1844). 

DAVIS  STRAIT,  the  broad  strait  which  separates  Greenland 
from  North  America,  and  connects  Baffin  Bay  with  the  open 
Atlantic.  At  its  narrowest  point,  which  occurs  just  where  the 
Arctic  Circle  crosses  it,  it  is  nearly  200  m.  wide.  This  part  is  also 
the  shallowest,  a  sounding  of  112  fathoms  being  found  in  the 
centre,  whereas  the  depth  increases  rapidly  both  to  north  and  to 
south.  Along  the  western  shore  (Baffin  Land)  a  cold  current 
passes  southward;  but  along  the  east  there  is  a  warm  north- 
ward stream,  and  there  are  a  few  Danish  settlements  on  the 
Greenland  coast.  The  strait  takes  its  name  from  the  explorer 
John  Davis. 


8yo 


DAVITT— DAVOUT 


DAVITT,  MICHAEL  (1846-1906),  Irish  Nationalist  politician, 
son  of  a  peasant  farmer  in  Co.  Mayo,  was  born  on  the  25th  of 
March  1846.  His  father  w.as  evicted  for  non-payment  of  rent 
in  1851,  and  migrated  to  Lancashire,  where  at  the  age  of  ten  the 
boy  began  work  in  a  cotton  mill  at  Haslingden.  In  1857  he  lost 
his  right  arm  by  a  machinery  accident,  and  he  had  to  get  employ- 
ment as  a  newsboy  and  printer's  "  devil."  He  drifted  into  the 
ranks  of  the  Fenian  brotherhood  in  1865,  and  in  1870  he  was 
arrested  for  treason-felony  in  arranging  for  sending  fire-arms 
into  Ireland,  and  was  sentenced  to  fifteen  years'  penal  servitude. 
After  seven  years  he  was  released  on  ticket  of  leave.  He  at  once 
rejoined  the  "  Irish  Republican  Brotherhood,"  and  went  to  the 
United  States,  where  his  mother,  herself  of  American  birth,  had 
settled  with  the  rest  of  the  family,  in  order  to  concert  plans 
with  the  Fenian  leaders  there.  Returning  to  Ireland  he  helped 
C.  S.  Parnell  to  start  the  Land  League  in  1879,  and  his  violent 
speeches  resulted  in  his  re-arrest  and  consignment  to  Portland  by 
Sir  William  Harcourt,  then  home  secretary.  He  was  released  in 
1882,  but  was  again  prosecuted  for  seditious  speeches  in  1883,  and 
suffered  three  months'  imprisonment.  He  had  been  elected  to 
parliament  for  Meath  as  a  Nationalist  in  1882,  but  being  a  con- 
vict was  disqualified  to  sit.  He  was  included  as  one  of  the 
respondents  before  the  Parnell  Commission  (1888-1890)  and 
spoke  for  five  days  in  his  own  defence,  but  his  prominent  associa- 
tion with  the  revolutionary  Irish  schemes  was  fully  established. 
(See  PARNELL.)  He  took  the  anti-Parnellite  side  in  1890,  and  in 
1892  was  elected  to  parliament  for  North  Meath,  but  was  unseated 
on  petition.  He  was  then  returned  for  North-East  Cork,  but  had 
to  vacate  his  seat  through  bankruptcy,  caused  by  the  costs  in 
the  North  Meath  petition.  In  1895  he  was  elected  for  West  Mayo, 
but  retired  before  the  dissolution  in  1900.  He  died  on  the  3ist 
of  May  1906,  in  Dublin.  A  sincere  but  embittered  Nationalist, 
anti-English  to  the  backbone,  anti-clerical,  and  sceptical  as  to 
the  value  of  the  purely  parliamentary  agitation  for  Home  Rule, 
Davitt  was  a  notable  representative  of  the  survival  of  the  Irish 
"  physical  force  "  party,  and  a  strong  link  with  the  extremists  in 
America.  In  later  years  his  Socialistic  Radicalism  connected  him 
closely  with  the  Labour  party.  He  wrote  constantly  in  American 
and  colonial  journals,  and  published  some  books,  always  with 
the  strongest  bias  against  English  methods;  but  his  force  of 
character  earned  him  at  least  the  respect  of  those  who  could  make 
calm  allowance  for  an  open  enemy  of  the  established  order,  and  a 
higher  meed  of  admiration  from  those  who  sympathized  with  his 
objects  or  were  not  in  a  position  to  be  threatened  by  them. 

DAVOS  (Romonsch  Tavau,  a  name  variously  explained  as 
meaning  a  sheep  pasture  or  simply  "behind"), 'a  mountain 
valley  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  Grisons,  lying  east  of  Coire 
(whence  it  is  40  m.  distant  by  rail),  and  north-west  of  the  Lower 
Engadine  (accessible  at  Siis  in  18  m.  by  road).  It  contains  two 
main  villages,  2  m.  from  each  other,  Dorfli  and  Platz  (the  chief 
hamlet),  which  are  5015  ft.  above  the  sea-level,  and  had  a  popu- 
lation in  1900  of  8089,  a  figure  exceeded  in  the  Grisons  only  by 
the  capital  Coire.  Of  the  population  5391  were  Protestants,  2564 
Romanists,  and  81  Jews;  while  6048  were  German-speaking 
and  486  Romonsch-speaking.  In  1860  the  population  was  only 
1705,  rising  to  2002  in  1870,  to  2865  in  1880,  to  3891  in  1888, 
and  to  8089  in  1890.  This  steady  increase  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  valley  is  now  much  frequented  in  winter  by  consumptive 
patients,  as  its  position,  sheltered  from  cold  winds  and  exposed 
to  brilliant  sunshine  in  the  daytime,  has  a  most  beneficial  effect 
on  invalids  in  the  first  stages  of  that  terrible  disease.  A  local 
doctor,  by  name  Spengler,  first  noticed  this  fact  about  1865, 
and  the  valley  soon  became  famous.  It  is  now  provided  with 
excellent  hotels,  sanatoria,  &c.,  but  as  lately  as  1860  there  was 
only  one  inn  there,  housed  in  the  16th-century  Rathhaus  (town 
hall),  which  is  still  adorned  by  the  heads  of  wolves  shot  in  the 
neighbourhood.  At  the  north  end  of  the  valley  is  the  fine  lake 
of  Davos,  used  for  skating  in  the  winter,  while  from  Platz  the 
splendidly  engineered  Landwasserstrasse  leads  (20  m.)  down  to  the 
Alvaneubad  station  on  the  Albula  railway  from  Coire  to  the 
Engadine. 

We  first  hear  of  Tavaus  or  Tavauns  in  1160  and  1213,  as  a 


mountain  pasture  or  "  alp."  It  was  then  in  the  hands  of  a 
Romonsch-speaking  population,  as  is  shown  by  many  surviving 
field  names.  But,  some  time  between  1260  and  1282,  a  colony 
of  German-speaking  persons  from  the  Upper  Valais  (first 
mentioned  in  1289)  was  planted  there  by  its  lord,  Walter  von 
Vaz,  so  that  it  has  long  been  a  Teutonic  island  in  the  midst  of 
a  Romonsch-speaking  population.  Historically  it  is  associated 
with  the  Prattigau  or  Landquart  valley  to  the  north,  as  it  was 
the  most  important  village  of  the  region,  and  in  1436  became  the 
capital  of  the  League  of  the  Ten  Jurisdictions.  (See  GRISONS.) 
It  formerly  contained  many  iron  mines,  and  belonged  from  1477 
to  1649  to  the  Austrian  Habsburgs.  In  1779  Davos  was  visited 
and  described  by  Archdeacon  W.  Coxe.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

DAVOUT,  LOUIS  NICOLAS,  duke  of  Auerstadt  and  prince  of 
Eckmuhl  (1770-1823),  marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Annoux 
(Yonne)  on  the  roth  of  May  1 770.  His  name  is  also,  less  correctly, 
spelt  Davout  and  Davoust.  He  entered  the  French  army  as  a 
sub-lieutenant  in  1788,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he 
embraced  its  principles.  He  was  chef  de  bataillon  in  a  volunteer 
corps  in  the  campaign  of  1792,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Neerwinden  in  the  following  spring.  He  had  just  been  promoted 
general  of  brigade  when  he  was  removed  from  the  active  list 
as  being  of  noble  birth.  He  served,  however,  in  the  campaigns 
of  1794-1797  on  the  Rhine,  and  accompanied  Desaix  in  the 
Egyptian  expedition  of  Bonaparte.  On  his  return  he  took  part 
in  the  campaign  of  Marengo  under  Napoleon,  who  placed  the 
greatest  confidence  in  his  abilities,  made  him  a  general  of  division 
eoon  after  Marengo,  and  in  1801  gave  him  a  command  in  the  con- 
sular guard.  At  the  accession  of  Napoleon  as  emperor,  Davout 
was  one  of  the  generals  who  were  created  marshals  of  France. 
As  commander  of  the  III.  corps  of  the  Grande  Armee  Davout 
rendered  the  greatest  services.  At  Austerlitz,  after  a  forced 
march  of  forty-eight  hours,  the  III.  corps  bore  the  brunt  of  the 
allies'  attack.  In  the  Jena  campaign  Davout  with  a  single  corps 
fought  and  won  the  brilliant  victory  of  Auerstadt  against  the  main 
Prussian  army.  (See  NAPOLEONIC  CAMPAIGNS.)  He  took  part,  and 
added  to  his  renown,  in  the  campaign  of  Eylau  and  Friedland. 
Napoleon  left  him  as  governor-general  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Warsaw  when  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  put  an  end  to  the  war  (1807), 
and  in  1808  created  him  duke  of  Auerstadt.  In  the  war  of  1809 
Davout  took  a  brilliant  part  in  the  actions  which  culminated  in 
the  victory  of  Eckmuhl,  and  had  an  important  share  in  the 
battle  of  Wagram  (q.v.) .  He  was  created  prince  of  Eckmuhl  about 
this  time.  It  was  Davout  who  was  entrusted  by  Napoleon  with 
the  task  of  organizing  the  "  corps  of  observation  of  the  Elbe," 
which  was  in  reality  the  gigantic  army  with  which  the  emperor 
invaded  Russia  in  1812.  In  this  Davout  commanded  the  I.  corps, 
over  70,000  strong,  and  defeated  the  Russians  at  Mohilev  before 
he  joined  the  main  army,  with  which  he  continued  through- 
out the  campaign  and  the  retreat  from  Moscow.  In  1813 
he  commanded  the  Hamburg  military  district,  and  defended 
Hamburg,  a  city  ill  fortified  and  provisioned,  and  full  of  dis- 
affection, through  a  long  siege,  only  surrendering  the  place  on 
the  direct  order  of  Louis  XVIII.  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1814. 

Davout's  military  character  was  on  this,  as  on  many  other 
occasions,  interpreted  as  cruel  and  rapacious,  and  he  had  to 
defend  himself  against  many  attacks  upon  his  conduct  at 
Hamburg.  He  was  a  stern  disciplinarian,  almost  the  only  one 
of  the  marshals  who  exacted  rigid  and  precise  obedience  from 
his  troops,  and  consequently  his  corps  was  more  trustworthy 
and  exact  in  the  performance  of  its  duty  than  any  other.  Thus, 
in  the  earlier  days  of  the  Grande  Armee,  it  was  always  the 
III.  corps  which  was  entrusted  with  the  most  difficult  part  of 
the  work  in  hand.  The  same  criterion  is  to  be  applied  to  his 
conduct  of  civil  affairs.  His  rapacity  was  in  reality  Napoleon's,  for 
he  gave  the  same  undeviating  obedience  to  superior  orders  which 
he  enforced  in  his  own  subordinates.  As  for  his  military  talents, 
he  was  admitted  by  his  contemporaries  and  by  later  judgment 
to  be  one  of  the  ablest,  perhaps  the  ablest,  of  all  Napoleon's 
marshals.  On  the  first  restoration  he  retired  into  private  life, 
openly  displaying  his  hostility  to  the  Bourbons,  and  when 
Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Davout  at  once  joined  him. 


DAVY,  SIR  HUMPHRY 


871 


Appointed  minister  of  war,  he  reorganized  the  French  army  as 
far  as  the  limited  time  available  permitted,  and  he  was  so  far 
indispensable  to  the  war  department  that  Napoleon  kept  him  at 
Paris  during  the  Waterloo  campaign.  To  what  degree  his  skill 
and  bravery  would  have  altered  the  fortunes  of  the  campaign 
of  1815  can  only  be  surmised,  but  it  has  been  made  a  ground  of 
criticism  against  Napoleon  that  he  did  not  avail  himself  in  the 
field  of  the  services  of  the  best  general  he  then  possessed.  Davout 
directed  the  gallant,  but  hopeless,  defence  of  Paris  after  Waterloo, 
and  was  deprived  of  his  marshalate  and  his  titles  at  the  second 
restoration.  When  some  of  his  subordinate  generals  were  pro- 
scribed, he  demanded  to  be  held  responsible  for  their  acts,  as 
executed  under  his  orders,  and  he  endeavoured  to  prevent 
the  condemnation  of  Ney.  After  a  time  the  hostility  of  the 
Bourbons  towards  Davout  died  away,  and  he  was  reconciled  to 
the  monarchy.  In  1817  his  rank  and  titles  were  restored,  and  in 
1819  he  became  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  peers.  He  died  at 
Paris  on  the  ist  of  June  1823. 

See  the  marquise  de  Blocqueville,  Le  Marechal  Davout  raconte 
par  Us  siens  et  lui-meme  (Paris,  1870-1880,  1887);  Chenier,  Davout, 
due  d'Auerstddt  (Paris,  1866). 

DAVY,  SIR  HUMPHRY,  Bart.  (1778-1829),  English  chemist, 
was  born  on  the  I7th  of  December  1778  at  or  near  Penzance 
in  Cornwall.  During  his  school  days  at  the  grammar  schools 
of  Penzance  and  Truro  he  showed  few  signs  of  a  taste  for 
scientific  pursuits  or  indeed  of  any  special  zeal  for  know- 
ledge or  of  ability  beyond  a  certain  skill  in  making  verse  trans- 
lations from  the  classics  and  in  story-telling.  But  when  in 
1794  his  father,  Robert  Davy,  died,  leaving  a  widow  and  five 
children  in  embarrassed  circumstances,  he  awoke  to  his  responsi- 
bilities as  the  eldest  son,  and  becoming  apprentice  to  a  surgeon- 
apothecary  at  Penzance  set  to  work  on  a  systematic  and  remark- 
ably wide  course  of  self-instruction  which  he  mapped  out  for 
himself  in  preparation  for  a  career  in  medicine.  Beginning  with 
metaphysics  and  ethics  and  passing  on  to  mathematics,  he 
turned  to  chemistry  at  the  end  of  1797,  and  within  a  few  months 
of  reading  Nicholson's  and  Lavoisier's  treatises  on  that  science 
had  produced  a  new  theory  of  light  and  heat.  About  the  same 
time  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  two  men  of  scientific  attain- 
ments— Gregory  Watt  (1777-1804),  a  son  of  James  Watt,  and 
Da  vies  Giddy,  afterwards  Gilbert  (1767-1839),  who  was  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  from  1827  to  1831.  By  the  latter  he  was 
recommended  to  Dr  Thomas  Beddoes,  who  was  in  1 798  establish- 
ing his  Medical  Pneumatic  Institution  at  Bristol  for  investigating 
the  medicinal  properties  of  various  gases.  Here  Davy,  released 
from  his  indentures,  was  installed  as  superintendent  towards  the 
end  of  1798.  Early  next  year  two  papers  from  his  pen  were 
published  in  Beddoes'  West  Country  Contributions — one  "  On 
Heat,  Light  and  the  Combinations  of  Light,  with  a  new  Theory 
of  Respiration  and  Observations  on  the  Chemistry  of  Life,"  and 
the  other  "On  the  Generation  of  Phosoxygen  (Oxygen  gas)  and 
the  Causes  of  the  Colours  of  Organic  Beings."  These  contain 
an  account  of  the  well-known  experiment  in  which  he  sought  to 
establish  the  immateriality  of  heat  by  showing  its  generation 
through  the  friction  of  two  pieces  of  ice  in  an  exhausted  vessel, 
and  further  attempt  to  prove  that  light  is  "  matter  of  a  peculiar 
kind,"  and  that  oxygen  gas,  being  a  compound  of  this  matter 
with  a  simple  substance,  would  more  properly  be  termed  phos- 
oxygen.  Founded  on  faulty  experiments  and  reasoning,  the 
views  he  expressed  were  either  ignored  or  ridiculed;  and  it  was 
long  before  he  bitterly  regretted  the  temerity  with  which  he  had 
published  his  hasty  generalizations. 

One  of  his  first  discoveries  at  the  Pneumatic  Institution  on 
the  gth  of  April  1799  was  that  pure  nitrous  oxide  (laughing  gas) 
is  perfectly  respirable,  and  he  narrates  that  on  the  next  day 
he  became  "  absolutely  intoxicated  "  through  breathing  sixteen 
quarts  of  it  for  "  near  seven  minutes."  This  discovery  brought 
both  him  and  the  Pneumatic  Institution  into  prominence.  The 
gas  itself  was  inhaled  by  Southey  and  Coleridge  among  other 
distinguished  people,  and  promised  to  become  fashionable,  while 
further  research  yielded  Davy  material  for  his'  Researches, 
Chemical  and  Philosophical,  chiefly  concerning  Nitrous  Oxide, 


published  in  1800,  which  secured  his  reputation  as  a  chemist. 
Soon  afterwards,  Count  Rumford,  requiringa  lecturer  on  chemistry 
for  the  recently  established  Royal  Institution  in  London,  opened 
negotiations  with  him,  and  on  the  i6th  of  February  1801  he  was 
engaged  as  assistant  lecturer  in  chemistry  and  director  of  the 
laboratory.  Ten  weeks  later,  having  "  given  satisfactory  proofs 
of  his  talents  "  in  a  course  of  lectures  on  galvanism,  he  was 
appointed  lecturer,  and  his  promotion  to  be  professor  followed 
on  the  jist  of  May  1802.  One  of  the  first  tasks  imposed  on 
him  by  the  managers  was  the  delivery  of  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  chemical  principles  of  tanning,  and  he  was  given  leave 
of  absence  for  July,  August  and  September  1801  in  order  to 
acquaint  himself  practically  with  the  subject.  The  main  facts 
he  discovered  from  his  experiments  in  this  connexion  were 
described  before  the  Royal  Society  in  1803.  In  1802  the  board 
of  agriculture  requested  him  to  direct  his  attention  to  agricultural 
subjects;  and  in  1803,  with  the  acquiescence  of  the  Royal 
Institution,  he  gave  his  first  course  of  lectures  on  agricultural 
chemistry  and  continued  them  for  ten  successive  years,  ulti- 
mately publishing  their  substance  as  Elements  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry  in  1813.  But  his  chief  interest  at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion was  with  electro-chemistry.  Galvanic  phenomena  had 
already  engaged  his  attention  before  he  left  Bristol,  but  in 
London  he  had  at  his  disposal  a  large  battery  which  gave 
him  much  greater  opportunities.  His  first  communication  to  the 
Royal  Society,  read  in  June  1801,  related  to  galvanic  combina- 
tions formed  with  single  metallic  plates  and  fluids,  and  showed 
that  an  electric  cell  might  be  constructed  with  a  single  metal 
and  two  fluids,  provided  one  of  the  fluids  was  capable  of  oxidizing 
one  surface  of  the  metal;  previous  piles  had  consisted  of  two 
different  metals,  or  of  one  plate  of  metal  and  the  other  of  char- 
coal, with  an  interposed  fluid.  Five  years  later  he  delivered 
before  the  Royal  Society  his  first  Bakerian  lecture,  "  On  some 
Chemical  Agencies  of  Electricity,"  which  J.  J.  Berzelius  described 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  memoirs  in  the  history  of 
chemical  theory.  He  summed  up  his  results  in  the  general 
statement  that  "  hydrogen,  the  alkaline  substances,  the  metals 
and  certain  metallic  oxides  are  attracted  by  negatively  electrified 
metallic  surfaces,  and  repelled  by  positively  electrified  metallic 
surfaces;  and  contrariwise,  that  oxygen  and  acid  substances  are 
attracted  by  positively  electrified  metallic  surfaces  and  repelled 
by  negatively  electrified  metallic  surfaces;  and  these  attractive 
and  repulsive  forces  are  sufficiently  energetic  to  destroy  or  suspend 
the  usual  operation  of  elective  affinity."  He  also  sketched  a 
theory  of  chemical  affinity  on  the  facts  he  had  discovered,  and 
concluded  by  suggesting  that  the  electric  decomposition  of 
neutral  salts  might  in  some  cases  admit  of  economical  appli- 
cations and  lead  to  the  isolation  of  the  true  elements  of  bodies. 
A  year  after  this  paper,  which  gained  him  from  the  French 
Institute  the  medal  offered  by  Napoleon  for  the  best  experiment 
made  each  year  on  galvanism,  he  described  in  his  second 
Bakerian  lecture  the  electrolytic  preparation  of  potassium  and 
sodium,  effected  in  October  1807  by  the  aid  of  his  battery. 
According  to  his  cousin,  Edmund  Davy,1  then  his  laboratory 
assistant,  he  was  so  delighted  with  this  achievement  that  he 
danced  about  the  room  in  ecstasy.  Four  days  after  reading  his 
lecture  his  health  broke  down,  and  severe  illness  kept  him  from  his 
professional  duties  until  March  1808.  As  soon  as  he  was  able  to 
work  again  he  attempted  to  obtain  the  metals  of  the  alkaline 
earths  by  the  same  methods  as  he  had  used  for  those  of  the  fixed 
alkalis,  but  they  eluded  his  efforts  and  he  only  succeeded  in 
preparing  them  as  amalgams  with  mercury,  by  a  process  due  to 
Berzelius.  His  attempts  to  decompose  "  alumine,  silica,  zircone 
and  glucine  "  were  still  less  fortunate.  At  the  end  of  1808  he 
read  his  third  Bakerian  lecture,  one  of  the  longest  of  his  papers 
but  not  one  of  the  best.  In  it  he  disproved  the  idea  advanced  by 
Gay  Lussac  that  potassium  was  a  compound  of  hydrogen,  not  an 
element;  but  on  the  other  hand  he  cast  doubts  on  the  elementary 

"Edmund  Davy  (1785-1857)  became  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Cork  Institution  in  1813,  and  at  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  in  1826. 
His  son,  Edmund  William  Davy  (born  in  1826),  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  Royal  College,  Dublin,  in  1870. 


DAVY,  SIR  HUMPHRY 


character  of  phosphorus,  sulphur  and  carbon,  though  on  this 
point  he  afterwards  corrected  himself.  He  also  described  the 
preparation  of  boron,  for  which  at  first  he  proposed  the  name 
boracium,  on  the  impression  that  it  was  a  metal.  About  this 
time  a  voluntary  subscription  among  the  members  of  the  Royal 
Institution  put  him  in  possession  of  a  new  galvanic  battery 
of  2000  double  plates,  with  a  surface  equal  to  128,000  sq.  in., 
to  replace  the  old  one,  which  had  become  unserviceable.  His 
fourth  Bakerian  lecture,  in  November  1809,  gave  further  proofs 
of  the  elementary  nature  of  potassium,  and  described  the 
properties  of  telluretted  hydrogen.  Next  year,  in  a  paper  read 
in  July  and  in  his  fifth  Bakerian  lecture  in  November,  he 
argued  that  oxymuriatic  acid,  contrary  to  his  previous  belief, 
was  a  simple  body,  and  proposed  for  it  the  name  "  chlorine." 

Davy's  reputation  was  now  at  its  zenith.  As  a  lecturer  he 
could  command  an  audience  of  little  less  than  1000  in  the  theatre 
of  the  Royal  Institution,  and  his  fame  had  spread  far  outside 
London.  In  1810,  at  the  invitation  of  the  Dublin  Society,  he 
gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  electro-chemical  science,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  again  lectured  in  Dublin,  on  chemistry  and 
geology,  receiving  large  fees  at  both  visits.  During  his  second 
visit  Trinity  College  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.,  the  only  university  distinction  he  ever  received.  On  the 
8th  of  April  1812  he  was  knighted  by  the  prince  regent;  on 
the  pth  he  gave  his  farewell  lecture  as  professor  of  chemistry  at 
the  Royal  Institution;  and  on  the  nth  he  was  married  to  Mrs 
Apreece,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  Kerr  of  Kelso,  and  a 
distant  connexion  of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  A  few  months  after  his 
marriage  he  published  the  first  and  only  volume  of  his  Elements 
of  Chemical  Philosophy,  with  a  dedication  to  his  wife,  and  was 
also  re-elected  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
though  he  would  not  pledge  himself  to  deliver  lectures,  explain- 
ing that  he  wished  to  be  free  from  the  routine  of  lecturing  in 
order  to  have  more  time  for  origina'l  work.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  year  he  began  to  investigate  chloride  of  nitrogen,  which  had 
just  been  discovered  by  P.  L.  Dulong,  but  was  obliged  to  suspend 
his  inquiries  during  the  winter  on  account  of  injury  to  his  eye 
caused  by  an  explosion  of  that  substance.  In  the  spring  of  1813 
he  was  engaged  on  the  chemistry  of  fluorine,  and  though  he 
failed  to  isolate  the  element,  he  reached  accurate  conclusions 
regarding  its  nature  and  properties.  In  October  he  started  with 
his  wife  for  a  continental  tour,  and  with  them,  as  "assistant 
in  experiments  and  writing,"  went  Michael  Faraday,  who  in  the 
previous  March  had  been  engaged  as  assistant  in  the  Royal 
Institution  laboratory.  Having  obtained  permission  from  the 
French  emperor  to  travel  in  France,  he  went  first  to  Paris,  where 
during  his  two  months'  stay  every  honour  was  accorded  him, 
including  election  as  a  corresponding  member  of  the  first  class 
of  the  Institute.  He  does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  recipro- 
cated the  courtesy  of  his  French  hosts,  but  gave  offence  by  the 
brusqueness  of  his  manner,  though  his  supercilious  bearing, 
according  to  his  biographer,  Dr  Paris,  was  to  be  ascribed  less  to 
any  conscious  superiority  than  to  an  "  ungraceful  timidity  which 
he  could  never  conquer."  Nor  was  his  action  in  regard  to  iodine 
calculated  to  conciliate.  That  substance,  recently  discovered 
in  Paris,  was  attracting  the  attention  of  French  chemists  when 
he  stepped  in  and,  after  a  short  examination  with  his  portable 
chemical  laboratory,  detected  its  resemblance  to  chlorine  and 
pronounced  it  an  "  undecompounded  body."  Towards  the  end 
of  December  he  left  for  Italy.  At  Genoa  he  investigated  the 
electricity  of  the  torpedo-fish,  and  at  Florence,  by  the  aid  of  the 
great  burning-glass  in  the  Accademia  del  Cimento,  he  effected 
the  combustion  of  the  diamond  in  oxygen  and  decided  that, 
beyond  containing  a  little  hydrogen,  it  consisted  of  pure  carbon. 
Then  he  went  to  Rome  and  Naples  and  visited  Vesuvius  and 
Pompeii,  called  on  Volta  at  Milan,  spent  the  summer  in  Geneva, 
and  returning  to  Rome  occupied  the  winter  with  an  inquiry  into 
the  composition  of  ancient  colours. 

A  few  months  after  his  return,  through  Germany,  to  London 
in  1815,  he  was  induced  to  take  up  the  question  of  constructing 
a  miner's  safety  lamp.  Experiments  with  samples  of  fire-damp 
sent  from  Newcastle  soon  taught  him  that  "  explosive  mixtures 


of  mine-damp  will  not  pass  through  small  apertures  or  tubes  "; 
and  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society  on  the  9th  of 
November  he  showed  that  metallic  tubes,  being  better  con- 
ductors of  heat,  were  superior  to  glass  ones,  and  explained  that 
the  .heat  lost  by  contact  with  a  large  cooling  surface  brought 
the  temperature  of  the  first  portions  of  gas  exploded  below  that 
required  for  the  firing  of  the  other  portions.  Two  further 
papers  read  in  January  1816  explained  the  employment  of  wire 
gauze  instead  of  narrow  tubes,  and  later  in  the  year  the  safety 
lamps  were  brought  into  use  in  the  mines.  A  large  collection  of 
the  different  models  made  by  Davy  in  the  course  of  his  inquiries 
is  in  the  possession  of  the  Royal  Institution.  He  took  out  no 
patent  for  his  invention,  and  in  recognition  of  his  disinterested- 
ness the  Newcastle  coal-owners  in  September  1817  presented  him 
with  a  dinner-service  of  silver  plate.1 

In  1818,  when  he  was  created  a  baronet,  he  was  commissioned 
by  the  British  government  to  examine  the  papyri  of  Herculaneum 
in  the  Neapolitan  museum,  and  he  did  not  arrive  back  in  England 
till  June  1820.  In  November  of  that  year  the  Royal  Society,  of 
which  he  had  become  a  fellow  in  1803,  and  acted  as  secretary 
from  1807  to  1812,  chose  him  as  their  president,  but  his  personal 
qualities  were  not  such  as  to  make  him  very  successful  in  that 
office,  especially  in  comparison  with  the  tact  and  firmness  of 
his  predecessor,  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  In  1821  he  was  busy  with 
electrical  experiments  and  in  1822  with  investigations  of  the 
fluids  contained  in  the  cavities  of  crystals  in  rocks.  In  1823, 
when  Faraday  liquefied  chlorine,  he  read  a  paper  which  suggested 
the  application  of  liquids  formed  by  the  condensation  of  gases 
as  mechanical  agents.  In  the  same  year  the  admiralty  consulted 
the  Royal  Society  as  to  a  means  of  preserving  the  copper  sheath- 
ing of  ships  from  corrosion  and  keeping  it  smooth,  and  he  sug- 
gested that  the  copper  would  be  preserved  if  it  were  rendered 
negatively  electrical,  as  would  be  done  by  fixing  "  protectors  " 
of  zinc  to  the  sheeting.  This  method  was  tried  on  several  ships, 
but  it  was  found  that  the  bottoms  became  extremely  foul  from 
accumulations  of  seaweed  and  shellfish.  For  this  reason  the 
admiralty  decided  against  the  plan,  much  to  the  inventor's 
annoyance,  especially  as  orders  to  remove  the  protectors  already 
fitted  were  issued  in  June  1825,  immediately  after  he  had 
announced  to  the  Royal  Society  the  full  success  of  his  remedy. 

In  1826  Davy's  health,  which  showed  signs  of  failure  in  1823, 
had  so  declined  that  he  could  with  difficulty  indulge  in  his 
favourite  sports  of  fishing  and  shooting,  and  early  in  1827,  after 
a  slight  attack  of  paralysis,  he  was  ordered  abroad.  After  a 
short  stay  at  Ravenna  he  removed  to  Salzburg,  whence,  his  illness 
continuing,  he  sent  in  his  resignation  as  president  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  the  autumn  he  returned  to  England  and  spent  his 
time  in  writing  his  Salmonia  or  Days  of  Flyfishing,  an  imitation 
of  The  Compleat  Angler.  In  the  spring  of  1828  he  again  left 
England  for  Illyria,  and  in  the  winter  fixed  his  residence  at 
Rome,  whence  he  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  his  "  Remarks  on  the 
Electricity  of  the  Torpedo,"  written  at  Trieste  in  October.  This, 
with  the  exception  of  a  posthumous  work,  Consolations  in  Travel, 
or  the  Last  Days  of  a  Philosopher  (1830),  was  the  final  production 
of  his  pen.  On  the  2oth  of  February  1829  he  suffered  a  second 
attack  of  paralysis  which  rendered  his  right  side  quite  powerless, 
but  under  the  care  of  his  brother,  Dr  John  Davy  (1791-1868), 
he  rallied  sufficiently  to  be  removed  to  Geneva,  where  he  died  on 
the  2gth  of  May. 

Of  a  sanguine,  somewhat  irritable  temperament,  Davy  dis- 
played characteristic  enthusiasm  and  energy  in  all  his  pursuits. 
As  is  shown  by  his  verses  and  sometimes  by  his  prose,  his  mind 
was  highly  imaginative;  the  poet  Coleridge  declared  that  if  he 
"  had  not  been  the  first  chemist,  he  would  have  been  the  first  poet 

1  Davy's  will  directed  that  this  service,  after  Lady  Davy's  death, 
should  pass  to  his  brother,  Dr  John  Davy,  on  whose  decease,  if  he 
had  no  heirs  who  could  make  use  of  it,  it  was  to  be  melted  and  sold, 
the  proceeds  going  to  the  Royal  Society  "  to  found  a  medal  to  be 
given  annually  for  the  most  important  discovery  in  chemistry  any- 
where made  m  Europe  or  Anglo-America."  "The  silver  produced 
£736,  and  the  interest  on  that  sum  is  expended  on  the  Davy  medal, 
which  was  awarded  for  the  first  time  in  1877,  to  Bunsenand  Kirchhoff 
for  their  discovery  of  spectrum  analysis. 


DAWARI— DAWKINS 


873 


of  his  age,"  and  Southey  said  that  "  he  had  all  the  elements  of  a 
poet;  he  only  wanted  the  art."  In  spite  of  his  ungainly  exterior 
and  peculiar  manner,  his  happy  gifts  of  exposition  and  illus- 
tration won  him  extraordinary  popularity  as  a  lecturer,  his 
experiments  were  ingenious  and  rapidly  performed,  and  Coleridge 
went  to  hear  him  "  to  increase  his  stock  of  metaphors."  The 
dominating  ambition  of  his  life  was  to  achieve  fame,  but  though 
that  sometimes  betrayed  him  into  petty  jealousy,  it  did  not 
leave  him  insensible  to  the  claims  on  his  knowledge  of  the 
"  cause  of  humanity,"  to  use  a  phrase  often  employed  by  him 
in  connexion  with  his  invention  of  the  miners'  lamp.  Of  the 
smaller  observances  of  etiquette  he  was  careless,  and  his 
frankness  of  disposition  sometimes  exposed  him  to  annoyances 
which  he  might  have  avoided  by  the  exercise  of  ordinary  tact. 
See  Dr  J.  A.  Paris,  The  Life  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  (1831),  vol.  ii 
of  which  on  pp.  450-456  gives  a  list  of  his  publications.  Dr  John 
Davy,  Memoirs  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  (1836);  Collected  Works  (with 
shorter  memoir,  1839);  Fragmentary  Remains,  Literary  and  Scien- 
tific (1858).  T.  E.  Thorpe,  Humphry  Davy,  Poet  and  Philosopher 
(1896). 

DAWARI,  or  DAURI,  a  Pathan  tribe  on  the  Waziri  border  of  the 
North-West  Frontier  Province  of  India.  The  Dawaris  inhabit 
the  Tochi  Valley  (q.v.),  otherwise  known  as  Dawar  or  Daur,  and 
are  a  homogeneous  tribe  of  considerable  size,  numbering  5200 
fighting  men.  Though  surrounded  on  all  four  sides  by  a  Waziri 
population  they  bear  little  resemblance  to  Waziris.  They  are 
an  agricultural  and  the  Waziris  a  pastoral  race,  and  they  are 
much  richer  than  their  neighbours.  They  thrive  on  a  rich  sedi- 
mentary soil  copiously  irrigated  in  the  midst  of  a  country  where 
cultivable  land  of  any  kind  is  scarce  and  water  in  general  hardly 
to  be  obtained.  But  they  pay  a  heavy  tax  in  health  and  well- 
being  for  the  possession  of  their  fertile  acres.  Fevers  and  other 
ravaging  diseases  are  bred  in  the  wet  sodden  lands  of  the  Tochi 
Valley,  lying  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  depression  exposed  to  the 
burning  rays  of  the  sun;  and  the  effects  of  these  ailments  may  be 
clearly  traced  in  the  drawn  or  bloated  features  and  the  shrunken 
or  swollen  limbs  of  nearly  every  Dawari  that  has  passed  middle 
life.  They  have  an  evil  name  for  indolence,  drug-eating  and 
unnatural  vices,  and  are  morally  the  lowest  of  the  Afghan  races; 
but  in  spite  of  these  defects,  and  of  the  contempt  with  which  they 
are  regarded  by  the  other  Afghan  tribes,  they  have  held  their 
own  for  centuries  against  the  warlike  and  hardy  Waziris.  The 
secret  of  this  is  that  the  Dawaris  stand  together,  and  the  Waziris 
do  not,  while  the  weaker  race  is  gifted  with  infinite  patience  and 
tenacity  of  purpose.  With  the  advent  of  British  government, 
however,  the  Dawaris  are  now  secured  in  the  possession  of  their 
ancestral  lands. 

See  J.  G.  Lorimer,  Grammar  and  Vocabulary  of  Waziri  Pushtu 
(1902). 

DAWES,  HENRY  LATOENS  (1816-1903),  American  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Cummington,  Massachusetts,  on  the  3oth  of 
October  1816.  After  graduating  at  Yale  in  1839,  he  taught  for  a 
time  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  and  also  edited  The  Greenfield  Gazette. 
In  1842  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  the  practice  of 
law  at  North  Adams,  where  for  a  time  he  conducted  The  Tran- 
script. He  served  in  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives 
in  1848-1849  and  in  1852,  in  the  state  Senate  in  1850,  and  in  the 
Massachusetts  constitutional  convention  in  1853.  From  1853  to 
1857  he  was  United  States  district  attorney  for  the  western 
district  of  Massachusetts;  and  from  1857-1875  he  was  a 
Republican  member  of  the  national  House  of  Representatives. 
In  1875  he  succeeded  Charles  Sumner  as  senator  from  Massa- 
chusetts, serving  until  1893.  During  this  long  period  of 
legislative  activity  he  served  in  the  House  on  the  committees  on 
elections,  ways  and  means,  and  appropriations,  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  anti-slavery  and  reconstruction  measures  during  and 
after  the  Civil  War,  in  tariff  legislation,  and  in  the  establishment 
of  a  fish  commission  and  the  inauguration  of  daily  weather 
reports.  In  the  Senate  he  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
Indian  affairs,  and  gave  much  attention  to  the  enactment  of 
laws  for  the  benefit  of  the  Indians.  On  leaving  the  Senate,  in 
1893,  he  became  chairman  of  the  Commission  to  the  Five  Civil- 
ized Tribes  (sometimes  called  the  Dawes  Indian  Commission), 


and  served  in  this  capacity  for  ten  years,  negotiating  with  the 
tribes  for  the  extinction  of  the  communal  title  to  their  land  and 
for  the  dissolution  of  the  tribal  governments,  with  the  object 
of  making  the  tribes  a  constituent  part  of  the  United  States.1 
Dawes  died  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  on  the  5th  of  February  1903. 

DAWES,  RICHARD  (1708-1766),  English  classical  scholar, 
was  born  in  or  near  Market  Bosworth.  He  was  educated  at  the 
town  grammar  school  under  Anthony  Blackwall,  and  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  society  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1731. 
His  peculiar  habits  and  outspoken  language  made  him  unpopular. 
His  health  broke  down  in  consequence  of  his  sedentary  life,  and 
it  is  said  that  he  took  to  bell-ringing  at  Great  St  Mary's  as  a 
restorative.  He  was  a  bitter  enemy  of  Bentley,  who  he  declared 
knew  nothing  of  Greek  except  from  indexes.  In  1 738  Dawes  was 
appointed  to  the  mastership  of  the  grammar  school,  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  combined  with  that  of  St  Mary's  hospital.  From  all 
accounts  his  mind  appears  to  have  become  unhinged;  his 
eccentricities  of  conduct  and  continual  disputes  with  his  govern- 
ing body  ruined  the  school,  and  finally,  in  1 749,  he  resigned  his 
post  and  retired  to  Heworth,  where  he  chiefly  amused  himself 
with  boating.  He  died  on  the  aist  of  March  1766.  Dawes  was 
not  a  prolific  writer.  The  book  on  which  his  fame  rests  is  his 
Miscellanea  critica  (1745),  which  gained  the  commendation  of 
such  distinguished  continental  scholars  as  L.  C.  Valckenaer 
and  J.  J.  Reiske.  The  Miscellanea,  which  was  re-edited  by 
T.  Burgess  (1781),  G.  C.  Harles  (1800)  and  T.  Kidd  (1817),  for 
many  years  enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  and  although  some 
of  the  "  canons  "  have  been  proved  untenable  and  few  can  be 
accepted  universally,  it  will  always  remain  an  honourable  and 
enduring  monument  of  English  scholarship. 

See  J.  Hodgson,  An  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Richard 
Dawes  (1828);  H.  R.  Luard  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.;  J.  E.  Sandys, 
Hist,  of  Classical  Scholarship,  ii.  415. 

DAWISON,  BOGUMIL  (1818-1872),  German  actor,  was  born 
at  Warsaw,  of  Jewish  parents,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen  went  on 
the  stage.  In  1839  he  received  an  appointment  to  the  theatre 
at  Lemberg  in  Galicia.  In  1847  he  played  at  Hamburg  with 
marked  success,  was  from  1849  to  1854  a  member  of  the  Burg 
theatre  in  Vienna,  and  then  became  connected  with  the  Dresden 
court  theatre.  In  1864  he  was  given  a  life  engagement,  but 
resigned  his  appointment,  and  after  starring  through  Germany 
visited  the  United  States  in  1866.  He  died  in  Dresden  on  the  ist 
of  February  1872.  Dawison  was  considered  in  Germany  an  actor 
of  a  new  type;  a  leading  critic  wrote  that  he  and  Marie  Seebach 
"  swept  like  fresh  gales  over  dusty  tradition,  and  brushing  aside 
the  monotony  of  declamation  gave  to  their  r6les  more  character 
and  vivacity  than  had  hitherto  been  known  on  the  German 
stage."  His  chief  parts  were  Mephistopheles,  Franz  Moor,  Mark 
Antony,  Hamlet,  Charles  V.,  Richard  III.  and  King  Lear. 

DAWKINS,  WILLIAM  BOYD  (1838-  ),  English  geologist 
and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Buttington  vicarage  near 
Welshpool,  Montgomeryshire,  on  the  26th  of  December  1838. 
Educated  at  Rossall  School  and  Oxford,  he  joined  the  Geological 
Survey  in  1862,  and  in  1869  became  curator  of  the  Manchester 
museum,  a  post  which  he  retained  till  1890.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  geology  and  palaeontology  in  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  in  1874.  He  paid  special  attention  to  the  question 
of  the  existence  of  coal  in  Kent,  and  in  1882  was  selected  by  the 
Channel  tunnel  committee  to  make  a  special  survey  of  the  French 
and  English  coasts.  He  was  also  employed  in  the  scheme  of  a 
tunnel  beneath  the  Humber.  His  chief  distinctions,  however, 
were  won  in  the  realms  of  anthropology  by  his  researches  into  the 
lives  of  the  cave-dwellers  of  prehistoric  times,  labours  which 
have  borne  fruit  in  his  books  Cave-hunting  (1874);  Early  Man 
in  Britain  (1880);  British  Pleistocene  Mammalia  (1866-1887). 
He  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1867,  and  acted  as 
president  of  the  anthropological  section  of  the  British  Association 
n  1882  and  of  the  geological  section  in  1888. 

1  The  commission  completed  its  labours  on  the  1st  of  July  1905, 
after  having  allotted  20,000,000  acres  of  land  among  90,000  Indians 
and  absorbed  the  five  Indian  governments  into  the  national  system. 
The  "  five  tribes  "  were  the  Cherokee,  Chickasaw,  Choctaw,  Creek 
and  Seminole  Indians. 


874 


DAWLISH— DAX 


DAWLISH,  a  watering-place  in  the  Ashburton  parliamentary 
division  of  Devonshire,  England,  on  the  English  Channel,  near 
the  outflow  of  the  Exe,  12  m.  S.  of  Exeter  by  the  Great  Western 
railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901)  4003.  It  lies  on  a  cove 
sheltered  by  two  projecting  headlands.  A  small  stream  which 
flows  through  the  town  is  lined  on  both  sides  by  pleasure- 
grounds.  Dawlish  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  visitors  attracted, 
in  spring  and  early  summer,  by  the  warm  climate  and  excellent 
bathing.  An  annual  pleasure  fair  is  held  on  Easter  Monday,  and 
a  regatta  in  August  or  September.  Until  its  sale  in  the  ipth 
century,  the  site  of  Dawlish  belonged  to  Exeter  cathedral,  having 
been  given  to  the  chapter  by  Leofric,  bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1050. 

DAWN  (the  16th-century  form  of  the  earlier  "  dawing  "  or 
"  dawning,"  from  an  old  verb  "  daw,"  0.  Eng.  dagian,  to 
become  day;  cf.  Dutch  dagen,  and  Ger.  tagen),  the  time  when 
light  appears  (daws)  in  the  sky  in  the  morning.  The  dawn 
colours  appear  in  the  reverse  order  of  the  sunset  colours  and 
are  due  to  the  same  cause.  When  the  sun  is  lowest  in  both  cases 
the  colour  is  deep  red;  this  gradually  changes  through  orange  to 
gold  and  brilliant  yellow  as  the  sun  approaches  the  horizon. 
These  colours  follow  each  other  in  order  of  refrangibility,  repro- 
ducing all  the  colours  of  the  spectrum  in  order  except  the  blue 
rays  which  are  scattered  in  the  sky.  The  colours  of  the  dawn 
are  purer  and  colder  than  the  sunset  colours  since  there  is  less 
dust  and  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  and  less  consequent  sifting 
of  light  rays. 

DAWSON,  GEORGE  (1821-1876),  English  nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  in  London  on  the  24th  of  February  1821,  and 
was  educated  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  and  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  In  1843  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the 
Baptist  church  at  Rickmans worth,  and  in  1844  a  similar  charge 
at  Mount  Zion,  Birmingham,  where  he  attracted  large  congrega- 
tions by  his  eloquence  and  his  unconventional  views.  Desiring 
freedom  from  any  definite  creed,  he  left  the  Baptist  church  and 
became  minister  of  the  "  Church  of  the  Saviour,"  a  building 
erected  for  him  by  his  supporters.  Here  he  exercised  a  stimulat- 
ing and  varied  ministry  for  nearly  thirty  years,  gathering  round 
him  a  congregation  of  all  types  and  especially  of  such  as  found  the 
dogmas  of  the  age  distasteful.  He  had  much  sympathy  with  the 
Unitarian  position,  but  was  not  himself  a  Unitarian.  Indeed  he 
had  no  fixed  standpoint,  and  discussed  truths  and  principles 
from  various  aspects.  His  sermons,  though  not  particularly 
speculative,  were  unconventional  and  quickening.  He  was  the 
friend  of  Carlyle  and  Emerson,  and  did  much  to  popularize 
their  teachings,  his  influence  being  conspicuous,  especially  in 
his  demand  for  a  high  ethical  standard  in  everyday  life  and  his 
insistence  on  the  Christianization  of  citizenship.  He  was  warmly 
supported  by  Dr  R.  W.  Dale,  and  by  J.  T.  Bunce,  editor  of 
The  Birmingham  Daily  Post.  Both  Dawson  and  Dale  were  dis- 
qualified as  ministers  from  seats  on  the  town  council,  but  both 
served  on  the  Birmingham  school  board.  Dawson  also  lectured 
on  English  literature  at  the  Midland  Institute  and  helped  to 
found  the  Shakespeare  Memorial  library  in  Birmingham.  He 
died  suddenly  at  King's  Norton  on  the  3Oth  of  November  1876. 
Four  volumes  of  Sermons,  two  of  Prayers  and  two  of  Biographical 
Lectures  were  published  after  his  death. 

See  Life  by  H.  W.  Crosskey  (1876)  and  an  article  by  R.  W.  Dale 
in  The  Nineteenth  Century  (August  1877). 

DAWSON,  SIR  JOHN  WILLIAM  (1820-1899),  Canadian 
geologist,  was  born  at  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  3oth  of 
October  1820.  Of  Scottish  descent,  he  went  to  Edinburgh  to 
complete  his  education,  and  graduated  at  the  university  in  1842, 
having  gained  a  knowledge  of  geology  and  natural  history  from 
Robert  Jameson.  On  his  return  to  Nova  Scotia  in  1842  he 
accompanied  Sir  Charles  Lyell  on  his  first  visit  to  that  territory. 
Subsequently  he  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  superintendent  of 
education  (1850-1853);  at  the  same  time  he  entered  zealously 
into  the  geology  of  the  country,  making  a  special  study  of  the 
fossil  forests  of  the  coal-measures.  From  these  strata,  in 
company  with  Lyell  (during  his  second  visit)  in  1852,  he  obtained 
the  first  remains  of  an  "  air-breathing  reptile  "  named  Dendrer- 
pelon.-  He  also  described  the  fossil  plants  of  the  Silurian, 


Devonian  and  Carboniferous  rocks  of  Canada  for  the  Geological 
Survey  of  that  country  (1871-1873).  From  1855  to  1893  he 
was  professor  of  geology  and  principal  of  M'Gill  University, 
Montreal,  an  institution  which  under  his  influence  attained  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1862.  When  the 
Royal  Society  of  Canada  was  constituted  he  was  the  first  to 
occupy  the  presidential  chair,  and  he  also  acted  as  president  of 
the  British  Association  at  its  meeting  at  Birmingham  in  1886, 
and  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 
Sir  William  Dawson's  name  is  especially  associated  with  the 
Eozoon  canadense,  which  in  1864  he  described  as  an  organism 
having  the  structure  of  a  foraminifer.  It  was  found  in  the 
Laurentian  rocks,  regarded  as  the  oldest  known  geological 
system.  His  views  on  the  subject  were  contested  at  the  time, 
and  have  since  been  disproved,  the  so-called  organism  being  now 
regarded  as  a  mineral  structure.  He  was  created  C.M.G.  in  1881, 
and  was  knighted  in  1884.  In  his  books  on  geological  subjects  he 
maintained  a  distinctly  theological  attitude,  declining  to  admit 
the  descent  or  evolution  of  man  from  brute  ancestors,  and  holding 
that  the  human  species  only  made  its  appearance  on  this  earth 
within  quite  recent  times.  Besides  many  memoirs  in  the 
Transactions  of  learned  societies,  he  published  Acadian  Geology: 
The  geological  structure,  organic  remains  and  mineral  resources 
of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island 
(1855;  ed.  3,  1878);  Air-breathers  of  the  Coal  Period  (1863); 
The  Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man  (1873 ;  ed.  6,  1880) ;  The  Dawn  of 
Life  (1875);  Fossil  Men  and  their  Modern  Representatives  (1880); 
Geological  History  of  Plants  (1888);  The  Canadian  Ice  Age 
(1894).  He  died  on  the  2oth  of  November  1899. 

His  son,  GEORGE  MERCER  DAWSON  (1840-1901),  was  born  at 
Pictou  on  the  ist  of  August  1849,  ano<  received  his  education  at 
M'Gill  University  and  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  London,  where 
he  had  a  brilliant  career.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  geologist 
and  naturalist  to  the  North  American  boundary  commission, 
and  two  years  later  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  geological  survey 
of  Canada,  of  which  he  became  assistant  director  in  1883,  and 
director  in  1 895.  He  was  in  charge  of  the  Canadian  government's 
Yukon  expedition  in  1887,  and  his  name  is  permanently  written 
in  Dawson  City,  of  gold-bearing  fame.  As  one  of  the  Bering  Sea 
Commissioners  he  spent  the  summer  of  1 89 1  investigating  the  facts 
of  the  seal  fisheries  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Asia  and  America. 
For  his  services  there,  and  at  the  subsequent  arbitration  in  Paris, 
he  was  made  a  C.M.G.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1891,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  awarded  the  Bigsby  medal  by  the  Geological 
Society  of  London.  He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Canada  in  1893.  He  died  on  the  2nd  of  March  1901.  He  was 
the  author  of  many  scientific  papers  and  reports,  especially  on 
the  surface  geology  and  glacial  phenomena  of  the  northern  and 
western  parts  of  Canada. 

DAWSON  CITY,  or  DAWSON,  the  capital  of  the  Yukon  terri- 
tory, Canada,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yukon  river,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  KJondyke  gold  region,  of  which  it  is  the  distributing 
centre.  It  is  situated  in  beautiful  mountainous  country,  1400  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  1500  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon  river. 
It  is  reached  by  a  fleet  of  river  steamers,  and  has  telegraphic 
communication.  Founded  in  1896,  its  population  soon  reached 
over  20,000  at  the  height  of  the  gold  rush;  in  1901  it  was  officially 
returned  as  9142,  and  is  now  not  more  than  5000.  The  tempera- 
ture varies  from  90°  F.  in  summer  to  50°  below  zero  in  winter. 
It  possesses  three  opera-houses  and  numerous  hotels,  and  is  a 
typical  mining  town,  though  even  at  first  there  was  much  less 
lawlessness  than  is  usually  the  case  in  such  cities. 

DAX,  a  town  of  south-western  France,  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Landes,  92  m.  S.S.W.  of  Bordeaux, 
on  the  Southern  railway  between  that  city  and  Bayonne.  Pop. 
(1906)  8585.  The  town  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour,  a 
stone  bridge  uniting  it  to  its  suburb  of  Le  Sablar  on  the  right 
bank.  It  has  remains  of  ancient  Gallo-Roman  fortifications, 
now  converted  into  a  promenade.  The  most  remarkable  building 
in  the  town  is  the  church  of  Notre-Dame,  once  a  cathedral;  it 
was  rebuilt  from  1656  to  1719,  but  still  preserves  a  sacristy,  a 
porch  and  a  fine  sculptured  doorway  of  the  i3th  century-  The 


DAY,  JOHN— DAY 


875 


church  of  St  Vincent,  to  the  south-west  of  the  town,  derives  its 
name  from  the  first  bishop,  whose  tomb  it  contains.  The  church 
of  St  Paul-les-Dax,  a  suburb  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adour, 
belongs  mainly  to  the  isth  century,  and  has  a  Romanesque  apse 
adorned  with  curious  bas-reliefs.  On  a  hill  to  the  west  of  Dax 
stands  a  tower  built  in  memory  of  the  sailor  and  scientist  Jean 
Charles  Borda,  born  there  in  1733;  a  statue  was  erected  to  him 
in  the  town  in  1891.  Dax,  which  is  well  known  as  a  winter  resort, 
owes  much  of  its  importance  to  its  thermal  waters  and  mud- 
baths  (the  deposit  of  the  Adour),  which  are  efficacious  in  cases 
of  rheumatism,  neuralgia  and  other  disorders.  The  best-known 
spring  is  the  Fontaine  Chaude,  which  issues  into  a  basin  160  ft. 
wide  in  the  centre  of  the  town.  The  principal  of  numerous  bathing 
establishments  are  the  Grands  Thermes,  the  Bains  Sales,  adjoin- 
ing a  casino,  and  the  Baignots,  which  fringe  the  Adour  and  are 
surrounded  by  gardens.  Dax  has  a  sub-prefecture,  tribunals  of 
first  instance  and  of  commerce,  a  communal  college,  a  training 
college  and  a  library.  It  has  salt  workings,  tanneries,  saw- 
mills, manufactures  of  soap  and  corks;  commerce  is  chiefly 
in  the  pine  wood,  resin  and  cork  of  the  Landes,  in  mules, 
cattle,  horses  and  poultry. 

Dax  (Aquae  Tarbellicae,  Aquae  Augustae,  later  D'Acqs)  was 
the  capital  of  the  Tarbelli  under  the  Roman  domination,  when 
its  waters  were  already  famous.  Later  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
viscounty,  which  in  the  nth  century  passed  to  the  viscounts 
of  Beam,  and  in  1177  was  annexed  by  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion 
to  Gascony.  The  bishopric,  founded  in  the  3rd  century,  was 
in  1801  attached  to  that  of  Aire. 

DAY,  JOHN  (1574-1640?),  English  dramatist,  was  born  at 
Cawston,  Norfolk,  in  1574,  and  educated  at  Ely.  He  became 
a  sizar  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in  1592,  but  was  expelled 
in  the  next  year  for  stealing  a  book.  He  became  one  of  Hens- 
lowe's  playwrights,  collaborating  with  Henry  Chettle,  William 
Haughton,  Thomas  Dekker,  Richard  Hathway  and  Wentworth 
Smith,  but  his  almost  incessant  activity  seems  to  have  left  him 
poor  enough,  to  judge  by  the  small  loans,  of  five  shillings  and 
even  two  shillings,  that  he  obtained  from  Henslowe.  The  first 
play  in  which  Day  appears  as  part-author  is  The  Conquest  of 
Brute,  with  the  finding  of  the  Bath  (1598),  which,  with  most  of 
his  journeyman's  work,  is  lost.  A  drama  dealing  with  the  early 
years  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  The  Blind  Beggar  of  Bednal 
Green  (acted  1600,  printed  1659),  written  in  collaboration  with 
Chettle,  is  his  earliest  extant  work.  It  bore  the  sub-title  of  The 
Merry  Humor  of  Tom  Strowd,  the  Norfolk  Yeoman,  and  was  so 
popular  that  second  and  third  parts,  by  Day  and  Haughton, 
were  produced  in  the  next  year.  The  lie  of  Guls  (printed  1606), 
a  prose  comedy  founded  upon  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Arcadia, 
contains  in  its  light  dialogue  much  satire  to  which  the  key  is  now 
lost,  but  Mr  Swinburne  notes  in  Manasses's  burlesque  of  a  Puritan 
sermon  a  curious  anticipation  of  the  eloquence  of  Mr  Chadband 
in  Bleak  House.  In  1607  Day  produced,  in  conjunction  with 
William  Rowley  and  George  Wilkins,  The  Travailes  of  the  Three 
English  Brothers,  which  detailed  the  adventures  of  Sir  Thomas, 
Sir  Anthony  and  Robert  Shirley. 

The  Parliament  of  Bees  is  the  work  on  which  Day's  reputation 
chiefly  rests.  This  exquisite  and  unique  drama,  or  rather  masque, 
is  entirely  occupied  with  "  the  doings,  the  births,  the  wars,  the 
wooings  "  of  bees,  expressed  in  a  style  at  once  most  singular 
and  most  charming.  The  bees  hold  a  parliament  under  Prorex, 
the  Master  Bee,  and  various  complaints  are  preferred  against 
the  humble-bee,  the  wasp,  the  drone  and  other  offenders.  This 
satirical  allegory  of  affairs  ends  with  a  royal  progress  of  Oberon, 
who  distributes  justice  to  all.  The  piece  contains  much  for 
which  parallel  passages  are  found  in  Dekker's  Wonder  of  a 
Kingdom  (1636)  and  Samuel  Rowley's  (or  Dekker's)  Noble 
Soldier  (printed  1634).  There  is  no  earlier  known  edition  of  The 
Parliament  of  Bees  than  that  in  1641,  but  a  persistent  tradition 
has  assigned  the  piece  to  1607.  In  1608  Day  published  two 
comedies,  Law  Trickes,  or  Who  Would  have  Thought  it?  and 
Humour  out  of  Breath.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but 
an  elegy  on  him  by  John  Tatham,  the  city  poet,  was  published 
in  1640.  The  six  dramas  by  John  Day  which  we  possess  show 


a  delicate  fancy  and  dainty  inventiveness  all  his  own.  He  pre- 
served, in  a  great  measure,  the  dramatic  tradition  of  John  Lyly, 
and  affected  a  kind  of  subdued  euphuism.  The  Maydes  Metamor- 
phosis (1600),  once  supposed  to  be  a  posthumous  work  of  Lyly's, 
may  be  an  early  work  of  Day's.  It  possesses,  at  all  events,  many 
of  his  marked  characteristics.  His  prose  Peregrinatic  Scholastica 
or  Learninges  Pilgrimage,  dating  from  his  later  years,  was  printed 
by  Mr  A.  H.  Bullen  from  a  MS.  of  Day's.  Considerations  partly 
based  on  this  work  have  suggested  that  he  had  a  share  in  the 
anonymous  Pilgrimage  to  Parnassus  and  the  Return  from 
Parnassus.  The  beauty  and  ingenuity  of  The  Parliament  of 
Bees  were  noted  and  warmly  extolled  by  Charles  Lamb;  and 
Day's  work  has  since  found  many  admirers. 

His  works,  edited  by  A.  H.  Bullen,  were  printed  at  the  Chiswick 
Press  in  1 88 1 .  The  same  editor  included  The  Maydes  Metamorphosis 
in  vol.  i.  of  his  Collection  of  Old  Plays.  The  Parliament  of  Bees  and 
Humour  out  of  Breath  were  printed  in  Nero  and  other  Plays  (Mermaid 
Series,  1888),  with  an  introduction  by  Arthur  Symons.  An  apprecia- 
tion by  Mr  A.  C.  Swinburne  appeared  in  The  Nineteenth  Century 
(October  1897). 

DAY,  THOMAS  (1748-1789),  British  author,  was  born  in 
London  on  the  22nd  of  June  1748.  He  is  famous  as  the  writer 
of  Sandford  and  Merlon  (1783-1789),  a  book  for  the  young,  which, 
though  quaintly  didactic  and  often  ridiculous,  has  had  consider- 
able educational  value  as  inculcating  manliness  and  independence. 
Day  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  and  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  and  became  a  great  admirer  of  J.  J.  Rousseau 
and  his  doctrine  of  the  ideal  state  of  nature.  Having  independent 
means  he  devoted  himself  to  a  life  of  study  and  philanthropy. 
His  views  on  marriage  were  typical  of  the  man.  He  brought 
up  two  foundlings,  one  of  whom  he  hoped  eventually  to  marry. 
They  were  educated  on  the  severest  principles,  but  neither 
acquired  the  high  quality  of  stoicism  which  he  had  looked  for. 
After  several  proposals  of  marriage  to  other  ladies  had  been 
rejected,  he  married  an  heiress  who  agreed  with  his  ascetic 
programme  of  life.  He  finally  settled  at  Ottershaw  in  Surrey  and 
took  to  farming  on  philanthropic  principles.  He  had  many 
curious  and  impracticable  theories,  among  them  one  that  all 
animals  could  be  managed  by  kindness,  and  while  riding  an 
unbroken  colt  he  was  thrown  near  Wargrave  and  killed  on  the 
28th  of  September  1789.  His  poem  The  Dying  Negro,  published 
in  1773,  struck  the  keynote  of  the  anti-slavery  movement. 
It  is  also  obvious  from  his  other  works,  such  as  The  Devoted 
Legions  (1776)  and  The  Desolation  of  America  (1777),  that  he 
strongly  sympathized  with  the  Americans  during  their  War  of 
Independence. 

DAY  (O.  Eng.  dag,  Ger.  Tag;  according  to  the  New  English 
Dictionary,  "  in  no  way  related  to  the  Lat.  dies  "),  in  astronomy, 
the  interval  of  time  in  which  a  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis 
is  performed.  Days  are  distinguished  as  solar,  sidereal  or  lunar, 
according  as  the  revolution  is  taken  relatively  to  the  sun,  the 
stars  or  the  moon.  The  solar  day  is  the  fundamental  unit  of 
time,  not  only  in  daily  life  but  in  astronomical  practice.  In  the 
latter  case,  being  determined  by  observations  of  the  sun,  it  is 
taken  to  begin  with  the  passage  of  the  mean  sun  over  the  meridian 
of  the  place,  or  at  mean  noon,  while  the  civil  day  begins  at  mid- 
night. A  vigorous  effort  was  made  during  the  last  fifteen  years 
of  the  igth  century  to  bring  the  two  uses  into  harmony  by  begin- 
ning the  astronomical  day  at  midnight.  In  some  isolated  cases 
this  has  been  done;  but  the  general  consensus  of  astronomers 
has  been  against  it,  the  day  as  used  in  astronomy  being  only  a 
measure  of  time,  and  having  no  relation  to  the  period  of  daily 
repose.  The  time  when  the  day  shall  begin  is  purely  a  matter 
of  convenience.  The  present  practice  being  the  dominant  one 
from  the  time  of  Ptolemy  until  the  present,  it  was  felt  that  the 
confusion  in  the  combination  of  past  and  present  astronomical 
observations,  and  the  doubts  and  difficulties  in  using  the  astro- 
nomical ephemerides,  formed  a  decisive  argument  against  any 
change. 

The  question  of  a  possible  variability  in  the  length  of  the 
day  is  one  of  fundamental  importance.  One  necessary  effect 
of  the  tidal  retardation  of  the  earth's  rotation  is  gradually  to 
increase  this  length.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  discussion  of 


876 


DA  YLESFORD— DAYTON 


ancient  eclipses  of  the  moon,  and  their  comparison  with  modern 
observations,  show  only  a  small  and  rather  doubtful  change, 
amounting  perhaps  to  less  than  one-hundredth  of  a  second 
per  century.  As  this  amount  seems  to  be  markedly  less  than 
that  which  would  be  expected  from  the  cause  in  question,  it  is 
probable  that  some  other  cause  tends  to  accelerate  the  earth's 
rotation  and  so  to  shorten  the  day.  The  moon's  apparent 
mean  motion  in  longitude  seems  also  to  indicate  slow  periodic 
changes  in  the  earth's  rotation;  but  these  are  not  confirmed 
by  transits  of  Mercury,  which  ought  also  to  indicate  them. 
(See  MOON  and  TIDES.)  (S.  N.) 

Legal  Aspects. — In  law,  a  day  may  be  either  a  dies  naturalis  or 
natural  day,  or  a  dies  artificialis  or  artificial  day.  A  natural  day 
includes  aU  the  twenty-four  hours  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
Fractions  of  the  day  are  disregarded  to  avoid  dispute,  though 
sometimes  the  law  will  consider  fractions,  as  where  it  is  necessary 
to  show  the  first  of  two  acts.  In  cases  where  action  must  be  taken 
for  preserving  or  asserting  a  right,  a  day  would  mean  the  natural 
day  of  twenty-four  hours,  but  on  the  other  hand,  as  in  cases  of 
survivorship,  for  testamentary  or  other  purposes,  it  would  suffice 
if  a  person  survived  for  even  the  smallest  portion  of  the  last  day 
necessary. 

When  a  statute  directs  any  act  to  be  done  within  so  many 
days,  these  words  mean  dear  days,  i.e.  a  number  of  perfect 
intervening  days,  not  counting  the  terminal  days:  if  the  statute 
says  nothing  about  Sunday,  the  days  mentioned  mean  consecutive 
days  and  include  Sundays.  Under  some  statutes  (e.g.  the  Parlia- 
mentary Elections  Act  1868,  the  Corrupt  and  Illegal  Practices 
Prevention  Act  1883)  Sundays  and  holidays  are  excluded  in 
reckoning  days,  and  consequently  all  the  Sundays,  &c.,  of  a 
prescribed  sequence  of  days  would  be  eliminated.  So  also,  by 
custom,  the  word  "  day  "  may  be  understood  in  some  special 
sense.  In  bills  of  lading  and  charter  parties,  when  "  days  "  or 
"  running  days "  are  spoken  of  without  qualification,  they 
usually  mean  consecutive  days,  and  Sundays  and  holidays  are 
counted,  but  when  there  is  some  qualification,  as  where  a  charter 
party  required  a  cargo  "  to  be  discharged  in  fourteen  days," 
"  days  "  will  mean  working  days.  Working  days,  again,  vary 
in  different  ports,  and  the  custom  of  the  port  will  decide  in  each 
case  what  are  working  days.  In  English  charter  parties,  unless 
the  contrary  is  expressed,  Christmas  day  and  other  recognized 
holidays  are  included  as  working  days.  A  weather  working  day, 
a  term  sometimes  used  in  charter  parties,  means  a  day  when  work 
is  not  prevented  by  the  weather,  and  unless  so  provided  for,  a 
day  on  which  work  was  rendered  impossible  by  bad  weather 
would  still  be  counted  as  a  working  day.  Lay  days,  which  are 
days  given  to  the  charterer  in  a  charter  party  either  to  load  or 
unload  without  paying  for  the  use  of  the  ship,  are  days  of  the 
week,  not  periods  of  twenty-four  hours. 

Days  of  Grace. — When  a  bill  of  exchange  is  not  payable  at 
sight  or  on  demand,  certain  days  (called  days  of  grace,  from 
being  originally  a  gratuitous  favour)  are  added  to  the  time  of 
payment  as  fixed  by  the  bill,  and  the  bill  is  then  due  and  payable 
on  the  last  day  of  grace.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  by  the  Bills  of 
Exchange  Act  1882,  three  days  are  allowed  as  days  of  grace,  but 
when  the  last  day  of  grace  falls  on  Sunday,  Christmas  day,  Good 
Friday  or  a  day  appointed  by  royal  proclamation  as  a  public 
fast  or  thanksgiving  day,  the  bill  is  due  and  payable  on  the 
preceding  business  day.  If  the  last  day  of  grace  is  a  bank  holiday 
(other  than  Christmas  day  or  Good  Friday),  or  when  the  last  day 
of  grace  is  a  Sunday,  and  the  second  day  of  grace  is  a  bank 
holiday,  the  bill  is  due  and  payable  on  the  succeeding  business 
day.  Days  of  grace  (dies  non)  are  in  existence  practically  among 
English-speaking  peoples  only.  They  were  abolished  by  the 
French  Code  (Code  de  Commerce,  Liv.  i.  tit.  8,  art.  135),  and  by 
most,  if  not  all,  of  the  European  codes  since  framed. 

Civil  Days. — An  artificial  or  civil  day  is,  to  a  certain  extent, 
difficult  tg  define;  it  "  may  be  regarded  as  a  convenient  term 
to  signify  all  the  various  kinds  of  '  day  '  known  in  legal  proceed- 
ings other  than  the  natural  day "  (Ency.  English  Law,  tit. 
"  Day  ").  The  Jews,  Chaldeans  and  Babylonians  began  the 
day  at  the  rising  of  the  sun;  the  Athenians  at  the  fall;  the 


Umbri  in  Italy  began  at  midday;  the  Egyptians  and  Romans 
at  midnight;  and  in  England,  the  United  States  and  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe  the  Roman  civil  day  still  prevails,  the  day 
usually  commencing  as  soon  as  the  clock  begins  to  strike  12  P.M. 
of  the  preceding  day. 

In  England  the  period  of  the  civil  day  may  also  vary  under 
different  statutes.  In  criminal  law  the  day  formerly  commenced 
at  sunrise  and  extended  to  sunset,  but  by  the  Larceny  Act  1861 
the  day  is  that  period  between  six  in  the  morning  and  nine  in 
the  evening.  The  same  period  of  time  comprises  a  day  under  the 
Housing  of  the  Working  Classes  Act  1885  and  the  Public  Health 
(London)  Act  1891,  but  under  the  Public  Health  (Scotland)  Act 
1897  "  day  "  is  the  period  between  9  A.M.  and  6  P.M.  By  an  act 
of  1845,  regulating  the  labour  of  children  in  print-works,  "  day  " 
is  denned  as  from  6  A.M.  to  10  P.M.  Daytime,  within  which 
distress  for  rent  must  be  made,  is  from  sunrise  to  sunset  (Ttilton 
v.  Darke,  1860,  2  L.T.  361).  An  obligation  to  pay  money  on  a 
certain  day  is  theoretically  discharged  if  the  money  is  paid  before 
midnight  of  the  day  on  which  it  falls  due,  but  custom  has  so  far 
modified  this  that  the  law  requires  reasonable  hours  to  be 
observed.  If,  for  instance,  payment  has  to  be  made  at  a  bank 
or  place  of  business,  it  must  be  within  business  hours. 

When  an  act  of  parliament  is  expressed  to  come  into  operation 
on  a  certain  day,  it  is  to  be  construed  as  coming  into  operation 
on  the  expiration  of  the  previous  day  (Interpretation  Act  1889, 
§  36;  Statutes  [Definition  of  Time]  Act  1880). 

Under  the  orders  of  the  supreme  court  the  word  "  day  "  has 
two  meanings.  For  purposes  of  personal  service  of  writs,  it 
means  any  time  of  the  day  or  night  on  week-days,  but  excludes 
the  time  from  twelve  midnight  on  Saturday  till  twelve  midnight 
on  Sunday.  For  purposes  of  service  not  required  to  be  personal, 
it  means  before  six  o'clock  on  any  week-day  except  Saturday, 
and  before  2  P.M.  on  Saturday. 

Closed  Days,  i.e.  Sunday,  Christmas  day  and  Good  Friday,  are 
excluded  from  all  fixtures  of  time  less  than  six  days:  otherwise 
they  are  included,  unless  the  last  day  of  the  time  fixed  falls  on 
one  of  those  days  (R.S.C.,  O.  Ixiv.). 

American  Practice. — In  the  United  States  a  day  is  the  space 
of  time  between  midnight  and  midnight.  The  law  pays  no 
regard  to  fractions  of  a  day  except  to  prevent  injustice.  A 
"  day's  work  "  is  by  statute  in  New  York  fixed  at  eight  hours 
for  all  employees  except  farm  and  domestic  servants,  and  for 
employees  on  railroads  at  ten  hours  (Laws  1897,  ch.  415).  In 
the  recording  acts  relating  to  real  property,  fractions  of  a  day 
are  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  all  deeds,  mortgages  and  other 
instruments  affecting  the  property,  take  precedence  in  the  order 
in  which  they  were  filed  for  record.  Days  of  grace  are  abolished 
in  many  of  the  seventeen  states  in  which  the  Negotiable  Instru- 
ments law  has  been  enacted.  Sundays  and  public  holidays  are 
usually  excluded  in  computing  time  if  they  are  the  last  day 
within  which  the  act  was  to  be  done.  General  public  holidays 
throughout  the  United  States  are  Christmas,  Thanksgiving  (last 
Thursday  in  November)  and  Independence  (July  4th)  days 
and  Washington's  birthday  (February  22nd).  The  several 
states  have  also  certain  local  public  holidays.  (See  also  MONTH; 
TIME.)  (T.A.I.) 

DA  YLESFORD,  a  town  of  Talbot  county,  Victoria,  Australia, 
74  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  Melbourne.  Pop.  (1901)  3384.  It  lies  on 
the  flank  of  the  Great  Dividing  Range,  at  an  elevation  of  2030  ft. 
On  Wombat  Hill  are  beautiful  public  gardens  commanding 
extensive  views,  and  a  fine  convent  of  the  Presentation  Order. 
Much  wheat  is  grown  in  the  district,  and  gold-mining,  both 
quartz  and  alluvial,  is  carried  on.  Daylesford  has  an  important 
mining  school.  Near  the  town  are  the  Hepburn  mineral  springs 
and  a  number  of  beautiful  waterfalls,  and  6  m.  from  it  is  Mount 
Franklin,  an  extinct  volcano. 

DAYTON,  a  city  of  Campbell  county,  Kentucky,  U.S.A.,  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  opposite  Cincinnati,  and  adjoining 
Bellevue  and  Newport,  Ky.  Pop.  (1890)  4264;  (1900)  6104  in- 
cluding 655  foreign-born  and  63  negroes;  (1910)  6979.  It  is  served 
by  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  railway  at  Newport,  of  which  it  is  a 
suburb,  largely  residential.  It  has  manufactories  of  watch-cases 


DAYTON— DEACON 


877 


and  pianos,  and  whisky  distilleries.  In  the  city  is  the  Speers 
Memorial  hospital.  Dayton  was  settled  and  incorporated  in 
1849. 

DAYTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Montgomery  county, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  at  the  confluence  of  Wolf  Creek,  Stillwater  river 
and  Mad  river  with  the  Great  Miami,  57  m.  N.N.E.  of  Cincinnati 
and  about  70  m.  W.S.W.  of  Columbus.  Pop.  (1890)  61,220; 
(1000)  85,333;  (1910)  116,577.  In  1900  there  were  10,053 
foreign-born  and  3387  negroes;  of  the  foreign-born  6820  were 
Germans  and  1253  Irish.  Dayton  is  served  by  the  Erie, 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis,  the  Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  & 
Dayton,  and  the  Dayton  &  Union  railways,  by  ten  interurban 
electric  railways,  centring  here,  and  by  the  Miami  &  Erie  Canal. 
The  city  extends  more  than  5  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  and  35  m.  from 
N.  to  S.,  lies  for  the  most  part  on  level  ground  at  an  elevation  of 
about  740  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  numerous  good,  hard  gravel 
roads  radiate  from  it  in  all  directions  through  the  surrounding 
country,  a  fertile  farming  region  which  abounds  in  limestone,  used 
in  the  construction  of  public  and  private  buildings.  Among  the 
more  prominent  buildings  are  the  court-house — the  portion  first 
erected  being  designed  after  the  Parthenon — the  Steele  high 
school,  St  Mary's  college,  Notre  Dame  academy,  the  Memorial 
Building,  the  Arcade  Building,  Reibold  Building,  the  Algonquin 
Hotel,  tRe  post  office,  the  public  library  (containing  about  75,000 
volumes),  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  building  and 
several  churches.  At  Dayton  are  the  Union  Biblical  seminary, 
a  theological  school  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  and  the 
publishing  house  of  the  same  denomination.  By  an  agreement 
made  in  1907  the  school  of  theology  of  Ursinus  College  (College- 
ville,  Pennsylvania;  the  theological  school  since  1898  had  been 
in  Philadelphia)  and  the  Heidelberg  Theological  seminary 
(Tiffin,  Ohio)  united  to  form  the  Central  Theological  seminary  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church,  which  was  established  in  Dayton 
in  1908.  The  boulevard  and  park  along  the  river  add  attractive- 
ness to  the  city.  Among  the  charitable  institutions  are  the  Dayton 
state  hospital  (for  the  insane),  the  Miami  Valley  and  the  St 
Elizabeth  hospitals,  the  Christian  Deaconess,  the  Widows'  and  the 
Children's  homes,  and  the  Door' of  Hope  (for  homeless  girls); 
and  i  m.  W.  of  the  city  is  the  central  branch  of  the  National 
Home  for  disabled  volunteer  soldiers,  with  its  beautifully 
ornamented  grounds,  about  i  sq.  m.  in  extent.  The  Mad  river  is 
made  to  furnish  good  water-power  by  means  of  a  hydraulic  canal 
which  takes  its  water  through  the  city,  and  Dayton's  manu- 
factures are  extensive  and  varied,  the  establishments  of  the 
National  Cash  Register  Company  employing  in  1907  about  4000 
wage-earners.  This  company  is  widely  known  for  its  "  welfare 
work  "  on  behalf  of  its  operatives.  Baths,  lunch-rooms,  rest- 
rooms,  clubs,  lectures,  schools  and  kindergartens  have  been 
supplied,  and  the  company  has  also  cultivated  domestic  pride 
by  offering  prizes  for  the  best-kept  gardens,  &c.  From  April 
to  July  1901  there  was  a  strike  in  the  already  thoroughly  union- 
ized factories;  complaint  was  made  of  the  hectoring  of  union 
men  by  a  certain  foreman,  the  use  in  toilet-rooms  of  towels 
laundered  in  non-union  shops  (the  company  replied  by  allowing 
the  men  to  supply  towels  themselves),  the  use  on  doors  of  springs 
not  union-made  (these  were  removed  by  the  company),  and 
especially  the  discharge  of  four  men  whom  the  company  refused 
to  reinstate.  The  company  was  victorious  in  the  strike,  and  the 
factory  became  an  "  open  shop."  In  addition  to  cash  registers, 
the  city's  manufactured  products  include  agricultural  implements, 
clay-working  machinery,  cotton-seed  and  linseed  oil  machinery, 
filters,  turbines,  railway  cars  (the  large  Barney-Smith  car  works 
employed  1800  men  in  1905),  carriages  and  wagons,  sewing- 
machines  (the  Davis  Sewing  Machine  Co.),  automobiles,  clothing, 
flour,  malt  liquors,  paper,  furniture,  tobacco  and  soap.  The  total 
value  of  the  manufactured  product,  under  the  "  factory  system," 
was  $31,015,293  in  1900  and  $39,596,773  in  1905.  Dayton's 
site  was  purchased  in  1 795  from  John  Cleves  Symmes  by  a  party 
of  Revolutionary  soldiers,  and  it  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1796 
by  Israel  Ludlow  (one  of  the  owners) ,  by  whom  it  was  named  in 
honour  of  Jonathan  Dayton  (1760-1824),  a  soldier  in  the  War  of 


Independence,  a  member  of  Congress  from  New  Jersey  in  1791- 
1799,  and  a  United  States  senator  in  1799-1805.  It  was  made 
the  county-seat  in  1803,  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1805, 
grew  rapidly  after  the  opening  of  the  canal  in  1828,  and  in  1841 
was  chartered  as  a  city. 

DEACON  (Gr.  Suucovos,  minister,  servant),  the  name  given 
to  a  particular  minister  or  officer  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
status  and  functions  of  the  office  have  varied  in  different  ages  and 
in  different  branches  of  Christendom. 

(a)  The  Ancient  Church. — The  office  of  deacon  is  almost  as  old 
as  Christianity  itself,  though  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  moment 
at  which  it  came  into  existence.    Tradition  connects  its  origin 
with  the  appointment  of  "  the  Seven  "  recorded  in  Acts  vi. 
This  connexion,  however,  is  questioned  by  a  large  and  increasing 
number  of  modern  scholars,  on  the  ground  that  "  the  Seven  " 
are  not  called  deacons  in  the  New  Testament  and  do  not  seem  to 
have  been  identified  with  them  till  the  time  of  Irenaeus  (A.D.  180). 
The  first  definite  reference  to  the  diaconate  occurs  in  St  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians  (i.  i),  where  the  officers  of  the  Church 
are  described  as  "  bishops  and  deacons  " — though  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  earlier  allusions  are  to  be  found  in  i  Cor.  xii.  28 
and  Romans  xii.  7.    In  the  pastoral  epistles  the  office  seems  to 
have  become  a  permanent  institution  of  the  Church,  and  special 
qualifications  are  laid  down  for  those  who  hold  it  (i  Tim.  iii.  8). 
By  the  time  of  Ignatius  (A.D.  1 10)  the  "  three  orders  "  of  the 
ministry  were  definitely  established,  the  deacon  being  the  lowest 
of  the  three  and  subordinate  to  the  bishop  and  the  presbyters. 
The  inclusion  of  deacons  in  the  "  three  orders  "  which  were 
regarded  as  essential  to  the  existence  of  a  true  Church  sharply 
distinguished  them  from  the  lower  ranks  of  the  ministry,  and  gave 
them  a  status  and  position  of  importance  in  the  ancient  Church. 

The  functions  attaching  to  the  office  varied  at  different  times. 
In  the  apostolic  age  the  duties  of  deacons  were  naturally  vague 
and  undefined.  They  were  "  helpers  "  or  "  servants  "  of  the 
Church  in  a  general  way  and  served  in  any  capacity  that  was 
required  of  them.  With  the  growth  of  the  episcopate,  however, 
the  deacons  became  the  immediate  ministers  of  the  bishop. 
Their  duties  included  the  supervision  of  Church  property,  the 
management  of  Church  finances,  the  visitation  of  the  sick,  the 
distribution  of  alms  and  the  care  of  widows  and  orphans.  They 
were  also  required  to  watch  over  the  souls  of  the  flock  and  report 
to  the  bishop  the  cases  of  those  who  had  sinned  or  were  in  need  of 
spiritual  help.  "  You  deacons,"  says  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions (4th  century),  "  ought  to  keep  watch  over  all  who  need 
watching  or  are  in  distress,  and  let  the  bishop  know."  With  the 
growth  of  hospitals  and  other  charitable  institutions,  however, 
the  functions  of  deacons  became  considerably  curtailed.  The 
social  work  of  the  Church  was  transferred  to  others,  and  little  by 
little  the  deacons  sank  in  importance  until  at  last  they  came  to 
be  regarded  merely  as  subordinate  officers  of  public  worship, 
a  position  which  they  hold  in  the  Roman  Church  to-day,  where 
their  duties  are  confined  to  such  acts  as  the  following: — censing 
the  officiating  priest  and  the  choir,  laying  the  corporal  on  the 
altar,  handing  the  paten  or  cup  to  the  priest,  receiving  from  him 
the  pyx  and  giving  it  to  the  subdeacon,  putting  the  mitre  on 
the  archbishop's  head  (when  he  is  present)  and  laying  his  pall 
upon  the  altar. 

(b)  The  Church  of  England. — The  traditionary  position  of  the 
diaconate  as  one  of  the  "  three  orders  "  is  here  maintained. 
Deacons  may  conduct  any  of  the  ordinary  services  in  the  church, 
but  are  not  permitted  to  pronounce  the  absolution  or  consecrate 
the  elements  for  the  Eucharist.  In  practice  the  office  has  become 
a  stepping-stone  to  the  priesthood,  the  deacon  corresponding 
to  the  licentiate  in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Candidates  for  the 
office  must  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-three  and  must 
satisfy  the  bishop  with  regard  to  their  intellectual,  moral  and 
spiritual  fitness.    The  functions  of  the  office  are  defined  in  the 
Ordinal — "  to  assist  the  priest  in  divine  service  and  specially 
when   he   ministereth   the   Holy   Communion,    to   read   Holy 
Scriptures  and  Homilies  in  the  church,  to  instruct  the  youth  in 
the  catechism,  to  baptize  in  the  absence  of  the  priest,  to  preach 
if  he  be  admitted  thereto  by  the  bishop,  and  furthermore  to  search 


DEACONESS— DEAD  SEA 


for  the  sick,  poor  and  impotent  people  and  intimate  their  estates 
and  names  to  the  curate." 

(c)  Churches  of  the  Congregational  Order. — In  these  (which  of 
course  include  Baptists)  the  diaconate  is  a  body  of  laymen 
appointed  by  the  members  of  the  church  to  act  as  a  management 
committee  and  to  assist  the  minister  in  the  work  of  the  church. 
There  is  no  general  rule  as  to  the  number  of  deacons,  though  the 
traditionary,  number  of  seven  is  often  kept,  nor  as  to  the  fre- 
quency of  election,  each  church  making  its  own  arrangements 
in  this  respect.  The  deacons  superintend  the  financial  affairs  of 
the  church,  co-operate  with  the  minister  in  the  various  branches 
of  his  work,  assist  in  the  visitation  of  the  sick,  attend  to  the 
church  property  and  generally  supervise  the  activities  of  the 
church. 

See  Thomassinus,  Vetus  ac  nova  disciplina,  pars  i.  lib.  i.  c.  51  f. 
and  lib.  ii.  c.  29  f.  (Lugdunum,  1706);  J.  N.  Seidl,  Der  Diakonat  in 
der  katholischen  Kirche  (Regensburg,  1884);  R.  Sohm,  Kirchenrecht, 
i.  121-137  (Leipzig,  1892);  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  The  Christian  Ecclesia 
(London,  1897). 

DEACONESS  (ri  diaKovos  or  8ia.Kovuraa,  servant,  minister), 
the  name  given  to  a  woman  set  apart  for  special  service  in  the 
Christian  Church.  The  origin  and  early  history  of  the  office  are 
veiled  in  obscurity.  It  is  quite  certain  that  from  the  3rd  century 
onward  there  existed  in  the  Eastern  Church  an  order  of  women, 
known  as  deaconesses,  who  filled  a  position  analogous  to  that  of 
deacons.  They  are  quite  distinct  from  the  somewhat  similar 
orders  of  "  virgins  "  and  "  widows,"  who  belonged  to  a  lower 
plane  in  the  ecclesiastical  system.  The  order  is  recognized  in  the 
canons  of  the  councils  of  Nicaea  (325)  and  Chalcedon  (451),  and 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Chrysostom  (some  of 
whose  letters  are  addressed  to  deaconesses  at  Constantinople), 
Epiphanius,  Basil,  and  indeed  most  of  the  more  important 
Fathers  of  the  4th  and  sth  centuries.  Deaconesses,  upon  enter- 
ing their  office,  were  ordained  much  in  the  same  way  as  deacons, 
but  the  ordination  conveyed  no  sacerdotal  powers  or  authority. 
Epiphanius  says  quite  distinctly  that  they  were  woman-elders 
and  not  priestesses  in  any  sense  of  the  term,  and  that  their 
mission  was  not  to  interfere  with  the  functions  allotted  to  priests 
but  simply  to  perform  certain  offices  in  connexion  with  the  care  of 
women.  Several  specimens  of  the  ordination  service  for  deacon- 
esses have  been  preserved  (see  Cecilia  Robinson,  The  Ministry  of 
Deaconesses,  London,  1878,  appendix  B,  p.  197).  The  functions 
of  the  deaconess  were  as  follows:  (i)  To  assist  at  the  baptism  of 
women,  especially  in  connexion  with  the  anointing  of  the  body 
which  in  the  ancient  Church  always  preceded  immersion;  (2)  to 
visit  the  women  of  the  Church  in  their  homes  and  to  minister 
to  the  needs  of  the  sick  and  afflicted;  (3)  according  to  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions  they  acted  as  door-keepers  in  the  church, 
received  women  as  they  entered  and  conducted  them  to  their 
allotted  seats.  In  the  Western  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
hear  nothing  of  the  order  till  the  4th  century,  when  an  attempt 
seems  to  have  been  made  to  introduce  it  into  Gaul.  Much 
opposition,  however,  was  encountered,  and  the  movement  was 
condemned  by  the  council  of  Orange  in  441  and  the  council  of 
Epaone  in  517.  In  spite  of  the  prohibition  the  institution  made 
some  headway,  and  traces  of  it  are  found  later  in  Italy,  but  it 
never  became  as  popular  in  the  West  as  it  was  in  the  East.  In  the 
middle  ages  the  order  fell  into  abeyance  in  both  divisions  of  the 
Church,  the  abbess  taking  the  place  of  the  deaconess.  Whether 
deaconesses,  in  the  later  sense  of  the  term,  existed  before  250 
is  a  disputed  point.  The  evidence  is  scanty  and  by  no  means 
decisive.  There  are  only  three  passages  which  bear  upon  the 
question  at  all.  (i)  Romans  xvi.  i :  Phpebe  is  called  17  foci/cows, 
but  it  is  quite  uncertain  whether  the  word  is  used  in  its  technical 
sense,  (ii)  i  Tim.  iii.  n:  after  stating  the  qualifications  neces- 
sary for  deacons  the  writer  adds,  "  Women  in  like  manner  must 
be  grave — not  slanderers,"  &c.;  the  Authorized  Version  took 
the  passage  as  referring  to  deacons'  wives,  but  many  scholars 
think  that  by  "  women  "  deaconesses  are  meant,  (iii)  In  Pliny's 
famous  letter  to  Trajan  respecting  the  Christians  of  Bithynia 
mention  is  made  of  two  Christian  maidservants  "  quae  ministrae 
dicebantur  " ;  whether  ministrae  is  equivalent  to  BIOKOVOI,  as  is 
often  snpposed,  is  dubious.  On  the  whole  the  evidence  does  not 


seem  sufficient  to  prove  the  contention  that  an  order  of  deacon- 
esses— in  the  ecclesiastical  sense  of  the  term — existed  from  the 
apostolic  age. 

In  modern  times  several  attempts  have  been  made  to  revive 
the  order  of  deaconesses.  In  1833  Pastor  Fleidner  founded  "  an 
order  of  deaconesses  for  the  Rhenish  provinces  of  Westphalia  " 
at  Kaiserswerth.  The  original  aim  of  the  institution  was  to  train 
nurses  for  hospital  work,  but  its  scope  was  afterwards  extended 
and  it  trained  its  members  for  teaching  and  parish  work  as  well. 
Kaiserswerth  became  the  parent  of  many  similar  institutions 
in  different  parts  of  the  continent.  A  few  years  later,  in  1847, 
Miss  Sellon  formed  for  the  first  time  a  sisterhood  at  Devonport 
in  connexion  with  the  Church  of  England.  Her  example  was 
gradually  followed  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  1898 
there  were  over  two  thousand  women  living  together  in  different 
sisterhoods.  The  members  of  these  institutions  do  not  repre- 
sent the  ecclesiastical  deaconesses,  however,  since  they  are  not 
ministers  set  apart  by  the  Church;  and  the  sisterhoods  are  merely 
voluntary  associations  of  women  banded  together  for  spiritual 
fellowship  and  common  service.  In  1861  Bishop  Tail  set  apart 
Miss  Elizabeth  Ferard  as  a  deaconess  by  the  laying  on  of  hands, 
and  she  became  the  first  president  of  the  London  Deaconess 
Institution.  Other  dioceses  gradually  adopted  the  innovation. 
It  has  received  the  sanction  of  Convocation,  and  the  J^ambeth 
Conference  in  1897  declared  that  it  "  recognized  with  thankful- 
ness the  revival  of  the  office  of  deaconess,"  though  at  the  same 
time  it  protested  against  the  indiscriminate  use  of  the  title  and 
laid  it  down  emphatically  that  the  name  must  be  restricted  to 
those  who  had  been  definitely  set  apart  by  the  bishop  for  the 
position  and  were  working  under  the  direct  supervision  and 
control  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  parish. 

In  addition  to  Miss  Robinson's  book  cited  above,  see  Church 
Quarterly  Review,  xlvii.  302  ff.,  art.  "  On  the  Early  History  and 
Modern  Revival  of  Deaconesses,"  (London,  1899),  and  the  works 
there  referred  to;  D.  Latas,  Xpumaviufi  ' A.pxaio\oyla,  i.  163-171 
(Athens,  1883);  Testamentum  Domini,  ed.  Rahmani  (Mainz,  1899); 
L.  Zscharnack,  Der  Dienst  der  Frau  in  den  ersten  Jahrhunderten  der 
chr.  Kirche  (1902). 

DEAD  SEA,  a  lake  in  Palestine  occupying  the  deepest  part  of 
the  valley  running  along  the  line  of  a  great  "  fault  "  that  has  been 
traced  from  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  (at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea)  to 
Hermon.  This  fracture  was  caused  after  the  end  of  the  Eocene 
period  by  the  earth-movement  which  resulted  in  the  raising  of  the 
whole  region  out  of  the  sea.  Level  for  level,  the  more  ancient 
rocks  are  on  the  eastward  side  of  the  lake:  the  cretaceous  lime- 
stones that  surmount  the  older  volcanic  substrata  come  down 
on  the  western  side  to  the  water's  edge,  while  on  the  eastern  side 
they  are  raised  between  3000  and  4000  feet  above  it.  In  the 
Pleistocene  period  the  whole  of  this  depression  was  filled  with 
water  forming  a  lake  about  200  m.  long  north  to  south,  whose 
waters  were  about  the  same  level  as  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  With  the  diminishing  rainfall  and  increased  temperature 
that  followed  that  period  the  effects  of  evaporation  gradually 
surpassed  the  precipitation,  and  the  waters  of  the  lake  slowly 
diminished  to  about  the  extent  which  they  still  display. 

The  length  of  the  sea  is  47  m.,  and  its  maximum  breadth  is 
about  9!  m. ;  its  area  is  about  340  sq.  m.  It  lies  nearly  north 
and  south.  Its  surface  being  1280-1300  ft.  below  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  it  has  of  course  no  outlet.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  broad  valley  of  the  Jordan;  on  the  east  by  the 
rapidly  rising  terraces  which  culminate  in  the  Moabite  plateau, 
3100  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  lake;  on  the  south  by  the  desert 
of  the  Arabah,  which  rises  to  the  watershed  between  the  Dead 
and  the  Red  Sea — 655  m.  from  the  former,  46^  from  the  latter; 
height  660  ft. — and  on  the  west  by  the  Judean  mountains  which 
attain  a  height  of  3300  ft.  On  the  east  side  a  peninsula,  El-Lisan 
("  the  tongue  "),  of  white  calcareous  marl  with  beds  of  salt  and 
gypsum,  divides  the  sea  into  two  unequal  parts:  this  peninsula 
is  about  50  ft.  high,  and  is  connected  by  a  narrow  strip  of  marsh- 
land with  the  shore.  Its  northern  and  southern  extremities 
have  been  named  Cape  Costigan  and  Cape  Molyneux,  in  memory 
of  two  explorers  who  were  among  the  first  in  modern  times  to 
navigate  the  sea  and  succumbed  to  the  consequent  fever  and 


DEAD  SEA 


879 


exhaustion.  North  of  the  peninsula  the  lake  has  a  maximum 
depth  of  1278  ft.;  south  of  it  the  water  is  nowhere  more  than 
12  ft.,  and  in  some  places  only  3  ft.  The  surface  level  of  the  lake 
varies  with  the  season,  and  recent  observations  taken  on  behalf 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  seem  to  show  that  there 
are  probably  cyclical  variations  also  (ultimately  dependent  on 
the  rainfall),  the  nature  and  periodicity  of  which  there  are  as 
yet  no  sufficient  data  to  determine.  In  1858  there  was  a  small 
island  near  the  north  end  rising  10  or  12  ft.  above  the  surface 
and  connected  with  the  shore  by  a  causeway;  this  has  been 
submerged  since  1892;  and  owing  to  the  gradual  rise  of  level 
within  these  years  the  fords  south  of  the  Lisan,  and  the  pathway 
which  formerly  rounded  the  Ras  Feshkhah,  are  now  no  longer 
passable. 

The  slopes  on  each  side  of  the  sea  are  furrowed  with  water- 
courses, some  of  them  perennial,  others  winter  torrents  only. 
The  chief  affluents  of  the  sea  are  as  follows: — on  the  north, 
Jordan  and  'Ain  es-Suweimeh;  on  the  east  Wadis  Ghuweir, 
Zerka  Ma'in  (Callirrhoe),  Mo  jib  (Arnon),  Ed-Dera'a,  and  el- 
Hesi;  on  the  west,  Wadis  Muhawat  and  Seyal,  'Ain  Jidi 
(En-Gedi),  Wadi  el  Merabbah,  'Ain  Ghuweir,  Wadi  el-Nar, 
'Ain  Feshkhah.  The  quantity  of  water  poured  daily  into  the 
sea  is  not  less  than  6,000,000  tons,  all  of  which  has  to  be  carried 
off  by  evaporation.  The  consequence  of  the  ancient  evaporation, 
by  which  the  great  Pleistocene  lake  was  reduced  to  its  present 
modest  dimensions,  and  of  the  ceaseless  modern  daily  evapora- 
tion, is  the  impregnation  of  the  waters  of  the  lake  with  salts  and 
other  mineral  substances  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Ocean  water 
contains  on  an  average  4-6%  of  salts:  Dead  Sea  water  contains 
2  5  %•  The  following  analysis,  by  Dr  Bernays,  gives  the  contents 
of  the  water  more  accurately: — 

Specific  gravity  1-1528  at  15-5°  C. 

Calcium  carbonate  .  70-00  grains 
Calcium  sulphate  .  163-39 
Magnesium  nitrate  .  175-01 
Potassium  chloride  .  1089-06 
Sodium  chloride  .  5106-00 
Calcium  chloride  .  594'46 
Magnesium  chloride  7388-21 
Magnesium  bromide  .  345-8o 
Iron  and  aluminium  oxides  .  10-50 
Organic  matter,  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion, loss  ...  .  317-57 


Total  residue  per  gallon 


1526000 


The  density  of  the  water  averages  1-166.  It  increases  from 
north  to  south,  and  with  the  depth.  The  increase  is  at  first  rapid, 
then,  after  reaching  a  certain  point,  becomes  more  uniform.  At 
300  metres  its  density  is  1-253.  The  boiling  point  is  221°  F. 
To  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  suspended  in  its  water  the  Dead 
Sea  owes,  beside  its  saltness,  its  buoyancy  and  its  poisonous 
properties.  The  human  body  floats  on  the  surface  without 
exertion.  Owing  principally  to  the  large  proportion  of  chloride 
and  bromide  of  magnesia  no  animal  life  can  exist  in  its  water. 
Fish,  which  abound  in  the  Jordan  and  in  the  brackish  spring-fed 
lagoons  that  exist  in  one  or  two  places  around  its  shores  (such  as 
'Ain  Feshkhah),  die  in  a  very  short  time  if  introduced  into  the 
main  waters  of  the  lake.  The  only  animal  life  reported  from  the 
lake  has  been  some  tetanus  and  other  bacilli  said  to  have  been 
found  in  its  mud;  but  this  discovery  has  not  been  confirmed. 
To  the  chloride  of  calcium  is  due  the  smooth  and  oily  feeling  of 
the  water,  and  to  the  chloride  of  magnesia  its  disagreeable  taste. 
In  Roman  times  curative  properties  were  ascribed  to  the  waters: 
Mukaddasi  (A.D.  985)  asserts  that  people  assembled  to  drink  it 
on  a  feast  day  in  August.  The  salt  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  collected 
and  sold  in  Jerusalem;  smuggling  of  salt  (which  in  Turkey  is  a 
government  monopoly)  is  a  regular  occupation  of  the  Bedouin. 
The  bitumen  which  floats  to  shore  is  also  collected.  The  origin 
of  this  bitumen  is'disputed:  it  was  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
subaqueous  strata  of  bituminous  marl  and  rose  to  the  surface 
when  loosened  by  earthquakes.  It  is,  however,  now  more  gener- 
ally believed  that  it  exists  in  the  breccia  of  some  of  the  valleys 
on  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  which  is  washed  into  the  sea  and 


submerged,  till  the  small  stones  by  which  it  is  sunk  are  loosened 
and  fall  out,  when  the  bitumen  rises  to  the  surface. 

History. — The  earliest  references  to  the  sea  or  its  basin  are  in 
the  patriarchal  narratives  of  Lot  and  Abraham,  the  most  striking 
being  the  destruction  of  the  neighbouring  cities  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah.  (See  SODOM.)  The  biblical  name  is  the  Salt  Sea,  the 
Sea  of  the  Arabah  (the  south  end  of  the  Jordan  valley),  or  the 
East  Sea.  The  name, in  Josephus  is  Asphaltites,  referring  to 
the  bituminous  deposits  above  alluded  to.  The  modern  name  is 
Bahr  Lut  or  "  Sea  of  Lot  " — a  name  hardly  to  be  explained  as  a 
survival  of  a  vague  tradition  of  the  patriarch,  but  more  probably 
due  to  the  literary  influences  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  and  the 
Koran  filtering  through  to  the  modern  inhabitants  or  their 
ancestors.  The  name  Dead  Sea  first  appears  in  late  Greek  writers, 
as  Pausanias  and  Galen.  At  En-Gedi  on  its  western  bank  David 
for  a  while  took  refuge.  South  of  it  is  the  stronghold  of  Masada, 
built  by  Jonathan  Maccabaeus  and  fortified  by  Herod  in  42  B.C., 
where  the  last  stand  of  the  Jews  was  made  against  the  Romans 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  where  the  garrison,  when  the 
defences  were  breached,  slew  themselves  rather  than  fall  into 
Roman  hands. 

The  sea  has  been  but  little  navigated.  Tacitus  and  Josephus 
mention  boats  on  the  lake,  and  boats  are  shown  upon  it  in  the 
Madeba  mosaic.  The  navigation  dues  formed  part  of  the  revenue 
of  the  lords  of  Kerak  under  the  crusaders.  In  modern  times 
navigation  is  practically  nil.  The  lake,  with  the  whole  Jericho 
plain,  is  claimed  as  the  personal  property  of  the  sultan. 

The  medieval  travellers  brought  home  many  strange  legends 
of  the  sea  and  its  peculiarities — some  absurd,  others  with  a  basis 
of  fact.  The  absence  of  sea-birds,  due  to  the  absence  of  fish, 
probably  accounts  for  the  story  that  no  birds  could  fly  over  it. 
The  absence  of  vegetation  on  its  shores,  due  to  the  scanty 
rainfall  and  general  want  of  fresh  water — except  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  springs  like  'Ain  Feshkhah  and  'Ain  Jidi,  where 
a  luxuriant  subtropical  vegetation  is  found — accounts  for  the 
story  that  no  plant  could  live  in  the  poisonous  air  which  broods 
over  the  sea.  The  mists,  due  to  the  great  heat  and  excessive 
evaporation,  and  the  noxious  miasmata,  especially  of  the  southern 
region,  were  exaggerated  into  the  noisome  vapours  that  the 
"  black  and  stinking  "  waters  ever  exhaled.  The  judgment  on 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (which  of  course  they  believed  to  be  under 
the  waters  of  the  lake,  in  accordance  with  the  absurd  theory 
first  found  in  Josephus  and  still  often  repeated)  blinded  these 
good  pilgrims  to  the  ever-fresh  beauty  of  this  most  lovely 
lake,  whose  blue  and  sparkling  waters  lie  deep  between  rocks 
and  precipices  of  unsurpassable  grandeur.  The  play  of  brilliant 
colours  and  of  ever-changing  contrasts  of  light  and  shade  on 
those  rugged  mountain-sides  and  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  itself 
might  have  been  expected  to  appeal  to  the  most  prosaic.  The 
surface  of  the  sea  is  generally  smooth  (seldom,  however,  absolutely 
inert  as  the  pilgrims  represented  it),  but  is  frequently  raised  by 
the  north  winds  into  waves,  which,  owing  to  the  weight  and 
density  of  the  water,  are  often  of  great  force. 

The  first  to  navigate  the  sea  in  modern  times  was  an  Irish 
traveller,  Costigan  by  name,  in  August  and  September  1835. 
Owing  largely  to  the  folly  of  his  Greek  servant,  who,  without 
his  master's  knowledge,  threw  overboard  the  drinking-water  to 
lighten  the'  boat,  the  explorer  after  circumnavigating  the  sea 
reached  Jericho  in  an  exhausted  condition,  and  was  there  attacked 
by  a  severe  fever.  The  greatest  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
obtaining  assistance  for  him,  but  he  was  ultimately  conveyed 
on  camel-back  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died;  his  grave  is  in  the 
Franciscan  cemetery  there.  His  fate  was  shared  by  his  successor, 
a  British  naval  officer,  Lieutenant  Molyneux  (1847),  whose  party 
was  attacked  and  robbed  by  Bedouins.  W.  F.  Lynch,  an  American 
explorer  (1848),  equipped  by  the  United  States  government,  was 
more  successful,  and  he  may  claim  to  be  the  first  who  examined 
its  shores  and  sounded  its  depths.  Since  his  time  the  due  de 
Luynes,  Lartet,  Wilson,  Hull,  Blanckenhorn,  Gautier,  Libbey, 
Masterman  and  Schmidt,  to  name  but  a  few,  have  made  contri- 
butions to  our  knowledge  of  this  lake;  but  still  many  problems 
present  themselves  for  solution.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 


88o 


DEADWOOD— DEAF  AND  DUMB 


(i)  the  explanation  of  a  remarkable  line  of  white  foam  that 
extends  along  the  axis  of  the  lake  amost  every  morning — sup- 
posed by  Blanckenhorn  to  mark  the  line  of  a  fissure,  thermal  and 
asphaltic,  under  the  bed  of  the  lake,  but  otherwise  explained 
as  a  consequence  of  the  current  of  the  Jordan,  which  is  not 
completely  expended  till  it  reaches  the  Lisan,  or  as  a  result  of 
the  mingling  of  the  salt  water  with  the  brackish  spring  water 
especially  along  the  western  shore;  (2)  a  northward  current 
that  has  been  observed  along  the  east  coast;  (3)  various  disturb- 
ances of  level,  due  possibly  to  differences  of  barometric  pressure; 
(4)  some  apparently  electrical  phenomena  that  have  been  ob- 
served in  the  valley.  Before  we  can  be  said  to  know  all  that 
we  might  regarding  this  most  interesting  of  lakes  further  exten- 
sive scientific  observations  are  necessary;  but  these  are  extremely 
difficult  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  maintaining  self-registering 
instruments  in  a  region  practically  closed  to  Europeans  for 
nearly  half  the  year  by  the  stifling  heat,  and  inhabited  only 
by  Bedouins,  who  are  the  worst  kind  of  ignorant,  thievish  and 
mischievous  savages.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

DEADWOOD,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Lawrence  county, 
South  Dakota,  U.S.A.,  about  180  m.  W.  of  Pierre.  Pop.  (1890) 
2366;  (1900)  3498,  of  whom  707  were  foreign-born;  (1905)  4364; 
(1910)  3653.  It  is  served  by  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
and  the  Chicago  &  North-Western  railways.  It  lies  on  hilly 
ground  in  the  canyon  of  Whitewood  Creek  at  an  elevation  of  about 
4530  ft.  Deadwood  is  the  commercial  centre  of  the  Black  Hills. 
About  it  are  several  gold  mines  (including  the  well-known  Home- 
stake  mine) ,  characterized  by  the  low  grade  of  their  ores  (which 
range  from  $2  to  $8  per  ton),  by  their  vast  quantity,  and  by  the 
ease  of  mining  and  of  extracting  the  metal.  The  ore  contains 
free  gold,  which  is  extracted  by  the  simple  process  of  stamping 
and  amalgamation,  and  refractory  values,  extracted  by  the 
cyaniding  process.  Several  hundred  tons  of  ore  are  treated 
thus  in  Deadwood  and  its  environs  daily,  and  its  stamp  mills 
are  exceeded  in  size  only  by  those  of  the  Treadwell  mine  in  S.E. 
Alaska,  and  by  those  on  the  Rand  in  South  Africa.  The  discovery 
of  gold  here  was  made  known  in  June  1875,  and  in  February 
1877  the  United  States  government,  after  having  purchased  the 
land  from  the  Sioux  Indians,  opened  the  place  for  legal  settle- 
ment. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.1  The  term  "  deaf  "  is  frequently  applied 
to  those  who  are  deficient  in  hearing  power  in  any  degree,  how- 
ever slight,  as  well  as  to  people  who  are  unable  to  detect  the 
loudest  sounds  by  means  of  the  auditory  organsf  It  is  impossible 
to  draw  a  hard  and  fast  line  between  the  deaf  and  the  hearing  at 
any  particular  point.  For  the  purposes  of  this  article,  however, 
that  denotation  which  is  generally  accepted  by  educators  of  the 
deaf  may  be  given  to  the  term.  This  makes  it  refer  to  those  who 
are  so  far  handicapped  as  to  be  incapable  of  instruction  by  the 
ordinary  means  of  the  ear  in  a  class  of  those  possessing  normal 
hearing.  Paradoxical  though  it  may  seem,  it  is  yet  true  to  say 
that  "  dumbness  "  in  our  sense  of  the  word  does  not,  strictly 
speaking,  exist,  though  the  term  "  dumb  "  may,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  fairly  be  applied  to  many  of  the  deaf  even  after  they 
are  supposed  to  have  learnt  how  to  speak.  Oral  teachers  now 
confess  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  try  to  teach  more  than  a 
large  percentage  of  the  deaf  to  speak  at  all.  We  are  not  con- 
cerned with  aphasia,  stammeringior  such  inability  to  articulate 
as  may  be  due  to  malformation  of  the  vocal  organs.  In  the  case 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  as  these  words  are  generally  understood, 
dumbness  is  merely  the  result  of  ignorance  in  the  use  of  the  voice, 
this  ignorance  being  due  to  the  deafness.  The  vocal  organs  are 
perfect.  The  deaf  man  can  laugh,  shout,  and  in  fact  utter  any 
and  every  sound  that  the  normal  person  can.  But  he  does  not 
speak  English  (if  that  happens  to  be  his  nationality)  for  the  same 
reason  that  a  French  child  does  not,  which  is  that  he  has  never 
heard  it.  There  is  in  fact  no  more  a  priori  reason  why  an  English 

1  The  two  words  are  common  to  Teutonic  languages,  cf.  Ger.  taub 
and  dumm  (only  in  the  sense  of  "  stupid  "),  Dutch  doof  and  dom;  the 
original  meaning  seems  to  have  been  dull  of  perception,  stupid, 
obtuse,  and  the  words  may  be  ultimately  related.  The  Gr. 
blind,  and  rD^os,  smoke,  mist,  probably  show  the  same  base. 


baby,  born  in  England,  should  talk  English  than  that-  it  should 
talk  any  other  language.  English  may  be  correctly  described 
as  its  "  mother  tongue,"  but  not  its  natural  language;  the  only 
reason  why  one  person  speaks  English  and  another  Russian  is 
that  each  imitated  that  particular  language  which  he  heard 
in  infancy.  This  imitation  depends  upon  the  ability  to  hear. 
Hence  if  one  has  never  heard,  or  has  lost  hearing  in  early  child- 
hood, he  has  never  been  able  to  imitate  that  language  which  his 
parents  and  others  used,  and  the  condition  of  so-called  dumbness 
is  added  to  his  deafness.  From  this  it  follows  that  if  the  sense  of 
hearing  be  not  lost  till  the  child  has  learnt  to  speak  fluently,  the 
ability  to  speak  is  unaffected  by  the  calamity  of  deafness,  except 
that  after  many  years  the  voice  is  likely  to  become  high-pitched, 
or  too  guttural,  or  peculiar  in  some  other  respect,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  the  control  usually  exercised  by  the  ear.  It  also 
follows  that,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  art  of  speech  can  be  taught 
the  deaf  person  even  though  he  were  born  deaf.  Theoretically, 
he  is  capable  of  talking  just  as  well  as  his  hearing  brother,  for 
the  organs  of  speech  are  as  perfect  in  one  as  in  the  other,  except 
that  they  suffer  from  lack  of  exercise  in  the  case  of  the  deaf  man. 
Practically,  he  can  never  speak  perfectly,  for  even  if  he  were 
made  to  attempt  articulation  as  soon  as  he  is  discovered  to  be 
deaf,  the  fact  that  the  ear,  the  natural  guide  of  the  voice,  is  useless, 
lays  upon  him  a  handicap  which  can  never  be  wiped  out.  He 
can  never  hear  the  tone  of  his  teacher's  voice  nor  of  his  own ;  he 
can  only  see  small  and,  in  many  instances,  scarcely  discernible 
movements  of  the  lips,  tongue,  nose,  cheeks  and  throat  in  those 
who  are  endeavouring  to  teach  him  to  speak,  and  he  can  never 
hope  to  succeed  in  speech  through  the  instrumentality  of  such 
unsatisfactory  appeals  to  his  eye  as  perfectly  as  the  hearing  child 
can  with  the  ideal  adaptation  of  the  voice  to  the  ear.  Sound 
appeals  to  the  ear,  not  the  eye,  and  those  who  have  to  rely  upon 
the  latter  to  imitate  speech  must  suffer  by  comparison. 

Deafness  then,  in  our  sense,  means  the  incapacity  to  be 
instructed  by  means  of  the  ear  in  the  normal  way,  and  dumb- 
ness means  only  that  ignorance  of  how  to  speak  one's  mother 
tongue  which  is  the  effect  of  the  deafness. 

Of  such  deaf  people  many  can  hear  sound  to  some  extent. 
Dr  Kerr  Love  quotes  several  authorities  (Deaf  Mutism,  pp.  58  ff.) 
to  show  that  50  or  60%  are  absolutely  deaf,  while  25  %  can 
detect  loud  sounds  such  as  shouting  close  to  the  ear,  and  the  rest 
can  distinguish  vowels  or  even  words.  He  himself  thinks  that 
not  more  than  15  or  20%  are  totally  deaf — sometimes  only  7  or 
8%;  that  ability  to  hear  speech  exists  in  about  one  in  four, 
while  ten  or  fifteen  in  each  hundred  are  only  semi-deaf.  He 
rightly  warns  against  the  use  of  tuning  forks  or  other  in- 
struments held  on  the  bones  of  the  head  as  tests  of  hearing, 
because  the  vibration  which  is  felt,  not  heard,  may  very  often 
be  mistaken  for  sound. 

Dr  Edward  M.  Gallaudet,  president  of  the  Columbia  Institution 
for  the  Deaf  in  Washington,  D.C.,  suggests  the  following  terms 
for  use  in  dividing  the  whole  class  of  the  deaf  into  its  main  sections, 
though  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  split  them  up  into  perfectly 
defined  subdivisions,  where,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  you  have  each 
degree  of  deafness  and  dumbness  shading  into  the  next: — the 
speaking  deaf,  the  semi-speaking  deaf,  the  mute  deaf  (or  deaf-mute) , 
the  speaking  semi-deaf,  the  mute  semi-deaf,  the  hearing  mute  and 
the  hearing  semi-mute.  He  points  out  that  the  last  two  classes  are 
usually  persons  of  feeble  mental  power.  We  should  exclude  these 
altogether  from  the  list,  since  their  hearing  is,  presumably,  perfect, 
and  should  add  the  semi-speaking  semi-deaf  before  the  mute 
semi-deaf.  This  would  give  two  main  divisions — those  who 
cannot  hear  at  all,  and  those  who  have  partial  hearing — with 
three  subsections  in  each  main  division — those  who  speak, 
those  who  have  partial  speech  and  those  who  do  not  speak  at  all. 
Where  the  hearing  is  perfect  it  is  paradoxical  to  class  a  person 
with  the  deaf,  and  the  dumbness  in  such  a  case  is  due  (where 
there  is  no  malformation  of  the  vocal  organs)  to  inability  of  the 
mind  to  pay  attention  to,  and  imitate,  what  the  ear  really  hears. 
In  such  cases  this  mental  weakness  is  generally  shown  in  other 
ways  besides  that  of  not  hearing  sounds.  Probably  no  sign  will 
be  given  of  recognizing  persons  or  objects  around;  there  will  be 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


881 


in  fact,  a  general  incapacity  of  the  whole  body  and  senses.  It 
is  incorrect  to  designate  such  persons  as  deaf  and  feeble-minded 
or  deaf  and  idiotic,  because  in  many  cases  their  organs  of  hearing 
are  as  perfect  as  are  other  organs  of  their  body,  and  they  are  no 
more  deaf  than  blind,  though  they  may  pay  no  attention  to  what 
they  hear  any  more  than  to  what  they  see.  They  are  simply 
weak  in  intellect,  and  this  is  shown  by  the  disuse  of  any  and  all  of 
their  senses;  hence  it  is  incorrect  to  classify  them  according  to 
one,  and  one  only,  of  the  evidences  of  this  mental  weakness. 

Extent  of  Deafness. — The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  deaf 
and  dumb  persons  in  the  United  Kingdom  at  successive  censuses: — 


YEAR. 

NUMBER  OF  DEAF  AND  DUMB  PERSONS. 

United 
Kingdom. 

England 
&  Wales. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

1851 
1861 
1871 
1881 
1891 
'    1901 

17,649 
20,224 

19-159 
20,573 
20,781 

21,855 

10,314 
12,236 
11,518 

13,295 
14,192 

15,246 

2155 
2335 
2087 
2142 
2125 
2638 

5180 
5653 
5554 
5136 
4464 

3971 

From  this  we  find  that  the  proportion  of  deaf  and  dumb  to  the 
population  has  been  as  follows : — 


YEAR 

PROPORTION 

OF  DEAF  AND 

DUMB  TO  THE 

POPULATION. 

United 
Kingdom. 

England 
&  Wales. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

1851 
1861 
1871 
1881 
1891 
1901 

I  in  1550 
I  in  1430 
I  in  1642 
I  in  1694 
I  in  1814 
I  in  1897 

in  1739 
in  1639 
in  1972 

in  1953 
in  2040 
in  2132 

in  1340 
in  1310 
in  1610 

in  1745 
in  1893 
in  1694 

in  1264 
in  1025 
in    974 
in  1008 
in  1053 
I  in  1  122 

There  has,  therefore,  been  on  the  whole  a  steady  decrease  of  those 
described  as  "  deaf  and  dumb  "  in  proportion  to  the  population  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  But  in  the  census  for  1901,  in  addition 
to  the  15,246  returned  as  "  deaf  and  dumb  "  in  England  and  Wales, 
18,507  were  entered  as  being  "  deaf,"  2433  of  whom  were  described 
as  having  been  "  deaf  from  childhood." 

Mr  B.  H.  Payne,  the  principal  of  the  Royal  Cambrian  Institution, 
Swansea,  makes  the  following  remarks  upon  these  figures: — 

"  The  natural  conclusion,  of  course,  is  that  there  has  been  a  large 
increase,  relative  as  well  as  absolute,  of  the  class  in  which  we  are 
interested,  which  we  call  the  deaf,  and  which  includes  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  .  Indeed,  the  number,  large  as  it  is,  cannot  be  considered  as 
complete,  for  the  schedules  did  not  require  persons  who  were  only 
deaf  to  state  their  infirmity,  and,  though  many  did  so,  it  may  be 
presumed  that  more  did  not. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  circumstances  exist  which  may  reasonably 
be  held  to  modify  the  conclusion  that  there  has  been  a  large  relative 
increase  of  the  deaf.  The  spread  of  education,  the  development  of 
local  government,  and  an  improved  system  of  registration,  may  have 
had  the  effect  of  procuring  fuller  enumeration  and  more  appro- 
priate classification  than  heretofore,  while  1368  persons  described 
simply  as  dumb,  and  who  therefore  probably  belong,  not  to  the  deaf, 
but  to  the  feeble-minded  and  aphasic  classes,  are  included  in  the 
'  deaf  and  dumb  '  total.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  some  of  those 
who  described  themselves  as  '  deaf  '  though  not  born  so  may  have 
been  educated  in  the  ordinary  way  before  they  lost  their  hearing, 
and  are  therefore  outside  the  sphere  of  the  operation  of  schools  for 
the  deaf. 

"  In  connexion  with  the  census  of  1891,  it  has  been  remarked  in  the 
report  of  the  institution  that  no  provision  was  made  in  the  schedules 
for  distinguishing  the  congenital  from  the  non-congenital  deaf,  and 
that  it  was  desirable  to  draw  such  a  distinction.  To  ascertain  the 
relative  increase  or  decrease  of  one  or  the  other  section  of  the  class 
would  contribute  to  our  knowledge  of  the  incidence  of  known  causes 
of  deafness  or  to  the  confirmation  or  discovery  of  other  causes,  and 
so  far  indicate  the  appropriate  measures  of  prevention,  while  such  an 
inquiry  as  that  recommended  has,  besides,  a  certain  bearing  upon 
educational  views. 

"  The  exact  number  of  '  deaf  and  dumb  '  and  '  deaf '  children  who 
are  of  school  age  cannot  be  ascertained  from  the  census  tables,  which 
give  the  numbers  in  quinquennial  age-groups,  while  the  school  age 
is  seven  to  sixteen.  It  is  a  pity  that  in  this  respect  the  functions  of 
the  census  department  are  not  co-ordinated  with  those  of  the  Board 
of  Education." 


Dr  John  Hitz.the  superintendent  of  the VoltaBureau  forthelncrease 
of  Knowledge  Relating  to  the  Deaf,  Washington,  D.C.,  U.S.A.,  gives 
the  number  of  schools  for  deaf  children,  and  pupils,  in  different 
countries  in  1900  as  follows: — 

AFRICA. 


Country. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Algeria 

pgypt 

Cape  Colony 
Natal 

i 

i 

4 
I 

3 

2 

9' 

2 

3l 
77 
7 

7 

16' 

127 

ASIA. 

Country. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

China 
India 
Japan 

3 
3 
3 

10 
13 
24 

43 
73 
337 

9 

47 

453 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Country. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Australia 
New  Zealand 

6 

i 

41 

5 

282 
50 

7 

46 

332 

EUROPE. 

Country. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Austria-Hungary 
Belgium 
Denmark     . 
France 
Germany 
Great  Britain 
Italy 
Luxemburg 
Netherlands 
Norway 
Portugal 
Rumania 
Russia,   Finland, 
Livonia 
Servia 
Spain 
Sweden 
Switzerland 
Turkey 

38 

12 

5 
7i 
99 
95 
47 
i 

3 

5 

2 
I 

34 

2 
II 

9 
H 

i 

291 
181 

57 
598 
798 
462 

234 
3 
74 
54 
9 
3 

118 

2» 

60 

124 
84 

2440 
1265 
348 
4098 
6497 
4222 
2519 

22 

473 
309 
64 
46 

1719 
26' 
462 
726 
650 

45° 

3152 

25,886 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

Country. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Canada 
United  States 
Mexico 
Cuba 

126 

i 
I 

130 
1347 
'3 

768 
10,946 
46 

535 

1490 

11,760 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Country. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Argentine    . 
Brazil 
Chile 
Uruguay 

4 
I 

i 
i 

18 
9 

7 

133 
8 

7 

34 

229 

1  Incomplete. 

882 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


SUMMARY. 


Continent. 

Schools. 

Teachers. 

Pupils. 

Africa 

7 

'  16 

127 

Asia    . 

9 

47 

453 

Australia 

7 

46 

332 

Europe 
North  America     . 

450 
135 

3152 
1490 

25,886 
11,760 

South  America 

7 

34 

229 

615 

4785 

38,787 

These  figures  refer  only  to  deaf  children  who  are  actually  under 
instruction,  not  to  the  whole  deaf  population. 

While  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that  so  much  is  being  done  in  the  way 
of  educating  this  class  of  the  community,  the  number  of  schools  in 
most  parts  of  the  world  is  still  lamentably  inadequate.  For  instance, 
taking  the  school  age  as  from  seven  to  sixteen,  which  is  now  made 
compulsory  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  Great  Britain,  and  assuming 
that  20%  of  the  deaf  population  are  of  that  age,  as  they  are  in 
England,  there  should  be  40,000  deaf  pupils  under  instruction  in 
India  alone,  whereas  there  are  but  seventy-three.  There  are  200,000 
deaf  of  all  ages  in  India.  And  what  an  enormous  total  should  be  in 
schools  in  China  instead  of  forty-three!  The  whole  of  the  rest  of 
Asia,  with  the  exception  of  Japan,  has  apparently  not  a  single  school. 
There  must  be  many  thousands  of  thousands  of  deaf  (hundreds  of 
thousands,  if  not  thousands  of  thousands  of  whom  are  of  school  age) 
in  that  continent,  unless  indeed  they  are  destroyed,  which  is  not 
impossible.  What  are  we  to  say  of  Africa,  where  only  100  pupils  are 
being  taught ;  of  South  America,  with  its  paltry  200,  and  Australia's 
300?  To  come  to  Europe  itself,  Russia  should  have  many  times 
more  pupils  than  her  1700.  Even  in  Great  Britain  the  education  of 
the  deaf  was  not  made  compulsory  till  1893,  and  there  are  many  still 
evading  the  law  and  growing  up  uneducated.  Mr  Payne  of  Swansea 
estimated  (Institution  Report,  1903-1904)  from  the  1901  census,  that 
there  must  be  approximately  204  deaf  of  school  age  in  South  Wales 
and  Monmouthshire,  while  only  144  were  accounted  for  in  all  the 
schools  in  that  district  according  to  Dr  Hitz's  statistics. 

Dr  Kerr  Love  (Deaf  Mutism,  p.  217)  gives  the  following  table, 
which  shows  the  number  of  deaf  people  in  proportion  to  the 
population  in  the  countries  named : — 


Switzerland . 

Austria 

Hungary 

Sweden 

Prussia 

Finland 

Canada 

Norway 

Germany  (exclusive 

Portugal 

Ireland 

India  . 

United  States 

Denmark 

Greece 

France 

Italy 

Scotland 

Cape  Colony 

England 

Spain 

Belgium 

Australasia  . 

Holland 

Ceylon 


of 


'russ  a) 


i    in 


408 

765 

792 

977 

981 

981 

1003 

1052 

1074 


I3981 

H59 

I5H 

1538 

1548 

1600 

1862 

1885' 

1904 

2043  l 

2178 

2247 

2692 

2985 
4328 


According  to  a  tabuHr  statement  of  British  and  Colonial  schools, 
June  1899,  the  proportion  of  those  born  deaf  to  those  who  lost 
hearing  after  birth  was,  at  that  time  and  in  those  countries,  2126 
to  1251,  as  far  as  returns  had  been  made.  Several  schools  had, 
however,  failed  to  give  statistics.  These  figures  show  a  proportion  of 
nearly  59  %  congenially  deaf  persons  to  over  41  %  whose  deafness 
is  acquired.  Professor  Fay,  whose  monumental  work,  Marriages  of 
the  Deaf  in  America,  deserves  particular  attention,  mentions  (p.  38) 
that  of  23,931  persons  who  attended  American  schools  for  the  deaf 
up  to  the  year  1890,  9842,  or  41  %,  were  reported  as  congenitally  deaf, 
and  14,089,  or  59%,  as  adventitiously  deaf, — figures  which  exactly 
reverse  those  just  quoted.  The  classification  of  deafness  acquired 
in  infancy  with  congenital  deafness  by  some  other  authorities  (giving 
rise  to  the  rather  absurd  term  "  toto-congenital  "  to  describe  the 
latter)  is  unscientific.  There  is  reason  for  the  opinion  that  the  non- 
congenital,  even  when  hearing  has  been  lost  in  early  infancy,  acquire 
language  better,  and  it  is  a  mistake  from  any  point  of  view  to  include 
them  in  the  born  deaf. 


1  The  figures  for  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  according  to  the 
1901  census,  are  different  and  have  been  given  above. 


Other  statistics  vary  very  much  as  to  the  proportion  of  born  deaf, 
some  being  as  low  as  a  quarter,  and  some  as  high  as  three-quarters, 
of  the  whole  class.  We  can  only  say,  speaking  of  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  counterbalancing  one  period  with  another,  that  the 
general  average  appears  to  be  about  50%  for  each.  Probably  the 
percentage  varies  in  different  places  for  definite  reasons,  which  we 
shall  now  briefly  consider. 

Causes  of  Deafness. — These  may  be  considered  in  two  divisions, 
pre-natal  and  post-natal. 

i.  Pre-Natal. — A  small  percentage  of  these  is  due,  it  seems, 
to  malformation  of  some  portion  of  the  auditory  apparatus. 
Another  percentage  is  known  to  represent  the  children  of  the 
intermarriage  of  blood  relations.  Dr  Kerr  Love  (Deaf  Mutism, 
p.  117)  gives  statistics  from  thirteen  British  institutions  which 
show  that  on  a  general  average  at  least  8%  of  the  congenitally 
deaf  are  the  offspring  of  such  marriages.  Besides  this,  little  is 
known.  Beyond  all  doubt  a  much  larger  percentage  of  deaf 
children  are  the  offspring  of  marriages  in  which  one  or  both 
partners  were  born  deaf  than  of  ordinary  marriages.  But 
inquiries  into  such  phenomena  have  generally  been  directed 
towards  tracing  deafness  and  not  consanguinity,  or  at  least  the 
inquirer  has  rarely  troubled  to  make  sure  whether  the  grand- 
parents or  great-grandparents  on  either  side  were  relations  or 
not.  Such  investigations  rarely  go  beyond  ascertaining  if  the 
parents  were  related  to  each  other,  though  we  have  proof  that 
a  certain  tendency  towards  any  particular  abnormality  may  not 
exhibit  itself  in  every  generation  of  the  family  in  question.  To 
give  an  illustration,  suppose  that  G  is  a  deaf  man.  Several 
inquirers  may  trace  back  to  the  preceding  generation  F,  and  to 
the  grandparents  E,  and  even  to  the  great-grandparents  D,  in 
search  of  an  ancestor  who  is  deaf,  and  such  they  may  discover 
in  the  third  generation  D.  But  probably  not  one  of  these 
several  inquirers  will  ask  G  if  any  of  his  grandparents  or  great- 
grandparents  married  a  cousin,  for  instance,  though  they  may  ask 
if  his  father  did.  To  continue  this  hypothetical  case,  the  investi- 
gators will  again  trace  back  along  the  family  tree  to  generations 
C,  B  and  A  in  search  of  an  original  deaf  ancestor,  on  whose 
shoulders  they  seek  to  lay  the  blame  of  both  D'sand  G's  deafness. 
Not  finding  any  such,  they  will  again  content  themselves  with 
asking  if  D's  parents  (generation  C)  were  blood  relations  or  not, 
and,  receiving  an  answer  in  the  negative,  desist  from  further 
inquiry  in  this  direction,  assuming  that  D's  deafness  is  the  original 
cause  of  G's  deafness.  They  do  not,  we  fear,  inquire  if  any  grand- 
parents or  great-grandparents  (hearing  people)  were  related, 
with  the  same  persistency  as  they  ask  if  any  were  deaf.  The 
search  for  deafness  is  pushed  through  several  generations,  the 
search  for  consanguinity  is  only  extended  to  one  generation. 
Perhaps  if  it  were  carried  further,  it  would  be  discovered  that  A 
married  his  niece,  and  there  lay  the  secret  of  the  deafness  in  both 
D  and  G.  In  other  words,  the  deafness  in  D  is  not  the  cause  of 
that  in  G,  but  the  deafness  in  both  D  and  G  are  effects  of  the 
consanguineous  marriage  in  A.  All  this  is,  however,  merely  by 
way  of  suggestion.  We  submit  that  if  deafness  in  one  generation 
may  be  followed  by  deafness  two  or  even  three  generations  later, 
while  the  tendency  to  deafness  exists,  but  does  not  appear,  in  the 
intermediate  generations,  it  is  only  logical  to  inquire  if  deafness  in 
the  first  discoverable  instance  in  a  family  may  not  be  caused  by 
consanguinity,  the  effect  of  which  is  not  seen  for  two  or  three 
generations  in  a  similar  manner.  Moreover  it  is  probable  that 
consanguinity  in  parents  or  grandparents  may  often  be  denied. 
An  exhaustive  investigation  along  these  lines  is  desirable,  for  we 
believe  that  congenital  deafness  would  be  proved  to  be  due  to 
consanguinity  in  hearing  people,  if  the  search  were  pushed  far 
enough  back  and  the  truth  were  told,  in  a  far  greater  percentage 
of  cases  than  is  now  suspected.  This  is  not  disproved  by  quoting 
numbers  of  cases  where  no  deafness  follows  consanguinity  in 
any  generation,  for  resulting  weakness  may  be  shown  (where  it 
exists)  in  many  other  ways  than  by  deafness. 

This  theory  receives  support  from  the  statistics  quoted  by 
Dr  Kerr  Love  (Deaf  Mutism,  p.  132),  where  the  percentage  of 
defective  children  resulting  from  the  consanguineous  marriages 
of  hearing  people  increases  in  almost  exact  proportion  to  the 
nearness  of  affinity  of  the  parents.  It  is  further  borne  out  by 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


883 


statistics  of  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  and  of  Berlin,  both  quoted  by 
Dr  Kerr  Love  (pp.  119,  120).  These  show  i  deaf  person  in  1397 
Roman  Catholics,  1101  Evangelicals  and  508  Jews  in  the  former 
case,  and  i  in  3000  Roman  Catholics,  2000  Protestants  and  400 
Jews  in  the  latter.  When  we  are  told  that  "  Roman  Catholics 
prohibit  marriages  between  persons  who  are  near  blood  relations, 
Protestants  view  such  marriages  as  permissible,  and  Jews 
encourage  intermarriage  with  blood  relations,"  these  figures 
become  suggestive.  We  find  the  same  greater  tendency  to  deaf- 
ness in  thinly-populated  and  out-of-the-way  districts  and 
countries  where,  owing  to  the  circle  of  acquaintances  being 
limited,  people  are  more  Likely  to  marry  relations. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  marriages  of  the  deaf,  Professor 
Edward  Allen  Fay's  work  is  so  complete  that  the  results  of  his  six 
years'  labour  are  particularly  worthy  of  notice,  for,  as  the  introduc- 
tion states,  the  book  is  a  "  collection  of  records  of  marriages  of  the 
deaf  far  larger  than  all  previous  collections  put  together,"  and  it 
deals  in  detail  with  4471  such  marriages.  The  summary  of  statistics 
is  as  follows  (Marriages  of  the  Deaf  in  America,  p.  134) : — 


NUMBER  OF 
CARRIAGES. 

NUMBER  OF 
CHILDREN. 

PERCENTAGE. 

M 

&  rt 

MARRIAGES  OF  THE 

•-   C 

E  u    . 

.j  -O    N) 

d 

DEAF. 

bA  C 

c  o. 

Total. 

Total. 

Deaf. 

nf'~  D. 

Ji§ 

§•2 

rt  ^  Q 

u 

<£  t 

-o 

M 

One  or  both  partners 

deaf      . 

3078 

300 

6782' 

588 

9-7 

8-6 

Both  partners  deaf 

2377 

220 

5072 

429 

9-2 

8-4 

One  partner  deaf,  the 

other  hearing 

599 

75 

1532 

IS' 

12-5 

9-8 

One  or  both  partners 

congenitally  deaf    . 

1477 

194 

3401 

413 

•  I3-I 

I2-I 

One  or  both  partners 

adventitiously  deaf 

2212 

124 

4701 

199 

5-6 

4-2 

Both     partners     con- 

genitally deaf 

335 

83 

779 

202 

24-7 

25-9 

One  partner  congenit- 

ally deaf,  the  other 

adventitiously  deaf 

814 

66 

1820 

119 

8-1 

6-5 

Both  partners  adven- 

titiously deaf 

845 

30 

1720 

40 

3-5 

2-3 

One  partner  congenit- 

ally deaf,  the  other 

hearing. 

191 

28 

528 

63 

14-6 

11-9 

One    partner    adven- 

titiously   deaf,    the 

other  hearing 

310 

10 

713 

16 

3'2 

2-2 

Both      partners    had 

deaf  relatives 

437 

103 

1060 

222 

23-5 

2O'9 

One  partner  had  deaf 

relatives,  the  other 

had  not 

541 

36 

I2IO 

78 

6-6 

6-4 

Neither    partner    had 

deaf  relatives' 

471 

ii 

1044 

13 

2'3 

1-2 

Both     partners     con- 

genitally deaf;  both 

had  deaf  relatives 

172 

49 

429 

130 

28-4 

30-3 

Both     partners     con- 

genitally  deaf;   one 

had  deaf  relatives, 

the  other  had  not   . 

49 

8 

105 

21 

16-3 

20-0 

Both  partners  congen- 

itally deaf;  neither 

had  deaf  relatives 

'4 

I 

24 

I 

7-1 

4-1 

Both     partners    ad- 

ventitiously     deaf  ; 

both   had   deaf   re- 

latives . 

57 

10 

114 

II 

17-5 

9-6 

Both  partners  adven- 

titiously  deaf;    one 

had   deaf   relatives, 

the  other  had  not   . 

167 

7 

357 

IO 

4-1 

2-8 

Both      partners      ad- 

ventitiously     deaf; 

neither     had     deaf 

relatives 

284 

2 

550 

2 

0-7 

o-3 

Partners  consanguine- 

ous 

3' 

'4 

ICO 

30 

45-i 

30-0 

One  point  deserves  special  attention  in  the  above  list.  It  is  that 
where  there  are  no  deaf  relatives  (i.e.  where  there  has  not  been  a 
history  of  deafness  in  the  family)  only  one  child  out  of  twenty-four 
is  deaf,  even  when  the  parents  were  both  born  deaf  themselves. 
Where  there  were  deaf  relatives  already  in  the  family  on  both  sides, 
and  the  parents  were  born  deaf,  the  percentage  of  deaf  children  is 
seven  and  a  half  times  as  great.  This  seems  to  show  that  there  are 
causes  of  congenital  deafness  which  are,  comparatively  speaking, 
unlikely  to  be  transmitted  to  future  generations,  while  other  causes 
of  congenital  deafness  are  so  liable  to  be  perpetuated  that  one  child 
in  every  three  is  deaf.  We  conjecture  that  one  original  cause  of  con- 
genital deafness  which  reappears  in  a  family  is  consanguinity— for 
instance,  the  intermarriage  of  first  or  second  cousins  (hearing  people) 
in  some  previous  generation.  Out  of  the  2245  deaf  persons  who  were 
born  deaf,  269  had  parents  who  were  blood  relations,  according  to 
Fay.  And  perhaps  many  more  refrained  from  acknowledging  the 
fact.  Eleven  had  grandparents  who  were  cousins.  This  theory 
calls  for  investigation,  and  while  the  marriage  of  deaf  people  is  not 
encouraged,  it  is  fair  to  ask  those  who  so  strenuously  oppose  such 
unions  whether  they  may  not  be  spending  their  energies  on  trying  to 
check  an  effect  instead  of  a  cause,  and  if  that  cause  may  not  really 
be  consanguinity,— witness  the  percentage  of  deaf  people  among 
Roman  Catholics,  Protestants  and  Jews  before  noticed.  On  the 
principle  that  prevention  is  better  than  cure  it  is  the  intermarriage 
of  cousins  and  other  relations  which  should  be  discouraged.  The 
marriage  of  deaf  people  is  inadvisable  where  there  has  been  deafness 
in  the  family  in  former  generations,  but  the  same  warning  applies 
to  all  the  other  members  of  that  family,  for  the  hearing  members  are 
as  likely  to  transmit  the  defect  of  which  deafness  is  a  symptom  as  the 
deaf  members  are.  We  are  more  concerned  to  discover  the  primary 
cause  of  the  defect, and  take  steps  to  prevent  the  latter  from  occurring 
at  all.  Those  who  have  no  dissuasions  for  hearing  people,  who  might 
perhaps  cause  the  misery,  and  only  give  counsel  to  those  among  the 
transmitters  of  it  who  happen  to  be  deaf,  are  acting  in  a  manner 
which  is  hardly  logical. 

2.   Posl-Natal. — We  have  collected  and  grouped  the  stated 
causes  of  deafness  in  those  partners  of  the  marriages  in  America 
noticed  by  Fay.     About  a  hundred  and  thirty  did  not  mention 
how  they  lost  hearing.     Any  errors  in  this  calculation  must  be 
less  than  i%  at  most,  and  can  make  no  material  difference. 
In  some  cases  two  or  more  diseases  are  given  as  the  cause  of 
deafness.     In  such  cases  where  one  is  a  very  common  cause 
of  deafness,  and  the  other  is  unusual,  the  former  is  credited 
with  being  the  reason  for  the  defect.     Where  both  are  common, 
we  have  divided   the   cases   between   them   in   a   rough   pro- 
portion. 

Scarlet  fever  973 ;  scarlatina  3 ;  scarlet  rash  2         ...     978 
Spotted  fever  260;  meningitis  92;  spinal  meningitis  76; 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis  70;  spinal  fever  28;  spinal 
disease  8 ;  congestion  of  spine  2     .          .          .          .          .     536 

Brain  fever  309 ;  inflammation  of  brain  62 ;  congestion  of  brain 

30;  disease  in  brain  3  .          .          .          .          .          .          .     404 

Typhoid  127;  "  fever  "  (unspecified)  117;  typhus  17;  inter- 
mittent fever  14;  bilious  fever  II ;  other  fevers  14  .     300 
Gatherings,  inflammations,  in  head;  ulcers.glisease,  sores, 
risings,  &c.,  all  but  22  being  explicitly  stated  to  be  in 
head  or  ears        ........     276 

"  Sickness  "  167;  "  illness  "  49;  "  disease  "  8;  no  definite 

specification  12  ....  236 

Measles    .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .  191 

Colds  101 ;  colds  in  head,  &c.  35;  catarrh  19;  catarrhal  fevers 

10 ;  chills,  &c.  17  .182 

Whooping  cough  77;  diphtheria  34;  lung  fever,  and  various 

diseases  of  lungs  and  throat  60      .          .  .      171 

Falls -143 

Fits  and  convulsions  58;  spasms  18;  teething  1 6   .  .       92 

Scrofula  35 ;  mumps  25 ;  swellings  on  neck  2  .       62 

Many  various  and  unusual  causes        .  .       60 
Smallpox  8;  chickenpox  6;  cholera,  &c.  7;  canker,  &c.  11; 

erysipelas  13  45 

Paralysis,  &c.  12;  nerve  diseases  12;  fright  8;  palsy  3    .  -35 

Hydrocephalus  14;  dropsy  on  brain  or  in  head  17;  dropsy  2  33 
Various  accidents,  blows,  kicks,  &c.     .....       31 

Quinine  22 ;  other  medicines  7     .  -29 

Total       3804 

We  have  counted  a  hundred  and  thirty  of  those  who  were 
returned  as  having  lost  hearing  who  were  also  stated  to  be  the 
offspring  of  consanguineous  marriages. 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


Dr  Kerr  Love  (Deaf  Mutism,  p.  150)  gives  the  following  list  com- 
piled from  the  registers  of  British  institutions: — 

Scarlet  fever     .          .  33' 

Miscellaneous  causes.  175 

Teething,  convulsions,  &c.  171 

Meningitis,  brain  fever,  &c  166 

Measles    .          .          .  138 

Falls  and  accidents    .  122 

Enteric  and  other  fevers  119 

Disease,  illness,  &c.    .  37 
Whooping  cough 
Suppurative  ear  diseases 
Syphilis    . 


Unknown  causes 


18 

2 

1312 
98 


The  same  writer  quotes  Hartmann's  table,  compiled  in  1880  from 
continental  statistics,  as  follows : — 


Cerebral  affections,  inflammations,  convulsions 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis 

Typhus    . 

Scarlatina 

Measles    . 

Ear  disease,  proper 

Lesions  of  the  head 

Other  diseases  . 


644 

295 
260 
205 

84 

77 
70 

354 
1989 


There  appears  to  be  no  cure  for  deafness  that  is  other  than 
partial;  but  with  the  advance  of  science  preventive  treatment 
is  expected  to  be  efficacious  in  scarlet  fever,  measles,  &c. 

Condition  of  the  Deaf. 

i.  In  Childhood. — It  is  difficult  to  impress  people  with  two 
facts  in  connexion  with  teaching  language  to  the  average  child 
who  was  born  deaf,  or  lost  hearing  in  early  infancy.  One  is  the 
necessity  of  the  undertaking,  and  the  other  is  that  this  necessity 
is  not  due  to  mental  deficiency  in  the  pupil.  To  the  born 
deaf-mute  in  an  English-speaking  country  English  is  a  foreign 
language.  His  inability  to  speak  is  due  to  his  never  having  heard 
that  tongue  which  his  mother  uses.  The  same  reason  holds  good 
for  his  entire  ignorance  of  that  language.  The  hearing  child  does 
not  know  a  word  of  English  when  he  is  born,  and  never  would 
learn  it  if  taken  away  from  where  it  is  spoken.  He  learns  English 
unconsciously  by  imitating  what  he  hears.  The  deaf  child  never 
hears  English,  and  so  he  never  learns  it  till  he  goes  to  school. 
Here  he  has  to  start  learning  English — or  whatever  is  the 
language  of  his  native  land — in  the  same  way  as  a  hearing  boy 
learns  a  foreign  language. 

But  another  reason  exists  which  renders  his  task  much  more 
difficult  than  that  of  a  normal  English  schoolboy  learning,  say, 
German.  The  latter  fas  two  channels  of  information,  the  eye 
and  the  ear;  the  deaf  boy  has  only  one,  the  eye.  The  hearing  boy 
learns  German  by  what  he  hears  of  it  in  class  as  well  as  by  reading 
it;  the  deaf  boy  can  only  learn  by  what  he  sees.  It  is  as  if  you 
tried  to  fill  two  cisterns  of  the  same  capacity  with  two  inlets  to 
one  and  only  one  inlet  to  the  other;  supposing  the  inlets  to  be 
the  same  size,  the  former  will  fill  twice  as  fast.  So  it  is  in  the 
case  of  the  hearing  boy  as  compared  with  his  deaf  brother.  The 
cerebral  capacity  and  quality  are  the  same,  but  in  one  case  one 
of  the  avenues  to  the  brain  is  closed,  and  consequently  the 
development  is  less  rapid.  Moreover,  the  thoughts  are  precisely 
those  which  would  be  expected  in  people  who  form  them  only 
from  what  they  see.  We  were  often  asked  by  our  deaf  playmates 
in  our  childhood  such  questions  (in  signs)  as  "  What  does  the  cat 
say?"—"  The  dog  talks,  does  he  not  ?  "—"Is  the  rainbow  very 
hot  on  the  roof  of  that  house?  "  They  have  often  told  us  such 
things  as  that  they  used  to  think  someone  went  to  the  end  of  the 
earth  and  climbed  up  the  sky  to  light  the  stars,  and  to  pour  down 
rain  through  a  sieve. 

But  there  is  yet  a  third  disadvantage  for  the  already  handi- 
capped deaf  boy.  He  has  no  other  language  to  build  upon,  while 
the  other  has  his  mother  tongue  with  which  to  compare  the 
foreign  language  he  is  learning.  The  latter  already  has  a  general 
idea  of  sentences  and  clauses,  of  tense  and  mood,  of  gender, 


number  and  case,  of  substantives,  verbs  and  prepositions;  and 
he  knows  that  one  language  must  form  some  sort  of  parallel 
to  another.  He  is  already  prepared  to  find  a  subject,  predicate 
and  object,  in  the  sentence  of  a  foreign  language,  even  when  he 
knows  not  a  word  of  any  but  his  own  mother  tongue.  If  he  is 
told  that  a  certain  word  in  German  is  an  adjective,  he  understands 
what  its  function  is,  even  when  he  has  yet  to  learn  the  meaning 
of  the  word.  All  this  goes  for  nothing  in  the  case  of  the  deaf 
pupil.  The  very  elementary  fact  that  certain  words  denote 
certain  objects — that  there  is  such  a  class  of  word  as  substan- 
tives— comes  as  a  revelation  to  most  deaf  children.  They  have 
to  begin  at  seven  laboriously  and  artificially  to  learn  what  an 
ordinary  baby  has  unconsciously  and  naturally  discovered  at  the 
age  of  two.  English,  spoken,  written,  printed  or  finger-spelled, 
is  no  more  natural,  comprehensible  or  easy  of  acquirement  to  the 
deaf  than  is  Chinese.  The  manual  alphabet  is  simply  one  way  of 
expressing  the  vernacular  on  the  fingers;  it  is  no  more  the  deaf- 
mute's  "  natural  "  language  than  speech  or  writing,  and  if  he 
cannot  express  himself  by  the  latter  modes  of  communicating, 
he  cannot  by  spelling  on  the  fingers.  The  last  is  simply  a  case  of 
vicaria  linguae  manus.  None  of  these  are  languages  in  them- 
selves; whether  you  use  pen  or  type,  hand  or  voice,  you  are  but 
adopting  one  or  other  method  of  expressing  one  and  the  same 
tongue — English  or  whatever  it  may  be,  that  of  a  "  people  of  a 
strange  speech  and  of  a  hard  language,  whose  words  they  cannot 
understand."  The  deaf  child's  natural  mode  of  communication 
— more  natural  to  him  than  any  verbal  language  is  to  hearing 
people — is  the  world-wide,  natural  language  of  signs. 

2.  Natural  Language  of  the  Deaf. — We  have  just  called  signs  a 
natural  language.  While  a  purist  might  properly  object  to  this 
adjective  being  applied  to  all  signs,  yet  it  is  not  an  unfair  term  to 
use  as  regards  this  method  of  conversing  as  a  whole,  even  in  the 
United  States,  where  signs,  being  to  a  great  extent  the  French 
signs  invented,by  de  1'Epee,  are  more  artificial  than  in  England. 
The  old  story,  by  the  way,  of  the  pupil  of  de  1'Epee  failing  to 
write  more  than  "  hand,  breast,"  as  describing  what  an  incredu- 
lous investigator  did  when  he  laid  his  hand  on  his  breast,  proves 
nothing.  In  all  probability  he  had  no  idea  that  he  was  expected 
to  describe  an  action,  and  thought  that  he  was  being  asked  the 
names  of  certain  parts  of  the  body.  The  hand  was  held  out  to 
him  and  he  wrote  "  hand."  Then  the  breast  was  indicated  by 
placing  the  hand  on  it,  and  he  wrote  "  breast."  Moreover,  the 
artificial  element  is  much  less  pronounced  than  is  supposed  by 
most  of  those  who  are  loudest  in  their  condemnation  of  signs, 
there  being  almost  invariably  an  obvious  connexion  between  the 
sign  and  idea.  These  critics  are  generally  people  whose  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject  is  rather  limited,  and  the  thermometer  of 
whose  zeal  in  waging  war  against  gestures  generally  falls  in  pro- 
portion as  the  photometer  of  their  knowledge  about  them  shows 
an  increasing  light.  We  may  go  still  further  and  point  out  that 
to  object  to  any  sign  on  the  ground  of  artificiality  per  se,  is  to 
strain  at  the  gnat  and  to  swallow  the  camel,  for  English  itself 
is  one  of  the  most  artificial  languages  in  existence,  and  certainly 
is  more  open  to  such  an  objection  than  signs.  If  we  apply  the 
same  test  to  English  that  is  applied  to  signs  by  those  who  would 
rule  out  any  which  they  suppose  cannot  come  under  the  head  of 
natural  gesture  or  pantomime,  what  fraction  of  our  so-called 
natural  language  should  we  have  left?  For  a  spoken  word  to  be 
"  natural  "  in  this  sense  it  must  be  onomatopoetic,  and  what 
infinitesimal  percentage  of  English  words  are  such  ?  A  foreigner, 
unacquainted  with  the  language,  could  not  glean  the  drift  of  a 
conversation  in  English,  except  perhaps  a  trifle  from  the  tone  of 
the  voices  and  more  from  the  natural  signs  used — the  smiles  and 
frowns,  the  expressions  of  the  faces,  the  play  of  eyes,  lips,  hands 
and  whole  body.  The  only  words  he  could  possibly  understand 
without  such  aids  are  some  such  onomatopoetic  words  as  the  cries 
of  animals — "  mew,"  "  chirrup,"  &c.,  and  a  few  more  like 
"bang  "or  "swish." 

The  reason  why  we  insist  emphatically  upon  the  importance 
of  teaching  English  in  schools  for  the  deaf  in  English-speaking 
countries,  is,  firstly,  because  that  is  the  language  which  the  pupil 
will  be  called  upon  to  use  in  his  intercourse  with  his  fellow-men 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


885 


after  he  leaves  school,  and  secondly,  because,  if  his  grasp  of  that 
tongue  only  be  sufficient  and  his  interest  in  books  be  properly 
aroused,  he  can  go  on  educating  himself  in  after-life  by  means 
of  reading.  Time  tables  are  overcrowded  with  kindergarten, 
clay  modelling,  wood-carving,  carpentry,  and  other  things  which 
are  excellent  in  themselves.  But  there  is  not  time  for  everything, 
and  these  are  not  as  important  in  the  case  of  the  deaf  pupil  as 
language.  Putting  aside  the  question  of  religion  and  moral 
training,  we  consider  the  flooding  of  their  minds  with  general 
knowledge,  and  the  teaching  of  English  to  enable  them  to  express 
their  thoughts  to  their  neighbours,  to  be  of  paramount  importance, 
so  paramount  that  all  other  branches  of  education  in  their  turn 
pale  into  insignificance  by  comparison  with  these,  while  the 
question  of  methods  of  instruction  should  be  subservient  to  these 
main  ends.  Too  many  make  speech  in  itself  an  end.  This  is  a 
mistake.  Speech  is  not  in  itself  English;  it  is  only  one  way  of 
expressing  that  language.  And  we  are  little  concerned  to  inquire 
by  what  means  the  deaf  pupil  expresses  himself  in  English  so  long 


"  Observations. — People  speak  of  '  manual  signs.'  Of  course  there 
are  signs  which  are  made  with  the  hands  only,  as  there  are  others 
which  are  labial,  &c.  But  the  sign  language  is  comprehensive,  and  at 
times  the  whole  frame  is  engaged  in  its  use.  A  late  American  teacher 
could  and  did  '  sign  '  a  story  to  his  pupils  with  his  hands  behind  him. 
Facial  expression  plays  an  important  part  in  the  language.  Sympa- 
thetic gestures  are  individualistic  and  spontaneous,  and  are  some- 
times unconsciously  made.  The  speaker,  feeling  that  words  are 
inadequate,  reinforces  them  with  gesture.  Arbitrary  signs  are,  e.g., 
drumming  with  three  separated  fingers  on  the  chin  for  '  uncle.' 
Grammatical  signs  are  those  which  are  used  for  inflections,  parts  of 
speech,  or  letters  as  in  the  manual  alphabet,  and  some  numerical 
signs,  though  other  numerals  may  be  classed  as  natural;  also  signs 
for  sounds,  and  even  labial  signs.  Signs,  whether  natural  or  arbi- 
trary, which  gain  acceptance,  especially  if  they  are  shortened,  are 
'  conventional.'  '  Mimic  action  refers,  e.g.,  to  the  sign  for  sawing, 
the  side  of  one  hand  being  passed  to  and  fro  over  the  side  or  back  of 
the  other.  '  Pantomime  '  means,  e.g.,  when  the  signer  pretends  to 
hang  up  his  hat  and  coat,  roll  up  his  sleeves,  kneel  on  his  board,  guide 
the  saw  with  his  thumb,  saw  through,  wipe  his  forehead,  &c." 

Illustrations  of  one  style  of  numerical  signs  are  given  below. 


FIG.  i. 


as  he  does  so  express  himself,  whether  by  speech  or  writing  or 
finger-spelling — for  if  he  can  finger-spell  he  can  write.  It  is  not 
the  mere  fact  that  he  can  make  certain  sounds  or  write  certain 
letters  or  form  the  alphabet  on  his  hands  that  should  signify.  It 
is  the  actual  language  that  he  uses,  whatever  be  the  means, 
and  the  thoughts  that  are  enshrined  in  the  language,  that  should 
be  our  criterion  when  judging  of  his  education. 

The  importance  of  English  is  insisted  upon  because  to  place  the 
deaf  child  in  touch  with  his  English-speaking  fellow-men  we  must 
teach  him  their  language,  and  also  because  he  can  thereby  edu- 
cate himself  by  means  of  books  if,  and  when,  he  has  a  sufficient 
command  of  that  language.  The  reason  is  not  because  the 
vernacular  is  actually  superior  to  signs  as  a  means  of  conversation. 
The  sign  language  is  quite  equal  to  the  vernacular  as  a  means  of  ex- 
pression. The  former  is  as  much  our  mother  tongue,  if  we  may  say 
so,  as  the  latter;  we  used  one  language  as  soon  as  the  other,  in 
our  earliest  infancy;  and,  after  a  lifelong  experience  of  both,  we 
affirm  that  signs  are  a  more  beautiful  language  than  English,  and 
provide  possibilities  of  a  wealth  of  expression  which  English  does 
not  possess,  and  which  probably  no  other  language  possesses. 

That  others  whose  knowledge  of  signs  is  lifelong  hold  similar 
opinions  is  shown,  by  the  following  extract  from  The  Deaf  and 
their  Possibilities,  by  Dr  Gallaudet: — 

"  Thinking  that  the  question  may  arise  in  the  minds  of  some, 
'  Does  the  sign  language  give  the  deaf,  when  used  in  public  ad- 
dresses, all  that  speech  affords  to  the  hearing?  '  I  will  say  that  my 
experience  and  observation  lead  me  to  answer  with  a  decided  affirm- 
ative. On  occasions  almost  without  number  it  has  been  my  privilege 
to  interpret,  through  signs  to  the  deaf,  addresses  given  in  speech; 
I  have  addressed  hundreds  of  assemblages  of  deaf  persons  in  the 
college,  in  schools  I  have  visited,  and  elsewhere,  using  signs  for  the 
original  expression  of  thought ;  I  have  seen  many  more  lectures  and 
public  debates  given  originally  in  signs ;  I  have  seen  conventions  of 
deaf-mutes  in  which  no  word  was  spoken,  and  yet  all  the  forms  of 
parliamentary  proceedings  were  observed,  and  the  most  earnest,  and 
even  excited,  discussions  were  carried  on.  I  have  seen  the  ordinances 
of  religion  administered,  and  the  full  service  of  the  Church  rendered 
in  signs;  and  all  this  with  the  assurance  growing  out  of  my  complete 
understanding  of  the  language — a  knowledge  which  dates  from  my 
earliest  childhood — that  for  all  the  purposes  enumerated  gestural 
expression  is  in  no  respect  inferior,  and  is  in  many  respects  superior, 
to  oral,  verbal  utterance  as  a  means  of  communicating  ideas. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  sign  language  given  by  Mr 
Payne  of  the  Swansea  Institution,  together  with  his  explanatory 
notes:-  ..  Analysis  o}  the  sign  Language, 

I.  Facial  expression. 

fl.  Sympathetic  1  /-• 

II.  Gestured  2.  Representative  (  =  Natural  signs)  I 

1 3.  Systematic  (a)  Arbitrary  signs       f  .f8*** 

(6)  Grammatical  signs]  shortened  form. 

III.  Mimic  action. 

IV.  Pantomime. 


Units  are  signified  with  the  palm  turned  inwards;  tens  with  the 
palm  turned  outwards;  hundreds  with  the  fingers  downwards; 
thousands  with  the  left  hand  to  the  right  shoulder;  millions  with 
the  hand  near  the  forehead.  For  12,  sign  10  outwards  and  2 
inwards,  and  so  on  up  to  19.  21  =  2  outwards,  i  inwards,  and  so 
on  up  to  30.  146=1  downwards,  4  outwards,  6  inwards. 
207,837  =  2  downwards,  7  inwards  (both  at  shoulder),  8  down- 
wards, -3  outwards,  7  inwards.  599,126,345  =  5  downwards, 
9  outwards,  9  inwards  (all  near  forehead) ;  i  downwards,  2 
outwards,  6  inwards  (all  at  shoulder) ;  3  downwards,  4  outwards, 
5  inwards  (in  front  of  chest). 

Only  the  third,  and  a  few  of  the  second,  subdivision  of  the 
second  section  of  the  above  classes  of  signs  can  be  excluded  when 
talking  of  signs  as  being  the  deaf-mute's  natural  language.  In 
fact  we  hesitate  to  call  representative  gesture — e.g.  the  horns  and 
action  of  milking  for  "  cow,"  the  smelling  at  something  grasped 
in  the  hand  for  "  flower,"  &c. — conventional  at  all,  except  when 
shortened  as  the  usual  sign  for  "  cat  "  is,  for  instance,  from  the 
sign  for  whiskers  plus  stroking  the  fur  on  back  and  tail  plus  the 
action  of  a  cat  licking  its  paw  and  washing  its  face,  to  the  sign  for 
whiskers  only. 

The  deaf  child  expresses  himself  in  the  sign  language  of  his 
own  accord.  The  supposition  that  in  manual  or  combined  schools 
generally  they  "teach  them  signs"  is  incorrect,  except  that 
perhaps  occasionally  a  few  pupils  may  be  drilled  and  their  signs 
polished  for  a  dramatic  rendering  of  a  poem  at  a  prize  distribu- 
tion or  public  meeting,  which  is  no  more  "  teaching  them  signs  " 
than  training  hearing  children  to  recite  the  same  poem  orally  and 
polishing  their  rendering  of  it  is  teaching  them  English.  If  the 
deaf  boy  meets  with  some  one  who  will  use  gesture  to  him,  a 
new  sign  will  be  invented  as  occasion  requires  by  one  or  other  to 
express  a  new  idea,  and  if  it  be  a  good  one  is  tacitly  adopted 
to  express  that  idea,  and  so  an  entire  language  is  built  up.  It 
follows  that  in  different  localities  signs  will  differ  to  a  great 
extent,  but  one  who  is  accustomed  to  signing  can  readily  see  the 
connexion  and  understand  what  is  meant  even  when  the  signs 
are  partly  novel  to  him.  We  are  sometimes  asked  if  we  can 
make  a  deaf  child  understand  abstract  ideas  by  this  language. 
Our  answer  is  that  we  can,  if  a  hearing  child  of  no  greater  age 
and  intelligence  can  understand  the  same  ideas  in  English.  Signs 
are  particularly  the  best  means  of  conveying  religious  truths  to 
the  deaf.  If  you  wish  to  appeal  to  him,  to  impress  him,  to  reach 
his  heart  and  his  sympathies  (and,  incidentally,  to  offer  the  best 
possible  substitute  for  music),  use  his  own  eloquent  language  of 
signs.  We  have  conversed  by  signs  with  deaf  people  from  all 
parts  of  the  British  Isles,  from  France,  Norway  and  Sweden, 
Poland,  Finland,  Italy,  Russia,  Turkey,  the  United  States,  and 
found  that  they  are  indeed  a  world- wide  means  of  communication, 


886 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


even  when  we  wandered  on  to  most  unusual  and  abstract  sub- 
jects. Deaf  people  in  America  converse  with  Red  Indians  with 
ease  thereby,  which  shows  how  natural  the  generality  of  even 
de  1'Epee  signs  are.  The  sign  language  is  everybody's  natural 
language,  not  only  the  deaf-mute's. 

Addison  (Deaf  Mutism,  p.  283)  quotes  John  Bulwer  as  follows: — 
"  What  though  you  (the  deaf  and  dumb)  cannot  express  your  minds 
in  those  verbal  contrivances  of  man's  invention :  yet  you  want  not 
speech  who  have  your  whole  body  for  a  tongue,  having  a  language 
which  is  more  natural  and  significant,  which  is  common  to  you  with 
us,  to  wit,  gesture,  the  general  and  universal  language  of  human 
nature."  The  same  writer  says  further  on  (p.  297) :  "  The  same 
process  of  growth  goes  on  alike  with  the  signs  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
as  with  the  spoken  words  of  the  hearing.  Arnold,  than  whom  no 
stronger  advocate  of  the  oral  method  exists,  recognizes  this  in  his 
comment  on  this  principle  of  the  German  school,  for  he  writes:  'It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  teachers  should  indulge  in  unqualified 
assertions  of  the  impossibility  of  deaf-mutes  attaining  to  clear  con- 
ceptions and-abstract  thinking  by  signs  or  mimic  gestures.  Facts 
are  against  them.'  Again,  Graham  Bell,  who  is  generally  considered 
an  opponent  of  the  sign  system,  says:  '  I  think  that  if  we  have  the 
mental  condition  of  the  child  alone  in  view  without  reference  to 
language,  no  language  will  reach  the  mind  like  the  language  of  signs ; 
it  is  the  method  of  reaching  the  mind  of  the  deaf  child.' 

The  opinions  of  the  deaf  themselves,  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
are  practically  unanimous  on  this  question.  In  the  words  of  Dr 
Smith,  president  of  the  World's  Congress  of  the  Deaf  held  at  St 
Louis,  Missouri,  in  1904,  under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  the  Deaf,  U.S.A.,  "  the  educated  deaf  have  a  right  to  be  heard 
in  these  matters,  and  they  must  and  shall  be  heard."  A  portion 
may  be  quoted  of  the  resolutions  passed  at  that  congress  of  570  of 
the  best-informed  deaf  the  world  has  ever  seen,  at  least  scores,  if  not 
hundreds,  of  them  holding  degrees,  and  being  as  well  educated  as  the 
vast  majority  of  teachers  of  the  deaf  in  England:  "  Resolved,  that 
the  oral  method,  which  withholds  from  the  congenitally  and  quasi- 
congenitally  deaf  the  use  of  the  language  of  signs  outside  the  school- 
room, robs  the  children  of  their  birthright ;  that  those  champions  of 
the  oral  method,  who  have  been  carrying  on  a  warfare,  both  overt 
and  covert,  against  the  use  of  the  language  of  signs  by  the  adult  deaf, 
are  not  friends  of  the  deaf;  and  that,  in  our  opinion,  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  teacher  of  the  deaf,  no  matter  what  method  he  or  she  uses, 
to  have  a  working  command  of  the  sign  language." 

It  is  often  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  use  of  signs  that  those 
who  use  them  think  in  them,  and  that  their  English  (or  other 
vernacular  language)  suffers  in  consequence.  There  is,  however, 
no  more  objection  to  thinking  in  signs  than  to  thinking  in  any 
other  language,  and  as  to  the  second  objection,  facts  are  against 
such  a  statement.  The  best-educated  deaf  in  the  world,  as  a  class, 
are  in  America,  and  the  American  deaf  sign  almost  to  a  man. 
It  is  true  that  at  first  a  beginner  in  school  may,  when  at  a  loss  how 
to  express  himself  in  words,  render  his  thoughts  in  sign-English, 
if  we  may  use  the  expression,  just  as  a  schoolboy  will  sometimes 
put  Latin  words  in  the  English  order.  That  is,  the  deaf  pupil 
puts  the  word  in  the  natural  order  of  the  signs,  which  is  really  the 
logical  order,  and  is  much  nearer  the  Latin  sequence  of  words 
than  the  English.  But,  firstly,  if  he  had  always  been  forbidden 
to  use  signs  he  would  not  express  himself  in  English  any  better 
in  that  particular  instance;  he  would  simply  not  attempt  to 
express  himself  at  all, — so  he  loses  nothing,  at  least;  and 
secondly,  it  is  perfectly  easy  to  teach  him  in  a  very  short  time 
that  each  language  has  its  own  idiom  and  that  the  thought  is 
expressed  in  a  different  order  in  each. 

Of  the  deaf  child's  moral  condition  nothing  more  need  be  said 
than  that  it  is  at  first  exactly  that  of  his  hearing  brother,  and  his 
development  therein  depends  entirely  upon  whether  he  is  trained 
to  the  same  degree.  The  need  of  this  is  great.  He  is  quite  as 
capable  of  religious  and  moral  instruction,  and  benefits  as  much 
by  what  he  receives  of  it.  Happiness  is  a  noticeable  feature  of  the 
character  of  the  deaf  when  they  are  allowed  to  mix  with  each 
other.  The  charge  of  bad  temper  can  usually  be  sustained  only 
when  the  fault  is  on  the  side  of  those  with  whom  they  live.  For 
instance,  the  latter  often  talk  in  the  presence  of  the  deaf  person 
without  saying  a  word  to  him,  and  if  he  then  shows  irritation, 
which  is  not  often  in  any  case,  it  is  no  more  to  be  wondered  at 
than  if  a  hearing  person  resents  whispering  or  other  secret  com- 
munication in  his  presence. 

3.  Social  Status,  Src. — From  the  1901  census  "  Summary 
Tables  "  we  gather  the  following  facts  concerning  the  occupations 
of  the  deaf,  aged  ten  and  upwards,  in  England  and  Wales. 


About  half  of  the  total  number,  taking  males  and  females 
together  (13,450),  are  engaged  in  occupations — 6665.  The  rest 
— 6785 — are  retired  or  unoccupied.  Of  the  former,  the  follow- 
ing table  given  below  shows  the  distribution: — 

In  general  or  local  government  work  (clerks,  messengers, 

&c.) ii 

In  professional  occupations  and  subordinate  services          .       87 
In  domestic  offices  or  services.         .....     788 

In  commercial  occupations.  .         .         .          .         .12 

In  work  connected  with  conveyance  of  men,  goods  or 

messages  .........     144 

In  agriculture       ........     568 

In  fishing     .........        3 

In  and  about  mines  and  quarries,  &c.      .         .         .         -151 

In  work  connected  with  metals,  machines,  implements,  &c.      503 
In  work  connected  with  precious  metals,  jewels,  games,  &c.        46 
In  building  and  works  of  construction     ....     485 

In  work  connected  with  wood,  furniture,  fittings  and 

decorations        .....          ...     470 

In  work  connected  with  brick,  cement,  pottery  and  glass  .     153 
In  work  connected  with  chemicals,  oil,  soap,  &c.       .          .       46 
In  work  connected  with  skins,  hair  and  feathers        .          -137 
In  work  connected  with  paper,  prints,  books,  &c.     .         .     238 
In  work  connected  with  textile  fabrics     ....    407 

In  work  connected  with  dress          .          .          .          .          .1829 

In  work  connected  with  food,  tobacco,  drink  and  lodging .  194 
In  work  connected  with  gas,  water  and  electric  supply,  and 

sanitary  service          .         .         .         .         .         .          .22 

Other  general  and  undefined  workers  and  dealers  .  -371 

Total     6665 

Among  those  in  professional  occupations  are  a  clergyman,  five 
law  clerks,  ten  schoolmasters,  teachers,  &c.,  thirty-seven  painters, 
engravers  and  sculptors,  and  seven  photographers.  Of  those  not 
engaged  in  occupations,  235  have  retired  from  business,  and  245  are 
living  on  their  own  means.  Probably  a  very  large  number  of  the  re- 
mainder were  out  of  work  or  engaged  in  odd  jobs  at  the  time  of  the 
census;  it  would  certainly  be  incorrect  to  take  the  words  "  Without 
specified  occupations  or  unoccupied  "  to  mean  that  those  classified 
as  such  were  permanently  unable  to  support  themselves. 

The  commonest  occupations  of  men  are  bootmaking  (555),  tailor- 
ing (429),  farm-labouring  (287),  general  labouring  (257),  carpentry 
(195),  cabinet-making  (142),  painting,  decorating  and  glazing  (95), 
French-polishing  (88),  harness-making,  &c.  (80). 

The  commonest  occupations  of  women  are  dressmaking  (484), 
domestic  service  (367),  laundry  and  washing  service  (230),  tailoring 
(170),  shirt  making,  &c.  (81),  charing  (79). 

In  Munich  there  are  about  sixty  deaf  artists,  especially  painters  and 
sculptors.  In  Germany  and  Austria  generally,  deaf  lithographers, 
xylographers  and  photographers  are  well  employed,  as  are  book- 
binders in  Leipzig  in  particular,  and  labourers  in  the  provinces. 

In  France  there  are  several  deaf  writers,  journalists,  &c.,  two 
principals  of  schools,  an  architect,  a  score  or  so  of  painters,  several  of 
whom  are  ladies,  nine  sculptors,  and  a  few  engravers,  photographers, 
proof-readers,  &c. 

Italy  boasts  deaf  wood-carvers,  sculptors,  painters,  and  architects 
graduating  from  the  universities  and  academies  of  fine  arts  with 
prizes  and  medals;  also  type-setters,  pressmen,  carvers  of  coral, 
ivory  and  precious  stones. 

Two  gentlemen  in  the  office  of  the  Norwegian  government  are  deaf, 
as  are  four  in  the  engraving  department  of  the  land  survey;  one  is  a 
master-lithographer,  anothera  master-printer,  a  third  a  civil  engineer, 
and  the  rest  are  engaged  in  the  usual  trades,  as  are  those  in  Sweden. 

The  deaf  form  societies  of  their  own  to  guard  their  interests, 
for  social  intercourse  and  other  purposes.  In  England  there 
is  the  British  Deaf  and  Dumb  Association;  in  America  the 
National  Association  of  the  Deaf  and  many  lesser  societies; 
Germany  has  no  fewer  than  150  such  associations,  some  of 
which  are  athletic  clubs,  benefit  societies,  dramatic  clubs,  and  so 
forth.  The  central  Federation  is  the  largest  German  association. 
France  has  the  National  Union  of  Deaf- Mutes  and  others,  many 
being  benefit  clubs.  Italy  has  some  societies;  Sweden  has  eight. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  no  fewer  than  fifty-three  publi- 
cations devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  deaf,  most  of  them  being 
school  magazines  published  in  the  institutions  themselves. 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  have  six,  four  of  them  being  school 
magazines.  France,  Germany,  Sweden,  Hungary  have  several, 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


887 


and  Finland,  Russia,  Norway,  Denmark  and  Austria  are  repre- 
sented. Canada  has  three. 

There  are  many  Church  and  other  missions  to  the  deaf  in 
England  and  abroad,  which  are  much  needed  owing  to  the 
difficulty  the  average  deaf  person  has  in  understanding  the 
archaic  language  of  both  Bible  and  Prayer-book.  Until  they 
have  this  explained  to  them  it  is  useless  to  place  these  books 
in  their  hands,  and  even  where  they  are  well-educated  and  can 
follow  the  services,  they  fail  to  get  the  sermon.  Chaplains  and 
missioners  engage  in  all  branches  of  pastoral  work  among  them, 
and  also  try  to  find  them  employment,  interpret  for  them  where 
necessary,  and  interview  people  on  their  behalf. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  employment  for  the  deaf  has  been 
increased  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Employers'  Liability  and 
Workmen's  Compensation  Acts,  for  masters  are  afraid — need- 
lessly, as  facts  show — to  employ  them,  under  the  impression  that 
they  are  more  liable  to  accidents  owing  to  their  affliction. 

The  new  Af ter-Care  Committees  of  the  London  County  Council 
are  a  late  confession  of  a  need  which  other  bodies  have  long 
endeavoured  to  supply.  Education  should  be  a  development  of 
the  whole  nature  of  the  child.  The  board  of  education  in  England 
provides  for  intellectual,  industrial  and  physical  training,  but 
does  not  take  cognizance  of  those  parts  of  education  which 
are  far  more  important — the  social,  moral  and  spiritual.  Some 
teachers,  both  oral  and  manual,  do  an  incalculable  amount  of 
good  at  the  cost  of  great  self-sacrifice  and  in  face  of  much  dis- 
couragement. They  deserve  the  highest  praise  for  so  doing,  and 
such  work  needs  to  be  carried  on  after  their  pupils  leave  school. 

Education. 

History.1  — "  Who  hath  made  man's  mouth  ?  or  who  maketh 
a  man  dumb,  or  deaf,  or  seeing,  or  blind  ?  Is  it  not  I  the  Lord  ?  " 
(Ex.  iv.  n).  Such  is  the  first  known  reference  to  the  deaf.  But 
the  significance  of  this  statement  was  not  realized  by  the  ancients, 
who  mercilessly  destroyed  all  the  defective,  the  deaf  among  the 
rest.  Greek  and  Roman  custom  demanded  their  death,  and  they 
were  thrown  into  the  river,  or  otherwise  killed,  without  causing 
any  comment  but  that  so  many  encumbrances  had  been  removed. 
They  were  regarded  as  being  on  a  mental  level  with  idiots  and 
utterly  incapable  of  helping  themselves.  In  later  times  Roman 
law  forbade  those  who  were  deaf  and  dumb  from  birth  to  make 
a  will  or  bequest,  placing  them  under  the  care  of  guardians  who 
were  responsible  for  them  to  the  state;  though  if  a  deaf  person 
had  lost  hearing  after  having  been  educated,  and  could  either 
speak  or  write,  he  retained  his  rights.  Herodotus  refers  to  a 
deaf  son  of  Croesus,  whom  he  declares  to  have  suddenly  recovered 
his  speech  upon  seeing  his  father  about  to  be  killed.  Gellius 
makes  a  similar  statement  with  reference  to  a  certain  athlete. 
Hippocrates  was  in  advance  of  Aristotle  when  he  realized  that 
deaf-mutes  did  not  speak  simply  because  they  did  not  know  how 
to;  for  the  last-named  seems  to  have  considered  that  some  defect 
of  the  intellect  was  the  cause  of  their  inability  to  utter  articulate 
sounds.  Pliny  the  elder  and  Messalla  Corvinus  mention  deaf- 
mutes  who  could  paint. 

The  true  mental  condition  of  the  deaf  was  realized,  however, 
by  few,  if  any,  before  the  time  of  Christ.  He,  as  He  opened  the 
ears  of  the  deaf  man  and  loosened  his  tongue,  talked  to  him  in  his 
own  language,  the  language  of  signs. 

St  Augustine  erred  amazingly  when  he  declared  that  the  deaf 
could  have  no  faith,  since  "  faith  comes  by  hearing  only."  The 
Talmud,  on  the  other  hand,  recognized  that  they  could  be  taught, 
and  were  therefore  not  idiotic. 

It  is,  however,  with  those  who  attempted  to  educate  the  deaf 
that  we  are  here  chiefly  concerned.  The  first  to  call  for  notice 
is  St  John  of  Beverley.  The  Venerable  Bede  tells  how  this  bishop 
made  a  mute  speak  and  was  credited  with  having  performed  a 
miracle  in  so  doing.  Probably  it  was  nothing  more  than  the  first 
attempt  to  teach  by  the  oral  method,  and  the  greatest  credit  is  due 
to  him  for  being  so  far  in  advance  of  his  times  as  to  try  to  instruct 

1  For  pur  resume  of  the  history  we  are  indebted  solely  to  Arnold 
(Education  of  Deaf  Mutes,  Teachers'  Manual)  as  far  as  the  date  of  the 
founding  of  the  Old  Kent  Road  Institution. 


his  pupil  at  all.  Bede  himself  invented  a  system  of  counting  on 
the  hands;  and  also  a  "  manual  speech,"  as  he  called  it, — using 
his  numerals  to  indicate  the  number  of  the  letter  of  the  alphabet; 
thus,  the  sign  for  "  seven  "  would  also  signify  the  letter  "  g,"  and 
so  forth.  But  we  do  not  know  that  he  intended  this  alphabet 
for  the  use  of  the  deaf. 

It  is  not  until  the  i6th  century  that  we  hear  much  of  anybody 
else  who  was  interested  in  the  deaf,  but  at  this  date  we  find 
Girolamo  Cardan  stating  that  they  can  be  instructed  by  writing, 
after  they  have  been  shown  the  signification  of  words,  since  their 
mental  power  is  unaffected  by  their  inability  to  hear. 

Pedro  Ponce  de  Leon  (c.  1520-1584),  a  Spanish  Benedictine 
monk,  is  more  worthy  of  notice,  as  he,  to  use  his  own  words, 
taught  the  deaf  "  to  speak,  read,  write,  reckon,  pray,  serve  at 
the  altar,  know  Christian  doctrine,  and  confess  with  a  loud  voice." 
Some  he  taught  languages  and  science.  That  he  was  successful 
was  proved  by  other  witness  than  his  own,  for  Panduro,  Valles 
and  de  Morales  all  give  details  of  his  work,  the  last-named  giving 
an  account  by  one  of  Ponce's  pupils  of  his  education.  De 
Morales  says  further  that  Ponce  de  Leon  addressed  his  scholars 
either  by  signs  or  writing,  and  that  the  reply  came  by  speech. 
It  appears  that  this  master  committed  his  methods  to  writing. 
Though  this  work  is  lost  it  is  probable  that  his  system  was  put 
into  practice  by  Juan  Pablo  Bonet.  This  Spaniard  successfully 
instructed  a  brother  of  his  master  the  constable  of  Castile,  who 
had  lost  hearing  at  the  age  of  two.  His  method  corresponded  in 
a  great  measure  to  that  which  is  now  called  the  combined  system, 
for,  in  the  work  which  he  wrote,  he  shows  how  the  deaf  can  be 
taught  to  speak  by  reducing  the  letters  to  their  phonetic  value, 
and  also  urges  that  finger-spelling  and  writing  should  be  used. 
The  connexion  between  all  three,  he  goes  on  to  say,  should  be 
shown  the  pupils,  but  the  manual  alphabet  should  be  mastered 
first.  Nouns  he  taught  by  pointing  to  the  objects  they  repre- 
sented; verbs  he  expressed  by  pantomime;  while  the  value  of 
prepositions,  adverbs  and  interjections,  as  well  as  the  tenses  of 
verbs,  he  believed  could  be  learnt  by  repeated  use.  The  pupil 
should  be  educated  by  interrogation,  conversation,  and  care- 
fully graduated  reading.  The  success  of  Bonet's  endeavours  are 
borne  witness  to  by  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  who  met  the  teacher  at 
Madrid. 

Bonifacio's  work  on  signs,  in  which  he  uses  every  part  of 
the  body  for  conversational  purposes,  may  be  mentioned  before 
passing  to  John  Bulwer,  the  first  Englishman  to  treat  of  teaching 
the  deaf.  In  his  three  works,  Philocophus,  Chirologia  and 
Chironomia,  he  enlarges  upon  Sir  Kenelm  Digby's  account,  and 
argues  about  the  possibility  of  teaching  the  deaf  by  speech. 
But  he  seems  to  have  had  no  practical  experience  of  the  art. 

Dr  John  Wallis  is  more  important,  though  it  has  been  disputed 
whether  he  was  not  indebted  to  his  predecessors  for  some  ideas. 
He  taught  by  writing  and  articulation.  He  took  the  trouble  to 
classify  to  a  certain  extent  the  various  sounds,  dividing  both 
vowels  and  "  open  "  consonants  into  gutturals,  palatals  and 
labials.  The  "  closed  "  consonants  he  subdivided  into  mutes, 
semi-mutes  and  semi-vowels.  Language,  Wallis  maintained, 
should  be  taught  when  the  pupil  had  first  learned  to  write,  and 
the  written  characters  should  be  associated  with  some  sort  of 
manual  alphabet.  Names  of  things  should  be  given  first,  and 
then  the  parts  of  those  things,  e.g.  "  body  "  first,  and  then,  under 
that,  "  head,"  "  arm,"  "  foot,"  &c.  Then  the  singular  and  plural 
should  be  given,  then  possessives  and  possessive  pronouns, 
followed  by  particles,  other  pronouns  and  adjectives.  These 
should  be  followed  by  the  copulative  verb;  after  which  should 
come  the  intransitive  verb  and  its  nominative  in  the  different 
tenses,  and  the  transitive  with  its  object  in  the  same  way. 
Lastly,  prepositions  and  conjunctions  should  be  taught.  All 
this,  Wallis  held,  ought  to  be  done  by  writing  as  well  as  signing, 
for  he  did  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  "  we  must  learn  the 
pupil's  language  in  order  to  teach  him  ours." 

Dr  William  Holder,  who  read  an  essay  before  the  Royal 
Society  in  1668-1669  °n  the  "  Elements  of  Speech,"  added  an 
appendix  concerning  the  deaf  and  dumb.  He  describes  the 
organs  of  speech  and  their  positions  in  articulation,  suggesting 


888 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


teaching  the  pupil  the  sounds  in  order  of  simplicity,  though  he 
held  that  he  must  learn  to  write  first.  Afterwards  the  pupil 
must  associate  the  letters  with  a  manual  alphabet.  Holder 
notices  that  dumbness  is  due  to  the  want  of  hearing,  ana  there- 
fore speech  can  be  acquired  through  watching  the  lips,  though  he 
admits  the  task  is  a  laborious  one.  He  also  urges  the  teacher  to 
be  patient  and  to  make  the  work  as  interesting  to  the  pupil  as 
possible.  Command  of  language,  he  maintains,  will  enable  the 
deaf  person  to  read  a  sentence  from  the  lips  if  he  gets  most  of  the 
words;  for  he  will  be  able  to  supply  those  he  did  not  see,  from 
his  knowledge  of  English. 

Johan  Baptist  van  Helmont  treated  of  the  work  of  the  vocal 
organs.  Amman  says  that  Van  Helmont  had  discovered  a 
manual  alphabet  and  used  it  to  instruct  the  deaf,  but  had  not 
attained  very  good  results. 

George  Sibscota  published  a  work  in  1670  called  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb  Man's  Discourse,  in  which  he  contradicts  Aristotle's 
opinion  that  people  are  dumb  because  of  defects  in  the  vocal 
organs;  for  they  are,  he  believed,  dumb  because  never  taught 
to  speak.  They  can  gain  knowledge  by  sight,  he  maintained; 
can  write,  converse  by  signs,  speak  and  lip-read.  Ramirez 
de  Carrion  also  taught  the  deaf  to  speak  and  write,  as  did 
P.  Lana  Terzi. 

About  George  Dalgarno  more  is  known.  He  wrote,  in  1680, 
his  Didascalocophus,  or  Deaf-Mute's  Preceptor,  in  which  he  makes 
the  mistake  of  saying  that  the  deaf  have  the  advantage  over  the 
blind  in  opportunities  for  learning  language.  The  deaf  can,  in 
his  opinion,  be  taught  to  speak,  and  also  to  read  the  lips  if  the 
letters  are  very  distinct.  They  ought  to  read,  write  and  spell  on 
the  fingers  constantly,  but  use  no  signs.  Substantives  are  to 
be  taught  by  associating  them  with  the  things  they  represent; 
then  adjectives  should  be  joined  to  them.  Verbs  should  be 
taught  by  suiting  the  action  to  the  words,  and  associating  the 
pronouns  with  them.  Other  parts  of  speech  should  be  given  as 
opportunities  of  explaining  them  present  themselves.  Dalgarno 
invented  an  alphabet,  the  letters  being  on  the  joints  of  the 
fingers  and  palm  of  the  left  hand. 

John  Conrad  Amman  published  his  Dissertatio  de  Loquela  in 
1700.  In  the  first  chapter  he  treats,  among  other  things,  of  the 
nature  of  the  breath  and  voice  and  the  organs  of  speech.  In 
the  second  chapter  he  classifies  sounds  into  vowels,  semi-vowels 
and  consonants,  and  a  detailed  description  of  each  sound  is  given. 
The  third  chapter  is  devoted  to  showing  how  to  produce  and 
control  the  voice,  to  utter  each  sound  from  writing  or  from  the 
lips,  and  to  combine  them  into  syllables  and  words.  It  was  only 
after  the  pupil  had  attained  to  considerable  success  in  articulation 
and  lip-reading  that  Amman  taught  the  meaning  of  words  and 
language;  but  the  name  of  this  teacher  will  long  stand  as  that 
of  one  of  the  most  successful  the  world  has  known. 

Passing  over  Camerarius,  Schott,  Kerger  (who  began  teaching 
language  sooner  than  Amman  did,  and  depended  more  on  writing 
and  signs),  Raphel  (who  instructed  three  deaf  daughters),  Lasius, 
Arnoldi,  Lucas,  Vanin,  de  Fay  (himself  deaf)  and  many  others, 
we  come  to  Giacobbo  Rodriguez  Pereira,  the  pioneer  of  deaf-mute 
education  in  France,  if  we  except  de  Fay.  Beginning  his  experi- 
ence by  instructing  his  deaf  sister,  he  soon  attained  to  consider- 
able success  with  two  other  pupils;  his  chief  aim  being,  as  he 
said,  to  make  them  comprehend  the  meaning  of,  and  express  their 
thoughts  in,  language.  A  commission  of  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  before  whom  he  appeared,  testified  to  the  genuine- 
ness of  his  achievements,  noticing  that  he  wrote  and  signed  to  his 
pupils,  and  stating  that  he  hoped  to  proceed  to  the  instruction 
of  lip-reading.  Pereira  soon  after  came  under  the  notice  of  the 
due  de  Chaulnes,  whose  deaf  godson,  Saboureaux  de  Fontenay, 
became  his  pupil;  and  in  five  years  this  boy  was  well  able 
to  speak  and  read  the  lips.  Pereira  had  several  other  pupils. 
Probably  kindness  and  affection  were  two  of  the  secrets  of  his 
success,  for  the  love  his  scholars  showed  for  him  was  unbounded. 
His  method  is  only  partly  known,  but  he  used  a  manual  alphabet 
which  indicated  the  pronunciation  of  the  letters  and  some 
combinations.  He  used  reading  and  writing;  but  signs  were 
only  called  to  his  aid  when  absolutely  necessary.  Language  he 


taught  by  founding  it  on  action  where  possible,  abstract  ideas 
being  gradually  developed  in  later  stages  of  the  education. 

We  now  come  to  the  abbe  de  l'Ep6e  (q.v.).  The  all-important 
features  in  this  teacher's  character  and  method  were  his  intense 
devotion  to  his  scholars  and  their  class,  and  the  fact  that  he 
lived  among  them  and  talked  to  them  as  one  of  themselves. 
Meeting  with  two  girls  who  were  deaf,  he  started  upon  the  task 
of  instructing  them,  and  soon  had  a  school  of  sixty  pupils,  sup- 
ported entirely  by  himself.  He  spared  himself  no  expense  and 
no  trouble  in  doing  his  utmost  to  benefit  the  deaf,  learning 
Spanish  for  the  sole  purpose  of  reading  Bonet's  work,  and  making 
this  book  and  Amman's  Dissertatio  de  Loquela  his  guiding  lights. 
But  de  PEp6e  was  the  first  to  attach  great  importance  to  signs; 
and  he  used  them,  along  with  writing,  until  the  pupil  had  some 
knowledge  of  language  before  he  passed  on  to  articulation  and 
lip-reading.  To  the  latter  method,  however,  he  never  paid  as 
much  attention  as  he  did  to  instructing  by  signs  and  writing, 
and  finally  he  abandoned  it  altogether  through  lack  of  time  and 
means.  He  laboured  long  on  a  dictionary  of  signs,  but  never 
completed  it.  He  was  attacked  by  Pereira,  who  condemned  his 
method  as  being  detrimental,  and  this  was  the  beginning  of  the 
disputes  as  to  the  merits  of  the  different  methods  which  have 
lasted  to  the  present  day;  but  whatever  opinions  we  may  hold 
as  to  the  best  means  of  instructing  the  deaf  we  cannot  but  admire 
the  devoted  teacher  who  spent  his  life  and  his  all  in  benefiting 
this  class  of  the  community. 

Samuel  Heinicke  first  began  his  work  hi  1754  at  Dresden,  but 
in  1778  he  removed  to  Leipzig  and  started  on  the  instruction  of 
nine  pupils.  His  methods  he  kept  secret;  but  we  know  that  he 
taught  orally,  using  signs  only  when  he  considered  them  helpful, 
and  spelling  only  to  combine  ideas.  He  wrote  two  books  and 
several  articles  on  the  subject  of  educating  the  deaf,  but  it  is 
from  Walther  and  Fornari  that  we  learn  most  about  his  system. 
At  first  Heinicke  laid  stress  on  written  language,  starting  with  the 
concrete  and  going  on  to  the  abstract;  and  he  only  passed  to  oral 
instruction  when  the  pupils  could  express  themselves  in  fairly  cor- 
rect language.  Subsequently,  however,  he  expressed  the  opinion 
that  speech  should  be  the  sole  method  of  instruction,  and,  strange 
to  say,  that  by  speech  alone  could  thoughts  be  fully  expressed. 

Henry  Baker  became  tutor  to  a  deaf  girl  in  1 720,  and  his  success 
led  to  the  establishment  of  a  private  school  in  London.  He  also 
kept  his  system  a  secret,  but  recently  his  work  on  lessons  for 
the  deaf  was  discovered,  from  which  we  gather  that  he  adopted 
writing,  drawing,  speech  and  lip-reading  as  his  course  of  instruc- 
tion. The  point  to  notice  is  that  after  the  primary  stages  Baker 
turned  events  of  every-day  life  to  use  in  his  teaching.  His  pupils 
went  about  with  him,  and  he  taught  by  conversation  upon  what 
they  saw  in  the  streets, — an  excellent  method;  but  it  is  a  pity 
that  such  a  good  teacher  had  not  the  philanthropy  to  make  his 
methods  known  and  to  give  the  poorer  deaf  the  benefit  of  them, 
as  de  1'Epee  did. 

A  school  was  established  in  Edinburgh  in  1760  by  Thomas 
B  raidwood,  who  taught  by  the  oral  method.  He  taught  the  sounds 
first,  then  syllables,  and  finally  words,  teaching  their  meaning. 
In  1783  Braidwood  came  to  Hackney,  whence  he1  moved  to  Old 
Kent  Road,  and  in  1809  there  were  seventy  pupils  in  what  was 
lately  the  Old  Kent  Road  Institution.  Braidwood's  method  was 
practically  a  development  of  WaUis's.  We  must  regard  him  as 
the  founder  of  the  first  public  school  for  the  deaf  in  England. 

It  was  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  that  a  brighter 
day  dawned  on  the  deaf  as  a  class.  With  the  sole  exception  of 
de  1'Epfie  no  teacher  had  yet  undertaken  the  instruction  of  a  deaf 
child  who  could  not  pay  for  it.  Now  things  began  to  he  different. 
Institutions  were  founded,  and  their  doors  were  opened  to  nearly 
all. 

Dr  Watson,  the  first  principal  of  the  Old  Kent  Road  "  Asylum," 
taught  by  articulation  and  lip-reading,  reading  and  writing, 
explaining  by  signs  to  some  extent,  but  using  pictures  much 
more,  according  to  Addison,  and  composing  a  book  of  these  for 
the  use  of  his  pupils.  From  Addison  {Deaf  Mutism,  pp.  248  ff.) 
we  learn  what  developments  followed.  In  Vienna,  Prague  and 
Berlin,  schools  had  been  founded  in  rapid  succession  before 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


the  iQth  century  dawned,  and  in  1810  the  Edinburgh  institution 
opened  its  doors.  Nine  years  later  the  Glasgow  school  was 
established  and,  under  the  able  guidance  of  Mr  Duncan 
Anderson  (after  several  other  headmasters  had  "been  tried)  from 
1831,  taught  pupils  whose  grasp  of  English  was  equal  to  that  of 
the  very  best  educated  deaf  in  England  to-day,  as  has  been 
proved  by  conversation  with  the  survivors.  Mr  Anderson's  great 
aim  was  to  teach  his  pupils  language,  and  we  might  look  almost 
in  vain  for  a  teacher  in  England  to  succeed  as  well  with  a  whole 
class  in  the  beginning  of  the  2oth  century  as  he  did  in  the 
middle  of  the  iQth.  He  wrote  a  dictionary,  used  pictures 
and  signs  to  explain  English,  and  apparently  paid  little  or 
no  attention  to  most  of  the  numerous  subjects  attempted 
to-day  in  schools  for  the. deaf,  which,  while  excellent  in  them- 
selves, generally  exclude  what  is  far  more  important  from  the 
curriculum. 

Addison  further  mentions  Mr  Baker  of  Doncaster,  a  con- 
temporary of  Anderson,  as  having  compiled  many  lesson  books 
for  deaf  children  which  came  to  be  used  in  ordinary  schools 
also,  and  Mr  Scott  of  Exeter  as  having,  together  with  Baker, 
"  exercised  a  profound  influence  on  the  course  of  deaf-mute 
education  in  this  country."  "  Written  language,"  explained  by 
signs  where  necessary,  was  the  watchword  of  these  teachers. 

Moritz  Hill  is  credited  with  being  principally  responsible  for 
having  evolved  the  German,  or  "  pure,"  oral  method  out  of  the 
experimental  stage  to  that  at  which  it  has  arrived  at  the  present 
day.  Arnold  of  Riehen  is  also  honourably  mentioned. 

The  great  "  oral  revival "  now  swept  all  before  it.  The 
German  method  was  enthusiastically  welcomed  in  all  parts  of 
Europe,  and  at  the  Milan  conference  in  1880  was  almost  unani- 
mously adopted  by  teachers  from  all  countries.  Those  in  high 
places  countenanced  it;  educational  authorities  awoke  to  the 
fact  that  the  deaf  needed  special  teaching,  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  "  pure  "  oral  method  was  the  panacea  that 
would  restore  all  the  deaf  to  a  complete  equality  with  the  hearing 
in  any  conversation  upon  any  subject  that  might  be  broached; 
many  governments  suddenly  took  the  deaf  under  the  shelter 
of  their  own  ample  wings,  and  the  "  bottomless'  pocket  of  the 
ratepayer,"  instead  of  the  purse  of  the  charitable,  became  in 
many  cases  the  fount  of  supply  for  what  has  been  a  costly  and  by 
no  means  entirely  satisfactory  experiment  in  the  history  of  their 
education.  The  "  pure  "  oral  method  has  had  a  long  and  unique 
trial  in  England  in  circumstances  which  other  methods  have 
never  enjoyed. 

Meanwhile  in  the  United  States  Dr  Thomas  Hopkins  Gallaudet 
was  elected  in  1815  to  go  to  Europe  to  inquire  into  the  methods 
of  educating  the  deaf  in  vogue  there.  This  was  at  a  meeting 
held  in  the  house  of  a  physician  named  Cogswell,  in  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  and  was  the  result  of  the  latter's  discovery  that 
eighty-four  persons  in  the  state  besides  his  own  little  girl  were 
deaf.  Henry  Winter  Syle,  himself  deaf,  tells  how  "  four  months 
were  spent  in  learning  that  the  doors  of  the  British  schools  were 
'  barred  with  gold,  and  opened  but  to  golden  keys,'  "  and  how, 
disappointed  in  England,  Gallaudet  met  with  a  ready  response 
to  his  inquiries  in  Paris.  With  Laurent  Clerc,  a  deaf  teacher, 
he  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1816,  and  the  "  Connecticut 
Asylum  "  was  founded  a  year  after  with  seven  pupils.  The  name 
was  changed  to  "  The  American  Asylum  "  later,  when  it  was 
enlarged.  This  was  followed  by  the  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and 
Kentucky  institutions,  with  the  second  of  which  the  Peet  family 
were  connected.  Dr  Gallaudet  married  one  of  his  deaf  pupils, 
Sophia  Fowler,  and,  after  a  very  happy  married  life,  Mrs  Gall- 
audet accompanied  her  youngest  son,  Edward  Miner  Gallaudet, 
to  the  Columbia  institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  Washington, 
D.  C.,  founded  in  1857  by  Congress  and  largely  supported  by 
Amos  Kendall,  and  to  the  National  Deaf  Mute  College,  which 
was  founded  in  1864,  was  renamed  the  Gallaudet  College,  in 
honour  of  Dr  T.  H.  Gallaudet,  in  1893,  and  with  the  Kendall 
School  (secondary),  now  forms  the  Columbia  Institution.  This 
college  is  supported  by  Congress. 

The  following  account  of  the  work  done  at  the  National  Dcaf- 
Mute  College  at  Washington  is  worth  attention,  as  the  results  are 
unique,  and  are  often  strangely  ignored. 


Here  is  a  statement  of  the  course  for  the  B.A.  degree : — 

First  year:  Algebra,  grammar,  punctuation,  history  of  England, 
composition,  Latin  grammar,  Caesar. 

Second  year:  Algebra  (from  quadratics),  geometry,  composition, 
Caesar  (Gallic  War),  Cicero  (Orations),  Allen  and  Greenough's 
Latin  Grammar,  Myer's  General  History,  Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar 
(optional),  Xenophon's  Anabasis  (optional). 

Third  year:  Olney's  or  Loomis  s  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigo- 
nometry, Loomis's  Analytical  Geometry  (optional),  Orton's  Zoology, 
Gray]s  Botany,  Remsen's  Chemistry,  laboratory  practice,  Virgil's 
Aeneid,  Homer's  Iliad  (optional),  Meiklejohn's  History  of  English 
Literature  and  Language  (two  books),  Maertz's  English  Literature, 
Hadley's  History,  original  composition. 

Fourth  year:  Loomis's  Calculus  (optional),  Dana's  Mechanics, 
Gage's  Natural  Philosophy,  Young's  Astronomy,  laboratory  practice, 
qualitative  analysis,  Steel's  Hygienic  Physiology,  Edgren's  French 
Grammar,  Super's  French  Reader,  Demosthenes^  on  the  Crown 
(optional),  Hart's  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  original  composition, 
Hill's-Jevon's  Elementary  Logic. 

Fifth  year:  Arnold's  Manual  of  English  Literature,  Maertz's 
English  Literature,  original  composition,  Guizot's  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion, Sheldon's  German  Grammar,  Joynes's  German  Reader,  LeConte's 
Geology,  Guyot's  Earth  and  Man,  Hill's  Elements  of  Psychology, 
Haven's  Moral  Philosophy,  Butler's  Analogy,  Bascom  s  Elements  of 
Beauty,  Perry's  Political  Economy,  Gallaudet's  International  Law. 

Even  in  1893  we  were  told  that  of  the  graduates  of  the  college 
"  fifty-seven  have  been  engaged  in  teaching,  four  have  entered  the 
ministry;  three  have  become  editors  and  publishers  of  newspapers; 
three  others  have  taken  positions  connected  with  journalism ;  fifteen 
have  entered  the  civil  service  of  the  government, — one  of  these,  who 
had  risen  rapidly  to  a  high  and  responsible  position,  resigned  to  enter 
upon  the  practice  of  law  in  patent  cases,  in  Cincinnati  and  Chicago, 
and  has  been  admitted  to  practise  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States;  one  is  the  official  botanist  of  a  state,  who  has  corre- 
spondents in  several  countries  of  Europe  who  have  repeatedly 
purchased  his  collections,  and  he  has  written  papers  upon  seed  tests 
and  related  subjects  which  have  been  published  and  circulated  by 
the  agricultural  department;  one,  while  filling  a  position  as  instructor 
in  a  western  institution,  has  rendered  important  service  to  the  coast 
survey  as  a  microscopist,  and  one  is  engaged  as  an  engraver  in  the 
chief  ^office  of  the  survey;  of  three  who  became  draughtsmen  in 
architects'  offices,  one  is  m  successful  practice  as  an  architect  on  his 
own  account,  which  is  also  true  of  another,  who  completed  his  pre- 
paration by  a  course  of  study  in  Europe;  one  has  been  repeatedly 
elected  recorder  of  deeds  in  a  southern  city,  and  two  others  are 
recorders'  clerks  in  the  west;  one  was  elected  and  still  sits  as  a  city 
councilman;  another  has  been  elected  city  treasurer  and  is  at  present 
cashier  of  a  national  bank;  one  has  become  eminent  as  a  practical 
chemist  and  assayer;  two  are  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  college, 
and  two  others  are  rendering  valuable  service  as  instructors  therein ; 
some  have  gone  into  mercantile  and  other  offices;  some  have  under- 
taken business  on  their  own  account ;  while  not  a  few  have  chosen 
agricultural  and  mechanical  pursuits,  in  which  the  advantages  of 
thorough  mental  training  will  give  them  a  superiority  over  those  not 
so  well  educated.  Of  those  alluded  to  as  having  engaged  in  teaching, 
one  has  been  the  principal  of  a  flourishing  institution  in  Pennsylvania ; 
one  is  now  in  his  second  year  as  principal  of  the  Ohio  institution ;  one 
has  been  at  the  head  of  a  day  school  in  Cincinnati,  and  later  of  the 
Colorado  institution;  a  third  has  had  charge  of  the  Oregon  insti- 
tution; a  fourth  is  at  the  head  of  a  day  school  in  St  Louis;  three 
others  have  respectively  founded  and  are  now  at  the  head  of  schools 
in  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  and  Evansville,  Indiana,  and  others 
have  done  pioneer  work  in  establishing  schools  in  Florida  and  in 
Utah." 

Later  years  would  unfold  a  similar  tale  of  subsequent  students;  in 
1907  there  were  134  in  the  college  and  59  in  the  Kendall  School. 

There  is  a  normal  department  attached  to  the  college,  to  which  are 
admitted  six  hearing  young  men  and  women  for  one  year  who  are 
recommended  as  being  anxious  to  study  methods  of  teaching  the  deaf 
and  likely  to  profit  thereby.  Their  course  of  study  for  1898-1899 
included  careful  training  in  the  oral  method,  instruction  in  Bell's 
Visible  Speech,  instruction  in  the  anatomy  of  the  vocal  organs, 
lectures  on  sound,  observation  of  methods,  oral  and  manual,  in 
Kendall  School,  lectures  on  various  subjects  connected  with  the  deaf 
and  their  education,  lectures  on  pedagogy,  lessons  in  the  language  of 
signs,  practical  work  with  classes  in  Kendall  School  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  teachers,  correction  of  essays  of  the  introductory  class, 
&c.  But  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  year's  course  is  that  the  half- 
dozen  hearing  students  live  in  the  college,  have  their  meals  with  the 
hundred  deaf,  and  mix  with  them  all  day  long — if  they  wish  it — in 
social  intercourse  and  recreation.  We  are  very  far  indeed  from 
saying  that  one  such  year  is  sufficient  to  make  a  hearing  man  a 
qualified  teacher  of  the  deaf,  but  the  arrangement  is  based  on  the 
right  principle,  and  it  sets  his  feet  on  the  right  path  to  learn  how  to 
teach — so  far  as  this  art  can  be  learned.  The  recent  regulation  of 
the  board  of  education  in  England,  prohibiting  hearing  pupil  teachers 
in  schools  for  the  deaf,  is  deplorable,  retrograde  and  inimical  to  the 
best  interests  of  the  deaf.  It  shows  a  complete  ignorance  of  their 
needs.  The  younger  a  teacher  begins  to  mix  with  that  class  the  better 
he  will  teach  them. 


890 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


In  1886  a  royal  commission  investigated  the  condition  and 
education  of  the  deaf  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  1889  issued  its 
report.  Some  of  the  recommendations  most  worthy  of  notice 
were  that  deaf  children  from  seven  to  sixteen  years  of  age  should 
be  compelled  to  attend  a  day  school  or  institution,  part,  or  the 
whole,  of  the  expense  being  borne  by  the  local  school  authority; 
that  technical  instruction  should  be  given,  and  that  all  the 
children  should  be  taught  to  speak  and  lip-read  on  the  "  pure  " 
oral  method  unless  physically  or  mentally  disqualified,  those  who 
had  partial  hearing  or  remains  of  speech  being  entirely  educated 
by  that  method.  To  the  last  mentioned  recommendation — 
concerning  the  method  to  be  adopted — two  of  the  commissioners 
took  exception,  and  another  stated  his  recognition  of  some 
advantage  in  the  manual  method. 

As  a  result  of  the  report  of  the  royal  commission  a  bill  was 
passed  in  1893  making  it  compulsory  for  all  deaf  children  to  be 
educated.  This  was  to  be  done  by  the  local  education  authority, 
either  by  providing  day  classes  or  an  institution  for  them,  or  by 
sending  them  to  an  already  existing  institution,  parents  having 
the  choice,  within  reasonable  limits,  of  the  school  to  which  the 
child  should  go.  School-board  classes  came  into  existence  in 
almost  every  large  town  where  there  was  no  institution,  and 
sometimes  where  one  existed.  Those  who  uphold  the  day-school 
system  advance  the  arguments  that  the  pupils  are  not,  under  it, 
cut  off  from  the  influence  of  home  life  as  they  are  in  institutions; 
that  such  influences  are  of  great  advantage;  that  this  system 
permits  the  deaf  to  mix  freely  with  their  hearing  brethren,  &c. 
The  objections,  however,  to  this  arrangement  outweigh  its 
possible  advantages.  The  latter,  indeed,  amount  to  little;  for 
home  influences  in  many  cases,  especially  in  the  poorer  parts  of 
the  large  cities,  are  not  the  best,  and  communication  with  the 
hearing  children  who  attend  some  of  the  day  schools  may  not 
be  an  unmixed  blessing,  nor  is  freedom  to  run  wild  on  the  streets 
between  school  hours.  But  it  may  be  urged  further  that  it  is 
difficult,  except  in  very  large  towns,  to  obtain  a  sufficient 
number  of  deaf  children  attending  a  day  school  to  classify  them 
according  to  their  status,  while  it  is  more  than  one  teacher  can  do 
to  give  sufficient  attention  to  several  children,  each  at  a  different 
stage  of  instruction  from  any  other.  Moreover,  the  deaf  need 
more  than  mere  school  work;  they  need  training  in  morals  and 
manners,  and  receive  much  less  of  it  from  their  parents  than  their 
hearing  brothers  and  sisters.  This  can  only  be  given  in  an  institu- 
tion wherein  they  board  and  lodge  as  well  as  attend  classes.  The 
existing  institutions  were  from  1893  placed,  by  the  act  of  that 
date,  either  partly  or  wholly  under  the  control  of  the  school 
board.  They  were  put  under  the  inspection  of  the  government, 
and  as  long  as  they  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  the  inspectors 
as  regards  education,  manual  and  physical  training,  outdoor  re- 
creation and  suitable  class-room  and  dormitory  accommodation, 
they  might  remain  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  who  collected, 
or  otherwise  provided,  one-third  of  the  total  expenditure,  and 
received  two-thirds  from  public  sources.  Or  else,  the  institution 
might  be  surrendered  entirely  to  the  management  of  the  public 
school  authority,  and  then  the  whole  of  the  expenditure  was  to 
be  borne  by  that  body.  Extra  government  grants  of  five  guineas 
per  pupil  are  now  given  for  class  work  and  manual  or  technical 
training.  Such  is  the  state  of  things  at  the  present  day,  except, 
of  course,  that  the  school  board  has  given  place  to  the  county 
council  as  local  authority. 

Some  teachers  have  asked  for  the  children  to  be  sent  to  school  at 
the  age  of  five  instead  of  seven.  This  savours  of  another  confession 
that  the  "  pure  "  oral  method  had  not  done  what  was  expected  of 
it  at  first.  First,  the  demand  was  for  the  method  itself ;  then  came  re- 
quests for  more  teachers,  so  that,  the  classes  being  smaller,  each  pupil 
should  receive  more  attention ;  this  meant  more  money,  and  so  this 
was  asked  for;  then  day  schools  would  remedy  the  failure  by  giving 
the  pupils  opportunities  of  talking  with  the  public  in  general ;  then 
we  were  told  the  teachers  were  unskilful;  finally,  more  time  is 
needed.  And  yet  the  language  of  the  pupils  is  no  better  to-day  than 
it  was  in  1881,  even  though  they  were  at  school  only  four  or  five 
years  then  as  opposed  to  nine  or  ten  now. 

To  Addison's  Report  on  a  Visit  to  some  Continental  Schools  for  the 
Deaf  (1904-1905)  we  are  indebted  for  the  following  information. 
The  new  school  at  Frankfort-on-Maine,  accommodating  forty  or  fifty 
children  at  a  cost  of  £40  to  £50  per  head,  is  modelled  on  the  plan  of 


a  family  home.  The  main  objects  are  to  obtain  good  speech  and  lip- 
reading  and  to  use  these  colloquially;  the  work  is  very  Foreir 
thorough  and  the  teaching  very  skilful.  At  Munich  those  schools 
of  the  hundred  pupils  who  have  some  hearing  are  separated 
from  the  others  and  taught  by  ear  as  well  as  eye.  At  Vienna  (Royal 
Institution)  a  small  proportion  of  the  pupils  are  day  scholars,  as  they 
are  at  Munich,  and  the  teaching  is,  of  course,  carried  on  by  the  oral 
method,  as  it  is  all  over  Germany.  Here,  however,  the  teachers 
"  think  it  impossible  to  educate  fully  all  deaf-mutes  by  the  oral 
method  only.  In  the  Jews'  Home  at  Vienna  the  semi-deaf  are 
taught  by  the  acoustic  method,  and  are  not  allowed  to  see  the 
teacher's  lips  at  all.  At  Dresden,  a  large  school  of  240  pupils,  the 
director  favours  smaller  institutions  than  his  own,  considers  the  oral 
method  possible  for  all  but  the  "  weak-minded  deaf,"  and  divides  his 
pupils  into  A,  B  and  C  divisions,  according  to  intellect.  In  the  first 
division  good  speech  is  obtained.  Saxony  boasts  a  home  for  deaf 
homeless  women,  grants  premiums  for  deaf  apprentices,  and  trains 
its  teachers  of  the  deaf  in  the  institution  itself — a  good  record  and 
plan.  In  the  royal  institution  at  Berlin  Addison  saw  good  lip-reading 
and  thorough  work,  though  the  deaf  in  the  city — as  in  most  of  the 
schools— ^signed.  The  men  in  Berlin  "  like  the  adult  deaf  generally, 
were  all  in  favour  of  a  combination  of  methods,  and  condemned  the 
pure  oral  theory  as  impracticable."  At  Hamburg,  again,  "  hand 
signs  "  were  used  at  least  for  Sunday  service.  Schleswig  has  two 
schools.  Pupils  are  admitted  first  to  the  residential  institution, 
where  they  are  instructed  for  a  year,  and  are  then  divided  into  A,  B  and 
C  classes,  "  according  to  intellect."  The  lowest  class  (C)  remain  at 
this  institution  for  the  rest  of  the  eight  years,  and  a  "  certain  amount 
of  signing  "  is  allowed  in  their  instruction.  A  and  B  classes  are 
boarded  out  in  the  town  and  attend  classes  at  a  day  school  specially 
built  for  them,  being  taught  orally  exclusively. 

In  Denmark  Addison  saw  what  impressed  him  most.  All  the 
children  of  school  age  go  to  Fredericia  and  remain  for  a  year  in  the 
boarding  institution.  They  are  then  examined  and  the  semi-deaf — 
29%  of  the  whole — are  sent  to  Nyborg.  The  rest — all  the  totally 
deaf — remain  another  year  at  Fredericia  and  are  then  divided  into 
the  A,  B  and  C  divisions  before  mentioned,  and  on  the  same  criterion 
— intellect.  Those  in  C — the  lowest  class,  28  %  of  the  totally  deaf — 
are  sent  to  Copenhagen,  where  they  are  taught  by  the  manual 
method,  no  oral  work  being  attempted.  Those  in  B  class,  numbering 
19%  of  the  deaf,  remain  in  the  residential  institution  in  Fredericia 
and  are  taught  orally,  while  the  best  pupils — A  class — are  boarded 
out  in  the  town  and  attend  a  special  day  school.  These  form  26  % 
of  the  deaf,  and  those  with  whom  they  live  encourage  them  to  speak 
when  out  of  as  well  as  when  in  school.  The  buildings  and  equipment 
generally  are  excellent.  "  Hand  signs  "  are  used  at  Nyborg,  indicat- 
ing the  position  of  the  vocal  organs  when  speaking,  and,  as  might 
be  expected,  the  "  lip  "-reading  is  90%  more  correct  when  these 
symbols — infinitely  more  visible  than  most  of  the  movements  of  the 
vocal  organs  and  face  when  speaking — are  used  at  the  same  time. 
The  idea  of  these  hand  signs,  by  the  v/ay,  corresponds  to  that  of 
Graham  Bell's  Visible  Speech,  in  which  a  written  symbol  is  used  to 
indicate  the  position  of  the  vocal  organs  when  uttering  each  sound ; 
it  is  a  kind  of  phonetic  writing  which  is  to  a  slight  extent  illustrative 
at  the  same  time.  We  find  natural  signs  of  the  utmost  value  when 
teaching  articulation,  to  describe  the  position  of  the  vocal  organs. 
We  give  these  details  from  Mr  Addison's  notes  because  it  is  to 
Germany  that  so  many  look  for  guidance  to-day,  and  it  is  the  home 
of  the  so-called  "  pure  "  oral  method ;  while  the  system  of  classifica- 
tion in  Denmark  into  the  four  schools  which  are  controlled  by  one 
authority,  struck  him  very  favourably  and  so  is  given  rather  fully. 

In  France  most  of  the  schools  are  supported  by  charity,  and  the 
only  three  government  institutions  are  those  at  Paris  for  boys,  with 
263  pupils  lately,  at  Bordeaux  for  girls,  having  225  inmates,  and  at 
Chambery  with  86  boys  and  38  girls.  In  the  great  majority  the 
method  of  instruction  is  professedly  pure  oral.  "  But,"  said  Henri 
Gaillard  (Report,  World's  Congress  of  the  Deaf,  Missouri,  1904),  "  this 
is  only  in  appearance.  In  reality  all  of  the  schools  use  the  combined 
method ;  only  they  are  not  willing  to  admit  it,  because  the  oral  method 
is  the  official  method,  imposed  by  the  inspectors  of  the  minister  of 
the  interior." 

In  Italy,  again,  we  are  told  that  the  teachers  sign  in  most  of  the 
schools,  which  are  professedly  pure  oral. 

In  Sweden,  schools  for  the  deaf  have  ceased  to  depend,  as  they 
did  up  to  1891,  upon  private  benevolence.  The  system  is  generally 
the  combined,  and  in  schools  where  the  oral  method  is  adopted  the 
pupils  are  divided  into  A,  B  and  C  divisions,  as  in  Denmark  and 
Dresden,  in  the  two  latter  divisions  of  which  signs  are  allowed.  In 
Norway  the  method  is  the  oral. 

Methods  of  Teaching. — There  have  always  been  two  principal 
methods  of  teaching  the  deaf,  and  all  education  at  the  present 
time  is  carried  on  by  means  of  one  or  other  or  both  of  these. 
Where  there  is  sufficient  hearing  to  be  utilized,  instruction  is 
sometimes  given  thereby  as  well,  though  this  auricular  method 
does  not  seem  to  make  much  headway,  and  experience  is  not  in 
favour  of  believing  that  the  sense  of  hearing,  where  a  little 
exists,  can  be  "  cultivated  "  to  any  marked  degree.  It  is  really 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


891 


impossible  to  draw  hard  and  fast  lines  between  these  means  of 
instruction.  One  merges  into  another,  and  this  other  into  the 
next;  and  no  two  teachers  will,  or  can,  adopt  exactly  the  same 
lines.  It  is  not  desirable  that  they  should,  for  much  must  be  left 
to  individuality.  Orders,  rules,  methods,  should  not  be  absolute 
laws.  Observe  them  generally,  but  dispense  with  them  as  cir- 
cumstances, the  pupil  and  opportunity  may  require.  Strong 
individuality,  sympathy,  enthusiasm,  long  intercourse  with  the 
deaf,  are  needed  in  the  teacher,  and  it  is  surely  obvious  that 
every  teacher  should  have  a  full  command  of  all  the  primary 
means  of  instruction  to  begin  with,  and  not  of  one  only. 

Where  deafness  is  absolute,  or  practically  so,  we  have  to  seek 


130  words  a  minute  can  be  attained  when  spelling  on  the  fingers. 
Words  are  quite  readable  at  this  speed. 

Although  reading  and  writing  are  common  to  both  methods, 
the  manual  and  oral,  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  seem  to  be  used 
considerably  more  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter. 

In  the  oral  method  articulation  and  lip-reading  are  chiefly 
relied  upon;  reading  and  writing  are  also  adopted.  The  phonetic 
values  of  the  letters  are  taught,  not  the  names  of  the 
letters;  for  instance,  the  sound  of  the  letter  $  in  "  hat " 
is  taught  instead  of  the  name  of  the  letter  (long  A),  though  of 
course  the  latter  is  taught  where  such  is  the  proper  pronuncia- 
tion, as  in  "  hate." 


OnL 


T.he  Manual  Alphabet.     (One-handed.) 


U  V          W  X  jff]Y  Z 


FIG.  2. — The  Manual  Alphabet.     (Two-handed.) 


for  means  that  will  appeal  to  the  eye  instead  of  the  ear.  Of  these, 
we  have  the  sign  language,  writing  and  printing,  pictures,  manual 
alphabets  and  lip-reading.  We  have  to  choose  which  of  these  is 
to  be  used,  if  not  all,  and  which  must  be  rejected,  if  any.  More- 
over, we  have  to  decide  how  much  or  how  little  one  or  another  is 
to  be  adopted  if  we  employ  more  than  one.  Hence  it  is  obvious 
that  there  may  be  many  different  systems  and  subdivisions  of 
systems.  But  the  two  main  methods  are  the  manual,  which 
generally  depends  upon  all  the  above-mentioned  means  of 
appealing  to  the  eye  except  lip-reading,  and  the  oral,  which 
adopts  what  the  manual  method  rejects,  uses  writing  and 
printing  and  perhaps  pictures,  but  excludes  finaar-spelling  and 
(theoretically)  signs.  To  these  two  we  must  adioa  third  means 
of  instruction — the  combined,  system — which  rejects  no  means  of 
teaching,  but  uses  all  in  most  cases.  The  dual  method  need  hardly 
be  called  a  separate  method  or  system,  for  it  implies  simply  the 
use  of  the  manual  method  for  some  pupils  and  of  the  oral  for 
others.  Nor  need  we  call  the  mother's  ( =  intuitive  or  natural) 
a  separate  method  in  the  sense  in  which  we  are  using  the  word 
here,  for  it  is  rather  a  mode  of  procedure  which  can  be  applied 
manually  or  orally  indifferently.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
grammatical  "  method  ";  also  of  the  "  word  method,"  which  is 
really  the  "  mother's."  The  "  eclectic  method  "  is  practically 
the  combined  system,  or  something  between  that  and  the  dual 
method,  and  hardly  needs  separate  classification. 

Let  us  notice  the  manual  method,  the  oral  method,  and  the 
combined  system,  considering  with  the  last  the  "  dual  method." 

The  chief  elements  of  the  manual  method  are  finger-spelling, 
reading  and  writing  and  signing.  These  are  used,  that  is  to  say, 
as  means  of  teaching  English  and  imparting  ideas. 
Signs  are  used  to  awaken  the  child's  thoughts,  finger- 
spelling  and  writing  are  used  to  express  these  thoughts  in  the 
vernacular.  The  latter  are  used  to  express  English,  the  former 
to  explain  English. 

We  give  two  manual  alphabets,  the  one-handed  being  used  in 
America,  on  the  continent  of  Europe  with  some  variations  and 
additions,  in  Ireland,  and  also  to  some  extent  in  England;  the 
two-handed  in  Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  Australia.  A  speed  of 


Here  is  a  chart  which  was  lately  in  use: 
Articulation  Sheets. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  VOWEL  SOUNDS. 

Long. 

Middle. 

Short. 

Broad. 

Diacritic    Phonetic 
mark.       spelling. 

Diacritic    Phonetic 
mark.       spelling. 

Diacritic    Phonetic 
mark.       spelling. 

Diacritic    Phonetic 
mark.       spelling. 

fat(e)    =feit 
\  mee 
me        -  |  mi 
pin(e)  =pain 
no         =  nou 
tub(e)  =tiub 

far   =  far 

move  =   muv 
bull   =  bul 

fat   =   fat 

met   =   met 
pin    =  pin 
not    =   not 
tub   =  tub 

an-ifST1 

Order  in  which  the  Vowel  Sounds  are  to  be  taught. 


(Diacritic  \ 
Mark   1 

wall 

II 
aw,  o 

Phonetic  ) 
Spelling    i 

wol 

• 

(" 

a 

6      ii 

e    e     6           i       a           u 

oe 

path  hot  blu(e) 
ii        "       ii 

set  see  ton(e)  pi(e)  lat(e)  mul(e) 
u     u     u          u        u            u 

boy 
ii 

II 

il       ii 

II     Ij     II          II.       II.           .II 

II 

a 

o      u 

e     i    ou         ai       ei           iu 

01 

ee 

Phonetic  ) 

path 

hot  blu 

set  si  toun    pai    leit       miul 

boi 

Spelling    *> 

r                 f 

a 

u 

i 

Diacritic  J 

hat 

hut 

hit 

1      Mark   1 
1                   '• 

II 
a 

II 
u 

I) 

i 

Phonetic  ) 
[.Spelling    S 

hat 

hut 

hit 

The  consonants  are  as  follows,  though  the  order  of  teaching 
them  varies: — 

p;  f;  s;  h;  sh;  v=/;  th  (thin;  moth);  th  (then;  smooth); 
f;  r;  t;  k;  b;  d;  g  (go;  egg);  z  =  j;  m;  n;  ch  =  tsh;  j=dzh=g; 
ph  =  f;  kc  =  k;  cs  =  s;  q=kw;  x  =  ks;  ng;  w=oo;  wh  =  hw;  y=e. 


892 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


The  following  mode  of  writing  the  sounds  is  now  preferred  by 
some  as  it  renders  the  diacritic  marks  unnecessary: — 


Middle,  Broad  and  Long  Vowel  Sounds. 


or 
aw 
au 


ee       er       oa      igh     ai      ew      oi 
ea       ir        o-e     i-e      a-e     u-e     oy 
ur  ay 

Short  Vowel  Sounds. 


ou 

ow 


h  p 

b 


Consonants. 
j  pfh  I      t     s    th     sh     ch      |  ^  |    1     r    m     n     ng     w 

v          d     ,    th    dijdihj    g 

These  charts  are  given  as  examples  of  those  used,  but  they 
vary  in  different  schools,  as  does  the  order  of  teaching  the  vowel 
and  consonant  sounds  and  the  combinations.  The  exact  order 
is  not  important.  Words  are  made  up  by  combining  vowels  and 
consonants  as  soon  as  the  pupil  can  say  each  sound  separately. 

Here  are  extracts  from  the  directions  on  articulation  written 
by  a  principal  to  the  teacher  of  the  lowest  class,  which  show  the 
method  of  procedure: — 

"  (i)  Produce  the  sound  of  a  letter.     Each  pupil  to  reproduce, 
and  write  it  on  the  tablet. 

(2)  Point  to  the  letter  on  the  tablet,  and  make  each  pupil  say  it. 

(3)  The  same  with  combinations  of  vowels  and  consonants. 

(4)  Instead  of  tablet,  each  pupil  to  use  rough  exercise-book. 

(5)  Write  on  tablet  and   make  each   pupil  articulate  from 

teacher's  writing. 

(6)  When  a  combination  is  made  of  which  a  word  may  be  made 

make  all  write  it  in  their  books,  thus: — '  te — tea,' '  sho— 
show,'  '  6v — of,'  '  nalz — nails,'  &c. 

(7)  When  one  pupil  produces  a  combination  correctly  make 

the  others  lip-read  it  from  him.     In  this  way  make  them 
exercise  each  other. 

(8)  When  they  have  a  good  many  sounds  and  combinations 

written  in  their  books  make  them  sit  down  and  say  them 
off  their  books  as  hearing  children  do. 

(9)  Make  them  say  the  sounds  off  the  cards,  and  form  combina- 

tions on  the  cards  for  them  to  say. 
(10)  -Take  each  vowel  separately  and  make  each  pupil  use  it 

before  and  after  each  consonant, 
(i  i)  Take  each  consonant  and  put  it  before  and  after  each  vowel. 

"  The  above  will  suggest  other  exercises  to  the  teacher. 

"  Give  breathing  exercises.  Incite  emulation  as  to  deep  breathing 
and  slow  expiration.  Never  force  the  voice.  Make  the  pupil  speak 
out,  but  do  not  let  him  strain  either  the  voice  or  vocal  organs.  Do 
not  force  the  tongue,  lips,  or  any  organ  into  position  more  than  you 
can  help.  Do  all  as  gently  as  possible.  Register  their  progress. 
'  A  '  (as  in  '  path  ' ;  '  father  ').  As  '  A  '  is  the  basis  of  all  the  vowels, 
being  most  like  all,  it  is  taken  first.  It  is  an  open  vowel.  Do  not 
make  grimaces,  or  exaggerate.  If  false  sound  be  produced  do  not  let 
the  pupil  speak  loudly;  make  him  speak  quietly.  If  nasal  sound  be 
produced  do  not  pincn  the  nose,  but  first  take  the  back  of  the  child's 
hand,  warmly  breathe  on  it,  or  get  a  piece  of  glass,  and  let  the  child 
breathe  on  it,  or  press  the  back  of  the  tongue  down.  Show  the  child 
that  when  you  are  saying  '  a  '  your  tongue  lies  fiat  or  nearly  so,  and 
you  do  not  raise  the  back  of  the  tongue.  Prefix  '  h  '  to  '  a  '  and 
make  the  pupil  say  '  ha  '  first,  then  '  a  '  alone. 

"  'P.'  If  the  child  does  not  imitate  at  the  first  the  teacher  should 
take  the  back  of  the  hand  and  let  the  child  feel  the  puff  of  air  as  '  p ' 
is  formed  on  the  lips. 

'  '  P  '  is  produced  by  the  volume  of  air  brought"  into  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  being  checked  by  the  perfect  closure  of  the  lips,  which  are 
then  opened,  and  the  accumulated  air  is  propelled.  The  outburst  of 
this  propelled  air  creates  the  sound  of  '  p."  Take  the  pupil  to  see 
porridge  boiling.  Pretend  to  smoke.  '  P  '  is  taken  first  because  it 
has  no  vibration  and  is  the  most  simple.  The  consonants  should 
first  be  joined  to  each  vowel  separately,  and  to  prevent  the  pupils 
making  an  after-sound  the  letters  should  be  said  with  a  pause 
between,  viz.  'A  .  .  p,'  and  as  they  become  more  familiar  with  them, 
lessen  the  pause  until  it  is  pronounced  properly: — '  ap.'  " 

These  directions,  which  are  only  brief  examples  of  those  given 
for  one  particular  subject  in  one  particular  class,  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  mode  of  beginning  to  teach  articulation  and  lip- 
reading. 

The  combined  system,  as  before  mentioned,  makes  use  of  both 
the  manual  and  oral  method,  as  well  as  the  auricular,  without 
C  mbio  a  anX  nard  and  fast  rule  as  regards  the  amount  of  instruc- 
method.  ticm  to  be  given  by  means  of  each,  but  using  more  of 
one  and  less  of  another,  or  vice  versa,  according  to  the 
aptitude  of  the  child.  It  thus  follows  the  sensible,  obvious  plan 


of  fitting  the  method  to  the  child  and  not  the  unnatural  one  of 
forcing  the  child  to  try  to  fit  the  method. 

The  following  is  the  way  the  same  principal  would  teach 
language  to  beginners  by  the  combined  system: — 

"  The  letters  p,  q,  b  and  d  of  the  Roman  text  are  to  be  taught  first. 
The  pupils  are  to  do  them  9  in.  long  on  the  blackboard  or  tablet  first ; 
then  trace  them  on  the  frames ;  then  on  slips  of  paper  with  pen  and 
ink,  or  in  rough  exercise-book  with  pen  and  ink. 

"  The  whole  of  the  Roman  text  is  then  to  be  taught  in  the  same 
manner,  also  the  small  and  capital  script. 

"  When  the  English  alphabet  has  been  mastered  in  the  above  four 
forms  the  pupil  may  proceed  to  the  printing  and  writing  of  his  own 
name.  Then  his  teacher's  and  class-mates'  names.  Then  the  names 
of  other  persons  and  the  places,  things  and  actions  with  which  he 
has  to  do  in  his  daily  life.  Every  direction  the  teacher  has  to  give  in 
school  and  out  of  school  should  be  expressed  in  speech,  writing  or 
finger-spelling,  or  by  any  two  or  all  three  means.  Repetition  of  such 
directions  by  the  pupil  enables  him  to  learn  words  before  he  has 
finished  the  alphabet. 

"  All  words  to  be  spelled  on  one  hand  first ;  then  two.  When  a  few 
words  have  been  memorized,  they  should  be  written  on  slips  of  paper, 
then  in  the  exercise-books  and  dated.  After  this  there  should  be 
further  repetition  and  exercising.  The  same  course  should  be  taken 
with  phrases  and  short  sentences.  Names  of  persons  should  be  written 
on  cards  and  slips  of  paper  and  pinned  to  the  chest.  Names  of  things 
to  be  affixed  to  them,  or  written  on  them.  Names  of  apartments  on 
cards  laid  in  the'rooms.  Where  the  object  is  not  available  use  a 
picture,  or  draw  the  outline  and  make  pupil  do  the  same.  Never 
nod,  or  point,  or  jerk  the  finger,  or  use  any  other  gesture,  without 
previously  giving  the  word,  and  when  the  latter  is  understood  drop 
the  gesture  altogether. 

"  Never  allow  a  single  mistake  to  passuncorrected,  and  make  pupils 
always  learn  the  corrections. 

"  Language  should  be  a  translation  of  life.  It  should  proceed  all  day 
long,  out  of  school  as  well  as  in  it.  If  spoken  so  much  the  better,  but 
finger-spelling  is  not  a  hindrance  but  a  valuable  help  to  its  ac- 
quisition. 

"  In  most  language  lessons,  especially  those  exemplifying  a  parti- 
cular form  of  sentence,  the  pupils  should : 

"  (i)  Correct  each  other's  mistakes.  Correct  'mistakes'  designedly 
made  by  the  teacher. 

"  (2)  Teacher  rubs  out  a  word  here  and  there  on  the  blackboard  or 
tablet;  pupils  to  supply  them. 

"  (3)  Pupils  to  answer  questions,  giving  the  subject,  predicate  and 
object  of  the  sentence  as  required,  e.g. '  A  farmer  ploughs  the  ground.' 
'  Who  ploughs  the  ground?  '  '  What  does  a  farmer  do?  '  '  What 
does  he  plough?  '  Also  additional  and  illustrative  questions;  e.g. 
'  Does  the  ground  plough  the  farmer?  '  '  Does  a  farmer  plough  the 
sea?  '  '  Does  he  eat  the  ground?  '  &c. 

"  The  pupils  should  learn  meanings  or  synonyms  of  unfamiliar 
words  before  such  words  are  signed. 

"  (4)  Teacher  gives  a  word,  and  requires  pupils  to  exemplify  it  in 
a  sentence,  e.g.  '  sows,'  '  He  sows  the  seed.' 

"  (5)  Let  them  give  as  many  sentences  as  they  can  think  of  in  the 
same  form. 

"  Occurrenc^,  incidents,  objects,  pictures,  reading-books,  news- 
paper cuttings  and  correspondence  should  all  be  used." 

The  "  pure  "  oral  method,  as  before  noticed,  came  with  a 
bound  into  popularity  in  the  early  seventies.  Since  then  it  has 
had  everything  in  its  favour,  but  the  results  have  been 
by  no  means  entirely  satisfactory,  and  there  is  a  marked 
tendency  among  advocates  of  this  method  to  with- 
draw from  the  extreme  position  formerly  held.  Opinion  has 
gradually  veered  round  till  they  have  come  to  seek  for  some  sort 
of  via  media  that  shall  embrace  the  good  points  of  both  methods. 
Some  now  suggest  the  "  dual  method  " — that  those  pupils  who 
show  no  aptitude  for  oral  training  shall  be  taught  exclusively 
by  the  manual  method  and  the  rest  by  the  oral  only.  While  this 
is  a  concession  which  is  positively  amazing  when  compared  with 
the  title  of  the  booklet  containing  utterances  of  the  Abbe  Tarra, 
president  of  the  Milan  conference  in  1880 — "  The  Pure  Oral 
Method  the  Best  for  All  Deaf  Children  "I — yet  we  believe  that  in 
no  case  should  the  instruction  be  given  by  the  oral  method  alone, 
and  that  the  best  system  is  the  "  combined."  That  the  combined 
system  is  detrimental  to  lip-reading  has  not  much  more  than  a 
fraction  of  truth  in  it,  for  if  the  command  of  language  is  better 
the  pupils  can  supply  the  lacunae  in  their  lip-reading  from  their 
better  knowledge  of  English.  It  is  found  that  they  have  con- 
stantly to  guess  words  and  letters  from  the  context.  Teach  all 
by  and  through  finger-spelling,  reading,  writing  and  signing 
where  necessary  to  explain  the  English,  and  teach  those  in  whose 
case  it  is  worth  it  by  articulation  and  lip-reading  as  well.  Signs 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


893 


should  be  used  less  and  less  in  class  work,  and  English  more  and 
more  exclusively  as  the  pupil  progresses — English  in  any  and 
every  form.  A  proportion  of  teachers  should  be  themselves  deaf, 
as  in  America.  They  are  in  perfect  understanding  and  sympathy 
with  their  pupils,  which  is  not  always  the  case  with  hearing 
teachers.  Statistics  which  we  collected  in  London  showed  the 
following  results  of  the  education  of  403  deaf  pupils  after  they 

had  left  school: — 

Manual.  Combined.  Oral. 

Quite  satisfactory  result   .       65%  51%  20% 

Moderate  success     .          .       29  %  41  %  35  % 

Unsatisfactory  result         .         5%  7%  44% 

That  the  combined  system  should  show  to  slightly  less  advan- 
tage than  the  exclusively  manual  method  is  what  we  might 
perhaps  expect,  for  the  time  given  to  oral  instruction  means 
time  taken  from  teaching  language  speedily,  the  manual  method 
being,  we  believe,  the  best  of  all  for  this.  But  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  lose  a  little  in  command  of  language  for  the  sake  of 
gaining  another  means  of  expressing  that  language.  Hence  we 
advocate  the  combined  system,  regarding  speech  as  merely  a 
means  of  expressing  English,  as  writing  and  finger-spelling  are, 
and  a  good  sentence  written  or  finger-spelled  as  being  preferable 
to  a  poorer  one  which  is  spoken,  no  matter  how  distinct  the 
speech  may  be.  It  is  no  answer  to  point  to  a  few  isolated  cases 
where  the  oral  method  is  considered  to  have  succeeded,  for  one 
success  does  not  counterbalance  a  failure  if  by  another  method 
you  would  have  had  two  successes;  and,  moreover,  these  oral 
successes  would  have  been  still  greater  successes — we  are  taking 
language  in  any  form  as  our  criterion — had  the  teacher  fully 
known  and  judiciously  used  the  manual  method  as  well  as  the 
oral. 

The  exclusive  use  of  the  oral  method  leads,  generally  speaking,  to 
comparative  failure,  for  the  following,  among  other,  reasons: — (i)  It 
is  a  slow  way  of  teaching  English,  the  learning  to  speak  the  elements 
of  sound  taking  months  at  least,  and  seldom  being  fully  mastered  for 
years.  The  "  word  method,"  by  the  way,  starts  at  once  with  words 
without  taking  their  component  phonetic  elements  separately;  but 
it  has  yet  to  be  proved  that  any  quicker  progress  is  made  by  this 
means  of  teaching  speech  than  by  the  other.  (2)  Lip-reading  is,  to  the 
deaf,  sign-reading  with  the  disadvantage  of  being  both  microscopic 
and  partially  hidden.  The  deaf  hear  nothing,  they  only  partly  see 
tiny  movements  of  the  vocal  organs.  Finger-spelling,  writing,  sign- 
ing, are  incomparably  more  visible,  while  130  words  a  minute  can  be 
attained  by  finger-spelling,  and  read  at  that  speed.  (3)  The  signs — • 
as  they  are  to  the  deaf — made  by  the  vocal  organs  are  entirely 
arbitrary,  and  have  not  even  a  fraction  of  the  redeeming  feature  of 
naturalness  which  oralists  demand  in  ordinary  gestures.  (4)  Circum- 
stances, such  as  light,  position  of  the  speaker,  &c.,  must  be  favour- 
able for  the  lip-reading  to  approach  certainty.  (5)  Styles  of  speech 
vary,  and  it  is  a  constant  experience  that  even  pupils  who  compara- 
tively easily  read  their  teacher's  lips,  to  whose  style  of  utterance  they 
are  accustomed,  fail  to  read  other  people's  lips.  (6)  There  is  a  great 
similarity  between  certain  sounds  as  seen  on  the  lips,  e.g.  between  t 
and  d,  f  and  v,  p  and  b,  s  and  z,  k  and  g.  Which  is  meant  has  usually 
to  be  guessed  from  the  context,  and  this  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
knowledge  of  language,  which  is  the  very  thing  that  is  needed  to  be 
imparted.  (7)  The  deliberate  avoidance  by  the  teacher  of  the  pupil's 
own  language — signs — as  an  aid  to  teaching  him  English.  If  a  hear- 
ing boy  does  not  understand  the  meaning  of  a  French  word  he  looks 
it  up  in  the  dictionary  and  finds  its  English  equivalent.  If  the  deaf 
boy  does  not  understand  a  word  in  English,  the  simplest,  quickest, 
best  way  to  explain  it  is,  in  most  cases,  to  sign  it.  (8)  The  distaste 
of  the  pupil  for  the  method.  This  is  common.  (9)  The  mechanical 
nature  of  the  method.  There  is  nothing  to  rouse  his  interest  nor  to 
appeal  to  his  imagination  in  it.  (10)  The  temptation  to  the  teacher 
to  use  very  simple  phrases,  owing  to  the  difficulty  the  pupil  has  in 
reading  others  from  his  lips.  Consequently  the  pupil  comparatively 
seldom  learns  advanced  language. 

Other  means  of  educating  the  deaf  in  addition  to  the  oral  should 
have  a  fair  trial  in  modern  conditions  for  the  same  length  of  time  that 
the  oral  method  has  been  in  operation.  To  consider  pupils  taught 
manually  in  oral  schools  fair  criteria  of  what  can  be  done  by  the 
manual  method  or  combined  system,  when  those  pupils  have  con- 
fessedly been  relegated  to  the  manual  class  because  of  "  dulness  " 
(as  in  the  case  of  the  C  divisions  in  Denmark  and  Dresden),  is  obvi- 
ously unfair.  This  division,  moreover,  assumes  that  the  "  pure  " 
oral  method  is  the  best  for  the  brightest  pupils.  The  comparing  of 
oral  pupils  privately  taught  by  a  tutor  to  themselves  with  manual 
pupils  from  an  institution  crippled  and  hampered  by  need  of  funds, 
where  they  had  to  take  their  chance  in  a  class  of  twelve,  and  the  com- 
parison of  oral  pupils  of  twelve  years'  standing  with  combined  system 
pupils  of  four  years',  are  also  obviously  unfair.  Reference  may  be 


made  on  this  subject  to  Heidsiek's  remarkable  articles  on  the  question 
of  education,  which  appeared  in  the  American  Annals  of  the  Deaf 
from  April  1899  t°  January  1900. 

The  opinions  of  the  deaf  themselves  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the 
methods  of  teaching  also  demand  particular  attention.  The  ignoring 
of  their  expressed  sentiments  by  those  in  authority  is  remarkable. 
In  the  case  of  school  children  it  might  fairly  be  argued  that  they  are 
too  young  to  know  what  is  good  for  them,  but  with  the  adult  deaf 
who  have  had  to  learn  the  value  of  their  education  by  bitter  experi- 
ence in  the  battle  of  life  it  is  otherwise.  In  Germany,  the  home  of 
the  "  pure  "  oral  method,  800  deaf  petitioned  the  emperor  against 
that  method.  In  1903  no  fewer  than  2671  of  the  adult  deaf  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  who  had  passed  through  the  schools  signed 
a  petition  in  favour  of  the  combined  system.  The  figures  are  re- 
markable, for  children  under  sixteen  were  excluded ,  those  who  had 
not  been  educated  in  schools  for  the  deaf  were  excluded,  and  the 
education  of  the  deaf  has  only  lately  been  made  compulsory,  while 
many  thousands  who  live  scattered  about  the  country  in  isolation 
probably  never  even  heard  of  the  petition,  and  so  could  not  sign  it. 
In  America  an  overwhelming  majority  favour  the  combined  system, 
and  it  is  in  America  that  by  far  the  best  results  of  education  are  to  be 
seen.  At  the  World's  Congress  of  the  Deaf  at  St  Louis  in  1904  the 
combined  system  was  upheld,  as  it  was  at  Liege.  From  France, 
Germany,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Finland,  Italy,  Russia,  everywhere 
in  fact  where  they  are  educated,  the  deaf  crowd  upon  us  with  ex- 
pressions of  their  emphatic  conviction,  repeated  again  and  again, 
that  the  combined  system  is  what  meets  their  needs  best  and  brings 
most  happiness  into  their  lives.  The  majority  of  deaf  in  every  known 
country  which  is  in  favour  of  this  means  of  education  is  so  great  that 
we  venture  to  say  that  in  no  other  section  of  the  community  could 
there  be  shown  such  an  overwhelming  preponderance  of  opinion  on 
one  side  of  any  question  which  affects  its  well-being.  In  the  case  of 
the  rare  exceptions,  the  pupil  has  almost  always  been  brought  up  in 
the  strictest  ignorance  of  the  manual  method,  which  he  has  been 
sedulously  taught  to  regard  as  clumsy  and  objectionable. 

The  Blind  Deaf. 

In  the  summary  tables  (p.  283)  of  the  1901  British  census 
the  following  numbers  are  given  of  those  suffering  from  other 
afflictions  besides  deafness: — 

1.  Blind  and  deaf  and  dumb         ......  jB 

2.  Blind  and'deaf        .......  389 

3.  Blind,  deaf  and  dumb  and  lunatic     ....  5 

4.  Blind,  deaf  and  lunatic    ......  5 

5.  Deaf  and  dumb  and  lunatic      ......  136 

6.  Deaf  and  lunatic     .......  51 

7.  Blind,  deaf  and  dumb  and  feeble-minded  ...  5 

8.  Blind,  deaf  and  feeble-minded            ....  8 

9.  Deaf  and  dumb  and  feeble-minded    ....  221 
10.  Deaf  and  feeble-minded  ......  100 

In  addition  to  these,  2  are  said  to  be  blind,  dumb  and 
lunatic;  20  dumb  and  lunatic;  3  blind,  dumb  and  feeble- 
minded, and  222  dumb  and  feeble-minded.  These  are  certainly 
outside  our  province,  which  is  the  deaf.  The  "  dumbness  "  in 
these  four  classes  is  aphasia,  due  to  some  brain  defect. 

Of  those  in  the  list,  classes  7,  8,  9  and  10  are  (we  are  strongly 
of  opinion)  incorrectly  described,  being,  as  we  think,  composed  of 
those  who  are  simply  feeble-minded  as  well  as,  in  classes  7  and  8, 
blind.  Their  so-called  "  deafness  "  is  merely  inability  of  the 
brain  to  notice  what  the  ear  does  actually  hear  and  to  govern  the 
vocal  organs  to  produce  articulate  sound.  Many  of  classes  9  and 
10,  however,  may  not  be  "  feeble-minded  "  at  all,  but  only  rather 
dull  pupils  whom  their  teachers  have  failed  to  educate. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  some  instances  in  classes  3,  4,  5  and  6 
the  persons  were  only  assumed  to  be  deaf.  Again,  cases  of  deaf 
people  who  to  all  appearance  could  not  fairly  be  called  insane 
but  who  may  have  had  violent  temper  or  some  slight  eccentricity 
being  relegated  to  an  asylum  have  come  to  our  notice.  A  good 
teacher  might  accomplish  much  with  some  of  these  described 
as  lunatic  in  classes  5  and  6.  Finally,  classes  3  and  4  may  have 
become  lunatic  owing  to  the  loneliness  and  brooding  inseparable 
to  a  great  extent  from  such  terrible  afflictions  as  blindness  and 
deafness  combined.  Probably  the  isolation  became  intolerable, 
and  if  only  they  had  had  some  one  who  understood  them  to 
educate  them  their  reason  might  have  been  saved. 

We  are  most  concerned  with  the  first  two  classes,  and  in 
considering  them  have  to  take  individual  cases  separately,  as 
there  is  no  regular  institution  for  them  in  Great  Britain. 


8  94 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


Mr  W.  H.  Illingworth,  head  master  of  the  Blind  School  at  Old 
Trafford,  Manchester,  tells  how  David  Maclean,  a  blind  and  deaf 
boy,  was  taught,  in  the  1903  report  of  the  conference  of  teachers 
of  the  deaf.  The  boy  lost  both  sight  and  hearing,  but  not 
before  six  years  of  age,  which  was  an  advantage,  and  could  still 
speak  or  whisper  to  some  extent  when  admitted  to  school.  His 
teacher  began  with  kindergarten  and  attempts  at  proper  voice- 
production.  He  gave  the  sound  of  "  ah  "  and  made  David  feel 
his  larynx.  Then  he  tickled  the  boy  under  his  arms,  and  when 
he  laughed  made  him  feel  his  own  larynx,  so  that  the  boy  should 
notice  the  similarity  of  the  vibration.  Then,  acting  on  the 
theory  that  brain-waves  are  to  some  extent  transmittable,  Mr 
Illingworth  procured  a  hearing  boy  as  companion,  and,  ordering 
him  to  keep  his  mind  fixed  on  the  work  and  to  place  one  hand 
on  David's  shoulder,  made  him  repeat  what  was  articulated. 
The  blind-deaf  boy's  right  hand  was  placed  on  Mr  Illingworth's 
larynx  and  the  left  on  the  companion's  lips.  Thus  the  pupil  felt 
the  sound  and  the  companion's  imitation  of  it,  and  soon  repro- 
duced it  himself.  From  this  syllables  and  words  were  formed 
by  degrees.  The  pupil  knew  the  forms  of  some  letters  of  the 
alphabet  in  the  Roman  type  before  he  lost  sight  and  hearing,  and 
the  connexion  between  them  and  the  Braille  characters  and 
manual  alphabet  was  the  next  step  achieved.  This,  and  all  the 
steps,  were  aided  to  a  great  extent  by  the  hearing  and  seeing  boy 
companion's  sympathetic  influence  and  concentration  of  mind, 
in  Mr  Illingworth's  opinion.  After  this  stage  his  progress  was 
comparatively  quick  and  easy;  he  read  from  easy  books  in 
Braille,  and  people  spelled  to  him  in  the  ordinary  way  by  forming 
the  letters  with  their  right  hand  on  his  left. 

From  Mr  B.  H.  Payne  of  Swansea  comes  the  following  account 
of  how  four  blind-deaf  pupils  were  taught; — 

"  We  have  received  four  pupils  who  were  deaf-mute  and  blind,  one 
of  them  being  also  without  the  sense  of  smell.  One  was  born  deaf,  the 
others  having  lost  hearing  in  childhood.  There  was  no  essential 
difference  between  the  methods  employed  in  their  education  and 
those  of  '  sighted  '  deaf  children.  Free-arm  writing  of  ordinary 
script  was  taught  on  the  blackboard,  the  teacher  guiding  the  pupil  s 
hand,  or  another  pupil  guiding  it  over  the  teacher  s  pencilling.  The 
script  alphabet  was  cut  on  a  slate,  and  the  pupil's  pencil  made  to  run 
in  the  grooves.  The  one-hand  alphabet,  used  with  the  left  hand,  was 
employed  to  distinguish  the  letters  so  written.  The  script  alphabet 
was  also  formed  in  wire  for  him.  The  object  was  to  enable  the  pupil 
when  he  had  gained  language  to  write  to  friends  and  others  who  were 
unacquainted  with  Braille,  but  the  latter  notation  was  taught  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  profit  by  the  literature  provided  for  the  blind. 
Both  one-  and  two-hand  alphabets  were  taught,  the  teacher  forming 
the  letters  with  one  of  his  own  hands  upon  the  pupil's  hand.  The 
name  of  the  object  presented  to  the  pupil  was  spelled  and  written 
repeatedly  until  he  had  memorized  it.  Qualities  were  taught  by 
comparison,  and  actions  by  performance.  The  words '  Come  with  me' 
were  spelled  before  he  was  guided  to  any  place,  and  other  sentences 
were  spelled  as  they  would  be  spoken  to  a  '  hearing  '  child  in  appro- 
priate associations.  The  blind  pupil  followed  with  his  hands  the 
signs  made  by  junior  pupils  who  were  unacquainted  with  language, 
and  in  this  way  readily  learned  to  sign  himself,  the  art  being  of 
advantage  in  stimulating  and  in  forming  the  mind,  and  explaining 
language  to  him.  One  of  the  pupils  was  confirmed,  and  in  preparation 
for  the  rite  over  800  questions  were  put  to  him  by  finger-spelling. 
His  education  was  continued  in  Braille.  The  deaf-born  boy  developed 
a  fair  voice,  and  could  imitate  sounds  by  placing  his  hand  on  a 
speaker's  mouth.  Two  of  them  had  a  keen  sense  of  humour,  and 
would  slyly  move  the  finger  to  the  muscles  of  their  companion's  face 
to  feel  the  smile  with  which  a  bit  of  pleasantry  was  responded  to. 
In  connexion  with  the  pupil  who  was  confirmed,  the  vicar  who  ex- 
amined him  declared  that  none  of  his  questions  had  been  answered 
better  even  by  candidates  possessed  of  all  their  faculties  than  they 
were  by  this  blind-deaf  boy." 

Mr  W.  M.  Stone,  principal  of  the  Royal  Blind  School  at  West 
Craigmillar,  Edinburgh,  gives  this  very  interesting  information: 

"  We  have  five  blind-deaf  children  at  this  institution,  and  all  are 
wonderfully  clever  and  intelligent.  I  n  all  cases  the  children  possessed 
hearing  for  a  time  and  had  some  knowledge — very  slight  in  some 
cases — of  language.  The  'method  of  teaching  is,  first  to  teach  them 
the  names  of  common  objects  on  their  fingers.  A  well-known  object 
is  put  in  the  child's  hand  and  then  the  word  is  spelled  on  the  hand, — 
the  child's  hand  of  course.  The  child  learns  to  associate  these  signs 
— he  does  not  know  they  are  letters — with  the  object,  and  so  he  learns 
a  name.  Other  names  are  then  given  and  similar  names  are  associ- 
ated together,  and  by  noticing  the  difference  in  the  names  the  child 


gradually  grasps  the  idea  of  an  alphabet.  For  instance,  if  he  learns 
the  words  cat,  bat  and  mat,  he  will  quickly  distinguish  that  the  words 
are  alike  except  in  their  initial  letters.  When  in  this  way  language 
has  been  acquired  he  is  taught  the  Braille  system  of  reading  for  the 
blind  and  his  progress  is  now  very  rapid.  This  method  may  appear 
very  complicated  and  difficult,  but  in  reality  it  is  not  so.  There  are 
no  institutions  in  Great  Britain  specially  for  the  blind-deaf,  nor  are 
there  any  in  America.  I  do  not  know  of  any  on  the  continent.  Our 
own  blind  children  here  are  receiving  the  same  education  as  our 
other  chijdren,  and  in  some  ways  are  more  advanced  than  seeing 
and  hearing  children  of  their  own  ages.  They  not  only  read,  write 
and  do  arithmetic,  but  they  do  typewriting  and  much  manual  work." 

Mr  Addison  mentions  two  deaf  and  blind  pupils  who  were 
taught  by  the  late  Mr  Paterson  of  Manchester,  and  a  third  in  the 
same  school  later  on.  Another  was  taught  in  the  asylum  for  the 
blind  in  Glasgow,  though  she  only  lost  hearing  and  became  deaf 
at  ten. 

Mr  William  Wade  has  written  a  monograph  on  the  blind-deaf 
of  America,  in  the  preface  to  which  he  points  out,  rightly,  that 
the  education  of  the  blind-deaf  is  not  such  a  stupendous  task  as 
people  imagine  it  to  be. 

"  It  may  not  be  amiss,"  he  says,  "  to  state  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing the  first  steps  to  a  deaf-blind  pupil,  that  the  public  may  see  how 
exceedingly  simple  the  fundamental  principles  are,  and  it  should  be 
remembered  that  those  principles  are  exactly  the  same  in  the  cases 
of  the  deaf  and  of  the  deaf-blind,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
application— the  deaf  see,  the  deaf-blind  feel.  Some  familiar, 
tangible  object — a  doll,  a  cup,  or  what  not — is  given  to  the  pupil, 
ana  at  the  same  time  the  name  of  the  object  is  spelled  into  its  hand 
by  the  manual  alphabet."  (The  one-hand  alphabet  is  in  vogue  in 
America.)  "  By  patient  persistence,  the  pupil  comes  to  recognize 
the  manual  spelling  as  a  name  for  a  familiar  object,  when  the  next 
step  is  taken — associating  familiar  acts  with  the  corresponding 
manual  spelling.  A  continuation  of  this  simple  process  gradually 
leads  the  pupils  to  the  comprehension  of  language  as  a  means  for 
communication  of  thoughts.  Mr  Wade  is  right.  Given  a  sympa- 
thetic, resourceful  teacher  with  strong  individuality,  common-sense, 
patience,  and  the  necessary  amount  of  time,  anything  and  every- 
thing in  the  way  of  teaching  them  is  not  only  possible  but  certain  to 
be  achieved.  Language, — give  the  deaf  and  the  blind-deaf  a  working 
command  of  that  and  everything  else  is  easy. 

In  the  New  York  Institution  for  the  Deaf  ten  blind-deaf  pupils 
were  educated,  up  to  the  year  1 901 .  Nearly  all  of  these  lost  one  or 
both  senses  after  they  had  been  able  to  acquire  some  knowledge 
with  their  aid.  In  the  Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind,  Boston, 
five  were  taught.  It  was  here  that  Laura  Bridgman  was  edu- 
cated by  Dr  Samuel  G.  Howe  (q.v.);  all  honour  is  due  to  him 
for  being  the  pioneer  in  attempting  to  teach  this  class  of  the 
community,  for  she  was  the  first  blind-deaf  person  to  be  taught. 
Many  other  schools  for  the  deaf  or  blind  have  admitted  one  or 
two  pupils  suffering  from  both  afflictions.  In  all,  seventy  cases 
are  mentioned  by  Mr  Wade  of  those  who  are  quite  blind  and 
deaf,  and  others  of  people  who  are  partially  so.  The  most 
interesting,  of  course,  of  all  these  is  Helen  Keller,  .if  we 
except  Laura  Bridgman,  in  whose  case  the  initial  attempt  to 
teach  the  blind-deaf  was  made.  Helen  Keller  was  taught 
primarily  by  finger-spelling  into  her  hand,  and  signing  (which  she, 
of  course,  felt  with  her  hands)  where  necessary.  Her  first  teacher 
was  Miss  Sullivan.  The  pupil  "  acquired  language  by  practice 
and  habit  rather  than  by  study  of  rules  and  definitions."  Finger- 
spelling  and  books  were  the  two  great  means  of  educating  her  at 
all  times.  After  her  grasp  of  language  had  been  brought  to  a 
high  standard,  Miss  Fuller  gave  her  her  first  lessons  in  speech,  and 
Miss  Sullivan  continued  them,  the  method  being  that  of  making 
the  pupil  feel  the  vocal  organs  of  the  teacher.  She  learnt  to 
speak  well,  and  to  tell  (with  some  assistance  from  finger-spelling) 
what  some  people  say  by  feeling  their  mouth.  Her  literary  style 
became  excellent;  her  studies  included  French,  German,  Latin, 
Greek,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  history,  ancient  and 
modern,  and  poetry  and  literature  of  every  description.  Of 
course  she  had  many  tutors,  but  Miss  Sullivan  was  "  eyes  and 
ears  "  at  all  times,  by  acting  as  interpreter,  and  this  patient 
teacher  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  her  pupil  pass  the 
entrance  examination  of  Harvard  University.  To  all  time  the 
success  attained  in  educating  Helen  Keller  will  be  a  monu- 
ment of  what  can  be  accomplished  in  the  most  favourable 
conditions.  (A.  H.  P.) 


DEAK,  FRANCIS 


895 


DEAK,  FRANCIS  (FERENCZ),  (1803-1876),  Hungarian  states- 
man, was  born  at  Sojtor  in  the  county  of  Zala,  on  the  lyth  of 
October  1803.  He  came  of  an  ancient  and  distinguished  noble 
family,  and  was  educated  for  the  law  at  Nagy-Kanizsa,  Papa, 
Raab  and  Pest,  and  practised  first  as  an  advocate  and  ultimately 
as  a  notary.  His  first  case  was  the  defence  of  a  notorious  robber 
and  murderer.  His  reputation  in  his  own  county  was  quickly 
established,  and  when  in  1833  his  elder  brother  Antal,  also  a 
man  of  extraordinary  force  of  character,  was  obliged  by  ill-health 
to  relinquish  his  seat  in  the  Hungarian  parliament,  the  electors 
chose  Ferencz  in  his  stead.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  diet  at  Pressburg  and  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Odon  Beothy  and  the  other  Liberal  leaders.  No  man 
owed  less  to  external  advantages.  He  was  to  all  appearance  a 
simple  country  squire.  His  true  greatness  was  never  exhibited 
in  debate.  It  was  in  friendly  talk,  generally  with  a  pipe  in  his 
mouth  and  an  anecdote  on  the  tip  of  his  tongue,  that  he  exercised 
his  extraordinary  influence  over  his  fellows.  Convinced  from  the 
first  of  his  disinterestedness  and  sincerity,  and  impressed  by  his 
penetrating  shrewdness  and  his  instinctive  faculty  of  always 
seizing  the  main  point  and  sticking  to  it,  his  hearers  soon  felt 
an  absolute  confidence  in  the  deputy  from  Zala  county.  Perhaps 
there  is  not  another  instance  in  history  in  which  a  man  who  was 
neither  a  soldier,  nor  a  diplomatist,  nor  a  writer,  who  appealed  to 
no  passion  but  patriotism,  and  who  avoided  power  with  almost 
oriental  indolence  instead  of  seeking  it,  became,  in  the  course  of  a 
long  life,  the  leader  of  a  great  party  by  sheer  force  of  intellect  and 
moral  superiority. 

During  the  diet  of  1830-1840  Deak  succeeded  in  bringing  about 
an  understanding  between  a  reactionary  government,  sadly  in 
want  of  money,  and  a  Liberal  opposition  determined  that  the 
nation  should  have  its  political  privileges  respected.  "  Let  us 
put  all  jealousy  on  one  side  and  allow  him  the  pre-eminence," 
wrote  Szechenyi  of  Deak  (April  3oth,  1840).  Deak  would  not 
go  to  the  diet  of  1843-1844,  though  he  had  received  a  mandate, 
because  his  election  was  the  occasion  of  bloodshed  in  the  struggle 
between  the  Clericals  who  would  have  ousted  him  and  the 
Liberals  who  brought  him  in.  In  1848,  however,  he  accepted 
the  post  of  minister  of  justice  offered  to  him  by  Louis  Batthyany. 
He  never  ceased  to  urge  moderation  in  those  stormy  days,  hold- 
ing rather  with  Eotvos  and  Batthyany  than  with  Kossuth, 
and  he  went  more  than  once  to  Vienna  to  endeavour  to  effect  a 
compromise  between  the  Radicals  and  the  court.  But  when  the 
ill-will  of  the  Vienna  government  became  patent,  and  the  senti- 
ments of  the  king  doubtful,  he  resigned  together  with  Batthyany, 
but  without  ceasing  to  be  a  member  of  the  diet.  He  it  was  who 
drew  up  the  resolution  of  the  Lower  House  in  reply  to  the  rescript 
of  the  Austrian  ministry  demanding  the  repeal  of  the  Hungarian 
constitution.  It  was  he  who  urged  the  Hungarian  cabinet  not  to 
depart  a  hair's-breadth  from  their  legitimate  position.  He  was 
one  of  the  parliamentary  deputation  which  waited  in  vain  upon 
Prince  Windischgratz  in  his  camp.  (See  HUNGARY:  History.) 
He  then  retired  to  his  estate  at  Kehida.  After  the  war  of  in- 
dependence he  was  tried  by  court-martial,  but  acquitted. 

During  the  years  of  repression  he  lived  in  complete  retirement. 
He  rejected  Schmerling's  proposal  that  he  should  take  part  in 
the  project  of  judicial  reform,  but  on  the  other  hand  he  held 
completely  aloof  from  the  widespread,  secret  revolutionary  move- 
ments. After  1854  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  time  at  Pest, 
and  his  little  room  at  the  "  Queen  of  England  "  inn  became  the 
meeting-place  for  those  patriots  who  in  those  dark  days  looked  to 
the  wisdom  of  Deak  for  guidance.  He  used  every  opportunity  of 
stimulating  the  moral  strength  of  the  nation  and  keeping  its 
hopes  alive.  He  invited  the  nation  to  contribute  to  the  support 
of  the  orphans  of  Vorosmarty  when  that  great  poet  died.  He 
drew  up  the  petition  of  the  academy  to  the  government,  in  which 
he  defended  the  maintenance  of  this  asylum  of  the  national 
language  against  Austrian  intervention.  He  trusted  that,  as  had 
so  often  happened  in  the  course  of  Hungarian  history,  the  weak- 
ness and  blindness  of  the  court  would  help  Hungary  back  to  her 
constitutional  rights.  Armed  resistance  he  considered  dangerous, 
but  he  was  an  immutable  defender  of  the  continuity  of  the 


Hungarian  constitution  on  the  basis  of  the  reforms  of  1848. 
His  principles  alienated  him  from  the  Kossuth  faction,  which 
looked  for  salvation  to  a  second  war  with  Austria,  engineered 
from  abroad;  but  he  was  equally  opposed  to  the  attitude  of 
resignation  taken  up  by  the  followers  of  Szechenyi,  who,  accord- 
ing to  Deak,  always  regarded  the  world  from  a  purely  provincial 
point  of  view. 

The  war  of  1859  convinced  the  Austrian  government,  at 
last,  of  the  necessity  of  a  reconciliation  with  Hungary;  but 
the  ensuing  negotiations  were  conducted  not  through  Deak,  but 
through  the  Magyar  Conservatives.  In  1860  Deak  rejected  the 
October  diploma  (see  HUNGARY:  History),  which  was  simply 
a  cast-back  to  the  Maria  Theresa  system  of  1747;  but,  at 
the  request  of  the  government,  he  went  to  Vienna  to  set  forth 
the  national  demands.  On  this  occasion  he  insisted  on  the 
re-establishment  of  the  constitution  in  its  integrity  as  a  sine  qua 
non.  Meanwhile,  it  became  more  and  more  evident  that  the 
Conservative  party  had  no  standing  in  the  country.  The 
majority  of  the  deputies  returned  to  the  diet  of  1861  were  in 
favour  of  asserting  their  rights  by  a  resolution  of  the  House, 
instead  of  petitioning  for  them  by  an  address  to  the  crown; 
hence  arose  the  two  parties  of  the  Addressers  and  the  Resolu- 
tioners.  The  Patent  of  the  2oth  of  February  1861  increased  the 
uneasiness  and  suspicion  of  the  nation;  but  Deak,  now  one  of  the 
deputies  for  Pest,  was  in  favour  of  an  address  rather  than  of  a 
resolution,  and  his  great  speech  on  the  subject  (May  I3th,  1861) 
converted  the  majority  hostile  to  an  address  into  a  majority  for  it. 
The  object  of  the  Addressers  was  to  make  the  responsibility  for  a 
rupture  rest  on  the  Austrian  government.  Nevertheless,  the  court 
found  the  address  so  voted  inadmissible;  whereupon,  on  Deak's 
motion,  the  Hungarian  diet  drew  up  a  second  address  vigorously 
defending  the  rights  of  the  nation,  and  solemnly  protesting 
against  the  usurpations  of  the  Austrian  government.  The  speech 
which  Deak  made  on  this  occasion  was  his  finest  effort.  Hence- 
forth all  Europe  identified  his  name  with  the  cause  of  Hungary. 
The  Magyar  Conservatives  hereupon  entered  into  negotiations 
with  Deak,  and  the  Austrian  government,  more  than  ever 
convinced  of  the  necessity  of  a  reconciliation,  was  ready  to  take 
the  first  step,  if  Hungary  would  take  the  second  and  third. 
Deak  now  proposed  that  the  sovereign  himself  should  break  away 
from  counsellors  who  had  sought  to  oppress  Hungary,  and  should 
restore  the  constitution  as  a  personal  act.  The  worthy  response 
to  this  loyal  invitation  was  the  dismissal  of  the  Schmerling 
administration,  the  suspension  of  the  February  constitution 
and  the  summoning  of  the  coronation  diet.  Of  that  diet  Deak 
was  the  indispensable  leader.  Under  his  direction  the  Addressers 
and  the  Resolutioners  coalesced,  and  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
difficult  and  delicate  negotiations  with  the  crown,  which  aimed 
at  effecting  a  compromise  between  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
of  1719,  which  established  the  indivisibility  of  the  Habsburg 
monarchy,  and  the  March  decrees  of  1848.  The  committee  of 
which  he  was  president  had  completed  its  work,  when  the  war 
of  1866  broke  out  and  all  again  became  uncertain. 

After  Koniggratz  the  extreme  1>arties  in  Hungary  hoped  to 
extort  still  more  favourable  terms  from  the  emperor;  but  Deak 
remained  true  to  himself  and  to  the  constitutional  principle. 
On  the  i8th  of  July  he  went  to  Vienna,  to  urge  the  necessity 
of  forming  a  responsible  Magyar  ministry  without  delay.  He 
offered  the  post  of  premier  to  Count  Julius  Andrassy,  but  would 
not  himself  take  any  part  in  the  administration.  The  diet  was 
resummoned  on  the  I7th  of  November  1866  and,  chiefly  through 
the  efforts  of  Deak,  the  responsible  ministry  was  formed  (February 
I7th,  1867).  There  was  still  one  fierce  parliamentary  struggle,  in 
which  Deak  defended  the  Composition  (Ausgleich)  of  1867,  both 
against  the  Kossuthites  and  against  the  Left-centre,  which  had 
detached  itself  from  his  own  party  under  the  leadership  of  Kalman 
Tisza  (?.».).  He,  a  simple  citizen,  from  pure  patriotism,  thus 
mediated  between  the  crown  and  the  people,  as  the  Hungarian 
palatines  were  wont  to  do  in  years  gone  by,  and  it  was  the  wish 
of  the  diet  that  Deak  should  exercise  the  functions  of  a  palatine 
at  the  solemn  ceremony  of  the  coronation.  This  honour  he 
refused,  as  he  had  refused  every  other  reward  and  distinction. 


896 


DEAL— DEAN 


"  It  was  beyond  the  king's  power  to  give  him  anything  but 
a  clasp  of  the  hand."  His  real  recompense  was  the  assurance  of 
the  prosperity  and  the  tranquillity  of  his  country  in  the  future, 
and  the  reconciliation  of  the  nation  and  its  sovereign.  The 
consciousness  of  these  great  services  even  reconciled  him  to  the 
loss  of  much  of  his  popularity;  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a 
large  part  of  the  Hungarian  nation  regarded  the  Composition  of 
1867  as  a  sort  of  surrender  and  blamed  Deak  as  the  author  of  it. 
The  Composition  was  the  culminating  point  of  Deak's  political 
activity;  but  as  a  party-leader  he  still  exercised  considerable 
influence.  He  died  at  midnight  of  the  28th-29th  of  July  1876, 
after  long  and  painful  sufferings.  His  funeral  was  celebrated 
with  royal  pomp  on  the  3rd  of  February,  and  representatives 
from  every  part  of  Hungary  followed  the  "  Sage  "  to  the  grave. 
A  mausoleum  was  erected  by  national  subscription,  and  in  1887 
a  statue,  overlooking  the  Danube,  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

See  Speeches  (Hung.)  ed.  by  Mano  Konyi  (Budapest,  1882) ; 
Z.  Ferenczi,  Life  of  Dedk  (Hung.,  Budapest,  1894);  Memorials 
of  Ferencz  Dedk  (Hung.,  Budapest,  1889-1890);  Ferencz  Pulszky, 
Charakterskizze  (Leipzig,  1876).  (R.  N.  B.) 

DEAL,  a  market  town,  seaport  and  municipal  borough  in 
the  St  Augustine's  parliamentary  division  of  Kent,  England,  8  m. 
N.E.  by  N.  of  Dover  on  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  10,581.  It  consists  of  three  divisions — Lower  Deal, 
on  the  coast;  Middle  Deal;  and,  about  a  mile  inland,  though 
formerly  on  the  coast,  Upper  Deal,  which  is  the  oldest  part. 
Though  frequented  as  a  seaside  resort,  the  town  derives  its 
importance  mainly  from  its  vicinity  to  the  Downs,  a  fine 
anchorage,  between  the  shore  and  the  Goodwin  Sands,  about 
8  m.  long  and  6  m.  wide,  in  which  large  fleets  of  windbound 
vessels  may  lie  in  safety.  The  trade  consequently  consists  largely 
in  the  supply  of  provisions  and  naval  stores,  which  are  conveyed 
to  the  ships  in  need  of  them  by  "  hovellers,"  as  the  boatmen 
are  called  all  along  the  Kentish  coast;  the  name  is  probably 
a  corruption  of  hobeler,  anciently  applied  to  light-horsemen 
from  the  hobby  or  small  horse  which  they  rode.  The  Deal 
hovellers  and  pilots  are  famous  for  their  skill.  Boat-building  and 
a  few  other  industries  are  carried  on.  Among  buildings  the  most 
remarkable  are  St  Leonard's  church  in  Upper  Deal,  which  dates 
from  the  Norman  period;  the  Baptist  chapel  in  Lower  Deal, 
founded  by  Captain  Taverner,  governor  of  Deal  Castle,  in  1663; 
the  military  and  naval  hospital;  and  the  barracks,  founded  in 
1795.  The  site  of  the  old  navy  yard  is  occupied  by  villas;  and 
the  esplanade,  nearly  four  miles  long,  is  provided  with  a 
promenade  pier.  The  golf-links  is  well  known.  At  the  south 
end  of  the  town  is  Deal  Castle,  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1539, 
together  with  the  castles  of  Sandown,  Walmer  and  Sandgate. 
They  were  built  alike,  and  consisted  of  a  central  keep  surrounded 
by  four  lunettes.  Sandown  Castle,  which  stood  about  a  mile 
to  the  east  of  Deal  Castle,  was  of  interest  as  the  prison  in  which 
Colonel  Hutchinson,  the  Puritan  soldier,  was  confined,  and  is 
said  to  have  died,  September  1664.  It  was  removed  on  becoming 
endangered  by  encroachments  of  the  sea.  The  "  captain  "  of 
Deal  Castle  is  appointed  by  the*  lord  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors. 
Area,  mi  acres. 

Deal  is  one  of  the  possible  sites  of  the  landing-place  of  Julius 
Caesar  in  Britain.  Later  in  the  period  of  Roman  occupation 
the  site  was  inhabited,  but  apparently  was  not  a  port.  In  the 
Domesday  Survey,  Deal  (Dola,  Dale,  Dele)  is  mentioned  among 
the  possessions  of  the  canons  of  St  Martin,  Dover,  as  part  of  the 
hundreds  of  Bewsborough  and  Cornilo;  it  seems,  however,  from 
early  times  to  have  been  within  the  liberty  of  the  Cinque  Ports 
as  a  member  of  Sandwich,  but  was  not  continuously  reckoned 
as  a  member  until  Henry  VI.,  on  the  occasion  of  a  dispute  as 
to  its  assessment,  finally  annexed  it  to  their  jurisdiction. 

In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  Deal  was  merely  a  fishing  village 
standing  half-a-mile  from  the  sea,  but  the  growth  of  the  English 
navy  and  the  increase  of  trade  brought  men-of-war  and  merchant 
ships  in  increased  numbers  to  the  Downs.  Deal  began  to  grow 
in  importance,  and  Lower  or  New  Deal  was  built  along  the  shore. 
The  prosperity  of  the  town  has  ever  since  depended  almost 


entirely  on  its  shipping  trade.  In  1 699  the  inhabitants  petitioned 
for  incorporation,  since  previously  the  town  had  been  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Sandwich  and  governed  by  a  deputy  appointed  by 
the  mayor  of  that  town;  William  III.  by  his  charter  incorpor- 
ated the  town  under  the  title  of  mayor,  jurats  and  commonalty 
of  Deal,  and  he  also  granted  a  market  to  be  held  on  Tuesday 
and  Saturday,  and  fairs  on  the  25th  and  26th  of  March,  and  on  the 
30th  of  September  and  ist  of  October,  with  a  court  of  Pie  Powder. 
The  Cinque  Ports  were  first  represented  in  the  parliament  of 
1265  ;  the  two  members  returned  by  Sandwich  represented 
Sandwich,  Deal  and  Walmer,  until  they  were  disenfranchized  by 
the  act  of  1885. 

DEAL,  (i)  (A  common  Teutonic  word  for  a  part  or  portion, 
cf.  Ger.  Teil,  and  the  Eng.  variant  "  dole  "),  a  division  or  part, 
obsolete  except  in  such  phrases  as  "  a  great  deal  "  or  "  a  good 
deal,"  where  it  equals  quantity  or  lot.  From  the  verb  "  to  deal," 
meaning  primarily  to  divide  into  parts,  come  such  uses  as  for 
the  giving  out  of  cards  to  the  players  in  a  game,  or  for  a  business 
transaction.  (2)  (Also  a  Teutonic  word,  meaning  a  plank  or 
board,  cf.  Ger.  Diele,  Dutch  deel),  strictly  a  term  in  carpentry  and 
joinery  for  a  sawn  plank,  usually  of  pine  or  fir,  9  in.  wide  and  2  to 
45  in.  thick.  (See  JOINERY.)  The  word  is  also  used  more  loosely 
of  the  timber  from  which  such  deals  are  cut,  thus  "  white  deal  " 
is  used  of  the  wood  of  the  Norway  spruce,  and  "  red  deal  "  of  the 
Scotch  pine. 

DEAN  (Lat.  decanus,  derived  from  the  Gr.  teca,  ten),  the  style 
of  a  certain  functionary,  primarily  ecclesiastical.  Whether  the 
term  was  first  used  among  the  secular  clergy  to  signify  the 
priest  who  had  a  charge  of  inspection  and  superintendence  over 
two  parishes,  or  among  the  regular  clergy  to  signify  the  monk 
who  in  a  monastery  had  authority  over  ten  other  monks,  appears 
doubtful.  "  Decurius  "  may  be  found  in  early  writers  used  to 
signify  the  same  thing  as  "  decanus,"  which  shows  that  the  word 
and  the  idea  signified  by  it  were  originally  borrowed  from  the 
old  Roman  military  system. 

The  earliest  mention  which  occurs  of  an  "  archipresbyter  " 
seems  to  be  in  the  fourth  epistle  of  St  Jerome  to  Rusticus,  in 
which  he  says  that  a  cathedral  church  should  possess  one  bishop, 
one  archipresbyter  and  one  archdeacon.  Liberatus  also  (Breviar. 
c.  xiv.)  speaks  of  the  office  of  archipresbyter  in  a  manner  which, 
as  J.  Bingham  says,  enables  one  to  understand  what  the  nature 
of  his  duties  and  position  was.  And  he  thinks  that  those  are 
right  who  hold  that  the  archipresbyters  were  the  same  as  the 
deans  of  English  cathedral  churches.  E.  Stillingfleet  (Irenic. 
part  ii.  c.  7)  says  of  the  archipresbyters  that  "  the  memory 
of  them  is  preserved  still  in  cathedral  churches,  in  the  chapters 
there,  where  the  dean  was  nothing  else  but  the  archipresbyter; 
and  both  dean  and  prebendaries  were  to  be  assistant  to  the 
bishop  in  the  regulating  the  church  affairs  belonging  to  the  city, 
while  the  churches  were  contained  therein."  Bingham,  however, 
following  Liberatus,  describes  the  office  of  the  archipresbyter  to 
have  been  next  to  that  of  the  bishop,  the  head  of  the  presbyteral 
college,  and  the  functions  to  have  consisted  in  administering  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  church  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop. 
But  this  does  not  describe  accurately  the  office  of  dean  in  an 
English  cathedral  church.  The  dean  is  indeed  second  to  the 
bishop  in  rank  and  dignity,  and  he  is  the  head  of  the  presbyteral 
college  or  chapter;  but  his  functions  in  no  wise  consist  in 
administering  any  affairs  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop.  There 
may  be  some  matters  connected  with  the  ordering  of  the  internal 
arrangements  of  cathedral  churches,  respecting  which  it  may  be 
considered  a  doubtful  point  whether  the  authority  of  the  bishop 
or  that  of  the  dean  is  supreme.  But  the  consideration  of  any 
such  question  leads  at  once  to  the  due  theoretical  distinction 
between  the  two.  With  regard  to  matters  spiritual,  properly  and 
strictly  so  called,  the  bishop  is  supreme  in  the  cathedral  as  far  as 
— and  no  further  than — he  is  supreme  in  his  diocese  generally. 
With  regard  to  matters  material  and  temporal,  as  concerning 
the  fabric  of  the  cathedral,  the  arrangement  and  conduct  of  the 
services,  and  the  management  of  the  property  of  the  chapter,  &c., 
the  dean  (not  excluding  the  due  authority  of  the  other  members 
of  the  chapter,  but  speaking  with  reference  to  the  bishop)  is 


DEAN,  FOREST  OF 


897 


supreme.  And  the  cases  in  which  a  doubt  might  arise  are 
those  in  which  the  material  arrangements  of  the  fabric  or  of  the 
services  may  be  thought  to  involve  doctrinal  considerations. 

The  Roman  Catholic  writers  on  the  subject  say  that  there  are 
two  sorts  of  deans  in  the  church — the  deans  of  cathedral  churches, 
and  the  rural  deans — as  has  continued  to  be  the  case  in  the 
English  Church.  And  the  probability  would  seem  to  be  that  the 
former  were  the  successors  and  representatives  of  the  monastic 
decurions,  the  latter  of  the  inspectors  of  ''  ten  "  parishes  in  the 
primitive  secular  church.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  the  rural 
dean  is  the  lineal  successor  of  the  chorepiscopus,  who  in  the  early 
church  was  the  assistant  of  the  bishop,  discharging  most,  if  not  all, 
episcopal  functions  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  diocese.  But  upon 
the  whole  the  probability  is  otherwise.  W.  Beveridge,  W.  Cave, 
Binghum  and  Basrtage  all  hold  that  the  chorepiscopi  were  true 
bishops,  though  Romanist  theologians  for  the  most  part  have 
maintained  that  they  were  simple  priests.  But  if  the  chorepis- 
copus has  any  representative  in  the  church  of  the  present  day, 
it  seems  more  likely  that  the  archdeacon  is  such  rather  than  the 
dean.  •, 

The  ordinary  use  of  the  term  dean,  as  regards  secular  bodies 
of  persons,  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  the  oldest  member  of  a 
chapter  had,  as  a  matter  of  right,  or  at  least  of  usage,  become 
the  dean  thereof.  But  Bingham  (lib.  ii.  chap.  18)  very  con- 
clusively shows  that  such  was  at  no  time  the  case;  as  is  also 
further  indicated  by  the  maxim  to  the  effect  that  the  dean  must 
be  selected  from  the  body  of  the  chapter — "  Unus  de  gremio 
tantum  palest  eligi  et  promoveri  ad  decanalus  dignitatem."  The 
duties  of  the  dean  in  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  are  to  preside 
over  the  chapter,  to  declare  the  decisions  to  which  the  chapter 
may  have  in  its  debates  arrived  by  plurality  of  voices,  to  exercise 
inspection  over  the  choir,  over  the  conduct  of  the  capitular  body, 
and  over  the  discipline  and  regulations  of  the  church;  and  to 
celebrate  divine  service  on  occasion  of  the  greater  festivals  of 
the  church  in  the  absence  or  inability  of  the  bishop.  With  the 
exception  of  the  last  clause  the  same  statement  may  be  made 
as  to  the  duties  and  functions  of  the  deans  of  Church  of  England 
cathedral  churches. 

Deans  had  also  a  place  in  the  judicial  system  of  the  Lombard 
kings  in  the  8th,  gth  and  loth  centuries.  But  the  office  indicated 
by  that  term,  so  used,  seems  to  have  been  a  very  subordinate  one; 
and  the  name  was  in  all  probability  adopted  with  immediate 
reference  to  the  etymological  meaning  of  the  word, — a  person 
having  authority  over  ten  (in  this  case  apparently)  families. 
L.  A.  Muratori,  in  his  Italian  Antiquities,  speaks  of  the  resem- 
blance between  the  saltarii  or  sylvani  and  the  decani,  and  shows 
that  the  former  had  authority  in  the  rural  districts,  an'd  the 
latter  in  towns,  or  at  least  in  places  where  the  population  was 
sufficiently  close  for  them  to  have  authority  over  ten  families. 
Nevertheless,  a  document  cited  by  Muratori  from  the  archives 
of  the  canons  of  Modena,  and  dated  in  the  year  813,  recites  the 
names  of  several  "deaneries"  (decania),  and  thus  shows  that  the 
authority  of  the  dean  extended  over  a  certain  circumscription 
of  territory. 

In  the  case  of  the  "  dean  of  the  sacred  college,"  the  connexion 
between  the  application  of  the  term  and  the  etymology  of  it  is  not 
so  evident  as  in  the  foregoing  instances  of  its  use;  nor  is  it  by  any 
means  clear  how  and  when  the  idea  of  seniority  was  first  attached 
to  the  word.  This  office  is  held  by  the  oldest  cardinal — i.e. 
he  who  has  been  longest  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  purple,  not  he 
who  is  oldest  in  years, — who  is  usually,  but  not  necessarily  or 
always,  the  bishop  of  Ostia  and  Velletri.  Perhaps  the  use  of  the 
word  "  dean,"  as  signifying  simply  the  eldest  member  of  any 
corporation  or  body  of  men,  may  have  been  first  adopted 
from  its  application  to  that  high  dignitary.  The  dean  of  the 
sacred  college  is  in  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  second  to  the  pope 
alone.  His  privileges  and  special  functions  are  very  many;  a 
compendious  account  of  the  principal  of  them  may  be  found  in 
the  work  of  G.  Moroni,  vol.  xix.  p.  168. 

There  are  four  sorts  of  deans  of  whom  the  law  of  England  takes 
notice.  (i)Thc  dean  and  chapter  are  a  council  subordinate  to  the 
bishop,  assistant  to  him  in  matters  spiritual  relating  to  religion, 
vu.  29 


and  in  matters  temporal  relating  to  the  temporalities  of  the 
bishopric.  The  dean  and  chapter  are  a  corporation,  and  the 
dean  himself  is  a  corporation  sole.  Deans  are  said  to  be  either  of 
the  old  or  of  the  new  foundation — the  latter  being  those  created 
and  regulated  after  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry 
VIII.  The  deans  of  the  old  foundation  before  the  Ecclesiastical 
Commissioners  Act  1841  were  elected  by  the  chapter  on  the  king's 
conge  d'elire;  and  the  deans  of  the  new  foundation  (and,  since  the 
act,  of  the  old  foundation  also)  are  appointed  by  the  king's  letters 
patent.  It  was  at  one  time  held  that  a  layman  might  be  dean; 
but  since  1662  priest's  orders  are  a  necessary  qualification. 
Deaneries  are  sinecures  in  the  old  sense,  i.e.  they  are  without 
cure  of  souls.  The  chapter  formerly  consisted  of  canons  and 
prebendaries,  the  dean  being  the  head  and  an  integral  part  of  the 
corporation.  By  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  Act  1841 ,  it  is 
enacted  that  "  all  the  members  of  the  chapter  except  the  dean, 
in  every  collegiate  and  cathedral  church  in  England,  and  in  the 
cathedral  churches  of  St  David  and  Llandaff,  shall  be  styled 
canons."  By  the  same  act  the  dean  is  required  to  be  in  residence 
eight  months,  and  the  canons  three  months,  in  every  year.  The 
bishop  is  visitor  of  the  dean  and  chapter.  (2)  A  dean  of  peculiars 
is  the  chief  of  certain  peculiar  churches  or  chapels.  He  "  hath 
no  chapter,  yet  is  presentative,  and  hath  cure  of  souls;  he  hath 
a  peculiar,  and  is  not  subject  to  the  visitation  of  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese."  The  only  instances  of  such  deaneries  are  Battle 
(Sussex),  Bocking  (Essex)  and  Stamford  (Rutland).  The  deans 
of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  have  similar  status.  (3)  The  third  dean 
"  hath  no  cure  of  souls,  but  hath  a  court  and  a  peculiar,  in  which 
he  holdeth  plea  and  jurisdiction  of  all  such  ecclesiastical  matters 
as  come  within  his  peculiar.  Such  is  the  dean  of  the  arches,  who 
is  the  judge  of  the  court  of  the  arches,  the  chief  court  and  con- 
sistory of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  so  called  of  Bow  Church, 
where  this  court  was  ever  wont  to  be  held. "  (Sqe  ARCHES,  COURT 
OF.)  The  parish  of  Bow  and  twelve  others  were  within  the 
peculiar  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop  in  spiritual  causes,  and 
exempted  out  of  the  bishop  of  London's  jurisdiction.  They  were 
in  1845  made  part  of  the  diocese  of  London.  (4)  Rural  deans 
are  clergymen  whose  duty  is  described  as  being  "  to  execute  the 
bishop's  processes  and  to  inspect  the  lives  and  manners  of  the 
clergy  and  people  within  their  jurisdiction."  (See  Phillimore's 
Ecclesiastical  Law.) 

In  the  colleges  of  the  English  universities  one  of  the  fellows 
usually  holds  the  office  of  "  dean,"  and  is  specially  charged 
with  the  discipline,  as  distinguished  from  the  teaching  functions 
of  the  tutors.  In  some  universities  the  head  of  a  faculty  is 
called  "  dean,"  and  in  each  of  these  cases  the  word  is  used  in  a 
non-ecclesiastical  and  purely  titular  sense. 

DEAN,  FOREST  OF,  a  district  in  the  west  of  Gloucestershire, 
England,  between  the  Severn  and  the  Wye.  It  extends  north- 
ward in  an  oval  form  from  the  junction  of  these  rivers,  for  a 
distance  of  20  m.,  with  an  extreme  breadth  of  10  m.,  and  still 
retains  its  true  forest  character.  The  surface  is  agreeably  undu- 
lating, its  elevation  ranging  from  120  to  nearly  1000  ft.,  and  its 
sandy  peat  soil  renders  it  most  suitable  for  the  growth  of  timber, 
which  is  the  cause  of  its  having  been  a  royal  forest  from  time 
immemorial.  It  is  recorded  that  the  commanders  of  the  Armada 
had  orders  not  to  leave  in  it  a  tree  standing.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  the  forest  contained  105,537  trees,  and,  straitened  for 
money,  the  king  granted  it  to  Sir  John  Wyntour  for  £10,000, 
and  a  fee  farm  rent  of  £2000.  The  grant  was  cancelled  by 
Cromwell;  but  at  the  Restoration  only  30,000  trees  were  left, 
and  Wyntour,  the  Royalist  commander,  having  got  another  grant, 
destroyed  all  but  200  trees  fit  for  navy  timber.  In  1680  an  act 
was  passed  to  enclose  11,000  acres  and  plant  with  oak  and  beech 
for  supply  of  the  dockyards;  and  the  present  forest,  though  not 
containing  very  many  gigantic  oaks,  has  six  "  walks  "  covered 
with  timber  in  various  stages  of  growth. 

The  forest  is  locally  governed  by  two  crown-appointed  deputy 
gavellers  to  superintend  the  woods  and  mines,  and  four  verderejs 
elected  by  the  freeholders,  whose  office,  since  the  extermination 
of  the  deer  in  1850,  is  almost  purely  honorary.  From  time 
immemorial  all  persons  born  in  the  hundred  of  St  Briavel's,  who 


898 


DEANE— DEATH 


have  worked  a  year  and  a  day  in  a  coal  mine,  become  "  free 
miners,"  and  may  work  coal  in  any  part  of  the  forest  not  previ- 
ously occupied.  The  forest  laws  were  administered  at  the  Speech- 
House,  a  building  of  the  lyth  century  in  the  heart  of  the  forest, 
where  the  verderers'  court  is  still  held.  The  district  contains 
coal  and  iron  mines,  and  quarries  of  building-stone,  which  fortun- 
ately hardly  minimize  its  natural  beauty.  Near  Coleford  and 
Westbury  pit  workings  of  the  Roman  period  have  been  discovered, 
and  the  Romans  drew  large  supplies  of  iron  from  this  district. 
The  scenery  is  especially  fine  in  the  high  ground  bordering  the 
Wye  (<?.».),  opposite  to  Symond's  Yat  above  Monmouth,  and 
Tintern  above  Chepstow.  St  Briavel's  Castle,  above  Tintern, 
was  the  headquarters  of  the  forest  officials  from  an  early  date  and 
was  frequented  by  King  John.  It  is  a  moated  castle,  of  which 
the  north-west  front  remains,  standing  in  a  magnificent  position 
high  above  the  Wye. 

See  H.  G.  Nicholls,  Forest  of  Dean  (London,  1858). 

DEANE,  RICHARD  (1610-1653),  British  general-at-sea,  major- 
general  and  regicide,  was  a  younger  son  of  Edward  Deane  of 
Temple  Guiting  or  Guy  ting  in  Gloucestershire,  where  he  was  born, 
his  baptism  taking  place  on  the  8th  of  July  1610.  His  family 
seems  to  have  been  strongly  Puritan  and  was  related  to  many 
of  those  Buckinghamshire  families  who  were  prominent  in  the 
parliamentary  party.  His  uncle  or  great-uncle  was  Sir  Richard 
Deane,  lord  mayor  of  London,  1628-1629.  Of  Deane's  early  life 
nothing  is  accurately  known,  but  he  seems  to  have  had  some 
sea  training,  possibly  on  a  ship-of-war.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  joined  the  parliamentary  army  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
artillery,  a  branch  of  the  service  with  which  he  was  constantly 
and  honourably  associated.  In  1644  he  held  a  command  in  the 
artillery  under  Essex  in  Cornwall  and  took  part  in  the  surrender 
after  Lostwithiel.  Essex  (Letter  to  Sir  Philip  Stapleton,  Rush- 
worth  Collection)  calls  him  "  an  honest,  judicious  and  stout 
man,"  an  estimate  of  Deane  borne  out  by  Clarendon's  "  bold  and 
excellent  officer  "  (book  xiv.  cap.  27),  and  he  was  one  of  the  few 
officers  concerned  in  the  surrender  who  were  retained  at  the 
remodelling  of  the  army.  Appointed  comptroller  of  the  ordnance, 
he  commanded  the  artillery  at  Naseby  and  during  Fairfax's 
campaign  in  the  west  of  England  in  1645.  In  1647  he  was 
promoted  colonel  and  given  a  regiment.  In  May  of  that  year 
Cromwell  was  made  lord-general  of  the  forces  in  Ireland  by 
the  parliament,  and  Deane,  as  a  supporter  of  Cromwell  who  had 
to  be  reckoned  with,  was  appointed  his  lieutenant  of  artillery. 
Cromwell  refused  to  be  thus  put  out  of  the  way,  and  Deane 
followed  his  example.  When  the  war  broke  out  afresh  in  1648 
Deane  went  with  Cromwell  to  Wales.  As  brigadier-general  his 
leading  of  the  right  wing  at  Preston  contributed  greatly  to  the 
victory.  On  the  entry  of  the  army  into  London  in  1648,  Deane 
superintended  the  seizure  of  treasure  at  the  Guildhall  and 
Weavers'  Hall  the  day  after  Pride  "  purged  "  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  accompanied  Cromwell  to  the  consultations  as  to 
the  "  settlement  of  the  Kingdom  "  with  Lenthall  and  Sir  Thomas 
Widdrington,  the  keeper  of  the  great  seal.  He  is  rightly  called  by 
Sir  J.K.  Laugh  ton  (in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.)  Cromwell's  "  trusted 
partisan,"  a  character  which  he  maintained  in  the  active  and 
responsible  part  taken  by  him  in  the  events  which  led  up  to  the 
trial  and  execution  of  the  king.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  the  trial,  and  a  member  of  the  committee  which  examined 
the  witnesses.  He  signed  the  death  warrant. 

Deane's  capacities  and  activities  were  now  required  for  the 
navy.  In  1649  the  office  of  lord  high  admiral  was  put  into 
commission.  The  first  commissioners  were  Edward  Popham, 
Robert  Blake  and  Deane,  with  the  title  of  generals-at-sea. 
His  command  at  sea  was  interrupted  in  1651,  when  as  major- 
general  he  was  brought  back  to  the  army  and  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Worcester.  Later  he  was  made  president  of  the 
commission  for  the  settlement  of  Scotland,  with  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  military  and  naval  forces.  At  the  end  of  1652 
Deane  returned  to  his  command  as  general-at-sea,  where  Monck 
had  succeeded  Popham,  who  had  died  in  1651.  In  1653  Deane 
was  with  Blake  in  command  at  the  battle  off  Portland  and 
later  took  the  most  prominent  and  active  part  in  the  refitting 


of  the  fleet  on  the  reorganization  of  the  naval  service.  At  the 
outset  of  the  three  days'  battle  off  the  North  Foreland,  the  ist, 
2nd  and  3rd  of  June  1653,  Deane  was  killed.  His  body  lay  in 
state  at  Greenwich  and  after  a  public  funeral  was  buried  in 
Henry  VII. 's  chapel  at  Westminster  Abbey,  to  be  disinterred  at 
the  Restoration. 
See  J.  Bathurst  Deane,  The  Life  of  Richard  Deane  (1870). 

DEANE,  SILAS  (1737-1789),  American  diplomat,  was  born  in 
Groton,  Connecticut,  on  the  24th  of  December  1737.  He  gradu- 
ated, at  Yale  in  1758  and  in  1761  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
instead  of  practising  became  a  merchant  at  Wethersfield,  Conn. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  movements  in  Connecticut 
preceding  the  War  of  Independence,  and  from  1774  to  1776  was 
a  delegate  from  Connecticut  to  the  Continental  Congress.  Early 
in  1776  he  was  sent  to  France  by  Congress,  in  a  semi-6fficial 
capacity,  as  a  secret  agent  to  induce  the  French  government  to 
lend  its  financial  aid  to  the  colonies.  Subsequently  he  became, 
with  Benjamin  Franklin  and  Arthur  Lee,  one  of  the  regularly 
accredited  commissioners  to  France  from  Congress.  On  arriving 
in  Paris,  Deane  at  once  opened  negotiations  with  Vergennes  and 
Beaumarchais,  securing  through  the  latter  the  shipment  of  many 
vessel  loads  of  arms  and  munitions  of  war  to  America.  He  also 
enlisted  the  services  of  a  number  of  Continental  soldiers  of 
fortune,  among  whom  were  Lafayette,  Baron  Johann  De  Kalb 
and  Thomas  Conway.  His  carelessness  in  keeping  account  of  his 
receipts  and  expenditures,  and  the  differences  between  himself 
and  Arthur  Lee  regarding  the  contracts  with  Beaumarchais, 
eventually  led,  in  November  1777,  to  his  recall  to  face  charges, 
of  which  Lee's  complaints  formed  the  basis.  Before  returning 
to  America,  however,  he  signed  on  the  6th  of  February  1778  the 
treaties  of  amity  and  commerce  and  of  alliance  which  he  and 
the  other  commissioners  had  successfully  negotiated.  In  America 
he  was  defended  by  John  Jay  and  John  Adams,  and  after  stating 
his  case  to  Congress  was  allowed  to  return  to  Paris(i78i)  to  settle 
his  affairs.  Differences  with  various  French  officials  led  to  his 
retirement  to  Holland,  where  he  remained  until  after  the  treaty 
of  peace  had  been  signed,  when  he  settled  in  England.  The 
publication  of  some  "  intercepted  "  letters  in  Rivington's  Royal 
Gazette  in  New  York  (1781),  in  which  Deane  declared  his  belief 
that  the  struggle  for  independence  was  hopeless  and  counselled 
a  return  to  British  allegiance,  aroused  such  animosity  against 
him  in  America  that  for  some  years  he  remained  in  England. 
He  died  on  shipboard  in  Deal  harbour,  England,  on  the  23rd  of 
September  1 789  after  having  embarked  for  America  on  a  Boston 
packet.  No  evidence.'of  his  dishonesty  was  ever  discovered,  and 
Congress  recognized  tne  validity  of  his  claims  by  voting  $37,000 
to  his  heirs  in  1842.  He  published  his  defence  in  An  Address  to 
the  Free  and  Independent  Citizens  of  tJte  United  States  of  North 
America  (Hartford,  Conn.,  and  London,  1784). 

The  Correspondence  of  Silas  Deane  was  published  in  the  Connecticut 
Historical  Society's  Collections,  vol.  ii. ;  and  The  Deane  Papers,  in 
5  vols.,  in  the  New  York  Historical  Society's  Collections  (1887- 
1890).  See  also  Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History,  vol.  vii. 
chap,  i.,  and  Wharton's  Revolutionary  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of 
the  United  States  (6  vols.,  Washington,  1889). 

DEATH,  the  permanent  cessation  of  the  vital  functions  in 
the  bodies  of  animals  and  plants,  the  end  of  life  or  act  of  dying. 
The  word  is  the  English  representative  of  the  substantive  common 
to  Teutonic  languages,  as  "  dead  "  is  of  the  adjective,  and  "  die  " 
of  the  verb;  the  ultimate  origin  is  the  pre-Teu tonic  verbal  stem 
dau-;  cf.  Ger  Tod,  Dutch  dood,  Swed.  and  Dan.  dod. 

For  the  scientific  aspects  of  the  processes  involved  in  life  and 
its  cessation  see  BIOLOGY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  PATHOLOGY,  and  allied 
articles;  and  for  the  consideration  of  the  prolongation  of  life 
see  LONGEVITY.  Here  it  is  only  necessary  to  deal  with  the  more 
primitive  views  of  death  and  with  certain  legal  aspects. 

Ethnology. — To  the  savage,  death  from  natural  causes  is 
inexplicable.  At  all  times  and  in  all  lands,  if  he  reflects  upon 
death  at  all,  he  fails  to  understand  it  as  a  natural  phenomenon; 
nor  in  its  presence  is  he  awed  or  curious.  Man  in  a  primitive 
state  has  for  his  dead  an  almost  animal  indifference.  The 
researches  of  archaeologists  prove  that  Quaternary  Man  cared 
little  what  became  of  his  fellow-creature's  body.  And  this  lack 


DEATH 


899 


of  interest  is  found  to-day  as  a  general  characteristic  of  savages. 
The  Goajiros  of  Venezuela  bury  their  dead,  they  confess,  simply 
to  get  rid  of  them.  The  Galibis  of  Guiana,  when  asked  the 
meaning  of  their  curious  funeral  ceremony,  which  consists  in 
dancing  on  the  grave,  replied  that  they  did  it  to  stamp  down 
the  earth.  Fuegians,  Bushmen,  Veddahs,  show  the  same  lack  of 
concern  and  interest  in  the  memory  of  the  dead.  Even  the 
Eskimos,  conspicuous  as  they  are  for  their  intelligence  and 
sociability,  save  themselves  the  trouble  of  caring  for  their  sick 
and  old  by  walling  them  up  and  leaving  them  to  die  in  a  lonely 
hut;  the  Chukches  stone  or  strangle  them  to  death;  some 
Indian  tribes  give  them  over  to  tigers,  and  the  Battas  of  Sumatra 
eat  them.  This  indifference  is  not  dictated  by  any  realization 
that  death  means  annihilation  of  the  personality.  The  savage 
conception  of  a  future  state  is  one  that  involves  no  real  break  in 
the  continuity  of  life  as  he  leads  it.  If  a  man  dies  without  being 
wounded  he  is  considered  to  be  the  victim  of  the  sorcerers  and 
the  evil  spirits  with  which  they  consort.  Throughout  Africa 
the  death  of  anyone  is  ascribed  to  the  magicians  of  some  hostile 
tribe  or  to  the  malicious  act  of  a  neighbour.  A  culprit  is  easily 
discovered  either  by  an  appeal  to  a  local  diviner  or  in  torturing 
some  one  into  confession.  In  Australia  it  is  the  same.  Mr 
Andrew  Lang  says  that  "  whenever  a  native  dies,  no  matter 
how  evident  it  may  be  that  death  has  been  the  result  of  natural 
causes,  it  is  at  once  set  down  that  the  defunct  was  bewitched." 
The  Bechuanas  and  all  Kaffir  tribes  believe  that  death,  even  at  an 
advanced  age,  if  not  from  hunger  or  violence,  is  due  to  witchcraft, 
and  blood  is  required  to  expiate  or  avenge  it.  Similar  beliefs 
are  found  among  the  Papuans,  and  among  the  Indians  of  both 
Americas.  The  history  of  witchcraft  in  Europe  and  its  attendant 
horrors,  so  vividly  painted  in  Lecky's  Rise  of  Rationalism,  are  but 
echoes  of  this  universal  refusal  of  savage  man  to  accept  death  as 
the  natural  end  of  life.  Even  to-day  the  ignorant  peasantry  of 
many  European  countries,  Russia,  Galicia  and  elsewhere,  believe 
that  all  disease  is  the  work  of  demons,  and  that  medicinal  herbs 
owe  their  curative  properties  to  their  being  the  materialized  forms 
of  benevolent  spirits. 

This  animistic  tendency  is  a  marked  characteristic  of  primitive 
Man  in  every  land.  The  savage  explains  the  processes  of  inani- 
mate nature  by  assuming  that  living  beings  or  spirits,  possessed 
of  capacities  similar  to  his  own,  are  within  the  inanimate  object. 
The  growth  of  a  tree,  the  spark  struck  from  a  flint,  the  devastat- 
ing floods  of  a  river,  mean  to  him  the  natural  actions  of  beings 
within  the  tree,  stone  or  water.  And  thus  too  he  explains  to 
himself  the  phenomena  of  human  life,  believing  that  each  man  has 
within  him  a  mannikin  or  animal  which  dictates  his  actions  in  life. 
This  miniature  man  is  the  savage's  conception  of  the  soul;  sleep 
and  trance  being  regarded  as  the  temporary,  death  as  the 
permanent,  absence  of  the  soul.  Each  individual  is  thus  deemed 
to  have  a  dual  existence.  This  "  subliminal  "  self  (in  modern 
terminology)  has  many  forms.  The  Hurons  thought  that  it 
possessed  head,  body,  arms  and  legs,  in  fact  that  it  was  an  exact 
miniature  of  a  man.  The  Nootkas  of  British  Columbia  regard 
it  as  a  tiny  man ,  living  in  the  crown  of  the  head.  So  long  as  it 
stands  erect,  its  possessor  is  well,  but  if  it  falls  from  its  position 
the  misfortunes  of  ill-health  and  madness  at  once  assail  him. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  believed  in  the  soul  or  "  double."  The 
inhabitants  of  Nias,  an  island  to  the  west  of  Sumatra,  have  the 
strange  belief  that  to  everyone  before  birth  is  given  the  choice  of 
a  long  and  heavy  or  short  and  light  soul  (a  parallel  belief  may  be 
found  in  early  Greek  philosophy),  and  his  choice  determines  the 
length  of  life.  Sometimes  the  soul  is  conceived  as  a  bird.  The 
Bororos  of  Brazil  fancy  that  in  that  shape  the  soul  of  a  sleeper 
passes  out  of  the  body  during  night-time,  returning  to  him  at  his 
awakening.  The  Bella  Coola  Indians  say  the  soul  is  a  bird 
enclosed  in  an  egg  and  lives  in  the  nape  of  the  neck.  If  the  shell 
bursts  and  the  soul  flies  away,  the  man  must  die.  If  however 
the  bird  flies  away,  egg  and  all,  then  he  faints  or  loses  his  reason. 
A  popular  superstition  in  Bohemia  assumes  that  the  soul  in  the 
shape  of  a  white  bird  leaves  the  body  by  way  of  the  mouth. 
Among  the  Battas  of  Sumatra  rice  or  grain  is  sprinkled  on  the 
head  of  a  man  who  returns  from  a  dangerous  enterprise,  and  in 


the  latter  case  the  grains  are  called  padiruma  tondi,  "  means  to 
make  the  soul  (tondi)  stay  at  home."  In  Java  the  new-boro 
babe  is  placed  in  a  hen-coop,  and  the  mother  makes  a  clucking 
noise,  as  if  she  were  a  hen,  to  attract  the  child's  soul.  It  is 
regarded  by  many  savage  peoples  as  highly  dangerous  to  arouse 
a  sleeper  suddenly,  as  his  soul  may  not  have  time  to  return. 
Still  more  dangerous  is  it  to  move  a  sleeper,  for  the  soul  on  its 
return  might  not  be  able  to  find  the  body.  Flies  and  butterflies 
are  forms  which  the  souls  are  believed  by  some  races  to  take, 
and  the  Esthonians  of  the  island  of  Oesel  think  that  the  gusts  of 
wind  which  whirl  tornado-like  through  the  roads  are  the  souls  of 
old  women  seeking  what  they  can  find. 

But  more  widespread  perhaps  than  any  belief,  from  its  sim- 
plicity doubtless,  is  the  idea  that  the  body's  shadow  or  reflexion 
is  the  soul.  The  Basutos  think  that  crocodiles  can  devour  the 
shadow  of  a  man  cast  on  the  surface  of  water.  In  many  parts  of 
the  world  sorcerers  are  credited  with  supernatural  powers  over 
a  man  by  an  attack  on  his  shadow.  The  sick  man  is  considered 
to  have  lost  his  shadow  or  a  part  of  it.  Dante  refers  to  the 
shadowless  spectre  of  Virgil,  and  the  folklore  of  many  European 
countries  affords  examples  of  the  prevalence  of  the  superstition 
that  a  man  must  be  as  careful  of  his  shadow  as  of  his  body.  In 
the  same  way  the  reflexion-soul  is  thought  to  be  subject  to  a 
malice  of  enemies  or  attacks  of  beasts  and  has  been  the  cause  of 
superstitions  which  in  one  form  or  another  exist  to-day.  From 
the  Fijian  and  Andaman  islander  who  exhibits  abject  terror  at 
seeing  himself  in  a  glass  or  in  water,  to  the  English  or  European 
peasant  who  covers  up  the  mirrors  or  turns  them  to  the  wall, 
upon  a  death  occurring,  lest  an  inmate  of  the  house  should  see  his 
own  face  and  have  his  own  speedy  demise  thus  prognosticated, 
the  idea  holds  its  ground.  It  was  probably  the  origin  of  the 
story  of  Narcissus,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  race  which  is  free  from 
the  haunting  dread.  Lastly  the  soul  is  pictured  as  being  a  man's 
breath  (anima),  and  this  again  has  come  down  to  us  in  literature, 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  word  "  breath  "  has  become  a 
synonym  for  life  itself.  The  "  last  breath  "  has  meant  more  than 
a  mere  metaphor.  It  expresses  the  savage  belief  that  there 
departs  from  the  dying  in  the  final  expiration  a  something 
tangible,  capable  of  separate  existence — the  soul.  Among  the 
Romans  custom  imposed  a  sacred  duty  on  the  nearest  relative, 
usually  the  heir,  to  inhale  the  "  last  breath  "  of  the  dying. 
Moreover  the  classics  bear  evidence  to  the  sanctity  with  which 
sentiment  surrounded  the  last  kiss;  Cicero,  in  his  speech  against 
Verres,  saying  "  Matres  ab  extreme  complexu  liberum  exclusae: 
quae  nihil  aliud  orabant  nisi  ut  filiorum  extremum  spirilum  ore 
excipere  sibi  liceret."  Virgil,  too,  refers  in  the  Aeneid,  iv.  684, 
to  the  custom,  which  survives  to-day  as  a  ceremonial  practice 
among  many  savage  and  semi-civilized  people. 

From  the  inability  of  the  savage  in  all  ages  and  in  all  lands 
to  comprehend  death  as  a  natural  phenomenon,  there  results  a 
tendency  to  personify  death,  and  myths  are  invented  to  account 
for  its  origin.  Sometimes  it  is  a  "  taboo  "  which  has  been 
broken  and  gives  Death  power  over  man.  In  New  Zealand 
Maui,  the  divine  hero  of  Polynesia,  was  not  properly  baptized. 
In  Australia  a  woman  was  told  not  to  go  near  a  tree  where  a  bat 
lived:  she  infringed  the  prohibition,  the  bat  fluttered  out,  and 
death  resulted.  The  Ningphoos  were  dismissed  from  Paradise 
and  became  mortal  because  one  of  them  bathed  in  water  which 
had  been  "  tabooed  "  (Dalton,  p.  13).  Other  versions  of  the 
Death-myth  in  Polynesia  relate  that  Maui  stole  a  march  on  Night 
as  she  slept,  and  would  have  passed  right  through  her  to  destroy 
her,  but  a  little  bird  which  sings  at  sunset  woke  her,  she  destroyed 
Maui,  and  men  lost  immortality.  In  India  Yama,  the  god  of 
Death,  is  assumed,  like  Maui,  to  have  been  the  first  to  "  spy  out 
the  path  to  the  other  world."  In  the  Solomon  Islands  (Jour. 
Anth.  Inst.,  February  1881)  "  Koevari  was  the  author  of  death, 
by  resuming  her  cast-off  skin."  The  same  story  is  told  in  the 
Banks  Islands.  The  Greek  myth  (Hesiod,  Works  and  Days,  oo) 
alleged  that  mortals  lived  "  without  ill  diseases  that  give  death 
to  men  "  till  the  cover  was  lifted  from  the  box  of  Pandora. 
This  personification  of  Death  has  had  as  a  consequence  the 
introduction  into  the  folklore  of  many  lands  of  stories,  often 


900 


DEATH-WARNING 


humorous,  of  the  tricks  played  on  the  Enemy  of  Mankind. 
Thus  Sisyphus  fettered  Death,  keeping  him  prisoner  till  rescued 
by  Ares;  in  Venetian  folklore  Beppo  ties  him  up  in  a  bag  for 
eighteen  months;  while  in  Sicily  an  innkeeper  corks  him  up  in 
a  bottle,  and  a  monk  keeps  him  in  his  pouch  for  forty  years. 
The  German  parallel  is  Gambling  Hansel,  who  kept  Death  up 
a  tree  for  seven  years.  Such  examples  might  be  multiplied 
unendingly,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  attitude 
of  civilized  man  towards  the  sphinx-riddle  of  his  end  has  been 
in  part  dictated  and  is  even  still  influenced  by  the  savage  belief 
that  to  die  is  unnatural. 

Law — Registration. — The  registration  of  burials  in  England 
goes  back  to  the  time  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  who  in  1 538  instituted 
the  keeping  of  parish  registers.  Statutory  measures  were  taken 
from  time  to  time  to  ensure  the  preservation  of  registers  of 
burials,  but  it  was  not  until  1836  (the  Births  and  Deaths  Registra- 
tion Act)  that  the  registration  of  deaths  became  a  national 
concern.  Other  acts  dealing  with  death  registration  were  subse- 
quently passed,  and  the  whole  law  for  England  consolidated  by 
the  Births  and  Deaths  Registration  Act  1874.  By  that  act,  the 
registration  of  every  death  and  the  cause  of  the  death  is  com- 
pulsory. When  a  person  dies  in  a  house  information  of  the 
death  and  the  particulars  required  to  be  registered  must  be  given 
within  five  days  of  the  death  to  the  registrar  to  the  best  of  the 
person's  knowledge  and  belief  by  one  of  the  following  persons: — 
(i)  The  nearest  relative  of  the  deceased  present  at  the  death,  or 
in  attendance  during  the  last  illness  of  the  deceased.  If  they  fail, 
then  (2)  some  other  relative  of  the  deceased  in  the  same  sub- 
district  (registrar's)  as  the  deceased.  In  default  of  relatives,  (3) 
some  person  present  at  the  death,  or  the  occupier  of  the  house  in 
which,  to  his  knowledge,  the  death  took  place.  If  all  the  above 
fail,  (4)  some  inmate  of  the  house,  or  the  person  causing  the  body 
of  the  deceased  to  be  buried.  The  person  giving  the  information 
must  sign  the  register.  Similarly,  also,  information  must  be 
given  concerning  death  where  the  deceased  dies  not  in  a  house. 

Where  written  notice  of  the  death,  accompanied  by  a  medical 
certificate  of  the  cause  of  death,  is  sent  to  the  registrar,  informa- 
tion must  nevertheless  be  given  and  the  register  signed  within 
fourteen  days  after  the  death  by  the  person  giving  the  notice 
or  some  other  person  as  required  by  the  act.  Failure  to  give 
information  of  death,  or  to  comply  with  the  registrar's  requisi- 
tions, entails  a  penalty  not  exceeding  forty  shillings,  and  making 
false  statements  or  certificates,  or  forging  or  falsifying  them,  is 
punishable  either  summarily  within  six  months,  or  on  indict- 
ment within  three  years  of  the  offence.  Before  burial  takes  place 
the  clergyman  or  other  person  conducting  the  funeral  or  religious 
service  must  have  the  registrar's  certificate  that  the  death  of  the 
deceased  person  has  been  duly  registered,  or  else  a  coroner's 
order  or  warrant.  Failing  the  certificate,  the  clergyman  cannot 
refuse  to  bury,  but  he  must  forthwith  give  notice  in  writing  to  the 
registrar.  Failure  to  do  so  within  seven  days  involves  a  penalty 
not  exceeding  ten  pounds.  Children  must  not  be  registered 
as  still-born  without  a  medical  certificate  or  a  signed  declaration 
from  some  one  who  would  have  been  required,  if  the  child  had 
been  born  alive,  to  give  information  concerning  the  birth,  that 
the  child  was  still-born  and  that  no  medical  man  was  present  at 
the  birth,  or  £  coroner's  order.  The  registration  of  deaths  at 
sea  is  regulated  by  the  act  of  1874  together  with  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  1894.  See  further  BIRTH  and  BURIAL  AND  BURIAL 
ACTS.  Registers  of  death  are,  in  law,  evidence  of  the  fact  of 
death,  and  the  entry,  or  a  certified  copy  of  it,  will  be  sufficient 
evidence  without  a  Certificate  of  burial,  although  it  is  desirable 
that  it  should  also  be  produced. 

Presumption  of  Death. — The  fact  of  death  may,  in  English  law, 
be  proved  not  only  by  direct  but  by  presumptive  evidence. 
When  a  person  disappears,  so  that  no  direct  proof  of  his  where- 
abouts or  death  is  obtainable,  death  may  be  presumed  at  the 
expiration  of  seven  years  from  the  period  when  the  person  was  last 
heard  of.  It  is  always,  however,  a  matter  of  fact  for  the  jury,  and 
the  onus  of  proving  the  death  lies  on  the  party  who  asserts  it. 
In  Scotland,  by  the  Presumption  of  Life  (Scotland)  Act  1891,  the 
presumption  is  statutory.  In  those  cases  where  people  disappear 


under  circumstances  which  create  a  strong  probability  of  death, 
the  court  may,  for  the  purpose  of  probate  or  administration, 
presume  the  death  before  the  lapse  of  seven  years.  The  question 
of  survivorship,  where  two  or  more  persons  are  shown  to  have 
perished  by  the  same  catastrophe,  as  in  cases  of  shipwreck,  has 
been  much  discussed.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  there 
might  be  a  presumption  of  survivorship  in  favour  of  the  younger 
as  against  the  older,  of  the  male'as  against  the  female,  &c. 
But  it  is  now  clear  that  there  is  no  such  presumption  (In  re 
Alston,  1892,  P.  142).  This  is  also  the  rule  in  most  states  of  the 
American  Union.  The  doctrine  of  survivorship  originated  in  the 
Roman  Law,  which  had  recourse  to  certain  artificial  presump- 
tions, where  the  particular  circumstances  connected  with  deaths 
were  unknown.  Some  of  the  systems  founded  on  the  civil  law, 
as  the  French  code,  have  adopted  certain  rules  of  survivorship. 

Civil  Death  is  an  expression  used,  in  law,  in  contradistinction 
to  natural  death.  Formerly,  a  man  was  said  to  be  dead  in  law 
(i)whenheen  tered  a  monastery  and  became  professed  in  religion ; 
(2)  when  he  abjured  the  realm;  (3)  when  he  was  attainted  of 
treason  or  felony.  Since  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries 
there  has  been  no  legal  establishment  for  professed  persons  in 
England,  and  the  first  distinction  has  therefore  disappeared, 
though  for  long  after  the  original  reason  had  ceased  to  make  it 
necessary  grants  of  life  estates  were  usually  made  for  the  terms 
of  a  man's  natural  life.  The  act  abolishing  sanctuaries  (1623) 
did  away  with  civil  death  by  abjuration ;  and  the  Forfeiture  Act 
1870,  that  on  attainder  for  treason  or  felony. 

For  the  tax  levied  on  the  estate  of  deceased  persons,  and  some- 
times called  "  death  duty,"  see  SUCCESSION  DUTY. 

For  {he  statistics  of  the  death-rate  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  various  European  countries  see  UNITED 
KINGDOM.  See  also  the  articles  ANNUITY;  CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT; 
CREMATION;  INSURANCE;  MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE,  &c. 

DEATH-WARNING,  a  term  used  in  psychical  research  for  an 
intimation  of  the  death  of  another  person  received  by  other  than 
the  ordinary  sensory  channels,  i.e.  by  (i)  a  sensory  hallucination 
or  (2)  a  massive  sensation,  both  being  of  telepathic  origin.  (See 
TELEPATHY.)  Both  among  civilized  and  uncivilized  peoples 
there  is  a  widespread  belief  that  the  apparition  of  a  living  person 
is  an  omen  of  death ;  but  until  the  Society  of  Psychical  Research 
undertook  the  statistical  examination  of  the  question,  there  were 
no  data  for  estimating  the  value  of  the  belief.  In  1885  a  collec- 
tion of  spontaneous  cases  and  a  discussion  of  the  evidence  was 
published  under  the  title  Phantasms  of  the  Living,  and  though 
the  standard  of  evidence  was  lower  than  at  the  present  time,  a 
substantial  body  of  testimony,  including  many  striking  cases, 
was  there  put  forward.  In  1889  a  further  inquiry  was  under- 
taken, known  as  the  "  Census  of  Hallucinations,"  which  provided 
information  as  to  the  percentage  of  individuals  in  the  general 
population  who,  at  some  period  of  their  lives,  while  they  were  in  a 
normal  state  of  health,  had  had  "  a  vivid  impression  of  seeing 
or  being  touched  by  a  living  being  or  inanimate  object,  or  of 
hearing  a  voice;  which  impression,  so  far  as  they  could  discover, 
was  not  due  to  any  external  cause."  To  the  census  question 
about  17,000  answers  were  received,  and  after  making  all  deduc- 
tions it  appeared  that  death  coincidences  numbered  about  30  in 
1300  cases  of  recognized  apparitions;  or  about  i  in  43,  whereas 
if  chance  alone  operated  the  coincidences  would  have  been 
in  the  proportion  of  i  to  19,000.  As  a  result  of  the  inquiry 
the  committee  held  it  to  be  proved  that  "  between  deaths  and 
apparitions  of  the  dying  person  a  connexion  exists  which  is 
not  due  to  chance  alone."  From  an  evidential  point  of  view 
the  apparition  is  the  most  valuable  class  of  death-warning, 
inasmuch  as  recognition  is  more  difficult  in  the  case  of  an 
auditory  hallucination,  even  where  it  takes  the  form  of  spoken 
words;  moreover,  auditory  hallucinations  coinciding  with  deaths 
may  be  mere  knocks,  ringing  of  bells,  &c. ;  tactile  hallucinations 
are  still  more  difficult  of  recognition;  and  the  hallucinations 
of  smell  which  are  sometimes  found  as  death-warnings  rarely 
have  anything  to  associate  them  specially  with  the  dead  person. 
Occasionally  the  death-warning  is  in  the  form  of  an  apparition 
of  some  other  person;  it  may  also  take  the  form  of  a  temporary 
feeling  of  intense  depression  or  other  massive  sensation. 


DEATH-WATCH— DEBENTURES 


901 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Podmore,  Gurney  and  Myers,  Phantasms  of  the 
Living  (1885);  for  the  Census  Report  see  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research,  part  xxvi.;  see  also  F.  Podmore,  Apparitions 
and  Thought  Transference.  For  a  criticism  of  the  results  of  the 
Census  see  E.  Parish,  Hallucinations  and  Illusions  and  Zur  Kritik 
des  telepathischen  Beweismaterials,  and  Mrs  Sidgwick's  refutation 
in  Proc.  S.P.R.  part  xxxiii.  589-601.  The  Journal  of  the  S.P.R. 
contains  the  most  striking  spontaneous  cases  received  from  time  to 
time  by  the  society.  (N.  W.  T.) 

DEATH-WATCH,  a  popular  name  applied  to  insects  of  two 
distinct  families,  which  burrow  and  live  in  old  furniture  and 
produce  the  mysterious  "  ticking  "  vulgarly  supposed  to  foretell 
the  death  of  some  inmate  of  the  house.  The  best  known,  because 
the  largest,  is  a  small  beetle,  Anobium  striaUum,  belonging  to  the 
family  Ptinidae.  The  "  ticking,"  in  reality  a  sexual  call/like  the 
chirp  of  a  grasshopper,  is  produced  by  the  beetle  rapidly  striking 
its  head  against  the  hard  and  dry  woodwork.  In  the  case  of 
the  smaller  death-watches,  some  of  the  so-called  book-lice  of  the 
family  Psocidae,  the  exact  way  in  which  the  sound  is  caused  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  explained.  Indeed  the  ability  of  such 
small  and  soft  insects  to  give  rise  to  audible  sounds  has  been 
seriously  doubted  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  positive 
evidence  on  the  point.  The  names  Alropos  divinatoria  and 
Clothilla  pulsaloria,  given  to  two  of  the  commoner  forms,  bear 
witness  both  to  a  belief  in  a  causal  connexion  between  these 
insects  and  the  ticking,  and  to  the  superstition  regarding  the 
fateful  significance  of  the  sound. 

DE  BARY,  HEINRICH  ANTON  (1831-1888),  German  botanist, 
was  of  Belgian  extraction,  though  his  family  had  long  been 
settled  in  Germany,  and  was  born  on  the  26th  of  January  1831, 
at  Frankfort-on-Main.  From  1849  to  1853  he  studied  medicine 
at  Heidelberg,  Marburg  and  Berlin.  In  1 853  he  settled  at  Frank- 
fort as  a  surgeon.  In  1854  he  became  privat-docent  for  botany 
in  Tubingen,  and  professor  of  botany  at  Freiburg  in  1855.  In 
1867  he  migrated  to  Halle,  and  in  1872  to  Strassburg,  where  he 
was  the  first  rector  of  the  newly  constituted  university,  and 
where  he  died  on  the  igth  of  January  1888. 

Although  one  of  his  largest  and  most  important  works  was 
on  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Ferns  and  Phanerogams  (1877), 
and  notwithstanding  his  admirable  acquaintance  with  systematic 
and  field  botany  generally,  de  Bary  will  always  be  remembered 
as  the  founder  of  modern  mycology.  This  branch  of  botany 
he  completely  revolutionized  in  1866  by  the  publication  of  his 
celebrated  Morphologic  und  Physiologic  d.  Pilze,  &c.,  a  classic 
which  he  rewrote  in  1884,  and  which  has  had  a  world-wide 
influence  on  biology.  His  clear  appreciation  of  the  real  signifi- 
cance of  symbiosis  and  the  dual  nature  of  lichens  is  one  of  his 
most  striking  achievements,  and  in  many  ways  he  showed  powers 
of  generalizing  in  regard  to  the  evolution  of  organisms,  which 
alone  would  have  made  him  a  distinguished  man.  It  was  as 
an  investigator  of  the  then  mysterious  Fungi,  however,  that 
de  Bary  stands  out  first  and  foremost  among  the  biologists  of 
the  igth  century.  He  not  only  laid  bare  the  complex  facts  of  the 
life-history  of  many  forms, — e.g.  the  Ustilagineae,  Peronosporeae, 
Uredineae  and  many  Ascomycetes, — treating  them  from  the 
developmental  point  of  view,  in  opposition  to  the  then  prevailing 
anatomical  method,  but  he  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  tracing 
the  evolution  of  each  organism  from  spore  to  spore,  and  by  his 
methods  of  culture  and  accurate  observation  brought  to  light 
numerous  facts  previously  undreamt  of.  These  his  keen  percep- 
tion and  insight  continually  employed  as  the  basis  for  hypotheses, 
which  in  turn  he  tested  with  an  experimental  skill  and  critical 
faculty  rarely  equalled  and  probably  never  surpassed.  One  of 
his  most  fruitful  discoveries  was  the  true  meaning  of  infection  as 
a  morphological  and  physiological  process.  He  traced  this  step 
by  step  in  Phytophthora,  Cystopus,  Puccinia,  and  other  Fungi, 
and  so  placed  before  the  world  in  a  clear  light  the  significance 
of  parasitism.  He  then  showed  by  numerous  examples  wherein 
lay  the  essential  differences  between  a  parasite  and  a  saprophyte; 
these  were  by  no  means  clear  in  1860-1870,  though  he  himself 
had  recognized  them  as  early  as  1853,  as  is  shown  by  his  work, 
Die  Brandpilze. 

These  researches  led  to  the  explanation  of  epidemic  diseases, 


and  de  Bary's  contributions  to  this  subject  were  fundamental, 
as  witness  his  classical  work  on  the  potato  disease  in  1861.  They 
also  led  to  his  striking  discovery  of  heteroecism  (or  metoecism) 
in  the  Uredineae,  the  truth  of  which  he  demonstrated  in  wheat 
rust  experimentally,  and  so  clearly  that  his  classical  example 
(1863)  has  always  been  confirmed  by  subsequent  observers, 
though  much  more  has  been  discovered  as  to  details.  It  is 
difficult  to  estimate  the  relative  importance  of  de  Bary's  astound- 
ingly  accurate  work  on  the  sexuality  of  the  Fungi.  He  not 
only  described  the  phenomena  of  sexuality  in  Peronosporeae 
and  Ascomycetes — Eurotium,  Erysiphe,  Peziza,  &c. — but  also 
established  the  existence  of  parthenogenesis  and  apogamy  on  so 
firm  a  basis  that  it  is  doubtful  if  all  the  combined  workers  who 
have  succeeded  him,  and  who  have  brought  forward  contending 
hypotheses  in  opposition  to  his  views,  have  succeeded  in  shaking 
the  doctrine  he  established  before  modern  cytological  methods 
existed.  In  one  case,  at  least  (Pyronema  confluent),  the  most 
skilful  investigations,  with  every  modern  appliance,  have  shown 
that  de  Bary  described  the  sexual  organs  and  process  accurately. 
It  is  impossible  here  to  mention  all  the  discoveries  made  by 
de  Bary.  He  did  much  work  on  the  Chytridieae,  Ustilagineae, 
Exoasceae  and  Phalloideae,  as  well  as  on  that  remarkable  group 
the  Myxomycetes,  or,  as  he  himself  termed  them,  Mycetozoa, 
almost  every  step  of  which  was  of  permanent  value,  and  started 
lines  of  investigation  which  have  proved  fruitful  in  the  hands  of 
his  pupils.  Nor  must  we  overlook  the  important  contributions  to 
algology  contained  in  his  earlier  monograph  on  the  Conjugatae 
(1858),  and  investigations  on  Nostocaceae  (1863),  Chara  (1871), 
Acetabularia  (1869),  &c.  De  Bary  seems  to  have  held  aloof  from 
the  Bacteria  for  many  years,  but  it  was  characteristic  of  the 
man  that,  after  working  at  them  in  order  to  include  an  account 
of  the  group  in  the  second  edition  of  his  book  in  1884,  he  found 
opportunity  to  bring  the  whole  subject  of  bacteriology  under  the 
influence  of  his  genius,  the  outcome  being  his  brilliant  Lectures 
on  Bacteria  in  1885.  De  Bary's  personal  influence  was  immense. 
Every  one  of  his  numerous  pupils  was  enthusiastic  in  admiration 
of  his  kind  nature  and  genial  criticism,  his  humorous  sarcasm, 
and  his  profound  insight,  knowledge  and  originality. 

Memoirs  of  de  Bary's  life  will  be  found  in  Bot.  Centralbl.  (1888), 
xxxiv.  93,  by  Wilhelm;  Ber.  d.  d.  hot.  Ges.  vol.  vi.  (1888)  p.  viii., 
by  Reess,  each  with  a  list  of  his  works;  Bot.  Zeitung  (1889),  vol.  xlvii. 
No.  3,  by  Graf  zu  Soems-Laubach.  (H.  M.  W.) 

DEBENTURES    and    DEBENTURE    STOCK.    One     of    the 

many  advantages  incident  to  incorporation  under  the  English 
Companies  Acts  is  found  in  the  facilities  which  such  incorporation 
affords  a  trading  concern  for  borrowing  on  debentures  or  debenture 
stock.  More  than  five  hundred  millions  of  money  are  now  in- 
vested in  these  forms  of  security.  Borrowing  was  not  specifically 
dealt  with  by  the  Companies  Acts  prior  to  the  act  of  1900,  but 
that  it  was  contemplated  by  the  legislature  is  evident  from  the 
provision  in  §  43  of  the  act  of  1862  for  a  company  keeping  a 
register  of  mortgages  and  charges.  The  policy  of  the  legislature 
in  this,  as  in  other  matters  connected  with  trading  companies, 
was  apparently  to  leave  the  company  to  determine  whether 
borrowing  should  or  should  not  form  one  of  its  objects.  ' ' 

The  first  principle  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  a  company 
cannot  borrow  unless  it  is  expressly  or  impliedly  authorized  to  do 
so  by  its  memorandum  of  association.  In  the  case  of  a  trading 
company  borrowing  is  impliedly  authorized  as  a  necessary 
incident  of  carrying  on  the  company's  business.  Thus  a  company 
established  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and  luggage  by 
omnibuses,  a  company  formed  to  buy  and  run  vessels  between 
England  and  Australia,  and  a  company  whose  objects  included 
discounting  approved  commercial  bills,  have  all  been  held  to 
be  trading  companies  with  an  incidental  power  of  borrowing  as 
such  to  a  reasonable  amount.  A  building  society,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  no  inherent  power  of  borrowing  (though  a  limited 
statutory  power  was  conferred  on  such  societies  by  the  Building 
Societies  Act  1874);  nor  has  a  society  formed  not  for  gain  but 
to  promote  art,  science,  religion,  charity  or  any  other  useful 
object.  Public  companies  formed  to  carry  out  some  undertaking 
of  public  utility,  such  as  docks,  water  works,  or  gas  works,  arid 


902 


DEBENTURES 


governed  by  the  Companies  Clauses  Acts,  have  only  limited 
powers  of  borrowing. 

An  implied  power  of  borrowing,  even  when  it  attaches,  is  too 
inconvenient  to  be  relied  on  in  practice,  and  an  express  power  is 
always  now  inserted  in  a  joint  stock  company's  memorandum 
of  association.  This  power  is  in  the  most  general  terms.  It  is 
left  to  the  articles  to  define  the  amount  to  be  borrowed,  the  nature 
of  the  security,  and  the  conditions,  if  any, — such  as  the  sanction 
of  a  general  meeting  of  shareholders, — on  which  the  power  is 
to  be  exercised.  Under  the  Companies  Act  1908,  §  87,  a  com- 
pany cannot  exercise  any  borrowing  power  until  it  has  fulfilled 
the  conditions  prescribed  by  the  act  entitling  it  to  commence 
business  :  one  of  which  is  that  the  company  must  have  obtained 
its  "  minimum  subscription."  A  person  who  is  proposing  to  lend 
money  to  a  company  must  be  careful  to  acquaint  himself  with 
any  statutory  regulations  of  this  kind,  and  also  to  see  (i)  that 
the  memorandum  and  articles  of  association  authorize  borrow- 
ing, and  (2)  that  the  borrowing  limit  is  not  being  exceeded,  for  if 
it  should  turn  out  that  the  borrowing  was  in  excess  of  the 
company's  powers  and  ultra  vires,  the  company  cannot  be  bound, 
and  the  borrower's  only  remedy  is  against  the  directors  for  breach 
of  warranty  of  authority,  or  to  be  surrogated  to  the  rights  of  any 
creditors  who  may  have  been  paid  out  of  the  borrowed  moneys. 

A  company  proposing  to  borrow  usually  issues  a  prospectus, 
similar  to  the  ordinary  share  prospectus,  stating  the  amount  of 
the  issue,  the  dates  for  payment,  the  particulars  of  the  property 
to  be  comprised  in  the  security,  the  terms  as  to  redemption,  and 
so  on,  and  inviting  the  public  to  subscribe.  Underwriting  is  also 
resorted  to,  as  in  the  case  of  shares,  to  ensure  that  the  issue  is 
taken  up.  There  is  no  objection  to  a  company  issuing  debentures 
or  debenture  stock  at  a  discount,  as  there  is  to  its  issuing  its 
shares  at  a  discount .  It  must  borrow  on  the  best  terms  its  credit 
will  enable  it  to  obtain.  A  prospectus  inviting  subscriptions  for 
debentures  or  debenture  stock  comes  within  the  terms  of  the 
Directors'  Liability  Act  1800  (re-enacted  in  Companies  Act 
1908,  §  84),  and  persons  who  are  parties  to  it  have  the 
onus  cast  upon  them,  should  the  prospectus  contain  any 
misstatements,  of  showing  that,  at  the  time  when  they  issued 
the  prospectus,  they  had  reasonable  grounds  to  believe,  and 
did  in  fact  believe,  that  the  statements  in  question  were 
true  ;  otherwise  they  will  be  liable  to  pay  compensation  to  any 
person  injured  by  the  misstatements.  A  debenture  prospectus 
is  also  within  the  terms  of  the  Companies  Act  1908.  It  must 
be  filed  with  the  registrar  of  joint  stock  companies  (§  80)  and 
must  contain  all  the  particulars  specified  in  §  81  of  the  act. 
(See  COMPANY.) 

The  usual  mode  of  borrowing  by  a  company  is  either  on 
debentures  or  debenture  stock.  Etymologically,  debenture  is 
merely  the  Latin  word  debentur—Tbe:  first  word  in  a  document 
in  common  use  by  the  crown  in  early  times  admitting  indebted- 
ness to  its  servants  or  soldiers.  This  was  the  germ  of  a  security 
which  has  now,  with  the  expansion  of  joint  stock  company 
enterprise,  grown  into  an  instrument  of  considerable  complexity. 

Debentures  may  be  classified  in  various  ways.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  security  they  are  either  (i)  debentures 
(simply)  ;  (2)  mortgage  debentures;  (3)  debenture  bonds.  In 
the  debenture  the  security  is  a  floating  charge.  In  the  mortgage 
debenture  there  is  also  a  floating  charge,  but  the  property  forming 
the  principal  part  of  the  security  is  conveyed  by  the  company  to 
trustees  under  a  trust  deed  for  the  benefit  of  the  debenture- 
holders.  In  the  debenture  bond  there  is  no  security  proper : 
only  the  covenant  for  payment  by  the  company.  For  purposes 
of  title  and  transfer,  debentures  are  either  "  registered  "  or  "  to 
bearer."  For  purposes  of  payment  they  are  either  "  terminable  " 
or  "  perpetual  "  (see  Companies  Act  1908,  §  103). 

The  Floating  Debenture. — The  form  of  debenture  chiefly  in  use 
at  the  present  day  is  that  secured  by  a  floating  charge.  By  it  the 
company  covenants  to  pay  to  the  holder  thereof  the  sum  secured 
by  the  debenture  on  a  specified  day  (usually  ten  or  fifteen  years 
after  the  date  of  issue),  or  at  such  earlier  date  as  the  principal 
moneys  become  due  under  the  provisions  of  the  security,  and 
in  the  meantime  the  company  covenants  to  pay  interest  on  the 


principal  moneys  until  payment,  or  until  the  security  becomes 
enforceable  under  the  conditions ;  and  the  company  further 
charges  its  undertaking  and  all  its  property,  including  its  uncalled 
capital,  with  the  payment  of  the  amount  secured  by  the  deben- 
tures. Uncalled  capital  if  included  must  be  expressly  mentioned, 
because  the  word  "  property  "  by  itself  will  not  cover  uncalled 
capital  which  is  only  property  potentially,  i.e.  when  called  up. 
This  is  the  body  of  the  instrument;  on  its  back  is  endorsed  a 
series  of  conditions,  constituting  the  terms  on  which  the  deben- 
ture is  issued.  Thus  the  debenture-holders  are  to  rank  pari  passu 
with  one  another  against  the  security ;  the  debenture  is  to  be 
transferable  free  from  equities  between  the  company  and  the 
original  holder ;  the  charge  is  to  be  a  floating  charge,  and  the 
debenture-holders'  moneys  are  to  become  immediately  repayable 
and  the  charges  enforceable  in  certain  events:  for  instance,  if  the 
interest  is  in  arrear  for  (say)  two  or  three  months,  or  if  a  winding- 
up  order  is  made  against  the  company,  or  a  resolution  for  winding 
up  is  passed.  Other  events  indicative  of  insolvency  are  some- 
times added  in  which  payment  is  to  be  accelerated.  The  con- 
ditions also  provide  for  the  mode  and  form  of  transfer  of  the 
debentures,  the  death  or  bankruptcy  of  the  holder,  the  place  of 
payment,  &c.  The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  security — 
thefloating  charge —  grew  naturally  out  of  a  charge  on  a  company's 
undertaking  as  a  going  concern.  Such  a  charge  could  only  be 
made  practicable  by  leaving  the  company  free  to  deal  with  and 
dispose  of  its  property  in  the  ordinary  course  of  its  business — to 
sell,  mortgage,  lease,  and  exchange  it  as  if  no  charge  existed:  and 
this  is  how  the  security  works.  The  debenture-holders  give  the 
directors  an  implied  licence  to  deal  with  and  dispose  of  the 
property  comprised  in  the  security  until  the  happening  of  any  of 
the  events  upon  which  the  debenture-holders'  money  becomes 
under  the  debenture  conditions  immediately  repayable.  Pend- 
ing this  the  charge  is  dormant.  The  licence  extends,  however, 
only  to  dealings  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business.  Payment  by 
a  company  of  its  just  debts  is  always  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
business,  but  satisfaction  by  execution  levied  in  inmtum  is  not. 
This  floating  form  of  security  is  found  very  convenient  both  to 
the  borrowing  company  and  to  the  lender.  The  company  is  not 
embarrassed  by  the  charge,  while  the  lender  has  a  security 
covering  the  whole  assets  for  the  time  being,  and  can  intervene 
at  any  moment  by  obtaining  a  receiver  if  his  security  is  imperilled, 
even  though  none  of  the  events  in  which  the  principal  moneys 
are  made  payable  have  happened.  If  any  of  them  has  happened, 
for  instance  default  in  payment  of  interest,  or  a  resolution  by  the 
company  to  wind  up,  the  payment  of  the  principal  moneys  is 
accelerated,  and  a  debenture-holder  can  at  once  commence  an 
action  to  obtain  payment  and  to  realize  his  security.  At  times 
a  proviso  is  inserted  in  the  conditions  endorsed  on  the  debenture, 
that  the  company  is  not  to  create  any  mortgage  or  charge  rank- 
ing in  priority  to  or  pari  passu  with  that  contained  hi  the  deben- 
tures. Very  nice  questions  of  priority  have  arisen  under  such 
a  clause.  A  floating  charge  created  by  a  company  within  three 
months  of  its  being  wound  up  will  now  be  invalid  under  §  1 2  of 
the  Companies  Act  1908  unless  the  company  is  shown  to  have 
been  solvent  at  the  time,  but  there  is  a  saving  clause  for  cash  paid 
under  the  security  and  interest  at  5%. 

Trust  Deeds. — When  the  amount  borrowed  by  a  company  is 
large,  the  company  commonly  executes  a  trust  deed  by  way  of 
further  security.  The  object  of  such  a  trust  deed  is  twofold: 
(i)  it  conveys  specific  property  to  the  trustees  of  the  deed  by 
way  of  legal  mortgage  (the  charge  contained  in  the  debentures  is 
only  an  equitable  security),  and  it  further  charges  all  the  remain- 
ing assets  in  favour  of  the  debenture-holders,  with  appropriate 
provisions  for  enabling  them,  in  certain  events  similar  to  those 
expressed  in  the  debenture  conditions,  to  enforce  the  security, 
and  for  that  purpose  to  enter  into  possession  and  carry  on  the 
business,  or  to  sell  it  and  distribute  the  proceeds;  (2)  it  organizes 
the  debenture-holders  and  constitutes  in  the  trustees  of  the 
deed  a  body  of  experienced  business  men  wjio  can  watch  over 
the  interests  of  the  debenture-holders  and  take  steps  for  their 
protection  if  necessary.  In  particular  it  provides  machinery 
for  the  calling  of  meetings  of  debenture-holders  by  the  trustees, 


DEBENTURES 


903 


and  empowers  a  majority  of  (say)  two-thirds  or  three-fourths 
in  number  and  value  at  such  meeting  to  bind  the  rest  to  any 
compromise  or  arrangement  with  the  company  which  such 
majorities  may  deem  beneficial.  This  is  found  a  very  useful 
power,  and  may  save  recourse  to  a  scheme  or  arrangement  first 
sanctioned  under  the  machinery  of  the  Joint  Stock  Companies 
Arrangement  Act  1870  (Companies  Act  1908,  §  120). 

Registration  of  Mortgages  and  Charges. — A  company  is  bound, 
under  the  Companies  Act  1862,10  keep  a  register  of  mortgages  and 
charges,  but  the  register  is  only  open  for  the  inspection  of  persons 
who  have  actually  become  creditors  of  the  company,  not  of 
persons  who  may  be  thinking  of  giving  it  credit,  and  the  legis- 
lature recognizing  its  inadequacy  provided  in  the  Companies  Act 
1900  (§  4  of  act  of  1908)  for  a  public  register  at  Somerset  House  of 
all  mortgages  and  charges  of  certain  specified  classes  by  a  com- 
pany. If  not  registered  within  twenty-one  days  from  their  creation 
such  mortgages  and  charges  are  made  void — so  far  as  they  are 
securities — against  the  liquidator  and  any  creditor  of  the  com- 
pany, but  the  debenture-holders  retain  the  rights  of  unsecured 
creditors.  An  extension  of  the  time  for  registering  may  be 
granted  by  the  court,  but  it  will  only  be  without  prejudice  to 
the  rights  of  third  persons  acquired  before  actual  registration. 
These  provisions  for  registration  as  amended  are  contained  in 
the  Companies  Act  1908  (§  93). 

Debentures  Registered '  and  to  Bearer. — Debentures  are,  for 
purposes  of  title  and  transfer,  of  two  kinds  — (i)  registered  deben- 
tures, and  (2)  debentures  to  bearer.  Registered  debentures  are 
transferable  only  in  the  books  of  the  company.  Debentures  to 
bearer  are  negotiable  instruments  and  pass  by  delivery.  Coupons 
for  interest  are  attached.  Sometimes  debentures  to  bearer  are 
made  exchangeable  for  registered  debentures  and  vice  versa. 

Redemption. — A  company  generally  reserves  to  itself  a  right  of 
redeeming  the  security  before  the  date  fixed  by  the  debenture 
for  repayment;  and  accordingly  a  power  for  that  purpose  is 
commonly  inserted  in  the  conditions.  But  as  debenture-holders, 
who  have  got  a  satisfactory  security,  do  not  wish  to  be  paid  off, 
the  right  of  redemption  is  often  qualified  so  as  not  to  arise  till 
(say)  five  years  after  issue,  and  a  premium  of  5  %  is  made 
payable  by  way  of  bonus  to  the  redeemed  debenture-holder. 
Sometimes  the  number  of  debentures  to  be  redeemed  each  year  is 
limited.  The  selection  is  made  by  drawings  held  in  the  presence 
of  the  directors.  A  sinking  fund  is  a  convenient  means  frequently 
resorted  to  for  redemption  of  a  debenture  debt,  and  is  especially 
suitable  where  the  security  is  of  a  wasting  character,  leaseholds, 
mining  property  or  a  patent.  Such  a  fund  is  formed  by  the 
company  setting  apart  a  certain  sum  each  year  out  of  the  profits 
of  the  company  after  payment  of  interest  on  the  debentures. 
Redeemed  debentures  may  in  certain  cases  be  reissued;  see 
Companies  Act  1908  (§  104). 

Debenture  Stock. — Debenture  stock  bears  the  same  relation 
to  debentures  that  stock  does  to  shares.  "  Debenture  stock," 
as  Lord  Lindley  states  (Companies,  5th  ed.,  195),  "  is  merely 
borrowed  capital  consolidated  into  one  mass  for  the  sake  of 
convenience.  Instead  of  each  lender  having  a  separate  bond  or 
mortgage,  he  has  a  certificate  entitling  him  to  a  certain  sum, 
being  a  portion  of  one  large  loan. "  This  sum  is  not  uniform ,  as  in 
the  case  of  debentures,  but  variable.  One  debenture-stockholder, 
for  instance,  may  hold  £20  of  the  debenture  stock,  another 
£20,000.  Debenture  stock  is  usually  issued  in  multiples  of  £10 
or  sometimes  of  £i,  and  is  made  transferable  in  sums  of  any 
amount  not  involving  a  fraction  of  £i.  It  is  this  divisibility  of 
stock,  whether  debenture  or  ordinary  stock,  into  quantities  of  any 
amount,  which  constitutes  in  fact  its  chief  characteristic,  and  its 
convenience  from  a  business  point  of  view.  It  facilitates  dealing 
with  the  stock,  and  also  enables  investors  with  only  a  small 
amount  to  invest  to  become  stockholders.  The  property  com- 
prised in  this  security  is  generally  the  same  as  in  the  case  of 
debentures.  Debenture  stock  created  by  trading  companies 
differs  in  various  particulars  from  debenture  stock  created  by 
public  companies  governed  by  the  Companies  Clauses  Act.  The 
debenture  stock  of  trading  companies  is  created  by  a  contract 
made  between  the  company  and  trustees  for  the  debenture- 


stockholders.  This  contract  is  known  as  a  debenture-stock- 
holders' trust  deed,  and  is  analogous  in  its  provisions  to  the  trust 
deed  above  described  as  used  to  secure  debentures.  By  such  a 
deed  the  company  acknowledges  its  indebtedness  to  the  trustees, 
as  representing  the  debenture-stockholders,  to  the  amount  of  the 
sum  advanced,  covenants  to  pay  it,  and  conveys  the  property 
by  way  of  security  to  the  trustees  with  all  the  requisite  powers 
and  provisions  for  enabling  them  to  enforce  the  security  on 
default  in  payment  of  interest  by  the  company  or  on  the  hap- 
pening of  certain  specified  events  evidencing  insolvency.  The 
company  further,  in  pursuance  of  the  contract,  enters  the  names 
of  the  subsisting  stockholders'  in  a  register,  and  issues  certificates 
for  the  amount  of  their  respective  holdings.  These  certificates 
have,  like  debentures,  the  conditions  of  the  security  indorsed  on 
their  back.  Debenture  stock  is  also  issued  to  bearer.  A  deed 
securing  debenture  stock  requires  an  ad  valorem  stamp. 

Debenture  Scrip. — Debentures  and  debenture  stock  are  usually 
made  payable  in  instalments,  for  example  10  %  on  application, 
10%  on  allotment  and  the  remainder  at  intervals  of  a  few 
months.  Until  these  payments  are  complete  the  securities  are 
not  issued,  but  to  enable  the  subscriber  to  deal  with  his  security 
pending  completion  the  company  issues  to  him  -an  interim  scrip 
certificate  acknowledging  his  title  and  exchangeable  on  payment 
of  the  remaining  instalments  for  debentures  or  debenture  stock 
certificates.  If  a  subscriber  for  debentures  made  default  in 
payment  the  company  could  not  compel  him  specifically  to 
perform  his  contract,  the  theory  of  law  being  that  the  company 
could  get  the  loan  elsewhere,  but  this  inconvenience  is  now 
removed  (see  *§  105  of  the  Companies  Act  1908). 

Remedies. — When  debenture-holders'  security  becomes 
enforceable  there  are  a  variety  of  remedies  open  to  them.  These 
fall  into  two  classes — (i)  remedies  available  without  the  aid 
of  the  court;  (2)  remedies  available  only  with  the  aid  of  the 
court. 

1.  If  there  is  a  trust  deed,  the  trustees  may  appoint  a  receiver 
of  the  property  comprised  in  the  security,  and  they  may  also  sell 
under  the  powers  contained  in  the  deed,  or  under  §  25  of  the 
Conveyancing  Act  1881.     Sometimes,  where  there  is  no  trust 
deed,  similar  powers — to  appoint  a  receiver  and  to  sell — are 
inserted  in  the  conditions  indorsed  on  the  debentures. 

2.  The  remedies  with  the  aid  of  the  court  are — (a)  an  action  by 
one  or  more  debenture-holders  on  behalf  of  all  for  a  receiver  and 
to  realize  the  security;  (ft)  an  originating  summons  for  sale  or 
other  relief,  under  Rules  of  Supreme  Court,  1883,  O.  Iv.  r.  SA; 

(c)  an  action  for  foreclosure  where  the  security  is  deficient 
(all  the  debenture-holders  must  be  parties  to  this  proceeding); 

(d)  a  winding-up  petition.     Of  these  modes  of  proceeding,  the 
first  is  by  far  the  most  common  and  most  convenient.     Immedi- 
ately on  the  issue  of_the  writ  in  the  action  the  plaintiff  applies  for 
the  appointment  of  a  receiver  to  protect  the  security,  or  if  the 
security  comprises  a  going  business,  a  receiver  and  manager. 
In  due  course  the  action  comes  on  for  judgment,  usually  on 
agreed  minutes,  when  the  court  directs  accounts  and  inquiries 
as  to  who  are  the  holders  of  the  debentures,  what  is  due  to  them, 
what  property  is  comprised  in  the  security,  and  gives  leave  to  any 
of  the  parties  to  apply  in  chambers  for  a  sale.    If  the  company 
has  gone  into  liquidation,  leave  must  be  obtained  to  commence 
or  continue  the  action,  but  such  leave  in  the  case  of  debenture- 
holders  is  ex  debito  juslitiae.     A  debenture-holder  action  when 
the  company  is  in  winding  up  is  always  now  transferred  to  the 
judge  having  the  control  of  the  winding-up  proceedings.     The 
administration  of  a  company's  assets  insuchactionsby  debenture- 
holders  (debenture-holders'  liquidations,  as  they  are  called)  has 
of  late  encroached  very  much  on  the  ordinary  administration  of 
winding  up,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  great  hardship  is  often 
inflicted  by  the  floating  security  on  the  company's  unsecured 
creditors,  who  find  that  everything  belonging  to  the  company, 
uncalled  capital  included,  has  been  pledged  to  the  debenture- 
holders.     The  conventional  answer  is  that  such  creditors  might 
and  ought  to  have  inspected  the  company's  register  of  mortgages 
and  charges.    The  matter  was  fully  considered  by  the  depart- 
mental board  of  trade  committee  which  reported  in  July  1906, 


9°4 


DEBORAH 


but  the  committee,  looking  at  the  business  convenience  of  the 
floating  charge,  saw  no  reason  for  recommending  an  alteration 
in  the  law. 

Reconstruction. — When  a  company  reconstructs,  as  it  often 
does  in  these  days,  the  rights  of  debenture-holders  have  to  be 
provided  for.  Reconstructions  are  mainly  of  two  kinds — (i)  by 
arrangement,  under  the  Joint  Stock  Companies  Arrangement  Act 
1870,  amended  in  1900  and  1907,  incorporated  in  act  of  1908 
(§  120),  and  (2)  by  sale  and  transfer  of  assets,  either  under  §  192 
of  the  act  of  1908,  or  under  a  power  in  the  company's 
memorandum  of  association.  By  the  procedure  provided  under 
(i)  a  petition  for  the  sanction -of  the  court  to  a  scheme 
is  presented,  and  the  court  thereupon  directs  meetings  of 
creditors,  including  debenture-holders,  to  be  held.  A  three- 
fourths  majority  in  value  of  debenture-holders  present  at  the 
meeting  in  person  or  by  proxy  binds  the  rest.  Debenture- 
holders  claiming  to  vote  must  produce  their  debentures  at  or 
before  the  meeting.  Under  the  other  mode  of  reconstruction 
— sale  and  transfer  of  assets— there  is  usually  a  novation,  and 
the  debenture-holders  accept  the  security  of  the  new  company 
in  the  shape  of  debentures  of  equivalent  value  or — occasionally 
—of  fully  paid  preference  shares. 

A  point  in  this  connexion,  which  involves  some  hardship 
to  debenture-holders,  may  here  be  adverted  to.  It  is  a  not 
uncommon  practice  for  a  solvent  company  to  pass  a  resolution 
to  wind  up  voluntarily  for  the  purpose  of  reconstructing.  The 
effect  of  this  is  to  accelerate  payment  of  the  security,  and  the 
debenture-holders  have  to  accept  their  principal  and  interest 
only,  parting  with  a  good  security  and  perhaps  a  premium  which 
would  have  accrued  to  them  in  a  year  or  two.  The  company  is 
thus  enabled  by  its  own  act  to  redeem  the  reluctant  debenture- 
holder  on  terms  most  advantageous  to  itself.  To  obviate  this 
hardship,  it  is  now  a  usual  thing  in  a  debenture-holders'  trust 
deed  to  provide — the  committee  of  the  London  Stock  Exchange 
indeed  require  it — that  a  premium  shall  be  paid  to  the  debenture- 
holders  in  the  event  of  the  security  becoming  enforceable  by  a 
voluntary  winding  up  with  a  view  to  reconstruction. 

Public  Companies. — Public  companies,  i.e.  companies  incorpor- 
ated by  special  act  of  parliament  for  carrying  on  undertakings 
of  public  utility,  form  a  class  distinct  from  trading  companies. 
The  borrowing  powers  of  these  companies,  the  form  of  their 
debenture  or  debenture  stock,  and  the  rights  of  the  debenture- 
holders   or   debenture-stockholders,    depend   on    the    conjoint 
operation  of  the  companies'  own  special  act  and  the  Companies 
Clauses  Acts  1845,  1863  and  1869.    The  provisions  of  these  acts 
as  to  borrowing,  being  express,  exclude  any  implicit  power  of 
borrowing.    The  first  two  of  the  above  acts  relate  to  mortgages 
and  bonds,  the  last  to  debenture  stock.    The  policy  of  the  legis- 
lature in  all  these  acts  is  the  same,  namely,  to  give  the  greatest 
faculties  for  borrowing,  and  at  the  same  time  to  take  care  that 
undertakings  of  public  utility  which  have  received  legislative 
sanction  shall  not  be  broken  up  or  destroyed,  as  they  would  be 
if  the  mortgagees  or  debenture-holders  were  allowed  the  ordinary 
rights  of  mortgagees  for  realizing  their  security  by  seizure  and 
sale.    Hence  the  legislature  has  given  them  only  "  the  fruit  of 
the  tree,"  as  Lord  Cairns  expressed  it.     The  debenture-holders 
or  the  debenture-stockholders  may  take  the  earnings  of  the 
company's  undertaking  by  obtaining  the  appointment  of  a 
receiver,  but  that  is  all  they  can  do.     They  cannot  sell  the  under- 
taking or  disorganize  it  by  levying  execution,  so  long  as  the 
company  is  a  going  concern;  but  this  protecting  principle  o: 
public  policy  will  not  be  a  bar  to  a  debenture-holder,  in  his 
character  of  creditor,  presenting  a  petition  to  wind  up  the 
company,  if  it  is  no  longer  able  to  fulfil  its  statutory  objects 
Railway  companies  have  further  special  legislation,  which  wil 
be  found  in  the  Railway  Companies  Powers  Act   1864,  the 
Railways  Construction  Facilities  Act   1864  and  the  Railway 
Securities  Act  1866. 

Municipal  Corporations  and  County  Councils. — These  bodies 
are  authorized  to  borrow  for  their  proper  purposes  on  debenture 
and  debenture  stock  with  the  sanction  of  the  Local  Governmen 
Board.    See  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act  1882,  the  Loca 


Authorities' Loans  Act  1875,  and  the  Local  Government  (England 
and  Wales)  Act  1888. 

United  States. — In  the  United  States  there  are  two  meanings 
>f  debenture — (i)  a  bond  not  secured  by  mortgage;  (2)  a  certifi- 
cate that  the  United  States  is  indebted  to  a  certain  person  or  his 
assigns  in  a  certain  sum  on  an  audited  account,  or  that  it  will 
refund  a  certain  sum  paid  for  duties  on  imported  goods,  in  case 
,hey  are  subsequently  exported. 

AUTHORITIES. — E.  Manson,  Debentures  and  Debenture  Stock 
London,  2nd  ed.,  1908) ;  Simonson,  Debentures  and  Debenture  Stock 
London,  2nd  ed.,  1902) ;  Palmer,  Company  Precedents  (Debentures) 
3rd  ed.,  London,  1907).  (E.  MA.) 

DEBORAH  (Heb.  for  "  bee  "),  the  Israelite  heroine  in  the 
Jible  through  whose  encouragement  the  Hebrews  defeated  the 
Danaanites  under  Sisera.  The  account  is  preserved  in  Judges 
v.-v.,  and  the  ode  of  victory  (chap,  v.),  known  as  the  "  Song 
of  Deborah,"  is  held  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  surviving  specimens 
of  Hebrew  literature.  Although  the  text  of  this  Te  Deum  has 
suffered  (especially  in  w.  8-15)  its  value  is  without  an  equal 
'or  its  historical  contents.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  poem  was 
actually  composed  by  Deborah  (v.  i ) ;  ver.  7 , which  can  be  rendered 
'  until  thou  didst  arise,  O  Deborah,"  is  indecisive.  The  poem 
consists  of  a  series  of  rapidly  shifting  scenes;  the  words  are 
often  obscure,  but  the  general  drift  of  the  whole  can  be  easily 
followed.  After  the  exordium,  the  writer  describes  tne  approach 
of  Yahweh  from  his  seats  in  Seir  and  Edom  in  the  south  to  the 
help  of  his  people — the  language  is  reminiscent  of  Ps.  Ixviii.  7  sqq., 
Hab.  iii.  3  seq.  12  seq.  In  the  days  of  Shamgar  the  son  of  Anath 
the  land  had  been  insecure,  the  people  were  disarmed,  and  neither 
shield  nor  spear  was  to  be  seen  among  their  forty  thousand 
(cf.  i  Sam.  xiii.  19-22,  and  for  the  number  Josh.  iv.  13).  Then 
follows,  apparently,  a  summons  to  magnify  Yahweh.  After  an 
apostrophe  to  Deborah  and  Barak,  the  son  of  Abinoam,  the  meet- 
ing of  the  clans  is  vividly  portrayed.  Ephraim,  with  Benjamin 
behind  him  (for  the  wording,  cf.  Hos.  v.  8),  Machir  (here  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh)  and  Zebulun,  Issachar  and  Naphtali,  pour 
down  into  the  valley  of  the  Kishon.  Not  all  the  tribes  were 
represented.  Reuben  was  wavering,  Gilead  (i.e.  Gad)  remained 
beyond  the  Jordan,  and  Dan's  interests  were  apparently  with  the 
sea-going  Phoenicians  (see  DAN);  their  conduct  is  contrasted 
with  the  reckless  bravery  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali.  Judah  is 
nowhere  mentioned;  it  lay  outside  the  confederation.  The 
Canaanite  kings  unite  at  Taanach  by  Megiddo,  an  ancient  battle- 
field probably  to  be  identified  with  Lejjun.  The  heavens  joined 
the  fight  against  Sisera  (cf.  the  appeal  in  Josh.  x.  12  seq.),  a  storm 
rages,  and  the  enemy  are  swept  away  in  the  flood.  Meroz, 
presumably  on  the  line  of  flight,  is  bitterly  cursed  for  its  inaction: 
"  they  came  not  to  the  help  of  Yahweh."  In  vivid  contrast  to 
this  is  the  conduct  of  one  of  the  Kenites:  "  blessed  of  all  women 
is  Jael,  of  all  the  nomad  women  is  she  blessed."  The  poem 
recounts  how  the  fleeing  king  craves  water,  she  gives  him 
milk,  and  (as  he  drinks)  she  fells  him  (perhaps  with  a  tent-peg) ; 
"  at  her  feet  he  sank  down,  he  fell,  he  lay,  where  he  sank  he 
lay  overcome."  The  last  scene  paints  the  mother  of  Sisera 
impatiently  awaiting  the  king.  Her  attendants  confidently 
picture  him  dividing  the  booty — a  maiden  or  two  for  each  man, 
and  richly  embroidered  cloth  for  himself.  With  inimitable 
strength  the  poet  suddenly  drops  the  curtain — "  so  perish  thine 
enemies,  all  of  them,  Yahweh!  But  let  them  that  love  him  be 
as  the  sun  when  it  rises  in  its  might." 

The  historical  background  of  this  great  event  is  unknown. 
The  Israelite  confederation  consists  of  central  Palestine  with  the 
(east-Jordanic)  Machir,  and  the  northern  tribes  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Dan  and  Asher.  This  has  suggested  to  some  an  invasion 
from  the  coast,  or  from  the  north  by  way  of  the  coast,  since  had 
Dan  and  Asher  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  this  would 
probably  have  been  referred  to  in  some  way.  Sisera  is  scarcely  a 
Semitic  name ;  a  "  Hittite  "  origin  has  been  suggested.1  Shamgar 
son  of  Anath  seems  equally  foreign;  the  latter  is  the  name  of  a 
Syrian  goddess  and  the  former  recalls  Sangara,  a  Hittite  chief 
of  Carchemish  in  the  gth  century.  The  context  suggests  that 
1  The  term  "  Hittite  "  is  here  used  as  a  loose  but  convenient 
designation  for  closely  related  groups  of  N.  Syria;  see  HITTITES. 


DEBRECZEN— DEBT 


905 


Shamgar  is  a  foreign  oppressor  (ver.  6),  but  he  appears  to  have 
been  converted  subsequently  into  one  of  the  "  judges  "  of  Israel 
(iii.  31),  perhaps  with  the  idea  of  bringing  their  total  up  to  twelve. 
The  prose  version  (iv.)  contains  new  and  conflicting  details. 
Deborah,  whose  home  is  placed  under  "  Deborah's  palm  " 
between  Ramah  and  Bethel,  summons  Barak  from  Kadesh- 
Naphtali  to  collect  Naphtali  and  Zebulun,  10,000  strong,  and  to 
meet  Sisera  (who  is  here  the  general  of  a  certain  Jabin,  king 
of  Hazor)  at  Mt.  Tabor.  But  Sisera  marches  south  to  Kishon, 
and  after  his  defeat  flees  north  through  Israelite  territory,  past 
Hazor  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Kadesh.  His  death,  moreover, 
is  differently  described  (iv.  21,  v.  25-27),  and  Jael  "  who  with 
inhospitable  guile  smote  Sisera  sleeping  "  (Milton)  is  guilty  of  an 
act  which  has  possibly  originated  from  a  misunderstanding  of 
the  poem.  In  the  prose  narrative  Jabin  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  fight,  whereas  in  Josh.  xi.  he  is  at  the  head  of  an  alliance  of 
north  Canaanite  kings  who  were  defeated  by  Joshua  at  the 
waters  of  Merom.  It  would  seem  that  certain  elements  which 
are  inconsistent  with  the  representation  in  Judg.  v.  belonged 
originally  to  the  other  battle.  Kadesh,  for  example,  might  be  a 
natural  meeting-place  for  an  attack  upon  Hazor,  and  the  designa- 
tion "  Jabin's  general,"  applied  to  Sisera,  is  probably  due  to  the 
attempt  to  harmonize  the  two  distinct  stories.  Moreover, 
Deborah,  who  is  associated  with  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (v.  15), 
appears  to  have  been  confused  with  Rebekah's  nurse,  whose 
tomb  lay  near  Bethel  (Gen.  xxxv.  5).  Some  more  northerly 
place  seems  to  be  required,  and  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
the  name  corresponds  with  Daberath  (modern  Daburlyeh)  at 
the  foot  of  Tabor,  on  the  border  of  Zebulun  and  Issachar.  At  all 
events,  to  represent  her  as  a  prophetess,  judging  the  people  of 
Israel  (iv.  4  seq.),  ill  accords  with  both  the  older  account  (v.) 
and  the  general  situation  reflected  in  the  earlier  narratives  in 
the  book  of  Judges. 

For  fuller  details  see  G.  A.  <_ooke,  History  and  Song  of  Deborah 
(1892),  the  commentaries  on  Judges  and  the  histories  of  Israel. 
Cheyne,  Critica  Biblica,  pp.  446-464,  offers  many  new  textual  emenda- 
tions. Paton  (Syria  and  Palestine,  p.158  sqq.)suggests  that  the  battle 
was  against  the  Hittites  (Sisera,  a  successor  of  Shamgar).  See  also 
L.  W.  Batten,  Journ.  Bibl.  Lit.  (1905)  pp.  31-40  (who  regards 
Judg.  v.  and  Josh.  xi.  as  duplicates);  Winckler,  Gesch.  Israels,  ii. 
125-135;  Keilinschr.  u.  d.  Alte  Test.  (8)  p.  218;  and  Ed.  Meyer, 
Israeliten,  pp.  272  sqq.,  487  sqq.  (S.  A.  C.) 

DEBRECZEN,  a  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of  the  county  of 
Hajdu,  138  m.  E.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  72,351.  It 
is  the  principal  Protestant  centre  in  Hungary,  and  bears  the 
name  of  "  Calvinistic  Rome."  Debreczen  is  one  of  the  largest 
towns  of  Hungary,  and  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  sandy  but 
fertile  plain.  It  consists  of  the  inner  old  town,  and  several 
suburbs,  which  stretch  out  irregularly  into  the  plain.  The  walls 
of  the  old  town  have  given  place  to  a  broad  boulevard  and  several 
open  commons,  beautifully  laid  out.  The  most  prominent  of  its 
public  buildings  is  the  principal  Protestant  church,  built  at 
the  beginning  of  the  igth  century,  which  ranks  as  the  largest 
in  the  country,  but  has  no  great  architectural  pretensions.  In 
its  immediate  neighbourhood  is  the  Protestant  Collegium,  for 
theology  and  law,  which  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  institu- 
tions of  its  kind  in  Hungary,  being  attended  by  over  two 
thousand  students.  This  college  was  founded  in  1531,  and 
possesses  a  rich  library  and  other  scientific  collections.  The  town 
hall,  the  Franciscan  church,  the  Piarist  monastery  and  college, 
and  the  theatre  are  also  worthy  of  mention.  Amongst  its 
educational  establishments  it  includes  an  agricultural  academy. 
The  industries  of  the  town  are  various,  but  none  is  of  importance 
enough  to  give  it  the  character  of  a  manufacturing  centre.  Its 
tobacco-pipes,  sausages  and  soap  are  widely  known.  It  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  cattle,  horses,  corn  and  honey,  while  four 
well-attended  fairs  are  held  annually.  The  municipality  of 
Debreczen  owns  between  three  hundred  and  four  hundred 
square  miles  of  the  adjoining  country,  which  possesses  all  the 
characteristics  of  the  Hungarian  puszta,  and  on  which  roam 
large  herds  of  cattle. 

The  town  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  but  owes  its  develop- 
ment to  the  refugees  who  flocked  from  the  villages  plundered 


by  the  Turks  in  the  isth  century.  In  1552  it  adopted  the 
Protestant  faith,  and  it  had  to  suffer  in  consequence,  especially 
when  it  was  captured  in  1686  by  the  imperial  forces.  In  1693  it 
was  made  a  royal  free  city.  In  1848-1849  it  formed  a  refuge  for 
the  national  government  and  legislature  when  Budapest  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Austrians;  and  it  was  in  the  great  Calvinist 
church  that,  on  Kossuth's  motion  (April  I4th,  1849)  the  resolu- 
tion was  passed  declaring  the  house  of  Habsburg  to  have  forfeited 
the  crown  of  St  Stephen.  On  the  3rd  of  July  the  town  was 
captured  by  the  Russians. 

DEBT  (Lat.  debilum,  a  thing  owed),  a  definite  sum  due  by  one 
person  to  another.  It  may  be  created  by  contract,  by  statute 
or  by  judgment.  Putting  aside  those  created  by  statute,  re- 
coverable by  civil  process,  debts  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  (i)  judgment  debts,  (2)  specialty  debts,  and  (3)  simple 
contract  debts.  As  to  judgment  debts,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that, 
when  by  the  judgment  of  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction  an 
order  is  made  that  a  sum  of  money  be  paid  by  one  of  two  parties" 
to  another,  such  a  debt  is  not  only  enforceable  by  process  of 
court,  but  it  can  be  sued  upon  as  if  it  were  an  ordinary  debt. 
A  specialty  debt  is  created  by  deed  or  instrument  under  seal. 
Until  1869  specialty  debts  had  preference  under  English  law 
over  simple  contract  debts  in  the  event  of  the  bankruptcy  of 
death  of  the  debtor,  but  this  was  abolished  by  the  Administra- 
tion of  Estates  Act  of  that  year.  The  main  difference  now  is' 
that  a  specialty  debt  may,  in  general,  be  created  without  con- 
sideration, as  for  example  by  a  bond  (a  gratuitous  promise  under 
seal),  and  that  a  right  of  action  arising  out  of  a  specialty  debt  is 
not  barred  if  exercised  any  time  within  twenty  years,  whereas 
a  right  of  action  arising  out  of  a  simple  contract  debt  is  barred 
unless  exercised  within  six  years.  (See  LIMITATION,  STATUTES  OF.  ) 
Any  other  debt  than  a  judgment  or  specialty  debt,  whether 
evidenced  by  writing  or  not,  is  a  simple  contract  debt.  There 
are  also  certain  liabilities  or  debts  which,  for  the  convenience  of 
the  remedy,  have  been  made  to  appear  as  though  they  sprang 
from  contract,  and  are  sometimes  termed  quasi-contracts.  Such 
would  be  an  admission  by  one  who  is  in  account  with  another 
that  there  is  a  balance  due  from  him.  Such  an  admission 
implies  a  promise  to  pay  when  requested  and  creates  an  action- 
able liability  ex  contraclu.  Or,  when  one  person  is  compelled  by 
law  to  discharge  the  legal  liabilities  of  another,  he  becomes  the 
creditor  of  the  person  for  the  money  so  paid.  Again,  where  a 
person  has  received  money  under  circumstances  which  disentitle 
him  to  retain  it,  such  as  receiving  payment  of  an  account  twice 
over,  it  can  generally  be  recovered  as  a  debt. 

At  English  common  law  debts  and  other  choses  in  action  were 
not  assignable  (see  CHOSE),  but  by  the  Judicature  Act  1873  any 
absolute  assignment  of  any  debt  or  other  legal  chose  in  action, 
of  which  express  notice  in  writing  is  given  to  the  debtor,  trustee 
or  other  person  from  whom  the  assignor  would  have  been  entitled 
to  receive  or  claim  such  debt,  is  effectual  in  law.  Debts  do  not, 
as  a  general  rule,  carry  interest,  but  such  an  obligation  may  arise' 
either  by  agreement  or  by  mercantile  usage  or  by  statute.  The 
discharge  of  a  debt  may  take  place  either  by  payment  of  the 
amount  due,  by  accord  and  satisfaction,  i.e.  acceptance  of 
something  else  in  discharge  of  the  liability,  by  set-off  (q.v.),  by 
release  or  under  the  law  of  bankruptcy  (q.v.).  It  is  the  duty  of 
a  debtor  to  pay  a  debt  without  waiting  for  any  demand,  and,1 
unless  there  is  a  place  fixed  on  either  by  custom  or  agreement, 
he  must  seek  out  his  creditor  for  the  purpose  of  paying  him' 
unless  he  is  "  beyond  the  seas."  Payment  by  a  third  person  to 
the  creditor  is  no  discharge  of  a  debt,  as  a  general  rule,  unless 
the  debtor  subsequently  ratifies  the  payment.  When  a  debtor 
tenders  the  amount  due  to  his  creditor  and  the  creditor  refuses 
to  accept,  the  debt  is  not  discharged,  but  if  the  debtor  is  subse- 
quently sued  for  the  debt  and  continues  willing  and  ready  to  pay, 
and  pays  the  amount  tendered  into  court,  he  can  recover  his  costs 
in  the  action.  A  creditor  is  not  bound  to  give  change  to  the 
debtor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  make  tender  in  lawful  money  the  whole 
amount  due,  or  more,  without  asking  for  change.  (See  PAYMENT.  ) 
A  debtor  takes  the  risk  if  he  makes  payment  through  the  post, 
unless  the  creditor  has  requested  or  authorized  that  mode  of 


906 


DEBUSSY 


payment.  The  payment  of  a  debt  is  sometimes  secured  by  one 
person,  called  a  surety,  who  makes  himself  collaterally  liable 
for  the  debt  of  the  principal.  (See  GUARANTEE.)  The  ordinary 
method  of  enforcing  a  debt  is  by  action.  Where  the  debt  does 
not  exceed  £100  the  simplest  procedure  for  its  recovery  is  that  of 
the  county  court,  but  if  the  debt  exceeds  £100  the  creditor  must 
proceed  in  the  high  court,  unless  the  cause  of  action  has  arisen 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  certain  inferior  courts,  such  as  the 
mayor's  court  of  London,  the  Liverpool  court  of  passage,  &c. 
When  judgment  has  been  obtained  it  may  be  enforced  either 
by  process  (under  certain  conditions)  against  the  person  of  the 
debtor,  by  an  execution  against  the  debtor's  property,  or,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  court,  by  attaching  any  debt  owed  to  the 
debtor  by  a  third  person.  Where  a  debtor  has  committed  any 
act  of  bankruptcy  a  creditor  or  creditors  whose  aggregate  claims 
are  not  less  than  £50  may  proceed  against  him  in  bankruptcy 
(q.v.).  Where  the  debtor  is  a  company  or  corporation  registered 
under  the  companies  acts,  the  creditor  may  petition  to  have  it 
wound  up.  (See  COMPANY.) 

Imprisonment  for  debt,  the  evils  of  which  have  been  so 
graphically  described  by  Dickens,  was  abolished  in  England  by 
the  Debtors  Act  1869,  except  in  cases  of  default  of  payment 
of  penalties,  default  by  trustees  or  solicitors  and  certain  other 
cases.  But  in  cases  where  a  debt  or  instalment  is  in  arrear  and 
it  is  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  that  the  person  making 
default  either  has  or  has  had  since  the  date  of  the  order  or  judg- 
ment the  means  to  pay  the  sum  in  respect  of  which  he  has  made 
default  and  has  refused  or  neglected  to  pay,  he  may  be  com- 
mitted to  prison  at  the  discretion  of  the  judge  for  a  period  of  not 
more  than  forty-two  days.  In  practice,  a  period  of  twenty-one 
days  is  usually  the  maximum  period  ordered.  Such  an  imprison- 
ment does  not  operate  as  a  satisfaction  or  extinguishment  of  the 
debt,  and  no  second  order  of  commitment  can  be  made  against 
him  for  the  same  debt,  although  where  the  court  has  made  an 
order  or  judgment  for  the  payment  of  the  debt  by  instalments 
a  power  of  committal  arises  on  default  of  payment  of  each  instal- 
ment. In  Ireland  imprisonment  for  debt  was  abolished  by  the 
Debtors  Act  (Ireland)  1872,  and  in  Scotland  by  the  Debtors 
(Scotland)  Act  1880.  In  France  it  was  abolished  in  1867,  in 
Belgium  in  1871,  in  Switzerland  and  Norway  in  1874,  and  in 
Italy  in  1877.  In  the  United  States  imprisonment  for  debt  was 
universal  under  the  common  law,  but  it  has  been  abolished  in 
every  state,  except  in  certain  cases,  as  where  there  is  any  suspicion 
of  fraud  or  where  the  debtor  has  an  intention  of  removing  out  of 
the  state  to  avoid  his  debts.  (See  also  CONTRACT  ;  BANKRUPTCY.) 

DEBUSSY,  CLAUDE  ACHILLE  (1862-  ),  French  composer, 
was  born  at  St  Germain-en-Laye  on  the  22nd  of  August  1862,  and 
educated  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire  under  Marmontel,  Lavignac, 
Massenet  and  Guiraud.  There  between  1874  and  1884  he  gained 
many  prizes  for  solfege,  pianoforte  playing,  accompanying, 
counterpoint  and  fugue,  and,  in  the  last-named  year,  the  coveted 
Grand  Prix  de  Rome  by  means  of  his  cantata  L' Enfant  prodigue. 
In  this  composition  already  were  thought  to  be  noticeable  the 
germs  of  unusual  and  "  new  "  talent,  though  in  the  light  of 
later  developments  it  is  not  very  easy  to  discern  them,  for 
then  Debussy  had  not  come  under  the  influence  which  ultimately 
turned  his  mind  to  the  system  he  afterwards  used,  not  only  with 
peculiar  distinction  but  also  with  particular  individual  and 
complete  success.  Nevertheless,  the  mind  had  clearly  been 
prepared  by  nature  for  the  reception  of  this  influence  when  it 
should  arise;  for,  in  order  to  fulfil  that  condition  of  the  Prix  de 
Rome  which  entails  the  submitting  periodically  of  compositions 
to  the  judges,  Debussy  sent  to  them  his  symphonic  suite 
Printemps,  to  which  the  judges  took  exception  on  the  ground 
of  its  formlessness.  Following  in  the  wake  of  Printemps  came 
La  damoiselle  flue  for  solo,  female  voice  and  orchestra — a  setting 
of  a  French  version  of  Rossetti's  "  The  Blessed  Damosel  "—which 
in  the  eyes  of  the  judges  was  even  more  unorthodox  than  its 
predecessor,  though,  be  it  said,  fault  was  found  as  much  with  the 
libretto  as  with  the  music.  Both  works  were  denied  the  custom- 
ary public  performance. 

The  Rome  period  over,  Debussy  returned  to  Paris,  whence 


shortly  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he  came  directly  under  the 
influence  referred  to  above.  In  Russia  he  absorbed  the  native 
music,  especially  that  of  Moussorgsky,  who,  recently  dead,  had 
left  behind  him  the  reputation  of  a  "  musical  nihilist,"  and  on 
his  return  to  Paris  Debussy  devoted  himself  to  composition,  the 
stream  of  his  muse  being  even  in  1908  as  fluent  as  twenty 
years  before.  To  him  public  recognition  was  slow  in  coming, 
but  in  1893  the  Societe  Nationale  de  Musique  performed  his 
Damoiselle  flue,  in  1894  the  Ysaye  Quartet  introduced  the 
string  quartet,  while  in  the  same  year  the  Prelude  a  I'apres- 
midi  d'un  Faune  was  heard,  and  brought  Debussy's  name 
into  some  prominence.  As  time  passed  the  prominence  grew, 
until  the  climax  of  Debussy's  creative  career  was  reached  by 
the  production  at  the  Opera  Comique  on  the  3Oth  of  April  1902 
of  his  masterpiece  PelUas  et  Melisande.  Herein  lay  the  whole 
strength  of  Debussy's  system,  the  perfection  of  his  appeal  to 
the  mind  and  imagination  as  well  as  to  the  emotions  and 
senses.  Since  its  production  the  world  has  been  enriched  by 
La  Mer,  and  by  the  Ariettes  oubli6es,  but  the  lyric  drama  remains 
on  its  own  lofty  pedestal,  a  monument  of  elusive  and  subtle 
beauty,  of  emphatic  originality  and  of  charm.  In  an  Apologia 
Debussy  has  declared  that  in  composing  PelUas  he  "  wanted  to 
dispense  with  parasitic  musical  phrases.  Melody  is,  if  I  may 
say  so,  almost  anti-lyric,  and  powerless  to  express  the  constant 
change  of  emotion  or  life.  Melody  is  suitable  only  for  the 
chanson,  which  confirms  a  fixed  sentiment.  I  have  never 
been  willing  that  my  music  should  hinder,  through  technical 
exigencies,  the  change  of  sentiment  and  passion  felt  by  my 
characters.  It  is  effaced  as  soon  as  it  is  necessary  that  these 
should  have  perfect  liberty  in  their  gestures  or  in  their  cries, 
in  their  joy,  or  in  their  sorrow." 

The  list  of  Debussy's  works  is  a  lengthy  one.  Several  of 
them  have  been  referred  to  already.  Among  the  others,  of  which 
the  complete  list  is  too  long  to  print  here,  are  the  dances  for 
chromatic  harp  or  pianoforte;  Images;  incidental  music  to 
King  Lear;  the  Petite  Suite;  Trois  Nocturnes;  innumerable 
songs,  as  Proses  Lyriques  (text  by  Debussy);  two  series  of 
Verlaine's  Fetes  galantes;  Cinq  Poemes  de  Baudelaire;  many 
pianoforte  pieces. 

In  1891  Debussy  was  appointed  critic  of  the  Revue  Blanche. 
In  his  first  notice  he  expressed  his  faith  thus:  "  I  shall  endeavour 
to  trace  in  a  musical  work  the  many  different  emotions  which 
have  helped  to  give  it  birth,  also  to  demonstrate  its  inner  life. 
This,  surely,  will  be  accounted  of  greater  interest  than  the  game 
which  consists  in  dissecting  it  as  if  it  were  a  curious  timepiece." 

As  to  the  theories,  so  much  debated,  of  this  remarkable 
musician — probably  in  the  whole  range  of  musical  history  there 
has  not  appeared  a  more  difficult  theorist  to  "  place."  Un- 
questionably Debussy  has  introduced  a  new  system  of  colour  into 
music,  which  has  begun  already  to  exert  widespread  influence. 
Roughly,  Debussy's  system  may  be  summarized  thus: 

His  scale  basis  is  of  six  whole  tones  (enharmonic),  as  (i)  middle 
C,D,E,Gb,Ab,Bb,   which   are  of  excellent  sound  when  super- 
imposed in  the  form  of  two  augmented  unrelated  triads. 
[Bb  fA# 

•\  Gb  or  enharmonically  -j  F# 

ID  ID 

fAb  fG# 

1E  E 

LC  Lc 

used  frequently  incomplete  (i.e.  by  the  omission  of  one  note)  by 
Debussy. 

Now,  upon  the  basis  of  an  augmented  triad  a  tune  may  be 
played  above  it  provided  that  it  be  based  upon  the  six-tone  scale, 
and  a  fugue  may  be  written,  the  re-entry  of  the  subject  of  which 
may  be  made  upon  any  note  of  the  scale,  and  the  harmony  will  be 
E  |  complete.  To  associate  this  scale  with  the  ordinary  diatonic 
C  scale  let  a  major  gth  be  taken,  e.g. :  one  may  conventionally 
A  f  flatten  or  sharpen  the  fifth  of  this  (A 'becoming  ft  or  b  as 
F#  desired) :  if  both  the  flattened  and  sharpened  fifths  be  taken 
D  J  in  the  one  chord  this  chord  is  arrived  at: 


DECADE— DECALOGUE 


907 


E 
C 

Bb 

Ab 
Ftt 
D 


(A#  enharmonically  altered  to  Bb) 


which  is  composed  of  the  notes  of  the  aforesaid  scale  (i),  and 
Debussy  thereby  proves  his  case  to  belong  to  the  "  primitifs." 
It  will  be  noticed  that  chords  of  the  9th  in  sequence  and  in  all 
forms  occur  in  Debussy's  music  as  well  as  the  augmented  triad 
harmonics,  where  the  melodic  line  is  based  on  the  tonal  scale. 
This,  in  all  likelihood,  is  the  outcome  of  Debussy's  instinctive 
feeling  for  the  association  of  his  so-called  discovery  with  the 
ordinary  scale.  The  "  secret,"  it  may  be  added,  comes  not 
from  Annamese  music  as  has  been  frequently  stated,  but  prob- 
ably from  Russia,  where  certainly  it  was  used  before  Debussy's 
rise.  (R.  H.  L.) 

DECADE  (from  Gr.  5«/ca,  ten),  a  group  or  series  containing  ten 
members,  particularly  a  period  of  ten  years.  In  the  new  calendar 
made  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1793,  a  decade  of 
ten  days  took  the  place  of  the  week.  The  word  is  also  used  of  the 
divisions  containing  ten  books  or  parts  into  which  the  history  of 
Livy  was  divided. 

DECAEN,  CHARLES  MATHIEU  ISIDORE,  COUNT  (1769- 
1832),  French  soldier,  was  born  at  Caen  on  the  i3th  of  April 
1769.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  soon  showed  a  strong 
preference  for  the  military  career,  in  which  he  quickly  made  his 
way  during  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution  under  Kleber, 
Marceau  and  Jourdan,  in  the  Rhenish  campaigns.  In  1799  he 
became  general  of  division,  and  contributed  to  the  success  of 
the  famous  attack  by  General  Richepanse  on  the  Austrian  flank 
and  rear  at  Hohenlinden  (December  1800).  Becoming  known  for 
his  Anglophobe  tendencies,  he  was  selected  by  Napoleon  early  in 
the  year  1802  for  the  command  of  the  French  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies.  The  secret  instructions  issued  to  him  bade  him 
prepare  the  way,  so  that  in  due  course  (September  1804  was 
hinted  at  as  the  suitable  time)  everything  might  be  ready  for  an 
attack  on  the  British  power  in  India.  ^Napoleon  held  out  to  him 
the  hope  of  acquiring  lasting  glory  in  that  enterprise.  Decaen 
set  sail  with  Admiral  Linois  early  in  March  1803  with  a  small 
expeditionary  force,  touched  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (then  in 
Dutch  hands),  and  noted  the  condition  of  the  fortifications  there. 
On  arriving  at  Pondicherry  he  found  matters  in  a  very  critical 
condition.  Though  the  outbreak  of  war  in  Europe  had  not  yet 
been  heard  of,  the  hostile  preparations  adopted  by  the  Marquis 
Wellesley  caused  Decaen  to  withdraw  promptly  to  the  Isle  of 
France  (Mauritius),  where,  during  eight  years,  he  sought  to  harass 
British  trade  and  prepare  for  plans  of  alliance  with  the  Mahratta 
princes  of  India.  They  all  came  to  naught.  Linois  was  captured 
by  a  British  squadron,  and  ultimately,  in  1811,  Mauritius  itself 
fell  to  the  Union  Jack.  Returning  to  France  on  honourable 
terms,  Decaen  received  the  command  of  the  French  troops  in 
Catalonia.  The  rest  of  his  career  calls  for  no  special  mention. 
He  died  of  the  cholera  in  1832. 

See  M.  L.  E.  Gautier,  Biographic  du  general  Decaen  (Caen, 
1850).  (J.  HL.  R.) 

DECALOGUE  (in  patristic  Gr.  1}  BfK&\oyos,  sc.  0t/3Xos  or 
vonoOeoia),  another  name  for  the  biblical  Ten  Commandments, 
in  Hebrew  the  Ten  Words  (Deut.  iv.  13,  x.  4;  Ex.  xxxiv.  28), 
written  by  God  on  the  two  tables  of  stone  (Ex.  xxiv.  12,  xxxii. 
16),  the  so-called  Tables  of  the  Revelation  (E.V.  "  tables  of  testi- 
mony," Ex.  xxxiv.  29),  or  Tables  of  the  Covenant  (Deut.  ix.  9,  n, 
15).  These  tables  were  broken  by  Moses  (Ex.  xxxii.  19),  and  two 
new  ones  were  hewn  (xxxiv.  i),  and  upon  them  were  written  the 
words  of  the  covenant  by  Moses  (xxxiv.  27  sqq.)  or,  according  to 
another  view,  by  God  himself  (Deut.  iv.  13,  ix.  10).  They  were 
deposited  in  the  Ark  (Ex.  xxv.  21;  i  Kings  viii.  9).  In  Deuter- 
onomy the  inscription  on  these  tables,  which  is  briefly  called  the 
covenant  (iv.  13),  is  expressly  identified  with  the  words  spoken  by 
Jehovah  (Yahweh)  out  of  the  midst  of  the  fire  at  Mt.  Sinai  or 
Horeb  (according  to  the  Deuteronomic  tradition),  in  the  ears  of 
the  whole  people  on  the  "  day  of  the  assembly,"  and  rehearsed 


in  v.  6-21.  In  the  narrative  of  Exodus  the  relation  of  the  "ten 
words  "  of  xxxiv.  to  the  words  spoken  from  Sinai,  xx.  2-17,  is 
not  so  clearly  indicated,  and  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the 
Pentateuch  presents  divergent  and  irreconcilable  views  of  the 
Sinaitic  covenant. 

As  regards  the  Decalogue,  as  usually  understood,  and  embodied 
in  the  parallel  passages  in  Ex.  xx.  and  Deut.  v.,  certain  pre- 
liminary points  of  detail  have  to  be  noticed.  The  variations 
in  the  parallel  texts  are  partly  verbal,  partly  stylistic  (e.g. 
"Remember  the  Sabbath  day,"  Ex.;  but  "observe,"  &c., 
Deut.),  and  partly  consist  of  amplifications  or  divergent  explana- 
tions. Thus  the  reason  assigned  for  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath 
in  Exodus  is  drawn  from  the  creation,  and  agrees  with  Gen.  ii.  3. 
In  Deuteronomy  the  command  is  based  on  the  duty  of  humanity 
to  servants  and  the  memory  of  Egyptian  bondage.  Again,  in  the 
tenth  commandment,  as  given  in  Exodus,  "  house  "  means  house 
and  household,  including  the  wife  and  all  the  particulars  which  are 
enumerated  in  ver.  17.  In  Deuteronomy,  "  Thou  shall  not  covet 
thy  neighbour's  wife,"  comes  first,  and  "  house  "  following  in 
association  with  field  is  to  be  taken  in  the  literal  restricted  sense, 
and  another  verb  ("  thou  shall  not  desire  ")  is  used. 

The  construction  of  the  second  commandment  in  the  Hebrew 
texl  is  dispuled,  bul  Ihe  most  natural  sense  seems  to  be,  "  Thou 
shall  nol  make  unto  thee  a  graven  image;  (and)  to  no  visible 
shape  in  heaven,  &c.,  shall  thou  bow  down,  &c."  The  Ihird 
commandmenl  mighl  be  rendered,  "  Thou  shall  nol  uller  Ihe 
name  of  Ihe  Lord  thy  God  vainly,"  but  it  is  possible  thai  Ihe 
meaning  is  that  Yahweh's  name  is  not  to  be  used  for  purposes 
of  sorcery. 

The  order  of  the  commandments  relating  to  murder,  adultery  and 
stealing  varies  in  the  Vatican  text  of  the  Septuagint,  viz.  adultery, 
stealing,  murder,  in  Ex. ;  adultery,  murder,  stealing,  in  Deut.  The 
latter  is  supported  by  several  passages  in  the  New  Testament  (Rom. 
xiii.  9;  Mark  x.  19,  A.V. ;  Luke  xviii.  20;  contrast  Matt.  xix.  18),  and 
by  the  "  Nash  Papyrus."  l  It  may  be  added  that  the  double  system 
of  accentuation  of  the  Decalogue  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  seems  to 
preserve  traces  of  the  ancient  uncertainty  concerning  the  numeration. 

Divisions  of  the  Decalogue. — The  division  current  in  England 
and  Scotland,  and  generally  among  the  Reformed  (Calvinistic) 
churches  and  in  the  Orthodox  Eastern  Church,  is  known  as  the 
Philonic  division  (Philo,  de  Decalogo,  §12).  It  is  sometimes  called 
by  the  name  of  Origen,  who  adopls  it  in  his  Homilies  on  Exodus. 
On  this  scheme  the  preface,  Ex.  xx.  2,  has  been  usually  taken 
as  part  of  the  first  commandment.  The  Church  of  Rome  and 
the  Lutherans  adopl  Ihe  Auguslinian  division  (Aug.,  Quaest.  super 
Exod.,  Ixxi.),  combining  into  one  the  first  and  second  command- 
ments of  Philo,  and  splitting  his  tenlh  commandmenl  inlo  Iwo. 
To  gain  a  clear  dislinclion  belween  Ihe  ninth  and  tenth  command- 
ments en  this  scheme  il  has  usually  been  felt  to  be  necessary  lo 
follow  Ihe  Deuleronomic  text,  and  make  the  ninth  commandment, 
Thou  shall  not  covet  thy  neighbour's  wife.2  As  few  scholars  will 
now  claim  priority  for  the  text  of  Deuteronomy,  this  division  may 
be  viewed  as  exploded.  But  Ihere  is  a  Ihird  scheme  (Ihe  Talmudic) 
slill  currenl  among  Ihe  Jews,  and  nol  unknown  to  early  Christian 
writers,  which  is  still  a  rival  of  the  Philonic  view,  though  less 
satisfactory.  Here  Ihe  preface,  Ex.  xx.  2,  is  laken  as  Ihe  first 
"  word,"  and  Ihe  second  embraces  verses  3-6. 

See  further  Nestle,  Expository  Times  (1897),  p.  427.  The  decision 
between  Philo  and  the  Talmud  must  turn  on  two  questions.  Can 
we  take  the  preface  as  a  separate  "  word  "?  And  can  we  regard 
the  prohibition  of  polytheism  and  the  prohibition  of  idolatry  as  one 
commandment?  Now,  though  the  Hebrew  certainly  speaks  of  ten 
"  words,"  not  of  ten  "  precepts,"  it  is  most  unlikely  that  the  first 
word  can  be  different  in  character  from  those  that  follow.  But  the 
statement  "  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God  "  is  either  no  precept  at  all,  or 
only  enjoins  by  implication  what  is  expressly  commanded  in  the 


1  A  Hebrew  fragment  probably  of  the  2nd  century  A.D.,  in  the 
University  Library,  Cambridge,  containing  the  Decalogue  with 
several  variant  readings;  see  S.  A.  Cook,  Proceed.  Soc.  Bin.  Archae- 
ology (1903),  pp.  34-56 ;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Jewish  Quarterly  Review  (1903), 
pp.  ^92-408;  N.  Peters,  D.  dlteste  Abschrift  d.  uhn  Gebote  (1905). 

'  So,  for  example,  Augustine,  I.e.,  Thomas,  Summa  (Prima 
Secundae,  qu.  c.  art.  4),  and  recently  Sonntag  and  Kurtz.  Purely 
arbitrary  is  the  idea  of  Lutheran  writers  (Gerhard,  Loc.  xiii.  §  46) 
that  the  ninth  commandment  forbids  concupiscentia  actualis,  the 
tenth  cone,  originalis. 


908 


DECALOGUE 


words  "  Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  before  me."  Thus  to  take 
the  preface  as  a  distinct  word  is  not  reasonable  unless  there  are  cogent 
grounds  for  uniting  the  commandments  against  polytheism  and 
idolatry.  But  that  is  far  from  being  the  case.  The  first  precept  of 
the  Philonic  scheme  enjoins  monolatry,  the  second  expresses  God's 
spiritual  and  transcendental  nature.  Accordingly  Kuenen  does  not 
deny  that  the  prohibition  of  images  contains  an  element  additional 
to  the  precept  of  monolatry,  but,  following  De  Goeje,  regards  the 
words  from  "  thou  shalt  not  make  unto  "thyself  "  down  to  "  the 
waters  under  the  earth  "  as  a  later  insertion  in  the  original  Decalogue. 
Unless  this  can  be  made  out,  the  Philonic  scheme  is  clearly  best,  and 
as  such  it  is  now  accepted  by  most  scholars. 

How  were  the  ten  words  disposed  on  the  two  tables  ?  The 
natural  arrangement  (which  is  assumed  by  Philo  and  Josephus) 
would  be  five  and  five.  And  this,  as  Philo  recognized,  is  a  division 
appropriate  to  the  sense  of  the  precepts;  for  antiquity  did  not 
look  on  piety  towards  parents  as  a  mere  precept  of  probity,  part 
of  one's  duty  towards  one's  neighbour.  The  authority  of  parents 
and  rulers  is  viewed  in  the  Old  Testament  as  a  delegated 
divine  authority,  and  the  violation  of  it  is  akin  to  blasphemy 
(cf.  Ex.  xxi.  17  and  Lev.  xx.  9  with  Lev.  xxiv.  15,  16,  and  note 
the  formula  of  treason,  i  Kings  xxi.  13). 

We  have  thus  five  precepts  of  piety  on  the  first  table,  and  five 
of  probity,  in  negative  form,  on  the  second,  an  arrangement 
which  is  accepted  by  the  best  recent  writers.  But  the  current 
view  of  the  Western  Church  since  Augustine  has  been  that  the 
precept  to  honour  parents  heads  the  second  table.  The  only 
argument  of  weight  in  favour  of  this  view  is  that  it  makes  the 
amount  of  writing  on  the  two  tables  less  unequal,  while  we 
know  that  the  second  table  as  well  as  the  first  was  written  on 
both  sides  (Ex.  xxxii.  15).  But  we  shall  presently  see  that  there 
may  be  another  way  out  of  this  difficulty. 

Dale. — It  is  much  disputed  what  the  original  compass  of 
the  Decalogue  was.  Did  the  whole  text  of  Ex.  xx.  2-17  stand  on 
the  tables  of  stone  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  must  start 
from  the  reason  annexed  to  the  fourth  commandment,  which  is 
different  in  Deuteronomy.  But  the  express  words  "  and  he 
added  no  more,"  in  Deut.  v.  22,  show  that  there  is  no  conscious 
omission  by  the  Deuteronomic  speaker  of  part  of  the  original 
Decalogue,  which  cannot  therefore  have  included  the  reason 
annexed  in  Exodus.  On  the  other  hand  the  reason  annexed  in 
Deuteronomy  is  rather  a  parenetic  addition  than  an  original 
element  dropped  in  Exodus.  Thus  the  original  fourth  com- 
mandment was  simply  "  Remember  the  Sabbath  day  to  keep 
it  holy." '  When  this  is  granted  it  must  appear  not  improbable 
that  the  elucidations  of  other  commandments  may  not  have 
stood  on  the  tables,  and  that  Nos.  6-9  have  survived  in  their 
original  form.  Thus  in  the  second  commandment,  "  Thou  shalt 
not  bow  down  to  any  visible  form,"  &c.,  is  a  sort  of  explanatory 
addition  to  the  precept  "  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a 
graven  image."  And  so  the  promise  attached  to  the  fifth 
commandment  was  probably  not  on  the  tables,  and  the  tenth 
commandment  may  have  simply  been,  "  Thou  shalt  not  covet 
thy  neighbour's  house,"  which  includes  all  that  is  expressed  in 
the  following  clauses.  Such  a  view  gets  over  the  difficulty 
arising  from  the  unequal  length  of  the  two  halves  of  the 
Decalogue. 

It  is  quite  another  question  whether  there  is  any  idea  in  the 
Decalogue  which  can  be  as  old  as  Moses.  It  is  urged  by  many 
critics  that  Moses  cannot  have  prohibited  the  worship  of  Yahweh 
by  images;  for  the  subsequent  history  shows  us  a  descendant 
of  Moses  as  priest  in  the  idolatrous  sanctuary  of  Dan.  There  were 
teraphim  in  David's  house,  and  the  worship  of  Yahweh  under  the 
image  of  a  calf  was  the  state  religion  of  the  kingdom  of  Ephraim. 
Even  Moses  himself  is  said  to  have  made  a  brazen  serpent  which, 
down  to  Hezekiah's  time,  continued  to  be  worshipped  at 
Jerusalem.  It  is  argued  from  these  facts  that  image-worship 
went  on  unchallenged,  and  that  this  would  not  have  been  possible 
had  Moses  forbidden  it.  The  argument  is  supported  by  others 
of  great  cogency.  Although  the  literary  problems  of  the  chapters 
which  narrate  the  law-giving  on  Mt.  Sinai  are  extremelyintricate, 
it  is  generally  agreed  that  Ex.  xx.  cannot  be  ascribed  to  the 

1  It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  addition  in  Exodus  is  from  a 
hand  akin  to  Gen.  ii.  2  sqq. ;  Ex.  xxxi.  17  (P.). 


oldest  source,  and  if,  in  accordance  with  many  critics,  this 
chapter  is  ascribed  to  the  Elohist  or  Ephraimite  school,  its 
incorporation  can  scarcely  be  older  than  the  middle  of  the  8th 
century,  and  is  probably  later.  With  this,  the  condemnation 
of  adultery  in  Gen.  xx.  1-17  (contrast  xii.  10-20,  xxvi.  6-n)  is  hi 
harmony,  and  the  prohibition  of  the  worship  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  is  aimed  at  a  form  of  idolatry  which  is  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  times  of  the  later  kings.  The  lofty  ethics  (e.g.  tenth 
commandment)  is  in  itself  no  sound  criterion,  whilst  the  external 
form  of  the  laws,  though  characteristic  of  later  codes,  need  not 
be  taken  as  evidence  of  importance.  But  the  general  result  of  a 
study  of  the  Decalogue  as  a  whole,  in  connexion  with  Israelite 
political  history  and  religion,  strongly  supports,  in  fact  demands, 
a  post-Mosaic  origin,  and  modern  criticism  is  chiefly  divided  only 
as  to  the  approximate  date  to  which  it  is  to  be  ascribed.  The 
time  of  Manasseh  (cf.  especially  its  contact  with  Micah  vi.  6-8) 
has  found  many  adherents,  but  an  earlier  period,  about  750  B.C. 
(time  of  Amos  and  Hosea),  is  often  held  to  satisfy  the  main 
conditions;  the  former,  however,  is  probably  nearer  the  mark. 

The  Decalogue  of  Exodus  xxxiv. — In  the  book  of  Exodus  the 
words  written  on  the  tables  of  stone  are  nowhere  expressly 
identified  with  the  ten  commandments  of  chap.  xx.  In  xxv.  16, 
xxxi.  18,  xxxii.  15,  we  simply  read  of  "  the  testimony  "  inscribed 
on  the  tables,  and  it  seems  to  be  assumed  that  its  contents  must 
be  already  known  to  the  reader.  The  expression  "  ten  words  " 
first  occurs  in  xxxiv.  28,  in  a  passage  which  relates  the  restoration 
of  the  tables  after  they  had  been  broken.  But  these  "  ten  words  " 
are  called  "  the  words  of  the  covenant,"  and  so  can  hardly  be 
different  from  the  words  mentioned  in  the  preceding  verse  as 
those  in  accordance  wherewith  the  covenant  was  made  with 
Israel.  And  again,  the  words  of  ver.  27  are  necessarily  the  com- 
mandments which  immediately  precede  in  w.  12-26.  Accord- 
ingly many  recent  critics  have  sought  to  show  that  Ex.  xxxiv. 
12-26  contains  just  ten  precepts  forming  a  second  decalogue.2 

These  consist  not  of  precepts  of  social  morality,  but  of  several 
laws  of  religious  observance  closely  corresponding  to  the  religious 
and  ritual  precepts  of  Ex.  xxi.-xxiii.  The  number  ten  is  not 
clearly  made  out,  and  the  individual  precepts  are  somewhat 
variously  assigned.  They  prohibit  (i)  the  worship  of  other  gods, 
(2)  the  making  of  molten  images;  they  ordain  (3)  the  observance 
of  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  (4)  the  feast  of  weeks,  (5)  the 
feast  of  ingathering  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  (6)  the  seventh- 
day  rest;  to  Yahweh  belong  (7)  the  firstlings,  and  (8)  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  land;  they  forbid  also  (9)  the  offering  of  the  blood 
of  sacrifice  with  leaven,  (to)  the  leaving-over  of  the  fat  of  a  feast 
until  the  morning,  and  (u)  the  seething  of  a  kid  in  its  mother's 
milk.  This  scheme  ignores  the  command  to  appear  thrice  in  the 
year  before  Yahweh  which  recapitulates  Nos.  3-5,  and  the  decade 
is  obtained  by  omitting  No.  6,  which  some  hold  to  be  out  of  place. 
Others  include  "  none  shall  appear  before  me  empty-handed  " 
(xxxiv.  20),  and  unite  Nos.  4-5,  9  and  10.  C.  F.  Kent  (Beginnings 
of  Heb.  Hist.  pp.  183  sqq.)  obtains  a  decalogue  from  scattered 
precepts  in  Ex.  xx.-xxiii.,  which  corresponds  with  Nos.  2,  7,  6,  3 
and  5  (in  one),  9  and  10  (in  one),  u  above,  and  adds  (a)  the 
building  of  an  altar  of  earth  (xx.  24),  (b)  offering  from  the  harvest 
and  wine-press  (xxii.  29),  (c)  firstlings  of  animals  (xxii.  29  sqq.; 
cf.  No.  7,  and  xxxiv.  19);  (d)  prohibition  against  eating  torn 
flesh  (xxii.  3i).3  The  so-called  Yahwist  Decalogue  in  xxxiv. 
presupposes  a  rather  more  primitive  stage  in  society,  partly 
nomadic  and  partly  agricultural;  No.  6  is  suitable  only  for 
agriculturists  and  cannot  have  originated  among  nomads.  The 
whole  may  be  summed  up  in  a  sentence: — "  Worship  Yahweh 
and  Yahweh  alone,  without  images,  let  the  worship  be  simple  and 
in  accord  with  the  old  usage;  forbear  to  introduce  the  practices 
of  your  Canaanitish  neighbours  "  (Harper).  It  would  seem  to 
represent  more  precisely  a  Judaean  standpoint  (cf.  the  simpler 
customs  of  the  Rechabites,  q.v.). 

2  So  Hitzig  (Ostern  und  Pfingsten  im  zweiten  Dekalog,  Heidelberg, 
1838),  independently  of  a  previous  suggestion  of  Goethe  in  1783,  who 
in  turn  appears  to  nave  been  anticipated  by  an  early  Greek  writer 
(Nestle,  Zeit.fur  alt-test.  Wissenschaft  (1904).  pp.  134  sqq.). 

3  See  also  W.  E.  Barnes,  Journ   Theol.  Stud.  (1905),  pp.  557-563- 


DE  CAMP— DECAPOLIS 


909 


If  such  a  system  of  precepts  was  ever  viewed  as  the  basis  of 
the  covenant  with  Israel,  it  must  belong  to  a  far  earlier  stage  of 
religious  development  than  that  of  Ex.  xx.  This  is  recognized 
by  Wellhausen,  who  says  that  our  decalogue  stands  to  that  of 
Ex.  xxxiv.  as  Amos  stood  to  his  contemporaries,  whose  whole 
religion  lay  in  the  observance  of  sacred  feasts.  To  those 
accustomed  to  look  on  the  Ten  Words  written  on  the  tables  of 
stone  as  the  very  foundation  of  the  Mosaic  law,  it  is  hard  to  realize 
that  in  ancient  Israel  there  were  two  opinions  as  to  what  these 
"  Words  "  were.  The  hypothesis  that  Ex.  xxxiv.  10-26  origin- 
ally stood  in  a  different  connexion,  and  was  misplaced  at  some 
stage  in  the  redaction  of  the  Hexateuch,  does  not  help  us,  since  it 
would  still  have  to  be  admitted  that  the  editor  to  whom  we  owed 
the  present  form  of  the  chapter  identified  this  little  code  of 
religious  observances  with  the  Ten  Words.  Were  this  the  case 
the  editor,  to  quote  Wellhausen,  "  introduced  the  most  serious 
internal  contradiction  found  in  the  Old  Testament."1 

The  Decalogue  in  Christian  Theology. — Following  the  New 
Testament,  in  which  the  "  commandments  "  summed  up  in  the 
law  of  love  are  identified  with  the  precepts  of  the  Decalogue 
(Mark  x.  19;  Rom.  xiii.  9;  cf.  Mark  xii.  28  ff.),  the  ancient 
Church  emphasized  the  permanent  obligation  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments as  a  summary  of  natural  in  contradistinction  to 
ceremonial  precepts,  though  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  was 
to  be  taken  in  a  spiritual  sense  (Augustine,  De  spiritu  et  litera, 
xiv.;  Jerome,  De  celebratione  Paschae).  The  medieval  theo- 
logians followed  in  the  same  line,  recognizing  all  the  precepts  of 
the  Decalogue  as  moral  precepts  de  lege  naturae,  though  the  law  of 
the  Sabbath  is  not  of  the  law  of  nature,  in  so  far  as  it  prescribes 
a  determinate  day  of  rest  (Thomas,  summa,  Ima  IIdBe,  qu.  c. 
art.  3;  Duns,  Super  sententias,  lib.  iii.  dist.  37).  The  most 
important  medieval  exposition  of  the  Decalogue  is  that  of  Nicolaus 
de  Lyra;  and  the  isth  century,  in  which  the  Decalogue  acquired 
special  importance  in  the  confessional,  was  prolific  in  treatises 
on  the  subject  (Antoninus  of  Florence,  Gerson,  &c.). 

Important  theological  controversies  on  the  Decalogue  begin 
with  the  Reformation.  The  question  between  $he  Lutheran 
(Augustinian)  and  Reformed  (Philonic)  division  of  the  ten 
commandments  was  mixed  up  with  controversy  as  to  the  legiti- 
macy of  sacred  images  not  designed  to  be  worshipped.  The 
Reformed  theologians  took  the  stricter  view.  The  identity  of 
the  Decalogue  with  the  eternal  law  of  nature  was  maintained  in 
both  churches,  but  it  was  an  open  question  whether  the  Decalogue, 
as  such  (that  is,  as  a  law  given  by  Moses  to  the  Israelites),  is  of 
perpetual  obligation.  The  Socinians,  on  the  other  hand,  regarded 
the  Decalogue  as  abrogated  by  the  more  perfect  law  of  Christ; 
and  this  view,  especially  in  the  shape  that  the  Decalogue  is  a 
civil  and  not  a  moral  law  (J.  D.  Michaelis),  was  the  current  one 
in  the  period  of  iSth-century  rationalism.  The  distinction  of  a 
permanent  and  a  transitory  element  in  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  is 
found,  not  only  in  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  but  in  Calvin  and 
other  theologians  of  the  Reformed  church.  The  main  contro- 
versy which  arose  on  the  basis  of  this  distinction  was  whether 
the  prescription  of  one  day  in  seven  is  of  permanent  obligation. 
It  was  admitted  that  such  obligation  must  be  not  natural  but 
positive;  but  it  was  argued  by  the  stricter  Calvinistic  divines 
that  the  proportion  of  one  in  seven  is  agreeable  to  nature,  based 
on  the  order  of  creation  in  six  days,  and  in  no  way  specially 
connected  with  anything  Jewish.  Hence  it  was  regarded  as  a 
universal  positive  law  of  God.  But  those  who  maintained  the 
opposite  view  were  not  excluded  from  the  number  of  the  orthodox. 
The  laxer  conception  found  a  place  in  the  Cocceian  school. 

LITERATURE. — Geftcken,  Vber  die  verschiedenen  Eintheilungen  des 
Dekalogs  und  den  Einfluss  derselben  auf  den  Cultus;  W.  Robertson 
Smith,  Old  Test.  Jew.  Church,  pp.  331-345,  where  his  earlier  views 
(1877)  in  the  Ency.  Brit,  are  largely  modified  (cf.  also  Eng.  Hist.  Rev. 
(1888)  p.  352);  Montefiore,  Hibbert  Lectures  (1892),  Appendix  i; 
W.  R.  Harper,  Internal.  Crit.  Comm.  on  Amos  and  Hosea,  pp.  58-64 
(on  the  position  of  the  Decalogue  in  early  pre-prophetic  religion  of 
Israel);  C.  A.  Briggs,  Higher  Criticism  of  Hexat.1  pp.  189-210; 
see  also  the  references  under  EXODUS.  (W.  R.  S. ;  S.  A.  C.) 


1  The  last  three  sentences  of  this  paragraph  are  taken  almost 
bodily  from  Robertson  Smith's  later  views  (Old  Testament  in  the 
Jewish  Church2,  pp.  335  seq.). 


DE  CAMP,  JOSEPH  (1858-  ),  American  portrait  and  figure 
painter,  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1858.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Frank  Duveneck  and  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Munich; 
became  a  member  of  the  society  of  Ten  American  Painters,  and 
a  teacher  in  the  schools  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  Philadelphia,  and  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts;  and 
painted  important  mural  decorations  in  the  Philadelphia  city 
hall. 

DECAMPS,  ALEXANDRE  GABRIEL  (1803-1860),  French 
painter,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  3rd  of  March  1803.  In  his  youth 
he  travelled  in  the  East,  and  reproduced  Oriental  life  and  scenery 
with  a  bold  fidelity  to  nature  that  made  his  works  the  puzzle 
of  conventional  critics.  His  powers,  however,  soon  came  to  be 
recognized,  and  he  was  ranked  along  with  Delacroix  and  Vernet 
as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  French  school.  At  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1855  he  received  the  grand  or  council  medal.  Most  of  his  life 
was  passed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris.  He  \^as  passionately 
fond  of  animals,  especially  dogs,  and  indulged  in  all  kinds  of  field 
sports.  He  died  on  the  22nd  of  August  1860  in  consequence  of 
being  thrown  from  a  vicious  horse  while  hunting  at  Fontainebleau. 
The  style  of  Decamps  was  characteristically  and  intensely  French. 
It  was  marked  by  vivid  dramatic  conception,  by  a  manipulation 
bold  and  rapid,  sometimes  even  to  roughness,  and  especially  by 
original  and  startling  use  of  decided  contrasts  of  colour  and  of 
light  and  shade.  His  subjects  embraced  an  unusually  wide  range. 
He  availed  himself  of  his  travels  in  the  East  in  dealing  with 
scenes  from  Scripture  history,  which  he  was  probably  the  first 
of  European  painters  to  represent  with  their  true  and  natural 
local  background.  Of  this  class  were  his  "  Joseph  sold  by  his 
Brethren,"  "  Moses  taken  from  the  Nile,"  and  his  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Samson,  nine  vigorous  sketches  in  charcoal  and  white. 
Perhaps  the  most  impressive  of  his  historical  pictures  is  his 
"  Defeat  of  the  Cimbri,"  representing  with  wonderful  skill  the 
conflict  between  a  horde  of  barbarians  and  a  disciplined  army. 
Decamps  produced  a  number  of  genre  pictures,  chiefly  of  scenes 
from  French  and  Algerine  domestic  life,  the  most  marked  feature 
of  which  is  humour.  The  same  characteristic  attaches  to  most 
of  his  numerous  animal  paintings.  He  painted  dogs,  horses,  &c., 
with  great  fidelity  and  sympathy;  but  his  favourite  subject  was 
monkeys,  which  he  depicted  in  various  studies  and  sketches  with 
a  grotesque  humour  that  could  scarcely  be  surpassed.  Probably 
the  best  known  of  all  his  works  is  "  The  Monkey  Connoisseurs," 
a  clever  satire  of  the  jury  of  the  French  Academy  of  Painting, 
which  had  rejected  several  of  his  earlier  works  on  account  of  their 
divergence  from  any  known  standard.  The  pictures  and  sketches 
of  Decamps  were  first  made  familiar  to  the  English  public 
through  the  lithographs  of  Eugene  le  Roux. 

See  Moreau's  Decamps  et  son  asuvre  (Paris,  1869). 

DECAPOLIS,  a  league  of  ten  cities  (6«Ka  ir6X«s)  with  their 
surrounding  district,  situated  with  one  exception  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  upper  Jordan  and  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Being 
essentially  a  confederation  of  cities  it  is  impossible  precisely  to 
fix  Decapolis  as  a  region  with  definite  boundaries.  The  names 
of  the  original  ten  cities  are  given  by  Pliny;  these  are  as  follows: 
Damascus,  Philadelphia,  Raphana,  Scythopolis  (  =  Beth-Shan, 
now  Beisan,  west  of  Jordan),  Gadara,  Hippos,  Dion,  Pella, 
Gerasa  and  Kanatha.  Of  these  Damascus  alone  retains  its 
importance.  Scythopolis  (as  represented  by  the  village  of  Beisan) 
is  still  inhabited;  the  ruins  of  Pella,  Gerasa  and  Kanatha 
survive,  but  the  other  sites  are  unknown  or  disputed.  Scytho- 
polis, being  in  command  of  the  communications  with  the  sea  and 
the  Greek  cities  on  the  coast,  was  the  most  important  member  of 
the  league.  The  league  subsequently  received  additions  and  some 
of  the  original  ten  dropped  out.  In  Ptolemy's  enumeration 
Raphana  has  no  place,  and  nine,  such  as  Kapitolias,  Edrei, 
Bosra,  &c.,  are  added.  The  purpose  of  the  league  was  no  doubt 
mutual  defence  against  the  marauding  Bedouin  tribes  that 
surrounded  them.  These  were  hardly  if  at  all  checked  by  the 
Semitic  kinglings  to  whom  the  Romans  delegated  the  govern- 
ment of  eastern  Palestine. 

It  was  probably  soon  after  Pompey's  campaign  in  64-63  B.C. 
that  the  Decapolis  league  took  shape.  The  cities  comprising  it 


910 


DECASTYLE— DECAZES 


were  united  by  the  main  roads  on  which  they  lay,  their  respective 
spheres  of  influence  touching,  if  not  overlapping,  one  another. 
A  constant  communication  was  maintained  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean ports  and  with  Greece,  and  there  was  a  vigorous  municipal 
life  which  found  expression  in  literature,  in  athletic  contests,  and 
in  a  thriving  commerce,  thus  carrying  a  truly  Hellenic  influence 
into  Perea  and  Galilee.  From  Josephus  we  learn  that  the  cities 
were  severally  subject  to  the  governor  of  Syria  and  taxed  for 
imperial  purposes;  some  of  them  afterwards  came  under  Herod's 
jurisdiction,  but  reserved  the  substantial  rights  granted  them 
by  Pompey. 

The  best  account  is  in  G.  A.  Smith's  Historical  Geography  of  the 
Holy  Land,  chap,  xxviii.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

DECASTYLE  (Gr.  5«a,  ten,  and  orOXos,  column),  the  archi- 
tectural term  given  to  a  temple  where  the  front  portico  has  ten 
columns;  as  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus  at  Miletus,  and 
the  portico  of  University  College,  London.  (See  TEMPLE.) 

DECATUR,  STEPHEN  (1779-1820),  American  naval  com- 
mander, was  born  at  Sinnepuxent,  Maryland,  on  the  5th  of 
January  1779,  and  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a  mid- 
shipman in  1798.  He  was  promoted  lieutenant  a  year  later,  and 
in  that  rank  saw  some  service  in  the  short  war  with  France.  In 
1803  he  was  in  command  of  the  "  Enterprise,"  which  formed 
part  of  Commodore  Preble's  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
in  February  1804  led  a  daring  expedition  into  the  harbour  of 
Tripoli  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  U.S.  frigate  "  Philadelphia  " 
which  had  fallen  into  Tripolitan  hands.  He  succeeded  in  his 
purpose  and  made  his  escape  under  the  fire  of  the  batteries  with 
a  loss  of  only  one  man  wounded.  This  brilliant  exploit  earned 
him  his  captain's  commission  and  a  sword  of  honour  from 
Congress.  Decatur  was  subsequently  engaged  in  all  the  attacks 
on  Tripoli  between  1804  and  1805.  In  the  War  of  1812  his  ship 
the  "  United  States  "  captured  H.M.S.  "  Macedonian  "  after  a 
desperate  fight,  and  in  1813  he  was  appointed  commodore  to 
command  a  squadron  in  New  York  harbour,  which  was  soon 
blockaded  by  the  British.  In  an  attempt  to  break  out  in  February 
1815  Decatur's  flagship  the  "  President  "  was  cut  off  and  after 
a  spirited  fight  forced  to  surrender  to  a  superior  force.  Subse- 
quently he  commanded  in  the  Mediterranean  against  the  corsairs 
of  Algiers,  Tunis  and  Tripoli  with  great  success.  On  his  return 
he  was  made  a  navy  commissioner  (November  1815),  an  office 
which  he  held  until  his  death,  which  took  place  in  a  duel  with 
Commodore  James  Barron  at  Bladensburg,  Md.,  on  the  22nd 
of  March  1820. 

See  Mackenzie,  Life  of  Decatur  (Boston,  1846). 

DECATUR,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Macon  county, 
Illinois,  U.S.  A., in  the  central  part  of  the  state,  near  the  Sangamon 
river,  about  39  m.  E.  of  Springfield.  Pop.  (1890)  16,841;  (1900) 
20,754,  of  whom  1939  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census) 
31,140.  Decatur  is  served  by  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  & 
Dayton,  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Wabash  (which  maintains  car 
shops  here),  and  the  Vandalia  railways,  and  is  connected  with 
Danville,  Saint  Louis,  Springfield,  Peoria,  Bloomington  and 
Champaign  by  the  Illinois  Traction  System  (electric).  Decatur 
has  three  large  parks  and  a  public  library;  and  S.E.  of  Fairview 
Park,  with  a  campus  of  35  acres,  is  the  James  Millikin  University 
(co-educational;  Cumberland  Presbyterian),  founded  in  1901 
by  James  Millikin,  and  opened  in  1903.  The  university  com- 
prises schools  of  liberal  arts,  engineering  (mechanical,  electrical, 
and  civil),  domestic  economy,  fine  and  applied  arts,  commerce 
and  finance,  library  science,  pedagogy,  music,  and  a  preparatory 
school;  in  1907-1908  it  had  936  students,  440  being  in  the  school 
of  music.  Among  the  city's  manufactures  are  iron,  brass  castings, 
agricultural  implements,  flour,  Indian  corn  products,  soda 
fountains,  plumbers'  supplies,  coffins  and  caskets,  bar  and  store 
fixtures,  gas  and  electric  light  fixtures,  street  cars,  and  car  trucks. 
The  value  of  the  city's  factory  products  increased  from  $5,133,677 
in  1900  to  $8,667,302  in  1905,  or  68.8  %.  The  city  is  also  an 
important  shipping  point  for  agricultural  products  (especially 
grain),  and  for  coal  taken  from  the  two  mines  in  the  city  and  from 
mines  in  the  surrounding  country.  The  first  settlement  in  Decatur 
was  made  in  1829,  and  the  place  was  incorporated  in  1836.  On 


the  22nd  of  February  1856  a  convention  of  Illinois  editors  met 
at  Decatur  to  determine  upon  a  policy  of  opposition  to  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  They  called  a  state  convention,  which 
met  at  Bloomington,  and  which  is  considered  to  have  taken  the 
first  step  toward  founding  the  Republican  party  in  Illinois. 

DECAZES,  6LIE,  Due  ( 1 780-1860) ,  French  statesman,  was  born 
at  Saint  Martin  de  Laye  in  the  Gironde.  He  studied  law,  became 
a  judge  in  the  tribunal  of  the  Seine  in  1806,  was  attached  to  the 
cabinet  of  Louis  Bonaparte  in  1807,  and  was  counsel  to  the  court 
of  appeal  at  Paris  in  1811.  Immediately  upon  the  fall  of  the 
empire  he  declared  himself  a  Royalist,  and  remained  faithful  to 
the  Bourbons  through  the  Hundred  Days.  He  made  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  Louis  XVIII.  during  that  period  through  Baron 
Louis,  and  the  king  rewarded  his  energy  and  tact  by  appointing 
him  prefect  of  police  at  Paris  on  the  7th  of  July  1815.  His 
marked  success  in  that  difficult  position  won  for  him  the  ministry 
of  police,  in  succession  to  Fouche,  on  the  24th  of  September.  In 
the  interval  he  had  been  elected  deputy  for  the  Seine  (August 
1815)  and  both  as  deputy  and  as  minister  he  led  the  moderate 
Royalists.  His  formula  was  "  to  royalize  France  and  to  national- 
ize the  monarchy."  The  Moderates  were  in  a  minority  in  the 
chamber  of  181 5,  but  Decazes  persuaded  Louis  XVIII.  to  dissolve 
the  house,  and  the  elections  of  October  1816  gave  them  a  majority. 
During  the  next  four  years  Decazes  was  called  upon  to  play  the 
leading  role  in  the  government.  At  first,  as  minister  of  police 
he  had  to  suppress  the  insurrections  provoked  by  the  ultra- 
Royalists  (the  White  Terror) ;  then,  after  the  resignation  of  the 
due  de  Richelieu,  he  took  the  actual  direction  of  the  ministry, 
although  the  nominal  president  was  General  J.  J.  P.  A.  Dessolle 
(1767-1828).  He  held  at  the  same  time  the  portfolio  of  the 
interior.  The  cabinet,  in  which  Baron  Louis  was  minister  of 
finance,  and  Marshal  Gouvion  Saint  Cyr  remained  minister  of 
war,  was  entirely  Liberal;  and  its  first  act  was  to  suppress  the 
ministry  of  police,  as  Decazes  held  that  it  was  incompatible  with 
the  regime  of  liberty.  His  reforms  met  with  the  strong  hostility 
of  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  where  the  ultra-Royalists  were  in  a 
majority,  and  to  overcome  it  he  got  the  king  to  create  sixty  new 
Liberal  peers.  He  then  passed  the  laws  on  the  press,  suppressing 
the  censorship.  By  reorganization  of  the  finances,  the  protection 
of  industry  and  the  carrying  out  of  great  public  works,  France 
regained  its  economic  prosperity,  and  the  ministry  became 
popular.  But  the  powers  of  the  Grand  Alliance  had  been  watch- 
ing the  growth  of  Liberalism  in  France  with  increasing  anxiety. 
Metternich  especially  ascribed  this  mainly  to  the  "  weakness  " 
of  the  ministry,  and  when  in  1819  the  political  elections  still 
further  illustrated  this  trend,  notably  by  the  election  of  the 
celebrated  Abbe  Gregoire,  it  began  to  be  debated  whether  the 
time  had  not  come  to  put  in  force  the  terms  of  the  secret  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  was  this  threat  of  foreign  intervention, 
rather  than  the  clamour  of  the  "  Ultras,"  that  forced  Louis 
XVIII.  to  urge  a  change  in  the  electoraL,law  that  should  render 
such  a  "  scandal  "  as  Gregoire's  election  impossible  for  the 
future.  Dessolle  and  Louis,  refusing  to  embark  on  this  policy, 
now  resigned;  and  Decazes  became  head  of  the  new  ministry, 
as  president  of  the  council  (November  1819).  But  the  exclusion 
of  Gregoire  from  the  chamber  and  the  changes  in  the  franchise 
embittered  the  Radicals  without  conciliating  the  "  Ultras." 
The  news  of  the  revolution  in  Spain  in  January  1820  added  fuel 
to  their  fury;  it  was  the  foolish  and  criminal  policy  of  the  royal 
favourite  that  had  once  more  unchained  the  demon  of  revolution. 
Decazes  was  denounced  as  the  new  Sejanus,  the  modern  Catiline; 
and  when,  on  the  i3th  of  February,  the  duke  of  Berry  was 
murdered,  clamorous  tongues  loudly  accused  him  of  being  an 
accomplice  in  the  crime.  Decazes,.  indeed,  foreseeing  the  storm, 
at  once  placed  his  resignation  in  the  king's  hands.  Louis  at  first 
refused.  "  They  will  attack,"  he'  exclaimed,  "  not  your  system, 
my  dear  son,  but  mine."  But  in  the  end  he  was  forced  to  yield 
to  the  importunity  of  his  family  (February  I7th);  and  Decazes, 
raised  to  the  rank  of  duke,  passed  into  honourable  exile  as 
ambassador  to  Great  Britain. 

This    ended    Decazes's    meteoric    career    of    greatness.     In 
December  1821  he  returned  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Peers,  when 


DECAZEVILLE— DECEMBER 


911 


he  continued  to  maintain  his  Liberal  opinions.  After  1830  he 
adhered  to  the  monarchy  of  July,  but  after  1848  he  remained  in 
retirement.  He  had  organized  in  1826  a  society  to  develop  the 
coal  and  iron  of  the  Aveyron,  and  the  name  of  Decazeville  was 
given  in  1829  to  the  principal  centre  of  the  industry.  He  died 
on  the  24th  of  October  1860. 

His  son,  Louis  CHARLES  £LIE  DECAZES,  due  de  Gliicksberg 
(1810-1886),  was  born  at  Paris,  and  entered  the  diplomatic 
career.  He  became  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Madrid  and  at 
Lisbon,  but  the  revolution  of  1848  caused  him  to  withdraw  into 
private  life,  from  which  he  did  not  emerge  until  in  1871  he  was 
elected  deputy  to  the  National  Assembly  by  the  Gironde.  There 
he  sat  in  the  right  centre  among  the  Orleanists,  and  was  chosen 
by  the  due  de  Broglie  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  November 
1873.  He  voted  with  the  Orleanists  the  "  Constitutional  Laws  " 
of  1875,  and  approved  of  MacMahon's  parliamentary  coup  d'  etat 
on  the  i6th  of  May  1877.  He  was  re-elected  deputy  in  October 
1877  by  the  arrondissement  of  Puget-Theniers,  but  his  election 
was  annulled  by  the  chamber,  and  he  was  not  re-elected.  He 
died  on  the  i6th  of  September  1886. 

On  the  Due  Decazessee  E.  Daudet,  Louis  X  VIII.  et  le  due  Decazes 
(1899),  and  his  "  L'ambassade  du  due  Decazes  "  in  the  Revue  des  deux 
mondes  for  1899. 

DECAZEVILLE,  a  town  of  south-central  France,  in  the 
department  of  Aveyron,  34  m.  N.W.  of  Rodez  by  the  Orleans 
railway.  Pop.  (1906)  9749.  It  possesses  iron  mines  and  is  the 
centre  of  the  coal-fields  of  the  Aveyron,  which  supply  the  iron- 
works established  by  the  Due  Decazes,  minister  of  Louis  XVIII. 
A  statue  commemorates  the  founder. 

DECCAN  (Sans.  Dakshina,  "  the  South  "),  a  name  applied, 
according  to  Hindu  geographers,  to  the  whole  of  the  territories  in 
India  situated  to  the  south  of  the  river  Nerbudda.  In  its  more 
modern  acceptation,  however,  it  is  sometimes  understood  as 
comprising  only  the  country  lying  between  that  river  and  the 
Kistna,  the  latter  having  for  a  long  period  formed  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Mahommedan  empire  of  Delhi.  Assigning  it  the 
more  extended  of  these  limits,  it  comprehends  the  whole  of  the 
Indian  peninsula,  and  in  this  view  the  mountainous  system, 
consisting  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Ghats,  constitutes  the 
most  striking  feature  of  the  Deccan.  These  two  mountain 
ranges  unite  at  their  northern  extremities  with  the  Vindhya 
chain  of  mountains,  and  thus  is  formed  a  vast  triangle  supporting 
at  a  considerable  elevation  the  expanse  of  table-land  which 
stretches  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  valley  of  the  Nerbudda. 
The  surface  of  this  table-land  slopes  from  west  to  east,  as 
indicated  by  the  direction  of  the  drainage  of  the  country, — the 
great  rivers,  the  Cauvery,  Godavari,  Kistna  and  Pennar,  though 
deriving  their  sources  from  the  base  of  the  Western  Ghats,  all 
finding  their  way  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  through  fissures  in  the 
Eastern  Ghats. 

History. — The  detailed  and  authentic  history  of  the  Deccan 
only  begins  with  the  i3th  century  A.D.  Of  the  early  history 
the  main  facts  established  are  the  Aryan  invasion  (c.  700  B.C.), 
the  growth  of  the  Maurya  empire  (250  B.C.)  and  the  invasion 
(A.D.  too)  of  the  Scythic  tribes  known  as  the  Sakas,  Pahlavas 
and  Yavanas,  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  power 
of  the  Kshaharata  satraps  in  western  India.  In  addition 
to  this,  modern  study  of  monuments  and  inscriptions  has 
recovered  the  names,  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  records,  of  a 
succession  of  dynasties  ruling  in  the  Deccan  ;  of  these  the  most 
conspicuous  are  the  Cholas,  the  Andhras  or  Satavahanas,  the 
Chalukyas,  the  Rashtrakutas  and  the  Yadavas  of  Devagiri 
(Deogiri).  (See  INDIA:  History;  BOMBAY  PRESIDENCY: 
History;  INSCRIPTIONS:  Indian.)  In  1294  Ala-ud-Din  Khilji, 
emperor  of  Delhi,  invaded  the  Deccan,  stormed  Devagiri,  and 
reduced  the  Yadava  rajas  of  Maharashtra  to  the  position  of 
tributary  princes  (see  DAULATABAD),  then  proceeding  southward 
overran  Telingana  and  Carnata  (1294-130x3).  With  this  event 
the  continuous  history  of  the  Deccan  begins.  In  1307,  owing  to 
non-payment  of  tribute,  a  fresh  series  of  Mussulman  incursions 
began,  under  Malik  Kafur,  issuing  in  the  final  ruin  of  the  Yadava 
power;  and  in  1338  the  reduction  of  the  Deccan  was  completed 


by  Mahommed  ben  Tughlak.  The  imperial  sway  was,  however, 
of  brief  duration.  Telingana  and  Carnata  speedily  reverted 
to  their  former  masters ;  and  this  defection  on  the  part  of  the 
Hindu  states  was  followed  by  a  general  revolt  of  the  Mussulman 
governors,  resulting  in  the  establishment  in  1347  of  the  independ- 
ent Mahommedan  dynasty  of  Bahmani,  and  the  consequent 
withdrawal  of  the  power  of  Delhi  from  the  territory  south  of  the 
Nerbudda.  In  the  struggles  which  ensued,  the  Hindu  kingdom  of 
Telingana  fell  bit  by  bit  to  the  Bahmani  dynasty,  who  advanced 
their  frontier  to  Golconda  in  1373,  to  Warangal  in  1421,  and  to 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  in  1472.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Bahmani 
empire  (1482),  its  dominions  were  distributed  into  the  five 
Mahommedan  states  of  Golconda,  Bijapur,  Ahmednagar,  Bidar 
and  Berar.  To  the  south  of  these  the  great  Hindu  state  of  Car- 
nata or  Vijayanagar  still  survived;  but  this,  too,  was  destroyed, 
at  the  battle  of  Talikota  (1565),  by  a  league  of  the  Mahommedan 
powers.  These  latter  in  their  turn  soon  disappeared.  Berar 
had  already  been  annexed  by  Ahmednagar  in  1572,  and  Bidar 
was  absorbed  by  Bijapur  in  1609.  The  victories  of  the  Delhi 
emperors,  Akbar,  Shah  Jahan  and  Aurangzeb,  crushed  the 
rest.  Ahmednagar  was  incorporated  in  the  Mogul  empire  in 
1598,  Bijapur  in  1686,  and  Golconda  in  1688.  The  rule  of  the 
Delhi  emperors  in  the  Deccan  did  not,  however,  long  survive. 
In  1706  the  Mahrattas  acquired  the  right  of  levying  tribute  in 
southern  India,  and  their  principal  chief,  the  Peshwa  of  Poona, 
became  a  practically  independent  sovereign.  A  few  years  later 
the  emperor's  viceroy  in  Ahmednagar,  the  nizam-al-mulk,  threw 
off  his  allegiance  and  established  the  seat  of  an  independent 
government  at  Hyderabad  (1724).  The  remainder  of  the  imperial 
possessions  in  the  peninsula  were  held  by  chieftains  acknowledging 
the  supremacy  of  one  or  other  of  these  two  potentates.  In  the 
sequel,  Mysore  became  the  prize  of  the  Mahommedan  usurper 
Hyder  Ali.  During  the  contests  for  power  which  ensued  about 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  between  the  native  chiefs,  the 
French  and  the  English  took  opposite  sides.  After  a  brief  course 
of  triumph,  the  interests  of  France  declined,  and  a  new  empire  in 
India  was  established  by  the  British.  Mysore  formed  one  of  their 
earliest  conquests  in  the  Deccan.  Tanjore  and  the  Carnatic 
were  shortly  after  annexed  to  their  dominions.  In  1818  the 
forfeited  possessions  of  the  Peshwa  added  to  their  extent ;  and 
these  acquisitions,  with  others  which  have  more  recently  fallen 
to  the  paramount  power  by  cession,  conquest  or  failure  of  heirs, 
form  a  continuous  territory  stretching  from  the  Nerbudda  to 
Cape  Comorin.  Its  length  is  upwards  of  1000  m.,  and  its  extreme 
breadth  exceeds  800.  This  vast  tract  comprehends  the  chief 
provinces  now  distributed  between  the  presidencies  of  Madras 
and  Bombay,  together  with  the  native  states  of  Hyderabad 
and  Mysore,  and  those  of  Kolhapur,  Sawantwari,  Travancore, 
Cochin  and  the  petty  possessions  of  France  and  Portugal. 

See  J.  D.  B.  Gribble,  History  of  the  Deccan  (1896);  Prof.  Bhand- 
arkar,  "  Early  History  of  the  Dekkan  "  (Bombay  Gazetteer) ;  Vincent 
A.  Smith,  Early  History  of  India  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford,  1908),  chap.  xv. 
"The  Kingdoms  of  the  Deccan." 

DECELEA  (Gr.  AeceXeia),  an  Attic  deme,  on  the  pass  which 
led  over  the  east  end  of  Mt.  Parnes  towards  Oropns  and  Chalcis. 
From  its  position  it  has  a  commanding  view  over  the  Athenian 
plain.  Its  eponymous  hero,  Decelus,  was  said  to  have  indicated 
to  the  Tyndaridae,  Castor  and  Pollux,  the  place  where  Theseus 
had  hidden  their  sister  Helen  at  Aphidnae;  and  hence  there  was 
a  traditional  friendship  between  the  Deceleans  and  the  Spartans 
(Herodotus  ix.  73).  This  tradition,  together  with  the  advice  of 
Alcibiades,  led  the  Spartans  to  fortify  Decelea  as  a  basis  for 
permanent  occupation  in  Attica  during  the  later  years  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  from  413-404  B.C.  Its  position  enabled 
them  to  harass  the  Athenians  constantly,  and  to  form  a  centre 
for  fugitive  slaves  and  other  deserters.  The  royal  palace  of  Tatoi 
has  been  built  on  the  site. 

See  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  ;  also  Judeich  in  Pauly-Wissowa, 
Realencyclopddie. 

DECEMBER  (Lat.  decent,  ten),  the  last  month  of  the  year.  In 
the  Roman  calendar,  traditionally  ascribed  to  Romulus,  the  year 
was  divided  into  ten  months,  the  last  of  which  was  called  Decem- 
ber, or  the  tenth  month,  and  this  name,  though  etymologically 


912 


DECEMVIRI— DECIMAL  COINAGE 


incorrect,  was  retained  for  the  last  or  twelfth  month  of  the 
year  as  now  divided.  In  the  Romulian  calendar  December  had 
thirty  days  ;  Numa  reduced  the  number  to  twenty-nine  ;  Julius 
Caesar  added  two  days  to  this,  giving  the  month  its  present 
length.  The  Saturnalia  occurred  in  December,  which  is  therefore 
styled  "  acceptus  geniis  "  by  Ovid  (Fasti,  iii.  58);  and  this  also 
explains  the  phrase  of  Horace  "  libertate  Decembri  utere  " 
(Sat.  ii.  7).  Martial  applies  to  the  month  the  epithet  canus 
(hoary),  and  Ovid  styles  it  gelidus  (frosty)  andfumosus  (smoky). 
In  the  reign  of  Commodus  it  was  temporarily  styled  Amazonius, 
in  honour  of  the  emperor's  mistress,  whom  he  had  had  painted  as 
an  Amazon.  The  Saxons  called  it  winter-monath,  winter  month, 
and  heligh-monath,  holy  month,  from  the  fact  that  Christmas 
fell  within  it.  Thus  the  modern  Germans  call  it  Christmonat. 
The  22nd  of  December  is  the  date  of  the  winter  solstice,  when  the 
sun  reaches  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 

DECEMVIRI  ("  the  ten  men  "),  the  name  applied  by  the 
Romans  to  any  official  commision  of  ten.  The  title  was  often 
followed  by  a  statement  of  the  purpose  for  which  the  commission 
was  appointed,  e.g.  Xviri  legibus  scribundis,  stlitibus  judicandis, 
sacris  faciundis. 

I.  Apart  from  such  qualification,  it  signified  chiefly  the  tempo- 
rary commission  which  superseded  all  the  ordinary  magistrates 
of  the  Republic  from  451  to  449  B.C.,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing 
up  a  code  of  laws.     In  462  B.C.  a  tribune  proposed  that  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  to  draw  up  a  code  expressing  the 
legal  principles  of  the  administration  was  necessary  to  secure 
for  the  plebs  a  hold  over  magisterial  caprice.  Continued  agitation 
to  this  effect  resulted  in  an  agreement  in  452  B.C.  between 
patricians  and  plebeians  that  decemvirs  should  be  appointed 
to  draw  up  a  code,  that  during  their  tenure  of  office  all  other 
magistracies  should  be  in  abeyance,  that  they  should  not  be 
subject  to  appeal,  but  that  they  should  be  bound  to  maintain 
the  laws  which  guaranteed  by  religious  sanctions  the  rights  of 
the  plebs.     The  first  board  of  decemvirs  (apparently  consisting 
wholly  of  patricians)  was  appointed  to  hold  office  during  45 1  B.C.  ; 
and  the  chief  man  among  them  was  Appius  Claudius.     Livy 
(iii.  32)  says  that  only  patricians  were  eligible.     Mommsen, 
however,  held  that  plebeians  were  legally  eligible,  though  none 
were  actually  appointed  for  451.     The  decemvirs  ruled  with 
singular  moderation,  and  submitted  to  the  Comitia  Centuriata  a 
code  of  laws  in  ten  headings,  which  was  passed.     So  popular  were 
the  decemvirs  that  another  board  of  ten  was  appointed  for  the 
following  year,  some  of  whom,  if  the  extant  list  of  names  is 
correct,  were  certainly  plebeians.     These  added  two  more  to  the 
ten  laws  of  their  predecessors,  thus  completing  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  (see  ROMAN  LAW).     But  their  rule  then  became 
violent  and  tyrannical,  and  they  fell  before  the  fury  of  the  plebs, 
though  for  some  reason,  not  easily  understood,  they  continued 
to  have  the  support  of  the  patricians.     They  were  forced  to 
abdicate  (449  B.C.),  and  the  ordinary  magistrates  were  restored. 

II.  The   judicial   board   of  decemvirs    (stlitibus  judicandis) 
formed  a  civil  court  of  ancient  origin  concerned  mainly  with 
questions  bearing  on   the  status  of  individuals.     They  were 
originally  a  body  of  jurors  which  gave  a  verdict  under  the 
presidency  of  the  praetor  (<?.».),  but  eventually  became  annual 
minor  magistrates  of  the   Republic,   elected  by   the  Comitia 
Tributa. 

III.  The  priestly  board  of  decemvirs  (sacris  faciundis)  was  an 
outcome  of  the  claim  of  the  plebs  to  a  share  in  the  administration 
of  the  state  religion.     Five  of  the  decemvirs  were  patricians,  and 
five  plebeians.     They  were  first  appointed  in  367  B.C.  instead  of 
the  patrician  duumviri  who  had  hitherto  performed  these  duties. 
The  board  was  increased  to  fifteen  in  the  last  century  of  the 
Republic.     Its  chief  function  was  the  care  of  the  Sibylline  books, 
and  the  celebration  of  the  games  of  Apollo  (Livy  x.  8)  and  the 
Secular  Games  (Tac.  Ann.  xi.  n). 

IV.  Decemvirs  were  also  appointed  from  time  to  time  to 
control  the  distribution  of  the  public  land  (agris  dandis  adsi- 
gnandis;  see  AGRARIAN  LAWS). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — B.  G.  Niebuhr,  History  of  Rome  (Eng.  trans.), 
ii.  309  et  seq.  (Cambridge,  1832) ;  Th.  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome, 


bk.  ii.  c.  2,  vol.  i.  pp.  361  et  seq.  (Eng.  trans.,  new  ed.,  if 
Romisches  Staatsrecht,  ii.  605  et  seq.,  714  (Leipzig,  1887);  A.  1 
Greenidge,  Legal  Procedure  of  Cicero's  Time,  p.  40  et  seq.,  263 
(Oxford,  1901);  J.  Muirhead,  Private  Law  of  Rome,  p.  73  et  seq. 
(London,  1899);  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyclopddie,  iv.  2256  et  seq. 
(Kiibler).  (A.  M.  CL.) 

DECHEN,  ERNST  HEINRICH  KARL  VON  (1800-1889),  German 

geologist,  was  born  in  Berlin  on  the  25th  of  March  1800,  and  was 
educated  in  the  university  in  that  city.  He  subsequently  studied 
mining  in  Bochum  and  Essen,  and  was  in  1820  placed  in  the 
mining  department  of  the  Prussian  state,  serving  on  the  staff 
until  1864,  and  becoming  director  in  1841  when  he  was  stationed 
at  Bonn.  In  early  years  he  made  journeys  to  study  the  mining 
systems  of  other  countries,  and  with  this  object  he  visited  England 
and  Scotland  in  company  with  Karl  von  Oeynhausen  (1797- 
1865).  In  the  course  of  his  work  he  paid  special  attention  to  the 
coal-formation  of  Westphalia  and  northern  Europe  generally, 
and  he  greatly  furthered  the  progress  made  in  mining  and 
metallurgical  works  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  He  made  numerous 
contributions  to  geological  literature;  notably  the  following: — 
Geognostische  Umrisse  der  Rheinldnder  zwiscken  Basel  und  Mainz 
mit  besonderer  Rucksicht  auf  das  Vorkommen  des  Steinsalzes 
(with  von  Oeynhausen  and  La  Roche),  2  vols.  (Berlin,  1825); 
Geognostische  Fuhrer  in  das  Siebengebirge  am  Rhein  (Bonn,  1861) ; 
Die  nutzbaren  Mineralien  und  Gebirgsarten  im  deutschen  Reiche 
(1873).  But  his  main  work  was  a  geological  map  of  Rhenish 
Prussia  and  Westphalia  in  35  sheets  on  the  scale  of  i:  80,000, 
issued  with  two  volumes  of  explanatory  text  (1855-1882).  He 
published  also  a  small  geological  map  of  Germany  (1869).  He 
died  at  Bonn  on  the  isth  of  February  1889.  (H.  B.  W.) 

DECIDUOUS  (from  Lat.  decidere,  to  fall  down),  a  botanical 
and  zoological  term  for  "  falling  in  season,"  as  of  petals  after 
flowering,  leaves  in  autumn,  the  teeth  or  horns  of  animals,  or  the 
wings  of  insects. 

DECIMAL  COINAGE.1  Any  currency  in  which  the  various 
denominations  of  coin  are  arranged  in  multiples  or  submultiples 
of  ten  (Lat.  decem),  with  reference  to  a  standard  unit,  is  a  decimal 
system.  Thus  if  the  standard  unit  be  i  the  higher  coins  will  be 
10,  100,  1000,  &c.,  the  lower  -i,  -01,  -ooi,  &c.  In  a  perfect 
system  there  would  be  no  breaks  or  interpolations,  but  the  actual 
currencies  described  as  "  decimal "  do  not  show  this  rigid 
symmetry.  In  France  the  standard  unit — the  franc — has  the 
10  franc  and  the  100  franc  pieces  above  it;  the  10  centime  below 
it;  there  are  also,  however,  50  franc,  20  franc,  5  franc,  2  franc 
pieces  as  well  as  50  and  20  centime  ones.  Similar  irregularities 
occur  in  the  German  and  United  States  coinages,  and  indeed 
in  all  countries  in  which  a  decimal  system  has  been  established. 
Popular  convenience  has  compelled  this  departure  from  the 
strict  decimal  form.  , 

Subject  to  these  practical  modifications  the  leading  countries 
of  the  world  (Great  Britain  and  India  are  the  chief  exceptions) 
have  adopted  decimal  coinage.  The  United  States  led  the  way 
(1786  and  1792)  with  the  dollar  as  the  unit,  and  France  soon 
followed  (1799  and  1803),  her  system  being  extended  to  the 
countries  of  the  Latin  Union  (1865).  The  German  empire  (1873), 
the  Scandinavian  States(i875), Austria-Hungary  (i87o,developed 
in  1892)  and  Russia  (1839  and  1897)  are  further  adherents  to  the 
decimal  system.  The  Latin- American  countries  and  Japan  (1871) 
have  also  adopted  it. 

In  England  proposals  for  decimalizing  the  coinage  have  long 
been  under  discussion  at  intervals.  Besides  the  inconvenience 
of  altering  the  established  currency,  the  difficulty  of  choosing 
between  the  different  schemes  propounded  has  been  a  consider- 
able obstacle.  One  plan  took  the  farthing  as  a  base:  then  10 
farthings=i  doit  (2^6.),  10  doits=i  florin  (25.  id.),  10  florins= 
i  pound  (205.  iod.).  The  advantages  claimed  for  this  scheme 
were  (i)  the  preservation  of  the  smaller  coins  (the  penny  = 
4  farthings);  and  (2)  the  avoidance  of  interference  with  the 
smaller  retail  prices.  Its  great  disadvantage  was  the  destruction 
of  the  existing  unit  of  value — the  pound — and  the  consequent 
disturbance  of  all  accounts.  A  second  proposal- would  retain  the 
pound  as  unit  and  the  florin,  but  would  subdivide  the  latter  into 
1  For  "  decimal  "  in  general  see  ARITHMETIC. 


DECI  US— DECLARATION 


too  "  units  "  (or  farthings  reduced  4  %)  and  introduce  a  new  coin 
=  10  units  (2.4d.).  By  it  the  unit  of  account  would  remain  as  at 
present,  and  the  shilling  (as  50  units)  would  continue  in  use. 
The  alteration  of  the  bronze  and  several  silver  coins,  and  the  need 
of  readjusting  all  values  and  prices  expressed  in  pence,  formed 
the  principal  difficulties.  A  third  scheme,  which  was  connected 
with  the  assimilation  of  English  to  French  and  American  money, 
proposed  the  establishment  of  an  8s.  gold  coin  as  unit,  with  the 
tenpenny  or  franc  and  the  penny  (reduced  by  4  %)  as  sub- 
divisions. The  new  coin  would  be  equivalent  to  10  francs  or 
(by  an  anticipated  reduction  of  the  dollar)  2  dollars.  None  of 
these  plans  has  gained  any  great  amount  of  popular  support. 

For  the  general  question  of  monetary  scales  see  MONEY,  and  for 
the  decimarsystem  in  reference  to  weights  and  measures  see  METRIC 
SYSTEM  and  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  (C.  F.  B.) 

DECIUS,  GAIUS  MESSIUS  QUINTUS  TRAJANUS  (201-251), 
Roman  emperor,  the  first  of  the  long  succession  of  distinguished 
men  from  the  Illyrian  provinces,  was  born  at  Budalia  near 
Sirmium  in  lower  Pannonia  in  A.D.  201.  About. 245  the  emperor 
Philip  the  Arabian  entrusted  him  with  an  important  command 
on  the  Danube,  and  in  249  (or  end  of  248),  having  been  sent  to 
put  down  a  revolt  of  the  troops  in  Moesia  and  Pannonia,  he  was 
forced  to  assume  the  imperial  dignity.  He  still  protested  his 
loyalty  to  Philip,  but  the  latter  advanced  against  him  and  was 
slain  near  Verona.  During  his  brief  reign  Decius  was  engaged  in 
important  operations  against  the  Goths,  who  crossed  the  Danube 
and  overran  the  districts  of  Moesia  and  Thrace.  The  details  are 
obscure,  and  there  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  part  taken  in 
the  campaign  by  Decius  and  his  son  (of  the  same  name)  respect- 
ively. The  Goths  were  surprised  by  the  emperor  while  besieging 
Nicopolis  on  the  Danube;  at  his  approach  they  crossed  the 
Balkans,  and  attacked  Philippopolis.  Decius  followed  them, 
but  a  severe  defeat  near  Beroe  made  it  impossible  to  save 
Philippopolis,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  who  treated 
the  conquered  with  frightful  cruelty.  Its  commander,  Priscus, 
declared  himself  emperor  under  Gothic  protection.  The  siege 
of  Philippopolis  had  so  exhausted  the  numbers  and  resources 
of  the  Goths,  that  they  offered  to  surrender  their  booty  and 
prisoners  on  condition  of  being  allowed  to  retire  unmolested. 
But  Decius,  who  had  succeeded  in  surrounding  them  and  hoped 
to  cut  off  their  retreat,  refused  to  entertain  their  proposals. 
The  final  engagement,  in  which  the  Goths  fought  with  the 
courage  of  despair,  took  place  on  swampy  ground  in  the  Dobrudja 
near  Abritum  (Abrittus)  or  Forum  Trebonii  and  ended  in  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Decius  and  his  son.  Decius  was  an  excellent 
soldier,  a  man  of  amiable  disposition,  and  a  capable  adminis- 
trator, worthy  of  being  classed  with  the  best  Romans  of  the 
ancient  type.  The  chief  blot  on  his  reign  was  the  systematic 
and  authorized  persecution  of  the  Christians,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  restoration  of  the  religion  and  institutions  of  ancient 
Rome.  Either  as  a  concession  to  the  senate,  or  perhaps  with  the 
idea  of  improving  public  morality,  Decius  endeavoured  to  revive 
the  separate  office  and  authority  of  the  censor.  The  choice  'was 
left  to  the  senate,  who  unanimously  selected  Valerian  (afterwards 
emperor).  But  Valerian,  well  aware  of  the  dangers  and  difficulties 
attaching  to  the  office  at  such  a  time,  declined  the  responsibility. 
The  invasion  of  the  Goths  and  the  death  of  Decius  put  an  end  to 
the  abortive  attempt. 

See  Aurelius  Victor,  De  Caesaribus,  29,  Epit.  29;  Jordanes,  De 
rebus  Geticis,  18;  fragments  of  Dexippus,  in  C.  W.  Miiller,  Frag. 
Hist.  \Graec.  iii.  (1849);  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  10; 
H.  Schiller,  Geschichte  der  romischen  Kaiserzeit,  i.  (pt.  2),  1883. 

DECIZE,  a  town  of  central  France,  in  the  department  of  Nievre, 
on  an  island  in  the  Loire,  24  m.  S.E.  of  Nevers  by  the  Paris-Lyon 
railway.  Pop.  (1906)  3813.  The  most  important  of  its  buildings 
is  the  church  of  Saint  Are,  which  dates  in  part  from  the  nth  and 
1 2th  centuries;  there  are  also  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the  counts  of 
Nevers.  The  town  has  a  statue  of  Guy  Coquille,  the  lawyer  and 
historian,  who  was  born  there  in  1523.  Decize  is  situated  at  the 
starting-point  of  the  Nivernais  canal.  The  coal  mine  of  La 
Machine,  which  belongs  to  the  Schneider  Company  of  Le  Creusot, 
lies  four  miles  to  the  north.  The  industries  of  Decize  and  its 
suburbs  on  both  banks  of  the  Loire  include  the  working  of  gypsum 


and  lime,  and  the  manufacture  of  ceramic  products  and  glass. 
Trade  is  in  horses  from  the  Morvan,  cattle,  coal,  iron,  wood  and 
stone. 

Under  the  name  of  Decetia  the  place  is  mentioned  by  Julius 
Caesar  as  a  stronghold  of  the  Aedui,  and  in  52  B.C.  was  the  scene 
of  a  meeting  of  the  senate  held  by  him  to  settle  the  leadership 
of  the  tribe  and  to  reply  to  his  demand  for  aid  against  Vercinge- 
torix.  In  later  times  it  belonged  to  the  counts  of  Nevers,  from 
whom  it  obtained  a  charter  of  franchise  in  1226. 

DECKER,  SIR  MATTHEW,  Bart.  (1679-!  749),  English 
merchant  and  writer  on  trade,  was  born  in  Amsterdam  in  1679. 
He  came  to  London  in  1702  and  established  himself  there  as  a 
merchant.  He  was  remarkably  successful  in  his  business  life, 
gaining  great  wealth  and  having  many  honours  conferred  upon 
him.  He  was  a  director  of  the  East  India  Company,  sat  in 
parliament  for  four  years  as  member  for  Bishops  Castle,  and 
was  high  sheriff  of  Surrey  in  1729.  He  was  created  a  baronet  by 
George  I.  in  1716.  Decker's  fame  as  a  writer  on  trade  rests  on 
two  tracts.  The  first,  Serious  considerations  on  the  several  high 
duties  which  the  Nation  in  general,  as  well  as  Trade  in  particular, 
labours  under,  with  a  proposal  for  preventing  the  removal  of  goods, 
discharging  the  trader  from  any  search,  and  raising  all  the  Publick 
Supplies  by  one  single  Tax  (1743;  name  affixed  to  7th  edition, 
1756),  proposed  to  do  away  with  customs  duties  and  substitute 
a  tax  upon  houses.  He  also  suggested  taking  the  duty  off 
tea  and  putting  instead  a  licence  duty  on  households  wishing 
to  consume  it.  The  second,  an  Essay  on  the  Causes  of  the 
Decline  of  the  Foreign  Trade,  consequently  of  the  value  of 
the  lands  in  Britain,  and  on  the  means  to  restore  both  (1744), 
has  been  attributed  to  W.  Richardson,  but  internal  evidence 
is  strongly  in  favour  of  Decker's  authorship.  He  advocates 
the  licence  plan  in  an  extended  form ;  urges  the  repeal  of 
import  duties  and  the  abolition  of  bounties,  and,  in  general, 
shows  himself  such  a  strong  supporter  of  the  doctrine  of 
free  trade  as  to  rank  as  one  of  the  most  important  forerunners 
of  Adam  Smith.  Decker  died  on  the  i8th  of  March  1749. 

DECKER,  PIERRE  DE  (1812-1891),  Belgian  statesman  and 
author,  was  educated  at  a  Jesuit  school,  studied  law  at  Paris, 
and  became  a  journalist  on  the  staff  of  the  Revue  de  Bruxettes. 
In  1839  he  was  elected  to  the  Belgian  lower  chamber,  where 
he  gained  a  great  reputation  for  oratory.  In  1855  he  became 
minister  of  the  interior  and  prime  minister,  and  attempted, 
by  a  combination  of  the  moderate  elements  of  the  Catholic  and 
Liberal  parties,  the  impossible  task  of  effecting  a  settlement 
of  the  educational  and  other  questions  by  which  Belgium  was 
distracted.  In  1866  he  retired  from  politics  and  went  into 
business,  with  disastrous  results.  He  became  involved  in 
financial  speculations  which  lost  him  his  good  name  as  well  as  the 
greater  part  of  his  fortune ;  and,  though  he  was  never  proved  to 
have  been  more  than  the  victim  of  clever  operators,  when  in  1871 
he  was  appointed  by  the  Catholic  cabinet  governor  of  Limburg, 
the  outcry  was  so  great  that  he  resigned  the  appointment  and 
retired  definitively  into  private  life.  He  died  on  the  4th  of 
January  1891.  Decker,  who  was  a  member  of  the  Belgian 
academy,  wrote  several  historical  and  other  works  of  value,  of 
which  the  most  notable  are  Etudes  historiques  et  critiques  sur  les 
monts-de-piete  en  Belgique  (Brussels,  1844);  De  I'influence  du 
libre  arbitre  de  I'homme  sur  les  f aits  sociaux  (1848);  L' Esprit  de 
parti  et  I'esprit  national  (1852);  Etude  politique  sur  le  vicomteCh. 
Vilain  XIIII  (1879);  Episodes  de  I' hist,  de  I'art  en  Belgique 
(1883);  Biographic  de  H.  Conscience  (1885). 

DECLARATION  (from  Lat.  declarare,  to  make  fully  clear, 
clarus),  formerly,  in  an  action  at  English  law,  the  first  step  in 
pleading — the  precise  statement  of  the  matter  in  respect  of  which 
the  plaintiff  sued.  It  was  divided  into  counts,  in  each  of  which 
a  specific  cause  of  action  was  alleged,  in  wide  and  general  terms, 
and  the  same  acts  or  omissions  might  be  stated  in  several  counts 
as  different  causes  of  actions.  Under  the  system  of  pleading 
established  by  the  Judicature  Act  1875,  the  declaration  has  been 
superseded  by  a  statement  of  claim  setting  forth  the  facts  on 
which  the  plaintiff  relies.  Declarations  are  now  in  use  only  in 
the  mayor's  court  of  London  and  certain  local  courts  of  record. 


914 


DECLARATION  OF  PARIS— DECOLOURIZING 


and  in  those  of  the  United  States  and  the  British  colonies  in 
which  the  Common  Law  system  of  pleading  survives.  In  the 
United  States  a  declaration  is  termed  a  "  complaint,"  which  is 
the  first  pleading  in  an  action.  It  is  divided  into  parts,— the 
title  of  the  court  and  term;  the  venue  or  county  in  which  the 
facts  are  alleged  to  have  occurred;  the  commencement,  which 
contains  a  statement  of  the  names  of  the  parties  and  the  char- 
acter in  which  they  appear;  the  statement  of  the  cause  of  action; 
and  the  conclusion  or  claim  for  relief.  (See  PLEADING.) 

The  term  is  also  used  in  other  English  legal  connexions;  e.g. 
the  Declaration  of  Insolvency  which,  when  filed  in  the  Bankruptcy 
Court  by  any  person  unable  to  pay  his  debts,  amounts  to  an  act 
of  bankruptcy  (see  BANKRUPTCY)  ;  the  Declaration  of  Title,  for 
which,  when  a  person  apprehends  an  invasion  of  his  title  to  land, 
he  may,  by  the  Declaration  of  Title  Act  1862,  petition  the  Court 
of  Chancery  (see  LAND  REGISTRATION);  or  the  Declaration  of 
Trust,  whereby  a  person  acknowledges  that  property,  the  title  of 
which  he  holds,  belongs  to  another,  for  whose  use  he  holds  it; 
by  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  declarations  of  trust  of  land  must  be 
evidenced  in  writing  and  signed  by  the  party  declaring  the  trust. 
(See  TRUSTS.)  By  the  Statutory  Declarations  Act  1835  (which 
was  an  act  to  make  provision  for  the  abolition  of  unnecessary 
oaths,  and  to  repeal  a  previous  act  of  the  same  session  on  the 
same  subject),  various  cases  were  specified  in  which  a  solemn 
declaration  was,  or  might  be,  substituted  for  an  affidavit.  In 
nearly  all  civilized  countries  an  affirmation  is  now  permitted  to 
those  who  object  to  take  an  oath  or  upon  whose  conscience  an 
oath  is  not  binding.  (See  AFFIDAVIT;  OATH.) 

An  exceptional  position  in  law  is  accorded  to  a  Dying  or  Death- 
bed Declaration.  As  a  general  rule,  hearsay  evidence  is  excluded 
on  a  criminal  charge,  but  where  the  charge  is  one  of  homicide 
it  is  the  practice  to  admit  dying  declarations  of  the  deceased 
with  respect  to  the  cause  of  his  death.  But  before  such  declara- 
tions can  be  admitted  in  evidence  against  a  prisoner,  it  must  be 
proved  that  the  deceased  when  making  the  declaration  had  given 
up  all  hope  of  recovery.  Unsworn  declarations  as  to  family 
matters,  e.g.  as  to  pedigree,  may  also  be  admitted  as  evidence,  as 
well  as  declarations  made  by  deceased  persons  in  the  course  of 
their  duty.  (See  EVIDENCE.) 

DECLARATION  OF  PARIS,  a  statement  of  principles  of 
international  law  adopted  at  the  conclusion  (i6th  of  April  1856) 
of  the  negotiations  for  the  treaty  of  Paris  at  the  suggestion  of 
Count  Walewski,  the  French  plenipotentiary.  The  declaration 
set  out  that  maritime  law  in  time  of  war  had  long  been  the 
subject  of  deplorable  disputes,  that  the  uncertainty  of  the  rights 
and  duties  in  respect  of  it  gave  rise  to  differences  of  opinion 
between  neutrals  and  belligerents  which  might  occasion  serious 
difficulties  and  even  conflicts,  and  that  it  was  consequently 
desirable  to  agree  upon  some  fixed  uniform  rules.  The  pleni- 
potentiaries therefore  adopted  the  four  following  principles: — 

I.  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished;  2.  The  neutral  flag 
covers  enemy's  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contraband  of  war; 
3.  Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contraband  of  war,  are  not 
liable  to  capture  under  the  enemy's  flag ;  4.  Blockades,  in  order  to 
be  binding,  must  be  effective,  that  is  to  say,  maintained  by  a  force 
sufficient  really  to  prevent  access  to  the  coast  of  the  enemy. 

They  also  undertook  to  bring  the  declaration  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  states  which  had  not  taken  part  in  the  congress  of  Paris 
and  to  invite  them  to  accede  to  it.  The  text  of  the  declaration 
concluded  as  follows: — "  Convinced  that  the  maxims  which 
they  now  proclaim  cannot  but  be  received  with  gratitude  by 
the  whole  world,  the  undersigned  plenipotentiaries  doubt  not  that 
the  efforts  of  their  governments  to  obtain  the  general  adoption 
thereof  will  be  crowned  with  full  success." 

The  declaration  is  of  course  binding  only  on  the  powers  which 
adopted  it  or  have  acceded  to  it.  The  majority  which  adopted 
it  consisted  of  Great  Britain,  Austria,  France,  Prussia,  Russia, 
Sardinia  and  Turkey.  The  United  States  government  declined 
to  sign  the  declaration  on  the  ground  that,  not  possessing  a  great 
navy,  they  would  be  obliged  in  time  of  war  to  rely  largely  upon 
merchant  ships  commissioned  as  war  vessels,  and  that  therefore 
the  abolition  of  privateering  would  be  entirely  in  favour  of 
European  powers,  whose  large  navies  rendered  them  practically 


independent  of  such  aid.  All  other  maritime  states  acceded  to 
the  declaration  except  Spain,  Mexico1  and  Venezuela. 

Although  the  United  States  and  Spain  were  not  parties  to  the 
declaration,  both,  during  the  Spanish-American  War,  observed 
its  principles.  The  Spanish  government,  however,  expressly 
gave  notice  that  it  reserved  its  right  to  issue  letters  of  marque. 
At  the  same  time  both  belligerents  organized  services  of  auxiliary 
cruisers  composed  of  merchant  ships  under  the  command  of  naval 
officers.  In  how  far  this  might  operate  as  a  veiled  revival  of  the 
forbidden  practice  has  now  ceased  to  be  a  matter  of  much 
importance,  the  Hague  Conference  having  adopted  a  series  of 
rules  on  the  subject  which  may  be  said  to  interpret  the  first  of 
the  four  principles  of  the  declaration  with  such  precision  as  to  take 
its  place. 

The  New  Convention  on  the  subject  (October  i8th,  1907)  sets 
out  that,  in  view  of  the  incorporation  in  time  of  war  of  merchant 
vessels  in  combatant  fleets,  it  is  desirable  to  define  the  conditions 
under  which  this  can  be  effected,  that,  nevertheless,  the  con- 
tracting powers,  not  having  been  able  to  come  to  an  understand- 
ing on  the  question  whether  the  transformation  of  a  merchant 
ship  into  a  war  vessel  may  take  place  on  the  high  sea,2  are  agreed 
that  the  question  of  the  place  of  transformation  is  in  no  way 
affected  by  the  rules  adopted,  which  are  as  follows: — 

Art.  i.  No  merchant  ship  transformed  into  a  war  vessel  can 
have  the  rights  and  obligations  attaching  to  this  condition  unless  it 
is  placed  under  the  direct  authority,  the  immediate  control  and  the 
responsibility  of  the  power  whose  nag  it  carries. 

Art.  ii.  IVIerchant  ships  transformed  into  war  vessels  must  bear 
the  distinctive  external  signs  of  war  vessels  of  their  nationality. 

Art.  iii.  The  officer  commanding  must  be  in  the  service  of  the  state, 
and  properly  commissioned  by  the  competent  authorities.  His  name 
must  appear  in  the  list  of  officers  of  the  combatant  fleet. 

Art.  iv.  The  crew  must  be  subject  to  the  rules  of  military  discipline. 

Art.  v.  Every  merchant  ship  transformed  into  a  war  vessel  is  bound 
to  conform,  in  its  operation,  to  the  laws  and  customs  of  war. 

Art.  vi.  The  belligerent  who  transforms  a  merchant  ship  into  a 
war  vessel  must,  as  soon  as  possible,  mention  this  transformation 
on  the  list  of  vessels  belonging  to  its  combatant  fleet. 

Art.  vii.  The  provisions  of  the  present  convention  are  only  applic- 
able as  among  the  contracting  powers  and  provided  the  belligerents 
are  all  parties  to  the  convention. 

See  T.  Gibson  Bowles,  Declaration  of  Paris  (London,  1900) ;  Sir  T. 
Barclay,  Problems  of  International  Practice  and  Diplomacy  (London, 
1907),  chap.  xv.2.  '  (T.  BA.) 

DECLARATOR,  in  Scots  law,  a  form  of  action  by  which  some 
right  of  property,  or  of  servitude,  or  of  status,  or  some  inferior 
right  or  interest,  is  sought  to  be  judicially  declared. 

DECLINATION  (from  Lat.  declinare,  to  decline),  in  magnetism 
the  angle  between  true  north  and  magnetic  north,  i.e.  the 
variation  between  the  true  meridian  and  the  magnetic  meridian. 
In  1596  at  London  the  angle  of  declination  was  11°  E.  of  N.,  in 
1652  magnetic  north  was  true  north,  in  1815  the  magnetic 
needle  pointed  24^°  W.  of  N.,  in  1891  18°  W.,  in  1896  17°  56'  W. 
and  in  1906  17°  45'.  The  angle  is  gradually  diminishing  and  the 
declination  will  in  time  again  be  o°,  when  it  will  slowly  increase  in 
an  easterly  direction,  the  north  magnetic  pole  oscillating  slowly 
around  the  North  Pole.  Regular  daily  changes  of  declination 
also  occur.  Magnetic  storms  cause  irregular  variations  sometimes 
of  one  or  two  degrees.  (See  MAGNETISM,  TERRESTRIAL.) 

In  astronomy  the  declination  is  the  angular  distance,  as  seen 
from  the  earth,  of  a  heavenly  body  from  the  celestial  equator, 
thus  corresponding  with  terrestrial  latitude. 

DECOLOURIZING,  in  practical  chemistry  and  chemical 
technology,  the  removal  of  coloured  impurities  from  a  substance. 
The  agent  most  frequently  used  is  charcoal,  preferably  prepared 
from  blood,  which  when  shaken  with  a  coloured  solution  fre- 
quently precipitates  the  coloured  substances  leaving  the  solution 
clear.  Thus  the  red  colour  of  wines  may  be  removed  by  filtering 
the  wine  through  charcoal;  the  removal  of  the  dark-coloured 

1  At  the  7th  plenary  sitting  of  the  second  Hague  Conference 
(September  7th,  1907)  the  chiefs  of  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  dele- 
gations, M.  de  Villa  Urratia  and  M.  tie  la  Barra,  announced  the 
determination  of  their  respective  governments  to  accede  to  the 
Declaration  of  Paris. 

2  This  relates  to  the  incident  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War  of  the 
transformation  of  Russian  vessels  which  had  passed  through  the 
Dardanelles  unarmed. 


DECORATED  PERIOD— DECRETALS 


impurities  which  arise  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  may  be 
similarly  effected.  Other  "  decolourizers  "  are  sulphurous  acid, 
permanganates  and  manganates,  all  of  which  have  received 
application  in  the  sugar  industry. 

DECORATED  PERIOD,  in  architecture,  the  term  given  by 
Richman  to  the  second  pointed  or  Gothic  style,  1307-1377.  It 
is  characterized  by  its  window  tracery,  geometrical  at  first  and 
flowing  in  the  later  period,  owing  to  the  omission  of  the  circles 
in  the  tracery  of  windows,  which  led  to  the  juxtaposition  of  the 
foliations  and  their  pronounced  curves  of  contre-flexure.  This 
flowing  or  flamboyant  tracery  was  introduced  in  the  first  quarter 
of  the  century  and  lasted  about  fifty  years.  The  arches  are 
generally  equilateral,  and  the  mouldings  bolder  than  in  the  Early 
English,  with  less  depth  in  the  hollows  and  with  the  fillet  largely 
used.  The  ball  flower  and  a  four-leaved  flower  take  the  place  of 
the  dog-tooth,  and  the  foliage  in  the  capitals  is  less  conventional 
than  in  Early  English  and  more  flowing,  and  the  diaper  patterns 
in  walls  are  more  varied.  The  principal  examples  are  those  of  the 
east  end  of  Lincoln  and  Carlisle  cathedral;  the  west  fronts  of 
York  and  Lichfield;  the  crossing  of  Ely  cathedral,  including  the 
lantern  and  three  west  bays  of  choir  and  the  Lady  Chapel;  and 
Melrose  Abbey.  (  R.  P.  S.) 

DE  COSTA,  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  (1831-1904),  American 
clergyman  and   historical   writer,   was   born   in   Charlestown, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  loth  of  July  1831.   He  graduated  in  1856 
at  the  Biblical  Institute  at  Concord,  New  Hampshire  (now  a 
part  of  Boston  University),  became  a  minister  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  1857,  and  during  the  next  three  years  was  a  rector 
first  at  North  Adams,  and  then  at  Newton  Lower  Falls,  Mass. 
After  serving  as  chaplain  in  two  Massachusetts  regiments  during 
the  first  two  years  of  the  Civil  War,  he  became  editor  (1863)  of 
The  Christian  Times  in  New  York,  and  subsequently  edited  The 
Episcopalian  and  The  Magazine  of  American  History.    He  was 
rector  of  the  church  of  St  John  the  Evangelist  in  New  York  city 
from  1881  to  1899,  when  he  resigned  in  consequence  of  being 
converted  to  Roman  Catholicism.   He  was  one  of  the  organizers 
and  long  the  secretary  of  the  Church  Temperance  Society,  and 
founded  and  was  the  first  president  (1884-1899)  of  the  American 
branch  of  the  White  Cross  Society.  He  became  a  high  authority 
on  early  American  cartography  and  the  history  of  the  period  of 
exploration.   He  died  in  New  York  city  on  the  4th  of  November 
1904.      In  addition   to   numerous   monographs  and   valuable 
contributions   to   Winsor's  Narrative   and   Critical  History   of 
America,  he  published  The  Pre-Columbian  Discovery  of  America 
by  the  Northmen  (1868);    The  Northmen  in  Maine  (1870);    The 
Moabite  Stone  (1871);    The  Rector  of  Roxburgh  (1871),  a  novel 
under  the  nom  de  plume  of  "  William  Hickling  ";  and  Verrazano 
the  Explorer;  being  a  Vindication  of  his  Letter  and  Voyage  (1880). 
DE   COSTER,    CHARLES   THEODORE   HENRI    (1827-1879), 
Belgian  writer,  was  born  at  Munich  on  the  2oth  of  August  1827. 
His  father,  Augustin  de  Coster,  was  a  native  of  Liege,  who  was 
attached  to  the  household  of  the  papal  nuncio  at  Munich,  but 
soon  returned  to  Belgium.  Charles  was  placed  in  a  Brussels  bank, 
but  in  1850  he  entered  the  university  of  Brussels,  where  he 
completed  his  studies  in  1855.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Socitte  des  Joyeux,  a  small  literary  club,  more  than  one  member 
of  which  was  to  achieve  literary  distinction.    De  Coster  made 
his  d£but  as  a  poet  in  the  Revue  trimestrielle,  founded  in  1854, 
and  his  first  efforts  in  prose  were  contributed  to  a  periodical 
entitled  Uylenspicgel  (founded  1856).    A  correspondence  cover- 
ing the  years  1850-1858,  his  Lettres  a  Elisa,  were  edited  by 
Ch.  Potvin  in  1894.    He  was  a  keen  student  of  Rabelais  and 
Montaigne,  and  familiarized  himself  with  16th-century  French. 
He  said  that  Flemish  manners  and  speech  could  not  be  rendered 
faithfully  in  modern  French,  and  accordingly  wrote  his  best 
works  in  the  old  tongue.    The  success  of  his  Legendes  fiamandes 
(1857)  was  increased  by  the  illustrations  of  Felicien  Rops  anc 
other  friends.    In  1861  he  published  his  Contes  brabanc.ons,  in 
modern  French.   His  masterpiece  is  his  Lfgende  de  Thyl  Uylen- 
spiegel  et  de  Lamme  Goedzak  (1867),  a  16th-century  romance,  in 
which  Belgian  patriotism  found  its  fullest  expression.     In  the 
preparation  for  this  prose  epic  of  the  gueux  he  spent  some  ten 


years.  Uylenspiegel  (Eulenspiegel)  has  been  compared  to  Don 
Quixote,  and  even  to  Panurge.  He  is  the  type  of  the  16th-century 
Fleming,  and  the  history  of  his  resurrection  from  the  grave  itself 
was  accepted  as  an  allegory  of  the  destiny  of  the  race.  The 
exploits  of  himself  and  his  friend  form  the  thread  of  a  semi- 
listorical  narrative,  full  of  racy  humour,  in  spite  of  the  barbar- 
ties  that  find  a  place  in  it.  This  book  also  was  illustrated  by 
Rops  and  others.  In  1870  De  Coster  became  professor  of  general 
listory  and  of  French  literature  at  the  military  school.  His 
works  however  were  not  financially  profitable  ;  in  spite  of  his 
government  employment  he  was  always  in  difficulties;  and  he 
died  in  much  discouragement  on  the  7th  of  May  1879  at  Ixelles, 
Brussels.  The  expensive  form  in  which  Uylenspiegel  was  pro- 
duced made  it  open  only  to  a  limited  class  of  readers,  and  when 
a  new  and  cheap  edition  in  modern  French  appeared  in  1893  it 
was  received  practically  as  a  new  book  in  France  and  Belgium. 

DECOY,  a  contrivance  for  the  capture  or  enticing  of  duck 
and  other  wild  fowl  within  range  of  a  gun,  hence  any  trap 
or  enticement  into  a  place  or  situation  of  danger.  Decoys  are 
usually  made  on  the  following  plan:  long  tunnels  leading  from 
the  sea,  channel  or  estuary  into  a  pool  or  pond  are  covered 
with  an  arched  net,  which  gradually  narrows  in  width;  the 
ducks  are  enticed  into  this  by  a  tame  trained  bird,  also  known 
as  a  "  decoy  "  or  "  decoy-duck."  In  America  the  "  decoy  " 
is  an  artificial  bird,  placed  in  the  water  as  if  it  were  feeding, 
which  attracts  the  wild  fowl  within  range  of  the  concealed 
sportsman.  The  word  "  decoy  "  has,  etymologically,  a  compli- 
cated history.  It  appears  in  English  first  in  the  i7th  century 
in  these  senses  as  "  coy  "  and  "  coy-duck,"  from  the  Dutch  kooi, 
a  word  which  is  ultimately  connected  with  Latin  cavea,  hollow 
place,  "  cage."  *  The  de-,  with  which  the  word  begins,  is  either 
a  corruption  of  "  duck-coy,"  the  Dutch  article  de,  or  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Dutch  eende-kooi,  eende,  duck.  The  New  English 
Dictionary  points  out  that  the  word  "  decoy  "  is  found  in 
the  particular  sense  of  a  sharper  or  swindler  as  a  slang  term 
slightly  earlier  than  "  coy  "  or  "  decoy  "  in  the  ordinary  sense, 
and,  as  the  name  of  a  game  of  cards,  as  early  as  1550,  apparently 
with  no  connexion  in  meaning.  It  is  suggested  that  "  coy  "  may 
have  been  adapted  to  this  word. 

DECREE  (from  the  past  participle,  decretus,  of  Lat.  decernere), 
in  earlier  form  Decreet,  an  authoritative  decision  having  the  force 
of  law;  the  judgment  of  a  court  of  justice.  In  Roman  law,  a 
decree  (decretum)  was  the  decision  of  the  emperor,  as  the  supreme 
judicial  officer,  settling  a  case  which  had  been  referred  to  him. 
In  ecclesiastical  law  the  term  was  given  to  a  decision  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical council  settling  a  doubtful  point  of  doctrine  or  discipline 
(cf,  also  DECRETALS).  In  English  law  decree  was  more  particu- 
larly the  judgment  of  a  court  of  equity,  but  since  the  Judicature 
Acts  the  expression  "  judgment "  (q.v.)  is  employed  in  reference 
to  the  decisions  of  all  the  divisions  of  the  supreme  court.  A 
"  decree  nisi  "  is  the  conditional  order  for  a  dissolution  of  marriage 
made  by  the  divorce  court,  and  it  is  made  "  absolute  "  after  six 
months  (which  period  may,  however,  be  shortened)  in  the  absence 
of  sufficient  cause  shown  to  the  contrary.  (See  DIVORCE.)  Decreet 
arbitral  is  a  Scottish  phrase  for  the  award  of  an  arbitrator. 

DECRETALS  (Epistolae  decretales),  the  name  (see  DECREE 
above),  which  is  given  in  Canon  Law  to  those  letters  of  the  pope 
which  formulate  decisions  in  ecclesiastical  law;  they  are  generally 
given  in  answer  to  consultations,  but  are  sometimes  due  to  the 
initiative  of  the  popes.  These  furnish,  with  the  canons  of  the 
councils,  the  chief  source  of  the  legislation  of  the  church,  and  form 
the  greater  part  of  the  Corpus  Juris.  In  this  connexion  they  are 
dealt  with  in  the  article  on  Canon  Law  (q.v.). 

The  False  Decretals.  A  special  interest,  however,  attaches  to 
the  celebrated  collection  known  by  this  name.  This  collection, 
indeed,  comprises  at  least  as  many  canons  of  councils  as  decretals, 
and  the  decretals  contained  in  it  are  not  all  forgeries.  It  is  an 
amplification  and  interpolation,  by  means  of  spurious  decretals, 
of  the  canonical  collection  in  use  in  the  Church  of  Spain  in  the  8th 
century,  all  the  documents  in  which  are  perfectly  authentic. 

1  Distinguish  "  coy,"  affectedly  shy  or  modest,  from  O.  Fr.  cot, 
Lat.  quietus,  quiet. 


916 


DECRETALS,  FALSE 


With  these  amplifications,  the  collection  dates  from  the  middle 
of  the  gth  century.  We  shall  give  a  brief  account  of  its  contents, 
its  history  and  its  influence  on  canon  law. 

The  author  assumes  the  name  of  Isidore,  evidently  the  arch- 
bishop of  Seville,  who  was  credited  with  a  preponderating  part 
in  the  compilation  of  the  Hispana;  he  takes  in  addition  the 
surname  of  Mercator,  perhaps  because  he  has  made  use  of  two 
passages  of  Marius  Mercator.  Hence  the  custom  of  alluding  to 
the  author  of  the  collection  under  the  name  of  the  pseudo- 
Isidore. 

The  collection  itself  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first, 
which  is  entirely  spurious,  contains,  after  the  preface  and  various 
introductory  sections,  seventy  letters  attributed  to  the  popes  of 
the  first  three  centuries,  up  to  the  council  of  Nicaea,  i.e.  up  to  but 
not  including  St  Silvester;  all  these  letters  are  a  fabrication  of 
the  pseudo-Isidore,  except  two  spurious  letters  of  Clement,  which 
were  already  known.  The  second  part  is  the  collection  of 
councils,  classified  according  to  their  regions,  as  it  figures  in  the 
Hispana;  the  few  spurious  pieces  which  are  added,  and  notably 
the  famous  Donation  of  Constantine,  were  already  in  existence. 
In  the  third  part  the  author  continues  the  series  of  decretals  which 
he  had  interrupted  at  the  council  of  Nicaea.  But  as  the  collection 
of  authentic  decretals  does  not  begin  till  Siricius  (385),  the 
pseudo-Isidore  first  forges  thirty  letters,  which  he  attributes  to 
the  popes  from  Silvester  to  Damasus;  after  this  he  includes 
the  authentic  decretals,  with  the  intermixture  of  thirty-five 
apocryphal  ones,  generally  given  under  the  name  of  those  popes 
who  were  not  represented  in  the  authentic  collection,  but  some- 
times also  under  the  names  of  the  others,  for  example,  Damasus, 
St  Leo,  Vigilius  and  St  Gregory;  with  one  or  two  exceptions  he 
does  not  interpolate  genuine  decretals.  The  series  stops  at  St 
Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604),  except  for  one  letter  of  Gregory  II. 
(715-731).  The  forged  letters  are  not,  for  the  most  part,  entirely 
composed  of  fresh  material;  the  author  draws  his  inspiration 
from  the  notices  on  each  of  the  popes  given  in  the  Liber  Pontific- 
alis;  he  inserts  whole  passages  from  ecclesiastical  writers;  and 
he  antedates  the  evidences  of  a  discipline  which  actually  existed; 
so  it  is  by  no  means  all  invented. 

Thus  the  authentic  elements  were  calculated  to  serve  as  a 
passport  for  the  forgeries,  which  were,  moreover,  quite  skilfully 
composed.  In  fact,  the  collection  thus  blended  was  passed  from 
hand  to  hand  without  meeting  with  any  opposition.  At  most  all 
that  was  asked  was  whether  those  decretals  which  did  not  appear 
in  the  Liber  canonum  (the  collection  of  Dionysius  Exiguus, 
accepted  in  France)  had  the  force  of  law,  but  Pope  Nicholas 
having  answered  that  all  the  pontifical  letters  had  the  same 
authority  (see  Deer.  Gra.  Dist.  xix.  c.  i),  they  were  henceforward 
accepted,  and  passed  in  turn  into  the  later  canonical  collections. 
No  doubts  found  an  expression  until  the  isth  century,  when 
Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (d.  1464)  and  Juan  Torquemada 
(d.  1468)  freely  expressed  their  suspicions.  More  than  one 
scholar  of  the  i6th  century,  George  Cassander,  Erasmus,  and  the 
two  editors  of  the  Decretum  of  Gratian,  Dumoulin  (d.  1568)  and 
Le  Conte  (d.  1577),  decisively  rejected  the  False  Decretals. 
This  contention  was  again  upheld,  in  the  form  of  a  violent  polemic 
against  the  papacy,  by  the  Centuriators  of  Magdeburg  (Ecclesia- 
stica  historia,  Basel,  1559-1574);  the  attempt  at  refutation  by 
the  Jesuit  Torres  (Adversus  Centur.  Magdeburg,  libri  quinque, 
Florence,  1572)  provoked  a  violent  rejoinder  from  the  Protestant 
minister  David  Blondel  (Psendo-Isidorus  et  Turrianus  rapulantes, 
Geneva,  1620).  Since  then,  the  conclusion  has  been  accepted, 
and  all  researches  have  been  of  an  almost  exclusively  historical 
character.  One  by  one  the  details  are  being  precisely  determined, 
and  the  question  may  now  almost  be  said  to  be  settled. 

In  the  first  place,  an  exact  determination  of  the  date  of  the 
collection  has  been  arrived  at.  On  the  one  hand,  it  cannot  go 
back  further  than  847,  the  date  of  the  False  Capitularies, 
with  which  the  author  of  the  False  Decretals  was 
acquainted.1  On  the  other  hand,  in  a  letter  of  Lupus,  abbot  of 

1  The  False  Capitularies  are  for  civil  legislation  what  the  False 
Decretals  are  for  ecclesiastical  legislation:  three  books  of  Capitu- 
laries of  the  Prankish  kings,  more  of  which  are  spurious  than  authen- 


Date. 


Ferrieres,  written  in  858,  and  in  the  synodical  letter  of  the  council 
of  Quierzy  in  857  are  to  be  found  quotations  which  are  certainly 
from  these  false  decretals;  and  further,  an  undoubted  allusion 
in  the  statutes  given  by  Hincmar  to  his  diocese  on  the  ist  of 
November  852.  The  composition  of  the  collection  must  then  be 
dated  approximately  at  850. 

The  object  which  the  forger  had  in  view  is  clearly  stated  in 
his  preface;  the  reform  of  the  canon  law,  or  rather  its  better 
application.  But,  again,  in  what  particular  respects 
he  wishes  it  to  be  reformed  can  be  best  deduced  from 
certain  preponderant  ideas  which  make  themselves 
felt  in  the  apocryphal  documents.  He  constantly  harps  upon 
accusations  brought  against  bishops  and  the  way  they  were 
judged;  his  wish  is  to  prevent  them  from  being  unjustly  accused, 
deposed  or  deprived  of  their  sees;  to  this  end  he  multiplies  the 
safeguards  of  procedure,  and  secures  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
pope  and  the  possibility  of  restoring  bishops  to  their  sees.  His 
object,  too,  was  to  protect  the  property,  as  well  as  the  persons* 
of  the  clergy  against  the  encroachments  of  the  temporal  power; 
In  the  second  place,  Isidore  wishes  to  increase  the  strength  and 
cohesion  of  the  churches;  he  tries  to  give  absolute  stability  td 
the  diocese  and  the  ecclesiastical  province;  he  reinforces  the 
rights  of  the  bishop  and  his  comprovincials,  while  he  initiates 
a  determined  campaign  against  the  chorepiscopi;  finally,  as  the 
keystone  of  the  arch  he  places  the  papacy.  These  aims  are  most 
laudable,  and  in  no  way  subversive;  but  the  author  must  have 
had  some  particular  reasons  for  emphasizing  these  questions 
rather  than  others;  and  the  examination  of  these  reasons  may 
help  us  to  determine  the  nationality  of  this  collection. 

The  name  of  Isidore  usurped  by  the  author  at  first  led  to  the 
supposition  that  the  False  Decretals  originated  in  Spain;  this 
opinion  no  longer  meets  with  any  support  ;  it  is  enough  jvatfba- 
to  point  out  that  there  is  no  Spanish  manuscript  of  the  attty  of 
collection,  at  least  until  the  I3th  century.  In  the  i6th  <*e  coflec- 
century  the  Protestants,  who  wished  to  represent  the 
forgeries  in  the  light  of  an  attempt  in  favour  of  the  papacy, 
ascribed  the  origin  of  the  False  Decretals  to  Rome,  but  neither 
the  manuscript  tradition  nor  the  facts  confirm  this  view,  which 
is  nowadays  entirely  abandoned.  Everybody  is  agreed  in  placing 
the  origin  of  the  False  Decretals  within  the  Prankish  empire. 
Within  these  limits,  three  different  theories  have  successively 
arisen:  "  At  first  it  was  thought  that  Isidore's  domicile  could  be 
fixed  in  the  province  of  Mainz,  it  is  now  about  fifty  years  ago  that 
the  balance  of  opinion  was  turned  in  favour  of  the  province  of 
Reims;  and  now,  after  the  lapse  of  about  twenty  years,  several 
authors  have  suggested  the  province  of  Tours  "  (P.  Fournier, 
Etude  sur  les  Fausses  Decretales).  In  favour  of  Mainz,  especial 
stress  was  laid  on  the  fact  that  it  was  the  country  of  Benedictus 
Levita,  the  compiler  of  the  False  Capitularies,  to  which  the  False 
Decretals  are  closely  related.  But  Benedict,  the  deacon  of  Otgar 
of  Mainz,  is  as  much  of  a  hypothetical  personage  as  Isidorus 
Mercator;  moreover,  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  the 
condition  of  the  province  of  Mainz  was  not  disturbed,  nor  were 
the  chorepiscopi  menaced.  In  favour  of  Reims,  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  it  was  there  that  the  first  judicial  use  of  the 
False  Decretals  is  recorded,  in  the  trials  of  Rothad,  bishop  of 
Soissons  (d.  869),  and  of  Hincmar  the  younger,  bishop  of  Laon 
(d.  c.  882);  and  an  application  of  the  axiom  has  been  attempted: 
Is  fecit  cui  prodest.  But  both  these  trials  took  place  later  than 
852,  at  which  date  the  existence  of  the  collection  is  an  established 
fact;  the  texts  of  it  were  used,  but  they  were  in  existence  before. 
Between  847  and  852,  the  province  of  Reims  was  disturbed  by 
another  affair,  that  of  the  clergy  ordained  by  Ebbo  at  the  time 
of  his  short  restoration  to  the  see  of  Reims,  in  840-841;  these 
clerics,  Vulfadus  (afterwards  archbishop  of  Bourges),  and  a  few 
others,  had  been  suspended  by  Hincmar  on  his  election  in  845. 
But  the  affair  of  Ebbo's  clergy  did  not  become  critical  till  the 
council  of  Soissons  in  853;  up  till  then  these  clergy  had,  so  far 

tic.  The  author  gives  himself  out  as  a  certain  Benedict,  a  deacon 
of  the  church  of  Mainz  ;  hence  the  name  by  which  he  is  usually 
known,  Benedictus  Levita.  The  two  false  collections  are  closely 
akin,  and  are  doubtless  the  fabrication  of  the  same  hands. 


DECURIO— DED£AGATCH 


917 


as  we  know,  produced  no  documents,  and  the  citations  from  the 
False  Decretals  made  in  their  later  writings  do  not  prove  that 
they  had  forged  them.  Moreover,  Hincmar  would  not  have  cited 
the  forged  letters  of  the  popes  in  852 ;  above  all,  this  theory  would 
not  explain  the  chief  preoccupation  of  the  forger,  which  is  to 
protect  bishops  against  unjust  judgments  and  depositions.  We 
must,  then,  look  for  conditions  in  which  the  bishops  were  con- 
cerned. It  is  precisely  this  which  has  suggested  the  province  of 
Tours.  Brittany,  which  was  dependent  on  the  province  of  Tours, 
had  just  for  a  time  recovered  its  independence,  thanks  to  its 
duke  Nominee.  The  struggle  between  the  two  nationalities,  the 
Celt  and  the  Frank,  found  a  reflexion  in  the  sphere  of  religion. 
The  Breton  bishops  were  for  the  most  part  abbots  of  monasteries, 
who  had  but  little  consideration  for  the  territorial  limits  of  the 
civitates;  and  many  of  the  religious  usages  of  the  Bretons  differed 
profoundly  from  those  of  the  Franks.  Charlemagne  had  divided 
up  the  Breton  dioceses  and  established  in  them  Prankish  bishops. 
Nominee  hastened  to  depose  the  four  Prankish  bishops,  after 
wringing  from  them  by  force  confessions  of  simony;  he  then 
established  a  metropolitan  see  at  Dol.  Hence  arose  incessant 
complaints  on  the  part  of  the  dispossessed  bishops,  of  the 
metropolitan  of  Tours,  and  his  suffragans,  notably  those  of  Angers 
and  Le  Mans,  which  were  more  exposed  than  the  others  to  the 
incursions  of  the  Bretons;  and  this  gave  rise  to  numerous  papal 
letters,  and  all  this  throughout  a  period  of  thirty  years.  There 
were  requests  that  the  bishops  should  be  judged  according  to 
the  rules,  protests  against  the  interlopers,  demands  for  the  re- 
storation of  the  bishops  to  their  sees.  These  circumstances 
fall  in  perfectly  with  the  questions  about  which,  as  we  have 
pointed  out,  the  pseudo-Isidore  was  mainly  concerned :  the 
judgment  of  bishops,  and  the  stability  of  the  ecclesiastical 
organizations. 

In  the  province  of  Tours,  attempts  have  been  made  to  define 
more  clearly  the  centre  of  the  forgeries,  and  the  most  recent 
authorities  fix  upon  Le  Mans.  The  sole  argument,  though  a  very 
weighty  one,  is  found  in  the  undeniable  relation,  revealed  in 
an  astonishing  similarity  both  in  expressions  and  composition, 
which  exists  between  these  forgeries  and  some  other  documents 
certainly  fabricated  at  Le  Mans,  under  the  episcopate  of  Aldric 
(832-856),  notably  the  Actus  Pontificum  Cenomanis  in  urbe 
degentium,  in  which  there  is  no  lack  of  forged  documents.  These 
certainly  bear  the  mark  of  the  same  hand. 

Though  we  cannot  admit  that  the  False  Decretals  were  com- 
posed in  order  to  enforce  the  rights  of  the  papacy,  we  may  at 
Canonical  least  consider  whether  the  popes  did  not  make  use  of 
influence.  tne  False  Decretals  to  support  their  rights.  It  is 
certain  that  in  864  Rothad  of  Soissons  took  with  him 
to  Rome,  if  not  the  collection,  at  least  important  extracts 
from  the  pseudo-Isidore;  M.  Fournier  has  pointed  out  in  the 
letters  of  the  pope  of  that  time,  "  a  literary  influence,  which 
is  shown  in  the  choice  of  expressions  and  metaphors,"  not- 
ably in  those  passages  relating  to  the  restitulio  spolii;  but  he 
concludes  by  affirming  that  the  ideas  and  acts  of  Nicholas 
were  not  modified  by  the  new  collection:  even  before  864  he 
acted  in  affairs  concerning  bishops,  e.g.  in  the  case  of  the 
Breton  bishops  or  the  adversaries  of  Photius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  exactly  as  he  acted  later;  all  that  can  be 
said  is  that  the  False  Decretals,  though  not  expressly  cited 
by  the  pope,  "  led  him  to  accentuate  still  further  the  arguments 
which  he  drew  from  the  decrees  of  his  predecessors,"  notably 
with  regard  to  the  exceptio  spolii.  In  the  papal  letters  of  the 
end  of  the  gth  and  the  whole  of  the  loth  century,  only  two 
or  three  insignificant  citations  of  the  pseudo-Isidore  have  been 
pointed  out;  the  use  of  the  pseudo-Isidorian  forged  documents 
did  not  become  prevalent  at  Rome  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
nth  century,  in  consequence  of  the  circulation  of  the  canonical 
collections  in  which  they  figured;  but  nobody  then  thought  of 
casting  any  doubts  on  the  authenticity  of  those  documents. 
One  thing  only  is  established,  and  this  may  be  said  to  have  been 
the  real  effect  of  the  False  Decretals,  namely,  the  powerful 
impulse  which  they  gave  in  the  Prankish  territories  to  the  move- 
ment towards  centralization  round  the  see  of  Rome,  and  the  legal 


obstacles  which  they  opposed  to  unjust  proceedings  against  the 
bishops. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  best  edition  is  that  of  P.  Hinschius, 
Decretales  pseudo-Isidorianae  et  capitula  Angilramni  (Leipzig,  1863). 
In  it  the  authentic  texts  are  printed  in  two  columns,  the  forgeries 
across  the  whole  width  of  the  page;  an  important  preface  of 
ccxxviii.  pages  contains,  besides  the  classification  of  the  MSS.,  a 
profound  study  of  the  sources  and  other  questions  bearing  on  the 
collection.  After  the  works  cited  above,  the  following  dissertations 
should  be  noted.  Placing  the  origin  of  the  False  Decretals  at  Rome 
is:  A.  Theiner,  De  pseudo-Isidoriana  canonum  collectione  (Breslau, 
1827) ;  at  Mainz,  the  brothers  Ballerini,  De  antiquis  coUectionibus  et 
collectoribus  canonum,  iii.  (S.  Leonis  opera,  t.  iii.;  Migne,  Patro? 
logia  Lat.  t.  56);  Blascus,  De  coll.  canonum  Isidori  Mercatoris 
(Naples,  1760);  Wasserschleben,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  falschen 
Dekretalen  (Breslau,  1844);  in  the  province  of  Reims:  Weizsacker, 
'  Die  pseudoisidorianische  Frage,"  in  the  Histor.  Zeitschrift  of  Sybel 
(1860);  Hinschius,  Preface,  p.  ccviii.;  A.  Tardif,  Histoire  des  sources 
du  droit  canonique  (Paris,  1887);  Schneider,  Die  Lekre  der  Kirchen- 
rechtsquellen  (Regensburg,  1892).  An  excellent  resumfe  of  the 
question;  seems  more  favourable  to  Le  Mans  in  the  article  of  the 
Kirchenlexicon  of  Wetzer  and  Welte  (2nd  ed.) ;  F.  Lot,  Etudes  sur  le 
regne  de  Hugues  Capet  (Paris,  1903) ;  Lesne,  La  Hierarchie  episcopate 
en  Gaule  et  Germanie  (Paris,  1905) ;  for  the  province  of  Tours  and 
Le  Mans:  B.  Simson,  Die  Entstehung  der  pseudoisidor.  Falschungen 


L*a.  yuesuuii  ues  lausses  aecretaies,  in  tne  ivouveue  Kevue  nisto- 
rique  de  droit  frangais  et  etranger  (1887,  1888) ;  in  the  Congres  internal, 
des  savants  caihol.  t.  ii. ;  "  Etude  sur  les  fausses  decr£tales,"  in 
Revue  d'histoire  ecclesiastique  de  Louvain  (1906,  1907),  to  which  the 
above  article  is  greatly  indebted.  (A.  Bo.*) 

DECURIO,  a  Roman  official  title,  used  in  three  connexions. 
(i)  A  member  of  the  senatorial  order  in  the  Italian  towns  under 
the  administration  of  Rome,  and  later  in  provincial  towns 
organized  on  the  Italian  model  (see  CURIA  4).  The  number  of 
decuriones  varied  in  different  towns,  but  was  usually  100.  The 
qualifications  for  the  office  were  fixed  in  each  town  by  a  special  law 
for  that  community  (lex  municipalis) .  Cicero  (in  Verr.  2.  49,120) 
alludes  to  an  age  limit  (originally  thirty  years,  until  lowered 
by  Augustus  to  twenty-five), to  a  property  qualification  (cf.  Pliny, 
Ep.  i.  19.  2),  and  to  certain  conditions  of  rank.  The  method  of 
appointment  varied  in  different  towns  and  at  different  periods. 
In  the  early  municipal  constitution  ex-magistrates  passed  auto- 
matically into  the  senate  of  their  town;  but  at  a  later  date  this 
order  was  reversed,  and  membership  of  the  senate  became  a 
qualification  for  the  magistracy.  Cicero  (I.e.)  speaks  of  the  senate 
in  the  Sicilian  towns  as  appointed  by  a  vote  of  the  township. 
But  in  most  towns  it  was  the  duty  of  the  chief  magistrate  to 
draw  up  a  list  (album)  of  the  senators  every  five  years.  The 
decuriones  held  office  for  life.  They  were  convened  by  the 
magistrate,  who  presided  as  in  the  Roman  senate.  Their  powers 
were  extensive.  In  all  matters  the  magistrates  were  obliged 
to  act  according  to  their  direction,  and  in  some  towns  they  heard 
cases  of  appeal  against  judicial  sentences  passed  by  the 
magistrate.  By  the  time  of  the  municipal  law  of  Julius  Caesar 
(45  B.C.)  special  privileges  were  conferred  on  the  decuriones, 
including  the  right  to  appeal  to  Rome  for  trial  in  criminal  cases. 
Under  the  principate  their  status  underwent  a  marked  decline. 
The  office  was  no  longer  coveted,  and  documents  of  the  3rd  and 
4th  centuries  show  that  means  were  devised  to  compel  members 
of  the  towns  to  undertake  it.  By  the  time  of  the  jurists  it  had 
become  hereditary  and  compulsory.  This  change  was  largely 
due  to  the  heavy  financial  burdens  which  the  Roman  govern- 
ment laid  on  the  municipal  senates.  (2)  The  president  of  a 
decuria,  a  subdivision  of  the  curia  (q.v.).  (3)  An  officer  in  the 
Roman  cavalry,  commanding  a  troop  of  ten  men  (decuria). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C.  G.  Bruns,  Fontes  juris  Romani,  c.  3,  No.  18 
c.  4,  Nos.  27,  29,  30  (leges  municipales) ;  J.C.Orelli,  Inscr.  Latinae, 
No.  3721  (Album  of  Canusium);  Godefroy,  Paratitl.  ad  cod.  Theo- 
dosianam,  xii.  i  (vol.  iv.  pp.  352  et  seq.,  ed.  Ritter);  J.  Marquardt, 
Romische  Staatsyerwaltung,  i.  pp.  183  et  seq.  (Leipzig,  1881)- 
P.  Willems,  Droit  public  remain,  pp.  535  et  seq.  (Paris,  1884) ;  Pauly- 
Wissowa,  Realencyclopddie,  IV.  ii.  pp.  2319  foil.  (Stuttgart,  1901) ; 
W.  Liebenam,  Stddteverwaltung  im  romischen  Kaiserreiche  (Leipzig 
'900).  (A.  M.  CL.)  ' 

DEDEAGATCH,  a  seaport  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Adrianople,  10  m.  N.W.  of  the  Maritza  estuary,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Enos,  an  inlet  of  the  Aegean  Sea.  Pop.  (1905)  about  3000, 


DEDHAM— DEDICATION 


mostly  Greeks.  Until  1871  Dedeagatch  was  a  mere  cluster  of 
fishermen's  huts.  A  new  town  then  began  to  spring  up,  settlers 
being  attracted  by  the  prospect  of  opening  up  a  trade  in  the 
products  of  a  vast  forest  of  valonia  oaks  which  grew  near.  In 
1873  it  was  made  the  chief  town  of  a  Kaza,  to  which  it  gave  its 
name,  and  a  Kaimakam  was  appointed  to  it.  In  1884  it  was 
raised  in  administrative  rank  from  a  Kaza  to  a  Sanjak,  and  the 
governor  became  a  Mutessarif.  In  1889  the  Greek  archbishopric 
of  Enos  was  transferred  to  Dedeagatch.  On  the  opening,  early  in 
1896,  of  the  Constantinople-Salonica  railway,  which  has  a  station 
here,  a  large  proportion  of  the  extensive  transit  trade  which 
Enos,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maritza,  had  acquired,  was 
immediately  diverted  to  Dedeagatch,  and  an  era  of  unpre- 
cedented prosperity  began;  but  when  the  railway  connecting 
Burgas  on  the  Black  Sea  with  the  interior  was  opened,  in  1898, 
D6deagatch  lost  all  it  had  won  from  Enos.  Owing  to  the  lack  of 
shelter  in  its  open  roadstead,  the  port  has  not  become  the  great 
commercial  centre  which  its  position  otherwise  qualifies  it  to  be. 
It  is,  however,  one  of  the  chief  outlets  for  the  grain  trade  of  the 
Adrianople,  Demotica  and  Xanthi  districts.  The  valonia  trade 
has  also  steadily  developed,  and  is  supplemented  by  the  export 
of  timber,  tobacco  and  almonds.  In  1871,  while  digging  out 
the  foundations  of  their  houses,  the  settlers  found  many  ancient 
tombs.  Probably  these  are  relics,  not  of  the  necropolis  of  the 
ancient  Zone,  but  of  a  monastic  community  of  Dervishes,  of 
the  Dede  sect,  which  was  established  here  in  the  isth  century, 
shortly  after  the  Turkish  conquest,  and  gave  to  the  place  its 
name. 

DEDHAM,  a  township  and  the  county  seat  of  Norfolk  county, 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  with  an  area  of  23  sq.  m.  of  comparatively 
level  country.  Pop.  (1890)  7123;  (1900)  7457,  of  whom  2186  were 
foreign-born;  (1910  U.S.  census)  9284.  The  township  is 
traversed  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railway,  and 
by  interurban  electric  lines.  It  contains  three  villages,  Dedham, 
East  Dedham  and  Oakdale.  Dedham  has  a  public  library 
(1854;  incorporated  1871).  The  Dedham  historical  society  was 
organized  in  1859  and  was  incorporated  in  1862.  The  Fairbanks 
house  was  erected  in  part  as  early  as  1654.  Carpets,  handker- 
chiefs and  woollen  goods  are  manufactured,  and  a  pottery  here 
is  reputed  to  make  the  only  true  crackleware  outside  the  East. 
Dedham  was  "  planted  "  in  1635  and  was  incorporated  in  1636. 
It  was  one  of  the  first  two  inland  settlements  of  the  colony,  being 
coeval  with  Concord.  The  original  plantation,  about  20  m.  long 
and  10  m.  wide,  extended  from  Roxbury  and  Dorchester  to  the 
present  state  line  of  Rhode  Island:  from  this  territory  several 
townships  were  created,  including  Westwood  (pop.  in  1910,  1266), 
in  1897.  A  free  public  school,  one  of  the  first  in  America  to  be 
supported  by  direct  taxation,  was  established  in  Dedham  in 
1645.  In  the  Woodward  tavern,  the  birthplace  of  Fisher  Ames, 
a  convention  met  in  September  1774  and  adjourned  to  Milton 
(q.v.),  where  it  passed  the  Suffolk  Resolves. 

DEDICATION  (Lat.  dedicatio,  from  dedicare,  to  proclaim,  to 
announce),  properly  the  setting  apart  of  anything  by  solemn 
proclamation.  It  is  thus  in  Latin  the  term  particularly  applied 
to  the  consecration  of  altars,  temples  and  other  sacred  buildings, 
and  also  to  the  inscription  prefixed  to  a  book,  &c.,  and  addressed 
to  some  particular  person.  This  latter  practice,  which  formerly 
had  the  purpose  of  gaining  the  patronage  and  support  of  the 
person  so  addressed,  is  now  only  a  mark  of  affection  or  regard. 
In  law,  the  word  is  used  of  the  setting  apart  by  a  private  owner 
of  a  road  to  public  use.  (See  HIGHWAY.) 

The  Feast  of  Dedication  (n^q;  T&  ey/cau'ia)  was  a  Jewish 
festival  observed  for  eight  days  from  the  25th  of  Kislev 
(i.e.  about  December  12)  in  commemoration  of  the  reconse- 
cration  (165  B.C.)  of  the  temple  and  especially  of  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering,  after  they  had  been  desecrated  in  the  persecution 
under  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (168  B.C.).  The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  festival  were  the  illumination  of  houses  and 
synagogues,  a  custom  probably  taken  over  from  the  feast  of 
tabernacles,  and  the  recitation  of  Psalm  xxx.  The  biblical 
references  are  i  Mace.  i.  41-64,  iv.  36-39;  2  Mace.  vi.  i-n; 
John  x.  22.  See  also  2  Mace.  i.  9,  18;  ii.  16;  and  Josephus, 


Antiq.  xii.  v.  4.  J.  Wellhausen  suggests  that  the  feast  was 
originally  connected  with  the  winter  solstice,  and  only  afterwards 
with  the  events  narrated  in  Maccabees. 

Dedication  of  Churches. — The  custom  of  solemnly  dedicating 
or  consecrating  buildings  as  churches  or  chapels  set  apart  for 
Christian  worship  must  be  almost  as  old  as  Christianity  itself. 
If  we  find  no  reference  to  it  in  the  New  Testament  or  in  the  very 
earliest  apostolic  or  post-apostolic  writings,  it  is  merely  due  to  the 
fact  that  Christian  churches  had  not  as  yet  begun  to  be  built. 
Throughout  the  ante-Nicene  period,  until  the  reign  of  Constantine, 
Christian  churches  were  few  in  number,  and  any  public  dedication 
of  them  would  have  been  attended  with  danger  in  those  days  of 
heathen  persecution.  This  is  why  we  are  ignorant  as  to  what 
liturgical  forms  and  what  consecration  ritual  were  employed  in 
those  primitive  times.  But  when  we  come  to  the  earlier  part  of 
the  4th  century  allusions  to  and  descriptions  of  the  consecration 
of  churches  become  plentiful. 

Like  so  much  else  in  the  worship  and  ritual  of  the  Christian 
church  this  service  is  probably  of  Jewish  origin.  The  hallowing 
of  the  tabernacle  and  of  its  furniture  and  ornaments  (Exodus 
xl.);  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  temple  (i  Kings  viii.)  and  of 
the  second  temple  by  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  vi.),  and  its  rededication 
by  Judas  Maccabaeus  (see  above),  and  the  dedication  of  the 
temple  of  Herod  the  Great  (Josephus,  Antiq.  of  the  Jews,  bk. 
xv.  c.  xi.  §  6),  and  our  Lord's  recognition  of  the  Feast  of  Dedi- 
cation (St  John  xi.  22,  23) — all  these  point  to  the  probability 
of  the  Christians  deriving  their  custom  from  a  Jewish  origin, 
quite  apart  from  the  intrinsic  appropriateness  of  such  a  custom 
in  itself. 

Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  x.  cap.  3)  speaks  of  the  dedication 
of  churches  rebuilt  after  the  Diocletian  persecution,  including  the 
church  at  Tyre  in  A.D.  314.  The  consecrations  of  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  in  A.D.  335,  which  had  been 
built  by  Constantine,  and  of  other  churches  after  his  time,  are 
described  both  by  Eusebius  and  by  other  ecclesiastical  historians. 
From  them  we  gather  that  every  consecration  was  accompanied 
by  a  celebration  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  and  a  sermon,  and  special 
prayers  of  a  dedicatory  character,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  the 
elaborate  ritual,  to  be  described  presently,  of  the  medieval 
pontificals  dating  from  the  8th  century  onwards. 

The  separate  consecration  of  altars  is  provided  for  by  canon  14 
of  the  council  of  Agde  in  506,  and  by  canon  26  of  the  council  of 
Epaone  in  517,  the  latter  containing  the  first  known  reference  to 
the  usage  of  anointing  the  altar  with  chrism.  The  use  of  both 
holy  water  and  of  unction  is  attributed  to  St  Columbanus,  who 
died  in  615  (Walafrid  Strabo,  Vita  S.  Galli,  cap.  6). 

There  was  an  annual  commemoration  of  the  original  dedi- 
cation of  the  church,  a  feast  with  its  octave  extending  over  eight 
days,  during  which  Gregory  the  Great  encouraged  the  erection 
of  booths  and  general  feasting  on  the  part  of  the  populace, 
to  compensate  them  for,  and  in  some  way  to  take  the  place  of, 
abolished  heathen  festivities  (Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  ii. 
cap.  26;  Bede,  Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  i.  cap.  30). 

At  an  early  date  the  right  to  consecrate  churches  was  reserved 
to  bishops,  as  by  canon  37  of  the  first  council  of  Bracara  in  563, 
and  by  the  23rd  of  the  Irish  collections  of  canons,  once  attributed 
to  St  Patrick,  but  hardly  to  be  put  earlier  than  the  8th  century 
(Haddon  and  Stubbs,  Councils,  &c.,  vol.  ii.  pt.  2,  p.  329). 

When  we  come  to  examine  the  MS.  and  printed  service-books 
of  the  medieval  church,  we  find  a  lengthy  and  elaborate  service 
provided  for  the  consecration  of  churches.  It  is  contained  in  the 
pontifical.  The  earliest  pontifical  which  has  come  down  to  us  is 
that  of  Egbert,  archbishop  of  York  (732-766),  which,  however, 
only  survives  in  a  loth-century  MS.  copy.  Later  pontificals  are 
numerous;  we  cannot  describe  all  their  variations.  A  good  idea, 
however,  of  the  general  character  of  the  service  will  be  obtained 
from  a  skeleton  of  it  as  performed  in  this  country  before  the 
Reformation  according  to  the  use  of  Sarum.  The  service  in 
question  is  taken  from  an  early  isth-century  pontifical  in  the 
Cambridge  University  Library  as  printed  by"  W.  Makell  in 
Monumenta  rilualia  ecclesiae  Anglicanae,  ?nd  ed.,  vol.  i.  pp. 
I95-239- 


DEDICATION 


919 


There  is  a  preliminary  office  for  laying  a  foundation-stone. 
On  the  day  of  consecration  the  bishop  is  to  vest  in  a  tent  outside 
the  church,  thence  to  proceed  to  the  door  of  the  church  on  the 
outside,  a  single  deacon  being  inside  the  church,  and  there  to  bless 
holy  water,  twelve  lighted  candles  being  placed  outside,  and 
twelve  inside  the  church.  He  is  then  to  sprinkle  the  walls  all 
round  outside,  and  to  knock  at  the  door ;  then  to  sprinkle  the 
walls  all  round  outside  a  second  time  and  to  knock  at  the  door 
again;  then  to  sprinkle  the  walls  all  round  outside  a  third  time, 
and  a  third  time  to  knock  at  the  door,  by  which  he  will  then  enter, 
all  laity  being  excluded.  The  bishop  is  then  to  fix  a  cross  in  the 
centre  of  the  church,  after  which  the  litany  is  said,  including  a 
special  clause  for  the  consecration  of  the  church  and  altar. 
Next  the  bishop  inscribes  the  alphabet  in  Greek  letters  on  one  of 
the  limbs  of  St  Andrew's  cross  from  the  left  east  corner  to  the 
right  west  corner  on  the  pavement  cindered  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  alphabet  in  Latin  on  the  other  limb  from  the  right  east  corner 
to  the  left  west  corner.  Then  he  is  to  genuflect  before  the  altar 
or  cross.  Then  he  blesses  water,  mingled  with  salt,  ashes  and 
wine,  and  sprinkles  therewith  all  the  walls  of  the  church  inside 
thrice,  beginning  at  the  altar;  then  he  sprinkles  the  centre  of  the 
church  longwise  and  crosswise  on  the  pavement,  and  then  goes 
round  the  outside  of  the  church  sprinkling  it  thrice.  Next  re- 
entering  the  church  and  taking  up  a  central  position  he  sprinkles 
holy  water  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass,  and  toward  the  roof. 
Next  he  anoints  with  chrism  the  twelve  internal  and  twelve 
external  wall-crosses,  afterwards  perambulating  the  church 
thrice  inside  and  outside,  censing  it. 

Then  there  follows  the  consecration  of  the  altar.  First,  holy 
water  is  blessed  and  mixed  with  chrism,  and  with  the  mixture 
the  bishop  makes  a  cross  in  the  middle  of  the  altar,  then  on  the 
right  and  the  left,  then  on  the  four  horns  of  the  altar.  Then  the 
altar  is  sprinkled  seven  times  or  three  times  with  water  not  mixed 
with  chrism,  and  the  altar-table  is  washed  therewith  and  censed 
and  wiped  with  a  linen  cloth.  The  centre  of  the  altar  is  next 
anointed  with  the  oil  of  the  catechumens  in  the  form  of  a  cross; 
and  the  altar-stone  is  next  anointed  with  chrism;  and  then  the 
whole  altar  is  rubbed  over  with  oil  of  the  catechumens  and  with 
chrism.  Incense  is  next  blessed,  and  the  altar  censed,  five  grains 
of  incense  being  placed  crosswise  in  the  centre  and  at  the  four 
corners,  and  upon  the  grains  five  slender  candle  crosses,  which  are 
to  be  lit.  Afterwards  the  altar  is  scraped  and  cleansed ;  then  the 
altar-cloths  and  ornaments  having  been  sprinkled  with  holy  water 
are  placed  upon  the  altar,  which  is  then  to  be  censed. 

All  this  is  subsidiary  to  the  celebration  of  mass,  with  which 
the  whole  service  is  concluded.  The  transcription  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  various  collects,  psalms,  anthems,  benedictions,  &c., 
which  make  up  the  order  of  dedication  have  been  omitted  for 
the  sake  of  brevity. 

The  Sarum  order  of  dedication  described  above  is  substantially 
identical  with  the  Roman  order,  but  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
tabulate  and  describe  the  lesser  variations  of  language  or  ritual. 
There  is,  however,  one  very  important  and  significant  piece  of 
ritual,  not  found  in  the  above-described  English  church  order, 
but  always  found  in  the  Roman  service,  and  not  infrequently 
found  in  the  earlier  and  later  English  uses,  in  connexion  with 
the  presence  and  use  of  relics  at  the  consecration  of  an  altar. 
According  to  the  Roman  ritual,  after  the  priest  has  sprinkled 
the  walls  of  the  church  inside  thrice  all  round  and  then  sprinkled 
the  pavement  from  the  altar  to  the  porch,  and  sideways  from  wall 
to  wall,  and  then  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  compass,  he  prepares 
.  some  cement  at  the  altar.  He  then  goes  to  the  place  where  the 
relics  are  kept,  and  starts  a  solemn  procession  with  the  relics 
round  the  outside  of  the  church.  There  a  sermon  is  preached, 
and  two  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent  are  read,  and  the  founder's 
deed  of  gift  or  endowment.  Then  the  bishop,  anointing  the  door 
with  chrism,  enters  the  church  with  the  relics  and  deposits  them 
in  the  cavity  or  confession  in  the  altar.  Having  been  enclosed 
they  are  censed  and  covered  in,  and  the  cover  is  anointed.  Then 
follows  the  censing  and  wiping  of  the  altar  as  in  the  Sarum 
order. 

This  use  of  idlics  is  very  ancient  and  can  be  traced  back  to  the 


time  of  St  Ambrose.  There  was  also  a  custom,  now  obsolete,  of 
enclosing  a  portion  of  the  consecrated  Eucharist  if  relics  were  not 
obtainable.  This  was  ordered  by  cap.  2  of  the  council  of  Celchyth 
(Chelsea)  in  816.  But  fhough  ancient  the  custom  of  enclosing 
relics  was  not  universal,  and  where  found  in  English  church 
orders,  as  it  frequently  is  found  from  the  pontifical  of  Egbert 
onwards,  it  is  called  the  "  Mos  Romanus  "  as  distinguished  from 
the  "  Mos  Anglicanus  "  (Archaeologia,  liv.  416).  It  is  absent 
from  the  description  of  the  early  Irish  form  of  consecration 
preserved  in  the  Leabhar  Breac,  translated  and  annotated  by 
Rev.  T.  Olden  in  the  Transactions  of  the  St  Paul's  Ecclesiolog. 
Soc.  vol.  iv.  pt.  ii.  p.  98. 

The  curious  ritual  act,  technically  known  as  the  abecedarium, 
i.e.  the  tracing  of  the  alphabet,  sometimes  in  Latin  characters, 
sometimes  in  Latin  and  Greek,  sometimes,  according  to  Menard, 
in  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  along  the  limbs  of  St  Andrew's 
cross  on  the  floor  of  the  church,  can  be  traced  back  to  the  8th 
century  and  may  be  earlier.  Its  origin  and  meaning  are  unknown. 
Of  all  explanations  we  like  best  the  recent  one  suggested  by  Rossi 
and  adopted  by  the  bishop  of  Salisbury.  This  interprets  the  St 
Andrew's  cross  as  the  initial  Greek  letter  of  Christus,  and  the 
whole  act  as  significant  of  taking  possession  of  the  site  to  be 
consecrated  in  the  name  of  Christ,  who  is  the  Alpha  and  Omega, 
the  word  of  God,  combining  in  himself  all  letters  that  lie  between 
them,  every  element  of  human  speech.  The  three  languages 
may  then  have  been  suggested  by  the  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
in  which  his  title  was  written  on  the  cross. 

The  disentangling  the  Gallican  from  the  Roman  elements  in 
the  early  Western  forms  of  service  is  a  delicate  and  difficult  task, 
undertaken  by  Monsignor  Louis  Duchesne,  who  shows  how  the 
former  partook  of  a  funerary  and  the  latter  of  a  baptismal 
character  (Christian  Worship  (London,  1904),  cap.  xii.). 

The  dedication  service  of  the  Greek  Church  is  likewise  long  and 
elaborate.  Relics  are  to  be  prepared  and  guarded  on  the  day 
previous  in  some  neighbouring  sacred  building.  On  the  morning 
following,  all  ornaments  and  requisites  having  been  got  ready,  the 
laity  being  excluded,  the  bishop  and  clergy  vested  proceed  to  fix 
in  its  place  and  consecrate  the  altar,  a  long  prayer  of  dedication 
being  said,  followed  by  a  litany.  The  altar  is  then  sprinkled 
with  warm  water,  then  with  wine,  then  anointed  with  chrism  in 
the  form  of  a  cross.  The  altar,  the  book  of  the  gospels,  and  all 
cloths  are  then  censed,  every  pillar  is  crossed  with  chrism,  while 
various  collects  are  said  and  psalms  recited.  One  lamp  is  then 
filled  with  oil  and  lit,  and  placed  on  the  altar,  while  clergy  bring 
in  other  lamps  and  other  ornaments  of  the  church.  On  the  next 
day — if  the  service  cannot  be  concluded  in  one  day — the  bishop 
and  clergy  go  to  the  building  where  the  relics  have  been  kept  and 
guarded.  A  procession  is  formed  and  advances  thence  with  the 
relics,  which  are  borne  by  a  priest  in  a  holy  vessel  (discus)  on  his 
head;  the  church  having  been  entered,  the  relics  are  placed  by 
him  with  much  ceremonial  in  the  "  confession,"  the  recess  pre- 
pared in  or  about  the  altar  for  their  reception,  which  is  then 
anointed  and  sealed  up.  After  this  the  liturgy  is  celebrated  both 
on  the  feast  of  dedication  and  on  seven  days  afterwards. 

There  is  no  authorized  form  for  the  dedication  of  a  church  in 
the  reformed  Church  of  England.  A  form  was  drawn  up  and 
approved  by  both  houses  of  the  convocation  of  Canterbury  under 
Archbishop  Tenison  in  1712,  and  an  almost  identical  form  was 
submitted  to  convocation  in  1715,  but  its  consideration  was  not 
completed  by  the  Lower  House,  and  neither  form  ever  received 
royal  sanction.  The  consequence  has  been  that  Anglican  bishops 
have  fallen  back  on  their  undefined  jus  liturgicum,  and  have 
drawn  up  and  promulgated  forms  for  use  in  their  various  dioceses, 
some  of  them  being  content  to  borrow  from  other  dioceses  for  this 
purpose.  There  is  a  general  similarity,  with  a  certain  amount  of 
difference  in  detail,  in  these  various  forms.  In  the  diocese  of 
London  the  bishop,  attended  by  clergy  and  churchwardens, 
receives  at  the  west  door,  outside,  a  petition  for  consecration; 
the  procession  then  moves  round  the  whole  church  outside,  while 
certain  psalms  are  chanted.  On  again  reaching  the  west  door 
the  bishop  knocks  thrice  for  admission,  and  the  door  being 
opened  the  procession  advances  to  the  east  end  of  the  church. 


920 

He  there  lays  the  keys  on  the  table  "  which  is  to  be  hallowed." 
The  Veni  Creator  is  then  sung  kneeling,  followed  by  the  litany 
with  special  suffrages.  The  bishop  then  proceeds  to  various 
parts  of  the  church  and  blesses  the  font,  the  clfancel,  with  special 
references  to  confirmation  and  holy  matrimony,  the  lectern, 
the  pulpit,  the  clergy  stalls,  the  choir  seats,  the  holy  table.  The 
deed  of  consecration  is  then  read  and  signed,  and  the  celebration 
of  Holy  Communion  follows  with  special  collects,  epistle  and 
gospel. 

The  Church  of  Ireland  and  the  episcopal  Church  of  Scotland 
are  likewise  without  any  completely  authorized  form  of  dedi- 
cation, and  their  archbishops  or  bishops  have  at  various  times 
issued  forms  of  service  on  their  own  authority.  (F.  E.  W.) 

DE  DONIS  CONDITIONALIBUS,  a  chapter  of  the  statute  of 
Westminster  the  Second  (1285)  which  originated  the  law  of 
entail.  Strictly  speaking,  a  form  of  entail  was  known  before 
the  Norman  feudal  law  had  been  domesticated  in  England.  The 
common  form  was  a  grant  "  to  the  feoffee  and  the  heirs  of  his 
body,"  by  which  limitation  it  was  sought  to  prevent  alienation 
from  the  lineage  of  the  first  purchaser.  These  grants  were  also 
known  as  feuda  conditionata,  because  if  the  donee  had  no  heirs 
of  his  body  the  estate  reverted  to  the  donor.  This  right  of 
reversion  was  evaded  by  the  interpretation  that  such  a  gift  was 
a  conditional  fee,  which  enabled  the  donee,  if  he  had  an  heir  of 
the  body  born  alive,  to  alienate  the  land,  and  consequently 
disinherit  the  issue  and  defeat  the  right  of  the  donor.  To  remedy 
this  the  statute  De  Donis  Conditionalibus  was  passed,  which 
enacted  that,  in  grants  to  a  man  and  the  heirs  of  his  body,  the 
will  of  the  donor  according  to  the  form  in  the  deed  of  gift  mani- 
festly expressed,  should  be  from  thenceforth  observed;  so  that 
they  to  whom  the  land  was  given  under  such  condition,  should 
have  no  power  to  alienate  the  land  so  given,  but  that  it  should 
remain  unto  the  issue  of  those  to.  whom  it  was  given  after  their 
death,  or  unto  the  giver  or  his  heirs,  if  issue  fail.  Since  the 
passing  of  the  statute  an  estate  given  to  a  man  and  the  heirs  of 
his  body  has  been  known  as  an  estate  tail,  or  an  estate  in  fee  tail 
(feudum  talliatum),  the  word  tail  being  derived  from  the  French 
tattler,  to  cut,  the  inheritance  being  by  the  statute  cut  down  and 
confined  to  the  heirs  of  the  body.  The  operation  of  the  statute 
soon  produced  innumerable  evils  :  "  children,  it  is  said,  grew 
disobedient  when  they  knew  they  could  not  be  set  aside;  farmers 
were  deprived  of  their  leases;  creditors  were  defrauded  of  their 
debts;  innumerable  latent  entails  were  produced  to  deprive 
purchasers  of  the  land  they  had  fairly  bought;  treasons  also  were 
encouraged,  as  estates  tail  were  not  liable  to  forfeiture  longer 
than  for  the  tenant's  life  "  (Williams,  Real  Property).  Accord- 
ingly, the  power  of  alienation  was  reintroduced  by  the  judges  in 
Taltarum's  case  (Year  Book,  12  Edward  IV.,  1472)  by  means  of 
a  fictitious  suit  or  recovery  which  had  originally  been  devised 
by  the  regular  clergy  for  evading  the  statutes  of  mortmain.  This 
was  abolished  by  an  act  passed  in  1833.  (See  FINE.) 

DEDUCTION  (from  Lat.  deducere,  to  take  or  lead  from  or  out 
of,  derive),  a  term  used  in  common  parlance  for  the  process 
of  taking  away  from,  or  subtracting  (as  in  mathematics),  and 
specially  for  the  argumentative  process  of  arriving  at  a  con- 
clusion from  evidence,  i.e.  for  any  kind  of  inference.1  In  this 
sense  it  includes  both  arguments  from  particular  facts  and  those 
from  general  laws  to  particular  cases.  In  logic  it  is  generally 
used  in  contradiction  to  "  induction  "  for  a  kind  of  mediate 
inference,  in  which  a  conclusion  (often  itself  called  the  deduction) 
is  regarded  as  following  necessarily  under  certain  fixed  laws 
from  premises.  This,  the  most  common,  form  of  deduction  is 
the  syllogism  (q.v.;  see  also  LOGIC),  which  consists  in  taking  a 
general  principle  and  deriving  from  it  facts  which  are  necessarily 
involved  in  it.  This  use  of  deduction  is  of  comparatively  modern 
origin;  it  was  originally  used  as  the  equivalent  of  Aristotle's 
awajiayri  (see  Prior  Analytics,  B  xxv.).  The  modern  use  of 
deduction  is  practically  identical  with  the  Aristotelian 


DE  DONIS— DEE,  J. 


'Two  forms  of  the  verb  are  used,  "deduce"  and  "deduct"; 
originally  synonymous,  they  are  now  distinguished,  "  deduce  "  being 
confined  to  arguments,  "  deduct  "  to  quantities. 


DEE,  JOHN  (1527-1608),  English  mathematician  and 
astrologer,  was  born  on  the  I3th  of  July  1527,  in  London,  where 
his  father  was,  according  to  Wood,  a  wealthy  vintner.  In  1542 
he  was  sent  to  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  After  five  years 
spent  in  mathematical  and  astronomical  studies,  he  went  to 
Holland,  in  order  to  visit  several  eminent  continental  mathe- 
maticians. Having  remained  abroad  nearly  a  year,  he  returned 
to  Cambridge,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  then 
first  erected  by  King  Henry  VIII.  In  1548  he  took  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts;  but  in  the  same  year  he  found  it  necessary 
to  leave  England  on  account  of  the  suspicions  entertained  of 
his  being  a  conjurer;  these  were  first  excited  by  a  piece  of 
machinery,  which,  in  the  Pax  of  Aristophanes,  he  exhibited  to  the 
university,  representing  the  scarabaeus  flying  up  to  Jupiter,  with 
a  man  and  a  basket  of  victuals  on  its  back.  He  went  first  to  the 
university  of  Louvain,  where  he  resided  about  two  years,  and  then 
to  the  college  of  Rheims,  where  he  had  extraordinary  success  in 
his  public  lectures  on  Euclid's  Elements.  On  his  return  to  England 
in  1551  King  Edward  assigned  him  a  pension  of  100  crowns, 
which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for  the  rectory  of  Upton-upon- 
Severn,  Worcestershire.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Mary  he  was 
accused  of  using  enchantments  against  the  queen's  life;  but 
after  a  tedious  confinement  he  obtained  his  liberty  in  1555, 
by  an  order  of  council. 

When  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne,  Dee  was  asked  by  Lord 
Dudley  to  name  a  propitious  day  for  the  coronation.  On  this 
occasion  he  was  introduced  to  the  queen,  who  took  lessons  in 
the  mystical  interpretation  of  his  writings,  and  made  him  great 
promises,  which,  however,  were  never  fulfilled.  In  1564  he  again 
visited  the  continent,  in  order  to  present  his  Monas  hieroglyphica 
to  the  emperor  Maximilian,  to  whom  he  had  dedicated  it.  He 
returned  to  England  in  the  same  year  ;  but  in  1571  he  was  in 
Lorraine,  whither  two  physicians  were  sent  by  the  queen  to  his 
relief  in  a  dangerous  illness.  Returning  to  his  home  at  Mortlake, 
in  Surrey,  he  continued  his  studies,  and  made  a  collection  of 
curious  books  and  manuscripts,  and  a  variety  of  instruments. 
In  1578  Dee  was  sent  abroad  to  consult  with  German  physicians 
and  astrologers  in  regard  to  the  illness  of  the  queen.  On  his 
return  to  England,  he  was  employed  in  investigating  the  title  of 
the  crown  to  the  countries  recently  discovered  by  British  subjects, 
and  in  furnishing  geographical  descriptions.  Two  large  rolls 
containing  the  desired  information,  which  he  presented  to  the 
queen,  are  still  preserved  in  the  Cottonian  Library.  A  learned 
treatise  on  the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  written  by  him  about 
the  same  time,  is  also  preserved  in  the  Ashmolean  Library  at 
Oxford. 

From  this  period  the  philosophical  researches  of  Dee  were 
concerned  entirely  with  necromancy.  In  1581  he  became 
acquainted  with  Edward  Kelly,  an  apothecary,  who  had  been 
convicted  of  forgery  and  had  lost  both  ears  in  the  pillory  at 
Lancaster.  He  professed  to  have  discovered  the  philosopher's 
stone,  and  by  his  assistance  Dee  performed  various  incantations, 
and  maintained  a  frequent  imaginary  intercourse  with  spirits. 
Shortly  afterwards  Kelly  and  Dee  were  introduced  by  the  earl 
of  Leicester  to  a  Polish  nobleman,  Albert  Laski,  palatine  of  Siradz, 
devoted  to  the  same  pursuits,  who  persuaded  them  to  accompany 
him  to  his  native  country.  They  embarked  for  Holland  in 
September  1583,  and  arrived  at  Laski's  residence  in  February 
following.  Upon  Dee's  departure  the  mob,  believing  him  a 
wizard,  broke  into  his  house,  and  destroyed  a  quantity  of 
furniture  and  books  and  his  chemical  apparatus.  Dee  and 
Kelly  lived  for  some  years  in  Poland  and  Bohemia  in  alternate 
wealth  and  poverty,  according  to  the  credulity  or  scepticism  of 
those  before  whom  they  exhibited.  They  professed  to  raise 
spirits  by  incantation;  and  Kelly  dictated  the  utterances  to  Dee, 
who  wrote  them  down  and  interpreted  them. 

Dee  at  length  quarrelled  with  his  companion,,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1589.  He  was  helped  over  his  financial  difficulties  by 
the  queen  and  his  friends.  In  May  of  1595  he  became  warden  of 
Manchester  College.  In  November  1604  he  returned  to  Mortlake, 
where  he  died  in  December  1608,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one,  in 
the  greatest  poverty.  Aubrey  describes  him  as  "  of  a  very  fair, 


DEE— DEEMS 


921 


clear  sanguine  complexion,  with  a  long  beard  as  white  as  milk — 
a  very  handsome  man — tall  and  slender.  He  wore  a  goune  like 
an  artist's  goune  with  hanging  sleeves."  Dee's  Speculum  or 
mirror,  a  piece  of  solid  pink-tinted  glass  about  the  size  of  an 
orange,  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

His  principal  works  are — Propaedeumata  aphoristica  (London, 
1558);  Monas  hieroglyphica  (Antwerp,  1564);  Epistola  ad  Frederi- 
cum  Commandinum  (Pesaro,  157°);  Preface  Mathematical  to  the 
English  Euclid  (1570);  Divers  Annotations  and  Inventions  added 
after  the  tenth  book  of  English  Euclid  (1570);  Epistola  praefixa 
Ephemeridibus  Joannis  Feldi,  a.  1557;  Parallaticae  commentationis 
praxeosque  nucleus  quidam  (London,  1573).  The  catalogue  of  his 
printed  and  published  works  is  to  be  found  in  his  Compendious 
Rehearsal,  as  well  as  in  his  letter  to  Archbishop  Whitgift.  A  manu- 
script of  Dee's,  relating  what  passed  for  many  years  between  him 
and  some  spirits,  was  edited  by  Meric  Casaubon  and  published  in 
1659.  The  Private  Diary  of  Dr  John  Dee,  and  the  Catalogue  of  his 
Library  of  Manuscripts,  edited  by  J.  O.  Halliwell,  was  published 
by  the  Camden  Society  in  1842.  There  is  a  life  of  Dee  in  Thomas 
Smith's  Vitae  illustrium  virorum  (1707);  English  translation  by  W. 
A.  Ayton,  the  Life  of  John  Dee  (1909). 

DEE  (Welsh,  Dyfrdwy;  Lat.,  and  in  Milton,  Devd),  a  river  of 
Wales  and  England.  It  rises  in  Bala  Lake,  Merionethshire,  which 
is  fed  by  a  number  of  small  streams.  Leaving  the  lake  near  the 
town  of  Bala  it  follows  a  north-easterly  course  to  Corwen,  turns 
thence  E.  by  S.  past  Llangollen  to  a  point  near  Overton,  and  then 
bends  nearly  north  to  Chester,  and  thereafter  north-west  through 
a  great  estuary  opening  into  the  Irish  Sea.  In  the  Llangollen 
district  the  Dee  crosses  Denbighshire,  and  thereafter  forms  the 
boundary  of  that  county  with  Shropshire,  a  detached  part  of 
Flint,  and  Cheshire.  From  Bala  nearly  down  to  Overton,  a 
distance  of  35  m.,  during  which  the  river  falls  about  330  ft.,  its 
course  lies  through  a  narrow  and  beautiful  valley,  enclosed  on  the 
south  by  the  steep  lower  slopes  of  the  Berwyn  Mountains  and  on 
the  north  by  a  succession  of  lesser  ranges.  The  portion  known 
as  the  Vale  of  Llangollen  is  especially  famous.  Here  an  aqueduct 
carrying  the  Pontcysyllte  branch  of  the  Shropshire  Union  canal 
bestrides  the  valley;  it  is  a  remarkable  engineering  work 
completed  by  Thomas  Telford  in  1805.  The  Dee  has  a  total 
length  of  about  70  m.  and  a  fall  of  530  ft.  Below  Overton  it 
debouches  upon  its  plain  track.  Below  Chester  it  follows  a 
straight  artificial  channel  to  the  estuary,  and  this  is  the  only 
navigable  portion.  The  estuary,  which  is  14  m.  long,  and  5-}  m. 
wide  at  its  mouth,  between  Hilbre  Point  on  the  English  and 
Point  of  Air  on  the  Welsh  side,  is  not  a  commercial  highway  like 
the  neighbouring  mouth  of  the  Mersey,  for  though  in  appearance 
a  fine  natural  harbour  at  high  tide,  it  becomes  at  low  tide  a  vast 
expanse  of  sand,  through  which  the  river  meanders  in  a  narrow 
channel.  The  navigation,  however,  is  capable  of  improvement, 
and  schemes  have  been  set  on  foot  to  this  end.  The  tide  rushes 
in  with  great  speed  over  the  sands,  and  their  danger  is  illustrated 
in  the  well-known  ballad  "  The  Sands  of  Dee  "  by  Charles 
Kingsley.  The  Dee  drains  an  area  of  813  sq.  m. 

DEE,  a  river  in  the  south  of  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  pursuing 
a  generally  easterly  direction  from  its  source  in  the  extreme  west 
of  the  county  till  it  reaches  the  North  Sea  at  the  city  of  Aberdeen. 
It  rises  in  the  Wells  of  Dee,  a  spring  on  Ben  Braeriach,  one  of  the 
Cairngorms,  at  a  height  of  4061  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  descends 
rapidly  from  this  altitude,  and  by  the  time  that  it  receives  the 
Geusachan,  on  its  right  bank,  about  6  m.  from  its  source,  it  has 
fallen  2421  ft.  From  the  mountains  flanking  its  upper  reaches 
it  is  fed  by  numerous  burns  named  and  unnamed.  With  its 
tributaries  the  river  drains  an  area  of  1000  sq.  m.  Rapid  and 
turbulent  during  the  first  half  of  its  course  of  90  m.,  it  broadens 
appreciably  below  Aboyne  and  the  rate  of  flow  is  diminished. 
The  channel  towards  its  mouth  was  artificially  altered  in  order 
to  provide  increased  dock  accommodation  at  Aberdeen,  but, 
above,  the  stream  is  navigable  for  only  barges  and  small  craft 
for  a  few  miles.  It  runs  through  scenery  of  transcendent  beauty, 
especially  in  Braemar.  About  two  miles  above  Inverey  it  enters 
a  narrow  rocky  gorge,  300  yds.  long  and  only  a  few  feet  wide  at 
one  part,  and  forms  the  rapids  and  cascades  of  the  famous  Linn 
of  Dee.  One  of  the  finest  of  Scottish  salmon  streams,  it  retains 
its  purity  almost  to  the  very  end  of  its  run.  The  principal 


places  on  the  Dee,  apart  from  private  residences,  are  Castleton 
of  Braemar,  Ballater,  Aboyne,  Kincardine  O'Neil,  Banchory, 
Culler  and  Cults. 

DEED  (in  O.  Eng.  dead,  from  the  stem  of  the  verb  "  to  do  "), 
that  which  is  done,  an  act,  doing;  particularly,  in  law,  a  contract 
in  writing,  sealed  and  delivered  by  the  party  bound  to  the  party 
intended  to  benefit.  Contracts  or  obligations  under  seal  are  called 
in  English  law  specialties,  and  down  to  1869  they  took  precedence 
in  payment  over  simple  contracts,  whether  written  or  not. 
Writing,  sealing  and  delivery  are  all  essential  to  a  deed.  The 
signature  of  the  party  charged  is  not  material,  and  the  deed  is 
not  void  for  want  of  a  date.  Delivery,  it  is  held,  may  be  complete 
without  the  actual  handing  over  of  the  deed;  it  is  sufficient  if  the 
act  of  sealing  were  accompanied  by  words  or  acts  signifying  that 
the  deed  was  intended  to  be  presently  binding;  and  delivery  to 
a  third  person  for  the  use  of  the  party  benefited  will  be  sufficient. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  deed  may  be  handed  over  to  a  third  person 
as  an  escrow,1  in  which  case  it  will  not  take  effect  as  a  deed  until 
certain  conditions  are  performed.  Such  conditional  delivery 
may  be  inferred  from  the  circumstances  attending  the  transac- 
tion, although  the  conditions  be  not  expressed  in  words.  A  deed 
indented,  or  indenture  (so  called  because  written  in  counterparts 
on  the  same  sheet  of  parchment,  separated  by  cutting  a  wavy 
line  between  them  so  as  to  be  identified  by  fitting  the  parts 
together),  is  between  two  or  more  parties  who  contract  mutually^ 
The  actual  indentation  is  not  now  necessary  to  an  indenture. 
The  deed-poll  (with  a  polled  or  smooth-cut  edge,  not  indented) 
is  a  deed  in  which  one  party  binds  himself  without  reference 
to  any  corresponding  obligations  undertaken  by  another  party. 
See  CONTRACT. 

DEEMS,  CHARLES  (ALEXANDER)  FORCE  (1820-1893), 
American  clergyman,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  on  the 
4th  of  December  1820.  He  was  a  precocious  child  and  delivered 
lectures  on  temperance  and  on  Sunday  schools  before  he  was 
fourteen  years  old.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1839, 
taught  and  preached  in  New  York  city  for  a  few  months,  in  1840 
took  charge  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  at  Asbury,  New 
Jersey,  and  removed  in  the  next  year  to  North  Carolina,  where 
he  was  general  agent  for  the  American  Bible  Society.  He  was 
professor  of  logic  and  rhetoric  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
in  1842-1847,  and  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  Randolph- 
Macon  College  (then  at  Boydton,  Virginia)  in  1847-1848,  and 
after  two  years  of  preaching  at  Newbern,  N.  C.,  he  held  for 
four  years  (1850-1854)  the  presidency  of  Greensboro  (N.C.) 
Female  College.  He  continued  as  a  Methodist  Episcopal  clergy- 
man at  various  pastorates  in  North  Carolina  from  185410  1865, 
for  the  last  seven  years  being  a  presiding  elder  and  in  1859  to  1863 
being  the  proprietor  of  St  Austin's  Institute,  Wilson.  In  1865 
he  settled  in  New  York  City,  where  in  1866  he  began  preaching  in 
the  chapel  of  New  York  University,  and  in  1868  he  established 
and  became  the  pastor  of  the  undenominational  Church  of  the 
Strangers,  which  in  1870  occupied  the  former  Mercer  Street 
Presbyterian  church,  purchased  and  given  to  Dr  Deems  by 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt;  there  he  remained  until  his  death  in 
New  York  city  on  the  i8th  of  November  1893.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  (1881)  and  president  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Christian  Philosophy  and  for  ten  years  was  editor  of  its  organ, 
Christian  Thought.  Dr  Deems  was  an  earnest  temperance  advo- 
cate, as  early  as  1852  worked  (unsuccessfully)  for  a  general  prohi- 
bition law  in  North  Carolina,  and  in  his  later  years  allied  himself 
with  the  Prohibition  party.  He  was  influential  in  securing  from 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  the  endowment  of  Vanderbilt  University, 
in  Nashville,  Tennessee.  He  was  a  man  of  rare  personal  and 
literary  charm;  he  edited  The  Southern  Methodist  Episcopal 
Pulpit  (1846-1852)  and  The  Annals  of  Southern  Methodism 
(1855-1857);  he  compiled  Devotional  Melodies  (1842),  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  Phoebe  Gary,  one  of  his  parishioners,  Hymns 
for  all  Christians  (1869;  revised,  1881);  and  he  published  many 
books,  among  which  were:  The  Life  of  Dr  Adam  Clarke  (1840); 

1  An  Anglo-French  law  term  meaning  a  "  scroll  "  or  strip  of  parch- 
ment, cognate  with  the  English  "  shred."  The  modern  French 
ecroue  is  used  for  the  entry  of  a  name  on  a  prison  register. 


DEER 


The  Triumph  of  Peace  and  other  Poems  (1840);  The  Home  Altar 
(1850);  Jesus  (1872),  which  ran  through  many  editions  and 
several  revisions,  the  title  being  changed  in  1880  to  The  Light 
of  the  Nations;  Sermons  (1885);  The  Gospel  of  Common  Sense 
(1888) ;  The  Gospel  of  Spiritual  Insight  (1891)  and  My  Septuagint 
(1892).  The  Charles  F.  Deems  Lectureship  in  Philosophy  was 
founded  in  his  honour  in  1895  at  New  York  University  by  the 
American  Institute  of  Christian  Philosophy. 

His  Autobiography  (New  York,  1897)  is  autobiographical  only  to 
1847,  the  memoir  being  completed  by  his  two  sons. 

DEER  (0.  E.  dear,  dior,  a  common  Teutonic  word,  meaning  a 
wild  animal,  cf.  Ger.  Tier,  Du.  dier,  &c.,  probably  from  a  root 
dhus-,  to  breathe),  originally  the  name  of  one  of  two  British 
species,  the  red-deer  or  the  fallow-deer,  but  now  extended  to  all 
the  members  of  the  family  Cervidae,  in  the  section  Pecora  of  the 
suborder  Artiodactyla  of  the  order  Ungulata.  (See  PECORA; 
ARTJODACTYLA  and  UNGULATA.)  Briefly,  deer  may  be  defined  as 
Pecora  presenting  the  following  characteristics: — either  antlers 
present  in  the  male,  or  when  these  are  absent,  the  upper  canines 
large  and  sabre-like,  and  the  lateral  metacarpal  bones  represented 
only  by  their  lower  extremities.  This  definition  will  include  the 
living  and  also  most  of  the  extinct  forms,  although  in  some  of 
the  latter  the  lateral  metacarpal  bones  not  only  retain  their  lower 
ends,  but  are  complete  in  then"  entire  length. 

The  leading  characters  of  antlers  are  described  under  PECORA, 
but  these  structures  may  be  defined  somewhat  more  fully  in  the 
following  passage  from  the  present  writer's  Deer  of  all  Lands: — 

"  Antlers  are  supported  on  a  pair  of  solid  bony  processes,  or 
pedicles,  arising  from  the  frontal  bones  of  the  skull,  of  which  they 
form  an  inseparable  portion ;  and  if  in  a  fully  adult  deer  these  pedicles 
be  sawn  through,  they  will  generally  be  found  to  consist  of  solid, 
ivory-like  bone,  devoid  of  perceptible  channels  for  the  passage  of 
blood-vessels.  The  pedicles  are  always  covered  with  skin  well 
supplied  with  blood-vessels;  and  in  young  deer,  or  those  in  which 
the  antlers  have  been  comparatively  recently  shed,  the  covering  of 
skin  extends  over  their  summits,  when  they  appear  as  longer  or 
shorter  projections  on  the  forehead,  according  to  the  species.  When 
the  first  or  a  new  antler  is  about  to  be  formed,  the  summits  of  these 
pedicles  become  tender,  and  bear  small  velvet-like  knobs,  which  have 
a  high  temperature,  and  are  supplied  by  an  extra  quantity  of  blood, 
which  commences  to  deposit  bony  matter.  This  deposition  of  bony 
matter  progresses  very  rapidly,  and  although  in  young  deer  and  the 
adults  of  some  species  the  resulting  antler  merely  forms  a  simple 
spike,  or  a  single  fork,  in  full-grown  individuals  of  the  majority  it 
assumes  a  more  or  less  complexly  branched  structure.  All  this  time 
the  growing  antler  is  invested  with  a  skin  clothed  with  exceedingly 
fine  short  hairs,  and  is  most  liberally  supplied  with  blood-vessels; 
this  sensitive  skin  being  called  the  velvet.  Towards  the  completion 
of  its  growth  a  more  or  less  prominent  ring  of  bone,  termed  the  burr 
or  coronet,  is  deposited  at  its  base  just  above  the  junction  with  the 
pedicle;  this  ring  tending  to  constrict  the  blood-vessels,  and  thus 
cut  off  the  supply  of  blood  from  the  antlers.  .  .  . 

"  When  the  antlers  are  freed  from  the  velvet — a  process  usually 
assisted  by  the  animal  rubbing  them  against  tree  stems  or  boughs 
— they  have  a  more  or  less  rugose  surface,  owing  to  the  grooves 
formed  in  them  by  the  nutrient  blood-vessels.  Although  a  few 
living  species  have  the  antlers  in  the  form  of  simple  spikes  in  the 
adult  male,  in  the  great  majority  of  species  they  are  more  or  less 
branched ;  while  in  some,  like  the  elk  and  fallow-deer,  they  expand 
into  broad  palmated  plates,  with  tines,  or  snags,  on  one  or  both 
margins.  In  the  antlers  of  the  red-deer  group,  which  form  the  type 
of  the  whole  series,  the  following  names  have  been  applied  to  their 
different  component  parts  and  branches.  The  main  shaft  is  termed 
the  beam;  the  first  or  lowest  tine  the  brow-tine;  the  second  the 
bez-tine;  the  third  the  trez-tine,  or  royal;  and  the  branched  portion 
forming  the  summit  the  crown,  or  surroyals.  But  the  antlers  of  all 
deer  by  no  means  conform  to  this  type;  and  in  certain  groups  other 
names  have  to  be  adopted  for  the  branches. 

"  The  antlers  of  young  deer  are  in  the  form  of  simple  spikes;  and 
this  form  is  retained  in  the  South  American  brockets,  although  the 
simple  antlers  of  these  deer  appear  due  to  degeneration,  and  are  not 
primitive  types.  Indeed,  no  living  deer  shows  such  primitive  spike- 
like  antlers  in  the  adult,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  a  type  is  dis- 
played by  any  known  extinct  form,  although  many  have  a  simple 
fork.  In  the  deer  of  the  sambar  group,  where  the  antlers  never 
advance  beyond  a  three-tined  type,  the  shedding  is  frequently,  if 
not  invariably,  very  irregular;  but  in  the  majority  at  least  of  the 
species  with  complex  antlers  the  replacement  is  annual,  the  new 
appendages  attaining  their  full  development  immediately  before  the 
pairing-season.  In  such  species  there  is  a  more  or  less  regular  annual 
increase  in  the  complexity  of  the  antlers  up  to  a  certain  period  of  life, 
after  which  they  begin  to  degenerate." 


The  Cervidae  are  distributed  all  over  Europe,  Asia,  Northern 
Africa  and  America,  but  are  unknown  in  Africa  south  of  the 
Sahara.  They  are  undoubtedly  a  group  of  European  or  Asiatic 
origin,  and  obtained  an  entrance  into  America  at  a  time  when 
that  continent  was  connected  with  Asia  by  way  of  Bering  Strait. 

The  existing  members  of  the  family  are  classified  in  the  writer's 
Deer  of  all  Lands  as  follows: — 

A.  Subfamily  CERVINAE. — Antlers,  with  one  exception,  present 
in  the  male;  liver  without  a  gall-bladder;  a  face-gland,  and  a 
gland-pit  in  the  skull. 

I.  Reindeer,  Genus  Rangifer. — Lateral  metacarpal  bones  repre- 
sented only  by  their  lower  extremities ;  antlers  present  in  both  sexes, 
complex.     Northern  part  of  both  hemispheres. 

II.  Elk,  Genus  Alces. — Lateral  metacarpals  as  in  preceding ;  antlers 
(as  in  the  following  genera)  present  only  in  the  male,  arising  at  right 
angles  to  the  median  longitudinal  line  of  the  skull,  and  extending  at 
first  in  the  plane  of  the  forehead,  after  which,  when  in  their  fullest 
development,  they  expand  into  a  broad  palmation  margined  with 
snags.     Northern  portion  of  both  hemispheres. 

III.  True  Deer,  Genus  Cervus. — Lateral  metacarpals  represented 
only  by  their  upper  ends.     Antlers  arising  at  acute  angles  to  the 
median  line  of  the  skull  (as  in  the  following  genera),  at  first  project- 
ing from  the  plane  of  the  forehead,  and  then  continued  upwards 
nearly  in  that  plane,  supported  on  short  pedicles,  and  furnished  with 
a  brow-tine,  never  regularly  forked  at  first  division,  but  generally  of 
large  size,  and  with  not  less  than  three  tines;  the  skull  without 
ridges  on  the  frontals  forming  the  bases  of  the  pedicles  of  the  antlers. 
Upper  canine  teeth  small,  or  wanting.     Europe,  Asia  and  N.  America. 

1.  Red-deer  Group,  Subgenus  Cervus. — Antlers  rounded,  usually 
with  five  or  more  tines,  generally  including  a  bez  (second),  and  always 
a  trez  (third) ;  coat  of  adult  generally  unspotted,  with  a  large  light- 
coloured    disk    surrounding    the    tail;    young,    spotted.     Europe, 
Northern  and  Central  Asia  and  North  America. 

2.  Sika  Deer,  Subgenus  Pseudaxis. — Antlers  smaller  and  simpler, 
four-lined,  with  a  trez  (third),  but  no  bez  (second) ;  coat  of  adult 
spotted,  at  least  in  summer,  with  a  white  area  bordered  by  black  in 
the  region  of  the  tail,  which  is  also  black  and  white.     North-Eastern 
Asia. 

3.  Fallow-deer,   Subgenus  Dama. — Antlers  without  a  bez,  but 
with  a  trez-tine,  above  which  the  beam  is  more  or  less  palmated,  and 
generally  furnished  with  numerous  snags;  coat  of  adult  spotted 
in  summer,  uniform  in  winter,  with  black  and  white  markings  in 
the  region  of  the  tail  similar  to  those  of  Pseudaxis;  young,  spotted. 
Mediterranean  region,  but  more  widely  spread  in  Europe  during 
the  Pleistocene  epoch,  and  also  introduced  into  many  European 
countries. 

4.  Sambar   Group,    Subgenus   Rusa. — Antlers    rounded,    three- 
tined,  with  the  bez-  and  trez-tines  wanting,  and  the  beam  simply 
forked  at  the  summit ;  coat  either  uniform  or  spotted  at  all  seasons. 
Indo-Malay  countries  and  part  of  China. 

5.  Barasingha  Group,  Subgenus  Rucenus. — Antlers  flattened  or 
rounded,  without  bez-  or  trez-tine,  the  beam  dichotomously  forking, 
and  one  or  both  branches  again  forked,  so  that  the  number  of  tines 
is  at  least  four;  brow-tine  forming  a  right  angle  or  a  continuous 
curve  with  the  beam ;  coat  of  adult  generally  more  or  less  uniform, 
of  young  spotted.     Indo-Malay  countries. 

IV.  Muntjacs,    Genus    Cervulus. — Lateral    metacarpals    as    in 
Cervus;  antlers  small,  with  a  brow-tine  and  an  unbranched  beam, 
supported  on  long  bony  pedicles,  continued  downwards  as  con- 
vergent ridges  on  the  forehead;  upper  canines  of  male  large  and 
tusk-like.     Indo-Malay  countries  and  China. 

V.  Tufted  Muntjacs,  Genus  Elaphodus. — Nearly  related  to  the 
last,  but  the  antlers  still  smaller,  with  shorter  pedicles  and  divergent 
frontal  ridges;  upper  canines  of  male  not  everted  at  the  tips.    Tibet 
and  China. 

VI.  Water-deer,   Genus   Hydrelaphus. — Lateral    metacarpals  as 
in   Rangifer;   antlers   wanting;   upper  canines  of   males  tusk-like 
and  growing  from  semi-persistent  pulps;  cheek-teeth  tall-crowned 
(hypsodont) ;  tail  moderate.     China. 

VII.  Roe-deer,    Genus    Capreolus. — Lateral    metacarpals   as   in 
Rangifer;  antlers  rather  small,  without  a  brow-tine  or  sub-basal 
snag,   dichotomously  forked,   with  the   upper  or   posterior  prong 
again   forking;   tail    rudimentary;   vomer   not    dividing    posterior 
nasal  aperture  of  skull.     Europe  and  Northern  Asia. 

VIII.  Pere    David's    Deer,    Genus    Elaphurus. — Lateral    meta- 
carpals as  in  Cervus;  antlers  large,  without  a  brow-tine  or  sub-basal 
snag,   dichotomously   forked,   with   the   upper  prong  of  the  fork 
curving  forwards  and  dividing,  and  the  lower  prong  long,  simple, 
and  projected  backwards,  the  beam  making  a  very  marked  angle 
with  the  plane  of  the  face;  tail  very  long;  vomer  as  in  Capreolus. 
North-East  Asia. 

IX.  American  Deer,  Genus  Mazanta. — Lateral  metacarpals  as  in 
Rangifer;  antlers  very  variable  in  size,  forming  a  marked  angle  with 
the  plane  of  the  face,  without  a  brow-tine ;  when  consisting  of  more 
than  a  simple  prong,  dichotomously  forked,  frequently  with  a  sub- 
basal  snag,  and  always  with  the  lower  prong  of  the  fork  projected 
from  the  front  edge  of  the  beam,  in  some  cases  the  lower,  in  others 


DEER 


923 


the  upper,  and  in  others  both  prongs  again  dividing;  tail  long; 
tarsal  gland  generally  present;  metatarsal  gland  very  variable,  both 
as  regards  presence  and  position;  vomer  dividing  the  inner  aperture 
of  the  nostrils  in  the  skull  into  two  distinct  chambers.  America. 

1.  White-tailed   Group,  Subgenus  Dorcelaphus  or  Odocoileus. — 
Antlers  large  and  complex,  with  a  sub-basal  snag,  and  the  lower 
prong  more  or  less  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  upper  one; 
metatarsal  gland  usually  present;  tail  long  or  moderate,  and  hairy 
below;  face  very  long  and  narrow;  the  face-gland  small,  and  the 
gland-pit  in  the  skull  of  moderate  extent;  no  upper  canines;  size 
generally  large.     North  America  to  Northern  South  America. 

2.  Marsh-deer  Group,  Subgenus  Blastoceros. — Antlers  large  and 
complex,  without   a  sub-basal  snag,  and  the  upper  prong   more 
developed    than   the    lower   one;    metatarsal    gland    absent;    tail 
short;    face    moderately    long;    face-gland    and    gland-pit    well 
developed;  upper  canines  usually  present  in  male.     Size  large  or 
rather  small.     South  America. 

3.  Guemals,  Subgenus  Xenelaphus. — Antlers  small  and  simple, 
forming  a  single  dichotomous  fork;  metatarsal  gland  absent;  tail 
short;    face    moderately    long;    face-gland    and    gland-pit    well 
developed;   upper  canines  present  in  both  sexes.     Size  medium. 
South  America. 

4.  Brockets,  Subgenus  Mazama. — Antlers  in  the  form  of  simple 
unbranched  spikes;   metatarsal,  and   in  one  case  also  the  tarsal 
gland  absent;   tail   very  short;   face  elongated;   face-gland   small 
and  gland-pit  deep  and  triangular;  hair  of  face  radiating  from  two 
whorls;  upper  canines  sometimes  present  in  old  males.     Size  small. 
Central  and  South  America. 

X.  Genus    Pudua. — Skull    and    metacarpals    generally    as    in 
Mazama;  size  very  small;  hair  coarse  and  brittle;  antlers  in  the 
form  of  short,  simple  spikes;  cannon-bones  very  short;  tail  very 
short  or  wanting;  no  whorls  in  the  hair  of  the  face;  face-gland 
moderately  large,  and  gland-pit  deep  and  oval;  tarsal  and  meta- 
tarsal glands  wanting;  ectocuneiform  bone  of  tarsus  united  with 
the  naviculocuboid.     South  America. 

B.  Subfamily  MOSCHINAE. — Antlers  wanting  in  both  sexes;  liver 
furnished  with  a  gall-bladder;  no  face-gland  or  gland-pit. 

XI.  Musk-deer,  Genus  Moschus. — Hair  coarse  and  brittle;  upper 
•canines   of   male   very   long;    no   tarsal   or   metatarsal   glands   or 
tufts;  lateral  metacarpals  represented  by  their  lower  extremities; 
lateral  hoofs  very  large;  tail  very  short;  naked  portion  of  muzzle 
extensive;  male  with  a  large  abdominal  gland.     Central  Asia. 

Of  the  above,  Reindeer  and  Elk  are  dealt  with  in  separate 
articles  (qq.v.). 

The  first  or  typical  group  of  the  genus  Cervus  includes  the  red- 
deer  (Ceruus  elaphus)  of  Europe  and  western  Asia,  of  which  there 
are  several  local  races,  such  as  the  large  C.  elaphus  moral  of 
eastern  Europe  and  Persia,  which  is  often  partially  spotted  above 
and  dark-coloured  below,  the  smaller  C.  e.  barbarus  of  Tunisia 
and  Morocco,  and  the  still  smaller  C.  e.  corsicanus  of  Corsica. 
The  Scandinavian  red-deer  is  the  typical  form  of  the  species.  In 
all  red-deer  the  antlers  are  rounded,  and  show  a  more  or  less 
marked  tendency  to  form  a  cup  at  the  summit.  Wapiti,  on  the 
•other  hand,  show  a  marked  tendency  to  the  flattening  of  the 
antlers,  with  a  great  development  of  the  fourth  tine,  which  is 
larger  than  all  the  others,  and  the  whole  of  the  tines  above  this  in 
the  same  plane,  or  nearly  so,  this  plane  being  the  same  as  the  long 
axis  of  the  animal.  Normally  no  cup  is  developed  at  the  summit 
of  the  antler.  The  tail,  too,  is  shorter  than  in  the  red-deer; 
while  in  winter  the  under  parts  become  very  dark,  and  the  upper 
surface  often  bleaches  almost  white.  The  cry  of  the  stags  in  the 
breeding  season  is  also  different.  The  typical  representative  of 
the  group  is  the  North  American  wapiti  C.  canadensis,  but  there 
are  several  closely  allied  races  in  Central  Asia,  such  as  C.  cana- 
densis songaricus  and  C.  c.  bactrianus,  while  in  Manchuria  the 
subgroup  is  represented  by  C.  c.  xanthopygus,  in  which  the 
summer  coat  is  reddish  instead  of  grey.  The  hangul  (C.  cash- 
mirianus)  of  Kashmir  is  a  distinct  dark-coloured  species,  in  which 
the  antlers  tend  to  turn  in  at  the  summit;  while  C.  yarcandensis, 
of  the  Tarim  Valley,  Turkestan,  is  a  redder  animal,  with  a  wholly 
rufous  tail,  and  antlers  usually  terminating  in  a  simple  fork  placed 
in  a  transverse  plane.  Another  Asiatic  species  is  the  great  shou 
(C.  affinis)  of  the  Chumbi  Valley,  in  which  the  antlers  curve 
forwards  in  a  remarkable  manner.  Lastly  C.  albirostris,  of  Tibet, 
is  easily  recognized  by  its  white  muzzle,  and  smooth,  whitish, 
flattened  antlers,  which  have  fewer  tines  than  those  of  the  other 
members  of  the  group,  all  placed  in  one  plane. 

The  second  group  of  the  genus  Cervus,  forming  the  subgenus 
Pseudaxis,  is  typified  by  the  handsome  little  Japanese  deer,  or 
sika,  C.  (P.)  sika,  in  which  the  antlers  are  four-tined,  and  covered 


with  red  "  velvet  "  when  first  grown,  while  the  coat  is  fully 
spotted  in  summer,  but  more  or  less  uniformly  brown  in  winter. 
The  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  deer  of  this  group  is,  however, 
the  patch  of  long  erectile  white  hairs  on  the  buttocks,  which, 
although  inconspicuous  when  the  animals  are  quiescent,  is 
expanded  into  a  large  chrysanthemum-like  bunch  when  they 
start  to  run  or  are  otherwise  excited.  The  patch  then  forms  a 
guiding  signal  for  the  members  of  the  herd  when  in  flight.  On 
the  mainland  of  Manchuria  both  the  typical  sika,  and  a  larger 
race  (C.  sika  manchuricus) ,  occur.  A  still  larger  and  finer  animal 
is  the  Pekin  sika  (C.  hortulorum),  of  northern  Manchuria,  which 
is  as  large  as  a  small  red-deer;  it  is  represented  in  the  Yang-tse 
valley  by  a  local  race,  C.  h.  kopschi.  Formosa  possesses  a  species 
of  its  own  (C.  taevanus),  which,  in  correlation  with  the  perpetual 
verdure  of  that  island,  is  spotted  at  all  seasons. 

For  the  fallow-deer,  Cenus  [Dama]  dama,  see  FALLOW-DEEB. 

The  rusine  or  sambar  group  of  Cervus,  of  which  the  character- 
istics are  given  above,  comprises  a  considerable  number  of  long- 
tailed  species  with  three-lined  antlers  from  the  Indo-Malay 
countries  and  some  parts  of  China.  The  largest  and  handsomest 
is  the  sambar  of  India  {Cervus  [Rusa]  unicolor),  characterized  by 
its  massive  and  rugged  antlers.  It  is  represented  by  a  number 
of  local  races,  mostly  of  smaller  size,  such  as  the  Burmese  and 
Malay  C.  u.  equinus,  the  Formosan  C.  u.  swinhoei,  and  the 
Philippine  C.  u.  philippinus  and  C.  u,  nigricans,  of  which  the 
latter  is  not  larger  than  a  roe-buck,  while  the  sambar  itself  is 
as  large  as  a  red-deer.  Whether  these  local  phases  of  a  single 
variable  type  are  best  denominated  races  or  species,  must  be 
largely  a  matter  of  individual  opinion.  The  rusa,  or  Javan 
sambar,  C.  (R.)  hippelaphus,  is  a  lighter-coloured  and  smaller 
deer  than  the  Indian  sambar,  with  longer,  slenderer  and  less 
rugged  antlers.  Typically  from  Java,  this  deer  is  also  represented 
in  the  Moluccas  and  Timor,  and  has  thus  the  most  easterly  range 
of  the  whole  tribe.  A  black  coat  with  white  spots  distinguishes 
the  Philippine  spotted  deer,  C.  aljredi,  which  is  about  the  size 
of  a  roe-buck;  while  other  members  of  this  group  are  the 
Calamianes  deer  of  the  Philippines  (C.  culionensis) ,  the  Bavian 
deer  (C.  kuhli)  from  a  small  island  near  Java,  and  the  well-known 
Indian  hog-deer  or  para  (C.  porcinus),  all  these  three  last  being 
small,  more  or  less  uniformly  coloured,  and  closely  allied  species. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  larger  and  handsomer  chital,  or  spotted 
deer  (C.  axis),  stands  apart  by  its  white-spotted  fawn-red  coat 
and  differently  formed  antlers. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  is  the  barasingha  or  rucervine 
group  (subgenus  Rucervus),  in  which  the  antlers  are  of  a  different 
and  generally  more  complex  character.  The  typical  species  is 
the  Indian  barasingha  or  swamp-deer,  Cervus  (Rucervus)  duvau- 
celi,  a  uniformly  red  animal,  widely  distributed  in  the  forest 
districts  of  India.  In  Siam  it  is  replaced  by  C.  (R.)  schomburgki, 
in  which  the  antlers  are  of  a  still  more  complex  type.  Finally, 
we  have  the  thamin,  or  Eld's  deer,  C.  (R.)  eldi,  ranging  from 
Burma  to  Siam,  find  characterized  by  the  continuous  curve 
formed  by  the  beam  and  the  brow-tine  of  the  antlers. 

For  the  small  eastern  deer,  respectively  known  as  muntjacs 
(Cervulus)  and  tufted  muntjacs  or  tufted  deer  (Elaphodus),  see 
MUNTJAC;  while  under  WATER-DEER  will  be  found  a  notice  of 
the  Chinese  representative  of  the  genus  Hydrelaphus  (or  Hydro- 
poles}.  The  roe-deer,  or  roe-buck  (Capreolus),  likewise  form  the 
subject  of  a  separate  article  (see  ROE-BUCK),  as  is  also  the  case 
with  Pere  David's  deer,  the  sole  representative  of  the  genus 
Elaphurus. 

The  American  deer  include  such  New  World  species  as  are 
generically  distinct  from  Old  World  types.  All  these  differ  from 
the  members  of  the  genus  Cervus  in  having  no  brow-tine  to  the 
antlers,  which,  in  common  with  those  of  the  roe-deer,  belong  to 
what  is  called  the  forked  type.  Including  all  these  deer  except 
one  in  the  genus  Mazama  (of  which  the  typical  representatives 
are  the  South  American  brockets),  the  North  American  species 
constitute  the  subgenus  Dorcelaphus  (also  known  as  Cariacus  and 
Odocoileus).  One  of  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  white-tailed 
deer  Mazama  (Dorcelaphus)  americana,  often  known  as  the  Vir- 
ginian deer.  It  is  typically  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  fallow-deer, 


924 


DEERFIELD— DEER  PARK 


reddish  in  summer  and  greyish  in  winter,  with  a  long  tail,  which 
is  coloured  like  the  back  above  but  white  below,  and  is  carried 
elevated  when  the  animal  is  running,  so  as  to  form  with  the  white 
of  the  inner  sides  of  the  buttocks  a  conspicuous  "  blaze."  A 
white  fetlock-gland  with  a  black  centre  is  also  distinctive  of  this 
species.  The  antlers  are  large  and  curve  forwards,  giving  off  an 
upright  snag  near  the  base,  and  several  vertical  tines  from  the 
upper  surface  of  the  horizontal  portion.  As  we  proceed  south- 
wards from  the  northern  United  States,  deer  of  the  white-tailed 
type  decrease  steadily  in  size,  till  in  Central  America,  Peru  and 
Guiana  they  are  represented  by  animals  not  larger  that  a  roe- 
buck. The  most  convenient  plan  appears  to  be  to  regard  all 
these  degenerate  forms  as  local  races  of  the  white-tail,  although 
here  again  there  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion,  arid  many 
naturalists  prefer  to  call  them  species.  The  large  ears,  brown- 
and-white  face,  short,  black-tipped  tail,  and  antlers  without 
large  basal  snag  serve  to  distinguish  the  mule-deer  M.  (D.) 
hemionus,  of  western  North  America;  while  the  black  tail, 
M .  (D.)  columbiana,  ranging  from  British  Columbia  to  California, 
is  a  smaller  annual,  recognizable  by  the  larger  and  longer  tail, 
which  is  black  above  and  white  below. 

South  America  is  the  home  of  the  marsh-deer  or  guazu, 
M .  (Blastoceros)  dichotoma,  representing  a  subgenus  in  which  the 
complex  antlers  lack  a  basal  snag,  while  the  hair  of  the  back  is 
reversed.  This  species  is  about  the  size  of  a  red-deer,  with  a  foxy 
red  coat  with  black  legs.  The  pampas-deer,  M.  (B.)  bezoartica, 
of  the  Argentine  pampas  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  of  paler 
colour,  with  three-tined  antlers.  The  Chilean  and  Peruvian 
Andes  and  Patagonia  are  the  homes  of  two  peculiar  deer  locally 
known  as  guemals  (huemals),  and  constituting  the  subgenus 
Xenelaphus,  or  Hippocamelus.  They  are  about  the  size  of  fallow- 
deer,  and  have  simply  forked  antlers.  The  Chilian  species  is 
M.  (B.)  bisulca  and  the  Peruvian  M .  (B.)  antisiemis.  Brockets, 
of  which  there  are  numerous  species,  such  as  M.  rufa  and 
M .  nemoriiiaga,  are  Central  and  South  American  deer  of  the  size 
of  roe-bucks  or  smaller,  with  simple  spike-like  antlers,  tufted 
heads  and  the  hair  of  the  face  radiating  from  two  whorls  on  the 
forehead  so  that  on  the  nose  the  direction  is  downwards.  The 
smallest  of  all  deer  is  the  Chilian  pudu  (Pudua  pudu),  a  creature 
not  much  larger  than  a  hare,  with  almost  rudimentary  antlers. 

The  musk-deer  forms  the  subject  of  a  separate  article. 

For  deer  in  general,  see  R.  Lydekker,  The  Deer  of  all  Lands 
(London,  1898,  1908).  (R.  L.*) 

DEERFIELD,  a  township  of  Franklin  county,  Massachusetts, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Connecticut  and  Deerfield  rivers,  about  33  m.  N. 
of  Springfield.  Pop.  (1900)  1969;  (1910  U.S.  census)  2209. 
Deerfield  is  served  by  the  Boston  &  Maine  and  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  railways.  The  natural  beauty  and  the 
historic  interest  of  Deerfield  attract  many  visitors.  There  are 
several  villages  and  hamlets  in  the  township,  the  oldest  and 
most  interesting  of  which  is  that  known  as,  "  The  Street  "  or 
"  Old  Street."  This  extends  along  one  widethoroughfare  over  a 
hill  and  across  a  plateau  or  valley  that  is  hemmed  in  on  the  E.  by 
a  range  of  highlands  known  as  East  Mountain  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  foothills  of  Hoosac  Mountain.  Many  of  the  houses  in  this 
village  are  very  old.  In  Memorial  Hall,  a  building  erected  in  1797- 
1798  for  the  Deerfield  academy,  the  Pocumtuck  Valley  memorial 
association  (incorporated  in  1870)  has  gathered  an  interesting 
collection  of  colonial  and  Indian  relics.  Deerfield  was  one  of  the 
first  places  in  the  United  States  to  enter  into  the  modern  "  arts 
and  crafts  movement  ";  in  1896  many  of  the  old  household 
industries  were  revived  and  placed  upon  a  business  basis.  Most  of 
the  work  is  done  by  women  in  the  homes.  The  products,  includ- 
ing needlework  and  embroidery,  textiles,  rag  rugs,  netting, 
wrought  iron,  furniture,  and  metal- work  in  gold  and  silver 
embellished  with  precious  and  semi-precious  stones,  are  annually 
exhibited  in  an  old-fashioned  house  built  in  1710,  and  a  large 
portion  of  them  are  sold  to  tourists.  There  is  an  arts  and  crafts 
Society,  but  the  profits  from  the  sales  go  entirely  to  the  workers. 

The  territory  which  originally  constituted  the  township  of 
Deerfield  (known  as  Pocumtuck  until  1764)  was  a  tract  of  8000 
acres  granted  in  1654  to  the  town  of  Dedham  in  lieu  of  2000  acres 


previously  taken  from  that  town  and  granted  to  Rev.  John  Eliot 
to  further  his  mission  among  the  Natick  Indians.  The  rights  of 
the  Pocumtuck  Indians  to  the  Deerfield  tract  were  purchased 
at  about  fourpence  per  acre,  settlement  was  begun  upon  it  in 
1669,  and  the  township  was  incorporated  in  1673.  For  many 
years  Deerfield  was  the  N.  W.  frontier  settlement  of  New  England. 
It  was  slightly  fortified  at  the  beginning  of  King  Philip's  War,  and 
after  an  attack  by  the  Indians  on  the  ist  of  September  1675  it 
was  garrisoned  by  a  small  force  under  Captain  Samuel  Appleton. 
A  second  attack  was  made  on  the  I2th  of  September,  and  six 
days  later,  as  Captain  Thomas  Lothrop  and  his  company  were 
guarding  teams  that  were  hauling  wheat  from  Deerfield  to  the 
English  headquarters  at  Hadley,  they  were  surprised  by  Indians 
in  ambush  at  what  has  since  been  known  as  Bloody  Brook  (in 
the  village  of  South  Deerfield),  and  Lothrop  and  more  than  sixty 
of  his  men  were  slain.  From  this  time  until  the  end  of  the  war 
Deerfield  was  abandoned.  In  the  spring  of  1677  a  few  of  the  old 
settlers  returned,  but  on  the  igth  of  September  some  were  killed 
and  the  others  were  captured  by  a  party  of  Indians  from  Canada. 
Resettlement  was  undertaken  again  in  1682.  On  the  isth  of 
September  1694  Deerfield  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  a  force  of 
French  and  Indians  from  Canada.  In  the  early  morning  of  the 
29th  of  February  1703-1704,  Deerfield  was  surprised  by  a  force 
of  French  and  Indians  (under  Hertel  de  Rouville) ,  who  murdered 
49  men,  women  and  children,  captured  in,  burned  the  town, 
and  on  the  way  back  to  Canada  murdered  20  of  the  captured. 
Among  the  captives  was  the  Rev.  John  Williams  (1664-1729), 
the  first  minister  of  Deerfield,  who  (with  the  other  captives)  was 
redeemed  in  1706  and  continued  as  pastor  here  until  his  death; 
in  1 707  he  published  an  account  of  his  experiences  as  a  prisoner, 
The  Redeemed  Captive  Returning  to  Zion,  which  has  frequently 
been  reprinted.  From  the  original  township  of  Deerfield  the 
territory  of  the  following  townships  has  been  taken:  Greenfield 
(1753  and  1896),  Conway  (1767,  1791  and  1811),  Shelburne 
(1768)  and  a  part  of  Whately  (1810). 

See  George  Sheldon,  A  History  of  Deerfield  (Deerfield,  1895) ;  the 
History  and  Proceedings  of  the  Pocumtuck  Valley  Memorial  Associa- 
tion (Deerfield,  1890  et  seq.) ;  and  Pauline  C.  Bouve,  "  The  Deerfield 
Renaissance,"  in  The  New  England  Magazine  for  October  1905. 

DEER  PARK,  an  enclosure  of  rough  wooded  pastureland  for 
the  accommodation  of  red-  or  fallow-deer.  The  distinction 
between  a  deer  "  park  "  and  a  deer  "  forest  "  is  that  the  former 
is  always  enclosed  either  by  a  wall  or  fence,  and.  is  relatively- 
small,  whereas  the  forest  covers  a  much  larger  area,  and  is  not 
only  open  but  sometimes  contains  practically  no  trees  at  all. 
Originally,  the  possession  of  a  deer  park  in  England  was  a  royal 
prerogative,  and  no  subject  could  enclose  one  without  a  direct 
grant  from  the  crown — a  licence  to  impark,  like  a  licence  to 
embattle  a  house,  was  always  necessary.  When  Domesday  Book 
was  compiled,  there  were  already  thirty-one  deer  parks  in  Eng- 
land, some  of  which  may  have  existed  in  Saxon  times;  about 
one-fourth  of  them  belonged  to  the  king.  After  the  Conquest  they 
increased  rapidly  in  number,  but  from  about  the  middle  of  the 
nth  century  this  tendency  was  reversed.  In  the  middle  of  the 
1 6th  century  it  was  conjectured  that  one-twentieth  of  England 
and  Wales  was  given  up  to  deer  and  rabbits.  Upon  Saxton's 
maps,  which  were  made  between  1575  and  1580,  over  700  parks 
are  marked,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  number  was 
understated.  Mr  Evelyn  Philip  Shirley  enumerated  only  334  in 
his  book  on  English  Deer  Parks  published  in  1867.  To  these 
Mr  Joseph  Whitaker,  in  A  Descriptive  List  of  the  Deer  Parks  of 
England  (1892),  has  added  another  fifty,  and  the  total  is  believed 
to  be  now  about  400.  It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  despite 
the  rather  minute  detail  of  Domesday  none  of  the  parks  there 
enumerated  can  now  be  identified.  There  is,  however,  a  plausible 
case  for  Bridge  Park  in  Sussex  as  the  Reredfelle  of  Domesday. 
The  state  and  consequence  of  the  great  barons  of  the  middle  ages 
depended  in  some  measure  upon  the  number  of  deer  parks  which 
they  possessed.  Most  bishops  and  abbots  had  ene  or  two,  and  at 
one  time  more  than  twenty  were  attached  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Canterbury.  When  the  power  of  the  barons  was  finally  broken 
and  a  more  settled  period  began  with  the  accession  of  the  house 


DEFAMATION— DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH 


925 


of  Tudor,  the  deer  park  began  to  fall  into  decay.  By  Queen 
Elizabeth's  time  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  ancestral 
acres  of  the  great  houses  had  passed  into  the  possession  of  rich 
merchants  and  wealthy  wool-staplers,  and  it  had  become  more 
profitable  to  breed  bullocks  than  to  find  pasture  for  deer,  and 
even  where  the  new  men  retained,  and  even  in  some  cases  created, 
deer  parks,  they  reduced  their  area  in  order  that  more  land  might 
be  available  for  grazing  or  for  corn.  Thus  began  that  decadence 
of  the  deer  park  which  has  continued  down  to  the  present  time. 
More  than  anything,  however,  the  strife  between  Charles  I.  and 
parliament  contributed  to  reduce  both  the  number  and  size  of 
English  parks  containing  deer.  By  the  Restoration  the  majority 
of  the  parks  in  England  had  for  the  time  being  been  destroyed, 
the  palings  pulled  down,  the  trees  felled,  and  the  deer  stolen. 
Of  the  duke  of  Newcastle's  eight  parks  seven  were  ruined, 
that  at  Welbeck  alone  remaining  intact.  Not  a  tree  was  left  in 
Clipston  Park,  although  the  timber  had  been  valued  at  £20,000. 
One  of  the  results  of  the  Restoration  was  to  empty  the  parks  of 
the  Roundhead  squires  to  replenish  those  of  the  Royalists,  but 
this  measure  helped  little,  and  great  numbers  of  deer  had  to 
be  brought  from  Germany  to  replenish  the  depleted  stocks.  A 
gentleman  of  the  Isle  of  Ely  was  indeed  given  a  baronetcy  in 
return  for  a  large  present  of  deer  which  he  made  to  Charles  II. 
The  largest  existing  deer  park  in  England  is  that  at  Savernake 
{4000  acres),  next  comes  Windsor,  which  contains  about  2600 
acres  in  addition  to  the  1450  acres  of  Windsor  Forest.  Lord 
Egerton  of  Tatton's  park  at  Tatton  in  Cheshire,  and  Lord 
Abergavenny's  at  Bridge,  each  contain  about  2500  acres.  Other 
parks  which  are  much  about  the  same  size  are  those  of  Blenheim, 
Richmond,  Eastwell,  Buncombe,  Grimsthorpe,  Thoresby  and 
Knowsley.  All  these  parks  are  famous  either  for  their  size,  their 
beauty,  or  the  number  and  long  descent  of  the  deer  which  inhabit 
them.  The  size  of  English  parks  devoted  to  deer  varies  from  that 
of  these  historic  examples  down  to  a  very  few  acres.  A  small 
proportion  of  the  older  enclosures  contains  red-  as  well  as  fallow- 
dee'r.  In  some  of  the  larger  ones  many  hundreds  of  head  browse, 
whereas  those  of  the  smallest  size  may  have  only  a  dozen  or  two. 
Although  many  enclosures  were  disparked  in  very  recent  times, 
the  igth  century  saw  the  making  of  a  considerable  number  of 
new  ones,  usually  of  small  dimensions.  The  tendency,  however, 
is  still  towards  diminution  both  in  number  and  extent,  cattle 
taking  the  place  of  deer. 

DEFAMATION  (from  the  classical  Lat.  diffamare,  to  spread 
abroad  an  evil  report — the  English  form  in  de  is  taken  from  the 
Late  Lat.  defamare),  the  saying  or  writing  something  of  another, 
calculated  to  injure  his  reputation  or  expose  him  to  public  hatred, 
contempt  and  ridicule.  (See  LIBEL  AND  SLANDER.) 

DEFAULT  (Fr.  dtfaut,  from  difaUler,  to  fail,  Lat.  fdlere),  in 
English  law,  a  failure  to  do  some  act  required  by  law  either  as  a 
regular  step  in  procedure  or  as  being  a  duty  imposed.  Parties 
in  an 'action  may  be  in  default  as  to  procedure  by  failure  to  appear 
to  the1  writ,  or  to  take  some  other  step,  within  the  prescribed  time. 
In  such  cases  the  opposing  party  gains  some  advantage  by  being 
allowed  to  sign  judgment  or  otherwise.  But  as  a  rule,  unless  the 
party  is  much  in  default  and  is  under  a  peremptory  order  to 
proceed,  the  penalty  for  default  is  by  order  to  pay  the  costs 
occasioned.  When  there  is  default  in  complying  with  the  terms 
of  a  judgment  the  remedy  is  by  executing  it  by  one  of  the 
processes  admitted  by  the  law.  (See  EXECUTION.)  In  the  case 
of  judgments  in  criminal  or  quasi-criminal  cases,  where  a  fine 
is  imposed,  it  is  in  most  cases  legal  and  usual  to  order  im- 
prisonment if  the  fine  is  not  paid  or  if  the  property  of  the 
defendant  is  insufficient  to  realize  its  amount.  Default  in 
compliance  with  a  statute  renders  the  defaulter  liable  to  action 
by  the  person  aggrieved  or  to  indictment  if  the  matter  of 
command  is  of  public  concern,  subject  in  either  case  to  the 
qualification  that  the  statute  may  limit  the  remedy  for  the 
default  to  some  particular  proceeding  specifically  indicated; 
and  in  some  instances,  e.g.  in  the  case  of  local  authorities, 
default  in  the  execution  of  their  public  duties  is  dealt  with 
administratively  by  a  department  of  the  government,  and  only 
in  the  last  resort,  if  at  all,  by  recourse  to  judicial  tribunals. 


DEFEASANCE,  or  DEFEAZANCE  (Fr.  df.faire,  to  undo),  in  law, 
an  instrument  which  defeats  the  force  or  operation  of  some  other 
deed  or  estate;  as  distinguished  from  condition,  that  which  in  the 
same  deed  is  called  a  condition  is  a  defeasance  in  another  deed. 
A  defeasance  should  recite  the  deed  to  be  defeated  and  its  date, 
and  it  must  be  made  between  the  same  parties  as  are  interested 
in  the  deed  to  which  it  is  collateral.  It  must  be  of  a  thing 
defeasible,  and  all  the  conditions  must  be  strictly  carried  out 
before  the  defeasance  can  be  consummated.  Defeasance  in  a 
bill  of  sale  is  the  putting  an  end  to  the  security  by  realizing 
the  goods  for  the  benefit  of  the  mortgagee.  It  is  not  strictly  a 
defeasance,  because  the  stipulation  is  in  the  same  deed;  it  is 
really  a  condition  in  the  nature  of  a  defeasance. 

DEFENCE  (Lat.  defendere,  to  defend),  in  general,  a  keeping 
off  or  defending,  a  justification,  protection  or  guard.  Physical 
defence  of  self  is  the  right  of  every  man,  even  to  the  employment 
of  force,  in  warding  off  an  attack.  A  person  attacked  may  use 
such  force  as  he  believes  to  be  necessary  for  the  warding  off  an 
attack,  even  to  the  extent  of  killing  an  assailant.  The  same  right 
of  reciprocal  defence  extends  not  only  to  defence  of  one's  own 
person,  but  also  to  the  defence  of  a  husband  or  wife,  parent  or 
child,  master  or  servant.  (See  ASSAULT;  HOMICIDE.)  As  a  legal 
term  in  English  pleading,  "  defence  "  means  the  denial  by  the 
party  proceeded  against  of  the  validity  of  a  charge,  or  the  steps 
taken  by  an  accused  person  or  his  legal  advisers  for  defending 
himself.  In  civil  actions,  a  statement  of  defence  is  the  second 
step  in  proceedings,  being  the  answer  of  the  defendant  to  the 
plaintiff's  statement  of  claim.  In  the  statement  of  defence  must 
be  set  out  every  material  fact  upon  which  the  defendant  intends 
to  rely  at  the  trial.  Every  fact  alleged  in  the  statement  of  claim 
must  be  dealt  with,  and  either  admitted  or  denied;  further  facts 
may  be  pleaded  in  answer  to  those  admitted;  the  whole  pleading 
of  the  plaintiff  may  be  objected  to  as  insufficient  in  law,  or  a  set- 
off  or  counter-claim  may  be  advanced.  A  statement  of  defence 
must  be  delivered  within  ten  days  from  the  delivery  of  the 
statement  of  claim,  or  appearance  if  no  statement  of  claim  be 
delivered.  • 

By  the  Poor  Prisoners'  Defence  Act  1903,  where  it  appears, 
having  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  defence  set  up  by  any  poor 
prisoner,  as  disclosed  in  the  evidence  given  or  statement  made 
by  him  before  the  committing  justices,  that  it  is  desirable  in  tht 
interests  of  justice  that  he  should  have  legal  aid  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  conduct  of  his  defence,  and  that  his  means  are  insuffi- 
cient to  enable  him  to  obtain  such  aid,  it  may  be  ordered  either 
(i)  on  committal  for  trial  by  the  committing  justices,  or  (2)  after 
reading  the  depositions  by  the  judge  or  quarter  sessions  chairman. 
The  defence  includes  the  services  of  solicitor  and  counsel  and  the 
expenses  of  witnesses,  the  cost  being  payable  in  the.same  manner 
as  the  expenses  of  a  prosecution  for  felony.  Briefly,  the  object 
of  the  act  is,  not  to  give  a  prisoner  legal  assistance  to  find  out  if  he 
has  got  a  defence,  but  in  order  that  a  prisoner  who  has  a  defence 
may  have  every  inducement  to  tell  the  truth  about  it  at  the 
earliest  opportunity.  Legal  assistance  under  the  act  is  only 
given  where  both  (i)  the  nature  of  the  defence  as  disclosed  is 
such  that  in  the  interests  of  justice  the  prisoner  should  have 
legal  aid  to  make  his  defence  clear,  and  (2)  where  also  his 
means  are  insufficient  for  that  end  (Lord  Alverstone,  C.J.,  at 
Warwick  Summer  Assizes, The  Times,  July  26,  1904). 

DEFENDANT,  in  law,  a  person  against  whom  proceedings 
are  instituted  or  directed;  one  who  is  called  upon  to  answer  in 
any  suit.  At  one  time  the  term  "  defendant  "  had  a  narrower 
meaning,  that  of  a  person  sued  in  a  personal  action  only,  the 
corresponding  term  in  a  real  action  being  "  tenant,"  but  the 
distinction  is  now  practically  disregarded,  except  in  a  few  states 
of  the  United  States. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH  (Fidri  Defensor),  a  title  belonging 
to  the  sovereign  of  England  in  the  same  way  as  Christ ianissimus 
belonged  to  the  king  of  France,  and  Catholicus  belongs  to  the  ruler 
of  Spain.  It  seems  to  have  been  suggested  in  1516,  and  although 
certain  charters  have  been  appealed  to  in  proof  of  an  earlier  use 
of  the  title,  it  was  first  conferred  by  Pope  Leo  X.  on  Henry  VIII. 
The  Bull  granting  the  title  is  dated  the  nth  of  October  1521, 


926 


DEFERENT— DEFINITION 


and  was  a  reward  for  the  king's  treatise,  Assertio,  septem  sacra- 
mentorum,  against  Luther.  When  Henry  broke  with  the  papacy, 
Pope  Paul  III.  deprived  him  of  this  designation,  but  in  1544  the 
title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith  "  was  confirmed  to  Henry  by 
parliament,  and  has  since  been  used  by  all  his  successors  on  the 
English  throne. 

DEFERENT  (Lat.  deferens,  bearing  down),  in  ancient 
astronomy,  the  mean  orbit  of  a  planet,  which  carried  the  epicycle 
in  which  the  planet  revolved.  It  is  now  known  to  correspond  to 
the  actual  orbit  of  the  planet  round  the  sun. 

DEFFAND,  MARIE  ANNE  DE  VICH  Y-CHAMROND,  MARQUISE 
DU  (1697-1780),  a  celebrated  Frenchwoman,  was  born  at  the 
chateau  of  Chamrond  near  Charolles  (department  of  Saone-et- 
Loire)  of  a  noble  family  in  1697.  Educated  at  a  convent  in  Paris, 
she  showed,  along  with  great  intelligence,  a  sceptical  and  cynical 
turn  of  mind.  The  abbess,  alarmed  at  the  freedom  of  her  views, 
arranged  that  Massillon  should  visit  and  reason  with  her,  but  he 
accomplished  nothing.  Her  parents  married  her  at  twenty-one 
years  of  age  to  her  kinsman,  Jean  Baptiste  de  la  Lande,  marquis 
du  Deffand,  without  consulting  her  inclination.  The  union 
proved  an  unhappy  one,  and  resulted  in  a  separation  as  early 
as  1722.  Madame  du  Deffand,  young  and  beautiful,  is  said  by 
Horace  Walpole  to  have  been  for -a  short  time  the  mistress  of  the 
regent,  the  duke  of  Orleans  (Walpole  to  Gray,  January  25,  1766). 
She  appeared  in  her  earlier  days  to  be  incapable  of  any  strong 
attachment,  but  her  intelligence,  her  cynicism  and  her  esprit 
made  her  the  centre  of  attraction  of  a  brilliant  circle.  In  1721 
began  her  friendship  with  Voltaire,  but  their  regular  correspond- 
ence dates  only  from  1736.  She  spent  much  time  at  Sceaux, 
at  the  court  of  the  duchesse  du  Maine,  where  she  contracted 
a  close  friendship  with  the  president  Hejiault.  In  Paris  she 
was  in  a  sense  the  rival  of  Madame  Geoffrin,  but  the  members 
of  her  salon  were  drawn  from  aristocratic  society  more  than  from 
literary  ch'ques.  There  were,  however,  exceptions.  Voltaire, 
Montesquieu,  Fontenelle  and  Madame  de  Staal-Delaunay  were 
among  the  habitues.  When  Henault  introduced  D'Alembert, 
Madame  du  Deffand  was  at  once  captivated  by  him.  With  the 
encyclopaedists  she  was  never  in  sympathy,  and  appears  to  have 
tolerated  them  only  for  his  sake.  In  1752  she  retired  from  Paris, 
intending  to  spend  the  rest  of  her  days  in  the  country,  but  she 
was  persuaded  by  her  friends  to  return.  She  had  taken  up  her 
abode  in  1747  in  apartments  in  the  convent  of  St  Joseph  in  the 
rue  St  Dominique,  which  had  a  separate  entrance  from  the  street. 
When  she  lost  her  sight  in  1754  she  engaged  Mademoiselle  de 
Lespinasse  to  help  her  in  entertaining.  This  lady's  wit  made 
some  of  the  guests,  D'Alembert  among  others,  prefer  her  society 
to  that  of  Madame  du  Deffand,  and  she  arranged  to  receive  her 
friends  for  an  hour  before  the  appearance  of  her  patron.  When 
this  state  of  things  was  discovered  Mademoiselle  de  Lespinasse 
was  dismissed  (1764),  but  the  salon  was  broken  up,  for  she  took 
with  her  D'Alembert,  Turgot  and  the  literary  clique  generally. 
From  this  time  Madame  du  Deffand  very  rarely  received  any 
literary  men.  The  principal  friendships  of  her  later  years  were 
with  the  duchesse  de  Choiseul  and  with  Horace  Walpole.  Her 
affection  for  the  latter,  which  dated  from  1765,  was  the  strongest 
and  most  durable  of  all  her  attachments.  Under  the  stress  of 
this  tardy  passion  she  developed  qualities  of  style  and  eloquence 
of  which  her  earlier  writings  had  given  little  promise.  In  the 
opinion  of  Sainte-Beuve  the  prose  of  her  letters  ranks  with  that 
of  Voltaire  as  the  best  of  that  classical  epoch  without  exqfcpting 
any  even  of  the  great  writers.  Walpole  refused  at  first  to  ac- 
knowledge the  closeness  of  their  intimacy  from  an  exaggerated 
fear  of  the  ridicule  attaching  to  her  age,  but  he  paid  several 
visits  to  Paris  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying  her  society, 
and  maintained  a  close  and  most  interesting  correspondence 
with  her  for  fifteen  years.  She  died  on  the  23rd  of  September 
1780,  leaving  her  dog  Tonton  to  the  care  of  Walpole,  who 
was  also  entrusted  with  her  papers.  Of  her  innumerable  witty 
sayings  the  best  known  is  her  remark  on  the  cardinal  de 
Polignac's  account  of  St  Denis's  miraculous 'walk  of  two  miles 
with  his  head  in  his  hands, — //  n'y  a  que  le  premier  pas  qui 
coute. 


The  Correspondance  inedile  of  Madame  du  Deffand  with  D'Alem- 
bert, Henault,  Montesquieu,  and  others  was  published  in  Paris  (2 
vols.)  in  1809.  Letters  of  the  marquise  du  Deffand  to  the  Hon.  Horace 
Walpole,  afterwards  earl  of  Orford,  from  the  year  1766  to  the  year  1780 
(4vols.),edited,  with  a  biographical  sketch,  by  Miss  Mary  Berry ,  were 
published  in  London  from  the  originals  at  Strawberry  Hill  in  1810. 

The  standard  edition  of  her  letters  is  the  Correspondance  complete  de 
la  marquise  du  Deffand  .  .  .  by  M.  de  Lescure  (1865) ;  the  Correspon- 
dance inedile  with  M.  and  Mme  de  Choiseul  and  others  was  edited 
in  1859  and  again  in  1866  by  the  marquis  de  Ste-Aulaire.  Other 
papers  of  Madame  du  Deffand  obtained  at  the  breaking  up  of 
Walpole's  collection  are  in  private  hands.  Madame  du  Deffand 
returned  many  of  Walpole's  letters  at  his  request,  and  subsequently 
destroyed  those  which  she  received  from  him.  Those  in  his  posses- 
sion appear  to  have  been  destroyed  after  his  death  by  Miss  Berry, 
who  printed  fragments  from  them  as  footnotes  to  the  edition  of  1810. 
The  correspondence  between  Walpole  and  Madame  du  Deffand  thus 
remains  one-sided,  but  seven  of  Walpole's  letters  to  her  are  printed 
for  the  first  time  in  the  edition  (1903)  of  his  correspondence  by  Mrs 
Paget  Toynbee,  who  discovered  a  quantity  of  her  unedited  letters. 
See  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi,  vols.  i.  and  xiv. ;  and  the 
notice  by  M.  de  Lescure  in  his  edition  of  the  correspondence. 

DEFIANCE,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Defiance  county, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Auglaize  and  Tiffin  rivers 
with  the  Maumee,  about  50  m.  S.W.  of  Toledo.  Pop.  (1890) 
7694;  (1900)  7579  (960  foreign-born);  (1910)  7327.  It  is  served 
by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  the  Wabash  railways,  and  by  the 
Ohio  Electric  railway  to  Lima  (42m.).  The  city  commands  a  fine 
view  of  the  rivers  and  the  surrounding  country,  which  is  well 
adapted  to  agriculture;  and  has  large  machine  shops  and  several 
flour  mills,  besides  manufactories  of  agricultural  implements, 
waggons,  sashes  and  blinds,  and  wood-working  machinery  for  the 
manufacture  of  artillery  wheels.  Here,  too,  is  Defiance  College, 
an  institution  of  the  Christian  Denomination,  opened  in  1885. 
Defiance  was  long  the  site  of  an  Indian  village.  In  1794  General 
Anthony  Wayne  built  a  fort  here  and  named  it  Defiance.  In  1 82  2 
Defiance  was  laid  out  as  a  town;  in  1845  it  was  made  the  county 
seat  of  the  newly  erected  county;  and  in  1881  it  became  a  city  of 
the  second  class. 

DEFILE,  a  military  expression  for  a  passage,  to  march  through 
which  troops  are  compelled  to  "defile,"  or  narrow  their  front 
(from  the  Fr.  defiler,  to  march  in  a  line,  or  by  "  files  ") .  The  word 
is  usually  "applied  to  a  ravine  or  gorge  in  a  range  of  hills,  but  a 
causeway  over  a  river,  a  bridge  and  even  a  village  may  equally 
be  called  a  defile.  The  term  is  also  used  to  express,  without  any 
special  reference  to  military  operations,  a  gorge  in  mountains. 
The  verb  "  to  defile  "  is  used  of  troops  marching  on  a  narrow 
front,  or  narrowing  their  front,  under  all  circumstances,  and  in 
this  sense  is  the  contrary  of  "  deploy." 

"Defile,"  in  the  sense  of  "pollute,"  is  another  form  of 
"  defoul  ";  though  spelt  alike,  the  two  words  are  pronounced 
differently,  the  accent  being  on  the  first  syllable  for  the  former, 
and  on  the  second  for  the  latter. 

DEFINITION  (Lat.  definitio,  from  de-finire,  to  set  limits  to, 
describe),  a  logical  term  used  popularly  for  the  process  of  explain- 
ing, or  giving  the  meaning  of,  a  word,  and  also  in  the  concrete 
for  the  proposition  or  statement  in  which  that  explanation 
is  expressed.  In  logic,  definition  consists  in  determining  the 
qualities  which  belong  to  given  concepts  or  universals;  it  is  not 
concerned  with  individuals,  which  are  marked  by  an  infinity 
of  peculiarities,  any  one  or  all  of  which  might  be  predicated  of 
another  individual.  Individuals  can  be  defined  only  in  so  far  as 
they  belong  to  a  single  kind.  According  to  Aristotle,  definition  is 
the  statement  of  the  essence  of  a  concept  (6pwr/z6s  ptv  yap  roD 
T'I  kffn  tad  obaias,  Posterior  Analytics,  B  iii.  90  b  30);  that  is, 
it  consists  of  the  genus  and  the  differentia.  In  other  words, 
"  man  "  is  defined  as  "  animal  plus  rationality,"  or  "  rational 
animal,"  li.e.  the  concept  is  (i)  referred  to  the  next  higher  genus, 
and  (2)  distinguished  from  other  modes  in  which  that  genus 
exists,  i.e.  from  other  species.  It  is  sometimes  argued  that,  there 
being  no  definition  of  individuals  as  such,  definition  is  of  names 
(see  J.  S.  Mill,  Logic,  i.  viii.  5),  not  of  things;  it  is  generally, 
however,  maintained  that  definition  is  of  things,  regarded  as,  or 

1 "  Rational  animal  "  is  thus  the  predicate  of  the  statement 
constituting  the  definition.  Sometimes  the  word  "  definition  "  is 
used  to  signify  merely  the  predicate. 


DEFOE 


927 


in  so  far  as  they  are,  of  a  kind.  Definition  of  words  can  be 
nothing  more  than  the  explanation  of  terms  such  as  is  given  in  a 
dictionary. 

The  following  rules  are  generally  given  as  governing  accurate 
definition,  (i)  The  definition  must  be  equivalent,  or  commensurate 
with  that  which  is  defined;  it  must  be  applicable  to  all  the 
individuals  included  in  the  concept  and  to  nothing  else.  Every 
man,  and  nothing  else,  is  a  rational  animal.  "  Man  is  mortal  " 
is  not  a  definition,  for  mortality  is  predicable  of  irrational 
animals.  (2)  The  definition  must  state  the  essential  attributes; 
a  concept  cannot  be  defined  by  its  accidental  attributes;  those 
attributes  must  be  given  which  are  essential  and  primary. 
(3)  The  definition  must  be  per  genus  et  differentiam  (or  diffe- 
rentia*), as  we  have  already  seen.  These  are  the  important 
rules.  Three  minor  rules  are:  (4)  The  definition  must  not 
contain  the  name  of  the  concept  to  be  defined ;  if  it  does,  no 
information  is  given.  Such  a  proposition  as  "  an  archdeacon 
is  one  who  performs  archidiaconal  functions  "  is  not  a  defini- 
tion. Concepts  cannot  be  defined  by  their  correlatives.  Such 
a  definition  is  known  as  a  circulus  in  definiendo.  (5)  Obscure 
and  figurative  language  must  be  avoided,  and  (6)  Definitions  must 
not  be  in  the  negative  when  they  can  be  in  the  affirmative. 

DEFOE,  DANIEL  (c.  1650-1731),  English  author,  was  born  in 
the  parish  of  St  Giles,  Cripplegate,  London,  in  the  latter  part  of 
1659  or  early  in  1660,  of  a  nonconformist  family.  His  grand- 
father, Daniel  Foe,  lived  at  Etton,  Northamptonshire,  appar- 
ently in  comfortable  circumstances,  for  he  is  said  to  have  kept  a 
pack  of  hounds.  As  to  the  variation  of  name,  Defoe  or  Foe,  its 
owner  signed  either  indifferently  till  late  in  life,  and  where  his 
initials  occur  they  are  sometimes  D.  F.  and  sometimes  D.  D.  F. 
Three  autograph  letters  of  his  are  extant,  all  addressed  in  1705 
to  the  same  person,  and  signed  respectively  D.  Foe,  de  Foe  and 
Daniel  Defoe.  His  father,  James  Foe,  was  a  butcher  and  a 
citizen  of  London. 

Daniel  was  well  educated  at  a  famous  dissenting  academy, 
Mr  Charles  Morton's  of  Stoke  Newington,  where  many  of  the  best- 
known  nonconformists  of  the  time  were  his  schoolfellows.  With 
few  exceptions  all  the  known  events  of  Defoe's  life  are  connected 
with  authorship.  In  the  older  catalogues  of  his  works  two 
pamphlets,  Speculum  Crapegownorum,  a  satire  on  the  clergy,  and 
A  Treatise  against  the  Turks,  are  attributed  to  him  before  the 
accession  of  James  II.,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  publication  of  his 
which  is  certainly  genuine  before  The  Character  of  Dr  Annesley 
(1697).  He  had,  hqwever,  before  this,  taken  up  arms  in 
Monmouth's  expedition,  and  is  supposed  to  have  owed  his  lucky 
escape  from  the  clutches  of  the  king's  troops  and  the  law,  to  his 
being  a  Londoner,  and  therefore  a  stranger  in  the  west  country. 
On  the  26th  of  January  1688  he  was  admitted  a  liveryman  of  the 
city  of  London,  having  claimed  his  freedom  by  birth.  Before  his 
western  escapade  he  had  taken  up  the  business  of  hosiery  factor. 
At  the  entry  of  William  and  Mary  into  London  he  is  said  to  have 
served  as  a  volunteer  trooper  "  gallantly  mounted  and  richly 
accoutred."  In  these  days  he  lived  at  Tooting,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  forming  a  dissenting  congregation  there.  His  business 
operations  at  this  period  appear  to  have  been  extensive  and 
various.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  sort  of  commission  merchant, 
especially  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese  goods,  and  at  some  time  to 
have  visited  Spain  on  business.  In  1692  he  failed  for  £17,000. 
His  misfortunes  made  him  write  both  feelingly  and  forcibly  on 
the  bankruptcy  laws;  and  although  his  creditors  accepted  a 
composition,  he  afterwards  honourably  paid  them  in  full,  a 
fact  attested  by  independent  and  not  very  friendly  witnesses. 
Subsequently,  he  undertook  first  the  secretaryship  and  then  the 
management  and  chief  ownership  of  some  tile-works  at  Tilbury, 
but  here  also  he  was  unfortunate,  and  his  imprisonment  in  1703 
brought  the  works  to  a  standstill,  and  he  lost  £3000.  From 
this  time  forward  we  hear  of  no  settled  business  in  which  he 
engaged. 

The  course  of  Defoe's  life  was  determined  about  the  middle  of 
the  reign  of  William  III.  by  his  introduction  to  that  monarch 
and  other  influential  persons.  He  frequently  boasts  of  his 
personal  intimacy  with  the  "  glorious  and  immortal  "  king,  and 


in  1695  he  was  appointed  accountant  to  the  commissioners  of 
the  glass  duty,  an  office  which  he  held  for  four  years.  During 
this  time  he  produced  his  Essay  on  Projects  (1698),  containing 
suggestions  on  banks,  road-management,  friendly  and  insurance 
societies  of  various  kinds,  idiot  asylums,  bankruptcy,  academies, 
military  colleges,  high  schools  for  women,  &c.  It  displays 
Defoe's  lively  and  lucid  style  in  full  vigour,  and  abounds  with 
ingenious  thoughts  and  apt  illustrations,  though  it  illustrates  also 
the  unsystematic  character  of  his  mind.  In  the  same  year  Defoe 
wrote  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  pamphlets  on  the  then  burning 
question  of  occasional  conformity.  In  this,  for  the  first  time, 
he  showed  the  unlucky  independence  which,  in  so  many  other 
instances,  united  all  parties  against  him.  While  he  pointed  out 
to  the  dissenters  the  scandalous  inconsistency  of  their  playing  fast 
and  loose  with  sacred  things,  yet  he  denounced  the  impropriety 
of  requiring  tests  at  all.  In  support  of  the  government  he  pub- 
lished, in  1698,  An  Argument  for  a  Standing  Army,  followed  in 
1700  by  a  defence  of  William's  war  policy  called  The  Two  Great 
Questions  considered,  and  a  set  of  pamphlets  on  the  Partition 
Treaty.  Thus  in  political  matters  he  had  the  same  fate  as  in 
ecclesiastical;  for  the  Whigs  were  no  more  prepared  than  the 
Tories  to  support  William  through  thick  and  thin.  He  also  dealt 
with  the  questions  of  stock-jobbing  and  of  electioneering  corrup- 
tion. But  his  most  remarkable  publication  at  this  time  was  The 
True-Born  Englishman  (1701),  a  satire  in  rough  but  extremely 
vigorous  verse  on  the  national  objection  to  William  as  a  foreigner, 
and  on  the  claim  of  purity  of  blood  for  a  nation  which  Defoe 
chooses  to  represent  as  crossed  and  dashed  with  all  the  strains  and 
races  in  Europe.  He  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings which  followed  the  Kentish  petition,  and  was  the  author, 
some  say  the  presenter,  of  the  Legion  Memorial,  which  asserted 
in  the  strongest  terms  the  supremacy  of  the  electors  over  the 
elected,  and  of  which  even  an  irate  House  of  Commons  did  not 
dare  to  take  much  notice.  The  theory  of  the  indefeasible  supre- 
macy of  the  freeholders  of  England,  whose  delegates  merely, 
according  to  this  theory,  the  Commons  were,  was  one  of  Defoe's 
favourite  political  tenets,  and  he  returned  to  it  in  a  powerfully 
written  tract  entitled  The  Original  Power  of  the  Collective  Body 
of  the  People  of  England  examined  and  asserted  (1701). 

At  the  same  tune  he  was  occupied  in*  a  controversy  on  the 
conformity  question  with  John  How  (or  Howe)  on  the  practice 
of  "  occasional  conformity."  Defoe  maintained  that  the  dis- 
senters who  attended  the  services  of  the  English  Church  on 
particular  occasions  to  qualify  themselves  for  office  were  guilty 
of  inconsistency.  At  the  same  time  he  did  not  argue  for  the 
complete  abolition  of  the  tests,  but  desired  that  they  should  be  so 
framed  as  to  make  it  possible  for  most  Protestants  conscientiously 
to  subscribe  to  them.  Here  again  his  moderation  pleased  neither 
party. 

The  death  of  William  was  a  great  misfortune  to  Defoe,  and 
he  soon  felt  the  power  of  his  adversaries.  After  publishing  The 
Mock  Mourners,  intended  to  satirize  and  rebuke  the  outbreak 
of  Jacobite  joy  at  the  king's  death,  he  turned  his  attention 
once  more  to  ecclesiastical  subjects,  and,  in  an  evil  hour  for 
himself,  wrote  the  anonymous  Shortest  Way  with  the  Dissenters 
(1702),  a  statement  in  the  most  forcible  terms  of  the  extreme 
"  high-flying  "  position,  which  some  high  churchmen  were  un- 
wary enough  to  endorse,  without  any  suspicion  of  the  writer's 
ironical  intention.  The  author  was  soon  discovered;  and,  as  he 
absconded,  an  advertisement  was  issued  offering  a  reward  for 
his  apprehension,  and  giving  the  only  personal  description  we 
possess  of  him,  as  "  a  middle-sized  spare  man  about  forty  years 
old,  of  a  brown  complexion  and  dark  brown-coloured  hair,  but 
wears  a  wig;  a  hooked  nose,  a  sharp  chin,  grey  eyes,  and  a  large 
mole  near  his  mouth."  In  this  conjuncture  Defoe  had  really  no 
friends,  for  the  dissenters  were  as  much  alarmed  at  his  book  as 
the  high-flyers  were  irritated.  He  surrendered,  and  his  defence 
appears  to  have  been  injudiciously  conducted;  at  any  rate  he 
was  fined  200  marks,  and  condemned  to  be  pilloried  three  times, 
to  be  imprisoned  indefinitely,  and  to  find  sureties  for  his  good 
behaviour  during  seven  years.  It  was  in  reference  to  this 
incident  that  Pope,  whose  Catholic  rearing  made  him  detest 


928 


DEFOE 


the  abettor  of  the  Revolution  and  the  champion  of  William  of 
Orange,  wrote  in  the  Dunciad — 

"Earless  on  high  stands  unabash'd  Defoe" 

—though  he  knew  that  the  sentence  to  the  pillory  had  long  ceased 
to  entail  the  loss  of  ears.  Defoe's  exposure  in  the  pillory  (July 
29,  30,  31)  was,  however,  rather  a  triumph  than  a  punish- 
ment, for  the  populace  took  his  side;  and  his  Hymn  to  the  Pillory, 
which  he  soon  after  published,  is  one  of  the  best  of  his  poetical 
works.  Unluckily  for  him  his  condemnation  had  the  indirect 
effect  of  destroying  his  business  at  Tilbury. 

He  remained  in  prison  until  August  1704,  and  then  owed  his 
release  to  the  intercession  of  Robert  Harley,  who  represented 
his  case  to  the  queen,  and  obtained  for  him  not  only  liberty  but 
pecuniary  relief  and  employment,  which,  of  one  kind  or  another, 
lasted  until  the  termination  of  Anne's  reign.  Defoe  was  uni- 
formly grateful  to  the  minister,  and  his  language  respecting 
him  is  in  curious  variance  with  that  generally  used.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  Harley,  who  understood  the  influence  wielded 
by  Defoe,  made  some  conditions.  Defoe  says  he  received  no 
pension,  but  his  subsequent  fidelity  was  at  all  events  indirectly 
rewarded;  moreover,  Harley 's  moderation  in  a  time  of  the 
extremest  party-insanity  was  no  little  recommendation  to  Defoe. 
During  his  imprisonment  he  was  by  no  means  idle.  A  spurious 
edition  of  his  works  having  been  issued,  he  himself  produced  a 
collection  of  twenty-two  treatises,  to  which  some  time  afterwards 
he  added  a  second  group  of  eighteen  more.  He  also  wrote  in 
prison  many  short  pamphlets,  chiefly  controversial,  published  a 
curious  work  on  the  famous  storm  of  the  a6th  of  November  1703, 
and  started  in  February  1704  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
his  projects,  The  Review.  This  was  a  paper  which  was  issued 
during  the  greater  part  of  its  life  three  times  a  week.  It  was 
entirely  written  by  Defoe,  and  extends  to  eight  complete  volumes 
and  some  few  score  numbers  of  a  second  issue.  He  did  not 
confine  himself  to  news,  but  wrote  something  very  like  finished 
essays  on  questions  of  policy,  trade  and  domestic  concerns; 
he  also  introduced  a  "  Scandal  Club,"  in  which  minor  questions 
of  manners  and  morals  were  treated  in  a  way  which  undoubtedly 
suggested  the  Tatlers  and  Spectators  which  followed.  Only  one 
complete  copy  of  the  work  is  known  to  exist,  and  that  is  in  the 
British  Museum.  It  is,probable  that  if  bulk,  rapidity  of  produc- 
tion, variety  of  matter,  originality  of  design,  and  excellence 
of  style  be  taken  together,  hardly  any  author  can  show  a  work 
of  equal  magnitude.  After  his  release  Defoe  went  to  Bury  St 
Edmunds,  though  he  did  not  interrupt  either  his  Review  or  his 
occasional  pamphlets.  One  of  these,  Giving  Alms  no  Charily, 
and  Employing  the  Poor  a  Grievance  to  the  Nation  (1704),  is 
extraordinarily  far-sighted.  It  denounces  both  indiscriminate 
alms-giving  and  the  national  work-shops  proposed  by  Sir 
Humphrey  Mackworth. 

In  1705  appeared  The  Consolidator,  or  Memoirs  of  Sundry 
Transactions  from  the  World  in  the  Moon,  a  political  satire  which 
is  supposed  to  have  given  some  hints  for  Swift's  Gulliver's 
Travels;  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  Defoe  performed  a  secret 
mission,  the  first  of  several  of  the  kind,  for  Harley.  In  1706 
appeared  the  True  Relation  of  the  Apparition  of  one  Mrs  Veal, 
long  supposed  to  have  been  written  for  a  bookseller  to  help  off  an 
unsaleable  translation  of  Drelincourt,  On  Death,  but  considerable 
doubt  has  been  cast  upon  this  by  William  Lee.  Defoe's  next 
work  was  Jure  divino,  a  long  poetical  argument  in  (bad)  verse; 
and  soon  afterwards  (1706)  he  began  to  be  much  employed  in 
promoting  the  union  with  Scotland.  Not  only  did  he  write 
pamphlets  as  usual  on  the  project,  and  vigorously  recommend  it 
in  The  Review,  but  in  October  1706  he  was  sent  on  a  political 
mission  to  Scotland  by  Sidney  Godolphin,  to  whom  Harley  had 
recommended  him.  He  resided  in  Edinburgh  for  nearly  sixteen 
months,  and  his  services  to  the  government  were  repaid  by  a 
regular  salary.  He  seems  to  have  devoted  himself  to  commercial 
and  literary  as  well  as  to  political  matters,  and  prepared  at  this 
time  his  elaborate  History  of  the  Union,  which  appeared  in  1709. 
In  this  year  Henry  Sacheverell.  delivered  his  famous  sermons, 
and  Defoe  wrote  several  tracts  about  them  and  attacked  the 
preacher  in  his  Review. 


In  1710  Harley  returned  to  power,  and  Defoe  was  placed  in  a 
somewhat  awkward  position.  To  Harley  himself  he  was  bound 
by  gratitude  and  by  a  substantial  agreement  in  principle,  but 
with  the  rest  of  the  Tory  ministry  he  had  no  sympathy.  He 
seems,  in  fact,  to  have  agreed  with  the  foreign  policy  of  the  Tories 
and  with  the  home  policy  of  the  Whigs,  and  naturally  incurred 
the  reproach  of  time-serving  and  the  hearty  abuse  of  both  parties. 
At  the  end  of  I7iohe  again  visited  Scotland.  In  the  negotiations 
concerning  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  Defoe  strongly  supported  the 
ministerial  side,  to  the  intense  wrath  of  the  Whigs,  displayed  in 
an  attempted  prosecution  against  some  pamphlets  of  his  on  the 
all-important  question  of  the  succession.  Again  the  influence  of 
Harley  saved  him.  He  continued,  however,  to  take  the  side  of 
the  dissenters  in  the  questions  affecting  religious  liberty,  which 
played  such  a  prominent  part  towards  the  close  of  Anne's  reign. 
He  naturally  shared  Harley's  downfall;  and,  though  the  loss  of 
his  salary  might  seem  a  poor  reward  for  his  constant  support  of 
the  Hanoverian  claim,  it  was  little  more  than  his  ambiguous, 
not  to  say  trimming,  position  must  have  led  him  to  expect. 

Defoe  declared  that  Lord  Annesley  was  preparing  the  army  in 
Ireland  to  join  a  Jacobite  rebellion,  and  was  indicted  for  libel; 
and  prior  to  his  trial  (1715)  he  published  an  apologia  entitled  An 
Appeal  to  Honour  and  Justice,  in  which  he  defended  his  political 
conduct.  Having  been  convicted  of  the  libel  he  was  liberated 
later  in  the  year  under  circumstances  that  only  became  clear  in 
1864,  when  six  letters  were  discovered  in  the  Record  Office  from 
Defoe  to  a  Government  official,  Charles  Delafaye,  which,  accord- 
ing to  William  Lee,  established  the  fact  that  in  1 7 18  at  least  Defoe 
was  doing  not  only  political  work,  but  that  it  was  of  a  somewhat 
equivocal  kind — that  he  was,  in  fact,  sub-editing  the  Jacobite 
Mist's  Journal,  under  a  secret  agreement  with  the  government 
that  he  should  tone  down  the  sentiments  and  omit  objectionable 
items.  He  had,  in  fact,  been  released  on  condition  of  becoming 
a  government  agent.  He  seems  to  have  performed  the  same 
not  very  honourable  office  in  the  case  of  two  other  journals — 
Dormer's  Letter  and  the  Mercurius  Politicus;  and  to  have 
written  in  these  and  other  papers  until  nearly  the  end  of  his 
life.  Before  these  letters  were  discovered  it  was  supposed 
that  Defoe's  political  work  had  ended  in  1715. 

Up  to  that  time  Defoe  had  written  nothing  but  occasional 
literature,  and,  except  the  History  of  the  Union  and  Jure  Divino, 
nothing  of  any  great  length.  In  1715  appeared  the  first  volume 
of  The  Family  Instructor,  which  was  very  popular  during  the  i8th 
century.  The  first  volume  of  his  most  famous  work,  the  immortal 
story — partly  adventure,  partly  moralizing — of  The  Life  and 
Strange  Surprizing  Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  was  published 
on  the  zsth  of  April  1719.  It  ran  through  four  editions  in  as 
many  months,  and  then  in  August  appeared  the  second  volume. 
Twelve  months  afterwards  the  sequel  Serious  Reflections,  now 
hardly  ever  reprinted,  appeared.  Its  connexion  with  the  two 
former  parts  is  little  more  than  nominal,  Crusoe  being  simply 
made  the  mouth-piece  of  Defoe's  sentiments  on  various  points  of 
morals  and  religion.  Meanwhile  the  first  two  parts  were  reprinted 
as  a  feuilleton  in  Heathcote's  Intelligencer,  perhaps  the  earliest 
instance  of  the  appearance  of  such  a  work  in  such  a  form.  The 
story  was  founded  on  Dempier's  Voyage  round  the  World  (1697), 
and  still  more  on  Alexander  Selkirk's  adventures,  as  communi- 
cated by  Selkirk  himself  at  a  meeting  with  Defoe  at  the  house 
of  Mrs  Damaris  Daniel  at  Bristol.  Selkirk  afterwards  told  Mrs 
Daniel  that  he  had  handed  over  his  papers  to  Defoe.  Robinson 
Crusoe  was  immediately  popular,  and  a  wild  story  was  set  afloat 
of  its  having  been  written  by  Lord  Oxford  in  the  Tower.  A 
curious  idea,  at  one  time  revived  by  Henry  Kingsley,  is  that  the 
adventures  of  Robinson  are  allegorical  and  relate  to  Defoe's  own 
life.  This  idea  was  certainly  entertained  to  some  extent  at  the 
time,  and  derives  some  colour  of  justification  from  words  of 
Defoe's,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  serious  foundation  for  it. 
Robinson  Crusoe  (especially  the  story  part,  with  the  philo- 
sophical and  religious  moralizings  largely  cut  put)  is  one  of  the 
world's  classics  in  fiction.  Crusoe's  shipwreck  and  adventures, 
his  finding  the  footprint  in  the  sand,  his  man  "  Friday," — the 
whole  atmosphere  of  romance  which  surrounds  the  position  of 


DEFOE 


929 


the  civilized  man  fending  for  himself  on  a  desert  island — these 
have  made  Defoe's  great  work  an  imperishable  part  of  English 
literature.  Contemporaneously  appeared  The  Dumb  Philosopher, 
or  Dickory  Cronke,  who  gains  the  power  of  speech  at  the  end  of  his 
life  and  uses  it  to  predict  the  course  of  European  affairs. 

In  1720  came  The  Life  and  Adventures  of  Mr  Duncan  Campbell. 
This  was  not  entirely  a  work  of  imagination,  its  hero,  the  fortune- 
teller, being  a  real  person.  There  are  amusing  passages  in  the 
story,  but  it  is  too  desultory  to  rank  with  Defoe's  best.  In  the 
same  year  appeared  two  wholly  or  partially  fictitious  histories, 
each  of  which  might  have  made  a  reputation  for  any  man.  The 
first  was  the  Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier,  which  Lord  Chatham  believed 
to  be  true  history,  and  which  William  Lee  considers  the  embodi- 
ment at  least  of  authentic  private  memoirs.  The  Cavalier  was 
declared  at  the  time  to  be  Andrew  Newport,  made  Lord  Newport 
in  1642.  His  elder  brother  was  born  in  1620  and  the  Cavalier 
gives  1608  as  the  date  of  his  birth,  so  that  the  facts  do  not  fit  the 
dates.  It  is  probable  that  Defoe,  with  his  extensive  acquaintance 
with  English  history,  and  his  astonishing  power  of  working  up 
details,  was  fully  equal  to  the  task  of  inventing  it.  As  a  model 
of  historical  work  of  a  certain  kind  it  is  hardly  surpassable,  and 
many  separate  passages — accounts  of  battles  and  skirmishes — 
have  never  been  equalled  except  by  Carlyle.  Captain  Singleton, 
the  last  work  of  the  year,  has  been  unjustly  depreciatfed^by  most 
of  the  commentators.  The  record  of  the  journey  across  Africa, 
with  its  surprising  anticipations  of  subsequent  discoveries,  yields 
in  interest  to  no  work  of  the  kind  known  to  us;  and  the  semi- 
piratical  Quaker  who  accompanies  Singleton  in  his  buccaneering 
expeditions  is  a  most  life-like  character.  There  is  also  a  Quaker 
who  plays  a  very  creditable  part  in  Roxana  (1724),  and  Defoe 
seems  to  have  been  well  affected  to  the  Friends.  In  estimating 
this  wonderful  productiveness  on  the  part  of  a  man  sixty  years 
old,  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  was  a  habit  of  Defoe's  to 
keep  his  work  in  manuscript  sometimes  for  long  periods. 

In  1721  nothing  of  importance  was  produced,  but  in  the  next 
twelvemonth  three  capital  works  appeared.  These  were  The 
Fortunes  and  Misfortunes  of  Moll  Flanders,  The  Journal  of  the 
Plague  Year,  and  The  History  of  Colonel  Jack.  Moll  Flanders 
and  The  Fortunate  Mistress  (Roxana),  which  followed  in  1724, 
have  subjects  of  a  rather  more  than  questionable  character,  but 
both  display  the  remarkable  art  with  which  Defoe  handles  such 
subjects.  It  is  not  true,  as  is  sometimes  said,  that  the  difference 
between  the  two  is  that  between  gross  and  polished  vice.  The 
real  difference  is  much  more  one  of  morals  than  of  manners. 
Moll  is  by  no  means  of  the  lowest  class.  Notwithstanding  the 
greater  degradation  into  which  she  falls,  and  her  originally 
dependent  position,  she  has  been  well  educated,  and  has  con- 
sorted with  persons  of  gentle  birth.  She  displays  throughout 
much  greater  real  refinement  of  feeling  than  the  more  high- 
flying Roxana,  and  is  at  any  rate  flesh  and  blood,  if  the  flesh  be 
somewhat  frail  and  the  blood  somewhat  hot.  Neither  of  the 
heroines  has  any  but  the  rudiments  of  a  moral  sense;  but  Roxana, 
both  in  her  original  transgression  and  in  her  subsequent  conduct, 
is  actuated  merely  by  avarice  and  selfishness — vices  which  are 
peculiarly  offensive  in  connexion  with  her  other  failing,  and 
which  make  her  thoroughly  repulsive.  The  art  of  both  stories 
is  great,  and  that  of  the  episode  of  the  daughter  Susannah  in 
Roxana  is  consummate;  but  the  transitions  of  the  later  plot 
are  less  natural  than  those  in  Moll  Flanders.  It  is  only  fair  to 
notice  that  while  the  latter,  according  to  Defoe's  more  usual 
practice,  is  allowed  to  repent  and  end  happily,  Roxana  is  brought 
to  complete  misery;  Defoe's  morality,  therefore,  required  more 
repulsiveness  in  one  case  than  in  the  other. 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Plague  Year,  more  usually  called,  from  the 
title  of  the  second  edition,  A  History  of  the  Plague,  the  accuracy 
and  apparent  veracity  of  the  details  is  so  great  that  many 
persons  have  taken  it  for  an  authentic  record,  while  others  have 
contended  for  the  existence  of  such  a  record  as  its  basis.  But 
here  too  the  genius  of  Mrs  Veal's  creator  must,  in  the  absence  of 
all  evidence  to  the  contrary,  be  allowed  sufficient  for  the  task. 
The  History  of  Colonel  Jack  is  an  unequal  book.  There  is  hardly 
in  Robinson  Crusoe  a  scene  equal,  and  there  is  consequently  not 
vii.  30 


in  English  literature  a  scene  superior,  to  that  where  the  youthful 
pickpocket  first  exercises  his  trade,  and  then  for  a  time  loses  his 
ill-gotten  gains.  But  a  great  part  of  the  book,  especially  the 
latter  portion,  is  dull;  and  in  fact  it  may  be  generally  remarked 
of  Defoe  that  the  conclusions  of  his  tales  are  not  equal  to  the 
beginning,  perhaps  from  the  restless  indefatigability  with  which 
he  undertook  one  work  almost  before  finishing  another. 

To  this  period  belong  his  stories  of  famous  criminals,  of  Jack 
Sheppard  (1724),  of  Jonathan  Wild  (1725),  of  the  Highland  Rogue 
i.e.  Rob  Roy  (1723).  The  pamphlet  on  the  first  of  these  Defoe 
maintained  to  be  a  transcript  of  a  paper  which  he  persuaded 
Sheppard  to  give  to  a  friend  at  his  execution. 

In  1724  appeared  also  the  first  volume  of  A  Tour  through  the 
whole  Island  of  Great  Britain,  which  was  completed  in  the  two 
following  years.  Much  of  the  information  in  this  was  derived  from 
personal  experience,  for  Defoe  claims  to  have  made  many  more 
tours  and  visits  about  England  than  those  of  which  we  have 
record;  but  the  major  part  must  necessarily  have  been  dexterous 
compilation.  In  1725  appeared  A  New  Voyage  round  the  World, 
apparently  entirely  due  to  the  author's  own  fertile  imagination 
and  extensive  reading.  It  is  full  of  his  peculiar  verisimilitude 
and  has  all  the  interest  of  Anson's  or  Dampier's  voyages,  with  a 
charm  of  style  superior  even  to  that  of  the  latter. 

In  1726  Defoe  published  a  curious  and  amusing  little  pamphlet 
entftled  Everybody's  Business  is  Nobody's  Business,  or  Private 
A  buses  Publif  Grievances,  exemplified  in  "the  Pride,  Insolence,  and 
Exorbitant  Wages  of  our  Women-Servants,  Footmen,  6*c.  This 
subject  was  a  favourite  one  with  him,  and  in  the  pamphlet  he 
showed  the  immaturity  of  his  political  views  by  advocating 
legislative  interference  in  these  matters.  Towards  the  end  of 
this  same  year  The  Complete  English  Tradesman,  which  may  be 
supposed  to  sum  up  the  experience  of  his  business  life,  appeared, 
and  its  second  volume  followed  two  years  afterwards.  This  book 
has  been  variously  judged.  It  is  generally  and  traditionally 
praised,  but  those  who  have  read  it  will  be  more  disposed  to 
agree  with  Charles  Lamb,  who  considers  it  "  of  a  vile  and  debas- 
ing tendency,"  and  thinks  it  "  almost  impossible  to  suppose  the 
author  in  earnest."  The  intolerable  meanness  advocated  for  the 
sake  of  the  paltriest  gains,  the  entire  ignoring  of  any  pursuit  in 
life  except  money-getting,  and  the  representation  of  the  whole 
duty -of  man  as  consisting  first  in  the  attainment  of  a  competent 
fortune,  and  next,  when  that  fortune  has  been  attained,  in  spend- 
ing not  more  than  half  of  it,  are  certainly  repulsive  enough.  But 
there  are  no  reasons  for  thinking  the  performance  ironical  or 
insincere,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  Defoe  would  have  been 
honestly  unable  even  to  understand  Lamb's  indignation.  To 
1726  also  belongs  The  Political  History  of  the  Devil.  This  is  a 
curious  book,  partly  explanatory  of  Defoe's  ideas  on  morality, 
and  partly  belonging  to  a  series  of  demonological  works  which  he 
wrote,  and  of  which  the  chief  others  are  A  System  of  Magic  (1726), 
and  An  Essay  on  the  History  of  Apparitions  (1728),  issued  the 
year  before  under  another  title.  In  all  these  works  his  treat- 
ment is  on  the  whole  rational  and  sensible;  but  in  The  History 
of  the  Devil  he  is  somewhat  hampered  by  an  insufficiently 
worked-out  theory  as  to  the  nature  and  personal  existence 
of  his  hero,  and  the  manner  in  which  he  handles  the  subject  is 
an  odd  and  not  altogether  satisfactory  mixture  of  irony  and 
earnestness.  A  Plan  of  English  Commerce,  containing  very 
enlightened  views  on  export  trade,  appeared  in  1728. 

During  the  years  from  1715  to  1728  Defoe  had  issued  pamphlets 
and  minor  works  too  numerous  to  mention.  The  only  one  of 
them  perhaps  which  requires  notice  is  Religious  Courtship  (1722), 
a  curious  series  of  dialogues  displaying  Defoe's  unaffected 
religiosity,  and  at  the  same  time  the  rather  meddling  intrusive- 
ness  with  which  he  applied  his  religious  notions.  This  was 
more  flagrantly  illustrated  in  one  of  his  latest  works,  The  Treatise 
Concerning  the  Use  and  Abuse  of 'the  Marriage  Bed  (1727),  which 
was  originally  issued  with  a  much  more  offensive  name,  and  has 
been  called  "  an  excellent  book  with  an  improper  title."  The 
Memoirs  of  Captain  Carleton  (1728)  were  long  attributed  to  Defoe, 
but  the  internal  evidence  is  strongly  against  his  authorship. 
They  have  been  also  attributed  to  Swift,  with  greater  probability 


930 


DEFOE 


as  far  as  style  is  concerned.  The  Life  of  Mother  Ross,  reprinted 
in  Bohn's  edition,  has  no  claim  whatever  to  be  considered 
Defoe's. 

There  is  little  to  be  said  of  Defoe's  private  life  during  this 
period.  He  must  in  some  way  or  other  have  obtained  a  consider- 
able income.  In  1724  he  had  built  himself  a  large  house  at  Stoke 
Newington,  which  had  stables  and  grounds  of  considerable  size. 
From  the  negotiations  for  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Sophia 
it  appears  that  he  had  landed  property  in  more  tjian  one  place, 
and  he  had  obtained  on  lease  in  1722  a  considerable  estate  from 
the  corporation  of  Colchester,  which  was  settled  on  his  unmarried 
daughter  at  his  death.  Other  property  was  similarly  allotted  to 
his  widow  and  remaining  children,  though  some  difficulty  seems 
to  have  arisen  from  the  misconduct  of  his  son,  to  whom,  for  some 
purpose,  the  property  was  assigned  during  his  father's  lifetime, 
and  who  refused  to  pay  what  was  due.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
mystery  about  the  end  of  Defoe's  life;  it  used  to  be  said  that  he 
died  insolvent,  and  that  he  had  been  in  jail  shortly  before  his  death. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  after  great  suffering  from  gout  and  stone,  he 
died  in  Ropemaker's  Alley,  Moorfields,  on  Monday  the  26th  of 
April  1731,  and  was  buried  in  Bunhill  Fields.  He  left  no  will, 
all  his  property  having  been  previously  assigned,  and  letters  of 
administration  were  taken  out  by  a  creditor.  How  his  affairs  fell 
into  this  condition,  why  he  did  not  die  in  his  own  house,  and  why 
in  the  previous  summer  he  had  been  in  hiding,  as  we  know  he  was 
from  a  letter  still  extant,  are  points  not  clearly  explained.  He 
was,  however,  attacked  by  Mist,  whom  he  wounded,  in  prison  in 
1724.  It  is  most  likely  that  Mist  had  found  out  that  Defoe  was 
a  government  agent  and  quite  probable  that  he  communicated 
his  knowledge  to  other  editors,  for  Defoe's  journalistic  employ- 
ment almost  ceased  about  this  time,  and  he  began  to  write 
anonymously,  or  as  "  Andrew  Moreton."  It  is  possible  that  he 
had  to  go  into  hiding  to  avoid  the  danger  of  being  accused  as 
a  real  Jacobite,  when  those  with  whom  he  had  contracted  to 
assume  the  character  were  dead  and  could  no  longer  justify 
his  attitude.  , 

Defoe  married,  on  New  Year's  Day,  1684,  Mary  Tuffley,  who 
survived  until  December  1732.  They  had  seven  children.  His 
second  son,  Bernard  or  Benjamin  Norton,  has,  like  his  father,  a 
scandalous  niche  in  the  Dunciad.  In  April  1877  public  attention 
was  called  to  the  distress  of  three  maiden  ladies,  directly  descended 
from  Defoe,  and  bearing  his  name;  and  a  crown  pension  of  £75 
a  year  was  bestowed  on  each  of  them.  His  youngest  daughter, 
Sophia,  who  married  Henry  Baker,  left  a  considerable  correspond- 
ence, now  in  the  hands  of  her  descendants.  There  are  several 
portraits  of  Defoe,  the  principal  one  being  engraved  by  Vander- 
gucht. 

In  his  lifetime,  Defoe,  as  not  belonging  to  either  of  the  great 
parties  at  a  time  of  the  bitterest  party  strife,  was  subjected 
to  obloquy  on  both  sides.  The  great  Whig  writers  leave  him 
unnoticed.  Swift  and  Gay  speak  slightingly  of  him,  —  the 
former,  it  is  true,  at  a  time  when  he  was  only  known  as  a  party 
pamphleteer.  Pope,  with  less  excuse,  put  him  in  the  Dunciad 
towards  the  end  of  his  life,  but  he  confessed  to  Spence  in  private 
that  Defoe  had  written  many  things  and  none  bad.  At  a  later 
period  he  was  unjustly  described  as  "  a  scurrilous  party  writer," 
which  he  certainly  was  not;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Johnson 
spoke  of  his  writing  "  so  variously  and  so  well,"  and  put  Robinson 
Crusoe  among  the  only  three  books  that  readers  wish  longer. 
From  Sir  Walter  Scott  downwards  the  tendency  to  judge  literary 
work  on  its  own  merits  to  a  great  extent  restored  Defoe  to 
his  proper  place,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  set  him  there  for 
the  first  time.  Lord  Macaulay's  description  of  Roxana,  Moll 
Flanders  and  Colonel  Jack  as  "  utterly  nauseous  and  wretched  " 
must  be  set  aside  as  a  freak  of  criticism. 

Scott  justly  observed  that  Defoe's  style  "  is  the  last  which 
should  be  attempted  by  a  writer  of  inferior  genius;  for  though  it 
be  possible  to  disguise  mediocrity  by  fine  writing,  it  appears  in  all 
its  naked  inanity  when  it  assumes  the  garb  of  simplicity."  The 
methods  by  which  Defoe  attains  his  result  are  not  difficult  to 
disengage.  They  are  the  presentment  of  all  his  ideas  and  scenes 
in  the  plainest  and  most  direct  language,  the  frequent  employ- 


ment of  colloquial  forms  of  speech,  the  constant  insertion  of  little 
material  details  and  illustrations,  often  of  a  more  or  less  digressive 
form,  and,  in  his  historico-fictitious  works,  as  well  as  in  his  novels, 
the  most  rigid  attention  to  vivacity  and  consistency  of  character. 
Plot  he  disregards,  and  he  is  fond  of  throwing  his  dialogues  into 
regular  dramatic  form,  with  by-play  prescribed  and  stage 
directions  interspersed.  A  particular  trick  of  his  is  also  to  divide 
his  arguments  after  the  manner  of  the  preachers  of  his  day  into 
heads  and  subheads,  with  actual  numerical  signs  affixed  to  them. 
These  mannerisms  undoubtedly  help  and  emphasize  the  extra- 
ordinary faithfulness  to  nature  of  his  fictions,  but  it  would  be  a 
great  mistake  to  suppose  that  they  fully  explain  their  charm. 
Defoe  possessed  genius,  and  his  secret  is  at  the  last  as  impalpable 
as  the  secret  of  genius  always  is. 

The  character  of  Defoe,  both  mental  and  moral,  is  very  clearly 
indicated  in  his  works.  He,  the  satirist  of  the  true-born  English- 
man, was  himself  a  model,  with  some  notable  variations  and 
improvements,  of  the  Englishman  of  his  period.  He  saw  a  great 
many  things,  and  what  he  did  see  he  saw  clearly.  But  there  were 
also  a  great  many  things  which  he  did  not  see,  and  there  was  often 
no  logical^coh~hexiorryhatever  between  his  vision  and  his  blind- 
ness. The  mSSTcurlous  example  of  this  inconsistency,  or  rather 
of  this  indifference  to  general  principle,  occurs  in  his  Essay  on 
Projects.  He  there  speaks  very  briefly  and  slightingly  of  life 
insurance,  probably  because  it  was  then  regarded  as  impious 
by  religionists  of  his  complexion.  But  on  either  side  of  this  refusal 
are  to  be  found  elaborate  projects  of  friendly  societies  and  widows' 
funds,  which  practically  cover,  in  a  clumsy  and  roundabout 
manner,  the  whole  ground  of  life  insurance.  In  morals  it  is 
evident  that  he  was,  according  to  his  lights,  a  strictly  honest  and 
honourable  man.  But  sentiment  of  any  "  high-flying  "  descrip- 
tion— to  use  the  cant  word  of  his  time — was  quite  incompre- 
hensible to  him,  or  rather  never  presented  itself  as  a  thing  to  be 
comprehended.  He  tells  us  with  honest  and  simple  pride  that 
when  his  patron  Harley  fell  out,  and  Godolphin  came  in,  he  for 
three  years  held  no  communication  with  the  former,  and  seems 
quite  incapable  of  comprehending  the  delicacy  which  would  have 
obliged  him  to  follow  Harley's  fallen  fortunes.  His  very  anomal- 
ous position  in  regard  to  Mist  is  also  indicative  of  a  rather  blunt 
moral  perception.  One  of  the  most  affecting  things  in  his  novels 
is  the  heroic  constancy  and  fidelity  of  the  maid  Amy  to  her 
exemplary  mistress  Roxana.  But  Amy,  scarcely  by  her  own 
fault,  is  drawn  into  certain  breaches  of  definite  moral  laws  which 
Defoe  did  understand,  and  she  is  therefore  condemned,  with 
hardly  a  word  of  pity,  to  a  miserable  end.  Nothing  heroic  or 
romantic  was  within  Defoe's  view;  he  could  not  understand 
passionate  love,  ideal  loyalty,  aesthetic  admiration  or  anything 
of  the  kind;  and  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  little  sordid 
touches  which  delight  us  by  their  apparent  satire  were,  as  de- 
signed, not  satire  at  all,  but  merely  a  faithful  representation 
of  the  feelings  and  ideas  of  the  classes  of  which  he  himself  was  a 
unit. 

His  political  and  economical  pamphlets  are  almost  unmatched 
as  clear  presentations  of  the  views  of  their  writer.  For  driving 
the  nail  home  no  one  but  Swift  excels  him,  and  Swift  perhaps 
only  in  The  Drapier's  Letters.  There  is  often  a  great  deal  to  be 
said  against  the  view  presented  in  those  pamphlets,  but  Defoe 
sees  nothing  of  it.  He  was  perfectly  fair  but  perfectly  one-sided, 
being  generally  happily  ignorant  of  everything  which  told  against 
his  own  view. 

The  same  characteristics  are  curiously  illustrated  in  his  moral 
works.  The  morality  of  these  is  almost  amusing  in  its  down- 
right positive  character.  With  all  the  Puritan  eagerness  to  push 
a  clear,  uncompromising,  Scripture-based  distinction  of  right 
and  wrong  into  the  affairs  of  every-day  life,  he  has  a  thoroughly 
English  horror  of  casuistry,  and  his  clumsy  canons  consequently 
make  wild  work  with  the  infinite  intricacies  of  human  nature. 
He  is,  in  fact,  an  instance  of  the  tendency,  which  has  so  often 
been  remarked  by  other  nations  in  the  English,  to  drag  in  moral 
distinctions  at  every  turn,  and  to  confound  everything  which  is 
novel  to  the  experience,  unpleasant  to  the  taste,  and  incompre- 
hensible to  the  understanding,  under  the  general  epithets  of 


DEGAS— DE  GEER 


931 


wrong,  wicked  and  shocking.  His  works  of  this  class  therefore 
are  now  the  least  valuable,  though  not  the  least  curious,  of  his 
books. 

The  earliest  regular  life  and  estimate  of  Defoe  is  that  of  Dr  Towers 
in  the  Biographia  Britannica.  George  Chalmers's  Life,  however 
(1786),  added  very  considerable  information.  In  1830  Walter  Wilson 
wrote  the  standard  Life  (3  vols.) ;  it  is  coloured  by  political  pre- 
judice, but  is  a  model  of  painstaking  care,  and  by  its  abundant 
citations  from  works  both  of  Defoe  and  of  others,  which  are  practic- 
ally inaccessible  to  the  general  reader,  is  invaluable.  In  1859 
appeared  a  life  of  Defoe  by  William  Chadwick,  an  extraordinary 
rhapsody  in  a  style  which  is  half  Cobbett  and  half  Carlyle,  but 
amusing,  and  by  no  means  devoid  of  acuteness.  In  1864  the  dis- 
covery of  the  six  letters  stirred  up  William  Lee  to  a  new  investigation, 
and  the  results  of  this  were  published  (London,  1869)  in  three  large 
volumes.  The  first  of  these  (well  illustrated)  contains  a  new  life  and 
particulars  of  the  author's  discoveries.  The  second  and  third  contain 
fugitive  writings  assigned  by  Lee  to  Defoe  for  the  first  time.  For 
most  of  these,  however,  we  have  no  authority  but  Lee's  own  im- 
pressions of  style,  &c.;  and  consequently,  though  the  best  quali- 
fied judges  will  in  most  cases  agree  that  Defoe  may  very  likely 
have  written  them,  it  cannot  positively  be  stated  that  he  did. 
There  is  also  a  Life  by  Thomas  Wright  (1894).  The  Earlier  Life 
and  Chief  Earlier  Works  of  Defoe  (1890)  was  included  by  Henry 
Morley  in  the  "  Carisbrooke  Library."  Charles  Lamb's  criticisms 
were  made  in  three  short  pieces,  two  of  which  were  written  for 
Wilson's  book,  and  the  third  for  The  Reflector.  The  volume  on 
Defoe  (1879)  in  the  "  English  Men  of  Letters  "  series  is  by  W.  Minto. 

There  is  considerable  uncertainty  about  many  of  Defoe's  writings; 
and  even  if  all  contested  works  be  excluded,  the  number  is  still 
enormous.  Besides  the  list  irr  Bohn's  Lowndes,  which  is  somewhat 
of  an  omnium  gatherum,  three  lists  drawn  with  more  or  less  care  were 
compiled  in  the  igth  century.  Wilson's  contains  210  distinct  works, 
three  or  four  only  of  which  are  marked  as  doubtful;  Hazlitt's 
enumerates  183  "  genuine  "  and  52  "  attributed  "  pieces,  with  notes 
on  most  of  them ;  Lee's  extends  to  254,  of  which  64  claim  to  be  new 
additions.  The  reprint  (3jVols.)  edited  for  the  "  Pulteney  Library  " 
by  Hazlitt  in  1840—1843  contains  a  good  and  full  life  mainly  de- 
rived from  Wilson,  the  whole  of  the  novels  (including  the  Serious 
Reflections  now  hardly  ever  published  with  Robinson  Crusoe),  Jure 
Divino,  The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Marriage,  and  many  of  the  more 
important  tracts  and  smaller  works.  There  is  also  an  edition,  often 
called  Scott's,  but  really  edited  by  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  in  twenty 
volumes  (London,  1840-^1841).  This  contains  the  Complete  Trades- 
man, Religious  Courtship,  The  Consolidator  and  other  works  not 
comprised  in  Hazlitt's.  Scott  had  previously  in  1809  edited  for 
Ballantyne  some  of  the  novels,  in  twelve  volumes.  Bohn's  "  British 
Classics  "  includes  the  novels  (except  the  third  part  of  Robinson 
Crusoe),  The  History  of  the  Devil,  The  Storm,  and  a  few  political 
pamphlets,  also  the  undoubtedly  spurious  Mother  Ross.  In  1870 
Nimmo  of  Edinburgh  published  in  one  volume  an  admirable  selection 
from  Defoe.  It  contains  Chalmers's  Life,  annotated  and  completed 
from  Wilson  and  Lee,  Robinson  Crusoe,  pts.  i.  and  ii.,  Colonel  Jack, 
The  Cavalier,  Duncan  Campbell,  The  Plague,  Everybody's  Business, 
Mrs  Veal,  The  Shortest  Way  with  Dissenters,  Giving  Alms  no  Charity, 
The  True-Born  Englishman,  Hymn  to  the  Pillory,  and  very  copious 
extracts  from  The  Complete  English  Tradesman.  An  edition  of 
Defoe's  Romances  and  Narratives  in  sixteen  volumes  by  G.  A.  Aitken 
came  out  in  1895. 

If  we  turn  to  separate  works,  the  bibliography  of  Defoe  is  practic- 
ally confined  (except  as  far  as  original  editions  are  concerned)  to 
Robinson  Crusoe.  Mrs  Veal  has  been  to  some  extent  popularized 
by  the  work  which  it  helped  to  sell;  Religious  Courtship  and  The 
Family  Instructor  had  a  vogue  among  the  middle  class  until  well 
into  the  igth  century,  and  The  History  of  the  Union  was  republished 
in  1786.  But  the  reprints  and  editions  of  Crusoe  have  been  innumer- 
able; it  has  been  often  translated;  and  the  eulogy  pronounced  on  it 
by  Rousseau  gave  it  special  currency  in  France,  where  imitations 
(or  rather  adaptations)  have  also  been  common. 

In  addition  to  the  principal  authorities  already  mentioned  see 
John  Forster,  Historical  and  Biographical  Essays  (1858) ;  G.  Saints- 
bury,  "  Introduction  "  to  Defoe's  Minor  Novels;  and  valuable  notes 
by  G.  A.  Aitken  in  The  Contemporary  Review  (February  1890),  and 
The  Athenaeum  (April  30,  1889;  Augus_t  31,  1890).  A  facsimile 
reprint  (1883)  of  Robinson  Crusoe  has  an  introduction  by  Mr  Austin 
Dobson.  Dr  Karl  T.  Biilbring  edited  two  unpublished  works  of 
Defoe,  The  Compleat  English  Gentleman  (London,  1890)  and  Of 
Royall  Educacion  (London,  1905),  from  British  Museum  Add.  MS. 
32t555-  Further  light  was  thrown  on  Defoe's  work  as  a  political 
agent  by  the  discovery  (1906)  of  an  unpublished  paper  of  his  in  the 
British  Museum  by  G.  F.  Warner.  This  was  printed  in  the  English 
Historical  Review,  and  afterwards  separately. 

DEGAS,  HILAIRE  GERMAIN  EDGARD  (1834-  ),  French 
painter,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  ipth  of  July  1834.  Entering 
in  1855  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  he  early  developed  independ- 
ence of  artistic  outlook,  studying  under  Lamothe.  He  first 
exhibited  in  the  Salon  of  1865,  contributing  a  "  War  in  the 


middle  ages,"  a  >vork  executed  in  pastel.  To  this  medium  he  was 
ever  faithful,  using  it  for  some  of  his  best  work.  In  1866  his 
"  Steeplechase  "  revealed  him  as  a  painter  of  the  racecourse  and 
of  all  the  most  modern  aspects  of  life  and  of  Parisian  society, 
treated  in  an  extremely  original  manner.  He  subsequently 
exhibited  in  1867  "  Family  Portraits,"  and  in  1868  a  portrait  of 
a  dancer  in  the  "  Ballet  of  La  Source."  In  1869  and  1870  he 
restricted  himself  to  portraits;  but  thenceforward  he  abandoned 
the  Salons  and  attached  himself  to  the  Impressionists.  With 
Manet  and  Monet  he  took  the  lead  of  the  new  school  at  its  first 
exhibition  in  1874,  and  repeatedly  contributed  to  these  exhibi- 
tions (in  1876,  1878,  1879  and  1880).'  In  1868  he  had  shown  his 
first  study  of  a  dancer,  and  in  numerous  pastels  he  proclaimed 
himself  the  painter  of  the  ballet,  representing  its  figurantes  in 
every  attitude  with  more  constant  aim  at  truth  than  grace. 
Several  of  his  works  may  be  seen  at  the  Luxembourg  Gallery,  to 
which  they  were  bequeathed,  among  a  collection  of  impressionist 
pictures,  by  M.  Caillebotte.  In  1880  Degas  showed  his  powers 
of  observation  in  a  set  of  "  Portraits  of  Criminals,"  and  he 
attempted  modelling  in  a  "  Dancer,"  in  wax.  He  afterwards 
returned  to  his  studies  of  the  sporting  world,  exhibiting  in 
December  1884  at  the  Petit  Gallery  two  views  of  "  Races  "  which 
had  a  great  success,  proving  the  increasing  vogue  of  the  artist 
among  collectors.  He  is  ranked  with  Manet  as  the  leader  of  the 
"  impressionist  school."  At  the  eighth  Impressionist  Exhibition, 
in  1886,  Degas  continued  his  realistic  studies  of  modern  life, 
showing  drawings  of  the  nude,  of  workwomen,  and  of  jockeys. 
Besides  his  pastels  and  his  paintings  of  genre  and  portraits — 
among  these,  several  likenesses  of  Manet — Degas  also  handled 
his  favourite  subjects  in  etching  and  in  aquatint;  and  executed 
several  lithographs  of  "  Singers  at  Cafes-concert,"  of  "  Ballet- 
girls,"  and  indeed  of  every  possible  subject  of  night-life  and 
incidents  behind  the  scenes.  His  work  is  to  be  seen  not  only  at 
the  Luxembourg  but  in  many  of  the  great  private  collections  in 
Paris,  in  England  and  America.  In  the  Centenary  Exhibition 
of  1900  he  exhibited  "  The  Interior  of  a  Cotton-Broker's  Office  at 
New  Orleans  "  (belonging  to  the  Museum  at  Pau)  and  "  The 
Rehearsal." 

See  also  G.  Moore,  "  Degas,  the  Painter  of  Modern  Life," 
Magazine  of  Art  (1890);  J.  K.  Huysmans,  Certains  (Paris,  1889); 
G.  Geffroy,  La  Vie  Artistique  (y  Serie,  Paris,  1894). 

DE  GEER,  LOUIS  GERHARD,  BARON  (1818-1896),  Swedish 
statesman  and  writer,  was  born  on  the  i8th  of  July  1818  at 
Finsporg  castle.  He  adopted  the  legal  profession,  and  in  1855 
became  president  of  the  Go'ta  Hofret,  or  lord  justice  of  one  of  the 
Swedish  supreme  courts.  From  the  7th  of  April  1858  to  the  3rd 
of  June  1870  he  was  minister  of  justice.  As  a  member  of  the 
Upper  House  he  took  part  in  all  the  Swedish  Riksdags  from  1851 
onwards,  though  he  seldom  spoke.  From  1867  to  1878  he  was 
the  member  for  Stockholm  in  the  first  chamber,  and  introduced 
and  passed  many  useful  reformatory  statutes;  but  his  greatest 
achievement,  as  a  statesman,  was  the  reform  of  the  Swedish 
representative  system,  whereby  he  substituted  a  bi-cameral 
elective  parliament,  on  modern  lines,  for  the  existing  cumber- 
some representation  by  estates,  a  survival  from  the  later  middle 
ages.  This  great  measure  was  accepted  by  the  Riksdag  in 
December  1865,  and  received  the  royal  sanction  on  the  22nd 
of  June  1866.  For  some  time  after  this  De  Geer  was  the  most 
popular  man  in  Sweden.  He  retired  from  the  ministry  in  1870, 
but  took  office  again,  as  minister  of  justice,  in  1875.  In  1876 
he  became  minister  of  state,  which  position  he  retained  till  April 
1880,  when  the  failure  of  his  repeated  efforts  to  settle  the  arma- 
ments' question  again  induced  him  to  resign.  From  1881  to  1888 
he  was  chancellor  of  the  universities  of  Upsala  and  Lund.  Besides 
several  novels  and  aesthetic  essays,  De  Geer  has  written  a  few 
political  memoirs  of  supreme  merit  both  as  to  style  and  matter, 
the  most  notable  of  which  are:  Minnesteckning  o/ver  A.  J.  v. 
Hopken  (Stockholm,  1881);  Minnesteckning  dfver  Hans  Jarta 
(Stockholm,  1874);  Minnesteckning  ofver  B.  B.  von  Platen 
(Stockholm,  1886);  and  his  own  Minnen  (Stockholm,  1892), 
an  autobiography,  invaluable  as  a  historical  document,  in 
which  the  political  experience  and  the  matured  judgments  of 


932 


DEGGENDORF— DEIOCES 


a  lifetime  are  recorded  with  singular  clearness,   sobriety   and 
charm. 

See  Sveriges  historia  (Stockholm,  1881,  &c.),  vi.;  Carl  Gustaf 
Malmstrom,  Historiska  Siudier  (Stockholm,  1897).  (R.  N.  B.) 

DEGGENDORF,  or  DECKENDORF,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Bavaria,  25m.  N.W.  of  Passau,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Danube,  which  is  there  crossed  by  two  iron  bridges.  Pop. 
(1905)  7154.  It  is  situated  at  the  lower  end  of  the  beautiful 
valley  of  the  Perlbach,  and  in  itself  it  is  a  well-built  and  attractive 
town.  It  possesses  an  old  town  hall  dating  from  1 566,  a  hospital, 
a  lunatic  asylum,  an  orphanage,  and  a  large  parish  church  rebuilt 
in  1756;  but  the  chief  interest  centres  in  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  built  in  1337,  which  attracts  thousands  of  pilgrims 
to  its  Porta  Cadi  or  Gnadenpforte  (Gate  of  Mercy)  opened  annually 
on  Michaelmas  eve  and  closed  again  on  the  4th  of  October.  In 
1837,  on  the  celebration  of  the  sooth  anniversary  of  this 
solemnity,  the  number  of  pilgrims  was  reckoned  at  nearly  100,000. 
Such  importance  as  the  town  possesses  is  now  rather  commercial 
than  religious, — it  being  a  depot  for  the  timber  trade  of  the 
Bavarian  forest,  a  station  for  the  Danube  steamboat  company, 
and  the  seat  of  several  mills,  breweries,  potteries  and  other 
industrial  establishments.  On  the  bank  of  the  Danube  outside 
the  town  are  the  remains  of  the  castle  of  Findelstein;  and  on 
the  Geiersberg  (1243  ft.),  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  stands 
another  old  pilgrimage  church.  About  6  m.  to  the  north  is  the 
village  of  Metten,  with  a  Benedictine  monastery  founded  by 
Charlemagne  in  801,  restored  as  an  abbey  in  1840  by  Louis  I.  of 
Bavaria,  and  well  known  as  an  educational  institution.  The  first 
mention  of  Deggendorf  occurs  in  868,  and  it  appears  as  a  town 
in  1 21 2.  Henry  (d.  1290)  of  the  Landshut  branch  of  the  ruling 
family  of  Bavaria  made  it  the  seat  of  a  custom-house;  and  in  1331 
it  became  the  residence  of  Henry  III.  of  Natternberg  (d.  1333), 
so  called  from  a  castle  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  1337  a  wholesale 
massacre  of  the  Jews,  who  were  accused  of  having  thrown  the 
sacred  host  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  into  a  well,  took 
place  in  the  town;  and  it  is  probably  from  about  this  date  that 
the  pilgrimage  above  mentioned  came  into  vogue.  The  town 
was  captured  by  the  Swedish  forces  in  1633,  and  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  it  was  more  than  once  laid  in  ashes. 

See  Gruber  and  Miiller,  Der  bayerische  Wald  (Regensburg,  1851) ; 
Mittermiiller,  Die  heil.  Hoslien  und  die  Jiiden  in  Deggendorf  (Land- 
shut,  1866);  and  Das  Kloster  Metten  (Straubing,  1857). 

DE  HAAS,  MAURITZ  FREDERICK  HENDRICK  (1832-1895), 
American  marine  painter,  was  born  on  the  i2th  of  December  1832 
in  Rotterdam,  Holland.  He  studied  art  in  the  Rotterdam 
Academy  and  at  The  Hague,  under  Bosboom  and  Louis  Meyer, 
and  in  1851-1852  in  London,  following  the  English  water- 
colourists  of  the  day.  In  1857  he  received  an  artist's  commission 
in  the  Dutch  navy,  but  in  1859,  under  the  patronage  of  August 
Belmont,  who  had  recently  been  minister  of  the  United  States  at 
The  Hague,  he  resigned  and  removed  to  New  York  city.  He 
became  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  in  1863  and  an 
academician  in  1867,  and  exhibited  annually  in  the  academy, 
and  in  1866  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Society 
of  Painters  in  Water  Colors.  He  died  on  the  23rd  of  November 
1895.  His  "  Farragut  Passing  the  Forts  at  the  Battle  of  New 
Orleans "  and  "  The  Rapids  above  Niagara,."  which  were 
exhibited  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878,  were  his  best  known 
but  not  his  most  typical  works,  for  his  favourite  subjects  were 
storm  and  wreck,  wind  and  heavy  surf,  and  less  often  moonlight 
on  the  coasts  of  Holland,  of  Jersey,  of  New  England,  and  of  Long 
Island,  and  on  the  English  Channel. 

His  brother,  WILLIAM  FREDERICK  D?;  HAAS  (1830-1880),  who 
emigrated  to  New  York  in  1854,  was  also  a  marine  painter. 

DEHRA,  a  town  of  British  India,  headquarters  of  the  Dehra 
Dun  district  in  the  United  Provinces.  Pop.  (1901)  28,095.  It 
lies  at  an  elevation  of  2300  ft.  Here  the  Hardwar-Dehra  railway 
terminates.  Dehra  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Trigonometrical 
Survey  and  of  the  Forest  Department,  besides  being  a  canton- 
ment for  a  Gurkha  force.  The  Forest  School,  which  trains 
subordinate  forest  officials  for  all  parts  of  India,  is  a  fine  building. 
Attached  to  it  is  an  institution  for  the  scientific  study  of  sylvi- 


culture and  the  exploitation  and  administration  of  forests.  The 
town  of  Dehra  grew  up  round  the  temple  built  in  1699  by  the 
heretical  Sikh  Guru,  Ram  Rai,  the  founder  of  the  Udasi  sect  of 
Ascetics.  This  temple  is  a  remarkable  building  in  Mahommedan 
style.  The  central  block,  in  imitation  of  the  emperor  Jahangir's 
tomb,  contains  the  bed  on  which  the  Guru,  after  dying  at  will 
and  coming  back  to  life  several  times,  ultimately  died  outright; 
it  is  an  object  of  great  veneration.  At  the  corners  of  the  central 
block  are  smaller  monuments  commemorating  the  Guru's,  wives. 

DEHRA  DUN,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Meerut 
division  of  the  United  Provinces.  Its  area  is  1 209  sq.  m.  The 
district  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  native  state  of  Tehri  or 
Garhwal,  on  the  E.  by  British  Garhwal,  on  the  S.  by  the  Siwalik 
hills,  which  separate  it  from  Saharanpur  district,  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  hill  states  of  Sirmur,  Jubbal  and  Taroch.  The  valley 
(the  Dun)  has  an  area  of  about  673  sq.  m.,  and  forms  a  parallelo- 
gram 45  m.  from  N.W.  to  S.E.  and  15  m.  broad.  It  is  well 
wooded,  undulating  and  intersected  by  streams.  On  the  N.E. 
the  horizon  is  bounded  by  the  Mussoorie  or  lower  range  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Siwalik  hills.  The  Himalayas 
in  the  north  of  the  district  attain  a  height  between  7000  and  8000 
ft.,  one  peak  reaching  an  elevation  of  8565  ft.;  the  highest  point 
of  the  Siwalik  range  is  3041  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  principal 
passes  through  the  Siwalik  hills  are  the  Timli  pass,  leading  to 
the  military  station  of  Chakrata,  and  the  Mohand  pass  leading  to 
the  sanatoriums  of  Mussoorie  and  Landaur.  The  Ganges  bounds 
the  Dehra  valley  on  the  E.;  the  Jumna  bounds  it  on  the  W. 
From  a  point  about  midway  between  the  two  rivers,  and  near 
the  town  of  Dehra,  runs  a  ridge  which  forms  the  watershed  of  the 
valley.  To  the  west  of  this  ridge  the  water  collects  to  form  the 
Asan,  a  tributary  of  the  Jumna;  whilst  to  the  east  the  Suswa 
receives  the  drainage  and  flows  into  the  Ganges.  To  the  east  the 
valley  is  characterized  by  swamps  and  forests,  but  to  the  west  the 
natural  depressions  freely  carry  off  the  surface  drainage.  Along 
the  central  ridge,  the  water-level  lies  at  a  great  depth  from  the 
surface  (228  ft.),  but  it  rises  gradually  as  the  country  declines 
towards  the  great  rivers.  In  1901  the  population  was  178,195, 
showing  an  increase  of  6  %  in  the  decade.  A  railway  to  Dehra 
from  Hardwar,  on  the  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand  line  (32  m.),  was 
completed  in  1900.  The  district  is  served  by  the  Dun  canals. 
Tea  gardens  cover  a  considerable  area,  and  the  valley  contains  a 
colony  of  European  tea  planters. 

History. — Dehra  Dun  only  emerges  from  the  mists  of  legend 
into  authentic  history  in  the  i7th  century  A.D.,  when  it  formed 
part  of  the  Garhwal  kingdom.  Towards  the  end  of  the  century 
the  heretical  Sikh  Guru,  Ram  Rai,  expelled  from  the  Punjab, 
sought  refuge  in  the  Dun  and  gathered  round  him  a  crowd  of 
devotees.  Fateh  Sah,  raja  of  Garhwal,  endowed  the  temple 
which  he  built,  round  which  grew  up  the  town  of  Gurudwara  or 
Dehra  (q.v.).  In  the  i8th  century  the  fertility  of  the  valley 
attracted  the  attention  of  Najib-ud-daula,  governor  of  Saharan- 
pur, who  invaded  it  with  an  army  of  Rohillas  in  1757  and  annexed 
it  to  his  dominion.  His  rule,  which  lasted  till  1770,  brought  great 
prosperity  to  the  Dun;  but  on  his  death  it  became  a  prey  to 
the  surrounding  tribes,  its  desolation  being  completed  after  its 
conquest  by  the  Gurkhas  in  1803.  In  1814  it  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  British,  and  in  the  following  year  was  annexed 
to  Saharanpur.  Under  British  administration  the  Dun  rapidly 
recovered  its  prosperity. 

DEIOCES  (Aijukijs),  according  to  Herodotus  (i.  96  ff.)  the  first 
king  of  the  Medes.  He  narrates  that,  when  the  Medes  had 
rebelled  against  the  Assyrians  and  gained  their  independence 
about  710  B.C.,  according  to  his  .chronology  (cf.  Diodor.  ii.  32), 
they  lived  in  villages  without  any  political  organization,  and 
therefore  the  whole  country  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  Then 
Deioces,  son  of  Phraortes,  an  illustrious  man  of  upright  character, 
was  chosen  judge  in  his  village,  and  the  justness  of  his  decisions 
induced  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  villages  to  throng  to  him. 
At  last  the  Medes  resolved  to  make  an  end  of  the  intolerable  state 
of  their  country  by  erecting  a  kingdom,  and  chose  Deioces  king. 
He  now  caused  them  to  build  a  great  capital,  Ecbatana,  with  a 
royal  palace,  and  introduced  the  ceremonial  of  oriental  courts; 


DEIOTARUS— DEISM 


933 


he  surrounded  himself  with  a  guard  and  no  longer  showed  himself 
to  the  people,  but  gave  his  judgments  in  writing  and  controlled 
the  people  by  officials  and  spies.  He  united  all  the  Median  tribes, 
and  ruled  fifty-three  years  (c.  690-647  B.C.),  though  perhaps,  as 
G.  Rawlinson  supposed,  the  fifty-three  years  of  his  reign  are 
exchanged  by  mistake  with  the  twenty-two  years  of  his  son 
Phraortes,  under  whom  the  Median  conquests  began. 
•  The  narration  of  Herodotus  is  only  a  popular  tradition  which 
derives  the  origin  of  kingship  from  its  judicial  functions,  con- 
sidered as  its  principal  and  most  beneficent  aspect.  We  know 
from  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  that  just  at  the  time  which 
Herodotus  assigns  to  Deioces  the  Medes  were  divided  into 
numerous  small  principalities  and  subjected  to  the  great  Assyrian 
conquerors.  Among  these  petty  chieftains,  Sargon  in  715 
mentions  Dayukku,  "  lieutenant  of  Man  "  (he  probably  was, 
therefore,  a  vassal  of  the  neighbouring  king  of  Man  in  the 
mountains  of  south-eastern  Armenia),  who  joined  the  Urartians 
and  other  enemies  of  Assyria,  but  was  by  Sargon  transported 
to  Hamath  in  Syria  "  with  his  clan."  His  district  is  called  "  bit- 
Dayaukki,"  "  house  of  Deioces,"  also  in  713,  when  Sargon 
invaded  these  regions  again.  So  it  seems  that  the  dynasty, 
which  more  than  half  a  century  later  succeeded  in  throwing  off 
the  Assyrian  yoke  and  founded  the  Median  empire,  was  derived 
from  this  Dayukku,  and  that  his  name  was  thus  introduced  into 
the  Median  traditions,  which  contrary  to  history  considered  him 
as  founder  of  the  kingdom.  (ED.  M.) 

DEIOTARUS,  a  tetrarch  of  Galatia  (Gallo-Graecia)  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  a  faithful  ally  of  the  Romans.  He  is  first  heard  of  at 
the  beginning  of  the  third  Mithradatic  war,  when  he  drove  out 
the  troops  of  Mithradates  under  Eumachus  from  Phrygia.  His 
most  influential  friend  was  Pompey,  who,  when  settling  the 
affairs  of  Asia  (63  or  62  B.C.),  rewarded  him  with  the  title  of  king 
and  an  increase  of  territory  (Lesser  Armenia).  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war,  Deiotarus  naturally  sided  with  his  old  patron 
Pompey,  and  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalus  escaped  with  him  to 
Asia.  In  the  meantime  Pharnaces,  the  son  of  Mithradates,  had 
seized  Lesser  Armenia,  and  defeated  Deiotarus  near  Nicopolis. 
Fortunately  for  D'iotarus,  Caesar  at  that  time  (47)  arrived  in 
Asia  from  Egypt,  and  was  met  by  the  tetrarch  in  the  dress  of  a 
suppliant.  Caesar  pardoned  him  for  having  sided  with  Pompey, 
ordered  him  to  resume  his  royal  attire,  and  hastened  against 
Pharnaces,  whom  he  defeated  at  Zela.  In  consequence  of  the 
complaints  of  certain  Galatian  princes,  Deiotarus  was  deprived 
of  part  of  his  dominions,  but  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  king. 
On  the  death  of  Mithradates  of  Pergamum,  tetrarch  of  the  Trocmi, 
Deiotarus  was  a  candidate  for  the  vacancy.  Other  tetrarchs  also 
pressed  their  claims;  and,  further,  Deiotarus  was  accused  by 
his  grandson  Castor  of  having  attempted  to  assassinate  Caesar 
when  the  latter  was  his  guest  in  Galatia.  Cicero,  who  enter- 
tained a  high  opinion  of  Deiotarus,  whose  acquaintance  he  had 
made  when  governor  of  Cilicia,  undertook  his  defence,  the  case 
being  heard  in  Caesar's  own  house  at  Rome.  The  matter  was 
allowed  to  drop  for  a  time,  and  the  assassination  of  Caesar 
prevented  .any  final  decision  being  pronounced.  In  his  speech 
Cicero  briefly  dismisses  the  charge  of  assassination,  the  main 
question  being  the  distribution  of  the  provinces,  which  was  the 
real  cause  of  the  quarrels  between  Deiotarus  and  his  relatives. 
After  Caesar's  death,  Mark  Antony,  for  a  large  monetary 
consideration,  publicly  announced  that,  in  accordance  with 
instructions  left  by  Caesar,  Deiotarus  was  to  resume  possession 
of  all  the  territory  of  which  he  had  been  deprived.  When  civil 
war  again  broke  out,  Deiotarus  was  persuaded  to  support 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  but  after  the  battle  of  Philippi  went  over 
to  the  triumvirs.  He  remained  in  possession  of  his  kingdom 
till  his  death  at  a  very  advanced  age. 

See  Cicero,  Pkilippica,  ii.  37;  Ad,  jam,  viii.  10,  ix.  12,  xv.  I,  2,  4; 
Ad  Att.  xiv'.  I;  De  divin.  i.  15,  ii.  36,  37;  De  hartisp.  resp.  13,  and 
above  all  Pro  rege  Deiotaro;  Appian,  Bell.  Mithrid.  75,  114; 
Bellum  Alexandrinum,  34-41,  65-77;  Dio  Cassius  xli.  63,  xlii.  45, 
xlvii.  24,  48,  xlviii.  33. 

DEIR,  or  DEIR  Ez-Zon,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  27$  m.  above  its  junction  with  the 


Khabor,  lat.  35°  20'  N.,  long.  40°  12'  E.  Pop.  8000  and  upward, 
about  one-tenth  Christians;  except  in  the  official  classes,  there 
are  no  Turks.  It  is  the  capital  and  the  only  considerable  town 
of  the  7x>r  sanjak,  formed  in  1857,  which  includes  Ras  el-'Ain  on 
the  north  and  Palmyra  on  the  south,  with  a  total  area  of  32,820 
sq.  m.,  chiefly  desert,  and  an  estimated  population  of  100,000, 
mostly  Arab  nomads.  Deir  itself  is  a  thrifty  and  rising  town, 
having  considerable  traffic;  it  is  singularly  European  in  appear- 
ance, with  macadamized  streets  and  a  public  garden.  The  name 
Deir  means  monastery,  but  there  is  no  other  trace  or  tradition  of 
the  occupation  of  the  site  before  the  i4th  century,  and  until  it 
became  the  capital  of  the  sanjak  it  was  an  insignificant  village. 
It  is  an  important  centre  for  the  control  of  the  Bedouin  Arabs, 
and  has  a  garrison  of  about  1000  troops,  including  a  special  corps 
of  mule-riders.  It  is  also  a  road  centre,  the  roads  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  Bagdad  by  way  of  Aleppo  and  Damascus 
respectively  meeting  here.  A  road  also  leads  northward,  by 
Sinjar,  to  Mosul,  crossing  the  river  on  a  stone  bridge,  built  in 
1897,  the  only  permanent  bridge  over  the  Euphrates  south  of 
Asia  Minor.  (J.  P.  PE.) 

DEIRA,  the  southern  of  the  two  English  kingdoms  afterwards 
united  as  Northumbria.  According  to  Simeon  of  Durham  it 
extended  from  the  Humber  to  the  Tyne,  but  the  land  was  waste 
north  of  the  Tees.  York  was  the  capital  of  its  kings.  The  date 
of  its  first  settlement  is  quite  unknown,  but  the  first  king  of  whom 
we  have  any  record  is  Ella  or  j?Jlle,  the  father  of  Edwin,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  reigning  about  585.  After  his  death  Deira 
was  subject  to  jEthelfrith,  king  of  Northumbria,  until  the  acces- 
sion of  Edwin,  in  616  or  617,  who  ruled  both  kingdoms  (see 
EDWIN)  till  633.  Osric  the  nephew  of  Edwin  ruled  Deira  (633- 
634),  but  his  son  Oswine  was  put  to  death  by  Oswio  in  651.  For 
a  few  years  subsequently  Deira  was  governed  by  ^Ethelwald 
son  of  Oswald. 

See  Bede,  Historia  ecclesiastica,  ii.  14,  iii.  I,  6,  14  (ed.  C.  Plummer, 
Oxford,  1896) ;  Nennius,  Historia  Brittonum,  §  64  (ed.  Th.  Mommsen, 
Berlin,  1898);  Simeon  of  Durham,  Opera,  i.  339  (ed.  T.  Arnold, 
London,  1882-1885).  (F.  G.  M.  B.) 

DEISM  (Lat.  deus,  god),  strictly  the  belief  in  one  supreme  God. 
It  is  however  the  received  name  for  a  current  of  rationalistic 
theological  thought  which,  though  not  confined  to  one  country, 
or  to  any  well-defined  period,  was  most  conspicuous  in  England  in 
the  last  years  of  the  I7th  and  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  century. 
The  deists,  differing  widely  in  important  matters  of  belief,  were 
yet  agreed  in  seeking  above  all  to  establish  the  certainty  and 
sufficiency  of  natural  religion  in  opposition  to  the  positive 
religions,  and  in  tacitly  or  expressly  denying  the  unique 
significance  of  the  supernatural  revelation  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  They  either  ignored  the  Scriptures,  endeavoured 
to  prove  them  in  the  main  by  a  helpful  republication  of  the 
Evangelium  aeternum,  or  directly  impugned  their  divine  char- 
acter, their  infallibility,  and  the  validity  of  their  evidences  as  a 
complete  manifestation  of  the  will  of  God.  The  term  "  deism  " 
not  only  is  used  to  signify  the  main  body  of  the  deists'  teaching, 
or  the  tendency  they  represent,  but  has  come  into  use  as  a 
technical  term  for  one  specific  metaphysical  doctrine  as  to  the 
relation  of  God  to  the  universe,  assumed  to  have  been  character- 
istic of  the  deists,  and  to  have  distinguished  them  from  atheists, 
pantheists  and  theists, — the  belief,  namely,  that  the  first  cause 
of  the  universe  is  a  personal  God,  who  is,  however,  not  only 
distinct  from  the  world  but  apart  from  it  and  its  concerns. 

The  words  "  deism  "  and  "  deist  "  appear  first  about  the 
middle  of  the  i6th  century  in  France  (cf.  Bayle's  Dictionnaire, 
s.v.  "  Viret,"  note  D),  though  the  deistic  standpoint  had  already 
been  foreshadowed  to  some  extent  by  Averroists,  by  Italian 
authors  like  Boccaccio  and  Petrarch,  in  More's  Utopia  (15 15),  and 
by  French  writers  like  Montaigne,  Charron  and  Bodin.  The  first 
specific  attack  on  deism  in  English  was  Bishop  Stillingfleet's 
Letter  to  a  Deist  (1677).  By  the  majority  of  those  historically 
known  as  the  English  deists,  from  Blount  onwards,  the  name 
was  owned  and  honoured.  They  were  also  occasionally  called 
"  rationalists."  "  Free-thinker  "  (in  Germany,  Freidenker)  was 
generally  taken  to  be  synonymous  with  "  deist,"  though  obviously 


934 


DEISM 


capable  of  a  wider  signification,  and  as  coincident  with  esprit  fort 
and  with  libertin  in  the  original  and  theological  sense  of  the  word.1 
"  Naturalists  "  was  a  name  frequently  used  of  such  as  recognized 
no  god  but  nature,  of  so-called  Spinozists,  atheists;  but  both  in 
England  and  Germany,  in  the  i8th  century,  this  word  was  more 
commonly  and  aptly  in  use  for  those  who  founded  their  religion 
on  the  lumen  naturae  alone.  It  was  evidently  in  common  use 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  i6th  century  as  it  is  used  by  De  Mornay 
in  De  la  verile  de  la  religion  chrelienne  (1581)  and  by  Montaigne. 
The  same  men  were  not  seldom  assaulted  under  the  name  of 
"theists";  the  later  distinction  between  "  theist"  and  "deist," 
which  stamped  the  latter  word  as  excluding  the  belief  in  provi- 
dence or  in  the  immanence  of  God,  was  apparently  formulated 
in  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  by  those  rationalists  who  were 
aggrieved  at  being  identified  with  the  naturalists.  (See  also 
THEISM.) 

The  chief  names  amongst  the  deists  are  those  of  Lord  Herbert 
of  Cherbury  (1583-1648),  Charles  Blount  (1654-1693),  Matthew 
Tindal  (1657-1733),  William  Woliaston  (1650-1724),  Thomas 
Woolston  (1660-1733),  Junius  Janus  (commonly  known  as  John) 
Tjoland  (1670-1722),  the  3rd  earl  of  Shaftesbury  (1671-1713), 
V?iscount  Bolingbroke  (1678-1751),  Anthony  Collins  (1676-1729), 
Thomas  Morgan  (?-i743),  and  Thomas  Chubb  (i679~i747).2 
Peter  Annet  (1693-1769),  and  Henry  Dodwell  (the  younger; 
d.  1784),  who  made  his  contribution  to  the  controversy 
in  1742,  are  of  less  importance.  Of  the  eleven  first  named, 
ten  appear  to  have  been  born  within  twenty-five  years  of  one 
another;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
literary  activity  of  the  deists,  as  well  as  of  their  voluminous 
opponents,  falls  within  the  same  half  century. 

The  impulses  that  promoted  a  vein  of  thought  cognate  to 
deism  were  active  both  before  and  after  the  time  of  its  greatest 
notoriety.  But  there  are  many  reasons  to  show  why,  in  the  1 7th 
century,  men  should  have  set  themselves  with  a  new  zeal,  in 
politics,  law  and  theology,  to  follow  the  light  of  nature  alone,  and 
to  cast  aside  the  fetters  of  tradition  and  prescriptive  right,  of 
positive  codes,  and  scholastic  systems,  and  why  in  England 
especially  there  should,  amongst  numerous  free-thinkers,  have 
been  not  a  few  free  writers.  The  significance  of  the  Copernican 
system,  as  the  total  overthrow  of  the  traditional  conception  of 
the  universe,  dawned  on  all  educated  men.  In  physics,  Descartes 
had  prepared  the  way  for  the  final  triumph  of  the  mechanical 
explanation  of  the  world  in  Newton's  system.  In  England  the 
new  philosophy  had  broken  with  time-honoured  beliefs  more 
completely  than  it  had  done  even  in  France;  Hobbes  was  more 
startling  than  Bacon.  Locke's  philosophy,  as  well  as  his  theology, 
served  as  a  school  for  the  deists.  Men  had  become  weary  of 
Protestant  scholasticism;  religious  wars  had  made  peaceful 
thinkers  seek  to  take  the  edge  off  dogmatical  rancour;  and  the 
multiplicity  of  religious  sects,  coupled  with  the  complete  failure 
of  various  attempts  at  any  substantial  reconciliation,  provoked 
distrust  of  the  common  basis  on  which  all  were  founded.  There  was 
a  school  of  distinctively  latitudinarian  thought  in  the  Church  of 
England ;  others  not  unnaturally  thought  it  better  to  extend  the 
realm  of  the  adiaphora  beyond  the  sphere  of  Protestant  ritual  or 
the  details  of  systematic  divinity.  Arminianism  had  revived  the 
rational  side  of  theological  method.  Semi-Arians  and  Unitarians, 
though  sufficiently  distinguished  from  the  free-thinkers  by 
reverence  for  the  letter  of  Scripture,  might  be  held  to  encourage 
departure  from  the  ancient  landmarks.  The  scholarly  labours  of 
P.  D.  Huet,  R.  Simon,  L.  E.  Dupin,  and  Jean  Le  Clerc  (Clericus), 
of  the  orientalists  John  Lightfoot,  John  Spencer  and  Humphrey 
Prideaux,  of  John  Mill,  the  collator  of  New  Testament  readings, 
and  John  Fell,  furnished  new  materials  for  controversy;  and  the 

1  The  right  of  the  orthodox  party  to  use  this  name  was  asserted 
by  the  publication  in  1715  of  a  journal  called  The  Freethinker,  con- 
ducted by  anti-deistic  clergymen.  The  term  libertin  appears  to  have 
been  used  first  as  a  hostile  epithet  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
a  13th-century  sect  which  was  accused  not  only  of  free-thought  but 
also  of  licentious  living. 

s  See  the  separate  biographies  of  these  writers.  The  three  most 
significant  names  after  Lord  Herbert  are  those  of  Toland,  Woliaston 
and  Tindal. 


scope  of  Spinoza's  Traclatus  theologico-polilicus  had  naturally 
been  much  more  fully  apprehended  than  ever  his  Elhica  could  be. 
The  success  of  the  English  revolution  permitted  men  to  turn  from 
the  active  side  of  political  and  theological  controversy  to  specu- 
lation and  theory;  and  curiosity  was  more  powerful  than  faith. 
Much  new  ferment  was  working.  The  toleration  and  the  free  press 
of  England  gave  it  scope.  Deism  was  one  of  the  results,  and  is  an 
important  link  in  the  chain  of  thought  from  the  Reformation  to 
our  own  day. 

Long  before  England  was  ripe  to  welcome  deistic  thought 
Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  earned  the  name  "  Father  of  Deism  " 
by  laying  down  the  main  line  of  that  religious  philosophy  which 
in  various  forms  continued  ever  after  to  be  the  backbone  of 
deistic  systems.  He  based  his  theology  on  a  comprehensive,  if 
insufficient,  survey  of  the  nature,  foundation,  limits  and  tests 
of  human  knowledge.  And  amongst  the  divinely  implanted, 
original,  indefeasible  notiliae  communes  of  the  human  mind,  he 
found  as  foremost  his  five  articles: — that  there  is  one  supreme 
God,  that  he  is  to  be  worshipped,  that  worship  consists  chiefly  of 
virtue  and  piety,  that  we  must  repent  of  our  sins  and  cease  from 
them,  and  that  there  are  rewards  and  punishments  here  and 
hereafter.  Thus  Herbert  sought  to  do  for  the  religion  of  nature 
what  his  friend  Grotius  was  doing  for  natural  law, —  making  a 
new  application  of  the  standard  of  Vincent  of  Lerins,  Quod 
semper,  quod  ubique,  quod  ab  omnibus.  It  is  important  to  notice 
that  Herbert,  as  English  ambassador  at  Paris,  united  in  himself 
the  currents  of  French  and  English  thought,  and  also  that  his 
De  Veritale,  published  in  Latin  and  translated  into  French,  did 
not  appear  in  an  English  version. 

Herbert  had  hardly  attempted  a  systematic  criticism  of  the 
Christian  revelation  either  as  a  whole  or  in  its  details.  Blount,  a 
man  of  a  very  different  spirit,  did  both,  and  in  so  doing  may  be 
regarded  as  having  inaugurated  the  second  main  line  of  deistic 
procedure,  that  of  historico-critical  examination  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  Blount  adopted  and  expanded  Hobbes's 
arguments  against  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch; 
and,  mainly  in  the  words  of  Burnet's  Archeologiae  philosophicae, 
he  asserts  the  total  inconsistency  of  the  Mosaic  Hexaemeron  with 
the  Copernican  theory  of  the  heavens,  dwelling  with  emphasis 
on  the  impossibility  of  admitting  the  view  developed  in  Genesis, 
that  the  earth  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  universe.  He 
assumes  that  the  narrative  was  meant  ethically,  not  physically, 
in  order  to  eliminate  false  and  polytheistic  notions;  and  he 
draws  attention  to  that  double  narrative  in  Genesis  which  was 
elsewhere  to  be  so  fruitfully  handled.  The  examination  of  the 
miracles  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  professedly  founded  on  papers 
of  Lord  Herbert's,  is  meant  to  suggest  similar  considerations 
with  regard  to  the  miracles  of  Christ.  Naturalistic  explanations 
of  some  of  these  are  proposed,  and  a  mythical  theory  is  distinctly 
foreshadowed  when  Blount  dwells  on  the  inevitable  tendency  of 
men,  especially  long  after  the  event,  to  discover  miracles  attend- 
ant on  the  birth  and  death  of  their  heroes.  Blount  assaults  the 
doctrine  of  a  mediator  as  irreligious.  He  dwells  much  more 
pronouncedly  than  Herbert  on  the  view,  afterwards  regarded  as 
a  special  characteristic  of  all  deists,  that  much  or  most  error  in 
religion  has  been  invented  or  knowingly  maintained  by  sagacious 
men  for  the  easier  maintenance  of  good  government,  or  in  the 
interests  of  themselves  and  their  class.  And  when  he  heaps 
suspicion,  not  on  Christian  dogmas,  but  on  beliefs  of  which  the 
resemblance  to  Christian  tenets  is  sufficiently  patent,  the  real  aim 
is  so  transparent  that  his  method  seems  to  partake  rather  of  the 
nature  of  literary  eccentricity  than  of  polemical  artifice;  yet  by 
this  disingenuous  indirectness  he  gave  his  argument  that  savour 
of  duplicity  which  ever  after  clung  to  the  popular  conception  of 
deism. 

Shaftesbury,  dealing  with  matters  for  the  most  part  different 
from  those  usually  handled  by  the  deists,  stands  almost  wholly 
out  of  their  ranks.  But  he  showed  how  loosely  he  held  the  views 
he  did  not  go  out  of  his  way  to  attack,  and  made  it  plain  how 
little  weight  the  letter  of  Scripture  had  for  himself;  and,  writing 
with  much  greater  power  than  any  of  the  deists,  he  was  held 
to  have  done  more  than  any  one  of  them  to  forward  the  cause 


DEISM 


935 


for  which  they  wrought.  Founding  ethics  on  the  native  and 
cultivable  capacity  in  men  to  appreciate  worth  in  men  and  actions, 
and,  like  the  ancient  Greek  thinkers  whom  he  followed,  associat- 
ing the  apprehension  of  morality  with  the  apprehension  of  beauty, 
he  makes  morality  wholly  independent  of  scriptural  enactment, 
and  still  more,  of  theological  forecasting  of  future  bliss  or  agony. 
He  yet  insisted  on  religion  as  the  crown  of  virtue;  and,  arguing 
that  religion  is  inseparable  from  a  high  and  holy  enthusiasm  for 
the  divine  plan  of  the  universe,  he  sought  the  root  of  religion  in 
feeling,  not  in  accurate  beliefs  or  meritorious  good  works.  He  set 
little  store  on  the  theology  of  those  who  in  a  system  of  dry  and 
barren  notions  "  pay  handsome  compliments  to  the  Deity," 
"  remove  providence,"  "  explode  devotion,"  and  leave  but  "  little 
of  zeal,  affection,  or  warmth  in  what  they  call  rational  religion." 
In  the  protest  against  the  scheme  of  "  judging  truth  by  counting 
noses,"  Shaftesbury  recognized  the  danger  of  the  standard  which 
seemed  to  satisfy  many  deists;  and  in  almost  every  respect 
he  has  more  in  common  with  those  who  afterwards,  in  Germany, 
annihilated  the  pretensions  of  complacent  rationalism  than  with 
the  rationalists  themselves. 

Toland,  writing  at  first  professedly  without  hostility  to  any 
of  the  received  elements  of  the  Christian  faith,  insisted  that 
Christianity  was  not  mysterious,  and  that  the  value  of  religion 
could  not  lie  in  any  unintelligible  or  self -contradictory  elements; 
though  we  cannot  know  the  real  essence  of  God  or  of  any  of 
his  creatures,  yet  our  beliefs  about  God  must  be  thoroughly 
consistent  with  reason.  Afterwards,  Toland  discussed,  with 
considerable  real  learning  and  much  show  of  candour,  the  com- 
parative evidence  for  the  canonical  and  apocryphal  Scriptures, 
and  demanded  a  careful  and  complete  historical  examination  of 
the  grounds  on  which  our  acceptance  of  the  New  Testamentcanon 
rests.  He  contributed  little  to  the  solution  of  the  problem,  but 
forced  the  investigation  of  the  canon  alike  on  theologians  and  the 
reading  public.  Again,  he  sketched  a  view  of  early  church  history, 
further  worked  out  by  Johann  Salomo  Semler  (1725-1791), 
and  surprisingly  like  that  which  was  later  elaborated  by  the 
Tubingen  school.  He  tried  to  show,  both  from  Scripture  and 
extra-canonical  literature,  that  the  primitive  church,  so  far  from 
being  an  incorporate  body  of  believers  with  the  same  creed  and 
customs,  really  consisted  of  two  schools,  each  possessing  its 
"  own  gospel  " — a  school  of  Ebionites  or  Judaizing  Christians, 
and  the  more  liberal  school  of  Paul.  These  parties,  consciously 
but  amicably  differing  in  their  whole  relation  to  the  Jewish  law 
and  the  outside  world,  were  subsequently  forced  into  a  non- 
natural  uniformity.  The  cogency  of  Toland's  arguments  was 
weakened  by  his  manifest  love  of  paradox.  Wollaston  upheld  the 
"  intellectual  "  theory  of  morality,  and  all  his  reasoning  is  inde- 
pendent of  any  authority  or  evidence  derived  from  revelation. 
His  system  was  simplicity  itself,  all  sin  being  reduced  to  the  one 
form  of  lying.  He  favoured  the  idea  of  a  future  life  as  being 
necessary  to  set  right  the  mistakes  and  inequalities  of  the 
present. 

Collins,  who  had  created  much  excitement  by  his  Discourse 
of  Free-thinking,  insisting  on  the  value  and  necessity  of  unpreju- 
diced inquiry,  published  at  a  later  stage  of  the  deistic  controversy 
the  famous  argument  on  the  evidences  of  Christianity.  Christian- 
ity is  founded  on  Judaism;  its  main  prop  is  the  argument  from 
the  fulfilment  of  prophecy.  Yet  no  interpretation  or  rearrange- 
ment of  the  text  of  Old  Testament  prophecies  will  secure  a  fair 
and  non-allegorical  correspondence  between  these  and  their 
alleged  fulfilment  in  the  New  Testament.  The  inference  is  not 
expressly  drawn,  though  it  becomes  perfectly  clear  from  his 
refutation  of  William  Whiston's  curious  counter  theory  that  there 
were  in  the  original  Hebrew  scriptures  prophecies  which  were 
literally  fulfilled  in  the  New  Testament,  but  had  been  expunged 
at  an  early  date  by  Jewish  scribes.  Collins  indicates  the  possible 
extent  to  which  the  Jews  may  have  been  indebted  to  Chaldeans 
and  Egyptians  for  the'ir  theological  views,  especially  as  great 
part  of  the  Old  Testament  would  appear  to  have  been  remodelled 
by  Ezra;  and,  after  dwelling  on  the  points  in  which  the  prophecies 
attributed  to  Daniel  differ  from  all  other  Old  Testament  pre- 
dictions, he  states  the  greater  number  of  the  arguments  still  used 


to  show  that  the  book  of  Daniel  deals  with  events  past  and 
contemporaneous,  and  is  from  the  pen  of  awriterof  theMaccabean 
period,  a  view  now  generally  accepted.  Collins  resembles  Blount 
in  "  attacking  specific  Christian  positions  rather  than  seeking 
for  a  foundation  on  which  to  build  the  edifice  of  Natural 
Religion."  Amongst  those  who  replied  to  him  were  Richard 
Bentley,  Edward  Chandler,  bishop  of  Lichfield,  and  Thomas 
Sherlock,  afterwards  bishop  of  London,  who  also  attacked 
Woolston.  They  refuted  him  easily  on  many  specific  points,  but 
carefully  abstained  from  discussing  the  real  question  at  issue, 
namely  the  propriety  of  free  inquiry. 

Woplston,  at  first  to  all  appearance  working  earnestly  in  behalf 
of  an  allegorical  but  believing  interpretation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment miracles,  ended  by  assaulting,  with  a  yet  unknown  violence 
of  speech,  the  absurdity  of  accepting  them  as  actual  historical 
events,  and  did  his  best  to  overthrow  the  credibility  of  Christ's 
principal  miracles.  The  bitterness  of  his  outspoken  invective 
against  the  clergy,  against  all  priestcraft  and  priesthood,  was  a 
new  feature  in  deistic  literature,  and  injured  the  author  more  than 
it  furthered  his  cause. 

Tindal's  aim  seems  to  have  been  a  sober  statement  of  the  whole 
case  in  favour  of  natural  religion,  with  copious  but  moderately 
worded  criticism  of  such  beliefs  and  usages  in  the  Christian  and 
other  religions  as  he  conceived  to  be  either  non-religious  or 
directly  immoral  and  unwholesome.  The  work  in  which  he 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  true  Christianity  is  as  old  as  the 
creation,  and  is  really  but  the  republication  of  the  gospel  of 
nature,  soon  gained  the  name  of  the  "  Deist's  Bible."  It  was 
against  Tindal  that  the  most  important  of  the  orthodox  replies 
were  directed,  e.g.  John  Conybeare's  Defence  of  Revealed  Religion, 
William  Law's  Case  of  Reason  and,  to  a  large  extent,  Butler's 
Analogy. 

Morgan  criticized  with  great  freedom  the  moral  character  of  the 
persons  and  events  of  Old  Testament  history,  developing  the 
theory  of  conscious  "  accommodation  "  on  the  part  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Jewish  church.  This  accommodation  of  truth,  by  altering 
the  form  and  substance  of  it  to  meet  the  views  and  secure  the 
favour  of  ignorant  and  bigoted  contemporaries,  Morgan  attributes 
also  to  the  apostles  and  to  Jesus.  He  likewise  expands  at  great 
length  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Catholic  Church  much  like 
that  sketched  by  Toland,  but  assumes  that  Paul  and  his  party, 
latterly  at  least,  were  distinctly  hostile  to  the  Judaical  party 
of  their  fellow-believers  in  Jesus  as  the  Messias,  while  the  college 
of  the  original  twelve  apostles  and  their  adherents  viewed  Paul 
and  his  followers  with  suspicion  and  disfavour.  Persecution 
from  without  Morgan  regards  as  the  influence  which  mainly 
forced  the  antagonistic  parties  into  the  oneness  of  the  catholic 
and  orthodox  church.  Morgan  "  seems  to  have  discerned  the 
dawning  of  a  truer  and  better  method  "  than  the  others.  "  He 
saw  dimly  that  things  require  to  be  accounted  for  as  well  as 
affirmed  or  denied,"  and  he  was  "  one  of  the  pioneers  of  modern 
historical  science  as  applied  to  biblical  criticism." 

Annet  made  it  his  special  work  to  invalidate  belief  in  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  and  to  discredit  the  work  of  Paul. 

Chubb,  the  least  learnedly  educated  of  the  deists,  did  more 
than  any  of  them,  save  Herbert,  to  round  his  system  into  a 
logical  whole.  From  the  New  Testament  he  sought  to  show  that 
the  teaching  of  Christ  substantially  coincides  with  natural 
religion  as  he  understood  it.  But  his  main  contention  is  that 
Christianity  is  not  a  doctrine  but  a  life,  not  the  reception  of  a 
system  of  truths  or  facts,  but  a  pious  effort  to  live  in  accordance 
with  God's  will  here,  in  the  hope  of  joining  him  hereafter.  Chubb 
dwells  with  special  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  Christ  preached 
the  gospel  to  the  poor,  and  argues,  as  Tindal  had  done,  that  the 
gospel  must  therefore  be  accessible  to  all  men  without  any  need 
for  learned  study  of  evidences  for  miracles,  and  intelligible  to  the 
meanest  capacity.  He  sought  to  show  that  even  in  the  New 
Testament  there  are  essential  contradictions,  and  instances  the 
unconditional  forgiveness  preached  by  Christ  in  the  gospels  as 
compared  with  Paul's  doctrine  of  forgiveness  by  the  mediation 
of  Christ.  Externally  Chubb  is  interesting  as  representing  the 
deism  of  the  people  contrasted  with  that  of  Tindal  the  theologian. 


936 


DEISM 


Dodwell's  ingenious  thesis,  that  Christianity  is  not  founded 
on  argument,  was  certainly  not  meant  as  an  aid  to  faith;  and, 
though  its  starting-point  is  different  from  all  other  deistical  works, 
it  may  safely  be  reckoned  amongst  their  number. 

Though  himself  contemporary  with  the  earlier  deists,  Boling- 
broke's  principal  works  were  posthumously  published  after 
interest  in  the  controversy  had  declined.  His  whole  strain,  in 
sharp  contrast  to  that  of  most  of  his  predecessors,  is  cynical  and 
satirical,  and  suggests  that  most  of  the  matters  discussed  were  of 
small  personal  concern  to  himself.  He  gives  fullest  scope  to  the 
ungenerous  view  that  a  vast  proportion  of  professedly  revealed 
truth  was  ingeniously  palmed  off  by  the  more  cunning  on  the 
more  ignorant  for  the  convenience  of  keeping  the  latter  under. 
But  he  writes  with  keenness  and  wit,  and  knows  well  how  to  use 
the  materials  already  often  taken  advantage  of  by  earlier  deists. 

Before  passing  on  to  a  summary  of  the  deistic  position,  it  is 
necessary  to  say  something  of  the  views  of  Conyers  Middleton 
(q.v.),  who,  though  he  never  actually  severed  himself  from  ortho- 
doxy, yet  advanced  theories  closely  analogous  to  those  of  the 
deists.  His  most  important  theological  work  was  that  devoted 
to  an  exposure  of  patristic  miracles.  His  attack  was  based 
largely  on  arguments  which  could  be  turned  with  equal  force 
against  the  miracles  of  the  New  Testament,  and  he  even  went 
further  than  previous  rationalists  in  impugning  the  credibility 
of  statements  as  to  alleged  miracles  emanating  from  martyrs 
and  the  fathers  of  the  early  church.  That  Middleton  was  pre- 
pared to  carry  this  type  of  argument  into  the  apostolic  period 
is  shown  by  certain  posthumous  essays  (Miscellaneous  Works, 
ii.  pp.  255  ff.),  in  which  he  charges  the  New  Testament  writers 
with  inconsistency  and  the  apostles  with  suppressing  their 
cherished  beliefs  on  occasions  of  difficulty. 

In  the  substance  of  what  they  received  as  natural  religion,  the 
deists  were  for  the  most  part  agreed;  Herbert's  articles  con- 
tinued to  contain  the  fundamentals  of  their  theology.  Religion, 
though  not  identified  with  morality,  had  its  most  important 
outcome  in  a  faithful  following  of  the  eternal  laws  of  morality, 
regarded  as  the  will  of  God.  With  the  virtuous  life  was  further 
to  be  conjoined  a  humble  disposition  to  adore  the  Creator, 
avoiding  all  factitious  forms  of  worship  as  worse  than  useless. 
The  small  value  they  attributed  to  all  outward  and  special  forms 
of  service,  and  the  want  of  any  sympathetic  craving  for  the  com- 
munion of  saints,  saved  the  deists  from  attempting  to  found  a 
free-thinking  church.  They  seem  generally  to  have  inclined  to  a 
quietistic  accommodation  to  established  forms  of  faith,  till  better 
times  came.  They  steadfastly  sought  to  eliminate  the  miraculous 
from  theological  belief,  and  to  expel  from  the  system  of  religious 
truth  all  debatable,  difficult  or  mysterious  articles.  They  aimed 
at  a  rational  and  intelligible  faith,  professedly  in  order  to  make 
religion,  in  all  its  width  and  depth,  the  heritage  of  every  man. 
They  regarded  with  as  much  suspicion  the  notion  of  a  "  peculiar 
people  "  of  God,  as  of  a  unique  revelation,  and  insisted  on  the 
possibility  of  salvation  for  the  heathen.  They  rejected  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  protested  against  mediatorship, 
atonement  and  the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ,  always 
laying  more  stress  on  the  teaching  of  Christ  than  on  the  teaching 
of  the  church  about  him;  but  they  repeatedly  laid  claim  to  the 
name  of  Christians  or  of  Christian  deists.  Against  superstition, 
fanaticism  and  priestcraft  they  protested  unceasingly.  They  all 
recognized  the  soul  of  man — not  regarded  as  intellectual  alone— 
as  the  ultimate  court  of  appeal.  But  they  varied  much  in  their 
attitude  towards  the  Bible.  Some  were  content  t»  argue  their 
own  ideas  into  Scriptare,  and  those  they  disliked  out  of  it ;  to 
one  or  two  it  seemed  a  satisfaction  to  discover  difficulties  in 
Scripture,  to  point  to  historical  inaccuracies  and  moral  defects. 
Probably  Chubb 's  position  on  this  head  is  most  fairly  character- 
istic of  deism.  He  holds  that  the  narrative,  especially  of  the  New 
Testament,  is  in  the  main  accurate,  but,  as  written  after  the 
events  narrated,  has  left  room  for  misunderstandings  and 
mistakes.  The  apostles  were  good  men,  to  whom,  after  Christ, 
we  are  most  indebted;  but  they  were  fairly  entitled  to  their  own 
private  opinions,  and  naturally  introduced  these  into  their 
writings.  The  epistles,  according  to  Chubb,  contain  errors  of 


fact,  false  interpretations  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  sometimes 
disfigurement  of  religious  truth. 

The  general  tendency  of  the  deistical  writings  is  sufficiently 
self-consistent  to  justify  a  common  name.  But  deism  is  not  a 
compact  system  nor  is  it  the  outcome  of  any  one  line  of  philo- 
sophical thought.  Of  matters  generally  regarded  as  pertaining 
to  natural  religion,  that  on  which  they  were  least  agreed  was  the 
certainty,  philosophical  demonstrability  and  moral  significance 
of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  so  that  the  deists  have  sometimes 
been  grouped  into  "  mortal  "  and  "  immortal "  deists.  For  some 
the  belief  in  future  rewards  and  punishments  was  an  essential  of 
religion;  some  seem  to  have  questioned  the  doctrine  as  a  whole; 
and,  while  others  made  it  a  basis  of  morality,  Shaftesbury 
protested  against  the  ordinary  theological  form  of  the  belief 
as  immoral.  No  two  thinkers  could  well  be  more  opposed  than 
Shaftesbury  and  Hobbes;  yet  sometimes  ideas  from  both  were 
combined  by  the  same  writer.  Collins  was  a  pronounced  necessi- 
tarian; Morgan  regarded  the  denial  of  free  will  as  tantamount  to 
atheism.  And  nothing  can  be  more  misleading  than  to  assume 
that  the  belief  in  a  Creator,  existent  wholly  apart  from  the  work 
of  his  hands,  was  characteristic  of  the  deists  as  a  body.  In  none  of 
them  is  any  theory  on  the  subject  specially  prominent,  except 
that  in  their  denial  of  miracles,  of  supernatural  revelation,  and  a 
special  redemptive  interposition  of  God  in  history,  they  seem  to 
have  thought  of  providence  much  as  the  mass  of  their  opponents 
did.  Herbert  starts  his  chief  theological  work  with  the  design  of 
vindicating  God's  providence.  Shaftesbury  vigorously  protests 
against  the  notion  of  a  wholly  transcendent  God.  Morgan  more 
than  once  expresses  a  theory  that  would  now  be  pronounced  one 
of  immanence.  Toland,  the  inventor  of  the  name  of  pantheism, 
was  notoriously,  for  a  great  part  of  his  life,  in  some  sort  a 
pantheist.  And  while  as  thinkers  they  diverged  in  their  opinions, 
so  too  they  differed  radically  in  character,  in  reverence  for  their 
subject  and  in  religious  earnestness  and  moral  worth. 

The  deists  were  not  powerful  writers;  none  of  them  was  dis- 
tinguished by  wide  and  accurate  scholarship;  hardly  any  was 
either  a  deep  or  comprehensive  thinker.  But  though  they  gener- 
ally had  the  best  scholarship  of  England  against  them,  they  were 
bold,  acute,  well-informed  men;  they  appreciated  more  fully 
than  their  contemporaries  not  a  few  truths  now  all  but  univer- 
sally accepted;  and  they  seemed  therefore  entitled  to  leave  their 
mark  on  subsequent  theological  thought.  Yet  while  the  seed 
they  sowed  was  taking  deep  root  in  France  and  in  Germany,  the 
English  deists,  the  most  notable  men  of  their  time,  were  soon 
forgotten,  or  at  least  ceased  to  be  a  prominent  factor  in  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  century.  The  controversies  they  had 
provoked  collapsed,  and  deism  became  a  by-word  even  amongst 
those  who  were  in  no  degree  anxious  to  appear  as  champions  of 
orthodoxy. 

The  fault  was  not  wholly  in  the  subjectivism  of  the  movement. 
But  the  subjectivism  that  founded  its  theology  on  the  "  common 
sense  "  of  the  individual  was  accompanied  by  a  fatal  pseudo- 
universalism  which,  cutting  away  all  that  was  peculiar,  indi- 
vidual and  most  intense  in  all  religions,  left  in  any  one  of  them 
but  a  lifeless  form.  A  theology  consisting  of  a  few  vague  gener- 
alities was  sufficient  to  sustain  the  piety  of  the  best  of  the  deists; 
but  it  had  not  the  concreteness  or  intensity  necessary  to  take  a 
firm  hold  on  those  whom  it  emancipated  from  the  old  beliefs. 
The  negative  side  of  deism  came  to  the  front,  and,  communicated 
with  fatal  facility,  seems  ultimately  to  have  constituted  the 
deism  that  was  commonly  professed  at  the  clubs  of  the  wits 
and  the  tea-tables  of  polite  society.  But  the  in  tenser  religious  life 
before  which  deism  fell  was  also  a  revolt  against  the  abstract  and 
argumentative  orthodoxy  of  the  time. 

That  the  deists  appreciated  fully  the  scope  of  difficulties  in 
Christian  theology  and  the  sacred  books  is  not  their  most 
noteworthy  feature;  but  that  they  made  a  stand,  sometimes 
cautiously,  often  with  outspoken  fearlessness,  against  the  pre- 
supposition that  the  Bible  is  the  religion  of  Protestants.  They 
themselves  gave  way  to  another  presupposition  equally  fatal 
to  true  historical  research,  though  in  great  measure  common 
to  them  and  their  opponents.  It  was  assumed  by  deists  in 


DEISTER 


937 


debating  against  the  orthodox,  that  the  flood  of  error  in  the 
hostile  camp  was  due  to  the  benevolent  cunning  or  deliberate 
self-seeking  of  unscrupulous  men,  supported  by  the  ignorant  with 
the  obstinacy  of  prejudice.; 

Yet  deism  deserves  to  be  remembered  as  a  strenuous  protest 
against  bibliolatry  in  every  degree  and  against  all  traditionalism 
in  theology.  It  sought  to  look  not  a  few  facts  full  in  the  face, 
from  a  new  point  of  view  and  with  a  thoroughly  modern  though 
unhistorical  spirit.  It  was  not  a  religious  movement;  and 
though,  as  a  defiance  of  the  accepted  theology,  its  character  was 
mainly  theological,  the  deistical  crusade  belongs,  not  to  the 
history  of  the  church,  or  of  dogma,  but  to  the  history  of  general 
culture.  It  was  an  attitude  of  mind,  not  a  body  of  doctrine;  its 
nearest  parallel  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  eclectic  strivings 
of  the  Renaissance  philosophy  and  the  modernizing  tendencies 
of  cisalpine  humanism.  The  controversy  was  assumed  to  be 
against  prejudice,  ignorance,  obscurantism;  what  monks  were  to 
Erasmus  the  clergy  as  such  were  to  Woolston.  Yet  English  deism 
was  in  many  ways  characteristically  English.  The  deists  were,  as 
usually  happens  with  the  leaders  of  English  thought,  no  class  of 
professional  men,  but  represented  every  rank  in  the  community. 
They  made  their  appeal  in  the  mother  tongue  to  all  men  who 
could  read  and  think,  and  sought  to  reduce  the  controversy  to  its 
most  direct  practical  issue.  And,  with  but  one  or  two  exceptions, 
they  avoided  wildness  in  their  language  as  much  as  in  the  general 
scheme  of  theology  they  proposed.  If  at  times  they  had  recourse 
to  ambiguity  of  speech  and  veiled  polemic,  this  might  be  partly 
excused  when  we  remember  the  hanging  of  Thomas  Aikenhead 
in  1697  for  ridiculing  the  Bible,  and  Woolston's  imprisonment 
in  1729. 

French  deism,  the  direct  progeny  of  the  English  movement, 
was  equally  short-lived.  Voltaire  during  his  three  years' 
residence  in  England  (1726-1729)  absorbed  an  enthusiasm  for 
freedom  of  thought,  and  provided  himself  with  the  arguments 
necessary  to  support  the  deism  which  he  had  learned  in  his 
youth;  he  was  to  the  end  a  deist  of  the  school  of  Bolingbroke. 
Rousseau,  though  not  an  active  assailant  of  Christianity,  could 
have  claimed  kindred  with  the  nobler  deists.  Diderot  was  for  a 
time  heartily  in  sympathy  with  deistic  thought ;  and  the  Encyclo- 
pedic was  in  its  earlier  portion  an  organ  of  deism.  Even  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  a  large  number  of  the  leading  divines  were 
frankly  deistic,  nor  were  they  for  that  reason  regarded  as  irreligi- 
ous. But  as  Locke's  philosophy  became  in  France  sensationalism , 
and  as  Locke's  pregnant  question,  reiterated  by  Collins,  how  we 
know  that  the  divine  power  might  not  confer  thought  on  matter, 
led  the  way  to  dogmatic  materialism,  so  deism  soon  gave  way  to 
forms  of  thought  more  directly  and  completely  subversive  of  the 
traditional  theology.  None  the  less  it  is  unquestionable  that  in 
the  period  preceding  the  Revolution  the  bulk  of  French  thinkers 
were  ultimately  deists  in  various  degrees,  and  that  deism  was  a 
most  potent  factor  not  only  in  speculative  but  also  in  social 
and  political  development.  Many  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolution- 
ary movement  were  deists,  though  it  is  quite  false  to  say  that  the 
extreme  methods  of  the  movement  were  the  result  of  widespread 
rationalism. 

In  Germany  there  was  a  native  free-thinking  theology  nearly 
contemporary  with  that  of  England,  whence  it  was  greatly 
developed  and  supplemented.  Among  the  earliest  names  are 
those  of  Georg  Schade  (1712-1795),  J.  B.  Basedow  (1723-1790), 
the  educationist,  Johann  August  Eberhard  (q.v.);  and  K.  F. 
Bahrdt,  who  regarded  Christ  as  merely  a  noble  teacher  like  Moses, 
Confucius  and  Luther.  The  compact  rational  philosophy  of 
Wolff  nourished  a  theological  rationalism  which  in  H.  S.  Reimarus 
was  wholly  undistinguishable  from  dogmatic  deism,  and  was 
undoubtedly  to  a  great  extent  adopted  by  Lessing;  while,  in  the 
case  of  the  historico-critical  school  to  which  J.  S.  Semler  belonged, 
the  distinction  is  not  always  easily  drawn— although  these 
rationalists  professedly  recognized  in  Scripture  a  real  divine 
revelation,  mingled  with  local  and  temporary  elements.  It 
deserves  to  be  noted  here  that  the  former,  the  theology  of  the 
Aufkldrung,  was,  like  that  of  the  deists,  destined  to  a  short-lived 
notoriety;  whereas  the  solid,  accurate  and  scholarly  researches 


of  the  rationalist  critics  of  Germany,  undertaken  with  no 
merely  polemical  spirit,  not  only  form  an  epoch  in  the  history  of 
theology,  but  have  taken  a  permanent  place  in  the  body  of 
theological  science.  Ere  ralionalismus  vulgaris  fell  before  the 
combined  assault  of  Schleiermacher's  subjective  theology  and 
the  deeper  historical  insight  of  the  Hegelians,  it  had  found  a 
refuge  successively  in  the  Kantian  postulates  of  the  practical 
reason,  and  in  the  vague  but  earnest  faith-philosophy  of 
Jacobi. 

Outside  France,  Germany  and  England,  there  were  no  great 
schools  of  thought  distinctively  deistic,  though  in  most  countries 
there  is  to  be  found  a  rationalistic  anti-clerical  movement  which 
partakes  of  the  character  of  deism.  It  seems  probable,  for 
example,  that  in  Portugal  the  marquis  de  Pombal  was  in  reality 
a  deist,  and  both  in  Italy  and  in  Spain  there  were  signs  of  the 
same  rationalistic  revolt.  More  certain,  and  also  more  striking, 
is  the  fact  that  the  leading  statesmen  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence  were  emphatically  deists;  Benjamin  Franklin 
(who  attributes  his  position  to  the  study  of  Shaftesbury  and 
Collins),  Thomas  Paine,  Washington  and  Jefferson,  although  they 
all  had  the  greatest  admiration  for  the  New  Testament  story, 
denied  that  it  was  based  on  any  supernatural  revelation.  For 
various  reasons  the  movement  in  America  did  not  appear  on 
the  surface  to  any  great  extent,  and  after  the  comparative 
failure  of  Elihu  Palmer's  Principles  of  Nature  it  expressed  itself 
chiefly  in  the  spread  of  Unitarianism. 

In  England,  though  the  deists  were  forgotten,  their  spirit 
was  not  wholly  dead.  For  men  like  Hume  and  Gibbon  the  stand- 
point of  deism  was  long  left  behind;  yet  Gibbon's  famous  two 
chapters  might  well  have  been  written  by  a  deist.  Even  now 
many  undoubtedly  cling  to  a  theology  nearly  allied  to  deism. 
Rejecting  miracles  and  denying  the  infallibility  of  Scripture, 
protesting  against  Calvinistic  views  of  sovereign  grace  and  having 
no  interest  in  evangelical  Arminianism,  the  faith  of  such  inquirers 
seems  fairly  to  coincide  with  that  of  the  deists.  Even  some 
cultured  theologians,  the  historical  representatives  of  latitudina- 
rianism,  seem  to  accept  the  great  body  of  what  was  contended 
for  by  the  deists.  Moreover,  the  influence  of  the  deistic  writers 
had  an  incalculable  influence  in  the  gradual  progress  towards 
tolerance,  and  in  the  spread  of  a  broader  attitude  towards 
intellectual  problems,  and  this  too,  though,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
original  deists  devoted  themselves  mainly  to  a  crusade  against 
the  doctrine  of  revelation. 

The  original  deists  displayed  a  singular  incapacity  to  under- 
stand the  true  conditions  of  history;  yet  amongst  them  there 
were  some  who  pointed  the  way  to  the  truer,  more  generous 
interpretation  of  the  past.  When  Shaftesbury  wrote  that 
"  religion  is  still  a  discipline,  and  progress  of  the  soul  towards 
perfection,"  he  gave  birth  to  the  same  thought  that  was  after- 
wards hailed  in  Lessing's  Erzieftung  des  Menschengeschlechtes  as 
the  dawn  of  a  fuller  and  a  purer  light  on  the  history  of  religion 
and  on  the  development  of  the  spiritual  life  of  mankind. 

AUTHORITIES. — See  John  Leland,  A  View  of  the  Principal 
Deistical  Writers  (2  vols.,  1754-1756;  ed.  1837);  G.  V.  Lechler, 
Geschichte  des  englischen  Deismus  (2  vols.,  1841);  L.  Noack,  Die 
Freidenker  in  der  Religion  (Bern,  1853-1855);  John  Hunt,  Religious 
Thought  in  England  (3  vols.,  1870-1872);  Leslie  Stephen,  History 
of  English  Thought  in  the  i8th  Century  (2  vols.,  1876);  A.  S.  Farrar, 
A  Critical  History  of  Free  Thought  (1862,  Bampton  Lectures); 
J.  H.  Overton  and  F.  Relton,  The  English  Church  from  the  Accession 
of  George  I.  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  Century  (1906;  especially 
chap,  iv.,  "The  Answer  to  Deism");  A.  W.  Benn,  History  of 
English  Rationalism  in  the  lylh  Century  (1906);  i.  ill  ff. ; 
I.  M.  Robertson,  Short  History  of  Free  Thought  (1906);  G.  Ch. 
B.  Piinjer,  Geschichte  der  christlichen  Religtonsphilosophie  seit 
der  Reformation  (Brunswick,  1880);  M.  W.  Wiseman,  Dynamics 
of  Religion  (London,  1897),  pt.  ii. ;  article  "  Deismus"  in  Herzog- 
Hauck,  Realencyklopddie  (vol.  iv.,  1898). 

DEISTER,  a  chain  of  hills  in  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hanover,  about  ism.  S.W.  of  the  city  of  Hanover.  It  runs 
in  a  north-westerly  direction  from  Springe  in  the  S.  to  Roden- 
berg  in  the  N.  It  has  a  total  length  of  14  m.,  and  rises  in  the 
HSfeler  to  a  height  of  1250  ft.  The  chain  is  well-wooded  and 
abounds  in  game.  There  are  some  coal  mines  and  sandstone 
quarries. 


938 


DEJAZET— DEKKER,  J.  DE 


DEJAZET,  PAULINE  VIRGINIE  (1798-1875),  French  actress, 
born  in  Paris  on  the  3oth  of  Ausust  1798,  made  her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  at  the  age  of  five.  It  was  not  until  i8io,  when 
she  began  her  seven  years'  connexion  with  the  recently  founded 
Gymnase,  that  she  won  her  triumphs  in  soubrette  and  "  breeches" 
parts,  which  came  to  be  known  as  "  Dejazets."  From  1828  she 
played  at  the  Nouveautes  for  three  years,  then  at  the  Varietes, . 
and  finally  became  manager,  with  her  son,  of  the  Folies,  which 
was  renamed  the  Theatre  Dejazet.  Here,  even  at  the  age  of 
sixty-five,  she  had  marvellous  success  in  youthful  parts,  especially 
in  a  number  of  Sardou's  earlier  plays,  previously  unacted.  She 
retired  in  1868,  and  died  on  the  ist  of  December  1875,  leaving  a 
great  name  in  the  annals  of  the  French  stage. 

See  Duval's  Virginie  Dejazet  (1876). 

DE  KALB,  a  city  of  De  Kalb  county,  Illinois,  U.S.A.,  in  the  N. 
part  of  the  state,  about  58  m.  W.  of  Chicago.  Pop.  (1890)  2579; 
(1900)  5904  (1520  foreign-born);  (1910)  8102.  De  Kalb  is 
served  by  the  Chicago  Great  Western,  the  Chicago  &  North- 
Western,  and  the  Illinois,  Iowa  &  Minnesota  railways,  and  by 
interurban  electric  lines.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Northern  Illinois 
state  normal  school  (opened  in  1899).  The  principal  manu- 
factures of  De  Kalb  are  woven  and  barbed  wire,  waggons  and 
agricultural  implements,  pianos,  shoes,  gloves,  and  creamery 
packages.  The  city  has  important  dairy  interests  also.  De 
Kalb  was  first  settled  in  1832,  was  known  as  Buena  Vista  until 
7840,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1861,  and  in  1877  was 
organized  under  the  general  state  law  as  a  city. 

DE  KEYSER,  THOMAS  (1596  or  1597-1667),  Dutch  painter, 
was  born  at  Amsterdam,  the  son  of  the  architect  and  sculptor 
Hendrik  de  Keyser.  We  have  no  definite  knowledge  of  his 
training,  and  but  scant  information  as  to  the  course  of  his  life, 
though  it  is  known  that  he  owned  a  basalt  business  between  1640 
and  1654.  Aert  Pietersz,  Cornells  vanider  Voort,  Werner  van 
Valckert  and  Nicolas  Elias  are  accredited  by  different  author- 
ities with  having  developed  his  talent;  and  M.  Karl  Woermann, 
who  has  pronounced  in  favour  of  Nicolas  Elias  is  supported 
by  the  fact  that  almost  all  that  master's  pictures  were  formerly 
attributed  to  De  Keyser,  who,  in  like  fashion,  exercised  some 
influence  upon  Rembrandt  when  he  first  went  to  Amsterdam  in 
1 63 1 .  De  Keyser  chiefly  excelled  as  a  portrait  painter,  though  he 
also  executed  some  historical  and  mythological  pictures,  such 
as  the  "  Theseus  "  and  "  Ariadne  "  in  the  Amsterdam  town  hall. 
His  portraiture  is  full  of  character  and  masterly  in  handling, 
and  often,  as  in  the  "  Old  Woman  "  of  the  Budapest  gallery,  is 
distinguished  by  a  rich  golden  glow  of  colour  and  Rembrandt- 
esque  chiaroscuro.  Some  of  his  portraits  are  life-size,  but  the 
artist  generally  preferred  to  keep  them  on  a  considerably  smaller 
scale,  like  the  famous  "  Group  of  Amsterdam  Burgomasters  " 
assembled  to  receive  Marie  de' Medici  in  1638,  now  at  the  Hague 
museum.  The  sketch  for  this  important  painting,  together  with 
three  other  drawings,  was  sold  at  the  Gallitzin  sale  in  1783 
for  the  sum  of  threepence.  The  German  emperor  owns  an 
"  Equestrian  Portrait  of  a  young  Dutchman,"  by  De  Keyser, 
a  late  work  which  in  general  disposition  and  in  the  soft  manner 
of  painting  recalled  the  work  of  Cuyp.  Similar  pictures  are  in 
the  Dresden  and  Frankfort  museums,  in  the  Heyl  collection  at 
Worms,  and  the  Liechtenstein  Gallery  in  Vienna.  The  National 
Gallery,  London,  owns  a  characteristic  portrait  group  of  a 
"  Merchant  with  his  Clerk  ";  the  Hague  museum,  besides  the 
group  already  referred  to,  a  magnificent  "  Portrait  of  a  Savant," 
and  the  Haarlem  museum  a  fine  portrait  of  "  Claes  Fabricius." 
At  the  Ryks  Museum  in  Amsterdam  there  are  no  fewer  than 
twelve  works  from  his  brush,  and  other  important  examples 
are  to  be  found  in  Brussels,  Munich,  Copenhagen  and  St 
Petersburg. 

DEKKER,  EDWARD  DOUWES  (1820-1887),  Dutch  writer, 
commonly  known  as  MULTATULI,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  on  the 
2nd  of  March  1 8  20.  His  father,  a  ship's  captain ,  intended  his  son 
for  trade,  but  this  humdrum  prospect  disgusted  him,  and  in  1838 
he  went  out  to  Java,  and  obtained  a  post  in  the  Inland  Revenue. 
He  rose  from  one  position  to  another,  until,  in  1851,  he  found 
himslf  assistant-resident  at  Amboyna,  in  the  Moluccas.  In  1857 


be  was  transferred  to  Lebak,  in  the  Bantam  residency  of  Java. 
By  this  time,  however,  all  the  secrets  of  Dutch  administration 
were  known  to  him,  and  he  had  begun  to  protest  against  the 
abuses  of  the  colonial  system.  In  consequence  he  was  threatened 
with  dismissal  from  his  office  for  his  openness  of  speech,  and, 
throwing  up  his  appointment,  he  returned  to  Holland  in  a  state  of 
fierce  indignation.  He  determined  to  expose  in  detail  the  scandals 
he  had  witnessed,  and  he  began  to  do  so  in  newspaper  articles  and 
pamphlets.  Little  notice,  however,  was  taken  of  his  protestations 
until,  in  1860,  he'piiblished,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Multatuli," 
his  romance  entitled  Max  Havelaar.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
ignore  this  brilliant  and  irregular  book,  but  hi  vain;  it  was  read 
all  over  Europe.  The  exposure  of  the  abuse  of  free  labour  in  the 
Dutch  Indies  was  complete,  although  there  were  not  wanting 
apologists  who  accused  Dekker's  terrible  picture  of  being  over- 
coloured.  He  was  now  fairly  launched  on  literature,  and  he  lost 
no  time  in  publishing  Love  Letters  (1861),  which,  in  spite  of  their 
mild  title,  proved  to  be  mordant  satires  of  the  most  rancorous 
and  unsparing  kind.  The  literary  merit  of  Multatuli's  work  was 
much  contested;  he  received  an  unexpected  and  most  valuable 
ally  in  Vosmaer.  He  continued  to  write  much,  and  to  faggot 
his  miscellanies  in  uniform  volumes  called  Ideas,  of  which  seven 
appeared  between  1862  and  1877.  Douwes  quitted  Holland, 
shaking  off  her  dust  from  his  feet,  and  went  to  live  at  Wiesbaden. 
He  now  made  several  attempts  to  gain  the  stage,  and  one  of  his 
pieces,  The  School  for  Princes,  1875  (published  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  Ideas),  pleased  himself  so  highly  that  he  is  said  to  have 
styled  it  the  greatest  drama  ever  written.  It  is  a  fine  poem, 
written  in  blank  verse,  like  an  English  tragedy,  and  not  in  Dutch 
Alexandrines;  but  it  is  undramatic,  and  has  not  held  the  boards. 
Douwes  Dekker  moved  his  residence  to  Nieder  Ingelheim,  on  the 
Rhine,  and  there  he  died  on  the  igth  of  February  1887. 

Towards  the  end  of  his  career  he  was  the  centre  of  a  crowd 
of  disciples  and  imitators,  who  did  his  reputation  no  service; 
he  is  now,  again,  in  danger  of  being  read  too  little.  To  under- 
stand his  fame,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  the  sensational  way 
in  which  he  broke  into  the  dulness  of  Dutch  literature  fifty  years 
ago,  like  a  flame  out  of  the  Far  East.  He  was  ardent,  provo- 
cative, perhaps  a  little  hysterical,  but  he  made  himelf  heard 
all  over  Europe.  He  brought  an  exceedingly  severe  indictment 
against  the  egotism  and  brutality  of  the  administrators  of  Dutch 
India,  and  he  framed  it  in  a  literary  form  which  was  brilliantly 
original.  Not  satisfied  with  this,  he  attacked,  in  a  fury  that 
was  sometimes  blind,  everything  that  seemed  to  him  falsely 
conventional  in  Dutch  religion,  government,  society  and  morals. 
He  respected  nothing,  he  left  no  institution  untouched.  Now 
that  it  is  possible  to  look  back  upon  Multatuli  without  passion, 
we  see  in  him,  not  what  Dutch  enthusiasm  saw, — "  the  second 
writer  of  Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century  "  (Victor  Hugo  being 
presumably  the  first), — but  a  great  man  who  was  a  powerful 
and  glowing  author,  yet  hardly  an  artist,  a  reckless  enthusiast, 
who  was  inspired  by  indignation  and  a  burning  sense  of  justice, 
who  cared  little  for  his  means  if  only  he  could  produce  his  effect. 
He  is  seen  to  his  best  and  worst  in  Max  Havelaar;  bis  Ideas,  hard, 
fantastic  and  sardonic,  seldom  offer  any  solid  satisfaction  to  the 
foreign  reader.  But  Multatuli  deserves  remembrance,  if  only  on 
account  of  the  unequalled  effect  his  writing  had  in  rousing  Holland 
from  the  intellectual  and  moral  lethargy  in  which  she  lay  half  a 
century  ago.  (E.  G.) 

DEKKER,  JEREMIAS  DE  (1610-1666),  Dutch  poet,  was  born 
at  Dort  in  1610.  His  father  was  a  native  of  Antwerp,  who, 
having  embraced  the  reformed  religion,  had  been  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  Holland.  Entering  his  father's  business  at  an 
early  age,  he  found  leisure  to  cultivate  his  taste  for  literature 
and  especially  for  poetry,  and  to  acquire  without  assistance  a 
competent  knowledge  of  Engh'sh,  French,  Latin  and  Italian. 
His  first  poem  was  a  paraphrase  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah 
(Klaagliedern  van  Jeremias),  which  was  followed  by  translations 
and  imitations  of  Horace,  Juvenal  and  other  Latin  poets.  The 
most  important  of  his  original  poems  were  a  collection  of  epigrams 
(Puntdichten)  and  a  satire  in  praise  of  avarice  (Lof  der  Geldzuchf). 
The  latter  is  his  best- known  work.  Written  in  a  vein  of  light  and 


DEKKER,  THOMAS 


939 


yet  effective  irony,  it  is  usually  ranked  by  critics  along  with 
Erasmus's  Praise  of  Folly.  Dekker  died  at  Amsterdam  in 
November  1666. 

A  complete  collection  of  his  poems,  edited  by  Brouerius  van 
Nideck,  was  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1726  under  the  title 
Exercices  poetiques  (2  vols.  410.)-  Selections  from  his  poems  are 
included  in  Siegenbeck's  Proeven  van  nederduitsche  Dichtkunde  (1823), 
and  from  his  epigrams  in  Geijsbeek's  Epigrammatische  Anthologie 
(1827). 

DEKKER  (or  DECKER),  THOMAS  (c.  1570-1641),  English 
dramatist,  was  born  in  London.  His  name  occurs  frequently  in 
Henslowe's  Diary  during  the  last  three  years  of  the  i6th  century; 
he  is.mentioned  there  as  receiving  loans  and  payments  for  writing 
plays  in  conjunction  with  Ben  Jonson,  Drayton,  Chettle, 
Haughton,  Wilson,  Day  and  others,  and  he  would  appear  to 
have  been  then  in  the  most  active  employment  as  a  playwright. 
The  titles  of  the  plays  on  which  he  was  engaged  from  April  1599 
to  March  1599/1600  are  Troilus  and  Cressida,  Orestes  Fures, 
Agamemnon,  The  Gentle  Craft,  The  Stepmother's  Tragedy,  Bear  a 
Brain,  Pagge  of  Plymouth,  Robert  the  Second,  The  Whole  History  of 
Fortunatus,  Patient  Grissel,  Truth's  Supplication  to  Candlelight, 
The  Spanish  Moor's  Tragedy,  The  Seven  Wise  Masters.  At  that 
date  it  is  evident  that  Dekker's  services  were  in  great  request  for 
the  stage.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Diary  under  date  8th  of 
January  1597/1598,  as  having  sold  a  book,  i.e.  the  manuscript  of 
a  play;  the  payments  in  1599  are  generally  made  in  advance,  "  in 
earnest  "  of  work  to  be  done.  In  the  case  of  three  of  the  above 
plays,  Orestes  Fures,  Truth's  Supplication  and  The  Gentle  Craft, 
Dekker  is  paid  as  the  sole  author.  Only  The  Gentle  Craft  has  been 
preserved;  it  was  published  anonymously  in  1600  under  the  title 
of  The  Shoemaker's  Holiday.  It  would  be  unsafe  to  argue  from 
the  classical  subjects  of  some  of  these  plays  that  Dekker  was  then 
a  young  man  from  the  university,  who  had  come  up  like  so  many 
others  to  make  a  living  by  writing  for  the  stage.  Classical  know- 
ledge was  then  in  the  air;  playwrights  in  want  of  a  subject  were 
content  with  translations,  if  they  did  not  know  the  originals. 
However  educated,  Dekker  was  then  a  young  man  just  out  of  his 
teens,  if  he  spoke  with  any  accuracy  when  he  said  that  he  was 
threescore  in  1637.  And  it  was  not  in  scholarly  themes  that  he 
was  destined  to  find  his  true  vein.  The  call  for  the  publication 
of  The  Gentle  Craft,  which  deals  with  the  life  of  the  city,  showed 
him  where  his  strength  lay. 

To  give  a  general  idea  of  the  substance  of  Dekker's  plays,  there 
is  no  better  way  than  to  call  him  the  Dickens  of  the  Elizabethan 
period.  The  two  men  were  as  unlike  as  possible  in  their  habits 
of  work,  Dekker  having  apparently  all  the  thriftlessness  and 
impecunious  shamelessness  of  Micawber  himself.  Henslowe's 
Diary  contains  two  notes  of  payments  made  in  1597/1598  and 
1598/1599  to  release  Dekker  from  prison,  and  he  is  supposed  to 
have  spent  the  years  between  1613  and  1616  in  the  King's  Bench. 
Dekker's  Bohemianism  appears  in  the  slightness  and  hurry  of  his 
work,  a  strong  contrast  to  the  thoroughness  and  rich  completeness 
of  every  labour  to  which  Dickens  applied  himself;  perhaps  also  in 
the  exquisite  freshness  and  sweetness  of  his  songs,  and  the  natural 
charm  of  stray  touches  of  expression  and  description  in  his  plays. 
But  he  was  like  Dickens  in  the  bent  of  his  genius  towards  the 
representation  of  the  life  around  him  in  London,  as  well  as  in  the 
humorous  kindliness  of  his  way  of  looking  at  that  life,  his  vein  of 
sentiment,  and  his  eye  for  odd  characters,  though  the  random 
pickings  of  Dekker,  hopping  here  and  there  in  search  of  a  subject, 
give  less  complete  results  than  the  more  systematic  labours  of 
Dickens.  Dekker's  Simon  Eyre,  the  good-hearted,  mad  shoe- 
maker, and  his  Orlando  Friscobaldo,  are  touched  with  a  kindly 
humour  in  whidi  Dickens  would  have  delighted;  his  Infelices, 
Fiamettas,  Tormiellas,  even  his  Bellaf  ront,  have  a  certain  likeness 
in  type  to  the  heroines  of  Dickens;  and  his  roaring  blades  and 
their  gulls  are  prototypes  of  Sir  Mulberry  Hawk  and  Lord 
Frederick  Verisopht.  Only  there  is  this  great  difference  in  the 
spirit  of  the  two  writers,  that  Dekker  wrote  without  the  smallest 
apparent  wish  to  reform  the  life  that  he  saw,  desiring  only  to 
exhibit  it;  and  that  on  the  whole,  apart  from  his  dramatist's 
necessity  of  finding  interesting  matter,  he  cast  his  eye  about 
rather  with  a  liking  for  the  discovery  of  good  under  unpromising 


appearances  than  with  any  determination  to  detect  and  expose 
vice.  The  observation  must  also  be  made  that  Dekker's  person- 
ages have  much  more  individual  character,  more  of  that  mixture 
of  good  and  evil  which  we  find  in  real  human  beings.  Hack- 
writer though  Dekker  was,  and  writing  often  under  sore  pressure, 
there  is  no  dramatist  whose  personages  have  more  of  the  breath  of 
life  in  them;  drawing  with  easy,  unconstrained  hand,  he  was  a 
master  of  those  touches  by  which  an  imaginary  figure  is  brought 
home  to  us  as  a  creature  with  human  interests.  A  very  large  part 
of  the  motive  power  in  his  plays  consists  in  the  temporary  yielding 
to  an  evil  passion.  The  kindly  philosophy  that  the  best  of  natures 
may  be  for  a  time  perverted  by  passionate  desires  is  the  chief 
animating  principle  of  his  comedy.  He  delights  in  showing 
women  listening  to  temptation,  and  apparently  yielding,  but  still 
retaining  sufficient  control  over  themselves  to  be  capable  of 
drawing  back  when  on  the  verge  of  the  precipice.  The  wives  of 
the  citizens  were  his  heroines,  pursued  by  the  unlawful  addresses 
of  the  gay  young  courtiers;  and  on  the  whole  Dekker,  from 
inclination  apparently  as  well  as  policy,  though  himself,  if  Ben 
Jonson 's  satire  had  any  point,  a  bit  of  a  dandy  in  his  youth,  took 
the  part  of  morality  and  the  city,  and  either  struck  the  rakes  with 
remorse  or  made  the  objects  of  their  machinations  clever  enough 
to  outwit  them.  From  Dekker's  plays  we  get  a  very  lively 
impression  of  all  that  was  picturesque  and  theatrically  interesting 
in  the  city  life  of  the  time,  the  interiors  of  the  shops  and  the 
houses,  the  tastes  of  the  citizens  and  their  wives,  the  tavern 
and  tobacco-shop  manners  of  the  youthful  aristocracy  and  their 
satellites.  The  social  student  cannot  afford  to  overlook  Dekker; 
there  is  no  other  dramatist  of  that  age,  except  Thomas  Middleton, 
from  whom  we  can  get  such  a  vivid  picture  of  contemporary 
manners  in  London.  He  drew  direct  from  life;  in  so  far  as  he 
idealized,  he  did  so  not  in  obedience  to  scholarly  precepts  or 
dogmatic  theories,  but  in  the  immediate  interests  of  good-natured 
farce  and  tender-hearted  sentiment. 

In  all  the  serious  parts  of  Dekker's  plays  there  is  a  charming 
delicacy  of  touch,  and  his  smallest  scraps  of  song  are  bewitching; 
but  his  plays,  as  plays,  owe  much  more  to  the  interest  of  the 
characters  and  the  incidents  than  to  any  excellence  of  construc- 
tion. We  see  what  use  could  be  made  of  his  materials  by  a 
stronger  intellect  in  Westward  Ho  1  which  he  wrote  in  conjunction 
with  John  Webster.  The  play,  somehow,  though  the  parts  are 
more  firmly  knit  together,  and  it  has  more  unity  of  purpose,  is  not 
so  interesting  as  Dekker's  unaided  work.  Middleton  formed  a 
more  successful  combination  with  Dekker  than  Webster;  there 
is  some  evidence  that  in  The  Honest  Whore,  or  The  Converted 
Courtesan,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  the  best  that  bears 
Dekker's  name,  he  had  the  assistance  of  Middleton,  although  the 
assistance  was  so  immaterial  as  not  to  be  worth  acknowledging 
in  the  title-page.  Still  that  Middleton,  a  man  of  little  genius  but 
of  much  practical  talent  and  robust  humour,  was  serviceable  to 
Dekker  in  determining  the  form  of  the  play  may  well  be  believed. 
The  two  wrote  another  play  in  concert,  The  Roaring  Girl,  for 
which  Middleton  probably  contributed  a  good  deal  of  the  matter, 
as  well  as  a  more  symmetrical  form  than  Dekker  seems  to  have 
been  capable  of  devising.  In  The  Witch  of  Edmonton,  except  in 
a  few  scenes,  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the.  hand  of  Dekker  with 
any  certainty;  his  collaborators  were  John  Ford  and  William 
Rowley;  to  Ford  probably  belongs  the  intense  brooding  and 
murderous  wrath  of  the  old  hag,  which  are  too  direct  and  hard 
in  their  energy  for  Dekker,  while  Rowley  may  be  supposed  to 
be  responsible  for  the  delineation  of  country  life.  The  Virgin 
Martyr,  one  of  the  best  constructed  of  his  plays,  was  written  in 
conjunction  with  Massinger,  to  whom  the  form  is  no  doubt  due. 
Dekker's  plays  contain  a  few  songs  which  show  him  to  have  been 
possessed  of  very  great  lyrical  skill,  but  of  this  he  seems  to  have 
made  sadly  little  use.  His  poem  of  Canaans  Calamitie — if  indeed 
it  be  his,  which  is  hard  to  believe — is  exceedingly  poor  stuff,  and 
the  verse  portion  of  his  Dreame,  though  containing  some  good 
lines,  is,  as  a  whole,  not  much  better. 

When  Gerard  Langbaine  wrote  his  Account  of  the  English 
Dramatic  Poets  in  1691,  he  spoke  of  Dekker  as  being  "more 
famous  for  the  contention  he  had  with  Ben  Jonson  for  the  bays, 


940 


DE  LA  BECHE 


than  for  any  great  reputation  he  had  gained  by  his  own  writings." 
This  is  an  opinion  that  could  not  be  professed  now,  when  Dekker's 
work  is  read.  In  the  contention  with  Ben  Jonson,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  quarrels  of  authors,  the  origin  of  which  is  matter  of 
dispute,  Dekker  seems  to  have  had  very  much  the  best  of  it.  We 
can  imagine  that  Jonson's  attack  was  stinging  at  the  time,  because 
it  seems  to  be  full  of  sarcastic  personalities,  but  it  is  dull  enough 
now  when  nobody  knows  what  Dekker  was  like,  nor  what  was 
the  character  of  his  mother.  There  is  nothing  in  the  Poetaster 
that  has  any  point  as  applied  to  Dekker's  powers  as  a  dramatist, 
while,  on  the  contrary,  Satiromastix,  or  the  Untrussing  of  the 
Humorous  Poet  is  full  of  pungent  ridicule  of  Jonson's  style,  and  of 
retorts  and  insults  conceived  in  the  happiest  spirit  of  good- 
natured  mockery.  Dekker  has  been  accused  of  poverty  of 
invention  in  adopting  the  character  of  the  Poetaster,  but  it  is 
of  the  very  pith  of  the  jest  that  Dekker  should  have  set  on 
Jonson's  own  foul-mouthed  Captain  Tucca  to  abuse  Horace 
himself. 

WORKS.— The  Pleasant  Comedie  of  Old  Fortunatus  (1600);  The 
Shomakers  Holiday.  Or  The  gentle  Craft.  With  the  humorous  life  of 
Simon  Eyre,  shoemaker,  and  Lord  Maior  of  London  (1600);  Satiro- 
mastix. Or  The  untrussing  of  the  Humorous  Poet  (1602);  The 
Pleasant  Comodie  of  Patient  Grissill  (1603),  with  Chettle  and 
Haughton;  The  Honest  Whore.  With  The  Humours  of  the  Patient 
Man,  and  the  Longing  Wife  (1604);  North-Ward  Hoe  (1607),  with 
John  Webster;  West-Ward  Hoe  (1607),  with  John  Webster;  The 
Whore  of  Babylon  (1607) ;  The  Famous  History  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyat. 
With  the  Coronation  of  Queen  Mary,  and  the  coming  in  of  King  Philip 
(1607),  with  John  Webster;  The  Roaring  Girle.  Or  Moll  Cut-Purse 
(1611),  with  Thomas  Middleton;  The  Virgin  Martir  (1622),  with 
Massinger;  //  It  Be  Not  Good,  the  Divel  is  in  it  (1612);  The  Second 
Part  of  the  Honest  Whore.  With  the  Humors  of  the  Patient  Man,  the 
Impatient  Wife;  the  Honest  Whore,  perswaded  by  strong  Arguments  to 
turne  Curtizan  againe;  her  brave  refuting  those  Arguments.  And 
lastly,  the  Comicall  Passages  of  an  Italian  Bridewell,  where  the  Scaene 
ends  (1630);  A  Tragi- Comedy:  Called,  Match  mee  in  London  (1631) ; 
The  Wonder  of  a  Kingdome  (1636);  The  Witch  of  Edmonton.  ^A 
known  true  Story.  Composed  into  a  Tragi-Comedy  (1658),  with 
William  Rowley  and  John  Ford.  The  Sun's  Darling  (1656)  was 
possibly  written  by  Ford  and  Dekker,  or  may  be  perhaps  more 
correctly  regarded  as  a  recast  by  Ford  of  a  masque  by  Dekker, 
perhaps  his  lost  play  of  Phaeton.  The  pageants  for  the  Lord  Mayor's 
shows  of  1612  and  1629  were  written  by  Dekker,  and  both  are 
preserved.  His  tracts  are  invaluable  for  the  light  which  they  throw  on 
the  London  of  his  time,  especially  in  their  descriptions  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  theatre.  Their  titles,  many  of  which  are  necessarily 
abbreviated,  are:  Canaans  Calamitie,  Jerusalem!  Miserie,  and 
Englands  Mirror  (1598),  in  verse;  The  Wonderfull  Yeare  1603. 
Wherein  is  shewed  the  picture  of  London  lying  sicke  of  the  Plague 
(1603);  The  Batchelars  Banquet  (1603);  a  brilliant  adaptation  of 
Les  Quinze  Joyes  de  manage;  the  Seven  Deadly  Sinnes  of  London 
(1606);  Newes  from  Hell,  Brought  by  the  Dwells  Carrier  (1606), 
reprinted  in  the  next  year  with  some  interesting  additions  as 
A  Knights  Conjuring;  Jests  to  make  you  Merie  (1607),  with  George 
Wilkins;  The  Belman  of  London:  Bringing  to  Light  the  most 
notorious  villanies  that  are  now  practised  in  the  Kingdome  (1608); 
followed  by  a  second  part  and  enlarged  editions  under  other  titles; 
The  Dead  Tearme  (1608) ;  The  Ravens  Almanacke,  foretelling  of  a 
Plague,  Famine  and  Civttl  Warre  (1609),  ridiculing  the  almanac 
makers;  The  Guls  Horne-booke  (1609),  the  most  famous  of  all  his 
tracts,  providing  a  code  of  manners  for  the  Elizabethan  gallant,  in 
the  aisle  of  St  Paul's,  at  the  ordinary,  at  the  playhouse,  and  other 
resorts;  Worke  for  Armor  ours,  or  the  Peace  is  Broken  (1609);  Foure 
Birds  of  Noahs  Ark  (1609);  A  Strange  Horse-Race  (1613);  Dekker 
hisDreame  .  .  .  (1620),  in  verse  and  prose,  illustrated  with  a  wood- 
cut of  the  dreamer;  and  A  Rod  for  Run-awayes  (1625).  This  long 
list  does  not  exhaust  Dekker's  work,  much  of  which  is  lost. 

AUTHORITIES. — An  edition  of  the  collected  dramatic  works  of 
Dekker  by  R.  H.  Shepherd  appeared  in  1873;  his  prose  tracts  and 
poems  were  included  in  Dr  A.  B.  Grosart's  Huth  Library  (1884-1886) : 
both  these  contain  memoirs  of  him,  but  by  far  the  most  complete 
account  of  his  life  and  writings  is  to  be  found  in  the  article  by 
A.  H.  Bullen  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  See  also 
the  elaborate  discussion  of  his  plays  in  Mr  Fleay  s  Biographical 
Chronicle  (1891),  i.  115,  &c.,  and,  for  his  quarrel  with  Ben  Jonson, 
Prof.  J.  H.  Penniman's  War  of  the  Theatres  (Boston,  1897)  and 
Mr  R.  A.  Small's  Stage  Quarrel  between  Ben  Jonson  and  the  so- 
called  Poetasters  (Breslau,  1899).  A  selection  from  his  plays  was 
edited  for  the  Mermaid  Series  (1887;  new  series,  1904)  by  Ernest 
Rhys.  An  essay  on  Dekker  by  A.  C.  Swinburne  appeared  in  The 
Nineteenth  Century  for  January  1887.  (W.  M.;  R.  B.  McK.) 

DE  LA  BECHE,  SIR  HENRY  THOMAS  (1796-1855),  English 
geologist,  was  born  in  the  year  1796.  His  father,  an  officer  in  the 
army,  possessed  landed  property  in  Jamaica,  but  died  while  his 


son  was  still  young.  The  boy  accordingly  spent  his  youth  with 
his  mother  at  Lyme  Regis  among  the  interesting  and  picturesque 
coast  cliffs  of  the  south-west  of  England,  where  he  imbibed  a  love 
for  geological  pursuits  and  cultivated  a  marked  artistic  faculty. 
When  fourteen  years  of  age,  being  destined,  like  his  friend 
Murchison,  for  the  military  profession,  he  entered  the  college  at 
Great  Marlow,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  rapidity  and 
skill  with  which  he  executed  sketches  showing  the  salient  features 
of  a  district.  The  peace  of  1815,  however,  changed  his  career  and 
he  devoted  himself  with  ever-increasing  assiduity  to  the  pursuit 
of  geology.  When  only  twenty-one  years  of  age  he  joined  the 
Geological  Society  of  London,  continuing  throughout  life  to  be 
one  of  its  most  active,  useful  and  honoured  members.  He  was 
president  in  1848-1849.  Possessing  a  fortune  sufficient  for  the 
gratification  of  his  tastes,  he  visited  many  localities  of  geological 
interest,  not  only  in  Britain,  but  also  on  the  continent,  in  France 
and  Switzerland.  His  journeys  seldom  failed  to  bear  fruit  in 
suggestive  papers  accompanied  by  sketches.  Early  attachment 
to  the  south-west  of  England  led  him  back  to  that  region,  where, 
with  enlarged  experience,  he  began  the  detailed  investigation  of 
the  rocks  of  Cornwall  and  Devon.  Thrown  much  into  contact  with 
the  mining  community  of  that  part  of  the  country,  he  conceived 
the  idea  that  the  nation  ought  to  compile  a  geological  map  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  collect  and  preserve  specimens  to  illustrate, 
and  aid  in  further  developing,  its  mineral  industries.  He  showed 
his  skilful  management  of  affairs  by  inducing  the  government  of 
the  day  to  recognize  his  work  and  give  him  an  appointment  in 
connexion  with  the  Ordnance  Survey.  This  formed  the  starting 
point  of  the  present  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  which 
was  officially  recognized  in  1835,  when  De  la  Beche  was  appointed 
director.  Year  by  year  increasing  stores  of  valuable  specimens 
were  transmitted  to  London;  and  the  building  at  Craig's  Court, 
where  the  young  Museum  of  Economic  Geology  was  placed, 
became  too  small.  But  De  la  Beche,  having  seen  how  fruitful  his 
first  idea  had  become,  appealed  to  the  authorities  not  merely  to 
provide  a  larger  structure,  but  to  widen  the  whole  scope  of  the 
scientific  establishment  of  which  he  was  the  head,  so  as  to  impart 
to  it  the  character  of  a  great  educational  institution  where 
practical  as  well  as  theoretical  instruction  should  be  given  in 
every  branch  of  science  necessary  for  the  conduct  of  mining  work. 
In  this  endeavour  he  was  again  successful.  Parliament  sanctioned 
the  erection  of  a  museum  in  Jermyn  Street,  London,  and  the 
organization  of  a  staff  of  professors  with  laboratories  and  other 
appliances.  The  establishment,  in  which  were  combined  the 
offices  of  the  Geological  Survey,  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology, 
The  Royal  School  of  Mines  and  the  Mining  Record  Office,  was 
opened  in  1851.  Many  foreign  countries  have  since  formed 
geological  surveys  avowedly  based  upon  the  organization  and 
experience  of  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  British  colonies, 
also,  have  in  many  instances  established  similar  surveys  for  the 
development  of  their  mineral  resources,  and  have  had  recourse 
to  the  parent  survey  for  advice  and  for  officers  to  conduct  the 
operations. 

De  la  Beche  published  numerous  memoirs  on  English  geology 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  as  well  as  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey,  notably  the  Report  on  the 
Geology  of  Cornwall,  Devon  and  West  Somerset  (1839).  He  like- 
wise wrote  A  Geological  Manual  (1831;  3rd  ed.,  1833);  and  a 
work  of  singular  breadth  and  clearness — Researches  in  Theoretical 
Geology  (1834) — in  which  he  enunciated  a  philosophical  treat- 
ment of  geological  questions  much  in  advance  of  his  time.  An 
early  volume,  How  to  Observe  Geology  (1835  and  1836),  was 
rewritten  and  enlarged  by  him  late  in  life,  and  'published  under 
the  title  of  The  Geological  Observer  (1851;  2nd  ed.,  1853).  It  was 
marked  by  wide  practical  experience,  multifarious  knowledge, 
philosophical  insight  and  a  genius  for  artistic  delineation  of 
geological  phenomena.  He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1819.  He 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  1848,  and  near  the  close  of 
his  life  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal— -the  highest  honour 
in  the  gift  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  After  a  We  of 
constant  activity  he  began  to  suffer  from  partial  paralysis,  but, 
though  becoming  gradually  worse,  continued  able  to  transact 


DELABORDE— DE  LA  GARDIE 


94 i 


his  official  business  until  a  few  days  before  his  death,  which 
took  place  on  the  I3th  of  April  1855. 

See  Sir  A.  Geikie's  Memoir  of  Sir  A.  C.  Ramsay  (1895),  which 
contains  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  of 
the  life  of  De  la  Beche  (with  portrait) ;  also  Summary  of  Progress  of 
the  Geological  Survey  for  1897  (1898). 

DELABORDE,  HENRI  FRANCOIS,  COUNT  (1764-1833), 
French  soldier,  was  the  son  of  a  baker  of  Dijon.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution  he  joined  the  "  Volunteers  of  the 
Cote-d'Or,"  and  passing  rapidly  through  all  the  junior  grades, 
was  made  general  of  brigade  after  the  combat  of  Rhein-Zabern 
( !  793)  •  As  chief  of  the  staff  he  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Toulon 
in  the  same  year,  and,  promoted  general  of  division,  he  was  for 
a  time  governor  of  Corsica.  In  1794  Delaborde  served  on  the 
Spanish  frontier,  distinguishing  himself  at  the  Bidassoa  (July  25) 
and  Misquiriz  (October  16).  His  next  command  was  on  the 
Rhine.  At  the  head  of  a  division  he  took  part  in  the  cele- 
brated campaigns  of  1795-97,  and  in  1796  covered  Moreau's 
right  when  that  general  invaded  Bavaria.  Delaborde  was  in 
constant  military  employment  during  the  Consulate  and  the 
early  Empire.  Made  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in 
1804,  he  received  the  dignity  of  count  in  1808.  In  that  year 
he  was  serving  in  Portugal  under  Junot.  Against  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley's  English  army  he  fought  the  skilful  and  brilliant 
rear-guard  action  of  Rolica.  In  1812  he  was  one  of  Mortier's 
divisional  leaders  in  the  Russian  War,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  grand  cross  and  governor  of  the  castle  of  Compiegne. 
Joining  Napoleon  in  the  Hundred  Days,  he  was  marked  for 
punishment  by  the  returning  Bourbons,  sent  before  a  court- 
martial,  and  only  escaped  condemnation  through  a  technical 
flaw  in  the  wording  of  the  charge.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  retirement. 

DELACROIX,  FERDINAND  VICTOR  EUGENE  (1798-1863), 
French  historical  painter,  leader  of  the  Romantic  movement, 
was  born  at  Charenton-St-Maurice,  near  Paris,  on  the  26th  of 
April  1798.  His  father  Charles  Delacroix  (1741-1805)  was  a 
partisan  of  the  most  violent  faction  during  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  was  foreign  minister  under  the  Directory.  The  family 
affairs  seem  to  have  been  conducted  in  the  wildest  manner,  and 
the  accidents  that  befell  the  child,  well  authenticated  as  they  are 
said  to  be,  make  it  almost  a  miracle  that  he  survived.  He  was 
first  nearly  burned  to  death  in  the  cradle  by  a  nurse  falling  asleep 
over  a  novel  and  the  candle  dropping  on  the  coverlet;  this  left 
permanent  marks  on  his  arms  and  face.  He  was  next  dropped 
into  the  sea  by  another  bonne,  who  was  climbing  up  a  ship's  side 
to  see  her  lover.  He  was  nearly  poisoned,  and  nearly  choked, 
and,  to  crown  all,  he  tried  to  hang  himself,  without  any  thought  of 
suicide,  in  imitation  of  a  print  exhibiting  a  man  in  that  position 
of  final  ignominy.  The  prediction  of  a  charlatan  founded  on  his 
horoscope  has  been  preserved:  "  Get  enfant  deviendra  un 
homme  celebre,  mais  sa  vie  sera  des  plus  laborieuses,  des  plus 
tourmentees,  et  toujours  livree  a  la  contradiction." 

Delacroix  the  elder  (also  known  as  Delacroix  de  Contaut) 
died  at  Bordeaux  when  Eugene  was  seven  years  of  age,  and  his 
mother  returned  to  Paris  and  placed  him  in  the  Lycee  Napoleon. 
Afterwards,  on  his  determining  to  be  a  painter,  he  entered  the 
atelier-oi  Baron  Guerin,  who  affected  to  treat  him  as  an  amateur. 
His  fellow-pupil  was  Ary  Scheffer,  who  was  alike  by  tempera- 
ment and  antecedents  the  opposite  of  the  bizarre  Delacroix,  and 
the  two  remained  antagonistic  to  the  end  of  life.  Delacroix's 
acknowledged  power  and  yet  want  of  success  with  artists  and 
critics — Thiers  being  his  only  advocate — perhaps  mainly  resulted 
from  his  bravura  and  rude  dash  in  the  use  of  the  brush,  at  a 
time  when  smooth  roundness  of  surface  was  general.  His  first 
important  picture,  "  Dante  and  Virgil,  "  was  painted  in  his  own 
studio;  and  when  Guerin  went  to  see  it  he  flew  into  a  passion, 
and  told  him  his  picture  was  absurd,  detestable,  exaggerated. 
"  Why  ask  me  to  come  and  see  this?  you  knew  what  I  must 
say."  Yet  his  work  was  received  at  the  Salon,  and  produced  an 
enthusiasm  of  debate  (1822).  Some  said  Gericault  had  worked 
on  it,  but  all  treated  it  with  respect.  Still  in  private  his  position, 
even  after  the  larger  tragic  picture,  the  "  Massacre  of  Chios,"  had 


been  deposited  in  the  Luxembourg  by  the  government  (1824), 
became  that  of  an  Ishmaelite,  The  war  for  the  freedom  of  Greece 
then  going  on  moved  him  deeply,  and  his  next  two  pictures — 
"  Marino  Faliero  Decapitated  on  the  Giant's  Staircase  of  the 
Ducal  Palace  "  (wMch  has  always  remained  a  European  success), 
and  "  Greece  Lamenting  on  the  Ruins  of  Missolonghi  " — with 
many  smaller  works,  were  exhibited  for  the  benefit  of  the 
patriots  in  1826.  This  exhibition  was  much  visited  by  the  public, 
and  next  year  he  produced  another  of  his  important  works, 
"  Sardanapalus,"  from  Byron's  drama.  After  this,  he  says,  "  I 
became  the  abomination  of  painting,  I  was  refused  water  and 
salt," — but,  he  adds  with  singularly  happy  naivete,  "  J'etais 
enchante  de  moi-me'me!"  The  patrimony  he  inherited,  or 
perhaps  it  should  be  said,  what  remained  of  it,  was  10,000  limes 
de  rente,  and  with  economy  he  lived  on  this,  and  continued  the 
expensive  process  of  painting  large  historical  pictures.  In  1831 
he  reappeared  in  the  Salon  with  six  works,  and  immediately 
after  left  for  Morocco,  where  he  found  much  congenial  matter. 
Delacroix  never  went  to  Italy;  he  refused  to  go  on  principle, 
lest  the  old  masters,  either  in  spirit  or  manner,  should  impair 
his  originality  and  self-dependence.  His  greatest  admiration  in 
literature  was  the  poetry  of  Byron;  Shakespeare  also  attracted 
him  for  tragic  inspirations;  and  of  course  classic  subjects  had 
their  turn  of  his  easel. 

He  continued  his  work  indefatigably,  having  his  pictures  very 
seldom  favourably  received  at  the  Salon.  These  were  sometimes 
very  large,  full  of  incidents,  with  many  figures.  "  Drawing  of 
Lots  in  the  Boat  at  Sea,"  from  Byron's  Don  Juan,  and  the 
"  Taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Christians  "  were  of  that 
character,  and  the  former  was  one  of  his  noblest  creations.  In 
1845  he  was  employed  to  decorate  the  library  of  the  Luxembourg, 
that  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  1847,  the  ceiling  of  the  gallery 
of  Apollo  in  the  Louvre  in  1849  and  that  of  the  Salon  de  la  Paix 
in  the  hotel  de  ville  in  1853.  He  died  on  the  I3th  of  August  1863, 
and  in  August  1864  an  exhibition  of  his  works  was  opened  on 
the  Boulevard  des  Italiens.  It  contained  174  pictures,  many  of 
them  of  large  dimensions,  and  303  drawings,  showing  immense 
perseverance  as  well  as  energy  and  versatility.  As  a  colourist, 
and  a  romantic  painter,  he  now  ranks  among  the  greatest  of 
French  artists. 

See  also  A.  Robaut,  Delacroix  (1885) ;  E.  Dargenty,  Delacroix  par 
lui-meme  (1885) ;  G.  Moreau,  Delacroix  et  son  <ewre  (1893) ;  Dorothy 
Bussy,  Eugene  Delacroix  (1907). 

DE  LA  GARDIE,  MAGNUS  GABRIEL,  COUNT  (1622-1686), 
Swedish  statesman,  the  best-known  member  of  an  ancient  family 
of  French  origin  (the  D'Escouperies  of  Languedoc)  which  had 
been  settled  in  Sweden  since  the  I4th  century.  After  a  careful 
education,  completed  by  the  usual  grand  tour,  Magnus  learned 
the  art  of  war  under  Gustavus  Horn,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Christina  (1644-1654),  whose  prime  favourite  he  became,  though 
the  liaison  was  innocent  enough,  he  was  raised  to  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state  and  loaded  with  distinctions.  In  1646  he  was 
sent  at  the  head  of  an  extraordinary  mission  to  France,  and  on  his 
return  married  the  queen's  cousin  Marie  Euphrosyne  of  Zwei- 
brucken,  who,  being  but  a  poor  princess,  benefited  greatly  by  her 
wedding  with  the  richest  of  the  Swedish  magnates.  Immediately 
afterwards,  De  la  Gardie  was  made  a  senator,  governor-general  of 
Saxony  during  the  last  stages  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and,  in 
1652,  lord  high  treasurer.  In  1653  he  fell  into  disgrace  and  had 
to  withdraw  from  court.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  X.  (1654- 
1660)  he  was  employed  in  the  Baltic  provinces  both  as  a  civilian 
and  a  soldier,  although  in  the  latter  capacity  he  gave  the  martial 
king  but  little  satisfaction.  Charles  X.  nevertheless,  in  his  last 
will,  appointed  De  la  Gardie  grand-chancellor  and  a  member  of 
the  council  of  regency  which  ruled  Sweden  during  the  minority 
of  CharlesXI.  (1660-1672).  During  this  period  De  la  Gardie  was 
the  ruling  spirit  of  the  government  and  represented  the  party  of 
warlike  adventure  as  opposed  to  the  party  of  peace  and  economy 
led  by  Counts  Bonde  and  Brahe  (qq.v.).  After  a  severe  struggle 
De  la  Cardie's  party  finally  prevailed,  and  its  triumph  was 
marked  by  that  general  decline  of  personal  and  political  morality 
which  has  given  to  this  regency  its  unenviable  reputation. 


942 


DELAGOA  BAY— DELAMBRE 


It  was  De  la  Gardie  who  first  made  Sweden  the  obsequious 
hireling  of  the  foreign  power  which  had  the  longest  purse.  The 
beginning  of  this  shameful  "  subsidy  policy  "  was  the  treaty  of 
Fontainebleau,  1661,  by  a  secret  paragraph  of  which  Sweden, 
in  exchange  for  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  undertook  to 
support  the  French  candidate  on  the  first  vacancy  of  the  Polish 
throne.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  I4th  of  April  1672  that 
Sweden,  by  the  treaty  of  Stockholm,  became  a  regular  "  mercen- 
arius  Galliae,"  pledging  herself,  in  return  for  400,000  ecus  per 
annum  in  peace  and  600,000  in  war  time,  to  attack  with  16,000 
men  those  German  princes  who  might  be  disposed  to  assist 
Holland.  The  early  disasters  of  the  unlucky  war  of  1675-1679 
were  rightly  attributed  to  the  carelessness,  extravagance,  pro- 
crastination and  general  incompetence  of  De  la  Gardie  and  his 
high  aristocratic  colleagues.  In  1675  a  special  commission  was 
appointed  to  inquire  into  their  conduct,  and  on  the  27th  of  May 
1682  it  decided  that  the  regents  and  the  senate  were  solely 
responsible  for  dilapidations  of  the  realm,  the  compensation  due 
by  them  to  the  crown  being  assessed  at  4,000,000  daler  or  £500,000. 
De  la  Gardie  was  treated  with  relative  leniency,  but  he  "  received 
permission  to  retire  to  his  estates  for  the  rest  of  his  life  "  and  died 
there  in  comparative  poverty,  a  mere  shadow  of  his  former 
magnificent  self.  The  best  sides  of  his  character  were  his  brilliant 
social  gifts  and  his  intense  devotion  to  literature  and  art. 

See  Martin  Veibull,  Sveriges  Storhetstid  (Stockholm,  1881);  Sv. 
Hist.  iv. ;  Robert  Nisbet  Bain,  Scandinavia  (Cambridge,  1905). 

(R.  N.  B.) 

DELAGOA  BAY  (Port,  for  the  bay  "  of  the  lagoon  "),  an  inlet 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  east  coast  of  South  Africa,  between 
25°  40'  and  26°  20'  S.,  with  a  length  from  north  to  south  of  over 
70  m.  and  a  breadth  of  about  20  m.  The  bay  is  the  northern 
termination  of  the  series  of  lagoons  which  line  the  coast  from 
Saint  Lucia  Bay.  The  opening  is  toward  the  N.E.  The  southern- 
part  of  the  bay  is  formed  by  a  peninsula,  called  the  Inyak 
peninsula,  which  on  its  inner  or  western  side  affords  safe 
anchorage.  At  its  N.W.  point  is  Port  Melville.  North  of  the 
peninsula  is  Inyak  Island,  and  beyond  it  a  smaller  island 
known  as  Elephant's  Island. 

In  spite  of  a  bar  at  the  entrance  and  a  number  of  shallows 
within,  Delagoa  Bay  forms  a  valuable  harbour,  accessible  to 
large  vessels  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  surrounding  country 
is  low  and  very  unhealthy,  but  the  island  of  Inyak  has  a  height 
of  240  ft.,  and  is  used  as  a  sanatorium.  A  river  12  to  18  ft.  deep, 
known  as  the  Manhissa  or  Komati,  enters  the  bay  at  its  northern 
end;  several  smaller  streams,  the  Matolla,  the  Umbelozi,  and 
the  Tembi,  from  the  Lebombo  Mountains,  meet  towards  the 
middle  of  the  bay  in  the  estuary  called  by  the  Portuguese  the 
Espirito  Santo,  but  generally  known  as  the  English  river;  and 
the  Maputa,  which  has  its  headwaters  in  the  Drakensberg,  enters 
in  the  south,  as  also  does  the  Umfusi  river.  These  rivers  are  the 
haunts  of  the  hippopotamus  and  the  crocodile. 

The  bay  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  navigator  Antonio 
de  Campo,  one  of  Vasco  da  Gama's  companions,  in  1502,  and 
the  Portuguese  post  of  Lourengo  Marques  was  established  not 
long  after  on  the  north  side  of  the  English  river.  In  1720  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  built  a  fort  and  "  factory  "  on  the 
spot  where  Lourenco  Marques  now  stands;  but  in  1730  the 
settlement  was  abandoned.  Thereafter  the  Portuguese  had — 
intermittently — trading  stations  in  the  Espirito  Santo.  These 
stations  were  protected  by  small  forts,  usually  incapable,  however, 
of  withstanding  attacks  by  the  natives.  In  1823  Captain  (after- 
wards Vice-Admiral)  W.  F.  W.  Owen,  of  the  British  navy,  finding 
that  the  Portuguese  exercised  no  jurisdiction  south  of  the 
settlement  of  Lourenco  Marques,  concluded  treaties  of  cession 
with  native  chiefs,  hoisted  the  British  flag,  and  appropriated  the 
country  from  the  English  river  southwards;  but  when  he  visited 
the  bay  again  in  1824  he  found  that  the  Portuguese,  disregarding 
the  British  treaties,  had  concluded  others  with  the  natives,  and 
had  endeavoured  (unsuccessfully)  to  take  military  possession  of 
the  country.  Captain  Owen  rehoisted  the  British  flag,  but  the 
sovereignty  of  either  power  was  left  undecided  till  the  claims  of 
the  Transvaal  Republic  rendered  a  solution  of  the  question 


urgent.  In  the  meantime  Great  Britain  had  taken  no  steps  to 
exercise  authority  on  the  spot,  while  the  ravages  of  Zulu  hordes 
confined  Portuguese  authority  to  the  limits  of  their  fort.  In 
1835  Boers,  under  a  leader  named  Orich,  had  attempted  to  form 
a  settlement  on  the  bay,  which  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the 
Transvaal;  and  in  1868  the  Transvaal  president,  Marthinus 
Pretorius,  claimed  the  country  on  each  side  of  the  Maputa  down 
to  the  sea.  In  the  following  year,  however,  the  Transvaal 
acknowledged  Portugal's  sovereignty  over  the  bay.  In  1861 
Captain  Bickford,  R.N.,  had  declared  Inyak  and  Elephant 
islands  British  territory;  an  act  protested  against  by  the 
Lisbon  authorities.  In  1872  the  dispute  between  Great  Britain 
and  Portugal  was  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  M.  Thiers,  the 
French  president;  and  on  the  igth  of  April  1875  his  successor, 
Marshal  MacMahon,  declared  in  favour  of  the  Portuguese.  It 
had  been  previously  agreed  by  Great  Britain  and  Portugal  that 
the  right  of  pre-emption  in  case  of  sale  or  cession  should  be  given 
to  the  unsuccessful  claimant  to  the  bay.  Portuguese  authority 
over  the  interior  was  not  established  until  some  time  after  the 
MacMahon  award;  nominally  the  country  south  of  the  Manhissa 
river  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  Matshangana  chief  Umzila  in 
1861.  In  1889  another  dispute  arose  between  Portugal  and  Great 
Britain  in  consequence  of  the  seizure  by  the  Portuguese  of  the 
railway  running  from  the  bay  to  the  Transvaal.  This  dispute  was 
referred  to  arbitration,  and  in  1900  Portugal  was  condemned  to 
pay  nearly  £1,000,000  in  compensation  to  the  shareholders  in  the 
railway  company.  (See  LouRENgo  MARQUES  and  GAZALAND.) 

For  an  account  of  the  Delagoa  Bay  arbitration  proceedings  see  Sir 
E.  Hertslet,  The  Map  of  Africa  by  Treaty,  iii.  991-998  (London, 
1909).  Consult  also  the  British  blue-book,  Delagoa  Bay,  Correspond- 
ence respecting  the  Claims  of  Her  Majesty's  Government  (London, 1875) ; 
L.  van  Deventer,  La  Hollande  et  la  Baie  Delagoa  (The  Hague,  1883) ; 
G.  McC.  Theal,  The  Portuguese  in  South  Africa  (London,  1896),  and 
History  of  South  Africa  since  September  1795,  vol.  v.  (London,  1908). 
The  Narrative  of  Voyages  to  explore  the  shores  of  Africa  .  .  .  per- 
formed .  .  .  under  direction  of  Captain  W.  F.  W.  Owen,  R.N.  (London, 
1833)  contains  much  interesting  information  concerning  the  district 
in  the  early  part  of  the  igth  century. 

DELAMBRE,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  JOSEPH  (1749-1822),  French 
astronomer,  was  born  at  Amiens  on  the  igth  of  September 
1749.  His  college  course,  begun  at  Amiens  under  the  abb6 
Jacques  Delille,  was  finished  in  Paris,  where  he  took  a  scholarship 
at  the  college  of  Plessis.  Despite  extreme  penury,  he  then 
continued  to  study  indefatigably  ancient  and  modern  languages, 
history  and  literature,  finally  turning  his  attention  to  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy.  In  1771  he  became  tutor  to  the  son  of 
M.  d'Assy,  receiver-general  of  finances;  and  while  acting  in  this 
capacity,  attended  the  lectures  of  J.  J.  Lalande,  who,  struck  with 
his  remarkable  acquirements,  induced  M.  d'Assy  in  1 788  to  install 
an  observatory  for  his  benefit  at  his  own  residence.  Here 
Delambre  observed  and  computed  almost  uninterruptedly,  and 
in  1 790  obtained  for  his  Tables  of  Uranus  the  prize  offered  by  the 
academy  of  sciences,  of  which  body  he  was  elected  a  member  two 
years  later.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Institute  on  its  organization 
in  1795,  and  became,  in  1803,  perpetual  secretary  to  its  mathe- 
matical section.  He,  moreover,  belonged  from  1795  to  the 
bureau  of  longitudes.  From  1792  to  1799  he  was  occupied  with 
the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  extending  from 
Dunkirk  to  Barcelona,  and  published  a  detailed  account  of  the 
operations  in  Base  du  sysleme  melrique  (3  vols.,  1806, 1807, 1810), 
for  which  he  was  awarded  in  1810  the  decennial  prize  of  the 
Institute.  The  first  consul  nominated  him  inspector-general  of 
studies;  he  succeeded  Lalande  in  1807  as  professor  of  astronomy 
at  the  College  de  France,  and  filled  the  office  of  treasurer  to  the 
imperial  university  from  1808  until  its  suppression  in  1815. 
Delambre  died  at  Paris  on  the  igth  of  August  1822.  His  last 
years  were  devoted  to  researches  into  the  history  of  science, 
resulting  in  the  successive  publication  of:  Hisloire  de  I'astronomie 
ancienne  (2  vols.,  1817);  Histoire  de  I'astronomie  au  moyen  age 
(1819);  Hisloire  de  I'astronomie  moderne  (2  vols.,  1821);  and 
Histoire  de  I'astronomie  au  XVIII'  siecle,  issued  in  1827  under 
the  care  of  C.  L.  Mathieu.  These  books  show  marvellous  erudi- 
tion; but  some  of  the  judgments  expressed  in  them  are  warped 
by  prejudice;  they  are  diffuse  in  style  and  overloaded  with 


DELAMERE— DELANY 


943 


computations.  He  wrote  besides :  Tables  ecliptiques  des  satellites 
de  Jupiter,  inserted  in  the  third  edition  of  J.  J.  Lalande's  Astro- 
nomic (1792),  and  republished  in  an  improved  form  by  the 
bureau  of  longitudes  in  1817;  Methodes  analytiques  pour  la 
determination  d'un  arc  du  meridien  (1799);  Tables  du  soleil 
(publiees  par  le  bureau  des  longitudes)  (1806);  Rapport  historique 
sur  les  pr ogres  des  sciences  mathematiques  depuis  I'  an  1789  (1810); 
Abrege  d'astronomie  (1813);  Astronomic  theorique  et  pratique 
(1814)  ;&c. 

See  J.  B.  J.  Fourier's  "  Eloge  "  in  Memoires  de  I'acad.  des  sciences, 
t.  iv. ;  Ch.  Dupin,  Revue  encydopedique,  t.  xvi.  (1822);  Biog.  univer- 
selle,  t.  Ixii.  (C.  L.  Mathieu);  Max.  Marie,  Hist,  des  sciences,  x.  31; 
R.  Grant,  Hist,  of  Physical  Astr.  pp.  96,  142,  165;  R .  Wolf , 
Geschichte  der  Astronomic,  p.  779,  &c.  (A.  M.  C.) 

DELAMERE  (or  DE  LA  MER),  GEORGE  BOOTH,  ist  BARON 
(1622-1684),  son  of  William  Booth,  a  member  of  an  ancient 
family  settled  at  Dunham  Massey  in  Cheshire,  and  of  Vere, 
daughter  and  co-heir  of  Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  was  born  in  August 
1622.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Civil  War  with  his  grand- 
father, Sir  George  Booth,  on  the  parliamentary  side.  He  was 
returned  for  Cheshire  to  the  Long  Parliament  in  1645  and  to 
Cromwell's  parliaments  of  1654  and  1656.  In  1655  he  was 
appointed  military  commissioner  for  Cheshire  and  treasurer  at 
war.  He  was  one  of  the  excluded  members  who  tried  and  failed 
to  regain  their  seats  after  the  fall  of  Richard  Cromwell  in  1659. 
He  had  for  some  time  been  regarded  by  the  royalists  as  a  well- 
wisher  to  their  cause,  and  was  described  to  the  king  in  May  1659 
as  "  very  considerable  in  his  country,  a  presbyterian  in  opinion, 
yet  so  moral  a  man  ...  I  think  your  Majesty  may  safely  [rely] 
on  him  and  his  promises  which  are  considerable  and  hearty." L 
He  now  became  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the  new  "  royalists  " 
who  at  this  time  united  with  the  cavaliers  to  effect  the  restora- 
tion. A  rising  was  arranged  for  the  sth  of  August  in  several 
districts,  and  Booth  took  charge  of  operations  in  Cheshire, 
Lancashire  and  North  Wales.  He  got  possession  of  Chester  on 
the  igth,  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that  arms  had  been 
taken  up  "  in  vindication  of  the  freedom  of  parliament,  of  the 
known  laws,  liberty  and  property,"  and  marched  towards  York. 
The  plot,  however,  was  known  to  Thurloe.  It  had  entirely  failed 
in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  Lambert  advancing  with  his 
forces  defeated  Booth's  men  at  Nantwich  Bridge.  Booth  him- 
self escaped  disguised  as  a  woman,  but  was  discovered  at  Newport 
Pagnell  on  the  23rd  in  the  act  of  shaving,  and  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Tower.  He  was,  however,  soon  liberated,  took  his  seat  in 
the  parliament  of  1659-1660,  and  was  one  of  the  twelve  members 
deputed  to  carry  the  message  of  the  Commons  to  Charles  II.  at 
the  Hague.  In  July  1660  he  received  a  grant  of  £10,000,  having 
refused  the  larger  sum  of  £20,000  at  first  offered  to  him,  and  on 
the  2oth  of  April  1661,  on  the  occasion  of  the  coronation,  he  was 
created  Baron  Delamere,  with  a  licence  to  create  six  new  knights. 
The  same  year  he  was  appointed  custos  rotulorum  of  Cheshire. 
In  la.ter  years  he  showed  himself  strongly  antagonistic  to  the 
reactionary  policy  of  the  government.  He  died  on  the  Sth  of 
August  1684,  and  was  buried  at  Bowdon.  He  married  (i)  Lady 
Catherine  Clinton,  daughter  and  co-heir  of  Theophilus,  4th  earl 
of  Lincoln,  by  whom  he  had  one  daughter;  and  (2)  Lady 
Elizabeth  Grey,  daughter  of  Henry,  ist  earl  of  Stamford,  by 
whom,  besides  five  daughters,  he  had  seven  sons,  the  second  of 
whom,  Henry,  succeeded  him  in  the  title  and  estates  and  was 
created  earl  of  Warrington.  The  earldom  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  the  latter's  son,  the  2nd  earl,  without  male  issue,  in  1758, 
and  the  barony  of  Delamere  terminated  in  the  person  of  the  4th 
baron  in  1770;  the  title  was  revived  in  1821  in  the  Cholmondeley 
family. 

DE  LAND,  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Volusia  county, 
Florida,  U.S.A.,  in  m.  by  rail  S.  of  Jacksonville,  20  m.  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  and  4  m.  from  the  St  John's  river.  Pop.  (1900) 
1449;  (1910)  2812.  De  Land  is  served  by  the  Atlantic  Coast 
Line  and  by  steamboats  on  the  St  John's  river.  It  has  a  fine 
winter  climate,  with  an  average  temperature  of  60°  F.,  has 
sulphur  springs,  and  is  a  health  and  winter  resort.  There  is  a 
1  Clarendon,  State  Papers,  iii.  472. 


starch  factory  here;  and  the  surrounding  country  is  devoted  to 
fruit-growing.  De  Land  is  the  seat  of  the  John  B.  Stetson 
University  (coeducational),  an  undenominational  institution 
under  Baptist  control,  founded  in  1884,  as  an  academy,  by 
Henry  A.  De  Land,  a  manufacturer  of  Fairport,  New  York,  and 
in  1887  incorporated  under  the  name  of  De  Land  University, 
which  was  changed  in  1889  to  the  present  name,  in  honour  of 
John  Batterson  Stetson  (1830-1906),  a  Philadelphia  manu- 
facturer of  hats,  who  during  his  life  gave  nearly  $500,000  to 
the  institution.  The  university  includes  a  college  of  liberal  arts, 
a  department  of  law,  a  school  of  technology,  an  academy,  a 
normal  school,  a  model  school,  a  business  college  and  a  school  of 
music.  De  Land  was  founded  in  1876  by  H.  A.  DeLand,  above 
mentioned,  who  built  a  public  school  here  in  1877  and  a  high 
school  in  1883. 

DELANE,  JOHN  THADEUS  (1817-1879),  editor  of  The  Times 
(London),  was  born  on  the  nth  of  October  1817  in  London.  He 
was  the  second  son  of  Mr  W.  F.  A.  Delane,  a  barrister,  of  an 
old  Irish  family,  who  about  1832  was  appointed  by  Mr  Walter 
financial  manager  of  The  Times.  While  still  a  boy  he  attracted 
Mr  Walter's  attention,  and  it  was  always  intended  that  he  should 
find  work  on  the  paper.  He  received  a  good  general  education  at 
private  schools  and  King's  College,  London,  and  also  at  Magdalen 
Hall,  Oxford;  after  taking  his  degree  in  1840  he  at  once  began 
work  on  the  paper,  though  later  he  read  for  the  bar,  being  called 
in  1847.  In  1841  he  succeeded  Thomas  Barnes  as  editor,  a  post 
which  he  occupied  for  thirty-six  years.  He  from  the  first  obtained 
the  best  introductions  into  society  and  the  chief  political  circles, 
and  had  a  position  there  such  as  no  journalist  had  previously 
enjoyed,  us:ng  his  opportunities  with  a  sure  intuition  for  the  way 
in  which  events  would  move.  His  staff  included  some  of  the 
most  brilliant  men  of  the  day,  who  worked  together  with  a 
common  ideal.  The  result  to  the  paper,  which  in  those  days 
had  hardly  any  real  competitor  in  English  journalism,  was  an 
excellence  of  information  which  gave  it  great  power.  (See  NEWS- 
PAPERS.) Delane  was  a  man  of  many  interests  and  great  judg- 
ment; capable  of  long  application  and  concentrated  attention, 
with  power  to  seize  always  on  the  main  point  at  issue,  and  rapidly 
master  the  essential  facts  in  the  most  complicated  affair.  His 
general  policy  was  to  keep  the  paper  a  national  organ  of  opinion 
above  party,  but  with  a  tendency  to  sympathize  with  the  Liberal 
movements  of  the  day.  He  admired  Palmerston  and  respected 
Lord  Aberdeen,  and  was  of  considerable  use  to  both ;  and  it  was 
Lord  Aberdeen  himself  who,  in  1845,  told  him  of  the  impending 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws,  an  incident  round  which  many  incorrect 
stories  have  gathered.  The  history,  however,  of  the  events 
during  the  thirteen  administrations,  between  1841  and  1877,  in 
which  The  Times,  and  therefore  Delane,  played  an  important 
part  cannot  here  be  recapitulated.  In  1877  his  health  gave  way, 
and  he  retired  from  the  editorship;  and  on  the  22nd  of  November 
1879  he  died  at  Ascot. 

A  biography  by  his  nephew,  Arthur  Irwin  Dasent,  was  published 
in  1908. 

DELANY,  MARY  GRANVILLE  (1700-1788),  an  English- 
woman of  literary  tastes,  was  born  at  Coulston,  Wilts,  on  the 
i4th  of  May  1700.  She  was  a  niece  of  the  ist  Lord  Lansdowne. 
In  1717  or  1718  she  was  unhappily  married  to  Alexander 
Pendarves,  a  rich  old  Cornish  landowner,  who  died  in  1724. 
During  a  visit  to  Ireland  she  met  Dean  Swift  and  his  intimate 
friend,  the  Irish  divine,  Patrick  Delany,  whose  second  wife  she 
became  in  1743.  After  his  death  in  1768  she  passed  all  her 
summers  with  her  bosom  friend  the  dowager  duchess  of  Portland 
— Prior's  "  Peggy  " — and  when  the  latter  died  George  III.  and 
Queen  Charlotte,  whose  affection  for  their  "  dearest  Mrs  Delany  " 
seems  to  have  been  most  genuine,  gave  her  a  small  house  at 
Windsor  and  a  pension  of  £300  a  year.  Fanny  Burney  (Madame 
D'Arblay)  was  introduced  to  her  in  1783,  and  frequently  visited 
her  at  her  London  home  and  at  Windsor,  and  owed  to  her  friend- 
ship her  court  appointment.  At  this  time  Mrs  Delany  was  a 
charming  and  sweet  old  lady,  with  a  reputation  for  cutting  out 
and  making  the  ingenious  "  paper  mosaiks  "  now  in  the  British 
Museum;  she  had  known  every  one  worth  knowing  in  her  day, 


944 


DE  LA  KEY— DELAROCHE 


had  corresponded  with  Swift  and  Young,  and  left  an  interesting 
picture  of  the  polite  but  commonplace  English  society  of  the 
1 8th  century  in  her  six  volumes  of  Autobiography  and  Letters. 
Burke  calls  her  "  a  real  fine  lady  " — "  the  model  of  an  accom- 
plished woman  of  former  times."  She  died  on  the  isth  of  April 
1788. 

DE  LA  KEY,  JACOBUS  HERCULES  (1847-  ),  Boer  soldier, 
was  born  in  the  Lichtenburg  district,  and  in  his  youth  and  early 
manhood  saw  much  service  in  savage  warfare.  In  1893  he 
entered  the  Volksraad  of  the  South  African  Republic,  and  was 
an  active  supporter  of  the  policy  of  General  Joubert.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1899  De  La  Key  was 
made  a  general,  and  he  was  engaged  in  the  western  campaign 
against  Lord  Methuen  and  Lord  Roberts.  He  won  his  first  great 
success  at  Nitral's  Nek  on  the  nth  of  July  1900,  where  he 
compelled  the  surrender  of  a  strong  English  detachment.  In 
the  second  or  guerrilla  stage  of  the  war  De  La  Rey  became  one  of 
the  most  conspicuously  successful  of  the  Boer  leaders.  He  was 
assistant  to  General  Louis  Botha  and  a  member  of  the  govern- 
ment, with  charge  of  operations  in  the  western  Transvaal.  The 
principal  actions  in  which  he  was  successful  (see  also  TRANSVAAL  : 
History)  were  Nooitgedacht,  Vlakfontein  and  the  defeat  and 
capture  of  Lord  Methuen  at  Klerksdorp  (March  7,  1902).  The 
British  general  was  severely  wounded  in  the  action,  and  De  La 
Rey  released  him  at  once,  being  unable  to  afford  him  proper 
medical  assistance.  This  humanity  and  courtesy  marked  De 
La  Rey's  conduct  throughout  the  war,  and  even  more  than  his 
military  skill  and  daring  earned  for  him  the  esteem  of  his  enemies. 
After  the  conclusion  of  peace  De  La  Rey,  who  had  borne  a 
prominent  part  in  the  negotiations,  visited  Europe  with  the 
other  generals,  with  the  intention  of  raising  funds  to  enable  the 
Boers  to  resettle  their  country.  In  December  1903  he  went  on  a 
mission  to  India,  and  induced  the  whole  of  the  Boer  prisoners  of 
war  detained  at  Ahmednagar  to  accept  the  new  order  of  things 
and  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  In  February  1907  General 
De  La  Rey  was  returned  unopposed  as  member  for  Ventersdorp 
in  the  legislative  assembly  of  the  first  Transvaal  parliament  under 
self-government. 

DE  LA  RIVE,  AUGUSTE  ARTHUR  (1801-1873),  Swiss 
physicist,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  gth  of  October  1801.  He 
was  the  son  of  Charles  Gaspard  de  la  Rive  (1770-1834),  who 
studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  after  practising  for  a  few 
years  in  London,  became  professor  of  pharmaceutical  chemistry 
at  the  academy  of  Geneva  in  1802  and  rector  in  1823.  After 
a  brilliant  career  as  a  student,  he  was  appointed  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two  to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  academy 
of  Geneva.  For  some  years  after  his  appointment  he  devoted 
himself  specially,  with  Francois  Marcet  (1803-1883),  to  the 
investigation  of  the  specific  heat  of  gases,  and  to  observations 
for  determining  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  crust.  Electrical 
studies,  however,  engaged  most  of  his  attention,  especially  in 
connexion  with  the  theory  of  the  voltaic  cell  and  the  electric 
discharge  in  rarefied  gases.  His  researches  on  the  last-mentioned 
subject  led  him  to  form  a  new  theory  of  the  aurora  borealis. 
In  1840  he  described  a  process  for  the  electro-gilding  of  silver  and 
brass,  for  which  in  the  following  year  he  received  a  prize  of  3000 
francs  from  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  Between  1854 
and  1858  he  published  a  Traite  de  I'SlectricM  Morique  et  appliqufe, 
which  was  translated  into  several  languages.  De  la  Rive's  birth 
and  fortune  gave  him  considerable  s^pial  and  political  influence. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  hospitality  to  literary  and  scientific 
men,  and  for  his  interest  in  the  welfare  and  independence  of  his 
native  country.  In  1860,  when  the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice 
had  led  the  Genevese  to  fear  French  aggression,  de  la  Rive  was 
sent  by  his  fellow-citizens  on  a  special  embassy  to  England,  and 
succeeded  in  securing  a  declaration  from  the  English  government, 
which  was  communicated  privately  to  that  of  France,  that  any 
attack  upon  Geneva  would  be  regarded  as  a  casus  belli.  On  the 
occasion  of  this  visit  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred  upon  de 
la  Rive  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  When  on  his  way  to  pass 
the  winter  at  Cannes  he  died  suddenly  at  Marseilles  on  the  27th 
of  November  1873. 


His  son,  LUCIEN  DE  LA  RIVE,  born  at  Geneva  on  the  3rd  of 
April  1834,  published  papers  on  various  mathematical  and 
physical  subjects,  and  with  Edouard  Sarasin  carried  out  investi- 
gations on  the  propagation  of  electric  waves. 

DELAROCHE,  HIPPOLYTE,  commonly  known  as  PAUL 
(1797-1856),  French  painter,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  1 7th  of  July 
1 797.  His  father  was  an  expert  who  had  made  a  fortune,  to  some 
extent,  by  negotiating  and  cataloguing,  buying  and  selling.  He 
was  proud  of  his  son's  talent,  and  able  to  forward  his  artistic 
education.  The  master  selected  was  Gros,  then  painting  life-size 
histories,  and  surrounded  by  many  pupils.  In  no  haste  to  make 
an  appearance  in  the  Salon,  his  first  exhibited  picture  was  a  large 
one,  "  Josabeth  saving  Joas  "  (1822).  This  picture  led  to  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Gericault  and  Delacroix,  with  whom  he  remained 
on  the  most  friendly  terms,  the  three  forming  the  central  group 
of  a  numerous  body  of  historical  painters,  such  as  perhaps  never 
before  lived  in  one  locality  and  at  one  time. 

From  1822  the  record  of  his  life  is  to  be  found  in  the  successive 
works  coming  from  his  hand.  He  visited  Italy  in  1838  and  1843, 
when  his  father-in-law,  Horace  Vernet,  was  director  of  the  French 
Academy.  His  studio  in  Paris  was  in  the  rue  Mazarine,  where  he 
never  spent  a  day  without  some  good  result,  his  hand  being  sure 
and  his  knowledge  great.  His  subjects,  definitely  expressed  and 
popular  in  their  manner  of  treatment,  illustrating  certain  views 
of  history  dear  to  partisans,  yet  romantic  in  their  general  interest, 
were  painted  with  a  firm,  solid,  smooth  surface,  which  gave  an 
appearance  of  the  highest  finish.  This  solidity,  found  also  on  the 
canvas  of  Vernet,  Scheffer,  Leopold  Robert  and  Ingres,  was  the 
manner  of  the  day.  It  repudiates  the  technical  charm  of  texture 
and  variety  of  handling  which  the  English  school  inherited  as  a 
tradition  from  the  time  of  Reynolds;  but  it  is  more  easily  under- 
stood by  the  world  at  large,  since  a  picture  so  executed  depends 
for  its  interest  rather  on  the  history,  scene  in  nature  or  object 
depicted,  than  on  the  executive  skill,  which  may  or  may  not  be 
critically  appreciated.  We  may  add  that  his  point  of  view  of 
the  historical  characters  which  he  treated  is  not  always  just. 
"  Cromwell  lifting  the  Coffin-lid  and  looking  at  the  Body  of 
Charles  "  is  an  incident  only  to  be  excused  by  an  improbable 
tradition;  but  "  The  King  in  the  Guard-Room,"  with  villainous 
roundhead  soldiers  blowing  tobacco  smoke  in  his  patient  face, 
is  a  libel  on  the  Puritans;  and  "  Queen  Elizabeth  dying  on  the 
Ground,"  like  a  she-dragon  no  one  dares  to  touch,  is  sensational; 
while  the  "Execution  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  "  is  represented  as  taking 
place  in  a  dungeon.  Nothing  can  be  more  incorrect  than  this  last 
as  a  reading  of  English  history,  yet  we  forget  the  inaccuracy  in 
admiration  of  the  treatment  which  represents  Lady  Jane,  with 
bandaged  sight,  feeling  for  the  block,  her  maids  covering  their 
faces,  and  none  with  their  eyes  visible  among  the  many  figures. 
On  the  other  hand,  "  Strafford  led  to  Execution,"  when  Laud 
stretches  his  lawn-covered  arms  out  of  the  small  high  window 
of  his  cell  to  give  him  a  blessing  as  he  passes  along  the  corridor, 
is  perfect;  and  the  splendid  scene  of  Richelieu  in  his  gorgeous 
barge,  preceding  the  boat  containing  Cinq-Mars  and  De  Thou 
carried  to  execution  by  their  guards,  is  perhaps  the  most  dramatic 
semi-historical  work  ever  done.  "  The  Princes  in  the  Tower  " 
must  also  be  mentioned  as  a  very  complete  creation;  and  the 
"  Young  female  Martyr  floating  dead  on  the  Tiber  "  is  so  pathetic 
that  criticism  feels  hard-hearted  and  ashamed  before  it.  As  a 
realization  of  a  page  of  authentic  history,  again,  no  picture  can 
surpass  the  "  Assassination  of  the  due  de  Guise  at  Blois."  The 
expression  of  the  murdered  man  stretched  out  by  the  side  of  the 
bed,  the  conspirators  all  massed  together  towards  the  door  and 
far  from  the  body,  show  exact  study  as  well  as  insight  into  human 
nature.  This  work  was  exhibited  in  his  meridian  time,  1835; 
and  in  the  same  year  he  exhibited  the  "  Head  of  an  Angel,"  a 
study  from  Horace  Vernet's  young  daughter  Louise,  his  love  for 
whom  was  the  absorbing  passion  of  his  life,  and  from  the  shock  of 
whose  death,  in  1845,  it  is  said  he  never  quite  recovered.  By  far 
his  finest  productions  after  her  death  are  of  the  most  serious 
character,  a  sequence  of  small  elaborate  pictures  of  incidents  in 
the  Passion.  Two  of  these,  the  Virgin  and  the  other  Maries,  with 
the  apostles  Peter  and  John,  within  a  nearly  dark  apartment, 


DELARUE— DELATOR 


945 


hearing  the  crowd  as  it  passes  haling  Christ  to  Calvary,  and  St 
John  conducting  the  Virgin  home  again  after  all  is  over,  are 
beyond  all  praise  as  exhibiting  the  divine  story  from  a  simply 
human  point  of  view.  They  are  pure  and  elevated,  and  also 
dramatic  and  painful.  Delaroche  was  not  troubled  by  ideals, 
and  had  no  affectation  of  them.  His  sound  but  hard  execution 
allowed  no  mystery  to  intervene  between  him  and  his  motif, 
which  was  always  intelligible  to  the  million,  so  that  he  escaped  all 
the  waste  of  energy  that  painters  who  try  to  be  poets  on  canvas 
suffer.  Thus  it  is  that  essentially  the  same  treatment  was  applied 
by  him  to  the  characters  of  distant  historical  times,  the  founders 
of  the  Christian  religion,  and  the  real  people  of  his  own  day, 
such  as  "  Napoleon  at  Fontainebleau,"  or  "  Napoleon  at  St 
Helena,"  or  "  Marie  Antoinette  leaving  the  Convention  "  after 
her  sentence. 

In  1837  Delaroche  received  the  commission  for  the  great  picture, 
27  metres  long,  in  the  hemicycle  of  the  lecture  theatre  of  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts.  This  represents  the  great  artists  of  the  modern 
ages  assembled  in  groups  on  either  hand  of  a  central  elevation  of 
white  marble  steps,  on  the  topmost  of  which  are  three  thrones 
filled  by  the  architects  and  sculptors  of  the  Parthenon.  To 
supply  the  female  element  in  this  vast  composition  he  intro- 
duced the  genii  or  muses,  who  symbolize  or  reign  over  the  arts, 
leaning  against  the  balustrade  of  the  steps,  beautiful  and  queenly 
figures  with  a  certain  antique  perfection  of  form,  but  not  informed 
by  any  wonderful  or  profound  expression.  The  portrait  figures 
are  nearly  all  unexceptionable  and  admirable.  This  great  and 
successful  work  is  on  the  wall  itself,  an  inner  wall  however,  and  is 
executed  in  oil.  It  was  finished  in  1841,  and  considerably  injured 
by  a  fire,  which  occurred  in  1855,  which  injury  he  immediately 
set  himself  to  remedy  (finished  by  Robert- Fleury) ;  but  he  died 
before  he  had  well  begun,  on  the  4th  of  November  1856. 

Personally  Delaroche  exercised  even  a  greater  influence  than 
by  his  works.  Though  short  and  not  powerfully  made,  he  im- 
pressed every  one  as  rather  talfthan  otherwise;  his  physiognomy 
was  accentuated  and  firm,  and  his  fine  forehead  gave  him  the 
air  of  a  minister  of  state. 

See  Rees,  Delaroche  (London,  1880).  (W.  B.  Sc.) 

DELARUE,  GERVAIS  (1751-1835),  French  historical  inves- 
tigator, formerly  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief  authorities  on 
Norman  and  Anglo-Norman  literature,  was  a  native  of  Caen. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  university  of  that  town,  and  was 
ultimately  raised  to  the  rank  of  professor.  His  first  historical 
enterprise  was  interrupted  by  the  French  Revolution,  which 
forced  him  to  take  refuge  in  England,  where  he  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  a  vast  mass  of  original  documents  in  the 
Tower  and  elsewhere,  and  received  much  encouragement,  from 
Sir  Walter  Scott  among  others.  From  England  he  passed  over  to 
Holland,  still  in  prosecution  of  his  favourite  task;  and  there  he 
remained  till  in  1798  he  returned  to  France.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  his  native  town,  where  he  was  chosen  principal  of 
his  university.  While  in  England  he  had  been  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries;  and  in  his  own  country  he 
was  made  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institute,  and  was 
enrolled  in  the  Legion  of  Honour.  Besides  numerous  articles 
in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  the  Memoires  de 
VInstitut,  the  Memoires  de  la  Sociite  d' Agriculture  de  Caen,  and 
in  other  periodical  collections,  he  published  separately  Essais 
hisloriques  sur  les  Bardes,  les  Jongleurs,  et  les  Trouveres  normands 
el  anglo-normands  (3  vols.,  1834),  and  Recherches  historiques  sur 
la  Prairie  de  Caen  (1837) ;  and  after  his  death  appeared  Memoires 
historiques  sur  le  palinod  de  Caen  (1841),  Recherches  sur  la 
lapisserie  de  Bayeux  (1841),  and  Nouiieaux  Essais  historiques 
sur  la  little  de  Caen  (1842).  In  all  his  writings  he  displays  a 
strong  partiality  for  everything  Norman,  and  rates  the  Norman 
influence  on  French  and  English  literature  as  of  the  very  highest 
moment. 

DE  LA  RUE,  WARREN  (1815-1889),  British  astronomer  and 
chemist,  son  of  Thomas  De  la  Rue,  the  founder  of  the  large  firm 
of  stationers  of  that  name  in  London,  was  born  in  Guernsey  on 
the  i8th  of  January  1815.  Having  completed  his  education  in 
Paris,  he  entered  his  father's  business,  but  devoted  his  leisure 


hours  to  chemical  and  electrical  researches,  and  between  1836  and 
1848  published  several  papers  on  these  subjects.  Attracted  to 
astronomy  by  the  influence  of  James  Nasmyth,  he  constructed 
in  1850  a  i3-in.  reflecting  telescope,  mounted  first  at  Canonbury, 
later  at  Cranford,  Middlesex,  and  with  its  aid  executed  many 
drawings  of  the  celestial  bodies  of  singular  beauty  and  fidelity. 
His  chief  title  to  fame,  however,  is  his  pioneering  work  in  the 
application  of  the  art  of  photography  to  astronomical  research. 
In  1851  his  attention  was  drawn  to  a  daguerreotype  of  the  moon 
by  G.  P.  Bond,  shown  at  the  great  exhibition  of  that  year. 
Excited  to  emulation  and  employing  the  more  rapid  wet-collodion 
process,  he  succeeded  before  long  in  obtaining  exquisitely  defined 
lunar  pictures,  which  remained  unsurpassed  until  the  appearance 
of  the  Rutherfurd  photographs  in  1865.  In  1854  he  turned  his 
attention  to  solar  physics,  and  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
daily  photographic  representation  of  the  state  of  the  solar  surface 
he  devised  the  photo-heliograph,  described  in  his  report  to  the 
British  Association,  "  On  Celestial  Photography  in  England  " 
(1859),  and  in  his  Bakerian  Lecture  (Phil.  Trans,  vol.  clii.  pp. 
333-416).  Regular  work  with  this  instrument,  inaugurated  at 
Kew  by  De  la  Rue  in  1858,  was  carried  on  there  for  fourteen  years; 
and  was  continued  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  from 
1873  to  1882.  The  results  obtained  in  the  years  1862-1866  were 
discussed  in  two  memoirs,  entitled  "  Researches  on  Solar  Physics," 
published  by  De  la  Rue,  in  conjunction  with  Professor  Balfour 
Stewart  and  MrB.Loewy,  in  the  Phil.  Trans,  (vol.  clix.  pp.  i-no, 
and  vol.  clx.  pp.  389-496).  In  1860  De  la  Rue  took  the  photo- 
heliograph  to  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  photographing  the  total 
solar  eclipse  which  occurred  on  the  i8th  of  July  of  that  year. 
This  expedition  formed  the  subject  of  the  Bakerian  Lecture 
already  referred  to.  The  photographs  obtained  on  that  occasion 
proved  beyond  doubt  the  solar  character  of  the  prominences  or 
red  flames,  seen  around  the  limb  of  the  moon  during  a  solar 
eclipse.  In  1873  De  la  Rue  gave  up  active  work  in  astronomy, 
and  presented  most  of  his  astronomical  instruments  to  the 
university  observatory,  Oxford.  Subsequently,  in  the  year  1887, 
he  provided  the  same  observatory  with  a  i3-in.  refractor  to 
enable  it  to  take  part  in  the  International  Photographic  Survey 
of  the  Heavens.  With  Dr  Hugo  Miiller  as  his  collaborator  he 
published  several  papers  of  a  chemical  character  between  the 
years  1856  and  1862,  and  investigated,  1868—1883,  the  discharge 
of  electricity  through  gases  by  means  of  a  battery  of  14,600 
chloride  of  silver  cells.  He  was  twice  president  of  the  Chemical 
Society,  and  also  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  (1864-1866). 
In  1862  he  received  the  gold  medal  of  the  latter  society,  and  in 
1864  a  Royal  medal  from  the  Royal  Society,  for  his  observations 
on  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  1860,  and  for  his  improvements 
in  astronomical  photography.  He  died  in  London  on  the  igth 
of  April  1889. 

See  Monthly  Notices  Roy.  Astr.  Soc.  1.  155;  Journ.  Chem.  Soc. 
Ivii.  441;  Nature,  xl.  26;  The  Times  (April  22,  1889);  Royal 
Society,  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers. 

DELATOR,  in  Roman  history,  properly  one  who  gave  notice 
(deferre)  to  the  treasury  officials  of  moneys  that  had  become  due 
to  the  imperial  fisc.  This  special  meaning  was  extended  to  those 
who  lodged  information  as  to  punishable  offences,  and  further,  to 
those  who  brought  a  public  accusation  (whether  true  or  not) 
against  any  person  (especially  with  the  object  of  getting  money). 
Although  the  word  delator  itself,  for  "  common  informer,"  is 
confined  to  imperial  times,  the  right  of  public  accusation  had 
long  been  in  existence.  When  exercised  from  patriotic  and  dis- 
interested motives,  its  effects  were  beneficial;  but  the  moment 
the  principle  of  reward  was  introduced,  this  was  no  longer  the  case. 
Sometimes  the  accuser  was  rewarded  with  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship, a  place  in  the  senate,  or  a  share  of  the  property  of  the 
accused.  At  the  end  of  the  republican  period,  Cicero  (De 
Officiis,  ii.  14)  expresses  his  opinion  that  such  accusations  should 
be  undertaken  only  in  the  interests  of  the  state  or  for  other  urgent 
reasons.  Under  the  empire  the  system  degenerated  into  an  abuse, 
which  reached  its  height  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  although 
the  delators  continued  to  exercise  their  activity  till  the  reign 
of  Theodosius.  They  were  drawn  from  all  classes  of  society, — • 


946 


DELAUNAY— DELAVIGNE 


patricians,  knights,  freedmen,  slaves,  philosophers,  literary  men, 
and,  above  all,  lawyers.  The  objects  of  their  attacks  were  the 
wealthy,  all  possible  rivals  of  the  emperor,  and  those  whose 
conduct  implied  a  reproach  against  the  imperial  mode  of  life. 
Special  opportunities  were  afforded  by  the  law  of  majestas, 
which  (originally  directed  against  attacks  on  the  ruler  by  word 
or  deed)  came  to  include  all  kinds  of  accusations  with  which  it 
really  had  nothing  to  do;  indeed,  according  to  Tacitus,  a  charge 
of  treason  was  regularly  added  to  all  criminal  charges.  -The 
chief  motive  for  these  accusations  was  no  doubt  the  desire  of 
amassing  wealth,1  since  by  the  law  of  majestas  one-fourth  of  the 
goods  of  the  accused,  even  if  he  committed  suicide  in  order  to 
avoid  confiscation  (which  was  always  carried  out  in  the  case 
of  those  condemned  to  capital  punishment),  was  assured  to  the 
accuser  (who  was  hence  called  quadruplator) .  Pliny  and  Martial 
mention  instances  of  enormous  fortunes  amassed  by  those  who 
carried  on  this  hateful  calling.  But  it  was  not  without  its  dangers. 
If  the  delator  lost  his  case  or  refused  to  carry  it  through,  he'  was 
liable  to  the  same  penalties  as  the  accused;  he  was  exposed  to 
the  risk  of  vengeance  at  the  hands  of  the  proscribed  in  the  event 
of  their  return,  or  of  their  relatives;  while  emperors  like  Tiberius 
would  have  no  scruples  about  banishing  or  putting  out  of  the 
way  those  of  his  creatures  for  whom  he  had  no  further  use,  and 
who  might  have  proved  dangerous  to  himself.  Under  the  better 
emperors  a  reaction  set  in,  and  the  severest  penalties  were 
inflicted  upon  the  delators.  Titus  drove  into  exile  or  reduced 
to  slavery  those  who  had  served  Nero,  after  they  had  first  been 
flogged  in  the  amphitheatre.  The  abuse  naturally  reappeared 
under  a  man  like  Domitian ;  the  delators,  with  whom  Vespasian 
had  not  interfered,  although  he  had  abolished  trials  for  majestas, 
were  again  banished  by  Trajan,  and  threatened  with  capital 
punishment  in  an  edict  of  Constantine;  but,  as  has  been  said, 
the  evil,  which  was  an  almost  necessary  accompaniment  of 
autocracy,  lasted  till  the  end  of  the  4th  century. 

See  Mayor's  note  on  Juvenal  iv.  48  for  ancient  authorities; 
C.  Merivale,  Hist,  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,  chap.  44; 
W.  Rein,  Criminalrecht  der  Rpmer  (1842);  T.  Mommsen,  Romisches 
Strafrecht  (1899);  Kleinfeller  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclopddie. 

DELAUNAY,  ELIE  (1828-1891),  French  painter,  was  born  at 
Nantes  and  studied  under  Flandrin  and  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts.  He  worked  in  the  classicist  manner  of  Ingres  until,  after 
winning  the  Prix  de  Rome,  he  went  to  Italy  in  1856,  and 
abandoned  the  ideal  of  Raphaelesque  perfection  for  the  sincerity 
and  severity  of  the  quattrocentists.  As  a  pure  and  firm 
draughtsman  he  stands  second  only  to  Ingres.  After  his  return 
from  Rome  he  was  entrusted  with  many  important  commissions 
for  decorative  paintings,  such  as  the  frescoes  in  the  church  of  St 
Nicholas  at  Nantes;  the  three  panels  of  "  Apollo,"  "  Orpheus  " 
and  "  Amphion"  at  the  Paris  opera-house;  and  twelve  paintings 
for  the  great  hall  of  the  council  of  state  in  the  Palais  Royal.  His 
"  Scenes  from  the  Life  of  St  Genevieve,"  which  he  designed  for 
the  Pantheon,  remained  unfinished  at  his  death.  The  Luxem- 
bourg Museum  has  his  famous  "  Plague  in  Rome  "  and  a  nude 
figure  of  "  Diana  ";  and  the  Nantes  Museum,  the  "  Lesson  on 
the  Flute."  In  the  last  decade  of  his  life  he  achieved  great 
popularity  as  a  portrait  painter. 

DELAUNAY,  LOUIS  ARSENE  (1826-1903),  French  actor, 
was  born  in  Paris,  the  son  of  a  wine-seller.  He  studied  at  the 
Conservatoire,  and  made  his  first  formal  appearance  on  the  stage 
in  1845,  in  Tartujfe  at  the  Odeon.  After  three  years  at  this  house 
he  made  his  debut  at  the  Comedie  Franchise  as  Dorante  in 
Corneille's  Le  Menteur,  and  began  a  long  and  brilliant  career  in 
young  lover  parts.  He  continued  to  act  zsjeune  premier  until  he 
was  sixty,  his  grace,  marvellous  diction  and  passion  enchanting 
his  audiences.  It  was  especially  in  the  plays  of  Alfred  de  Musset 
that  his  gifts  found  their  happiest  expression.  In  the  thirty-seven 
years  during  which  he  was  a  member  of  the  Comedie  Frangaise, 
Delaunay  took  or  created  nearly  two  hundred  parts.  He  retired 
in  1887,  having  been  made  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
in  1883. 

1  "  Delatores,  genus  hominum  publico  exitio  repertum  .  .  .  per 
praemia  eliciebantur  "  (Tacitus,  Annals,  iv.  30). 


DELAVIGNE,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  CASIMIR  (1793-1843),  French 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  April  1 793  at  Havre. 
His  father  sent  him  at  an  early  age  to  Paris,  there  to  be  educated 
at  the  Lycee  Napoleon.  Constitutionally  of  an  ardent  and  sym- 
pathetic temperament,  he  enlarged  his  outlook  by  extensive 
miscellaneous  reading.  On  the  zoth  of  March  1811  the  empress 
Marie  Louise  gave  birth  to  a  son,  named  in  his  very  cradle  king 
of  Rome.  This  event  was  celebrated  by  Delavigne  in  a  Dithy- 
rambe  sur  la  naissance  du  roi  de  Rome,  which  secured  for  him  a 
sinecure  in  the  revenue  office. 

About  this  time  he  competed  twice  for  an  academy  prize,  but 
without  success.  Delavigne,  inspired  by  the  catastrophe  of  1815, 
wrote  two  impassioned  poems,  the  first  entitled  Waterloo,  the 
second,  Devastation  du  musee,  both  written  in  the  heat  of  patriotic 
enthusiasm,  and  teeming  with  popular  political  allusions.  A 
third,  but  of  inferior  merit,  Sur  le  besoin  de  s'unir  apres  le  depart 
des  etrangers,  was  afterwards  added.  These  stirring  pieces, 
termed  by  him  Messeniennes,  sounded  a  keynote  which  found 
an  echo  in  the  hearts  of  all.  Twenty-five  thousand  copies  were 
sold;  Delavigne  was  famous.  He  was  appointed  to  an  honorary 
librarianship,  with  no  duties  to  discharge.  In  1819  his  play 
Les  vepres  Siciliennes  was  performed  at  the  Odeon,  then  just 
rebuilt;  it  had  previously  been  refused  for  the  Theatre  Francais. 
On  the  night  of  the  first  representation,  which  was  warmly 
received,  Picard,  the  manager,  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of . 
his  elated  friend,  exclaiming,  "  You  have  saved  us!  You  are 
the  founder  of  the  second  French  Theatre."  This  success  was 
followed  up  by  the  production  of  the  Comediens  (1820),  a  poor 
play,  with  little  plot,  and  the  Paria  (1821),  with  still  less,  but 
containing  some  well- written  choruses.  The  latter  piece  obtained 
a  longer  lease  of  life  than  its  intrinsic  literary  merits  warranted, 
on  account  of  the  popularity  of  the  political  opinions  freely 
expressed  in  it — so  freely  expressed,  indeed,  that  the  displeasure 
of  the  king  was  incurred,  and  Delavigne  lost  his  post.  But  Louis 
Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  willing  to  gain  the  people's  good 
wishes  by  complimenting  their  favourite,  wrote  to  him  as  follows: 
"  The  thunder  has  descended  on  your  house;  I  offer  you  an 
apartment  in  mine."  Accordingly  Delavigne  became  librarian 
at  the  Palais  Royal,  a  position  retained  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  It  was  here  that  he  wrote  the  Ecole  des  ineittards  (1823), 
his  best  comedy,  which  gained  his  election  to  the  Academy  in 
1825.  To  this  period  also  belong  La  Princesse  Aurflie  (1828), 
and  Marino  Faliero  (1829),  a  drama  in  the  romantic  style. 

For  his  success  as  a  writer  Delavigne  was  in  no  small  measure 
indebted  to  the  stirring  nature  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 
The  Messeniennes,  which  first  introduced  him  to  universal 
notice,  had  their  origin  in  the  excitement  consequent  on  the 
occupation  of  France  by  the  allies  in  1815.  Another  crisis  in  his 
life  and  in  the  history  of  his  country,  the  revolution  of  1830, 
stimulated  him  to  the  production  of  a  second  masterpiece,  La 
Parisienne.  This  song,  set  to  music  by  Auber,  was  on  the  lips 
of  every  Frenchman,  and  rivalled  in  popularity  the  Marseillaise. 
A  companion  piece,  La  Varsovienne,  was  written  for  the  Poles, 
by  whom  it  was  sung  on  the  march  to  battle.  Other  works  of 
Delavigne  followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession — Louis  XI 
(1832),  Les  Enfants  d'Edouard  (1833),  Don  Juan  d' Autriche 
(1835),  Une  Famille  au  temps  du  Luther  (1836),  La  Popularite 
(1838),  La  Fitte  du  Cid  (1839),  Le  Conseilkr  rapporteur  (1840), 
and  Charles  VI  (1843),  an  opera  partly  written  by  his  brother. 
In  1843  he  quitted  Paris  to  seek  in  Italy  the  health  his  labours 
had  cost  him.  At  Lyons  his  strength  altogether  gave  way,  and 
he  died  on  the  nth  of  December. 

By  many  of  his  own  time  Delavigne  was  looked  upon  as 
unsurpassed  and  unsurpassable.  Every  one  bought  and  read 
his  works.  But  the  applause  of  the  moment  was  gained  at  the 
sacrifice  of  lasting  fame.  As  a  writer  he  had  many  excellences. 
He  expressed  himself  in  a  terse  and  vigorous  style.  The  poet  of 
reason  rather  than  of  imagination,  he  recognized  his  own  province, 
and  was  rarely  tempted  to  flights  of  fancy  beyond  his  powers. 
He  wrote  always  as  he  would  have  spoken,  from  sincere  con- 
viction. In  private  life  he  was  in  every  way  estimable, — upright, 
amiable,  devoid  of  all  jealousy,  and  generous  to  a  fault. 


DELAWARE 


947 


His  Poesies  and  his  Theatre  were  published  in  1863.  His  (Euvres 
completes  (new  edition,  1855)  contains  a  biographical  notice  by  his 
brother,  Germain  Delavigne,  who  is  best  known  as  a  librettist 
in  opera.  See  also  Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits  litteraires,  vol.  v. ; 
A.  Favrot,  £tude  sur  Casimir  Delavigne  (1894);  and  F.  Vuacheux, 
Casimir  Delavigne  (1893). 

DELAWARE,  a  South  Atlantic  state  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states,  situated  between 
38°  27'  and  30°  50'  N.  lat.  and  between  75°  2'  and  75°  47'  W. 
long.  (For  map  see  MARYLAND.)  It  is  bounded  N.  and  N.W. 
by  Pennsylvania,  E.  by  the  Delaware  river  and  Delaware  Bay, 
which  separate  it  from  New  Jersey,  and  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
S.  and  W.  by  Maryland.  With  the  exception  of  Rhode  Island 
it  is  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union,  its  area  being  2370  sq.  m., 
of  which  405  sq.  m.  are  water  surface. 

Physical  Features. — Delaware  lies  on  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain, 
and  is  for  the  most  part  level  and  relatively  low,  its  average 
elevation  above  the  sea  being  about  50  ft.  It  is  situated  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  peninsula  formed  by  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Delaware  river.  In  the  extreme  N.  the  country  is 
rolling,  with  moderately  high  hills,  moderately  deep  valleys  and 
rapid  streams.  West  of  Wilmington  there  rises  a  ridge  which 
crosses  the  state  in  a  north-westerly  direction  and  forms  a  water- 
shed between  Christiana  and  Brandywine  creeks,  its  highest 
elevation  above  sea-level  being  280  ft.  South  of  the  Christiana 
there  begins  another  elevation,  sandy  and  marshy,  which  extends 
almost  the  entire  length  of  the  state  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  and  forms 
a  second  water-parting.  The  streams  that  drain  the  state  are 
small  and  insignificant.  Those  of  the  N.  flow  into  Brandywine 
and  Christiana  creeks,  whose  estuary  into  Delaware  river  forms 
Wilmington  harbour;  those  of  the  S.W.  have  a  common  outlet 
in  the  Nanticoke  river  of  Maryland;  those  of  the  E.  empty  into 
Delaware  Bay  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  principal  harbours 
are  those  of  Wilmington,  New  Castle  and  Lewes.  The  shore  of 
the  bay  is  marshy,  that  of  the  Atlantic  is  sandy.  In  Kent  county 
there  are  more  than  60,000  acres  of  tidal  marshland,  some  of 
which  has  been  reclaimed  by  means  of  dykes;  Cypress  Swamp 
in  the  extreme  S.  has  an  area  of  50,000  acres.  The  soils  of  the  N. 
are  clays,  sometimes  mixed  with  loam;  those  of  the  central  part 
are  mainly  loams;  while  those  of  the  S.  are  sands. 

Minerals  are  found  only  in  the  N.  part  of  the  state.  Those  of 
economic  value  are  kaolin,  mined  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hockessin,  New  Castle  county,  the  static  kaolin  product  being 
exceeded  in  1903  only  by  that  of  Pennsylvania  among  the  states 
of  the  United  States;  granite,  used  for  road-making  and  rough 
construction  work,  found  near  Wilmington;  and  brick  and  tile 
clays;  but  the  value  of  their  total  product  in  1902  was  less 
than  $500,000.  In  1906  the  total  mineral  product  was  valued 
at  $814,126,  of  which  $237,768  represented  clay  products  and 
$146,346  stone.  In  1902  only  2-2%  of  the  wage-earners  were 
engaged  in  mining. 

The  forests,  which  once  afforded  excellent  timber,  including 
white  oak  for  shipbuilding,  have  been  greatly  reduced  by  con- 
stant cutting;  in  1900  it  was  estimated  that  700  sq.  m.  were 
wooded,  but  practically  none  of  this  stand  was  of  commercial 
importance.  The  fisheries,  chiefly  oyster,  sturgeon  and  shad, 
yield  an  annual  product  valued  at  about  $250,000. 

The  proximity  of  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays  help  to 
give  Delaware  a  mild  and  temperate  climate.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  approximately  55°  F.,  ranging  from  52°  in  the  S. 
to  56°  in  the  N.,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  103°  in 
the  summer  and  —  1 7°  in  the  winter.  The  annual  rainfall,  greater 
on  the  coast  than  inland,  ranges  from  40  to  45  in. 

Industry  and  Trade. — Delaware  is  pre-eminently  an  agricul- 
tural state.  In  1900  85%  of  its  total  land  surface  was  enclosed 
in  farms — a  slight  decline  since  1880.  Seven-tenths  of  this  was 
improved  land,  and  the  expenditure  per  farm  for  fertilizers, 
greater  in  1890  than  the  average  of  the  Atlantic  states,  approxi- 
mated $55  per  farm  in  1900.  In  1899  Delaware  spent  more  per 
acre  for  fertilizers  than  any  of  the  other  states  except  New 
Jersey,  Rhode  Island  and  Maryland.  The  average  size  of  farms, 
as  in  the  other  states,  has  declined,  falling  from  124-6  acres  in 
1880  to  i  io- 1  acres  in  1900.  A  large  proportion  of  farms  (49-7%) 


were  operated  by  the  owners,  and  the  prevailing  form  of  tenantry 
was  the  share  system  by  which  42-5%  of  the  farms  were  culti- 
vated, while  8-24%  of  the  farms  were  operated  by  negroes;  these 
represented  less  than  4%  of  the  total  value  of  farm  property, 
the  average  value  of  farms  operated  by  negroes  being  $17  per 
acre,  that  of  farms  operated  by  whites,  $23  per  acre.  The  total 
value  of  farm  products  in  1900  was  $9,190,777,  an  increase  of 
30%  over  that  of  1890,  while  the  cultivation  of  cereals  suffered 
on  account  of  the  competition  of  the  western  states.  Indian  corn 
and  wheat  form  the  two  largest  crops,  their  product  in  1900  being 
respectively  24%  and  52%  greater  than  in  1890;  but  these 
crops  when  compared  with  those  of  other  states  are  relatively 
unimportant.  In  1906  the  acreage  of  Indian  corn  was  196,472 
acres  with  a  yield  of  5,894,160  bushels  valued  at  $2,475,547,  and 
the  acreage  of  wheat  was  121,745  acres  with  a  yield  of  1,947,920 
bushels  valued  at  $1,383,023.  The  value  of  the  fruit  crop,  for 
which  Delaware  has  long  been  noted,  also  increased  during  the 
same  decade,  but  disease  and  frost  caused  a  marked  decline  in 
the  production  of  peaches,  a  loss  balanced  by  an  increased 
production  of  apples,  pears  and  other  orchard  fruits.  Large 
quantities  of  small  fruits,  particularly  of  strawberries,  raspberries 
and  blackberries,  are  produced,  the  southern  portion  of  Sussex 
county  being  particularly  favourable  for  strawberry  culture. 
The  vicissitudes  of  fruit  raising  have  also  caused  increasing 
attention  to  be  paid  to  market  gardening,  dairying  and  stock 
raising,  particularly  to  market  gardening,  an  industry  which  is 
favoured  by  the  proximity  of  large  cities.  The  same  influence 
also  explains,  partly  at  least,  the  decrease  (of  13%)  in  the  value 
of  farm  property  between  1890  and  1900. 

The  development  of  manufacturing  in  Delaware  has  not  been 
so  extensive  as  its  favourable  situation  relative  to  the  other 
states,  the  facilities  for  water  and  railway  transportation,  and  the 
proximity  of  the  coal  and  iron  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  would  seem 
to  warrant.  In  1905  the  wage-earners  engaged  in  manufacturing 
(under  the  factory  system)  numbered  18,475,  and  the  total 
capital  invested  in  manufacturing  was  $50,925,630;  the  gross 
value  of  products  was  $41,160,276;  the  net  value  (deducting 
the  value  of  material  purchased  in  partly  manufactured  form) 
was  $16,276,470.  The  principal  industry  was  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  products,  which,  including  steel  and  rolling 
mills,  car,  foundry  and  machine  shops,  and  shipyards,  repre- 
sented more  than  30%  of  the  total  capital,  and  approximately 
25%  of  the  total  gross  product  of  the  manufactures  in  the  state. 
The  tanning,  currying  and  finishing  of  leather  ranks  second  in 
importance,  with  a  gross  product  ($10,250,842)  9%  greater  than 
that  of  1900,  and  constituting  about  one-fourth  of  the  gross 
factory  product  of  the  state  in  1905;  and  the  manufacture  of 
food  products  ranked  third,  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  fruit 
canning  and  preserving  industry  having  more  than  doubled  in 
the  decade  1890-1900,  but  falling  off  a  little  more  than  7%  in 
1900-1905.  The  manufacture  of  paper  and  wood  pulp  showed 
an  increased  product  in  1905  19-1%  greater  than  in  1900;  and 
flour  and  grist  mill  products  were  valued  in  1905  43-6%  higher 
than  in  1900.  In  the  grand  total  of  manufactured  products, 
however,  the  state  showed  in  1905  a  decrease  of  4%  from  1900. 
The  great  manufacturing  centre  is  Wilmington,  where  in  1905 
almost  two-thirds  of  the  capital  was  invested,  and  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  product  was  turned  out.  There  is  much  manu- 
facturing also  at  New  Castle. 

Delaware  has  good  facilities  for  transportation.  Its  railway 
mileage  in  January  1907  was  333-6  m.;  the  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore  &  Washington  (Pennsylvania  system),  the  Baltimore 
&  Philadelphia  (Baltimore  &  Ohio  system),  and  the  Wilmington 
&  Northern  (Philadelphia  &  Reading  system)  cross  the  northern 
part  of  the  state,  while  the  Delaware  railway  (leased  by  the 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore  &  Washington)  runs  the  length  of 
the  state  below  Wilmington,  and  another  line,  the  Maryland, 
Delaware  &  Virginia  (controlled  by  the  Baltimore,  Chesapeake  & 
Atlantic  railway,  which  is  related  to  the  Pennsylvania  system), 
connects  Lewes,  Del.,  with  Love  Point,  Md.,  on  the  Chesapeake 
Bay.  There  is  no  state  railway  commission,  and  the  farmers  of 
southern  Delaware  have  suffered  from  excessive  freight  rates. 


DELAWARE 


The  Delaware  &  Chesapeake  Canal  (13$  m.  long,  66  ft.  wide 
and  10  ft.  deep)  crosses  the  N.  part  of  the  state,  connecting 
Delaware  river  and  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  thus  affords  trans- 
portation by  water  from  Baltimore  to  Philadelphia.  The  canal 
was  completed  in  1829;  in  1907  a  commission  appointed  by 
the  president  to  report  on  a  route  for  a  waterway  between 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays  selected  the  route  of  this  canal. 
The  states  of  Maryland  and  Delaware  aided  in  its  construction, 
and  in  1828  the  national  government  also  made  an  appropria- 
tion. Wilmington  is  a  customs  district  in  which  New  Castle  and 
Lewes  are  included;  but  its  trade  is  largely  coastwise.  Rehoboth 
and  Indian  River  bays  are  navigable  for  vessels  of  less  than  6  ft. 
draft.  Opposite  Lewes  is  the  Delaware  Breakwater  (begun  in 
1818  and  completed  in  1869,  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $2,000,000), 
which  forms  a  harbour  16  ft.  deep.  In  1897-1901  the  United 
States  government  constructed  a  harbour  of  refuge,  formed  by  a 
second  breakwater  2^  m.  N.  of  the  existing  one;  its  protected 
anchorage  is  552  acres  and  the  cost  was  more  than  $2,090,000. 
The  harbour  is  about  equidistant  from  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  the  capes  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  is  used  chiefly  by  vessels 
awaiting  orders  to  ports  for  discharge  or  landing.  The  national 
government  also  made  appropriations  for  opening  an  inland 
waterway  from  Lewes  to  Chincoteague  Bay,  Virginia,  for  im- 
proving Wilmington  harbour,  and  for  making  navigable  several 
of  the  larger  streams  of  the  state. 

Population. — The  population  in  1880  was  146,608;  in  1890, 
168,493,  an  increase  of  14-9%;  in  1900,  184,735,  a  further  in- 
crease of  9-6%;  in  1910,  202,322.  The  rate  of  increase  before  1 8 50 
was  considerably  smaller  than  the  rate  after  that  date.  Of  the 
population  in  1900,  92-5%  was  native  born  and  7-5%  was 
foreign-born.  The  negro  population  was  30,697,  or  16-6%  of  the 
total.  In  Indian  River  Hundred,  Sussex  county,  there  formerly 
lived  a  community  of  people, — many  of  whom  are  of  the  fair 
Caucasian  type, — called  "  Indians  "  or  "  Moors  ";  they  are  now 
quite  generally  dispersed  throughout  the  state,  especially  in 
Kent  and  Sussex  counties.  Their  origin  is  unknown,  but  accord- 
ing to  local  tradition  they  are  the  descendants  of  some  Moorish 
sailors  who  were  cast  ashore  many  years  ago  in  a  shipwreck; 
their  own  tradition  is  that  they  are  descended  from  the  children 
of  an  Irish  mother  and  a  negro  father,  these  children  having 
intermarried  with  Indians  of  the  Nanticoke  tribe.  They  have, 
where  practicable,  separate  churches  and  schools,  the  latter 
receiving  state  aid.  The  urban  population  of  Delaware  (i.e.  of 
Wilmington,  the  only  city  having  more  than  5000  inhabitants) 
was,  in  1900,  41-4%  of  the  state's  population.  There  were 
thirty-five  incorporated  cities  and  towns.  The  largest  of  these 
was  the  city  of  Wilmington,  with  76,508  inhabitants.  The  city 
next  in  size,  New  Castle,  had  a  population  of  3380,  while  the 
largest  town,  Dover,  the  capital  of  the  state,  had  3329.  The 
total  number  of  communicants  of  all  denominations  in  1906  was 
71,251, — 32,402  Methodists,  24,228  Roman  Catholics,  5200 
Presbyterians,  3796  Protestant  Episcopalians,  and  2921  Baptists. 
Government. — The  constitution  by  which  Delaware  is  governed 
was  adopted  in  1897.  Like  the  previous  constitutions  of  1776, 
1792  and  1831,  it  was  promulgated  by  a  constitutional  convention 
without  submission  to  the  people  for  ratification,  and  amend- 
ments may  be  adopted  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  house  in  two 
consecutive  legislatures.  Its  character  is  distinctly  democratic. 
The  property  qualification  of  state  senators  and  the  restriction 
of  suffrage  to  those  who  have  paid  county  or  poll  taxes  are 
abolished;  but  suffrage  is  limited  to  male  adults  who  can  read 
the  state  constitution  in  English,  and  can  write  their  names, 
unless  physically  disqualified,  and  who  have  registered.  In  1907 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution  was  adopted,  which  struck 
out  from  the  instrument  the  clause  requiring  the  payment  of 
a  registration  fee  of  one  dollar  by  each  elector.  Important  in- 
novations in  the  constitution  of  1897  are  the  office  of  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  the  veto  power  of  the  governor  which  may  extend 
to  parts  and  clauses  of  appropriation  bills,  but  a  bill  may  be 
passed  over  his  veto  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  each  house  of 
the  legislature,  and  a  bill  becomes  a  law  if  not  returned  to  the 
legislature  within  ten  days  after  its  reception  by  the  governor, 


unless  the  session  of  the  legislature  shall  have  expired  in  the 
meantime.    The  governor's  regular  term  in  office  is  four  years, 
and  he  is  ineligible  for  a  third  term.    All  his  appointments  to 
offices  where  the  salary  is  more  than  $500  must  be  confirmed  by 
the  senate;  all  pardons  must  be  approved  by  a  board  of  pardons. 
Representation  in  the  legislature  is  according  to  districts,  members 
of  the  lower  house  being  chosen  for  two,  and  members  of  the 
upper  house  for  four  years.    Members  of  the  lower  house  must  be 
at  least  twenty-four  years  of  age,  members  of  the  senate  at  least 
twenty-seven ;  members  of  both  houses  must  at  the  time  of  their 
election  have  been  citizens  of  the  state  for  at  least  three  years. 
In  November  1906  the  people  of  the  state  voted  (17,248  for; 
2162  against)  in  favour  of  the  provision  of  a  system  of  advisory 
initiative  and  advisory  referendum;  and  in  March   1907  the 
general  assembly  passed  an  act  providing  initiative  and  refer- 
endum in  the  municipal  affairs  in  the  city  of  Wilmington.    The 
organization  of  the  judiciary  is  similar  to  that  under  the  old 
English  system.    Six  judges — a  chancellor,  a  chief  justice,  and 
four  associate  justices — of  whom  there  shall  be  at  least  one 
resident  in  each  of  the  three  counties,  and  not  more  than  three 
shall  belong  to  the  same  political  party,  are  appointed  by  the 
governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  for  a  term  of  twelve 
years.     A  certain  number  of  them  hold  courts  of  chancery, 
general  sessions,  oyer  and  terminer,  and  an  orphans'  court;  the 
six  together  constitute  the  supreme  court,  but  the  judge  from 
whose  decision  appeal  is  made  may  not  hear  the  appealed  case 
unless  the  appeal  is  made  at  his  own  instance.    Bribery  may  be 
punished  by  fine,  imprisonment  and  disfranchisement  for  ten 
years.    Corporations  cannot  be  created  by  a  special  act  of  the 
legislature,  and  no  corporation  may  issue  stock  except  for  an 
equivalent  value  of  money,  labour  or  property.     In  order  to 
attract  capital  to  the  state,  the  legislature  has  reduced  the  taxes 
on  corporations,  has  forbidden  the  repeal  of  charters,  and  has 
given  permission  for  the  organization  of  corporations  with  both 
the  power  and  name  of  trust  companies.    Legislative  divorces  are 
forbidden  by  the  constitution,  and  a  statute  of  1901  subjects 
wife-beaters  to  corporal  punishment.    Although  punishment  by 
whipping  and  by  standing  in  the  pillory  was  prohibited  by  an  act 
of  Congress  in  1839,  in  so  far  as  the  Federal  government  had 
jurisdiction,  both  these  forms  of  punishment  were  retained  in 
Delaware,  and  standing  in  the  pillory  was  prescribed  by  statute 
as  a  punishment  for  a  number  of  offences,  including  various  kinds 
of  larceny  and  forgery,  highway  robbery,  and  even  pretending 
"  to  exercise  the  art  of  witchcraft,  fortune-telling  or  dealing  with 
spirits,"  at  least  until  1893.    In  1905,  by  a  law  approved  on  the 
2oth  of  March,  the  pillory  was  abolished.    The  whipping-post  was 
in  1908  still  maintained  in  Delaware,  and  whipping  continued  to 
be  prescribed  as  a  punishment  for  a  variety  of  offences,  although 
in  1889  a  law  was  passed  which  prescribed  that  "  hereafter  no 
female  convicted  of  any  crime  in  this  state  shall  be  whipped  or 
made  to  stand  in  the  pillory,"  and  a  law  passed  in  1883  prescribed 
that  "  in  case  of  conviction  of  larceny,  when  the  prisoner  is  of 
tender  years,  or  is  charged  for  the  first  time  (being  shown  to  have 
before  had  a  good  character),  the  court  may  in  its  discretion  omit 
from  the  sentence  the  infliction  of  lashes."    An  old  law  still  on 
the  statute-books  when  the  edition  of  the  revised  statutes  was 
issued  in  1893,  prescribes  that  "  the  punishment  of  whipping 
shall  be  inflicted  publicly  by  strokes  on  the  bare  back,  well  laid 
on." 

The  unit  of  local  government  is  the  "  hundred,"  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  township  of  Pennsylvania.  The  employment  of 
children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  in  factories  is  forbidden  by 
statute.  Divorces  are  granted  for  adultery,  desertion  for  three 
years,  habitual  drunkenness,  impotence  at  the  time  of  marriage, 
fraud,  lack  of  marriageable  age  (eighteen  for  males,  sixteen  for 
females),  and  failure  of  husband  to  provide  for  his  wife  during 
three  consecutive  years.  The  marriages  of  whites  with  negroes 
and  of  insane  persons  are  null;  but  the  children  of  the  married 
insane  are  legitimate. 

In  1908  the  state  debt  was  $816,785,  and  the  assets  in  bonds, 
railway  mortgages  and  bank  stocks  exceeded  the  liabilities  by 
$7J7>779-  Besides  the  income  from  interest  and  dividends 


DELAWARE 


949 


on  investments,  the  state  revenues  are  derived  from  taxes  on 
licences,  on  commissions  to  public  officers,  on  railway,  telegraph 
and  telephone,  express,  and  banking  companies,  and  to  a  slight 
extent  from  taxes  on  collateral  inheritance. 

Education. — The  charitable  and  penal  administration  of 
Delaware  is  not  well  developed.  There  is  a  state  hospital  for 
the  insane  at  Farnhurst.  Other  dependent  citizens  are  cared  for 
in  the  institutions  of  other  states  at  public  expense.  In  1899 
a  county  workhouse  was  established  in  New  Castle  county,  in 
which  persons  under  sentence  must  labour  eight  hours  a  day,  pay 
being  allowed  for  extra  hours,  and  a  diminution  of  sentence  for 
good  behaviour.  At  Wilmington  is  the  Ferris  industrial  school 
for  boys,  a  private  reformatory  institution  to  which  New  Castle 
county  gives  $146  for  each  boy;  and  the  Delaware  industrial 
school  for  girls,  also  at  Wilmington,  receives  financial  support 
from  both  county  and  state. 

The  educational  system  of  the  state  has  been  considerably 
improved  within  recent  years.  The  maintenance  of  a  system  of 
public  schools  is  rendered  compulsory  by  the  state  constitution, 
and  a  new  compulsory  school  law  came  into  effect  in  1907.  The 
first  public  school  law,  passed  in  1829,  was  based  largely  on  the 
principle  of  "  local  option,"  each  school  district  being  left  free 
to  determine  the  character  of  its  own  school  or  even  to  decide, 
if  it  wished,  against  having  any  school  at  all.  The  system  thus 
established  proved  to  be  very  unsatisfactory,  and  a  new  school 
law  in  1875  brought  about  a  greater  degree  of  uniformity 
and  centralization  through  its  provisions  for  the  appointment 
of  a  state  superintendent  of  free  schools  and  a  state  board  of 
education.  In  1888,  however,  the  state  superintendency  was 
abolished,  and  county  superintendencies  were  created  instead, 
the  legislature  thus  returning,  in  a  measure,  to  the  old  system  of 
local  control.  Centralization  was  again  secured,  in  1898,  by  the 
passage  of  a  law  reorganizing  and  increasing  the  powers  of  the 
state  board  of  education.  The  state  school  fund,  ranging  from 
about  $150,000  to  $160,000  a  year,  is  apportioned  among  the 
school  districts,  according  to  the  number  of  teachers  employed, 
and  is  used  exclusively  for  teachers'  salaries  and  the  supplying 
of  free  text-books.  This  fund  is  supplemented  by  local  taxation. 
No  discrimination  is  allowed  on  account  of  race  or  colour;  but 
separate  schools  are  provided  for  white  and  coloured  children. 
Delaware  College  (non-sectarian)  at  Newark,  founded  in  1833  as 
Newark  College  and  rechartered,  after  suspension  from  1859  to 
1870,  under  the  present  name,  as  a  state  institution,  derives 
most  of  its  financial  support  from  the  United  States  Land  Grant 
of  1862  and  the  supplementary  appropriation  of  1890,  and  is 
the  seat  of  an  agricultural  experiment  station,  established  in 
1888  under  the  so-called  "  Hatch  Bill  "  of  1887.  In  1906-1907 
Delaware  College  had  20  instructors  and  130  students.  The 
college  is  a  part  of  the  free  school  system  of  Delaware,  and  tuition 
is  free  to  all  students  from  the  state.  There  is  an  agricultural 
college  for  negroes  at  Dover;  this  college  receives  one-fifth  of 
the  appropriation  made  by  the  so-called  "  new  Morrill  Bill  "  of 
1890. 

History. — Delaware  river  and  bay  were  first  explored  on  behalf 
of  the  Dutch  by  Henry  Hudson  in  1609,  and  more  thoroughly 
in  1615-1616  by  Cornelius  Hendrikson,  whose  reports  did  much 
to  cause  the  incorporation  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company. 
The  first  settlement  on  Delaware  soil  was  made  under  the  auspices 
of  members  of  this  company  in  1631  near  the  site  of  the  present 
Lewes.  The  leaders,  one  of  whom  was  Captain  David  P.  de  Vries, 
wished  "  to  plant  a  colony  for  the  cultivation  of  grain  and  tobacco 
as  well  as  to  carry  on  the  whale  fishery  in  that  region."  The 
settlement,  however,  was  soon  completely  destroyed  by  the 
Indians.  (See  LEWES.)  A  more  successful  effort  at  colonization 
was  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  South  Company  of  Sweden, 
a  corporation  organized  in  1624  as  the  "  Australian  Company," 
by  William  Usselinx,  who  had  also  been  the  chief  organizer  of 
the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  and  now  secured  a  charter 
or  manifest  from  Gustavus  Adolphus.  The  privileges  of  the 
company  were  extended  to  Germans  in  1633,  and  about  1640 
the  Dutch  members  were  bought  out.  In  1638  Peter  Minuit  on 
behalf  of  this  company  established  a  settlement  at  what  is  now 


Wilmington,  naming  it,  in  honour  of  the  infant  queen  Christina, 
Christinaham,  and  naming  the  entire  territory,  bought  by  Minuit 
from  the  Minquas  Indians  and  extending  indefinitely  westward 
from  the  Delaware  river  between  Bombay  Hook  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Schuylkill  river,  "  New  Sweden."  This  territory  was 
subsequently  considerably  enlarged.  In  1642  mature  plans  for 
colonization  were  adopted.  A  new  company,  officially  known 
as  the  West  India,  American,  or  New  Sweden  Company,  but  like 
its  predecessor  popularly  known  as  the  South  Company,  was 
chartered,  and  a  governor,  Johan  Printz  (c.  1600-1663)  was  sent 
out  by  the  crown.  He  arrived  early  in  1643  and  subsequently 
established  settlements  on  the  island  of  Tinicum,  near  the  present 
Chester,  Pennsylvania,  at  the  mouth  of  Salem  Creek,  New  Jersey, 
and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill  river.  Friction  had  soon 
arisen  with  New  Netherland,  although,  owing  to  their  common 
dislike  of  the  English,  the  Swedes  and  the  Dutch  had  main- 
tained a  formal  friendship.  In  1651,  however,  Peter  Stuyvesant, 
governor  of  New  Netherland,  and  more  aggressive  than  his  pre- 
decessors, built  Fort  Casimir,  near  what  is  now  New  Castle. 
In  1654  Printz's  successor,  Johan  Claudius  Rising,  who  had 
arrived  from  Sweden  with  a  large  number  of  colonists,  expelled 
the  Dutch  from  Fort  Casimir.  In  retaliation,  Stuyvesant,  in 
1655,  with  seven  vessels  and  as  many  hundred  men,  recaptured 
the  fort  and  also  captured  Fort  Christina  (Wilmington).  New 
Sweden  thus  passed  into  the  control  of  the  Dutch,  and  became 
a  dependency  of  New  Netherland.  In  1656,  however,  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company  sold  part  of  what  had  been  New  Sweden  to 
the  city  of  Amsterdam,  which  in  the  following  year  established 
a  settlement  called  "  New  Amstel  "  at  Fort  Casimir  (New  Castle). 
This  settlement  was  badly  administered  and  made  little  progress. 

In  1663  the  whole  of  the  Delaware  country  came  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  but  in  the  following  year 
this  territory,  with  New  Netherland,  was  seized  by  the  English. 
For  a  brief  interval,  in  1673-1674,  the  Dutch  were  again  in  control, 
but  in  the  latter  year,  by  the  treaty  of  Westminster,  the  "  three 
counties  on  the  Delaware  "  again  became  part  of  the  English 
possessions  in  America  held  by  the  duke  of  York,  later  James  II. 
His  formal  grant  from  Charles  II.  was  not  received  until  March 
1683.  In  order  that  no  other  settlements  should  encroach  upon 
his  centre  of  government,  New  Castle,  the  northern  boundary  was 
determined  by  drawing  an  arc  of  a  circle,  12  m.  in  radius,  and 
with  New  Castle  as  the  centre.  This  accounts  for  the  present 
curved  boundary  line  between  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania. 
Previously,  however,  in  August  1680,  the  duke  of  York  had 
leased  this  territory  for  10,000  years  to  William  Penn,  to  whom 
he  conveyed  it  by  a  deed  of  feoff ment  in  August  1682;  but 
differences  in  race  and  religion,  economic  rivalry  between  New 
Castle  and  the  Pennsylvania  towns,  and  petty  political  quarrels 
over  representation  and  office  holding,  similar  to  those  in  the 
other  American  colonies,  were  so  intense  that  Penn  in  1691 
appointed  a  special  deputy  governor  for  the  "  lower  counties." 
Although  reunited  with  the  "  province  "  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1693,  the  so-called  "  territories  "  or  "  lower  counties  "  secured  a 
separate  legislature  in  1704,  and  a  separate  executive  council  in 
1710;  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  however,  was  the  chief 
executive  until  1776.  A  protracted  boundary  dispute  with  Mary- 
land, which  colony  at  first  claimed  the  whole  of  Delaware  under 
Lord  Baltimore's  charter,  was  not  settled  until  1767,  when  the 
present  line  separating  Delaware  and  Maryland  was  adopted. 
In  the  War  of  Independence  Delaware  furnished  only  one 
regiment  to  the  American  army,  but  that  was  one  of  the  best  in 
the  service.  One  of  its  companies  carried  a  number  of  game- 
cocks said  to  have  been  the  brood  of  a  blue  hen;  hence  the 
soldiers,  and  later  the  people  of  the  state,  have  been  popularly 
known  as  the  "  Blue  Hen's  Chickens." 

In  1776  a  state  government  was  organized,  representative  of 
the  Delaware  state,  the  term  "  State  of  Delaware  "  being  first 
adopted  in  the  constitution  of  1792.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of 
the  government  was  that  in  addition  to  the  regular  executive, 
legislative  and  judicial  departments  there  was  a  privy  council 
without  whose  approval  the  governor's  power  was  little  more 
than  nominal.  In  1786  Delaware  was  one  of  the  five  states 


950 


DELAWARE 


whose  delegates  attended  the  Annapolis  Convention  (see  ANNA- 
POLIS, Maryland),  and  it  was  the  first  (on  the  yth  of  December 
1787)  to  ratify  the  Federal  constitution.  From  then  until  1850 
it  was  controlled  by  the  Federalist  or  Whig  parties.  In  1850  the 
Democrats,  who  had  before  then  elected  a  few  governors  and 
United  States  senators,  secured  control  of  the  entire  administra- 
tion— a  control  unarrcsted,  except  in  1863,  until  the  last  decade 
of  the  ipth  century.  Although  it  was  a  slave  state,  the  majority 
of  the  people  of  Delaware  opposed  secession  in  1861,  and  the 
legislature  promptly  answered  President  Lincoln's  call  to  arms; 
yet,  while  14,000  of  the  40,000  males  between  the  ages  of  fourteen 
and  sixty  served  in  the  Union  army,  there  were  many  sympa- 
thizers with  the  Confederacy  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 

In  1866,  1867  and  1869,  respectively,  the  legislature  refused  to 
ratify  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amendments  to 
the  Federal  constitution.  The  provision  of  the  state  constitu- 
tion that  restricted  suffrage  to  those  who  had  paid  county  or  poll 
taxes  and  made  the  tax  lists  the  basis  for  the  lists  of  qualified 
voters,  opened  the  way  for  the  disfranchisement  of  many  negroes 
by  fraudulent  means.  Consequently  the  levy  court  of  New 
Castle  county  was  indicted  in  the  United  States  circuit  court 
in  1872,  and  one  of  its  members  was  convicted.  Again  in  1880 
the  circuit  court,  by  virtue  of  the  Fedeial  statute  of  1872  on 
elections,  appointed  supervisors  of  elections  in  Delaware.  The 
negro  vote  has  steadily  increased  in  importance,  and  in  1900 
was  approximately  one-fifth  of  the  total  vote  of  the  state.  In 
1901  the  legislature  ratified  the  three  amendments  rejected  in 
former  years.  Another  political  problem '  has  been  that  of 
representation.  According  to  the  constitution  of  1831  the  unit 
of  representation  in  the  legislature  was  the  county;  inasmuch 
as  the  population  of  New  Castle  county  has  exceeded  after  1870 
that  of  both  Kent  and  Sussex,  the  inequality  became  a  cause  of 
discontent.  This  is  partly  eradicated  by  the  new  constitution  of 
1897,  which  reapportioned  representation  according  to  electoral 
districts,  so  that  New  Castle  has  seven  senators  and  fifteen 
representatives,  while  each  of  the  other  counties  has  seven 
senators  and  ten  representatives. 

In  1889  the  Republicans  for  the  first  time  since  the  Civil  War 
secured  a  majority  in  the  legislature,  and  elected  Anthony  J. 
Higgins  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  that  year  a  capitalist 
and  promoter,  J.  Edward  Addicks  (b.  1841,  in  Pennsylvania), 
became  a  citizen  of  the  state,  and  after  securing  for  himself  the 
control  of  the  Wilmington  gas  supply,  systematically  set  about 
building  up  a  personal  "  machine  "  that  would  secure  his  elec- 
tion to  the  national  Senate  as  a  Republican.  His  purpose  was 
thwarted  in  1893,  when  a  Democratic  majority  chose,  for  a  second 
term,  George  Gray  (b.  1840),  who  from  1879  to  1885  had  been  the 
attorney-general  of  the  state  and  subsequently  was  a  member 
of  the  Spanish- American  Peace  Commission  at  Paris  in  1898  and 
became  a  judge  of  the  United  States  circuit  court,  third  judicial 
circuit,  in  1899.  Mr  Addicks  was  an  avowed  candidate  in  1895, 
but  the  opposition  of  the  Regular  "Republicans,  who  accused 
him  of  corruption  and  who  held  the  balance  of  power,  prevented 
an  election.  In  1897,  the  legislature  being  again  Democratic, 
Richard  R.  Kenney  (b.  1856)  was  chosen  to  fill  the  vacancy 
for  the  remainder  of  the  unexpired  term.  Meanwhile  the  two 
Republican  factions  continued  to  oppose  one  another,  and  both 
sent  delegates  to  the  national  party  convention  in  1896,  the 
"  regular  "  delegation  being  seated.  The  expiration  of  Senator 
Gray's  term  in  1899  left  a  vacancy,  but  although  the  Republicans 
again  had  a  clear  majority  the  resolution  of  the  Regulars  pre- 
vented the  Union  Republicans,  as  the  supporters  of  Addicks 
called  themselves,  from  seating  their  patron.  Both  the  Regular 
and  Union  factions  sent  delegations  to  the  national  party  con- 
vention in  1900,  where  the  refusal  of  the  Regulars  to  compromise 
led  to  the  recognition  of  the  Union  delegates.  Despite  this 
apparent  abandonment  of  their  cause  by  the  national  organiza- 
tion, the  Regulars  continued  their  opposition,  the  state  being 
wholly  without  representation  in  the  Senate  from  the  expiration 
of  Senator  Kenney 's  term  in  1901  until  1903,  when  a  compromise 
was  effected  whereby  two  Republicans,  one  of  each  faction, 
were  chosen,  one  condition  being  that  Addicks  should  not  be  the 


candidate  of  the  Union  Republicans.  Both  factions  were  recog- 
nized by  the  national  convention  of  1904,  but  the  legislature  of 
1905  adjourned  without  being  able  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the  Senate 
which  had  again  occurred.  The  deadlock,  however,  was  broken 
at  the  special  session  of  the  legislature  called  in  1906,  and  in  June 
of  that  year  Henry  A.  Du  Pont  was  elected  senator. 
GOVERNORS  OF  DELAWARE 


1638-1640 
1640-1643 
1643-1653 

1653-1654 
1654-1655 


I.  Swedish. 
Peter  Minuit 
Peter  Hollander    . 
Johan  Printz 
Johan  Papegpga  (acting) 
Johan  Claudius  Rising  . 

II.  Dutch. 
(Same  as  for  New  York.) 

III.  English. 

(Same  as  New  York  until  1682.) 
(Same  as  Pennsylvania  1682-1776.) 

PRESIDENTS  OF  DELAWARE 

John  McKinley     .  1776-1778 

Caesar  Rodney     .  1778-1781 

John  Dickinson     .  1781-1783 


Nicholas  Van  Dyke 
Thomas  Collins    . 


1783-1786 
1786-1789 


Joshua  Clayton 
Gunning  Bedford 
Daniel  Rogers1 
Richard  Bassett 
James  Sykes* 
David  Hall 
Nathaniel  Mitchell     . 
George  Truett 
Joseph  Haslett 
Daniel  Rodney 
John  Clarke 
Henry  Malleston ' 
Jacob  Stout  *    . 
John  Collins 
Caleb  Rodney  6 
Joseph  Haslett 
Charles  Thomas  • 
Samuel  Paynter 
Charles  Polk     . 
David  Hazzard 
Caleb  P.  Bennett 
Charles  Polk'   . 
Cornelius  P.  Comegys. 
William  B.  Cooper     . 
Thomas  Stockton 
Joseph  Maul8   . 
William  Temple9 
William  Tharp 
William  H.  Ross 
Peter  F.  Causey 
William  Burton 
William  Cannon 
Gove  Saulsbury 10 
James  Ponder 
John  P.  Cockran 
John  W.  Hall    . 
Charles  C.  Stockley 
Benjamin  T.  Biggs 
Robert  I.  Reynolds   . 
Joshua  H.  Marvil 
William  T.  Watson" 
Ebe  W.  Tunnell 
John  Hunn 
Preston  Lea 
Simeon  S.  Pennewill 


GOVERNORS 

1789-1796  Federalist 

1796-1797 

1797-1799 

1799-1801 

1801-1802 

1802-1805  Fed  ralist 

1805-1808 

1808-1811 

1811-1814 

1814-1817 

1817-1820 

1820 

1820-1821 

1821-1822  Democratic-Republican 

1822  ., 

1822-1823  Democratic- Republican 

1823-1824 

1824-1827  Federalist 

1827-1830 

1830-1833  American-Republican 

1833-1836  Democrat 

1836-1837       ,. 

1837-1841  Whig 

1841-1845      „ 

1845-1846       „ 

1846 

1846-1847       " 

1847-1851   Democrat 

1851-1855 

1855-1859  Whig-Know-Nothing 

1859-1863  Democrat 

1863-1865  Republican 

1865-1871   Democrat 

1871-1875 

1875-1879 

1879-1883 

1883-1887  „ 

1887-1891 

1891-1895 

1895  Republican 

1895-1897  Democrat 

1897-1901  „ 

1901-1905  Republican 

1905-1909 

1909 

Filled    unexpired    term   of   Gunning 


Filled  unexpired  term  of  Richard  Bassett, 


1  Speaker   of   the   senate. 
Bedford  (d.  1797). 

1  Speaker  of  senate, 
who  resigned  1801. 

'  Died  before  he  was  inaugurated. 

4  Speaker  of  the  senate. 

8  Speaker  of  the  senate,  John  Collins  dying  in  1822. 

*  Speaker  of  senate,  Hasfett  dying  in  1823. 

7  Speaker  of  senate. 

8  Speaker  of  senate,  Stockton  dying  in  1846. 

9  Speaker  of  senate,  Maul  dying  in  1846. 

10  As  speaker  of  the  senate  filled  the  unexpired  term  of  Cannon 
(d.  1865),  and  then  became  governor  in  1867. 

11  President  of  senate,  Marvil  dying  in  1895. 


DELAWARE— DELAWARE  WATER-GAP 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Information  about  manufactures,  mining  and 
agriculture  may  be  found  in  the  reports  of  the  Twelfth  Census  of  the 
United  States,  especially  Bulletins  69  and  100.  The  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  at  Newark,  publishes  in  its  Annual  Report  a 
record  of  temperature  and  rainfall.  For  law  and  administration  see 
Constitution  of  Delaware  (Dover,  1899)  and  the  Revised  Code  of 
1852,  amended  1893  (Wilmington,  1893).  For  education  see  L.  B. 
Powell,  History  of  Education  in  Delaware  (Washington,  1893),  and  a 
sketch  in  the  Annual  Report  for  1902  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education.  The  most  elaborate  history  is  that  of  John 
Thomas  Scharf ,  History  of  the  State  of  Delaw are  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia, 
1888);  the  second  volume  is  entirely  biographical.  Claes  T.  Odhner's 
brief  sketch,  Kolonien  Nya  Sveriges  Grundldggning,  1637-1642 
(Stockholm,  1876 ;  English  translation  in  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine 
of  History  and  Biography,  vol.  iii.),  and  Carl  K.  S.  Sprinchorn's 
Kolonien  Nya  Sveriges  Historia  (1878;  English  translation  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History  and  Biography,  vols.  vii.  and  viii.) 
are  based,  in  part,  on  documents  in  the  Swedish  Royal  Archives 
and  at  the  universities  of  Upsala  and  Lund,  which  were  unknown  to 
Benjamin  Ferris  (History  of  the  Original  Settlements  of  the  Delaware, 
Wilmington,  1846)  and  Francis  Vincent  (History  of  the  State  of 
Delaware,  Philadelphia,  1870),  which  ends  with  the  English  occupa- 
tion in  1664.  In  vol.  iv.  of  Justin  Winspr's  Narrative  and  Critical 
History  of  America  (Boston,  1884)  there  is  an  excellent  chapter  by 
Gregory  B.  Keen  on  "  New  Sweden,  or  the  Swedes  on  the  Dela- 
ware," to  which  a  bibliographical  chapter  is  appended.  The  Papers 
of  the  Historical  Society  of  Delaware  (1879  seq.)  contain  valuable 
material.  In  part  ii.  of  the  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  U.S. 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  for  1893  (Washington,  1905)  there  is 
"  A  Historical  Account  of  the  Boundary  Line  between  the  States 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  by  W.  C.  Hodgkins."  The  colonial 
records  are  preserved  with  those  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania; 
only  one  volume  of  the  State  Records  has  been  published,  and 
Minutes  of  the  Council  of  Delaware  State,  1776-1792  (Dover,  1886). 
For  political  conditions  since  the  Civil  War  see  vol.  141  of  the 
North  American  Review,  vol.  32  of  the  Forum,  and  vol.  73  of  the 
Outlook — all  published  in  New  York. 

DELAWARE,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Delaware  county, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Olentangy  (or  Whetstone)  river,  near  the 
centre  of  the  state.  Pop.  (1890)  8224;  (1900)  7940  (572  being 
foreign-born  and  432  negroes) ;  (1910)  9076.  Delaware  is  served 
by  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St 
Louis  (New  York  Central  system),  and  the  Hocking  Valley 
railways,  and  by  two  interurban  lines.  The  city  is  built  on 
rolling  ground  about  900  ft.  above  sea-level.  There  are  many 
sulphur  and  iron  springs  in  the  vicinity.  Delaware  is  the  seat  of 
the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University  (co-educational),  founded  by  the 
Ohio  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1841,  and 
opened  as  a  college  in  1844;  it  includes  a  college  of  liberal  arts 
(1844),  an  academic  department  (1841),  a  school  of  music  (1877), 
a  school  of  fine  arts  (1877),  a  school  of  oratory  (1894),  a  business 
school  (1895),  and  a  college  of  medicine  (the  Cleveland  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  at  Cleveland,  Ohio;  founded  as  the 
Charity  Hospital  Medical  College  in  1863,  and  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  university  of  Wooster  until  1896,  when,  under  its 
present  name,  it  became  a  part  of  Ohio  Wesleyan  University). 
In  1877  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  female  college,established  at  Delaware 
in  1853,  was  incorporated  in  the  university.  In  1907-1908  the 
university  had  122  instructors,  1178  students  and  a  library  of 
55.395  volumes.  At  Delaware,  also,  are  the  state  industrial 
school  for  girls,  a  Carnegie  library,  the  Edwards  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  building  and  a  city  hospital.  The  city 
has  railway  shops  and  foundries,  and  manufactures  furniture, 
carriages,  tile,  cigars  and  gas  engines.  Delaware  was  laid  out  in 
1808  and  was  first  incorporated  in  1815.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  president  of  the  United  States  from 
1877  to  1881. 

DELAWARE  INDIANS,  the  English  name  for  the  Leni  Lenape, 
a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of  Algonquian  stock.  When 
first  discovered  by  the  whites  the  tribe  was  settled  on  the  banks 
of  the  Delaware  river.  The  French  called  them  Loups  (wolves) 
from  their  chief  totemic  division.  Early  in  the  I7th  century  the 
Dutch  began  trading  with  them.  Subsequently  William  Penn 
bought  large  tracts  of  land  from  them,  and  war  followed,  the 
Delawares  alleging  they  had  been  defrauded;  but,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Six  Nations,  the  whites  forced  them  back  west 
of  the  Alleghenies.  In  1789  they  were  placed  on  a  reservation  in 
Ohio  and  subsequently  in  1818  were  moved  to  Missouri.  Various 
removals  followed,  until  in  1866  they  accepted  lands  in  the  Indian 


They 


territory  (Oklahoma)  and  gave  up  the  tribal  relation, 
have  remained  there  and  now  number  some  1 700. 

DELAWARE  RIVER,  a  stream  of  the  Atlantic  slope  of  the 
United  States,  meeting  tide-water  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,i3O  m. 
above  its  mouth.  Its  total  length,  from  the  head  of  the  longest 
branch  to  the  capes,  is  410  m.,  and  above  the  head  of  the  bay  its 
length  is  360  m.  It  constitutes  in  part  the  boundary  between 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  the  boundary  between  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  and,  for  a  few  miles,  the  boundary 
between  Delaware  and  New  Jersey.  The  main,  west  or  Mohawk 
branch  rises  in  Schoharie  county,  N.Y.,  about  1886  ft.  above 
the  sea,  and  flows  tortuously  through  the  plateau  in  a  deep 
trough  until  it  emerges  from  the  Catskills.  Other  branches  rise 
in  Greene  and  Delaware  counties.  In  the  upper  portion  of  its 
course  the  varied  scenery  of  its  hilly  and  wooded  banks  is 
exquisitely  beautiful.  After  leaving  the  mountains  and  plateau, 
the  river  flows  down  broad  Appalachian  valleys,  skirts  the 
Kittatinny  range,  which  it  crosses  at  Delaware  Water-Gap, 
between  nearly  vertical  walls  of  sandstone,  and  passes  through  a 
quiet  and  charming  country  of  farm  and  forest,  diversified  with 
plateaus  and  escarpments,  until  it  crosses  the  Appalachian 
plain  and  enters  the  hills  again  at  Easton,  Pa.  From  this  point 
it  is  flanked  at  intervals  by  fine  hills,  and  in  places  by  cliffs, 
of  which  the  finest  are  the  Hockamixon  Rocks,  3  m.  long  and 
above  200  ft.  high.  At  Trenton  there  is  a  fall  of  8  ft.  Below 
Trenton  the  river  becomes  a  broad,  sluggish  inlet  of  the  sea,  with 
many  marshes  along  its  side,  widening  steadily  into  its  great 
estuary,  Delaware  Bay.  Its  main  tributaries  in  New  York  are 
Mongaup  and  Neversink  rivers  and  Callicoon  Creek;  from  Penn- 
sylvania, Lackawaxen,  Lehigh  and  Schuylkill  rivers;  and  from 
New  Jersey,  Rancocas  Creek  and  Musconetcong  and  Maurice 
rivers.  Commerce  was  once  important  on  the  upper  river,  but 
only  before  the  beginning  of  railway  competition  (1857).  The 
Delaware  division  of  the  Pennsylvania  Canal,  running  parallel 
with  the  river  from  Easton  to  Bristol,  was  opened  in  1830.  A 
canal  from  Trenton  to  New  Brunswick  unites  the  waters  of  the 
Delaware  and  Raritan  rivers;  the  Morris  and  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  canals  connect  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  rivers;  and 
the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  canal  joins  the  waters  of  the 
Delaware  with  those  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  mean  tides 
below  Philadelphia  are  about  6  ft.  The  magnitude  of  the 
commerce  of  Philadelphia  has  made  the  improvements  of  the 
river  below  that  port  of  great  importance.  Small  improvements 
were  attempted  by  Pennsylvania  as  early  as  1771,  but  apparently 
never  by  New  Jersey.  The  ice  floods  at  Easton  are  normally 
10  to  20  ft.,  and  in  1841  attained  a  height  of  35  ft.  These  floods 
constitute  a  serious  difficulty  in  the  improvement  of  the  lower 
river.  In  the  "  project  of  1885  "  the  United  States  government 
undertook  systematically  the  formation  of  a  26-ft.  channel 
600  ft.  wide  from  Philadelphia  to  deep  water  in  Delaware  Bay; 
$1,532,688-81  was  expended — about  $200,000  of  that  amount 
for  maintenance — before  the  1885  project  was  superseded  by  a 
paragraph  of  the  River  and  Harbor  Act  of  the  3rd  of  March 
1899,  which  provided  for  a  30-ft.  channel  600  ft.  wide  from 
Philadelphia  to  the  deep  water  of  the  bay.  In  1899  the  project 
of  1885  had  been  completed  except  for  three  shoal  stretches, 
whose  total  length,  measured  on  the  range  lines,  was  4!  m. 
The  project  of  1899,  estimated  to  cost  $5,810,000,  was  not 
completed  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  (June  30)  1907,  when 
$4.936,550-63  had  been  expended  by  the  Federal  government 
on  the  work;  in  1905  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  appropriated 
$750,000  for  improvement  of  the  river  in  Pennsylvania,  south 
of  Philadelphia. 

DELAWARE  WATER-GAP,  a  borough  and  summer  resort  of 
Monroe  county,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Delaware  river, 
about  108  m.  N.  of  Philadelphia  and  about  88  m.  W.  by  N.  of 
New  York.  Pop.  (1800)  467;  (1900)  469.  It  is  served  directly 
by  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western,  and  by  the  Belvidere 
division  of  the  Pennsylvania  railways;  along  the  river  on  the 
opposite  side  (in  New  Jersey)  runs  the  New  York,  Susquehanna 
&  Western  railway,  and  the  borough  is  connected  with  Stroudf- 
burg,  Pa.  (about  3  m.  W.  by  N.\  by  an  electric  line.  The  borough 


952 


DE  LA  WARR— DELBRUCK 


was  named  from  the  neighbouring  gorge,  which  is  noted  for  the 
picturesqueness  of  its  scenery,  especially  in  winter,  when  the  ice 
piles  up  in  the  river,  sometimes  to  a  height  of  20  ft.  Here  the 
river  cuts  through  the  Kittatinny  (Blue)  Ridge  to  its  base.  On 
the  New  Jersey  side  is  Mt.  Tammany  (about  1600  ft.);  on 
the  Pennsylvania  side,  Mt.  Minsi  (about  1500  ft.);  the  elevation 
of  the  river  here  is  about  300  ft.  The  gap  (about  2  m.  long) 
through  the  mountain  is  the  result  of  erosion  by  the  waters  of  a 
great  river  which  flowed  northwards  acting  along  a  line  of  fault- 
ing at  right  angles  to  the  strike  of  the  tilted  rock  formations. 
The  scenery  and  the  delightful  climate  have  made  the  place  a 
popular  summer  resort.  The  borough  was  incorporated  in  1889. 
See  L.  W.  Brodhead,  The  Delaware  Water-Gap  (Philadelphia, 
2nd  ed.,  1870). 

DE  LA  WARR,  or  DELAWARE,  an  English  barony,  the  holders 
of  which  are  descended  from  Roger  de  la  Warr  of  Isfield,  Sussex, 
who  was  summoned  to  parliament  as  a  baron  in  1299  and 
the  following  years.  He  died  about  1320;  his  great-grandson 
Roger,  to  whom  the  French  king  John  surrendered  at  the  battle 
of  Poitiers,  died  in  1370;  and  the  male  line  of  the  family  became 
extinct  on  the  death  of  Thomas,  5th  baron,  in  1426. 

The  5th  baron's  half-sister  Joan  married  Thomas  West,  ist 
Lord  West  (d.  1405),  and  in  1415  her  second  son  Reginald 
(1394-1451)  succeeded  his  brother  Thomas  as  3rd  Lord  West. 
After  the  death  of  his  uncle  Thomas,  5th  Baron  De  La  Warr, 
whose  estates  he  inherited,  Reginald  was  summoned  to  parlia- 
ment as  Baron  La  Warr,  and  he  is  thus  the  second  founder  of  the 
family.  His  grandson  was  Thomas,  3rd  (or  8th)  baron  (d.  1525), 
a  courtier  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.; 
and  the  latter's  son  was  Thomas,  4th  (or  9th)  baron  (c.  1472- 
1554).  The  younger  Thomas  was  a  very  prominent  person 
during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI.  After  serving 
with  the  English  army  in  France  in  1513  and  being  present  at  the 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  he  rebuilt  the  house  at  Halnaker  in 
Sussex,  which  he  had  obtained  by  marriage,  and  here  in  1526  he 
entertained  Henry  VIII.  "  with  great  cheer."  He  disliked  the 
ecclesiastical  changes  introduced  by  the  king,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  peers  who  tried  Anne  Boleyn ;  later  he  showed  some  eagerness 
to  stand  well  with  Thomas  Cromwell,  but  this  did  not  prevent 
his  arrest  in  1538.  He  is  said  to  have  denounced  "  the  plucking 
down  of  abbeys,"  and  he  certainly  consorted  with  many  suspected 
persons.  But  he  was  soon  released  and  pardoned,  although  he 
was  obliged  to  hand  over  Halnaker  to  Henry  VIII.,  receiving 
instead  the  estate  of  Wherwell  in  Hampshire.  He  died  without 
children  in  September  1554,  when  his  baronies  of  De  La  Warr  and 
West  fell  into  abeyance.  His  monument  may  still  be  seen  in  the 
church  at  Broadwater,  Sussex. 

He  had  settled  his  estates  on  his  nephew  William  West  (c.  1 519- 
1 595) ,  who  then  tried  to  bring  about  his  uncle 's  death  by  poison  ; 
for  this  reason  he  was  disabled  by  act  of  parliament  (1549)  from 
succeeding  to  his  honours.  However,  in  1563  he  was  restored, 
and  in  1570  was  created  by  patent  Baron  De  La  Warr.  This 
was  obviously  a  new  creation,  but  in  1596  his  son  Thomas 
(c.  1556-1602)  claimed  precedency  in  the  baronage  as  the  holder 
of  the  ancient  barony  of  De  La  Warr.  His  claim  was  admitted, 
and  accordingly  his  son  and  successor,  next  mentioned,  is  called 
the  3rd  or  the  i2th  baron. 

THOMAS  WEST,  3rd  or  i2th  Baron  De  La  Warr  (1577-1618), 
British  soldier  and  colonial  governor  in  America,  was  born  on 
the  9th  of  July  1577,  probably  at  Wherwell,  Hampshire,  where 
he  was  baptized.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  did  not  complete  his  course,  but  subsequently  (1605) 
received  the  degree  of  M. A.  In  1 597  he  was  elected  member  of 
parliament  for  Lymington,  and  subsequently  fought  in  Holland 
and  in  Ireland  under  the  earl  of  Essex,  being  knighted  for  bravery 
in  battle  in  1599.  He  was  imprisoned  for  complicity  in  Essex's 
revolt  (1600-1601),  but  was  soon  released  and  exonerated.  In 
1602  he  succeeded  to  his  father's  title  and  estates  and  became 
a  privy  councillor.  Becoming  interested  in  schemes  for  the 
colonization  of  America,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  council 
of  the  Virginia  Company  in  1609,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
appointed  governor  and  captain-general  of  Virginia  for  life. 


Sailing  in  March  1610  with  three  ships,  150  settlers  and  supplies, 
he  himself  bearing  the  greater  part  of  the  expense  of  the  expedi- 
tion, he  arrived  at  Jamestown  on  the  loth  of  June,  in  time  to 
inter  ept  the  colonists  who  had  embarked  for  England  and  were 
abandoning  the  enterprise.  Lord  De  La  Warr's  rule  was  strict 
but  just;  he  constructed  two  forts  near  the  mouth  of  the  James 
river,  rebuilt  Jamestown,  and  in  general  brought  order  out  of 
chaos.  In  March  161 1  he  returned  to  London,  where  he  published 
at  the  request  of  the  company's  council,  his  Relation  of  the 
condition  of  affairs  in  Virginia  (reprinted  1859  and  1868).  He 
remained  in  England  until  1618,  when  the  news  of  the  tyrannical 
rule  of  the  deputy,  Samuel  Argall,  led  him  to  start  again  for 
Virginia.  He  embarked  in  April,  but  died  en  route  on  the  7th  of 
June  1618,  and  was  buried  at  sea.  The  Delaware  river  and  the 
state  of  Delaware  were  named  in  his  honour. 

A  younger  brother,  Francis  (is86-c.  1634),  was  prominent  in 
the  affairs  of  Virginia,  and  in  1627-1628  was  president  of  the 
council,  and  acting-governor  of  the  colony. 

In  1761  the  3rd  or  i2th  baron's  descendant,  John,  7th  or  i6th 
Baron  De  La  Warr  (1693-1766),  was  created  Viscount  Cantelupe 
and  ist  Earl  De  La  Warr.  He  was  a  prominent  figure  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  at  first  as  a  supporter  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
He  also  served  in  the  British  army  and  fought  at  Dettingen, 
and  was  made  governor  of  Guernsey  in  1752. 

George  John  West,  sth  earl  (1791-1869),  married  Elizabeth, 
sister  and  heiress  of  George  John  Frederick  Sackville,  4th  duke 
of  Dorset,  who  was  created  Baroness  Buckhurst  in  1864;  conse- 
quently in  1843  he  and  his  sons  took  the  name  of  Sackville-West. 
The  earl  was  twice  lord  chamberlain  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  he  is 
celebrated  as  "  Fair  Euryalus  "  in  the  Childish  Recollections  of 
his  schoolfellow,  Lord  Byron.  His  son  Charles  Richard  (1815- 
1873),  6th  earl,  served  in  the  first  Sikh  war  and  in  the  Crimea, 
and  being  unmarried  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Reginald 
(1817-1896)  as  7th  Earl  De  La  Warr.  Having  inherited  his 
mother's  barony  of  Buckhurst  on  her  death  in  1870,  he  retained 
this  title  along  with  the  barony  and  earldom  of  De  La  Warr, 
although  the  patent  had  contained  a  proviso  that  it  should  be 
kept  separate  from  these  dignities.  In  1896  the  7th  earl's  son, 
Gilbert  George  Reginald  Sackville-West  (b.  1869),  became  Sth 
earl  De  La  Warr. 

See  G.  E.  C(okayne),  Complete  Peerage  (1887-1898). 

DELBRUCK,  HANS  ( 1 848-  ) ,  German  historian,  was  born  at 
Bergen  on  the  island  of  Rugen  on  the  nth  of  November  1848, 
and  studied  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Bonn.  As  a 
soldier  he  fought  in  the  Franco-German  War,  after  which  he  was 
for  some  years  tutor  to  one  of  the  princes  of  the  German  imperial 
family.  In  1885  he  became  professor  of  modern  history  in  the 
university  of  Berlin,  and  he  was  a  member  of  the  German 
Reichstag  from  1884  to  1890.  Delbruck's  writings  are  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  history  of  the  art  of  war,  his  most  ambitious 
work  being  his  Geschichte  der  Kriegskunst  im  Rahmen  der  politi- 
schen  Geschichte  (first  section,  Das  Altertum,  1900;  second, 
Romer  und  Germanen,  1902;  third,  Das  Mittelalter,  1907). 
Among  his  other  works  are:  Die  Perserkriege  und  die  Burgunder- 
kriege  (Berlin,  1887);  Historische  und  politische  Aufsdtze  (1886); 
Erinnerungen,  Aufsatze  und  Reden  (1902);  Die  Strategic  des 
Perikles  erlautert  durch  die  Strategic  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  (1890) ; 
Die  Polenfrage  (1894);  and  Das  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Graf  en 
Neithardt  von  Gneisenau  (1882  and  1894).  Delbriick  began  in 
1883  to  edit  the  Preussische  Jahrbucher,  in  which  he  has  written 
many  articles,  including  one  on  "  General  Wolseley  iiber  Napoleon, 
Wellington  und  Gneisenau,"  and  he  has  contributed  to  the 
Europaischer  Geschichtskalender  of  H.  Schulthess. 

DELBRUCK,  MARTIN  FRIEDRICH  RUDOLF  VON,  Prussian 
statesman  (1817-1903),  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the  i6th  of  April 
1817.  On  completing  his  legal  studies  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  state  in  1837;  and  after  holding  a  series  of  minor  posts  was 
transferred  in  1848  to  the  ministry  of  commerce,  which  was  to 
be  the  sphere  of  his  real  life's  work.  Both  Germany  and  Austria 
had  realized  the  influence  of  commercial  upon  political  union. 
Delbrtick  in  1851  induced  Hanover,  Oldenburg  and  Schaumburg- 
Lippe  to  join  the  Zollverein;  and  the  southern  states,  which  had 


1 


DELCASSE— DELESSERT 


953 


agreed  to  admit  Austria  to  the  union,  found  themselves  forced  in 
1853  to  renew  the  old  union,  from  which  Austria  was  excluded. 
Delbruck  now  began,  with  the  support  of  Bismarck,  to  apply 
the  principles  of  free  trade  to  Prussian  fiscal  policy.  In  1862  he 
concluded  an  important  commercial  treaty  with  France.  In 
1867  he  became  the  first  president  of  the  chancery  of  the  North 
German  Confederation,  and  represented  Bismarck  on  the  federal 
tariff  council  (Zollbundesrath),  a  position  of  political  as  well  as 
fiscal  importance  owing  to  the  presence  in  the  council  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  southern  states.  In  1868  he  became  a  Prussian 
minister  without  portfolio.  In  October  1870,  when  the  union  of 
Germany  under  Prussian  headship  became  a  practical  question, 
Delbruck  was  chosen  to  go  on  a  mission  to  the  South  German 
states,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  agreements  concluded  at 
Versailles  in  November.  In  1871  he  became  president  of  the 
newly  constituted  Reichskanzleramt.  Delbruck,  however,  began 
to  feel  himself  uneasy  under  Bismarck's  leanings  towards 
protection  and  state  control.  On  the  introduction  of  Bismarck's 
plan  for  the  acquisition  of  the  railways  by  the  state,  Delbruck 
resigned  office,  nominally  on  the  ground  of  ill-health  (June  i, 
1876).  In  1879  he  opposed  in  the  Reichstag  the  new  protectionist 
tariff,  and  on  the  failure  of  his  efforts  retired  definitely  from 
public  life.  In  1896  he  received  from  the  emperor  the  order  of 
the  Black  Eagle.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  ist  of  February  1903. 
DELCASS6,  THfcOPHILE  (1852-  ),  French  statesman,  was 
born  at  Pamiers,  in  the  department  of  Ariege,  on  the  ist  of  March 
1852.  He  wrote  articles  on  foreign  affairs  for  the  Republique 
franfaise  'and  Paris,  and  in  1888  was  elected  conseiller  general  of 
his  native  department,  standing  as  "  un  disciple  fidele  de  Gam- 
betta."  In  the  following  year  he  entered  the  chamber  as  deputy 
for  Foix.  He  was  appointed  under-secretary  for  the  colonies  in 
the  second  Ribot  cabinet  (January  to  April  1893),  and  retained 
his  post  in  the  Dupuy  cabinet  till  its  fall  in  December  1893. 
It  was  largely  owing  to  his  efforts  that  the  French  colonial  office 
was  made  a  separate  department  with  a  minister  at  its  head,  and 
to  this  office  he  was  appointed  in  the  second  Dupuy  cabinet  (May 
1894  to  January  1895).  He  gave  a  great  impetus  to  French 
colonial  enterprise,  especially  in  West  Africa,  where  he  organized 
the  newly  acquired  colony  of  Dahomey,  and  despatched  the 
Liotard  mission  to  the  Upper  Ubangi.  While  in  opposition  he 
devoted  special  attention  to  naval  affairs,  and  in  speeches  that 
attracted  much  notice  declared  that  the  function  of  the  French 
navy  was  to  secure  and  develop  colonial  enterprise,  deprecated 
all  attempts  to  rival  the  British  fleet,  and  advocated  the  construc- 
tion of  commerce  destroyers  as  France's  best  reply  to  England. 
On  the  formation  of  the  second  Brisson  cabinet  in  June  1898  he 
succeeded  M.  Hanotaux  at  the  foreign  office,  and  retained  that 
post  under  the  subsequent  premierships  of  MM.  Dupuy,  Waldeck- 
Rousseau,  Combes  and  Rouvier.  In  1898  he  had  to  deal  with  the 
delicate  situation  caused  by  Captain  Marchand's  occupation  of 
Fashoda,  for  which,  as  he  admitted  in  a  speech  in  the  chamber  on 
the  23rd  of  January  1899,  he  accepted  full  responsibility,  since  it 
arose  directly  out  of  the  Liotard  expedition,  which  he  had  himself 
organized  while  minister  for  the  colonies;  and  in  March  1899  he 
concluded  an  agreement  with  Great  Britain  by  which  the  difficulty 
was  finally  adjusted,  and  France  consolidated  her  vast  colonial 
empire  in  North-West  Africa.  In  the  same  year  he  acted  as 
mediator  between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  and  brought 
the  peace  negotiations  to  a  successful  conclusion.  He  intro- 
duced greater  cordiality  into  the  relations  of  France  with  Italy: 
at  the  same  time  he  adhered  firmly  to  the  alliance  with  Russia, 
and  in  August  1899  made  a  visit  to  St  Petersburg,  which  he 
repeated  in  April  1901.  In  June  1900  he  made  an  arrangement 
with  Spain,  fixing  the  long-disputed  boundaries  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  possessions  in  West  Africa.  Finally  he  concluded 
with  England  the  important  Agreements  of  1904 covering  colonial 
and  other  questions  which  had  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute, 
especially  concerning  Egypt,  Newfoundland  and  Morocco. 
Suspicion  of  the  growing  entente  between  France  and  England 
soon  arose  on  the  part  of  Germany,  and  in  1905  German  assertive- 
ness  was  shown  in  a  crisis  which  was  forced  on  in  the  matter  of 
the  French  activity  in  Morocco  (q.v.),  in  which  the  handling  of 


French  policy  by  M.  Delcasse  personally  was  a  sore  point  with 
Germany.  The  situation  became  acute  in  April,  and  was  only 
relieved  by  M.  Delcasse's  resignation  of  office.  He  retired  into 
private  life,  but  in  1908  was  warmly  welcomed  on  a  visit  to 
England,  where  the  closest  relations  now  existed  with  France. 

DEL  CREDERE  (Ital.  "of  belief"  or  "trust").  A  "del 
credere  agent,"  in  English  law,  is  one  who,  selling  goods  for  his 
principal  on  credit,  undertakes  for  an  additional  commission  to 
sell  only  to  persons  who  are  absolutely  solvent.  His  position 
is  thus  that  of  a  surety  who  is  liable  to  his  principal  should  the 
vendee  make  default.  The  agreement  between  him  and  his 
principal  need  not  be  reduced  to  or  evidenced  by  writing,  for 
his  undertaking  is  not  a  guarantee  within  the  Statute  of  Frauds. 
See  also  BROKER;  GUARANTEE. 

DELESCLUZE,  LOUIS  CHARLES  (1800-1871),  French 
journalist,  was  born  at  Dreux  on  the  and  of  October  1809. 
Having  studied  law  in  Paris,  he  early  developed  a  strong  demo- 
cratic bent,  and  played  a  part  in  the  July  revolution  of  1830. 
He  became  a  member  of  various  republican  societies,  and  in 
1836  was  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Belgium,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  republican  journalism.  Returning  in  1840  he  settled 
in  Valenciennes,  and  after  the  revolution  of  1848  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  started  a  newspaper  called  La  Revolution  dimo- 
cratique  el  sociale.  His  zeal  so  far  outran  his  discretion  that  he 
was  twice  imprisoned  and  fined,  his  paper  was  suppressed  and 
he  himself  fled  to  England,  where  he  continued  his  journalistic 
work.  He  was  arrested  in  Paris  in  1853,  and  deported  to  French 
Guiana.  Released  under  the  amnesty  of  1859,  he  returned 
to  France  with  health  shattered  but  energies  unimpaired.  His 
next  venture  was  the  publication  of  the  Reveil,  a  radical  organ 
upholding  the  principles  of  the  Association  internationale  des 
travailleurs,  known  as  the  "  Internationale."  This  journal, 
which  brought  him  three  condemnations,  fine  and  imprisonment 
in  one  year,  shared  the  fate  of  his  Paris  sheet,  and  its  founder 
again  fled  to  Belgium.  In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly,  becoming  afterwards  a  member  of  the  Paris  commune. 
At  the  siege  of  Paris  he  fought  with  reckless  courage,  and  met 
his  death  on  the  last  of  the  barricades  (May  1871).  He  wrote  an 
account  of  his  imprisonment  in  Guiana,  De  Paris  d  Cayenne, 
Journal  d'un  transports  (Paris,  1869). 

DELESSE,  ACHILLE  ERNEST  OSCAR  JOSEPH  (1817-1881), 
French  geologist  and  mineralogist,  was  born  at  Metz  on  the  3rd 
of  February  1817.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  entered  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  and  subsequently  passed  through  the  Ecole  des 
Mines.  In  1845  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  mineralogy 
and  geology  at  Besancon;  in  1850  to  the  chair  of  geology  at  the 
Sorbonne  in  Paris;  and  in  1864  professor  of  agriculture  at  the 
Ecole  des  Mines.  In  1878  he  became  inspector-general  of  mines. 
In  early  years  as  ingenieur  des  mines  he  investigated  and  described 
various  new  minerals;  he  proceeded  afterwards  to  the  study  of 
rocks,  devising  new  methods  for  their  determination,  and  giving 
particular  descriptions  of  melaphyre,  arkose,  porphyry,  syenite, 
&c.  The  igneous  rocks  of  the  Vosges,  and  those  of  the  Alps, 
Corsica,  &c.,  and  the  subject  of  metamorphism  occupied  his 
attention.  He  also  prepared  in  1858  geological  and  hydrological 
maps  of  Paris — with  reference  to  the  underground  water,  similar 
maps  of  the  departments  of  the  Seine  and  Seine-et-Marne,  and  an 
agronomic  map  of  the  Seine-et-Marne  (1880),  in  which  he  showed 
the  relation  which  exists  between  the  physical  and  chemical 
characters  of  the  soil  and  the  geological  structure.  His  annual 
Revue  des  progres  de  glologie,  undertaken  with  the  assistance 
(1860-1865)  of  Auguste  Laugel  and  afterwards  (1865-1878)  of 
Albert  de  Lapparent,  was  carried  on  from  1860  to  1880.  His 
observations  on  the  lithology  of  the  deposits  accumulated  beneath 
the  sea  were  of  special  interest  and  importance.  His  separate 
publications  were:  Recherches  sur  I'origine  des  roches  (Paris, 
1865);  Etude  sur  le  mttamorphisme  des  roches  (1869);  Lithologie 
des  mers  de  France  el  des  mers  principles  du  globe  (2  vols.  and 
atlas,  1871).  He  died  at  Paris  on  the  24th  of  March  1881. 

DELESSERT,  JULES  PAUL  BENJAMIN  (1773-1847),  French 
banker,  was  born  at  Lyons  on  the  i4th  of  February  1773,  the 
son  of  Etienne  Delessert  (1735-1816),  the  founder  of  the  first 


954 


DELFICO— DELHI 


fire  insurance  company  and  the  first  discount  bank  in  France. 
Young  Delessert  was  travelling  in  England  when  the  Revolution 
broke  out  in  France,  but  he  hastened  back  to  join  the  Paris 
National  Guard  in  1790,  becoming  an  officer  of  artillery  in  1793. 
His  father  bought  him  out  of  the  army,  however,  in  1795  in  order 
to  entrust  him  with  the  management  of  his  bank.  Gifted  with 
remarkable  energy,  he  started  many  commercial  enterprises, 
founding  the  first  cotton  factory  at  Passy  in  1801,  and  a  sugar 
factory  in  1802,  for  which  he  was  created  a  baron  of  the  empire. 
He  sat  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  for  many  years,  and  was  a 
strong  advocate  for  many  humane  measures,  notably  the  sup- 
pression of  the  "  Tours  "  or  revolving  box  at  the  foundling 
hospital,  the  suppression  of  the  death  penalty,  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  penitentiary  system.  He  was  made  regent  of  the 
Bank  of  France  in  1802,  and  was  also  member  of,  and,  indeed, 
founder  of  many,  learned  and  philanthropic  societies.  He 
founded  the  first  savings  bank  in  France,  and  maintained  a  keen 
interest  in  it  until  his  death  in  1847.  He  was  also  an  ardent 
botanist  and  conchologist ;  his  botanical  library  embraced 
30,000  volumes,  of  which  he  published  a  catalogue — Musee 
bolanique  de  M.  Delessert  (1845).  He  also  wrote  Des  avantages 
de  la  caisse  d'ipargne  et  de  prevoyance  (1835),  Mfmoire  sur  un 
projet  de  bibliotheque  royale  (1836) ,  Le  Guide  de  bonheur  (1839),  end 
Recueil  de  coquilles  decrltes  par  Lamarck  (1841-1842). 

DELFICO,  MELCHIORRE  (1744-1835),  Italian  economist,  was 
born  at  Teramo  in  the  Abruzzi  on  the  ist  of  August  1744,  and 
was  educated  at  Naples.  He  devoted  himself  specially  to  the 
study  of  jurisprudence  and  political  economy,  and  his  numerous 
publications  exercised  great  practical  influence  in  the  correction 
and  extinction  of  many  abuses.  Under  Joseph  Bonaparte 
Delfico  was  made  a  councillor  of  state,  an  office  which  he  held 
until  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  IV.,  when  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  commission  of  archives,  from  which  he  retired 
in  1825.  He  died  at  Teramo  on  the  2ist  of  June  1835.  His  more 
important  works  were:  Saggio  filosofico  sill  matrimonio  (1774); 
Memoria  sul  Tribunale  della  Grascia  e  sidle  leggi  economiche  nelle 
provincie  confinanti  del  regno  (1785),  which  led  to  the  abolition 
in  Naples  of  the  most  vexatious  and  absurd  restrictions  on  the 
sale  and  exportation  of  agricultural  produce;  Riflessioni  su  la 
isendita  del  feudi  (1790)  and  Lettera  a  Sua  Ecc.  il  sig.  Duca  di 
Cantalupo  (1795),  which  brought  about  the  abolition  of  feudal 
rights  over  landed  property  and  their  sale;  Ricerche  sul  vero 
carattere  della  giurisprudensa  Romana  e  del  suoi  cultori  (1791); 
Pensieri  su  la  storia  e  su  I'  mcertezza  ed  imttilita  della  medesima 
(1806),  both  on  the  early  history  of  Rome. 

See  F.  Mozzetti,  Degli  studii,  delle  opere  e  delle  virtti  di  Melchiorre 
Delfico;  Tipaldo's  Biographia  degli  Italiani  illustri  (vol.  ii.). 

DELFT,  a  town  of  Holland  in  the  province  of  South  Holland, 
on  the  Schie,  5  m.  by  rail  S.E.  by  S.  of  the  Hague,  with  which 
it  is  also  connected  by  steam-tramway.  Pop.  (1900)  31,582. 
It  is  a  quiet,  typically  Dutch  town,  with  its  old  brick  houses  and 
tree-bordered  canals.  The  Prinsenhof,  previously  a  monastery, 
was  converted  into  a  residence  for  the  counts  of  Orange  in  1575; 
it  was  here  that  William  the  Silent  was  assassinated.  It  is  now 
used  as  a  William  of  Orange  Museum.  The  New  Church, 
formerly  the  church  of  St  Ursula  ( I4th  century) ,  is  the  burial  place 
of  the  princes  of  Orange.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  fine  tower  and 
chime  of  bells,  and  contains  the  splendid  allegorical  monument 
of  William  the  Silent,  executed  by  Hendrik  de  Keyser  and  his 
son  Pieter  about  1621,  and  the  tomb  of  Hugo  Grotius,  born  in 
Delft  in  1583,  whose  statue,  erected  in  1886,  stands  in  the 
market-place  outside  the  church.  The  Old  Church,  founded 
in  the  nth  century,  but  in  its  present  form  dating  from  1476, 
contains  the  monuments  of  two  famous  admirals  of  the  i7th 
century,  Martin  van  Tromp  and  Piet  Hein,  as  well  as  the  tomb 
of  the  naturalist  Leeuwenhoek,  born  at  Delft  in  1632.  In 
the  town  hall  (1618)  are  some  corporation  pictures,  portraits 
of  the  counts  of  Orange  and  Nassau,  including  several  by  Michiel 
van  Mierevelt  (1567-1641),  one  of  the  earliest  Dutch  portrait 
painters,  and  with  his  son  Pieter  (1595-1623),  a  native  of  Delft. 
There  are  also  a  Roman  Catholic  church  (1882)  and  a  synagogue. 
Two  important  educational  establishments  are  the  Indian 


Institute  for  the  education  of  civil  service  students  for  the 
colonies,  to  which  is  attached  an  ethnographical  museum; 
and  the  Royal  Polytechnic  school,  which  almost  ranks  as  a 
university,  and  teaches,  among  other  sciences,  that  of  diking. 
A  fine  collection  of  mechanical  models  is  connected  with  the 
polytechnic  school.  Among  other  buildings  are  the  modern 
"  Phoenix  "  club-house  of  the  students;  the  hospital,  containing 
some  anatomical  pictures,  including  one  by  the  two  Mierevelts 
(1617);  a  lunatic  asylum;  the  Van  Renswoude  orphanage,  the 
theatre,  a  school  of  design,  the  powder  magazine  and  the  state 
arsenal,  originally  a  warehouse  of  the  East  India  Company,  and 
now  used  as  a  manufactory  of  artillery  stores. 

The  name  of  Delft  is  most  intimately  associated  with  the  manu- 
facture of  the  beautiful  faience  pottery  for  which  it  was  once 
famous.  (See  CERAMICS.)  This  industry  was  imported  from 
Haarlem  towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century,  and  achieved  an 
unrivalled  position  in  the  second  half  of  the  following  century; 
but  it  did  not  survive  the  French  occupation  at  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century.  It  has,  however,  been  revived  in  modern  times 
under  the  name  of  "  New  Delft."  Other  branches  of  industry 
are  carpet-weaving,  distilling,  oil  and  oil-cake  manufacture, 
dyeing,  cooperage  and  the  manufacture  of  arms  and  bullets. 
There  is  also  an  important  butter  and  cheese  market. 

Delft  was  founded  in  1075  by  Godfrey  III.,  duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  after  his  conquest  of  Holland,  and  came  subsequently 
into  the  hands  of  the  counts  of  Holland.  In  1246  it  received 
a  charter  from  Count  William  II.  (see  C.  Hegel,  Stadle  und 
Gilden,  ii.  251).  In  1536  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  in  1654  largely  ruined  by  the  explosion  of  a  powder 
magazine. 

DELHI,  DEHLI  or  DILLI,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Mogul 
empire  in  India,  and  a  modern  city  which  gives  its  name  to  a 
district  and  division  of  British  India.  The  city  of  Delhi  is  situ- 
ated in  28°  38'  N.,  77°  13'  E.,  very  nearly  due  north  of  Cape 
Comorin,  and  practically  in  a  latitudinal  line  with  the  more 
ancient  cities  of  Cairo  and  Canton.  It  lies  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  province  of  the  Punjab,  to  which  it  was  added  in 
1858,  and  abuts  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Jumna.  Though 
Lahore,  the  more  ancient  city,  remains  the  official  capital  of  the 
Punjab,  Delhi  is  historically  more  famous,  and  is  now  more 
important  as  a  commercial  and  railway  centre. 

Though  the  remains  of  earlier  cities  are  scattered  round  Delhi 
over  an  area  estimated  to  cover  some  45  sq.  m.,  modem  Delhi 
dates  only  from  the  middle  of  the  I7th  century,  when  Shah 
Jahan  rebuilt  the  city  on  its  present  site,  adding  the  title 
Shah-jahanabad  from  his  own  name.  It  extends  for  nearly 
2j  m.  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna  from  the  Water 
bastion  to  the  Wellesley  bastion  in  the  south-east  corner,  nearly 
one-third  of  the  frontage  being  occupied  by  the  river  wall  of  the 
palace.  The  northern  wall,  famous  in  the  siege  of  Delhi  in  1857, 
extends  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  Water  bastion  to  the 
Shah,  commonly  known  as  the  Mori,  bastion;  the  length  of 
the  west  wall  from  this  bastion  to  the  Ajmere  gate  is  ij  m. 
and  of  the  south  wall  to  the  Wellesley  bastion  again  almost 
exactly  the  same  distance,  the  whole  land  circuit  being 
thus  35  m.  The  complete  circuit  of  Delhi  is  55  m.  In  the 
north  wall  is  situated  the  famous  Kashmir  gate,  while  the 
Mori  or  Drain  gate,  which  was  built  by  a  Mahratta  governor, 
has  now  been  removed.  In  the  west  wall  are  the  Farash 
Khana  and  Ajmere  gates,  while  the  Kabul  and  Lahore  gates 
have  been  removed.  In  the  south  wall  are  the  Turkman  and 
Delhi  gates.  The  gates  on  the  river  side  of  the  city  included 
the  Khairati  and  Rajghat,  the  Calcutta  and  Nigambod — both 
removed;  the  Kela  gate,  and  the  Badar  Rao  gate,  now  closed. 
The  great  wall  of  Delhi,  which  was  constructed  by  Shah  Jahan, 
was  strengthened  by  the  English  by  the  addition  of  a  ditch  and 
glacis,  after  Delhi  was  captured  by  Lord  Lake  in  1803;  and  its 
strength  was  turned  against  the  British  at  the  time  of  the  Mutiny. 
The  imperial  palace  (1638-1648),  now  known  as  the  "  Fort," 
is  situated  on  the  east  of  the  city,  and  abuts  directly  on  the  river. 
It  consists  at  present  of  bare  and  ugly  British  barracks,  among 
which  are  scattered  exquisite  gems  of  oriental  architecture.  The 


DELHI 


955 


two  most  famous  among  its  buildings  are  the  Diwan-i-Am  or 
Hall  of  Public  Audience,  and  the  Diwan-i-Khas  or  Hall  of 
Private  Audience.  The'  Diwan-i-Am  is  a  splendid  building 
measuring  100  ft.  by  60  ft.,  and  was  formerly  plastered  with 
chunam  and  overlaid  with  gold.  The  most  striking  effect  now 
lies  in  its  engrailed  arches.  It  was  in  the  recess  in  the  back 
wall  of  this  hall  that  the  famous  Peacock  Throne  used  to  stand, 
"  so  called  from  its  having  the  figures  of  two  peacocks  standing 
behind  it,  their  tails  being  expanded  and  the  whole  so  inlaid  with 
sapphires,  rubies,  emeralds,  pearls  and  other  precious  stones  of 
appropriate  colours  as  to  represent  life."  Ta vernier,  the  French 
jeweller,  who  saw  Delhi  in  1665,  describes  the  throne  as  of  the 
shape  of  a  bed,  6  ft.  by  4  ft.,  supported  by  four  golden  feet, 
20  to  25  in.  high,  from  the  bars  above  which  rose  twelve  columns 
to  support  the  canopy;  the  bars  were  decorated  with  crosses 
of  rubies  and  emeralds,  and  also  with  diamonds  and  pearls.  In 
all  there  were  108  large  rubies  on  the  throne,  and  116  emeralds, 
but  many  of  the  latter  had  flaws.  The  twelve  columns  support- 
ing the  canopy  were  decorated  with  rows  of  splendid  pearls,  and 
Tavernier  considered  these  to  be  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
throne.  The  whole  was  valued  at  £6, 000,000.  This  throne  was 
carried  off  by  the  Persian  invader  Nadir  Shah  in  1739,  and  has 
been  rumoured  to  exist  still  in  the  Treasure  House  of  the  Shah 
of  Persia;  but  Lord  Curzon,  who  examined  the  thrones  there, 
says  that  nothing  now  exists  of  it,  except  perhaps  some  portions 
worked  up  in  a  modern  Persian  throne.  The  Diwan-i-Khas 
is  smaller  than  the  Diwan-i-Am,  and  consists  of  a  pavilion  of 
white  marble,  in  the  interior  of  which  the  art  of  the  Moguls 
reached  the  perfection  of  its  jewel-like  decoration.  On  a  marble 
platform  rises  a  marble  pavilion,  the  flat-coned  roof  of  which 
is  supported  on  a  double  row  of  marble  pillars.  The  inner  face 
of  the  arches,  with  the  spandrils  and  the  pilasters  which  support 
them,  are  covered  with  flowers  and  foliage  of  delicate  design  and 
dainty  execution,  crusted  in  green  serpentine,  blue  lapis  lazuli 
and  red  and  purple  porphyry.  During  the  lapse  of  years  many  of 
these  stones  were  picked  from  their  setting,  and  the  silver  ceiling 
of  flowered  patterns  was  pillaged  by  the  Mahrattas;  but  the 
inlaid  work  was  restored  as  far  as  possible  by  Lord  Curzon.  It  is 
in  this  hall  that  the  famous  inscription  "  If  a  paradise  be  on  the 
face  of  the  earth,  it  is  this,  it  is  this,  it  is  this,"  still  exists.  It  is 
given  in  Persian  characters  twice  in  the  panels  over  the  narrow 
arches  at  the  ends  of  the  middle  hall,  beginning  from  the  east  on 
the  north  side,  and  from  the  west  at  the  south  side.  At  the  time 
of  the  Delhi  Durbar  held  in  January  1903  to  celebrate  the 
proclamation  of  Edward  VII.  as  emperor  of  India  these  two 
halls  were  used  as  a  dancing-room  and  supper-room,  and  their 
full  beauty  was  brought  out  by  the  electric  light  shining  through 
their  marble  grille-work. 

The  native  city  of  Delhi  is  like  most  other  cities  in  India,  a 
huddle  of  mean  houses  in  mean  streets,  diversified  with  splendid 
mosques.  The  Chandni  Chauk  ("  silver  street  "),  the  principal 
street  of  Delhi,  which  was  once  supposed  to  be  the  richest  street 
in  the  world,  has  fallen  from  its  high  estate,  though  it  is  still  a 
broad  and  imposing  avenue  with  a  double  row  of  trees  running 
down  the  centre.  During  the  course  of  its  history  it  was  four  times 
sacked,  by  Nadir  Shah,  Timur,  Ahmad  Shah  and  the  Mahrattas, 
and  its  roadway  has  many  times  run  with  blood.  Now  it  is  the 
abode  of  the  jewellers  and  ivory-workers  of  Delhi,  but  the  jewels 
are  seldom  valuable  and  the  carving  has  lost  much  of  its  old 
delicacy.  A  short  distance  south  of  the  Chandni  Chauk  the  Jama 
Masjid,  or  Great  Mosque,  rises  boldly  froma  small  rocky  eminence. 
It  was  erected  in  1648-1650,  two  years  after  the  royal  palace, 
by  Shah  Jahan.  Its  front  court,  450  ft.  square,  and  surrounded 
by  a  cloister  open  on  both  sides,  is  paved  with  granite  inlaid  with 
marble,  and  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  city.  The  mosque  itself, 
a  splendid  structure  forming  an  oblong  261  ft.  in  length,  is 
approached  by  a  magnificent  flight  of  stone  steps.  Three  domes 
of  white  marble  rise  from  its  roof,  with  two  tall  minarets  at  the 
front  corners.  The  interior  of  the  mosque  is  paved  throughout, 
and  the  walls  and  roof  are  lined,  with  white  marble.  Two  other 
mosques  in  Delhi  itself  deserve  passing  notice,  the  Kala  Masjid 
or  Black  Mosque,  which  was  built  about  1380  in  the  reign  of 


Feroz  Shah,  and  the  Moti  Masjid  or  Pearl  Mosque,  a  tiny  building 
added  to  the  palace  by  Aurangzeb,  as  the  emperor's  private 
place  of  prayer.  It  is  only  60  ft.  square,  and  the  domes  alone 
are  seen  above  the  red  sandstone  walls  until  the  opening  of  two 
small  fine  brass  gates. 

To  the  west  and  north-west  of  Delhi  considerable  suburbs 
cluster  beyond  the  walls.  Here  are  the  tombs  of  the  imperial 
family.  That  of  Humayun,  the  second  of  the  Mogul  dynasty,  is 
a  noble  building  of  rose-coloured  sandstone  inlaid  with  white 
marble.  It  lies  about  3  m.  from  the  city,  in  a  terraced  garden, 
the  whole  surrounded  by  an  embattled  wall,  with  towers  and  four 
gateways.  In  the  centre  stands  a  platform  about  20  ft.  high  by 
200  ft.  square,  supported  by  arches  and  ascended  by  four  flights 
of  steps.  Above,  rises  the  mausoleum,  also  a  square,  with  a  great 
dome  of  white  marble  in  the  centre.  About  a  mile  to  the  west 
is  another  burying-ground,  or  collection  of  tombs  and  small 
mosques,  some  of  them  very  beautiful.  The  most  remarkable 
is  perhaps  the  little  chapel  in  honour  of  a  celebrated  Mussul- 
man saint,  Nizam-ud-din,  near  whose  shrine  the  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  up  to  the  time  of  the  Mutiny,  lie  buried,  each 
in  a  small  enclosure  surrounded  by  lattice-work  of  white  marble. 

Still  farther  away,  some  10  m.  south  of  the  modern  city,  amid 
the  ruins  of  old  Delhi,  stands  the  Kutb  Minar,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  the  most  perfect  tower  in  the  world,  and  one  of  the  seven 
architectural  wonders  of  India.  The  Minar  was  begun  by  Kutb- 
ud-din  Aibak  about  A.D.  1200.  The  two  top  storeys  were  rebuilt 
by  Feroz  Shah.  It  consists  of  five  storeys  of  red  sandstone  and 
white  marble.  The  purplish  red  of  the  sandstone  at  the  base  is 
finely  modulated,  through  a  pale  pink  in  the  second  storey,  to 
a  dark  orange  at  the  summit,  which  harmonizes  with  the  blue  of 
an  Indian  sky.  Dark  bands  of  Arabic  writing  round  the  three 
lower  storeys  contrast  with  the  red  sandstone.  The  height  of  the 
column  is  238  ft.  The  plinth  is  a  polygon  of  twenty  sides.  The 
basement  storey  has  the  same  number  of  faces  formed  into  convex 
flutes  which  are  alternately  angular  and  semicircular.  The  next 
has  semicircular  flutes,  and  in  the  third  they  are  all  angular. 
Then  rises  a  plain  storey,  and  above  it  soars  a  partially  fluted 
storey,  the  shaft  of  which  is  adorned  with  bands  of  marble  and 
red  sandstone.  A  bold  projecting  balcony,  richly  ornamented. 
runs  round  each  storey.  After  six  centuries  the  column  is  almost 
as  fresh  as  on  the  day  it  was  finished.  It  stands  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  outer  court  of  the  mosque  erected  by  Kutb-ud-din 
immediately  after  his  capture  of  Delhi  in  1193.  The  design  of 
this  mosque  is  Mahommedan,  but  the  wonderfully  delicate 
ornamentation  of  its  western  facade  and  other  remaining  parts 
is  Hindu.  In  the  inner  courtyard  of  the  mosque  stands  the  Iron 
Pillar,  which  is  probably  the  most  ancient  monument  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Delhi,  dating  from  about  A.D.  400.  It  consists 
of  a  solid  shaft  of  wrought  iron  some  16  in.  in  diameter  and  23  ft. 
8  in.  in  height,  with  an  inscription  eulogizing  Chandragupta 
Vikramaditya.  It  was  brought,  probably  from  Muttra,  by 
Anang  Pal,  a  Rajput  chief  of  the  Tomaras,  who  erected  it  here 
in  IO52.1 

Among  the  modern  buildings  of  Delhi  may  be  mentioned  the 
Residency,  now  occupied  by  a  government  high  school,  and 
the  Protestant  church  of  St  James,  built  at  a  coast  of  £10,000  by 
Colonel  Skinner,  an  officer  well  known  in  the  history  of  the  East 
India  Company.  About  half-way  down  the  Chandni  Chauk  is  a 
high  clock-tower.  Near  it  is  the  town  hall,  with  museum  and 
library.  Behind  the  Chandni  Chauk,  to  the  north,  lie  the  Queen's 
Gardens;  beyond  them  the  "  city  lines  "  stretch  away  as  far 
as  the  well-known  rocky  ridge,  about  a  mile  outside  the  town. 
From  the  summit  of  this  ridge  the  view  of  the  station  and  city 
is  very  picturesque.  The  principal  local  institution  until  187  7  was 
the  Delhi  College,  founded  in  1792.  It  was  at  first  exclusively 
an  oriental  school,  supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions 
of  Mahommedan  gentlemen,  and  managed  by  a  committee  of  the 
subscribers.  In  1829  an  English  department  was  added  to  it; 
and  in  1855  the  institution  was  placed  under  the  control  of 
the  Educational  Department.  In  the  Mutiny  of  1857  the  old 

1  See  the  paper  by  V.  A.  Smith  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Soc.  (1897),  p.  13. 


956 


DELHI 


college  was  plundered  of  a  very  valuable  oriental  library,  and 
the  building  completely  destroyed.  A  new  college  was  founded  in 
1858,  and  was  affiliated  to  the  university  of  Calcutta  in  1864. 
The  old  college  attained  to  great  celebrity  as  an  educational 
institution,  and  produced  many  excellent  scholars,  but  it  was 
abolished  in  1877,  in  order  to  concentrate  the  grant  available  for 
higher-class  education  upon  the  Punjab  University  at  Lahore. 

The  Ridge,  famous  as  the  British  base  during  the  siege  of  Delhi 
during  the  Mutiny,  in  1857,  is  a  last  outcrop  of  the  Aravalli  Hills 
which  rises  in  a  steep  escarpment  some  60  ft.  above  the  city.  At 
its  nearest  point  on  the  right  of  the  British  position,  where  the 
Mutiny  Memorial  now  stands,  the  Ridge  is  only  1 200  yds.  from 
the  walls  of  Delhi;  at  the  Flagstaff  Tower  in  the  centre  of  the 
position  it  is  a  mile  and  a  half  away;  and  at  the  left  near  the 
river  nearly  two  miles  and  a  half.  It  was  behind  the  Ridge  at 
this  point  that  the  main  portion  of  the  British  camp  was  pitched. 
The  Mutiny  Memorial,  which  was  erected  by  the  army  before 
Delhi,  is  a  rather  poor  specimen  of  a  Gothic  spire  in  red  sandstone, 
while  the  memorial  tablets  are  of  inferior  marble.  Next  to  the 
Ridge  the  point  of  most  interest  to  every  English  visitor  to  Delhi 
is  Nicholson's  grave,  which  lies  surrounded  by  an  iron  railing  in 
the  Kashmir  gate  cemetery.  The  Kashmir  gate  itself  bears  a 
slab  recording  the  gallant  deed  of  the  party  under  Lieutenants 
D.  C.  Home  and  P.  Salkeld,  who  blew  in  the  gate  in  broad  day- 
light on  the  day  that  Delhi  was  taken  by  assault. 

The  population  of  Delhi  according  to  the  census  of  1901  was, 
208,575,  of  whom  88,460  were  Mahommedans  and  114,417  were 
Hindus.  The  city  is  served  by  five  different  railways,  the  East 
Indian,  the  Oudh  &  Rohilkhand,  the  Rajputana-Malwa  & 
Bombay-Baroda,  the  Southern  Punjab,  and  the  North- Western, 
and  occupies  a  central  position,  being  940  m.  from  Karachi,  950 
from  Calcutta,  and  960  from  Bombay.  Owing  to  the  advantages 
it  enjoys  as  a  trade  centre,  Delhi  is  recovering  much  of  the 
prominence  which  it  lost  at  the  time  of  the  Mutiny.  It  has 
spinning-mills  and  other  mills  worked  by  steam.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  gold  and  silver  filigree  work  and  embroidery, 
jewelry,  muslins,  shawls,  glazed  pottery  and  wood-carving. 

The  DISTRICT  OF  DELHI  has  an  area  of  1290  sq.  m.  It  consists 
of  a  strip  of  territory  on  the  right  or  west  bank  of  the.  Jumna 
river,  75  m.  in  length,  and  varying  from  15  to  233  m.  in  breadth. 
Most  of  the  district  consists  of  hard  and  stony  soil,  depending 
upon  irrigation,  which  is  supplied  by  the  Western  Jumna  canal, 
the  Ali  Mardan  canal  and  the  Agra  canal.  The  principal  crops 
are  wheat,  barley,  sugar-cane  and  cotton. 

When  Lord  Lake  broke  the  Mahratta  power  in  1803,  and 
the  emperor  was  taken  under  the  protection  of  the  East  India 
Company,  the  present  districts  of  Delhi  and  Hissar  were  assigned 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  family,  and  were  administered 
by  a  British  resident.  In  1832  the  office  of  resident  was 
abolished,  and  the  tract  was  annexed  to  the  North-Western 
Provinces.  After  the  Mutiny  in  1858  it  was  separated  from 
the  North-Western  Provinces  and  annexed  to  the  Punjab.  The 
population  in  1901  was  689,039. 

The  DIVISION  OF  DELHI  stretches  from  Simla  to  Rajputana, 
and  is  much  broken  up  by  native  states.  It  comprises  the  seven 
districts  of  Hissar,  Rohtak,  Gurgaon,  Delhi,  Karnal,  Umballa 
and  Simla.  Its  total  area  is  15,393  SQ-  m->  and  m  J9O1  tne 
population  was  4,587,092. 

History. — According  to  legends,  which  may  or  may  not  have 
a  substantial  basis,  Delhi  or  its  immediate  neighbourhood  has 
from  time  immemorial  been  the  site  of  a  capital  city.  The 
neighbouring  village  of  Indarpat  preserves  the  name  of  Indra- 
prashta,  the  semi-mythical  city  founded,  according  to  the  Sanscrit 
epic  Mahabharata,  by  Yudisthira  and  his  brothers,  the  five 
Pandavas.  Whatever  its  dim  predecessors  may  have  been, 
however,  the  actual  history  of  Delhi  dates  no  further  back  than 
the  nth  century  A.D.,  when  Anangapala  (Anang  Pal),  a  chief  of 
the  Tomara  clan,  built  the  Red  Fort,  in  which  the  Kutb  Minar 
now  stands;  in  1052  the  same  chief  removed  the  famous  Iron 
Pillar  from  its  original  position,  probably  at  Muttra,  and  set  it 
up  among  a  group  of  temples  of  which  the  materials  were  after- 
wards used  by  the  Mussulmans  for  the  construction  of  the  great 


Kutb  Mosque.  About  the  middle  of  the  1 2th  century  the  Tomara 
dynasty  was  overthrown  by  Vigraha-raja  (Visala-deva,  Bisal 
Deo),  the  Chauhan  king  of  Ajmere,  who  from  inscribed  records 
discovered  of  late  years  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  consider- 
able culture  (see  V.  A.  Smith,  Early  Hist,  of  India,  ed.  1908, 
p.  356).  His  nephew  and  successor  was  Prithwi-raja  (Prithiraj, 
or  Rai  Pithora),  lord  of  Sambhar,  Delhi  and  Ajmere,  whose  fame 
as  lover  and  warrior  still  lives  in  popular  story.  He  was  the  last 
Hindu  ruler  of  Delhi.  In  1 191  came  the  invasion  of  Mahommed 
of  Ghor.  Defeated  on  this  occasion,  Mahommed  returned  two 
years  later,  overthrew  the  Hindus,  and  captured  and  put  to 
death  Prithwi-raja.  Delhi  became  henceforth  the  capital  of 
the  Mahommedan  Indian  empire,  Kutb-ud-din  (the  general  and 
slave  of  Mahommed  of  Ghor)  being  left  in  command.  His 
dynasty  is  known  as  that  of  the  slave  kings,  and  it  is  to  them  that 
old  Delhi  owes  its  grandest  remains,  among  them  Kutb  Mosque 
and  the  Kutb  Minar.  The  slave  dynasty  retained  the  throne 
till  1290,  when  it  was  subverted  by  Jalal-ud-din  Khilji.  The 
most  remarkable  monarch  of  this  dynasty  was  Ala-ud-din,  during 
whose  reign  Delhi  was  twice  exposed  to  attack  from  invading 
hordes  of  Moguls.  On  the  first  occasion  Ala-ud-din  defeated 
them  under  the  walls  of  his  capital;  on  the  second,  after  encamp- 
ing for  two  months  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city,  they  retired 
without  a  battle.  The  house  of  Khilji  came  to  an  end  in  1321, 
and  was  followed  by  that  of  Tughlak.  Hitherto  the  Pathan  kings 
had  been  content  with  the  ancient  Hindu  capital,  altered  and 
adorned  to  suit  their  tastes.  But  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
founder  of  the  new  dynasty,  Ghias-ud-din  Tughlak,  was  to  erect 
a  new  capital  about  4  m.  farther  to  the  east,  which  he  called 
Tughlakabad.  The  ruins  of  his  fort  remain,  and  the  eye  can  still 
trace  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  long  deserted  city.  Ghias-ud- 
din  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Mahommed  b.  Tughlak,  who  reigned 
from  1325  to  1351,  and  is  described  by  Elphinstone  as  "  one  of 
the  most  accomplished  princes  and  most  furious  tyrants  that 
ever  adorned  or  disgraced  human  nature."  Under  this  monarch 
the  Delhi  of  the  Tughlak  dynasty  attained  its  utmost  growth. 
His  successor  Feroz  Shah  Tughlak  transferred  the  capital  to  a 
new  town  which  he  founded  some  miles  off,  on  the  north  of  the 
Kutb,  and  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name,  Ferozabad.  In  1398, 
during  the  reign  of  Mahmud  Tughlak,  occurred  the  Tatar 
invasion  of  Timurlane.  The  king  fled  to  Gujarat,  his  army  was 
defeated  under  the  walls  of  Delhi,  and  the  city  surrendered.  The 
town,  notwithstanding  a  promise  of  protection,  was  plundered 
and  burned;  the  citizens  were  massacred.  The  invaders  at  last 
retired,  leaving  Delhi  without  a  government,  and  almost  without 
inhabitants.  At  length  Mahmud  Tughlak  regained  a  fragment 
of  his  former  kingdom,  but  on  his  death  in  141 2  the  family  became 
extinct.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Sayyid  dynasty,  which  held 
Delhi  and  a  few  miles  of  surrounding  territory  till  1444,  when  it 
gave  way  to  the  house  of  Lodi,  during  whose  rule  the  capital  was 
removed  to  Agra.  In  1526  Baber,  sixth  in  descent  from  Timur- 
lane, invaded  India,  defeated  and  killed  Ibrahim  Lodi  at  the  battle 
of  Panipat,  entered  Delhi,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  finally 
put  an  end  to  the  Afghan  empire.  Baber's  capital  was  at  Agra, 
but  his  son  and  successor,  Humayun,  removed  it  to  Delhi.  In 
1540  Humayun  was  defeated  and  expelled  by  Sher  Shah,  who 
entirely  rebuilt  the  city,  enclosing  and  fortifying  it  with  a  new 
wall.  In  his  time  Delhi  extended  from  where  Humayun's  tomb 
now  is  to  near  the  southern  gate  of  the  modern  city.  In  1555 
Humayun,  with  the  assistance  of  Persia,  regained  the  throne; 
but  he  died  within  six  months,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
the  illustrious  Akbar. 

During  Akbar's  reign  and  that  of  his  son  Jahangir,  the  capital 
was  either  at  Agra  or  at  Lahore,  and  Delhi  once  more  fell  into 
decay.  Between  1638  and  1658,  however,  Shah  Jahan  rebuilt  it 
almost  in  its  present  form ;  and  his  city  remains  substantially  the 
Delhi  of  the  present  time.  The  imperial  palace,  the  Jama  Masjid 
or  Great  Mosque,  and  the  restoration  of  what  is  now  the  western 
Jumna  canal,  are  the  work  of  Shah  Jahan.  The  Mogul  empire 
rapidly  expanded  during  the  reigns  of  Akbar  and"  his  successors 
down  to  Aurungzeb,  when  it  attained  its  climax.  After  the  death 
I  of  the  latter  monarch,  in  1707,  came  the  decline.  Insurrections 


DELHI 


957 


and  civil  wars  on  the  part  of  the  Hindu  tributary  chiefs, 
Sikhs  and  Mahrattas,  broke  out.  Aurungzeb's  successors  became 
the  helpless  instruments  of  conflicting  chiefs.  His  grandson, 
Jahandar  Shah,  was,  in  1713,  deposed  and  strangled  after  a  reign 
of  one  year;  and  Farrakhsiyyar,  the  next  in  succession,  met  with 
the  same  fate  in  1719.  He  was  succeeded  by  Mahommed  Shah, 
in  whose  reign  the  Mahratta  forces  first  made  their  appearance 
before  the  gates  of  Delhi,  in  1736.  Three  years  later  the  Persian 
monarch,  Nadir  Shah,  after  defeating  the  Mogul  army  at  Karnal, 
entered  Delhi  in  triumph.  While  engaged  in  levying  a  heavy 
contribution,  the  Persian  troops  were  attacked  by  the  populace, 
and  many  of  them  were  killed.'  Nadir  Shah,  after  vainly  attempt- 
ing to  stay  the  tumult,  at  last  gave  orders  for  a  general  massacre 
of  the  inhabitants.  For  fifty-eight  days  Nadir  Shah  remained  in 
Delhi,  and  when  he  left  he  carried  with  him  a  treasure  in  money 
amounting,  at  the  lowest  computation,  to  eight  or  nine  millions 
sterling,  besides  jewels  of  inestimable  value,  and  other  property 
to  the  amount  of  several  millions  more. 

From  this  time  (1740)  the  decline  of  the  empire  proceeded 
unchecked  and  with  increased  rapidity.  In  1 77 1  Shah  Alam,  the 
son  of  Alamgir  II.,  was  nominally  raised  to  the  throne  by  the 
Mahrattas,  the  real  sovereignty  resting  with  the  Mahratta  chief, 
Sindhia.  An  attempt  of  the  puppet  emperor  to  shake  himself 
clear  of  the  Mahrattas,  in  which  he  was  defeated  in  1788,  led  to  a 
permanent  Mahratta  garrison  being  stationed  at  Delhi.  From 
this  date,  the  king  remained  a  cipher  in  the  hands  of  Sindhia, 
who  treated  him  with  studied  neglect,  until  the  8th  of  September 
1803,  when  Lord  Lake  overthrew  the  Mahrattas  under  the  walls 
of  Delhi,  entered  the  city,  and  took  the  king  under  the  protection 
of  the  British.  Delhi,  once  more  attacked  by  a  Mahratta  army 
under  the  Mahratta  chief  Holkar  in  1804,  was  gallantly  defended 
by  Colonel  Ochterlony,  the  British  resident,  who  held  out  against 
overwhelming  odds  for  eight  days,  until  relieved  by  Lord  Lake. 
From  this  date  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Delhi  began.  A  pension 
of  £i  20,000  per  annum  was  allowed  to  the  king,  with  exclusive 
jurisdiction  over  the  palace,  and  the  titular  sovereignty  as  before; 
but  the  city,  together  with  the  Delhi  territory,  passed  under 
British  administration. 

Fifty-three  years  of  quiet  prosperity  for  Delhi  were  brought  to 
a  close  by  the  Mutiny  of  1857.  Its  capture  by  the  mutineers,  its 
siege,  and  its  subsequent  recapture  by  the  British  have  been 
often  told,  and  nothing  beyond  a  short  notice  is  called  for  here. 
The  outbreak  at  Meerut  occurred  on  the  night  of  the  loth  of 
May  1857.  Immediately  after  the  murder  of  their  officers,  the 
rebel  soldiery  set  out  for  Delhi,  about  35  m.  distant,  and  on 
the  following  morning  entered  the  city,  where  they  were  joined 
by  the  city  mob.  Mr  Fraser,  the  commissioner,  Mr  Hutchinson, 
the  collector,  Captain  Douglas,  the  commandant  of  the  palace 
guards,  and  the  Rev.  Mr  Jennings,  the  residency  chaplain,  were 
at  once  murdered,  as  were  also  most  of  the  civil  and  non-official 
residents  whose  houses  were  situated  within  the  city  walls.  The 
British  troops  in  cantonments  consisted  of  three  regiments  of 
native  infantry  and  a  battery  of  artillery.  These  cast  in  their  lot 
with  the  mutineers,  and  commenced  by  killing  their  officers. 
The  Delhi  magazine,  then  the  largest  in  the  north-west  of  India, 
was  in  the  charge  of  Lieutenant  Willoughby,  with  whom  were  two 
other  officers  and  six  non-commissioned  officers.  The  magazine 
was  attacked  by  the  mutineers,  but  the  little  band  defended  to 
the  last  the  enormous  accumulation  of  munitions  of  war  stored 
there,  and,  when  further  defence  was  hopeless,  fired  the  magazine. 
Five  of  the  nine  were  killed  by  the  explosion,  and  Lieutenant 
Willoughby  subsequently  died  of  his  injuries;  the  remaining 
three  succeeded  in  making  their  escape.  The  occupation  of  Delhi 
by  the  rebels  was  the  signal  for  risings  in  almost  every  military 
station  in  North- Western  India.  The  revolted  soldiery  with  one 
accord  thronged  towards  Delhi,  and  in  a  short  time  the  city  was 
garrisoned  by  a  rebel  army  variously  estimated  at  from  50,000  to 
70,000  disciplined  men.  The  pensioned  king,  Bahadur  Shah,  was 
proclaimed  emperor;  his  sons  were  appointed  to  various  military 
commands.  About  fifty  Europeans  and  Eurasians,  nearly  all 
females,  who  had  been  captured  in  trying  to  escape  from  the  town 
on  the  day  of  the  outbreak,  were  confined  in  a  stifling  chamber 


of  the  palace  for  fifteen  days;  they  were  then  brought  out  and 
massacred  in  the  court-yard. 

The  siege  which  followed  forms  one  of  the  memorable  incidents 
of  the  British  history  of  India.  On  the  8th  June,  four  weeks  after 
the  outbreak,  Sir  H.  Barnard,  who  had  succeeded  as  commander- 
in-chief  on  the  death  of  General  Anson,  routed  the  mutineers  with 
a  handful  of  Europeans  and  Sikhs,  after  a  severe  action  at  Badli- 
ki-Serai,  and  encamped  upon  the  Ridge  that  overlooks  the  city. 
The  force  was  too  weak  to  capture  the  city,  and  he  had  no  siege 
train  or  heavy  guns.  All  that  could  be  done  was  to  hold  the 
position  till  the  arrival  of  reinforcements  and  of  a  siege  train. 
During  the  next  three  months  the  little  British  force  on  the  Ridge 
were  rather  the  besieged  than  the  besiegers.  Almost  daily  sallies, 
which  often  turned  into  pitched  battles,  were  made  by  the  rebels 
upon  the  over- worked  handful  of  Europeans,  Sikhs  and  Gurkhas. 
A  great  struggle  took  place  on  the  centenary  of  the  battle  of 
Plassey  (June  23),  and  another  on  the  zsth  of  August;  but  on 
both  occasions  the  mutineers  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss. 
General  Barnard  died  of  cholera  in  July,  and  was  succeeded  by 
General  Archdale  Wilson.  Meanwhile  reinforcements  and  siege 
artillery  gradually  arrived,  and  early  in  September  it  was  resolved 
to  make  the  assault.  The  first  of  the  heavy  batteries  opened  fire 
on  the  8th  of  September,  and  on  the  I3th  a  practicable  breach  was 
reported. 

On  the  morning  of  the  i4th  Sept.  the  assault  was  delivered, 
the  points  of  attack  being  the  Kashmir  bastion,  the  Water 
bastion,  the  Kashmir  gate,  and  the  Lahore  gate.  The  assault 
was  thoroughly  successful,  although  the  column  which  was  to 
enter  the  city  by  the  Lahore  gate  sustained  a  temporary  check. 
The  whole  eastern  part  of  the  city  was  retaken,  but  at  a  cost  of 
66  officers  and  1104  men  killed  and  wounded,  out  of  the  total 
strength  of  9866.  Fighting  continued  more  or  less  during  the 
next  six  days,  and  it  was  not  till  the  2oth  of  September  that  the 
entire  city  and  palace  were  occupied,  and  the  reconquest  of  Delhi 
was  complete.  During  the  siege,  the  British  force  sustained  a 
loss  of  1012  officers  and  men  killed,  and  3837  wounded.  Among 
the  killed  was  General  John  Nicholson,  the  leader  of  one  of  the 
storming  parties,  who  was  shot  through  the  body  in  the  act  of 
leading  his  men,  in  the  first  day's  fighting.  He  lived,  however, 
to  learn  that  the  whole  city  had  been  recaptured,  and  died  on  the 
23rd  of  September.  On  the  flight  of  the  mutineers,  the  king  and 
several  members  of  the  royal  family  took  refuge  at  Humayun's 
tomb.  On  receiving  a  promise  that  his  life  would  be  spared, 
the  last  of  the  house  of  Timur  surrendered  to  Major  Hodson;  he 
was  afterwards  banished  to  Rangoon.  Delhi,  thus  reconquered, 
remained  for  some  months  under  military  authority.  Owing  to 
the  murder  of  several  European  soldiers  who  strayed  from  the 
lines,  the  native  population  was  expelled  the  city.  Hindus  were 
soon,  afterwards  readmitted,  but  for  some  time  Mahommedans 
were  rigorously  excluded.  Delhi  was  made  over  to  the  civil 
authorities  in  January  1858,  but  it  was  not  till  1861  that  the  civil 
courts  were  regularly  reopened.  The  shattered  walls  of  the 
Kashmir  gateway,  and  the  bastions  of  the  northern  face  of  the 
city,  still  bear  the  marks  of  the  cannonade  of  September  1857. 
Since  that  date  Delhi  has  settled  down  into  a  prosperous  com- 
mercial town,  and  a  great  railway  centre.  The  lines  which  start 
from  it  to  the  north,  south,  east  and  west  bring  into  its  bazaars 
the  trade  of  many  districts.  But  the  romance  of  antiquity  still 
lingers  around  it,  and  Delhi  was  selected  for  the  scene  of  the 
Imperial  Proclamation  on  the  ist  of  January  1877,  and  for  the 
great  Durbar  held  in  January  1903  for  the  proclamation  of  King 
Edward  VII.  as  emperor  of  India. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  best  modern  account  of  the  city  is  Delhi,  Past 
and  Present  (1901),  by  H.  C.  Fanshawe,  a  former  commissioner  of 
Delhi.  Other  authoritative  works  are  Cities  of  India  (1903)  and  The 
Mutiny  Papers  (1893),  both  by  G.  W.  Forrest,  and  Forty-one  Years  in 
India  (1897),  by  Lord  Roberts;  while  some  impressionistic  sketches 
will  be  found  in  Enchanted  India  (1899),  by  Prince  Bojidar  Kara- 
georgevitch.  See  also  the  chapter  on  Delhi  in  H.  G.  Keene,  Hist,  of 
Hindustan  .  .  .  to  the  fall  of  the  Mughal  Empire  (1885).  For  the 
Delhi  Durbar  of  1903  see  Stephen  Wheeler,  Hist,  of  the  Delhi  Corona- 
tion Durbar,  compiled  from  official  papers  by  order  of  the  viceroy  of 
India  (London,  1904),  which  contains  numerous  portraits  and  other 
illustrations. 


958 


DELIA— DELIAN  LEAGUE 


DELIA,  a  festival  of  Apollo  held  every  five  years  at  the  great 
panegyris  in  Delos  (Homeric  Hymn  to  Apollo,  147).  It  included 
athletic  and  musical  contests,  at  which  the  prize  was  a  branch  of 
the  sacred  palm.  This  festival  was  said  to  have  been  established 
by  Theseus  on  his  way  back  from  Crete.  Its  celebration  gradually 
fell  into  abeyance  and  was  not  revived  till  426  B.C.,  when  the 
Athenians  purified  the  island  and  took  so  prominent  a  part  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  Delia  that  it  came  to  be  regarded  almost  as 
an  Athenian  festival  (Thucydides  iii.  104) .  Ceremonial  embassies 
(Qtiapiaj.)  from  all  the  Greek  cities  were  present. 

See  G.  Gilbert,  Deliaca  (1869) ;  J.  A.  Lebegue,  Recherches  sur  Delos 
(1876);  A.  Mommsen,  F este  der  Stadt  Athen  (1898);  E.  Pfuhl, 
De  Atheniensium  pontpis  sacris  (1900) ;  G.  F.  Schomann,  Griechische 
Altertumer  (4th  ed.,  1897-1902);  P.  Stengel,  Die  griechischen 
Kultusaltertumer  (1898);  T.  Homolle  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's 
Dictionnaire  des  antiquites. 

DELIAN  LEAGUE,  or  CONFEDERACY  OF  DELOS,  the  name  given 
to  a  confederation  of  Greek  states  under  the  leadership  of  Athens, 
with  its  headquarters  at  Delos,  founded  in  478  B.C.  shortly  after 
the  final  repulse  of  the  expedition  of  the  Persians  under  Xerxes  I. 
This  confederacy,  which  after  many  modifications  and  vicissi- 
tudes was  finally  broken  up  by  the  capture  of  Athens  by  Sparta 
in  404,  was  revived  in  378-7  (the  "  Second  Athenian  Confeder- 
acy ")  as  a  protection  against  Spartan  aggression,  and  lasted, 
at  least  formally,  until  the  victory  of  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  at 
Chaeronea.  These  two  confederations  have  an  interest  quite  out 
of  proportion  to  the  significance  of  the  detailed  events  which  form 
their  history.  (See  GREECE:  Ancient  History.}  They  are  the  first 
two  examples  of  which  we  have  detailed  knowledge  of  a  serious 
attempt  at  united  action  on  the  part  of  a  large  number  of  self- 
governing  states  at  a  relatively  high  level  of  conscious  political 
development.  The  first  league,  moreover,  in  its  later  period 
affords  the  first  example  in  recorded  history  of  self-conscious 
imperialism  in  which  the  subordinate  units  enjoyed  a  specified 
local  autonomy  with  an  organized  system,  financial,  military  and 
judicial.  The  second  league  is  further  interesting  as  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  Achaean  and  Aetolian  Leagues. 

History. — Several  causes  contributed  to  the  formation  of  the 
first  Confederacy  of  Delos.  During  the  6th  century  B.C.  Sparta 
had  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief  power,  not  only  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnese,  but  also  in  Greece  as  a  whole,  including  the  islands  of 
the  Aegean.  The  Persian  invasions  of  Darius  and  Xerxes,  with  the 
consequent  importance  of  maritime  strength  and  the  capacity 
for  distant  enterprise,  as  compared  with  that  of  purely  military 
superiority  in  the  Greek  peninsula,  caused  a  considerable  loss  of 
prestige  which  Sparta  was  unwilling  to  recognize.  Moreover,  it 
chanced  that  at  the  time  the  Spartan  leaders  were  not  men 
of  strong  character  or  general  ability.  Pausanias,  the  victor  of 
Plataea,  soon  showed  himself  destitute  of  the  high  qualities 
which  the  situation  demanded.  Personal  cupidity,  discourtesy 
to  the  allies,  and  a  tendency  to  adopt  the  style  and  manners  of 
oriental  princes,  combined  to  alienate  from  him  the  sympathies 
of  the  Ionian  allies,  who  realized  that,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
Athenians,  the  battle  of  Salamis  would  never  have  been  even 
fought,  and  Greece  would  probably  have  become  a  Persian 
satrapy.  The  Athenian  contingent  which  was  sent  to  aid 
Pausanias  in  the  task  of  driving  the  Persians  finally  out  of  the 
Thraceward  towns  was  under  the  command  of  the  Athenians, 
Aristides  and  Cimon,  men  of  tact  and  probity.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, surprising  that  when  Pausanias  was  recalled  to  Sparta  on 
the  charge  of  treasonable  overtures  to  the  Persians,  the  Ionian 
allies  appealed  to  the  Athenians  on  the  grounds  of  kinship  and 
urgent  necessity,  and  that  when  Sparta  sent  out  Dorcis  to  super- 
sede Pausanias  he  found  Aristides  in  unquestioned  command  of 
the  allied  fleet.  To  some  extent  the  Spartans  were  undoubtedly 
relieved,  in  that  it  no  longer  fell  to  them  to  organize  distant 
expeditions  to  Asia  Minor,  and  this  feeling  was  strengthened 
about  the  same  time  by  the  treacherous  conduct  of  their  king 
Leotychides  (q.v.)  in  Thessaly.  In  any  case  the  inelastic  quality 
of  the  Spartan  system  was  unable  to  adapt  itself  to  the  spirit  of 
the  new  age.  To  Aristides  was  mainly  due  the  organization  of  the 
new  league  and  the  adjustment  of  the  contributions  of  the  various 


allies  in  ships  or  in  money.  His  assessment,  of  the  details  of 
which  we  know  nothing,  was  so  fair  that  it  remained  popular  long 
after  the  league  of  autonomous  allies  had  become  an  Athenian 
empire.  The  general  affairs  of  the  league  were  managed  by  a 
synod  which  met  periodically  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  and  Artemis 
at  Delos,  the  ancient  centre  sanctified  by  the  common  worship 
of  the  lonians.  In  this  synod  the  allies  met  on  an  equality  under 
the  presidency  of  Athens.  Among  its  first  subjects  of  delibera- 
tion must  have  been  the  ratification  of  Aristides'  assessment. 
Thucydides  lays  emphasis  on  the  fact  that  in  these  meetings 
Athens  as  head  of  the  league  had  no  more  than  presidential 
authority,  and  the  other  members  were  called  aujufiaxoi  (allies), 
a  word,  however,  of  ambiguous  meaning  and  capable  of  including 
both  free  and  subject  allies.  The  only  other  fact  preserved  by 
Thucydides  is  that  Athens  appointed  a  board  called  the  Helleno- 
tamiae  (ra/uas,  steward)  to  watch  over  and  administer  the 
treasury  of  the  league,  which  for  some  twenty  years  was  kept 
at  Delos,  and  to  receive  the  contributions  (<£6pos)  of  the  allies 
who  paid  in  money. 

The  league  was,  therefore,  specifically  a  free  confederation  of 
autonomous  Ionian  cities  founded  as  a  protection  against  the 
common  danger  which  threatened  the  Aegean  basin,  and  led 
by  Athens  in  virtue  of  her  predominant  naval  power  as  exhibited 
in  the  war  against  Xerxes.  Its  organization,  adopted  by  the 
common  synod,  was  the  product  of  the  new  democratic  ideal 
embodied  in  the  Cleisthenic  reforms,  as  interpreted  by  a  just 
and  moderate  exponent.  It  is  one  of  the  few  examples  of  free 
corporate  action  on  the  part  of  the  ancient  Greek  cities,  whose 
centrifugal  yearning  for  independence  so  often  proved  fatal  to 
the  Hellenic  world.  It  is,  therefore,  a  profound  mistake  to  regard 
the  history  of  the  league  during  the  first  twenty  years  of  its 
existence  as  that  of  an  Athenian  empire.  Thucydides  expressly 
describes  the  predominance  of  Athens  as  riyt^via  (leadership, 
headship),  not  as  apxr/  (empire),  and  the  attempts  made  by 
Athenian  orators  during  the  second  period  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  to  prove  that  the  attitude  of  Athens  had  not  altered  since 
the  time  of  Aristides  are  manifestly  unsuccessful. 

Of  the  first  ten  years  of  the  league's  history  we  know  practically 
nothing,  save  that  it  was  a  period  of  steady,  successful  activity 
against  the  few  remaining  Persian  strongholds  in  Thrace  and  the 
Aegean  (Herod,  i.  106-107,  see  ATHENS,  CIMON).  In  these  years 
the  Athenian  sailors  reached  a  high  pitch  of  training,  and  by 
their  successes  strengthened  that  corporate  pride  which  had  been 
born  at  Salamis.  On  the  other  hand,  it  naturally  came  to  pass 
that  certain  of  the  allies  became  weary  of  incessant  warfare  and 
looked  for  a  period  of  commercial  prosperity.  Athens,  as  the 
chosen  leader,  and  supported  no  doubt  by  the  synod,  enforced 
the  contributions  of  ships  and  money  according  to  the  assess- 
ment. Gradually  the  allies  began  to  weary  of  personal  service 
and  persuaded  the  synod  to  accept  a  money  commutation.  The 
lonians  were  naturally  averse  from  prolonged  warfare,  and  in 
the  prosperity  which  must  have  followed  the  final  rout  of  the 
Persians  and  the  freeing  of  the  Aegean  from  the  pirates  (a  very 
important  feature  in  the  league's  policy)  a  money  contribution 
was  only  a  trifling  burden.  The  result  was,  however,  extremely 
bad  for  the  allies,  whose  status  in  the  league  necessarily  became 
lower  in  relation  to  that  of  Athens,  while  at  the  same  time  their 
military  and  naval  resources  correspondingly  diminished.  Athens 
became  more  and  more  powerful,  and  could  afford  to  disregard 
the  authority  of  the  synod.  Another  new  feature  appeared 
in  the  employment  of  coercion  against  cities  which  desired  to 
secede.  Athens  might  fairly  insist  that  the  protection  of  the 
Aegean  would  become  impossible  if  some  of  the  chief  islands  were 
liable  to  be  used  as  piratical  strongholds,  and  further  that  it  was 
only  right  that  all  should  contribute  in  some  way  to  the  security 
which  all  enjoyed.  The  result  was  that,  in  the  cases  of  Naxos 
and  Thasos,  for  instance,  the  league's  resources  were  employed 
not  against  the  Persians  but  against  recalcitrant  Greek  islands, 
and  that  the  Greek  ideal  of  separate  autonomy  was  outraged. 
Shortly  after  the  capture  of  Naxos  (c.  467  B.C.)  Cimon  proceeded 
with  a  fleet  of  30x5  ships  (only  100  from  the  allies)  to  the  south- 
western and  southern  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Having  driven  the 


DELIAN  LEAGUE 


959 


Persians  out  of  Greek  towns  in  Lycia  and  Caria,  he  met  and 
routed  the  Persians  on  land  and  sea  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eury- 
medon  in  Pamphylia.  In  463  after  a  siege  of  more  than  two  years 
the  Athenians  captured  Thasos,  with  which  they  had  quarrelled 
over  mining  rights  in  the  Strymon  valley.  It  issaid  (Thuc.  i.  101) 
that  Thasos  had  appealed  for  aid  to  Sparta,  and  that  the  latter 
was  prevented  from  responding  only  by  earthquake  and  the 
Helot  revolt.  But  this  is  both  unproved  and  improbable. 
Sparta  had  so  far  no  quarrel  with  Athens.  Athens  thus  became 
mistress  of  the  Aegean,  while  the  synod  at  Delos  had  become 
practically,  if  not  theoretically,  powerless.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  Cimon  (q.v.),  who  had  striven  to  maintain  a  balance  between 
Sparta,  the  chief  military,  and  Athens,  the  chief  naval  power, 
was  successfully  attacked  by  Ephialtes  and  Pericles.  During  the 
ensuing  years,  apart  from  a  brief  return  to  the  Cimonian  policy, 
the  resources  of  the  league,  or,  as  it  has  now  become,  the 
Athenian  empire,  were  directed  not  so  much  against  Persia 
as  against  Sparta,  Corinth,  Aegina  and  Boeotia.  (See  ATHENS; 
SPARTA,  &c.)  A  few  points  only  need  be  dealt  with  here.  The  first 
years  of  the  land  war  brought  the  Athenian  empire  to  its  zenith. 
Apart  from  Thessaly,  it  included  all  Greece  outside  the  Pelo- 
ponnese.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the  Athenian  expedition 
against  the  Persians  in  Egypt  ended  in  a  disastrous  defeat,  and 
for  a  time  the  Athenians  returned  to  a  philo-Laconian  policy, 
perhaps  under  the  direction  of  Cimon  (see  CIMON  and  PERICLES). 
Peace  was  made  with  Sparta,  and,  if  we  are  to  believe  4th- 
century  orators,  a  treaty,  the  Peace  of  Callias  or  of  Cimon,  was 
concluded  between  the  Great  King  and  Athens  in  449  after  the 
death  of  Cimon  before  the  walls  of  Citium  in  Cyprus.  The 
meaning  of  this  so-called  Peace  of  Callias  is  doubtful.  Owing  to 
the  silence  of  Thucydides  and  other  reasons,  many  scholars 
regard  it  as  merely  a  cessation  of  hostilities  (see  CIMON  and 
CALLIAS,  where  authorities  are  quoted).  At  all  events,  it  is 
significant  of  the  success  of  the  main  object  of  the  Delian  League, 
the  Athenians  resigning  Cyprus  and  Egypt,  while  Persia  recog- 
nized the  freedom  of  the  maritime  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor. 

During  this  period  the  power  of  Athens  over  her  allies  had 
increased,  though  we  do  not  know  anything  of  the  process  by 
which  this  was  brought  about.  Chios,  Lesbos  and  Samos  alone 
furnished  ships;  all  the  rest  had  commuted  for  a  money  pay- 
ment. This  meant  that  the  synod  was  quite  powerless.  More- 
over in  454  (probably)  the  changed  relations  were  crystallized  by 
the  transference  (proposed  by  the  Samians)  of  the  treasury  to 
Athens  (Corp.  Inscr.  Attic,  i.  260).  Thus  in  448  B.C.  Athens  was 
not  only  mistress  of  a  maritime  empire,  but  ruled  over  Megara, 
Boeotia,  Phocis,  Locris,  Achaea  and  Troezen,  i.e.  over  so-called 
allies  who  were  strangers  to  the  old  pan-Ionian  assembly  and 
to  the  policy  of  the  league,  and  was  practically  equal  to  Sparta 
on  land.  An  important  event  must  be  referred  probably  to  the 
year  451, — the  law  of  Pericles,  by  which  citizenship  (including 
the  right  to  vote  in  the  Ecclesia  and  to  sit  on  paid  juries)  was 
restricted  to  those  who  could  prove  themselves  the  children  of  an 
Athenian  father  and  mother  (e£  anfolv  aa-miv).  This  measure 
must  have  had  a  detrimental  effect  on  the  allies,  who  thus  saw 
themselves  excluded  still  further  from  recognition  as  equal 
partners  in  a  league  (see  PERICLES).  The  natural  result  of  all 
these  causes  was  that  a  feeling  of  antipathy  rose  against  Athens 
in  the  minds  of  those  to  whom  autonomy  was  the  breath  of  life, 
and  the  fundamental  tendency  of  the  Greeks  to  disruption  was 
soon  to  prove  more  powerful  than  the  forces  at  the  disposal  of 
Athens.  The  first  to  secede  were  the  land  powers  of  Greece 
proper,  whose  subordination  Athens  had  endeavpured  to 
guarantee  by  supporting  the  democratic  parties  in  the  various 
states.  Gradually  the  exiled  oligarchs  combined ;  with  the  defeat 
of  Tolmides  at  Coroneia,  Boeotia  was  finally  lost  to  the  empire, 
and  the  loss  of  Phocis,  Locris  and  Megara  was  the  immediate 
sequel.  Against  these  losses  the  retention  of  Euboea,  Nisaea 
and  Pegae  was  no  compensation;  the  land  empire  was  irre- 
trievably lost. 

The  next  important  event  is  the  revolt  of  Samos,  which  had 
quarrelled  with  Miletus  over  the  city  of  Priene.  The  Samians 
refused  the  arbitration  of  Athens.  The  island  was  conquered 


with  great  difficulty  by  the  whole  force  of  the  league,  and  from  the 
fact  that  the  tribute  of  the  Thracian  cities  and  those  in  Helles- 
pontine  district  was  increased  between  439  and  436  we  must 
probably  infer  that  Athens  had  to  deal  with  a  widespread  feeling 
of  discontent  about  this  period.  It  is,  however,  equally  notice- 
able on  the  one  hand  that  the  main  body  of  the  allies  was  not 
affected,  and  on  the  other  that  the  Peloponnesian  League  on 
the  advice  of  Corinth  officially  recognized  the  right  of  Athens  to 
deal  with  her  rebellious  subject  allies,  and  refused  to  give  help 
to  the  Samians. 

The  succeeding  events  which  led  to  the  Peloponnesian  War  and 
the  final  disruption  of  the  league  are  discussed  in  other  articles. 
(See  ATHENS:  History,  and  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR.)  Two  im- 
portant events  alone  call  for  special  notice.  The  first  is  the 
raising  of  the  allies'  tribute  in  425  B.C.  by  a  certain  Thudippus, 
presumably  a  henchman  of  Cleon.  The  fact,  though  not 
mentioned  by  Thucydides,  was  inferred  from  Aristophanes 
(Wasps,  660),  Andocides  (de  Pace,  §  9),  Plutarch  (Aristides, 
c.  24),  and  pseudo- Andocides  (Alcibiad.  n);  it  was  proved  by 
the  discovery  of  the  assessment  list  of  425-4  (Hicks  and  Hill, 
Inscrip.  64).  The  second  event  belongs  to  41 1 ,  after  the  failure  of 
the  Sicilian  expedition.  In  that  year  the  tribute  of  the  allies 
was  commuted  for  a  5  %  tax  on  all  imports  and  exports  by  sea. 
This  tax,  which  must  have  tended  to  equalize  the  Athenian 
merchants  with  those  of  the  allied  cities,  probably  came  into  force 
gradually,  for  beside  the  new  collectors  called  iropwrai  we  still 
find  Hellene tamiae  (C.I. A.  iv.  [i.]  p.  34). 

The  Tribute. — Only  a  few  problems  can  be  discussed  of  the  many 
which  are  raised  by  the  insufficient  and  conflicting  evidence  at 
our  disposal.  In  the  first  place  there  is  the  question  of  the 
tribute.  Thucydides  is  almost  certainly  wrong  in  saying  that  the 
amount  of  the  original  tribute  was  460  talents  (about  £106,000) ; 
this  figure  cannot  have  been  reached  for  at  least  twelve,  probably 
twenty  years,  when  new  members  had  been  enrolled  (Lycia, 
Caria,  Eion,  Lampsacus).  Similarly  he  is  probably  wrong,  or  at 
all  events  includes  items  of  which  the  tribute  lists  take  no  account, 
when  he  says  that  it  amounted  to  600  talents  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The  moderation  of  the  assessment  is 
shown  not  only  by  the  fact  that  it  was  paid  so  long  without 
objection,  but  also  by  the  individual  items.  Even  in  425  Naxos 
and  Andros  paid  only  15  talents,  while  Athens  had  just  raised 
an  eisphora  (income  tax)  from  her  own  citizens  of  200  talents. 
Moreover  it  would  seem  that  a  tribute  which  yielded  less  than 
the  5%  tax  of  411  could  not  have  been  unreasonable. 

The  number  of  tributaries  is  given  by  Aristophanes  as  1000, 
but  this  is  greatly  in  excess  of  those  named  in  the  tribute  lists. 
Some  authorities  give  200;  others  put  it  as  high  as  290.  The 
difficulty  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  several  towns 
were  grouped  together  in  one  payment  (owreXets).  These  were 
grouped  into  five  main  geographical  divisions  (from  443  to  436; 
afterwards  four,  Caria  being  merged  in  Ionia).  Each  division 
was  represented  by  two  elective  assessment  commissioners 
(TOKTO.I),  who  assisted  the  Boule  at  Athens  in  the  quadrennial 
division  of  the  tribute.  Each  city  sent  in  its  own  assessment 
before  the  TCUCTCU,  who  presented  it  to  the  Boule.  If  there  was 
any  difference  of  opinion  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  Ecclesia 
for  settlement.  In  the  Ecclesia  a  private  citizen  might  propose 
another  assessment,  or  the  case  might  be  referred  to  the  law 
courts.  The  records  of  the  tribute  are  preserved  in  the  so-called 
quota  lists,  which  give  the  names  of  the  cities  and  the  proportion, 
one-sixtieth,  of  their  several  tributes,  which  was  paid  to  Athens. 
No  tribute  was  paid  by  members  of  a  cleruchy  (q.v.),  as  we  find 
from  the  fact  that  the  tribute  of  a  city  always  decreased  when 
a  cleruchy  was  planted  in  it.  This  highly  organized  financial 
system  must  have  been  gradually  evolved,  and  no  doubt 
reached  its  perfection  only  after  the  treasury  was  transferred 
to  Athens. 

Government  and  Jurisdiction. — There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  among  scholars  regarding  the  attitude  of  imperial  Athens 
towards  her  allies.  Grote  maintained  that  on  the  whole  the 
allies  had  little  ground  for  complaint;  but  in  so  doing  he  rather 
seems  to  leave  out  of  account  the  Greek's  dislike  of  external 


960 


DELIAN  LEAGUE 


discipline.  The -very  fact  that  the  hegemony  had  become  an 
empire  was  enough  to  make  the  new  system  highly  offensive  to 
the  allies.  No  very  strong  argument  can  be  based  on  the  paucity 
of  actual  revolts.  The  indolent  lonians  had  seen  the  result  of 
secession  at  Naxos  and  rebellion  at  Thasos;  the  Athenian  fleet 
was  perpetually  on  guard  in  the  Aegean.  On  the  other  hand 
among  the  mainland  cities  revolt  was  frequent;  they  were 
ready  to  rebel  xai  irapa  dvvafuv.  Therefore,  even  though 
Athenian  domination  may  have  been  highly  salutary  in  its 
effects,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  allies  did  not  regard  it 
with  affection. 

To  judge  only  by  the  negative  evidence  of  the  decree  of 
Aristoteles  which  records  the  terms  of  alliance  of  the  second 
confederacy  (below),  we  gather  that  in  the  later  period  at  least  of 
the  first  league's  history  the  Athenians  had  interfered  with  the 
local  autonomy  of  the  allies  in  various  ways — an  inference  which 
is  confirmed  by  the  terms  of  "  alliance  "  which  Athens  imposed  on 
Erythrae,  Chalcis  and  Miletus.  Though  it  appears  that  Athens 
made  individual  agreements  with  various  states,  and  therefore 
that  we  cannot  regard  as  general  rules  the  terms  laid  down  in 
those  which  we  possess,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  Athenians 
planted  garrisons  under  permanent  Athenian  officers  (<j>povpapxoi) 
in  some  cities.  Moreover  the  practice  among  Athenian  settlers 
of  acquiring  land  in  the  allied  districts  must  have  been  vexatious 
to  the  allies,  the  more  so  as  all  important  cases  between  Athenians 
and  citizens  of  allied  cities  were  brought  to  Athens.  Even  on  the 
assumption  that  the  Athenian  dicasteries  were  scrupulously  fair 
in  their  awards,  it  must  have  been  peculiarly  galling  to  the 
self-respect  of  the  allies  and  inconvenient  to  individuals  to 
be  compelled  to  carry  cases  to  Athens  and  Athenian  juries. 
Furthermore  we  gather  from  the  Aristoteles  inscription  and 
from  the  4th-century  orators  that  Athens  imposed  democratic 
constitutions  on  her  allies;  indeed  Isocrates  (Paneg.,  106)  takes 
credit  for  Athens  on  this  ground,  and  the  charter  of  Erythrae 
confirms  the  view  (cf.  Arist.  Polit.,  viii.,  vi.  9  1307  b  20;  Thuc. 
viii.  21,  48,  64,  65).  Even  though  we  admit  that  Chios,  Lesbos 
and  Samos  (up  to  440)  retained  their  oligarchic  governments 
and  that  Selymbria,  at  a  time  (409  B.C.)  when  the  empire  was 
in  extremis,  was  permitted  to  choose  its  own  constitution,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  from  whatever  motive  and  with  what- 
ever result,  Athens  did  exercise  over  many  of  her  allies  an 
authority  which  extended  to  the  most  intimate  concerns  of  local 
administration. 

Thus  the  great  attempt  on  the  part  of  Athens  to  lead  a  harmoni- 
ous league  of  free  Greek  states  for  the  good  of  Hellas  degenerated 
into  an  empire  which  proved  intolerable  to  the  autonomous  states 
of  Greece.  Her  failure  was  due  partly  to  the  commercial  jealousy 
of  Corinth  working  on  the  dull  antipathy  of  Sparta,  partly  to  the 
hatred  of  compromise  and  discipline  which  was  fatally  character- 
istic of  Greece  and  especially  of  Ionian  Greece,  and  partly  also  to 
the  lack  of  tact  and  restraint  shown  by  Athens  and  her  repre- 
sentatives in  her  relations  with  the  allies. 

The  Second  League. — The  conditions  which  led  to  the  second 
Athenian  or  Delian  Confederacy  were  fundamentally  different, 
not  only  in  virtue  of  the  fact  that  the  allies  had  learned  from 
experience  the  dangers  to  which  such  a  league  was  liable,  but 
because  the  enemy  was  no  longer  an  oriental  power  of  whose 
future  action  there  could  be  no  certain  anticipation,  but  Sparta, 
whose  ambitious  projects  since  the  fall  of  Athens  had  shown 
that  there  could  be  no  safety  for  the  smaller  states  save  in  com- 
bination. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  as  soon  as  the 
Athenians  began  to  recover  from  the  paralysing  effect  of  the 
victory  of  Lysander  and  the  internal  troubles  in  which  they  were 
involved  by  the  government  of  the  Thirty,  their  thoughts  turned 
to  the  possibility  of  recovering  their  lost  empire.  The  first  step 
in  the  direction  was  the  recovery  of  their  sea-power,  which  was 
effected  by  the  victory  of  Conon  at  Cnidus  (August  394  B.C.). 
Gradually  individual  cities  which  had  formed  part  of  the  Athenian 
empire  returned  to  their  alliance  with  Athens,  until  the  Spartans 
had  lost  Rhodes,  Cos,  Nisyrus,  Teos,  Chios,  Mytilene,  Ephesus, 
Erythrae,  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Scyros,  Eretria,  Melos,  Cythera, 


Carpathus  and  Delos.  Sparta  had  only  Sestos  and  Abydos  of  all 
that  she  had  won  by  the  battle  of  Aegospotami.  At  the  same 
time  no  systematic  constructive  attempt  at  a  renewal  of  empire 
can  as  yet  be  detected.  Athenian  relations  were  with  individual 
states  only,  and  the  terms  of  alliance  were  various.  Moreover, 
whereas  Persia  had  been  for  several  years  aiding  Athens  against 
Sparta,  the  revolt  of  the  Athenian  ally  Evagoras  (<?.».)  of  Cyprus 
set  them  at  enmity,  and  with  the  secession  of  Ephesus,  Cnidus  and 
Samos  in  391  and  the  civil  war  in  Rhodes,  the  star  of  Sparta 
seemed  again  to  be  in  the  ascendant.  But  the  whole  position 
was  changed  by  the  successes  of  Thrasybulus,  who  brought  over 
the  Odrysian  king  Medocus  and  Seuthes  of  the  Propontis  to 
the  Athenian  alliance,  set  up  a  democracy  in  Byzantium  and 
reimposed  the  old  10%  duty  on  goods  from  the  Black  Sea. 
Many  of  the  island  towns  subsequently  came  over,  and  from 
inscriptions  at  Clazomenae  (C.I. A.  ii.  146)  and  Thasos  (C.I. A. 
iv.  1 1  b)  we  learn  that  Thrasybulus  evidently  was  deliberately 
aiming  at  a  renewal  of  the  empire,  though  the  circumstances 
leading  to  his  death  at  Aspendus  when  seeking  to  raise  money 
suggest  that  he  had  no  general  backing  in  Athens. 

The  peace  of  Antalcidas  or  the  King's  Peace  (see  ANTALCIDAS; 
SPARTA)  in  386  was  a  blow  to  Athens  in  the  interests  of  Persia 
and  Sparta.  Antalcidas  compelled  the  Athenians  to  give  their 
assent  to  it  only  by  making  himself  master  of  the  Hellespont  by 
stratagem  with  the  aid  of  Dionysius  the  Elder  of  Syracuse.  By 
this  peace  all  the  Greek  cities  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  with  the 
islands  of  Cyprus  and  Clazomenae  were  recognized  as  Persian, 
all  other  cities  except  Imbros,  Lemnos  and  Scyros  as  autono- 
mous. Directly,  this  arrangement  prevented  an  Athenian 
empire;  indirectly,  it  caused  the  sacrificed  cities  and  their 
kinsmen  on  the  islands  to  look  upon  Athens  as  their  protector. 
The  gross  selfishness  of  the  Spartans,  herein  exemplified,  was 
emphasized  by  their  capture  of  the  Theban  citadel,  and,  after 
their  expulsion,  by  the  raid  upon  Attica  in  time  of  peace  by 
the  Spartan  Sphodrias,  and  his  immunity  from  punishment  at 
Sparta  (summer  of  3  78  B.C.)  .  The  Athenians  at  once  invited  their 
allies  to  a  conference,  and  the  Second  Athenian  Confederacy  was 
formed  in  the  archonship  of  Nausinicus  on  the  basis  of  the 
famous  decree  of  Aristoteles.  Those  who  attended  the  conference 
were  probably  Athens,  Chios,  Mytilene,  Methymna,  Rhodes, 
Byzantium,  Thebes,  the  latter  of  which  joined  Athens  soon  after 
the  Sphodrias  raid.  In  the  spring  of  377  invitations  were  sent 
out  to  the  maritime  cities.  Some  time  in  that  year  Tenedos, 
Chios,  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  and  probably  the  Euboean  cities 
Eretria,  Carystus  and  Arethusa  gave  in  their  adherence,  followed 
by  Perinthus,  Peparethus,  Sciathus  and  other  maritime  cities. 

At  this  point  Sparta  was  roused  to  a  sense  of  the  significance  of 
the  new  confederacy,  and  the  Athenian  cornsxipply  was  threatened 
by  a  Spartan  fleet  of  sixty  triremes.  The  Athenians  immediately 
fitted  out  a  fleet  under  Chabrias,  who  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Spartans  between  Naxos  and  Pares  (battle  of  Naxos 
376  B.C.),  both  of  which  were  added  to  the  league.  Proceeding 
northwards  in  375  Chabrias  brought  over  a  large  number  of  the 
Thraceward  towns,  including  Abdera,  Thasos  and  Samothrace. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  a  garrison  was  placed  in  Abdera 
in  direct  contravention  of  the  terms  of  the  new  confederacy 
(Meyer,  Gesch.  d.  Alt.,  v.  394).  About  the  same  time  the  successes 
of  Timotheus  in  the  west  resulted  in  the  addition  to  the  league  of 
Corcyra  and  the  cities  of  Cephallenia,  and  his  moderation  induced 
the  Acarnanians  and  Alcetas,  the  Molossian  king,  to  follow  their 
example.  Once  again  Sparta  sent  out  a  fleet,  but  Timotheus  in 
spite  of  financial  embarrassment  held  his  ground.  By  this  time, 
however,  the  alliance  between  Thebes  and  Athens  was  growing 
weaker,  and  Athens,  being  short  of  money,  concluded  a  peace 
with  Sparta  (probably  in  July  374),  by  which  the  peace  of 
Antalcidas  was  confirmed  and  the  two  states  recognized  each 
other  as  mistress  of  sea  and  land  respectively.  Trouble,  however, 
soon  arose  over  Zacynthus,  and  the  Spartans  not  only  sent  help 
to  the  Zacynthian  oligarchs  but  even  besieged.  Corcyra  (373). 
Timotheus  was  sent  to  relieve  the  island,  but  shortness  of 
money  compelled  him  to  search  for  new  allies,  and  he  spent  the 
summer  of  373  in  persuading  Jason  of  Pherae  (if  he  had  not 


DELIAN  LEAGUE 


961 


already  joined),  and  certain  towns  in  Thrace,  the  Chersonese,  the 
Propontis  and  the  Aegean  to  enrol  themselves.  This  delay  in 
sending  help  to  Corcyra  was  rightly  or  wrongly  condemned  by 
the  Athenians,  who  dismissed  Timotheus  in  favour  of  Iphicrates. 
The  expedition  which  followed  produced  negative  successes,  but 
the  absence  of  any  positive  success  and  the  pressure  of  financial 
difficulty,  coupled  with  the  defection  of  Jason  (probably  before 
371),  and  the  high-handed  action  of  Thebes  in  destroying 
Plataea  (373),  induced  Athens  to  renew  the  peace  with  Sparta 
which  Timotheus  had  broken.  With  the  support  of  Persia  an 
agreement  was  made  by  a  congress  at  Sparta  on  the  basis  of 
the  autonomy  of  the  cities,  Amphipolis  and  the  Chersonese  being 
granted  to  Athens.  The  Thebans  at  first  accepted  the  terms,  but 
on  the  day  after,  realizing  that  they  were  thus  balked  of  their 
pan-Boeotian  ambition,  withdrew  and  finally  severed  themselves 
from  the  league. 

The  peace  of  371  may  be  regarded  as  the  conclusion  of  the  first 
distinct  period  in  the  league's  existence.  The  original  purpose 
of  the  league — the  protection  of  the  allies  from  the  ambitions  of 
Sparta — was  achieved.  Athens  was  recognized  as  mistress  of  the 
sea;  Sparta  as  the  chief  land  power.  The  inherent  weakness  of 
the  coalition  had,  however,  become  apparent.  The  enthusiasm 
of  the  allies  (numbering  about  seventy)  waned  rapidly  before  the 
financial  exigencies  of  successive  campaigns,  and  it  is  abund- 
antly clear  that  Thebes  had  no  interest  save  the  extension  of  her 
power  in  Boeotia.  Though  her  secession,  therefore,  meant  very 
little  loss  of  strength,  there  were  not  wanting  signs  that  the 
league  was  not  destined  to  remain  a  power  in  the  land. 

The  remaining  history  may  be  broken  up  into  two  periods,  the 
first  from  371  to  357,  the  second  from  357  to  338.  Throughout 
these  two  periods,  which  saw  the  decline  and  final  dissolution  of 
the  alliance,  there  is  very  little  specific  evidence  for  its  existence. 
The  events  seem  to  belong  to  the  histories  of  the  several  cities, 
and  examples  of  corporate  action  are  few  and  uncertain.  None 
the  less  the  known  facts  justify  a  large  number  of  inferences  as  to 
the  significance  of  events  which  are  on  the  surface  merely  a  part 
of  the  individual  foreign  policy  of  Athens. 

Period  371-357. — The  first  event  in  this  period  was  the  battle 
of  Leuctra  (July  37 1) ,  in  which,  no  doubt  to  the  surprise  of  Athens, 
Thebes  temporarily  asserted  itself  as  the  chief  land  power  in 
Greece.  To  counterbalance  the  new  power  Athens  very  rashly 
plunged  into  Peloponnesian  politics  with  the  ulterior  object  of 
inducing  the  states  which  had  formerly  recognized  the  hegemony 
of  Sparta  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  the  Delian  League.  It 
seems  that  all  the  states  adopted  this  policy  with  the  exception 
of  Sparta  (probably )  and  Elis.  The  policy  of  Athens  was  mistaken 
for  two  reasons:  (i)  Sparta  was  not  entirely  humiliated,  and 
(2)  alliance  with  the  land  powers  of  Peloponnese  was  incalculably 
dangerous,  inasmuch  as  it  involved  Athens  in  enterprises  which 
could  not  awake  the  enthusiasm  of  her  maritime  allies.  This  new 
coalition  naturally  alarmed  Sparta,  which  at  once  made  overtures 
to  Athens  on  the  ground  of  their  common  danger  from  Thebes. 
The  alliance  was  concluded  in  369.  About  the  same  time 
Iphicrates  was  sent  to  take  possession  of  Amphipolis  according 
to  the  treaty  of  371.  Some  success  in  Macedonia  roused  the 
hostility  of  Thebes,  and  the  subsequent  attempts  on  Amphipolis 
caused  the  Chalcidians  to  declare  against  the  league.  It  would 
appear  that  the  old  suspicion  of  the  allies  was  now  thoroughly 
awakened,  and  we  find  Athens  making  great  efforts  to  conciliate 
Mytilene  by  honorific  decrees  (Hicks  and  Hill,  109).  This 
suspicion,  which  was  due  primarily,  no  doubt,  to  the  agreement 
with  Sparta,  would  find  confirmation  in  the  subsequent  exchange 
of  compliments  with  Dionysius  I.  of  Syracuse,  Sparta's  ally,  who 
with  his  sons  received  the  Athenian  citizenship.  It  is  not  clear 
that  the  allies  officially  approved  this  new  friendship;  it  is 
certain  that  it  was  actually  distasteful  to  them.  The  same 
dislike  would  be  roused  by  the  Athenian  alliance  with  Alexander 
of  Pherae  (368-367).  The  maritime  allies  naturally  had  no  desire 
to  be  involved  in  the  quarrels  of  Sicily,  Thessaly  and  the 
Peloponnese. 

In  367  Athens  and  Thebes  sent  rival  ambassadors  to  Persia, 
with  the  result  that  Athens  was  actually  ordered  to  abandon  her 


claim  to  Amphipolis,  and  to  remove  her  navy  from  the  high  seas. 
The  claim  to  Amphipolis  was  subsequently  affirmed,  but  the 
Greek  states  declined  to  obey  the  order  of  Persia.  In  366  Athens 
lost  Oropus,  a  blow  which  she  endeavoured  to  repair  by  forming 
an  alliance  with  Arcadia  and  by  an  attack  on  Corinth.  At  the 
same  time  certain  of  the  Peloponnesian  states  made  peace  with 
Thebes,  and  some  hold  that  Athens  joined  this  peace  (Meyer, 
Gesch.  d.  Alt.  v.  449).  Timotheus  was  sent  in  366-365  to  make 
a  demonstration  against  Persia.  Finding  Samos  in  the  hands  of 
Cyprothemis,  a  servant  of  the  satrap  Tigranes,  he  laid  siege  to  it, 
captured  it  after  a  ten  months'  siege  and  established  a  cleruchy. 
Though  Samos  was  not  apparently  one  of  the  allies,  this  latter 
action  could  not  but  remind  the  allies  of  the  very  dangers  which 
the  second  confederacy  had  set  out  to  avoid. 

The  next  important  event  was  the  serious  attempt  on  the  part 
of  Epaminondas  to  challenge  the  Athenian  naval  supremacy. 
Though  Timotheus  held  his  ground  the  confederacy  was  un- 
doubtedly weakened.  In  362  Athens  joined  in  the  opposition 
to  the  Theban  expedition  which  ended  in  the  battle  of  Mantineia 
(July) .  In  the  next  year  the  Athenian  generals  failed  in  the  north 
in  their  attempt  to  control  the  Hellespont.  In  Thessaly  Alexander 
of  Pherae  became  hostile  and  after  several  successes  even  attacked 
the  Peiraeus.  Chares  was  ordered  to  make  reprisals,  but  instead 
sailed  to  Corcyra,  where  he  made  the  mistake  of  siding  with 
the  oligarchs.  The  last  event  of  the  period  was  a  success,  the 
recovery  of  Euboea  (357),  which  was  once  more  added  to  the 
league. 

During  these  fourteen  years  the  policy  of  Athens  towards  her 
maritime  allies  was,  as  we  have  seen,  shortsighted  and  incon- 
sistent. Alliances  with  various  land  powers,  and  an  inability 
to  understand  the  true  relations  which  alone  could  unite  the 
league,  combined  to  alienate  the  allies,  who  could  discover  no 
reason  for  the  expenditure  of  their  contributions  on  protecting 
Sparta  or  Corinth  against  Thebes.  The  Zwedptov  of  the  league 
is  found  taking  action  in  several  instances,  but  there  is  evidence 
(cf.  the  expedition  of  Epaminondas  In  363)  that  there  was  ground 
for  suspecting  disloyalty  in  many  quarters.  On  the  other  hand, 
though  the  Athenian  fleet  became  stronger  and  several  cities 
were  captured,  the  league  itself  did  not  gain  any  important 
voluntary  adherents.  The  generals  were  compelled  to  support 
their  forces  by  plunder  or  out  of  their  private  resources,  and, 
frequently  failing,  diverted  their  efforts  from  the  pressing  needs 
of  the  allies  to  purely  Athenian  objects. 

Period  357-338. — The  latent  discontent  of  the  allies  was  soon 
fanned  into  hostility  by  the  intrigues  of  Mausolus,  prince  of 
Cardia,  who  was  anxious  to  extend  his  kingdom.  Chios,  Rhodes, 
Cos,  Byzantium,  Erythrae  and  probably  other  cities  were  in 
revolt  by  the  spring  of  356,  and  their  attacks  on  loyal  members 
of  the  confederacy  compelled  Athens  to  take  the  offensive. 
Chabrias  had  already  been  killed  in  an  attack  on  Chios  in  the 
previous  autumn,  and  the  fleet  was  under  the  command  of 
Timotheus,  Iphicrates  and  Chares,  who  sailed  against  Byzantium. 
The  enemy  sailed  north  from  Samos  and  in  a  battle  off  Embata 
(between  Erythrae  and  Chios)  defeated  Chares,  who,  without  the 
consent  of  his  colleagues,  had  ventured  to  engage  them  in  a 
storm.  The  more  cautious  generals  were  accused  of  corrup- 
tion in  not  supporting  Chares.  Iphicrates  was  acquitted  and 
Timotheus  condemned.  Chares  sought  to  replenish  his  resources 
by  aiding  the  Phrygian  satrap  Artabazus  against  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  but  a  threat  from  the  Persian  court  caused  the  Athenians 
to  recall  him,  and  peace  was  made  by  which  Athens  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  revolted  towns.  The  league  was  further 
weakened  by  the  secession  of  Corcyra,  and  by  355  was  reduced  to 
Athens,  Euboea  and  a  few  islands.  By  this  time,  moreover, 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon  had  begun  his  career  of  conquest,  and  had 
shattered  an  embryonic  alliance  between  the  league  and  certain 
princes  of  Thrace  (Cetriporis),  Paeonia  (Lyppeius)  and  Illyria 
(Grabus).  In  355  his  advance  temporarily  ceased,  but,  as  we 
learn  from  Isocrates  and  Xenophon,  the  financial  exhaustion  of 
the  league  was  such  that  its  destruction  was  only  a  matter  of 
time.  Resuming  operations  in  354,  Philip,  in  spite  of  temporary 
checks  at  the  hands  of  Chares,  and  the  spasmodic  opposition  of  a 

vii.  31 


962 


DELIBES— DELILLE 


few  barbarian  chiefs,  took  from  the  league  all  its  Thracian  and 
Macedonian  cities  (Abdera,  Maronea,  Neapolis,  Methone.)  In 
352-351  Philip  actually  received  help  from  former  members  of 
the  confederacy.  In  351  Charidemus,  Chares  and  Phocion  were 
sent  to  oppose  him,  and  we  find  that  the  contributions  of  the 
Lesbian  cities  were  assigned  to  them  for  supplies,  but  no  successes 
were  gained.  In  349  Euboea  and  Olynthus  were  lost  to  the  league, 
of  which  indeed  nothing  remained  but  an  empty  form,  in  spite 
of  the  facts  that  the  expelled  Olynthians  appealed  to  it  in  348 
and  that  Mytilene  rejoined  in  347.  In.  346  the  peace  of  Philo- 
crates  was  made  between  the  league  and  Philip  on  terms  which 
were  accepted  by  the  Athenian  Boule.  It  is  very  remarkable 
that,  in  spite  of  the  powerlessness  of  the  confederacy,  the  last  re- 
corded event  in  its  history  is  the  steady  loyalty  of  Tenedos,  which 
gave  money  to  Athens  about  340  (Hicks  and  Hill,  146).  The 
victory  of  Philip  at  Chaeronea  in  338  finally  destroyed  the  league. 

In  spite  of  the  precautions  taken  by  the  allies  to  prevent  the 
domination  of  Athens  at  their  expense,  the  policy  of  the  league  was 
almost  throughout  directed  rather  in  the  interests  of  Athens. 
Founded  with  the  specific  object  of  thwarting  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Sparta,  it  was  plunged  by  Athens  into  enterprises  of  an 
entirely  different  character  which  exhausted  the  resources  of  the 
allies  without  benefiting  them  in  any  respect.  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  cities  were  held  to  their 
allegiance  solely  by  the  superior  force  of  the  Athenian  navy. 
The  few  instances  of  its  action  show  that  the  SweSpwv  was 
practically  only  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  Athens. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  FirstLeague. — The  general  histories  of  Greece, 
especially  those  of  A.  Holm  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1894),  G.  Busolt 
(2nd  ed.,  Gotha,  1893),  J.  Beloch  (Strassburg,  1893  foil.),  and  G.Grote 
(the  one-vol.  ed.  of  1907  has  some  further  notes  on  later  evi- 
dence). E.  Meyer's  Gesch.  des  Altertums  (Stuttgart,  1892  foil.)  and 
Forschungen  (Halle,  1892  foil.)  are  of  the  greatest  value.  For  in- 
scriptions, G.  F.  Hill,  Sources  of  Greek  History,  478-431  (2nd  ed., 
1907) ;  E.  L.  Hicks  and  G.  F.  Hill,  Greek  Hist.  Inscr.  (Oxford,  1901). 
On  the  tribute  see  also  U.  Kohler  in  Abhandlungen  d.  Berliner 
Akademie  (1869)  and  U.  Pedroli,  "  I  Tributi  degli  alleati  d'  Atene  "  in 
Beloch's  Studi  di  storia  antica.'  See  also  articles  ARISTIDES ;  THEM- 
ISTOCLES;  PERICLES;  CIMON,  &c.,  and  GREECE:  History,  with 
works  quoted.  For  the  last  years  of  the  league  see  also  PELO- 
PONNESIAN  WAR. 

The  Second  League. — The  chief  modern  works  are  G.  Busolt,  "  Der 
zweite  athenische  Bund  "  in  Neue  Jahrbucher fur  classische  Philologie 
(supp.  vol.  vii.,  1873-1875,  pp.  641-866),  and  F.  H.  Marshall,  The 
Second  Athenian  Confederacy  (1905),  one  of  the  Cambridge  Historical 
Essays  (No.  xiii.).  The  latter  is  based  on  Busolt's  monograph  and 
includes  subsequent  epigraphic  evidence,  with  a  full  list  of  authorities. 
For  inscriptions  see  Hicks  and  Hill,  op.  cit.,  and  the  Inscriptions 
Atticae,  vol.  ii.  pt.  5.  The  meagre  data  given  by  ancient  writers 
are  collected  by  Busolt  and  Marshall.  (J.  M.  M.) 

DELIBES,  CLEMENT  PHILIBERT  LEO  (1836-1891),  French 
composer,  was  born  at  Saint  Germain  du  Val  on  the  aist  of 
February  1836.  He  studied  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire  under 
Adolphe  Charles  Adam,  through  whose  influence  he  became 
accompanist  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique.  His  first  essay  in  dramatic 
composition  was  his  Deux  sous  de  charbon  (1853),  and  during 
several  years  he  produced  a  number  of  operettas.  His  cantata 
Alger  was  heard  at  the  Paris  opera  in  1865.  Having  become 
second  chorus  master  at  the  Grand  Opera,  he  wrote  the  music  of  a 
ballet  entitled  La  Source  for  this  theatre,  in  collaboration  with 
Minkous,  a  Polish  composer.  La  Source  was  produced  with  great 
success  in  1866.  The  composer  returned  to  the  operetta  style 
with  Malbrouk  s'en  va-t-en  guerre, — written  in  collaboration  with 
Georges  Bizet,  Emile  Jonas  and  Legouix,  and  given  at  the 
Theatre  de  1'Athenee  in  1867.  Two  years  later  came  L'&ossais 
de  Chatou,  a  one-act  piece,  and  La  Cour  du  roi  Petaud,  a  three- 
act  opera-bouffe.  The  ballet  Coppelia  was  produced  at  the  Grand 
Opera  on  the  25th  of  May  1870  with  enormous  success. 

Delibes  gave  up  his  post  as  second  chorus  master  at  the  Grand 
Op6ra  in  1872  when  he  married  the  daughter  of  Mademoiselle 
Denain,  formerly  an  actress  at  the  Comedie  Francaise.  In  this 
year  he  published  a  collection  of  graceful  melodies  including  Myrto, 
Les  Fittes  de  Cadiz,  Bonjour,  Suzon  and  others.  His  first  important 
dramatic  work  was  Le  Roi  I'a  dit,  a  charming  comic  opera,  pro- 
duced on  the  24th  of  May  1873  at  the  Opera  Comique.  Three 
years  later,  on  the  I4th  of  June  1876,  Sy/wa,  a  ballet  in  three  acts, 


one  of  the  composer's  most  delightful  works,  was  produced  at  the 
rand  Opera.  This  was  followed  by  La  Mart  d'Orphee,  a  grand 
scena  produced  at  the  Trocadero  concerts  in  1878  ;  by  Jean  de 
Nivelle,  a  three-act  opera  brought  out  at  the  Opera  Comique  on 
the  8th  of  March  1880;  and  by  Lakme,  an  opera  in  three  acts 
Droduced  at  the  same  theatre  on  the  i4th  of  April  1883.  Lakme 
ias  remained  his  most  popular  opera.  The  composer  died  in 
Paris  on  the  i6th  of  January  1891,  leaving  Kassya,  a  four-act 
opera,  in  an  unfinished  state.  This  work  was  completed  by 
E.  Guiraud,  and  produced  at  the  Opera  Comique  on  the  2ist  of 
March  1893.  In  1877  Delibes  became  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour;  in  1881  he  became  a  professor  of  advanced  com- 
position at  the  Conservatoire;  in  1884  he  took  the  place  of 
Victor  Masse  at  the  Institut  de  France. 

Leo  Delibes  was  a  typically  French  composer.  His  music  is 
light,  graceful  and  refined.  He  excelled  in  ballet  music,  and 
Sylvia  may  well  be  considered  a  masterpiece.  His  operas  are 
constructed  on  a  conventional  pattern.  The  harmonic  texture, 
however,  is  modern,  and  the  melodic  invention  abundant,  while 
the  orchestral  treatment  is  invariably  excellent. 

DELILAH,  in  the  Bible,  the  heroine  of  Samson's  last  love-story 
and  the  cause  of  his  downfall  (Judg.  xvi.).  She  was  a  Philistine 
of  Sorek  (mod.  Sunk),  west  of  Zorah,  and  when  her  countrymen 
offered  her  an  enormous  bribe  to  betray  him,  she  set  to  work  to 
find  out  the  source  of  his  strength.  Thrice  Samson  scoffingly 
told  her  how  he  might  be  bound,  and  thrice  he  readily  broke  the 
bonds  with  which  she  hadjettered  him  in  his  sleep;  seven  green 
bow-strings,  new  ropes,  and  even  the  braiding  of  his  hair  into 
the  frame  of  the  loom  failed  to  secure  him.  At  length  he  disclosed 
the  secret  of  his  power.  Delilah  put  him  to  sleep  upon  her  lap, 
called  in  a  man  to  shave  off  his  seven  locks,  and  this  time  he  was 
easily  captured.  See  SAMSON. 

DELILLE,  JACQUES  (1738-1813),  French  poet,  was  born  on 
the  22nd  of  June  1738  at  Aigue-Perse  in  Auvergne.  He  was 
an  illegitimate  child,  and  was  descended  by  his  mother  from 
the  chancellor  De  I'Hopital.  He  was  educated  at  the  college 
of  Lisieux  in  Paris  and  became  an  elementary  teacher.  He 
gradually  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  poet  by  his  epistles,  in  which 
things  are  not  called  by  their  ordinary  names  but  are  hinted  at  by 
elaborate  periphrases.  Sugar  becomes  "  le  miel  americain  que 
du  sue  des  roseaux  exprima  I'Afiicain."  The  publication  (1769) 
of  his  translation  of  the  Georgics  of  Virgil  made  him  famous. 
Voltaire  recommended  the  poet  for  the  next  vacant  place  in  the 
Academy.  He  was  at  once  elected  a  member,  but  was  not 
admitted  until  1774  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  king,  who 
alleged  that  he  was  too  young.  In  his  Jardins,  ou  I'art  d'embettir 
les  paysages  (1782)  he  made  good  his  pretensions  as  an  original 
poet.  In  1786  he  made  a  journey  to  Constantinople  in  the  train 
of  the  ambassador  M.  de  Choiseul-Gouffier. 

Delille  had  become  professor  of  Latin  poetry  at  the  College 
de  France,  and  abbot  of  Saint-Severin,  when  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  reduced  him  to  poverty.  He  purchased  his  personal 
safety  by  professing  his  adherence  to  revolutionary  doctrine,  but 
eventually  quitted  Paris,  and  retired  to  St  Die,  where  he  com- 
pleted his  translation  of  the  Aeneid.  He  emigrated  first  to  Basel 
and  then  to  Glairesse  in  Switzerland.  Here  he  finished  his  Homme 
des  champs,  and  his  poem  on  the  Trois  regnes  de  la  nature.  His 
next  place  of  refuge  was  in  Germany,  where  he  composed  his 
La  Pitie;  and  finally,  he  passed  some  time  in  London,  chiefly 
employed  in  translating  Paradise  Lost.  In  1802  he  was  able 
to  return  to  Paris,  where,  although  nearly  blind,  he  resumed 
his  professorship  and  his  chair  at  the  Academy,  but  lived  in 
retirement.  He  fortunately  did  not  outlive  the  vogue  of  the 
descriptive  poems  which  were  his  special  province,  and  died  on 
the  ist  of  May  1813. 

Delille  left  behind  him  little  prose.  His  preface  to  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Georgics  is  an  able  essay,  and  contains  many  excellent 
hints  on  the  art  and  difficulties  of  translation.  He  wrote  the 
article  "  La  Bruyere  "  in  the  Biographic  universette_.  The  following 
is  the  list  of  his  poetical  works: — Les  Giorgiques  de  Virgile, 
Iraduites  en  vers  fran^ais  (Paris,  1769,  1782,  1785,  1809);  Les 
Jardins,  en  quatre  chants  (1780;  new  edition,  Paris,  1801); 


DELIRIUM— DELISLE,  J.  N. 


963 


L'Homme  des  champs,  ou  les  Gtorg iques  franq aises  (Strassburg, 
1802);  Poesies  fugitives  (1802);  Dithyrambs  swr  I' immortality  de 
I'dme,  suivi  du  passage  du  Saint  Gothard,  poeme  traduit  de 
1'Anglais  de  Madame  la  duchesse  de  Devonshire  (1802) ;  La  Pitie, 
poeme  en  quatre  chants  (Paris,  1802);  L'lLneide  de  Virgile, 
traduite  en  vers  franqais  (4  vols.,  1804);  Le  Paradis  perdu 
(3  vols.,  1804);  L' Imagination,  poeme  en  huit  chants  (2  vols., 
1806);  Les  trois  regnes  de  la  nature  (2  vols.,  1808);  La  Conversa- 
tion (1812).  A  collection  given  under  the  title  of  Poesies  diverses 
(1801)  was  disavowed  by  Delille. 

His  (Euvres  (16  vols.)  were  published  in  1824.  See  Sainte-Beuve, 
Portraits  litteraires,  vol.  ii. 

DELIRIUM  (a  Latin  medical  term  for  madness,  from  delirare, 
to  be  mad,  literally  to  wander  from  the  lira,  or  furrow),  a 
temporary  form  ot  brain  disorder,  generally  occurring  in  con- 
nexion with  some  special  form  of  bodily  disease.  It  may  vary 
in  intensity  from  slight  and  occasional  wandering  of  the  mind  and 
incoherence  of  expression,  to  fixed  delusions  and  violent  maniacal 
excitement,  and  again  it  may  be  associated  with  more  or  less  of 
coma  or  insensibility.  (See  INSANITY,  and  NEUROPATHOLOGY.) 
Delirium  is  apt  to  occur  in  most  diseases  of  an  acute  nature,  such 
as  fevers  or  inflammatory  affections,  in  injuries  affecting  the 
brain,  in  blood  diseases,  in  conditions  of  exhaustion,  and  as  the 
result  of  the  action  of  certain  specific  poisons,  such  as  opium, 
Indian  hemp,  belladonna,  chloroform  and  alcohol. 

Delirium  tremens  is  one  of  a  train  of  symptoms  of  what  is 
termed  in  medical  nomenclature  acute  alcoholism,  or  excessive 
indulgence  in  alcohol.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  this 
disorder,  although  arising  in  this  manner,  rarely  comes  on  as  the 
result  of  a  single  debauch  in  a  person  unaccustomed  to  the  abuse 
of  stimulants,  but  generally  occurs  in  cases  where  the  nervous 
system  has  been  already  subjected  for  a  length  of  time  to  the 
poisonous  action  of  alcohol,  so  that  the  complaint  might  be  more 
properly  regarded  as  acute  supervening  on  chronic  alcoholism. 
It  is  equally  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  many  habitual  drunkards 
never  suffer  from  delirium  tremens. 

It  was  long  supposed,  and  is  indeed  still  believed  by  some,  that 
delirium  tremens  only  comes  on  when  the  supply  of  alcohol  has 
been  suddenly  cut  off  ;  but  this  view  is  now  generally  rejected, 
and  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  the  attack  comes  on 
while  the  patient  is  still  continuing  to  drink.  Even  in  those  cases 
where  several  days  have  elapsed  between  the  cessation  from 
drinking  and  the  seizure,  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  interval  the 
premonitory  symptoms  of  delirium  tremens  have  shown  them- 
selves, one  of  which  is  aversion  to  drink  as  well  as  food — the 
attack  being  in  most  instances  preceded  by  marked  derangement 
of  the  digestive  functions.  Occasionally  the  attack  is  precipi- 
tated in  persons  predisposed  to  it  by  the  occurrence  of  some  acute 
disease,  such  as  pneumonia,  by  accidents,  such  as  burns,  also  by 
severe  mental  strain,  and  by  the  deprivation  of  food,  even  where 
the  supply  of  alcohol  is  less  than  would  have  been  likely  to 
produce  it  otherwise.  Where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  quantity 
of  alcohol  taken  has  been  very  large,  the  attack  is  sometimes 
ushered  in  by  fits  of  an  epileptiform  character. 

One  of  the  earliest  indications  of  the  approaching  attack  of 
delirium  tremens  is  sleeplessness,  any  rest  the  patient  may 
obtain  being  troubled  by  unpleasant  or  terrifying  dreams. 
During  the  day  there  is  observed  a  certain  restlessness  and 
irritability  of  manner,  with  trembling  of  the  hands  and  a  thick 
or  tremulous  articulation.  The  skin  is  perspiring,  the  countenance 
oppressed-looking  and  flushed,  the  pulse  rapid  and  feeble,  and 
there  is  evidence  of  considerable  bodily  prostration.  These 
symptoms  increase  each  day  and  night  for  a  few  days,  and  then 
the  characteristic  delirium  is  superadded.  The  patient  is  in  a 
state  of  mental  confusion,  talks  incessantly  and  incoherently, 
has  a  distressed  and  agitated  or  perplexed  appearance,  and  a 
vague  notion  that  he  is  pursued  by  some  one  seeking  to  injure 
him.  His  delusions  are  usually  of  transient  character,  but  he 
is  constantly  troubled  with  visual  hallucinations  in  the  form  of 
disagreeable  animals  or  insects  which  he  imagines  he  sees  all  about 
him.  He  looks  suspiciously  around  him,  turns  over  his  pillows, 
and  ransacks  his  bedclothes  for  some  fancied  object  he  supposes 


to  be  concealed  there.  There  is  constant  restlessness,  a  common 
form  of  delusion  being  that  he  is  not  in  his  own  house,  but 
imprisoned  in  some  apartment  from  which  he  is  anxious  to  escape 
to  return  home.  In  these  circumstances  he  is  ever  wishing  to  get 
out  of  bed  and  out  of  doors,  and,  although  in  general  he  may  be 
persuaded  to  return  to  bed,  he  is  soon  desiring  to  get  up  again. 
The  trembling  of  the  muscles  from  which  the  name  of  the  disease 
is  derived  is  a  prominent  but  not  invariable  symptom.  It  is 
most  marked  in  the  muscles  of  the  hands  and  arms  and  in  the 
tongue.  The  character  of  the  delirium  is  seldom  wild  or  noisy, 
but  is  much  more  commonly  a  combination  of  busy  restlessness 
and  indefinite  fear.  When  spoken  to,  the  patient  can  answer 
correctly  enough,  but  immediately  thereafter  relapses  into  his 
former  condition  of  incoherence.  Occasionally  maniacal  symp- 
toms develop  themselves,  the  patient  becoming  dangerously 
violent,  and  the  case  thus  assuming  a  much  graver  aspect  than 
one  of  simple  delirium  tremens. 

In  most  cases  the  symptoms  undergo  abatement  in  from  three 
to  six  days,  the  cessation  of  the  attack  being  marked  by  the 
occurrence  of  sound  sleep,  from  which  the  patient  awakes  in  his 
right  mind,  although  in  a  state  of  great  physical  prostration,  and 
in  great  measure  if  not  entirely  oblivious  of  his  condition  during 
his  illness. 

Although  generally  the  termination  of  an  attack  of  delirium 
tremens  is  in  recovery,  it  occasionally  proves  fatal  by  the  super- 
vention of  coma  and  convulsions,  or  acute  mania,  or  by  exhaus- 
tion, more  especially  when  any  acute  bodily  disease  is  associated 
with  the  attack.  In  certain  instances  delirium  tremens  is  but  the 
beginning  of  serious  and  permanent  impairment  of  intellect,  as 
is  not  infrequently  observed  in  confirmed  drunkards  who  have 
suffered  from  frequent  attacks  of  this  disease.  The  theory 
once  widely  accepted,  that  delirium  tremens  was  the  result  of  the 
too  sudden  breaking  off  from  indulgence  in  alcohol,  led  to  its 
treatment  by  regular  and  often  large  doses  of  stimulants,  a 
practice  fraught  with  mischievous  results,  since  however  much 
the  delirium  appeared  to  be  thus  calmed  for  the  time,  the  con- 
tinuous supply  of  the  poison  which  was  the  original  source  of 
the  disease  inflicted  serious  damage  upon  the  brain,  and  led  in 
many  instances  to  the  subsequent  development  of  insanity.  The 
former  system  of  prescribing  large  doses  of  opium,  with  the 
view  of  procuring  sleep  at  all  hazards,  was  no  less  pernicious. 
In  addition  to  these  methods  of  treatment,  mechanical  restraint 
of  the  patient  was  the  common  practice. 

The  views  of  the  disease  which  now  prevail,  recognizing  the 
delirium  as  the  effect  at  once  of  the  poisonous  action  of  alcohol 
upon  the  brain  and  of  the  want  of  food,  encourage  reliance  to  be 
placed  for  its  cure  upon  the  entire  withdrawal,  in  most  instances, 
of  stimulants,  and  the  liberal  administration  of  light  nutriment, 
in  addition  to  quietness  and  gentle  but  firm  control,  without 
mechanical  restraint.  In  mild  attacks  this  is  frequently  all  that 
is  required.  In  more  severe  cases,  where  there  is  great  restless- 
ness, sedatives  have  to  be  resorted  to,  and  many  substances 
have  been  recommended  for  the  purpose.  Opiates  administered 
in  small  quantity,  and  preferably  by  hypodermic  injection,  are 
undoubtedly  of  value  ;  and  chloral,  either  alone  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  bromide  of  potassium,  often  answers  even  better. 
Such  remedies,  however,  should  be  administered  with  great 
caution,  and  only  under  medical  supervision. 

Stimulants  may  be  called  for  where  the  delirium  assumes  the 
low  or  adynamic  form,  and  the  patient  tends  to  sink  from  exhaus- 
tion, or  when  the  attack  is  complicated  with  some  other  disease. 
Such  cases  are,  however,  in  the  highest  degree  exceptional,  and 
do  not  affect  the  general  principle  of  treatment  already  referred 
to,  which  inculcates  the  entire  withdrawal  of  stimulants  in  the 
treatment  of  ordinary  attacks  of  delirium  tremens. 

DELISLE,  JOSEPH  NICOLAS  (1688-1768),  French  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Paris  on  the  4th  of  April  1688.  Attracted  to  astro- 
nomy by  the  solar  eclipse  of  the  i2th  of  May  1706,  he  obtained 
permission  in  1710  to  lodge  in  the  dome  of  the  Luxembourg, 
procured  some  instruments,  and  there  observed  the  totareclipse 
of  the  22nd  of  May  1724.  He  proposed  in  1715  the  "  diffraction- 
theory  "  of  the  sun's  corona,  visited  England  and  was  received 


964 


DELISLE,  L.  V.— DELITZSCH 


into  the  Royal  Society  in  1724,  and  left  Paris  for  St  Petersburg 
on  a  summons  from  the  empress  Catherine,  towards  the  end 
of  1725.  Having  founded  an  observatory  there,  he  returned  to 
Paris  in  1747,  was  appointed  geographical  astronomer  to  the 
naval  department  with  a  salary  of  3000  livres,  and  installed 
an  observatory  in  the  Hotel  Cluny.  Charles  Messier  and 
J.  J.  Lalande  were  among  his  pupils.  He  died  of  apoplexy  at 
Paris  on  the  I2th  of  September  1768.  Delisle  is  chiefly  remem- 
bered as  the  author  of  a  method  for  observing  the  transits  of 
Venus  and  Mercury  by  instants  of  contacts.  First  proposed  by 
him  in  a  letter  to  J.  Cassini  in  1743,  it  was  afterwards  perfected, 
and  has  been  extensively  employed.  As  a  preliminary  to  the 
transit  of  Mercury  in  1743,  which  he  personally  observed,  he 
issued  a  map  of  the  world  showing  the  varied  circumstances  of  its 
occurrence.  Besides  many  papers  communicated  to  the  academy 
of  sciences,  of  which  he  became  a  member  in  1714,  he  published 
Memoires  pour  senrir  d  I'histoire  et  au  progres  de  I'astronomie  (St 
Petersburg,  1 738) ,  in  which  he  gave  the  first  method  for  determin- 
ing the  heliocentric  co-ordinates  of  sun-spots;  Memoir e  sur  les 
nouvelles  decouvertes  au  nord  de  la  mer  du  sud  (Paris,  1752),  &c. 

See  Memoires  de  I'acad.  des  sciences  (Paris,  1768),  Histoire,  p.  167 
(G.  de  Pouchy) ;  J.  B.  J.  Delambre,  Hist,  de  I'astronomie  au  X  VIII' 
siecle,  pp.  319,  533;  Max.  Marie,  Hist,  des  sciences,  vii.  254;  Lalande, 
Bibl.  astr.  p.  385;  and  Le  Necrologe  des  hommes  celebres  de  France 
(1770).  The  records  of  Delisle's  observations  at  St  Petersburg  are 
preserved  in  manuscript  at  the  Pulkowa  observatory.  A  report  upon 
them  was  presented  to  the  St  Petersburg  academy  of  sciences  by 
O.  Struve  in  1848,  and  those  relating  to  occultations  of  the  Pleiades 
were  discussed  by  Carl  Linsser  in  1864.  See  also  S.  Newcomb, 
Washington  Observations  for  1875,  app.  ii.  pp.  176-189.  (A.  M.  C.) 

DELISLE,  LEOPOLD  VICTOR  (1826-  ),  French  bibliophile 
and  historian,  was  born  at  Valognes  (Manche)  on  the  24th  of 
October  1826.  At  the  Ecole  des  Chartes,  where  his  career  was 
remarkably  brilliant,  his  valedictory  thesis  was  an  Essai  sur  les 
reuenus  publics  en  Normandie  au  XII"  siecle  (1849),  and  it  was 
to  the  history  of  his  native  province  that  he  devoted  his  early 
works.  Of  these  the  Etudes  sur  la  condition  de  la  classe  agricole  et 
I'etat  de  I 'agriculture  en  Normandie  au  moyen  Age  (1851),  condens- 
ing an  enormous  mass  of  facts  drawn  from  the  local  archives,  was 
reprinted  in  1905  without  change,  and  remains  authoritative. 
In  November  1852  he  entered  the  manuscript  department  of  the 
Bibliotheque  Imperiale  (Nationale),  of  which  in  1874  he  became 
the  official  head  in  succession  to  Jules  Taschereau.  He  was 
already  known  as  the  compiler  of  several  invaluable  inventories 
of  its  manuscripts.  When  the  French  government  decided  on 
printing  a  general  catalogue  of  the  printed  books  in  the  Biblio- 
theque, Delisle  became  responsible  for  this  great  undertaking 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  work;  in  ihe  preface  to  the  first 
volume  (1897)  he  gave  a  detailed  history  of  the  library  and  its 
management.  Under  his  administration  the  library  was  enriched 
with  numerous  gifts,  legacies  and  acquisitions,  notably  by  the 
purchase  of  a  part  of  the  Ashburnham  MSS.  Delisle  proved  that 
the  bulk  of  the  MSS.  of  French  origin  which  Lord  Ashburnham 
had  bought  in  France,  particularly  those  bought  from  the  book- 
seller Barrois,  had  been  purloined  by  Count  Libri,  inspector- 
general  of  libraries  under  King  Louis  Philippe,  and  he  procured 
the  repurchase  of  the  MSS.  for  the  library,  afterwards  preparing 
a  catalogue  of  them  entitled  Catalogue  des  MSS.  des  fonds  Libri 
et  Barrois  (1888),  the  preface  of  which  gives  the  history  of  the 
whole  transaction.  He  was  elected  member  of  the  Academic  des 
Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres  in  1859,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  staff  of  the  Recueil  des  historians  de  la  France,  collaborating  in 
vols.  xxii.  (1865)  and  xxiii.  (1876)  and  editing  vol.  xxiv.  (1904), 
which  is  valuable  for  the  social  history  of  France  in  the  i3th 
century.  The  jubilee  of  his  fifty  years'  association  with  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale  was  celebrated  on  the  8th  of  March  1903. 
After  his  retirement  (February  21,  1905)  he  brought  out  in  two 
volumes  a  catalogue  and  description  of  the  printed  books  and 
MSS.  in  the  Musee  Conde  at  Chantilly,  left  by  the  due  d'Aumale 
to  the  French  Institute.  He  produced  many  valuable  official 
reports  and  catalogues  and  a  great  number  of  memoirs  and  mono- 
graphs on  points  connected  with  palaeography  and  the  study  of 
history  and  archaeology  (see  his  Melanges  de  paleographie  et  de 


bibliographic  (1880)  with  atlas;  and  his  articles  in  the  Album 
paleographique  (1887).  Of  his  purely  historical  works  special 
mention  must  be  made  of  his  Memoire  sur  les  actes  d' Innocent  III 
(1857),  and  his  Memoire  sur  les  operations  financier  es  des  Templiers 
( 1 889) ,  a  collection  of  documents  of  the  highest  value  for  economic 
history.  The  thirty-second  volume  of  the  Histoire  litteraire  de  la 
France,  which  was  partly  his  work,  is  of  great  importance  for  the 
study  of  i3th  and  i4th  century  Latin  chronicles.  Delisle  was 
undoubtedly  the  most  learned  man  in  Europe  with  regard  to  the 
middle  ages;  and  his  knowledge  of  diplomatics,  palaeography 
and  printing  was  profound.  His  output  of  work,  in  catalogues, 
&c.,  was  enormous,  and  his  services  to  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale 
in  this  respect  cannot  be  overestimated.  His  wife,  a  daughter 
of  Eugene  Burnouf,  was  for  many  years  his  collaborator. 

The  Bibliographie  des  travarix  de  L.Delisle  (1902*) ,  by  Paul  Lacombe, 
may  be  consulted  for  a  full  list  of  his  numerous  works. 

DELITZSCH,  FRANZ  (1813-1890),  German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian and  orientalist,  of  Jewish  descent,  was  born  at  Leipzig  on 
the  23rd  of  February  1813.  He  studied  theology  and  oriental 
languages  in  the  university  of  his  native  town,  and  in  1850  was 
appointed  professor  ordinarius  of  theology  at  Erlangen,  where 
the  school  of  theologians  became  almost  as  famous  as  that  of 
Tubingen.  In  1867  he  accepted  a  call  to  Leipzig,  where  he  died 
on  the  4th  of  March  1890.  Delitzsch  was  a  strict  Lutheran. 
"  By  the  banner  of  our  Lutheran  confession  let  us  stand,"  he  said 
in  1888;  "  folding  ourselves  in  it,  let  us  die  "  (T.  K.  Cheyne, 
Founders,  p.  160).  Greatly  interested  in  the  Jews,  he  longed 
ardently  for  their  conversion  to  Christianity;  and  with  a  view 
to  this  he  edited  the  periodical  Saat  auf  Hqffnung  from  1863, 
revived  the  "  Institutum  Judaicum  "  in  1880,  founded  a  Jewish 
missionary  college  for  the  training  of  theologians,  and  translated 
the  New  Testament  into  Hebrew.  He  acquired  such  a  mastery 
of  post-biblical,  rabbinic  and  talmudic  literature  that  he  has 
been  called  the  "  Christian  Talmudist."  Though  never  an 
advanced  critic,  his  article  on  Daniel  in  the  second  edition  of 
Herzog's  Realencyklopddie,  his  New  Commentary  on  Genesis  and 
the  fourth  edition  of  his  Isaiah  show  that  as  years  went  on  his 
sympathy  with  higher  criticism  increased — so  much  so  indeed 
that  Prof.  Cheyne  has  included  him  among  its  founders. 

He  wrote  a  number  of  very  valuable  commentaries  on 
Habakkuk  (1843),  Genesis  (1852,  4th  ed.  1872),  Neuer  Kom- 
mentar  uber  die  Genesis  (1887,  Eng.  trans.  1888,  &c.),  Psalms 
(4th  ed.  1883,  Eng.  trans.  1886,  &c.),  Job  (2nd  ed.,  1876), 
Isaiah  (4th  ed.  1889,  Eng.  trans.  1890,  &c.),  Proverbs  (1873), 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (1857,  Eng.  trans.  1865,  &c.),  Song 
of  Songs  and  Ecclesiastes  (4th  ed.,  1875).  Other  works  are 
Geschichte  derjiid.  Poesie  (1836);  Jesus  und  Hillel  (1867,  3rd  ed. 
1879);  Handwerkerleben  zur  Zeit  Jesu  (1868,  3rd  ed.  1878,  Eng. 
trans,  in  the  "  Unit  Library,"  1902);  Ein  Tag  in  Kapernaum 
(1871,  3rd  ed.  1886);  Poesieen  aus  vormuhammedanischer  Zeit 
(1874);  Iris,  Farbenstudien  und  Blumenstiicke  (1888,  Eng. 
trans.  1889);  Messianische  Weissagungen  in  geschichtlicher  Folge 
(1890,  and  ed.  1898).  His  Hebrew  New  Testament  reached  its 
eleventh  edition  in  1891,  and  his  popular  devotional  work  Das 
Sakrament  des  wahren  Leibes  und  Blutes  Jesu  Christi  its  seventh 
edition  in  1886. 

His  son,  FRIEDRICH  DELITZSCH  (b.  1850),  became  well  known 
as  professor  of  Assyriology  in  Berlin,  and  the  author  of  many 
books  of  great  research  and  learning,  especially  on  oriental 
philology.  Among  other  works  of  importance  he  wrote  Wo  lag 
das  Parodies?  (1881),  and  Babel  und  Bibel  (1902,  1903,  Eng. 
trans.  1903). 

DELITZSCH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Saxony,  on  the  Lober,  an  affluent  of  the  Mulde,  12  m.  north  of 
Leipzig  at  the  junction  of  the  railways,  Bitterfeld-Leipzig 
and  Halle-Cottbus.  Pop.  (1905)  10,479.  Its  public  buildings 
comprise  an  old  castle  of  the  i4th  century  now  used  as  a  female 
penitentiary,  a  Roman  Catholic  and  three  Protestant  churches, 
a  normal  college  (Schullehrerseminar)  established  in  1873  and 
several  other  educational  institutions.  Besides"  Kuhschwanz,  a 
peculiar  kind  of  beer,  it  manufactures  tobacco,  cigars,  shoes  and 
hosiery;  and  coal-mining  is  carried  on  in  the  neighbourhood, 


DELIUS— DELLA  GHERARDESCA 


965 


It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  naturalist  Christian  Gottfried 
Ehrenberg  (1795-1876),  and  the  political  economist  Hermann 
Schulze-Delitzsch  (1808-1883),  to  the  latter  of  whom  a  statue 
has  been  erected.  Originally  a  settlement  of  the  Serbian  Wends, 
and  in  the  I2th  century  part  of  the  possessions  of  the  bishops 
of  Merseburg,  Delitzsch  ultimately  passed  to  the  Saxe-Merseburg 
family,  and,  on  their  extinction  in  1738,  was  incorporated  with 
Electoral  Saxony. 

DELIUS,  NIKOLAUS  (1813-1888),  German  philologist  and 
Shakespearean  scholar,  was  born  at  Bremen  on  the  igth  of 
September  1813.  He  was  educated  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  and  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  in  philosophy  in  1838.  After  travelling  for 
some  time  in  England,  France  and  Germany,  he  returned  to  Bonn 
in  1846,  where  in  1855  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit, 
Provencal  and  English  literature,  a  post  he  held  until  his  death, 
which  took  place  at  Bonn  on  the  i8th  of  November  1888.  His 
greatest  literary  achievement  was  his  scholarly  edition  of 
Shakespeare  (1854-1861).  He  also  edited  Wace's  Si  Nicholas 
(1850),  a  volume  of  Provengal  songs  (1853),  and  published  a 
Shakspere-Lexikon  (1852).  His  original  works  include:  Uber 
das  englische  Theaterwesen  zu  Shaksperes  Zeit  (1853),  Gedichte 
(1853), Der  sardinische  Dialekt  des  dreizehnten  Jahrhunderls  (1868), 
and  Abhandlungenzu  Shakspcre  (two  series,  1878  and  1888).  As 
a  critic  of  Shakespeare's  text  he  stands  in  the  first  rank. 

See  the  biographical  notice  by  J.  Schipper  in  Englische  Studien, 
vol.  14. 

DELLA  BELLA,  STEFANO  (1610-1664),  Italian  engraver,  was 
born  at  Florence.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith;  but  some 
prints  of  Callot  having  fallen  into  his  hands,  he  began  to  turn  his 
attention  entirely  towards  engraving,  and  studied  the  art  under 
Canta  Gallina,  who  had  also  been  the  instructor  of  Callot.  By 
the  liberality  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  he  was  enabled  to  spend 
three  years  in  study  at  Rome.  In  1642  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
Cardinal  Richelieu  engaged  him  to  go  to  Arras  and  make  drawings 
of  the  siege  and  taking  of  that  town  by  the  royal  army.  After 
residing  a  considerable  time  at  Paris  he  returned  to  Florence, 
where  he  obtained  a  pension  from  the  grand  duke,  whose  son, 
Cosmo,  he  instructed  in  drawing.  His  productions  were  very 
numerous,  amounting  to  over  1400  separate  pieces. 

DELLA  CASA,  GIOVANNI  (1503-1556),  Italian  poet,  was  born 
at  Mugillo,  in  Tuscany,  in  1503.  He  studied  at  Bologna,  Florence 
and  Rome,  and  by  his  learning  attracted  the  patronage  of 
Alexander  Farnese,  who,  as  Pope  Paul  III.,  made  him  nuncio 
to  Florence,  where  he  received  the  honour  of  being  elected  a 
member  of  the  celebrated  academy,  and  then  to  Naples,  where  his 
oratorical  ability  brought  him  considerable  success.  His  reward 
was  the  archbishopric  of  Benevento,  and  it  was  believed  that  it 
was  only  his  openly  licentious  poem,  Capitoli  del  forno,  and  the 
fact  that  the  French  court  seemed  to  desire  his  elevation,  which 
prevented  him  from  being  raised  to  a  still  higher  dignity.  He 
died  in  1 5  56.  Casa  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  the  leader  of  a  reaction 
in  lyric  poetry  against  the  universal  imitation  of  Petrarch,  and 
as  the  originator  of  a  style,  which,  if  less  soft  and  elegant,  was 
more  nervous  and  majestic  than  that  which  it  replaced.  His 
prose  writings  gained  great  reputation  in  their  own  day,  and  long 
afterwards,  but  are  disfigured  by  apparent  straining  after  effect, 
and  by  frequent  puerility  and  circumlocution.  The  principal 
are — in  Italian,  the  famous  //  Galatea  (1558),  a  treatise  of 
manners,  which  has  been  translated  into  several  languages,  and 
in  Latin,  De  ojjiciis,  and  translations  from  Thucydides,  Plato 
and  Aristotle. 

A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at  Florence  in  1707, 
to  which  is  prefixed  a  life  by  Casotti.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Venice,  1752. 

DELLA  COLLE,  RAFFAELLINO,  Italian  painter,  was  born  at 
Colle,  near  Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  in  Tuscany,  about  1490.  A  pupil 
of  Raphael,  whom  he  is  held  to  have  assisted  in  the  Farnesina 
and  the  Vatican,  Delia  Colle,  after  his  master's  death,  was  the 
assistant  of  his  chief  scholar,  Giulio  Romano,  at  Rome  and 
afterwards  at  Mantua.  In  1536,  on  the  occasion  of  the  entry  of 
Charles  V.  into  Florence,  he  took  service  in  that  city  under 
Vasari.  In  his  later  years  Delia  Colle  resided  at  Borgo  San 


Sepolcro,  where  he  kept  a  school  of  design;  among  his  many 
pupils  of  note  may  be  mentioned  Gherardi  and  Vecchi.  His 
works,  which  are  to  be  found  at  Urbino,  at  Perugia,  at  Pesaro 
and  at  Gubbio,  are  fine  examples  of  the  Roman  school  of 
Raphael.  The  best  are  a  painting  of  the  Almighty  supported 
by  angels,  a  Resurrection  and  an  Assumption,  all  preserved 
in  churches  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro. 

DELLA  GHERARDESCA,  UGOLINO  (c.  1220-1289),  count  of 
Donoratico,  was  the  head  of  the  powerful  family  of  Gherardesca, 
the  chief  Ghibelline  house  of  Pisa.  His  alliance  with  the  Visconti, 
the  leaders  of  the  Guelph  faction,  through  the  marriage  of  his 
sister  with  Giovanni  Visconti,  judge  of  Gallura,  aroused  the 
suspicions  of  his  party,  and  the  Ghibellines  being  then  predomin- 
ant in  Pisa,  the  disorders  in  the  city  caused  by  Ugolino  and 
Visconti  in  1271-1274  led  to  the  arrest  of  the  former  and  the 
banishment  of  the  latter.  Visconti  died  soon  afterwards,  and 
Ugolino,  no  longer  regarded  as  dangerous,  was  liberated  and 
banished.  But  he  immediately  began  to  intrigue  with  the  Guelph 
towns  opposed  to  Pisa,  and  with  the  help  of  Charles  I.  of  Anjou 
(q.v.)  attacked  his  native  city  and  forced  it  to  make  peace  on 
humiliating  terms,  pardoning  him  and  all  the  other  Guelph 
exiles.  He  lived  quietly  in  Pisa  for  some  years,  although  working 
all  the  time  to  extend  his  influence.  War  having  broken  out 
between  Pisa  and  Genoa  in  1284,  Count  Ugolino  was  given  the 
command  of  a  division  of  the  Pisan  fleet.  It  was  by  his  flight 
— usually  attributed  to  treachery — that  the  fortunes  of  the  day 
were  decided  and  the  Pisans  totally  defeated  at  La  Meloria 
(October  1284).  But  the  political  ability  which  he  afterwards 
displayed  led  to  his  being  appointed  podestd  for  a  year  and 
capitano  del  popolo  for  ten  years.  Florence  and  Lucca  took 
advantage  of  the  Pisan  defeat  to  attack  the  republic,  but 
Ugolino  succeeded  in  pacifying  them  by  ceding  certain  castles. 
He  was  however  less  anxious  to  make  peace  with  Genoa,  for 
the  return  of  the  Pisan  prisoners,  including  most  of  the  leading 
Ghibellines,  would  have  diminished  his  power.  He  was  now  the 
most  influential  man  in  Pisa,  and  was  preparing  to  establish  his 
absolute  sovereignty,  when  for  some  reason  not  clearly  understood 
he  was  forced  to  share  his  power  with  his  nephew  Nino  Visconti, 
son  of  Giovanni.  The  duumvirate  did  not  last,  and  the  count 
and  Nino  soon  quarrelled.  Then  Ugolino  tried  to  consolidate 
his  position  by  entering  into  negotiations  with  the  archbishop, 
Ruggieri  degli  Ubaldini,  the  leader  of  the  Ghibellines.  But  that 
party  having  revived  once  more,  the  archbishop  obliged  both 
Nino  and  Ugolino  to  leave  the  city,  and  had  himself  elected 
podestd  and  capitano  del  popolo.  However,  he  allowed  Ugolino 
to  return  soon  afterwards,  and  was  even  ready  to  divide  the 
government  of  the  city  with  him,  although  he  refused  to  admit 
his  armed  followers.  The  count,  determined  to  be  sole  master, 
attempted  to  get  his  followers  into  the  city  by  way  of  the  Arno, 
and  Ruggieri,  realizing  the  danger,  aroused  the  citizens,  accusing 
Ugolino  of  treachery  for  having  ceded  the  castles,  and  after  a 
day's  street  fighting  (July  i,  1288),  Gherardesca  was  captured 
and  immured  together  with  his  sons  Gaddo  and  Uguccione,  and 
his  grandsons  Nino  (surnamed  il  Brigata)  and  Anselmuccio,  in 
the  Muda,  a  tower  belonging  to  the  Gualandi  family;  here  they 
were  detained  for  nine  months,  and  then  starved  to  death. 

The  historic  details  of  the  episode  are  still  involved  in  some 
obscurity,  and  although  mentioned  by  Villani  and  other  writers, 
it  owes  its  fame  entirely  to  Dante,  who  placed  Ugolino  and 
Ruggieri  in  the  second  ring  (Antenora)  of  the  lowest  circle  of  the 
Inferno  (canto  xxxii.  124-140  and  xxxiii.  i-oo).  This  terrible 
but  magnificent  passage,  which  includes  "  thirty  lines  unequalled 
by  any  other  thirty  lines  in  the  whole  dominion  of  poetry " 
(Landor),  has  been  paraphrased  by  Chaucer  in  the  "  Monk's 
Tale  "  and  more  recently  by  Shelley.  But  the  reason  why  Dante 
placed  Ugolino  among  the  traitors  is  not  by  any  means  clear,  as 
the  flight  from  La  Meloria  was  not  regarded  as  treachery  by  any 
writer  earlier  than  the  i6th  century,  although  G.  del  Noce,  in 
//  Conte  U.  delta  Gherardesca  (Citta  di  Castello,  1894),  states  that 
that  was  the  only  motive;  Bartoli,  in  vol.  vi.  of  his  Sloria  delta 
Letleralura  italiana,  suggests  Ugolino's  alliance  with  the  Ghibel- 
lines as  the  motive.  The  cession  of  the  castles  was  not  treachery 


966 


DELLA  PORTO— BELLA  ROBBIA 


but  an  act  of  necessity,  owing  to  the  desperate  conditions  of 
Pisa. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides  the  above-quoted  works  see  P.  Tronci, 
Annali  Pisani  (2  vols.,  Pisa,  1868-1871);  S.  de  Sismondi,  Histoire 
des  republiques  italiennes  (Brussels,  1838) ;  also  the  various  annotated 
editions  of  Dante,  especially  W.  W.  Vernon's  Readings  from  the 
Inferno,  vol.  ii.  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1905).  (L.  V.*) 

DELLA  PORTA,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  (c.  1538-1615), 
Italian  natural  philosopher,  was  born  of  a  noble  and  ancient 
family  at  Naples  about  the  year  1538.  He  travelled  extensively 
not  only  in  Italy  but  also  in  France  and  Spain,  and  he  was  still  a 
youth  when  he  published  Magia  naturalis,  sive  de  miraculis  rerum 
naturaUum  lib.  IV.  (1558),  the  first  draft  of  his  Magia  naturalis, 
in  twenty  books,  published  in  1 589.  He  founded  in  Naples  the 
AcademiaSecretorum  Naturae,  otherwise  known  as  the  Accademia 
dei  Oziosi;  and  in  1610  he  became  a  member  of  the  Accademia 
dei  Lincei  at  Rome.  He  died  at  Naples  on  the  4th  of  February 
1615. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  his  principal  writings: — De  miraculis 
rerum  naturalium,  in  four  books  (1558);  De  furtivis  litter  arum 
notis,  in  five  books  (1563,  and  frequently  afterwards,  entitling 
him  to  high  rank  among  the  early  writers  on  cryptography); 
Phytognomonica  (1583,  a  bulky  treatise  on  the  physiology  of 
plants  as  then  understood);  Magia  naturalis  (1589,  and  often 
reprinted);  De  humana  physio gnomonia,  in  six  books  (1591); 
Villa,  in  twelve  books  (1592,  an  interesting  practical  treatise  on 
farming,  gardening  and  arboriculture,  based  upon  his  own  obser- 
vations at  his  country-seat  hear  Naples) ;  De  refractione,  optices 
parte,  in  nine  books  (1593);  Pneumatica,  in  three  books  (1601); 
De  coelesti  physiognomonia,  in  six  books  (1601);  Elementa 
curvilinea  (1601);  De  distillatione,  in  nine  books  (1604);  De 
munitione,  in  three  books  (1608) ;  and  De  aeris  transmutationibus, 
in  four  books  (1609).  He  also  wrote  several  Italian  comedies 
Olimpia  (1589);  La  Fantesca .(1592);  La  Trappolaria  (159?); 
I'Due  Fratelli  rivali  (1601);  La  Sorella  (1607);  La  Chiappinaria 
(1609);  La  Carbonaria  (1628);  La  Cintia  (1628)).  Among  all 
the  above-mentioned  works  the  chief  interest  attaches  to  the 
Magia  naturalis,  in  which  a  strange  medley  of  subjects  is  dis- 
cussed, including  the  reproduction  of  animals,  the  transmutation 
of  metals,  pyrotechny,  domestic  economy,  statics,  hunting,  the 
preparation  of  perfumes.  In  book  xvii.  he  describes  a  number 
of  optical  experiments,  including  a  description  of  the  camera 
obscura  (q.v.). 

DELLA  QUERCIA,  or  BELLA  FONTE,  JACOPO  (1374-1438), 
Italian  sculptor,  was  born  at  Siena.  He  was  the  son  of  a  gold- 
smith of  repute,  Pietro  d'Agnolo,  to  whom  he  doubtless  owed 
much  of  his  training.  There  are  no  records  of  his  early  life  until 
the  year  1394,  when  he  made  an  equestrian  statue  of  Gian 
Tedesco.  He  is  next  heard  of  at  Florence  in  1402,  when  he  was 
one  of  six  artists  who  submitted  designs  for  the  great  gates  of  the 
baptistery,  in  which  competition  Ghiberti  was  the  victor.  From 
Florence  he  seems  to  have  gone  to  Lucca,  where  in  1406  he 
executed  one  of  his  finest  works,  the  monument  of  Ilaria  del 
Caretto,  wife  of  Paolo  Guinigi.  It  is  uncertain  if  he  visited 
Ferrara  in  1408;  but  at  the  end  of  that  year  he  was  engaged 
in  negotiations  which  resulted  in  his  acceptance  of  the  com- 
mission for  the  famous  Fonte  Gaia,  at  Siena,  early  in  1409.  This 
work  was  not  seriously  begun  by  him  until  1414,  and  was  only 
finished  in  1419.  In  1858  the  remains  of  the  fountain  were 
removed  to  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  where  they  are  now  preserved; 
a  copy  of  the  original  by  Sarrocchi  being  erected  on  the  site. 
After  another  visit  to  Lucca  in  1422,  he  returned  to  Siena,  and 
in  March  1425  undertook  the  contract  for  the  doors  of  S.  Petronio, 
Bologna.  He  is  known,  in  following  years,  to  have  been  to  Milan 
Verona,  Ferrara  and  Venice;  but  the  rest  of  his  life  was  chiefly 
divided  between  his  native  city  and  Bologna.  In  1430  he  finished 
the  great  font  of  S.  Giovanni  at  Siena,  which  he  had  begun  in 
1417,  contributing  himself  only  one  of  the  bas-reliefs,  "  Zacharias 
in  the  Temple,"  the  others  being  by  Ghiberti,  Donatello  and 
other  sculptors.  Among  the  work  known  to  have  been  done  by 
Jacopo,  may  be  mentioned  also  the  reliefs  of  the  predella  of  the 
altar  of  S.  Frediano  at  Lucca  (1422);  and  the  Bentivoglio  monu- 


ment which  was  unfinished  at  the  time  of  his  death  on  the  2oth 
of  October  1438.  Jacopo  della  Quercia's  work  exercised  a  power- 
ful influence  on  that  of  the  artists  of  the  later  Italian  Renaissance. 
He  himself  reflects  not  a  little  of  the  Gothic  spirit,  admirably 
intermixed  with  some  of  the  best  qualities  of  neo-classicism. 
He  was  an  artist  whose  powers  have  hardly  yet  received  the 
recognition  they  undoubtedly  deserve. 

See  C.  Cornelius,  Jacopo  della  Quercia:  eine  Kunsthistorische 
Studie  (1896),  and  works  relating  generally  to  the  arts  in  Siena. 

(c*.  r .  o.) 

DELLA  ROBBIA,  the  name  of  a  family  of  great  distinction  in 
the  annals  of  Florentine  art.  Its  members  are  enumerated  in 
chronological  order  below.1 

I.  LUCA  DELLA  ROBBIA  (1399  or  I4oo2-i482)  was  the  son  of  a 
Florentine  named  Simone  di  Marco  della  Robbia.  According  to 
Vasari,  whose  account  of  Luca's  early  life  is  little  to  be  trusted, 
he  was  apprenticed  to  the  silversmith  Leonardo  di  Ser  Giovanni, 
who  from  1355  to  1371  was  working  on  the  grand  silver  altar 
frontal  for  the  cathedral  at  Pistoia  (q.v.) ;  this,  however,  appears 
doubtful  from  the  great  age  which  it  would  give  to  Leonardo,  and 
it  is  more  probable  that  Luca  was  the  pupil  of  Ghiberti.  During 
the  early  part  of  his  life  Luca  executed  many  important  and 
exceedingly  beautiful  pieces  of  sculpture  in  marble  and  bronze. 
In  technical  skill  he  was  quite  the  equal  of  Ghiberti,  and,  while 
possessing  all  Donatello's  vigour,  dramatic  power  and  originality, 
he  very  frequently  excelled  him  in  grace  of  attitude  and  soft 
beauty  of  expression.  No  sculptured  work  of  the  great  isth 
century  ever  surpassed  the  singing  gallery  which  Luca  made  for 
the  cathedral  at  Florence  between  1431  and  1440,  with  its  ten 
magnificent  panels  of  singing  angels  and  dancing  boys,  far  exceed- 
ing in  beauty  those  which  Donatello  in  1433  sculptured  for  the 
opposite  gallery  in  the  same  choir.  This  splendid  work  is  now 
to  be  found  in  the  Museo  del  Duomo.  The  general  effect  of  the 
whole  can  also  be  seen  at  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  where 
a  complete  cast  is  fixed  to  the  wall.  The  same  museum  possesses 
a  study  in  gesso  duro  for  one  of  the  panels,  which  appears  to  be 
the  original  sketch  by  Luca's  own  hand. 

In  May  1437  Luca  received  a  commission  from  the  signoria  of 
Florence  to  execute  five  reliefs  for  the  north  side  of  the  campanile, 
to  complete  the  series  begun  by  Giotto  and  Andrea  Pisano.  These 
panels  are  so  much  in  the  earlier  style  of  Giotto  that  we  must 
conclude  that  he  had  left  drawings  from  which  Luca  worked. 
They  have  representative  figures  chosen  to  typify  grammar, 
logic,  philosophy,  music,  and  science,- — the  last  represented  by 
Euclid  and  Ptolemy.3  In  1438  Luca  in  association  with  Donatello 
received  an  order  for  two  marble  altars  for  chapels  in  the 
cathedral.  The  reliefs  from  one  of  them — St  Peter's  Deliverance 
from  Prison  and  his  Crucifixion — are  now  in  the  Bargello.  It 
is  probable  that  these  altars  were  never  finished.  A  tabernacle 
for  the  host,  made  by  Luca  in  1442,  is  now  at  Peretola,  near 
Florence,  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria.  A  document  in  the  archives 
of  S.  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence  shows  that  he  received  for  this  700 
florins  i  lira  16  soldi  (about  £1400  of  modern  money).  In  1437 
Donatello  received  a  commission  to  cast  a  bronze  door  for  one  of 
the  sacristies  of  the  cathedral;  but,  as  he  delayed  to  execute  this 

1  Genealogical  tree  of  Della  Robbia  sculptors : — 
Simone  di  Marco. 
I 


Marco. 

Andrea. 
(H35-I525). 

Luca 
(1400-1482). 

_.     1      .           .     1 

Girblamo  Luca  Pablo  Giovanni  Marco 

(1488-1566),  (1475-1550?).    (H7.C7  ?),    (1469-1529?)-  (1468-.?), 
worked  mostly  worked  in      Dominican          worked 

in  France.      Florence          monk.  mainly  in          monk. 

and  Rome.  Florence. 

5  Not  1388,  as  Vasari  says.    See  a  document  printed  by  Gaye, 
Carteegio  inedito,  i.  pp.  182-186. 

3  Vasari  is  not  quite  right  in  his  account  of  these  reliefs:  he  speaks 
of  Euclid  and  Ptolemy  as  being  in  different  panels. 


DELLA  ROBBIA 


967 


order,  the  work  was  handed  over  to  Luca  on  the  28th  of  February 
1446,  with  Michelozzo  and  Maso  di  Bartolomeo  as  his  assistants. 
Part  of  this  wonderful  door  was  cast  in  1448,  and  the  last  two 
panels  were  finished  by  Luca  in  1467,  with  bronze  which  was 
supplied  to  him  by  Verrocchio.1  The  door  is  divided  into  ten 
square  panels,  with  small  heads  in  the  style  of  Ghiberti  projecting 
from  the  framing.  The  two  top  subjects  are  the  Madonna  and 
Child  and  the  Baptist,  next  come  the  four  Evangelists,  and  below 
are  the  four  Latin  Doctors,  each  subject  with  attendant  angels. 
The  whole  is  modelled  with  perfect  grace  and  dignified  simplicity; 
the  heads  throughout  are  full  of  life,  and  the  treatment  of  the 


FIG.  I. — Bronze  Relief  of  one  of  the  Latin  Doctors,  from  the 
sacristy  door  in  the  cathedral  of  Florence,  by  Luca. 

drapery  in  broad  simple  folds  is  worthy  of  a  Greek  sculptor  of  the 
best  period  of  Hellenic  art.  These  exquisite  reliefs  are  perfect 
models  of  plastic  art,  and  are  quite  free  from  the  over-elaboration 
and  too  pictorial  style  of  Ghiberti.  Fig.  i  shows  one  of  the  panels. 

The  most  important  existing  work  in  marble  by  Luca  (executed 
in  1454-1456)  is  the  tomb  of  Benozzo  Federighi,  bishop  of 
Fiesole,  originally  placed  in  the  church  of  S.  Pancrazio  at  Florence, 
but  removed  to  S.  Francesco  di  Paola  on  the  Bellosguardo  road 
outside  the  city  in  1783.  In  1898  it  was  again  removed  to  the 
church  of  SS.  Trinita  in  Florence.  A  very  beautiful  effigy  of  the 
bishop  in  a  restful  pose  lies  on  a  sarcophagus  sculptured  with 
graceful  reliefs  of  angels  holding  a  wreath  which  contains  the 
inscription.  Above  are  three-quarter  length  figures  of  Christ 
between  St  John  and  the  Virgin,  of  conventional  type.  The 
whole  is  surrounded  by  a  rectangular  frame  formed  of  painted 
tiles  of  exquisite  beauty,  but  out  of  keeping  with  the  memorial. 
On  each  tile  is  painted,  with  enamel  pigments,  a  bunch  of  flowers 
and  fruit  in  brilliant  realistic  colours,  the  loveliness  of  which 
is  very  hard  to  describe.  Though  the  bunch  of  flowers  on  each  is 
painted  on  one  slab,  the  ground  of  each  tile  is  formed  of  separate 
pieces,  fitted  together  like  a  kind  of  mosaic,  probably  because  the 
pigment  of  the  ground  required  a  different  degree  of  heat  in  firing 
from  that  needed  for  the  enamel  painting  of  the  centre.  The  few 
other  works  of  this  class  which  exist  do  not  approach  the  beauty 
of  this  early  essay  in  tile  painting,  on  which  Luca  evidently  put 
forth  his  utmost  skill  and  patience. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Luca  was  mainly  occupied  with  the 
production  of  terra-cotta  reliefs  covered  with  enamel,  a  process 
which  'he  improved  upon,  but  did  not  invent,  as  Vasari  asserts. 
The  rationale  of  this  process  was  to  cover  the  clay  relief  with  an 
enamel  formed  of  the  ordinary  ingredients  of  glass  (marzacotlo) , 
made  white  and  opaque  by  oxide  of  tin.  (See  CERAMICS:  Italian 
Majolica.)  Though  Luca  was  not  the  inventor  of  the  process, 
1  See  Cavallucci,  S.  Maria  del  Fiore,  pt.  ii.  p.  137. 


yet  he  extended  its  application  to  fine  sculptured  work  in  terra- 
cotta, so  that  it  is  not  unnaturally  known  now  as  Delia  Robbia 
ware;  it  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  by  far  the  majority 
of  these  reliefs  which  in  Italy  and  elsewhere  are  ascribed  to  Luca 
are  really  the  work  of  some  of  the  younger  members  of  the  family 
or  of  the  atelier  which  they  founded.  Comparatively  few  exist 
which  can  with  certainty  be  ascribed  to  Luca  himself.  Among 
the  earliest  of  these  are  medallions  of  the  four  Evangelists  in  the 
vault  of  Brunelleschi's  Pazzi  chapel  in  S.  Croce.  These  fine  reliefs 
are  coloured  with  various  metallic  oxides  in  different  shades  of 
blue,  green,  purple,  yellow  and  black.  It  has  often  been  asserted 
that  the  very  polychromatic  reliefs  belong  to  Andrea  or  his  sons, 
and  that  Luca's  were  all  in  pure  white,  or  in  white  and  blue;  this, 
however,  is  not  the  case;  colours  were  used  as  freely  by  Luca  as 
by  his  successors.  A  relief  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
furnishes  a  striking  example  of  this  and  is  of  especial  value  from 
its  great  size,  and  also  because  its  date  is  known.  This  is  an 
enormous  medallion  containing  the  arms  of  Ren6  of  Anjou  and 
other  heraldic  devices;  it  is  surrounded  by  a  splendidly  modelled 
wreath  of  fruit  and  flowers,  especially  apples,  lemons,  oranges 
and  fir  cones,  all  of  which  are  brilliantly  coloured.  This  medallion 
was  set  up  on  the  facade  of  the  Pazzi  Palace  to  commemorate 
Rene's  visit  to  Florence  in  1442.  Other  reliefs  by  Luca,  also  in 
glazed  terra-cotta,  are  those  of  the  Ascension  and  Resurrection 
in  the  tympani  of  the  doors  of  the  sacristies  in  the  cathedral, 
executed  in  1443  and  1446.  Other  existing  works  of  Luca  in 
Florence  are  the  tympanum  reliefs  of  the  Madonna  between  two 
Angels  in  the  Via  dell'  Agnolo,  a  work  of  exquisite  beauty,  and 
another  formerly  over  the  door  of  S.  Pierino  del  Mercato  Vecchio, 
but  now  removed  to  the  Bargello  (No.  29).  The  only  existing 
statues  by  Luca  are  two  lovely  enamelled  figures  of  kneeling 
angels  holding  candlesticks,  now  in  the  canons'  sacristy.2  A 
very  fine  work  by  Luca,  executed  between  1449  and  1452,  is  the 
tympanum  relief  of  the  Madonna  and  four  Monastic  Saints  over 
the  door  of  S.  Domenico  at  Urbino.3  Luca  also  made  the  four 
coloured  medallions  of  the  Virtues  set  in  the  vault  over  the  tomb 
of  the  young  cardinal-prince  of  Portugal  in  a  side  chapel  of 
S.  Miniato  in  Florence  (see  ROSSELLINO).  By  Luca  also  are 
various  polychromatic  medallions  outside  Or  San  Michele.4  One 
of  his  chief  decorative  works  which  no  longer  exists  was  a  small 
library  or  study  for  Piero  de'  Medici,  wholly  lined  with  enamelled 
plaques  and  reliefs.6  The  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  possesses 
twelve  circular  plaques  of  majolica  ware  painted  in  blue  and  white 
with  the  Occupations  of  the  Months;  these  have  been  attributed 
to  Luca,  under  the  idea  that  they  formed  part  of  the  decoration  of 
this  room,  but  their  real  origin  is  doubtful. 

In  1471  Luca  was  elected  president  of  the  Florentine  Gild  of 
Sculptors,  but  he  refused  this  great  honour  on  account  of  his  age 
and  infirmity.  It  shows,  however,  the  very  high  estimation  in 
which  he  was  held  by  his  contemporaries.  He  died  on  the  2oth 
of  February  1482,  leaving  his  property  to  his  nephews  Andrea  and 
Simone.6  His  chief  pupil  was  his  nephew  Andrea,  and  Agostino 
di  Duccio,  who  executed  many  pieces  of  sculpture  at  Rimini,  and 
the  graceful  but  mannered  marble  reliefs  of  angels  on  the  facade 
of  S.  Bernardino  at  Perugia,  may  have  been  one  of  his  assistants.7 
Vasari  calls  this  Agostino  Luca's  brother,  but  he  was  not  related 
to  him  at  all. 

II.  ANDREA  DELLA  ROBBIA  (1435-1525),  the  nephew  and  pupil 
of  Luca,  carried  on  the  production  of  the  enamelled  reliefs  on  a 
much  larger  scale  than  his  uncle  had  ever  done;  he  also  extended 

1  The  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  possesses  what  seem  to  be  fine 
replicas  of  these  statues. 

1  The  document  in  which  the  order  for  this  and  the  price  paid  for 
it  are  recorded  is  published  by  Yriarte,  Gaz.  d.  beaux  arts,  xxiv. 

P-  143- 

4  One  of  these  medallions,  that  of  the  Physicians,  is  now  removed 
to  the  inside  of  the  church. 

5  It  is  fully  described  by  Filarete  in  his  Trattato  dell'  architectura, 
written  in  1464,  and  therefore  was  finished  before  that  date;  see  also 
Vasari,  ed.  Milanesi  (Florence,  1880),  ii.  p.  174. 

*  His  will,  dated  igth  February  1471,  is  published  by  Gaye,  Cart, 
ined.  i.  p.  185. 

7  In  the  works  of  Perkins  and  others  on  Italian  sculpture  these 
Perugian  reliefs  are  wrongly  stated  to  be  of  enamelled  clay. 


968 


DELLA  ROBBIA 


its  application  to  various  architectural  uses,  such  as  friezes  and  to 
the  making  of  lavabos  (lavatories) ,  fountains  and  large  retables. 
The  result  of  this  was  that,  though  the  finest  reliefs  from  the 
workshop  of  Andrea  were  but  little  if  at  all  inferior  to  those  from 
the  hand  of  Luca,  yet  some  of  them,  turned  out  by  pupils  and 
assistants,  reached  only  a  lower  standard  of  merit.  Only  one 
work  in  marble  by  Andrea  is  known,  namely,  an  altar  in  S.  Maria 
delle  Grazie  near  Arezzo,  mentioned  by  Vasari  (ed.  Milanesi,  ii. 
p.  179),  and  still  well  preserved. 

One  variety  of  method  was  introduced  by  Andrea  in  his 
enamelled  work;  sometimes  he  omitted  the  enamel  on  the  face 
and  hands  (nude  parts)  of  his  figures,  especially  in  those  cases 
where  he  had  treated  the  heads  in  a  realistic  manner;  as,  for 
example,  in  the  noble  tympanum  relief  of  the  meeting  of  St 
Domenic  and  St  Francis  in  the  loggia  of  the  Florentine  hospital  of 
S.  Paolo, — a  design  suggested  by  a  fresco  of  Fra  Angelico's  in  the 
cloister  of  St  Mark's.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  works  by 
Andrea  is  the  series  of  medallions  with  reliefs  of  Infants  in  white 
on  a  blue  ground  set  on  the  front  of  the  foundling  hospital  at 
Florence.  These  lovely  child-figures  are  modelled  with  wonder- 
ful skill  and  variety,  no  two  being  alike.  Andrea  produced,  for 
gilds  and  private  persons,  a  large  number  of  reliefs  of  the 
Madonna  and  Child  varied  with  much  invention,  and  all  of 
extreme  beauty  of  pose  and  sweetness  of  expression.  These  are 
frequently  framed  with  realistic  yet  decorative  garlands  of  fruit 


FIG.  2. — Enamelled  Clay  Relief  of  Virgin  and  Child,  by  Andrea. 

and  flowers  painted  with  coloured  enamels,  while  the  main  relief 
is  left  white.  Fig.  2  shows  a  good  example  of  these  smaller 
works.  The  hospital  of  S.  Paolo,  near  S.  Maria  Novella,  has  also 
a  number  of  fine  medallions  with  reliefs  of  saints,  two  of  Christ 
Healing  the  Sick,  and  two  fine  portraits,  under  which  are  white 
plaques  inscribed — "  DALL  ANNO  1451  ALL  ANNO  149s"1;  tne 
first  of  these  dates  is  the  year  when  the  hospital  was  rebuilt 
owing  to  a  papal  brief  sent  to  the  archbishop  of  Florence.  Arezzo 
possesses  a  number  of  fine  enamelled  works  by  Andrea  and  his 

1  Professor  Marquand  has  discovered,  beneath  1451 ,  the  inscription 
Prete  Benino,  and,  under  1495,  De  Benin! ;  probably  the  names  of 
the  governors  of  the  hospital  at  these  dates. 


sons — a  retable  in  the  cathedral  with  God  holding  the  Crucified 
Christ,  surrounded  by  angels,  and  below,  kneeling  figures  of 
S.  Donate  and  S.  Bernardino;  also  in  the  chapel  of  the  Campo 
Santo  is  a  fine  relief  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  with  four  saints 
at  the  sides.  In  S.  Maria  in  Grade  is  a  very  noble  retable  with 
angels  holding  a  crown  over  a  standing  figure  of  the  Madonna; 
a  number  of  small  figures  of  worshippers  take  refuge  in  the  folds 
of  the  Virgin's  mantle,  a  favourite  motive  for  sculpture  dedicated 
by  gilds  or  other  corporate  bodies.  Perhaps  the  finest  collection 
of  works  of  this  class  is  at  La  Verna,  not  far  from  Arezzo  (see 
Vasari,  ed.  Milanesi,  ii.  p.  179).  The  best  of  these,  three  large 
retables  with  representations  of  the  Annunciation,  the  Crucifixion, 
and  the  Madonna  giving  her  Girdle  to  St  Thomas,  are  probably 
the  work  of  Andrea  himself,  the  others  being  by  his  sons.  In 
1489  Andrea  made  a  beautiful  relief  of  the  Virgin  and  two  Angels, 
now  over  the  archive-room  door  in  the  Florentine  Opera  del 
Duomo;  for  this  he  was  paid  twenty  gold  florins  (see  Cavallucci, 
5.  Maria  del  Fiore).  In  the  same  year  he  modelled  the  fine 
tympanum  relief  over  a  door  of  Prato  cathedral,  with  a  half- 
length  figure  of  the  Madonna  between  St  Stephen  and  St 
Lawrence,  surrounded  by  a  frame  of  angels'  heads. 

In  1491  he  was  still  working  at  Prato,  where  many  of  his 
best  reliefs  still  exist.  A  fine  bust  of  S.  Lino  exists  over  the  side 
door  of  the  cathedral  at  Volterra,  which  is  attributed  to  Andrea. 
Other  late  works  of  known  date  are  a  magnificent  bust  of  the 
Protonotary  Almadiano,  made  in  1510  for  the  church  of  S. 
Giovanni  de'  Fiorentini  at  Viterbo,  now  preserved  in  the  Palazzo 
Communale  there,  and  a  medallion  of  the  Virgin  in  Glory,  sur- 
rounded by  angels,  made  in  1505  for  Pistoia  cathedral.2  The 
latest  work  attributed  to  Andrea,  though  apparently  only  a 
workshop  production  of  1515,  is  a  relief  representing  the  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,  made  for  a  little  church,  St  Maria,  hi  Pian  di 
Mugnone,  near  Florence.3  Portions  of  this  work  are  still  in  the 
church,  but  some  fragments  of  it  are  at  Oxford. 

III.,  IV.  Five  of  Andrea's  seven  sons  worked  with  their  father, 
and  after  his  death  carried  on  the  Robbia  fabrique;  the  dates 
of  their  birth  are  shown  hi  the  table  on  p.  838  ante.  Early  in 
life  two  of  them  came  under  the  influence  of  Savonarola,  and  took 
monastic  orders  at  his  Dominican  convent;  these  were  MARCO, 
who  adopted  the  name  of  Fra  Luca,  and  PAOLO,  called  Fra 
Ambrogio.  One  relief  by  the  latter,  a  Nativity  with  four  life- 
sized  figures  of  rather  poor  work,  is  in  the  Cappella  degli  Spagnuoli 
in  the  Sienese  convent  of  S.  Spirito;  a  MS.  in  the  convent 
archives  records  that  it  was  made  in  1 504. 

V.  The  chief  existing  work  known  to  be  by  the  second  LucA4 
is  the  very  rich  and  beautiful  tile  pavement  in  the  uppermost 
story  of  Raphael's  loggie  at  the  Vatican,  finely  designed  and 
painted  in  harmonious  majolica  colours.     This  was  made  by  Luca 
at  Raphael's  request  and  under  his  supervision  in  isi8.8    It  is 
still  in  very  fine  preservation. 

VI.  GIOVANNI  DELLA  ROBBIA  (1469-1529?)  during  a  great 
part  of  his  life  worked  as  assistant  to  his  father,  Andrea,  and  in 
many  cases  the  enamelled  sculpture  of  the  two  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished.    Some  of  Giovanni's  independent  works  are  of  great 
merit,  especially  the  earlier  ones;  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  his  reliefs  deteriorated  in  style,  owing  mainly  to  the  universal 
decadence  of  the  time.     A  very  large  number  of  pieces  of  Robbia 
ware  which  are  attributed  to  Andrea,  and  even  to  the  elder  Luca, 
were  really  by  the  hand  of  Giovanni.     One  of  his  finest  works  is  a 
large  retable  at  Volterra  in  the  church  of  S.  Girolamo,  dated  1501 ; 
it  represents  the  Last  Judgment,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  fine 
modelling  of  the  figures,  especially  that  of  the  archangel  Michael, 
and  a  nude  kneeling  figure  of  a  youth  who  has  just  risen  from  his 
tomb.     Quite  equal  in  beauty  to  anything  of  his  father's,  from 

1  See  Gualandi,  Memorie  risguardanti  le  belle  arti  (Bologna,  1845), 
vi.  pp.  33-35,  where  original  documents  are  printed  recording  the 
dates  and.  prices  paid  for  these  and  other  works  of  Andrea. 

8  See  a  document  printed  by  Milanesi  in  his  Vasari,  ii.  p.  180. 

4  It  appears  certain  that  this  Luca  was  a  layman  and  not  the  Fra 
Luca  referred  to  above. 

6  It  is  illustrated  by  Gruner,  Fresco  Decorations  of  Italy  (London, 
1854),  pi.  iv. ;  see  also  Muntz,  Raphael,  sa  vie,  &c.  (Paris,  1881), 
p.  452,  note  i.,  and  Vasari,  ed.  Milanesi,  ii.  p.  182. 


DELMEDIGO 


969 


whom  the  design  of  the  figures  was  probably  taken,  is  the  washing- 
fountain  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  made  in 
1497.'  It  is  a  large  arched  recess  with  a  view  of  the  seashore, 
not  very  decorative  in  style,  painted  on  majolica  tiles  at  the  back. 
There  are  also  two  very  beautiful  painted  majolica  panels  of  fruit- 
trees  let  into  the  lower  part.  In  the  tympanum  of  the  arch  is  a 
very  lovely  white  relief  of  the  Madonna  between  two  Adoring 
Angels  (see  fig.  3).  Long  coloured  garlands  of  fruit  and  flowers 
are  held  by  nude  boys  reclining  on  the  top  of  the  arch  and  others 


FlG.  3. — Relief  of  Madonna  and  Angels  in  the  tympanum  of  the 
lavabo  (S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence),  by  Giovanni. 

standing  on  the  cornice.  All  this  part  is  of  enamelled  clay,  but 
the  basin  of  the  fountain  is  of  white  marble.  Neither  Luca  nor 
Andrea  was  in  the  habit  of  signing  his  work,  but  Giovanni  often 
did  so,  usually  adding  the  date,  probably  because  other  potters 
had  begun  to  imitate  the  Robbia  ware.2 

Giovanni  lacked  the  original  talent  of  Luca  and  Andrea,  and 
so  he  not  only  copied  their  work  but  even  reproduced  in  clay  the 
marble  sculpture  of  Pollaiuolo,  Da  Settignano,  Verrocchio  and 
others.  A  relief  by  him,  evidently  taken  from  Mino  da  Fiesole, 
exists  in  the  Palazzo  Castracane  Staccoli.  Among  the  very 
numerous  other  works  of  Giovanni  are  a  relief  in  the  wall  of  a 
suppressed  convent  in  the  Via  Nazionale  at  Florence,  and  two 
reliefs  in  the  B'argello  dated  1521  and  1522.  That  dated  1521  is 
a  many-coloured  relief  of  the  Nativity,  and  was  taken  from  the 
church  of  S.  Girolamo  in  Florence;  it  is  a  too  pictorial  work, 
marred  by  the  use  of  many  different  planes.  Its  predella  has  a 
small  relief  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  and  is  inscribed  "  Hoc 
opus  fecit  loaes  Andee  de  Robia,  ac  a  posuit  hoc  in  tempore  die 
ultima  lulli  ANO.  DNI.  M.D.  xxi."  At  Pisa  in  the  Campo  Santo  is  a 
relief  in  Giovanni's  later  and  poorer  manner  dated  1520;  it  is  a 
Madonna  surrounded  by  angels,  with  saints  below — the  whole 
overcrowded  with  figures  and  ornaments.  Giovanni's  largest  and 
perhaps  finest  work  is  the  polychromatic  frieze  on  the  outside  of 
the  Del  Ceppo  hospital  at  Pistoia,  for  which  he  received  various 
sums  of  money  between  1525  and  1529,  as  is  recorded  in  documents 
which  still  exist  among  the  archives  of  the  hospital.3  The  subjects 
of  this  frieze  are  the  Seven  Work:  of  Mercy,  forming  a  continuous 
band  of  sculpture  in  high  relief,  well  modelled  and  designed  in  a 
very  broad  sculpturesque  way,  but  disfigured  by  the  crudeness 
of  some  of  its  colouring.  Six  of  these  reliefs  are  by  Giovanni, 
namely,  Clothing  the  Naked,  Washing  the  Feet  of  Pilgrims 

1  See  a  document  printed  by  Milanesi  in  his  Vasari,  ii.  193. 

1  Examples  of  these  imitations  are  a  retable  in  S.  Lucchese  near 
Poggibonsi  dated  1514,  another  of  the  Madonna  and  Saints  at  Monte 
San  Savino  of  1525,  and  a  third  in  the  Capuchin  church  of  Arceria 
near  Sinigaglia ;  they  are  all  inferior  to  the  best  works  of  the  Robbia 
family,  though  some  of  them  may  have  been  made  by  assistants 
trained  in  the  Robbia  workshops. 

*  The  hospital  itself  was  begun  in  1514. 


Visiting  the  Sick,  Visiting  Prisoners,  Burying  the  Dead,  and 
Feeding  the  Hungry.  The  seventh,  Giving  drink  to  the  Thirsty, 
was  made  by  Filippo  Paladini  of  Pistoia  in  1585;  this  last  is 
simply  made  of  painted  stucco.  The  large  figures  of  the  virtues 
placed  between  the  scenes,  and  the  medallions  between  the 
sillars,  are  the  work  of  assistants  or  imitators. 

A  large  octagonal  font  of  enamelled  clay,  with  pilasters  at  the 
angles  and  panels  between  them  with  scenes  from  the  life  of  the 
Baptist,  in  the  church  of  S.  Leonardo  at  Cerreto  Guidi,  is  a  work 
of  the  school  of  Giovanni;  the  reliefs  are  pictorial  in  style  and 
coarse  in  execution.  Giovanni's  chief  pupil  was  a  man  named 
Benedetto  Buglioni  (1461-1521),  and  a  pupil  of  his,  one  Santi 
Buglioni  (b.  1494),  entered  the  Robbia  workshops  in  1521,  and 
assisted  in  the  later  works  of  Giovanni. 

VII.  GIROLAMO  DELLA  ROBBIA  (1488-1566),  another  of 
Andrea's  sons,  was  an  architect  and  a  sculptor  in  marble  and 
jronze  as  well  as  in  enamelled  clay.  During  the  first  part  of  his 
ife  he,  like  his  brothers,  worked  with  his  father,  but  in  1528  he 
went  to  France  and  spent  nearly  forty  years  in  the  service  of  the 
French  Royal  family.  Francis  I.  employed  him  to  build  a  palace 
n  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  called  the  Chateau  de  Madrid.  This  was 
a  large  well-designed  building,  four  storeys  high,  two  of  them 
having  open  loggie  in  the  Italian  fashion.  Girolamo  decorated 
it  richly  with  terra-cotta  medallions,  friezes  and  other  architec- 
tural features.4  For  this  purpose  he  set  up  kilns  at  Suresnes. 
Though  the  palace  itself  has  been  destroyed,  drawings  of  it 
exist.5 

The  best  collections  of  Robbia  ware  are  in  the  Florentine 
Bargello,  Accademia  and  Museo  del  Duomo;  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum  (the  finest  out  of  Italy);  the  Louvre,  the 
Cluny  and  the  Berlin  Museums;  while  fine  examples  are  to  be 
found  in  New  York,  Boston,  St  Petersburg  and  Vienna.  Many 
fine  specimens  exist  in  private  collections  in  England,  France, 
Germany  and  the  United  States.  The  greater  part  of  the  Robbia 
work  still  remains  in  the  churches  and  other  buildings  of  Italy, 
especially  in  Florence,  Fiesole,  Arezzo,  La  Verna,  Volterra, 
Barga,  Montepulciano,  Lucca,  Pistoia,  Prato  and  Siena. 

LITERATURE. — H.  Barbet  de  Jouy,  Les  delta  Robbia  (Paris,  1855); 
W.  Bode,  Die  Kunstlerfamilie  delta  Robbia  (Leipzig,  1878);  "Luca 
della  Robbia  ed  i  suoi  precursor!  in  Firenze,"  Arch.  star,  dell'  arte 
(1899);  "  tlber  Luca  della  Robbia,"  Sitzungsbericht  von  der  Berliner 
kunstgeschichtlichen  Gesellschaft  (1896);  Florentiner  Bildhauer  der 
Renaissance  (Berlin,  1902);  G.  Carpcci,  /  Dintorni  de  Firenze 
(Florence,  1881);  "  II  Monumento  di  Benozzo  Federighi,"  Arte  e 
Storia  (1894);  "  Opere  Robbiane  poco  nod,"  Arte  e  storia  (1898, 
1899);  Cavallucci  et  Molinier,  Les  della  Robbia  (Paris,  1884); 
Maud  Crutwell,  Luca  and  Andrea  della  Robbia  and  their  Successors 
(London,  1902);  A.  du  Cerceau,  Les  plus  excellent;  bastiments 
de  France  (Paris,  1586);  G.  Milanesi,  Le  Vite  scritte  da  Vasari 
(Florence,  1878);  M.  Reymond,  Les  della  Robbia  (Florence,  1897); 
La  Sculpture  Florentine  (Florence,  1898);  I.  B.  Supino,  Catalogo 
del  R.  Museo  di  Firenze  (Rome  1898);  Vasari  (see  Milanesi's 
edition).  (J.  H.  M.;W.  B.*) 

DELMEDIGO,  a  Cretan  Jewish  family,  of  whom  the  following 
are  the  most  important: 

ELIJAH  DELMEDIGO  (1460-1497),  philosopher,  taught  in  several 
Italian  centres  of  learning.  He  translated  some  of  Averroes' 
commentaries  into  Latin  at  the  instigation  of  Pico  di  Mirandola. 
In  the  sphere  of  religion,  Delmedigo  represents  the  tendency 
to  depart  from  the  scholastic  attitude  in  which  religion  and 
philosophy  were  identified.  His  most  important  work  was 
devoted  to  this  end;  it  was  entitled  Behinath  ha-Dath  (Investi- 
gation of  Religion). 

JOSEPH  SOLOMON  DELMEDIGO  (1591-1655),  pupil  of  Galileo, 
wrote  many  books  on  science  and  philosophy,  and  bore  a  con- 
siderable part  in  initiating  the  critical  movement  in  Judaism. 
He  belonged  to  the  sceptical  school,  and  though  his  positive 
contributions  to  literature  were  not  of  lasting  worth,  Graetz 
includes  him  among  the  important  formative  influences  within 
the  synagogue  of  the  i7th  century.  (I.  A.) 

4  The  Sevres  Museum  possesses  some  fragments  of  these  de- 
corations. 

6  See  Laborde,  Chateau  de  Madrid  (Paris,  1853),  and  Comptes  des 
b&timents  du  roi  (Paris,  1877-1880),  in  which  a  full  account  is  given 
of  Girolamo's  work  in  connexion  with  this  palace. 

VII.  31  a 


970 


DELMENHORST— DE  L'ORME 


DELMENHORST,  a  town  of  Germany,  grand  duchy  of  Olden- 
burg, on  the  Delme,  8  m.  by  rail  W.  from  Bremen,  at  the  junction 
of  a  line  to  Vechta.  Pop.  (1905)  20,147.  It  has  a  Protestant 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  is  the  seat  of  considerable 
industries;  notably  wool-combing,  weaving,  jute-spinning  and 
the  manufacture  of  linoleum.  Delmenhorst  was  founded  in  1 230, 
and  from  1247  to  1679,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the  French,  was 
protected  by  a  strong  castle. 

DELOLME,  JEAN  LOUIS  (1740-1806),  Swiss  jurist  and  con- 
stitutional writer,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1740.  He  studied  for 
the  bar,  and  had  begun  to  practise  when  he  was  obliged  to 
emigrate  on  account  of  a  pamphlet  entitled  Examen  de  trois  parts 
de  droit,  which  gave  offence  to  the  authorities  of  the  town.  He 
took  refuge  in  England,  where  he  lived  for  several  years  on  the 
meagre  and  precarious  income  derived  from  occasional  contribu- 
tions to  various  journals.  In  1775  he  found  himself  compelled 
to  accept  aid  from  a  charitable  society  to  enable  him  to  return 
home.  He  died  at  Sewen,  a  village  in  the  canton  of  Schwyz, 
on  the  i6th  of  July  1806. 

During  his  protracted  exile  in  England  Delolme  made  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  English  constitution,  the  results  of  which  he 
published  in  his  Constitution  de  I'Angleterre  (Amsterdam,  1771), 
of  which  an  enlarged  and  improved  edition  in  English  appeared  in 
1772,  and  was  several  times  reprinted.  The  work  excited  much 
interest  as  containing  many  acute  observations  on  the  causes 
of  the  excellence  of  the  English  constitution  as  compared  with 
that  of  other  countries.  It  is,  however,  wanting  in  breadth  of 
view,  being  written  before  the  period  when  constitutional 
questions  were  treated  in  a  scientific  manner.  Along  with  a 
translation  of  Hume's  History  of  England  it  supplied  the 
philosophes  with  most  of  their  ideas  about  the  English  con- 
stitution. It  thus  was  used  somewhat  as  a  political  pamphlet. 
Several  editions  were  published  after  the  author's  death. 
Delolme  also  wrote  in  English  Parallel  between  the  English 
Government  and  the  former  Government  of  Sweden  (1772);  A 
History  of  the  Flagellants  (1782),  based  upon  a  work  of  Boileau's; 
An  Essay  on  the  Union  of  Scotland  with  England  (1787),  and  one 
or  two  smaller  works. 

DELONEY  (or  DELONE),  THOMAS,  English  ballad-writer  and 
pamphleteer,  produced  his  earliest  indisputable  work  in  1586, 
and  died  about  1600.  In  1596  Thomas  Nashe,  in  his  Have  with 
you  to  Saffron  Walden,  wrote:  "  Thomas  Deloney,  the  ballating 
silk-weaver,  hath  rime  enough  for  all  myracles,  and  wit  to  make 
a  Garland  of  Good  Will  more  than  the  premisses  .  .  .  and  this 
deare  yeare,  together  with  the  silencing  of  his  looms,  scarce  that, 
he  being  constrained  to  betake  himself  to  carded  ale;  whence  it 
proceedeth  that  since  Candlemas,  or  his  jigge,  John  for  the  king, 
not  one  merrie  dittie  will  come  from  him,  but,  the  Thunderbolt 
against  Swearers, — Repent,  England,  Repent — and,  the  strange 
Judgements  of  God."  In  1588  the  coming  of  the  Armada 
inspired  him  for  three  broadsides,  which  were  reprinted  (1860) 
by  J.  O.  Halliwell-Phillipps.  They  are  entitled  "  The  Queenes 
visiting  of  the  Campe  at  Tilsburie  with  her  entertainment  there," 
"  A  Joyful  new  Ballad,  declaring  the  happie  obtaining  of  the 
great  Galleazzo  .  .  .  ,"  and  "  A  new  Ballet  of  the  straunge  and 
Most  cruell  Whippes  which  the  Spaniards  had  prepared."  A 
collection  of  Strange  Histories  (1607)  consists  of  historical  ballads 
by  Deloney,  with  some  poems  from  other  hands.  This  collection, 
known  in  later  and  enlarged  editions  as  The  Royal  Garland  of 
Love  and  Delight  and  The  Garland  of  Delight,  contains  the  ballad 
of  Fair  Rosamond.  J.  H.  Dixon  in  his  preface  to  The  Garland  of 
Good  Witt  (Percy  Society,  1851)  ascribes  to  Deloney  The  Blind 
Beggar  of  Bednall  Green,  and  The  Pleasant  and  sweet  History  of 
Patient  Grissel,  in  prose,  with  the  whole  of  the  Garland  of  Good 
Will,  including  some  poems  such  as  "  The  Spanish  Lady's  Love  " 
generally  supposed  to  be  by  other  hands.  His  other  works  include 
The  Gentle  Craft  (1597)  in  praise  of  shoemakers,  The  Pleasant 
Historic  of  John  Winchecombe  (8th  ed.,  1619),  and  Thomas  of 
Reading  or  the  Sixe  Worlhie  Yeomen  of  the  West  (earliest  extant 
edition,  1612).  Kempe,  the  actor,  jeers  at  these  histories  in  his 
Nine  Dales  Wonder,  but  they  were  very  popular,  being  reprinted 
as  penny  chap-books. 


DE  LONG,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON  (1844-1881),  American 
explorer,  was  born  in  New  York  city  on  the  22nd  of  August  1844. 
He  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Naval  Academy  in  1865,  and  spent  the 
next  fourteen  years  in  naval  service  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  1869,  and  lieutenant-com- 
mander in  1879.  In  1873  ne  took  Part  m  the  voyage  of  the 
"  Juniata,"  sent  to  search  for  and  relieve  the  American  Arctic 
expedition  under  Hall  in  the  "  Polaris,"  commanding  a  steam 
launch  which  was  sent  out  from  Upernivik,  Greenland,  to  make 
a  thorough  search  of  Melville  Bay.  On  his  return  to  New  York 
the  same  year  he  proposed  to  James  Gordon  Bennett,  of  The  New 
York  Herald,  that  the  latter  should  fit  out  a  Polar  expedition. 
It  was  not  until  1879  that  the  final  arrangements  were  made, 
the  "  Pandora,"  a  yacht  which  had  already  made  two  Arctic 
voyages  under  Sir  Allen  Young,  being  purchased  and  rechristened 
the  "  Jeannette  "  for  this  voyage.  The  story  of  this  expedition 
(see  POLAR  REGIONS)  is  chiefly  remarkable  on  account  of  the  long 
and  helpless  drifting  of  the  "  Jeannette  "  with  the  polar  ice-pack 
in  which  she  was  caught  (September  5,  1879)  and  by  which 
she  was  finally  crushed  and  sunk  on  the  I3th  of  June  1881.  The 
members  of  the  expedition  set  out  in  three  boats,  one  of  which 
was  lost  in  a  gale,  while  another  boat-load  under  De  Long  died 
from  starvation  after  reaching  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  river.  He 
was  the  last  survivor  of  his  party.  His  journal,  in  which  he  made 
regular  entries  up  to  the  day  on  which  he  died  (October  30, 
1881)  was  edited  by  his  wife  and  published  in  1883  under  the 
title  Voyage  of  the  "  Jeannette  ";  and  an  account  of  the  search 
which  was  made  for  him  and  his  comrades  by  his  heroic  com- 
panion George  W.  Melville,  who  was  chief  engineer  of  the  expedi- 
tion and  commanded  the  third  of  the  retreating  parties,  was 
published  a  year  later  under  the  title  of  In  the  Lena  Delta.  The 
fate  of  the  "  Jeannette  "  was  still  more  remarkable  in  its  sequel. 
Three  years  after  she  had  sunk  several  articles  belonging  to  her 
crew  were  found  on  an  ice-floe  near  Julianshaab  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  Greenland;  thus  adding  fresh  evidence  to  the 
theory  of  a  continuous  ocean  current  passing  across  the  unknown 
Polar  regions,  which  was  to  be  finally  demonstrated  by  Nansen's 
voyage  in  the  "  Fram."  By  direction  of  the  United  States 
government,  the  remains  of  De  Long  and  his  companions  were 
brought  home  and  interred  with  honour  in  his  native  city. 

DELORME,  MARION  (c.  1613-1650),  French  courtesan,  was 
the  daughter  of  Jean  de  Lou,  sieur  de  l'Orme,  president  of  the 
treasurers  of  France  in  Champagne,  and  of  Marie  Chastelain. 
She  was  born  at  her  father's  chateau  near  Champaubert.  Initi- 
ated into  the  philosophy  of  pleasure  by  the  epicurean  and  atheist 
Jacques  Vallee,  sieur  Desbarreaux,  she  soon  left  him  for  Cinq 
Mars,  at  that  time  at  the  height  of  his  popularity,  and  succeeded, 
it  is  said,  in  marrying  him  in  secret.  From  this  time  Marion 
Delorme's  salon  became  one  of  the  most  brilliant  centres  of 
elegant  Parisian  society.  After  the  execution  of  Cinq  Mars  she 
is  said  to  have  numbered  among  herlovers  Charles  de  St  Evremond 
(1610-1703)  the  wit  and  litterateur,  Buckingham  (Villiers),  the 
great  Cond6,  and  even  Cardinal  Richelieu.  Under  the  Fronde 
her  salon  became  a  meeting  place  for  the  disaffected,  and  Mazarin 
is  said  to  have  sent  to  arrest  her  when  she  suddenly  died.  Her 
last  years  have  been  adorned  with  considerable  legend  (cf .  Mere- 
court,  Confessions  de  Marie  Delorme,  Paris,  1856).  It  seems 
established  that  she  died  in  1650.  But  she  was  believed  to  have 
lived  until  1706  or  even  1741,  after  having  had  the  most 
fantastic  adventures,  including  marriage  with  an  English  lord, 
and  an  old  age  spent  hi  poverty  in  Paris.  Her  name  has  been 
popularized  by  various  authors,  especially  by  Alfred  de  Vigny 
in  his  novel  Cinq  Mars,  by  Victor  Hugo  in  the  drama  Marion 
Delorme,  and  by  G.  Bottesini  in  an  opera  of  the  same  title. 

See  P.  J.  Jacob,  Marion  Delorme  el  Ninon  Lenclos  (Paris,  1859); 
J.  Peladan,  Histoire  et  legende  de  Marion  de  Lorme  (Paris,  1882). 

DE  L'ORME,  PHI  LI  BERT  (c.  1510-1570),  French  architect,  one 
of  the  great  masters  of  the  Renaissance,  was  born  at  Lyons,  the 
son  of  Jehan  de  L'Orme,  who  practised  the  same  art  and  brought 
his  son  up  to  it.  At  an  early  age  Philibert  was  sent  to  Italy  to 
study  (1533-1536)  and  was  employed  there  by  Pope  Paul  III. 
Returning  to  France  he  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  du  Bellay 


DELOS 


971 


at  Lyons,  and  was  sent  by  him  about  1 540  to  Paris,where  he  began 
the  Chateau  de  St  Maur,  and  enjoyed  royal  favour;  in  1545  he 
was  made  architect  to  Francis  I.  and  given  the  charge  of  works 
in  Brittany.  In  1548  Henry  II.  gave  him  the  supervision  of 
Fontainebleau,  Saint-Germain  and  the  other  royal  buildings; 
but  on  his  death  (1559)  Philibert  fell  into  disgrace.  Under 
Charles  IX.,  however,  he  returned  to  favour,  and  was  employed 
to  construct  the  Tuileries,  in  collaboration  with  Jean  Brillant. 
He  died  in  Paris  on  the  8th  of  January  1570.  Much  of  his  work 
has  disappeared,  but  his  fame  remains.  An  ardent  humanist  and 
student  of  the  antique,  he  yet  vindicated  resolutely  the  French 
tradition  in  opposition  to  Italian  tendencies;  he  was  a  man 
of  independent  mind  and 
a  vigorous  originality.  His 
masterpiece  was  the  Chateau 
d'  Anet  (1552-1559),  built  for 
Diane  de  Poitiers,  the  plans 
of  which  are  preserved  in  Du 
Cerceau's  Plus  excellens  basli- 
mens  de  France,  though  part 
of  the  building  alone  remains; 
and  his  designs  for  the  Tui- 
leries (also  given  by  Du 
Cerceau),  begun  by  Catherine 
de'  Medici  in  1565,  were 
magnificent.  His  work  is  also 
seen  at  Chenonceaux  and 
other  famous  chateaux;  and 
his  tomb  of  Francis  I.  at  St 
Denis  remains  a  perfect  speci- 
men of  his  art.  He  wrote  two 
books  on  architecture  (1561 
and  1567). 

See  Marius  Vachon,  Philibert 
de  L'Orme  (1887);  Chevalier, 
Lettres  et  devis  relatifs  d,  la  con- 
struction de  Chenonceaux  (i  864) ; 
Pfror,  Monographic  du  chateau 
d'Anet  (1867);  Herbet,  Travaux 
de  P.  de  L'Orme  d  Fontainebleau 
(1890). 

DELOS  (mod.  Mikra  Dili, 
or  Little  Delos,  to  distinguish 
it  from  Megali  Dili,  or  Great 
Delos),  an  island  in  the 
Aegean,  the  smallest  but  most 
famous  of  the  Cyclades,  and, 
according  to  the  ancient  be- 
lief, the  spot  round  which  the  group  arranged  itself  in  a  nearly 
circular  form.  It  is  a  rugged  mass  of  granite,  about  3  m.  long 
and  i  m.  to  5  m.  broad,  about  |  m.  E.  of  Megali  Dili  or 
Rheneia,  and  2  m.  W.  of  Myconus.  Towards  the  centre  it  rises 
to  its  greatest  height  of  350  ft.  in  the  steep  and  rocky  peak  of 
Mount  Cynthus,  which,  though  overtopped  by  several  eminences 
in  the  neighbouring  islands,  is  very  conspicuous  from  the  sur- 
rounding sea.  It  is  now  completely  destitute  of  trees,  but  it 
abounds  with  brushwood  of  lentisk  and  cistus,  and  here  and  there 
affords  a  patch  of  corn-land  to  the  occasional  sower  from  Myconus. 

I.  Archaeology. — Excavations  have  been  made  by  the  French 
School  at  Athens  upon  the  island  of  Delos  since  1877,  chiefly 
by  Th.  Homolle.  They  have  proceeded  slowly  but  systematic- 
ally, and  the  method  adopted,  though  scientific  and  economical, 
left  the  site  in  some  apparent  confusion,  but  the  debris  have  more 
recently  been  cleared  away  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  com- 
plete plan  of  the  sacred  precinct  of  Apollo  has  been  recovered,  as 
well  as  those  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  commerical  quarter 
of  Hellenistic  and  Roman  times,  of  the  theatre,  of  the  temples 
of  the  foreign  gods,  of  the  temples  on  the  top  of  Mount  Cynthus, 
and  of  several  very  interesting  private  houses.  Numerous  works 
of  sculpture  of  all  periods  have  been  found,  and  also  a  very 
extensive  series  of  inscriptions,  some  of  them  throwing  much 
light  upon  the  subject  of  temple  administration  in  Greece. 

The  most  convenient  place  for  landing  is  protected  by  an  ancient 


mole;  it  faces  the  channel  between  Delos  and  Rheneia,  and  is 
about  opposite  the  most  northerly  of  the  two  little  islands  now 
called  'Pevfj.aTiA.pl..  From  this  side  the  sacred  precinct  of  Apollo 
is  approached  by  an  avenue  flanked  by  porticoes,  that  upon  the 
seaside  bearing  the  name  of  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  who  dedicated 
it  about  200  B.C.  This  avenue  must  have  formed  the  usual 
approach  for  sacred  embassies  and  processions;  but  it  is  probable 
that  the  space  to  the  south  was  not  convenient  for  marshalling 
them,  since  Nicias,  on  the  occasion  of  his  famous  embassy,  built 
a  bridge  from  the  island  of  Hecate  (the  Greater  Rhevmatiari) 
to  Delos,  in  order  that  the  imposing  Athenian  procession  might 
not  miss  its  full  effect.  Facing  the  avenue  were  the  propylaea 


DELOS 
PRECINCT  OF  APOLLO. 


By  permission  ftom  plan  in  Homolle.  Archives 
de  I'lntendance  Sacree  a  Delos 


that  formed  the  chief  entrance  of  the  precinct  of  Apollo.  They 
consisted  of  a  gate  faced  on  the  outside  with  a  projecting  portico  of 
four  columns,  on  the  inside  with  two  columns  in  antis.  Through 
this  one  entered  a  large  open  space,  filled  with  votive  offerings 
and  containing  a  large  exedra.  The  sacred  road  continued  its 
course  to  the  north-east  corner  of  this  open  space,  with  the 
precinct  of  Artemis  on  its  west  side,  and,  on  its  east  side,  a  terrace 
on  which  stood  three  temples.  The  southernmost  of  these  was 
the  temple  of  Apollo,  but  only  its  back  was  visible  from  this  side. 
Though  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  to  whom  the  other  two  were 
dedicated,  the  fact  that  they  faced  west  seems  to  imply  that  they 
were  either  dedicated  to  heroes  or  minor  deities,  or  that  they  were 
treasuries.  Beyond  them  a  road  branches  to  the  right,  sweeping 
round  in  a  broad  curve  to  the  space  in  front  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo.  The  outer  side  of  this  curve  is  bounded  by  a  row  of 
treasuries,  similar  to  those  found  at  Delphi  and  Olympia,  and 
serving  to  house  the  more  costly  offerings  of  various  islands  or 
cities.  The  space  to  the  east  and  south  of  the  temple  of  Apollo 
could  also  be  approached  directly  from  the  propylaea  of  entrance, 
by  turning  to  the  right  through  a  passage-like  building  with  a 
porch  at  either  end.  Just  to  the  north  of  this  may  be  seen  the 
basis  of  the  colossal  statue  of  Apollo  dedicated  by  the  Naxians, 
with  its  well-known  archaic  inscription;  two  large  fragments  of 
the  statue  itself  may  still  be  seen  a  little  farther  to  the  north. 
The  temple  of  Apollo  forms  the  centre  of  the  whole  precinct, 


972 


DELOS 


which  it  dominates  by  the  height  of  its  steps  as  well  as  of  the 
terrace  already  mentioned;  its  position  must  have  been  more 
commanding  in  ancient  times  than  it  is  now  that  heaps  of  earth 
and  debris  cover  so  much  of  the  level.  The  temple  was  of  Doric 
style,  with  six  columns  at  the  front  and  back  and  thirteen  at  the 
sides;  it  was  built  early  in  the  4th  century  B.C.;  little  if  any 
traces  have  been  found  of  the  earlier  building  which  it  super- 
seded. Its  sculptural  decoration  appears  to  have  been  but 
scanty;  the  metopes  were  plain.  The  groups  which  ornamented, 
as  acroteria,  the  two  gables  of  the  temple  have  been  in  part 
recovered,  and  may  now  be  seen  in  the  national  museum  at 
Athens;  at  the  one  end  was  Boreas  carrying  off  Oreithyia,  at  the 
other  Eos  and  Cephalus,  the  centre  in  each  case  being  occupied 
by  the  winged  figure  that  stood  out  against  the  sky — a  variation 
on  the  winged  Victories  that  often  occupy  the  same  position  on 
temples. 

To  the  east  of  the  space  in  front  of  the  temple  was  an  oblong 
building  of  two  chambers,  with  a  colonnade  on  each  side  but  not 
in  front;  this  may  have  been  the  Prytaneum  or  some  other 
official  building;  beyond  it  is  the  most  interesting  and  character- 
istic of  all  the  monuments  of  Delphi.  This  is  a  long  narrow  hall, 
running  from  north  to  south,  and  entered  by  a  portico  at  its 
south  end.  At  the  north  end  was  the  famous  altar,  built  out  of 
the  horns  of  the  victims,  which  was  sometimes  reckoned  among 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  rest  of  the  room  is  taken 
up  by  a  paved  space,  surrounded  by  a  narrow  gangway ;  and  on 
this  it  is  supposed  that  the  ytpavos  or  stork-dance  took  place. 
The  most  remarkable  architectural  feature  of  the  building  is  the 
partition  that  separated  the  altar  from  this  long  gallery;  it 
consists  of  two  columns  between  antae,  with  capitals  of  a  very 
peculiar  form,  consisting  of  the  fore  parts  of  bulls  set  back  to 
back ;  from  these  the  whole  building  is  sometimes  called  the 
sanctuary  of  the  bulls.  Beyond  it,  on  the  east,  was  a  sacred 
wood  filling  the  space  up  to  the  wall  of  the  precinct;  and  at  the 
south  end  of  this  was  a  small  open  space  with  the  altar  of  Zeus 
Polieus. 

At  the  north  of  the  precinct  was  a  broad  road,  flanked  with 
votive  offerings  and  exedrae,  and  along  the  boundary  were 
porticoes  and  chambers  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  0«coptcu 
or  sacred  embassies;  there  are  two  entrances  on  this  side,  each 
of  them  through  extensive  propylaea. 

At  the  north-west  corner  of  the  precinct  is  a  building  of  lime- 
stone, the  moptcos  OIKOS  often  mentioned  in  the  inventories  of 
the  treasures  of  the  Delian  shrine.  South  of  it  is  the  precinct  of 
Artemis,  containing  within  it  the  old  temple  of  the  goddess; 
her  more  recent  temple  was  to  the  south  of  her  precinct,  opening 
not  into  it  but  into  the  open  space  entered  through  the  southern 
propylaea  of  the  precinct  of  Apollo.  The  older  temple  is 
mentioned  in  some  of  the  inventories  as  "  the  temple  in  which 
were  the  seven  statues  " ;  and  close  beside  it  was  found  a  series  of 
archaic  draped  female  statues,  which  was  the  most  important 
of  its  kind  until  the  discovery  of  the  finer  and  better  preserved  set 
from  the  Athenian  Acropolis. 

Within  the  precinct  there  were  found  many  statues  and  other 
works  of  art,  and  a  very  large  number  of  inscriptions,  some  of 
them  giving  inventories  of  the  votive  offerings  and  accounts  of  the 
administration  of  the  temple  and  its  property.  The  latter  are 
of  considerable  interest,  and  give  full  information  as  to  the 
sources  of  the  revenue  and  its  financial  administration. 

Outside  the  precinct  of  Apollo,  on  the  south,  was  an  open 
place;  between  this  and  the  precinct  was  a  house  for  the  priests, 
and  within  it,  in  a  kind  of  court,  a  set  of  small  structures  that  may 
perhaps  be  identified  as  the  tombs  of  the  Hyperborean  maidens. 
Just  to  the  east  was  the  temple  of  Dionysus,  which  is  of  peculiar 
plan,  and  faces  the  open  place ;  on  the  other  side  of  it  is  a  large 
rectangular  court,  surrounded  by  colonnades  and  chambers  which 
served  as  offices,  the  whole  forming  a  sort  of  commercial 
exchange;  in  the  middle  of  it  was  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Aphrodite  and  Hermes. 

To  the  north  of  the  precinct  of  Apollo,  between  it  and  the 
sacred  lake,  there  are  very  extensive  ruins  of  the  commercial 
town  of  Delos;  these  have  been  only  partially  cleared,  but  have 


yielded  a  good  many  inscriptions  and  other  antiquities.  The 
most  extensive  building  is  a  very  large  court  surrounded  by 
chambers,  a  sort  of  club  or  exchange.  Beyond  this,  on  the  way 
to  the  east  coast,  are  the  remains  of  the  new  and  the  old  palaestra, 
also  partially  excavated. 

The  shore  of  the  channel  facing  Rheneia  is  lined  with  docks  and 
warehouses,  and  behind  them,  as  well  as  elsewhere  in  the  island, 
there  have  been  found  several  private  houses  of  the  2nd  or  3rd 
century  B.C.  Each  of  these  consists  of  a  single  court  surrounded 
by  columns  and  often  paved  with  mosaic;  various  chambers 
open  out  of  the  court,  including  usually  one  of  large  proportions, 
the  &.V&P&V  or  dining-room  for  guests. 

The  theatre,  which  is  set  in  the  lower  slope  of  Mount  Cynthus, 
has  the  wings  of  the  auditorium  supported  by  massive  sub- 
structures. The  most  interesting  feature  is  the  scena,  which  is 
unique  in  plan;  it  consisted  of  an  oblong  building  of  two  storeys, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  low  portico  or  terrace  reaching  to  the 
level  of  the  first  floor.  This  was  supported  by  pillars,  set  closer 
together  along  the  front  than  at  the  sides  and  back.  An  inscrip- 
tion found  in  the  theatre  showed  that  this  portico,  or  at  least  the 
front  portion  of  it,  was  called  the  proscenium  or  logeum,  two 
terms  of  which  the  identity  was  previously  disputed. 

On  the  summit  of  Mount  Cynthus,  above  the  primitive  cave- 
temple  which  has  always  been  visible,  there  have  been  found 
the  remains  of  a  small  precinct  dedicated  to  Zeus  Cynthius  and 
Athena  Cynthia.  Some  way  down  the  slope  of  the  hill,  between 
the  cave-temple  and  the  ravine  of  the  Inopus,  is  a  terrace  with 
the  temples  of  the  foreign  gods,  Isis  and  Serapis,  and  a  small 
odeum. 

II.  History. — Many  alternative  names  for  Delos  are  given  by 
tradition;  one  of  these,  Ortygia,  is  elsewhere  also  assigned  to  an 
island  sacred  to  Artemis.  Of  the  various  traditions  that  were 
current  among  the  ancient  Greeks  regarding  the  origin  of  Delos, 
the  most  popular  describes  it  as  drifting  through  the  Aegean  till 
moored  by  Zeus  as  a  refuge  for  the  wandering  Leto.  It  supplied 
a  birthplace  to  Apollo  and  Artemis,  who  were  born  beneath  a 
palm  tree  beside  its  sacred  lake,  and  became  for  ever  sacred  to 
these  twin  deities.  The  island  first  appears  in  history  as  the  seat 
of  a  great  Ionic  festival  to  which  the  various  Ionic  states,  includ- 
ing Athens,  were  accustomed  annually  to  despatch  a  sacred 
embassy,  or  Theoria,  at  the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  the  god 
on  the  7th  of  Thargelion  (about  May).  In  the  6th  century  B.C. 
the  influence  of  the  Delian  Apollo  was  at  its  height;  Polycrates 
of  Samos  dedicated  the  neighbouring  island  of  Rheneia  to  his 
service  and  Peisistratus  of  Athens  caused  all  the  area  within  sight 
of  the  temple  to  be  cleared  of  the  tombs  by  which  its  sanctity  was 
impaired.  After  the  Persian  wars,  the  predominance  of  Athens 
led  to  the  transformation  of  the  Delian  amphictyony  into  the 
Athenian  empire.  (See  DELIAN  LEAGUE.)  In  426  B.C.,  in  con- 
nexion with  a  reorganization  of  the  festival,  which  henceforth  was 
celebrated  in  the  third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  the  Athenians 
instituted  a  more  elaborate  lustration,  caused  every  tomb  to  be 
removed  from  the  island,  and  established  a  law  that  ever  after 
any  one  who  was  about  to  die  or  to  give  birth  to  a  child  should 
be  at  once  conveyed  from  its  shores.  And  even  this  was  not 
accounted  sufficient,  for  in  422  they  expelled  all  its  secular 
inhabitants,  who  were,  however,  permitted  to  return  in  the 
following  year.  At  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  the 
Spartans  gave  to  the  people  of  Delos  the  management  of  their 
own  affairs;  but  the  Athenian  predominance  was  soon  after 
restored,  and  survived  an  appeal  to  the  amphictyony  of  Delphi  in 
345  B.C.  During  Macedonian  times,  from  322  to  166  B.C.,  Delos 
again  became  independent;  during  this  period  the  shrine  was 
enriched  by  offerings  from  all  quarters,  and  the  temple  and 
its  possessions  were  administered  by  officials  called  tepcnrotoi. 
After  166  B.C.  the  Romans  restored  the  control  of  Delian  wor- 
ship to  Athens,  but  granted  to  the  island  various  commercial 
privileges  which  brought  it  great  prosperity.  In  87  B.C.  Meno- 
phanes,  the  general  of  Mithradates  VI.  of  Pontus,  sacked  the 
island,  which  had  remained  faithful  to  Rome.  From  this  blow 
it  never  recovered;  the  Athenian  control  was  resumed  in  42  B.C., 
but  Pausanias  (viii.  33.  2)  mentions  Delos  as  deserted  but  for  a 


DE  LOUTHERBOURG— DELPHI 


973 


few  Athenian  officials;  and  several  epigrams  of  the  ist  or  2nd 
century  A.D.  attest  the  same  fact,  though  the  temple  and  worship 
were  probably  kept  up  until  the  official  extinction  of  the  ancient 
religion.  A  museum  has  now  been  built  to  contain  the  antiquities 
found  in  the  excavations;  otherwise  Delos  is  now  uninhabited, 
though  during  the  summer  months  a  few  shepherds  cross  over 
with  their  flocks  from  Myconus  or  Rheneia.  As  a  religious  centre 
it  is  replaced  by  Tenos  and  as  a  commercial  centre  by  the 
flourishing  port  of  Syra. 

See  Lebegue,  Recherches  sur  Delos  (Paris,  1876).  Numerous 
articles  in  the  Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique  record  the  various 
discoveries  at  Delos  as  they  were  made.  See  also  Th.  Homolle,  Les 
Archives  de  I'intendance  sacree  a  Delos  (with  plan).  The  best  con- 
secutive account  is  given  in  the  Guide  Joanne,  Grece,  ii.  443- 
464.  For  history,  see  Sir  R.  C.  Jebb,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies, 
i  (1889),  pp.  7-62.  For  works  of  art  found  at  Delos  see  GREEK 
ART.  (E.  GR.) 

DE  LOUTHERBOURG,  PHILIP  JAMES  (1740-1812),  English 
artist,  was  born  at  Strassburg  on  the  3ist  of  October  1740,  where 
his  father,  the  representative  of  a  Polish  family,  practised 
miniature  painting;  but  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
London,  where  he  was  naturalized,  and  exerted  a  considerable 
influence  on  the  scenery  of  the  English  stage,  as  well  as  on  the 
artists  of  the  following  generation.  De  Loutherbourg  was 
intended  for  the  Lutheran  ministry,  and  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Strassburg.  As  the  calling,  however,  was  foreign 
to  his  nature,  he  insisted  on  being  a  painter,  and  placed  him- 
self under  Vanloo  in  Paris.  The  result  was  an  immediate  and 
precocious  development  of  his  powers,  and  he  became  a  figure  in 
the  fashionable  society  of  that  day.  In  1767  he  was  elected  into 
the  French  Academy  below  the  age  required  by  the  law  of  the 
institution,  and  painted  landscapes,  sea  storms,  battles,  all  of 
which  had  a  celebrity  above  those  of  the  specialists  then  working 
in  Paris.  His  debut  was  made  by  the  exhibition  of  twelve 
pictures,  including  "  Storm  at  Sunset,"  "  Night,""  Morning  after 
Rain . "  He  is  next  found  travelling  in  Switzerland,  Germany  and 
Italy,  distinguishing  himself  as  much  by  mechanical  inventions 
as  by  painting.  One  of  these,  showing  quite  new  effects  produced 
in  a  model  theatre,  was  the  wonder  of  the  day.  The  exhibition 
of  lights  behind  canvas  representing  the  moon  and  stars,  the 
illusory  appearance  of  running  water  produced  by  clear  blue 
sheets  of  metal  and  gauze,  with  loose  threads  of  silver,  and  so  on, 
were  his  devices.  In  1 7  7 1  he  came  to  London,  and  was  employed 
by  Garrick,  who  offered  him  £500  a  year  to  apply  his  inventions 
to  Drury  Lane,  and  to  superintend  the  scene-painting,  which  he 
did  with  complete  success,  making  a  new  era  in  the  adjuncts  of 
the  stage.  Garrick's  own  piece,  the  Christmas  Tale,  and  the 
pantomime,  1781-1782,  introduced  the  novelties  to  the  public, 
and  the  delight  not  only  of  the  masses,  but  of  Reynolds  and  the 
artists,  was  unbounded.  The  green  trees  gradually  became 
russet,  the  moon  rose  and  lit  the  edges  of  passing  clouds,  and  all 
the  world  was  captivated  by  effects  we  now  take  little  notice  of. 
A  still  greater  triumph  awaited  him  on  his  opening  an  entertain- 
ment called  the  "  Eidophusicon,"  which  showed  the  rise,  progress 
and  result  of  a  storm  at  sea — that  which  destroyed  the  great 
Indiaman,  the  "  Halsewell," — and  the  Fallen  Angels  raising  the 
Palace  of  Pandemonium.  De  Loutherbourg  has  been  called  the 
inventor  of  the  panorama,  but  this  honour  does  not  belong  to 
him,  although  it  first  appeared  about  the  same  time  as  the 
eidophusicon.  The  first  panorama  was  painted  and  exhibited 
by  Robert  Barker. 

All  this  mechanism  did  not  prevent  De  Loutherbourg  from 
painting.  "  Lord  Howe's  Victory  off  Ushant  "  (i 794) ,  and  other 
large  naval  pictures  were  commissioned  for  Greenwich  Hospital 
Gallery,  where  they  still  remain.  His  finest  work  was  the 
"  Destruction  of  the  Armada."  He  painted  also  the  Great  Fire 
of  London,  and  several  historical  works,  one  of  these  being  the 
"  Attack  of  the  Combined  Armies  on  Valenciennes  "  (1793).  He 
was  made  R.A.,  in  addition  to  other  distinctions,  in  1781,  shortly 
after  which  date  we  find  an  entirely  new  mental  impulse  taking 
possession  of  him.  He  joined  Balsamo,  comte  de  Cagliostro,  and 
travelled  about  with  this  extraordinary  person — leaving  him, 
however,  before  his  condemnation  to  death.  We  do  not  hear 


that  Mesmer  had  attracted  De  Loutherbourg,  nor  do  we  find 
an  exact  record  of  his  connexion  with  Cagliostro.  A  pamphlet 
sublished  in  1 789,  A  List  of  a  few  Cures  performed  by  Mr  and  Mrs 
De  Loutherbourg  without  Medicine,  shows  that  he  had  taken  up 
:aith-healing,  and  there  is  a  story  that  a  successful  projection  of 
the  philosopher's  stone  was  only  spoiled  by  the  breaking  of 
the  crucible  by  a  relative.  He  died  on  the  nth  of  March  1812. 
His  publications  are  few — some  sets  of  etchings,  and  English 
Scenery  (1805) 

DELPHI  (the  Pytho  of  Homer  and  Herodotus;  in  Boeotian 
inscriptions  BeX<£o(,  on  coins  AaX^ot),  a  place  in  ancient  Greece  in 
the  territory  of  Phocis,  famous  as  the  seat  of  the  most  important 
temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo.  It  was  situated  about  6  m.  inland 
from  the  shores  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  in  a  rugged  and  romantic 
glen,  closed  on  the  N.  by  the  steep  wall-like  under-cliffs  of  Mount 
Parnassus  known  as  the  Phaedriades  or  Shining  Rocks,  on  the  E. 
and  W.  by  two  minor  ridges  or  spurs,  and  on  the  S.  by  the 
irregular  heights  of  Mount  Cirphis.  Between  the  two  mountains 
the  Pleistus  flowed  from  east  to  west,  and  opposite  the  town 
received  the  brooklet  of  the  Castalian  fountain,  which  rose  in  a 
deep  gorge  in  the  centre  of  the  Parnassian  cliff.  About  7  m.  to 
the  north,  on  the  side  of  Mount  Parnassus,  was  the  famous 
Corycian  cave,  a  large  grotto  in  the  limestone  rock,  which  afforded 
the  people  of  Delphi  a  refuge  during  the  Persian  invasion.  It  is 
now  called  in  the  district  the  Sarant'  Aulai  or  Forty  Courts,  and 
is  said  to  be  capable  of  holding  3000  people. 

I.  The  Site. — The  site  of  Delphi  was  occupied  by  the  modern 
village  of  Castri  until  it  was  bought  by  the  French  government 
in  1891,  and  the  peasant  proprietors  expropriated  and  transferred 
to  the  new  village  of  Castri,  a  little  farther  to  the  west.  Excava- 
tions had  been  made  previously  in  some  parts  of  the  precinct; 
for  example,  the  portico  of  the  Athenians  was  laid  bare  in  1860. 
The  systematic  clearing  of  the  site  began  in  the  spring  of  1892, 
and  it  was  rapidly  cleared  of  earth  by  means  of  a  light  railway. 
The  plan  of  the  precinct  is  now  easily  traced,  and  with  the  help  of 
Pausanias  many  of  the  buildings  have  been  identified. 

The  ancient  wall  running  east  and  west,  commonly  known  as 
the  Hellenico,  has  been  found  extant  in  its  whole  length,  and  the 
two  boundary  walls  running  up  the  hill  at  each  end  of  it,  traced. 
In  the  eastern  of  these  was  the  main  entrance  by  which  Pausanias 
went  in  along  the  Sacred  Way.  This  paved  road  is  easily 
recognized  as  it  zigzags  up  the  hill,  with  treasuries  and  the  bases 
of  various  offerings  facing  it  on  both  sides.  It  mounts  first  west- 
wards to  an  open  space,  then  turns  eastwards  till  it  reaches  the 
eastern  end  of  the  terrace  wall  that  supports  the  temple,  and  then 
turns  again  and  curves  up  north  and  then  west  towards  the 
temple.  Above  this,  approached  by  a  stair,  are  the  Lesche  and 
the  theatre,  occupying  respectively  the  north-east  and  north- 
west corner  of  the  precinct.  On  a  higher  level  still,  a  little  to 
the  west,  is  the  stadium.  There  are  several  narrow  paths  and 
stairs  that  cut  off  the  zigzags  of  the  Sacred  Way. 

In  describing  the  monuments  discovered  by  the  French 
excavators,  the  simplest  plan  is  to  follow  the  route  of  Pausanias. 
Outside  the  entrance  is  a  large  paved  court  of  Roman  date, 
flanked  by  a  colonnade.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Sacred  Way, 
close  to  the  main  entrance,  stood  the  offering  dedicated  by  the 
Lacedaemonians  after  the  battle  of  Aegospotami.  It  was  a  large 
quadrangular  building  of  conglomerate,  with  a  back  wall  faced 
with  stucco,  and  stood  open  to  the  road.  On  a  stepped  pedestal 
facing  the  open  stood  the  statues  of  the  gods  and  the  admirals, 
perhaps  in  rows  above  one  another. 

The  statues  of  the  Epigoni  stood  on  a  semicircular  basis  on  the 
south  side  of  the  way.  Opposite  them  stood  another  semi- 
circular basis  which  carried  the  statues  of  the  Argive  kings, 
whose  names  are  cut  on  the  pedestal  in  archaic  characters, 
reading  from  right  to  left.  Farther  west  was  the  Sicyonian 
treasury  on  the  south  of  the  way.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a  small 
Doric  temple  in  antis,  and  had  its  entrance  on  the  east.  The 
present  foundations  are  built  of  architectural  fragments,  probably 
from  an  earlier  building  of  circular  form  on  the  same  site.  The 
sculptures  from  this  treasury  are  in  the  museum,  as  are  the  other 
sculptures  found  on  the  site.  These  sculptures,  which  are  in 


9 

rough  limestone,  most  likely  belong  to  the  earlier  building,  as 
their  surface  is  in  a  better  state  of  preservation  than  could  be 
possible  if  they  had  been  long  exposed  to  the  air.  The  earlier 
treasury  was  probably  destroyed  either  by  earthquake  or  by  the 
percolation  of  water  through  the  terracing. 

The  Cnidian  treasury  stands  on  the  south  side  of  the  way 
farther  west.  This  building  was  originally  surmised  by  the 
excavators  to  be  the  treasury  of  Siphnos,  but  further  evidence 
led  them  to  change  their  opinion.  The  treasury  was  raised  on 
a  quadrangular  structure,  supported  on  its  south  side  by  the 
Hellenico,  and  built  of  tufa.  The  lower  courses  are  left  rough  and 
were  most  likely  hidden.  A  small  Ionic  temple  of  marble  with 


DELPHI 


PRECINCT  OP  APOLLO  AT  DELPHI. 


ancient  altar  of  Athena.  Here  too  was  placed  the  curious  column, 
with  many  flutes  and  an  Ionic  capital,  on  which  stood  the  colossal 
sphinx,  dedicated  by  the  Naxians,  that  has  been  pieced  together 
and  placed  in  the  museum. 

A  little  farther  on,  but  below  the  Sacred  Way,  is  another  open 
space,  of  circular  form,  which  is  perhaps  the  aXojs  or  sacred 
threshing-floor  on  which  the  drama  of  the  slaying  of  the  Python 
by  Apollo  was  periodically  performed.  Opposite  this  space,  and 
backed  against  the  beautifully  jointed  polygonal  wall  which 
has  for  some  time  been  known,  and  which  supports  the  terrace 
on  which  the  temple  stands,  is  the  colonnade  of  the  Athenians. 
A  dedicatory  inscription  runs  along  the  face  of  the  top  step,  and 

has  been  the  subject 


Bulletin  de  Correspondence  Helleniqup  1897  XVI.  XVII 


two  caryatids  between  antae  stood  on  this  substructure.  The 
sculpture  from  this  treasury,  which  ornamented  its  frieze  and 
pediment,  is  of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  the  development  of 
the  art,  and  the  fragments  of  architectural  mouldings  are  of  great 
delicacy  and  beauty.  The  whole  work  is  perhaps  the  most 
perfect  example  we  possess  of  the  transitional  style  of  the  early 
5th  century.  Standing  back  somewhat  from  the  path  just  as  it 
bends  round  up  the  hill  is  the  Theban  treasury.  Farther  north, 
where  the  path  turns  again,  is  the  Athenian  treasury.  This 
structure,  which  was  in  the  form  of  a  small  Doric  temple  in  antis, 
appears  to  have  suffered  from  the  building  above  it  having  been 
shaken  down  by  an  earthquake.  It  has  now  been  rebuilt  with 
the  original  blocks.  There  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  identity  of 
the  building,  for  the  basis  on  which  it  stands  bears  the  remains 
of  the  dedicatory  inscription,  stating  that  it  was  erected  from 
the  spoils  of  Marathon.  Almost  all  the  sculptured  metopes  are 
in  the  museum,  and  are  of  the  highest  interest  to  the  student 
of  archaic  art.  The  famous  inscriptions  with  hymns  to  Apollo 
accompanied  by  musical  notation  were  found  on  stones  belonging 
to  this  treasury. 

Above  the  Athenian  treasury  is  an  open  space,  in  which  is  a 
rock  which  has  been  identified  as  the  Sybil's  rock.  It  has  steps 
hewn  in  it,  and  has  a  cleft.  The  ground  round  it  has  been  left 
rough  like  the  space  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  identified  as  the 


of  much  dispute. 
Both  the  forms  of 
the  letters  and  the 
style  of  the  architec- 
ture show  that  the 
colonnade  cannot 
date,  as  Pausanias 
says,  from  the  time 
of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  War;  Th. 
Homolle  now  as- 
signs it  to  the  end 
of  the  6th  century. 
The  polygonal  ter- 
race wall  at  the 
back,  on  being 
cleared,  proves  to 
be  covered  with 
inscriptions,  most 
of  them  concerning 
the  manumission  of 
slaves. 

After  rounding 
the  east  end  of  the 
terrace  wall,  the 
Sacred  Way  turns 
northward,  leaving 
the  Great  Altar, 
dedicated  by  the 
Chians,  on  the  left. 
After  passing  the 
altar,  it  turns  to  the 
left  again  at  right 
angles,  and  so  enters 
the  space  in  front 
of  the  temple.  Remains  of  offerings  found  in  this  region  include 
those  dedicated  by  the  Cyrenians  and  by  the  Corinthians.  The 
site  of  the  temple  itself  carries  the  remains  of  successive  struc- 
tures. Of  that  built  by  the  Alcmaeonids  in  the  6th  century  B.C. 
considerable  remains  have  been  found,  some  in  the  foundations 
of  the  later  temple  and  some  lying  where  they  were  thrown  by 
the  earthquake.  The  sculptures  found  have  been  assigned  to  this 
building,  probably  to  the  gables,  as  they  are  archaic  in  character, 
and  show  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  sculptures  from  the 
pediment  of  the  early  temple  of  Athena  at  Athens.  The  existing 
foundations  are  these  of  the  temple  built  hi  the  4th  century. 
They  give  no  certain  information  as  to  the  sacred  cleft  and  other 
matters  relating  to  the  oracle.  Though  there  are  great  hollow 
spaces  in  the  structure  of  the  foundations,  these  appear  merely 
to  have  been  intended  to  save  material,  and  not  to  have  been  put 
to  any  religious  or  other  use.  Up  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of 
the  precinct,  standing  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  are  the  remains 
of  the  interesting  Cnidian  Lesche  or  Clubhouse.  It  was  a  long 
narrow  building  accessible  only  from  the  south,  and  the  famous 
paintings  were  probably  disposed  around  the  walls  so  as  to  meet 
in  the  middle  of  the  north  side.  Some  scanty  fragments  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  frescoed  walls  have  survived;  But  they  are  not 
enough  to  give  any  information  as  to  the  work  of  Polygnotus. 
At  the  north-western  corner  of  the  precinct  is  the  theatre,  one 


Walkc-ri  Cockerel!  u. 


DELPHINIA— DELUC 


975 


of  the  best  preserved  in  Greece.  The  foundations  of  the  stage  are 
extant,  as  well  as  the  orchestra,  and  the  walls  and  seats  of  the 
auditorium.  There  are  thirty-three  tiers  of  seats  in  seven  sets, 
and  a  paved  diazoma.  The  sculptures  from  the  stage  front,  now 
in  the  museum,  have  the  labours  of  Heracles  as  their  subject. 
The  date  of  the  theatre  is  probably  early  2nd  century  B.C. 

The  stadium  lies,  as  Pausanias  says,  in  the  highest  part  of  the 
city  to  the  north-west.  It  stands  on  a  narrow  plateau  of  ground 
supported  on  the  south-east  by  a  terrace  wall.  The  seats  have 
been  cleared,  and  are  in  a  state  of  extraordinary  preservation. 
A  few  of  those  at  the  east  end  are  hewn  in  the  rock.  No  trace  of 
the  marble  seats  mentioned  by  Pausanias  has  been  found,  but 
they  have  probably  been  carried  off  for  lime  or  building,  as  they 
could  easily  be  removed.  An  immense  number  of  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  the  excavations,  and  many  works  of  art, 
including  a  bronze  charioteer,  which  is  one  of  the  most  admirable 
statues  preserved  from  arcient  times. 

II.  History. — Our  information  as  to  the  oracle  at  Delphi  and 
the  manner  in  which  it  was  consulted  is  somewhat  confused; 
there  probably  was  considerable  variation  at  different  periods. 
The  tale  of  a  hole  from  which  intoxicating  "  mephitic  "  vapour 
arose  has  no  early  authority,  nor  is  it  scientifically  probable 
(see  A.  P.  Oppe  in  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  xxiv.  214).  The 
questions  had  to  be  given  in  writing,  and  the  responses  were 
uttered  by  the  Pythian  priestess,  in  early  times  a  maiden,  later 
a  woman  over  fifty  attired  as  a  maiden .  After  chewing  the  sacred 
bay  and  drinking  of  the  spring  Cassotis,  which  was  conducted 
into  the  temple  by  artificial  channels,  she  took  her  seat  on  the 
sacred  tripod  in  the  inner  shrine.  Her  utterances  were  reduced 
to  verse  and  edited  by  the  prophets  and  the  "  holy  men  "  (ocrtoi.). 
For  the  influence  and  history  of  the  oracle  see  ORACLE. 

Delphi  also  contained  the  "  Omphalos,"  a  sacred  stone  bound 
with  fillets,  supposed  to  mark  the  centre  of  the  earth.  It  was 
said  Zeus  had  started  two  eagles  from  the  opposite  extremities 
and  they  met  there.  Other  tales  said  the  stone  was  the  one  given 
by  Rhea  to  Cronus  as  a  substitute  for  Zeus. 

For  the  history  of  the  Delphic  Amphictyony  see  under  AMPHIC- 
TYONY.  The  oracle  at  Delphi  was  asserted  by  tradition  to  have 
existed  before  the  introduction  of  the  Apolline  worship  and  to 
have  belonged  to  the  goddess  Earth  (Ge  or  Gaia).  The  Homeric 
Hymn  to  Apollo  evidently  combines  two  different  versions,  one 
of  the  approach  of  Apollo  from  the  north  by  land,  and  the 
other  of  the  introduction  of  his  votaries  from  Crete.  The 
earliest  stone  temple  was  said  to  have  been  built  by  Trophonius 
and  Agamedes.  This  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  548  B.C.,  and 
the  contract  for  rebuilding  was  undertaken  by  the  exiled 
Alcmaeonidae  from  Athens,  who  generously  substituted  marble 
on  the  eastern  front  for  the  poros  specified  (see  CLEISTHENES, 
ad  init.).  Portions  of  the  pediments  of  this  temple  have  been 
found  in  the  excavations;  but  no  sign  has  been  found  of  the 
pediments  mentioned  by  Pausanias,  representing  on  the  east 
Apollo  and  the  Muses,  and  on  the  west  Dionysus  and  the 
Thyiades  (Bacchantes),  and  designed  by  Praxias,  the  pupil  of 
Calanias.  The  temple  which  was  seen  by  Pausanias,  and  of 
which  the  foundations  were  found  by  the  excavators,  was  the 
one  of  which  the  building  is  recorded  in  inscriptions  of  the  4th 
century.  A  raid  on  Delphi  attempted  by  the  Persians  in  480  B.C. 
was  said  to  have  been  frustrated  by  the  god  himself,  by  means  of 
a  storm  or  earthquake  which  hurled  rocks  down  on  the  invaders; 
a  similar  tale  is  told  of  the  raid  of  the  Gauls  in  279  B.C.  But  the 
sacrilege  thus  escaped  at  the  hands  of  foreign  invaders  was 
inflicted  by  the  Phocian  defenders  of  Delphi  during  the  Sacred 
War,  356-346  B.C.,  when  many  of  the  precious  votive  offerings 
were  melted  down.  The  Phocians  were  condemned  to  replace 
their  value  to  the  amount  of  10,000  talents,  which  they  paid  in 
instalments.  In  86  B.C.  the  sanctuary  and  its  treasures  were  put 
under  contribution  by  L.  Cornelius  Sulla  for  the  payment  of  his 
soldiers;  Nero  removed  no  fewer  than  500  bronze  statues  from 
the  sacred  precincts;  Constantine  the  Great  enriched  his  new 
city  by  the  sacred  tripod  and  its  support  of  intertwined  snakes 
dedicated  by  the  Greek  cities  after  the  battle  of  Plataea.  This 
still  exists,  with  its  inscription,  in  the  Hippodrome  at  Constanti- 


nople. Julian  afterwards  sent  Oribasius  to  restore  the  temple; 
but  the  oracle  responded  to  the  emperor's  enthusiasm  with 
nothing  but  a  wail  over  the  glory  that  had  departed. 

Provisional  accounts  of  the  excavations  have  appeared  during  the 
excavations  in  the  Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellenique.  A  summary 
is  given  in  J.  G.  Frazer,  Pausanias,  vol.  v.  The  official  account 
is  entitled  Fouilles  de  Delphes.  For  history  see  Hiller  von  Gartringen 
in  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyclopddie,  s.v.  "  Delphi."  For  cult  see 
L.  R.  Farnell,  Cults  of  the  Greek  States,  iv.  179-218.  For  the  works 
of  art  discovered  see  GREEK  ART.  (E.  GR.) 

DELPHINIA,  a  festival  of  Apollo  Delphinius  held  annually  on 
the  6th  (or  7th)  of  the  month  Munychion  (April)  at  Athens. 
All  that  is  known  of  the  ceremonies  is  that  a  number  of  girls 
proceeded  to  his  temple  (Delphinium)  carrying  suppliants' 
branches  and  seeking  to  propitiate  Apollo,  probably  as  a  god 
having  influence  on  the  sea.  It  was  at  this  time  of  year  that 
navigation  began  again  after  the  storms  of  winter.  According 
to  the  story  in  Plutarch  (Theseus,  18),  Theseus,  before  setting  out 
to  Crete  to  slay  the  Minotaur,  repaired  to  the  Delphinium  and 
deposited,  on  his  own  behalf  and  that  of  his  companions  on  whom 
the  lot  had  fallen,  an  offering  to  Apollo,  consisting  of  a  branch  of 
consecrated  olive,  bound  about  with  white  wool;  after  which 
he  prayed  to  the  god  and  set  sail.  The  sending  of  the  maidens 
to  propitiate  the  god  during  the  Delphinia  commemorates  this 
event  in  the  life  of  Theseus. 

See  A.  Mommsen,  Festeder  StadtAthen  (1898) ;  L.  Pieller, Griechische 
Mythologie  (4th  ed.,  1887);  P.  Stengel,  Die  griechische  Kultus- 
altertumer  (1898) ;  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites; 
G.  F.  Schomann,  Griechische  Altertumer  (4th  ed.,  1897-1902). 

DELPH1NUS  ("  THE  DOLPHIN  "),  in  astronomy,  a  constellation 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  mentioned  by  Eudoxus  (4th  century 
B.C.)  and  Aratus  (3rd  century  B.C.)  ;  and  catalogued  by  Ptolemy 
(10  stars),  Tycho  Brahe  (10  stars),  and  Hevelius  (14  stars), 
•y  Delphini  is  a  double  star:  a  yellowish  of  magnitude  4,  and  a 
bluish  of  magnitude  5. 

DELTA  (from  the  shape  of  the  Gr.  letter  A,  delta,  originally 
used  of  the  mouth  of  the  Nile),  a  tract  of  land  enclosed  by  the 
diverging  branches  of  a  river's  mouth  and  the  seacoast,  and 
traversed  by  other  branches  of  the  stream.  This  triangular  tract 
is  formed  from  the  fine  silt  brought  down  in  suspension  by 
a  muddy  river  and  deposited  when  the  river  reaches  the  sea. 
When  tidal  currents  are  feeble,  the  delta  frequently  advances 
some  distance  seawards,  forming  a  local  prolongation  of  the 
coast. 

DELUC,  JEAN  ANDRfi  (1727-1817),  Swiss  geologist  and 
meteorologist,  born  at  Geneva  on  the  8th  of  February  1727,  was 
descended  from  a  family  which  had  emigrated  from  Lucca  and 
settled  at  Geneva  in  the  isth  century.  His  father,  Francois 
Deluc,  was  the  author  of  some  publications  in  refutation  of 
Mandeville  and  other  rationalistic  writers,  which  are  best  known 
through  Rousseau's  humorous  account  of  his  ennui  in  reading 
them;  and  he  gave  his  son  an  excellent  education,  chiefly  in 
mathematics  and  natural  science.  On  completing  it  he  engaged 
in  commerce,  which  principally  occupied  the  first  forty-six  years 
of  his  life,  without  any  other  interruption  than  that  which  was 
occasioned  by  some  journeys  of  business  into  the  neighbouring 
countries,  and  a  few  scientific  excursions  among  the  Alps. 
During  these,  however,  he  collected  by  degrees,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Guillaume  Antoine,  a  splendid  museum  of  miner- 
alogy and  of  natural  history  in  general,  which  was  afterwards 
increased  by  his  nephew  J.  Andr6  Deluc  (1763-1847),  who  was 
also  a  writer  on  geology.  He  at  the  same  time  took  a  prominent 
part  in  politics.  In  1768  he  was  sent  to  Paris  on  an  embassy 
to  the  due  de  Choiseul,  whose  friendship  he  succeeded  in  gaining. 
In  1770  he  was  nominated  one  of  the  Council  of  Two  Hundred. 
Three  years  later  unexpected  reverses  in  business  made  it  advis- 
able for  him  to  quit  his  native  town,  which  he  only  revisited 
once  for  a  few  days.  The  change  was  welcome  in  so  far  as  it 
set  him  entirely  free  for  scientific  pursuits,  and  it  was  with 
little  regret  that  he  removed  to  England  in  1773.  He  was  made 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  the  same  year,  and  received  the 
appointment  of  reader  to  Queen  Charlotte,  which  he  continued 


976 


DELUGE 


to  hold  for  forty-four  years,  and  which  afforded  him  both  leisure 
and  a  competent  income.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  obtained 
leave  to  make  several  tours  in  Switzerland,  France,  Holland  and 
Germany.  In  Germany  he  passed  the  six  years  from  1798  to 
1804;  and  after  his  return  he  undertook  a  geological  tour 
through  England.  When  he  was  at  Gottingen,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  German  tour,  he  received  the  compliment  of  being 
appointed  honorary  professor  of  philosophy  and  geology  in  that 
university;  but  he  never  entered  upon  the  active  duties  of  a 
professorship.  He  was  also  a  correspondent  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Paris,  and  a  member  of  several  other  scientific 
associations.  He  died  at  Windsor  on  the  7th  of  November  1817. 

His  favourite  studies  were  geology  and  meteorology.  The 
situation  of  his  native  country  had  naturally  led  him  to  contem- 
plate the  peculiarities  of  the  earth's  structure,  and  the  properties 
of  the  atmosphere,  as  particularly  displayed  in  mountainous 
countries,  and  as  subservient  to  the  measurement  of  heights. 
According  to  Cuvier,  he  ranked  among  the  first  geologists  of  his 
age.  His  principal  geological  work,  Lettres  physiques  et  morales 
sur  les  montagnes  et  sur  I'histoire  de  la  terre  et  de  I'homme,  first 
published  in  1778,  and  in  a  more  complete  form  in  1779,  was 
dedicated  to  Queen  Charlotte.  It  dealt  with  the  appearance  of 
mountains  and  the  antiquity  of  the  human  race,  explained  the 
six  days  of  the  Mosaic  creation  as  so  many  epochs  preceding  the 
actual  state  of  the  globe,  and  attributed  the  deluge  to  the  filling 
up  of  cavities  supposed  to  have  been  left  void  in  the  interior  of 
the  earth.  He  published  later  an  important  series  of  volumes 
on  geological  travels  in  the  north  of  Europe  (1810),  in  England 
(1811),  and  in  France,  Switzerland  and  Germany  (1813).  These 
were  translated  into  English. 

Deluc's  original  experiments  relating  to  meteorology  were 
valuable  to  the  natural  philosopher;  and  he  discovered  many 
facts  of  considerable  importance  relating  to  heat  and  moisture. 
He  noticed  the  disappearance  of  heat  in  the  thawing  of  ice  about 
the  same  time  that  J.  Black  founded  on  it  his  ingenious  hypothesis 
of  latent  heat.  He  ascertained  that  water  was  more  dense  about 
40°  F.  (4°  C.)  than  at  the  temperature  of  freezing,  expanding 
equally  on  each  side  of  the  maximum;  and  he  was  the  originator 
of  the  theory,  afterward  readvanced  by  John  Dalton,  that  the 
quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  contained  in  any  space  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  presence  or  density  of  the  air,  or  of  any  other 
elastic  fluid. 

His  Recherches  sur  les  modifications  de  I'atmosphere  (2  vols. 
4to,  Geneva,  1772;  2nd  ed.,  4  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1784)  contains 
many  accurate  and  ingenious  experiments  upon  moisture, 
evaporation  and  the  indications  of  hygrometers  and  thermo- 
meters, applied  to  the  barometer  employed  in  determining 
heights.  In  the  Phil.  Trans.,  1773,  appeared  his  account  of  a 
new  hygrometer,  which  resembled  a  mercurial  thermometer, 
with  an  ivory  bulb,  which  expanded  by  moisture,  and  caused  the 
mercury  to  descend.  The  first  correct  rules  ever  published  for 
measuring  heights  by  the  barometer  were  those  he  gave  in  the 
Phil.  Trans.,  1771,  p.  158.  His  Lettres  sur  I'histoire  physique  de 
la  terre  (8vo,  Paris,  1798),  addressed  to  Professor  Blumenbach, 
contains  an  essay  on  the  existence  of  a  General  Principle  of 
Morality.  It  also  gives  an  interesting  account  of  some  conver- 
sations of  the  author  with  Voltaire  and  Rousseau.  Deluc  was 
an  ardent  admirer  of  Bacon,  on  whose  writings  he  published  two 
works — Bacon  lei  qu'il  est  (8vo,  Berlin,  1800),  showing  the  bad 
faith  of  the  French  translator,  who  had  omitted  many  passages 
favourable  to  revealed  religion,  and  Precis  de  la  philosophic  de 
Bacon  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1802),  giving  an  interesting  view  of  the 
progress  of  natural  science.  Lettres  sur  le  Christianisme  (Berlin 
and  Hanover,  1801,  1803)  was  a  controversial  correspondence 
with  Dr  Teller  of  Berlin  in  regard  to  the  Mosaic  cosmogony. 
His  TraitS  tlementaire  de  gtologie  (8vo,  Paris,  1 809,  also  in  English, 
by  de  la  Fite,  the  same  year)  was  principally  intended  as  a 
refutation  of  the  Vulcanian  system  of  Hutton  and  Playfair,  who 
deduced  the  changes  of  the  earth's  structure  from  the  operation 
of  fire,  and  attributed  a  higher  antiquity  to  the  present  state  of 
the  continents  than  is  required  in  the  Neptunian  system  adopted 
by  Deluc  after  D.  Dolomieu.  He  sent  to  the  Royal  Society,  in 


1809,  a  long  paper  on  separating  the  chemical  from  the  electrical 
effect  of  the  pile,  with  a  description  of  the  electric  column  and 
aerial  electroscope,  in  which  he  advanced  opinions  so  little  in 
unison  with  the  latest  discoveries  of  the  day,  that  the  council 
deemed  it  inexpedient  to  admit  them  into  the  Transactions. 
The  paper  was  afterwards  published  in  Nicholson's  Journal 
(xxvi.),  and  the  dry  column  described  in  it  was  constructed  by 
various  experimental  philosophers.  This  dry  pile  or  electric 
column  has  been  regarded  as  his  chief  discovery. 

Many  other  of  his  papers  on  subjects  kindred  to  those  already 
mentioned  are  to  be  found  in  the  Transactions  and  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Magazine.  See  Philosophical  Magazine  (November  1817). 

DELUGE,  THE  (through  the  Fr.  from  Lat.  diluvium,  flood, 
diluere,  to  wash  away),  a  great  flood  or  submersion  of  the  earth  (so 
far  as  the  earth  was  known  to  the  narrators),  or  of  heaven  and 
earth,  or  simply  of  heaven,  by  which,  according  to  primitive  and 
semi-primitive  races,  chaos  was  restored.  It  is,  of  course,  not 
meant  that  all  the  current  flood  stories,  as  they  stand,  answer  to 
this  description.  There  are  flood  stories  which,  at  first  sight, 
may  plausibly  be  held  to  be  only  exaggerated  accounts  of  some 
ancient  historical  occurrences.  The  probability  of  such  traditions 
being  handed  down  is,  however,  extremely  slight.  If  some  flood 
stories  are  apparently  local,  and  almost  or  quite  without  mythical 
colouring,  it  may  be  because  the  original  myth-makers  had  a 
very  narrow  conception  of  the  earth,  and  because  in  the  lapse  of 
time  the  original  mythic  elements  had  dwindled  or  even  dis- 
appeared. The  relics  of  the  traditional  story  may  then  have  been 
adapted  by  scribes  and  priests  to  a  new  theory.  Many  deluge 
stories  may  in  this  way  have  degenerated.  It  is  at  any  rate 
undeniable  that  flood  stories  of  the  type  described  above,  and 
even  with  similar  minor  details,  are  fairly  common.  A  con- 
spectus of  illustrative  flood  stories  from  different  parts  of  the 
world  would  throw  great  light  on  the  problems  before  us;  see 
the  article  COSMOGONY,  especially  for  the  North  American  tales, 
which  show  clearly  enough  that  the  deluge  is  properly  a  second 
creation,  and  that  the  serpent  is  as  truly  connected  with  the 
second  chaos  as  with  the  first.  One  of  them,  too,  gives  a  striking 
parallel  to  the  Babylonian  name  Hasis-andra  (the  Very  Wise), 
whence  comes  the  corrupt  form  Xisuthrus;  the  deluge  hero 
of  the  Hare  Indians  is  called  Kunyan,  "  the  intelligent." 
Polynesia  also  gives  us  most  welcome  assistance,  for  its  flood 
stories  still  present  clear  traces  of  the  primitive  imagination  that 
the  sky  was  a  great  blue  sea,  on  which  the  sun,  moon  and  stars 
(or  constellations)  were  voyagers.  Greece  too  supplies  some 
stimulus  to  thought,  nor  are  Iran  and  Egypt  as  unproductive 
as  some  have  supposed.  But  the  only  pauses  that  we  can  allow 
ourselves  are  in  Hindustan,  Babylonia  and  Canaan.  The 
peoples  of  these  three  countries,  which  are  religiously  so  pro- 
minent in  antiquity,  have  naturally  connected  their  name  equally 
with  thoughts  about  earth  production  and  earth  destruction. 

The  Indian  tradition  exists  in  several  forms.1  The  earliest  is 
preserved  in  the  Satapatha  Brahmana.  It  is  there  related  that 
Manu,  the  first  man,  the  son  of  the  sun-god  Vivasvat, 
found,  in  bathing,  a  small  fish,  which  asked  to  be  tradition. 
tended,  and  in  reward  promised  to  save  him  in  the 
coming  flood.  The  fish  grew,  and  at  last  had  to  be  carried  to  the 
sea,  where  it  revealed  to  Manu  the  time  of  the  flood,  and  bade 
him  construct  a  ship  for  his  deliverance.  When  the  time  came, 
Manu,  unaccompanied,  went  on  board;  the  grateful  fish  towed 
the  ship  through  the  water  to  the  summit  of  the  northern 
mountain,  where  it  bade  Manu  bind  the  vessel  to  a  tree.  Gradu- 
ally, as  the  waters  fell,  Manu  descended  the  mountain;  he  then 
sacrificed  and  prayed.  In  a  year's  time  his  prayer  was  granted. 
A  woman  appeared,  who  called  herself  his  daughter  Ida  (goddess 
of  fertility).  It  is  neither  stated,  nor  even  hinted,  that  sin  was 
the  cause  of  the  flood. 

Another  version  occurs  in  the  great  epic,  the  Mahabharata. 
The  lacunae  of  the  earlier  story  are  here  supplied.  Manu,  for 
instance,  embarks  with  the  seven  "  rishis  "  or  wise  men,  and 
takes  with  him  all  kinds  of  seed.  The  fish  announces  himself  as 
the  God  Brahman,  and  enables  Manu  to  create  both  gods  and 
1  See  Muir,  Sanscrit  Texts,  i.  182,  206  ff. 


DELUGE 


977 


men.  A  third  account  is  given  in  the  Bhagavata  Purana.  It 
contains  the  details  of  the  announcement  of  the  flood  seven 
days  beforehand  (cf.  Gen.  vii.  4)  and  of  the  taking  of  pairs  of 
all  kinds  of  animals  (cf.  Gen.  vi.  19),  besides  the  seeds  of  plants 
(as  the  epic;  cf.  Gen.  vi.  21).  This  story,  however,  is  a  late 
composition,  not  earlier  than  the  I2th  century  A.D.  A  first 
glance  at  these  stories  is  somewhat  bewildering.  We  shall 
return,  however,  to  this  problem  later  with  a  good  hope  of 
mastering  it. 

The  Israelite  (Biblical)  and  the  Babylonian  deluge-stories 
remain  to  be  considered.  Neither  need  be  described  here  in 
Israelite  detail;  for  the  former  see  Gen.  vi.  s~ix.  17,  and  for  the 
and  latter  GILGAMESH.  As  most  students  are  aware,  the 

Biblical  deluge-story  is  composite,  being  made  up  of 

two  narratives,  the  few  lacunae  in  which  are  due  to  the 
ancient  redactor  who  worked  them  together.1  The  narrators 
are  conventionally  known  as  J.  (  =  the  Yahwist,  from  the  divine 
name  Yahweh)  and  P.  (  =  the  Priestly  Writer)  respectively.  It 
is  important  to  notice  that  P.,  though  chronologically  later  than 
J.,  reproduces  certain  elements  which  must  be  archaic.  For 
instance,  while  J.  speaks  only  of  a  rain-storm,  P.  states  that  "all 
the  fountains  of  the  great  ocean  were  broken  up,  and  the  windows 
of  heaven  opened  "  (Gen.  vii.  n),  i.e.  the  lower  and  the  upper 
waters  met  together  and  produced  the  deluge.  It  is  also  P.  who 
tells  the  story  of  the  appointment  of  the  rainbow  (Gen.  ix.  12-17), 
which  is  evidently  ancient,  though  only  paralleled  in  a  Lithuanian 
flood-story,  and  near  it  we  find  the  divine  declaration  (Gen.  ix. 
2-6)  that  the  golden  age  of  universal  peace  (cf.  Gen.  i.  29,  30), 
already  sadly  tarnished,  is  over.2  Surely  this  too  has  a  touch  of 
the  archaic;  nor  can  we  err  in  connecting  it  with  the  tradition 
of  man's  first  home  in  Paradise,  where  no  enemy  could  come, 
because,  in  the  original  form  of  the  tradition,  Paradise  was  the 
abode  of  God.  (See  PARADISE.) 

The  Babylonian  tradition  exists  in  two  main  forms,3  nor  can 
we  affirm  that  the  shorter  form,  due  to  Berossus,  is  superseded 

by  the  larger  one  in  the  Gilgamesh  epic,  for  it  communi- 

:  cates  four  important  points:  (i)  Xisuthrus,  the  hero 

points.        of  the  deluge,  was  also  the  tenth  Babylonian  king;  cf. 

Noah,  in  P.,  the  tenth  patriarch  as  well  as  the  survivor 
from  the  deluge;  (2)  the  destination  of  Xisuthrus  is  said  to  be 
"  to  the  gods,"  a  statement  which  virtually  records  his  divine 
character.  In  accordance  with  this,  the  final  reward  of  the  hero 
is  declared  to  be  "  living  with  the  gods."  This  suggests  that 
Noah  (?)  may  originally  have  been  represented  as  a  supernatural 
man,  a  demigod.  True,  Gen.  ix.  20,  21  is  not  consistent  with 
this,  but  it  is  very  possible  that  Noah  was  substituted  by  a 
scribe's  error  for  Enoch,4  who,  like  Xisuthrus,  "  walked  with 
God  (learning  the  heavenly  wisdom)  and  disappeared,  for  God 
had  taken  him  "  (Gen.  v.  22,  24);  (3)  the  birds,  when  sent  out 
by  Xisuthrus  the  second  time,  return  with  mud  on  their  feet. 
This  detail  reminds  us  of  points  in  some  archaic  North  American 
myths  which  probably  supply  the  key  to  its  meaning;5  (4)  in 
the  time  of  Berossus  the  mountain  on  which  the  ark  grounded 
was  considered  to  be  in  Armenia. 

We  pass  on  to  the  relation  of  J.  and  P.  to  the  Babylonian  story, 
(i)  The  polytheistic  colouring  of  the  latter  contrasts  strongly  with 
Details  on  ^  ^ar  simpler  religious  views  of  J.  and  P.  Note  the 
relation  of  capricious  character  of  the  god  Bel  who  sends  the 
Israelite  deluge,  while  at  the  end  of  the  story  the  catastrophe 
Bafc^  '°  's  rePresented  as  a  judgment  upon  human  sins.  It  is  the 
/on/an.  latter  view  which  is  adopted  by  J.  and  P.  We  cannot, 

however,  infer  from  this  that  the  narratives  which 
doubtless  underlie  J.  and  P.  were  directly  taken  from  some  such 

1  Cf.  Carpenter  and  Harford-Battersby,  The  Hexateuch,  ii.  9, 
where  the  documents  are  printed  separately  in  a  tabular  form. 

8  Isa.  xi.  6-8  prophesies  that  one  day  this  idyllic  state  shall  be 
restored. 

3  For  a  discussion  of  the  Babylonian  version  of  the  Deluge  Legend, 
recently  discovered  among  the  tablets  from  Nippur,  see  NIPPUR. 

4  The  genealogy  in  Gen.  v.  is  hardly  in  its  original  form.     Enoch  is 
probably  misplaced,  and  Noah  inserted  in  error. 

6  Cf.  COSMOGONY,  and  Cheyne's  Traditions  and  Beliefs  of  Ancient 
Israel  (on  deluge-story). 


story  as  that  in  the  Gilgamesh  epic.  The  theory  of  an  indirect 
and  unconscious  borrowing  on  the  part  of  the  Israeli tish  compilers 
will  satisfy  all  the  conditions  of  the  case.  (2)  In  the  general 
scheme  the  three  accounts  very  nearly  agree,  for  J.  must  origin- 
ally have  contained  directions  as  to  the  building  of  the  vessel, 
and  a  notice  that  the  ark  grounded  on  a  certain  mountain. 
P.'s  omission  of  the  sacrifice  at  the  close  seems  to  be  arbitrary. 
His  theory  of  religious  history  forbade  a  reference  to  an  altar 
so  early,  but  his  document  must  have  contained  it.  J.  expressly 
mentions  it  (Gen.  viii.  20,  21),  though  not  in  such  an  original 
way  as  the  cuneiform  text.  (3)  As  to  the  directions  for  building 
the  ship  (epic)  or  chest  (J.  and  P.).  Here  the  Babylonian  story 
and  P.  have  a  strong  general  resemblance;  note,  e.g.,  the  mention 
of  bitumen  in  both.  Whether  the  Hebrew  reference  to  a  chest 
(lebah)  is,  or  is  not,  more  archaic  than  the  Babylonian  reference 
to  a  ship  (elipp-u)  is  a  question  which  admits  of  different  answers. 
(4)  As  to  the  material  cause  of  the  deluge.  According  to  P.  (see 
above)  the  water  came  both  from  above  and  from  below;  J. 
only  speaks  of  continuous  rain.  The  Gilgamesh  epic,  however, 
mentions  besides  thunder,  lightning  and  rain,  a  hurricane  which 
drove  the  sea  upon  the  land.  We  can  hardly  regard  this  as  more 
original  than  P.'s  representation.  (5)  As  to  the  extent  of  the  flood. 
From  the  opening  of  the  story  in  the  epic  we  should  naturally 
infer  that  only  a  single  S.  Babylonian  city  was  affected.  The 
sequel,  however,  implies  that  the  flood  extended  all  over  Baby- 
lonia and  the  region  of  Nisir.  More  than  this  can  hardly  be 
claimed.  Similarly  the  earlier  story  which  underlies  J.  and  P. 
need  only  have  referred  to  the  region  of  the  myth-framers,  i.e.  • 
either  Canaan  or  N.  Arabia.  (6)  As  to  the  duration  of  the  flood 
the  traditions  differ.  P.  reckons  it  at  365  days,  i.e.  a  solar  year, 
which  is  parallel  to  the  365  years  of  the  life  of  Enoch  (who,  as 
we  have  seen,  may  have  been  the  original  hero  of  the  flood).  It 
is  probable  (see  below)  that  P.'s  ultimate  authority,  far  back  in 
the  centuries,  represented  the  deluge  as  a  celestial  occurrence. 
The  origin  of  J.'s  story  is  not  quite  so  clear,  owing  to  the  lacunae 
in  the  narrative.  If  the  text  may  be  followed,  this  narrator  made 
the  flood  last  forty  days  and  nights,  after  which  two  periods  of 
seven  days  elapse,  and  then  the  patriarch  leaves  the  ark.  The 
epic  shortens  the  duration  of  the  flood  to  seven  days,  after  which 
the  ship  remains  another  seven  days  (more  strictly  six  full  days) 
on  the  mountain  of  the  land  of  Nisir  (P.,  the  mountains  of  Ararat ; 
J.,  unrecorded).  (7)  As  to  the  despatch  of  the  birds.  J.  begins,, 
the  epic  closes,  with  the  raven.  Clearly  the  epic  is  more  original. 
Besides,  one  of  the  two  missions  of  the  dove  is  evidently 
superfluous.  Dove,  swallow,  raven,  as  in  the  epic,  must  be 
more  primitive  than  raven,  dove,  dove. 

That  the  Hebrew  deluge-story  in  both  its  forms  has  been  at 
least  indirectly  influenced  by  the  Babylonian  is  obvious.  We 
cannot  indeed  reconstruct  the  form  either  of  the  Canaanitish 
(or  N.  Arabian)  story,  which  was  recast  partly  at  least  under  the 
influence  of  a  recast  Babylonian  myth,  nor  can  we  conjecture 
where  the  sanctuary  was,  the  priests  of  which,  yielding  to  a 
popular  impulse,  adopted  and  modified  the  fascinating  story. 
But  the  fact  of  the  ultimate  Babylonian  origin  of  the  Israelitish 
narratives  cannot  seriously  be  questioned.  The  Canaanites  or  the 
N.  Arabians  handed  on  at  least  a  portion  of  their  myths  to  the 
Israelites,  and  the  creation  and  deluge  stories  were  among  these. 
That  the  Israelitish  priests  gradually  recast  them  is  an  easy  and 
altogether  satisfactory  conjecture. 

It  remains  to  ask,  What  is  the  history  and  significance  of  the 
deluge-myth?  The  question  carries  us  into  far-off  times.  We 
have  no  version  of  the  Babylonian  myth  which  goes  Hlstory 
back  to  about  2100  B.C.,  while  its  text  was  apparently  aad  sigai- 
derived  from  a  still  older  tablet.  But  even  this  is  not  fcaace  of 
primitive;  behind  it  there  must  have  been  a  much 
shorter  and  simpler  myth.  The  recast  represented  by 
the  existing  versions  of  the  myth  must  have  been  produced  partly 
by  the  insertion,  partly  by  the  omission  or  modification,  of  mythic 
details,  and  by  the  application  to  the  story  thus  produced  of  a 
particular  mythic  theory  respecting  the  celestial  world.  The 
shorter  myth  referred  to  may — if  we  take  hints  from  the  very 
primitive  myths  of  N.  America — have  run  somewhat  thus, 


978 


DELUGE 


omitting  minor  details:  "  The  earth  (a  small  enough  earth, 
doubtless)  and  its  inhabitants  proved  so  imperfect  that  the 
beneficent  superhuman  Being,  who  had  created  it,  or  perhaps 
another  such  Being,  determined  to  remake  it.  He,  therefore, 
summoned  the  serpent  or  dragon  who  controlled  the  cosmic 
ocean,  and  had  been  subjugated  at  creation,  to  overwhelm  the 
earth,  after  which  the  creator  remade  it  better,1  and  the  survivor 
and  his  family  became  the  ancestors  of  a  new  human  race." 

This,  however,  is  only  one  possible  representation.  It  may 
have  been  said  that  the  serpent  of  his  own  accord,  not  having 
been  killed  by  the  creator,  maliciously  flooded  the  earth  (cf.  the 
Algonquin  myth),  but  was  again  overcome  in  battle,  or  that  the 
serpent,  after  filling  the  earth  with  violence  and  wrong,  was  at 
length  slain  by  the  Good  Being,  and  that  his  blood,  streaming 
out,  produced  a  deluge.2  In  any  case  it  is  unnatural  to  hold  that 
the  first  flood  (that  which  preceded  creation)  had  a  dragon,  but 
not  the  second.  An  old  cuneiform  text,  recopied  late,  how- 
ever, appears  to  call  the  year  of  the  deluge  (i.e.  of  what  we  here 
call  the  second  flood)  "  the  year  of  the  raging  (or  red-shining) 
serpent,"3  and  certainly  the  N.  American  myths  distinctly 
connect  serpents  with  the  deluges. 

Among  the  probable  minor  details  (omitted  above)  of  the 
presumed  shorter  and  older  myth  we  may  include:  (i)  the 
warning  of  "  Very- Wise,"  4  either  by  friendly  animals  or  by  a 
dream;  (2)  the  construction  of  a  chest  to  contain  "  Very- Wise," 
his  wife  and  his  sons,  together  with  animals;6  (3)  the  despatch  of 
three  birds  with  a  special  object  (see  below) ;  (4)  the  landing  of 
the  survivors  on  a  mountain.  As  to  (i),  Berossus  suggests  that  the 
notice  came  to  Xisuthrus  in  a  dream;  in  the  Indian  myth  it  is  the 
sacred  fish  which  warns  Manu.  In  the  archaic  N.  American 
myths,  however,  it  is  some  animal  which  gives  the  notice — an 
eagle  or  a  coyote  (a  kind  of  wolf).  As  to  (2),  nothing  is  more 
common  than  the  story  of  a  divine  child  cast  into  the  sea  in  a 
box.6  The  ship-motive  is  also  found,7  but  it  is  not  too  rash  to 
assume  that  the  box-motive  is  the  earlier,  and,  in  accordance  with 
the  parallels,  that  the  hero  of  the  deluge  was  originally  a  god  or  a 
demigod.  The  translation  of  the  hero  to  be  with  the  gods  is  a 
transparent  modification  of  the  original  tradition.  As  to  (3) ,  the 
original  object  of  sending  out  the  birds  was  probably  not  to  find 
out  where  dry  land  was,  but  to  use  them  as  helpers  in  the  work 
of  re-creation.  Take  the  story  of  the  Tlatlasik  Indians,  where 
the  diving-bird  (one  of  three  sent  out)  comes  back  with  a  branch 
of  a  fir-tree,  out  of  which  O'meatl  made  mountains,  earth  and 
heaven;8  so,  too,  the  Caingangs  relate9  that  those  who  escaped 
from  the  flood,  as  they  tarried  on  a  mountain,  heard  the  song  of 
the  saracura  birds,  who  came  carrying  earth  in  baskets,  and 
threw  it  into  the  waters,  which  slowly  subsided.  As  to  (4),  the 
mountain  would  naturally  be  thought  of  as  a  place  of  refuge 
even  in  the  old,  simple  flood-story.  But  when  Babylonian 
mythology  effected  an  entrance,  the  mountain  would  receive  a 
new  and  much  grander  significance.  It  would  then  come  to  re- 
present the  summit  of  that  great  and  most  holy  mountain,  which, 
save  by  the  special  favour  of  the  gods,  no  human  eye  has  seen. 

That  a  didactic  element  entered  the  deluge-tradition  but  slowly, 
may  be  surmised,  not  only  from  the  genuinely  old  N.  American 
stories,  but  from  the  inconsistent  statements,  to  which  Jastrow 
has  already  referred,  in  the  Babylonian  story.  We  may  imagine 
that  between  the  creation  and  the  deluge  some  great  and  wise 
Being  had  initiated  the  early  men,  not  only  in  the  necessary  arts 
of  life,  but  in  the  "  ways  "  that  were  pleasing  to  the  heavenly 
powers.  The  Babylonians  apparently  think  of  neglected  sacrifices, 
the  Australians  of  a  desecrated  mystery  as  the  cause  of  the  flood. 
Some  such  violation  of  a  sacred  rule  is  the  origin  that  naturally 
occurs  to  an  adapter  or  expander  of  primitive  myths. 

1  Cf.  the  myths  of  the  Pawnees  and  the  Quiches  of  Guatemala. 

2  See  the  cuneiform  text  described  in  KA  r*,  pp.  498-499. 
8  Zimmern,  KA  T*,  p.  554. 

4  i.e.  Atrahasts  (Xisuthrus). 

6  To  have  omitted  the  animals  would  have  been  an  offence  against 
primitive  views  of  kinship. 

6  Usener,  Die  Sintflutsagen,  pp.  80-108,  115-127. 

7  Ib.  p.  254. 

*  Stucken,  Astralmythen,  pp.  233-234. 

•  Amer.  Journ.  of  Folklore,  xviii.  223  ff. 


And  now  as  to  the  application  of  the  celestial  mythic  theory  to 
the  early  deluge-story.  In  the  agricultural  stage  it  was  natural 
that  men  should  take  a  deeper  interest  than  before  in 
the  appearance  of  the  sky,  and  especially  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  of  the  constellations,  even  though  an 
astrological  science  or  quasi-science  would  very  slowly, 
if  at  all,  grow  up.  That  the  Polynesian  myths  (which  show  no 
vestige  of  science)  originally  referred  to  the  supposed  celestial 
ocean,  seems  to  be  plain.  Schirren 10  regarded  the  New  Zealand 
cosmogonies  as  myths  of  sunrise,  and  the  deluge-stories  as  myths 
of  sunset.  We  may  at  any  rate  plausibly  hold,  with  the  article 
"  Deluge  "  (by  Cheyne)  in  the  ninth  edition  of  this  work  "  (1877), 
that  the  deluge-stories  of  Polynesia  and  early  Babylonia  (we  may 
now  probably  add  India)  were  accommodated  to  an  imaginative 
conception  of  the  sun  and  moon  as  voyagers  on  the  celestial 
ocean.  "  When  this  story  had  been  told  and  retold  a  long  time, 
rationalism  suggested  that  the  sea  was  not  in  heaven  but  on 
earth,  and  observation  of  the  damage  wrought  in  winter  by 
excessive  rains  and  the  inundations  of  great  rivers  suggested  the 
introduction  of  corresponding  details  into  the  new  earthly  deluge- 
myth."  "  This  accounts  for  the  strongly  mythological  character 
of  Par-napishti  (Ut-napishti)  in  Babylonia  and  Maui  in  New 
Zealand,  who  are  in  fact  solar  personages.  Enoch,  too,  must 
be  classed  in  this  category,  his  perfect  righteousness  and  super- 
human wisdom  now  first  become  intelligible.  Moreover,  we  now 
comprehend  how  the  goddess  Sabitu  (the  guardian  of  the  entrance 
to  the  sea)  can  say  to  Gilgamesh  (himself  a  solar  personage), 
'Shamash  the  mighty  (i.e.  the  sun-god)  has  crossed  the  sea; 
besides  (?)  Shamash,  who  can  cross  it?'  For  though  the  sea 
in  the  epic  is  no  doubt  the  earth-circling  ocean,  it  was  hardly  this 
in  the  myth  from  which  the  words  were  taken."  lz  And,  what  is 
still  more  important,  we  can  understand  better  how,  in  the 
Gilgamesh  epic  (lines  1 1 5- 1 1 6),  the  gods,  after  cowering  like  dogs, 
go  up  to  the  "  heaven  of  Ana."  They,  too,  fear  the  deluge,  and 
only  in  the  highest  heaven  can  they  feel  themselves  secure. 

Such  an  explanation  seems  indispensable  if  the  wide  influence 
of  the  Babylonian  form  of  the  deluge-myth  is  to  be  accounted  for. 
As  Gunkel  well  remarks,13  neither  the  tenacity  and  self-propagat- 
ing character  of  this  myth,  nor  the  solemn  utterance  of  Yahweh 
(who  corresponds  to  the  Babylonian  Marduk)  in  Gen.  viii.  2 1  b  (J.) 
and  ix.  8-17  (P.)  can  be  understood,  if  the  deluge-story  is  nothing 
more  than  an  exaggerated  account  of  a  historical,  earthly  occur- 
rence. We,  therefore,  venture  to  hold  that  it  is  an  insufficient 
account  to  give  of  the  story  in  the  Gilgamesh  epic  that  it  is  a 
combination  of  a  local  tradition  of  the  destruction  of  a  single  city 
with  a  myth  of  the  destruction  of  mankind — a  myth  exaggerated 
in  its  present  form,  but  based  on  accurate  knowledge  of  the  yearly 
recurring  phenomenon  of  the  overflow  of  the  Euphrates.14  There 
are  no  doubt  points  in  the  story  as  it  now  stands  which  indicate  a 
composite  origin,  but  it  is  probable  that  even  the  tradition  which 
apparently  limits  the  destruction  to  a  single  city,  equally  with 
many  other  local  flood-stories,  has  a  basis  in  what  we  may  fairly 
call  a  celestial  myth. 

We  can  now  return  with  some  confidence  to  the  Indian  deluge- 
story.     It  is  unlikely  that  so  richly  gifted  a  race  as  the  Aryans  of 
India  should  not  have  produced  their  own  flood-story       Indian 
out  of  the  same  primeval  germs  which  grew  up  into  the 
earliest  Babylonian  flood-story,16  and  almost  inconceiv- 
able  that  in  its  second  form  the  Indian  story  should  not 
have  become  adapted  to  what  may  be  called  the  celestial  mythic 

Schirren,  Wandersagen  der  Neuseelander  (1856),  p.  193. 

11  Referring  for  Polynesia  to  Gerland  in  Waitz-Gerland,  Anthro- 
pologie  der  Naturvolker,  vi.  270-273  (1872).     After  a  long  interval, 
this  theory  has  been  taken  up  by  Zimmern,  KAT3,  p.  355,  and  by 
Jensen,  Das  Gilgamesch-Epos  (1906),  p.  120;  Winckler  (AOF,  3rd 
series,  i.  96)  also  speaks  of  the  deluge  as  a  "  celestial  occurrence." 
For  other  forms  of  this  view  see  Jeremias,  ATAO,  pp.   134-136; 
Usener,  p.  239. 

12  Cheyne,  Ency.  Bib.  cols.  1063-1064. 
n  Genesis,  p.  67. 

14  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (1898),  pp.  502,  506. 
5  The  view  here  adopted  is  that  of  Lindner  and  Usener.     On  the 
opposite   side  are   Zimmern,   Tiele,   Jensen,   Oldenberg,    Noldeke, 
Stucken,  Lenormant. 


DELYANNI— DEMARATUS 


979 


theory.  The  phrase  "  the  northern  mountain  "  for  the  place 
where  the  ship  grounded  may  quite  well  be  the  name  of  an  earthly 
substitute  (the  epic  has  "  the  highest  summit  of  the  Himalaya  ") 
for  the  mythic  mountain  of  heaven.  Nor  is  it  unimportant  that 
Manu  is  the  son  of  the  sun-god,  and  that  the  phrase  "  the  seven 
rishis  "  in  classical  Sanskrit  is  a  designation  of  the  seven  stars  of 
the  Great  Bear.  For  such  problems  all  that  we  can  hope  for  is 
a  probable  solution.  The  opposite  view1  that  the  deluge  is  a 
historical  occurrence  implies  a  self-propagating  power  in  early 
tradition  which  is  not  justified  by  critical  research,  and  leaves 
out  of  sight  many  important  facts  revealed  by  comparative  study. 
For  a  conspectus  of  deluge-stories  see  Andree,  Die  Flutsagen, 
ethnographisch  betrachtet  (1891),  by  a  competent  anthropologist; 
E.  Suess,  Face  of  the  Earth,  i.  17  (1904);  also  Elwood  Worcester, 
Genesis  intheLight  of  Modern  Knowledge  (New  York,  1901),  Appendix 
ii.,  in  tabular  form,  from  Schwarz's  Sintfluth  und  Volkerwanderungen. 
Dr  Worcester's  work  is  popular,  but  based  on  well-chosen  authorities. 
The  article  "  Flood  "  in  Hastings'  D.  B.  is  comprehensive;  it  repre- 
sents the  difficult  view  that  flood-stories,  &c.,  are  generally  highly- 
coloured  traditions  of  genuine  facts.  (T.  K.  C.) 

DELYANNI,  THEODOROS  (1826-1905),  Greek  statesman,  was 
born  at  Kalavryta,  Peloponnesus,  in  1826.  He  studied  law  at 
Athens,  and  in  1843  entered  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  of  which 
department  he  became  permanent  secretary  in  1859.  In  1862, 
on  the  deposition  of  King  Otho,  he  became  minister  for  foreign 
affairs  in  the  provisional  government.  In  1867  he  was  minister  at 
Paris.  On  his  return  to  Athens  he  became  a  member  of  successive 
cabinets  in  various  capacities,  and  rapidly  collected  a  party 
around  him  consisting  of  those  who  opposed  his  great  rival, 
Tricoupi.  In  the  so-called  "  Oecumenical  Ministry  "  of  1877  he 
voted  for  war  with  Turkey,  and  on  its  fall  he  entered  the  cabinet 
of  Koumoundoros  as  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  He  was  a 
representative  of  Greece  at  the  Berlin  Congress  in  1878.  From 
this  time  forward,  and  particularly  after  1882,  when  Tricoupi 
again  came  into  power  at  the  head  of  a  strong  party,  the  duel 
between  these  two  statesmen  was  the  leading  feature  of  Greek 
politics.  (See  GREECE:  History. y  Delyanni  first  formed  a  cabinet 
in  1885 ;  but  his  warlike  policy,  the  aim  of  which  was,  by  threaten- 
ing Turkey,  to  force  the  powers  to  make  concessions  in  order 
to  avoid  the  risk  of  a  European  war,  ended  in  failure.  For  the 
powers,  in  order  to  stop  his  excessive  armaments,  eventually 
blockaded  the  Peiraeus  and  other  ports,  and  this  brought  about 
his  downfall.  He  returned  to  power  in  1890,  with  a  radical 
programme,  but  his  failure  to  deal  with  the  financial  crisis  pro- 
duced a  conflict  between  him  and  the  king,  and  his  disrespectful 
attitude  resulted  in  his  summary  dismissal  in  1892.  Delyanni, 
by  his  demagogic  behaviour,  evidently  expected  the  public  to 
side  with  him;  but  at  the  elections  he  was  badly  beaten.  In 
1895,  however,  he  again  became  prime  minister,  and  was  at  the 
head  of  affairs  during  the  Cretan  crisis  and  the  opening  of  the 
war  with  Turkey  in  1897.  The  humiliating  defeat  which  ensued 
— though  Delyanni  himself  had  been  led  into  the  disastrous  war 
policy  to  some  extent  against  his  will — caused  his  fall  in  April 
1897,  the  king  again  dismissing  him  from  office  when  he  declined 
to  resign.  Delyanni  kept  his  own  seat  at  the  election  of  1899, 
but  his  following  dwindled  to  small  dimensions.  He  quickly 
recovered  his  influence,  however,  and  he  was  again  president  of 
the  council  and  minister  of  the  interior  when,  on  the  i3th  of 
June  1905,  he  was  murdered  in  revenge  for  the  rigorous  measures 
taken  by  him  against  gambling  houses. 

The  main  fault  of  Delyanni  as  a  statesman  was  that  he  was 
unable  to  grasp  the  truth  that  the  prosperity  of  a  state  depends 
on  its  adapting  its  ambitions  to  its  means.  Yet,  in  his  vast 
projects,  which  the  powers  were  never  likely  to  endorse,  and 
without  their  endorsement  were  vain,  he  represented  the  real 
wishes  and  aspirations  of  his  countrymen,  and  his  death  was  the 
occasion  for  an  extraordinary  demonstration  of  popular  grief. 
He  died  in  extreme  poverty,  and  a  pension  was  voted  to  the  two 
nieces  who  lived  with  him. 

DEMADES  (c,  380-318  B.C.),  Athenian  orator  and  demagogue. 
He  was  originally  of  humble  position,  and  was  employed  at  one 
time  as  a  common  sailor,  but  he  rose  partly  by  his  eloquence  and 

1  Held  by  Franz  Delitzsch,  Dillmann  and  Lenormant. 


partly  by  his  unscrupulous  character  to  a  prominent  position 
at  Athens.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  Philip  in  the  war  against 
Olynthus,  and  was  thus  brought  into  bitter  and  life-long  enmity 
with  Demosthenes,whom  he  at  first  supported.  He  fought  against 
the  Macedonians  in  the  battle  of  Chaeroneia,  and  was  taken 
prisoner.  Having  made  a  favourable  impression  upon  Philip, 
he  was  released  together  with  his  fellow-captives,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Macedonia 
and  Athens.  He  continued  to  be  a  favourite  of  Alexander,  and, 
prompted  by  a  bribe,  saved  Demosthenes  and  the  other  obnoxious 
Athenian  orators  from  his  vengeance.  It  was  also  chiefly  owing 
to  him  that  Alexander,  after  the  destruction  of  Thebes,  treated 
Athens  so  leniently.  His  conduct  in  supporting  the  Macedonian 
cause,  yet  receiving  any  bribes  that  were  offered  by  the  opposite 
party,  caused  him  to  be  heavily  fined  more  than  once  ;  and 
he  was  finally  deprived  of  his  civil  rights.  He  was  reinstated 
(322)  on  the  approach  of  Antipater,  to  whom  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador.  Before  setting  out  he  persuaded  the  citizens  to 
pass  sentence  of  death  upon  Demosthenes  and  his  followers,  who 
had  fled  from  Athens.  The  result  of  his  embassy  was  the  con- 
clusion of  a  peace  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Athenians. 
In  318  (or  earlier),  having  been  detected  in  an  intrigue  with 
Perdiccas,  Antipater's  opponent,  he  was  put  to  death  by  Antipater 
at  Pella,  when  entrusted  with  another  mission  by  the  Athenians. 
Demades  was  avaricious  and  unscrupulous;  but  he  was  a  highly 
gifted  and  practised  orator. 

A  fragment  of  a  speech  (n«pJ  SuSacaerfas),  bearing  his  name,  in 
which  he  defends  his  conduct,  is  to  be  found  in  C.  M  Oiler's  Oratores 
Attici,  ii.  438,  but  its  genuineness  is  exceedingly  doubtful. 


DEMAGOGUE  (Gr.  Srinaycayds,  from  aytiv,  to  lead,  and 
the  people),  a  leader  of  the  popular  as  opposed  to  any  other 
party.  Being  particularly  used  with  an  invidious  sense  of  a 
mob  leader  or  orator,  one  who  for  his  own  political  ends  panders 
to  the  passions  and  prejudices  of  the  people,  the  word  has  come 
to  mean  an  unprincipled  agitator. 

DEMANTOID,  the  name  given  by  Nils  Gustaf  Nordenskiold 
to  a  green  garnet,  found  in  the  Urals  and  used  as  a  gem  stone. 
As  it  possesses  high  refractive  and  dispersive  power,  it  presents 
when  properly  cut  great  brilliancy  and  "  fire,"  and  the  name  has 
reference  to  its  diamond-like  appearance.  It  is  sometimes  known 
as  "  Uralian  emerald,"  a  rather  unfortunate  name  inasmuch  as 
true  emerald  is  found  in  the  Urals,  whilst  it  not  infrequently 
passes  in  trade  as  olivine.  Demantoid  is  regarded  as  a  lime-iron 
garnet,  coloured  probably  by  a  small  proportion  of  chromium. 
The  colour  varies  in  different  specimens  from  a  vivid  green  to  a 
dull  yellowish-green,  or  even  to  a  brown.  The  specific  gravity 
of  an  emerald-green  demantoid  was  found  to  be  3-849,  and  that 
of  a  greenish-yellow  specimen  3-854  (A.  H.  Church).  The  hard- 
ness is  only  6-5,  or  lower  even  than  that  of  quartz  —  a  character 
rather  adverse  to  the  use  of  demantoid  as  a  gem.  This  mineral 
was  originally  discovered  as  pebbles  in  the  gold-washings  at 
Nizhne  Tagilsk  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  was  afterwards 
found  in  the  stream  called  Bobrovka,  in  the  Sysertsk  dis- 
trict oh  the  western  slope  of  the  Urals.  It  occurs  not  only  as 
pebbles  but  hi  the  form  of  granular  nodules  in  a  serpentine 
rock,  and  occasionally,  though  very  rarely,  shows  traces  of 
crystal  faces.  (F.  W.  R.*) 

DEMARATUS  (Doric  Aa/idpaTOS,  Ionic  A^dpTjros)  ,  king  of 
Sparta  of  the  Eurypontid  line,  successor  of  his  father  Ariston.  He 
is  known  chiefly  for  his  opposition  to  his  colleague  Cleomenes  I. 
(q.v.)  in  his  attempts  to  make  Isagoras  tyrant  in  Athens  and 
afterwards  to  punish  Aegina  for  medizing.  He  did  his  utmost  to 
bring  Cleomenes  into  disfavour  at  home.  Thereupon  Cleomenes 
urged  Leotychides,  a  relative  and  personal  enemy  of  Demaratus, 
to  claim  the  throne  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  was  not  really 
the  son  of  Ariston  but  of  Agetus,  his  mother's  first  husband.  The 
Delphic  oracle,  under  the  influence  of  Cleomenes'  bribes,  pro- 
nounced in  favour  of  Leotychides,  who  became  king  (491  B.C.). 
Soon  afterwards  Demaratus  fled  to  Darius,  who  gave  him  the 
cities  of  Pergamum,  Teuthrania  and  Halisarna,  where  his  de- 
scendants were  still  ruling  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century 
(Xen.  Anabasis,  ii.  i.  3,  vii.  8.  17;  Hellenics,  iii.  i.  6);  to  these 


980 


DEMERARA— DEMETER 


Gambreum  should  perhaps  be  added  (Athenaeus  i.  29  f).  He 
accompanied  Xerxes  on  his  expedition  to  Greece,  but  the  stories 
told  of  the  warning  and  advice  which  on  several  occasions  he 
addressed  to  the  king  are  scarcely  historical. 

See  Herodotus  v.  75,  vi.  50-70,  vii. ;  later  writers  either  repro- 
duce or  embellish  his  narrative  (Pausanias  iii.  4,  3-5,  7,  7-8; 
Diodorus  xi.  6;  Polyaenus  ii.  20;  Seneca,  De  beneficiis,  \\.  31,  4-12). 
The  story  that  he  took  part  in  the  attack  on  Argos  which  was 
repulsed  by  Telesilla,  the  poetess,  and  the  Argive  women,  can 
hardly  be  true  (Plutarch,  Mul.  virt.  4;  Polyaenus,  Strat.  viii.  33; 
G.  Busolt,  Griechische  Geschichte,  ii.2  563,  note  4).  (M.N.T.) 

DEMERARA,  one  of  the  three  settlements  of  British  Guiana, 
taking  its  name  from  the  river  Demerara.  See  GUIANA. 

DEMESNE  (DEMEINE,  DEMAIN,  DOMAIN,  &C.),1  that  portion  of 
the  lands  of  a  manor  not  granted  out  in  freehold  tenancy,  but 
(a)  retained  by  the  lord  of  the  manor  for  his  own  use  and  occupa- 
tion or  (b)  letoutastenementalland  to  his  retainers  or  "  villani." 
This  demesne  land,  originally  held  at  the  will  of  the  lord,  in  course 
of  time  came  to  acquire  fixity  of  tenure,  and  developed  into  the 
modern  copyhold  (see  MANOR).  It  is  from  demesne  as  used 
in  sense  (a)  that  the  modern  restricted  use  of  the  word  comes, 
i.e.  land  immediately  surrounding  the  mansion  or  dwelling-house, 
the  park  or  chase.  Demesne  of  the  crown,  or  royal  demesne,  was 
that  part  of  the  crown  lands  not  granted  out  to  feudal  tenants, 
but  which  remained  under  the  management  of  stewards  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown.  These  crown  lands,  since  the  accession 
of  George  III.,  have  been  appropriated  by  parliament,  the 
sovereign  receiving  in  return  a  fixed  annual  sum  (see  CIVIL 
LIST).  Ancient  demesne  signified  lands  or  manors  vested  in  the 
king  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest.  There  were  special 
privileges  surrounding  tenancies  of  these  lands,  such  as  freedom 
from  tolls  and  duties,  exemption  from  danegeld  and  amercement, 
from  sitting  on  juries,  &c.  Hence,  the  phrase  "  ancient 
demesne  "  came  to  be  applied  to  the  tenure  by  which  the  lands 
were  held.  Land  held  in  ancient  demesne  is  sometimes  also 
called  customary  freehold.  (See  COPYHOLD.) 

DEMETER,  in  Greek  mythology,  daughter  of  Cronus  and 
Rhea  and  sister  of  Zeus,  goddess  of  agriculture  and  civilized  life. 
Her  name  has  been  explained  as  (i)  "  grain-mother,"  from  5?jai, 
the  Cretan  form  of  feitu,  "barley,"  or  (2)  "earth-mother,"  or 
rather  "  mother  earth,"  85.  being  regarded  as  the  Doric  form  of  Xi?. 
She  is  rarely  mentioned  in  Homer,  nor  is  she  included  amongst 
the  Olympian  gods. 

The  central  fact  of  her  cult  was  the  story  of  her  daughter 
Persephone  (Proserpine),  a  favourite  subject  in  classical  poetry. 
According  to  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter,  Persephone,  while 
gathering  flowers  on  the  Nysian  plain  (probably  here  a  purely 
mythical  locality),  was  carried  off  by  Hades  (Pluto),  the  god 
of  the  lower  world,  with  the  connivance  of  Zeus  (see  also 
PROSERPINE).  The  incident  has  been  assigned  to  various  other 
localities— Crete,  Eleusis,  and  Enna  in  Sicily,  the  last  being^most 
generally  adopted.  This  rape  is  supposed  to  point  to  an  original 
iepos  Aa/ios,  an  annual  holy  marriage  of  a  god  and  goddess  of 
vegetation.  Wandering  over  the  earth  in  search  of  her  daughter, 
Demeter  learns  from  Helios  the  truth  about  her  disappearance. 
In  the  form  of  an  old  woman  named  Deo  (  =  the  "  seeker,"  or 
simply  a  diminutive  form),  she  comes  to  the  house  of  Celeus 
at  Eleusis,  where  she  is  hospitably  received.  Having  revealed 
herself  to  the  Eleusinians,  she  departs,  in  her  wrath  having 
visited  the  earth  with  a  great  dearth.  At  last  Zeus  appeases 
her  by  allowing  her  daughter  to  spend  two-thirds  of  the  year  with 
her  in  the  upper  world.  Demeter  then  returns  to  Olympus,  but 
before  her  final  departure  from  earth,  in  token  of  her  gratitude, 
she  instructs  the  rulers  of  Eleusis  in  the  art  of  agriculture  and 
in  the  solemnities  and  rites  whereby  she  desires  in  future  to 
be  honoured. 

1  The  form  "  demesne  "  is  an  Anglo-French  spelling  of  the  Old  Fr. 
demeine  or  demaine,  belonging  to  a  lord,  from  Med.  Lat.  dominicus, 
dominus,  lord;  dominicum  in  Med.  Lat.  meant  proprietas  (see  Du 
Cange).  From  the  later  Fr.  domaine,  which  approaches  more  nearly 
the  original  Lat.,  comes  the  other  Eng.  form  "  domain,"  which  is 
chiefly  used  in  a  non-legal  sense  of  any  tract  of  country  or  district 
under  the  rule  of  any  specific  sovereign  state,  &c.  "  Domain  "  is, 
however,  the  form  kept  in  the  legal  phrase  "  Eminent  Domain 


Those  who  were  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis  found  a 
deep  meaning  in  the  myth,  which  was  held  to  teach  the  principle 
of  a  future  life,  founded  on  the  return  of  Persephone  to  the  upper 
world,  or  rather  on  the  process  of  nature  by  which  seed  sown  in 
the  ground  must  first  die  and  rot  before  it  can  yield  new  life 
(see  MYSTERY).  At  Eleusis,  Demeter  was  venerated  as  the 
introducer  of  all  the  blessings  which  agriculture  brings  in  its 
train — fixed  dwelling-places,  civil  order,  marriage  and  a  peaceful 
life;  hence  her  name  Thesmophoros,  "  the  bringer  of  law  and 
order,"  and  the  festival  Thesmophoria  (q.v.).  J.  G.  Frazer  takes 
the  epithet  to  mean  "  bearer  of  the  sacred  objects  deposited  on 
the  altar";  L.  R.  Farnell  (Culls  of  the  Greek  Stales,  iii.  106) 
suggests  "  the  bringer  of  treasure  or  riches,"  as  appropriate  to  the 
goddess  of  corn  and  of  the  lower  world;  others  refer  the  name 
to  "  the  law  of  wedlock  "  (Beanos  Xkrpoto,  Odyssey,  xxiii.  296, 
where,  however,  D.  B.  Monro  translates  "  place,  situation  "). 
At  Eleusis  also,  Triptolemus  (q.v.),  the  son  of  Celeus,  who  was 
said  to  have  invented  the  plough  and  to  have  been  sent  by 
Demeter  round  the  world  to  diffuse  the  knowledge  of  agriculture, 
had  a  temple  and  threshing-floor. 

In  the  agrarian  legends  of  lasion  and  Erysichthon,  Demeter 
also  plays  an  important  part.  lasion  (or  lasius),  a  beautiful 
youth,  inspired  her  with  love  for  him  in  a  thrice-ploughed  field 
in  Crete,  the  fruit  of  their  union  being  Plutus  (wealth).  Accord- 
ing to  Homer  (Odyssey,  v.  128)  he  was  slain  by  Zeus  with  a 
thunderbolt.  The  story  is  compared  by  Frazer  (Golden  Bough, 
2nd  ed.,  ii.  217)  with  the  west  Prussian  custom  of  the  mock 
birth  of  a  child  on  the  harvest-field,  the  object  being  to  ensure 
a  plentiful  crop  for  the  coming  year.  It  seems  to  point  to  the 
supersession  of  a  primitive  local  Cretan  divinity  by  Demeter,  and 
the  adoption  of  agriculture  by  the  inhabitants,  bringing  wealth 
in  its  train  in  the  form  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  both  vegetable 
and  mineral.  Some  scholars,  identifying  lasion  with  Jason  (q.v.), 
regard  Thessaly  as  the  original  home  of  the  legend,  and  the  union 
with  Demeter  as  the  iepos  yapo?  of  mother  earth  with  a  health 
god.  Erysichthon  ("  tearer  up  «f  the  earth  "),  son  of  Triopas  or 
Myrmidon,  having  cut  down  the  trees  in  a  grove  sacred  to 
the  goddess,  was  punished  by  her  with  terrible  hunger 
(Callimachus,  Hymn  to  Demeter;  Ovid,  Melam.  viii.  738-878). 
Perhaps  Erysichthon  may  be  explained  as  the  personification  of 
the  labourer,  who  by  the  systematic  cultivation  and  tilling  of  the 
soil  endeavours  to  force  the  crops,  instead  of  allowing  them  to 
mature  unmolested  as  in  the  good  old  times.  Tearing  up  the 
soil  with  the  plough  is  regarded  as  an  invasion  of  the  domain 
of  the  earth-mother,  punished  by  the  all-devouring  hunger  for 
wealth,  that  increases  with  increasing  produce.  According  to 
another  view,  Erysichthon  is  the  destroyer  of  trees,  who  wastes 
away  as  the  plant  itself  loses  its  vigour.  It  is  possible  that  the 
story  may  originally  have  been  connected  with  tree-worship. 
Here  again,  as  in  the  case  of  lasion,  a  conflict  between  an  older 
and  a  younger  cult  seems  to  be  alluded  to  (for  the  numerous 
interpretations  see  O.  Crusius  s.v.  in  Roscher's  Lexikon). 

It  is  as  a  corn-goddess  that  Demeter  appears  in  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  and  numerous  epithets  from  various  sources  (see 
Bruchmann,  Epitheta  Deorum,  supplement  to  Roscher's  Lexikon, 
i.  2)  attest  her  character  as  such.  The  name  'lov\&  (?  at  Delos), 
from  toiAos,  "  corn-sheaf,"  has  been  regarded  as  identifying  the 
goddess  with  the  sheaf,  and  as  proving  that  the  cult  of  Demeter 
originated  in  the  worship  of  the  corn-mother  or  corn-spirit,  the 
last  sheaf  having  a  more  or  less  divine  character  for  the  primitive 
husbandman.  According  to  this  view,  the  prototypes  of  Demeter 
and  Persephone  are  the  corn-mother  and  harvest  maiden  of 
northern  Europe,  the  corn-fetishes  of  the  field  (Frazer,  Golden 
Bough,  2nd  ed.,  ii.  217,  222;  but  see  Farnell,  Cults,  iii.  35). 
The  influence  of  Demeter,  however,  was  not  limited  to  corn,  but 
extended  to  vegetation  generally  and  all  the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
with  the  curious  exception  of  the  bean,  the  use  of  which  was 
forbidden  at  Eleusis,  and  for  the  protection  of  which  a  special 
patron  was  invented.  In  this  wider  sense  Demeter  is  akin  to  Ge, 
with  whom  she  has  several  epithets  in  common,  and  is  sometimes 
identified  with  Rhea-Cybele;  thus  Pindar  speaks  of  Demeter 
Xa\KOKp6rc»  ("brass-rattling"),  an  epithet  obviously  more 


DEMETER 


981 


suitable  to  the  Asiatic  than  to  the  Greek  earth-goddess.  Although 
the  goddess  of  agriculture  is  naturally  inclined  to  peace  and 
averse  from  war,  the  memory  of  the  time  when  her  land  was  won 
and  kept  by  the  sword  still  lingers  in  the  epithets  x/wcrdopos  and 
£i</n)06pos  and  in  the  name  Triptolemus,  which  probably  means 
'•'  thrice  fighter  "  rather  than  "  thrice  plougher." 

Another  important  aspect  of  Demeter  was  that  of  a  divinity 
of  the  under- world;  as  such  she  is  xOovla  at  Sparta  and  especi- 
ally at  Hermione  in  Argolis,  where  she  had  a  celebrated  temple, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Clymenus  (one  of  the  names  of 
Hades-Pluto)  and  his  sister  Chthonia,  the  children  of  Phoroneus, 
an  Argive  hero.  Here  there  was  said  to  be  a  descent  into  the 
lower  world,  and  local  tradition  made  it  the  scene  of  the  rape 
of  Persephone.  At  the  festival  Chthonia,  a  cow  (representing, 
according  to  Mannhardt,  the  spirit  of  vegetation),  which  volun- 
tarily presented  itself,  was  sacrificed  by  three  old  women.  Those 
joining  in  the  procession  wore  garlands  of  hyacinth,  which  seems 
to  attribute  a  chthonian  character  to  the  ceremony,  although  it 
may  also  have  been  connected  with  agriculture  (see  S.  Wide, 
De  Sacris  Troezeniorum,  Hermionensium,Epidauriorum,  Upsala, 
1888).  The  striking  use  of  the  term  fojjuijrptiot  in  the  sense  of 
"  the  dead  "  may  be  noted  in  this  connexion. 

The  remarkable  epithets,  'Eptiois  and  MeXowa,  as  applied 
to  Demeter,  were  both  localized  in  Arcadia,  the  first  at  Thelpusa 
(or  rather  Onkeion  close  by),  the  second  at  Phigalia  (see 
W.  Immerwahr,  Die  Kulte  und  Mythen  Arkadiens,  i.  1891). 
According  to  the  Thelpusan  story,  Demeter,  during  her  wanderings 
in  search  of  Persephone,  changed  herself  into  a  mare  to  avoid  the 
persecution  of  Poseidon.  The  god,  however,  assumed  the  form 
of  a  stallion,  and  the  fruit  of  the  union  was  a  daughter  of  mystic 
name  and  the  horse  Areion  (or  Erion) .  Demeter,  at  first  enraged, 
afterwards  calmed  down,  and  washed  herself  in  the  river  Ladon 
by  way  of  purification.  Demeter  "  the  angry  "  (tpivvs)  became 
Demeter  "  the  bather  "  (Aowia).  An  almost  identical  story  was 
current  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tilphossa,  a  Boeotian  spring. 
In  the  Phigalian  legend,  no  mention  is  made  of  the  horse  Areion, 
but  only  of  the  daughter,  who  is  called  Despoina  (mistress), 
a  title  common  to  all  divinities  connected  with  the  under-world. 
Demeter,  clad  in  black  (hence  n&aiva)  in  token  of  mourning 
for  her  daughter  and  wrath  with  Poseidon,  retired  into  a  cave. 
During  that  time  the  earth  bore  no  fruit,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  world  were  threatened  with  starvation.  At  last  Pan,  the  old 
god  of  Arcadia,  discovered  her  hiding-place,  and  informed  Zeus, 
who  sent  the  Moirae  (Fates)  to  fetch  her  out.  The  cave,  still 
called  Mavrospelya  ("black  cave"),  was  ever  afterwards  regarded 
as  sacred  to  Demeter,  and  in  it,  according  to  information  given  to 
Pausanias,  there  had  been  set  up  an  image  of  the  goddess,  a 
female  form  seated  on  a  rock,  but  with  a  horse's  head  and  mane, 
to  which  were  attached  snakes  and  other  wild  animals.  It  was 
clothed  in  a  black  garment  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  held  in  one 
hand  a  dolphin,  in  the  other  a  dove.  The  image  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  replaced  by  the  sculptor  Onatas  from  inspiration  in  a 
dream,  but  disappeared  again  before  the  time  of  Pausanias. 

Both  /wXatya  and  tptvvs,  according  to  Farnell,  are  epithets  of 
Demeter  as  an  earth-goddess  of  the  under-world.  The  first  has 
been  explained  as  referring  to  the  gloom  of  her  abode,  or  the 
blackness  of  the  withered  corn.  The  second,  according  to  Max 
Mttller  and  A.  Kuhn,  is  the  etymological  equivalent  of  the 
Sanskrit  Saranyu,  who,  having  turned  herself  into  a  mare,  is 
pursued  by  Vivasvat,  and  becomes  the  mother  of  the  two  Asvins, 
the  Indian  Dioscuri,  the  Indian  and  Greek  myths  being  regarded 
as  identical.  According  to  Farnell,  the  meaning  of  the  epithet 
is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  original  conception  of  Erinys,  which  was 
that  of  an  earth-goddess  akin  to  Ge,  thus  naturally  associated 
with  Demeter,  rather  than  that  of  a  wrathful  avenging  deity. 

Various  interpretations  have  been  given  of  the  horse-headed 
form  of  the  Black  Demeter:  (i)  that  the  horse  was  one  of  the 
forms  of  the  corn-spirit  in  ancient  Greece;  (2)  that  it  was  an 
animal  "  devoted  "  to  the  chthonian  goddess;  (3)  that  it  is 
totemistic;  (4)  that  the  form  was  adopted  from  Poseidon 
Hippies,  who  is  frequently  associated  with  the  earth-goddess  and 
is  said  to  have  received  the  name  Hippios  first  at  Thelpusa,  in 


order  that  Demeter  might  figure  as  the  mother  of  Areion  (for  a 
discussion  of  the  whole  subject  see  Farnell,  Cults,  iii.  pp.  50-62). 
The  union  of  Poseidon  and  Demeter  is  thus  explained  by  Mann- 
hardt. As  the  waves  of  the  sea  are  fancifully  compared  to  horses, 
so  a  field  of  corn,  waving  in  the  breeze,  may  be  said  to  represent 
the  wedding  of  the  sea-god  and  the  corn-goddess.  In  any  case 
the  association  of  Poseidon,  representing  the  fertilizing  element 
of  moisture,  with  Demeter,  who  causes  the  plants  and  seeds  to 
grow,  is  quite  natural,  and  seems  to  have  been  widespread. 

Demeter  also  appears  as  a  goddess  of  health,  of  birth  and  of 
marriage;  and  a  certain  number  of  political  and  ethnic  titles 
is  assigned  to  her.  Of  the  latter  the  most  noteworthy  are: 
Ha.va.xaia  at  Aegium  in  Achaea,  pointing  to  some  connexion  with 
the  Achaean  league;  'Axaio.,1  "  the  Achaean  goddess,"  unless  it 
refers  to  the"  sorrow  "  of  the  goddess  for  the  loss  of  her  daughter 
(cf .  'Ax«t  in  Boeotia) ;  and,  most  important  of  all,  'Aju^ucrtwis, 
at  Anthela  near  Thermopylae,  as  patron-goddess  of  the  Amphic- 
tyonic  league,  subsequently  so  well  known  in  connexion  with  the 
temple  at  Delphi. 

The  Eleusinia  and  Thesmophoria  are  discussed  elsewhere,  but 
brief  mention  may  here  be  made  of  certain  agrarian  festivals  held 
in  honour  of  Demeter. 

1.  Haloa,  obviously  connected  with  aXow  ("  threshing-floor  "), 
begun  at  Athens  and  finished  at   Eleusis,  where  there  was  a 
threshing-floor   of   Triptolemus,     in     the      month    Poseideon 
(December).     This  date,  which  is  confirmed  by  historical  and 
epigraphical  evidence,  seems  inappropriate,  and  it  is  suggested 
(A.  Mommsen,  Feste  der  Stadt  Athen,  p.  365  foil.)  that  the  festival, 
originally  held  in  autumn,  was  subsequently  placed  later,  so  as 
to  synchronize  with  the  winter  Dionysia.     Dionysus,  as  the  god 
of  vines,  and  (in  a  special  procession)  Poseidon  </>uTaXjuios  ("  god 
of  vegetation  ")  were  associated  with  Demeter.     In  addition  to 
being  a  harvest  festival,  marked  by  the  ordinary  popular  rejoic- 
ings, the  Haloa  had  a  religious  character.     The  airapxai  ("  first 
fruits  ")  were  conveyed  to  Eleusis,  where  sacrifice  was  offered 
by  a  priestess,  men  being  prohibited  from  undertaking  the  duty. 
A  Tt\erfi  ("  initiatory  ceremony  ")  of  women  by  a  woman  also 
took  place  at  Eleusis,  characterized  by  obscene  jests  and  the 
use  of  phallic  emblems.     The  sacramental  meal  on  this  occasion 
consisted  of  the  produce  of  land  and  sea,  certain  things  (pome- 
granates, honey,  eggs)  being  forbidden  for  mystical  reasons. 
Although  the  offerings  at  the  festival  were  bloodless,  the  ceremony 
of  the  presentation  of  the  aTrapxai  was  probably  accompanied 
by  animal  sacrifice    (Farnell,  Foucart);    Mommsen,  however, 
considers  the  offerings  to  have  been  pastry  imitations.     Certain 
games  (irarptos  ay&v),  of  which  nothing  is  known,  terminated  the 
proceedings.     In  Roman  imperial  times  the  ephebi  had  to  deliver 
a  speech  at  the  Haloa. 

2.  Chloeia  or  Chloia,  the  festival  of  the  corn  beginning  to 
sprout,  held  at  Eleusis  in  the  early  spring  (Anthesterion)  in 
honour  of  Demeter  Chloe,  "  the  green,"  the  goddess  of  growing 
vegetation.     This  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  later  sacrifice 
of  a  ram  to  the  same  goddess  on  the  6th  of  the  month  Thargelion, 
probably  intended  as  an  act  of  propitiation.     It  has  been  identified 
with    the    Procharisteria     (sometimes    called    Proschaireteria) , 
another  spring  festival,  but  this  is  doubtful.     The  scholiast  on 
Pindar   (Ol.  ix.    150)   mentions  an  Athenian  harvest  festival 
Eucharisteria. 

3.  Proerosia,  at  which  prayers  were  offered  for  an  abundant 
harvest,  before  the  land  was  ploughed  for  sowing.     It  was  also 
called  Proarcturia,  an  indication  that  it  was  held  before  the  rising 
of  Arcturus.     According  to  the  traditional  account,  when  Greece 
was  threatened  with  famine,  the  Delphic  oracle  ordered  first- 
fruits  to  be  brought  to  Athens  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
which  were  to  be  offered  by  the  Athenians  to  the  goddess  Deo  on 
behalf  of  all  the  contributors.     The  most  important  part  of  the 
festival  was  the  three  sacred  ploughings — the  Athenian  wrA 
Ti6\iv,   the  Eleusinian  on   the   Rharian   plain,   the  Scirian  (a 
compromise  between  Athens  and  Eleusis).     The  festival   itself 

1O.  Gruppe  (Griechische  Mythologie,  ii.  1177,  note  i)  considers  it 
"  certain  "  that  'Axola  =  'Ax«XwJa,  although  he  is  unable  to  explain 
the  form. 


9*2 


DEMETRI  A— DEMETRIUS 


In 


took  place,  probably  some  time  in  September,  at  Eleusis. 
later  times  the  ephebi  also  took  part  in  the  Proerosia. 

4.  Thalysia,  a  thanksgiving  festival,  held  in  autumn  after  the 
harvest  in  the  island  of  Cos  (see  Theocritus  vii.). 

5.  The    name    of    Demeter    is    also    associated    with  the 
Scirophoria    (see  ATHENA).     It    is    considered    probable    that 
the  festival  was  originally  held  in  honour  of  Athena,  but  that 
the  growing  importance  of  the  Eleusinia  caused  it  to  be  attached 
to  Demeter  and  Kore. 

The  attributes  of  Demeter  are  chiefly  connected  with  her 
character  as  goddess  of  agriculture  and  vegetation — ears  of  corn, 
the  poppy,  the  mystic  basket  (calathus)  filled  with  flowers,  corn 
and  fruit  of  all  kinds,  the  pomegranate  being  especially  common. 
Of  animals,  the  cow  and  the  pig  are  her  favourites,  the  latter 
owing  to  its  productivity  and  the  cathartic  properties  of  its 
blood.  The  crane  is  associated  with  her  as  an  indicator  of  the 
weather.  As  a  chthonian  divinity  she  is  accompanied  by  a 
snake;  the  myrtle,  asphodel  and  narcissus  (which  Persephone 
was  gathering  when  carried  off  by  Hades)  also  are  sacred  to  her. 

In  Greek  art,  Demeter  is  made  to  resemble  Hera,  only  more 
matronly  and  of  milder  expression;  her  form  is  broader  and 
fuller.  She  is  sometimes  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  horses  or 
dragons,  sometimes  walking,  sometimes  seated  upon  a  throne, 
alone  or  with  her  daughter.  The  Demeter  of  Cnidus  in  the 
British  Museum,  of  the  school  of  Praxiteles,  apparently  shows  her 
mourning  for  the  loss  of  her  daughter.  The  article  GREEK  ART, 
fig.  67  (pi.  iv.),  gives  a  probable  representation  of  Demeter  (or 
her  priestess)  from  the  stone  of  a  vault  in  a  Crimean  grave. 

The  Romans  identified  Demeter  with  their  own  Ceres  (q.v.). 

See  L.  Preller,  Demeter  und  Persephone  (1837) ;  P.  R.  Ffirster, 
Der  Raub  und  die  Riickkehr  der  Persephone  (1874),  in  which  consider- 
able space  is  devoted  to  the  representations  of  the  myth  in  art; 
W.  Mannhardt,  Mythologische  Forschungen  (1884);  J.  E.  Harrison, 
Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Greek  Religion  (1903) ;  L.  Dyer,  The 
Gods  in  Greece  (1891);  J.  G.  Frazer,  The  Golden  Bough  (2nd  ed.), 
ii.  168-222 ;  L.  Preller,  Griechische  Mythologie  (4th  ed.,  by  C.  Robert) ; 
O.  Kern  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclopadie,  iv.  pt.  2  (1901); 
L.  Bloch  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie;  O.  Gruppe,  Griechische 
Mythologie  und  Religionsgeschichte,  ii.  (1907) ;  L.  R.  Farnell,  Cults 
of  the  Greek  States,  iii.  (1907) ;  article  "  Ceres  "  by  F.  Lenormant  in 
Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites.  (J.  H.  F.) 

DEMETRIA,  a  Greek  festival  in  honour  of  Demeter,  held  at 
seed-time,  and  lasting  ten  days.  Nothing  is  known  of  it  beyond 
the  fact  that  the  men  who  took  part  in  it  lashed  one  another  with 
whips  of  bark  (^oporrov)  ,  while  the  women  made  obscene  jests. 
It  is  even  doubtful  whether  it  was  a  particular  festival  at  all  or  * 
only  another  name  for  the  Eleusinia  or  Thesmophoria.  The 
Dionysia  also  were  called  Demetria  in  honour  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  upon  whom  divine  honours  were  conferred  by  the 
Athenians. 

Hesychius,  s.v.  IMPOTTOV;  Pollux  i.  37;  Diod.  Sic.  v.  4;  Plutarch, 
Demetrius,  12 ;  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites. 

DEMETRIUS,  king  of  Bactria,  was  the  son  of  the  Graeco- 
Bactrian  king  Euthydemus,  for  whom  he  negotiated  a  peace  with 
Antiochus  the  Great  in  206  (Polyb.  xi.  34).  Soon  afterwards  he 
crossed  the  Hindu  Kush  and  began  the  invasion  of  India  (Strabo 
xi.  516);  he  conquered  the  Punjab  and  the  valley  of  the  Indus 
down  to  the  sea  and  to  Gujerat.  The  town  Sangala,  a  town  of  the 
Kathaeans  in  the  Punjab  (Arrian  v.  22,  2  ff.),  he  named  after  his 
father  Euthydemia  (Ptol.  vii.  i,  46).  That  his  power  extended 
•  into  Arachosia  (Afghanistan)  is  proved  by  the  name  of  a  town 
Demetrias  near  Kandahar  (Isidor.  Charac.  19,  cf.  Strabo  xi.  516). 
On  his  coins  he  wears  an  elephant's  skin  with  trunk  and  teeth  on 
his  head;  on  bronze  coins,  which  have  also  an  Indian  legend  in 
Kharoshti  letters  (see  BACTRIA),  he  calls  himself  the  un vanquished 
king  (BcunXecos  aviK-ijTov  AijjurjTpiov).  One  of  his  coins  has 
already  the  square  form  used  in  India  instead  of  the  circular. 
Eventually  he  was  defeated  by  the  usurper  Eucratides  (q.v.),  who 
meanwhile  had  risen  to  great  power  in  Bactria.  About  his  death 
we  know  nothing;  his  young  son  Euthydemus  II.  (known  only 
from  coins)  can  have  ruled  only  a  short  time.  (ED.  M.) 

DEMETRIUS,  the  name  of  two  kings  of  Macedonia. 

i.  DEMETRIUS  I.  (337-283  B.C.),  surnamed  Poliorcetes 
("  Besieger  "),  son  of  Antigonus  Cyclops  and  Stratonice.  At 


the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  left  by  his  father  to  defend  Syria 
against  Ptolemy  the  son  of  Lagus;  he  was  totally  defeated  near 
Gaza  (312),  but  soon  partially  repaired  his  loss  by  a  victory  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Myus.  After  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against 
Babylon,  and  several  campaigns  against  Ptolemy  on  the  coasts  of 
Cilicia  and  Cyprus,  Demetrius  sailed  with  a  fleet  of  250  ships  to 
Athens.  He  freed  the  city  from  the  power  of  Cassander  and 
Ptolemy,  expelled  the  garrison  which  had  been  stationed  there 
under  Demetrius  of  Phalerum,  and  besieged  and  took  Munychia 
(307) .  After  these  victories  he  was  worshipped  by  the  Athenians 
as  a  tutelary  deity  under  the  title  of  Soter  ("  Preserver  ").  In 
the  campaign  of  306  against  Ptolemy  he  defeated  Menelaus 
(the  brother  of  Ptolemy)  in  Cyprus,  and  completely  destroyed  the 
naval  power  of  Egypt.  In  305  he  endeavoured  to  punish  the 
Rhodians  for  having  deserted  his  cause ;  and  his  ingenuity  in 
devising  new  instruments  of  siege,  in  his  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  reduce  the  capital,  gained  him  the  appellation  of  Poliorcetes. 
He  returned  a  second  time  to  Greece  as  liberator.  But  his 
licentiousness  and  extravagance  made  the  Athenians  regret  the 
government  of  Cassander.  He  soon,  however,  roused  the  jealousy 
of  the  successors  of  Alexander;  and  Seleucus,  Cassander  and 
Lysimachus  united  to  destroy  Antigonus  and  his  son.  The  hostile 
armies  met  at  Ipsus  in  Phrygia  (301).  Antigonus  was  killed  in 
the  battle,  and  Demetrius,  after  sustaining  a  severe  loss,  retired 
to  Ephesus.  This  reverse  of  fortune  raised  up  many  enemies 
against  him;  and  the  Athenians  refused  even  to  admit  him  into 
their  city.  But  he  soon  afterwards  ravaged  the  territory  of 
Lysimachus,  and  effected  a  reconciliation  with  Seleucus,  to  whom 
he  gave  his  daughter  Stratonice  in  marriage.  Athens  was  at  this 
time  oppressed  by  the  tyranny  of  Lachares;  but  Demetrius, 
after  a  protracted  blockade,  gained  possession  of  the  city  (294) 
and  pardoned  the  inhabitants  their  former  misconduct.  In  the 
same  year  he  established  himself  on  the  throne  of  Macedonia  by 
the  murder  of  Alexander,  the  son  of  Cassander.  But  here  he  was 
continually  threatened  by  Pyrrhus,  who  took  advantage  of  his 
occasional  absence  to  ravage  the  defenceless  part  of  his  kingdom 
(Plutarch,  Pyrrhus,  7  ff.);  and  at  length  the  combined  forces  of 
Pyrrhus,  Ptolemy  and  Lysimachus,  assisted  by  the  disaffected 
among  his  own  subjects,  obliged  him  to  leave  Macedonia  after  he 
had  sat  on  the  throne  for  six  years  (294-288).  He  passed  into 
Asia,  and  attacked  some  of  the  provinces  of  Lysimachus  with 
varying  success;  but  famine  and  pestilence  destroyed  the  greater 
part  of  his  army,  and  he  solicited  Seleucus  for  support  and  assist- 
ance. But  before  he  reached  Syria  hostilities  broke  out;  and 
after  he  had  gained  some  advantages  over  his  son-in-law, 
Demetrius  was  totally  forsaken  by  his  troops  OB  the  field  of  battle, 
and  surrendered  his  person  to  Seleucus.  Ms  son  Antigonus 
offered  all  his  possessions,  and  even  his  person,  in  order  to  procure 
his  father's  liberty;  but  all  proved  unavailing,  and  Demetrius 
died  in  the  fifty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  after  a  confinement  of 
three  years  (283).  His  remains  were  given  to  Antigonus, 
honoured  with  a  splendid  funeral  at  Corinth,  and  thence  conveyed 
to  Demetrias.  His  posterity  remained  in  possession  of  the 
Macedonian  throne  till  the  time  of  Perseus,  who  was  conquered 
by  the  Romans. 

See  Life  by  Plutarch ;  Diod.  Sic.  xix.  xx. ;  Wilamowitz-Moellen- 
dorff,  Antigonos  von  Karystos;  De  Sanctis,  Contributi  alia  storia 
Ateniese  in  Beloch's  Studi  di  storia  antica  (1893);  Fergusson  in 
Lehmann's  Beitrage  z.  alt.  Gesch.  (Klio)  vol.  v.  (1905);  also  authori- 
ties under  MACEDONIAN  EMPIRE. 

2.  DEMETRIUS  II.,  son  of  Antigonus  Gonatas,  reigned  from 
239  to  229  B.C.  He  had  already  during  his  father's  lifetime 
distinguished  himself  by  defeating  Alexander  of  Epirus  at  Derdia 
and  so  saving  Macedonia  (about  260?).  On  his  accession  he  had 
to  face  a  coalition  which  the  two  great  leagues,  usually  rivals, 
the  Aetolian  and  Achaean,  formed  against  the  Macedonian 
power.  He  succeeded  in  dealing  this  coalition  severe  blows, 
wresting  Boeotia  from  their  alliance.  The  revolution  in  Epirus, 
which  substituted  a  republican  league  for  the  monarchy,  gravely 
weakened  his  position.  Demetrius  had  also  to  defend  Macedonia 
against  the  wild  peoples  of  the  north.  A  battle  with  the  Dar- 
danians  turned  out  disastrously,  and  he  died  shortly  afterwards, 


DEMETRIUS 


983 


leaving  Philip,  his  son  by  Chryseis,  still  a  child.  Former  wives 
of  Demetrius  were  Stratonice,  the  daughter  of  the  Seleucid  king 
Antiochus  I.,  Phthia  the  daughter  of  Alexander  of  Epirus,  and 
Nicaea,  the  widow  of  his  cousin  Alexander.  The  chronology  of 
these  marriages  is  a  matter  of  dispute. 

See  Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece,  vol.  viii.  (1847) ;  Ad.  Holm,  Criech. 
Gesch.  vol.  iv.  (1894);  B.  Niese,  Gesch.  d.  griech.  u.  maked.  Staaten, 
vol.ii. (1899);  ].Beloch,Griech.Gesch.vo\.m. (1904).  (E.  R.  B.) 

DEMETRIUS,  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Syria. 

DEMETRIUS  I.  (d.  150  B.C.),  surnamed  Soter,  was  sent  to  Rome 
as  a  hostage  during  the  reign  of  his  father,  Seleucus  IV.  Philopator, 
but  after  his  father's  death  in  175  B.C.  he  escaped  from  confine- 
ment, and  established  himself  on  the  Syrian  throne  (162  B.C.) 
after  overthrowing  and  murdering  King  Antiochus  V.  Eupator. 
He  acquired  his  surname  of  Soter,  or  Saviour,  from  the 
Babylonians,  whom  he  delivered  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Median 
satrap,  Timarchus,  and  is. famous  in  Jewish  history  for  his  contests 
with  the  Maccabees.  Hated  for  his  vices,  Demetrius  fell  in  battle 
against  the  usurper,  Alexander  Balas,  in  150  B.C. 

DEMETRIUS  II.  (d.  125  B.C.),  surnamed  Ntcator,  son  of 
Demetrius  I.,  fled  to  Crete  after  the  death  of  his  father,  but  about 
147  B.C.  he  returned  to  Syria,  and  with  the  help  of  Ptolemy  VII. 
Philometor,  king  of  Egypt,  regained  his  father's  throne.  In 
140  B.C.  he  marched  against  Mithradates,  king  of  Parthia,  but 
was  taken  prisoner  by  treachery,  and  remained  in  captivity  for 
ten  years,  regaining  his  throne  about  129  B.C.  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Antiochus  VII.,  who  had  usurped  it.  His  cruellies  and 
vices,  however,  caused  him  to  be  greatly  detested,  and  during 
another  civil  war  he  was  defeated  in  a  battle  at  Damascus,  and 
killed  near  Tyre,  possibly  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife,  a  daughter 
of  Ptolemy  VII.,  who  was  indignant  at  his  subsequent  marriage 
with  a  daughter  of  the  Parthian  king,  Mithradates.  His  successor 
was  his  son,  Antiochus  VIII.  Grypus. 

DEMETRIUS  III.  (d.  88  B.C.),  called  Euergetes  and  Philometor, 
was  the  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.  Grypus.  By  the  assistance  of 
Ptolemy  X.  Lathyrus,  king  of  Egypt,  he  recovered  part  of  his 
Syrian  dominions  from  Antiochus  X.  Eusebes,  and  held  his  court 
at  Damascus.  In  attempting  to  dethrone  his  brother,  Philip 
Epiphanes,  he  was  defeated  by  the  Arabs  and  Parthians,  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  kept  in  confinement  in  Parthia  by  King 
Mithradates  until  his  death  in  88  B.C. 

DEMETRIUS,  a  Greek  sculptor  of  the  early  part  of  the  4th 
century  B.C.,  who  is  said  by  ancient  critics  to  have  been  notable 
for  the  life-like  realism  of  his  statues.  His  portrait  of  Pellichus, 
a  Corinthian  general,  "  with  fat  paunch  and  bald  head,  wearing 
a  cloak  which  leaves  him  half  exposed,  with  some  of  the  hairs  of 
his  head  flowing  in  the  wind,  and  prominent  veins,"  was  admired 
by  Lucian.  He  was  contrasted  with  Cresilas  (<?.».),  an  idealizing 
sculptor  of  the  generation  before.  Since  however  the  peculiari- 
ties mentioned  by  Lucian  do  not  appear  in  Greek  portraits  before 
the  3rd  century  B.C.,  and  since  the  Greek  art  of  the  4th  century 
consistently  idealizes,  there  would  seem  to  be  a  difficulty  to 
explain.  The  date  of  Demetrius  above  given  is  confirmed  by 
inscriptions  found  on  the  Athenian  Acropolis.  (P.  G. ) 

DEMETRIUS,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  born  at  Sunium,  who  lived 
partly  at  Corinth  and  later  in  Rome  during  the  reigns  of  Caligula, 
Nero  and  Vespasian.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Thrasea 
Paetus  and  Seneca,  and  was  held  in  the  highest  estimation  for  his 
consistent  disregard  of  creature  comfort  in  the  pursuit  of  virtue. 
His  contemf*  'or  worldly  prosperity  is  shown  by  his  reply  to 
Caligula  who,  wishing  to  gain  his  friendship,  sent  him  a  large 
present.  He  replied,  "  If  Caligula  had  intended  to  bribe  me,  he 
should  have  offered  me  his  crown."  Vespasian  banished  him, 
but  Demetrius  laughed  at  the  punishment  and  mocked  the 
emperor's  anger.  He  reached  the  logical  conclusion  of  Cynicism 
in  attaching  no  real  importance  to  scientific  data. 

DEMETRIUS  DONSKOI '  (1350-1389),  grand  duke  of  Vladimir 
and  Moscow,  son  of  the  grand  duke  Ivan  Ivanovich  by  his  second 
consort  Aleksandra,  was  placed  on  the  grand-ducal  throne  of 
Vladimir  by  the  Tatar  khan  in  1362,  and  married  the  princess 
Eudoxia  of  Nizhniy  Novgorod  in  1364.  It  was  now  that  Moscow 
1  Of  the  Don. 


was  first  fortified  by  a  strong  wall,  or  kreml  (citadel),  and  the 
grand  duke  began  "  to  bring  all  the  other  princes  under  his  will." 
Michael,  prince  of  Tver,  appealed  however  for  help  to  Olgierd, 
grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  appeared  before  Moscow  with  his 
army  and  compelled  Demetrius  to  make  restitution  to'  the  prince 
of  Tver  (1369).  The  war  between  Tver  and  Vladimir  continued 
intermittently  for  some  years,  and  both  the  Tatars  and  the 
Lithuanians  took  an  active  part  in  it.  Demetrius  was  generally 
successful  in  what  was  really  a  contention  for  the  supremacy. 
In  1371  he  won  over  the  khan  by  a  personal  visit  to  the  Horde, 
add  in  1372  he  defeated  the  Lithuanians  at  Lyubutsk.  Demetrius 
then  formed  a  league  of  all  the  Russian  princes  against  the  Tatars 
and  in  1380  encountered  them  on  the  plain  of  Kulikovo,  between 
the  rivers  Nepryadvaya  and  Don,  where  he  completely  routed 
them,  the  grand  khan  Mamai  perishing  in  his  flight  from  the  field. 
But  now  Toktamish,  the  deputy  of  Tamerlane,  suddenly  appeared 
in  the  Horde  and  organized  a  punitive  expedition  against 
Demetrius.  Moscow  was  taken  by  treachery,  and  the  Russian 
lands  were  again  subdued  by  the  Tatars  (1381).  Nevertheless, 
while  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Horde,  Demetrius  maintained 
his  hegemony  over  Tver,  Novgorod  and  the  other  recalcitrant 
Russian  principalities,  and  even  held  his  own  against  the  Lithu- 
anian grand  dukes,  so  that  by  his  last  testament  he  was  able  to 
leave  not  only  his  ancestral  possessions  but  his  grand-dukedom 
also  to  his  son  Basil.  Demetrius  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
north  Russian  grand  dukes.  He  was  not  merely  a  cautious  and 
tactful  statesman,  but  also  a  valiant  and  capable  captain,  in 
striking  contrast  to  most  of  the  princes  of  his  house. 

See  Sergyei  Solovev,  History  of  Russia  (Rus.),  vols.  i.-ii.  (St 
Petersburg,  1857),  &c. ;  Nikolai  Savelev,  Demetrius  Ivanovich 
Donskoi  (Rus.),  (Moscow,  1837).  (R.  N.  B.) 

DEMETRIUS  PHALEREUS  (c.  345-283  B.C.),  Attic  orator, 
statesman  and  philosopher,  born  at  Phalerum,  was  a  pupil  of 
Theophrastus  and  an  adherent  of  the  Peripatetic  school.  He 
governed  the  city  of  Athens  as  representative  of  Cassander  (q.v.) 
for  ten  years  from  317.  It  is  said  that  he  so  won  the  hearts  of 
the  people  that  360  statues  were  erected  in  his  honour;  but 
opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  character  of  his  rule.  On  the 
restoration  of  the  old  democracy  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  he 
was  condemned  to  death  by  the  fickle  Athenians  and  obliged  to 
leave  the  city.  He  escaped  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  protected  by 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  to  whom  he  is  said  to  have  suggested  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Alexandrian  library.  Having  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  Lagus's  successor  Philadelphus,  Demetrius  was  banished  to 
Upper  Egypt,  where  he  died  (according  to  some,  voluntarily) 
from  the  bite  of  an  asp.  Demetrius  composed  a  large  number  of 
works  on  poetry,  history,  politics,  rhetoric  and  accounts  of 
embassies,  all  of  which  are  lost. 

The  treatise  Uepl  'Epwvdas  (on  rhetorical  expression),  which  is 
often  ascribed  to  him,  is  probably  the  work  of  a  later  Alexandrian 
(ist  century  A.D.)  of  the  same  name;  it  has  been  edited  by 
L.  Radermacher  (1901)  and  W.  Rhys  Roberts  (1902),  the  last-named 
providing  English  translation,  introduction,  notes,  glossary  and 
complete  bibliography.  Fragments  in  C.  M  Ciller,  Frag.  Hist.  Graec. 
ii.  p.  362.  See  A.  Holm,  History  of  Greece  (Eng.  trans.),  iv.  60. 

DEMETRIUS,  PSEUDO-(or  FALSE),  the  name  by  which  three 
Muscovite  princes  and  pretenders,  who  claimed  to  be  Demetrius, 
son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  are  known  in  history.  The  real 
Demetrius  had  been  murdered,  while  still  a  child,  in  1591,  at 
Uglich,  his  widowed  mother's  appanage. 

i.  In  the  reign  of  Tsar  Boris  Godunov  (1598-1605),  the  first 
of  these  pretenders,  whose  origin  is  still  obscure,  emigrated  to 
Lithuania  and  persuaded  many  of  the  magnates  there  of  his 
tsarish  birth,  and  consequently  of  his  right  to  the  Muscovite 
throne.  His  real  name  seems  to  have  been  Yury  or  Gregory,  and 
he  was  the  grandson  of  Bogdan  Otrepev,  a  Galician  boyar,  and 
a  tool  in  the  hands  of  Tsar  Boris  Godunov's  enemies.  He  first 
appears  in  history  circa  1600,  when  his  learning  and  assurance 
seem  to  have  greatly  impressed  the  Muscovite  patriarch  Job. 
Tsar  Boris,  however,  ordered  him  to  be  seized  and  examined, 
whereupon  he  fled  to  Prince  Constantine  Ostrogsky  at  Ostrog, 
and  subsequently  entered  the  service  of  another  Lithuanian, 
Prince  Wisniwiecki,  who  accepted  him  for  what  he  pretended 


984 


DEMIDOV 


to  be  and  tried  to  enlist  the  sympathy  of  the  Polish  king, 
Sigismund  III.,  in  his  favour.  The  king  refused  to  support  him 
officially,  but  his  cause  was  taken  up,  as  a  speculation,  by  the 
Polish  magnate  Yury  Mniszek,  whose  daughter  Marina  he  after- 
wards wedded  and  crowned  as  his  tsaritsa.  The  Jesuits  also  seem 
to  have  believed  in  the  man,  who  was  evidently  an  unconscious 
impostor  brought  up  from  his  youth  to  believe  that  he  was  the 
real  Demetrius;  numerous  fugitives  from  Moscow  also  acknow- 
ledged him,  and  finally  he  set  out,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  Polish 
and  Lithuanian  volunteers,  Cossacks  and  Muscovite  fugitives, 
to  drive  out  the  Godunovs,  after  being  received  into  the  Church 
of  Rome.  At  the  beginning  of  1604  he  was  invited  to  Cracow, 
where  Sigismund  presented  him  to  the  papal  nuncio  Rangoni. 
His  public  conversion  took  place  on  the  i7thof  April.  In  October 
the  false  Demetrius  crossed  the  Russian  frontier,  and  shortly 
afterwards  routed  a  large  Muscovite  army  beneath  the  walls  of 
Novgorod-Syeversk.  The  sudden  death  of  Tsar  Boris  (April  13, 
1605)  removed  the  last  barrier  to  the  further  progress  of  the 
pretender.  The  principal  Russian  army,  under  P.  F.  Basmanov, 
at  once  went  over  to  him  (May  7) ;  on  the  zoth  of  June  he  made 
his  triumphal  entry  into  Moscow,  and  on  the  2ist  of  July  he  was 
crowned  tsar  by  a  new  patriarch  of  his  own  choosing,  the  Greek 
Isidore.  He  at  once  proceeded  to  introduce  a  whole  series  of 
political  and  economical  reforms.  From  all  accounts,  he  must 
have  been  a  man  of  original  genius  and  extraordinary  resource. 
He  did  his  best  to  relieve  the  burdens  of  the  peasantry;  he  formed 
the  project  of  a  grand  alliance  between  the  emperor,  the  pope, 
Venice,  Poland  and  Muscovy  against  the  Turk;  he  displayed  an 
amazing  toleration  in  religious  matters  which  made  people  suspect 
that  he  was  a  crypto-Arian;  and  far  from  being,  as  was  expected, 
the  tool  of  Poland  and  the  pope,  he  maintained  from  the  first  a 
dignified  and  independent  attitude.  But  his  extravagant  opinion 
of  his  own  authority  (he  lost  no  time  in  styling  himself  emperor), 
and  his  predilection  for  Western  civilization,  alarmed  the  ultra- 
conservative  boyars  (the  people  were  always  on  his  side),  and  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  headed  by  Basil  Shuisky, 
whose  life  he  had  saved  a  few  months  previously.  A  favourable 
opportunity  for  the  conspirators  presented  itself  on  the  8th  of 
May  1606,  when  Demetrius  was  married  to  Marina  Mniszek. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  hostility  of  the  Muscovites  towards  the 
Polish  regiments  which  had  escorted  Marina  to  Moscow  and  there 
committed  some  excesses,  the  boyars  urged  the  citizens  to  rise 
against  the  Poles,  while  they  themselves  attacked  and  slew 
Demetrius  in  the  Kreml  on  the  night  of  the  1 7th  of  May. 

See  Sergyei  Solovev,  History  of  Russia  (Rus.),  vol.  viii.  (St  Peters- 
burg, 1857,  &c.) ;  Nikolai  Kostomarov,  Historical  Monographs  (Rus.) 
vols.  iv.-vi.  (St  Petersburg,  1863,  &c.);  Orest  Levitsky,  The  First 
False  Demetrius  as  the  Propagandist  of  Catholicism  in  Russia  (Rus.) 
(St  Petersburg,  1886);  Paul  Pierling,  Rome  et  Demetrius  (Paris, 
1878) ;  R.  N.  Bain,  Poland  and  Russia,  cap.  10  (Cambridge,  1907). 

2.  The  second  pretender,  called  "  the  thief  of  Tushino,"  first 
appeared  on  the  scene  circa  1607  at  Starodub.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  either  a  priest's  son  or  a  converted  Jew,  and  was  highly 
educated,  relatively  to  the  times  he  lived  in,  knowing  as  he  did 
the  Russian  and  Polish  languages  and  being  somewhat  of  an 
expert  in  liturgical  matters.  He  pretended  at  first  to  be  the 
Muscovite  boyarin  Nagi;  but  confessed,  under  torture,  that  he 
was  Demetrius  Ivanovich,  whereupon  he  was  taken  at  his  word 
and  joined  by  thousands  of  Cossacks,  Poles  and  Muscovites.  He 


speedily  captured  Karachev,  Bryansk  and  other  towns;  was 
reinforced  by  the  Poles;  and  in. the  spring  of  1608  advanced 
upon  Moscow,  routing  the  army  of  Tsar  Basil  Shuisky,  at  Bolkhov, 
on  his  way.  Liberal  promises  of  the  wholesale  confiscation  of 
the  estates  of  the  boyars  drew  the  common  people  to  him,  and  he 
entrenched  himself  at  the  village  of  Tushino,  twelve  versts  from 
the  capital,  which  he  converted  into  an  armed  camp,  collecting 
therein  7000  Polish  soldiers,  10,000  Cossacks  and  10,000  of  the 
rabble.  In  the  course  of  the  year  he  captured  Marina  Mniszek, 
who  acknowledged  him  to  be  her  husband  (subsequently  quieting 
her  conscience  by  privately  marrying  this  impostor,  who  in  no 
way  resembled  her  first  husband),  and  brought  him  the  support 
of  the  Lithuanian  magnates  Mniszek  and  Sapieha  so  that  his 
forces  soon  exceeded  100,000  men.  He  raised  to  the  rank  of 
patriarch  another  illustrious  captive,  Philaret  Romanov,  and 
won  over  the  towns  of  Yaroslavl,  Kostroma,  Vologda,  Kashin 
and  other  places  to  his  allegiance.  But  a  series  of  subsequent 
disasters,  and  the  arrival  of  King  Sigismund  III.  at  Sinolensk, 
induced  him  to  fly  his  camp  disguised  as  a  peasant  and  go  to 
Kostroma,  where  Marina  joined  him  and  he  lived  once  more  in 
regal  state.  He  also  made  another  but  unsuccessful  attack  on 
Moscow,  and,  supported  by  the  Don  Cossacks,  recovered  a  hold 
over  all  south-eastern  Russia.  He  was  killed,  while  half  drunk, 
on  the  nth  of  December  1610,  by  a  Tatar  whom  he  had  flogged. 
See  Sergyei  Solovev,  History  of  Russia  (Rus.),  vol.  viii.  (St  Peters- 
burg, 1657,  &c.). 

3.  The  third,  a  still  more  enigmatical  person  than  his  pre- 
decessors, supposed  to  have  been  a  deacon  called  .Siderka, 
appeared  suddenly,  "  from  behind  the  river  Yanza,"  in  the 
Ingrian  town  of  Ivangorod  (Narva),  proclaiming  himself  the 
tsarevich  Demetrius  Ivanovich,  on  the  28th  of  March  1611. 
The  Cossacks,  ravaging  the  environs  of  Moscow,  acknowledged 
him  as  tsar  on  the  2nd  of  March  1612,  and  under  threat  of 
vengeance  in  case  of  non-compliance,  the  gentry  of  Pskov  also 
kissed  the  cross  to  "the  thief  of  Pskov,"  as  he  was  usually  nick- 
named. On  the  i8th  of  May  1612  he  fled  from  Pskov,  was 
seized  and  delivered  up  to  the  authorities  at  Moscow,  and  there 
executed. 

See  Sergyei  Solovev,  History  of  Russia  (Rus.),  vol.  viii.  (St  Peters- 
burg, 1857,  &c.).  (R.N.  B.) 

DEMIDOV,  the  name  of  a  famous  Russian  family,  founded  by 
Nikita  Demidov  (b.  c.  1665),  who  was  originally  a  blacksmith 
serf.  He  made  his  fortune  by  his  skill  in  the  manufacture  of 
weapons,  and  established  an  iron  foundry  for  the  government. 
Peter  the  Great,  with  whom  he  was  a  Tavourite,  ennobled  him 
in  1720.  His  son,  Akinfiy  Demidov  (d.  c.  1740),  increased  his 
inherited  wealth  by  the  discovery  and  working  of  gold,  silver  and 
copper  mines.  The  latter's  nephew,  Paul  Grigoryevich  Demidov 
(1738-1821),  was  a  great  traveller  who  was  a  benefactor  of 
Russian  scientific  education;  he  founded  an  annual  prize  for 
Russian  literature,  awarded  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Paul's  nephew,  Nikolay  Nikitich  Demidov  (1774-1828),  raised 
and  commanded  a  regiment  to  oppose  Napoleon's  invasion,  and 
carried  on  the  accumulation  of  the  family  wealth  from  mining; 
he  contributed  liberally  to  the  erection  of  four  bridges  in  St 
Petersburg,  and  to  the  propagation  of  scientific  culture  in  Moscow. 
Paul's  son,  Anatoli  Demidov  (1812-1870),  was  a  well-known 
traveller  and  patron  of  art;  he  married  Princess  Mathilde, 
daughter  of  Jerome  Bonaparte. 


END    OF     SEVENTH     VOLUME 


HILL 

REFERENCE 
LIBRARY 
ST.  PAUL 


Printed  by  R.  R.  DONNELLEY  &  SONS  COMPANY,  Chicago 


m    jKjy  ••'•^"•^^-•'•^".••"^'- . :.  ' 

£U|f  '       '"'"  ;;:'^.v':  '-/*'-•  fe^ 


:     -' ! .